1 


WEBSTER'S  AMERICAN 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 


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EDITORIAL  STAFF 

OHARLE  S HIGGINS,  Managins  Editok  AMKRicANrzKD  Encyclopedia  Brittanica 
Assisted  by  a large  corps  of  specialists  and  e.xperts,  including  Associate 
Editors  of  the  Americanized  Encyclopedia  Brittanica. 


PUBLISHER’S  NOTE 


The  Webster’s  American  Encyclopedia  is  a comprehensive  presentation  of 
Universal  Knowledge.  It  has  1312  pages  and  two  thousand  illustrations  and 
is  revised  up  to  the  latest  date. 

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in  the  English  language. 

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The  value  of  such  a comprehensive  and  carefully  edited  work  to  every 
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Copyright  1 909 

DEBOWER-CHAPLINECO. 


A 


ABBE 


i. 


A,  the  first  letter  in  almost  all  alpha- 
bets. Most  modern  languages,  as 
French,  Italian,  German,  have  only  one 
sound  for  a,  namely,  the  sound  which  is 
heard  in  father  pronounced  short  or 
long;  in  English  this  letter  is  made  to 
represent  seven  sounds,  as  in  the  words 
father,  mat,  mate,  mare,  many,  ball, 
what, besides  being  used  in  such  digraphs 
as  ea  in  heat,  oa  in  boat. — A,  in  music, 
is  the  sixth  note  in  the  diatonic  scale  of 
C,  and  stands  when  in  perfect  tune 


latter  note  in  the  ratio  of  f to  1.  The 


second  string  of  the  violin  is  tuned  to 
this  note. 

A I,  a symbol  attached  to  vessels  of 
the  highest  class,  A referring  to  the  hull 
of  the  vessel,  while  1 intimates  the 
sufficiency  of  the  rigging  and  whole 
equipment. 

AA  (a),  the  name  of  a great  many 
streams  of  central  and  northern  Europe. 

AACHEN  i&'hen).  See  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle. 

AALBORG  (ol'bor/i),  a seaport  of 
Denmark,  on  the  Liimfiord,  see  of  a 
bishop,  with  a considerable  trade,  ship- 
building, fishing,  etc.  Pop.  31,457. 

AAR  (ar),  the  name  of  several  Euro- 
pean rivers,  of  which  the  chief  (160  miles 
long)  is  a tributary  of  the  Rhine,  next  to 
it  and  the  Rhone  the  longest  river  in 
Switzerland.  It  has  its  origin  from  the 
upper  and  lower  glaciers  of  the  Aar  in 
the  Bernese  Alps.  On  it  are  Interlaken, 
Thun,  Bern,  Solothurn,  and  Aarau,  to 
which,  as  to  the  canton  of  Aargau,  it 
gives  its  name. 


at  the  long-continued  absence  of  Moses, 
he  complied  with  their  request  in  making 
a golden  calf,  and  thus  became  involved 
with  them  in  the  guilt  of  gross  idolatry. 
The  office  of  high-priest,  which  he  first 
filled,  was  made  hereditary  in  his  family. 
He  died  at  Mount  Hor  at  the  age  of  123, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Eleazar. 

AARON’S  ROD.  See  Goldenrod  and 
Mullein. 

AB,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  Jew- 
ish civil,  the  fifth  of  the  ecclesiastical, 
year — ^part  of  July  and  part  of  August. 

AB'ACA,  or  Manila  Hemp,  a strong 
fiber  yielded  by  the  leaf-stalks  of  a kind 
of  plantain  which  grows  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  is  cultivated  in  the 
Philippines.  The  outer  fibers  of  the 
leaf-stalks  are  made  into  strong  and 
durable  ropes,  the  inner  into  various 
fine  fabrics. 

AB'ACO,  Great  and  Little,  two 
islands  of  the  Bahamas  group. 

AB'ACUS,  a Latin  term  applied  to  an 
apparatus  used  in  elementary  schools 
for  facilitating  arithmetical  operations, 
consisting  of  a number  of  parallel  cords 
or  wires,  upon  which  balls  or  beads  are 


Aard-vark. 


AARD-VARK  (ard'vark),  a burrow- 
ing insectivorous  animal  of  South  Africa, 
having  affinities  with  the  ant-eaters  and 
armadillos.  Called  also  ground-hog  and 
Cape  pig. 

AARDWOLF  (ard'wulf),  a carnivo- 
rohs  burrowing  animal  of  South  Africa, 
allied  to  the  hyenas  and  civets.  Feeds 
on  carrion,  small  mammals,  insects,  etc. 

AARGAU  (ar'gou),  or  ARGOVIE  (ar- 
go-ve),  a northern  canton  of  Switzer- 
land; area,  543  square  miles;  hilly,  well 
wooded,  abundantly  watered  by  the  Aar 
and  its  tributaries,  and  well  cultivated. 
It  formed  part  of  the  canton  Bern  till 
1798.  Pop.  206,498,  of  whom  more  than 
half  are  Protestants.  German  is  almost 
universally  spoken.  Capital,  Aarau. 

AARON  (a'ron),  of  the  tribe  of  Levi, 
eldest  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  and 
brother  and  assistant  of  Moses.  At 
Sinai,  when  the  people  became  impatient 

P.  E.— 1 


Abacus. 


Doric  capital — a.  the  abacus. 


strung,  the  uppermost  wire  being  appro- 
priated to  units,  the  next  to  tens,  etc. — 
In  classic  architecture  it  denotes  the 
tablet  forming  the  upper  member  of  a 
column,  and  supporting  the  entablature. 
In  Gothic  architecture  the  upper  mem- 
ber of  a column  from  which  the  arch 


springs. 

ABAD'DON,  the  name  given  in  Rev. 
ix.  11  as  that  of  the  angel  of  the  bot- 
tomless pit,  otherwise  called  Apollyon. 

ABALONE  (ab-a-16'ne),  a name  in 
California  for  a species  of  ear-shell  that 
furnishes  mother-of-pearl. 

ABAN'DONMENT,  a term  in  criminal 
law.  Abandonment  is  the  intentional 
exposure  or  desertion  of  a dependent  per- 
son by  one  who  is  under  a legal  duty  of 
protecting  and  maintaining  him.  A 
parent  or  a guardian  of  the  person  of  a 
young  child  is  guilty  of  a misdemeanor 
at  common  law  if  the  child  is  physically 
injured  in  consequence  of  the  abandon- 
ment; while  if  death  results  therefrom 
the  abandoning  parent  or  guardian  is 
guilty  of  murder. 

ABA'RIM,  mountain  range  of  eastern 
Palestine,  including  Nebo,  on  which 
Moses  died. 


ABATEMENT,  in  law,  has  various 
significations.  Abatement  of  nuisances 
is  the  remedy  allowed  to  a person  irq^ 
by  a public  or  private  nuisance, 
destroying  or  removing  it  himself.  A 
plea  in  abatement  is  brought  forward  by 
a defendant  when  he  wishes  to  defeat 
or  quash  a particular  action  on  some 
formal  or  technical  ground.  Abatement, 
in  mercantile  law,  is  an  allowance, 
deduction,  or  discount  made  for  prompt 
payment  or  other  reason. 

AB' ATIS,  ABATTIS,  in  military  affairs, 
a mass  of  trees  cut  down  and  laid  with 
their  branches  turned  toward  the  enemy 
in  such  a way  as  to  form  a defense  for 
troops  stationed  behind  them. 

ABATTOIR  (ab-at-war'),  a French 
term  for  a slaughter-house,  now  angli- 
cized since  the  estatdishment  of  the  cel- 
ebrated abattoirs  o||raris,  instituted  by 
Napoleon  in  1807,  a^  brought  to  c(>m- 
pletion  in  1818.  Such  public  slaughter- 
houses, provided  with  every  sort  of  con- 
venience, kept  admirably  clean,  and  with 
a plentiful  supply  of  water,  are  now  to 
be  found  in  many  large  towns.  ] 

1 ABBA,  a Semitic  word  equivalent  to 
“Father,”  which,  being  applied  in  the 
Eastern  Church  .to  monks,  superiors  of  j 
monks,  and  other  ecclesiastics,  gave  ] 
rise  to  the  word  abbot.  In  the  Syriac  i 
and  Coptic  Churches  it  is  given  to  the 
bishops. 

ABBAS  I.,  the  Great,  shah  or  king  of 
Persia,  born  in  1557,  obtained  the  throne 
in  1586,  and  at  his  death  in  1628  his 
dominions  stretched  from  the  Tigris  to 
the  Indus.  He  is  looked  upon  by  the 
Persians  as  their  greatest  sovereign. 

ABBASSIDES  (ab'as-sidz),  the  name 
of  an  Arabian  dynasty  which  supplanted 
the  Ommiades.  It  traced  its  desceirt**.^ 
from  Abbas  (born  566,  died  652),  uncle 
of  Mohammed,  and  furnished  thirty- 
seven  caliphs  to  Bagdad  between  749 
and  1258.  Harun  al  Rashid  was  a mem- 
ber of  this  dynasty.  See  Caliphs. 

ABBE  (ab-a),  the  French  word  for 
abbot,  was,  before  the  French  revolu- 
tion, the  common  title  of  all  who  had 
studied  theology  either  with  a view  to 
becoming  ordained  clergymen,  or  merely 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  some  appoint- 
ment or  benefice,  to  which  such  study 
was  considered  a preliminary  requisite. 

AB'BE,  Cleveland,  American  astrono- 
mer and  meteorologist,  born  in  New 
York  City  1838.  He  graduated  in  1857 
at  the  Free  Academy  (now  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York),  and  studied 
astronomy  at  Ann  Arbor  and  at  Cam- 
bridge. From  1868  to  1873  he  was 
director  of  the  Cincinnati  Observatorj^, 
where  he  inaugurated  a system  of  daily 
weather  forecasts  based  upon  simul- 
taneous meteorological  observations  re- 
ported by  telegraph.  In  December, 
1870,  Professor  Abbe  was  called  b 
Washington  to  prepare  the  offi 
weather  predictions  and  storm  wa, 
ings,  and  was  appointed  professor^ 
meteorology  in  the  Weather  Bur 
To  him  is  due  the  initiation  in 
1879,  of  the  movement  towar 


I 


UNIVERSITY  OF 
ILUNOIS  LIBRARY 
AT  URBANA  CHAMPAIGN 


ABBEOKUTA 


ABBREVIATIONS 


introduction  of  the  present  system  of 
standard  time  and  hourly  meridians. 
Li  January,  1873,  he  prepared  the  first 
official  Monthly  Weather  Review,  which 
has  continued  under  his  editorship. 
He  is  professor  of  meteorology  in 
Columbian  University,  Washington, 

K’cr  on  meteorology  in  Johns  Hop- 
Iniversity,  Baltimore,  and  a mem- 
xlie  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
BEOKU'TA,  a town  of  West 
Africa,  in  the  Lagos  Protectorate,  on 
the  Ogun  river  45  miles  n.  of  Lagos, 
composed  of  scattered  lines  of  mud 
houses,  surrounded  by  a mud  wall.  It 
is  connected  with  Lagos  by  a railway. 
Pop.  100,000  to  150,000. 

Ab'BEY,  a monastery  or  religious  com- 
munity of  the  highest  class,  governed 
by  an  abbot,  assisted  generally  by  a 
jprior,  sub-prior,  and  other  subordinate 
^functionaries ; or,  in  the  case  of  a female 


subject  is  the  “Search  for  the  Holy 
Grail.”  He  was  commissioned  to 
paint  the  scene  of  the  coronation  of 
King  Edward  VII. 

AB'BOT,  the  head  of  an  abbey  (see 
Abbey),  the  lady  of  similar  rank  being 
called  abbess.  An  abbess,  however,  was 
not,  like  the  abbot,  allowed  to  exercise 
the  spiritual  functions  of  the  priest- 
hood, such  as  preaching,  confessing,  etc.; 
nor  did  abbesses  ever  succeed  in  freeing 
themselves  from  the  control  of  their 
diocesan  bishop.  In  the  early  age  of 
monastic  institutions  (say  300-600 
A.D.)  the  monks  were  not  priests,  but 
simply  laymen  who  retired  from  the 
world  to  live  in  common,  and  the  abbot 
was  also  a layman.  In  the  course  of 
time  the  abbots  were  usually  ordained, 
and  when  an  abbey  was  directly 
attached  to  a cathedral  the  bishop  was 
also  abbot.  At  first  the  abbeys  were 


community,  superintended  by  an  abbess. 
An  abbey  invariably  included  a church. 
A priory  differed  from  an  abbey  only 
being  scarcely  so  extensive  an  estab- 
'^ishment,  and  was  governed  by  a prior. 
Some  priories  sprang  originally  from 
the  more  important  abbeys,  and  re- 
mained under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
abbots;  but  subsequently  any  real 
distinction  between  abbeys  and  priories 
was  lost.  The  greater  abbeys  formed 
most  complete  and  extensive  establish- 
ments, including  not  only  the  church 
and  other  buildings  devoted  to  the 
monastic  life  and  its  daily  requirements, 
such  as  the  refectory  or  eating-room, 
the  dormitories  or  sleeping-rooms,  the 
^ rpom  for  social  intercourse,  the  school 
for  novices,  the  scribes’  cells,  Ubrary, 
and  so  on;  but  also  workshops,  store- 
houses, mills,  cattle  and  poultry  sheds, 
dwellings  for  artisans,  laborers,  and 
other  servants,  infirmary,  guest-house, 
etc. 

ABBEY,  Edwin  Austin,  American 
figure  painter.  He  was  born  in  Phila- 
I delphia,  April  1,  1852.  He  studied  at 
y the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine 
' .\rts,  and  afterward  worked  in  New 
'York  until  1883,  when  he  removed  to 
Epgland.  In  painting  he  has  produced 
iitmortant  canvases,  dealing  with  sub- 
jects taken  from  Shakespeare  and  from 
romantic  story.  One  of  his  most  im- 
portant works  decorates  the  delivery 
room  of  the  Boston  Public  Library.  Its 


more  remarkable  for  their  numbers  than 
for  their  magnitude,  but  latterly  many 
of  them  were  large  and  richly  endowed, 
and  the  heads  of  such  establishments 
became  personages  of  no  small  influence 
and  power,  more  especially  after  the 
abbots  succeeded  (by  the  eleventh 
century)  in  freeing  themselves  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  their 
dioce.'ie. 

AB'BOTSFORD,  the  country-seat  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Tweed,  in  Roxburghshire,  3 miles 
from  Melrose,  in  the  midst  of  picturesque 
scenery,  forming  an  extensive  and 
irregular  pile  in  the  Scottish  baronial 
style  of  architecture. 

ABBOTT,  Emma  (Emma  Abbott 
Wetherell),  an  American  soprano,  born 
1849  in  Chicago,  111.  She  studied  in 
Milan  under  San  Giovanni  and  in  Paris 
under  Wartel  and  Albert  James.  She 
made  her  debut  at  Covent  Garden, 
London.  For  three  years  thereafter  she 
made  an  operatic  and  concert  tour  of 
England  and  Ireland  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Colonel  Mapleson.  Subsequently 
she  returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  she  sang  with  the  Abbott  and  Hess 
Opera  Company,  and  later  with  the 
English  opera  company  long  known  by 
her  name.  She  died  in  1891. 

ABBOTT,  Jacob,  a popular  juvenile 
writer,  born  at  Hallowdl,  Me.,  1803. 
From  1825  to  1829  he  was  professor  of 
mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at 


Amherst.  In  1839  he  moved  to  Farm- 
ington. He  died  October  31,  1879. 
Abbott  published  more  than  two 
hundred  volumes,  the  most  noteworthy 
of  which  are  The  Rollo  Books  (28 
volumes),  The  Franconia  Stories  (10  vol- 
umes), The  Rainbow  and  Lucky  Series 
(5  volumes),  a number  of  juvenile 
histories,  written  in  collaboration  with 
his  brother,  and  a series  of  histories  of 
America. 

ABBOTT,  John  Stephens  Cabot,  an 
American  historian,  a brother  of  Jacob 
Abbott,  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Me., 
1805,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1825.  He  died  at  Fairhaven,  Conn., 
June  17,  1887.  His  most  noteworthy 
books  are  The  French  Revolution,  The 
History  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Napo- 
leon at  St.  Helena,  The  History  of  Na- 
poleon the  Third,  The  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America,  and  the  History 
of  Frederick  II.,  Called  Frederick  the 
Great. 

ABBOTT,  Lyman,  D.D.  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman  and  edi- 
tor, born  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1835, 
son  of  Jacob  Abbott.  He  graduated  at 
the  New  York  University  in  1853. 
From  1869  he  was  successively  one  of 
the  editors  of  Harper’s  Magazine,  and 
the  principal  editor  of  the  illustrated 
Christian  Weekly.  He  succeeded  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  as  pastor  of  Plymouth 
Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1888,  but  resigned 
in  May,  1899,  and  has  since  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  literary  work. 


Lyman  Abbott. 

ABBREVIA'TIONS,  devices  used  in 
writing  and  printing  to  save  time  and 
space:  consisting  usually  of  curtail- 
ments effected  in  words  and  syllables 
by  the  removal  of  some  letters,  often  of 
the  whole  of  the  letters  except  the  first. 
The  following  is  a list  of  the  more  im- 
portant : — f 

A.B.,  artium  baccalaureus,  bachelor  of 
arts;  able  seaman. 

Abp.,  archbishop 

A.C.,  ante  Christum,  before  Christ. 

Ac.,  acre. 

Acc.,  %,  or  acct.,  account. 


ABBREVIATIONS 

A.D.,  anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord : used  also  as  if  equivalent  to 
“after  Christ,”  or  “of  the  Christian  era.” 

A.D.C.,  aide-de-camp. 

.^t.  or  JEtat.,  cetatis  (anno),  in  the  year 
of  his  age. 

A.H.,  anno  Hejirce,  in  the  year  of  the 
Hegira. 

A M.,  ante  meridiem,  forenoon;  anno 
mundi,  in  the  year  of  the  world;  artium 
magister,  master  of  arts. 

Anon.,  anonymous. 

A.R.A.,  associate  of  Royal  Academy 
(London). 

A.R.S.A.,  associate  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy. 

A.U.C  , ab  urbe  conditb,,  from  the 
building  of  Rome  (753  b.c.). 

A. V.,  authorized  version. 

B. A.,  bachelor  of  arts. 

Bart,  or  Bt.,  baronet. 

B.C.,  before  Christ. 

B.C.L.,  bachelor  of  civil  law. 

B.D.,  bachelor  of  divinity. 

B.L.,  bachelor  of  law. 

B.M.,  bachelor  of  medicine. 

Bp,,  bishop. 

B.S.,  bachelor  of  surgery. 

B.Sc.,  bachelor  of  science. 

B. V.,  blessed  Virgin. 

C. ,  cap.,  or  chap.,  chapter. 

C.A.,  chartered  accountant. 

Cantab.,  Cantabrigiensis,  of  Cambridge 
Cantuar.,  Cantuariensis,  of  Canter- 
bury. 

C.B.,  companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.D.V.,  carte  de  visite. 

C.E.,  civil  engineer. 

Cf.,  confer,  compare., 

C.I.,  order  of  the^rown  of  India. 

C.I.E.,  companion  of  the  Indian 
Empire. 

C.J.,  chief  justice. 

C.M.,  chirurgice  magister,  master  in 
surgery ; common  meter. 

C.M.G.  companion  of  the  order  of 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co.,  company  or  county. 

C.O.D.,  cash  on  delivery. 

Cr.,  creditor. 

Crim.  con.,  criminal  conversation. 

C. S.,  civil  service,  clerk  to  the  signet. 
■ C.S.I.,  companion  of  the  Star  of  India. 

Ct.,  Connecticut. 

Curt.,  current,  the  present  month. 
Cwt.,  hundredweight. 

d. ,  denarius,  penny  or  pence. 

D. C.,  District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.,  doctor  of  civil  law. 

D.D.,  doctor  of  divinity. 

Del.,  delineavit,  drew  it. 

D.F.,  defender  of  the  faith. 

D.G.,  Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

D.L.j  deputy  lieutenant. 

D.  Litt.,  doctor  litterarum,  doctor  of 
letters. 

Do.,  ditto,  the  same. 

D.O.M.,  Deo  Optimo  Maximo,  to  God, 
the  best  and  greatest. 

Dr.,  doctor,  also  debtor. 

D.Sc.,  doctor  of  science. 

D. V.,  Deo  volente,  God  willing. 

Dwt.,  pennyweight. 

E. ,  east. 

Ebor.,  Eboracensis,  of  York. 

E.C.,  established  church. 

E.E.,  errors  excepted. 

e. g.,  exempli  gratia,  for  example. 

E.I.,  East  Indies. 

Etc.  or  &c.,  et  cetera,  and  the  rest. 
Ext.,  executor. 


F.  or  Fahr.,  Fahrenheit's  thermom- 
eter. 

F.A.S.,  fellow  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society. 

F.C.,  Free  Church. 

F.D.,  fidei  defensor,  defender  of  the 
faith. 

Fee.,  fecit,  he  made  or  did  it. 

F.G.S.,  fellow  of  the  Geological  So- 
ciety. 

F.H.S.,  fellow  of  the  Horticultural 
Society. 

FI.,  flourished. 

Fla.,  Florida. 

F.L.S.,  fellow  of  the  Linnsean  Society. 

F.M.,  field-marshal. 

F.O.B.,  free  on  board  (goods  de- 
livered). 

F.R.A.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical (or  Asiatic)  Society. 

F.R.C.P.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Physicians. 

F.R.C.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons. 

F.R.G.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

F.R.S.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.R.S.E.,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Edinburgh. 

F.S.A.,  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts 
or  Antiquaries. 

F.S.S.,  fellow  of  the  Statistical  So- 
ciety. 

Ft.,  foot  or  feet. 

F. Z.S.,  fellow  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety. 

Ga.,  Georgia. 

Gal.,  gallon. 

G. C.B.,  grand  cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.C.M.G,,  grand  cross  of  St.  Michael 

and  St.  George. 

G.C.S.I.,  grand  commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

G. P.O.,  gerferal  post-office. 

H. B.M.,  his  or  her  Britannic  majesty. 

H.E.I.C.S.,  honorable  East  India  Com- 
pany’s service. 

Hhd.,  hogshead. 

his  or  her  imperial  highness. 

H.M.S.,  his  or  her  majesty’s  ship. 

Hon.,  honorable. 

H.R.,  house  of  representatives. 

H.R.H.,  his  (her)  royal  highness. 

H. S.H.,  his  (her)  serene  highness. 

la. ,  Iowa. 

lb.  or  Ibid.,  ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 

Id.,  idem,  the  same. 

i.e.,  id  est,  that  is. 

I. H.S.,  Jesus  hominum  salvator,  Jesus 
the  Savior  of  men:  originally  it  was 
IHX.,  the  first  three  letters  of  iHSora 
(lesous),  Jesus. 

Incog.,  incognito,  unknown. 

Inf.,  infra,  below. 

I.N.R.I.,  lesus  Nazarenus  Rex  ludoeo- 
rum,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King  of  the 
Jews. 

Inst.,  instant,  or  of  this  month; 
institute. 

I. O.U.,  I owe  you. 

J. P.,  justice  of  the  peace. 

Jr.,  junior. 

J. U.D.,  jwn's  utriusque  doctor,,  doctor 
both  of  the  civil  and  the  canon  law. 

K. C.,  king’s  counsel. 

K.C.B.,  knight  commander  of  the 
Bath. 

K.C.M.G.,  knight  commander  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George. 


ABBREVIATIONS 

K.C.S.I.,  knight  commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

K.G.,  knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.G.C.B.  knight  grand  cross  of  the 
Bath. 

K.P.,  knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K. T.,  knight  of  the  Thistle. 

Kt.  or  Knt.,  knight. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

L. ,1.,  or  £,  pounds  sterling. 

L.A.,  literate  in  arts. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lat.,  latitude. 

Lb.  or  lb.,  libra,  a pound  (weight). 
L.C.J.,  lord  chief-justice. 

Ldp.,  lordship. 

L.D.S.,  licentiate  in  dental  surgery. 
Lit.  D.,  doctor  of  literature. 

L.L.,  Low  Latin. 

L.L.A.,  lady  literate  in  arts. 

LL.B.,  legum  baccalaureus,  bachelor  of 
laws. 

LL.D.,  legum  doctor,  doctor  of  laws 
(that  is,  the  civil  and  the  canon  law). 
LL.M.,  master  of  laws. 

Lon.  or  Long.,  longitude. 

L.R.C.P.,  licentiate  Royal  College  of 
Physicians. 

L.R.C.S.,  licentiate  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 

L.S.A.,  licentiate  of  the  Society  of 
Apothecaries. 

L. S.D.,  libree,  solidi,  denarii,  pounds, 
shillings,  pence. 

M. A.,  master  of  arts. 

Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

M.B.,  medicinoe  baccalaureus,  bachelor 
of  medicine. 

M.C.,  member  of  Congress;  master 
in  surgery. 

M.D.,  medicines  doctor,  doctor  of  medi- 
cine. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Me.,  Maine. 

M.E.,  raining  engineer;  Methodist 
Episcopal. 

Messrs.,  messieurs,  gentlemen. 
M.F.H.,  master  of  fox-hounds. 
M.I.C.E.,  member  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers. 

Mile.,  mademoiselle. 

Mme.,  madame. 

Mo.,  Missouri. 

M.P.,  member  of  Parliament. 
M.R.C.S.,  member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Surgeons. 

M.R.C.V.S.,  member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

M. R.I.A.,  member  of  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy. 

MS.,  manuscript;  MSS.,  manuscripts. 
Mus.  D.,  musicce  doctor,  doctor  of 
music. 

N. ,  north. 

N.B.,notabene,  take  notice;  also 
North  Britain,  New  Brunswick. 

N.C.,  North  Carolina. 

N.D.,  no  date. 

Nem.  con.,  nemine  contradicente,  one 
contradicting,  unanimously. 

N.H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.J.,  New  Jersey. 

No.,  numero,  number. 

N.P.,  notary  public. 

N.S.,  new  style.  Nova  Scotia 
N.S.W.,  New  South  Wales. 

N.T.,  New  Testament. 

N.Y.,  New  York. 

N. Z.,  New  Zealand. 

O. ,  Ohio. 

Ob.,  obiit,  died. 


ABDERA 


ABERCROxMBlE 


0 S.,  old  s^le. 

O. T.,  Old  Tjestament. 

Oxon.,  Oxoniensis,  of  Oxford. 

Oz.,  ounce  or  ounces. 

Pa.,  Pennsylvania. 

P. C.,  privy-councilor. 

P,E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Per  cent.,  per  centum,  by  the  hundred. 
Ph.D.,  philosophice  doctor,  doctor  of 
philosophy. 

Pinx.,  pinxit,  painted  it. 

P.M.,  post  meridiem,  afternoon. 

P.O.,  post-office. 

P.0.0. , post-office  order. 

P.P.,  parish  priest. 

Pp.,  pages. 

P.P.C.,  pour  prendre  congi,,  to  take 
leave. 

Prox.,  proximo  (mense),  next  month. 

P. S.,  postscript. 

Q, ,  question;  queen. 

Q.C.,  queen’s  counsel. 

Q.E.D.,  quod  erat  demonstrandum, 
which  was  to  be  demonstrated. 

Q.E.F.,  quod  erat  faciendum,  which 
was  to  be  done. 

Qu.,  query. 

Quant,  suff.,  quantum  sufficit,  as  much 
as  is  needful. 

Q. V.,  quod  vide,  which  see. 

R. ,  rex,  regina,  king,  queen. 

R.A.,  royal  academician;  royal  artil- 
lery. 

R.A.M.,  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

R.C.,  Roman  Catholic. 

R.E.,  royal  engineers. 

Rev.,  reverend. 

R.H.A.,  Royal  Hibernian  Academi- 
cian. 

R.I.,  Rhode  Island. 

R.I.P.,  requiescat  in  pace,  may  he  rest 
in  peace. 

R.M.,  royal  marines. 

R.N.,  royal  navy. 

R.S.A.,  royal  Scottish  academician. 
R.S.V.P.,  repondez,  s’il  vous  plait, 
reply,  if  you  please. 

Rt.  Hon.,  right  honorable. 

Rt.  Wpful.,  right  worshipful. 

R. V.,  revised  version. 

S. ,  South. 

S.  or  St.,  saint. 

S.C.,  South  Carolina. 

Sc.,  scilicet,  namely,  viz. 

S.J.,  Society  of  Jesus  (Jesuits). 
S.P.C.K.,  Society  for  Promoting  Chris- 
tian Knowledge. 

S.P.Q.R.,  senatus  populusque  Ro- 
manus,  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome. 

S.S.C.,  solicitor  before  the  supreme 
courts. 

St.,  saint,  street. 

S.T.D.,  sacrce  theologioe  doctor,  doctor 
of  divinity. 

S. T.P.,  sacrce  theologies  professor,  pro- 
fessor of  divinity. 

T. C.D.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Ult.,  ultimo,  last. 

U. P.,  United  Presbyterian. 

U.S.,  United  States. 

U.S.A.,  United  States  of  America. 

U. S.N.,  United  States  navy. 
y.fVide,  see;  also  versus,  against. 
Va.,  Virginia. 

V. C.,  Victoria  Ci’oss. 

Viz.,  videlicet,  to  wit,  or  namely. 

V.P.,  vice-president. 

V. S.,  veterinary  surgeon. 

Vt.,  Vermont. 

W. ,  west. 

W.I.,  West  Indies. 


W.S.,  writer  to  the  signet. 

Xmas,  Christmas. 

In  LL.D.,  LL.B.,  etc.,  the  letter  is 
doubled,  according  to  the  Roman 
system,  to  show  that  the  abbreviation 
represents  a plural  noun. 

ABDE'RA,  an  ancient  Greek  city  on 
the  Thracian  coast,  the  birthplace  of 
Democritus  (the  laughing  philosopher), 
Anaxarchus,  and  Protagoras.  Its  in- 
habitants were  proverbial  for  stupidity. 

ABDICA'TION,  properly  the  volun- 
tary, but  sometimes  also  the  involuntary 
resignation  of  an  office  or  dignity,  and 
more  especially  that  of  sovereign  power. 

ABDO'MEN,  in  man,  the  belly,  or 
lower  cavity  of  the  trunk,  separated  from 
the  upper  cavity  or  thorax  by  the  dia- 
phragm or  midriff,  and  bounded  below 
by  the  bones  of  the  pelvis.  It  contains 


the  viscera  belonging  to  the  digestive 
and  urinary  systems.  What  are  called 
the  abdominal  regions  will  be  under- 
stood from  the  accompanying  cut,  in 
which  1 Ls  the  epigastric  region,  2 the 
umbilical,  3 the  pubic,  4 4 the  right  and 
left  hypochondriac,  5 5 the  right  and  left 
lumbar,  6 6 right  and  left  iliac.  The 
name  is  given  to  the  corresponding  por- 
tion of  the  body  in  other  animals.  In 
insects  it  comprises  the  whole  body  be- 
hind the  thorax,  usually  consisting  of  a 
series  of  rings. 

ABDOMTNAL  FISHES,  a group  of 
the  soft-finned  fishes,  having  fins  upon 
the  abdomen,  and  comprising  the  her- 
ring, pike,  salmon,  carp,  etc. 

ABDUC'TION,  a legal  term,  generally 
applied  to  denote  the  offense  of  carrying 
off  a female,  either  forcibly  or  by  fraudu- 
lent representations.  Such  a delin- 
quency with  regard  to  a man  is  styled 
kidnapping.  There  are  various  de- 
scriptions of  abduction  recognized  in 
criminal  jurisprudence,  such  as  that  of 
a child,  of  an  heiress,  or  of  a wife. 

AB'DUL-HAMTD,  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
born  in  1842,  succeeded  his  brother 
Murad  V.,  who  was  deposed  on  proof 
of  his  insanity  in  1876. 

ABECEDA'RIAN,  a term  formed  from 
the  first  four  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
^plied  to  the  followers  of  Storch,  a 
German  Anabaptist,  in  the_  sixteenth 
century,  because  they  rejected  all 
worldly  knowledge,  even  the  learning 
of  the  alphabet. 

ABECK'ETT,  Gilbert  Abbot,  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  near  London,  in  1811. 
He  wrote  Comic  History  of  England, 
Comic  History  of  Rome,  and  Comic 
Blackstone,  and  between  fifty  and  sixty 
plays,  some  of  which  still  keep  the  stage. 
He  died  in  1856. 


A BECKETT j Thomas.  See  Beckett. 

ABEL,  properly  Hebei,  the  second 
son  of  Adam.  He  was  a shephei'd,  and 
was  slain  by  his  brother  Cain  from 
jealousy  because  his  sacrifice  was 
accepted,  while  Cain’s  was  rejected 
Several  of  the  fathers,  among  others 
SS.  Chrysostom  and  Augustin,  regard 
him  as  a type  of  Christ. 

ABELARD  (ab'e-lard),  or  ABAILARD, 
Peter,  a celebrated  scholastic  teacher, 
born  near  Nantes  in  Brittany,  in  1079. 
He  made  extraordinary  progress  with 
his  studies,  and,  ultimately  eclipsing  his 
teachers,  he  opened  a school  of  scholastic 
philosophy  near  Paris,  which  attracted 
crowds  of  students  from  the  neighbor- 
ing city.  His  success  in  the  fiery  de- 
bates which  were  then  the  fashion  in  the 
schools  made  him  many  enemies,  among 
whom  was  Guillaume  de  Champeaux, 
his  former  teacher,  chief  of  the  cathe- 
dral school  of  Notre-Dame,  and  the 
most  advanced  of  the  Realists.  Abelard 
succeeded  his  adversary  in  this  school 
(in  1113),  and  under  him  were  trained 
many  men  who  afterward  rose  to 
eminence,  among  them;being  the  future 
Pope  Celestin  II.,  Peter  Lombard,  and 
Arnold  of  Brescia.  While  he  was  at 
the  height  of  his  popularity,  and  in 
his  fortieth  year,  he  became  infatuated 
with  a passion  for  Heloise — then  only 
eighteen  years  of  age — niece  of  Fulbert, 
a canon  of  Paris.  Obtaining  a home  in 
Fulbert’s  house  under  the  pretext  of 
teaching  Heloise  philosophy,  their  inter- 
course at  length  became  apparent,  and 
Abelard,  who  had  retired  to  Brittany, 
was  followed  by  Heloise,  who  there  gave 
birth  to  a son.  A private  marriage  took 
place,  and  Heloise  returned  to  her 
uncle’s  house,  but,  refusing  to  make 
public  her  marriage  (as  hkely  to  spoil 
Abelard’s  career),  she  was  subjected  to 
severe  treatment  at  the  hands  of  her 
uncle.  To  save  her  from  this  Abelard 
carried  her  off  and  placed  her  in  a con- 
vent at  Argenteuil,  a proceeding  which 
so  incensed  Fulbert  that  he  hired  ruffians, 
who  broke  into  Abelard’s  chamber  and 
subjected  him  to  a shameful  mutilation. 
Abelard,  filled  with  grief  and  shame, 
became  a monk  n the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  and  Heloise  took  the  veil.  Abe- 
lard ddd  not  long  survive,  dying  at  St. 
Marcel,  near  ChMon-sur-S^ne,  1142. 
Heloise,  who  had  become  abbess  of  the 
Paraclete,  had  him  buried  there,  where 
she  herself  was  afterward  laid  by  his 
side. 

ABELE  (a-beP),  a name  of  the  white 
poplar. 

A'BELITE,  ABE'LIAN,  a member  of  a 
religious  sect  in  Africa  which  arose  in 
the  fourth  century  after  Christ.  They 
married,  but  Uved  in  continence,  after 
the  manner,  as  they  maintained,  of 
Abel,  and  attempted  to  keep  up  the 
sect  by  adopting  the  children  of  others. 

ABELMOS'CHUS  (-mos'kus),  a genus 
of  tropical  plants  of  the  mallow  family. 
One  species  yields  edible  pods  and  also 
a valuable  fiber.  The  fruit,  called  okra 
or  ochra,  is  used  in  soups. 

AB'ERCROMBIE,  John,  M.D.,  a 
Scottish  writer  on  medical  and  moral 
science,  and  an  eminent  physician,  born 
in  Aberdeen,  1781,  died  at  Edinburgh 
in  1844.  He  graduated  at  the  university 
of  Edinburgh  in  1803,  and  subsequently 


ABERDEEN 


ABRUZZI 


pursued  his  studies  in  London,  returning 
to  Edinburgh  in  1804,  where  he  ac- 
quired an  extensive  practice  as  a physi- 
cian. He  is  known  from  his  Inquiries 
concerning  the  Intellectual  Powers  and 
his  Philosophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings. 

ABERDEEN',  a university  city,  and 
royal,  municipal,  and  parliamentary 
burgh  of  Scotland,  cap.  of  the  county  of 
same  name,  mainly  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Dee  at  its  entrance  into  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  and  between  this  river  and 
the  Don,  with  a part  also  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Dee,  while  the  municipal 
limits  include  the  adjacent  Woodside. 
There  are  docks  34  acres  in  area,  an 
extensive  tidal  harbor  and  basin,  and  a 
graving-dock.  The  shipping  trade  is 
extensive.  The  industries  embrace 
wool,  cotton,  jute,  linen,  combs,  soap, 
preserved  provisions,  chemicals,  paper, 
shipbuilding,  and  especially  the  cutting 
: nd  polishing  of  granite.  The  fishing 
industry  is  of  great  importance.  Pop. 
(1901),  153,100. — The  County  of  Aber- 
deen forms  the  northeastern  portion  of 
licotlaud,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east 
; nd  north  by  the  North  Sea.  Area, 
1,251,451  acres.  It  is  divided  into  six 
districts  (Mar,  Formartine,  Buchan, 
Alford,  Garioch,  and  Strathbogie),  and 
is  generally  hilly,  there  being  in  the 
southwest  some  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  Scotland,  as  Ben  Macdhui 
(4295  feet),  Cairntoul  (4245),  Cairngorm 
(4090),  Lochnagar,  etc.  Pop.  304,420. 

ABERRATION,  in  astronomy,  the 
difference  between  the  true  and  the 
observed  position  of  a heavenly  body, 
the  result  of  the  combined  effect  of  the 
motion  of  light  and  the  motion  of  the 
eye  of  the  observer  caused  by  the 
annual  or  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth; 
or  of  the  motion  of  light  and  that  of  the 
body  from,  which  the  light  proceeds. 
When  the  auxiliary  cause  is  the  annual 
revolution  of  the  earth  round  the  sun 
it  is  called  annual  aberration,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  a fixed  star  may  appear 
as  much  as  20"'4  from  its  true  position; 
when  the  auxiliary  cause  is  the  diurnal 
rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  it  is 
called  diurnal  aberration,  which  amounts 
at  the  greatest  to  0"’3;  and  when  the 
auxiliary  cause  is  the  motion  of  the 
body  from  which  the  light  proceeds  it 
is  called  planetary  aberration. 

A'BIB,  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish 
ecclesiastical  year,  and  the  seventh  of 
the  civil  year,  corresponding  to  the 
latter  part  of  March  and  the  first  of 
April.  Also  colled  Nisan. 

ABIOGENESIS  (a-bi-o-jen'e-us),  the 
doctrine  or  hypothesis  that  living  mat- 
ter may  be  produced  from  non-living; 
spontaneous  generation. 

* ABJURA'TION,  Oath  of,  an  oath 
which  by  an  English  act  passed  in  1701 
had  to  be  taken  by  all  holders  of  public 
offices,  clergymen,  teachers,  members 
of  the  universities,  and  lawyers,  ad- 
juring and  renouncing  the  exiled  Stuarts: 
superseded  in  1858  by  a more  compre- 
hensive oath,  declaring  allegiance  to 
the  present  royal  family. — Abjuration 
of  the  realm  was  an.  oath  that  a person 
guilty  of  felony,  and  who  had  taken 
sanctuary,  might  take  to  go  into  exile, 
and  not  return  on  pain  of  death. 

AB'LATIVE,  a term  applied  to  a case 
of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  In 
/ 


Latin,  Sanskrit,  and  some  other  lan- 
guages ; originally  given  to  the  case  in 
Latin  because  separation  from  (ab,  from, 
latus,  taken)  was  considered  to  be  one 
of  the  chief  ideas  expressed  by  the  case. 

ABOLI'TIONISTS,  the  name  by  which 
those  opponents  of  slavery  were  desig- 
nated who  were  the  most  intense  in  their 
desire  to  secure  the  immediate  emanci- 
pation of  the  blacks.  Although  dis- 
credited in  many  quarters,  the  aboli- 
tionists were  in  the  end  successful,  from 
one  point  of  view,  in  making  slavery  a 
national  issue  and  in  hastening  the  time 
of  final  decision  as  to  its  continuance. 

ABOMA'SUM,  ABOMA'SUS,  the  fourth 
stomach  of  ruminating  animals,  next 
the  omasum  or  third  stomach. 

ABORIG'INES  (ab-o-rij'i-nez),  the 
name  given  in  general  to  the  earliest 
known  inhabitants  of  a country,  those 
who  are  supposed  to  have  inhabited  the 
land  from  the  beginning  [The  singular 
of  the  word  is  Aboriginal,  or  sometimes 
Aborigine.] 

ABOR'TION,  in  medicine,  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  foetus  before  it  is  capable 
of  independent  existence.  This  may 
take  place  at  any  period  of  pregnancy 
before  the  completion  of  the  twenty- 
eighth  week.  A child  born  after  that 
time  is  said  to  be  premature.  Abortion 
may  be  the  result  of  the  general  debility 
or  ill  health  of  the  mother,  of  a plethoric 
constitution,  of  special  affections  of  the 
uterus,  of  severe  exertions,  sudden 
shocks,  etc.  Various  medicinal  sub- 
stances, generally  violent  emmena- 
gogues  or  drastic  medicines,  are  believed 
to  have  the  effect  of  provoking  abortion, 
and  are  sometimes  resorted  to  for  this 
purpose.  Attempts  to  procure  abortion 
are  punishable  by  law  in  all  civilized 
states.  The  term  is  applied  in  botany 
to  denote  the  suppression  by  non- 
development of  one  or  more  of  the  parts 
of  a flower,  which  consists  normally 
of  four  whorls — namely,  calyx,  corolla, 
stamens,  and  pistil. 

ABOUKIR  (a-bb-ker'),  a small  village 
on  the  Egyptian  coast,  10  miles  east  of 
Alexandria.  In  Aboukir  Bay  took  place 
the  naval  battle  in  which  Nelson  anni- 
hilated a French  fleet  on  the  night  of  1st 
and  2d  August,  1798,  thus  totally  de- 
stroying the  naval  power  of  France  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

ABOUT  (a-bo),  Edmond  Francois  Val- 
entin, a French  novelist  and  miscellan- 
eous writer,  born  in  1828,  died  in  1885. 

ABRACADAB'RA,  a word  of  eastern 
origin  used  in  incantations.  When 
written  on  paper  so  as  to  form  a triangle, 
the  first  line  containing  the  word  in  full, 
the  one  below  it  omitting  the  last  letter, 
and  so  on  each  time  until  only  one  letter 
remained,  and  worn  as  an  amulet  it  was 
supposed  to  be  an  antidote  against 
certain  diseases. 

ABRACADABRA 
ABRACADABR 
ABRACADAB 
ABRACADA 
A B R A C A D 
A B R A C A 
A B R A C 
A B R A 
A B R 
A B 
A 


A'BRAHAM,  originally  ABRAM,  the 
reatest  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  was 
orn  at  Ur  in  Chaldea  in  2153  b.c. 
according  to  Hales,  in  1996  b.c.  accord- 
ing to  Ussher,  while  Bunsen  says  he  lived 
2850  B.c.  He  migrated,  accompanied 
by  his  wife  Sarah  and  his  nephew  Lot, 
to  Canaan,  where  he  led  a nomadic  life, 
which  extended  over  175  years.  His 
two  sons  Isaac  and  Ishmael  were  the 
progenitors  of  the  Jews  and  Arabs 
respectively. 

ABRAHAM,  Heights  or  Plains  of. 
See  Quebec. 

ABRAX'AS  (or  ABRASAX)  STONES, 
the  name  given  to  stones  or  gems  found 
in  Syria,  Egypt,  and  elsewhere,  cut  into 
almost  every  variety  of  shape,  but 
generally  having  a human  trunk  and 
arms,  with  a cock’s  head,  two  serpents’ 
tails  for  the  legs,  etc.,  and  the  word 
Abraxas  or  Abrasax  in  Greek  characters 
engraved  upon  them.  They  appear  to 
have  been  first  used  by  the  Gnostic  sect. 

ABRIDG'MENT.  In  the  law  of  copy- 
right an  abridgment  is  deemed  a new 
work,  and  is  not  an  infringement  of  the 
copyright.  An  abridgment  is  distin- 
guished in  the  law  of  copyright  from  a 
compilation.  The  former  is  a con- 
densation of  the  substance,  while  the 
latter  is  a reproduction  in  part,  at 
least,  of  the  language  of  the  copy- 
righted article,  and  is  held  to  be  an 
infringement. 

ABROGA'TION,  the  repealing  of  a 
law  by  a competent  authority. 

ABRO'MA,  a genus  of  small  trees, 
natives  of  India,  Java,  etc.,  one  species 
of  which  has  a bark  yielding  a strong 
white  fiber,  from  which  good  cordage  is 
made. 

ABRUPT',  in  botany,  terminating 
suddenly,  as  if  a part  were  cut  short  off. 

AB'RUS,  a genus  of  plants,  one  species 
of  which  has  round  brilliant  scarlet 
seeds,  used  to  make  necklaces  and 
rosaries.  Its  root  is  sweetish  and 
mucilaginous,  and  is  used  as  a sub- 
stitute for  licorice.  The  seeds  yield 
a strong  poison. 

ABRUZZI  (a-brut'se),  a division  of 
Italy  on  the  Adriatic,  between  Umbria 
and  the  Marches  on  the  north,  and 
Apulia  on  the  south.  It  is  united  with 
Molise  to  form  a compartimento,  com- 
prising the  four  provinces  of  Aquila 
degli  Abruzzi,  Campobasso,  Chieti,  and 
Teramo.  The  seacoast  of  about  80 
miles  does  not  possess  a single  harbor. 
The  interior  is  rugged  and  mountainous, 
being  traversed  throughout  by  the  Apen- 
nines. The  lower  parts  consist  of  fertile 
plains  and  valleys,  yielding  corn,  wine, 
oil,  almonds,  saffron,  etc. ; area,  6380  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,441,551'. 

ABRUZZI,  Prince  Luigi  Amadeo  of 
Savoy-Aosta,  Duke  of  the,  an  Italian 
traveler  and  arctic  explorer,  son  of  ex- 
King  Amadeus  of  Spain,  was  born  in 
Madrid  in  1873,  and  studied  at  the  naval 
college  in  Leghorn.  In  1897  he  attracted 
attention  by  making  the  first  ascent  of 
Mount  St.  Elias.  On  June  12,  1899,  he 
set  out  on  his  voyage  toward  the  north 
pole,  his  plan  being  to  leave  his  ship, 
the  Stella  Polare,  in  harbor,  and  send 
northward  a series  of  sledge  expeditions. 
He  spent  one  winter  in  the  Bay  of 
Teplitz,  and  would  have  remained  a 
Second  had  not  a serious  Injury  to 


ABSALOM 


ABYSSINIA 


the  vessel  compelled  his  return.  While 
repairs  were  being  made,  one  of  his 
sledge  partie^  under  the  immediate 
direction  of  Captain  Umberto  Cagni, 
attained  the  latitude  of  86°  33',  239.15 
statute  miles  from  the  pole.  His  explo- 
rations determined  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  Franz-Josef  Land  and  the  non- 
existence of  Peterman’s  Land. 

AB'SALOM,  the  third  son  of  King 
David,  whose  romantic  career  makes 
him  a prominent  figure  in  Old  Testa- 
ment history. 

ABSCOND'ING,  the  act  of  leaving 
the  state  or  concealing  oneself  therein 
for  a fraudulent  purpose,  such  as 
hindering,  delaying,  or  defrauding  one’s 
creditors.  It  is  not  a common-law 
offense  for  one  to  go  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  his  country,  nor  to  treat 
his  house  as  his  castle,  that  is,  as  a 
place  into  which  an  officer  has  no  right 
to  break  in  order  to  senwe  civil  process. 
But  if  a debtor  went  abroad  or  locked 
himself  in  his  house  to  avoid  the  service 
of  legal  process,  or  if  he  was  about  to 
do  either  with  like  intent,  the  creditor 
was  entitled,  upon  resorting  to  the 
proper  proceedings,  to  seize  his  prop- 
erty. 

AB'SCESS,  any  collection  of  purulent 
matter  or  pus  formed  in  some  tissue  or 
organ  of  the  body,  and  confined  within 
some  circumscribed  area,  of  varying 
size,  but  always  painful  and  often 
dangerous. 

ABSENTEE',  the  name  which  has 
been  given  to  a person  who  possesses 
property  in  one  country,  and  resides 
and  spends  his  income  in  another.  This 
practice  is  especially  prevalent  among 
Irish  land-owners,  and  many  political 
economists  have  ascribed  much  of  the 
poverty  and  discontent  in  Ireland  to 
absenteeism. 

ABSINXHE,  a liqueur  or  aromatised 
spirit,  prepared  by  pounding  the  leaves 
and  flowering  tops  of  various  species  of 
wormwood,  with  angelica  root,  sweet 
flag  root,  the  leaves  of  dittany  of  Crete, 
star-anise  fruit,  and  other  aromatics, 
and  macerating  these  in  alcohol.  After 
soaking  for  about  eight  days  the  com- 
pound is  distilled,  yielding  an  emerald- 
colored  liquor,  to  which  a proportion  of 
an  essential-oil,  usually  that  of  anise,  is 
added.  The  chief  seat  of  the  manufac- 
ture is  in  the  canton  of  Neufchatel,  in 
Switzerland,  although  absinthe  distil- 
leries are  scattered  generally  throughout 
Switzerland  and  France.  The  liqueur 
is  chiefly  consumed  in  France,  but  there 
is  also  a considerable  export  trade  to 
the  United  States  of  America-  "When 
taken  habitually  or  in  excess,  its  effects 
are  very  pernicious.  It  is  a favorite 
drink  of  the  Parisians. 

AB'SOLUTE,  in  a general  sense, 
loosed  or  freed  from  all  limitations  or 
conditions.  In  politics,  an  absolute 
monarchy  is  that  form  of  government 
in  which  the  ruler  is  unlimited  or  un- 
controlled by  constitutional  checks.  In 
modern  metaphysics  the  Absolute  rep- 
resents the  unconditioned,  infinite,  and 
self-existent. 

ABSOLU'TION,  remission  of  a pen- 
itent’s sins  in  the  name  of  God.  It  is 
commonly  maintained  that  dowm  to  the 
twelfth  century  the  priests  used  only 
what  is  called  the  precatory  formula, 


“May  God  or  Christ  absolve  thee,” 
which  is  still  the  form  in  the  Greek 
Church;  w’hereas  the  Eoman  Catholic 
uses  the  expression  “I  absolve  thee,” 
thus  regarding  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
as  in  the  power  of  the  priest  (the  indic- 
ative form).  This  theory  of  absolution 
w'as  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent. 
The  passages  of  Scripture  on  wdiich  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  founds  in  lay- 
ing dow'n  its  doctrine  of  absolution  are 
such  as  Matt.  xvi.  19  ;xviii.  18 ; John  xx. 
23.  Among  Protestants  absolution  prop- 
erly means  a sentence  by  w'hich  a per- 
son w'ho  stands  excommunicated  is  re- 
leased from  that  punishment. 

ABSOR'BENTS,  the  system  of  mi- 
nute vessels  by  which  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments of  food  and  other  matters  are 
carried  into  the  circulation  of  vertebrate 
animals.  The  vessels  consist  of  two 
different  sets,  called  respectively  lac- 
teals  and  lymphatics.  The  former  arise 
from  the  digestive  tract,  the  latter  from 
the  tissues  generally,  both  joining  a 
common  trunk  which  ultimately  enters 
the  blood-veseel  system.  Absorbents  in 
medicines  are  substances  such  as  chalk, 
charcoal,  etc.,  that  absorb  or  suck  up 
excessive  secretion  of  fluid  or  gas. 

ABSORP'TION,  in  physiology,  one 
of  the  vital  functions  by  which  the  ma- 
terials of  nutrition  and  growdh  are  ab- 
sorbed and  conveyed  to  the  organs  of 
plants  and  animals.  In  vertebrate  an- 
imals this  is  done  by  the  lymphatics 
and  lacteals,  in  plants  chiefly  by  the 
roots.  See  Absorbents. 

ABUSE'  OF  PROC'ESS,  the  w rong- 
ful employment  of  a regular  judicial 
proceeding.  Courts  of  justice,  refuse 
to  lend  themselves  to  the  abuse  of  their 
procedure,  and  may,  accordingly,  stay 
or  dismiss  actions  and  strike  out  de- 
fenses which  are  manifestly  frivolous  or 
vexatious. 

AB'STRACT  OF  TUTLE,  a state- 
ment in  writing  of  the  successive  con- 
veyances through  which  a person  claims 
to  ow’n  a parcel  of  land.  A perfect  ab- 
stract should  furnish  a complete  history 
of  the  title  sought  to  be  transferred, 
showing  the  origin  and  nature  of  the 
vendor’s  interest,  all  incumbrances  and 
other  interests,  such  as  mortgages, 
easements,  judgments,  trusts,  etc., 
w'hich  affect  his  title.  In  the  United 
States  the  public  records  of  conveyances 
are  the  principal  source  of  information 
upon  which  the  maker  of  the  Abstract 
t)rocG6(is» 

AB'sfiNENCE.  Nee  Fasting,  Tem- 
perance. 

ABSTRAC'TION,  the  operation  of 
the  mind  by  which  it  disregards  part  of 
what  is  presented  to  its  observation  in 
order  to  concentrate  its  attention  on 
the  remainder.  It  is  the  foundation  of 
the  operation  of  generalization,  by 
w'hich  we  arrive  at  general  conceptions. 
In  order,  for  example,  to  form  the  con- 
ception of  a horse,  we  disregard  the 
color  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  par- 
ticular horses  observed  by  us,  and  at- 
tend only  to  those  qualities  wliich  all 
horses  have  in  common.  In  rising  to 
the  conception  of  an  animal  we  disre- 
gard still  more  qualities,  and  attend 
only  to  those  which  all  animals  have  in 
common  w'ith  one  another. 

ABSURDUMjReduotio  ad,  a mode 


of  demonstrating  the  truth  of  a propo- 
sition, by  showing  that  its  contradictory 
leads  to  an  absurdity.  It  is  much  em- 
ployed by  Euclid. 

ABT,  FRANZ, born  in  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, December  22,  1819 ; died  March  31, 
1865.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig  and 
became  professor  of  music  at  Bernburg, 
Zurich  and  Woisbaden.  He  wTote  the 
music  of  over  tw'o  hundred  popular  songs. 

ABU'TILON,  a genus  of  plants,  some- 
times called  Indian  mallow^s,  inhabiting 
the  East  Indies,  Australia,  Brazil, 
Siberia,  etc.  Several  of  them  yield  a val- 
uable hemp-like  fiber.  One,  a trouble- 
some weed  in  the  Middle  United  States, 
has  been  recommended  for  cultivation. 

ABU-BEKR,  or  Father  of  the  Virgin, 
the  father-in-law  and  first  successor  of 
Mohammed.  His  right  to  the  succession 
was  unsuccessfully  contested  by  Ali, 
Mohammed’s  son-in-law,  and  a schism 
took  place,  which  divided  the  Moham- 
medans into  the  two  great  sects  of  Sun- 
nites and  Shiites,  the  former  maintain- 
ing the  validity  of  Abu-Bekr’s  and  the 
latter  that  of  All’s  claim. 

ABUT'MENT,  the  part  of  a bridge 
which  receives  and  resists  the  lateral 
outward  thrust  of  an  arch ; the  masonry, 
rock,  or  other  solid  materials  from  which 
an  arch  springs. 

ABY'DOS  (1),  an  ancient  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Hellespont,  at  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  strait,  opposite 
Sestos.  Leander,  say  ancient  writers, 
swam  nightly  from  Abydos  to  Sestos  to 
see  his  loved  Hero — a feat  in  swimming 
accomplished  also  by  Lord  Byron. — (2), 
an  ancient  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  about 
6 miles  west  of  the  Nile,  now  represented 
only  by  ruins  of  temples,  tombs,  etc.  It 
was  celebrated  as  the  burying-place  of 
the  god  Osiris,  and  its  oldest  temple  w'as 
dedicated  to  him.  Here,  in  1818,  w’as 
discovered  the  famous  Abydos  Tablet, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  and  con- 
taining a list  of  the  predecessors  of 
Rameses  the  Great,  which  was  supple- 
mented by  the  discovery  of  a similar 
historical  tablet  in  1864. 

ABYSSIN'IA,  a country  of  eastern 
Africa,  which,  roughly  speaking,  may 
be  said  to  extend  from  lat.  8°  to  16°  n. 
and  Ion.  35°  to  41°  e.;  having  Nubia  on 
the  n.w.,  the  Soudan  on  the  w.,  the  Red 
Sea  littoral  and  the  Danakil  territory 
on  the  e.,  and  the  country  of  the  Gallas 
on  the  s. ; total  area  about  1 20,000  sq.  m. ; 
chief  divisions  Tigr6,  Amhara,  and  Shoa. 
It  is  as  a whole  an  elevated  region,  with 
a general  slope  to  the  northwest.  The 
mountains  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try rise  to  12,000  and  13,000  feet,  while 
some  of  the  peaks  are  over  15,000  feet 
(Ras  Dashan  being  15,160),  and  are 
always  covered  with  snow.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  belong  to  the  Nile  basin,  the 
chief  being  the  impetuous  Tacazz6  (“the 
Terrible”),  in  the  north,  and  the  Abai  in 
the  south,  the  latter  being  really  the 
upper  portion  of  the  Blue  Nile.  The 
principal  lake  is  Lake  Tzana  or  Dembea 
(from  which  issues  the  Abai),  upward 
of  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  having  a 
length  of  about  45  and  a breadth  of  35 
miles.  Round  this  lake  lies  a fertile 
plain,  emphatically  called  the  granary 
of  the  country. — According  to  elevation 
there  are  several  zones  of  vegetation. 
Within  the  lowest  belt,  which  reaches 


ACACIA 


ACADEMY 


an  elevation  of  4800  feet,  cotton,  wild 
indigo,  acacias,  ebony,  baobabs,  sugar- 
canes,  coffee-trees,  date-palms,  etc., 
flourish,  while  the  larger  animals  are 
lions,  panthers,  elephants,  rhinoceroses. 


Abyssinian  priest. 


hippopotamuses,  jackals,  hyenas,  bears, 
numerous  antelopes,  monkeys,  and 
crocodiles.  The  middle  zone,  rising  to 
9000  feet,  produces  the  grains,  grasses, 
and  fruits  of  southern  Europe,  the 
orange,  vine,  peach,  apricot,  the  bam- 
boo, sycamore-tree,  etc.  The  principal 
grains  are  millet,  barley,  wheat,  maize, 
and  teff,  the  latter  a small  seed,  a favor- 
ite breadstuff  of  the  Abyssinians.  Two, 
and  in  some  places  three,  crops  are 
obtained  in  one  year.  All  the  domestic 
animals  of  Europe,  except  swine,  are 
known.  There  is  a variety  of  ox  with 
immense  horns.  The  highest  zone, 
reaching  to  14,000  feet,  has  but  little 
wood,  and  generally  scanty  vegetation, 
the  hardier  corn-plants  only  being 
grown;  but  oxen,  goats,  and  long- 
wooled  sheep  find  abundant  pasture. — 
The  climate  is  as  various  as  the  surface, 
but  as  a whole  is  temperate  and  agree- 
able; in  some  of  the  valleys  the  heat  is 
often  excessive,  while  on  the  mountains 
the  weather  is  cold.  In  certain  of  the 


Abyssinian  cbiet  and  soldiers. 


lower  districts  malaria  prevails. — The 
chief  mineral  products  are  sulphur,  iron, 
copper,  coal,  and  salt,  the  latter  serving 
to  some  extent  as  money. — There  has 
been  a great  intermixture  of  races  in 


Abyssinia.  What  may  be  considered 
the  Abyssinians  proper  seem  to  have  a 
blood-relationship  with  the  Bedouin 
Arabs.  The  complexion  varies  from 
very  dark  through  different  shades  of 
brown  and  copper  to  olive.  The  figure 
is  usually  symmetrical.  Other  races  are 
the  black  Gallas  from  the  south;  the 
Falashas,  who  claim  descent  from  Abra- 
ham, and  retain  many  Jewish  character- 
istics; the  Agows,  Gongas,  etc.  The 
great  majority  of  the  people  profess 
Christianity,  belonging,  like  the  Copts, 
to  the  sect  of  the  Monophysites.  Their 
religion  consists  chiefly  in  the  perform- 
ance of  empty  ceremonies,  and  gross 
superstition  as  well  as  ignorance  pre- 
vails. The  head  of  the  church  is  called 
the  Abuna  (“our  father”),  and  is  conse- 
crated by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria. Geez  or  Ethiopian  is  the 
language  of  their  sacred  books;  it  has 
long  ago  ceased  to  be  spoken.  The 
chief  spoken  language  is  the  Amharic; 
in  it  some  books  have  been  published. 
Mohammedanism  appears  to  be  gaining 
ground  in  Abyssinia,  and  in  respect  of 
morality  the  Moslems  stand  higher  than 
the  Christians.  A corrupt  form  of 
Judaism  is  professed  by  the  Falashas. — 
The  bulk  of  the  people  are  devoted  to 
agriculture  and  cattle-breeding.  The 
trade  and  manufactures  are  of  small 
importance.  A good  deal  of  common 
cotton  cloth  and  some  finer  woven 
fabrics  are  produced.  Leather  is  pre- 
pared to  some  extent,  silver  filagree 
work  is  produced,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  common  articles  of  iron  and 
brass,  coarse  black  pottery,  etc.  The 
foreign  trade  is  carried  on  through  Zeila 
(British)  and  Djibouti  (French)  on  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  and  Massowa  on  the  Red 
Sea  (Italian),  exports  being  hides,  coffee, 
wax,  gum,  ivory,  etc.,  imports  textile 
fabrics,  firearms,  tobacco,  etc.  The 
Abyssinians  were  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity in  the  fourth  century,  by  some 
missionaries  from  Alexandria.  The 
title  King  of  Kings  was  assumed  by 
Johannes  in  1881.  Advantage  was 
taken  of  the  troubled  state  of  Abyssinia 
by  the  Egyptians,  who  annexed  Mas- 
sowa and  the  region  adjacent,  Abyssinia 
having  been  thus  shut  out  from  the  sea. 
Hostilities  were  repeatedly  carried  on 
between  Johannes  and  the  Egyptians. 
Latterly  the  Italians  gained  and  hold 
possession  of  Massowa  and  other  terri- 
tory. Johannes  died  in  1889,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Menelek  II.,  who  admitted 
of  an  Italian  protectorate  over  Abys- 
sinia; but  quarrels  and  hostilities  broke 
out,  the  Italians  were  defeated,  and 
their  protectorate  ceased.  The  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  about  3,500,000. 

ACA'CIA,  a genus  of  plants,  consist- 
ing of  trees  or  shrubs  with  compound 
pinnate  leaves  and  small  leaflets,  grow- 
ing in  Africa,  Arabia,  the  East  Indies, 
Australia,  etc.  The  flowers,  usually 
small,  are  arranged  in  spikes  or  globular 
heads  at  the  axils  of  the  leaves  near  the 
extremity  of  the  branches.  Several  of 
the  species  yield  gum-arabic  and  other 
gums;  some  have  astringent  barks  and 
pods,  used  in  tanning.  An  Indian  species 
yields  the  valuable  astringent  called 
catechu;  another,  the  wattle-tree  of 
Australia,  from  15  to  30  feet  in  height, 
1 is  the  most  beautiful  and  useful  of  the 


species  found  there.  Its  bark  contains 
a large  percentage  of  tannin,  and  is 
hence  exported.  Some  species  yield 
valuable  timber;  some  are  cultivated 
for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 


Acacia. 


ACAD'EMY,  an  association  for  the 
promotion  of  literature,  science,  or  art; 
established  sometimes  by  government, 
sometimes  by  the  voluntary  union  of 
private  individuals.  The  name  Acad- 
emy was  first  applied  to  the  philosoph- 
ical school  of  Plato,  from  the  place  w'here 
he  used  to  teach,  a grove  or  garden  at 
Athens  which  was  said  to  have  belonged 
originally  to  the  hero  Academus.  Acad- 
emies devote  themselves  either  to  the 
cultivation  of  science  generally  or  to 
the  promotion  of  a particular  branch  of 
study,  as  antiquities,  language,  or  the 
fine  arts.  The  most  celebrated  institu- 
tions bearing  the  name  of  academies, 
and  designed  for  the  encouragement  of 
science,  antiquities,  and  language  re- 
spectively, are  the  French  Academic 
des  Sciences  (founded  by  Colbert  in  1666) , 
Acad4mie  des  Inscriptions  founded  by 
Colbert  in  1663),  and  Acad4mie  Fran- 
5aise  (founded  by  Richelieu  in  1635), 
all  of  which  are  now  merged  in  the 
National  Institute.  The  oldest  of  the 
academies  instituted  for  the  improve- 
ment of  language  is  the  Italian  Acca- 
demia  della  Crusca  (now  the  Floren- 
tine Academy),  formed  in  1582,  and 
chiefly  celebrated  for  the  compilation 
of  an  excellent  dictionary  of  the  Italian 
language,  and  for  the  publication  of 
several  carefully  prepared  editions  of 
ancient  Italian  poets.  In  Britain  the 
name  of  academy,  in  the  more  dignified 
sense  of  the  term,  is  confined  almost 
exclusively  to  certain  institutions  for 
the  promotion  of  the  fine  arts,  such  as 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  and  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  (usually  called  simply 
the  Royal  .'Vcademy)  was  founded  in  Lon- 
don in  1768,  “for  the  purpose  of  culti- 
vating and  improving  the  arts  of  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture.”  The 
number  of  academicians  is  now  limited 
to  forty-two,  among  whom  are  two 


ACADIA 


ACCOLADE 


engravers.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  hundreds  of  institutions,  more  or 
less  noted,  known  as  academies,  as  the 
American  Academy  of  Political  and  So- 
cial Science,  the  New  York  Academy  of 
Design,  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences, etc. 

ACA'DIA,  the  name  formerly  given 
to  Nova  Scotia.  It  received  its  first 
colonists  from  France  in  1604,  being 
then  a possession  of  that  country,  but 
it  passed  to  Britain,  by  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713.  In  1756,  18,000  of 
the  French  inhabitants  were  forcibly 
removed  from  their  homes  on  account 
of  their  hostility  to  the  British,  an  inci- 
dent on  which  is  based  Longfellow’s 
Evangeline. 

ACALE'PHA,  a nettle,  from  their 
stinging  properties,  a term  formerly 
used  to  denote  the  Medusae  or  jelly- 
fishes and  their  allies. 

ACANTHOP'TERI,  ACANTHOP- 
TERYGII,  a group  of  fishes,  distin- 
guished by  the  fact  that  at  least  the 


Spines  of  acanthopteri. 

first  rays  in  each  fin  exist  in  the  form 
of  stiff  spines;  it  includes  the  perch, 
mullet,  mackerel,  gurnard,  wrasse,  etc. 

ACANTHUS,  a genus  of  herbaceous 
plants  or  shrubs,  mostly  tropical,  two 
species  of  which  are  characterized  by 
large  white  flowers  and  deeply  indented 


Acanthus  of  Corinthian  capital. 


shining  leaves. — In  architecture  the 
name  is  given  to  a kind  of  foliage  decora- 
tion said  to  have  been  suggested  by  this 
plant,  and  much  employed  in  Roman 
and  later  styles. 

ACAR'IDA,  a division  of  the  Arach- 
nida,  including  the  mites,  ticks,  and 
water-mites.  See  Mite. 

ACARNA'NIA,  the  most  westerly  por- 
tion of  northern  Greece,  together  with 
^tolia  now  forming  a nomarchy  with  a 
pop.  of  138,444.  The  Acarnanians  of 
ancient  times  were  behind  the  other 
Greeks  in  civilization,  living  by  robbery 
and  piracy. 

ACCA'DIANS,  the  primitive  inhab- 
itants of  Babylonia,  who  had  descended 
from  the  mountainous  region  of  Elam 
on  the  east,  and  to  whom  the  Assyrians 
ascribed  the  origin  of  Chaldean  civiliza- 
tion and  writing^, 

ACCELERA'TION,  the  Increase  of 
velocity  which  a body  acquires  when 


continually  acted  upon  by  a force  in  the 
direction  of  its  motion.  A body  falling 
from  a height  is  one  of  the  most  common 
instances  of  acceleration. — Acceleration 
of  the  Moon,  the  increase  of  the  moon’s 
mean  angular  velocity  about  the  earth, 
the  moon  now  moving  rather  faster  than 
in  ancient  times.  This  phenomenon  has 
not  been  fully  explained,  but  it  is  known 
to  be  partly  owing  to  the  slow  process  of 
diminution  which  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth’s  orbit  is  undergoing,  and  from 
which  there  results  a slight  diminution 
of  the  sun’s  influence  on  the  moon’s  mo- 
tions.— Diurnal  Acceleration  of  the  Fixed 
Stars,  the  apparent  greater  diurnal  mo- 
tion of  the  stars  than  of  the  sun,  arising 
from  the  fact  that  the  sun’s  apparent 
yearly  motion  takes  place  in  a direction 
contrary  to  that  of  his  apparent  daily 
motion.  The  stars  thus  seem  each  day 
to  anticipate  the  sun  by  nearly  3 minutes 
56  seconds  of  mean  time. 

AC'CENT,  a term  used  in  several 
senses.  In  English  it  commonly  denotes 
superior  stress  or  force  of  voice  upon 
certain  syllables  of  words,  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  the  other  syllables. 
Many  English  words,  as  as'pi-ra"tion, 
have  two  accents,  a secondary  and 
primary,  the  latter  being  the  fuller  or 
stronger.  Some  words,  as  in-com'pre- 
hen'-si-bil"i-ty.  have  two  secondary 
or  subordinate  accents.  When  the  full 
accent  falls  on  a vowel,  that  vowel  has 
its  long  sound,  as  in  vo'cal;  but  when 
it  falls  on  a consonant,  the  preceding 
vowel  is  short,  as  in  hab'it.  This  kind 
of  accent  alone  regulates  English  verse 
as  contrasted  with  Latin  or  Greek  verse, 
in  which  the  meter  depended  on  quantity 
or  length  of  syllables.  In  books  on  elo- 
cution three  marks  or  accents  are  gener- 
ally made  use  of,  the  first  or  acute  (') 
showing  when  the  voice  is  to  be  raised, 
the  second  or  grave  (^),  when  it  is  to  be 
depressed,  and  the  third  or  circumflex 
C)  when  the  vowel  is  to  be  uttered  with 
an  undulating  sound.  In  some  lan- 
guages there  is  no  such  distinct  accent  as 
in  English  (or  German),  and  this  seems 
to  be  now  the  case  with  French.  ( — ) In 
music,  accent  is  the  stress  or  emphasis 
laid  upon  certain  notes  of  a bar.  The 
first  note  of  a bar  has  the  strongest 
accent,  but  weaker  accents  are  given 
to  the  first  notes  of  subordinate  parts  of 
the  bars,  as  to  the  third,  fifth,  and 
seventh  in  a bar  of  eight  quavers. 

ACCEPT'ANCE,  in  law,  the  act  by 
which  a person  binds  himself  to  pay  a 
bill  of  exchange  drawn  upon  him.  No 
acceptance  is  valid  unless  made  in 
writing  on  the  bill,  but  an  acceptance 
may  be  either  absolute  or  conditional, 
that  is,  stipulating  some  alteration  in 
the  amount  or  date  of  payment,  or 
some  condition  to  be  fulfilled  previous 
to  payment. 

AC'CESS,  right  of,  the  right  of  a 
private  individual  owning  land  on  the 
shore  of  a body  of  water,  to  the  free  use 
of  the  shore,  or  the  free  access  to  the 
shore. 

ACCES'SARY,  or  ACCES'SORY,  in 
law,  a person  guilty  of  an  offence  by 
connivance  or  participation,  either  be- 
fore or  after  the  act  committed,  as  by 
command,  advice,  concealment,  etc. 
An  accessary  before  the  fact  is  one  who 
procures  or  counsel*  another  to  commit 


a crime,  and  is  not  present  at  its  com- 
mission; an  accessary  after  the  fact  is 
one  who,  knowing  a felony  to  have  been 
committed,  gives  assistance  of  any  kind 
to  the  felon  so  as  to  hinder  him  from 
being  apprehended,  tried,  or  suffering 
punishment.  An  accessary  before  the 
fact  may  be  tried  and  punished  in  all 
respects  as  if  he  were  the  principal. 
In  high  treason,  all  who  participate 
are  regarded  as  principals. 

AC'CIDENT,  in  law,  an  occurrence  in 
which  a person  is  hurt  or  harmed  by 
another  without  intent  or  while  law- 
fully engaged  under  proper  precautions 
for  the  protection  of  others. 

ACCIDENTALS,  notes  introduced  in 
the  course  of  a piece  of  music  in  a dif- 
ferent key  from  that  in  which  the 
passage  they  occur  is  principally  written. 
They  are  represented  by  the  sign  of  a 
sharp,  flat,  or  natural  immediately 
before  the  note  which  is  to  be  raised  or 
lowered. 

ACCIDENT  INSURANCE,  insurance 
protecting  one  against  injury,  disable- 
ment, or  death  from  accident.  It  does 
not  protect  from  injuries  arising  from 
quarrels,  or  intentionally  inflicted  in- 
jury, but  only  from  such  harm  as  comes 
from  violence  and  is  purely  accidental, 
that  is,  when  the  harm  is  not  due  to 
lack  of  precaution. 

ACCIPTTRES  (ak-sip'i-trez),  the  name 
given  by  Linnaeus  and  Cuvier  to  the 


Head  and  foot  Head  and  foot  Head  and  foot 
of  the  of  peregrine  of  American 
osprey.  falcon.  sparrow-hawk. 


rapacious  birds  now  usually  called  Rap- 
tores,  which  see. 

ACCLIMATIZATION,  the  process  of 
accustoming  plants  or  animals  to  live 
and  propagate  in  a chmate  different 
from  that  to  which  they  are  indigenous, 
or  the  change  which  the  constitution  of 
an  animal  or  plant  undergoes  under  new 
climatic  conditions,  in  the  direction  of 
adaptation  to  those  conditions.  The 
systematic  study  of  acclimatization  has 
only  been  entered  upon  in  very  recent 
times,  and  the  little  progress  that  has 
been  made  in  it  has  been  more  in  the 
direction  of  formulating  anticipative,  if 
not  arbitrary  hypotheses,  than  of  actual 
discovery  and  acquisition  of  facts.  The 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  case 
of  animals  or  plants  taking  readily  to  a 
new  country  with  a climate  and  other 
and  other  circumstances  similar  to 
what  they  have  left,  such  as  European 
animals  and  plants  in  America  and  New 
Zealand : but  this  is  more  properly 
naturalization  than  acclimatization. 

ACCOLADE  (ak-o-lad'),  the  ceremony 
used  in  conferring  knighthood,  anciently 
consisting  either  in  the  embrace  given  by 
the  person  who  conferred  the  honor  of 
knighthood  or  in  a light  blow  on  the 
neck  or  the  cheek,  latterly  consisting 


ACCOMMODATION  BILL 


ACLINIC  LINE 


in  the  ceremony  of  striking  the  candidate 
with  a naked  sword. 

ACCOMMODA'TION  BILL,  a bill  of 
exchange  drawn  and  accepted  to  raise 
money  on,  and  not  given,  like  a genuine 
bill  of  exchange,  in  payment  of  a debt, 
but  merely  intended  to  accommodate 
the  drawer : colloquially  called  a kite. 

ACCOMMODATION  LADDER,  a light 
ladder  hung  over  the  side  of  a ship  at 
the  gangway  to  facilitate  ascending 
from,  or  descending  to,  boats. 

ACCOM'PANIMENT,  in  music,  is  that 
part  of  music  which  serves  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  principal  melody  (solo  or 
obligato  part).  This  can  be  executed 
either  by  many  instruments,  by  a few, 
or  by  a single  one. 

ACCOM'PLICE,  an  aider  or  abettor 
of  crime,  punishable  either  as  principal 
or  second  in  the  crime.  Intent  to  com- 
mit crime  is  of  course  understood. 
Testimony  given  by  accomplices  against 
other  participators  in  the  crime  is 
usually  regarded  with  suspicion  and 
must  be  corroborated  by  other  testi- 
mony or  circumstances  before  it  is 
regarded  as  convincing. 

ACCOR'DION,  a keyed  musical  wind- 
instrument  similar  to  the  concertina, 
being  in  the  form  of  a small  box,  con- 
taining a number  of  metallic  reeds  fixed 
at  one  of  their  extremities,  the  sides  of 
the  box  forming  a folding  apparatus 
which  acts  as  a bellows  to  supply  the 
wind,  and  thus  set  the  reeds  in  vibration, 
and  produce  the  notes  both  of  melody 
and  harmony. 

ACCOUNf'ANT,  one  who  keeps  ac- 
counts; in  the  United  States  usually 
a bookkeeper.  In  other  countries  the 
term  is  used  to  designate  an  expert 
bookkeeper  who  inspects  the  accounts 
of  banks,  business  houses,  and  other 
institutions  at  regular  intervals. 

AC'CRA,  a British  settlement  in 
Africa,  in  a swampy  situation,  cap.  of 
Gold  Coast,  about  75  miles  east  of 
Cape  Coast  Castle.  Exports  gold-dust, 
ivory,  gums,  palm-oil;  imports  cottons, 
cutlery,  etc.  Pop.  20,000. 

ACCU'MULATOR,  a name  applied  to 
a kind  of  electric  battery  by  means  of 
which  electric  energy  can  be  stored  and 
rendered  portable.  In  the  usual  form 
each  battery  forms  a cylindrical  leaden 
vessel,  containing  alternate  sheets  of 
metallic  lead  and  minium  wrapped  in 
felt  and  rolled  into  a spiral  wetted  with 
acidulated  water.  On  being  charged 
with  electricity  the  energy  may  be  pre- 
served till  required  for  use. 

ACCU'SATIVE  CASE,  in  Latin  and 
some  other  languages,  the  term  applied 
to  the  case  which  designates  the  object 
to  which  the  action  of  any  verb  is 
immediately  directed,  corresponding, 
generally  speaking,  to  the  objective  in 
English. 

A'CER,  the  genus  of  plants  to  which 
belong  the  maples. 

ACETAB'ULUM,  an  anatomical  term 
applied  to  any  cup-like  cavity,  as  that 
of  a bone  to  receive  the  protuberant  end 
of  another  bone,  the  cavity,  for  instance, 
that  receives  the  end  of  the  thigh-bone. 

ACETATES  (as'e-tats),  salts  of  acetic 
acid.  The  acetates  of  most  commercial 
or  manufacturing  importance  are  those 
of  aluminium  and  iron,  which  are  used 
in  calico  printing;  of  copper,  which  as 


verdigris  is  used  as  a color;  and  of  lead, 
best  known  as  sugar  of  lead.  The 
acetates  of  potassium,  sodium,  and 
ammonium,  of  iron,  zinc,  and  lead,  and 
acetate  of  morphia,  are  employed  in 
medicine. 

ACET'IC  ACID,  an  acid  produced 
by  the  oxidation  of  common  alcohol,  and 
of  many  other  organic  substances.  Pure 
acetic  acid  has  a very  sour  taste  and 
pungent  smell,  burns  the  skin,  and  is 
poisonous.  From  freezing  at  ordinary 
temperatures  (58°  or  59°)  it  is  known 
as  glacial  acetic  acid.  Vinegar  is  simply 
dilute  acetic  acid.  Acetic  acid  is  largely 
used  in  the  arts,  in  medicine,  and  for 
domestic  purposes.  See  Vinegar. 

ACETTC  ETHERS,  compounds  con- 
sisting of  acetates  of  alcohol  radicals. 
Common  acetic  ether  is  a colorless, 
volatile  fluid,  and  is  a flavoring  con- 
stituent in  many  wines.  It  is  made 
artificially  by  distilling  a mixture  of 
alcohol,  oil  of  vitriol,  and  acetate  of 
potash. 

ACET'YLENE,  a highly  inflammable 
hydrocarbon  gas  which  can  be  simply 
made  with  calcic  carbide  and  water, 
and  is  now  coming  into  use  as  an 
illuminant. 

AC&®'ANS,  one  of  the  four  races 
into  which  the  ancient  Greeks  were 
divided.  In  early  times  they  inhabited 
a part  of  northern  Greece  and  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  They  are  represented 
by  Homer  as  a brave  and  warlike  people, 
and  so  distinguished  were  they  that  he 
usually  calls  the  Greeks  in  general 
Achseans.  Achaia  with  Elis  now  forms 
a nomarchy  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 
Pop.  181,632. 

ACHARD  (ah-art),  Franz  Karl,  a Ger- 
man chemist,  born  1753,  died  1821-  prin- 
cipally known  by  his  invention  (1789- 
1800)  of  a process  for  manufacturing 
sugar  from  beet-root. 

ACHEEN',  or  ATCHIN,  a native  state 
of  Sumatra,  with  capital  of  same  name, 
in  the  northwestern  extremity  of  the 
island,  now  nominally  under  Dutch 
administration.  Though  largely  moun- 
tainous, it  has  also  undulating  tracts  and 
low  fertile  plains.  By  treaty  with 
Britain  the  Dutch  were  prevented  from 
extending  their  territory  in  Sumatra  by 
conquest;  but,  this  obstacle  being 
removed,  in  1871  they  proceeded  to 
occupy  Acheen.  It  was  not  till  1879, 
however,  after  a great  waste  of  blood 
and  trea.sure,  that  they  obtained  a 
general  recognition  of  their  authority. 
But  they  have  not  been  able  to  establish 
it  firmly,  and  in  1885  were  forced  to 
evacuate  part  of  the  Acheenese  territory, 
with  considerable  loss  in  men  and  guns. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  Acheen 
was  a powerful  state,  and  carried  on 
hostihties  successfully  against  the  Por- 
tuguse,  but  its  influence  decreased  with 
the  increase  of  the  Dutch  power.  The 
principal  exports  are  rice  and  pepper. 
Area,  19,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  600,000. 

ACHILLES  (a-kil'-ez),  a Greek  legen- 
dary herm  the  chief  character  in  Homer’s 
Iliad.  His  father  was  Peleus,  ruler  of 
Phthia  in  Thessaly,  his  mother  the  sea- 
goddess  Thetis,  In  discussions  on  the 
origin  of  the  Homeric  poems  the  term 
AchiUeid  is  often  applied  to  those  books 
(i.  viii.  and  xi.-xxii.)  of  the  Iliad  in 
which  Achilles  is  prominent,  and  which 


some  suppose  to  have  formed  the 
original  nucleus  of  the  poem. 

ACHIMENES  (a-kim'e-nez),  a genus 
of  tropical  American  plants,  with  scaly 
underground  tubers,  now  cultivated  in 
European  greenhouses  on  account  of 
their  ornamental  character. 

ACHLAMYDEOUS  (ak-la-mid'i-us),  in 
botany,  wanting  the  floral  envelopes, 
that  is,  having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla, 
as  the  willow. 

ACHOR  (a'kor) , a disease  of  infants, 
in  which  the  head,  the  face,  and  often 
the  neck  and  breast  become  incrusted 
with  thin,  yellowish  or  greenish  scabs, 
arising  from  minute,  whitish  pustules, 
which  discharge  a viscid  fluid. 

ACHROMAT'IC,  in  optics,  trans- 
mitting colorless  light,  that  is,  not 
decomposed  into  the  primary  colors, 
though  having  passed  through  a re- 
fracting medium.  A single  convex  lens 
does  not  give  an  image  free  from  the 
prismatic  colors,  because  the  rays  of 
different  color  making  up  white  light 
are  not  equally  refrangible,  and  thus  do 
not  all  come  to  a focus  together,  the 
violet,  for  instance,  being  nearest  the 
lens,  the  red  farthest  off.  If  such  a lens 
of  crown-glass,  however,  is  combined 
with  a concave  lens  of  flint-glass — the 
curvatures  of  both  being  properly  ad- 
justed— as  the  two  materials  have  some- 
what different  optical  properties,  the 
latter  will  neutralize  the  chromatic 
aberration  of  the  former,  and  a satis- 
factory image  will  be  produced.  Tele- 
scopes, microscopes,  etc.,  in  which  the 
glasses  are  thus  composed  are  called 
achromatic. 

ACID,  a name  popularly  applied  to  a 
number  of  compounds,  solid,  liquid,  and 
gaseous,  having  more  or  less  the  qual- 
ities of  vinegar  (itself  a diluted  form  of 
acetic  acid),  the  general  properties  as- 
signed to  them  being  a tart,  sour  taste, 
the  power  of  changing  vegetable  blues 
into  reds,  of  decomposing  chalk  and 
marble  with  effervescence,  and  of  being 
in  various  degrees  neutralized  by  alka- 
lies. 

ACIERAGE  (a'se-er-aj),  a process  by 
which  an  engraved  copper-plate  or  an 
electrotype  from  an  engraved  plate  of 
steel  or  copper  has  a film  of  iron  de- 
posited over  its  surface  by  electricity  in 
order  to  protect  the  engraving  from 
wear  in  printing.  By  this  means  an 
electrotype  of  a fine  engraving  which, 
if  printed  directly  from  the  copper,  would 
not  yield  500  good  impressions,  can  be 
made  to  yield  3^000  or  more;  and  w'hou 
the  film  of  iron  becomes  so  woi-n  as  to 
reveal  any  part  of  the  copper,  it  may  be 
removed  and  a fresh  coating  deposited 
so  that  20,000  good  impressions  may 
be  obtained. 

ACIPENSER  (as-i-pen'ser),  the  genus 
of  cartilaginous  ganoid  fishes  to  which 
the  sturgeon  belongs. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT,  an  admission, 
either  in  writing  or  by  word  of  mouth, 
by  a person  that  he  owes  a debt  which, 
otherwise,  might  be  covered  by  the 
statute  of  limitations.  It  is  also  used 
to  designate  an  act  by  which  one  asserts 
that  a document,  statement,  or  other 
instrument  is  his  own. 

ACLINTC  LINE,  the  magnetic  equa- 
tor, an  irregular  curve  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  terrestrial  equator,  where 


ACNE 


ACTIUM 


the  magnetic  needle  balances  itself  hori- 
zontally, having  no  dip. 

ACNE  (ak'ne^  a skin  disease,  consist- 
ing of  small  hard  pimples,  usually  on 
the  face,  caused  by  congestion  of  the 
follicles  of  the  skin. 

ACOLYTES  (ak'o-lits),  in  the  ancient 
Latin  and  Greek  Churches,  persons  of 
ecclesiastical  rank  next  in  order  below 
the  sub-deacons,  whose  office  it  was  to 
attend  to  the  officiating  priest.  The  name 
is  still  retained  in  the  Roman  Church. 

ACONCAGUA  (a-kan-ka'gwa),  a pro- 
vince, a river,  and  a mountain  of  Chile. 
The  peak  of  Aconcagua,  whose  summit 
is  just  within  the  Argentine  Republic, 
rises  to  the  height  of  22,860  feet,  and 
is  probably  the  highest  mountain  of 
the  western  hemisphere.  Area  of  prov., 
6224  sq.  miles.  Pop.  153,049. 

AC'ONITE,  a genus  of  hardy  her- 
baceous plants,  represented  by  the  well- 
known  wolf’s-bane  or  monk’s-hood,  and 
remarkable  for  their  poisonous  proper- 
ties and  medicinal  qualities,  being  used 
internally  as  well  as  externally  in  rheu- 
matism, gout,  neuralgia,  etc. 

ACON'ITINE,  an  alkaloid  extracted 
from  monk’s-hood  and  some  other 
species  of  aconite;  used  medicinally, 
though  a virulent  poison, 

ACONQUIJA  (a-kon-ke'/iS,),  a range 
of  mountains  in  the  Argentine  Republic; 
the  name  also  of  a single  peak,  17,000 
feet  high. 

A'CORN,  the  fruit  of  the  different 
kinds  of  oak.  The  acom-cups  of  one 
species  are  brought  from  the  Levant 
under  the  name  of  valonia,  and  used  in 
tanning. 

ACOTYLE'DONS,  plants  not  furnished 
with  cotyledons  or  seed-lobes.  They 
include  ferns,  mosses,  seaweeds,  etc., 
and  are  also  called  flowerless  plants  or 
cryptogams. 

ACOUSTICS  (a-kou'stiks),  the  science 
of  sound.  It  teaches  the  cause,  nature, 
and  phenomena  of  such  vibrations  of 
elastic  bodies  as  affect  the  organ  of 
hearing;  the  manner  in  which  sound 
is  produced,  its  transmission  through 
air  and  other  media,  the  doctrine  of 
reflected  sound  or  echoes,  the  proper- 
ties and  effects  of  different  sounds, 
including  musical  sounds  or  notes, 
and  the  structure  and  action  of  the 
organ  of  hearing,  etc.  The  propa- 
gation of.  sound  is  analogous  to  that 
of  light,  both  being  due  to  vibrations 
which  produce  successive  waves,  and 
Newton  was  the  first  to  show  that  its 
propagation  through  any  medium  de- 
pended upon  the  elasticity  of  that 
medium.  Regarding  the  intensity,  re- 
flection, and  refraction  of  sound,  much 
the  same  rules  apply  as  in  light.  In 
ordinary  cases  of  hearing  the  vibrating 
medium  is  air,  but  all  substances  capable 
of  vibrating  may  be  employed  to  propa- 
gate and  convey  sound.  When  a bell  is 
struck  its  vibrations  are  communicated 
to  the  particles  of  air  surrounding  it, 
and  from  these  to  particles  outside  them, 
until  they  reach  the  ear  of  the  listener. 
The  intensity  of  sound  varies  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the  body 
sounding  from  the  ear.  Sound  travels 
through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  about  1090 
feet  per  second;  through  water  at  the 
rate  of  about  4700  feet.  Sounds  may  be 
musical  or  non-musical,  A musical 


sound  is  caused  by  a regular  series  of 
exactly  similar  pulses  succeeding  each 
other  at  precisely  equal  intervals  of 
time.  If  these  conditions  are  not  ful- 
filled the  sound  is  a noise.  Musical 
sounds  are  comparatively  simple,  and 
are  combined  to  give  pleasing  sensations 
according  to  easy  numerical  relations. 
The  loudness  of  a note  depends  on  the 
degree  to  which  it  affects  the  ear;  the 
pitch  of  a note  depends  on  the  number 
of  vibrations  to  the  second  which  pro- 
duce the  note;  the  timber,  quality  or 
character  of  a note  depends  on  the  body 
or  bodies  whose  vibrations  produce  the 
sound,  and  is  due  to  the  form  of  the 
paths  of  vibrating  particles.  The  gamut 
is  a series  of  eight  notes,  which  are  called 
by  the  names  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La, 
Si,  Doj,  and  the  numbers  of  vibrations 
which  produce  these  notes  are  respec- 
tively proportional  to  24,  27,  30,  32,  36, 
40,  45,  48.  The  numerical  value  of  the 
interval  between  any  two  notes  is  given 
by  dividing  one  of  the  above  numbers 
corresponding  to  the  higher  note  by  the 
munber  corresponding  to  lower  note. 
The  intervals  from  Do  to  each  of  the 
others  are  called  a second,  a minor  third, 
a fourth,  a fifth,  a sixth,  a seventh,  and 
an  octave  respectively.  The  interval 
from  La  to  D02  is  a minor  third.  An  in- 
terval of  I is  a major  tone;  V-  is  a minor 
tone ; is  called  a limma.  The  proper- 
ties of  sound  were  mathematically  in- 
vestigated by  Bacon  and  Galileo,  but  it 
remained  for  Newton,  Lagrange,  Euler, 
Laplace,  Helmholtz,  etc.,  to  bring  the 
science  to  its  present  state. 

ACRE,  a standard  measure  of  land, 
consists  of  4840  square  yards,  divided 
into  4 roods. 

ACRE  (a'ker),  a seaport  of  Syria,  in 
Northern  Palestine,  on  the  Bay  of  Acre, 
early  a place  of  great  strength  and  im- 
portance. Taken  from  the  S^aracens  un- 
der Saladin  in  1191  by  Richard  I.  of  En- 
gland and  Philip  of  France;  bravely 
defended  by  the  Turks  assisted  by  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  in  1799  against  Napoleon; 
in  1832,  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pasha;  in 
1840,  bombarded  by  a British,  Austrian, 
and  Turkish  fleet,  and  restored  to  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey.  Pop.  10,000. 

ACROBAT,  one  who  performs  on  the 
trapeze,  horizontal  bar,  or  other  appara- 
tus, or  who,  without  appliances  of  any 
kind,  is.  capable  of  performing  expert 
gymnastics.  Acrobats  and  acrobatism 
are  very  ancient.  They  were  known,  in 
a limited  way,  to  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  and  were  familiar  during  the 
middle  ages.  Rope  walking  was  a 
favorite  act  of  acrobats  and  rope  walk- 
ers are  pictured  on  the  walls  of  the 
excavated  houses  at  Pompeii. 

ACROCORIN'THUS,  a steep  rock  in 
Greece,  nearly  1900  feet  high,  over- 
hanging ancient  Corinth,  and  on  which 
stood  the  acropolis  or  citadel,  the  sacred 
fountain  of  Pirene  being  also  here.  This 
natural  fortress  has  proved  itself  of 
importance  in  the  modern  history  of 
Greece. 

AC'ROGENS,  a term  applied  to  the 
ferns,  mosses,  and  lichens  (cryptogams), 
as  growing  by  extension  upwards,  in 
contradistinction  to  endogens  and  ex- 
ogens. 

ACROP'OLIS,  the  'citadel  or  chief 
place  of  a Grecian  city,  usually  on  an 


eminence  commanding  the  town.  That 
of  Athens  contained  some  of  the  finest 
buildings  in  the  world,  such  as  the 
Parthenon,  Erechtheum,  etc. 

ACROS'TIC,  a poem  of  which  the  first 
or  last,  or  certain  other  letters  of  the 
line,  taken  in  order,  form  some  name, 
motto,  or  sentence.  A poem  of  which 
both  first  and  last  letters  are  thus 
arranged  is  called  a double  acrostic.  In 
Hebrew  poetry,  the  term  is  given  to  a 
poem  of  which  the  initial  letters  of  the 
lines  or  stanzas  were  made  to  run  over 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  order, 
as  in  Psalm  cxix. 

ACT,  in  special  senses ; (1)  In  dramatic 
poetry,  one  of  the  principal  divisions  of 
a drama,  in  which  a definite  and  coher- 
ent portion  of  the  plot  is  represented; 
generally  subdivided  into  smaller  por- 
tions called  scenes.  The  Greek  dramas 
were  not  divided  into  acts.  The  dictum 
that  a drama  should  consist  of  five  acts 
was  first  formally  laid  down  by  Horace, 
and  is  generally  adhered  to  by  modern 
dramatists  in  tragedy.  In  comedy  no 
such  distinction  is  observed. — (2)  Some- 
thing formally  done  by  a legislative  or 
judicial  body;  a statute  or  law  passed. — 
(3)  In  universities,  a thesis  maintained 
in  public  by  a candidate  for  a degree. 
See  Act  of  God,  of  Parliament,  of  Settle- 
ment, etc. 

ACT.iE'ON,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
great  hunter,  turned  into  a stag  by 
Artemis  (Diana)  for  looking  on  her  when 
she  was  bathing,  and  torn  to  pieces  by 
his  own  dogs. 

ACTA  SANCTORUM,  a name  applied 
to  all  collections  of  accounts  of  ancient 
martyrs  and  saints,  both  of  the  Greel^ 
and  Roman  Churches,  more  particularly 
to  the  valuable  collection  begun  by 
John  Bolland,  a Jesuit  of  Antwerp,  in 
1643,  and  which,  being  continued  by 
other  divines  of  the  same  order  (Bol- 
landists),  now  extends  to  sixty  volumes, 
the  lives  following  each  other  in  the 
order  of  the  calendar. 

ACTIN'IA,  the  genus  of  animals  to 
which  the  typical  sea-anemones  belong. 
See  Sea-anemone. 

ACTINISM,  the  property  of  those 
rays  of  light  which  produce  chemical 
changes,  as  in  photography,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  light  rays  and  heat 
rays.  The  actinic  property  or  force  be- 
gins among  the  green  rays,  is  strongest 
in  the  violet  rays,  and  extends  a long 
way  beyond  the  visible  spectrum. 

ACTINOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  intensity  of  the  sun’s 
actinic  rays.  See  Actinism. 

ACTINOZO'A  (lit.  ray-animals),  a 
class  of  animals  including  sea -anemones, 
corals,  etc.,  all  having  rayed  tentacles 
round  the  mouth. 

ACTION,  the  mode  of  seeking  redress 
at  law  for  any  wrong,  injury,  or  depriva- 
tion. Actions  are  divided  into  civil  and 
criminal,  the  former  again  being  divided 
into  real,  personal,  and  mixed. 

ACTIUM,  a promontory  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  northern  Greece,  not  far 
from  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian 
Gulf  (Gulf  of  Arta),  now  called  La 
Punta,  memorable  on  account  of  the 
naval  victory  gained  here  by  Octavianus 
(afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus) 
over  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  September 
2,  B.c.  31,  in  sight  of  their  armies,  en- 


ACT  OP  GOD 


ADAMS 


camped  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the 
Ambracian  Gulf.  Soon  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  battle  Cleopatra  fled  with 
sixty  Egyptian  ships,  and  Antony  basely 
followed  her,  and  fled  with  her  to  Egypt. 
The  deserted  fleet  was  not  overcome 
without  making  a brave  resistance. 
Antony’s  land  forces  soon  went  over  to 
the  enemy,  and  the  Roman  world  fell  to 
Octavius. 

ACT  OF  GOD,  a legal  term  defined  as 
“a  direct,  violent,  sudden,  and  irresisti- 
ble act  of  nature,  which  could  not,  by 
any  reasonable  cause,  have  been  fore- 
seen or  resisted.”  No  one  can  be  legally 
called  upon  to  make  good  loss  so  arising. 

ACT  OF  PARLIAMENT,  a law  or 
statute  proceeding  from  the  parliament 
of  the  United  Kingdom  passed  in  both 
houses,  and  having  received  the  royal 
assent.  Before  it  is  passed  it  is  a bill 
and  not  an  act.  Acts  are  either  public 
or  private,  the  former  affecting  the 
whole  community,  the  latter  only  special 
persons  and  private  concerns.  The 
Avhole  body  of  public  acts  constitutes 
the  statute  law.  An  act  of  parliament 
can  only  be  altered  or  repealed  by  the 
authority  of  parliament. 

ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT,  an  act  passed 
by  the  English  parliament  in  1700,  by 
which  the  succession  to  the  throne  cf  the 
three  kingdoms,  in  the  event  of  King 
William  and  Queen  Anne  dying  without 
issue,  was  settled  on  the  Princess  Sophia, 
electress  of  Hanover,  and  the  heirs  of  her 
body  being  Protestants.  The  Princess 
Sophia  was  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Ehzabeth,  queen  of  Bohemia,  daughter 
of  James  I.  By  this  act  George  I.,  son 
of  the  Princess  Sophia,  succeeded  to  the 
crown  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne. 

ACT  OF  TOLERATION,  an  act  of 
parliament  passed  in  1689,  by  which 
Protestant  dissenters  from  the  Church 
of  England,  on  condition  of  their  taking 
the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance, 
and  repudiating  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  were  relieved  from  the 
restrictions  under  which  they  had  for- 
merly lain  with  regard  to  the  exercise  of 
their  religion  according  to  their  own 
forms. 

ACT  OF  UNIFORMITY,  an  English 
act  passed  in  1662,  enjoining  upon  all 
ministers  to  use  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  their  liv- 
ings. See  Nonconformists. 

ACTOR,  one  who  represents  some 
part  or  character  on  the  stage.  Actresses 
were  unknown  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  in  the  earliest  times,  men  or 
boys  always  performing  the  female 
parts.  They  appeared  under  the  Roman 
empire,  however.  Charles  II.  first  en- 
couraged the  public  appearance  of 
actresses  in  England;  in  Shakespeare’s 
time  there  were  none.  See  Drama. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  one  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  written 
in  Greek  by  St.  Luke,  probably  in  a.d. 
63  or  64.  It  embraces  a period  of  about 
thirty  years,  beginning  immediately 
after  the  resurrection,  and  extending  to 
the  second  year  of  the  imprisonment  of 
St.  Paul  in  Rome.  Very  little  informa- 
tion is  given  regarding  any  of  the  apos- 
tles, excepting  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  accounts  of  them  are  far  from 
being  complete. 


AC'TUARY,  an  accountant  whose 
business  is  to  make  the  necessary 
computations  with  regard  to  a basis  for 
life  assurance,  annuities,  reversions,  etc. 

ACU'LEUS,  in  botany,  a prickle,  or 
sharp-pointed  process  of  the  epidermis, 
as  distinguished  from  a thorn  or  spine, 
which  is  of  a woody  nature. 

ACUPRES'SURE,  a means  of  arrest- 
ing bleeding  from  a cut  artery  intro- 
duced by  Sir  James  Simpson  in  1859, 
and  consisting  in  compressing  the 
artery  above  the  orifice,  that  is,  on 
the  side  nearest  the  heart,  with  the 
middle  of  a needle  introduced  through 

T h 

ACUPUNCTURE,  a surgical  opera- 
tion, consisting  in  the  insertion  of  nee- 
dles into  certain  parts  of  the  body  for 
alleviating  pain,  or  for  the  cure  of  differ- 
ent speeies  of  rheumatism,  neuralgia, 
eye  diseases,  etc.  It  is  easily  performed, 
gives  little  pain,  causes  neither  bleeding 
nor  inflammation,  and  seems  at  times  of 
surprising  efficacy. 

ADAGIO  (a-da'jo),  a musical  term,  ex- 
pressing a slow  time,  slower  than  an- 
dante and  less  so  than  largo. 

ADAIR,  John,  American  statesman 
and  soldier,  born  in  South  Carohna  in 
1759,  died  1840.  He  lived  many  years 
in  Kentucky,  took  part  in  the  Indian 
wars  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
was  a member  of  the  Kentucky  conven- 
tion of  1792,  and  was  a U.  S.  senator 
from  1805  to  1806.  He  was  governor 
of  Kentucky  from  1820  to  1824,  and  a 
member  of  congress  from  1831  to  1832. 
He  was  present  at  the  Battle  of  New 
Orleans,  where  he  commanded  the  Ken- 
tucky troops. 

ADAM  and  EVE,  the  names  given  in 
Scripture  to  our  first  parents,  an  account 
of  whom  and  their  immediate  descend- 
ants is  given  in  the  early  chapters  of 
Genesis.  Cain,  Abel,  and  Seth  are  all 
their  sons  that  are  mentioned  by  name ; 
but  we  are  told  that  they  had  other  sons, 
as  well  as  daughters,  and  that  Adam 
finally  died  at  the  age  of  930  years. 
There  are  numerous  Rabbinical  addi- 
tions to  the  Scripture  narrative,  of  an 
extravagant  character,  such  as  the 
myth  of  Adam  having  a wife  before  Eve, 
named  Lilith,  who  became  the  mother 
of  giants  and  evil  spirits.  Other  legends 
or  inventions  are  contained  in  the 
Koran. 

ADAM  DE  LA  HALE,  an  early  French 
writer  and  musician;  born  1240,  died 
1287.  His  Jeu  de  Robin  et  de  Marion 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  comic  opera 
ever  written. 

AD'AMANT,  an  old  name  for  the 
diamond;  also  used  in  a vague  way  to 
imply  a substance  of  impenetrable  hard- 

IlCSS  • 

ADAMANTINE  SPAR,  a name  of  the 
mineral  corundum  or  of  a brownish 
variety  of  it. 

AD'AMITES,  a name  of  sects  or 
religious  bodies  that  have  appeared  at 
various  times:  so  called  because  both 
men  and  women  were  said  to  appear 
naked  in  their  assemblies,  either  to 
imitate  Adam  in  the  state  of  innocence 
or  to  prove  the  control  which  they  pos- 
sessed over  their  passions. 

ADAMS  Alvin,  AmericAn  business 
man  and  capitalist,  founder  of  the 
Adams  Express  Company.  He  was  a 


native  of  Andover,  Vt.';  bom  in  1804 
and  died  in  1877. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Baker,  American 
scientist,  born  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  in 
1814,  graduated  at  Amherst,  became 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Middle- 
bury  College,  Vt.,  in  1838,  and  in  1847 
to  his  death  in  1853  was  professor  of 
zoology  and  astronomy  at  Amherst. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Fallen,  American 
poet,  author  of  Leedle  Yawcob  Strauss 
and  Other  Poems  (1878),  and  Dialect 
Ballads.  He  was  born  at  Dorchester, 
Vt.,  in  1842,  and  served  on  the  Union 
side  in  the  civil  war. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  American 
statesman,  son  of  President  John 
Quincy  Adams,  born  at  Boston  in  1807, 
died  1886.  He  studied  law  with  Daniel 
Webster,  but  did  not  practice,  preferring 


Charles  P.  Adams. 


literary  work  and  the  study  of  diplo- 
macy and  history.  From  1841  to  1846 
he  was  a member  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  and  1848  became  the  editor 
of  the  famous  Boston  Whig.  Having 
been  chairman  of  the  Free  Soil  conven- 
tion in  1848  he  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president,  and  after  several  years  of 
retirement  in  literary  work  he  entered 
congress  in  1858.  In  1861  he  was  made 
American  minister  to  England.  On  his 
return  in  1868  he  was  elected  to  the 
presidency  of  Harvard,  went  to  Geneva 
in  1871  to  settle  the  Alabama  claims, 
and  on  his  return  retired  into  private 
life  for  the  purpose  of  completing  his 
work  of  editing  the  writings  of  John 
Quincy  Adams. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.,  Ameri- 
can author  and  financier,  born  in  Bos- 
ton in  1835.  Having  served  in  the  civil 
war,  he  entered  the  railroad  business, 
was  president  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
railroad  (1884  to  1890),  and  from  1893 
to  1895  he  was  chairman  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Park  Commission.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  works  on  railroad 
growth  and  management. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Kendall,  American 
historian  and  educator,  born  at  Derby, 
Vt.,  in  1835,  died  in  1902.  In  1861  he 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of 


ADAMS 


ADDA 


Michigan,  where  he  taught  until  1867. 
He  was  president  of  Cornell  University 
from  1885  to  1892,  in  which  latter  year 
he  became  president  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  He  is  the  author  of 
numerous  works  dealing  with  European 
and  American  history. 

ADAMS,  Henry,  American  author 
and  historian,  son  of  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  born  at  Boston  in  1838  and 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1858.  He  was 
engaged  for  many  years  on  his  nine- 
volume  work.  History  of  the  United 
States  from  1801  to  1817.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  several  important  his- 
torical monographs. 

ADAMS,  Herbert  Baxter,  American 
historian  and  educator,  born  at  Am- 
herst in  1850,  died  1901.  He  was  asso- 
ciate professor  of  history  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins University  and  wrote  a series  of 
monographs  on  American  history  of 
great  value. 

ADAMS,  Isaac,  an  American  inventor, 
born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  in  1803.  He 
invented  the  printing-press  named  for 
him.  He  died  in  1883. 

ADAMS,  John,  second  president  of 
the  United  States,  was  born  at  Brain- 
tree (now  Quincy),  Mass.,  19th  October, 
1735.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
University,  ano  adopted  the  law  as  a 


profession.  On  13th  May,  1776,  he 
seconded  the  motion  for  a declaration 
of  independence  proposed  by  Lee  of 
Virginia,  and  was  appointed  a mem- 
ber of  committee  to  draw  it  up.  The 
declaration  was  actually  drawn  up  by 
Jefferson,  but  it  was  Adams  who  fought 
it  through  congress.  In  1778  he  went  to 
France  on  a special  mission,  and  for  nine 
years  resided  abroad  as  representative 
of  his  country  in  France,  Holland,  and 
England.  After  taking  part  in  the 
peace  negotiations  he  was  appointed,  in 
1785,  the  first  ambassador  of  the  United 
States  to  the  court  of  St.  James.  He 
was  recalled  in  1788,  and  the  following 
year  elected  vice-president  of  the  re- 
public under  Washington.  In  1792  he 
was  reelected  vice-president,  and  at  the 
following  election  in  1797  he  became 


president  in  succession  to  Washington. 
His  term  of  office  proved  a stormy  one, 
which  broke  up  and  dissolved  the  fed- 
eralist party.  His  reelection  in  1801 
was  again  opposed  by  the  efforts  of 
Hamilton,  which  ended  in  effecting  the 
return  of  the  republican  candidate 
Jefferson.  Thus  it  happened  that  when 
Adams  retired  from  office  his  influence 
and  popularity  with  both  parties  were 
at  an  end,  and  he  sunk  at  once  into  the 
obscurity  of  private  life.  He  had  the 
consolation,  however,  of  living  to  see 
his  son  president.  He  died  4th  July, 
1826,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
declaration  of  independence,  and  on  the 
same  day  as  Jefferson. 

ADAMS,  John  Couch,  English  astron- 
omer, born  1819,  died  1892,  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  senior  wrangler  in 
1843.  His  investigations  into  the  irreg- 
ularities in  the  motion  of  the  planet 
Uranus  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  must  be  caused  by  another  more 
distant  planet,  and  the  results  of  his 
labors  were  communicated  in  Septem- 
ber and  October,  1845,  to  Professor 
Challis  and  Airy  the  astronomer  royal. 
The  French  astronomer  Leverrier  had 
by  this  time  been  engaged  in  the  same 
line  of  research,  and  had  come  to  sub- 
stantially the  same  results,  which,  being 
published  in  1846,  led  to  the  actual  dis- 
covery of  the  planet  Neptune  by  Galle 
of  Berlin.  In  1858  Adams  was  ap- 
pointed Lowndean  professor  of  astron- 
omy and  geometry  at  Cambridge. 

ADAMS,  John  Quincy,  sixth  president 
of  the  United  States,  son  of  John  Adams, 
second  president,  was  born  11th  July, 
1767.  Accompanying  his  father  to 
Europe  he  received  part  cf  his  education 
there,  but  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1788.  Having  adopted  the  legal  pro- 
fession, in  1791,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  1794  Washington  appointed 
him  minister  to  the  Hague.  He  after- 
ward was  sent  to  Berlin,  and  also  on 
a mission  to  Sweden.  In  1798  he  re- 
ceived a commission  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  of  commerce  with  Sweden.  On 
the  accession  of  Jefferson  to  the  pres- 
idency in  1801  he  was  recalled.  The 
federalist  party  had  sufficient  influence 
in  Massachusetts  to  elect  him  to  the 
senate  in  1803.  In  1809  he  went  as  am- 
bassador to  Russia.  He  assisted  in 
negotiating  the  peace  of  1814  with  Eng- 
land, and  was  afterward  appointed 
resident  minister  at  London.  Under 
Monroe  as  president  he  was  sercetary  of 
state,  and  at  the  expiration  of  Monroe’s 
double  term  of  office  he  succeeded  him 
in  the  presidency  (1825).  He  was  not 
very  successful  as  president,  and  at  the 
end  of  his  term  (1829)  he  was  not  re- 
elected. In  1831  he  was  returned  to 
congress  by  Massachusetts,  and  con- 
tinued to  represent  this  state  till  his 
death,  his  efforts  being  now  chiefly  on 
behalf  of  the  abolitionist  party.  He 
died  21st  February,  1848. 

ADAMS,  Maude,  an  American  actress, 
born  at  Salt  Lake  City  in  1872.  Miss 
Adams  has  appeared  with  great  success 
as  Lady  Babbie  in  the  Little  Minister, 
in  Rostand’s  I’Aiglon,  and  in  other 
prominent  productions. 

ADAMS,  Samuel,  an  American  states- 
man, second  cousin  of  President  John 
Adams,  was  born  in  Boston,  Sept.  27, 


1722,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard 
College.  He  was  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  declaration  of  1776,  which  he  labored 
most  indefatigably  to  bring  forward. 
He  sat  in  congress  eight  years,  in  1789 
-94  was  lieutenant-governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1794-97  governor,  when  he 
retired  from  public  life.  He  died  Oct. 
2,  1803. 

ADAMS,  William  Taylor,  an  Ameri- 
can author  who,  under  the  pen  name 
of  “Oliver  Optic,”  is  one  of  the  best 
known  and  most  popular  of  American 
juvenile  story  tellers.  He  was  born  at 
Medway,  Mass.,  1822,  and  began  the 
publication  of  his  stories  in  1853.  He 
died  in  1897. 

ADAM’S  APPLE,  the  popular  name 
of  the  prominence  seen  in  the  front  of 
the  throat  in  man,  and  which  is  formed 
by  the  portion  of  the  larynx  known  as 
the  thyroid  cartilage.  It  is  much  smaller 
and  less  visible  in  females  than  in  male.-', 
and  is  so  named  from  the  idle  notion 
that  it  was  caused  by  a piece  of  the  for- 
bidden fruit  having  stuck  in  Adam’s 
throat. 

ADAM’S  PEAK,  one  of  the  highest 
mountains  in  Ceylon,  45  m.  east-south- 
east of  Colombo,  conical,  isolated,  and 
7420  feet  high.  On  the  top,  a rocky  area 
of  64  feet  by  45,  is  a hollow  in  the  rock 
5 feet  long  bearing  a rude  resemblance 
to  a human  foot,  which  the  Brahmans 


2.. 


believe  to  be  the  footprint  of  SWa,  the 
Buddhists  that  of  Buddha,  the  Moham- 
medans that  of  Adam.  Devotees  of  all 
creeds  here  meet  and  present  their  offer- 
ings (chiefly  rhododendron  flowers)  to 
the  sacred  footprint.  The  ascent  is  very 
steep,  and  toward  the  summit  is 
assisted  by  steps  cut  and  iron  chains 
riveted  in  the  rock. 

A'DAR,  the  twelfth  month  of  the  He- 
brew sacred  and  sixth  of  the  civil  year, 
answering  to  part  of  February  and  part 
of  March. 

ADDA  (ancient  Addua)^  a river  of 
north  Italy,  which,  descending  from 
the  Rhtetian  Alps,  falls  into  Lake  Como, 
and  leaving  this  joins  the  Po,  after  a 
course  of  about  170  miles. 

ADDA,  a species  of  lizard,  more  com- 
monly called  skink. 


ADDAX 


ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS 


AD'DAX,  a species  of  antelope  of  the 
size  of  a large  ass,  with  much  of  its 
make.  The  horns  of  the  male  are  about 
4 feet  long,  beautifully  twisted  into  a 
wide-sweeping  spiral  of  two  turns  and 


Head  of  Add  ax. 


a half,  with  the  points  directed  out- 
ward. It  has  tufts  of  hair  on  the  fore- 
head and  throat,  and  large  broad  hoofs. 
It  inhabits  the  sandy  regions  of  Nubia 
and  Kordofan,  and  is  also  found  in 
Caffraria. 

ADDER,  a name  often  applied  to  the 
common  viper,  as  well  as  to  other  kinds 
of  venomous  serpents.  See  Viper. 

ADDER’S-TONGUE,  a species  of  fern, 
whose  spores  are  produced  on  a spike, 
supposed  to  resemble  a serpent’s  tongue. 

ADDER’S- WORT,  name  of  snake- 
weed or  bistort,  from  its  supposed  virtue 
in  curing  the  bite  of  serpents. 

ADDICKS,  John  Edward,  American 

Eolitician,  capitalist,  and  promoter, 
orn  in  Philadelphia  in  1841.  In  1884 
he  began  the  organization  of  gas  com- 
panies in  Boston  and  elsewhere,  and  in 
1895  he  was  a candidate  for  United 
States  senator  from  Delaware.  De- 
feated at  that  time,  he  prevented  the 
election  of  his  opponent.  The  vacancy 
was  not  filled  before  the  expiration  of 
the  term  of  the  other  senator,  so  that 
Delaware  was  for  a time^without  repre- 
sentation. 

AD'DINGTON,  Henry,  Viscount  Sid- 
mouth;  born  1757,  died  1844.  Entered 
parliament,  1783,  as  a warm  supporter 
of  Pitt.  Was  elected  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  1789,  and  in  1801 
invited  by  the  king  to  form  an  adminis- 
tration, chiefly  signalized  by  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Peace  of  Amiens. 

AD'DISON,  Joseph,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish essayist,  son  of  the  Rev.  Lancelot 
Addison,  afterward  dean  of  Litchfield, 
born  at  Milston,  Wiltshire,  1st  May, 
1672,  died  17th  June,  1719.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  Steele,  and 
afterward  at  Oxford.  He  held  a fellow- 
ship from  1697  till  1711,  and  gained 
much  praise  for  his  Latin  poetry  and 
other  contributions  to  classical  liter- 
ature. He  secured  as  his  earliest  patron 
the  poet  Dryden,  who  inserted  some  of 
his  verses  in  his  Miscellanies  in  1693.  A 
translation  of  the  fourth  Georgic,  with 
the  exception  of  the  story  of  Aristaeus, 
by  Addison,  appeared  in  the  same  collec- 
tion in  1694,  and  he  subsequently  trans- 
lated for  it  two  and  a half  books  of  Ovid. 
Dryden  also  prefixed  his  prose  essay  on 
Virgil’s  Georgies  to  his  own  translation 
of  that  poem,  which  appeared  in  1697. 
He  contribute  a number  of  papers  to 
the  Tatler,  either  wholly  by  himself  or 


in  coniunction  with  Steele,  thus  found- 
ing the  new  literary  School  of  the  Essay- 
ists. For  the  Spectator  he  wrote  274 
papers  all  signed  by  one  of  the  four  let- 
ters C.  L.  L.  0.  His  tragedy  of  Cato 
was  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
German  and  Latin.  Of  his  style  as 
a writer  so  much  has  been  said  that 
nothing  remains  to  say  but  to  quote  the 
dictum  of  Johnson,  “Whoever  wishes  to 
attain  an  English  style,  familiar  but 
not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  osten- 
tatious, must  give  his  days  and  nights 
to  the  volumes  of  Addison.” 

ADDISON’S  DISEASE  (from  Dr.  Ad- 
dison, Guy’s  Hospital,  London,  who 
traced  the  disease  to  its  source),  a fatal 
disease,  the  seat  of  which  is  the  two 
glandular  bodies  placed  one  at  the  front 
of  the  upper  part  of  each  kidney,  and 
called  supra-renal  capsules.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  anaemia  or  bloodlessness, 
extreme  prostration,  and  the  brownish 
or  olive-green  color  of  the  skin.  Death 
usually  results  from  weakness,  and  com- 
monly within  a year. 

ADDUC'TOR,  a muscle  which  draws 
one  part  of  the  body  toward  another: 
applied  in  zoology  to  one  of  the  muscles 
which  bring  together  the  valves  of  the 
shell  of  the  bivalve  molluscs. 

ADE,  George,  an  American  humorist 
and  playwright.  He  was  born  at  Kent- 
land,  Ind.,  in  1866,  graduated  at  Purdue 
university  in  1887,  and  was  for  many 
years  a writer  for  Chicago  newspapers. 
His  first  work  of  note  was  his  Fables  in 
Slang,  which  ran  through  a long  series 
of  publications,  and  disclosed  a power 
of  satire  rare  in  American  literature.  Mr. 
Ade  more  recently  has  written  a large 
number  of  comedies  and  comic  opera 
libretti  which  have  been  very  popular. 

ADEE,  Alvey  Augustus,  American 
diplomat  born  at  Astoria,  N.  Y.,  in 
1842.  He  was  secretary  of  legation  at 
Madrid  in  1870  and  in  1878  chief  of  the 
diplomatic  bureau  at  Washington. 
From  1882  to  1886  he  was  third 
assistant  secretary  of  state  and  served 
as  acting  secretary  of  state  in  1900. 

ADELAIDE  (ad'e-lad),  the  capital  of 
South  Australia,  6 miles  east  from  Port 
Adelaide  (on  St.  Vincent  Gulf),  its  port, 
with  which  it  is  united  by  railway, 
founded  in  1837,  and  named  after  the 
queen  of  William  IV.  Situated  on  a 
large  plain,  it  is  built  nearly  in  the  form 
of  a square,  with  the  streets  at  right 
angles,  and  is  divided  into  North  and 
South  Adelaide,  separated  by  the  river 
Torrens,  which  is  crossed  by  several 
bridges,  and  by  means  of  a dam  is 
converted  into  a fine  sheet  of  water. 
Adelaide  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Melbourne,  and  is  the  terminus  of  the 
overland  telegraph  to  Port  Darwin. 
It  has  a large  trade.  Pop.  (inch  sub- 
urbs), about  165,000. 

ADELUNG  (ad'e-lung),  Johann  Chris- 
toph, a German  philologist;  born  1732, 
died  1806.  In  1759  he  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  Protestant  academy  at 
Erfurt,  and  two  years  after  removed  to 
Leipzig,  whsre  he  applie(^  himself  to 
the  works  by  which  he  made  so  great 
a name,  particularly  his  German  dic- 
tionary, Grammatisch-kritisohes  W6rt- 
erbuch  der  hochdoutschen  Mundart 
(Leipzig,  1774-86),  and  his  Mithridates, 
a work  on  general  philology.  In  1787  ho 


was  appointed  librarian  of  the  public 
library  in  Dresden — an  office  which  he 
held  till  his  death. 

A'DEN,  a seaport  town  and  territory 
belonging  to  Britain,  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Arabia,  in  a dry  and  barren 
district,  the  town  being  almost  entirely 
closed  in  by  an  amphitheater  of  rocks, 
and  possessing  an  admirable  harbor. 
Occupying  an  important  military  posi- 
tion, Aden  is  strongly  fortified  and 
permanently  garrisoned.  It  is  of  im- 
portance also  as  a coaling  station  for 
steamers,  and  carries  on  a great  amount 
of  commerce,  forming  an  entrepot  and 
place  of  transshipment  for  goods  valued 
at  $20,000,000  a year.  The  peninsula 
on  which  it  stands  somewhat  resembles 
the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  could  be 
rendered  as  formidable.  The  total  area 
of  the  settlement  is  70  square  miles. 
It  is  attached  to  the  Bombay  Presidency. 
Pop.  43,974. 

ADENANTHE'RA,  a genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  natives  of  the  East  Indies 
and  Ceylon.  A.  pavonina  is  on6  of  the 
largest  and  handsomest  trees  of  India, 
and  yields  hard  solid  timber  called  red 
sandalwood.  The  bright  scarlet  seeds, 
from  their  equality  in  weight  (each,  4 

f rains),  are  used  by  goldsmiths  in  the 
last  as  weights. 

ADENITIS,  in  medicine,  inflamma- 
tion of  one  or  more  of  the  lymphatic 
glands 

ADHESION,  the  tendency  of  two 
bodies  to  stick  together  when  put  in 
close  contact,  or  the  mutual  attraction  of 
their  surfaces;  distinguished  from  co- 
hesion, which  denotes  the  mutual 
attraction  between  the  particles  of  a 
homogeneous  body.  Adhesion  may 
exist  between  two  solids,  between  a 
solid  and  a fluid,  or  between  two  fluids. 
A plate  of  glass  or  of  polished  metal 
laid  on  the  surface  of  water  and  attached 
to  one  arm  of  a balance  will  support 
much  more  than  its  own  weight  in  the 
opposite  scale  from  the  force  of  adhe- 
sion between  the  water  and  the  plate. 
From  the  same  force  arises  the  tendency 
of  most  liquids,  when  gently  poured 
from  a jar,  to  run  down  the  exterior 
of  a vessel  or  along  any  other  surface 
they  meet. 

ADIAN'TUM,  a genus  of  ferns;  the 
maidenhair  fern. 

ADTPOSE  TISSUE,  the  cellular  tissue 
containing  the  oily  or  fatty  matter  of 
the  body.  It  underlies  the  skin,  sur- 


Addipose  tissue. 


rounds  the  large  vessels  and  nerves, 
invests  the  kidneys,  etc.,  and  some- 
times accumulates  in  large  masses. 

ADIRON  DACK  MOUNTAINS,  in  the 
U.  States,  a group  belonging  to  the 


ADIT 


ADMIRALTY  ISLAND 


Appalachian  chain  extendig  from  then 
n.e.  corner  of  the  state  of  New  York 
to  near  its  center.  The  scenery  is  wild 
and  grand,  diversified  by  numerous 
beautiful  lakes,  and  the  whole  region 
is  a favorite  resort  of  sportsmen  and 
tourists. 

ADTT,  a more  or  less  horizontal 
opening,  giving  access  to  the  shaft  of  a 
mine,  it  is  made  to  slope  gradually 
from  the  farthest  point  in  the  interior 
to  the  mouth,  and  by  means  of  it  the 
rincipal  drainage  is  usually  carried  on. 
ee  Mine. 

AD'JECTIVE,  in  grammar,  a word 
used  to  denote  some  quality  in  the  noun 
or  substantive  to  which  it  is  accessory. 
The  adjective  is  indeclinable  in  English 
(but  has  degrees  of  comparison),  and 
generally  precedes  the  noun,  while 
in  most  other  European  languages  it 
follows  the  inflections  of  t^he  sub- 
stantive, and  is  more  commonly  placed 
after  it,  though  in  German  it  precedes 
it,  as  in  English. 

AJUDICA'TION,  in  English  law,  is 
the  decree  of  the  court  in  bankruptcy 
declaring  a person  bankrupt. 

ADJUST'MENT,  in  marine  insurance, 
is  the  settling  of  the  amount  of  the  loss 
which  the  insurer  is  entitled  under  a 
particular  policy  to  recover,  and  if  the 
policy  is  subscribed  by  more  than  one 
underwriter,  of  the  amounts  which 
the  underwriters  respectively  are  liable 
to  pay. 

AD'JUTANT,  an  oflScer  appointed  to  j 
each  regiment  or  battalion,  whose  duty 
is  to  assist  the  commander.  He  is 
charged  with  instruction  in  drill,  and 
all  the  interior  discipline,  duties,  and 
efficiency  of  the  corps.  He  has  the 
charge  of  all  documents  and  corre- 
spondence, and  is  the  channel  of  com- 
munication for  all  orders. 

ADJUTANT-BIRD,  a large  grallatorial 
or  wading  bird  of  the  stork  family, 
native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  India, 
where  it  is  known  as  Hurgila  or  Argala. 
It  stands  about  five  feet  high,  has  an 


enormous  bill,  nearly  bare  head  and 
neck,  and  a pouch  hanging  from  the 
under  part  of  the  neck.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  voracious  carnivorous  birds  known, 
and  in  India,  from  its  devouring  ajl  sorts 
of  carrion  and  noxious  animals,  is  pro- 
tected by  law.  From  underneath  the 
wings  are  obtained  those  light  downy 


feathers  known  as  marabou  feathers, 
from  the  name  of  an  allied  species  of 
bird  inhabiting  western  Africa,  and  also 
producing  them. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL  is  the  chief 
staff-officer  of  an  army,  charged  with 
the  execution  of  all  orders  relating  to 
the  recruitment,  equipment,  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  troops,  and  who  distributes 
to  them  the  orders  of  the  day. 

ADLER,  Felix,  founder  of  the  Society 
for  Ethical  culture,  American  reformer 
and  lecturer,  born  in  Germany  Aug.  13, 
1851.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1857,  accompanying  his  father,  who  was 


Prof.  Felix  Adler. 


called  to  the  pulpit  of  the  Temple 
Emanuel  at  New  York.  Dr.  Adler 
was  educated  at  Columbia  College  and 
at  Heidelberg,  where  he  received  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1873.  When  he  or- 
ganized the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture 
he  was  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental 
Literature  at  Cornell  University. 

ADMINISTRA'TION,  in  politics,  the 
executive  power  or  body,  the  ministry 
or  cabinet. 

ADMINTSTRATOR,  in  law,  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  goods  of  a man  dying 
intestate  are  committed  by  the  proper 
authority,  and  who  is  bound  to  account 
when  required. 

AD'MIRAL,  the  commander  of  a 
sqadron  or  fleet  of  war  ships,  or  of  the 
whole  naval  force  of  a country.  The 
office  of  admiral  varies  in  its  functions 
and  grades  in  different  countries. 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the  grades 
of  admiral,  vice-admiral,  and  rear- 
admiral  were  established  by  act  of 
congress,  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
conferring  exceptional  distinction  upon 
the  great  naval  commander,  Captain 
David  Glasgow  Farragut.  The  lowest 
of  these  grades,  that  of  rear-admiral, 
was  established  in  1862,  as  was  also  that 
of  commodore;  though  the  latter  had 
previously  existed  as  a courtesy  title 
without  authority  of  law.  The  number 
of  rear-admirals  on  the  active  list  was 
limited  to  nine..  In  1864  the  President 
was  authorized  to  appoint  one  of  the 


rear-admirals  a vice-admiral.  Under 
the  laws.  Captain  Farragut  became 
the  first  commodore,  first  rear-admiral, 
and  first  vice-admiral.  In  1899  the 
number  of  rear-admirals  was  increased 
to  eighteen  and.the  grade  of  commodore 
on  the  active  list  abolished.  The  act  of 
1899  fixed  the  pay  of  flag  officers  as 
follows:  Admiral,  813,500  at  sea  or  on 
shore;  senior  nine  rear-admirals,  $7500 
while  at  sea,  or  on  shore  duty  beyond 
seas,  and  $6375  while  on  shore  duty; 
junior  nine  rear-admirals,  $5500  while 
at  sea,  or  on  shore  duty  beyond  seas, 
and  $4675  while  on  shore  duty.  The 
pay  of  officers  on  the  retired  list  is 
seventy-five  per  centum  of  their  active 
pay  at  time  of  retirement.  The  number 
in  1902  on  this  list  was  forty-three. 
The  flag  of  the  admiral  is  a rectangular 
blue  flag  with  four  white  stars,  and  is 
flown  at  the  main;  that  of  the  vice- 
admiral,  flown  at  the  fore,  is  a similar 
flag,  with  three  stars.  The  flag  of  a 
rear-admiral,  flown  at  the  mizzen,  is 
similar  in  shape,  has  two  stars,  and  is 
usually  blue  in  color,  but  in  case  two 
or  more  rear-admirals  are  in  company 
the  senior  flies  a blue  flag,  the  second 
in  rank  a red  flag,  and  the  junior  a 
white  flag. 

AD'MIRALTY,  that  department  of 
the  government  of  a country  that  is  at 
the  head  of  its  nav^l  service.  In  Britain 
the  lords  commissioners  of  the  admiralty 
were  formerly  seven,  but  are  now  five  in 
number,  with  the  addition  of  a civil  lord, 
at  the  head  being  of  first  lord,  and  four 
others  being  naval  lords.  The  first  lord 
is  always  a member  of  the  cabinet,  and 
it  is  he  who  principally  exercises  the 
powers  of  the  department. 

ADMIRALTY  CHARTS  are  charts 
issued  by  the  hydrographic  department 
of  the  admiralty  of  Britain;  they  are 
prepared  by  specially  appointed  sur- 
veyors and  draughtsmen,  and,  besides 
being  supplied  to  every  ship  in  the  fleet, 
are  sold  to  the  general  public  at  prices 
much  less  than  their  cost.  In  connection 
with  these  charts  there  are  published 
books  of  sailing  directions,  lists  of 
lights,  etc.  The  navigating  charts  are 
generally  on  the  scale  of  half  an  inch  to 
a mile,  and  show  all  the  dangers  of  the 
coasts  with  sufficient  distinctness  to 
enable  the  seaman  to  avoid  them;  the 
charts  of  larger  size  exhibit  all  the 
intricacies  of  the  coast. 

ADMIRALTY  COURT,  a court  which 
takes  cognizance  of  civil  and  criminal 
causes  of  a maritime  nature,  including 
captures  in  war  made,  and  offenses 
committed,  on  the  high  seas,  and  has 
to  do  with  many  matters  connected 
with  maritime  affairs.  In  England 
the  admiralty  court  was  once  held  be- 
fore the  lord  high  admiral,  and  at  a 
later  period  was  presided  over  by  his 
deputy  or  the  deputy  of  the  lords  com- 
missioners. It  now  forms  a branch  of  the 
probate,  divorce,  and  admiralty  division 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice.  There  is 
a separate  Irish  admiralty  court.  In 
Scotland  admiralty  cases  are  now 
prosecuted  in  the  Court  of  Session, 
or  in  the  sheriff  court.  In  the  United 
States  admiralty  cases  are  taken  up  in 
the  first  instance  by  the  district  courts. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLAND,  an  island 
belonging  to  the  United  States  off  the 


ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS 


ADULTERATION 


northwest  coast  of  North  America,  80 
or  90  miles  long  and  about  20  broad, 
covered  with  fine  timber  and  inhabited 
by  Sioux  Indians. 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS,  a cluster  of 
islands,  north  of  New  Guinea,  in  Bis- 
marck Archipelago,  now  belonging  to 
Germany.  The  largest  is  about  60  miles 
in  len^h;  the  rest  are  much  smaller. 

AD'NATTE,  in  botany,  applied  to  a 
part  growing  attached  to  another  and 
principal  part  by  its  whole  length,  as 
stipules  adnated  to  the  leaf-stalk. 

ADOBE  (a-do'ba),  the  Spanish  name 
for  a brick  made  of  loamy  earth,  con- 
taining about  two-thirds  fine  sand  and 
one-third  clayey  dust,  sun-dried;  in  com- 
mon use  for  building  in  Mexico,  Texas, 
and  Central  America. 

ADOLPHUS  OF  NASSAU,  elected  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  1292.  In  1298  the 
college  of  electors  transferred  the  crown 
to  Albert  of  Austria,  but,  Adolphus  re- 
fusing to  abdicate,  a war  ensued,  in 
which  he  fell,  after  a heroic  resistance, 
July  2,  1298. 

ADONAI  (ad'o-ni),  a name  of  Good 
among  the  Jews.  See  Jehovah. 

ADO'NIS,  a mythological  personage, 
originally  a deity  of  the  Phoenicians,  but 
borrowed  into  Greek  mythology.  He 
was  represented  as  being  a great  favorite 
of  Aphrodite  (Venus),  who  accompanied 
him  when  engaged  in  hunting,  of  which 
he  was  very  fond.  He  received  a mortal 
wound  from  the  tusk  of  a wild  boar,  and 
when  the  goddess  hurried  to  his  assist- 
ance she  found  him  lifeless,  whereupon 
she  caused  his  blood  to  give  rise  to  the 
anemone.  The  worship  of  Adonis,  which 
arose  in  Phoenicia,  latterly  was  widely 
spread  round  the  Mediterranean.  The 
name  Adonis  is  akin  to  the  Hebrew 
Adonai,  Lord. 

ADOP'TION,  the  admission  of  a 
stranger  by  birth  to  the  privileges  of  a 
child.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  also  some  modern  na- 
tions, adoption  is  placed  under  legal 
regulation.  In  many  of  the  states  adop- 
tion is  regulated  by  law. 

ADRIAN,  the  name  of  six  popes.  The 
first,  a Roman,  ruled  from  772  to  795; 
a contemporary  and  friend  of  Charle- 
magne. He  expended  vast  sums  in 
rebuilding  the  walls  and  restoring  the 
aqueducts  of  Rome. — ADRIAN  II.,  a 
Roman,  was  elected  pope  in  867,  at  the 
age  of  seventy-five  years.  He  died  in 
872,  in  the  midst  of  conflicts  with  the 
Greek  Church. — ADRIAN  III.,  a Roman, 
elected  884,  was  pope  for  one  year  and 
four  months  only.  He  was  the  first  pope 
that  changed  his  name  on  the  occasion 
of  his  exaltation. — ADRIAN  IV  , orig- 
inally named  Nicolas  Breakspear,  the 
only  Englishman  that  ever  occupied  the 
papal  chair,  was  born  about  1100,  and 
died  1159.  He  issued  the  famous  bull 
(1158)  granting  the  sovereignty  of  Ire- 
land, on  condition  of  the  payment  of 
Peter’s  pence,  to  Henry  II. — ADRIAN 
V , of  Genoa,  settled,  as  legate  of  the 
pope,  the  dispute  between  King  Henry 
111.  of  England  and  his  nobles,  in  favor 
of  the  former;  but  died  a month  after  his 
election  to  the  papal  chair  (1276). — 
ADRIAN  VI.,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1459, 
was  elected  to  the  papal  chair,  January 
9,  1522.  He  tried  to  reform  abuses  in 
the  church,  but  opposed  the  zeal  of 


Luther  with  reproaches  and  threats,  and 
even  attempted  to  excite  Erasmus  and 
Zuinglius  against  him.  Died  1523,  after 
a reign  of  one  year  and  a half. 

A'DRIAN,  a town  of  the  United 
States,  in  Michigan,  70  miles  w.s.w.  of 
Detroit.  Its  extensive  water-power  is 
employed  in  works  of  various  kinds. 
Pop.  10,000. 

A'DRIAN,  Publius  iElius  Hadrianus 
See  Hadrian. 

ADRIANO'PLE,  an  important  city  of 
Turkey  in  Europe.  Adrianople  received 
its  present  name  from  the  Roman  em- 
peror Adrian  (Hadrian).  In  1361  it  was 
taken  by  Amurath  I.,  and  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Turkish  sovereigns  till  the 
conquest' of  Constantinople  in  1453.  In 
1829  it  was  taken  by  the  Russians,  and 
here  was  then  concluded  the  peace  of 
Adrianople,  by  which  Russia  received 
important  accessions  of  territory  in  the 
Caucasus  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea.  The  Russians  occupied  it  also  in 
1878.  Pop.  60,000. 

ADRIAN’S  (or  HADRIAN’S)  WALL. 
See  Roman  Walls. 

ADRIAT'IC  SEA,  or  GULF  OF  VEN- 
ICE, an  arm  of  the  Mediterranean, 
stretching  in  a northwesterly  direction 
from  the  Straits  of  Otranto,  between 
Italy  and  the  Turkish  and  Austrian 
dominions.  I^ength,  about  480  miles; 
average  breadth,  about  100;  area,  about 
60,000  square  miles.  The  rivers  which 
it  receives,  particularly  the  Po,  its  prin- 
cipal feeder,  have  produced,  and  are 
still  producing,  great  geological  changes 
in  its  basin  by  their  alluvial  deposits. 
Hence  Adria,  between  the  Po  and  the 
Adige,  which  gives  the  sea  its  name, 
though  once  a flourishii^  seaport,  is 
now  17  miles  inland.  The  principal 
trading  ports  on  the  Italian  side  are 
Brindisi,  Bari,  Ancona,  Sinigaglia,  and 
Venice;  on  the  east  side  Ragusa,  Fiume, 
Pirano,  Pola,  and  Trieste. 

ADULA'RIA,  a very  pure,  limpid, 
translucent  variety  of  the  common  fel- 
spar, called  by  lapidaries  moonstone,  on 
account  of  the  play  of  light  exhibited  by 
the  arrangement  of  its  crystalline  struc- 
ture. It  is  found  on  the  Alps,  but  the 
best  specimens  are  brought  from  Ceylon. 

ADUL'LAM,  Cave  of,  a cave  to  which 
David  fled  when  persecuted  by  Saul, 
and  whither  he  was  followed  by  “every 
one  who  was  in  distress,  in  debt,  or  dis- 
contented” (1  Sam.  xxii.  1,  2). 

ADULTEl^'TION,  a term  not  only 
applied  in  its  proper  sense  to  the  fraud- 
ulent mixture  of  articles  of  commerce, 
food,  drink,  drugs,  seeds,  etc.,  with 
noxious  or  inferior  ingredients,  but  also 
by  magistrates  and  analysts  to  acciden- 
tal impurity,  and  even  in  some  cases  to 
actual  substitution.  The  chief  objects 
of  adulteration  are  to  increase  the  weight 
or  volume  of  the  article,  to  give  a color 
which  either  makes  a good  article  more 
pleasing  to  the  eye  or  else  disguises  an 
inferior  one,  to  substitute  a cheaper 
form  of  the  article,  or  the  ^me  sub- 
stance from  which  the  strength  has  been 
extracted,  or  to  give  it  a false  strength. 
— Among  the  adulterations  which  are 
practiced  for  the  purpose  of  fraudulently 
increasing  the  weight  or  volume  of  an 
article  are  the  following : Bread  is  adul- 
terated with  alum  or  sulphate  of  copper, 
which  gives  solidity  to  the  gluten  of 


damaged  or  inferior  flour;  with  chalk  or 
carbonate  of  soda  to  correct  the  acidity 
of  such  flour;  and  with  boiled  rice  or 
potatoes,  which  enables  the  bread  to 
carry  more  water,  and  thus  to  produce 
a larger  number  of  loaves  from  a given 
quantity  of  flour.  Wheat  flour  is  adul- 
terated with  other  inferior  flours,  as  the 
flour  from  rice,  bean,  Indian-corn,  pota- 
to, and  with  sulphate  of  lime,  alum,  etc. 
Milk  is  usually  adulterated  with  water. 
The  adulterations  generally  present  in 
butter  consist  of  an  undue  proportion  of 
salt  and  water,  lard,  tallow,  and  other 
fats ; when  of  poor  quality  it  is  frequent- 
ly colored  with  a little  annatto,  and,  at 
times,  with  the  j'uice  of  carrots.  Genuine 
butter  should  not  contain  less  than  80 
per  cent  of  butter-fat.  Cheese  is  also 
colored  with  annatto  and  other  sub- 
stances. Tea  is  adulterated  (chiefly  in 
China)  with  sand,  iron-filings,  chalk, 
gypsum,  China  clay,  exhausted  tea 
leaves,  and  the  leaves  of  the  sycamore, 
horse-chestnut,  and  plum,  while  color 
and  weight  are  added  by  black-lead,  in- 
digo, Prussian-blue  (one  of  the  deleteri- 
ous ingredients  used  by  the  Chinese  in 
converting  the  lowest  qualities  of  black 
into  green  teas),  gum,  turmeric,  soap- 
stone, catechu,  and  other  substances. 
Coffee  is  mingled  with  chicory,  roasted 
wheat,  roasted  beans,  acorns,  mangel- 
wurzel,  rye-flour,  and  colored  with 
burned  sugar  and  other  materials 
Chicory  is  adulterated  with  different 
flours,  as  rye,  wheat,  beans,  etc.,  and 
colored  with  ferruginous  earths,  burned 
sugar,  Venetian  red,  etc.  Cocoa  and 
chocolate  are  mixed  with  the  cheaper 
kinds  of  arrow-root,  animal  matter, 
corn,  sago,  tapioca,  etc.  Sugar  (moist) 
may  be  adulterated  to  some  extent  with 
sand  and  flour.  Tobacco  is  mixed  with 
sugar  and  treacle,  aloes,  licorice,  oil, 
alum,  etc.,  and  such  leaves  as  rhubarb, 
chicory,  cabbage,  burdock,  coltsfoot, 
besides  excess  of  salt  and  water.  Snuffs 
are  adulterated  ■wdth  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, glass,  sand,  coloring  matter,  etc. 
Confections  are  adulterated  with  flour 
and  sulphate  of  lime.  Preserved  vege- 
tables are  kept  green  and  poisoned  by 
salts  of  copper.  The  acridity  of  mustard 
is  commonly  reduced  by  flour,  and  the 
color  of  the  compound  is  improved  bv 
turmeric.  Pepper  is  adulterated  with 
linseed-meal,  flour,  mustard  husks,  etc. 
Color  is  given  to  pickles  by  salts  of  cop- 
per, acetate  of  copper,  etc.  Ale  is  adul- 
terated with  common  salt,  grains  of 
paradise,  quassia,  and  other  bitters, 
sulphate  of  iron,  alum,  etc.  Porter  and 
stout  are  mixed  with  sugar,  treacle,  salt, 
and  an  excess  of  water.  Brandy  is 
diluted  with  water,  and  burned  sugar 
is  added  to  improve  the  color;  some- 
times bad  whisky  is  flavored  and  colored 
so  as  to  resemble  brandy,  and  sold  under 
its  name.  Gin  is  mixed  with  excess  of 
water,  and  flavoring  matters  of  various 
kinds,  with  alum  and  tartar,  are  added. 
Rum  is  diluted  with  water,  and  the 
flavor  and  color  are  kept  up  by  the  addi- 
tion of  cayenne  and  burned  sugar.  For 
champagne  gooseberry  and  other  in- 
ferior wines  are  often  substituted.  Port 
is  manufactured  from  red  Cape  and 
other  inferior  wines,  the  body,  flavor, 
strength,  and  color  being  produced  by 
gum-dragon,  the  washings  of  brandy 


ADULTERY 


^ON 


casks,  and  a preparation  of  German 
bilberries.  Cheap  brown  sherry  is  mixed 
wdth  Cape  and  other  low-priced  brandies 
and  is  flavored  with  the  washings  of 
brandy  casks,  sugar-candy,  and  bitter 
almonds.  Pale  sherries  are  produced 
by  gypsum,  by  a process  called  plaster- 
ing, which  removes  the  natural  acids  as 
well  as  the  color  of  the  wine.  Other 
wines  are  adulterated  with  elderberry, 
logwood.  Brazil-wood,  cudbear,  red 
beetroot,  etc.,  for  color;  with  lime  or 
carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of  soda, 
carbonate  of  potash,  and  litharge,  to 
correct  acidity;  with  catechu,  sloe- 
leaves,  and  oak-bark  for  astringency; 
wdth  sulphate  of  lime  and  alum  for  re- 
moving color;  with  cane-sugar  for  giving 
sweetness  and  body;  wdth  alcohol  for 
fortifying;  and  with  ether,  especially 
acetic  ether,  for  giving  bouquet  and 
flavor. — Medicines,  such  as  jalap,  opium, 
rhubarb,  chinchona  bark,  scammony, 
aloes,  sarsaparilla,  squills,  etc.,  are 
mixed  with  various  foreign  substances. 
Castor-oil  has  been  adulterated  with 
other  oils;  and  inferior  oils  are  often 
mixed  wdth  cod-liver  oil.  Cantharides 
are  often  mixed  wdth  golden-beetle  and 
also  artifically-colored  glass. — The  adul- 
teration of  seeds  is  largely  practised 
also,  the  seed  which  forms  the  adulter- 
ant being  of  course  of  the  most  worth- 
less kind  that  can  be  had.  Thus  turnip- 
seed  is  mixed  with  rape,  wild  mustard, 
or  charlock,  which  are  steamed  and 
kiln-dried  to  destroy  their  vitality,  so 
as  to  evade  detection  in  the  progress  of 
grow’th;  old  and  useless  turnip-seed  is 
also  used  fraudulently  mixed  with  fresh 
seeds.  Clover  is  also  much  mixed  with 
plantain  and  mere  weeds. 

ADUL'TERY,  the  voluntary  sexual 
intercourse  of  a married  person  with  any 
other  than  the  offender’s  husband  or 
wnfe;  when  committed  between  two 
married  persons,  the  offense  is  called 
double,  and  when  between  a married 
and  a single  person,  single  adultery.  The 
Mosaic,  Greek,  and  early  Roman  law 
only  recognized  the  offense  when  a 
married  wmman  was  the  offender.  By 
the  Jewish  law  it  w'as  punished  with 
death.  A man  can  obtain  a dissolution 
of  his  marriage  on  the  ground  of  his 
wife’s  adultery,  and  a wife  can  obtain  a 
judicial  separation  on  the  ground  of  her 
husband’s  adultery,  or  a dissolution  of 
the  marriage  if  the  offense  is  coupled 
with  cruelty,  desertion,  or  bigamy.  In 
the  United  States  the  punishment  of 
adultery  has  varied  materially  at  dif- 
ferent times.  It  is,  however,  very  sel- 
dom punished  criminally. 

AD  VALO'REM,  a term  applied  to 
customs  or  duties  levied  according  to 
the  worth  of  the  goods,  as  sworn  to  by 
the  owner,  and  not  according  to  num- 
ber, w’eight,  measure,  etc. 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE  AS- 
SOCIATIONS, organizations  to  encour- 
age scientific  research  in  all  of  its 
departments.  The  most  prominent 
associations  for  the  advancement  of 
science  are  those  of  the  United  States, 
Great  Bi'itain,  and  France.  Those  of  the 
tw'o  last  mentioned  countries  are  now 
consolidated  and  occasionally  hold  in- 
ternational meetings,  the  first  of  which 
took  place  at  Paris  in  1900.  The  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advancement  of 


Science,  now  one  of  the  most  noted 
scientific  societies  of  America,  was 
founded  in  1847  as  an  outgrowth  of  the 
association  of  American  geologists  and 
naturalists.  The  association  is  organ- 
ized in  ten  sections,  each  of  which  holds 
its  own  convention  at  the  annual  meet- 
ing of  the  association  during  the  sum- 
mer. The  sections  embrace  the  follow- 
ing departments  of  science:  A,  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy;  B,  physics;  C, 
chemistry;  D,  mechanical  science  and 
engineering ; "E,  geology  and  geography ; 
F,  zoology ; G,  botany ; H,  anthropology 
and  experimental  medicine.  The  asso- 
ciation also  serves  as  a center  for  the 
meeting  of  a number  of  important 
special  scientific  societies  which  have 
become  connected  with  it.  The  asso- 
ciation publishes  annually  a volume  of 
proceedings,  and  in  1901  became  affili- 
ated wdth  the  journal  Science,  making 
it  the  semi-official  organ  of  the  society. 
The  membership  of  the  society  is  about 
3,000.  The  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  was  founded 
in  the  city  of  York  in  1831,  under  the 
leadership  of  David  Brewster  and  with 
the  cooperation  of  many  of  the  most 
prominent  men  of  the  time.  The  annual 
meetings  of  the  association  are  held  for 
a week  each  summer,  and  consist  mainly 
of  papers  read  > Tore  the  several  sec- 
tions of  the  society  and  of  conferences 
following  them. 

AD'VENT,  the  name  applied  to  the 
holy  season  which  occupies  the  four  or, 
according  to  the  Greek  Church,  six 
Aveeks  preceding  Christmas,  and  which 
forms  the  first  portion  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical year,  as  observed  by  the  Angli- 
can, the  R.  Catholic  and  the  Greek 
Church. 

AD'VENTISTS,  a small  religious  sect 
of  the  United  States,  who  believe  in  the 
speedy  coming  of  Christ,  and  generally 
practice  adult  immersion. — There  is  also 
a sect  called  Seventh-day  Adventists,  who 
hold  that  the  coming  of  Christ  is  at  hand, 
and  maintain  that  the  Sabbath  is  still 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week. 

AD'VERB,  one  of  the  parts  of  speech 
used  to  limit  or  qualify  the  signification 
of  an  adjective,  verb,  or  other  adverb; 
as,  very  cold,  naturally  brave,  much 
more  clearly,  readily  agreed.  Adverbs 
may  be  classified  as  folio v/s : 1 , adverbs 
of  time,  as,  now,  then,  never,  etc. ; 2,  of 
place,  as,  here,  there,  where,  etc. ; 3,  of 
degree,  as,  very,  much,  nearly,  almost, 
etc. ; 4,  of  affirmation,  negation,  or  doubt, 
as,  yes,  no,  certainly,  perhaps,  etc. ; 5,  of 
manner,  as,  well,  badly,  clearly,  etc. 

ADVER'TISEMENT,  a notice  given  to 
individuals  or  the  public  of  some  fact, 
the  announcement  of  which  may  affect 
either  the  interest  of  the  advertiser  or 
that  of  the  parties  addressed.  The 
vehicle  employed  is  generally  special 
bills  or  placards  and  notices  inserted  in 
new'spapers  and  periodicals,  and  the 
profit  derivable  from  advertisements 
forms  the  main  support  of  the  news- 
er  press. 

D'VOCATE,  a lawyer  authorized  to 
plead  the  cause  of  his  clients  before  a 
court  of  law.  It  is  only  in  Scotland  that 
this  word  seems  to  denote  a distinct 
class  belonging  to  the  legal  profession, 
the  advocates  of  Scotland  oeing  the 
pleadwe  before  the  supreme  courts. 


ADVOCA'TUS  DIAB'OLI  (Devil’s  ad- 
vocate), in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
a functionary  who,  when  a deceased  per- 
son is  proposed  for  canonization,  brings 
forward  and  insists  upon  all  the  weak 
points  of  the  character  and  life  of  the 
deceased,  endeavoring  to  show  that  he 
is  not  wmrthy  of  sainthood.  The  oppo- 
site side  is  taken  by  the  Advocatus  Dei, 
God’s  advocate. 

ADZ,  a cutting  instrument  used  for 
chipping  the  suiface  of  timber,  some- 
what of  a mattock  shape,  and  having  a 
blade  of  steel  forming  a portion  of  a 
cylindrical  surface,  with  a cutting  edge 
at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the 
handle. 

.^GAG'RUS,  a wild  species  of  ibex 
found  in  troops  on  the  Caucasus,  and 
many  Asiatic  mountains,  believed  to  be 
the  original  source  of  at  least  one  variety 
of  the  domestic  goat. 

.^GEAN  SEA  (e-je'an),  that  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  which  washes  the  eastern 
shores  of  Greece,  the  southern  coast  of 
Turkey,  and  the  western  coast  of  A,sia 
Minor.  See  Archipelago. 

.^'GILOPS,  a genus  of  grasses,  very 
closely  allied  to  wheat,  and  somewhat 
remarkable  from  the  alleged  fact  that 
by  cultivation  one  of  the  species  be- 
comes a kind  of  wheat. 

jEGINA  (e-ji'na),  a Greek  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  iEgina,  south  of  Athens,  trian- 
gular in  form;  area  about  32  square 
miles;  pop.  8200. 

.®GIS  (e'jis),  the  shield  of  Zeus,  ac- 
cording to  Homer,  but  according  to  later 
writers  and  artists  a metal  cuirass  or 
breastplate,  in  which  was  set  the  head  of 
the  Gorgon  Medusa,  and  with  which 
Athena  (Minerva)  is  often  figured  as 
being  protected. 

.ffiNE'AS,  the  hero  of  Virgil’s  ZEneid, 
a Trojan,  who,  according  to  Homer,  was, 
next  to  Hector,  the  bravest  of  the  war- 
riors of  Troy.  His  son,  .^Eneas  Sylvius, 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  Alba 
Longa,  and  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  the 
founders  of  the  city  of  Rome. 

yEOLIAN  HARP,  or  ZEOLUS’  HARP, 
a musical  instrument,  generally  con- 
sisting of  a box  of  thin  fibrous  wood,  to 
which  are  attached  from  eight  to  fifteen 
fine  catgut  strings  or  wires,  stretched  on 
low  bridges  at  each  end,  and  tuned  in 
unison.  Its  length  is  made  to  correspond 
with  the  size  of  the  window  or  other 
aperture  in  which  it  is  intended  to  be 
placed.  When  the  wind  blow’s  athwart 
the  strings  it  produces  very  beautiful 
sounds,  sweetly  mingling  all  the  har- 
monic tones,  and  swelling  or  diminish- 
ing according  to  the  strength  or  weak- 
ness of  the  blast. 

.®OLIANS,  one  of  the  four  races  into 
w'hich  the  ancient  Greeks  w'ere  diAuded, 
originally  inhabiting  the  district  of 
.iEolis,  in  Thessaly,  from  which  they 
spread  over  other  parts  of  Greece. 

.iE'OLUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
god  of  the  winds,  which  he  kept  con- 
fined in  a cave  in  the  ^Eolian  Islands, 
releasing  them  when  he  wished  or  was 
commanded  by  the  superior  gods. 

.^'ON,  a Greek  word  signifying  life, 
an  age,  and  sometimes  eternity,  but  used 
by  the  Gnostics  to  express  spirits  or 
powers  that  had  eihanated  from  the 
Suprem#  Mind  before  the  beginning  of 
tame. 


^PYORNIS 


AFGHANISTAN 


^PYOR'NIS,  a genus  of  gigantic 
birds  whose  remains  have  been  found 
in  Madagascar,  where  it  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  perhaps  not  longer  than  200 
years  ago.  It  had  three  toes,  and  is 
classed  with  the  cursorial  birds  (ostrich, 
etc.).  Its  eggs  measured  14  inches  in 
length,  being  about  six  times  the  bulk 
of  those  of  the  ostrich.  The  bird  which 
laid  them  may  well  have  been  the  roc  of 
Eastern  tradition. 

A'ERATED  BREAD,  bread  which  re- 
ceives its  sponginess  or  porosity  from 
carbonic  acid  supplied  artificially,  and 
not  produced  by  the  fermentation 
caused  by  leaven  or  yeast. 

A'ERATED  WATERS,  waters  im- 
pregnated with  carbonic  acid  gas,  and 
forming  effervescing  beverages.  Some 
mineral  waters  are  naturally  aerated, 
as  Vichy,  Apollinaris,  Rosbach,  etc.; 
others,  especially  such  as  are  used  for 
medicinal  purposes,  are  frequently  aer- 
ated to  render  them  more  palatable  and 
exhilarating.  Water  simply  aerated, 
or  aerated  and  flavored  with  lemonade 
or  fruit  syrups,  is  largely  used,  especially 
in  summer,  as  a refreshing  beverage. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  appara- 
tus for  manufacturing  aerated  waters. 

AERODYNAM'ICS,  a branch  of  physi- 
cal science,  which  treats  of  the  prop- 
erties and  motions  of  elastic  fluids  (air, 
gases),  and  of  the  appliances  by  which 
these  are  exemplified.  This  subject  is 
often  explained  in  connection  with 
hydrodynamics. 

AEROE,  or  ARROE  (ar'eu-e),  an 
island  of  Denmark,  in  the  Little  Belt, 
15  miles  long  by  5 broad,  with  12.000 
inhabitants.  Though  hilly,  it  is  very 
fertile. 

A'EROLITE,  a meteoric  stone,  me- 
teorite, or  shooting-star.  See  Meteoric 
Stones. 

AERONAUT'ICS.  See  Airships. 

AEROSTATIC  PRESS,  a simple  con- 
trivance for  rendering  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  available  for  extracting 
the  coloring  matter  from  dye-w'oods  and 
similar  purposes 

AEROSTAT'ICS,  that  branch  of  phys- 
ics which  treats  of  the  weight,  pressure, 
and  equilibrium  of  air  and  gases.  See 
Air,  Air-pump,  Barometer,  Gas,  etc. 

.®SCHINES  (gs'ki-nez),  a celebrated 
Athenian  orator,  the  rival  and  oppo- 
nent of  Demosthenes,  w'as  born  390  b.c. 
and  died  in  314.  Three  of  his  orations 
are  extant. 

.^SCHYLUS  (es'ki-lus),  the  first  in 
time  of  the  three  great  tragic  poets  of 
Greece,  born  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  b.c 
525,  died  in  Sicily  456.  Before  he  gained 
distinction  as  a dramatist  he  had  highly 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon  (490),  as  he  afterward  did  at 
Artemisium,  Salamis,  and  Platsea.  •<  He 
first  gained  the  prize  for  tragedy  in  b.c. 
484.  The  Persians,  the  earliest  of  his 
extant  pieces,  foi-med  part  of  a trilogy 
which  gained  the  prize  in  b.c.  472. 
In  B.c.  '468  he  was  defeated  by  Sopho- 
cles, and  then  is  said  to  have  gone  to 
the  court  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse. 
Ailschylus  may  be  called  the  creator  of 
Greek  tragedy,  both  from  the  splendor 
of  his  dramatic  writings,  and  from  the 
scenic  improvements  and  accessories  he 
introduced.  Till  his  time  only  one  actor 
had  appeared  on  the  stage  at  a time, 
^ ^—2 


and  by  bringing  on  a second  he  was 
really  the  founder  of  dramatic  dialogue. 

.®SCULA'PIUS,  the  god  of  medicine 
among  the  Greeks  and  latterly  adopted 
by  the  Romans,  usually  said  to  have 
been  a son  of  Apollo.  He  was  wor- 
shiped in  particular  at  Epidaurus,  in 
Peloponnesus,  where  a temple  with  a 
grove  was  dedicated  to  him. 

.ffiS'CULUS,  the  genus  of  plants  to 
which  belongs  the  horse-chestnut. 

jE'SOP,  the  Greek  fabulist,  is  said  to 
have  been  a contemporary  of  Croesus  and 
Solon,  and  thus  probably  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  b.c. 
But  so  little  is  known  of  his  life  that  his 
existence  has  been  called  in  question. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  originally  a 
slave,  and  to  have  received  his  freedom 
from  a Samian  master,  ladmon.  No 
works  of  .iEsop  are  extant,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he  ever  wrote  any. 
The  supposition  is  that  his  fables  were 
delivered  orally  and  perpetuated  by  rep- 
etition. Such  fables  are  spoken  of  both 
by  Aristophanes  and  Plato. 

iESTHET'ICS,  the  philosophy  of  the 
beautiful;  the  name  given  to  the 
branch  of  philosophy  or  of  science 
which  is  concerned  with  that  class  of 
emotions,  or  with  those  attributes,  real 
or  apparent,  of  objects  generally  com- 
prehended under  the  term  beauty,  and 
other  related  expressions.  The  term 
aesthetics  first  received  this  application 
from  Baumgarten  (1714-1762),  a Ger- 
man philosopher,  who  was  the  first 
writer  to  treat  systematically  on  the 
subject,  though  the  beautiful  had 
received  attention  at  the  hands  of 
philosophers  from  early  times. 

.^STIVA'TION,  a botanical  term 
applied  to  the  arrangement  of  the  parts 
of  a flower  in  the  flower-bud  previous  to 
the  opening  of  the  bud. — The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  summer  sleep  of 
animals.  See  Dormant  State. 

.^'THRIOSCOPE,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  radiation  toward  a clear  sky, 
consisting  of  a metallic  cup  with  a 
highly-polished  interior  of  paraboloidal 
shape,  in  the  focus  of  which  is  placed  one 
bulb  of  a differential  thermometer,  the 
other  being  outside.  The  inside  bulb  at 
once  begins  to  radiate  heat  when  exposed 
to  a clear  sky,  and  the  extent  to  which 
this  takes  place  is  shown  by  the  scale 
of  the  thermometer.  The  aethrioscope 
also  indicates  the  presence  of  invisible 
aqueous  vapor  in  the  atmosphere, 
radiation  being  less  than  when  the  air 
is  dry. 

.®T'NA.  See  Etna. 

AFFIDA'VIT,  a written  statement  of 
facts  upon  oath  or  affirmation.  Affi- 
davits are  generally  made  use  of  when 
evidence  is  to  be  laid  before  a judge  or 
a court,  while  evidence  brought  before 
a jury  is  delivered  orally.  The  person 
making  the  affidavit  signs  his  name  at 
the  bottom  of  it,  and  swears  that  the 
statements  contained  in  it  are  true. 
The  affidavit  may  be  sworn  to  in  open 
court,  or  before  a magistrate  or  other 
duly  qualified  person. 

AFFIN'ITY,  in  chemistry,  the  force 
by  which  unlike  kinds  of  matter  com- 
bine so  intimately  that  the  properties 
of  the  constituents  are  lost,  and  a com- 
pound with  new  properties  is  produced. 
Of  the  force  itself  we  know  little  or 


nothing.  It  is  not  the  same  under  all 
conditions,  being  very  much  modified 
by  circumstances,  especially  temper- 
ature. The  usual  effect  of  increase  of 
temperature  is  to  diminish  affinity  and 
ultimately  to  cause  the  separation  of  a 
compound  into  its  constituents;  and 
there  is  probably  for  every  compound 
a temperature  above  which  it  could 
not  exist  but  would  be  broken  up. 
Where  two  elements  combine  to  form 
a compound  heat  is  almost  always 
evolved,  and  the  amount  evolved  serves 
as  a measure  of  the  affinity.  In  order 
that  chemical  affinity  may  come  into 
play  it  is  necessary  that  the  substances 
should  be  in  contact,  and  usually  one 
of  them  at  least  is  a fluid  or  a gas. 
The  results  produced  by  chemical  com- 
bination are  endlessly  varied.  Color, 
taste,  and  smell  are  changed,  destroyed, 
or  created;  harmless  constituents  pro- 
duce strong  poisons,  strong  poisons  pro- 
duce harmless  compounds. 

AFFINITY,  in  law,  is  that  degree  of 
connection  which  subsists  between  one 
of  two  married  persons  and  the  blood 
relations  of  the  other.  It  is  no  real 
kindred  (consanguinty).  A person  can- 
not, by  legal  succession,  receive  an 
inheritance  from  a I'elation  by  affinity; 
neither  does  it  extend  to  the  nearest 
relations  of  husband  and  wife  so  as  to 
create  a mutual  relation  between  them. 
The  degrees  of  affinity  are  computed 
in  the  same  way  as  those  of  consanguin- 
ity or  blood.  All  legal  impediments 
arising  from  affinity  cease  upon  the 
death  of  the  husband  or  wife,  excepting 
those  which  relate  to  the  marriage  of 
the  survivor. 

AFFIRMA'TION,  a solemn  declara- 
tion by  Quakers  and  others,  who  object 
to  taking  an  oath,  in  confirmation  of 
their  testimony  in  courts  of  law,  or 
of  their  statements  on  other  occasions 
on  which  the  sanction  of  an  oath  is 
required  of  other  persons. 

AFGHANISTAN  (af-gan'i-stan),  that 
is,  the  land  of  the  Afghans,  a country 
in  Asia,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
N.  W.  Frontier  Prov.,  etc.,  on  the  south 
by  Beluchistan,  on  the  west  by  the 
Persian  province  of  Khorasan,  and  on 
the  north  by  Bokhara  and  Russian 
Turkestan.  Recently  the  boundary 
from  the  Oxus  to  the  Persian  frontier 
was  surveyed  and  marked  off  by  a 
Russian  and  British  commission;  farther 
east  to  the  Chinese  frontier  it  was  settled 
in  1895.  The  area  may  be  set  down  at 
about  280,000  sq.  mi^.  The  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  between  4,000,000 
and  5,000,000.  Afghanistan  consists 
chiefly  of  lofty,  bare,  uninhabited  table- 
lands, sandy  barren  plains,  ranges  of 
snow-covered  mountains,  offsets  of  the 
Hindu  Kush  or  the  Himalayas,  and 
deep  ravines  and  valleys.  Many  of  the 
last  are  well  watered  and  very  fertile, 
but  about  four-fifths  of  the  whole  sur- 
face is  rocky,  mountainous,  and  unpro- 
ductive. There  are  numerou.?  practica- 
ble avenues  of  communication  between 
Afghanistan  and  India,  among  the  most 
extensively  used  being  the  famous 
Khyber  Pass,  by  which  the  river  Cabul 
enters  the  Pupjab;  the  Gomul  Pass,  also 
leading  to  the  Punjab;  and  the  Bolan 
Pass  on  the  south,  through  which  the 
rout©  passes  to  Bind.  Of  the  rivers  the 


AfllICA 


AFRICA 


largest  is  the  Helmund,  which  flows  in 
a south-westerly  direction  more  than 
400  miles,  till  it  enters  the  Hamoon  or 
Seistan  swamp.  Next  in  importance 
are  the  Cabul  in  the  northeast,  which 


Afghans. 


drains  to  the  Indus,  and  the  Hari  Rud 
in  the  northwest,  which,  like  other 
Afghan  streams,  loses  itself  in  the  sand. 
The  climate  is  extremely  cold  in  the 
higher,  and  intensely  hot  in  the  lower 
regions,  yet  on  the  whole  it  is  salubrious. 
The  most  common  trees  are  pines,  oaks, 
birch,  and  walnut.  In  the  valleys 
fruits,  in  the  greatest  variety  and  abun- 
dance, grow  wild.  The  principal  crops 
are  wheat,  forming  the  staple  food  of  the 
people;  barley,  rice,  and  maize.  Other 
crops  are  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  and  cot- 
ton. The  chief  domestic  animals  are  the 
dromedary,  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  the 
ox,  sheep  uith  large  fine  fleeces  and 
enormous  fat  tails,  and  goats;  of  wild 
animals  there  are  the  tiger,  bears,  leop- 
ards, wolves,  ]ackal,  hyena,  foxes,  etc. 
The  chief  towns  are  Cabul  (the  capital), 
Kandahar,  Ghuzni,  and  Herat.  The 
inhabitants  belong  to  different  races, 
but  the  Afghans  proper  form  the  great 
mass  of  the  people.  They  are  allied  in 
blood  to  the  Persians,  and  are  divided 
into  a number  of  tribes,  among  which 
the  Duranis  and  Ghiljis  are  the  most 
important.  The  Afghans  are  bold, 
hardj%  and  warlike,  fond  of  freedom  and 
resolute  in  maintaining  it,  but  of  a rest- 
less, turbulent  temper,  and  much  given 
to  plunder.  Tribal  dissensions  are  con- 
stantly in  existence,  and  seldom  or 
never  do  all  the  Afghans  pay  allegiance 
to  the  nominal  ruler  of  their  country. 
Their  language  is  distinct  from  the  Per- 
sian, though  it  contains  a great  number 
of  Persian  words,  and  is  written,  like 
the  Persian,  with  the  Arabic  characters. 
In  religion  they  are  Mohammedans  of 
the  Sunnite  sect.  The  history  of 
Afghanistan  is  mainly  modern.  The 
British  have  attempted  to  control  the 
country  and  its  ruler,  called  the  Ameer, 
since  1839.  The  present  Ameer  is 
friendly  to  Britain,  but  he  has  been 
round  very  difficult  to  restrain  from 
intrigues  witli  Russia.  He  is  virtually 
autocrat  of  his  domains. 

AF'RICA,  one  of  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  Old  'World,  and  the 


second  in  extent  of  the  five  principal 
continents  of  the  globe,  forming  a vast 
peninsula  joined  to  Asia  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez.  It  is  of  a compact  form,  with 
few  important  projections  or  indenta- 
tions, and  having  therefore  a very  small 
extent  of  coast-line  (about  16,000  miles, 
or  much  less  than  that  of  Europe)  in 
proportion  to  its  area.  This  continent 
extends  from  37°  20'  n.  lat.  to  34°  50' 
s.  lat.,  and  the  extreme  points.  Cape 
Blanco  and  Cape  Agulhas,  are  nearly 
5000  miles  apart.  From  west  to  east, 
between  Cape  Verde,  Ion.  70°  34'  w.,  and 
Cape  Guardafui,  Ion.  51°  16'  e.,  the  dis- 
tance is  about  4600  miles.  The  area  is 
estimated  at  11,500,000  square  miles, 
or  more  than  three  times  that  of  Europe. 
The  islands  belonging  to  Africa  are  not 
numerous,  and,  except  Madagascar, 
none  of  them  are  large.  They  include 
Madeira,  the  Canaries,  Cape  Verde  Is- 
lands, Fernando  Po,  Prince’s  Island, 
St.  Thomas,  Ascension,  St.  Helena, 
Mauritius,  Bourbon,  the  Comoros,  So- 
cotra, etc. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  northern 
Africa  is  the  immense  tract  known  as  the 
Sahara  or  Great  Desert,  which  is  in- 
closed on  the  north  by  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains (greatest  height,  12,000  to  13,000 
feet),  tne  plateau  of  Barbary  and  that 
of  Barca,  on  the  east  by  the  mountains 
along  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  on 
the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Soudan.  The  Soudan, 
which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Sahara, 
and  separates  it  from  the  more  elevated 
plateau  of  southern  Africa,  forms  a belt 
of  pastoral  country  across  Africa,  and 
includes  the  countries  on  the  Niger, 
around  Lake  Tchad  (or  Chad),  and  east- 
ward to  the  elevated  region  of  Abys- 
sinia. Southern  Africa  as  a whole  is 
much  more  fertile  and  well  watered  than 
northern  Africa,  though  it  also  has  a 
desert  tract  of  considerable  extent  (the 
Kalahari  Desert). 

The  Nile  is  the  only  great  river  of 
Africa  which  flows  to  the  Mediterranean. 
It  receives  its  waters  primarily  from  the 
great  lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  lies 
under  the  equator,  and  in  its  upper 
course  is  led  by  tributary  streams  of 
great  size,  but  for  the  last  1200  miles  of 
its  course  it  has  not  a single  affluent. 
It  drains  an  area  of  more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles.  The  Indian  Ocean  re- 
ceives numerous  rivers;  but  the  only 
great  river  of  South  Africa  which  enters 
that  ocean  is  the  Zambesi,  the  fourth  in 
size  of  the  continent,  and  having  in  its 
course  the  Victoria  Falls,  one  of  the 
greatest  waterfalls  in  the  world  In 
southern  Africa  also,  but  flowing  west- 
ward and  entering  the  Atlantic,  is  the 
Congo,  which  takes  origin  from  a series 
of  lakes  and  marshes  in  the  interior,  is 
fed  by  great  tributaries,  and  is  the  first 
in  volume  of  all  the  African  rivers, 
carrying  to  the  ocean  more  water  than 
the  Mississippi.  Unlike  most  of  the 
African  rivers,  the  mouth  of  the  Congo 
forms  an  estuary.  Of  the  other  Atlantic 
rivers,  the  Senegal,  the  Gambia,  and  the 
Niger  are  the  largest,  the  last  being 
third  among  African  streams. 

With  the  exception  of  Lake  Tchad 
there  are  no  great  lakes  in  the  northern 
division  of  Africa,  whereas  in  the  num- 
ber and  magnificence  of  its  lakes  the ' 


southern  division  almost  rivals  North 
America.  Here  are  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Nyanza,  Lakes  Tanganyika, 
Nyassa,  Shirwa,  Bangweolo,  Moero,  and 
other  lakes.  Of  these  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  belong  to  the  basin  of  the  Nile; 
Tanganyika,  Bangweolo,  and  Moero  to 
that  of  the  Congo ; Nyassa,  by  its  affluent 
the  Shir4,  to  the  Zambesi.  Lake  Tchad 
on  the  borders  of  the  northern  desert 
region,  and  Lake  Ngami  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  southern,  have  a remark- 
able resemblance  in  position,  and  in  the 
fact  that  both  are  drained  by  streams 
that  lose  themselves  in  the  sand. 

The  climate  of  Africa  is  mainly'  in- 
fluenced by  the  fact  that  it  lies  almost 
entirely  within  the  tropics.  In  the 
equatorial  belt,  both  north  and  south, 
rain  is  abundant  and  vegetation  very 
luxuriant,  dense  tropical  forests  prevail- 
ing for  about  10°  on  either  side  of  the 
line.  To  the  north  and  south  of  the 
equatorial  belt  the  rainfall  diminishes, 
and  the  forest  region  is  succeeded  by  an 
open  pastoral  and  agricultural  country. 
This  is  followed  by  the  rainless  regions 
of  the  Sahara  on  the  north  and  the 
Kalahari  Desert  on  the  south,  extending 
beyond  the  tropics,  and  bordering  on 
the  agricultural  and  pastoral  countries 
of  the  north  and  south  coasts,  which  lie 
entirely  in  the  temperate  zone.  The  low 
coast  regions  of  Africa  are  almost  every- 
where unhealthful,  the  Atlantic  coast 
within  the  tropics  being  the  most  fatal 
region  to  Europeans. 

Among  mineral  productions  may  be 
mentioned  gold,  which  is  found  in  the 
rivers  of  western  Africa  (hence  the  name 
Gold  Coast),  and  in  southern  Africa, 
most  abundantly  in  the  Transvaal; 
diamonds  have  been  found  in  large 
numbers  in  recent  years  in  the  south; 
iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  coal  are  also 
found. — Among  plants  are  the  baobab, 
the  date-palm  (important  as  a food  plant 
in  the  north),  the  doum-palm,  the  oil- 
palm,  the  wax-palm,  the  shea-butter 
tree,  trees  yielding  caoutchouc,  the 
papyrus,  the  castor-oil  plant,  indigo, 
the  coffee-plant,  heaths  with  beautiful 
flowers,  aloes,  etc.  Among  cultivated 
plants  are  wheat,  maize,  millet,  and 
other  grains,  cotton,  coffee,  cassava, 
ground-nut,  yam,  banana,  tobacco, 
various  fruits,  etc.  As  regards  both 
plants  and  animals,  northern  Africa, 
adjoining  the  Mediterranean,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  rest  of  Africa  in  its 
great  agreement  with  southern  Europe. — 
Among  the  most  characteristic  African 
animals  are  the  lion,  hyena,  jackal, 
gorilla,  chimpanzee,  baboon,  African 
elephant  (never  domesticated,  yielding 
much  ivory  to  trade),  hippopotamus, 
rhinoceros,  giraffe,  zebra,  quagga,  ante- 
lopes in  great  variety  and  immense  num- 
bers.— Among  birds  are  the  ostrich,  the 
secretary-bird  or  serpent-eater,  the 
honey-guide  cuckoo,  sacred  ibis,  guinea 
fowl. — The  reptiles  include  the  crocodile, 
chameleon,  and  serpents  of  various 
kinds,  some  of  them  very  venomous. — 
Among  insects  are  locusts,  scorpions, 
the  tsetse-fly  whose  bite  is  so  fatal  to 
cattle,  and  white-ants. 

The  great  races  of  which  the  popula- 
tion of  Africa  mainly  consists  are  the 
Hamites,  the  Semites,  the  Negroes,  and 
the  Bantus.  To  the  Semitic  stock  be- 


AGAMEMNON 


AGATE 


long  the  Arabs,  who  form  a considerable 
portion  of  the  population  in  Egypt  and 
along  the  north  coast,  while  a portion  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  are  of  the 
same  race  (though  the  blood  is  con- 
siderably mixed).  The  Hamites  are 
represented  by  the  Copts  of  Egypt,  tlie 
Berbers,  Kabyles,  etc.,  of  northern 
Africa,  and  the  SomMi,  Danflkil,  etc.,  of 
eastern  Africa.  The  Negro  races  occupy  a 
vast  territory  in  the  Soudan  and  cen- 
tral Africa,  while  the  Bantus  occupy 
the  greater  part  of  southern  Africa  from 
a short  distance  north  of  the  equator, 
and  include  the  Kaffres,  Bechuanas, 
Swahili,  and  allied  races.  In  the  ex- 
treme southwest  are  the  Hottentots  and 
Bushmen  (the  latter  a dwarfish  race), 
distinct  from  the  other  races  as  well  as, 
probably,  from  each  other.  In  Mada- 
gascar there  is  a large  Malay  element. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  Fulahs  on 
the  Niger  and  the  Nubians  on  the  Nile 
and  elsewhere,  who  are  of  a brownish 
color,  and  are  often  regarded  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  other  races,  though  some- 
times classed  with  the  Negroes.  In 
religion  a great  proportion  of  the  in- 
habitants are  heathens  of  the  lowest 
type ; Mohammedanism  numbers  a large 
number  of  adherents  in  North  Africa, 
and  is  rapidly  spreading  in  the  Soudan ; 
Christianity  prevails  only  among  the 
Copts,  the  Abyssinians,  and  the  natives 
of  Madagascar,  the  latter  having  been 
converted  in  recent  times.  Elsewhere 
the  missionaries  seem  to  have  made  but 
little  progress.  Over  great  part  of  the 
continent  civilization  is  at  a low  ebb, 
yet  in  some  parts  the  natives  have 
shown  considerable  skill  in  agriculture 
and  various  mechanical  arts,  as  in  weav- 
ing and  metal  working.  Of  African 
trade  two  features  are  the  caravans  that 
traverse  great  distances,  and  the  trade 
in  slaves  that  still  widely  prevails,  and 
is  accompanied  by  an  immense  amount 
of  bloodshed.  Among  articles  exported 
from  Africa  are  palm-oil,  diamonds, 
ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  wool,  cotton, 
gold,  esparto,  caoutchouc,  etc.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  170,000,000. 
Of  these  a small  number  are  of  European 
origin — French  in  Algeria,  British  and 
Dutch  at  the  southern  extremity. 

Great  areas  in  Africa  have  recently 
been  apportioned  among  European 
powers  as  protectorates  or  spheres  of 
influence.  Among  states  still  more  or 
less  independent  are  Morocco,  Abys- 
sinia, Bornu,  Waday,  Bagirmi,  Liberia. 
To  Britain  belong  the  Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  and  the  recently  independent 
Orange  River  Colony  and  Transvaal, 
with  Rhodesia,  etc.,  farther  north,  a 
region  in  eastern  Africa  extending  from 
the  sea  to  Lake  Victoria  and  the  head- 
waters of  the  Nile,  Sierra  Leone;  and 
other  settlements  on  the  west  coast, 
Mauritius,  etc.;  to  France  belong  Algeria 
and  Tunis,  Senegambia,  part  of  Sahara, 
territory  north  of  the  Lower  Congo, 
Madagascar,  etc. ; the  Portuguese  possess 
Angola  on  the  west  coast  and  Mozam- 
bique on  the  east;  Germany  has  con- 
siderable tracts  on  the  east,  the  south- 
west and  the  western  coasts;  to  Turkey 
nominally  belong  Egypt,  Barca,  and 
Tripoli;  Italy  has  a territory  on  the  Red 
Sea,  and  part  of  Somaliland;  Spain  has 
a part  of  the  coast  of  the  Sahara;  the 


Congo  Free  State  is  under  the  king  of 
Belgium ; Zanzibar  is  now  a British  pro- 
tectorate. 

Africa  has  an  ancient  history  and  was 
colonized  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Ro- 
mans. Modern  exploration  began  with 
Mungo  Park  in  1795  and  has  continued 
down  to  present  times  through  the 
labors  of  Lander,  Overweg,  Barth, 
Speke,  Livingstone,  and  Stanley. 

AGAMEM'NON,  in  Greek  mythology, 
son  of  Atreus,  King  of  Mycenae  and 
Argos,  brother  of  Menelaus,  and  com- 
mander of  the  allied  Greeks  at  the  siege 
of  Troy.  Returning  home  after  the  fall 
of  Troy,  he  was  treacherously  assassin- 
ated by  his  wife,  Clytemnestra,  and 
her  paramour,  .^gisthus.  He  was 
the  father  of  Orestes,  Iphigenia,  and 
Electra. 

AGAMOGENESIS  (-jen'e-sis),  the  pro- 
duction of  young  without  the  congress 
of  the  sexes,  one  of  the  phenomena  of 
alternate  generation.  See  Generation. 

AGANIPPE  (-nip'e),  a fountain  on 
Mount  Helicon,  in  Greece,  sacred  to  the 
Muses,  which  had  the  property  of  in- 
spiring with  poetic  fire  whomever  drank 
of  it. 

AGAPE  (ag'a-pe),  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, the  love-feast  or  feast  of  charity, 
in  use  among  the  primitive  Christians, 
when  a liberal  contribution  was  made 
by  the  rich  to  feed  the  poor. 

AGAPEMONE  (ag-a-pem'o-ne),  the 
name  of  a singular  conventual  establish- 
ment which  has  existed  at  Spaxton,  near 
Bridgewater,  Somersetshire,  since  1859, 
the  originator  of  it  being  a certain  Henry 
James  Prince,  at  one  time  a clergyman 
of  the  Church  of  England,  who  called 
himself  the  Witness  of  the  First  Resur- 
rection. The  life  spent  by  the  inmates 
appears  to  be  a sort  of  religious  epicure- 
anism. 

A'GAR-A'GAR,  a dried  seaweed  of 
the  Asiatic  Archipelago,  much  used  in 
the  East  for  soups  and  jellies,  and  also 
by  the  paper  and  silk  manufacturers  of 
eastern  Asia  as  an  ingredient  in  some 
classes  of  their  goods. 

AGAR'IC,  a large  and  important 
genus  of  fungi,-  characterized  by  having 
a fleshy  cap  or  pileus,  and  a number  of 
radiating  plates  or  gills  on  which  are 
produced  the  naked  spores.  The  ma- 
jority of  this  species  are  furnished  with 
stems,  but  some  are  attached  to  the 
objects  on  which  they  grow  by  their 
pileus.  Over  a thousand  species  are 
known,  and  are  arranged  in  five  sections 
according  as  the  color  of  their  spores  is 
white,  pink,  brown,  purple,  or  black. 
Many  of  the  species  are  edible,  like  the 
common  mushroom,  and  supply  a 
delicious  article  of  food,  while  others 
are  deleterious  and  even  poisonous. 

AGARIC  MINERAL,  or  MOUNTAIN- 
MEAL,  one  of  the  purest  of  the  native 
carbonates  of  lime,  found  chiefly  in  the 
clefts  of  rocks  and  at  the  bottom  of 
some  lakes  in  a loose  or  semi-indurated 
form  resembling  a fungus.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a stone  of  loose  con- 
sistence found  in  Tuscany,  of  which 
bricks  may  be  made  so  light  as  to  float 
in  water,  and  of  which  the  ancients  are 
supposed  to  have  made  their  floating 


bricks.  It  is  a hydrated  silicate  of  mag- 
nesium, mixed  with  lime,  alumina,  and 
a small  quantity  of  iron. 

AGASSIZ  (ag'as-e),  Louis  John  Ru- 
dolph, an  eminent  naturalist,  born  1807, 
died  1873,  son  of  a Swiss  Protestant 
clergyman  at  Metiers,  near  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Lake  of  NeufchS,tel. 


L.  Agassiz. 


His  attention  was  first  specially  directed 
to  ichthyology  by  being  called  on  to  de- 
scribe the  Brazilian  fishes  brought  to 
Europe  from  Brazil  by  Martius  and  Spix. 
His  researches  led  him  to  propose  a new 
classification  of  fishes,  which  he  di-vided 
into  four  classes,  distinguished  by  the 
characters  of  the  skin,  as  ganoids, 
placoids,  cycloids,  and  ctenoids.  His 
system  has  not  been  generally  adopted, 
but  the  names  of  his  classes  have  been 
used  as  useful  terms.  In  1836  he  began 
the  study  of  glaciers,  and  in  1840  he 
published  his  Etudes  sur  les  Glaciers,  in 
1847  his  Syst^me  Glaciaire.  From  1838 
he  had  been  professor  of  natural  history 
at  Neufchitel,  when  in  1846  pressing 
solicitations  and  'attractive  offers  in- 
duced him  to  settle  in  America,  where 
he  was  connected  as  a teacher  first  with 
Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  and 
latterly  -with  Cornell  University  as  well 
as  Harvard.  After  his  arrival  in  Amer- 
ica he  engaged  in  various  investigations 
and  explorations,  and  published  numer- 
ous works.  In  1865-66  he  made  zoolog- 
ical excursions  and  investigations  in 
Brazil,  which  were  productive  of  most 
valuable  results.  Agassiz  held  views  on 
many  important  points  in  science  differ- 
ent from  those  which  prevailed  among 
the  scientific  men  of  the  day,  and  in 
particular  he  strongly  opposed  the 
evolution  theory. 

AGASSIZ  (ag'a-se).  Mount,  an  extinct 
volcano  in  Arizona,  U.  S.,  10,000  feet 
in  height;  a place  of  summer  resort, 
near  the  Great  Cafion  of  the  Colorado. 

AG' ATE,  a siliceous  semi-pellucid 
compound  mineral,  consisting  of  bands 
or  layers  of  various  colors  blended  to- 
gether, the  base  generally  being  chal- 
cedony, and  this  mixed  with  variable 
proportions  of  jasper,  amethyst,  quartz, 
opal,  heliotrope,  and  carnelian.  The 
varying  manner  in  which  these  materials 


AGATHARCHUS 


AGNOSTICS 


are  arranged  causes  the  agate  when 
polished  to  assume  some  characteristic 
appearances,  and  thus  certain  varieties 
are  "distinguished,  as  the  ribbon  agate, 
the  fortification  agate,  the  zone  agate, 
the  star  agate,  the  moss  agate,  the 
clouded  agate,  etc. 

AGATHAR'CHUS,  a Gieek  painter, 
native  of  Samos,  the  first  to  apply  the 
rules  of  perspective  to  theatrical  scene- 
painting; flourished  about  480  b.c. 

AGATHOCLES  (a-gath'o-klez),  a Sici- 
lian Greek,  one  of  the  boldest  adventur- 
ers of  antiquity,  born  361  B.c.  By  his 
ability  and  energy,  and  being  entirely 
unscrupulous,  he  raised  himself  from 
the  position  of  a potter  to  that  of  sov- 
ereign of  Syracuse  and  master  of  Sicily. 
Wars  with  the  Carthaginians  were  the 
chief  events  of  his  life.  He  died  (was 
poisoned)  at  the  age  of  seventy-two,  or, 
as  some  say,  ninety-five. 

AGAVE  (a-ga've),  a genus  of  plants 
(which  includes  the  daffodil  and  nar- 
cissus), popularly  known  as  American 
aloes.  They  are  generally  large,  and 
have  a massive  tuft  of  fleshy  leaves  with 


American  aloe. 


a spiny  apex.  They  live  for  many  years 
— ten  to  seventy,  according  to  treat- 
ment— before  flowering.  When  this 
takes  place  the  tall  flowering  stem 
springs  from  the  center  of  the  tuft  of 
leaves,  and  grows  very  rapidly  until  it 
reaches  a height  of  15,  20,  or  even  40 
feet,  bearing  toward  the  end  a large 
number  of  flowers.  The  best-known 
species,  is  the  common  American  aloe, 
introduced  into  Europe  1561,  and  now 
extensively  grown  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  continent  as  well  as  in  Asia 
(India  in  particular).  This  and  other 
species  yield  various  important  prod- 
ucts. The  sap  when  fermented  yields 
a beverage  resembling  cider,  called  by 
the  Mexicans  pulque.  The  leaves  are 
used  for  feeding  cattle;  the  fibers  of  the 
leaves  (called  pita,  sisal  hemp,  or  hene- 
quen)  are  formed  into  thread,  cord,  and 
ropes ; an  extract  from  the  leaves  is  used 
as  a substitute  for  soap;  slices  of  the 
withered  flower-stem  are  used  as  razor- 
strops. 

AGE,  a period  of  time  representing 
the  whole  or  a part  of  the  duration  of 


any  individual  thing  or  being,  but  used 
more  specifically  in  a variety  of  senses. 
In  law  age  is  applied  to  the  periods  of 
life  when  men  and  women  are  enabled 
to  do  that  which  before,  for  want  of 
years  and  consequently  of  judgment, 
they  could  not  legally  do.  Full  age  in 
male  or  female  is  twenty-one  years, 
which  age  is  completed  on  the  day  pre- 
ceding the  anniversary  of  a person’s 
birth,  who  till  that  time  is  an  infant, 
and  so  styled  in  law. 

The  term  is  also  applied  to  designate 
the  successive  epochs  or  stages  of  civili- 
zation in  history  or  mythology.  Hesiod 
speaks  of  five  distinct  ages:  1.  The 
golden  or  Saturnian  age,  a patriarchal 
and  peaceful  age.  2.  The  silver  age, 
licentious  and  wicked.  3.  The  brazen 
age,  violent,  savage,  and  warlike.  4. 
The  heroic  age,  which  seemed  an  approx- 
imation to  a better  state  of  things.  5. 
The  iron  age,  when  justice  and  honor 
had  left  the  earth.  The  term  is  also 
used  in  such  expressions  as  the  dark 
ages,  the  middle  ages,  the  Elizabethan 
age,  etc. 

The  Archaeological  Ages  or  Periods 
are  three — the  Stone  Age,  the  Bronze 
Age,  and  the  Iron  Age — these  names 
being  given  in  accordance  with  the  ma- 
terials chiefly  employed  for  weapons, 
implements,  etc.,  during  the  particular 
period.  The  Stone  Age  of  Europe  has 
been  subdivided  into  two — the  Palaeo- 
lithic or  earlier,  and  Neolithic  or  later. 
The  word  age  in  this  sense  has  no  refer- 
ence to  the  lapse  of  time,  but  simply 
denotes  the  stage  at  which  a people  has 
arrived  in  its  progress  toward  civiliza- 
tion; thus  there  are  races  still  in  their 
stone  age. 

AGENT,  one  who  acts  for  another. 
In  law,  an  agent  is  always  supposed  to 
be  acting  by  authority  from  his  prin- 
cipal, and  the  relation  is  held  to  imply 
a contract  between  the  two.  Briefly 
the  law  as  to  agents  may  be  stated  as 
follows ; A principal  is  liable  for  all  the 
acts  of  his  agent  as  if  these  acts  had 
been  done  by  himself,  whether  these 
acts  be  authorized  or  not.  But,  if  the 
.third  party  enters  into  a contract  with 
the  agent  under  the  agent’s  own  name, 
the  principal  is  not  held  liable,  unless 
the  acts  of  the  agent  be  included  under 
the  scope  of  the  authority  received 
from  the  principal. 

AGERATUM  (a-jer'a-tum),  a genus 
of  composite  plants  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America,  one  species  of  which  is  a 
well-known  flower-border  annual  with 
dense  lavender-blue  heads. 

AGESILAUS  (a-j'es-i-la'us),  a king  of 
Sparta,  born  in  442  b.c.,  and  elevated 
to  the  throne  after  the  death  of  his 
brother  Agis  II.  He  acquired  renown 
by  his  exploits  against  the  Persians, 
Thebans,  and  Athenians.  Though  a 
vigorous  ruler,  and  almost  adored  by 
his  soldiers,  he  was  of  small  stature  and 
lame  from  his  birth.  He  died  in  Egypt 
in  the  winter  of  361-360  b.c.  Xeno- 
phon, Plutarch,  and  Cornelius  Nepos 
are  among  his  biographers. 

AGGLOM'ERATE,  in  geology,  a col- 
lective name  for  masses  consisting  of 
angular  fragments  ejected  from  vol- 
canoes. 'When  the  mass  consists  of 
fragments  worn  and  rounded  by  water 
it  is  called  a conglomerate. 


A". 


AG'GREGATE,  a term  applied  in 

geology  to  rocks  composed  of  several 
different  mineral  constituents  capable 
of  being  separated  by  mechanical  means, 
as  granite,  where  the  quartz,  felspar, 
and  mica  can  be  separated  mechani- 
cally. In  botany  it  is  applied  to  flowers 
composed  of  many  small  florets  having 
a common  undivided  receptacle,  the 
anthers  being  distinct  and  separate,  the 
florets  commonly  standing  on  stalks, 
and  each  having  a partial  calyx. 

AGINCOURT  (a-zhan-kor),  a village 
of  northern  France,  department  Pas 
de  Calais,  famous  for  the  battle  of 
October  25,  1415,  between  the  French 
and  English.  Henry  V.,  king  of  Eng- 
land, eager  to  conquer  France,  landed 
at  Harfleur,  took  the  place  by  storm, 
and  wished  to  march  through  Picardy 
to  Calais,  but  was  met  by  a French 
army  under  the  ’Constable  d’ Albert. 
The  English  numbered  about  15,000 
men,  while  the  French  numbers  are 
variously  stated  at  from  50,000  to 
150,000.  The  confined  nature  and  soft- 
ness of  the  ground  were  to  the  disad- 
vantage of  the  French,  who  were  drawn 
up  in  three  columns  unnecessarily  deep. 
The  English  archers  attacked  the  first 
division  in  front  and  in  flank,  and  soon 
threw  them  into  disorder.  The  second 
division  fled  on  the  fall  of  the  Due 
d’Alen^on,  who  was  struck  down  by 
Henry  himself,  and  the  third  division 
fled  without  striking  a blow.  Of  the 
French  10,000  were  k^illed,  including  the 
Constable  d’ Albert,  with  six  dukes  and 
princes.  The  English  lost  1600  men 
killed,  among  them  the  Duke  of  York, 
Henry’s  uncle.  After  the  battle  the 
English  continued  their  march  to  Calais. 

AGIO  (a'ji-o),  the  difference  between  ^ 
the  real  and  the  nominal  value  of  money, 
as  between  paper  money  and  actual 
coin ; an  Italian  term  originally. 

AG'NATES,  in  the  civil  law  relations 
on  the  male  side,  in  opposition  to  cog- 
nates, relations  on  the  female  side. 

AGNES,  St.,  a saint,  who,  according 
to  the  story,  suffered  martyrdom  be- 
cause she  steadfastly  refused  to  marry 
the  son  of  the  prefect  of  Rome,  and  ad- 
hered to  her  religion  in  spite  of  repeated 
temptations  and  threats,  a.d.  303.  She 
was  first  led  to  the  stake,  but  as  the 
flames  did  not  injure  her  she  was  be- 
headed. Her  festival  is  celebrated  on 
the  21st  of  January. 

AGNES,  St.,  the  most  southerly  of  the 
Scilly  Islands.  A lighthouse  was  erected 
here  as  early  as  1680;  another  on  the 
Wolf  Rock  near  the  island  was  com- 
pleted in  1858. 

AG'NI,  the  Hindu  god  of  fire,  one  of 
the  eight  guardians  of  the  world,  and 
especially  the  lord  of  the  southeast 
quarter.  He  is  celebrated  in  many  of  the 
hymns  of  the  Rig  Veda.  He  is  often 
represented  as  of  a red  or  flame  color, 
and  rides  on  a ram  or  a goat.  He  is  still 
worshiped  as  the  personification  of  fire. 

AGNOSTICS  (ag-nos'tiks),  a modern 
term  applied  to  those  who  disclaim  any 
knowledge  of  God  or  of  the  origin  of  the 
universe,  holding  that  the  mind  of  man 
is  limited  to  a knowledge  of  phenomena 
and  of  what  is  relative,  and  that;  there- 
fore, the  infinite,  the  absolute,  and  the 
unconditioned,  being  beyond  all  experi- 
ence, are  consequently  beyond  its  range. 


AGNUS  CAST  US 


AGRIPPINA 


AGNUS  CASTUS,  a shrub,  a native  of 
the  Mediterranean  countries,  with  white 
flowers  and  acrid,  aromatic  fruits.  It  had 
anciently  the  imagined  virtue  of  pre- 
serving chastity — hence  the  term  castus. 

AGNUS  DEI  (de'i),  a term  applied  to 
Christ  in  John  i.  29,  and  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  liturgy  a prayer  beginning  with 
the  words  “Agnus  Dei,”  generally  sung 
before  the  communion.  The  term  is  also 


commonly  given  to  a medal,  or  more 
fi'equently  a cake  of  wax,  consecrated  by 
the  pope,  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a 
lamb  supporting  the  banner  of  the  cross ; 
supposed  to  possess  great  virtues,  such 
as  preserving  those  who  carry  it  in  faith 
from  accidents,  etc. 

AGONTC  LINE,  in  terrestrial  mag- 
netism a name  applied  to  the  line  which 
joins  all  the  places  on  the  earth’s, surface 
at  which  the  needle  of  the  compass 
points  due  north  and  south,  without 
any  declination.  This  line,  which 
varies  from  time  to  time,  at  present 
passes  through  S.  America  and  N. 
America  to  the  Magnetic  North  Pole, 
thence  to  the  White  Sea,  south  through 
the  Persian  Gulf,  Indian  Ocean,  and 
Australia  to  the  Southern  Magnetic 
Pole. 

AGOUARA  (a-gu-a'ra),  a name  given 
to  the  crab-eating  racoon  of  S.  America. 

AGOUTA  (a-go'ta),  an  insectivorous 
mammal  peculiar  to  Hayti,  of  the  tanrec 
family,  somewhat  larger  than  a rat.  It 
has  the  tail  devoid  of  hair  and  covered 
with  scales,  the  eyes  small,  and  an  elon- 
gated nose  like  the  shrews.  Another 
species  belongs  to  Cuba. 

AGRA  (a'gra),  a city  of  India,  in  the 
United  Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna,  841  miles  by  rail  from  Cal- 
cutta. It  has  various  interesting  struc- 
tures, among  which  are  the  imperial 
palace,  a mass  of  buildings  erected  by 
several  emperors;  the  Moti  Mas j id  or 
Pearl  Mosque;  the  mosque  called  the 
Jama  Masjid  (a  cenotaph  of  white  mar- 
ble); and,  above  all,  the  Taj  Mahal,  a 
mausoleum  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  to  his 
favorite  queen,  of  white  marble,  adorned 
throughout  with  exquisite  mosaics. 
Agra  has  a trade  in  grain,  sugar,  etc., 
and  some  manufactures,  including  beau- 
tiful inlaid  mosaics.  It  was  founded  in 
1566  by  the  Emperor  Akbar,  and  was 
a residence  of  the  following  emperors 
for  over  a century.  Pop.  188,022.  The 
Agra  division  has  an  area  of  10,139  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  of  5,248,121. 


AGRAM,  or  ZAGRAB,  a city  in  the 
Austrian  Empire,  capital  of  the  prov. 
Croatia  and  Slavonia,  near  the  river 
Save;  contains  the  residence  of  the  ban 
or  governor  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
government  buildings,  cathedral  (being 
the  see  of  a Roman  Catholic  archbishop), 
university,  theater,  etc.;  carries  on 
an  active  trade,  and  manufactures  to- 
bacco, leather,  and  linens.  Pop. 
61,002. 

AGRARIAN  LAWS,  laws  enacted  in 
ancient  Rome  for  the  division  of  the 
public  lands,  that  is,  the  lands  belonging 
to  the  state.  As  the  territory  of  Rome 
increased  the  public  land  increased,  the 
land  of  conquered  peoples  being  always 
regarded  as  the  property  of  the  con- 
queror. The  right  to  the  use  of  this 
public  land  belonged  originally  only  to 
the  patricians  or  ruling  class,  but 
latterly  the  claims  of  the  plebeians  on 
it  were  also  admitted,  though  they  were 
often  unfairly  treated  in  the  sharing  of 
it.  Hence  arose  much  discontent  among 
the  plebeians,  and  various  remedial  laws 
were  passed  with  more  or  less  success. 
Indeed  an  equitable  adjustment  of  the 
land  question  between  the  aristocracy 
and  the  common  people  was  never 
attained. 

AGRIC'OLA,  Cneius  Julius,  lived 
from  A.D.  37  to  93,  a Roman  consul 
under  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and 
governor  in  Britain,  the  greater  part  of 
which  he  reduced  to  the  dominion  of 
Rome;  distinguished  as  a statesman 
and  general.  His  life,  written  by  his 
son-in-law,  the  historian  Tacitus,  gives 
the  best  extant  account  of  Britain  in 
the  early  part  of  the  period  of  the  Ro- 
man rule. 

AGRIC'OLA,  Georg,  born  in  Saxony 
1490,  died  at  Chemnitz  1555,  German 
physician  and  mineralogist.  Though 
tinged  with  the  superstitions  of  his  age, 
he  made  the  first  successful  attempt  to 
reduce  mineralogy  to  a science,  and 
introduced  many  improvements  in  the 
art  of  mining. 

AG'RICULTURE  is  the  art  of  culti- 
vating the  ground,  more  especially  with 
the  plow  and  in  large  areas  or  fields,  in 
order  to  raise  grain  and  other  crops  for 
man  and  beast;  including  the  art  of 
preparing  the  soil,  sowing  and  planting 
seeds,  removing  tbe  crops,  and  also  the 
raising  and  feeding  of  cattle  or  other 
live  stock.  This  art  is  the  basis  of  all 
other  arts,  and  in  all  countries  coeval 
with  the  first  dawn  of  civilization.  At 
how  remote  a period  it  must  have  been 
successfully  practiced  in  Egypt,  Meso- 
potamia, and  China  we  have  no  means  of 
knowing.  Egypt  was  renowned  as  a 
corn  country  in  the  time  of  the  Jewish 
patriarchs,  who  themselves  were  keepers 
of  flocks  and  herds  rather  than  tillers 
of  the  soil.  Naturally  little  is  known  of 
the  methods  and  details  of  agriculture 
in  early  times.  Among  the  ancient 
Greeks  the  implements  of  agriculture 
were  very  few  and  simple.  Cato,  the 
censor,  who  was  celebrated  as  a states- 
man, orator,  and  general,  derived  his 
highest  honors  from  having  written 
a voluminous  work  on  agriculture. 

The  Romans  introduced  their  agri- 
cultural knowledge  among  the  Britons, 
and  during  the  most  flourishing  period 
of  the  Roman  occupation  large  quanti- 


ties of  corn  were  exported  from  Britain 
to  the  Continent. 

The  first  English  treatise  on  hus- 
bandry and  the  best  of  the  early  works 
on  the  subject  was  published  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  (in  1534),  by  Sir  A.  Fitz- 
herbert,  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas. 

The  American  colonists  received  their 
agricultural  methods  from  the  English, 
but  the  United  States  has,  during  the 
last  half  century,  outstripped  the  world 
in  the  art  of  agriculture.  The  govern- 
ment has  vastly  increased  the  efficiency 
of  the  American  farmer  by  the  establish- 
ment of  experiment  stations,  of  which 
there  are  now  scores  supported  at  a 
large  annual  outlay.  They  employ 
over  1,000  persons  in  administration 
and  inquiry,  and  issue  annual  re 
ports  and  bulletins.  With  fe\r  < .xcep- 
tions,  they  are  departments  ch’  tlie  ag- 
ricultural colleges  established  under 
the  land-grant  act  (Morrill  Act)  of  1862, 
and  are  independent  of  each  other  as 
regards  the  planning  and  conduct  of 
their  operations.  They  are  united  in  a 
national  system  through  the  Association 
of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and 
Experiment  Stations  and  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  This 
summarizes  the  accounts  of  the  work  of 
the  stations  and  kindred  institutions 
throughout  the  world  in  the  periodical 
known  as  the  Experiment  Station  Rec- 
ord, and  gives  popular  r^sum^s  of  their 
investigations  in  the  Farmers’  Bulletins 
series  of  the  department,  under  the 
general  title  of  Experiment  Station 
Work.  It  also  directly  manages  the 
stations  in  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and  Porto 
Rico. 

AGRIGENTUM  (-jen'tum),  an  an- 
cient Greek  city  of  Sicily  (the  modern 
G/rgre^Ui) , founded  about  580  b.  c.,  and 
long  one  of  the  most  important  places 
on  the  island.  Extensive  ruins  of  splen- 
did temples  and  public  buildings  yet 
attest  its  ancient  magnificence. 

AG'RIMONY,  a genus  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  slender  perennial  herbs  found 
in  temperate  regions.  Common  agri- 
mony, was  formerly  of  much  repute  as 
a medicine  in  England.  Its  leaves  and 
root-stock  are  astringent,  and  the  latter 
yields  a yellow  dj;e. 

AGRIP'PA,  Cornelius  Henry,  born  in 
1486,  at  Cologne,  he  devoted  himself  to 
science,  and  became  famous  as  a magi- 
cian and  alchemist,  and  was  involved  in 
disputes  with  the  church. 

AGRIPPA,  Herod.  See  Herod  Agrippa. 

AGRIPPA,  Marcus  Vipsanius,  a Ro- 
man statesman  and  general,  the  son-in- 
law  of  Augustus;  born  b.c.  63,  died 
B.c.  12.  He  was  pi'aetor  in  b.c.  41 ; con- 
sul in  37,  28,  and  27 ; tedile  in  33 ; and 
tribune  from  18  till  his  death.  He  com- 
manded the  fleet  of  Augustus  in  the 
battle  of  Actium.  To  him  Rome  is  in- 
debted for  three  of  her  principal  aque- 
ducts, the  Pantheon,  and  several  other 
works  of  public  use  and  ornament. 

AGRIPPI'NA,  the  name  of  several 
Roman  ladiesT  1.  The  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  Marcus  Vipsanius  Agrippa,  and 
wife  of  C.  Germanicus;  a heroic  woman 
adorned  with  great  virtues.  Tiberius, 
who  hated  her  for  her  virtues  and  popu- 
larity, banished  her  to  the  island  of 
Pandataria,  where  she  starved  herself 


AGROSTIS 


AINSWORTH 


to  death  in  a.d.  33. — 2.  A daughter  of 
the  last  mentioned,  and  the  mother  of 
Nero,  by  Domitius  Ahenobarbus.  Her 
third  husband  was  her  uncle,  the  Em- 
peror Claudius,  whom  she  subsequently 
poisoned  to  secure  the  government  of  the 
empire  through  her  son  Nero.  After 
ruling  a few  years  in  her  son’s  name  he 
became  tired  of  her  ascendency,  and 
caused  her  to  be  assassinated  (a.d.  60). 

AGROS'TIS,  a genus  of  grasses,  con- 
sisting of  many  species,  and  valuable 
as  pasture-grasses.  The  bent-grasses 
belong  to  the  genus. 

AGUA  (ag'wa),  an  active  volcano  of 
Central  America,  in  Guatemala,  rising 
to  the  height  of  15,000  feet.  It  has 
twice  destroyed  the  old  city  of  Guate- 
mala, in  its  immediate  vicinity. 

AGUARDIENTE  (a-gwar-de-en'te),  a 
popular  spirituous  beverage  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  a kind  of  coarse  brandy, 
made  from  red  wine,  from  the  refuse  of 
the  grapes  left  in  the  wine-press,  etc., 
generally  flavored  with  anise;  also  a 
Mexican  alcoholic  drink  distilled  from 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  agave. 

AGUAS  CALIENTES  (ag'was  ka-le- 
en'tas),  a town  270  miles  n.w.  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  the  state  of  its  own  name, 
named  from  the  thermal  springs  near 
it;  has  manufactures  of  cottons  and  a 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  25,000. 

AGUE  (a'gu),  a kind  of  fever,  which 
may  be  followed  by  serious  conse- 
quences, but  generally  is  more  trouble- 
some than  dangerous.  According  to  the 
length  of  the  interval  between  one 
febrile  paroxysm  and  another,  agues  are 
denominated  quotidian  when  they  occur 
once  in  twenty-four  hours,  tertian  when 
they  come  on  every  forty-eight  hours, 
quartan  when  they  visit  the  patient 
once  in  seventy-two  hours.  Ague  arises 
from  marsh  miasmata,  a temperature 
above  60°  being,  however,  apparently 
required  to  produce  it.  To  cure  the 
disease  and  prevent  the  recurrence, 
quinine  and  various  other  bitter  and 
astringent  drugs  are  given  with  com- 
plete success  in  the  majority  of 

CB>S6S 

AGUESSEAU  (a-ges-6),  Henri  Fran- 
cois d’,  a distinguished  French  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Limoges  in  1668; 
was  in  1690  advocate-general  at  Paris, 
and  at  the  age  of  thirty-two  procureur- 
gdnCTal  of  the  parliament.  He  risked 
disgrace  with  Louis  XIV.  by  success- 
fully opposing  the  famous  papal  bull 
Unigenitus.  He  was  made  chancellor 
in  1717.  He  died  in  1751. 

AGUILAR  (a-gi-lar'),  Grace,  an  Eng- 
lish writer,  born  at  Hackney  1816,  died 
at  Frankfort  1847. 

AGUINALDO  (a-ge-nal'do),  Emilio,  a 
Filipino  chief  who  led  the  natives  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  in  the  insurrections 
against  Spain  and  the  United  States. 
Aguinaldo  received  a good  education 
from  the  Dominican  friars  and  was  mayor 
of  Cavite  Viejo  when  the  insurrection  of 
1896  broke  out.  After  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  power  and  the  sale  of  the 
islands  to  the  United  States, Aguinaldo 
held  out  for  the  independence  of  the 
Filipinos  and  led  the  native  army  against 
the  Americans.  He  was  captured 
March  23,  1901  by  General  Frederick 
Funston  and  took  the  oath  of  allegiance 
a few  days  subsequently. 


AGULHAS  (ft-guPyas),  Cape,  a prom- 
ontory, forming  the  most  southern 
extremity  of  Africa,  about  90  miles 
southeast  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
rising  to  455  feet  above  the  sea,  with 
a lighthouse. 

A'HAB,  the  seventh  king  of  Israel 
succeeded  his  father  Omir  928  b.c.,  and 
reigned  twenty  years.  At  the  instiga- 
tion of  his  wife  Jezebel  he  erected  a tem- 
ple to  Baal,  and  became  a cruel  perse- 
cutor of  the  true  prophets.  He  was 
killed  by  an  arrow  at  the  siege  of 
Ramoth-Gilead. 

AHASUE'RUS,  in  Scripture  history, 
a king  of  Persia,  probably  the  same  as 
Xerxes,  the  husband  of  Esther,  to  whom 
the  Scriptures  ascribe  a singular  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews  from  extirpation. — 
Ahasuerus  is  also  a Scripture  name  for 
Cambyses,  the  son  of  Cyrus  (Ezra  iv.  6), 
and  for  Astyages,  king  of  the  Medes 
(Dan.  ix.  1). 

A'HAZ,  the  twelfth  king  of  Judah, 
succeeded  his  father  Jotham,  742  b.c. 
Forsaking  the  true  religion  he  gave  him- 
self up  completely  to  idolatry,  and  plun- 
dered the  temple  to  obtain  presents  for 
Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria. 

AHAZI'AH:  1.  Son  of  Ahab  and 
Jezebel,  and  eighth  king  of  Israel,  died 
from  a fall  through  a lattice  in  his  palace 
at  Samaria  after  reigning  two  years 
(b.c.  896,  895). — 2.  Fifth  king  of  Judah, 
and  nephew  of  the  above.  He  reigned 
but  one  year,  and  was  slain  (b.c.  884) 
by  Jehu. 

AHMEDABAD,  or  AHMADABAD 

(a-mad-a-bad),  a town  of  India,  presi- 
dency of  Bombay,  in  district  of  its  own 
name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sabarmati, 
310  miles  north  of  Bombay.  Pop.  185,- 
889. — Area  of  dist.  3949  sq.  m.;  pop. 
795,094. 

AHMEDNAG'AR,  a town  of  India, 
presidency  of  Bombay,  in  district  of  its 
own  name,  of  commonplace  appearance, 
surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall.  Pop. 
(including  military),  42,032. — Area  of 
dist.  6645  sq.  m.;  pop.  837,774. 

AHMED  SHAH,  born  1724,  died  1773, 
founder  of  the  Durflni  dynasty  in 
Afghanistan.  On  the  assassination  of 
Nadir  he  proclaimed  himself  shah,  and 
set  about  subduing  the  provinces  sur- 
rounding his  realm.  Among  his  first 
acts  was  the  securing  of  the  famed  Koh- 
i-noor  diamond,  which  had  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  his  predecessor.  He 
crossed  the  Indus  in  1748,  and  his  con- 
quests in  northern  India  culminated  in 
the  defeat  of  the  Mahrattas  at  Panipat 
(6th  Jan.  1761).  Affairs  in  his  own 
country  necessitated  his  withdrawal 
from  India,  but  he  extended  his  empire 
vastly  in  other  directions  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  modern  Afghanistan.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Timur. 

AID,  a subsidy  paid  in  ancient  feudal 
times  by  vassals  to  their  lords  on  certain 
occasions,  the  chief  of  which  were; 
when  their  lord  was  taken  prisoner  and 
required  to  be  ransomed,  when  his 
eldest  son  was  to  be  made  a knight,  and 
when  his  eldest  daughter  was  to  be 
married  and  required  a dowry.  From 
the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  fourteenth 
century  the  collecting  of  aids  by  the 
crown  was  one  of  the  forms  of  taxation, 
being  latterly  regulated  by  parlia- 
ment. 


AIDE-DE-CAMP  (ad-d6-kan),  a mili- 
tary officer  who  conveys  the  orders  of 
a general  to  the  various  divisions  of  the 
army  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  at  other 
times  acts  as  his  secretary  and  general 
confidential  agent. 

AIDIN  (a-i-denO,  or  GUZEL  HISSAR, 
a town  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  about  60  miles 
southeast  of  Smyrna.  Pop.  35,000. 

AIGRETTE',  a term  used  to  denote 
the  feathery  crown  attached  to  the  seeds 
of  various  plants,  such  as  the  thistle, 
dandelion,  etc. — It  is  also  applied  to  any 
head-dress  in  the  form  of  a plume, 
whether  composed  of  feathers,  flowers, 
or  precious  stones. 

AI'KIN,  John,  M.D.,  an  English  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  1747,  died  1822. 
His  General  Biographical  Dictionary 
was  begun  in  1799  and  finished  in  1815. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Monthly  Magazine 
from  1796  till  1806. 

AI'KIN,  Lucy,  daughter  of  tlm  pre- 
ceding, was  born  in  1781,  and  died  1864. 
In  1818  appeared  her  Memoirs  of  the 
Court  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  a very  pop- 
ular work.  She  afterward  produced 
similar  works  on  the  reigns  of  James  I. 
(1822)  and  Charles  I.  (1833),  and  a Life 
of  Addison  (1843). 

AILAN'TO,  Ailanthus,  a large  and 
handsome  tree,  with  pinnate  leaves  one 
or  two  feet  long,  is  a native  of  China, 
but  has  been  introduced  into  Europe 
and  North  America,  where  it  is  in  favor 
for  its  elegant  foliage.  A species  of  silk- 
worm, the  ailanthus  silkworm  feeds  on 
its  leaves,  and  the  material  produced, 
though  wanting  the  fineness  and  gloss  of 
mulberry  silk,  is  produced  at  less  cost, 
and  is  more  durable.  The  wood  is  hard, 
heavy,  glossy,  and  susceptible  of  a fine 
polish. 

AIN  (an),  a southeastern  frontier 
department  of  France,  mountainous  in 
the  east  (ridges  of  the  Jura),  flat  or  un- 
dulating in  the  west,  divided  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts  by  the  river  Ain,  a 
tributary  of  the  Rhone;  area,  2239 
square  miles.  Capital,  Bourg.  Pop. 
364,408. 

AINMILLER  (in'mil-er).  Max  Eman- 
uel, a German  artist  who  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  restorer  of  the  art  of  glass- 
painting; born  1807,  died  1870.  As  in- 
spector of  the  state  institute  of  glass- 
painting at  Munich  he  raised  this  art  to 
a high  degree  of  perfection  by  the  new 
or  improved  processes  introduced  by 
him. 

AINOS  (i'noz),  the  native  name  of  an 
uncivilized  race  of  people  inhabiting  the 
Japanese  island  of  Yesso,  as  also  Sag- 
halien,  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  be- 
lieved to  be  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Japan.  They  do  not  average  over  5 
feet  in  height,  but  are  strong  and  active. 
They  are  very  hairy,  wear  matted 
beards,  and  have  black  hair  which  they 
allow  to  grow  till  it  falls  over  their 
shoulders.  Their  complexion  is  dark 
brown,  approaching  to  black.  They 
worship  the  sun  and  moon,  and  pay 
reverence  to  the  bear.  They  support 
themselves  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

AINSWORTH,  WilUam  Harrison,  an 
English  novelist;  born  1805,  died  1882. 
He  was  the  son  of  a Manchester  solicitor 
and  intended  for  the  profession  of  law, 
but  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He 
wrote  Rookwood  (1834),  Jack  Sheppard 


AIR 


AIR-PUMP 


(1839),  and  about  forty  other  novels, 
including  Guy  Fawkes,  Tower  of  London, 
Windsor  Castle,  Lancashire  Witches, 
Flitch  of  Bacon,  etc. 

AIR,  the  gaseous  substance  of  which 
our  atmosphere  consists,  being  a me- 
chanical mixture  of  79.19  per  cent  by 
measure  of  nitrogen  and  20.81  per  cent 
of  oxygen.  The  latter  is  absolutely 
essential  to  animal  life,  while  the  pur- 
pose chiefly  served  by  the  nitrogen 
appears  to  be  to  dilute  the  oxygen. 
Oxygen  is  more  soluble  in  water  than 
nitrogen,  and  hence  the  air  dissolved  in 
water  contains  about  10  per  cent  more 
oxygen  than  atmospheric  air.  The 
oxygen  therefore  available  for  those 
animals  which  breathe  by  gills  is  some- 
what less  diluted  with  nitrogen,  but  it 
is  very  much  diluted  with  water.  For 
the  various  properties  and  phenomena 
connected  with  air  see  such  articles  as 
Atmosphere,  Airpump,  Barometer,  Com- 
bustion, Respiration,  etc. 

AIR,  in  music,  a continuous  melody, 
in  which  some  lyric  subject  or  passion  is 
expressed.  The  lyric  melody  of  a single 
voice,  accompanied  by  instruments,  is 
its  proper  form  of  composition.  Thus 
we  find  it  in  the  higher  order  of  musical 
works;  as  in  cantatas,  oratorios,  operas, 
and  also  independently  in  concertos. — 
Air  is  also  the  name  .often  given  to  the 
upper  or  most  prominent  part  in  a con- 
certed piece,  and  is  thus  equivalent  to 
treble,  soprano,  etc. 

AIR  BEDS  AND  CUSHIONS,  often 
used  by  the  sick  and  invalids,  are  com- 
posed of  india-rubber  or  of  cloth  made 
air-tight  by  a solution  of  india-rubber, 
and  when  required  for  use  filled  with  air, 
which  thus  supplies  the  place  of  the 
usual  stuffing  materials.  They  tend  to 
prevent  bed-sores  from  continuous  lying 
in  one  position.  They  are  also  cheap 
and  easily  transported,  as  the  bed  or 
cushion,  when  not  in  use,  can  be  packed 
in  small  compass,  to  be  again  inflated 
with  air  when  wanted. 

A I R-B  LADDER.  See  Swimming- 
bladder. 

AIR-BRAKE,  an  American  invention 
used  on  railroads  in  the  United  States. 
It  consists  of  an  automatic  device  by 
which  air,  stored  on  the  train,  is  applied 
to  the  work  of  pressing  the  brake  on  all 
wheels.  The  air-brake  was  invented  in 
1869  by  George  Westinghouse,  Jr.,  who 
has  improved  it  to  a high  state  of  per- 
fection. The  very  high  passenger  train 
speeds  of  recent  years  led  Mr.  Westing- 
house,  in  1897,  to  place  on  the  market  a 
high-speed  brake.  This  brake  is  de- 
signed to  use  very  high  air-pressure 
when  the  brake  is  applied  with  the  train 
at  full  speed,  which  pressure  is  gradually 
reduced  by  an  automatic  reducing  valve 
on  the  brake  cylinder  as  the  speed 
diminishes.  This  brake  has  not  been 
extensively  used.  Tests  made  with  the 
regular  high-speed  brake  attached  to  a 
fifty-car  train  showed  the  following 
among  other  results;  Emergency  stop 
of  train  running  at  40  miles  per  hour 
made  in  about  675  feet,  in  20  seconds; 
breaking  the  train  in  two  at  a speed  of 
from  20  to  25  miles  per  hour,  the  two 
sections  stopped  at  distances  of  from 
32  feet  to  180  feet  apart;  applying 
brakes  with  train  standing  to  show  rapid- 
ity of  action,  all  brakes  applied  within 


two  seconds;  comparison  of  emergency 
air-brake  stop  and  hand-brake  stop  at 
20  miles  per  hour;  air-brake  stop  in  158 
to  194  feet,  hand-brake  stop  in  1000  feet 
to  1720  feet;  service  stop  test  to  deter- 
mine time  of  release  of  brakes,  all 
brakes  released  in  four  seconds.  Several 
forms  of  air-brake  besides  the  Westing- 
house  have  been  employed  to  some  ex- 
tent in  America,  but  they  are  exactly 
similar  in  their  principles  of  operation. 

AIR-CELLS,  cavities  in  the  cellular 
tissue  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants 
which  contain  air  only,  the  juices  of  the 
plants  being  contained  in  separate  ves- 
sels. They  are  largest  and  most  numer- 
ous in  aquatic  plants,  the  gigantic  leaves 
of  which  are  buoyed  up  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  by  their  means. — The  minute 
cells  in  the  lungs  of  animals  are  also 
called  air-cells.  There  are  also  air-cells  in 
the  bodies  of  birds.  They  are  connected 
with  the  respiratory  system,  and  are 
situated  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  and 
abdomen,  and  sometimes  extend  into 
the  bones.  They  are  most  fully  devel- 
oped in  birds  of  powerful  and  rapid 
flight,  such  as  the  albatross. 

AIR-ENGINE,  an  engine  in  which  air 
heated,  and  so  expanded,  or  compressed 
air  is  used  as  the  motive  power.  A 
great  many  engines  of  the  former  kind 
have  been  invented,  some  of  which  have 
been  found  to  work  pretty  well  where 
no  great  power  is  required.  They  may 
be  said  to  be  essentially  similar  in  con- 
struction to  the  steam-engine,  though 
of  course  the  expansibility  of  air  by 
heat  is  small  compared  with  the  expan- 
sion that  takes  place  when  water  is  con- 
verted into  steam.  Engines  working  by 
compressed  air  have  been  found  very 
useful  in  mining,  tunneling,  etc.,  and 
the  compressed  air  may  be  conveyed  to 
its  destination  by  means  of  pipes.  In 
such  cases  the  waste  air  serves  for  venti- 
lation and  for  reducing  the  oppressive 
heat. 

AIR-GUN,  an  instrument  for  the  pro- 
jection of  bullets  by  means  of  condensed 
air,  generally  either  in  the  form  of  an 
ordinary  gun,  or  of  a pretty  stout  walk- 
ing-stick, and  about  the  same  length. 
A quantity  of  air  being  compressed  into 
the  air-chamber  by  means  of  a condens- 
ing syringe,  the  bullet  is  put  in  its  place 
in  front  of  this  chamber,  and  is  pro- 
pelled by  the  expansive  force  of  a cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  compressed  air, 
which  is  liberated  on  pressing  the  trigger. 

AIR-PLANTS,  or  EPIPHYTES,  are 
plants  that  grow  upon  other  plants  or 
trees,  apparently  without  receiving  any 
nutriment  otherwise  than  from  the  air. 
The  name  is  restricted  to  flowering 
plants  (mosses  or  lichens  being  excluded) 
and  is  suitably  applied  to  many  species 
of  orchids.  The  conditions  necessary  to 
the  growth  of  such  plants  are  excessive 
heat  and  moisture,  and  hence  their  chief 
localities  are  the  damp  and  shady  tropi- 
cal forests  of  Africa,  Asia,  and  America. 
They  are  particularly  abundant  in  Java 
and  tropical  America. 

AIR-PUMP,  an  apparatus  by  means 
of  which  air  or  other  gas  may  be  re- 
moved from  an  inclosed  space;  or  for 
compressing  air  within  an  inclosed 
space.  An  ordinary  suction-pump  for 
water  is  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
air-pump;  indeed,  before  water  reaches 


the  top  of  the  pipe  the  air  has  been 
pumped  out  by  the  same  machinery 
which  pumps  the  water.  An  ordinary 
suction-pump  consists  essentially  of  a 
cylinder  or  barrel,  having  a valve  open- 


Flg.  1,  air-pump  (sectional  view). 


ing  from  the  pipe  through  which  water 
is  to  rise  and  a valve  opening  into  the 
outlet  pipe,  and  a piston  fitted  to  work 
in  the  cylinder  (the  outlet  valve  may  be 
in  the  piston).  (See  Pump.)  The 
arrangement  of  parts  in  an  air-pump  is 
quite  similar.  The  barrel  of  an  air- 
pump  fills  with  the  air  which  expands 
from  the  receiver  (that  is,  the  vessel 
from  which  the  air  is  being  pumped), 
and  consequently  the  quantity  of  air 
expelled  at  each  stroke  is  less  as  the 
exhaustion  proceeds,  the  air  getting 
more  and  more  rarefied.  Suppose  that 
the  receiver  (so  called  because  it  receives 
objects  to  be  experimented  on)  is  ex- 
actly as  large  as  the  barrel;  by  the  first 
stroke  there  is  just  half  the  air  removed, 
by  the  second  there  is  one-fourth,  by  the 
third  there  is  an  eighth,  and  so  on.  Sup- 
pose the  barrel  is  J of  the  receiver  as  to 
volume.  On  raising  the  piston  the  air 
which  filled  the  receiver  now  fills  both 
barrel  and  receiver,  so  that  { is  removed 
at  the  first  stroke,  i of  the  remaining  f is 
removed  at  the  second  stroke — that  is 
Y’j,  and  i of  at  the  third  stroke,  and 
so  on.  Fig.  1 represents  the  essential 
parts  of  a good  air-pump  in  section,  e 
is  the  receiver,  f is  a mercurial  pres- 
sure-gauge, which  indicates  the  extent 
of  exhaustion;  r is  a cock  by  means  of 
which  air  may  be  readmitted  to  the  re- 
ceiver or  by  means  of  which  the  re- 
ceiver may  be  shut  off  from  the  pump- 


Fig.  2,  air-pump. 


barrel,  s is  the  inlet  valve  of  the  bar- 
rel; and,  inasmuch  as  the  tension  of  the 
air  in  the  receiver  after  some  strokes 
would  not  be  sufficient  to  lift  a valve, 
this  valve  is  opened  by  means  of  the  rod 


AIRSHIP  AND  FLYING  MACHINE 


AIRSHIP  AND  FLYING  MACHINE 


which  passes  up  through  the  piston. 
The  outlet  valve  s is  kept  down  by  a 
light  spiral  spring;  it  opens  when,  on  the 
space  diminishing  in  the  barrel  by  the 
descent  of  the  piston,  the  contained  air 
has  a sufficient  pressure.  Fig.  2 shows 
a similar  pump  in  perspective  (a  double- 
barreled  pump) ; p is  the  plate  on  which 
the  receiver  is  placed,  h the  pressure- 
gauge,  R the  readmission  cock.  The 
pi'essure-gauge  is  merely  a siphon  barom- 
eter inclosed  in  a bell-shaped  vessel  of 
glass  communicating  with  the  receiver. 
This  barometer  consists  of  a bent  tube 
containing  mercury,  one  end  being 
closed,  the  other  open.  As  the  air  is 
exhausted  the  smaller  is  the  difference 
between  the  height  of  the  mercury  in  the 
two  branches  of  the  tube,  and  a com- 
plete vacuum  would  be  indicated  if  the 
mercury  stood  at  the  same  level  in  both. 
— Ajr-pumps  for  compressing  air  are 
constructed  on  the  same  principle  but 
act  the  reverse  way. — Many  interesting 
experiments  may  be  made  with  the  air- 
pump.  If  an  animal  is  placed  beneath 
the  receiver,  and  the  air  exhausted,  it 
dies  almost  immediately;  a lighted  can- 
dle under  the  exhausted  receiver  im- 
mediately goes  out.  Air  is  thus  shown 
to  be  necessary  to  animal  life  and  to 
combustion.  A bell,  suspended  from  a 
silken  thread  beneath  the  exhausted 
receiver,  on  being  struck  cannot  be 
heard.  If  the  bell  be  in  one  receiver 
from  which  the  air  is  not  exhausted,  but 
which  is  within  an  exhausted  receiver, 
it  still  cannot  be  heard.  Air  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  the  production  and  to 
the  transmission  of  sound.  A shriveled 
apple  placed  beneath  an  exhausted  re- 
ceiver becomes  as  plump  as  if  quite 
fresh,  being  thus  shown  to  be  full  of 
elastic  air.  The  air-pump  was  invented 
by  Otto  von  Guericke,  burgomaster  of 
Magdeburg,  about  the  year  1654. 

AIRSHIP  and  FLYING  MACHINE, 
vehicles  for  navigating  the  atmospheric 
air,  the  first  being  buoyed  up  by  bal- 
loons filled  with  gas,  hydrogen  prefer- 
ably ; the  second  being  constructed  on 
the  principles  of  a bird’s  wing.  The 
earliest  successful  balloon  was  that 
made  by  the  brothers  Etienne  and  Jo- 
seph Montgolfier,  in  France,  who  in  1782 
succeeded  in  causing  a silk  bag  of  50 
cubic  feet  to  rise  to  the  ceiling  of  a 
room,  and  in  1783,  in  the  presence  of  an 
immense  crowd,  a balloon  35  feet  in 
diameter  rose  to  a height  of  1500  feet.  All 
successful  attempts  at  aerial  navigation 
until  1907-8  were  balloons.  The  gases 
employed  being  either  hydrogen  or  or- 
dinary coal  gas.  The  former  when  pure 
is  between  14  and  15  times  lighter  than 
atmospheric  air  and  the  latter  generally 
about  2 1-2  times  lighter.  According  to 
the  principles  of  Archimides  bodies  im- 
mersed in  a fluid  are  buoyed  upwards 
with  a force  equivalent  to  the  weight 
of  the  fluid  displaced  by  them.  If  their 
own  weight  is  not  sufficient  to  counter- 
balance this  force,  that  is  if  they  are 
lighter  than  this  fluid  they  rise  upward 
with  a force  equal  to  the  difference  be- 
tween the  weight  of  the  displaced  fluid 
and  their  own  weight.  Thus  the  balloon 
rises  in  the  air  in  the  same  way  that  a 
cork  rises  in  the  water.  Thus  for  in- 
stance if  a balloon  occupies  as  much 
space  as  1000  pounds  of  air,  but  weighs 


itself  600  pounds,  it  will  be  impelled  up- 
wards with  a force  of  400  pounds. 

Balloons  are  made  of  silk  or  cotton, 
the  pieces  sewn  together  and  all  of  it 
varnished  to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas. 
A network  of  cord  extends  over  the 
varnished  cloth  supporting  a hoop  from 
which  a car  is  suspended  by  6 or  more 
strong  ropes  about  4 feet  long.  Inside 
the  car  are  sand  bags  for  ballast  and  the 
grappling  iron  tied  to  the  end  of  a long 
rope  for  anchoring  the  balloon  at  the 
end  of  the  descent.  At  the  top  of  the 
balloon  there  is  a valve  made  of  wood 
from  one  to  three  feet  in  diameter. 
This  is  kept  closed  by  a spring  but  is 
opened  or  closed  by  a rope  running 
down  into  the  car.  When  the  balloon- 
ist wishes  to  ascend  he  throws  some 
of  the  ballast  over  the  side  of  the  car. 
If  he  wishes  to  descend  he  opens  the 
valve  and  the  place  of  the  escaping  gas 
is  taken  by  air  whose  heavier  weight 
increases  the  weight  of  the  balloon. 
Later  balloons  have  been  provided  with 
steering  apparatus  by  which  the  direc- 
tion of  their  flight  can  be  regulated  at 
will  and  not  be  left  to  wind. 

It  is  said  that  as  early  as  1306  success- 
ful balloon  ascents  were  made  by  the 


BaUoou  above  the  clouds. 


Chinese,  but  the  first  European  bal- 
loonist was  Guszman  v'ho  made  the  as- 
cent at  Lisbon  in  1709,  using  heated  air. 
The  first  hydrogen  balloon  was  made 
by  Black  of  Edinburg  in  1767.  Various 
experiments  were  made  in  Paris  by  the 
Mongolfiers,  and  in  May,  1783,  a balloon 
was  sent  up  100  ft.  carrying  a cage  with 
a sheep,  a cock  and  a duck.  These 
were  the  first  aerial  travellers.  Nov. 
21,  1783,  Pilatre  des  Rosieros  with  the 
Marquis  d’  Arlands  were  the  first  hu- 
man passengers  in  a balloon,  remain- 
ing in  the  air  25  minutes. 

The  highest  balloon  ascent  recorded 
was  one  of  seven  miles  made  from 
Wolverhampton,  Eng.  Sept.  5,  1862,  by 
Glazier  and  Coxwell.  At  this  great 
height  the  cold  was  intense,  the  ther- 
mometer standing  at  12  F.  The  barom- 
eter fell  7 inches,  as  compared  with  29 
at  the  surface  of  the  earth.  When  the 
balloon  was  29,000  feet  high,  Glaisher 


became  insensible,  and  remained  so  for 
seven  minutes.  Coxwell  at  this  height 
had  mounted  into  the  ring  to  adjust  the 
valve-line,  when  his  hands  became 
frozen,  and  he  had  to  open  the  valve  by 
seizing  the  line  with  his  teeth.  He  too 
was  nearly  insensible.  Up  to  the  height 
of  5 miles  the  aeronauts  experienced  no 
difficulty  in  breathing,  except  when 
some  exertion  was  made.  Perfect  still- 
ness and  silence  reigns  six  miles  above 
the  earth  but  a railway  train  in  motion 
can  be  heard  at  a height  of  4 miles. 

The  development  of  the  balloon  has 
been  chiefly  for  its  utilization  in  war. 
Balloon  corps  are  attached  to  the  armies 
of  the  leading  nations.  They  were  first 
used  in  France  in  1794  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  the  enemy.  During  the 
siege  of  Paris,  1870-71,  the  balloon  was 
extensively  employed.  For  military 
purposes  attempts  have  been  made  to 
construct  dirigible  balloons.  The  first 
notable  dirigible  flight  was  that  of 
Renaud  in  1884  when  in  a cigar  shaped 
balloon  with  a powerful  motor  and  a 
front  screw  he  traversed  an  oblong 
course  of  6 miles  in  23  minutes.  Notable 
successes  in  dirigible  balloons  have 
been  since  achieved  by  Santos  Dumont, 
Count  de  la  Vaux,  Count  Almirigo  and 
Lebaudy, — the  latter  made  a successful 
flight  of  more  than  80  miles  in  1906.  At 
the  race  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Aero  Clubs,  held  at  Chicago,  July  4,  ’08, 
Dr.  F.  D.  Fielding’s  balloon,  traveled 
895  miles,  landing  at  West  Shefford, 
Quebec, 

Attempts  to  imitate  the  flight  of  birds 
by  mechanical  contrivances  antedate 
the  balloon  by  several  hundred  years. 
The  first  properly  authenticated  account 
of  an  artificial  wing  was  given  by  Borelli 
in  1670,  and  his  investigations  and  ex- 
periments furnished  the  principal  basis 
for  experiments  until  1867.  In  this  year 
Professor  J.  B.  Pettigrew,  an  English 
scientist,  published  the  results  of  an 
elaborate  and  careful  series  of  studies 
made  by  him  upon  the  flight  of  birds, 
which  wrought  a revolution  in  the  con- 
struction of  flying  machines.  For  thirty 
years,  however,  inventors  struggled 
without  absolute  success. 

The  first  aeroplane  types  of  flying 
machines  were  designed  by  Maxim  and 
Langley  in  1891  to  ’96.  The  work  of  in- 
ventors and  scientists  along  the  line  of 
motor-driven,  flying  machines  has 
shown  steady  progress.  The  motors 
have  been  made  stronger  and  lighter, 
problems  of  rising  and  alighting  safely 
solved,  and  additional  scientific  know'- 
edge  of  aerial  conditions  has  been  gained- 
The  general  and  most  popular  design  is 
that  of  the  simple  aeroplane,  supportt  d 
by  air,  through  wfliich  it  is  propelled  by 
detached  force.  There  were  many  ex- 
periments along  these  lines  and  those 
of  1907  were  notable,  but  not  until  1908 
could  it  be  fairly  said  that  the  flying  by 
means  of  machines  heavier  than  the  at- 
mosphere had  become  an  accomplished 
fact.  The  experiments  in  that  direction 
in  former  years  were  completely  eclip- 
sed in  1908  by  Wilbur  and  Orville 
Wright,  Henry  Farman,  and  Leon  Del- 
agrange  and  others  working  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic.  For  a time  France 
appeared  to  lead  in  aviation,  but  that 
was  because  the  Americans  worked  more 


AIRSHIP  AND  FLYING  MACHINE 


AIRSHIP  AND  FLYING  MACHINE 


or  less  in  secret  while  the  exploits  of  the 
Frenchmen  were  widely  advertised.  At 
the  close  of  the  year  it  wUs  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  Wright  brothers 
of  Dayton,  O.,  were  far  in  the  lead  of  all 

In  1907  and  the  preceding  two  or 
three  years,  considerable  progress  was 
made  in  the  direction  of  constructing 
dirigible  balloons,  and  one  of  the  most 
successful  types  of  these  was  the  Zeppe- 
lin airship  in  Germany.  This  was  fur- 
ther developed  in  1908,  and  all  records 
for  performances  by  craft  in  which  gas  is 
the  sustaining  power  were  broken.  The 
most  remarkable  was  that  in  which  the 
airship  was  destroyed.  Count  Zeppelin 
started  from  the  waters  of  Lake  Con- 
stance at  6 :15  a.  m.  Aug.  4,  in  an  attempt 
to  make  the  longest  flight  on  record  for 
a dirigible  balloon.  He  passed  over  the 
city  of  Constance  and  kept  to  the  west 
until  Basel,  on  the  Swiss  frontier,  was 
'passed.  Then  he  sailed  north-west  to 
Mulhausen  and  thence  northeasterly 
along  the  Rhine  valley,  passing  over 
Strassburg  and  other  cities  and  continu- 
ing until  6 o’clock  in  the  evening  when 
a landing  was  made  on  an  island  in  the 
Rhine,  near  Oppenheim,  Germany.  One 
of  the  motors  was  out  of  order  and  a 
stop  had  to  be  made  for  repairs.  At 
10:15p.  m.  the  flight  was  resumed  until 
Mayence  was  reached.  After  encircling 
the  city  the  airship  was  turned  in  the 
direction  of  home.  All  went  well  until 
Echterdingen,  five  miles  south  of  Stutt- 
gart, was  reached,  about  8 a.  m.  on  the 
5th.  Here  it  became  necessary  to  make 
another  descent  owing  to  the  fusing  of 
the  metal  in  which  the  piston  of  the 
forward  motor  ran  and  also  because  of 
the  escape  of  gas  caused  by  an  ascent  of 
6,000  feet  in  the  air  while  maneuvering. 
The  landing  was  safely  made  and  the 
necessary  repairs  were  being  made  when 
at  3 o’clock  in  the  afternoon  a storm, 
arose,  tore  the  balloon  from  its  moorings 
and  drove  it  some  fifty  yards.  Here  the 
rear  end  of  the  fabric  drooped  and  in  a 
moment  smoke  and  flames  were  seen  to 
burst  out  from  one  end  to  the  other, 
followed  almost  immediately  by  an  ex- 
plosion which  brought  the  motors  and 
framework  crashing  to  the  ground. 
Four  of  the  crew  were  injured,  but 
Count  Zeppelin  escaped  being  hurt. 
The  craft,  which  was  the  fourth  con- 
structed by  Count  Zeppelin,  was  com- 
pletely destroyed.  It  was  443  feet  long 
with  a diameter  of  about  45  feet.  The 
balloon  part  was  separated  into  sixteen 
separate  interior  compartments  for  the 
inflating  gas.  The  bow  tapered  to  a 
blunt  point,  while  at  the  stern  were  the 
rudders  and  frames  used  in  steering. 
Underneath  were  suspended  two  inde- 
pendent platforms,  each  carrying  a 
motor  capable  of  developing  140  horse 
power.  The  outer  part  of  the  airship 
consisted  of  a rigid  envelope  of  alumi- 
num, this  among  other  things  making  it 
distinct  from  any  other  craft  of  the 
kind  constructed.  It  had  made  many 
successful  trips  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Constance  and  had  carried  as  many  as 
sixteen  passengers  at  one  time. 

The  other  dirigible  air  ships  of  the 
balloon  type  that  attracted  attention  in 
1908  were  the  Parseval  in  Germany,  the 
Republic  (La  Rcpublique)  in  France 


and  the  Baldwin  in  the  United  States. 
These,  though  differing  in  detail,  are 
similar  in  principle,  the  lifting  power 
in  each  being  a balloon  of  the  usual 
materials  and  the  motive  power  a gas 
engine  working  in  a suspended  frame. 
The  Parseval,  named  after  its  inventor. 
Major  Von  Parseval,  made  a trip  from 
Berlin,  Sept.  15,  lasting  11  hours  and  15 
minutes,  at  a height  of  about  1,500  feet 
and  at  a speed  of  about  25  miles  an  hour. 
The  balloon  is  157  feet  long  and  26  feet 
in  diameter,  and  its  gas  capacity  is 
3,270  cubic  yards.  It  is  tube-shaped 
with  rounded  ends.  The  car,  which  is 
about  20  feet  in  length,  is  suspended  so 
as  to  swing  backward  and  forward  in 
its  plane  parallel  to  the  gas  bag,  not 
being  rigidly  fastened  to  it.  The  pro- 
peller, 14  feet  in  diameter,  is  situated 
just  above  the  car. 

The  dirigible  balloon  made  by  Capt. 
Thomas  A.  Baldwin,  and  accepted  by 
the  war  department  of  the  United 
States,  is  84  feet  long,  with  a maximum 
diameter  of  18  feet  and  a minimum  di- 
ameter of  16  feet,  and  a capacity  of 
18,000  cubic  feet  of  gas.  The  suspended 
frame  is  66  feet  in  length  and  the  12 
foot  propeller  makes  450  revolutions 
per  minute,  driving  the  airship  at  the 
rate  of  about  20  miles  an  hour.  The 
engine  is  of  twenty  horse-power.  The 
ship  is  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of 
box-kite  planes  at  the  forward  end. 

The  Wright  aeroplane,  which  won  the 
honors  of  the  year  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  is  what  is  called  a biplane, 
the  surfaces  of  which  are  parallel,  ex- 
actly one  above  the  other  and  slightly 
concave  on  the  lower  surface.  They  are 
made  of  cloth  stretched  on  a frame- 
work of  spruce.  They  are  40  feet  long 
and  6^  feet  wide,  giving  a total  area  of 
260  square  feet.  The  distance  between 
the  planes  is  6 feet.  In  front  is  a hori- 
zontal biplane  rudder  for  regulating 
the  height  of  flight,  at  the  back  a verti- 
cal biplane  rudder  for  steering.  The 
total  length  of  the  machine  is  33  feet. 
Between  the  planes  is  a four-cylinder 
water-cooled  twenty-flve  horse-power 
motor,  designed  by  the  Wright  broth- 
ers. On  its  right  is  a radiator  with  flat 
copper  tubes  and  on  its  left  sit  the  pilot 
and  passenger.  The  motor  drives  two 
wooden  propellers  10  feet  in  diameter 
by  means  of  crossed  chains.  The  pro- 
pellers revolve  in  opposite  directions 
and  are  geared  down  in  the  ratio  of  33 
to  9.  The  total  weight  of  the  aeroplane 
with  one  man  on  board  is  about  1,000 
pounds.  The  motor  in  working  order 
weighs  200  pounds. 

The  method  of  operation  is  apparent- 
ly very  simple.  The  most  interesting 
feature  consists  in  the  “working”  of 
the  extreme  under  part  of  the  wings, 
whereby  the  flight  of  a bird  is  imitated 
and  perfect  lateral  stability  is  secured. 
The  rudder  which  regulates  the  hori- 
zontal balance  has  to  be  used  almost 
continually.  In  order  to  make  a flight 
a wooden  rail  about  72  feet  long  is  laid 
on  the  ground.  The  aeroplane  rests 
upon  wooden  “skates”  and  has  two 
rollers  in  front.  On  the  rail  runs  a lit- 
tle car  upon  which  the  aeroplane  rests 
and  the  rollers  on  the  rail.  When  the 
screws  begin  to  revolve  the  machine 


flies  rapidly  along  the  rail  and  at  its 
extremity  rises  into  the  air  by  the  help 
of  the  horizontal  rudder  When  there 
is  a wind  the  rail  alone  is  sufficient.  In 
calm  weather  the  aeroplane  is  launched 
as  by  a catapult,  by  means  of  a weight 
of  1,500  pounds,  which  falls  from  the 
top  of  a pillar  18  feet  high  and  pulls 
upon  ropes  passing  through  pulleys. 

The  French  rights  in  the  Wright  pat- 
ents were  sold  in  October,  1908,  to  a 
syndicate  headed  by  Lazare  Weiller  for 
.$100,000.  The  tests  in  France  were  made 
in  the  vicinity  of  Le  Mans  by  Wilbur 
Wright,  while  those  in  the  United  States 
by  Orville  Wright  took  place  at  Fort  My- 
er,  Va.,  under  the  supervision  of  army 
officers. 

Next  after  the  Wright  aeroplane,  that 
invented  by  Henry  Farman  of  Paris 
was  the  most  successful,  with  that  con- 
structed by  Leon  Delagrange,  also  of 
Paris,  a close  third.  The  Farman  ma- 
chine consists  of  two  superimposed 
aero  surfaces,  each  about  33  feet  long 
by  6)^  feet  wide  and  set  5 feet  apart. 
The  framework  of  the  ship  is  of 
wood  and  steel  tubing,  and  the  covering 
of  the  aerosurfaces  rubber.  The  body 
for  carrying  motor  and  other  machinery 
and  the  aeronaut  is  covered  with  can- 
vas and  is  15  feet  long,  2)4  feet  wide. 
The  motor  is  of  the  petrol  Antoinette 
type  and  the  propeller,  which  is  7^  feet 
in  diameter,  is  of  aluminum  sheeting. 
It  makes  1,050  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  machine  is  mounted  on  bicycle 
wheels  and  starts  by  running  alon^he 
ground  under  its  own  power  until  luted 
by  the  planes.  In  alighting  the  power 
is  simply  shut  off  and  the  machine  al- 
lowed to  glide  toward  the  ground.  The 
whole  contrivance  weighs  about  1,600 
pounds.  The  Delagrange  aeroplane  is 
similar  in  most  respects  to  the  Farman 
machine,  the  latter  being  practically 
only  an  improved  model  of  the  former. 

AEROPLANE  RECORDS 
Sept  12,  1908 — Orville  Wright  remained 
in  air  74  minutes  24  seconds  at  Fort 
Myer,  Va. ; also  remained  in  air  9 
minutes  seconds  with  one  passen- 
ger accompanying  him ; distance  5.88 
miles. 

Sept.  16,  1908 — Wilbur  Wright,  26  miles, 
in  39  minutes  18f  seconds,  at  Le 
Mans,  France. 

Sept.  17, 1908 — Orville  Wright  badly  in- 
jured and  Lieut.  Thomas  E.  Selfridge 
killed  in  aeroplane  accident  at  Fort 
Myer,  Va, 

Sept,  21,  1908 — Wilbur  Wright,  about 
61  miles,  in  1 hour  31  minutes  51  sec- 
onds, at  Le  Mans,  France;  eclipsing 
all  previous  records. 

Oct.  2,  1908 — Henry  Farman,  40  kilo- 
meters, in  44  minutes  32  seconds  at 
Paris,  France ; claimed  as  speed 
record. 

Oct.  6,  1908 — Wilbur  Wright,  with  pas- 
senger, remains  in  air  1 hour  4 min- 
utes 26  seconds,  at  Le  Mans,  France. 
Oct  30, 1908 — Henry  Farman  flies  from 
Mourmelon  to  Rheims,  in  France,  20 
miles  in  20  minutes,  at  height  of  120 
to  150  feet. 

December  31,  1908 — Wilbur  Wright 
breaks  all  previous  aeroplane  records 
at  Le  Mans,  France,  with  a flight  of 


AISLE 


AKKAS 


two  hours  and  nine  minutes,  thereby 
winning  the  Micheiin  cup. 

July  25,  1909. — Louis  Bleriot  flies 
across  the  English  Channel  from 
Calais  to  Dover  in  his  monoplane  in 
less  than  thirty  minutes. 

July  27,  1909. — Orville  Wright  makes 
a new  world’s  record  for  an  aeroplane 
carrying  one  passenger  in  his  endur- 
ance test  flight  at  Fort  Myer,  remain- 
ing in  the  air  1 hour,  12  minutes,  and 
36  seconds. 

July  30,  1909. — The  Wright  brothers 
successfully  complete  their  aeroplane 
tests  for  the  Government,  the  10-mile 
straightaway  flight,  with  turn,  being 
made  at  a speed  of  more  than  42  miles 
an  hour. 

July  31,  1909. — The  dirigible  balloon 
Zeppelin  II  sails  from  Friedrichshaven 
to  Frankfort,  a distance  of  220  miles,  at 
an  average  speed  of  21  miles  an  hour. 
The  Wright  aeroplane  is  formally 
recognized  at  Washington  as  the  arm 
of  the  aeroplane  corps  of  the  United 
States  Army. 

Aug.  29,  1909. — Latham  at  Reims 
reached  a height  of  505  feet.  Glenn 
H.  Curtiss,  American,  traveled  eigh- 
teen miles  in  25  minutes,  49  seconds. 

The  year  1909  saw  Louis  Bleriot’s 
daring  flight  across  the  English  Chan- 
nel. At  sunrise  on  the  morning  of 
July  25  M.  Bleriot  started  from  the 
high  cliffs  near  Calais  in  a monoplane 
that  he  had  just  tested  by  a trial  trip 
of  nine  miles.  In  ten  minutes  he  could 
not  be  seen  from  the  French  shore,  and 
the  torpedo  boat  that  started  several 
miles  in  advance  of  him  was  soon 
passed.  As  he  came  within  sight  of 
the  English  shore  he  found  that  the 
southwest  wind  had  carried  him  a few 
miles  out  of  his  course.  He  turned 
into  the  wind  and  went  up  the  coast 
until  he  came  to  an  opening  in  the 
cliffs  near  Dover.  Here  he  made  a 
safe  landing,  although  an  abrupt  drop 
from  a height  of  sixty-five  feet  was 
caused  by  a strong  wind.  The  news 
was  greeted  in  Paris  with  wild  en- 
thusiasm and  everywhere  appeared  the 
statement  that  “ England  is  no  longer 
an  island.”  The  fact  that  longer  and 
faster  flights  have  been  made  by  an 
aeroplane  over  the  land  does  not  be- 
little the  daring  venture  of  M.  Bleriot. 
It  requires  nerve  to  start  from  a cliff 
several  hundred  feet  high  to  cross 
an  arm  of  the  sea  twenty-five  miles 
wide  with  the  rescue  boat  several 
miles  behind.  The  time  for  the  trip 
was  37  minutes  and  the  speed  about 
40  miles  an  hour.  It  was  a distinct 
achievement  for  the  monoplane  type 
of  aeroplane.  This  particular  machine, 
both  designed  and  built  by  M.  Bleriot, 
was  twenty-six  feet  wide,  the  smallest 
that  he  has  used.  M.  Bleriot  also  has 
the  honor  of  being  the  only  aviator 
who  has  driven  an  aeroplane  carrying 
three  people. 

AISLE  (il),  in  architecture,  one  of  the 
lateral  divisions  of  a church  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  separated  from 
the  central  portion  or  nave  by  piers  or 
pillars.  There  may  be  one  aisle  or 
more  on  each  side  of  the  nave.  The 
catliedrals  at  Antwerp  and  Paris  have 
seven  aisles  in  all.  The  nave  is  some- 
times called  the  central  aisle.  See 
Cathedral. 


AISNE  (an),  a northeastern  frontier 
dep  artment  of  France;  area,  2838  sq. 
miles.  It  is  an  undulating,  well-culti- 
vated, and  well-wooded  region,  chiefly 
watered  by  the  Oise  in  the  north,  its 
tributary  the  Aisne  in  the  center,  and 
the  Marne  in  the  south.  It  contains  the 
important  towns  of  St.  Quentin,  Laon 
(the  capital),  Soissons,  and  Chateau 
Thierry.  Pop.  555,925. 

AIVA'LI,  or  KIDONIA,  a seaport  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Gulf  of  Adramyti, 
66  miles  north  by  west  of  Smyrna,  carry- 
ing on  an  extensive  commerce  in  olive- 
oil,  soap,  cotton,  etc.  Pop.  30,000. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (aks-la-sha-pel), 
a city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  38  miles  west 
by  south  of  Cologne.  The  most  import- 
ant building  is  the  cathedral,  the  oldest 
portion  of  which,  often  called  the  nave, 
was  erected  in  the  time  of  Charles  the 
Great  (Charlemagne)  as  the  palace 
chapel  about  796.  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
with  the  adjoining  Burtscheid,  which 
may  be  considered  a suburb,  is  a place 
of  great  commerce  and  manufacturing 
industry,  the  chief  productions  being 
woolen  yarns  and  cloths,  needles, 
machinery,  cards  (for  the  woolen  manu- 
facture), railway  and  other  carriages, 
cigars,  chemicals,  silk  goods,  hosiery, 
glass,  soap,  etc.  A considerable  por- 
tion of  its  importance  and  prosperity 
arises  from  the  influx  of  vistors  to  its 
springs  and  baths,  there  being  a num- 
ber of  warm  sulphur  springs  here,  and 
several  chalybeate  springs,  with  ample 
accommodation  for  strangers.  Thirty- 
seven  German  emperors  and  eleven 
empresses  have  been  crowned  in  it,  and 
the  imperial  insignia  were  preserved 
here  till  1795,  when  they  were  carried 
to  Vienna.  Pop.  135,245. — Congress 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  a congress  held  in 
1818,  by  which  the  army  of  the  allies  in 
France  was  withdrawn  after  France 
had  paid  the  contribution  imposed  at 
the  peace  of  1815,  and  independence 
restored  to  France. — A treaty  of  peace 
concluded  at  this  city.  May  2,  1668,  as 
a result  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  put  an 
end  to  the  war  carried  on  against  Spain 
by  Louis  XIV.  in  1667,  after  the  death 
of  his  father-in-law  Philip  IV.,  in  sup- 
port of  his  claims  to  a great  part  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  which  he  urged 
in  the  name  of  his  queen,  the  infanta 
Maria  Theresa.  By  this  France  ob- 
tained Lille,  Cliarleroi,  Douai,  Tournia, 
Oudenarde,  etc.  The  second  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  October  18,  1748,  ter- 
minated the  Austrian  war  of  succession. 

AJACCIO  (a-yach'6),  the  capital  of 
Corsica,  on  the  southwest  coast  of  the 
island,  on  a tongue  of  land  projecting 
into  the  Gulf  of  Ajaccio,  the  birthplace 
of  Napoleon  and  the  seat  of  a bishop, 
with  coral  and  sardine  fisheries,  and  a 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  20,946. 

A'JAX,  the  name  of  two  Grecian 
chiefs  who  fought  against  Troy,  the 
one  being  son  of  Olleus,  the  other  son 
of  Telamon.  The  latter  was  from  Salamis, 
and  sailed  with  twelve  ships  to  Troy, 
where  he  is  represented  by  Homer  as  the 
boldest  and  handsomest  of  the  Greeks, 
after  Achilles.  On  the  death  of  Achilles, 
when  his  arms,  which  Ajax  claimed, 
were  awarded  to  Ulysses,  he  became 
insane  and  killed  himself.  This  is  the 
subject  to  Sophocles’s  tragedy  Ajiix. 


AJMEER',  AJMIR,  or  AJMER,  a 

British  commissionership  in  India,  Raj- 
putana,  divided  into  the  two  districts 
of  Ajmeer  and  Mairwara;  area,  2711  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  476,912. — Ajmeer,  the  cap- 
ital, an  ancient  city,  a favorite  residence 
of  the  Mogul  emperors,  is  279  miles  s.w. 
of  Delhi,  at  the  foot  of  Taragarh  Hill 
(2853  feet),  on  which  is  a fort.  Pop. 
73,839. 

AJOWAN',  an  umbelliferous  plant 
cultivated  in  India,  Persia,  and  Egypt, 
the  seeds  of  which  are  used  in  cookery 
and  in  medicine,  having  carminative 
properties. 

AKAROID  RESIN,  a resin  obtained 
from  some  of  the  grass-trees  of  Australia, 
used  in  varnishes. 

AK'BAR,  a Mogul  emperor,  the  great- 
est Asiatic  prince  of  modern  times.  He 
was  born  at  Amerkote,  in  Sind,  in  1542, 
succeeded  his  father,  Humayun,  at  the 
age  of  thirteen,  and  governed  first  under 
the  guardianship  of  his  minister,  Beyram, 
but  took  the  chief  power  into  his  own 
hands  in  1560.  He  fought  with  dis- 
tinguished valor  against  his  foreign 
foes  and  rebellious  subjects,  conquering 
all  his  enemies,  and  extending  the  limits 
of  the  empire  farther  than  they  had  ever 
been  before,  although  on  his  accession 
they  embraced  only  a small  part  of  the 
former  Mogul  Empire.  He  died  in  1605. 
His  mausoleum  at  Secundra,  near  Agra, 
is  a fine  example  of  Mohammedan  archi- 
tecture. 

AKEE',  a tree  much  esteemed  for  its 
fruit.  The  leaves  are  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  ash;  the  flowers  are 
small  and  white,  and  produced  in 
branched  spikes.  The  fruit  is  lobed  and 
ribbed,  of  a dull  orange  color,  and  con- 
tains several  large  black  seeds,  embedded 
in  a succulent  and  slightly  bitter  arillus 
of  a pale  straw  color,  which  is  eaten 
when  cooked.  The  akee  is  a native  of 
Guinea,  whence  it  was  carried  to  the 
West  Indies  by  Captain  Bligh  in  1793. 

A KEMPIS,  Thomas.  See  Thomas  ^ 
Kempis. 

AKHUND  OF  SWAT,  The,  a noted 
Mohammedan  dervish  and  saint  who 
exerted  a considerable  influence  on  the 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan  during  the 
Turko-Russian  war  of  1877.  The 
akhund  caused  no  end  of  anxiety  to  the 


Akka-African  tribe. 


British  government,  although  he  was 
generally  friendly  to  that  power.  He 
died  in  1878. 

AKKAS,  a dwarfish  race  of  central 
Africa,  dwelling  in  scattered  settle- 
ments to  the  northwest  of  Lake  Albert 


AKMOLINSK 


ALABAMA 


Nyanza,  about  lat.  3°  n.,  Ion.  29®  e. 
Their  height  averages  about  4^  feet; 
they  are  of  a brownish  or  coffee  color; 
head  large,  jaws  projecting  (or  prog- 
nathous), ears  large,  hands  small.  They 
are  timid  and  suspicious,  and  live  almost 
entirely  by  the  chase,  being  exceedingly 
skilful  with  the  bow  and  arrow. 

AKMOLINSK',  a Russian  province 
in  central  Asia,  largely  consisting  of 
steppes  and  wastes.  Capital,  Omsk. 
Area  about  210,000  sq.  m.  Pop.  678,957. 

AK'RON,  a town  of  the  United  States, 
in  Ohio,  100  miles  n.e.  of  Columbus,  on 
an  elevated  site.  Being  furnished  with 
ample  water-power  by  the  Little  Cuya- 
hoga, it  possesses  large  flour-mills, 
woolen  factories,  manufactures  of  iron 
oods,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  extensive 
eds  of  mineral  paint  are  worked. 
Pop.  45,000. 

AKSU,  a town  of  Chinese  Turkestan, 
260  miles  northeast  of  Yarkand  at  the 
southern  base  of  the  Thian-shan  moun- 
tains. It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
separate  khanate ; in  1867  it  became  a 
part  of  the  state  of  Eastern  Turkestan 
under  Yakub  Beg,  but  was  conouered 
again  by  China  in  1867.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  manufactures  of  cotton  cloth 
and  saddlery,  and  is  much  resorted  to 
by  caravans  as  a entrepot  of  commerce 
between  Russia  Tartary  and  China. 

AKYAB,  a town  of  Burmah,  the 
chief  seaport  of  Aracan,  is  situated  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island  of  the 
same  name  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kula- 
ban  river  190  miles  east  of  Calcutta.  In 
1826,  being  then  a mere  fishing  village, 
it  was  chosen  for  the  chief  station  of 
the  province  and  now  is  a great  rice 
port,  a well  built  place  with  broad  and 
regular  streets,  good  public  buildings 
and  a high  school.  Savage  island  with 
a light  house,  shelters  the  harbor.  Pop. 
40,000.  Island  of  the  same  name  has 
population  of  450,000. 


ALABAMA  (al-a-ba'ma),  a Gulf  State 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Tennessee,  on 
the  south  by  Florida  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  on  the  east  by  Georgia,  and  on 
the  west  by  Mississippi.  Its  length  is 
330  miles,  average  breadth  164,  and  area 
60,722  square  miles.  It  ranks  twenty- 
seventh  in  size  among  the  states.  The 
Alleghany  range  stretches  into  the 
northern  portion  of  the  state,  but  the 
elevation  is  nowhere  great.  The  Alaba- 
ma is  the  chief  river  of  the  state.  It  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Coosa  and 


the  Talapoosa,  which  unite  about  10 
miles  above  the  city  of  Montgomery. 
Forty-five  miles  above  Mobile  the  Ala- 
bama is  joined  by  the  Tombigbee,  and 
from  that  point  is  known  as  the  Mobile 
River.  It  is  navigable  from  Mobile  to 
\Vetumpka,on  the  Coosa, some460mile3. 
The  Tombigbee  is  navigable  to  Colum- 
bus, and  the  Black  Warrior,  one  of  its 
chief  tributaries,  to  Tuscaloosa.  The 
Tennessee  fiows  through  the  northern 
portion  of  the  state,  and  the  Chattahoo- 
chee forms  part  of  its  eastern  boundary. 
The  climate  of  Alabama  is  semi-tropical. 
The  temperature  ranges  from  82°  to  18° 
Fahr.  in  winter,  and  in  summer  from 
105°  to  60° ; the  mean  temperature  for 
the  year  being  a little  over  60°. 

Alabama  possesses  a rich  soil  of  varied 
character,  and  produces  corn  and  cotton 
in  abundance.  Wheat,  oats  and  hay  also 
form  important  articles  of  agricultural 
production.  The  State  is  heavily  tim- 
bered, especially  in  the  southern  tier  of 
counties. 

Shipments  of  cotton  are  made  from 
Mobile,  and  through  Savannah,  Ga., 
New  Orleans  and  Charleston,  S.  C.  Rice 
and  sugar  cane,  sweet  potatoes,  and  all 
kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits  are  abun- 
dant, and  some  tobacco  is  grown  in  the 
north.  There  is  an  abundant  rainfall, 
aggregating  fifty  to  fifty-four  inches  per 
annum, and  well  distributed  throughout 
the  seasons.  Much  attention  is  given  to 
stock-raising. 

The  abundant  mineral  resources  of 
Alabama  have  been  developed  wonder- 
fully during  the  last  decade.  Coal  is 
found  in  vast  deposits,  side  by  side  with 
beds  of  limestone  and  iron  ore  of  enor- 
mous extent.  In  the  valleys  of  the 
Tennessee  and  upper  Alabama  rivers, 
the  enterprising  cities  Birmingham, 
Besemer,  Sheffield,  Roanoke,  Hunts- 
ville, Decatur  and  others  rank  with  the 
most  energetic  mining  and  manufactur- 
ingcitiesof  the  North.  It  isclaimed  that 
pig  iron  can  be  manufactured  more 
[cheaply  in  Alabama  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  Unio,.  There  are  large  manu- 
factures of  cotton  good^,  and  many 
varied  industries  have  been  introduced. 
The  railway  system  has  been  rapidly 
extended  since  the  war.  In  1907  there 
were  2,985  miles  of  completed  railroad. 

The  population  of  Alabama,  1,262,606 
in  1880,  increased  19.4  per  cent,  during 
the  decade,  and  the  census  of  1890  re- 
turns it  at  1,513,107.  It  is  now,  1909,  es- 
timated by  the  Governor  of  the  state  to  be 
2,100,000.  There  are  over  half  a million 
colored  people  in  the  State.  The  chief 
towns  are  Montgomery,  the  capital, 
Mobile,  Birmingham,  Bessemer,  Annis- 
ton, and  Huntsville.  Mobile  is  the  only 
seaport. 

There  is  a good  school  system,  supple- 
mented by  State-aided  universities,  and 
normal  and  training  schools.  In  the 
larger  cities  there  are  separate  school 
districts. 

Alabama  was  first  visited  by  De  Soto 
in  1540,  and  takes  its  name  from  the  very 
powerful  nation  of  Indians  that  were 
at  that  time  found  occupying  it.  Among 
these  were  the  Alibamas,  the  Choctaws, 
the  Chickasaws,  the  Cherokees,  and  the 
Apalaches.  In  1702  the  French  settled 
at  Biloxi,  founded  Mobile  in  1711,  and 
for  many  years  were  discouraged  by 


disease  and  famine.  In  1763  Alabama 
was  added  to  Illinois  territory  and 
passed  through  various  vicissitudes  of 
Indian  wars,  claims  from  different 
countries  and  neighboring  states,  until 
in  1817  it  was  formed  into  a territory 
and  two  years  later  admitted  into  the 
Union.  Early  in  1861  an  ordinance  of 
secession  was  adopted,  and  Montgomery 
was  made  the  temporary  capital  of  the 
Confederacy.  The  State  was  the  theater 
of  war  in  1862,  and  in  1864  Mobile  was 
the  scene  of  a naval  battle,  and  her  forts 
were  silenced  by  Farragut.  In  1865 
Mobile,  Selma,  and  Montgomery  were 
taken  by  Federal  troops,  and  a provi- 
sional governor  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Johnson  later  in  that  year.  In  1868 
a new  constitution  was  adopted,  and 
the  State  was  readmitted  to  representa- 
tion in  congress. 

On  July  14, 1868,  military  rule  ceased, 
and  on  November  16,  1870,  the  State 
ratified  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the 
Federal  constitution.  For  a decade  af- 
ter the  Civil  War,  Alabama  suffered 
from  maladministration.  Party  spirit 
ran  very  high,  and  elections  were  bit- 
terly contested.  The  dishonesty  of 
officials  and  the  extravagant  railway 
policy  they  pursued  brought  the  State 
andthechief  towns  into  serious  financial 
difficulties.  With  the  reorganization  of 
the  public  debt  in  1876  began  an  era  of 
quiet  and  prosperity.  Since  1874  Ala- 
bama has  been  invariably  Democratic. 
In  1901  a constitutional  convention 
changed  the  organic  law  in  such  a man- 
ner as  to  insure  political  supremacy  to 
the  white  population, 

ALABAMA,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  State  of  Alabama,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Coosa  and  the 
Tallapoosa.  After  a course  of  300  miles 
it  joins  the  Tombigbee  and  assumes  the 
name  of  the  Mobile. 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  See  Alabama, 
The. 

ALABAMA,  The,  a ship  built  at  Birk- 
enhead, England,  to  act  as  a privateer 
in  the  service  of  the  Confederate  States 
of  North  America  during  the  civil  war 
begun  in  1861.  Before  she  was  launched 
her  destination  was  made  known  to  the 
British  government,  but  owing  to  some 
legal  formalities  the  orders  given  for  her 
detention  did  not  reach  Liverpool  till 
the  day  after  she  had  left  that  port  (29th 
July,  1862).  She  received  her  arma- 
ment and  stores  at  the  Azores,  and  en- 
tered on  her  destructive  career,  captur- 
ing and  burning  merchant  vessels,  till 
she  was  sunk  in  a fight  with  the  Federal 
war  steamer  Kearsarge,  off  Cherbourg, 
19th  June,  1864.  As  early  as  the  winter 
of  1862  the  United  States  government 
declared  that  they  held  themselves 
entitled  at  a suitable  period  to  demand 
full  compensation  from  Britain  for  the 
damages  inflicted  on  American  property 
by  the  Alabama  and  several  other 
cruisers  that  had  been  built,  supplied, 
or  recruited  in  British  ports  or  waters. 
After  a long  series  of  negotiations  it  was 
agreed  to  submit  the  final  settlement  of 
the  question  to  a court  of  arbitration, 
consisting  of  representatives  of  Britain, 
and  the  United  States,  and  of  three 
other  members,  appointed  by  the  King 
of  Italy,  the  President  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  This  court 


ALABASTER 


ALBACETE 


met  at  Geneva,  17th  December,  1871, 
and  a decree  was  given  in  September, 
1872,  that  Britain  was  liable  to  the 
United  States  in  damages  to  the  amount 
of  15,500,000  dollars.  After  all  awards 
were  made  to  private  claimants  about 
8,000,000  dollars  still  remain  unclaimed. 

ALABASTER,  a name  applied  to  a 
granular  variety  of  gypsum  or  hydrated 
sulphate  of  lime.  It  has  a fine  granular 
texture,  is  usually  of  a pure  white  color, 
and  is  so  soft  that  it  can  be  scratched 
with  the  nail.  It  is  found  in  many  parts 
of  Europe;  in  great  abundance  and  of 
peculiarly  excellent  quality  in  Tuscany. 

ALAMEDA  (a'la-ma'da),  a city  in 
Alameda  county,  California,  six  miles 
across  the  bay  from  San  Francisco,  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  Its 
growth  has  been  rapid  since  1870.  Pop. 
19,124. 

AL'AMO,  a fort  in  Bexar  county, 
Texas,  U.  S.,  celebrated  for  the  resist- 
ance its  occupants  (140  Texans)  made 
to  a Mexican  force  of  4000  from  23d 
February  to  6th  March,  1836.  At  the 
latter  date  only  six  Texans  remained 
alive,  and  on  their  surrendering  they 
were  slaughtered  by  the  Mexicans. 

ALAND  (o'land)  ISLANDS,  a numer- 
ous group  of  islands  and  islets,  about 
eighty  of  which  are  inhabited,  belong- 
ing to  Russia,  situated  in  the  Baltic  Sea, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland; 
area,  468  square  miles.  The  principal 
island,  Aland,  distant  about  30  miles 
from  the  Swedish  coast,  is  18  miles  long 
and  about  14  broad.  It  has  a harbor 
capable  of  containing  the  whole  Russian 
fleet.  The  fortress  of  Bomarsund,  here 
situated,  was  destroyed  by  an  Anglo- 
French  force  in  August,  1854.  The  in- 
habitants, who  are  of  Swedish  extrac- 
tion, employ  themselves  mostly  in  fish- 
ing. The  islands  were  ceded  by  Sweden 
to  Russia  in  1809.  Pop.  18,000. 

ALA'NI,  or  ALANS,  one  of  the  war- 
like tribes  which  migrated  from  Asia 
westward  at  the  time  of  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  empire.  They  are  first  met 
with  in  the  region  of  the  Caucasus, 
where  Pompey  fought  with  them.  From 
this  center  they  spread  over  the  south 
of  modern  Russia  to  the  confines  of  the 
Roman  empire.  About  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  they  joined  the  Van- 
dals, among  whom  they  become  lost  to 
history. 

ALARM,  in  military  language,  a sig- 
nal, given  by  beat  of  drum,  bugle-call, 
or  firing  of  a gun,  to  apprise  a camp  or 
garrison  of  a surprise  intended  or 
actually  made  by  the  enemy.  A place, 
called  the  alarm-post,  is  generally  ap- 
pointed at  which  the  troops  are  to 
assemble  when  an  alarm  is  given. — 
Alarm  is  also  the  name  given  to  several 
contrivances  in  which  electricity  is  made 
use  of,  as  a fire-alarm,  by  which  intelli- 
gence is  at  once  conveyed  to  the  proper 
quarter  when  a fire  breaks  out;  a bur- 
glar-alarm, an  arrangement  of  wires  and 
a battery  in  a house  intended  to  set  a 
bell  or  bells  ringing  should  a burglar 
attempt  to  gain  entrance. 

ALARM-CLOCK,  one  which  can  be 
set  so  as  to  ring  loudly  at  a.  certain  hour 
to  wake  from  sleep  or  excite  attention. 

ALASKA,  the  largest  of  the  territories 
of  the  United  States,  comprising  a vast 
part  of  the  northwest  of  the  North 


American  continent.  It  wag  purchaged 
in  1867  from  Russia  for  $7,200,000. 
Its  area  is  577,400  square  miles,  includ- 
ing not  only  an  enormous  tract  of  main- 
land, but  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  the 
.Alexander  Archipelago,  the  Kadiak 
Islands,  the  Aleutian  Islands,  Pribyloff, 
and  St.  Lawrence  Island  in  Bering 
Strait.  Its  coast  line  is  longer  than  that 
of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United 
States.  The  principal  river  is  the  Yukon, 
which  rises  in  British  Columbia  less 
than  200  miles  n.n.e.  of  Sitka,  strikes  a 
broad  arc  of  a circle  more  than  2,000 
miles  long,  and  enters  Bering  Sea  on  the 
s.  side  of  Norton  Sound  through  an  ex- 
tensive delta.  At  600  miles  from  the 
coast  it  is  over  a mile  wide,  and  the 
volume  of  its  water  is  so  great  as  to 
freshen  the  water  10  miles  off  shore  from 
its  principal  mouth.  The  next  largest 
river  is  the  Kuskokwim,  which  rises  on 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alaskan  range 
of  mountains  to  the  eastward  of  the 
meridian  of  150°  w.,  and  empties  into 
Kuskokwim  Bay,  Bering  Sea,  in  about 
lat.  60°  n.  Like  the  following,  it  is  but 
little  known.  Next  in  order  of  size  are 
the  Colville,  flowing  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean  e.  of  Point  Barrow;  the  Copper, 
flowing  southward  from  the  Alaska 
Mountains,  and  emptying  into  the  Bay 
of  Alaska  in  about  Ion.  145°  w.;  the 
Suschitno,  and  several  Arctic  streams. 
The  Rocky  Mountains  turn  westward 
in  about  lat.  63°  n.  and  pass  into  the 
Alaska  Mountains,  a range  which  runs 
first  w.,  then  s.w.,  and  is  finally  pro- 
longed into  the  peninsula  of  Alaska  and 
the  Aleutian  Islands,  the  peaks  in  the 
two  latter  being  often  volcanic.  This 
range  apparently  culminates  in  Mt. 
Wrangel,  in  about  Ion.  145°  w.,  lat. 
62°  30'  n. ; height,  17,500  feet.  Near  the 
coast  is  a less  continuous  range,  which 
culminates  in  Mt.  Logan  (lat.  60°  30'  n.), 
altitude  19,500  feet,  thus  overtopping 
Mt.  Elias  (18,100  feet),  which  is  situated 
at  the  point  where  the  U.  S.  boundary 
makes  a turn  from  westward  to  north- 
ward, and  which  was  long  regarded  as 
the  highest  peak  north  of  Mexico. 
Among  these  coast  mountains  is  Mt. 
Cook  (in  British  territory),  15,750  feet, 
and  Mt.  Fairweather  (U.S.),  15,500  feet. 
Glaciers  are  frequent  among  these  moun- 
tains, and  one  from  Mt.  Elias  dips  its 
nose  into  salt  water  at  Icy  Bay. 

The  population  for  the  whole  Terri- 
tory in  1880  was  33,426,  of  whom  17,617 
were  Eskimos,  11,478  Indians,  2,145 
Aleuts,  1756  half-breeds,  and  430 
whites.  In  1890  the  census  enumera- 
tion (necessarily  largely  an  estimate), 
gave  4416  whites,  82  blacks,  1568  half- 
breeds,  13,735  natives  not  Eskimos, 
2125  Chinese,  8400  Eskimos;  total, 
30,326.  The  census  (1900)  gives  a total 
population  of  63,592.  Pop.,  (1908), 
130,000. 

'The  coast  of  this  part  of  America  was 
discovered  by  a Russian  expedition 
under  Bering  in  1741.  Settlements  were 
gradually  made,  and  the  coast  was  at  one 
time  claimed  as  far  s.  as  San  Francisco. 
In  1799  the  Territory  was  granted  to  a 
Russo-American  fur  company  by  the 
Emperor  Paul  VIII.,  and  the  charter 
was  renewed  in  1839.  New  Archangel, 
now  Sitka,  was  the  principal  settlement. 
The  privileges  of  the  company  expired 


in  1863,  and  the  Territory  was  purchased 
by  the  U.  S.  in  1867.  Portions  of  the 
Territory  were  soon  after  e.xplored  by 
employees  of  tSe  Russo-American  Tele- 
graph Company  in  surveying  a route  for 
an  overland  telegraph  line  to  Europe. 
Explorations  of  the  coast  have  since 
been  continued  by  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey.  The  Yukon  has  been 
explored  by  Dali  and  Schwatka,  and 
Mt.  Elias  by  several  parties,  the  most 
successful  of  which  nns  that  of  Russell 
in  1891.  From  Sept.  8,  1881,  to  Aug.  29, 
1883,  a well-equipped  meteorological 
station  of  the  U.S.  Signal  Service  was 
kept  at  Point  Barrow.  In  1884  a dis- 
trict government  was  created  by  Con- 
gress, with  a governor  and  a district 
court.  The  latter  sits  alternately  at 
Sitka  and  Wrangel.  The  laws  are  those 
of  Oregon.  Sitka  is  the  capital  and  has 
a land-office.  The  farming  of  the 
Pribylof  or  Fur  Seal  islands  in  Bering 
Sea  was  at  first  granted  to  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company  at  a rental 
amounting  to  about  $300,000  annually. 
On  the  expiration  of  their  lease  in  1890, 
the  right  was  acquired  by  the  North 
American  Commercial  Company. 

A treaty  was  signed  by  the  Secretary 
of  State  and  the  British  Ambassador  in 
Washington  on  Jan.  30,  1897,  providing 
for  the  demarcation  of  so  much  of  the 
boundary  between  Alaska  and  Canada 
as  lies  along  the  141st  meridian.  The 
joint  high  commission  appointed  to  at- 
tempt the  settlement  of  all  qiiosticns 
at  issue  between  the  U.  S.  and  Canada 
made  its  award  in  1903. 

Alaska  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  has 
immense  forests,  and  its  fishing  and 
sealing  industries  are  enormous.  Its 
most  valuable  exports  are  furs  of  seals, 
bears,  foxes,  otters,  martens,  beavers, 
and  other  animals.  The  salmon  dis- 
trict has  an  output  of  300,000  cases 
yearly.  Gold  is  mined  extensively  in 
the  Klondike  district  and  valuable 
placer  mines  have  been  worked  nearer 
the  coast.  The  Sitka  district  is  the 
most  desirable  for  permanent  residence. 
It  has  abundant  forests  and  the  climate 
is  mild  and  the  rainfall  heavy. 

ALAU'DA,  a genus  of  insessorial  birds, 
which  includes  the  larks.  See  Lark. 

A'LAVA,  a hilly  province  in  the  north 
of  Spain,  one  of  the  three  Basque  prov- 
inces; area,  1207  sq.  m.;  covered  by 
branches  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  moun- 
tains being  clothed  with  oak,  chestnut, 
and  other  timber,  and  the  valleys  yield- 
ing grain,  vegetables,  and  abundance  of 
fruits,  'riiere  are  iron  and  copper  mines, 
and  inexhaustible  salt  springs.  Capital, 
Vittoria.  Pop.  93,538. 

ALB,  a clerical  vestment  worn  by 
priests  while  officiating  in  the  more 
solemn  functions  of  divine  service.  It 
is  a long  robe  of  white  linen  reaching 
to  the  feet,  bound  round  the  waist  by  a 
cincture,  and  fitting  more  closely  to  the 
body  than  the  surplice. 

ALBA,  Duke  of.  See  Alva. 

ALBACETE  (al-ba-tha'ta),  a towm  in 
southern  Spain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  106  miles  n.n.w.  of 
Cartagena,  with  a considerable  trade, 
both  direct  and  transit,  and  manufac- 
tures of  knives,  daggers,  etc.  Pop.  21,- 
637. — The  province  has  an  area  of  6170 
.sq.  m.,  and  a pop.  of  237,877. 


ALBAN 


ALBERT 


ALBAN,  St.,  the  trp.ditionnry  proto- 
martyr  of  Britain,  who  flourished  in  the 
tliird  century,  was,  it  is  said,  converted 
from  Paganism  by  a confessor  whom  he 
had  saved  from  his  persecutors,  and,  re- 
fusing to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  was  ex- 
ecuted outside  of  the  city  of  Verulamium 
(St.  Albans)  in  285  or  305. 

ALBANI  (al-ba'ne),  Francesco,  a 
famous  Italian  painter,  born  at  Bologna 
in  1578,  died  in  1660.  Among  the  best 
known  of  his  compositions  are  the  Sleep- 
ing Venus,  Diana  in  the  Bath,  Danae 
Reclining,  Galatea  on  the  Sea,  Europe 
on  the  Bull. 

ALBA'NIA,  an  extensive  region  in 
the  southwest  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
stretching  along  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic 
for  about  290  miles,  and  having  a 
breadth  varying  from  about  90  to 
about  50  miles.  The  boundary  on  the 
east  is  formed  by  a range  of  mountains, 
and  the  country  is  composed  of  at  least 
nine  ridges  of  hills,  of  which  six  are  in 
lower  or  southern  Albania  (ancient 
Epirus)  and  the  remainder  in  central  and 
upper  or  northern  Albania.  There  are  no 
large  rivers,  and  in  summer  many  of  the 
streams  are  completely  dry.  The  Drin 
or  Drino  is  the  largest.  The  most 
beautiful  lake  is  that  of  Ochrida,  20 
miles  long,  8 broad  at  the  widest  part. 
The  Lake  of  Scutari,  in  upper  Albania, 
is  the  largest.  Among  trees  Albania  has 
many  species  of  oak,  the  poplar,  hazel, 
plane,  chestnut,  cypress,  and  laurel. 
The  vine  flourishes,  together  with  the 
orange,  almond,  fig,  mulberry,  and 
citron;  maize,  wheat,  and  barley  are 
cultivated.  Its  fauna  comprises  bears, 
wolves,  and  chamois;  sheep,  goats, 
horses,  asses,  and  mules  are  plentiful. 
The  chief  exports  are  live  stock,  wool, 
hides,  timber,  oil,  salt-fish,  cheese,  and 
tobacco.  The  chief  ports  are  Prevesa, 
Avlona,  and  Durazzo.  The  population, 
about  1,400,000,  consists  chiefly  of 
Albanians  or  Arnauts,  or,  as  they  call 
themselves,  Skipetars  (mountaineers), 
with  a certain  number  of  Greeks  and 
Turks.  The  Albanians  are  distinct  in 
race  and  language  from  the  surrounding 
peoples.  They  are  only  half  civilized. 


Albanian  peasantry. 


are  divided  into  a number  of  clans,  and 
bloody  feuds  are  still  common  among 
them.  They  belong  partly  to  the  Greek, 
partly  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
but  the  great  majority  are  Moham- 


medans. Though  their  country  became 
a province  of  the  Turkish  dominions  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  they  still  maintain 
a certain  degree  of  independence,  which 
the  Porte  has  never  found  it  possible  to 
overcome. 

AL'BANY,  the  original  Celtic  name 
probably  at  first  applied  to  the  whole  of 
Britain,  but  latterly  re.stricted  to  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland. 

AL'BANY,  a city  of  the  United  States, 
capital  of  the  State  of  New  York  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  132  miles 
north  of  New  York  City,  from  and  to 
which  steamboats  run  daily.  The  Erie 
Canal  and  the  numerous  railway  lines 
centering  here  from  all  directions  greatly 
contribute  to  the  growth  and  prosperity 
of  the  city,  which  carries  on  an  extensive 
trade.  It  is  a great  mart  for  timber, 
and  has  foundries,  breweries,  tanneries, 
etc.  Albany  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
in  1610-14,  and  the  older  houses  are  in 
the  Dutch  style,  with  the  gable-ends 
to  the  streets.  There  is  a university, 
an  observatory,  and  a state  library  with 
90,000  volumes.  The  principal  public 
edifices  are  the  capitol  or  state-house, 
the  state-hall  for  the  public  offices,  a 
state  arsenal,  and  numerous  religious 
edifices.  Pop.  (1908),  98,537. 


W andering  albatros. 


AL'BATROS,  a large  marine  swim- 
ming bird  of  several  species,  of  which  the 
wandering  albatros  is  the  best  known. 
The  bill  is  straight  and  strong,  the  upper 
mandible  hooked  at  the  point  and  the 
lower  one  truncated;  there  are  three 
webbed  toes  on  each  foot.  The  upper 
part  of  the  body  is  of  a grayish  brown, 
and  the  belly  white.  It  is  the  largest  sea- 
bird known,  some  measuring  17^  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  their  expanded  wings. 
They  abound  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  southern  seas, 
and  in  Bering’s  Straits,  and  have  been 
known  to  accompany  ships  for  whole 
days  without  ever  resting  on  the  waves. 
From  this  habit  the  bird  is  regarded 
with  feelings  of  attachment  and  super- 
stitious awe  by  sailors,  it  being  reckoned 
unlucky  to  kill  one.  Coleridge  has 
availed  himself  of  this  feeling  in  his 
Ancient  Mariner.  The  albatros  is  met 
with  at  great  distances  from  the  land, 
settling  down  on  the  waves  at  night 
to  sleep.  It  is  exceedingly  voracious, 
whenever  food  is  abundant  gorging  to 
such  a degree  as  to  be  unable  to  fly  or 
swim.*  It  feeds  on  fish,  carrion,  fish- 


spawn,  oceanic  mollusca,  and  other 
small  marine  animals.  Its  voice  is  a 
harsh,  disagreeable  cry.  Its  nest  is  a 
heap  of  earth;  its  eggs  are  larger  than 
those  of  a goose. 

ALBERONI,  Cardinal  Giulio  (ju'li-o 
Al-ba-ro'ne),  born  in  1664  in  north  Italy, 
and  educated  for  the  church.  The  Duke 
of  Parma  sent  him  as  his  minister  to 
Madrid,  where  be  gained  the  affection 
of  Philip  V.  He  rose  by  cunning  and 
intrigue  to  the  station  of  prime-minister, 
became  a cardinal,  was  all-powerful  in 
Spain  after  the  year  1715,  and  endeav- 
ored to  restore  it  to  its  ancient  splendor. 
He  died  at  Rome  in  1752. 

AL'BERT  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  and 
afterward  Emperor  of  Germany,  son 
of  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  was  born  in 
1248.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1292  he  claimed  the  empire,  but  his 
arrogant  conduct  drove  the  electors  to 
choose  Adolphus  of  Nassau  emperor. 
Adolphus,  after  a reign  of  six  years, 
having  lost  the  regard  of  all  the  princes 
of  the  empire  Albert  was  elected  to 
succeed  him.  Pope  Boniface  VIII., 
however,  refused  to  acknowledge  him. 
as  emperor,  .\lbert  formed  an  alliance 
with  Philip  le  Bel  of  France,  and  offered 
so  determined  and  successful  a resist- 
ance to  the  papal  authority  that  Boni- 
face was  induced  to  withdraw  his 
opposition,  on  condition  that  Albert 
would  break  with  his  French  ally.  He 
was  assassinated,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in 
1298,  by  his  nephew,  John,  Duke  of 
Suabia,  whose  inheritance  he  had  seized 
upon,  in  1308. 

ALBERT,  first  Duke  of  Prussia,  and 
last  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  was  born  in  1490;  died  in  1568. 

ALBERT,  Prince,  Albert-Francis-Au- 
gustus-Charles-Emmanuel,  Prince  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  Prince  Consort 
of  England,  second  son  of  Ernest  I., 
Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  was  born  at  the 
Rosenau,  a castle  near  Coburg,  on  26th 
.August,  1819.  In  1837  he  entered  the 
University  of  Bonn,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  studies  of  political  and 
natural  science,  history,  philosophy, 
etc.,  as  well  as  to  those  of  music  and 
painting.  On  leaving  the  university  he 


Albert,  Prince  Consort. 


made  a tour  through  the  chief  cities 
of  Italy  with  Baron  Stockmar.  On  the 
10th  Feb.  1840,  he  married  his  cousin. 
Queen  Victoria  of  England.  An  allow- 
ance of  $150,000  a year  was  settled  upon 


ALBERTA 


ALCIBIADES 


the  prince,  who  was  naturalized  by  act  of 
Parliament,  received  the  title  of  Royal 
Highness  by  patent,  was  made  a field- 
marshal,  a Knight  of  the  Garter,  of  the 
Bath,  etc.  Other  honors  wei’e  subse- 
quently bestowed  upon  him,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  title  of  Prince  Consort 
(1857).  His  foreign  birth  at  first 
caused  him  to  be  regarded  with  some 
suspicion,  but  his  unfailing  tact  and  gen- 
uine ability  were  not  long  in  gaining 
their  due  recognition.  His  services 
to  the  cause  of  science  and  art  were 
very  important;  he  presided  over  the 
commission  appointed  in  1841  to  con- 
sider the  best  means  of  rebuilding  the 
houses  of  parliament,  and  the  great 
exhibition  of  1851  owed  much  of  its 
success  to  his  activity,  knowledge,  and 
judgment.  The  amendment  of  the 
Articles  of  War  in  1844  which  ultimately 
put  an'  end  to  dueling  was  due  to  his 
suggestion.  He  died  of  typhoid  fever 
on  December  14,  1861,  after  a short 
illness. 

ALBER'TA,  since  1905  one  of  the 
provinces  of  Canada,  having  Assiniboia 
and  Saskatchewan  on  the  east,  British 
Columbia  on  the  west,  the  United 
States  on  the  south,  and  Athabasca  on 
the  north ; area,  253,540  sq.  miles ; pop. 
75,000.  It  is  afertile,  grassyregion,  with 
trees  in  the  river  valleys ; coal  is  abund- 
ant and  gold  is  found  near  Edmonton. 
The  capital  is  Edmonton. 

ALBERT  NYAR'ZA,  a lake  of  Africa, 
one  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Nile,  lying 
(approximately)  between  lat.  2°  30'  and 
1°  10'  n.,  and  with  its  northeast  ex- 
tremity in  about  Ion.  28°  e.;  general 
direction  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
surface  about  2500  feet  above  sea-level. 
It  is  surrounded  by  precipitous  cliffs, 
and  bounded  on  the  west  and  south- 
west by  great  ranges  of  mountains. 
It  abounds  with  fish,  and  its  shores  are 
infested  with  crocodiles  and  hippopot- 
amuses. It  receives  the  VictorC.  Nile 
from  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  the 
White  Nile  issues  from  its  northern 
extremity. 

ALBIGENSES  (al-bi-jen'sez),  a sect 
which  spread  widely  in  the  south  of 
France  and  elsewhere  about  the  twelfth 
century,  and  which  differed  in  doctrine 
and  practice  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  by  which  they  were  subjected  tc 
severe  persecution. 

ALBINOS  (al-bi'noz),  the  name  given 
to  those  persons  from  whose  skin,  hair, 
and  eyes,  in  consequence  of  some  defect 
in  their  organization,  the  dark  coloring 
matter  is  absent.  The  skin  of  albinos, 
therefore,  whether  they  belong  to  the 
white,  Indian,  or  negro  races,  is  of  a 
uniform  pale  milky  color,  their  hair  is 
white,  while  the  iris  of  their  eyes  is  pale 
rose  color,  and  the  pupil  intensely  red, 
the  absence  of  the  dark  pigment  allowing 
the  multitude  of  blood-vessels  in  these 
parts  of  the  eye  to  be  seen.  For  the 
same  reason  their  eyes  are  not  well  suit- 
ed to  endure  the  bright  light  of  day,  and 
they  see  best  in  shade  or  by  moonlight. 
The  peculiarity  of  albinism  or  leucop- 
athy  is  always  born  with  the  individual, 
and  is  not  confined  to  the  human  race, 
having  been  observed  also  in  horses, 
rabbits,  rats,  mice,  etc.,  birds  (white 
crows  or  blackbirds  are  not  particularly 
uncommon),  and  fishes. 


AL'BION,  the  earliest  name  by  which 
the  island  of  Great  Britain  was  known, 
employed  by  Aristotle,  and  in  poetry 
still  used  for  Great  Britain.  The  same 
word  as  Albany,  Albyn. 

AL'BITE,  or  SODA-FELSPAR,  a 
mineral,  a kind  of  felspar,  usually  of  a 
white  color,  to  which  property  it  owes 
it  name,  but  occasionally  bluish,  grayish, 
gieenish,  or  reddish  white. 

AL'BOIN,  King  of  the  Lombards, 
succeeded  his  father  Audoin  in  561,  and 
reigned  in  Noricum  and  Pannonia. 
After  a victorious  career  in  Italy  he 
was  slain  at  Verona,  in  573  or  574,  by  an 
assassin,  instigated  by  his  wife  Rosa- 
mond, whose  hatred  he  had  incurred  by 
sending  her,  in  one  of  his  fits  of  intoxi- 
cation, a cup  wrought  from  the  skull 
of  her  father,  and  forcing  her  to  drink 
from  it. 

ALBRET,  Jeanne  d’  (zhan  dal-bra). 
Queen  of  Navarre,  wife  of  Antoine  de 
Bourbon  and  mother  of  Henri  IV.  of 
France,  a zealous  supporter  of  the  re- 
formed religion,  which  she  established 
in  her  kingdom;  born  1528,  died 
(probably  poisoned)  1572,  shortly  be- 
fore the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

AL'BUM,  a name  now  generally  given 
to  a blank  book  for  the  reception  of 
pieces  of  poetry,  autographs,  engravings, 
photographs,  etc. 

ALBU'MEN,  or  ALBUMIN,  a sub- 
stance, or  rather  group  of  substances,  so 
named  from  the  Latin  for  the  white  of 
an  egg,  which  is  one  of  its  most  abundant 
known  forms.  It  may  be  taken  as  the 
type  of  the  protein  compounds  or  the 
nitrogenous  class  of  foodstuffs.  One 
variety  enters  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  the  animal  fluids  and  solids, 
is  coagulable  by  heat  at  and  above  160°, 
and  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  with  a little  sul- 
hur.  It  abounds  in  the  serum  of  the 
lood,  the  vitreous  and  crystalline 
humors  o^  the  eye,  the  fluid  of  dropsy, 
the  substance  called  coagulable  lymph, 
in  nutritive  matters,  the  juice  of  flesh, 
etc.  The  blood  contains  about  7 per 
cent  of  albumen.  Another  variety 
called  vegetable  albumen  exists  in  most 
vegetable  juices  and  many  seeds,  and 
has  nearly  the  same  composition  and 
properties  as  egg  albumen.  When 
albumen  coagulates  in  any  fluid  it 
readily  incloses  any  substances  that 
may  be  suspended  in  the  fluid.  Hence 
it  is  used  to  clarify  syrupy  liquors.  In 
cookery  white  of  eggs  is  employed  for 
clarifying,  but  in  large  operations  like 
sugar-refining  the  serum  of  blood  is 
used.  From  its  being  coagulable  by 
various  salts,  and  especially  by  corrosive 
sublimate,  with  which  it  forms  an 
insoluble  compound,  white  of  egg  is  a 
convenient  antidote  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing by  that  substance.  With  lime  it 
forms  a cement  to  mend  broken  ware. 

In  botany  the  name  albumen  is  given 
to  the  farinaceous  matter  which  sur- 
rounds the  embryo,  the  term  in  this 
case  having  no  reference  to  chemical 
composition.  It  constitutes  the  meat 
of  the  cocoanut,  the  flour  or  meal  of 
cereals,  the  ro'  sted  part  of  coffee, 
etc. 

ALBUMINU-RIA,  a condition  in  which 
the  urine  contains  albumen,  evidencing 
a diseased  state  of  the  kidneys. 


ALBUR'NUM,  the  soft  white  sub- 
stance which,  in  trees,  is  found  between 
the  liber  or  inner  bark  and  the  wood, 
and,  in  progress  of  time  acquiring 
solidity,  becomes  itself  the  wood.  A 
new  layer  of  wood,  or  rather  of  albur- 
num, is  added  annually  to  the  tree  in 
every  part  just  under  the  bark. 

ALCALDE  (Spanish;  al-kal-da),  or 
ALCAIDE  (Portuguese;  al-ki'da),  the 
name  of  a magistrate  in  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  towns,  to  whom  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  and  the  regulation  of 
the  police  is  committed.  His  office 
nearly  corresponds  to  that  of  juctice  of 
the  peace.  The  name  and  the  office  are 
of  Moorish  origin. 

ALCES'TIS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
wife  of  Admetus,  king  of  Thessaly.  Her 
husband  was  ill,  and,  according  to  an 
oracle,  would  die  unless  some  one  made 
a vow  to  meet  death  in  his  stead.  This 
was  secretly  done  by  Alcestis,  and 
Admetus  recovered.  After  her  decease 
Hercules  brought  her  back  from  the 
infernal  regions. 

AL'CHEMY,  or  ALCHYMY,  the  art 
which  in  former  times  occupied  the 
place  of  and  paved  the  way  for  the 
modern  science  of  chemistry  (as  astrol- 
ogy did  for  astronomy),  but  whose  aims 
were  not  scientific,  being  confined  solely 
to  the  discovery  of  the  means  of  indef- 
initely prolonging  human  life,  and  of 
transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold 
and  silver.  Among  the  alchemists  it 
was  generally  thought  necessary  to 
find  a substance  which,  containing  the 
orignal  principle  of  all  matter,  should 
possess  the  power  of  dissolving  all  sub- 
stances into  their  elements.  This 
general  solvent,  or  menstruum  univer- 
sale, which  at  the  same  time  was  to 
possess  the  power  of  removing  all  the 
seeds  of  disease  out  of  the  human  body 
and  renewing  life,  was  called  the  philoso- 
pher’s stone,  and  its  pretended  posses- 
sors were  known  as  adepts.  Alchemy 
flourished  chiefly  in  the  middle  ages, 
though  how  old  might  be  such  notions 
as  those  by  which  the  alchemists  were 
inspired  it  is  difficult  to  say.  When 
more  rational  principles  of  chemistry 
and  philosophy  began  to  be  diffused  and 
to  shed  light  on  chemical  phenomena, 
the  rage  for  alchemy  gradually  de- 
creased. It  is  still  impossible  to  assert 
anything  with  certainty  about  the 
transmutation  of  metals.  Modern  chem- 
istry, indeed,  places  metals  in  the  class 
of  elements,  and  denies  the  possibility 
of  changing  an  inferior  metal  into  gold. 
But  hitherto  chemistry  has  not  suc- 
ceeded in  unfolding  the  principles  by 
which  metals  are  formed  and  the  laws  of 
their  production,  or  in  aiding  or  imitat- 
ing this  process  of  nature. 

ALCIBI'ADES  (-dez),  an  Athenian  of 
high  family  and  of  great  abilities,  but  of 
no  principle,  was  born  at  Athens  in 
b.c.450,  being  the  son  of  Cleinias,  and  a 
relative  of  Pericles,  who  also  was  his 
guardian.  He  acquired  great  popu- 
larity by  his  liberality  in  providing  for 
the  amusements  of  the  people,  and 
after  the  death  of  Cleon  attained  a 
political  ascendency  which  left  him  no 
rival  but  Nicias.  Thus  he  played  an 
important  part  in  the  long-continued 
Peloponnesian  war.  In  415  he  advo- 
cated the  expedition  against  Sicily,  and 


ALCO 


ALDEN 


(vas  chosen  one  of  the  leaders,  but  before 
the  expedition  sailed  he  was  charged 
with  profaning  and  divulging  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries,  and  mutilating 
the  busts  of  Hermes,  which  were  set  up 
in  public  all  through  Athens.  Rather 
than  stand  his  trial  he  went  over  to 
Sparta,  divulged  the  plans  of  the 
Athenians,  and  assisted  the  Spartans 
to  defeat  them.  He  soon  left  Sparta  and 
took  refuge  with  the  Persian  satrap 
Tissaphernes,  ingratiating  himself  by 
his  affectation  of  Persian  manners,  as 
he  had  previously  done  at  Sparta  by  a 
similar  affectation  of  Spartan  simplic- 
ity. He  now  began  to  intrigue  for  his 
return  to  Athens,  offering  to  bring 
Tissaphernes  over  to  the  Athenian 
alliance,  and  latterly  he  was  recalled 
and  his  banishment  canceled.  He, 
however,  remained  abroad  for  some 
years  in  command  of  the  Athenian 
forces,  gained  several  victories,  and 
took  Chalcedon  and  Byzantium.  In 
B.c.  407  he  returned  to  Athens,  but  in 
406,  the  fleet  which  he  commanded 
having  suffered  a severe  defeat,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  command.  He  once 
more  went  over  to  the  Persians,  taking 
refuge  with  the  satrap  Pharnabazus  of 
Phrygia,  and  here  he  was  assassinated 
in  B.c.  404. 

ALCO,  a small  variety  of  dog,  with  a 
small  head  and  large  pendulous  ears, 
found  wild  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and 
also  domesticated. 

AL'COHOL,  the  purely  spirituous  or 
intoxicating  part  of  all  liquids  that  have 
undergone  vinous  fermentation,  ex- 
tracted by  distillation — a limpid  color- 
less liquid,  of  an  agreeable  smell  and  a 
strong  pungent  taste.  When  brandy, 
whisky,  and  other  spirituous  liquors, 
themselves  distilled  from  cruder  mate- 
rials, are  again  distilled,  highly  volatile 
alcohol  is  the  first  product  to  pass  off. 
The  alcohol  thus  obtained  contains 
much  extraneous  matter,  including  a 
proportion  of  water,  from  the  first  as 
high  as  20  or  25  per  cent,  and  increasing 
greatly  as  the  process  continues.  Char- 
coal and  carbonate  of  soda  put  in  the 
brandy  or  other  liquor  partly  retain 
the  fusel-oil  and  acetic  acid  it  contains. 
The  product  thus  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation is  called  rectified  spirits  or 
spirits  of  wine,  and  contains  from  55  to 
85  per  cent  of  alcohol,  the  rest  being 
water.  By  distilling  rectified  spirits 
over  carbonate  of  potassium,  powdered 
quicklime,  or  chloride  of  calcium,  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  is  retained, 
and  nearly  pure  alcohol  passes  over. 
It  is  only,  however,  by  very  prolonged 
digestion  with  desiccating  agents  and 
subsequent  distillation  that  the  last 
traces  of  water  can  be  removed.  The 
specific  gravity  of  alcohol  varies  with 
its  purity,  decreasing  as  the  quantity 
of  water  it  contains  decreases.  This 
property  is  a convenient  test  of  the 
alcoholic  strength  of  liquors  that  con- 
tain only  alchohol  and  water;  but,  on 
account  of  the  condensation  that  in- 
variably takes  place  on  the  mixture  of 
these  two  liquids,  it  can  be  applied  only 
in  connection  with  special  tables  of 
reference,  or  by  means  of  an  instrument 
specially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  (See 
Alcoholometer.)  By  simple  distillation 
the  specific  gravity  of  alcohol  can 


scarcely  be  reduced  below  *825  at  60* 
Fahr.;  by  rectification  over  chloride 
of  calcium  it  may  be  reduced  to  '794; 
as  it  usually  occurs  it  is  about  '820. 
Alcohol  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  in  the  proportions 
expressed  by  the  formula  C2H6O. 
Under  a barometric  pressure  of  29 '5 
inches  it  boils  at  173°  Fahr.  (78°'4  C.); 
in  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air-pump 
it  boils  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Its 
congelation  has  been  effected  only  in 
recent  times  at  the  low  temperature  of 


Alcyonarla. 

1,  Sea-fan.  2.  Sea-pen.  3.  Cornuldria  rugosa. 

-203°  Fahr.  Its  very  low  freezing-point 
renders  it  valuable  for  use  in  ther- 
mometers for  very  low  temperatures. 
Alcohol  is  extremely  inflammable,  and 
burns  with  a pale-blue  flame,  scarcely 
visible  in  bright  daylight.  It  occasions 
no  carbonaceous  deposit  upon  sub- 
stances held  over  it,  and  the  products 
of  its  combustion  are  carbonic  acid  and 
water.  The  steady  and  uniform  heat 
which  it  gives  during  combustion  makes 
it  a valuable  material  for  lamps.  It  dis- 
solves the  vegetable  acids,  the  volatile 
oils,  the  resins,  tan,  and  extractive 
matter,  and  many  of  the  soaps;  the 
greater  number  of  the  fixed  oils  are 
taken  up  by  it  in  small  quantities  only, 
but  some  are  dissolved  largely.  When 
alcohol  is  submitted  to  distillation  with 
certain  acids  a peculiar  compound  is 
formed,  called  ether.  It  is  alcohol 
which  gives  all  intoxicating  liquors  the 
property  whence  they  are  so  called. 
Alcohol  acts  strongly  on  the  nervous 
system,  and  though  in  small  doses  it  is 
stimulating  and  exhilarating,  in  large 
doses  it  acts  as  a poison.  In  medicine 
it  is  often  of  great  service. 

The  name  alcohol  is  also  applied  in 
chemistry  to  a large  group  of  com- 
pounds of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  whose  chemical  properties  are 
analogous  to  that  of  common  or  ethylic 
alcohol. 

AL'COHOLISM,  a morbid  condition 
of  the  body  (especially  of  the  nervous 
system)  brought  on  by  the  immoderate 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors. 

ALCOHOLOM'ETER,  an  instrument 
constructed  on  the  priilciple  of  the 
hydrometer,  to  determine  from  the 
specific  gravity  of  spirituous  liquors  the 
percentage  of  alcohol  they  contain,  the 
scale  marking  directly  the  required 
proportion.  If  the  liquor  contain  any- 
thing besides  water  and  alcohol,  pre- 
vious distillation  is  necessary. 

ALCO'RAR.  See  Koran. 


AL'COTT,  Louisa  May,  a distin- 
guished American  authoress,  born  in 
1833.  She  has  written  a number  of 
books  chiefly  intended  for  the  young: 
Little  Women,  An  Old-fashioned  Girl, 
Little  Men,  Jack  and  Gill,  etc.  Died  in 
1888. 

AL'COVE,  a recess  in  a room,  usually 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  room  by 
columns,  a balustrade,  or  by  curtains, 
and  often  containing  a bed  or  seats. 

ALCYONA'RIA,  animals  forming  a 
great  division  of  the  class  Actinozoa. 
(See  Sea-anemone.)  These  animals  are 
nearly  all  composite,  and  the  individual 
polyps  have  mostly  eight  tentacles. 
They  include  the  organ-pipe  corals,  sea- 
pens,  fan-corals,  etc.,  as  also  the  red 
coral  of  commerce.  The  polyps  essen- 
tially resemble  those  of  the  genus  Alcyo- 
nium  in  structure,  and  in  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  the  tentacles. 

ALCYO'NIUM,a  genus  of  animals,  one 
familiar  species  of  which,  dredged 
around  the  British  coasts,  is  named 
“Dead-Men  s Fingers,”  or  “Cow’s  Paps,” 
from  its  lobed  or  digitate  appearance. 
It  grows  attached  to  stones,  shells,  and 
and  other  objects.  It  consists  of  a 
mass  of  little  polyps,  each  polyp  possess- 
ing eight  little  fringed  tentacles  disposed 
around  a central  mouth.  The  Alcyoni- 
um  forms  the  type  of  the  Alcyonaria. 

ALDEB'ARAN,  a star  of  the  first 
magnitude,  forming  the  eye  of  the  con- 
stellation Taurus  or  the  Bull,  the 
brightest  of  the  five  stars  known  to  the 
Greeks  as  the  Hyades.  Spectrum 
analysis  has  shown  it  to  contain  anti- 
mony, bismuth,  iron,  mercury,  hydro- 
gen, sodium,  calcium,  etc. 

AL'DEHYDE,  the  oxidation  product 
of  an  alcohol  intermediate  between  it 
and  its  acid.  Common  aldehyde  is 
derived  from  spirit  of  wine  by  oxidation, 
and  is  a colorless,  limpid,  volatile,  and 
inflammable  liquid,  with  a peculiar 
ethereal  odor,  which  is  suffocating  when 
strong;  specific  gravity,  0'79.  It  oxi- 
dizes in  air,  and  is  converted  into  acetic 
acid.  It  rapidly  decomposes  oxide  of 
silver,  depositing  a brilliant  film  of 
metallic  silver;  hence  it  is  used  in  silver- 
ing curved  glass  surfaces. 

ALDEN,  Henry  Mills,  an  American 
author  born  at  Mt.  Tabor,  Vt.,  in  1836. 
He  was  a classmate  of  James  A.  Garfield 
in  the  class  of  1857  at  Williams  College. 
He  has  been  editor  of  flarper’s  Weekly 
and  Harper’s  Monthy,  and  is  noted  for 
his  contributions  to  the  criticism  of 
Greek  literature.  He  has  also  published 
volumes  of  essays,  poems,  and  prose 
poems. 

ALDEN,  Mrs.  Isabella  McDonald,  an 
American  author.  She  was  born  at 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  1841,  and  early  in 
her  career  became  widely  known 
through  her  juvenile  stories  currently 
known  as  the  Pansy  Books.  Her  works 
have  been  translated  into  several  foreign 
languages. 

ALDEN,  John,  an  early  American 
settler,  one  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  He 
helped  to  repair  the  Mayflower,  sailed 
in  her,  and  signed  the  compact.  He 
settled  at  Duxbury,  Mass.,  and  married 
Priscilla  Mullens.  Alden  outlived  all  the 
other  signers  of  the  compact  and  has 
been  immortalized  by  Longfellow  in  his 
I poem.  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 


ALDER 


ALEXANDER 


ALDER  (^I'der),  a genus  of  plants, 
consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs  inhabiting 
the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the 
globe.  Common  alder  is  a tree  which 
grows  in  wet  situations  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  the  United  States.  Its  wood,  light 
and  soft  and  of  a reddish  color,  is  used 
for  a variety  of  purposes,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  work  which  is  to  be  kept 
constantly  in  water.  The  roots  and 
knots  furnish  a beautifully-veined  wood 
well  suited  for  cabinet  work.  The  bark 
is  used  in  tanning  and  leather  dressing, 
and  by  fishermen  for  staining  their  nets. 
This  and  the  young  twigs  are  sometimes 
employed  in  dyeing,  and  yield  different 
shades  of  yellow  and  red.  With  the 
addition  of  copperas  it  yields  a black 
dye. 

AL'DERMAN,  in  the  United  States  a 
representative  of  a ward  or  district 
in  the  legislative  department  of  a town 
or  city.  In  some  cities  aldermen  hold 
separate  courts  and  have  the  power  of 
a magistrate  to  a limited  extent. 

AL'DERNEY,  an  island  belonging  to 
Britain  off  the  coast  of  Normandy.  The 
coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  the  interior  is 
fertile.  About  a third  of  the  island  is 
occupied  by  grass  lands;  and  the 
Alderney  cows,  a small-sized  but  hand- 
some breed,  are  famous  for  the  richness 
of  their  milk.  The  climate  is  mild  and 
healthful.  The  French  language  still  pre- 
vails among  the  inhabitants,  but  all 
understand  and  many  speak  English. 
— The  Race  of  Alderney  is  the  strait 
between  the  coast  of  France  and  this 
island.  Pop.  2062. 

ALDERSHOT  (al'der-),  a town  and 
military  station  in  England,  the  latter 
having  given  rise  to  the  former.  The 
number  of  troops  usually  maintained  at 
Aldershot  is  about  7000.  The  town  is 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  barracks, 
immediately  beyond  the  government 
ground,  and  in  Hampshire.  Pop. 
(including  military),  30,974. 

AL'DINE  EDITIONS,  the  name  given 
to  the  works  which  proceeded  from  the 
press  of  Aldus  Manutius  and  his  family 
at  Venice  (1490-1597).  (See  Manutius.) 
Recommended  by  their  value,  as  well 
as  by  a splendid  exterior,  they  have 
gained  the  respect  of  scholars  and  the 
attention  of  book-collectors.  Many  of 
them  are  the  first  printed  editions 
of  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  Others  are 
texts  of  the  modern  Italian  authors. 
These  editions  are  of  importance  in  the 
hiktory  of  printing.  Aldus  had  nine 
kinds  of  Greek  type,  and  no  one  before 
him  printed  so  much  and  so  beautifully 
in  this  language.  Of  the  Latin  char- 
acter he  procured  fourteen  kinds  of 
type. 

AL'DRICH,  Thomas  Bailey,  American 
poet  and  writer  of  prose  tales,  born  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Nov.  11,  1836.  He 
was  early  engaged  in  commercial  occupa- 
tions, but  abandoned  them  for  jounal- 
ism,  and  v^fas  the  editor  of  several  publi- 
cations, including  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 
His  works  comprise  The  Bells,  Ballad 
of  Ruby  Bell,  Cloth  of  Gold,  Prudence 
Palfrey,  etc.  He  died  in  1907. 

ALE  and  BEER,  well-known  and 
extensively  used  fermented  liquors,  the 
principle  of  which  is  extracted  from 
several  sorts  of  grain,  but  most  com- 


monly from  barley,  after  it  has  under- 
gone the  process  termed  malting.  Beer 
is  a more  general  term  than  ale,  being 
often  used  for  any  kind  of  fermented 
malt  liquor,  including  porter,  though 
it  is  also  used  in  a more  special  significa- 
tion. See  Brewing. 

ALEMBERT  (i-lan-bar),  Jean  le 
Rond  d’,  a French  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  born  in  Paris  in  1717,  and 
died  there  in  1783.  He  was  the  illegti- 
imate  son  of  Madame  de  Tencin,  and 
was  exposed  at  the  Church  of  St.  Jean 
le  Rond  (hence  his  name)  soon  after 
birth.  He  was  brought  up  by  the  wife 
of  a poor  glazier,  and  with  her  he  lived 
for  more  than  forty  years.  His  parents 
never  publicly  acknowledged  him,  but 
his  father  settled  upon  him  an  income 
of  1200  livres.  He  showed  much  quick- 
ness in  learning,  entered  the  College 
Mazarin  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  studied 
mathematics  with  enthusiasm  and  suc- 
cess. Having  left  college  he  studied  law 
and  became  an  advocate,  but  did  not 
cease  to  occupy  himself  with  mathe- 
matics. A pamphlet  on  the  motion  of 
solid  bodies  in  a fluid,  and  another  on  the 
integral  calculus,  which  he  laid  before 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1739  and 
1740,  showed  him  in  so  favorable  a 
light  that  the  Academy  received  him  in 
1741  into  the  number  of  its  members. 
He  soon  after  published  his  famous 
work  on  dynamics,  Trait6  de  Dyna- 
mique  (1743);  and  that  on  fluids,  Trait6 
des  Fluides.  He  also  took  a part  in  the 
investigations  which  completed  the 
discoveries  of  Newton  respecting  the 
motion  of  fhe  heavenly  bodies,  and 
published  at  intervals  various  important 
astronomical  dissertations,  as  well  as  on 
other  subjects.  He  also  took  part, 
with  Diderot  and  others,  in  the  cele- 
brated Encycloptidie,  for  which  he 
wrote  the  Discours  P'-^liminaire,  as 


T.  B.  Aldrich. 


well  as  many  philosophical  and  almost 
all  the  mathematical  articles. 

ALEMTEJO  (a-lan-ta'zho),  the  largest 
province  of  Portugal,  and  the  most 
southern  except  Algarve;  area,  10,255 
sq.  miles;  pop.  413,531.  The  capital 
is  Evora. 


ALENCON  (a-lan-s6n),  a town  of 
France,  capital  of  department  Orne,  and 
formerly  of  the  Duchy  of  Alen^on,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Sarthe,  105  miles 
west  by  south  of  Paris;  well  built. 
Alen9on  was  long  famed  for  its  point- 
lace,  called  “point  d’Alen^on.”  Pop. 
17,237. — Alengon,  originally  a county, 
later  a dukedom,  became  united  with 
the  crown  in  1221,  and  was  given  by 
Louis  XI.  as  an  appanage  to  his  fifth 
son,  with  whom  the  branch  of  the 
Alen^on  Valois  commenced.  The  first 
duke  of  ihe  name  lost  his  life  at  the 
battle  of  Agincourt  in  1415;  another, 
called  Charles  IV.,  married  the  cele- 
brated Margaret  ^ of  Valois,  sister  of 
Francis  I.  ^ He  coinmanded  the  left  wing 
of  the  French  army  at  the  battle  of  ^ 
Pavia,  where,  instead  of  supporting  the  ' 
king  at  a critical  moment,  he  fled  at  the 
head  of  his  troops,  the  consequence  of 
which  was  the  loss  of  the  battle  and  the  , 
capture  of  the  king.  ' ; 


Aleppo. 


ALEP'PO,  a city  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  northern  Syria,  on  the  river  Koik,  in 
a fine  plain  60  miles  southeast  of  Alex- 
andretta,  which  is  its  port,  and  195  . 
miles  n.n.e.  of  Damascus.  Pop,  100,000. 

ALETSCH'-GLACIER,  the  greatest 
glacier  in  Switzerland,  canton  Valais,  a 
prolongation  of  the  immense  mass  of 
glaciers  connected  with  the  Jungfrau, 
the  Aletschhorn  (14,000  ft.),  and  other 
peaks;  about  15  miles  long. 

ALEUROM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
indicating  the  bread-making  qualities 
of  wheaten  flour.  The  indications 
depend  upon  the  expansion  of  the  gluten 
contained  in  a given  quantity  of  flour 
when  freed  of  its  starch  by  pulverization 
and  repeated  washings  with  water. 

ALEUTIAN  ISLANDS,  a chain  of 
about  eighty  small  islands  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  separating  the  ' 
Sea  of  Kamtchatka  from  the  northern 
part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  extending 
nearly  1000  miles  from  east  to  west 
between  Ion.  172°  e.  and  163°  w.;  tot:  1 
area,  6391  square  miles;  pop.  1220. 
They  are  of  volcanic  formation,  and  in  a 
number  of  them  there  are  volcanoes 
still  in  activity.  The  natives  belong  to 
the  same  stock  with  those  of  Kamt- 
chatka. 

ALE'WIFE,  a fish  of  the  same  genus 
as  the  shad,  growing  to  the  length  of 
12  inches,  and  taken  in  great  quantities 
in  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  of  New  Eng- 
land, New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia, 
being  salted  and  exported.  J 

ALEXANDER,  surnamed  the  Great, 
was  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon  and  his 
queen  Olympias,  and  was  born  at  Pella,  { 


[ 

f 


ALEXANDER 


ALEXANDER 


B.c.  356.  In  youth  he  had  Aristotle  as 
instructor,  and  he  early  displayed  un- 
common abilities.  The  victory  of 
Chaeronea  in  338,  which  brought  Greece 
entirely  under  Macedonia,  was  mainly 
decided  by  his  efforts.  Philip  having 
been  assassinated,  b.c.  336,  Alexander, 
not  yet  twenty  years  of  age,  ascended 
the  throne.  His  father  had  been  pre- 
[j  paring  an  expedition  against  the  Persians 
* and  Alexander  determined  to  carry  it 
out;  but  before  doing  so  he  had  to 
chastise  the  barbarian  tribes  on  the 
. frontiers  of  Macedon  as  well  as  quell  a 
? rising  in  Greece,  in  which  he  took  and 
destroyed  Thebes,  put  6000  of  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  and  carried 
30,000  into  captivity.  His  first  encoun- 
ter with  the  Persian  forces  (assisted  by 
i Greek  mercenaries)  was  at  the  small 
river  Granicus,  where  he  gained  a com- 
plete victory.  Most  of  the  cities  of 
Asia  Minor  now  opened  their  gates  to 
the  victor,  and  Alexander  restored 
democracy  in  all  the  Greek  cities.  In 
passing  through  Gordium  he  cut  the 
Gordian  knot,  on  which  it  was  believed 


Coin  of  Alexander  the  Great. 


^ the  fate  of  Asia  depended,  and  then  eon- 
quered  Lycia,  Ionia,  Caria,  Pamphylia, 
^ and  Cappadocia.  A sickness,  caused  by 
bathing  in  the  Cydnus  (b.c.  333), 
checked  his  course;  but  scarcely  was 
' he  restored  to  health  when  he  continued 
, his  onward  course,  and  this  same  year 
• defeated  the  Persian  emperor  Darius 
L and  his  army  of  500,000  or  600,000  men 
: (including  50,000  Greek  mercenaries), 
near  Issus  (inner  angle  of  the  Gulf  of 
. Alexandretta).  Alexander  did  not  pur- 
( sue  Darius,  but  proceeded  southward, 
^ and  secured  all  the  towns  along  the 
i Mediterranean  Sea,  though  he  did  not 
f get  possession  of  Tyre  (taken  332  b.c.) 

. without  a siege  of  seven  months.  Pales- 
a tine  aqd  Egypt  now  fell  before  him,  and 
J in  the  latter  he  founded  Alexandria, 
f which  oecame  one  of  the  first  cities  of 
[ ancient  times.  On  his  return  Alexander 
marched  against  Darius,  who  had 
collected  an  immense  army  in  Assyria 
and  rejected  the  proposals  of  his  rival 
for  peace.  A battle  was  fought  at 
Gaugamela,  about  50  miles  from  Arbela, 
B.c.  331,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
immense  numerical  superiority  of  his 
enemy,  Alexander  (who  had  but  40,000 
men  and  7000  horse)  gained  a complete 
victory.  Babylon  and  Susa  opened  their 
gates  to  the  conqueror,  who  marched 
toward  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Persia, 
and  entered  it  in  triumph.  Continuing 
his  progress  he  subdued  Bessus,  and 
advanced  to  the  Jaxartes,  the  extreme 
eastern  limit  of  the  empire,  but  did  not 
fully  subdue  the  whole  of  this  region 
till  328,  some  fortresses  holding  out 
with  great  tenacity.  In  one  of  these  he 

P.  E— 3 


took  prisoner  the  beautiful  Roxana, 
daughter  of  Oxyartes,  a nobleman  of 
Sogdiana,  and  having  fallen  in  love  with 
her  he  married  her.  Alexander  now 
formed  the  idea  of  conquering  India, 
then  scarcely  known  even  by  name. 
He  passed  tlie  Indus  (b.c.  326),  marched 
toward  the  Hydaspes  (Jhelum),  at  the 
passage  of  which  he  conquered  a king 
named  Porus  in  a bloody  battle,  and 
advanced  victoriously  through  the 
northwest  of  India,  and  intended  to 
proceed  as  far  as  the  Ganges,  when  the 
murmurs  of  his  army  compelled  him  to 
return.  On  the  Hydaspes  he  built  a 
fleet,  in  which  he  sent  a part  of  his  army 
down  the  river,  while  the  rest  proceeded 
along  the  banks.  By  the  Hydaspes  he 
reached  the  Acesines  (Chenab),  and  thus 
the  Indus,  down  which  he  sailed  to  the 
sea.  Nearchus,  his  admiral,  sailed  hence 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  Alexander 
directed  his  march  by  land  to  Babylon, 
losing  a great  part  of  his  troops  in  the 
desert  through  which  he  had  to  pass. 
In  Susa  he  married  Statira,  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Darius,  and  rewarded  those 
of  his  Macedonians  who  had  married 
Persian  women,  because  it  was  his 
intention  to  unite  the  two  nations  as 
closely  as  possible.  At  Opis,  on  the 
Tigris,  a mutiny  arose  among  his 
Macedonians  (in  324),  who  thought  he 
showed  too  much  favor  to  the  Asiatics; 
by  firmness  and  policy  he  succeeded  in 
quelling  this  rising,  and  sent  home 
10,000  veterans  with  rich  rewards. 
Soon  after,  his  favorite  horse,  Buceph- 
alus, died  at  Ecbatana,  and  Alexander’s 
grief  was  unbounded.  The  favorite  was 
royally  buried  at  Babylon,  and  here 
Alexander  was  engaged  in  extensive 
plans  for  the  future,  when  he  became 
suddenly  sick,  after  a banquet,  and 
died  in  a few  days  (323  b.c.),  in  his 
thirty-third  year,  after  a reign  of  twelve 
years  and  eight  months.  His  body  was 
after  a time  conveyed  to  Egypt  with 
great  splendor  by  his  general  Ptolemy. 
He  left  behind  him  an  immense  empire, 
which  was  divided  among  his  chief 
generals,  and  became  the  scene  of 
continual  wars.  The  reign  of  Alexander 
constitutes  an  important  period  in  the 
history  of  humanity.  His  career  was 
not  merely  a series  of  empty  conquests, 
but  was  attended  with  the  most  im- 
portant results.  The  language,  and 
much  of  the  civilization  of  Greece, 
followed  in  his  track;  large  additions 
were  made  to  the  sciences  of  geography, 
natural  history,  etc. ; a road  was  opened 
to  India;  and  the  products  of  the 
farthest  east  were  introduced  into 
Europe.  Greek  kingdoms,  under  his 
generals  and  their  successors,  continued 
to  exist  in  Asia  for  centuries. 

ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  eight 
popes,  the  earliest  of  whom,  Alexander 

1.,  is  said  to  have  reigned  from  109  to 
119.  The  most  famous  (or  infamous) 
is  ALEXANDER  VI.  (Borgia),  who  was 
born  at  Valencia,  in  Spain,  in  1431,  and 
died  in  1503.  When  he  was  only  twenty- 
five  years  of  age  his  uncle.  Pope  Calixtus 

111.,  made  him  a cardinal,  and  shortly 
afterward  appointed  him  to  the  digni- 
fied and  lucrative  office  of  vice-chan- 
cellor. By  bribery  he  prepared  his 
way  to  tire  papal  throne,  which  he 
attained  in  1492,  after  the  death  of 


Innocent  VIII.  Both  the  authority  and 
revenues  of  the  popes  being  at  this  time 
much  impaired,  he  set  himself  to  reduce 
the  power  of  the  Italian  princes,  and 
seize  upon  their  possessions  for  the 
benefit  of  his  own  family.  To  effect 
this  end  he  is  said  not  to  have  scrupled 
to  use  the  vilest  means,  including 
poison  and  assassination.  His  policy, 
foreign  as  well  as  domestic,  was  faithless 
and  base,  and  his  private  life  was  stained 
by  sensuality.  He  understood  how  to 
extract  immense  sums  of  money  from 
all  Christian  countries  under  various 
pretexts.  He  sold  indulgences,  and  set 
aside,  in  favor  of  himself,  the  wills  of 
several  cardinals.  His  excesses  roused 
against  him  the  powerful  eloquence  of 
Savonarola,  who,  by  pen  and  pulpit, 
urged  his  deposition,  but  had  to  meet 
his  death  at  the  stake  in  1498.  Not 
long  after  his  election  Alexander  had 
the  honor  of  deciding  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  kings  of  Portugal  and  Castile 
concerning  their  respective  claims  to 
the  foreign  countides  recently  dis- 
covered. His  son,  Cesare  Borgia,  and 
his  daughter,  Lucrezia,  are  equally  noto- 
rious with  himself. 

ALEXANDER,  the  name  of  three 
Scottish  kings.  ALEXANDER  I.,  a son 
of  Malcolm  Canmore  and  Margaret  of 
England,  succeeded  his  brother  Edgar 
in  1107,  and  governed  with  great  ability 
till  his  death  in  1124.— ALEXANDER  II, 
was  born  in  1198,  and  succeeded  his 
father  William  the  Lion  in  1214.  He 
died  in  1248  at  Kerrera,  an  island  op- 
posite Oban,  when  on  an  expedition  in 
which  he  hoped  to  wrest  the  Hebrides 
from  Norway.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  ALEXANDER  III.,  a boy  of  eight, 
who  in  1251  married  Margaret,  eldest 
daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England. 
Like  his  father  he  was  eager  to  bring  the 
Hebrides  under  his  sway,  and  this  he 
was  enabled  to  accomplish  in  a few 
years  after  the  defeat  of  the  Norse  King 
Haco  at  Largs,  in  1263.  The  mainland 
and  islands  of  Scotland  were  now  under 
one  sovereign,  though  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land still  belonged  to  Norway. 

ALEXANDER  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
son  of  Paul  I.  and  Maria,  daughter  of 
Prince  Eugene  of  Wiirtemberg,  was  born 
in  1777,  and  died  in  1825.  On  the 
assassination  of  his  father,  in  1801, 
Alexander  ascended  the  throne,  and 
one  of  his  first  acts  was  to  conclude 
peace  with  Britain,  against  which  his 
predecessor  had  declared  war.  In  1803 
he  offered  his  services  as  mediator 
between  England  and  France,  and  two 
years  later  a convention  was  entered 
into  between  Russia,  England,  Austria, 
and  Sweden  for  the  purpose  of  resisting 
the  encroachments  of  France  on  the 
territories  of  independent  states.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz 
(1805),  when  the  combined  armies  of 
Russia  and  Austria  were  defeated  by 
Napoleon.  In  the  succeeding  campaign 
the  Russians  were  again  beaten  at  Eylau 
(8th  February,  1807)  and  Friedland 
(14th  June),  the  result  of  which  was  an  . 
interview,  between  Alexander  and  Na- 
poleon, and  the  treaty  at  Tilsit.  The 
Russian  emperor  now  for  a time  iden- 
tified himself  with  the  Napoleonic 
schemes,  and  soon  obtained  possession 
of  Finland  and  an  extended  territory 


ALEXANDER  II 


ALEXANDRINE 


on  the  Danube.  The  French  alliance, 
however,  he  found  to  be  too  oppressive, 
and  his  having  separated  himself  from 
Napoleon  led  to  the  disastrous  French 
invasion  of  1812.  In  1813  he  published 
a manifesto  which  served  as  the  basis 
of  the  coalition  of  the  other  European 
powers  against  France,  which  was 
followed  by  the  capture  of  Paris 
(in  1814),  the  abdication  of  Napoleon 
and  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
and  the  utter  overthrow  of  Napoleon 
the  following  year.  After  Waterloo, 
Alexander,  accompanied  by  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  and  the  King  of 
Prussia,  made  his  second  entrance  into 
Paris,  where  they  concluded  the  treaty 
known  as  the  Holy  Alliance.  The 
remaining  part  of  his  reign  was  chiefly 
taken  up  in  measures  of  internal  reform, 
including  the  gradual  abolition  of 
serfdom,  and  the  promotion  of  educa- 
tion, agriculture,  commerce,  and  manu- 
factures, as  well  as  literature  and  the 
fine  arts. 

ALEXANDER  II.,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
was  born  April  29,  1818,  and  succeeded 
his  father  Nicholas  in  1855,  before  the 
end  of  the  Crimean  war.  After  peace 
was  concluded  the  new  emperor  set 
about  effecting  reforms  in  the  empire, 
the  greatest  of  all  being  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  serfs  in  1861,  a measure 
which  gave  freedom,  on  certain  con- 
ditions, to  22,000,000  of  human  beings 
who  were  previously  in  a state  little 
removed  from  that  of  slavery.  Under 
him,  too,  representative  assemblies  hr 
the  provinces  were  introduced,  and  he 
also  did  much  to  improve  education, 
and  to  reorganize  the  judicial  system. 
During  his  reign  the  Russian  dominions 
in  central  Asia  were  extended,  a piece 
of  territory  south  of  the  Caucasus, 
formerly  belonging  to  Turkey,  was 
acquired,  and  a part  of  Bessarabia, 
belonging  since  the  Crimean  war  to 
Turkey  in  Europe,  but  previously  to 
Russia,  was  restored  to  the  latter  power. 
The  latter  additions  resulted  from  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78.  He 
was  killed  by  an  explosive  missile  flung 
at  him  (by  a Nihilist  it  is  supposed)  in 
a street  in  St.  Petersburg,  13tli  March, 
1881.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  second 
son  Alexander  HI.,  his  eldest  son  having 
died  in  youth.  Alexander  Ill’s  policy 
was  reactionary,  He  died  in  1894. 

ALEXANDER  SEVE'RUS,  a Roman 
emperor,  born  in  205,  died  235  a.d. 
He  was  raised  to  the  imperial  dignity 
in  222  A.D.  by  the  praetorian  guards, 
after  they  had  put  his  cousin  the 
emperor  Heliogabalus  to  death.  When 
on  an  expedition  into  Gaul  to  repress 
an  incursion  of  the  Germans,  he  was 
murdered  with  his  mother  in  an  insur- 
rection of  his  troops,  headed  by  the 
brutal  Maximin,  who  succeeded  him 
as  emperor. 

ALEXANDERS,  an  umbelliferous 
biennial  plant,  a native  of  Britain, 
formerly  cultivated  for  its  leafstalks, 
which,  having  a pleasant  aromatic 
flavor,  were  blanched  and  used  instead 
of  celery — a vegetable  that  has  taken 
its  place. 

ALEXAN'DRIA,  an  ancient  city  and 
seaport  in  Egypt,  at  the  northwest 
an^e  of  the  Nile  delta,  on  a ridge  of 


land  between  the  eea  and  Lake  Mareotis. 
Founded  by,  and  named  in  honor  of, 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  b.c.  332,  and 
the  center  of  commerce  between  the 
east  and  west,  as  well  as  of  Greek 
learning  and  civilization,  with  a popu- 
lation at  one  time  of  perhaps  1,000,000. 
It  was  especially  celebrated  for  its  great 
library,  and  its  famous  lighthouse,  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  standing 
upon  the  httle  island  of  Pharos,  which 
was  connected  with  the  city  by  a mole. 
Under  Roman  rule  it  was  the  second 
city  of  the  empire,  and  when  Con- 
stantinople became  the  capital  of  the 
east  it  still  remained  the  chief  center 
of  trade;  but  it  received  a blow  from 
which  it  never  recovered  when  captured 
by  Amru,  general  of  Caliph  Omar  in  641, 
after  a siege  of  fourteen  months.  Its 
ruin  was  finally  completed  by  the  dis- 
covery of  the  passage  to  India  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  opened  up  a 
new  route  for  the  Asiatic  trade.  See  Al- 
exandrian Library,  Alexandrian  School. 
— Modern  Alexandria  stands  partly 
on  what  was  formerly  the  island  of 
Pharos,  partly  on  the  peninsula  which 
now  connects  it  with  the  mainland  and 
has  been  formed  by  the  accumulation  of 


soil,  and  partly  on  the  mainland. 
Alexandria  has  two  ports,  on  the  east 
and  west  respectively  of  the  isthmus  of 
the  Pharos  peninsula,  the  latter  having 
a breakwater  over  3000  yards  in  length, 
with  fine  quays  and  suitable  railway 
and  other  accommodation.  The  trade 
of  Alexandria  is  large  and  varied,  the 
exports  being  cotton,  beans,  peas,  rice, 
wheat,  etc.;  the  imports  chiefly  manu- 
factured goods.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
century  Alexandria  was  an  insignificant 
place  of  5000  or  6000  inhabitants. 
The  origin  of  its  more  recent  career  of 
prosperity  it  owes  to  Mohammed  Ali. 
In  1882  the  insurrection  of  Arabi  Pasha 
and  the  massacre  of  Europeans  led  to 
the  intervention  of  the  British,  and  the 
bombardment  of  the  forts  by  the  British 
fleet  in  July.  When  the  British  entered 
the  city  they  found  the  finest  parts  of 
it  sacked  and  in  flames,  but  the  damage 
has  been  repaired.  Pop.  319,766. 

ALEXANDRIA,  a town  and  port  of 
the  United  States,  in  Virginia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Potomac  (which  is  of 
sufficient  depth  for  large  vessels),  7 miles 
miles  south  of  Washington,  with  straight 
and  spacious  streets ; carries  on  a consid- 
erable trade,  chiefly  in  flour.  Pop. 
16,589. 

ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY,  the  larg- 
est and  most  famous  of  all  the  ancient 
collections  of  books,  founded  by  Ptolemy 
Soter  (died  283  b.c.),  king  of  Egypt, 


and  greatly  enlarged  by  succeeding 
Ptolemies.  At  its  most  flourishing 
period  it  is  said  to  have  numbered 
700,000  volumes,  accommodated  in 
two  different  buildings,  one  of  them 
being  the  Serapeion,  or  temple  of 
Jupiter  Serapis.  The  other  collection 
was  burned  during  Julius  Caesar’s  siege 
of  the  city,  but  the  Serapeion  library 
existed  to  the  time  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  the  Great,  when,  at  the 
general  destruction  of  the  heathen  tem- 
ples, the  splendid  temple  of  Jupiter 
Serapis  was  gutted  (a.d.  391)  by  a 
fanatical  crowd  of  Christians,  and  its 
literary  treasures  destroyed  or  scattered. 
A library  was  again  accumulated,  but 
was  burned  by  the  Arabs  when  they 
captured  the  city  under  the  caliph  Omar 
in  641. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL  or  AGE, 

the  school  or  period  of  Greek  literature 
and  learning  that  existed  at  Alexandria 
in  Egypt  during  the  three  hundred 
years  that  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies 
lasted  (323-30  B.c.),  and  continued 
under  the  Roman  supremacy.  Ptolemy 
Soter  founded  the  famous  library  of 
Alexandria  (see  above),  and  his  son, 
Philadelphus,  established  a kind  of 
academy  of  sciences  and  arts.  Among 
the  grammarians  and  critics  were 
Zenodotus,  Eratosthenes,  Aristophanes, 
Aristarchus,  and  Zoilus,  proverbial  as 
a captious  critic.  Their  merit  is  to 
have  collected,  edited,  and  preserved 
the  existing  monuments  of  Greek 
literature.  To  the  poets  belong  Apol- 
lonius, Lycophron,  Aratus,  Nicander, 
Euphorion,  Callimachus,  Theocritus, 
Philetas,  etc.  Among  those  who  pur- 
sued mathematics,  physics,  and  as- 
tronomy, was  Euclid,  the  father  of 
scientific  geometry;  Archimedes,  great 
in  physics  and  mechanics;  Apollonius 
of  Perga,  whose  work  on  conic  sections 
still  exists;  Nicomachus,  the  first 
scientific  arithmetician;  and  (under 
the  Romans)  the  astronomer  and  geog- 
rapher Ptolemy.  Alexandria  also  was 
distinguished  in  philosophical  specu- 
lation, and  it  was  here  that  the  New 
Platonic  school  was  established  at  the 
close  of  the  second  century  after  Christ 
by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria  (about 
193  A.D.),  whose  disciples  were  Plotinus 
and  Origen.  The  principal  Gnostic  sys- 
tems also  had  their  origin  in  Alex- 
andria. 

ALEXANDRIAN  VERSION,  or  CODEX 
ALEXANDRINUS,  a manuscript  in  the 
British  Museum,  of  great  importance 
in  Biblical  criticism,  written  on  parch- 
ment with  uncial  letters,  and  belonging 
probably  to  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth 
century.  It  contains  the  whole  Greek 
Bible  (the  Old  Testament  being  accord- 
ing to  the  Septuagint),  together  with 
the  letters  of  Bishop  Clement  of  Rome, 
but  it  wants  parts  of  Matthew,  John, 
and  Second  Corinthians.  The  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  who  in  1628  sent  this 
manuscript  as  a present  to  Charles  I., 
said  he  had  received  it  from  Egypt 
(whence  its  name). 

ALEXANDRINE,  in  prosody,  the 
name  given,  from  an  old  French  poem  on 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  a species  of 
verse,  which  consists  of  six  iambic  feet, 
or  twelve  syllables,  the  pause  being, 
in  correct  Alexandrines,  always  on  the 


ALEXIS  MICHAILOVITCH 


ALGEBRA 


sixth  syllable;  for  example,  the  second 
of  the  following  verses : 

A needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 

That,  like  a wounded  snake,  drags  Its  slow 
length  along. 

In  English  Drayton’s  Polyolbion  is 
written  in  this  measure,  and  the  con- 
cluding line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza  is 
an  Alexandrine.  The  French  in  their 
epics  and  dramas  are  confined  to  this 
verse,  which  for  this  reason  is  called  by 
them  the  heroic. 

ALEXIS  MICHAI'LOVITCH  (son  of 
Michael),  second  Russian  czar  of  the 
line  of  llomanof  (the  present  dynasty), 
born  in  1629,  succeeded  his  father 
Michael  Feodorovitch  in  1645,  and  died 
in  1676.  He  did  much  for  the  internal 
administration  and  for  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  empire;  reconquered  Little 
Russia  from  Poland,  and  carried  his 
authority  to  the  extreme  east  of 
Siberia.  He  was  father  of  Peter  the 
Great. 

ALEXIS  PETRO'VITCH,  eldest  son 
of  Peter  the  Great,  was  born  in  Moscow, 
1690,  and  died  in  1718.  He  opposed  the 
innovations  introduced  by  his  father, 
who  on  this  account  disinherited  him 
by  a ukase  in  1718,  and  when  he  dis- 
covered that  Alexis  was  paving  the 
way  to  succeed  to  the  crown  he  had  his 
son  tried  and  condemned  to  death.  This 
affected  the  latter  so  much  that  he  died 
in  a few  days,  leaving  a son,  afterward 
the  emperor  Peter  II. 

ALEXIUS  COMNE'NUS,  Byzantine 
Emperor,  was  born  in  1048,  and  died  in 
1118.  He  was  a nephew  of  Isaac  the 
first  empei'or  of  the  Comneni,  and 
attained  the  throne  in  1081,  at  a time 
when  the  empire  was  menaced  from 
various  sides,  especially  by  the  Turks 
and  the  Normans.  From  these  dangers, 
as  well  as  Horn  later  (caused  by  the 
first  Crusade,  the  Normans,  and  the 
Turks),  he  managed  to  extricate  him- 
self by  policy  or  warlike  measures,  and 
maintained  his  position  till  the  age  of 
seventy,  during  a reign  of  thirty-seven 
years. 

AL'FA,  a name  for  esparto  grass  or  a 
variety  of  it,  largely  obtained  from 
Algeria. 

ALFAL'FA,  a prolific  forage  plant 
similar  to  lucerne,  largely  grown  in 
California,  etc. 

AL'FENID,  an  alloy  of  nickel  plated 
with  silver,  used  for  spoons,  forks, 
candlesticks,  tea  services,  etc. 

ALFIERI  (al-fe-a're),  Vittorio,  Count, 
Italian  poet,  was  born  at  Asti  in  1749, 
and  died  in  1803.  After  extensive 
European  travels  he  began  to  write, 
and  his  first  play,  Cleopatra  (1775), 
being  received  with  general  applause  he 
determined  to  devote  all  his  efforts  to 
attaining  a position  among  writers  of 
dramatic  poetry.  He  died  at  Florence 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of 
Santa  Croce,  between  Macchiavelli 
* and  Michael  Angelo,  where  a beautiful 
monument  by  Canova  covers  his  re- 
mains. His  tragedies  are  full  of  lofty 
and  patriotic  sentiments,  but  the  lan- 
guage is  stiff  and  without  poetic  grace, 
and  the  plots  poor.  Nevertheless  he  is 
considered  the  first  tragic  writer  of 


Italy,  and  has  served  as  a model  for  I 
his  successors.  j 

ALFON'SO.  See  Alphonso. 

AL'FORD,  Henry,  D.D.,  Dean  of 
Canterbury,  an  English  poet,  scholar, 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom  in 
London  in  1810.  After  attending  vari- 
ous schools  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1827,  graduated  B.A. 
in  1832,  was  elected  fellow  in  1834, 
and  next  year  became  vicar  of  Wymes- 
wold,  Leicestershire.  In  1842  he  was 
appointed  examiner  in  logic  and  moral 
philosophy  to  the  University  of  London, 
and  held  the  appointment  till  1857. 
He  early  began  the  great  work  of  his 
life,  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament 
with  commentary,  which  occupied  him 
for  twenty  years,  the  first  volume  being 
published  in  1849,  the  fourth  and  last 
in  1861.  In  1853  he  was  transferred  to 
Quebec  Chapel,  London,  and  in  1857  he 
was  appointed  Dean  of  Canterbury.  He 
died  in  1871. 

AL'FRED  (oi-iEL'FRED)  the  Great, 
King  of  England,  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  rulers  on  record,  was  born  at 
Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  a.d.  849,  his 
father  being  Ethelwolf,  son  of  Egbert, 
king  of  the  West  Saxons.  He  succeeded 
his  brother  Ethelred  in  872,  at  a time 
when  the  Danes,  or  Northmen,  had  ex- 
tended their  conquests  widely  over  the 
country,  and  they  had  completely  over- 
run the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons  by 
878.  Alfred  was  obliged  to  flee  in  dis- 
guise, and  stayed  for  some  time  with  one 
of  his  own  neat-herds.  At  length  he 
gathered  a small  force,  and,  having 
fortified  himself  on  the  Isle  of  Athelney, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the’ rivers 
Parret  and  Tone,  amid  the  marshes  of 
Somerset,  he  was  able  to  make  frequent 
sallies  against  the  enemy.  It  was 
during  his  abode  here  that  he  went,  if 
the  story  is  true,  disguised  as  a harper 
into  the  camp  of  King  Guthrum  (or 
Guthorm),  and,  having  ascertained 
that  the  Danes  felt  themselves  secure, 
hastened  back  to  his  troops,  led  them 
against  the  enemy,  and  gained  such  a 
decided  victory  that  fourteen  days 
afterward  the  Danes  begged  for  peace. 
This  battle  took  place  in  May,  878,  near 
Edington,  in  Wiltshire.  Alfred  allowed 
the  Danes  who  were  already  in  the  coun- 
try to  remain,  on  condition  that  they 
gave  hostages,  took  a solemn  oath  to 
quit  Wessex,  and  embraced  Christian- 
ity. Their  king,  Guthrum,  was  baptized, 
with  thirty  of  his  followers,  and  ever 
afterward  remained  faithful  to  Alfred. 
They  received  that  portion  of  the  east 
of  England  now  occupied  by  the  coun- 
ties of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Cambridge, 
as  a place  of  residence.  The  few  years 
of  tranquillity  (886-893)  which  followed 
were  employed  by  Alfred  in  rebuilding 
the  towns  that  had  suffered  most  during 
the  war,  particularly  London;  in  train- 
ing his  people  in  arms,  and  no  less 
in  agriculture;  in  improving  the  navy- 
in  systematizing  the  laws  and  internal 
administration;  and  in  literary  labors 
and  the  advancement  of  learning.  These 
peaceful  labors  were  interrupted,  about 
894,  by  an  invasion  of  the  i^orthmen, 
who,  after  a struggle  of  three  years, 
were  finally  driven  out.  Alfred  died  in 
901.  He  had  married,  in  868,  Alswith 
or  Ealhswith,  the  daughter  of  a Mercian 


nobleman,  and  left  two  sons:  Edward, 
who  succeeded  him,  and  Ethelwerd,  who 
died  in  922. 

AhGJE  (al'jg),  a nat.  order  of  crypto- 
gamic  or  thallogenous  plants,  found  for 
the  most  part  in  the  sea  and  fresh  water, 
and  comprising  seaweeds,  etc.  The 
higher  forms  have  stems  bearing  leaf- 
like expansions,  and  they  are  often 
attached  to  the  rocks  by  roots,  which, 
however,  do  not  derive  nutriment  from 
the  rocks.  A stem,  however,  is  most 
frequently  absent.  The  plants  are 
nourished  through  their  whole  surface 
by  the  medium  in  which  they  live.  They 
vary  in  size  from  the  microscopic 
diatoms  to  forms  whose  stems  resemble 
those  of  forest  trees,  and  whose  fronds 
rival  the  leaves  of  the  palm.  They  are 
entirely  composed  of  cellular  tissue,  and 
many  are  edible  and  nutritious,  as 
carrageen  or  Irish-moss,  dulse,  etc. 
Kelp,  iodine,  and  bromine  are  products 
of  various  species.  The  Algae  are  also 
valuable  as  manure. 

ALGAROBILL'A,  the  seed-pods  of 
one  or  two  South  American  trees,  valu- 
able as  containing  much  tannin. 

AL'GAROT,  a violently  purgative  and 
emetic  white  powder,  precipitated  from 
chloride  of  antimony  in  water;  for- 
merly used  in  medicine. 

ALGARVE  (5,1-gar'va),  a maritime 
province  of  Portugal  occupying  the 
southern  portion  of  the  kingdom; 
mountainous  but  with  some  fertile 
tracts.  Area,  2099 sq.  miles; pop.  254,851. 

AL'GEBRA,  a kind  of  generalized 
arithmetic,  in  which  numbers  or  quanti- 
ties and  operations,  often  also  the 
results  of  operations,  are  represented 
by  symbols.  Thus  the  expression 
xy  + cz  + dy^  denotes  that  a number 
represented  by  x is  to  be  multiplied  by  a 
number  represented  by  y,  a number  c 
multiplied  by  a number  z,  a number  d 
by  a number  y multiplied  by  itself 
(or  squared),  and  the  sum  taken  of  these 
three  products.  So  the  equation  (as  it 
is  called)  x^-7x  + 12  = 0 expresses 
the  fact  that  if  a certain  number  x is 
multiplied  by  itself,  and  this  result 
made  less  by  seven  times  the  number 
and  greater  by  twelve,  the  result  is  0. 
In  this  case  x must  either  be  3 or  4 to 
produce  the  given  result;  but  such  an 
equation  (or  formula)  as  {a  + b)  (a  - b) 
= - b^  is  always  true  whatever  values 

may  be  assigned  to  a and  b.  Algebra 
is  an  invaluable  instrument  in  intricate 
calculations  of  all  kinds,  and  enables 
operations  to  be  performed  and  results 
obtained  that  by  arithmetic  would  be 
impossible,  and  its  scope  is  still  being 
extended. 

The  beginnings  of  algebraic  method 
are  to  be  found  in  Diophantus,  a Greek 
of  the  fourth  century  of  our  era,  but  it 
was  the  Arabians  that  introduced 
algebra  to  Europe,  and  from  them  it 
received  its  name.  The  first  Arabian 
treatise  on  algebra  was  published  in  the 
reign  of  the  great  Kaliph  A1  Mamun 
(813-833)  by  Mohammed  Ben  Musa.  In 
1202  Leonardo  Fibonacci  of  Pisa,  who 
had  traveled  and  studied  in  the  East, 
published  a work  treating  of  algebra  as 
then  understood  in  the  Arabian  school. 
From  this  time  to  the  discovery  of 
printing  considerable  attention  was 
given  to  algebra^  and  the  work  of  Ben 


ALGER 


ALGIN 


Musa  and  another  Arabian  treatise, 
called  the  Rule  of  Algebra,  were  trans- 
lated into  Italian.  The  first  printed 
work  treating  on  algebra  (.also  on  arith- 
metic, etc.)  appeared  at  Venice  in  1494, 
the  author  being  a monk  called  Luca 
Pacioli  da  Bergo.  Rapid  progress  now 
began  to  be  made,  and  among  the  names 
of  those  to  whom  advances  are  to  be 
attributed  are  Tartaglia  and  Cardan. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  the  German  Stifel  introduced 
the  signs  +,  \/,  and  Recorde  the 

sign  = . Recorde  wrote  the  first  Eng- 
lish work  on  algebra.  Francois  Vieta, 
a French  mathematician  (1.540-1603), 
first  adopted  the  method  which  has  led 
to  so  great  an  extension  of  modern 
algebra,  by  being  the  first  who  used 
general  symbols  for  known  quantities 
as  well  as  for  unknown.  It  was  he  also 
who  first  made  the  application  of 
algebra  to  geometry.  Albert  Girard 
extended  the  theory  of  equations  by 
the  supposition  of  imaginary  quantities. 
The  Eiigli.shman  Harriot,  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  discovered  nega- 
tive roots,  and  established  the  equality 
between  the  number  of  roots  and  the 
units  in  the  degree  of  the  equation.  lie 
also  invented  the  signs  < >,  and 
Oughthred  that  of  X.  Descartes, 
though  not  the  first  to'  apply  algebra 
to  geometry,  has,  by  the  extent  and 
importance  of  his  applications,  com- 
monly acquired  the  credit  of  being  so. 
The  same  discoveries  have  also  been 
attributed  to  him  as  to  Harriot,  and 
their  respective  claims  have  caused 
much  controversy.  He  obtained  by 
means  of  algebra  the  definition  and 
description  of  curves.  Since  his  time 
Algebra  has  been  applied  so  widely  in 
geometry  and  higher  mathematics  that 
we  need  only  mention  the  names  of 
Fermat,  Wallis,  Newton,  Leibnitz,  De 
Moivre,  MacLaurin,  Taylor,  Euler, 
D’Alembert,  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Fourier, 
Poisson,  Gauss,  Honer,  De  Morgan, 
Sylvester,  Cayley.  Boole,  Jevons,  and 
others  have  applied  the  algebraic 
methods  not  only  to  formal  logic  but  to 
political  economy. 

ALGER,  Horatio,  an  American  au- 
thor, writer  of  juvenile  books,  born  at 
Revere,  Mass. , 1834,  died  inl899.  He  was 
graduated  from  Harvard  in  1852,  and, 
after  studying  divinity,  became  pastor 
of  a Unitarian  church  at  Brewster, 
Mass.  Mr.  Alger  published  over  70 
stories,  of  which  nearly  1,000,000  copies 
have  been  sold. 

ALGER,  Russell  Alexander,  American 
soldier  and  statesman,  born  at  La- 
fayette, Ohio,  in  1836.  Admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1859,  he  enlisted  as  a volunteer 
in  the  Union  army  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war,  and  rose  from  the 
ranks  to  be  major-general.  After  the 
war  he  grew  rich  as  a lumber  merchant 
in  Michigan  ; was  governor  of  Michigan 
from  1885  to  1886,  commander  of  theG. 
A.  R.  in  1889,  and  secretary  of  war  in 
President  McKinley’s  Cabinet.  He  was 
appointed  Senator  in  1892,  and  elected 
in  1903  for  term  expiring  in  1907.  He 
died  in  1907. 

ALGE  RIA,  a French  colony  in  North 
Africa,  having  on  the  north  the  Mediter- 
ranean, on  the  east  Tunis,  on  the  west 
Morocco,  and  on  the  south  (where  the 


boundary  is  ill-defined)  the  Desert  of 
Sahara;  area,  122,878  sq.  miles,  or, 
including  the  Algerian  Sahara,  257,000. 
The  country  is  divided  into  three 
departments — Algiers,  Oran,  and  Con- 
stantine. The  coast-line  is  about  550 
miles  in  length,  steep  and  rocky,  and 
though  the  indentations  are  numerous 
the  harbors  are  much  exposed  to  the 
north  wind.  The  country  is  traversed 
by  the  Atlas  Mountains,  two  chains  of 
which — the  Great  Atlas,  bordering  on 
the  Sahara,  and  the  Little,  or  Maritime 
Atlas,  between  it  and  the  sea — run 
parallel  to  the  coast,  the  former  attain- 
ing a height  of  7000  feet.  The  intervals 
are  filled  with  lower  ranges,  and  numer- 
ous transverse  ranges  connect  the  prin- 
cipal ones  and  run  from  them  to  the 
coast,  forming  elevated  tablelands 
and  inclosed  valleys.  The  rivers  are 
numerous,  but  many  of  them  are  mere 
torrents  rising  in  the  mountains  near 
the  coast.  The  Shelif  is  much  the  largest. 

The  chief  products  of  cultivation  are 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  tobacco,  cotton, 
wine,  silk,  and  dates.  Among  wild 
animals  are  the  lion,  panther,  hyena, 
and  jackal;  the  domestic  quadrupeds 
include  the  horse,  the  mule,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  pigs  (introduced  by  the 
French).  Algeria  possesses  valuable 
minerals,  including  iron,  copper,  lead, 
sulphur,  zinc,  antimony,  marble  (white 
and  red),  phosphate,  and  lithographic 
stone. 

The  two  principal  native  races  in- 
habiting Algeria  are  Arabs  and  Berbers. 
The  former  are  mostly  nomads,  dwell- 
ing in  tents  and  wandering  from  place 
to  place,  though  a large  number  of  them 
are  settled  in  the  Tell,  where  they  carry 
on  agriculture  and  have  formed  nu- 
merous villages.  The  Berbers,  here 
called  Kabyles,  are  the  original  in- 
habitants of  the  territory  and  still  form 
a considerable  part  of  the  population. 
They  speak  the  Berber  language,  but  use 
Arabic  characters  in  writing.  The 
Jews  form  a small  but  influential  part 
of  the  population.  Various  other  races 
also  exist.  Except  the  Jews  all  the 
native  races  are  Mohammedans.  There 
are  now  a considerable  number  of 
French  and  other  colonists,  provision 
being  made  for  granting  them  conces- 
sions of  land  on  certain  conditions. 
There  are  over  260,000  colonists  of 
French  origin  in  Algeria,  and  over 
200,000  colonist  natives  of  other  Eu- 
ropean countries  (chiefly  Spaniards  and 
Italians).  Algeria  is  governed  by  a 
governor-general,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
council  appointed  by  the  French  govern- 
ment. The  settled  portion  of  the 
country,  in  the  three  departments  of 
Algiers,  Constantine,  and  Oran,  is 
treated  much  as  if  it  were  a part  of 
France,  and  each  department  sends 
two  deputies  and  one  senator  to  the 
French  chambers.  The  rest  of  the  terri- 
tory is  under  military  rule.  The  colony 
costs  France  a considerable  sum  every 
year.  Pop.  of  Algeria  proper  in  1901, 
4,739,331  ;of  the  Algerian  Sahara,  60,000. 

The  country  now  called  Algeria  was 
known  to  the  Romans  as  Numidia. 
It  flourished  greatly  under  their  rule, 
and  e;.rly  received  the  Christian  religion. 
It  wrs  conquered  by  the  Vandals  in 
430-431  A.D.,  and  recovered  by  Beli- 


sarius  for  the  Byzantine  Empire  in 
533-534.  About  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century  it  was  overrun  by  the 
Saracens.  The  town  of  Algiers  was 
founded  about  935  by  Yussef  Ibn 
Zeiri,  and  the  country  was  subsequently 
ruled  by  his  successors  and  the  dynasties 
of  the  Almoravides  and  Almohades. 
The  depredations  of  the  Algerian  pirates 
were  a continual  source  of  irritation  to 
the  Christian  powers,  who  sent  a long 
series  of  expeditions  against  them.  For 
instance  in  1815  a United  States  fleet 
defeated  an  Algerian  one  and  forced  the 
dey  to  agree  to  a peace  in  v.'hich  he 
recognized  the  American  flag  as  invio- 
lable. 

At  last  the  French  determined  on 
more  vigorous  measures,  and  in  1830 
sent  a force  of  over  40,000  men  against 
the  country.  Algiers  was  speedily  oc- 
cupied, the  dey  retired,  and  the  country 
was  without  a government,  but  resist- 
ance was  organized  by  Abd-el-Kader, 
an  Arab  chief  whom  the  emergency  had 
raised  up. 

This  and  subsequent  efforts  failed, 
and  the  country  became  a French 
province,  with  a French  general  for 
governor. 

ALGIERS  (al'jerz),  a city  and  seaport 
on  the  Mediterranean,  capital  of  Algeria, 
on  the  Bay  of  Algiers,  partly  on  the 
slope  of  a hill  facing  the  sea.  The  old 
town,  which  is  the  higher,  is  oriental 


Principal  mosque,  Algiers. 


in  appearance,  with  narrow,  crooked 
streets,  and  houses  that  are  strong, 
prison-like  edifices.  The  modern  French 
town,  which  occupies  the  lower  slope 
and  spreads  along  the  shore,  is  hand- 
somely built,  with  broad  streets  and 
elegant  squares.  The  climate  of  Algiers, 
though  extremely  variable,  makes  it 
a very  desirable  winter  residence  for 
invalids  and  others  from  colder  regions. 
Though  warm,  it  is  bracing  and  tonic, 
and  not  of  a relaxing  character.  There 
is  a considerable  rainfall  (average  29  in.), 
but  the  dry  air  and  absorbent  soil  pre- 
vent it  from  being  disagreeable.  The 
winter  months  resemble  a bright,  sunny 
American  autumn,  while  the  heat  of 
summer  is  not  so  intense  as  that  of 
Egypt.  The  sirocco  or  desert  wind  is 
troublesome,  however,  during  summer, 
but  in  the  winter  it  is  merely  a pleasant, 
warm,  dry  breeze.  Hailstorms  are  not 
infrequent,  but  frost  and  snow  in  Algiers 
are  so  rare  as  to  be  almost  unknown. 
Pop.  97,400. 

ALGIN,  a viscous,  gummy  substance 
obtained  from  certain  seaweeds.  It 
can  be  utilized  for  all  purposes  where 
starch  or  gum  is  required;  used  in 


ALCOA  BAY 


ALIMENT 


cookery  for  soups  and  jellies;  in  an 
insoluble  form  it  can  be  cut,  turned, 
and  polished,  like  horn  or  vulcanite. 

ALGO'A  BATi^  a bay  on  the  south 
coast  of  Cape  Colony,  425  miles  east 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  only 
place  of  shelter  on  this  coast  for  vessels 
during  the  prevailing  northwest  gales. 
The  usual  anchorage  is  off  Port  Eliza- 
beth, on  its  west  coast,  now  a place  of 
large  and  increasing  trade. 

ALGOL',  a star  in  the  constellation 
Perseus  (head  of  Medusa),  remarkable 
as  a variable  star,  changing  in  brightness 
from  the  second  to  the  fifth  magnitude. 

ALGO'MA,  a district  of  Canada,  on 
the  north  side  of  Lake  Superior,  forming 
the  northwest  portion  of  Ontario,  rich 
in  silver,  copper,  iron,  etc. 

ALGON'QUINS,  a family  of  North 
American  Indians,  formerly  spread  over 
a great  extent  of  territory,  and  still 
forming  a large  proportion  of  the 
Indians  of  Canada.  They  consisted  of 
four  groups,  namely:  (1)  the  eastern 
group,  comprising  the  Massachusetts, 
Narragansets,  Mohicans,  Delawares,  and 
other  tribes ; (2)  the  northeastern 

group,  consisting  of  the  Abenakis,  etc.; 

(3)  the  western  group,  made  up  of  the 
Shawnees,  Miamis,  Illinois,  etc.;  and 

(4)  the  northwestern  group,  including 
the  Chippewas  or  Ojibbewas,  the  largest 
of  all  the  tribes. 

ALHAM'BRA,  a famous  group  of 
buildings  in  Spain,  forming  the  citadel  of 
Granada  when  that  city  was  one  of  the 
principal  seats  of  the  empire  of  the  Moors 
in  Spain,  situated  on  a height,  surround- 


Alliarabra— Moorish  ornament. 

ed  by  a wall  flanked  by  many  towers, 
and  having  a circuit  of  2J  miles.  Within 
the  circuit  of  the  walls  are  two  churches, 
a number  of  mean  houses,  and  some 
straggling  gardens,  besides  the  palace 
of  Charles  V.  and  the  celebrated  Moorish 
palace  which  is  often  distinctively 
spoken  of  as  the  Alhambra.  This  build- 
ing, to  which  the  celebrity  of  the  site  is 
entirely  due,  was  the  royal  palace  of  the 
kings  of  Granada.  The  greater  part 
of  the  present  building  belongs  to  the 
first  half  of  the  14th  century.  It  con- 
sists mainly  of  buildings  surrounding 
two  oblong  courts,  the  one  called  the 
Court  of  the  Fishpond  (or  of  the 
Myrtles),  138  by  74  feet,  lying  north  and 
south;  the  other,  called  the  Court  of 
the  Lions,  from  a fountain  ornamented 
with  twelve  lions  in  marble,  115  by  66 
feet,  lying  east  and  west,  described  as 
being,  with  the  apartments  that  sur- 
round it,  “the  gem  of  Arabian  art  in 
Spain,  its  most  beautiful  and  most  per- 


fect example.”  Its  design  is  elaborate, 
exhibiting  a profusion  of  exquisite  de- 
tail gorgeous  in  coloring,  but  the  small- 
ness of  its  size  deprives  it  of  the  element 
of  majesty.  The  peristyle  or  portico 
on  each  side  is  supported  by  128  pillars 
of  white  marble,  11  feet  high,  sometimes 
placed  singly  and  sometimes  in  groups. 
Two  pavilions  project  into  the  court  at 
each  end,  the  domed  roof  of  one  having 
been  lately  restored.  Some  of  the  finest 
chambers  of  the  Alhambra  open  into 
this  court,  and  near  the  entrance  a 
museum  of  Moorish  remains  has  been 
formed.  The  prevalence  of  stucco  or 
plaster  ornamentation  is  one  of  the 
features  of  the  Alhambra,  which  be- 
comes especially  remarkable  in  the 
beautiful  honeycomb  stalactitical  pen- 
dentives  which  the  ceilings  exhibit. 
Arabesques  and  geometrical  designs 
with  interwoven  inscriptions  are  present 
in  the  richest  profusion. 

AL'IAS,  a word  often  used  in  judicial 
proceedings  in  connection  with  the 
different  names  that  persons  have 
assumed,  most  likely  for  prudential 
reasons,  at  different  times,  and  in  order 
to  conceal  identity,  as  Joseph  Smith 
alias  Thomas  Jones. 

AL'IBI,  a defense  in  criminal  proce- 
dure, by  which  the  accused  endeavors 
to  prove  that  when  the  alleged  crime 
was  committed  he  was  present  in  a 
different  place. 

ALICANTE  (a-le-kan'ta),  a fortified 
town  and  Mediterranean  seaport  in 
Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  picturesquely  situated  part- 
ly on  the  slope  of  a hill,  partly  on  the 
plain  at  the  foot,  about  80  miles  south 
by  west  of  Valencia.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton,  linen,  and  ci- 
gars, one  cigar  manufactory  employing 
above  3000  women  The  chief  export 
is  wine,  which  largely  goes  to  England. 
Pop.  50,142. — The  province  is  very  fruit- 
ful and  well  cultivated,  producing  wine, 
silk,  fruits,  etc.  The  wine  is  of  a dark 
color,  and  is  heavy  and  sweet.  Area, 
2098  sq.  miles.  Pop.  470,149. 

ALICE  MAUD  MARY,  Princess, 
second  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria, 
Duchess  of  Saxony,  and  Grand  Duchess 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  born  1843,  died 
1878.  In  1862  she  married  Frederick 
William  Louis  of  Hesse,  nephew  of  the 
grand  duke,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1877. 

A'LIEN,  in  relation  to  any  country,  a 
person  born  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  country,  and  not  having  acquired 
the  full  rights  of  a citizen  of  it.  The 
position  of  aliens  depends  upon  the  laws 
of  the  respective  countries,  but  generally 
speaking  aliens  owe  a local  allegiance, 
and  are  bound  equally  with  natives  to 
obey  all  general  rules  for  the  preser- 
vation of  order  which  do  not  relate 
specially  to  citizens.  In  the  United 
States  the  position  of  aliens  as  regards 
acquisition  and  holding  of  real  prop- 
erty differs  somewhat  in  the  different 
states,  though  in  recent  times  the  dis- 
abilities of  aliens  have  been  removed  in 
most  of  them.  Personal  property  they 
can  take,  hold,  and  dispose  of  like  native 
citizens.  Individual  states  have  no 
jurisdiction  on  the  subject  of  naturali- 
zation, though  they  may  pass  laws  ad- 
mitting aliens  to  any  privilege  short 
' of  citizenship.  A naturalized  citizen 


is  not  eligible  to  election  as  president 
or  vice-president  of  the  United  States, 
and  cannot  serve  as  senator  until  after 
nine  years’  citizenship,  nor  as  a member 
of  the  house  of  representatives  until 
after  seven  years’  citizenship.  Five 
years’  residence  in  the  United  States  and 
one  year’s  permanent  residence  in  the 
particular  state  where  the  application 
is  made  are  necessary  for  the  attain- 
ment of  citizenship. 

ALIGARH  (a-le-gar'),  a fort  and 
town  in  India,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
on  the  East  Indian  railway,  84  miles 
southeast  of  Delhi.  The  fort,  which 
had  been  skilfully  strengthened  by 
French  engineers  in  the  service  of  the 
Mahrattas,  was  taken  by  storm  after 
a desperate  resistance  in  1803  by  the 
British  forces  under  Lord  Lake,  when 
the  whole  district  was  added  to  the 
British  possessions.  Pop.  70,127.— The 
district  has  an  area  of  1954  square 
miles,  and  a population  of  1,203,047. 

ALIGNMENT  (a-lin'ment),  a military 
term,  signifying  the  act  of  adjusting 
to  a straight  line  or  in  regular  straight 
lines,  or  the  state  of  being  so  adjusted. 

AL'IMENT,  food,  a term  which  in- 
cludes everything,  solid  or  liquid, 
serving  as  nutriment  for  the  bodily 
system.  Aliments  are  of  the  most 
diverse  character,  but  all  of  them  must 
contain  nutritious  matter  of  some  kind, 
which,  being  extracted  by  the  act  of 
digestion,  enters  the  blood,  and  effects 
by  assimilation  the  repair  of  the  body. 
Alimentary  matter,  therefore,  must  be' 
similar  to  animal  substance,  or  trans- 
mutable  into  such.  All  alimentary 
substances  must,  therefore,  be  composed 
in  a greater  or  lesser  degree  of  soluble 
parts,  which  easily  lose  their  peculiar 
qualities  in  the  process  of  digestion, 
and  correspond  to  the  elements  of  the 
body.  The  articles  used  as  food  by 
man  do  not  consist  entirely  of  nutritious 
substances,  but  with  few  exceptions 
are  compounds  of  various  nutritious 
with  indigestible  and  accordingly  innu- 
tritions substances.  The  only  nitro- 
genous aliments  are  albuminous  sub- 
stances, and  these  are  contained  largely 
in  animal  food  (flesh,  eggs,  milk, 
cheese).  The  principal  non-nitrogenous 
substance  obtained  as  food  from  ani- 
mals is  fat.  Sugar  is  so  obtained  in 
smaller  quantities  (in  milk).  While 
some  vegetable  substances  also  cou 
tain  much  albumen,  very  many  of  their 
are  rich  in  starch.  Among  vegetable 
substances  the  richest  in  albumen  are 
the  legumes  (peas,  beans,  and  lentils), 
and  following  them  come  the  cereals 
(wheat,  oats,  etc.).  Sugar,  water,  and 
salts  may  pass  without  any  change 
into  the  circulatory  system;  but  al- 
buminous substances  cannot  do  so 
without  first  being  rendered  soluble 
and  capable  of  absorption  (in  the 
stomach  and  intestines) ; starch  must 
be  converted  into  sugar  and  fat  emulsi- 
fied (chiefly  by  the  action  of  the  pan- 
creatic juice).  One  of  the  objects  of 
cooking  is  to  make  our  food  more  sus- 
ceptible of  the  operation  of  the  digestive 
fluids. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  various 
nutritious  substances  that  are  taken 
into  the  system  and  enter  the  blood 
depends  upon  their  chemical  coneti- 


ALIMENTARY  CANAL 


ALLAHABAD 


tution.  The  albuminous  substances  are 
the  most  indispensable,  inasmuch  as 
they  form  the  material  by  which  the 
constant  waste  of  the  body  is  repaired. 
But  a part  of  the  operation  of  albu- 
minous nutriments  may  be  performed 
equally  well,  and  at  less  cost,  by  non- 
nitrogenous  substances,  that  part  being 
the  maintenance  of  the  temperature  of 
the  body.  As  is  well  known,  the  tem- 
perature of  warm-blooded  animals  is 
considerably  higher  than  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  surrounding  air, 
in  man  about  98°  Fahr.,  and  the  uni- 
formity of  this  temperature  is  main- 
tained by  the  heat  which  is  set  free  by 
the  chemical  processes  (of  oxidation) 
which  go'  on  within  the  body.  Now 
these  processes  take  place  as  well  with 
non-nitrogenous  as  with  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances. The  former  are  even  prefera- 
ble to  the  latter  for  the  keeping  up  of 
these  processes;  by  oxidation  they  yield 
larger  quantities  of  heat  with  less  labor 
to  the  body,  and  they  are  hence  called 
the  heat-givers.  The  best  heat-giver  is 
fat.  Albuminous  matters  are  not  only 
the  tissue-formers  of  the  body;  they  also 
supply  the  vehicle  for  the  oxygen, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  of  such  matters  that 
the  blood  corpuscles  are  formed.  The 
more  red  blood  corpuscles  an  animal 
possesses,  the  more  oxygen  can  it  take 
into  its  system,  and  the  more  easily  and 
rapidly  can  it  carry  on  the  process  of 
oxidation  and  develop  heat.  Now 
only  a part  of  the  heat  so  developed 
passes  away  into  the  environment  of 
the  animal;  another  part  is  trans- 
formed within  the  body  (in  the  muscles) 
into  mechanical  work.  Hence  it  follows 
that  the  non-nitrogenous  articles  of 
food  produce  not  merely  heat  but  also 
work,  but  only  with  the  assistance  of 
albuminous  matters,  which,  on  the 
one  hand,  compose  the  working  ma- 
chine, and,  on  the  other  hand,  convey 
the  oxygen  necessary  for  oxidation. 
See  Dietetics,  Digestion,  Adulteration, 

ALIMENTARY  CANAL,  a common 
name  given  to  the  oesophagus,  stomach, 
and  intestines  of  animals.  See  Intes- 
tine, Stomach. 

AL'IMONY,  in  law,  the  allowance  to 
which  a woman  is  entitled  while  a 
matrimonial  suit  is  pending  between 
her  and  her  husband,  or  after  a legal 
separation  from  her  husband,  not  occa- 
sioned by  adultery  or  elopement  on 
her  part. 

ALTQUOT  PART  is  such  part  of  a 
number  as  will  divide  and  measure  it 
exactly  without  any  remainder.  For 
instance,  2 is  an  aliquot  part  of  4,  3 of  12, 
and  4 of  20. 

ALISMA'CE.®,  the  water-plantain 
family,  the  members  of  which  are  her- 
baceous, annual,  or  perennial.  They 
are  floating  or  marsh  plants,  and  many 
have  edible  fleshy  rhizomes.  They  are 
found  in  all  countries,  but  especially 
in  Europe  and  North  America,  where 
their  rather  brilliant  flowers  adorn  the 
pools  and  streams. 

ALTSON,  Sir  Archibald,  lawyer  and 
writer  of  history,  was  born  in  Shropshire 
in  1792,  and  died  in  18G7,  near  Glasgow. 
He  was  made  a baronet  in  1852.  His 
chief  work — The  History  of  Europe, 
from  1789  to  1815 — was  first  issued  in 


ten  vols.  1833-42,  the  narrative  being 
subsequently  brought  down  to  1852,  the 
beginning  of  the  second  French  Empire. 
This  work  displays  industry  and  re- 
search, and  is  generally  accurate,  but 
not  very  readable.  Its  popularity,  how- 
ever, has  been  immense,  and  it  has  been 
translated  into  French,  German,  Arabic, 
Hindustani,  etc. 

His  son.  General  Sm  Archibald  Alison, 
born  in  1826,  entered  the  army  in  1846, 
and  served  in  the  Crimea,  in  India 
during  the  mutiny,  and  in  the  Ashantee 
expedition  of  1873-4.  In  Egypt,  in 
1882,  he  led  the  Highland  Brigade  at 
the  battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  and  in  1882-3 
remained  in  command  of  the  army  of 
occupation.  He  retired  from  the  army 
in  1893. 

ALIZ'ARINE,  a substance  contained 
in  the  madder  root,  and  largely  used 
in  dyeing  reds  of  various  shades.  It 
forms  yellowish-red  prismatic  crystals, 
nearly  insoluble  in  cold,  but  dissolved 
to  a small  extent  by  boiling  water,  and 
readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 
It  possesses  exceedingly  strong  tinctorial 
powers. 

AL'KALI,  a term  first  used  to  desig- 
nate the  soluble  part  of  the  ashes 
of  plants,  especially  of  seaweed.  Now 
the  term  is  applied  to  various  classes 
of  bodies  having  the  following  prop- 
erties in  common:  (1)  solubility  in 
water;  (2)  the  power  of  neutralizing 
acids,  and  forming  salts  with  them; 
(3)  the  property  of  corroding  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,;  (4)  the  property 
of  altering  the  tint  of  many  coloring 
matters — thus,  they  turn  litmus,  red- 
dened by  an  acid,  into  blue;  turmeric, 
brown ; and  syrup  of  violets  and  infusion 
of  red  cabbages,  green.  The  alkalies 
are  hydrates,  or  water  in  which  half 
the  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  a metal  or 
compound  radical.  In  its  restricted 
and  common  sense  the  term  is  applied 
to  four  substances  only:  hydrate  of 
potassium  (potash),  hydrate  of  sodium 
(soda),  hydrate  of  lithium  (lithia),  and 
hydrate  of  ammonium  (an  aqueous 
solution  of  ammonia).  In  a more 
general  sense  it  is  applied  to  the  hydrates 
of  the  so-called  alkaline  earths  (baryta, 
strontia,  and  lime),  and  to  a large 
number  of  organic  substances,  both 
natural  and  artificial,  described  under 
Alkaloid. — Volatile  alkaU  is  a name  for 
ammonia. 

ALKALIM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
ascertaining  the  quantity  of  free  alkali 
in  any  impure  specimen,  as  in  the  pot- 
ashes of  commerce.  These,  besides  the 
carbonate  of  potash,  of  which  they 
principally  consist,  usually  contain  a 
portion  of  foreign  salts,  as  sulphate  and 
chloride  of  potassium,  and  as  the  true 
worth  of  the  substance,  or  price  for 
which  it  ought  to  sell,  depends  entirely 
on  the  quantity  of  carbonate,  it  is  of 
importance  to  be  able  to  measure  it 
accurately  by  some  easy  process.  This 
process  depends  on  the  neutralization 
of  the  alkali  by  an  acid  of  known 
strength,  the  point  of  neutralization  be- 
ing determined  by  the  fact  that  neutral 
liquids  are  without  action  on  either  red 
or  blue  litmus  solution.  The  alkalimeter 
is  merely  a graduated  tube  furnished 
with  a stop-cock  at  the  lower  extremity, 
from  which  the  standard  acid  is  dropped  ' 


into  water  in  which  a certain  quantity 
of  the  substance  is  dissolved.  The 
quantity  required  to  produce  neutrali- 
zation being  noted,  the  strength  of  the 
liquid  tested  is  easily  arrived  at.  A 
process  of  neutrahzation,  exactly  the 
same  in  principle,  may  be  employed 
to  test  the  strength  of  acids  by  alkalies, 
the  one  process  being  called  alkalimetry, 
the  other  acidimetry. 

AL'KALOID,  a term  applied  to  a class 
of  nitrogenized  compounds  having  cer- 
tain alkaline  properties,  found  in  living 
plants,  and  containing  their  active  prin- 
ciples, usually  in  combination  with 
organic  acids.  Their  names  generally 
end  in  ine,  as  morphine,  quinine,  aconi- 
tine, caffeine,  etc.  Most  alkaloids  occur 
in  plants,  but  some  are  formed  by 
decomposition.  Their  alkaline  character 
depends  on  the  nitrogen  they  contain. 
Most  natural  alkaloids  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  but  the 
greater  number  of  artificial  ones  want 
the  oxygen.  The  only  property  com- 
mon to  all  alkaloids  is  that  of  combining 
with  acids  to  form  salts,  and  some 
exhibit  an  alkaline  reaction  with  colors. 
Alkaloids  form  what  is  termed  the 
organic  bases  of  plants.  Although 
formed  originally  within  the  plant,  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  prepare 
several  of  these  alkaloids  by  purely 
artificial  means. 

AL'KANET,  a dyeing  drug,  the  bark  of 
the  root  of  a plant  with  downy  and 
spear-shaped  leaves,  and  clusters  of 
small  purple  or  reddish  flowers.  The 
plant  is  sometimes  cultivated  in  Britain, 
but  most  of  the  alkanet  of  commerce  is 
imported  from  the  Levant  or  from 
southern  France.  It  imparts  a fine 
deep-red  color  to  all  unctuous  sub- 
stances, and  is  used  for  coloring  oils, 
plasters,  lip-salve,  confections,  etc.; 
also  in  compositions  for  rubbing  and 
giving  color  to  mahogany  furniture,  and 
to  color  spurious  port-wine. 

ALKAR'SIN,  an  extremely  poisonous 
liquid  containing  kakodyle,  together 
with  oxidation  products  of  this  sub- 
stance, and  formerly  known  as  Cadet’s 
fuming  liquor,  characterized  by  its  in- 
supportable smell  and  high  degree  of 
spontaneous  combustibility  when  ex- 
posed to  air. 

ALKO'RAN.  See  Koran. 

ALLA  BREVE  (bra'va),  a musical 
direction  expressing  that  a breve  is  to 
be  played  as  fast  as  a semibreve,  a semi- 
breve as  fast  as  a minim,  and  so  on. 

AL'LAH,  in  Arabic,  the  name  of  God, 
a word  of  kindred  origin  with  the  He' 
brew  word  Elohim.  Allah  Akbar  (God 
is  great)  is  a Mohammedan  war-cry. 

ALLAHABAD',  an  ancient  city  of 
India,  capital  of  the  United  Provinces, 
on  the  wedge  of  land  formed  by  the 
Jumna  and  the  Ganges.  Allahabad  is 
one  of  the  chief  resorts  of  Hindu  pil- 
grims, who  have  their  sins  washed 
away  by  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the 
sacred  rivers  Ganges  and  Jumna  at 
their  junction;  and  is  also  the  scene  of 
a great  fair  in  December  and  January. 
Pop.  172,032. — The  division  of  Alla- 
habad contains  the  districts  of  Cawnpur, 
Futtehpur,  Hamirpur,  Banda,  Jaunpur, 
and  Allahabad;  area,  17,265  square 
miles;  pop.  5,535,803. — The  district 
contains  an  area  of  2852  square  miles. 


ALLAMANDA 


ALLIGATOR 


about  five-sixths  being  under  cultiva- 
tion. Pop.  1,487,904. 

ALLAMAN'DA,  a genus  of  American 
tropical  plants  with  large  yellow  or 
violet  flowers,  some  of  them  met  with  in 
European  greenhouses.  A.  cathartica  has 
strong  emetic  and  purgative  properties. 

ALLAN,  David,  a Scottish  painter, 
born  1744,  died  1796.  His  illustrations 
of  the  Gentle  Shepherd,  the  Cotter’s 
Saturday  Night,  and  other  sketches  of 
rustic  life  and  manners  in  Scotland, 
obtained  for  him  the  name  of  the 
“Scottish  Hogarth.” 

ALLAN,  Sir  William,  a distinguished 
Scottish  artist,  born  in  1782,  died  in 
1850.  In  1814  he  publicly  exhibited  his 
pictures,  one  of  which  (Circassian  Cap- 
tive.s)  made  his  reputation.  He  now 
turned  his  attention  to  historical  paint- 
ing and  battle  scenes,  among  them  be- 
ing two  pictures  of  the  Battle  of  Water- 
loo, the  one  from  the  British,  the  other 
from  the  French  position,  and  delineat- 
ing the  actual  scene  and  the  incidents 
therein  taking  place  at  the  moment 
chosen  for  the  representation.  One  of 
these  Waterloo  pictures  was  purchased 
by  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1835  he 
became  R.A.,  in  1838  president  of  the 
Scottish  Academy,  in  1842  he  was 
knighted. 

ALLAN'TOIS,  a structure  appearing 
during  the  early  development  of  verte- 
brate animals — Reptiles,  Birds,  and 
Mammalia.  It  is  largely  made  up  of 
blood-vessels,  and,  especially  in  birds, 
attains  a large  size.  It  forms  the  inner 
lining  to  the  shell,  and  may  thus  be 
viewed  as  the  surface  by  means  of  which 
the  respiration  of  the  embryo  is  carried 
on.  In  Mammalia  the  allantois  is  not 
so  largely  developed  as  in  Birds,  and  it 
enters  largel3'’  into  the  formation  of  the 
placenta. 

ALLEGHANY  (al-le-ga'ni),  a river  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  which 
unites  with  the  Monongahela  at  Pitts- 
burg to  form  the  Ohio ; navigable  nearly 
200  miles  above  Pittsburg. 

ALLEGHANY  MOUNTAINS,  a name 
sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
Appalachians,  but  also  often  restricted 
to  the  portion  of  those  mountains  that 
traverses  the  states  of  Virginia,  Mary- 
land, and  Pennsylvania  from-  south- 
west to  northeast,  and  consists  of  a 
series  of  parallel  ridges  for  the  most  part 
wooded  to  the  summit,  and  with  some 
fertile  valleys  between.  Their  mean 
elevation  is  about  2500  feet;  but  in  Vir- 
ginia they  rise  to  over  4000. 

ALLEGHENY  (al-le-gen'i),  a city  of 
the  United  States,  in  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  river  Alleghany,  opposite  Pitts- 
burg, of  which  it  may  be  considered 
virtually  to  be  a suburb,  and  with  which 
it  is'  connected  by  six  bridges.  The 
principal  industries  are  connected  with 
iron  and  machinery.  Pop.  160,000. 

ALLE'GLANCE,  the  obedience  which 
every  subject  or  citizen  owes  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  his  country.  It  used  to  be 
the  doctrine  of  the  English  law  that 
natural-bom  subjects  owe  an  allegiance 
which  is  intrinsic  and  perpetual,  and 
which  cannot  be  divested  by  any  act  of 
their  own;  but  this  is  no  longer  the  case. 
Aliens  owe  a temporary  or  local  alle- 
giance to  the  government  under  which 
they  for  the  time  reside, 


AL'LEGORY,  a figurative  representa- 
tion in  which  the  signs  (words  or  forms) 
signify  something  besides  their  literal  or 
direct  meaning.  In  rhetoric  allegory  is 
often  but  a continued  simile.  Parables 
and  fables  are  a species  of  allegory. 
Sometimes  long  works  are  throughout 
allegorical,  as  Spenser’s  Faerie  Queene 
and  Bunyan’s  Pilgrim’s  Progre.ss.  "When 
an  allegory  ^s  thus  continued  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  its  success  that  not  only  the 
allegorical  meaning  should  be  appro- 
priate, but  that  the  story  should  have 
an  interest  of  its  own  in  the  direct  mean- 
ing apart  from  the  allegorical  significa- 
tion. Allegory  is  often  made  use  of  in 
painting  and  sculpture  as  well  as  in 
literature. 

ALLEGRO  (al-la'gro),  a musical  term 
expressing  a more  or  less  quick  rate  of 
movement,  or  a piece  of  music  or  move- 
ment in  lively  time.  Allegro  moderate, 
moderately  quick;  allegro  maestoso, 
quick  but  with  dignity;  allegro  assai 
and  allegro  molto,  very  quick;  allegro 
con  brio  or  con  fuoco,  with  fire  and 
energy;  allegrissimo,  with  the  utmost 
rapidity. 

ALLELUIA.  See  Halleluia. 

ALLEN,  Charles  Herbert,  American 
statesman,  born  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  in 
1848.  He  was  successively  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  legislature,  of  the 
state  senate,  and  of  the  49th  and  50th 
congresses.  In  1898  he  became  assistant 
secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  1900-1  was 
the  first  civil  governor  of  Porto  Rico. 

ALLEN,  Ethan,  an  American  revo- 
lutionary partisan  and  general;  born 
1737,  died  1789.  He  surprised  and 


Ethan  Allen. 


captured  Ticonderoga  Fort  (1775);  at- 
tacked Montreal,  and  was  captured  and 
sent  to  England,  being  exchange(#‘'in 
1778. 

ALLEN,  James  Lane,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1849, 
graduated  from  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity, and  former  educator.  In  1886 
he  began  to  publish  novels  dealing  with 
various  social  and  religious  topics. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Flute 
and  Violin,  The  Blue  Grass  Region, 
John  Gray,  The  Kentucky  Cardinal, 
and  The  Reign  of  Law.  His  works 
show  considerable  power  ^f  style. 

ALLEN,  Viola,  an  American  actress, 
born  in  1867.  She  made  her  debut  in 
Esmeralda  at  the  Madison  Square 
Theater  in  New  York  in  1882.  She 
subsequently  played  in  the  companies 
of  McCullough,  Salvini,  Barrett,  Jeffer- 
son, Florence,  and  others,  but  her 
chief  success  was  in  the  role  of  Glory 
Quayle  in  Hall  Caine’s  Christian. 

ALLEN,  'William,  cardinal,  an  Eng- 
lish Roman  Catholic  of  the  time  of 


Queen  Elizabeth,  a strenuous  opponent 
of  Protestantism  and  supporter  of  the 
claims  of  Philip  II.  to  the  English 
throne;  born  1532,  died  1594.  It  was  by 
his  efforts  that  the  English  college  for 
Catholics  at  Douay  was  established. 
He  was  made  cardinal  in  1587. 

ALLEN,  William,  D.D.,  American 
clergyman  and  author;  born  1784,  died 
1868.  He  was  president  of  Bowdoin 
College  1820-1839;  author  of  American 
Biographical  and  Historical  Dictionary. 

ALLEN,  Zechariah,  an  American 
inventor,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
1795,  died  in  1882.  He  invented  the 
first  hot-air  furnace  for  heating  dwell- 
ings, calculated  the  power  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  invented  the  cut-off  valve 
for  steam  engines. 

ALLENTOWN,  a tovm  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Lehigh  river,  8 miles  above 
its  Junction  with  the  Delaware.  It  has 
an  important  trade  in  coal  and  iron  ore, 
with  large  blast-furnaces,  rolling-mills, 
etc.  Pop.  40,000. 

ALLIA'CEOUS  PLANTS,  plants  be- 
longing to  the  genus  to  which  the  onion, 
leek,  garlic,  shallot,  etc.,  belong,  or  to 
other  allied  genera,  and  distinguished 
by  a certain  peculiar  pungent  smell  and 
taste. 

ALLI'ANCE,  a league  between  two 
or  more  powers.  Alliances  are  divided 
into  offensive  and  defensive.  The 
former  are  for  the  purpose  of  attacking 
a common  enemy,  and  the  latter  for 
mutual  defense.  An  alliance  often 
unites  both  of  these  conditions.  Offen- 
sive alliances,  of  course,  are  usually 
directed  against  some  particular  enemy ; 
defensive  alhan'ces  against  any  one  from 
whom  an  attack  may  come. 

ALLIANCE,  Holy.  See  Holy  Alliance. 

AL'LIBONE,  Samuel  Austin,  LL.D., 
American  author;  born  1816,  died  1889. 
He  compiled  a most  useful  Critical 
Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and 
British  and  American  Authors. 

ALLIER  (al-le-a),  a central  depart- 
ment of  France,  intersected  by  the  river 
Allier,  and  partly  bounded  by  the  Loire ; 
surface  diversified  by  offsets  of  the 
Cevennes  and  other  ranges,  rising  in 
the  south  to  over  4000  feet,  and  in 
general  richly  wooded.  It  has  exten- 
sive beds  of  coal  as  well  as  other  min- 
erals; mineral  waters  at  Vichy,  Bour- 
bon, L’Archambault,  etc.  Area,  2822  sq. 
miles.  Capital,  Moulins.  Pop.  424,582. 

AL'LIGATOR,  a genus  of  reptiles, 
differing  from  the  true  crocodiles  in 
having  a shorter  and  flatter  head,  in 
having  cavities  or  pits  in  the  upper  Jaw, 
into  which  the  long  canine  teeth  of  the 
under  Jaw  fit,  and  in  having  the  feet 
much  less  webbed.  Their  habits  are  less 
perfectly  aquatic.  They  are  confined  to 
the  warmer  parts  of  America,  where 
they  frequent  swamps  and  marshes,  and 
may  be  seen  basking  on  the  dry  ground 
during  the  day  in  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
They  are  most  active  during  the  night, 
when  they  make  a loud  bellowing.  The 
largest  of  these  animals  grow  to  the 
length  of  18  or  20  feet.  They  are  cov- 
ered by  a dense  armor  of  horny  scales, 
impenetrable  to  a rifle-ball,  and  have  a 
huge  mouth,  armed  with  strong,  conical 
teeth.  They  swim  with  wonderful 
celerity,  impelled  by  their  long,  later- 
ally-compressed, and  powerful  tails.  On 


ALLIGATOR-APPLE 


ALMA-TADEMA 


land  their  motions  are  proportionally 
slow  and  embarrassed  because  of  the 
length  and  unwieldiness  of  their  bodies 
and  the  shortness  of  their  limbs.  They 
live  on  fish,  and  any  small  animals  or 
carrion,  and  sometimes  catch  pigs  on 


Group  of . 

the  shore,  or  dogs  which  are  swimming. 
They  even  sometimes  make  man  their 
prey.  In  winter  they  burrow  in  the 
mud  of  swamps  and  marshes,  lying 
torpid  till  the  warm  weather.  The 
female  lays  a great  number  of  eggs, 
which  are  deposited  in  the  sand  or  mud, 
and  left  to  he  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  but  the  mother  alligator  is  very 
attentive  to  her  young.  The  most 
fierce  and  dangerous  species  is  that 
found  in  the  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States,  having  the  snout  a little 
turned  up,  slightly  resembling  that  of 
the  pike.  The  alligators  of  South 
America  are  there  very  often  called 
Caymans. 

ALLIGATOR- APPLE,  a fruit  allied  to 
the  custard-apple,  growing  in  marshy 
districts  in  Jamaica,  little  eaten  on 
account  of  its  narcotic  properties. 

ALLIGATOR-PEAR,  an  evergreen  tree 
with  a fruit  resembling  a large  pear, 

1 to  2 lbs.  in  weight,  with  a firm  marrow- 
like pulp  of  a delicate  flavor ; called  also 
avocado-pear,  or  subaltern’s  butter.  It 
is  a native  of  tropical  America  and  the 
West  Indies. 

ALLISON,  William  Boyd,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  born  at  Perry,  Ohio,  edu- 
cated at  Western  Reserve  College,  and 
removed  as  a lawyer  to  Iowa  in  1857. 
He  was  member  of  congress  from  1863 
to  1871,  and  has  been  U.  S.  senator 
since  1872.  He  originated  the  Bland- 
Allison  act  of  1878,  was  member  of  the 
Brussels  Conference  of  1892,  and  in 
the  national  republican  convention  of 
1880  figured  as  a candidate  for  the  pres- 
idency. He  died  in  1908. 

ALLITERA'TION,  the  repetition  of 
the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of  two 
or  more  words  immediately  succeeding 
each  other,  or  at  short  intervals;  as, 
many  men  many  minds ; death  defies  the 
doctor;  apt  alliteration’s  artful  aid;  puffs, 
powders,  patches,  bibles,  billet-doux. 

AL'LIUM,  a genus  of  plants  containing 
numerous  well-known  species  of  pot- 
herbs. They  are  umbelliferous,  and 
mostly  perennial,  herbaceous  plants,  but 
a few  are  biennial.  Among  them  are 
garlic,  onion,  leek,  chive,  shallot. 

ALLOCU'TION,  an  address,  a term 
particularly  applied  to  certain  addresses 


on  important  occasions  made  by  the 
pope  to  the  cardinals. 

ALLOP'ATHY,  the  name  applied  by 
homoeopathists  to  systems  of  medicine 
other  than  their  own;  Hahnemann’s 
principle  being  that  “like  cures  like,’’  he 


Alligators. 

called  his  own  system  homoeopathy, 
and  other  systems  allopathy.  See 
Homoeopathy. 

ALLOT'ROPY,  a term  used  to  express 
the  fact  that  one  and  the  same  element 
may  exist  in  different  forms,  differing 
widely  in  external  physical  properties. 
Thus,  carbon  occurs  as  the  diamond, 
and  as  charcoal  and  plumbago,  and  is 
therefore  regarded  as  a substance  sub- 
ject to  allotropy. 

ALLOY',  a substance  produced  by 
melting  together  two  or  more  metals, 
sometimes  a definite  chemical  com- 
pound, but  more  generally  merely  a 
mechanical  mixture.  Most  metals  mix 
together  in  all  proportions,  but  others 
unite  only  in  definite  proportions,  and 
form  true  chemical  compounds.  Others 
again  resist  combination,  and  when 
fused  together  form  not  a homogeneous 
mixture,  but  a conglomerate  of  distinct 
masses.  The  changes  produced  in  their 
physical  properties  by  the  combination 
of  metals  are  very  various.  Their  hard- 
ness is  in  general  increased,  their  mallea- 
bility and  ductility  impaired.  The  color 
of  an  alloy  may  be  scarcely  different 
from  that  of  one  of  its  components,  or 
it  may  show  traces  of  neither  of  two. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  sometimes  less 
than  the  mean  of  that  of  its  component 
metals.  Alloys  are  always  more  fusible 
than  the  metal  most  difficult  to  melt 
that  enters  into  their  composition,  and 
generally  even  more  so  than  the  most 
easily  melted  one.  Newton’s  fusible 
metal,  composed  of  three  parts  of  tin, 
two  or  five  parts  of  lead,  and  five  or 
eight  parts  of  bismuth,  melts  at  tem- 
peratures varying  from  198°  to  210°  F. 
(and  therefore  in  boiling  water);  its 
components  fuse  respectively  at  the  tem- 
peratures 442°,  600°,  and  478°  F. 
Sometimes  each  metal  retains  its  own 
fusing-point.  With  few  exceptions 
metals  are  not  much  used  in  a pure 
state.  Gold  coins  contain  8J  per  cent 
alloy;  silver  coins,  7i  per  cent.  Printers’ 
types  are  made  from  an  alloy  of  lead  and 
antimony;  brass  and  a numerous  list  of 
other  alloys  are  formed  from  copper  and 
zinc ; bronze  from  copper  and  tin. 

ALL  SAINTS’  DAY,  a festival  of  the 
Christian  Church,  instituted  in  835,  and 


celebrated  on  the  1st  of  November  in 
honor  of  the  saints  in  general. 

ALL  SOULS’  DAY,  a festival  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  instituted  in 
998,  and  observed  on  the  2d  of  Novem- 
ber for  the  relief  of  souls  in  purgatory. 

ALLSPICE  (al'spis),  or  PIMENTA,  is 
the  dried  berry  of  a West  Indian  species 
of  myrtle,  a beautiful  tree  with  white 
and  fragrant  aromatic  flowers  and 
leaves  of  a deep  shining  green.  It  is 
employed  in  cookery,  also  in  medicine  as 
an  agreeable  aromatic,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  a distilled  water,  a spirit,  and 
an  essential  oil. 

ALLU'VIUM,  deposits  of  soil  collected 
by  the  action  of  water,  such  as  are 
found  in  valleys  and  plains,  consisting 
of  loam,  clay,  gravel,  etc.,  washed  down 
from  the  higher  grounds.  Great  altera- 
tions are  often  produced  by  alluvium — 
deltas  and  whole  islands  being  often 
formed  by  this  cause.  Much  of  the  rich 
land  along  the  banks  of  rivers  is  alluvial 
in  its  origin. 

AL'MADEN,  a place  in  California, 
about  60  m.  s.e.  of  San  Francisco,  with 
rich  quicksilver  mines,  the  product  of 
which  has  been  largely  employed  in 
gold  and  silver  mining. 

AL'MA  MA'TER,  a term  familiarly 
applied  to  their  own  university  by  those 
who  have  had  a university  education. 

AL-MAMUN  (ma-mon'),  a caliph  of 
the  Abasside  dynasty,  son  of  Harun-al- 
Rashid,  born  786,  died  833.  Under  him 
Bagdad  became  a great  center  of  art 
and  science. 

AL'MANAC,  a calendar,  in  which  are 
set  down  the  rising  and  setting  of  the 
sun,  the  phases  of  the  moon,  the  most 
remarkable  positions  and  phenomena 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  for  every  month 
and  day  of  the  year;  also  the  several 
fasts  and  feasts  to  be  observed  in  the 
church  and  state,  etc.,  and  often  much 
miscellaneous  information  likely  to  be 
useful  to  the  public.  The  term  is  of 
Arabic  origin,  but  the  Arabs  were  not 
the  first  to  use  almanacs,  which  indeed 
existed  from  remote  ages.  In  England 
they  are  known  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  there  being  several  English 
almanacs  of  this  century  existing  in 
MS.  They  became  generally  used  in 
Europe  within  a short  time  after  the 
invention  of  printing;  and  they  were 
very  early  remarkable,  as  some  are  still, 
for  the  mixture  of  truth  and  falsehood 
which  they  contained.  Almanacs,  from 
their  periodical  character,  and  the  fre- 
quency with  which  they  are  referred  to, 
are  now  more  and  more  used  as  vehicles 
for  conveying  statistical  and  other  useful 
information,  some  being  intended  for 
the  inhabitants  of  a particular  country 
or  district,  others  for  a particular  class 
or  party.  Some  of  the  almanacs  that 
are  regularly  published  every  year  are 
extremely  useful,  and  are  indeed  almost 
indispensable  to  men  engaged  in  official, 
mercantile,  literary,  or  professional 
business. 

ALMA  - TAD'EMA,  Sir  Lawrence, 
Dutch  painter,  born  in  1836,  resident 
since  1870  in  England,  where  he  is  a 
naturalized  subj'ect.  In  1876  he  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, in  1879  an  academician.  He  re- 
ceived the  honor  of  knighthood  in  1899. 
He  is  especially  celebrated  for  his 


ALMERIA 


ALPHABET 


pictures  of  ancient  Roman,  Greek,  and 
Egyptian  life,  which  are  painted  with 
great  realism  and  archaeological  cor- 
rsctncss* 

ALMERIA  (al-ma-re'a),  a fortified 
seaport  of  southern  Spain,  capital  of 
province  Almeria,  near  the  mouth  of  a 
river  and  on  the  gulf  of  same  name.  The 
province,  which  has  an  area  of  3300  sq. 
miles,  is  generally  mountainous,  and 
rich  in  minerals.  Pop.  of  town,  47,326; 
of  province,  359,013. 

ALMOND  (a'mund),  the  fruit  of  the 
almond-tree,  which  grows  usually  to 
the  height  of  20  feet,  and  is  akin  to  the 
peach,  nectarine,  etc.  It  has  beautiful 
pinkish  flowers  that  appear  before  the 


Almond. 


leaves,  which  are  oval,  pointed,  and 
delicately  serrated.  It  is  a native  of 
Africa  and  Asia.  The  fruit  is  a drupe, 
ovoid,  and  with  downy  outer  surface; 
the  fleshy  covering  is  tough  and  fibrous  ; 
it  covers  the  compressed  wrinkled  stone 
inclosing  the  seed  or  almond  within  it. 
There  are  two  varieties,  one  sweet  and 
the  other  bitter.  The  chief  kinds  of 
sweet  almonds  are  the  Valencian, 
Jordan,  and  Malaga.  They  contain 
a bland  fixed  oil,  consisting  chiefly  of 
olein.  Bitter  almonds  come  from 
Mogador,  and  besides  a fixed  oil  they 
contain  a substance  called  emulsin, 
and  also  a bitter  crystalline  substanee 
called  amygdalin,  which,  acting  on  the 
emulsin,  produces  prussic  acid,  whence 
the  aroma  of  bitter  almonds  when  mixed 
with  water.  Almond-oil,  a bland  fixed 
oil,  is  expressed  from  the  kernels  of 
either  sweet  or  bitter  almonds,  and  is 
used  by  perfumers  and  in  medicine. 
A poisonous  essential  oil  is  obtained 
from  bitter  almonds,  which  is  used  for 
flavoring  by  cooks  and  confectioners, 
also  by  perfumers  and  in  medicine.  The 
name  almond,  with  a qualifying  word 
prefixed,  is  also  given  to  the  seeds  of 
other  species  of  plants;  thus,  Java  al- 
monds are  the  kernels  of  Canarium 
commune. 

AL'MONER,  an  oflBcer  of  a religious 
establishm.ent  to  whom  belonged  the 
distribution  of  alms.  The  grand  almoner 
(^and  aumonier)  of  France  was  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  dignitary  in  that 
kingdom  before  the  revolution.  The 
lord  almoner,  or  lord  high  almoner,  of 
England,  is  generally  a bishop,  whose 
office  is  well-nigh  a sinecure.  He  dis- 
tributes the  sovereign’s  doles  to  the  poor 
on  Maundy  Thursday. 

AL'MUG  (or  AL'GUM)  TREE,  names 
which  occur  in  1 Ki.  x.  11,  12  and  2 Chr. 
ii.  8,  and  ix.  10, 11,  as  the  names  of  trees 


of  which  the  wood  was  used  for  pillars  in 
the  temple  and  the  king’s  house,  for 
harps  and  psalteries,  etc.  They  are 
said  in  one  passage  to  be  hewn  in 
Lebanon,  in  another  to  be  brought  from 
Ophir.  They  have  been  identified  by 
critics  with  the  red  sandalwood  of  India. 
Some  of  them  may  possibly  have  been 
transplanted  to  Lebanon  by  the  Phoeni- 
cians. 

ALOE  (al'6),  the  name  of  a number  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  genus  Alo6, 
some  of  which  are  not  more  than  a few 
inches,  while  others  are  30  feet  and 
upward  in  height;  natives  of  Africa 
and  other  hot  regions;  leaves  fleshy, 
thick,  and  more  or  less  spinous  at  the 
edges  or  extremity;  flowers  with  a tubu- 
lar corolla.  Some  of  the  larger  kinds  are 
of  great  use,  the  fibrous  parts  of  the 
leaves  being  made  into  cordage,  fishing 
nets  and  lines,  cloth,  etc.  The  inspis- 
sated juice  of  several  species  is  used  in 
medicine,  under  the  name  of  aloes, 
forming  a bitter  purgative.  The  Ameri- 
can aloe  (see  Agave)  is  a different  plant 
altogether. 

ALOES-WOOD,  the  inner  portion  of 
the  trunk  of  forest  trees  found  in  trop- 
ical Asia,  and  yielding  a fragrant  res- 
inous substance,  which,  as  well  as  the 
wood,  is  burned  for  its  perfume. 

ALPAC'A,  a ruminant  mammal  of  the 
camel  tribe,  a native  of  the  Andes, 
especially  of  the  mountains  of  Chile  and 
Peru,  and  so  closely  allied  to  the  llama 
that  by  some  it  is  regarded  rather  as  a 
smaller  variety  than  a distinct  species. 
It  has  been  domesticated,  and  remains 
also  in  a wild  state.  In  form  and  size 
it  approaches  the  sheep,  but  has  a 
longer  neck.  It  is  valued  chiefly  for  its 
long,  soft,  and  silky  wool,  which  is 
straighter  than  that  of  the  sheep,  and 
very  strong,  and  is  woven  into  fabrics 
of  great  beauty,  used  for  shawls,  cloth- 
ing for  warm  climates,  coat-linings,  and 
umbrellas,  and  known  by  the  same  name. 
Its  flesh  is  pleasant  and  wholesome. 

ALPENHORN,  a long,  nearly  straight 
horn,  curving  slightly,  and  widening  to- 
ward its  extremity,  used  in  the  Alps  to 
convey  signals,  or  notice  of  something. 

ALPENSTOCK,  a strong  tall  stick  shod 
with  iron,  pointed  at  the  end  so  as  to 
take  hold  in,  and  give  support  on,  ice  and 
other  dangerous  places  in  climbing  the 
Alps  and  other  high  mountains. 

ALPE'NA,  a city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Alpena  Co.,  Mich.,  110  miles  north  of 
Bay  City,  on  Thunder  Bay,  and  the 
Detroit  and  Mackinaw  Railroad.  Pop 
13,100. 

ALPES  (alp),  the  iiame  of  three  depart- 
ments in  the  southeast  of  France,  all 
more  or  less  covered  by  the  Alps  or 
their  offshoots:  Basses-Alpes  (bas-alp) 
has  mountains  rising  t(^a  height  of  8000 
to  10,000  feet,  is  drained  by  the  Durance 
and  its  tributaries,  and  is  the  most  thinly 
peopled  department  in  France;  area, 
2685 miles; capital,  Digne.  Pop.  129,494. 
— Hautes-Alpes  (6t-Alp),  mostly  formed 
out  of  ancient  Dauphin6,  traversed  by 
the  Cottian  and  Dauphin^  Alps  (high- 
est summits  12,000  ft.),  drained  chiefly 
by  the  Durance  and  its  tributaries  It 
is  the  lowest  department  in  France  in 
point  of  absolute  population;  area, 
2158  miles;  capital.  Gap;  pop.  122,924. — 
Alpes-Maritimes  (alp-ma-ri-tem)  has  the 


Mediterranean  on  the  south,  and  mainly 
consists  of  the  territory  of  Nice,  ceded 
to  France  by  Italy  in  1860.  The  greater 
part  of  the  surface  is  covered  by  the 
Maritime  Alps ; the  principal  river  is  the 
Var.  It  produces  in  the  south  cereals, 
vines,  olives,  oranges,  citrons,  and  other 
fruits;  and  there  are  manufactories  of 
perfumes,  liquors,  soap,  etc.,  and  valua^ 
ble  fisheries.  It  is  a favorite  resort  for 
invalids.  Area,  1482  square  miles?  cap- 
ital, Nice;  pop.  293,213. 

AL'PHA  and  O'MEGA,  the  first  and 
last  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  some- 


Alpaca. 


times  used  to  signify  the  beginning  and 
the  end,  or  the  first  and  the  last  of  any- 
thing; also  as  a symbol  of  the  Divine 
Being.  They  were  also  formerly  the 
symbol  of  Christianity,  and  engraved 
accordingly  on  the  tombs  of  the  ancient 
Christians. 

AL'PHABET  (from  Alpha  and  Beta, 
the  two  first  letters  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet), the  series  of  characters  used  in 
writing  a language,  and  intended  to 
represent  the  sounds  of  which  it  con- 
sists. The  English  alphabet,  like  most 
of  those  of  modern  Europe,  is  derived 
directly  from  the  Latin,  the  Latin  from 
the  ancient  Greek,  and  that  from  the 
Phoenician,  which  again  is  believed  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  the  Hebrew  alphabet  also 
having  the  same  origin.  The  names 
of  the  letters  in  Phoenician  and  Hebrew 
must  have  been  almost  the  same,  for 
the  Greek  names,  which,  with  the  letters, 
were  borrowed  from  the  former,  differ 
little  from  the  Hebrew.  By  means 
of  the  names  we  may  trace  the  process 
by  which  the  Egyptian  characters  were 
transformed  into  letters  by  the  Phoe- 
nicians. Some  Egyptian  character 
would,  by  its  form,  recall  the  idea  of  a 
house,  for  example,  in  Phoenician  or 
Hebrew  beth.  This  character  would 
subsequently  come  to  be  used  wherever 
the  sound  b occured.  Its  form  might  be 
afterward  simplified,  or  even  completely 
modified,  but  the  name  would  still 
remain,  as  beth  still  continued  the  He- 
brew name  for  b,  and  beta  the  Greek. 
Our  letter  m,  which  in  Hebrew  was 
called  mim,  water,  has  still  a consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  zigzag,  wavy 
line  which  had  been  chosen  to  repre- 
sent water,  as  in  the  zodiacal  symbol 
for  Aquarius.  The  letter  o,  of  which 
the  Hebrew  name  means  eye,  no  doubt 
originally  intended  to  represent  that 


ALPHONiSO 


ALTAI  MOUNTAINS 


®rgan.  While  the  ancient  Greek  alpha- 
bet gave  rise  to  the  ordinary  Greek 
alphabet  and  the  Latin,  the  Greek 
alphabet  of  later  times  furnished  ele- 
ments for  the  Coptic,  the  Gothic,  and 
the  old  Slavic  alphabets,  The  Latin 
characters  are  now  employed  by  a great 
many  nations,  such  as  the  Italians,  the 
French,  the  Spanish,  the  Portuguese, the 
English,  the  Dutch,  the  German,  the 
Hungarian,  the  Polish,  etc.,  each  nation 
having  introduced  such  modifications  or 
additions  as  are  necessary  to  express  the 
sound  of  the  language  peculiar  to  it. 
The  Greek  alphabet  originally  possessed 
only  sixteen  letters, though  the  Phceni- 
cian  had  twenty-two.  The  original 
Latin  alphabet,  as  it  is  found  in  the  old- 
est inscriptions  consisted  of  twenty-one 
letters;  namely,  the  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o,and 
u,  (v)  and  the  consonants  b,  c,  d,  f,  h,  k, 
1,  m,  n,  p,  q,r,  s,  t,  x,  z.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
alphabet  had  two  characters  for  the 
digraph  th  , which  were  unfortunately 
not  retained  in  later  English  ; it  had 
also  the  character  ae.  It  wanted  j,  v,  y 
(consonant),  and  z.  The  German  alpha- 
bet consists  of  the  .same  letters  as  the 
English,  but  the  sounds  of  some  of  them 
are  different.  Anciently  certain  char- 
acters called  Eunic  were  made  use  of  by 
the  Teutonic  nations,  to  which  some 
would  attribute  an  origin  independent 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets. 
While  the  alphabets  of  the  west  of 
Europe  are  derived  from  the  Latin,  the 
Russian,  which  is  very  complete,  is 
based  on  the  Greek,  with  some  charac- 
ters borrowed  from  the  Armenian,  etc. 
Among  Asiatic  alphabets,  the  Arabian 
(ultimately  of  Phoenician  origin)  has 
played  a part  analogous  to  that  of  the 
Latin  in  Europe,  the  conquests  of  Mo- 
hammedanism having  imposed  it  on  the 
Persian,  the  Turkish,  the  Hindustani, 
etc.  The  Sanskrit  or  Devanagari  alpha- 
bet is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  alpha- 
bets of  the  world.  As  now  used  it  has 
fourteen  characters  for  the  vowels  and 
diphthongs,  and  thirty-three  for  the 
consonants,  besides  two  other  symbols. 
Our  alphabet  is  a very  imperfect  instru- 
ment for  what  it  has  to  perform,  being 
both  defective  and  redundant.  An 
alphabet  is  not  essential  to  the  writing 
of  a language,  since  ideograms  or  sym- 
bols may  be  used  instead,  as  in  Chinese. 

ALPHON'SO,  the  name  of  a number 
of  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Alphon- 
so  I.  was  the  son  of  Henry  of  Burgun- 
dy. He  conquered  Portugal  and  was 
recognized  by  the  Pope.  The  present 
King  of  Spain  is  Alphonso  XIII.,  born 
May  17,  1886,  six  months  after  the  death 
of  his  father,  married  1906,  to  Princess 
Victoria  of  England.  In  1907  an  heir  to 
the  throne  was  born. 

ALPIEE  WARBLER,  a European 
bird  of  the  same  genus  as  the  hedg.e- 
sparrow. 

ALPS,  the  highest  and  most  exten- 
sive system  of  mountains  in  Europe,  in- 
cluded between  lat.  44°  and  48°  n.,  and 
Ion.  6°  and  18°  e.,  covering  a great  part 
of  Northern  Italy,  several  departments 
of  France,  nearly  the  whole  of  Switzer- 
land, and  a large  part  of  Austria,  while 
its  extensive  ramifications  connect  it 
with  nearly  all  the  mountain  systems  of 
Europe.  The  culminating  peak  is  Mont 
Blanc,  15,781  feet  high,  though  the 


true  center  ii  the  St.  Gothard,  or  the 
mountain  mass  to  which  it  belongs,  and 
from  whose  slopes  flow,  either  directly 
or  by  affluents  the  great  rivers  of  cen- 
tral Europe,  the  Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone, 
and  Po.  Round  the  northern  frontier 
of  Italy  the  Alps  form  a remarkable 
barrier,  shutting  it  off  at  all  points  fi'om 
the  main  land  of  Europe,  so  that,  as  a 
rule,  it  can  only  be  approached  from 
France,  Gei’many,  or  Switzerland, 
through  high  and  difficult  passes.  In 
the  west  this  barrier  approaches  close  to 
the  Mediteri’anean  coast,  and  near  Nice 
there  is  left  a free  passage  into  the 
Italian  peninsula  between  the  moun- 
tains and  the  sea.  From  this  point  east- 
ward the  chain  proceeds  along  the  coast 
till  it  forms  a junction  with  the  Apen- 
nines. In  the  opposite  direction  it  pro- 
ceeds northwest,  and  afterward  north 
to  Mont  Blanc,  on  the  boundaries  of 
France  and  Italy;  it  then  turns  north- 
east and  runs  generally  in  this  direction 
to  the  Gross  Glockner,  in  central  Tyrol, 
between  the  rivers  Draveandthe  Salza, 
where  it  divides  into  two  branches,  the 
northern  proceeding  northeast  toward 
Vienna,  the  southern  toward  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  The  principal  valleys  of  the 
Alps  run  mostly  in  a direction  nearly 
parallel  with  the  principal  ranges,  and 
therefore  east  and  west.  The  transverse 
valleys  are  commonly  shorter,  and  fre- 
quently lead  up  through  a narrow  gorge 
to  a depression  in  the  main  ridge  be- 
tween two  adjacent  peaks.  These  are 
the  passes  or  cols,  which  may  usually  be 
found  by  tracing  a stream  which 
descends  from  the  mountains  up  to  its 
source. 

The  Alps  are  very  rich  in  lakes  and 
streams.  Among  the  chief  of  the  form- 
er are  the  lakes  of  Geneva,  Constance, 
Zurich,  Thun,  Brienz,  on  the  north 
side;  on  the  south  Maggiore,  Como, 
Lugano,  Garda,  etc.  The  drainage  is 
carried  to  the  North  Sea  by  the  Rhine, 
to  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Rhone,  to 
the  Adriatic  by  the  Po,  to  the  Black 
Sea  by  the  Danube. 

In  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Alps  the 
mean  temperature  ranges  from  50°  to 
60°.  Half  way  up  the  Alps  it  averages 
about  32° — a height  which,  in  the 
snowy  regions,  it  never  reaches.  But 
even  where  the  temperature  is  lowest 
the  solar  radiation  produced  by  the 
rocks  and  snow  is  often  so  great  as  to 
raise  the  photometer  to  120°  and  even 
higher.  The  exhilarating  and  invigor- 
ating nature  of  the  climate  in  the  upper 
regions  during  the  summer  has  been 
acknowledged  by  all. 

In  respect  to  vegetation  the  Alps  have 
been  divided  into  six  zones,  depending 
on  height  modifled  by  exposure  and 
local  circumstances.  The  first  is  the 
olive  region.  This  tree  flourishes  better 
on  sheltered  slopes  of  the  mountains 
than  on  the  plains  of  northern  Italy. 
The  vine,  which  bears  greater  winter 
cold,  distinguishes  the  second  zone.  On 
slopes  exposed  to  the  sun  it  flourishes  to 
a considerable  height.  The  third  is 
called  the  mountainous  region.  Cereals 
and  deciduous  trees  form  the  distin- 
guishing features  of  its  vegetation. 
The  mean  temperature,  about  equals 
that  of  Great  Britain,  but  the  extremes 
are  greater.  The  fourth  region  is  the 


sub-Alpine  or  coniferous.  Here  are  vast 
forests  of  pines  of  various  species.  Most 
of  the  Alpine  villages  are  in  the  two  last 
regions.  On  the  northern  slopes  pines 
grow  to  6,000,  and  on  the  southern 
slopes  to  7,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  This  is  also  the  region  of  the 
lower  or  permanent  pastures  where  the 
flocks  are  fed  in  winter.  The  fifth  is  the 
pasture  region,  the  term  alp  being  used 
in  the  local  sense  of  high  pasture 
grounds.  It  extends  from  the  upper- 
most limit  of  trees  to  the  region  of  per- 
petual snow.  Here  there  are  shrubs, 
rhododendrons,  junipers,  bilberries,  and 
dwarf  willows,  etc.  The  sixth  zone  is  the 
region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  line  of 
snow  varies,  according  to  seasons  and 
localities  from  8,000  to  9,500  feet,  but 
the  line  is  not  continuous,  being  often 
broken  in  upon.  Few  flowering  plants 
extend  above  10,000  feet,  but  they  have 
been  found  as  high  as  12,000  feet. 

At  this  great  elevation  are  found  the 
wild  goat  and  the  chamois.  In  summer 
the  high  mountain  pastures  are  covered 
with  large  flocks  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats,  which  are  in  winter  removed  to 
a lower  and  warmer  level.  The  marmot, 
and  white  or  Alpine  hare,  inhabit  both 
the  snowy  and  the  woody  regions. 
Lower  down  are  found  the  wild-cat,  fox, 
lynx,  bear  and  wolf ; the  last  two  are 
now  extremely  rare.  The  vulture, 
eagle,  and  other  birds  of  prey  frequent 
the  highest  elevations,  the  ptarmigan 
seeks  its  food  and  shelter  among  the 
diminutive  plants  that  border  upon  the 
snow-line.  Excellent  trout  and  other 
fish  are  found ; but  the  most  elevated 
lakes  are,  from  their  low  temperature, 
entirely  destitute  of  fish. 

ALSACE  (al-sas),  before  the  French 
revolution  a province  of  France,  on  the 
Rhine,  afterward  constituting  the 
French  departments  of  Haut-  and  Bas- 
Rhin,  and  subsequently  to  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  of  1870-71  reunited  to  Ger- 
many, and  incorporated  in  the  province 
of  Elsass-Lothringen  (Alsace-Lorraine) . 
Alsace  is  generally  a level  country 
though  there  are  several  ranges  of  low 
hills  richly  wooded.  The  principal  river 
is  the  111.  Corn,  flax,  tobacco,  grapes, 
and  other  fruits  are  grown.  Area, 
3,198  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,074,626.  The  in- 
habitants mostly  speak  German,  and 
are  of  German  race.  Strasburg  is  the 
chief  city.  The  chief  productions  are 
wine,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  madder, 
copper,  iron,  etc. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE,  a province 
of  Germany,  on  the  east  of  France, 
partly  bounded  by  the  Rhine ; area, 
6,600  sq.  miles,  of  which  Alsace  occupies 
3,198  and  Lorraine  2,402.  The  three  chief 
towns  are  Strasburg,  Mahlhausen,  and 
Metz.  Pop.  1,719,470,  of  whom  1,310,- 
450  are  Catholics  and  372,078  Protest- 
ants. 

ALTAI  MOUNTAINS  (al'ti),  an  im- 
portant Asiatic  system  on  the  borders 
of  Siberia  and  Mongolia,  partly  in  Rus- 
sian and  partly  in  Chinese  territory,  be- 
tween lat.  46°  and  53°  n.,  Ion.  83°  and  91° 
e. , but  having  great  eastern  extensions. 
The  Russian  portion  is  comprised  in  the 
governments  of  Tomsk  and  -Semipala- 
tinsk,  the  Chinese  in  Dsungaria.  The 
rivers  of  this  region,  which  are  large  and 
numerous,  are  mostly  head-waters  of 


ALTAK 


ALVARADO 


the  Obi  and  Irtish.  The  area  covered 
by  perpetual  snow  is  very  considerable, 
and  glaciers  occupy  a wide  exi'^ni.  The 
Altai  is  exceecijigl^  'dch  tn  minerals, 
including  gol.>,  sil^-ar,  copper,  and  iron. 
The  name  Altai  mean.;  g hd  mountain.” 
The  inhabitants  aie  chiefly  Russians 
and  Kalmuks.  The  chief  town  .Bar- 
naul. 

ALTAR  (al'tar),  any  pile  or  structure 
raised  above  the  groun ' c t receiving 
sacrifices  to  so.  e divinity.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  altars  were  various  in  form, 
and  often  highly  orna  mental ; in  temples 
they  were  usually  placed  before  the 
statue  of  the  god.  In  the  Jewish  cere- 
monial the  altar  held  an  important  place, 
and  was  associated  with  many  of  the 
most  significant  rites  of  religion.  Two 
altars  were  erected  in  the  tabernacle  i:i 
the  wilderness,  and  the  same  number  in 
the  temple,  according  to  instructions 
given  to  Moses  in  Mt.  Sinai.  These 
were  called  the  altar  of  burni-offering 
and  the  altar  of  incense.  In  some  sec- 
tions of  the  Christian  church  the  com- 
munion-table, or  table  on  which  the 
eucharist  is  placed,  is  called  an  altar. 
In  the  primitive  church  it  was  a table  of 
wood,  but  sub.seq”.ently  stone  and  metal 
were  introduced,  with  rich  ornaments, 
sculpture,  and  painting.  After  the  in- 
troduction of  Gothic  art  the  altar  fre- 
quently became  a lofty  and  most  elabo- 
rate structure. 

ALTAZTMUTH,  a vertical  circle  with 
a telescope  so  arranged  as  to  be  capable 
of  being  turned  round  horizontally  to 
any  point  of  the  compass,  and  so  differ- 
ing from  a transit-circle,  which  is  fixed 
in  the  mei'idian.  The  altazimuth  is 
brought  to  bear  upon  objects  by  motions 
affecting  their  altitude  and  azimuth. 

AL'TENBURG,  a town  of  Germany, 
capital  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  23  miles 
south  of  Leipzig.  It  has  some  fine  streets  | 
and  many  handsome  edifices,  including 
a splendid  palace;  manufactures  of  ci- 
gars, woolen  yarn,  gloves,  hats,  musical 
instruments,  glass,  brushes,  etc.  Pop. 
37,110. 

ALTERATIVES  (al'-),  medicines,  as 
mercury,  iodine,  etc.,  which,  adminis- 
tered in  small  doses,  gradually  induce  a 
change  in  the  habit  or  constitution,  and 
imperceptibly  alter  disordered  secretions 
and  actions,  and  restore  healthy  func- 
tions without  producing  any  sensible 
evacuation  by  perspiration,  purging,  or 
vomiting. 

ALTER  EGO,  a second  self,  one  who 
represents  another  in  every  respect. 

ALTER'NATE,  in  botany,  placed  on 
opposite  sides  of  an  axis  at  a different 
level,  as  leaves. — Alternate  generation, 
the  reproduction  of  young  not  resem- 
bhng  their  parents,  but  their  grand- 
parents, continuously,  as  in  the  jelly- 
fishes, etc.  See  Generation,  Alternate. 

ALTH.iE'A,  a genus  of  plants.  See 
Hollyhock  and  Marshmallow. 

AL'TITUDE,  in  mathematics  the  per- 
pendicular height  of  the  vertex  or  apex 
of  a plane  figure  or  solid  above  the  base. 
In  astronomy  it  is  the  vertical  height  of 
any  point  or  body  above  the  horizon.  It 
is  measured  or  estimated  by  the  angle 
subtended  between  the  object  and  the 
plane  of  the  horizon,  and  may  be  either 
true  or  apparent.  The  apparent  altitude 
is  that  which  is  obtained  immediately 


from  observation ; the  true  altitude,  that 
which  results  from  correcting  the  appar- 
ent altitude,  by  making  allowance  for 
parallax  refraction,  etc  I 

ALTO,  n music,  the  highest  singing 
voice,  of  a male  ; ult,  t.ie  lowest  of  a boy  j 
or  a woman,  being  ii  the  latter  the  same 
as  contralto.  The  alto,  or  counter- 
tenor, is  not  a natural  voice,  but  i de- 
velopment of  the  falsett  . It  is  almost 
confined  to  English  singers,  and  the  only 
music  written  for  it  i^  by  English  com- 
posers. It  is  especially  used  in  cathedral 
compositions  and  glees. 

AL'TON,  a town  in  Illinois,  on  the 
Mississippi  near  the  mouth  of  the  Miss- 
ouri, with  a state  penitentiary,  several 
mills  and  manufactories,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  limestone  and  coal.  Pop.  I 
17,000. 

AL'TONA,  an  important  commercial  | 
city  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein, on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Elbe,  adjoining  Hamburg,  with  which 
it  virtually  forms  one  city.  It  is  a free 
port,  and  its  commerce,  both  inland  and 
foreign,  is  large,  being  quite  identified 
with  that  of  Hamburg.  Pop.  161,507. 

ALTOO'NA,  a town  in  Pennsylvania, 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Alleghanies, 
244  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  with 
large  machine-shops  and  locomotive  fac- 
tories. Pop.  45,000. 

ALTRUISM,  a term  first  employed 
by  the  French  philosopher  Comte,  to  sig- 
nify devotion  to  others  or  to  humanity; 
the  opposite  of  selfishness  or  egoism. 

AL'UM,  a well-known  crystalline, 
astringent  substance  with  a sweetish 
taste,  a double  sulphate  of  potassium  and 
aluminium  with  a certain  quantity  of 
water  of  crystallization.  It  crystallizes 
in  regular  octahedrons.  Its  solution 
reddens  vegetable  blues.  Exposed  to 
heat  its  water  of  crystallization  is  driven 
off,  and  it  becomes  light  and  spongy  -with 
slightly  corrosive  properties,  and  is  used 
as  a caustic  under  the  name  of  burnt 
alum.  Common  alum  is  strictly  potash 
alum ; other  two  varieties  are  soda  alum 
and  ammonia  alum,  both  similar  in 
properties.  The  importance  of  alum 
in  the  arts  is  very  great,  and  its  annual 
consumption  is  immense.  It  is  em- 
ployed to  increase  the  hardness  of  tallow, 
to  remove  greasiness  from  printers’ 
cushions  and  blocks  in  calico  manufac- 
tories; in  dyeing  it  is  Largely  used  ao  a 
mordant.  It  is  also  largely  used  in  the 
composition  of  crayons,  in  tannery,  and  in 
medicine  (as  an  astringent  and  styptic). 
Wood  and  paper  are  dipped  in  c,  solution 
of  alum  to  render  them  less  combustible. 

ALU'MINA,  the  single  oxide  of  the 
metal  aluminium.  As  found  native  it  is 
called  corundum,  when  crystallized  ruby 
or  sapphire,  when  amorphous  emery.  It 
is  next  to  the  diamorid  in  hardness.  In 
combination  with  silica  it  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  distributed  of  substances,  as 
it  enters  in  large  quantity  into  the  com- 
position of  granite,  traps,  slates,  schists, 
clays,  loams,  and  other  rocks.  The  por- 
celain clays  and  kaolins  contain  about 
half  their  weight  of  this  earth,  to  which 
they  owe  their  most  valuable  properties. 
It  has  a strong  affinity  for  coloring 
matters,  which  causes  it  to  be  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  the  colors  called 
lakes  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing.  It 
combines  with  the  acids  and  forms 


’ numerou.s  salts,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  sulphate  and  acetate,  the 
latter  of  extensive  use  as  a mordant. 

ALUMINTUM,  a metal  discovered  in 
1827,  but  nowhere  found  native,  though 
as  the  base  of  alumina  (which  see)  it  is 
abundantly  di.stributed.  The  mineral 
cryolite — a fluoride  of  aluminium  and 
sodium — which  is  brought  from  Green- 
land, is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  alu- 
minium. It  is  a shining  white  metal,  of 
a color  between  silver  and  platinum,  very 
light,  weighing  less  than  glass,  and 
about  one-fourth  of  silver,  not  liable  to 
tarnish  nor  undergo  oxidation  in  the  air, 
very  ductile  and  malleable,  and  remark- 
ably sonorous.  It  forms  several  useful 
alloys  with  iron  and  copper;  one  of  the 
latter  (aluminium  gold)  much  resembles 
gold,  and  is  made  into  cheap  trinkets. 
Another,  known  as  aluminium  bronze, 
posse.sses  great  hardness  aind  tenacity. 
Spoons,  tea  and  coffee  pots,  dish-covers, 
mu-sical  and  mathematical  instruments, 
trinkets,  etc.,  are  made  of  aluminium. 

ALUM-ROOT,  the  name  given  in 
America  to  two  plants  on  account  of  the 
remarkable  astringency  of  their  roots, 
which  are  used  for  medical  purposes. 

ALUM-SLATE,  a ‘ slaty  rock  from 
which  much  alum  is  prepared;  color 
grayish,  bluish,  or  iron-black;  often 
possessed  of  a glossy  or  shining  luster; 
chiefly  composed  of  clay  (silicate  of 
alumina),  with  variable  proportions  of 
sulphide  of  iron  (iron-pyrites),  lime, 
bitumen,  and  magnesia. 

ALUM-STONE,  a mineral  of  a grayish 
or  yellowish-white  color,  approaching 
to  earthy  in  its  composition,  from  which 
(in  .Italy)  is  obtained  a very  pure  alum 
by  simply  subjecting  it  to  roasting  and 
lixiviation. 

AL'VA,  or  AL'BA,  Ferdinand  Alvarez, 
Duke  of,  Spanish  statesman  and  general 
under  Charle:  V.  and  Philip  II.;  was 
born  in  1508;  early  embraced  the  mili- 
tary career,  and  fought  in  the  wars  of 
Charles  V.  in  France,  Italy,  Africa, 
Hungary,  and  Germany.  He  is  more 
especially  remembered  for  his  bloody  and 
'tyrannical  government  of  the  Nether- 
lands (1567-73),  which  had  revolted,  and 
which  he  was  commissioned  by  Philip 
II.  to  reduce  to  entire  subjection  to 
Spain.  Hopeless  of  finally  subduing 
the  country  he  asked  to  be  recalled,  and 
accordingly,  in  December,  1573,  Alva 
left  the  country,  in  which,  as  he  himself 
boasted,  he  had  executed  18,000  men. 
He  was  received  with  distinction  in 
Madrid,  but  did  not  long  enjoy  his  former 
credit.  He  had  the  honor,  however,  be- 
fore his  death  (which  took  place  in  1582) 
of  reducing  all  Portugal  to  subjection  to 
his  sovereign.  It  is  said  of  him  that 
during  sixty  years  of  warfare  he  never 
lost  a battle  and  was  never  taken  by 
surprise. 

ALVARADO  (al-va-ra'do),  Pedro  de, 
one  of  the  Spanish  “conquistadors,”  was 
born  toward  the  end  of  the  15th  century, 
and  died  in  1541.  Having  crossed  the 
Atlantic  he  was  associated  (1519)  with 
Cortez  in  ids  e.xpedition  to  conquer  Mex- 
ico; and  was  intrusted  with  important 
operations.  In  July,  1520,  during  the 
disastrous  retreat  from  the  capital  after 
the  death  of  Montezuma,  the  perilous 
command  of  the  rear-guard  was  assigned 
to  Alvarado.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he 


ALWAR 


ambassador 


Was  feceived  with  honor  by  Charles  V., 
who  made  him  governor  of  Guatemala, 
which  he  had  himself  conquered.  To 
this  was  subsequently  added  Honduras. 
He  continued  to  add  to  the  Spanish 
dominions  in  America  till  his  death. 

ALWAR  (al-war'),  a state  of  north- 
western Hindustan,  in  Rajputana;  area, 
3024  square  miles.  This  semi-independ- 
ent state  has  as  its  ruler  a rajah  with  a 
revenue  of  about  $1,000,000;  military 
force,  about  5000  infantry  and  2000 
cavalry.  Pop.  828,888. — Alwar,  the  cap- 
ital, is  situated  at  the  base  of  a rocky 
hill  crowned  by  a fort,  80  miles  s.s.w. 
of  Delhi,  surrounded  by  a moat  and 
rampart,  and  poorly  built,  but  with  fine 
surroundings;  contains  the  rajah’s  pal- 
ace and  a few  other  good  buildings. 
Pop.  56,771. 

AMADE'US,  Duke  of  Aosta,  second 
son  of  Victor  Emanuel  of  Italy,  and 
brother  of  the  present  king,  was  born 
in  1845,  and  was  chosen  by  the  Cortes 
King  of  Spain  in  1870,  Queen  Isabella 
having  had  to  leave  the  country  in  1868. 
He  abdicated  in  1873  and  returned  to 
Italy.  He  died  in  1890. 

AMAL'FI,  a seaport  in  southern  Italy 
on  the  gulf  of  Salerno,  23  miles  from 
Naples,  the  seat  of  a bishop,  a place  of 


The  Cathedral,  Amalfi. 


great  commercial  importance  in  the 
middle  ages,  enjoying  a republican  con- 
stitution of  its  own.  Pop.  11,242. 

AMAL'EKITES,  a Semitic  race  oc- 
cupying the  peninsula  between  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  named  after  a grandson 
of  Esau.  They  were  denounced  by 
Moses  for  their  hostility  to  the  Israelites 
during  their  jouimey  through  the  wilder- 
ness, and  they  seem  to  have  been  all  but 
exterminated  by  Saul  and  David. 

AMAL'GAM,  a name  applied  to  the 
alloys  of  mercury  with  the  other  metals. 
One  of  them  is  the  amalgam  of  mercury 
with  tin,  which  is  used  to  silver  looking- 
glasses.  Mercury  unites  very  readily 
with  gold  and  silver  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, and  advantage  is  taken  of 
this  to  separate  them  from  their  ores,  the 
process  being  called  amalgamation. 
The  mercury  being  properly  applied 
dissolves  and  combines  with  the  pre-l 


cious  metal  and  separates  it  from  the 
waste  matters,  and  is  itself  easily  driven 
off  by  heat. 

AMARAPURA  (a-ma-ra-p6'ra),  a de- 
serted city,  once  the  capital  of  the  Bur- 
mese Empire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Irawaddy,  quite  close  to  Mandalay.  The 
population  in  1800  was  175,000. 


north  of  east ; length  including  windings 
between  3000  and  4000  miles:  area  of 
drainage  basin  2,300,000  sq.  miles.  It 
enters  the  Atlantic  under  the  equator 
by  a mouth  200  miles  wide,  divided  into 
two  principal  and  several  smaller  arms 
by  the  large  island  Marajo,  and  a num- 
ber of  smaller  islands.  In  its  upper 


AMARYLLIDA'CE.®,  an  order  of 
monocotyledonous  plants,  generally 
bulbous,  occasionally  with  a tall,  cylin- 
drical, woody  stem;  with  a highly 
colored  flower,  six  stamens,  and  an 
inferior  three-celled  ovary;  natives  of 
Europe  and  most  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  world.  The  order  includes  the 
snowdrop,  the  snowflake,  the  daffodil, 
the  belladonna-lily  (belonging  to  the 
typical  genus  Amaryllis),  the  so-called 
Guernsey-lily  (probably  a native  of 
Japan),  the  Brunsvigias,  the  blood- 
flowers  (Haemanthus)  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  different  species  of  Narcis- 
sus, Agave  (American  aloe),  etc. 

AMATEUR,  any  person  who  pur- 
sues an  art,  science,  or  other  work  not 
for  money  or  other  material  considera- 
tion but  for  the  pure  love  of  the  thing 
itself.  In  sports  the  definition  of  an 
amateur  is  made  by  the  rules  of  the 
Amateur  Athletic  union;  and  this  defini- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  the  type  for 
sports  of  all  kinds.  According  to  the 
rules  of  competition  nobody  is  eligible 
who  in  any  manner  has  received  com- 
pensation of  any  kind  for  his  work,  or 
who  has  competed  with  a professional, 
or  who  has  in  any  way  realized  money 
through  any  connection  with  sport 
itself,  such  as  the  sale  of  prizes,  etc. 
In  certain  sports,  such  as  golf,  the  lines 
are  not  so  closely  drawn,  so  that  playing 
with  a professional  does  not  constitute 
one  a professional.  The  rules  of  ama- 
teurism in  cycling  were  for  years  a 
mere  form,  as  every  large  manufacturer 
had  his  own  racers  on  the  track. 

AMAURO'SIS,  a species  of  blindness, 
caused  by  disease  of  the  nerves  of  vision. 
The  most  frequent  causes  are  a long- 
continued  direction  of  the  eye  on 
minute  objects,  long  exposure  to  a 
bright  light,  to  the  fire  of  a forge,  to 
snow,  or  irritating  gases,  overfulness  of 
blood,  disease  of  the  brain,  etc.  If 
taken  in  time  it  may  be  cured  or  miti- 
gated; but  confirmed  amaurosis  is 
usually  incurable. 

AMAZON,  AMAZONS,  a river  of 
South  America,  the  largest  in  the  world, 
formed  by  a great  number  of  sources 
which  rise  in  the  Andes ; general  course 


course  navigation  is  interrupted  by 
rapids,  but  from  its  mouth  upward  for 
a distance  of  3300  miles  (mostly  in 
Brazil)  there  is  no  obstruction.  From 
the  sea  to  the  Rio  Negro,  750  miles  in  a 
straight  line,  the  depth  is  nowhere  less 
than  30  fathoms;  up  to  the  junction 
of  the  Ucayale  there  is  depth  sufficient 
for  the  largest  vessels.  The  Amazonian 
water  system  affords  some  50,000  miles 
of  river  suitable  for  navigation.  The 
rapidity  of  the  river  is  considerable,  es- 
pecially during  the  rainy  season  (January 
to  June),  when  it  is  subject  to  floods;  but 
there  is  no  great  fall  in  its  course.  The 
tides  reach  up  as  far  ns  400  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  singular  phenomenon  of 
the  bore,  or  as  it  is  called  on  the  Amazon 
the  pororoca,  occurs  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  at  springtides  on  a grand  scale. 
The  river  swarms  with  alligators,  turtles, 
and  a great  variety  of  fish.  The  country 
through  which  it  flows  is  extremely 
fertile,  and  is  mostly  covered  with  im- 
mense forests;  it  must  at  some  future 
time  support  a numerous  population, 
and  be  the  theater  of  a busy  commerce. 
Steamers  and  other  craft  ply  on  the 
river,  the  chief  center  of  trade  being  Para, 
at  its  mouth. 

AMAZ'ONAS,  the  largest  state  of 
Brazil,  traversed  by  the  Amazon  and 
its  tributaries;  area,  753,000  sq.  miles; 
pop.  148,000. 

AMAZONS,  according  to  an  ancient 
Greek  tradition,  the  name  of  a com- 
munity of  women,  who  permitted  no 
men  to  reside  among  them,  fought  under 
the  conduct  of  a queen,  and  long  con- 
stituted a formidable  state.  They 
were  said  to  burn  off  the  right  breast 
that  it  might  not  impede  them  in  the  use 
of  the  bow. 

AMBA'LA,  a town  of  India,  in  the 
Punjab.  The  military  cantonment  is 
several  miles  distant.  Total  pop.  78,638. 

AMBAS'SADOR,  a minister  of  the 
highest  rank,  emploj'ed  by  one  prince  or 
state  at  the  court  of  another  to  manage 
the  public  concerns,  or  support  the 
interests  of  his  own  prince  or  state,  and 
representing  the  power  and  dignity  of 
his  sovereign  or  state.  Ambassadors 
are  ordinary  when  they  reside  perma- 


AMBER 


AMERICA 


nently  at  a foreign  court,  or  extraor- 
dinary when  they  are  sent  on  a special 
occasion.  When  ambassadors  extraor- 
dinary have  full  powers,  as  of  conclud- 
ing peace,  making  treaties,  and  the  like, 
they  are  called  plenipotentiaries.  Am- 
bassadors are  often  called  simply  min- 
isters. Envoys  are  ministers  employed 
on  special  occasions,  and  are  of  less 
dignity  than  ambassadors.  The  term 
ambassador,  however,  is  also  used  in  a 
more  general  sense  for  any  diplomatic 
agent  or  minister.  An  ambassador  and 
his  suite  are  not  amenable  to  the  laws 
of  the  country  in  which  they  are  residing. 

AM'BER,  a semi-mineral  substance 
of  resinous  composition,  a sort  of  fossil 
resin,  the  produce  of  extinct  Coniferoe. 
It  is  usually  of  yellow  or  reddish-brown 
color;  brittle;  yields  easily  to  the  knife ; 
is  translucent,  and  possessed  of  a resi- 
nous luster.  Specific  gravity,  1‘065. 
It  burns  with  a yellow  flame,  emitting 
a pungent  aromatic  smoke,  and  leaving 
a light  carbonaceous  residue,  which  is 
employed  as  the  basis  of  the  flnest  black 
varnishes.  By  friction  it  becomes 
strongly  electric.  It  is  found  in  masses 
from  the  size  of  coarse  sand  to  that  of  a 
man’s  head,  and  occurs  in  beds  of  bitu- 
minous wood  situated  upon  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic  and  Adriatic  Seas;  also  in 
Poland,  France,  Italy,  and  Demark. 
It  is  often  washed  up  on  the  Prussian 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  and  is  also  obtained 
by  fishing  for  it  with  nets.  Sometimes 
it  is  found-on  the  east  coast  of  Britain,  in 
gravel  pits  round  London,  also  in  the 
United  States. 

AM'BERGRIS,  a substance  derived 
from  the  intestines  of  the  sperm-whale, 
and  found  floating  or  on  the  shore; 
yellowish  or  blackish  white;  very  light; 
melts  at  140°,  and  is  entirely  dissipated 
on  red-hot  coals;  is  soluble  in  ether, 
volatile  oils,  and  partially  in  alcohol, 
and  is  chiefly  composed  of  a peculiar 
fatty  substance.  Its  odor  is  very  agree- 
able, and  hence  it  is  used  as  a perfume. 

AMBIDEX'TROUS,  having  the  faculty 
of  using  the  left  hand  as  effectively  as 
the  right. 

AMBLYOP'SIS,  a genus  of  blind 
fishes,  containing  only  one  species,  found 
in  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

AMBOY'NA,  AMBOINA,  or  APON, 
one  of  the  Molucca  Islands  in  the  In- 
dian Archipelago,  close  to  the  large 
island  of  Ceram;  area,  about  280  sq. 
miles.  Its  surface  is  generally  hilly  or 
mountainous,  its  general  aspect  beauti- 
ful, and  its  climate  on  the  whole  salu- 
brious, but  it  is  not  infrequently  visited 
by  earthquakes.  It  affords  a variety  of 
useful  trees,  including  the  cocoanut 
and  sago  palms.  Cloves  and  nutmegs 
are  the  staple  productions.  The  soil  in 
the  valleys  and  along  the  shores  is  very 
fertile,  but  a large  portion  remains  un- 
cultivated. The  natives  are  mostly  of 
Malayan  race.  The  capital,  also  called 
Amboyna,  is  situated  on  the  Bay  of 
Amboyna,  and  is  well  built  and  de- 
fended by  a citadel.  The  streets  are 
planted  on  each  side  with  rows  of  fruit- 
trees.  It  is  a free  port.  Pop.  10,500. 

AM'BROSE,  Saint,  a celebrated  father 
of  the  church;  born  in  a.d.  333  or  334, 
probably  at  Treves,  where  hLs  father 
was  prefect;  died  in  397.  His  kind- 
ness and  wisdom  gained  him  the  es- 


teem and  love  of  the  people,  and  in 
374  he  was  unanimously  called  to  the 
bishopric  of  Milan,  though  not  yet 
baptized.  His  writings,  which  are 
numerous,  show  that  his  theological 
knowledge  extended  little  beyond  an 
acquaintance  with  the  works  of  the 
Greek  fathers.  He  wrote  Latin  hymns, 
but  the  Te  Deum  Laudamus,  which  has 
been  ascribed  to  him,  was  written  a 
century  later.  He  introduced  the  Am- 
brosian Chant,  a mode  of  singing  more 
monotonous  than  the  Gregorian  which 
superseded  it.  He  also  compiled  a form 
of  ritual  known  by  his  name. 

AMBRO'SIA,  in  Greek  mythology  the 
food  of  the  gods,  as  nectar  was  their 
drink. 

AM'BULANCE,  a hospital  establish- 
ment which  accompanies  an  army  in  its 
movements  in  the  field  for  the  purpose 
of  providing  assistance  and  surgical 
treatment  to  the  soldiers  wounded  in 
battle.  The  name  is  often  given  to  one 
of  the  carts,  wagons,  or  litters  used  to 
transfer  the  wounded  from  the  spot 
where  they  fell  to  the  hospital.  One 
form  of  ambulance  wagon  is  a strong 
but  light  vehicle  with  an  upright  frame, 
from  which  two  stretchers  are  slung 
from  the  top  for  the  accommodation  of 
those  most  severely  wounded;  seats 
before  and  behind  are  provided  for  those 
suffering  from  less  serious  wounds. 
The  hospital  chests,  containing  surgical 
instruments,  bandages,  splints,  etc.,  are 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  wagon 
or  lashed  to  its  under  surfaces.  A 
thorough  ambulance  system  in  connec- 
tion with  armies  in  the  field  is  of  quite 
recent  introduction.  A training  in 
ambulance  work  is  now  being  recog- 
nized as  of  importance  beyond  the  field 
of  military  affairs,  and  as  being  of  the 
utmost  service  wherever  serious  acci- 
dents are  likely  to  happen,  as,  for 
instance,  in  large  cities  and  in  connection 
with  large  industrial  establishments. 

AM'BUSH,  a term  of  strategy  used 
to  designate  the  act  of  hiding  and 
taking  the  enemy  by  surprise.  An 
ambush  may  be  large  or  small,  involv- 
ing only  a few  men  or  an  entire  army. 
It  was  this  method  of  warfare  which 
was  used  almost  exclusively  by  the 
Boers  in  their  recent  war  with  England 
in  South  Africa. 

AMEN  (a-men'),  a Hebrew  word, 
signifying  “verily,”  “truly,”  transferred 
from  the  religious  language  of  the  Jews 
to  that  of  the  Christians,  and  used  at 
the  end  of  prayers  as  equivalent  to 
“so  be  it,”  “may  this  be  granted.” 

AMEND'MENT,  a proposal  brought 
forward  in  a meeting  of  some  public  or 
other  body,  either  in  order  to  get  an 
alteration  introduced  on  some  proposal 
already  before  the  meeting,  or  entirely 
to  overturn  such  proposal.  In  parlia- 
ment an  amendment  denotes  an  altera- 
tion made  in  the  original  draught  of  a 
bill  while  it  is  passing  through  the 
houses.  Amendments  may  be  made  so 
as  totally  to  alter  the  nature  of  the 
proposition ; and  this  is  a way  of  getting 
rid  of  a proposition,  by  making  it  bear 
a sense  different  from  what  was  in- 
tended by  the  movers,  who  are  thus 
compelled  to  abandon  it. 

AMENOTHIS  (or  AMENHOTEP)  III., 
a king  of  ancient  Egypt  about  1500 


B.C.  ; warred  successfully  against  Syrians 
and  Ethiopians,  built  magnificent  tem- 
ples and  palaces  at  Thebes,  where  the 
so-called  Memnon  statue  is  a statute  of 
this  king. 

AMENORRHCE'A,  absence  or  sus- 
pension of  menstruation.  The  former 
may  arise  from  general  debility  or  from 
defective  development,  the  latter  from 
e.xposure  to  cold,  from  attacks  of  fever 
or  other  ailment,  violent  excitement,  etc. 

AMENTA'CEiE,  an  order  of  plants 
having  their  flowers  arranged  in  amenta 
or  catkins;  now  broken  up  into  several 
orders,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  birch, 
the  willow,  the  liquidambar,  the  plane, 
the  nut. 

AMEN'TUM,  in  botany,  that  kind  of 
inflorescence  which  is  commonly  known 
as  a catkin  (as  in  the  birch  or  willow), 
consisting  of  unisexual  apetalous  flow- 
ers in  the  axil  of  scales  or  bracts. 

AMERTCA,  or  the  NEW  WORLD, 
the  largest  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
globe  except  Asia,  is  washed  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  south  tapers  to  a point. 
On  the  northwest  it  approaches  within 
about  50  miles  of  Asia,  while  on  the 
northeast  the  island  of  Greenland  ap- 
proaches within  370  miles  of  the  Euro- 
pean island  Iceland;  but  in  the  south 
the  distance  between  the  American 
mainland  and  Europe  or  Africa  is  very 
great.  America  as  a whole  forms  the 
two  triangular  continents  of  North  and 
South  America,  united  by  the  narrow 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  having  an 
entire  length  of  about  10,000  miles;  a 
maximum  breadth  (in  North  .\merica) 
of  3500  miles;  a coast  line  of  44,000 
miles;  and  a total  area,  including  the 
islands,  of  nearly  16,000,000,  of  which 
N.  America  contains  about  9,000,000 
sq.  miles.  South  America  is  more  com- 
pact in  form  than  N.  America,  in  this 
respect  resembling  Africa,  while  N. 
America  more  resembles  Europe.  Be- 
tween the  two  on  the  east  side  is  the 
great  basin  which  comprises  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the 
West  India  Islands.  Like  Europe  also 
N.  America  possesses  numerous  islands, 
while  those  of  S.  America  are  less  im- 
portant and  confined  almost  to  the 
southern  extremity. 

Three-fourths  of  the  area  of  America 
is  comparatively  flat,  and  this  portion 
of  the  surface  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  lofty  mountain  systems  which 
stretch  continuously  from  north  to 
south  between  the  extremities  of  the 
continent,  generally  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  west  shore.  In  North 
America  the  Rocky  Mountains,  a broad 
series  of  masses  partly  consisting  of 
plateaux,  form  the  most  important  por- 
tion of  the  elevated  surface,  being  con- 
tinued southward  in  the  mountains  and 
tableland  of  Mexico  and  the  ranges  of 
Central  America.  Separated  by  depres- 
sions from  the  Rocky  Mountains  proper, 
and  running  close  to  and  parallel  with 
the  western  coast,  are  several  lofty 
ranges  (Sierra  Nevada,  Cascade  Moun- 
tains, etc.).  Near  the  eastern  coast,  and 
forming  an  isolated  mass,  are  the  Appa- 
lachians, a system  of  much  inferior 
magnitude.  The  loftiest  mountains  in 
N.  America  are  Mount  Logan  (19,514 


AMERICA 


AMERICA 


ft.),  Mount  St.  Elias  (18,017),  both  in 
N.  W.  Canada;  and  Popocatepetl  (18,- 
000  ft.).  The  depression  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  (about  260  ft.)  forms  a 
natural  separation  between  the  systems 
of  the  north  and  the  south.  In  S.  Amer- 
ica the  Andes  form  a system  of  greater 
elevation  but  less  breadth  than  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  consist  of  a 
series  of  ranges  (cordilleras)  closely 
following  the  line  of  the  west  coast 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Cape 
Horn.  The  highest  summits  seem  to  be 
Aconcagua  (22,860  ft.),  Sorata  or  Illampu 
(21,484),  and  Sahama  (21,054).  Vol- 
canoes are  numerous.  Isolated  moun- 
tain groups  of  minor  importance  are  the 
highlands  of  Venezuela  and  of  Brazil, 
the  latter  near  the  eastern  coast,  reach- 
ing a height  of  10,000  feet. 

The  fertile  lowlands  which  lie  to  the 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Andes  form  a depression  extending 
through  both  continents  from  the  north- 
ern to  the  southern  oceans.  They  have 
somewhat  different  features  and  differ- 
ent names  in  different  portions;  in  N. 
America  are  prairies  and  savannahs, 
in  S.  America  llanos,  selvas  and  pam- 
pas. 

Through  these  low  grounds  flow  the 
numerous  great  rivers  which  form  so 
characteristic  a feature  of  America. 
The  principal  are  the  Mackenzie,  Copper- 
mine,  and  Great  Fish  rivers,  entering 
the  Northern  Ocean;  the  Churchill, 
Nelson,  Severn,  and  Albany,  entering 
Hudson's  Bay;  the  St.  Lawrence,  enter- 
ing the  Atlantic;  Mississippi  and  Rio 
del  Norte,  entering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
(all  these  being  in  N.  America) ; tli«  Mag- 
dalena, Orinoco,  Amazon,  Paranahiba, 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  Colorado,  and  Rio 
Negro,  entering  the  Atlantic  (all  in  S. 
America);  and  the  Yukon,  Fraser,  Co- 
lumbia, San  Joaquin,  Sacramento,  and 
Colorado,  entering  the  Pacific.  The 
rivers  which  flow  into  the  Pacific,  how- 
ever, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  great 
backbone  of  the  continent,  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Andes,  lies  so  near 
the  west  coast,  are  of  comparatively 
little  importance,  in  S.  America  being 
all  quite  small.  Sometimes  rivers 
traversing  the  same  plains,  and  nearly 
on  the  same  levels,  open  communica- 
tions with  each  other,  a remarkable  in- 
stance being  the  Cassiquiari  in  S.  Amer- 
ica, which,  branching  oft’  from  the  Rio 
Negro  and  joining  the  Orinoco,  forms  a 
kind  of  natural  canal,  uniting  the  basins 
of  the  Orinoco  and  the  Amazon.  The 
Amazon  or  Maranon  in  S.  America,  the 
largest  river  in  the  world,  has  a course 
of  about  3500  miles,  and  a basin  of 
2,300,000  square  miles;  the  Mississippi- 
Missouri,  the  largest  river  of  North 
America,  runs  a longer  course  than  the 
Amazon,  but  the  area  of  its  basin  is  not 
nearly  so  great.  North  America  has  the 
most  extensive  group  of  lakes  in  the 
world — Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Hu- 
ron, Erie,  and  Ontario,  which  through 
the  St.  Lawrence  send  their  drainage  to 
the  Atlantic.  Thus  by  means  of  lakes 
and  rivers  the  interior  of  both  N.  and  S. 
America  is  opened  up  and  made  acces- 
sible. 

■With  regard  to  climate  N.  America 
naturally  differs  very  much  from  S. 
America,  and  has  more  resemblance  to 


the  continents  of  Europe  and  Asia 
(regarded  as  a whole).  In  N.  America, 
as  in  the  older  continent,  the  eastern 
parts  are  colder  than  the  western,  and 
hence  the  towns  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
have  a winter  temperature  about  10° 
lower  than  those  in  corresponding  lati- 
tudes of  Europe.  The  winter  tempera- 
ture of  the  geater  part  of  N.  America  is 
indeed  severe,  though  the  intense  cold 
is  less  felt  on  account  of  the  dryness  of 
the  air.  There  is  no  regular  season  of 
rainfall  unless  in  the  south.  Although 
two-thirds  of  S.  America  lies  within  the 
tropics  the  heat  is  not  so  great  as  might 
be  expected,  owing  to  the  prevailing 
winds,  the  influences  of  the  Andes,  and 
other  causes.  The  highest  temperature 
experienced  is  probably  not  more  than 
100°  in  the  shade;  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  the 
mean  is  about  74°,  at  Lima  72°.  Over 
a great  part  of  S.  America  there  is  a 
wet  and  dry  season,  varying  in  different 
regions ; on  the  upper  Amazon  the  rains 
last  for  ten  months,  being  caused  by  the 
prevailing  easterly  winds  bringing  mois- 
ture from  the  Atlantic,  which  is  con- 
densed on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Andes.  In  each  of  the  Americas  there 
is  a region  in  which  little  or  no  rain  falls ; 
in  N.  America  it  extends  over  a part  of 
the  United  States  and  northern  Mexico, 
in  S.  America  over  a part  of  the  coast 
region  of  Peru  and  Chile. 

America  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals. 
It  has  supplied  the  world  with  immense 
quantities  of  gold  and  silver,  which  it 
still  yields  in  no  small  amount,  especially 
in  the  United  States.  It  possesses  inex- 
haustible stores  of  coal  (U.  States),  with 
iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  mercury,  etc. 
Petroleum  may  be  called  one  of  its 
specialties,  its  petroleum  wells  having 
caused  whole  towns  to  spring  into  exist- 
ence. Diamonds  and  other  precious 
stones  are  found. 

As  regards  vegetation  America  may 
be  called  a region  of  forests  and  verdure, 
vast  tracts  being  covered  by  the  grassy 
prairies,  llanos,  and  pampas  where  the 
forests  fail.  In  N.  America  the  forests 
have  been  largely  made  use  of  by  man; 
in  S.  America  vast  areas  are  covered  with 
forests,  which  as  yet  are  traversed  only 
by  the  uncivilized  Indian.  In  the  north 
is  the  region  of  pines  and  firs;  farther 
south  come  the  deciduous  trees,  as  the 
oak,  beech,  maple,  elm,  chestnut,  etc. 
Then  follow  the  evergreen  forests  of  the 
tropical  regions.  The  useful  timber 
trees  are  very  numerous;  among  the 
most  characteristic  of  America  are 
mahogany  and  other  ornamental  woods, 
and  various  dyewoods.  In  the  tropical 
parts  are  numerous  palms,  cacti  in 
great  variety,  and  various  species  of  the 
agave  or  American  aloe.  In  the  virgin 
forests  of  S.  America  the  trees  are  often 
bound  together  into  an  impenetrable 
ihass  of  vegetation  by  vai-ious  kinds  of 
climbing  and  twining  plants.  Among 
useful  plants  belonging  to  the  American 
continent  are  maize,  the  potato,  cacao, 
tobacco,  cinchona,  vanilla,  Paraguay 
tea,  etc.  The  most  important  plants 
introduced  are  wheat,  rice,  and  other 
grains,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  and  cotton, 
with  various  fruits  and  vegetables.  The 
vine  is  native  to  the  continent,  and  both 
the  American  and  introduced  varieties 
are  now  largely  cultivated. 


The  animals  of  America  include, 
among  carnivora,  the  jaguar  or  Ameri- 
can tiger,  found  only  in  S.  America ; the 
puma  or  American  lion,  found  mostly 
in  S.  America;  the  grizzly  bear  of  N. 
America,  fully  as  powerful  an  animal  as 
either;  the  black  bear,  the  skunk,  the 
raccoon,  the  American  or  prairie  wolf, 
several  species  of  fox,  etc.  The  rodents 
are  represented  by  the  beaver,  the  por- 
cupine, and  squirrels  of  several  species; 
the  marsupials  by  the  opossum.  Among 
ruminants  are  the  bison,  or,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  the  buffalo,  the  moose  or 
elk,  the  'Virginian  stag,  the  musk-ox; 
and  in  S.  America  the  llama  (which 
takes  the  place  of  the  camel  of  the  Old 
’World),  the  alpaca,  and  the  vicuna. 
Other  animals  most  distinctive  of  S. 
America  are  sloths,  fitted  to  live  only  in 
its  dense  and  boundless  forests;  ant- 
eaters  and  armadillos;  monkeys  with 
prehensile  tails,  in  this  and  other  respects 
differing  from  those  of  the  Old  World; 
the  condor  among  the  heights  of  the 
Andes,  the  nandu,  rhea  or  three-toed 
ostrich,  beautiful  parrots  and  humming- 
birds. Among  American  reptiles  are 
the  boa-constrictor,  the  rattlesnake,  the 
alligator  or  cayman,  the  iguana  and 
other  large  lizards,  large  frogs  and  toads. 
The  domestic  animals  of  America, 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  are  of  foreign 
origin.  The  electrical  eel  exists  in  the 
tropical  waters. 

The  population  of  America  consists 
partly  of  an  aboriginal  race  or  races, 
partly  of  immigrants  or  their  descend- 
ants. The  aboriginal  inhabitants  are 
the  American  Indians  or  red  men,  being 
generally  of  a brownish-red  color,  and 
now  forming  a very  small  portion  of 
the  total  population,  especially  in  N. 
America,  where  the  white  population 
has  almost  exterminated  them.  These 
people  are  divided  into  branches,  some 
of  which  have  displayed  a considerable 
aptitude  for  civilization.  When  the 
Europeans  became  acquainted  with  the 
New  World,  Mexico,  Central  and  part  of 
S.  America  were  inhabited  by  popula- 
tions which  had  made  great  advances 
in  many  things  that  pertain  to  civilized 
life,  dwelling  in  large  and  well-built  cities 
under  a settled  form  of  government,  and 
practicing  agriculture  and  the  mechan- 
ical arts.  Ever  since  the  discovery  of 
America  at  the  close  of  the  15th 
century  Europeans  of  all  nations  have 
crowded  into  it;  and  the  comparatively 
feeble  native  races  have  rapidly  dimin- 
ished, or  lost  their  distinctive  features 
by  intermixtures  with  whites,  and  also 
with  negroes  brought  from  Africa  to 
work  as  slaves.  These  mixed  races  are 
distinguished  by  a variety  of  names,  as 
Mestizos,  Mulattoes,  Zambos,  etc.  In 
North  America  the  white  population  is 
mainly  of  British  origin,  though  to  a 
considerable  extent  it  also  consists  of 
Germans,  Scandinavians,  etc.,  and  the 
descendants  of  such.  In  Central  and 
South  America  the  prevailing  white 
nationality  is  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 

fuese.  In  the  extreme  North  are  the 
Eskimos — a scattered  and  stunted  race 
closely  allied  to  some  of  the  peoples  of 
northern  Asia.  That  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  America  passed  over 
from  Asia  is  tolerably  certain,  but  when 
and  from  what  part  we  do  not  know. 

« 


AMERICAN  INDIANS 


AMERICANISM 


The  total  population  of  the  New  World 
was  estimated  in  1900  at  135,000,000, 
of  which  perhaps  85,000,000  were  whites, 
26,000,000  mixed  races,  13,000,000 
negroes,  and  11,000,000  Indians.  As 
regards  religion  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion of  N.  America  is  Protestant;  of 
Central  and  S.  America  the  religion  is 
almost  exclusively  Roman  Catholic. 
Several  milliOiis  of  the  Indians  are 
heathens. — The  independent  states  of 
America  are  all  republican  in  form  of 
government,  Brazil  having  become  a 
republic  in  1889.  See  North  America, 
Central  America,  South  America,  West 
Indies,  etc. 

The  merit  of  first  unlocking  the 
American  continent  to  modern  Europe 
belongs  to  the  Genoese  navigator  Chris- 
topher Columbus,  who  discovered,  in 
October,  1492,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  and 
named  it  San  Salvador.  Europeans, 
however,  had  on  different  former  occa- 
sions discovered  the  American  coasts, 
and  the  coasts  of  Massachusetts  and 
Rhode  Island  were  visited  by  Northmen 
and  named  Vinland  in  the  year  1000. 
Still  these  discoveries  had  no  influence 
on  the  enterprise  of  Columbus,  and  can- 
not detract  in  the  least  from  his  merit; 
they  were  forgotten,  and  had  never  been 
made  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
rest  of  Europe.  Though  Columbus  was 
the  first  of  his  time  who  set  foot  on  the 
New  World,  it  has  taken  its  name  not 
from  him,  but  from  Amerigo  Vespucci. 
The  mainland  was  first  seen  in  1497  by 
Sebastian  Cabot,  who  sailed  under  the 
patronage  of  Henry  VII.  of  England. 
For  further  particulars  of  discovery  see 
North  Amei’ica  and  South  America. 

The  known  history  of  America  hardly 
goes  beyond  the  period  of  its  discovery 
by  Columbus;  but  it  possesses  many 
monuments  of  antiquity  that  might  take 
us  many  centuries  backward,  could  we 
learn  anything  of  their  origin  or  of  those 
by  whom  they  were  produced.  Among 
such  antiquities  are  great  earthworks  in 
the  form  of  mounds,  or  of  raised  inclo- 
sures, crowning  the  tops  of  hills,  river 
peninsulas,  etc.,  and  no  doubt  serving 
for  defense.  They  inclose  considerable 
areas,  are  surrounded  by  an  exterior 
ditch,  and  by  ramparts  which  are  com- 
posed of  mingled  earth  and  stones,  and 
are  often  of  great  extent  in  proportion  to 
the  area  inclosed.  They  are  always  sup- 
plied either  naturally  or  artificially  with 
water,  and  give  other  indications  of  hav- 
ing been  provided  for  a siege.  Barrows 
and  tumuli  containing  human  bones, 
and  which  bear  indications  of  having 
been  used  both  as  places  of  sepulture  and 
as  temples,  are  also  numerous.  They 
are  in  geometrical  forms;  circles,  squares, 
parallelograms,  etc.  A mound  on  the 
plain  of  Cahokia  in  Illinois,  opposite 
the  city  of  St.  Louis,  is  700  feet  long, 
500  feet  broad,  and  90  feet  high. 
Another  class  of  earth  mounds  represent 
gigantic  animal  forms  in  bas-relief  on  the 
ground.  One  is  a man  with  two  heads, 
the  body  50  feet  long  and  25  feet  broad 
across  the  breast;  another  represents  a 
serpent  1000  feet  in  length,  with  grace- 
ful curves.  The  monuments  of  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  Peru  are  of  a more 
advanced  state  of  civilization,  approach 
nearer  to  the  historical  period,  ana  make 
the  lo.ss  of  authentic  information  more 


severely  felt.  Here  there  are  numerous 
ruined  towns  with  most  elaborate  sculp- 
tures, lofty  pyramidal  structures  serving 
as  temples  or  forts,  statues,  picture 
writing,  hieroglyphics,  roads,  aque- 
ducts, bridges,  etc.  Some  remarkable 
prehistoric  remains  discovered  in  recent 
years  are  what  are  known  as  the  abodes 
of  the  "cliff-dwellers.”  These  consist 
of  habitations  constructed  on  terraces 
and  in  caves  high  up  the  steep  sides  of 
canons  in  Colorado  and  other  parts  of 
the  western  states  of  N.  America.  Some 
of  these  buildings  are  several  stories 
high.  See  also  Mexico,  Peru,  etc. 
AMERICAN  INDIANS.  See  Indians. 
AMERICANISM,  a term,  phra.se,  or 
idiom  peculiar  to  the  English  language 
as  spoken  in  America,  and  not  forming 
part  of  the  language  as  spoken  in  Eng- 
land. The  following  is  a list  of  a few 
of  the  more  noteworthy  Americanisms: 
Approbate,  to  approve. 

Around  or  round,  about  or  near.  To 
hang  around  is  to  loiter  about  a place. 
Backwoods,  the  partially  cleared  forest 
regions  in  the  western  states. 

Bee,  an  assemblage  of  persons  to  unite 
their  labors  for  the  benefit  of  an  in- 
dividual or  family,  or  to  carry  out  a 
joint  scheme. 

Bogus,  false,  counterfeit. 

Boss,  an  employer  or  superintendent  of 
laborers,  a leader. 

Bug,  a coleopterous  insect,  or  what  in 
England  is  called  a beetle. 

Buggy,  a four-wheeled  vehicle. 

Bulldoze,  to ; to  intimidate  voters. 
Bunkum  or  buncombe,  a speech  made 
solely  to  please  a constituency;  talk 
for  talking’s  sake,  and  in  an  inflated 
style. 

Bureau,  a chest  of  drawers;  a dressing- 
table  surmounted  by  a mirror. 
Calculate,  to  suppose,  to  believe,  to  think. 
Camp-meeting,  a meeting  held  in  the 
fields  or  woods  for  religious  purposes, 
and  where  the  assemblage  encamp 
and  remain  several  days. 

Cane-brake,  a thicket  of  canes. 

Car,  a carriage  or  wagon  of  a railway 
train.  The  Englishman  “travels  by 
rail”  or  “takes  the  train”;  but  the 
American  takes  or  goes  by  the  cars. 
Carpet-bagger,  a needy  political  adven- 
turer who  carries  all  his  earthly  goods 
in  a carpet-bag. 

Caucus,  a private  meeting  of  the  leading 
politicians  of  a party  to  agree  upon  the 
plans  to  be  pursued  in  an  approaching 
election. 

Chalk:  a long  chalk  means  a great  dis- 
tance, a good  deal. 

Chunk,  a short  thick  piece  of  wood  or  any 
other  material. 

Clever,  good-natured,  obliging. 

Cocktail,  a stimulating  drink  made  of 
brandy  or  gin  mixed  with  sugar,  and 
a very  little  water. 

Corn,  maize;  in  England,  wheat,  or 
grain  in  general. 

Corn-husking,  or  corn-shucking,  an 
occasion  on  which  a farmer  invites 
his  neighbors  to  assist  him  in  stripping 
the  husks  from  his  Indian  corn. 
Cowhide,  a whip  made  of  twisted  strips 
of  rawhide. 

Creek,  a small  river  or  brook;  not,  as  in 
England,  a small  arm  of  the  sea. 
Cunning,  small  and  pretty,  nice,  as  it 
was  such  a cunning  baby. 


Dander:  to  get  one’s  dander  raised,  to 
have  one’s  dander  up,  is  to  have  been 
worked  into  a passion. 

Dead-heads,  people  who  have  free  ad- 
mission to  entertainments,  or  who 
have  the  use  of  public  conveyances, 
or  the  like,  free  of  charge. 

Depot,  a railway  station. 

Down  east,  in  or  into  the  New  England 
States.  A down-easter  is  a New  Eng- 
lander. 

Drummer,  a bagman  or  commercial 
traveler. 

Dry  goods,  a general  term  for  such 
articles  as  are  sold  by  linen-drapers, 
haberdashers,  hosiers,  etc. 

Dutch,  the  German  language. — Dutch- 
man, a German. 

Fix,  to;  to  put  in  order,  to  prepare,  to 
adjust.  To  fix  the  hair,  the  table,  the 
fire,  is  to  dress  the  hair,  lay  the  table, 
make  up  the  fire. 

Fixings,  arrangements,  dress,  embellish- 
ments, luggage,  furniture,  garnishings 
of  any  kind. 

Gerrymander,  to  arrange  political  divi- 
sions so  that  in  an  election  one  party 
may  obtain  an  advantage  over  its 
opponent,  even  though  the  latter  may 
possess  a majority  of  votes  in  the  state; 
from  the  deviser  of  such  a scheme, 
named  Gerry,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Given  name,  a Christian  name. 

Grit,  courage,  spirit,  mettle. 

Guess,  to ; to  believe,  to  suppose,  to  think, 
to  fancy;  also  used  emphatically,  as 
“Joe,  will  you  liquor  up?”  “I  guess 
I will.” 

Gulch,  a deep  abrupt  ravine,  caused  by 
the  action  of  water. 

Happen  in,  to;  to  happen  to  come  in  or 
call. 

Help,  a servant. 

High-falutin,  inflated  speech,  bombast. 

Hoe-cake,  a cake  of  Indian  meal  baked 
on  a hoe  or  before  the  fire. 

Indian  summer,  the  short  season  of 
pleasant  weather  usually  occurring 
about  the  middle  of  November. 

Johnny  Cake,  a cake  made  of  Indian 
corn  meal  mixed  with  milk  or  water 
and  sometimes  a little  stewed  pump- 
kin; the  term  is  also  applied  to  a New 
Englander. 

Julep,  a drink  composed  of  brandy  or 
whisky  with  sugar,  pounded  ice,  and 
some  sprigs  of  mint. 

Loafer,  a lounger,  a vagabond. 

Log-rolling,  the  assembly  of  several 
parties  of  wood-cutters  to  help  one  of 
them  in  rolling  their  logs  to  the  river 
after  they  are  felled  and  trimmed; 
also  employed  in  politics  to  signify 
a like  system  of  mutual  cooperation. 

Lot,  a piece  or  division  of  land,  an  allot- 
ment. 

Lumber,  timber  sawed  and  split  for  use; 
as  beams,  joists,  planks,  staves,  hoops, 
etc. 

Lynch  law,  an  irregular  species  of  justice 
executed  by  the  populace  or  a mob, 
without  legal  authority  or  trail. 

Mail  letters,  to;  to  post  letters. 

Make  tracks,  to;  to  run  away. 

Mitten ; to  get  the  mitten  is  to  meet  with 
a refusal. 

Mizzle,  to;  to  abscond,  or  run  away. 

Mush,  a kind  of  hasty-pudding. 

Muss,  a state  of  confusion, 


AMERIGO  VESPUCCI 


AMMON 


Notions,  a term  applied  to  every  variety 
of  small  wares. 

One-horse : a one-horse  thing  is  a thing 
of  no  value  or  importance,  a mean  and 
trifling  thing. 

Picaninny,  a negro  child. 

Pile,  a quantity  of  money. 


Amerigo  Vespucci. 


Planks,  in  a political  sense,  are  the 
several  principles  which  appertain 
to  a party;  platform  is  the  collection 
of  such  principles. 

Reckon,  to ; to  suppose,  to  think. 

Rile,  to;  to  irritate,  to  drive  into  a 
passion. 

Rock,  a stone  of  any  size;  a pebble;  as 
to  throw  rocks  at  a dog. 

Rooster,  the  common  domestic  cock. 

Scalawag,  a scamp,  a scapegrace. 

Shanty,  a mean  structure  such  as  squat- 
ters erect ; a temporary  hut. 

Skedaddle,  to;  to  run  away;  a word 
introduced  during  the  civil  war. 

Skidoo,  to  get  out. 

Smart,  often  used  in  the  sense  of  con- 
siderable, a good  deal,  as  a smart 
chance. 

Soft  sawder,  flattering,  coaxing  talk. 

Span  of  horses,  two  horses  as  nearly  as 
possible  alike,  harnessed  side  by  side. 

Spread-eagle  style,  a compound  of  exag- 
geration, bombast,  mixed  metaphor, 
etc. 

Spry,  active. 

Stampede,  the  sudden  flight  of  a crowd 
or  numoer. 

Store,  a shop,  as  a bookstore,  a grocery 
store. 

Strike  oil,  to ; to  come  upon  petroleum : 
hence  to  make  a lucky  hit,  especially 
financially. 

Stump  speech,  a bombastic  speech  cal- 
culated to  please  the  popular  ear,  such 
speeches  in  newly-settled  districts 
being  often  delivered  from  stumps 
of  trees. 

Sun-up,  sunset,  sunrise. 

Tall,  great,  fine  (used  by  Shakespeare 
pretty  much  in  the  same  sense) ; tall 
talk  is  extravagant  talk. 

Ticket ; to  vote  the  straight  ticket  is  to 
vote  for  all  the  men  or  measures  your 
party  wishes. 

Truck,  the  small  produce  of  gardens; 
truck  patch,  a plot  in  which  the 
smaller  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
raised. 

Ugly,  ill-tempei-ed,  vicious. 

Vamose,  to;  to  run  off  (from  the  Span- 
ish vamos,  let  us  go). 


Wilt,  to;  to  fade,  to  decay,  to  droop,  to 

wither. 

AMERIGO  VESPUCCI  (a-mer-e'go 
ves-pu'tche),  a maritime  discoverer,  after 
whom  America  has  been  named;  born, 
1451,  at  Florence,  died,  1512,  at  Seville. 
In  1499  he  coasted  along  the  continent 
of  America  for  several  hundred  leagues, 
and  the  publication  of  his  narrative, 
while  the  prior  discovery  of  Columbus 
was  yet  comparatively  a secret,  led  to 
the  giving  of  his  name  to  the  new  con- 
tinent. 

AMES,  Fisher,  an  American  orator  and 
congressman,  born  at  Dedham,  Mass., 
April  9,  1758.  His  efforts  in  favor  of 
the  Federal  constitution  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts convention  of  1788  resulted  in 
his  election  to  congress,  where  he  served 
for  eight  years.  In  his  later  years  he 
served  in  the  Massachusetts  council, 
delivered  a eulogy  on  Washington  before 
the  legislature,  and  produced  a number 
of  essays.  In  1804  he  declined  the 
presidency  of  Harvard.  He  died  July 
4,  1808. 

AMES,  Nathan  P.,  an  American 
manufacturer,  bom  in  Massachusetts  in 
1803,  died  1847.  He  was  the  owner  of 
extensive  cutlery  and  bronze  works. 


and  cast  a number  of  well-known  public 
monuments. 

AMES,  Oaks,  an  American  shovel 
manufacturer,  railroad  capitalist,  and 
western  pioneer.  He  was  one  of  the 
builders  of  the  Southern  Pacific  rail- 
road, was  a member  of  congress  from 
Massachusetts,  and  filled  other  public 
offices.  Mr.  Ames  was  born  in  1804, 
and  died  in  1873. 

AMES,  Oliver,  American  statesman, 
son  of  Oaks  Ames.  He  was  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1831,  died  in  1895. 
He  succeeded  to  his  father’s  immense 
weath.  In  1886  he  was  elected  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  and  was  twice  re- 
elected. 

AMETAB'OLA,  a division  of  insects, 
including  only  the  apterous  or  wingless 
insects,  as  lice,  spring-tails,  etc.,  which 
do  not  undergo  any  metamorphosis,  but 
which  escape  from  the  egg  nearly  under 
the  same  form  which  they  preserve 
through  life. 


AM'ETHYST,  a violet-blue  or  purple 
variety  of  quartz,  generally  occurring 
crystallized  in  hexahedral  prisms  or 
pyramids,  also  in  rolled  fragments,  com- 
posed of  imperfect  prismatic  cystals. 
It  is  wrought  into  various  articles  of 
jewelry.  The  oriental  amethyst  is  a 
rare  violet-colored  gem,  a variety  of 
alumina  or  corundum,  of  much  brilliance 
and  beauty. 

AMHERST  (am'erst),  a seaport  of 
Lower  Burmah,  31  miles  south  of 
Moulmein,  a health  resort  of  Europeans. 
Pop.  5000. — The  district  of  Amherst 
has  an  area  of  15,189  sq.  miles;  pop. 
301,086. 

AMHERST,  Jeffery,  Lord,  born  1717, 
died  1797;  distinguished  British  gen- 
eral who  fought  at  Dettingen  and 
Fontenoy,  and  commanded  in  America, 
where  he  took  Louisburg,  Ticonderoga, 
and  Quebec,  and  restored  the  British 
prestige  in  Canada.  He  was  raised  to  the 
peerage,  became  commander-in-chief, 
and  ultimately  field-marshal. 

AMHERST,  William  Pitt,  first  earl, 
nephew  of  the  above;  Governor-general 
of  India,  1823;  prosecuted  the  first 
Burmese  war,  and  suppressed  the  Bar- 
rackpore  mutiny.  Born  1773,  died  1857. 

AMICE  (am'is),  an  oblong  piece  of 
linen  with  an  embroidered  apparel 
sewed  upon  it,  worn  under  the  alb  by 
priests  of  the  R.  Cath.  Church  when 
engaged  in  the  service  of  the  mass. 

AMIENS  (a-me-an),  a town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Somme, 
on  the  railway  from  Boulogne  to  Paris. 
Having  water  communication  with  the 
sea  by  the  Somme,  which  is  navigable 
for  small  vessels,  it  has  a large  trade  and 
numerous  important  manufactures,  es- 
pecially cottons  and  woolens.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Germans  in  1870.  Pop. 
90,038. — The  Peace  of  Amiens,  con- 
cluded between  Great  Britain,  France, 
Spain,  and  the  Batavian  Republic, 
March  27,  1802,  put  an  end  for  a time 
to  the  great  war  which  had  lasted  since  , 
1793. 

AMMERGAU  (&m'er-gou),  a district 
in  Upper  Bavaria,  having  its  center  in  . 
the  villages  of  Ober  and  Unter  Ammer- 
gau.  The  former  village  is  famous  on 
account  of  the  Passion  Play  which  is 
performed  there,  at  intervals  usually 
of  ten  years. 


Ammon. 


AM'MON,  an  ancient  Egyptian  diety, 
one  of  the  cliief  gods  of  the  country, 
identified  by  the  Greeks  with  their 
supreme  god  Zeus,  while  the  Romans 
regarded  him  as  the  representative  of 


AMMONIA 


AMPHIPODA 


Jupiter;  represented  r.s  a ram,  as  a 
human  being  with  a ram’s  head,  or 
simply  with  the  horns  of  a ram.  There 
was  a celebrated  temple  of  Ammon  in 
the  Oasis  of  Siwah  in  the  Libyan  desert. 

AMMO'NIA,  an  alkaline  substance, 
which  differs  from  the  other  alkalies  by 
being  gaseous,  and  is  hence  sometimes 
called  the  volatile  alkali.  It  is  a color- 
less pungent  gas,  composed  of  nitrogen 
and  hydrogen.  It  was  first  procured  in 
that  state  by  Priestley,  who  termed  it 
alkaline  air.  He  obtained  it  from  sal- 
ammoniac  by  the  action  of  lime,  by 
which  method  it  is  yet  generally  pre- 
ared.  It  is  used  for  many  purposes, 
oth  in  medicine  and  scientific  chem- 
istry; not,  however,  in  the  gaseous  state, 
but  frequently  in  solution  in  water, 
under  the  names  of  liquid  ammonia, 
aqueous  ammonia,  or  spirits  of  harts- 
horn. It  may  be  procured  naturally 
from  putrescent  animal  substances; 
artificially  it  is  chiefly  got  from  the  dis- 
tillation of  coal  and  of  refuse  animal 
substances,  such  as  bones,  clippings  and 
shavings  of  horn,  hoof,  etc.  It  may  also 
be  obtained  from  vegetable  matter 
when  nitrogen  is  one  of  its  elements. 
Sal-ammoniac  is  the  chloride  of  am- 
monium. 

AMMONI'ACUM,  a gum-resinous  ex- 
udation from  an  umbelliferous  plant. 
It  has  a fetid  smell,  is  inflammable, 
soluble  in  water  and  spirit  of  wine; 
used  as  an  antispasmodic,  stimulant, 
and  expectorant  in  chronic  catarrh, 
bronchitic  affections,  and  asthma;  also 
used  for  plasters. 

AM'MONITE,  a fossil  Cephalopod, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Ammonites, 
allied  to  the  Nautilus,  having  a many- 
chambered  shell,  in  shape  like  the 


Ammonites. 

curved  horns  on  the  ancient  statues  of 
Jupiter  Ammon;  characteristic  of  the 
Trias,  Lias,  and  Oolite  formations,  and 
sometimes  found  in  immense  numbers 
and  of  great  size. 

AM'MONITES,  a Semitic  race  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  Scripture,  de- 
scended from  Ben-Ammi,  the  son  of  Lot 
(Gen.  xix.  38),  often  spoken  of  in  con- 
junction with  the  Moabites.  A preda- 
tory and  Bedouin  race,  they  inhabited 
the  desert  country  east  of  Gad,  their 
chief  city  being  Rabbath-Ammon  (Phil- 
adelphia). Wars  between  the  Israelites 
and  the  Ammonites  were  frequent ; 
they  were  overcome  by  Jephthah,  Saul, 
David,  Uzziah,  Jotham,  etc.  They 
appear  to  have  existed  as  a distinct 
people  in  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr,  but 
nave  subsequently  become  merged  in 
the  aggregate  of  nameless  Arab  tribes. 

AMMO'NIUM,  the  name  given  to  the 
hypothetical  base  of  ammonia,  analo- 
gous to  a metal  as  potassium.  It  has 
not  been  isolated,  but  it  is  believed  to 
exist  in  an  amalgam  with  mercury. 

P.  E.— 4 


AMMUNITION,  military  stores  gen- 
erally; in  modern  u.sage  confined  to  the 
articles  used  in  the  discharge  of  firearms 
and  ordnance  of  all  kinds,  as  powder, 
balls,  shells,  various  kinds  of  shot,  etc. 

AM'NESTY,  the  releasing  of  a number 
of  persons  who  have  been  guilty  of 
political  offenses  from  the  consequence 
of  these  offenses. 

AMCE'BA,  a microscopic  genus  of 
rhizopodous  Protozoa,  common  in  fresh- 
water ponds  and  ditches.  It  exists  as  a 
mass  of  protoplasm,  and  pushes  its  body 


Amceba,  or  fresh-water  proteus,  showing 
some  of  the  shapes  which  It  assumes. 

out  into  finger-like  processes  or  pseudo- 
podia, and  by  means  of  these  moves 
about  or  grasps  particles  of  food.  There 
is  no  distinct  mouth,  and  food  is  en- 
gulfed within  any  portion  of  the  soft  sar- 
code  body.  Reproduction  takes  place 
by  fission,  or  by  a single  pseudopodium 
detaching  itself  from  the  parent  body 
and  devmoping  into  a separate  amoeba. 

AMONTILLA'DO,  a dry  kind  of  sherry 
wine  of  a light  color,  highly  esteemed. 

AMOO-DARIA,  a Russian  territory 
of  central  Asia,  on  the  east  of  the  Amoo 
and  southeast  of  the  Sea  of  Aral;  area, 
40,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  220,000. 

AMOOR'jorAMUR',  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  of  eastern  Asia,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  rivers  Shilka  and  Argun; 
flows  first  in  a southeastern  and  then  in 
a northeastern  directly  till  it  falls  into 
an  arm  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  opposite 
the  island  of  Saghalien,  after  a course  of 
1500  miles.  It  forms,  for  a large  portion 
of  its  course,  part  of  the  boundary-line 
between  the  Russian  and  the  Chinese 
dominions,  and  is  navigable  throughout 
for  four  months  in  the  year. — Amoor 
Territory.  In  1858  Russia  acquired 
from  China  the  territory  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Upper  and  Middle  Amoor, 
together  with  that  on  both  banks  of  the 
Lower  Amoor.  The  western  portion  of 
the  territory  was  organized  as  a separate 
province,  with  the  name  of  the  Amoor 
(area,  173,559  sq.  miles;  pop.  87,700). 
The  eastern  portion  was  joined  to  the 
Maritime  Province  of  eastern  Siberia. 

AM'ORITES,  a powerful  Canaanitish 
tribe  at  the  time  of  the  occupation  of  the 
country  by  the  Israelites;  occupied  the 
whole  of  Gilead  and  Bashan,  and  formed 
two  powerful  kingdoms — a northern, 
under  Og,  who  is  called  king  of  Bashan ; 
and  a southern,  under  Sihon,  called  king 
of  the  Amorites;  first  attacked  and  over- 
thrown by  Joshua;  subsequently  sub- 
dued, and  made  tributary  or  driven  to 
mingle  with  the  Philistines  and  other 
remnants  of  the  Canaanitish  nations. 

AMORPHOUS  ROCKS  or  MINERALS, 
those  having  no  regular  structure,  or 


without  crystallization,  even  in  the 
minutest  particles. 

AMORPHOZO'A,  a term  applied  to 
some  of  the  lower  groups  of  animals,  as 
the  sponges  and  their  allies,  which  have 
no  regular  symmetrical  structure. 

AMOY',  an  important  Chinese  tra- 
ding port,  on  asmall  island  off  the  south- 
east coast  opposite  Formosa;  has  a safe 
and  commodious  harbor,  and  its  mer- 
chants are  among  the  wealthiest  and 
most  enterprising  in  China;  one  of  the 
five  ports  opened  to  British  commerce 
in  1843,  now  open  to  all  countries.  Pop. 
95,600. 

AMPERE  (an-par),  Andr4-Marie,  a 
celebrated  French  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  founder  of  the  science  of 
electrodynamics,  born  at  Lyons  in  1775, 
died  at  Marseilles  in  1836.  Wiat  is 
known  as  Ampere’s  Theory  is  that  mag- 
netism consists  in  the  existence  of  elec- 
tric currents  circulating  round  the  par- 
ticles of  magnetic  bodies,  being  in  differ- 
ent directions  round  different  particles 
when  the  bodies  are  unmagnetized,  but 
all  in  the  same  direction  when  they  are 
magnetized. 

AMPHIB'IA,  a class  of  vertebrate  ani- 
rnals,  which  in  their  early  life  breathe  by 
gills  or  branchiae,  and  afterward  partly 
or  entirely  by  lungs.  The  Frog,  breath- 
ing in  its  tadpole  state  by  gills  and  after- 
ward throwing  off  these  organs  and 
breathing  entirely  by  lungs  in  its  adult 
state,  is  an  example  of  the  latter  phase 
of  amphibian  existence.  The  Proteus  of 
the  underground  caves  of  central 
Europe  exemplifies  forms  in  which 
the  gills  of  early  life  are  retained 
throughout  life,  and  in  which  lungs 
are  developed  in  addition  to  the  gills. 
A second  character  of  this  group  con- 
sists in  the  presence  of  two  occipital 
“condyles,”  or  processes  by  means  of 


Amphipoda. — 1,  Shore-jumper:  2,  Portion 
showing  the  respiratory  organs  a a a. 

which  the  skull  articulates  with  the 
spine  or  vertebral  column;  Reptiles 
possessing  one  condyle  only.  The  class 
is  divided  into  four  orders;  the  Ophio- 
morpha  (or  serpentiform),  represented 
by  the  Blind-worms,  in  which  limbs  are 
wanting  and  the  body  is  snake-hke;  the 
Urodela  or  “Tailed”  Amphibians,  in- 
cluding the  Newts,  Proteus,  Siren,  etc."; 
the  Anoura,  or  Tailless  Amphibia,  repre- 
sented by  the  Frogs  and  Toads;  and  the 
Labyrinthodontia,  which  includes  the 
extinct  forms  known  as  Labyrintho- 
dons. 

AMPHI'ON,  in  Greek  mythology,  son 
of  Zeus  and  Antiope,  and  husband  of 
Niobe;  had  miraculous  skill  in  music, 
being  taught  by  Mercury,  oi’,  according 
to  others,  by  Apollo.  In  poetic  legend 
he  is  said  to  have  availed  himself  of  his 
skill  when  building  the  walls  of  Thebes — 
the  stones  moving  and  arranging  them- 
selves in  proper  position  at  the  sound 
of  his  lyre. 

AMPHIP'ODA,  an  order  of  sessile- 
eyed crustaceans,  with  feet  directed 


AMPHIPROSTYLE 


AMYL 


partly  forward  and  partly  backward. 
Many  species  are  found  in  springs  and 
rivulets,  others  in  salt  water.  The  sand- 
hopper  and  shore-jumper  are  examples. 

AMPHIP'ROSTYLE,  in  architecture, 
said  of  a structure  having  the  form  of  an 
ancient  (Jreek  or  Roman  oblong  rec- 
tangular temple,  with  a prostyle  or 
portico  on  each  of  its  ends  or  fronts,  but 
with  no  columns  on  its  sides  or  flanks. 

AMPHISB.$'NA,  a genus  of  serpenti- 
form,  limbless,  lacertilian  reptiles;  body 
cylindrical,  destitute  of  scales,  and 
divided  into  numerous  annular  seg- 
ments; the  tail  obtuse,  and  scarcely  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  head,  whence 
the  belief  that  it  moved  equally  well 
with  either  end  foremost.  There  are 
several  species,  found  in  tropical  Amer- 
ica. They  feed  on  ants  and  earthworms, 
and  were  formerly,  but  erroneously, 
deemed  poisonous. 

AMPHITHE'ATER,  an  ancient  Ro- 
man edifice  of  an  oval  form  without  a 
roof,  having  a central  area  (the  arena) 
encompassed  with  rows  of  seats,  rising 
higher  as  they  receded  from  the  center, 
on  which  people  used  to  sit  to  view  the 
combats  of  gladiators  and  of  wild  beasts, 
and  other  sports.  The  Colosseum  at 
Rome  is  the  largest  of  all  the  ancient 
amphitheaters,  being  capable  of  con- 
taining from  50,000  to  80,000  persons. 
That  at  Verona  is  one  of  the  best  ex- 
amples remaining.  Its  dimensions  are 
502  feet  by  401,  and  98  feet  high.  The 
name  means  “both-ways  theater,”  or 
‘‘theater  all  round,”  the  theater  form- 
ing only  a semicircular  edifice. 

AMPHITRI'TE,  in  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  or  of 
Nereus  and  Doris,  and  wife  of  Poseidon 
(or  Neptune),  represented  as  drawn  in  a 
chariot  of  shells  by  Tritons,  with  a tri- 
dent in  her  hand. 

AMPHIU'MA,  a genus  of  amphibians 
which  frequent  the  lakes  and  stagnant 
waters  of  North  America.  The  adults 
retain  the  clefts  at  which  the  gills  of  the 
tadpole  projected. 

AM'PHORA,  a vesSel  used  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  for  holding  liquids ; 
commonly  tall  and  narrow,  with  two 
handles  and  a pointed  end  which  fitted 


into  a stand  or  was  stuck  in  the  ground 
to  enable  them  to  stand  upright;  used 
also  as  a cinerary  urn,  and  as  a liquid 
measure. 

AM'PLITUDE,  in  astronomy,  the  dis- 
tance of  any  celestial  body  (when  re- 
ferred by  a secondary  circle  to  the  hori- 
zon) from  the  east  or  west  points. 

AMPUL'LA,  in  antiquity,  a vessel 
bellying  out  like  a jug,  that  contained 


unguents  for  the  bath ; also  a vessel  for 
drinking  at  table.  The  ampulla  has 
also  been  employed  for  ceremonial  pur- 
poses, such  as  holding  the  oil  or  chrism 
used  in  various  church  rites  and  for 


Another  canal,  the  North  Holland  Canal 
(46  m.  long,  20  ft.  deep),  connects 
Amsterdam  with  the  Helder.  Between 
the  harbor  and  the  Zuider-zee  the  Y is 
now  crossed  by  a great  dam  in  which  are 


Amsterdam— Scene  on  the  Amstel. 


anointing  monarehs  at  their  coronation. 
The  ampulla  of  the  English  sovereigns 
now  in  use  is  an  eagle,  weighing  about 
10  oz.,  of  the  purest  chased  gold,  which 
passed  through  various  hands  to  the 
Princ0 

AMPUTATION,  in  surgery,  that  oper- 
ation by  which  a member  is  separate 
from  the  body  according  to  the  rules  of 
the  science. 

AM'RITSIR,  or  AMRITSAR,  a flour- 
ishing commercial  town  of  Hindu- 
stan, capital  of  a district  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  Punjab,  the  principal  place 
of  the  religious  worship  of  the  Sikhs. 
It  has  considerable  manufactures  of 
shawls  and  silks ; and  receives  its  name 
from  the  sacred  pond  constructed  by 
Ram  Das,  the  apostle  of  the  Sikhs,  in 
which  the  Sikhs  and  other  Plindus  im- 
merse themselves  that  they  may  be 
purified  from  all  sin.  Pop.  162,429. — 
The  district  of  Amritsir  has  an  area  of 
1601  miles.  Pop.  992,697. 

AM'STERDAM,  one  of  the  chief  com- 
merical  cities  of  Europe,  capital  of  Hol- 
land (but  not  the  residence  of  the  king), 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Amstel 
with  the  Y or  Ij  (pronounced  as  eye),  an 
arm  of  the  Zuider-zee.  On  account  of 
the  lowness  of  the  site  of  the  city  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  built  on  piles.  It  is 
divided  by  numerous  canals  into  about 
90  islands,  which  are  connected  by 
nearly  300  bridges.  Many  of  the  streets 
have  a canal  in  the  middle  with  broad 
brick-paved  quays  on  either  side,  planted 
with  rows  of  trees;  the  houses  are  gen- 
ally  of  brick,  many  of  them  six  or  seven 
stories  high,  with  pointed  gables  turned 
to  the  streets.  Among  its  numerous 
industries  may  be  mentioned  as  a spe- 
cialty the  cutting  and  polishing  of  dia- 
monds. The  harbor,  formed  by  the  Y, 
lies  along  the  whole  of  the  north  side  of 
the  city,  and  is  surrounded  by  various 
docks  and  basins.  The  trade  is  very 
great,  being  much  facilitated  by  the 
great  ship-canal  (15  m.  long,  22-26  ft. 
deep,  constructed  1865-76)  which  con- 
nects the  Y directly  with  the  North  Sea. 


locks  to  admit  vessels  and  regulate  the 
amount  of  water  in  the  North  Sea  Canal. 
During  the  17th  and  18th  centuries 
Amsterdam  was  one  of  the  wealthiest 
and  most  flourishing  cities  in  the  world. 
Its  forced  alliance  with  France  ruined 
its  trade,  but  since  1813  its  commerce 
has  revived.  Pop.  520,602. 

AMSTERDAM,  a town  of  New  York 
state,  U.  S.,  on  the  Mohawk  river,  33 
miles ”n.w.  of  Albany;  a busy  manufac- 
turing town.  Pop.  23,000. 

AM'ULET,  a piece  of  stone,  metal,  etc., 
marked  with  certain  figures  or  charac- 
ters, which  people  in  some  countries 
wear  about  them,  superstitiously  deem- 
ing them  a protection  against  diseases 
and  enchantments. 

AMUR'.  See  Amoor. 


eNCLiSH  MILES 


AMYG'DALOID,  a term  applied  to  an 
igneous  rock,  especially  trap,  containing 
round  or  almond-shaped  vesicles  or 
cavities  partly  or  wholly  filled  with 
crystalline  nodules  of  various  minerals, 
particularly  calcareous  spar,  quartz, 
agate,  zeolite,  chlorite,  etc. 

AM'YL,  in  chemistry,-  a hypothetic 
radical  believed  to  exist  in  many  com- 
pounds, especially  the  fusel-oil  series. 


AMYLENE 


ANALYSIS 


and  having  the  formula  CjHn. — Amyl 
Nitrite,  or  Nitrite  of  Amyl,  an  amber- 
colored  fluid,  smelling  and  tasting  like 
essence  of  pears,  which  has  been  em- 
ployed as  an  anaesthetic  and  also  in 
relieving  cardiac  distress,  as  in  angina 
pectoris. 

AM'YLENE,  an  ethereal  liquid  with 
an  aromatic  odor,  prepared  from  fusel- 
oil.  It  possesses  anaesthetic  properties, 
and  has  been  tried  as  a substitute  for 
chloroform,  but  is  very  dangerous. 

AMYL'IC  ALCOHOL,  one  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  fermentation  of  grain,  etc., 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  fusel- 
oil  (which  see). 

AMYRIDA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of 
plants,  consisting  of  tropical  trees  or 
shrubs,  the  leaves,  bark,  and  fruit  of 
which  abound  in  fragrant  resinous  and 
balsamic  juices.  Myrrh,  frankincense, 
and  the  gum-elemi  of  commerce  are 
among  their  products. 

ANABAPTISTS,  a name  given  to  a 
Christian  sect  by  their  adversaries,  be- 
cause, as  they  obj'ected  to  infant  bap- 
tism, they  rebaptized  those  who  joined 
their  body.  The  founder  of  the  sect 
appears  to  have  been  Nicolas  Storch, 
a disciple  of  Luther’s,  who  seems  to 
have  aimed  also  at  the  reorganization 
of  society  based  on  civil  and  political 
equality.  The  application  of  the  term 
Anabaptist  to  the  general  body  of 
Baptists  throughout  the  world  is  unwar- 
ranted, because  these  sects  have  nothing 
in  common  with  the  bodies  which  sprung 
up  in  various  countries  of  Europe  during 
the  Reformation,  except  the  practice  of 
adult  baptism.  The  Baptists  them- 
selves repudiate  the  name  Anabaptist, 
as  they  claim  to  baptize  according  to 
the  original  institution  of  the  rite,  and 
never  repeat  baptism  in  the  case  of  those 
who  in  their  opinion  have  been  so 
baptized. 

ANAB'ASIS,  the  Greek  title  of  Xeno- 
phon’s celebrated  account  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  Cyrus  the  Younger  against  his 
brother  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia. 
The  title  is  also  given  to  Arrian’s  work 
which  records  the  campaigns  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 

AN'ABLEPS,  a genus  of  fishes  of  the 
perch  family,  found  in  the  rivers  of 
Guiana,  consisting  of  but  one  species, 
remarkable  for  a peculiar  structure  of 


Anableps. 


the  eyes,  in  which  there  is  a division  of 
the  iris  and  cornea,  by  transverse  liga- 
ments forming  two  pupils,  and  making 
the  whole  eye  appear  double.  The 
young  are  brought  forth  alive. 

ANACANTHI'NI,  an  order  of  osseous 
fishes,  including  the  cod,  plaice,  etc., 
with  spineless  fins,  cycloid  or  ctenoid 
scales,  the  ventral  fins  either  absent  or 
below  the  pectorals,  and  ductless  swim- 
bladder. 

ANACH'RONISM,  an  error  of  chronol- 
ogy by  which  things  are  represented 
as  coexisting  which  did  not  coexist; 
applied  also  to  anything  foreign  to  or 
out  of  keeping  with  a specified  time. 


Thus  it  is  an  anachronism  when  Shake- 
speare, in  Troilus  and  Cressida,  makes 
Hector  quote  Aristotle. 

ANACON'DA,  the  popular  name  of 
two  of  the  largest  species  of  the  serpent 
tribe,  viz.,  a Ceylonese  species  of  the 
genus  Python,  said  to  have  been  met 
with  33  feet  long;  and  a native  of 
tropical  America,  allied  to  the  boa-con- 
strictor, and  the  largest  of  the  serpent 
tribe,  attaining  the  length  of  40  feet. 
They  frequent  swamps  and  rivers,  are 
destitute  of  poison  fangs,  and  kill  their 
victims  by  constriction. 

ANACONDA,  a city  and  county  seat 
of  Deer  Lodge  Co.,  Mont.,  27  miles  west 
by  north  of  Butte,  on  the  Northern 
Pacific,  the  Great  Northern,  and  the 
Butte,  Anaconda  and  Pacific  railroads. 
The  city  is  noted  for  its  great  copper- 
smelting  works,  which  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world,  having  a daily 
capacity  of  some  5500  tons  of  ore. 
Railroad  shops,  foundries,  machine 
shops,  and  brick  works  further  repre- 
sent the  industrial  interests.  Pop. 
12,000. 

AN.®'MIA,  a medical  term  applied  to 
an  unhealthy  condition  of  the  body,  in 
which  there  is  a diminution  of  the  red 
corpuscles  which  the  blood  should  con- 
tain. The  principal  symptoms  are  pale- 
ness and  general  want  of  color  in  the 
skin,  languor,  emaciation,  want  of  appe- 
tite, fainting,  palpitation,  etc. 

ANjESTHET'ICS,  medical  agents  em- 
ployed for  the  removal  of  pain,  especially 
in  surgical  operations,  by  suspending 
sensibility  either  locally  or  generally. 
Various  agents  have  been  employed  for 
both  of  these  purposes  from  the  earliest 
times,  but  the  scientific  use  of  anaes- 
thetics may  be  said  to  date  from  1800, 
when  Sir  Humphry  Davy  made  e.xpcri- 
ments  on  the  anaesthetic  properties  of 
nitrous  oxide,  and  recommended  its  use 
in  surgery.  In  1818  Faraday  established 
the  anaesthetic  properties  of  sulphuric 
ether,  but  this  agent  made  no  advance 
beyond  the  region  of  experiment,  till 
1844,  when  Dr.  Wells,  a dentist  of 
Hartford,  Connecticut,  applied  the 
inhalation  of  sulphuric  ether  in  the 
extraction  of  teeth,  but  owing  to  some 
misadventure  did  not  persevere  with 
it.  The  example  was  followed  in  1846 
by  Dr.  Morton,  a Boston  dentist,  who 
also  extended  the  use  of  ether  to  other 
surgical  operations.  The  practice  was 
soon  after  introduced  into  England  by 
Mr.  Liston,  and  a London  dentist, 
Mr.  Robinson.  A few  weeks  later  Sir 
James  Simpson  made  the  first  applica- 
tion of  ether  in  a case  of  midwifery. 
This  was  early  in  1847.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  same  year  Simpson  had  his 
attention  called  to  the  anaesthetic 
efficacy  of  chloroform,  and  announced 
it  as  a superior  agent  to  ether.  This 
agent  has  since  been  the  most  exten- 
sively used  anaesthetic,  though  the  use 
of  ether  still  largely  prevails  in  the 
United  States.  In  their  general  effects 
ether  and  chloroform  are  very  similar; 
but  the  latter  tends  to  enfeeble  the 
action  of  the  heart  more  readily  than 
the  former.  For  this  reason  great 
caution  has  to  be  used  in  administering 
chloroform  where  there  is  weak  heart 
action  from  disease.  Local  anaesthesia 
is  produced  by  isolating  the  part  of  the 


body  to  be  operated  upon,  and  produc- 
ing insensibility  of  the  nerves  in  that 
locality.  Dr.  Richardson’s  method  is 
to  apply  the  spray  of  ether,  which,  by 
its  rapid  evaporation,  chills  and  freezes 
the  tissues  and  produces  complete 
anaesthesia.  This  mode  of  treatment, 
besides  its  use  in  minor  surgical  oper- 
ations, has  recently  begun  to  have 
important  remedial  applications.  A 
valuable  local  anaesthetic  now  emplojmd 
is  cocaine. 

AN'AGRAM,  the  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  a word  or  words  so  as  to  form 
a new  word  or  phrase,  a connection  in 
meaning  being  frequently  preserved; 
thus,  evil,  vile;  Horatio  Nelson,  Honor 
est  a Nilo  (honor  is  from  the  Nile). 

AN'ALOGUE,  in  comparative  anat- 
omy, an  organ  in  one  species  or  group 
having  the  same  function  as  an  organ 
of  different  structure  in  another  species 
or  group,  as  the  wing  of  a bird  and  that 
of  an  insect,  both  serving  for  flight. 
Organs  in  different  animals  having  a 
similar  anatomical  structure,  develop- 
ment, and  relative  position,  independent 
of  function  or  form,  such  as  the  arm 
of  a man  and  the  wing  of  a bird,  are 
termed  homologues. 

ANAL'OGY  is  the  mode  of  reason- 
ing from  resemblance  to  resemblance. 
When  we  find  on  attentive  examination 
resemblances  in  objects  apparently 
diverse,  and  in  which  at  first  no  such 
resemblances  Avere  discovered,  a pre- 
sumption arises  that  other  resemblances 
may  be  found  by  further  examination 
in  these  or  other  objects  likewise 
apparently  diverse.  It  is  on  the  belief 
in  a unity  in  nature  that  all  inferences 
from  analogy  rest.  The  general  infer- 
ence from  analogy  is  ahvays  perfectly 
valid.  Wherever  there  is  resemblance, 
similarity  or  identity  of  cause  somewhere 
may  be  justly  inferred;  but  to  infer 
the  particular  cause  without  particular 
proof  is  always  to  reason  falsely.  Anal- 
ogy is  of  great  use  and  constant  applica- 
tion in  science,  in  philosophy,  and  in  the 
common  business  of  life. 

ANAL'YSIS,  the  resolution  of  an 
object,  whether  of  the  senses  or  the  intel- 
lect, into  its  component  elements.  In 
philosophy  it  is  the  mode  of  resolving  a 
compound  idea  into  its  simple  parts,  in 
order  to  consider  them  more  distinctly, 
and  arrive  at  a more  precise  knowledge 
of  the  whole.  It  is  opposed  to  synthesis, 
by  which  we  combine  and  class  our  per- 
ceptions, and  contrive  expressions  for 
our  thoughts,  so  as  to  represent  their 
several  divisions,  classes,  and  relations. 

Analysis,  in  mathematics,  is,  in  the 
widest  sense,  the  expression  and  develop- 
ment of  the  functions  of  quantities  by 
calculation;  in  a narrower  sense  the 
resolving  of  problems  by  algebraic 
equations.  The  analysis  of  the  ancients 
wa§  exhibited  only  in  geometiy,  and 
made  use  only  of  geometrical  assistance, 
whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  the 
analysis  of  the  moderns,  which  extends 
to  all  measurable  objects,  and  expresses 
in  equations  the  mutual  dependence  of 
magnitudes.  Analysis  is  divided  into 
lower  and  higher,  the  lower  comprising, 
besides  arithmetic  and  algebra,  the  doc- 
trines of  functions,  of  series,  combina- 
tions, logarithms,  and  curves,  the  higher 
comprising  the  differential  and  in- 


ANAM 


ANAXIMENES 


tegral  calculus,  and  the  calculus  of 
variations. 

In  chemistry,  analysis  is  the  process  of 
decomposing  a compound  substance 
with  a view  to  determine  either  (a)  what 
elements  it  contains  (qualitative  analy- 
sis), or  (b)  how  much  of  each  element  is 
present  (quantitative  analysis).  Thus 
by  the  first  process  we  learn  that  water 
is  a compound  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
and  by  the  second  that  it  consists  of  one 
part  of  hydrogen  by  weight  to  eight  parts 
of  oxygen. 

ANAM',  a country  of  Asia  occupying 
the  e.  side  of  the  Southeastern  or  Indo- 
Chinese  Peninsula,  along  the  China  Sea, 
having  a length  of  about  850  miles,  with 
a breadth  varying  from  over  400  miles 
in  the  n.  to  100  in  the  middle.  It  is 
composed  of  three  parts:  Tonquin  in 
the  n.;  Cochin-China  in  the  s.;  and  the 
territory  of  the  Laos  tribes,  s.w.  of  Ton- 
quin (together,  area,  170,000  square 
miles,  pop.  15,000,000,  9,000,000  being 
in  Tonquin). 

AN' ANAS.  See  Pineapple. 

AN'ARCHISTS,  a revoluntionary  sect 
or  body  setting  forth  as  the  social  ideal 
the  extreme  form  of  individual  freedom, 
and  holding  that  all  government  is  in- 
jurious and  immoral,  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  every  social  form  now  existing 
must  be  the  first  step  to  the  creation  of 
a new  world.  Their  recognition  as  an 
independent  sect  may  be  dated  from  the 
secession  of  Bakunin  and  his  followers 
from  the  Social  Democrats  at  the  con- 
gress of  the  Hague  in  1872,  since  which 
tney  have  maintained  an  active  propa- 

fanda.  Their  principal  journals  have 
een  La  Revolte  (Paris),  the  Freiheit 
(New  York),  Liberty  (Boston),  and  the 
Anarchist  (London).  The  congress  at 
London  in  1881  decided  that  all  means 
were  justifiable  as  against  the  organized 
forces  of  modern  society. 

Much  disputation  arises  from  the  con- 
fusion of  anarchists  with  nihilists  and 
with  socialists.  On  the  other  hand, 
philosophical  anarchism  is  confounded 
with  revolutionary  anarchism.  Anar- 
chists of  the  latter  type  have  during  the 
past  25  years  assassinated,  or  attempted 
to  assassinate,  numerous  rulers  or  heads 
of  government,  but  in  eveiy  case  they 
have  paid  the  death  penalty  for  the  deed. 
The  most  notable  anarchistic  demonstra- 
tion was  that  of  the  Haymarket  Square 
riot  of  Chicago  on  May  4,  1886,  in  which 
7 policemen  were  killed  and  60  wounded. 
Philosophical  anarchism  does  not  coun- 
tenance the  use  of  violence,  but  holds 
that  human  society  will  eventually 
evolve  into  a state  in  which  there  will  be 
no  need  of  any  kind  of  government.  Its 
foremost  apostle  was  Herbert  Spencer. 

ANARTHROP'ODA,  one  of  the  two 
great  divisions  (the  Arthropoda  being 
the  other)  of  the  Annulosa,  or  ringed 
animals,  in  which  there  are  no  articulated 
appendages.  It  includes  the  leeches, 
earthworms,  tubeworms,  etc. 

A'NAS,  a genus  of  web-footed  birds, 
containing  the  true  ducks. 

ANATH'EMA,  originally  a gift  hung 
up  in  a temple  and  dedicated  to  some 
god,  a votive  offering;  but  it  gradually 
came  to  be  used  for  expulsion,  curse. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  pronounces 
the  sentence  of  anathema  against  heretics, 
schismatics,  and  all  who  wilfully  pursue 


a course  of  conduct  condemned  by  the 
church.  The  subject  of  the  anathema 
is  declared  an  outcast  from  the  church, 
all  the  failthful  are  forbidden  to  associate 
with  him,  and  utter  destruction  is 
denounced  against  him,  both  body  and 
soul. 

ANAT'ID.®,  a family  of  swimming 
birds,  including  the  ducks,  swans,  geese, 
etc. 

ANAT'OMY,  in  the  literal  sense, 
means  simply  a cutting  up,  but  is  now 
generally  applied  both  to  the  art  of  dis- 
secting or  artificially  separating  the 
different  parts  of  an  organized  body 
(vegetable  or  animal)  with  a view  to 
discover  their  situation,  structure,  and 
economy ; and  to  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  internal  structure  of  organized 
bodies.  The  branch  which  treats  of  the 
structure  of  plants  is  called  vegetable 
anatomy  or  phytotomy,  and  that  which 
treats  of  the  structure  of  animals  animal 
anatomy  or  zootomy,  a special  branch 
of  the  latter  being  human  anatomy  or 
anthropotomy.  Comparative  anatomy 
is  the  science  which  compares  the 
anatomy  of  different  classes  or  species 
of  animals,  as  that  of  man  with  quad- 
rupeds, or  that  of  quadrupeds  with 
fishes;  while  special  anatomy  treats  of 
the  construction,  form,  and  structure  of 
parts  in  a single  animal.  The  special 
anatomy  of  an  animal  may  be  studied 
from  various  standpoints:  with  relation 
to  the  succession  of  forms  which  it 
exhibits  from  its  first  stage  to  its  adult 
foim  (developmental  or  embryotical 
anl^tomy),  with  reference  to  the  general 
properties  and  structure  of  the  tissues  or 
textures  (general  anatomy,  histology), 
with  reference  to  the  changes  in  structure 
of  organs  or  parts  produced  by  disease 
and  congenital  malformations  (morbid 
or  pathological  anatomy),  or  with  refer- 
ence to  the  function,  use,  or  purpose 
performed  by  the  organs  or  parts  (teleo- 
logical or  physiological  anatomy).  Ac- 
cordii^  to  the  parts  of  the  body  described 
the  different  divisions  of  human  anatomy 
receive  different  names;  as,  osteology, 
the  description  of  the  bones;  myology, 
of  the  muscles;  desmology,  of  the  liga- 
ments and  sinews ; splanchnology,  of  the 
viscera  or  internal  organs,  in  which  are 
reckoned  the  lungs,  stomach,  and  intes- 
tines, the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  bladder, 
pancreas,  etc.  Angiology  describes  the 
vessels  through  which  the  liquids  in  the 
body  are  conducted,  including  the  blood- 
vessels, which  are  divided  into  arteries 
and  veins,  and  the  lymphatic  vessels, 
some  of  which  absorb  matters  from  the 
bowels,  while  others  are  distributed 
through  the  whole  body,  collecting 
juices  from  the  tissues  and  carrying 
them  back  into  the  blood.  Neurology 
describes  the  system  of  the  nerves  and 
of  the  brain;  dermatology  treats  of  the 
skin. 

Among  the  ancient  writers  or  author- 
ities on  human  anatomy  may  be  men- 
tioned Hippocrates  the  younger  (460- 
377  B.C.),  Aristotle  (384-322  b.c.), 
Herophilus  and  Erasistratus  of  Alex- 
andria (fl.  about  300  B.C.),  Celsus  (53 
B.C.-37  A.D.),  and  Galen  of  Pergamus 
(140-200),  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
the  ancient  authorities  on  the  science. 
From  his  time  till  the  revival  of  learn- 
ing in  Europe  in  the  14th  century 


anatomy  was  checked  in  its  progress. 
In  1315  Mondino,  professor  at  Bologna, 
first  publicly  performed  dissection,  and 
published  a System  of  Anatomy,  which 
was  a text-book  in  the  schools  of  Italy 
for  about  200  years.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury Fallopio  of  Padua,  Eustachi  of 
Venice,  Vesalius  of  Brussels,  Varoli  of 
Bologna,  and  many  others,  enriched 
anatomy  with  new  discoveries.  In  the 
17th  century  Harvey  discovered  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  Asellius  dis- 
covered the  manner  in  which  the  nutri- 
tious part  of  the  food  is  conveyed  into 
the  circulation,  while  the  lymphatic  sys- 
tem was  detected  and  described  by  the 
Dane  T.  Bartoline.  Among  the  renowned 
anatomists  of  later  times  we  can  only 
mention  Malpighi,  Boerhaave,  William 
and  John  Hunter,  the  younger  Meckel, 
Bichat,  Rosenmiiller,  Quain,  Sir  A. 
Cooper,  Sir  C.  Bell,  Cams,  Joh.  Muller, 
Hackel,  Gegenbaur,  Owen,  and  Huxley. 

ANAXAG'ORAS,  an  ancient  Greek 
philosopher  of  the  Ionic  school,  born  at 
Clazomenae,  in  Ionia,  probably  about 
500  B.c.  When  only  about  twenty 
years  of  age  he  settled  at  Athens,  and 
soon  gained  a high  reputation,  and 
gathered  round  him  a circle  of  renowned 
pupils,  including  Pericles,  Euripides, 
Socrates,  etc.  At  the  age  of  fifty  he  was 
publicly  charged  with  impiety  and  con- 
demned to  death,  but  the  sentence  was 
commuted  to  perpetual  banishment. 
He  thereupon  went  to  Lampsacus,  where 
he  died  about  428.  Anaxagoras  be- 
longed to  the  atomic  school  of  Ionic 
philosophers.  He  held  that  there  was 
an  infinite  number  of  different  kinds  of 
elementary  atoms,  and  that  these,  in 
themselves  motionless  and  originally 
existing  in  a state  of  chaos,  were  put  in 
motion  by  an  eternal,  immaterial,’ 
spiritual,  elementary  being.  Nous  (In- 
telligence), from  which  motion  the 
world  was  produced.  The  stars  were, 
according  to  him,  of  earthy  materials; 
the  sun  a glowing  mass,  about  as  large 
as  the  Peloponnesus ; the  earth  was  fiat ; 
the  moon  a dark,  inhabitable  body,  re- 
ceiving its  light  from  the  sun;  the  comets 
wandering  stars. 

ANAXIMAN'DER,  an  ancient  Greek 
(Ionic)  philosopher,  was  born  at  Miletus 
in  611  B.C.,  and  died  547.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  his  philosophy  is 
that  the  source  of  all  things  is  an  unde- 
fined substance  infinite  in  quantity. 
The  firmament  is  composed  of  heat  and 
cold,  the  stars  of  air  and  fire.  The  sun 
occupies  the  highest  place  in  the  heavens, 
has  a circumference  twenty-eight  times 
larger  than  the  earth,  and  resembles  a 
cylinder,  from  which  streams  of  fire 
issue.  The  moon  is  likewise  a cylinder, 
nineteen  times  larger  than  the  earth. 
The  earth  has  the  shape  of  a cylinder, 
and  is  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  uni- 
verse, where  it  remains  suspended. 
Anaximander  occupied  himself  a great 
deal  with  mathematics  and  geography. 
To  him  is  credited  the  invention  of 
geographical  maps  and  the  first  applica- 
tion of  the  gnomon  or  style  fixed  on  a 
horizontal  plane  to  determine  the  sol- 
stices and  equinoxes. 

ANAXIMENES  (an-aks-im'e-nez)  OP 
MILETUS,  an  ancient  Greek  philoso- 
pher, according  to  whom  air  was  the 
first  principle  of  all  things.  Finite  things 


AJ^CHOU 


AMd69 


were  formed  from  the  infinite  air  by 
compression  and  rarefaction  produced 
by  eternally  existent  motion;  and  heat 
and  cold  resulted  from  varying  degrees 
of  density  of  the  primal  element.  He 
flourished  about  550  b.c. 

AN'CHOR,  an  implement  for  holding 
a ship  or  other  vessel  at  rest  in  the  water. 
In  ancient  times  large  stones  or  crooked 
pieces  of  wood  heavily  weighted  with 
metal  were  used  for  this  purpose.  The 


anchor  now  used  is  of  iron,  formed  with 
a strong  shank,  at  one  extremity  of 
which  is  the  crown,  from  which  branch 
out  two  arms,  terminating  in  broad 
palms  or  flukes,  the  sharp  extremity  of 
which  is  the  peak  or  bill;  at  the  other 
end  of  the  shank  is  the  stock  (fixed  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  arms), 
behind  which  is  the  ring,  to  which  a 
cable  can  be  attached.  The  principal 
use  of  the  stock  is  to  cause  the  arms  to 
fall  so  as  one  of  the  flukes  shall  enter  the 
ground. 

AN'CHORITES,  in  the  early  church 
a class  of  religious  persons  who  generally 
passed  their  lives  in  cells,  from  which 
they  never  removed.  Their  habitations 
were,  in  many  instances,  entirely  sepa- 
rated from  the  abodes  of  other  men, 
sometimes  in  the  depth  of  wildernesses, 
in  pits  or  caverns ; at  other  times  several 
of  these  individuals  fixed  their  habita- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  each  other,  but 
they  always  lived  personally  separate. 
The  continual  prevalence  of  bloody 
wars,  civil  commotions,  and  persecu- 
tions at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era  must  have  made  retirement  and 
religious  meditation  agreeable  to  men 
of  quiet  and  contemplative  minds.  This 
spirit,  however,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  soon  led  to  fanatical  excesses ; 
many  anchorites  went  without  proper 
clothing,  wore  heavy  chains,  and  we 
find  at  the  close  of  the  4th  century 
Simeon  Stylites  passing  thirty  years  on 
the  top  of  a column  without  ever  de- 
scending from  it,  and  finally  dying  there. 
In  Egypt  and  Syria,  where  Christianity 
became  blended  with  the  Grecian  philos- 
ophy and  strongly  tinged  with  the 
peculiar  notions  of  the  East,  the  anchor- 
ites were  most  numerous;  in  Europe 
there  were  comparatively  few,  and  on 
the  development  and  establishment  of 
the  monastic  system  they  completely 
disappeared. 

ANCHOVY  (an-cho'vi),  a small  fish 
of  the  Herring  family.  The  common 
anchovy,  so  esteemed  for  its  rich  and 
peculiar  flavor,  is  not  much  larger  than 
the  middle  finger.  It  is  caught  in  vast 
numbers  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  fre- 
quently on  the  coasts  of  France,  Hol- 
land, and  the  south  of  England,  and 
pickled  for  exportation.  A favorite 
sauce  is  made  by  pounding  the  pickled 
fish  in  water,  simmering  for  a short 
time,  adding  a little  cayenne  pepper, 
and  straining  the  whole  through  a hair- 
sieve. 


ANCO'NA,  a seaport  of  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Adriatic,  130  miles  n.e.  of  Rome,  with 
harbor  works  begun  by  Trajan,  who 
built  the  ancient  mole  or  quay.  A 
triumphal  arch  of  white  marble,  erected 
in  honor  of  Traj'an,  stands  on  the  mole. 
The  harbor,  once  the  finest  on  the  coast, 
has  been  recently  improved;  Ancona  is 
now  a station  of  the  Italian  fleet,  and 
the  commerce  is  increasing.  The  town 
is  indifferently  built,  but  has  some  re- 
markable edifices;  among  others,  the 
cathedral.  There  is  a colossal  statue  of 
Count  Cavour.  Pop.  56,825. — The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  740  square  miles,  and 
a population  of  302,460. 

ANDALU'SIA,  a large  and  fertile  dis- 
trict in  the  south  of  Spain,  bounded  n. 
by  Estramadura  and  New  Castile,  e.  by 
Murcia,  s.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and  w.  by  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic; 
area,  about  33,650  sq.  miles,  including 
the  modern  provinces  of  Seville,  Huelva, 
Cadiz,  Jaen,  Cordova,  Granada,  Al- 
meria,  and  Malaga.  It  is  traversed 
throughout  its  whole  extent  by  ranges 
of  mountains,  the  loftiest  being  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  many  summits  of  which 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow  (Mula- 
hacen  is  11,678  feet).  Minerals  abound, 
and  several  mines  have  been  opened  by 
English  companies,  especially  in  the 
province  of  Huelva,  where  the  Tharsis 
and  Rio  Tinto  copper-mines  are  situ- 
ated. The  principal  river  is  the  Guadal- 
quivir. The  vine,  myrtle,  olive,  palm, 
banana,  carob,  etc.,  grow  abundantly 
in  the  valley  of  the  Guadalquivir. 
Wheat,  maize,  barley,  and  many  vari- 
eties of  fruit  grow  almost  spontane- 
ously; besides  which  honey,  silk,  and 
cochineal  form  important  articles  of 
culture.  The  horses  and  mules  are  the 
best  in  the  Peninsula;  the  bulls  are 
sought  for  bull-fighting  over  all  Spain; 
sheep  are  reared  in  vast  numbers. 
Agriculture  is  in  a backward  state,  and 
the  manufactures  are  by  no  means 
extensive.  The  Andalusians  are  de- 
scended in  part  from  the  Moors,  of 
whom  they  still  preserve  decided  char- 
acteristics. Pop.  3,282,448. 

AN'DAMANS,  a chain  of  islands  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the 
principal  being  the  North,  Middle, 
South,  and  Little  Andamans.  Middle 
Andaman  is  about  60  miles  long,  and 
15  or  16  miles  broad;  North  and 
South  Andaman  are  each  about  50  miles 
long.  The  inhabitants  are  about 
10,000  in  number,  and  are  mostly  in  a 
state  of  nature,  living  almost  naked  in 
the  rudest  habitations.  They  are  small, 
generally  much  less  than  5 feet,  well- 
formed,  and  active,  skilful  archers  and 
canoeists,  and  excellefit  swimmers  and 
divers.  These  islands  have  been  used 
since  1858  as  a penal  settlement  by  the 
Indian  government,  the  settlement 
being  at  Port  Blair,  on  South  Anadman. 

ANDANTE  (an-dan'ta),  in  music, 
denotes  a movement  somewhat  slow, 
graceful,  distinct,  and  soothing.  The 
word  is  also  applied  substantively  to 
that  part  of  a sonata  or  symphony 
having  a movement  of  this  character. 

AN'DERSEN,  Hans  Christian,  a Da- 
nish novelist,  poet,  and  writer  of  fairy 
tales,  was  born  of  poor  parents  at 
Odense,  2d  April,  1805.  In  1835  ap 


peared  the  first  volume  of  his  t’airy 
Tales,  of  which  successive  volumes  con- 
tinued to  be  published  year  by  year  at 
Christmas,  and  which  have  been  the 
most  popular  and  wide-spread  of  his 
works.  He  died  4th  August,  1875, 
having  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  many 
of  his  works  translated  into  most  of 
the  European  languages. 

ANDERSEN,  Mary  Antoinette,  an 
American  actress,  born  at  Sacramento, 
Cal.,  in  1859,  but  reared  in  Kentucky. 
Educated  in  convents  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  of  which  church  she 
is  a devout  member.  She  made  her., 
debut  as  Juliet  at  Louisville  in  1875.' 
Her  first  visit  to  the  East  was  made  in 
1877,  and  her  success  there  was  im- 
mediate. In  1884-5  she  visited  London 
and  was  well  received.  Her  principal 
roles  were  Rosalind  in  As  You  Like  It, 
Julia  in  The  Hunchback,  Meg  Merri- 
lies,  Perdita  in  Winter’s  Tale,  Evadne, 
and  Juliet.  In  1890  she  was  married,  to 
Antonio  Navarro  de  Viana  and  has  since 
her  marriage  resided  in  England. 

AN'DERS^ON,  a city  and  railroad 
center,  the  county  seat  of  Madison  Co., 
Ind.,  36  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis, 
on  the  west  fork  of  the  White  River, 
and  the  Chic^o  and  Southeastern, 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis,  and  other  railroads.  An 
abundant  supply  of  natural  gas  pro- 
motes the  manufacturing  industries, 
which  include  iron,  steel,  glass,  wire 
nails,  strawboards,  tiles,  etc.  The  city 
is  the  center  of  an  extensive  system  of 
interurban  electric  railways.  Near  the 
city  are  the  historic  mounds  of  the  so- 
called  “mound  builders.”  Pop.  23,000. 

ANDERSON,  Rasmus  Bjorn,  an  Amer- 
ican author  and  diplomat,  born  in 
Wisconsin  in  1846.  From  1875  to  1883 
he  taught  Scandinavian  languages  and 
literature  in  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin and  from  1885  to  1889  was 
U.  S.  minister  to  Denmark.  He  has 
published  several  works  on  Scandi- 
navian subjects. 

ANDERSON,  Robert,  a Scotch  author, 
born  in  1750,  died  1830.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a comprehensive  com- 
pilation of  the  British  poets. 

ANDES  (an'dez),  or,  as  they  are  called 
in  Spanish  South  America,  Cordilleras 
de  los  Andes,  or  simply  Cordilleras,  a 
range  of  mountains  stretching  along  the 
whole  of  the  west  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica, from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  In  ab- 
solute length  (4500  miles)  no  single 
chain  of  mountains  approaches  the 
Andes,  and  only  a certain  number  of 
the  higher  peaks  of  the  Himalayan 
chain  rise  higher  above  the  sea-level; 
which  peak  is  the  highest  of  all  is  not 
yet  settled.  Several  main  sections  of 
this  huge  chain  are  distinguishable. 
The  Southern  Andes  present  a lofty 
main  chain,  with  a minor  chain  running 
parallel  to  it  on  the  east,  reaching  from 
Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  northward  to  about  lat.  28°  s., 
and  rising  in  Aconcagua  to  a height  of 
22,860  feet.  North  of  this  is  the  double 
chain  of  the  Central  Andes,  inclosing 
the  wide  and  lofty  plateaux  of  Bolivia 
and  Peru,  which  lie  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  12,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  mountain  system  is  here  at  its 


ANDIRON 


ANDROMEDA 


broadest,  being  about  500  miles  across. 
Here  are  also  several  very  lofty  peaks,  as 
Illampu  or  Sorata  (21,484  feet),  Sahama 
(21,054),  Illimani  (21,024).  Farther 
north  the  outer  and  inner  ranges  draw 
closer  together,  and  in  Ecuador,  there 
is  but  a single  system  of  elevated  masses, 
generally  described  as  forming  two 
parallel  chains.  In  this  section  are 
crowded  together  a number  of  lofty 
peaks,  most  of  them  volcanoes,  either 
extinct  or  active.  Of  the  latter  class  are 
Pichincha  (15,918  feet),  with  a crater 
2500  feet  deep;  Tunguragua  (16,685 
^et);  Sangay  (17,460  feet);  and 
Xotopaxi  (19,550  feet).  The  loftiest 
summit  here  appears  to  be  Chimborazo 
(20,581  feet);  others  are  Antisana 
(19,260  feet)  and  Cayambe  (19,200  feet). 
Northward  of  this  section  the  Andes 
break  into  three  distinct  ranges,  the 
eastraost  running  northeastward  into 
Venezuela,  the  westmost  running  north- 
westward to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
In  the  central  range  is  the  volcano  of 
Tolima  (17,660  feet).  The  western 
slope  of  the  Andes  is  generally  exceed- 
ingly steep,  the  eastern  much  less  so, 
the  mountains  sinking  gradually  to  the 
plains.  The  whole  range  gives  evidence 
of  volcanic  action,  but  it  consists  almost 
entirely  of  sedimentary  rocks.  Thus 
mountains  may  be  found  rising  to  the 
height  of  over  20,000  feet,  and  fossilif- 
erous  to  their  summits  (as  Illimani  and 
Sorata  or  Illampu).  There  are  about 
thirty  volcanoes  in  a state  of  activity. 
The  loftiest  of  these  burning  mountains 
seems  to  be  Gualateiri,  in  Peru  (21,960 
feet).  The  heights  of  the  others  vary 
from  13,000  to  20,000  feet.  All  the 
districts  of  the  Andes  system  have 
suffered  severely  from  earthquakes, 
towns  having  been  either  destroyed  or 
greatly  injured  by  these  visitations. 
Peaks  crowned  with  perpetual  snow  are 
seen  all  along  the  range,  and  glaciers 
are  also  met  with,  more  especially 
from  Aconcagua  southward.  The 
passes  are  generally  at  a great  height, 
the  most  important  being  from  10,000 
to  15,000  feet.  Railways  have  been  con- 
structed to  cross  the  chain  at  a similar 
elevation.  The  Andes  are  extremely 
rich  in  the  precious  metals,  gold,  silver, 
copper,  platinum,  mercury,  and  tin  all 
being  wrought:  lead  and  iron  are  also 
found.  The  llama  and  its  congeners — 
the  guanaco,  vicuna,  and  alpaca — are 
characteristic  of  the  Andes.  Among 
birds,  the  condor  is  the  most  remarkable. 
The  vegetation  necessarily  varies  much 
according  to  elevation,  latitude,  rain- 
fall, etc.,  but  generally  is  rich  and  varied. 
Except  in  the  south  and  north  little 
rain  falls  on  the  western  side  of  the 
range,  and  in  the  center  there  is  a con- 
siderable desert  area.  On  the  east  side 
the  rainfall  is  heavy  in  the  equatorial 
regions,  but  in  the  south  is  very  scanty 
or  altogether  deficient.  From  the 
Andes  rise  two  of  the  largest  water  sys- 
tems of  the  world — the  Amazon  and 
its  affluents,  and  the  La  Plata  and  its 
affluents.  Besides  which,  in  the  north, 
from  its  slopes  flow  the  Magdalena  to 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  some  tributaries 
to  the  Orinoco.  The  mountain  chain 
pressing  so  close  upon  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  no  streams  of  importance  flow 
from  its  western  slopes.  The  number 


of  lakes  is  not  great;  the  largest  and 
most  important  ii  that  of  Titicaca  on 
the  Bolivian  plateau.  In  the  Andes 
are  towns  at  a greater  elevation  than 
anywhere  else  in  the  world,  the  high- 
est being  the  silver  mining  town  of 
Cerro  de  Pasco  (14,270  feet),  the  next 
being  Potosi. 

ANDIRON  (and'i-ern),  a horizontal 
iron  bar  raised  on  short  legs,  with  an 
upright  standard  at  one  end,  used  to 
support  pieces  of  wood  when  burning 
in  an  open  hearth,  one  andiron  being 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  hearth. 

AN'DOVER,  a town  in  Massachusetts, 
25  miles  n.n.w.  of  Boston,  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  literary  institutions — 
Phillip’s  Academy,  founded  in  1778; 
the  Andover  Theological  Seminary, 
founded  in  1807;  and  a female  academy 
founded  in  1829.  Pop.  6142. 

ANDRASSY  (S,n-dra'she),  Count  Ju- 
lius, Hungarian  statesman,  born  1823; 
took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  was 
condemned  to  death,  but  escaped  and 
went  into  exile;  appointed  premier  when 
self-government  was  restored  to  Hun- 
gary in  1867;  became  imperial  minis- 
ter for  foreign  affairs  in  1871 ; retired 
from  public  life  1879;  died  1890. 

ANDRE  (an'dra).  Major  John,  ad- 
jutant-general in  the  British  army  dur- 
ing the  American  revolutionary  war. 
Employed  to  negotiate  the  defection  of 
the  American  general  Arnold,  and  the 
delivery  of  the  works  at  West  Point,  he 


Major  Aiidr6. 


was  apprehended  in  disguise,  September 
23,  1780,  within  the  American  lines; 
declared  a spy  from  the  enemy,  and 
hanged  Oct.  2,  1780.  His  remains  were 
taken  to  England  in  1821  and  interred 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  where  a monu- 
ment has  been  erected  to  his  memory. 

AN 'DREW,  John  Albion,  governor  of 
Massachusetts  during  the  civil  war.  He 
was  born  in  Maine  in  1818,  and  became 
a lawyer  in  Boston.  Having  been 
elected  governor  in  1860,  he  perfected  a 
state  militia,  so  that  when  the  war  broke 
out  Massachusetts  was  entirely  prepared 
for  the  call.  He  retired  in  1866,  after 
being  reelected  for  each  succeeding  term, 
and  he  died  in  1867. 

AN'DREW,  St.,  brother  of  St.  Peter, 
and  the  first  disciple  whom  Christ  chose. 
He  is  said  to  have  preached  in  Scythia, 
in  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  and  in 
Achaia  (Greece),  and  according  to  tra- 
dition he  was  crucified  at  Patrjs,  now 
Patra^  in  Achaia,  on  a cross  of  the  form 
X.  Hence  such  a cross  is  now  known 
as  a St.  Andrew’s  cross.  The  Russians 


revere  him  as  the  apostle  who  brought 
the  gospel  to  them;  the  Scots,  as  the 
patron  saint  of  their  country.  The  day 
dedicated  to  him  is  the  30th  of  Novem- 
ber. The  Russian  order  of  St.  Andrew, 
the  highest  of  the  empire,  was  instituted 
by  Peter  the  Great  in  1698.  For  the 
Scottish  Knights  of  St.  Andrew  or  the 
Thistle,  see  Thistle. 

ANDREWS,  Elisha  Benjamin,  an 
educator  and  present  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  Born  in  New 
Hampshire,  in  1844,  be  fought  on  the 
Union  side  during  the  civil  war.  He  was 
educated  at  Brown  University  and  at 
Newton  Theological  Institution,  and, 
after  teaching  in  numerous  schools, 
Cornell  University  among  them,  he 
became  president  of  Brown  in  1889.  In 
1898  he  resigned  because  of  the  hostility 
he  aroused  by  his  advocacy  of  free  silver, 
and,  after  two  years’  service  as  superin- 
tendent of  schools  in  Chicago,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chancellorship  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  text-books. 

AN'DREWS,  St.,  an  ancient  city  and 
parliamentary  burgh  in  Fifeshire,  Scot- 
land, 31  miles  northeast  from  Edin- 
burgh ; was  erected  into  a royal  burgh  by 
David  I.  in  1140,  and  after  having  been 
an  episcopal,  became  an  archiepiscopal 
see  in  1472,  and  was  for  long  the  ecclesi- 
astical capital  of  Scotland.  The  cathe- 
dral, now  in  ruins,  was  begun  about 
1160,  and  took  157  years  to  finish. 
The  old  castle,  founded  about  1200,  and 
rebuilt  in  the  14th  century,  is  also  an 
almost  shapeless  ruin.  In  it  James  III. 
was  born  and  Cardinal  Beaton  assassi- 
nated, and  in  front  of  it  George  Wishart 
was  burned.  The  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  the  oldest  of  the  Scotch  uni- 
versities, founded  in  1411,  consists  of 
the  united  colleges  of  St.  Salvator  and 
St.  Leonard  and  the  college  of  St.  Mary, 
both  at  St.  Andrews,  and  embraces  also 
University  College,  Dundee.  In  1579 
the  colleges  of  St.  Salvator  and  St. 
Leonard  were  restricted  to  the  teaching 
of  arts  and  medicine,  and  that  of  St. 
Mary  to  theology.  In  1747  the  two 
former  colleges  were  united  by  act  of 
parliament.  University  College,  Dun- 
dee, was  founded  in  1880.  Pop.  7621. 

AN'DREWS,  William  Draper,  an 
American  inventor,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1818,  died  in  1896.  He  invented 
the  centrifugal  pump  in  1844,  and  sub- 
sequently improved  upon  it,  securing 
numerous  patents,  from  which  he  de- 
rived a large  revenue. 

AN'DRIA,  a town  of  South  Italj', 
province  of  Bari,  with  a fine  cathedral, 
founded  in  1046;  the  church  of  Sant’ 
Agostino,  with  a beautiful  pointed 
Gothic  portal;  a college;  manufactures  of 
majolica,  and  a good  trade.  Pop.  37,192. 

ANDROMACHE  (an-drom'aMce),  in 
Greek  mythology,  wife  of  Hector,  one  of 
the  most  attractive  female  characters  of 
Homer’s  Iliad.  The  passage  describing 
her  parting  with  Hector  when  he  was 
setting  out  to  his  last  battle  is  w'ell 
known  and  much  admired.  Euripides 
and  Racine  have  made  her  the  chief 
character  of  tragedies. 

ANDROM'EDA,  in  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  the  Ethiopian  king  Cepheus 
and  of  Cassiopeia.  Cassiopeia  having 
boasted  that  her  daughter  surpassed  the 


ANDRONICUS 


ANGLE 


Nereids,  if  not  Hera  (Juno)  herself,  in 
beauty,  the  offended  goddesses  prevailed 
on  their  father,  Poseidon  (Neptune),  to 
afflict  the  country  with  a horrid  sea- 
monster,  which  threatened  universal 
destruction.  To  appease  the  offended 
god,  Andromeda  was  chained  to  a rock, 
but  was  rescued  by  Perseus;  and  after 
death  was  changed  into  a constellation. 

ANDRONI'CUS,  the  name  of  four 
emperors  of  Constantinople;  ANDRONI- 
CUS L,  Comnenus,  born  1110,  murdered 
1185.— ANDRONICUS  II.,  Palaeologus, 
born  1258,  died  1332.  His  reign  is  cel- 
ebrated for  the  invasion  of  the  Turks. 
—ANDRONICUS  III.,  Palaeologus  the 
Younger,  born  1296,  died  1341. — AN- 
DRONICUS IV.,  Palaeologus,  reigned 
in  the  absence  of  John  IV.  In  1373  he 
gave  way  to  his  brother  Manuel,  and  died 
a monk. 

ANDROS  ISLANDS,  a group  of  isles 
belonging  to  the  Bahamas,  lying  south- 
west of  New  Providence,  not  far  from 
the  east  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Florida. 
The  passages  through  them  are  danger- 
ous. 

AN'ECDOTE,  originally  some  particu- 
lar relative  to  a subject  not  noticed  in 
previous  works  on  that  subj'ect;  now 
any  particular  or  detached  incident  or 
fact  of  an  interesting  nature;  a single 
passage  of  private  life. 

ANELEC'TRODE,  the  positive  pole 
of  a galvanic  battery. 

ANEMOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  force  and  velocity  of  the 
wind.  This  force  is  usually  measured 
by  the  pressure  of  the  wind  upon  a 
square  plate  attached  to  one  end  of  a 


Anemometer. 


spiral  spring  (with  its  axis  horizontal), 
which  yields  more  or  less  according  to 
the  force  of  the  wind,  and  transmits  its 
motion  to  a pencil  which  leaves  a trace 
upon  paper  moved  by  clockwork.  For 
indicating  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  the 
instrument  which  has  yielded  the  best 
results  consists  of  four  hemispherical 
cups  A attached  to  the  ends  of  equal 
horizontal  arms,  forming  a horizontal 
cross  which  turns  freely  about  a vertical 
axis  B,  which  is  strengthened  and  sup- 
ported at  C.  By  means  of  an  endless 
screw  D carried  by  the  axis  a train  of 
wheel-work  is  set  in  motion;  and  the 
indication  is  given  by  a hand  which 
moves  round  a dial;  or  in  some  instru- 
ments by  several  hands  moving  round 
different  dials  like  those  of  a gas- 
meter.  It  is  found  that  the  center  of 
each  cup  moves  with  a velocity  which  is 
almost  exactly  one-third  of  that  of  the 
wind.  There  are  various  other  forms 
of  instruments,  one  of  which  is  portable, 
and  is  especially  intended  for  measuring 
the  velocity  of  currents  of  air  passing 
through  mines,  and  the  ventilating 
spaces  of  hospitals  and  other  public 
buildings.  The  direction  of  the  wind 


as  indicated  by  a vane  can  also  be  made 
to  leave  a continuous  record  by  various 
contrivances;  one  of  the  most  common 
being  a pinion  carried  by  the  shaft  of  a 
vane,  and  driving  a rack  which  carries 
a pencil. 

ANEM'ONE,  wind-flower,  a genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  Buttercup  family, 
containing  many  species,  found  in  tem- 
perate regions. 

ANEM'ONE,  Sea.  See  Sea-anemone. 

ANEROID  BAROMETER.  See  Ba- 
rometer. 

AN'EURISM,  the  dilatation  or  expan- 
sion of  some  part  of  an  artery.  Aneur- 
isms arise  partly  from  the  too  violent 
motion  of  the  blood,  and  partly  from 
degenerative  changes  occurring  in  the 
coats  of  the  artery  diminishing  their 
elasticity.  They  are  therefore  more 
frequent  in  the  great  branches;  in  par- 
ticular, in  the  vicinity  of  the  heart,  in  the 
arch  of  the  aorta,  and  in  the  extremities, 
where  the  arteries  are  exposed  to  fre- 
quent injuries  by  stretching,  violent 
bodily  exertions,  thrusts,  falls,  and  con- 
tusions. An  internal  aneurism  may 
burst  and  cause  death. 

ANGEL,  one  of  those  spiritual  intel- 
ligences who  are  regarded  as  dwelling  in 
heaven  and  employed  as  the  ministers 
or  agents  of  God.  To  these  the  name 
of  good  angels  is  sometimes  given,  to 
distinguish  them  from  bad  angels,  who 
were  originally  created  to  crccupy  the 
same  blissful  abode,  but  lost  it  by  rebel- 
lion. Scripture  frequently  speaks  of 
angels,  but  with  great  reserve,  Michael 
and  Gabriel  alone  being  mentioned  by 
name  in  the  canonical  books,  while 
Raphael  is  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha. 
The  angels  are  represented  in  Scripture 
as  in  the  most  elevated  state  of  intel- 
ligence, purity,  and  bliss,  ever  doing  the 
will  of  God  so  perfectly  that  we  can  seek 
for  nothing  higher  or  better  than  to  aim 
at  being  like  them.  There  are  indica- 
tions of  a diversity  of  rank  and  power 
among  them,  and  something  like  angelic 
orders.  They  are  represented  as  fre- 
quently taking  part  in  communications 
made  from  heaven  to  earth,  as  directly 
and  actively  ministering  to  the  good  of 
believers,  and  shielding  or  delivering 
them  from  evils  incident  to  their  earthly 
lot.  That  every  person  has  a good  and 
a bad  angel  attendant  on  him  was  an 
early  belief,  and  is  held  to  some  extent 
yet.  Roman  Catholics  show  a certain 
veneration  or  worship  to  angels,  and  beg 
their  prayers  and  their  kind  offices; 
Protestants  consider  this  unlawful. 

ANGEL-FISH,  a fish  nearly  allied  to 
the  sharks,  very  ugly  and  voracious, 
preying  on  other  fish.  It  is  from  6 to  8 
feet  long,  and  takes  its  name  from  its 
pectoral  fins,  which  are  very  large,  ex- 
tending horizontally  like  wings  when 
spread.  This  fish  connects  the  rays 
with  the  sharks,  but  it  differs  from  both 
in  having  its  mouth  placed  at  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  head.  It  is  common  on 
the  south  coasts  of  Britain,  and  is  also 
called  Monk-fish  and  Fiddle-fish. 

ANGELICO  (An-jel'i-koL  Fra,  the 
common  appellation  of  Fra  Giovanni  da 
Fiesole,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
early  Italian  painters.  Born  1387,  he 
entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1407, 
and  was  employed  by  Cosmo  de  Medici 
in  painting  the  monastery  of  St.  Mark 


and  the  church  of  St.  Annunziata  with 
frescos.  These  pictures  gained  him  so 
much  celebrity  that  Nicholas  V.  in- 
vited him  to  Rome,  to  ornament  his 
private  chapel  in  the  Vatican,  and 
offered  him  the  archbishopric  of  Flor- 
ence, which  was  declined.  He  died  at 
Rome  1455. 

ANGELO  (an'je-lo),  Michael.  See 
Buonarotti. 

AN'GELUS,  in  the  Rom.  Cath.  Church, 
a short  form  of  prayer  in  honor  of  the 
incarnation,  consisting  mainly  of  versicles 
and  responses,  the  angelic  salutation 
three  times  repeated,  and  a collect,  so 
named  from  the  word  with  which  it 
commences,  “Angelus  Domini”  (Angel 
of  the  Lord).  Hence,  also,  the  bell 
tolled  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  in  the 
evening  to  indicate  the  time  when  the 
angelus  is  to  be  recited. 

ANGER,  an  emotion  of  an  aggressive, 
destructive,  or  vindictive  character 
against  the  thing  or  person  causing  it. 
According  to  Bain  the  emotion  is  pleas- 
ant (except  where  it  is  introduced  by 
too  great  a shock,  or  where  the  con- 
sciousness of  moral  obliquity  counter- 
acts the  pleasantness)  and  develops  by 
an  expansion — both  mental  and  physical 
— of  the  individual.  As  the  agent  of 
justice,  the  angered  person  acquires  an 
amount  of  self-esteem,  which  is  reflected 
in  a tendency  to  muscular  activity,  deep- 
ened respiration,  and  aggressive  pos- 
tures. On  the  other  hand,  when  anger 
is  complicated  by  the  emotions  of  fear, 
hatred,  envy,  or  jealousy,  or  when  it 
is  baffled,  it  acquires  a different  char- 
acter. It  then  becomes  unpleasantly 
toned,  is  accompanied  by  choking  and 
stuffiness,  trembling  and  weakness,  and 
a loss  of  muscular  force.  But  even  in 
anger  which  is  intrinsically  unpleasant, 
a successful  termination  of  the  attempt 
to  injure  the  object  of  the  emotion 
brings  a moment  of  satisfaction  and 
pleasure,  as  in  the  humiliation  of  a 
rival. 

ANGERS  (an-zha),  a town  and  river- 
port  of  France,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  formerly  of 
the  province  of  Anjou,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Maine,  5J  miles  from  the  Loire,  150 
miles  southwest  of  Paris.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  immense  slate  quarries. 
Pop.  82,966. 

ANGINA  PECTORIS  (an-ji'na  pek'to- 
ris),  or  HEART-SPASM,  a disease  char- 
acterized by  an  extremely  acute  con- 
striction, felt  generally  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  sternum,  and  extending  along  the 
whole  side  of  the  chest  and  into  the  cor- 
responding arm,  a sense  of  suffocation, 
faintness,  and  apprehension  of  approach- 
ing death:  seldom  experienced  by  any 
but  those  with  organic  heart-disease. 
The  disease  rarely  occurs  before  middle 
age  and  is  more  frequent  in  men  than  in 
women.  Those  liable  to  attack  must 
lead  a quiet,  temperate  life,  avoiding  all 
scenes  which  would  unduly  rouse  their 
emotions.  The  first  attack  is  occasion- 
ally fatal,  but  usually  death  occurs  as 
the  result  of  repeated  seizures.  The 
paroxism  may  be  relieved  by  opiates,  or 
the  inhalation,  under  due  precaution,  of 
anaesthetic  vapors. 

ANGLE,  the  point  where  two  lines 
meet,  or  the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a 
point.  A plane  rectilineal  angle  is 


An6leK, 


ANILISM 


formed  by  two  straight  lines  which  meet 
each  other,  but  are  not  in  the  same 
straight  line;  it  may  be  considered  the 
degree  of  opening  or  divergence  of  the 
two  straight  lines  which  thus  meet 
each  other.  A right  angle  is  an  angle 
formed  by  a straight  line  falling  on  an- 
other perpendicularly,  or  an  angle 
which  is  measured  by  an  arc  of  90 
degrees.  When  a straight  line,  as  A B 
(fig.  1),  standing  on  another  straight  line 
C D,  makes  the  two  angles  ABC  and 


A B D equal  to  each  other,  each  of 
these  angles  is  called  a right  angle. 
An  acute  angle  is  that  which  is  less  than 
a right  angle,  as  E B C.  An  obtuse 
angle  is  that  which  is  greater  than  a 
right  angle,  as  E B D.  Acute  and  obtuse 
angles  are  both  called  oblique,  in  oppo- 
sition to  right  angles.  Exterior  or 
external  angles,  the  angles  of  any  rec- 
tilineal figure  without  it,  made  by  pro- 
ducing the  sides ; thus,  if  the  sides  A B, 
B C,  C A of  the  triangle  ABC  (fig.  2)  be 
produced  to  the  points  F D E,  the 
angles  CBF,  ACD,  BAE  are  called 
exterior  or  external  angles.  A solid 
angle  is  that  which  is  made  by  more  than 
two  plane  angles  meeting  in  one  point 
and  not  lying  in  the  same  plane,  as 
the  angle  of  a cube.  A spherical  angle 
is  an  angle  on  the  surface  of  a sphere, 
contained  between  the  arcs  of  two 
great  circles  which  intersect  each  other. 

ANGLER,  also  from  its  habits  and 
appearance  called  Fishing-frog  and  Sea- 
devil,  a remarkable  fish  often  found  on 
the  British  coasts.  It  is  from  3 to  5 
feet  long;  the  head  is  very  wide,  de- 
pressed, with  protuberances,  and  bear- 
ing long  separate  movable  tendrils ; the 
mouth  is  capacious,  and  armed  with 
formidable  teeth.  Its  voracity  is 
extreme,  and  it  is  said  to  lie  concealed  in 
the  mud,  and  attract  the  smaller  fishes 
within  its  reach  by  gently  waving  the 
filamentous  appendages  on  its  head. 

ANGLES,  a Low  German  tribe  who 
in  the  earliest  historical  period  had 
their  seats  in  the  district  about  Angeln, 
in  the  duchy  of  Sleswig,  and  who  in  the 
5th  century  and  subsequently  crossed 
over  to  Britain  along  with  bands  of 
Saxons  and  Jutes  (and  probably  Frisians 
also),  and  colonized  a great  part  of 
what  from  them  has  received  the  name 
of  England,  as  well  as  a portion  of  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland.  The  Angles 
formed  the  largest  body  among  the 
Germanic  settlers  in  Britain,  and 
founded  the  three  kingdoms  of  East 
Anglia,  Mercia,  and  Northumbria. 

Anglesey  (ang'gl-sc),  an  island  and 
county  of  North  Wales,  in  the  Irish  Sea, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Menai  Strait;  20  miles  long  and  17 
miles  broad;  area,  193,511  acres.  Tlie 
Menai  Strait  is  crossed  by  a magnificent 
suspension. bridge,  580  feet  between  the 
piers  and  100  feet  above  high-water 


mark,  and  also  by  the  great  Britannia 
Tubular  Railway  Bridge.  Pop.  50,590. 

ANGLICAN  CHURCH,  a term  which 
strictly  embraces  only  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Protestant  episcopal 
churches  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  the 
colonies,  but  is  sometimes  used  to  in- 
clude also  the  episcopal  churches  of  the 
United  States.  The  doctrines  of  the 
Anglican  Church  are  laid  down  in  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  its  ritual  is 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Within  the  body  there  is  room 
for  considerable  latitude  of  belief  and 
doctrine,  and  three  sections  are  some- 
times spoken  of  by  the  names  of  the 
High  Church,  Low  Church,  and  Broad 
Church. 

ANGLING,  the  art  of  catching  fish 
with  a hook  or  angl6  baited  with  worms, 
small  fish,  flies,  etc. 

ANGLOMA'inA,  the  manner  which 
affects  to  imitate  the  English.  Anglo- 
mania has  been  common  in  Europe 
many  times  during  the  past  three  or 
four  centuries.  It  was  raging  in  France 
previously  to  the  revolution,  and  has 
been  very  fashionable  in  Germany. 
In  the  United  States  Anglomania  has 
had  its  exemplars  from  time  out  of 
mind  Today,  especially  in  Boston 
and  New  York,  and  in  less  degree  in  the 
cities  of  the  middle  west  and  west,  an 
English  manner  and  English  accent  are 
regarded  as  the  very  best  form. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  the  name  common- 
ly given  to  the  nation  or  people  formed 
by  the  amalgamation  of  the  Angles, 
Saxons,  and  Jutes,  who  settled  in 
Britain  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries 
after  Christ,  the  Anglo-Saxons  being 
simply  the  English  people  of  the  earlier 
period  of  English  history.  The  tribes 
who  were  thus  the  ancestors  of  the  bulk 
of  the  English-speaking  nationalities 
came  from  north  Germany,  where  they 
inhabited  the  parts  about  the  mouths 
of  the  Elbe  and  Weser,  and  the  first 
body  of  them  who  gained  a footing  in 
Britain  are  said  to  have  landed  in  449, 
and  to  have  been  led  by  Hengist  and 
Horsa.  From  the  preponderance  of  the 
Angles  the  whole  country  came  to  be 
called  Engla-land,  that  is,  the  land  of 
the  Angles  or  English. 

ANGO'LA,  a Portuguese  territory  in 
western  Africa,  south  of  the  Congo,  the 
name  being  applied  sometimes  to  the 
whole  Portuguese  territory  here  from 
about  lat.  6°  s.  tolat.  17°  s.  (area,  300,- 
000  sq.  m.;  pop.  2,000,000).  The  prin- 
cipal town  is  the  seaport  of  St.  Paul  de 
Luanda,  which  was  long  the  great  Por- 
tuguese slave-mart.  Exports  ivory, 
palm-oil,  coffee,  hides,  gum,  wax,  etc. 
Pop.  600,000. 

ANGO'RA,  a town  in  the  interior  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  215  miles  e.s.e.  of  Con- 
stantinople. All  the  animals  of  this 
region  are  long-haired,  especially  the 
goats  (see  Goat),  sheep,  and  cats. 
This  hair  forms  an  important  export 
as  well  as  the  fabric  called  camlet  here 
manufactured  from  it;  other  exports 
being  goats’  skins,  dye-stuffs,  gums, 
honey  and  wax,  etc.  A railway  con- 
nects it  with  Skutari.  Pop.  35,000. 

ANGORA  CAT,  the  large  and  long- 
haired white  variety  of  the  common 
cat,  said  to  belong  originally  to  An- 
gora. 


ANGORA  GOAT,  a Variety  of  the  Com- 
mon goat  with  long  silky  hair.  See 
Goat. 

ANGOSTURA  BARK,  the  aromatic 
bitter  medicinal  bark  obtained  chiefly 


from  a tree  of  10  to  20  feet  high,  grow- 
ing in  the  northern  regions  of  South 
America.  The  bark  is  valuable  as  a 
tonic  and  febrifuge,  and  is  also  used  for 
a kind  of  bitters. 

ANGOULEME  (an-go-lam),  an  ancient 
town  of  western  France,  capital  of  dep. 
Charente,  on  the  Charente,  60  miles 
n.n.e.  of  Bordeaux,  on  the  summit  of  a 
rocky  hill.  There  are  manufactures  of 
paper,  woolens,  linens,  distilleries,  sugar- 
works,  tanneries,  etc.  Pop.  34,647. 

AN'HALT,  a duchy  of  North  Ger- 
many, lying  partly  in  the  plains  of  the 
Middle  Elbe,  and  partly  in  the  valleys 
and  uplands  of  the  Lower  Harz,  and 
almost  entirely  surrounded  by  Prussia; 
area,  906  sq.  miles;  pop.  316,027,  almost 
all  Protestants.  The  chief  towns  are 
Dessau,  Bernburg,  Ksthen,  and  Zerbst. 

ANTLINE,  a substance  which  has 
recently  become  of  great  importance, 
as  being  the  basis  of  a number  of  bril- 
liant and  durable  dyes.  It  is  found  in 
small  quantities  in  coal  tar,  but  the 
aniline  of  commerce  is  obtained  from 
benzene  or  benzole,  a constituent  of 
coal-tar,  consisting  of  hydrogen  and 
carbon.  Benzene,  when  acted  on  by 
nitric  acid,  produces  nitrobenzene; 
and  this  substance  again,  when  treated 
with  nascent  hydrogen,  generally  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  acetic  acid  upon 
iron-filings  or  scraps,  produces  aniline. 
It  is  a colorless  oily  liquid,  somewhat 
heavier  than  water,  with  a peculiar 
vinous  smell,  and  a burning  taste.  When 
acted  on  by  arsenious  acid,  bichromate 
of  potassium,  stannic  chloride,  etc., 
aniline  produces  a great  variety  of 
compounds,  many  of  which  are  pos- 
sessed of  very  beautiful  colors,  and  are 
known  by  the  names  of  aniline  purple, 
aniline  green,  roseine,  violine,  bleu  de 
Paris,  magenta,  etc. 

ANTLISM,  aniline  poisoning,  a name 
given  to  the  aggregate  of  symptoms 
which  often  show  themselves  in  those 
employed  in  aniline  works,  resulting 
from  the  inhalation  of  aniline  vapors. 
It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  In 
a slight  attack  of  the  former  kind,  the 
lips,  cheeks,  and  ears  become  of  a bluish 
color,  and  the  person’s  walk  may  be 
unsteady;  in  severe  cases  there  is  loss 
of  consciousness.  Chronic  anilism  is 
accompanied  by  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs  and  of  the  nervous 


ANIMAL 


ANNA  COMNENA 


system,  headaches,  eruptions  on  the 
skin,  muscular  weakness,  etc. 

ANIMAL,  an  organized  and  sentient 
living  being.  Life  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  natural  history  was  attributed  almost 
exclusively  to  animals.  With  the  prog- 
ress of  science,  however,  it  was  extended 
to  plants.  In  the  case  of  the  higher 
animals  and  plants  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  assigning  the  individual  to  one  of 
the  two  great  kingdoms  of  organic 
nature,  but  in  their  lowest  manifesta- 
tions the  vegetable  and  animal  king- 
doms are  brought  into  such  immediate 
contact  that  it  becomes  almost  impossi- 
ble to  assign  them  precise  limits  and 
to  say  with  certainty  where  the  one 
begins  and  the  other  ends.  From  form 
no  absolute  distinction  can  be  fixed 
between  animals  and  plants.  Many 
animals,  such  as  the  sea-shrubs,  sea- 
mats,  etc.,  so  resemble  plants  in  exter- 
nal appearance  that  they  were,  and 
even  yet  popularly  are,  looked  upon 
as  such.  With  regard  to  internal  struc- 
ture no  line  of  demarkation  can  be  laid 
down,  all  plants  and  animals  being,  in 
this  respect,  fundamentally  similar; 
that  is,  alike  composed  of  molecular, 
cellular,  and  fibrous  tissues.  Neither 
are  the  chemical  characters  of  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  more  distinct. 
Animals  contain  in  their  tissues  and 
fluids  a larger  proportion  of  nitrogen 
than  plants,  while  plants  are  richer 
in  carbonaceous  compounds  than  the 
former.  In  some  animals,  moreover, 
substances  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  plants  are  found.  Thus  the  outer 
wall  of  Sea-squirts  contains  cellulose,  a 
substance  largely  found  in  plant-tissues; 
while  chlorophyll,  the  coloring-matter 
of  plants,  occurs  in  Hydria  and  many 
other  lower  animals.  Power  of  motion, 
again,  though  broadly  distinctive  of 
animals,  cannot  be  said  to  be  absolutely 
characteristic  of  them.  Thus  many 
animals,  as  oysters,  sponges,  corals,  etc., 
in  their  mature  condition  are  rooted 
or  fixed,  while  the  embryos  of  many 
plants,  together  with  numerous  fully 
developed  forms,  are  endowed  with 
locomotive  power  by  means  of  vibratile, 
hair-like  processes  called  cilia.  The 
distinctive  points  between  animals  and 
plants  which  are  most  to  be  relied  on 
are  those  derived  from  the  nature  and 
mode  of  assimilation  of  the  food. 
Plants  feed  on  inorganic  matters,  con- 
sisting of  water,  ammonia,  carbonic 
acid,  and  mineral  matters.  They  can 
only  take  in  food  which  is  presented  to 
them  in  a liquid  or  gaseous  state.  The 
exceptions  to  these  rules  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  case  of  plants  which  live 
parasitically  on  other  plants  or  on  ani- 
mals, in  which  cases  the  plant  may  be 
said  to  feed  on  organic  matters,  repre- 
sented by  the  juices  of  their  hosts. 
Animals,  on  the  contrary,  require  organ- 
ized matters  for  food.  They  feed  either 
upon  plants  or  upon  other  animals. 
But  even  carnivorous  animals  can  be 
shown  to  be  dependent  upon  plants  for 
subsistence;  since  the  animals  upon 
which  Carnivora  prey  are  in  their  turn 
supported  by  plants.  Animals,  further, 
can  subsist  on  solid  food  in  addition  to 
liquids  and  gases;  but  many  animals 
(such  as  the  Tapeworms)  live  by  the 
mere  imbibition  of  fluids  which  are 


absorbed  by  their  tissues,  such  forms 
possessing  no  distinct  digestive  system. 
Animals  require  a due  supply  of  oxygen 
gas  for  their  sustenance,  this  gas  being 
used  in  respiration.  Plants,  on  the  con- 
trary, require  carbonic  acid.  The  ani- 
mal exhales  or  gives  out  carbonic  acid 
as  the  part  result  of  its  tissue-waste, 
while  the  plant  taking  in  this  gas  is 
enabled  to  decompose  it  into  its  con- 
stituent carbon  and  oxygen.  The  plant 
retains  the  former  for  the  uses  of  its 
economy,  and  liberates  the  oxygen, 
which  is  thus  restored  to  the  atmos- 
phere for  the  use  of  the  animal.  Ani- 
mals receive  their  food  into  the  interior 
of  their  bodies,  and  assimilation  takes 
place  in  their  internal  surfaces.  Plants, 
on  the  other  hand,  receive  their  food 
into  their  external  surfaces,  and  assimi- 
lation is  effected  in  the  external  parts 
as  are  exemplified  in  the  leaf-surfaces 
under  the  influence  of  sunlight.  All 
animals  possess  a certain  amount  of 
heat  or  temperature  which  is  necessary 
for  the  performance  of  vital  action. 
The  only  classes  of  animals  in  which  a 
constantly-elevated  temperature  is  kept 
up  are  birds  and  mammals.  The  bodily 
heat  of  the  former  varies  from  100°  F. 
to  112°  F.,  and  of  the  latter  from  96°  F. 
to  104°  F.  The  mean  or  average  heat 
of  the  human  body  is  about  99°  F.,  and 
it  never  falls  much  below  this  in  health. 
Below  birds  animals  are  named  “cold- 
blooded,” this  term  meaning  in  its 
strictly  physiological  sense  that  their 
temperature  is  usually  that  of  the 
medium  in  which  they  live,  and  that  it 
varies  with  that  of  the  surrounding 
medium.  ‘]||farm-blooded”  animals,  on 
the  contrar^  do  not  exhibit  such  varia- 
tions, but  mostly  retain  their  normal 
temperature  in  any  atmosphere.  The 
cause  of  the  evolution  of  heat  in  the 
animal  body  is  referred  to  the  union 
(by  a process  resembling  ordinary  com- 
bustion) of  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
of  the  system  with  the  oxygen  taken  in 
from  the  air  in  the  process  of  respira- 
tion. 

ANIMAL  CHEMISTRY,  the  depart- 
ment of  organic  chemistry  which  in- 
vestigates the  composition  of  the  fluids 
and  the  solids  of  animals,  and  the  chem- 
ical action  that  takes  place  in  animal 
bodies.  There  are  four  elements,  some- 
times distinctively  named  organic  ele- 
ments, which  are  invariably  found  in 
living  bodies,  viz.,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  To  these  may 
be  added,  as  frequent  constituents  of 
the  human  body,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
lime,  sodium,  potassium,  chlorine,  and 
iron.  The  four  organic  elements  are 
found  in  all  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the 
body.  Sulphur  occurs  in  blood  and  in 
many  of  the  secretions.  Phosphorus  is 
also  common,  being  found  in  nerves, 
in  the  teeth,  and  in  fluids.  Chlorine 
occurs  almost  universally  throughout 
the  body;  lime  is  found  in  bone,  in  the 
teeth,  and  in  the  secretions;  iron  oecurs 
in  the  blood,  in  urine,  and  in  bile;  and 
sodium,  like  chlorine,  is  of  almost  uni- 
versal occurence.  Potassium  occurs  in 
muscles,  in  nerves,  and  in  the  blood- 
corpuscles.  Minute  quantities  of  cop- 
per, silicon,  manganese,  lead,  and 
lithium  are  also  found  in  the  human 
body.  The  compounds  formed  in  the 


human  organism  are  divisible  into  the 
organic  and  inorganic.  The  most  fre- 
quent of  the  latter  is  water,  of  which 
two-thirds  (by  weight)  of  the  body  are 
composed.  The  organic  compounds 
may,  like  the  foods  from  which  they  are 
formed,  be  divided  into  the  nitrogenous 
and  non-nitrogenous.  Of  the  former 
the  chief  are  albumen  (found  in  blood, 
lymph,  and  chyle),  casein  (found  in 
milk),  myosin  (in  muscle),  gelatin  (ob- 
tained from  bone),  and  others.  The 
non-nitrogenous  compounds  are  repre- 
sented by  organic  acids,  such  as  formic, 
acetic,  butyric,  stearic,  etc.;  by  animal 
starches,  sugar;  and  by  fats  and  oils,  as 
stearin  and  olein. 

ANIMALCULE  (an-i-mal'kul),  a gen- 
eral name  given  to  many  forms  of  ani- 
mal life  from  their  minute  size. 

ANIMAL  HEAT.  See  Animal. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  See  Mes- 
merism. 

ANIMALS,  Cruelty  to.  See  Cruelty. 

ANIMAL  WORSHIP,  a practice  found 
to  prevail,  or  to  have  prevailed,  in  the 
most  widely  distant  parts  of  the  world, 
both  the  Old  and  the  New,  but  nov'here 
to  such  an  amazing  extent  as  in  ancient 
Egypt,  notwithstanding  its  high  civiliza- 
tion. I^parly  all  the  more  important 
animals  found  in  the  country  were  re- 
garded as  sacred  in  some  part  of  Egypt, 
and  the  degree  of  reverence  paid  to  them 
was  such  that  throughout  Egypt  the 
killing  of  a hawk  or  an  ibis,  whether 
voluntary  or  not,  was  punished  with 
death.  The  worship,  however,  was  not, 
except  in  a few  instances,  paid  to  them 
as  actual  deities.  The  animals  were 
merely  regarded  as  sacred  to  the  deities, 
and  the  worship  paid  to  them  was 
symbolical. 

ANISE  (an'is),  an  annual  plant,  a 
native  of  the  Levant,  and  cultivated  in 
Spain,  France,  Italy,  Malta,  etc., 
whence  the  fruit,  popularly  called 
aniseed,  is  imported.  This  fruit  is 
ovate,  with  ten  narrow  ribs,  between 
which  are  oil-vessels.  It  has  an  aro- 
matic smell,  and  is  largely  employed 
to  flavor  liquors  (aniseed  or  anisette), 
sweetmeats,  etc. 

ANISEED.  See  Anise. 

ANJOU  (an-zho),  an  ancient  province 
of  France,  now  forming  the  department 
of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  parts  of  the 
departments  of  Indre-et-Loire,  May- 
enne,  and  Sarthe;  area,  about  3000  sq. 
miles. 

ANKLE.  See  Foot. 

ANKYLO'SIS,  or  ANCHYLO'SIS,  stiff- 
ness of  the  joints  caused  by  a more  or 
less  complete  coalescence  of  the  bones 
through  ossification,  often  the  result  of 
inflammation  or  injury.  False  anky- 
losis is  stiffness  of  a joint  when  the  dis- 
ease is  not  in  the  joint  itself,  but  in  the 
tendinous  and  muscular  parts  by  which 
it  is  surrounded. 

ANNA  COMNE'NA,  daughter  of  Alex- 
ius Comnenus  I.,  Byzantine  emperor. 
She  was  born  1083,  and  died  1148. 
After  her  father’s  death  she  endeavored 
to  secure  the  succession  to  her  husband, 
Nicephorus  Briennius,  but  was  baffled 
by  his  want  of  energy  and  ambition. 
She  wrote  (in  Greek)  a life  of  her  father 
Alexius,  which,  in  the  midst  of  much 
fulsome  panegyric,  contains  some  valu- 
able and  interesting  information.  She 


ANNA  IVANOVNA 


ANNUITY 


forms  a character  in  Sir  Walter  Scott’s 
Count  Robert  of  Paris. 

ANNA  IVANOV'NA,  Empress  of  Rus- 
sia; born  in  1693,  the  daughter  of 
Ivan,  the  elder  half-brother  of  Peter 
the  Great.  She  was  married  in  1710 
to  the  Duke  of  Courland,  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  left  a widow,  and  in  1730 
ascended  the  throne  of  the  czars  on  the 
condition  proposed  by  the  senate,  that 
she  would  limit  the  absolute  power  of 
the  czars,  and  do  nothing  without  the 
advice  of  the  council  composed  of  the 
leading  members  of  the  Russian  aristoc- 
racy. But  no  sooner  had  she  ascended 
the  throne  than  she  declared  her  promise 
null,  and  proclaimed  herself  autocrat  of 
all  the  Russias.  She  chose  as  her 
favorite  Ernest  John  von  Biren  or 
Biron,  who  was  soon  all-powerful  in 
Russia,  and  ruled  with  great  severity. 
Several  of  the  leading  nobles  were 
executed,  and  many  thousand  men 
exiled  to  Siberia.  In  1737  Anna  forced 
the  Courlanders  to  choose  Biren  as  their 
duke,  and  nominated  him  at  her  death 
regent  of  the  empire  during  the  minority 
of  Prince  Ivan  (of  Brunswick).  Anna 
died  in  1740. 

AN'NALS,  a history  of  events  in 
chronological  order,  each  event  being 
recorded  under  the  year  in  which  it 
occurred. 

ANNAM'.  See  Anam. 

ANNAP'OLIS,  the  capital  of  Mary- 
land, on  the  Severn,  near  its  mouth  in 
Chesapeake  Bay.  It  contains  a college 


State  Capitol,  Annapolis,  Md. 


(St.  John’s),  a statehouse,  and  the 
United  States  naval  academy.  Pop. 
9000. 

ANN  ARBOR,  a town  in  Michigan, 
on  the  Huron  river,  about  40  miles  west 
of  Detroit ; the  seat  of  the  state  univer- 
sity, has  flour-mills,  and  manufactures 
of  woolens,  iron,  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. Pop.  16,000. 

ANNE,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  was  born  at  Twickenham,  near 
London,  6th  February,  1664.  She  was 
the  second  daughter  of  James  II.,  then 
Duke  of  York,  and  Anne,  his  wife, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon. 
After  the  death  of  William  III.  in  1702 
she  ascended  the  English  throne.  Her 
character  was  essentially  weak,  and  she 
was  governed  first  by  Marlborough  and 
his  wife,  and  afterward  by  Mrs.  Mas- 


ham.  Most  of  the  principal  events  of  her 
reign  are  connected  with  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  The  only  impor- 
tant acquisition  that  England  made  by 
it  was  Gibraltar,  which  was  captured  in 
1704,  Another  very  important  event 


Queen  Anne. 


of  this  reign  was  the  union  of  England 
and  Scotland  under  the  name  of  Great 
Britain,  which  was  accomplished  in 
1707.  She  seems  to  have  long  cherished 
the  wish  of  securing  the  succession  to 
her  brother  James,  but  this  was  frus- 
trated by  the  internal  dissensions  of  the 
cabinet.  Grieved  at  the  disappoint- 
ment of  her  secret  wishes,  she  fell  into 
a state  of  weakness  and  lethargy,  and 
died,  July  20,  1714.  The  reign  of  Anne 
was  distinguished  not  only  by  the 
brilliant  successes  of  the  British  arms, 
but  also  on  account  of  the  number  of 
admirable  and  excellent  writers  who 
flourished  at  this  time,  among  whom 
were  Pope,  Swift,  and  Addison. 

ANNE  (of  Austria),  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Madrid 
in  1602,  and  in  1615  was  married  to 
Louis  XIII.  of  France.  Richelieu,  fear- 
ing the  influence  of  her  foreign  connec- 
tions, did  everything  he  could  to  humble 
her.  In  1643  her  husband  died,  and 
she  was  left  regent,  but  placed  under 
the  control  of  a council.  But  the  parlia- 
ment overthrew  this  arrangement,  and 
intrusted  her  with  full  sovereign  rights 
during  the  minority  of  her  son  Louis 
XIV.  She,  however,  brought  upon  her- 
self the  hatred  of  the  nobles  by  her 
boundless  confidence  in  Cardinal  Maz- 
arin,  and  was  forced  to  flee  from  Paris 
during  the  wars  of  the  Fronde.  She 
ultimately  quelled  all  opposition,  and 
was  able  in  1661  to  transmit  to  her  son 
unimpaired  the  royal  autnority.  She 
spent  the  remainder  of  her  life  in  retire- 
ment, and  died  January  20,  1666. 

ANNEALING  (an-el'ing),  a process  to 
which  inany  articles  of  metal  and  glass 
are  subjected  after  making,  in  order  to 
render  them  more  tenacious,  and  which 
consists  in  heating  them  and  allowing 
them  to  cool  slowly.  When  the  metals 
are  worked  by  the  hammer,  or  rolled 
into  plates,  or  drawn  into  wire,  they 
acquire  a certain  amount  of  brittleness, 
which  destroys  their  usefulness,  and  has 
to  be  remedied  by  annealing.  The  tem- 
pering of  steel  is  one  kind  of  annealing. 
Annealing  is  particularly  employed  in 
glass-houses,  and  consists  in  putting  the 
glass  vessels,  as  soon  as  they  are  formed 
and  while  they  are  yet  hot,  into  a fur- 
nace or  oven,  in  which  they  are  sufifered 


to  cool  gradually.  The  toughness  is 
greatly  increased  by  cooling  the  articles 
in  oil. 

ANNEXATION,  the  act  of  a state  in 
acquiring  territory,  near  or  remote, 
whether  independent  or  belonging  to 
another  power.  It  has  been  recently 
decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  so-called  insular 
cases  (1901),  that  Porto  Rico  remained 
foreign  territory,  notwithstanding  the 
destruction  of  the  Spanish  sovereignty 
and  government  and  the  occupation  of 
the  island  by  the  military  forces  of 
the  United  States  until  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  in 
1898,  and  that  it  was  this  act  which 
extended  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States  over  that  island.  Where  the 
transfer  of  title  is  not  acquiesced  in  by 
the  former  sovereign,  there  must  be  an 
effective  occupation  and  a virtually 
complete  destruction  of  the  previously 
existing  authority.  But  the  annexation 
may  be  complete  notwithstanding  the 
active  or  passive  opposition  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  territory  affected. 

AN'NUAL,  in  botany,  a plant  that 
springs  from  seed,  grows  up,  produces 
seed,  and  then  dies,  all  within  a single 
year  or  season. 

AN'NUAL,  in  literature,  the  name 
given  to  a class  of  publications  which 
at  one  time  enjoyed  an  immense  yearly 
circulation,  and  were  distinguished  by 
great  magnificence  both  of  binding  and 
illustration,  which  rendered  them  much 
sought  after  as  Christmas  and  New 
Year  presents.  Their  contents  were 
chiefly  prose  tales  and  ballads,  lyrics, 
and  other  poetry. 

ANNU'ITY,  a sum  of  money  paid 
annually  to  a person,  and  continuing 
either  a certain  number  of  years,  or  for 
an  uncertain  period,  to  be  determined 
by  a particular  event,  as  the  death  of 
the  recipient  or  annuitant,  or  thai  of 
the  party  liable  to  pay  the  annuity; 
or  the  annuity  may  be  perpetual.  The 
payments  are  made  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  or  semi-annually,  or  at  other 
periods.  An  annuity  is  usually  raised 
by  the  present  payment  of  a certain 
sum  as  a consideration  whereby  the 
party  making  the  payment,  or  some 
other  person  named  by  him,  becomes 
entitled  to  an  annuity,  and  the  rules 
and  principles  by  which  this  present 
value  is  to  be  computed  have  been  the 
subjects  of  careful  investigation.  The 
present  value  of  a perpetual  annuity  is 
evidently  a sum  of  money  that  will 
yield  an  interest  equal  to  the  annuity, 
and  payable  at  the  same  periods;  and 
an  annuity  of  this  description,  payable 
quarterly,  will  evidently  be  of  greater 
value  than  one  of  the  same  amount 
payable  annually,  since  the  annuitant 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  the 
interest  on  three  of  the  quarterly  pay- 
ments until  the  expiration  of  the  year. 
In  other  words,  it  requires  a greater 
present  capital  to  be  put  at  interest  to 
yield  a given  sum  per  annum,  payable 
quarterly,  than  to  yield  the  same  annual 
sum  payable  at  the  end  of  each  year 
The  present  value  of  an  annuity  for  a 
limited  period  is  a sum  which,  if  put  at 
interest,  will  at  the  end  of  that  period 
give  an  amount  equal  to  the  sum  of  all 
the  payments  of  the  annuity  and  inter- 


ANNUNCIATION 


ANTARCTIC 


est;  and,  accordingly,  if  it  be  proposed 
to  invest  a certain  sum  of  money  in  the 
purchase  of  an  annuity  for  a given 
number  of  years  the  comparative  value 
of  the  two  may  be  precisely  estimated, 
the  rate  of  interest  being  given. 

ANNUNCIATION^  the  declaration  of 
the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary 
informing  her  that  she  was  to  become 
the  mother  of  our  Lord. — Annunciation 
or  Lady  Day  is  a feast  of  the  R.  C.  church 
in  honor  of  the  annunciation,  celebrated 
on  the  25th  of  March. — There  are  two 
orders  of  nuns  of  the  Annunciation,  one 
originally  French,  founded  in  1501  by 
Joanna  of  Valois,  the  other  Italian, 
founded  in  1604  by  Maria  Vittoria 
Fornari  of  Genoa. 

AN'ODE,  the  positive  pole  of  the 
voltaic  current,  being  that  part  of  the 
surface  of  a decomposing  body  which 
the  electric  current  enters:  opposed  to 
cathode,  the  way  by  which  it  departs. 

AN'ODYNE,  a medicine,  such  as  an 
opiate  or  narcotic,  which  allays  pain. 

ANOINTING,  rubbing  the  body  or 
some  part  of  it  with  oil,  often  perfumed. 
From  time  immemorial  the  nations  of 
the  East  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
anointing  themselves  for  the  sake  of 
health  and  beauty.  The  Greeks  and 
Romans  anointed  themselves  after  the 
bath.  Wrestlers  anointed  themselves 
in  order  to  render  it  more  difficult  for 
their  antagonists  to  get  hold  of  them. 
In  Egypt  it  seems  to  have  been  common 
to  anoint  the  head  of  guests  when  they 
entered  the  house  where  they  were  to 
be  entertained,  as  shown  in  the  cut.  In 
the  Mosaic  law  a sacred  character  was 
attached'  to  the  anointing  of  the  gar- 
ments of  the  priests  and  things  belong- 
ing to  the  ceremonial  of  worship.  The 
Jewish  priests  and  kings  were  anointed 
when  inducted  into  office,  and  were 
called  the  anointed  of  the  Lord,  to  show 
that  their  persons  were  sacred  and  their 
ofiice  from  God.  In  the  Old  Testament 


Egyptian  anointing  a guest. 


also  the  prophecies  respecting  the 
Redeemer  style  him  Messias,  that  is,  the 
Anointed,  which  is  also  the  meaning  of 
his  Greek  name  Christ.  The  custom  of 
anointing  still  exists  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  the  ordination  of 
priests  and  the  confirmation  of  be- 
lievers and  the  sacrament  of  extreme 
unction.  The  ceremony  is  also  fre- 
quently a part  of  the  coronation  of 
kings. 

ANOM'ALY,  in  astronomy,  the  angle 
which  a line  drawn  from  a planet  to  the 
6un  has  passed  through  since  the  planet 


was  last  at  its  perihelion  or  nearest 
distance  to  the  sun.  The  anomalistic 
year  is  the  interval  between  two  suc- 
cessive times  at  which  the  earth  is  in 
perihelion,  or  365  days  6 hours  13  min- 
utes 45  seconds.  In  consequence  of  the 
advance  of  the  earth’s  perihelion  among 
the  stars  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
earth’s  motion  and  of  the  precession  of 


the  equinoxes,  which  carries  the  equi- 
noxes back  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  earth’s  motion,  the  anomalistic 
year  is  longer  than  the  sidereal  year, 
and  still  longer  than  the  tropical  or 
common  year. 

ANON'YMOUS,  literally,  “without 
name,’’  applied  to  anything  which  is  the 
work  of  a person  whose  name  is  unknown 
or  who  keeps  his  name  secret.  Pseu- 
donym is  a term  used  for  an  assumed 
name.  The  knowledge  of  the  anony- 
mous and  pseudonymous  literature  is 
indispensable  to  the  bibliographer,  and 
large  dictionaries  given  the  titles  and 
writers  of  such  works  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

ANSO'NIA,  a city  in  New  Haven  Co., 
Conn.,  12  miles  west  by  north  of  New 
Haven,  on  the  Naugatuck  river,  and  on 
the  Berkshire  and  Nangatuck  divisions 
of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  Railroad.  Ansonia  is  noted 
as  a manufacturing  center,  the  products 
including  heavy  machinery,  rollers  for 
paper-making  and  wheat-milling,  cop- 
per, brass,  and  wire  goods,  electrical 
appliances,  clocks,  etc.  Pop.  14,000. 

ANSPACH  (an'spag).  See  Ansbach. 

ANT,  the  common  name  of  insects  of 
various  genera  found  in  most  temperate 
and  tropical  regions.  They  are  small  but 
powerful  insects,  and  have  long  been 
noted  for  their  remarkable  intelligence 
and  interesting  habits.  They  live  in 
communities  regulated  by  definite  laws, 
each  member  of  the  society  bearing  a 
well-defined  and  separate  part  in  the 
work  of  the  colony.  Each  community 
consists  of  males;  of  females  much 
larger  than  the  males;  and  of  barren 
females,  otherwise  called  neuters,  work- 
ers, or  nurses.  The  neuters  are  wingless, 
and  the  males  and  females  only  acquire 
I wings  for  their  “nuptial  flight,’’  after 


which  the  males  perish,  and  the  few 
females  which  escape  the  pursuit  of 
their  numerous  enemies  divest  them- 
selves of  their  wings,  and  either  return 
to  established  nests,  or  become  the 
foundresses  of  new  colonies.  The 
neuters  perform  all  the  labors  of  the 
ant-hill  or  abode  of  the  community; 
they  excavate  the  galleries,  procure’ 


food,  and  feed  the  larvae  or  young  ants» 
which  are  destitute  of  organs  of  motion. 
In  fine  weather  they  carefully  convey 
them  to  the  surface  for  the  benefit  of  the 
sun’s  heat,  and  as  attentively  carry 
them  to  a place  of  safety  either  when 
bad  weather  is  threatened  or  the  ant- 
hill is  disturbed.  In  like  manner  they 
watch  over  the  safety  of  the  nymphs 
or  pupae  about  to  acquire  their  perfect 
growth.  Some  communities  possess  a 
special  type  of  neuters,  known  as  “sol- 
diers,’’ from  the  duties  that  specially 
fall  upon  them,  and  from  their  powerful 
biting  jaws.  There  is  a verj'  consider- 
able variety  in  the  materials,  size,  and 
form  of  ant-hills,  or  nests,  according  to 
the  peculiar  nature  or  instinct  of  the 
species. 

ANTAL'KALI,  a substance  which 
neutralizes  an  alkali,  and  is  used  medic- 
inally to  counteract  an  alkaline  tendency 
in  the  system.  All  true  acids  have  this 
power. 

ANTANANARI'VO  (an-tan-an-a-re'v6), 
the  capital  of  Madagascar,  situated  in 
the  central  province  of  Imdrina.  Antan- 
anarivo is  the  residence  of  the  French 
governor  of  Madagascar,  and  there  is  a 
strong  French  garrison.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  metal  work,  cutlery,  silk, 
etc.  Pop.  about  100,000. 

ANTARCTIC  (ant-iirk'tik),  relating 
to  the  southern  pole  or  to  the  region 
near  it.  The  Antarctic  Circle  is  a circle 
parallel  to  the  equator  and  distant  from 
the  south  pole  23°  28',  marking  the 
area  within  which  the  sun  does  not  set 
when  on  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The 
I Antarctic  Circle  has  been  arbitrarily 
fixed  on  as  the  limits  of  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  it  being  the  average  limit  of  the 
pack-ice;  but  the  name  is  often  ex- 
I tended  to  embrace  a much  wider  area. 
I The  lands  in  or  near  the  .Vntarctio 


ANT-EATER 


ANTICHRIST 


Circle  are  but  imperfectly  known,  the 
work  of  exploration  having  been  hither- 
to baffled  by  what  seems  an  insur- 
mountable ice-barrier.  Sir  James  Ross 
in  1841-42,  discovered  Victoria  Land 
(extending  to  about  79°  s.  hit.),  with  its 
volcanoes  Erebus  (12,400  ft. ) and  Ter- 
ror (10,900  ft.).  The  South  Shetland  Is- 
lands, Enderby  Land,  Graham’s  Land, 
etc.,  have  also  been  discovered  in  lliis 
ocean.  Oapt.  Scott  in  1902  reached  82° 
17'  which  is  632  miles  from  the  pole. 

ANT-EATER,  a name  given  to  mam- 
mals of  various  genera  that  prey  chiefly 
on  ants.  The  head  is  remarkably  elon- 
gated, the  jaws  destitute  of  teeth,  and 
the  mouth  furnished  with  a long,  ex- 
tensile tongue  covered  with  glutinous 
saliva,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  animals 
secure  their  insect  prey.  The  eyes  are 
particularly  small,  the  ears  short  and 
round,  and  the  legs,  especially  the  an- 
terior, very  robust,  and  furnished  with 
long,  compressed,  acute  nails,  admirably 
adapted  for  breaking  into  the  ant-hills. 
The  most  remarkahle  species  is  the 
ant-bear,  a native  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  South  America.  It  is  from  4 to  5 feet 
in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  muzzle  to 
the  origin  of  the  black  bushy  tail, 
which  is  about  two  feet  long.  The  body 
is  covered  with  long  hair,  particularly 
along  the  neck  and  fock.  It  is  a harm- 


Ant-bear. 


less  and  solitary  animal,  and  spends 
most  of  its  time  in  sleep.  Some  are 
adapted  for  climbing  trees  in  quest  of 
the  insects  on  which  they  feed,  having 
prehensile  tails.  All  are  natives  of  South 
America. 

ANTECE'DENT,  in  grammar,  the 
noun  to  which  a relative  or  other  pro- 
noun refers;  as,  Solomon  was  the  prince 
who  built  the  temple,  where  the  word 
prince  is  the  antecedent  of  who  — In 
logic,  that  member  of  a hypothetical  or 
conditional  proposition  which  contains 
the  condition,  and  which  is  introduced 
by  if  or  some  equivalent  word  or  words ; 
as,  if  the  sun  is  fixed,  the  earth  must 
move.  Here  the  first  and  conditional 
proposition  is  the  antecedent,  the  second 
the  consequent. 

ANTEDILU'VIAN,  before  the  flood  or 
deluge  of  Noah’s  time;  relating  to  what 
happened  before  the  deluge.  In  geology 
the  term  has  been  applied  to  organisms, 
traces  of  which  are  found  in  a fossil  state 
in  formations  preceding  the  Diluvial, 
particularly  to  extinct  animals  such  as 
the  paleotherium,  the  mastodon,  etc. 

AN'TELOPE,  the  name  given  to  the 
members  of  a large  family  of  Ruminant 
Ungulata  or.  Hoofed  Mammalia,  closely 
resembling  the  Deer  in  general  appear- 
ance, but  essentially  different  in  nature 
from  the  latter  animals.  They  are  in- 
cluded with  the  Sheep  and  Oxen  in  the 


family  of  the  Cavicornia  or  “Hollow- 
horned” Ruminants.  Their  horns,  un- 
like those  of  the  Deer,  are  not  deciduous, 
but  are  permanent;  are  never  branched, 
but  are  often  twisted  spirally,  and  may 
be  borne  by  both  sexes.  They  are  found 
in  greatest  number  and  variety  in 
Africa.  Well-known  species  are  the 
chamois  (European),  the  gazelle,  the 
addax,  the  eland,  the  koodoo,  the  gnu, 
the  springbok,  the  sasin  or  Indian  ante- 
lope, and  the  prongbuck  of  America. 

ANTEN'N.®,  the  name  given  to  the 
movable  jointed  organs  of  touch  and 
hearing  attached  to  the  heads  of  insects. 


1,  1,  Filiform  Antenn®  of  Cucujo  Firefly  of 
Brazil.  2,  Denticulate  Antenna;  3,  Bipinnate; 
4,  Lamelllcorn;  5,  Clavate;  6,  Geniculate;  7, 
Antenna  and  Antennule  of  Crustacean. 


myriapods,  etc.,  and  commonly  called 
horns  or  feelers.  They  present  a very 
great  variety  of  forms. 

AN'THEM,  originally  a hymn  sung 
in  alternate  parts;  in  modern  usage,  a 
sacred  tune  or  piece  of  music  set  to 
words  taken  from  the  Psalms  or  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  first-  introduced 
into  church  service  in  Elizabeth’s  reign ; 
a developed  motet.  The  anthem  may 
be  for  one,  two,  or  any  number  of  voices, 
but  seldom  exceeds  five  parts,  and  may 
or  may  not  have  an  organ  accompani- 
ment written  for  it. 

ANTHE'MION,  an  ornament  or  orna- 
mental series  used  in  Greek  and  Roman 
decoration,  which  is  derived  from  floral 
forms,  more  especially  the  honeysuckle. 


It  was  much  used  for  the  ornamentation 
of  friezes  and  interiors,  for  the  decora- 
tion of  fictile  vases,  the  borders  of 

/iT'OCC^Q 

ANTHOL'OGY,  the  name  given  to 
several  collections  of  short  poems  which 
have  come  down  from  antiquity. 

AN'THONY,  St.,  the  founder  of 
monastic  institutions;  born  near  Her- 
aclea,  in  Upper  Egypt,  a.d.  251.  Giv- 
ing up  all  his  property,  he  retired  to  the 
desert,  where  he  was  followed  by  a num- 
ber of  disciples,  who  thus  formed  the 
first  community  of  monks.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  105. — St.  Anthony’s  Fire,  a 
name  given  to  erysipelas. 


ANTHONY,  Susan  B.,  the  founder  of 
the  woman  suffrage  movement  in  the 
United  States.  She  was  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1820,  partook  in  the  aboli- 
tionist movement,  and  in  1868  founded 
The  Revolution,  a journal  advocating 
woman’s  rights.  She  voted  at  the  elec- 
tion of  1872  and  was  arrested  and  fined. 
She  wrote  several  tracts  and  books, 
principally  on  woman’s  rights. 

ANTHRACITE,  glance  or  blind  coal, 
a non-bituminous  coal  of  a shining 
luster,  approaching  to  metallic,  and 
which  burns  without  smoke,  with  a 
weak  or  no  flame,  and  with  intense  heat. 
It  consists  of,  on  an  average,  90  per  cent 
carbon,  3 hydrogen,  and  5 ashes.  It 
has  some  of  the  properties  of  coke  or 
charcoal,  and,  like  that  substance,  repre- 
sents an  extreme  metamorphism  of  coal 
under  the  influence  of  heat  or  of  vol- 
canic disturbance.  It  is  found  in  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  in 
large  quantities  in  the  United  States, 
chiefly  in  Pennsylvania. 

ANTHRAX,  a fatal  disease- to  which 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  other  animals 
are  subject,  always  associated  with  the 
presence  of  an  extremely  minute  micro- 
organism in  the  blood.  It  frequently 
assumes  an  epizootic  form,  and  extends 
over  large  districts,  affecting  all  classes 
of  animals  which  are  exposed  to  the 
exciting  causes.  It  is  also  called  splenic 
fever,  and  is  communicable  to  man, 
appearing  as.  carbuncle,  malignant  pus- 
tule, or  wool-sorter’s  disease. 

ANTHROPOL'OGY,  the  science  of 
man  and  mankind,  including  the  study 
of  man’s  place  in  nature,  that  is,  of  the 
measure  of  his  agreement  with  and 
divergence  from  other  animals;  of  his 
physical  structure  and  psychological 
nature,  together  with  the  extent  to 
which  these  act  and  react  on  each  other ; 
and  of  the  various  tribes  of  men,  deter- 
mining how  these  may  have  been  pro- 
duced or  modified  by  external  condi- 
tions, and  consequently  taking  account 
also  of  the  advance  or  retrogression  of 
the  human  race.  It  puts  under  contri- 
bution all  sciences  which  have  man  for 
their  object,  as  archaeology,  compara- 
tive anatomy,  physiology,  psychology, 
climatology,  etc.  See  Ethnology. 

ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM,  the  repre- 
sentation or  conception  of  the  Deity 
under  a human  form,  or  with  human 
attributes  and  affections.  Anthropo- 
morphism is  founded  in  the  natural 
inaptitude  of  the  human  mind  for  con- 
ceiving spiritual  things  except  through 
sensuous  images,  and  in  its  consequent 
tendency  to  accept  such  expressions  as 
those  of  Scripture  when  it  speaks  of  the 
eye,  the  ear,  and  the  hand  of  God,  of 
his  seeing  and  hearing,  of  his  remember- 
ing and  forgetting,  of  his  making  man 
in  his  own  image,  etc.,  in  a too  literal 

S6II1S6. 

ANTHROPOPH'AGI,  the  name  given 
to  those  individuals  or  tribes  by  whom 
human  flesh  is  eaten : man-eaters,  canni- 
bals. The  Caribs  are  said  to  have  been 
cannibals  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest  of  America,  and  the  word 
“cannibal”  is  derived  from  their  name. 

ANTICHRIST,  a word  occurring  in 
the  first  and  second  epistles  of  St.  John, 
and  nowhere  else  in  Scripture,  in  pas- 
sages having  an  evident  reference  to  a 


ANTICLINAL  LINE  OR  AXIS 


ANTIOCH 


personage  real  or  symbolical  mentioned 
or  alluded  to  in  various  other  passages 
both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
In  every  age  the  church  has  held  through 
all  its  sects  some  definite  expectation  of 
a formidable  adversary  of  truth  and 
righteousness  prefigured  under  this 
name.  Thus  Roman  Catholics  have 
found  Antichrist  in  heresy,  and  Prot- 
estants in  Romanism.  In  one  point  the 


a a 


a,  a,  a,  Anticlinal  line,  b,  b,  Synclinal  line. 

sects  have  generally  been  agreed,  namely 
in  regarding  the  various  intimations  on 
this  subject  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments as  a homogeneous  declaration  or 
warning,  inspired  by  the  spirit  of  proph- 
ecy, of  clanger  to  the  true  religion  from 
some  disaffection  and  revolt  organized 
in  the  latter  days  by  Satan.  Most  mod- 
ern critics  take  a different  view  of  the 
matter.  They  do  not  regard  the  various 
Scriptural  writers  who  have  dealt  with 
this  subject  as  having  had  any  common 
inspiration  or  design.  They  believe  that 
each  writer  from  his  own  point  of  view, 
guided  by  mere  human  sagacity,  gives 
expression  in  his  predictions  to  his  own 
individual  apprehensions,  or  narrates 
as  prediction  what  he  already  knows. 
It  is  the  near  political  horizon  which 
suggests  the  danger,  or  contemporary 
history  the  substance  of  the  prophecy; 
thus  the  Antichrist  of  Daniel  is  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanes,  that  of  St.  John  Nero, 
that  of  St.  Paul  some  adversary  of 
Christianity  about  to  appear  in  the  time 
of  the  Emperor  Claudius. 

ANTICLI'NAL  LINE  OR  AXIS,  in 
geology,  the  ridge  of  a wave-like  curve 
made  by  a series  of  superimposed  strata, 
the  strata  dipping  from  it  on  either  side 
as  from  the  ridge  of  a house : a synclinal 
line  runs  along  the  trough  of  such  a 
wave. 

ANTICOS'TI,  an  island  of  Canada,  in 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  125 
miles  long  by  30  miles  broad.  The  in- 
terior is  mountainous  and  wooded,  but 
there  is  much  good  land,  and  it  is  well 
adapted  for  agriculture.  The  fisheries 
are  valuable.  The  population  is  scanty, 
however. 

AN'TIDOTE,  a medicine  to  counter- 
act the  effects  of  poison. 

ANTIETAM  (an-te'tam),  a small 
stream  in  the  United  States  which  falls 
into  the  Potomac  about  50  miles  n.w. 
of  Washington;  scene  of  an  indecisive 
battle  between  the  Federal  and  Con- 
federate armies,  17th  Sept.,  1862. 

AN'TI-FED'ERALISTS,  a certain  po- 
litical party  in  the  United  States. 
The  Federalists  believed  in  a national 
system  of  government,  while  the  Anti- 
Federalists  believed  in  a decentralized 
and  strictly  federal  system  of  govern- 
ment. The  Federalists  had  the  advan- 
tages of  possessing  a positive  program 
and  of  gaining  the  first  two  points  in 
the  conflict  when  the  national  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  and  when  they  com- 
mitted the  national  government  to  the 
exercise  of  such  extensive  powers  as 


the  creation  of  a national  bank.  The 
Anti-Federalists  were  thus  merely  a 
party  of  political  opposition  to  the  party 
in  power.  When,  however,  the  Feder- 
alists, in  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts, 
seemed  to  encroach  both  upon  the 
liberty  of  the  individual  and  upon  the 
j’urisdiction  of  the  States,  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  Anti-Federalists  became 
acute  and  their  fundamental  proposi- 
tions were  stated  in  the  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  Resolutions.  This  crisis  re- 
sulted in  the  triumph  of  the  Anti- 
Federalists  under  the  leardership  of 
Jefferson  in  the  election  of  1800;  but 
soon  thei’eafter  the  leaders  of  the  party 
began  to  abandon  its  original  creed  of 
the  strict  interpretation  of  the  constitu- 
tion and  the  narrow  limitation  of  the 
powers  of  the  national  government. 
The  first  step  in  this  direction  was  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana ; and  when  finally 
the  Federalists  party  was  driven  en- 
tirely out  of  existence,  its  character- 
istic principles  remained  effective  as  the 
chief  principle  of  the  Anti-Federalist 
party. 

ANTIFRICTION  METAL,  a name 
given  to  various  alloys  of  tin,  zinc, 
copper,  antimony,  lead,  etc.,  which 
oppose  little  resistance  to  motion,  with 
great  resistance  to  the  effects  of  friction, 
so  far  as  concerns  the  wearing  away  of 
the  surfaces  of  contact. 

ANTIGONE  (an-tig'o-ne),  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  daughter  of  QSdipus  and 
Jocasta,  celebrated  for  her  devotion  to 
her  father  and  to  her  brother  Polynices, 
for  burying  whom  against  the  decree  of 
King  Creon  she  suffered  death. 

ANTIGUA  (an-te'ga),  one  of  the  Brit- 
ish West  Indies,  the  most  important  of 
the  Leeward  group;  28  miles  long,  20 
broad;  area,  108  square  miles.  Discov- 
ered by  Columbus,  1493.  Its  shores  are 


high  and  rocky ; the  surface  is  varied  and 
fertile.  The  capital,  St.  John,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  governor  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  stands  on  the  shore  of  a well- 
sheltered  harbor  in  the  north-west  part 
of  the  island.  The  staple  articles  of  ex- 
port are  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum. 
Pop.  (including  Barbuda),  56,175. 

ANTILLES  (aii-til'ez),  another  name 
for  the  West  Indian  Islands. 

ANTIMACASS'AR,  a covering  for 
chairs,  sofas,  couches,  etc.,  made  of 


open  cotton  or  wasted  work,  to  pre- 
serve them  from  being  soiled,  as  by  the 
oil  applied  to  the  hair. 

ANTI-MONOPOLY  PARTY,  a political 
party  organized^  at  Chicago  May  14, 
1884,  with  Benjamin  F.  Butler  as  its 
candidate  for  president.  Its  demands 
were  an  interstate  commerce  law,  an 
income  tax,  free  trade,  and  legalized 
labor  unionism.  It  was  afterward 
merged  with  the  Greenback  and  Popu- 
list parties. 

AN'TIMONY,  a brittle  metal  of  a 
bluish-white  or  silver-white  color  and  a 
crystalline  or  laminated  structure.  It 
melts  at  842°  F.,  and  burns  with  a 
bluish-white  flame.  The  mineral  called 
stibnite,  or  antimony-glance,  is  a tri- 
sulphide, and  is  the  chief  ore  from  which 
the  metal  is  obtained.  It  is  found  in 
many  places,  including  France,  Spain, 
Hungary,  Italy,  Canada,  Australia,  and 
Borneo.  The  metal,  or,  as  it  was  for- 
merly called,  the  regulus  of  antimony, 
does  not  rust  or  tarnish  when  exposed 
to  the  air.  When  alloyed  with  other 
metals  it  hardens  them,  and  is  there- 
fore used  in  the  manufacture  of  alloys, 
such  as  Britannia-metal,  type-metal, 
and  pewter.  In  bells  it  renders  the 
sound  more  clear;  it  renders  tin  more 
white  and  sonorous  as  well  as  harder, 
and  gives  to  printing  types  more  firm- 
ness and  smoothness.  The  salts  of 
antimony  are  very  poisonous.  The 
protoxide  is  the  active  base  of  tartar 
emetic  and  James’s  powder,  and  is 
justly  regarded  as  a most  valuable 
remedy  in  many  diseases. — Yellow  anti- 
mony is  a preparation  of  antimony  of  a 
deep  yellow  color,  used  in  enamel  and 
porcelain  painting.  It  is  of  various 
tints,  and  the  brilliancy  of  the  brighter 
hues  is  not  affected  by  foul  air. 

ANTIN'OMY,  the  opposition  of  one 


law  of  rule  to  another  law  or  rule;  in 
the  Kantian  philosophy,  that  natural 
contradiction  which  results  from  the  law 
of  reason,  when,  passing  the  limits  of 
experience,  we  seek  to  conceive  the  com- 
plex of  external  phenomena,  or  nature, 
as  a world  or  cosmos. 

ANTIOCH  (an'ti-ok),  a famous  city 
of  ancient  times,  the  capital  of  the 
Greek  kings  of  Syria,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Orontes,  about  21  miles  from  the 
sea,  in  a beautiful  and  fertile  plain; 


St.  John,  Antigua. 


ANTIOCHUS 


ANTISPASMODIC 


founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  in  300  B.c., 
and  named  after  hig  father  Antiochus. 
In  Roman  times  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
Syrian  governors,  and  the  center  of  a 
widely-extended  commerce.  It  was 
called  the  “Queen  of  the  East”  and 
“The  Beautiful.”  Antioch  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
it  was  here  that  the  disciples  of  our 
Savior  were  first  called  Christians 
(Acts  xi.  26).  There  was  another  An- 
tioch, in  Pisidia,  at  which  Paul  preached 
on  his  first  missionary  journey. 

ANTIOCHUS  (an-ti'o-kus),  a name  of 
several  Grajco-Syrian  kings  of  the 
dynasty  of  the  Seleucidae.  ANTIOCHUS 
I.,  called  (“savior”),  was  son  of  Seleucus, 
general  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
founder  of  the  dynasty.  He  was  born 
about  B.c.  324.  During  the  greater 
part  of  his  reign  he  was  engaged  in  a 
protracted  struggle  with  the  Gauls  who 
had  crossed  from  Europe,  and  by  whom 
he  was  killed  in  battle  b.c.  261. — ANTI- 
OCHUS II.,  surnamed  Theos  (godl, 
succeeded  his  father,  was  murdered  in 


was  assigned  to  Antipater,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  the  Macedonian 
rule  in  Greece  on  a firm  footing.  He 
died  in  b.c.  317  at  an  advanced  age. 

ANTIP'ATHY,  a special  dislike  exhib- 
ited by  individuals  to  particular  objects 
or  persons,  usually  resulting  from  phys- 
ical or  nervous  organization.  An  antip- 
athy is  often  an  unaccountable  repug- 
nance to  what  people  in  general  regard 
with  no  particular  dislike,  as  certain 
sounds,  smells,  articles  of  food,  etc.,  and 
it  may  be  manifested  by  fainting  or 
extreme  discomfort. 

ANTIPODES  (an-tip'o-dez),  the  name 
given  relatively  to  people  or  places  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth,  so  situated 
that  a line  drawn  from  one  to  the  other 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  earth 
and  forms  a true  diameter.  The  longi- 
tudes of  two  such  places  differ  by  180°. 
The  difference  in  their  time  is  about 
twelve  hours,  and  their  seasons  are  re- 
versed. 

AN'TIPOPE,  the  name  applied  to 
those  who  at  different  periods  have  pro- 


and  the  like,  and  more  especially  to  the 
works  of  Grecian  and  Roman  antiquity. 

ANTI-RENTISM,  a movement  organ- 
ized to  uproot  a kind  of  feudalism 
existing  in  certain  counties  in  New  York. 
It  lasted  from  1839  to  1847,  during 
which  time  there  were  many  evictions. 
The  - system  of  feudal  tenures  was 
broken  up  in  1846  by  the  insertion  in 
the  new  constitution  of  New  York  of 
a clause  abolishing  all  feudal  tenures 
and  limiting  agricultural  leases  to 
twelve  years. 

ANTIRRHINUM  (an-ti-ri'num),  a ge- 
nus of  annual  or  perennial  plants,  com- 
monly known  as  snapdragon,  on  account 
of  the  peculiarity  of  the  blossoms,  which, 
by  pressing  between  the  finger  and 
thumb,  may  be  made  to  open  and  shut 
like  a mouth.  They  all  produce  showy 
flowers,  and  are  much  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

ANTI-SEMITISM,  a term  describing 
SL  movement  in  Russia,  France,  Austria, 
Germany,  and  other  countries  in  Europe, 
by  which  it  is  sought  to  limit  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Jews  and  otherwise  harass 
them.  In  Germany  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  have  been  among  the  most 
eminent  of  German  scholars. 

Since  its  organization  in  Germany 
the  Anti-Semitic  Party  has  been  organ- 
ized in  Russia,  Austria,  Greece,  and 
Holland.  As  the  Jews  in  Russia  are  to  a 
great  extent  kept  out  of  the  ordinary 
trades,  many  of  them  have  resorted  to 
the  business  of  money  lending,  and  by 
means  of  mortgages  placed  to  secure 
loans  they  have  obtained  control  of  small 
landed  properties.  This  fact,  coupled 
with  religious  prejudice,  caused  the 
Anti-Semitic  movement  in  Russia,  about 
twenty  years  ago,  to  assume  a most 
violent  form.  Laws  preventing  them 
from  entering  professions  and  from, 
living  in  places  other  than  towns  and 
hamlets  were  vigorously  enforced.  In 
some  cities,  where  a majority  of  the 
people  were  Jews,  they  were  expelled 
without  warning.  The  fierce  perse- 
cution to  which  the  Jews  have  been 
subjected  in  Russia  and  Roumania  has 
caused  an  emigration  on  a vast  scale  to 
the  United  States. 

ANTISEPTIC,  an  agent  by  which  the 
putrefaction  of  vegetable  or  animal 
matters  is  prevented  or  arrested.  There 
are  a great  number  of  substances  having 
this  preservative  property,  among  which 
are  salt,  alcohol,  vegetable  charcoal, 
creosote,  corrosive  sublimate,  tannic 
acid,  sulphurous  acid,  sulphuric  ether, 
chloroform,  arsenic,  wood-spirit,  aloes, 
camphor,  benzine,  aniline,  etc.  The 
packing  of  fish  in  ice,  and  the  curing 
of  herring  and  other  fish  with  salt,  are 
familiar  antiseptic  processes.  The  dif- 
ferent antiseptics  act  in  different  ways. 
The  term  is  applied  in  a specific  man- 
ner to  that  mode  of  treatment  in  sur- 
gery by  which  air  is  excluded  from 
wounds,  or  allowed  access  only  through 
substances  capable  of  destroying  the 
germs  in  the  atmosphere,  on  whose 
presence  suppuration  is  assumed  to 
depend. 

ANTISPASMODTC,  a medicine  proper 
for  the  cure  of  spasms  and  convulsions; 
such  belong  largely  to  the  class  of  ethers, 
as  sulphuric  ether,  chloric  ether,  nitric 
ether,  etc. 


Medal  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 


B.c.  246  by  Laodice,  his  wife,  whom  he 
had  put  away  to  marry  Berenice, 
daughter  of  Ptolemy. —ANTIOCHUS 
III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  b.c.  242,  succeeded 
in  B.c.  223.  Antiochus  gained  an  im- 
portant adviser  in  Hannibal,  who  had 
fled  for  refuge  to  his  court;  but  he  lost 
the  opportunity  of  an  invasion  of  Italy 
while  the  Romans  were  engaged  in  war 
with  the  Gauls,  of  which  the  Cartha- 
ginian urged  him  to  avail  himself.  The 
Romans  defeated  him  by  sea  and  land, 
and  he  was  finally  overthrown  by  Scipio 
at  Mount  Sipylus,  in  Asia  Minor,  B.c. 
190.  He  was  killed  while  plundering 
a temple  in  Elymais  to  procure  money 
to  pay  the  Romans. — ANTIOCHUS  IV., 
called  Epiphanes,  youngest  son  of  the 
above,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  his 
attempt  to  extirpate  the  Jewish  religion, 
and  to  establish  in  its  place  the  poly- 
theism of  the  Greeks.  This  led  to  the 
insurrection  of  the  Maccabees,  by  which 
the  Jews  ultimately  recovered  their 
independence.  He  died  B.c.  164. 

ANTIOQUIA  (an-te-6-ke'ft),  a town  of 
S.  America,  in  Colombia,  on  the  river 
Cauca;  founded  in  1542.  Pop.  10,000. 
It  gives  name  to  a department  of  the 
republic;  area,  22,316  sq.  miles;  pop. 
464,887.  Capital,  Medellin. 

ANTIP'ATER,  a general  and  friend  of 
Philm  of  Macedon,  father  of  Alexander 
the  Cireat.  On  the  death  of  Alexander, 
in  323  B.C.,  the  regency  of  Macedonia 


duced  a schism  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  by  opposing  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  under  the  pretense  that  they  were 
themselves  popes.  The  Roman  Church 
cannot  admit  that  there  ever  existed  two 
popes;  but  the  fact  is,  that  in  several 
cases  both  competitors  for  the  papal 
chair  (sometimes  there  were  three  or 
even  four)  were  equally  popes;  that 
is  to  say,  the  claims  of  all  were  equally 
good.  Each  was  frequently  supported 
by  whole  nations,  and  the  schism  was 
nothing  but  the  struggle  of  political  in- 
tGr0sts 

ANTIPY'RIN,  a drug  obtained  from 
coal-tar  products,  valuable  in  reducing 
fever  and  in  relieving  pain,  being  much 
used  in  nervous  headache  and  neural- 
gia. 

ANTIQUARIES,  those  devoted  to  the 
study  of  ancient  times  through  their 
relics,  as  old  places  of  sepulcher,  remains 
of  ancient  habitations,  early  monu- 
ments, implements  or  weapons,  statues, 
coins,  medals,  paintings.  Inscriptions, 
books,  and  manuscripts,  with  the  view 
of  arriving  at  a knowledge  of  the  rela- 
tions, modes  of  living,  habits,  and 
general  condition  of  the  people  who 
created  or  employed  them.  Societies 
or  associations  of  antiquaries  have  been 
formed  in  all  countries  of  European 
civilization. 

ANTIQUES  (an-teks'),  a term  specifi- 
cally applied  to  the  remains  of  ancient 
art,  as  statues,  paintings,  vases,  cameos, 


ANTISTHENES 


anHoniub 


ANTISTHENES  (an-tis'the-nez),  a 
Greek  philosopher  and  the  founder  of 
the  ichool  of  Cynics,  born  at  Athens 
about  B.c.  444.  He  was  first  a disciple 
of  Gorgias  and  then  of  Socrates,  at  whose 
death  he  was  present.  His  philosophy 
was  a one-sided  development  of  the 
Socratic  teaching.  He  held  virtue  to 
consist  in  complete  self-denial  and  in 


Marie  Antoinette. 


disregard  of  riches,  honor,  or  pleasure 
of  every  kind.  He  himself  lived  as  a 
beggar.  He  died  in  Athens  at  an  ad- 
vanced age. 

ANTITOXIN,  a substance  secreted  in 
the  blood  of  animals  which  counteracts 
the  effects  of  the  toxin,  or  toxins 
(poisonous  substances),  produced  in  the 
animal  by  the  germs  which  find  their 
way  into  the  body  and  multiply  there. 
Natural  antitoxins  make  the  body 
immune  to  germ  diseases,  but  although 
it  has  been  impossible  as  yet  to  manu- 
facture these  substances  except  in  the 
animal  body,  this  method  has  been 
found  quite  efficatious  in  the  treatment 
of  disease.  The  germs  of  diphtheria,  for 
example,  are  injected  into  a mule  or  a 
horse.  The  animal  becomes  infected, 
but  recovers.  On  its  recovery  a second 
injection  is  given,  and  so  on  until 
further  injections  have  no  effect.  The 
animal  is  then  “immune.”  Serum 
taken  from  the  body  of  the  immunized 
animal  is  then  injected  into  a human 
patient  suffering  with  the  disease,  and 
recovery  quickly  follows.  This  art 
is  called  serum  therapy,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  almost  all  germ  diseases  will 
eventually  be  conquered  by  it. 

ANTITRINITA'RIANS,  all  who  do  not 
receive  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  Trin- 
ity, or  the  existence  of  three  persons  in 
the  Godhead;  especially  applied  to 
those  who  oppose  such  a doctrine  on 
^philosophical  grounds,  as  contrasted 
with  Unitarians,  who  reject  the  doctrine 
as  not  warranted  by  Scripture. 

ANT-LION,  the  larva  of  an  insect 
which  in  its  perfect  state  greatly  resem- 


bles a dragon-fly ; curious  on  account  of 
its  ingenious  method  of  catching  the  in- 
sects— chiefly  ants — on  which  it  feeds. 
It  digs  a funnel-shaped  hole  in  the  driest 
and  finest  sand  it  can  find,  and,  when 
the  pit  is  deep  enough,  and  the  sides  are 
quite  smooth  and  sloping,  it  buries 
itself  at  the  bottom  with  only  its  formid- 
able mandibles  projecting,  and  waits 
till  some  luckless  insect  stumbles  over 
the  edge,  when  it  is  immediately  seized, 
its  juices  sucked,  and  the  dead  body 
jerked  from  the  hole. 

ANTOINETTE  (in-twa-net),  Marie 
(Marie  Antoinette  Joseph  Jeanne  de 
Lorraine),  Archduchess  of  Austria  and 
Queen  of  France,  the  youngest  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  and  of  Maria 
Theresa,  was  born  at  Vienna,  2d  Novem- 
ber, 1755;  executed  at  Paris,  16th  Oct. 
1793.  She  was  married  at  the  age  of 
fifteen  to  the  Dauphin,  afterward  Louis 
XVI.,  but  her  manners  were  ill-suited  to 
the  French  court,  and  she  made  many 
enemies  among  the  highest  families  by 
her  contempt  for  its  ceremonies,  which 
excited  her  ridicule.  The  freedom  of 
her  manners,  indeed,  even  after  she  be- 
came queen,  was  a cause  of  scandal. 
The  extraordinary  affair  of  the  diamond 
necklace,  in  which  the  Cardinal  Louis 
de  Rohan,  the  great  quack  Cagliostro, 
and  a certain  Countess  de  Lamotte  were 
the  chief  actors,  tarnished  her  name, 
and  added  force  to  the  calumnies  against 
her.  Though  it  was  proved  in  the 
examination  which  she  demanded  that 
she  had  never  ordered  the  necklace, 
her  enemies  succeeded  in  casting  a 
stigma  on  her,  and  the  credulous  people 
laid  every  public  disaster  to  her  charge. 
There  is  no  doubt  she  had  great  influ- 
ence over  the  king,  and  that  she  con- 
stantly opposed  all  measures  of  reform. 
The  enthusiastic  reception  given  her  at 
the  guards’  ball  at  Versaines  on  1st  Oc- 
tober, 1789,  raised  the  general  indigna- 
tion to  the  highest  pitch,  and  was  fol- 
lowed in  a few  days  by  the  insurrection 
of  women,  and  the  attack  on  Versailles. 
When  practically  prisoners  in  the  Tuile- 
ries  it  was  she  who  advised  the  flight 
of  the  royal  family  in  June,  1791,  which 
ended  in  their  capture  and  return.  ()n 
10th  August,  1792,  she  heard  her  hus- 
band’s deposition  pronounced  by  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  and  accompanied 
him  to  the  prison  in  the  Temple,  where 
she  displayed  the  magnanimity  of  a 
heroine  and  the  patient  endurance  of  a 
martyr.  In  January,  1793,  she  parted 
with  her  husband,  who  had  been  con- 
demned by  the  Convention;  in  August 
she  was  removed  to  the  Conciergerie ; 
and  in  October  she  was  charged  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal  with  having 
dissipated  the  finances,  exhausted  the 
treasury,  corresponded  with  the  foreign 
enemies  of  France,  and  favored  the 
domestic  foes  of  the  country.  She 
defended  herself  with  firmness,  decision, 
and  indignation ; and  hea  rd  the  sentence 
of  death  pronounced  with  perfect  calm- 
ness— a calmness  which  did  not  forsake 
her  when  the  sentence  was  carried  out 
the  following  morning.  Her  son,  eight 
years  of  age,  died  shortly  afterward,  as 
was  generally  believed  by  poison,  and 
her  daughter  was  suffered  to  quit  France, 
and  afterward  married  her  cousin  the 
Duke  of  Angouleme. 


ANTONI'NUS,  Marcus  Aurelius.  See 
Aurelius. 

ANTONI'NUS  PIUS,  Titus  Aurelius 
Fulvus,  Roman  emperor,  was  born  at 
Lavinium,  near  Rome,  a.d.  86,  died  a.d. 
161.  In  A.D.  120  he  became  consul,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  four  persons  of  con- 
sular rank  among  whom  Hadrian 
divided  the  supreme  administration  of 
Italy.  He  then  went  as  proconsul  to 
Asia,  and  after  his  return  to  Rome 
became  more  and  more  the  object  of 
Hadrian’s  confidence.  In  a.d.  138  he 
was  selected  by  that  emperor  as  his 
successor,  and  the  same  year  he  ascended 
the  throne.  The  persecutions  of  the 
Christians  he  speedily  abolished.  He 


Coin  ot  Antoninus  Pius. 


carried  on  but  a few  wars.  In  Britain 
he  extended  the  Roman  dominion,  and 
by  raising  a new  wall  put  a stop  to  the 
invasions  of  the  Piets  and  Scots.  The 
senate  gave  him  the  surname  Pius,  that 
is,  dutiful  or  showing  filial  affection,  be- 
cause to  keep  alive  the  memory  of 
Hadrian  he  had  built  a temple  in  his 
honor.  He  was  succeeded  by  Marcus 
Aurelius,  his  adopted  son. 

ANTO'NIUS,  Marcus  (Mark  Antony), 
Roman  triumvir,  born  83  b.c.,  was 
connected  with  the  family  of  C®sar  by 
his  mother.  Debauchery  and  prod- 
igality marked  his  youth.  To  escape 
his  creditors  he  went  to  Greece  in  58, 
and  from  thence  followed  the  consul 
Gabinius  on  a campaign  in  Syria  as 
commander  of  the  cavalry.  He  served 
in  Gaul  under  Caesar  in  52  and  51. 
In  50  he  returned  to  Rome  to  support 
the  interests  of  Caesar  against  the  aristb- 
cratical  party  headed  by  Pompey,  and 
was  appointed  tribune.  When  war 
broke  out  between  Caesar  and  Pompey, 
Antony  led  reinforcements  to  Caesar 
in  Greece,  and  in  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
he  commanded  the  left  wing.  He  alter- 
ward  returned  to  Rome  with  the  ap- 
pointment of  master  of  the  horse  and 
governor  of  Italy  (47).  In  b.c.  44  he 
became  Caesar’s  colleague  in  the  consul- 
ship. Soon  after  Caesar  was  assassinat- 
ed, and  Antony  would  have  shared  the 
same  fate  had  not  Brutus  stood  up  in 
his  behalf.  Antony,  by  the  reading  of 
Caesar’s  will,  and  by  the  oration  which 
he  delivered  over  his  body,  excited  the 
people  to  anger  and  revenge,  and  the 
murderers  were  obliged  to  flee.  After 
several  quarrels  and  reconciliations 
with  Octavianus,  Caesar’s  heir  (see 
Augustus),  Antony  departed  to  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  which  province  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him  against  the  will  of  the 
senate.  But  Cicero  thundered  against 
him  in  his  famous  Philippics ; the  sen- 
ate declared  him  a public  enemy,  and 


ANTONY 


Apennines 


intrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  against 
him  to  Octavianus  and  the  consuls 
Hirtius  and  Pansa.  After  a campaign 
of  varied  fortunes  Antony  fled  with  his 
troops  over  the  Alps.  Here  he  was 
joined  by  Lepidus,  who  commanded  in 
Gaul,  and  through  whose  mediation 
Antony  and  Octavianus  were  again  rec- 
onciled. It  was  agreed  that  the  Roman 
world  should  be  divided  among  the 
three  conspirators,  who  were  called 
triumvirs.  Antony  was  to  take  Gaul; 
Lepidus,  Spain ; and  Octavianus,  Africa 
and  Sicily.  They  decided  upon  the 
proscription  of  their  mutual  enemies, 
each  giving  up  his  friends  to  the  others, 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  victims  being 
Cicero  the  orator.  Antony  and  Octavi- 
anus departed  in  42  for  Macedonia, 
where  the  united  forces  of  their  enemies, 
Brutus  and  Cassius,  formed  a powerful 
army,  which  was,  however,  speedily  de- 
feated at  Philippi.  Antony  next  visited 
Athens,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Asia. 
In  Cilicia  he  ordered  Cleopatra,  queen 
of  Egypt,  to  apologize  for  her  inso- 
lent behavior  to  the  triumviri.  She  ap- 
peared in  person,  and  her  charms 
fettered  him  forever.  He  followed  her 
to  Alexandria,  where  he  bestowed  not 
even  a thought  upon  the  affairs  of  the 
world,  till  he  was  aroused  by  a report 
that  hostilities  had  commenced  in  Italy 
between  his  own  relatives  and  Octavia- 
nus. A short  war  followed,  which  was 
decided  in  favor  of  Octavianus  before 
the  arrival  of  Antony  in  Italy.  A recon- 
ciliation was  effected,  which  was  sealed 
by  the  marriage  of  Antony  with  Octavia, 
he  sister  of  Octavianus.  A new  division 
of  the  Roman  dominions  was  now  made 
fin  40),  by  which  Antony  obtained  the 
east,  Octavianus  the  west.  After  his 
return  to  Asia  Antony  gave  himself  up 
entirely  to  Cleopatra,  assuming  the 
style  of  an  Eastern  despot,  and  so 
alienating  many  of  his  adherents  and 
embittering  public  opinion  against  him 
at  Rome.  At  length  war  was  declared 
at  Rome  against  the  Queen  of  Egypt, 
and  Antony  was  deprived  of  his  consul- 
ship and  government.  Each  party 
assembled  its  forces,  and  Antony  lost, 
in  the  naval  battle  at  Actium  (b.c.  31), 
the  dominion  of  the  world.  He  followed 
Cleopatra  to  Alexandria,  and  on  the 
arrival  of  Octavianus  his  fleet  and 
cavalry  deserted,  and  his  infantry 
was  defeated.  Deceived  by  a false  re- 
port which  Cleopatra  had  disseminated 
of  her  death,  he  fell  upon  his  own  sword 
(B.c.  30). 

ANTONY,  Mark.  See  Antonius,  Mar- 
cus. 

AN'TRIM,  a county  of  Ireland,  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  in  the  northeast  of  the 
island;  area,  762,080  acres,  of  which 
about  a third  are  arable.  The  eastern 
and  nothern  districts  are  comparatively 
mountainous,  with  tracts  of  heath  and 
bog,  but  no  part  rises  to  a great  height. 
The  principal  towns  are  Belfast,  Bally- 
mena, and  Larne.  Pop.  461,240. — The 
town  of  Antrim,  at  the  north  end  of 
Lough  Neagh,  is  a small  place  with  a 
pop.  of  1385. 

^NT'WERP,  the  chief  port  of  Bel- 
gium, and  the  capital  of  a province  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Scheldt,  about 
50  miles  from  the  open  sea.  The  cathe- 
dral, with  a spire  409  feet  high,  one  of  the 


largest  and  most  beautiful  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  Belgium,  con- 
tains Rubens’s  celebrated  masterpieces, 
the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  the  Eleva- 
tion of  the  Cross,  and  The  Assumption. 
The  other  churches  of  note  are  St. 
.Tames’s,  St.  Andrew’s,  and  St.  Paul’s, 
all  enriched  with  paintings  by  Rubens, 


Antwerp  cathedral,  from  the  egg  market. 


Vandyck,  and  other  masters.  Antwerp 
is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  8th  cen- 
tury, and  in  the  11th  and  12th  it  had  at- 
tained a high  degree  of  prosperity.  In 
the  16th  century  it  is  said  to  have  had 
a pop.  of  200,000.  The  wars  between 
the  Netherlands  and  Spain  greatly  in- 
jured its  commerce,  which  was  almost 
ruined  by  the  closing  of  the  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt  in  accordance  with  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  (1648).  It  was  only 
in  the  19th  century  that  its  prosperity 
revived. — Pop.  282,000.  The  province 
consists  of  a fertile  plain  1100  sq.  miles 
in  area,  and  has  a pop.  of  825,156. 

A'NUS,  the  opening  at  the  lower  or 
posterior  extremity  of  the  alimentary 
canal  through  which  the  excrement  or 
waste  products  of  digestion  are  ex- 
pelled. 

AN'VIL,  an  instrument  on  which 
pieces  of  metal  are  laid  for  the  purpose 
of  being  hammered.  The  common 
smith’s  anvil  is  generally  made  of  seven 
pieces;  namely,  the  core  or  body;  the 
four  corners  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging 
its  base;  the  projecting  end,  which  con- 
tains a square  hole  for  the  reception  of  a 
set  or  chisel  to  cut  off  pieces  of  iron ; and 
the  beak  or  conical  end,  used  for  turn- 
ing pieces  of  iron  into  a circular  form, 
etc.  These  pieces  are  each  separately 
welded  to  the  core  and  hammered  so  as 
to  form  a regular  surface  with  the  whole. 
When  the  anvil  has  received  its  due  form 
it  is  faced  with  steel,  and  is  then  tem- 
pered in  cold  water.  The  smith’s  anvil 
is  generally  placed  loose  upon  a wooden 
block.  The  anvil  for  heavy  operations, 
such  as  the  forging  of  ordnance  and 
shafting,  consists  of  a huge  iron  block 
deeply  embedded,  and  resting  on  piles 
of  masonry. 

AORTA,  in  anatomy,  the  great  artery 
or  trunk  of  the  arterial  system,  proceed- 
ing from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart. 


and  giving  origin  to  all  the  arteries  ex- 
cept the  pulmonary.  It  first  rises  to- 
ward the  top  of  the  breast-bone,  when 
it  is  called  the  ascending  aortaj;  then 
makes  a great  curve,  called  the  trans- 
verse or  great  arch  of  the  aorta,  whence 
it  gives  off  branches  to  the  head  and 
upper  extremities ; thence  proceeding 
toward  the  lower  extremities,  under  the 
name  of  the  descending  aorta,  it  gives 
off  branches  to  the  trunk;  and  finally 
divides  into  the  two  iliacs,  which  supply 
the  pelvis  and  lower  extremities. 

APACHES  (a-pa'chez),  a warlike  race 
of  Indians  inhabiting  the  more  unsettled 
parts  of  the  United  States  adjoining 
Mexico,  and  also  the  north  of  Mexico. 
They  live  chiefly  on  horseback,  support 
themselves  by  the  chase  and  plunder, 
and  they  still  maintain  their  independ- 
ence and  hostility  to  the  whites. 

AP'ANAGE,  an  allowance  which  the 
younger  princes  of  a reigning  house  in 
some  European  countries  receive  from 
the  revenues  of  the  country,  generally 
together  with  a grant  of  public  domains, 
that  they  may  be  enabled  to  live  in  a 
manner  becoming  their  rank. 

APARTMENT  HOUSES,  houses  built 
to  accommodate  a number  of  families 
each  in  its  own  set  of  rooms,  which  form 
a separate  dwelling  with  an  entrance  of 
its  own.  The  term  is  chiefly  used  in 
America,  where  such  dwellings  are  of 
comparatively  recent  introduction.  In 
New  York,  Chicago,  and  other  Ameri- 
can cities  there  are  now  great  blocks  of 
such  houses,  which  provide  excellent  and 
commodious  dwellings  at  a lower  rent 
than  if  each  were  a separate  building. 

APE,  a common  name  of  a number  of 
quadrumanous  animals  inhabiting  the 
Old  World  (Asia  and  the  Asiatic  islands, 
and  Africa),  and  including  a variety  of 
species.  The  word  ape  was  formerly 
applied  indiscriminately  to  all  quad- 
rumanous mammals;  but  it  is  now 
limited  to  the  anthropoid  or  man-like 
monkeys.  The  family  includes  the 
chimpanzee,  gorilla,  orang-outang,  etc., 
and  has  been  divided  into  three  genera, 
Troglodytes,  Simla,  and  Hylobates.  See 
Chimpanzee,  Gibbon,  Gorilla,  Orang,  etc. 

AP'ENNINES,  a prolongation  of  the 
Alps,  forming  the  “backbone  of  Italy.” 
Beginning  at  Savona,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  the  Apennines  traverse  the  whole 
of  the  peninsula  and  also  cross  over  into 
Sicily,  the  Strait  of  Messina  being  re- 
garded merely  as  a gap  in  the  chain. 
The  average  height  of  the  mountains 
composing  the  range  is  about  4000  feet, 
and  nowhere  do  they  reach  the  limits  of 
perpetual  snow,  though  some  summits 
exceed  9000  feet  in  height.  Monte 
Corno,  called  also  Gran  Sasso  d’ Italia 
(Great  Rock  of  Italy),  which  rises  among 
the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi,  is  the 
loftiest  of  the  chain,  rising  to  the  height 
of  9541  feet,  Monte  Majella  (9151)  being 
next.  Monte  Gargano,  which  juts  out 
into  the  Adriatic  from  the  ankle  of 
Italy,  is  a mountainous  mass  upward 
of  5000  feet  high,  completely  separated 
from  the  main  chain.  On  the  Adriatic 
side  the  mountains  descend  more  ab- 
ruptly to  the  sea  than  on  the  western  or 
Mediterranean  side,  and  the  streams  are 
comparatively  short  and  rapid.  On  the 
western  side  are  the  valleys  of  the  Arno, 
Tiber,  Garigliano,  and  Volturno,  the 


APERIENT 


APOLLO 


largest  rivers  that  rise  iu  the  Apennines, 
and  the  only  ones  of  importance  in  the 
peninsular  portion  of  Italy.  They  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  limestone  rocks, 
and  are  exceedingly  rich  in  the  finest 
marbles.  On  the  south  slopes  volcanic 
masses  are  not  uncommon.  Mount 
Vesuvius,  the  only  active  volcano  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  is  an  instance. 
The  lower  slopes  are  well  clothed  with 
vegetation,  the  summits  are  sterile  and 
bare.  , 

APE'RIENT,  a medicine  which,  in 
moderate  doses,  gently  but  completely 
opens  the  bowels:  examples,  castor-oil, 
Epsom  salts,  senna,  etc. 

APHA'SIA,  in  pathology,  a symptom 
of  certain  morbid  conditions  of  the 
nervous  system,  in  which  the  patient 
loses  the  power  of  expressing  ideas  by 
means  of  words,  or  loses  the  appropriate 
use  of  words,  the  vocal  organs  the  while 
remaining  intact  and  the  intelligence 
sound.  There  is  sometimes  an  entire 
loss  of  words  as  connected  with  ideas, 
and  sometimes  only  the  loss  of  a few. 
In  one  form  of  the  disease,  called 
aphemia,  the  patient  can  think  and 
write,  but  cannot  speak;  in  another, 
called  agraphia,  he  can  think  and  speak, 
but  cannot  express  his  ideas  in  writing. 
In  a great  majority  of  cases,  where  post- 
mortem examinations  have  been  made, 
morbid  changes  have  been  found  in  the 
left  frontal  convolution  of  the  brain. 

APHE'LION,  that  part  of  the  orbit  of 
the  earth  or  any  other  planet  in  which 
it  is  at  the  point  remotest  from  the  sun. 

APHO'NIA,  in  pathology,  the  greater 
or  less  impairment,  or  the  complete  loss 
of  the  power  of  emitting  vocal  sound. 
The  slightest  and  less  permanent  forms 
often  arise  from  extreme  nervousness, 
fright,  and  hysteria.  Slight  forms  of 
structural  aphonia  are  of  a catarrhal 
nature,  resulting  from  more  or  less  con- 
gestion and  tumefaction  of  the  mucous 
and  submucous  tissues  of  the  larynx 
and  adjoining  parts.  Severer  cases  are 
frequently  occasioned  by  serious  in- 
filtration into  the  submucous  tissue, 
with  or  without  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  larynx  and 
of  its  vicinity.  The  voice  may  also  be 
affected  in  different  degrees  by  inflam- 
matory affections  of  the  fauces  and 
tonsils;  by  tumors  in  these  situations; 
by  morbid  growths  pressing  on  or  im- 
plicating the  larynx  or  trachea;  by 
aneurisms;  and  most  frequently  by 
chronic  laryngitis  and  its  consequences, 
especially  thickening,  ulceration,  etc. 

APH'ORISM,  a brief,  sententious  say- 
ing, in  which  a comprehensive  meaning 
is  involved,  as  “Familiarity  breeds  con- 
tempt” ; “Necessity  has  no  law.” 

APHRODITE  (af-ro-di'te),  the  god- 
dess of  love  among  the  Greeks;  usually 
regarded  as  equivalent  to  the  Roman 
Venus.  A festival  called  Aphrodisia 
was  celebrated  to  her  in  various  parts 
of  Greece,  but  especially  in  Cyprus. 
See  Venus. 

APHTHAE  (af'the),  a disease  occurring 
especially  in  infants,  but  occasionally 
seen  in  old  persons,  and  consisting  of 
small  white  ulcers  upon  the  tongue, 
gums,  inside  of  the  lips,  and  palate, 
resembling  particles  of  curdled  milk: 
commonly  called  thrush  or  milk- 
thrush. 


A'PIA,  the  chief  place  and  trading 
center  of  the  Samoa  Islands,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island  of  Upolu. 

A'PIOS,  a genus  of  leguminous  climb- 
ing plants  producing  edible  tubers  on 
underground  shoots.  An  American 
species  has  been  used  as  a substitute 
for  the  potato,  but  its  tubers,  though 
numerous,  are  small. 

A'PIS,  a bull  to  which  divine  honors 
were  paid  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  regarded  him  as  a symbol  of  Osiris. 
At  Memphis  he  had  a splendid  residence, 
containing  extensive  walks  and  courts 


for  his  entertainment,  and  he  was  waited 
upon  by  a large  train  of  priests,  who 
looked  upon  his  every  movement  as 
oracular.  He  was  not  suffered  to  live 
beyond  twenty-five  years,  being  secretly 
killed  by  the  priests  and  thrown  into  a 
sacred  well.  Another  bull,  character- 
ized by  certain  marks,  as  a black  color, 
a triangle  of  white  on  the  forehead,  a 
white  crescent-shaped  spot  on  the  right 
side,  etc.,  was  selected  in  his  place.  His 
birthday  was  annually  celebrated,  and 
his  death  was  a season  of  public  mourn- 
ing. 

A'PIUM,  a genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  including  celery. 

APLANAT'IC,  in  optics,  a term 
specifically  applied  to  reflectors,  lenses, 
and  combinations  of  them,  capable  of 
transmitting  light  without  spherical 
aberration.  An  aplanatic  lens  is  a lens 
constructed  of  different  media  to  correct 
the  effects  of  the  unequal  refrangibility 
of  the  different  rays. 

APOC'ALYPSE,  the  name  frequently 
given  to  the  last  book  of  the  Nev/  Testa- 
ment, in  the  English  version  called  The 
Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine.  It 
is  generally  believed  that  the  Apoca- 
lypse was  written  by  the  apostle  John 
in  his  old  age  (95-97  a.d.)  in  the  Isle  of 
Patmos,  whither  he  had  been  banished 
by  the  Roman  Emperor  Domitian. 
Anciently  its  genuineness  was  main- 
tained by  Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus, 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and 
many  others;  while  it  was  doubted  by 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  Cyril  of  Jeru- 
salem, Chrysostom,  and,  nearer  our 
own  times,  by  Luther  and  a majority  of 
the  eminent  German  commentators. 
The  Apocalypse  has  been  explained 
differently  by  almost  every  writer  who 
has  ventured  to  interpret  it,  and  has 
furnished  all  sorts  of  sects  and  fanatics 
with  quotations  to  support  their  creeds 
or  pretensions.  The  modern  interpret- 
ers may  be  divided  into  three  schools 
— namely,  the  historical  school,  who 
hold  that  the  prophecy  embraces  the 
whole  history  of  the  church  and  its  foes 


from  the  time  of  its  writing  to  the  end 
of  the  world;  the  Praeterists,  who  hold 
that  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  prophecy  has  been  already  fulfilled, 
and  that  it  refers  chiefly  to  the  triumph 
of  Christianity  over  Paganism  and 
Judaism;  and  the  Futurists,  who  throw 
the  whole  prophecy,  except  the  first 
three  chapters,  forward  upon  a time  not 
yet  reached  by  the  church — a period  of 
no  very  long  duration,  which  is  immedi- 
ately to  precede  Christ’s  second  coming. 

APOCALYPTIC  NUMBER,  the  mystic 
number  666  found  in  Rev.  xiii.  18.  As 
early  as  the  2d  century  ecclesiastical 
writers  found  that  the  name  Antichrist 
was  indicated  by  the  Greek  characters 
expressive  of  this  number.  By  Irenseus 
the  word  Lateinos  was  found  in  the 
letters  of  the  number,  and  the  Roman 
empire  was  therefore  considered  to  be 
Antichrist.  Protestants  generally  be- 
lieve it  has  reference  to  the  Papacy, 
and,  on  the  other  hand.  Catholics  con- 
nect it  with  Protestantism. 

APOCAR'POUS,  in  botany,  a term 
applied  to  such  fruits  as  are  the  produce 
of  a single  flower,  and  are  formed  of  one 
carpel,  or  a number  of  carpels  free  and 
separate  from  each  other. 

APOC'RYPHA,  a term  applied  in  the 
earliest  churches  to  various  sacred  or 
professedly  inspired  writings,  sometimes 
given  to  those  whose  authors  were 
unknown,  sometimes  to  those  with  a 
hidden  meaning,  and  sometimes  to  those 
considered  objectionable.  The  term  is 
specially  applied  to  the  fourteen  un- 
dermentioned books  which  were  writ- 
ten during  the  two  centuries  preceding 
the  birth  of  Christ:  the  first  and  second 
Books  of  Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  the  rest 
of  the  .Book  of  Esther,  the  Wisdom  of 
Solomon,  the  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son 
of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch  the 
Prophet,  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children, 
Susanna  and  the  Elders,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  the  Prayer  of  Manasses,  and 
the  first  and  second  Books  of  Macca- 
bees. 

AP'OGEE  (-je),  that  point  in  the  orbit 
of  the  moon  or  a planet  where  it  is  at 
its  greatest  distance  from  the  earth; 
properly  this  particular  part  of  the 
moon’s  orbit. 

APOLLINA'RIS  WATER,  a natural 
aerated  water,  belonging  to  the  class  of 
acidulated  soda  waters,  and  derived 
from  the  Apollinarisbrunnen,  a spring 
in  the  valley  of  the  Ahr,  near  the  Rhine, 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  forming  a highly 
esteemed  beverage. 

APOL'LO,  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and 
Leto  (Latona),  who,  being  persecuted  by 
the  jealousy  of  Hera  (Juno),  after  tedious 
wanderings  and  nine  days’  labor,  was 
delivered  of  him  and  his  twin  sister, 
Artemis  (Diana),  on  the  island  of  Delos. 
Skilled  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  he  slew  the 
serpent  Python  on  the  fifth  day  after 
his  birth ; afterward,  with  his  sister 
Artemis,  he  killed  the  children  of  Niobe. 
He  aided  Zeus  in  the  war  with  the 
Titans  and  the  giants.  He  destroyed 
the  Cyclopes,  because  they  forged  the 
thunderbolts  with  which  Zeus  killed 
his  son  and  favorite  Asklepios  (.®scu' 
lapius).  According  to  some  traditions 
he  invented  the  lyre,  though  this  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Hermes  (Mercury). 
Apollo  was  originally  the  sun-god;  and 


P.  E.— 5 


APOLOGUE 


APPARENT 


though  in  Homer  he  appears  distinct 
from  Helios  (the  sun),  yet  his  real 
nature  is  hinted  at  even  here  by  the 
epithet  Phoebus,  that  is,  the  radiant  or 
beaming.  In  later  times  the  view  was 
almost  universal  that  Apollo  and  Helios 
were  identical.  From  being  the  god  of 
light  and  purity  in  a physical  sense  he 


Apollo,  from  a bas-relief  at  Rome. 


gradually  became  the  god  of  moral 
and  spiritual  light  and  purity,  the 
source  of  all  intellectual,  social,  and 
political  progress.  He  thus  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  god  of  song  and  proph- 
ecy, the  god  that  wards  off  and  heals 
bodily  suffering  and  disease,  the  insti- 
tutor  and  guardian  of  civil  and  political 
order,  and  the  founder  of  cities.  His 
worship  was  introduced  at  Rome  at  an 
early  period,  probably  in  the  time  of  the 
Tarquins.  Among  the  ancient  statues 
of  Apollo  that  have  come  down  to  us, 
the  most  remarkable  is  the  one  called 
the  Apollo  Belvidere,  from  the  Belvidere 
Gallery  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome.  This 
statue  was  found  in  the  ruins  of  An- 
tium  in  1503,  and  was  purchased  by 
Pope  Julian  II.  It  is  now  supposed  to 
be  a copy  of  a Greek  statue  of  the  third 
century  b.c.,  and  dates  probably  from 
the  reign  of  Nero. 

APOLOGUE  (ap'o-log),  a story  or 
relation  of  fictitious  events  intended  to 
convey  some  useful  truths  It  differs 
from  a parable  in  that  the  latter  is  drawn 
from  events  that  pass  among  mankind, 
whereas  the  apologue  may  be  founded 
on  supposed  actions  of  brutes  or  inani- 
mate things.  iEsop’s  fables  are  good 
examples  of  apologues. 

APOL'OGY,  a term  at  one  time  ap- 
plied to  a defense  of  one  who  is  accused, 
or  of  certain  doctrines  called  in  question. 
Of  this  nature  are  the  Apologies  of 
Socrates,  attributed  respectively  to  Plato 
and  Xenophon.  The  name  passed  over 
to  Christian  authors,  who  gave  the  name 
of  apologies  to  the  writings  which  were 
designed  to  defend  Christianity  against 
the  attacks  and  accusations  of  its 
enemies,  particularly  the  pagan  philoso- 

f)her3,  and  to  justify  its  professors  be- 
ore  the  emperors.  Of  this  sort  were 
those  by  Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoras, 
Tertullian,  Tatian,  and  others. 

APOPHTHEGM  (ap'o-them),  a short 
pithy  sentence  or  maxim.  Julius  Caesar 
wrote  a collection  of  them,  and  we  have 
a collection  by  Lord  Bacon. 


AP'OPLEXY,  abolition  or  sudden 
diminution  of  sensation  and  voluntary 
inotion,  from  suspension  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  cerebrum,  resulting  from 
congestion  or  rupture  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain  and  resulting  pres- 
sure on  this  organ.  In  a complete 
apoplexy  the  person  falls  suddenly,  is 
unable  to  move  his  limbs  or  to  speak, 
gives  no  proof  of.  seeing,  hearing,  or 
feeling,  and  the  breathing  is  stertorous 
or  snoring,  like  that  of  a person  in  deep 
sleep.  The  premonitory  symptoms  of 
this  dangerous  disease  are  drowsiness, 
giddiness,  dulness  of  hearing,  frequent 
yawning,  disordered  vision,  noise  in  the 
ears,  vertigo,  etc.  It  is  most  frequent 
between  the  ages  of  fifty  and  seventy. 
A large  head,  short  neck,  full  chest, 
sanguine  and  plethoric  constitution,  and 
corpulency  are  generally  considered 
signs  of  predisposition  to  it;  but  the 
state  of  the  heart’s  action,  with  a ple- 
thoric condition  of  the -vascular  system, 
has  a more  marked  infiuence.  Out  of 
63  cases  carefully  investigated  only  10 
were  fat  and  plethoric,  23  being  thin, 
and  the  rest  of  ordinary  habit.  Among 
the  common  predisposing  causes  are 
long  and  intense  thought,  continued 
anxiety,  habitual  indulgence  of  the 
temper  and  passions,  sedentary  and 
luxurious  living,  sexual  indulgence, 
intoxication,  etc.  More  or  less  complete 
repovery  from  a first  and  second  attack 
is  common,  but  a third  is  almost  in- 
variably fatal. 

APOS'TASY,  a renunciation  of  opin- 
ions or  practices  and  the  adoption  of 
contrary  ones,  usually  applied  to  renun- 
ciation of  religious  opinions.  It  is  al- 
ways an  expression  of  reproach.  What 
one  party  calls  apostasy  is  termed  by 
the  other  conversion.  Catholics,  also, 
call  those  persons  apostates  who  for- 
sake a religious  order  or  renounce  their 
religious  vows  without  a lawful  dis- 
pensation. 

A POSTERIO'RI.  See  A priori. 

APOS'TLES,  the  twelve  men  whom 
Jesus  selected  to  attend  him  during  his 
ministry,  and  to  promulgate  his  religion. 
Their  names  were  as  follows:  Simon 
Peter,  and  Andrew  his  brother;  James, 
and  John  his  brother,  sons  of  Zebedee; 
Philip;  Bartholomew;  Thomas;  Mat- 
thew; James,  the  son  of  Alpheus;  Leb- 
beus  his  brother,  called  Judas  or  Jude; 
Simon,  the  Canaanite;  and  Judas 
Iscariot.  To  these  were  subsequently 
added  Matthias  (chosen  by  lot  in  place  of 
Judas  Iscariot)  and  Paul.  The  Bible 
gives  the  name  of  apostle  to  Barnabas 
also,  who  accompanied  Paul  on  his  mis- 
sions (Acts  xiv.  14).  In  a wider  sense 
those  preachers  who  first  taught  Chris- 
tianity in  heathen  countries  are  some- 
times termed  apostles;  for  example,  St. 
Denis,  the  apostle  of  the  Gauls;  St. 
Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germany; 
St.  Augustin,  the  apostle  of  England; 
Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the 
Indies;  Adalbert  of  Prague,  apostle  of 
Prussia  Proper.  During  the  life  of  the 
Savior  the  apostles  more  than  once 
showed  a misunderstanding  of  the 
object  of  his  mission,  and  during  his 
sufferings  evinced  little  courage  and 
firmness  of  friendship  for  their  great  and 
benevolent  Teacher.  After  his  death 
they  received  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the 


day  of  Pentecost,  that  they  might  be 
enabled  to  fulfil  the  important  duties 
for  which  they  had  been  chosen.  Their 
subsequent  history  is  only  imperfectly 
known.  According  to  one  interpreta- 
tion of  Matthew  xvi.  18  Christ  seems  to 
appoint  St  Peter  the  first  of  the  apos- 
tles ; and  the  pope  claims  supreme 
authority  from  the  power  which  Christ 
thus  gave  to  St.  Peter,  of  whom  all  the 
popes,  according  to  the  Catholic  dogma, 
are  successors  in  an  uninterrupted  line. 

APOSTLES’  CREED,  a well-known 
formula  or  declaration  of  Christian 
belief,  formerly  believed  to  be  the  work 
of  the  apostles  themselves,  but  it  can 
only  he  traced  to  the  4th  century.  See 
Creed. 

APOS'TROPHE,  a rhetorical  figure  by 
which  the  orator  changes  the  course  of 
his  speech,  and  makes  a short  impas- 
sioned address  to  one  absent  as  if  he 
were  present,  or  to  things  without  life 
and  sense  as  if  they  had  life  and  sense. 
The  same  term  is  also  applied  to  a 
comma  when  used  to  contract  a word,  or 
to  mark  the  possessive  case,  as  in 
“John’s  book.” 

APOTH'ECARY,  in  a general  sense, 
one  who  keeps  a shop  or  laboratory  for 
preparing,  compounding,  and  vending 
medicines,  and  for  the  making  up  of 
medical  prescriptions. 

APOTHEO'SIS,  a solemnity  among 
the  ancients  by  which  a mortal  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  the  gods. 

APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS  (ap-pa- 
la'chi-an),  also  called  Alleghanies,  a vast 
mountain  range  in  N.  America  extend- 
ing for  1300  miles  from  Cape  Gasp6,  on 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  s.w.  to  Ala- 
bama. The  system  has  been  divided 
into  three  great  sections:  the  northern 
(including  the  Adirondacks,  the  Green 
Mountains,  the  White  Mountains,  etc.), 
from  Cape  Gasp4  to  New  York;  the  cen- 
tral (including  a large  portion  of  the 
Blue  Ridge,  the  Alleghanies  proper,  and 
numerous  lesser  ranges),  from  New  York 
to  the  valley  of  the  New  River;  and  the 
southern  (including  the  continuation  of 
the  Blue  Ridge,  the  Black  Mountains, 
the  Smoky  Mountains,  etc.),  from  the 
New  River  southward.  The  chain  con- 
sists of  several  ranges  generally  parallel 
to  each  other,  the  altitude  of  the  indi- 
vidual mountains  increasing  on  ap- 
proaching the  south.  The  highest  peaks 
rise  over  6600  feet  (not  one  at  ail  ap- 
proaching the  snow-level),  but  the  mean 
height  is  about  2500  feet.  Lake  Cham- 
plain is  the  only  lake  of  great  importance 
in  the  system,  but  numerous  rivers  of 
considerable  size  take  their  rise  here. 
Magnetite,  hematite,  and  other  iron  ores 
occur  in  great  abundance,  and  the  coal- 
measures  are  among  the  most  extensive 
in  the  world.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
copper  are  also  found,  but  not  in  paying 
q^uantities,  while  marble,  limestone,  fire- 
may,  gypsum,  and  salt  abound.  The 
forests  covering  many  of  the  ranges 
yield  large  quantities  of  valuable  timber, 
such  as  sugar-maple,  white  birch,  beech,  I 
ash,  oak,  cherry  tree,  white  poplar,  white 
and  yellow  pine,  etc.,  while  they  form 
the  haunts  of  large  numbers  of  bears, 
panthers,  wild  cats,  and  wolves. 

APPANAGE.  See  Apanage. 

APPAR'ENT,  among  mathematicians 
and  astronomers,  applied  to  things  as 


APPARITION 


APPLE 


fhey  appear  to  the  eye,  in  distinction 
from  what  they  really  are.  Thus  they 
speak  of  apparent  motion,  magnitude, 
cfistance,  height,  etc.  The  apparent 
magnitude  of  a heavenly  body  is  the 
an^e  subtended  at  the  spectator’s  eye 
by  the  diameter  of  that  ' 'ody,  and  this, 
of  course,  depends  on  the  distance  as 
well  as  the  real  magnitude  of  the  body ; 
apparent  motion  is  the  motion  a body 
seems  to  have  in  consequence  of  our  own 
motion,  as  the  motion  of  the  sun  from 
east  to  west,  etc. 

APPARI'TION,  according  to  a belief 
held  by  some,  a disembodied  spirit  man- 
ifesting itself  to  mortal  sight ; according 
to  the  common  theory  an  illusion  invol- 
untarily generated,  by  means  of  which 
figures  or  forms,  not  present  to  the 
actual  sense,  are  nevertheless  depic- 
tured with  a vividness  and  intensity 
sufificient  to  create  a temporary  belief  of 
their  reality.  Such  illusions  are  now 
generally  held  to  result  from  an  ovei-- 
excited  brain,  a strong  imagination,  or 
some  bodily  malady.  In  perfect  health 
the  mind  not  only  possesses  a control 
over  its  powers,  but  the  impressions  of 
the  external  objects  alone  occupy  its 
attention,  and  the  play  of  imagination 
is  consequently  checked,  except  in  sleep, 
when  its  operations  are  relatively  more 
feeble  and  faint.  But  in  the  unhealthy 
state  of  the  mind,  when  its  attention  is 
partly  withdrawn  from  the  contempla- 
tion of  external  objects,  the  impressions 
of  its  own  creation,  or  rather  reproduc- 
tion, will  either  overpower  or  combine 
themselves  with  the  impressions  of  ex- 
ternal objects,  and  thus  generate  illu- 
sions which  in  the  one  case  appear  alone, 
while  in  the  other  they  are  seen  pro- 
jected among  those  external  objects  to 
which  the  eyeball  is  directed.  This 
theory  explains  satisfactorily  a large 
majority  of  the  stories  of  apparitions; 
still  there  are  some  which  it  seems  in- 
sufficient to  account  for.  In  recent 
times,  though  the  belief  in  ghosts  of  the 
old  and  orthodox  class  may  be  said  to 
have  almost  died  out,  a new  and  kindred 
faith  has  arisen,  that  of  Spiritualism. 

APPEAL',  in  legal  phraseology,  the 
removal  of  a cause  from  an  inferior  tri- 
bunal to  a superior,  in  order  that  the 
latter  may  revise,  and  if  it  seem  needful 
reverse  or  amend,  the  decision  of  the 
former. 

APPENDICI'TIS,  an  inflammation  of 
the  vermiform  appendix.  The  V.  appen- 
dix is  found  in  all  except  a very  few 
mammals,  and  varies  in  size  from  a mere 
rudiment  to  a large  and  very  useful  part 
of  the  intestine.  It  is  smallest  in  flesh- 
eating animals,  and  in  man  is  from  three 
to  six  inches  long,  with  a diameter  about 
that  of  an  ordinary  lead  pencil  or  less. 
It  comes  off  the  csecum,  or  blind  gut,  of 
the  large  intestine  and,  in  man,  has  no 
function  whatsoever.  As  it  opens  upon 
the  intestine,  it  sometimes  receives  for- 
eign substances,  including  bacteria,  the 
irritation  from  which  sets  up  inflamma- 
tion which  is  often  followed  by  suppura- 
tion and  perforation,  necessitating  an 
operation  by  which  it  is  removed. 
Appendicectomy  (the  operation)  is  now 
commonplace  and  safe.  Typical  symp- 
toms of  appendicitis  are  pain  in  the 
region  (right  side  of  the  abdomen  below 
the  navel),  fever,  constipation,  and 


pain  on  pressure.  These  four  symptoms 
usually  accompany  the  disease.  Early 
operation  has  saved  thousands  of  lives 
which  otherwise  would  have  been  lost 
through  inflammation  of  the  appendix. 


Large  intestine,  showing  the  appendix. 


Autopsies  show  that,  two-thirds  of  the 
human  race  are  afflicted  with  appen- 
dicitis. The  disease  is  comparatively 
rare  in  persons  past  middle  life. 

AP'PETITE,  in  its  widest  sense,  means 
the  natural  desire  for  gratification,  either 
of  the  body  or  the  mind;  but  is  generally 
applied  to  the  recurrent  and  intermit- 
tent desire  for  food.  A healthy  appetite 
is  favored  by  work,  exercise,  plain  liv- 
ing, and  cheerfulness;  absence  of  this 
feeling,  or  defective  appetitq,  indi- 
cates diseased  action  of  the  stomach, 
or  of  the  nervous  system  or  circula- 
tion, or  it  may  result  from  vicious  habits. 
Depraved  appetite,  or  a desire  for  un- 
natural food,  as  chalk,  ashes,  dirt, 
soap,  etc.,  depends  often  in  the  case  of 
children  on  vicious  tastes  or  habits;  in 
grown  up  persons  it  may  be  symptomatic 
of  dyspepsia,  pregnancy,  or  chlorosis. 
Insatiable  or  canine  appetite  or  voracity 
when  it  occurs  in  childhood  is  gener- 
ally symptomatic  of  worms;  in  adults 
common  causes  are  pregnancy,  vi- 
cious habits,  and  indigestion  caused 
by  stomach  complaints  or  gluttony, 
when  the  gnawing  pfcins  of  disease  are 
mistaken  for  hunger. 


Construction  of  the  Applan  W ay. 


APPIAN  WAY,  the  oldest  and  most 
renowned  Roman  road,  was  constructed 
during  the  censorship  of  Appius  Clau- 


dius Caecus  (b.c.  313-310).  It  was  built 
with  large  square  stones  on  a raised 
platform,  and  was  made  direct  from  the 
ates  of  Rome  to  Capua,  in  Campania, 
t was  afterward  extended  through 
Samnium  and  Apulia  to  Brundusium, 
the  modern  Brindisi.  It  was  partially 
restored  by  Pius  VI.,  and  in  18.50-53  it 
Was  excavated  by  order  of  Pius  IX.  as 
far  as  the  eleventh  milestone  from  Rome. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS,  surnamed  Csecus, 
or  the  blind,  an  ancient  Roman,  elected 
censor  b.c.  312,  which  office  he  held 
four  years.  While  in  this  position  he 
made  every  effort  to  weaken  the  power 
of  the  plebs,  and  constructed  the  road 
and  aqueduct  named  after  him.  He 
was  subsequently  twice  consul,  and 
once  dictator.  In  his  old  age  he  became 
blind,  but  in  b.c.  280  he  made  a famous 
speech  in  which  he  induced  the  senate 
to  reject  the  terms  of  peace  fixed  by 
Pyrrhus.  He  is  the  ’earliest  Roman 
writer  of  prose  and  verse  whose  name 
we  know. 

APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSUS,  one 
of  the  Roman  decemvirs,  appointed  b.c. 
451  to  draw  up  a new  code  of  laws. 
He  and  his  colleagues  plotted  to  retain 
their  power  permanently,  and  at  the 
expiry  of  their  year  of  office  refused  to 
give  up  their  authority.  The  people 
were  incensed  against  them,  and  the 
following  circumstances  led  to  their 
overthrow.  Appius  Claudius  had  con- 
ceived an  evil  passion  for  Virginia,  the 
daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  then  ab- 
sent with  the  army  in  the  war  with  the 
.iEqui  and  Sabines.  At  the  instigation  of 
Appius,  Marcus  Claudius,  one  of  his 
clients,  claimed  Virginia  as  the  daughter 
of  one  of  his  own  female  slaves,  and  the 
decemvir,  acting  as  judge,  decided  that 
in  the  meantime  she  should  remain  in 
the  custody  of  the  claimant.  Virginius, 
hastily  summoned  from  the  army,  ap- 
peared with  his  daughter  next  day  in 
the  forum,  and  appealed  to  the  people; 
but  Appius  Claudius  again  adjudged 
her  to  Marcus  Claudius.  Unable  to 
rescue  his  daughter,  the  unhappy  father 
stabbed  her  to  the  heart.  The  decemvirs 
were  deposed  by  the  indignant  people 
B.c.  449,  and  Appius  Claudius  died  in 
prison  or  was  strangled. 

APPLE,  the  fruit  of  a well-known  tree 
of  the  nat.  order  RosaceaB,  or  the  tree 
itself.  The  apple  belongs  to  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  globe,  over  which 
it  is  almost  universally  spread  and 
cultivated.  The  tree  attains  a mod- 
erate height,  with  spreading  branches; 
the  leaf  is  ovate;  and  the  flowers  are 
produced  from  the  wood  of  the  former 
year,  but  more  generally  from  very 
short  shoots  or  spurs  from  wood  of  two 
years’  growth.  The  original  of  all  the 
varieties  of  the  cultivated  apple  is  the 
wild  crab,  which  has  a small  and  ex- 
tremely sour  fruit,  and  is  a native  of 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  The 
apple  was  probably  introduced  into 
Britain  by  the  Romans.  To  the  facility 
of  multiplying  varieties  by  grafting  is 
to  be  ascribed  the  amazing  extension 
of  the  sorts  of  apples.  Many  of  the  more 
marked  varieties  are  known  by  general 
names,  as  pippins,  codlins,  rennets,  etc. 
Apples  for  the  table  are  characterized 
by  a firm  juicy  pulp,  a sweetish  acid 
flavor,  regular  form,  and  beautiful 


APPLE  OF  DISCORD 


APTERYX 


coloring;  those  for  cooking  by  the  prop- 
erty of  forming  by  the  aid  of  heat  into 
a pulpy  mass  of  equal  consistency,  as 
also  by  their  large  size  and  keeping 
properties';  apples  for  cider  must  have  a 
considerable  degree  of  astringency,  with 
richness  of  juice.  The  propagation  of 
apple-trees  is  accomplished  by  seeds, 
cuttings,  suckers,  layers,  budding,  or 
grafting,  the  last  being  almost  the  uni- 
versal practice.  The  tree  thrives  best 
in  a rich  deep  loam  or  marshy  clay,  but 
will  thrive  in  any  soil  provided  it  is  not 
too  wet  or  too  dry.  The  wood  of  the 
apple-tree  or  the  common  crab  is  hard, 
close-grained,  and  often  richly  colored, 
and  is  suitable  for  turning  and  cabinet 
work.  The  fermented  juice  of  the  crab 
is  employed  in  cookery  and  medicine. 

APPLE  OF  DISCOPI),  according  to 
the  story  in  the  Greek  mythology,  the 
golden  apple  thrown  into  an  assembly 
of  the  gods  by  the  goddess  of  discord 
(Eris),  bearing  the  inscription  “for  the 
fairest.”  Aphrodite  (Venus),  Hera 
(Juno),  and  Pallas  (Minerva)  became 
competitors  for  it,  and  its  adjudication 
to  the  first  by  Paris  so  inflamed  the 
jealousy  and  hatred  of  Hera  to  all  of  the 
Trojan  race  (to  which  Paris  belonged) 


Apricot. 


that  she  did  not  cease  her  machinations 
till  Troy  was  destroyed. 

APPLE  OF  SODOM,  a fruit  described 
by  old  writers  as  externally  of  fair 
appearance,  but  turning  to  ashes  when 
plucked ; probably  the  fruit  of  Solanum 
sodomeum. 

AP'PLETON,  a city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Outagamie  Co.,  Wis.,  100  miles 
n.w.  of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  and  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
and  St.  Paul  railroads.  It  is  situated 
on  the  falls  of  the  Fox  river,  which  by 
a series  of  dams  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats, and,  with  a fall  of  about  fifty 
feet,  supplies  extensive  water  power  for 
various  manufactures,  of  which  paper  is 
the  most  important.  Pop.  17,185. 

APPOGGIATURA  (5,p-poj-a-t6'ra),  in 
music,  a small  additional  note  of  em- 
bellishment preceding  the  note  to  which 
it  is  attached,  and  taking  away  from 
the  principal  note  a portion  of  its  time. 

APPOINT'MENT,  a term  in  English 
law  signifying  the  exercise  of  some 
power,  reserved  in  a conveyance  or 
settlement,  of  burdening,  selling,  or 
otherwise  disposing  of  the  lands  or 


property  conveyed.  Such  a reserved 
power  is  termed  a power  of  appointment. 

APPOMATTOX  COURT-HOUSE,  a 
village  in  Virginia,  20  miles  e.  of 
Lynchburg.  Here,  on  9th  April,  1865, 
Gen.  Lee  surrendered  to  Gen.  Grant, 
and  thus  virtually  concluded  the  civil 
war. 

APPORTIONMENT,  the  process  by 
which  congress,  after  each  census,  fixes 
the  number  of  representatives  to  which 
the  various  states  of  the  union  are  en- 
titled. The  first  a pportionment  was  fixed 
by  the  constitution,  every  30,000  popu- 
lation being  entitled  to  a representa- 
tive. The  number  grew  with  each 
decade  until  now,  with  45  states  in  the 
union,  instead  of  13,  each  constituency 
has  193,175  population,  with  a total  of 
386  representatives. 

APPOSITION,  in  grammar,  the  rela- 
tion in  which  one  or  more  nouns  or  sub- 
stantive phrases  or  clauses  stand  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  they  explain 
or  characterize  without  being  predicated 
of  it,  and  with  which  they  agree  in  case ; 
as  Cicero,  the  orator,  lived  in  the  first 
century  before  Christ;  the  opinion,  that 
a severe  winter  is  generally  followed  by 
a good  summer,  is  a vulgar  error. 

APPRAIS'ER,  a person  employed  to 
value  property,  and  duly  licensed  to  do 
so  by  license  taken  out  every  year.  The 
valuation  must  be  duly  set  down  in 
writing,  and  there  is  a certain  fixed  scale 
of  charges  for  the  appraiser’s  services. 

APPREHEN'SION,  the  seizing  of  a 
person  as  a criminal  whether  taken  in 
the  act  or  on  suspicion,  and  with  or 
without  a warrant,  a warrant  being 
necessary  when  the  person  apprehend- 
ing is  not  present  at  the  commission  of 
the  offense.  See  Arrest. 

APPRENTICE,  one  bound  by  in- 
denture to  serve  some  particular  indi- 
vidual or  company  of  individuals  for  a 
specified  time,  in  order  to  be  instructed 
in  some  art,  science,  or  trade. 

APPROPRIATION,  the  act  of  desig- 
nating a certain  sum  of  money,  or  of 
other  property,  for  a specific  use,  as 
an  appropriation  for  the  army,  navy, 
police,  etc.  In  the  United  States  the 
constitution  provides  that  “no  money 
shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but 
in  consequence  of  appropriations  made 
by  law.” 

APPROXIMATION,  a term  used  in 
mathematics  to  signify  a continual 
approach  to  a quantity  required,  when 
no  process  is  known  for  arriving  at  it 
exactly.  Although,  by  such  an  approxi- 
mation, the  exact  value  of  a quantity 
cannot  be  discovered,  yet,  in  practice, 
it  may  be  found  sufficiently  correct; 
thus  the  diagonal  of  a square,  whose 
sides  are  represented  by  unity,  is  \/  2, 
the  exact  value  of  which  quantity  can- 
not be  obtained;  but  its  approximate 
value  may  be  substituted  in  the  nicest 
calculations. 

A'PRICOT,  a fruit  of  the  plum  genus 
which  was  introduced  into  Europe  from 
Asia  more  than  three  centuries  before 
Christ,  and  into  England  in  the  first 
half  of  the  16th  century.  It  is  a na- 
tive of  Armenia  and  other  parts  of 
Asia  and  also  of  Africa.  The  apricot  is 
a low  tree,  of  rather  crooked  growth, 
with  somewhat  heart-shaped  leaves  and 
sessile  flowers.  The  fruit  is  sweet,  more 


or  less  juicy,  of  a yellowish  color,  about 
the  size  of  the  peach,  and  resembling 
it  in  delicacy  of  flavor.  The  wmod  is 
coarsely  grained  and  soft.  Apricot- 
trees  are  chiefly  raised  aganist  walls, 
and  are  propagated  by  budding  and 
grafting. 

APRIES  (a'pri-ez),  Pharaoh-Hophra 
of  Scripture,  the  eighth  king  of  the 
twenty-sixth  Egyptian  dynasty.  He 
succeeded  his  father  Psamuthius  in  590 
or  588  B.c.  The  Jews  under  Zedekiah 
revolted  against  their  Babylonia,-  op- 
pressors and  allied  themselves  with 
Apries,  who  was,  however,  unable  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  which  was 
taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  A still  more 
unfortunate  expedition  against  Cyrene 
brought  about  revolt  in  his  army,  in 
endeavoring  to  suppress  which  Apries 
was  defeated  and  slain  about  b.c.  569. 

A'PRIL,  the  fourth  month  of  the  year. 
The  strange  custom  of  making  fools  on 
the  1st  of  April  by  sending  people  upon 
errands  and  expeditions  which  end  in 
disappointment,  and  raise  a laugh  at 
the  expense  of  the  person  sent,  has  been 
connected  with  the  miracle  plays  of  the 
middle  ages,  in  which  the  Savior  was 
represented  as  having  been  sent,  at  this 
period  of  the  year,  from  Annas  to 
Caiaphas  and  from  Pilate  to  Herod. 

A PRIO'RI  (“from  what  goes  be- 
fore”), a phrase  applied  to  a mode  of 
reasoning  by  which  we  proceed  from 
general  principles  or  notions  to  partic- 
ular cases,  as  opposed  to  a posteriori 


Apteryx. 


(“from  what  comes  after”)  reasoning, 
by  which  we  proceed  from  knowledge  pre- 
viously acquired.  Mathematical  proofs 
are  of  the  a priori  kind;  the  conclusions 
of  experimental  science  are  a posteriori. 
It  is  also  a term  applied  to  knowledge 
independent  of  all  experience. 

AP'SIS,  pi.  AP'SIDES  or  APSI'DES, 
in  astron.  one  of  the  two  points  of  the 
orbit  of  a heavenly  body  situated  at  the 
extremities  of  the  major  axis  of  the 
ellipse  formed  by  the  orbit,  one  of  the 
points  being  that  at  which  the  body  is 
at  its  greatest  and  the  other  that  at 
which  it  is  at  its  least  distance  from  its 
primary.  In  regard  to  the  earth  and 
the  other  planets,  these  two  points 
correspond  to  the  aphelion  and  peri- 
helion; and  in  regard  to  the  moon  they 
correspond  to  the  apogee  and  perigee. 
The  line  of  the  apsides  has  a slow  for- 
ward angular  motion  in  the  plane  of  the 
planet’s  orbit,  being  retrograde  only  in 
Venus.  This  in  the  earth’s  orbit  pro- 
duces the  anomalistic  year.  See  Anom- 
aly. 

APTERYX,  a nearly  extinct  genus  of 
cursorial  birds,  distinguished  from  the 


APULEIUS 


ARABIA 


ostriches  by  having  three  toes  with  a 
rudimentary  hallux,  which  forms  a 
spur.  They  are  natives  of  the  South 
Island  of  New  Zealand;  are  totally  wing- 
less and  tailless,  with  feathers  resem- 
bling hairs;  about  the  size  of  a small 
goose ; with  long  beak  some-  thing  like 
that  of  a curfew.  They  are  entirely 
nocturnal,  feeding  on  insects,  worms, 
and  seeds. 

APULEIUS,  or  APPULEIUS  (ap-u- 
le'us),  author  of  the  celebrated  satirical 
romance  in  Latin  called  the  Golden  Ass, 
born  at  Madaura,  in  Numidia,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  2d  century  a.d.;  the 
time  of  his  death  unknown. 

APU'LIA,  a department  or  division 
in  the  southeast  of  Italy,  on  the  Adri- 
atic, composed  of  the  provinces  of 
Foggia,  Bari,  and  Lecce;  area,  8539  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,949,423. 

A'QUA,  a word  much  used  in  phar- 
macy and  old  chemistry. — Aqua  fortis 
( = strong  water),  a weak  and  impure 
nitric  acid.  It  has  the  power  of  eating 
into  steel  and  copper,  and  hence  is  used 
by  engravers,  etchers,  etc. — Aqua  ma- 
rina, a fine  variety  of  beryl.  See  Aqua- 
marine.— Aqua  regia,  or  aqua  regalis 
( = royal  water),  a mixture  of  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids,  with  the  power 
of  dissolving  gold  and  other  noble 
metals. — Aqua  Tofana,  a poisonous 
fluid  made  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  by  an  Italian  woman 
Tofana  or'  Toffania,  who  is  said  to  have 
procured  the  death  of  no  fewer  than  600 
individuals  by  means  of  it.  It  con- 
sisted chiefly,  it  is  supposed,  of  a solu- 
tion of  crystallized  arsenic.  — Aqua 
vitse  ( = water  of  life),  or  siijiply  aqua, 
a name  familiarly  applied  to  the  whisky 
of  Scotland,  corresponding  in  meaning 
with  the  usquebaugh  of  Ireland,  the 
eau  de  vie  (brandy)  of  the  French. 

AQUA  FORTIS.  See  above  article. 

A'QUAMARINE',  a nafne  given  to 
some  of  the  finest  varieties  of  beryl  of  a 
sea-green  or  blue  color.  Varieties  of 
topaz  are  also  so  called. 

AQUA'RIUM,  a vessel  or  series  of 
vessels  constructed  wholly  or  partly  of 
glass  and  containing  salt  or  fresh  water 
in  which  are  kept  living  specimens  of 
marine  or  fresh-water  animals  along 
with  aquatic  plants. 

AQUARIUS,  the  Water-bearer;  a sign 
in  the  zodiac  which  the  sun  enters  about 
the  21st  of  January:  so  called  from  the 
rains  which  prevail  at  that  season  in 
Italy  and  the  East. 

AQUATINT,  a method  of  etching  on 
copper  by  which  a beautiful  effect  is 
produced,  resembling  a fine  drawing  in 
sepia  or  Indian  ink.  The  special  char- 
acter of  the  effect  is  the  result  of  sprink- 
ling finely  powdered  resin  or  mastic 
over  the  plate,  and  causing  this  to  ad- 
here by  heat,  the  design  being  previously 
etched,  or  being  now  traced  out.  The 
nitric  acid  (aqua  fortis)  acts  only  in  the 
interstices  between  the  particles  of  resin 
or  mastic,  thus  giving  a slightly  gran- 
ular appearance. 

A'QUEDUCT,  an  artificial  channel  or 
conduit  for  the  conveyance  of  water  from 
one  place  to  another:  more  particularly 
applied  to  structures  for  conveying 
water  from  distant  sources  for  the  sup- 
■ ply  of  large  cities.  Aqueducts  were 
extensively  used  by  the  Romans  and. 


many  of  them  still  remain  in  different 
places  on  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
some  being  still  in  use.  The  Pont  du 
Card  in  the  south  of  France,  14  miles 
from  NIsmes,  is  still  nearly  perfect,  and 
is  a grand  monument  of  the  Roman  oc- 
cupation of  this  country.  The  ancient 
aqueducts  were  constructed  of  stone  or 
brick,  sometimes  tunneled  through  hills, 
and  carried  over  valleys  and  rivers  on 
arches.  The  Pont  du  Gard  is  built  of  great 
blocks  of  stone;  its  height  is  160  feet; 
length  of  the  highest  arcade,  882  feet. 
The  aqueduct  at  Segovia,  originally 
built  by  the  Romans,  has  in  some  parts 
two  tiers  of  arcades  100  feet  high,  is 
2921  feet  in  length,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  admired  works  of  antiquity.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  aqueducts  of 
modern  times  is  that  constructed  by 
Louis  XIV.  for  conveying  the  waters  of 
the  Eure  to  Versailles.  The  extensive 
application  of  metal  pipes  has  rendered 
the  construction  of  aqueducts  of  the 
old  type  unnecessary;  but  what  may  be 
called  aqueduct  bridges  are  still  fre- 
quently constructed  in  connection  with 
water-works  for  the  supply  of  towns, 
and  where  canals  exist  canal  aqueducts 
are  common,  since  the  water  in  a canal 
must  be  kept  on  a perfect  level.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  some  important 
aqueducts,  as  the  Croton,  about  40J 
miles  long,  bringing  water  to  New  York. 

A'QUEOUS  HUMOR,  the  limpid 
watery  fluid  which  fills  the  space  be- 
tween the  cornea  and  the  crystalline 
lens  in  the  eye. 

AQUEOUS  ROCKS,  mechanically 
formed  rocks,  composed  of  matter 
deposited  by  water.  Called  also  sedi- 
mentary or  stratified  rocks.  See  Geol- 
ogy. 

AQUIFOLIA'CEiE,  a nat.  order  of 
plants;  the  holly  tribe.  The  species  con- 
sist of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the  order 
includes  the  common  holly  and  the 
Paraguayan  tea  tree. 

AQUILA  (ak'we-la),  a town  in  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Aquila,  55 
miles  northeast  of  Rome.  Pop.  14,720. 
— The  province  has  an  area  of  2509  sq. 
miles,  a population  of  371,332. 

AQUINAS  (a-kwi'nas),  St.  Thomas,  a 
celebrated  scholastic  divine,  born  about 
1227,  died  in  1274;  descended  from  the 
counts  of  Aquino,  in  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Two  Sicilies.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Benedictine  monastery  of  Monte  Casino, 
and  at  the  University  of  Naples,  where 
he  studied  for  six  years.  In  1257  l\e 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  from  the 
Sorbonne,  and  began  to  lecture  on 
theology,  rapidly  acquiring  the* highest 
reputation.  In  1263  he  had  been 
offered  the  archbishopric  of  Naples  by 
Clement  IV.,  but  refused  the  offer.  He 
died  on  his  way  to  Lyons  to  attend  a 
general  council  for  the  purpose  of  unit- 
mg  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 

ARABESQUE  (ar'a-besk),  a species 
of  ornamentation  for  enriching  flat  sur- 
faces, often  consisting  of  fanciful  figures, 
human  or  animal,  combined  with  floral 
forms.  There  may  be  said  to  be  thi-ee 
periods  and  distinctive  varieties  of 
arabesque;  (a)  the  Roman  or  Graeco- 
Roman,  introduced  into  Rome  from  the 
East  when  pure  art  was  declining;  (b) 
the  Arabesque  of  the  Moors  as  seen  in 
the  Alhambra,  introduced  by  them  into 


Europe  in  the  middle  ages;  (c)  Modem 
Arabesque,  which  took  its  rise  in  Italy 
in  the  Renaissance  period  of  art.  The 
arabesques  of  the  Moors,  who  are  pro- 
hibited by  their  religion  from  repre- 


Renaissance  Arabesque. 


senting  animal  forms,  consist  essentially 
of  complicated  ornamental  designs  based 
on  the  suggestion  of  plant-growth,  com- 
bined with  extremely  complex  geomet- 
rical forms. 

ARA'BI  PASHA,  Egyptian  soldier  and 
revolutionary  leader,  born  1837.  In 
Sept.,  1881,  he  headed  a military  revolt, 
and  was  for  a time  virtually  dictator  of 
Egypt.  Britain  interfered,  and  after 
a short  campaign,  beginning  with  the 
bombardment  of  Alexandria  and  end- 
ing with  the  defeat  of  Arabi  and  his 
army  at  Tel-el-Kebir,  he  surrendered, 
and  was  banished  to  Ceylon. 

ARA'BIA,  a vast  peninsula  in  the  s.w. 
of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  great 
Syro-Babylonian  plain,  n.e.  by  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Sea  of  Oman,  s. 
or  s.e.  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  s.w. 
by  the  Red  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Suez.  Its 
length  from  n.w.  to  s.e.  is  about  1800 
miles,  its  mean  breadth  about  600 
miles,  it  area  rather  over  1,000,000  sq. 
miles,  its  pop.  probably  not  more  than 
6,000,000.  Roughly  described,  it  ex- 
hibits a central  tableland  surrounded 
by  a series  of  deserts,  with  numerous 
scattered  oases,  while  around  this  is  a 
line  of  mountains  parallel  to  and  ap- 
proaching the  coasts,  and  with  a narrow 
rim  of  low  grounds  between  them  and 
the  sea.  In  its  general  features  Arabia 
resembles  the  Sahara,  of  which  it  may 
be  considered  a continuation.  Like  the 
Sahara  it  has  its  wastes  of  loose  sand, 
its  stretches  of  bare  rocks  and  stones, 
its  mountains  devoid  of  vegetation,  its 
oases  with  their  wells  and  streams,  their 
palm-groves  and  cultivated  fields — 
islands  of  green  amid  the  surround- 
ing desolation.  Rivers  proper  there 
are  none.  The  chief  towns  are  Mecca, 
the  birthplace  of  Mohammed;  Medina, 
the  place  to  which  he  fled  from  Mecca 
(a.d.  622),  and  where  he  is  buried; 
Hodeida,  a seaport  exporting  Mocha 
coffee;  Aden,  on  the  s.w.  coast,  a 
strongly  fortified  garrison  belonging 
to  Britain;  Sana,  the  capital  of  Yemen; 
and  Muscat,  the  capital  of  Oman,  a 
busy  port  with  a safe  anchorage.  The 
chief  towns  of  the  interior  are  Hail,  the 
residence  of  the  emir  of  northern  Nejd; 
Oneizah,  under  the  same  ruler;  and 
Riad,  capital  of  southern  Nejd.  The 
most  flourishing  portions  of  Arabia  are 
in  Oman,  Hadramaut,  and  Nejd.  In  the 
two  former  are  localities  with  numerous 
towns  and  villages  and  settled  indus- 
trious populations  like  that  of  Hin- 
dustan or  Europe. 

The  climate  of  Arabia  in  general  is 
marked  by  extreme  heat  and  dryness. 
The  date-palm  furnishes  the  staple 
article  of  food;  the  cereals  are  wheat, 


ARABIAN  NIGHTS 


ARARAT 


Bedouin  Arabs. — 1.  2,  Of  tbe  Jordan.  3,  Of  the  Hauran,  4,  5,  Of  the  Desert. 


barley,  maize,  and  millet;  various  sorts 
of  fruit  flourish;  coffee  and  many  aro- 
matic plants  and  substances,  such  as 
gum-arabic,  benzoin,  mastic,  balsam, 
aloes,  myrrh,  frankincense,  etc.,  are 
produced.  There  are  also  cultivated  in 
different  parts  of  the  peninsula,  accord- 
ing to  the  soil  and  climate,  beans,  rice, 
lentils,  tobacco,  melons,  saffron,  colo- 
cynth,  poppies,  olives,  etc.  Sheep, 
goats,  oxen,  the  horse,  the  camel,  ass, 
and  mule  supply  man’s  domestic  and 
personal  wants.  Among  wild  animals 
are  gazelles,  ostriches,  the  lion,  panther, 
hyena,  jackal,  etc.  Among  mineral 
products  are  saltpeter,  mineral  pitch, 
petroleum,  salt,  sulphur,  and  several 
precious  stones,  as  the  carnelian,  agate, 
and  onyx. 

The  Arabs,  as  a race,  are  of  middle 
stature,  of  a powerful  though  slender 
build,  and  have  a skin  of  a more  or  less 
brownish  color;  in  towns  and  the  up- 
lands often  almost  white.  Their  fea- 


the nominal  submission  of  the  tribes 
inhabiting  the  rest  of  Arabia.  The  sub- 
jection of  Hejaz  has  continued  down  to 
the  present  day;  but  Yemen  achieved 
its  independence  in  the  17th  century, 
and  maintained  it  till  1871,  when  the 
territorj^  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks.  In  1839  Aden  was  occupied 
by  the  British.  Oman  early  became 
virtually  independent  of  the  caliphs, 
and  grew  into  a well-organized  king- 
dom. In  1507  its  capital,  Maskat  or 
Muscat,  was  occupied  by  the  Portu- 
guese, who  were  not  driven  out  till  1659. 
The  Wahabis  appeared  toward  the  end 
of  the  18th  century,  and  took  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  political  affairs  of 
Arabia,  but  their  progre.ss  was  inter- 
rupted by  Mohammed  Ali,  pasha  of 
Egypt,  and  they  suffered  a complete 
defeat  by  Ibrahim  Pasha.  He  ex- 
tended his  power  over  most  of  the 
country,  but  the  events  of  1840  in  Syria 
compelled  him  to  renounce  all  claims  to 


tures  are  well  cut,  the  nose  straight,  the 
forehead  high.  They  are  naturally 
active,  intelligent,  and  courteous;  and 
their  character  is  marked  by  temper- 
ance, bravery,  and  hospitality.  The 
first  religion  of  the  Arabs,  the  worship 
of  the  stars,  was  supplanted  by  the 
doctrines  of  Mohammedanism,  which 
succeeded  rapidly  in  establishing  itself 
throughout  Arabia. 

The  history  of  the  Arabs  previous  to< 
Mohammed  is  obscure.  The  earliest 
inhabitants  are  belived  to  have  been  of 
the  Semitic  race.  Jews  in  great  num- 
bers migrated  into  Arabia  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and,  making 
numerous  proselytes,  indirectly  favored 
the  introduction  of  the  doctrines  of 
Mohammed.  With  his  advent  the 
Arabians  uprose  and  united  for  the  pur- 
po.se  of  extending  the  new  creed;  and 
under  the  caliphs — the  successors  of 
Mohammed — they  attained  great  power, 
and  founded  large  and  powerful  king- 
doms in  three  continents.  (See  Caliphs.) 
On  tlie  fall  of  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad 
in  1258  the  decline  set  in,  and  on  the 
expulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain  the 
foreign  rule  of  the  Arabs  came  to  an 
end.  In  the  16th  century  Turkey  sub- 
jected Hejaz  and  Yemen,  and  received 


Arabia.  The  Hejaz  thus  again  became 
subject  to  Turkish  sway.  Turkey  has 
since  extended  its  rule  not  only  over 
Yemen,  but  also  over  the  district  of 
El-Hasa  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

ARABIAN  NIGHTS;  or,  THE  THOU- 
SAND AND  ONE  NIGHTS,  a celebrated 
collection  of  Eastern  tales,  long  current 
in  the  East,  and  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  by  the  Arabians  from  India, 
Ithrough  the  medium  of  Persia.  They 
were  first  introduced  into  Europe  in  the 
beginning  of  the  ISth  century  by  means 
of  the  French  translation  of  Antoine 
Galland.  Of  some  of  them  no  original 
MS.  is  known  to  exist;  they  were  taken 
down  by  Galland  from  the  oral  com- 
munication of  a Syrian  friend.  The 
story  which  connects  the  tales  of  the 
Thousand  and  One  Nights  is  as  follows ; 
The  Sultan  Shahriyar,  exasperated  by 
the  faithlessness  of  his  bride,  made 
a law  that  every  one  of  his  future  wives 
should  be  put  to  death  the  morning 
after  marriage.  At  length  one  of  them, 
Shahrazad,  the  generous  daughter  of 
the  grand-vizier,  succeeded  in  abolish- 
ing the  cruel  custom.  By  the  charm  of 
her  stories  the  fair  narrator  induced  the 
sultan  to  defer  her  excution  ever3’'  day 
till  the  dawn  of  another,  by  breaking 


off  in  the  middle  of  an  interesting  tale 
which  she  had  begun  to  relate.  In  the 
form  we  possess  them  these  tales  belong 
to  a comparatively  late  period,  though 
the  exact  date  of  their  composition  is 
not  known.  Lane,  who  published  a 
translation  of  a number  of  the  tales, 
with  valuable  notes,  is  of  opinion  that 
they  took  their  present  form  some  time 
between  1475  and  1525.  Two  complete 
English  translations  have  recently  teen 
printed,  giving  many  passages  that 
previous  translators  had  omitted  on  the 
score  of  morality  or  decency. 

ARABIC  FIGURES,  the  characters 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0;  of  Indian  origin, 
introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Moors. 
They  did  not  come  into  general  use  till 
after  the  invention  of  printing. 

AR'ACK,  a spirituous  liquor  manu- 
factured in  the  East  Indies  from  a great 
variety  of  substances.  It  is  often  dis- 
tilled from  fermented  rice,  or  it  may  be 
distilled  from  the  juice  of  the  cocoanut 
and  other  palms.  Pure  arack  is  clear 
and  transparent,  with  a yellowish  or 
straw  color,  and  a peculiar  but  agree- 
able taste  and  smell ; it  contains  at  least 
52  to  54  per  cent  of  alcohol. 

AR'AGO,  Dominique  Francois,  a 
French  physicist,  born  in  1786;  died  at 
Paris  in  1853.  After  studying  in  the 
Polytechnic  School  at  Paris,  he  was 
appointed  a secretary  of  the  Bureau  des 
Longitudes.  In  1809  he  was  elected  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  appointed 
a professor  of  the  Polytechnic  School. 
He  distinguished  himself  by  his  re- 
searches in  the  polarization  of  light, 
galvanism,  magnetism,  astronomy,  etc. 
His  discovery  of  the  magnetic  proper- 
erties  of  substances  devoid  of  iron, 
made  known  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  1824,  procured  him  the  Copley  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1825. 
A further  consideration  of  the  same  sub- 
ject led  to  the  equally  remarkable  dis- 
covery of  the  production  of  magnetism 
by  electricity. 

ARAGON',  Kingdom  of,  a former 
province  or  kingdom  of  Spain,  now 
divided  into  the  three  provinces  of 
Teruel,  Huesca,  and  Saragossa;  bounded 
on  the  n.  by  the  Pyrenees,  n.w.  by  Na- 
varre, w.  by  Castile,  s.  by  Valencia,  and 
e.  by  Catalonia;  length  about  190  miles, 
average  breadth  90  miles;  area,  14,726 
sq.  miles.  It  was  governed  by  its  own 
monarchs  until  the  union  with  Castile 
on  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella (1469).  Pop.  909,261. 

A'RAM,  Eugene,  a self-taught  scholar 
whose  unhappy  fate  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  a ballad  b}'^  Hood  and  a 
romance  by  Lord  Lytton,  was  born  in 
Yorkshire,  1704,  executed  for  murder, 
1759. 

ARAP'AHOES,  a tribe  of  American 
Indians  located  near  the  head-waters  of 
the  Arkansas  and  Platte  rivers,  not  now 
of  any  importance. 

AR'ARAT,  a celebrated  mountain  in 
Armenia,  forming  the  point  of  contact 
of  Russia  with  Turkey  and  Persia ; an 
isolated  volcanic  mass  showing  two 
separate  cones  known  as  the  Great  and 
Little  Ararat,  resting  on  a common  base 
and  separated  by  a deep  intervening 
depression.  The  elevations  are:  Great 
Ararat,  16,916  feet;  Little  .Vrarat,  12,- 
840  feet ; the  connecting  ridge,  S7S0  feet 


ARBITRATION 


ARCHBISHOP 


Vegetation  extends  to  14,200  feet,  which 
marks  the  snow-line.  According  to  tra- 
dition Mount  Ararat  was  the  resting- 

E’  > of  the  ark  when  the  waters  of  the 
abated. 

ARBITRATION,  the  process  by  which 
a dispute  over  property,  or  other  dispute, 
is  settled  without  recourse  to  law,  by 
judges  selected  and  agreed  upon  by  the 
disputants.  The  history  of  arbitration 
is  quite  old,  and  this  method  of  settling 
disputes  is  really  older  than  legal  forms 
which  are  an  outgrowth  of  it.  In  medie- 
val times  international  disputes  were 
arbitrated  by  the  pope  of  Rome,  and  the 
Vatican  still  is  regarded,  by  Roman 
Catholic  powers,  as  a permanent  court 
of  arbitration.  Among  the  numerous 
cases  more  recently  decided  by  arbitra- 
tion are  those  of  the  Alabama  claims 
(1871),  of  the  Samoan  dispute  between 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  in  1889,  of  the  Delagoa  Bay 
dispute  and  the  Bering  Sea  dispute  in 
in  1892,  and  of  the  Alaskan  boundary 
dispute  in  1897. 

ARBOR  DAY,  a holiday,  general  in 
the  United  States,  used  for  the  planting 
of  trees  by  school  children.  The  day 
usually  falls  in  early  May.  Its  purpose 
is  the  encouragement  of  the  idea  of 
reforesting  the  country. 

AR'BORICULTURE  includes  the  cul- 
ture of  trees  and  shrubs,  as  well  as  all 
that  pertains  to  the  preparation  of  the 
soil,  the  sowing  of  the  seeds,  and  the 
treatment  of  the  plants  in  their  young 
state,  the  preparation  of  the  land  previ- 
ous to  their  final  transplantation,  their 
just  adaptation  to  soil  and  situation, 
their  relative  growth  and  progress  to 
maturity,  their  management  during 
growth,  and  the  proper  season  and 
period  for  felling  them. 

ARBOR  VITAS,  the  name  of  several 
coniferous  trees  allied  to  the  cypress, 
with  flattened  branchlets,  and  small 
imbricated  or  scale-like  leaves.  The 
common  Arbor  Vitae  is  a native  of  North 
America,  where  it  grows  to  the  height 
of  40  or  50  feet.  The  young  twigs  have 
an  agreeable  balsamic  smell.  The  Chi- 
nese Arbor  Vitae,  common  in  Britain, 
yields  a resin  which  was  formerly 
thought  to  have  medicinal  virtues. 

AR'BUTUS,  a genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  Ericaceae,  or  heath  order,  and 
comprising  a number  of  small  trees  and 
shrubs,  natives  chiefly  of  Europe  and 
N.  America. 

ARC,  a portion  of  a curve  line,  espe- 
cially of  a circle.  It  is  by  means  of 
circular  arcs  that  all  angles  are  measured. 
— Electric  or  Voltaic  arc,  the  luminous 
arch  of  intense  brightness  and  exces- 
sively high  temperature  which  is  formed 
by  an  electric  current  in  crossing  over 
the  interval  of  space  between  the  carbon 
points  of  an  electric  lamp.  See  Arc- 
light. 

ARC,  Jeanne  d’.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 
ARCADE,  a series  of  arches  supported 
on  piers  or  pillars,  used  generally  as  a 
screen  and  support  of  a roof,  or  of  the 
wall  of  a building,  and  having  beneaih 
the  covered  part  an  ambulatory  as 
round  a cloister,  or  a foot-path  with 
shops  or  dwellings,  as  frequently  seen 
in  old  Italian  towns.  Sometimes  a 
porch  or  other  prominent  part  of  an 


important  building  is  treated  with 
arcades,  as  in  the  illustration. 

ARCA'DIA,  the  central  and  most 
mountainous  partion  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, the  inhabitants  of  which  in  ancient 


Arcade. 


times  were  celebrated  for  simplicity  of 
character  and  manners.  Their  occupa- 
tion was  almost  entirely  pastoral,  and 
thus  the  country  came  to  be  regarded 
as  typical  of  rural  simplicity  and  happi- 
ness. At  the  present  day  Arcadia  forms 
a nomarchy  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece. 
Area,  2028  sq.  miles;  pop.  148,600. 

ARCH,  a structure  composed  of  sepa- 
rate pieces,  such  as  stones  or  bricks. 


a.  Abutments.  i,  Impost.  p.  Piers. 

V,  Voussoirs  or  arch-stones.  k.  Keystone. 

S,  Springers.  In.  Intrados.  Ex.  Extrados. 

having  the  shape  of  truncated  wedges, 
arranged  on  a curved  line,  so  as  to  retain 
their  position  by  mutual  pressure. 

ARCH.ffiAN  (ar-ke'an)  ROCKS,  the 
oldest  rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust,  crystal- 
line in  character,  and  embracing  gran- 
ite, syenite,  gneiss,  mica-schist,  etc.,  all 
devoid  of  fossil  remains.  These  rocks 
underlie  and  are  distinctly  separate  from 
the  stratified  and  fossiliferous  forma- 
tions, which  indeed  have  chiefly  taken 
origin  from  them. 

ARCHAEOL'OGY,  the  aoience  which 
takes  cognizance  of  the  history  of  nations 
and  peoples  as  evinced  by  the  remains, 
architectural,  implemental,  or  otherwise, 
which  belong  to  the  earlier  epoch  of 
their  existence.  In  a more  extended 


sense  the  term  embraces  every  branch 
of  knowledge  which  bears  on  the  origin, 
religion,  laws,  language,  science,  arts, 
and  literature  of  ancient  peoples.  It  is 
to  a great  extent  s3Tionymou$  with  pre- 
historic annals,  as  a large  if  not  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  its  field  of  study  extends 
over  those  periods  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race  in  regard  to  which  we  pos- 
sess almost  no  information  derivable 
from  written  records.  Archaeology 
divides  the  primeval  period  of  the 
human  race,  more  especially  as  ex- 
hibited by  remains  found  in  Europe, 
into  the  stone,  the  bronze,  and  the  iron 
age,  these  names  being  given  in  accord- 
ance with  the  materials  employed  for 
weapons,  implements,  etc. , during  the 
articular  period.  The  stone  age  has 
een  subdivided  into  the  palaeolithic 
and  neolithic,  the  former  being  that 
older  period,  in  which  the  stone  imple- 
ments were  not  polished  as  they  are  in 
the  latter  and  more  recent  period  The 
bronze  age,  which  admits  of  a similar 
subdivision,  is  that  in  which  implements 
were  of  copper  or  bronze.  In  this  age 
the  dead  were  burned  and  their  ashes 
deposited  in  urps  or  stone  chests, 
covered  with  conical  mounds  of  earth 
or  cairns  of  stones.  Gold  and  amber 
ornaments  appear  in  this  age.  The  iron 
age  is  that  in  which  implements,  etc.,  of 
iron  begin  to  appear,  although  stone 
and  bronze  implements  are  found  along 
with  them.  The  word  age  in  this  sense 
(as  explained  under  Age)  simply  denotes 
the  stage  at  which  a people  has  arrived. 
The  phrase  stone  age,  therefore,  merely 
marks  the  period  before  the  use  of 
bronze,  the  bronze  age  that  before  the 
employment  of  iron,  among  any  specific 
people. 

ARCHANGEL  (ark-an'jel),  an  angel 
of  superior  or  of  the  highest  rank.  The 
only  archangel  mentioned  by  name  in 
Scripture  is  Michael  in  the  Epistle  of 
Jude. 

ARCHANGEL  (ark-an'jel),  a seaport, 
capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
northern  Dwina,  about  20  miles  above 
its  mouth  in  the  White  Sea.  The  port 
is  closed  for  six  months  by  ice.  Arch- 
angel, founded  in  1584,  was  long  the 
only  port  which  Russia  possessed.  Pop. 
19,540. — The  province  has  an  area  of 
331,490  sq.  miles;  pop.  311,673. 

ARCHBISHOP  (arch-),  a chief  bishop, 
or  bishop  over  other  bishops ; a metropoli- 
tan prelate.  The  establishment  of  this 
dignity  is  to  be  traced  up  to  an  early 
period  of  Christianity,  when  the  bishops 
and  inferior  clergy  met  in  the  capitals 
to  deliberate  on  spiritual  affairs,  and  the 
bishop  of  the  city  where  the  meeting 
was  held  presided.  In  England  there 
are  two  (Protestant)  archbishops— those 
of  Canterbury  and  York;  the  former 
styled  Primate  of  all  England,  the  latter 
Primate  of  England.  The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  is  the  first  p>eer  of  the 
realm,  having  precedence  before  all 
great  officers  of  tne  crown  and  all  dukes 
not  of  royal  birth.  He  crowns  the 
sovereign,  and  when  he  Is  invwted  with 
his  arcnbishopric  he  is  said  to  be  en- 
throned. He  can  grant  spedal  licenses 
to  marry  at  any  time  or  place,  and  can 
confer  degrees  otherwise  to  be  obtained 
only  from  the  universitie.s. 


ARCHDEACON 


ARCHITECTURE 


ARCHDEACON  (arch-),  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal dignitary  next  in  rank  below  a bishop, 
having  a certain  jurisdiction  over  a part 
of  the  diocese.  From  two  to  four  arch- 
deacons are  appointed  by  the  bishops, 
under  whom  they  perform  their  duties, 
and  they  hold  courts  which  decide  cases 
subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  bishop. 

ARCHER-FISH,  a name  given  to  a 
scaly-finned  fish,  about  6 inches  long, 
inhabiting  the  seas  around  Java,  which 


Archer-fish. 


has  the  faculty  of  shooting  drops  of 
water  to  the  distance  of  3 or  4 feet  at 
insects,  thereby  causing  them  to  fall 
into  the  water,  when  it  seizes  and  de- 
vours them.  The  soft,  and  even  the 
spiny  portion  of  their  dorsal  fins  are  so 
covered  with  scales  as  to  be  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  rest  of  the  body. 

ARCH'ERY,  the  art  of  shooting  with 
a bow  and  arrow.  The  use  of  these 
weapons  in  war  and  the  chase  dates  from 
the  earliest  antiquity.  Ishmael,  we  learn 
from  Gen.  xxi.,  “became  an  archer.” 


Cressy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  gained 
against  apparently  overwhelming  odds, 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  bowmen.  Arch- 
ery disappeared  gradually  as  firearms 
came  into  use,  and  as  an  instrument  of 
war  or  the  chase  the  bow  is  now  con- 
fined to  the  most  savage  tribes  of  both 
hemispheres.  But,  though  the  bow  has 
been  long  abandoned  among  civilized 
nations  as  a military  weapon,  it  is  still 
cherished  as  an  instrument  of  healthful 
recreation,  encouraged  by  archery  clubs 
or  societies. 

ARCHIMEDES  (ar-ki-me'dez),  a cele- 
brated ancient  Greek  physicist  and 
geometrician,  born  at  Syracuse,  in 
Sicily,  about  287  b.c.  He  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  science,  and  enriched 
mathematics  with  discoveries  of  the 
highest  importance,  upon  which  the 
moderns  have  founded  their  admeasure- 
ments of  curvilinear  surface  and  solids. 
Archimedes  is  the  only  one  among  the 
ancients  who  has  left  us  anything  satis- 
factory on  the  theory  of  mechanics  and 
on  hydrostatics.  He  first  taught  the 
hydrostatic  principle  to  which  his  name 
is  attached,  “that  a body  immersed 
in  a fluid  loses  as  much  in  weight  as  the 
weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  the  fluid,” 
and  determined  by  means  of  it  that  an 
artist  had  fraudulently  added  too  much 
alloy  to  a crown  which  King  Hiero  had 
ordered  to  be  made  of  pure  gold.  He 
discovered  the  solution  of  this  problem 
while  bathing;  and  it  is  said  to  have 
caused  him  so  much  joy  that  he  hastened 
home  from  the  bath  undressed,  and 
crying  out.  Eureka!  Eureka!  “I  have 
found  it,  I have  found  it!”  Practical 
mechanics  also  received  a great  deal  of 
attention  from  Archimedes,  who  boasted 
that  if  he  had  a fulcrum  or  standpoint  he 
could  move  the  world.  He  is  the  in- 
ventor of  the  compound  pulley,  prob- 
ably of  the  endless  screw,  the  archi- 
medean  screw,  etc.  During  the  siege  of 
Syracuse  by  the  Romans  he  is  said  to 
have  constructed  many  wonderful  ma- 
chines with  which  he  repelled  their 


Assyrian  archer.  Egyptian  archer,  with  arrow  heads  and  stone- 

tipped  reed  arrow. 


The  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Persiahs,  Par- 
thians,  excelled  in  the  use  of  the  bow; 
and,  while  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
themselves  made  little  use  of  it,  they 
employed  foreign  archers  as  mercenaries. 
Coming  to  much  more  recent  times,  we 
find  the  Swiss  famous  as  archers,  but 
they  generally  used  the  arbalist  or  cross- 
bow, and  were  no  match  for  their  Eng- 
lish rivals,  who  preferred  the  long-bow. 
(See  Bow.)  The  English  victories  of 


attacks,  and  he  is  stated  to  have  set 
on  fire  their  fleet  by  burning-glasses! 
At  the  moment  when  the  Romans 
gained  possession  of  the  city  by  assault 
(212  B.c.)  tradition  relates  that  Archi- 
medes was  slain  while  sitting  in  the 
market-place  contemplating  some  math- 
ematical figures  which  he  had  drawn  in 
the  sand. 

ARCHIPEL'AGO,a  term  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  iEgean,  the  sea  lying  be- 


tween Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  then  to 
the  numerous  islands  situated  therein, 
and  latterly  to  any  cluster  of  islands. 

ARCHITECTURE,  in  a general  sense, 
is  the  art  of  designing  and  constructing 
houses,  bridges,  and  other  buildings  for 
the  purposes  of  civil  life ; or,  in  a more 
limited  but  very  common  sense,  that 
branch  of  the  fine  arts  which  has  for 
its  object  the  production  of  edifices  not 
only  convenient  for  their  special  pur- 
pose, but  characterized  by  unity, 
beauty,  and  often  grandeur. — The  first 
habitations  of  man  were  such  as  nature 
afforded,  or  cost  little  labor  to  the 
occupant — caves,  huts,  and  tents.  But 
as  soon  as  men  rose  in  civilization  and 
formed  settled  societies  they  began  to 
build  more  commodious  and  comfortable 
habitations.  The  Egyptians  are  the 
most  ancient  nation  known  to  us  among 
whom  architecture  had  attained  the 
character  of  a fine  art.  Other  ancient 
peoples  among  whom  it  had  made 
great  progress  were  the  Babylonians, 
whose  most  celebrated  buildings  were 
temples,  palaces,  and  hanging-gardens; 
the  Assyrians,  whose  capital,  Nineveh, 
was  rich  in  splendid  buildings;  the 
Phoenicians,  whose  cities,  Sidon,  Tyre, 
etc.,  were  adorned  with  equal  mag- 
nificence; and  the  Israelites,  whose 
temple  was  a wonder  of  architecture. 
But  comparatively  few  acrhitectural 
monuments  of  these  latter  nations 
have  remained  till  our  day. 

This  is  not  the  case  with  the  archi- 
tecture of  Egypt,  however,  of  which  we 
possess  ample  remains  in  the  shape  of 
pyramids,  temples,  sepulchers,  obelisks, 
etc.  Egyptian  chronology  is  far  from 
certain,  but  the  greatest  of  the  archi- 
tectural monuments  of  the  country, 
the  pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  are  at  least  as 
old  as  2800  or  2700  b.c. 

The  earliest  architectural  remains  of 
Greece  are  of  unknown  antiquity,  and 
consist  of  massive  walls  built  of  huge 
blocks  of  stone.  In  historic  times  the 
Greeks  developed  an  architecture  of 
noble  simplicity  and  dignity.  This  style 
is  of  modern  origin  compared  with  that 
of  Egypt,  and  the  earliest  remains  give 
indications  that  it  was  in  part  derived 
from  the  Egyptian.  It  is  considered  to 
have  attained  its  greatest  perfection 
in  the  age  of  Pericles,  or  about  460-430 
B.c.  The  great  masters  of  this  period 
were  Phidias,  Ictinus,  Callicrates,  etc. 
All  the  extant  buildings  are  more  or  less 
in  ruins.  The  most  remarkable  public 
edifices  of  the  Greelcs  were  temples,  of 
which  the  most  famous  is  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens.  Their  theaters  were  semi- 
circular on  one  side  and  square  on  the 
other,  the  semicircular  part  being 
usually  excavated  in  the  side  of  some 
convenient  hill.  This  part,  the  audi- 
torium, was  filled  with  concentric  seats, 
and  might  be  capable  of  containing 
20,000  spectators.  A number  exist  in 
Greece,  Sicily,  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
elsewhere.  The  Romans  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  architecture  of  the 
Greeks  soon  after  200  b.c.,  but  it  was 
not  till  about  two  centuries  later  that 
the  architecture  of  Rome  attained 
(under  Augustus)  its  greatest  perfection. 
Among  the  great  works  now  erected 
were  temples,  aqueducts,  amphitheaters, 
magnificent  villas,  triumphal  arches. 


ARC-LIGHT 


ARCTIC 


.monumental  pillars,  etc.  The  amphi- 
theater differed  from  the  theater  in 
being  a completely  circular  or  rather 
elliptical  building,  filled  on  all  sides 
with  ascending  seats  for  spectators  and 
leaving  only  the  central  space,  called 
che  arena,  for  the  combatants  and 


public  shows.  The  Colosseum  is  a stu- 
penduos  structure  of  this  kind.  The 
thermae,  or  baths,  were  vast  structures 
in  which  multitudes  of  people  could 
bathe  at  once.  Magnificent  tombs  were 
often  built  by  the  wealthy.  Remains 
of  jjrivate  residences  are  numerous,  and 
the  excavations  at  Pompeii  in  particular 
have  thrown  great  light  on  the  internal 
arrangements  of  the  Roman  dwelling- 
house. 

In  Constantinople,  after  its  virtual 
separation  from  the  Western  Empire, 
arose  a style  of  art  and  architecture 
which  was  practiced  by  the  Greek 
Church  during  the  whole  of  the  middle 
ages.  This  is  called  the  Byzantine 
style.  The  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople, built  by  Justinian  (reigned 
527-565),  offers  the  most  typical  speci- 
men of  the  style,  of  which  the  funda- 
mental principle  was  an  application  of 
the  Roman  arch,  the  dome  being  the 
most  striking  feature  of  the  building. 
In  the  most  typical  examples  the  dome 
or  cupola  rests  on  four  pendentives. 

After  the  dismemberment  of  the 
Roman  Empire  the  beautiful  works  of 
ancient  architecture  were  almost  entire- 
ly destroyed  by  the  Goths,  Vandals,  and 
other  barbarians  in  Italy,  Greece,  Asia, 
Spain,  and  Africa;  or  what  was  spared 
by  them  was  ruined  by  the  fanaticism  of 
the  Christians.  A new  style  of  archi- 
tecture now  arose,  two  forms  of  which 


man  Romanesque  flourished,  especially 
in  Normandy  and  England,  from  the 
11th  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century. 
The  semicircular  arch  is  the  most  char- 
acteristic feature  of  this  style.  With 
the  Lombard  Romanesque  were  com- 
bined Byzantine  features,  and  buildings 
in  the  pure  Byzantine  style  were  also 
erected  in  Italy,  as  the  Church  of  St. 
Mark  at  Venice. 

The  Germans'were  unacquainted  with 
architecture  until  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne (or  Charles  the  Great,  742-814). 
He  introduced  into  Germany  the  Byzan- 
tine and  Romanesque  styles.  After- 
ward the  Moorish  or  Arabian  style 
had  some  influence  upon  that  of  the 
western  nations,  and  thus  originated  the 
mixed  style  which  maintained  itself 
till  the  middle  of  the  13th  century. 

The  rise  of  the  Renaissance  style  in 
Italy  is  the  greatest  event  in  the  history 
of  architecture  after  the  introduction 
of  the  Gothic  style.  The  Gothic  style 
had  been  introduced  into  the  country 


Grecian  Doric— Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia. 


and  extensively  employed,  but  had 
never  been  thoroughly  naturalized.  The 
Renaissance  is  a revival  of  the  classic 
style  based  on  the  study  of  the  ancient, 
models;  and,  having  practically  com- 
menced in  Florence  about  the  beginning 
of  the  15th  century,  it  soon  spread 
with  great  rapidity  over  Italy  and  the 
greater  part  of  Europe.  The  most 
illustrious  architects  of  this  early  period 
of  the  style  were  Brunelleschi,  who 
built  at  Florence  the  dome  of  the  cathe- 
dral, the  Pitti  Palace,  etc.,  besides 
many  edifices  at  Milan,  Pisa,  Pesaro, 
and  Mantua;  Alberti,  who  wrote  an 
important  work  on  architecture,  and 


building  in  this  style  of  architecture  in 
Britain  is  St.  Paul’s,  London,  the  work 
of  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Within  the  past  17  years  American 
architects  (notably  W.  L.  B.  Jenney,  of 
Chicago)  invented  a new  method  of 


Romanesque— Cathedral  of  Worms. 

construction  for  large  private  and  public 
buildings,  called  “steel  construction.” 
This  consists  of  erecting  a skeleton  of 
steel  beams  and  joists,  all  securely 
riveted  together,  forming  a great  united 
steel  cage,  around  which  are  placed  solid 
casings  of  fire-proof  tiles.  This  fire- 
proof skeleton  is  then  enclosed  within 
walls  and  the  interior  finish  added. 
Steel  buildings  of  this  kind  are  fire-proof, 
tornado-proof,  and  earthquake-proof. 

ARC-LIGHT,  that  species  of  the 
electric  light  in  which  the  illuminating 
source  is  the  current  of  electricity  pass- 
ing between  two  sticks  of  carbon  kept 


Arc-light:  carbons  magnified. 


Egyptian— Front  of  Temple  of  Isis  at  Phil®. 


the  Lombard  and  the  Norman  Roman- 
esque, form  important  phases  of  art. 
The  Lombard  prevailed  in  north  Italy 
and  south  Germany  from  the  8th  or  9th 
to  the  13th  century  (though  the  Lombard 
rule  came  to  an  end  in  774);  the  Nor- 


erected many  admired  churches;  Bra- 
mante,  who  began  the  building  of  St. 
Peter’s,  Rome,  and  Michael  Angelo,  who 
erected  its  magnificent  dome.  On  St. 
Peter’s  were  also  employed  Raphael, 
Peruzzi  and  San  Gallo,  The  noblest 


a short  distance  apart,  one  of  them 
being  in  connection  with  the  positive, 
th§  other  with  the  negative  terminal  of 
a battery  or  dynamo. 

AR'COT,  two  districts  and  a town~of 
India,  within  the  Presidency  of  Madras. 
North  Arcot  is  an  inland  district  with 
an  area  of  7256  sq.  miles.  The  country 
is  partly  flat  and  partly  mountainous, 
where  intersected  by  the  Eastern  Ghd,ts. 
Pop.  1,817,814. — South  Arcot  lies  on  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  and  has  two  seaports, 
Cuddalor  and  Porto  Novo.  Pop.  1,814,- 
738. — The  town  Arcot  is  in  North  Arcot, 
on  the  Palar,  about  70  miles  w.  by  s. 
of  Madras.  Pop.  12,000. 

ARCTIC  (ark'tik),  an  epithet  given 
to  the  north  pole  from  the  proximity  of 
the  constellation  of  the  Bear,  in  Greek 
called  arktos.  The  Arctic  Circle  is  an 
I imaginary  circle  on  the  globe,  parallel 


ARCTIC  OCEAN 


ARGENTINE  RERUBLiC 


to  the  equator,  and  23°  28'  distant  from 
the  north  pole.  This  and  its  opposite, 
the  Antartio,  are  called  the  two  polar 
011*0106 

ARCTIC  OCEAN,  that  part  of  the 
water  surface  of  the  earth  which  sur- 
rounds the  north  pole,  and  washes  the 
northern  shores  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America ; its  southern  boundary  roughly 
coinciding  with  the  Arctic  Circle  (lat. 
66°  32'  n.).  It  incloses  many  large 
islands,  and  contains  large  bays  and 
gulfs  which  deeply  indent  the  northern 
shores  of  the  three  continents.  Its 
great  characteristic  is  ice,  which  is 
nearly  constant  everywhere. 

ARCTIC  REGIONS,  the  regions  round 
the  north  pole,  and  extending  from  the 
pole  on  all  sides  to  the  Arctic  Circle  in 
lat.  66°  32'  n.  The  Arctic  or  North  Polar 
Circle  just  touches  the  northern  head- 
lands of  Iceland,  cuts  off  the  southern 
and  narrowest  portion  of  Greenland, 
crosses  Fox’s  Strait  north  of  Hudson’s 
Bay,  whence  it  goes  over  the  American 
continent  to  Bering’s  Strait.  Thence 
it  runs  to  Obdorsk  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Obi,  then  crossing  northern  Russia,  the 
White  Sea,  and  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula, returns  to  Iceland.  Though  much 
skill  and  heroism  have  been  developed 
in  the  exploration  of  this  portion  of  the 
earth,  there  is  still  an  area  round  the 
pole  estimated  at  2,500,000  sq.  miles, 
which  is  a blank  to  geographers.  Many 
have  adopted  the  behef  in  the  existence 
of  an  open  polar  sea  about  the  north 
ole.  But  this  belief  is  not  supported 
y any  positive  evidence.  Valuable 
minerals,  fossils,  etc.,  have  been  dis- 
covered within  the  Arctic  regions.  In 
the  archipelago  north  of  the  American 
continent  excellent  coal  frequently 
occurs.  The  mineral  cryolite  is  mined 
in  Greenland.  Fossil  ivory  is  obtained 
in  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lena.  In 
Scandinavia,  parts  of  Siberia,  and  north- 
west America,  the  forest  region  extends 
within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  most 
characteristic  of  the  natives  of  the  Arctic 
regions  are  the  Eskimos.  The  most 
notable  animals  are  the  white-bear,  the 
musk-ox,  the  reindeer,  and  the  whale- 
bone whale.  Fur-bearing  animals  are 
numerous.  The  most  intense  cold  ever 
registered  in  those  regions  was  74°  below 
zero  Fahr.  The  aurora  borealis  is  a 
brilliant  phenomenon  of  Arctic  nights. 
See  Polar  Exnloration. 

ARCTU'RUS,  a fixed  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  the  constellation  of  Bootes, 
and  thought  by  some  to  be  the  nearest 
to  our  system  of  any  of  the  fixed  stars. 
It  is  one  of  the  stars  observed  to  have  a 
motion  of  its  own,  and  is  a noticeable 
object  in  the  northern  heavens. 

ARDECHE(ar-dash'),a  department  in 
the  south  of  France  (Languedoc),  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Rhone,  taking  its  name 
from  the  river  Ard^che,  which  rises 
within  it,  and  falls  into  the  Rhone  after 
a course  of  46  miles;  area,  2134  sq. 
miles.  It  is  generally  of  a mountainous 
character,  and  contains  the  culminating 
point  of  the  Cevennes.  Silk  and  wine 
are  produced.  Annonay  Is  the  principal 
town,  but  Privas  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
353  564. 

ARDENNES  (hr-den'),  a frontier  de- 
partment in  the  northeast  of  France; 
area,  2020  .'aq.  miles,  partly  consisting 


of  the  Forest  of  Ardennes.  Chief  towns, 
Mdzi5res  (the  capital),  Rocrol,  and 
Sedan.  Pop.  315,589. 

A'REA,  the  superficial  content  of  any 
figure  or  space,  the  quantity  of  surface 
it  contains  in  terms  of  any  unit.  See 
Mensuration. 

ARE'NA,  the  inclosed  space  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Roman  amphi- 
theaters, in  which  took  place  the  com- 
bats of  gladiators  or  wild  beasts.  It 
w'as  usually  covered  with  sand  or  saw- 
dust to  prevent  the  gladiators  from 
slipping,  and  to  absorb  the  blood. 

ARE'OLAR  TISSUE,  an  assemblage 
of  fibers  and  laminae  pervading  every 
part  of  the  animal  structure,  and  con- 
nected with  each  other  so  as  to  form 
innumerable  small  cavities,  by  means 
of  which  the  various  organs  and  parts 
of  organs  are  connected  together;  called 
also  Cellular  Tissue  and  Connective 
Tissue. — In  botany  the  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  the  non-vascular  sub- 
stance, composed  entirely  of  untrans- 
formed cells,  which  forms  the  soft  sub- 
stance of  plants. 

AREOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids; 
a hydrometer  (which  see). 

AREQUIPA  (&-ra-ke'ph),  a city  of 
Peru,  200  miles  south  of  Cuzco,  situated 
in  a fertile  valley,  7850  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Pop.  30,000. 

ARES  (a'rez).  See  Mars. 

AREZZO  (^i-ret's6),  a city  of  central 
Italy,  capital  of  a province  of  the  same 
name  in  Tuscany,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Chiana  with  the  Arno.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  Miecenas,  Petrarch,  Pietro 
Aretino,  Redi,  and  Vasari.  Pop.  44,350. 
— The  province  of  Arezzo  contains  1276 
sq.  miles  and  272,359  inhabitants. 

AR'GAND  LAMP,  a lamp  named  after 
its  inventor,  Aim6  Argand,  a Swiss 
chemist  and  physician  (born  1755,  died 
1803),  the  distinctive  feature  of  which 
is  a burner  forming  a ring  or  hollow 
cylinder  covered  by  a chimney,  so  that 
tire  flame  receives  a current  of  air  both 
on  the  inside  and  on  the  outside. 

ARGEMONE  (hr-jem'o-ne),  a small 
genus  of  ornamental  American  plants 
of  the  poppy  order.  From  the  seeds  is 
obtained  an  oil  very  useful  to  painters. 

AR'GENTINE  REPUBLIC,  formerly 
called  the  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata, 
a vast  country  of  South  America,  the 
extreme  length  of  which  is  2300  miles, 
and  the  average  breadth  a little  over 
500  miles,  the  total  area  exceeding 
1,200,000  sq.  mites.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  n.  by  Bolivia;  on  the  e.  by  Paraguay, 
Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the  Atlantic;  on 
the  s.  by  the  Antartic  Ocean;  and  on  the 
w.  by  the  Andes.  It  comprises  four 
great  natural  divisions:  (1)  the  Andine 
region,  containing  the  provinces  of 
Mendoza,  San  Jaun,  Riojaj  Catamarca, 
Tucuman,  Salta,  and  Jujuy;  (2)  the 
Pampas,  containing  the  provinces  of 
Santiago,  Santa  F6,  Cordova,  San  Luis, 
and  Buenos  Ayres;  with  the  territories 
Formosa,  Pampa,  and  Chaco;  (3)  the 
Argentine  Mesopotamia,  between  the 
rivers  Parana  and  Uruguay,  containing 
the  provinces  of  Entre  Rios  and  Corri- 
entes,  and  the  territory  Misiones;  (4) 
Patagonia,  including  the  eastern  half  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  With  the  exception 
of  the  n.w.,  where  lateral  branches  of 


the  Andes  run  into  the  plain  for  150  or 
200  miles,  and  the  province  of  Entre 
Rios,  which  is  hilly,  the  characteristic 
feature  of  the  country  is  the  great 
monotonous  and  level  plains  called 
“pampas.”  In  the  north  these  plains 
are  partly  forest-covered,  but  all  the 
central  and  southern  parts  present  vast 
treeless  tracts,  which  afford  pasture  to 
immense  herds  of  horses,  oxen,  and 
sheep,  and  are  varied  in  some  places  by 
brackish  swamps,  in  others  by  salt 
steppes.  The  great  water-course  of  the 
country  is  the  Parana,  having  a length 
of  fully  2000  miles  from  its  source  in 
the  mountains  of  Goyaz,  Brazil,  to  its 
junction  with  the  Uruguay,  where 
begins  the  estuary  of  La  Plata.  The 
Parana  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Upper  Paranu  and  Paraguay  rivers, 
near  |he  n.e.  corner  of  the  state.  Im- 
portant tributaries  are  the  Pilcomayo, 
the  Vermejo,  and  the  Salado.  The 
Parana,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay  are 
valuable  for  internal  navigation.  Many 
of  the  streams  which  tend  eastward 
terminate  in  marshes  and  salt  lakes, 
some  of  which  are  rather  extensive. 
Not  connected  with  the  La  Plata  system 
are  the  Colorado  and  the  Rio  Negro, 
the  latter  formerly  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  state,  separating  it  from 
Patagonia.  The  source  of  the  Negro  is 
Lake  Nahuel  Huapi,  in  Patagonia  (area, 
1200  sq.  miles),  in  the  midst  of  mag- 
nificent scenery.  The  level  portions  of 
the  country  are  mostly  of  tertiary 
formation,  and  the  river  and  coast 
regions  consist  mainly  of  alluvial  soil 
of  great  fertility.  In  the  pampas  clay 
have  been  found  the  fossil  remains  of 
extinct  Mammaha,  some  of  them  of 
colossal  size. 

European  grains  and  fruits,  including 
the  vine,  have  been  successfully  intro- 
duced, and  are  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  most  parts  of  the  republic, 
but  the  great  wealth  of  the  state  lies 
in  its  countless  herds  of  cattle  and  horses 
and  flocks  of  sheep,  which  are  pastured 
on  the  pampas,  and  which  multiply 
there  very  rapidly.  Gold,  silver,  nickel, 
copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron,  besides 
marble,  jasper,  precious  stones,  and 
bitumen,  are  found  in  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  n.w.,  while  petroleum 
wells  have  been  discovered  on  the  Rio 
Vermejo;  but  the  development  of  this 
mineral  wealth  has  hitherto  been  greatly 
retarded  by  the  want  of  proper  means  of 
transport.  As  a whole  there  are  not 
extensive  forests  in  the  state  except  in 
the  region  of  the  Gran  Chaco  (which 
extends  also  into  Bolivia),  where  there 
is  known  to  be  60,000  square  miles  of 
timber.  Thousands  of  square  miles  are 
covered  with  thistles,  which  grow  to  a 
great  height  in  their  season.  Cacti  also 
form  great  thickets.  Peach  and  apple 
trees  are  abundant  in  some  districts. 
The  native  fauna  includes  the  puma, 
the  jaguar,  the  tapir,  the  llama,  the 
alpaca,  the  vicufla,  armadillos,  the  rhea 
or  nandu,  a species  of  ostrich,  etc.  "The 
climate  is  agreeable  and  healthful,  97° 
being  about  the  highest  temperature 
experienced.  The  rainfall  is  very  scanty 
in  some  districts,  and  is  nowhere  very 
large. 

The  river  La  Plata  was  discovered  in 
1512  by  the  Spanish  navigator  Juan 


AKGONAUT 


ARIL 


Diaz  de  Solis,  and  the  La  Plata  territory 
had  been  brought  into  the  possession  of 
Spain  by  tJie  end  of  the  16th  century. 
In  1810  the  territory  cast  off  the  Span- 
ish rule,  and  in  1816  the  ind^endence 
of  the  United  States  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  was  formally  declared,  but  it  was 
long  before  a settled  government  was 
established.  The  present  constitution 
dates  from  1853,  being  subsequently 
modified.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a president — elected  by  the 
representatives  of  the  fourteen  provinces 
for  a term  of  six  years.  A national  con- 
gress of  two  chambers — a senate  and  a 
house  of  deputies — wields  the  legisla- 
tive authority,  and  the  republic  is  mak- 
ing rapid  advances  in  social  and  politi- 
cal life.  The  national  revenue  for  1901 
amounted  to  about  $65,000,000,  while 
the  expenditure  amounted  to  fully  $70,- 
000,000;  the  public  debt  is  about  $390,- 
000,000.  There  are  about  11,000  miles 
of  railway  opened.  The  external  com- 
merce is  important,  the  chief  exports 
being  wool,  skins  and  hides,  live  animals, 
mutton,  tallow,  bones,  corn,  and  flax. 
The  imports  are  chiefly  manufactured 
goods.  The  trade  is  largely  with  Brit- 
ain and  France,  and  is  inci'easing 
rapidly,  the  exports  having  advanced 
from  $45,000,000  in  1876  to  $150,000,- 
000  in  1901.  The  imports  are  over 
$100,000,000  annually.  Buenos  Ayres 
is  the  capital.  Other  towns  are  Cor- 
dova, Rosario,  La  Plata,  Tucuman,  Men- 
doza, and  Corrientes.  The  population 
of  the  republic,  which  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing by  immigration,  w'as,  in  1895, 
4,092,990;  of  the  capital,  690,000. 

AR'GONAUT,  a molluscous  animal 
belonging  to  the  dibranchiate  or  two- 
gilled  cuttlefishes,  distinguished  bj  the 
females  possessing  a single-chambered 
external  shell,  not  organically  connected 


Argonaut. 


with  the  body  of  the  animal.  The  males 
have  no  shell  and  are  of  much  smaller 
size  than  the  females.  The  shell  is 
fragile,  translucent,  and  boat-like  in 
shape;  it  serves  as  the  receptacle  of  the 
ova  or  eggs  of  the  female,  which  sits 
in  it  with  the  respiratory  tube  or  “fun- 
nel” turned  toward  the  carina  or  “keel.” 
This  famed  mollusc  swims  only  by  eject- 
ing water  from  its  funnel,  and  it  can 
crawl  in  a reversed  position,  carrying 
its  shell  over  its  back  like  a snail.  The 
argonaut,  or  paper-nautilus,  must  be 
carefully  distinguished  from  the  pearly- 
nautilus  or  nautilus  proper. 

ARGONAUTS,  in  the  legendary  his- 
tory of  Greece,  those  heroes  who  per- 
formed a hazardous  voyage  to  Colchis, 
a far-distant  country  at  the  eastern 


extremity  of  the  Euxine  (Black  Sea), 
with  Jason  in  the  ship  Argo,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  a golden  fleece,  which 
was  preserved  suspended  upon  a tree, 
and  under  the  guardianship  of  a sleep- 
less dragon.  By  the  aid  of  Medea, 
daughter  of  the  king  of  Colchis,  Jason 
was  enabled  to  seize  the  fleece,  and, 
after  many  strange  adventures,  to  reach 
his  home  at  lolcos  in  Thessaly.  Among 
the  Argonauts  were  Hercules,  Castor 
and  Pollux,  Orpheus  and  Theseus. 

ARGO-NAVIS,  the  southern  constel- 
lation of  the  Ship,  containing  9 clusters, 

3 nebulce,  13  double  and  540  single  stars, 
of  which  about  64  are  visible. 

AR'GOS,  a town  of  Greece,  in  the 
northeast  of  the  Peloponnesus,  between 
the  gulfs  of  jEgina  and  Naiiplia  or 
Argos.  This  town  and  the  surrounding 
territory  of  Argolis  were  famous  from 
the  legendary  period  of  Greek  history 
onward,  the  territory  containing,  be- 
sides Argos,  Mycenaj,  where  Agamem- 
non ruled,  with  a kind  of  sovereignty, 
over  all  the  Peloponnesus.  Argolis 
forms  a nomarchy  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Greece;  pop.  80,695.  The  capital  is 
Nauplia. 

AR'GUMENT,  a term  sometimes  used 
as  synonymous  with  the  subject  of  a 
discourse,  but  more  frequently  appro- 
priated to  any  kind  of  method  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  confuting  or  at  least 
silencing  an  opponent. 

AR'GUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
fabulous  being,  said  to  have  had  a hun- 
dred eyes,  placed  by  Juno  to  guard  lo. 
Hence  “argus-eyed,”  applied  to  one  who 
is  exceedingly  watchful. 

ARGUS-PHEASANT,  a large,  beauti- 
ful, and  very  singular  species  of  pheas- 
ant, found  native  in  the  southeast  of 
Asia,  more  especially  in  Sumatra  and 
some  of  the  other  islands.  The  males 
measure  from  5 to  6 feet  from  the  tip 
of  the  beak  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail, 
which  has  two  greatly  elongated  central 
feathers.  The  plumage  is  exceedingly 
beautiful,  the  secondary  quills  of  the 
wings,  which  are  longer  than  the  pri- 
mary feathers,  being  each  adorned  with  a 
series  of  ocellated  or  eye-like  spots 
(whence  the  name — see  Argus)  of  bril- 
liant metallic  hues.  The  general  body 
plumage  is  brown. 

ARGYLE,  or  ARGYLL  (ar-giF),  an 
extensive  county'  in  the  southwest  of 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  consisting 
partly  of  mainland  and  partly  of  islands 
belonging  to  the  Hebifides  group.  On 
the  land  side  the  mainland  is  bounded 
north  by  Inverness;  east  by  Perth  and 
Dumbarton;  eslewhere  surrounded  by 
the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  its  connections 
and  the  sea;  area,  3255  square  miles  (or 
over  2,000,000  acres),  of  which  the 
islands  comprise  about  1000  square  miles. 
The  county  is  exceedingly  mountainous, 
the  chief  summits  being  Bidean-nam- 
Bian  (3766  ft.),  Ben  Laoigh  (3708  ft.), 
Ben  Cruachan  (3611  ft.),Benmore,  in  Mull 
(3185  ft.),  the  Paps  of  Jura  (2565  ft.), 
and  Ben  Arthur  or  the  Cobbler  (2891  ft.). 
There  are  several  lakes,  the  principal  of 
which  is  Loch  Awe.  The  chief  minerals 
are  slate,  marble,  limestone,  and  granite. 
County  town,  Inveraray;  others,  Camp- 
beltown, Oban,  and  Dunoon.  Pop. 
(1901),  73,665. 


ARGYLL,  CAMPBELLS  OF,  a historic 
Scottish  family,  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
the  person  of  Sir  Duncan  Campbell  of 
LochoAV,  in  1445.  The  more  eminent 
rneinbers  are:  (1)  Archibald,  2d  Earl, 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Flodden,  1513. — 
Archibald,  5th  Earl,  who  was  the  means 
of  averting  a collusion  between  the  Re- 
formers and  the  French  troops  in  15.59; 
died  1575. — Archibald,  8th  Earl  and 
Marquis,  l)orn  1598;  created  a marquis 
by  Charles  I.  At  the  Restoration  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  after- 
ward sent  to  Scotland,  where  he  was 
tried  for  high  treason,  and  beheaded  in 
1661. — Archibald,  9th  Earl,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  excludeil  from  the  gen- 
eral pardon  by  Cromwell  in  1654;  be- 
headed in  1685. — Archibald,  10th  Earl 
and  1st  Duke,  died  1703;  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Revolution  of  1688-89,  which 
placed  William  and  Mary  on  the  throne. 
— John,  2d  Duke  and  Duke  of  Green- 
wich, born  1678,  died  1743 ; served  under 
Marlborough,  and  a.ssisted  at  the  sieges 
of  Lisle  and  Ghent.  He  was  long  a sup- 
porter of  Walpole,  but  his  political  ca- 
reer was  full  of  intrigue.  He  is  the 
Duke  of  Argyll  in  Scott’s  Heart  of  Mid- 
lothian.— George  Douglas  Campbell, 
K.T.,  K.G.,  etc.,  8th  Duke  (of  U.  King- 
dom, 1892),  was  born  in  1823.  In  1852 
he  became  lord  privy  seal  under  Lord 
Aberdeen,  and  again  under  Lord  Palm- 
erston in  1859 ; postmaster-general  in 
1860;  secretary  for  India  from  1868  to 
1874;  again  lord  privy  seal  in  1880,  but 
retired,  being  unable  to  agree  with  his 
colleagues  on  their  Irish  policy.  He 
died  in  1900.  His  eldest  son,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Lome,  married  the  Princess 
Louise,  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  in 
1871.  See  Lome,  Marquis  of. 

ARIA,  in  music.  See  Air. 

ARIADNE  (a-ri-ad'ne),  in  Greek  myth- 
ology, a daughter  of  Minos,  King  of 
Crete.  She  gave  Theseus  a clue  of 
thread  to  conduct  him  out  of  the  laby- 
rinth after  his  defeat  of  the  Minotaur. 
Theseus  abandoned  her  on  the  Isle  of 
Naxos,  where  she  was  found  by  Bacchus, 
who  married  her. 

ARIEGE  (a-re-azh),  a mountainous 
department  of  France,  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Pyrenees,  comprising  the 
ancient  countship  of  Foix  and  parts  of 
Languedoc  and  Gascony.  Area,  1890 
sq.  miles;  pop.  219,641. 

A'RIEL,  the  name  of  several  person- 
ages mentioned  in  the  Old  'Jfestament; 
in  the  demonology  of  the  later  Jews  ^ 
spirit  of  the  waters.  In  Shakespeare’s 
Tempest,  Ariel  was  the  “tricksy  spirit” 
whom  Prospero  had  in  his  service. 

ARIES  (a'ri-ez),  the  Ram,  a northern 
constellation  of  156  stars,  of  v/hich  fifty 
are  visible.  It  is  the  first  of  the  twelve 
signs  in  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters 
at  the  vernal  equinox,  about  the  21st  of 
March.  The  first  point  in  Aries  is  that 
where  the  equator  cuts  the  ecliptic  in 
the  ascending  node,  and  fi'om  which  the 
right  ascensions  of  heavenly  bodies  are 
reckoned  on  the  equator,  and  their 
longitudes  upon  the  ecliptic.  Owing  to 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  the  sign 
Aries  no  longer  corresponds  with  the 
constellation  Aries,  which  it  did  2000 
years  ago. 

AR'IL,  APJL'LUS,  in  some  plants, 
as  in  the  nutmeg,  an  extra  covering  of 


AKISTARCHUS 


ARIZONA 


the  seed,  outside  of  the  true  seed-coats, 
proceeding  from  the  placenta,  partially  i 
investing  the  seed,  and  falling  off  : 
spontaneously.  It  is  either  succulent 
or  cartilaginous,  colored,  elastic,  rough, 
or  knotted.  In  the  nutmeg  it  is  known 
as  mace. 

ARISTARCHUS  (ar-is-tar'kus)  an 
ancient  Greek  astronomer  belonging  to 
Samos,  flourished  between  280  and  264 
B.C.,  and  first  asserted  the  revolution  of 
the  earth  about  the  sun ; also  regarded 
as  the  inventor  of  the  sun-dial. 

ARISTIDES  (ar-is-ti'dez),  a states- 
man of  ancient  Greece,  for  his  strict 
integrity  surnamed  the  Just.  He  was 
one  of  the  ten  generals  of  the  Athenians 
when  they  fought  with  the  Persians  at 
Marathon,  n.c.  490.  Next  year  he  was 
eponymous  archon,  and  in  this  office 
enjoyed  such  popularity  that  he  excited 
the  jealousy  of  Themistocles,  who  suc- 
ceeded in  procuring  his  banishment  by 
the  ostracism  (about  483).  Three  years 
after,  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece  with 
a large  army,  the  Athenians  hastened  to 
recall  him,  and  Themistocles  now  ad- 
mitted him  to  his  confidence  and  coun- 
cils. In  the  battle  of  Platsea  (479)  he 
commanded  the  Athenians,  and  had  a 
great  share  in  gaining  the  victory.  To 
defray  the  expenses  of  tlie  Persian  war 
he  persuaded  the  Greeks  to  impose  a 
tax,  which  should  be  paid  into  the  hands 
of  an  officer  appointed  by  the  states 
collectively,  and  deposited  at  Delos. 
The  confidence  which  was  felt  in  his 
integrity  appeared  in  their  intrusting 
him  with  the  office  of  apportioning  the 
contribution.  He  died  at  an  advanced 
age  anout  b.c.  468,  so  poor  that  he  was 
buried  at  the  public  expense. 

ARISTOC'RACY,  a form  of  govern- 
ment by  which  the  wealthy  and  noble, 
or  any  small  privileged  class,  rules  over 
the  rest  of  the  citizens;  now  mostly 
applied  to  the  nobility  or  chief  persons 
in  a state. 

ARISTOPHANES  (-tof'a-nez),  the 
greatest  comic  poet  of  ancient  Greece, 
born  at  Athens  prdbably  about  the  year 
444  B.C.;  died  not  later  than  b.c.  380. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life. 

AR'ISTOTLE,  a distinguished  philos- 
opher and  naturalist  of  a.ncient  Greece, 
the  founder  of  the  Peripatetic  school  of 
philosophy,  was  born  in  384  b.c.  at 
Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  died  at  Chalcis, 
B.c.  322.  His  father,  Nicomachus,  was 
physician  to  Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Mace- 
donia, and  claimed  to  be  descended 
from  .iEsculapius.  Aristotle  had  lost 
his  parents  before  he  came,  at  about 
the  age  of  seventeen,  to  Athens  to  study 
in  the  school  of  Plato.  With  that  philoso- 
pher he  remained  for  twenty  years,  be- 
came preeminent  among  his  pupils, 
and  was  known  as  the  “Intellect  of  the 
School.”  Upon  the  death  of  Plato, 
348  B.C.,  he  took  up  his  residence  at 
Atarneus,  in  Mysia,  on  the  invitation 
of  his  former  pupil  Hermeias,  the  ruler 
of  that  city,  on  whose  assassination  by 
the  Persians,  343  b.c.,  he  fled  to  Mity- 
lene  with  his  wife  Pythia,  the  niece  of 
Hermeias.  During  his  residence  at 
Mitylene  he  received  an  invitation  from 
Philip  of  Macedon  to  superintend  the 
education  of  his  son  Alexander,  then  in 
his  fourteenth  year.  This  relationship 
between  the  great  philosopher  and  the 


future  conqueror  continued  for  five  or 
six  years,  during  which  the  prince  was 
instructed  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  poetry, 
logic,  ethics,  and  politics,  and  in  those 
branches  of  physics  which  had  even 
then  made  some  considerable  progress. 
On  Alexander  succeeding  to  the  throne 
Aristotle  continued  to  live  with  him  as 
his  friend  and  councilor  till  he  set  out 
on  his  Asiatic  campaign  (334  b.c.).  He 
returned  to  Athens  and  established  his 
school  in  the  Lyceum,  a gymnasium  at- 
tached to  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceius, 
which  was  assigned  to  him  by  the  state. 
He  delivered  his  lectures  in  the  wooded 
walks  of  the  Lyceum  while  walking  up 
and  down  with  his  pupils.  From  the 
action  itself,  or  more  probably  from  the 
name  of  the  walks  (peripatoi),  his  school 
was  called  Peripatetic.  Pupils  gathered 
to  him  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and  his 
school  became  by  far  the  most  popular 
in  Athens.  It  was  during  the  time  of 
his  teaching  at  Athens  that  Aristotle 
is  believed  to  have  composed  the  great 
bulk  of  his  works.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  a revolution  occurred  in 
Athens  hostile  to  the  Macedonian  in- 
terests with  which  Aristotle  was  identi- 
fied. He  therefore  retired  to  Chalcis, 
where  he  soon  after  died.  According 
to  Strabo  he  bequeathed  all  his  works 
to  Theophrastus,  who,  with  other  dis- 
ciples of  Aristotle,  amended  and  con- 
tinued them.  They  afterward  passed 
through  various  hands,  till,  about  50 
B.C.,  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  put  the 
various  fragments  together  and  classi- 
fied them  according  to  a systematic 
arrangement.  Many  of  the  books  bear- 
ing his  name  are  spurious,  others  are  of 
doubtful  genuineness. 

ARITH'METIC  is  primarily  the 
science  of  numbers.  As  opposed  to 
algebra  it  is  the  practical  part  of  the 
science.  Although  the  processes  of 
arithmetical  operations  are  often  highly 
complicated,  they  all  resolve  themselves 
into  the  repetition  of  four  primary  oper- 
ations; addition,  subtraction,  multipli- 
cation, and  division.  Of  these  the  two 
latter  are  only  complex  forms  of  the  two 
former,  and  subtraction  again  is  merely 
a reversal  of  the  process  of  addition. 
Little  or  nothing  is  known  as  to  the 
origin  and  invention  of  arithmetic. 
Some  elementary  conception  of- it  is  in 
all  probability  coeval  with  the  first 
dawn  of  human  intelligence.  In  conse- 
quence of  their  rude  methods  of  numera- 
tion, the  science  made  but  small  advance 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
introduction  of  the  decimal  scale  of 
notation  and  the  Arabic,  or  rather 
Indian,  numerals  into  Europe  that  any 
great  progress  can  be  traced.  In  this 
scale  of  notation  every  number  is  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  the  ten  digits,  1,2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0,  by  giving  each  digit 
a local  as  well  as  its  proper  or  natural 
value.  The  value  of  every  digit  increases 
in  a tenfold  proportion  from  the  right 
toward  the  left;  the  distance  of  any 
figure  from  the  right  indicating  the 
power  of  10,  and  the  digit  itself  the 
number  of  those  powers  intended  to  be 
: expressed:  thus  3464  = 3000  -f  400  + 
60  + 4 = 3 X 103  -h  4 X 102  + 6 X 10 
1+4.  The  earliest  arithmetical  signs 
I ' appear  to  have  been  hieroglyphical,  but 


the  Eygptian  hieroglyphics  Were  too 
diffuse  to  be  of  any  arithmetical  value. 
The  units  were  successive  strokes  to  the 
number  required,  the  ten  an  open  circle, 
the  hundred  a curled  palm-leaf,  the 
thousand  a lotus  flower,  ten  tliousand  c. 
bent  finger.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet 
afforded  a convenient  mode  of  repre- 
senting figures,  and  were  used  accord- 
ingly by  the  Chaldeans,  Hebrews,  and 
Greeks.  The  first  nine  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet  represented  the  units, 
the  second  nine  tens,  the  remaining 
four  together  with  five  repeated  with 
additional  marks,  hundreds;  the  same 
succession  of  letters  with  added  points 
was  repeated  for  thousands,  tens  of 
thousands,  and  hundreds  of  thousands. 
The  Greeks  followed  the  same  system 
up  to  tens  of  thousands.  They  wrote 
the  different  classes  of  numbers  in 
succession  as  we  do,  and  they  transferred 
operations  performed  on  units  to  num- 
bers in  higher  places;  but  the  use  of 
different  signs  for  the  different  ranks 
clearly  shows  a want  of  full  perception 
of  the  value  of  place  as  such.  They 
adopted  the  letter  M as  a sign  for  10,000 
and  by  combining  this  marx  with  their 
other  numerals  they  could  note  numbers 
as  high  as  100,000,000.  The  Roman 
numerals  which  are  still  used  in  marking 
dates  or  numbering  chapters  were  almost 
useless  for  purposes  of  computation. 
From  one  to  four  were  represented  by 
vertical  strokes  |,  ||,  |I|,  ll||,  five  by 
V,  ten  by  X,  fifty  by  L,  one  hundred 
by  C,  afterward  C,  fi''^®  hundred  by  D* 
a thousand  by  [Vli  These  signs  were 
derived  from  each  other  according  to 
particular  rules,  thus  V was  the  half  of 
X,  A being  also  used;  L was  likewise 
the  half  of  C.  IVl  was  artistically  written 
IVI  and  do,  and  lo,  afterward  D,  be- 
came five  hundred.  ccl  represented 
5000,  ccloo  10,000,  looo  50,000,  ccclooo 
100,000.  They  were  also  compounded 
by  addition  and  subtraction,  thus  |V 
stood  for  four,  VI  for  six,  XXX  for 
thirty,  XL  for  forty,  LX  for  sixty. 
Arithmetic  is  divided  into  abstract  and 
practical ; the  former  comprehends  nota- 
tion, numeration,  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  division,  measures  and 
multiples,  fractions,  powers  and  roots: 
the  latter  treats  of  the  combinations 
and  practical  applications  of  these  and 
the  so-called  rules,  such  as  reduction, 
compound  addition,  subtraction,  multi- 
plication, and  division,  proportion, 
interest,  profit  and  loss,  etc.  Another 
division  is  integral  and  fractional  arith- 
metic, the  former  treating  of  integers, 
or  whole  numbers,  and  the  latter  of 
fractions.  Decimal  fractions  were  in- 
vented in  the  16th  century,  and  loga- 
rithms, embodying  the  last  great  ad- 
vance in  the  science,  in  the  17th  century. 

ARIZO'NA,  a territory  of  the  United 
States  bounded  by  Utah,,  Mexico,  New 
Mexico,  California,  and  Nevdda,  in  lati- 
tudes 31°  20'  and  37°  n.  and  longi- 
tudes 109°  3'  and  114°  54'  w.  It  has  an 
area  of  113,020  sq.  miles  and  a popula- 
tion (1908)  of  200,000.  It  is  believed 
that  the  countr}^  now  called  Arizona, 
was  formerly  inhabited  by  a powerful 
race  who  built  cities,  constructed  forts, 
and  were  civilized  in  a high  degree. 
The  first  white  men  to  explore  this 
region  were  Marco  de  Nizan  and  his 


ARK 


ARKANSAS 


companions,  Spanish  missionaries.  Sub- 
sequent expeditions  and  settlement  were 
discouraged  by  the  Apaches,  who  have, 
until  the  present  time,  been  a source  of 
trouble  to  the  white  inhabitants.  In 
1848  Arizona,  together  with  New 
Mexico,  became  part  of  the  United 


States,  by  the  Gadsden  purchase.  On 
Feb.  24,  1813,  it  became  a territory. 
In  1907  it  was  admitted  with  Okla- 
homa as  the  state  of  Oklahoma. 

The  territory  is,  in  its  southwestern 
part,  of  low  elevation,  and  its  northeast- 
ern portion  consists  of  a high  plateau. 
In  the  south  are  numerous  high  mountain 
peaks,  many  of  them  (Thomas,  Ord, 
Bill  Williams,  and  others)  10,000  feet 
high  and  higher.  The  northern  table- 


Marble  canon,  Colorado  river. 


land  at  places  is  8000  feet  in  altitude. 
The  Colorado  is  the  principal  river,  and 
its  canon  reaches  its  most  picturesque 
state  in  Arizona.  The  climate  is  mild, 
very  dry,  and  very  healthful,  varying 
in  temperature  from  excessive  heat  to  a 
mean  of  45°.  The  rainfall  is  from  five 
to  twenty  inches  yearly  in  various  parts 
of  the  territory. 


Owing  to  the  lack  of  irrigation  Arizona 
has  been  very  backward  in  agriculture. 
The  principal  industries  are  stock-rais- 
ing, alfalfa,  wheat,  and  barley.  Figs, 
raisin-grapes  and  nuts  of  excellent 
quality  are  grown,  and  cotton  could  be 
raised  with  adequate  irrigation.  The 
mineral  resources  of  Arizona  are  prob- 
ably richer  than  those  of  any  other 
state  or  territory  in  the  Union,  but  their 
development  has  been  held  back  by 
poor  and  scanty  transportation  facilities. 
Copper  (263,200,000  pounds  in  1906), 
gold  ($2,747,100  in  1906),  and  silver 
($2,099,822  in  1906)  are  the  chief  mining 
products.  Rich  deposits  of  platinum, 
gypsum,  mercury,  salt,  iron,  nickel, 
tin,  and  precious  stones  abound. 

Arizona  has  a total  of  1881  miles  of 
railway,  eight  national  banks,  and  a 
good  educational  system. 

ARK,  the  name  applied  in  our  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  to  the  boat  or  floating 
edifice  in  which  Noah  resided  during  the 
flood  or  deluge;  to  the  floating  vessel  of 
bulrushes  in  which  the  infant  Moses  was 
laid ; and  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
which  was  one  of  the  most  important 
partsof  the  furniture  of  the  tabernacle, 
which  the  Israelites  constructed  in  the 
wilderness,  and  afterwards  of  the  tem- 
ple built  by  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  A 
description  of  it  is  to  be  found  in  Exo- 
dus XXV.,  in  the  command  given  to 
Moses  for  its  construction  ; and  also  in 
Exodus  xxxvii,  from  which  it  appears 
it  was  a chest  of  shittim-wood,  over- 
laid with  gold  within  and  without, 
two  cubits  and  a half  in  length,  one 
cubit  and  a half  in  breadth  and  in  height 
— that  is,  according  to  the  common 
estimate  of  the  length  of  the  cubit, 
three  feet  nine  inches  in  length,  and 
two  feet  three  inches  in  breadth  and 
height — the  lid  being  formed  entirely 
of  pure  gold,  with  a crown  or  raised 
border  of  pure  gold  round  about. 
Within  the  ark  was  deposited  the 
“ testimony,”  consisting  of  “the  two 
tables  of  the  law,”  i.  e.,  the  stone  tab- 
lets upon  which  the  ten  command- 
ments were  inscribed.  The  golden  lid 
of  the  ark  was  called  the  mercy-seat  or 
propitiatory,  and  above  it  were  tlie  cheru- 
bims,  made  of  the  same  piece  of  gold 
with  it,  and  between  them  was  the 
place  of  the  manifestation  of  the  Divine 
presence. 

ARKANSAS  (aUkan-sa),  one  of  the 
South  Central  states,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Missouri,  by  Louisiana  on  the 
south,  the  Mississippi  river  on  the  east, 
and  by  the  Indian  Territory  and  Texas 
on  the  west.  It  has  an  area  of  53,850 
sq.  miles,  a population  (1906)  of  1,750,- 
000,  and  ranks  twenty-third  in  size 
among  the  states. 

The  climate  is,  on  the  whole,  delight- 
ful. The  annual  mean  rainfall  varies 
from  50  to  63  inches,  the  winters  are 
mild,  with  light  snowfall,  and  the  sum- 
mers are  long.  Arkansas  takes  its 
name  from  the  Indians  found  there  by 
the  first  explorers,  who  were  French. 
In  1685  settlements  were  made  in  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts,  Arkansas 
then  being  a part  of  the  general  territory 
of  Louisiana.  In  1812  it  became  a part 
of  Missouri  Territory,  then  Arkansas 
Territory,  and  in  1836  it  was  admitted 
into  the  Union.  The  state  seceded  from 


the  Union  in  1861,  but  the  people  were 
fairly  divided  on  the  subject  of  secession, 
and  with  the  taking  of  Little  Rock  in 
1863  the  confederate  power  failed.  The 
state  has  generally  voted  the  democratic 
ticket  in  national  elections. 


Although  the  mineral  resources  of 
Arkansas  are  varied  they  are  not  highly 
developed.  The  principal  product  is 
that  of  whetstones,  the  quality  of  which 
has  made  them  famous.  They  are 
obtained  from  the  mountains  in  the 
vicinity  of  Little  Rock.  These  moun- 
tains are  part  of  the  Ozark  range.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Arkansas,  the 
White,  the  Red,  and  the  Black. 
These  streams  are  fairly  navigable,  but 
lack  of  transportation  facilities  in  gen- 
eral has  cramped  the  development  of 
the  mining  industry  in  Arkansas.  The 
mineral  products  include  zinc,  man- 
ganese, iron,  lead,  and  copper;  marble, 
whet  and  hone  stones,  rock-crystal, 
paints,  niter-earths,  kaolin,  granite, 
freestone,  limestone,  marls,  greensand, 
marly  limestones,  grindstones,  and 
slate.  Of  coal,  anthracite  and  lignite, 
there  are  abundant  supplies.  A great 
number  of  mineral  and  thermal  springs 
occur  in  various  parts  of  the  state,  the 
most  remarkable  and  most  frequented 
groups  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Ar- 
kansas in  Hot  Springs  county.  The  heat 
of  several  attains  146°  or  148°  Fahr. 
There  is  a great  variety  of  soil  in  Ar- 
kansas. Along  the  river  “bottoms” 
the  alluvium  is  dark,  rich,  and  deep, 
and  yields  excellent  crops.  The  chief 
crops  cultivated  are  corn,  wheat,  cotton, 
and  tobacco,  as  well  as  apples  and 
other  fruits.  The  trees  and  shrubs  most 
frequently  occurring  are  poplars,  oaks, 
pines,  sweet-gum,  sycamore,  black  lo- 
cust, ash,  elm,  hickory,  dogvs'ood,  elder, 
palma-christi,  black  spice,  pawpaw, 
mockernut,  wild  vine,  etc.  The  fauna 
of  Arkansas  includes  the  buffalo,  eland, 
red-deer,  beaver,  otter,  hare,  raccoon, 
wild  turkey,  goose  and  quail,  as  well  as 
bears  and  wolves  among  the  mountains. 
The  climate  of  the  lower  districts  is  de- 
cidedly unhealthy,  largely  on  account 
of  the  lack  of  wholesome  water;  but  in 
the  upper  regions  it  is  quite  salubrious. 
The  material  interests  of  the  State 
are  enjoying  a high  degree  of  prosper- 
ity- The  products  of  the  lumber  and 
mining  industries,  have  annually  in- 
creased in  volume,  to  meet  the  con- 
stantly growing  demand  there  for 


ARKANSAS  RIVBR 


ARMADILLO 


throughout  the  State  and  in  other  por- 
tions of  the  Southwest. 

There  is  a total  of  4,532  miles  of  rail- 
road in  the  State,  owned  and  maintained 
by  the  St.  Louis,  Arkansas  and  Texas; 
Iron  Mountain ; Little  Rock  and  Fort 
Smith,  and  other  roads  and  their 
branches. 

The  school  system  is  well  managed 
and  sustained.  It  is  under  the  direction 
of  a state  superintendent  and  subordi- 
nate officials.  In  addition  to  the  school 
houses  distributed  throughout  the  var- 
ious school  districts  in  the  state,  a Nor- 
mal school  is  conducted  at  Pine  Bluff 
and  an  industrial  university  atFayette- 
ville.  The  curriculum  of  the  latter 
embraces  agriculture  and  mechanical 
courses,  besides  the  regular  classical 
and  scientific  departments.  The  State 
also  maintains  schools  for  the|blind, 
and  deaf  and  dumb,  and  has  at  ])resent 
a total  of  about  1,200,000  acres  of  State 
lands  of  various  descriptions  remain- 
ing unsold. 

The  population  by  decades  is  as  fol- 
lows: 1820,  14,000;  1830,  30,000;  1840, 
97,000;  1850,  209.000  ; 1860.  435,000  ; 1870, 
484,000;  1880,  802,000;  1890,  1,128,000; 
1908,  1,440,0(0.  In  1820  Arkansas  ranked 
twenty-sixth  in  order  of  population, 
and  has  since  varied  but.  little  from 
this  position,  being  twenty-fifth  in  19(  0. 
The  state  ranks  tenth  in  respect  to  ne- 
gro population,  the  rate  of  increase  for 
this  class  being  greater  than  it  is  for 
the  whites.  In  1880  they  numbered 
210,000  ; in  1900,  366,000.  In  19l,9  Little 
Rock,  the  capital,  had  a population  of 
60,000;  Pine  Bluff,  11,147  ; Fort  Smith, 
10,903;  Hot  Springs,  9,412.  The  state 
has  invariably  been  Democratic. 

ARKANSAS  CITY,  a rapidly  grow- 
ing city  in  the  southern  portion  of  Cow- 
ley county,  Kansas,  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  M’alnut  and  Arkansas 
rivers.  The  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe,  Missouri  Pacific,  and  St.  Louis  and 
San  Francispo  roads  pass  through  the 
city  and  afford  abundant  facilities  for 
shippers  and  travelers.  It  contains 
commercial  and  manufacturing  enter- 
prises in  large  number,  many  of  the 
latter  being  operated  by  water  power, 
of  which  an  abundance  is  available. 
The  city  is  lighted  by  gas  and  elec- 
tricity, provided  with  water-works  and 
is  progressive.  Population,  8,354. 

ARKANSAS  (ar-kan'sas)  RIVER,  the 
second  largest  affluent  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  Missouri  ranking  first.  It  rises  in 
central  Colorado,  flows  through  Kansas, 
Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territories,  and 
empties  into  the  Mississippi.  It  is  2000 
miles  long  and  navigable  for  about  600 
miles  from  its  mouth. 

ARK'WRIGHT,  Sir  Richard,  famous 
for  his  inventions  in  cotton-spinning, 
was  born  at  Preston,  in  Lancashire,  in 
1732;  died  1792.  Wflen  about  thirty- 
five  years  of  age  he  gave  himself  up 
exclusively  to  the  subject  of  inventions 
for  spinning  cotton.  The  thread  spun 
by  Hargreaves’s  jenny  could  not  be  used 
except  as  .yi^eft,”  being  destitute  of  the 
firmness  or  hardness  required  in  the 
longitudinal  threads  or  warp.  But 
Arkwright  supplied  this  deficiency  by 
the  invention  of  the  spinning-frame, 
which  spins  a vast  number  of  threads 
of  any  degree  of  fineness  and  hardness, 


leaving  the  operator  merely  to  feed  the 
machine  with  cotton  and  to  join  the 
threads  when  they  happen  to  break. 
His  invention  introduced  the  system 
of  spinning  by  rollers,  the  carding,  or 
roving  as  it  is  technically  termed  (that 
is,  the  soft,  loose  strip  of  cotton),  passing 
through  one  pair  of  rollers,  and  being 
received  by  a second  pair,  which  are 
made  to  revolve  with  (as  the  ease  may 
be)  three,  four,  or  five  times  the  velocity 
of  the  first  pair.  By  this  contrivance 
the  roving  is  drawn  out  into  a thread  of 
the  desired  degree  of  tenuity  and  hard- 
ness. Having  made  several  additional 
discoveries  and  improvements  in  the 
processes  of  carding,  roving,  and  spin- 
ning, he  took  out  a fresh  patent  for  the 
whole  in  1775,  and  thus  completed  a 
series  of  the  most  ingenious,  and  com- 
plicated maehipery.  Notwithstanding 
a series  of  lawsuits  in  defense  of  his 


Sir  Richard  Arkwright. 


patent  rights,  and  the  destruction  of  his 
property  by  mobs,  he  amassed  a large 
fortune.  He  was  knighted  by  George 
III.  in  1786. 

ARLES,  a town  of  southern  France, 
dep.  Bouches  du  Rhone,  17  miles  south- 
east of  Nismes.  It  was  an  important 
town  at  the  time  of  Csesar’s  invasion, 
and  under  the  later  emperors  it  became 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  on 
the  further  side  of  the  Alps.  It  still 
possesses  numerous  ancient  remains,  of 
which  the  most  conspicuous  are  those 
of  a Roman  amphitheatre,  which  ac- 
commodated 24,000  spectators.  Pop. 
16,247. 

ARM,  the  upper  limb  in  man,  con- 
nected with  the  thorax  or  chest  b}'- 
means  of  the  scapula  or  shoulder-blade, 
and  the  clavicle  or  collar-bone.  It  con- 
sists of  three  bones,  the  arm-bone  (hu- 
merus), and  the  two  bones  of  the  fore- 
arm (radius  and  ulna),  and  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  bones  of  the  hand  by 
the  carpus  or  wrist.  The  head  or  upper 
end  of  the  arm-bone  fits  into  the  hollow 
called  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula, 
so  as  to  form  a joint  of  the  ball-and- 
socket  kind,  allowing  great  freedom  of 
movement  to  the  limb.  The  lower  end 
of  the  humerus  is  broadened  out  by  a 
projection  on  both  the  outer  and  inner 
sides  (the  outer  and  inner  condyles), 
and  has  a pulley-like  surface  for  articu- 
lating with  the  fore-arm  to  form  the 
elbow-joint.  This  joint  somewhat  re- 
sembles a hinge,  allowing  of  movement 
only  in  oire  direction.  The  ulna  is  the 
inner  of  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm. 

1 It  is  largest  at  the  upper  end,  whei’e 


it  has  two  processes,  the  coronoid  and 
the  olecranon,  with  a dec;>  groove  be- 
tween to  receive  the  humerus.  The 
radius — the  outer  of  the  two  bones — is 
small  at  the  upper  and  expanded  at  the 
lower  end,  where  it  forms  part  of  the 


wrist-joint.  The  muscles  of  the  upper 
arm  are  either  flexors  or  extensors,  the 
former  serving  to  bend  the  arm,  the 
latter  to  straighten  it  by  means  of  the 
elbow-joint.  The  main  flexor  is  the 
biceps,  the  large  muscle  which  may  be 
seen  standing  out  in  front  of  the  arm 
when  a weight  is  raised.  The  chief 
opposing  muscle  of  the  biceps  is  the 
triceps.  The  muscles  of  the  fore-arm 
are,  besides  flexors  and  extensors,  pro- 
nators and  supinators,  the  former  turn- 
ing the  hand  palm  downward,  the  latter 
turning  it  upward.  The  same  funda- 
mental pi'"'  of  structure  exists  in  the 
limbs  of  all  vertebrate  animals. 

ARMA'DA,  the  Spanish  name  for  any 
large  naval  force ; usually  applied  to  the 
Spanish  fleet  the  Invincible  Armada, 
intended  to  act  against  England  a.d. 
1588.  It  consisted  of  130  great  war 
vessels,  and  carried  19,295  marines, 
8460  sailors,  2088  slaves,  and  2630 
cannons. 

ARMADIL'LO,  an  edentate  mammal 
peculiar  to  South  Amei’ica,  consisting  of 
various  species,  belonging  to  a family 
intermediate  between  the  sloths  and 
ant-eaters.  They  are  covered  with  a 
hard  bony  shell,  divided  into  belts,  com- 
posed of  small  separate  plates  like  a 
coat  of  mail,  flexible  everywhere  except 
on  the  forehead,  shoulders,  and  harmches, 
where  it  is  not  movable.  The  belts 
are  connected  by  a membrane,  which 


Yellow-footeiJ  armadillo. 


enables  the  animal  to  roll  itself  up 
like  a hedgehog.  These  animals  bur- 
row in  the  earth,  where  they  lie 
during  the  daytime,  seldom  going 
abroad  except  at  night.  They  are  of 
different  sizes;  the  largest  being  3 feet 


ARMAGEDDON 


ARMOR  PLATE 


in  length  without  the  tail,  and  the 
smallest  only  10  inches.  They  subsist 
chiefly  on  fruits  and  roots,  sometimes 
on  insects  and  flesh.  They  are  inoffen- 
sive. and  their  flesh  is  esteemed  good 
fooa. — There  is  a genus  of  isopodous 
Crustacea  called  Armadillo,  consisting 
of  animals  allied  to  the  wood-lice,  capa- 
ble of  rolling  themselves  into  a ball. 

ARMAGEDDON  (-ged'don),  the  great 
battlefield  of  the  Old  Testament,  where 
the  chief  conflicts  took  place  between 
the  Israelites  and  their  enemies — the 
tableland  of  Esdraelon  in  Galilee  and 
Samaria,  in  the  center  of  which  stood 
the  town  Megiddo,  on  the  site  of  the 
modern  Lejjun:  used  figuratively  in  the 
Apocalypse  to  signify  the  place  of  “the 
battle  of  the  great  day  of  God.” 

ARMAGH  (ir-ma'),  a county  of  Ire- 
land, in  the  province  of  Ulster;  sur- 
rounded by  Monaghan,  Tyrone,  Lough 
Neagh,  Down,  and  Lowth;  area,  328,- 
086  acres,  of  which  about  a half  is  under 
tillage.  Pop.  125,238.  — The  county 
town,  Armagh,  is  situated  partly  on  a 
hill,  about  half  a mile  from  the  Callan. 
It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop  of  the 
Protestant-Episcopal  Church,  who  is 
primate  of  all  Ireland,  and  is  a place  of 
great  antiquity.  Pop.  8303. 

AR'MATURE,  a term  applied  to  the 
piece  of  soft  iron  which  is  placed  across 
the  poles  of  permanent  or  electro- 
magnets for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
and  concentrating  the  attractive  force. 
In  the  case  of  permanent  magnets  it  is 
also  important  for  preserving  their 
magnetism  when  not  in  use,  and 
hence  it  is  sometimes  termed  the 
keeper.  It  produces  this  effect  in 
virtue  of  the  well-known  law  of  induc- 
tion, by  which  the  armature,  when 
placed  near  or  across  the  poles  of  the 
magnet,  is  itself  converted  into  a tem- 
porary magnet  with  reversed  poles,  and 
these,  reacting  upon  the  permanent 
magnet,  keep  its  particles  in  a state  of 
constant  magnetic  tension,  or,  in  other 
words,  in  that  constrained  position 
which  is  supposed  to  constitute  mag- 
netism. A horseshoe  magnet  should 
therefore  never  be  laid  aside  without 
its  armature;  and  in  the  case  of  straight 
bar-magnets  two  should  be  placed 
parallel  to  each  other,  with  their  poles 
reversed,  and  a keeper  or  armature 
across  them  at  both  ends.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  core  and  coil  of  the 
electromagnet,  which  revolves  before 
the  poles  of  the  permanent  magnet  in 
the  magneto-electric  machine. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY,  the  condition 
of  affairs  when  a nation  assumes  a 
threatening  position,  and  maintains  an 
armed  force  to  repel  any  aggression  on 
the  part  of  belligerent  nations  between 
which  it  is  neutral.  The  term  is  applied 
in  history  to  a coalition  entered  into  by 
the  northern  powers  in  1780  and  again 
in  1800. 

ARMED  SHIP,  a ship  which  is  taken 
into  the  service  of  a government  for  a 
particular  occasion,  and  armed  like  a 
ship  of  war. 

ARME'NIA.  a mountainous  country 
of  western  Asia,  not  now  politically 
existing,  but  of  great  historical  interest 
as  the  original  seat  of  one  of  the  oldest 
civilized  peoples  in  the  world.  It  is  now 
shared  between  Turkey,  Persia,  and 


Russia.  It  has  an  area  of  about  137,000 
square  miles,  and  is  intersected  by  the 
Euphrates,  which  divides  it  into  the 
ancient  divisions,  Armenia  Major  and 
Armenia  Minor.  The  country  is  an  ele- 
vated plateau,  inclosed  on  several  sides 
by  the  ranges  of  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus,  and  partly  occupied  by  other 
mountains,  the  loftiest  of  which  is 
Ararat.  Several  important  rivers  take 
their  rise  in  Armenia,  namely,  the  Kur 
or  Cyrus,  and  its  tributary  the  Aras 
or  Araxes,  flowing  east  to  the  Caspian 
Sea;  the  Halys  or  Kizil-Irmak,  flowing 
north  to  the  Black  Sea;  and  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  which  flow  into  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  chief  lakes  are  Van  and 
Urumiyah.  The  climate  is  rather  severe. 
The  soil  is  on  the  whole  productive, 
though  in  many  places  it  would  be  quite 
ban-en  were  it  not  for  the  great  care 
taken  to  irrigate  it.  Wheat,  barley,  to- 
bacco, hemp,  grapes,  and  cotton  are 
raised;  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  apri- 
cots, peaches,  mulberries,  and  walnuts 
are  grown.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
of  the  genuine  Armenian  stock,  a branch 
of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  race; 
but  besides  them,  in  consequence  of  the 
repeated  subjugation  of  the  country, 
various  other  races  have  obtained  a 
footing.  The  total  number  of  Arme- 
nians is  estimated  at  2,000,000,  of  whom 
probably  one-half  are  in  Armenia.  The 
remainder,  like  the  Jews,  are  scattered 
over  various  countries,  and  are  generally 
engaged  in  commercial  pursuits.  They 
everywhere  retain,  however,  their  dis- 
tinct nationality.  Many  thousands  of 
them  in  Armenia  have  recently  been 
massacred  by  the  Turks. 

Little  is  known  of  the  early  history  of 
Armenia,  but  it  was  a separate  state  as 
early  as  the  8th  century  b.c.,  when  it 
became  subject  to  Assyria,  as  it  also  did 
subsequently  to  the  Medes  and  the  Per- 
sians. It  was  conquered  by  Alexander 
the  Great  in  325  b.c.,  but  regained  its 
independence  about  190  b.c.  Its  king 
Tigranes,  son-in-law  of  the  celebrated 
Mithridates,  was  defeated  by  the  Ro- 
mans under  Lucullus  and  Pompey  aoout 
69-66  B.C.,  but  was  left  on  the  throne. 
Since  then  its  fortunes  have  been 
various  under  the  Romans,  Parthians, 
Byzantine  emperors,  Persians,  Sara- 
cens, Turks,  etc.  A considerable  por- 
tion of  it  has  been  acquired  by  Russia 
in  the  19th  century,  part  of  this  in  1878. 

The  Armenians  received  Christianity 
as  early  as  the  2d  century.  During  the 
Monophysitic  disputes  they  held  with 
those  who  rejected  the  twofold  na- 
ture of  Christ,  and  being  dissatisfied 
with  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  they  separated  from 
the  Greek  Church  in  536.  The  popes 
have  at  different  times  attempted  to 
gain  them  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  but  have  not  been  able  to  unite 
them  permanently  and  generally  with 
the  Roman  Church.  There  are,  how- 
ever. small  numbers  here  and  there  of 
United  Armenians,  who  acknowledge 
the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  pope, 
agree  in  their  doctrines  with  the  Cath- 
olics, but  retain  their  peculiar  cere- 
monies and  discipline.  But  the  far 
greater  part  are  yet  Monophysites,  and 
have  remained  faithful  to  their  old 
religion  and  worship).  Their  doctrine 


differs  from  the  orthodox  chiefly  in  their 
admitting  only  one  nature  in  Christ, 
and  believing  the  Holy  Spirit  to  pro- 
ceed from  the  Father  alone.  Their 
sacraments  are  seven  in  number.  They 
adore  saints  and  their  images,  but  do 
not  believe  in  purgatory.  Their  hier- 
archy differs  little  from  that  of  the 
Greeks.  The  Catholicus,  or  head  of  the 
church,  has  his  seat  at  Etchmiadzin,  a 
monastery  near  Erivan,  the  capital  of 
Russian  Armenia,  on  Mount  Ararat. 

The  Armenian  language  belongs  to 
the  Indo-European  family  of  languages, 
and  is  most  closely  connected  with  the 
Iranic  group.  "The  Old  Armenian  or 
Haikan  language,  which  is  still  the 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  language,  is 
distinguished  from  the  new  Armenian, 
the  ordinary  spoken  language,  which 
contains  a large  intermixture  of  Persian 
and  Turkish  dements.  The  most  flour- 
ishing period  of  Armenian  literature  ex- 
tended from  the  4th  to  the  14th  cen- 
tury. It  then  declined,  but  a revival 
began  in  the  17th  century,  and  at  the 
present  day  wherever  any  extensive 
community  of  Armenians  have  settled 
they  have  set  up  a printing-press.  The 
Armenian  Bible,  translated  from  the 
Septuagint  by  Isaac  or  Sahak,  the 
patriarch,  early  in  the  5th  century,  is 
a model  of  the  classic  style. 

ARMINTANS,  a sect  or  party  of  Chris- 
tians, so  called  from  James  Arminius  or 
Harmensen,  a Protestant  divine  of  Ley- 
den, who  died  in  1609.  The  Arminian 
doctrines  are:  (1)  Conditional  election 
and  reprobation,  in  opposition  to  abso- 
lute predestination.  (2)  Universal  re- 
demption, or  that  the  atonement  was 
made  by  Christ  for  all  mankind,  though 
none  but  believers  can  be  partakers  of 
the  benefit.  (3)  That  man,  in  order  to 
exercise  true  faith,  must  be  regenerated 
and  renewed  by  the  operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  is  the  gift  of  God; 
but  that  this  grace  is  not  irresistible  and 
may  be  lost,  so  that  men  may  relapse 
from  a state  of  grace  and  die  in  their 
sins. 

AR'MISTICE,  a temporary  suspension 
of  hostilities  between  two  belligerent 
powers  or  two  armies  by  mutual  agree- 
ment, often  concluded  for  only  a few 
hours  to  bury  the  slain,  remove  the 
wounded,  and  exchange  prisoners,  as 
also  sometimes  to  allow  of  a parley  be- 
tween the  opposing  generals.  A general 
armistice  is  usualfy  the  preliminary  of 
a peace. 

ARMOR  PLATE,  steel  plate  used  to 
protect  vessels  of  war  against  the  pro- 
jectiles of  an  enemy.  Although  the 
idea  is  comparatively  old,  it  was  first 
brought  into  practical  use  by  the 
engineer  John  Ericson,  in  the  Monitor, 
which  fought  the  iron-clad  Merrimac 
during  the  war  of  emancipation.  The 
object  of  having  a hard  face  to  armor 
is  to  break  up  projectiles  by  shock,  or 
so  to  strain  or  deform  them  as  to  reduce 
their  penetration.  It  is  particularly 
effective  on  oblique  impact  (i.e.  where 
the  projectile  strikes  at  an  angle  with 
the  plate).  To  combine  hardness  with 
toughness  was  the  aim  of  armor  makers 
for  a quarter  of  a century,  and  success 
was  not  obtained  until  the  advent  of 
nickel  steel.  Had  not  the  improvement 
of  projectiles  and  guns  kept  pace  with 


ARMS,  COAT  OF 


ARMS  AND  ARMOR 


the  development  of  armor,  ships  could 
now  be  made  invulnerable;  but  both 
have  improved  so  that  the  relation  of 
guns  and  armor  is  now  less  favorable  to 
the  latter  than  at  almost  an:/  time  in  its  ' 
history.  Nevertheless,  armor  is  abso- 
lutely indispensable  to  the  protection 
of  ships  and  their  crews  against  all 
classes  of  gunfire.  The  power  of  good 
Harvey  nickel-steel  armor  to  resist  pene- 
tration is  about  equal  to  that  of  double' 
the  thickness  of  wrought  iron,  and  the 
resisting  power  of  Krupp  armor  is  10  to 
15  per  cent  greater.  These  figures  are 
for  attack  by  ordinary  armor-piercing 
projectiles.  Projectiles  of  this  type 
which  are  fitted  with  soft  caps  pene- 
trate about  as  deeply  in  Krupp  as  in 
Harvey  armor,  and  the  gain  by  the  use 
of  caps  is  equal  to  a reduction  in  thick- 
ness of  8 to  10  per  cent  in  Harvey 
armor  and  15  to  20  in  Krupp — that  is 
to  say,  a capped  projectile  will  perforate 
a Harvey  plate  8 to  10  per  cent  thicker, 
or  a Krupp  plate  15  to  20  per  cent 
thicker,  than  will  a projectile  not  pro- 
vided with  a cap. 

ARMS,  COAT  OF,  or  ARMORIAL 
BEARINGS,  a collective  name  for  the 
devices  borne  on  shields,  on  banners, 
etc.,  as  marks  of  dignity  and  distinction, 
and,  in  the  case  of  family  and  feudal 
arms,  descending  from  father  to  son. 
They  were  first  employed  by  the  Cru- 
saders, and  became  hereditary  in  fami- 
lies at  the  close  of  the  12th  century. 
They  took  their  rise  from  the  knights 
painting  their  banners  or  shields  each 
with  a figure  or  figures  proper  to  him- 
self, to  enable  him  to  be  distinguished 
in  battle  when  clad  in  armor.  See 
Heraldry. 

ARMS  and  ARMOR.  The  former 
term  is  applied  to  weapons  of  offense, 
the  latter  to  the  various  articles  of  defen- 
sive covering  used  in  war  and  military 
exercises,  especially  before  the  intro- 

A,  Bascinet. 

B,  Jewelled  orle  round  the 
bascinet. 

C,  Gorget,  or  gorgiere  of 
plate. 

D,  Pauldrons. 

B,  Breastplate-cuirass, 
p,  Rere-braces. 

G,  Coudes  or  elbow-plates. 

H,  Gauntlets. 

I,  Vambrace. 

J,  Skirt  of  taces. 

K,  Military  belt  or  cingu- 
lum richly  jewelled. 

L,  Tuilles  or  tuillets. 

M,  Cuisses. 

Ni  Genouilleres  or  knee- 
pieces. 

o,  Jamhes. 

p,  Spur-straps. 

Q,  Sollerets. 

E,  Misericorde  or  dagger, 
s,  Sword,  suspended  by  a 

transverse  belt. 

Armor,  from  the  effigy  of  Sir  Richard  Peyton, 
in  Tong  Church,  Shropshire. 

duction  of  gunpowder.  Weapons  of 
offense  are  divisible  into  two  distinct 
sections:  firearms,  and  arms  used  with- 
out gunpowder  or  other  explosive  sub- 
stance. The  first  arms  of  offense  would 
probably  be  wooden  clubs,  then  would 
follow  wooden  weapons  made  more 


deadly  bjr  means  of  stone  or  bone,  stone 
axes,  slings,  bows  and  arrows  with 
heads  of  flint  or  bone,  and  afterward 
various  weapons  of  bronze.  Subse- 
quently a variety  of  arms  of  iron  and 
steel  were  introduced,  which  comprised 


Allecret  (light-plate)  armor,  A.D.,  1540. 

the  sword,  javelin,  pike,  spear  or  lance, 
dagger,  ax,  mace,  chariot  scythe,  etc.; 
with  a rude  artillery  consisting  of  cata- 
pults, ballistae,  and  battering-rams. 
From  the  descriptions  of  Homer  we 
know  that  almost  all  the  Grecian  armor, 
defensive  and  offensive,  in  his  time  was 
of  bronze;  though  iron  was  sometimes 


Roman  cuirass.  Greek  armor. 

used.  The  lance,  spear,’  and  javelin 
were  the  principal  weapons  of  this  age 
among  the  Greeks.  The  bow  is  not  often 
mentioned.  Among  ancient  nations  the 
Egyptians  seem  to  have  been  most  ac- 
customed to  the  use  of  the  bow,  which 
was  the  principal  weapon  of  the  Egyp- 
tian infantry.  Peculiar  to  the  Egyptians 
was  a defensive  weapon  intended  to 
catch  and  break  the  sword  of  the  enemy. 
With  the  Assyrians  the  bow  was  a 
favorite  weapon ; but  with  them  lances, 
spears,  and  javelins  were  in  more  com- 
mon use  than  with  the  Egyptians. 
Most  of  the  large  engines  of  war,  chariots 
with  scythes  projecting  at  each  side 
from  the  axle,  catapults,  and  ballistse. 

, seem  to  have  been  of  Assyrian  origin. 
During  the  historical  age  of  Greece  the 
characteristic  weapon  was  a heavy  spear 
from  21  to  24  feet  in  length.  The  sword 
used  by  the  Greeks  was  short,  and  was 
worn  on  the  right  side.  The  Roman 
sword  was  from  22  to  24  inches  in  length, 
straight,  two-edged,  and  obtusely  point- 
ed, and  as  by  the  Greeks  was  worn  on 
the  right  side.  It  was  used  principally 


as  a stabbing  weapon.  It  was  originally 
of  bronze.  The  most  characteristic 
weapon  of  the  Roman  legionary  soldier, 
however,  was  the  pilum,  which  was  a 
kind  of  pike  or  javelin,  some  6 feet  or 
more  in  length.  The  pilum  was  some- 
times used  at  close-quarters,  but  more 
commonly  it  was  thrown.  The  favorite 
weapons  of  the  ancient  Germanic  races 
Wete  the  battle-a^  the  lance  or  _dart> 
and  the  sWotd.  The  WeapohS  of  th4 
Anglo-Saxons  wete  speats.  axes,  swords, 
knives,  ahd  maceS  Or  cllibs;  The  Nor- 
mans had,  siihiiar  Weapons,  and  Were 
well  furnished  With  archers  and  cavalry. 
The  cross-bow.  Was  a eompatatiyely 
late  invention  introduced  by  the  Nof- 
filans.  Gunpowder  was  not  used  in 
Europe  to  discharge  projectiles  till  the 
beginning  of  the  14th  century.  Cannon 
are  first  mentioned  in  England  in  1338, 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  they 
were  used  by  the  English  at  the  siege 
of  Cambrai  in  1339.  The  projectiles 
first  used  for  cannon  were  of  stone. 
Hand  firearms  date  from  the  15th  cen- 
tury. At  fii'st  they  required  two  men 
to  serve  them,  and  it  was  necessary  to 
rest  the  muzzle  on  a stand  in  aiming  and 
firing.  The  first  improvement  was  the 
invention  of  the  match-lock,  about 
1476;  this  was  followed  by  the  wheel- 
lock;  and  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  by  the  flint-lock,  which  was 
in  universal  use  until  it  was  super- 


Roman  cuirass—  Chain  armor. 

Scale  armor. 

seded  by  the  percussion-lock,  the  in- 
vention of  a Scotch  clergyman  early 
in  the  19th  century.  The  needle-gun 
dates  from  1827.  The  only  important 
weapon  not  a firearm  that  has  been 
invented  since  the  introduction  of  gun- 
powder is  the  bayonet,  which  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  invented  about 
1650.  See  Cannon,  Musket,  Rifle,  etc. 

Some  kind  of  defensive  covering  was 
probably  of  almost  as  early  invention 
as  weapons  of  offense.  The  principal 
pieces  of  defensive  armor  used  by  the 
ancients  were  shields,  helmets,  cuirasses, 
and  greaves.  In  the  earliest  ages  of 
Greece  the  shield  is  described  as  of  im- 
mense size,  but  in  the  time  of  the  Pelop- 
onnesian war  (about  b.c.  420)  it  was 
much  smaller.  The  Romans  had  two 
jorts  of  shields:  the  scutum,  a large 
oblong  rectangular  highly  convex  shield, 
carried  by  the  legionaries;  and  the 
parma,  a small  round  or  oval  flat  shield, 
carried  by  the  light-armed  troops  and 
the  cavalry.  In  the  declining  days  of 
Rome  the  shields  became  larger  and 
more  varied  in  form.  The  helmet  was 


ARMOUR 


ARNHEM 


a characteristic  Wecf!  of  armor  among 
the  Assyrians,  Grepks.  Etrjtiseans,  and 
Romans.  Like  ail  Othfet  body  atrnor 
it  was  usually  made  of  ferohze. 
helmet  of  the  historical  age  Of  GreeCfe 
was  distinguished  by  its  lofty  Ofest . The 
Roman  helmet  in  the  time  of  the  early 
emperors  fitted  close  to  the  head,  and 
had  a neckguard  and  hinged  cheek- 
pieces  fastened  under  the  chin,  and  a 
small  bar  across  the  face  for  a visor. 


Horse-armor  of  Maximilian  I,  of  Germany. 
a,  Chamfron.  6,  Manefaire.  c,  Poitrinal,  poltrel 
or  breastplate,  d,  Croupiere  or 
buttock-piece. 

Both  Greeks  and  Romans  wore  cuirasses, 
at  one  time  of  bronze,  but  latterly  of 
flexible  materials,  Greaves  for  the  legs 
were  worn  by  both,  but  among  the  Ro- 
mans usually  on  one  leg.  The  ancient 
Germans  had  large  shields  of  plaited 
osier  covered  with  leather,  afterward 
their  shields  were  small,  bound  with  iron, 
and  studded  with  bosses.  The  Anglo- 
Saxons  had  round  or  oval  shields  of 
wood,  covered  with  leather,  and  having 
a boss  in  the  center;  and  they  had  also 
corselets,  or  coats  of  mail,  strengthened 
with  iron  rings.  The  Normans  were 
well  protected  by  mail;  their  shields 
were  somewhat  triangular  in  shape, 
their  helmets  conical.  In  Europe 
generally  metal  armor  was  used  from 
the  10th  to  the  18th  century,  and  at 
first  consisted  of  a tunic  made  of  iron 
rings  firmly  sewed  flat  upon  strong  cloth 
or  leather.  The  rings  were  afterward 
interlinked  one  with  another  so  as  to 
forrn  a garment  of  themselves,  called 
chain-mail.  Great  variety  is  found  in 
the  pattern  of  the  armor,  and  in  some 
cases  small  pieces  of  metal  were  used 
instead  of  rings,  forming  what  is  called 
scale-armor.  A suit  of  armor  consisting 
of  larger  pieces  of  metal,  called  plate- 
armor,  was  now  introduced,  and  the 
whole  body  came  to  be  incased  in  a 
heavy  metal  covering.  The  various 
forms  of  ring  or  scale  armor  were  gradu- 
ally superseded  by  the  plate-armor, 
which  continued  to  be  worn  until  long 
after  the  introduction  of  firearms  and 
field-artillery. 

ARMOUR,  Philip  Danforth,  an  Amer- 
ican merchant,  born  at  Stockbridge 
N.  Y.,  1832,  died  in  1901.  He  received 
a public  school  education,  and  traveled 
as  a youth  to  California,  but  settled 
in  Milwaukee  in  18.52.  In  1863  he 
founded  the  house  of  Armour,  Plank- 
ington  & Co.,  packers,  the  offices  of 
which  were  removed  to  Chicago  in 
1870,  where  the  house  was  soon  reor- 
ganized as  Armour  & Co.  Mr.  Armour 
was  not  only  a good  business  man,  but 
a philanthropist  as  well.  He  founded 
the  Armour  Institute  of  Technology 
P.  E. — 6 


at  Chicago,  and  the  Affffowr  Mission 
in  the  same  city  at  an  expense  ©I  $2,- 
600,000. 

ARMSTRONG,  William  George,  Lord', 
engineer  and  mechanical  inventor,  born 
at  NeWeastle-on-Tyne,  10th  Nov.,  1810. 
He  Was  ftain'ed  as  a solicitor,  and  prac- 
ticed as  such  sortie  time,  though  his 
tastes  scarcely  /ay  in  that  direction. 
Aftiong  his  early  iny^th'tions  were  the 
hydro-electric  machine,  a ^werful  ap- 
paratus for  producing  frictiWal  electric- 
ity, and  the  hydraulic  crane.  Its  1847 
the  Elswick  works,  near  Newcastle,  were 
established  for  the  manufacture  of  his 
cranes  and  other  heavy  iron  machinery, 
and  these  works  are  now  amcmg  the 
most  extensive  of  their  kind.  Here  the 
first  rifled  ordnance  gun  which  bears 
his  name  was  made  in  1854.  His  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  guns 
and  shells  led  to  his  being  appointed 
engineer  of  rifled  ordnance  under  gov- 
ernment, and  he  was  knighted  in  1858. 
This  appointment  came  to  an  end  in 
1868,  since  which  time  his  ordnance  has 
taken  a prominent  place  in  the  arma- 
ments of  different  countries.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Arm- 
strong in  1887.  He  died  in  1901. 

ARMSTRONG  GUN,  a kind  of  cannon, 
so  called  from  its  inventor,  made  of 
wought-iron,  principally  of  spirally- 
coiled  bars,  so  disposed  as  to  bring  the 
metal  into  the  most  favorable  position 
for  the  strain  to  which  it  is  to  be  exposed, 
and  occasionally  having  an  inner  tube 
or  core  of  steel,  rifled  with  numerous 
shallow  grooves.  The  size  of  these 
guns  ranges  from  the  smallest  field- 
piece  to  pieces  of  the  highest  caliber. 
The  projectile  is  coated  with  lead,  and 
inserted  into  a chamber  behind  the  bore. 
This  the  explosion  drives  forward,  com- 
pressing its  soft  coating  into  the  grooves, 
so  as  to  give  it  a rotary  motion,  and 
at  the  same  time  obviate  windage. 
Both  breech-loading  and  muzzle-loading 
Armstrong  guns  have  been  made. 

ARMY,  an  organized  body  of  drilled 
and  disciplined  men,  furnished  with 
weapons  of  offense  and  defense,  for  the 
protection  of  a state  against  external 
attack,  for  making  war  on  foreign  states 
or  other  enemies,  and  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  order  within  the  state  itself. 

War  in  savage  communities  is  carried 
on  by  armies  of  the  comparatively  crude 
organization,  and  the  ancient  army  was 
a succession  of  mere  lines  of  men, 
shoulder  to  shoulder,  the  cavalry  being 
organized  on  virtually  the  same  plan. 
The  introduction  of  the  Macedonian 
phalan.x  by  Philip  and  its  use  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  was  the  first  step  to- 
ward the  modern  mobile  regiment. 
The  phalanx  was  ground  to  powder  by 
the  Roman  legion  which  superceded  it, 
and  the  legion  itself  was  brought  to 
perfection  by  its  subdivision  into  cen- 
turies, each  with  a captain,  or  centurion. 
This  is  the  modern  company,  and  the 
modern  regiment  is  substantially  the 
same  thing  as  the  Roman  legion. 

An  army,  in  the  modern  sense,  has 
four  branches,  each  with  its  separate 
function,  yet  each  of  which  may  be 
brought  into  coordination  with  the 
others.  These  branches  are  the  in- 
fantry, cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineer 
corps.  A fifth  and  sixth  branch,  that 


is,  hospital  corps  and  signal  corps,  are 
not  fighting  branches  proper. 

The  unit  of  infantry  is  the  battalion, 
consisting  of  about  1000  men,  divided 
into  companies  of  say  250  each.  Three 
or  foTiiir  oattalions  go  to  make  a regi- 
ment, and  three  regiments,  in  the 
United  States,  comprise  a brigade.. 
Certain  European  countries  make  use: 
of  a mounted  infantry,  particularly 
Great  Britain,  and  others  have  recently 
organized  infantry  bodies  for  the  use: 
of  machine  and  automatic  guns  which: 
cannot  properly  be  classified  with 
artillery. 

In  the  United  States  army  the  unit 
of  cavalry  is  the  squadron  of  150' 
mounted  men  armed  with  sabers.  The: 
squadron  is  subdivided  into  four  troops,, 
each  of  100  men,  when  complete.  A 
regiment  of  cavalry  consists  of  thre& 
squadrons,  the  brigade  consists  of  three, 
regiments. 

The  unit  of  artillery  is,  in  the  Unitedl 
States  army,  a battery.  The  field' 
battery  has  175  men  and  250  horses,, 
the  horse  battery  has  165  men  and  235’ 
horses.  Normally  the  battery  has  6' 
guns,  but  the  tendency  is  toward  a re- 
duction of  this  number.  It  is  believed. 
that  four  guns  will  be  the  number 
which  will  constitute  the  battery  of  the 
United  States  army  in  the  future.  A 
battalion  of  artillery  consists  of  three 
or  four  batteries,  and  the  artillery  regi- 
ment of  three  or  four  battalions. 

These  various  units  combine  to- 
gether into  larger  units,  such  as  the 
division  consisting  of  two  brigades,  and 
the  army  corps,  which  consists  of  two 
divisions  of  infantry,  one  regiment  of  field 
artillery,  and  other  services.  In  the 
United  States  the  army  corps  is  com- 
posed of  three  divisions,  several  regi- 
ments of  cavalry,  and  artillery. 

The  engineer  corps  is  organized  into: 
battalions  of  four  companies  each,  the 
latter  into  regiments  of  two  battalions 
each,  including  a balloon  section.  The 
organization  of  the  engineer  corps  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
infantry. 

The  army  of  the  United  States  has 
a signal  corps  which  operates  the  field 
telegraph,  the  military  balloons,  wire- 
less telegraphy,  and  the  old-fashioned 
signaling  by  flag,  torch,  heliograph,  etc. 
An  army  corps  carries  one  company  of 
signal  corps,  numbering  175  men. 

The  medical  department  of  the  army 
includes  the  hospital  corps,  the  sur- 
geons taking  the  rank  of  officers  accord- 
ing to  grade. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.  See  Military 
Schools. 

ARMY  WORM,  the  very  destructive 
larva  of  a moth,  so  called  from  its  habit 
of  marching  in  compact  bodies  of  enor- 
mous number,  devouring  almost  every 
green  thing  it  meets.  It  is  about 
inches  long,  greenish  in  color,  with 
black  stripes,  and  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  but  is  particularly 
destructive  in  North  America. 

ARN'HEM,  or  ARNHEIM,  a town  in 
Holland,  prov.  of  Gelderland,  18  miles 
southwest  of  Zutphen,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine.  In  1795  it  was 
stormed  by  the  French,  who  were  driven 
from  it  by  the  Prussians  in  1813.  Pop. 
57,498. 


ARNICA 


ARSENAL 


AR'NICA,  a genus  of  plants,  consist- 
ing of  some  twelve  species,  one  of  which 
is  found  in  central  Europe,  leopard’s 
bane  or  mountain  tobacco,  but  is  not  a 
native  of  Britain.  It  has  a perennial 
root,  a stem  about  2 feet  high,  bearing 
on  the  summit  flowers  of  a dark  golden 
yellow.  In  every  part  of  the  plant  there 
is  an  acrid  resin  and  a volatile  oil,  and 
in  the  flowers  an  acrid  bitter  principle 
called  arnicin.  The  root  contains  also 
a considerable  quantity  of  tannin.  A 
tincture  of  it  is  employed  as  an  external 
application  to  wounds  and  bruises. 

AR'NOLD,  Benedict,  a general  in  the 
American  army  during  the  war  of  in- 
dependence, who  rendered  his  name 
infamous  by  his  attempt  to  betray  the 
strong  fortre.ss  of  West  Point,  with  all 


the  arms  and  immense  stores  which 
were  there  deposited,  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  The  project  failed  through 
the  capture  of  Major  Andrd,  when 
Arnold  made  his  escape  to  the  British 
lines.  He  received  a commission  as 
major-general  in  the  British  army,  and 
took  part  in  several  marauding  expe- 
ditions. He  subsequently  settled  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  ultimately  went  to 
London,  where  he  died  in  1801,  aged  61. 

AR'NOLD,  Edwin,  K.C.I.E.,  poet, 
Sanskrit  scholar,  and  journalist,  horn 
1832.  Educated  at  Oxford,  where  he 
took  the  Newdigate  prize  for  a poem 
entitled  The  Feast  of  Belshazzar.  He 
is  author  of  Poems,  narrative  and  lyr- 
ical, numerous  translations  from  the 
Greek  and  Sanskrit ; The  Light  of  Asia, 
a poem  presenting  the  life  and  teaching 
of  Gautama,  the  founder  of  Buddhism. 
Died  1904. 

AR'NOLD,  Matthew,  English  critic, 
essayist,  and  poet,  was  born  at  Laleham, 
near  Staines,  1822,  being  a son  of  Dr. 
Arnold,  of  Rugby.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester,  Rugby,  and  Oxford,  and 
became  a Fellow  of  Oriel  College.  He 
received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  both 
Oxford  and  Edinburgh,  and  lectured  in 
Britain  and  in  America.  He  died  in 
1888. 

AR'NOLD,  Thomas,  head-master  of 
Rugby  School,  and  professor  of  modern 
history  in  the  University  of  Oxford, 
born  at  Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in 
1795,  died  1842.  Not  only  did  Rugby 


School  become  crowded  beyond  any 
former  precedent,  but  the  superiority  of 
Dr.  Arnold’s  system  became  so  generally 
recognized  that  it  may  be  justl3’’  said  to 
have  done  much  for  the  general  im- 
movement  of  the  public  schools  of 
England. 

ARNSBERG  (krnz'berA),  a town  in 
Prussia,  prov.  of  Westphalia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  same  name  on  the 
Ruhr.  Pop.  8488. — The  government  of 
Arnsberg  has  an  area  of  2972  square 
miles,  and  a population  of  1,851,319. 

ARO'MA,  the  distinctive  fragrance 
exhaled  from  spices,  plants,  etc.,  gen- 
erally an  agreeable  odor,  a sweet  smell. 

AROMAT'ICS,  drugs,  or  other  sub- 
stances which  yield  a fragrant  smell, 
and  often  a warm  pungent  taste,  as 
calamus,  ginger,  cinnamon,  cassia,  laven- 
der, rosemary,  laurel,  nutmegs,  carda- 
moms, pepper,  pimento,  cloves,  vanilla, 
saffron.  Some  of  them  are  used  medi- 
cinally as  tonics,  stimulants,  etc. 

AROMATIC  VINEGAR,  a very  vola- 
tile and  powerful  perfume  made  by 
adding  the  essential  oils  of  lavender, 
cloves,  etc.,  and  often  camphor,  to  crys- 
tallizable  acetic  acid.  It  is  a powerful 
excitant  in  fainting,  languor,  and  head- 
ache. 

ARPEGGIO  (ar-pej'6),  the  distinct 
sound  of  the  notes  of  an  instrumental 
chord;  the  striking  the  notes  of  a chord 
in  rapid  succession,  as  in  the  manner  of 
touching  the  harp  instead  of  playing 
them  simultaneously. 

AR'QUEBUS,  a hand-gun ; a species 
of  fire-arm  resembling  a musket  ancient- 
ly used.  It  was  fired  from  a forked  rest, 
and  sometimes  cocked  by  a wheel,  and 
carried  a ball  that  weighed  nearly  two 
ounces.  A larger  kind  used  in  fortresses 
carried  a heavier  shot. 

AR'RAH,  a town  of  British  India,  in 
Shahabad  district,  Bengal,  rendered 
famous  during  the  mutiny  of  1857  by 
the  heroic  resistance  of  a body  of  twenty 
civilians  and  fifty  Sikhs,  cooped  up 
within  a detached  house,  to  a force  of 
3000  sepoys,  who  were  ultimately 
routed  and  overthrown  by  the  arrival  of 
a small  European  reinforcement.  Pop. 
46,905. 

ARRAIGNMENT  (ar-ran'-),  the  act  of 
calling  or  setting  a prisoner  at  the  bar 
of  a court  to  plead  guilty  or  not  guilty 
to  the  matter  charged  in  an  indictment 
or  information. 

ARRANGEMENT,  in  music,  the  adap- 
tation of  a composition  to  voices  or 
instruments  for  which  it  was  not  origi- 
nally written ; also,  a piece  so  adapted. 

ARREST'  is  the  apprehending  or  re- 
straining of  one’s  person,  which,  in 
civil  cases,  can  take  place  legally  only 
by  process  in  execution  of  the  command 
of  some  court  or  officers  of  justice;  but 
in  criminal  cases  any  man  may  arrest 
without  warrant  or  precept,  and  every 
person  is  liable  to  arrest  without  dis- 
tinction, but  no  man  is  to  be  arrested 
unless  charged  with  such  a crime  as  will 
at  least  justify  holding  him  to  bail  when 
taken.  Magna  Charta  and  the  Habeas 
Corpus  Act  are  the  two  great  statutes 
for  securing  the  libertj'  of  the  subject 
against  unlawful  arrests  and  suits. 

ARREST  OF  JUDGMENT,  in  law,  the 
staying  or  stopping  of  a judgment  after 
verdict,  for  causes  assigned.  Courts 


have  power  to  arrest  judgment  for  in- 
trinsic causes  appearing  upon  the  face  of 
the  record;  as  when  the  declaration 
varies  from  the  original  writ;  when  the 
verdict  differs  materially  from  the  plead- 
ings; or  when  the  case  laid  in  the  decla- 
ration is  not  sufficient  in  point  of  law 
to  found  an  action  upon. 

ARRONDISSEMENT  (a-r6n-des-man), 
in  France  an  administrative  district, 
the  subdivision  of  a department,  or  of 
the  quarters  of  some  of  the  larger  cities. 

ARROWHEAD,  a genus  of  aquatic 
plants  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
within  the  torrid  and  temperate  zones, 
distinguished  by  possessing  barren  and 
fertile  flowers,  with  a three-leaved 
calyx  and  three  colored  petals. 

ARROW-ROOT,  a starch  largely  used 
for  food  and  for  other  purposes.  Arrow- 
root  proper  is  obtained  from  the 
rhizomes  or  rootstocks  of  several  species 
of  plants,  and  perhaps  owes  its  name 


Arrow-root  plant,  a.  a.  Rhizomes. 


to  the  scales  which  cover  the  rhizome, 
which  have  some  resemblance  to  the 
point  of  an  arrow.  Some,  however  sup- 
pose that  the  name  is  due  to  the  fact 
of  the  fresh  roots  being  used  as  an 
application  against  wounds  inflicted  by 
poisoned  arrows,  and  others  say  that 
arrow  is  a corruption  of  ara,  the  Indian 
name  of  the  plant.  The  species  from 
which  arrow-root  is  most  commonlj'  ob- 
tained is  called  the  arrow-root  plant. 
Brazilian  arrow-root,  or  tapioca  meal, 
is  got  from  the  large  fleshy  root,  after 
the  poisonous  juice  has  been  got  rid  of; 
East  Indian  arrow-root,  from  the  large 
root-stalks;  Chinese  arrow-root,  from 
the  creeping  rhizomes;  English  arrow  - 
root,  from  the  potato;  and  Oswego 
arrow-root,  from  Indian  corn. 

ARROWSMITH,  Aaron,  a distin- 
guished English  chartographer,  born 
1750,  died  1823;  he  raised  the  execution 
of  maps  to  a perfection  it  had  never 
before  attained.  His  nephew,  John, 
born  1790,  died  1873,  was  no  less  dis- 
tinguished in  the  same  field. 

AR'SENAL,  a royal  or  public  maga- 
zine or  place  appointed  for  the  making, 
repairing,  keeping,  and  issuing  of  mili- 
tary stores.  An  arsenal  of  the  first  class 
should  include  factories  for  guns  and 
gun-carriages,  small-arms,  small-arms 
ammunition,  harness,  saddlerj",  tents, 
and  powder;  a laborator3^  and  large 
store-houses.  In  arsenals  of  the  second 
class  workshops  take  tlie  place  of  the 
. factories. 


ARSENIC 


ARTHUR 


AR'SENIC,  a metallic  element  of  very 
common  occurrence,  being  found  in 
combination  with  many  of  the  metals 
in  a variety  of  minerals.  It  is  of  a dark- 
gray  color,  and  readily  tarnishes  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  first  changing  to 
yellow,  and  finally  to  black.  In  hard- 
ness it  equals  copper;  it  is  extremely 
brittle,  and  very  volatile,  beginning  to 
sublime  before  it  melts.  It  burns  with 
a blue  flame,  and  emits  a smell  of  garlic. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  5’ 76.  It  forms 
alloys  with  most  of  the  metals.  Com- 
bined with  sulphur  it  forms  orpiment 
and  realgar,  which  are  the  yellow  and 
red  sulphides  of  arsenic.  Orpiment  is 
the  true  arsenicum  of  the  ancients. 
With  oxygen  arsenic  forms  two  com- 
pounds, the  more  important  of  which 
is  arsenious  oxide  or  arsenic  trioxide 
(AS2O3),  which  is  the  white  arsenic,  or 
simply  arsenic  of  the  shops.  It  is 
usually  seen  in  white,  glassy,  translu- 
cent masses,  and  is  obtained  by  sub- 
limation from  several  ores  containing 
arsenic  in  combination  with  metals, 
particularly  from  arsenical  pyrites. 
Of  all  substances  arsenic  is  that  which 
has  most  frequently  occasioned  death 
by  poisoning,  both  by  accident  and 
design.  The  best  remedies  against  the 
effects  of  arsenic  on  the  stomach  are 
hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron  or  gelatin- 
ous hydrate  of  magnesia,  or  a mixture 
of  both,  with  copious  draughts  of  bland 
liquids  of  a mucilaginous  consistence, 
which  serve  to  procure  its  complete 
ejection  from  the  stomach.  Oils  and 
fats  generally,  milk,  albumen,  wheat- 
flour,  oatmeal,  sugar  or  syrup,  have  all 
proved  useful  in  counteracting  its  effect. 
Like  many  other  virulent  poisons  it  is  a 
safe  and  useful  medicine,  especially  in 
skin  diseases,  when  judiciously  em 
ployed.  It  is  used  as  a flux  for  glass, 
and  also  for  forming  pigments.  The 
arsenite  of  copper  and  a double  arsenite 
and  acetate  of  copper  are  largely  used 
by  painters;  they  are  also  used  to  color 
paper-hangings  for  rooms,  a practice  not 
unaccompanied  with  considerable  dan- 
ger, especially  if  flock-papers  are  used  or 
if  the  room  is  a confined  one.  Arsenic 
has  been  too  frequently  used  to  give  that 
bright  green  often  seen  in  colored  con- 
fectionery, and  to  produce  a green  dye 
for  articles  of  dress  and  artificial  flowers. 

AR'SON,  in  English  law,  the  malicious 
burning  of  a dwelling-house  or  outhouse 
of  another  man,  which  by  the  common 
law  is  felony,  and  which,  if  any  person 
is  therein,  is  capital.  Also,  the  wilful 
setting  fire  to  any  church,  chapel,  ware- 
house, mill,  barn,  agricultural  produce, 
ship,  coal-mine,  and  the  like. 

ART,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  as 
distinguished  from  nature  on  the  one 
hand  and  from  science  on  the  other,  has 
been  defined  as  every  regulated  opera- 
tion or  dexterity  by  which  organized 
beings  pursue  ends  which  they  knew 
beforehand,  together  with  the  rules  and 
the  result  of  every  such  operation  or 
dexterity.  In  this  wide  sense  it  em- 
braces what  are  usually  called  the  useful 
arts.  In  a narrower  and  purelj'  aesthetic 
sense  it  designates  what  is  more  specif- 
ically termed  the  fine  arts,  as  architec- 
ture, sculpture,  painting,  music,  and 
poetry.  The  useful  arts  have  their 
origin  in  positive  practical  needs,  and 


restrict  themselves  to  satisfying  them. 
The  fine  arts  minister  to  the  sentiment 
of  taste  through  the  medium  of  the 
beautiful  in  form,  color,  rhythm,  or 
harmony.  See  Painting,  Sculpture, 
etc. — In  the  middle  ages  it  was  common 
to  give  certain  branches  of  study  the 
name  of  arts.  See  Arts. 

AR'TEMUS  WARD.  See  Bro\vne, 
Charles  Farrar. 

AR'TERIES,  the  system  of  cylindrical 
vessels  or  tubes,  membranous,  elastic, 
and  pulsatile,  which  convey  the  blood 
from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
by  ramifications  which  as  they  proceed 
diminish  in  size  and  increase  in  number, 
and  terminate  in  minute  capillaries 
uniting  the  ends  of  the  arteries  with  the 
beginnings  of  the  veins.  There  are  two 
principal  arteries  or  arterial  trunks : the 
aorta,  which  rises  from  the  left  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart  and  ramifies  through 
the  whole  body,  sending  off  great 
branches  to  the  head,  neck,  and  upper 
limbs  and  downward  to  the  lower  limbs, 
etc.;  and  the  pulmonary  artery,  which 
conveys  venous  blood  from  the  right 
ventricle  to  the  lungs,  to  be  purified 
in  the  process  of  respiration. 

ARTERIOT'OMY,  the  opening  or  cut- 
ting of  an  artery  for  the  purpose  of 
blood-letting,  as,  for  instance,  to  re- 
lieve pressure  of  the  brain  ir  apoplexy. 

ARTE'SIAN  WELLS,  so  called  from 
the  French  province  of  Artois,  where 
they  appear  to  have  been  first  used  on 
an  extensive  scale,  are  perpendicular 
borings  into  the  ground  through  which 
water  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  pro- 
ducing a constant  flow  or  stream,  the 
ultimate  sources  of  supply  being  higher 
than  the  mouth  of  the  boring,  and  the 
water  thus  rising  by  the  well-known 
law.  They  are  generally  sunk  in  valley 
plains  and  districts  where  the  lower  per- 
vious strata  are  bent  into  basin-shaped 
curves.  The  rain  falling  on  the  outcrops 
of  these  saturates  the  whole  porous  bed, 
so  that  when  the  bore  reaches  it  the 
water  by  hydraulic  pressure  rushes  up 
toward  the  level  of  the  highest  portion 
of  the  strata.  The  supply  is  sometimes 
so  abundant  as  to  be  used  extensively 
as  a moving  power,  and  in  arid  regions 
for  fertilizing  the  groimd,  to  which  pur- 
pose artesian  springs  have  been  applied 
from  a very  remote  period.  Thus  many 
artesian  wells  have  been  sunk  in  the 
Algerian  Sahara  which  have  proved  an 
immense  boon  to  the  district.  The 
water  of  most  of  these  is  potable,  but 
a few  are  a little  saline,  though  not  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  influence  vegeta- 
tion. The  hollows  in  which  London  and 
Paris  lie  are  both  perforated  in  many 
places  by  borings  of  this  nature. 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  artesian 
wells  is  that  of  Crenelle  near  Paris,  1798 
feet  deep,  completed  in  1841,  after  eight 
years’  woi  k.  An  artesian  well  at  Buda- 
pest has  a depth  of  3182  feet;  another 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  is  3843  feet  deep.  As 
the  temperature  of  water  from  great 
depths  i.s  invariably  higher  than  that 
at  the  surface,  artesian  wells  have  been 
made  to  supply  warm  water  for  heating 
manufactories,  greenhouses,  hospitals, 
fishponds,  etc.  Petroleum  wells  are 
generally  of  the  same  technical  descrip- 
tion. Artesian  wells  are  now  made  with 
larger  diameters  than  formerly,  and  al- 


together their  construction  has  been 
rendered  much  more  easy  in  modem 
times.  See  Boring. 

AR'THUR,  Chester  Alan,  the  twenty- 
first  president  of  the  United  States.  He 
was  born  at  Fairfield,  Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830, 
and  died  at  New  York  Nov.  1^  1886. 
After  taking  his  degree  at  Union  College, 
in  1848,  Mr.  Arthur  taught  in  various 
schools  for  a number  of  years,  studying 
law  meanwhile,  and  when  the  civil  war 
broke  out  he  was  quite  prominent  in 
politics.  An  earnest  abolitionist,  he  sided 
with  the  republican  party,  or,  rather, 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  original 
members  of  that  party.  Soon  after  the 
beginning  of  the  war  Mr.  Arthur  was 
entrusted  by  Ceneral  Morgan  with  the 
armament  and  commissariat  of  the 


Chester  A.  Arthur. 

New  York  troops — a duty  in  which  he 
displayed  such  ability  that  he  was  soon 
promoted  to  the  positions  of  engineer-in- 
chief, inspector-general,  and  quarter- 
master general.  From  1871  to  1878  he 
was  collector  of  the  port  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  when  during  the  can- 
vass for  the  next  election  the  republican 
party  was  split  Mr.  Arthur  adopted  the 
“Stalwart”  side.  In  the  convention 
that  followed  Crant  was  a strong  candi- 
date, but  the  anti-Stalwarts  defeated 
him  and  nominated  Carfield.  Not 
desiring  to  cause  disaffection  at  the 
polls  Mr.  Arthur  was  placed  on  the 
ticket  as  candidate  for  vice-president. 
Garfield  was  assassinated  and  Mr. 
Arthur  succeeded  to  the  presidency  on 
Sept.  19,  1881.  Althougn  there  were 
some  misgivings  as  to  his  course,  Mr. 
Arthur  made  an  acceptable  president. 
His  administration  was  not  marked  by 
any  particular  event  of  importance  and 
he  was  unsuccessful  in  his  candidacy 
for  nomination  before  the  succeeding 
convention. 

AR'THUR,  Julia,  an  American  actress, 
born  at  Hamilton,  Ont.,  in  1869.  She 
studied  the  stage  abroad  and  her  first 
American  successes  were  with  A.  M. 
Palmer’s  companies.  She  has  played 
in  The  Black  Masque,  Becket,  A Lady 
of  Quality,  and  other  plays.  She  re- 
tired in  1900. 

AR'THUR,  King,  >n  ancient  British 
hero  of  the  6th  century,  son  of  Uther 
Pendragon  and  the  Princess  Igerna, 
wife  of  Gorlois,  duke  of  Cornwall.  He 
married  Guinevere  or  Ginevra;  estab- 


ARTHUR 


ASCETICS 


lished  the  famous  order  of  the  Round 
Table;  and  reigned,  surrounded  by  a 
splendid  court,  twelve  years  in  peace. 
After  this,  as  the  poets  relate,  he  con- 
quered Denmark,  Norway,  and  France, 
slew  the  giants  of  Spain,  and  went  to 
Rome.  From  thence  he  is  said  to  have 
hastened  home  on  account  of  the  faith- 
lessness of  his  wife,  and  Modred,  his 
nephew,  who  had  stirred  up  his  subjects 
to  rebellion.  He  subdued  the  rebels, 
but  died  in  consequence  of  his  wounds, 
on  the  island  of  Avalon.  The  story  of 
Arthur  is  supposed  to  have  some  founda- 
tion in  fact,  it  is  generally  believed  that 
Arthur  was  one  of  the  last  great  Celtic 
chiefs  who  led  his  countrymen  from  the 
west  of  England  to  resist  the  settlement 
of  the  Saxons  in  the  country.  But  many 
authorities  regard  him  as  a leader  of  the 
Cymry  of  Cumbria  and  Strath-Clyde 
against  the  Saxon  invaders  of  the  east 
coast  and  the  Piets  and  Scots  north  of 
the  Forth  and  the  Clyde. 

AR'THUR,  Timothy  Shay,  an  Ameri- 
can writer  born  in  New  York  in  1809, 
died  in  1885.  He  is  principally  known 
for  his  story  Ten  Nights  in  a Bar  room. 

ARCTIC  EXPLORATION.  See 
Polar  Exploration. 

ARTICHOKE,  a well-known  plant, 
somewhat  resembling  a thistle,  with 
large  divided  prickly  leaves.  The  erect 
flower-stem  terminates  in  a large  round 
head  of  numerous  imbricated  oval  spiny 
scales  which  surround  the  flowers.  The 
fleshy  bases  of  the  scales  with  the  large 
receptacle  are  the  parts  that  are 
eaten. 

ARTICLE,  in  grammar,  a part  of 
speech  used  before  nouns  to  limit  or 
define  their  application.  In  English  a 
or  an  is  usually  called  the  indefinite 
article  (the  latter  form  being  used  be- 
fore a vowel  sound),  and  the,  the  definite 
article,  but  they  are  also  described  as 
adjectives.  An  was  originally  the  same 
as  one,  and  the  as  that.  In  Latin  there 
were  no  articles,  and  Greek  has  only  the 
definite  article. 

ARTICLES,  The  Thirty-nine,  of  the 
Church  of  England,  a statement  of  the 
particular  points  of  doctrine,  thirty- 
nine  in  number,  maintained  by  the 
English  Church;  first  promulgated  by  a 
convocation  held  in  London  in  1562-63, 
and  confirmed  by  royal  authority; 
founded  on  and  superseding  an  older 
code  issued  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
They  were  ratified  anew  in  1604  and 
1628.  All  candidates  for  ordination 
must  subscribe  these  articles.  This 
formulary  is  now  accepted  by  the  Epis- 
copal Churches  of  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  America. 

ARTICULA'TA,  the  third  great  sec- 
tion of  the  animal  kingdom  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  Cuvier,  including 
all  the  invertebrates  with  the  external 
skeleton  forming  a series  of  rings  artic- 
ulated together  and  enveloping  the 
body,  distinct  respiratory  organs,  and 
an  internal  ganglionated  nervous  sys- 
tem along  the  middle  line  of  the  body. 
They  are  divided  into  five  classes,  viz. 
Crustacea,  Arachnida,  Insecta,  Myri- 
apoda,  and  Annelida.  The  first  four 
classes  are  now  commonly  placed  to- 
gether under  the  name  of  Arthropoda, 
and  the  whole  are  sometimes  called 
Arthrozoa. 


ARTICULA'TION,  in  anatomy  a joint; 
the  joining  or  juncture  of  the  bones. 
This  is  of  three  kinds;  (1)  a movable 
connection,  such  as  the  ball-and-socket 
joint;  (2)  immovable  connection,  as  by 
suture,  or  junction  by  serrated  margins; 
(3)  union  by  means  of  another  sub- 
stance, by  a cartilage,  tendon,  or  liga- 
ment. 

ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS,  legs  or  arms  of 
wood,  cork,  or  other  material,  made 
to  replace  the  natural  members  which 
have  been  lost  by  disease  or  accident. 
Tlie  art  of  making  artificial  limbs  is 
almost  as  old  as  history.  Legs  of 
bronze,  ivory,  and  wood  have  been 
found  on  skeletons  exhumed  from 
tombs  which  date  back  to  the  fourth 
century  before  Christ.  Artificial  hands, 
feet  and  limbs  were  eommon  during  the 
middle  ages.  The  earliest  American 
invention  in  this  line  was  the  leg 
patented  in  1846  by  B.  F.  Palmer, 
which  at  once  superseded  all  others  of 
its  kind.  Other  Americans  followed 
Palmer,  and  the  most  serviceable  legs 
and  arms  manufactured  today  are  those 
made  from  American  patents.  The 
arm  is  usually  mounted  with  a rubber 
hand,  which  is  often  of  immense  service 
to  the  wearer.  Artificial  legs  consist  of 
a hollow  sheath  or  bucket,  accurately 
fitting  the  stump  and  provided  with  a 
“pin”  to  reach  the  ground.  This  struc- 
ture is  fitted  with  a rubber  foot,  and, 
simple  as  the  structure  may  appear,  it 
admirably  supplies  the  place  of  the 
natural  member. 

ARTIL'LERY,  all  sorts  of  great  guns, 
cannon,  or  ordnance,  mortars,  howit- 
zers, machine-guns,  etc.,  together  with 
all  the  apparatus  and  stores  thereto 
belonging,  which  are  taken  into  the 
field,  or  used  for  besieging  and  defend- 
ing fortified  places.  The  improvements 
and  alterations  in  artillery  and  pro- 
jectiles have  of  late  years  been  extra- 
ordinary, there  being  in  the  British 
service  alone  over  100  patterns  of 
modern  guns.  Of  these  the  largest  is 
the  111-ton  gun  intended  for  ships  and 
fortresses,  the  next  largest  being  the 
100-ton  gun  for  land  service,  and  the 
80-ton  gun  for  land  and  sea  service. 
The  most  important  modern  improve- 
ments in  artillery,  besides  the  increase 
in  size,  is  the  general  adoption  of  rifled 
ordnance,  breech-loaders,  and  machine- 
guns.  See  Cannon,  and  other  articles. — 
The  name  Park  of  Artillery  is  given 
to  the  entire  train  of  artillery  accom- 
panying a military  force,  w'ith  the 
apparatus,  ammunition,  etc.,  as  well 
as  the  battalion  appointed  for  its  serv- 
ice and  defense. 

ARTILLERY  COMPANY,  the  Ancient 
and  Honorable,  of  Boston,  a historical 
company  of  artillery,  the  oldest  mili- 
tary company  of  America,  dating  to 
1637.  Its  functions  today  are  social. 

ARTILLERY  CORPS,  the  entire  artil- 
lery branch  of  the  United  States  army. 
It  consists  of  a commanding  chief,  14 
colonels,  13  lieutenant-colonels,  39 
majors,  195  captains,  48  sergeants,  31 
batteries  field,  and  126  batteries  coast 
artillery.  Total,  18,920  men  and  651 
officers. 

ARTILLERY  SCHOOL,  a military 
school  of  the  United  States  at  Fort 
Monroe,  Va.,  for  the  teaching  of 


the  theory  and  practice  of  artillery 
work. 

ARTIODAC'TYLA,  a section  of  the 
Ungulata  or  hoofed  mammals,  compris- 
ing all  those  in  which  the  number  of  the 
toes  is  even  (two  or  four),  including  the 
ruminants,  such  as  the  ox,  sheep,  deer, 
etc.,  and  also  a number  of  non-rumi- 
nating animals,  as  the  hippopotamus 
and  the  pig. 

ARTS,  the  name  given  to  certain 
branches  of  study  in  the  middle  ages, 
originally  called  the  “liberal  arts”  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  “servile  arts” 
or  mechanical  occupations.  These  arts 
were  usually  given  as  grammar,  dia- 
lectics, rhetoric,  music,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  astronomy.  Hence  orig- 
inated the  terms  “art  classes,”  “de- 
grees in  arts,”  “Master  of  Arts,”  etc., 
still  in  corpmon  use  in  universities,  the 
faculty  of  arts  being  distinguished  from 
those  of  divinity,  law,  medicine,  or 
sci6nc© 

ARTSTUDENTS’  LEAGUE,  an  Amer- 
ican art  society  with  a membership  of 
1000  and  headquarters  at  New  A'ork. 
It  was  an  offshoot  from  the  academy  of 
design,  and  was  founded  in  1878.  A fee 
of  $30  to  $70  is  charged,  and  tlie  mem- 
ber is  instructed  by  competent  teachers. 
Scholarships  and  prizes  are  awarded 
annually. 

ASAFETTDA,  ASAFGETIDA,  a fetid 
inspissated  sap  from  central  Asia.  It 
is  used  in  medicine  as  an  anti-spasmodic, 
and  in  cases  of  flatulency,  in  hysteric 
paroxysms,  and  other  nervous  affec- 
tions. Notwithstanding  its  very  dis- 
agreeable odor  it  is  used  as  a seasoning 
in  the  East,  and  sometimes  in  Europe. 
An  inferior  sort  is  the  product  of  certain 
species  of  Ferula. 

ASBESTOS,  ASBESTUS,  a remarkable 
and  highly  useful  mineral,  a fibrous 
variety  of  several  members  of  the  horn- 
blende family,  composed  of  separable 
filaments,  with  a silky  luster.  The  fibers 
are  sometimes  delicate,  flexible,  and 
elastic;  at  other  times  stiff  and  brittle. 
It  is  incombustible,  and  anciently  was 
wrought  into  a soft,  flexible  cloth,  which 
was  used  as  a shroud  for  dead  bodies. 
In  modern  times  it  has  been  manufac- 
tured into  incombustible  cloth,  gloves, 
felt,  paper,  etc.;  is  employed  in  gas- 
stoves;  is  much  used  as  a covering  to 
steam  boilers  and  pipes;  is  mixed  with 
metallic  pigments,  and  used  as  a paint 
on  wooden  structures,  roofs,  partitions, 
etc.,  to  render  them  fire-proof,  and  is 
employed  in  Amrious  other  ways,  the 
manufacture  having  recently  greatly 
developed.  Some  A'arieties  are  compact 
and  take  a fine  polish,  others  are  loose, 
like  flax  or  silky  wool. 

ASCENSION,  Right,  of  a star,  in 
astronomy,  the  arc  of  the  equator  inter- 
cepted between  the  first  point  of  Aries 
and  that  point  of  the  equator  which 
comes  to  the  meridian  at  the  same  in- 
stant with  the  star. 

ASCENSION  DAY,  the  day  on  which 
the  ascension  of  the  Savior  is  com- 
memorated, often  called  Holy  Thursday, 
a movable  feast,  always  falling  on  the 
Thursday  but  one  before  Whitsuntide. 

ASCETTCS,  a name  given  in  ancient 
times  to  those  Christians  who  devoted 
themselves  to  severe  exercises  of  piety 
and  strove  to  distinguish  themselves 


ASCOLI 


ASIA 


from  the  world  by  abstinence  from 
sensual  enjoyments  and  by  voluntary 
penances.  Ascetics  and  asceticism  have 
played  an  important  part  in  the 
Christian  church,  but  the  principle  of 
striving  after  a higher  and  more  spiritual 
life  by  subduing  the  animal  appetites 
and  passions  has  no  necessary  connec- 
tion with  Christianity.  Thus  there  were 
ascetics  among  the  Jews  previous  to 
Christ,  and  asceticism  was  inculcated 
by  the  Stoics,  while  in  its  most  extreme 
form  it  may  still  be  seen  among  the 
Brahmas  and  Buddhists.  Monasticism 
was  but  one  phase  of  asceticism. 

AS'COLI,  or  ASCOLI  PICENO,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Tronto,  14  miles  above  its  embouchure 
in  the  Adriatic.  Pop.  11,199. — The 
province  has  an  area  of  809  sq.  miles,  a 
pop.  of  222,146. 

ASH,  a genus  of  deciduous  trees  hav- 
ing imperfect  flowers  and  a seed-vessel 
prolonged  into  a thin  wing  at  the  apex. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  it,  as  the 
weeping-a.sh,  the  curled-leaved  ash,  the 
entire-leaved  ash,  etc.  Among  Ameri- 
can species  are  the  white  ash,  with 
lighter  bark  and  leaves ; the  red  or  black 
ash,  with  a brown  bark;  the  black  ash, 
the  blue  ash,  the  green  ash,  etc.  They 
are  all  valuable  trees.  The  mountain- 
ash  or  rowan  belongs  to  a different  order. 

ASH,  ASHES,  the  incombustible  resi- 
due of  organic  bodies  (animal  or  vegeta- 
ble) remaining  after  combustion;  in  com- 
mon usage,  any  incombustible  residue 
of  bodies  used  as  fuel;  as  a commercial 
term,  the  word  generally  means  the 
ashes  of  vegetable  substances,  from 
which  are  extracted  the  alkaline  matters 
called  potash,  pearl-ash,  kelp,  barilla, 
etc. 

ASHANTEE',  a kingdom  of  western 
Africa,  in  the  interior  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
and  to  the  north  of  the  river  Prah,  with 
an  area  of  about  70,000  sq.  miles.  It  is 
in  great  part  hilly,  well-watered,  and 
covered  with  dense  tropical  vegetation. 
The  country  round  the  towns,  however, 
is  carefully  cultivated.  The  crops  are 
chiefly  rice,  maize,  millet,  sugar-cane, 
and  yams,  the  last  forming  the  staple 
vegetable  food  of  the  natives.  The 
domestic  animals  are  cows,  horses  of 
small  size,  goats,  and  a species  of  hairy 
sheep.  The  larger  wild  animals  are  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  giraffe,  buffalo, 
lion,  hippopotamus,  etc.  Birds  of  all 
kinds  are  numerous,  and  crocodiles  and 
other  reptiles  abound.  Gold  is  abundant, 
being  found  either  in  the  form  of  dust 
or  in  nuggets.  The  Ashantees  are  war- 
like and  ferocious,  with  a love  of  shed- 
ding blood  amounting  to  a passion, 
human  sacrifices  being  formerly  com- 
mon. Polygamy  is  practiced  by  them 
to  an  enormous  extent.  They  make 
excellent  cotton  cloths,  articles  in  gold, 
and  good  earthenware,  tan  leather,  and 
make  sword-blades  of  superior  work- 
manship. The  government  is  a mon- 
archy, and  is  now  carried  on  under 
British  supervision,  Ashantee  having 
become  a protectorate  of  Britain  in 
1896.  The  chief  town  is  Coomassie, 
said  to  have  from  70,000  to  100,000 
inhabitants. 

ASHEVILLE  (ash'vil),  a city  and 
county  seat  of  Buncombe  Co.,  N.  C., 
262  miles  by  rail  northeast  of  Atlanta, 


Ga.;  at  the  junction  of  the  Swanna- 
noa  and  the  French  Broad  rivers  and  on 
the  Southern  Railway.  It  is  finely 
situated,  at  an  elevation  of  2300  feet 
in  a mountainous  region,  and  is  widely 
celebrated  as  a health  resort,  both 
summer  and  winter.  Pop.  15,000. 

ASH'BURTON,  Alexander  Baring, 
Lord,  a British  statesman  and  financier, 
born  1774,  died  1848.  After  serving  in 
parliament  for  many  years  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1835,  after  being 
a member  of  Peel’s  government  (1834-- 
35). 

ASH'BURTON  TREATY,  a treaty  con- 
cluded at  Washington,  1842,  by  Alex- 
ander Baring,  Lord  Ashburton,  and  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  it 
defined  the  boundaries  between  the 
States  and  Canada,  etc. 

ASH'ES.  See  Ash. 

ASH 'LAND,  a city  and  county  seat  of 
Ashland  Co.,  Wis.,  185  miles  northeast 
of  Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  on  Chequamegon 
Bay,  one  of  the  finest  harboi’s  on  Lake 
Superior.  Steamers  connect  it  with  lake 
ports,  and  it  is  on  the  Wisconsin  Central, 
the  Chicago,  Saint  Paul,  Minneapolis, 
and  Omaha,  the  Northern  Pacific,  and 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroads. 
Ashland  is  one  of  the  most  important 
ports  on  the  Great  Lakes,  the  point  from 
which  the  product  of  the  iron  mines  of 
the  Gogebic  Range  is  shipped.  Lumber, 
brown-stone,  and  the  principal  manu- 
factured products  also  constitute  exten- 
sive shipments.  Pop.  15,000. 

ASHLEY,  Lord.  See  Shaftesbury, 
First  Earl  of. 

ASHTABU'LA,  a city  in  Ashtabula 
Co.,  Ohio,  on  a river  of  the  same  name, 
3 miles  from  Lake  Erie,  and  54  miles  east 
by  north  of  Cleveland,  on  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the  New 
York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  and  the 
Pittsburg,  Youngstown,  and  Ashtabula 
railroads.  Pop.  14,000. 

ASH- WEDNESDAY,  the  first  day  of 
Lent,  so  called  from  a custom  in  the 
Western  Church  of  sprinkling  ashes  that 
day  on  the  heads  of  penitents,  then  ad- 
mitted to  penance.  The  period  at  which 
the  fast  of  Ash-Wednesday  was  insti- 
tuted is  uncertain.  In  the  R.  Catholic 
Church  the  ashes  are  now  strewn  on  the 
heads  of  all  the  clergy  and  people  pres- 
ent. In  the  Anglican  Church  Ash- 
Wednesday  is  regarded  as  an  important 
fast  day. 

ASIA,  the  largest  of  the  great  divisions 
of  the  earth;  length,  from  the  extreme 
southwestern  point  of  Arabia,  at  the 
strait  of  Babel-Mandeb,  to  the'fextreme 
northeastern  point  of  Siberia — East 
Cape,  or  Cape  Vostochni,  in  Bering’s 
strait — 6900  miles;  breadth,  from  Cape 
Chelyuskin,  in  northern  Siberia,  to  Cape 
Romania,  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  5300  miles;  area  esti- 
mated at  17,296,000  square  miles,  about 
a third  of  all  the  land  of  the  earth’s  sur- 
face. On  three  sides,  n.,  e.,  and  s.,  the 
ocean  forms  its  natural  boundary,  while 
in  the  w.  the  frontier  is  marked  mainly 
by  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Ural  River, 
Caspian  Sea,  the  Caucasus,  the  Black 
Sea,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Suez  Canal, 
and  the  Red  Sea.  Thei’e  is  no  proper 
separation  between  Asia  and  Europe, 
the  latter  being  really  a great  peninsula 
of  the  former.  Asia,  though  not  so  ir- 


regular in  shape  as  Europe,  is  broken  in 
the  s.  by  three  great  peninsulas,  Arabia, 
Hindustan,  and  Farther  inaia,  while 
the  east  coast  presents  peninsular  pro- 
jections and  islands,  forming  a series  of 
sheltered  seas  and  bays,  the  principal 
peninsulas  being  Kamtchatka  and 
Corea.  The  principal  islands  are  those 
forming  the  Malay  or  Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago, which  stretch  round  in  a wide 
curve  on  the  s.e.  of  the  continent.  Be- 
sides the  larger  islands — Sumatra,  Java, 
Borneo,  Celebes,  Mindanao,  and  Luzon 
(in  the  Philippine  group) — there  are 
countless  smaller  islands  grouped  round 
these.  Other  islands  are  Ceylon,  in  the 
s.  of  India;  the  Japanese  islands  and 
Sakhalin  on  the  east  of  the  continent; 
Formosa,  s.e.  of  China;  Cyprus,  s.  of 
Asia  Minor  ; and  New  Siberia  and  Wran- 
gell Land,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  mountain  systems  of  Asia  are  of 
great  extent,  and  their  culminating 
points  are  the  highest  in  the  world.  The 
greatest  of  all  is  the  Himalayan  system, 
which  lies  mainly  between  Ion.  70°  and 
100°  e.  and  lat.  28°  and  37°  n.  It  ex- 
tends, roughly  speaking,  from  northwest 
to  southeast,  its  total  length  being  about 
1500  miles,  forming  the  northern  barrier 
of  Hindustan.  The  loftiest  summits  are 
Mount  Everest,  29,002  feet  high,  God- 
win-Austen,  28,265,  and  Kanchinjinga, 
28,156.  The  principal  passes,  which 
rise  to  the  height  of  18,000  to  20,000 
feet,  are  the  highest  in  the  world.  A 
second  great  mountain  system  of  cen- 
tral Asia,  connected  with  the  north- 
western extremity  of  the  Himalayan 
system  by  the  elevated  region  of  Pamir 
(about  Ion.  70°-75°  e.,  lat.  37°-40°  n.), 
is  the  Thian-Shan  system,  which  runs 
northeastward  for  a distance  of  1200 
miles.  In  this  direction  the  Altai, 
Sayan,  and  other  ranges  continue  the 
line  of  elevations  to  the  northeastern 
coast.  A northwestern  continuation  of 
the  Himalayas  is  the  Hindu  Kush,  and 
farther  westward  a connection  may  be 
traced  between  the  Himalayan  mass 
and  the  Elburz  range  (18,460  feet),  south 
of  the  Caspian,  and  thence  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  Armenia,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

There  are  vast  plateaux  and  elevated 
valley  regions  connected  with  the  great 
central  mountain  systems,  but  Targe 
portions  of  the  continent  are  low  and 
flat.  Of  the  deserts  of  Asia  the  largest 
is  that  of  Gobi  (Ion.  90°-120°  e.,  lat.  40°- 
48°  n.),  large  portions  of  which  are 
covered  with  nothing  but  sand  or  dis- 
play a sui'face  of  bare  rock.  An  almost 
continuous  desert  region  may  also  be 
traced  from  the  desert  of  North  Africa 
through  Arabia  (which  is  largely  occu- 
pied by  bare  deserts),  Persia,  and  Balu- 
chistan to  the  Indus. 

Some  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Asia  flow 
northward  to  the  Artie  Ocean — the  Obi, 
the  Yenisei,  and  the  Lena.  The  Hoang- 
Ho  and  Yang-tse,  and  the  Amoor,  are 
the  chief  of  those  which  flow  into  the 
Pacific.  The  Ganges,  Brahmaputra, 
Irawaddy,  and  Indus  empty  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  Persian  Gulf  re- 
ceives the  united  waters  of  the  Eu- 
phrates and  the  Tigris.  There  are  sev- 
eral systems  of  inTand  drainage,  large 
rivers  falling  into  lakes  which  have  no 
outlet.  The  largest  lake  of  Asia  (partly 


ASIA 


ASIA 


also  European)  is  the  Caspian  Sea,  which 
receives  the  Kur  from  the  Caucasus 
(with  its  tributary  the  Aras  from  Ar- 
menia), and  the  Sefid  Rud  and  other 
streams  from  Persia  (besides  the  Volga 
from  European  Russia,  and  the  Ural, 
which  is  partly  European,  partly 
Asiatic).  The  Caspian  lies  in  the  center 
of  a great  depression,  being  83  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  East 
from  the  Caspian  is  the  Sea  of  Aral, 
which,  like  the  Caspian,  has  no  outlet, 
and  is  fed  by  the  rivers  Amoo  Daria 
(Oxus)  and  Syr  Daria.  Still  farther 
east,  to  the  north  of  the  Thian-Sban 
Mountains,  and  fed  by  the  Hi  and  other 
streams,  is  Lake  Balkash,  also  without 
an  outlet,  and  very  salt.  Other  lakes 
having  no  communication  with  the 
ocean  are  Lob  Nor,  in  the  desert  of  Gobi, 
receiving  the  river  Tarim,  and  the  Dead 
Sea,  far  below  the  level  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  fed  by  the  Jordan.  The 
chief  freshwater  lake  is  Lake  Baikal,  in 
the  south  of  Siberia,  between  Ion.  104° 
and  110°  e.,  a mountain  lake  from  which 
the  Yenisei  draws  a portion  of  its  waters. 

.\ctive  volcanoes  are  only  met  with  in 
the  extreme  east  (Kamtchatka)  and  in 
the  Eastern  Archipelago.  From  the 
remotest  times  Asia  has  been  celebrated 
for  its  mineral  wealth.  In  the  Altai  and 
Ural  Mountains  gold,  iron,  lead,  and 
platinum  are  found;  in  India  and  other 
parts  rubies,  diamonds,  and  other  gems 
are,  or  have  been,  procured;  salt  in 
central  Asia;  coal  in  China,  India, 
central  Asia,  etc.;  petroleum  in  the  dis- 
tricts about  the  Caspian  and  in  Burmah; 
bitumen  in  Syria;  while  silver,  copper, 
sulphur,  etc.,  are  found  in  various  parts. 

Every  variety  of  climate  may  be  ex- 
perienced in  Asia,  but  as  a whole  it  is 
marked  by  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
and  by  great  dryness,  this  in  particular 
being  the  case  with  vast  regions  in  the 
center  of  the  continent  and  distant 
from  the  sea. 

The  plants  and  animals  of  northern 
and  western  Asia  generally  resemble 
those  of  similar  latitudes  in  Europe 
(which  is  really  a prolongation  of  the 
.A.siatic  continent),  differing  more  in 
species  than  in  genera.  The  principal 
mountain  trees  are  the  pine,  larch,  and 
birch ; the  willow,  alder,  and  poplar  are 
found  in  lower  grounds.  In  the  central 
region  European  species  reach  as  far 
as  the  western  and  central  Himalayas, 
but  are  rare  in  the  eastern.  They  are 
here  met  by  Chinese  and  Japanese 
forms.  The  lower  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas are  clothed  almost  exclusively  with 
tropical  forms.  Higher  up,  between 
4000  and  10,000  feet,  are  found  all  the 
types  of  trees  and  plants  that  belong 
to  the  temperate  zone,  there  being  ex- 
tensive forests  of  conifers.  Here  is  the 
native  home  of  the  deodar  cedar.  The 
southeastern  region,  including  India, 
the  eastern  Peninsula,  and  China,  with 
the  islands,  contains  a vast  variety  of 
plants  useful  to  man  and  having  here 
their  original  habitat,  such  as  the  sugar- 
cane, rice,  cotton,  and  indigo;  pepper, 
cinnamon,  cassia,  clove,  nutmeg,  and 
cardamoms;  banana,  cocoanut,  areca, 
and  sago  palms;  the  mango  and  many 
other  fruits;  with  plants  producing  a 
vast  number  of  drugs,  caoutchouc,  and 
gutta-percha.  The  forests  of  India  and 


the  Malay  Peninsula  contain  oak,  teak, 
sM,  and  other  timber  woods,  besides 
bomboos,  palms,  sandalwood,  etc.  The 
almyra  palm  is  characteristic  of 
outhern  India;  while  the  talipot  palm 
flourishes  on  the  western  coast  of  Hin- 
dustan, Ceylon,  and  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. The  cultivated  plants  of  India  and 
China  include  wheat,  barley,  rice,  maize, 
millet,  sorghum,  tea,  coffee,  indigo, 
cotton,  jute,  opium,  tobacco,  etc.  In 
north  China  and  the  Japanese  Islands 
large  numbers  of  deciduous  trees  occur, 
such  as  oaks,  maples,  limes,  walnuts, 
poplars,  and  willows,  the  genera  being 
European,  but  the  individual  species 
Asiatic.  Among  cultivated  plants  are 
wheat,  and  in  favorable  situations  rice, 
cotton,  the  vine,  etc.  Coffee,  rice, 
maize,  etc.,  are  extensively  grown  in 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  .Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago. In  Arabia  and  the  warmer 
valleys  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
Beluchistan,  aromatic  shrubs  are  abun- 
dant. Over  large  jjarts  of  these  regions 
the  date-palm  flourishes  and  affords  a 
valuable  article  of  food.  Gum-produc- 
ing acacias  are,  with  the  date-palm,  the 
commonest  trees  in  Arabia.  African 
forms  are  found  extending  from  the 
Sahara  along  the  desert  region  of  Asia. 

Nearly  all  the  mammals  of  Europe 
occur  in  northern  Asia,  with  numerous 
additions  to  the  species.  Central  Asia 
is  the  native  land  of  the  horse,  the  ass, 
the  ox,  the  sheep,  and  the  goat.  Both 
varieties  of  the  camel,  the  single  and  the 
double  humped,  are  Asiatic.  To  the 
inhabitants  of  Tibet  and  the  higher 
plateaux  of  the  Himalayas  the  yak  is 
what  the  reindeer  is  to  the  tribes  of  the 
Siberian  plain,  almost  their  sole  wealth 
and  support.  The  elephant,  of  a dif- 
ferent species  from  that  of  Africa,  is 
a native  of  tropical  Asia.  The  Asiatic 
lion,  which  inhabits  Arabia,  Persia, 
Asia  Minor,  Beluchistan,  and  some 
parts  of  India,  is  smaller  than  the  Afri- 
can species.  Bears  are  found  in  all  parts, 
the  white  bear  in  the  far  north,  and 
other  species  in  the  more  temperate 
and  tropical  parts.  The  tiger  is  the 
most  characteristic  of  the  larger  Asiatic 
Carnivora.  It  extends  from  Armenia 
across  the  entire  continent,  being  absent, 
however,  from  the  greater  portion  of 
Siberia  and  from  the  high  tableland 
of  Tibet;  it  extends  also  into  Sumatra 
Java,  and  Bali.  In  southeastern  Asia 
and  the  islands  we  find  the  rhinoceros, 
buffalo,  ox,  deer,  squirrels,  porcupines, 
etc.  In  birds  nearly  every  order  is  repre- 
sented. Among  the  most  interesting 
forms  are  the  hornbills,  the  peacock,  the 
Impey  pheasant,  the  tragopan  or  horned 
pheasant,  and  other  gallinaceous  birds, 
the  pheasant  family  being  very  char- 
acteristic of  southeastern  Asia.  It  was 
from  Asia  that  the  common  domestic 
fowl  was  introduced  into  Europe.  The 
tropical  parts  of  Asia  abound  in  mon- 
keys, of  which  the  species  are  numerous. 
Some  are  tailed,  others,  such  as  the 
orang,  are  tailless,  but  none  have  pre- 
hensile tails  like  the  American  monkeys. 
In  the  Malay  Archipelago  marsupial 
animals,  so  characteristic  of  Australia, 
first  occur  in  the  Moluccas  and  Celebes, 
while  various  mammals  common  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Archipelago  are 
absent.  A similar  transition  toward 


the  Australian  type  takes  place  in  the 
species  of  birds.  Of  marine  mammals 
the  dugong  is  peculiar  to  the  Indian 
Ocean;  in  the  Ganges  is  found  a peculiar 
species  of  dolphin.  At  the  head  of  the 
reptiles  stands  the  Gangetic  crocodile, 
frequenting  the  Ganges  and  other  large 
rivers.  Among  the  serpents  are  the 
cobra  da  capello,  one  of  the  most  deadly 
snakes  in  existence;  there  are  also  large 
boas  and  pythons  besides  sea  and  fresh- 
water snakes.  The  seas  and  rivers  pro- 
duce a great  variety  of  fish.  The  Sal- 
monidae  are  found  in  the  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Two  rather  re- 
markable fishes  are  the  climbing  perch 
and  the  archer-fish.  The  well-known 
goldfish  is  a native  of  China. 

Asia  is  mainly  peopled  by  races  be- 
longing to  two  great  ethnographic  types, 
the  Caucasic  or  fair  type,  and  the  Mon- 
golic  or  yellow.  To  the  former  belong 
the  Aryan  or  Indo-European,  and  the 
Semitic  races,  both  of  which  mainly 
inhabit  the  southwest  of  the  continent; 
to  the  latter  belong  the  Malays  and 
Indo-Chinese  in  the  s.e.,  as  well  as  the 
Mongolians  proper  (Chinese,  etc.),  occu- 
pying nearly  all  tlie  rest  of  the  con- 
tinent. To  these  may  be  added  certain 
races  of  doubtful  affinities,  as  the  Dra- 
vidians  of  southern  India,  the  Cin- 
galese of  Ceylon,  the  Ainos  of  Yesso, 
and  some  negro-like  tribes  called  Ne- 
gritos, which  inhabit  Malacca  and  the 
interior  of  several  of  the  islands  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago.  The  total  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  about  800,000,- 
000,  or  more  than  half  that  of  the  whole 
world.  The  chief  independent  states 
are  the  Chinese  Empire  (pop.  360,250,- 
000),  Japan  (pop.  40,000,000),  Siam 
(pop.  6,000,000),  Afghanistan  (5,000,- 
000),  Beluchistan,  Persia  (pop.  7,000,- 
000),  and  the  Arabian  states  (3,000,- 
000).  The  most  important  of  the 
religions  of  Asia  are  the  Brahmanism 
of  India,  the  creeds  of  Buddha,  Con- 
fucius, and  Lao-tse  in  China,  and  the 
various  forms  of  Mohammedanism  in 
Arabia,  Persia,  India,  etc.  Probably 
more  than  a half  of  the  whole  popula- 
tion profess  some  form  of  Buddhism. 
Several  native  Christian  sects  are  found 
in  India,  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  and  Syria. 

Asia  is  generally  regarded  as  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race.  It  possesses 
the  oldest  historical  documents,  and 
next  to  the  immediately  contiguous 
kingdom  of  Egypt  the  oldest  historical 
monuments  in  the  world.  At  present 
the  forms  of  government  in  Asia  range 
from  the  primitive  rule  of  the  nomad 
sheik  to  the  despotism  of  China.  India 
has  been  brought  by  Britain  directly 
under  European  influence,  and  Japan 
is  freely  modeling  her  institutions  on 
those  of  the  West. 

ASIA,  Central,  a designation  loosely 
given  to  the  regions  in  the  center  of 
Asia  east  of  the  Caspian,  also  called 
Turkestan,  and  formerly  Tartary.  The 
eastern  portion  belongs  to  China,  the 
western  now  to  Russia.  Russian  Cen- 
tral Asia  comprises  the  Kirghiz  Steppe 
(Uralsk,  Turgai,  AkinoUnsk,  Semipala- 
tinsk,  etc.),  and  what  is  now  the  gov- 
ernment-general of  Turkestan,  besides 
the  territory  of  the  TurkomaoJS,  or 
Transcaspia  and  Merv.  Russia  ^has 
thus  absorbed  the  old  khanate  of  Kho- 


ASIA  MINOR 


ASSAULT  AND  BATTERY 


kanci  and  part  of  Bokhara  and  Khiva, 
and  controls  the  vassal  territories  of 
Bokhara  and  Khiva,  the  southern 
boundary  being  the  Persian  and  Afghan 
frontiers. 

ASIA  MINOR,  the  most  westerly  por- 
tion of  Asi^  being  the  peninsula  lying 
west  of  the  Upper  Euphrates,  and  form- 
ing part  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  forms 
an  extensive  plateau,  with  lofty  moun- 
tains rising  above  it,  the  most  extensive 
ranges  being  the  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus,  which  border  it  on  the  south 
and  southeast,  and  rise  to  over  10,000 
feet.  There  are  numerous  salt  and 
fresh-water  lakes.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Kizil-Irmak  (Halys),  Sakaria  (San- 

farius),  entering  the  Black  Sea;  and  the 
arabat  (Hermus)  and  Menderes  (Mse- 
ander),  entering  the  .lEgean.  The  coast 
regions  are  generally  fertile,  and  have  a 
genial  climate;  the  interior  is  largely 
arid  and  dreary.  Valuable  forests  and 
fruit-trees  abound.  Smyrna  is  the  chief 
town.  Anatolia  is  an  equivalent 
name. 

ASP,  a species  of  viper  found  in 
Egypt,  resembling  the  cobra  da  capello 
or  spectacle-serpent  of  the  East  Indies, 
and  having  a very  venomous  bite. 


Asp,  from  ancient  Egyptian  monument. 

When  approached  or  disturbed  it  ele- 
vates its  head  and  body,  swells  out  its 
neck,  and  appears  to  stand  erect  to 
attack  the  agressor.  Hence  the  ancient 
Egyptians  believed  that  the  asps  were 
guardians  of  the  spots  they  inhabited, 
and  the  figure  of  this  reptile  was  adopted 
as  an  emblem  of  the  protecting  genius 
of  the  world. 

ASPAR'AGUS,  a plant,  the  young 
shoots  of  which,  cut  as  they  are  emerg- 
ing from  the  ground,  are  a favorite 
culinary  vegetable.  The  plants  should 
remain  three  years  in  the  ground  before 
they  are  cut;  after  which,  for  several 
years,  they  will  continue  to  afford  a 
regular  annual  supply.  The  beds  are 
protected  by  straw  or  litter  in  winter. 
Its  diuretic  properties  are  ascribed  to 
the  presence  of  a crystalline  substance 
found  also  in  the  potato,  lettuce,  etc. 

ASPA'SIA,  a celebrated  lady  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  born  at  Miletus, 
in  Ionia,  but  passed  a great  part  of  her 
life  at  Athens,  where  her  house  was  the 
general  resort  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  in  Greece.  She  won  the  affection 
of  Pericles,  who  united  himself  to  As- 

Sasia  as  closely  as  was  permitted  by 
le  Athenian  law,  which  declared 
marriage  with  a foreign  woman  illegal. 
.In  432-1  B.c.  she  was  accused  of  Im- 
piety, and  was  only  saved  from  con- 
demnation by  the  eloquence  and  tears 
of  Pericles.  She  had  a son  by  Pericles, 


who  was  legitimated  (b.c.  430)  by  a 
special  decree  of  the  people. 

ASPHALTj  ASPHAL'TUM,  the  most 
common  variety  of  bitumen ; also  called 
mineral  pitch.  Asphalt  is  a compact, 
glossy,  brittle,  black  or  brown  mineral, 
which  breaks  with  a polished  fracture, 
melts  easily  with  a strong  pitchy  odor 
when  heated,  and  when  pure  burns  with- 
out leaving  any  ashes.  It  is  found  in 
the  earth  in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Europe, 
and  America,  and  in  a soft  or  liquid 
state  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  from  this  circumstance  was  called 
Asphaltites.  It  is  of  organic  origin,  the 
asphalt  of  the  great  Pitch  Lake  of 
Trinidad  being  derived  from  bitumi- 
nous shales,  containing  vegetable  re- 
mains in  the  process  of  transformation. 
Asphalt  is  produced  artificially  in  mak- 
ing coal-gas.  During  the  process  much 
tarry  matter  is  evolved  and  collected 
in  retorts.  If  this  be  distilled,  naphtha 
and  other  volatile  matters  escape,  and 
asphalt  is  left  behind.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Jew’s  Pitch. 

ASPHYX'IA,  literally,  the  state  of  a 
living  animal  in  which  no  pulsation  can 
be  perceived,  but  the  term  is  more  par- 
ticularly applied  to  a suspension  of  the 
vital  functions  from  causes  hindering 
respiration.  The  normal  accompani- 
ments of  death  from  asphyxia  are  dark 
fluid  blood,  a congested  brain  and  ex- 
ceedingly congested  lungs,  the  general 
engorgement  of  the  viscera,  and  an  ab- 
sence of  blood  from  the  left  cavities  of 
the  heart  while  the  right  cavities  and 
pulmonary  artery  are  gorged.  The 
restoration  of  asphyxiated  persons  has 
been  successfully  accomplished  at  long 
periods  after  apparent  death.  The 
attempt  should  be  made  to  maintain  the 
heat  of  the  body  and  to  secure  the  infla- 
tion of  the  lungs  as  in  the  case  of  the 
apparently  drowned. 

AS'PINWALL.  See  Colon. 

AS'PIRATE,  a name  given  to  any 
sound  like  our  h,  to  the  letter  h itself, 
or  to  any  mark  of  aspiration. 

ASS,  a species  of  the  horse  genus, 
supposed  by  Darwin  to  have  sprung 
from  the  wild  variety  found  in  Abyssinia, 
by  some  writers  to  be  a descendant  of 
the  wild  ass,  inhabiting  the  mountain- 
ous deserts  of  Tartary,  etc.,  and  by 
others  to  have  descended  from  the 
kiang  of  southwestern  Asia.  Both  in 
color  and  size  the  ass  is  exceedingly 
variable,  ranging  from  dark  gray  and 
reddish  brown  to  white,  and  from  the 
size  of  a Newfoundland  dog  in  North 
India  to  that  of  a good-sized  horse.  In 
the  southwestern  countries  of  Asia  and 
in  Egypt,  in  some  districts  of  southern 
Europe,  as  in  Spain,  and  in  Kentucky 
and  Peru,  great  attention  has  been  paid 
to  selection  and  interbreeding,  with  a 
result  no  less  remarkable  than  in  the 
case  of  the  horse.  The  male  ass  is 
mature  at  two  years  of  age,  the  female 
still  earlier.  The  she-ass  carries  her 
young  eleven  months.  The  teeth  of 
the  young  ass  follow  the  same  order  of 
appearance  and  renewal  as  those  of  the 
horse.  The  life  of  the  ass  does  not 
usually  exceed  thirty  years.  It  is  in 
general  much  healthier  than  the  horse, 
and  is  maintained  in  this  condition  by  a 
smaller  quantity  and  coarser  quality 
of  food;  it  is  superior  to  the  horse  in  its 


ability  to  carry  heavy  burdens  over  the 
most  precipitous  roads,  and  is  in  no  re- 
spect its  inferior  in  intelligence,  despite 
the  reputation  for  stupidity  which  it  has 
borne  from  very  ancient  times.  The 
skin  is  used  as  parchment  to  cover 
drums,  etc.,  and  in  the  East  is  made  into 
shagreen.  The  hybrid  offspring  of  the 
horse  and  the  female  ass  is  the  hinny, 
that  of  the  ass  and  the  mare  is  the  mule; 
but  the  latter  is  by  far  the  larger  and 
more  useful  animal.  Asses’  milk,  long 
celebrated  for  its  sanative  qualities, 
more  closely  resembles' that  of  a woman, 
than  any  other.  It  is  very  similar  in 
taste,  and  throws  up  an  equally  fluid 
cream,  which  is  not  convertible  into 
butter. 

ASSAM',  a chief  commissionership  or 
province  of  British  India,  on  the  north- 
east border  of  Bengal,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Himalayas,  on  the  east  and 
south  mainly  by  Burmah;  area,  49,004 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  6,126,343,  3,429,459 
of  whom  are  Hindus,  1,581,317  Moham- 


Assamese. 


medans,  35,969  Christians,  8911  Budd- 
hists, the  rest  being  chiefly,  hill  tribes 
of  aboriginal  faiths. 

AS'SAPAN,  the  fiying-squirrel  of  N. 
America,  an  elegant  little  animal  with 
folds  of  skin  along  its  sides  which  enable 
it  to  take  leaps  of  40  or  50  yards. 

ASSASSINA'TION,  an  act  by  which 
life  is  taken  in  a treacherous  or  unex- 
pected manner,  usually  for  the  further- 
ance of  a political  or  social  purpose. 
The  term  is  not  customarily  applied  to 
murder  accomplished  for  purely  per- 
sonal reasons  in  the  manner  of  assassina- 
tion, but  rather  to  the  murder  of  some 
public  official  or  important  person.  The 
term  “spadassin,”  used  during  the 
French  revolution,  is  of  kindred  origin 
and  meaning. 

ASSASS'INS,  an  Asiatic  order  or 
society  having  the  practice  of  assassina- 
tion as  its  most  distinctive  feature, 
founded  by  Hassan  Ben  Sabbah,  a dai 
or  missionary  of  the  heterodox  Moham- 
medan sect  the  Ismaelites. 

ASSAULT  AND  BATTERY,  in  law, 
an  attempt  or  offer,  with  force  and 
violence,  to  do  a corporal  hurt  to 
another,  as  by  striking  at  him  mth  or 
without  a weapon.  If  a person  lift 
up  or  stretch  forth  his  arm  and  offer 
to  strike  another,  or  menace  any  one 
with  any  staff  or  weapon,  it  is  an  as- 
sault in  law.  Assault,  therefore,  does 
not  necessarily  imply  a hitting  or  blow. 


ASSAYING 


ASSYRIA 


because  in  trespass  for  assault  and 
battery  a man  may  be  found  guilty  of 
the  assault  and  acquitted  of  the  battery. 
But  every  battery  includes  an  assault. 

ASSAYING,  the  estimation  of  the 
amount  of  pure  metal,  and  especially  of 
the  precious  metals,  in  an  ore  or  alloy. 
In  the  case  of  silver  the  assay  is  either 
by  the  dry  or  by  the  wet  process.  The 
dry  process  is  called  cupellation  from 
the  use  of  a small  and  very  porous  cup, 
called  a cupel,  formed  of  well-burned 
and  finely-ground  bone-ash  made  into 
a paste  with  water.  The  cupel,  being 
thoroughly  dried,  is  placed  in  a fire-clay 
oven  about  the  size  of  a drain-tile,  with 
a flat  sole  and  arched  roof,  and  with 
slits  at  the  sides  to  admit  air.  This 
oven,  called  a muffle,  is  set  in  a furnace, 
and  when  it  is  at  a red  heat  the  assay, 
consisting  of  a small  weighed  portion  of 
the  alloy  wrapped  in  sheet-lead,  is  laid 
upon  the  cupel.  The  heat  causes  the 
lead  to  volatilize  or  combine  with  the 
other  metals,  and  to  sink  with  them  into 
the  cupel,  leaving  a bright  globule  of 
pure  metallic  silver,  which  gives  the 
amount  of  silver  in  the  alloy  operated 
on.  In  the  wet  process  the  alloy  is  dis- 
solved in  nitric  acid,  and  to  the  solution 
are  added  measured  quantities  of  a 
solution  of  common  salt  of  known 
strength,  which  precipitates  chloride  of 
silver.  The  operation  is  concluded  when 
no  further  precipitate  is  obtained  on  the 
addition  of  the  salt  solution,  and  the 
quantity  of  silver  is  calculated  from 
the  amount  of  salt  solution  used.  An 
alloy  of  gold  is  first  cupelled  with  lead  as 
above,  with  the  addition  of  three  parts 
of  silver  for  every  one  of  gold.  After 
the  cupellation  is  finished  the  alloy  of 
gold  and  silver  is  beaten  and  rolled  out 
into  a thin  plate,  which  is  curled  up  by 
the  fingers  into  a little  spiral  or  cornet. 
This  is  put  into  a flask  with  nitric  acid, 
which  dissolves  away  the  silver  and 
leaves  the  cornet  dark  and  brittle.  After 
washing  with  water  the  cornet  is  boiled 
with  stronger  nitric  acid  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  silver,  well  washed,  and 
then  allowed  to  drop  into  a small 
crucible,  in  which  it  is  heated,  and  then 
it  is  weighed.  The  assay  of  gold,  there- 
fore, consists  of  two  parts:  cupellation, 
by  which  inferior  metals  (except  silver) 
are  removed;  and  quartation,  by  which 
the  added  silver  and  any  silver  originally 
present  are  got  rid  of.  The  quantity  of 
silver  added  has  to  be  regulated  to  about 
three  times  that  of  the  gold.  If  it  be 
more  the  cornet  breaks  up,  if  it  be  less 
the  gold  protects  small  quantities  of 
the  silver  from  the  action  of  the  acid, 
Wherw,  as  in  some  gold  manufactured 
articles,  these  methods  of  assay  cannot 
be  applied,  a streak  is  drawn  with  the 
article  upon  a touchstone  consisting  of 
coarse-grained  Lydian  quartz  saturated 
with  bituminous  matter,  or  of  black 
basalt.  The  practiced  assayer  will 
detect  approximately  the  richness  of 
the  gold  from  the  color  of  the  streak, 
which  may  be  further  subjected  to  an 
acid  test. 

ASSAY  OFFICE,  a laboratory  con- 
ducted by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment for  the  valuation  of  ^Id  and  silver 
deposited  for  coinage.  The  principal 
mints  have  assay  offices  attached  to 
them,  and  there  is  an  assay  office  at 


Seattle,  Wash.  The  largest  in  the 

country  is  that  at  New  York. 

AS'SEGAI,  a spear  used  as  a weapon 
among  the  Kaffirs  of  S.  Africa,  made  of 
hard  wood  tipped  with  iron,  and  used 
for  throwing  or  thrusting. 

ASSESS'OR,  a person  appointed  to 
ascertain  and  fix  the  amount  of  taxes, 
rates,  etc.;  or  a person  who  sits  along 
with  the  judges  in  certain  courts,  and 
assists  them  with  his  professional 
knowledge. 

AS'SETS,  property  or  goods  available 
for  the  payment  of  a bankrupt  or  de- 
ceased person’s  obligations.  Assets  are 
personal  or  real,  the  former  comprising 
all  goods,  chattels,  etc.,  devolving  upon 
the  executor  as  saleable  to  discharge 
debts  and  legacies.  In  commerce  and 
bankruptcy  the  term  is  often  used  as  the 
antithesis  of  “liabilities,”  to  designate 
the  stock  in  trade  and  entire  property 
of  an  individual  or  an  association. 

ASSIGNEE',  a person  appointed  by 
another  to  transact  some  business,  or 
exercise  some  particular  privilege  or 
power.  Formerly  the  persons  appointed 
under  a commission  of  bankruptcy,  to 
manage  the  estate  of  the  bankrupt  on 
behalf  of  the  creditors,  were  so  called, 
but  now  trustees. 

ASSIGN'MENT  is  a transfer  by  deed 
of  any  property,  or  right,  title,  or  inter- 
est, in  property,  real  or  personal.  As- 
signments are  usually  given  for  leases, 
mortgages,  and  funded  property. 

ASSINIBOI'A,  the  smallest  of  the  four 
districts  into  which  a portion  of  the 
northwestern  territories  of  Canada  was 
divided  in  1882.  It  lies  immediately  to 
the  west  of  Manitoba,  with  Saskatche- 
wan and  Alberta  as  its  northern  and 
western  boundaries.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Saskatchewan  (south  branch) 
and  the  Qu’Appelle  river,  and  contains 
much  good  wheat  land.  Some  coal  is 
mined.  Area,  89,535  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
67,385.  Capital,  Regina,  on  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  which  intersects 
the  district. 

ASSINIBOINE,  a river  of  Canada, 
which  flows  through  Manitoba  and  joins 
the  Red  river  at  Winnipeg,  about  40 
miles  above  the  entrance  of  the  latter 
into  Lake  Winnipeg,  after  a somewhat 
circuitous  course  of  about  500  miles 
from  the  west  and  northwest.  Steamers 
ply  on  it  for  over  300  miles. 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS,  the  term 
used  in  psychology  to  comprise  the  con- 
ditions under  which  one  idea  is  able  to 
recall  another  to  consciousness.  Psy- 
chologists have  been  disposed  to  classify 
these  conditions  under  two  general 
heads:  the  law  of  contiguity,  and  the 
law  of  association.  The  first  states  the 
fact  that  actions,  sensations,  emotions, 
and  ideas,  which  have  occurred  together, 
or  in  close  succession,  tend  to  suggest 
each  other  when  any  one  of  them  is 
afterward  presented  to  the  mind.  The 
second  indicates  that  present  actions, 
sensations,  emotions,  or  ideas  tend  to 
recall  their  like  from  among  previous 
experiences.  Other  laws  have  at  times 
been  enunciated,  but  they  are  reducible 
to  these;  thus,  the  “law  of  contrast  or 
contrariety”  is  properly  a case  of  con- 
tiguity. On  their  physical  side  the 
principles  of  association  correspond 
with  the  physiological  facts  of  re- 


excitatioft  of  the  same  flcfvous  centers, 
and  in  this  respect  they  have  played  an 
important  part  in  the  endeavor  to  place 
psychology  upon  a basis  of  positive 
science.  The  laws  of  association,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  law  of  relativity, 
are  held  by  many  to  be  a complete 
exposition  of  the  phenomena  of  intellect. 

ASSUMP'SIT,  in  English  law,  an 
action  to  recover  compensation  for  the 
non-performance  of  a parole  promise; 
that  is,  a promise  not  contained  in  a 
deed  under  seal.  Assumpsits  are  of 
two  kinds,  express  and  implied.  The 
former  are  where  the  contracts  are 
actually  made  in  word  or  writing;  the 
latter  are  such  as  the  law  implies  from 
the  justice  of  the  case;  e.g.  employment 
to  do  work  implies  a promise  to  pay. 

ASSUMPTION,  the  ecclesiastical  fes- 
tival celebrating  the  miraculous  ascent 
into  heaven  of  the  Virgin  Mary’s  body 
as  well  as  her  soul,  kept  on  the  15th  of 
August.  The  legend  first  appeared  in 
the  3d  or  4th  century,  and  the  festival 
was  instituted  some  three  centuries  later. 

ASSURANCE.  See  Insurance. 

ASSYR'IA,  an  ancient  monarchy  in 
Asia,  intersected  by  the  upper  course 
of  the  Tigris,  and  having  the  Armenian 
mountains  on  the  north  and  Babylonia 
on  the  south;  area,  probablj’^  about 
100,000  sq.  miles;  surface  partly  moun- 
tainous, hilly,  or  undulating,  partly  a 
portion  of  the  fertile  Mesopotamian 


Assyrian  soldiers. 


plain.  The  numerous  remains  of  ancient 
habitations  show  how  thickly  this  vast 
flat  must  have  once  been  peopled;  now, 
for  the  most  part,  it  is  a mere  wilder- 
ness. The  chief  cities  of  Assyria  in  the 
days  of  its  prosperity  were  Nineveh,  the 
site  of  which  is  marked  by  mounds 
opposite  Mosul  (Nebi  Yunus  and  Koy- 
unjik),  Calah  or  Kalakh  (the  modern 
Nimrud),  Asshur  or  A1  Asur  (Kalah 
Sherghat),  Sargina  (Khorsabad),  and 
Arbela  (Arbil). 

Much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the 
history  of  Assyria  by  the  decipherment 
of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  obtained 
by  excavation.  About  1120  n.c.Tiglath- 
Pileser  I.,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  first  Assyrian  monar- 
chy, ascended  the  throne,  and  carried 
his  conquests  to  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  one  side  and  to  the  Caspian  and  the 
Persian  Gulf  on  the  other.  At  his  death 
there  ensued  a period  of  decline,  which 
lasted  over  200  years.  Under  Assur- 
nazir-pal,  who  reigned  from  88cl  to  859 


ASTARTE 


ASTEROIDS 


B.C.,  Assyria  once  more  advanced  to 
the  position  of  the  leading  power  in  the 
world,  the  extent  of  his  kingdom  being 
greater  than  that  of  Tiglath-Pileser. 
The  magnificent  palaces,  temples,  and 
other  buildings  of  his  reign  prove  the 
advance  of  the  nation  in  wealth,  art, 
and  luxury.  In  859  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Shalmaneser  II.,  whose 
career  of  conquest  was  equally  success- 
ful. Sargon  (722-70.5),  a usurper, 
claimed  descent  from  the  ancient 
Assyrian  kings.  After  taking  Samaria 
and  leading  over  27,000  people  captive, 
he  overthrew  the  combined  forces  of 
Elam  (Susiana)  and  Babylon.  He  de- 
feated the  King  of  hlamath,  who  along 
with  other  princes  had  revolted,  took 
him  prisoner,  and  flayed  him  alive,  ad- 
vanced through  Philistia  and  captured 
Ashdod;  then  pushing  southward  to- 
tally defeated  the  forces  of  Egypt 
and  Gaza  at  Raphia  (719).  The  re- 
volted Armenians  had  also  more  than 
once  to  be  put  down.  In  710  Merodach- 
baladan  was  driven  out  of  Babylonia 
by  Sargon,  after  holding  it  for  twelve 
years  as  an  independent  king,  and  being 
supported  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt  and 
Palestine;  his  allies  were  also  crushed, 
Judah  was  overrun,  and  Ashdod  leveled 
to  the  ground.  Sargon  latterly  crossed 
over  and  took  Cyprus,  where  he  left  an 
inscription  telling  of  his  expedition. 


and  Arabia.  Egypt  was  the  only  power, 
however,  which  regained  its  indepen- 
dence; fire,  sword,  and  famine  reduced 
the  rest  to  submission.  In  640  the 
Medes  revolted,  and  latterly  made 
themselves  independent.  Though  the 
king’s  character  was  marked  by  cruelty 
and  sensuality,  he  was  a zealous  patron 
of  the  arts  and  learning.  He  died  in 
625,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Assur- 
emid-ilin  (or  Sarakos),  under  whom 
Babylon  definitely  threw  off  the  As- 
syrian yoke.  The  country  continued 
rapidly  to  decline,  fighting  hard  for 
existence  until  the  capital  Nineveh  was 
captured  and  burned  by  the  allied 
forces  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians, 
about  607  or  606  b.c.  The  story  of 
Sardanapalus  associated  with  this  event 
is  a mere  myth  or  legend.  Assyria  now 
fell  partly  to  Media,  partly  to  Baby- 
lonia, and  afterwards  formed  with 
Babylonia  one  of  the  satrapies  of  the 
Persian  empire.  In  312  b.c.  it  became 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleucidse; 
later  on  it  came  under  Parthian  rule, 
and  was  more  than  once  a Roman  pos- 
session. For  a long  period  it  was  under 
the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  In  1638  the 
Turks  wrested  it  from  the  Persians,  and 
it  has  continued  under  their  dominion 
since  that  date. 

The  Assyrians  were  far  advanced  in 
art  and  industry,  and  in  civilization  in 


Hunting  wild  bull,  from  monuments  at  Nineveh. 


He  spent  the  latter  years  of  his  reign 
in  internal  reforms,  in  the  midst  of 
which  he  was  murdered,  being  suc- 
ceeded by  Sennacherib,  one  of  his 
younger  sons,  in  705.  Sennacherib  at 
once  had  to  take  up  arms  against 
Merodach-baladan,  who  had  again  ob- 
tained possession  of  Babylon.  In  701 
fresh  outbreaks  in  Syria  led  him  in  that 
direction.  He  captured  Zidon  and 
Askelon,  and  defeated  Hezekiah  and 
his  Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  allies,  and 
forced  him  cc  pay  tribute,  after  which 
he  returned  to  Assyria  to  overawe  the 
Babylonians,  Elamites,  and  the  north- 
ern hill  tribes.  A second  expedition 
into  Syria  is  briefly  recorded  in  2 Kings 
xix.,  where  we  are  told  that,  as  his  army 
lay  before  Libnah,  in  one  night  the  angel 
of  Jehovah  went  out,  and  smote  in  the 
camp  of  the  Assyrians  185,000  men 
(2  Kings  xix.  35).  In  681  he  was  mur- 
dered by  his  two  sons,  Adrammelech 
and  Sharezer,  but  they  were  defeated 
by  their  brother  Esar-haddon,  who  then 
mounted  the  throne.  In  652  a general 
insurrection  broke  out,  headed  by 
Sammughes,  governor  of  Babylonia, 
Assur-bani-pal’s  own  brother,  and  in- 
cluding Baoylonia,  Egypt,  Palestine, 


general.  They  constructed  large  build- 
ings, especially  palaces,  of  a most  impos- 
ing character,  the  materials  being  brick, 
burned  or  sun-dried,  stone,  alabaster 
slabs  for  lining  and  adorning  the  walls 
internally  and  externally,  and  timber 
for  pillars  and  roofs.  These  alabaster 
slabs  were  elaborately  sculptured  with 
designs  serving  to  throw  much  light  on 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people. 
A most  characteristic  feature  of  the 
palaces  were  gigantic  figures  of  winged, 
human-headed  bulls,  placed  at  gate- 
ways (often  arched  over)  or  other  im- 
portant points;  figures  of  lions,  etc., 
were  also  similarly  employed.  The 
palaces  were  raised  on  high  terraces, 
and  often  comprised  a great  number  of 
apartments;  there  were  no  windows, 
light  being  obtained  by  carrying  the 
walls  up  to  a certain  height  and  then 
raising  on  them  pillars  to  support  the 
roof  and  admit  light  and  air.  The  cities 
of  Nineveh,  Assur,  and  Arbela  had  each 
their  royal  observatories,  superintended 
by  astronomers-royal,  who  had  to  send 
in  their  reports  to  the  king  twice  a 
month.  At  an  early  date  the  stars  were 
numbered  and  named;  a calendar  was 
formed,  in  which  the  year  was  divided 


into  twelve  months  (of  thirty  days  each), 
called  after  the  zodiacal  signs,  but  as 
this  division  was  found  to  be  inaccurate 
an  intercalary  month  was  added  every 
six  years.  The  week  was  divided  into 
seven  days,  the  seventh  being  a day  of 
rest;  the  day  was  divided  into  twelve 

Eeriods  of  two  hours  each,  each  of  these 
eing  subdivided  into  sixty  minutes, 
and  these  again  into  sixty  seconds.  The 
Assyrians  employed  both  the  dial  and 
the  clepsydra.  Eclipses  were  recorded 
from  a very  remote  epoch,  and  their 
recurrence  roughly  determined.  The 
principal  astronomical  work,  called  the 
Illumination  of  Bel,  was  inscribed  on 
seventy  tablets,  and  went  through 
numerous  editions,  one  of  the  latest 
being  in  the  British  Museum.  It  treats 
among  other  things  of  comets,  the  polar 
star,  the  conjunction  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  the  motions  of  Venus  and 

ASTAR'TE,  a Syrian  goddess,  prob- 
ably corresponding  to  the  Semgle  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Ashtaroth  of  the  He- 
brews, and  representing  the  productive 
power  of  nature.  She  was  a moon- 
goddess.  Some  regard  her  as  corre- 
sponding with  Hera  (Juno),  and  others 
with  Aphrodite.  See  Ashtaroth. 

AS'TER,  a genus  of  plants,  compre- 
hending several  hundred  species,  mostly 
natives  of  North  America,  although 
others  are  widely  distributed.  Many 
are  cultivated  as  ornamental  plants. 
Asters  generally  flower  late  in  the  sea- 
son, and  some  are  hence  called  MicliEel- 
mas  or  Christmas  Daisies.  The  China 
Aster  is  a very  showy  annual,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties. 

ASTE'RIA,  a name  applied  to  a vari- 
ety of  corundum,  which  displays  an 
opalescent  star  of  six  rays  of  light  when 
cut  with  certain  precautions;  and  also 
to  the  cat’s-eye,  which  consists  of  quartz, 
and  is  found  especially  in  Ceylon. 

AS'TERISK,  the  figure  of  a star, 
thus  *,  used  in  printing  and  writing, 
as  a reference  to  a passage  or  note  in 
the  margin,  or  to  fill  the  spa,ce  when  a 
name,  or  the  like,  is  omitted. 

ASTEROIDS,  or  PLANETOIDS,  a 
numerous  group  of  very  small  planets 
revolving  round  the  sun  between  the 
orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  remarkable 
for  the  eccentricity  of  their  orbits  and 
the  large  size  of  their  angle  of  inclina- 
tion to  the  ecliptic.  The  diameter  of 
the  largest  is  not  supposed  to  exceed 
450  miles,  while  most  of  the  others  are 
very  much  smaller.  They  number  over 
400,  and  new  mpmbers  are  being  con- 
stantly discovered.  Ceres,  the  first  of 
them,  was  discovered  1st  January,  1801, 
and  within  three  years  more  Pallas, 
Juno,  and  Vesta  were  seen.  The  extraor- 
dinary smallness  of  these  bodies,  and 
their  nearness  to  each  other,  gave  rise 
to  the  opinion  that  they  were  but  the 
fragments  of  a planet  that  had  formerly 
existed  and  had  been  brought  to  an  end 
by  some  catastrophe.  For  nearly  forty 
years  investigations  were-  carried  on, 
but  no  more  planets  were  discovered 
till  8th  December,  1845,  when  a fifth 
planet  in  the  same  region  was  dis- 
covered. The  rapid  succession  of  dis- 
coveries that  followed  was  for  a time 
taken  as  a corroborfftion  of  the  dis- 
ruptive theory,  but  the  breadth  of  the 


ASTHMA 


ASTRONOMY 


zone  occupied  makes  the  hypothesis  of 
a shattered  planet  more  than  doubtful. 
Their  mean  distances  from  the  sun  vary 
between  200,000,000  and  300,000,000 
miles;  the  periods  of  revolution  be- 
tween 1191  days  (Flora)  and  2868 
(Hilda).  Their  eccentricities  and  in- 
clinations are  on  the  average  greater 
than  those  of  the  earth,  but  their  total 
mass  does  not  exceed  one-fourth  that 
of  the  earth. 

ASTHMA  (ast'ma),  difficulty  of  respi- 
ration, returning  at  intervals,  with  a 
sense  of  stricture  across  the  chest  and 
in  the  lungs,  a wheezing,  hard  cough  at 
first,  but  more  free  toward  the  close 
of  each  paroxysm,  with  a discharge  of 
mucus,  followed  by  a remission.  Asth- 
ma is  essentially  a spasm  of  the  mus- 
cular tissue  which  is  contained  in  the 
smaller  bronchial  tubes,  bt  generally 
attacks  persons  advanced  in  years,  and 
seems,  in  some  instances,  to  be  hered- 
itary. The  exciting  causes  are  various 
— accumulation  of  blood  or  viscid  mucus 
in  the  lungs,  noxious  vapors,  a cold  and 
foggy  atmosphere,  or  a close,  hot  air, 
flatulence,  accumulated  fteces,  violent 
passions,  organic  diseases  in  the  tho- 
racic viscera,  etc.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  treatment  consists 
in  the  obviating  or  removing  the  several 
exciting  causes.  It  seldom  proves  fatal 
except  as  inducing  dropsy,  consump- 
tion, etc. 

ASTIG'MATISM,  a malformation,  con- 
genital or  accidental,  of  the  lens  of  the 
eye,  in  consequence  of  which  the  indi- 
vidual does  not  see  objects  in  the  same 

?lane,  although  they  may  really  be  so. 

t is  due  to  the  degree  of  convexity  of 
the  horizontal  and  vertical  meridians 
being  different,  so  that  corresponding 
rays,  instead  of  converging  into  one 
point,  meet  at  two  foci. 


ASTOR,  John  Jacob,  born  near 
Heidelberg,  Germany,  1763;  died  at 
New  York  1848.  In  1783  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States,  settled  at  New 
York,  and  became  extensively  engaged 
in  the  fur  trade.  In  1811  the  settlement 
of  Astoria,  founded  by  him,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  was 
formed  to  serve  as  a central  depot  for 
the  fur  trade  between  the  lakes  and  the 


Pacific.  He  subsequently  engaged  in 
various  speculations,  ana  died  worth 
130,000,000,  leaving  $350,000  to  found 
the  Astor  Library  in  New  York.  This 
institution  is  contained  in  a splendid 
building,  enlarged  in  1859  at  the  cost  of 
his  son,  and  comprises  about  260,000 
volumes. 

ASTOR,  John  Jacob,  an  American 
millionaire,  and  fourth  of  that  name. 
Born  in  New  York  in  1864.  Died  1890. 

ASTOR,  William  Waldorf,  a famous 
millionaire,  born  in  New  York  in  1848, 
and  great-grandson  of  the  first  John 
Jacob  Astor.  Defeated  as  a candidate 
for  congress  in  1881,  he  was  American 
minister  to  Italy  from  1882  to  1885. 
In  1890  he  removed  to  England  and  be- 
came a British  subject.  His  income  is 
derived  from  a fortune  of  $200,000,000 
in  the  United  States. 

ASTRAKHAN  (as-tr^-A^n'),  a Russian 
city,  capital  of  government  of  same 
name,  on  an  elevated  island  in  the  Volga, 
about  30  miles  above  its  mouth  in  the 
Caspian,  communicating  with  the  oppo- 
site banks  of  the  river  by  numerous 
bridges.  Pop.  113,001,  composed  of 
various  races. — The  government  has 
an  area  of  85,000  square  miles.  It  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  two  vast  steppes, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Volga, 
and  forming  for  the  most  part  arid 
sterile  deserts.  Pop.  994,775. 

ASTRAKHAN,  a name  given  to  sheep- 
skins with  a curled  woolly  surface 
obtained  from  a variety  of  sheep  found 
in  Bokhara,  Persia,  and  Syria;  also  a 
rough  fabric  with  a pile  in  imitation  of 
this. 

ASTRAL  SPIRITS,  spirits  formerly 
believed  to  people  the  heavenly  bodies 
or  the  aerial  regions.  In  the  middle 
ages  they  were  variously  conceived  as 
fallen  angels,  souls  of  departed  men,  or 
spirits  originating  in  fire,  and  belonging 
neither  to  heaven,  earth,  nor  hell. 
Paracelsus  regarded  them  as  demoniacal 
in  character. 

ASTRIN'GENT,  a medicine  which 
contracts  the  organic  textures  and 
canals  of  the  body,  thereby  checking  or 
diminishing  excessive  discharges.  The 
chief  astringents  are  the  mineral  acids, 
alum,  lime-water,  chalk,  salts  of  copper, 
zinc,  iron,  lead,  silver;  and  among  vege- 
tables catechu,  kino,  oak-bark,  and  galls. 

ASTROL'OGY,  literally,  the  science 
or  doctrine  of  the  stars.  The  name  was 
formerly  used  as  equivalent  to  astron- 
omy, but  is  now  restricted  in  meaning 
to  the  pseudo-science  which  pretends 
to  enable  men  to  judge  of  the  effects  and 
influences  of  the  heavenly  bodies  on 
human  and  other  mundane  affairs,  and 
to  foretell  future  events  by  their  situa- 
tions and  conjunctions.  As  usually 
practiced  the  whole  heavens,  visible  and 
invisible,  was  divided  by  great  circles 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  called  houses. 
As  the  circles  were  supposed  to  remain 
immovable  every  heavenly  body  passed 
through  each  of  the  twelve  houses  every 
twenty-four  hours.  The  portion  of  the 
zodiac  contained  in  each  nouse  was  the 
part  to  which  chief  attention  was  paid, 
and  the  position  of  any  plant  was  settled 
by  its  distance  from  the  boundary  circle 
of  the  house,  measured  on  the  ecliptic. 
The  houses  had  different  names  and 
different  powers,  the  first  being  called 


the  house  of  life,  the  second  the  house  of 
riches,  the  third  of  brethren,  the  sixth 
of  marriage,  the  eighth  of  death,  and  so 
on.  The  part  of  the  heavens  about  to 
rise  was  cmled  the  ascendant,  the  planet 
within  the  house  of  the  ascendant  being 
the  lord  of  the  ascendant.  The  different 
aspects  of  the  planets  were  of  great 
importance.  To  cast  a person’s  nativity 
(or  draw  his  horoscope)  was  to  find  the 
position  of  the  heavens  at  the  instant  of 
his  birth,  which  being  done  the  astrolo- 
ger, who  knew  the  various  powers  and 
influences  possessed  by  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  planets,  could  predict 
what  the  course  and  termination  of  that 
person’s  life  would  be.  The  tempera- 
ment of  the  individual  was  ascribed  to 
the  planet  under  which  he  was  born,  as 
saturnine  from  Saturn,  jovial  from 
Jupiter,  mercurial  from  Mercury,  etc. — 
words  which  are  now  used  with  little 
thought  of  their  original  meaning.  The 
virtues  of  herbs,  gems,  and  medicines 
were  supposed  to  be  due  to  their  ruling 
planets. 

ASTRON'OMY  is  that  science  which 
investigates  the  motions,  distances, 
magnitudes,  and  various  phenomena 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  That  part  of 
the  science  which  gives  a description  of 
the  motions,  figures,  periods  of  revolu- 
tion, and  other  phenomena  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  is  called  descriptive 
astronomy;  that  part  which  teaches 
how  to  observe  the  motions,  figures, 
periodical  revolutions,  distances,  etc., 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  how  to  use 
the  necessary  instruments,  is  called 
practical  astronomy;  and  that  part 
which  explains  the  causes  of  their 
motions,  and  demonstrates  the  laws  by 
which  those  causes  operate,  is  termed 
physical  astronomy.  Recent  years  have 
added  two  new  fields  of  investigation 
which  are  full  of  promise  for  the  advance- 
ment of  astronomical  science.  The  first 
of  these — celestial  photography — has 
furnished  us  with  invaluable  light- 
pictures  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  other 
bodies,  and  has  recorded  the  existence 
of  myriads  of  stars  invisible  even  by 
the  best  telescopes;  while  the  second, 
spectrum  analysis,  now  at  work  in 
many  hands,  reveals  to  us  a knowledge 
of  the  physical  constituents  of  the 
universe,  telling  us  for  instance  that  in 
the  sun  (or  his  atmosphere)  there  exist 
many  of  the  elements  familiar  to  us  on 
the  earth.  It  has  also  been  applied  to 
the  determination  of  the  velocity  with 
which  stars  are  approaching  to,  or 
receding  from,  our  system;  and  to  the 
measurement  of  movements  taking  place 
within  the  solar  atmospheric  envelopes. 
From  analysis  of  some  of  the  unresolved 
nebulae  the  inference  is  drawn  that  they 
are  not  star-swarms  but  simply  cosmical 
vapor;  whence  a second  inference  results 
favorable  to  the  hypothesis  of  the  grad- 
ual condensation  of  nebulae,  and  the 
successive  evolutions  of  suns  and 
systems. 

The  most  remote  period  to  which  we 
can  go  back  In  tracing  the  history  of 
astronomy  refers  us  to  a time  about 
2500  B.C.,  when  the  Chinese  are  said  to 
have  recorded  the  simultaneous  con- 
junction of  Saturn,  Jupiter,  Mars,  and 
Mercury  with  the  moon.  The  Arabs 
began  to  make  scientific  astronomical 


ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


ATHENA 


observations  about  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century,  and  for  400  years  they 

firosecuted  the  science  with  assiduity. 
bn-Yunis  (1000  a.u)  made  important 
observations  of  the  disturbances  and 
eccentricities  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn. 
In  the  16th  century  Nicholas  Co- 
pernicus, born  in  1473,  introduced  the 
system  that  bears  liis  name,  and 
which  gives  to  the  sun  the  central  place 
in  the  solar  system,  and  shows  all  the 
other  bodies,  the  earth  included,  revolv- 
ing around  him.  This  arrangement  of 
the  universe  (see  Copernicus)  came  at 
length  to  be  generally  received  on  ac- 
count of  the  simplicity  it  substitued  for 
the  complexities  and  contradictions  of 
the  theory  of  Ptolemy.  The  observa- 
tions and  calculations  of  Tycho  Brahe,  a 
Danish  astronomer,  born  in  1546,  con- 
tinued over  many  years,  were  of  the 
highest  value,  and  claim  for  him  the 
title  of  regenerator  of  practical  astron- 
omy. His  assistant  and  pupil,  Kepler, 
born  in  1571„  was  enabled,  principally 
by  the  aid  he  received  from  his  master’s 
labors,  to  arrive  at  those  laws  which 
have  made  his  name  famous:  1.  That 
the  planets  move,  not  in  circular,  but 
in  elliptical  orbits,  of  v/hich  the  sun 
occupies  a focus.  2.  That  the  radius 
vector,  or  imaginary  straight  line  joining 
the  sun  and  any  planet,  moves  over 
equal  spaces  in  equal  times.  3.  That 
the  squares  of  the  times  of  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  planets  are  as  the  cubes  of 
their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 
Galileo,  who  died  in  1642,  advanced  the 
science  by  his  observations  and  by  the 
new  revelations  he  made  through  his 
telescopes,  which  established  the  truth 
of  the  Copernican  theory.  Newton, 
born  in  1642,  carried  physical  astronomy 
suddenly  to  comparative  perfection. 
The  splendid  analytical  researches  of 
Lalande,  Lagrange,  Delambre,  and  La- 
place, mark  the  same  period.  The 
19th  century  opened  with  the  dis- 
covery of  the  first  four  minor  planets; 
and  the  existence  of  another  planet 
(Neptune),  more  distant  from  the  sun 
than  Uranus,  was,  in  1845,  simultane- 
ously and  independently  predicted  by 
Leverrier  and  Adams.  Of  late  years 
the  ^un  has  attracted  a number  of 
observers,  the  spectroscope  and  photo- 
graphy having  been  especially  fruitful 
in  this  field  of  investigation.  From 
recent  transit  observations  the  former 
calculated  distance  of  the  sun  has  been 
corrected,  and  is  now  given  as  92,560,- 
000  miles.  An  interesting  recent  dis- 
covery is  that  of  the  two  satellites  of 
Mars.  The  existence  of  an  intra- 
Mercurial  planet,  which  has  been  named 
Vulcan,  has  not  yet  been  verified.  Much 
valuable  work  has  of  late  been  accom- 
plished in  ascertaining  the  parallax  of 
fixed  stars. 

The  objects  with  which  astronomy 
has  chiefly  to  deal  are  the  earth,  the  sun, 
the  moon,  the  planets,  the  fixed  stars, 
comets,  nebulae,  and  meteors.  The 
stellar  universe  is  composed  of  an 
unknown  host  of  stars,  many  millions 
in  number,  the  most  noticeable  of  which 
have  been  formed  into  groups  called 
constellations.  The  nebula;  are  cloud- 
like patches  of  light  scattered  all  over 
the  heavens.  Some  of  them  have  been 
resolved  into  star-clusters,  but  many  of 


them  are  but  masses  of  incandescent 
gas.  The  observation  of  meteors  has 
recently  attracted  much  attention. 
They  most  frequently  occur  in  the 
autumn,  and  have  been  supposed  to  be 
the  debris  of  comets.  See  articles  Earth, 
Sun,  Moon,  Planet,  Comet,  Stars,  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Asteroids,  etc. 

ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY,  the  art  of 

photographing  heavenly  bodies.  It  has 
been  particularly  useful  in  bringing  out 
nubulse,  stars,  star-clusters,  and  other 
bodies  of  that  kind  which  remain  invis- 
ible in  the  most  powerful  telescopes. 
Several  important  discoveries  have 
been  made  by  the  use  of  the  camera. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the 

Elanet  Eros,  the  earth’s  nearest  neigh- 
or  (excepting  the  moon),  and  a number 
of  comets.  Various  large  observatories 
in  all  countries  are  now  engaged  in 
making  a complete  atlas  of  'all  the  stars 
down  to  the  1 1 th  magnitude  by  means  of 
the  photographic  camera. 

AS'WAIL,  the  native  name  for  the 
sloth-bear  of  the  mountains  of  India, 
an  uncouth,  unwieldy  animal,  with  very 
long  black  hair,  inoffensive  when  not 
attacked. 

ASY'LUM,  a sanctuary  or  place  of 
refuge,  where  criminals  and  debtors 
sheltered  themselves  from  justice,  and 
from  which  they  could  not  be  taken 
without  sacrilege.  Temples  were  an- 
ciently asylums,  as  were  Christain 
churches  in  later  times.  (See  Sanc- 
tuary.) The  term  is  now  usually  ap- 
plied to  an  institution  for  receiving, 
maintaining,  and,  so  far  as  possible, 
ameliorating  the  condition  of  persons 
laboring  under  certain  bodily  defects  or 
mental  maladies;  sometimes  also  a 
refuge  for  the  unfortunate. 

ATACAMA  (a-ta-ka'm^i),  a desert 
region  on  the  west  coast  of  S.  America 
belonging  to  Chile,  comprised  partly  in 
the  province  of  Atacama,  partly  in  the 
territory  of  Antofagasta.  It  forms  the 
chief  mining  district  of  Chile,  there  being 
here  rich  silver  mines,  while  gold  is  also 
found,  as  well  as  argentiferous  lead, 
copper,  nickel,  cobalt,  and  iron;  with 
guano  on  the  coast.  The  northern 
portion  till  recently  belonged  to  Bolivia. 
The  Chilean  province  of  Atacama  has 
an  area  of  39,000  sq.  miles  and  a pop. 
of  84,000. 

ATACA'MITE,  a mineral  consisting  of 
a combination  of  the  protoxide  and 
chloride  of  copper,  occurring  abundantly 
in  some  parts  of  South  America,  as  at 
Atacama,  whence  it  has  its  name.  It  is 
worked  as  an  ore  in  South  America,  and 
is  exported  to  the  United  States. 

ATALAN'TA,  in  the  Greek  mythol- 
ogy, a famous  huntress  of  Arcadia. 
Slie  was  to  be  obtained  in  marriage  only 
by  him  who  could  outstrip  her  in  a race, 
the  consequence  of  failure  being  death. 
One  of  her  suitors  obtained  from  Aphro- 
dite (Venus)  three  golden  apples,  which 
he  threw  behind  him,  one  after  another, 
as  he  ran.  Atalanta  stopped  to  pick 
them  up,  and  was  not  unwillingly  de- 
feated. There  was  another  Atalanta 
belonging  to  Boeotii,  who  cannot  very 
well  D^e  distinguished,  the  same  stories 
being  told  about  both. 

AT'AVISM,  in  biology,  the  tendency  to 
reproduce  the  ancestral  type  in  animals 


or  plants  which  have  become  consider- 
ably modified  lay  breeding  or  cultivation; 
the  reversion  of  a descendant  to  some 
peculiarity  of  a more  or  less  remote 
ancestor. 

ATAXY,  ATAXIA,  in  medicine,  irreg- 
ularity in  the  animal  functions,  or  in 
the  symptoms  of  a disease.  See  Loco- 
motor ataxia. 

ATCH'ISON,  a city  of  Kansas,  on 
the  Missouri  river,  about  30  miles 
from  Leavenworth,  an  important  rail- 
way center,  with  an  increasing  trade. 
Pop.  18,785. 

ATHABAS'CA,  a river,  lake,  and  dis- 
trict of  Canada.  The  Athabasca  river 
rises  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  the  district  of  Alberta, 
flows  in  a n.e.  direction  through  the 
district  of  the  same  name,  and  falls  into 
Lake  Athabasca  after  a course  of  about 
600  miles. — Lake  Athabasca,  or  Lake  of 
the  Hills,  is  about  190  miles  s.s.e.  of 
the  Great  Slave  Lake,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  means  of  the  Slave  river, 
a continuation  of  the  Peace.  It  is  about 
200  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west, 
and  about  35  miles  wide  at  the  broadest 
part,  but  gradually  narrows  to  a 
point  at  either  extremity. — The  dis- 
trict of  Athabasca,  formed  in  1882,  lies 
immediately  e.  of  British  Columbia  and 
n.  of  Alberta;  area  about  251,300  sq. 
miles.  It  is  intersected  by  the  Atha- 
basca and  the  Peace  river,  and 
as  yet  has  a scanty  population.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  a family  of 
Indians. 

A'THEISM,  the  disbelief  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a God  or  supreme  intelligent 
being;  the  doctrine  opposed  to  theism  or 
deism.  The  term  has  been  often  loosely 
used  as  equivalent  with  infidelity  gener- 
ally, with  deism,  with  pantheism,  and 
with  the  denial  of  immortality. 

ATH'ELING,  a title  of  honor  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  meaning  one  who  is 
of  noble  blood.  The  title  was  gradually 
confined  to  the  princes  of  the  blood 
royal,  and  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries 
is  used  exclusively  for  the  sons  or 
brothers  of  the  reigning  king. 

ATHE'NA,  or  ATHENE,  a Greek  god- 
dess, identified  by  the  Romans  with 
Minerva,  the  representative  of  the 
intellectual  powers;  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Metis  (that  is,  wisdom 
or  cleverness).  According  to  the  legend, 
which  is  perhaps  allegorical,  before  her 
birth  Zeus  swallowed  her  mother,  and 
Athena  afterwards  sprang  from  the 
head  of  Zeus  with  a mighty  war  shout 
and  in  complete  armor.  In  her  char- 
acter of  a wise  and  prudent  warrior  she 
was  contrasted  with  the  fierce  Ares 
(Mars).  In  the  wars  of  the  giants  she 
slew  Pallas  and  Enceladus.  She  is  also 
represented  as  the  patroness  of  the  arts 
of  peace.  The  sculptor,  the  architect,  and 
the  painter,  as  well  as  the  philosopher, 
the  orator,  and  the  poet,  considered  her 
their  tutelar  deity.  She  is  also  repre- 
sented among  the  healing  gods.  In  all 
these  representations  she  is  the  symbol 
of  the  thinking  faculty,  the  goddess 
of  wisdom,  science,  and  art.  As  a 
warrior  she  is  represented  completely 
armed,  her  head  covered  with  a gold 
helmet.  As  the  goddess  of  peaceful  arts 
she  appears  in  the  dress  of  a Grecian 
matron.  All  Attica,  but  particularly 


ATHENAEUM 


ATLANTA 


Athens,  was  sacred  to  her,  and  she  had 
numerous  temples  there. 

ATHEN.®'UM,  the  temple  of  Athena 
or  Minerva,  at  Athens,  frequented  by 
poets,  learned  men,  and  orators.  In 
modern  times  the  same  name  is  given 
to  literary  clubs  and  establishments  con- 
nected with  the  sciences. 

ATH'ENS,  anciently  the  capital  of 
Attica  and  center  of  Greek  culture,  now 
the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece. 


the  aid  of  the  architects  Ictinus  and 
Mnesicles  and  of  the  sculptor  Phidias 
the  Acropolis  was  perfected.  Covering 
the  whole  of  the  western  end  rose  the 
Propylsea,  of  Pentelic  marble  and  con- 
sisting of  a central  portico  with  two 
wings  in  the  form  of  Doric  temples. 
Within,  to  the  left  of  the  entrance, 
stood  the  bronze  statue  of  Athena 
Promachus,  and  beyond  it  the  Erech- 
theum,  containing  the  statue  of  Athena 


Athens— The  Acropolis  and  Areopagus. 


It  is  situated  in  the  central  plain  of 
Attica,  about  4 miles  from  the  Saronic 
Gulf  or  Gulf  of  .(Egina,  an  arm  of  the 
jEgean  Sea  running  in  between  the 
mainland  and  the  Peloponnesus.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  founded  about  1550 
B.c.  by  Cecrops,  the  mythical  Pelasgian 
hero,  and  to  have  borne  the  name 
Cecropia  until  under  Erechtheus  it 
received  the  name  of  Athens  in  honor 
of  Athene.  The  Acropolis,  an  irregular 


Polias;  while  to  the  right,  on  the  high- 
est part  of  the  Acropolis,  was  the  mar- 
ble Parthenon  or  temple  of  Athena,  the 
crowning  glory  of  the  whole.  About 
420  A.D.  paganism  was  totally  anni- 
hilated at  Athens,  and  when  Justinian 
closed  even  the  schools  of  the  philoso- 
phers, the  reverence  for  buildings  as- 
sociated with  the  names  of  the  ancient 
deities  and  heroes  was  lost.  The  Par- 
thenon was  turned  into  a church  of  the 


oval  crag  150  ft.  high,  with  a level  sum- 
mit 1000  feet  long  by  500  in  breadth, 
was  the  original  nucleus  of  the  city, 
which  according  to  tradition  was  ex- 
tended by  Theseus  when  Athens  became 
the  head  of  the  confederate  Attic  states. 
Under  Pericles  the  highest  point  of 
artistic  development  was  reached.  An 
Odeium  was  erected  on  the  east  of  the 
Dionysiac  theater  for  the  recitations  of 
rbapsodists  and  musicians;  and  with 


Virgin  Mary,  and  St.  George  stepped 
into  the  place  of  Theseus.  Finally,  in 
1456,  the  place  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks.  The  Parthenon  became  a mos- 
que, and  in  1687  was  greatly  damaged 
by  an  explosion  at  the  siege  of  Athens 
by  the  Venetians.  Enough,  however, 
remains  of  it  and  of  the  neighboring 
structures  to  abundantly  attest  the 
splendor  of  the  Acropolis;  while  of  the 
other  buildings  of  the  city  the  Theseum  • 


and  Hotologium,  or  Temple  of  the 
Winds,  are  admirably  preserved,  as  also 
are  the  Pnyx,  Panathenaic  stadium,  etc. 
Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the 
war  of  liberation  in  1821  the  Turks  sur- 
rendered Athens,  but  captured  it  again 
in  1826-27.  It  was  then  abandoned 
until  1830.  In  1835  it  became  the  royal 
residence,  and  made  rapid  progress. 
The  modern  city  mostly  lies  northward 
and  eastward  from  the  Acropolis,  and 
consists  mainly  of  straight  and  well- 
built  streets.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  royal  palace,  a stately 
building  with  a fagade  of  Pentelic  mar- 
ble (completed  1843),  the  university, 
the  academy,  public  library,  theater, 
and  obervatory.  The  university  was 
opened  in  1836,  and  has  3000  students. 
There  are  valuable  museums,  in  particu- 
lar the  National  Museum  and  that  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  which  embraces  the 
Schliemann  collection,  etc.  These  are 
constantly  being  added  to  by  excava- 
tions. There  are  four  foreign  archajo- 
logical  schools  or  institutes,  the  French, 
German,  American,  and  British.  Tram- 
ways have  been  made  in  the  principal 
streets,  and  the  city  is  connected  by 
railway  (6  miles)  with  its  port,  the 
Piraeus.  Pop.  128,735. 

ATHENS,  the  name  of  many  places  in 
the  U.  States,  the  chief  being  in  Georgia, 
and  containing  the  Georgia  University 
Pop.  10,245. 

ATHERTON,  Gertrude  Franklin,  an 
American  novelist  born  in  California  in 
1859.  She  is  the  author  of  several 
novels,  among  which  The  Aristocrats, 
The  Conqueror,  American  Wives  and 
English  Husbands,  and  Senator  North 
are  popular  in  America  and  England. 
She  removed  to  England  in  1895. 

ATHLETES  (ath'Iets),  combatants 
who  took  part  in  the  public  games  of 
Greece.  The  profession  was  an  honor- 
able one;  tests  of  birth,  position,  and 
character  were  imposed,  and  crowns, 
statues,  special  privileges,  and  pensions 
were  among  the  rewards  of  success. — 
Athletic  sports,  if  they  do  not  hold  such 
an  honorable  position  today  as  they  did 
in  antiquity,  are  still  practiced  with 
great  enthusiasm  and  excite  the  keen- 
est interest  in  their  patrons.  Among 
them  are  running,  jumping,  rowing, 
swimming,  baseball,  cricket,  football, 
wrestlings  throwing  the  hammer,  “put- 
ting” the  shot,  etc. 

ATKINSON,  Edward,  an  American 
economist,  born  in  Massachussetts  in 
1827.  He  was  for  many  years  engaged 
in  business,  and  meanwhile  was  a hard 
student  of  various  sciences.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  works  on  economic 
subjects  and  of  The  Science  of  Nutri- 
tion, which  has  run  through  several 
editions. 

ATKINSON,  George  Francis,  an  Amer- 
ican botanist  and  educator,  born  in 
Michigan  in  1854.  He  filled  several 
chairs  in  various  institutions  till  1892, 
when  he  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Cornell  University. 

ATLAN'TA,  a city  in  the  United 
States,  capital  of  Georgia,  on  an  elevated 
ridge,  7 miles  southeast  of  the  Chatta- 
hoochee river.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
way center;  carries  on  a large  trade  in 
grain,  paper,  cotton,  flour,  and  especially 
tobacco,  and  possesses  flour-mills,  paper- 


ATLANTIC  CrrY 


ATMOSPHERE 


mills,  iron-works,  etc.  Here  are  Atlanta 
University  for  colored  male  and  female 
students,  a theological  college,  a medical 


State  Capitol,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

college,  etc.  Atlanta  suffered  severely 
during  the  civil  war.  Pop.  150,000. 

ATLANTIC  CITY,  a fashionable  water- 
ing-place on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey. 
Pop.  27,838.  During  the  summer  the 
transient  population  varies  between 
250,000  and  300,000. 

ATLANTIC  OCEAN,  the  vast  expanse 
of  sea  lying  between  the  west  coasts  of 
Europe  and  Africa  and  the  east  coasts 
of  North  and  South  America,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic 
Ocean;  greatest  breadth,  between  the 
west  coast  of  northern  Africa  and  the 
cast  coast  of  Florida,  4150  miles;  least 
breadth,  between  Norway  and  Green- 
land, 930  miles;  superficial  extent, 
25,000,000  square  miles.  The  principal 
inlets  and  bays  are  Baffin’s  and  Hud- 
son’s Bays,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea,  the  North  Sea  or  German 
Ocean,  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea.  The  principal  islands  north 
of  the  equator  are  Iceland,  the  Faroe 
and  British  Islands,  the  Azores,  Canaries, 
and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  Newfound- 
land, Cape  Breton,  and  the  West  India 
Islands;  and,  south  of  the  equator. 
Ascension,  St.  Helena,  and  Tristan  da 
Cun  ha. 

The  great  currents  of  the  Atlantic  are 
the  Equatorial  Current  (divisible  into 
the  Main,  Northern,  and  Southern 
Equatorial  Currents),  the  Gulf-stream, 
the  North  African  and  Guinea  Current, 
the  Southern  Connecting  Current,  the 
Southern  Atlantic  Current,  the  Cape 
Horn  Current,  Rennel’s  Current,  and 
the  Arctic  Current.  The  current  system 
is  primarily  set  in  motion  by  the  trade- 
winds  which  drive  the  water  of  the 
intertropical  region  from  Africa  toward 
the  American  coasts.  The  Main  Equa- 
torial Current,  passing  across  the  Atlan- 
tic, is  turned  by  the  S.  American  coast, 
along  which  it  runs  at  a rate  of  30  to  50 
miles  a day,  till,  having  received  part 
of  the  North  Equatorial  Current,  it 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Issuing 
thence  between  Florida  and  Cuba  under 
the  name  of  the  Gulf-stream,  it  flows 
with  a gradually  expanding  channel 
nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  United 
States.  It  then  turns  northeastward 
into  the  mid-Atlantic,  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  it  passing  southward  to  the 
east  of  the  Azores  to  swell  the  North 
African  and  Guinea  Current  created  by 
the  northerly  winds  off  the  Portuguese 
coast.  The  Guinea  Current,  which  takes 
a southerly  course,  is  divided  into  two 


on  arriving  at  the  region  of  the  northeast 
trades,  part  of  it  flowing  east  to  the 
Bight  of  Biafra  and  joining  the  South 
African  feeder  of  the  Main  Equatorial, 
but  the  larger  portion  being  carried 
westward  into  the  North  Equatorial 
drift.  Rennel’s  Current,  which  is  pos- 
sibly a continuation  of  the  Gulf-stream, 
enters  the  Bay  of  Biscay  from  the  west, 
curves  round  its  coast,  and  then  turns 
northwest  toward  Cape  Clear.  The 
Arctic  Current  runs  along  the  east  coast 
of  Greenland  (being  here  called  the 
Greenland  Current),  doubles  Cape  Fare- 
well, and  flows  up  toward  Davis’  Strait ; 
it  then  turns  to  the  south  along  the 
coasts  of  Labrador  and  the  United 
States,  from  which  it  separates  the 
Gulf-stream  by  a cold  band  of  water. 
Immense  masses  of  ice  are  borne  south 
by  this  current  from  the  Polar  seas. 
In  the  interior  of  the  North  Atlantic 
there  is  a large  area  comparatively  free 
from  currents,  called  the  Sargasso  Sea, 
from  the  large  quantity  of  seaweed 
which  drifts  into  it.  A similar  area 
exists  in  the  South  Atlantic.  In  the 
South  Atlantic,  the  portion  of  the 
Equatorial  Current  which  strikes  the 
American  coast  below  Cape  St. 
Roque  flows  southward  at  the  rate  of 
from  12  to  20  miles  a day  along  the 
Brazil  coast  under  the  name  of  the 
Brazil  Current.  It  then  turns  eastward 
and  forms  the  South  Connecting  Cur- 
rent, which,  on  reaching  the  South 
African  coast,  turns  northward  into  the 
Main  and  Southern  Equatorial  Currents. 
Besides  the  surface  currents,  an  under 
current  of  cold  water  flows  from  the 
poles  to  the  equator,  and  an  upper 
current  of  warm  water  from  the  equator 
toward  the  poles. 

The  greatest  depth  as  yet  discovered 
is  north  of  Porto  Rico,  in  the  West 
Indies,  namely  27,360  feet.  Cross- 
sections  of  the  North  Atlantic  between 
Europe  and  America  show  that  its  bed 
consists  of  two  great  valleys  lying  in  a 
north-and-south  direction,  and  sepa- 
rated by  a ridge,  on  which  there  is  an 
average  depth  of  1600  or  1700  fathoms, 
while  the  valleys  on  either  side  sink 
to  the  depth  of  3000  or  4000  fathoms. 
A ridge,  called  the  Wyville-Thomson 
Ridge,  with  a depth  of  little  more  than 
200  fathoms  above  it,  runs  from  near 
the  Butt  of  Lewis  to  Iceland,  cutting 
off  the  colder  water  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
from  the  warmer  water  of  the  Atlantic. 
The  South  Atlantic,  of  which  the  great- 
est depth  yet  found  is  over  3000  fathoms, 
resembles  the  North  Atlantic  in  having 
an  elevated  plateau  or  ridge  in  the 
center  with  a deep  trough  on  either  side. 
The  saltness  and  specific  gravity  of  the 
Atlantic  gradually  diminish  from  the 
tropics  to  the  poles,  and  also  from 
within  a short  distance  of  the  tropics  to 
the  equator.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
the  British  Isles  the  salt  has  been  stated 
at  one  thirty-eighth  of  the  weight  of  the 
water.  The  North  Atlantic  is  the 
greatest  highway  of  ocean  traffic  in  the 
world.  It  is  also  a great  area  of  sub- 
marine communication,  by  means  of  the 
telegraphic  cables  that  are  laid  across 
its  bed. 

AT'LAS,  an  extensive  mountain  sys- 
tem in  North  Africa,  starting  near  Cape 
Nun  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  traversing 


Morocco,  Algiers,  and  Tunis,  and  ter- 
minating on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean; divided  generally  into  two 
parallel  ranges,  running  w.  to  e.,  the 
Greater  Atlas  lying  toward  the  Sahara 
and  the  Lesser  Atlas  toward  the  Med- 
iterranean. The  principal  chain  is  about 
1500  miles  long,  and  the  principal  peaks 
rise  above  or  approach  the  line  of  perpet- 
ual congelation ; Miltsin  in  Morocco  being 
11,400  feet  high,  and  Tizi  Likumpt  being 
13,150.  The  highest  elevation  is  per- 
haps Tizi  Tamyurt,  estimated  at  fully 
1 5,000  feet.  Silver,  antimony,  lead,  cop- 
per, iron,  etc.,  are  among  the  minerals. 
The  vegetation  is  chiefly  European  in 
character,  except  on  the  low  grounds 
and  next  the  desert. 

ATLAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  a Titan  whom  Zeus  condemned 
to  bear  the  vault  of  heaven. — The  same 
name  is  given  to  a collection  of  maps  and 
charts,  and  was  first  used  by  Gerard 
Mercator  in  the  16th  century,  the  figure 
of  Atlas  bearing  the  globe  being  given 
on  the  title-pages  of  such  works. 

ATONEMENT,  DAY  OF,  a Jewish  fast 
day  observed  on  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month.  Its  origin  goes  back 
to  the  Mosaic  law,  and  in  ancient  times 
it  was  observed  with  much  ceremony  in 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Today  the 
fast  of  the  atonement  is  kept  by  the 
orthodox  among  the  Jews,  who  do  with- 
out food  from  sunset  to  sunset,  the  fast 
being  accompanied  by  appropriate  serv- 
ices in  the  temple  of  the  congregation. 

AT'MOSPHERE,  primarily  the  gase- 
ous envelope  which  surrounds  the  earth; 
but  the  term  is  applied  to  that  of  any 
orb.  The  atmosphere  of  the  earth  con- 
sists of  a mass  of  gas  extending  to  a 
height  variously  estimated  at  from  45 
to  212  miles,  and  pressing  on  every  part 
of  the  earth’s  surface  with  a pressure  of 
about  15  (14‘73)  lbs.  per  square  inch. 
The  existence  of  this  atmospheric  pres- 
sure was  first  proved  by  Torriculli,  who 
thus  accounted  for  the  rush  of  a liquid 
to  fill  a vacuum,  and  who,  working  out 
the  idea,  produced  the  first  barometer. 
The  average  height  of  the  mercurial 
column  counterbalancing  the  atmos- 
pheric weight  at  the  sea-level  is  a little 
less  than  30  inches;  but  the  pressure 
varies  from  hour  to  hour,  and,  roughly 
speaking,  diminishes  geometrically  with 
the  arithmetical  increase  in  altitude. 
Of  periodic  variations  there  are  two 
maxima  of  daily  pressure  occurring, 
when  the  temperature  is  about  the  mean 
of  the  day,  and  two  minima,  when  it  is  at 
its  highest  and  lowest  respectively;  but 
the  problems  of  diurnal  and  seasonal 
oscillations  have  yet  to  be  fully  solved. 
The  pressure  upon  the  human  body  of 
average  size  is  no  less  than  14  tons,  but 
as  it  is  exerted  equally  in  all  directions 
no  inconvenience  is  caused  by  it.  It 
is  customary  to  take  the  atmospheric 
pressure  as  the  standard  for  measuring 
other  fluid  pressures;  thus  the  steam 
pressure  of  30  lbs.  per  square  inch  on  a 
boiler  is  spoken  of  as  a pressure  of  two 
atmospheres. 

The  atmosphere,  first  subjected  to 
analysis  by  Priestley  and  Scheele  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century,  con- 
sists of  a mixture  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  in  the  almost  constant  pro- 
portion of  20' 81  volumes  of  oxygen  to 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY 


ATROPOS 


79T9  volumes  of  nitrogen,  or,  by  weight, 
23'01  parts  of  oxygen  to  76'99  of  nitro- 
gen. The  gases  are  associated  together, 
not  as  a chemical  compound,  but  as  a 
mechanical  mixture.  Upon  the  oxygen 
present  depends  the  power  of  the  atmos- 
phere to  support  combustion  and  respira- 
tion, the  nitrogen  acting  as  a diluent  to 
prevent  its  too  energetic  action.  Be- 
sides these  gases,  the  air  contains  the 
recently-discovered  gas  argon,  aqueous 
vapor  in  variable  quantity,  ozone,  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  traces  of  ammonia, 
nitric  acid,  and,  in  towns,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  sulphurous  acid  gas.  In 
addition  to  its  gaseous  constituents  the 
atmosphere  is  charged  with  minute  par- 
ticles of  organic  and  inorganic  matter. 

ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY.  See 
Pneumatic  Despatch. 

ATOLL',  the  Polynesian  name  for  coral 
islands  of  the  ringed  type  inclosing  a 
lagoon  in  the  center.  They  are  found 


Bird’s-eye  view  of  an  atoll. 


chiefly  in  the  Pacific  in  archipelagoes, 
and  occasionally  are  of  large  size. 
Suadiva  Atoll  is  44  miles  by  34 ; Rimsk j' 
is  54  by  20.  See  Coral. 

ATOM,  until  the  last  decade  supposed 
to  be  the  smallest  particle  of  matter  in 
existence,  but  since  the  wonderful  dis- 
coveries of  Becquerel  and  Thomson, 
regarded  as  a whole  universe  in  itself. 
Recent  theories  and  discoveries  re- 
garding the  nature  of  the  atom  have 
so  altered  the  views  of  scientists  that 
today  it  is  believed  that  in  the  future 
man  w.ill  be  able  to  replace  all  kinds  of 
power  in  industry  and  elsewhere  with 
a force  so  great  that  a reservoir  a foot 
or  so  big  will  generate  enough  power  to 
run  a railroad  train  or  a steamship;  and 
of  such  infinite  quantity  that  the  bare 
contemplation  of  it  staggers  the  intel- 
lect. These  discoveries  lead  to  the 
conviction  that  matter  comes  into 
existence  out  of  force  and  goes  back 
again  into  force;  in  other  words,  that 
the  universe  did  not  exist  as  matter  at 
one  time,  and  that  the  time  will  come 
when  it  will  cease  to  exist  as  matter,  but 
that  the  universal  force  will  still  con- 
tain the  potentiality  of  issuing  in 
matter,  and  so  on  forever. 

The  atom  of  the  chemists,  then,  has 
been  changed  into  a marvelous  world  of 
electromagnetic  energy,  which  is  made 
up  of  bodies  so  small  as  to  be  simply 
inconceivable.  The  atom  itself  is  so 
small  that  countless  billions  of  them 
are  required  to  make  up  the  smallest 
visible  bit  of  matter;  and  in  one  of 
these  atoms  exist  thousands  of  these 
smaller  bodies,  called  “corpuscles”  by 
the  English  physicists  and  “electrons” 
by  the  French  school.  The  atom 
breaks  down,  or  disintegrates,  when 
the  electrons  composing  it  are  at- 


tracted to  other  corpuscles  to  form  new 
atoms.  This  implies  that  the  old  idea 
that  the  elements  were  the  simplest  bod- 
ies is  false.  The  energy  bound  up  in  a 
cubic  inch  of  iron,  or  any  other  element, 
is  so  vast  that  it  cannot  bo  imagined. 
If  all  the  atoms  in  a cubic  inch  of  iron 
were  dissociated,  or  broken  up,  the 
power  obtained  would  be  enormous. 
If  man  could  once  discover  a way  of 
producing  and  controlling  such  a disin- 
tegration, the  effect  on  human  society 
could  not  be  pictured  by  the  most 
gigantic  imagination.  Scientists  every- 
where are  working  on  this  problem  and 
the  great  secret  may  be  discovered 
at  any  time. 

ATOMIC  THEORY,  a theory  as  to  the 
existence  and  properties  of  atoms  (see 
Atoms);  especially,  in  chemistry,  the 
theory  accounting  for  the  fact  that  in 
compound  bodies  the  elements  combine 
in  certain  constant  proportions,  by 
assuming  that  all  bodies  are  composed 
of  ultimate  atoms,  the  weight  of  which 
is  different  in  different  kinds  of  matter. 
It  is  associated  with  the  name  of  Dalton, 
who  systematized  and  extended  the 
imperfect  results  of  his  predecessors. 
On  its  practical  side  the  atomic  theory 
asserts  three  Laws  of  Combining  Pro- 
portions: (1)  The  Law  of  Constant  or 
Definite  Proportions,  teaching  that  in 
every  chemical  compound  the  nature 
and  proportion  of  the  constituent  ele- 
ments are  definite  and  invariable;  thus 
water  invariably  consists  of  8 parts  by 
weight  of  oxygen  to  1 part  by  weight 
of  hydrogen;  (2)  The  Law  of  Combi- 
nation in  Mutiple  Proportions,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  several  proportions  in 
which  one  element  unites  with  another 
invariably  bear  toward  each  other  a 
simple  relation;  thus  1 part  by  weight 
of  hydrogen  unites  with  8 parts  by 
weight  of  oxygen  to  form  water,  and 
with  16  parts  (i.e.  8X2)  parts  of  oxygen 
to  form  peroxide  of  hydrogen;  (3)  The 
Law  of  Combination  in  Reciprocal  Pro- 
portions, that  the  proportions  in  which 
two  elements  combine  with  a third  also 
represent  the  proportions  in  which,  or 
in  some  simple  multiple  of  which,  they 
will  themselves  combine;  thus  in  ole- 
fiant gas  hydrogen  is  present  with  car- 
bon in  the  proportion  of  1 to  6,  and  in 
carbonic  oxide  oxygen  is  present  with 
carbon  in  the  proportion  of  8 to  6 ;1  to  8 
being  also  the  proportions  in  which 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  combine  with 
each  other.  The  theory  that  these 
proportional  numbers  are,  in  fact,  noth- 
ing else  but  the  relative  weights  of 
atoms  so  far  accounts  for  the  phenomena 
that  the  existence  of  these  laws  might 
have  been  predicted  by  the  aid  of  the 
atomic  hypothesis  long  before  they  were 
actually  discovered  by  analysis.  In 
themselves,  however,  the  laws  do  not 
prove  the  theoiy  of  the  existence  of 
ultimate  particles  of  matter  of  a certain 
relative  weight;  and  although  many 
chemists,  even  without  expressly  adopt- 
ing the  atomic  theory  itself,  have 
followed  Dalton  in  the  use  of  the  terms 
atom  and  atomic  weight,  in  preference  to 
proportion,  combining  proportion,  equiv- 
alent, and  the  like,  yet  in  using  the 
word  atom  it  should  be  held  in  mind 
that  it  merely  denotes  the  proportions  in 
which  elements  unite.  These  will  re- 


main the  same  whether  the  atomic 
hypothesis  which  suggested  the  employ- 
ment of  the  term  be  true  or  false.  Dal- 
ton supposed  that  the  atoms  of  bodies 
are  spherical,  and  invented  certain 
symbols  to  represent  the  mode  in  which 
he  conceived  they  might  combine 
together. 

ATOMISTS.  See  Atoms. 

ATOMS,  according  to  the  hypothesis 
of  some  philosophers,  the  primary  parts 
of  elementary  matter  not  further 
divisible.  The  principal  theorists  of 
antiquity  upon  the  nature  of  atoms 
were  Moschus  of  Sidon,  Leucippus 
(510  b.c.),  Democritus,  Epicurus,  and  Lu- 
cretius. These  philosophers  explained 
aU  phenomena  on  the  theory  of  the 
existence  of  atoms  possessing  various 
properties  and  motions,  and  are  hence 
sometimes  called  Atomists.  Among  the 
moderns,  Gassendi  illustrated  the  doc- 
trine of  Epicurus.  Descartes  formed 
from  this  his  system  of  the  vortices. 
Newton  and  Boerhaave  supposed  that 
the  original  matter  consists  of  hard, 
ponderable,  impenetrable,  inactive,  and 
immutable  particles,  from  the  variety 
in  the  composition  of  which  the  variety 
of  bodies  originates.  According  to 
Boscovich  every  atom  is  an  indivisible 
point  possessing  position,  mass,  and 
potential  force  or  capacity  for  attraction 
and  repulsion.  Upon  the  discovery  of 
Helmholtz  that  a vortex  in  a perfect 
liquid  possesses  certain  permanent  char- 
acteristics, Sir  W.  Thomson  (Lord 
Kelvin)  has  based  a theory  that  atoms 
are  vortices  in  a homogeneous,  incom- 
pressible, and  frictionless  fluid.  As  to 
chemical  atoms,  see  Atomic  Theory. 

ATONEMENT,  in  Christian  theology, 
the  special  work  of  Christ  effected  by 
his  life,  sufferings,  and  death.  The 
first  explicit  exposition  of  the  evangel- 
ical doctrine  of  the  atonement  is 
ascribed  to  Anselm,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  1093. 

AT'ROPHY,  a wasting  of  the  flesh 
due  to  some  interference  with  the 
nutritive  processes.  It  may  arise  from 
a variety  of  causes,  such  as  permanent, 
oppressive,  and  exhausting  passion.-;, 
organic  disease,  a want  of  proper  fouil 
or  of  pure  air,  suppurations  in  impor- 
tant organs,  copious  evacuations  <ff 
blood,  saliva,  semen,  etc.,  and  it  is  aUo 
sometimes  produced  by  poisons;  for 
example,  arsenic,  mercurjq  lead,  in 
miners,  painters,  gilders,  etc.  In  old 
age  the  whole  frame  except  the  heart 
undergoes  atrophic  change,  and  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  infancy  as  a 
consequence  of  improper,  unwholesome 
food,  exposure  to  cold,  damp,  or  impure 
air,  etc.  Single  organs  or  parts  of  the 
body  may  be  affected  irrespective  of  the 
general  state  of  nutrition;  thus  local 
atrophy  may  be  superinduced  by 
palsies,  the  pressure  of  tumors  upon 
the  nerves  of  the  limbs,  or  by  artificial 
pressure,  as  in  the  feet  of  Chinese 
Iti  dlos 

AT'ROPIN,  AT'ROPINE,  a crystal- 
line alkaloid  obtained  from  the  deadly 
nightshade.  It  is  very  poisonous,  and 
produces  persistent  dilatation  of  the 
pupil.  I 

AT'ROPOS,  the  eldest  of  the  Fates, 
who  cuts  the  thread  of  life  with  her 
shears. 


ATTACHE 


AUCKLAND 


ATTACHE  (at-a-sha'),  a junior  mem- 
ber of  the  diplomatic  service  attached 
to  an  embassy  or  legation. 

ATTACH'MENT,  in  English  law,  a 
taking  of  the  person,  goods,  or  estate 
by  virtue  of  a writ  or  precept.  It  is 
distinguished  from  an  aiTest  by  pro- 
ceeding out  of  a higher  court  by  precept 
or  writ,  whereas  the  latter  proceeds  out 
of  an  inferior  court  by  precept  only.  An 
arrest  lies  only  against  the  body  of  a 
man,  whereas  an  attachment  lies  often 
against  the  goods  only,  and  sometimes 
against  the  body  and  goods.  It  differs 
from  a distress  in  that  an  attachment 
does  not  extend  ,to  lands,  while  a dis- 
tress cannot  touch  the  body. 

ATTAIN'DER,  the  legal  consequences 
of  a sentence  of  death  or  outlawry  pro- 
nounced against  a person  for  treason  or 
felony,  the  person  being  said  to  be 
attainted.  It  resulted  in  forfeiture  of 
estate  and  “corruption  of  blood,”  ren- 
dering the  party  incapable  of  inheriting 
property  or  transmitting  it  to  heirs; 
but  these  results  now  no  longer  follow. 
Formerly  persons  were  often  subjected 
to  attainder  by  a special  bill  or  act 
passed  in  parliament. 

AT'TAR,  in  the  East  Indies,  a gene'ral 
term  for  a perfume  from  flowers;  in 
Europe  generally  used  only  of  the  attar 
or  otto  of  roses,  an  essential  oil  made 
from  the  hundredfleaved  or  cabbage- 
rose,  or  damask-rose,  or  musk-rose,  etc., 
100,000  roses  yielding  only  180  grains  of 
attar.  Cashmere,  Shiraz,  and  Damascus 
are  celebrated  for  its  manufacture,  and 
there  are  extensive  rose  farms  in  the 
valley  of  Kezanlik  in  Roumelia  and 
at  Ghazipur  in  Benares.  The  oil  is  at 
first  greenish,  but  afterwards  it  presents 
various  tints  of  green,  yellow,  and 
red.  It  is  concrete  at  all  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, but  becomes  liquid  about 
84°  Fahr.  It  consists  of  two  substances, 
a hydrocarbon  and  an  oxygenated  oil, 
and  is  frequently  adulterated  with  the 
oils  of  rhodium,  sandalwood,  and  gera- 
nium, with  the  addition  of  camphor  or 
spermaceti. 

ATTIC  , an  architectural  term  various- 
ly used.  An  Attic  base  is  a peculiar  kind 
of  base,  used  by  the  ancient  architects 
in  the  Ionic  order  and  by  Palladio  and 
some  others  in  the  Doric.  An  Attic  story 
is  a low  story  in  the  upper  part  of  a house 
rising  above  the  main  portion  of  the 
building.  In  ordinary  language  an 
attic  is  an  apartment  lighted  by  a 
window  in  the  roof. 

AT'TICA,  a state  of  ancient  Greece, 
the  capital  of  which,  Athens,  was  once 
the  first  city  in  the  world.  According  to 
traditioii  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
Attica  lived  in  a savage  manner  until 
the  time  of  Cecrops,  who  came,  b.c. 
1550,  with  a colony  from  Egypt,  taught 
them  all  the  essentials  of  civilization, 
and  founded  Athens.  The  period 
from  the  Persian  war  to  the  time  of 
Alexander  (b.c.  500  to  336)  was  most 
remarkable  for  the  development  of  the 
Athenian  constitution.  Attica  appears 
to  have  contained  a territory  of  nearly 
850  square  miles,  with  some  500,000 
inhabitants,  360,000  of  whom  were 
slaves,  while  the  inhabitants  of  the  city 
numbered  180,000.  Cimon  and  Pericles 
(b.c.  444)  raised  Athens  to  its  point  of 
greatest  splendor,  though  under  the  latter 


began  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which 
ended  with  the  conquest  of  Athens  by 
the  Lacedaemonians.  The  attempts  at 
revolt  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
were  crushed,  and  in  260  b.c.  Attica 
was  still  under  the  sway  of  Antigonus 
Gonatas,  the  Macedonian  king.  A 
period  of  freedom  under  the  shelter  of 
the  Achsean  League  then  ensued,  but 
their  support  of  Mithridates  led  in 
B.c.  146  to  the  subjugation  of  the 
Grecian  states  by  Rome.  After  the 
di  ision  of  the  Roman  Empire  Attica 
b(  ’onged  to  the  empire  of  the  East 
until  in  a.d.  396  it  was  conquered  by 
Alaric  the  Goth  and  the  country  dev- 
astated. Attica  now  forms  a nome  or 
province  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece, 
with  a population  of  255,978, 

AT'TILA,  the  famous  leader  of  the 
Huns,  was  the  son  of  Mundzuk,  and  the 
successor,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Bleda,  of  his  uncle  Rhuas.  The 
rule  of  the  two  leaders  extended  over  a 
great  part  of  northern  Asia  and  Europe, 
and  they  threatened  the  Eastern  Em- 
ire,  and  twice  compelled  the  weak 
heodosius  II.  to  purchase  an  inglorious 
peace.  Attila  caused  his  brother  Bleda 
to  be  murdered  (444),  and  in  a short 
time  extended  his  dominion  over  all  the 
peoples  of  Germany  and  exacted  tribute 
from  the  eastern  and  western  emperors. 
The  Vandals,  the  Ostrogoths,  the  Gepi- 
dae,  and  a part  of  the  Franks  united 
under  his  banners,  and  he  speedily 
formed  a pretext  for  leading  them 
against  the  Empire  of  the  East.  He  laid 
waste  all  the  countries  from  the  Black 
to  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  in  three  en- 
counters defeated  the  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius, but  could  not  take  Constantinople. 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Greece  all  sub- 
mitted to  the  invader,  who  destroyed 
seventy  flourishing  cities;  and  Theodo- 
sius was  obliged  to  purchase  a peace. 
Attila  went  back  to  Hungary,  and  died 
on  the  night  of  his  marriage  with  Hilda 
or  Ildico  (453),  either  from  the  bursting 
of  a blood-vessel  or  by  her  hand. 

ATTOR'NEY,  a person  appointed  to 
do  something  for  and  in  the  stead  and 
name  of  another.  An  attorney  may 
have  general  powers  to  act  for  another ; 
or  his  power  may  be  special,  and  limited 
to  a particular  act  or  acts.  A special 
attorney  is  appointed  by  a deed  called 
a power  or  letter  of  attorney,  specifying 
the  acts  which  he  is  authorized  to  do. 
An  attorney-at-law  is  a person  qualified 
to  appear  for  another  before  a court  of 
law  to  prosecute  or  defend  any  action 
on  behalf  of  his  client.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  attorney,  or  attorney- 
-at-law  is  used  to  designate  a practicing 
lawyer  of  any  kind.  Qualifications  for 
the  profession  are  fixed,  generally,  by 
statute.  The  attorney  must  have 
studied  law  either  in  a college  or  in  the 
offices  of  a lawyer,  must  pass  an  exami- 
nation, and  must  be  a man  of  good 
moral  character.  He  takes,  upon  ad- 
mission to  the  bar,  an  oath  that  he  will 
demean  himself  uprightly  and  will  sup- 
ort  the  constitution  of  the  United 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL,  in  the  United 
States  an  officer  of  the  president’s 
cabinet,  the  chief  of  the  law  depart- 
ment of  the  government.  He  receives 
a salary  of  $8000  a year.  The  attorney- 


general  of  the  several  states  has  a func- 
tion similar  to  that  of  his  federal  proto- 
type. 

ATTORNEY,  POWER  OF,  the  power 
given  by  one  person  to  another  enabling 
him  to  act,  generally  or  specifically,  as 
the  agent  of  the  principal. 

ATTORNEY,  WARRANT  OF,  author- 
ity given  to  a lawyer  to  appear  in  court 
as  representative  for  a client. 

ATTRAC'TION,  the  tendency  of  all 
material  bodies,  whether  masses  or 
particles,  to  approach  each  other,  to 
unite,  and  to  remain  united.  It  was 
Newton  that  first  adopted  the  theory 
of  a universal  attractive  force,  and 
determined  its  laws.  When  bodies  tend 
to  come  together  from  sensible  distances 
the  tendency  is  termed  either  t’le  at- 
traction of  gravitation,  magnetism,  or 
electricity,  according  to  circumstances; 
when  the  attraction  operates  at  insensi- 
ble distances  it  is  known  as  adhesion 
with  respect  to  surfaces,  as  cohesion 
with  respect  to  the  particles  of  a body, 
and  as  affinity  when  the  particles  of 
different  bodies  tend  together.  It  is  by 
the  attraction  of  gravitation  that  all 
bodies  fall  to  the  earth  when  unsup- 
ported. 

AT'TRIBUTE,  in  philosophy,  a qual- 
ity or  property  of  a substance,  as  white- 
ness or  hardness.  A substance  is  known 
to  us  only  as  a congeries  of  attributes. 
— In  the  fiile  arts  an  attribute  is  a sym- 
bol regularly  accompanying  and  mark- 
ing out  some  personage.  Thus  the 
caduceus,  purse,  winged  hat,  and  san- 
dals are  attributes  of  Mercury,  the 
trampled  dragon  of  St.  George. 

ATWOOD,  Charles  B.,  an  American 
architect,  born  in  1849,  died  in  1895. 
He  is  known  as  the  designer  of  the  Art 
Building  at  the  Chicago  World’s  Fair, 
and  of  W.  H.  Vanderbilt’s  residence  in 
New  York  City. 

AUBE  (6b),  a northeastern  French 
department;  area,  2351  sq.  miles;  pop. 
257,374.  The  surface  is  undulating, 
and  watered  by  the  Aube,  etc.  Troyes 
is  the  capital. — The  river  Aube,  which 
gives  name  to  the  department,  rises 
in  Haute-Marne,  flows  n.w.,  and  after 
a course  of  113  miles  joins  the 
Seine. 

AU'BURN,  the  name  of  many  places 
in  America,  the  chief  being  a city  of 
New  York  state,  at  the  north  end  of 
Owasco  Lake.  It  is  chiefly  famous  for 
its  state  prison,  large  enough  to  receive 
1000  prisoners.  In  the  town  or  vicinity 
various  manufactures  are  carried  on. 
Pop.  32,000. 

AUBURN,  a city,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Androscoggin  Co.,  Maine,  34 
miles  north  of  Portland,  on  the  Maine 
Central  and  Grand  Trunk  railroads. 
Pop.  12,951. 

AUCK'LAND,  a town  of  New  Zea- 
land, in  the  North  Island,  founded  in 
1840.  It  has  a large  and  increasing 
trade,  there  being  connection  with  the 
chief  places  on  the  island  by  rail,  and 
regular  communication  with  the  other 
ports  of  the  colony,  Australia,  and  Fiji 
by  steam.  It  was  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  colony.  Pop.,  (including  suburbs), 
67,226. — The  provincial  district  of 
Auckland  forms  the  northern  part  of 
North  Island,  with  an  area  of  25,746 
sq.  miles;  pop.  175,854. 


AUCKLAND  ISLANDS 


AUGUSTIN  1<: 


AUCKLAND  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
islands  about  180  miles  s.  of  New  Zea- 
land, discovered  in  1806,  and  belonging 
to  Britain.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin 


and  fertile;  and  the  largest,  which  is 
30  miles  by  15,  has  two  good  harbors. 
No  settled  inhabitants. 

AUCTION  is  a public  sale  to  the  party 
offering  the  highest  price  where  the 
buyers  bid  upon  each  other,  or  to  the 
bidder  who  first  accepts  the  terms  of- 
fered by  the  vendor  where  he  sells  by 
reducing  his  terms  until  some  one  ac- 
cepts them. 

AUDE  (6d),  a maritime  department 
in  the  s.  of  France;  area,  2437  sq.  miles; 
Carcassonne  is  the  capital;  other  towns 
are  Narbonne  and  Castelnaudary.  Pop. 
332,080. — The  river  Aude  rises  in  the 
eastern  Pyrenees,  and  flowing  nearly 
parallel  to  the  canal  du  Midi  falls  into 
the  Mediterranean,  after  a course  of  130 
miles. 

AU'DIPHONE,  an  acoustic  instru- 
ment by  means  of  which  deaf  persons 
are  enabled  to  hear.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a fan-shaped  plate  of  hardened 
caoutchouc,  which  is  bent  to  a greater 
or  less  degree  by  strings,  and  is  very 
sensitive  to  sound-waves.  When  used 
the  up  edge  is  pressed  against  the  upper 
front  teeth,  with  the  convexity  outward, 
and  the  sounds  being  collected  are  con- 
veyed from  the  teeth  to  the  auditory 
nerve  without  passing  through  the 
external  ear. 

AU'DIT,  an  examination  into  ac- 
counts or  dealings  with  money  or  prop- 
erty, along  with  vouchers  or  other 
documents  connected  therewith,  espe- 
cially by  proper  officers,  or  persons 
appointed  for  the  purpose.  Also  the 
occasion  of  receiving  the  rents  from  the 
tenants  on  an  estate. 

AUDITORY  NERVES.  See  Ear. 

AU'DUBON,  John  James,  an  Ameri- 
can naturalist  of  French  extraction, 
born  near  New  Orleans  in  1775.  In  1798 
he  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  but  having 
a great  love  for  ornithology  he  set  out 
in  1810  with  his  wife  and  child,  de- 
scended the  Ohio,  and  for  many  years 
roamed  the  forests  in  every  direction, 
drawing  the  birds  which  he  shot.  In 
1826  he  exhibited  his  drawings  in  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  and  Edinburgh,  and 
finally  published  them  in  an  unrivaled 
work  of  double-folio  size,  with  435 
colored  plates  of  birds  the  size  of  life 
(The  Birds  of  America,  4 vols.,  1827- 
39),  with  an  accompanying  text  (Orni- 
thological Biography,  5 vols.  8vo,  partly 
written  by  Prof.  Macgillivray).  On  his 
final  return  to  America  be  labored  with 


Dr.  Bachman  on  a finely  illustrated 
work  entitled  The  Quadrupeds  of 
America  (1843-50,  3 vols.).  He  died  at 
New  York  in  1851. 


AUGEAS  (a-je'as),  a fabulous  king  of 
Elis,  in  Greece,  whose  stable  contained 
3000  oxen,  and  had  not  been  cleaned  for 
thirty  years.  Hercules  undertook  to 
clear  away  the  filth  in  one  day  in  return 
for  a tenth  part  of  the  cattle,  and  exe- 
cuted the  task  by  turning  the  river 
Alpheus  through  it.  Augeas,  having 
broken  the  bargain,  was  deposed  and 
slain  by  Hercules. 

AUGER  (a'ger),  an  instrument  for 
boring  holes  considerably  larger  than 
those  bored  by  a gimlet,  used  by  car- 
penters and  joiners,  shipwrights,  etc. 

AUGITE  (a' jit),  or  PYROXENE,  a 
mineral  of  the  hornblende  family,  an 
essential  component  of  many  igneous 
rocks,  such  as  basalt,  greenstone,  and 
porphyry.  When  crystallized  it  assumes 
the  form  of  short,  slightly  rhombic 
prisms,  with  their  lateral  edges  replaced, 
and  terminated  at  one  or  both  extremi- 
ties by  numerous  planes. 


AUGSBURG  (ougz'bur/i),  a city  of  Ba- 
varia, at  the  junction  of  the  Wertach 
and  Lech.  Augsburg  was  a renowned 
commercial  center  in  the  middle  ages, 
and  is  still  an  important  emporium  of 
South  German  and  Italian  trade.  It 
early  took  a conspicuous  part  in  the 
Reformation.  In  1806  it  was  incor- 
porated in  Bavaria.  Pop.  88,700. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION,  a docu- 
ment which  was  presented  by  the  Prot- 


estants at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  15.3C 
to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  diet, 
and  being  signed  by  the  Protestant 
states  was  adopted  as  their  creed. 
Luther  made  the  original  draught;  but 
as  its  style  appeared  too  violent  it  was  , 
given  to  Melanchthon  for  amendment. 
The  original  is  to  be  found  in  the  im- 
perial Austrian  archives.  Afterwards 
Melanchthon  arbitrarily  altered  some 
of  the  articles,  and  there  arose  a division  » 
between  those  who  held  the  original  and 
those  who  held  the  altered  Augsburg 
Confession.  The  former  is  received  by 
the  Lutherans,  the  latter  by  the  German 
Reformed. 

AU'GUST,  the  eighth  month  froni<i 
January.  It  was  the  sixth  of  the  Roman 
year,  and  hence  was  called  Sextilis  till 
the  Emperor  Augustus  affixed  to  it  his 
own  name. 

AUGUS'TA,  capital  of  Maine,  United 
States,  on  the  river  Kennebec,  which  is 
crossed  by  a bridge  and  is  navigable  for 


gi 

State  Capitol,  Augusta,  Me. 

small  vessels  43  miles  from  its  mouth, 
while  a dam  enables  steamboats  to  ply 
for  20  miles  farther  up  and  furnishes 
immense  water-power.  Pop.  11,683. 

AUGUSTA,  the  capital  of  Richmond 
Co.,  Georgia,  United  States,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Savannah  river,  231  miles 
from  its  mouth;  well  built,  and  con- 
nected with  the  river  by  high-level 
canals;  an  important  manufacturing 
center,  having  cotton-mills,  machine- 
shops,  and  railroad  works,  etc.  Pop. 
39,441. 

AU'GUSTINE  (Aurelius  Augustinus), 
St.,  a renowned  father  of  the  Christian 
Church,  was  born  at  Tagaste,  in  Africa, 
in  354,  his  mother  Monica  being  a Chris- 
tian, his  father  Patricius  a Pagan.  Of 
his  various  works  his  Confessions  is  most 
secure  of  immortality.  He  died  August 
28,  430.  He  was  a man  of  great  en- 
thusiasm, self-devotion,  zeal  for  truth, 
and  powerful  intellect,  and  though  there 
have  been  fathers  of  the  church  more 
learned,  none  have  wielded  a more 
powerful  influence.  His  writings  are 
partly  autobiographical  (as  the  Con- 
fessions), partly  polemical,  homiletic,  or 
exegetical. 

AU'GUSTINE,  or  AUSTIN,  St.,  the  ' 
Apostle  of  the  English,  flourished  at  the 
close  of  the  6th  century,  was  sent  with 
forty  monks  by  Pope  Gregory  I.  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  into  Saxon  England, 


I.  .j.j.  ■■ 


AUGUSTUS 


AURELIUS  ANTONINUS 


and  was  kindly  received  by  Ethelbert, 
king  of  Kent,  whom  he  converted, 
baptizing  10,000  of  his  subjects  in  one 
day.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  tact 
and  success  Augustine  received  the 
archiepiscopal  pall  from  the  pope,  with 
instructions  to  establish  twelve  sees  in 
his  province,  but  he  could  not  persuade 
the  British  bishops  in  Wales  to  unite 
with  the  new  English  Church.  He  died 
in  604  or  605. 

AUGUS'TUS,  Caius  Julius  Caesar  Octa- 
vianus,  originally  called  Caius  Octavius, 
Roman  Emperor,  was  the  son  of  Caius 
Octavius  and  Atia,  a daughter  of  Julia, 
the  sister  of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  born 


63  B.C.,  and  died  a.d.  14.  Octavius  was 
at  Apollonia,  in  Epirus,  when  he  re- 
ceived news  of  the  death  of  his  uncle 
(b.c.  44),  who  had  previously  adopted 
him  as  his  son.  He  returned  to  Rome 
to  claim  Caesar’s  property  and  avenge 
his  death,  and  now  took,  according  to 
usage,  his  uncle’s  name  with  the  surname 
Octavianus.  He  was  aiming  secretly  at 
the  chief  power,  but  at  first  he  joined 
the  republican  party,  and  assisted  at 
the  defeat  of  Antony  at  Mutina.  He 
got  himself  chosen  consul  in  43.  Soon 
after  the  first  triumvirate  was  formed 
between  him  and  Antony  and  Lepidus, 
and  this  was  followed  by  the  conscrip- 
tion and  assassination  of  three  hundred 
senators  and  two  thousand  knights  of 
the  party  opposed  to  the  triumvirate. 
Next  year  Octavianus  and  Antony 
defeated  the  republican  army  under 
Brutus  and  CassiuS  at  Philippi.  The 
victors  now  divided  the  Roman  world 
between  them^  Octavianus  getting  the 
West,  Antony  the  East,  and  Lepidus 
Africa.  Sextus  Pompeius,  who  had 
made  himself  formidable  at  sea,  had 
now  to  be  put  down ; and  Lepidus,  who 
had  hitherto  retained  an  appearance  of 
power,  was  deprived  of  all  authority 
(b.c.  36)  and  retired  into  private  life. 
Antony  and  Octavianus  now  shared  the 
empire  between  them;  but  while  the 
former,  in  the  East,  gave  himself  up  to  a 
life  of  luxury,  and  alienated  the  Romans 
by  his  alliance  with  Cleopatra  and  his 
adoption  of  Oriental  manners,  Octavi- 
anus skilfully  cultivated  popularity, 
and  soon  declared  war  ostensibly  against 
the  Queen  of  Egypt.  The  naval  victory 
of  Actiunn  in  which  the  fleet  of  An- 
tony and  (Jleopatra  was  defeated,  made 
Octavianus  master  of  the  world,  b.c. 
31.  He  returned  to  Rome  b.c.  29,  cele- 
brated a splendid  triumph,  and  caused 

r.  K.— 7 


the  temple  of  Janus  to  be  closed  in 
token  of  peace  being  restored.  Gradu- 
ally all  the  highest  offices  of  state,  civil 
and  religious,  were  united  in  his  hands, 
and  the  new  title  of  Augustus  was  also 
assumed  by  him,  being  formally  con- 
ferred by  the  senate  in  b.c.  27.  Great 
as  was  the  power  given  to  him,  he  exer- 
cised it  with  wise  moderation,  and  kept 
up  the  show  of  a republican  form  of 
government.  He  adorned  Rome  in 
such  a manner  that  it  was  said,  “He 
found  it  of  brick,  and  left  it  of  marble.” 
The  people  erected  altars  to  him,  and, 
by  a decree  of  the  senate,  the  month 
Sextilis  was  called  Augustus  (our  Aug- 
ust). He  was  a patron  of  hterature ; Virgil 
and  Horace  were  befriended  by  him,  and 
their  works  and  those  of  their  contem- 
poraries are  the  glory  of  the  Augustan 
Age.  His  death,  which  took  place  at 
Nola,  plunged  the  empire  into  the  great- 
est grief. 

AUGUSTUS  II.,  or  FREDERICK- 
AUGUSTUS  I.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  second  son  of  John 
George  III.,  elector  of  Saxony,  was  born 
at  Dresden  in  1670,  died  at  Warsaw 
1733.  He  succeeded  his  brother  in  the 
electorate  in  1694,  and  the  Polish 
throne  having  become  vacant,  in  1696, 
by  the  death  of  John  Sobieski,  Augus- 
tus presented  himself  as  a candidate  for 
it  and  was  successful.  His  wife  left  him 
one  son.  The  Countess  of  Konigsmark 
bore  him  the  celebrated  commander 
Marshal  Saxe  (Maurice  of  Saxony). 

AUGUSTUS  III.,  or  FREDERICK- 
AUGUSTUS  II.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland,  son  of  Augustus  II., 
born  at  Dresden  1696,  succeeded  his 
father  as  elector  in  1733,  and  was  chosen 
King  of  Poland  through  the  influence 
of  Austria  and  Russia.  He  died  in  1763. 
His  son,  Frederick  Christian,  succeeded 
him  as  Elector  of  Saxony,  and  Stanis- 
laus Poniatowski  as  King  of  Poland. 

AUK,  a name  of  certain  swimming 
birds,  including  the  great  auk,  the  little 
auk,  the  puffin,  etc.  The  great  auk  or 
gair-fowl,  a bird  about  3 feet  in  length, 
used  to  be  plentiful  in  northerly  regions. 


Great  auk. 


and  also  visited  the  British  shores,  but 
has  become  extinct.  Some  seventy 
skins,  about  as  many  eggs,  with  bones 
representing  perhaps  a hundred  individ- 
uals, are  preserved  in  various  museums. 
Though  the  largest  species  of  the  family. 


the  wings  were  only  6 inches  from  the 
carpal  joint  to  the  tip,  totally  useless 
for  flight,  but  employed  as  fins  in  swim- 
ming, especially  under  water.  The  tail 
was  about  3 inches  long;  the  beak  was 
high,  short,  and  compressed;  the  head, 
neck,  and  upper  parts  were  blackish; 
a large  spot  under  each  eye,  and  most 


Razor-bill  auk. 


of  the  under  parts  white.  Its  legs  were 
placed  so  far  back  as  to  cause  it  to  sit 
nearly  upright.  The  razor-bill  is  about 
15  inches  in  length,  and  its  wings  are 
sufficiently  developed  to  be  used  for 
flight.  It  is  found  in  numbers  on  some 
parts  of  the  British  shores,  as  the  Isle  of 
Man. 

AURE'LIAN,  Lucius  Domitius  Aureli- 
anus.  Emperor  of  Rome,  of  humble 
origin,  was  born  about  212  a.d.,  rose 
to  the  highest  rank  in  the  army,  and 
on  the  death  of  Claudius  II.  (270)  was 
chosen  emperor.  He  delivered  Italy 
from  the  barbarians,  and  conquered  the 
famous  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra. 
He  followed  up  his  victories  by  the 
reformation  of  abuses,  and  the  restora- 
tion throughout  the  empire  of  order 
and  regularity.  He  lost  his  life,  a.d.  275, 
by  assassination,  when  heading  an  expe- 
dition against  the  Persians. 

AURE'LIUS  ANTONI'NUS,  Marcus, 
often  called  simply  Marcus  Aurelius, 
Roman  emperor  and  philosopher,  son- 
in-law,  adopted  son,  and  successor  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  born  a.d.  121,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  161,  died  180.  He 
voluntarily  shared  the  government  with 
Lucius  Verus,  whom  Antoninus  Pius 
had  also  adopted.  Brought  up  and  in- 
structed by  Plutarch’s  nephew,  Sextus, 
the  orator  Herodes  Atticus,  and  L. 
Volusius  Mecianus,  the  jurist,  he  had 
become  acquainted  with  learned  men, 
and  formed  a particular  love  for  the 
Stoic  philosophy.  A war  with  Parthia 
broke  out  in  the  year  of  his  accession,  and 
did  not  terminate  till  166.  A confed- 
eracy of  the  northern  tribes  now  threat- 
ened Italy,  while  a frightful  pestilence, 
brought  from  the  East  with  the  army, 
raged  in  Rome  itself.  Both  emperors 
set  out  in  person  against  the  rebellious 
tribes.  In  169  Verus  died,  and  the 
sole  command  of  the  war  devolved  on 
Marcus  Aurelius,  who  prosecuted  it  with 
the  utmost  rigor,  and  nearly  extermi- 
nated the  Marcomanni.  After  this  vic- 
tory the  Marcomanni,  the  Quadi,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  the  barbarians,  sued 
for  peace.  The  sedition  of  the  Syrian 
governor  Avidius  Cassius,  with  whom 
Faustina,  the  empress,  was  in  treason- 
able communication,  called  off  the 
emperor  from  his  conquests,  but  before 
he  reached  Asia  the  rebel  was  assassi- 
nated. Aurelius  returned  to  Rome, 


AURENZLEBE 


AUSTRALIA 


after  visiting  Egypt  and  Greece,  but 
soon  new  incursions  of  the  Marcomanni 
compelled  him  once  more  to  take  the 
field.  He  defeated  the  enemy  several 
times,  but  was  taken  sick  at  Sirmium, 
and  died  at  Vindobona  (Vienna)  in  180. 
His  only  extant  work  is  the  Meditations, 
written  in  Greek,  and  which  has  been 
translated  into  most  modern  languages. 
This  may  be  regarded  as  a manual  of 
practical  morality,  in  which  wisdom, 
gentleness,  and  benevolence  are  com- 
bined in  the  most  fascinating  manner. 
Many  believe  it  to  have  been  intended 
for  the  instruction  of  his  son  Commodus. 
Aurelius  was  one  of  the  best  emperors 
ever  Rome  saw,  although  his  philosophy 
and  the  magnanimity  of  his  character 
did  not  restrain  him  from  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Christians,  whose  religious 
doctrines  he  was  led  to  believe  were  sub- 
versive of  good  government. 

AU'RENGZEBE  (-zeb),  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Mogul  emperors  of  Hin- 
dustan, born  in  Oct.,  1618  or  1619.  In 
his  twentieth  year  he  raised  a body  of 
troops  by  his  address  and  good  fortune, 
and  obtained  the  government  of  the 
Deccan.  He  murdered  his  relatives  one 
after  the  other,  and  in  1659  ascended  the 
throne.  Two  of  his  sons,  who  endeavored 
to  form  a party  in  their  own  favor,  he 
caused  to  be  arrested  and  put  to  death 
by  slow  poison.  He  carried  on  many 
wars,  conquered  Golconda  and  Bijapur, 
and  drove  out,  by  degrees,  the  Mahrattas 
from  their  country.  After  his  death  in 
1707  the  Mogul  Empire  declined. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION.  See  Con- 
fession 

AURO'RA,  in  classical  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  the  dawn,  daughter  of 
Hyperion  and  Theia,  and  sister  of  Helios 
and  Selene  (Sun  and  Moon).  She  was 
represented  as  a charming  figure,  “rosy- 
iingered,”  clad  in  a yellow  robe,  rising 
;'t  dawn  from  the  ocean  and  driving  her 
chariot  through  the  heavens. 

AURO'RA,  a city  of  Kane  Co.,  Illinois, 


on  the  Fox  river,  40  miles  w.  by  s.  of 
Chicago;  it  has  flourishing  manufac- 
tories, railway  works,  and  a considerable 
trade.  Pop.  21,000. 


AURO'RA  BOREA'LIS,  a luminous 

meteoric  phenomenon  appearing  in  the 
north,  most  frequently  in  irigh  latitudes, 
the  corresponding  phenomenon  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  being  called  Aurora 
Australis,  and  both  being  also  called 
Polar  Light,  Streamers,  etc.  The  north- 
ern aurora  has  been  far  the  more  ob- 
served and  studied.  It  usually  mani- 
fests itself  by  streams  of  light  ascending 
toward  the  zenith  from  a dusky  line 
of  cloud  or  haze  a few  degrees  above  the 
horizon,  and  stretching  from  the  north 
toward  the  west  and  east,  so  as  to  form 
an  arc  with  its  ends  on  the  horizon,  and 
its  different  parts  and  rays  are  con- 
stantly in  motion.  Sometimes  it  appears 
in  detached  places;  at  other  , times  it 
almost  covers  the  whole  sky.  It  as- 
sumes many  shapes  and  a variety  of 
colors,  from  a pale  red  or  yellow  to  a 
deep  red  or  blood  color;  and  in  the 
northern  latitudes  serves  to  illuminate 
the  earth  and  cheer  the  gloom  of  the 
long  winter  nights.  The  appearance 
of  the  aurora  borealis  so  exactly  re- 
semples  the  effects  of  artificial  electricity 
that  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  their  causes  are  identical.  When 
electricity  passes  through  rarefied  air 
it  exhibits  a diffused  luminous  stream 
which  has  all  the  characteristic  appear- 
ance of  the  aurora,  and  hence  is  is  highly 
probable  that  this  natural  phenomenon 
is  occasioned  by  the  passage  of  electric- 
ity through  the  upper  regions  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  influence  of  the 
aurora  upon  the  magnetic  needle  is  now 
considered  as  an  ascertained  fact,  and 
the  connection  between  it  and  mag- 
netism is  further  evident  from  the  fact 
that  the  beams  or  coruscations  issuing 
from  a point  in  the  horizon  west  of  north 
are  frequently  observed  to  run  in  the 
magnetic  meridian.  What  are  known  as 
magnetic  storms  are  invariably  con- 
nected with  exhibitions  of  the  aurora, 
and  with  spontaneous  galvanic  currents 
in  the  ordinary  telegraph  wires;  and 


this  connection  is  found  to  be  so  cer- 
tain that,  upon  remarking  the  display 
of  one  of  the  three  classes  of  phenomena, 
we  can  at  once  assert  that  the  other 


two  are  also  observable.  The  aurora 
borealis  is  said  to  be  frequently  accom- 
panied by  sound,  which  is  variously  de- 
scribed as  resembling  the  rustling  of 
pieces  of  silk  against  each  other,  or 
the  sound  of  wind  against  the  flame  of 
a candle.  The  aurora  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  is  quite  a similar  phenom- 
enon to  that  of  the  north. 

AUS'TEN,  Jane,  English  novelist, 
born  1775,  at  Steventon,  in  Hants. 
Her  principal  [novels  a'-e  Sense  and 
Sensibility ; Pride  and  Prejudice ; Mans- 
field Park;  and  Emma.  She  died  in 
1817. 

AUS'TERLITZ,  a town  with  3452 
inhabitants,  in  Moravia,  10  miles  e.  of 
Briinn,  famous  for  the  battle  of  the  2d 
of  December,  1805,  fought  between  the 
French  (70,000  in  number)  and  the 
allied  Austrian  and  Russian  armies 
(95,000).  The  decisive  victory  of  the 
French  led  to  the  Peace  of  Pressburg 
between  France  and  Austria. 

AUS'TIN,  capital  of  the  state  of  Texas, 
on  the  Colorado,  about  200  miles  from 
its  month,  and  accessible  to  steamboats 


State  eapitol,  Austin,  Tex. 


during  certain  seasons.  There  is  a state 
university  and  other  institutions,  and 
a splendid  eapitol  built  of  red  granite. 
Pop.  25,000. 

AUSTRALASIA,  a division  of  the 
globe  usually  regarded  as  comprehend- 
ing the  islands  of  Australia,  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia,  the  New 
Hebrides,  the  Solomon  Islands,  New 
Ireland,  New  Britain,  the  Admiralty 
Islands,  New  Guinea,  and  the  Arru 
Islands,  besides  numerous  other  islands 
and  island  groups;  estimated  area, 
3,400,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  6,000,000.  It 
forms  one  of  three  portions  into  which 
some  geographers  have  divided  Oceania, 
the  other  two  being  Maylasia  and  Poly- 
nesia. 

AUSTRALIA,  the  largest  island  in  the 
world,  a sea-girt  continent,  lying  be- 
tween the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
s.e.  of  Asia;  between  lat.  10°  39'  ana  39° 
11'  s.;  Ion.  113°  5'  and  153°  16'  e. ; great- 
est length,  from  w.  to  e.,  2400  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  from  n.  to  s.,  1700  to 
1900  miles.  It  is  separated  from  New 
Guinea  on  the  north  by  Torres  Strait, 
from  Tasmania  on  the  south  by  Bass 
Strait.  It  is  divided  into  two  unequal 
parts  by  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  and 
consequently  belongs  partly  to  the 
South  Temperate,  partly  to  the  Torrid 
Zone.  It  is  occupied  by  five  British 
colonies;  namely.  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  Queensland  in  the  east; 
South  Australia  in  the  middle,  stretch- 
ing from  sea  to  sea;  and  Western  Aus- 
tralia in  the  west.  Their  area  and  popu- 


Aurora  borealis,  as  seen  when  crossing  the  polar  circle.’ 


AUSTRALIA 


AUSTRALIA 


lation  are  as  follows  (but  authorities 
dififer  as  to  the  areas) ; 


Area  in 

sq.  m. 

Pop. 

N.  S.  Wales 

310,700 

1,459,943 

Victoria 

87,884 

1,341,506 

Queensland 

668,497 

503,266 

South  Australia.  . 

. 903,425 

402,604 

Western  Australia 

975,920 

192,553 

2,946,426 

3,899,872 

Sydney,  Melbourne,  Adelaide,  Bris- 
bane, and  Perth  are  the  chief  towns. 
The  population  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia,  which  includes  the  above 
colonies  or  states  and  also  Tasmania, 
was  4,282,347 

The  interior,  so  far  as  explored,  is 
largely  composed  of  rocky  tracts  and 
barren  plains  with  little  or  no  water. 
The  whole  continent  forms  an  immense 
plateau,  highest  in  the  east,  low  in  the 
center,  and  with  a narrow  tract  of  land 
usually  intervening  between  the  ele- 
vated area  and  the  sea. 

The  rivers  of  Australia  are  nearly  all 
subject  to  great  irregularities  in  volume, 
many  of  them  at  one  time  showing  a 
channel  in  which  there  is  merely  a series 
of  pools,  while  at  another  they  inundate 
the  w’hole  adjacent  country.  The  chief 
is  the  Murray,  which,  with  its  affluents 
the  Murrumbidgee,  Lachlan,  and  Dar- 
ling, drains  a great  part  of  the  interior 
west  of  the  Dividing  Range,  and  falls 
into  the  sea  on  the  south  coast  (after 
entering  Lake  Alexandrina).  Its  great- 
est tributary  is  the  Darling,  which  may 
even  be  regarded  as  the  main  stream. 
On  the  east  coast  are  the  Hunter,  Clar- 
ence, Brisbane,  Fitzroy,  and  Burdekin; 
on  the  west,  the  Swan,  Murchison,  Gas- 
coyne, Ashburton,  and  De  Grey;  on  the 
north,  the  Fitzroy,  Victoria,  Flinders, 
and  Mitchell.  The  Australian  rivers 
are  of  little  service  in  facilitating  inter- 
nal communciation.  Many  of  them  lose 
themselves  in  swamps  or  sandy  wastes 
of  the  interior.  A considerable  river 
of  the  interior  is  Cooper’s  Creek,  or  the 
Barcoo,  which  falls  into  Lake  Eyre,  one 
of  a group  of  lakes  on  the  south  side  of 
the  continent  having  no  outlet,  and 
accordingly  salt.  The  principal  of  these 
are  Lakes  Eyre,  Torrens,  and  Gairdner, 
all  of  which  va-ry  in  size  and  saltness 
according  to  the  season.  Another  large 
salt  lake  of  little  depth.  Lake  Amadeus, 
lies  a little  west  of  the  center  of  Austra- 
lia. Various  others  of  less  magnitude 
are  scattered  over  the  interior. 

The  climate  of  Australia  is  generally 
hot  and  dry,  but  very  healthful. 

Australia  is  a region  containing  a vast 
quantity  of  mineral  wealth.  Foremost 
come  its  rich  and  extensive  deposits  of 
gold,  which,  since  its  discovery  in  1851, 
have  produced  a total  of  more  than 
two  billion  dollars.  The  greatest  quan- 
tity has  been  obtained  in  Victoria,  but 
New  South  Wales  and  Queensland  have 
also  yielded  a considerable  amount. 
Rich  stores  of  gold  have  recently  been 
discovered  in  W.  Australia.  Australia 
also  possesses  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
zinc,  antimony,  mercury,  plumbago, 
etc.,  besides  coal  (now  worked  to  a con- 
-siderable  extent  in  New  South  Wales) 
and  iron.  Various  precious  stones  are 


found,  as  the  garnet,  ruby,  topaz,  sap- 
phire, and  even  the  diamond.  Of  build- 
ing stone  there  are  granite,  limestone, 
marble,  and  sandstone. 

The  Australian  flora  presents  pecu- 1 
liarities  which  mark  it  off  by  itself  in  a 
very  decided  manner.  Many  of  its 
most  striking  features  have  an  un- 
mistakable relation  to  the  general  dry- 
ness of  the  climate.  The  trees  and 
bushes  have  for  the  most  part  a scanty 
foliage,  presenting  little  surface  for 
evaporation,  or  thick  leathery  leaves 
well  fitted  to  retain  moisture.  The  most 
widely  spread  types  of  Australian  vege- 
tation are  the  various  kinds  of  gum- 
tree,  the  shea-oak,  the  acacia  or  wattle, 
the  grass-tree,  and  a great  number  of 
ferns  and  tree-ferns.  Of  the  gum-tree 
there  are  found  upward  of  150  species, 
many  of  which  are  of  great  value. 
Individual  specimens  of  the  “pepper- 
mint” have  been  found  to  measure  from 
480  to  500  feet  in  height.  As  timber- 
trees  the  most  valuable  members  of  this 
genus  are  the  red-gum,  the  timber  of 


Australian  aboriginals. 


which  is  hard,  dense,  and  almost  in- 
destructible. A number  of  the  gum- 
trees  have  deciduous  bark.  The  wattle 
or  acacia  includes  about  300  species, 
some  of  them  of  considerable  economic 
value,  yielding  good  timber  or  bark  for 
tanning.  The  most  beautiful  and  most 
useful  is  that  known  as  the  golden  wattle, 
which  in  spring  is  adorned  with  rich 
masses  of  fragrant  yellow  blossom. 
Palms — of  which  there  are  24  species, 
all  except  the  coco-palm  peculiar  to 
Australia — are  confined  to  the  north 
and  east  coasts.  Beautiful  flowering 
plants  are  numerous.  Australia  also 
possesses  great  numbers  of  turf-forming 
grasses,  such  as  the  kangaroo-grass, 
which  survives  even  a tolerably  pro- 
tracted drought.  The  native  fruit-trees 
are  few  and  unimportant,  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  plants  yielding  roots 
used  as  food;  but  exotic  fruits  and 
vegetables  may  now  be  had  in  the  differ- 
ent colonies  in  great  abundance  and  of 
excellent  quality.  The  vine,  the  olive, 
and  mulberry  thrive  well,  and  quantities 


of  wine  are  now  produced.  The  cereals 
of  Europe  and  maize  are  extensively 
cultivated,  and  large  tracts  of  country, 
particularly  in  Queensland,  are  under 
i the  sugar-cane. 

The  Australian  fauna  is  almost  unique 
in  its  character.  Its  great  feature  is  the 
nearly  total  absence  of  all  the  forms  of 
Mammalia  which  abound  in  the  rest  of 
the  world,  their  place  being  .supplied  by 
a great  variety  of  marsupials — these 
animals  being  nowhere  else  found,  ex- 
cept in  the  opossums  of  America.  There 
are  about  110  kinds  of  marsupials  (of 
which  the  kangaroo,  wombat,  bandicoot, 
and  phalangers  or  opossums,  are  the 
best -known  varieties),  over  twenty 
kinds  of  bats,  a wild  dog  (the  dingo), 
and  a number  of  rats  and  mice.  Two 
extraordinary  animals,  the  platypus, 
or  water-mole  of  the  colonist,  and  the 
porcupine  ant-eater,  constitute  the 
lowest  order  of  mammals,  and  are  con- 
fined to  Australia.  Their  young  are 
produced  from  eggs.  Australia  now 
possesses  a large  stock  of  the  domestic 
animals  of  Britain,  which  thrive  there 
remarkably  well.  The  breed  of  horses 
is  excellent.  Horned  cattle  and  sheep 
are  largely  bred,  the  first  attaining  a 
great  size,  while  the  sheep  improve  in 
fleece  and  their  flesh  in  flavor.  There 
are  upward  of  650  different  species  of 
birds,  the  largest  being  the  emu,  or 
Australian  ostrich,  and  a species  of 
cassowary.  Peculiar  to  the  country  are 
the  black-swan,  the  honey-sucker,  the 
lyre-bird,  the  brush-turkey,  and  other 
mound-building  birds,  the  bower-birds, 
etc.  The  parrot  tribe  preponderate 
over  most  other  groups  of  birds  in  the 
continent.  There  are  many  reptiles, 
the  largest  being  the  alligator,  found  in 
some  of  the  northern  rivers.  There  are 
upwards  of  60  different  species  of  snakes, 
some  of  which  are  very  venomous. 
Lizards,  frogs,  and  insects  are  also 
numerous  in  various  parts.  The  seas, 
rivers,  and  lagoons  abound  in  fish  of 
numerous  varieties,  and  other  aquatic 
animals,  many  of  them  peculiar. 
Whales  and  seals  frequent  the  coasts. 
On  the  n.  coasts  are  extensive  fisheries 
of  trepang,  much  visited  by  native 
traders  from  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
Some  animals  of  European  origin,  such 
as  the  rabbit  and  the  sparrow,  have 
developed  into  real  pests  in  several  of 
the  colonies. 

The  natives  belong  to  the  Australian 
negro  stock,  and  are  sometimes  con- 
sidered the  lowest  as  regards  intelligence 
in  the  whole  human  family,  though  this 
is  doubtful.  They  number  about  60,000, 
exclusive  of  those  in  the  unexplored 
parts,  and  are  of  a dark-brown  or  black 
color,  with  jet-black  curly  but  not 
woolly  hair,  of  medium  size,  but  inferior 
muscular  development.  In  the  settled 
parts  of  the  continent  they  are  inoffen- 
sive, and  rapidly  dying  out. 

Till  recently  each  of  the  colonies  was 
quite  independent  of  the  others.  Lat- 
terly for  a number  of  years  there  had 
been  a movement  in  favor  of  Australian 
federation  and  a Federal  Convention 
sat  at  Adelaide  in  1897-98  and  drafted 
a Constitution  Bill  for  the  formation  of 
an  Australian  Commonwealth,  which 
in  1900  was  actually  established  by  act 
of  the  British  Parliament.  The  colonies 


AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


or  states  included  in  the  Commonwealth 
comprise  Tasmania  as  well  as  the  five 
Australian  colonies  proper.  The  col- 
'.>nies  have  a considerable  defensive 
force  of  militia  and  volunteers,  also  a 
number  of  gun-boats,  torpedo-boats, 
etc.,  besides  which  there  is  always  a 
squadron  of  British  men-of-war  on  the 
Australian  station.  Education  is  well 
provided  for,  instruction  in  the  primary 
schools  being  in  some  cases  free  and 
compulsory,  and  the  higher  education 
being  more  and  more  attended  to. 
There  are  flourishing  universities  in 
Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Adelaide. 
Newspapers  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
and  periodicals  of  all  kinds  are  abundant. 
There  is  as  yet  no  native  literature  of 
any  distinctive  type,  but  names  of  Aus- 
tralian writers  of  ability  both  in  prose 
and  poetry  are  beginning  to  be  known 
beyond  their  own  country. 

Pastoral  and  agricultural  pursuits 
and  mining  are  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  people,  though  manufactories  and 
handicrafts  also  employ  large  numbers. 

It  is  doubtful  when  Australia  was 
first  discovered  by  Europeans.  Be- 
tween 1531  and  1542  the  Portuguese 
j)ublished  the  existence  of  a land  wdiich 
they  called  Great  Java,  and  which  cor- 
responded to  Australia,  and  probably 
the  first  discovery  of  the  country  was 
made  by  them  early  in  the  16th  century. 
The  first  authenticated  discovery  is  said 
to  have  been  made  in  1601,  by  a Por- 
tuguese named  Manoel  Godinh  de 
Eredia.  In  1606  Torres,  a Spaniard, 
passed  through  the  strait  that  now 
bears  his  name,  between  New  Guinea 
and  Australia.  Between  this  period  and 
1028  a large  portion  of  the  coast-line 
of  Australia  had  been  surveyed  by 
various  Dutch  navigators.  In  1664 
the  continent  was  named  New  Holland 
by  the  Dutch  government.  In  1688 
Dampier  coasted  along  part  of  Australia, 
and  about  1700  explored  a part  of  the 
,w.  and  n.w.  coasts.  In  1770  Cook 
carefuliy  surveyed  the  e.  coast,  named 
a number  of  localities,  and  took  posses- 
■sion  of  the  country  for  Britain.  He 
was  followed  by  Bligh  in  1789,  who 
carried  on  a series  of  observations  on 
the  n.e.  coast,  adding  largely  to  the 
knowledge  already  obtained  of  this  new 
world.  Colonists  had  now  arrived  on 
t lie  soil,  and  a penal  settlement  was 
formed  (1788)  at  Port  Jackson.  In  this 
way  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
future  colony  of  New  South  Wales.  The 
Moreton  Bay  district  (Queensland)  was 
settled  in  1825;  in  1835  the  Port  Phillip 
district.  In  1851  the  latter  district  was 
erected  into  a seiiarate  colony  under 
the  name  of  Victoria.  Previous  to  this 
time  the  colonies  both  of  Western 
.\ustralia  and  of  South  .Vustralia  had 
been  founded — the  former  in  1829,  the 
latter  in  1836.  The  latest  of  I he  colonies 
is  Queensland,  which  only  took  an 
independent  existence  in  1859. 

July  9.  1900,  the  British  Parliament 
))assetl  an  act  empowering  the  six 
l)rovinces  of  Australia  to  forma  federal 
union  and  Jan.  1 1901,  the  new'  eom- 
monw'ealth  w'as  proclaimed  at  Syd?ie\, 
N.  8.  W.  Its  first  parliament  was 
opened  May  9,  1901.  In  1903  Bonibala, 
N.  S.  W.,  was  chosen  as  the  permanent 
capital. 


AUSTRIA,  or  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 

an  extensive  duplex  monarchy  in  cen- 
tral Europe,  inhabited  by  several  dis- 
tinct nationalities,  and  consisting  of 
two  semi-independent  countries,  each 
with  its  own  parliament  and  government, 
but  with  one  common  sovereign,  army, 
and  system  of  diplomacy,  and  also  with 
a common  parliament.  The  Austrian 
Empire  now  has  a total  area  of  about 
240,000  sq.  miles,  and  is  bounded  s. 
by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic,  and  Italy;  w. 
by  Switzerland,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony; 
n.  by  Prussia  and  Russian  Poland;  and 
e.  by  Russia  and  Rumania.  On  the 
shores  of  the  Adriatic,  along  the  coasts 
of  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  Istria,  etc.,  lies 
its  onlj^  sea  frontage,  which  is  of  com- 
paratively in.significant  extent.  Pop. 
about  43,000,000.  The  largest  cities 
are  Vienna,  Budapest,  Prague,  Trieste, 
Lemberg,  Gratz,  Brunn,  Szegedin,  Maria 
Theresio]iol,  Cracow'.  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, formerly  Turkish,  now  admin- 
istered by'  .\ustria,  have  an  area  of 
19,728  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1 ,591,036. 

The  prevailing  character  of  the 
Austrian  dominions  is  mountainous  or 
hilly,  the  plains  not  occupying  more  than 
a fifth  part  of  the  whole  surface.  The 
loftiest  ranges  belong  to  the  Alps,  and 
are  found  in  Tyrol,  Styria,  Salzburg, 
and  Carinthia,  the  highest  summits 
being  the  Ortlerspitzen  (12,814  feet)  on 
the  western  boundary  of  Tyrol,  and  the 
Grossglockner  (12,300)  on  the  borders 
of  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  and  Carinthia. 
Another  great  range  is  that  of  the  Car- 
pathians, bounding  Hungary  on  the 
north.  The  most  e.xtensive  tracts  of 
low  or  flat  land,  much  of  which  is  very 
fertile,  occur  in  Hungary,  Galicia,  and 
Slavonia,  the  great  Hungarian  plain 
having  an  area  of  36,000  sq.  miles.  They 
stretch  along  the  courses  of  the  rivers, 
of  which  the  chief  are  the  Danube, 
with  its  tributaries  the  Save,  the  Drave, 
the  Theiss,  the  Maros,  the  Waag,  the 
March,  the  Raab,  the  Inn;  also  the 
Elbe  and  Moldau  and  the  Dniester. 
The  Danube  for  upward  of  800  miles 
is  navigable  for  pretty  large  vessels; 
the  tributaries  also  are  largely  navigable. 
The  lakes  are  numerous  and  often  pic- 
turesque, the  chief  being  Lake  Balaton 
on  the  Plattensee.  The  climate  is  ex- 
ceedingly varied,  but  generally  good. 
The  principal  products  of  the  north  are 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye;  in  the 
center  vines  and  maize  are  added;  and 
in  the  south  olives  and  various  fruits. 
The  cereals  grow'  to  perfection,  Hun- 
garian wheat  and  flour  being  celebrated. 
Other  crops  are  hops,  tobacco,  flax,  and 
hemp.  Wine  is  largely  made,  but  the 
wines  are  inferior  on  the  whole,  with 
exception  of  a few  kinds,  including 
Tokay.  The  fore.sts  cover  70,000  sq. 
miles,  or  one-1  bird  of  the  productive 
soil  of  the  empire.  Sheep  and  cattle 
are  largely  reared. — Wild  deer,  wild 
swine,  chamois,  foxes,  lynxes,  and  a 
species  of  small  black  bear  are  found  in 
many  districts,  the  fox  and  lynx  being 
particularly  abundant.  Herds  of  a 
small  native  breed  of  horses  roam  wild 
over  t lie  plains  of  Hungary'. — In  mineral 
productions  .\ustria  is  very  rich,  pos- 
sessing, with  the  exception  of  platinum, 
all  the  useful  metals,  the  principal  being 
1 coal,  salt,  and  iron. 


Manufactures  are  in  the  most  flourish- 
ing condition  in  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Lower  Austria;  less  so  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  and  insignificant  in 
Dalmatia,  Bukowina,  Herzegovina,  etc. 
Among  the  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  those  of  machinery  and  metal 
goods,  Austria  holding  a high  place  for 
the  manufacture  of  musical  and  scien- 
tific instruments,  gold  and  silver  plate 
and  jewelry;  of  stone  and  china-ware, 
and  of  glass,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  most  highly  developed  industries 
in  Austria;  of  chemicals;  of  sugar  from 
beet;  of  beer,  spirits,  etc.,  and  espe- 
cially the  manufactures  of  woolen, 
cotton,  hemp,  and  flax.  The  manufac- 
ture of  tobacco  is  a state  monopoly. 
Tanning  is  carried  on  to  a great  extent, 
and  in  the  production  of  gloves  (in 
Vienna  and  Prague)  Austria  stands 
next  to^  France. 

None  of  the  European  states,  except 
Russia,  exhibits  such  a diversity  of  race 
and  language  as  the  Austrian  Empire. 
The  Slavs — who  differ  greatly,  however, 
among  themselves  in  language  and 
civilization — amount  to  above  17,000,- 
000,  or  45  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion, and  form  the  great  mass  of  the 
population  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Gar- 
niola,  Galicia,  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and 
Slavonia,  and  northern  Hungary,  and 
half  of  the  population  of  .Silesia  and 
Bukowina.  The  Germans,  about  10,- 

600.000,  form  almost  the  sole  popula- 
tion of  the  archduchy  of  Austria,  Salz- 
burg, the  greatest  portion  of  Styria  and 
Carinthia,  almost  the  whole  of  Tyrol 
and  Vorarlberg,  large  portions  of 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  the  whole  of 
West  Silesia,  etc.;  and  they  are  also 
numerous  in  Hungary  and  Transyl- 
vania. The  Magyars  or  Hungarians 
(7,400,000)  form  the  bulk  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary  and 
eastern  Transylvania.  Of  the  Italic  or 
western  Romanic  stock  there  are  about 

700.000,  and  in  the  southeast  about 
2,800,000  of  the  Rumanian  or  eastern 
Romanic  stock.  The  number  of  Jews 
is  above  1,000,000;  and  there  are  other 
races,  such  as  the  Gypsies  (150,000), 
who  are  most  numerous  in  Hungary 
and  Transylvania,  and  the  Albanians 
in  Dalmatia  and  the  adjacent  parts. 
The  population,  generally  speaking, 
decreases  in  density  from  west  to  east. 

The  state  religion  of  Austria  is  the 
Rbman  Catholic,  but  the  civil  power 
exercises  supreme  control  in  all  ecclesi- 
astical matters.  In  1900  there  were  in 
the  Austrian  portion  of  the  monarchy 
20,660,279  Roman  CatWics,  3,136,535 
Greek  Catholics  united  to  the  Roman 
Church,  606,764  non-united,  494,011 
Protestants,  and  1,224,899  Jews.  In 
Hungary  and  Transylvania  there  were 
9,919,913  Roman  Catholics,  1,854,143 
Greek  united  and  2,815,713  non-united, 
3,730,084  Protestants,  and  851,378 
Jews. 

The  intellectual  culture  of  the  people 
is  highest  in  the  German  provinces, 
but  in  some  of  the  other  provinces  the 
illiterates  mimber  as  many  as  80  to  90 
per  cent.  Yet  for  a number  of  years 
attendance  on  the  elementary  scnools 
has  been  compulsory  on  all  children 
from  their  sixth  to  the  end  of  their 
Twelfth  year;  and  there  are  higher 


AUTOCRAT 


AUTOMATON 


schools  on  which  attendance  is  com- 
pulsory for  young  people  of  thirteen  to 
fifteen  years  (not  elsewhere  educated). 
There  are  numerous  gymnasia  and 
“real-schools,”  the  gymnasia  being 
intended  chiefly  to  prepare  pupils  for 
the  universities,  while  in  the  real-schools 
a more  practical  end  is  kept  in  view, 
and  modern  languages  and  physical 
science  form  the  groundwork  of  the 
educational  course;  also  agricultural, 
commercial,  industrial,  art,  music,  and 
other  special  schools.  There  are  eleven 
universities,  viz.  in  Vienna,  Prague  (2), 
Budapest,  Gratz,  Cracow,  Lemberg, 
Innsbruck,  Klausenburg,  Agram,  and 
Czernowitz.  Most  of  these  have  four 
faculties — Catholic  theology,  law  and 
politics,  medicine,  and  philosophy. 

The  ruler  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  has  the  title  of  emperor  so  far 
as  concerns  his  Austrian  dominions,  but 
he  is  only  king  of  Hungary.  All  matters 
affecting  the  joint  interests  of  the  two 
divisions  of  the  empire,  such  as  foreign 
affairs,  war,  and  finance,  are  dealt  with 
by  a supreme  body  known  as  the  Dele- 
gations— a parliament  of  120  members, 
one-half  of  whom  are  chosen  by  and 
represent  the  legislature  of  German 
Austria  and  the  other  half  that  of 
Hungary.  The  legislative  center  of  the 
.\ustrian  division  of  the  empire  is  the 
Reichsrath,  or  council  of  the  realm, 
consisting  of  an  upper  house  (Herren- 
haus),  composed  of  princes  of  the 
imperial  family,  nobles  with  the  heredi- 
tary right  to  sit,  archbishops  and  life- 
members  nominated  by  the  emperor; 
and  a lower  house  (Abgeordnetenhaus) 
of  353  elected  deputies.  There  are 
seventeen  provincial  diets  or  assemblies, 
eath  provincial  division  having  one. 
In  the  Hungarian  division  of  the  empire 
the  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
king  and  the  diet  or  Reichstag  con- 
jointly, the  latter  consisting  of  an  upper 
house  or  house  of  magnates  and  of  a 
lower  house  or  house  of  representatives, 
the  latter  elected  by  all  citizens  of  full 
age  paying  direct  taxes  to  the  amount 
of  16s  a year.  The  powers  of,  the  Hun- 
garian Reichstag  correspond  to  those 
of  the  Reichsrath  of  the  Cisleithan 
provinces.  There  being  three  distinct 
parliaments  in  the  empire,  there  are  also 
three  budgets,  that,  viz.,  for  the  whole 
empire,  that  for  Cisleithan,  and  that  for 
Transleithan  Austria.  A small  portion 
of  the  imperial  revenue  of  Austria  is 
derived  from  customs  and  other  sources, 
70  per  cent  of  the  remainder  being 
made  up  by  the  Cisleithan  and  30  per 
cent  by  the  Transleithan  divisions  of 
the  empire. 

Military  service  is  obhgatory  on  all 
citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms  who 
have  attained  the  age  of  twenty.  The 
period  of  service  is  twelve  years,  of 
which  three  are  passed  in  the  hne,  seven 
in  the  reserve,  and  two  in  the  landwehr. 
The  army  numbers  over  290,000  men 
(including  officers)  on  the  peace-footing 
and  over  1,500,000  on  the  war-iooting. 
The  most  important  portion  of  the 
Austrian  navy  comprises  12  iron-dads, 
of  from  5 to  14-incn  armor,  the  largest 
having  a tonnage  of  over  7000,  and 
carrying  27-ton  guns;  besides  gun- 
boats, torpedo  vessels,  and  other  vessels, 
mostly  small  and  intended  for  coast 


• 

defense.  The-  crews  number  about 
10,000  officers  and  men. 

In  791  Charlemagne  drove  the  Avars 
from  the  territory  between  the  Ens  and 
the  Raab,  and  united  it  to  his  empire 
under  the  name  of  the  Eastern  Mark 
(that  is  March  or  boundary  land);  and 
from  the  establishment  by  him  of  a 
margraviate  in  this  new  province  the 
present  empire  took  its  rise.  The 
present  imperial  family  descends  from 
Rudolph  von  Hapsburg,  and  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  furnished  24  sovereigns 
from  Albert  I.  (1282)  to  Maria  Theresa 
(1740).  With  the  marriage  of  the 
latter  to  Stephen,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  the 
house  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine  acceded 
to  the  throne  in  the  person  of  Joseph 
III.  in  1780.  The  succession  then  fell 
to  Leopold  II.  (1790),  Franz  I.  (1792), 
Ferdinand  I.  (1835),  and  Franz  Joseph 
I.,  the  present  emperor  (1848). 

In  the  troubled  period  following  the 
French  revolution  of  1830  insurrections 
took  place  in  Modena,  Parma,  and  the 
Papal  States  (1831-32),  but  were  sup- 
pressed without  much  difficulty;  and 
though  professedly  neutral  during  the 
Polish  insurrections  Austria  clearly 
showed  herself  on  the  side  of  Russia, 
with  whom  her  relations  became  more 
intimate  as  those  between  Great  Britain 
and  France  grew  more  cordial.  The 
death  of  Francis  I.  (1835)  and  accession 
of  his  son  Ferdinand  I.  made  little 
change  in  the  Austrian  system  of  govern- 
ment, and  much  discontent  was  the 
consequence.  In  1846  the  failure  of  the 
Polish  insurrection  led  to  the  incor- 
poration of  Cracow  with  Austria.  In 
Italy  the  declarations  of  Pio  Nono  in 
favor  of  reform  increased  the  diffi- 
culties of  Austria,  and  in  Hungary  the 
opposition  under  Kossuth  and  others 
assumed  the  form  of  a great  constitu- 
tional movement.  In  1848,  when  the 
expulsion  of  Louis  Philippe  shook  all 
Europe,  Metternich  found  it  impossible 
any  longer  to  guide  the  helm  of  the 
state,  and  the  government  was  com- 
pelled to  admit  a free  press  and  the  right 
of  citizens  to  arms.  Apart  from  the 
popular  attitude  in  Italy  and  in  Hun- 
gary, where  the  diet  declared  itself  per- 
manent under  the  presidency  of  Kos- 
suth, the  insurrection  made  equal  prog- 
ress in  Vienna  itself,  and  the  royal 
family,  no  longer  in  safety,  removed  to 
Innsbruck.  After  various  ministerial 
changes  the  emperor  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph;  more 
vigorous  measures  were  adopted;  and 
Austria,  aided  by  Russia,  reduced  Hun- 
gary to  submission. 

The  year  1855  is  memorable  for  the 
Concordat  with  the  pope,  which  put  the 
educational  and  ecclesiastical  affairs  of 
the  empire  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the 
Papal  see.  In  1859  the  hostile  inten- 
tions of  France  and  Sardinia  against  the 
possessions  of  Austria  in  Italy  became 
so  evident  that  she  declared  war  by 
sending  an  army  across  the  Ticino ; 
but  after  disastrous  defeats  at  Magenta 
and  Solferino  she  was  compelled  to  cede 
Milan  and  the  northwest  portion  of 
Lombardy  to  Sardinia.  In  1864  she 
joined  with  the  German  states  in  the 
war  against  Denmark,  but  a dispute 
about  Schleswig-Holstein  involved  her 
in  a war  with  her  allies  (1866),  while  at 


the  same  time  Italy  renewed  her  at- 
tempts for  the  recovery  of  Venice.  The 
Italians  were  defeated  at  Custozza 
and  driven  back  across  the  Mincio;  but 
the  Prussians,  victorious  at  Koniggratz 
(or  Sadowa),  threatened  Vienna.  Peace 
was  concluded  with  Prussia  on  Aug.  23 
and  with  Italy  on  Oct.  3,  the  result  of  the 
war  being  the  cession  of  Venetia  through 
France  to  Italy  and  the  withdrawal  of 
Austria  from  all  interference  in  the 
affairs  of  Germany. 

Since  1866  Austria  has  been  occupied 
chiefly  with  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
empire.  Hungarian  demands  for  self- 
government  were  finally  agreed  to,  and 
the  Empire  of  Austria  divided  into  the 
two  parts  already  mentioned — the  Cis- 
leithan and  the  Transleithan.  This 
settlement  was  consummated  by  the 
coronation  of  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  I.,  at  Budapest,  as  King  of 
Hungary,  on  the  8th  of  June,  1867.  In 
the  same  year  the  Concordat  of  1855 
came  up  for  discussion,  and  measures 
were  passed  for  the  reestablishment 
of  civil  marriage,  the  emancipation  of 
schools  from  the  domination  of  the 
church,  and  the  placing  of  different 
creeds  on  a footing  of  equality.  The 
fact  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  dominions 
comprising  so  many  different  nationali- 
ties has  always  given  the  central  govern- 
ment much  trouble,  both  in  regard  to 
internal  and  to  external  affairs.  In  re- 
gard to  the  “Eastern  Question,”  for 
instance,  the  action  of  Austria  has  been 
hampered  by  the  sympathies  shown  by 
the  Magyars  for  their  blood  relations, 
the  Turks,  while  the  Slavs  have  natu- 
rally been  more  favorable  to  Russia. 
During  the  war  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  in  1877-78  Austria  remained 
neutral;  but  at  its  close,  in  the  middle  of 
1878,  it  was  decided,  at  the  Congress  of 
Berlin,  that  the  provinces  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  should  in  future  be  admin- 
istered by  Austria-Hungary  instead  of 
Turkey.  Since  that  time  the  external 
history  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy has  been  uneventful,  but  in 
internal  affairs  there  has  been  consider- 
able friction  between  the  different 
nationalities  and  the  numerous  political 
parties.  The  language  question  has  been 
a fruitful  source  of  controversy. 

AUTOCRAT,  an  absolute  or  uncon- 
trolled ruler;  the  head  of  a state  who  is 
not  controlled  by  any  constitutional  lim- 
itations; such  as  the  Emperor  of  Russia. 

AUTO  DE  FE  (Spanish) ; AUTO  DA  FE 
(Portuguese),  lit.  “act  of  faith.”  See 
Inquisition. 

AUTOGRAPH,  a person’s  own  hand- 
writing; an  original  manuscript  or  signa- 
ture, as  opposed  to  a copy.  The  prac- 
tice of  collecting  autographs  or  signa- 
tures dates  at  least  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury, among  the  earliest  collections 
known  being  those  of  Lomenie  de 
Brienne  and  Lacroi.x  du  Maine. 

AUTOM'ATON,  a self-moving  machine 
performing  actions  like  those  of  a living 
being,  and  often  shaped  like  one.  The 
walking  statues  of  Daedalus,  the  flying 
dove  of  Archytas,  the  brazen  head  of 
Friar  Bacon,  the  iron  fly  of  Regiomon- 
tanus, the  door-opening  figure  of  Alber- 
tus  Magnus,  the  parading  knights  of  the 
clock  presented  to  Charlemagne  by 
Harun  al  Rashid,  the  toy  carriage  and 


AUTOMOBILE 


AUTOMOBILE 


attendants  constructed  by  Camus  for 
Louis  XIV.,  the  flute-player,  tambour- 
player,  and  duck  of  Vaucanson,  and  the 
writing  child  of  the  brothers  Droz  are 
among  the  more  noteworthy  of  tradi- 
tional automata. 

AUTOMOBILE  (a-to-mo-bel'),  a self- 
propelling  vehicle  for  use  on  streets  or 
roads  for  conveying  passengers  or 
freight.  The  earliest  automobile  was 
the  crude  vehicle  invented  by  the  Eng- 
lishman, Hancock,  and  patented  in 
1827.  Other  early  automobile  invent- 
ors, none  of  whom,  however,  were 
successful,  were  Sir  Charles  Dance, 
Guideworthy  Gurney,  W.  A.  Summers, 
Nathaniel  Ogle,  Macerone  and  Squire, 
Henry  James,  Scott  Russell,  and  Robert 
Griffith,  whose  patents  date  between 
1827  and  1836.  These  inventions  were 
regarded  as  curiosities  only,  and  it  was 
not  until  1885  when  Gottlieb  Daimler 
invented  his  small  powerful  gas-engine 
that  the  modern  automobile  became 
possible. 

The  first  American  self-propelling 
road  vehicle  was  made  by  Oliver  Evans 
in  1786,  atwhich timehe planned asteam 
wagon  that  could  be  made  to  transport 
merchandise  at  less  expense  than  the 
same  work  could  be  done  by  horses. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  recent 
years,  that  any  widespread  interest 
was  manifested  in  the  subject  of 
horseless  vehicles.  All  such  machines 
may  be  classified,  according  to  their 
motor  power,  under  the  following 
general  heads:  1.  Steam  vehicles 
with  boilers  and  engines  burning  coal, 
oil,  etc.  2.  Machines  driven  by  oil 
or  vapor  engines,  gasoline,  naphtha, 
etc.  3.  Machines  driven  by  com- 
pressed air  (liquid  air  being  a possi- 
bility.) 4.  Machines  run  by  elec- 
tricity. 

The  equipment  of  the  modern  elec- 
tric automobile  consists  of  a storage 
battery  for  supplying  the  current,  the 
motor  for  transforming  this  current 
into  mechanical  power,  and  the  con- 
troller for  regulating  the  speed  of  the 
motor.  In  most  electric  vehicles  two 
motors  or  a double  motor  drive  are 
employed,  the  motor  being  either  sup- 
ported on  the  rear  axle  or  on  the  reach. 
The  battery  is  either  placed  in  a case 
hung  under  the  body  of  the  vehicle  or 
else  inside  the  body.  The  motors  and 
other  moving  parts  are  placed  in  dust- 
proof  cases.  The  efficiency  of  the  bat- 
tery is  of  course  the  most  important 
consideration,  and  its  deterioration 
with  service  has  to  be  borne  in  mind 
in  such  commercial  applications  as 
automobiles.  In  1908  the  batteries 
then  in  use  were  considered  to  be  good 
for  5000  miles  by  observing  ordinary 
precautions  in  charging  and  use.  In 
the  United  States  electric  power  has 
been  applied  to  a great  variety  of 
vehicles,  including,  besides  pleasure 
carriages  of  various  types,  delivery 
wagons,  cabs,  omnibuses,  and  trucks. 

Since  1900  in  the  United  States  20- 
passenger  omnibuses  and  heavy  trucks 
with  double  electric  motor  drives  have 
been  constructed  and  are  in  active 
use. 

The  most  popular  motor  is  some 
form  of  oil  engine.  The  number  and 
variety  of  Miese  motors  makes  de- 


• 

scription  of  them  impossible.  In  the  in- 
ternal combustion  motor  the  propulsive 
power  is  given  to  the  piston  by  the  ex- 
plosion of  vaporized  oil,  such  as  ben- 
zine or  gasoline  in  the  cylinder.  The 
mechanism  comprises,  besides  the 
engine  and  its  connections,  a carbureter 
for  vaporizing  and  feeding  the  oil  to 
the  cylinder,  and  a cooler,  by  which 
water  is  kept  in  circulation  around  the 
cylinder.  The  engine  transmits  its 
power  to  a crank-shaft  , from  which  it 
is  led  off  by  a chain  drive  or  gearing  to 
the  driving  shaft  of  the  vehicle.  These 
motors  are  made  with  one,  two  and  four 
cylinders,  and  are  of  various  powers, 
They  will  not  start  up  of  themselves 
under  load,  and  cannot  be  reversed. 
Backing  the  carriage  is  effected  by 
gears,  and  a steady  movement  of  the 
engine  is  produced  by  a fly-wheel.  The 
gasoline  motor  is  unable  to  run  under 
overload,  but  on  the  other  hand  con- 
sumes less  fuel,  and  on  this  account 
has  a greater  radius  of  action. 

The  speed  attained  by  the  automo- 
biles has  been  and  is  being  enormously 
increased,  and  it  is  in  this  respect  that 
there  have  been  the  most  remarkable 
developments.  These  have  progressed 
from  time  to  time,  so  that  at  present  the 
horseless  carriage  rivals  modern  express 
trains  in  the  speed  of  its  travel,  while  it 
is  also  able  to  operate  for  long  distances, 
requiring  supplies  of  fuel  and  water  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  railway  locomo- 
tive. If  a machine  is  constructed  to  run 
comparatively  short  distances  on  a 
level  and  well-surfaced  road,  a mile 
may  be  accomplished  in  from  40  to  60 
seconds. 

The  years  1907  and  1908  were  the 
most  successful  in  the  history  of  the 
automobile  industry.  There  were 
in  use  in  the  United  States  175,000 
pleasure  vehicles  of  various  models 
and  horse  power  and  18,000  com- 
mercial vehicles,  both  gasoline  and 
electric.  The  estimated  valuation  of 
all  types  of  motor-driven  vehicles  in 
use  is  $370,000,000. 

The  estimated  production  of  auto- 
mobiles of  the  entire  industry  in  the 
United  States  is  placed  at  55,000  ma- 
chines. The  approximate  value  of  this 
output  is  $110,000,000.  The  capital 
employed  in  the  automobile  industry 
is  approximately  .$90,000,000. 

There  are  about  fifty  companies  en- 
gaged exclusively  or  partially  in  the 
manufacture  of  motor  vehicles  for 
business  purposes.  A decided  change 
is  noticeable  in  the  attitude  of  those 
who  are  using  horses  in  their  business 
toward  the  possible  adoption  of  the 
motor.  The  failure  of  some  of  the 
earliest  installations,  owing  largely  to 
exorbitant  claims  made  for  them, 
somewhat  retarded  the  development 
for  a time,  but  the  prejudice  so  born 
has  been  largely  overcome,  and  with 
the  much  improved  vehicle  and  the  more 
rational  demands  as  to  what  it  should 
do,  the  machine  is  beginning  steadily 
to  replace  the  animal  as  it  has  in  every 
field  where  they  have  come  in  conflict 
so  far,  and  naturally  always  will.  The 
much  greater  working  capacity  of  the 
motor  vehicle — owing  to  its  speed  and 
ability  to  work  for  indefinite  periods 
of  time — is  Us  chief  advantage. 


Economy  of  use  usually  results  through 
this  feature  rather  than  through  re- 
duced cost  of  operation,  although  the 
relative  value  of  the  latter  item  in- 
creases rapidly  in  favor  of  the  motor 
with  the  number  of  vehicles  employed, 
it  being  capable  of  displacing  a greater 
number  of  horse-drawn  vehicles.  It  is 
generally  conceded  by  those  who 
should  know  that  the  best  field  for  the 
electric  commercial  vehicle  is  in  the 
lines  where  the  length  of  the  runs  to  be 
made  is  relatively  short  and  the  num- 
ber of  stops  great.  The  gasoline 
vehicle  is  coming  rapidly  to  the  front 
in  all  other  lines,  and,  in  many  cases, 
is  doing  w'ell  in  this  one,  too.  Very 
little  has  been  done  with  steam,  ex- 
cept that  one  company  has  built  a 
number  of  ambulances,  although  it 
seems  to  have  great  possibilities. 

The  taximeter  cab  service  now  in 
operation  in  the  large  cities  opens  a 
new  field  for  the  American  automo- 
bile. These  motor  cabs  will  carry  taxi- 
meters to  determine  the  fares,  and 
promise  to  be  popular  throughout  the 
country,  and  seems  destined  to  shortly 
replace  the  horse-drawn  cab. 

Federal  statistics  show  there  are 
more  than  2,151,570  miles  of  public 
highways  in  the  United  States.  Of 
this  mileage  108,232.9  miles  are  sur- 
faced with  gravel,  38.621.7  miles  with 
stone,  and  6,809.7  miles  with  special 
materials,  such  as  shells,  sand,  clay, 
oil  and  brick,  making  in  all  153,664.3 
miles  of  improved  road.  From  this  it 
follows  that  7.14  per  cent,  of  all  the 
roads  in  this  country  have  been  im- 
proved. 

Automobile  speed  may  be  judged  by 
a study  of  the  record  table  which  shows 
that  the  fastest  mile  ever  recorded  is 
the  ;28  1-5  made  by  F.  H.  Marriott  in  a 
Stanley  steamer  at  Ormond,  Fla.,  in 
1906.  The  fastest  average  pace  for  a 
middle-distance  race  was  made  at  Or- 
mond, March  5,  1908,  when  Maurice 
Bernin,  in  a sixty-horsepower  Renault, 
traveled  100  miles  in  1:12:561-5,  an 
average  of  82.26  miles  per  hour.  At 
the  same  meet  Emanuel  Cedrino,  in 
the  sixty-horse  power  Fiat  Cyclone, 
established  a 300-mile  record  of  3 :53 :44, 
an  average  of  77.02  miles  per  hour. 
Greater  speed  than  even  this  is  report- 
ed to  have  been  made  by  Nazzaro  in  a 
Fiat  in  a match  race  at  Brooklands, 
England,  it  being  said  he  showed  120 
miles  an  hour  for  two  and  three-quarter 
miles,  but  these  figures  never  were 
officially  accepted.  On  the  road  the 
fastest  average  pace  was  made  in  the 
Florio  cup  race  in  Italy,  in  1908,  by 
Nazzaro  in  a Fiat,  who  averaged  74.27 
miles  per  hour. 

The  world’s  record  for  twenty-four 
hours  is  1,681  miles  1,310  yards,  an 
average  pace  of  65.9  miles  an  hour, 
made  June  28-29,  1907,  by  S.  F.  Edge 
in  a six-cylinder  Napier  on  the  three 
and  one-quarter  mile  cement  track  at 
Weybridge,  England.  During  the  year 
there  were  run  in  the  United  States  ten 
twenty-four-hour  races,  five  of  them 
single  car  events  and  the  other  five  re- 
lay or  team  races  in  which  two  cars  of 
the  same  make  constituted  a team. 

Motor-bicycles  and  quadricycles  were 
built  in  New  York  in  1895.  Gasolino 


AUTONOMY 


AXIOM 


motors  provided  the  propelling  force. 
The  former  weighs  only  sixty  pounds. 
A naphtha  tank  is  fastened  on  tM  of 
the  frame  between  the  saddle  and  the 
handles.  It  feeds  down  through  the 
frame  to  the  cylinders,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  rear  wheel.  The  drops  of 
naphtha  are  exploded  by  an  electric 
spark  from  a small  battery  hung  to 
the  frame,  thus  giving  impulse  to  the 
pistons.  The  speed  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  oil  let  down.  The  machine 
is  started  by  pedals,  and  the  rotation  of 
the  wheels,  together  with  the  turning 
of  the  switch,  sets  the  motor  to  working. 

AUTONOMY,  the  power  of  a state, 
institution,  etc.,  to  legislate  for  itself. 

AUTOP'SY,  literally,  personal  obser- 
vation or  inspection,  commonly  re- 
stricted to  post-mortem  examination. 

AUTOSUGGES'TION,  in  hypnotism, 
the  power  of  suggesting  thought  or  ac- 
tion to  one’s  self.  It  is  used  largely 
in  medicine  under  the  name  suggestive 
therapeutics,  by  which  the  patient,  be- 
ing given  an  inert  remedy,  suggests  a 
cure  to  himself. 

AU'TOTYPE,  a species  of  photo- 
graphic print.  A thin  sheet  of  gelatine 
on  paper  is  rendered  sensitive  to  light 
by  treatment  with  bichromate  of  potash, 
and  then  exposed  under  an  ordinary 
photographic  negative.  The  portions 
of  gelatine  affected  by  the  light  become 
insoluble,  the  remainder  of  the  gelatine 
is  then  washed  away,  and  the  picture 
remains  reproduced  in  the  gelatine, 
there  being  slight  elevations  and  depres- 
sions corresponding  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  light  and  shade.  This  may  be 
printed  from,  but  it  is  more  often  made 
use  of  to  obtain  electrotypes  or  other 
reverses,  from  which  impressions  can 
more  easily  be  taken. 

AUTUMN,  the  season  between  sum- 
mer and  winter,  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere often  regarded  as  embracing 
August,  September,  and  October,  or 
three  months  about  that  time.  The  be- 
ginning of  the  astronomical  autumn  is 
September  22,  the  autumnal  equinox; 
and  the  end  is  December  21,  the  shortest 
day.  The  autumn  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  takes  place  at  the  time  of 
the  northern  spring. 

AUTUN  o-tiin ; ancient  Bibracte, 
later  Augustodunum)  a town.  South- 
eastern France,  department  of  Saone-e 
-Loire.  It  has  two  Roman  gates  of  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  the  ruins  of  an 
amphitheater  and  of  several  temples, 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Lazare,  a fine  Gothic 
structure  of  the  eleventh  century ; 
manufactures  of  carpets,  woolens,  cot- 
ton, velvet,  hosiery,  etc..  Pop.  14,066. 

AUVERGENE  (6-var-nye),  a prov- 
ince, Central  France,  now  merged  into 
departments  Cantal  and  Puy-de-D6me, 
and  an  arrondissement  of  Haute-Loire. 
The  Auvergne  Mountains,  separating 
the  basins  of  the  Allier,  Cher  and 
Creuse  from  those  of  the  Lot  and  Dor- 
dogne, contain  the  highest  points  of 
Central  France:  Mount  Dor,  6188 
feet ; Captal,  6093  feet,  and  Puy-de- 
D6me,  4806  feet.  The  number  of  ex- 
tinct volcanoes  and  general  geologic 
formation  make  the  district  one  of 
great  scientific  interest.  The  minerals 
include  iron,  coal,  copper  and  lead, 
and  there  are  watm  and  cold  mineral 


springs.  Auvergne  contributes  a large 
supply  to  the  labor  markets  of  Paris 
and  Belgium,  there  being  in  Paris 
alone  some  60,000  Auvergnats. 

AUXERRE  (6-s4r),  a town,  France, 
department  of  Yonne,  110  miles  south- 
east of  Paris,  Principal  edifices:  A 
fine  Gothic  cathedral,  unfinished  ; the 
abbey  of  St.  Germain,  with  curious 
crypts;  and  an  old  Episcopal  palace, 
now  the  Hotel  de-Prefecture ; it  manu- 
factures woolens,  hats,  casks,  leather, 
earthern  ware,  violin  strings,  etc._;  trade 
chiefly  in  wood  and  wines,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  white  Chablis.  Pop. 20, 236. 

AUXOM’ETER,  an  instrument  to 
measure  the  magnifying  powers  of  an 
optical  apparatus. 

AUXONNE  (o-son ; anc.  Aussona)  a 
town,  France,  department  of  Cote- 
d’Or  (Burgundy),  on  theSaone;  a forti- 
fied place  with  some  manufactures. 
Pop.  6911. 

A’VA,  a town  in  Asia,  formerly  the 
capital  of  Burmah,  on  the  Irrawady, 
now  almost  wholly  in  ruins. 

AVA-AVA,  Arva,  Kava  or  Yava, 
plant  of  the  nat.  order  Pi peracesef  pepper 
family),  so  called  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Polynesia,  who  make  an  intoxicating 
drink  out  of  it.  Its  leaves  are  chewed 
with  betel  in  Southeastern  Asia. 

AV'ALANCHES,  large  masses  of  snow 
or  ice  precipitated  from  the  mountains, 
and  distinguished  as  wind  or  dust  ava- 
lanches, when  they  consist  of  fresh- 
fallen  snow  whirled  like  a dust  storm 
into  the  valleys;  as  sliding  avalanches, 
when  they  consist  of  great  masses  of 
snow  sliding  down  a slope  by  their  own 
weight ; and  as  glacier  or  summer  ava- 
lanches, when  ice-masses  are  detached 
by  heat  from  the  high  glaciers. 

AVELLINO  (a-vel-le'no),  a town  in 
southern  Italy,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Avellino,  29  miles  east  of  Naples,  the 
seat  of  a bishop.  Avellino  nuts  were 
celebrated  under  the  Romans.  Pop. 
16,376. — Area  of  the  province,  1409  sq. 
miles;  pop.  419,688. 

A-'VE  MARI' A,  the  first  two  words  of 
the  angel  Gabriel’s  salutation  (Luke  i. 
28),  and  the  beginning  of  the  very  com- 
mon Latin  prayer  to  the  Virgin  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Its  lay  use 
was  sanctioned  at  the  end  of  the  12th 
century,  and  a papal  edict  of  1326  or- 
dains the  repetition  of  the  prayer  thrice 
each  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  the 
hour  being  indicated  by  sound  of  bells 
called  the  Ave  Maria  or  Angelus  Domini. 
The  prayers  are  counted  upon  the  small 
beaus  of  the  rosary,  as  the  Paternosters 
are  upon  the  largest  ones. 

AVERAGE,  in  maritime  law,  any 
charge  or  expense  over  and  above  the 
freight  of  goods,  and  payable  by  their 
owner. — General  average  is  the  sum  fall- 
ing to  be  paid  by  the  owners  of  ship, 
cargo  and  freight,  in  proportion  to  their 
several  interests,  to  make  good  any 
loss  or  expense  intentionally  incurred 
for  the  general  safety  of  ship  and  cargo, 
e.  g.  throwing  goods  overboard,  cutting 
away  masts,  port  dues  in  cases  of  dis- 
tress, etc. — Particular  average  is  the 
sum  falling  to  be  paid  for  unavoidable 
loss  when  the  general  safety  is  not  in 
question,  and  therefore  chargeable  on 
the  individual  owner  of  the  property 
lost.  A policy  of  insurance  generally 


covers  both  general  and  particular 
average,  unless  specially  excepted. 

AVESTA.  See  Zendavesta. 

AVEYRON  (i-va-ron),  a department 
occupying  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
central  plateau  of  France,  traversed  by 
mountains  belonging  to  the  Cevennes 
and  the  Cantal  ranges;  principal  rivers, 
Aveyron,  Lot,  and  Tarn,  the  Lot  alone 
being  navigable.  The  climate  is  cold, 
and  agriculture  is  in  a backward  state, 
but  considerable  attention  is  paid  to 
sheep-breeding.  It  is  poted  for  its 
“Roquefort  cheese.’’  It  has  coal,  iron  and 
copper  mines,  beside^  other  minerals. 
Area,  3340  sq.  miles;  capital,  Rhodez. 
Pop.  377,559. 

AVIGNON  (a-ve-nyon),  an  old  town 
of  s.e.  France,  capital  of  department 
Vaucluse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhone;  inclosed  by  lofty  battlemented 
and  turreted  walls,  well  built,  but  with 
rather  narrow  streets.  The  silk  manu- 
facture and  the  rearing  of  silk-worms 
are  tfie  principal  employments  in  the 
district.  Here  Petrarch  lived  several 
years,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Laura,  whose  tobib  is  in  the  Franciscan 
church.  From  1309  to  1376  seven  popes 
in  succession,  from  Clement  V.  to 
Gregory  XL,  resided  in  this  city.  After 
its  purchase  by  Pope  Clement  VI.  in 
1348  Avignon  and  its  district  continued, 
with  a few  interruptions,  under  the 
rule  of  a vice-legate  of  the  pope’s  till 
1791,  when  it  was  formally  united  to  the 
French  Republic.  Pop.  46,209. 

AVILA  (a've-la),  town  of  Spain,  capital 
of  province  of  Avila,  a modern  di^ision 
of  Old  Castile.  Pop.,  town,  11,885; 
province,  197,164. 

AV'OSET,  a bird  about  the  size  of  a 
lapwing.  The  bill  is  long,  slender, 
elastic,  and  bent  upward  toward  the 
tip,  the  legs  long,  the  feet  webbed,  and 
the  plumage  variegated  with  black  and 


white.  The  bird  feeds  on  worms  and 
other  small  animals,  which  it  scoops  up 
from  the  mud  of  the  marshes  and  fens 
that  it  frequents.  It  is  found  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America;  but  the 
American  species  is  slightly  different 
from  the  other. 

AX,  or  AXE,  a well-known  tool  for 
cutting  or  chipping  wood,  consisting  of 
an  iron  head  with  an  arched  cutting  edge 
of  steel,  which  is  in  line  with  the  wooden 
handle  of  the  tool,  and  not  at  right 
angles  to  it  as  in  the  adz. 

AX'IOM,  a universal  proposition, 
which  the  understanding  must  perceive 
to  be  true  as  soon  as  it  perceives  the 
meaning  of  the  words,  and  therefore 
called  a self-evident  truth:  e.g.,  A is  A. 
In  mathematics  axioms  are  those  prop- 
ositions which  are  assumed  without 
proof,  as  being  in  themselves  independ- 


AXIS 


BABCOCK 


ent  of  proof,  and  which  are  made  the 
basis  of  all  the  subsequent  reasoning; 
as,  “The  whole  is  greater  than  its  part” ; 
“Things  that  are  equal  to  the  same 
thing  are  equal  to  one  another.” 

AXIS,  the  straight  line,  real  or  im- 
aginary, passing  through  a body  or  mag- 
nitude, on  which  it  revolves,  or  may  b^e 
supposed  to  revolve;  especially  a 
straight  line  with  regard  to  which  the 
different  parts  of  a magnitude,  or  several 
magnitudes,  are  symmetrically  arranged; 
e g.,  the  axis  of  the  world,  the  imagi- 
nary line  drawn  through  its  two  poles. 

In  botany  the  v.mrd  is  also  used,  the 
stem  being  termed  the  ascending  axis, 
the  root  the  descending  axis. 

In  anatomy  the  name  is  given  to  the 
second  vertebra  from  the  head,  that 
on  which  the  atlas  moves.  See  Atlas. 

AYE-AYE  (i'i),  an  animal  of  Mada- 
gascar, so  called  from  its  cry,  now  referred 
to  the  lemur  family.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a hare,  has  large  flat  ears  and  a bushy 


Aye-aye. 


tail;  large  eyes;  long  sprawling  Angers, 
the  third  so  slender  as  to  appear  shriv- 
eled; color,  musk-brown,  mixed  with 
black  and  gray  ash;  feeds  on  grubs, 
fruits,  etc.;  habits,  nocturnal. 

AYR  (ar),  a town  of  Scotland,  a royal 
and  pari,  burgh,  and  capital  of  Ayrshire, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ayr,  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde.  The  house  in  which 
Burns  was  born  stands  within  1^  miles 
of  the  town,  between  it  and  the  church 
of  Alloway  (“Alloway’s  auld  haunted 
kirk”),  and  a monument  to  him  stands 
on  a height  between  the  kirk  and  the 
bridge  over  the  Boon.  Pop.  28,697. — 
The  county  has  a length  along  the  Firth 
of  Clyde  and  North  Channel  of  80  miles; 


area,  735,262  acres.  It  is  divided  into 
the  districts  of  Carrick  in  the  south, 
Kyle  in  the  middle,  and  Cunningham  in 
the  north.  Chief  towns,  Ayr,  ffilmar- 
nock,  and  Irvine.  North  Ayrshire  and 
South  Ayrshire  each  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  (1901),  254,436. 

AZA'LEA,  a genus  of  plants  remark- 
able for  the  beauty  and'  fragrance  of 
their  flowers,  and  distinguished  from 
the  rhododendrons  chiefly  by  the 
flowers  having  five  stamens  instead 


of  ten.  Many  beautiful  rhododer  drons 
with  deciduous  leaves  are  known  under 
the  name  of  azalea  in  gardens.  The 
azaleas  are  common  in  North  America. 

AZAMGARH,  a town  of  India,  United 
Provinces,  capital  of  dist.  of  same  name. 
Pop.  18,528. — The  district  has  an  area 
of  2418  sq.  miles;  a pop.  of  1,728,625. 

AZERBIJAN  (a-zer-bi-jan'),  a province 
of  northwestern  Persia;  area,  40,000 
sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000. 
It  consists  generally  of  lofty  mountain 
ranges,  some  of  which  rise  to  a height  of 
between  12,000  and  13,000  feet.  Prin- 
cipal rivers : the  Aras  or  Araxes,  and  the 
Kizil-Uzen,  which  enter  the  Caspian; 
smaller  streams  discharge  themselves 
within  the  province  into  the  great  salt 
lake  of  Urumiyah. 

AZORES  (a-z6rz'  or  a-z6'res)  or  WEST- 
ERN ISLANDS,  a ^oup  belonging  to  and 
900  miles  west  of  Portugal,  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean.  The  total  area  is  about 
900  sq.  miles;  SS,o  Miguel  (containing 
the  capital  Ponta  Delgada),  Pico,  and 
Terceira  are  the  largest.  The  islands, 
which  are  volcanic  and  subject  to  earth- 
quakes, are  apparently  of  comparatively 


recent  origin,  and  are  conical,  lofty, 
precipitous,  and  picturesque.  The  most 
remarkable  summit  is  the  peak  of  Pico, 
about  7600  feet  high.  There  are  nu- 
merous hot  springs.  They  are  covered 
with  luxuriant  vegetation,  and  diversi- 
fied with  woods,  corn-fields,  vineyards, 
lemon  and  orange  groves,  and  rich  open 
pastures.  When  first  visited  they  were 
uninhabited,  and  had  scarcely  any  other 
animals  except  birds,  particularly 
hawks,  to  which,  called  in  Portuguese 
acores,  the  islands  owe  their  name. 
Pop.  256,615. 

AZ'TECS,  a race  of  people  who  settled 
in  Mexico  early  in  the  14th  century, 
ultimately  extended  their  dominion 
over  a large  territory,  and  w'ere  still  ex- 
tending their  supremacy  at  the  time  of 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  by  whom 
they  M^ere  speedily  subjugated.  Their 
piost  celebrated  ruler  was  Montezuma, 
who  was  reigning  when  the  Spaniards 
arrived,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century.  It  is  inferred  that  consider- 
able numbers  of  them  lived  in  large  com- 
munal residences,  and  that  land  was  held 
and  cultivated  upon  the  communal 
principle.  Slavery  and  polygamy  were 
both  legitimate,  but  the  children  of 
slaves  were  regarded  as  free.  Although 
ignorant  of  the  horse,  ox,  etc.,  they  had 
a considerable  knowledge  of  agriculture, 
maize  and  the  agave  being  the  chief 
produce.  Silver,  lead,  tin,  and  copper 
were  obtained  from  mines,  and  gold  from 
the  surface  and  river  beds,  but  iron  was 
unknown  to  them,  their  tools  being  of 
bronze  and  obsidian.  In  metal -work, 
feather-work,  weaving,  and  potter}', 
they  possessed  a high  degree  of  skill. 
To  record  events  they  used  an  unsolved 
hieroglyphic  writing,  and  their  lunar 
calendars  , were  of  unusual  accuracy. 
Two  special  deities  claimed  their  rever- 
ence: Hintzilopochtli,  the  god  of  war, 
propitiated  with  human  sacrifices;  and 
Quetzalcoatl,  the  beneficent  god  of  light 
and  air,  with  whom  at  first  the  Aztecs 
were  disposed  to  identify  Cortez.  Their 
temples,  with  large  terraced  pyramidal 
bases,  were  in  the  charge  of  an  exceed- 
ingly large  priesthood,  with  whom  lay 
the  education  of  the  young.  As  a civil- 
ization of  apparently  independent  origin, 
yet  closely  resembling  in  many  features 
the  archaic  oriental  civilizations,  the 
Aztec  civilization  is  of  the  first  interest, 
but  in  most  accounts  of  it  a large  specu- 
lative element  has  to  be  discounted. 


B 


B is  the  second  letter  and  the  first 
consonant  in  the  English  and  most 
other  alphabets.  It  is  a mute  and 
labial,  pronounced  solely  by  the  lips, 
and  is  distinguished  from  p by  being 
sonant,  that  is,  produced  by  the  utter- 
ance of  voice  as  distinguished  from 
breath. 

B,  in  music,  the  seventh  note  of  the 
model  diatonic  scale  or  scale  of  C.  It  is 
called  the  leading  note,  as  there  is  always 
a feeling  of  suspense  when  it  is  sounded 
until  the  key-note  is  heard. 

BA'AL,  BEL,  a Hebrew  and  general 
Semitic  word,  which  originally  appears 


to  have  been  generic,  signifying  simply 
lord,  and  to  have  been  applied  to  many 
different  divinities,  or,  with  quaUfjdng 
epithets,  to  the  same  divinity  regarded 
in  different  aspects  and  as  exercising 
different  functions.  Thus  in  Hos.  ii.  16 
it  is  applied  to  Jehovah  himself,  while 
Baal-berith  (the  Covenant-lord)  was  the 
god  of  the  Shechemites,  and  Baal-zebub 
(the  Fly-god)  the  idol  of  the  Philistines 
at  Ekron. 

BABBITT,  Isaac,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Massachusetts  in  1799, 
died  1862.  He  invented  the  amalgam 
known  as  Babbitt  metal,  for  which  con- 


gress gave  him  a grant  of  $20,000  and  a 
gold  medal. 

BABBITT-METAL,  a soft  metal  result- 
ing from  alloying  together  certain  pro- 
portions of  copper,  tin,  and  zinc  or 
antimony,  used  with  the  view  of  as 
far  as  possible  obviating  friction  in 
the  bearings  of  journals,  cranks,  axles, 
etc.,  invented  by  Isaac  Babbitt  (1799- 
1862),  a goldsmith  of  Taunton,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

BABCOCK,  James  Francis,  an  Ameri- 
can chemist,  born  in  Boston  in  1844, 
died  there  in  1897.  His  principal  dis- 
tinction, aside  from  his  teaching  career. 


BABCOCK 


BABYROUSSA 


was  his  invention  of  a useful  fire-ex- 
tinguisher. 

BABCOCK,  Stephen  Moulton,  an 
American  chemist,  born  in  New  York  in 
1843  He  invented  the  Babcock  milk- 
tester,  which  he  did  not  patent,  so  that 
its  benefits  would  be  free  to  the  public 
In  1893  he  was  made  professor  of  agri- 
cultural chemistry  in  the  University  of 
Wisconsin. 

B A'BEL,  TOWER  OF,  according  to  the 
11th  chapter  of  Genesis,  a structure  in 
the  Plain  of  Shinar,  Mesopotamia,  com- 
menced by  the  descendants  of  Noah  sub- 
sequent to  the  deluge,  but  which  was  not 
allowed  to  proceed  to  completion.  It 
has  commonly  been  identified  with  the 
great  temple  of  Belus  or  Bel  that  was 
one  of  the  chief  edifices  in  Babylon,  and 
the  huge  mound  called  Birs  Nimrud  is 
generally  regarded  as  its  site,  though 
another  mound,  which  to  this  day  beais 
the  name  of  Babil,  has  been  assigned  by 
some  as  its  site.  Babel  means  literally 
‘‘gate  of  God.”  The  meaning  “con- 
fusion” assigned  to  it  in  the  Bible  really 
belongs  to  a word  of  similar  form.  See 
Babylon. 

BABOON',  a common  name  applied  to 
a division  of  old-world  apes  and  mon- 
keys. They  have  elongated  abrupt 
muzzles  like  a dog,  strong  tusks  or  ca- 
nine teeth,  usually  short  tails,  cheek- 


Baboon  mother  and  infant. 


pouches,  small  deep  eyes  with  large 
eyebrows,  and  naked  callosities  on  the 
buttocks.  Their  hind  and  fore  feet  are 
well  proportioned,  so  that  they  run 
easily  on  all  fours,  but  they  do  not 
maintain  themselves  in  an  upright 
posture  with  facility.  They  are  gen- 
erally of  the  size  of  a moderately  large 
dog,  but  the  largest,  the  mandrill,  is, 
when  erect,  nearly  of  the  height  of  a 
man.  They  are  almost  all  African,  ugly, 
sullen,  fierce,  lascivious,  and  gregarious, 
defending  themselves  by  throwing 
stones,  dirt,  etc.  They  live  on  fruits  and 
roots,  eggs  and  insects. 

BAB'YLON,  the  capital  of  Babylonia, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  splendid  cities  of 
the  ancient  world,  now  a scene  of  ruins, 
and  earth-mounds  containing  them. 
Babylon  was  a royal  city  sixteen  nundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era;  but  the 
old  city  was  almost  entirely  destroyed 
in  683  B.c.  A new  city  was  built  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  nearly  a century  later. 
This  was  in  the  form  of  a square,  each 


side  15  miles  long,  with  walls  of  such 
immense  height  and  thickness  as  to  con- 
stitute one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
It  contained  splendid  edifices,  large 
gardens  and  pleasure-grounds,  especially 
the  “hanging-gardens,”  a sort  of  lofty 
terraced  structure  supporting  earth 
enough  for  trees  to  grow,  and  the  cele- 
brated tower  of  Babel  or  temple  of  Belus, 
rising  by  stages  to  the  height  of  625  feet. 
After  the  city  was  taken  by  Cyrus  in 
538  B.C.,  and  Babylonia  made  a Persian 
province,  it  began  to  decline,  and  had 
suffered  severely  by  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  He  intended  to  restore 
it,  but  was  prevented  by  his  death, 
which  took  place  here  in  323  b.c.,  from 
which  time  its  decay  was  rapid.  In- 
teresting discoveries  have  been  made  on 
its  site  in  recent  times,  more  especially  of 
numerous  and  valuable  inscriptions  in 
the  cuneiform  or  arrow-head  character. 
The  modern  town  of  Hillah  is  believed  to 
represent  the  ancient  city,  and  the  plain 
here  for  miles  round  is  studded  with 
vast  mounds  of  earth  and  brick  and 
imposing  ruins.  The  greatest  mound  is 
Birs  Nimrud,  about  6 miles  from  Hillah. 
It  rises  nearly  200  feet,  is  crowned  by  a 
ruined  tower,  and  is  commonly  believed 
to  be  the  remains  of  the  ancient  temple 
of  Belus.  Another  great  ruin-mound, 
called  Mujellibeh,  has  also  been  assigned 
as  its  site. 

BABYLONIA,  an  old  Asiatic  empire 
occupying  the  region  watered  by  the 
lower  course  of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris,  and  by  their  combined  stream. 
The  inhabitants,  though  usually  desig- 
nated Babylonians,  were  sometimes 
called  Chaldeans,  and  it  is  thought  that 
the  latter  name  represents  a superior 
caste  who  at  a comparatively  late  period 
gained  influence  in  the  country.  At 
the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have 
record  the  whole  valley  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  was  inhabited  by  tribes 
of  Turanian  or  Tatar  origin.  Along 
with  these,  however,  there  early  existed 
an  intrusive  Semitic  element,  which 
gradually  increased  in  number  till  at 
the  time  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians 
(the  latter  being  a kindred  people)  be- 
came known  to  the  western  historians 
they  were  essentially  Semitic  peoples. 
The  great  city  Babylon  (which  see), 
or  Babel,  was  the  capital  of  Babylonia, 
which  was  called  by  the  Hebrews 
Shinar.  The  country  was,  as  it  still  is, 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  must  have 
anciently  supported  a dense  population. 
The  chief  cities,  besides  Babylon,  were 
Ur,  Calneh,  Erech,  and  Sippara.  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria  were  often  spoken  of 
together  as  Assyria. 

The  discovery  and  interpretation  of 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  have  enabled 
the  history  of  Babylonia  to  be  carried 
back  to  about  4000  b.c.,  at  which  period 
the  inhabitants  had  attained  a consider- 
able degree  of  civilization,  and  the 
country  was  ruled  by  a number  of  kings 
or  princes  each  in  his  own  city.  About 
2700  B.c.  Babylonia  came  under  the  rule 
of  a single  monarch.  Latterly  it  had 
serious  wars  with  neighboring  nations, 
and  for  seve’-al  hundred  years  previous 
to  2000  B.c.  Babylonia  was  subject  to 
the  neighboring  Elam.  It  then  regained 
its  independence,  and  for  a thousand 
year,"  it  was  the  foremost  state  of  west- 


ern Asia  in  power,  as  well  as  in  science, 
art,  and  civilization.  The  rise  of  the 
Assyrian  empire  brought  about  the 
decline  of  Babylonia,  which  latterly 
was  under  Assyrian  domination,  though 
with  intervals  of  independence.  Tig- 
lath-Pileser  II.  of  Assyria  (745-727) 
made  himself  master  of  Babylonia;  but 
the  conquest  of  the  country  had  to  be 
repeated  by  his  successor,  Sargon,  who 
expelled  the  Babylonian  king,  Merodach- 
baladan,  and  all  but  Anally  subdued  the 
country,  the  complete  subjugation  being 
effected  by  Sennacherib.  After  some 
sixty  years  the  second  or  later  Baby- 
lonian empire  arose  under  Nabopolassar, 
who,  joining  the  Medes  against  the 
Assyrians,  freed  Babylon  from  the 
superiority  of  the  latter  power,  625 
B.c.  The  new  empire  was  at  its  height 
of  power  and  glory  under  Nabopolassar’s 
son,  Nebuchadnezzar  (604-561),  who 
subjected  Jerusalem,  lyre,  Phoenicia, 
and  «ven  Egpyt,  and  carried  his  domin- 
ion to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  northward  to  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains. The  capital,  Babylon,  was  rebuilt 
by  him,  and  then  formed  one  of  the 
greatest  and  most  magnificent  cities 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Evil-merodach,  but 
the  dynasty  soon  came  to  an  end,  the 
last  king  being  Nabonetus  or  Nabona- 
dius,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  b.c. 
555,  and  made  his  son,  Belshazzar, 
co-ruler  with  him.  Babylon  was  taken 
by  Cyrus  the  Persian  monarch  in  538, 
and  the  second  Babylonian  empire 
came  to  an  end,  Babylonia  being  incor- 
porated in  the  Persian  empire.  Its 
subsequent  history  was  similar  to  that 
of  Assyria. 

BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY,  a term 
usually  applied  to  the  deportation  of  the 
two  tribes  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  to 
Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  585  b.c. 
The  duration  of  this  captivity  is  usually 
reckoned  seventy  years,  though  strictly 
speaking  it  lasted  only  fifty-six  years. 
A great  part  of  the  ten  tribes  of  Israel 
had  been  previously  taken  captive  to 
Assyria. 

BABYROUSSA  (bab-i-rus'a),  a species 
of  wild  hog,  a native  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  From  the  outside  of  the 
upper  jaw  spring  two  teeth  12  inches 
long,  curving  upward  and  backward 


Babyroussa. 

like  horns,  and  almost'  touching  the 
forehead.  The  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw 
also  appear  externally,  though  they 
are  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  upper 
jaw.  Along  the  back  are  some  weak 
bristles,  and  on  the  rest  of  the  body 
only  a sort  of  wool.  These  animals 
live  in  herds,  feed  on  herbage,  are 


BACCARAT 


BACON 


sometimes  tamed,  and  their  flesh  is  well 
flavored. 

BAC'CARAT,  a gambling  game  of 
French  origin,  played  by  any  number 
of  players,  or  rather  betters,  and  a 
banker.  The  latter  deals  two  cards  to 
each  player  and  two  to  himself,  and 
covers  the  stakes  of  each  with  an  equal 
sum.  The  cards  are  then  examined,  and 
according  to  the  scores  made  the  players 
take  their  own  stake  and  the  banker’s, 
or  the  latter  takes  all  or  a certain  num- 
ber of  the  stakes. 

BACCHANA'LIA,  feasts  in  honor  of 
Bacchus,  characterized  by  licentious- 
ness and  revelry,  and  celebrated  in 
ancient  Athens.  In  the  processions 
were  bands  of  Bacchantes  of  both 
sexes,  who,  inspired  by  real  or  feigned 
intoxication,  wandered  about  rioting 
and  dancing.  They  were  clothed  in 
fawn-skins,  crowned  with  ivy,  and  bore 
in  their  hands  thyrsi,  that  is  spears 
entwined  with  ivy,  or  having  a pine- 
cone  stuck  on  the  point.  These  feasts 
passed  from  the  Greeks  lo  the  Romans, 
who  celebrated  them  with  still  greater 
dissoluteness  till  the  senate  abolished 
them  B.c.  187 

BACCHUS  Cbak'us),  the  god  of  wine, 
son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  SSmgle.  He 
first  taught  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
and  the  preparation  of  wine.  To  spread 
the  knowledge  of  his  invention  he 
traveled  over  various  countries  and 
received  in  every  quarter  divine  honors. 
Drawn  by  lions  (some  say  panthers, 
tigers,  or  lynxes;,  he  began  his  march, 
which  resembled  a triumphal  procession 
Those  who  opposed  him  were  severely 
punished,  but  on  those  who  received  him 
hospitably  he  bestowed  rewards.  His 
love  was  shared  by  several;  but  Ariadne, 
whom  he  found  deserted  upon  Naxos, 
alone  was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a 
wife,  and  became  a sharer  of  his  im- 
mortality. 

BACH  (bah),  Johann  Sebastian,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  German  musicians,  was 
born  in  1685,  at  Eisenach;  died  in  1750, 
at  Leipzig.  Being  the  son  of  a musician 
he  was  early  trained  in  the  art,  and  soon 
distinguished  himself.  In  1703  he  was 
engaged  as  a player  at  the  court  of 
Weimar,  and  subsequently  he  was 
musical  director  to  the  Duke  of  Anhalt- 
Kothen,  and  latterly  held  an  appoint- 
ment at  Leipzig.  He  paid  a visit  to 
Potsdam  on  the  invitation  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  As  a player  on  the  harpsi- 
chord and  organ  he  had  no  equal  among 
his  contemporaries;  but  it  was  not  till 
a century  after  his  death  that  his  great- 
ness as  a composer  was  fully  recognized. 
His  compositions  breathe  an  original 
inspiration,  and  are  largely  of  the 
religious  kind.  They  include  pieces, 
vocal  and  instrumental,  for  the  organ, 
piano,  stringed  and  keyed  instruments; 
church  cantatas,  oratorios,  masses,  pas- 
sion music,  etc. 

BACH'ELOR,  a terra  applied  an- 
ciently to  a person  in  the  first  or  pro- 
bationary stage  of  knighthood  who  has 
not  yet  raised  his  standard  in  the  field. 
It  also  denotes  a person  who  has  taken 
the  first  degree  in  the  liberal  arts  and 
sciences,  or  in  divinity,  law,  or  medi- 
cine, at  a college  or  university;  or  a man 
of  any  age  who  has  not  been  married. 


BACHELOR’S  DEGREE,  an  academic  I 
degree  given  at  the  end  of  the  first  stage 
of  collegiate  education,  preliminary  to 
the  master’s  or  doctor’s  degree.  A.B. 
is  the  abbreviation  of  bachelor  of  arts, 
S.B.  of  bachelor  of  science,  Ph.B.  of 
bachelor  of  philosophy,  LL.B.  of  bache- 
lor of  laws,  D.B.  of  bachelor  of  divinity, 
Litt.B.  of  bachelor  of  letters,  and  so  on. 

BACHELOR’S  BUTTONS,  the  double- 
flowering buttercup,  with  white  or 
yellow  blossoms,  common  in  gardens. 

BACIL'LUS,  the  name  applied  to  cer- 
tain minute  rod-like  miscroscopic  organ- 
isms (Bacteria)  which  often  appear  in 
putrefactions,  and  one  of  which  is  be- 
lieved to  hold  a constant  causative 
relation  to  tubercule  in  the  lung,  and  to 
be  present  in  all  cases  of  phthisis. 
Others  are  alleged  to  be  connected  with 
anthrax,  typhoid  fever,  erysipelas,  etc. 
See  Bacteria. 

BACKGAM'MON,  a game  played  by 
two  persons  upon  a table  or  board  made 
for  the  purpose,  with  pieces  or  men,  dice- 
boxes,  and  dice.  The  table  is  in  two 
parts,  on  which  are  twenty-four  black 
and  white  spaces  called  points.  Each 
player  has  fifteen  men  of  different  colors 
for  the  purpose  of  distinction.  The 
movements  of  the  men  are  made  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  numbers  turned  up 
by  the  dice. 

BACON,  Delia  Salter,  an  American 
author  and  a conspicuous  contributor 
to  the  Uterature  in  which  is  discussed 
the  probability  that  Sir  Francis  Bacon 
was  the  author  of  Shakespeare’s  plays. 
She  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1811  and  died 
in  London  in  1859.  She  published 
several  stories,  and  in  1857  the  Philos- 
ophy of  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare 
Unfolded,  for  which  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne wrote  the  preface. 

BACON,  Francis,  Baron  of  Verulam, 
Viscount  St.  Albans,  and  Lord  High 
Chancellor  of  England;  was  born  at 
London  in  1561,  died  at  Highgate  in 


Francis  Bacon. 


1626.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1575  was 
admitted  to  Gray’s  Inn.  In  1584  he 
became  member  of  parliament  for  Mel- 
combe  Regis,  and  soon  after  drew  up  a 
Letter  of  Aavice  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  an 
able  political  memoir.  In  1586  he  was 


member  for  Taunton,  in  1589  for  Liver- 
pool. A year  or  two  after  he  gained  the 
Earl  of  Essex  as  a friend  and  patron. 
Bacon’s  talents  and  his  connection  with 
the  lord-treasurer  Burleigh,  who  had 
married  his  mother’s  sister,  and  his  son 
Sir  Robert  Cecil,  first  secretary  of  state, 
seemed  to  promise  him  the  highest  pro- 
motion; but  he  had  displeased  the 
queen,  and  when  he  applied  for  the 
attorney-generalship,  and  next  for  the 
solicitor-generalship  (1595),  he  was  un- 
successful. Essex  endeavored  to  in- 
demnify him  by  the  donation  of  an 
estate  in  land.  Bacon,  however,  for- 
got his  obligations  to  his  benefactor^ 
and  not  only  abandoned  him  as  soon  as 
he  had  fallen  into  disgrace,  but  without 
being  obliged  took  part  against  him  on 
his  trial,  in  1601,  and  was  active  in  ob- 
taining his  conviction.  He  had  been 
chosen  member  for  the  county  of  Middle- 
sex in  1593,  and  for  Southampton  in 
1597,  and  had  long  been  a queen’s 
counsel.  The  reign  of  James  I.  was 
more  favorable  t^o  his  interest.  He 
was  assiduous  in  courting  the  king’s 
favor,  and  James,  who  was  ambitious 
of  being  considered  a patron  of  letters, 
conferred  upon  him  in  1603  the  order  of 
knighthood.  In  1604  he  was  appointed 
king’s  counsel;  in  1606  he  married;  in 
1607  he  became  solicitor-general,  and 
six  years  after  attorney-general.  In 
1617  he  was  made  lord-keeper  of  the 
seals;  in  1618  Lord  High  Chancellor  of 
England  and  Baron  Verulam.  In  this 
year  he  lent  his  influence  to  bring  a 
verdict  of  guilty  against  Raleigh.  In 
1621  he  was  made  Viscount  St.  Albans. 
Soon  after  this  his  reputation  received 
a fatal  blow.  A new  parliament  was 
formed  in  1621,  and  the  lord-chancellor 
was  accused  before  the  house  of  bribery, 
corruption,  and  other  malpractices.  It 
is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  full  extent 
of  his  guilt;  but  he  seems  to  have  been 
unable  to  justify  himself,  and  handed  in 
a “confession  and  humble  submission,” 
throwing  himself  on  the  mercy  of  the 
Peers.  In  1597  he  published  his  cele- 
brated Essays,  which  immediately  be- 
came very  popular,  were  successively 
enlarged  and  extended,  and  translated 
into  Latin,  French,  and  Italian.  The 
treatise  on  the  Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing appeared  in  1605;  The  Wisdom  of 
the  Ancients  in  1609;  his  great  philo- 
sophical work,  the  Novum  Organum,  in 
1620;  and  the  De  Augmentis  Scientia- 
rum,  a much  enlarged  edition  of  the 
Advancement,  in  1623.  His  New  At- 
lantis was  written  about  1614^17;  Life 
of  Henry  VII.  about  1621.  Bacon  was 
great  as  a moralist,  a historian,  a writer 
on  politics,  and  a rhetorician;  but  it 
is  as  the  father  of  the  inductive  method 
in  science,  as  the  powerful  exponent  of 
the  principle  that  facts  must  be  observed 
and  collected  before  theorizing,  that  he 
occupies  the  grand  position  he  holds 
among  the  world’s  great  ones. 

BACON,  Nathaniel,  an  American 
colonist  of  Virginia.  He  was  a remote 
cousin  of  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  and 
educated  for  the  law.  He  took  part  in 
the  Indian  wars  of  1675-6,  and  was 
carried  off  by  dysentery  in  the  midst 
of  political  strife.  He  was  born  in  1648. 

BACON,  Roger,  an  English  monk,  and 
one  of  the  most  profound  and  original 


BACTERIA 


BAGGAGE 


thinkers  of  his  day,  was  bom  about  1214, 
near  Ilchester,  Somersetshire;  died  at 
Oxford  in  1294.  His  most  important 
work  is  his  Opus  Majus,  v here  he  dis- 
cusses the  relation  of  ph  msophy  to 
religion,  and  then  treats  of  language, 
metaphysics,  optics,  and  experimental 
science.  He  was  undoubtedly  the 
earliest  philosophical  experimentalist  in 
Britain;  he  made  signal  advances  in 
optics;  was  an  excellent  chemist;  and 
in  all  probability  discovered  gunpowder. 
He  was  intimately  acquainted  with 
geography  and  astronomy,  as  appears 
by  his  discovery  of  the  errors  of  the 
calendar,  and  their  causes,  and  by  his 
proposals  for  correcting  them,  in  which 
he  approached  very  near  to  truth. 

BACTE'RIA,  minute  vegetable  organ- 
isms, a few  species  of  which  are  produc- 
tive of  disease  when  introduced  into  the 
animal  organism.  The  vast  majority  of 
bacteria  are  harmless  and  many  of  them 


A.  1,  single  bacilli;  2,  bacilli,  forming 
threads  and  developing  spores.  The  bright 
oval  body  in  the  center  of  each  bacillus  is  a 
spore.  B.  1,  ordinary  form  without  .spores; 
2.  with  spores;  3.  free  spores;  4.  a mass  of 
spores.  (After  Klein.) 

are  useful  to  the  human  economy. 
Poisonous  bacteria  are  called  “patho- 
genic,” or  disease-producing;  the  innoc- 
uous ones  are  called  “non-pathogenic.” 
“Microbes,”  “disease  germs,”  “micro- 
organisms,” or  simply  “germs”  are 
other  names  for  bacteria.  Bacteria 
abound  everywhere.  Millions  of  them 
^ist  in  a glassful  of  ordinary  drinking 
water.  They  stream  through  the  pur- 
est kind  of  air  and  are  drawn  in  and 
cast  out  with  every  breath.  The  at- 
mosphere of  cities  especially  is  crowded 
with  them,  and  it  is  a growing  belief 
that  all  diseases  are  caused  by  their 
presence  and  multiplication  in  the  body. 
Experiments,  however,  give  the  hope 
that  most  of  these  diseases  will  be 
conquered,  as  bacteriology  develops 
methods  of  immuning  the  human  body 
to  the  multiplication  of  these  organisms 
in  the  blood  and  other  tissues.  (See 
Antitoxin.)  Bacteria  are  classified  as 
bacilli,  spirilli,  and  cocci.  These  names 
are  used  because  they  describe  the 
shape  of  the  different  bacteria  to  which 
they  are  applied.  Bacillus  means  a 
little  rod,  and  bacilli  are  rod-shaped. 
Spirillum  means  a spiral,  and  spirilli 
are  spiral-like,  while  coccus  means  a 
berry,  and  cocci  are  little  round  bodies. 
These  three  main  divisions  are  sub- 
divided into  numerous  species.  The 
average  size  of  bacteria  is  so  small  as 
to  surpass  comprehension.  For  ex- 
ample, 2000  of  them  in  a row,  side  by 
side,  would  hardly  stretch  across  the 
head  of  a pin.  Pneumonia  is  caused 
by  a coccus,  tuberculosis  by  a bacillus, 
and  bacteriology  has  positively  proved 
that  various  other  diseases  are  produced 
by  these  germs. 

BADAKSHAN',  a territory  of  central 
Asia,  tributary  to  the  Ameer  of  .Afghan- 
istan. It  has  the  Oxus  on  the  north. 


and  the  Hindu  Kush  on  the  south  ■ and 
has  lofty  mountains  and  fertile  valleys; 
the  chief  town  is  Faizabad.  The  inhab- 
itants profess  Mohammedanism.  Pop. 
100,000. 

BADEN  (bii'den).  Grand-duchy  of, 
one  of  the  more  important  states  of  the 
German  Empire,  .situated  in  the  s.w.  of 
Germany,  to  the  west  of  Wtirtemberg. 
It  is  divided  into  four  districts,  Con- 
stance, Freiburg,  Karlsruhe,  and  Mann- 
heim; has  an  area  of  5824  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  1,866,584.  It  is  moun- 
tainous, being  traversed  to  a consider- 
able extent  by  the  lofty  plateau  of  the 
Schwarzwald  or  Black  Forest,  which 
attains  its  highest  point  in  the  Feldberg 
(4904  feet).  The  nucleus  of  this  plateau 
consists  of  gneiss  and  granite.  In  the 
north  it  sinks  down  toward  the  Olden- 
wald,  which  is,  however,  of  different 
geological  structure,  being  composed 
for  the  most  part  of  red  sandstone.  The 
whole  of  Baden,  except  a small  portion 
in  the  s.e.,  in  which  the  Danube  takes 
its  rise,  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  which  bounds  it  on  the  south 
and  west.  Numerous  tributaries  of  the 
Rhine  intersect  it,  the  chief  being  the 
Neckar.  Lakes  are  numerous,  and 
include  a considei’able  part  of  the  Lake 
of  Constance.  The  climate  varies 
much.  The  hilly  parts,  especially  in 
the  east,  are  cold  and  have  a long  winter, 
while  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  enjoys 
the  finest  climate  of  Germany.  The 
principal  minerals  worked  are  coal, 
salt,  iron,  zinc,  and  nickel.  The  number 
of  mineral  springs  is  remarkably  great, 
and  of  these  not  a few  are  of  great 
celebrity.  The  vegetation  is  peculiarly 
rich,  and  there  are  magnificent  forests. 
The  cereals  comprise  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  rye.  Potatoes,  hemp,  tobacco, 
wine,  and  sugar-beet  are  largely  pro- 
duced. Several  of  the  wines,  both  white 
and  red,  rank  in  the  first  class.  Baden 
has  long  been  famous  for  its  fruits  also. 
Of  the  total  area  42  per  cent  is  under 
cultivation,  37  per  cent  under  forest, 
and  17  per  cent  under  meadows  ancl 
pastures.  The  farms  are  mostly  quite 
small.  The  manufactures  are  impor- 
tant. Among  thern  are  textiles,  tobacco, 
and  cigars,  chemicals,  machinery,  pot- 
tery ware,  jewelry  (especially  at  Pforz- 
heim), wooden  clocks,  confined  chiefly 
to  the  districts  of  the  Black  Forest, 
musical  boxes  and  other  musical  toj^s. 
The  capital  is  Carlsruhe,  about  5 miles 
from  the  Rhine;  the  other  chief  towns 
are  Mannheim,  Freiburg-im-Brei.sgau, 
with  a Roman  Catholic  university; 
Baden,  and  Heidelberg.  Baden  has 
warm  mineral  springs,  which  were 
known  and  used  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Heidelberg  has  a university 
(Protestant),  founded  in  1386,  the  oldest 
in  the  present  German  Empire.  The 
railways  have  a length  of  850  miles,  and 
are  nearly  all  state  property.  In  the 
time  of  the  Roman  Empire  southern 
Baden  belonged  to  the  Roman  province 
of  Rhsetia.  Under  the  old  German 
Empire  it  was  a margraviate,  which  in 
1533  was  divided  into  Baden-Baden 
and  Baden-Durlach,  but  reunited  in 
1771.  The  title  of  grand-duke  was 
conferred  by  Napolean  in  1806,  and  in 
the  same  year  Baden  was  extended  to 
its  present  limits.  The  executive  power 


is  vested  in  the  grand-duke,  the  legis- 
lative in  the  house  of  legislature,  con- 
sisting of  an  upper  and  a lower  chamber 

BADEN  (or  Baden-Baden,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  towns  of  the  same 
name),  a town  and  watering-place, 
Grand-duchy  of  Baden,  18  miles  s.s.w. 
Carlsruhe,  built  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theater on  a spur  of  the  Black  Forest, 
overhanging  a valley,  through  which 
runs  a little  stream  Oosbach.  Baden 
has  been  celebrated  from  the  remotest 
antiquity  for  its  thermal  baths;  and  it 
used  also  to  be  celebrated  for  its  gaming 
saloons.  Pop.  15,731. 

BADGER  (baj'er),  a plantigrade,  car- 
nivorous mammal,  allied  both  to  the 
bears  and  to  the  weasels,  of  a clumsy 
make,  with  short  thick  legs,  and  long 
claws  on  the  fore-feet.  The  common 
badger  is  as  large  as  a middling-sized 


Badger 


dog,  liut  much  lower  on  the  legs,  with 
a flatter  and  broader  body,  very  thick 
tough  hide,  and  long  coarse  hair.  It 
inhabits  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
burrows,  is  indolent  and  sleepy,  feeds 
by  night  on  vegetables,  small  quad- 
rupeds, etc.  Its  flesh  may  be  eaten,  and 
its  hair  is  used  for  artists’  brushes  in 
painting.  The  American  badger  be- 
longs to  a separate  genus. 

BAFFIN  BAY,  on  the  n.e.  of  North 
America  between  Greenland  and  the 
islands  that  lie  on  the  n.  of  the  conti- 
nent; discovered  by  Baffin  in  1616. 

BAGDAD',  capital  of  a Turkish  pa- 
shalic  of  the  same  name  (70,000  sq 
miles,  1,300,000  inhabitants),  in  the 
southern  part  of  Mesopotamia.  The 
greater  part  of  it  lies  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  boats;  old  Bagdad,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  caliphs  (now  in  ruins),  was 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  river. 
Manufactures:  leather,  silks,  cottons, 
woolens,  carpets,  etc.  Steamers  ply 
on  the  river  between  Bagdad  and  Bas- 
sorah,  and  the  town  exports  wheat, 
dates,  galls,  gum,  mohair,  carpets,  etc., 
to  Europe.  Bagdad  is  inhabited  by 
Turks,  Arabs,  Persians,  Armenians, 
Jews,  etc.,  and  a small  number  of  Euro- 
peans. Estimated  pop.  over  100,000. 
Bagdad  was  founded  in  762,  by  the 
Caliph  Almansur,  and  raised  to  a high 
degree  of  splendor  in  the  9th  century 
by  Harun  A1  Rashid.  It  is  the  scene  of 
a number  of  the  tales  of  the  “Arabian 
Nights.” 

BAGGAGE,  goods  carried  by  a trav- 
eler while  on  the  road.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  is  used  in  a restricted 
sense  to  designate  certain  necessary 
articles  to  be  used  by  the  person  travel- 
ing. Railroads  as  a rule  limit  the 
weight  of  the  baggage  to  be  carried 


BAGGAGE 


BAILIFF 


free  The  carrier  is  liable  for  actual 
baggage,  but  not  for  merchandise 
carried  by  the  passenger.  If  the  carrier, 
knowing  the  nature  of  the  merchandise, 
however,  accepts  them,  he  becomes 
liable  for  their  loss  through  negligence 
of  his  own. 


in  number,  besides  keys  and  rocks 
innumerable.  The  principal  islands  are 
Grand  Bahama,  Great  and  Little  Abaco, 
Andros  Islands,  New  Providence,  Eleu- 
thera,  San  Salvador,  Great  Exuma, 
Watling  Island,  Long  Island,  Crooked 
Island,  Acklin  Island,  Mariguana  Island, 


Bagdad,  from  the  south. 


BAGGAGE,  Military,  all  the  goods 
carried  by  an  army  except  those  which 
are  attached  to  the  persons  of  the  fight- 
ing men,  such  as  guns  and  ammunition. 
But  arms  and  ammunition  carried  in 
bulk  are  military  baggage.  All  officers 
are  allowed  a certain  weight  of  bag- 
gage. 

BAGHELKAND,  a tract  of  country 
in  central  India,  occupied  by  a collec- 
tion of  native  states  (Rewah  being  the 
chief),  under  the  governor-general's 
agent  for  central  India;  area,  11,323  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,737,095. 

BAGIRJVII  (ba-gir'me)  or  BAGHER- 
MI,  a Mohammedan  negro  state  in  cen- 
tral Africa,  situated  between  Bornu  and 
Waday,  to  the  south  of  Lake  Tchad. 
It  is  mostly  a plain ; has  an  area  of  about 
56,000  sq  miles,  and  about  1,500,000 
inhabitants 

BAGPIPE,  a musical  wind-instrument 
of  very  great  antiquity,  having  been 
used  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and 
being  a favorite  instrument  over  Europe 
generally  in  the  15th  century.  It  still 
continues  in  use  among  the  country 
people  of  Poland,  Italy,  the  south  of 
France,  and  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
Though  now  often  regarded  as  the 
national  instrument  of  Scotland,  espe- 
cially Celtic  Scotland,  it  is  only  Scottish 
by  adoption,  being  introduced  into  that 
country  from  England.  It  consists  of 
a leathern  bag,  which  receives  the  air 
from  the  mouth,  or  from  bellows;  and 
of  pipes,  into  which  the  air  is  pressed 
from  the  bag  by  the  performer’s  elbow. 
In  the  common  or  Highland  form  one 
pipe  (called  the  chanter)  plays  the 
melody;  of  the  three  others  (called 
drones)  two  are  in  unison  with  the 
lowest  A of  the  chanter,  and  the  third 
and  longest  an  octave  lower,  the  sound 
being  produced  by  means  of  reeds. 

BAHA'MA  ISLANDS,  or  LUCAYOS,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
forming  a colony  belonging  to  Britain, 
lying  n.e.  of  Cuba  and  s.e.  of  the  coast 
of  Florida,  the  Gulf-stream  passing  be- 
tween them  and  the  mainland.  They 
extend  a distance  of  upward  of  600 
miles,  and  are  said  to  be  twenty-nine 


Great  Inagua.  Of  the  whole  group 
about  twenty  are  inhabited,  the  most 
populous  being  New  Providence,  which 
contains  the  capital,  Nassau,  the  largest 
being  Andros,  100  miles  long,  20  to  40 
broad.  They  are  low  and  flat,  and  have 
in  many  parts  extensive  forests.  Total 
area,  5400  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is  a thin 
but  rich  vegetable  mold,  and  the  prin- 
cipal product  is  pineapples,  which  form 
the  most  important  export.  The  islands 
are  a favorite  winter  resort  for  those 
afflicted  with  pulmonary  diseases.  San 
Salvador,  or  Cat  Island,  is  generally 
believed  to  be  the  same  as  Guanahani, 
the  land  first  touched  on  by  Columbus 
(October  12,  1492)  on  his  first  great 
voyage  of  discovery.  Pop.  53,735,  in- 
cluding 14,000  whites. 

BAHA'WALPUR,  a town  of  India, 
capital  of  state  of  same  name  in  the 
Punjab,  2 miles  from  the  Sutlej;  sur- 
rounded by  a mud  wall  and  containing 
the  extensive  palace  of  the  Nawab. 
Pop.  18,700. — The  state  has  an  area  of 


BAHIA  (ba*e'a),  a town  of  Brazil,  on 
the  Bay  of  All  Saints,  province  of  Bahia 
It  consists  of  a lower  town,  which  is 
little  more  than  an  irregular,  narrow, 
and  dirty  street,  stretching  about  4 
miles  along  the  shore;  and  an  upper 
town,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
steep  street,  much  better  built.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  South 
■America ; and  the  trade,  chiefly  in  sugar, 
cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  hides,  piassava, 
and  tapioca,  is  very  extensive.  Pop. 
162,000 — -Area  of  the  province  for  state), 
164,590  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,821,089. 


BAIKAL  (bi'kal),  a large  fresh-water 
lake  in  eastern  Siberia,  360  miles  long, 
and  about  50  in  extreme  breadth, 
interspersed  with  islands;  in  the  line  of 
the  great  Siberian  Railway.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  rugged  and  lofty  mountains.- 
contains  seals,  and  many  fish,  particu- 
larly salmon,  sturgeon,  and  pike.  Its 
greatest  depth  is  over  4000  feet.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Upper  Angara 
Selenga,  Barguzin,  etc.,  and  discharges 
its  waters  by  the  Lower  .Angara.  It  is 
frozen  over  in  winter. 

BAIL,  the  person  or  persons  who 
procure  the  release  of  a prisoner  from 
custody  by  becoming  surety  for  his 
appearance  in  court  at  the  proper  time- 
also,  the  security  giver  for  the  release 
of  a prisoner  from  custody 


Entrance  to  Port  Nassau,  Bahama  Islands. 


17,285  sq.  miles,  of  which  10,000  is 
desert,  the  only  cultivated  lands  l5ung 
along  the  Indus  and  Sutlej.  Pop. 
650,042. 


BAILIFF,  a civil  officer  or  functionary 
subordinate  to  .some  one  else.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  bailiffs,  whose  offices 
widel)'  differ,  but  all  agree  in  this,  that 


BAILLY 


BAKU 


the  keeping  or  protection  of  something 
belongs  to  them. 

BAILLY  (ba-ye),  Jean  Sylvain, 
French  astronomer  and  statesman,  born 
at  Paris,  1736.  After  some  youthful 
essays  in  verse  he  was  induced  by 
Lacaille  to  devote  himself  to  astronomy, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  1753, 
being  admitted  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  he  published  a reduction  of 
Lacaille’s  observations  on  the  zodiacal 
stars.  In  1784  the  French  Academy 
elected  him  a member.  The  revolution 
drew  him  into  public  life.  Paris  chose 
him.  May  12,  1789,  first  deputy  of  the 
tiers-6tat,  and  in  the  assembly  itself 
he  was  made  first  president,  a post 
occupied  by  him  on  June  20,  1789,  in 
the  session  of  the  Tennis  Court,  when 
the  deputies  swore  never  to  separate 
till  they  had  given  France  a new  consti- 
tution. As  mayor  of  Paris  his  modera- 
tion and  impartial  enforcement  of  the 
law  failed  to,  commend  themselves  to 
the  people,  and  his  forcible  suppression 
of  mob  violence,  July  17,  1791,  aroused 


Jean  Sylvain  Bailly. 


a storm  which  led  to  his  resignation  and 
retreat  to  Nantes.  In  1793  he  at- 
tempted to  join  Laplace  at  Melun,  but 
was  recognized  and  sent  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  condemned  by  the  revolutionary 
tribunal,  and  executed  on  Nov.  12th. 

BAINBRIDGE,  William,  an  American 
naval  oflficer,  born  in  Princeton,  N.  J., 
in  1744,  died  in  1833.  He  became 
lieutenant  in  the  navy  in  1798,  was 
captured  by  the  French  near  Guada- 
loupe,  and  caused  the  passage  of  an  act 
against  French  subj'ects  captured  at 
sea.  He  served  in  the  war  against 
Tripoli  and  captured  the  Moorish  ship 
Meshboha  in  1803,  was  himself  taken  by 
the  Tripolitans  on  having  run  aground, 
and  held  prisoner  until  the  end  of  the 
war.  He  took  part  in  the  war  of  1812 
and  captured  the  British  frigate  Java. 
In  1815  he  commanded  the  squadron 
sent  against  Algiers  and  on  his  return 
I founded  the  school  for  naval  officers  at 
Boston.  His  last  years  were  spent  in 
command  of  the  navy  yards  at  Phil- 
adelphia and  Charlestown. 

BAIRD,  Sir  David,  a distinguished 
British  commander,  was  born  in  Edin- 
burghshire in  1757,  and  entered  the 
army  in  1772.  He  distinguished  him- 
self as  a captain  in  the  war  against  Hyder 
.■Vli,  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner, 
and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Serin- 
gapatam  for  nearly  four  years.  He 
received  a colonelcy  in  179^,  went 


in  1797  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
as  brigadier-general,  and  in  1798,  on 
his  appointment  as  major-general, 
returned  to  India.  In  1799  he  com- 
manded the  storming  party  at  the 


assault  of  Seringapatam.  Being  ajj- 
pointed  in  1800  to  command  an  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt,  he  landed  at  Kosseir  in 
June,  1801,  crossed  the  desert,  'and, 
embarking  on  the  Nile,  descended  to 
Cairo,  and  thence  to  Alexandria,  which 
he  reached  a few  days  before  it  sur- 
rendered to  General  Hutchinson.  With 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  he  com- 
manded an  expedition  in  1805  to  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  1806,  after 
defeating  the  Dutch,  he  received  the 
surrender  of  the  colony.  He  com- 
manded a division  at  the  seige  of  Copen- 


Sir  David  Baird. 


hagen,  and  after  a short  period  of  service 
in  Ireland  sailed  with  10,000  men  for 
Corunna,  where  he  formed  a j’unction 
with  Sir  John  Moore.  He  commanded 
the  first  division  of  Moore’s  army,  and 
in  the  battle  of  Corunna  lost  his  left 
arm.  By  the  death  of  Sir  John  Moore 
Sir  David  succeeded  to  the  chief  com- 
mand, receiving  for  the  fourth  time  the 
thanks  of  parliament,  and  a baronetcy. 
In  1814  he  was  made  a general.  He 
died  in  1829. 


BAIRD,  Spencer  Fullerton,  American 
naturalist,  born  1823,  died  1887.  He 
was  long  assistant  secretary,  and 
latterly  secretary,  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  /was  also  chief  govern- 
ment commissioner  of  fish  and  fisheries. 
He  wrote  much  on  natural  history,  his 
chief  works  being  The  Birds  of  N. 
America  (in  conjunction  with  John 
Cassin);  The  Mammals  of  N.  America; 
Review  of  American  Birds  in  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution;  and  (with  Messrs. 
Brewer  and  Ridgeway)  History  of  N. 
American  Birds. 

BAK'ARGANJ,  a maritime  district 
and  town  in  Bengal;  chief  rivers, 
Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  and  Meghna. 
Area,  3649  sq.  miles;  pop.  2,153,965. — 
The  town  now  lies  in  ruins.  Pop.  7060. 

BAKER,  Sir  Samuel  White,  a dis- 
tinguished English  traveler,  born  in 
1821.  He  resided  some  years  in  Ceylon ; 
in  1861  began  his  African  travels,  which 
lasted  several  years,  in  the  Upper  Nile 
regions,  and  resulted,  among  other  dis- 
coveries, in  that  of  Albert  Nyanza  lake 
in  1864,  and  of  the  exit  of  the  White 
Nile  from  it.  In  Africa  he  encountered 
Speke  and  Grant  after  their  discovery 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  On  his  return 
home  he  was  received  with  great  honor 
and  was  knighted.  In  1869  he  returned 
to  Africa  as  head  of  an  expedition  sent 
by  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  to  annex  and 
open  up  to  trade  a large  part  of  the 
newly  explored  country,  being  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  pasha.  He  returned  in 
1873,  having  finished  his  work,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  celebrated  Gordon. 
His  writings  include  The  Rifle  and  the 
Hound  in  Ceylon;  Eight  Years’  Wander- 
ings in  Ceylon ; The  Albert  Nyanza,  Etc. ; 
The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia; 
Ismailia:  a Narrative  of  the  Expedition 
to  Central  Africa ; Cyprus  as  I Saw  It  in 
1879;  also.  Cast  Up  by  the  Sea,  a story 
published  in  1869.  He  died  Dec.  30, 
1893. 

BAKHUISEN.  See  Backhuysen. 

BAKING,  a term  used  in  various 
senses.  For  the  baking  of  bread,  see 
Bread.  A common  application  of  the 
term  is  to  a mode  of  cooking  food  in  a 
close  oven,  baking  in  this  case  being 
opposed  to  roasting  or  broiling,  in  which 
an  open  fire  is  used.  The  oven  should 
not  be  too  close,  but  ought  to  be  properly 
ventilated.  Baking  is  also  applied  to 
th^  hardening  of  earthenware  or  porce- 
lain by  fire. 

BAKING  POWDER,  a mixture  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda  and  tartaric  acid, 
usually  with  some  flour  added.  The 
water  of  the  dough  causes  the  fiberation 
of  carbonic  acid,  which  makes  the  bread 
“rise.” 

BAKU  (ba-ko'),  a Russian  port  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Caspian,  occupying 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron.  The 
naphtha  or  petroleum  springs  of  Baku 
have  long  been  known;  and  the  Field 
of  Fire,  so  called  from  emitting  inflam- 
mable gases,  has  long  been  a place  of 
pilgrimage  with  the  Guebres  or  Fire- 
worshipers.  Recently,  from  the  devel- 
opment of  the  petroleum  industry, 
Baku  h^s  greatly  increased,  and  is  now 
a large  and  flourishing  town.  About 
400  oil-wells  are  in  operation,  producing 
immense  quantities  of  petroleum,  much 
of  which  is  led  direct  in  pipes  from  the 


BAKUNIN 


BALFE 


Wells  to  the  refineries  in  Baku,  and  it  is 
intended  to  lay  a pipe  for  its  conveyance 
all  the  way  to  the  Black  Sea  at  Batoum, 
which  is  already  connected  with  Baku 
by  railway.  Some  of  the  wells  have  had 
such  an  outflow  of  oil  as  to  be  un- 
manageable, and  the  Baku  petroleum 
now  competes  successfully  with  any 
other  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Baku  is  the  station  of  the  Caspian  fleet, 
is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  a large 
shipping  trade.  Pop.  112,253. 

BAKU'NIN,  Michael,  Russian  social- 
ist, the  founder  of  Nihilism,  born  1814 
of  rich  and  noble  family,  entered  the 
army,  but  threw  up  his  commission 
after  two  years’  service,  and  studied 
philosophy  at  Moscow.  Having  adopted 
Hegel’s  system  as  the  basis  of  a new 
revolution,  he  went  in  1841  to  Berlin, 
and  thence  to  Dresden,  Geneva,  and 
Paris,  as  the  propagandist  of  anarchism. 
His  extreme  views,  however,  led  to  a 
quarrel  Avdth  Marx  and  the  Inter- 
national; and,  having  fallen  into  dis- 
repute with  his  own  party  in  Russia, 
he  died  suddenly  and  almost  alone  at 
Berne,,  in  1878. 

BALAAM  (ba'lam),  a heathen  seer, 
invited  by  Balak,  king  of  Moab,  to  curse 
the  Israelites,  but  compelled  by  miracle 
to  bless  them  instead  (Numbers  xxii.- 
xxiv.).  In  another  account  he  is  repre- 
sented as  aiding  in  the  perversion  of  the 
Israelites  to  the  worship  of  Baal,  and 
as  being,  therefore,  slain  in  the  Midi- 
anitish  war  (Numbers  xxxi.;  Joshua 
xiii.). 

BALAKLAVA  (ba-l^-kla'va),  a small 
seaport  in  the  Crimea,  8 miles  s.s.e.  of 
Sevastopol,  consisting  for  the  most  part 
of  houses  perched  upon  heights,  with 


BAL'ANCE,  an  instrument  employed 
for  determining  the  quantity  of  any 
substance  equal  to  a given  weight. 

BALANCE  OF  POWER,  a political 
principle  which  first  came  to  be  recog- 
nized in  modern  Europe  in  the  16th 
century,  though  it  appears  to  have  been 
also  acted  on  by  the  Greeks  in  ancient 
times,  in  preserving  the  relations  be- 
tween their  different  states.  The  object 
in  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  is 
to  secure  the  general  independence  of 
nations  as  a whole,  by  preventing  the 
aggressive  attempts  of  individual  states 
to  extend  their  territory  and  sway  at 
the  expense  of  weaker  countries. 

BALANCE  OF  TRADE,  the  difference 
between  the  stated  money  values  of  the 
exports  and  imports  of  a country.  The 
balance  is  erroneously  said  to  be  “in 
favor’’  of  a country  when  the  value  of 
the  exports  is  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
imports  and  “against  it”  when  the  im- 
ports are  in  excess  of  the  exports.  The 
phrases  date  from  the  days  of  the  mer- 
cantile system,  the  characteristic  doc 
trine  of  which  alleged  the  desirability 
of  regulating  commerce  with  a view  to 
amassing  treasure  by  exporting  produce 
largely,  importing  little  merchandise  in 
return,  and  receiving  the  balance  in 
bullion. 

BALBO'A,  Vasco  Nmiez  de,  one  of  the 
early  Spanish  adventurers  in  the  New 
World;  born  1475.  Having  dissipated 
his  fortune,  he  went  to  America,  and 
was  at  Darien  with  the  expedition  of 
Francisco  de  Enciso  in  1510.  An  insur- 
rection placed  him  at  the  head  of  the 
colony,  but  rumors  of  a western  ocean 
and  of  the  wealth  of  Peru  led  him  to 
cross  the  isthmus.  On  Sept.  25,  1513, 
he  saw  for  the  first  time  the  Pacific,  and 


Balaklava  harbor. 


an  old  Genoese  castle  on  an  almost  in- 
accessible elev'ation.  The  harbor  has  a 
very  narrow  entrance,  and  though  deep, 
is  not  capacious.  In  the  Crimean  war 
it  was  captured  by  the  British,  and  a 
heroically  fought  battle  took  place  here 
(Oct.  25,  1854),  ending  in  the  repulse 
of  the  Russians  by  the  British.  The 
“charge  of  the  Light  Brigade”  was  at 
this  battle. 


after  annexing  it  to  Spain,  and  acquir- 
ing information  about  Peru,  returned 
to  Darien.  Here  he  found  himself  sup- 
planted by  a new  governor,  Pedrarias 
Davila,  with  much  consequent  griev- 
ance on  the  one  side,  and  much  jealousy 
on  the  other.  Balboa  submitted,  how- 
ever, and  in  the  following  year  was 
appointed  viceroy  of  the  South  Sea. 
Davila  was  apparently  reconciled  to ' at 


him,  and  gave  him  his  daughter  in 
marriage,  but  shortly  after,  in  1517, 
had  him  beheaded  on  a charge  of  intent 
to  rebel.  Pizarro,  who  afterward  com- 
pleted the  discovery  o:  Peru,  served 
under  Balboa. 

BAL'CONY,  in  architecture,  is  a gal- 
lery projecting  from  the  outer  wall  of 
a building,  supported  by  columns  or 
brackets,  and  surrounded  by  a balus- 
trade. Balconies  were  not  used  in 
Greek  and  Roman  buildings,  and  in  the 
East  the  roof  of  the  house  has  for  cen- 
turies served  similar  purposes  on  a larger 
scale.  Balconies  properly  so  styled 
came  into  fashion  in  Italy  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  were  apparently  introduced 
into  Britain  in  the  IGth  century. 

BALDNESS,  loss  of  the  hair,  com- 
plete or  partial,  usually  the  latter,  and 
due  to  various  causes.  Most  commonly 
it  results  as  one  of  the  changes  belonging 
to  old  age,  due  to  wasting  of  the  skin, 
hair  sacs,  etc.  It  may  occur  as  a result 
of  some  acute  disease,  or  at  an  unusually 
early  age,  without  any  such  cause.  In 
both  the  latter  cases  it  is  due  to  defec- 
tive nourishment  of  the  hair,  owing  to 
lessened  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
scalp.  The  best  treatment  for  prevent- 
ing loss  of  hair  seems  to  consist  in  such 
measures  as  bathing  the  head  with  cold 
water  and  drying  it  by  vigorous  rubbing 
with  a rough  towel  and  brushing  it  well 
with  a hard  brush.  Various  stimulating 
lotions  are  also  recommended,  especially 
those  containing  cantharides.  But  prol> 
ably  in  most  cases  senile  baldness  is 
unpreventable.  When  extreme  scur- 
finess  of  the  scalp  accompanies  loss  of 
the  hair  an  ointment  that  will  clear  away 
the  scurf  will  prove  beneficial. 

BALDWIN,  Evelyn  Briggs,  an  Ameri- 
can arctic  explorer,  born  in  Missouri  in 
1862,  was  a teacher  until  1892,  when  he 
was  appointed  observer  of  the  U.  States 
Weather  Bureau.  In  1893-4  he  accom- 
panied Peary  to  North  Greenland  as 
meteorologist,  and  also  went  in  the  same 
capacity  with  Wellman  in  1898-9. 

BALE  (bal).  See  Basel. 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a group  of  five 
islands  southeast  of  Spain,  including 
Majorca,  Minorca,  Iviza,  and  Formen- 
tera.  The  popular  derivation  of  the 
ancient  name  Baleares  has  reference 
to  the  repute  of  the  inhabitants  for 
their  skill  in  slinging,  in  which  they 
distinguished  themselves  both  in  the 
army  of  Hannibal  and  under  the  Ro- 
mans, by  whom  the  islands  were  an- 
nexed in  123  B.c.  After  being  taken 
by  the  Vandals,  under  Genseric,  and  in 
the  8th  century  by  the  Moors,  they 
were  taken  by  James  I.,  King  of  Arra- 
gon,  1220-34,  and  constituted  a king- 
dom, which  in  1375  was  united  to  Spain. 
The  islands  now  form  a Spanish  prov- 
ince, with  an  area  of  1860  square  miles, 
and  300,473  inhabitants.  See  separate 

BALFE  (half),  Michael  William,  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Dublin  15th  May, 
1808.  In  his  seventh  year  he  performed 
in  public  on  the  violin,  and  at  sixteen 
took  the  part  of  the  Wicked  Huntsman 
in  Der  Freischiitz  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1825  he  went  to  Italy,  wrote  the  music 
for  a ballet  La  Peyrouse  for  the  Scala  at 
Milan,  and  in  the  following  year  sang 
the  Thdatre-Italicn,  Paris,  with 


BALFOUR 


BALL-COCK 


modern  success.  He  returned  to  Italy, 
and  at  Palermo  was  given  his  first  opera, 
I Rivali  (1829L  For  five  years  he  con- 
tinued singing  and  composing  operas  for 
the  Italian  stage.  In  1835  he  went  to 
England,  and  composed  a number  of 
operas,  among  others  The  Bohemian 
Girl  (1843),  Rose  of  Castile  (1857), 
Satanella  '(1858),  and  the  Talisman 
(first  performed  in  1874).  He  died  Oct. 
20,  1870.  His  operas  are  melodious  and 
many  of  the  airs  are  excellent. 

BAL'FOUR,  Right  Hon.  Arthur 
James,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  etc.,  son  of  Mr. 
Balfour  of  Whittinghame,  Haddington- 
shire, was  born  July  15,  1848,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  acted  as  private  secretary 
to  his  uncle,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury, 
at  the  Foreign  Office  during  1878-80, 
and  since  1885  has  been  a distinguished 
member  of  the  Conservative  party.  He 
showed  much  ability  as  Chief  Secre- 
tary for  Ireland  during  Lord  Salisbury’s 
administration  in  1887-91.  He  was 
leader  of  the  House  of  Commons  and 
first  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1891-92,  and 
again  from  1895.  On  the  retirement  of 
Lord  Salisbury  in  1902  he  became  prime 
minister.  He  has  published  a Defence 
of  Philosophic  Doubt  (1879),  Essays  and 
Addresses  (1893),  and  The  Foundations 
of  Belief  (1895). 

BALFROOSH',  or  BARFURUSH',  a 

town,  Persia,  province  of  Mazanderan, 
about  twelve  miles  from  the  Caspian,  a 
great  emporium  of  the  trade  between 
Persia  and  Russia.  Pop.  estimated 
from  50,000  to  100,000. 

BA'LI,  an  island  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago east  of  Java,  belonging  to  Hol- 
land; greatest  length,  85,  greatest 
breadth,  55  miles;  area,  about  2260  sq. 
miles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a series  of 
volcanic  mountains,  of  which  the  lofti- 
est, Agoong  (11,326  feet),  became  active 
in  1843  after  a long  period  of  quiescence. 
Principal  products,  rice,  cocoa,  coffee, 
indigo,  cotton,  etc.  The  people  are  akin 
to  those  of  Java  and  are  mostly  Brah- 
mans in  religion.  It  is  divided  into 
eight  provinces  under  native  rajahs, 
and  forms  one  colony  with  Lombok,  the 
united  pop.  being  1,363,000,  of  whom 
about  500,000  belong  to  Bali. 

BAL'IOL,  or  BALLIOL,  John  de,  of 
Barnard  Castle,  Northumberland,  father 
of  king  John  Baliol,  a great  English 
baron  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  In 
1263  he  laid  the  foundation  of  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  which  was  completed 
by  his  widow  Devorguila  or  Devorgilla. 
She  was  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Allan 
of  Galloway,  a great  baron  of  Scotland, 
by  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  David, 
Earl  of  Huntingdon,  brother  of  William 
the  Lion.  It  was  on  the  strength  of  this 
genealogy  that  his  son  John  Baliol  be- 
came temporary  King  of  Scotland.  He 
died  1269. 

BAL'IOL,  or  BALLIOL,  John,  King  of 
Scotland;  born  about  1249,  died  1315. 
On  the  death  of  Margaret,  the  Maiden 
of  Norway  and  grandchild  of  Alexander 
III.,  Baliol  claimed  the  vacant  throne  by 
virtue  of  his  descent  from  David,  Earl  of 
Huntingdon,  brother  of  William  the 
Lion,  King  of  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce 
(grandfather  of  the  king)  opposed  Baliol ; 
but  Edward  I.’s  decision  was  in  favor  of 
Baliol,  who  did  homage  to  him  for  the 


kingdom,  Nov.  20,  1292.  Irritated  by 
Edward’s  harsh  exercise  of  authority, 
Baliol  concluded  a treaty  with  France, 
then  at  war  with  England;  but  after 
the  defeat  at  Dunbar  he  surrendered 
his  crown  into  the  hands  of  the  English 
monarch.  He  was  sent  with  his  son  to 
the  Tower,  but  by  the  intercession  of 
the  pope  in  1297,  obtained  liberty  to  re- 
tire to  his  Norman  estates,  where  he 
died. — His  son,  Edward,  in  1332  landed 
in  Fife  with  an  armed  force,  and  having 
defeated  a large  army  under  the  regent 
Mar  (who  was  killed)  got  himself  crowned 
king, 'but  was  driven  out  in  three  months. 

BAL'KAN,  a rugged  chain  of  moun- 
tains extending  from  Cape  Emineh,  on 
the  Black  Sea,  in  Eastern  Roumelia, 
westward  to  the  borders  of  Servia, 
though  the  name  is  sometimes  used  to 
include  the  whole  mountain  system 
from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic,  the 
region  south  of  Austria  and  Russia,  or 
south  of  the  Danube  and  Save,  forming 
the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  range, 
which  is  over  200  miles  in  length,  forms 
the  water-shed  between  the  streams 
flowing  northward  into  the  Danube  and 
those  flowing  southward  to  the  .iEgean, 
the  chief  of  the  latter  being  the  Maritza. 
The  average  height  is  not  more  than 
5000  feet,  but  the  highest  point,  Tchat- 
al-dagh,  is  8340  feet.  As  a political 
boundary  it  divides  Bulgaria  from  East- 
ern Rumelia. 

BALKAN  FREE  STATES,  Bulgaria, 
Eastern  Roumelia,  Rumania,  and  Ser- 
via. 

BALKH  (balk  or  bal/i),  a city  in  the 
north  of  Afghanistan,  in  Afghan  Turkes- 
tan, at  one  time  the  emporium  of  the 
trade  between  India,  China,  and  west- 
ern Asia.  It  was  long  the  center  of 
Zoroastrianism,  and  was  also  an  impor- 
tant Buddhist  center.  In  1220  it  was 
sacked  by  Genghis  Khan,  and  again  by 
Timur  in  the  14th  century.  The  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  city  extend  for 
miles.  The  town  is  now  merely  a village, 
but  a new  town  has  risen  up  an  hour’s 
journey  north  of  the  old,  the  residence 
of  the  Afghan  governor,  with  a pop.  of 
about  20,000.  — The  district,  which 
formed  a portion  of  ancient  Bactria,  lies 
between  the  Oxus  and  the  Hindu-Kush, 
with  Badakshan  to  the  east  and  the 
desert  to  the  west.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
Oxus,  where  there  are  facilities  for 
irrigation,  the  soil  is  rich  and  productive, 
and  there  are  many  populous  villages. 

BAL'KIS,  the  Arabian  name  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba  who  visited  Solomon. 
She  is  the  central  figure  of  innumerable 
Eastern  legends  and  tales. 

BALL,  a spherical  implement  origi- 
nally of  war,  later  of  sports  and  games 
which  are  the  degenerated  forms  of  war. 
The  ball  was  freely  used  by  the  Romans 
and  Greeks,  and  playing  with  a ball 
dates  farther  back  than  history.  Tennis, 
racquet,  football,  baseball,  golf,  in 
short  all  games  using  a ball,  have  an 
origin  so  old  as  to  be  lost  in  antiquity. 
The  term  ball  is  often  used  to  designate 
projectiles  from  firearms  generally. 

BALL,  Thomas,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  1819  at  Charlestown,  Mass. 
He  made  busts  of  Jenny  Lind,  of  Daniel 
Webster  (1852),  and  a life-sized  figure  of 
the  latter.  He  is  the  sculptor  of  the 
Washington  statue  at  Boston,  of  the 


statue  of  Webster  in  Central  Park,  N.  Y., 
and  of  the  group  “Emancipation”  at 
Washington. 

BAL'LAD,  a term  loosely  applied  to 
various  poetic  forms  of  the  song  type, 
but  in  its  most  definite  sense  a poem  in 
which  a short  narrative  is  subjected  to 
simple  lyrical  treatment.  The  ballad  is 
probably  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of 
rhythmic  poetic  expression,  constituting 
a species  of  epic  in  miniature,  out  of 
which  by  fusion  and  remolding  larger 
epics  were  sometimes  shaped.  As  in  the 
folk-tales,  so  in  the  ballads  of  different 
nations,  the  resemblances  are  sufficiently 
numerous  and  close  to  point  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  have  often  had  their 
first  origin  in  the  same  primitive  folk- 
lore or  popular  tales.  But  in  any  case, 
excepting  a few  modern  literary  ballads 
of  a subtler  kind,  they  have  been  the 
popular  expression  of  the  broad  human 
emotions  clustering  about  some  strong- 
ly outlined  incidents  of  war,  love,  crime, 
superstition,  or  death. 

BALLADE  (bal-ad'),  the  earlier  and 
modern  French  spelling  of  ballad,  but 
now  limited  in  its  use  to  a distinct  verse- 
form  introduced  into  English  literature 
of  late  years  from  the  French  and  chiefly 
used  by  writers  of  vers-de-societ6.  It 
consists  of  three  stanzas  of  eight  lines 
each,  with  an  envoy  or  closing  stanza 
of  four  lines.  The  rhymes,  which  are 
not  more  than  three,  follow  each  other 
in  the  stanzas  thus:  a,  b,  a,  b;b,  c,  b,  c, 
and  in  the  envoy,  b,  c,  b,  c,  and  the 
same  line  serves  as  a refrain  to  each  of 
the  stanzas  and  to  the  envoy.  There  are 
other  varieties,  but  this  may  be  regarded 
as  the  strictest,  according  to  the  prec- 
edent of  Villon  and  Marot. 

BALLARAT',  or  BALLAARAT,  an 
Australian  town  in  Victoria,  chief  center 
of  the  gold-mining  industry  of  the 
colony,  and  next  in  importance  to  Mel- 
bourne, from  which  it  is  distant  w.n.w. 
about  sixty  miles  direct.  Gold  was  first 
discovered  in  1851,  and  the  extraor- 
dinary richness  of  the  field  soon 
attracted  hosts  of  miners.  The  surface 
diggings  having  been  exhausted  the 
precious  metal  is  now  got  from  greater 
depths,  and  there  are  mines  as  deep  as 
some  coal-pits,  the  gold  being  obtained 
by  crushing  the  auriferous  quartz.  Pop. 
about  43,000. 

BAL'LAST,  a term  applied  (1)  to 
heavy  matter,  as  stone,  sand,  iron,  or 
water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a ship  or 
other  vessel  to  sink  it  in  the  water  to 
such  a depth  as  to  enable  it  to  carry 
sufficient  sail  without  oversetting.  (2) 
The  sand  placed  in  bags  in  the  car  of  a 
balloon  to  steady  it  and  to  enable  the 
aeronaut  to  lighten  the  balloon  by 
throwing  part  of  it  out.  (3)  The  ma- 
terial used  to  fill  up  the  space  between 
the  rails  on  a railway  in  order  to  make 
it  firm  and  solid. 

BALL-COCK,  a kind  of  self-acting 
stop-cock  opened  and  shut  by  means  of 
a hollow  sphere  or  ball  of  metal  attached 
to  the  end  of  a lever  connected  with  the 
cock.  Such  cocks  are  often  employed 
to  regulate  the  supply  of  water  to  cis- 
terns. The  ball  floats  on  the  water  in 
the  cistern  by  its  buoyancy,  and  rises 
and  sinks  as  the  water  rises  and  sinks, 
shutting  off  the  water  in  the  one  case 
and  letting  it  on  in  the  other. 


BALLET 


BALTIMORE 


BALLET  (bal'a),  a species  of  dance 
usually  forming  an  interlude  in  theatri- 
cal performances,  but  principally  con- 
fined to  opera.  Its  object  is  to  repre- 
sent, by  mimic  movements  and  dances, 
actions,  characters,  sentiments,  pas- 
sions, and  feelings,  in  which  several 
dancers  perform  together.  The  ballet 
is  an  invention  of  modern  times,  though 
pantomimic  dances  were  not  unknown 
to  the  ancients.  The  dances  frequently 
introduecd  into  operas  seldom  deserve 
the  name  ballet,  as  they  usually  do  not 
represent  any  action,  but  are  destined 
only  to  give  the  dancers  an  opportunity 
of  showing  their  skill,  and  the  modern 
ballet  in  general,  from  an  artistic  point 
of  view,  is  a very  low-class  entertain- 
ment. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  I,  Cistei'ii  with  ball-cock  attached. 

Fig.  2,  luternal  structure  of  cock. 
a,  Valve  shown  open  so  as  to  admit  water. 

Arm  of  lever,  which  being  raised 
shuts  the  valve. 

BALLIS'TIC  PENDULUM,  an  appa- 
ratus for  ascertaining  the  velocity  of 
military  projectiles,  and  consequently 
the  force  of  fired  gunpowder.  A piece  of 
ordnance  is  fired  against  bags  of  sand 
supported  in  a strong  case  or  frame  sus- 
pended so  as  to  swing  like  a pendulum. 
The  arc  through  which  it  vibrates  is 
shown  by  an  index,  and  the  amount  of 
vibration  forms  a measure  of  the  force 
or  velocity  of  the  ball. 

BALLOON'.  See  Airship. 

BAL'LOT,  Voting  by,  signifies  liter- 
ally voting  by  means  of  little  balls 
(called  by  the  French  ballottes),  usually 
of  different  colors,  which  are  put  into  a 
box  in  such  a manner  as  to  enable  the 
voter,  if  he  chooses,  to  conceal  for  whom 
or  for  what  he  gives  his  suffrage.  The 
method  is  adopted  by  most  clubs  in  the 
election  of  their  members — a white  ball 
indicating  assent,  a black  ball  dissent. 
Hence,  when  an  applicant  is  rejected,  he 
is  said  to  be  blackballed.  The  term  vot- 
ing by  ballot  is  also  applied  in  a general 
way  to  any  method  of  secret  voting,  as, 
for  instance,  when  a person  gives  his 
vote  by  means  of  a ticket  bearing  the 
name  of  the  candidate  whom  he  wishes 
to  support.  In  this  sense  vote  by  ballot 
is  the  mode  adopted  in  electing  the  mem- 
bers of  legislative  assemblies  in  most 
countries,  as  well  as  the  members  of 
various  other  bodies. 

BALM  (biim),  a plant  formerly  in 
great  repute  for  its  medicinal  virtues. 
A native  of  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
herbaceous  perennial,  with  an  erect 
branching  stem  about  2 feet  high.  The 
leaves  arise  with  the  flower-stems  from  a 


thick  joint  at  the  extremity  of  the  stalk. 
The  flowers  are  whitish;  they  are  pro- 
duced in  a round  terminal  umbel,  and 
appear  in  June.  The  stems  and  leaves 
are  slightly  stimulating  and  tonic.  They 
contain  an  essential  oil  of  a yellowish 
color  and  with  a fragrant  smell,  called 
oil  of  balm. 

BALM  OF  GILEAD,  the  exudation  of 
a tree,  a native  of  Arabia  Felix.  The 
leaves  of  the  former  tree  yield  when 
bruised  a strong  aromatic  scent ; and  the 


balm  of  Gilead  of  the  shops,  or  balsam  of 
Mecca  or  of  Syria,  is  obtained  from  it  by 
making  an  incision  in  its  trunk.  It  has 
a yellowish  or  greenish  color,  a warm, 
bitterish,  aromatic  taste,  and  an  acidu- 
lous fragrant  smell.  It  is  valued  as  an 
odoriferous  unguent  and  cosmetic  by  the 
Turks.  It  is  frequently  adulterated  for 
market. — The  balm  of  Gilead  fir,  which 
produces  a turpentine  called  Canada 
balsam,  is  the  Abies  balsamifSra,  a 
North  American  species,  whose  range 
is  from  Virginia  to  Canada. 

BALSAM,  an  aromatic,  resinous  sub- 
stance, flowing  spontaneously  or  by 
incision  from  certain  plants.  A great 
variety  of  substances  pass  under  this 
name.  But  in  chemistry  the  term  is 
confined  to  such  vegetable  juices  as 
consist  of  resins  mixed  with  volatile  oils, 
and  yield  the  volatile  oil  on  distillation. 
The  resins  are  produced  from  the  oils 
by  oxidation.  A balsam  is  thus  inter- 
mediate between  a volatile  oil  and  a 
resin.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether, 
and  capable  of  yielding  benzoic  acid. 
The  balsams  are  either  liquid  or  more 
or  less  solid;  as,  for  example,  the  balm 
of  Gilead,  and  the  balsams  of  copaiba, 
Peru,  and  Tolu.  Benzoin,  dragon’s- 
blood,  and  storax  are  not  true  balsams, 
though  sometimes  called  so.  The  bal- 
sams are  used  in  perfumery,  medicine, 
and  the  arts. 

BALTIC  PROVINCES,  a term  com- 
monly given  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ments of  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Es- 
thonia. 

BALTIC  SEA,  an  inland  sea  or  large 
gulf  connected  with  the  North  Sea, 
wasliing  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  Sweden;  nearly  900 
miles  long,  extending  to  200  broad; 
superficial  extent,  together  with  the 
Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  171,743 
sq.  miles.  Its  greatest  depth  is  126 
fathoms;  mean,  44  fathoms. 

BALTIMORE,  the  sixth  most  popu- 
lous city  of  the  United  States,  the  chief 
city  of  Maryland.  It  has  an  area  of 


31.5  sq.  miles,  and  is  situated  on  the 
Patapsco  river,  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion 14  miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay. 
The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a 
small  stream  called  Jones’  Falls,  which 
separates  the  business  and  manufactur- 
ing from  the  residence  portion  of  the 
town.  The  names  of  Monumental  City, 
or  City  of  Monuments,  which  Baltimore 
bears,  is  not  derived  from  the  number 
of  its  public  monuments,  but  from  the 
early  date  at  which  Washington  Monu- 
ment, in  Mount  Vernon  Place — a 
marble  shaft  rising  164  feet,  surmounted 
by  a heroic  figure  of  Washington — and 
Battle  Monument,  in  Monument  Square, 
were  erected. 

The  city  is  one  of  the  foremost  edu- 
cational influences  of  the  country.  A 
graded  system  of  public  schools  pro- 
vides free  instruction  in  kindergarten, 
primary,  secondary,  collegiate,  and 
normal  studies,  and  in  manual  training. 

Baltimore  is  the  seat  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  opened  for  in- 
struction in  1876,  and  distinguished 
for  its  graduate  courses.  The  institu- 
tion owes  its  foundation  to  the  benef- 
icence of  a Baltimore  merchant,  who 
left  a large  fortune  for  the  endowment 
of  a university  and  a hospital.  Among 
the  professional  schools  are  the  law 


and  medical  departments  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland,  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  Baltimore  Medi- 
cal College,  Baltimore  University, 
Woman’s  Medical  College,  Maryland 
College  of  Pharmacy,  and  Baltimore 
College  of  Dental  Surgery.  The  last 
named,  founded  in  1839,  is  the  oldest 
dental  college  in  the  world.  The  Pea- 
body institute,  endowed  by  George  Pea- 


BALTIMORE 


BAMBOO 


body,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
great  fortune  in  Baltimore  and  enter- 
tained a strong  friendship  for  its  peo- 
ple, contains  a valuable  library  of 
143,000  volumes,  an  interesting  art  gal- 
lery, and  a well-organized  conservatory 
of  music. 

Natural  situation,  favorable  trade 
connections,  and  unusual  harbor  facili- 
ties constitute  Baltimore’s  chief  com- 
mercial advantages.  Regular  com- 
munication between  Baltimore  and 
foreign  ports  is  afforded  by  the  North 
German  Lloyd  to  Bremen,  the  Neptune 
Line  to  Rotterdam,  the  Atlantic  Trans- 
port Line  to  London,  and  a number  of 
other  lines  offering  frequent  service.  The 
city  is  the  largest  corn  exporting  port 
in  the  United  States.  Other  important 
articles  of  local  export  are  wheat,  flour, 
cotton,  tobacco,  copper,  and  coal.  Im- 
porting activity  centers  about  iron  ore, 
bananas,  pineapples,  cocoanuts,  sugar, 
and  general  merchandise. 

The  manufacturing  enterprises  of 
Baltimore  are  most  varied,  scarcely 
a single  important  industry  being 
unrepresented.  It  is  the  largest  manu- 
facturing center  in  the  United  States  for 
ready-made  clothing,  shirts,  fertilizers, 
straw  goods,  cotton  duck,  fruit  canning, 
and  oyster  packing,  while  in  other 
important  fields  its  operations  are  of 
absolutely  greater  magnitude. 

The  twelfth  census  (1900)  of  the 
United  States  gives  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Baltimore  as  508,957  ; 243,280  are 
males  and  265,677  are  females;  440,357 
are  native  born  and  68,600  are  foreign 
born.  The  total  number  of  whites  is 
429,218,  and  of  colored  79,739.  Of  the 
whites  361,278  are  native  boim,  67,940 
are  foreign  ; 236,053  of  the  native  whites 
have  native  parents  and  125,226  have 
foreign  parents.  The  total  illiterate 
population  ten  years  and  over  is  29,148, 
of  whom  12,111  are  white  and  17,037  are 
colored.  Estiihated  by  the  mayor  of 
the  city  Jan.  1,  1909,  650,000. 

Baltimore  was  founded  July  14,  1729, 
and  passed  through  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  revolutionary  war,  that  of  1812, 
and  likewise  of  the  civil  war.  It  has 
several  times  been  a sufferer  from 
destructive  fires,  but  has  always  re- 
covered without  assistance  from  outside 
8ourc0s« 

BALTIMORE,  George  C.alvert, 
Lord,  born  in  Yorkshire  about  1580; 
died  in  London,  1632.  He  was  for 
some  time  secretary  of  state  to  James 
I.,  but  this  post  he  resigned  in  1624  in 
consequence  of  having  become  a Roman 
Catholic-.  Notwithstanding  this  he  re- 
tained the  confidence  of  the  king,  who 
in  1625  raised  him  to  the  Irish  peerage, 
his  title  being  from  Baltimore,  a fishing 
village  of  Cork.  He  had  previously  ob- 
tained a grant  of  land  in  Newfoundland, 
but  as  this  colony  was  much  exposed 
to  the  attacks  of  the  French,  he  left  it 
and  obtained  another  patent  for  Mary- 
land. He  died  before  the  charter  was 
completed,  and  it  was  granted  to  his 
son  Cecil,  who  deputed  the  governor- 
ship to  bis  brnther  T.eonard  (1606-47). 

BALTIMORE  BIRD,  an  American 
bird.  It  is  a migratory  bird,  and  is 
known  also  by  the  names  of  “golden 
robin,”  “hang-bird,”  and  “fire-bird.” 
It  is  .about  7 inches  long;  the  head  and 

P.  E.— 8 


upper  parts  are  black ; the  under  parts 
of  a brilliant  orange  hue.  It  builds  a 
pouch -like  nest,  very  skilfully  con- 
structed of  threads  deftly  interwoven, 
suspended  from  a forked  branch  and 
shaded  by  overhanging  leaves.  It  feeds 
on  insects,  caterpillars,  beetles,  etc.  Its 
song  is  a clear,  mellow  whistle. 

BALUCHISTAN  (ba-l6'chi-stan),  a 
country  in  Asia,  the  coast  of  which  is 
continuous  with  the  northwestern  sea- 
board of  India,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Afghanistan,  on  the  west  by  Persia, 


Baluchis  on  the  lookout. 


on  the  south  by  the  Arabian  Sea,  and  on 
the  east  by  Sind.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
160,000  sq.  miles,  and  a population  esti- 
mated at  400,000.  The  general  surfact 
of  the  country  is  rugged  and  mountain- 
ous, with  some  extensive  intervals  ol 
barren  sandy  deserts,  and  there  is  a 
general  deficiency  of  water.  The  coun- 
try is  almost  entirely  occupied  by  pas- 
toral tribes  under  semi-independent 
sirdars  or  chiefs.  The  Baluchis  in 
general  have  tall  figures,  long  visages, 
and  prominent  features;  the  Brahuis, 
on  the  contrary,  have  short,  thick 
bodies,  with  round  faces  and  flat  linea- 
ments, with  hair  and  beards  frequently 
brown.  Both  races  are  zealous  Moham- 
medans, hospitable,  brave,  and  capable 
of  enduring  much  fatigue. 

BAL’USTER,  a small  column  or 
pilaster,  of  various  forms  and  dimen- 
sions, often  adorned  with  mouldings, 
used  for  balustrades. 

BALUSTRADE’,  a range  of  balus- 
ters, together  with  the  cornice  or  cop- 
ing w'hich  they  support,  used  as  a para- 
pet for  bridges  or  the  roofs  of  buildings, 
or  as  a mere  termination  to  a structure ; 
also  serving  as  a fence  or  enclosure 
for  altars,  balconies,  terraces,  stair- 
cases, etc. 

BALUZE,  (ba-luz),  Etienne,  French 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  1630,  died  1718.  For  more  than 
30  years  he  was  librarian  to  M.  de  Col- 
bert, and  was  appointed  professor  of 
canon  law  in  the  royal  college,  but  dis- 
pleasing Louis  XIV.  with  his  Histoire  ! 


generale  de  la  maison  d’Auvergne,  he 
was  thrown  into  prison  and  his  property 
confiscated.  He  recovered  his  liberty 
in  1713,  but  did  not  regain  his  position. 
He  left  some  1500  MSS.  in  the  national 
library  of  Paris,  besides  45  printed 
works,  including  Regum  Francorum 
Capitularia,  two  vols.  and  Miscel- 
lanea, seven  volumes. 

BALZAC  (bal-zak),  Honore  de,  a 
celebrated  French  novelist,  was  born 
at  Tours  in  1799,  died  1850.  Before 
completing  his  twenty-fourth  year  he 
had  published  a number  of  novels  under 
various  assumed  names,  but  the  success 
attending  all  was  very  indifferent;  and 
it  was  not  till  1829,  by  the  publication 
of  Le  Dernier  Chouan,  a tale  of  La 
Vendde,  and  the  first  novel  to  which 
Balzac  appended  his  name,  that  the 
attention  of  the  public  was  diverted  to 
the  extraordinary  genius  of  the  author. 
A still  greater  popularity  attended  his 
Physiologie  de  Mariage,  a W'ork  full  of 

iquant  and  cau.stic  observations  on 

uman  nature.  He  wrote  a large  num- 
ber of  novels,  all  marked  by  a singular 
knowledge  of  human  nature  and  dis- 
tinct delitieation  of  character,  but  apt 
to  be  marred  by  exaggeration.  Among 
his  best-known  works  aie  Scenes  de  la 
Vie  de  Province;  Scenes  de  la  Vie 
Parisienne;  I,e  P^re  Goriot;  Eugenie 
Grandet;  and  Le  M6decin  de  Campagne. 
The  publication  of  this  last,  in  1835, 
led  to  a correspondence  between  Balzac 
and  the  Countess  Eveline  de  Hanska, 
a Polish  lady  whom,  after  about  fifteen 
years,  he  visited  and  mairied.  A col- 
lected edition  of  his  works  under  the 
title  La  Comedie  Humaine  was  published 
in  45  vols.,  Paris,  1856-59. 

BAMBA,  a district  of  the  Congo, 
west  coast  of  Africa,  lying  to  the  south 
of  the  River  Ambriz,  It  is  thickly 
populated  , and  is  rich  in  gold,  silver, 
copper,  salt,  etc. 

BAMBAR'RA,  a territory  of  western 
Africa,  on  the  Upper  Niger,  first  visited 
by  Mungo  Park,  now  in  the  French 
portion  of  the  Soudan.  The  country 
is  generally  very  fertile,  producing 
wheat,  rice,  maize,  yamis,  etc.  The 
inhabitants  are  of  negro  or  mixed  race, 
and  partly  Mohammedans.  Excellent 
cotton  cloth  is  made.  The  chief  town  is 
Sego.  Pop.  estimated  at.  2,000,000. 

BAMBINO,  (bam-be-no;  Ital.,  an  in- 
fant), the  figure  of  our  Savior  repre- 
sented as  an  infant  in  swaddling- 
clothes.  The  Santissimo  Bambino  in 
the  church  of  Ara  Cseli  at  Rome,  a 
richly  decorated  figure  carved  in  wood, 
is  believed  to  have  a miraculous  virtue 
in  curing  diseases.  Bambinos  are  set 
up  for  the  adoration  of  the  faithful  in 
many  places  in  Catholic  countries. 

BAMBOO',  the  common  name  of 
arborescent  grasses.  There  are  many' 
species,  belonging  to  the  warmer  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  and  grow- 
ing from  a few  feet  to  as  much  as  100, 
requiring  much  moisture  to  thrive 
properly.  The  best-known  species  is 
common  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions.  From  the  creeping  under- 
ground rhizome,  which  is  long,  thick, 
and  jointed,  spring  several  round 
jointed  stalks,  which  send  out  from  their 
joints  several  shoots,  the  stalks  also 
Ibeing  armed  at  their  joints  with  one  or 


BANANA 


BANGOE 


two  sharp  rigid  spines.  The  oval  leaves 
8 or  9 inches  long,  are  placed  on  short 
footstalks.  The  flowers  grow  in  large 
panicles  from  the  joints  of  the  stalk. 
Borne  stems  grow  to  8 oi  10  inches  in 
diameter,  and  are  so  hard  and  durable 


1,  Bamboo,  showing  the  mode  of  growth. 

2,  Flowers,  leaves,  and  stem  on  a larger  scale. 

as  to  be  used  for  build  ”g  ’ urooses 
The  smaller  stalks  are  used  for  walking- 
sticks,  flutes,  etc.;  and  indeed  the  plant 
is  used  for  innumerable  purposes  in  the 
East  Indies,  China,  and  other  Eastern 
countries.  Cottages  are  almost  wholly 
made  of  it;  also,  bridges,  boxes,  water* 
pipes,  ladders,  fences,  bows  and  arrows, 
spears,  baskets,  mats,  paper,  masts  for 
boats,  etc. 

BANA'NA , a plant  of  the  genus  Musa. 
It  is  originally  indigenous  to  the  East 
Indies,  and  a herbaceous  plant  with  an 
underground  stem.  The  apparent  stem, 
which  is  sometimes  as  high  as  30  feet, 
is  formed  of  the  closely  compacted 
sheaths  of  the  leaves.  The  leaves  are 
6 to  10  feet  long  and  1 or  more  broad, 
with  a strong  midrib,  from  which  the 
veins  are  given  off  at  right  angles;  they 
are  used  for  thatch,  basket-making, 
etc.,  besides  yielding  a useful  fiber. 
The  spikes  of  the  flowers  grow  nearly 
4 feet  long,  in  bunches,  covered  with 
purple-colored  bracts.  The  fruit  is  4 to 
10  or  12  inches  long,  and  1 inch  or  more 
in  diametei ; it  grows  in  large  bunches, 
weighing  often  from  40  to  80  lbs.  The 
pulp  is  soft  and  of  a luscious  taste;  when 
ripe  it  is  eaten  raw  or  fried  in  slices. 
The  banana  is  cultivated  in  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  countries,  and  is  an 
important  article  of  food.  Manila 
hemp  is  the  product  of  a species  of 
banana. 

BAN'CROFT,  George,  American  his- 
torian, born  near  Worcester,  Mass., 
1800,  died  1891.  He  was  educated  at 
Harvard  and  in  Germany,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  many  literary 
men  of  note.  In  1823  he  published  a 
translation  of  Heeren’s  Politics  of  An- 
cient Greece,  and  a small  volume  of 
poems,  and  was  also  meditating  and 
collecting  materials  for  a history  of  the 
United  States.  Between  1834  and  1840 
three  volumes  of  his  history  were  pub- 
lished. In  1845  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  the  navy,  and  effected  many 
reforms  and  improvements  in  that 


department.  He  was  American  am- 
bassador to  Britain  from  1846  to  1849, 
when  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred 
on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L. 
He  took  the  opportunity  while  in 
Europe  to  perfect  his  collections  on 
American  history.  He  returned  to 
New  York  in  1849,  and  began  to  prepare 
for  the  press  the  fourth  and  fifth  vol- 
umes of  his  history,  which  appeared  in 
1852.  The  sixth  appeared  in  1854,  the 
seventh  in  1858,  the  eight  soon  after, 
but  the  ninth  did  not  appear  till  1866. 
From  1867  to  1874  he  was  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  the  court  of  Berlin. 
The  tenth  and  last  volume  of  his  great 
work  appeared  in  1874.  An  additional 
section  appeared  first  as  a separate  work 
in  1882 — History  of  the  Formation  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  U.  States — and 
the  whole  came  out  in  6 vols.  in  1884-5. 
He  has  also  published  many  essays  in 
the  North  American  Review  and  other 
periodicals,  a selection  from  which  was 
published  in  1855  under  the  title  of 
Miscellanies. 

BANCROFT,  Hubert  Howe,  an  Ameri- 
can historian,  born  in  Ohio  in  1832. 
He  embarked  in  business  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  became  interested  in  its  history, 
and  decided  to  devote  his  life  to  that 
work.  He  made  numerous  expeditions, 
spending  large  sums  of  money  in  the 
work  of  investigation,  and  has  published 
several  volumes  of  the  history  of  the 
Western  States.  He  has  also  published 
histories  of  Mexico,  Central  America, 
British  Columbia,  and  other  western 
and  southern  parts  of  America. 

BAND,  a number  of  musicians  organ- 
ized for  the  production  of  marching  or 
concert  music.  Mere  drum  and  fife  can 
hardly  be  dignified  by  the  name  band, 
which  is  usually  confined  to  an  organ- 
ization consisting  of  brass  and  reed 
instruments,  drums,  etc.  The  military 
band  is  the  highest  form  of  band,  and 
takes  its  origin  from  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV.  All  the  courts  of  Europe  had  theii 
bands,  but  the  modern  military  oi 
marine  (naval)  band  is  a recent  develop- 
ment, and  verges  closely  on  the  orches- 
tra. Its  principal  instruments  are 
tubas,  cornets,  clarionets,  trombones, 
saxophones,  oboes,  bass  horns,  snare, 
bass,  and  kettle  drums,  and  tympani. 
The  number  of  instruments  is  unlimited. 

BANDA,  a town  and  district  of  India, 
in  the  United  Provinces.  The  town 
stands  on  a plain  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ken  river,  95  miles  s.w.  from 
Allahabad,  and  is  a considerable  cotton- 
mart.  Pop.  22,565. — Area  of  district 
3060  sq.  miles;  pop.  705,832. 

BANDAGE,  a surgical  wrapper  ol 
some  kind  applied  to  a limb  or  othei 
portion  of  the  body  to  keep  parts  in  posi- 
tion, exert  a pressure,  or  for  other  pur- 
pose. To  be  able  to  apply  a bandage 
suitably  in  the  case  of  an  accident  is  a 
highly  useful  accomplishment,  which, 
through  the  teaching  of  ambulance 
surgery  now  so  common,  may  be  easily 
acquired. 

BANDA  ISLANDS,  a group  belonging 
to  HollancL  Indian  Archipelago,  south 
of  Ceram;  Great  Banda,  the  largest,  be- 
ing 12  miles  long  by  2 broad.  They  arc 
beautiful  islands,  of  volcanic  origin, 
yielding  quantities  of  nutmeg.  Goenong 
Api,  or  Fire  Mountain,  is  a cone-shaped 


volcano  which  rises  2320  feet  above  the 
sea.  Pop.  6700. 

BAN'DiCOOT,  the  largest  known 
species  of  rat,  attaining  the  weight  of  2 
or  3 lbs.,  and  the  length,  including  the 
tail,  of  24  to  30  inches.  It  is  a native 
of  India,  and  is  very  abundant  in  Cey- 
lon. Its  flesh  is  said  to  be  delicate  and 
to  resemble  young  pork,  and  is  a favorite 
article  of  diet  with  the  coolies.  It  is 
destructive  to  rice  fields  and  gardens. — 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a family  of 
Australian  marsupials.  The  most  com- 
mon species,  the  long-nosed  bandicoot, 
measures  about  feet  from  the  tip  of 
the  snout  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  and 
in  general  appearance  bears  a consider- 
able resemblance  to  a large  overgrown 
rat. 

BAN'DIT,  originally  an  exile,  ban- 
ished man,  or  outlaw,  and  hence,  as  per- 
sons outlawed  frequently  adopted  the 
profession  of  brigand  or  highwayman, 
the  word  came  to  be  synonymous  with 
brigand,  and  is  now  applied  to  members 
of  the  organized  gangs  which  infest 
some  districts  of  Italy,  Sicily  Spain, 
Greece,  and  Turkey. 

BAND  OF  HOPE,  a name  given  to 
societies  of  young  persons  pledged  to 
teetotalism. 

BANFF  (bamf),  county  town  of  Banff- 
shire, Scotland,  a seaport  on  the  Moray 
Firth  at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron. 
Pop.  of  pari,  burgh,  which  includes  Mac- 
duff, 7148;  Banff  portion,  3730. — The 
county  has  an  area  of  410,112  acres. 
In  the  south  it  is  mountainous,  but  the 
northern  part  is  comparatively  low  and 
fertile;  principal  rivers,  the  Spey  and 
Deveron;  principal  mountains.  Cairn- 
gorm (4095  feet)  and  Ben  Maedhui  (4296 
feet),  on  its  southern  boundary.  Little 
wheat  is  raised,  the  principal  crops  being 
barley,  oats,  turnips,  and  potatoes. 
Fishing  is  an  important  industry;  as  is 
also  the  distilling  of  whisky.  Serpen- 
tine abounds  in  several  places,  especially 
at  Portsoy,  where  it  is  known  as  “Port- 
soy marble,”  and  Scotch  topazes  or 
cairngorm  stones  are  found  on  the 
mountains  in  the  south.  Pop.  61,487. 

BANGALORE',  a town  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  Mysore,  and  giving  its  name 
to  a considerable  district  in  the  east  of 
Mysore  state.  There  are  manufactures 
of  silks,  cotton  cloth,  carpets,  gold  and 
silver  lace,  etc.  Pop.  159,046. — The 
Bangalore  district  has  an  area  of  2559 
square  miles,  of  which  more  than  half 
represent  cultivable  land.  Pop.  802,994. 

BANGKOK',  the  capital  of  the  King- 
dom of  Siam,  extending  for  several 
miles  on  both  sides  of  the  Menam,  which 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam  about  15 
miles  below  The  trade,  both  inland 
and  foreign,  is  very  extensive,  the  ex- 
ports consisting  chiefly  of  rice,  sugar, 
silk,  cotton,  tobacco,  pepper,  sesame, 
ivory,  aromatic  wood,  cabinet  woods, 
tin,  hides,  etc.;  and  the  imports  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  cotton,  woolen,  and 
other  goods.  Pop.  estimated  at  500,- 
000,  of  whom  about  a half  are  Chinese. 

BAN'GOR,  a port  of  the  United 
States,  in  Maine,  on  the  west  side  of 
Penobscot  river,  a flourishing  and 
pleasantly  situated  town,  and  one  of 
the  largest  lumber  depots  in  the  world. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  the  town  for 
vessels  of  the  largest  size.  Pop.  22,000 


BANGS 


BANK 


BANGS,  John  Kendrick, an  American 
humorist  and  verse  writer,  born  in  New 
York  in  1862.  He  has  been  editor  of 
Harper’s  Weekly,  and  has  published 
several  volumes  of  humor  and  verse, 
among  them  The  Idiot,  and  Coffee  and 
Repartee. 

BAN'JO,  the  favorite  musical  instru- 
ment of  the  negroes  of  the  Southern 
States  of  America.  It  is  six-stringed, 
has  a body  like  a tambourine  and  a neck 
like  a guitar,  and  is  played  by  stopping 
the  strings  with  the  fingers  of  the  left 
hand  and  twitching  or  striking  them 
with  the  fingers  of  the  right.  The  upper 
or  octave  string,  however,  is  never 
stopped. 

BANK,  primarily  an  establishment 
for  the  deposit,  custody,  and  repay- 
ment on  demand,  of  money,  and  ob- 
taining the  bulk  of  its  profits  from  the 
investment  of  sums  thus  derived  and 
not  in  immediate  demand.  Banks  are 
among  the  oldest  institutions  in  the 
world.  There  is  evidence  of  their  exist- 
ence in  Assyria  thousands  of  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  and  banks  were 
used  in  ancient  Athens  and  Rome. 
Modern  banking  begins  in  1587  with  the 
famous  bank  of  Venice,  which  had  itself 
been  preceded  by  private  banks  in  the 
great  Venetian  republic.  Other  medie- 
val banks  were  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam 
and  the  Bank  of  Hamburg.  It  was  not 
until  the  18th  century  that  the  dis- 
tinctly modern  features  of  banking 
arose — the  issue  of  notes  not  covered 
by  coin  and  the  granting  of  accounts 
on  the  mere  credit  of  borrowers.  Bank 
notes  were  known  in  China  1200  years 
ago,  but  the  first  European  bank  notes 
were  those  issued  by  the  Bank  of 
Sweden  in  1661.  In  the  17th  century 
the  Bank  of  England  arose  and  the  bank 
note  became  substantially  what  it  is 
today. 

Modern  banks  have  three  functions, 
deposits,  discounts  and  issue.  Primari- 
ly the  bank  was  a safe  place  for  the 
keeping  of  money,  but  its  present 
function  is  the  collection  of  small  sums 
of  capital  which  might  otherwise  be 
idle,  and  which  are  loaned  to  those  who 
need  capital  and  who  can  give  sufficient 
security  to  justify  the  loan.  Loans  to 
the  bank  are  called  deposits;  loans  by 
the  bank  are  called  discounts.  Banks 
of  issue  are  those  which  issue  bank 
notes  which  circulate  as  currency.  In 
the  United  States  the  only  banks  of 
issue  are  those  under  the  National 
Banking  Law. 

The  deposit  and  discount  functions 
of  the  bank  have  made  it  the  chief 
factor  in  the  credit  upon  which  nine 
tenths  of  the  business  of  the  world  is 
said  to  be  done.  Most  of  the  deposits 
are  made  in  the  bank  in  the  form  of 
checks  which  the  bank  charges  itself 
with  the  responsibility  of  collecting. 
If  these  checks  are  drawn  on  the  bank 
of  deposit,  the  bank  simply  deducts  the 
amount  from  the  account  of  the 
drawer  and  credits  it  to  the  account  of 
the  depositor.  If  the  check  is  drawn  on 
another  bank,  payment  is  made 
through  the  clearing  house  which 
keeps  account  of  the  orders  upon  the 
various  banks  or  in  their  favor,  much 
in  the  same  way  as  the  bank  does 
for  individual  depositors,  and^settle- 


ments of  the  actual  balances  be- 
tween the  banks  are  made  in  cash  or 
drafts. 

The  interest  paid  by  banks  upon  de- 
posits varies  in  proportion  to  the  ex- 
tent of  control  of  its  funds  that  is 
surrendered  by  the  depositors.  In 
ordinary  commercial  banking  no 
interest  is  paid  upon  deposits  unless 
there  is  a large  balance  that  is 
practically  stationary.  In  savings  banks 
where  interest  is  paid  ail  depositors,  it 
is  usual  to  require  a notice  of  one 
month  for  withdrawal  of  funds,  al- 
though this  is  not  always  insisted 
upon.  While  deposits  for  a speci- 
fied time,  called  time  deposits, 
receive  still  greater  rates  of  in- 
terest. The  interest  rates  paid  by  the 
bank  and  the  demand  period  of  their 
deposits  practically  govern  the  charac- 
ter of  the  loans  which  they  make,  thus 
the  commercial  banks  paying  little  or 
no  interest,  must  loan  their  money 
only  on  easily  negotiable  paper  or 
collateral,  such  as  bonds  or  stock 
which  is  readily  converted  into  cash. 
The  savings  bank  not  finding  it  neces- 
sary that  all  of  its  assets  may  be  instantly 
converted  into  cash,  finds  it  is  possible 
to  loan  money  upon  mortgages.  Bank 
loans  are  divided  between  time  loans 
for  a definite  period  of  days  and 
nights  and  call  loans  upon  which 
payment  can  be  demanded  at  will. 
While  either  form  of  loan  can  be  made 
upon  the  personal  credit  of  the  bor- 
rower, this  is  exceptional  and  safe  bank- 
ing disapproves  of  such  loans  except  to 
persons  of  exceptional  credit.  Safe 
banking  requires  that  the  security 
shall  be  at  the  best,  not  only  at  the 
sacrifice  of  a possible  higher  rate  of  in- 
terest, but  that  an  adequate  reserve 
shall  be  maintained  to  meet  the  de- 
mand of  the  depositors  in  the  case  of  a 
run,  even  though  such  run  may  be 
eminent.  This  reserve  consists  of 
either  cash  or  assets  easily  convertable 
into  cash,  such  as  government  bonds. 
Obviously  the  greater  the  reserve,  the 
smaller  the  amount  of  the  bank’s  de- 
posit available  for  loans  at  interest, 
and  hence  the  great  temptation  for 
the  bankers  to  keep  a reserve  which 
will  not  be  adequate  in  the  event  of  a 
run.  It  is  this  failure  to  maintain  a 
sufficient  reserve  which  causes  most  of 
the  failures  of  banks.  The  amount  of 
this  reserve  except  in  the  case  of  na- 
tional banks,  is  practically  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  banker.  The  National 
Banking  Laws  require  a minimum  re- 
serve of  25  per  cent  of  the  amount  of 
deposit  in  certain  large  cities  named 
in  the  law,  and  15  per  cent  of  the  de- 
posits in  smaller  cities.  In  New  York, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  the  entire  re- 
serve must  be  in  currency.  In  the 
other  principal  cities,  one-half  of  the 
reserve  may  be  deposits  in  the  three 
large  cities  named,  but  at  least  one- 
half  must  be  in  currency.  In  the 
smaller  cities,  two-fifths  of  the  reserve 
must  be  in  cash,  while  the  balance  may 
be  deposited  in  any  of  the  reserve 
cities. 

Banks  of  issue  are  those  which  issue 
their  own  bank  notes  which  pass  as 
currency.  The  exercise  of  this  func- 
tion is  regulated  in  different  nations. 


and  in  some,  as  France,  there  is  a sin- 
gle bank  possessing  this  power.  In 
England  and  Germany  the  power  is 
vested  almost  entirely  in  one  certain 
bank  which  is  gradually  obtaining  a 
practical  monopoly.  In  these  and 
most  other  countries  . the  right  of  note 
issue  is  based  upon  the  amount  of  cash 
and  other  assets  held  by  the  bank. 
Until  the  passing  of  the  currency  act  of 
1908,  the  note  issue  of  the  United  States 
was  given  to  banks  chartered  under  the 
federal  laws  only  upon  the  security  of 
government  bonds,  this  provision  hav- 
ing been  made  after  the  civil  war  in 
oi-der  to  provide  a means  for  the  market- 
ing of  the  unusual  amount  of  govern- 
ment bonds  in  existence  at  that  time. 
The  demand  for  a more  elastic  system 
of  currency  dependent  upon  the  actual 
needs  of  business  instead  of  upon  the 
amount  of  money  that  the  United  States 
government  owed,  led  to  the 
passage  of  the  Aldrich-Vreeland  cur- 
rency act  of  1908.  This  act  pro- 
vided for  the  formation  of  Na- 
tional Currency  Associations  which 
should  authorize  their  members  under 
certain  conditions  to  issue  notes  to  75 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  securities  or  com- 
mercial paper,  or  90  per  cent  of  the 
market  value  of  state,  city,  town,  coun- 
ty or  other  municipal  bonds,  but  in  no 
case  shall  circulated  notes  based  on 
commercial  paper,  exceed  30  per  cent 
of  the  unimpared  capital  and  surplus 
of  a bank.  The  notes,  however,  cannot 
be  issued  unless  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  deem  it  advisable.  All 
of  the  banks  in  each  National  Currency 
Association  are  made  responsible  for 
the  notes  of  their  members.  Besides 
these  National  Currency  Associations, 
the  right  is  given  under  certain  condi- 
tions to  banks  to  issue  notes  on  bonds 
other  than  those  of  the  United  States, 
of  a certain  character  after  approval  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  In  order 
to  prevent  an  increase  of  circulation 
that  is  not  justified  by  actual  demands 
of  business,  it  is  provided  that  the  ad- 
ditional circulation  authorized  by  the 
law,  shall  pay  for  the  first  month,  a tax 
at  the  rate  of  5 per  cent  a year,  upon 
the  average  amount  of  such  notes  in 
circulation  as  are  based  upon  the  de- 
posit of  such  authorized  securities, 
and  afterwards  an  additional  tax  of 
one  per  cent  a year  for  each  month 
until  the  tax  of  ten  per  cent  a year  is 
reached. 

Although  banking  operations  on  a 
considerable  scale  appear  to  have  been 
conducted  by  the  ancients,  modern 
banking  must  be  regarded  as  having 
had  an  independent  origin  in  the  re- 
viving civilization  of  the  middle  ages. 
In  the  12th  century  almost  the  whole 
trade  of  Europe  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Italian  cities,  and  it  was  in  these 
that  the  need  of  bankers  was  first  felt. 
The  earliest  public  bank,  that  of  Ven- 
ice, established  in  1171  and  existing 
down  to  the  dissolution  of  the  repub- 
lic in  1797,  was  for  some  time  a bank  of 
deposit  only,  the  government  being 
responsible  for  the  deposits,  and  the 
whole  capital  being  in  effect  a public 
loan.  In  the  early  periods  of  the  oper- 
ations of  this  bank  deposits  could  not 
be  withdrawn,  but  the  depositor  had  a 


BANK 


BANSHEE 


credit  at  the  bank  to  the  amount  de- 
posited, this  credit  being  transfer- 
able to  another  person  in  place 
of  money  payment.  Subsequently  de- 
posits were  allowed  to  be  withdrawn, 
the  original  system  proving  inconven- 
ient outside  the  Venetian  boundaries. 
It  was,  however,  less  from  the  Bank  of 
Venice  than  from  the  Florentine  bank- 
ers of  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  that 
modern  banking  specially  dates,  the 
magnitude  of  their  operations  being 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  between 
1430  and  1433,  76  bankers  of  Florence 
issued  on  loan  nearly  5,000,000  gold 
florins. 

The  Bank  of  England,  the  most  im- 
portant banking  establishment  in  the 
world,  was  projected  by  William 
Paterson,  who  was  afterwards  the  pro- 
moter of  the  disastrous  Darien 
scheme.  It  was  the  first  public  bank 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  was  char- 
tered in  1694  by  an  act  which,  among 
other  things,  secured  certain  recom- 
penses to  such  persons  as  should  ad- 
vance the  sum  of  £1,500,000  towards 
carrying  on  the  war  against  France. 
Subscribers  to  the  loan  became,  under 
the  act,  stockholders,  to  the  amount 
of  their  respective  subscriptions,  in  the 
capital  stock  of  a corporation,  denom- 
inated the  Governor  and  Company  of  the 
Bank  of  England.  The  company  thus 
formed,  advanced  to  the  government 
£1,200,000  at  an  interest  of  8 per  cent — 
the  government  making  an  additional 
bonus  or  ■ allowance  to  the  bank  of 
£4,000  annually  for  the  management  of 
this  loan  (which  in  fact,  constituted 
the  capital  of  the  bank) , and  for  set- 
tling the  interest  and  making  trans- 
fers, etc.,  among  the  various  stockhold- 
ers. This  bank,  like  that  of  Venice,  was 
thus  originally  an  engine  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  not  a mere  commercial 
establishment.  Its  capital  has  been 
added  to  from  time  to  time,  the  origi- 
nal capital  of  £1,200,000  having  in- 
creased to  £14,553,000  in  1816,  since 
which  no  further  augumentation  has 
taken  place.  There  exists,  besides, 
however,  a variable  * rest  ’ of  over 
£3,000,000. 

Clitizens  of  Philadelphia  were  orig- 
inators of  the  first  bank  organized  in  the 
United  States,  without  charter,  June 
17, 1780.  In  1781  Robert  Morris,  super- 
intendent of  finance,  introduced  to  Con- 
gress a plan  for  establishing  the  Bank 
of  North  America  at  Philadelphia; 
Dec.  31  aperpetual  charter  was  granted 
to  that  institution.  On  Jan.  2,  1782, 
the  bank  opened  for  business.  Feb.  7, 
1784,  was  incorporated  the  Massachu- 
setts Bank  by  the  legislature  of  that 
state ; this  was  followed  March  21 , 1791, 
by  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  New 
York,  which,  however,  had  been  doing 
business  since  1784,  under  ‘ articles  of 
association’  drawn  up  by  Alexander 
Hamilton,  a member  of  its  original 
board  of  directors.  All  of  the  above, 
converted  into  national  banks,  are  still 
in  a prosperous  condition. 

Savings  banks  began  to  attract  atten- 
tion in  the  United  States  shortly  after 
their  inauguration  in  England,  the 
first  being  organized  in  New  York, 
1816,  but  the  first  one  to  go  into  prac- 
tical operation  was  in  Philadelphia,  of 


the  same  year,  Boston  was  the  first  to 
have  an  incorporated  savings  bank, 
this  being  effected  Dec.  13, 1816,  business 
being  begun  in  1817;  the  United  States 
thus  anticipated  Britain  in  throwing 
about  these  banks  the  protection  and 
sanction  of  law.  From  that  time  these 
examples  have  been  rapidly  followed. 
There  is  no  uniform  plan  of  organiza- 
tion. In  some  states  there  is  a large 
number  of  incorporators  who  elect 
trustees  and  directors  from  among 
their  members  ; again  other  corporators 
are  limited  in  number  and  are  them- 
selves the  trustees  and  managers.  In 
the  northeast  trustees  manage  the 
savings  banks  for  the  depositors  ; else- 
where they  are  mostly  under  the 
control  of  corporations  with  capital 
stock. 

An  important  feature  in  connection 
with  the  banking  system  is  that  of  the 
Clearing  House,  which,  in  the  United 
States,  was  first  put  in  operation  in 
New  York,  Oct.  11,  1853.  Since  that 
time  this  plan  has  been  adopted  in 
every  important  money  center  and 
city.  Each  bank  in  its  daily  dealings 
receives  large  amounts  of,  and  checks 
on,  other  banks ; thus  at  the  close  of  the 
day’s  business  each  one  has  various 
sums  due  it  by  other  banks  ; it  is  like- 
wise the  debtor  of  other  banks  who 
have  received  bills,  checks  and  drafts 
drawn  upon  it.  The  settlement  by 
means  of  the  clearing  house  is  simul- 
taneously and  quickly  effected.  The 
banks  now  having  no  direct  business 
with  each  other  save  through  this 
medium,  which  enables  them  to  settle 
with  each  other  every  day,  and  with 
but  little  trouble  brings  each  officer 
into  intimate  relations  with  the  others, 
enabling  them  by  united  action  to 
strengthen  and  aid  each  other  in  times 
of  panic  and  financial  danger. 

Bank  Guarantee;  Law  of  Oklahoma 
making  all  banks  liable  for  deposits  in 
insolvent  banks.  Indorsed  by  Demo- 
cratic national  platform  of  1908. 

BANK  BILLS,  or  BANK  NOTES, 
paper  money  issued  by  banks,  either 
with  or  without  the  protection  of  the 
state.  Bank  notes  are  promises  to  pay, 
but  differ  from  ordinary  notes  in  that 
they  are  payable  on  demand,  never  be- 
come overdue,  and  may  be  reissued 
when  taken  up. 

BANK  HOLIDAYS,  days  on  which 
banks  close  their  doors.  In  the  United 
States  banks  do  not  transact  business 
on  regular  holidays.  Certain  holidays 
are  not  observed  by  banks,  although 
the  custom  of  closing  banks  on  days  of 
local  festivities,  etc.,  is  a growing  one 
in  the  United  States. 

BANKRUPT,  a person  whom  the  law 
does  or  may  take  cognizance  of  as  unable 
to  pay  his  debts.  Properly  it  is  of 
narrower  signification  than  insolvent, 
an  insolvent  person  simply  being  unable 
to  pay  all  his  debts.  Under  the  present 
bankruptc}'^  acts  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States,  proceedings  in  bank- 
ruptcy may  be  instituted  by  the  debtor 
or  by  creditors.  The  former  is  called  a 
voluntary,  the  latter  an  involuntary, 
proceeding.  Each  is  begun  by  filing  a 
petition.  The  debtor’s  petition  must 
state  that  he  is  unable  to  pay  his  debts, 
and  is  willing  to  surrender  all  of  his 


property  to  the  use  of  his  creditors. 
Whether  a person  is  liable  to  be  ad- 
judged a bankrupt  upon  the  petition  of 
creditors  does  not  depend  upon  his 
ability  or  inability  to  pay  his  debts,  but 
upon  his  having  committed  an  act  of 
bankruptcy.  Such  at  least  is  the  Eng- 
lish doctrine;  but  it  is  modified  to  some 
extent  in  the  United  States.  The 
United  States  Bankruptcy  Statute  of 
1898  enumerates  five  classes  of  acts  of 
bankruptcy.  First,  conveying,  trans- 
ferring, concealing,  or  removing,  or  per- 
mitting to  be  concealed  or  removed, 
any  of  his  porperty  with  the  intent  to 
hinder,  delay,  or  defraud  any  of  his 
creditors.  Second,  transferring,  while 
insolvent,  any  of  his  property  with  in- 
tent to  prefer  a creditor  or  creditors 
over  others.  Third,  suffering,  while  in- 
solvent, any  creditor  to  obtain  a prefer- 
ence through  legal  proceedings,  and  not 
securing  the  vacating  or  discharge  of 
such  preference.  Fourth,  making  a 
general  assignment  for  the  benefit  of 
creditors.  Fifth,  admitting  in  writing 
his  inability  to  pay  his  debts,  and  his 
willingness  to  be  adjudged  a bankrupt 
on  that  ground.  After  the  debtor  is 
adjudicated  a bankrupt,  a trustee  is 
appointed  by  the  creditors  (subject  to 
some  supervision  by  the  Board  of  Trade 
in  England,  by  the  bankruptcy  court  in 
this  country),  who  becomes  vested  not 
only  with  all  the  property  in  possession 
of  the  debtor  at  the  time  when  he  was 
adjudged  a bankrupt,  but  with  all  that 
he  had  transferred  in  violation  of  the 
statute  or  in  fraud  of  creditors.  It  is 
quite  important  that  the  trustee’s  title 
should  relate  back  of  the  adjudication. 
Otherwise  a failing  debtor  could  always 
defeat  one  of  the  main  purposes  of  the 
bankruptcy  statute — that  of  securing 
a ratable  division  of  all  his  estate 
among  all  his  creditors — by  turning  over 
his  property  to  one  or  more  favored 
creditors. 

BANKS,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  an  Amer- 
ican soldier,  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1816.  He  studied  law,  served  as  legis- 
lator of  Massachusetts,  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  state  constitutional  conven- 
tion. He  was  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts from  1857-9,  and  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  congress.* 
He  served  as  major-general  of  Union 
volunteers  in  the  civil  war,  and  suffered 
many  defeats.  In  1864  he  retired  from 
the  army  and  was  elected  to  congress, 
where  he  served  almost  continuously 
until  1877.  He  died  in  1894. 

BAN'NER,  a piece  of  drapery,  usually 
bearing  some  warlike  or  heraldic  device 
or  national  emblem,  attached  to  the 
upper  part  of  a pole  or  staff,  and  indic- 
ative of  dignity,  rank,  or  command. 

BANNS  OF  MATRIMONY,  public 
notice  of  the  intended  celebration  of  a 
marriage  given  either  by  proclamation, 
viva  voce,  by  a clergyman,  session- 
clerk,  or  precentor  in  some  religious 
assembly,  or  by  posting  up  written 
notice  in  some  public  place. 

BANNU,  a district  in  the  northwest  of 
Hindustan,  traversed  by  the  Indus; 
area,  3847  sq.  miles;  pop.  372,276,  nearly 
half  being  Afghans. 

BANSHEE',  BENSHI',a  weird  hag  be- 
lieved in  Ireland  and  some  parts  of 
Scotland  to  attach  herself  to  a particu- 


BANTAM  FOWL 


BARBER 


lar  house,  ana  to  appear  or  make  her 
presence  known  by  wailing  before  the 
death  of  one  of  the  family. 

BANTAM  FOWL,  a small  but  spirited 
breed  of  domestic  fowl,  first  brought 
from  the  East  Indies,  supposed  to  derive 
its  name  from  Bantam  in  Java.  Most 
of  the  subvarieties  have  feathered  legs; 
but  these  are  not  to  be  preferred.  In 
point  of  color  the  black  and  nankeen 
varieties  take  the  palm.  A well-bred 
bantam  does  not  weigh  more  than  a 
pound. 

BANTU  (ban-to'),  the  ethnological 
name  of  a group  of  African  races  below 
about  6°  n.  latitude,  and  including  the 
Kaffirs,  Zulus,  Bechuanas,  the  tribes  of 
the  Loango,  Congo,  etc.,  but  not  the 
Hottentots. 

BANU.  See  Bannu. 

BAN'YAN,  or  BANTAN,  a tree  of 
India,  of  the  fig  genus.  The  most  pecu- 
lar  feature  of  this  tree  is  its  method  of 
throwing  out,  from  the  horizontal 
branches,  supports  which  take  root  as 
soon  as  they  reach  the  grcTund,  enlarge 
into  trunks,  and  extending  branches  in 
their  turn,  soon  cover  a prodigious  ex- 
tent of  ground.  A celebrated  banyan- 
tree  has  been  known  to  shelter  7000 


Banyan  trees. 


men  beneath  its  shade.  The  wood  is 
soft  and  porous,  and  from  its  white 
glutinous'  juice  bird-lime  is  sometimes 
prepared.  Both  juice  and  bark  are  re- 
garded by  the  Hindus  as  valuable 
medicines. 

BA'OBAB,  or  MONKEY-BREAD 
TREE  is  one  of  the  largest  of  trees,  its 
trunk  sometimes  attaining  a diameter 
of  30  feet;  and  as  the  profusion  of  leaves 
and  drooping  boughs  sometimes  almost 
hides  the  stem,  the  whole  forms  a hem- 
ispherical mass  of  verdure  140  to  150  feet, 
in  diameter  and  60  to  70  feet  high.  It  is  a 
native  of  western  Africa,  and  is  found 
also  in  Abyssinia;  it  is  cultivated  in 
nany  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world. 
The  roots  are  of  extraordinary  length , a 
tree  77  feet  in  girth  having  a tap-root 
110  feet  in  length.  The  leaves  are  deep 


green,  divided  into  five  unequal  parts 
lanceolate  in  shape,  and  radiating  from 
a common  center.  The  flowers  resem- 
ble the  white  poppy,  having  snowy 
petals  and  violet-colored  stamens;  and 


Baobab  tree. 


the  fruit,  which  is  large  and  of  an  oblong 
shape,  is  said  to  taste  like  gingerbread, 
with  a pleasant  acid  flavor.  The  wood 
is  pale-colored,  light,  and  soft.  The  tree 
is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  a fungus 
which,  vegetating  in  the  woody  part, 
renders  it  soft  and  pith-like. 

BAPTISM,  a rite  which  is  generally 
thought  to  have  been  usual  with  the 
Jews  even  before  Christ,  being  admin- 
istered to  proselytes.  From  this  bap- 
tism, however,  that  of  St.  John  the 
Baptist  differed,  because  he  baptized 
Jews  also  as  a symbol  of  the  necessity 
of  perfect  purification  from  sin.  Christ 
himself  never  baptized,  but  directed  his 
disciples  to  administer  this  rite  to  con- 
verts (Mat.  xxviii.  19);  and  baptism, 
therefore,  became  a religious  ceremony 
among  Christians,  taking  rank  as  a 
sacrament  with  all  sects  which  acknowl- 
edge sacraments.  Since  the  Reforma- 
tion there  have  been  various  Protestant 
sects  called  Baptists,  holding  that  bap- 
tism should  be  administered  only  by 
immersion,  and  to  those  who  can  make 
a personal  profession  of  faith.  The 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholics  consecrate 
the  water  of  baptism,  but  Protestants 
do  not.  The  act  of  baptism  is  accom- 
panied only  with  the  formula  that  the 
person  is  baptized  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost;  but, 
among  most  Christians,  it  is  preceded  by 
a confession  of  faith  made  by  the  person 
to  be  baptized  if  an  adult,  and  by  his 
parents  or  sponsors  if  he  be  a child. 

BAPTISTS,  a Protestant  sect,  dis- 
tinguished by  their  opinions  respecting 
the  mode  and  subjects  of  baptism.  With 
regard  to  the  mode,  they  maintain  the 
necessity  of  immersion,  and  with  regard 
to  the  subjects,  they  consider  that  bap- 
‘ tism  ought  not  to  be  administered  to 
children  at  all,  nor  to  adults  in  general, 
but  to  those  only  who  profess  repent- 
ance and  faith.  The  Baptists  as  a whole 
adopt  the  Independent  <?r  Congrega- 
tional form  of  church  government,  and 
their  ecclesiastical  assemblies  are  held 
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  stimulus  and 
intercourse,  and  not  for  the  general 
government  of  the  body,  or  for  inter- 
ference with  individual  churches. 

BAR,  in  law,  the  railing  that  incloses 
the  place  which  council  occupy  in  courts 
of  justice;  hence  the  phrase,  at  the  bar 
of  the  court,  that  is,  in  open  court. 


Hence  also  persons  duly  admitted  as 
pleaders  or  advocates  before  the  courts 
are  denominated  barristers,  and  the 
whole  body  of  such  barristers  or  advo- 
cates are  called  the  bar.  The  inclosed 
place  or  dock  in  which  persons  accused 
of  crimes  stand  in  court  is  also  called  the 
bar. 

BAR,  in  music,  is  a line  drawn  through 
the  stave  to  mark  the  rhythm  of  small 
portions ; the  notes  composing  these  are 
also  called  a bar. 

BARBA'DOES,  or  BARBADOS,  the 

most  eastern  of  the  West  India  Islands, 
first  mentioned  in  1518,  and  occupied  by 
the  British  in  1625.  Length  21  miles, 
breadth  13;  area,  106,470  acres  or  166 
sq.  miles;  mostly  under  cultivation.  It 
is  more  densely  peopled  than  almost  any 
spot  in  the  world,  the  population  in  1901 
being  195,588,  or  about  1200  to  the 
square  mile.  The  climate  is  very  hot, 
though  moderated  by  the  constant 
trade-winds;  and  the  island  is  subject 
to  dreadful  hurricanes.  The  surface  is 
broken,  now  without  forests,  and  with 
few  streams;  the  highest  point  is  1145 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  There  are  few 
indigenous  mammals  or  birds.  The 
black  lowland  soil  gives  great  returns  of 
sugar  in  favorable  seasons.  The  chief 
exports,  besides  sugar,  are  molasses  and 
rum;  imports;  rice,  salt  meat,  corn, 
butter,  flour,  etc.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  British  forces  in  the 
West  Indies. 

BARBARIAN,  a name  given  by  the 
Greeks,  and  afterward  by  the  Romans, 
to  every  one  who  spoke  an  unintelligible 
language ; and  hence  coming  to  connote 
the  idea  of  rude,  illiterate,  uncivilized. 

BAR'BARY,  a general  name  for  the 
most  northerly  portion  of  Africa,  ex- 
tending about  2600  miles  from  Egypt  to 
the  Atlantic,  with  a breadth  varying 
from  about  140  to  550  miles;  comprising 
Morocco,  Fez,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and 
Tripoli  (including  Barca  and  Fezzan). 
The  principal  races  are*  the  Berbers, 
the  original  inhabitants,  from  whom  the 
country  takes  its  name ; the  Arabs,  who 
conquered  an  extensive  portion  of  it 
during  the  times  of  the  caliphs;  the 
Bedouins,  Jews,  Turks,  and  the  French, 
colonists  of  Algeria,  etc.  The  country, 
which  was  prosperous  under  the  Cartha- 
ginians, was,  next  to  Egypt,  the  richest 
of  the  Roman  provinces,  and  the  Italian 
states  enriched  themselves  by  their 
intercourse  with  it.  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury, however,  it  became  infested  with 
adventurers  who  made  the  name  of 
Barbary  corsair  a terror  to  commerce,  a 
condition  of  things  finally  removed  by 
the  French  occupation  of  Algeria. 

BARBARY  APE,  a species  of  ape,  or 
tailless  monkey,  with  greenish-brown 
hair,  of  the  size  of  a large  cat,  remark- 
able for  docility,  also  called  the  magot. 
It  is  common  in  Barbary  and  other  parts 
of  Africa,  and  some  used  to  live  formerly 
on  Gilbraltar  Rock,  being  the  only 
European  monkey,  though  probably 
not  indigenous.  It  has  been  the  “show- 
man’s ape”  from  time  immemorial. 

BAR'BECUE,  a word  of  West  Indian 
origin,  meaning  a hog,  or  other  large 
animal,  roasted  whole.  * 

BARBER,  one  whose  occupation  is  to 
ehave  or  trim  the  beard,  or  to  cut  and 
dress  hair.  The  practice  of  surgery  was 


BARBERS’  ITCH 


BARK.  PERUVIAN 


formerly  a part  of  the  craft,  and  by  an 
act  of  Henry  VIII.  the  Company  of 
Barbers  was  incorporated  with  the 
Company  of  Surgeons — the  company 
being  then  known  as  the  Barber-sur- 
geons— with  the  limitation,  however, 
that  the  surgeons  were  not  to  shave  or 
practice  “barbery,”  and  the  barbers 
were  to  perform  no  higher  surgical 
operation  than  blood-letting  and  tooth- 
drawing. This  continued  till  the  time 
of  George  II.  The  signs  of  the  old  pro- 
fession— the  pole  which  the  patient 
grasped,  its  spiral  decoration  in  imita- 
tion of  the  bandage,  and  the  basin  to 
catch  the  Wood — are  still  retained. 

BARBERS’  ITCH,  a disease  of  the 
skin  of  the  face  caused  by  the  infection 
of  the  hair  follicles.  It  is  due  to  a 
fungus,  the  growth  of  which  produces 
ringworm.  The  disease  yields  readily 
to  treatment.  It  is  generally  acquired 
from  contact  with  the  brush,  lather,  or 
hands  of  the  barber,  or  the  barber’s 
towel. 

BAR'BERRY,  a genus  of  shrubs 
having  bunches  of  small  beautiful  red 
berries,  somewhat  oval;  serrated  and 
pointed  leaves;  thorns,  three  together, 
upon  the  branches;  and  hanging  clus- 
ters of  yellow  flowers.  The  berries  near- 
ly approach  the  tamarind  in  respect  of 
acidity,  and  when  boiled  with  sugar 
make  an  agreeable  preserve,  rob,  or 
jelly.  They  are  also  used  as  a dry  sweet- 
meat, and  in  sugar-plums  or  comfits;  are 
pickled  with  vinegar,  and  are  used  for 
the  garnishing  of  dishes.  The  bark  is 
said  to  have  medicinal  properties,  and 
the  inner  bark  and  roots  with  alum 
yield  a fine  yellow  dye.  The  shrub  was 
originally  a native  of  Eastern  countries, 
but  is  now  generally  diffused  in  Europe, 
as  also  in  North  America. 

BAR'CA,  a division  of  N.  Africa,  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Sidra  and  Egypt,  a 
vilayet  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  capital 
Bengazi.  It  formed  a portion  of  the 
ancient  Cyrenaica,  and  from  the  time 
of  the  Ptolemies  was  known  as  Pen- 
tapolis  from  its  five  Greek  cities.  Next 
to  Bengazi  the  seaport  of  Derna  is  the 
chief  town.  The  pop.  probably  does 
not  exceed  300,000. 

BARCELONA  (bar-thel-6'na),  one  of 
the  largest  cities  of  Spain,  chief  town  of 
the  province  of  Barcelona,  and  formerly 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Catalonia; 
finely  situated  on  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Spanish  Mediterranean  coast. 
Barcelona  was,  until  the  12th  century, 
governed  by  its  own  counts,  but  was 
afterward  united  with  Arragon.  In 
1040,  with  the  rest  of  Catalonia,  it 
placed  itself  under  the  French  crown; 
in  1652  it  submitted  again  to  the 
Spanish  government;  in  1697  it  was 
taken  by  the  French,  but  was  restored 
to  Spain  at  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  Pop. 
509,589. — The  province  has  an  area  of 
2968  sq.  miles;  pop.  902,970. 

BAR'CLAY.  Robert,  the  celebrated 
apologist  of  the  Quakers,  born  in  1648, 
.t  Gordonstown,  Moray,  and  educated 
at  Paris,  where  he  became  a Roman 
Catholic.  Recalled  home  by  his  father, 
he  followed  the  example  of  the  latter 
and  became  a Quaker.  In  his  travels 
with  William  Penn  and  George  Fox 
through  England,  Holland,  and  Ger- 
many, to  spread  the  opinions  of  the 


Quakers,  he  was  received  everywhere 
with  the  highest  respect.  The  last  of 
his  productions.  On  the  Possibility  and 
Necessity  of  an  Inward  and  Immediate 
Revelation,  was  not  published  in  Eng- 
land tiU  1686;  from  which  time  Bar- 
clay lived  quietly  with  his  family.  He 
died,  after  a short  illness,  at  his  own 
house  of  Ury,  Kincardineshire,  in  1690. 
He  was  a friend  of  and  had  influence 
with  James  II. 

BAR'COO.  See  Cooper’s  Creek. 

BARD,  one  of  an  order  among  the 
ancient  Celtic  tribes,  whose  occupation 
was  to  compose  and  sing  verses  in  honor 
of  the  heroic  achievements  of  princes 
and  brave  men,  generally  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  the  harp.  Their  verses 
also  frequently  embodied  religious  or 
ethical  precepts,  genealogies,  laws,  etc. 

BARDWAN',  or  BURDWAN',  a divi- 
sion of  Bengal,  upon  the  Hugh,  com- 
prising the  six  districts  of  Bardwan, 
Hugh,  Howrah,  Midnapur,  Bankura, 
and  Birbhum.  Area,  13,956  sq.  miles; 
pop.  7,688,818. — The  district  Bardwan 
has  an  area  of  2697  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  1,391,823. 

BAREBONE,  or  BARBONE,  Praise- 
God,  the  name  of  a leather  seller  in 
Fleet  Street,  - London,  who  obtained  a 
kind  of  lead  in  the  convention  which 
Cromwell  substituted  for  the  Long 
Parliament,  and  which  was  thence 
nicknamed  the  Barebone  Parliament. 
After  its  dissolution  he  disappears  till 
1660,  when  he  presented  a petition  to 
Parliament  against  the  restoration  of 
the  monarchy.  In  1661  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Tower  for  some  time,  but 
his  subsequent  history  is  unknown. 

BAREILLY  (ba-ra'li),  a town  of  Hin- 
dustan in  the  United  Provinces,  capital 
of  a district  of  same  name,  on  a pleasant 
and  elevated  site.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Indian  Mutiny  the  native  garrison 
took  possession  of  the  place,  but  it  was 
retaken  by  Lord  Clyde  in  May,  1858. 
Pop.  131,208. — The  district  has  an  area 
of  1595  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,040,691. 

BARGAIN  AND  SALE,  a legal  term 
denoting  the  contract  by  which  lands, 
tenements,  etc.,  are  transferred  from 
one  person  to  another. 

BARGE,  a term  similar  in  origin  to 
barque,  but  generally  used  of  a flat- 
bottomed  boat  of  some  kind,  whether 
used  for  loading  and  unloading  vessels, 
or  as  a canal-boat,  or  as  an  ornamental 
boat  of  state  or  pleasure. 

BARI  (ba're),  a seaport,  S.  Italy,  on  a 
small  promontory  of  the  Adriatic 
capital  of  the  province  Terra  di  Bari. 
It  was  a place  of  importance  as  early  as 
the  3d  century  b.c.,  and  has  been  thrice 
destroyed  and  rebuilt.  Pop.  about 
70,000. — The  province  has  an  area  of 
2280  sq.  miles,  and  is  fertile  in  fruit, 
wine,  oil,  etc.;  pop.  679,000. 

BARIL'LA,  the  commercial  name  for 
the  impure  carbonate  and  sulphate  of 
soda  imported  from  Spain  and  the 
Levant.  It  is  the  Spanish  name  of  a 
plant,  from  the  ashes  of  which  and  from 
those  of  others  of  the  same  genus  the 
crude  alkali  is  obtained.  On  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  the  seeds  of  the 
plants  from  which  it  is  obtained  are 
regularly  sown  near  the  sea,  and  these, 
when  at  a sufficient  state  of  maturity, 
are  pulled  up,  dried,  and  burned  in 


bundles  in  ovefis  or  in  trehches.  The 
ashes,  while  hot,  are  continually  stirred 
with  long  poles,  and  the  saline  matter 
they  contain  forms,  when  cold,  a soUd 
mass,  almost  as  hard  as  stone.  To 
obtain  the  carbonate  of  soda  it  is  only 
requisite  to  lixiviate  the  barilla  in  boil- 
ing water,  and  evaporate  the  solution. 
British  barilla  or  kelp  is  a still  more 
impure  alkali  obtained  from  burning 
seaweeds.  Soda  is  now  obtained  for  the 
most  part  from  common  salt. 

BARINGS  (ba'ring),  one  of  the  greatest 
commercial  houses  in  the  world.  Its 
founder  was  John  Baring,  a German 
who  settled  in  a small  business  in  Exe- 
ter, England,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Two  of  his  sons,  Francis  and 
John,  established  in  London,  in  1770, 
a banking-house. 

In  November,  1890,  owing  to  the 
continued  failures  of  the  Argentine 
Republic  to  pay  the  interest  due  upon 
its  debt,  which  had  been  guaranteed  by 
the  Barings,  the  firm  was  threatened 
with  suspension,  but  was  saved  by  the 
action  of  the  Bank  of  England,  which, 
in  conjunction  with  the  firm  of  Brown, 
Shipley  & Co.,  advanced  the  sum  of 
$65,000,000  to  tide  over  the  crisis.  The 
house  of  the  Barings  has  since  been 
reorganized  as  a limited  company  for 
carrying  on  a regular  banking  business, 
though  on  a less  extensive  scale  than 
before. 

BAR'ITONE,  or  BAR'YTONE,  a male 
voice,  the  compass  of  which  partakes 
of  those  of  the  common  bass  and  the 
tenor,  but  does  not  extend  so  far  down- 
ward as  the  one,  nor  to  an  equal  height 
with  the  other.  Its  best  tones  are  from 
the  lower  A of  the  bass  clef  to  the  lower 
F in  the  treble. — Also,  a person  having 
a voice  of  such  range. 

BA'RIUM,  the  metallic  basis  of  baryta, 
wliich  is  an  oxide  of  barium;  it  is  only 
found  in  compounds,  such  as  the  com- 
mon sulphate  and  carbonate,  and  was 
isolated  by  Davy  for  the  first  time  in 
1808.  It  is  a yellow,  malleable  metal, 
wliich  readily  oxidizes,  decomposes 
water,  and  fuses  at  a low  temperature. 
Its  nitrate  and  chlorate  are  used  in 
pyrotechny. 

BARK,  the  exterior  covering  of  the 
stems  of  exogenous  plants.  It  is  com- 
posed of  cellular  and  vascular  tissue,  is 
separable  from  the  wood,  and  is  often 
regarded  as  consisting  of  four  layers: 
1st,  the  epidermis  or  cuticle,  which, 
however,  is  scarcely  regarded  as  a part 
of  the  true  bark;  2d,  the  epipliloeum,  or 
outer  cellular  layer  of  the  true  bark  or 
cortex;  3d,  the  mesopliloeum  or  middle 
layer,  also  cellular;  4th,  an  inner  vascu- 
lar layer,  the  fiber  or  endophlceum, 
commonly  called  bast.  Endogenous 
plants  have  no  true  bark.  Bark  con- 
tains many  valuable  products,  as  gum, 
tannin,  etc.;  cork  is  a highly  useful 
substance  obtained  from  the  epiphloeum; 
and  the  strength  and  flexibility  of  bast 
make  it  of  considerable  value.  Bark 
used  for  tanning  is  obtained  from  oak, 
hemlock-spruce,  species  of  acacia  grow- 
ing in  Australia,  etc.  Angostura  hark, 
Peruvian  or  cinchona  bark,  cinnamon, 
cascarilla,  etc.,  are  useful  barks. 

BARK,  PERUVIAN,  is  the  bark  of 
various  species  of  trees  of  the  genus 
Cinchona,  found  in  many  parts  of  South 


BARKER 


BAROMETER 


America,  but  more  particularly  in  Peni, 
and  having  medicinal  properties.  It 
was  formerly  called  Jesuit’s  bark,  from 
its  having  been  introduced  into  Europe 
by  Jesuits.  Its  medicinal  properties 
depend  upon  the  presence  of  quinine, 
which  is  now  extracted  from  the  bark, 
imported,  and  prescribed  in  place  of 
nauseous  mouthfuls  of  bark.  See  Cin- 
chona. 

BARKER',  Jacob,  an  American  law- 
yer and  financier,  born  in  Maine  in  1779, 
died  in  1871.  In  the  war  of  1812  he 
secured  a loan  of  $5,000,000  for  the 

fovernment.  In  1815  he  founded  the 
Ixchange  Bank  of  New  York,  and, 
having  removed  to  New  Orleans,  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  by 
the  state  of  Louisiana  at  the  close  of  the 
civil  war,  but,  owing  to  the  state  not 
having  been  readmitted,  he  did  not 
take  his  seat.  He  published  a work  on 
the  civil  war  entitled  The  Rebellion 
(1866). 

BAR'LEY,  the  name  of  several  cereal 
plants,  yielding  a grain  used  as  food  and 
also  for  making  malt,  from  which  are 
prepared  beer,  porter,  and  whisky.  Bar- 
ley has  been  known  and  cultivated  from 
remote  antiquity,  and  beer  was  made 
from  it  among  the  Egyptians.  The 
species  principally  cultivated  are  two- 
rowed  barley,  four-rowed  barley,  and 
six-rowed,  of  which  the  small  variety 
is  the  sacred  barley  of  the  ancients. 
The  varieties  of  the  four-  and  six-rowed 
species  are  generally  coarser  than  those 
of  the  two-rowed,  and  adapted  for  a 
poorer  soil  and  more  exposed  situation. 
Some  of  these  are  called  here  or  bigg. 
In  Britain  barley  occupies  about  the 
same  area  as  wheat,  but  in  N.  America 
the  extent  of  it  as  a crop  is  compara- 
tively small,  being  in  Canada,  however, 
relatively  greater  than  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  Canadian  barley  is  of 
very  high  quality.  Barley  is  better 
adapted  for  cold  climates  than  any  other 
grain,  and  some  of  the  coarser  varieties 
are  cultivated  where  no  other  cereal  can 
be  grown.  Pearl  barley  is  the  grain 

Eolished  and  rounded  and  deprived  of 
usk  and  pellicle.  Patent  barley  is  the 
farina  obtained  by  grinding  pearl  barley. 
Barley-water,  a decoction  of  pearl 
barley,  is  used  in  medicine  as  possessing 
emollient,  diluent,  and  expectorant 
qualities. 

BARLEY-SUGAR,  pure  sugar  melted 
and  allowed  to  solidify  into  an  amor- 
phous mass  without  crystallizing. 

BAR'MEN,  a German  city  on  the 
Wupper,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  Prov- 
ince, government  of  Diisseldorf,  and 
forming  a continuation  of  the  town  of 
Elberfeld,  in  the  valley  of  Barmen. 
Pop.  141,947. 

BAR'NABAS,  the  surname  given  by 
the  apostles  to  Joses,  a fellow-laborer 
of  Paul,  and,  like  him,  ranked  as  an 
apostle.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  at 
Antioch  the  first  Christian  community, 
to  have  been  first  bishop  of  Milan,  and 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Cyprus. 
His  festival  is  held  on  the  11th  of  June. 

BARNABAS,  Saint,  Epistle  of,  an 
epistle  in  twenty-one  chapters  unani- 
mously ascribed  to  Barnabas  by  early 
Christian  writers,  but  without  any 
support  of  internal  evidence.  It  was 
probably  written  between  119  and  126 


B.C.,  by  one  who  was  not  a Jew,  and 
under  the  influence  of  Alexandrian 
Judaistic  thought. 

BAR'NACLE,  the  name  of  a family  of 
marine  crustaceous  animals.  They  are 
enveloped  by  a mantle  and  shell,  com- 
posed of  five  principal  valves  and  several 
smaller  pieces,  joined  together  by  a 
membrane  attached  to  their  circum- 
ference; and  they  are  furnished  with  a 
long,  flexible,  fleshy  stalk  or  peduncle, 
provided  with  muscles  by  which  they 
attach  themselves  to  ships’  bottoms, 
submerged  timber,  etc.  They  feed  on 
small  marine  animals,  brought  within 
their  reach  by  the  water  and  secured  by 
their  tentacula.  Some  of  the  larger 
species  are  edible.  According  to  an  old 
fable  these  animals  produced  barnacle 
geese. 

BARNACLE  GEESE,  summer  visit- 
ants of  the  northern  seas,  in  size  rather 
smaller  than  the  common  wild  goose, 
and  having  the  forehead  and  cheeks 
white,  the  upper  body  and  neck  black. 

BARNARD,  Henry,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1811, 
died  in  1900.  From  1837  to  1840  he 
was  a member  of  the  Connecticut  legis- 
lature and  interested  himself  in  prison 
reform,  meanwhile  filling  numerous 
educational  positions.  He  was  (1857- 
59)  president  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  president  of  St.  John’s 
College,  Annapolis  (1865-66),  and  first 
U.  S.  commissioner  of  education  (1867- 
70) He  published  many  works  on  the 
subject  of  education,  and  was  the  first 
to  use  the  term  “tainted  money”  with 
reference  to  college  endowments.  Dr. 
Barnard  is  often  called  the  “father  of 
American  education.” 

BARNATO,  Barnett,  known  as  “Bar- 
ney Barnato,  King  of  the  Kaffirs,”  an 
English-African  diamond  mine  owner, 
promoter  of  the  Kimberley  mines.  He 
was  reputed  to  be  the  richest  man  in  the 
world.  He  was  born  of  Hebrew  stock 
in  London,  and  committed  suicide  at 
sea  in  1897. 

BARNAVE  (bar-nav),  Antoine-Pierre- 
Joseph- Marie,  a distinguished  French 
revolutionist,  who  successfully  main- 
tained against  Mirabeau  the  right  of  the 
National  Assembly  as  against  that  of 
the  king  to  declare  for  peace  or  war,  but 
afterward  asserted  the  inviolability  of 
the  king’s  person,  was  impeached,  con- 
demned, and  guillotined.  Born  1761, 
died  1793. 

BARNES,  Alfred  Smith,  an  American 
publisher,  endower  of  Barnes  Hall  at 
Cornell,  and  publisher  of  numerous 
text-books  and  other  educational  pub- 
lications. He  was  born  in  Connecticut 
in  1817  and  died  in  1888. 

BARNUM,  Phineas  Taylor,  a noted 
proprietor  of  museums  and  circus  shows, 
famous  the  world  over  for  his  ingenuity 
in  originating  rare  entertainments.  He 
was  born  in  Bethel,  Conn.,  in  1810,  and 
as  a lad  he  edited  a newspaper.  At 
twenty-four  he  originated  his  first 
great  sham  show,  in  the  person  of  a 
woman  whom  he  advertised  as  the 
old  nurse  of  George  Washington.  His 
first  large  venture  was  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  in  New  York,  the  chief 
feature  of  which  was  “General”  Tom 
Thumb,  the  dwarf.  In  1847  he  im- 
ported Jenny  Lind,  and,  after  becom- 


ing bankrupt  several  times,  through 
fire  and  other  causes,  he  brought  out 
his  “Greatest  Show  on  Earth,”  a travel- 
ing circus  and  menagerie.  He  died 
in  1891.  His  motto  “Wait  for  Barnum” 
became  a household  word. 

BARO'DA,  a non-tributary  state,  but 
subordinate  to  the  Indian  government; 
situated  in  the  north  of  the  Bombay 
presidency.  Area,  8226  sq.  miles;  pop. 
1,952,692. — Baroda,  the  capital,  is  the 
third  city  in  the  Bombay  presidency. 
Pop.  103,790  (including  troops  in  the 
adjoining  cantonment). 

BAROM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  weight  or  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  thus  determining 
changes  in  the  weather,  the  height  of 
mountains,  and  other  phenomena.  It 


Marine 

barometer. 


Common  upright 
barometer. 


had  its  origin  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  in  an  experiment  of 
Torricelli,  an  Italian,  who  found  that  if 
a glass  tube  about  3 feet  in  length,  open 
at  one  end  only,  and  filled  with  mercury, 
were  placed  vertically  with  the  open  end 
in  a cup  of  the  same  fluid  metal,  a 
portion  of  the  mercury  descended  into 
the  cup,  leaving  a column  only  about 
30  inches  in  height  in  the  tube.  He 
inferred,  therefore,  that  the  atmospheric 
pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury 
in  the  cup  forced  it  up  the  tube  to  the 
height  of  30  inches,  and  that  this  was 
so  because  the  weight  of  a column  of 
air  from  the  cup  to  the  top  of  the  atmos- 
phere was  only  equal  to  that  of  a column 
of  mercury  of  the  same  base  and  30 
inches  high.  Pascal  confirmed  the  con- 
clusion in  1645;  six  years  afterward  it 
was  found  by  Perrier  that  the  height  of 
the  mercury  in  the  Torricellian  tube 
varied  with  the  weather;  and,  in  1665, 
Boyle  proposed  to  use  the  instrument 
to  measure  the  height  of  mountains. 

The  common  or  cistern  barometer, 
which  is  a modification  of  the  Tor- 
ricellian tube,  consists  of  a glass  tube  33 
inches  in  length  and  about  one-third 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  hermetically 
sealed  at  the  top,  and  having  the  lower 
end  resting  in  a small  vessel  containing 
mercury,  or  bent  upward  and  terminat- 
ing in  a glass  bulb  partly  occupied  by  the 
mercury  and  open  to  the  atmosphere. 
The  tube  is  first  filled  with  purified 
mercury,  and  then  inverted,  and  there 
is  affixed  to  it  a scale  to  mark  the  height 
of  the  mercurial  column,  which  com- 


BARON 


BARROWS 


paratively  seldom  rises  above  31  or 
sinks  below  28  inches.  In  general  the 
rising  of  the  mercury  presages  fair 
weather,  and  its  falling  the  contrary, 
a great  and  sudden  fall  being  the  usual 
presage  of  a storm.  The  weather-points 


Siphon  barometer.  Wheel  barometer. 

on  the  ordinary  barometric  scale  are  as 
follows:  At  28  inches,  stormy  weather; 
28i,  much  rain  or  snow;  29,  rain  or 
snow;  29 J,  changeable;  30,  fair  or  frost; 
30i,  settled  fair  or  frost;  31,  very  dry 
weather  or  hard  frost.  Certain  attend- 
ant signs,  however,  have  also  to  be 
noted:  thus,  when  fair  or  foul  weather 
follows  almost  immediately  upon  the 
rise  or  fall  of  the  mercury,  the  change  is 
usually  of  short  duration ; while,  if  the 
change  of  weather  be  delayed  for  some 
days  after  the  variation  in  the  mercury, 
it  is  usually  of  long  continuance.  The 
direction  of  the  wind  has  also  to  be 
taken  into  account. 

The  siphon  barometer  consists  of  a 
bent  tube,  generally  of  uniform  bore, 
having  two  unequal  legs,  the  longer 
closed,,  the  shorter  open.  A sufficient 
quantity  of  mercury  having  been  intro- 
duced to  fill  the  longer  leg,  the  instru- 
ment is  set  upright,  and  the  mercury 
takes  such  a position  that  the  difference 
of  the  levels  in  the  two  legs  represents 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  wheel  barometer  is  the  one  that 
is  most  commonly  used  for  domestic 
purposes.  It  is  far  from  being  accurate, 
but  it  is  often  preferred  for  ordinary  use 
on  account  of  the  greater  range  of  its 
scale,  by  which  small  differencs  in  the 
height  of  the  column  of  mercury  are 
more  easily  observed.  It  usually  con- 
sists of  a siphon  barometer,  having 
a float  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  open  branch,  a thread 
attached  to  the  float  pa.ssing  over  a 
pulley,  and  having  a weight  as  a counter- 
poise to  the  float  at  its  extremity.  As 
the  mercury  rises  and  falls  the  thread 
and  weight  turn  the  pulley,  which 
again  moves  the  index  of  the  dial. 

The  mountain  barometer  is  a portable 
mercurial  barometer  with  a tripod  sup- 
port and  a long  scale  for  measuring  tne 
altitude  of  mountains. 

In  the  aneroid  barometer,  as  its  name 
implies,  no  fluid  is  employed,  the  action 
being  dependent  upon  the  susceptibility 
to  atmospheric  pressure  shown  by  a flat 
circular  metallic  chamber  from  which 
the  air  has  been  partially  exhausted, 
and  which  has  a flexible  top  and  bottom 


of  corrugated  metal  plate.  By  an  in- 
genious arrangement  of  springs  and 
levers  the  depression  or  elevation  of  the 
surface  of  the  box  is  registered  by  an 
index  on  the  dial,  by  which  means  it  is 
also  greatly  magnified,  being  given  in 
inches  to  correspond  with  the  mercurial 
barometer. 

BAR'ON,  originally,  in  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, the  vassal  or  immediate  tenant  of 
any  superior;  but  the  term  was  after- 
ward restricted  to  the  king’s  barons, 
and  again  to  the  greater  of  these  only, 
who  attended  the  Great  Council,  or  who, 
at  a later  date,  were  summoned  by  writ 
to  Parliament.  It  was  the  second  rank 
of  nobility,  until  dukes  and  marquises 
were  introduced  and  placed  above  the 
earls,  and  viscounts  also  set  above  the 
barons,  who,  therefore,  now  hold  the 
lowest  rank  in  the  British  peerage.  The 
present  barons  are  of  three  classes:  (1) 
barons  by  prescription,  whose  ancestors 
have  immemorially  sat  in  the  Upper 
House;  (2)  by  patent;  (3)  by  tenure,  i.e. 
holding  the  title  as  annexed  to  land. 
The  coronet  is  a plain  gold  circle  with 
six  balls  or  large  pearls  on  its  edge,  the 
connected  cap  being  of  crimson  velvet. 
— Baron  and  feme,  a term  used  for 
husband  and  wife  in  the  English  law. — 
Baron  of  beef,  two  sirloins  not  cut 
asunder. 

BAR'ONET,  a hereditary  dignity  in 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  next  in  rank 
to  the  peerage,  originally  instituted  by 
James  I.  in  1611.  A baronet  has  the 
title  of  “Sir”  prefixed  to  his  Christian 
and  surname,  and  his  wife  is  “Lady” 
so-and-so.  Baronets  rank  before  all 
knights. 

BAR'RA,  or  BAR,  a small  kingdom 
in  Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia. 
The  Mandingoes,  who  form  a consider- 
able part  of  the  inhabitants,  are  Mo- 
hammedans and  the  most  civilized  peo- 
ple on  the  Gambia.  Pop.  200,000.  The 
coast  here  belongs  to  Britain. 

BARRAS  (ba-ra),  Paul  Frangois  Jean 
Nicholas,  Comte  de,  member  of  the 
French  national  convention  and  of  the 
executive  directory,  born  in  Provence 
1755,  died  1829.  He  took  part  in  the 
attack  upon  the  Bastille  and  upon  the 
Tuileries,  and  voted  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  In  the  subsequent  events 
he  displeased  Robespierre,  and  on  this 
account  joined  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee, who  foresaw  danger  awaiting 
them,  and  being  intrusted  with  the 
chief  command  of  the  forces  of  his  party 
he  made  himself  master  of  Robespierre. 
On  Feb.  4,  1795,  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  convention,  and  on  Oct.  5,  when 
the  troops  of  the  sections  which  favored 
the  royal  cause  approached,  Barras  for 
a second  time  received  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  forces  of  the  convention. 
On  this  occasion  he  employed  General 
Bonaparte,  for  whom  he  procured  the 
chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  in- 
terior, and  afterward  the  command  of 
the  army  in  Italy.  From  the  events  of 
the  18th  Fructidor  (Sept.  4,  1797)  he 
governed  absolutely  until  June  13th, 
1799,  when  Si6y6s  entered  the  directory, 
and  in  alliance  with  Bonaparte  procured 
his  downfall  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th 
Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799).  He  after- 
ward resided  at  Brussels,  Marseilles, 
Rome,  and  Montpellier  under  sur- 


veillance, returning  to  Paris  only  after 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 

BARREL,  a well-known  variety  of 
wooden  vessel;  but  the  term  is  also  used 
as  a definite  measure  and  weight.  A 
barrel  of  beer  is  36  gals.,  of  flour  196  lbs., 
of  beef  or  pork  200  lbs. 

BARRETT,  Lawrence,  an  American 
player,  one  of  the  most  forceful  and 
polished  actors  of  the  American  stage, 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1838,  died  in 
1891.  He  made  his  debut  at  Detroit 
(1853)  as  Murad,  in  The  French  Spy. 
He  subsequently  appeared  in  the  cities 
of  the  East,  fought  on  the  Union  side  in 
the  civil  war,  and  later  became  an  asso- 
ciate of  Edwin  Booth.  He  was  partner 
with  John  McCullough  in  the  California 
Theater,  San  Francisco,  and  in  1875 
played  Cassius  (his  best  role)  in  company 
with  Booth.  His  visit  to  England  in 
1884  was  entirely  successful.  On  his 
return  he  and  Booth  joined  forces  and 
toured  the  country  with  splendid  suc- 
cess in  every  aspect  of  their  enterprise. 
His  chief  parts  were  Hamlet,  Lear, 
Richelieu,  and  Shylock. 

BARRETT,  Wilson,  an  English  player, 
born  in  1846.  His  first  London  appear- 
ance was  in  1879,  and  soon  afterward 
he  became  manager  of  the  Court  Thea- 
ter. He  produced  The  Lights  o’  London, 
The  Silver  King,  and  other  plays,  and 
his  rendition  of  Hamlet,  Othello,  and 
other  tragic  parts  has  been  regarded 
with  high  favor.  Mr.  Barrett  visited 
America  in  1886,  1888,  1889,  1893,  and 
1897,  and  in  1898  Australia. 

BARREL-ORGAN,  a musical  instru- 
ment usually  carried  by  street  musicians, 
in  which  a barrel  studded  with  pegs  or 
staples,  when  turned  round,  opens  a 
series  of  valves  to  admit  air  to  a set  of 
pipes,  or  acts  upon  wire  strings  like 
those  of  the  piano,  thus  producing  a 
fixed  series  of  tunes. 

BARRIE,  J.  M.,  born  in  1860,  at 
Kirriemuir,  Forfarshire;  studied  at 
Edinburgh  University,  graduating  as 
M.A.  in  1882.  He  was  for  a time  con- 
nected with  a Nottingham  journal,  and 
then  removed  to  London,  writing  chiefly 
for  the  St.  James’s  Gazette.  His  first 
book.  Better  Dead,  a satire  on  London 
life,  appeared  in  1887.  It  was  followed 
in  1888  by  the  highly  successful  Auld 
Licht  Idylls,  and  When  a Man’s  Single. 
In  1889  he  published  A Window  in 
Thrums;  in  1890  My  Lady  Nicotine; 
in  1891  The  Little  Minister;  in  1896, 
Sentimental  Tommy. 

BAR'RISTER,  in  England  and  Ire- 
land, a pleader  or  advocate  who  has 
been  admitted  to  plead  at  the  bar.  In 
the  United  States  the  term  counselor- 
at-law  is  the  equivalent  of  the  British 
l.)Q.rrist'0r 

BAR'ROW-IN-FUR’NESS,  a seaport, 
pari,  and  county  borough  of  Lancashire, 
in  the  district  of  Furness,  opposite  the 
island  of  Walney,  a town  that  has  in- 
creased from  a fishing  hamlet  with  100 
inhabitants  in  1848  to  a town  of  57,584 
inhabitants  in  1901.  Its  prosperity  is 
due  to  the  mines  of  red  hematite  iron- 
ore  which  abounds  in  the  district. 

BAR'ROWS,  mounds  of  earth  or 
stones  raised  to  mark  the  resting-place 
of  the  dead,  and  distinguished,  accord- 
ing to  their  shape,  as  long,  bowl,  bell, 
cone,  broad  barrows.  The  practice  of 


BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE 


BASALT 


barrow-burial  is  of  unknown  antiquity 
and  almost  universal,  barrows  being 
found  all  over  Europe,  in  northern 
Africa,  Asia  Minor,  Afghanistan,  west- 
ern India,  and  in  America.  In  the  earli- 
est barrows  the  inclosed  bodies  were 
simply  laid  upon  the  ground,  with  stone 


Bowl  barrow.  Long  barrow.  Twin  barrow. 

or  bone  implements  and  weapons  beside 
them.  In  narrows  of  later  date  the  re- 
mains are  generally  inclosed  in  a stone 
cist.  Frequently  cremation  preceded 
the  erection  of  the  barrow,  the  ashes 
being  inclosed  in  an  urn  or  cist.  A de- 
tailed description  of  an  ancient  barrow- 
burial  is  given  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  poem 
Beowulf. 

BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE  (bar- 
tal-me-san-te-Iar),  Jules,  French  scholar 
and  statesman,  born  1805,  died  in  1895. 
He  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Latin 
philosophy  in  the  College  of  France,  but 
resigned  the  chair  after  the  coup  d’6tat 
of  1852  and  refused  to  take  the  oath; 
was  reappointed  1862;  in  1869  was  re- 
turned to  the  Corps  L6gislatif ; after  the 
revolution  was  a member  of  the  Nation- 
al Assembly;  was  elected  senator  for 
life  in  1875. 

BARTHOLDI  (bir-toFde),  Auguste, 
French  sculptor,  born  1833;  best  known 
as  the  artist  of  the  colossal  statue  of 
Liberty  now  overlooking  the  harbor  of 
New  York.  Died  1904. 

BARTHOL'OMEW,  the  apostle,  is 
probably  the  same  person  as  Nathiyiael, 
mentioned  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  as 
an  upright  Israelite  and  one  of  the  first 
disciples  of  Jesus.  He  is  said  to  have 
taught  Christianity  in  the  south  of 
Arabia,  into  which,  accortling  to  Euse- 
bius, he  carried  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew in  the  Hebrew  language;  and  to 
have  sufifered  martyrdom.  The  ancient 
church  had  an  apocryphal  gospel  bear- 
ing his  name,  of  which  nothing  has  been 
preserved.  A festival  is  held  to  his 
memory  on  August  24th. 

BARTHOLOMEW’S  DAY,  St  a feast 
of  the  Christian  Church,  celebrated 
(August  24)  in  honor  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew. What  is  known  as  the  Massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew  was  the  slaughter  of 
the  French  Protestants,  which  began 
on  August  24th,  1572,  by  secret  orders 
from  Charles  IX.,  at  the  instigation  of 
his  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici,  and  in 
which,  according  to  Sully,  70,000 
Huguenots,  including  women  and  chil- 
dren, were  murdered  throughout  the 


country . During  the  minority  of 
Charles  and  the  regency  of  his  mother 
a long  war  raged  in  France  between  the 
Catholics  and  Huguenots,  the  leaders 
of  the  latter  being  the  Prince  of  Cond4. 
and  Admiral  Coligny.  In  1570  over- 
tures were  made  by  the  court  to  the 
Huguenots,  which  resulted  in  a treaty 
of  peace.  This  treaty  blinded  the  chiefs 
of  the  Huguenots,  particularly  the  Ad- 
miral Coligny,  who  was  wearied  with 
civil  war.  The  king  appeared  to  have 
entirely  disengaged  himself  from  the 
influence  of  the  Guises  and  his  mother; 
he  invited  Coligny  to  his  court,  and 
honored  him  as  a father.  The  most 
artful  means  were  employed  to  increase 
this  delusion.  The  sister  of  the  king 
was  married  to  the  Prince  de  Bearn 
(Aug.  18,  1572)  in  order  to  allure  the 
most  distinguished  Huguenots  to  Paris. 
On  Aug.  22  a shot  from  a window 
wounded  the  admiral.  The  king  has- 
tened to  visit  him,  and  swore  to  punish 
the  author  of  the  villainy;  but  on  the 
same  day  he  was  induced  by  his  mother 
to  believe  that  the  admiral  had  designs 
on  liis  life.  “God’s  death!’’  he  ex- 
claimed, “kill  the  admiral;  and  not 
only  him,  but  all  the  Huguenots;  let 
none  remain  to  disturb  us.”  The  follow- 
ing night  Catharine  held  the  bloody 
council,  which  fixed  the  execution  for 
the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August 
24,  1572.  After  the  assassination  of 
Coligny  a bell  from  the  tower  of  the 
royal  palace  at  midnight  gave  t>o  the 
assembled  companies  of  burghers  the 
signal  for  the  general  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots.  The  Prince  of  Cond6  and 
the  King  of  Navarre  saved  their  lives  by 
going  to  mass  and  pretending  to  em- 
brace the  Catholic  religion.  By  the 
king’s  orders  the  massacre  was  extended 
throughout  the  whole  kingdom ; and  the 
horrible  slaughter  continued  for  thirty 
days  in  almost  all  the  provinces. 

BARTLETT,  John,  an -'American  edi- 
tor, widely  known  from  his  compilation, 
Bartlett’s  Familiar  Quotations.  He 
was  born  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  1820,  and 
has  been  for  many  years  partner  in  the 
house  of  Little,  Brown  & Co.,  of  Boston. 

BARTLETT,  John  Ru<ssell,  an  Ameri- 
can ethnologist  and  author,  born  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1805.  In  1850-54 
he  surveyed  the  boundary  line  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico,  and  was 
secretary  of  state  for  Rhode  Island 
(1855-72).  He  is  the  author  of  several 
works  on  ethnological  subjects,  and  has 
published  valuable  lexicons  and  his- 
tories of  American  countries.  He  died 
in  1886. 

BARTLETT,  Josiah,  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Amesbury,  Mass., 
in  1729.  He  was  a delegate  to  the 
continental  congress  in  1775,  was  chief 
justice  of  New  Hampshire  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  (1779),  justice  of  the  state 
supreme  court  (1784),  and  chief  justice 
(1778).  He  was  the  first  governor  of 
New  Hampshire.  He  died  in  1795. 

BARTLETT,  Paul  Wayland,  an  Amer- 
ican sculptor,  born  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  1865.  He  is  the  sculptor  of  the 
McClellan  statue  in  Philadelphia,  of  the 
Warren  statue  in  Boston,  and  of  the 
statue  of  Lafayette  presented  to  France 
by  the  school  children  of  the  United 
States, 


BARTON,  Clara,  president  of  the 
American  Red  Cross  Society  and  its 
founder.  She  was  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1830,  entered  the  hospital  service 
in  the  civil  war,  and  did  much  good 
work.  She  was  visiting  Europe  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Fianco-Prussian  war, 
and  served  in  the  hospital  service  of  the 
German  army.  She  was  decorated 
with  the  Iron  Cross  of  Germany  and  the 
Gold  Cross  of  Baden.  Miss  Barton 
represented  the  United  States  Red 
Cross  Society  in  several  international 
meetings,  did  relief  work  in  America 
in  1896,  and  in  the  late  Spanish  war  and 
the  Anglo-Boer  war  in  Africa.  She  has 
published  two  histories  of  the  Red  Cross 
movement. 

BARTRAM,  John,  an  American  bota- 
nist, born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1699.  He 
became  distinguished  ' as  a botanist 
early  in  life  and  was  a correspondent  of 
Linne,  who  praised  him  as  the  greatest 
natural  botanist  in  the  world.  His 
works  were  printed  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  Philosophical  Society,  and  also 
in  the  form  of  books.  He  died  in  1777. 

BARTRAM,  William,  son  of  John 
Bartram,  and,  like  his  father,  a botanist 
of  distinction.  He  was  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1739  and  died  in  1823.  He 
published  a list  of  American  birds,  in 
additiotn  to  his  botanical  studies. 

BARY'TA,  oxide  of  barium,  called  also 
heavy  earth,  from  its  being  the  heaviest 
of  the  earths.  It  is  generally  found  in 
combination  with  sulphuric  and  car- 
bonic acids,  Conning  sulphate  and  car- 
bonate of  baryta,  the  former  of  which 
is  called  heavy-spar.  Baryta  is  a gray 
powder,  has  a sharp,  caustic,  alkaline 
taste,  and  a strong  affinity  for  water,  and 
forms  a hydrate  with  that  element. 
It  forms  white  salts  with  the  acids,  all 
of  which  are  poisonous  except  the  sul- 
phate. Several  mixtures  of  sulphate  of 
baryta  and  white-lead  are  manufac- 
tured, and  are  used  as  wliite  pigments, 
or  it  may  be  used  alone.  Carbonate  of 
baryta,  which  in  the  natural  state  is 
known  as  witherite,  is  also  used  as  the 
base  of  certain  colors.  The  nitrate  is 
used  in  pyrotechny,  in  the  preparation 
of  green  fireworks. 

BASALT  (ba-salt'),  a well-known 
igneous  rock  occurring  in  the  ancient 
trap  and  the  recent  volcanic  series  of 
rocks,  but  more  abundantly  in  the 
former.  It  is  a fino-grained  heavy 
crystalline  rock,  'consisting  of  felspar, 
augite,  and  magnetic  iron,  and  some- 
times contains  a httle  olivine.  Basalt  is 
amorphous,  columnar,  tabular,  or  globu- 
lar. The  columnar  form  is  straight  or 
curved,  perpendicular  or  inclined,  some- 
times nearly  horizontal;  the  diameter 
of  the  columns  from  3 to  18  inches, 
sometimes  with  transverse  semispherical 
joints,  in  which  the  convex  part  of  one 
is  inserted  in  the  concavity  of  another; 
and  the  height  from  5 feet  to  150.  The 
forms  of  the  columns  generally  are 
pentagonal,  hexagonal,  or  octagonal. 
When  decomposed  it  is  found  also  in 
round  masses,  either  spherical  or  com- 
pressed and  lenticular.  These  rounded 
masses  are  sometimes  composed  of  con- 
centric layers,  with  a nucleus,  and  some- 
times of  prisms  radiating  from  a center. 
Fingal’s  Cave,  in  the  island  of  Staffa, 
I furnishes  a remarkable  instance  of  ba.sal- 


BASE 


BASE  OF  OPERATIONS 


tic  columns.  The  pillars  of  the  Giant’s 
Causeway,  Ireland,  composed  of  this 
stone,  and  exposed  to  the  roughest  sea 
for  ages,  have  their  angles  as  perfect  as 


Basalt— Lot’s  wife,  St.  Helena. 


those  at  a distance  from  the  waves. 
Basalt  often  assumes  curious  and  fan- 
tastic forms,  as  for  example  Lot’s  wife 
near  the  south  coast  of  St.  Helena. 

BASE,  in  architecture,  that  part  of  a 
column  which  is  between  the  top  of  the 
pedestal  and  the  bottom  of  the  shaft; 
where  there  is  no  pedestal,  the  part  be- 
tween the  bottom  of  the  column  and  the 
pavement.  The  term  i§  also  applied  to 
the  lower  projecting  part  of  the  wall  of 
a room,  consisting  of  a plinth  and  its 
moldings. 

BASE'BALL,  the  national  field  game 
of  the  United  States,  a development  of 

cEnTfle 

UPT  • BiohT 

• • 


A A,  ground  reserved  for  batsman,  umpire,  and 
catcher  : B B,  for  captain  and  assistant : C C, 
players’  benches;  D.  bat-rack  for  visiting 
pla.vers  i E,  for  home  players. 

the  old  English  game  of  “rounders.” 
It  is  played  by  two  teams  of  9 men 
each,  with  an  elastic  ball  about  9 inches 
m circumference.  The  field  consists 
of  a level  ground,  part  of  which  is  laid 
out  in  a “diamond,”  90  feet  square, 


with  bases,  or  goals,  at  each  corner. 
One  is  called  the  home  base,  the  others 
from  right  to  left  of  home  are  called  first, 
second,  and  third  bases.  The  three  last 
named  bases  are  guarded  by  the  first, 
second,  and  third  basemen.  A player 
called  the  shortstop  guards  the  space 
between  second  and  third  bases.  These 
four  are  the  infield.  The  outfield  con- 
sists of  three  players,  right,  center,  and 
left,  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
bases.  The  pitcher  stands  55  feet  from 
the  home  base  and  delivers  the  ball  over 
that  base  to  the  catcher,  who  stands 
just  behind  the  base.  This  is  the  make- 
up of  the  team  “in  the  field.”  The 
men  of  the  team  that  has  the  “innings” 
come  to  bat  one  after  another.  The 
batsman  tries  to  hit  the  ball  and  to 
reach  first  base  before  the  ball  can  be 
“fielded”  to  first  base,  or  before  one  of 
the  opposing  team  can  touch  him  with 
it.  If  the  ball  reaches  the  first  baseman 
and  is  held  by  him,  or  if  the  batsman 
is  touched  before  reaching  the  first 
base,  he  is  retired  from  the  play  and 


when  touched  with  the  ball  in  the  hands 
of  a fielder  while  between  bases;  when, 
if  forced  to  run  to  any  base,  the  ball  is 
held  by  a fielder  on  that  base  before  the 
runner  reaches  it;  and  when  hit  by  a 
batted  ball. 

When  three  men  are  out  the  side  is 
out  and  the  team  in  the  field  becomes 
batsmen.  The  object  of  the  base- 
runner  is  to  reach  in  succession  first, 
second,  third  and  home  base  without 
being  “put  out.”  He  then  “scores  a 
run.”  Nine  innings  constitute  a game 
and  the  side  having  most  runs  at  the 
end  of  the  ninth  inning  is  the  winner. 

Baseball  is  played  in  the  United 
States  by  several  large  professional 
leagues  and  innumerable  small  amateur 
leagues,  associations,  and  clubs.  Several 
millions  of  dollars  are  invested  in  the 
business. 

BASEL  (ba'zl),  a canton  and  city  of 
Switzerland.  The  canton  borders  on 
Alsace  and  Baden,  has  an  area  of  176 
sq.  miles,  and  a population  of  180,697, 
nearly  all  speaking  German.  It  is 


Basel,  from  above  the  town. 


is  “out”  of  the  game,  and  another 
batsman  takes  his  place.  If  the  bats- 
man knocks  the  ball  into  the  air  and  it 
is  caught  and  held  before  touching  the 
ground;  or  if  the  batsman  strikes  three 
times  at  the  ball  and  misses  it,  the  ball 
being  caught  by  the  catcher  on  the  last 
missed  strike ; or  if  the  striker  doesn’t  try 
to  hit  the  ball  when  the  ball  is  judged 
to  have  been  delivered  over  the  home 
base  according  to  rule,  the  striker  is  out. 

The  batsman  becomes  a base-runner 
after  three  strikes  are  called;  when  he 
makes  a fair  hit,  the  ball  traveling 
between  the  above-mentioned  lines 
until  after  it  passes  first  or  third  base; 
after  four  balls  have  been  called  by  the 
umpire,  a “ball”  being  a pitched  ball 
which  is  not  touched  by  the  bat  and 
which  passes  outside  the  limits  required 
for  a strike;  if  he  is  hit  by  the  ball, 
unless  he  has  made  no  effort  to  avoid  it ; 
after  the  umpire  calls  a “balk”;  and  if 
prevented  from  striking  by  the  inter- 
ference of  the  catcher.  In  the  last  four 
cases  he  cannot  be  put  out  before 
reaching  first  base.  He  is  put  out  when 
his  third  strike  is  held  by  the  catcher; 
when  a ball  hit  by  him  is  caught  by  a 
fielder  before  it  touches  the  ground; 


divided  into  two  half-cantons,  Basel 
city  and  Basel  country  At  Basel  was 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  between 
France  and  Prussia,  April  5,  and  that 
between  France  and  Spain,  July  22, 
1795.  Pop.  (with  suburbs),  111,009- 

BASE'MENT,  the  lowest  story  of  a 
dwelling-house  or  other  building.  The 
basement  in  America  is  usually  lower 
than  the  level  of  the  ground,  the  first 
story  being  higher  than  the  ground 
level.  In  medieval  Europe  all  great 
houses  were  built  with  a basement, 
called  in  England  the  “ground  floor.” 
This  was  level  with  the  ground  and 
was  used  for  servants  quarters,  offices, 

BASE  OF  OPERATIONS,  the  place  in 
which  an  army  keeps  its  main  stores  and 
supplies  when  in  war,  and  from  wdiich 
the  campaign  is  carried  on  against  an 
enemy.  The  invaders  of  a country 
often  find  the  maintenance  of  a base  of 
operations  a serious  matter,  for  properly 
to,  guard  it  requires  large  numbers  of 
men.  Lines  leading  from  the  base  must 
also  be  guarded;  and  these  necessities 
make  it  more  or  less  easy  for  a small 
number  of  men  to  defeat  and  drive  out 
a large  invading  army. 


BASHI-BAZOOKS 


BASSWOOD 


BASHI-BAZOOKS',  irregular  troops 
in  the  Turkish  army.  They  are  mostly 
Asiatics,  and  have  had  to  be  disarmed 
several  times  by  the  regular  troops  on 
account  of  the  barbarities  by  which  they 
have  rendered  themselves  infamous. 

BASH'KIRS,  a tribe  of  Finnish  or  of 
Tatar  origin,  inhabiting  the  Russian 
goverments  of  Ufa,  Orenburg,  Perm, 
and  Samara.  They  are  rude  and  war- 
like and  partially  nomadic.  They  num- 
ber about  500,000. 

BASIC  SLAG,  the  slag  or  refuse  matter 
which  is  got  in  making  basic  steel,  and 
which  from  the  phosphate  of  lime  it 
contains  is  a valuable  fertilizer. 

BASIC  STEEL.  See  Steel. 

BASIL,  St.,  called  the  Great,  one  of  the 
Greek  fathers,  was  born  in  329,  and 
made  in  370  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cap- 
padocia, where  he  died  in  379.  He  was 
distinguished  by  his  efforts  for  the  regu- 
lation of  clerical  discipline,  and,  above 
all,  his  endeavors  for  the  promotion  of 
monastic  life.  The  Greek  Cnurch  honors 
him  as  one  of  its  most  illustrious  saints, 
and  celebrates  his  festival  January  1. 
The  vows  of  obedience,  chastity,  and 
poverty  framed  by  St.  Basil  are  essen- 
tially the  rules  of  all  the  orders  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

BASIL'ICA,  originally  the  name  ap- 

Elied  by  the  Romans  to  their  public 
alls,  either  of  justice,  of  exchange,  or 
other  business.  The  plan  of  the  basilica 
was  usually  a rectangle  divided  into 
aisles  by  rows  of  columns,  the  middle 
aisle  being  the  widest,  with  a semi- 
circular apse  at  the  end,  in  which  the 
tribunal  was  placed.  The  ground-plan 
of  these  buildings  was  generally  followed 
in  the  early  Christian  churches,  which, 
therefore,  long  retained  the  name  of 
basilica,  and  it  is  still  applied  to  some 
of  the  churches  in  Rome  by  way  of 
distinction,  and  sometimes  to  other 
churches  built  in  imitation  of  the  Roman 
basilicas. 

BASILICA'TA,  also  called  POTENZA, 
an  Italian  province,  extending  north 
from  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  and  corre- 
sponding pretty  closely  with  the  ancient 
Lucania.  Area,  4122  sq.  miles;  pop. 
524,485. 

BAS'ILISK,  a fabulous  creature  for- 
merly believed  to  exist,  and  variously 
regarded  as  a kind  of  serpent,  lizard,  or 
dragon,  and  sometimes  identified  with 
the  cockatrice.  It  inhabited  the  deserts 
of  Africa,  and  its  breath  and  even  its 
look  was  fatal. 

BA'SIN,  in  physical  geography,  the 
whole  tract  of  country  drained  by  a 
river  and  its  tributaries.  The  line  di- 
viding one  river  basin  from  another  is 
the  water-shed;  and  by  tracing  the  vari- 
ous water-sheds  we  divide  each  country 
into  its  constituent  basins.  The  basin 
of  a loch  or  sea  consists  of  the  basins 
of  all  the  rivers  which  run  into  it. — In 
geology  a basin  is  any  dipping  or  dis- 
position of  strata  toward  a common 
axis  or  center,  due  to  upheaval  and  sub- 
sidence. 

BASKET,  a vessel  or  utensil  of  wick- 
erwork, made  of  interwoven  osiers  or 
willows,  rushes,  twigs,  grasses,  etc.  The 
process  of  basket-making  is  very  simple, 
and  appears  to  be  weU  known  among 
the  very  rudest  peoples.  The  ancient 


Britons  excelled  in  the  art,  and  their 
baskets  were  highly  prized  in  Rome. 

BASKET-BALL,  a game  played  with 
an  inflated  bladder  30  inches  in  circum- 
ference and  weighing  about  20  ounces. 
Goals,  consisting  of  nets,  are  placed  at 
either  end  of  the  field,  and  are  suspended 
from  metal  rings.  The  teams  consist  of 
five  players  each — left  and  right  guard, 
center,  and  right  forward — and  the  ob- 
ject is  to  put  the  ball  in  the  opposing 
team’s  goal-basket.  The  ball  must  be 
thrown  or  batted  with  the  hands.  No 
tackling,  kicking,  pushing,  etc.,  are 
allowed.  The  penalty  is  a free  throw 
at  15  feet  for  the  basket  by  the  opposing 
team.  A goal  thus  made  counts  one 
point;  a goal  from  the  field,  15.  The 
game  was  invented  by  James  Naismith, 
of  Plainfield,  Mass. 

BASKIN G-SHARK,  a species  of  shark, 
so  named  from  its  habit  of  basking  in 
the  sun  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  It 
reaches  the  length  of  40  feet,  and  its 
liver  yields  a large  quantity  of  oil.  It 
frequents  the  northern  seas,  and  is 
known  also  as  the  sail-fish  or  sun-fish. 

BASQUES  (basks),  or  BISCAYANS,  a 
remarkable  race  of  people  dwelling  part- 
ly in  the  southwest  corner  of  France,  but 
mostly  in  the  north  of  Spain  adjacent  to 
the  Pyrenees.  They  are  probably  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Iberi,  who  oc- 
cupied Spain  before  the  Celts.  They 
preserve  their  ancient  language,  former 
manners,  and  national  dances,  and  make 
admirable  soldiers,  especially  in  guerrilla 
warfare.  Their  language  is  highly 
polysynthetic,  and  no  connection  be- 
tween it  and  any  other  language  has 
as  yet  been  made  out.  There  are  four 
principal  dialects,  which  are  not  only 
distinguished  by  their  pronunciation 
and  grammatical  structure,  but  differ 
even  in  their  vocabularies.  The  Bas- 
ques, who  number  about  600,000,  oc- 
cupy in  Spain  the  provinces  of  Biscay, 
Guipuzcoa,  and  Aliiva;  in  France  parts 
of  the  departments  of  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Pyrenees,  Ari4ge,  and  Upper 
Garonne. 

BAS-RELIEF  (ba're-lef  or  bas're-lef), 
BASS-RELIEF,  low-relief,  a mode  of 
sculpturing  figures  on  a flat  surface,  the 
figures  having  a very  slight  relief  or  pro- 


Bas-relief,  from  the  Elgin  Marbles. 


jection  from  the  surface.  It  is  distin- 
guished from  haut-relief,  or  high-relief, 
in  which  the  figures  stand  sometimes 
almost  entirely  free  from  the  ground. 
Bas-relief  work  has  been  described  as 
“sculptured  painting”  from  the  capabil- 
ity of  disposing  of  groups  of  figures  and 
exhibiting  minor  adjuncts,  as  in  a 
painting. 


BASS  (bas),  in  music,  the  lowest  part 
in  the  harmony  of  a musical  composi- 
tion, whether  vocal  or  instrumental. 
According  to  some  it  is  the  fundamental 
or  most  important  part,  while  others 
regard  the  melody  or  highest  part  in 
that  light.  Next  to  the  melody,  the 
bass  part  is  the  most  striking,  the  freest 
and  boldest  in  its  movements,  and  rich- 
est in  effect. 

BASS  (bas),  the  name  of  a number  of 
fishes  of  the  perch  family,  distinguished 
from  the  true  perches  by  having  the 
tongue  covered  by  small  teeth  and 
the  preoperculum  smooth.  The  only 
British  species,  called  sea-dace,  and 
from  its  voracity  sea-wolf,  resembles 
somewhat  the  salmon  in  shape,  and  is 
much  esteemed  for  the  table,  weighing 
about  15  lbs.  Striped  bass,  an  American 
species,  weighing  from  25  to  30  lbs.,  is 
much  used  for  food,  and  is  also  known  as 
rock-fish.  Two  species  of  black  bass, 
American  fresh-rvater  fishes,  are  excel- 
lent as  food  and  give  fine  sport  to  the 
angler.  The  former  is  often  called  the 
large-mouthed  black  bass,  from  the  size 
of  its  mouth.  Both  make  nests  and  take 
great  care  of  their  eggs  and  young. 

BASS  (bas)  DRUM,  a musical  instru- 
ment of  percussion.  It  has  a cylindrical 
body  of  wood,  over  both  ends  of  which  a 
membrane  is  stretched  tightly  by  means 
of  hoops.  The  bass  drum  is  played  by 
beating  either  one  or  both  heads  with 
sticks  having  soft,  padded  knobs  at 
their  ends.  See  Drum. 

BASSEIN  (bas-san'),  a town  in  Lower 
Burmah,  province  of  Pegu,  on  both 
banks  of  the  Bassein  river,  one  of  the 
mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy,  and  navigable 
for  the  largest  ships.  Pop.  31,864. — Bas- 
sein District  has  an  area  of  6848  sq. 
miles  and  a pop.  of  475,002. 

BAS'SETT,  James,  an  American  mis- 
sionary, born  in  1834,  near  HamiRon, 
Ont.  In  1871  he  became  a missionary 
for  the  Presbyterian  Board  and  traveled 
widely  throughout  Europe,  spending 
many  years  in  Turkey  and  Persia.  He 
is  beli'.  /ed  to  have  been  the  first  Ameri- 
can to  penetrate  as  far  east  as  the  tomb 
of  Harun-al-Rashid  at  Meshed,  eastern 
Khorassan.  He  founded  the  mission  in 
eastern  and  central  Persia,  and  did 
much  to  effect  the  appointment  of  a 
United  States  legation  to  Persia. 

BASSOON',  a musical  wind-instru- 
ment of  the  reed  order,  blown  with  a bent 
metal  mouthpiece,  and  holed  and  keyed 
like  the  clarinet.  Its  compass  compre- 
hends three  octaves  rising  from  B flat 
below  the  bass-staff. 

BASS'ORA,  or  BASRAH,  a city  in 
Astiatic  Turkey,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Shat-el-Arab  (the  united  stream  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates),  about  50 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  nearly  300 
southeast  of  Bagdad.  Thirty  years  ago 
the  inhabitants  were  estimated  at  5000; 
they  are  now  about  40,000;  but  in  the 
18th  eentury  they  were  said  to  num- 
ber 150,000.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient 
and  more  famous  Basso ra — founded 
by  Caliph  Omar  in  636,  at  one  time 
a center  of  Arabic  literature  and  learning 
and  regarded  as  “the  Athens  of  the 
East” — lie  about  9 miles  southwest  of 
the  modern  town. 

BASSWOOD,  BASS,  the  American 
lime-tree  or  linden,  common  in  North 


BASTARD 


BATES 


America,  yielding  a light,  soft  tim- 
ber. 

BAS'TARD,  a child  begotten  and  born 
out  of  wedlock;  an  illegitimate  child. 
By  the  civil  and  canon  laws,  and  by  the 
law  of  Scotland  (as  well  as  of  some  of 
the  United  States),  a bastard  becomes 
legitimate  by  the  intermarriage  of  the 
parents  at  any  future  time.  But  by  the 
laws  of  England  a child,  to  be  legitimate, 
must  at  least  be  born  after  the  lawful 
marriage;  it  does  not  require  that  the 
child  shall  be  begotten  in  wedlock,  but 
it  is  indispensable  that  it  should  be  born 
after  marriage,  no  matter  how  short  the 
time,  the  law  presuming  it  to  be  the 
child  of  the  husband.  The  only  incapac- 
ity of  a bastard  is  that  he  cannot  be 
heir  or  next  of  kin  to  any  one  save  his 
own  issue.  In  England  the  maintenance 
of  a bastard  in  the  first  instance  devolves 
on  the  mother,  while  in  Scotland  it  is  a 
joint  burden  upon  both  parents.  The 
mother  is  entitled  to  the  custody  of  the 
child  in  preference  to  the  father,  and 
the  father  may  be  required  to  support 
the  child. 

BASTILLE  (bas-tel'),  a French  name 
for  any  strong  castle  provided  with 
towers,  but  as  a proper  name  the  state 
prison  and  citadel  of  Paris,  which  was 
built  about  1370  by  Charles  V.  It  was 


the  Bastille  commenced.  Not  a vestige 
of  it  exists,  but  its  site  is  marked  by  a 
column  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille. 

BASTINA'DO,  an  Eastern  method  of 
corporal  punishment,  consisting  of  blows 
upon  the  soles  of  the  feet,  applied  with  a 
stick. 

BASU'TOLAND,  a native  province 
and  British  South  African  possession, 
inclosed  between  Orange  River  Colony, 
Natal,  Griqualand  East,  and  Cape 
Colony.  The  Basutos  belong  chiefly  to 
the  great  stem  of  the  Bechuanas,  and 
have  made  greater  advances  in  civiliza- 
tion than  perhaps  any  other  South  Afri- 
can race.  Basutoland  has  an  area  of 
about  10,300  sq.  miles,  much  of  it  cov- 
ered with  grass,  and  there  is  but  little 
wood.  The  climate  is  pleasant.  The 
natives  keep  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses, 
culitvate  the  ground,  and  export  grain. 
It  is  divided  into  four  districts,  each 
presided  over  by  a magistrate.  Pop. 
(Europ.),  578;  (native),  250,000. 

BAT,  one  of  the  group  of  wing-handed, 
flying  mammals,  having  the  fore-limb 
peculiarly  modified  so  as  to  serve  for 
flight.  Bats  are  animals  of  the  twilight 
and  darkness,  and  are  common  in 
temperate  and  warm  regions,  but  are 
most  numerous  and  largest  in  the 
tropics.  All  European  bats  are  small, 


The  Bastille,  as  in  time  of  Louis  XV. 


ultimately  used  chiefly  for  the  confine- 
ment of  persons  of  rank  who  had  fallen 
victims  to  the  intrigues  of  the  court  or 
the  caprice  of  the  government.  The 
capture  of  the  Bastille  by  the  Parisian 
mob,  14th  July,  1789,  was  the  opening 
act  of  the  revolution.  On  that  date  the 
Bastille  was  surrounded  by  a tumultuous 
mob,  who  first  attempted  to  negotiate 
with  the  governor  Delaunay,  but,  when 
these  negotiations  failed,  began  to  at- 
tack the  fortress.  For  several  hours  the 
mob  continued  their  siege  without  being 
able  to  effect  anything  more  than  an 
entrance  into  the  outer  court  of  the 
Bastille;  but  at  last  the  arrival  of  some 
of  the  Royal  Guard  with  a few  pieces  of 
artillery  forced  the  governor  to  let  down 
the  second  drawbridge  and  admit  the 


was  torn  from  his  captors  and  put  to 
death.  The  next  day  the  destruction  of 


and  have  a mouse-like  skin.  The  body 
of  the  largest  British  species  is  less  than 
that  of  a mouse,  but  its  wings  stretch 
about  15  inches.  During  the  day  it  re- 
mains in  caverns,  in  the  crevices  of 
ruins,  hollow  trees,  and  such-like  lurk- 
ing-places, and  flits  out  at  evening  in 
search  of  food,  which  consists  of  insects. 
Several  species  of  the  same  genus  are 
common  in  North  America.  Many  bats 
are  remarkable  for  having  a singular 
nasal  cutaneous  appendage,  bearing  in 
some  cases  a fancied  resemblance  to  a 
horseshoe.  Bats  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  two  sections:  the  insec- 
tivorous or  carnivorous,  comprising  all 
European  and  most  African  and  Ameri- 
can species;  and  the  fruit-eating,  be- 
longing to  tropical  .A.sia  and  Australia, 
with  several  African  forms.  .\n  Aus- 
tralian fruit  - eating  bat,  commonly 
known  as  the  kalong  or  flying-fox,  is 
the  largest  of  all  the  bats:  it  does  much 


mischief  in  orchards.  At  least  two 
species  of  South  American  bats  are 
known  to  suck  the  blood  of  other  mam- 
mals, and  thence  are  called  “vampire- 
bats.”  As  winter  approaches,  in  cold 


Great  horseshoe  bat. 


climates  bats  seek  shelter  in  caverns, 
vaults,  ruinous  and  deserted  buildings, 
and  similar  retreats,  where  they  cling 
together  in  large  clusters,  hanging  head 
downward  by  the  feet;  and  remain  in 
a torpid  condition  until  the  returning 
spring  recalls  them  to  active  exertions. 
Bats  generally  bring  forth  two  young, 
which,  while  suckling,  remain  closely 
attached  to  the  mother’s  teats,  which 
are  two,  situated  upon  the  chest.  The 
parent  shows  a strong  degree  of  attach- 
ment for  her  offspring,  and,  when  they 
are  captured,  will  follow  them,  and.  even 
submit  to  captivity  herself  rather  than 
forsake  her  charge. 

BATA'VIA,  a city  and  seaport  of 
Java,  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island, 
the  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 
Its  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Malay,  with 
a considerable  admixture  of  Chinese  and 
a small  number  of  Europeans.  Pop. 
115,600. 

BATAVIANS,  an  old  German  nation 
which  inhabited  a part  of  the  present 
Holland,  especially  the  island  called 
Batavia,  formed  by  that  branch  of  the 
Rhine  which  empties  itself  into  the  sea 
near  Leyden,  together  with  the  Waal 
and  the  Meuse.  Tacitus  asserts  them 
to  have  been  a branch  of  the  Catti. 
They  were  subdued  by  Germanicus,  and 
were  granted  special  privileges  for  their 
faithful  services  to  the  Romans,  but 
revolted  under  Vespasian.  They  were, 
however,  again  subjected  by  Trajan  and 
Adrian,  and  at  the  end  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury the  Salian  Franks  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  island  of  Batavia. 

BATEMAN,  Kate  Josephine,  an  Amer- 
ican actress,  born  in  Baltimore,  1842, 
and  appeared  at  twenty  as  Juliet,  Juha, 
Pauline,  Lady  Macbeth,  and  other  tragic 
roles.  She  visited  England  in  1863, 
married  George  Crowe,  retired  until 
1868,  and  reappeared  as  Medea  in  1872. 
In  1875  Miss  Bateman  appeared  with 
Irving  in  Macbeth. 

BATES,  .\rlo,  an  American  author 
and  poet,  born  in  Maine  in  1850.  He 
has  been  editor  of  the  Boston  Courier 
and  professor  of  English  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology.  He 
has  published  The  Pagans,  The  Wheel 
of  Fire,  The  Philistines,  The  Puritans, 
and  Love  in  a Cloud.  His  poems  ap- 
peared in  1886,  1887,  and  1891. 

BATES,  Blanche,  an  American  ac- 
tress, born  at  Portland,  Oregon,  1873. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  in  San 
Francisco.  She  has  played  leading 
parts  in  The  Senator,  The  Charity  Ball, 
A Doll’s  House,  The  Great  Ruby,  The 


BATES 


BATTLEMENT 


Three  Musketeers,  and  Under  Two 
Flags 

BATES,  Charlotte  Fiske,  an  American 
author,  born  in  New  York  in  1838.  She 
has  published  several  volumes  of  poetry 
(1879,  1881,  and  1882).  She  married 
(1891)  M.  Adolphe  Rog6. 

BATH  (bath),  a city  of  England  in 
Somersetshire,  on  the  Avon,  which  is 
navigable  for  barges  from  Bristol.  Bath 
is  remarkable  for  its  medicinal  waters, 
the  four  principal  springs  yielding  no 
less  than  184,000  gallons  of  water  a day ; 
and  the  baths  are  both  elegant  and 
commodious.  The  temperature  of  the 
springs  varies  from  109°  to  117°  Fah- 
renheit. They  contain  carbonic  acid, 
chloride  of  sodium  and  of  magnesium, 
sulphate  of  soda,  carbonate  and  sulphate 
of  lime,  etc.  Pop.  52,75i. 

BATH,  a town  in  Maine,  on  the  west 
side  and  at  the  head  of  the  winter  navi- 
gation of  the  Kennebec,  12  miles  from 
the  sea.  Chief  industries:  ship-build- 
ing and  allied  crafts.  Pop.  10,477. 

BATH,  the  immersion  of  the  body  in 
water,  or  an  apparatus  for  this  purpose. 
The  use  of  the  bath  as  an  institution, 
apart  from  occasional  immersion  in 
rivers  or  the  sea,  is,  as  might  be  antic- 
mated,  an  exceedingly  old  custom. 
Homer  mentions  the  bath  as  one  of  the 
first  refreshments  offered  to  a guest; 
thus,  when  Ulysses  enters  the  palace  of 
Circe,  a bath  is  prepared  for  him,  and 
he  is  anointed  after  it  with  costly  per- 
fumes. No  representation,  howeve-,  of 
a bath  as  we  understand  it  is  given  upon 
the  Greek  vases,  bathers  being  repre- 
sented either  simply  washing  at  an  ele- 
vated basin,  or  having  water  poured 
over  them  from  above.  In  later  times, 
rooms,  both  public  and  private,  were 
built  expressly  for  bathing,  the  public 
baths  of  the  Greeks  being  mostly  con- 
nected with  the  gymnasia.  Apparently, 
by  an  inversion  of  the  later  practice,  it 
was  customary  in  the  Homeric  epoch  to 
take  first  a cold  and  then  a hot  bath; 
but  the  Lacedemonians  substituted  the 
hot-air  sudorific  bath,  as  less  enervating 
than  warm  water,  and  in  Athens  at  the 
time  of  Demosthenes  and  Socrates  the 
warm  bath  was  considered  by  the  more 
rigorous  as  an  effeminate  custom.  With 
respect  to  modern  baths,  that  commonly 
in  use  in  Russia  consists  of  a single  hall, 
built  of  wood,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a 
powerful  metal  oven,  covered  with 
heated  stones,  and  surrounded  with 
broad  benches,  on  which  the  bathers 
take  their  places.  Cold  water  is  then 
poured  upon  the  heated  stones,  and  a 
thick,  hot  steam  rises,  wliich  causes  the 
sweat  to  issue  from  the  whole  body. 
The  bather  is  then  gently  whipped  with 
wet  birch  rods,  rubbed  with  soap, 
and  washed  with  luke-warm  and  cold 
water;  of  the  latter,  some  pailfuls  are 
poured  over  his  head;  or  else  he 
leaps,  immediately  after  this  sweating- 
bath,  into  a river  or  pond,  or  rolls  in  the 
snow.  The  Turks,  by  their  religion,  are 
obliged  to  make  repeated  ablutions 
daily,  and  for  this  purpose  there  is,  in 
every  city,  a public  bath  connected 
with  a mosque.  A favorite  bath  among 
them,  however,  is  a modification  of  the 
hot-air  sudorific-bath  of  the  ancients 
introduced  under  the  name  of  “Turkish” 


into  other  than  Mohammedan  countries. 
A regular  accompaniment  of  this  bath, 
when  properly  given,  is  the  operation 
known  as  “kneading,”  generally  per- 
formed at  the  close  of  the  sweating 
process,  after  the  final  rubbing  of  the 
bather  with  soap,  and  consisting  in  a 
systematic  pressing  and  squeezing  of  the 
whole  body,  stretching  the  limbs,  and 
manipulating  all  the  joints  as  well  as 
the  fleshy  and  muscular  parts. 

Public  free  baths  have  been  opened 
in  several  cities  of  the  United  States 
with  reasonable  success.  Public  baths 
(for  the  payment  of  a fee)  are  operated 
in  all  the  cities  of  America,  and  some  of 
them  are  superior  to  the  best  establish- 
ments in  Europe.  The  Sutro  baths  at 
the  Cliff  House  in  San  Francisco,  which 
were  not  damaged  by  the  recent  earth- 
quake, are  the  finest  baths  in  the  world, 
surpassing  in  size  and  luxury  the 
greatest  of  the  ancient  Roman  baths. 
Salt  water  is  let  in  directly  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  a huge  amphitheater 
seating  several  thousand  spectators 
surrounds  the  pools.  The  most  famous 
bathing  springs  in  America  are  those  at 
Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  and  Mount  Clemens, 
Mich.,  which  are  regarded  as  a cure  for 
rheumatism  and  other  diseases. 

BA'THOS,  a Greek  word  meaning 
depth,  now  used  to  signify  a ludicrous 
sinking  from  the  elevated  to  the  mean 
in  writing  or  speech.  First  used  in  tliis 
sense  by  Pope. 

BATHYB'IUS,  the  name  given  by 
Huxley  to  what  was  regarded  as  masses 
of  animal  matter  found  covering  the  sea- 
bottom  at  great  depths,  and  in  such 
abundance  as  to  form  in  some  places 
deposits  of  30  feet  or  more  in  thickness. 
It  has  been  described  as  a tenacious, 
viscid,  slimy  substance,  exhibiting  under 
the  microscope  a network  of  granular, 
mucilaginous  matter,  which  expands 
and  contracts  spontaneously,  and  thus 
forms  an  organism  of  the  utmost  sim- 
plicity corresponding  in  every  respect 
to  protoplasm.  But  the  existence  of 
such  a substance  has  been  a matter  of 
dispute  among  scientists. 

BA'TON,  a short  staff  or  truncheon, 
in  some  cases  used  as  an  official  badge, 
as  that  of  a field-marshal.  The  conduc- 
tor of  an  orchestra  has  a baton  for  the 
purpose  of  directing  the  performers  as 
to  time,  etc. 

BAT'ON  ROUGE  (rozh>,  the  capital 
of  Louisiana,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  with  an  arsenal,  barracks, 
military  hospital,  state-house,  state 
university,  etc.  On  Aug.  5,  1862,  the 
Confederates  under  General  Brecken- 
ridge  suffered  a severe  defeat  before  it. 
Pop.  12,000. 

BATl^CHIANS  (ba-tra'ki-anz),  the 
fourth  order  in  Cuvier’s  arrangement 
of  the  class  Reptilia,  comprising  frogs, 
toads,  newts,  salamanders,  and  sirens. 
The  term  is  now  often  employed  as 
synonymous  with  amphibia,  but  is  more 
usually  restricted  to  the  order  Anura 
or  tailless  amphibia. 

BATTAL'ION,  the  tactical  unit  of 
command  in  infantry,  supposed  to  be  of 
the  maximum  strength  to  be  efficiently 
handled  by  one  officer. 

BATTERING-RAM,  an  engine  for 
battering  down  the  walls  of  besieged 
places.  The  ancients  employed  two 


different  engines  of  this  kind — one  sus- 
pended in  a frame,  the  other  movable 
on  wheels  or  rollers.  They  consisted  of 
a beam  or  spar  with  a massive  metal 
head,  and  were  set  in  motion  either  by 
a direct  application  of  manual  force  or 


Battering-ram. 


by  means  of  cords  passing  over  pulleys. 
Some  are  said  to  have  been  120  feet  or 
more  in  length,  and  to  have  been  worked 
by  100  men.  One  is  described  as  being 
180  feet  long,  and  having  a head  weigh- 
ing 1^  tons.  They  were  generally 
covered  with  a roof  or  screen  for  the 
protection  of  the  workers. 

BAT'TERSEA,  a municipal  borough 
of  London,  in  Surrey.  Pop.  in  1901, 
168,896. 

BAT'TERY,  as  a military  term,  (1) 
any  number  of  guns  grouped  in  position 
for  action;  (2)  any  work  constructed  as 
a position  for  such  guns;  (3)  the  tactical 
unit  of  field-artillery,  more  properly 
described  as  a field-battery. 

BATTERY,  in  physics,  a combination 
of  several  j’ars  or  metallic  plates,  to  in- 
crease the  effect  of  electricity  and  gal- 
vanism. 

BATTERY,  in  criminal  law,  an  assault 
by  beating  or  wounding  another.  The 
least  touching  or  meddling  with  the 
person  of  another  against  his  will  may 
be  held  to  constitute  a battery. 

BATTERY,  The,  a small  park  at  the 
extreme  southern  point  of  Manhattan 
(New  York  City),  which  was  formerly 
in  Dutch  times  a fortified  place.  In 
early  New  York  the  Battery  was  the 
most  aristocratic  residence  portion  of 
the  city. 

BATTLE-AX,  a weapon  much  used 
in  war  in  the  early  part  of  the  middle 
ages  among  knights.  It  is  a weapon 
which  affords  hardly  any  guard,  and 
the  heavier  the  blow  given  with  it  the 
more  the  fighter  is  exposed;  but  its  use 
was  to  some  extent  necessitated  by  the 
resistance  of  iron  armor  to  all  but 
heavy  blows.  In  England  and  Scotland 
the  battle-ax  was  much  employed,  the 
Lochaber-ax  remaining  a formidable 
implement  of  destruction  in  the  hands 
of  the  Highlanders  to  a recent  period. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  a town  in  Michigan, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Kalamazoo  and 
Battle  Creek,  with  a college,  and  manu- 
factures of  agricultural  implements, 
health  foods,  etc.  Pop.  20,000. 

BAT'TLEMENT,  a notched  or  in- 
dented parapet  of  a fortification,  formed 
by  a series  of  raised  parts  called  cops  or 
merlons,  separated  by  openings  called 
crenelles  or  embrasures,  the  soldier 
sheltering  himself  behind  the  merlon 
while  he  fires  through  the  embrasure. 
Battlements  were  originally  military, 
but  were  afterward  used  freely  in 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  buildings  by  way 
of  ornament,  on  parapets,  cornices, 
tabernacle  work,  etc. 


BAUXITE 


BAYONET 


BAUXITE  (bak'sit),  a clay  found  at 
Baux,  near  Arles  in  France,  and  ex- 
ported from  the  north  of  Ireland,  con- 
taining a large  proportion  of  alumina, 
and  used  as  a lining  for  furnaces  that 
have  to  support  an  intense  heat,  and 
as  a source  of  aluminium. 

BAVA'RIA,  a kingdom  in  the  south 
of  Germany,  the  second  largest  state 
of  the  empire,  composed  of  two  isolated 
portions,  the  larger  comprising  about 
eleven-twelfths  of  the  monarchy,  having 
the  Austrian  territories  on  the  east,  and 
Wiirtemberg,  Baden,  etc.,  on  the  west, 
while  the  smaller  portion,  the  Pfalz  or 
Palatinate,  is  separated  from  the  other 
by  Wiirtemberg  and  Baden,  and  lies 
west  of  the  Rhine;  total  area,  29,657 
sq.  miles.  The  main  political  divisions 
are:  Upper  Bavaria  (pop.  1,319,985; 
chief  town,  Munich,  the  capital  of  the 
kingdom,  pop.  499,959);  Lower  Bavaria 
(677,973);  Palatinate  (830,948);  Upper 
Palatinate  and  Regensburg  (555,204) ; 
Upper  Franconia  (607,308) ; Middle 
Franconia  (814,294);  Lower  Franconia 
and  Aschaffenburg  (650,624);  Schwaben 
and  Neuburg  (712,056);  total  6,168,392. 

As  regards  soil  Bavaria  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  countries  in  Germany,  pro- 
ducing the  various  cereals  in  abundance, 
the  best  hops  in  Germany,  fruit,  wine, 
tobacco,  etc.,  and  having  extensive 
forests.  Lower  Franconia  (the  Main 
valley)  and  the  Palatinate  are  the  great 
vine-growing  districts.  The  celebrated 
Steinweiii  and  Leistenwein  are  the 
produce  of  the  slopes  of  the  Steinberg 
and  Marienberg  at  Wurzburg  (on  the 
Main).  The  forests  of  Bavaria,  chiefly 
fir  and  pine,  yield  a large  revenue;  much 
timber  being  annually  exported,  to- 
gether W'ith  potash,  tar,  turpentine, 
etc.  The  principal  mineral  products  are 
salt,  coal,  and  iron,  some  of  the  mining 
works  belonging  to  the  state.  The 
minerals  worked  include  copper,  quick- 
silver, manganese,  cobalt,  porcelain 
clay,  alabaster,  graphite.  Large  num- 
bers of  horses  and  cattle  are  reared,  as 
also  sheep  and  swine.  The  manufac- 
tures are  individually  mostly  on  a small 
scale.  The  principal  articles  manu- 
factured are  linens,  woolens,  cottons, 
leather,  paper,  glass,  earthen  and  iron 
ware,  jewelry,  etc.  The  optical  and 
mathematical  instruments  rnade  are 
excellent.  A most  important  branch  of 
industry  is  the  brewing  of  beer,  for 
which  there  are  upward  of  7000  estab- 
lishments, producing  over  260  millions 
of  gallons  a year. 

Education  is  in  a less  satisfactory 
condition  than  in  most  German  states. 
There  are  about  7000  elementary  schools, 
on  which  attendance  is  compulsory  up 
to  fourteen  years  of  age.  There  are 
three  universities,  two  of  which  (Munich 
and  Wurzburg)  are  Roman  Catholic, 
and  one  (Erlangen)  Protestant.  In  art 
Bavaria  is  best  known  as  the  home  of 
the  Nurnberg  school,  founded  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century  by  Albert 
Uiirer.  Hans  Holbein  is  also  claimed 
as  a Bavarian ; and  to  these  have  to  be 
added  the  eminent  sculptors  Kraft  and 
Vischer,  both  born  about  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  The  restoration  of 
the  reputation  of  Bavaria  in  art  was 
chiefly  the  work  of  Ludwig  I.,  under 
whom  the  capital  became  one  of  the 


most  prominent  seats  of  the  fine  arts  in 
Europe. 

The  Bavarian  crown  is  hereditary  in 
the  male  line.  The  executive  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  king.  The  legislature 
consists  of  two  chambers. 

The  Bavarians  take  their  name  from 
the  Boii,'  a Celtic  tribe  whose  territory 
was  occupied  by  a confederation  of 
Germanic  tribes,  called  after  their  pred- 
ecessors Boiarii.  These  were  made 
tributary  first  to  the  Ostrogoths,  and 
then  to  the  Franks;  and  on  the  death  of 
Charlemagne  his  successors  governed 
the  country  by  lieutenants  with  the 
title  of  margrave,  afterward  converted 
(in  921)  into  that  of  duke.  In  1070 
Bavaria  passed  to  the  family  of  the 
Guelphs,  and  in  1180  by  imperial  grant 
to  Otho,  count  of  Wittelsbach,  founder 
of  the  still  reigning  dynasty.  In  1623 
the  reigning  duke  was  made  one  of  the 
electors  of  the  empire.  Elector  Maxi- 
milian II.  joined  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession  on  the  side  of  France, 
and  this  led,  after  the  battle  of  Blenheim, 
1704,  to  the  loss  of  his  dominions  for 
the  next  ten  years.  His  son,  Charles 
Albert,  likewise  lost  his  dominions  for 
a time  to  Austria,  but  they  were  all  re- 
covered again  by  Charles’s  son,  Maxi- 
milian III.  (1745).  In  the  wars  follow- 
ing the  French  revolution  Bavaria  was 
in  a difficult  position  between  France 
and  Austria,  but  latterly  joined  Napo- 
leon, from  whom  its  elector  Maximilian 
IV.  received  the  title  of  king  G805),  a 
title  afterward  confirmed  by  the 
treaties  of  1814  and  1815.  King  Maxi- 
milian I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Ludwig  (or  Louis)  I.,  under  whom 
various  circumstances  helped  to  quicken 
a desire  for  political  change.  Reform 
being  refused,  tumults  arose  in  1848, 
and  Ludwig  resigned  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Maximilian  II.,  under  whom  certain 
modifications  of  the  constitution  were 
carried  out.  At  his  death  in  1864  he 
was  succeeded  by  Ludwig  II.  In  the 
war  of  1866  Bavaria  sided  with  Austria, 
and  was  compelled  to  cede  a small 
portion  of  its  territory  to  Prussia,  and 
to  pay  a war  indemnity  of  $12,500,000. 
Soon  after  Bavaria  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Prussia,  and  in  1867  joined 
the  Zollverein.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71  the  Bavarians  took  a 
prominent  part,  and  it  was  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  King  of  Bavaria,  on  behalf 
of  all  the  other  princes  and  the  senates 
of  the  free  cities  of  Germany,  that  the 
King  of  Prussia  agreed  to  accept  the 
title  of  Emperor  of  Germany.  Since 
Jan.,  1871,  Bavaria  has  been  a part  of 
the  German  Empire,  and  is  represented 
in  the  Bundesrath  by  six,  and  in  the 
Reichstag  by  forty-eight  members. 
The  eccentricity  early  displayed  by 
Ludwig  II.  developed  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  June,  1886,  he  was  placed  under 
control,  and  a regency  established  under 
Prince  Liutpold  (Leopold).  The  change 
was  almost  immediately  followed  by 
the  suicide  of  the  king,  and  as  Prince 
Otto,  the  brother  and  heir  of  the  late 
king,  was  insane,  the  regency  was  con- 
tinued. 

BAY,  in  geography,  an  indentation  of 
some  size  into  the  shore  of  a sea  or  lake, 
generally  said  to  be  one  with  a wider 
entrance  than  a gulf. 


BAYARD,  Thomas  Francis,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomat  and  statesman,  born  in 
Wilmington,  Del.,  1828,  died  1898.  He 
was  early  engaged  in  commerce,  but 
later  studied  law,  and  began  practice  in 
1851.  In  1869  he  became  U.  S.  senator, 
and  represented  Delaware  in  the  senate 
until  he  became  secretary  of  state  in 
Cleveland’s  first  cabinet.  He  was  sev- 
eral times  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
nomination  to  the  presidency  in  demo- 
cratic national  conventions,  and  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  England  by 
Cleveland  in  1893,  serving  until  1897. 
He  was  given  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Civil  Law  by  both  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge Universities. 

BAYARD  (ba-yar),  Pierre  du  Terrail, 
Seigneur  de,  the  Chevalier  sans  peur  et 
sans  reproche  (knight  without  fear  and 
without  reproach),  born  in  1476  in  Castle 
Bayard,  near  Glrenoble,  in  southern 
France.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he 
accompanied  Charles  VIII.  to  Italy,  and 
in  the  battle  at  Verona  took  a standard. 
When  Francis  I.  ascended  the  throne  he 
sent  Bayard  into  Dauphin4  to  open  a 
passage  over  the  Alps  and  through  Pied- 
mont. Prosper  Colonna  lay  in  wait  for 
him,  but  was  made  prisoner  by  Bayard, 
who  immediately  after  further  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of 
Marignano.  After  liis  defense  of  M6z- 
ieres  against  the  invading  army  of 
Charles  V.  he  was  saluted  in  Paris  as  the 
savior  of  his  country,  receiving  the 
honor  paid  to  a prince  of  the  blood. 
His  presence  reduced  the  revolted 
Genoese  to  obedience,  but  failed  to  pre- 
vent the  expulsion  of  the  French  after 
the  capture  of  Lodi.  In  the  retreat  the 
safety  of  the  army  was  committed  to 
Bayard,  who,  however,  was  mortally 
wounded  by  a stone  from  a blunderbuss 
in  protecting  the  passage  of  the  Sesia. 
He  kissed  the  cross  of  his  sword,  con- 
fessed to  his  squire,  and  died,  April  30, 
1524.  He  was  buried  in  a church  of  the 
Minorites,  near  Grenoble. 

BAY  CITY,  a city  in  Michigan  on  the 
e.  side  of  Saginaw  river,  near  its  mouth 
in  Saginaw  Bay,  Lake  Huron.  Chief 
articles  of  trade,  lumber  and  salt.  Pop. 
30,000. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY,  so  caUed  be- 
cause it  was  originally  found  in  the 
cathedral  of  Bayeux,  in  the  public 
library  of  which  town  it  is  still  pre- 
served. It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
worked  by  Matilda,  queen  of  Wfiliam. 
the  Conqueror,  and  to  have  been  pre- 
sented by  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux,  the 
half-brother  of  William,  to  the  church 
in  wliich  it  was  found.  It  is  214  feet  in 
length  and  20  inches  in  breadth,  and  is 
divided  into  seventy-two  compart- 
ments, the  subject  of  each  scene  being 
indicated  by  a Latin  inscription  These 
scenes  give  a pictorial  history  of  the  in- 
vasion and  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,  beginning  with  Harold’s  visit 
to  the  Norman  court,  and  ending  with 
liis  death  at  Hastings. 

BAYNES  (banz),  Thomas  Spencer, 
LL.D.,  born  at  Wellington,  Somerset, 
in  1823,  died  suddenly  in  London,  1887. 
In  1873  he  became  editor  of  the  ninth 
edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

BAY'ONET,  a straight,  sharp-pointed 
weapon,  generally  triangular,  intended 
to  be  fixed  upon  the  muzzle  of  a rifle  or 


BAYONNE  CITY 


BEACONSFIELI) 


musket,  \yhich  is  thus  transformed  into 
a thrusting  weapon;  probably  invented 
about  1640,  in  Bayonne.  About  1690 
the  bayonet  began  to  be  fastened  by 
means  of  a socket  to  the  outside  of  the 
barrel,  instead  of  being  inserted  as  for- 
merly in  the  inside.  A variety  of  the 
bayonet,  called  the  sword-bayonet,  is 
now  pretty  widely  used  in  European 
armies,  especially  for  the  short  rifles  of 
the  light  infantry,  the  carbines  of  the 
artillery,  etc. 


German  war,  when  he  capitulated  at 
Metz,  after  a seven  weeks’  siege,  with 
an  army  of  175,000  men.  For  this  act 
he  was  tried  by  court-martial  in  1871, 
found  guilty  of  treason,  and  condemned 
to  death.  This  sentence  was  commuted 
to  twenty  years’  seclusion  in  the  Isle  St. 
Marguerite,  from  which  he  escaped  and 
retired  to  Spain. 

BAZAR',  or  BAZAAR',  in  the  East  an 
exchange,  market-place,  or  place  where 
goods  are  exposed  for  sale,  usually  con- 


The coronation  of  Harold— Men  wonder  at  the  star— Harold  on  the  throne. 


The  battle  of  Hastings— Portion  of  the  Bayeux  tapestry. 
BAYEUX  TAPESTRY. 


BAYONNE  CITY,  a city  in  Hudson 
Co.,  New  Jersey.  Pop.  32,722. 

BAYOU  (ba-yo'),  in  the  S.  States,  a 
stream  which  flows  from  a lake  or  other 
stream : frequently  used  as  synonymous 
with  creek  or  tidal  channel. 

BAY  RUM,  a spirit  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling the  leaves  of  Myrica  acris,  or 
other  West  Indian  trees  of  the  same 
genus.  It  is  used  for  toilet  purposes, 
and  as  a liniment  in  rheumatic  affec- 
tions. 

BAY-SALT,  a general  term  for  coarse- 
grained salt,  but  properly  applied  to 
salt  obtained  by  spontaneous  or  natural 
evaporation  of  sea -water  in  large 
shallow  tanks  or  bays. 

BAY-WINDOW,  a window  forming  a 
recess  or  bay  in  a room,  projecting  out- 
ward, and  rising  from  the  ground  or 
basement  on  a plan  rectangular,  semi- 
octagonal,  or  semi-hexagonal,  but  al- 
ways straight-sided.  The  term  is,  how- 
ever, also  often  employed  to  designate 
a bow-window,  which  more  properly 
forms  the  segment  of  a circle,  and  an 
oriel-window,  which  is  supported  on  a 
kind  of  bracket,  and  is  usually  on  the 
first  floor. 

BAZAINE  (ba-zan),  Francois  Achille, 
French  general,  b.  1811,  d.  1888.  He 
served  iri  Algeria,  in  Spain  against  the 
Carlists,  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  joined 
the  Mexican  expedition  as  general  of 
division  in  1862,  and  in  1864  was  made 
a marshal  of  France.  He  commanded 
the  third  army  corps  in  the  Franco- 


sisting  of  small  shops  or  stalls  in  a nar- 
row street  or  series  of  streets.  These 
bazar-streets  are  frequently  shaded  by 
a light  material  laid  from  roof  to  roof, 
and  sometimes  are  arched  over.  Marts 
for  the  sale  of  miscellaneous  articles, 
chiefly  fancy  goods,  are  now  to  be  found 


The  great  bazar,  Const.iutinople. 
in  most  European  ciaes  bearing  the 
name  of  bazars.  The  term  bazar  is  also 
applied  to  a sale  of  miscellaneous 
articles,  mostly  of  fancy  work,  and  con- 
tributed gratuitously,  in  furtherance  of 
some  charitable  or  other  purpose. 


BEACON  (be'kon),  an  object  visible 
to  some  distance,  and  serving  to  notify 
the  presence  of  danger:  commonly 
applied  to  a fire-signal  set  on  a height  to 
spread  the  news  of  hostile  invasion  or 
other  great  event;  and  also  applied  to  a 
mark  or  object  of  some  kind  placed  con- 
spicuously on  a coast  or  over  a rock  or 
shoal  at  sea  for  the  guidance  of  vessels, 
often  an  iron  structure  of  considerable 
height. 

BEACONSFIELD,  Benjamin  Disraeli, 
Earl  of,  an  eminent  English  statesman 
and  novelist,  of  Jewish  extraction; 
eldest  son  of  Isaac  D’ Israeli,  author  of 
the  Curiosities  of  Literature;  born  in 
London  in  1804,  died  there  in  1881, 
buried  at  Hughenden.  In  1826  he  pub- 
lished Vivian  Grey,  his  first  novel;  and 
subsequently  traveled  for  some  time, 
visiting  Italy,  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
Syria,  and  gaining  experiences  which 
were  afterward  reproduced  in  his  books. 
His  travels  and  impressions  are  em- 
bodied in  a volume  of  letters  addressed 
to  his  sister  and  his  father.  In  1837  he 
gained  an  entrance  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  being  elected  for  Maidstone. 
Ilis  first  speech  in  the  house  was  treated 
with  ridicule;  but  he  finished  with  the 
prophetic  declaration  that  the  time 


Lord  Beaeonsfleld. 

would  come  when  they  would  hear  him. 
During  his  first  years  in  parliament  he 
was  a supporter  of  Peel;  but  when  Peel 
pledged  himself  to  abolish  the  corn-laws 
Disraeli  became  the  leader  of  the  pro- 
tectionists. Having  acquired  the  manor 
of  Hughenden  in  Buckinghamshire,  he 
was  in  1847  elected  for  this  county,  and 
he  retained  his  seat  till  raised  to  the 
peerage  nearly  thiry  years  later.  His 
first  appointment  to  office  was  in  1852, 
when  he  became  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer under  Lord  Derby.  The  fol- 
lowing year,  however,  the  ministry  was 
defeated.  He  remained  out  of  office 
till  1858,  when  he  again  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer,  and  brought  in 
a reform  bill  which  wrecked  the  govern- 
ment. During  the  time  the  Palmer- 
ston government  was  in  office  Mr. 
Disraeli  led  the  opposition  in  the  lower 
house  with  conspicuous  ability  and 
courage.  In  1806  the  Liberals  resigned, 
and  Derby  and  Disraeli  came  into  power, 
the  latter  being  again  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  They  immediately  brought 
in,  and  carried,  after  a violent  and  bitter 
struggle,  a Reform  Bill  on  the  basis  of 
household  suffrage.  In  1868  he  became 
premier  on  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Derby,  but  his  tenure  of  office  was  short. 


BEAD 

In  1874  he  again  became  prime-minister 
with  a strong  Conservative  majority, 
and  he  remained  in  power  for  six  years. 
This  period  was  marked  by  his  elevation 
to  the  peerage  in  1876  as  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field,  and  by  the  prominent  part  he 
took  in  regard  to  the  Eastern  question 
and  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin  in  1878.  In  1880  parliament  was 
rather  suddenly  dissolved,  and,  the  new 
parliament  showing  an  overwhelming 
Liberal  majority,  he  resigned  ofBce, 
though  he  still  retained  the  leadership 
of  his  party.  Within  a few  months  of 
his  death  the  f)ublication  of  a novel 
called  Endymion  (his  last,  Lothair,  had 
been  published  ten  years  before)  showed 
that  his  intellect  was  still  vigorous. 

BEAD  (bed),  originally  a prayer; 
then  a small  perforated  ball  of  gold, 
pearl,  amber,  glass,  or  the  like,  to  be 
strung  on  a thread,  and  used  in  a rosary 
by  Roman  Catholics  in  numbering  their 
prayers,  one  bead  being  passed  at  the 
end  of  each  ejaculation  or  short  prayer. 

BEAD-SNAKE,  a beautiful  snake  of 
North  America,  inhabiting  cultivated 
grounds,  especially  plantations  of  the 
sweet-potato,  and  burrowing  in  the 
ground.  It  is  finely  marked  with  yellow, 
carmine,  and  black.  Though  it  pos- 
sesses poison-fangs  it  never  seems  to  use 
them. 

BEAGLE  (be'gl),  a small  hound,  for- 
merly kept  to  hunt  hares,  now  almost 
superseded  by  the  harrier,  which  some- 
times is  called  by  its  name.  The  beagle 
is  smaller  than  the  harrier,  compactly 
built,  smooth-haired,  and  with  pendu- 
lous ears.  The  smallest  of  them  are 
little  larger  than  the  lap-dog. 

BEAM,  a long  straight  and  strong 
piece  of  wood,  iron,  or  steel,  especially 
when  holding  an  important  place  in 
some  structure,  and  serving  for  support 
or  consolidation;  often  equivalent  to 
girder.  In  a balance  it  is  the  part  from 
the  ends  of  which  the  scales  are  sus- 
pended. In  a loom  it  is  a cylindrical 
piece  of  wood  on  which  weavers  wind 
the  warp  before  weaving;  also,  the 
cvlinder  on  which  the  cloth  is  rolled  as  it 
IS  woven.  In  a ship  one  of  the  strong 
transverse  pieces  stretching  across  from 
one  side  to  the  other  to  support  the 
decks  and  retain  the  sides  at  their 

E roper  distance;  hence  a ship  is  said  to 
e “on  her  beam  ends”  when  lying  over 
on  her  side. 

BEAN,  a name  given  to  several  kinds 
of  leguminous  seeds  and  the  plants 
producing  them.  The  common  bean 
is  cultivated  both  in  fields  and  gardens 
as  food  for  man  and  beast.  Beans  are 
very  nutritious,  containing  36  per  cent 
of  starch  and  2.3  per  cent  of  nitrogenous 
matter  called  legumin,  analogous  to  the 
casein  in  cheese.  The  bean  is  an  annual 
from  2 to  4 feet  high.  The  flowers  are 
beautiful  and  fragrant.  The  kidney- 
bean,  French  bean,  or  hai-icot  is  a well- 
known  culinary  vegetable.  There  are 
two  principal  varieties,  annual  dwarfs 
and  runners.  The  scarlet-runner  bean, 
a native  of  Mexico,  is  cultivated  on 
account  of  its  long  rough  pods  and  its 
scarlet  flowers. 

BEAR,  the  name  of  several  large 
carnivorous  mammals.  The  teeth  are 
forty-two  in  number,  as  in  the  dog,  but 
there  is  no  carnassial  or  sectorial  tootli, 
and  the  molars  have  a more  tubercular 


character  than  in  other  carnivores. 
The  eyes  have  a nictitating  membrane, 
the  nose  is  prominent  and  mobile,  and 
the  tail  very  short.  The  true  bears  are 
about  ten  in  number,  natives  chiefly 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  N.  America.  They 
generally  lie  dormant  in.their  den  during 


Brown  bear. 


the  winter  months.  The  brown  or 
black  bear  is  a native  of  almost  all  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  was  at  one  time  common  in  the 
Bi-itish  islands.  It  feeds  on  fruits, 
roots,  honey,  ants,  and,  in  case  of  need, 
on  mammals.  It  sometimes  reaches 
the  length  of  7 feet,  the  largest  speci- 


Grizzly  bear. 


mens  being  found  farthest  to  the  north. 
It  lives  solitarily.  The  American  black 
bear,  with  black  shining  hair,  is  rartly 
above  5 feet  in  length.  It  is  a great 
climber,  is  less  dangerous  than  the  brown 
bear,  and  is  hunted  for  its  fur  and  flesh. 
It  is  very  amusing  in  captivity.  The 
grizzly  bear  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 


Polar  bear. 


Rocky  Mountains;  it  is  a ferocious 
animal,  sometimes  9 feet  in  length,  and  | 
has  a bulky  and  unwieldy  form,  but 
is  nevertheless  capable  of  great  rapidity 
of  motion.  The  extinct  cave-bear 
seems  to  have  been  closely  akin  to  the 
grizzly.  The  Siberian  bear  is  perhaps 


BEARING 

a variety  of  the  brown  bear.  The  polar 
or  white  bear  is  an  animal  possessed  of 
great  strength  and  fierceness.  It  lives 
in  the  polar  regions,  frequents  the  sea, 
feeds  on  fish,  seals,  etc.,  and  usually  is 
7 to  8 feet  in  length.  The  Malayan  or 
coconut  palm  bear  is  perhaps  the 
smallest  of  the  bears.  It  inhabits 
Cochin-China,  Nepaul,  the  Sunda  Is- 
lands, etc.,  lives  exclusively  on  vegetable 
food,  and  is  an  expert  climber.  It  is 
called  also  sun-bear  and  bruang.  The 
Indian  black  bear  or  sloth-bear  of 
India  and  Ceylon  is  reputed  to  be  a 
fierce  and  dangerous  animal. 

BEAR,  Great  and  Little,  the  popular 
name  of  two  constellations  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere.  The  Great  Bear  (Ursa 
Major)  is  situated  near  the  pole.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  well-known  seven 
stars,  by  two  of  which,  called  the  Point- 
ers, the  pole-star  is  always  readily 
found.  The  Little  Bear  (Ursa  Minor)  is 
the  constellation  which  contains  the 
pole-star.  This  constellation  has  seven 
stars  placed  together  in  a manner  re- 
sembling those  in  the  Great  Bear. 

BEAR-BAITING,  the  sport  of  baiting 
bears  with  dogs,  formerly  one  of  the 
established  amusements,  not  only  of  the 
common  people,  but  of  the  nobility  and 
even  royalty  itself.  The  places  where 
bears  were  publicly  baited  were  called 
bear-gardens. 

BEARD,  the  hair  round  the  chin,  on 
the  cheeks,  and  the  upper  lip,  which  is 
a distinction  of  the  male  sex  and  of  man- 
hood. It  differs  from  the  hair  on  the 
head  by  its  greater  hardness  and  its 
form.  Some  nations  have  hardly  any, 
others  a great  profusion.  The  latter 
generally  consider  it  as  a great  orna- 
ment; the  former  pluck  it  out;  as,  for 
instance,  the  American  Indians.  The 
beard  has  often  been  considered  as  a 
mark  of  the  sage  and  the  priest.  Moses 
forbade  the  Jews  to  shave  their  beards. 
With  the  ancient  Germans  the  cutting 
off  another’s  beard  was  a high  offense. 
Even  now  the  beard  is  regarded  as  a 
mark  of  great  dignity  among  many 
nations  in  the  East,  as  the  Turks.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  introduced  shaving 
among  the  Greeks,  by  ordering  his 
soldiers  to  wear  no  beards;  among  the 
Romans  it  was  introduced  in  b.c.  296. 
The  custom  of  shaving  is  said  to  have 
come  into  use  in  modern  times  during 
the  reigns  of  Louis  XIII.  and  XIV.  of 
France,  both  of  whom  ascended  the 
throne  without  a beard.  Till  then 
fashion  had  given  divers  forms  of  mous- 
taches and  beards.  It  is  only  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  that  beards  and 
moustaches  have  again  become  common. 

BEARD,  George  Miller,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1839. 
He  is  known  for  several  works  dealing 
with  the  nervous  sj’^stem.  Died  1883. 

BEARD,  James  Henry,  an  American 
artist,  born  at  Buffalo  in  1814.  He 
painted  portraits  of  Clay,  J.  Q.  .A.dams, 
William  Henry  Harrison,  President 
Taylor,  and  others,  and  a number  of 
pictures,  among  which  are  The  Long 
Bill,  Out  All  Night,  and  The  I.and 
i Speculator.  He  died  in  1893. 

BEARING,  the  direction  or  point  of 
the  compass  in  which  an  object  is  seen, 
or  the  situation  of  one  object  in  regard 
to  another,  with  reference  to  the  points 
of  the  compass.  Thus,  if  from  a certain 


BEAR’S-GREASE 


BEAVER 


situation  an  object  is  seen  in  the  direc- 
tion of  northeast,  the  bearing  of  the 
object  is  said  to  be  n.e.  from  the  situa- 
tion.— To  take  bearings,  to  ascertain 
on  what  point  of  tlie  compass  objects 
lie. 

BEAR’S-GREASE,  the  fat  of  bears 
esteemed  as  of  great  efficacy  in  nourish- 
ing and  promoting  the  growth  of  hair. 
The  ungents  sold  under  this  name, 
however,  are  in  a great  measure  made 
of  hog’s  lard  or  veal  fat,  or  a mixture  of 
both,  scented  and  slightly  colored. 

BEARDSLEY,  Aubrey,  a British 
artist  who  gained  reputation  about  1892 
by  his  fantastic  studies  in  highly  con- 
trasted black  and  white.  He  was  born 
in  1874  and  died  in  1898. 

BEAT,  in  music,  the  beating  or  pulsa- 
tion resulting  from  the  joint  vibrations 
of  two  sounds  of  the  same  strength,  and 
all  but  in  unison.  Also  a short  sha,ke  or 
transient  grace-note  struck  immediately 
before  the  note  it  is  intended  to  orna- 
ment. 

BEATIFICATION,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  an  act  by  which  the 
pope  declares  a person  beatified  or 
blessed  after  his  death.  It  is  the  first 
step  to  canonization,  that  is,  the  raising 
one  to  the  honor  and  dignity  of  a saint. 
No  person  can  be  beatified  till  fifty  years 
after  his  or  her  death.  All  certificates  or 
attestations  of  virtues  and  miracles,  the 
necessary  qualifications  for  saintship, 
are  examined  by  the  congregation  of 
Rites.  This  examination  often  con- 
tinues for  several  years;  after  which  his 
holiness  decrees  the  beatification,  and 
the  corpse  and  relics  of  the  future 
saint  are  exposed  to  the  veneration  of 
all  good  Christians. 

BEATRICE  PORTINARI  (ba-a-tre'- 
cha  por-te-na're),  the  poetical  idol  of 
Dante;  born  about  1266,  died  1290; 
the  daughter  of  & wealthy  citizen  of 
Florence,  and  wife  of  Simone  de  Bardi. 
She  was  but  eight  years  of  age,  and 
Dante  nine,  when  he  met  her  first  at  the 
house  of  her  father.  He  altogether  saw 
her  only  once  or  twice,  and  she  probably 
knew  little  of  him.  The  story  of  his  love 
is  recounted  in  the  Vita  Nuova,  which 
was  mostly  written  after  her  death. 

BEAUFORT  SCALE,  a measure  of 
the  velocity  of  the  wind,  taking  its 
name  from  Admiral  Beaufort,  who  intro- 
duced it  into  the  British  Navy.  The 
following  table  indicates  the  value,  in 
miles  per  hour,  of  the  terms  used  in  the 
scale : 


Designation  of  Wind. 

Approximate 
Wind  Velocity 
in  Miles  per 
Hour. 

Calm . . . 

3 or  less 

Light  air 

8 “ 

Light  breeze 

13  “ 

Gentle  “ .. 

18  “ 

Moderate  “ .. 

23  “ 

Fresh  “ 

28  “ 

Strong  “ .. 

34  “ 

Moderate  gale 

40  “ 

Fresh  “ . . 

48  “ 

Strong  “ 

56  •• 

Whole  “ 

65  “ 

Storm  “ 

75  “ 

Hurricane  “ , 

90  “ 

BEAUHARNAIS  (bo-ar-na),  Alexan- 
dre, Viscount,  was  born  in  1760  in 
Martinique.  He  married  Josephine 
Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  who  was  after- 
ward the  wife  of  Napoleon.  At  the 

P.  E.— 9 


breaking  out  of  the  French  revolution 
he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  National 
Assembly,  of  which  he  was  for  some 
time  president.  In  1792  he  was  general 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  He  was 
falsely  accused  of  having  promoted  the 
surrender  of  Mainz,  and  was  sentenced 
to  death  July  23,  1794. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Eugene  de,  Duke  of 
Leuchtenberg,  Prince  of  Eichstadt,  and 
Viceroy  of  Italy  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon,  was  born  1781,  died  at  Mu- 
nich 1824.  He  was  the  son  of  Alexandre 
Beauharnais  and  Josephine,  afterward 
wife  of  Napoleon  and  Empress  of  France. 
He  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Egypt  in 
1798;  rose  rapidly  in  the  army;  was  ap- 
pointed viceroy  of  Italy  in  1805;  and 
married  a daughter  of  the  King  of 
Bavaria  in  1806.  To  him  and  to  Ney 
France  was  mainly  indebted  for  the 
preservation  of  the  remains  of  her  army 
during  the  retreat  from  Moscow.  After 
the  battle  of  Liitzen  of  May  2,  1813, 
where,  by  surrounding  the  right  wing 
of  the  enemy,  he  decided  the  fate  of  the 
day,  he  went  to  Italy,  which  he  de- 
fended against  the  Austrians  until  the 
deposition  of  Napoleon.  After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  he  concluded  an  armistice, 
by  which  he  delivered  Lombardy  and 
all  Upper  Italy  to  the  Austrians.  He 
then  went  immediately  to  Paris,  and 
thence  to  his  father-in-law  at  Munich, 
where  he  afterward  resided. — His  sister 
Hortense  Eugenie,  Queen  of  Holland, 
was  born  in  1783,  died  in  1837.  She 
became  Queen  of  Holland  by  marrying 
Louis  Bonaparte,  and  after  Louis’s 
abdication  of  the  throne  she  lived  apart 
from  him.  She  wrote  several  excellent 
songs,  and  composed  some  deservedly 
popular  airs.  Napoleon  III.  was  her 
third  and  youngest  son. 

BEAUMARCHAIS  (bo-mar-sha), 
Pierre  Augustin  Caron  de,  a French 
wit  and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1732,  died  1799.  He  early  gave 
striking  proofs  of  his  mechanical  and 
also  of  his  musical  talents;  attained 
proficiency  as  a player  on  the  guitar 
and  harp,  and  was  appointed  harp- 
master  to  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV. 
In  the  meantime  he  occupied  himself 
with  literature,  and  published  two 
dramas — Eugenie  in  1767  and  Les  Deux 
Amis  in  1770.  He  first  really  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  Meraoires 
(Paris,  1774),  or  statements  in  connec- 
tion with  a lawsuit,  which  by  their  wit, 
satire,  and  liveliness  entertained  all 
France.  The  Barber  of  Seville  (1775) 
and  the  Marriage  of  Figaro  (1784)  have 
given  him  a permanent  reputation. 

BEAUMONT  (bo'mont),  Francis,  and 
FLETCHER,  John,  two  eminent  English 
dramatic  writers,  contemporaries  of 
Shakespeare,  and  the  most  famous  of 
literary  partners.  The  former  was  born 
at  Grace-Dieu,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
1584;  died  in  1616,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  — John  Fletcher 
was  born  at  Rye,  Sussex,  in  1579.  He 
died  in  London  of  the  plague,  August, 
1625,  and  was  buried  at  St.  Saviour’s, 
Southwark.  The  friendship  of  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  like  their  literary  partner- 
ship, was  singularly  close ; they  lived  in 
the  same  house,  and  are  said  to  have 
even  had  their  clothes  in  common.  The 
works  that  pass  under  their  names  con- 


sist of  over  fifty  plays,  a masque,  and 
some  minor  poems.  It  is  believed  that 
all  the  minor  poems  except  one  were 
written  by  Beaumont.  After  the  death 
of  Beaumont,  Fletcher  continued  to 
write  plays  alone  or  with  other  drama- 
tists. It  is  now  difficult,  if  not  indeed 
impossible,  to  determine  with  certainty 
the  respective  shares  of  the  two  poets 
in  the  plays  passing  under  their  names. 

BEAUMONT,  William,  an  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1785, 
died  1853.  He  was  the  first  to  publish 
the  digestive  power  of  the  stomach 
through  observations  made  on  the 
stomach  of  Alexis  St.  Martin,  an  open- 
ing into  which  had  been  made  by  a 
bullet  wound  which  never  healed. 
Beaumont’s  observations,  even  yet, 
are  regarded  as  authoritative. 

BEAUREGARD  (bo're-gard),  Peter 
Gustavus  Toutant,  a general  of  the  Con- 
federate troops  in  the  American  civil 
war;  born  in  1818  near  New  Orleans. 
He  studied  at  the  military  academy. 


P.  G.  T.  Beauregard. 


West  Point,  and  left  it  as  artillery 
lieutenant  in  1838.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  and  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  joined  the  Confederates. 
He  commanded  at  the  bombardment  of 
Fort  Sumter,  gained  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  lost  that  of  Shiloh,  assisted  in  the 
defense  of  Charleston,  and  aided  Lee  in 
that  of  Richmond.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  if  not  the  greatest 
of  Confederate  generals.  He  died  in  1893. 

BEAVER,  a rodent  quadruped,  about 
2 feet  in  length  exclusive  of  the  tail,  at 
one  time  common  in  the  northern 
regions  of  both  hemispheres,  but  now 
found  in  considerable  numbers  only  in 
North  America,  living  in  colonies,  but 
occurring  solitary  in  central  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  has  short  ears,  a blunt  nose, 
small  fore-feet,  large  webbed  hind-feet, 
with  a flat  ovate  tail  covered  with  scales 
on  its  upper  surface.  It  is  valued  for  its 
fur,  which  used  to  be  largely  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  hats,  but  for 
which  silk  is  now  for  the  most  part  sub- 
stituted, and  for  an  odoriferous  secre- 
tion named  castor,  at  one  time  in  high 
repute,  and  still  largely  used  in  some 
parts  of  the  wor  ci  as  an  anti-spasmodic 
medicine.  The  food  of  the  beaver  con- 
sists of  the  bark  of  trees,  leaves,  roots, 
and  berries.  Their  favorite  haunts  are 
rivers  and  lakes  which  are  bordered  by 
forests.  In  winter  they  live  in  houses, 
which  are  3 to  4 feet  high,  are  built  on 
the  water’s  edge,  and  being  substantial 


BEAVER  FALLS 


BEE 


structures  with  the  entrance  under 
water  afford  them  protection  from 
wolves  and  other  wild  animals.  These 
dwellings  are  called  beaver  “lodges,” 
and  accommodate  a single  family.  They 
also  live  in  burrows.  They  can  gnaw 


Beaver. 


through  large  trees  with  their  strong 
teeth,  this  being  done  partly  to  obtain 
food,  partly  to  get  materials  for  houses 
or  dam-building.  When  they  find  a 
stream  not  sufficiently  deep  for  their 
purpose  they  throw  across  it  a dam 
constructed  with  great  ingenuity  of  wood, 
stones,  and  mud. 

BEAVER  FALLS,  a town  in  Beaver 
Co.,  Pennsylvania,  31  miles  northwest  of 
Pittsburg;  on  the  Beaver  river,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  Ohio,  and  on  rail- 
roads of  the  Pennsylvania  and  Erie 
systems.  Pop.  12,000. 

BEBEL,  Ferdinand  August,  a German 
socialist,  born  at  Cologne  in  1840.  In 
1867  he,  as  a turner,  joined  in  the  labor 
agitation,  and  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  social  democratic  party  in  1869. 
He  was  imprisoned  (1872)  for  treason 
against  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  of 
Rse  majesti  against  the  emperor.  Since 
1871  he  has  been  a member  of  the  Ger- 
man Reichstag.  He  has  written  several 
widely  known  works  on  socialism. 

BECHUANAS,  BETCHUANAS  (bech- 
wan'az),  a widely  spread  race  of  people 
inhabiting  the  central  region  of  South 
Africa  north  of  Cape  Colony.  They  be- 
long to  the  great  Kaffir  stem,  and  are 
divided  into  tribal  sections.  They  live 
chiefly  by  husbandry  and  cattle  rearing, 
and  they  work  with  some  skill  in  iron, 
copper,  ivory,  and  skins.  They  were 
led  to  seek  British  protection  owing  to 
the  encroachments  of  the  Boers.  The 
southern  portion  of  their  territory  was 
first  placed  under  British  protection  in 
1885,  and  subsequently  the  whole 
Bechuana  country  up  to  the  Zambesi 
was  annexed.  In  1895  the  southern 
portion  (then  a crown  colony)  was 
united  to  the  Cape  Colony;  the  remain- 
der is  still  a protectorate  partly  under 
the  rule  of  native  chiefs.  The  area  is 
about  386,000  sq.  miles.  Bechuanaland 
lies  between  the  Transvaal  and  Matabele- 
land  on  the  east  and  the  German  terri- 
tory on  the  west.  It  is  generally  speak- 
ing flat  or  only  slightly  undulating,  and 
is  essentially  a grass  country,  all  the 
grasses  being  of  a substantial  and  nutri- 
tious quality  which  stands  well  against 
drought.  Surface  water  is  scarce,  but 
there  is  abundance  underground  which 
yet  may  be  turned  to  account.  Some 
parts  are  wooded  and  well  watered. 
G(4d,  coal,  and  copper  have  been 
found. 

BECK'ET,  Thomas  (the  form  d,  Beck- 
ct  is  also  common),  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, bom  in  London  1117  or  1119, 
assassinated  in  Canterbury  Cathedral, 


29th  Dec.,  1170.  In  1158  Henry  II. 
appointed  him  high-chancellor  and  pre- 
ceptor to  his  son.  Prince  Henry — the 
first  instance  after  the  Conquest  of  a 
high  office  being  filled  by  a native  Eng- 
lishman. At  this  period  he  was  a com- 
plete courtier,  conforming  in  every 
respect  to  the  humor  of  the  king.  He 
was,  in  fact,  the  king’s  prime  companion, 
held  splendid  levees,  and  courted  popu- 
lar applause.  On  the  death  of  Theobald, 
1162,  he  was  consecrated  archbishop, 
when  he  affected  an  extraordinary 
austerity  of  character,  and  appeared  as 
a zealous  champion  of  the  church  against 
the  aggressions  of  the  king,  whose  policy 
was  to  have  the  clergy  in  subordination 
to  the  civil  power.  Becket  was  forced 
to  assent  to  the  “Constitutions  of  Clar- 
endon,” but  a series  of  bitter  conflicts 
with  the  king  followed,  ending  in 
Becket’s  flight  to  France,  when  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  pope,  by  whom  he  was 
supported.  After  much  negotiation 
a sort  of  reconciliation  took  place  in 
1170,  and  Becket  returned  to  England, 
resumed  his  office,  and  renewed  his 
defiance  of  the  royal  authority.  A rash 
hint  from  the  king  induced  four  barons, 
Reginald  Fitz-Urse,  William  de  Tracy, 
Hugh  de  Morville,  and  Richard  Breto, 
to  go  to  Canterbury  and  murder  the 
archbishop  while  at  vespers  in  the  cathe- 
dral. He  was  canonized  in  1172,  and 
the  splendid  shrine  erected  at  Canter- 
bury for  his  remains  was,  for  three  cen- 
turies, a favorite  place  of  pilgrimage. 

BECQUEREL  (bek-rel),  Antoine 
C4sar,  French  physicist,  born  1788,  died 
1878.  • He  served  as  an  officer  of  engi- 
neers, and  retired  in  1815,  after  which 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  elec- 
tricity, especially  electro-chemistry.  He 
refuted  the  “theory  of  contact”  by 
which  Volta  explained  the  action  of  his 
pile  or  battery.  Becquerel  may  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  creators  of  electro- 
chemistry. 

BED,  BEDSTEAD,  an  article  of  furni- 
ture to  sleep  or  rest  on.  The  term  bed 
properly  is  apphed  to  a large  flat  bag 
filled  with  feathers,  down,  wool,  or  other 
soft  material,  and  also  to  a mattress 
supported  on  spiral  springs  or  form  of 
elastic  chains  or  wirework  which  is  raised 
from  the  ground  on  a bedstead.  The 
term,  however,  sometimes  includes  the 
bedstead  or  frame  for  supporting  the 
bed.  The  forms  of  beds  are  necessarily 
very  various — every  period  and  country 
having  its  own  form  of  bed.  Air-beds 
and  water-beds  are  much  used  by  in- 
valids. 

BED,  in  geol.,  a layer  or  stratum, 
usually  a stratum  of  considerable  thick- 
ness. 

BEDBUG.  See  Bug. 

BED'FORD,  a pari,  and  municip. 
borough,  England,  county  town  of 
Bedfordshire,  on  the  Ouse.  John  Bun- 
yan  was  born  at  Elstow,  a village  near 
the  town,  and  it  was  at  Bedford  that 
he  lived,  preached,  and  was  imprisoned. 
Bedford  sends  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. Pop.  35,144. — Bedfordshire,  or 
Beds,  the  county,  is  bounded  by  North- 
ampton, Bucks,  Herts,  Cambridge,  and 
Huntingdon;  area,  295,509  acres,  of 
which  260,000  are  under  tillage  or  in 
permanent  pasture.  Chalk  hills,  form- 
ing a portion  of  the  Chilterns,  cross  it  on 


the  6.;  ii.  of  this  is  a belt  of  sand.  Pop. 

171,249. 

BED'LAM,  a corruption  of  Bethlehem 
(Hospital),  the  name  of  a religious  house 
in  London,  converted,  after  the  general 
suppression  by  Henry  VIII.,  into  a hos- 
pital for  lunatics.  The  lunatics  were 
at  one  time  treated  as  little  better  than 
wild  beasts,  and  hence  Bedlam  came  to 
be  typical  of  any  scene  of  wild  confusion. 

BEDOUINS  (bed-u -enz'),  a Moham- 
medan people  of  Arab  race  inhabiting 
chiefly  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  North  Africa.  They  lead 
a nomadic  existence  in  tents,  huts, 
caverns,  and  ruins,  associating  in  fami- 
lies under  sheiks  or  in  tribes  under  emirs. 


Bedouin  Arabs. 


In  respect  of  occupation  they  are  only 
shepherds,  herdsmen,  and  horse-breed- 
ers, varying  the  monotony  of  pastoral 
life  by  raiding  on  each  other  and  plun- 
dering unprotected  travelers  whom 
they  consider  trespassers.  They  are 
ignorant  of  writing  and  bobks,  their 
knowledge  being  purely  traditional  and 
mainly  genealogical.  They  are  lax  in 
morals,  and  unreliable  even  in  respect 
of  the  code  of  honor  attributed  to  them 
in  poetry  and  fiction.  In  stature  they 
are  undersized,  and,  though  active,  they 
are  not  strong.  The  ordinary  dress  of 
the  men  is  a long  shirt  girt  at  the  loins, 
a black  or  red  and  yellow  handkerchief 
for  the  head,  and  sandals;  of  the  women, 
loose  drawers,  a long  shirt,  and  a large 
dark-blue  shawl  covering  the  head  and 
figure.  The  lance  is  the  favorite  weapon. 

BEDSTEAD.  See  Bed. 

BEE,  the  common  name  given  to  a 
large  family  of  winged  insects,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  common  hive 
or  honey  bee.  It  belongs  to  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  but  is 
now  naturalized  in  the  western.  A hive 
commonly  consists  of  one  mother  or 
queen,  from  600  to  800  males  or  drones, 
and  from  15,000  to  20,000  working  bees, 
formerly  termed  neuters,  but  now 
known  to  be  imperfectly  - developed 
females.  The  last-mentioned,  the  small- 
est, have  twelve  joints  to  their  antennae, 
and  six  abdominal  rings,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  a sting ; there  is,  on  the  out- 
side of  the  hind-legs,  a smooth  hollow, 
edged  with  hairs,  called  the  basket,  in 
wliich  the  kneaded  pollen  or  bee-bread, 
the  food  of  the  larvae,  is  stored  for  tranS' 
it.  The  queen  has  the  same  characteris- 
tics, but  is  of  larger  size,  especially  in  the 
abdomen;  she  has  also  a sting.  The 
males,  or  drones,  differ  from  both  the 


BEECH 


BEERSHEBA 


preceding  by  having  thirteen  joints  to 
the  antennae;  a rounded  head,  with 
larger  eyes,  elongated  and  united  at  the 
summit;  and  no  stings.  According  to 
Huber  the  working-bees  are  themselves 
divisible  into  two  classes;  one,  the 
cirieres,  devoted  to  the  collection  of  pro- 
visions, etc. ; the  other,  smaller  and 
more  delicate,  employed  exclusively 
within  the  hive  in  rearing  the  young. 
The  mouth  of  the  bee  is  adapted  for 
both  masticatory  and  suctorial  purposes, 
the  honey  being  conveyed  thence  to  the 
anterior  stomach  or  crop,  communicat- 
ing with  a second  stomach,  in  which 
alone  a digestive  process  can  be  traced. 
The  queen,  whose  sole  office  is  to  prop- 
agate the  species,  has  two  large  ovaries, 
consisting  of  a great  number  of  small 
cavities,  each  containing  sixteen  or 
seventeen  eggs.  The  inferior  half-cir- 
cles, except  the  first  and  last,  on  the 
abdomen  of  w’orking-bees,  have  each 
on  their  inner  surface  two  cavities, 
where  the  wax,  secreted  by  the  bee  from 
its  saccharine  food,  is  formed  in  layers, 
and  comes  out  from  between  the  ab- 
dominal rings.  Respiration  takes  place 
by  means  of  air-tubes  which  branch  out 
to  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  bee  being 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  an  impure  at- 
mosphere. Of  the  organs  of  sense  the 
most  important  are  the  antenna;,  depri- 
vation of  these  resulting  in  a species  of 
derangement.  The  majority  of  ento- 
mologists regard  their  function  as  in 
the  first  place  auditory,  but  they  are 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  tactual  im- 
pressions, and  are  apparently  the 
principal  means  of  mutual  commu- 
nication. Bees  undergo  perfect  meta- 
morphosis, the  young  appearing  first 
as  larvae,  then  changing  to  pupae, 
from  which  the  imagos  or  perfect 
insects  spring.  Whether  the  offspring 
are  to  be  female  or  male  is  said  to 
be  dependent  upon  the  contact  or 
absence  of  contact  of  the  egg  with  the 
impregnating  fluid  received  from  the 
male  and  stored  in  a special  sac  com- 
municating with  the  oviduct,  unfertil- 
ized eggs  producing  males.  The  further 
question  whether  the  offspring  shall  be 
queens  or  workers  is  resolved  by  the 
influence  of  environment  upon  function. 
The  enlargement  of  a cell  to  the  size  of  a 
royal  chamber  and  the  nourishment  of 
its  inmate  with  a special  kind  of  food 
appear  to  be  sufficient  to  transform  an 
ordinary  working-bee  larva  into  a fully- 
developed  female  or  queen-bee.  The 
season  of  fecundation  occurs  about  the 
beginning  of  summer,  and  the  laying 
begins  immediately  afterward,  and  con- 
tinues until  autumn ; in  the  spring  as 
many  as  12,000  eggs  may  be  laid  in 
twenty-four  days.  Those  laid  at  the 
commencement  of  fine  weather  all  be- 
long to  the  working  sort,  and  hatch  at 
the  end  of  four  days.  The  larvae  acquire 
their  perfect  state  in  about  twelve  days, 
and  the  cells  are  then  immediately  fitted 
up  for  the  reception  of  new  eggs.  The 
eggs  for  producing  males  are  laid  two 
months  later,  and  those  for  the  females 
immediately  afterward.  This  succession 
of  generations  forms  so  many  distinct 
communities,  which,  when  increased 
beyond  a certain  degree,  leave  the  par- 
ent hive  to  found  a new  colony  else- 
where. Thus  three  or  four  swarms 


sometimes  leave  a hive  in  a season. 
A good  swarm  is  said  to  weigh  at  least 
6 or  8 pounds.  See  Apiary. 

The  humble-bees,  or  bumble-bees,  of 
which  about  forty  species  are  found  in 
Britain  and  over  sixty  in  N.  America,  are 
almost  world-wide  in  their  distribution. 
Of  these  species  solitary  females  which 
have  survived  the  winter  commence 
constructing  small  nests  when  the 
weather  begins  to  be  warm  enough ; 
some  of  them  going  deep  into  the  earth 
in  dry  banks,  others  preferring  heaps  of 
stone  or  gravel,  and  others  choosing 
always  some  bed  of  dry  moss.  In  the 
nest  the  bee  collects  a mass  of  pollen 
and  in  this  lays  some  eggs.  The  cells 
in  these  nests  are  not  the  work  of  the 
old  bee,  but  are  formed  by  the  young 
insects  similarly  to  the  cocoons  of  silk- 
worms; and  when  the  perfect  insect  is 
released  from  them  by  the  old  bee, 
which  gnaws  off  their  tops,  they  are 
employed  as  honey-cups.  The  humble- 
bees,  however,  do  not  store  honey  for 
the  winter,  those  which  survive  till  the 
cold  weather  leaving  the  nest  and  pene- 
trating the  earth,  or  taking  up  some 
other  sheltered  position,  and  remaining 
there  till  the  spring.  The  first  brood 
consists  of  workers,  and  successive 
broods  are  produced  during  the  summer. 

BEECH,  the  common  name  of  trees 
well  known  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
The  wood  is  hard  and  brittle,  and  if  ex- 
posed to  the  air  liable  soon  to  decay.  It 
is,  however,  peculiarly  useful  to  cabinet- 
makers and  turners,  carpenters’  planes, 
furniture,  sabots,  etc.,  Being  made  of 
it;  and  it  is  durable  under  water  for 
piles  and  mill-sluices. 

BEECHER  (be'cher),  Henry  Ward, 
an  eminent  American  preacher,  born 
in  Connecticut  1813;  was  minister  at 
Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  1837,  and  of  Plym- 
outh Congregational  Church,  Brook- 


Henry  Ward  Beecher. 


lyn,  New  York,  in  1847.  The  latter 
pulpit  he  continued  to  occupy  till  his 
death  in  1887,  though  in  1882  he  ceased 
his  formal  connection  with  the  Congre- 
gationalists  on  the  ground  of  disbelief 
in  eternal  punishment.  From  1861  to 
1863  he  was  editor  of  the  Independent, 
and  for  about  ten  years  after  1870, 
of  the  Christian  Union.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  a considerable  number  of 
works,  of  which  his  Lectures  to  Young 
Men  (1850),  Life  Thoughts  (1858), 
Lectures  on  Preaching  (1872-74),  and 
the  weekly  issues  of  his  sermons,  com- 
manded wide  circulation.  Few  con- 
temporary preachers  appealed  to  as 
large  and  diverse  a public.  His  brothers 
Charles,  Edward,  and  Thomas  have  all 
distinguished  themselves  as  Congre- 


gational clergymen.  His  sister  Cathe- 
rine Esther  (born  1800,  died  1878)  did 
much  for  the  education  of  women,  and 
wrote  on  this  subject  and  on  domestic 
economy  and  kindred  subjects.  An- 
other sister  is  still  better  known  as  Mrs. 
Beecher-Stowe.  See  Stowe. 

BEEFSTEAK  CLUBS,  certain  noted 
clubs  of  London  in  the  18th  century, 
particularly  the  Sublime  Society  of 
Steaks,  founded  in  1735,  to  which 
belonged  Thornhill,  Hogarth,  Garrick, 
and  other  celebrities  of  the  day.  There 
is  a Beefsteak  Club  at  present  in  London. 
The  New  York  Beefsteak  Club  and  the 
Gridiron  Club  of  Washington  were 
founded  by  newspaper  and  periodical 
writers. 

BEEF  TEA,  a drink  made  from  an 
extract  of  beef,  formerly  believed  to  be 
quite  nutritious  but  no  longer  considered 
so.  It  is  made  by  placing  chopped  lean 
beef  in  a mason  jar,  closing  the  same, 
and  placing  the  jar  in  cold  water  which 
is  brought  to  boiling  and  kept  there 
until  the  meat  is  reduced  to  liquid. 
Beef  tea  is  sometimes  made  from  solid 
beef  extracts,  but  its  food  value  is 
problematical. 

BEE-KEEPING,  the  art  of  hiving 
honey  bees  and  securing  the  honey. 
The  bee  hive  to  be  successful  should 
be  located  in  a place  near  to  flowers  or 
clover;  glass,  wood,  and  straw  are  good 
materials  for  the  hive;  facilities  for  in- 
creasing the  space  should  be  regarded; 
care  should  be  taken  that/  the  swarm 
should  not  roam  away  and  be  lost; 
twenty  pounds  of  honey  should  be  left 
in  the  hive  for  the  winter  food  of  the 
bees,  although  ale  boiled  with  sugar 
is  a good  substitute.  In  removing  the 
honey  gloves  and  veils  should  be  worn 
as  protection  from  the  insects’  stings. 

BEER  MONEY.  A peculiar  payment 
to  non-commissioned  officers  and  sol- 
diers in  the  British  Army,  established 
in  the  year  1800,  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
Duke  of  York.  It  consisted  of  one 
penny  per  day  for  troops  when  on  home 
service,  as  a substitute  for  an  issue  of 
beer  and  spirits.  It  continued  as  an 
addition  to  the  daily  pay  until  1873, 
when,  the  stoppages  for  rations  having 
been  abolished,  the  opportunity  w'as 
taken  to  consolidate  beer  money  and 
pay  proper. 

BEELZEBUB  (be-el'ze-bub),  the  su- 
preme god  of  the  Syro-Phoenician 
peoples,  in  whose  honor  the  Philistines 
had  a temple  at  Ekron.  With  his  name 
may  be  compared  the  epithet  “averter 
of  flies”  applied  to  Zeus  and  later  to 
Hercules.  The  use  of  Beelzebul  in  the 
New  Testament  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  discussion,  some  asserting  it  to 
be  an  opprobrious  form  of  Beelzebub, 
meaning  the  ‘‘lord  of  dung,”  others 
translating  it  ‘‘lord  of  the  dwelling,” 
and  others  again  finding  in  the  change 
from  b to  1 only  a natural  linguistic 
modification. 

BEER.  See  Ale  and  Brewing. 

BEERSHE'BA,  the  place  where  Abra- 
ham made  a covenant  with  Abimelech, 
and  in  common  speech  representative 
of  the  southernmost  limit  of  Palestine, 
near  which  it  is  situated.  It  is  now  a 
mere  heap  of  ruins  near  two  large  and 
five  smaller  wells,  thoiigh  it  was  a place 
of  some  importance  down  to  the  period 
of  the  Crusades. 


BEESWAX 


BELGAUM 


BEESWAX,  a solid  fatty  substance 
secreted  by  bees,  and  containing  in  its 
purified  state  three  chemical  principles 
— myricin,  cerin,  and  cerolein.  It  is 
not  collected  from  plants,  but  elaborated 
from  saccharine  food  in  the  body  of  the 
bee.  It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  for  modeling,  and  in  many 
minor  processes. 

BEET,  a genus  of  plants,  distin- 
guished by  its  fruit  being  inclosed  in  a 
tough  woody  or  spongy  five-lobed 
enlarged  calyx.  Two  species  only  are 
known  in  general  cultivation,  namely, 
the  sea-beet  and  the  garden  beet.  The 
former  is  a tough-rooted  perennial, 
sometimes  cultivated  for  its  leaves, 
which  are  an  excellent  substitute  for 
spinach.  Of  the  garden  beet,  which 
differs  from  the  last  in  being  of  only 
biennial  duration  and  in  forming  a 
tender  fleshy  root,  two  principal  forms 
are  ‘known  to  cultivators,  the  chard  beet 
and  the  common  beet.  In  the  chard 
beet  the  roots  are  small,  white,  and 
rather  tough,  and  the  leaves  are  fur- 
nished with  a broad,  fleshy  midrib, 
employed  as  a vegetable  by  the  French, 
who  dress  the  ribs  like  sea-kale  under 
the  name  of  poiree.  The  common  beet 
includes  all  the  fleshy-rooted  varieties, 
such  as  red  beet  (with  a fleshy  large 
carrot-shaped  root),  yellow  beet,  sugar- 
beet,  mangel-wurzel,  etc.  For  garden 
urposes  the  best  is  the  red  beet.  The 
eet  requires  a rich  light  soil.  Red  beet 
is  principally  used  at  table,  but  if  eaten 
in  great  quantity  is  said  to  be  injurious. 
The  beet  may  be  taken  out  of  the  ground 
for  use  about  the  end  of  August,  but  it 
does  not  attain  its  full  size  and  perfec- 
tion till  the  month  of  October. 

BEET  SUGAR.  See  Sugar. 

BEETHOVEN  (ba'to-vn),  Ludwig  von, 
a great  German  musical  composer, 
born  at  Bonn,  16th  Dec.,  1770,  studied 
under  his  father  (a  tenor  singer), 
Pfeiffer,  Van  der  Eden,  and  Neefe; 


LiUdwig  von  Beethoven. 


began  to  publish  in  1783;  became  assist- 
ant court  organist  in  1785;  and  was  sent 
by  the  Elector  of  Cologne  to  Vienna  in 
1792,  where  he  was  the  pupil  of  Haydn 
and  Albrechtsberger,  and  acquired  a 
high  reputation  for  pianoforte  extem- 
porization before  the  merit  of  his 
written  compositions  was  fully  under- 
stood. In  or  near  Vienna  almost  all  his 
subsequent  life  was  spent,  his  artistic 
tour  in  North  Germany  in  1796  being 
the  most  important  break.  He  died 
March  27,  1827.  His  later  life  was 
rendered  somewhat  morbid  by  his  deaf- 
ness, of  which  the  first  signs  appeared 


in  1797.  He  had  the  head  of  Jove  on 
the  body  of  Bacchus,  and  there  was  in 
him  a strong  dash  of  what  in  a lesser 
man  would  be  termed  insanity,  with  an 
alternation  between  the  highest  eleva- 
tion of  genius  and  the  conduct  of  a fool 
or  buffoon.  His  best  works  were  pub- 
lished after  1800,  two  periods  being 
observable:  the  first  from  1800  to  1814, 
comprising  Symphonies  2-8;  the  opera 
Fidelio  (originally  Leonore),  the  music 
to  Goethe’s  Egmont,  and  the  overtures 
to  Prometheus,  Coriolanus,  King  Stephen 
and  Fidelio;  the  second  (in  which 
the  poetic  school  of  musicians  find 
the  germs  of  the  subsequent  devel- 
opment through  Schumann,  Wagner, 
and  Liszt)  comprising  the  9th  Sym- 

Ehony,  the  Missa  Solemnis,  and  the 
onatas  Op.  101,  102,  106,  109,  110, 
and  111. 

BEETLE,  a name  often  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  term  Coleoptera, 
but  restricted  by  others  to  include  all 
those  insects  that  have  their  wings  pro- 
tected by  hard  cases  or  sheaths,  called 
elytra.  Beetles  vary  in  size  from  a mere 
point  to  the  bulk  of  a man’s  fist,  the 
largest,  the  elephant  beetle  of  S.  Amer- 
ica, being  4 inches  long.  The  so-called 
“black  beetles’’  of  kitchens  and  cellars 
are  not  properly  beetles  at  all,  but  cock- 
roaches, and  of  the  order  Orthoptera. 

BEETLE-STONE,  a nodule  of  copro- 
litic  ironstone,  so  named  from  the 
resemblance  of  the  inclosed  coprolite 
to  the  body  and  limb  of  a beetle. 
BEET-ROOT.  See  Beet. 

BEGGARS.  See  Vagrants. 
BEGO'NIA,  an  extensive  genus  of 
succulent-stemmed  herbaceous  plants, 
order  Begoniacese,  with  fleshy  oblique 
leaves  of  various  colors,  and  showy 
unisexual  flowers,  the  whole  perianth 
colored.  They  readily  hybridize,  and 
many  fine  varieties  have  been  raised 
from  the  tuberous-rooted  kinds.  From 
the  shape  of  their  leaves  they  have  been 
called  elephant’s  ear.  Almost  all  the 
plants  of  the  order  are  tropical,  and 
they  have  mostly  pink  or  red  flowers. 

BEHAR',  a province  of  Hindustan,  in 
Bengal,  area  44,139  sq.  miles.  It  is  the 
most  densely  peopled  province  of  India; 
pop.  24,284,370.  Patna  is  the  capital. 

BEHEADING.  See  Capital  Punish- 
ment. 

BEHE'MOTH,  the  animal  described 
in  Job  xl.  The  description  is  most 
applicable  to  the  hippopotamus,  and  the 
word  seems  to  be  of  Egyptian  origin 
and  to  signify  “water-ox”;  but  it  has 
been  variously  asserted  to  be  the  ox, 
the  elephant,  the  crocodile,  etc. 
BEH'RING.  See  Bering. 

BELASCO,  David,  an  American  man- 
ager and  playwright,  born  in  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1862.  He  began  liis  career  as  a 
player  and  began  writing  soon  there- 
after, his  first  successful  venture  being 
Hearts  of  Oak.  While  manager  of  the 
Lyceum  Theater,  New  York,  he  wrote 
(with  Henry  C.  De  Mille)  The  Wife,  The 
Charity  Ball,  and  Lord  Chumley.  Other 
plays  to  which  he  has  contributed  are 
The  Girl  I Left  Behind  Me,  The  Heart 
of  Maryland,  Zaza,  May  Blossom,  Men 
and  Women,  La  Belle  Russe,  Val4rie, 
and  Du  Barry. 

BEL'EMNITE,  a name  for  straight, 
solid,  tapering,  dart  - shaped  fossils. 


popularly  known  as  arrow-heads,  thun- 
derbolts, finger-stones,  etc.,  but  in 
reality  the  internal  shell  or  skeleton  of  a 
molluscous  animal  allied  to  the  squid  or 
sepia,  and  the  type  of  an  extinct  family, 
Belemnitidae. 


Belemnites. 

1.  Belemnoteuthis  antique— ventral  side. 

2.  Belemnites  Owenii  (restored),  a,  Guard, 
c,  Phragmaoone.  n,  Muscular  tissue  of  man- 
tle. F,  Infundibulum,  i,  Uncinated  arms. 
K,  Tentacula.  n,  Ink-bag. 

3.  Belemnite— British  Museum. 

BELFAST',  a seaport  and  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Ireland 
(in  1888  declared  a city),  principal  town 
of  Ulster,  and  county  town  of  Antrim. 
Belfast  is  the  center  of  the  Irish  linen 
trade,  and  has  the  majority  of  spinning- 
mills  and  power-loom  factories  in  Ire- 
land. Previous  to  about  1830  the  cotton 
manufacture  was  the  leading  industry 
of  Belfast,  but  nearly  all  the  mills  have 
been  converted  to  flax-spinning.  The 
iron  ship-building  trade  is  also  of  im- 
portance, and  there  are  breweries,  dis- 
tilleries, flour-mills,  oil-mills,  foundries, 
print-works,  tan-yards,  chemical  works, 
rope-works,  etc.  The  commerce  is  large. 
An  extensive  direct  trade  is  carried  on 
with  British  North  America,  the  Medit- 
terranean,  France,  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  the  Baltic,  besides  the  regular 
traffic  with  the  principal  ports  of  the 
British  islands.  Belfast  is  compara- 
tively a modern  town,  its  prosperity 
dating  from  the  introduction  of  the 
cotton  trade  in  1777.  It  has  suffered 
severely  at  various  times  from  faction- 
fights  between  Catholics  and  Protes- 
tants, the  more  serious  having  been  in 
the  years  1864,  1872,  and  1886.  It 
returns  four  members  to  the  Imperial 
Parliament.  Pop.  348,965. 

BELFORT,  a small  fortified  town  and 
territory  of  France.  Belfort,  with  the 
district  immediately  surrounding  it, 
is  the  only  part  of  the  department  of 
Haut  Rhin  which  remained  to  France 
on  the  cession  of  Alsace  to  Germany. 
Pop.  of  territory,  91,765. 

BEL 'FRY,  a bell-tower  or  bell-turret. 
A bell-tower  may  be  attached  to  another 
building,  or  may  stand  apart  ; a bell- 
turret  usually  rises  above  the  roof  of  a 
building,  and  is  often  placed  above  the 
top  of  the  western  gable  of  a church. 
The  part  of  a tower  containing  a bell 
or  bells  is  also  called  a belfry. 

BELGAUM  (bel-ga'um),  a town  and 
fortress  in  Hindustan,  Bombay  Presi- 
dency, district  of  Belgaum,  on  a plain 


BELGIUM 


BELL 


2500  feet  above  the  sea-level.  In  1818 
the  fort  and  town  were  taken  by  the 
British,  and  from  its  healthful  situation 
selected  as  a permanent  military  station. 
Pop.  of  town  (including  the  canton- 
ment), 36,878.  The  area  of  the  district 
is  4657  sq.  miles,  with  a population  of 
1,013,261. 

BELGIUM  (bel'jum),  a European 
kingdom,  bounded  by  Holland,  the 
North  Sea  or  German  Ocean,  France, 
and  Germany;  greatest  length,  165 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  120  miles; 
area,  11,366  sq.  miles.  For  administra- 
tive purposes  it  is  divided  into  nine 
provinces  — Antwerp,  Brabant,  East 
Flanders,  West  Flanders,  Hainaut, 
Li6ge,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Na- 
mur; total  pop.  6,815,054.  Brabant,  the 
metropolitan  province,  occupies  the 
center.  The  capital  is  Brussels ; other 
chief  towns  are  Antwerp,  Ghent,  and 
Li4ge.  The  country  may  be  regarded 
roughly  as  an  inclined  plain,  falling 
away  in  height  from  the  southern  dis- 
trict of  the  Ardennes  until  in  the  n. 
and  w.  it  becomes  only  a few  feet  above 
sea-level. 

The  industrial  products  of  Belgium 
are  very  numerous,  and  are  mostly  of 
high  character.  The  chief  are  those 
connected  with  linen,  wool,  cotton, 
metal,  and  leather  goods.  In  respect  of 
manufactures  the  fine  linens  of  Flanders, 
and  lace  of  South  Brabant,  are  of  Euro- 
pean reputation.  Scarcely  less  cele- 
brated are  the  carpets  and  porcelain  of 
Tournay,  the  cloth  of  Verviers,  the 
extensive  foundries,  machine  - works, 
and  other  iron  establishments  of  Lidge. 
The  commerce  of  Belgium  is  large  and 
increasing.  Apart  from  the  value  of  her 
own  products,  she  is  admirably  situated 
for  the  transit  trade  of  central  Europe, 
to  which  her  fine  harbor  of  Antwerp  and 
excellent  railway  and  canal  system 
minister. 

The  Belgian  population  is  the  densest 
of  any  European  state  (539  per  square 
mile),  and  is  composed  of  two  distinct 
races — Flemish,  who  are  of  German, 
and  Walloons,  who  are  of  French  ex- 
traction. The  former,  by  far  the  more 
numerous,  have  their  principal  locality 
in  Flanders;  but  also  prevail  throughout 
Antwerp,  Limburg,  and  part  of  South 
Brabant.  The  latter  are  found  chiefly 
in  Hainaut,  Li6ge,  Namur,  and  part  of 
Luxemburg.  The  Flemings  speak  a 
dialect  of  German,  and  the  Walloons  a 
corruption  of  French,  with  a consider- 
able infusion  of  words  and  phrases  from 
Spanish  and  other  languages.  French 
is  the  official  and  literary  language, 
though  Flemish  is  also  successfully 
employed  in  literature.  Almost  the 
entire  population  is  Roman  Catholic, 
and  there  are  over  1500  convents,  with 
nearly  25,000  inmates.  Protestantism 
is  fully  tolerated,  but  cannot  count 
more  than  15,000  adherents.  Improved 
means  of  education  are  now  at  the  dis- 
osal  of  the  people,  every  commune 
eing  bound  to  maintain  at  least  one 
school  for  elementary  education,  the 
government  paying  one-sixth,  the  prov- 
ince one-sixth,  and  the  commune  the 
remainder  of  the  expenditure.  In  all 
the  large  towns  colleges  have  been  estab- 
lished; while  a complete  course  for  the 
learned  professions  is  provided  by  four 


universities,  two  of  them,  at  Ghent  and 
Lidge,  established  and  supported  by  the 
state;  one  at  Brussels,  the  Free  Uni- 
versity, founded  by  voluntary  associa- 
tion; and  one  at  Louvain,  the  Catholic 
University,  founded  by  the  clergy. 

By  the  Belgian  constitution  the  exec- 
utive power  is  vested  in  a hereditary 
king;  the  legislative,  in  the  king  and 
two  chambers — the  senate  and  the 
chamber  of  representatives — the  former 
elected  for  eight  years,  and  the  latter  for 
four,  but  one-half  renewable  respec- 
tively every  four  years  and  every  two 
years.  There  is  now  a system  of  pro- 
portional representation  both  for  the 
senate  and  the  chamber.  Representa- 
tives are  elected  on  the  principle  of  man- 
hood suffrage,  but  certain  property  or 
educational  qualifications  may  give  a 
voter  three  votes.  The  senators  are 
partly  elected  directly,  partly  indirectly 
by  provincial  councils.  Senators  must 
be  forty  years  of  age,  deputies  and 
electors  twenty-five.  The  army  is  raised 
partly  by  enlistment,  partly  by  the  ballot, 
to  which  every  man  who  has  completed 
his  nineteenth  year  is  liable.  The  peace 
strength  is  about  51 ,500  officers  and  men ; 
in  time  of  war,  163,000.  Besides  this 
standing  army,  there  is  a garde  civique 
numbering  40,000  partly  active,  partly 
non-active  men.  The  navy  is  confined 
to  a few  steamers  and  a small  flotilla  of 
gun-boats. 

The  territory  now  known  as  Belgium 
originally  formed  only  a section  of  that 
known  to  Caesar  as  the  territory  of  the 
Belgae,  extending  from  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine  to  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  and  to  the  ocean.  This  district 
continued  under  Roman  sway  till  the 
decline  of  the  empire;  subsequently 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Clovis; 
and  then  of  that  of  Charlemagne,  whose 
ancestors  belonged  to  Landen  and 
Herstal  on  the  confines  of  the  Ardennes. 
After  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne  Belgium  formed  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  Lotharingia  under 
"Charlemagne’s  grandson,  Lothaire;  Ar- 
tois and  Flanders,  however,  belonging 
to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun. 

For  centuries  this  kingdom  was  con- 
tended for  by  the  kings  of  France  and 
the  emperors  of  Germany.  In  1384 
Flanders  and  Artois  fell  to  the  house  of 
Burgundy,  which  in  less  than  a century 
acquired  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands. 

The  Seven  Years’  War  (1756-63)  did 
not  affect  Belgium,  and  in  that  period, 
and  during  the  peace  which  followed, 
she  regained  much  of  her  prosperity 
under  Maria  Theresa  and  Charles  of 
Lorraine. 

In  1815  Bel^um  was  united  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  to  Holland,  both 
countries  together  now  forming  one 
state,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 
This  union  lasted  till  1830,  when  a re- 
volt broke  out  among  the  Belgians,  and 
soon  attained  such  dimensions  that  the 
Dutch  troops  were  unable  to  repress  it. 

A convention  of  the  great  powers,  as- 
sembled in  London,  favored  the  separa- 
tion of  the  two  countries,  and  drew  up  a 
treaty  to  regulate  it;  the  National  Con- 
gress of  Belgium  offering  the  crown,  on 
the  recommendation  of  England,  to 
Leopold,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who 
acceded  to  it  under  the  title  of  Leopold 


I.,  on  July  21,  1831.  Leopold  II.  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1865.  In  recent 
years  the  chief  feature  of  Belgian  politics 
has  been  a keen  struggle  between  the 
clerical  and  the  liberal  party.  In  1893 
a bill  giving  an  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise was  passed.  Recent  years  have 
been  marked  by  socialistic  movements 
and  labor  troubles. 

BELGRADE  (bel-grad'),  capital  of 
Servia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube 
in  the  angle  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Save  with  that  river,  consists  of  the 
citadel  or  upper  town,  on  a rock  100 
feet  high;  and  the  lower  town,  which 
partly  surrounds  it.  Being  the  key  of 
Hungary,  it  was  long  an  object  of  fierce 
contention  between  the  Austrians  and 
the  Turks,  remaining,  however,  for  the 
most  part  in  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
until  its  evacuation  by  them  in  1867. 
Since  the  treaty  of  Berlin  (July,  1878) 
it  has  been  the  capital  of  an  independent 
state.  Pop.  69,097. 

BE'LIAL,  a word  which  by  the  trans- 
lators of  the  English  Bible  is  often  treated 
as  a proper  name,  as  in  the  expressions 
‘son  of  Belial,”  “man  of  Belial.”  In  the 
Old  Testament,  however,  it  ought  not 
to  be  taken  as  a proper  name,  but  it 
should  be  translated  “wickedness”  or 
“worthlessness.”  To  the  later  Jews 
Belial  seems  to  have  become  what 
Pluto  was  to  the  Greeks,  the  name  of 
the  ruler  of  the  infernal  regions;  and 
in  2 Cor.  vi.  15  it  seems  to  be  used  as  a 
name  of  Satan,  as  the  personification 
of  all  that  is  bad. 

BELISA'RIUS  (Slavonic,  Beli-tzar, 
White  Prince),  the  general  to  whom 
the  Emperor  Justinian  chiefly  owed 
the  splendor  of  his  reign;  born  in 
Illyria  about  505  a.d.  He  served  in  the 
body-guard  of  the  emperor,  soon  after 
obtained  the  chief  command  of  an  army 
on  the  Persian  frontiers,  and  in  530 
gained  a victory  over  a superior  Persian 
army.  The  next  year,  however,  he  lost 
a battle,  and  was  recalled.  In  the  year 
532  he  checked  the  disorders  in  Con- 
stantinople arising  from  the  Green  and 
Blue  factions;  and  was  then  sent  with 
15,000  men  to  Africa  to  recover  the 
territories  occupied  by  the  Vandals. 
He  took  Carthage  and  led  Gelimer,  the 
Vandal  king,  in  triumph  through 
Constantinople.  Dissensions  having 
arisen  in  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom,  he 
was  sent  to  Italy,  and  though  ill  sup- 
plied with  money  and  troops,  stormed 
Naples,  held  Rome  for  a year,  took 
Ravenna,  and  led  captive  Vitiges,  the 
Gothic  king.  He  died  in  565. 

BELL,  a hollow,  somewhat  cup- 
shaped sounding-instrument  of  metal. 
The  metal  from  which  bells  are  usually 
made  (by  founding)  is  an  alloy,  called 
bell-metal,  commonly  composed  of 
eighty  parts  of  copper  and  twenty  of 
tin.  The  proportion  of  tin  varies, 
however,  from  one-third  to  one-fifth  of 
the  weight  of  the  copper,  according  to 
the  sound  required,  the  size  of  the  bell, 
and  the  impulse  to  be  given.  The 
clearness  and  richness  of  the  tone  depend 
upon  the  metal  used,  the  perfection  of 
its  casting,  and  also  upon  its  shape;  it 
having  been  shown  by  a number  of 
experiments  that  the  well-known  shape 
with  a thick  lip  is  the  best  adapted  to 
give  a perfect  soimd.  The  depth  of 


BELL 


BELL-RINGING 


the  tone  of  a bell  increases  in  proportion 
to  its  size.  A bell  is  divided  into  the 
body  or  barrel,  the  ear  or  cannon,  and 
the  clapper  or  tongue.  The  lip  or 
sound-bow  is  that  part  where  the  bell 
is  struck  by  the  clapper.  Among  the 
more  famous  bells  are  the  bell  of 
Cologne,  11  tons,  1448;  of  Dantzic,  6 
tons,  1453;  of  Halberstadt,  7^,  1457; 
of  Rouen,  16, 1501 ; of  Breslau,  11, 1507 ; 
of  Lucerne,  7J,  1636;  of  Oxford,  7J, 
1680;  of  Paris,  12|,  1680;  of  Bruges, 
lOj,  1680;  of  Vienna,  17f,  1711;  of 
Moscow  (the  monarch  of  all  bells), 
193,  1736;  three  other  bells  at  Moscow 
ranging  from  16  to  31  tons,  and  a fourth 
of  80  tons  cast  in  1819;  the  bell  of 
Lincoln  (Great  Tom),  5J,  1834;  of 
York  Minster  (Great  Peter),  lOJ,  1845; 
of  Montreal,  13J,  1847;  of  Westminster 
(Big  Ben),  15J,  1856,  (St.  Stephen),  13i, 
1858;  the  Great  Bell  of  St.  Paul’s,  17J, 
1882.  Others  are  the  bells  of  Ghent 
(5),  Gorlitz  (lOf),  St.  Peter’s,  Rome  (8), 
Antwerp  (7^),  Olmutz  (18),  Sacred 
Heart,  Paris  (27),  Novgorod  (31),  Pekin 
(53i). 

Besides  their  use  in  churches  bells 
are  employed  for  various  purposes,  the 
most  common  use  being  to  summon 
attendants  or  domestics  in  private 
houses,  hotels,  etc. 

Bells,  as  the  term  is  used  on  ship- 
board, are  the  strokes  of  the  ship’s 
bell  that  proclaim  the  hours.  Eight 
bells,  the  highest  num,ber,  are  rung  at 
noon  and  every  fourth  hour  afterward, 
i.e.  at  4,  8,  12  o’clock,  and  so  on.  The 
intermediary  periods  are  indicated  thus: 
12:30,  one  bell;  1 o’clock,  2 bells;  1:30, 
3 bells,  etc.,  until  the  eight  bells  an- 
nounce 4 o’clock,  when  the  series 
recommences  4:30,  one  bell;  5 o’clock, 
two  bells,  etc.  The  even  numbers  of 
strokes  thus  always  announce  hours, 
the  odd  numbers  half-hours. 

BELL,  Alexander  Graham,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor,  born  at  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, in  1847,  and  educated  at  London 
university.  In  1870  he  came  to  Canada 
with  his  father  and  assisted  him  in  the 


instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
In  1872,  while  teaching  vocal  physiol- 
ogy in  Boston  University,  he  began 
the  experiments  that  led  up  to  the 
invention,  by  him,  of  the  Bell  tele- 
phone. His  claims  were  disputed  by 


other  inventors,  but  the  Supreme  court 
of  the  United  States  upheld  him  and  he 
has  since  that  time  enjoyed  a monopoly 
of  the  telephone  in  the  United  States. 
He  is  a member  of  numerous  learned 
societies  and  has  published  many  im- 
portant papers  on  phonetics  and  acous- 
tics. 

Mr.  Bell  has  visited  Europe  a number 
of  times,  and  has  been  received  with 
much  honor  by  foreign  societies  and  dis- 
tinguished individuals.  His  inventions, 
other  than  the  telephone,  have  been 
mainly  of  scientific  interest.  Personally, 
he  is  a most  courteous,  suave,  and  con- 
siderate man,  democratic  and  willing  to 
speak  freely  of  his  great  achievements. 

BELL,  Sir  Charles,  anatomist  and 
surgeon,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1774. 
In  1804  he  went  to  London,  and  soon 
distinguished  himself  as  a lecturer  on 
anatomy  and  surgery.  In  1814  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  the  Middlesex 
Hospital,  and  in  1821  he  communicated 
to  the  Royal  Society  a paper  on  the 
nervous  system,  containing  among 
other  things  the  important  discovery 
that  the  nerve-filaments  of  sensation 
are  distinct  from  those  of  motion.  It  at 
once  attracted  general  attention  and 
established  his  reputation.  He  died 
suddenly  in  1842. 

BELL,  Henry,  the  first  successful 
applier  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of 
navigation  in  Europe,  was  born  in 
Linlithgowshire  1767,  died  at  Helens- 
burgh 1830.  In  1798  he  turned  his 
attention  specially  to  the  steamboat, 
the  practicability  of  steam  navigation 
having  been  already  demonstrated. 
In  1812  the  Comet,  a small  thirty-ton 
vessel  built  at  Glasgow  under  Bell’s 
directions,  and  driven  by  a three  horse- 
power engine  made  by  himeslf,  com- 
menced to  ply  between  Glasgow  and 
Greenock,  and  continued  to  run  till  she 
was  wrecked  in  1820.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  steam  navigation  in 
Europe.  It  has  been  asserted  that 
Fulton,  who  started  a steamer  on  the 
Hudson  in  1807,  obtained  his  ideas 
from  Bell  in  the  previous  year.  Bell  is 
also  credited  with  the  invention  of  the 
“discharging  machine”  used  by  calico- 
printers.  A monument  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  at  Dunglass 
Point  on  the  Clyde. 

BELL,  John,  an  American  statesman, 
born  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1797,  died 
1869.  In  1860  he  was  nominated  for 
the  presidency  by  the  constitutional 
Union  party,  and  subsequently  took 
sides  with  the  Confederacy. 

BELLADON'NA,  or  deadly  night- 
shade. It  is  native  in  Britain.  All  parts 
of  the  plant  are  poisonous,  and  the  in- 
cautious eating  of  the  berries  has  often 
produced  death.  The  inspissated  juice 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
extract  of  belladonna.  It  is  narcotic 
and  poisonous,  but  is  of  great  value  in 
medicine,  especially  in  nervous  ailments. 
It  has  the  property  of  causing  the  pupil 
of  the  eye  to  dilate.  The  fruit  of  the 

Elant  is  a dark  brownish-black  shining 
erry.  The  name  signifies  “beautiful 
lady,”  and  is  said  to  have  been  given 
from  the  use  of  the  plant  as  a cosmetic. 

BELLAMY,  Edward,  an  American 
socialist,  author  of  Looking  Backward 
(1888),  and  Equality  (1897).  He  was 


born  at  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  in  1850, 
and  died  there  1898.  He  began  his 
career  as  a journalist.  The  publication 
of  Looking  Backward  familiarized  the 
American  people  with  the  central  doc- 
trine of  socialism,  and  attempt  was  made 
to  propogate  the  doctrine  by  means  of 
nationalist  clubs,  but  failed. 

BELLARY  (bel-a'ri),  a town  in  India, 
presidency  of  Madras,  capital  of  a dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  280  r^iles  north- 
west of  Madras ; a military  station,  with 
a fort  crowning  a lofty  rock,  and  other 
fortifications.  Pop.  (inch  cantonment) 
58,247. — The  district  was  ceded  to  the 
British  in  1800.  Area,  5975  square 
miles;  pop.  900,126. 

BELL,  BOOK,  AND  CANDLE,  a 
solemn  mode  of  excommunication  used 
in  the  R.  Cath.  Ch.  After  the  sentence 
was  read,  the  book  was  closed,  a lighted 
candle  thrown  to  the  ground,  and  a bell 
tolled  as  for  one  dead. 

BELL-CRANK,  in  machinery,  a rec- 
tangular lever  by  which  the  direction 
of  motion  is  changed  through  an  angle 
of  90°,  and  by  which  its  velocity-ratio 
and  range  may  be  altered  at  pleasure 
by  making  the  arms  of  different  lengths. 
It  is  much  employed  in  machinery,  and 
is  named  from  its  being  the  form  of 
crank  employed  in  changing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bell-wires  of  house-bells. 

BELLE-ISLE  (bel-il')i  ^ rocky  island, 
9 miles  long,  at  the  eastern  entrance  to 
the  Straits  of  Belle-Isle,  the  channel,  15 
miles  wide,  between  Newfoundland  and 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  Steamers  from 
Glasgow  and  Liverpool  to  Quebec  round 
the  north  of  Ireland  commonly  go  by 
this  channel  in  summer  as  being  the 
shortest  route. 

BELL-RINGING,  the  art  by  which 
large  bells  are  rung  so  as  to  produce 
pleasant  sounds,  successions  of  such 
sounds,  or  a vast  assemblage  of  simul- 
taneous sounds.  By  pulling  the  bell 
rope  to  different  lengths  a change  is 
made  in  the  sound,  depending  on  the 
swing  of  the  bell  and  the  force  with 
which  the  clapper  strikes  it.  Rope-ring- 
ing has  been  abandoned  in  the  great 
churches  in  the  United  States,  such  as 
St.  Patrick’s,  New  York,  and  other 
cathedrals.  These  bells  are  now  rung 
by  electricity,  but  the  effect  is  not  half 
so  stirring  as  by  the  old  method.  The 
art  made  rapid  progress,  and  rings  of 
bells  increased  from  five  or  six  to  ten 
or  twelve,  the  latter  being  the  greatest 
number  ever  rung  in  peal.  The  variety 
of  changes  increases  enormously  with 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  bells. 
Six  changes  can  be  rung  on  three  bells; 
on  four,  four  times  as  many;  and  so  on 
until  with  twelve  bells  the  enormous 
number  of  479,001,600  different  changes 
can  be  rung.  Bell-ringing  has  an  inter- 
esting system  of  nomenclature.  The 
simplest  peals  are  those  called  grand- 
sire  on  an  odd  number  of  bells,  and  bob 
on  an  even  number.  Changes  on  three 
bells  are  called  rounds ; on  four,  changes 
or  singles;  on  five,  doubles  or  grand- 
sires;  on  six,  bobs  minor;  on  seven, 
grandsire  triples;  on  eight,  bobs  major; 
on  nine,  grandsire  caters;  on  ten,  bobs 
royal;  on  eleven,  grandsire  cinques;  on 
twelve,  bobs  maximus.  A bell  is  set 
when  its  mouth  is  turned  upward;  at 
hand  stroke  when  set  up  so  far  that 


BELLES-LETTRES 


ben:^dict 


only  the  tuffing  or  sallic  is  held  by  the 
ringer ; at  back  stroke  when  rung  so  far 
round  that  the  end  of  the  rope  is  held. 
The  treble  bell  is  the  highest,  the  tenor 
the  lowest  of  a set.  Five  thousand 
changes  are  a peal ; any  smaller  number 
constitutes  a touch  or  flourish,  i.e.  a 
practice  rather  than  a performance. 

BELLES-LETTRES  (beldet-r),  polite 
or  elegant  literature:  a word  of  some- 
what vague  signification  Rhetoric, 
poetry,  fiction,  history,  and  criticism, 
with  the  languages  in  which  the  stand- 
ard works  in  these  departments  are 
written,  are  generally  understood  to 
come  under  the  head  of  belles-lettres. 

BELLEVILLE  (bel-viF),  a city  in 
Illinois,  county  seat  of  St.  Clair  Co.,  with 
important  manufactures,  and  a large 
rolling-mill.  Pop.  19,000. 

BELLEW,  Harold  Kyrle,  a British 
player,  born  in  England  in  1857.  He 
was  at  first  a sailor,  then  a journalist 
and  lecturer,  and  in  Australia  became 
an  actor.  His  success,  after  his  return 
to  England,  was  speedy.  In  1885  he 
first  came  to  America,  and  appeared  at 
Wallack’s,  New  York,  in  In  His  Power. 
Two  years  later  he  began  his  connection 
with  Mrs.  James  Brown  Potter.  To- 
gether they  played  Hero  and  Leander 
(written  by  Mr.  Bellew),  Charlotte  Cor- 
day,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  and  other 
plays.  He  has  several  times  visited 

BELLIG'ERENT,  a term  denoting 
that  a government  or  state  is  waging 
war.  Belligerency  is  a technical  term 
in  international  law  and  is  recognized 
by  other  states  when  the  belligerents 
have  proved  that  they  are  capable  of 
carrying  on  a war.  A community  need 
not  be  independent  to  be  recognized  as 
belligerent,  as  in  the  case  of  Cuba,  the 
American  colonies,  and  other  com- 
munities who  fought  for  and  won  their 
independence.  Belligerent  rights  are 
often  accorded  to  the  two  powers  at 
war,  as  in  the  case  of  the  American  civil 
war  when  the  United  States  and  the 
Confederacy  were  both  recognized  with 
prejudice  by  European  powers. 

BELLINI  (bel-e'ne),  Jacopo,  and  his 
two  sons,  Gentile  and  Giovanni,  the 
founders  of  the  Venetian  school  of  paint- 
ing. The  father  excelled  in  portraits, 
but  very  little  of  his  work  is  extant.  He 
died  about  1470.  Gentile  was  born  in 
1421,  and  in  1479  went  to  Constanti- 
nople, Mohammed  II,  having  sent  to 
Venice  for  a skilful  painter;  died  at 
Venice  in  1501.  Giovanni  was  born 
about  1424,  and  died  about  1516. 

BELLINI  (bel-e'ne),  Vincenzo,  a cele- 
brated composer,  born  at  Catania  in 
Sicily  in  1802,  died  1835.  His  most  cele- 
brated works  are  I Montecchi  e Capuleti 
(1829);  La  Sonnambula  (1831);  Norma, 
his  best  and  most  popular  opera;  and 
I Puritani  (1834). 

BEL'LOWS,  an  instrument  or  ma- 
chine for  producing  a strong  current  of 
air,  and  principally  used  for  blowing 
fires,  either  in  private  dwellings  or  in 
forges,  furnaces  mines,  etc.  It  is  so 
formed  as,  by  being  dilated  and  con- 
tracted, to  inhale  air  by  an  orifice  which 
is  opened  and  closed  with  a valve,  and 
to  propel  it  through  a tube  upon  the 
fire.  It  is  an  ancient  contrivance,  being 
known  in  Egypt,  India,  and  China  many 


ages  ago,  while  forms  of  it  are  used 
among  savage  tribes  in  Africa. 

BELLUNO  (bel-ld'no),  a city  of  north- 
ern Italy,  capital  of  a province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  Piave,  48  miles  north 
of  Venice.  Pop.  16,000. — The  province 
has  an  area  of  1271  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  195,419. 

BEL'MONT,  a village  in  Missouri, 
opposite  Columbus,  Ky.,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, noted  for  being  the  spot  where 
General  Ulysses  S.  Grant  won  his  first 
battle  in  the  American  civil  war. 
Grant’s  force  was  3000,  against  7000 
Confederates.  The  casualties  on  the 
Union  side  were  485,  Confederate  642. 

BELMONT,  August,  an  American 
capitalist,  born  1816  in  Germany,  died 
1890.  He  was  prominent  as  a banker, 
sportsman,  and  diplomatist. 

BELMONT,  Perry,  an  American  finan- 
cier and  politician,  son  of  August  Bel- 
mont. He  was  born  in  New  York  in 
1851,  was  democratic  member  of  con- 
gress 1881-87,  and  United  States  min- 
ister to  Spain  1887-88. 

BELOIT,  a city  in  Rock  Co.,  Wis.,  91 
miles  northwest  of  Chicago,  111.,  on 
Rock  river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  railroads.  Pop.  42,- 
000. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR,  the  last  of  the  Baby- 
lonian kings,  who  reigned  conjointly 
with  his  father  Nabonadius.  He  per- 
ished B.c.  538,  during  the  successful 
storming  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus.  This 
event  is  recorded  in  the  book  of  Daniel ; 
but  it  is  difficult  to  bring  the  particulars 
there  given  into  harmony  with  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions. 

BELT,  BELTING,  a flexible  endless 
band,  or  its  material,  used  to  transmit 
motion  or  power  from  one  wheel,  roller, 
or  pulley  to  another,  and  common  in 
various  kinds  of  machinery.  Driving 
belts  are  usually  made  of  leather  or 
india-rubber,  or  some  woven  material, 
but  ropes  and  chains  are  also  used  for 
the  same  purpose. 

BELT,  The  Great  and  Little,  two 
straits  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the 
Cattegat,  the  former  between  the  is- 
lands of  Zealand  and  Funen,  about  18 
miles  in  average  width;  the  latter  be- 
tween Funen  and  the  coast  of  Schleswig, 
at  its  narrowest  part  not  more  than  a 
mile  in  width. 

BELUGA  (be-l6'ga),  a kind  of  whale 
or  dolphin,  the  white  whale  or  white  fish, 
found  in  the  northern  seas  of  both 
hemispheres.  It  is  from  12  to  18  feet 
in  length,  and  is  pursued  for  its  oil 
(classed  as  “porpoise  oil”)  and  skin.  In 
swimming  the  animal  bends  its  tail 
under  its  body  like  a lobster,  and 
thrusts  itself  along  with  the  rapidity  of 
an  arrow.  A variety  of  sturgeon  found 
in  the  Caspian  and  Black  Sea  is  also 
called  beluga. 

BELZO'NI,  Giovanni  Battista  (John 
Baptist),  an  enterprising  traveler,  was 
born  at  Padua  in  1778,  and  died  near 
Benin  1823.  In  1803  he  emigrated  to 
England.  In  1815  he  visited  Egypt, 
where  he  made  a hydraulic  machine  for 
Mehemet  Ali.  He  then  devoted  himself 
to  the  exploration  of  the  antiquities  of 
the  country,  being  supplied  with  funds 
by  Mr.  Salt,  the  British  consul-general. 
IJe  succeeded  in  transporting  the  bust 


of  Memnon  (Rameses  II.)  from  Thebes 
to  Alexandria,  from  whence  it  came  to 
the  British  Museum;  explored  the  great 
temple  of  Rameses  II.  at  Abu-Simbel; 
opened  the  tomb  of  Seti  I.,  from  which 
he  obtained  the  splendid  alabaster 
sarcophagus  bought  by  Sir  John  Soane; 
and  he  also  succeeded  in  opening  the 
second  (King  Chephren’s)  of  the  pyra- 
mids of  Ghizeh.  He  afterward  visited 
the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  city  of 
Berenice,  Lake  Moeris,  the  Lesser  Oasis, 
etc.  The  narrative  of  his  discoveries 
and  excavations  in  Egypt  and  Nubia 
was  received  with  general  approbation. 
He  died  during  a projected  journey  to 
Timbuctoo. 

BEN,  a prepositive  syllable  signifying 
in  composition  “son  of,”  found  in  many 
Jewish  names,  as  Bendavid,  Benasser, 
etc. — Beni,  the  plural,  occurs  in  several 
modern  names  and  in  the  names  of 
many  Arabian  tribes. 

BENARES  (be-na'rez),  a town  in 
Hindustan,  in  the  United  Provinces, 
administrative  headquarters  of  a dis- 
trict and  division  of  the  same  name,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  from  which 
it  rises  like  an  amphitheater,  presenting  a 
splendid  panorama  of  temples,  mosques, 
palaces,  and  other  buildings  with  their 
domes,  minarets,  etc.  Fine  ghauts  lead 
down  to  the  river.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage  in  all 
India,  being  the  headquarters  of  the 
Hindu  religion.  The  principal  temple 
is  dedicated  to  Siva,  whose  sacred 
symbol  it  contains.  It  is  also  the  seat  of 
government  and  other  colleges,  and  of 
the  missions  of  various  societies.  Bena- 
res carries  on  a large  trade  in  the  prod- 
uce of  the  district  and  in  English  goods, 
and  manufactures  silks,  shawls,  em- 
broidered cloth,  jewelry,  etc.  The  pop- 
ulation, including  the  neighboring  can- 
tonments, at  Sikraul  (Secrole),  in  1901, 
was  209,331.  The  commissionership 
or  division  has  an  area  of  10,414  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  of  5,032,669,  of  whom 
76.53  per  cent  depend  on  agriculture. 
— The  district  has  an  area  of  1099  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  of  882,972. 

BENCH  WARRANT,  a warrant  for  the 
arrest  of  an  indicted  person,  issued  by  a 
court  of  record.  The  process,  in  most 
of  the  United  States,  is  regulated  by 
statute.  It  is  often  used  for  the  arrest 
of  persons  who  have  been  adjudged 
guilty  of  contempt. 

BENEDIC'ITE,  the  canticle  in  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  the  morning 
service,  also  called  the  Song  of  the  Three 
Holy  Children:  “O,  all  ye  works  of  tbe 
Lord,  bless  ye  the  Lord.”  It  comes 
from  the  Septuagint  version  of  Daniel. 

BEN'EDICT,  the  name  of  fourteen 
popes,  the  first  of  the  name  succeeding 
to  the  papal  chair  on  the  death  of  John 
III.  in  574.  The  first  deserving  of 
notice  is  Benedict  IX.,  who  succeeded 
John  XIX.  in  1033,  being  placed  on  the 
papal  throne  as  a boy  of  twelve  years. 
His  licentiousness  caused  him  to  be 
ignominiously  expelled  by  the  citizens, 
who  elected  Sylvester  III.  Six  months 
after  he  regained  the  ascendency,  and 
excommunicated  Sylvester;  but, finding 
the  general  detestation  too  strong  to 
permit  him  to  resume  his  chair,  sold  it 
to  John  Gratianus,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Gregory  VI.  There  was  thus  a. 


BENEDICT 


BENGAL 


trio  of  popes,  and  the  emperor,  Henry- 
Ill. , to  put  an  end  to  the  scandal,  de- 
posed all  the  three.  He  died  in  1054. — 
Benedict  XIII.,  a karned  and  -well- 
disposed  man,  originally  Cardinal  Orsini 
and  Archbishop  of  Benevento,  became 


efficacy  in  epidemics.  Made  in  the  same 
way  since  1510. 

BENEDICTINES,  members  of  the 
most  famous  and  widely-spread  of  all  the 
orders  of  monks,  founded  at  Monte 
Casino,  about  half-way  between  Rome 


Benares,  from  the  river. 


pope  in  1724.  He  bestowed  his  con- 
fidence on  Cardinal  Coscia,  who  was 
unworthy  of  it,  and  abused  it  in  gratify- 
ing his  avarice.  He  died  in  1730,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Clement  XII. — Bene- 
dict XIV.,  Prospero  Lambertini,  born 
at  Bologna  in  1675,  died  1758,  a man  of 
superior  talents,  passionately  fond  of 
learning,  of  historical  researches,  and 
monuments  of  art.  Benedict  XIII. 
made  him,  in  1727,  bishop  of  Ancona; 
in  1728  cardinal;  and  in  1732  archbishop 
of  Bologna.  In  every  station  he  ful- 
filled his  duties  with  the  most  consci- 
entious zeal.  He  succeeded  Clement 
XII.  in  1740,  and  showed  himself  a 
liberal  patron  of  literature  and  science. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  esteemed 
religious  works. 

BENEDICT,  St.,  the  founder  of  the 
first  religious  order  in  the  West;  born 
at  Nursia,  in  the  province  of  Umbria, 
Italy,  A.u.  480,  died  543.  In  early  youth 
he  renounced  the  world  and  passed  some 
years  in  solitude,  acquiring  a great  repu- 
tation for  sanctity.  His  Regula  Mon- 
achorum,  in  which  he  aimed,  among 
other  things,  at  repressing  the  irregular 
lives  of  the  wandering  monks,  gradually 
became  the  rule  of  all  the  western  monks. 
Under  his  rule  the  monks,  in  addition  to 
the  work  of  God  (as  he  called  prayer  and 
the  reading  of  religious  writings),  were 
employed  in  manual  labor,  in  the  in- 
struction of  the  young,  and  in  copying 
manuscripts,  thus  preserving  many 
literary  remains  of  antiquity.  See 
Benedictines. 

BENEDIC'TINE,  a liquor  prepared 
by  the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  abbey 
of  Fecamp,  in  Normandy,  consisting  of 
spirit  (fine  brandy)  containing  an  infu- 
sion of  the  juices  of  plants,  and  said  to 
possess  digestive,  antispasmodic,  and 
other  virtues,  and  to  have  prophylactic 


and  Naples,  in  529,  by  St.  Benedict. 
No  religious  order  has  been  so  remark- 
able for  extent,  wealth,  and  men  of  note 
and  learning  as  the  Benedictines. 
Among  the  branches  of  the  order  the 
chief  were  the  Cluniacs,  founded  in  910 
at  Clugny  in  Burgundy;  the  Cistercians, 
founded  in  1098,  and  reformed  by  St. 


Benedictine  monk. 


Bernard  in  116;  and  the  Carthusians 
from  the  Chartreuse,  founded  by  Bruno 
about  1080.  The  order  was  probably 
introduced  into  England  about  600  by 
St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury,  and  a 
great  many  abbeys,  and  all  the  cathe- 
dral priories  of  England,  save  Carlisle, 
belonged  to  it.  In  Britain  the  Benedic- 
tines were  called  Blackfriars,  from  the 
color  of  tlieir  habit,  which  consisted  of 
a loose  black  gown  with  large  wide 


sleeves,  and  a cowl  on  the  head  ending 
in  a point.  The  Benedictines  have  prO' 
duced  many  valuable  literary  works. 
The  fraternity  of  St.  Maur,  founded  in 
1618,  had  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  180  abbeys  and  priories  in 
France,  and  acquired  by  means  of  its 
learned  members,  such  as  Mabillon 
Montfaucon,  and  Mart^ne,  merited 
distinction.  They  published  the  eele- 
brated  chronological  work  L’Art  de 
Verifier  les  Dates,  and  edited  many 
ancient  authors. 

BENEDIC'TION,  the  ceremony  of  eall- 
ing  a divine  blessing  upon  an  individ- 
ual, a thing,  a place,  a community,  or  an 
undertaking.  Invoking  a blessing  is 
one  of  the  oldest  of  customs,  and  has 
been  practiced  by  pagans  as  well  as 
Christians.  The  pontifical  blessing  is  a 
special  benediction  given  by  the  pope 
of  Rome. 

BENEFIT  SOCIETIES,  organizations 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  a cheap, 
mutual  life  insurance,  to  pay  funeral 
expenses,  to  provide  for  old  age,  or 
other  beneficent  end.  Many  labor 
unions  have  benefit  funds  which  are 
applied  to  members  during  illness  or 
other  specified  incapacity.  These  organ- 
izations are  more  numerous  in  the  United 
States  than  elsewhere,  and  are  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  prosperity. 

BENEVEN'TO,  a city  of  southern 
Italy,  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  in  a 
province  of  same  name,  on  a hill  be- 
tween the  rivers  Sabato  and  Calore,  oc- 
cupying the  site  of  the  ancient  Beneven- 
tum,  and  largely  built  of  its  ruins.  Few 
cities  have  so  many  remains  of  antiq- 
uity, the  most  perfect  being  a magnifi- 
cent triumphal  arch  of  Trajan,  built  in 
114.  The  cathedral  is  a building  of  the 
12th  century  in  the  Lombard-Saracenic 
style.  Pop.  21,631. — The  province  has 
an  area  of  680  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of 
238,425. 

BENEV'OLENCES,  a means  of  raising 
money  by  forced  loans  or  contributions, 
first  adopted  by  Edward  IV.,  and  em- 
ployed frequently  down  to  the  time  of 
James  I. 

BENGAL  (ben-gal'),  a name  formerly 
given  to  one  of  the  three  “presidencies” 
of  British  India  which  included  the 
whole  of  British  India  except  what  was 
under  the  governors  of  Madras  and 
Bombay.  Latterly  in  this  sense  the 
term  had  no  administrative  meaning 
except  as  regards  the  army.  By  Bengal 
is  now  usually  understood  the  Lieu- 
tenant-governorship  of  Bengal,  the 
most  important  of  the  local  govern- 
ments of  British  India.  It  comprises  the 
united  deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahma- 
putra, and  stretches  north  to  Nepaul 
and  Sikkim,  west  to  the  United  Prov- 
inces, east  to  Assam,  and  south  to  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  The  divisions  of  which 
it  is  made  up  are  the  Presidency  (Cal- 
cutta, etc.),  Dacca,  Chittagong,  Raje- 
shahye,  Bhaugulpore,  Patna,  Burdwan, 
Chota  Nagpur,  and  Orissa;  total  area, 
151,185  sq.  miles;  pop.  74,744,866.  The 
feudatory  states  connected  with  it  have 
an  aggregate  area  of  38,652  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  3,748,544. 

As  a whole  Bengal  consists  of  plains, 
there  being  few  remarkable  elevations, 
though  it  is  surrounded  with  lofty  - 
mountains.  It  is  intersected  in  all  di- 


BENGAL,  BAY  OP 


BENZOIN 


rections  by  rivers,  mostly  tributaries  of 
its  two  great  rivers  the  Ganges  and 
Brahmaputra,  which  annually,  in  June 
and  July,  inundate  a large  part  of  the 
region.  These  annual  inundations  ren- 
der the  soil  extremely  fertile,  but  in 
those  tracts  where  this  advantage  is 
not  enjoyed  the  soil  is  thin,  seldom 
exceeding  a few  inches  in  depth. 

The  climate  is  variable,  the  heat 
being  often  extreme  and  great  humidity 
prevailing  The  seasons  are  called  hot 
(March  to  June),  rainy  (June  to  Octo- 
ber), and  cold  (the  remainder  of  the 
year).  In  eastern  Bengal  there  is  an 
annual  fall  of  100  inches  of  rain.  Prod- 
ucts are  rice,  fruits,  indigo,  opium, 
sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  jute,  tea,  and 
cinchona.  Forests  abound.  Wild  ani- 
mals of  numerous  variety  are  found 
in  them.  The  minerals  are  iron,  coal, 
and  salt.  Manufactures,  cotton  piece 
goods,  jute,  and  silk.  The  people  of 
Bengal  are  principally  Hindus  and 
Burmese.  Hinduism  and  Mohammedan- 
ism are  the  religions. 

The  first  of  the  East  India  Company’s 
settlements  in  Bengal  were  made  early 
in  the  17th  century.  The  rise  of  Cal- 
cutta dates  from  the  end  of  the  same 
century.  The  greater  part  of  Bengal 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  East  India 
Company  in  consequence  of  Clive’s  vic- 
tory at  Plassy  in  1757,  and  was  formerly 
ceded  to  the  Company  by  the  Nabob  of 
Bengal  in  1765.  Chittagong  had  pre- 
viously been  ceded  b^  the  same  prince, 
but  its  government  under  British  ad- 
ministration was  not  organized  till 
1824.  Orissa  came  into  British  hands 
in  1803.  In  1858  the  country  passed  to 
the  crown,  and  since  then  the  history 
of  Bengal  has  been,  on  the  whole,  one 
of  steady  and  peaceful  progress. 

BENGAL,  BAY  OF,  that  portion  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  which  lies  between  Hin- 
dustan and  Farther  India,  or  Burmah, 
Siam,  and  Malacca,  and  may  be  re- 
garded as  extending  south  to  Ceylon 
and  Sumatra.  It  receives  the  Ganges, 
Brahmaputra,  and  Irrawadi.  Calcutta, 
Rangoon,  and  Madras  are  the  most 
important  towns  on  or  near  its  coasts. 

BENGA'LI,  one  of  the  vernacular  lan- 
guages of  India,  spoken  by  about  50,- 
000,000  people  in  Bengal,  akin  to  San- 
skrit and  written  in  characters  that  are 
evidently  modified  from  the  Devanflgari 
(Sanskrit).  Its  use  as  a literary  lan- 
guage began  in  the  14th  century  with 
poetry.  Large  numbers  of  Bengali 
books  are  now  published,  as  also  news- 
papers. A large  number  of  words  are 
borrowed  from  Sanskrit  literature. 

BENGUELA  (ben-ga'la),  a district 
belonging  to  the  Portuguese  on  the  w. 
coast  of  South  Africa;  area,  perhaps 
150,000  sq.  miles.  The  country  is 
mountainous  in  the  interior,  and  thickly 
intersected  by  rivers  and  streams.  Its 
vegetation  is  luxuriant,  including  every 
description  of  tropical  produce,  and 
animal  life  is  equally  abundant.  Copper, 
silver,  iron,  salt,  sulphur,  petroleum, 
and  other  minerals  are  found.  The 
natives  are  mostly  rude  and  barbaroui. 
Pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000. 

BENJAMIN,  Judah  Pnilip,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  born  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1811,  died  1884.  He  was  educated 
at  Yale,  was,  in  1840,  a member  of  the 


law  firm  of  Slidell,  Benjamin,  and  Con- 
rad, at  New  Orleans.  He  became 
famous  for  his  ability  as  a lawyer,  and 
declined  a seat  on  the  United  States 
Supreme  bench.  From  1852  to  1861  he 
was  United  States  senator  from  New 
Orleans,  but  in  the  latter  year  resigned 
to  join  with  the  confederacy,  becoming 
attorney-general,  secretary  of  war,  and 
secretary  of  state  in  President  Davis’s 
cabinet.  After  the  war  he  fled  to  Eng- 
land and  was  called  to  the  English  bar 
in  1866,  and  soon  acquired  a great 
reputation  and  a very  large  practice. 
He  was  known  as  “the  brains  of  the 
Confederacy.” 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  an  American  law- 
yer and  authority  on  patents.  He  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1849,  entered  the 
navy,  resigned  in  1869,  studied  law, 
and  was  associate  editor  of  The  Scientific 
American  from  1872  to  1878.  Since  that 
time  he  has  practiced  law  and  written 
numerous  sketches  and  books  on 
scientific  and  pseudo-scientific  subjects. 

BEN'NETT,  James  Gordon,  an  Amer- 
ican journalist,  born  in  Banffshire, 
Scotland,  1795,  and  educated  at  Aber- 
deen. He  emigrated  to  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1819  as  a teacher,  and  went 
thence  to  Boston  as  a proof-reader. 
In  1822  he  went  to  New  York,  and, 
after  being  connected  with  various 
papers,  started  the  New  York  Herald 
in  1835.  By  his  enterprise  and  not  very 
scrupulous  conduct  of  the  journal  it 
speedily  became  an  enormous  success, 
its  yearly  profit  at  his  death  being 
estimated  at  from  a half  to  three-quar- 
ters of  a million  dollars.  It  was  the  first 
paper  which  published  a daily  money 
article  and  stock  lists.  The  expedition 
of  Stanley  to  Africa  in  1871  in  search  of 
Livingstone  was  projected  and  supported 
by  Bennett,  who,  however,  died  in  the 
following  year. 

BENT,  Silas,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  at  St.  Louis  in  1820,  died  in 
1889.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1836  and 
served  25  years  as  hydrographer  and 
meteorologist.  He  took  part  in  the 
Seminole  war  and  was  captain  under 
Commodore  Perry  in  Japanese  waters. 
He  was  the  first  to  describe  the  Pacific 

BENTHAM  (ben'tham),  Jeremy,  a 
distinguished  writer  on  politics  and 
jurisprudence,  born  at  London  in  1749; 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford; 
entered  Lincoln’s  Inn  1763.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not  pratice, 
and,  having  private  means,  devoted  him- 
self to  the  reform  of  civil  and  criminal 
legislation.  A criticism  on  a passage 
in  Blackstone’s  Commentaries,  pub- 
lished under  the  title  A Fragment  on 
Government,  1776,  brought  him  into 
notice;  and  it  was  followed  by  a long 
list  of  works,  of  which  the  more  impor- 
tant were:  The  Hard  Labour  Bill,  1778; 
Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation, 
1780;  A Defence  of  Usury,  1787;  Intro- 
duction to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation,  1789;  Discourses  on  Civil 
and  Penal  Legislation,  1802;  Treatise 
on  Judicial  Evidence,  1813;  Paper 
relative  to  Codification  and  Public  In- 
struction, 1817;  and  the  Book  of  Falla- 
cies, 1824.  His  mind,  though  at  once 
subtle  and  comprehensive,  was  char- 
acterized by  something  of  the  Coleridg- 


ean  defect  in  respect  of  method  and 
sense  of  proportion ; and  he  is,  therefore, 
seen  at  his  best  in  works  that  underwent 
revision  at  the  hands  of  his  disciples. 
Of  these  M.  Dumont,  by  his  excellent 
French  translations  and  rearrangements, 
secured  for  Bentham  at  an  early  date  a 
European  reputation  and  influence,  and 
his  editions  are  still  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. In  England  James  Mill,  Romilly, 
John  Stuart  Mill,  Burton,  and  others  of 
independent  genius,  have  been  among 
his  exponents.  In  ethics  he  must  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  modern 
utilitarianism;  in  polity  and  criminal 
law  he  anticipated  or  suggested  many 
practical  reforms;  and  his  whole  influ- 
ence was  stimulating  and  humanizing. 

BENT'LEY,  Richard,  an  English 
classical  scholar  and  critic,  born  1662, 
died  1742.  He  was  noted  as  a contro- 
versialist, and  his  Dissertation  on  the 
Epistles  of  Phalaris  is  a great  classic 
in  controversial  style. 

BENTON,  James  Gilchrist,  an  Ameri- 
can inventor  and  soldier,  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1820,  died  1881.  He 
graduated  from  West  Point  and  entered 
the  army  in  1842.  In  1853  he  per- 
fected a gun-carriage  for  seacoast  serv- 
ice, and  during  the  civil  war  had 
charge  of  arsenals.  He  invented  many 
devices  for  the  perfection  of  firearms, 
the  Springfield  rifle  being  chiefly  of  his 
invention. 

BENTON,  Thomas  Hart,  an  American 
statesman,  author  of  Thirty  Years’ 
View  (of  the  United  States  senate).  He 
was  born  in  North  Carolina  in  1782, 
and  in  1815  settled  at  St.  Louis  and 
established  The  Missouri  Inquirer.  He 
fought  several  duels,  killing  one  man, 
and  in  1820  was  chosen  United  States 
senator.  He  opposed  the  United 
States  Bank,  favored  election  of  the 
President  by  direct  popular  vote,  and 
generally  allied  himself  with  the  West. 
Senator  Benton  was  an  advocate  of 
abolition.  He  died  in  1858 

BEN'ZINE,  a liquid  hydrocarbon 
obtained  from  coal-tar  and  petroleum. 
It  may  also  be  got  by  distilling  1 part  of 
crystallized  benzoic  acid  intimately 
mixed  with  3 parts  of  slaked  lime.  It 
is  quite  colorless,  of  a peculiar,  ethereal, 
agreeable  odor,  is  used  by  manufacturers 
of  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha,  on 
account  of  its  great  solvent  powers,  in 
the  preparation  of  varnishes,  and  for 
cleaning  gloves,  removing  grease-spots 
from  woolen  and  other  cloths,  etc.,  on 
account  of  its  dissolving  fats  and  resins. 
It  is  highly  inflammable. 

BENZOTC  ACID,  a vegetable  acid  ob- 
tained from  benzoin  and  other  resins 
and  balsams,  as  those  of  Peru  and  Tolu. 
It  forms  light  feathery  needles;  taste 
pungent  and  bitterish;  odor  slightly 
Ai'oms.t'ic 

BENZOIC  ETHER,  a colorless  oily 
liquid,  with  a feeble  aromatic  smell  and 
a pungent  aromatic  taste,  obtained  by 
distilling  together  4 parts  alcohol,  2 of 
crystallized  benzoic  acid,  and  1 of  con- 
centrated hydrochloric  acid. 

BEN' ZOIN(“  Javanese  incense”), a solid, 
brittle,  vegetable  substance,  the  concrete 
resinous  juice  flowing  from  incisions  in 
the  stem  or  branches  of  a tree  70  or  80 
feet  high.  In  commerce  several  varie- 
ties are  distinguished,  of  which  the  yel- 


BERANGER 


BERIBERI 


low,  the  Siam,  the  amygdaloidal — the 
last  containing  whitish  tears  of  an  al- 
mond shape — and  Sumatra  firsts  are  the 
finest.  It  is  Imported  from  Siam,  Sin- 
gapore, Bombay,  and  occasionally  from 


Calcutta;  it  is  found  also  in  South  Amer- 
ica. The  pure  benzoin  consists  of  two 
principal  substances,  viz.,  a resin,  and 
an  acid  termed  benzoic.  It  has  little 
taste,  but  its  smell  is  fragrant  when 
rubbed  or  heated,  and  it  is  used  as  in- 
cense in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  in  which  form  it  is 
used  as  a cosmetic  and  in  pharmacy. 
Benzoin  may  be  produced  by  the  con- 
tact of  alkalies  with  the  commercial  oil 
of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  also  known  as 
benjamin,  or  gum  benjamin. 

BERANGER  (ba-ran-zha),  Pierre  Jean 
de,  French  lyric  poet,  born  in  Paris  19th 
August,  1780.  Reduced  to  extremity, 
he  applied  in  1804  to  Lucien  Bonaparte 
for  assistance,  and  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing from  him,  first,  a pension  of  1000 
francs,  and  five  years  later  a university 
clerkship.  Although  as  yet  unprinted, 
many  of  his  songs  had  become  extremely 
popular,  and  in  1815  the  first  collection 
of  them  was  published.  A second  col- 
lection, published  in  1821,  made  him 
obnoxious  to  the  Bourbon  government, 
and  in  addition  to  being  dismissed 
from  his  office  in  the  university  he  was 


B6rauger. 


sentenced  to  three  months’  imprison- 
ment and  a fine  of  500  francs.  A 
third  collection  appeared  in  1825,  and 
in  1828  a fourth,  which  subjected  him 
to  a second  state  prosecution,  an  im- 
prisonment of  nine  months,  and  a fine 
of  10,000  francs.  In  1833  he  published 
his  fifth  and  last  collection,  thereafter 
remaining  silent  till  his  death.  Shortly 
after  the  revolution  of  February,  1848, 
he  was  elected  representative  of  the 
department  of  the  Seine  in  the  con- 
stituent assembly,  but  sent  in  his  resig- 
nation in  the  month  of  May  of  same 
year.  He  died  at  Paris  on  July  16,  1857. 


BERAR',  otherwise  known  as  the 
Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts,  a prov- 
ince of  India,  in  the  Deccan,  under  the 
British  resident  at  Haidarabad;  area, 
17,711  sq.  miles,  consisting  chiefly  of  an 
elevated  valley  at  the  head  of  a chain  of 
ghauts.  It  is  watered  by  several  afflu- 
ents of  the  Godavari  and  by  the  Tapti, 
and  has  a fertile  soil,  producing  some  of 
the  best  cotton,  millet,  and  wheat  crops 
in  India.  The  two  principal  towns  of 
Berar  are  Amr^oti  (pop.  39,511)  and 
Khamgaon  (12,390).  Coal  and  iron  ore 
are  both  found  in  the  province,  the  pop. 
of  which  is  2,754,016.  Exports,  $17,281,- 
740;  imports,  $10,504,515.  Berar  was 
assigned  by  the  Nizam  to  the  British 
government  in  1853  in  security  of  ar- 
rears due. 

BER'BERS,  a people  spread  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  northern  Africa, 
from  whom  the  name  Barbary  is  de- 
rived. The  chief  branches  into  which 
the  Berbers  are  divided  are,  first,  the 
Amazirgh  or  Amazigh,  of  northern 
Morocco,  numbering  from  2,000,000  to 
2,500,000.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
quite  independent  of  the  Sultan  of 
Morocco,  Second,  the  Shuluh,  Shillooh, 


Bergen,  from 

or  Shellakah,  who  number  about  1,450,- 
000,  and  inhabit  the  south  of  Morocco. 
They  are  more  highly  civilized  than  the 
Amazirgh.  Third,  the  Kabyles  in  Al- 
geria and  Tunis,  who  are  said  to  number 
960,000  souls;  and  fourth,  the  Berbers 
of  the  Sahara,  who  inhabit  the  oases. 
Among  the  Sahara  Berbers  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  Beni-Mz&b  and  the 
Tuaregs.  To  these  we  may  also  add  the 
Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands,  now 
extinct,  but  undoubtedly  of  the  same 
race.  The  Berbers  generally  are  about 
the  middle  height;  their  complexion  is 
brown,  and  sometimes  almost  black, 
with  brown  and  glossy  hair.  They  are 
sparely  built,  but  robust  and  graceful; 
the  features  approach  the  European 
type.  Their  language  has  affinities  to 
the  Semitic  group,  but  Arabic  is  spoken 
along  the  coast.  They  are  believed  to 
represent  the  ancient  Mauritanians, 
Numidians,  Gfetulians,  etc.  The  Ber- 
bers live  in  huts  or  houses,  and  practice 
various  industries. 

BER'DITCHEF,  a city  of  European 
Russia,  gov.  of  Kiev,  with  broad  streets, 
well-built  houses,  numerous  industrial 
establishirtents,  and  a very  large  trade. 


having  largely-attended  fairs.  Pop. 
78,287,  including  many  Jews. 

BERENICE  (ber-e-ni'se),  the  name  of 
several  distinguished  women  of  antiq- 
uity; in  particular  the  wife  of  Ptolemy 
Euerggtes,  king  of  Egypt.  When  her 
husband  went  to  war  in  Syria  she  made 
a vow  to  devote  her  beautiful  hair  to  the 
gods  if  he  returned  safe.  She  accord- 
ingly hung  it  in  the  temple  of  Venus, 
from  which  it  disappeared,  and  was 
said  to  have  been  transferred  to  the 
skies  as  the  constellation  Coma  Bere- 
nices. Also  the  wife  of  Mithridates  the 
Great,  king  of  Pontus;  put  to  death  by 
her  husband  (about  71  b.c.)  lest  she 
should  fall  into  the  hands  of  Lucullus. 

BER'GAMO,  a town  of  North  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bergamo 
(1028  sq.  miles,  390,775  inhabitants), 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  old  town 
situated  on  hills  and  having  quite  an 
ancient  appearance,  and  the  new  town 
almost  detached  and  on  the  plain. 

BER'GAMOT,  a fruit-tree,  a variety 
or  species  of  the  genus  Citrus,  variously 
classed  with  the  orange.  Citrus  Auran- 
tium,  the  lime.  Citrus  Limetta,  or  made 
a distinct  species  as  Citrus  Bergamia. 


the  northwest. 

It  is  probably  of  eastern  origin,  though 
now  grown  in  southern  Europe,  and  bears 
a pale-yeUow  pear-shaped  fruit  with  a 
fragrant  and  slightly  acid  pulp.  Its 
essential  oil  is  in  high  esteem  as  a per- 
fume.— Bergamot  is  also  a name  given 
to  a number  of  different  pears. 

BERGEN  (ber'gen),  a seaport  on  the 
w.  coast  of  Norway,  the  second  town 
of  the  kingdom,  about  25  miles  from  the 
open  sea,  on  a bay  of  the  Byfiord,  which 
forms  a safe  harbor,  shut  in  by  hills 
which  encircle  the  town  on  the  land  side, 
and  promote  perpetual  rains.  The  trade 
is  large,  timber,  tar,  train-oil,  cod-liver 
oil,  hides,  and  particularly  dried  fish 
(stock-fish)  being  exported  in  return  for 
corn,  wine,  brandy,  coffee,  cotton, 
woolens,  and  sugar.  Pop.  72,179. 

BERGH,  Henry,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist, founder  of  the  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children, 
and  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals.  He  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1820,  and  died  there  in 
1888. 

BER'IBERI,  a disease  endemic  in 
parts  of  India,  Ceylon,  etc.,  character- 
ized by  paralysis,  numbness,  difficult 


BERING 


BERLIN 


breathing,  arid  often  other  symptoms, 
attacking  strangers  as  well  as  natives, 
and  generally  fatal. 

BERING,  or  BEHRING  (ba'ring), 
Vitus,  a famous  navigator,  born  in  1680 
at  Horsens,  Jutland.  The  courage  dis- 
played by  him  as  captain  in  the  navy  of 
Peter  the  Great  during  the  Swedish  wars 
led  to  his  being  chosen  to  command  a 
voyage  of  discovery  in  the  Sea  of 
Kamtchatka.  In  1728  and  subse- 
quently he  examined  the  coasts  of 
Kamtchatka,  Okhotsk,  and  the  north 
of  Siberia,  ascertaining  the  relation  be- 
tween the  northeastern  Asiatic  and 
northwestern  American  coasts.  Re- 
turning from  America  in  1741,  he  was 
wrecked  upon  the  desert  island  of 
Awatska  (Bering’s  Island),  and  died 

BERING’S  STRAIT,  SEA,  and  IS- 
LAND. The  strait  is  the  channel 
separating  the  continents  of  Asia  and 
America,  and  connecting  the  North 
Pacific  with  the  Arctic  Ocean;  breadth 
at  the  narrowest  part,  between  Cape 
Prinee  of  Wales  and  East  Cape,  about 
36  miles;  depth  in  the  middle,  from  29 
to  30  fathoms.  It  is  frozen  in  winter, 
and  seldom  free  from  fog  or  haze. 
Though  named  after  Vitus  Bering,  it 
was  only  fully  explored  by  Cook  in 
1778. — Bering’s  Sea,  sometimes  called 
the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka,  is  that  portion 
of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  lying  be- 
tween the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Be- 
ring’s Strait. — Bering’s  Island,  the  most 
westerly  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  off  the 
east  coast  of  Kamtchatka.  It  is  unin- 
habited, and  is  without  wood. 

Bering  Sea  and  its  fisheries  have  been 
the  occasion  of  a long  dispute  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  be- 
cause of  the  seal  poaching  of  unlicensed 
Canadian  fishers.  Seals  are  abundant 
in  these  waters,  and  the  fisheries  have 
been  leased  by  the  United  States  to 
the  North  American  Commercial  Com- 
pany, a limit  of  100,000  being  placed  on 
the  annual  catch,  and  $10  a hide  royalty 
being  paid  to  the  government.  Cana- 
dian fishing  schooners  have  frequently 
been  seized  by  American  war  vessels. 
Protests  from  Britain  followed  and  a 
court  of  arbitration  met  in  1893  at 
Paris  to  settle  the  dispute.  Restric- 
tions were  agreed  to,  but  the  agreement 
was  without  effect.  In  1897  the  Ber- 
ing Sea  seal  treaty  was  signed,  which 
will  do  much  to  prevent  the  slaughter 
of  the  seals. 

BERKELEY  (berk'li)  a city  in 
Alameda  Co.,  Cal.,  5 miles  north  of 
Oakland,  the  county  seat;  on  the  Cali- 
fornia and  Nevada  and  the  Southern 
Pacific  railroads.  Pop.  15,000. 

BERKELEY  (berk'li).  Dr.  George, 
Bishop  of  Cloyne  in  Ireland,  celebrated 
for  his  ideal  theory.  He  maintains  that 
the  belief  in  the  existence  of  an  exterior 
material  world  is  false  and  inconsistent 
with  itself ; that  those  things  which  are 
called  sensible  material  objects  are  not 
external  but  exist  in  the  mind,  and  are 
merely  impressions  made  on  our  minds 
by  the  immediate  act  of  God,  accotding 
to  certain  rules  termed  laws  of  nature, 
from  which  he  never  deviates;  and  that 
the  steady  adherence  of  the  Supreme 
Spirit  to  these  rules  is  what  constitutes 
the  reality  of  things  to  his  creatures, 


and  so  effectually  distinguishes  the 
ideas  perceived  by  sense  from  such  as 
are  the  work  of  the  mind  itself  or  of 
dreams,  that  there  is  no  more  danger 
of  confounding  them  together  on  this 
hypothesis  than  on  that  of  the  existence 
of  matter.  He  was  born  in  1685,  died 
1753. 

BERK'HAMPSTEAD,  Great,  a town 
in  England,  Hertfordshire,  with  manu- 
factures of  straw-plait  and  wooden 
ware.  Birthplace  of  Cowper.  Pop.  5219. 

BERKSHIRE,  or  BERKS,  a county 
of  England,  between  Oxfordshire,  Buck- 
inghamshire, Surrey,  Hampshire,  and 
Wilts;  area,  450,132  acres,  of  which 
eight-ninths  are  cultivated  or  under 
timber.  A range  of  chalk  hills,  entering 
from  Oxfordshire,  crosses  Berkshire  in  a 
westerly  direction.  The  western  and 
central  parts  are  the  most  productive 
in  the  county,  which  contains  rich 
pasturage  and  excellent  dairy  farms, 
and  is  especially  suited  for  barley  and 
wheat  crops.  The  Thames  skirts  the 
county  on  the  north,  and  connects  the 
towns  of  Abingdon,  Wallingford,  Read- 
ing, Henley,  Maidenhead,  and  Windsor 
with  the  metropolis.  Pop.  254,931. 

BERLIN',  the  largest  town  in  Ger- 
many; capital  of  the  Prussian  domin- 
ions and  of  the  German  Empire,  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg.  It  has  water 
communication  to  the  North  Sea  by  the 


Spree,  which  flows  into  the  Havel,  a 
tributary  of  the  Elbe,  and  to  the  Baltic 
by  canals  connecting  with  the  Oder.  Of 
the  numerous  bridges,  the  finest  is  the 
Castle  (Schloss)  Bridge,  104  feet  wide, 
and  having  eight  piers  surmounted  by  co- 
lossal groups  of  sculpture  in  marble.  The 
principal  and  most  frequented  street, 
Unter  den  Linden  (“under  the  lime- 
trees”),  is  about  two-thirds  of  a mile  in 
length  and  160  feet  wide,  the  center 
being  occupied  by  a double  avenue  of 
lime-trees.  At  the  e.  end  of  this  street, 
and  round  the  Lustgarten,  a square  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  the  Schloss 
Bridge,  are  clustered  the  principal  pub- 
lic buildings  of  the  city,  such  as  the 
royal  palace,  the  palace  of  the  crown- 
prince,  the  arsenal,  the  university,  the , 


museums,  royal  academy,  etc.)  while  at 
the  w.  end  is  the  Brandenburg  Gate,  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  finest  portals  in 
existence.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  modern  monuments  is  that  erected 
in  1851  to  Frederick  the  Great  in  the 
Unter  den  Linden.  The  literary  institu- 
tions of  the  city  are  numerous  and  ex- 
cellent; they  include  the  university, 
having  an  educational  staff  of  nearly 
360  professors  and  teachers,  and  at- 
tended by  over  5000  students,  exclusive 
of  5000  others  who  do  not  matriculate; 
the  academy  of  sciences;  the  academy 
of  fine  arts;  and  the  technical  high 
school  or  academy  of  architecture  and 
industry.  The  oldest  parts  of  the  city 
were  originally  poor  villages,  and  first 
rose  to  some  importance  under  Mark- 
graf  Albert  (1206-20),  yet  about  two 
centuries  ago  Berlin  was  still  a place  of 
little  consequence,  the  first  important 
improvement  being  made  by  the  great 
Elector  Frederick  William,  who  planted 
the  Unter  den  Linden,  and  in  whose 
time  it  already  numbered  20,000  in- 
habitants. Under  his  successors  Fred- 
erick I.  and  Frederick  the  Great  the 
city  was  rapidly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved, the  population  increasing  five- 
fold in  the  hundred  years  preeeding 
the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  and 
tenfold  in  the  century  succeeding  it. 
Pop.  1,884,151. 


Treaty  of  Berlin,  the  treaty,  signed 
13th  July,  1878,  at  the  close  of  the 
Berlin  Congress,  which  was  consti- 
tuted by  the  representatives  of  the  six 
great  powers  and  Turkey.  The  treaty 
of  San  Stefano  previously  concluded  be- 
tween Turkey  and  Russia  was  modified 
by  the  Berlin  treaty,  which  resulted  in 
the  division  of  Bulgaria  into  two  parts, 
Bulgaria  proper  and  Eastern  Roumelia, 
the  cession  of  parts  of  Armenia  to  Russia 
and  Persia,  the  independence  of  Ru- 
mania, Servia,  and  Montenegro,  the 
transference  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
to  Austrian  administration,  and  the 
retrocession  of  Bessarabia  to  Russia. 
Greece  was  also  to  have  an  accession  of 
territory.  The  British  representatives 
were  Beaconsfield,  Salisbury,  and  Lord 


Berlin— Royal  theater  and  new  church  In  the  Gensdarmenmarkt. 


BERMUDA  GRASS 


BERNINI 


Odo  Russell.  By  a separate  arrange- 
ment previously  made  between  Britain 
I and  Turkey  the  former  got  Cyprus  to 
administer. 

BERMU'DA  GRASS,  a grass  cul- 
tivated in  the  West  Indies,  United 
States,  etc.,  a valuable  fodder  grass  in 
warm  climates. 

BERMU'DAS,  or  SOMERS  ISLANDS, 

a cluster  of  small  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  belonging  to  Britain,  and  num- 
bering about  400,  set  within  a space  of 
about  20  miles  long  and  6 wide;  area, 
20  sq.  miles  or  12,000  acres;  18  or  20 
only  inhabited.  They  were  first  dis- 
covered by  Juan  Bermudez,  a Spaniard, 
in  1522;  in  1609  Sir  George  Somers,  an 
Englishman,  was  wrecked  here,  and, 
after  his  shipwreck,  formed  the  first 
settlement.  The  most  considerable  are 
St.  George,  Bermuda  or  Long  Island 
(with  the  chief  town  Hamilton,  the  seat 
of  the  governor),  Somerset,  St.  David’s, 
and  Ireland.  They  form  an  important 
British  naval  and  military  station.  An 
immense  iron  floating-dock,  capable  of 
receiving  a vessel  of  3000  tons,  was 
towed  from  London  to  the  Bermudas 
in  1868.  The  climate  is  generally 
healthful  and  delightful,  but  they  have 
been  sometimes  visited  by  yellow  fever. 
Numbers  of  persons  from  the  U.  States 
and  Canada  now  pass  the  colder  months 
of  the  year  in  these  islands.  About 
4000  acres  are  cultivated.  The  military 
stationed  here  usually  number  about 
1500.  Pop.  17,535. 

BERN,  a town  in  Switzerland,  capital 
of  the  canton  Bern,  and,  since  1848, 
of  the  whole  Swiss  Confederation. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
great  Gothic  cathedral,  built  between 
1421  and  1502;  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Spirit;  the  federal-council  buildings 
(or  parliament  house),  commanding  a 
splendid  view  of  the  Alps;  the  univer- 
sity; the  town-house,  a Gothic  edifice 
of  the  15th  century;  the  mint;  several 
fine  bridges;  etc.  It  has  an  excellent 
public  and  other  libraries,  museum, 
etc.  Bern  became  a free  city  of  the 
empire  in  1218.  In  1353  it  entered  the 
Swiss  Confederacy.  Pop.  63,994. — The 
canton  of  Bern  has  an  area  of  2660  sq. 
miles.  The  northern  part  belongs  to  the 
Jura  mountain  system,  the  southern  to 
the  Alps;  between  these  being  an 
elevated  undulating  region  where  is 
situated  the  Emmenthal,  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  fertile  valleys  in  Swit- 
zerland. The  southern  part  of  the  can- 
ton forms  the  Bernese  Oberland  (Upper- 
land).  The  lower  valleys  here  are  fertile 
and  agreeable;  higher  up  are  excellent 
Alpine  pastures ; and  above  them  rise  the 
highest  mountains  of  Switzerland  (Fin- 
steraarhorn,  Schreckhorn,  Wetterhorn, 
Eiger,  and  Jungfrau).  The  canton  is 
drained  by  the  Aar  and  its  tributaries; 
the  chief  lakes  are  those  of  Brienz, 
Thun,  and  Bienne.  Of  the  surface  over 
58  per  cent  is  under  cultivation  or 
pasture.  Agriculture  and  cattle-raising 
arc  the  chief  occui)ations;  manufactures 
embrace  linen,  cotton,  silk,  iron,  watches, 
glass,  pottery,  etc.  Bienne  and  Thun 
are  the  chief  towns  after  Bern.  Pop. 
(1900),  586,918,  87  per  cent  being 
Protestants,  and  nearly  as  many  Ger- 
man-speaking. 


BERNADOTTE  (ber-na-dot),  Jean- 
Bap  tiste-Jules,  a French  general,  after- 
ward raised  to  the  Swedish  throne,  was 
the  son  of  an  advocate  of  Pau;  born  in 
1764.  In  1798  he  married  Mademoiselle 
Clary,  sister-in-law  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. The  following  year  he  became 
for  a short  time  minister  of  war,  and 
on  the  establishment  of  the  empire  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  marshal  of 
I’ ranee,  and  the  title  of  Prince  of  Ponte- 
Corvo.  On  the  death  of  the  Prince  of 
Holstein-Augustenburg  the  heir  appar- 
ency to  the  Swedish  crown  was  offered 
to  the  Prince  of  Ponte-Corvo,  who 
accepted  with  the  consent  of  the  em- 
peror, went  to  Sweden,  abjured  Catholi- 
cism, and  took  the  title  of  Prince  Charles 
John.  In  the  maintenance  of  the 
interests  of  Sweden  a serious  rupture 
occurred  between  him  and  Bonaparte, 
followed  by  his  accession  in  1812  to 
the  coalition  of  sovereigns  against 
Napoleon.  At  the  battle  of  Leipzig  he 
contributed  effectually  to  the  victory 
of  the  allies.  At  the  close  of  the  w’ar 
strenuous  attempts  were  made  by  the 
Emperor  of  Austria  and  other  sover- 
eigns to  restore  the  family  of  Gustavus 
IV.  to  the  crown;  but  Bernadotte, 
retaining  his  position  as  crown-prince, 
became  King  of  Sweden  on  the  death 
of  Charles  XIII.  in  1818,  under  the  title 
of  Charles  XIV.  During  his  reign 
agriculture  and  commerce  made  great 
advances,  and  many  important  public 
works  were  completed.  He  died  8th 
March,  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Oscar. 

BER'NARD,  Great  St.,  a celebrated 
Alpine  pass  in  Switzerland,  canton 
Valais,  on  the  mountain-road  leading 
from  Martigny  in  Switzerland  to  Aosta 
in  Piedmont,  and  rising  to  a height  of 
8150  feet.  On  the  e.  side  of  the  pass  is 
Mount  Velan,  and  on  the  w.  the  Pointe 
de  Dronaz.  Almost  on  the  very  crest  of 
the  pass,  near  a small  lake  on  which  ice 
sometimes  remains  throughout  the  year, 
is  the  famous  Hospice,  next  to  Etna 
Observatory  the  highest  inhabited  spot 
in  Europe.  It  is  a massive  stone  build- 
ing, capable  of  accommodating  seventy 
or  eighty  travelers  with  beds,  and  of 
sheltering  300,  and  is  tenanted  by  ten 
or  fifteen  brethren  of  the  order  of  St. 
Augustine,  who  have  devoted  them- 
selves by  vow  to  the  aid  of  travelers 
crossing  the  mountains.  The  institution 
is  chiefly  supported  by  subscriptions 
and  donations.  The  severest  cold 
recorded  is  29°  below  zero  Fah.,  but  it 
has  often  been  18°  and  20°  below  zero; 
and  few  of  the  monks  survive  the  period 
of  their  vow.  The  dogs  kept  at  St. 
Bernard,  to  assist  the  brethren  in  their 
humane  labors,  are  well  known.  The 
true  St.  Bernard  dog  was  a variety  by 
itself,  but  this  is  now  extinct,  though 
there  are  still  descendants  of  the  last 
St.  Bernard  crossed  with  a Swiss 
shepherd’s  dog.  The  color  of  these  is 
yellowish,  or  white  with  yellow-gray 
or  brown  spots;  head  large  and  broad, 
muzzle  short,  lips  somewhat  pendulous, 
hanging  ears.  A pagan  temple  formerly 
stood  on  the  pass,  and  classic  remains 
are  found  in  the  vicinity.  The  hospice 
was  founded  in  962  by  St.  Bernard  of 
Menthon,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  for  the 
benefit  of  pilgrims  to  Rome.  In  May, 


1800,  Napoleon  led  an  army  of  30,000 
men,  with  its  artillery  and  cavalry,  into 
Italy  by  this  pass. 

BERNARD,  Little  St.,  a mountain, 
Italy,  belonging  to  the  Graian  Alps, 
about  10  miles  s.  of  Mont  Blanc.  The 
pass  across  it,  one  of  the  easiest  in  the 
Alps  is  supposed  to  be  that  which  Han- 
nibal used.  Elevation  of  Hospice,  7192 
feet. 

BER'NARD,  Saint,  of  Clairvaux,  one 
of  the  most  influential  ecclesiastics  of 
the  middle  ages,  born  at  Fontaines, 
Burgundy,  1091,  of  a noble  family.  His 
austerities,  tact,  courage,  and  eloquence 
speedily  gave  him  a wide  reputation; 
and  when,  on  the  death  of  Honorius  III. 
(1130),  two  popes.  Innocent  and  Ana- 
clete,  were  elected,  the  judgment  of 
Bernard  in  favor  of  the  former  was  ac- 
cepted by  nearly  all  Europe.  In  1140 
he  secured  the  condemnation  of  Abelard 
for  heresy;  and  after  the  election  of 
his  pupil,  Eugenius  III.,  to  the  papal 
chair,  he  may  be  said  to  have  exer- 
cised supreme  power  in  the  church. 
He  died  Aug.  20,  1153.  Seventy-two 
monasteries  owed  their  foundation  or 
enlargement  to  him;  and  he  left  no 
fewer  than  440  epistles,  340  sermons, 
and  12  theological  and  moral  treatises. 
He  was  canonized  in  1174. 

BER'NARDINE  MONKS,  a name  given 
in  France  to  the  Cistercians,  after  St. 
Bernard.  See  Cistercians. 

BERNESE  ALPS,  the  portion  of  the 
Alps  which  forms  tJie  northern  side  of 
the  Rhone  Valley,  and  extends  from  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  to  that  of  Brienz,  com- 
prising the  Finsteraarhorn,  Schreck- 
horn, Jungfrau,  Monk,  etc. 

BERNHARDT  (ber-nar),  Rosine  Sara, 
a French  actress,  born  at  Paris  1844. 
Of  Jewish  descent,  her  father  French, 
her  mother  Dutch,  her  early  life  was 
spent  largely  in  Amsterdam.  In  1858 
she  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire  and 
gained  prizes  for  tragedy  and  comedy 
in  1861  and  1862;  but  her  d4but  at  the 
Th^fltre  Frangais  in  Iphig^nie  and 
Scribe’s  Valerie  was  not  a success.  After 
a brief  retirem^t  she  reappeared  at  the 
Gymnase  and  the  Porte  Saint-Martin 
in  burlesque,  and  in  1867  at  the  Od^on 
in  higher  drama.  Her  success  in  Hugo’s 
Ruy  Bias  led  to  her  being  recalled  to 
the  Th^&tre  Frangais,  since  which  she 
has  abundantly  proved  her  dramatic 
genius.  In  1879  she  visited  London, 
and  again  in  1880,  about  which  time  she 
severed  connection  with  the  Comedie 
Frangaise  under  heavy  penalty.  In 
1882  she  married  M.  Damala,  a Greek. 
Her  tours  both  in  Europe  and  America 
have  as  yet  never  failed  to  be  successful, 
despite  a somewhat  painful  eccentricity. 
She  has  several  times  visited  the  United. 
States. 

BERNICIA,  an  ancient  Anglian  king- 
dom stretching  from  the  Firth  of  ForU). 
to  the  Tees,  and  extending  inland  to  the^ 
borders  of  Strathclyde.  Is  was  unitedi 
with  Deira,  and  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Northumbria. 

BERNICLE  GOOSE.  See  Barnacle 
Goos6. 

BERNINI  (ber-ne'ne),  Giovanni  Lo- 
renzo, Italian  painter,  sculptor,  and 
architect,  born  1598.  His  marble  group, 
Apollo  and  Daphne,  secured  him  fame 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  and  he  was  em- 


BERRY 


BETTING 


ployed  by  Urban  VIII.  to  prepare  plans 
for  the  embellishment  of  the  Basilica 
of  St.  Peter’s.  He  declined  Mazarin’s 
invitation  to  France  in  1644.  After  his 
return  to  Rome  he  was  charged  with  the 
decoration  of  the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo, 
the  tomb  of  Alexander  VII.,  etc.  He 
died  in  1680. 

BERRY,  a succulent  fruit,  in  which 
the  seeds  are  immersed  in  a pulpy  mass 
inclosed  by  a thin  skin.  The  name  is 
usually  given  to  fruits  in  which  the  calyx 
is  adherent  to  the  ovary  and  the  pla- 
centas are  parietal,  the  seeds  finally 
separating  from  the  placenta  and  lying 
loose  in  the  pulp.  The  term,  however, 
is  frequently  used  to  include  fruits  in 
which  the  ovary  is  free  and  the  placentas 
central,  as  the  grape.  Popularly  it  is 
applied  to  fruits  like  the  strawberry, 
bearing  external  seeds  on  a pulpy  recep- 
tacle, but  not  strictly  berries. 

BERSERK'ER,  a Scandinavian  name 
for  warriors  who  fought  in  a sort  of 
frenzy  or  reckless  fury,  dashing  them- 
selves on  the  enemy  in  the  most  regard- 
less manner.  The  name  is  probably 
derived  from  the  bear-sark  or  bearskin 
shirt  worn  by  early  warriors. 

BERTHIER  (bert-ya),  Alexander, 
prince  of  Neufch3,tel  and  Wagram, 
marshal,  vice-constable  of  France,  etc.; 
born  1753.  In  all  Napoleon’s  expedi- 
tions he  was  one  of  his  closest  com- 
panions, on  several  occasions  rendering 
valuable  services,  as  at  Wagram  in 
1809,  when  he  gained  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Wagram.  He  left  a son,  Alexander 
(b.  1810,  d.  1887),  one  of  the  most 
zealous  adherents  of  Napoleon  III. 

BERTHOLLET  (ber-to-la),  Claude 
Louis,  Count,  an  eminent  French  chem- 
ist, born  1748;  studied  medicine;  be- 
came connected  with  Lavoisier;  w'as 
admitted  in  1780  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  at  Paris.  His  chief 
chemical  discoveries  were  connected 
with  the  analysis  of  ammonia,  the  use 
of  chlorine  in  bleaching,  the  artificial 
production  of  niter,  etc.  He  died  in 
Paris  1822. 

BERTILLON  SYSTEM,  a method  of 
identifying  individuals,  originated  by 
Dr.  Alphonse  Bertillon  of  Paris  in  1885, 
and  widely  used  by  the  police  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  criminal,  when 
captured,  is  carefully  measured  as 
follows;  height,  outstretched  arms, 
finger  tips  to  finger  tips,  trunk  (height 
sitting),  length  and  width  of  head,  and 
of  right  ear;  length  of  left  foot,  left  mid- 
dle finger,  left  little  finger,  left  forearm. 
Each  description  is  placed  on  a card, 
the  cards  classified  according  to  size  of 
head,  etc.,  and  suspects  are  readily 
tested.  The  system  is  founded  on  abso- 
lutely sure  scientific  data,  but  general 
description  and  marks  of  identification, 
such  as  scars,  etc.,  are  also  used  with 
Bertillon’s  plan. 

BERWICK  (ber'ik),  or,  more  fully, 
BER WICK-ON-TWEED,  a seaport  town 
of  England.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
12th  century,  during  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander I.,  Berwick  was  part  of  Scotland, 
and  the  capital  of  the  district  called 
Lothian.  In  1216  the  town  and  castle 
were  stormed  and  taken  by  King  John; 
Bruce  retook  them  in  1318;  but,  after 
undergoing  various  sieges  and  vicissi- 
tudes, both  were  surrendered  to  Ed- 


ward IV.  in  1482,  and  have  ever  since 
remained  in  possession  of  England. 
Pop.  13,378. — The  county  of  Berwick, 
the  most  eastern  border-county  of  Scot- 
land, is  bounded  by  the  German  Ocean, 
East  Lothian,  Roxburgh,  Peebles,  the 
river  Tweed,  and  the  English  borders. 
Total  area,  297,161  acres,  of  which  two- 
thirds  are  productive.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Tweed,  the  Leader,  the 
Eye,  the  Whiteadder,  and  Blackadder. 
Pop.  30,816. 

BER'YL,  a colorless,  yellowish,  bluish, 
or  less  brilliant  green  variety  of  emerald, 
the  prevailing  hue  being  green  of  various 
shades,  but  always  pale,  the  want  of 
color  being  due  to  absence  of  chromium, 
which  gives  to  the  emerald  its  deep  rich 
green.  Its  crystals,  which  are  six-sided, 
are  usually  longer  and  larger  than  those 
of  the  precious  emerald,  and  its  struc- 
ture more  distinctly  foliated.  The  best 
beryls  are  found  in  Brazil,  in  Siberia, 
and  Ceylon,  and  in  Dauria,  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  China.  Beryls  are  also  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  U.  States.  Some 
of  the  finer  and  transparent  varieties  of 
it  are  often  called  aquamarine. 

BERYLL'IUM,  a metal  occurring  in 
beryl  and  other  minerals,  of  a color 
similar  to  zinc. 

BESANT',  Sir  Walter,  English  novel- 
ist, born  1836,  educated  in  London  and 
at  Christ’s  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  with  mathematical  honors. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  novels,  a num- 
ber of  wliich  were  written  in  partner- 
ship with  Mr.  James  RiceJ  including 
Ready-Money  Mortiboy;  The  Golden 
Butterfly;  The  Monks  of  Thelema;  etc. 
After  Mr.  Rice’s  death  (1882)  he  wrote 
All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men;  The 
World  IVent  Very  Well  Then;  etc.  He 
died  in  1901. 

BESSARA'BIA,  a Russian  province 
stretching  in  a northw'esterly  direction 
from  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Pruth 
and  Danube  and  the  Dniester.  In  the 
north  the  country  is  hilly,  but  in  the 
south  flat  and  low.  It  is  fertile  in  grain, 
but  is  largely  used  for  pastui-age. 
Capital,  Kishenef.  Pop.,  chiefly  Wala- 
chians, Gypsies,  and  Tatars,  1,933,436. 

BES'SEL,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  in  1784;  ap- 
pointed in  1810  director  of  the  observa- 
tofy  at  Konigsberg.  In  1840  he  called 
attention  to  the  probable  existence  of  a 
planetary  mass  beyond  Uranus,  result- 
ing in  the  discovery  of  Neptune.  He 
died  in  1846. 

BES'SEMER,  Sir  Henry,  English 
engineer  and  inventor,  was  born  in 
Hertfordshire  in  1813.  He  is  celebrated 
for  his  new  and  cheap  process  of  rapidly 
making  steel  from  pig-iron  by  blowing 
a blast  of  air  through  it  when  in  a state 
of  fusion,  so  as  to  clear  it  of  all  carbon, 
and  then  adding  just  the  requisite 
quantity  of  carbon  to  produce  steel — a 
process  which  has  introduced  a revolu- 
tion in  the  steel-making  trade,  cheap 
steel  being  now  made  in  vast  quantities 
and  used  for  many  purposes  in  which  its 
price  formerly  prohibited  its  application. 
He  was  knighted  in  1879.  He  died  in 
1898. 

BET'EL,  a species  of  pepper,  a creep- 
ing or  climbing  plant,  native  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  leaves  are  employed  to 
inclose  a piece  of  the  areca  or  betel-nut 


and  a little  lime  into  a pellet,  which  is 
extensively  chewed  in  the  East.  The 
pellet  is  hot  and  acrid,  but  has  aromatic 
and  astringent  properites.  It  tinges  the 
saliva,  gums,  and  lips  a brick-red,  and 
blackens  the  teeth. 

BETEL-NUT,  the  kernel  of  the  fruit  of 
a beautiful  palm  found  in  India  and 
the  East,  and  named  from  being  chewed 


Leaf,  flowers,  and  nut  of  betel  palm. 

along  with  betel-leaf.  When  ripe  it  is 
of  the  size  of  a cherry,  conical  in  shape, 
brown  externally,  and  mottled  internally 
like  a nutmeg.  Ceylon  alone  exports 
70,000  cwt.  annually. 

BETH'ANY,  now  called  ErAzariyeh  or 
Lazarieh,  a village  of  Palestine  at  the 
base  of  Mount  Olivet,  about  2 miles  e.  of 
Jerusalem,  formerly  the  home  of  Martha, 
Mary,  and  Lazarus,  and  the  place  near 
which  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  took 
place. 

BETH'LEHEM,  the  birthplace  of 
Christ;  a village,  formerly  a town,  in 
Palestine,  a few  miles  south  from  Jeru- 
salem. Pop.  about  3000,  chiefly  Chris- 
tians, who  make  rosaries,  crucifixes, 
etc.,  for  pilgrims.  There  are  three  con- 
vents for  Catholics,  Greeks,  and  Arme- 
nians. A richly  adorned  grotto  lighted 
with  silver  and  crystal  lamps,  under  the 
choir  of  the  fine  church  built  by  Jus- 
tinian, is  shown  as  the  actual  spot  where 
Jesus  was  born. 

BETHLEHEM,  a towm  of  the  LTnited 
States,  founded  by  Moravians  in  1741  in 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  Lehigh,  across 
which  is  a bridge  connecting  it  with  S. 
Bethlehem,  the  seat  of  Lehigh  Univer- 
sity. Pop.  of  both  together,  17,064. 

BETROTH'MENT,  a mutual  promise 
or  contract  between  two  parties,  by 
which  they  bind  themselves  to  marry. 
It  was  anciently  attended  with  the  inter- 
change of  rings,  joining  hands,  and  kiss- 
ing in  presence  of  witnesses;  and  formal 
betrothment  is  still  the  custom  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  being  either  solemn 
(made  in  the  face  of  the  church)  or  pri- 
vate (made  before  witnesses  out  of  the 
church).  As  betrothinents  are  contracts, 
they  are  valid  only  between  persons 
whose  capacity  is  recognized  by  law, 
and  the  breach  of  them  may  be  the  sub- 
ject of  litigation. 

BETTING,  the  staking  or  pledging  of 
money  or  property  upon  a contingency 
or  issue.  The  processes  of  betting  may 
be  best  illustrated  in  connection  with 
horse-racing,  which  furnishes  the  mem- 
bers of  the  betting  fraternity  with  their 
best  [markets.  Betters  are  &vided  into 
two  classes — the  backers  of  horses,  and 
the  book-makers  or  professional  betters, 
who  form  the  betting  ring,  and  make  a 
living  by  betting  against  horses  ac- 


BEVERIDGE 


BIBLE 


BEYROUT  (bi-rot'),  or  BEIRUT,  the 
chief  seaport  of  Syria,  60  miles  n.w.  of 
Damascus  (89  by  railway) ; pop.  120,000, 
largely  Christians.  Ancient  Beyrout 
was  an  important  Phoenician  city.  The 
Byzantine  emperor  Theodosius  II.  raised 
it  to  the  rank  of  a metropolis,  and  it 
again  rose  to  importance  during  the 
Crusades.  In  later  times  it  was  long  in 
the  possession  of  the  Druses.  It  was 
bombarded  and  taken  by  the  British  in 
1840. 

BEZIERS  (ba-zyar),  a town  in  south- 
ern France,  dep.  H4rault,  beautifully 
situated  on  a height  and  surrounded  by 
old  walls,  its  chief  edifice  being  the 
cathedral,  a Gothic  structure  crowning 


The  cathedral  of  Bdzlers. 

the  height  on  which  the  town  stands. 
Manufactures,  woolens,  hosiery,  liquors, 
chemicals,  etc.,  with  a good  trade  in 
spirits,  wool,  grain,  oil,  verdigris,  and 
fruits.  Pop.  49,186. 

BEZIQUE  (be-zek'),a  simple  game  of 
cards  most  commonly  played  hy  two 
persons  with  two  packs.  It  was  a 


Bhagalpur  has  an  area  of  20,511  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  (chiefly  Hindus  and 
Mohammedans)  of  8,582,490. — The  dis- 
trict has  an  area  of  4226  sq.  miles;  pop. 
2,088,565. 

BHOOJ.  See  Bhuj. 

BHOPAL  (bho-pal'),  a native  state  of 
central  India  under  British  protection, 
on  the  Nerbudda,  in  Malwah.  Area, 
6874  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,094,800.— -The 
capital  of  above  state,  also  called  Bho- 
pal, is  on  the  boundary  between  Malwah 
and  Gundwana.  Pop.  77,023. 

BHURTPORE',  a native  state,  India, 
in  Rajputana,  bounded  e.  by  Agra,  s. 
and  w.  by  the  Rajput  States.  Area, 
1974  sq.  miles.  Pop.  640,620. — The 
capital,  which  has  the  same  n^me,  is  a 
fortified  place,  and  was  formerly  of 
great  strength.  The  rajah’s  palace  is  a 
large  building  of  red  and  yellow  free- 
stone presenting  a picturesque  appear- 
ance. Pop.  43,601. 

BIBLE,  the  collection  of  the  Sacred 
Writings  or  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Chris- 
tians. Its  two  main  divisions,  one  re- 
ceived by  both  Jews  and  Christians,  the 
other  by  Christians  only,  are  improperly 
termed  Testaments,  owing  to  the  con- 
fusion of  two  meanings  of  the  Greek 
word  diatheke,  which  was  applied  in- 
differently to  a covenant  and  to  a last 
will  or  testament.  The  Jewish  religion 
being  represented  as  a compact  between 
God  and  the  Jews,  the  Christian  religion 
was  regarded  as  a new  compact  between 
God  and  the  human  race ; and  the  Bible 
is,  therefore,  properly  divisible  into  the 
Writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Cove- 
nants. The  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
received  b3'  the  Jews  were  divided  by 
them  into  three  classes:  1.  The  Law, 
contained  in  the  Pentateuch  or  five 
books  of  Moses.  2.  The  Prophets,  com- 
prising Joshua,  Judges,  I.  and  II. 
Samuel,  I.  and  II.  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  and  the  twelve  minor 
prophets.  3.  The  Ketubim,  or  Hagiog- 
rapha  (holy  writings),  containing  the 
Psalms,  the  Proverbs,  Job,  in  one  di- 
vision; Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesi- 
astes, Esther,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  in 
another  division;  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  I.  and  II.  Chronicles,  in  a third. 


The  rajah's  palace  Bhiirtpore. 


cording  to  a methodical  plan.  By  the 
method  adopted  by  the  professional 
better  the  element  of  chance  is  as  far 
as  possible  removed  from  his  trans- 
actions, so  that  he  can  calculate,  with 
a reasonable  prospect  of  having  his 
calculations  verified,  on  making  more 
or  less  profit  as  the  result  of  a season’s 
engagements.  Instead  of  backing  any 
particular  horse,  the  professional  better 
lays  the  same  sum  against  every  horse 
that  takes  the  field,  or  a certain  number 
of  them,  and  in  doing  so  he  has  usually 
to  give  odds,  which  are  greater  or  less 
according  to  the  estimate  formed  of  the 
chance  of  success  which  each  of  the 
horses  has  on  which  the  odds  are  given. 
In  this  way,  while  in  the  event  of  the 
race  being  won  (as  is  usually  the  case) 
by  any  of  the  horses  entered  in  the 
betting-book  of  a professional  better, 
the  latter  has  always  a certain  fixed  sum 
(say  $5000)  to  pay,  he  receives  from  the 
backers  of  the  losers  sums  which  vary 
in  proportion  to  the  odds  given.  Thus, 
if  a book-maker  is  making  a $5000  book, 
and  the  odds  against  some  horse  is  4 to  1, 
he  will,  if  that  horse  wins,  have  to  pay 
$5000,  while,  if  it  loses,  he  will  receive 
$1250.  It  usually  depends  upon  which 
horse  it  is  that  wins  a race  whether  the 
book-maker  gains  or  loses.  If  the  first 
favorite  wins  it  is  evidently  the  worst 
thing  that  could  happen  for  the  book- 
maker, for,  as  he  is  bound  to  receive 
the  sum  of  the  amounts  to  which  all 
the  horses  except  one  have  been 
backed,  the  largest  deduction  must  be 
made  from  his  total  receipts  on  ac- 
count of  the  first  favorite.  Very  fre- 
quently the  receipts  of  the  book-maker 
are  augmented  by  sums  paid  on  ac- 
count of  horses  which  have  been  backed 
and  never  run  at  all.  Sometimes,  al- 
though not  often,  the  odds  are  given 
upon  and  not  against  a particular  horse. 
Books  may  also  be  made  up  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  betting  against  any  particular 
horse  getting  a place  among  the  first 
three.  The  odds  in  this  case  are  usually 
one-fourth  of  the  odds  given  against 
the  same  horse  winning.  Another  mode 
of  betting  is  that  called  a sweepstake, 
in  which  a number  of  persons  join  in 
contributing  a certain  stake,  after 
which  each  of  those  taking  part  in  the 
sweepstake  has  a horse  assigned  to  him 
(usually  by  lot),  which  he  backs,  and 
the  backer  of  the  winning  horse  gains 
the  whole  stakes.  If  there  are  more 
persons  taking  part  in  the  sweepstake 
than  there  are  horses  running  some  of 
them  must  draw  blanks,  in  which 
case  of  course  their  stakes  are  at  once 
lost. 

BEVERIDGE,  Albert  J.,  an  American 
lawj’^er  and  politician,  born  in  Ohio  in 
1862.  In  1899  he  was  elected  Linited 
States  senator  from  Indiana. 

BEVERIDGE,  Kiiline,  an  American 
sculptor,  born  in  1877  at  Springfield, 
III.  She  has  won  considerable  fame  in 
England  and  France  by  her  clever 
work. 

BEVERLY,  a city  in  Essex  Co.,  Mass., 
18  miles  northeast  of  Boston;  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Railroad.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  a narrow  coast  inlet,  which  is 
spanned  by  a bridge  connecting  with 
the  city  of  Salem.  Pop.  15,884. 

BEY.  See  Beg. 


favorite  game  at  the  French  court  in 
the  18th  centurJ^ 

BHAGALPUR  (bha-gal-por'),  a city 
in  Bengal,  capital  of  a district  and 
division  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  here  seven  miles 
•wide.  Pop.  75,760. — The  division  of 


These  books  are  extant  in  the  Hebrew 
language;  others,  rejected  from  the 
canon  as  apocryphal  by  Protestants, 
are  found  only  in  Greek  or  Latin. 

The  books  of  Moses  were  deposited, 
according  to  the  Bible,  in  the  taber- 
nacle, near  the  ark,  the  other  sacred 


BIBLE  CHRISTIANS 


BIBLICAL  CRITICISM 


writings  being  similarly  preserved.  They 
were  removed  by  Solomon  to  the  temple, 
and  on  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  probably  perished. 
According  to  Jewish  tradition  Ezra, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  great  syna- 
gogue, collected  and  compared  as  many 
copies  as  could  be  found,  and  from  this 
collation  an  edition  of  the  whole  was 
prepared,  with  the  exception  of  the 
writings  of  Ezra,  Malachi,  and  Nehe- 
miah,  added  subsequently,  and  certain 
obviously  later  insertions  in  other  books. 
When  Judas  Maccabseus  repaired  the 
temple,  which  had  been  destroyed  by 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  he  placed  in  it 
a correct  copy  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
whether  the  recension  of  Ezra  or  not  is 
not  known.  This  copy  was  carried  to 
Rome  by  Titus.  The  exact  date  of  the 
determination  of  the  Hebrew  canon  is 
uncertain,  but  no  work  known  to  be 
written  later  than  about  100  years  after 
the  captivity  was  admitted  into  it  by 
the  Jews  of  Palestine.  The  Hellenistic 
or  Alexandrian  Jews,  however,  were  less 
strict,  and  admitted  many  later  writ- 
ings, forming  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Apocrypha,  in  which  they  were  followed 
by  the  Latin  Church.  The  Protestant 
churches  at  the  Reformation  gave  in 
their  adherence  to  the  restricted  Hebrew 
canon,  though  the  Apocrypha  was  long 
included  in  the  various  editions  of  the 
Bible.  The  division  into  chapters  and 
verses,  as  it  now  exists,  is  of  compara- 
tively modern  origin,  though  divisions 
of  some  kind  were  early  introduced. 
Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  in  the 
13th  centurjq  divided  the  Latin  trans- 
lation known  as  the  Vulgate  into  chap- 
ters for  convenience  of  reference,  and 
similar  divisions  were  made  in  the  He- 
brew text  by  Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan 
in  the  15th  century.  About  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century  the  verses  in  Robert 
Stephanus’s  edition  of  the  Vulgate  were 
for  the  first  time  marked  by  numbers. 

The  earliest  and  most  famous  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  Septuagint, 
or  Greek  translation,  executed  by  Alex- 
andrian Greeks,  and  completed  probably 
before  130  n.c.,  different  portions  being 
done  at  different  times.  This  version 
was  adopted  by  the  early  Christian 
church  and  by  the  Jews  themselves,  and 
has  always  held  an  important  place  in 
regard  to  the  interpretation  and  history 
of  the  Bible.  The  Syriac  version,  the 
Peshito,  made  early  in  the  2d  century 
after  Christ,  is  celebrated  for  its  fidelity. 
The  Coptic  version  was  made  from  the 
Septuagint  in  the  3d  or  4?.h  century. 
The  Gothic  version,  by  Ulphilas,  was 
made  from  the  Septuagint  in  the  4th 
century;  but  mere  insignificant  frag- 
ments of  it  are  extant.  The  most  im- 
portant Latin  version  is  the  Vulgate, 
executed  by  Jerome,  partly  on  the  basis 
of  the  original  Hebrew  and  completed 
in  405  A.D. 

The  books  of  the  New  Testament 
were  all  written  in  Greek,  unless  it  be 
true,  as  soine  critics  suppose,  that  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew.  Most  of  these 
writings  have  always  been  received  as 
canonical;  but  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, commonly  ascribed  to  St.  Paul, 
that  of  St.  Jude,  the  second  of  Peter, 
the  second  and  third  of  John,  and  the 


Apocalyse,  have  been  doubted.  The 
three  oldest  MSS.  are:  (1)  the  Sinaitic 
MS.,  discovered  by  Tischendorf  in  a 
convent  on  Mount  Sinai  in  1859,  as- 
signed to  the  middle  of  the  4th  century; 
(2)  the  Vatican  MS.  at  Rome  of  similar 
date;  (3)  the  Alexandrine  MS.  in  the 
British  Museum,  assigned  to  the  middle 
of  the  5th  century.  Each  MS.  contains 
also  the  Septuagint  Greek  of  the  Old 
Testament  in  great  part.  The  Vulgate 
of  Jerome  embraces  a Latin  tranHation 
of  the  New  as  well  as  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, based  on  an  older  Latin  version. 
The  division  of  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  into  chapters  and  verses 
was  introduced  later  than  that  of  the 
Old  Testament;  but  it  is  not  precisely 
known  when  or  by  whom.  The  Greek 
text  was  first  printed  in  the  Complu- 
tenisian  Polyglot,  in  1514;  in  1516  an 
edition  of  it  was  published  at  Basel  by 
Erasmus.  Among  recent  valuable  edi- 
tions are  those  of  Lachmann,  Tischen- 
dorf, Tregelles,  and  Westcott  and  Hort. 

Of  translations  of  the  Bible  into 
modern  languages  the  English  and  the 
German  are  the  most  celebrated.  Con- 
siderable portions  were  translated  into 
Anglo-Saxon,  including  the  Gospels  and 
the  Psalter.  Wycliffe’s  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  (from  the  Vulgate) 
begun  about  1356,  was  completed 
shortly  befqre  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  1384.  The  first  printed  version 
of  the  Bible  in  English  was  the  trans- 
lation of  William  Tindall  or  Tyndale, 
whose  New  Testament  was  printed  in 
quarto  at  Cologne  in  1525,  a small 
octavo  edition  appearing  at  the  same 
time  at  Worms.  The  Pentateuch  was 
published  by  Tindall  in  1530,  and  he 
also  translated  some  of  the  prophetical 
books.  A translation  of  the  entire 
Bible  was  published  by  Miles  Coverdale 
in  1535.  It  was  undertaken  at  the 
instance  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  and  being 
made  from  German  and  Latin  versions 
was  inferior  to  Tindall’s.  After  the 
death  of  Tindall  John  Rogers  under- 
took the  completion  of  his  translation 
and  the  preparation  of  a new  edition. 
In  this  edition  the  latter  part  of  the  Old 
Testament  (after  II.  Chronicles)  was 
based  on  Coverdale’s  version.  A revised 
edition  was  published  in  1539  under 
the  superintendence  of  Richard  Tav- 
erner. In  the  same  year  as  Taverner’s 
another  edition  appeared,  printed  by 
authority,  with  a preface  by  Cranmer, 
and  hence  called  Cranmer’s  Bible.  This 
was  the  first  Bible  printed  by  authority 
in  England.  This  continued,  with 
various  revisions,  to  be  the  authorized 
version  till  1568.  In  1557-60  an 
edition  appeared  at  Geneva,  based  on 
Tindall’s — the  work  of  Wliittington, 
Coverdale,'  Goodman,  John  Knox,  and 
other  exiles  — and  commonly  called 
the  Geneva,  or  Breeches  Bible  (from 
“breeches”  standing  instead  of  “aprons” 
in  Gen.  iii.  7.)  This  version,  for  sixty 
years  the  most  popular  in  England, 
was  allowed  to  be  printed  in  England 
under  a patent  of  monopoly  in  1561. 
It  was  the  first  printed  in  Roman  letters, 
and  was  also  the  first  to  adopt  the  plan 
previously  adopted  in  the  Hebrew  of  a 
division  into  verses.  It  omitted  the 
Apocrypha,  left  the  authorship  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  open,  and  put 


words  not  in  the  original  in  italics.  The, 
Bishop’s  Bible,  published  1568  to  1572, 
was  based  on  Cranmer’s,  and  revised  by 
Archbishop  Parker  and  eight  bishops. 
It  succeeded  Cranmer’s  as  the  authorized 
version,  but  did  not  commend  itself  to 
scholars  or  people.  In  1582  an  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  translated  from 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  appeared  at  Rheims, 
and  in  1609-10  the  Old  Testament 
was  published  at  Douay.  This  is  the 
version  recognized  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.  a Hebrew 
scholar,  Hugh  Broughton,  insisted  on 
the  necessity  of  a new  translation,  and 
at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
(1604)  the  suggestion  was  accepted  by 
the  king.  The  work  was  undertaken  by 
forty-seven  scholars  divided  into  six 
companies,  two  meeting  at  Westmin- 
ster, two  at  Oxford,  and  two  at  Cam- 
bridge, while  a general  committee 
meeting  in  London  revised  the  portions 
of  the  translation  finished  by  each. 
The  revision  was  begun  in  1607,  and 
occupied  three  years,  the  completed 
work  being  published  in  folio  in  1611. 
By  the  general  accuracy  of  its  transla- 
tion and  the  purity  of  its  style  it  super- 
seded all  other  versions.  In  response, 
however,  to  a widely-spread  desire  for 
a translation  even  yet  more  free  from 
errors,  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury 
in  1870  appointed  a committee  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  revising  the  English 
version.  Their  report  being  favorable 
two  companies  were  formed,  one  for  the 
Old  Testament  and  one  for  the  New, 
consisting  partly  of  members  of  Ctti- 
vocation  and  partly  of  outside  scholars. 
Two  similar  companies  were  also  organ- 
ized in  America  to  work  along  with  the 
British  scholars.  The  result  was  that 
the  revised  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  issued  in  1881 ; that  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  1885.  The  revision 
has  been  carried  out  in  a spirit  of 
reverence  toward  the  older  version,  and 
few  alterations  have  been  admitted  but 
such  as  liave  been  called  for  on  the  score 
of  accuracy,  clearness,  and  uniformity. 

In  Germany  some  seventeen  transla- 
tions of  the  Bible,  partly  in  the  High 
German  partly  in  the  Low  German 
dialect,  appeared  between  the  invention 
of  printing  and  the  Reformation,  but 
they  had  all  to  make  way  for  Luther’s 
great  translation— the  New  Testament 
in  1522,  and  the  whole  Bible  in  1534. 

BIBLE  CHRISTIANS,  a small  sect 
founded  by  a Cornish  Methodist  preacher 
called  O’Bryan,  who  profess  to  follow 
only  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible  and 
reject  all  human  authority  in  religion. 
Called  also  Bryanites. 

BIBLE  COMMUNISTS.  See  Perfec- 
tionists. 

BIBLICAL  CRITICISM,  a term  by 
which  is  designated  any  investigation 
of  the  Old  or  New  Testament.  “Text 
criticism”  of  the  Bible  seeks  to  estab- 
lish the  true  te.xts  of  the  Bible,  that  is, 
to  decide  what  has  been  added  to  the 
original  documents.  The  so-called 
higher  criticism  has  for  its  function  the 
establishment  of  the  historical  accuracy 
of  the  Scriptures  and  the  genuineness 
of  the  authorship.  The  critic  relies  on 
what  is  called  internal  and  external 
evidence,  checking  the  historical  accu- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


BILE 


racy  of  the  statements  in  the  text,  the 
agreements  of  the  texts  among  them- 
selves, and  the  alleged  authorship  by 
the  contents  of  the  texts  and  the  known 
facts  of  history  as  found  in  profane 
history.  Modern  criticism  began  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century  and  cul- 
minated with  the  “Tuebingen  school,” 
some  of  the  members  of  wdiich  denied 
the  divinity  of  Jesus. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES,  societies  formed 
for  the  distribution  of  the  Bible  or 
portions  of  it  in  various  languages, 
either  gratuitously  or  at  a low  rate. 
Since  the  formation  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  it  has  circulated 
over  340  versions  of  the  whole  or  parts 
of  the  Scriptures  in  298  different  lan- 
guages. In  more  than  thirty  instances 
languages  have  for  the  first  time  been 
reduced  to  a written  form  in  order  to 
translate  into  them  and  circulate  among 
the  people  the  Bibles  of  this  society. 
The  total  issues  now  amount  to  about 
100,000,000  copies,  while  about  70,000,- 
000  additional  copies  have  been  dis- 
tributed by  the  kindred  societies  which 
have  sprung  out  of  it.  In  the  United 
States  the  great  American  Bible  Society, 
formed  in  1816,  acts  in  concert  with 
auxiliary  societies  in  all  parts  of  the 
Union.  Its  total  issue  since  its  organiza- 
tion has  been  over  40,000,000. 

BIB'LIA  PAU'PERUM,  the  name  for 
block -books  common  in  the  middle  ages, 
and  consisting  of  a number  of  rude 
pictures  of  Biblical  subjects  with  short 
explanatory  text  accompanying  each 
picture. 

BIBLIOG'RAPHY,  the  knowledge  of 
books,  in  reference  to  the  subjects  dis- 
cussed in  them,  their  different  degrees 
of  rarity,  curiosity,  reputed  and  real 
value,  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
composed,  and  the  rank  which  they 
.ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a 
library.  The  subject  is  sometimes 
divided  into  general,  national,  and 
special  bibliography,  according  as  it 
deals  with  books  in  general,  with  those 
of  a particular  country,  or  with  those  on 
special  subjects  or  having  a special  char- 
acter (as  early  printed  books,  anony- 
mous books).  A subdivision  of  each  of 
these  might  be  made  into  material  and 
literary,  according  as  books  were  viewed 
in  regard  to  their  mere  externals  or  in 
regard  to  their  contents. 

BIBLIOMA'NIA,  a passion  for  pos- 
sessing curious  books,  which  has  reached 
its  highest  development  in  France  and 
England,  though  originating  in  Holland 
toward  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 
The  true  bibliomanist  is  determined  in 
the  purchase  of  books,  less  by  the  value 
of  their  contents,  than  by  certain  acci- 
dental circumstances  attending  them, 
as  that  they  belong  to  particular  classes, 
are  made  of  singular  materials,  or  have 
something  remarkable  in  their  his- 
tory. 

BICARBONATE,  a carbonate  derived 
from  carbonic  acid  by  replacing  one  of 
the  atoms  of  hydrogen  b}'’  a metal. 
Bicarbonate  of  sodium  is  used  as  an 
antacid,  and  effervescing  liquors  are 
usually  produced  by  mixing  it  with 
tartaric  acid.  It  is  also  the  chief  in- 
gredient of  baking-powder. 

BI'CEPS,  the  large  muscle  in  front  of 
the  upper  arm.  See  Arm. 


BI'CYCLE,  a light  vehicle  impelled 
by  the  rider,  consisting  of  two  wheels 
placed  one  before  the  other,  and  of 
connecting  bars  or  framework.  The 
vehicle  is  driven  by  the  pressure  of  the 
rider’s  feet  either  directly  applied  to 
two  cranks  attached  to  the  axle  of  the 
front  wheel,  or  to  cranks  in  the  frame 
driving  the  after-wheel  by  a chain  and 
sprockets.  The  rider  sits  upon  a saddle 
generally  placed  above  and  between  the 
two  wheels,  and  steers  the  machine  by  a 
handle,  which  turns  the  front  wheel  in 
in  any  required  direction.  It  is  kept  in 
an  upright  position  by  the  action  of  the 
rider’s  body  and  legs,  by  the  steering 
power,  and  also  by  its  own  momentum. 
The  speed  attained  by  an  expert  rider 
is  considerable,  30  miles  or  more  an 
hour  having  been  covered. 

BIDDEFORD  (bid'e-ford),  a town  in 
Maine,  on  the  Saco,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  several  bridges.  The  river 
falls,  42  feet  high,  affording  valuable 
water-power.  Pop.  16,145. 

BIDDLE,  John,  father  of  the  modern 
Unitarians,  born  in  1615  at  Wotton- 
under-Edge,  in  Gloucestershire,  died  in 
prison  16^62.  He  was  repeatedy  im- 
prisoned for  his  anti-Trinitarian  views. 
A general  act  of  oblivion  in  1652  re- 
stored him  to  liberty,  when  he  immedi- 
ately disseminated  his  opinions  both  by 
preaching  and  by  the  publication  of  his 
Twofold  Scripture  Catechism.  He  was 
again  imprisoned.  Cromwell  banished 
him  to  St.  Mary’s  Castle,  Scilly,  and 
assigned  him  a hundred  crowns  annually. 
Here  he  remained  three  years,  until  the 
Protector  liberated  him  in  1658.  He 
then  continued  to  preach  his  opinions 
till  the  death  of  Cromwell,  and  also  after 
the  Restoration,  when  he  was  committed 
to  jail  in  1662,  and  died  a few  months 
Q/i  td* 

BIEL  (bel).  See  Bienne. 

BIELA’S  (be'la)  COMET,  discovered 
by  M.  Biela  (1782-1856),  an  Austrian 
officer,  in  1826.  Its  periodic  time  was 
determined  as  6 years  38  weeks.  It  re- 
turned in  1832,  1839,  1846,  and  1852. 
On  the  latter  two  occasions  it  was  in 
two  parts,  each  having  a distinct 
nucleus  and  tail.  It  has  not  since  been 
seen  as  a comet;  but  in  1872,  1879,  and 
1885,  when  the  earth  passed  through 
the  comet’s  track,  immense  flights  of 
meteors  were  seen,  which  have  been 
connected  with  the  broken-up  and  dis- 
persed comet. 

BIEN'NIAL,  a plant  that  requires 
two  seasons  to  come  to  maturity,  bear- 
ing fruit  and  dying  the  second  year,  as 
the  turnip,  carrot,  wallflower,  etc. 

BIERSTADT,  Albert,  an  American 
landscape  painter,  born  at  Diisseldorf, 
Germany,  1830,  died  in  1902.  His 
principal  paintings  are  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  regions. 

BIGAMY,  the  act  or  state  of  having 
more  wives  or  husbands  than  one.  It 
is  regarded  as  an  offense  in  most  coun- 
tries, and  in  the  U.  States  it  is  a felony, 
punishable  by  a term  in  the  peniten- 
tiary, the  length  of  the  term  varying  in 
different  states.  To  be  guilty  of  bigamy 
the  offender  must  have  knowledge  of 
the  fact  that  his  or  her  spouse  is  living, 
and  the  second  or  other  marriage  must 
be  solemnized  by  form  of  law  or  church, 
or  other  formal  ceremonial,  and  not 


merely  a personal  agreement  or  con- 
tract. Bigamy  may  be  committed  by 
persons  of  either  sex. 

BIG  HORN,  a river  of  the  U.  States 
rising  in  the  Rockies  and  flowing 
through  Montana  into  the  Yellowstone 
river.  It  is  460  miles  long. 

BIG  HORN,  a popular  name  for  the 
celebrated  Rocky  Mountain  sheep, 
which,  in  its  several  species,  is  found 
along  the  whole  course  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  system  to  the  Arctic  regions. 
The  common  species  is  3 feet  4 inches 
high,  brownish  in  color,  with  a dark 
line  along  the  spine.  The  horns  of  the 
ram  are  massive,  spiral-like,  and  often 
measure  45  inches  in  length.  The  big 
horn  is  a marvelous  jumper,  scaling 
great  heights  almost  perpendicular,  and 
one  of  the  hardiest  of  the  wild  animals 
of  America.  It  is  called  also  Rocky 
Mountain  goat. 

BIGELOW,  Erastus  Brigham,  an 
American  inventor,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1814,  died  1879.  His  principal 
inventions  are  weaving  apparatus.  He 
founded  the  Bigelow  Carpet  Company 
of  Clinton,  Mass.,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology. 

BIGELOW,  Poultney,  an  American 
writer,  traveler,  and  critic.  He  was 
born  in  1855,  and  was  educated  at  Yale 
and  abroad.  He  has  been  editor  of 
Outing,  and  correspondent  of  numerous 
publications.  He  has  published  several 
books  of  travel  and  criticism  on  foreign 
countries. 

BIGNO'NIA,  a genus  of  plants  of 
many  species,  inhabitants  of  hot  cli- 
mates, usually  climbing  shrubs  fur- 
nished with  tendrils;  flowers  mostly  in 
terminal  or  axillary  panicles;  corolla 
trumpet-shaped,  hence  the  name  of 
trumpet-flower  commonly  given  to 
these  plants.  All  the  species  are  splen- 
did plants  when  in  blossom,  and  many 
of  them  are  cultivated. 

BIKANER',  a native  state  of  Rajpu- 
tana,  India.  Area,  23,090  sq.  miles; 
pop.  584,712. — Bikaner,  the  capital, 
has  a fort,  containing  the  rajah’s  palace. 
Pop.  53,075 

BILASPUk  (bi-las-p6r'),  a district  in 
the  chief  commissionership  of  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces  of  India.  Area  8341  sq- 
miles;  pop.  1,164,158. 

BILBA'O,  a city  in  northern  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Biscay  on  the 
navigable  Nervion,  6 miles  from  the  sea. 
It  has  a cathedral  and  fine  public  build 
ings;  flourishing  industries;  iron-works, 
steel-works,  foundries,  shipyards,  etc.; 
excellent  harbor  accommodation,  and 
exports  much  iron  ore.  Pop.  83,306. 

BILBERRY.  See  Whortleberry. 

BILE,  a yellow  bitter  liquor,  separa- 
ted from  the  blood  by  the  primary  cells 
of  the  liver,  and  collected  by  the  biliary 
ducts,  which  unite  to  form  the  hepatic 
duct,  whence  it  passes  into  the  duode- 
num, or  by  the  cystic  duct  into  the  gall- 
bladder, to  be  retained  there  till  required 
for  use.  The  most  obvious  use  of  the 
bile  in  the  animal  economy  is  to  aid  in 
the  digestion  of  fatty  substances  and  to 
convert  the  chyme  into  chyle.  It  ap- 
pears also  to  aid  in  exciting  the  peris- 
taltic action  of  the  intestines.  The 
natural  color  of  the  fseces  seems  to  be 
owing  to  the  presence  of  bile.  The 


BILGE 


BINARY 


chemical  composition  varies  with  the 
animal  which  yields  it,  but  every  kind 
contains  two  essential  constituents,  the 
bile  salts  and  the  bile  coloring  matter 
associated  with  small  quantities  of 
cholesterine,  fats,  and  certain  mineral 
salts,  chiefly  chloride  of  sodium,  phos- 
phates, and  iron.  Some  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  bile  return  into  the  blood  by 
absorption,  the  coloring  matters  and 
cholesterine  being  the  principal  excre- 
mentitious  substances.  When  bile  is 
not  secreted  in  due  quantity  from  the 
blood  the  unhealthy  condition  of  bil- 
iousness results. 

BILGE,  the  breadth  of  a ship’s  bot- 
tom, or  that  part  of  her  floor  which 
approaches  to  a horizontal  direction,  on 
which  she  would  rest  if  aground.— 
Bilge-water,  water  which  enters  a ship 
and  lies  upon  her  bilge  or  bottom ; when 
not  drawn  off  it  becomes  dirty  and 
offensive. — Bilge  ways,  planks  of  timber 
placed  under  a vessel’s  bilge  on  the 
building  - slip  to  support  her  while 
launching. 

BIL'IARY  CAL'CULUS,  a concretion 
which  forms  in  the  gall-bladder  or  bile- 
ducts;  gall-stone.  It  is  generally  com- 
posed of  a peculiar  crystalline  fatty 
matter  which  has  been  called  cholester- 
ine. 

BILL,  a written  or  printed  paper  con- 
taining a statement  of  any  particulars. 
In  common  use  a tradesman’s  account, 
or  a printed  proclamation  or  advertise- 
ment, is  thus  called  a bill.  In  legislation 
a bill  is  a draft  of  a proposed  statute 
submitted  to  a legislative  assembly  for 
approval,  but  not  yet  enacted  or  passed 
and  made  law.  When  the  bill  has  passed 
and  received  the  necessary  assent,  it 
becomes  an  act. 

BILL  OF  ATTAINDER,  a bill  intro- 
duced in  a legislature  fixing  a penalty 
or  punishment  on  an  individual  by 
enactment  of  the  legislature.  Bills  of 
attainder  are  forbidden  by  the  consti- 
tution of  the  United  States.  This  pro- 
vision was  prompted  by  the  abuses 
wrought  in  England  by  this  method  of 
punishment. 

BILL  OF  COSTS,  a statement  of  the 
costs  of  a lawsuit,  fixed  to  the  judgment, 
and  chargeable  to  the  defeated  party  to 
the  suit. 

BILL  OF  CREDIT,  a letter  of  credit. 
In  the  United  States  constitution  the 
term  “bills  of  credit”  means  no  more 
than  paper  money.  The  states  are  for- 
bidden to  issue  bills  of  credit ; that  is, 
no  state  can  issue  paper  money,  this 
function  being  a federal  one. 

BILL  OF  EXCEPTIONS,  a statement 
of  the  exceptions  taken  to  the  ruling  of 
a court  in  a cause.  The  bill  of  excep- 
tions is  used  for  purposes  of  appeal. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE,  a written  order 
to  pay  a sum  of  money  to  a third  party. 
The  order  may  be  to  pay  at  sight  or 
after  a certain  number  of  days.  If  the 
person  on  whom  the  order  is  made 
accepts  it,  by  signing  it  he  is  liable  for 
its  payment. 

BILL  IN  EQUITY,  a petition  filed  in  a 
court  cf  chancery  stating  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  in  dispute  and 
asking  the  chancery  judge,  or  chancellor, 
to  decide  the  points  at  issue.  The 
.custom  arose  from  the  old  English  me- 
P.  B— 10 


thod  of  appealing  directly  to  the  con- 
science of  the  king. 

BILL  OF  HEALTH,  a statement  of  the 
condition  of  the  health  of  the  crew  and 
passengers  of  a ship,  made  by  the  ship’s 
surgeon  or  the  captain.  A clean  bill  of 
health  reports  no  infection  on  ship  board ; 
a foul  bill  reports  passengers  unfit  to 
land;  a suspected  bill  reports  infection 
at  the  place  whence  the  ship  sailed. 

BILL  OF  INDEMNITY,  a bill  passed 
by  congress  justifying  the  action  of  an 
official  who,  under  stress  of  circum- 
stance, has  exceeded  his  authority. — 
Also  a bill  to  reimburse  one  who  has 
spent  his  own  money  in  the  service  of  the 
state. 

BILL  OF  LADING,  an  agreement  or 
contract  made  by  a common  carrier 
with  a shipper  providing  for  the  trans- 
portation of  the  goods  or  freight  men- 
tioned, the  rate  of  transportation,  and 
the  liabilities  of  both  parties.  Bills  of 
lading  are  made  out  in  duplicate,  the 
latter  being  sent  to  the  consignee. 
Bills  of  lading  are  not  negotiable,  but  are 
often  so  used,  and  some  states  have 
even  tried  to  make  them  negotiable  by 
law. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  the  name  given  to 
the  ten  first  amendments  to  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States. 

BILL  OF  SALE,  a conveyance  of 
property  from  one  person  to  another, 
containing  the  description  of  the  prop- 
erty and  transferring  the  title  of  the 
property  to  the  buyer. 

BILLIARDS,  a game  played  with 
three  or  four  ivory  balls  and  a stick, 
called  a “cue,”  on  a large  table  the 
sides  of  which  are  banked  with  rubber, 
the  whole  being  covered  with  green 
baize.  Considerable  difference  exists 
between  the  English  and  the  French 
game,  the  latter  being  the  game  played 
in  the  U.  States.  The  English  table  is 
6x12  feet,  has  six  pockets  and  three 
balls,  two  white  and  a red  being  used. 
In  the  U.  States  pockets  are  not  used. 
The  American  table  is  about  6x12,  the 
cue  is  ash  or  maple  with  a leather  tip, 
the  balls  ivory,  2f  inches  in  diameter, 
the  color  being  two  white  and  one  red. 
The  object  of  the  player  is  so  to  strike 
his  own  ball  that  it  will,  after  leaving 
his  cue,  come  into  contact  with  the  two 
remaining  balls.  The  rebound  from  the 
first  ball  is  called  a carom,  and  when 
both  balls  are  hit  the  play  counts  one 
point.  By  playing  along  the  cushions 
(banked  sides  of  the  table)  a skilful 
player  can  count  points  indefinitely. 
To  prevent  this  the  game  called  “the 
balk-line  game”  was  invented.  In  this 
game  four  lines  are  drawn  parallel 
with  the  cushion  at  an  agreed  upon 
distance  and  the  player  is  allowed  to 
make  but  one  shot,  or  an  agreed-upon 
number  of  shots,  when  one  or  both  balls 
lie  between  the  line  and  the  cushion. 
The  three-ball  game  without  the  balk- 
line is  called  the  straight-rail  game. 
The  following  is  a list  of  high  runs  made 
since  1880:  Straight  rail — highest  run 
for  match  play  (3  balls,  on  regulation 
5x10  table)  1531  points,  Maurice  Vig- 
naux,  Paris,  1880.  Highest  average  for 
match  play,  333  J,  by  Jacob  Schaefer, 
Chicago,  1879.  Cushion  caroms — high- 
est run  for  tournament  play,  85  points, 
Frank  G-  Ives,  Boston,  189§,  Highest  1 


average  for  tournament  play,  10  (in  200 
points),  Jacob  Schaefer,  Chicago,  1887. 
Highest  average  (with  “anchor  nurse” 
allowed),  100,  Jacob  Schaefer,  New 
York,  1893,  and  Frank  C.  Ives,  Chicago, 
1894.  Highest  average  (with  “anchor 
nurse”  barred),  63  2-10,  Frank  C.  Ives, 
New  York,  1894.  18-inch  balk-line — 
highest  run  for  tournament  play,  290 
points  (with  5 shots  allowed  in  “anchor” 
spaces),  Frank  C.  Ives,  New  York, 
1896;  140  (with  the  “anchor  nurse” 
barred),  Frank  C.  Ives,  New  York,  1897, 
Highest  average  for  tournament  play, 
50  (with  5 shots  allowed  in  “anchor” 
spaces),  Frank  C.  Ives,  New  York,  1896; 
40  (with  “anchor  nurse”  barred),  Jacob 
Schaefer,  Chicago,  1898.  In  1906  Jacob 
Schaefer  made  a run  of  100  in  an  18.1 
match,  which  is  the  highest  in  a cham- 
pionship match. 

BILLINGS,  John  Shaw,  an  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Indiana  in  1837.  He 
v.'as  surgeon  in  the  Union  army  during 
the  civil  war,  and  curator  of  the  military 
museum  at  Washington  from  1864.  In 
1896  he  became  librarian  of  the  New 
York  City  Public  Library.  He  has 
published  several  scientific  works  End 
catalogues  and  is  a member  of  numerous 
learned  societies. 

BILLINGS,  JOSH.  See  Henry  W. 
Shaw. 

BIL'LINGSGATE,  the  principal  fish- 
market  of  London,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Thames,  a little  below  London 
Bridge.  From  the  character,  real  or 
supposed,  of  the  Billingsgate  fish- 
dealers,  the  term  Billingsgate  is  ap- 
plied generally  to  coarse  and  violent 
language. 

BIL'LION,  in  Britain  and  Germany 
the  designation  for  a million  of  millions; 
among  the  French  and  in  America  a 
thousand  millions.  A similar  difference 
of  usage  exists  in  regard  to  trillion, 
quadrillion,  etc. 

BI'MANA,  animals  having  two  hands : 
a term  applied  by  Cuvier  to  the  highest 
order  of  Mammalia,  of  which  man  is  the 
type  and  sole  genus.  By  some  natural- 
ists man  is ‘classified  as  a sub-division 
of  the  order  Primates,  which  includes 
also  the  apes,  monkeys,  and  lemurs. 

BIMET'ALLISM,  that  system  of  coin- 
age which  recognizes  coins  of  two  metals 
(silver  and  gold)  as  legal  tender  to  any 
amount ; or,  in  other  words,  the  concur- 
rent use  of  coins  of  two  metals  as  a 
circulating  medium,  the  ratio  of  value 
between  the  two  being  arbitrarily  fixed 
by  law.  It  is  contended  by  advocates 
of  the  system  that  by  fixing  a legal  ratio 
between  the  value  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
using  both  as  legal  tender,  fluctuations 
in  the  value  of  the  metals  are  avoided, 
while  the  prices  of  commodities  are 
rendered  steadier. 

BINARY,  twofold;  double. — Binary 
compound,  in  chemistry,  a compound  of 
two  elements,  or  of  an  element  and  a 
compound  performing  the  function  of  an 
element,  or  of  two  compounds  perform- 
ing the  function  of  elements,  according 
to  the  laws  of  combination.  The  term  is 
now  little  used. — Binary  theory  of  salts, 
the  theory  which  regarded  all  salts  as 
being  made  up  of  two  oxides,  an  acid 
oxide  and  a basic  oxide;  thus  sodium 
carbonate  as  made  up  of  soda  and  carbon 
dioxide. — Binary  star,  a double  star 


BINGHAMPTON 


BIRD’S-EYE  VIEW 


whose  members  revolve  round  a com- 
mon center  of  gravity. 

BING'HAMPTON,  a town  in  New 
York,  at  the  junction  of  the  Chenango 
and  Susquehanna  rivers,  with  numerous 
manufactures  and  an  extensive  flour 
and  lumber  trade.  Pop.  47,000. 

BINOC'ULAR,  a field-glass  or  opera- 
glass,  or  a microscope  suited  for  viewing 
objects  with  both  eyes  at  once. 

BI'OBIO,  a Chilean  river,  rises  in  Lake 
Huchueltui,  flows  in  a n.w.  direction 
for  180  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Pacific 
at  the  city  of  Concepcjon.  It  gives 
name  to  a province  of  the  country, 
with  100,000  inhabitants;  area,  4158  sq. 
miles. 

BIOGEN'ESIS,  the  history  of  life 
development  generally;  specifically, 
that  department  of  biological  science 
which  speculates  on  the  mode  by  which 
new  species  have  been  introduced ; often 
restricted  to  that  view  which  holds  that 
living  organisms  can  spring  only  from 
living  parents. 

BIOG'RAPHY,  that  department  of 
literature  which  treats  of  the  individual 
lives  of  men  or  women;  and  also  a prose 
narrative  detailing  the  history  and  un- 
folding the  character  of  an  individual 
written  by  another.  When  written  by 
the  individual  whose  history  is  told  it  is 
called  an  autobiography.  This  species 
of  writing  is  as  old  as  literature  itself. 
In  the  first  century  after  Christ  Plutarch 
wrote  his  Parallel  Lives;  Cornelius 
Nepos,  the  Lives  of  Military  Com- 
manders; and  Suetonius,  the  Lives  of 
the  Twelve  Csesars.  Modern  biograph- 
ical literature  may  be  considered  to 
date  from  the  17th  century,  since 
which  time  individual  biographies  have 
multiplied  enormously.  Dictionaries  of 
biography  have  proved  extremely  use- 
ful, Moreri’s  Dictionnaire  Historique 
et  Critique,  1671,  being  perhaps  the 
first  of  this  class.  During  the  19th 
century  have  been  published  the  Bi- 
ographie  Universelle,  85  vols.,  1811- 
62;  Nouvelle  Biographie  Generale,  46 
vols.,  1852-66;  Chalmer’s  General  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary,  32  vols.,  1812-17; 
Rose’s  Biographical  Dictionary,  12 
vols.,  1848-50;  the  admirable  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography,  63  vols., 
the  first  published  in  1885,  the  last 
in  1900,  with  Supplement  of  other  3 
vols.  (1901);  and  Appleton’s  Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Biography,  6 vols.  (1887- 
1889). 

BIOL'OGY,  a comprehensive  term 
for  those  departments  of  science  which 
treat  of  living  beings,  including  under 
this  head  both  animals  and  plants. 
It  therefore  comprehends  both  botany 
and  zoology  in  all  their  branches  and 
details. 

BI'PED,  an  animal  having  two  feet: 
applied  to  man  and  birds,  indicating 
their  mode  of  progression  rather  than 
the  mere  possession  of  two  limbs. 

BIRCH,  a genus  of  trees  which  com- 
prises only  the  birches  and  alders, 
which  inhabit  Europe,  northern  Asia, 
and  North  America.  The  common 
birch  is  indigenous  throughout  the 
north,  and  on  high  situations  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  It  is  extremely  hardy, 
and  only  one  or  two  other  species  of 
trees  approach  so  near  to  the  north  pole. 
The  wood  of  the  birch,  which  is  light 


in  color,  and  firm  and  tough  in  texture, 
is  used  for  chairs,  tables,  bedsteads,  and 
the  woodwork  of  furniture  generally, 
also  for  fish-casks  and  hoops,  and  for 
smoking  hams  and  herrings,  as  well  as 
for  many  small  articles.  In  France 
wooden  shoes  are  made  of  it.  The 
bark  is  whitish  in  color,  smooth  and 
shining,  separable  in  thin  sheets  or  laj'’- 
ers.  Fishing-nets  and  sails  are  steeped 
with  it  to  preserve  them.  In  some 
countries  it  is  made  into  hats,  shoes, 
boxes,  etc.  In  Russia  the  oil  extracted 
from  it  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
of  Russian  leather,  and  imparts  the 
well-known  scent  to  it.  In  Lapland 
bread  has  been  made  from  it.  The  sap, 
from  the  amount  of  sugar  it  contains, 
affords  a kind  of  agreeable  wine,  which 
is  produced  by  the  tree  being  tapped 
during  warm  weather  in  the  end  of 
spring  or  beginning  of  summer,  when 
the  sap  runs  most  copiously.  The 
dwarf  birch,  a low  shrub,  two  or  three 
feet  high  at  most,  is  a native  of  all  the 
most  northerly  regions.  The  cherry- 
birch  of  America,  and  also  the  black 
birch,  produce  valuable  timber,  as  do 
other  American  species.  The  largest 
of  these  is  the  yellow  birch,  which 
attains  the  height  of  80  feet.  It 
is  named  from  its  bark  being  of  a 
rich  yellow  color.  The  paper  birch  of 
America  has  a bark  that  may  readily  be 
divided  into  thin  sheets  almost  like 
paper.  From  it  the  Indian  bark  canoes 
are  made. 

BIRD,  a great  class  of  vertebrate 
animals,  warm-blooded,  covered  with 
feathers  and  ordinarily  capable  of  flight. 
They  have  existed  since  early  times, 
exhibit  an  interesting  evolution  within 
very  compact  and  well-defined  limits, 
dwell  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  are 
exceedingly  diverse  in  size,  form,  ability, 
and  appearance,  adapted  to  every  sort 
of  climate  and  food,  show  mental 
qualities  of  a high  order,  are  of  great 
importance  in  their  economic  relations 
with  man,  and  in  most  cases  are  beauti- 
ful in  outline  and  color  and  possessed  of 
melodious  voices. 

Birds  are  classified  between  the  rep- 
tiles (regarded  as  inferior  to  them)  and 
the  mammals  (regarded  as  superior  in 
general  organization).  Birds  differ  from 
mammals,  broadly,  in  being  clothed  with 
feathers  instead  of  hairs,  and  in  the 
absence  of  milk-glands,  and  by  sundry 
differences  in  anatomy  and  methods  of 
existence,  such  as  the  hatching  exter- 
nally of  eggs,  and  the  devotion  of  the  fore 
limbs  to  flight.  They  differ  from  rep- 
tiles in  having  a covering  of  feathers 
instead  of  scales;  a complete  double 
circulation  of  warm  blood;  no  more 
than  three  digits  in  the  manus,  long 
legs,  etc.  The  differences  noted  are, 
however,  of  much  less  importance  than 
those  which  separate  them  from  mam- 
mals, and  the  structural  resemblance  is 
so  close  that  some  anatomists,  notably 
Huxley,  have  included  reptiles  and 
birds  in  a single  group,  the  Sauropsida, 
comparable  to  Fishes  or  Mammals,  and 
completing,  with  them,  the  three  di- 
visions of  the  Vertebrata.  This  group- 
ing was  founded  upon  the  fact  that  birds 
and  reptiles  were  alike  in  being  ovipa- 
rous or  ovo viviparous ; in  having  a 
cloaca;  in  the  incompleteness  of  the 


diaphragm,  and  of  a corpus  callosum  in 
the  brain;  in  having  only  one  occipital 
condyle;  in  the  presence  of  a movable 
quadrate  bone  and  other  peculiarities 
of  the  skull;  and  in  the  fact  that  the 
ankle-joint  is  between  two  sets  of  tarsal 
bones.  The  close  relationship  thus 
implied  has  been  confirmed  by  the  dis- 
closures of  paleontology,  which  show 
that  birds  have  a reptilian  ancestry,  and 
are  an  offshoot  of  the  same  stock  as 
modern  reptiles. 

All  the  species  of  birds  now  inhabiting 
the  earth  are  the  descendents  of  ancient 
ancestors  long  since  vanished,  some  of 
which  have,  however,  left  remains 
behind  from  which  zoologists  have 
reconstructed  skeletons  of  these  animals 
quite  accurate  in  their  general  features. 
Tracks  have  been  found  in  the  sand- 
stones of  Connecticut  which  are  be- 
lieved to  be  of  ancient  gigantic  birds 
with  three  toes  and  a stride  of  seven 
feet. 

BIRD-C^LL,  an  instrument  for  imi- 
tating the  cry  of  birds  in  order  to  attract 
them  so  that  they  may  be  caught. 

BIRD-CATCHING  SPIDER,  a name 
applied  to  a gigantic  spider  which  preys 
upon  insects  and  small  birds  which  it 
hunts  for  and  pounces  on.  It  is  about 
two  inches  long,  very  hairy,  and  almost 
black ; its  feet  when  spread  out  occupy 
a surface  of  nearly  a foot  in  diameter. 

BIRD-CHERRY,  a species  of  cherry, 
a very  ornamental  tree  in  shrubberies 
from  its  purple  bark,  its  bunches  of  white 
flowers,  and  its  berries,  which  are  suc- 
cessively green,  red,  and  black.  Its 
fruits  is  nauseous  to  the  taste,  but  is 
greedily  eaten  by  birds.  The  wood  is 
much  used  for  cabinet-work.  It  is 
common  in  the  native  woods  of  Sweden 
and  Scotland. 

BIRD-LIME,  a viscous  substance 
used  for  entangling  birds  so  as  to  make 
them  easily  caught,  twigs  being  for  this 
purpose  smeared  with  it  at  places  where 
birds  resort.  It  is  prepared  from  holly- 
bark,  being  extracted  by  boiling;  also 
from  the  viscid  berries  of  the  mistletoe. 

BIRDS.  See  Ornithology. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE,  the  name  for 
members  of  a family  of  birds  of  splendid 
plumage  allied  to  the  crows,  inhabiting 
New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  family  includes  eleven  or  twelve 
genera  and  a number  of  species,  some 
of  them  remarkably  beautiful.  The 
largest  species  is  over  2 feet  in  length. 
Tlie  king  bird  of  paradise  is  possibly 
the  most  beautiful  species,  but  is  rare. 
It  has  a magnificent  plume  of  feathers, 
of  a delicate  yellow  color,  coming  up 
from  under  the  wings,  and  falling  over 
the  back  like  a jet  of  water.  The  feathers 
are  those  chiefly  worn  in  plumes.  These 
splendid  ornaments  are  confined  to  the 
male  bird. 

BIRD-SEED,  seed  for  feeding  cage- 
birds,  especially  the  seed  of  canary- 
grass. 

BIRD’S-EYE  MAPLE,  curled  maple 
the  wood  of  the  sugar-maple  when  full 
of  little  knotty  spots  somewhat  re- 
sembling birds’  eyes,  much  used  in 
cabinet-work. 

BIRD’S-EYE  VIEW,  the  representa- 
tion of  any  scene  as  it  would  appear  if 
seen  from  a considerable  elevation  right 
above. 


BIRD’S-NESTS 


BISHOP 


BIRDS’-NESTS,  Edible,  the  nests  of 
the  salangane  and  other  species  of  swifts 
found  in  the  Indian  seas.  They  are  par- 
ticularly abundant  in  the  larger  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  nest 
has  the  shape  of  a common  swallow’s 
nest,  is  found  in  caves,  particularly  on 
the  sea-shore,  and  has  the  appearance 
of  fibrous,  imperfectly  concocted  isin- 
glass.. When  procured  before  the  eggs 
are  laid  the  nests  are  of  a waxy  white- 
ness and  are  then  esteemed  most  val- 
uable; when  the  bird  has  laid  her  eggs 
they  are  of  second  quality;  when  the 
young  are  fledged  and  flown,  a third 
quality.  They  appear  to  be  composed 
of  a mucilaginous  substance  secreted  by 
special  glands,  and  not,  as  was  formerly 
thought,  made  form  a glutinous  marine 
fucus  or  seaweed.  The  Chinese  con- 
sider the  nests  as  a great  stimulant  and 
tonic,  and  it  is  said  that  about  SJ  mil- 
lions of  them  are  annually  imported 
into  Canton. 


Bird  of  paradise. 


BIRDS  OF  PASSAGE,  birds  which 
migrate  with  the  season  from  a colder 
to  a warmer,  or  from  a warmer  to  a 
colder  climate,  divided  into  summer 
birds  of  passage  and  winter  birds  of 
passage.  Such  birds  always  breed  in 
the  country  to  which  they  resort  in 
summer,  i.e.  in  the  colder  of  their  homes. 

BIRDS  OF  PREY,  the  Aecipitres  or 
Raptores,  including  vultures,  eagles, 
haw’ks  or  falcons,  buzzards,  and  owds. 

BIR'KENFELD  (-felt),  an  outlying 
principality  belonging  to  Oldenburg, 
surrounded  by  the  Rhenish  districts  of 
Coblentz  and  Treves;  area  194  sq.  miles; 
pop.  .53,409. 

BIR'KENHEAD,  a pari.,  county,  and 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in 
Cheshire,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey, 
opposite  Liverpool.  Its  commerce  is  in 
all  respects  a branch  of  that  of  Liverpool. 
The  communication  with  Liverpool  is 
by  large  steamboats  and  by  a railway 
tunnel  under  the  bed  of  the  Mersey  4^ 
miles  long  including  the  approaches, 
21  feet  high,  26  feet  wide,  the  roof  being 


about  30  feet  below  the  bed  of  the  river. 
Pop.  110,926. 

BIRMAH.  See  Burmah. 

BIR'MINGHAM,  a great  manufactur- 
ing city  of  England,  situated  on  the 
small  river  Rea  near  its  confluence  with 
the  Tame,  in  the  n.w.  of  Warwickshire, 
with  suburbs  extending  into  Stafford- 
shire and  Worcestershire;  112  miles 
n.w.  of  London,  and  97  s.e.  of  Liver- 
pool. It  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  hard- 
ware manufacture  in  Britain,  producing 
metal  articles  of  all  kinds  from  pins  to 
steam-engines.  It  manufactures  fire- 
arms in  great  quantities,  swords,  jew- 
elry, buttons,  tools,  steel-pens,  locks, 
lamps,  bedsteads,  gas-fittings,  sewing- 
machines,  articles  of  papier-mach4, 
railway-carriages,  etc.  The  quantity  of 
solid  gold  and  silver  plate  manufactured 
is  large,  and  the  consumption  of  these 
metals  in  electroplating  is  very  great. 
Japanning,  glass  manufacturing,  and 
glass-staining  or  painting  form  impor- 
tant branches  of  industry,  as  also  does 
the  manufacture  of  chemicals.  At  Soho 
and  Smethwick  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
town  were  the  famous  works  founded 
by  Boulton  and  Watt,  who  there  manu- 
factured their  first  steam-engines,  where 
gas  was  first  used,  plating  perfected, 
and  numerous  novel  applications  tried 
and  experiments  made.  The  principal 
educational  institutions  are:  The  Uni- 
versity (opened  in  1900),  which  has 
developed  from  the  Mason  University 
College,  founded  by  Sir  Josiah  Mason  in 
1875,  opened  in  1880  and  united  with 
Queen’s  College  (as  the  medical  depart- 
ment) in  1892;  a Roman  Catholic  college 
(at  Oscott);  King  Edward’s  Grammar 
School;  and  a school  of  art  and  design. 
Pop.  522,182. 

BIRMINGHAM,  a city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Jefiferson  Co.,  Ala.,  and  an  impor- 
tant manufacturing  center,  97  miles 
northwest  of  Montgomery,  on  the  Central 
Railroad  of  Georgia,  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  the  Southern,  the  Alabama 
Great  Southern,  and  the  Kansas  City, 
Memphis,  and  Birmingham  railroads. 
The  chief  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  in  various  forms.  Be- 
sides pig-iron  furnaces,  foundries,  engine 
and  boiler  works,  machine-shops,  and 
car-wheel  works,  it  has  cotton-factories, 
packing-houses,  cottonseed-oil  mills,  and 
extensive  iron  and  coal  mining  and  lum- 
ber interests.  Pop.  42,000. 

BIRS  NIMRUD,  a famous  mound  in 
Babylonia,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, 6 miles  s.w.  of  Hillah,  generally 
identified  as  the  remains  of  the  Tower  of 
Babel. 

BIRTH,  or  LABOR,  in  physiology,  is 
the  act  by  which  a female  of  the  class 
Mammalia  brings  one  of  her  own  species 
into  the  world.  When  the  fcetus  has  re- 
mained its  due  time  in  the  womb,  and 
is  in  a condition  to  carry  on  a separate 
existence,  it  is  extruded  from  its  place 
of  confinement,  in  order  to  live  the  life 
which  belongs  to  its  species,  independ- 
ently of  the  mother.  The  period  of 
gestation  is  very  different  in  different 
animals,  but  in  each  particular  species 
it  is  fixed  with  much  precision.  At  the 
end  of  the  thirty-ninth  or  the  beginning 
of  the  fortieth  week,  the  human  child 
has  reached  its  perfect  state,  and  is  ca- 
pable of  living  separate  from  the  mother; 


hence  follows  in  course  its  separation 
from  her,  that  is,  the  birth.  Contrac- 
tions of  the  womb  gradually  come  on, 
which  are  called,  from  the  painful  sen- 
sations accompanying  them,  labor-pains. 
The  contractions  of  the  womb  take  place 
in  the  same  order  as  the  enlargement 
had  previously  done,  the  upper  part  of 
it  first  contracting,  while  the  mouth  of 
the  womb  enlarges  and  grows  thin,  and 
the  vagina  becomes  loose  and  distensi- 
ble. By  this  means  the  foetus,  as  the 
space  within  the  womb  is  gradually 
narrowed,  descends  with  a turning 
motion  toward  the  opening,  and  some 
time  after  the  head  of  the  child  appears 
and  the  rest  of  the  body  soon  follows. 
An  artificial  birth  is  that  which  is  accom- 
plished by  the  help  of  art,  with  in.stru- 
ments  or  the  hands  of  the  attendant. 
Premature  birth  is  one  which  happens 
some  weeks  before  the  usual  time, 
namely,  after  the  seventh  and  before 
the  end  of  the  ninth  month.  Late  birth 
is  a birth  after  the  usual  period  of  forty 
weeks.  Although  this  is  considered 
the  usual  time  for  legitimate  births,  the 
practice  of  the  English  law  courts  is  to 
allow  a longer  time  when  the  opinions 
of  the  faculty,  or  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  are'  in  favor  of  a 
protracted  gestation.  In  Scotland  a 
child  born  after  the  tenth  month  is 
accounted  illegitimate.  Abortion  and 
miscarriage  take  place  when  a foetus  is 
brought  forth  so  immature  that  it  can- 
not live.  They  happen  from  the  begin- 
ning of  pregnancy  to  .the  seventh  month, 
but  most  freciuently  in  the  third  month. 

BIRTH  MARK.  See  Ntevus. 

BIRTH'RIGHT,  any  right  or  privilege 
to  which  a person  is  entitled  by  birth, 
such  as  an  estate  descendible  by  law  to 
an  heir,  or  civil  liberty  under  a free  con- 
stitution. See  Primogeniture. 

BIS'CAY,  a province  of  Spain  near 
its  northeast  corner,  one  of  the  three 
Basque  provinces  (the  other  two  being 
Alava  and  Guipuzcoa),  area  850  sq. 
miles.  The  surface  is  generally  moun- 
tainous; the  most  important  mineral 
is  iron,  which  is  extensively  worked; 
capital,  Bilbao.  Pop.  290,222. 

BISCAY,  BAY  OF,  that  part  of  the 
Atlantic  which  lies  between  the  pro- 
jecting coasts  of  France  and  Spain,  ex- 
tending from  Ushant  to  Cape  Finisterre, 
celebrated  for  its  dangerous  navigation. 

BISCUIT  (bis'ket),  a kind  of  hard,  dry 
bread  which  is  not  liable  to  spoil  when 
kept.  Biscuits  are  either  fermented  or 
unfermented,  the  kinds  in  ordinary  use 
being  generally  fermented,  while  the 
unfermented  biscuit  is  much  used  at 
sea,  and  hence  called  sea-biscuit. 

BISHOP,  the  highest  of  the  three 
orders  in  the  Christian  ministry — bish- 
ops, priests,  and  deacons — in  such 
churches  as  recognize  three  grades. 
Originally  in  the  Christian  church,  the 
name  was  used  interchangeably  with 
presbyter  or  elder  for  the  overseer  or 
pastor  of  a congregation;  but  at  a com- 
paratively early  period  a position  of 
special  authority  was  held  by  the 
pastors  of  the  Christian  communities  be- 
longing to  certain  places,  and  the  name 
of  bishop  became  limited  to  these  by 
way  of  distinction.  There  is  much  that 
is  doubtful  or  disputed  in  regard  to  the 
history  of  the  episcopal  office.  Roman 


BISMARCK 


BISON 


Catholics  and  many  others  hold  that  it 
is  of  divine  ordination  and  existed  al- 
ready in  apostolic  times;  and  they 
maintain  the  doctrine  of  the  apostolical 
succession,  that  is  to  sarr,  the  doctrine 
of  the  transmission  of  the  ministerial 
authority  in  uninterrupted  succession 
from  Christ  to  the  apostles,  and  through 
these  from  one  bishop  to  another.  Pres- 
byterians deny  that  the  office  was  of 
divine  or  apostolic  origin,  and  hold  that 
it  was  an  upgrowth  of  subsequent  times 
easily  accounted  for,  certain  of  the  pres- 
b3ders  or  pastors  acquiring  precedence 
as  bishops  over  others,  just  as  the 
bishops  of  the  chief  cities  (Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  Alexandria,  Constantinople, 
Rome)  obtained  precedence  among  the 
bishops  and  received  the  title  of  metro- 
politan bishops;  -r-hile  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  head 
of  the  church  and  the  true  successor  of 
Peter.  At  present  in  the  11.  Catholic 
Church  the  bishop  is  usually  elected  by 
the  presbyters  of  the  diocese,  subject 
to  the  approbation  of  the  pope  and  of 
the  secular  power.  When  the  monarch 
is  Roman  Catholic  a bishopric  may  be 
in  the  royal  gift,  subject  to  papal  appro- 
val. The  bishop  comes  next  in  rank  to 
the  cardinal.  His  special  insignia  are 
the  miter  and  crosier  or  pastoral  stgff, 
a gold  ring,  the  pallium,  dalmatica, 
etc.  He  guards  the  purity  of  doctrine 
in  his  diocese,  appoints  professors  in 
the  clerical  colleges,  licenses  books  on 
religious  subjects,  ordains  and  appoints 
the  clergy,  consecrates  churches,  takes 
charge  of  the  management  of  funds 
for  ecclesiastical  or  pious  purposes,  etc. 
The  bishops  of  the  Greek  Church  have 
similar  functions  but  on  the  whole  less 
authority.  They  are  always  selected 
from  the  monastic  orders. 

In  the  Church  of  England  bishops  are 
nominated  by  the  sovereign,  who,  upon 
request  of  the  dean  and  chapter  for 
leave  to  elect  a bishop,  sends  a conge 
d’elire,  or  license  to  elect,  with  a letter 
missive,  nominating  the  person  whom 
he  would  have  chosen.  The  election, 
by  the  chapter,  must  be  made  within 
twelve  days,  or  the  sovereign  has  a right 
to  appoint  whom  he  pleases. 

In  the  U.  States  there  are  24  arch- 
bishops, and  86  bishops  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  upward  of  a hun- 
dred bishops  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  (North)  has  28  bishops,  and  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  (South) 
has  twelve.  The  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  in  the  U.  States  has  13  bish- 
ops, and  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church 
has  seven.  There  is  also  a bishop  of  the 
Polish  Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  Old 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church,  and  one  of  the 
Syrian  Greek  Orthodox  Church  in  the 
U.  States. 

Bishops  in  partibus  infidelium  (in 
part  occupied  by  the  infidels)  are  held 
to  be  successors  of  ancient  bishops 
whose  dioceses  became  extinct.  Suf- 
fragan bishops  fill  the  function  of  assist- 
ants to  bishops. 

BISMARCK,  (bis'mark),  the  capital 
of  North  Dakota,  and  county  seat  of 
Burleigh  Co.,  ou  the  Missouri  river, 
and  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad. 
In  1883  it  was  made  the  capital  of 


Dakota  Territorjq  and  in  1889  was 
chosen  as  the  state  capital  of  North 
Dakota. 


State  Capitol,  Bismarck,  N.  D. 


BISMARCK  - SCHONHAUSEN  (bis'- 
mark-sheitn'hou-zen),  Otto  Eduard 
Leopold,  Prince;  born  of  a noble  family 
of  the  “Mark”  (Brandenburg),  at  Schon- 
hausen,  April  1,  1815;  studied  at  Got- 
tingen, Berlin,  and  Greifswald;  entered 
the  army  and  became  lieutenant  in  the 
Landwehr.  After  a brief  interval 
devoted  to  his  estates  and  to  the  office 
of  inspector  of  dikes,  he  became  in  1846 
a member  of  the  provincial  diet  of 
Saxony,  and  in  1847  of  the  Prussian 
diet.  In  1851  he  was  appointed  repre- 


Prince  Bismarck. 


sentative  of  Prussia  in  the  diet  of  the 
German  Federation  at  Frankfort,  where 
with  brief  interruptions  he  remained 
till  1359,  exhibiting  the  highest  ability 
in  his  efforts  to  eheckmate  Austria  and 
place  Prussia  at  the  head  of  the  German 
states.  From  1859-62  he  was  ambassa- 
dor at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  the  latter 
year,  after  an  embassy  to  Paris  of  five 
months’  duration,  was  appointed  first 
minister  of  the  Prussian  erown.  The 
Lower  House  persistently  refusing  to 
pass  the  bill  for  the  reorganization  of 
the  army,  Bismarck  at  once  dissolved 
it  (Oct.,  1862),  closing  it  for  four  suc- 
cessive sessions  until  the  work  of  re- 
organization was  complete.  When  pop- 
ular feeling  had  reached  its  most 
strained  point  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
question  acted  as  a diversion,  and  Bis- 
marck— by  the  skilful  manner  in  which 
he  added  the  duchies  to  Prussian  terri- 
tory, checkmated  Austria,  and  excluded 
her  from  the  new  German  confeder- 


ation, in  which  Prussia  held  the  first 
place— became  the  most  popular  man 
in  Germany.  As  chancellor  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Federal  Council  he  secured 
the  neutralization  of  Luxembourg  in 
place  of  its  cession  by  Holland  to 
France;  and,  though  in  1868  he  with- 
drew for  a few  months  into  private  life,, 
he  resumed  office  before  the  close  of  the 
year.  A struggle  between  Germany  and 
France  appearing  to  be  sooner  or  later 
inevitable,  Bismarck,  having  made  full 
preparations,  brought  matters  to  a head 
on  the  question  of  the'  Hohenzollern 
candidature  for  the  Spanish  throne. 
Having  carried  the  war  to  a successful 
issue,  he  became  chancellor  and  prince 
of  the  new  Germap  empire.  Subse- 
quently, in  1872,  he  alienated  the 
Roman  Catholic  party  by  promoting 
adverse  legal  measures  and  expelling 
the  Jesuits.  He  then  resigned  his  presi- 
dency for  a year,  though  still  continuing 
to  advise  the  emperor.  Toward  the  close 
of  1873  he  returned  to  power,  retaining 
his  position  until,  in  March,  1890,  he  dis- 
agreed with  the  emperor  and  tendered 
his  resignation.  In  1878  he  presided  at 
the  Berlin  Congress,  in  1880  at  the  Ber- 
lin Conference,  and  in  1884  at  the  Congo 
Conference.  His  life  was  twice  at- 
tempted— at  Berlin  in  1866,  and  at 
Kissingen  in  1874.  He  died  in  1898. 

BIS'MUTH,  a metal  of  a yellowish  or 
reddish-white  color,  and  a lamellar  tex- 
ture. It  is  somewhat  harder  than  lead 
and  not  malleable,  when  cold  being  so 
brittle  as  to  break  easilj"  under  the 
hammer,  so  as  to  be  reducible  to  powder. 
Its  internal  face  or  fracture  exhibits 
large  shining  plates  variously  disposed. 
It  fuses  at  476°  Fahr.,  and  expands  con- 
siderably as  it  hardens.  It  is  often 
found  in  a native  state,  crystallized  in 
rhombs  or  octahedrons,  or  in  the  form 
of  dendrites,  or  thin  laminae  investing 
the  ores  of  other  metals,  particularly 
cobalt.  Bismuth  is  used  in  the  com- 
position of  pewter,  in  the  fabrication  of 
printers’  types,  and  in  various  other 
metallic  mixtures.  The  subnitrate  or 
basic  nitrate  of  bismuth  is  used  as  a 
paint  and  as  a cosmetic,  and  is  known 
as  Pearl  White  or  Pearl  Powder. 

BI'30N,  the  name  applied  to  two 
species  of  ox.  One  of  these,  the  Euro- 
pean bison  or  aurochs,  is  now  nearly 
extinct,  being  found  only  in  the  forests 
of  Lithuania  and  the  Caucasus.  The 
other,  or  American  bison,  improperly 


Americ.au  bison. 


termed  buffalo,  was  formerly  found  over 
a wide  region  in  the  U.  States  and  west- 
ern Cana  where  it  was  wont  to  wan- 
der in  immense  herds,  but  may  now  be 
considered  as  extinct  in  the  wild  state. 


BISQUE 


BLACKBIRD 


having  been  ruthlessly  slaughtered. 
The  two  species  closely  resemble  each 
other}  the  American  bison,  however, 
being  for  the  most  part  smaller,  and 
with  shorter  and  weaker  hind-quarters. 
The  bison  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
hump  or  projection  over  its  fore- 
shoulders, at  which  point  the  adult 
male  is  almost  six  feet  in  height;  and 
for  the  long,  shaggy,  rust-colored  hair 
over  the  head,  neck,  and  fore-part  of  the 
body.  In  summer,  from  the  shoulders 
backward,  the  surface  is  covered  with  a 
very  short  hair,  smooth  and  soft  as 
velvet.  The  tail  is  short  and  tufted  at 
the  end.  The  American  bison  used  to 
be  much  hunted  for  sport  as  well  as  for 
its  flesh  and  skin.  Its  flesh  is  rather 
coarser  grained  than  that  of  the  domes- 
tic ox,  but  was  considered  by  hunters 
and  travelers  as  superior  in  tenderness 
and  flavor.  The  hump  is  highly  cele- 
brated for  its  richness  and  delicacy. 
Their  skins,  especially  that  of  the  cow, 
dressed  in  the  Indian  fashion,  with  the 
hair  on,  make  admirable  defenses 
against  the  cold,  and  are  known  as 
buffalo  robes;  the  wool  has  been  manu- 
factured into  hats,  and  a coarse  cloth. 
The  American  bison  has  been  found 
to  breed  readily  with  the  common  ox, 
the  issue  being  fertile  among  them- 
jsbIvos 

BISQUE  (bisk),  a kind  of  unglazed 
■white  porcelain  used  for  statuettes  and 
'Ornaments. 

BIT'TERN,  the  name  of  several 
grallatorial  birds.  There  are  two  Brit- 
ish species,  the  common  bittern,  and 
the  little  bittern,  a native  of  the  south, 
and  only  a summer  visitor  to  Britain. 
Both,  however,  are  becoming  rare.  The 
common  bittern  is  about  28  inches  in 
length,  about  44  in  extent  of  wing; 
general  color,  dull  yellowish-brown, 
with  spots  and  bars  of  black  or  dark 
brown;  feathers  on  the  breast  long  and 
loose ; tail  short ; bill  about  4 inches  long. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  curious  booming 
or  bellowing  cry.  The  eggs  (greenish- 
brown)  are  four  or  five  in  number.  The 
little  bittern  is  not  more  than  15  inches 
in  length.  The  American  bittern  has 
some  resemblance  to  the  common  Euro- 
pean bittern,  but  is  smaller. 

BIT'TERN,  the  syrupy  residue  from 
evaporated  sea-water  after  the  common 
salt  has  been  taken  out  of  it.  It  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  Epsom  salt  (sul- 
phate of  magnesia),  of  Glauber’s  salt 
(sulphate  of  soda),  and  contains  also 
chloride  of  magnesium,  iodine,  and 
bromine. 

BITTER-NUT,  a tree  of  N.  America, 

• of  the  walnut  order,  or  swamp-hickory, 
which  produces  small  and  somewhat 
egg-shaped  fruits,  with  a thin  fleshy 
rind;  the  kernel  is  bitter  and  uneatable. 

BITTER-ROOT,  a plant  of  Canada 
rand  part  of  the  U.  States,  so  called  from 
its  root  being  bitter  though  edible,  and 
indeed  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  by 
whites  as  well  as  Indians.  From  the 
root,  which  is  long,  fleshy,  and  tapering, 
■grow  clusters  of  succulent  green  leaves, 
with  a fleshy  stalk  bearing  a solitary 
Tose-colored  flower  rising  in  the  center, 
:and  remaining  open  only  in  sunshine. 
Flower  and  leaves  together,  the  plant 
uppears  above  ground  for  only  about 
.six  weeks. 


BITTERS,  a liquor  (frequently  spirit- 
uous), in  which  bitter  herbs  or  roots 
have  been  steeped.  Gentian,  quassia, 
angelica,  bogbean,  chamomile,  hops, 
centaury,  etc.,  are  all  used  for  prepara- 
tions of  this  kind.  The  well-known 
Angostura  bitters  have  aromatic  as 
well  as  bitter  properties. 

BITU'MEN,  a mineral  substance  of  a 
resinous  nature,  composed  principally 
of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  and  appearing 
in  a variety  of  forms  which  pass  into 
each  other  and  are  known  by  different 
names,  from  naphtha,  the  most  fluid, 
to  pertoleum  and  mineral  tar,  which  are 
less  so,  thence  to  maltha  or  mineral 
pitch,  which  is  more  or  less  cohesive, 
and  lastly  to  asphaltum  and  elastic 
bitumen  (or  elaterite),  which  are  solid. 
It  burns  like  pitch,  with  much  smoke 
and  flame.  It  consists  of  84  to  88  of 
carbon  and  12  to  16  of  hydrogen,  and 
is  found  in  the  earth,  occurring  princi- 
pally in  the  secondary,  tertiary,  and 
alluvial  formations.  It  is  a very  widely 
spread  mineral,  and  is  now  largely  em- 
ployed in  various  ways.  As  the  binding 
substance  in  mastics  and  cements  it  is 
used  for  making  roofs,  arches,  walls, 
cellar-floors,  etc.,  water-tight,  for  street 
and  other  pavements,  and  in  some  of  its 
forms  for  fuel  and  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses. The  bricks  of  which  the  walls  of 
Babylon  were  built  are  said  to  have 
been  cemented  with  bitumen,  which 
gave  them  unusual  solidity. 

BITUMINOUS  COAL.  See  Coal. 

BITUMINOUS  SHALE,  or  SCHIST,  an 
argillaceous  shale  impregnated  with 
bitumen  and  very  common  in  the  coal- 
measures.  It  is  largely  worked  for  the 
production  of  paraffin,  etc. 

BI'VALVES,  molluscous  animals  hav- 
ing a shell  consisting  of  two  halves  or 


Bivalve  shell. 

valves  that  open  by  an  elastic  hinge 
and  are  closed  by  muscles;  as  the  oyster, 
mussel,  cockle,  etc. 

BIVOUAC  (biv'u-ak),  the  encamp- 
ment of  soldiers  in  the  open  air  without 
tents,  each  remaining  dressed  and  with 
his  weapons  at  hand.  It  was  the  regular 
practice  of  the  French  revolutionary 
armies,  but  is  only  desirable  where  great 
celerity  of  movement  is  required. 

BJORNSON,  Bjornstjerne,  a cele- 
brated Norw'egian  poet,  born  at  Kvikne 
in  1832.  He  first  tried  journalism,  but 
that  failing  wrote  in  1858  his  first 
drama.  Between  the  Battles,  and  also 
in  that  year  his  first  novel.  Trust  and 
Trial.  He  became  a theatrical  manager 
in  1860,  traveled  much,  was  a leader  of 
Norwegian  republicans,  and  helped  to 
carry  the  revolution  of  1901.  His 
poems  chiefly  celebrate  the  folk  lore 
of  Scandinavia,  and  his  plays  deal 
largely  with  so-called  moral  and  social 
problems.  In  1880  he  visited  the  U. 
States,  where  he  delivered  a course  of 


lectures  and  was  well  received.  His 
principal  plays  and  novels  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

BLACK,  the  negation. of  all  color,  the 
opposite  of  white.  There  are  several 
black  pigments,  such  as  ivory-black, 
made  from  burned  ivory  or  bones;  lamp- 
black, frona  the  smoke  of  resinous  sub- 
stance; Spanish-black,  or  cork-black, 
from  burned  cork,  etc. 

BLACK,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1810,  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831,  and 
from  1842  to  1851  was  judge  of  district 
courts  in  Pennsylvania.  He  was  su- 
preme court  justice  of  Pennsylvania 
from  1851  to  1857,  attorney-general  in 
President  Buchanan’s  cabinet,  secre- 
tary of  state  in  1860,  counsel  for  Presi- 
dent Johnson  in  1868,  and  counsel  for 
Tilden  before  the  electoral  commission 
in  the  contest  of  Hayes’s  election  in 
1877.  He  died  in  1883. 

BLACK,  William,  novelist,  born  in 
Glasgow  in  1841.  His  first  novel.  Love 
or  Marriage,  1867,  was  only  moderately 
successful,  but  his  In  Silk  Attire,  Kil- 
meny.  The  Monarch  of  Mincing  Lane, 
and  especially  A Daughter  of  Heth 
(1871),  gained  him  an  increasingly  wide 
circle  of  readers.  He  died  in  1898. 
Other  works:  The  Strange  Adventures 
of  a Phaeton  (1872),  A Princess  of  Thule 
(1873),  The  Maid  of  Killeena,  etc.  (1874), 
Three  Feathers  (1875),  Madcap  Violet 
(1876),  Green  Pastures  and  Piccadilly 
(1877),  Macleod  of  Dare  (1878),  White 
Wings  (1880),  Sunrise  (1881),  The  Beau- 
tiful Wretch  (1882),  Shandon  Bells 
(1883),  Judith  Shakespeare  (1884), 
White  Heather  (1885),  The  Strange 
Adventures  of  a House-boat  (1888), 
In  Far  Lochaber  (1889),  The  Ne’w  Prince 
Fortunatus  (1890),  etc. 

BLACK-BEETLE,  a popular  name  for 
the  cockroach. 

BLACK'BERRY,  a popular  name  of 
the  bramble-berry  or  the  plant  itself. 

BLACK'BIRD,  called  also  the  merle, 
a well-known  species  of  thrush.  It 
is  larger  than  the  common  thrush,  its 
length  being  about  11  inches.  The 
color  of  the  male  is  a uniform  deep  black, 
the  bill  being  an  orange-yellow;  the 
female  is  of  a brown  color,  with  blackish- 
brown  bill.  The  nest  is  usually  in  a 
thick  bush,  and  is  built  of  grass,  roots. 


The  crow-blackbii'd. 


twigs,  etc.,  strengthened  with  clay. 
The  eggs,  generally  four  or  five  in  num- 
ber, are  of  a greenish-blue,  spotted  with 
various  shades  of  brown.  The  song  is 
rich,  mellow,  and  flute-like,  but  of  no 
great  variety  of  compass.  Its  food  is 
insects,  worms,  snails,  fruits,  etc.  The 


BLACKBURN 


BLACKSTONE 


blackbirds  or  crow-blackbirds  of  Amer- 
ica are  quite  different  from  the 
European  blackbird,  and  are  more 
nearly  allied  to  the  starlings  and  crows. 
See  Crow-blackbird.  The  red-winged 
blackbird,  belonging  to  the  starling 
family,  is  a familiar  American  bird  that 
congregates  in  great  flocks. 

BLACK'BURN,  a municipal  county, 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
Lancashire,  21  miles  n.n.w.  from  Man- 
chester. Blackburn  is  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  cotton  manufacture,  there 
being  upward  of  140  mills,  as  well  as 
works  for  making  cotton  machinery  and 
steam-engines.  Pop.  127,527. 

BLACK  DEATH.  See  Plague. 

BLACK  DRAUGHT,  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesia and  infusion  of  senna,  with  aro- 
matics to  make  it  palatable. 

BLACKFEET  INDIANS,  a tribe  of 
American  Indians,  partly  inhabiting 
the  U.  States,  partly  Canada,  from  the 
A^ellowstone  to  Hudson’s  Ba}'. 

BLACKFISH,  a fish  caught  on  the 
American  coast,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  Long  Island,  whence  large 
supplies  are  obtained  for  the  New  York 
market.  Its  back  and  sides  are  of  a 


Blackfish. 


bluish  or  crow  black,  the  under  parts, 
especially  in  the  males,  are  white.  It 
is  plump  in  appearance,  and  much 
esteemed  for  the  table,  varying  in  size 
from  2 to  12  lbs. 

BLACK  FOREST,  a chain  of  European 
mountains  in  Baden  and  Wiirtemberg, 
running  almost  parallel  with  the  Rhine 
for  about  85  ftiiles.  The  Danube, 
Neckar,  Kinzig,  and  other  streams,  rise 
in  the  Black  Forest,  which  is  rather  a 
chain  of  elevated  plains  than  of  isolated 
peaks;  highest  summit,  Feldberg,  4900 
feet.  The  skeleton  of  the  chain  is  granite, 
its  higher  points  covered  with  sand- 
stone. The  principal  mineral  is  iron, 
and  there  are  numerous  mineral  springs. 
The  forests  are  extensive,  chiefly  of 
pines  and  similar  species,  and  yield 
much  timber.  The  manufacture  of 
wooden  clocks,  toys,  etc.,  is  the  most 
important  industry,  employing  about 
40,000  persons.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
forest  are  quaint  and  simple  in  their 
habits,  and  the  whole  district  preserves 
its  old  legendary  associations. 

BLACK  FRIARS,  friars  of  the  Domin- 
ican order;  so  called  from  their  habit. 

BLACK  FRIDAY,  the  name  given  to 
Friday,  Sept.  24,  1869,  or  Friday,  Sept. 
19,  1873,  on  both  of  which  days  Wall 
Street,  New  York,  was  stricken  with 
money  panics.  The  first  panic  was 
caused  by  the  Fisk-Gould  attempt  to 
corner  gold;  the  second  was  the  financial 
smash  which  was  part  of  the  general 
panic  of  1873. 

BLACK  GUM,  an  American  tree, 
yielding  a close-grained,  useful  wood; 
fruit  a drupe  of  blue-black  color,  whence 
it  seems  to  get  its  name  of  “black” ; it  has 
no  gum  about  it.  It  is  called  also  pep- 
peridge,  and  has  been  introduced  into 
Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree. 


BLACK  HAWK,  a historic  Indian, 
chief  of  the  Sacs,  who  repudiated  his 
father’s  sale  of  the  land  of  the  Sacs  and 
Foxes  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  made 
war  on  the  Americans  in  1812.  In  1830 
Black  Hawk  opened  war  a second  time 
and  was  defeated  at  the  Wisconsin 
river  by  Dodge,  July  21,  1832.  On 
Aug.  1 he  surrendered  and  was  con- 
fined in  Fortress  Monroe  until  1833. 
He  died  Oct.  18,  1838. 

BLACK  HILLS,  a part  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  Range  in  South  Dakota. 
They  cover  a total  area  of  about  6000 
sq.  miles,  1893  sq.  miles  of  which  have 
been  set  apart  by  the  U.  States  govern- 
ment as  a forest  reserve.  They  are 
drained  and  nearly  surrounded  by  the 
two  main  forks  of  the  Cheyenne  river. 
Their  altitude  ranges  from  between 
2500  and  3000  feet  at  their  base,  to  the 
summit  of  Harney  Peak,  7216  feet  in 
height.  The  mountains  were  formed 
by  a local  uplift,  which  raised  the 
Archaean  and  later  formations  into  a 
concentric  fold.  The  Black  Hills  dis- 
trict was  first  partly  explored  in  1874 
by  an  expedition  under  General  Custer, 
when  gold  was  discovered.  In  1876, 
after  some  hostilities,  a treaty  made 
with  the  Sioux  Indians  opened  the 
country  to  settlement,  and  Deadwood, 
Central  City,  Lead  City,  and  other 
towns  grew  up  very  rapidly.  The 
Black  Hills  constitute  one  of  the  richest 
gold-mining  districts  in  the  U.  States. 

BLACK  HOLE  OF  CALCUTTA,  a 
small  chamber,  20  feet  square,  in  the  old 
fort  of  Calcutta,  in  which,  after  their 
capture  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  the  whole 
garrison  of  146  men  were  confined  dur- 
ing the  night  of  June  21,  1756.  Only 
twenty-three  survived.  The  spot  is  now 
marked  by  a monument. 

BLACKING,  for  boots  and  shoes,  etc., 
usually  contains  for  its  principal  in- 
gredients oil,  vinegar,  ivory  or  bone 
black,  sugar  or  molasses,  strong  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  sometimes  caoutchouc 
and  gum-arabic.  It  is  used  either  liquid 
or  in  the  form  of  paste,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  that  in  making  the  paste  a 
portion  of  the  vinegar  is  withheld. 

BLACK  LEAD.  See  Graphite. 

BLACKLEG,  a disease  which  afflicts 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  horses,  but 
from  which  man  is  immune.  It  is 
caused  by  a germ  which  produces 
tumors  in  the  muscles  and  various 
systemic  symptoms  which  end  almost 
always  in  death.  It  is  chiefly  prevalent 
in  Kansas,  Texas,  Colorado,  and  South 
Dakota.  Blackleg  may  be  prevented 
by  vaccination. 

BLACK-LETTER,  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  the  Gothic  characters 
which  began  to  supersede  the  Roman 
characters  in  the  writings  of  western 
Europe  toward  the  close  of  the  12th 
century.  The  first  types  were  in  black- 
letter,  but  these  were  gradually  modi- 
fied in  Italy  until  they  took  the  later 
Roman  shape  introduced  into  most  Eu- 
ropean states  during  the  16th  century. 

BLACKLIST,  a term  applied  to  a 
number  of  persons  who  are  deemed 
obnoxious  by  the  maker  of  the  list  and 
against  whom  he  warns  his  associates, 
and  with  whom  he  refuses  to  have  any 
kind  of  business  dealings,  either  as 
employer  or  trader.  Black  lists  have 


been  used  in  almost  every  kind  of  busi- 
ness. The  alleged  black  list  of  the  rail- 
roads against  those  who  took  part  in 
the  Pullman  and  other  strikes,  and  the 
notorious  baseball  black  list  of  the  base- 
ball organizations  under  the  famous 
“national  agreement”  of  a few  years 
ago,  are  notable  instances  of  this  process 
in  the  U.  States. 

BLACKMAIL,  a certain  rate  of  money, 
corn,  cattle,  or  the  like,  anciently  paid 
in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scot- 
land, to  certain  men  who  were  allied 
to  robbers,  to  be  protected  by  them 
from  pillage.  Blackmail  was  levied 
in  the  districts  bordering  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  till  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century. 

The  term  now  generally  survives  as 
the  designation  of  an  attempt  to  extort 
money,  or  other  things,  by  threats, 
usually  of  exposure  or  calumny.  In 
many  states  blackmail  by  written  threat 
is  deemed  actionable. 

BLACKMORE,  Richard  Doddridge, 
novelist,  born  at  Longworth,  Berkshire, 
1825,  died  in  1900.  His  greatest  success 
was  Lorna  Doone,  a Romance  of  Exmoor 
(1869),  one  of  the  best  of  modern 
romances. 

BLACK  MOUNTAINS,  the  group 
which  contains  the  highest  summits. of 
the  Appalachian  system,  Clingman’s 
Peak  being  6701  feet,  Guyot’s  Peak 
6661.  See  Appalachian  Mountains. 

BLACK  SEA,  a sea  situated  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  mainly  bounded 
by  the  Russian  and  Turkish  dominions, 
being  connected  with  the  Mediterranean 
by  the  Bosporus,  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 
Dardanelles,  and  by  the  Strait  of 
Kertsch  with  the  Sea  of  Azov,  which 
is,  in  fact,  only  a bay  of  the  Black  Sea; 
area  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of 
Azov  about  175,000  square  miles,  with  a 
depth  in  the  center  of  more  than  150 
fathoms  and  few  shoals  along  its  shores. 
The  water  is  not  so  clear  as  that  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  is  less  salt  on  ac- 
count of  the  many  large  rivers  which 
fall  into  it  — the  Danube,  Dniester, 
Dnieper,  Don,  etc.  Though  not  tidal,, 
there  are  strong  currents.  The  tem- 
pests on  it  are  very  violent,  as  the  land: 
which  confines  its  agitated  waters  gives; 
to  them  a kind  of  whirling  motion,  and 
in  the  winter  it  is  scarcely  navigable. 
During  January  and  February  the 
shores  from  Odessa  to  the  Crimea  are 
ice-bound.  It  contains  few  islands,  and 
those  of  small  extent.  The  most  im- 
portant ports  are  those  of  Odessa, 
Kherson,  Nicolaiev,  Sebastopol,  Batum, 
Trebizond,  Samsun,  Sinope,  and  Varna. 

BLACKSNAKE,  a common  snake 
reaching  a length  of  5 or  6 feet,  and  so 
agile  and  swift  as  to  have  been  named 
the  racer,  with  no  poison  fangs,  and 
therefore  comparatively  harmless.  It 
feeds  on  small  quadrupeds,  birds,  and 
the  like,  and  is  especially  useful  in  killing 

BLACK'STONE,  Sir  William,  an  emi- 
nent jurist,  born  in  London  in  1723; 
educated  at  the  Charter  House  and 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  In  1743 
he  was  elected  fellow  of  All-Souls  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  in  1746  was  called  to. 
the  bar;  but,  having  attended  the  West- 
minster law-courts  for  seven  years, 
without  success,  he  retired  to  Oxford 


BLACKTAIL 


BLAND 


Here  he  gave  lectures  on  law,  which 
suggested  to  Mr.  Viner  the  idea  of 
founding  a professorship  at  Oxford  for 
the  study  of  the  common  law;  and 
Blackstone  was  in  1758  chosen  the  first 
Vinerian  professor.  In  1761  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Hindon,  made  king’s 
counsel  and  solicitor-general  to  the 
queen.  In  1765  he  published  the  first 
volume  of  his  famous  Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  England,  the  other  three 
volumes  being  produced  at  intervals 
during  the  next  four  years.  Its  merits 
as  an  exposition  made  it  for  a long 
period  the  principal  text-book  of  Eng- 
lish law.  In  1770  he  was  knighted  and 
made  one  of  the  justices  of  Common 
Pleas,  continuing  in  office  until  his 
death  in  1780. 

BLACKTAIL,  an  American  deer,  so 
called  because  of  its  black  tail.  Similar 
in  its  general  characters  to  the  mule  deer, 
it  occupies  the  coast  region  from  central 
California  to  Alaska.  Its  color  is  brown- 
gray  mottled  with  black,  and  it  has  a 
black  stripe  along  the  spine. 

BLACK  TIN,  tin  ore  when  dressed, 
stamped,  and  washed  ready  for  smelt- 
ing, forming  a black  powder. 

BLACK  VOMIT,  the  dark  substance 
thrown  up  in  yellow  fever;  hence  a name 
of  this  disease. 

BLACK  WADD,  an  ore  of  manganese, 
used  as  a drying  ingredient  in  paints. 

BLACKWELL,  Elizabeth,  the  first 
woman  who  ever  obtained  the  degree  of 

M. D.  She  was  born  in  England  in  1821 , 
and  settled  in  America  with  her  parents 
in  1831.  After  numerous  difficulties  she 
was  admitted  into  the  College  of  Geneva, 

N.  Y.,  and  graduated  M.  D.  in  1849. 

BLADDER,  Urinary,  a musculo- 

membranous  bag  or  pouch  present  in  all 
Mammalia,  destined  to  receive  and 
retain  for  a time  the  urine  which  is 
secreted  by  the  kidneys.  It  occupies 
the  anterior  and  median  portion  of  the 
pelvis,  and  in  the  male  of  the  human 
subject  is  situated  behind  the  pubis  and 
above  and  in  front  of  the  rectum;  in  the 
female  above  and  in  front  of  the  vagina 
and  uterus.  The  urine  secreted  by  the 
kidneys  is  conveyed  into  this  reservoir 
by  means  of  two  tubes  called  the  ureters, 
which  open  near  the  neck  or  lower  part 
of  the  bladder  in  an  oblique  direction, 
by  which  means  they  prevent  the  reflux 
of  the  urine.  When  empty  it  forms  a 
rounded,  slightly  conoid  mass  about 
the  size  of  a small  hen’s  egg.  As  it 
gradually  fills  with  urine  its  walls  be- 
come distended  in  all  directions  except 
in  front,  and  it  then  rises  above  the 
elvis  proper  into  the  abdomen.  It  is 
eld  in  its  place  by  two  lateral  ligaments, 
one  on  each  side,  and  an  anterior  liga- 
ment. The  contents  are  carried  off  by 
the  urethra,  which,  as  well  as  the  neck 
of  the  bladder,  is  surrounded  by  a 
structure  called  the  prostate  gland. 

BLADDERWORT,  the  common  name 
of  slender  aquatic  plants,  species  of 
which  are  natives  of  Britain,  the  United 
States,  etc.,  growing  in  ditches  and 
pools.  They  are  named  from  having 
little  bladders  or  vesicles,  that  fill  with 
air  at  the  time  of  flowering  and  raise 
the  plant  in  the  water,  so  that  the 
blossoms  expand  above  the  surface. 

BLAINE,  James  Gillespie,  American 
statesman,  born  1830.  He  entered 


Washington  College,  Pa.,  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  graduated  in  1847,  studied 
law,  acted  as  a teacher,  and  then  having 
gone  to  Augusta,  Maine,  was  for  several 
years  newspaper  editor.  He  was  sent 
to  congress  by  Maine  as  a republican  in 
1862,  and  was  repeatedly  reelected. 
He  was  several  times  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  In  1876  he 
entered  the  senate;  in  1884  he  was 
nominated  for  the  presidency,  but  was 
defeated  by  Mr.  Cleveland.  In  1884 
appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  Twenty 
Years  of  Congress,  a work  which  has  had 
a very  favorable  reception.  He  died  in 
January,  1893. 

BLAIR,  Francis  Preston,  an  American 
politician  and  writer,  born  in  1791,  at 
Abingdon,  Va.,  died  1876.  He  sup- 
ported Abraham  Lincoln  for  the  presi- 
dency and  took  part  in  the  famous  peace 
conference  at  Hampton  Roads,  Feb. 
3,  1865. 

BLAIR,  Francis  Preston,  an  American 
statesman,  soldier  and  jurist,  born  in 
Lexington,  Ky.,  in  1821,  died  1875. 
He  settled  in  St.  Louis,  took  the  federal 
side  during  the  civil  war,  after  which 
he  became  a democrat  and  was  candi- 
date for  vice-president  in  1868. 

BLAIR,  John  Insley,  an  American 
philanthropist,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1802,  died  1899.  He  founded  Blair 
Hall  at  Princeton  University  and  gave 
large  endowments  to  other  schools  and 
colleges.  He  was  one  of  the  builders 
of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  & Western 
Railroad. 

BLAIR,  Montgomery,  an  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1813,  died  1883.  He  settled  in  St. 
Louis,  and  was  counsel  for  the  defend- 
ant in  the  famous  Dred  Scott  case.  He 
was  postmaster-general  in  Lincoln’s 
cabinet  and  introduced  the  money-order 
system  in  the  American  postal  service. 
He  subsequently  joined  the  democratic 
party  and  was  a supporter  of  Tilden 
in  the  Tilden-Hayes  controversy. 

BLAKE,  Eli  Whitney,  an  American 
inventor,  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in 
1795,  died  in  1886.  His  principal  inven- 
tion was  the  famous  stone-crusher  called 
by  his  name. 

BLAKE,  Lillie  Devereaux,  an  Ameri- 
can reformer,  born  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  in 
1835.  She  became  known  as  a novelist 
in  the  early  sixties  and  for  20  years, 
until  1890,  served  as  president  of  the 
New  York  State  Woman’s  Suffrage 
Association.  She  is  also  known  as  a 
most  capable  lecturer. 

BLAKE,  Robert,  a celebrated  British 
admiral,  was  born  at  Bridgewater  in 
1599,  died  at  the  entrance  of  Plymouth 
Sound  1657.  He  was  elected  member 
for  Bridgewater  in  the  parliament  of 
1640.  This  being  soon  dissolved  he  lost 
his  election  for  the  next,  and  sought  to 
advance  the  parliamentary  cause  in  a 
military  capacity  in  the  war  which  then 
broke  out.  He  soon  distinguished  him- 
self, and  in  1649  he  was  sent  to  command 
the  fleet  with  Colonels  Deane  and  Pop- 
ham.  His  greatest  achievements  were 
in  the  Dutch  war  which  broke  out  in 
1652.  In  November,  1654,  he  was  sent 
with  a strong  fleet  to  enforce  a due 
respect  to  the  British  flag  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. He  sailed  first  to  Algiers, 
which  submitted,  and  then  demolished 


the  castles  of  Goletta  and  Porto  Ferino, 
at  Tunis,  because  the  dey  refused  to 
deliver  up  the  British  captives. 
squadron  of  his  ships  also  blocked  up 
Cadiz,  and  intercepted  a Spanish  Plate 


Admiral  Blake. 


fleet.  In  April,  1657,  he  sailed  with 
twenty-four  ships  to  Santa  Cruz,  in 
Teneriffe;  and,  notwithstanding  the 
strength  of  the  place,  burned  the  ships 
of  another  Spanish  Plate  fleet  which 
had  taken  shelter  there,  and  by  a for- 
tunate change  of  wind  came  out  without 
loss. 

BLAKE,  William,  mystic  artist  and 
poet,  author  of  many  exquisite  lyrics, 
and  of  designs  mainly  allegorical  or 
symbolical,  was  the  son  of  a London 
hosier,  and  was  born  in  1757.  Failing 
to  find  a publisher  for  his  work  Songs 
of  Innocence,  he  invented  a process  by 
which  he  was  both  printer  and  illustrator 
of  his  own  poems.  Some  of  his  best- 
known  works  are;  Gates  of  Paradise, 
Book  of  Thel,  Marriage  of  Heaven  and 
Hell,  Songs  of  Experience,  Book  of 
Urizen,  Song  of  Los,  Book  of  Ahania, 
etc.  He  died  in  1828. 

BLANCHARD,  Thomas,  an  American 
inventor,  born  in  1788,  died  in  1864. 
His  principal  inventions  were  a tack- 
making machine,  a lathe  for  turning 
gun-barrels,  and  several  contrivances 
for  steamboat  navigation. 

BLANCHE  OF  CASTILE,  daughter  of 
Alphonso  IX.,  queen  of  Louis  VIII., 
king  of  France,  and  mother  of  St.  Louis, 
born  1187,  died  1252  or  1253.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  VIII.  she  procured  the 
coronation  of  her  son,  and  during  his 
minority  held  the  reins  of  government 
in  his  name  with  distinguished  success. 
In  1244,  when  St.  Louis  left  for  the 
Holy  Land,  she  again  became  regent, 
and  gave  new  proofs  of  her  abilities  and 
firmness  as  a ruler. 

BLANC  - MANGE  (ble-manzh'),  in 
cookery,  a name  of  different  prepara- 
tions of  the  consistency  of  a jelly,  vari- 
ously composed  of  dissolved  isinglass, 
arrow-root,  maize-flour,  etc.,  with  milk 
and  flavoring  substances. 

BLAND,  Richard  Parks,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1835, 
died  in  1899.  He  settled  in  Missouri. 
He  served  as  congressman  from  that 
state  from  1872  till  his  death.  He  was 
an  ardent  supporter  of  the  silver  move- 
ment, and  introduced  the  celebrated 
Bland  Act  of  1878  for  the  coinage  of 
silver.  In  1896  he  was  a prominent 


BLANKET 


Bleaching 


candidate  for  the  presidential  nomina- 
tion at  the  Chicago  convention. 

BLANKET,  a woolen  covering  for  the 
bed  or  for  the  person.  Blanket  manu- 
facture in  the  Lf.  States  has  grown 
vastly  since  the  war  of  1812,  and  the 
industry'  is  chiefly  in  New  England. 
Excellent  blankets  are  made  by  the 
natives  of  India,  and  also  by  the  N. 
American  Indians.  In  recent  years  the 
industry  has  grown  considerably  in  Cal- 
ifornia and  Oregon. 

BLANK  VERSE,  verse  without  rhyme, 
first  introduced  into  English  poetry 
(from  the  Italian)  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey. 
The  most  common  form  of  English 
blank  verse  is  the  decasyllabic,  such  as 
that  of  Milton’s  Paradise  Lost,  or  of  the 
dramas  of  Shakespeare.  From  Shake- 
speare’s time  it  has  been  the  kind  of 
verse  almost  universally  used  by  dra- 
matic writers,  who  often  employ  an 
additional  syllable,  making  the  lines 
not  strictly  decasyllabic.  The  first  use 
of  the  term  blank  verse  is  said  to  be 
in  Hamlet,  ii.  2:  “The  lady  shall  say  her 
mind  freely,  or  the  blank  verse  shall 
halt  for’t.’’  The  term  is  not  applied  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Early  English 
alliterative  unrhymed  verse. 

BLAR'NEY,  a village  in  Ireland,  4 
miles  n.w.  of  the  city  of  Cork,  with 
Blarney  Castle  in  its  vicinity.  A stone 
called  the  Blarney  Stone,  near  the  top 
of  the  castle,  is  said  to  confer  on  those 
who  kiss  it  the  peculiar  kind  of  per- 
suasive eloquence  alleged  to  be  charac- 
teristic of  the  natives  of  Ireland. 

BLAS'PHEMY  is  the  denying  of  the 
existence  of  God,  assigning  to  him  false 
attributes,  or  denying  his  true  attributes; 
contumelious  reproaches  of  our  Savior; 
profane  scoffing  at  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
or  exposing  them  to  ridicule  and  con- 
tempt. In  Catholic  countries  it  also 
includes  the  speaking  contemptuously 
or  disrespectfully  of  the  Holy  Virgin  or 
the  saints. 

BLAST-FURNACE,  the  name  given 
to  the  common  smelting-furnace  used 
for  obtaining  iron  from  its  ores  with  the 
aid  of  a powerful  blast  of  air.  This  air- 
blast,  which  is  propelled  by  a powerful 
blowing-engine  and  is  now  invariably 
heated  to  a high  temperature  (600°  to 
900°  F.),  is  injected  by  pipes  called 
tuyeres,  situated  as  shown  at  A in  the 
annexed  vertical  section,  in  the  lowest 
part  of  the  furnace,  near  to  the 
hearth  B.  The  conical  part  c next 
above  the  hearth  is  termed  the  boshes, 
and  the  interior  is  continued  upward, 
sometimes,  as  in  the  annexed  cut,  in  a 
tapered  body  or  cone  d,  sometimes  as  a 
perpendicular  cylinder,  which  is  sur- 
mounted by  an  opening  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  materials  from  an  exter- 
nal gallery  F.  The  exterior  consists  of 
massive  masonry  of  stone  or  firebrick, 
the  body  part  being  l_ied  with  two 
shells  of  firebricks  separated  by  a thin 
space  to  allow  for  expansion,  this  space 
being  generally  filled  with  sand,  ground 
fire-clay,  or  the  like,  to  hinder  the 
radiation  of  heat  to  the  outside.  When 
the  body  rises  in  the  form  of  a perpen- 
dicular cylinder  it  is  called  the  barrel. 
The  cone  or  barrel  is  sometimes  clasped 
round  on  the  outside  by  numerous 
strong  iron  hoops,  or  is  cased  with  iron 
plates  fastened  to  the  masonry  by  iron 


bolts.  The  boshes  C are  lined  with  fire- 
brick or  firestone,  and  the  hearth  b is 
built  with  large  blocks  of  refractory 
stone.  The  charging  of  the  furnace 
goes  on  all  day  and  night,  one  charge 
consisting  of  a barrow-load  of  coal  and 


Section  of  blast  furnace. 


a barrow-load  of  ore,  char,  and  lime, 
the  last  mineral  acting  as  a flux.  These 
charges  are  constantly  passing  down- 
ward and  undergoing  a change  as  they 
come  nearer  the  hotter  parts  of  the 
furnace.  Toward  the  lower  part  the 
earthy  matter  of  the  ore  unites  with 
the  limestone  and  forms  a slag,  which 
finally  escapes  at  an  opening  below  the 
tuyeres,  and  the  molten  metal  drops 
down  and  fills  the  lower  part  at  b,  to  be 
drawn  off  at  stated  periods.  This  is 
done  usually  twice  in  the  twenty-four 
hours  by  means  of  a round  hole  called 
a tap.  The  furnace  is  constantly  kept 
filled  to  within  about  2 feet  of  the  top. 
The  ore  put  in  at  the  top  takes  about 
thirty-six  hours  before  it  comes  out  as 
iron.  Hematite  yields  on  an  average 
about  55  per  cent  of  metal,  and  black- 
band  about  40  to  50.  In  the  newer 
forms  of  furnaces  the  top  is  closed,  and 
the  gases  formerly  burned  at  the  top 
are  conveyed  by  pipes  g to  be  utilized 
as  fuel  in  heating  the  blast  and  in  raising 
steam  for  the  blowing-engine.  The 
principle  adopted  is  to  close  the  top  by 
a bell-and-cone  arrangement  e,  which 
is  opened  and  shut  at  pleasure  by 
hydraulic  or  other  machinery.  The 
height  of  furnaces  varies  from  50  to  80, 
and  even  in  some  cases  to  upward  of 
100  feet,  and  the  greatest  width  is  about 
one-third  of  this. 

BLASTING,  the  operation  of  breaking 
up  masses  of  stone  or  rock  in  situ  by 
means  of  gunpowder  or  other  explosive. 
In  ordinary  operations  holes  are  bored 
into  the  rock  from  1 to  6 inches  in 
diameter,  by  means  of  a steel-pointed 
drill,  by  striking  it  with  hammers  or 
allowing  it  to  fall  from  a height.  After 
the  hole  is  bored  to  the  requisite  depth 
it  is  cleaned  out,  the  explosive  is  intro- 
duced, the  hole  is  “tamped”  or  filled  up 


with  broken  stone,  clay,  or  sand,  and 
the  charge  exploded  by  means  of  a fuse 
or  by  electricity.  In  larger  operations 
mines  or  shafts  of  considerable  diameter 
take  the  place  of  the  holes  above  de- 
scribed. Shafts  are  sunk  from  the  top 
of  the  rock  to  various  depths,  some- 
times upward  of  60  feet.  This  shaft 
joins  a heading,  or  gallery,  driven  in 
from  the  face,  if  possiWe  along  a natural 
joint;  and  from  this  point  other  galleries 
are  driven  some  distance  in  various 
directions,  with  headings  at  intervals, 
returning  toward  the  face  of  the  rock 
and  terminating  in  chambers  for  the 
charges.  Enormous  charges  are  fre- 
quently made  use  of,  upward  of  twenty 
tons  of  gunpowder  having  been  fired  in 
a single  blast.  One  of  the  greatest  blast- 
ing operations  ever  attempted  was  the 
removal  of  the  reefs  in  the  East  River, 
near  New  York,  known  as  Hellgate. 
An  entrance-shaft  was  sunk  on  the  I.ong 
Island  shore,  from  which  the  reef  pro- 
jected. From  this  shaft  nearly  twenty 
tunnels  were  bored  in  all  directions, 
extending  from  200  to  240  feet,  and 
connected  by  lateral  galleries.  Upward 
of  52,000  lbs.  of  dymanite,  rend-rock, 
and  powder  were  used,  and  millions  of 
tons  of  rock  were  dislodged.  Numerous 
important  improvements  have  been  made 
in  blasting  by  the  substitution  of  rock- 
boring machines  for  hand  labor.  Of 
such  machines,  in  which  the  “jumper” 
or  drill  is  repeatedly  driven  against  the 
rock  by  compressed  air  or  steam,  being 
also  made  to  rotate  slightly  at  each 
blow,  there  are  many  varieties. 

BLATCHFORD,  Samuel,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  1820  at  New  York  City, 
died  in  1893.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
an  associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  court,  and  served  in  that  ca- 
pacity until  his  death. 

BLEACHING,  the  act  or  art  of  freeing 
textile  fibers  and  fabrics  and  various 
other  substances  (such  as  materials  for 
paper,  ivory,  wax,  oils)  from  their 
natural  color,  and  rendering  them  per- 
fectly white,  or  nearly  so.  The  ancient 
method  of  bleaching  by  exposing  the 
fabrics,  etc.,  to  the  action  of  the  sun’s 
rays,  and  frequently  wetting  them,  has 
been  nearly  superseded,  at  least  where 
the  business  is  carried  on  on  the  large 
scale,  more  complicated  processes  in 
connection  with  powerful  chemical 
preparations  being  now  employed. 
Among  the  latter  the  chief  are  chlorine 
and  sulphurous  acid,  the  latter  being 
employed  more  especially  in  the  case 
of  animal  fibers  (silk  and  wool),  while 
cotton,  flax,  and  other  vegetable  fibers 
are  operated  upon  with  chlorine,  the 
bleaching  in  both  cases  being  preceded 
by  certain  cleansing  processes.  The  use 
of  chlorine  as  a bleaching  agent  was 
first  proposed  by  Berthollet  in  1786, 
and  shortly  afterward  introduced  into 
Great  Britain,  where  it  was  first  used 
simply  dissolved  in  water,  afterward 
dissolved  in  alkali,  and  then  in  the  form 
of  bleaching-powder,  commonly  called 
chloride  of  lime.  In  modern  calico 
bleaching  the  preliminary  process  is 
singeing  by  passing  the  fabric  over  red- 
hot  plates  or  through  a gas-flame  to 
remove  the  downy  pile  and  short- threads 
from  the  surface  of  the  cloth.  The 
goods  next  pass  to  the  liming  process 


BLEACHING-POWDER 


BLOCKADE 


wbpn  they  are  uniformly  and  thoroughly  | 
impregnated  with  a supersaturated 
solution  of  lime.  The  next  process  is 
the  bowking  or  boiling  for  several  hours, 
after  which  they  are  washed.  They  are 
then  soured  by  being  passed  through  a 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  for  the 
purpose  of  dissolving  any  traces  of  free 
lime  wliich  may  have  been  left  in  the 
washing,  and  to  decompose  the  calcare- 
ous soap  formed  by  the  bowking  process. 
.\fter  boiling  in  kiers  with  a solution  of 
soda-ash  and  rosin  and  another  washing, 
tlie  cloth  is  ready  for  the  processes  of 
chemicking  or  liquoring  with  bleaching- 
powder,  and  white-souring  with  a very 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Another  thorough 
washing  concludes  the  operations  of 
bleaching  proper,  after  which  the  cloth 
goes  through  various  finishing  processes. 
Modifications  of  the  same  processes  are 
adopted  in  bleaching  linen,  wool,  silk, 

BLEACHING-POWDER,  chloride  of 
lime,  made  by  exposing  slaked  lime  to 
the  action  of  chlorine.  It  is  regarded  as 
a double  salt  of  the  chloride  of  calcium 
and  hypochlorite  of  calcium.  It  is  much 
used  as  a disinfectant,  besides  its  use  in 
bleaching. 

BLENHEIM  DOG, a variety  of  spaniel, 
bearing  a close  resemblance  to  the  King 
Charles  breed,  but  somewhat  smaller,  so 
named  from  having  been  originally  bred 
by  one  of  the  Dukes  of  Marlborough. 
It  has  a short  muzzle,  long  silky  hair 
without  any  curl,  and  long  pendulous 
ears. 

BLEN'NERHAS'SET,  Harman,  a large 
Anglo-American  land-owner  and  emi- 
grant who  became  noted  for  his  asso- 
ciation with  the  Aaron  Burr  conspiracy. 
He  was  born  in  England  in  1764  and 
died  in  1831.  Coming  to  America  in 
1797  he  settled  in  Virginia,  and  soon 
gi-ew  very  rich,  subsequently  becoming  a 
cotton  planter  in  Mississippi.  His  wife, 
n6e  .\deline  Agnew,  published  several 
novels  which  were  popular  in  her 
day. 

BLESSING^  or  BENEDICTION,  a 
prayer  or  solemn  wish  imploring  happi- 
ness upon  another;  a certain  holy  action 
which,  combined  with  prayer,  seeks  for 
God’s  grace  for  persons,  and,  in  a lower 
degree,  a blessing  upon  things,  with  a 
view  whether  to  their  efficiency  or 
safety.  The  lifting  up  of  the  hands  is 
an  inseparable  adjunct  of  the  act  of 
blessing.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  the  sign  of  the  cross  is  made, 
and  the  thumb  and  the  two  first  fingers 
of  the  right  hand  are  extended,  the  two 
remaining  fingers  turned  down.  In  the 
Greek  Church  tlie  thumb  and  the  third 
finger  of  the  same  hand  are  conjoined, 
the  other  fingers  being  stretched  out. 
Some  see  in  this  position  a representa- 
tion of  the  sacred  monogram  in  Greek 
letters  of  our  Lord’s  name. — In  the 
English  liturgy  there  are  two  blessings 
or  benediction.®;  in  the  service  of  the 
Scotch  Church  there  is  only  one. 

BLESSINGTON,  Margaret,  Countess 
of,  was  born  near  Clonmel,  Ireland, 
1789,  died  at  Paris  18  9.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  she  married  Captain  Parmer, 
who  died  in  1817;  and  a few  months 
after  his  death  married  Charles  John 
Gardiner,  earl  of  Blessington.  In  1822 
they  went  abroad,  and  continued  to 


reside  on  the  Continent  till  the  earl’s 
death  in  1829,  when  Lady  Blessington 
took  up  her  abode  in  Gore  House, 
Kensington.  Her  residence  became  the 
fashionable  resort  for  all  the  celebrities 
of  the  time.  She  contributed  to  the 
New  Monthly  Magazine,  Conversations 
with  Lord  Byron;  wrote  numerous 
novels,  including  The  Belle  of  a Season, 
The  Two  Friends,  Strathern,  and  the 
Victims  of  Society;  and  acted  as  editress 
for  several  years  of  Heath’s  Book  of 
Beauty,  the  Keepsake,  and  the  Gems  of 
Beauty. 

BLIGHT,  a generic  name  commonly 
applied  to  denote  the  effects  of  disease 
or  any  other  circumstance  which  causes 
plants  to  wither  or  decay.  It  has  been 
vaguely  applied  to  almost  every  dis- 
ease of  plants  whether  caused  by  the 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  or  of  the 
soil,  the  attacks  of  insects,  parasitic 
fungi,  etc.  The  term  is  frequently 
limited  to  disease  in  cereal  crops. 

BLIND,  a screen  of  some  sort  to  pre- 
vent too  strong  a light  from  shining  in 
at  a window,  or  to  keep  people  from 
seeing  in.  Venetian  blinds  are  made  of 
slats  of  wood,  so  connected  as  to  overlap 
each  other  when  closed,  and  to  show  a 
series  of  open  spaces  for  the  admission 
of  light  and  air  when  in  the  other 
position. 

BLIND,  The,  those  who  want,  or  are 
deficient  in,  the  sense  of  sight.  Blind- 
ness may  vary  in  degree  from  the  slight- 
est impairment  of  vision  to  total  loss  of 
sight;  it  may  also  be  temporary  or  per- 
manent. It  is  caused  by  defect,  disease, 
or  injury  to  the  e3"e,  to  the  optic  nerve, 
or  to  that  part  of  the  brain  connected 
with  it.  Old  age  is  sometimes  accom- 
panied with  blindness,  occasioned  by 
the  drying  up  of  the  humors  of  the  eye, 
or  by  the  opacity  of  the  cornea,  the 
crystalline  lens,  etc.  There  are  several 
causes  which  produce  blindness  from 
birth.  Sometimes  the  eyelids  adhere  to 
each  other,  or  to  the  eyeball  itself,  or  a 
membrane  covers  the  eyes;  sometimes 
the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  closed,  or  adheres 
to  the  cornea,  or  is  not  situated  in  the 
right  place,  so  that  the  rays  of  light  do 
not  fall  in  the  middle  of  the  eye;  b^esides 
other  defects.  The  blind  are  often  dis- 
tinguished for  a remarkable  mental 
activity,  and  a wonderful  development 
of  the  intellectual  powers.  Their  touch 
and  hearing,  particularly,  become  very 
acute. 

There  are  now  comparatively  few 
large  cities  that  do  not  possess  a school 
or  institution  of  some  kind  for  the  blind. 
The  occupations  in  which  the  blind  are 
found  capable  of  engaging  are  such  as 
the  making  of  baskets  and  other  kinds 
of  wicker-work,  brushmaking,  rope  and 
twine  making,  the  making  of  mats  and 
matting,  knitting,  netting,  fancy  work 
of  various  kinds,  cutting  fire-wood,  the 
sewing  of  sacks  and  bags,  the  carving 
of  articles  in  wood,  etc.  Piano-tuning 
is  also  successfully  carried  on  by  some, 
and  the  cleaning  of  clocks  and  watches 
has  even  been  occasionally  practiced  by 
them. 

Various  systems  have  been  devised 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  blind  to 
read,  some  of  which  consist  in  the  use 
of  the  ordinary  Roman  alphabet,  with 
more  or  less  modification,  and  some  of 


which  employ  types  quite  arbitrary  in 
form. 

BLIND-FISH,  the  name  of  several 
species  of  fish,  inhabiting  the  American 
cave-streams.  They  are  all  small,  the 
largest  not  exceeding  five  inches.  In 
the  typical  species,  of  the  Mammoth 
Cave  of  Kentucky,  the  eyes  are  reduced 
to  a useless  rudiment  hidden  under  the 
skin,  the  body  is  translucent  and 
colorless,  and  the  head  and  body  are 
covered  with  numerous  rows  of  sensitive 
papillae,  which  form  very  delicate  organs 
of  touch. 

BLIND  TOM,  a celebrated  musical 
prodigy.  He  w’as  born  in  1850  near 
Columbus,  Ga.,  and  his  performances 
on  the  piano  were  incredible.  He  could 
repeat,  after  a single  hearing,  exceedingly 
complex  compositions.  He  was  ex- 
hibited for  many  years,  but  his  mental 
infirmities  finally  caused  his  with- 
drawal. Pie  was  perfectly  blind,  and 
almost  idiotic.  Of  late  he  is  said  to  have 
lived  m New  York  City.  Died  in  1908. 

BLISS,  CorneTius  Newton,  an  Ameri- 
can merchant  and  politician,  born  at 
Fall  River,  Mass.,  in  1833.  He  has  been 
chairman  of  the  republican  state  com- 
mittee of  New  York  and  treasurer  of  the 
republican  national  committee  for  sev- 
eral terms.  In  President  McKinley’s 
cabinet  he  w’as  secretary  of  the  interior. 

BLISTER,  a topical  application  which, 
when  applied  to  the  skin,  raises  the 
cuticle  in  the  form  of  a vesicle,  filled 
with  serous  fluid,  and  so  produces  a 
counter-irritation.  The  Spanish  fly- 
blister  operates  with  most  certainty 
and  expedition,  and  is  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose,  as  well  as  mustard, 
hartshorn,  etc. 

BLIZ'ZARD,  a fierce  storm  of  frosty 
wind  with  fine  powdery  snow,  occurring 
in  some  parts  of  N.  America  and  often 
causing  loss  of  life  through  suffocation 
and  cold. 

BLOCK,  a mechanical  contrivance 
consisting  of  one  or  more  grooved 
pulleys  mounted  in  a casing  or  shell 
which  is  furnished  with  a hook,  eye,  or 
strap,  by  which  it  may  be  attached  to 
an  object,  the  function  of  the  apparatus 
being  to  transmit  power  or  change  the 
direction  of  motion  by  means  of  a rope 
or  chain  passing  round  the  movable 
pulleys.  Blocks  are  single,  double, 
treble,  or  fourfold,  accorffing  as  the 
number  of  sheaves  or  pulleys  is  one, 
two,  three,  or  four.  A running  block  is 
attached  to  the  object  to  be  raised  or 
moved;  a standing  block  is  fixed  to 
some  permanent  support.  Blocks  also 
receive  different  denominations  from 
their  shape,  purpose,  and  mode  of  ap- 
plication. They  are  sometimes  made 
of  iron  as  well  as  of  wood.  Blocks  to 
w'hich  the  name  of  dead-eyes  has  been 
given  are  not  pulleys,  being  unpro- 
vided with  sheaves. 

BLOCKADE',  is  the  rendering  of  inter- 
course with  the  seaports  of  an  enemy 
unlawful  on  the  part  of  neutrals,  and  it 
consists  essentially  in  the  presence  of  a 
sufficient  naval  force  to  make  such 
intercourse  difficult.  It  must  be  de- 
clared or  made  public,  so  that  neutrals 
may  have  notice  of  it.  If  a blockade 
is  instituted  by  a sufficient  authority, 
and  maintained  by  a sufficient  force, 
a neutral  is  so  far  affected  by  it  tluit  an 


BLOCK-BOOKS 


BLOOMER  COSTUME 


attempt  to  trade  with  the  place  invested 
subjects  vessel  and  cargo  to  confisca- 
tion by  the  blockading  power.  The 
term  is  also  used  to  describe  the  state 
of  matters  when  hostile  forces  sit  down 
around  a place  and  keep  possession  of 
all  the  means  of  access  to  it,  so  as  to 
cut  off  entirely  its  communication  with 
the  outside  world,  and  so  compel  sur- 
render from  want  of  supplies. 

BLOCK-BOOKS,  before  and  for  a 
short  time  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, books  printed  from  wooden  blocks 
each  the  .size  of  a page  and  having  the 
matter  to  be  reproduced,  whether  text 
or  picture,  cut  in  relief  on  the  surface. 

BLOCKHOUSE,  a fortified  edifice  of 
one  or  more  stories,  constructed  chiefly 
of  blocks  of  hewn  timber.  Blockhouses 
are  supplied  with  loopholes  for  mus- 
ketry (a  a)  and  sometimes  with  em- 


Block-house. 


brasures  for  cannon,  and  when  of  more 
than  one  story  the  upper  ones  are  made 
to  overhang  those  below,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  machicolations  or  loopholes 
in  the  overhung  floor,  so  that  a perpen- 
dicular fire  can  be  directed  against  the 
enemy  in  close  attack.  Blockhouses  are 
often  of  great  advantage,  and  in  wooded 
localities  readily  constructed. 

BLOCK-SYSTEM,  a system  of  work- 
ing the  traffic  on  railways  according 
to  which  the  line  is  divided  into  sections 
of  3 or  4 miles,  each  section  generally 
stretching  from  one  station  to  the  next, 
with  a signal  and  telegraphic  connection 
at  the  end  of  each  section.  The  essential 
principle  of  the  system  is  that  no  train 
is  allowed  to  enter  upon  any  one  section 
till  the  section  is  signaled  wholly  clear, 
so  that  between  two  successive  trains 
there  is  not  merely  an  interval  of  time, 
but  also  an  interval  of  space. 

BLOCK-TIN,  tin  at  a certain  stage 
of  refinement,  but  not  quite  pure. 

BLOIS  (blwa),  capital  of  the  French 
dep.  Loir-et-Cher,  99  miles  s.s.w.  Paris, 


Court  of  the  Castle  of  Blois. 


on  the  Loire.  The  castle  was  long 
occupied  by  the  counts  of  the  name; 
and  oecame  a favorite  residence  of  the 
kings  of  France.  Louis  XII.  was  born, 
Francis  I.,  Henry  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and 


Henry  III.  held  their  courts  in  it  Pop. 

21,077. 

BLOOD,  the  fluid  which  circulates 
through  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the 
human  body  and  that  of  other  animals, 
which  is  essential  to  the  preservation 
of  life  and  nutrition  of  the  tissues.  This 
fluid  is  more  or  less  red  in  vertebrates, 
except  in  the  lowest  fishes.  In  insects 
and  in  others  of  the  lower  animals  there 
is  an  analogous  fluid  which  may  be 
colorless,  red,  bluish,  greenish,  or  milky. 
The  venous  blood  of  mammals  is  a dark 
red,  but  in  passing  through  the  lungs  it 
becomes  oxidized  and  acquires  a bright 
scarlet  color,  so  that  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  is  of  a brighter  hue  than  that 
in  the  veins.  The  central  organ  of  the 
blood  circulation  is  the  heart  (which 
see).  The  specific  gravity  of  human 
blood  varies  from  1‘045  to  1'075,  and 
its  normal  temperature  is  99°  Fahr. 
1000  parts  contain  783' 37  of  water,  2'83 
fibrin,  67’ 25  albumen,  126' 31  blood 
corpuscles,  5T6  fatty  matters,  15' 08 
various  animal  matters  and  salts.  When 
ordinary  blood  stands  for  a time  it 
separates  into  two  portions,  a red  coagu- 
lated mass  consisting  of  the  fibrin,  cor- 
puscles, etc.,  and  a yellowish  watery 
portion,  the  serum.  The  blood  cor- 
puscles or  globules  are  characteristic 
of  the  fluid.  These  are  minute  red  and 
white  bodies  floating  in  the  fluid  of  the 
blood.  The  red  ones  give  color  to  the 
fluid,  and  are  flattish  discs,  oval  in  birds 
and  reptiles,  and  round  in  man  and  most 
mammals.  In  man  they  average 
inch  in  diameter,  and  in  the  Proteus, 
which  has  them  larger  than  any  other 
vertebrate,  TTtjth  inch  in  length  and 
Trjtth  in  breadth.  The  white  or  color- 
less corpuscles  are  the  same  as  the 
lymph  or  chyle  corpuscles,  and  are 
spherical  or  lenticular,  nucleated,  and 
granulated,  and  rather  larger  than  the 
rett  globules.  See  Harvey  William. 

BLOOD,  Avenger  of,  in  Scripture,  the 
nearest  relation  of  any  one  that  had  died 
by  manslaughter  or  murder,  so  called 
because  it  fell  to  him  to  punish  the 
person  who  was  guilty  of  the  deed. 

BLOOD  FEUD,  the  right  of  private 
vengeance  for  injuries  done  by  violence. 
The  feud  is  generally  found  a legal  or 
acknowledged  right  in  primitive  so- 
cieties only.  The  right  passes  to  the 
nearest  of  kin  to  the  injured  or  mur- 
dered person.  It  persists  today  in 
Corsica  and  other  places,  and  in  the  U. 
States  it  is  practiced  by  the  moun- 
taineers of  Kentucky. 

BLOODHOUND,  a variety  of  dog 
with  long  smooth  and  pendulous  ears, 
remarkable  for  the  acuteness  of  its 
smell,  and  employed  to  recover  game  or 
prey  which  has  escaped  wounded  from 
the  hunter,  by  tracing  the  lost  animal 
by  the  blood  it  has  spilt:  whence  the 
name  of  the  dog.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  this  animal,  as  the  English, 
the  Cuban,  and  the  African  bloodhound. 
In  some  places  bloodhounds  have  not 
only  been  trained  to  the  pursuit  of 
game,  but  also  to  the  chase  of  man.  In 
America  they  used  to  be  employed  in 
hunting  fugitives  slaves. 

BLOOD-LETTING.  See  Phlebotomy. 

BLOOD-RAIN,  showers  of  grayish  and 
reddish  dust  mingled  with  rain  which 
occasionally  fall  usually  in  the  zone  of 


the  earth  which  extends  on  both  sides 
of  the  Mediterranean  westwardly  over 
the  Atlantic,  and  eastwardly  to  central 
Asia.  The  dust  is  largely  made  up  of 
microscopic  organisms,  especially  the 
shells  of  diatoms;  the  red  color  being 
owing  to  the  presence  of  a red  oxide  of 
iron. 


Blood-hound. 


BLOODROOT,  a plant  of  Canada  and 
the  U.  States,  belonging  to  the  poppy 
order,  and  so  named  from  its  root-stock 
yielding  a sap  of  a deep  orange  color. 
Its  leaves  are  heart-shaped  and  deeply 
lobed,  the  flower  grows  on  a scape  and 
is  white  or  tinged  with  rose.  The  plant 
has  acrid  narcotic  properties,  and  has 
been  found  useful  in  various  diseases. 
Geum  canadense,  another  American 
plant  used  as  a mild  tonic,  is  also  known 
as  bloodroot. 

BLOOD-STAINS,  the  stains  left  by 
blood,  and  of  importance  in  criminal 
trials.  Until  recently  it  was  impossible 
positively  to  identify  a blood-stain,  old 
or  new,  as  human  blood,  because  the 
crystals  formed  by  chemical  tests  are 
indistinguishable  as  between  man  arid 
some  other  animals.  A positive  test, 
however,  has  recently  been  discovered. 
The  stain  is  extracted  with  a double 
strength  of  salt  solution  and  filtered. 
Small  quantities  of  human  blood  are 
then  injected  daily  for  six  days  into  the 
peritoneal  cavity  of  a rabbit.  Some  of 
the  rabbit’s  serum  is  then  added  to  the 
clear  filtrate  of  the  suspected  blood,  and 
if  the  latter  be  human  a light  flocculent 
precipitate  will  fall. 

BLOOD-VESSELS  are  the  tubes  or 
vessels  in  which  the  blood  circulates. 
See  Arteries,  Veins,  Heart. 

BLOODY  ASSIZES,  those  held  by 
Judge  Jeffreys  in  1685,  after  the  sup- 
pression of  Monmouth’s  rebellion.  Up- 
ward of  300  persons  were  executed  after 
short  trials;  very  many  were  whipped, 
imprisoned,  and  fined;  and  nearly  1000 
were  sent  as  slaves  to  the  American 
plantations. 

BLOODY  MARY,  a name  given  to 
Queen  Mary  of  England,  daughter  of 
Henry  VIII.,  whose  reign  from  1553  to 
1 558  was  marked  by  persecution  of  the 
Protestants. 

BLOODY  TOWER,  a name  given  to 
the  tower  in  the  Tower  of  London,  in 
which  Richard  III.  had  murdered  the 
young  sons  of  Edward  IV. 

BLOOMER,  Amelia  Jenks,  the  inventor 
of  the  bloomer  costume  for  w'omen 
She  was  a native  of  New  York,  born  in 
1818,  died  in  1894.  She  was  a general 
reformer  and  temperance  advocate. 
See  Bloomers. 

BLOOMER  COSTUME,  a style  of  dress 
adopted  about  the  year  1849  by  Mrs. 
Bloomer,  of  New  York,  who  proposed 


BLOOMFIELD- ZEISLER 


BLUE- BOTTLE  FLY 


thereby  to  effect  a complete  revolution 
in  female  dress,  and  add  materially  to 
the  health  and  comfort  of  women.  It 
consisted  of  a jacket  with  close  sleeves, 
a skirt  reaching  a little  below  the  knee, 
and  a pair  of  Turkish  pantaloons  se- 
cured by  bands  round  the  ankles.  See 
Bloomer,  Amelia  Jenks. 

BLOOMFIELD-ZEISLER,  Fanny,  an 
American  pianist,  born  in  Austria  in 
1866.  She  was  educated  in  Chicago  and 
abroad  and  made  her  first  appearance 
in  1883.  She  ranks  among  the  greatest 
of  living  pianists. 

BLOOM'INGTON,  a thriving  city, 
in  the  state  of  Illinois,  60  miles  n.n.e. 
of  Springfield.  It  has  several  important 
educational  institutions,  including  the 
Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  a college 
for  women,  and  the  state  Normal  Uni- 
versity in  the  vicinity.  Has  coal-mines, 
iron  industries,  railway  works,  etc.,  and 
a large  trade.  Pop.  24,000. 

BLOUSE  (blouz),  a light  loose  upper 
garment,  resembling  a smock-frock, 
made  of  linen  or  cotton,  and  worn  by 
men  as  a protection  from  dust  or  in  place 
of  a coat.  A blue  linen  blouse  is  the 
common  dress  of  French  workmen. 

BLOW-FLY,  a name  for  a species  of 
two-winged  flies  that  deposit  their  eggs 
on  flesh,  and  thus  taint  it. 

BLOWING-MACHINE,  any  contri- 
vance for  supplying  a current  of  air, 
as  for  blowing  glass,  smelting  iron, 
renewing  the  air  in  confined  spaces,  and 
the  like.  This  may  consist  of  a single 
pair  of  bellows,  but  more  generally  two 
pairs  are  combined  to  secure  continuity 
of  current.  The  most  perfect  blowing- 
machines  are  those  in  which  the  blast 
is  produced  by  the  motion  of  pistons  in 
a cylinder,  or  by  some  application  of  the 
fan  principle.  For  smelting  and  refining 
furnaces,  where  a blast  with  a pressure 
of  3 or  4 lbs.  to  the  square  inch  is  re- 
quired, blowing-engines  of  large  size 
and  power,  worked  by  steam,  are  em- 
ployed. 

BLOW-PIPE,  an  instrument  by  which 
a current  of  air  or  gas  is  driven  through 
the  flame  of  a tamp,  candle,  or  gas  jet, 
and  that  flame  directed  upon  a miheral 
substance,  to  fuse  or  vitrify  it,  an  in- 


Blow-pipe.— a,  Ball  to  catch  moisture  from 
the  mouth. 


tense  heat  being  created  by  the  rapid 
supply  of  oxygen  and  the  concentration 
of  the  flame  upon  a small  area.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  is  merely  a conical  tube 
of  brass,  glass,  or  other  substance, 
usually  7 inches  long  and  f inch  in 
diameter  at  one  end,  and  tapering  so  as 
to  have  a very  small  aperture  at  the 
other,  within  2 inches  or  so  of  which  it 
is  bent  nearly  to  a right  angle,  so  that 
the  stream  of  air  may  be  directed  side- 
wise  to  the  operator.  The  flame  is 
turned  to  a horizontal  direction,  assumes 
a conical  shape,  and  consists  of  two  parts 
of  different  colors.  The  greatest  heat  is 
obtained  at  the  tip  of  the  inner  blue 
hame.  Here  the  substance  subjected 
to  it  is  burned  or  oxidized,  a small  piece 
of  lead  or  copper,  for  instance,  being 
converted  into  its  oxide.  Hence  the 


name  of  the  oxidizing  flame.  By  shift- 
ing the  substance  to  the  interior  blue 
flame,  which  is  wanting  in  oxygen,  this 
element  will  be  abstracted  from  the  sub- 
stance, and  a metallic  oxide,  for  in- 
stance, will  give  out  its  metal;  hence 
this  is  called  a reducing  flame.  The 
blow-pipe  is  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  glass,  jewelry,  and  other  com- 
modities. 

BLUBBER,  the  fat  of  whales  and 
other  large  sea  animals,  from  which 
train-oil  is  obtained.  The  blubber  lies 
under  the  skin  and  over  the  muscular 
flesh.  It  is  eaten  by  the  Eskimo  and 
the  sea-coast  races  of  the  Japanese 
islands,  the  Kuriles,  etc.  The  whole 
quantity  yielded  by  one  whale  ordinarily 
amounts  to  40  or  50,  but  sometimes  to 
80  or  more  cwts. 

BLUCHER  (blii'/ter),  Gebhard  Leb- 
erecht  von,  distinguished  Prussian  gen- 
eral, born  at  Rostock  1742,  died  at 
Krieblowitz,  in  Silesia,  1819.  He  en- 
tered the  Swedish  service  when  fourteen 


Bliicher. 


years  of  age  and  fought  against  the 
Prussians,  but  was  taken  prisoner  in 
his  first  campaign,  and  was  induced  to 
enter  the  Prussian  service.  He  became 
a major  in  1793  and  in  1794  major- 
general  of  the  army  of  observation. 
After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  he  labored 
in  the  department  of  war  at  Ko- 
nigsberg  and  Berlin.  He  then  re- 
ceived the  chief  military  command 
in  Pomerania,  but  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Napoleon  was  afterward,  with 
several  other  distinguished  men,  dis- 
missed from  the  service.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1812,  when  the  Prussians 
assisted  the  French,  he  took  no  part; 
but  no  sooner  did  Prussia  rise  against 
her  oppressors  than  Bliicher,  then 
seventy  years  old,  engaged  in  the  cause 
with  all  his  former  activity,  and  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Prussians  and  the  Russian  corps  under 
General  Winzingerode.  His  heroism  in 
the  battle  of  Liitzen  (May  2,  1813)  was 
rewarded  by  the  Emperor  Alexander 
with  the  order  of  St.  George.  The 
battles  of  Bautzen  and  Hanau,  those  on 
the  Katzbach  and  Leipzig,  added  to  his 
glory.  He  was  now  raised  to  the  rank 
of  field-marshal,  and  led  the  Prussian 
army  which  invaded  France  early  in 
1814.  After  a period  of  obstinate  con- 
flict the  day  of  Montmartre  crowned 
this  campaign,  and,  March  31,  Bliicher 
entered  the  capital  of  France.  His  king, 
in  remembrance  of  the  victory  which  he 
had  gained  at  the  Katzbach,  created 
him  Prince  of  Wahlstadt,  and  gave  him 
an  estate  in  Sjlesia.  On  the  renewal  of 


the  war  in  1815  the  chief  command  was 
again  committed  to  him,  and  he  led  his 
army  into  the  Netherlands.  June  15 
Napoleon  threw  himself  upon  him,  and 
Bliicher,  on  the  16th,  was  defeated  at 
Ligny.  In  the  battle  of  the  18th  Bliicher 
arrived  at  the  most  decisive  moment 
upon  the  ground,  and  taking  Napoleon 
in  the  rear  and  flank  assisted  materially 
in  completing  the  great  victory  of  Water- 
loo. He  was  a rough  and  fearless  soldier, 
noted  for  his  energy  and  rapid  move- 
ments, which  had  procured  him  the 
name  of  “Marshal  Voi-warts”  (Forward). 

BLUE,  one  of  the  seven  colors  into 
which  the  rays  of  light  divide  them- 
selves when  refracted  through  a glass 
prism,  seen  in  nature  in  the  clear  ex- 
panse of  the  heavens;  also  a dye  or  pig- 
ment of  this  hue.  The  substance.?’  used 
as  blue  pigments  are  of  very  different 
natures,  and  derived  from  various 
sources;  they  are  all  compound  bodies, 
some  being  natural  and  others  artificial. 
They  are  derived  almost  entirely  from 
the  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms. 

BLUEBEARD,  the  hero  of  a well- 
known  tale,  originally  French,  founded, 
it  is  believed,  on  the  enormities  of  a real 
personage,  Gilles  de  Laval,  Count  de 
Retz,  a great  nobleman  of  Brittany,  put 
to  death  for  his  crimes  in  1440. 

BLUEBELL,  a name  given  to  the 
wild  hyacinth  and  to  the  harebell. 

BLUEBERRY,  an  American  species 
of  whortleberry. 

BLUEBIRD,  a small  bird,  very  com- 
mon in  the  U.  States.  The  upper  part 
of  the  body  is  blue,  and  the  throat  and 
breast  of  a dirty  red.  It  makes  its  nest 
in  the  hole  of  a tree  or  in  the  box  that 
is  so  commonly  provided  for  its  use  by 
the  friendly  farmer.  The  bluebird  is 
the  harbinger  of  spring;  its  song  is  cheer- 


The bluebird. 


ful,  continuing  with  little  interruption 
from  March  to  October,  but  is  most 
frequently  heard  in  the  serene  days  of 
the  spring.  It  is  also  called  blue  robin 
or  blue  redbreast,  and  is  regarded  with 
the  same  sort  of  sentiments  as  the  robin 
of  Europe. 

BLUE-BOOKS,  the  official  reports, 
papers,  and  documents  printed  for  the 
British  government  and  laid  before  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  They  are  so 
called  simply  from  being  stitched  up  in 
dark-blue  paper  wrappers,  and  include 
bills  presented  to  and  acts  passed  by  the 
houses;  all  reports  and  papers  moved 
for  by  members  or  granted  by  govern- 
ment on  particular  subjects;  the  reports 
of  committees;  statistics  of  the  trade, 
etc.,  of  the  country  and  of  the  colonies; 
and  ambassadorial  and  consular  reports 
from  foreign  countries  and  ports. 

BLUE-BOTTLE  FLY,  a large  blue 
species  of  blow-fly, 


BLUEFISH 


BOCCACCIO 


BLUEFISH,  a species  of  sea-fish 
widely  distributed  on  the  U.  States 
coasts  and  highly  prized  as  an  article  of 
diet.  The  size  of  the  fish  varies  from 
3 to  25  pounds,  10  pounds  being  con- 
sidered a heavy  fish.  The  color  is 
greenish  or  bluish.  The  production  of 
bluefish  runs  up  into  millions  of  pounds 
annually. 

BLUE-GRASS,  a species  of  grass  of 
the  same  order  as  meadow  grass.  It  is 
common  in  the  U.  States,  Europe,  and 
Asia.  It  grows  to  its  greatest  perfection 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  and  is  often 
called,  for  that  reason,  Kentucky  blue- 
grass. 

BLUE-GRASS  REGION,  a part  of 
Kentucky  famous  for  its  excellent 
pastures  of  blue-grass  and  its  fine  horses. 

BLUE  LAWS,  a term  applied  to  cer- 
tain Puritan  enactments,  particularly 
in  Connecticut,  and  concerned  with 
Sabbath  breaking.  The  term  is  now 
generally  applied  to  any  stringent  laws 
of  religious  or  moral  force. 

BLUE  LIGHT,  a brilliant  light  used 
for  signaling  at  sea.  It  is  produced  by 
the  ignition  of  a fine  powder  composed 
principally  of  antimony.  For  that 
reason  the  fumes  of  the  combustion  are 
poisonous  when  inhaled  in  considerable 
quantity. 

BLUE  RIDGE,  the  most  easterly 
ridge  of  the  Alleghany  or  Appalachian 
Mountains.  The  most  elevated  sum- 
mits are  the  peaks  of  Otter  (4000  feet) 
in  Virginia. 

BLUESTOCKING,  a literary  lady: 
applied  usually  with  the  imputation  of 
pedantry.  The  term  arose  in  connection 
with  certain  meetings  held  by  ladies  in 
the  days  of  Dr.  Johnson  for  conversation 
with  distinguished  literary  men.  One  of 
these  literati  was  a Mr.  Benjamin  Still- 
ingfleet,  who  always  wore  blue  stockings, 
and  whose  conversation  at  these  meet- 
ings was  so  much  prized  that  his  absence 
at  any  time  was  felt  to  be  a great  loss, 
so  that  the  remark  became  common, 
“We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue 
stockings”;  hence  these  meetings  were 
sportively  called  blue-stocking  clubs, 
and  the  ladies  who  attended  them  blue- 
stockings. 

BLUEWING,  a genus  of  American 
ducks,  so  called  from  the  color  of  the 
wing-coverts.  One  species  is  brought 
in  great  quantities  to  market,  the  flesh 
being  highly  esteemed  for  its  flavor. 

BLUFFS,  the  name  in  America  for  the 
steep  banks  of  a stream  or  lake  forming 
prominent  headlands,  and  often  extend- 
ing inland  as  plateau  . 

BLUN'DERBUSS,  a short  gun  with  a 
very  wide  bore,  capable  of  holding  a 
number  of  slugs  or  bullets,  and  intended 
to  do  execution  at  a limited  range  with- 
out exact  aim. 

BLUSHING,  a physiological  process 
by  which  the  blood  flows  in  larger 
quantities  to  certain  parts  of  the  body, 
as  the  breast,  face,  and  neck.  It  is 
customarily  produced  by  some  mental 
shock,  as  of  shame,  modest}^,  chagrin, 
etc.,  and  its  connection  with  the  brain 
is  not  understood.  It  is  known,  how- 
ever, that  such  mental  shocks  cause  a 
a sudden  dilation  of  the  small  blood- 
vessels in  the  parts  mentioned. 

BOA,  a genus  of  serpents  having  the 
jaws  so  constructed  that  these  animals 


can  dilate  the  mouth  sufficiently  to 
swallow  bodies  thicker  than  themselves. 
They  are  also  distinguished  by  having 
a hook  on  each  side  of  the  vent ; the  tail 
prehensile;  the  body  compressed  and 
largest  in  the  middle,  and  with  small 
scales,  at  least  on  the  posterior  part  of 
the  head.  The  genus  includes  some  of 
the  largest  species  of  serpents,  reptiles 
endowed  with  immense  muscular  power. 
They  seize  sheep,  deer,  etc.,  and  crush 
them  in  their  folds,  after  which  they 
swallow  the  animal  whole.  The  boas 
are  peculiar  to  the  hot  parts  of  S. 
America.  The  Boa  constrictor  is  not 
one  of  the  largest  members  of  the  genus, 
rarely  exceeding  20  feet  in  length;  but 
the  name  boa  or  boa  constrictor  is  often 
given  popularly  to  any  of  the  large  ser- 
pents of  similar  habits,  and  so  as  to 
include  the  Pythons  of  the  Old  World 
and  the  Anaconda  and  other  large 
serpents  of  America. 

BOADICE'A,  Queen  of  the  Iceni,  in 
Britain,  during  the  reign  of  Nero. 
Having  been  treated  in  the  most  igno- 
minious manner  by  the  Romans,  she 
headed  a general  insurrection  of  the 
Britons,  attacked  the  Roman  settle- 
ments, reduced  London  to  ashes,  and 
put  to  the  sword  all  strangers  to  the 
number  of  70,000.  Suetonius,  the 
Roman  general,  defeated  her  in  a de- 
cisive battle  (a.d.  62),  and  Boadicea, 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  her 
enemies,  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  by 
poison. 

BOAR,  the  male  of  swine  not  cas- 
trated. See  Hog. 

BOARD,  a number  of  persons  having 
the  management,  direction,  or  superin- 
tendence of  some  public  or  private  office 
or  trust;  often  an  office  under  the  con- 
trol of  an  executive  government,  the 
business  of  which  is  conducted  by  offi- 
cers speciall}’'  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION,  a depart- 
ment of  a city  government  which  has 
control  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
high  school  education. 

BOARD  OF  TRADE.  See  Trade, 
Board  of. 

BOARDING-HOUSE,  a private  busi- 
ness concern  which  feeds  and  lodges 
guests  but  which  differs  from  a hotel  or 
inn  because  the  proprietor  reserves  the 
right  to  reject  applicants  for  keep.  The 
keeper  is  responsible  for  the  goods  of 
his  guest  and  in  common  law  has  no 
lien  for  debt  on  those  goods. 

BOAT,  a small  open  vessel  or  water 
craft  usually  moved  Ly  oars  or  rowing. 
The  forms,  dimensions,  and  uses  of 
boats  are  very  various,  and  some  of 
them  carry  a light  sail.  Large  vessels, 
whether  ships  of  war  or  merchantmen, 
carry  with  them  a number  of  boats; 
and  since  steam  has  become  so  common 
as  a propelling  power,  it  has  also  been 
employed  in  ships’  boats.  A ship  of 
war  has  now  usually  several  large  boats 
propelled  by  steam,  with  others  that 
are  rowed,  as  a barge,  pinnace,  yawl, 
cutter,  jollj^-boat,  and  gig. 

BOAT'SWAIN  (commonly  pronounced 
bo'sn),  a warrant-officer  in  the  navy 
who  has  charge  of  the  sails,  rigging, 
colors,  anchors,  cables,  and  cordage. 
His  office  is  also  to  summon  the  crew 
to  their  duty,  to  relieve  the  watch, 
etc.  In  the  merchant  service  one  of 


the  crew  who  has  charge  of  the  rigging 
and  oversees  the  men. 

BOB'BIN,  a reel  or  other  similar  con- 
trivance for  holding  thread.  It  is  often 
a cylindrical  piece  of  wood  with  a head, 
on  which  thread  is  wound  for  making 
lace;  or  a spool  with  a head  at  one  or 
both  ends,  intended  to  have  thread  or 
yarn  wound  on  it,  and  used  in  spinning 
machinery  (when  it  is  slipped  on  a 
spindle  and  revolves  therewith)  and  in 
sewing-machines  (applied  within  the 
shuttle) . 

BOBBINET,  a machine-made  cotton 
net,  originally  imitated  from  the  lace 
made  by  means  of  a pillow  and  bobbins. 

BOBOLINK,  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting song-birds  of  North  America, 
found  wherever  plains,  prairie  meadows, 
or  cultivated  fields  offer  it  a suitable 
home.  The  length  is  about  7 inches,  of 


The  bobolink. 


which  2|  inches  go  to  the  tail ; the  spring 
or  breeding  plumage  of  the  adult  male 
is  black,  with  the  hindhead  and  nape, 
scapulars,  rump,  and  upper  tail-coverts 
buff,  inclining  to  ochraceous  on  the  neck 
and  ashy  toward  the  tail;  the  female  is 
protectively  denied  this  gay  suit,  and  is 
clothed  in  neutral  yellowish  brown,  much 
streaked ; and  the  young  of  both  sexes 
wear  a similar  dress  until  the  males  ma- 
ture. The  female  constmets  on  the 
ground  a nest  of  grasses  in  which  are 
laid  four  or  five  eggs,  dull  white,  fleck- 
ed and  marbled  with  Vandyke  brown, 
upon  which  she  sits  very  closely  for 
about  a fortnight. 

During  the  nuptial  season  — from 
May  until  mid-July — the  male  is  driv- 
ing from  the  vicinity  every  intruder 
he  can  frighten  away,  especially 
rivals  of  his  own  kind. 

BOBRUISK,  a fortified  town  of 
Russia,  gov.  Minsk.  Pop.  58,056. 

BOCCACCIO  (bok-kat'cho),  Giovanni, 
Italian  novelist  and  poet,  was  born 
1313,  in  Certaldo,  died  there  1375.  In 
1341  Boccaccio  fell  in  love  with  Maria, 
an  illegitimate  daughter  of  King  Robert, 
who  returned  his  passion  with  equal 


BOCHUM 


BOHEMIA 


ardor,  and  was  immortalized  as  Fiam- 
metta  in  many  of  his  best  creations. 
In  1344  he  returned  to  Naples,  where 
Giovanna,  the  granddaughter  of  Robert, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne,  re- 
ceived him  with  distinction.  Between 
1344  and  1350  mos<^  of  the  stories  of 
the  Decameron  were  composed  at  her 
desire  or  at  that  of  Fiammetta.  This 
work,  on  which  his  fame  rests,  consists 
of  100  tales  represented  to  have  been 
related  in  equal  portions  in  ten  days  by 
a party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  at  a 
country  house  near  Florence  while  the 
plague  was  raging  in  that  city.  The 
stories  in  this  wonderful  collection  range 
from  the  highest  pathos  to  the  coarsest 
licentiousness.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  Boccaccio  returned  to  Florence, 
where  he  was  greatly  honored,  and 
was  sent  on  several  public  embassies. 
Among  others  he  was  sent  to  Padua  to 
communicate  to  Petrarch  the  tidings  of 
his  recall  from  exile  and  the  restoration 
of  his  property.  From  this  time  an 
intimate  friendship  grew  up  between 
them  which  continued  for  life.  They 
both  contributed  greatly  to  the  revival 
of  the  study  of  classical  literature.  In 
1373  he  was  chosen  by  the  Florentines 
to  occupy  the  chair  which  was  estab- 
lished for  the  exposition  of  Dante’s 
Divina  Commedia.  His  lectures  con- 
tinued till  his  death. 

BOCHUM  (boA'um),  a Prussian  town, 
prov.  of  Westphalia,  5 miles  e.n.e.  of 
Essen;  manufactories  of  iron,  steel, 
hardware,  etc.  Pop.  65,554 

BOCK,  BOCKBIER,  a variety  of  Ger- 
man beer  made  with  more  malt  and  less 
hops  than  ordinary  German  beer,  and 
therefore  sweeter  and  stronger. 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY  at  Oxford, 
founded  by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley  in  1598, 
opened  1602.  It  claims  a copy  of  all 
works  published  in  Britain,  and  for 
rare  works  and  MSS.  it  is  said  to  be 
second  only  to  the  Vatican.  It  contains 
about  500,000  books. 

BODLEY,  Sir  Thomas,  the  founder  of 
the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  was 
born  at  Exeter  in  1544,  died  in  London 
1612.  He  was  educated  partly  at 
Geneva,  whither  his  parents,  who  were 
Protestants,  had  retired  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mary.  On  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth they  returned  home,  and  he  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford.  He  traveled  much  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  was  employed  in  various 
embassies  to  Denmark,  Germany, 
France,  and  Holland.  In  1597  he  re- 
turned home,  and  dedicated  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  to  the  reestablish- 
inent  and  augmentation  of  the  public 
library  at  Oxford.  He  expended  a very 
large  sum  in  collecting  rare  and  valuable 
books,  besides  leaving  an  estate  for  the 
support  of  the  library.  He  was  knighted 
at  the  accession  of  James  1. 

BODY-SNATCHING,  an  ancient  prac- 
tice in  vogue  previous  to  the  recogni- 
tion by  law  of  the  science  of  anatomy 
and  the  legal  provision  of  material  for 
dissection.  Body-snatching,  or  grave- 
robbing, is  a general  offense  in  com- 
mon law,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
purpose  of  the  theft.  It  is  seldom 
practiced  nowadays  except  in  the  com- 
mission of  crime.  Jerry  Cruncher,  in 


Dickens’s  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  was  a pro- 1 
fessional  body-snatcher. 

BCEO'TIA,  a division  of  ancient 
Greece,  lying  between  Attica  and  Phocis, 
had  an  area  of  1119  sq  miles.  The 
whole  country  is  surrounded  by  moun- 
tains. The  country  originally  had  a 
superabundance  of  water,  but  artificial 
drainage  works  made  it  one  of  the  most 
fertile  districts  of  Greece.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  of  the  .iEolian  race,  most  of 
the  towns  formed  a kind  of  republic,  of 
which  Thebes  was  the  chief  city. 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  raised 
Thebes  for  a time  to  the  highest  rank 
among  Grecian  states.  Refinement  and 
cultivation  of  mind  never  made  such 
progress  in  Boetia  as  in  Attica,  and  the 
term  Boeotian  was  used  by  the  Athenians 
as  a synonym  for  dulness,  but  somewhat 
unjustly,  since  Hesiod,  Pindar,  the 
poetess  Corinna,  and  Plutarch  were 
Boeotians.  Boeotia  now  forms  a nomar- 
chy  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  with  a 
population  of  57,091 ; capital,  Livadia. 

BOERS  (borz),  the  farmers  of  Dutch 
origin  in  South  Africa.  In  1836-37  many 
Boers,  being  dissatisfied  with  the 
Britisn  government  in  Cape  Colony, 
migrated  beyond  the  Orange  river,  and 
a number  found  their  way  to  what  is 
now  Natal.  Here  there  had  been  British 
settlements  for  some  years,  and  the 
British  formally  annexed  the  country 
in  1843.  Subsequently  the  Boers  were 
allowed  to  establish  the  Orange  Free 
State  as  an  independent  republic,  and 
several  other  small  republics,  which 
finally  were  combined  into  one — the 
South  African  Republic,  or  Transvaal. 
In  1877  the  Transvaal  was  annexed  by 
Britain,  according  to  the  wish  of  many 
of  the  people,  but  war  broke  out  in  1880, 
British  forces  suffered  more  than  one 
defeat,  and  in  1881  the  country  was 
accorded  a modified  independence. 
Henceforth  it  was  a common  feeling 
among  the  Boers  that  they  and  not  the 
British  must  be  predominant  in  South 
Africa,  and  in  October,  1899,  after  an 
insolent  ultimatum,  the  united  forces 
of  the  Transvaal  and  Orange  State 
invaded  Natal.  The  war  which  followed 
with  Britain  was  concluded  'oy  the  final 
surrender  of  the  Boers  in  May,  1902; 
the  two  states  having  been  declared 
British  territory  in  1900.  See  Transvaal, 
Natal,  etc. 

BOG,  a piece  of  wet,  soft,  and  spongy 
ground,  where  the  soil  is  composed 
mainly  of  decaying  and  decayed  vege- 
table matter.  Such  ground  is  valueless 
for  agriculture  until  reclaimed,  but  often 
yields  abundance  of  peat  for  fuel. 

BOGAR'DUS,  James,  an  American 
inventor,  born  in  1800,  died  in  1874. 
Among  nis  inventions  were  the  “ring- 
flyer”  or  “ring-spinner”  used  in  cotton 
manufacture  (1828),  the  eccentric  mill 
(1829),  an  engraving  machine  (1831), 
and  the  first  dry  gas-meter  (1832).  In 
1839  he  gained  the  reward  offered  for 
the  best  plan  for  carrying  out  the  penny 
postage  system  by  the  use  of  stamps. 
In  1847  he  built  the  first  complete  cast- 
iron  structure  in  the  world,  and  the  first 
wrought-iron  beams  were  made  from 
his  design.  His  delicate  pyrometer  and 
deep-sea  sounding  machine  were  valua- 
able  additions  to  scientific  instru- 
ments. 


BOGOTA',  a city  of  South  America, 
capital  of  Colombia  and  of  the  state  or 
department  of  Cundinamarcp,  and  seat 
of  an  archbishopric,  situated  on  an 
elevated  plain  8863  feet  above  the  sea, 
at  the  foot  of  two  lofty  mountains, 
with  a healthful  though  moist  climate, 
and  a temperature  rarel}'  exceeding  59° 
Fahr.  Bogota  being  subject  to  earth- 
quakes, the  houses  are  low,  and  strongly 
built  of  sun-dried  brick.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  mostly  Creoles.  Bogota  is  an 
emporium  of  internal  trade,  and  has 
manufactures  of  soap,  cloth,  leather, 
etc.,  not  of  great  importance.  It  was 
founded  in  1538.  Pop.  about  100,000. 

BO'GUS,  an  Americanism  meaning 
counterfeit,  and  applied  to  any  spurious 
or  counterfeit  object;  as,  a bogus  gov- 
ernment, a bogus  law.  The  origin  of  the 
term  is  uncertain. 

BOHE'MIA,  a province  with  the  title 
of  kingdom  belonging  to  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  bounded  by  Ba- 
varia, Saxony,  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia,  Moravia,  and  the  archduchy 
of  Austria;  area,  20,223  sq.  miles;  pop. 
6,318,280,  of  whom  more  than  2,000,000 
are  Germans,  the  rest  mostly  Czechs. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic,  the  country  being  an  arch- 
bishopric with  three  bishoprics.  The 
language  of  the  country  is  the  Czech 
dialect  of  the  Slavonic  (see  Czech  lan- 
guage); in  some  districts,  and  in  most 
of  the  cities,  German  is  spoken.  Bo- 
hemia is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
mountains,  and  has  many  large  forests. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Elbe  and  its 
tributary  the  Moldau,  which  is  even 
larger.  All  sorts  of  grain  are  produced 
in  abundance,  as  also  large  quantities  of 
potatoes,  pulse,  sugar-beet,  flax,  hops 
(the  best  in  Europe),  and  fruits.  The 
raising  of  sheep,  horses,  swine,  and 
poultry  is  carried  on  to  a considerable 
extent.  The  mines  yield  silver,  copper, 
lead,  tin,  zinc,  iron,  cobalt,  arsenic, 
uranium,  antimony,  alum,  sulphur, 
plumbago,  and  coal.  There  are  numer- 
ous mineral  springs,  but  little  salt. 
Spinning  and  weaving  of  linen,  cotton, 
and  woolen  goods  are  extensively  carried 
on;  manufactures  of  lace,  metal,  and 
wood  work,  machinery,  chemical,  prod- 
ucts, beet-root  sugar,  pottery,  porce- 
lain, etc.,  are  also  largely  developed. 
Large  quantities  of  beer  (Pilsener)  are 
exported.  The  glassware  of  Bohemia, 
which  is  known  all  over  Europe,  em- 
ploys 50,000  workers.  The  trade,  partly 
transit,  is  extensive,  Prague,  the  capital, 
being  the  center  of  it.  The  largest 
towns  are  Prague,  Pilsen,  Reichenberg, 
Budweis,  Teplitz,  Axissig,  and  Eger. 
The  educational  establishments  include 
the  Prague  University  and  upward  of 
4000  ordinary  schools.  The  province 
sends  92  representatives  to  the  Austrian 
parliament;  the  provincial  diet  consists 
of  241  members. 

Bohemia  was  named  after  a tribe  of 
Gallic  origin,  the  Boii,  who  were  expelled 
from  this  region  by  the  Marcomans  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 
The  latter  were  in  turn  obliged  to  give 
place  to  the  Germans,  and  these  to  the 
Czechs,  a Slavic  race  who  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Bohemia  by  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century,  and  still  form 
the  bulk  of  the  population.  The  country 


BOIES 


BOLEYN 


was  at  first  divided  into  numerouB 
principalities.  Christianity  was  intro- 
duced about  900.  In  1092  Bohemia  was 
finally  recognized  as  a kingdom  under 
Wratislas  II.  In  1230  the  monarchy, 
hitherto  elective,  became  hereditary. 
The  monarchs  received  investiture  from 
the  German  emperor,  held  one  of  the 
great  offices  in  the  imperial  court,  and 
were  recognized  as  among  the  seven 
electors  of  tJie  empire.  Frequently  at 
strife  with  its  neighbors,  Bohemia  was 
successively  united  and  disunited  with 
Hungary,  Silesia,  Moravia,  etc.,  accord- 
ing to  the  course  of  wars  and  alliances. 

BOIES,  Horace,  an  American  states- 
man, born  in  New  York  in  1827.  He 
settled  in  Iowa  and  was  elected  governor 
of  that  state  in  1889  and  1891.  He  is 
well  known  for  his  opposition  to  pro- 
tective tariff. 

BOIL,  to  heat  a.  fluid  up  to  the  point 
at  which  it  is  converted  into  vapor. 
The  conversion  takes  place  chiefly  at 
the  point  of  contact  with  the  source  of 
heat,  and  the  bubbles  of  vapor  rising 
to  the  surface,  and  breaking  there,  pro- 
duce the  commotion  called  ebullition. 
At  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure 
ebullition  commences  at  a temperature 
which  is  definite  for  each  liquid.  The 
escape  of  the  heated  fluid  in  the  form  of 
vapor  prevents  any  further  rise  of  tem- 
perature in  an  open  vessel  when  the 
boiling-point  has  been  reached.  The 
exact  definition  of  the  boiling-point  of  a 
liquid  is  “that  temperature  at  which  the 
tension  of  its  vapor  exactly  balances 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.”  The 
influence  of  this  pressure  appears  from 
experiments.  In  an  exhausted  receiver 
the  heat  of  the  human  hand  is  sufficient 
to  make  water  boil;  while,  on  the  con- 
trary, in  Papin’s  digester,  in  which  it  is 

Eossible  to  subject  the  water  in  the 
oiler  to  a pressure  of  three  or  four 
atmospheres,  the  water  may  be  heated 
far  above  the  normal  boiling-point 
without  giving  signs  of  ebullition. 
From  this  relation  between  the  ebulli- 
tion of  a liquid  and  atmospheric  pressure 
the  heights  of  objects  above  sea-level 
may  be  calculated  by  comparing  the 
actual  boiling-point  at  any  place  with 
the  normal  boiling-point.  (See  Heights, 
Measurement  of.)  The  boiling-point 
of  water  as  marked  on  Fahrenheit’s 
thermometer  is  212°;  on  the  Centigrade, 
100°;  on  the  Reaumur,  80°.  Ether  boils 
at  about  96°,  mercury  at  662°. 

BOIL,  a small  painful  swelling  of  a 
conical  shape  on  the  surface  of  the  body. 
Its  base  is  hard,  wdiile  its  apex  is  soft 
and  of  a whitish  color.  Boils  are  gen- 
erally indicative  of  depressed  health, 
intemperate  habits,  or  disorder  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

BOILER,  a vessel  constructed  of 
wrought  iron  or  steel  plates  riveted 
together,  with  needful  adjuncts,  , in 
which  steam  is  generated  from  water 
for  the  purpose  of  driving  a steam- 
engine,  or  for  other  purposes. 

The  shell  of  the  boiler,  or  outer  part, 
is  of  iron  or  steel  plates.  The  steam 
chest  or  dome,  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
boiler,  is  a reservoir,  whence  the  steam 
is  supplied  to  the  engine  by  the  steam- 
pipe,  which  is  fitted  with  a stop-valve. 
The  furnace  is  the  chamber  for  the  com- 
bustion of  the  fuel.  The  flues  or  con- 


duits for  the  burnt  gases  are  either 
external  or  internal;  cylindrical  metal 
flues  are  flue-tubes,  and  they  are  fixed 
at  the  ends  into  tube-plates.  The  man- 
hole is  the  entrance  to  the  boiler  for 
inspection,  etc.;  and  it  is  closed  by  a 
manhole  door  or  lid.  Mudholes  are 
placed  at  or  near  the  bottom  of  the 


Double-flue  boiler. 


boiler,  for  the  discharge  of  sediment, 
etc.  The  water  Is  supplied  by  the  feed- 
apparatus;  its  level  is  indicated  by  a 
float.  The  water-gauge  also  shows  the 
level  of  the  water;  it  may  be  a glass  tube 
at  the  front  of  the  boiler,  connected  to 
it  by  two  horizontal  tubes,  one  at  the 
upper  end  and  one  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  glass  tube;  or  it  may  be  a series  of 
two  or  three  gauge-cocks,  connected  at 
different  levels.  The  boiler  is  emptied 
by  the  blow-off  cock;  the  surface  of  the 
water  is  cleared  by  the  scum-cock. 
Brine-pumps  niay  be  used  instead  of 
blow-off  cocks  to  draw  off  the  brine  from 
marine  boilers.  Surplus  steam  escapes 
by  the  safety-valves.  Vacuum  valves 
admit  air  into  the  boiler,  when  the 
pressure  is  less  than  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Fusible  plugs  are  inserted  in  the 
boiler,  over  the  fire,  which  melt  and 
give  vent  to  the  steam  when  the  pressure 
and  temperature  of  the  steam  in  the 
boiler  become  excessive  and  dangerous. 
The  degree  of  pressure  is  indicated  by 
the  pressure-gauge.  The  boiler  is 
strengthened  by  stays,  which  may  con- 
sist of  rods,  bolts,  or  gussets.  The 
boiler  is  covered  with  clothing  or  clead- 
ing.  The  fire-grate  carries  the  fuel, 
and  it  consists  of  grate-bars  or  fire-bars, 
usually  of  cast-iron,  supported  by  cross- 
bearers or  bar-frames.  The  mouthpiece 
is  the  entrance  to  the  furnace,  and  it 
rests  on  the  dead-plate.  The  fire-door 
or  pair  of  fire-doors  are  fitted  to  and 
hung  by  it.  The  heating  surface  is  the 
surface  of  the  boiler  exposed  to  the 
flame  and  burned  gases  from  the  furnace. 

Boilers  are  of  two  types:  shell  boilers, 
consisting  of  a large  shell,  usually  cylin- 
drical with  flat  ends,  containing  the 
water  and  steam,  so  that  the  whole  of 
the  shell  is  exposed  to  the  full  pressure 
of  the  steam;  and  water-tube  boilers,  in 
which  the  water  flows  through  a large 
number  of  tubes  of  small  diameter, 
while  the  products  of  combustion  flow 
over  the  outsides  of  the  tubes. 

BOISE  CITY,  capital  of  the  state  of 
Idaho.  Pop.  5957. 

BOJOL  (bo-hoF),  one  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  north  of  Mindanao,  about  40 
miles  by  30  miles.  Woody  and  moun- 
tainous. Pop.  187,000. 

BOKHARA,  BOCHARA,  (bo-/ia'ra),  a 
khanate  of  central  .4sia,  vassal  to 
Russia,  bounded  north  by  Russian 
Turkestan,  west  by  Khiva  and  the 
Transcaspian  Territory  of  Russim  south 
by  Afghanistan,  and  east  by  Chinese 
Turkestan;  area  about  93,000  square 
miles.  The  country  in  the  west  is  to  a 


great  extent  occupied  by  deserts;  in  the 
east  are  numerous  ranges  of  mountains 
Cultivation  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
valleys  of  the  rivers.  The  climate  ii 
warm  in  summer,  but  severe  in  winter; 
there  is  very  little  rain,  and  artificial 
irrigation  is  necessary.  Besides  cereals, 
cotton  and  tobacco  are  cultivated,  and 
also  a good  deal  of  fruit.  The  total 
population,  about  2,000,000. — Bokhara, 
the  capital  of  the  khanate,  is  8 or  9 
miles  in  circuit,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
mud  wall.  Pop  70,000. 

BOLAN'  PASS,  a celebrated  defile  in 
the  Hala  Mountains,  n.e.  of  Beluchistan, 
on  the  route  between  the  Lower  Indus 
(Scinde)  and  the  tableland  of  Afghanis- 
tan. It  is  about  60  miles  long,  hemmed 
in  on  all  sides  by  lofty  precipices,  and 


In  the  Bolan  pass. 


in  parts  so  narrow  that  a regiment  could 
defend  it  against  an  army.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  the  Bolan  river.  The  crest  of 
the  pass  is  5800  feet  high. 

BOLAS,  a form  of  missile  used  by  the 
Paraguay  Indians,  the  Patagonians, 
and  especially  by  the  Gauchos  of  the 
Argentine  Republic.  It  consists  of  a 
rope  or  line  having  at  either  end  a stone, 
ball  of  metal,  or  lump  of  hardened  clay. 
When  used  it  is  swung  round  the  head  by 
one  end,  and  then  hurled  at  an  animal 
so  as  to  entangle  it. 

BOLER'O,  a popular  Spanish  dance 
of  the  ballet  class  for  couples,  or  for  a 
single  female  dancer.  The  music,  which 
is  in  triple  measure,  is  generally  marked 
by  rapid  changes  of  time,  and  the 
dancers  mostly  accompany  the  music 
with  castanets.  The  interest  of  these 
dances  largely  depends  upon  the  panto- 
mine  of  passion,  which  forms  an  essen- 
tial part  of  them. 

BOLEYN  (bul'in),  Anne,  second  wife 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  eldest 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Bolejm  and 
Elizabeth  Howard,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk;  born,  according  to 
some  accounts,  in  1507.  but  more 
probably  about  1501.  Sne  attended 
Mary,  sister  of  Henry,  on  her  marriage 
with  Louis  XII.,  to  France,  as  lady  of 
honor,  returning  to  England  about  1522, 
and  becoming  lady  of  honor  to  Queen 


bolingbroke 


BOLOGNA 


6atherine.  The  king,  who  soon  grew 
passionately  enamored  of  her,  without 
waiting  for  the  official  completion  of  his 
divorce  from  Catherine,  married  Anne 
in  January,  1533,  having  previously 
created  her  Marchioness  of  Pembroke. 
When  her  pregnancy  revealed  the  secret, 
Cranmer  declared  the  first  marriage 
void  and  the  second  valid,  and  Anne 
was  crowned  at  Westminster  with 


Anne  Boleyn. 


unparalleled  splendor.  On  Sept.  7, 
1533,  she  became  the  mother  of  Eliza- 
beth She  was  speedily,  however,  in 
turn  supplanted  by  her  own  lady  of 
honor,  Jane  Seymour.  Suspicions  of 
infidelity  were  alleged  against  her,  and 
in  1536  the  queen  was  brought  before  a 
jury  of  peers  on  a charge  of  treason  and 
adultery.  Smeaton,  a musician,  who 
was  arrested  with  others,  confessed  that 
he  had  enjoyed  her  favors,  and  on  May 
17  she  was  condemned  to  death.  The 
clemency  of  Henry  went  no  further  than 
the  substitution  of  the  scaffold  for  the 
stake,  and  she  was  beheaded  on  May 
19,  1536.  Whether  she  was  guilty  or 
not  has  never  been  decided;  that  she 
was  exceedingly  indiscreet  is  certain. 

BO'LINGBROKE,  Henry  St.  John, 
Viscount,  English  statesman  and  politi- 
cal writer,  born  in  1678  at  Battersea, 
London;  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Ox- 
ford, where  he  had  a reputation  both 
for  ability  and  libertinism.  In  1700  he 
married  a considerable  heiress,  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Henry  Winchcomb,  but 
they  speedily  separated.  In  1701  he 
obtained  a seat  in  the  Blouse  of  Com- 
mons, attaching  himself  to  Harley  and 
the  Tories.  He  at  once  gained  influence 
and  became  secretary  of  war  in  1706, 
though  he  retired  with  the  ministry  in 
1708.  He  continued,  however,  to 
maintain  a constant  intercourse  with 
the  queen,  who  preferred  him  to  her 
other  counselors,  and  on  the  overthrow 
of  the  Whig  ministry  in  1710,  after  the 
Sacheverell  episode,  he  became  one  of 
the  secretaries  of  state.  In  1712  he  was 
called  to  the  House  of  Lords  by  the 
title  of  Viscount  Bolingbroke,  and  in 
1713,  against  much  popular  opposition, 
concluded  the  Peace  of  Utrecht.  Queen 
Anne,  provoked  by  Oxford,  dismissed 
him,  and  made  Bolingbroke  prime- 
minister,  but  died  herself  four  days 
later.  Bolingbroke,  dismissed  by  King 
George  while  yet  in  Germany,  fled  to 
France  in  March,  1715,  to  escape  the 
inevitable  impeachment  by  which,  in 


the  autumn  of  that  year,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  peerage  and  banished.  In  1723 
he  was  permitted  to  return  to  England. 
In  1735  a return  to  France  became 
prudent,  if  not  necessary.  In  1742,  on 
the  fall  of  Walpole,  he  came  back  in  the 
expectation  that  his  allies  would  admit 
him  to  some  share  of  power;  but,  being 
disappointed  in  this  respect,  he  with- 
drew entirely  from  politics  and  spent  the 
last  nine  years  of  his  life  in  quietude  at 
Battersea,  dying  in  1751  He  was 
clever  and  versatile,  but  unscrupulous 
and  insincere 

BOLIVAR  (bo-le'var),  Simon,  the 
liberator  of  Spanish  South  America, 
was  born  at  Caracas,  July  24,  1783. 
He  finished  his  education  in  Europe, 
and  having  then  joined  the  patriotic 
party  among  his  countrymen  he  shared 
in  the  first  unsuccessful  efforts  to  throw 
off  the  Spanish  yoke.  In  1812  he  joined 
the  patriots  of  New  Granada  in  their 
struggle,  and  having  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  several  actions  he  led  a 
small  force  into  his  own  country  (Vene- 
zuela), and  entered  the  capital,  Caracas, 
as  victor  and  liberator,  Aug.  4,  1813. 
But  the  success  of  the  revolutionary 
party  was  not  of  long  duration.  Bolivar 
was  beaten  by  General  Boves,  and  before 
the  end  of  the  year  the  royalists  were 
again  masters  of  Venezuela.  Bolivar 
next  received  from  the  Congress  of  New 
Granada  the  command  of  an  expedition 
against  Bogota,  and  after  the  successful 
transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  to 
that  city  retired  to  Jamaica.  Having 
again  returned  to  Venezuela  he  was  able 
to  rout  the  royalists  under  Morillo,  and, 
after  a brilliant  campaign,  effected  in 
1819  a junction  with  the  forces  of  the 
New  Granada  republic.  The  battle  of 
Bojaca  which  followed  gave  him  posses- 
sion of  Santa  F6  and  all  New  Granada, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  president 
and  captain-general.  A law  was  now 
passed  by  which  the  Republics  of  Vene- 
zuela and  New  Granada  were  to  be 
united  in  a single  state,  as  the  Republic 
of  Colombia;  and  Bolivar  was  elected 
the  first  president.  In  1822  he  went  to 
the  aid  of  Peru,  and  was  made  dictator, 
an  office  held  by  him  till  1825,  by  which 
time  the  country  had  been  completely 
freed  from  Spanish  rule.  In  1825  he 
visited  Upper  Peru,  which  formed  itself 
into  an  independent  republic  named 
Bolivia,  in  honor  of  Bolivar.  In  Colom- 
bia a civil  war  arose  between  his  adher- 
ents and  the  faction  opposed  to  him, 
but  Bolivar  was  confirmed  in  the  presi- 
dency in  1826,  and  again  in  1828,  and 
continued  to  exercise  the  chief  authority 
until  May,  1830,  when  he  resigned.  He 
died  at  Carthagena  on  the  17th  Decem- 
ber, 1830. — One  of  the  departments  of 
Colombia  is  named  after  him,  as  are  also 
a state  of  the  republic  Venezuela,  and 
the  town  Ciudad  Bolivar. 

BOLIV'IA,  formerly  called  Upper 
Peru,  a republic  of  South  America, 
bounded  n.  and  e by  Brazil,  s.  by  the 
Argentine  Republic  and  Paraguay,  and 
w.  by  Peru  and  Chile.  Estimates  of  its 
area  vary  from  471,788  to  800,000  sq. 
miles.  The  total  pop.  is  about  2,300,000. 
An  unascertained  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  belong  to  aboriginal  races 
(the  Aymaras  and  the  Quichuas);  the 
larger  portion  of  the  remainder  be- 


ing Mestizos  or  descendants  of  the 
original  settlers  by  native  women.  The 
largest  town  is  La  Paz,  but  the  executive 
government  has  its  seat  at  Sucre  or 
Chuquisaca;  other  towns  are  Potosi, 
Oruro,  and  Cochabamba.  The  broadest 
part  of  the  Andes,  where  these  moun- 
tains, encompassing  Lakes  Titicaca 
(partly  in  Bolivia)  and  Aullagas,  divide 
into  two  chains,  known  as  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Cordilleras,  lies  in  the 
western  portion  of  the  state.  Here  are 
some  cuf  the  highest  summits  of  the 
Andes,  as  Sorata,  Illimani,  and  Sajama. 
The  two  chains  inclose  an  extensive 
tableland,  the  general  elevation  of 
which  is  about  12,500  feet,  much  of  it 
being  saline  and  barren,  especially  in 
the  south. 

The  climate,  though  ranging  between 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  is  very 
healthful,  and  cholera  and  yellow  fever 
are  unknown.  The  elevated  regions  are 
cold  and  dry,  the  middle  temperate  and 
delightful,  the  lower  valleys  and  plains 
quite  tropical.  Among  animals  are  the 
llama,  alpaca,  vicuna,  chinchilla,  etc.; 
the  largest  bird  is  the  condor.  Bolivia 
has  long  been  famed  for  its  mineral 
wealth,  especially  silver  and  gold.  The 
celebrated  Potosi  was  once  the  richest 
silver  district  in  the  world.  The  coun- 
try is  capable  of  producing  every  product 
known  to  South  America,  but  cultiva- 
tion is  in  a very  backward  state.  Coffee, 
coca,  cacao,  tobacco,  maize,  and  sugar- 
cane are  grown,  and  there  is  an  inex- 
haustible supply  of  india-rubber.  The 
chief  exports  are  silver  (two-thirds  of 
the  whole)  cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark, 
cocoa,  coffee,  caoutchouc,  alpaca  wool, 
coppe  f,  tin,  and  other  ores. 

By  its  constitution  Bolivia  is  a demo- 
cratiij  republic.  The  executive  power  is 
in  the  hands  of  a president  elected  for 
four  years,  and  the  legislative  belongs 
to  a congress  of  two  chambers,  both 
elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The 
religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  and 
public  worship  according  to  the  rites  of 
any  other  church  is  prohibited.  Educa- 
tion is  at  an  exceedingly  low  ebb. 

Bolivia  under  the  Spaniards  long 
formed  part  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru, 
latterly  it  was  joined  to  that  of  La  Plata 
or  Buenos  Ayres.  Its  independent 
history  commences  with  the  year  1825, 
when  the  republic  was  founded.  The 
constitution  was  drawn  up  by  Bolivar, 
in  whose  honor  the  state  was  named 
Bolivia;  and  was  adopted  by  congress 
in  1826.  It  has  since  undergone  im- 
portant modifications.  But  the  country 
has  been  almost  continually  distracted 
by  internal  and  external  troubles,  and 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  had  any 
definite  constitution. 

BOLOGNA  (bo-16n'ya),  one  of  the 
oldest,  largest,  and  richest  cities  of 
Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  same 
name,  in  a fertile  plain  at  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  between  the  rivers  Reno 
and  Savena,  surrounded  by  an  unforti- 
fied brick  wall.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  and  has  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  silk  goods,  velvet,  artificial 
flowers,  etc.  The  leaning  towers  Degli 
Asinelli  and  Garisenda,  dating  from 
the  12th  century,  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  objects  in  the  city;  and  the 
market  is  adorned  with  the  colossi 


BOLOMETER 


BOMBAY 


bronze  Neptune  of  Giovanni  da  Bologna. 
An  arcade  of  640  arches  leads  to  the 
church  of  Madonna  di  S.  Lucca,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  near 
Bologna,  and  the  resort  of  pilgrims 
from  ail  parts  of  Italy.  Bologna  has 
long  been  renowned  for  its  university, 
claiming  to  have  been  founded  in  1088, 
and  having  a library,  at  one  time  in  the 
care  of  Cardinal  Mezzofanti,  which 


numbers  over  200,000  volumes  and 
9000  MSS.  The  Institute  delle  Scienze 
has  a library  which  numbers  about 
160,000  volumes,  with  6000  manu- 
scripts. The  Church  of  San  Domenico 
has  a library  of  120,000  volumes.  The 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  has  a rich  col- 
lection of  paintings  by  native  artists, 
such  as  Francia,  and  the  later  Bolognese 
school,  of  which  the  Caraccis,  Guido 
Beni,  Domenichino,  and  Albano  were 
the  founders. — Bologna  was  founded 
by  the  Etruscans  under  the  name  of 
Felsina;  became  in  189  b.c.  the  Roman 
colony  Bononia;  was  taken  by  the 
Longobards  about  728  a.d.;  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  and  was 
made  a free  city  by  Charlemagne.  In 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries  it  was  one 
of  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Italian 
republics;  but  the  feuds  between  the 
different  parties  of  the  nobles  led  to  its 
submission  to  the  papal  see  in  1513. 
Several  attempts  were  made  to  throw 
off  the  papal  yoke,  one  of  which,  in 
1831,  was  for  a time  successful.  In  1849 
the  Austrians  obtained  possession  of  it. 
In  1860  it  was  anne.xed  to  the  domin- 
ions of  King  Victor  Emmanuel.  Pop. 
130,000. — The  province  of  Bologna, 
formerly  included  in  the  papal  terri- 
tories, forms  a rich  and  beautiful  tract; 
area,  1390  sq.  miles;  pop.  527,000. 

BOLOM'ETER,  a most  sensitive  elec- 
trical instrument  that  is  employed  for 
the  measurement  of  radiant  heat. 

BOLSTER,  a nautical  term  applied 
to  a piece  of  wood  covered  with  canvas 
upon  which  rests  the  topmost  rigging 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  rigging. 

BOLT,  a piece  of  metal  used  to  bind 
machinery  together,  or  to  fasten,  tem- 
po rarilj'  or  permanently,  any  kind  of 


structure.  The  manufacture  of  bolts 
requires  very  complicated  machinery, 
especially  bolts  to  which  are  attached 
nuts  to  hold  the  bolt  in  place.  Various 
kinds  of  bolts  are  called  eye-bolts, 
through-bolts,  blunt-bolts,  Lewis  bolts, 
track-bolts  (for  railroad  track),  etc. 

BOLTING-CLOTH,  a fabric  of  silk 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  flour  to 
separate  the  fine  parts  of  the  product 
from  the  coarse. 

BOLTON,  a large  manufacturing 
town  and  municipal,  pari.,  and  county 
borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  lying 
10  miles  n.w.  from  Manchester,  and  con- 
sisting mainly  of  two  divisions.  Great 
Bolton  and  Little  Bolton,  separated 
from  each  other  by  the  river  Croal. 
In  manufacturing  industries  it  is  now 
surpassed  by  few  places  in  Britain,  and 
it  contains  some  of  the  largest  and 
finest  cotton-mills  in  the  world.  There 
are  large  engineering  works,  besides 
collieries,  paper-mills,  foundries,  chemi- 
cal works,  etc.  Pop.  168,205. 

BOMB  (bom),  a large,  hollow  iron 
ball  or  shell,  filled  with  explosive  ma- 
terial and  fired  from  a mortar.  The 
charge  in  the  bomb  is  exploded  by 
means  of  a fuse  filled  with  powder  and 
other  inflammable  materials,  which  are 
ignited  by  the  discharge  of  the  mortar. 
Conical  shells  shot  from  rifled  cannon 
have  largely  supplanted  the  older  bomb. 
The  use  of  bombs  and  mortars  is  said  to 
have  been  invented  in  the  middle  of  the 
15th  century. 

BOM'BARD,  a kind  of  cannon  or 
mortar  formerly  in  use,  generally  loaded 
with  stone  instead  of  iron  balls.  Hence 
the  term  bombardier. 

BOMBARDIER  (-der'),  an  artillery 
soldier  whose  special  duties  are  con- 
nected with  the  loading  and  firing  of 
shells,  grenades,  etc.,  from  mortars  or 
howitzers 

BOMBARDIER  BEETLE,  a name 
given  to  beetles  of  the  family  Carabid®, 
because  of  the  remarkable  power  they 
possess  of  being  able  to  defend  them- 
selves by  expelling  from  the  anus  a 
pungent  acrid  fluid,  which  explodes 
with  a pretty  loud  report  on  coming 
in  contact  with  the  air, 

BOMBARD'MENT,  an  attack  with 
bombs  or  shells  upon  a fortress,  town, 
or  any  position  held  by  an  enemy,  gen- 
erally carried  out  from  the  sea. 

BOMBAR'DON,  a large  musical  in- 
strument of  the  trumpet  kind,  in  tone 
not  unlike  an  ophicleide.  Its  compass 
is  from  F on  the  fourth  ledger-line  below 
the  bass-staff  to  the  lower  D of  the 
treble-staff.  It  is  not  capable  of  rapid 
execution. 

BOMBASIN.  See  Bombazine. 

BOMBAY',  chief  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  India,  and  capital  of  the  presi- 
dency of  the  same  name,  stands  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Bombay.  Bombay  has  many  hand- 
some buildings,  both  public  and  private, 
as  the  cathedral,  the  .university,  the 
secretariat,  the  new  high  court,  the  post 
and  telegraph  offices,  etc.  Various  in- 
dustries, such  as  dyeing,  tanning,  and 
metal  working,  are  carried  on,  and  there 
are  large  cotton  factories.  The  com- 
merce is  very  extensive.  The  harbor  is 
one  of  the  largest  and  safest  in  India, 
and  there  are  commodious  docks.  There 


is  a large  traffic  with  steam-vessels 
between  Bombay  and  Great  Britain, 
regular  steam  communication  with 
China,  Australia,  Singapore,  Mauritius, 
etc  The  island  of  Bombay  is  about  11 
miles  long  and  3 miles  broad.  After 
Madras,  Bombay  is  the  oldest  of  the 
British  possessions  in  the  East,  having 
been  ceded  by  the  Portuguese  in  1661. 
Pop.  776,006. 


Bombardon. 


BOMBAY',  one  of  the  three  presi- 
dencies of  British  India,  between  lat. 
14°  and  29°  n.,  and  Ion.  66°  and  77°  e. 
It  stretches  along  the  west  of  the  Indian 
peninsula,  and  is  irregular  in  its  outline 
and  surface,  presenting  mountainous 
tracts,  low  barren  hills,  valleys,  and 
high  tablelands.  It  is  divided  into  a 
northern,  a central,  and  a southern 
division,  the  Sind'  division,  and  the 
town  and  island  of  Bombay.  The 


northern  division  contains  the  districts 
of  Ahmedabad,  Kaira,  Panch  Mahals, 
Broach,  Surat,  Thana,  Kolaba;  the 
central,  Khandesh,  Nasik,  Ahmednagar, 
Poona,  Sholapur,  Satara;  the  southern, 
Belgaum,  Dharwar,  Kaladgi,  Kanara, 
llatnagiri.  Total  area,  123,064  sq. 
miles;  pop.  18,559,561,  including  the 
city  and  territory  of  Aden  in  Arabia,  SO 
sq.  miles  (pop.  43,974).  The  native  or 


BOMBAZINE 


BONE 


feudatory  states  connected  with  the 
presidency  (the  chief  being  Kathiawar) 
have  an  area  of  65,761  sq.  miles  and  a 
pop.  of  6,908,648.  The  Portuguese 
possessions  Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu 
geographically  belong  to  it.  Many 
parts,  the  valleys  in  particular,  are 
fertile  and  highly  cultivated;  other  dis- 
tricts are  being  gradually  developed  by 
the  construction  of  roads  and  railroads. 
The  southern  portions  are  well  supplied 
with  moisture,  but  a great  part  of  Sind 
is  the  most  arid  portion  of  India.  The 
climate  varies,  being  unhealthful  in  the 
capital  Bombay  and  its  vicinity,  but  at 
other  places,  such  as  Poonah,  very 
favorable  to  Europeans.  The  chief 
productions  of  the  soil  are  cotton,  rice, 
millet,  wheat,  barley,  dates,  and  the 
cocoa  - palm.  The  manufactures  are 
cotton,  silk,  leather,  etc.  The  great 
export  is  cotton.  The  administration 
is  in  the  hands  of  a governor  and 
council. 

BOMBAZINE  ( -zen')  is  a mixed  tissue 
of  silk  and  worsted,  the  first  forming  the 
warp  and  the  second  the  weft.  It  is  fine 
and  light  in  the  make,  and  may  be  of 
any  color,  though  black  is  now  most  in 
use. 


BOMB-PROOF,  a quality  of  fortifica- 
tion which  enables  the  fortification  to 
resist  injury  from  bombs  or  shells  cast 
upon  it.  Gibraltar,  cut  from  the  solid 
rock,  and  certain  forts  of  exceedingly 
massive  walls  are  bomb-proof. 

BONA  FIDES,  BONA  FIDE  (fi'dez,  fi' 
d5),  a term  derived  from  the  Roman 
j'urists,  implying  the  absence  of  all  fraud 
or  unfair  dealing. 

BONAN'ZA,  a term  applied  in  the  U. 
States  to  an  abundance  of  precious 
metal  or  rich  ore  in  a mine. 

BONAPARTE  (bon'a-part),  the 
French  form  which  the  great  Napoleon 
was  the  first  to  give  to  the  original 
Italian  name  Buonaparte,  borne  by  his 
family  in  Corsica. 

BONAPARTE,  Jerome,  youngest 
brother  of  Napoleon  I.,  was  born  at 
Aj'accio  in  1784.  In  1801  he  was  sent 
out  on  an  expedition  to  the  West  Indies, 
but  the  vessel  being  chased  by  English 
cruisers,  was  obliged  to  put  into  New 
York.  During  his  sojourn  in  America 
.Terome  Bonaparte  became  acquainted 
with  Miss  Elizabeth  Patterson,  of  Balti- 
more, and  though  still  a minor,  married 
her  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  French 
consul  on  24th  December,  1803.  The 
emperor,  his  brother,  after  an  ineffectual 
application  to  Pope  Pius  VII.  to  have  it 
dissolved,  issued  a decree  declaring  it  to 
be  iiull  and  void.  After  considerable 
services  both  in  the  army  and  navy,  in 
1807  he  was  created  King  of  Westphalia, 
and  married  Catherine  Sophia,  princess 
of  Wiirtemberg.  After  the  election  of 
his  nephew,  Louis  Napoleon,  to  the 
presidentship  of  the  French  Republic, 
in  1848,  be  became  successively  gov- 
ernor-general of  Les  Invalides,  a mar- 
shal of  France,  and  president  of  the 
senate.  He  died  in  1860.  Of  the  three 
children  that  were  born  to  Jerome 
Bonaparte  from  his  second  marriage 
one  was  Prince  Napoleon  Joseph,  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Jerome,  and  was 
well  known  by  the  nickname  “Plon- 
Plon.”  He  died  in  1891,  having  married 
Clotilde,  daughter  of  King  Victor 
P.  E.— 1 1 


Emmanuel  of  Italy.  He  had  three 
children:  Victor  (born  18th  July,  1862), 
Louis,  and  Marie  Letitia.  The  first  of 
these,  since  the  death  of  Napoleon  III.’s 
son,  the  Prince  Imperial,  is  generally 
recognized  by  the  Bonapartist  party  as 
the  heir  to  the  traditions  of  the  dynasty. 
He  had  to  leave  France  in  1886,  a law 
being  passed  expelling  pretenders  to  the 
French  throne  and  their  eldest  sons. 

BONAPARTE,  Joseph,  the  eldest 
brother  of  Napoleon  I.,  was  born  in 
Corsica  in  1768.  In  1796,  with  the  rise 
of  his  brother  to  fame  after  the  brilliant 
campaign  of  Italy,  Joseph  began  a 
varied  diplomatic  and  military  career. 
At  length,  in  1806,  Napoleon,  having 
himself  assumed  the  imperial  title  in 
1804,  made  Joseph  king  of  Naples,  and 
two  years  afterward  transferred  him 
to  Madrid  as  King  of  Spain.  His  posi- 
tion here,  entirely  dependent  on  the 
support  of  French  armies,  became 
almost  intolerable.  He  was  twice 
driven  from  his  capital  by  the  approach 
of  hostile  armies,  and  the  third  time, 
in  1813,  he  fled,  not  to  return.  After 
Waterloo  he  went  to  the  U.  States,  and 
lived  for  a time  near  Philadelphia, 
assuming  the  title  of  Count  de  Survil- 
liers.  He  subsequently  came  to  England, 
finally  repaired  to  Italy,  and  died  at 
Florence  in  1844. 

BONAPARTE,  Letizia  Ramolino,  the 
mother  of  Napoleon  I.,  and,  after 
Napoleon’s  assumption  of  the  imperial 
crown,  dignified  with  the  title  of  Madame 
Mere,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1750,  and 
was  married  in  1767  to  Charles  Buona- 
parte. She  was  a woman  of  much 
beauty,  intellect,  and  force  of  character. 
Left  a widow  in  1785,  she  resided  in 
Corsica  till  her  son  became  first  consul, 
when  an  establishment  was  assigned 
to  her  at  Paris.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
she  returned  to  Rome,  where  she  died 
in  1836. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis,  second  younger 
brother  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I., 
and  father  of  Napoleon  III.,  was  born 
in  Corsica  in  1778.  He  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  sub- 
sequently rose  to  the  rank  of  a brigadier- 
general.  In  1802  he  married  Hortense 
Beauharnais,  Josephine’s  daughter,  and 
in  1806  was  compelled  by  his  brother 
to  accept,  very  reluctantly,  the  Dutch 
crown.  He  exerted  himself  in  promoting 
the  welfare  of  his  new  subjects,  and 
resisted  as  far  as  in  him  lay  the  tyranni- 
cal interference  and  arbitrary  procedure 
of  France;  but  disagreeing  with  his 
brother  in  regard  to  some  measures  of 
the  latter,  he  abdicated  in  1810  and 
retired  to  Gratz  under  the  title  of  the 
Count  of  St.  Leu.  He  died  at  Leghorn 
in  1846.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
.works  which  show  considerable  literary 
ability. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis.  See  Napoleon 

III. 

BONAPARTE,  Lucien,  Prince  of 
Canino,  next  younger  brother  of  Napo- 
leon I.,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1775. 
Shortly  after  Napoleon’s  return  from 
Egypt  in  1799  he  was  elected  President 
of  the  Council,  in  which  position  he  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  fall  of  the  Direc- 
tory and  the  establishment  of  his 
brother’s  power,  on  the  famous  18th 
Brumaire  (9th  Nov.).  Next  year,  as 


Napoleon  began  to  develop  his  system 
of  military  despotism,  Lucien,  who  still 
held  to  his  republican  principles  and 
candidly  expressed  his  disapproval  of 
his  brother’s  conduct,  fell  into  disfavor 
and  was  sent  out  of  the  way  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Spain.  Eventually,  when  Napo- 
leon had  the  consulate  declared  heredi- 
tary, Lucien  withdrew  to  Italy,  settling 
finally  at  Rome,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  lived 
in  apparent  indifference  to  the  growth 
of  his  brother’s  power.  In  vain  Napo- 
leon offered  him  the  crown,  first  of 
Italy  and  then  of  Spain ; but  he  came  to 
France  and  exerted  himself  on  his 
brother’s  behalf,  both  before  and  after 
Waterloo.  Returning  to  Italy,  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  literary  and  scien- 
tific researches,  dying  in  1840.  Pope 
Pius  VII.  made  him  Prince  of  Canino. 

BONAPARTE,  Napoleon.  See  Na- 
poleon I. 

BONAVENTURE,  St.,  otherwise  John 
of  Fidanza,  one  of  the  most  renowned 
scholastic  philosophers,  W’as  born  in 
1221  in  the  Papal  States;  became  in 
1243  a Franciscan  monk;  in  1253  teacher 
of  theology  at  Paris,  where  he  had 
studied,  in  1256  general  of  his  order, 
which  he  ruled  w’ith  a prudent  mixture 
of  gentleness  and  firmness.  In  1273 
Gregory  X.  made  him.  a cardinal,  and 
he  died  in  1274  while  papal  legate  at  the 
Council  of  Lyons.  He  was  canonized  in 
1482  by  Sixtus  IV. 

BOND,  an  obligation  in  WTiting  to  pay 
a sum  of  money,  or  to  do  or  not  to  do 
some  particular  thing  specified  in  the 
bond.  The  person  who  gives  the  bond 
is  called  the  obligor,  the  person  receiving 
the  bond  is  called  the  obligee.  A bond 
stipulating  either  to  do  something 
wrong  in  itself  or  forbidden  by  law,  or 
to  omit  the  doing  of  something  w'hich  is 
a duty,  is  void.  No  person  who  cannot 
legally  enter  into  a contract,  such  as  an 
infant  or  a lunatic,  can  become  an 
obligor,  though  such  a person  may 
become  an  obligee.  No  particular  form 
of  words  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  a 
bond.  A common  form  of  bond  is  that 
on  which  money  is  lent  to  some  com- 
pany or  corporation,  and  by  which  the 
borrowers  are  bound  to  pay  the  lender 
a certain  rate  of  interest  for  the  monej’-. 
Goods  liable  to  customs  or  excise  duties 
are  said  to  be  in  bond  w'hen  they  are 
temporarily  placed  in  vaults  or  ware- 
houses under  a bond  by  the  importer  or 
owner  that  they  will  not  be  removed 
till  the  duty  is  paid  on  them.  Such 
warehouses  are  called  bonded  ware- 
houses. 

BONE,  a hard  material  constituting 
the  framework  of  Mammalia,  birds, 
fishes,  and  reptiles,  and  thus  protecting 
vital  organs  such  as  the  heart  and  lungs 
from  external  pressure  and  injury.  In 
the  foetus  the  bones  are  formed  of  car- 
tilaginous (gristly)  substance,  in  different 
points  of  which  earthy  matter — phos- 
phates and  carbonates  of  lime — is 

fradually  deposited  till  at  the  time  of 
irth  the  bone  is  partially  formed.  After 
birth  the  formation  of  bone  continues, 
and,  in  the  temperate  zones,  they  roach 
their  perfection  in  men  between  the 
ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-five.  From 
this  age  till  fifty  they  change  but 
slightly;  after  that  period  they  grow 


BONE- ASH 


BOOKKEEPING 


thinner,  lighter,  and  more  brittle. 
Bones  are  densest  at  the  surface,  which 
is  covered  by  a firm  membrane  called 
the  periosteum;  the  internal  parts  are 
more  cellular,  the  spaces  being  filled 
with  marrow,  a fatty  tissue,  supporting 
fine  blood-vessels.  Bone  consists  of 
nearly  34  per  cent  organic  material  and 
of  66  per  cent  inorganic  substances, 
chiefly  phosphate,  carbonate,  and  fluor- 
ide of  lime,  and  phosphate  of  mag- 
nesium. The  organic  material  is  con- 
verted into  gelatine  by  boiling.  It  is 
this  which  makes  bones  useful  for  yield- 
ing stock  for  soup.  The  inorganic 
substances  may  be  dissolved  out  by 
steeping  the  bone  in  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid.  Bones,  from  the  quantity  of 
phosphates  they  contain,  make  excellent 
manure. 

BONE-ASH,  BONE-EARTH,  the 

earthy  or  mineral  residue  of  bones  that 
have  been  calcined  so  as  to  destroy  the 
animal  matter  and  carbon.  It  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and 
is  used  for  making  cupels  in  assaying, 

BONE  BLACK,  IVORY  BLACK,  or 
ANIMAL  CHARCOAL,  is  obtained  by 
heating  bones  in  close  retorts  till  they 
are  reduced  to  small  coarse  grains  of  a 
black  carbonaceous  substance.  This 
possesses  the  valuable  property  of  arrest- 
ing and  absorbing  into  itself  the  coloring 
matter  of  liquids  which  are  passed 
through  it.  Hence  it  is  extensively 
used  in  the  process  of  sugar-reflning, 
when  cylinders  of  large  dimensions 
filled  with  this  substance  are  used  as 
filters.  After  a certain  amount  of 
absorption  the  charcoal  becomes  satu- 
rated and  ceases  to  act.  It  has  then  to 
be  restored  by  reheating  or  other 
methods.  Bone  black  has  also  the 
property  of  absorbing  odors,  and  may 
thus  serve  as  a disinfectant  of  clothing, 
apartments,  etc. 

BONE-DUST,  bones  ground  to  dust 
to  be  used  as  manure. 

BONE  MANUI^,  one  of  the  most 
important  fertilizers  in  agriculture. 
The  value  of  bones  as  manure  arises 
chiefly  from  the  phosphates  and  nitrog- 
enous organic  matters  they  contain ; 
and  where  the  soil  is  already  rich  in 
phosphates  bone  is  of  little  use  as 
manure.  It  is  of  most  service  therefore 
where  the  soil  is  deficient  in  this  respect, 
or  in  the  case  of  crops  whose  rapid 
growth  or  small  roots  do  not  enaole 
them  to  extract  a sufficient  supply  of 
phosphate  from  the  earth,  turnips,  for 
instance,  or  late-sown  oats  and  barley. 
There  are  several  methods  for  increasing 
the  value  of  bones  as  manure,  by  boil- 
ing out  the  fat  and  gelatine,  for  instance, 
the  removal  of  which  makes  the  bones 
more  readily  acted  on  by  the  weather 
and  hastens  the  decay  and  distribution 
of  their  parts,  or  by  grinding  them  to 
dust,  or  dissolving  them  in  sulphuric 
acid,  by  which  latter  course  the  phos- 
phates are  rendered  soluble  in  water. 

BONFIRE,  a large  fire  lighted  out  of 
doors  in  celebration  of  some  event; 
originally  a fire  in  which  bones  were 
burned. 

BONHEUR  (bo-ne«r),  Rosa,  a dis- 
tinguished French  artist  and  painter  of 
animals,  born  at  Bordeaux  22d  March, 
1322.  She  died  in  1899. 


BON'IFACE,  the  name  of  nine  popes. 
Boniface  I.,  elected  418.  He  was  the 
first  to  assume  the  title  of  the  First 
Bishop  of  Christendom.  He  died  422. — 
Boniface  II.,  elected  530,  died  in  532. 
He  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the 
secular  sovereign  in  a council  held  at 
Rome.  — Boniface  III.  chosen  607, 
died  nine  months  after  his  election. — 
Boniface  IV.,  elected  608.  He  con- 
verted the  Pantheon  at  Rome  into  a 
Christian  church. — Boniface  V.,  619  to 
625.  He  endeavored  to  dififuse  Chris- 
tianity among  the  English.  — Boniface 
VI.,  elected  896,  died  a fortnight  after. — 
Boniface  VII.,  elected  947,  during  the 
lifetime  of  Benedict  VI.,  and  therefore 
styled  antipope.  Expelled  from  Rome 
in  984,  he  returned  and  deposed  and 
put  to  death  Pope  John  XIV.  He  died 
985.  — Boniface  VIII.  (1294-1303), 
Benedict  Cajetan,  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  ambitious  of  the  popes.  His  idea 
was,  like  that  of  Gregory  VII.,  to  raise 
the  papal  chair  to  a sort  of  universal 
monarchy  in  temporal  as  well  as  spirit- 
ual things. — Boniface  IX.  (1389-1404), 
elected  during  the  schism  in  the  church 
while  Clement  VII.  resided  at  Avignon. 
He  died  in  1404. 

BONN,  an  important  German  town 
in  the  Rhenish  province  of  Prussia,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  chiefly 
important  for  its  famous  university 
founded  in  1777  by  Elector  Maximilian 
Frederick  of  Cologne.  Enlarged  and 
amply  endowed  by  the  King  of  Prussia 
in  1818,  it  is  now  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  learning  in  Europe,  with  a library  of 
more  than  200,000  volumes,  an  anatom- 
ical hall,  mineralogical  and  zoological 
collections,  museum  of  antiquities,  a 
botanical  garden,  etc.  Bonn  was  long 
the  residence  of  the  Electors  of  Cologne, 
and  finally  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Prussia  by  the  arrangements  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815.  Pop. 
50,737. 

BONNER,  Robert,  an  American  editor 
and  publisher,  born  in  Ireland  in  1824, 
died  in  New  York  in  1899.  He  pub- 
lished the  Ledger,  in  the  columns  of 
which  appeared  stories,  articles,  and 
poems  by  numerous  literary  men  of 
England  and  America. 

BON'NET,  a covering  for  the  head, 
now  especially  applied  to  one  worn  by 
females.  In  England  the  bonnet  was 
superseded  by  the  hat  as  a head-dress  two 
or  three  centuries  ago,  but  continued  to 
be  distinctive  of  Scotland  to  a later 
period. 

BONNET-ROUGE  (bo-na-rozh),  the 
emblem  of  liberty  during  the  French 
Revolution,  and  then  worn  as  a head- 
dress by  all  who  wished  to  mark  them- 
selves as  sufficiently  advanced  in  dem- 
ocratic principles:  also  called  cap  of 
liberty. 

BONNEVILLE,  Benjamin  L.  E.,  an 
American  engineer,  born  in  France  in 
1795,  died  in  1878.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point,  explored  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  built  a military  road  in  Mis- 
sissippi. He  served  in  the  Florida, 
Mexican,  and  civil  wars,  and  became 
a brigadier-general  in  1865. 

BO'NUS,  something  given  over  and 
above  what  is  required  to  be  given, 
especially  an  extra  dividend  to  the 
shareholders  of  a joint-stock  company, 


holders  of  insurance  policies,  etc.,  out 
of  accrued  profits. 

BONY  PIKE,  or  GARFISH,  a remark- 
able genus  of  fishes  inhabiting  N.  Amer- 
ican lakes  and  rivers,  and  one  of  the  few 
living  forms  that  now  represent  the 
order  of  ganoid  fishes  so  largely  de- 
veloped in  previous  geological  epochs. 
The  body  is  covered  with  smooth 
enameled  scales,  so  hard  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  pierce  them  wuth  a spear. 
The  common  garfish  attains  the  length 
of  5 feet,  and  is  easily  distinguished  by 
the  great  length  of  its  jaws. 

BONZES,  the  name  given  by  Euro- 
peans to  the  priests  of  the  religion  of 
Fo  or  Buddha  in  eastern  Asia,  par- 
ticularly in  China,  Burmah,  Tonquin, 
Cochin-China,  and  Japan.  They  do  not 
marry,  but  live  together  in  monasteries. 
There  are  also  female  bonzes,  whose 
position  is  analogous  to  that  of  nuns  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

BOOBY,  a swimming  bird  nearly 
allied  to  the  gannet,  and  so  named  from 
the  extraordinary  stupidity  with  which, 
as  the  older  voyagers  tell,  it  would 
allow  itself  to  be  knocked  on  the  head 
without  attempting  to  fly.  The  booby 
lives  on  fish,  which  it  takes,  like  the 
gannet,  by  darting  down  upon  them 
when  swimming  near  the  surface  of  the 

WSit©!* 

BOODHA.  See  Buddha. 

BOOK,  the  general  name  applied 
to  a printed  volume.  In  early  times 
books  were  made  of  the  bark  of  trees; 
hence  the  Latin  liber  means  bark  and 
book,  as  in  English  the  words  book  and 
beech  may  be  connected.  The  materials 
of  ancient  books  were  largely  derived 
from  the  papyrus,  a plant  which  gave 
its  name  to  paper.  The  use  of  parch- 
ment, prepared  from  skins,  next  fol- 
lowed, until  it  was  supplanted  in  Europe 
by  paper  in  the  12th  century,  though 
paper  was  made  in  Asia  long  before  this. 

BOOK'BINDING,  the  art  of  making 
up  the  sheets  of  a book  into  a volume 
with  a substantial  case  or  covering.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  work  of  binding  the 
manuscripts  then  used  was  done  by  the 
monks,  in  a heavy  and  excessively  solid 
style.  With  the  invention  of  printing, 
and  the  consequent  multiplication  of 
books,  binding  became  a great  mechani- 
cal art,  in  which  the  Italians  of  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries  took  the  lead.  Later 
on  the  French  binders  enjoyed  a well- 
deserved  supremacy  for  delicate  and 
elegant  work,  and  it  was  not  till  almost 
the  opening  of  the  19th  century  that 
English  bookbinding  began  to  take  the 
foremost  place. 

BOOK'KEEPING  is  the  art  or  method 
of  recording  mercantile  or  pecuniary 
transactions,  so  that  at  any  time  a per- 
son may  be  able  to  ascertain  the  details 
and  the  extent  of  his  business.  It  is 
divided,  according  to  the  general 
method  pursued,  into  bookkeeping  by 
single  or  by  double  entry.  Bookkeep- 
ing by  single  entry  is  comparatively 
little  used,  except  in  retail  businesses  of 
small  extent,  where  only  the  simplest 
record  is  required. 

Bookkeeping  by  double  entry,  a 
system  first  adopted  in  the  great  trading 
cities  of  Italy,  gives  a fuller  and  more 
accurate  record  of  the  movement  of  a bus- 
iness, and  is  necessary  in  all  extensive 


BOOK  OF  MORMON 


BOOTH 


mercantile  concerns.  The  chief  feature 
of  double  entry  is  its  system  of  checks, 
by  which  each  transaction  is  twice 
entered,  to  the  Dr.  side  of  one  account 
and  then  to  the  Cr.  side  of  another.  An 
important  feature  of  the  system  con- 
sists in  adopting,  in  addition  to  the  per- 
sonal accounts  of  debtors  and  creditors 
contained  in  the  ledger,  a series  of  what 
are  called  book  accounts,  which  are 
systematic  records  in  the  form  of  debtor 
and  creditor  of  particular  classes  of 
transactions.  For  every  debt  incurred 
some  consideration  is  received.  This 
consideration  is  represented  under  a 
particular  class  or  name  in  the  ledger, 
as  the  debtor  in  the  transaction  in  which 
the  party  from  whom  the  consideration 
is  received  is  the  creditor.  Thus  A buys 
goods  to  the  value  of  $500  from  B.  He 
enters  these  in  his  journal — Stock  Acet. 
Dr.  $500  (for  goods  purchased)  ordinary 
To  B,  $500.  The  first  $500  appears  in  the 
Dr.  column  of  the  journal,  and  is  posted 
in  the  ledger  to  the  debit  of  Stock  Ac- 
count; the  second  appears  in  the  Cr. 
column,  and  is  posted  in  the  ledger  to  the 
Cr.  of  B.  In  like  manner,  when  the  goods 
are  paid.  Cash,  for  which  an  account  is 
opened  in  the  ledger,  is  credited  with 
$500,  and  B is  debited  with  the  same. 
When  the  goods  are  sold  (for  cash) 
Stock  is  credited  and  Cash  is  debited. 
If  the  amount  for  which  they  sell  is 
greater  than  that  for  which  they  were 
bought,  there  will  be  a balance  at  the 
debit  of  Cash,  and  a balance  at  the  credit 
of  Stock.  The  one  balance  represents 
the  cash  actually  on  hand  (from  this 
transaction),  the  other  the  cause  of  its 
being  on  hand.  If  there  is  a loss  on  the 
transaction,  the  balance  will  be  on  the 
other  side  of  these  accounts.  Ulti- 
mately the  balance  thus  arising  at  Dr. 
or  Cr.  of  Stock  is  transferred  to  an 
account  called  Profit  and  Loss,  which 
makes  the  stock  account  represent  the 
present  value  of  goods  on  hand,  and  the 
profit  and  loss  account,  when  complete, 
the  result  of  the  business.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  risk  of  omitting  any  entry, 
which  is  a very  common  occurrence  in 
single  bookkeeping,  is  reduced  to  its 
smallest,  as,  unless  a particular  trans- 
action is  omitted  in  every  step  of  its 
history,  the  system  will  inexorably 
require  that  its  whole  history  should  be 
given  to  bring  the  different  accounts 
into  harmony  with  each  other. 

BOOK  OF  MORMON,  the  bible  of  the 
Mormons,  first  published  in  1830  by 
Joseph  Smith,  who  claimed  it  was 
written  on  gold  plates,  buried  in  a 
sacred  hill,  and  disclosed  to  Smith  by  an 
angel.  The  plates  disappeared,  but  a 
translation  (the  original  characters 
were  Egyptian)  was  made  by  the 
finder,  who,  upon  it,  founded  the  Mor- 
mon faith. 

BOOK-PLATE,  a label  pasted  on  the 
Inside  of  the  first  cover  of  a book,  giving 
the  name  of  the  owner.  Book-plates 
are  a very  ancient  usage  and  some  of 
them,  especially  rare  ones,  or  those  from 
the  books  of  famous  persons,  are  very 
valuable.  Sir  Wollasten  Franks  made  a 
collection  of  200,000  book-plates,  which 
is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  Many 
noted  artists,  such  as  Hogarth,  for 
example,  drew  book-plates  for  distin- 
guished patrons. 


BOOKS,  Censorship  of,  the  super- 
vision of  books  by  some  authority  so  as 
to  settle  what  may  be  published.  After 
the  invention  of  printing  the  rapid 
diffusion  of  opinions  by  means  of  books 
induced  the  governments  in  all  countries 
to  assume  certain  powers  of  .supervision 
and  regulation  with  regard  to  printed 
matter.  The  popes  were  the  first  to 
institute  a regular  censorship.  By  a 
bull  of  Leo  X.  in  1515  the  bishops  and 
inquisitors  were  required  to  examine 
all  works  before  they  were  printed,  with 
a view  to  prevent  the  publication  of 
heretical  opinions.  As  this  decree  could 
not  be  carried  out  in  countries  which  had 
accepted  the  reformed  religion,  they 
prepared  a list  of  prohibited  books 
Undex  Librorum  Prohibitorum),  books, 
that  is,  which  nobody  was  allowed  to 
read  under  penalty  of  the  censure  of  the 
church.  This  index  continues  to  be 
reprinted  and  revised  down  to  date,  as 
well  as  another  index  commonly  called 
the  Index  Expurgatorius,  containing 
the  works  which  may  be  read  if  certain 
expurgations  have  been  made.  In 
England  the  censorship  was  established 
by  act  of  parliament  in  1662,  but  before 
that  both  the  well-known  Star-chamber 
and  the  parliament  itself  had  virtually 
performed  the  functions.  In  1694  the 
censorship  in  England  ceased  entirely. 
In  France  the  censorship,  like  so  many 
other  institutions,  was  annihilated  by 
the  revolution.  During  the  republic 
there  was  no  formal  censorship,  but  the 
supervision  of  the  directory  virtually 
took  its  place,  and  at  length  in  1810 
Napoleon  openly  restored  it  under 
another  name  (Direction  de  I’lmpri- 
merie).  After  the  restoration  it  under- 
went various  changes,  and  was  re- 
established by  Napoleon  III.  with  new 
penalties.  In  the  old  German  empire 
the  diet  of  1530  instituted  a severe 
superintendence  of  the  press,  but  in  the 
particular  German  states  the  censure 
was  very  differently  applied,  and  in 
Protestant  states  especially  it  has  never 
been  difficult  for  individual  authors  to 
obtain  exemption.  In  1849  the  censorial 
laws  were  repealed,  but  were  again 
gradually  introduced,  and  still  exist  in 
a modified  form  in  most  of  the  German 
states.  The  censorship  v/as  abolished 
in  Denmark  in  1770,  in  Sweden  in  1809, 
in  the  Netherlands  in  1815.  In  Russia 
and  Austria  there  is  a despotic  censor- 
ship. See  Press,  Liberty  of  the. 

BOOM,  a long  pole  or  spar  run  out 
from  various  parts  of  a ship  or  other 
vessel  for  the  purpose  of  extending  the 
bottom  of  particular  sails.  Also  a strong 
beam,  or  an  iron  chain  or  cable,  fastened 
to  spars  extended  across  a river  or  the 
mouth  of  a harbor,  to  prevent  an  enemy’s 
ships  from  passing. 

BOO'MERANG,  a missile  instrument 
used  by  the  Australian  aborigines,  and 
by  some  peoples  of  India,  made  of  hard 
wood,  about  the  size  of  a common 
reaping-hook,  and  of  a peculiar  curved 
shape,  sometimes  resembling  a rude  and 
very  open  V.  The  boomerang,  when 
thrown  as  if  to  hit  some  object  in  ad- 
vance, instead  of  going  directly  forward, 
slowly  ascends  in  the  air,  whirling  round 
and  round  to  a considerable  height,  and 
returns  to  the  position  of  the  thrower. 
If  it  hits  an  object  of  course  it  falls. 


The  Australians  are  very  dexterous 
with  this  weapon,  and  can  make  it  go  in 
almost  any  direction,  sometimes  mak- 
ing it  rebound  before  striking. 


BOONDEE',  or  BUNDI,  a principality, 
Hindustan,  in  Rajputana,  under  British 
protection;  area,  2300  sep  miles.  Pop. 
295,675.  Boondee  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
22,544. 

BOONE,  Daniel,  an  American  pioneer 
of  civilization,  born  1735,  died  1820. 
In  1769  with  five  companions  he  went 
to  explore  the  little  known  region  of 
Kentucky,  and  was  taken  pri.soner  by 
the  Indians.  In  1775  he  built  a fort  on 
the  Kentucky  river,  where  Boones- 
borough  now  is,  and  settled  there.  In 


1778  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Indians,  and  was  retained  and  adopted 
into  the  family  of  a Shawanese  chief, 
but  at  length  he  effected  his  escape. 
In  the  end  of  the  century  he  removed 
from  Kentucky  into  Missouri.  From 
him  a number  of  places  in  the  U.  States 
take  the  name  of  Boone,  Booneville, 
etc.,  all  of  small  importance. 

BOOT,  an  article  of  dress,  generally 
of  leather,  covering  the  foot  and  extend- 
ing to  a greater  or  less  distance  up  the 
leg.  Hence  the  name  w'as  given  to  an 
instrument  of  torture  made  of  iron,  or 
a combination  of  iron  and  wood,  fast- 
ened on  to  the  leg,  between  which  and 
the  boot  wedges  were  introduced  and 
driven  in  by  repeated  blows  of  a mallet, 
with  such  violence  as  to  crush  both 
muscles  and  bones.  The  special  object 
of  this  form  of  torture  was  to  extort  a 
confession  of  guilt  from  an  accused 
person. 

BOOTH,  Agnes,  an  American  actress, 
born  in  Syffiiey,  Australia,  in  1843. 
She  was  born  Marion  Agnes  Land 
Rookes,  and  made  her  ddbut  in  San 
Francisco  when  very  young,  playing 
Shakespearian  parts.  In  1867  shd 


BOOTH 


BORDELAIS  WINES 


married  Junius  Brutus  Booth  and  until 
1891  was  prominent  on  the  American 
stage.  After  the  death  of  her  husband 
she  married  (1885)  John  B.  Schoeffel. 

BOOTH,  Ballington,  an  American 
religious  leader,  son  of  William  Booth, 
founder  of  the  Salvation  Army.  In 
1896  he  disagreed  with  his  father  and 
founded  the  Amei'ican  Volunteers,  an 
organization  of  a kind  with  the  Salva- 
tion Army. 

BOOTH,  Edwin  Thomas,  an  American 
actor,  son  of  Junius  Brutus  Booth, 
regarded  as  the  most  finished  actor 
produced  by  the  American  stage.  He 
was  born  at  Belair,  Md.,  in  1833,  and 
died  at  New  York  in  1893.  Booth  made 
his  debut  in  Boston  in  1849.  In  1851  he 
appeared  in  Richard  III.  at  New  York, 
married  Mary  Devlin  in  1860,  who  died 
three  years  later.  Among  the  roles 
played  with  excellent  success  by  Booth 
were  Shylock,  Hamlet,  Richard  III., 
Richelieu,  and  Cassius.  He  built 
Booth’s  Theater,  New  York,  in  1869, 
played  in  Europe  in  1880  and  1882, 
toured  the  U.  States  with  Lawrence 
Barrett  in  1891,  and  retired  soon  after- 
ward. Booth’s  Hamlet  was  regarded 
as  unapproachable  by  many  critics. 

BOOTH,  James  Curtis,  an  American 
chemist,  born  at  Philadelphia  in  1810, 
died  1888.  He  was  a specialist  in  the 
chemistry  of  mining  and  was  superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Mint  at 
Philadelphia  from  1849  till  his  deatli. 

BOOTH,  John  Wilkes,  brother  of 
Edwin  Booth,  and  the  assassin  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  born  1839,  killed  in 
1865  by  his  pursuers.  Booth  was  a 
highly  sensitive  man,  and  an  intense 
secessionist.  For  a time  he  had  been  an 
actor,  but  the  civil  war,  it  is  believed, 
turned  his  brain.  He  organized  a con- 
spiracy to  assassinate  the  president, 
vice-president,  and  cabinet,  and  succeed- 
ed in  the  first  part  of  his  plan  when  he 
shot  Lincoln  on  the  night  of  April  14, 
1865,  at  Ford’s  Theater  in  Washington. 
He  was  overtaken  April  26  at  Bowling 
Green,  Va.,  and,  refusing  to  surrender, 
was  shot.  Four  of  his  accomplices, 
including  Mrs.  Surratt,  were  hanged. 

BOOTH,  Junius  Brutus,  a British 
actor  of  great  ability,  born  in  1796,  died 
in  1852.  He  appeared  first  in  London 
in  1813  and  subsequently  became  noted 
on  the  British  stage.  Coming  to 
America  in  1821  he  settled  in  this  coun- 
try. His  principal  roles  were  Sir  Giles, 
Hamlet,  Richard,  and  lago.  He  threw 
so  much  passion  into  his  work  that  his 
mimic  antagonists  in  stage  duels  were 
often  in  serious  danger  of  being  injured. 

BOOTH,  Maude  Ballington,  a leader 
of  the  American  Volunteers,  wife  of 
Ballington  Booth.  She  was  born  in 
London  in  1865  and  entered  the  Salva- 
tion Army  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  In 
1896  she  seceded  with  her  husband  from 
the  Salvation  Army. 

BOOTH,  William,  founder  of  the  Sal- 
vation Army,  born  in  England  in  1829. 
He  was  formerly  a Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  but  in  1865  began  an  independ- 
ent mission  movement  in  London,  which 
gradually  developed  into  the  Salvation 
Army,  which  name  it  was  given  in  1878. 
He  is  the  author  of  numerous  books, 
among  them  In  Darkest  England  and 
The  Way  Out  (1890). 


BOOTH-TUCKER,  Emma  Moss,  a 
leader  of  the  Salvation  Army,  daug^hter 
of  Wilham  Booth  and  wife  of  Com- 
mander Booth-Tucker.  She  was  born 
in  England  in  1860  and  for  many  years 
has  been  head  of  the  Salvation  Army 
in  the  U.  States  jointly  with  her  hus- 
band. 

BOOTH  - TUCKER,  Frederick  St. 
George  de  Latour,  chief  of  the  Salvation 
Army  organization  in  the  U.  States. 
He  was  born  in  India  in  1853,  and 
occupied  an  official  position  in  the 
Indian  civil  service,  which  he  resigned 
in  1881  to  join  the  Salvation  Army.  In 
1896  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the'  army  in  America,  with  headquarters 
in  New  York. 

BORACIC  ACID,  BORIC  ACID,  a com- 
pound of  the  element  boron,  with 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Boracic  acid  is 
found  as  a saline  incrustation  in  some 
volcanic  regions,  is  an  ingredient  in 
many  minerals,  and  is  contained  in  the 
steam  which,  along  with  sulphureous 
exhalations,  issues  from  fissures  in  the 
soil  in  Tuscany.  The  steam  from  the 
fumaroles  here  is  now  an  important 


source  of  the  acid,  a system  of  condensa- 
tion and  evaporation  being  employed. 
The  acid  forms  white,  shining,  scaly 
crystals,  which  on  heating  melt  into  a 
transparent  ^mass,  when  cooled  resem- 
bling glass.  * It  dissolves  in  water,  and 
has  a slight  acid  taste;  it  colors  blue 
litmus  purple,  and  the  yellow  coloring 
matter  turmeric  brown.  The  chief  use 
of  the  acid  is  as  a source  of  borax,  the 
biborate  of  sodium.  See  Borax. 

BORAX,  biborate  of  sodium.  Native 
borax  has  tong  been  obtained  under  the 
name  of  tincal,  from  India,  the  main 
source  being  not  India  but  a series  of 
lakes  in  Thibet.  As  imported  it  is  in 
small  pieces  of  a dirt}’'  yellowish  color, 
and  is  covered  with  a fatty  or  soapy 
matter.  Tincal,  which  contains  various 
impurities,  was  formerly  the  only  source 
of  borax;  but  besides  Tuscany  other 
sources  of  boracic  acid,  more  particu- 
larly in  North  and  South  America,  and 
the  salt  mines  at  Stassfurt,  etc.,  in  Ger- 
many, have  been  rendered  available. 
The  U.  States  yields  large  quantities, 
there  being  rich  deposits  of  borax  and 
boracic  minerals  on  the  Pacific  slope. 


Pure  borax  forms  large  transparent 
six-sided  prisms,  which  dissolve  readily 
in  water,  effloresce  in  dry  air,  and  when 
heated  melt  in  their  water  of  crystalli- 
zation, swell  up,  and  finally  fuse  to  a 
transparent  glass.  Borax  has  a variety 
of  uses.  In  medicine  it  is  employed  in 
ulcerations  and  skin  diseases.  It  has 
valuable  antiseptic  and  disinfecting 
properties,  and  is  now  much  used  for  the 
preservation  of  meat,  fish,  and  milk. 
It  is  also  employed  in  soldering  metals, 
and  in  making  fine  glaze  for  porcelain 
as  it  renders  the  materials  more  fusible. 
It  is  used  in  enameling,  and  in  making 
beads,  glass,  and  cement. 

BORDEAUX  (bor-do'),  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  and  ports  of 
France,  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Gironde, 
on  the  Garonne,  about  70  miles  from 
the  sea.  In  the  old  town  are  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Saint -Andre,  St.  Michael’s 
Church,  with  its  superb  front  of  florid 
Gothic,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the 
Palais  de  Justice.  There  are  extensive 
and  finely  - planted  promenades.  Its 
position  gives  it  admirable  facilities  for 
trade,  and  enables  it  to  rank  next  after 


Marseilles  and  Havre  in  respect  of  the 
tonnage  employed.  Large  vessels  sail 
up  to  the  town  and  there  is  ready  com- 
munication by  railway  or  river  with  the 
Mediterranean,  Spain,  and  the  manu- 
facturing centers  of  France.  The  chief 
exports  are  wine  and  brandy;  sugar  and 
other  colonial  produce  and  wood  are  the 
chief  imports.  Ship-building  is  the 
chief  industry,  and  there  are  sugar- 
refineries,  woolen  and  cotton  mills, 
potteries,  soap-works,  distilleries,  etc. 

BORDELAIS  WINES,  the  wines  of 
Bordeaux  and  district,  the  name  of 
vin  de  Bordeaux  being  generally  given 
to  the  wines  made  in  the  eleven  depart- 
ments' of  the  southwest  of  France, 
Gironde,  Landes,  Lot,  Tarn  et  Garonne, 
etc.,  though  it  is  in  the  Gironde  alone 
that  the  famous  growths  are  found. 
The  soil  of  M6doc  (a  sandy  and  calcare- 
ous loam)  produces  such  famous  wines 
as  Ch&teau-Margaux,  Ch^teau-Lafitte, 
and  Ch&,teau-Latour.  The  wines  of  this 
country  are  the  best  which  France  pro- 
duces. Their  characteristics  are  fine 
bouquet,  velvety  softness  on  the  palate, 
and  the  faculty  of  acting  beneficially 


Bordeaux— Quay  of  Louis  XVIII. 


BOKI.EU  li'JFFIANS 


BORON 


on  the  stomach  without  mounting  too 
readily  to  the  head.  Besides  the  red 
wines  of  tlie  Bordelais,  known  under 
the  general  name  of  claret,  there  are 
also  white  wines,  of  which  the  finest 
growths  are  Sauterne,  Preignac,  Barsac, 
©tc 

BORDER  RUFFIANS,  a term  applied 
to  certain  pro-slavery  men  who  wen-t  to 
Kansas  from  Missouri  in  1853  to  turn 
the  elections. 

BORDER  STATES,  a term  applied  to 
certain  states  which  were  on  the  border 
of  the  free  states.  Under  this  head  are 
classified  usually.  Maryland,  Delaware, 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mis- 
souri, and  Arkansas. 

BORDER  WAR,  the  war  waged 
between  the  pro-  and  anti-slavery  men 
in  Kansas  some  years  previous  to  the 
civil  war. 

BO'REAS,  the  name  of  the  north 
wind  as  personified  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans. 

BORER,  a name  given  to  the  larvae 
of  certain  insects  which  bore  holes  in 
trees  and  thus  injure  them. 

BORGIA,  Cesare  (che'za-re  bor'jd), 
the  natural  son  of  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
and  of  a Roman  lady  named  Vanozza, 
born  in  1478.  He  was  made  Due  de 
Valentinois  by  Louis  XII.  In  1499  he 
married  a daughter  of  King  John  of 
Navarre.  He  carried  on  a series  of 
petty  wars,  made  himself  master  of  the 
Romagna,  attempted  Bologna  and 
Florence,  and  had  seized  Urbino  when 
Alexander  VI.  died,  1503.  Enemies 
now  rose  against  him  on  all  sides,  one 
of  the  most  bitter  of  whom  was  the  new 
pope,  Julius  II.  Borgia  was  arrested 
and  carried  to  Spain.  He  at  length 
made  his  escape  to  his  brother-in-law 
the  King  of  Navarre,  and  was  killed 
before  the  castle  of  Viana,  March  12, 
1507.  He  was  charged  with  the  murder 
of  his  elder  brother,  of  the  husband  of 
his  sister  Lucretia,  and  the  stiletto  or 
secret  poisoning  was  freely  used  against 
those  who  stood  in  his  way.  With  all 
his  crimes  he  was  a patron  of  art  and 
literature. 

BORGIA,  Lucretia,  daughter  of  Pope 
Alexander  VL,  and  sister  of  Cesare 
Borgia.  She  W'as  accused  by  contem- 
poraries of  incest,  poisoning,  and  almost 
every  species  of  enormous  crime;  but 
several  modern  writers  defend  her, 
maintaining  that  the  charges  which  have 
been  made  against  her  are  false  or  much 
exaggerated.  She  was  a patroness  of 
art  and  literature.  Born  1480,  died 
1523. 

BORING,  the  process  of  perforating 
wood,  iron,  rocks,  or  other  hard  sub- 
stances by  means  of  instruments 
adapted  for  the  purpose.  For  boring 
wood  the  tools  used  are  awls,  gimlets, 
augers,  and  bits  of  various  kinds,  tlie 
latter  being  applied  by  means  of  a 
crank-shaped  instrument  called  a brace, 
or  else  by  a lathe,  transverse-handle,  or 
drilling-machine.  Boring  in  metal  is 
done  by  drills  or  boring-bars  revolved 
l;y  boring-machines.  Boring  in  the 
earth  or  rock  for  mining,  geologic,  or 
engineering  purposes  is  effected  by 
means  of  augers,  drills,  or  jumpers, 
sometimes  wrought  by  hand,  but  now 
usually  by  machinery  driven  by  steam 
or  frequently  by  compressed  air.  In 


ordinary  mining  practice  a bore-hole 
is  usually  commenced  by  digging  a small 
pit  about  6 feet  deep,  over  which  is  set 
up  a shear-legs  with  pulley,  etc.  The 
boring-rods  are  from  10  to  20  feet  in 
length,  capable  of  being  jointed  together 
by  box  and  screw,  and  having  a chisel 
inserted  at  the  lower  end.  A lever  is 
employed  to  raise  the  bore-rods,  to 
which  a slight  twisting  motion  is  given 
at  each  stroke,  when  the  rock  at  the 
bottom  of  the  hole  is  broken  by  the 
repeated  percussion  of  the  cutting-tool. 
Various  methods  are  employed  to  clear 
out  the  triturated  rock.  The  work  is 
much  quickened  by  the  substitution  of 
steam-power,  water-power,  or  even 
horse-power  for  manual  labor.  Of  the 
many  forms  of  boring-machines  now  in 
use  may  be  mentioned  the  diamond 
boring-machine,  invented  by  Leschot, 
a Swiss  engineer.  In  this  the  cutting- 
tool  is  of  a tubular  form,  and  receives 
a uniform  rotatory  motion,  the  result 
being  the  production  of  a cylindrical 
core  from  the  rock  of  the  same  size  as 
the  inner  periphery  of  the  tube.  The 
boring-bit  is  a steel  thimble,  about  4 
inches  in  length,  having  two  rows  of 
Brazilian  black  diamonds  firmly  em- 
bedded therein,  the  edges  projectign 
slightly.  The  diamond  teeth  are  the 
only  parts  which  come  in  contact  with 
the  rock,  and  their  hardness  is  such  that 
an  enormous  length  can  be  bored  with 
but  little  appreciable  wear. 

BORN,  Bertrand  de,  French  trouba- 
dour and  warrior,  born  about  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century  in  the  castle  of  Born, 
P^rigord;  died  about  1209.  He  dispos- 
sessed his  brother  of  his  e^ate,  whose 
part  was  taken  by  Richard  Cocur  de 
Lion  in  revenge  for  De  Born’s  satirical 
lays.  Dante  places  him  in  the  Inferno 
on  account  of  his  verses  intensifying  the 
quarrel  between  Henry  II.  and  his  sons. 

BOR'NEO,  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  and  the  third  largest 
in  the  world.  Greatest  length  780, 
greatest  breadth,  690  miles;  area  283,- 
358  sq.  miles.  There  are  several  chains 
of  mountains  ramif5'ing  through  the 
interior,  the  culminating  summit  (13,- 
698  feet)  being  Kini-Balu,  near  the  north- 
ern extremity.  The  rivers  are  very 
numerous,  and  several  of  them  are 
navigable  for  a considerable  distance  by 
large  vessels.  There  are  a few  small 
lakes.  Borneo  contains  immense  forests 
of  teak  and  other  trees,  besides  produc- 
ing various  dye-woods,  camphor,  rattans 
and  other  canes,  gutta-percha  and  india- 
rubber,  honey  and  wax,  etc.  Its  fauna 
comprises  the  elephant,  rhinoceros, 
tapir,  leopard,  buffalo,  deer,  monkeys 
(including  the  orang-outang),  and  a 
great  variety  of  birds.  The  mineral  pro- 
ductions consist  of  gold,  antimony,  iron, 
tin,  quicksilver,  zinc,  and  coal,  besides 
diamopds.  It  is  only  portions  of  the 
land  on  the  coast  which  are  well  culti- 
vated. Among  cultivated  products  are 
sago,  gambier,  pepper,  rice,  tobacco, 
etc.  Edible  birds’-nests  and  trepang 
are  important  articles  of  trade.  The 
climate  is  not  considered  unhealthful. 
The  pop.  is  estimated  at  about  1,700,- 
000,  comprising  Dyaks  (the  majority  of 
the  inhabitants),  Malays,  Chinese,  and 
Bugis.  The  southwestern,  southern, 
and  eastern  portions  of  the  island  are 


possessed  by  the  Dutch,  under  whom 
are  a number  of  semi-independent 
princes.  On  the  n.w.  coast  is  the  Malay 
kingdom  of  Borneo  or  Bruni.  Its  chief 
town  is  Bruni,  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  a place  of  considerable  trade,  and 
the  residence  of  the  sultan.  British 
North  Borneo  has  an  area  of  about  31,- 
000  scj.  miles  (slightly  greater  than  Scot- 
land), several  splendid  harbors,  a fertile 
soil,  and  a good  climate.  At  present  the 
population  is  sparse,  and  a large  part  of 
the  territory  consists  of  virgin  forests. 
The  soil  is  believed  to  be  well  adapted 


Dyaks  of  Borneo. 


for  coffee,  sago,  tapioca,  sugar,  tobacco, 
cotton,  etc.  Probably  there  are  valu- 
able mineral  deposits  also,  gold  having 
been  already  found.  The  chief  settle- 
ment is  Sandakan,  the  capital,  on  San- 
dakan  Bay.  The  revenue  is  from  cus- 
toms and  excise  dues,  licenses,  etc. 
Birds’-nests,  rattans,  gutta-percha,  tim- 
ber, etc.,  are  exported,  the  trade  being 
chiefly  with  Singapore  and  Hong-Kong. 
Pop.  estimated  at  150,000.  North  Bor- 
neo, Bruni,  and  Sarawak  are  all  under 
British  protection. 

BOR'NU,  a negro  kingdom  of  the 
central  Sudan,  on  the  w.  side  of  Lake 
Chad,  with  an  area  of  about  79,000  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  estimated  at  5,000,- 
000.  Kuka,  the  capital  (pop.  60,000), 
near  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Chad,  is 
one  of  the  greatest  markets  in  central 
Africa,  a large  trade  being  done  in 
horses,  the  breed  of  which  is  famed 
throughout  the  Sudan.  Another  large 
town,  on  the  shore  of  the  lake,  is  Ngornu. 
Bornu  is  now'  under  British  and  German 
protection. 

BOROGLYCERIDE,  a compound  of 
boracic  acid  with  glycerine,  represented 
by  the  formula.  It  is  a powerful  anti- 
septic, and  being  perfectly  harmless  is 
as  useful  in  the  preservation  of  food  as 
in  surgery,  etc. 

BORON,  the  element  from  which  all 
boracic  compounds  are  derived,  is  a 
dark  browui  or  green  amorphous  powder, 
w'hich  stains  the  skin,  has  no  taste  or 
odor,  and  is  only  slightly  soluble  in 
water.  It  also  crystallizes  into  darkish 
brilliant  crystals  nearly  as  hard  as  dia- 


BORROMEO 


BOSTON 


mond,  which,  in  the  form  of  dust,  are 
used  for  polishing.  It  is  one  of  the  few 
elements  which  combine  direct  with 
nitrogen. 

BORROME'O  Carlo,  Count,  a cele- 
brated Roman  Catholic  saint  and  car- 
dinal, born  1538,  at  Arona,  on  Lago 
Maggiore,  died  at  Milan  1584.  Immedi- 
ately after  his  death  miracles  were  said 
to  be  wrought  at  his  tomb,  and  his 
canonization  took  place  in  1610. — Ilis 
nephew.  Count  Federigo  Borromeo,  also 
cardinal  and  Archbishop  of  Milan, 
equally  distinguished  for  the  sanctity 
of  his  life  ancl  the  benevolence  of  his 
character,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1564, 
and  died  in  1631.  He  is  celebrated 
as  the  founder  of  the  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary. 

BOR'ROW,  George,  English  writer, 
born  1803,  died  1881.  He  had  a passion 
for  foreign  tongues,  stirring  scenes,  and 
feats  of  bodily  prowess.  He  associated 
much  with  the  gypsies,  and  acquired  an 
exact  knowledge  of  their  language,  man- 
ners, and  customs.  As  agent  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  he 
traveled  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
the  East;  spent  five  years  in  Spain,  and 
published  The  Gypsies  in  Spain  (1841), 
and  The  Bible  in  Spain  (1842),  the  best 
known  of  his  w'orks.  Other  works  are 
Lavengro,  largely  autobiographical 
(1850),  The  Romany  Rye  (1857),  Wild 
Wales  (1862),  and  Dictionary  of  the 
Gypsy  Language  (1874). 

BORROWING,  the  act  of  taking 
something  with  agreement  to  return 
the  identical  thing  or  its  equivalent,  or 
its  equivalent  plus  compensation  to  the 
lender.  The  first  kind  of  contract  is 
called  in  law  commodatum,  the  second 
locatio.  Unless  a time  for  return  is  set 
the  borrowed  thing  is  returnable  at  the 
demand  of  the  lender. 

BOS'NIA,  a Turkish  province  in  the 
northwest  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
west  of  Servia,  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
(1878)  to  be  administered  for  an  unde- 
fined future  period  by  the  Austrian 
governm.ent;  area  (including  Herze- 
govina and  Novi-bazar),  23,570  sq. 
miles  (of  which  Bosnia  Proper  occupies 
16,200),  with  1,568,092  inhabitants, 
mostly  of  Slavonian  origin,  in  1708 
Bosnia  was  annexed  by  Austria. 

BOS'PORUS,  or  BOSPHORUS,  the 
strait,  19  miles  long,  joining  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  called  also 
the  Strait  of  Constantinople.  It  is  de- 
fended by  a series  of  strong  forts ; and  by 
agreement  of  the  European  powers  no 
ship  of  war  belonging  to  any  nation 
shall  pass  the  Bosporus  without  the 
permission  of  Turkey. 

BOSS,  a word  used  to  designate  a 
master  of  some  kind,  generally  of  a 
lower  order.  It  is  derived  from  the 
Dutch  baas,  which  means  the  same  thing. 
In  the  U.  States  the  word  is  used  collo- 
quially to  designate  a man  of  influence 
and  importance  in  almost  any  occupa- 
tion, such  as  labor  boss,  railroad  boss, 
political  boss.  The  last  mentioned 
term  is  applied  to  politicians  who  have 
acquired  the  power  to  influence  the 
action  of  conventions,  etc.  In  very 
recent  years  it  has  lost  much  of  its 
opprobrious  signification,  and  is  now 
applied  to  any  politician  who  controls 
a large  number  of  followers. 


BOSS,  Lewis,  an  American  astron- 
omer, born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
1846.  He  is  chief  of  the  Dudley  Ob- 
servatory at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1878 
published  a list  of  declinations  of  fixed 
stars,  and  1890  a catalogue  of  8241 
stars.  He  observed  the  transit  of 
Venus  in  1882  for  the  U.  States  govern- 
ment. 


BOSSUET  (bos-u-a),  Jacques  B(3- 
nigne,  illustrious  French  preacher  and 
theologian,  was  born  in  1627,  died  in 
1704.  He  was  unrivaled  as  a pulpit 
orator,  and  greatly  distinguished  for  his 
strength  and  acumen  as  a controversial- 
ist. The  great  occupation  of  his  life  was 
controversy  with  the  Protestants. 

BOSTON,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts, 
metropolis  of  New  England,  situated  on 
Massachusetts  Bay,  232  miles  from  New 
York,  and  450  miles  from  Washington. 
It  is  the  center  of  a vast  suburban  popu- 
lation, and  is  unique  among  American 
cities  for  its  external  resemblance  to  the 
cities  of  Europe.  Pop.  622,0()<' 

Boston  was  founded  in  1630,  and 
derives  its  name  from  the  English  city 
Boston.  It  figured  prominently  in  the 
American  revolution,  was  evacuated 
by  the  British  March  17,  1776,  was 


almost  wiped  out  by  fire  in  1872,  and 
was  rebuilt  with  vast  improvement 
within  two  years.  Washington  street, 
extending  from  Haymarket  Square  to 
and  through  the  Roxbury  district,  has 
always  been  the  main  thoroughfare. 
Tremont  street,  from  Scollay  Square 


also  to  Roxbury,  is  another  important 
artery.  State  street  is  the  financial 
center.  Atlantic  avenue,  100  feet  wide, 
extends  along  a portion  of  the  water- 
front at  the  head  of  the  principal 
wharves.  Many  of  the  old  streets  have 
been  straightened,  widened,  and  ex- 
tended at  enormous  expense;  and  in 
place  of  the  waters  of  the  Back  Bay  han 


grown  up  the  “Back  Bay  quarter,”  a 
region  of  broad  streets  and  stately 
avenues,  costly  and  often  elegant  dwell- 
ings, noble  churches,  fine  public  and 
private  buildings,  famous  institutions, 
great  hotels  and  apartment-houses: 
remarkable  especially  for  the  taste 
displayed  in  its  embellishment  and  the 
richness  and  variety  of  its  architecture. 
Beacon  street,  sweeping  over  Beacon 
Hill,  for  years  the  finest  residential 
quarter,  is  now  continued  across  the 
Back  Bay  into  the  Brighton  district 
as  a broad  boulevard.  Commonwealth 
avenue,  250  feet  wide,  with  a mall  in  the 
center,  also  extending  through  the  Back 
Bay  section  to  and  through  the  Brighton 
district,  is  one  of  the  finest  boulevards 
in  the  world..  Near  the  heart  of  Boston 
proper  is  the  Common,  set  apart  for 
public  use  by  the  first  settlers,  a rare  old 
park,  with  broad  malls  and  pleasant 
by-paths  shaded  by  elms,  lindens,  and 
other  graceful  trees;  and  beyond, 
separated  from  it  by  a single  street, 
is  the  Public  Garden,  the  gateway  to 
the  Back  Bay  quarter.  In  these  parks 
and  other  public  places  are  numerous 
statues  and  monuments.  The  greater 
public-park  system  consists  of  a chain 
of  parks  beginning  with  the  Back  Bay 
Fens,  and  extending  through  parkwaj's 
to  the  Arboretum  and  Franklin  Park 
in  the  West  Roxbury  district,  and  along 
the  shores  of  Dorchester  Bay  to  the 
Marine  Park  at  South  Boston. 

The  Subway,  an  underground  road- 
way, carries  the  street -car  traffic 
through  portions  of  the  heart  of  the  city, 
It  was  built  by  the  municipality,  under 
the  direction  of  a Transit  Commission, 
in  1897-99,  at  a cost  of  $4,400,000,  and 
leased  to  the  local  street  railway  com- 
pan}’^  for  a period  of  twenty  years  at  a 
rental  of  4^  per  cent  of  its  cost.  An 
elevated  system  between  the  Roxbury 


view  in  the  Bosporus. 


BOSTON  MASSACRE,  THE 


BOTANY 


and  Charlestown  districts,  completed 
in  1901,  is  connected  with  the  Subway. 
The  steam  railways  radiating  from  the 
city,  formerly  5,  subsequently  consoli- 
dated into  3 great  systems,  connect 
Boston  with  all  parts  of  New  England, 


TUe  city  hall  Boston. 

and  the  far  West,'South,  and  East.  They 
enter  two  great  stations,  the  Union 
Station  at  the  north,  and  the  South,  or 
Terminal  Station,  at  the  south.  The 
system  of  public  schools  comprises 
kindergarten,  primary,  grammar,  high, 
Latin,  normal,  and  special  schools,  in 
which  86,719  pupils  are  taught  by  1970 
teachers.  There  are  226  schoolhouses. 
The  Boston  Public  Library,  opened  in 
1854,  is  wholly  free,  and  is  supported 
by  the  city  at  an  annual  expense  of 
about  $255,000.  It  is  the  largest 
library  in  the  w’orld  for  free  circulation. 
With  its  10  branches  it  contains  746,383 
volumes,  and  the  annual  circulation  is 
over  1,250,000  volumes.  Its  executive 
force  consists  of  140  persons.  A new 
public  library  building  on  Copley 
Square,  Back  Bay,  costing  upward  of 
$2,225,000,  was  built  in  1888-95.  It  is 
a monumental  structure,  of  elegant 
proportions,  the  interior  especially  en- 
riched by  some  of  the  best  of  modern 
decorative  work.  Among  other  notable 
libraries  are  those  of  the  Boston 


State  Capitol,  Boston. 


Athenaeum,  the  Massachusetts  Histori- 
cal Society,  the  N.  E.  Historic-Genea- 
logical Society,  and  the  State  Library. 
Conspicuous  among  the  higher  institu- 
tions for  instruction  are  the  Massa- 


chusetts Institute  of  Technology,  the 
Boston  University,  the  Boston  College 
(Roman  Catholic),  the  medical  and 
dental  schools  connected  with  Harvard 
University,  the  Massachusetts  Normal 
Art  School,  and  the  New  England  Con- 
servatory of  Music. 

The  first  bank  in  America  was  estab- 
lished in  Boston  in  1686,  and  the  first 
savings  institution  in  1816.  There  are 
43  national  banks  with  a total  capital 
of  $38,500,000;  13  trust  companies, 
$8,500,000;  and  17  savings-banks.  The 
valuation  of  taxable  property  in  Boston 
is  $1,129,175,832;  the  tax  levy,  $16,- 
928,136;  the  tax  rate,  $14.70. 

BOSTON  MASSACRE,  THE,  the  kill- 
ing of  several  citizens  of  Boston  by 
British  troops  in  a riot  on  March  5, 
1770,  which  was  the  culmination  of 
much  quarreling  between  the  soldiery 
and  the  people.  Seven  soldiers  were 
tried  for  murder,  but  were  acquitted. 
The  occurrence  helped  to  produce  the 
American  revolution,  and,  in  fact,  has 
been  called  “the  first  drama  of  the 
revolution.” 

BOSTON  PORT  BILL,  a law  passed  in 
March,  1774,  by  the  British  parliament 
closing  the  harbor  of  Boston  for  having 
destroyed  the  famous  tea  cargo  on 
December  16th  previously.  It  reacted 
by  hurrying  on  the  revolution.  See 
Boston  Tea  Party. 

BOSTON  TEA  PARTY,  a name  given 
the  throwing  of  350  chests  of  tea  into 
Boston  harbor  by  a mob  of  citizens 
disguised  as  Indians  on  Dec.  16,  1773. 
It  was  as  a protest  to  the  importation 
of  tea  following  the  policy  of  taxation 
without  representation.  See  Boston 
Port  Bill,  The. 

BOSTON  UNIVERSITY,  founded  in 
1869,  at  Boston,  supporting  schools 
of  medicine,  law,  and  theology.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  $1,500,000,  a college  of 
liberal  arts,  and  a college  of  agriculture. 
It  offers  sixty-four  free  scholarships, 
200  general  scholarships,  and  two  fellow- 
ships. It  has  a registration  of  1324 
students,  134  instructors,  and  a library 
of  30,000  volumes. 

BOS'WELL,  James,  the  friend  and 
biographer  of  Dr.  Johnson.  He  was 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1740,  and  died 
in  London  in  1795.  In  1763  he  became 
acquainted  with  Johnson  — a circum- 
stance which  he  himself  calls  the  most 
important  event  of  his  life.  He  after- 
ward visited  Voltaire  at  Ferney,  Rous- 
seau at  Neufch&tel,  and  Paoli  in  Cor- 
sica, with  whom  he  became  intimate. 
In  1785  he  settled  at  London,  and  was 
called  to  the  English  bar.  Being  on 
terms  of  the  closest  intimacy  with 
Johnson,  he  at  all  times  diligently  noted 
and  recorded  his  sayings,  opinions,  and 
actions,  for  future  use  in  his  contem- 
plated biography.  In  1773  he  accom- 
panied him  on  a tour  to  the  Scottish 
Highlands  and  the  Hebrides,  and  he 
published  an  account  of  the  excursion 
after  their  return.  His  Life  of  Samuel 
Johnson,  one  of  the  best  pieces  of  biog- 
raphy in  the  language,  was  published 
in  1791. 

BOTANY  is  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Plants  may  be  studied  from  several 
different  points  of  view.  The  considera- 
tion of  their  general  form  and  structure, 


and  the  comparison  of  these  in  th* 
various  groups  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  constitutes  morphology.  AnaU 
omy  and  histology  treat  respectively 
of  the  bulkier  and  the  more  minute 
internal  structure  of  the  parts,  and 
physiology  of  their  functions.  Sys- 
tematic botany  considers  the  arrange- 
ment of  plants  in  groups  and  sub- 
groups according  to  the  greater  or  less 
degree  of  resemblance  between  them. 
Geographical  botany  tells  of  their  dis- 
tribution on  the  earth’s  surface,  and 
strives  to  account  for  the  facts  observed, 
while  palseobotany  bears  the  same 
relation  to  distribution  in  the  successive 
geological  strata  wdiich  make  up  the 
earth’s  crust.  Economic  botany  com- 
prises the  study  of  the  products  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  as  regards  their  use 
to  man. 

The  simplest  plants  are  very  minute, 
and  can  only  be  studied  by  use  of  the 
compound  microscope.  A little  rain- 
water which  has  been  standing  some 
time  when  thus  examined  is  found  to 
contain  a number  of  roundish  green 
objects,  each  of  which  is  an  individual 
plant,  consisting  of  one  cell  only.  In- 
creased complexity  of  structure  is 
exemplified  in  many  of  the  ordinary 
seaweeds,  the  stalk  and  more  or  less 
flattened  expansions  of  which  are  sev- 
eral to  many  cells  thick,  the  external 
cell-layers  differing  somewhat  in  struc- 
ture from  the  internal. 

Going  a step  liigher  we  reach  the 
Mosses,  where,  for  the  first  time,  we 
distinguish  a clear  differentiation  of  the 
part  of  the  plant  above  ground  into  a 
stem  and  leaves  borne  upon  it.  The 
stem  is  attached  to  the  soil  by  delicate 
colorless  hairs  — root-hairs.  Its  struc- 
ture is,  however,  very  simple,  and  the 
leaves  are  merely  thin  plates  of  cells. 
Microscopical  examination  of  sections 
of  stem,  leaf,  or  root,  shows  great  dif- 
ferences in  structure  between  various 
groups  of  cells ; there  is,  in  fact,  marked 
differentiation  of  tissues.  A tissue  is  a 
layer,  row,  or  group  of  cells  which  have 
all  undergone  a similar  development; 
by  differentiation  of  tissues  we  mean 
that  various  layers,  rows,  or  groups 
have  developed  in  different  ways,  so 
that  we  can  make  out  and  mark  by 
distinctive  names  the  elements  of  which 
a stem  or  leaf  is  built  up. 

Phanerogams,  or  Flowering-plants, 
represent  the  highest  group  of  plants: 
Seed-plants  would  be  a better  name,  as 
their  main  distinction  from  those  al- 
ready described  is  the  production  of  a 
seed.  The  much  greater  variety  in  form 
and  structure  seen  in  them  as  com- 
pared with  the  ferns  justifies  us  in 
regarding  them  as  the  highest  group 
in  the  vegetable  kingdom  They  are 
divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  those  in 
which  the  seed  is  developed  on  an  open 
leaf,  termed  a carpel,  and  called  there- 
fore Gj^mnosperms;  and  (2)  those  in 
which  the  seed  is  developed  in  a closed 
chamber,  formed  by  the  folding  together 
of  one  or  more  carpels,  and  called  ac- 
cordingly Angiosperms.  To  the  former 
belong  the  Conifers — pines  and  firs — 
and  Cycads;  to  the  latter  the  rest  of  our 
trees  and  the  enormous  number  of 
field  and  garden  plants  which  are  not 
ferns  or  mos.ses, 


BOTANY  BAY 


BOTIIWELL 


The  cn;br3"0,  or  rudimentary  plant 
contained  in  the  seed,  consists  of  a very 
short  axis  or  stem,  bearing  one  (in 
Monocotyledons),  tvm  (in  Dicotyledons), 
or  several  (in  many  Gymnosperms) 
primary  leaves,  the  cotyledons,  above 
which  it  terminates  in  a little  bud  or 
plumule,  while  below  them  the  axis 
passes  into  the  primary  root  or  radicle. 
When  the  seed  germinates  the  radicle 
is  the  first  to  protrude  between  the 
separating  seed-coats,  and  growing 
downward  fixes  itself  in  the  soil.  Then 
the  plumule  grows  out  accompanied  or 
not,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  the  cotyle- 
dons, which  have  hitherto  concealed 
and  protected  it,  and  by  rapid  growth 
soon  develops  into  a stem  bearing  leaves. 
The  stem  continues  growing  in  length 
at  its  apex  throughout  the  life  of  the 
plant;  at  a short  distance  below  the, 
apex  growth  in  length  ceases;  but  while 
in  Gymnosperms  and  Dicotyledons  it 
also  continually  increases  in  thickness 
through  its  whole  length.  Monocotyle- 
dons are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that 
when  once  the  stem  has  been  formed 
its  diameter  remains  unchanged.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  the  branches. 

Branches  proceed  from  buds  which 
are  formed  in  the  autumn  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves,  that  is,  at  the  point  where 
the  leaf  or  leaf-stalk  is  joined  on  to  the 
stem;  they  remain  dormant  through  the 
winter,  and  grow  out  into  new  shoots 
in  the  spring. 

The  leaf  is  borne  on  the  stem;  its 
tissues,  epidermal,  cortical,  and  vascu- 
lar, are  continuous  with  those  of  the 
stem ; but  it  is  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  its  growth  is  limited,  it  soon  reaches 
the  normal  size  and  stops  growing. 

In  Dicotyledons  and  Gymnosperms 
the  primary  root  or  radicle  after  emerg- 
ing from  the  seed  continues  to  grow 
vigorously,  often  with  copious  lateral 
branching,  forming  an  extensive  root- 
system;  but  in  Monocotyledons  it  soon 
perishes,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  roots 
developed  from  the  base  of  the  stem, 
such  roots  are  called  adventitious.  Ad- 
ventitious roots  occur  also  in  Dicoty- 
ledons, as  in  creeping  stems  like  the 
strawberry,  which  bears  buds  at  inter- 
vals from  which  new  shoots  are  formed 
and  ro.'.ts  given  off.  The  clinging  roots 
of  the  ivy  are  also  adventitious.  There 
are  many  forms  of  roots:  some  are  large 
and  woody,  as  those  of  trees;  others 
fibrous,  as  in  grasses;  or  they  may  be 
greatly  swollen,  forming  the  fleshy 
globose  root  of  the  turnip,  or  the  conical 
one  of  the  carrot.  Such  fleshy  develop- 
ments are  due  to  the  plant  storing  up  a 
quantity  of  reserve  food-material  in  the 
first  year  on  which  to  draw  in  the  sec- 
ond, when  it  will  want  to  expand  all  its 
energy  in  flowering  and  fruiting.  The 
potato,  which  is  a swollen  stem,  answers 
the  same  purpose.  The  mistletoe  and 
other  parasites  give  off  sucker-like  roots 
which  penetrate  into  the  tissues  of  their 
host. 

As  to  their  reproduction,  plants  may 
be  asexual,  that  is,  not  requiring  the 
cooperation  of  two  distinct  (male  and 
female)  elements  to  produce  a new  in- 
dividual; or  sexual,  when  two  such  ele- 
ments are  necessary,  and  a process  of 
fertilization  takes  place  in  which  the 
female  cell  is  impregnated  by  one  or 


more  male  cells,  and  the  cell  resulting 
from  the  fusion  of  the  two  gives  rise  by 
very  extensive  growth  and  division  to  a 
new  individual.  In  the  very  lowest 
plants,  like  Protococcus,  only  asexual 
reproduction  is  known,  but  in  most 
Thallophytes  both  forms  occur.  In  the 
asexual  method  numbers  of  small  cells 
called  spores  are  produced  which  on 
germination  give  rise  to  a plant  similar 
to  that  which  bore  them.  In  the  sexual 
process  the  contents  of  a male  organ, 
escape  and  impregnate  the  oosphere,  or 
female  cell  contained  in  the  female  organ. 
The  fertilized  oosphere  is  termed  an 
oospore,  and  by  growth  and  division 
gives  rise  to  a plant  like  that  on  which 
it  was  produced. 

The  flower  of  a seed-plant  is  a shoot 
modified  for  purposes  of  reproduction. 
A buttercup,  for  instance,  consists  of  a 
number  of  modified  leaves  borne  in  sev- 
eral whorls  on  the  somewhat  expanded 
top  of  the  stalk,  the  receptacle  or  thala- 
mus. Disseptionof  the  flower  shows  (1) 
An  outer  whorl  of  five  green  leaves,  very 
like  ordinary  foliage  leaves;  these  are  the 
sepals,  and  together  make  up  the  calyx. 
(2)  An  inner  whorl  of  five  yellow  leaves, 
composing  the  corolla,  each  leaf  being 
a petal.  (3)  More  or  less  protected  by 
the  petals  are  a great  number  of  sta- 
mens, each  consisting  of  a slender  stalk 
or  filament  capped  by  an  anther,  a little 
case  containing  the  dry  powdery  pollen. 
The  stamens  are  really  much  modified 
leaves;  collectively  they  form  the 
andrcecium.  (4)  The  rest  of  the  recep- 
tacle right  up  to  the  apex  is  also  covered 
by  very  much  modified  leaves,  the  car- 
pels, forming  the  pistil  or  gynoecium. 
Each  carpel  consists  of  a basal  portion, 
the  ovary,  in  which  is  contained  an 
ovule,  and  of  a terminal  beak-like  por- 
tion, the  style.  The  andrcecium  and 
gynoecium,  being  the  parts  directly  con- 
cerned in  reproduction,  are  distin- 
guished, as  the  essential  organs  of  the 
flower,  from  the  calyx  and  corolla,  which 
are  only  indirectly  so  concerned,  though 
of  great  importance  in  the  process. 

An  important  characteristic  is  the 
fruit,  which  is  the  result  of  fertilization 
on  the  ovary. 

Many  flowers  contain  both  stamens 
and  pistil,  these  are  termed  bisexual  or 
hermaphrodite  (b);  while  others  con- 
tain stamens  or  pistil  only,  such  are  said 
to  be  unisexual.  When  both  male  (^f) 
and  female  (9)  flowers  occur  on  the 
same  plant  the  species  is  monoecious, 
like  the  hazel ; while  it  is  dioecious  if  the 
separate  sexes  are  borne  on  different 
individuals,  as  is  the  case  in  the  hop. 

Plants  which,  like  the  sunflower,  pass 
through  all  the  stages  from  germination 
to  production  of  fruit  and  seed  in  one 
season,  and  then  perish,  are  called  an- 
nuals ; if  two  years  are  required,  as  with 
the  turnip  and  onion,  they  are  biennials; 
while  perennials  last  several  to  many 
years,  during  which  they  may  flower 
and  seed  many  times. 

A plant  is  built  up  chiefly  of  four  ele- 
ments: carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and 
nitrogen,  with  small  quantities  of  sul- 
phur and  phosphorus  and  some  mineral 
matter.  Substances  containing  these 
must  therefore  form  the  food.  A green 
plant  can  take  up  its  carbonaceous  food 
in  a very  simple  form  by  means  of  the 


green  chlorophyll  contained  especially 
in  its  leaves.  This  absorbs  some  of  the 
sun’s  rays,  and  by  virtue  of  the  energy 
represented  by  the  light  so  absorbed  it 
can  obtain  the  carbon  from  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  present  in  the  atmosphere.  An 
animal,  having  no  chlorophyll,  has  to 
use  more  complex  carbon-containing 
compounds,  in  fact  those  which  have 
already  been  worked  up  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  The  other  items  of  the  food 
are  obtained  from  the  water  and  mineral 
pits  in  the  soil,  the  salts  being  brought 
into  solution  and  absorbed  with  large 
quantities  of  water  by  the  roots.  The 
leaves  are  the  laboratory  where  the 
food  is  worked  up  into  the  complex 
compounds  which  form  the  plant  sub- 
stance, and  to  raise  the  crude  material 
from  the  absorbing  roots  to  the  leaves 
there  is  an  upward  current  of  liquid 
through  the  stem.  This  is  known  as  the 
transpiration  current;  it  travels  in  the 
wood-cells.  A much  larger  quantity  of 
water  is  absorbed  than  is  required  as 
food;  this  is  got  rid  of  by  transpiration, 
that  is,  by  the  giving  off  of  water-vapor 
from  the  leaves.  This  is  evident  if  a 
plant  be  placed  under  a glass  shade  in 
the  sunlight,  the  vapor  given  off  becom- 
ing condensed  on  the  glass.  The  com- 
plex compounds  elaborated  in  the  leaves 
are  returned  to  all  parts  of  the  plant 
where  growth,  or  storage  of  reserve- 
material,  is  taking  place,  by  means  of 
the  other  constituent  of  the  vascular 
bundle,  the  bast  tissue. 

BOTANY  BAY,  a bay  in  New  South 
Wales,  so  called  by  Captain  Cook  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  new 
plants  collected  in  its  vicinity.  The 
English  penal  settlement,  founded  in 
1788,  and  popularly  known  as  Botany 
Bay,  was  established  on  Port  Jackson, 
some  miles  to  the  northward,  near 
where  Sydney  now  stands. 

BOT-FLY,  a fly  the  maggots  of 
which  are  developed  from  the  egg  in 
the  intestines  of  horses  or  under  the 
skins  of  oxen;  a gadfly. 

BOTH'NIA,  GULF  OF,  the  northern 
part  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  which  separates 
Sweden  from  Finland.  Length  about 
450  miles,  breadth  90  to  130,  depth  from 
20  to  50  fathoms.  Its  water  is  but 
slightly  salt,  and  it  freezes  in  the  win- 
ter, so  as  to  be  passed  by  sledges  and 
carriages. 

BOTH'WELL,  James  Hepburn,  Earl 
of,  known  in  Scottish  history  by  his 
marriage  to  Queen  Mary,  was  born 
about  1526.  It  is  believed  that  he  was 
deeply  concerned  in  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  Mary’s  husband,  and  that  he 
was  even  supported  by  the  queen.  He 
was  charged  with  the  crime  and  tried, 
but,  appearing  along  with  4000  follow- 
ers, was  readily  acquitted.  He  was  now 
in  high  favor  with  the  queen,  and  with 
or  without  her  consent  he  seized  her  at 
Edinburgh,  and  carrying  her  a prisoner 
to  Dunbar  Castle  prevailed  upon  her  to 
marry  him  after  he  had  divorced  his 
own  wife.  But  by  this  time  the  mind 
of  the  nation  was  roused  on  the  subject 
of  Bothwell’s  character  and  actions.  A 
confederacy  was  formed  against  him, 
and  in  a short  time  Mary  was  a prisoner 
in  Edinburgh,  and  Bothwell  had  been 
forced  to  flee  to  Denmark,  where  he 
died  in  1576. 


BOXriCELLl 


BOURBON 


BOTTICELLI  (bot-te-chel'le),  Sandro 
(for  Alessandro),  an  Italian  painter  of 
the  Florentine  school,  born  in  1447, 
died  1515.  Working  at  first  in  the  shop 
of  the  goldsmith  Botticello,  from  whom 
he  takes  his  name,  he  showed  such  talent 
that  he  was  removed  to  the  studio  of  the 
distinguished  painter  Fra  Lippo  Lippi. 
From  this  master  he  took  the  fire  and 
passion  of  his  style,  and  added  a fine 
fantasy  and  delicacy  of  his  own.  He 
painted  flowers,  especially  roses,  with 
incomparable  skill.  In  his  later  years 
Botticelli  became  an  ardent  disciple  of 
Savonarola,  and  is  said  by  Vasari  to 
have  neglected  his  painting  for  the 
study  of  mystical  theology. 

BOTTLE,  a vessel  of  moderate  or 
small  size,  and  with  a neck,  for  holding 
liquor.  By  the  ancients  they  were  made 
of  skins  or  leather;  they  are  now  chiefly 
made  of  glass  or  earthenware.  The 
common  black  bottles  of  the  cheapest 
kind  are  formed  of  the  most  ordinary 
materials,  sand  with  lime,  and  some- 
times clay  and  alkaline  ashes  of  any 
kind,  such  as  kelp,  barilla,  or  even  wood 
ashes.  This  glass  is  strong,  hard,  and 
less  subject  to  corrosion  by  acids  than 
flint-glass. 

BOTTLE-CHART,  a chart  which 
shows  the  course  traveled  by  a sealed 
bottle  thrown  into  the  sea.  It  had  its 
origin  in  the  custom  of  throwing  into 
the  sea  sealed  bottles  containing  intelli- 
gence from  travelers  on  long  or  dis- 
astrous voyages.  The  chart  represents 
the  travels  of  various  bottles.  It  is 
used  chiefly  by  hydrographers.  Charts 
of  this  kind  are  made  at  the  U.  States 
hydrographic  office. 

BOTTLE-FLOWER.  See  Blue-bottle. 

BOTTLE-GOURD,  a kind  of  gourd, 
the  dried  fruits  of  which,  when  the  pulp 
is  removed,  are  used  in  warm  countries 
for  holding  liquids. 

BOTTLE-NOSE,  a kind  of  whale,  of 
the  dolphin  family,  20  to  28  feet  long, 
with  a beaked  snout  and  a dorsal  fin,  . a 
native  of  northern  seas.  The  caaing 
whale  is  also  called  bottle-nose. 

BOTTLE-TREE,  a tree  of  north- 
eastern Australia,  with  a stem  that 


■jW; 


Bottle-tree. 


bulges  out  into  a huge  rounded  mass. 
It  abounds  in  a nutritious  mucilaginous 
substance. 

BOTTLING,  the  art  of  placing  liquid 
in  bottles,  corking,  and  otherwise  seal- 
ing them.  Special  apparatus  has  been 
designed  for  this  work  by  which  the 
bottles  are  cleaned,  filled,  corked,  and 
sealed.  One  machine  will  clean  75 
dozen  bottles  a day.  Self-feeding  cork- 


ing machines  will  each  cork  2000  bottles 
an  hour.  A wiring  machine  will  wire 
1000  bottles  an  hour,  and  these  can  be 
labeled  by  machinery  at  the  rate  of 
12,000  a day.  The  liquids  bottled  on 
the  largest  scale  are  all  kinds  of  bever- 
ages, alcoholic  and  otherwise. 

BOTTOMRY  is  a contract  by  which 
a ship  is  pledged  by  the  owner  or  master 
for  the  money  necessary  for  repairs  to 
enable  her  to  complete  her  voyage.  The 
freight  and  even  the  cargo  may  be 
pledged  as  well  as  the  ship.  The  condi- 
tions of  such  a contract  usually  are  that 
the  debt  is  repayable  only  if  the  ship 
arrives  at  her  destination.  As  the  lender 
thus  runs  the  risk  oi  her  loss,  he  is  en- 
titled to  a high  premium  or  interest  on 
the  money  lent.  The  latest  bottomry 
bond  takes  precedence  of  all  previous 
ones. 

BOUCHES  - DU  - RHONE  (bSsh-dfl- 
ron),  a dep.  in  the  s.  of  France,  in 
ancient  Provence.  Chief  town,  Mar- 
seilles. Area,  1,267,088  acres,  of  which 
about  one-half  is  under  cultivation. 
The  Rhone  is  the  principal  river.  The 
manufactures  are  principally  soap, 
brandy,  olive-oil,  chemicals,  vinegar, 
scent,  leather,  glass,  etc.  The  fisheries 
are  numerous  and  productWe.  Pop. 
737,112. 

BOUCICAULT  (bo'si-ko),  Dion,  dra- 
matic author  and  actor,  born  at 
Dublin  Dec.  20,  1822.  He  was  intended 
for  an  architect,  but  the  success  of  a 
comedy,  the  well-known  London  Assur- 
ance, which  he  wrote  when  only  nineteen 
years  old,  determined  him  for  a career 
in  connection  with  the  stage.  Bouci- 
cault  being  a remarkably  facile  writer, 
in  a few  years  had  produced  quite  a 
lengthy  list  of  pieces,  both  in  comedy 
and  melodrama,  and  all  more  or  less 
successful.  He  produced  a new  style  of 
drama,  dealing  largely  in  sensation,  but 
with  more  heart  in  it  than  his  earlier 
work.  The  Colleen  Bawn  and  Arrah- 
na-Pogue  are  the  best  examples.  In- 
deed the  best  Mr.  Boucicault  could  do 
was  such  pictures  of  Irish  life  and 
manners.  He  died  in  1890. 

BOUDOIR  (bo'dwar),  a small  room, 
elegantly  fitted  up,  destined  for  retire- 
ment. The  boudoir  is  the  peculiar 
property  of  the  lady,  where  only  her 
most  intimate  friends  are  admitted. 

BOUGUER  (bo-ga),  Pierre,  a French 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
in  1698.  He  was  associated  with  Godin 
and  La  Condamine  in  an  expedition  to 
the  South  American  equatorial  regions  to 
measure  the  length  of  a degree  of  the 
meridian  The  main  burden  of  the  task 
fell  upon  Bouguer,  who  performed  it  with 
great  ability,  and  published  the  results 
in  his  Th4orie  de  la  Figure  de  la  Terre. 
He  also  invented  the  heliometer,  and 
his  researches  about  light  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  photometry.  He  died  in  1758. 

BOUILLON,  Godfrey.  See  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon. 

BOULDER  (bol'der),  a rounded  water- 
worn  stone  of  some  size;  in  geol.  applied 
to  ice  worn  and  partially  smoothed 
blocks  of  large  size  lying  on  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  or  embedded  in  clays  and 
gravels,  generally  differing  in  composi- 
tion from  the  rocks  in  their  vicinity, 
a fact  which  proves  that  they  must  have 
been  transported  from  a distance,  prob- 


ably by  ice.  When  lying  on  the  surfacfi 
they  are  known  as  erratic  blocks.  The 
boulder-clay  in  which  these  blocks  are 
found  belongs  to  the  post-tertiary  or 
quaternary  period.  It  occurs  in  many 
localities,  consists  of  a compact  clay 
often  with  thin  beds  of  gravel  and  sand 
interspersed,  and  is  believed  to  have 
been  deposited  from  icebergs  and  gla- 
ciers in  the  last  glacial  period. 

BOULEVARD  (bol-var),  a French 
word  formerly  applied  to  the  ramparts 
of  a fortified  town,  but  when  these  were 
leveled,  and  the  whole  planted  with 
trees  and  laid  out  as  promenades,  the 
name  boulevard  was  still  retained. 
Modern  usage  applies  it  also  to  many 
streets  which  are  broad  and  planted  with 
trees,  although  they  were  not  originally 
ramparts.  The  most  famous  boulevards 
are  those  of  Paris. 

BOULOGNE  (bo-lon-ye  or  bo-lon),  or 
BOULOGNE-SUR-MER,  a fortified  sea- 
port of  France,  dep.  Pas  de  Calais,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Liane.  In  the  castle, 
which  dates  from  1231,  Louis  Napoleon 
was  imprisoned  in  1840.  Boulogne  has 
manufactories  of  soap,  earthenware, 
linen  and  woolen  cloths;  wines,  coal, 
corn,  butter,  fish,  linen  and  woolen 
stuffs,  etc.,  are  the  articles  of  export. 
Steamboats  run  daily  between  this  place 
and  England,  crossing  over  in  two  or 
three  hours.  Pop.  49,083,  about  a tenth 
being  English. 

BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE,  a town  of 
France,  dep.  Seine,  southwest  of  Paris, 
of  which  it  is  a suburb.  It  is  from  this 
place  that  the  celebrated  Bois  de  Bou- 
logne gets  its  name.  Pop.  47,168. 

BOUNTY,  in  political  economy,  is  a 
reward  or  premium  granted  for  the  en- 
couragement of  a particular  species  of 
trade  or  production,  the  idea  being  that 
the  development  of  such  trade  or  pro- 
duction will  be  of  national  benefit.  The 
subsidies  granted  for  carrying  the 
oceanic  mails  are  the  only  bounties 
now  made  by  the  English  government. 
— The  same  name  is  given  to  a premium 
offered  to  induce  men  to  enlist  in  the 
army  and  navy. 

BOUNTY  JUMPER,  a term  applied  to 
those  individuals  who,  during  the  civil 
war,  enlisted  in  the  army  for  a reward 
and  deserted  at  the  earliest  opportunity. 
This  was  repeated  again  and  again,  one 
man  having  confessed  to  “jumping  the 
bounty”  thirty  times. 

BOURBON  (bor-bon),  an  ancient 
French  family  which  has  given  three 
dynasties  to  Europe,  the  Bourbons  of 
France,  Spain,  and  Naples.  The  first 
of  the  line  known  in  history  is  Adhemar, 
who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury, was  lord  of  the  Bourbonnais 
(now  the  dep.  of  Allier).  The  power 
and  possessions  of  the  family  increased 
steadily  through  a long  series  of  Ar- 
chambaulds  of  Bourbon  till  in  1272 
Beatrix,  daughter  of  Agnes  of  Bourbon 
and  John  of  Burgundy,  married  Robert, 
sixth  son  of  Louis  IX.  of  France,  and 
thus  connected  the  Bourbons  with 
the  royal  line  of  the  Capets.  Their  son 
Louis  had  the  barony  converted  into  a 
dukedom  and  became  the  first  Due  de 
Bourbon.  Two  branches  took  their 
origin  from  the  two  sons  of  this  Louis, 
duke  of  Bourbon,  who  died  in  1341. 
The  royal  branch  was  divided  by  the 


BOURGEOIB 


BOWMAN 


two  sons  of  Louis  XIII.,  the  elder  of 
whom,  Louis  XIV.,  continued  the  chief 
branch,  while  Philip,  the  younger  son, 
founded  the  house  of  Orleans  as  the 
first  duke  of  that  name.  The  kings  of 
the  elder  French  royal  line  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon  run  in  this  way;  Henry  IV., 
Louis  XIII.,  XIV.,  XV.,  XVI.,  XVII., 
XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  The  last 
sovereigns  of  this  line,  Louis  XVL, 
Louis  XVIII.,  and  Charles  X.  (Louis 
XVII.,  son  of  Louis  XVI.,  never  ob- 
tained the  crown),  were  brothers,  all  of 
them  being  grandsons  of  Louis  XV. 
Louis  XVIII.  had  no  children,  but 
Charles  X.  had  two  sons,  viz.,  Louis 
Antoine  de  Bourbon,  duke  of  Angouleme, 
who  was  dauphin  till  the  revolution  of 
1830,  and  died  without  issue  in  1844, 
and  Charles  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Berry, 
who  died  14th  Feb.,  1820,  of  a wound 
given  him  by  a political  fanatic.  The 
Duke  of  Berry  had  two  children;  (1) 
Louise  Marie  Therd"e,  called  Made- 
moiselle d’ Artois;  and  (2)  Henri  Charles 
Ferdinand  Marie  Dieudonnci,  born  in 
1820,  and  at  first  caLed  Duke  of  Bour- 
deaux,  but  afterward  Count  De  Cham- 
bord,  who  was  looked  upon  by  his  party 
until  his  death  (in  1883)  as  the  legitimate 
heir  to  the  crown  of  France. 

The  bmpch  of  the  Bourbons  known 
as  the  H(jfi«e  of  Orleans  was  raised  to  the 
throne  of  France  by  the  revolution  of 
1830,  and  deprived  of  it  by  that  of  1848. 
It  derives  its  origin  from  Duke  Philip 
I.  of  Orleans  (died  1701),  second  son  of 
Louis  XIII.,  and  only  brother  of  Louis 
XIV. 

BOURGEOIS  (bur-]6'),  a size  ot 
printing  type  larger  than  brevier  and 
smaller  than  long-primer,  used  in  books 
and  newspapers. 

BOURGEOISIE  (b6rzh-w5,-ze),  a name 
applied  to  a certain  class  in  France 
in  contradistinction  to  the  nobiUty  and 
clergy  as  well  as  to  the  working-classes. 
It  thus  includes  all  those  who  do  not 
belong  to  the  nobility  or  clergy,  and 
yet  occupy  an  independent  position, 
from  financiers  and  heads  of  great  mer- 
cantile establishments  at  the  one  end 
to  master  tradesmen  at  the  other.  It 
corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  the 
English  term  “middle  classes.” 

BOUTELLE,  Charles  Addison,  an 
American  writer  and  legislator,  born  in 
Maine  in  1839,  died  in  1901.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  several  republican  national 
conventions  and  served  three  terms  in 
congress. 

BOUT'WELL,  George  Sewall,  an 
American  legislator,  politician,  and 
cabinet  officer,  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1818.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
treasury  from  1869  to  1873,  in  which 
latter  year  he  became  a U.  States  sen- 
ator. He  published  several  books  of 
speeches  and  political  history.  He  died 
in 

BOW,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most 
ancient  and  universal  weapons  of 
offense.  It  is  made  of  steel,  wood,  horn, 
or  other  elastic  substance.  The  figure 
of  the  bow  is  nearly  the  same  in  all 
countries.  The  long  bow  was  the 
favorite  national  weapon  in  England. 
The  battles  of  Crecy  (1346),  Poictiers 
(1356),  and  Agincourt  (1415)  were  won 
by  this  weapon.  It  was  made  of  yew, 
ash,  etc.,  of  the  height  of  the  archer,  or 


about  6 feet  long,  the  arrow  being  us- 
ually half  the  length  of  the  bow.  The 
arbalist,  or  cross-bow,  was  a popular 
weapon  with  the  Italians,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  England  in  the  13th  century, 
but  never  was  so  popular  as  the  long- 
bow. In  England  the  strictest  regula- 
tions were  made  to  encourage  and 
facilitate  the  use  of  the  bow. 

BOW,  in  music,  is  the  name  of  that 
well-known  implement  by  means  of 
which  the  tone  is  produced  from  violins, 
and  other  instruments  of  that  kind. 

BOWDITCH’S  PRACTICAL  NAVI- 
GATOR, a compendium  of  information 
for  navigators.  It  contains  explana- 
tions of  all  the  ordinary  methods  of 
determining  the  ship’s  position  at  sea, 
together  with  all  the  tables  necessary 
for  using  them;  also  descriptions  of 
instruments  used  in  navigation,  methods 
of  making  hydrographic  surveys,  charts; 
etc.  The  copyright  of  this  work  was 
purchased  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, and  it  is  now  published  and  is- 
sued by  the  hydrographic  office,  United 
States  navy.  It  has  been  several  times 
revised,  and  a considerable  amount  of 
matter  has  been  added. 

BOWDOIN  (bo'dn),  James,  born  1727, 
at  Boston,  died  1790.  In  1785  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
he  was  a member  of  the  convention 
assembled  to  deliberate  on  the  adoption 
of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 
He  was  a friend  and  correspondent  of 
Franklin. — Bowdoin  College,  Brunswick, 
Maine,  was  named  after  him.  It  is  a 
flourishing  institution,  which  has  had 
among  its  students  Longfellow  and 
Hawthorne. 

BOWDOIN,  James,  an  American 
public  man  and  philanthropist,  born  at 
Boston  in  1752,  the  son  of  Governor 
Bowdoin.  He  graduated  at  Harvard, 
studied  also  at  Oxford,  and  traveled  in 
Europe,  returning  to  America  soon  after 
the  battle  of  Lexington.  In  1805  he 
was  United  States  minister  to  Spain. 
He  left  to  Bowdoin  College  6000  acres 
of  land  and  $5500,  the  reversion  of  the 
island  of  Naushon,  where  he  had  his 
summer  home,  a large  library;  and  an 
extensive  collection  of  philosophical  ap- 
paratus. He  died  in  1811. 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  chartered  in 
1794  by  Massachusetts,  and  named  after 
James  Bowdoin,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, of  which  state  Maine  was  for- 
merly a district.  The  college  opened 
at  Brunswick,  Cumberland  Co.,  in 
1802,  with  Joseph  McKeen,  D.D.,  a 
Dartmouth  graduate,  as  its  first  pres- 
ident. The  present  buildings  of  the 
college,  representing  a value  of  $600,- 
000,  include  King  Chapel,  the  Walker 
Art  building,  the  Searles  Science  build- 
ing, Memorial  Hall,  the  Hubbard 
Library,  and  a gymnasium,  observa- 
tory, and  dormitories.  The  course  of 
study  leading  to  the  degree  of  A.B.  is 
based  on  a knowledge  of  the  ancient  and 
modern  languages  and  mathematics, 
and  includes  such  other  courses  as  are 
usually  given  in  smaller  colleges  of  the 
first  class.  Connected  with  Bowdoin 
College  is  the  Medical  School  of  Maine, 
organized  in  1820. 

BOWER-BIRD  , a name  given  to  cer- 
tain Australian  birds  of  the  starling 
family  from  a remarkable  habit  they 


have  of  building  bowers  to  serve  as 
places  of  resort.  The  bowers  are  con- 
structed on  the  ground,  and  usually 
under  overhanging  branches  in  the  most 
retired  parts  of  the  forest.  They  are 
decorated  with  variegated  feathers. 


Bower-bird  and  its  run. 


shells,  small  pebbles,  bones,  etc.  At 
each  end  there  is  an  entrance  left  open. 
These  bowers  do  not  serve  as  nests  at 
all,  but  seem  to  be  places  of  amusement 
and  resort,  especially  during  the  breed- 
ing season. 

BOWERY,  a famous  street  of  New 
York  City,  running  from  Chatham 
Square  to  Cooper  Union.  It  was  for- 
merly a street  of  dangerous  and  low 
resorts,  but  recently  has  been  invaded 
by  retail  business  stores. 

BOWIE-KNIFE,  a long  kind  of  knife 
like  a dagger,  but  with  only  one  edge, 
named  after  Colonel  James  Bowie,  and 
used  by  hunters  and  others. 

BOW  INSTRUMENTS  are  all  the 
instruments  strung  with  catgut  from 
which  the  tones  are  produced  by  means 
of  the  bow.  The  most  usual  are  the 
double-bass,  the  small  bass,  or  violon- 
cello, and  the  violin  proper.  In  refer- 
ence to  their  construction  the  several 
parts  are  alike;  the  difference  is  in  the 
size. 

BOWLINE  (bo'-),  in  ships,  a rope 
leading  forward,  which  is  fastened  by 
bridles  to  loops  in  the  ropes  on  the  per- 
pendicular edge  of  the  square  sails.  It 
is  used  to  keep  the  weather-edge  of  the 
sail  tight  forward  and  steady  when  the 
ship  is  close-hauled  to  the  wind. 

BOWLS,  a game  played  -nuth  a 
variable  number  of  wooden  pins  and 
a wooden  ball  on  a smooth  wooden 
runway  called  an  alley.  The  alley  is 
75  feet  long,  41  inches  wide,  and  flanked 
on  both  sides  by  a gutter  for  the  return 
of  the  balls.  The  pins  are  “set  up”  at 
one  end  and  the  player  tries  to  knock 
them  down  (according  to  rule)  by  rolling 
the  ball  along  the  floor  from  the  other 
end.  The  game  in  the  U.  States  is 
played  with  ten,  nine,  five,  three,  or 
other  number  of  pins,  and  usually  three 
rolls  are  permitted  for  each  frame,  the 
purpose  being  to  knock  down  all  the 
pins.  When  all  the  pins  are  knocked 
with  one  stroke  (in  tenpins)  the  play 
is  called  a “ten  strike,”  or  “double 
spare,”  meaning  that  the  player  has  two 
more  rolls  on  the  next  frame.  A player 
who  makes  “ten  strikes”  to  the  end 
scores  300.  The  game  has  a very  ancient 
origin. 

BOWMAN,  Edward  Morris,  an  Ameri- 
can musician,  born  at  Barnard,  Vt.,  in 
1848.  In  1877  he  published  his  Manual 
of  Musical  Theory,  which  was  trans- 


BOWSPRIT 


BRADDOCK 


lated  into  German,  and  in  1881  became 
the  first  American  associate  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Organists  of  England.  In 
1891  he  became  professor  of  music  in 
Vassar  College,  and  has  done  much 
toward  raising  the  tone  of  popular 
musical  taste  in  the  U.  States. 

BOWSPRIT  (bo'-),  the  large  boom  or 
spar  which  projects  .over  the  stem  of  a 
vessel,  having  the  foremast  and  foretop- 
mast stays  and  staysails  attached  to  it, 
while  extending  beyond  it  is  the  jib- 
boom. 

BOW-WINDOW,  a window  con- 
structed so  as  to  project  from  a wall, 
properly  one  that  forms  a segment  of  a 
circle.  See  Bay-window. 

BOX-ELDER,  the  ash-leaved  maple, 
a small  but  beautiful  tree  of  the  U. 
States,  from  which  sugar  is  sometimes 
made. 

BOXING,  or  PUGILISM,  a manner  of 
fighting  with  the  fists  so  common  in 
England  as  to  be  regarded  abroad  as  a 
national  accomplishment.  The  art  of 
boxing  consists  in  showing  skill  in  deal- 
ing blows  with  the  fist  against  one’s 
opponent,  especially  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  body,  while  at  the  same  time  one 
protects  one’s  self.  In  England  pro- 
fessional boxers,  who  made  a livelihood 
out  of  their  skill  in  the  art,  were  at  one 
time  commom  especially  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Ueorges,  when  persons  of 
the  highest  rank  were  sometimes  to  be 
seen  at  pugilistic  combats,  and  “pro- 
fessors” of  the  art  frequently  had  mem- 
bers of  the  nobility  among  their  pupils. 
Byron  relates  in  his  diary  that  he  re- 
ceived instruction  in  boxing  from  the 
celebrated  Jackson,  who  made  a fortune 
as  a pugilist.  Boxing  has,  however, 
fallen  in  a great  measure  into  disrepute, 
and  prize-fights  are  illegal,  and  both 
the  principals  and  the  spectators  may 
be  proceeded  against.  At  the  gladia- 
torial shows  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
boxing  was  common,  but  in  a more 
dangerous  form,  the  fist  being  armed 
with  leather  appliances  loaded  with  iron 
or  lead. 

BOXING-DAY,  the  day  after  Christ- 
mas, which  has  long  been  held  as  a 
holiday  in  England.  It  is  so  called  from 
the  practice  of  giving  Christmas  boxes 
as  presents  on  that  day. 

BOXING  THE  COMPASS,  in  seaman’s 
phrase,  the  repetition  of  all  the  points 
of  the  compass  in  their  proper  order — 
an  accomplishment  required  to  be  at- 
tained by  all  sailors. 

BOX-TORTOISE,  a name  given  to 
one  or  two  North  American  tortoises 
that  can  completely  shut  themselves 
into  their  shell. 

BOX  - TREE,  a shrubby  evergreen 
tree,  12  or  15  feet  high,  a native  of  Eng- 
land, southern  Europe,  and  parts  of 
Asia,  with  small  oval  and  opposite 
leaves,  and  greenish,  inconspicuous 
flowers,  male  and  female  on  the  same 
tree.  The  wood  is  of  a yellowish  color, 
close-grained,  very  hard  and  heavy, 
and  admits  of  a beautiful  polish.  On 
these  accounts  it  is  much  used  by 
turners,  wood-carvers,  engravers  on 
wood  (no  wood  surpassing  it  in  this 
respect),  and  mathematical-instrument 
makers.  Flutes  and  other  wind-instru- 
ments are  formed  of  it.  The  box  of 
commerce  comes  mostly  from  the 


regions  adjoining  the  Black  Sea  and 
Caspian,  and  is  said  to  be  diminishing 
in  quantity. 

BOYACA',  in  South  America,  on«3  of 
the  departments  or  provinces  of  Colom- 
bia. On  the  west  side  the  country  is 
traversed  by  a chain  of  the  Andes,  from 
which  it  slopes  toward  the  east  into 
immense  plains  or  llanos,  mostly  uncul- 
tivated, and  watered  by  the  tributaries 
of  the  Orinoco.  Area,  33,351  sq.  miles; 
pop.  702,000. 

BOY'COTTING,  a name  given  to  an 
organized  system  of  social  and  com- 
mercial ostracism  employed  in  Ireland 
in  connection  with  the  Land  League 
and  the  land  agitation  of  1880  and  1881 
and  subsequently.  Landlords,  tenants, 
or  other  persons  who  are  subjected  to 
boycotting  find  it  difficult  or  impossible 
to  get  any  one  to  work  for  them,  to 
supply  them  with  the  necessaries  of 
life,  or  to  associate  with  them  in  any  way. 
It  took  its  name  from  Captain  James 
Boycott,  a Mayo  landlord,  against  whom 
it  was  first  put  in  force. 

BOY'DELL.  John,  an  English  en- 
graver, but  cniefly  distinguished  as  an 
encourager  of  the  fine  arts.  He  engaged 
Reynolds,  Opie,  West,  and  other  cele- 
brated painters  to  illustrate  Shake- 
speare’s works,  and  from  their  pictures 
was  produced  a magnificent  volume  of 
plates,  the  Shakespeare  Gallery  (Lon- 
don, Boydell,  1803).  In  1790  Boydell 
had  been  made  lord-mayor;  but  the 
outbreak  of  war  consequent  on  the 
French  revolution  injured  his  foreign 
trade  and  brought  him  into  difficulties. 
He  died  in  1804. 

BOYLE  LECTURES.  See  Boyle, 
Robert. 

BOYLE’S  LAW,  otherwise  called 
Mariotte’s  Law,  a law  in  phy.sics  to  the 
effect  that  the  volume  of  a gas  will  vary 
inversely  to  the  pressure  to  which  it  is 
subjected. 

BOYS’  CLUBS,  associations  of  Ameri- 
can boys  for  various  purposes,  chiefly 
maintained  by  their  parents  and  grown- 
up friends.  Of  these,  investigation  has 
shown,  there  are  nearly  1000  in  the  U. 
States,  the  membership  consisting  of 
boys  ranging  from  ten  to  seventeen  years 
old.  The  character  of  the  clubs  are 
social,  industrial,  literary,  benevolent, 
musical,  hunting  and  fishing,  athletic, 
and  game  playing. 

BOZZARIS  (bot-sa'ris),  Marko,  a hero 
of  the  Greek  war  of  independence 
against  the  Turks,  born  in  the  end  of 
the  18th  century.  In  the  summer  of 
1823,  when  he  held  the  command-in- 
chief  of  the  Greek  forces  at  Missolonghi, 
he  made  a daring  night  attack  on  the 
camp  of  the  Pasha  of  Scut&ri,  near 
Karpenisi.  The  attack  was  successful; 
but  the  triumph  of  the  Greeks  was 
clouded  by  the  fall  of  the  heroic  Boz- 
zaris.  His  deeds  are  celebrated  in  the 
popular  songs  of  Greece. 

BRABANT',  the  central  district  of  the 
lowlands  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  ex- 
tending from  the  Waal  to  the  sources  of 
the  Dyle,  and  from  the  Meuse  and  Lim- 
burg plains  to  the  lower  Scheldt.  It  is 
divided  between  the  kingdoms  of  Hol- 
land and  Belgium,  into  three  provinces : 
1st,  Dutch  or  North  Brabant,  area  1977 
sq.  miles,  pop.  559,287;  2d,  the  Belgian 
province  of  Antwerp,  area  1095  sq.  1 


miles,  pop.  837,976;  and  3d,  the  Bel- 
gian province  of  South  Brabant,  area 
1276  sq.  miles,  pop.  1,303,064. 

BRACELET,  a kind  of  ornament 
usually  worn  on  the  wrist,  the  use  of 
which  extends  from  the  most  ancient 
times  down  to  the  present,  and  belongs 
to  all  countries,  civilized  as  well  as  un- 
civilized. Bracelets  were  in  use  in 
Egypt  and  among  the  Medes  and  Per- 
.sians  at  a very  remote  period,  and  in  the 
Bible  the  bracelet  is  frequently  men- 
tioned as  an  ornament  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  both  men  and  women.  Among 
the  ancient  Greeks  bracelets  seem  to 
have  been  worn  only  by  the  women. 
The  spiral  form  was  preferred,  and  very 
often  made  to  assume  the  appearance 
of  snakes,  which  went  round  the  arm 
twice  or  thrice.  Among  the  Romans 
it  was  a frequent  practice  for  a gener;.l 
to  bestow  bracelets  on  soldiers  who  had 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  valor. 
Roman  ladies  of  high  rank  frequently 
wore  them  both  on  the  wrist  and  on  the 
upper  arm.  .\mong  the  ancient  heathen 
Germanic  tribes  they  formed  the  chief 
and  almost  only  ornament,  as  is  shown 
by  their  being  so  often  found  in  old 
graves.  They  seem  to  have  been  used 
by  the  men  even  more  than  by  the 
women,  and  were  the  gifts  by  which 
an  ancient  German  chief  attached  his 
followers  to  himself.  So,  in  old  Anglo- 
Saxon  poems,  “ring-giver”  is  a common 
name  for  the  lord  or  ruler. 

BRACES,  in  ships,  ropes  passing 
through  blocks  at  the  ends  of  the  yards, 
used  for  swinging  the  latter  round  so  as 
to  meet  the  wind  in  any  desired  direc- 
tion. 

BRACKET,  a short  piece  or  combina- 
tion of  pieces,  generally  more  or  less 
triangular  in  outline,  and  projecting 
from  a wall  or  other  surface.  They  may 
be  either  of  an  ornamental  order,  as 


Bracket, 

Harlestone  church,  Northamptonshire. 

when  jdesigned  to  support  a statue, 
a bust,  or  such  like,  or  plain  forms  of 
carpentry,  such  as  support  slielves,  etc. 
Brackets  may  also  be  used  in  connection 
with  machinery,  being  attached  to  walls, 
beams,  etc.,  to  support  a line  of  shafting. 

BRAD'DOCK,  Edward,  m.ajor-general 
and  commander  of  the  Britisli  army  in 
the  expedition  against  the  French  on 
the  river  Ohio,  in  1755.  In  the  spring 
of  that  year  he  set  out  from  Virginia  to 
invest  Fort  Duquesne,  now  Pittsburg, 
but  from  want  of  caution  fell  into  an 
Indian  ambuscade  by  which  he  lost 
nearly  one-half  of  his  troops  and  re- 
ceived himself  a mortal  wound. 

BRAD'DOCK,  a borough  in  .\llegheny 
Co.,  Pa.,  10  miles  east  of  Pittsburg,  on 
1 the  Monongahela  river,  and  on  the 


BRADFORD 


BRAHMANISM 


Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
and  the  Pittsburg  and  Lake  Erie  rail- 
roads. Pop.  18,422. 

BRAD'FORD,  a mun.,  pari.,  and 
county  bor.  and  important  manufac- 
turing town  in  W.  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
England.  Bradford  is  the  chief  seat 
in  England  of  the  spinning  and  weaving 
of  worsted  yarn  and  woolens,  but  there 
are  also  manufactures  of  alpaca  stuffs, 
plush  and  velvet,  machine  works,  foun- 
dries, etc.  Pop.  279,809. 

BRADFORD,  a city  in  McKean  Co., 
Pa.,  76  miles  south  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Pennsylvarria,  the  Erie,  the  Buffalo, 
Rochester  and  Pittsburg,  and  several 
local  railroads.  It  is  in  a petroleum  and 
natural-gas  region.  Pop.  18,129. 

BRADFORD,  William,  one  of  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  born  in  England  in 
1590,  died  in  1657.  He  came  over  in  the 
Mayflower  in  1620  and  founded  Plym- 
outh Colony.  He  acquired  consider- 
able fame  by  his  exhaustive  works  on  the 
history  of  Massachusetts. 

BRADLAUGH  (brad'lg,),  Charles,  Eng- 
lish secularist,  atheist,  and  advocate  of 
republicanism,  born  in  London  in  1833. 
He  is  well  known  by  his  writings  and 
lectures,  and  more  especially  by  his 
efforts  to  gain  admission  to  parliament. 
Being  elected  for  Northampton  in  1880 
he  claimed  the  right  to  make  affirmation 
simply  instead  of  taking  the  oath  which 
members  of  parliament  take  before  they 
can  sit  and  vote,  but  being  a professed 
atheist  this  right  was  denied  him. 
Though  he  was  repeatedly  reelected  by 
the  same  constituency,  the  majority  of 
the  House  of  Commons  continued  to 
declare  him  disqualified  for  taking  the 
oath  or  affirming;  and  it  was  only  after 
the  election  of  a new  parliament  in  1885 
that  he  was  allowed  to  take  his  seat 
without  opposition  as  a representative 
of  Northampton.  He  was  editor  of  the 
National  Reformer.  He  died  in  1891. 

BRADLEY,  Joseph  P.,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  New  York  in  1813,  died 
in  1892.  He  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
court  in  1870,  and  in  1877  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  commission  which  decided 
the  election  of  1876  in  favor  of  Ruther- 
ford B.  Hayes. 


Braxlou  Bragg. 


BRAGG,  Braxton,  an  American  sol- 
dier. He  was  born  in  North  . Carolina 
in  1817  and  died  in  1876.  During  the 


Mexican  war  he  served  under  Taylor 
and  took  part  in  the  engagements  of 
Fort  Pickens,  Shiloh,  Corinth,  Perry- 
ville,  'Murfreesboro,  Chattanooga,  and 
other  battles  during  the  civil  war.  He 
fought  against  Sherman  in  Georgia  and 
was  under  the  command  of  General 
Johnston  until  the  peace.  After  the 
war  he  devoted  himself  to  civil  en- 
gineering. 

BRAGG,  Edward  Stujwesant,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  New  York 
in  1827.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  as 
one  of  the  “iron  brigade”  of  Wisconsin, 
and  has  been  prominent  in  democratic 
national  politics.  In  1902  he  became 
consul  general  to  the  Cuban  republic. 

BRAH'MA,  a Sanskrit  word  signify- 
ing (in  its  neuter  form)  the  Universal 
Power  or  ground  of  all  existence,  and 
also  (in  its  masculine  form  with  long 
final  syllable)  a particular  god,  the  first 


Brahma— Bronze,  Indian  museum. 


person  in  the  Triad  (Brahma,  Vishnu, 
and  Siva)  of  the  Hindus.  The  personal 
god  Brahma  is  represented  as  a red  or 
golden-colored  figure  with  four  heads 
and  as  many  arms,  and  he  is  often 
accompanied  by  the  swan  or  goose.  He 
is  the  god  of  the  fates,  master  of  life  and 
death,  yet  he  is  himself  created,  and  is 
merely  the  agent  of  BrahmS,  the  Uni- 
versal Power.  His  moral  character  is 
no  better  than  that  of  the  Grecian  Zeus. 

BRAH'MANISM,  a religious  and  social 
system  prevalent  among  the  Hindus, 
and  so  called  because  developed  and 
expounded  by  the  sacerdotal  caste 
known  as  the  Brahmans  (from  brahman, 
a potent  prayer;  from  root  brih  or  vrih, 
to  increase).  It  is  founded  on  the  an- 
cient religious  writings  known  as  the 
Vedas  and  regarded  as  sacred  revela- 
tions, of  which  the  Brahmans  as  a body 
became  custodians  and  interpreters, 
being  also  the  officiating  priests  and  the 
general  directors  of  sacrifices  and  re- 
ligious rites.  As  the  priestly  caste  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  power  they 
went  on  elaborating  the  ceremonies,  and 
added  to  the  Vedas  other  writings  tend- 
ing to  confirm  the  excessive  pretensions 
of  this  now  predominant  caste,  and  give 
them  the  sanction  of  a revelation.  The 
earliest  supplements  to  the  Vedas  are 
the  Brahmanas,  more  fully  explaining 
the  functions  of  the  officiating  priests. 
Both  together  form  the  revealed  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Hindus.  In  time  the  caste 
of  Brahmans  came  to  be  accepted  as  a 
divine  institution,  and  an  elaborate  sys- 
1 tern  of  rules  defining  and  enforcing  by 


the  severest  penalties  its  place  as  well 
as  that  of  the  inferior  castes  was  promul- 
gated. Other  early  castes  were  the 
Kshattriyas  or  warriors,  and  the  Vaisyas 
or  cultivators,  and  it  was  not  without  a 
struggle  that  the  former  recognized  the 
superiority  of  the  Brahmans.  It  was  by 
the  Brahmans  that  the  Sanskrit  liter- 
ature was  developed ; and  they  were  not 
only  the  priests,  theologians,  and  philos- 
ophers, but  also  the  poets,  men  of 
science,  lawgivers,  administrators,  and 
statesmen  of  the  Aryans  of  India. 

The  sanctity  and  inviolability  of  a 
Brahman  are  maintained  by  severe 
penalties.  The  murder  of  one  of  the 
order,  robbing  him,  etc.,  are  inexpiable 
sins;  even  the  killing  of  his  cow  can  only 
be  expiated  by  a painful  penance.  A 
Brahman  should  pass  through  four 
states:  First,  as  Brahmachari,  or  novice, 
he  begins  the  study  of  the  sacred  Vedas, 
and  is  initiated  into  the  privileges  and 
the  duties  of  his  caste.  He  has  a right 
to  alms,  to  exemption  from  taxes,  and 
from  capital  and  even  corporal  punish- 
ment. Flesh  and  eggs  he  is  not  allowed 
to  eat.  Leather,  skins  of  animals,  and 
most  animals  themselves  are  impure 
and  not  to  be  touched  by  him.  When 
manhood  comes  he  ought  to  marry,  and 
as  Grihastha  enter  the  second  state, 
which  requires  more  numerous  and 
minute  observances.  When  he  has  be- 
gotten a son  and  trained  him  up  for 
the  holy  calling  he  ought  to  enter  the 
third  state,  and  as  Vanaprastha,  or  in- 
habitant of  the  forest,  retire  from  the 
world  for  solitary  praying  and  medita- 
tion, with  severe  penances  to  purify  the 
spirit;  but  this  and  the  fourth  or  last 
state  of  a Sannyasi,  requiring  a cruel 
degree  of  asceticism,  afe  now  seldom 
reached,  and  the  whole  scheme  is  to  be 
regarded  as  representing  rather  the 
Brahmanical  ideal  of  life  than  the  actual 
facts. 

The  worship  represented  in  the  oldest 
Vedic  literature  is  that  of  natural  ob- 
jects: the  sky,  personified  in  the  god 
Indra;  the  dawn,  in  Ushas;  the  various 
attributes  of  the  sun,  in  Vishnu,  Sur3'^a, 
Agni,  etc.  These  gods  were  invoked  for 
assistance  in  the  common  affairs  of  life, 
and  were  propitiated  by  offerings  which, 
at  first  few  and  simple,  afterward  be- 
came more  complicated  and  included 
animal  sacrifices.  In  the  later  Vedic 
hymns  a philosophical  conception  of 
religion  and  the  problems  of  being  and 
creation  appears  struggling  into  exist- 
ence ; and  this  tendency  is  systematically 
developed  by  the  supplements  and  com- 
mentaries known  as  the  Brahmanas  and 
the  Upanishads.  In  some  of  the  Upan- 
ishads  the  deities  of  the  old  Vedic  creed 
are  treated  as  symbolical.  Brahma,  the 
supreme  soul,  is  the  only  reality,  the 
world  is  regarded  as  an  emanation  from 
him,  and  the  highest  good  of  the  soul  is 
to  become  united  with  the  divine.  The 
necessity  for  the  purification  of  the  soul 
in  order  to  its  reunion  with  the  divine 
nature  gave  rise  to  the  doctrine  of 
metempsychosis  or  transmigration. 

This  philosophical  development  of 
Brahmanism  gave  rise  to  a distinct 
separation  between  the  educated  and 
the  vulgar  creeds.  While  from  the  fifth 
to  the  first  century  n.c.  the  higher 
thinkers  among  the  Brahmans  were 


BRAIN 


BRAKE 


developing  a philosophy  which  recog- 
nized that  there  was  but  one  god,  the 
popular  creed  had  concentrated  its  ideas 
of  worship  round  three  great  deities — 
Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva — who  now 
took  the  place  of  the  confused  old  Vedic 
Pantheon.  Brahma,  the  creator,  though 
considered  the  most  exalted  of  the  three, 
was  too  abstract  an  idea  to  become  a 
popular  god,  and  soon  sank  almost  out 
of  notice.  Thus  the  Brahmans  became 
divided  between  Vishnu,  the  preserver, 
and  Siva,  the  destroyer  and  reproducer, 
and  the  worshipers  of  these  two  deities 
now  form  the  two  great  religious  sects 
of  India.  Siva,  in  his  philosophical 
significance,  is  the  deity  mostly  wor- 
shiped by  the  conventional  Brahman, 
while  in  his  aspect  of  the  Destroyer,  or 
in  one  of  his  female  manifestations,  he 
is  the  god  of  the  low  castes,  and  often 
worshiped  with  degrading  rites.  But 
the  highly  cultivated  Brahman  is  still 
a pure  theist,  and  the  educated  Hindu 
in  general  professes  to  regard  the  special 
deity  he  chooses  for  worship  as  merely 
a form  under  which  the  One  First  Cause 
may  be  approached. 

The  sharp  division  of  the  people  of 
India  into  civilized  Aryans  and  rude 
non-Aryans  has  had  a great  influence 
upon  Brahmanism,  and  thus  the  spirit- 
ual conceptions  of  the  old  Vedic  creed 
have  been  mixed  in  modern  Hinduism 
with  degrading  superstitions  and  cus- 
toms belonging  to  the  so-called  aborig- 
inal races.  Suttee,  for  example,  or  the 
burning  of  widows,  has  no  authority 
in  the  Veda,  but  like  most  of  the  darker 
features  of  Hinduism  is  the  result  of  a 
compromise  which  the  Brahmanical 
teachers  had  to  make  with  the  barba- 
rous conceptions  of  non-Aryan  races 
in  India.  The  Buddhist  religion  has 
also  had  an  important  influence  on  the 
Brahmanic. 

The  system  oi  caste  originally  no 
doubt  represented  distinctions  of  race. 
The  early  classification  of  the  people 
was  that  of  “twice -born”  Aryans 
(priests,  warriors,  husbandmen)  and 
once-born  non-Aryans  (serfs) ; but  inter- 
marriages, giving  rise  to  a mixed 
progeny,  and  the  variety  of  employ- 
ments in  modern  times,  have  pro- 
foundly modified  this  simple  classifica- 
tion. Innumerable  minor  distinctions 
have  grown  up,  so  that  among  the 
Brahmans  alone  there  are  several  hun- 
dred castes  who  cannot  intermarry  or 
eat  food  cooked  by  each  other. 

The  Brahmans  represent  the  highest 
culture  of  India,  and  as  the  result  of 
centuries  of  education  and  self-restraint 
have  evolved  a type  of  man  distinctly 
superior  to  the  castes  around  them. 
They  have  still  great  influence,  and 
occupy  the  highest  places  at  the  courts 
of  princes.  Many,  however,  are  driven 
by  need  or  other  motives  into  trades 
and  employments  inconsistent  with  the 
original  character  of  their  caste. 

BRAIN,  the  center  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  the  seat  of  consciousness 
and  volition  in  man  and  the  higher 
animals.  It  is  a soft  substance,  partly 
gray  and  partly  whitish,  situated  in  the 
skull,  penetrated  by  numerous  blood- 
vessels, and  invested  by  three  mem- 
branes or  meninges.  The  outermost, 
called  the  dura  mater,  is  dense  and 


elastic.  The  next,  the  tunica  arach- 
noidea,  is  very  thin,  and  is  really  double. 
The  third,  the  pia  mater,  covers  the 
whole  surface  of  the  brain,  and  is  full 
of  blood-vessels.  The  brain  consists  of 
two  principal  parts,  connected  by  bands 
of  fibers.  The  one,  called  the  cere- 
brum, occupies,  in  man,  the  upper  part 
of  the  head,  and  is  seven  or  eight  times 
larger  than  the  other,  the  cerebellum, 
lying  behind  and  below  it.  The  surface 
of  the  brain  exhibits  the  appearance  of 
a series  of  ridges  and  furrows,  forming 
what  are  called  the  convolutions.  The 
cerebrum  is  divided  into  two  portions, 
the  right  and  left  hemispheres,  by  the 
longitudinal  fissure,  the  hemispheres 
being  at  the  same  time  transversely  con- 


Brain  and  spinal  cord 


nected  by  a band  of  nervous  matter 
called  the  corpus  callosum.  The  ex- 
ternal or  grayish  substance  of  the  brain 
is  softer  than  the  internal  white  sub- 
stance. The  cerebellum  lies  below  the 
cerebrum,  in  a peculiar  cavity  of  the 
skull.  It  is  divided  into  a right  and  a 
left  hemisphere,  connected  by  a bridge 
of  nervous  matter  called  the  pons 
Varolii,  under  which  is  the  medulla 
oblongata  or  continuation  of  the  spinal 
marrow.  Like  the  cerebrum,  it  is  gray 
on  the  outside  and  whitish  within.  At 
the  base  of  the  brain  are  several  masses 
of  nervous  matter  or  ganglia  known  as 
the  corpora  striata  (two),  optic  thalami 
(two),  and  corpora  quadrigemina  (four); 
and  there  are  in  it  certain  cavities  or 
ventricles.  Every  part  of  the  brain  is 


exactly  symmetrical  with  the  part 
opposite.  Twelve  pairs  of  nerves  pro- 
ceed from  the  base  of  the  brain,  includ- 
ing the  nerves  for  the  organs  of  smell,  of 
sight,  of  hearing,  and  of  taste,  also  those 
for  the  muscles  of  the  face,  those  for  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth  and  for  the  larynx. 
When  compared  with  the  brain  of  other 
animals,  the  human  brain  presents 
striking  differences.  Even  the  brain  of 
the  higher  classes  of  the  inferior  verte- 
brate animals  differs  from  that  of  man, 
especially  in  the  degree  of  development; 
while  among  the  lower  grades  there  is 
.sometimes,  properly  speaking,  no  brain 
at  all,  but  only  nerve  ganglia,  which 
correspond  to  the  brain.  In  size,  also, 
the  brain  of  the  lower  animals,  although 
sometimes  (as  in  the  elephant)  actually 
greater,  is  always  much  less  when  com- 
pared with  the  size  of  the  whole  body, 
and  it  is  found  that  the  size  of  the  brain 
proportionally  to  the  size  of  the  body 
is  a direct  measure  of  the  intelligence  of 
different  animals.  In  man  the  brain 
weights  from  2 to  4 lbs.,  the  average 
weight  in  male  European  adults  being 
49  to  50  oz.,  or  about  ^th  of  the  weight 
of  the  body;  in  the  dog  the  average 
weight  is  about  yl^th  of  the  animal;  in 
the  horse  Tsifth;  and  in  the  sheep  T^th. 
The  heaviest  brain  yet  known  was  that 
of  Cuvier — 64^  oz.  The  brain  of  females 
weighs  5 oz.  less  on  the  average  than 
that  of  males.  The  brain  attains  its 
highest  degree  of  development  earlier 
any  other  part  of  the  body.  In  old  age 
it  loses  both  in  bulk  and  in  weight. 
Comparatively  little  is  known  of  the 
functions  of  the  separate  parts  of  the 
brain,  but,  speaking  generally,  the  parts 
lying  in  front  have  functions  connected 
with  the  intellectual  part  of  man’s 
nature;  while  the  parts  lying  nearer  the 
back  of  the  head  belong  more  to  our 
merely  animal  or  organic  nature.  As 
the  central  organ  of  the  nervous  system 
the  brain  is  sympathetically  affected  in 
nearly  all  cases  of  acute  disease.  Dis- 
eases of  the  brain  fall  into  two  classes, 
according  as  they  exhibit  mental  char- 
acteristics alone,  or  also  anatomical  dis- 
turbances. To  the  former  class  belong 
hypochondria,  mania,  etc.  Among  the 
latter  may  be  mentioned  meningitis, 
or  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of 
the  brain,  which  seldom  occurs  without 
affecting  also  the  substance  of  the  brain, 
and  thus  giving  rise  to  phrenitis ; hydro- 
cephalus, or  water  in  the  head,  caused 
by  pressure  of  water  in  the  cavities  of 
the  brain;  softening  of  the  brain,  fre- 
quently the  result  of  chronic  inflamma- 
tion ; and  plethora,  or  poverty  of  blood 
in  the  brain,  which,  though  opposite 
diseases,  may  cause  the  same  symptoms 
of  giddiness  and  headache. 

BRAINARD,  David  Legge,  an  Ameri- 
can traveler  and  explorer,  born  in  New 
York  in  1856.  He  was  sergeant  of  the 
Franklin  Bay  Expedition  in  1881,  and 
won  latitude  83°  24'  30"  north  in  that 
enterprise,  which  was  the  record  for  thir- 
teen years.  In  1900  he  was  sent  to  the 
Philippines  as  major  in  the  regular 
army. 

BRAKE,  a contrivance  for  retarding 
or  arresting  motion  by  means  of  friction. 
In  machinery  it  generally  consists  of  a 
simple  or  compound  lever,  that  may  be 
pressed  forcibly  upon  the  periphery  of 


BRAKE,  AIR 


BRAZIL 


a wheel,  fixed  upon  a shaft  or  axis.  A 
similar  contrivance  is  attached  to  road 
and  railway  carriages,  but  continuous 
brakes  applied  to  everj'^  pair  of  wheels 
in  a railway  train,  and  operated  by  air 
either  by  the  compression  or  vacuum 
method,  are  now  generally  used  on  rail- 
ways. By  the  first  method,  of  which 
the  Westinghouse  brake  is  an  example, 
the  air  is  compressed  by  a pump  on  the 
locomotive  and  conveyed  by  pipes  and 
tubes  to  cylinders  which  are  under  each 
car,  and  the  pistons  of  which  act  on  the 
brake-levers.  In  the  vacuum  method, 
exemplified  in  the  Loughridge  brake, 
the  air  is  exhausted  from  the  device 
beneath  the  car,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  operates  the  brake-levers. 

BRAKE,  AIR.  See  Air-brake. 

BRAM'BLE,  the  name  commonly 
applied  to  the  bush  with  trailing  prickly 
stems  which  bears  the  well-known  berries 
usually  called  in  Scotland  brambles, 
and  in  England  blackberries.  It  is 
similar  to  the  raspberry,  and  belongs 
to  the  same  genus.  It  is  rarely  culti- 
vated, but  as  a wild  plant  it  grows  in 
great  abundance.  The  flowers  do  not 
appear  till  late  in  the  summer,  and  the 
fruit,  which  is  deep  purple  or  almost 
black  in  color,  does  not  ripen  till  autumn. 

BRAN,  the  husky  part  of  wheat 
separated  by  the  bolter  from  the  flour. 
Its  components  are:  water,  13;  gluten, 
19’ 5;  fatty  matter,  5;  husk  with  starch, 
55;  and  ashes,  7’ 5;  but  the  results  of 
different  analyses  vary  considerably. 
It  is  employed  in  feeding  cattle,  and 
has  also  been  found  useful  as  a manure. 

BRAN'DENBURG,  a province  of 
Prussia,  surrounded  mainly  by  Mecklen- 
burg and  the  provinces  of  Pomerania, 
Posen,  Silesia,  and  Prussian  Saxony. 
The  soil  consists  in  many  parts  of  barren 
sands,  heaths,  and  moors;  yet  the  prov- 
ince produces  much  grain,  as  well  as 
fruits,  hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  etc.,  and 
supports  many  sheep.  The  forests  are 
very  extensive.  The  principal  streams 
are  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  the  Havel, 
and  the  Spree.  Berlin  is  locally  in 
Brandenburg.  Area,  15,600  sq.  miles; 
pop.  3,108,554.  Most  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Lutherans. — The  town  Brandenburg 
is  on  the  Havel,  35  miles  w.s.w.  of  Berlin. 
Pop.  49,263. 

BRAND'ING,  a form  of  punishment 
once  in  use  in  England  for  various 
crimes,  but  abolished  in  1822.  It  was 
performed  by  means  of  a red-hot  iron, 
and  the  part  which  was  branded  was 
the  cheek,  the  hand,  or  some  other  part 
of  the  body.  Even  after  branding  had 
been  abolished  in  all  other  cases,  a 
milder  form  of  it  was  for  a long  time 
retained  in  the  army  as  a punishment 
for  desertion,  the  letter  D being  marked 
with  ink  or  gunpowder  on  the  left  side 
of  a deserter  2 inches  below  the  armpit. 
This  also  has  been  abolished. 

BRANDY,  the  liquor  obtained  by  the 
distillation  of  wine,  or  of  the  refuse  of 
the  wine-press.  It  is  colorless  at  first, 
but  usually  derives  a brownish  color 
from  the  casks  in  which  it  is  kept  or 
from  coloring  matters  added  to  it.  The 
best  brandy  is  made  in  France,  particu- 
larly in  the  Cognac  district  in  the  de- 
partment of  Charente.  Much  of  the 
so-called  brandy  sold  in  Britain  and 
America  is  made  there  from  more  or 


less  coarse  whisky,  flavored  and  colored 
to  resemble  the  real  article;  and  France 
itself  also  exports  quantities  of  this  stuff. 
Brandy  is  often  used  medicinally  as  a 
stimulant,  stomachic,  and  restorative, 
or  in  mild  diarrhoea.  In  America  various 
distilled  liquors  get  the  name  of  brandy, 
as  cider  brandy,  peach  brandy. 

BRANDYWINE  CREEK,  a small  river 
which  rises  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania, 
passes  into  the  state  of  Delaware,  and 
joins  Christiana  Creek  near  Wilming- 
ton. It  gives  its  name  to  a battle  fought 
near  it.  Sept.  11,  1777,  between  the 
British  and  Americans,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated. 

BRANK,  or  BRANKS,  an  instrument 
formerly  in  use  in  Scotland,  and  to  some 
extent  also  in  England,  as  a punishment 
for  scolds.  It  consisted  of  an  iron  frame 


Brank. 


which  went  over  the  head  of  the  offender, 
and  had  in  front  an  iron  plate  which 
was  inserted  in  the  mouth,  where  it  was 
fixed  above  the  tongue,  and  kept  it 
perfectly  quiet. 

BRANT,  Joseph,  a chief  of  the  Mo- 
hawk tribe  of  Indians,  born  in  1742, 
died  in  1807.  His  native  name  was 
Thayendanega.  He  became  a convert 
to  Christianity  and  helped  the  British 
in  several  of  the  Indian  wars,  and  fought 
against  the  Americans  during  the 
revolution.  His  alleged  exploits  are 
recounted  by  Campbell  in  his  Gertrude 
of  Wyoming. 

BRASS  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc, 
of  a bright-yellow  color,  and  hard, 
ductile,  and  malleable.  The  best  brass 
consists  of  two  parts  by  weight  of  copper 
to  one  of  zinc;  but  any  degree  of  varia- 
tion may  be  obtained  by  altering  the 
proportions;  thus  by  increasing  the 
quantity  of  zinc  we  may  form  tombac 
and  pinchbeck,  and  with  nearly  a 
seventh  more  of  zinc  than  copper  the 
compound  becomes  brittle  and  of  a 
silver-white  color.  By  increasing  the 
copper,  on  the  other  hand,  the  com- 
pound increases  in  strength  and  tenacity. 
Brass  which  is  to  be  turned  or  filed  is 
made  workable  by  mixing  about  2 per 
cent  of  lead  in  the  alloy,  which  has  the 
effect  of  hardening  the  brass  and  pre- 
venting the  tool  being  clogged.  For 
engraving  purposes  a little  tin  is  usually 
mixed  with  the  brass.  Brass  is  used 
for  a vast  variety  of  purposes,  both 
useful  and  ornamental. 

BRASSES,  SEPULCHRAL  or  MONU- 
MENTAL, large  plates  of  brass  inlaid 
in  polished  slabs  of  stone,  and  usually 
exhibiting  the  figure  of  the  person 
intended  to  be  commemorated,  either 
in  a carved  outline  on  the  plate  or  in 
th®  form  of  the  plate  itself.  In  place  of 


the  figure  we  sometimes  find  an  orna- 
mented cross.  The  earliest  example  of 
these  monumental  slabs  now  existing 
is  that  on  the  tomb  of  Sir  John  D’Aber- 


Brass— Westminster  abbey. 

non  (died  1277)  at  Stoke  D’Abernon  in 
Surrey,  England.  These  brasses  are  cf 
great  value  in  giving  us  an  exact  picture 
of  the  costume  of  the  time  to  which  they 
belong. 

BRASSEY,  Thomas,  an  English  rail- 
way contractor,  born  1805,  died  1870. 
His  operations  were  on  an  immense 
scale,  and  extended  to  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean countries,  as  well  as  to  America, 
India,  and  Australia,  one  of  his  greatest 
works  being  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
of  Canada,  with  the  great  bridge  over 
the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal.  He  left 
a very  large  fortune.  His  son,  Thomas, 
born  1836,  now  Lord  Brassey,  has  been 
admiralty  secretary  and  civil  lord,  gov- 
ernor of  Victoria,  and  writes  on  naval 
matters,  etc.  His  first  wife  (died  1888) 
wrote  Voyage  of  the  Sunbeam  and  other 
books. 

BRAVO  (bra'v6),  an  Italian  adj'ective 
used  as  exclamation  of  praise  in  theaters, 
meaning  “well  done!  excellent!”  The 
correct  usage  is  to  say  bravo  to  a man, 
brava  to  a woman,  bravi  to  several 
persons. 

BRAZIL',  United  States  of,  a republic 
in  S.  America,  occup3’'ing  nearly  one- 
half  of  that  continent ; greatest  length, 
e.  to  w.,  2630  miles,  greatest  length, 
n.  to  s.,  2540  miles;  area  estimated  at 
3,124,000  square  miles,  or  about  one- 
sixth  smaller  than  Europe.  It  is 
bounded  s.e.,  e.  and  n.e.  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  n.  by  French,  Dutch,  and  British 
Guiana,  and  Venezuela;  w.  and  s.w.  by 


BRAZIL 


BRAZIL 


Ecuador,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  the 
Argentine  Republic,  and  the  Republic 
of  Uruguay.  Brazil  is  divided  politically 
into  a federal  district  and  twenty  states. 
Pop.  14,333,915. 

The  coast  has  few  indentations  of 
importance — the  chief  being  the  estua- 
ries of  the  Amazon  and  Para  in  the  north 
— and  good  harbors  are  comparatively 
few.  As  a whole  the  country  may  be 
regarded  as  having  three  natural  divi- 
sions, namely,  one  belonging  to  the 
basin  of  the  Amazon,  another  belonging 
to  the  La  Plata  basin,  and  a third  con- 
sisting of  the  eastern  portion  watered 
by  a number  of  streams  directly  enter- 
ing the  Atlantic.  The  Amazon  valley 
is  bounded  by  elevated  tablelands 
which,  in  the  lower  course  of  the  river, 
approach  within  a comparatively  short 
distance  of  each  other.  The  character- 
istic feature  of  this  region  is  its  immense 
low-lying,  forest-covered  plains,  inter- 
sected by  innumerable  water-courses, 
and  in  many  parts  subject  to  annual 
inundation,  the  vegetation  being  of  the 
most  luxuriant  character,  from  the  heat 
and  frequent  rains.  The  greater  part 
of  this  vast  region  is  unpopulated  except 
by  Indians,  and  as  yet  of  little  com- 
mercial importance.  The  climate,  not- 
withstanding the  tropical  heat  and 
moisture,  is  comparatively  healthful, 
and  the  facility  for  commerce  given  by 
thousands  of  miles  of  groat  navigable 
streams  must  in  time  attract  numerous 
settlers.  This  northern  part  of  Brazil 
is  unequaled  in  the  number  and  magni- 
tude of  the  streams  which  compose  its 
river  system  and  connect  it  with  Vene- 
zuela, Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and 
Bolivia.  On  the  north  side  the  chief 
affluents  of  the  Amazon  are  the  Rio 
Negro  and  the  Japura,  the  former  giving 
through  the  Cassiquiare  continuous 
water  communication  with  the  Orinoco. 
Among  the  southern  affluents  which  are 
important  as  water  highways  into  the 
interior  of  Brazil  are  the  Xingu,  the 
Tapajos,  the  Maderia  the  Purus,  and 
the  Jurua;  the  Madeira  being  the  most 
important,  and  forming  a navigable 
waterway  into  Bolivia,  except  that  it  is 
interrupted  by  falls  about  2Q0  miles 
below  where  it  enters  Brazil.  The 
Tocantins  is  another  large  stream  from 
the  south,  which  enters  the  Para  estuary 
and  hardly  belongs  to  the  Amazon  basin. 
The  forest  region  of  the  Amazon 
occupies  about  one-fourth  of  the  em- 
pire; the  rest  is  made  up  of  undulating 
tablelands  1000  to  3000  feet  above  the 
sea,  mountain  ranges  rising  to  10,000 
feet,  and  river  valleys. 

The  great  streams  belonging  to  the 
La  Plata  basin,  in  the  south,  are  the 
Paraguay  and  Parana.  The  water-shed 
between  this  and  the  Amazonian  basin, 
near  the  western  boundary  of  Brazil, 
is  only  about  500  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  here  a canoe  can  be  hauled  across 
from  a head-stream  of  the  Madeira  to  be 
launched  on  one  belonging  to  the  Para- 
guay. It  would  thus  be  easy  to  connect 
the  one  system  with  the  other  by  means 
of  a canal,  and  so  connect  the  La  Plata 
with  the  Orinoco.  The  water -shed 
rises  gradually  from  west  to  east.  The 
southern  part  of  Brazil  is  characterized 
by  its  low  plains  or  pampas,  covered 
with  graao  or  scrub.  Its  vegetation  is 


of  a much  less  tropical  character  than 
in  the  Amazon  basin,  and  its  climate 
more  variable.  In  many  parts  of  this 
region  there  is  an  admirable  field  for 
future  colonization,  though  it  is  as  yet 
defective  in  means  of  transport.  Near 
the  coast,  in  the  provinces  of  S.  Paulo, 
Rio  Grande,  and  Parana,  there  is  already 
a considerable  population,  much  aug- 
mented by  German  and  Italian  immi- 
gration, and  mostly  occupied  in  cattle- 
raising and  agriculture.  Railways  also 
have  been  constructed  and  have  given  a 
great  stimulus  to  trade. 

The  most  important  river  in  eastern 
Brazil  is  the  San  Francisco,  which  is  the 
great  waterway  into  its  interior,  and 
after  a course  of  1800  miles  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Atlantic  at  San 
Antonio.  The  three  greatest  cities  of 
Brazil,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Pernambuco, 
and  Bahia,  are  all  endeavoring  to  de- 
velop a traffic  in  connection  with  this 
river.  A state  line  has  now  been  con- 
structed round  the  falls  of  Pedro  Affonso 
on  its  lower  course,  and  thus  brought 
the  traffic  of  the  upper  river  into  com- 
munication with  the  lower.  Eastern 
Brazil  exhibits  a great  variety  in  surface, 
climate,  and  productions,  and  though 
large  tracts  consist  of  arid  and  sandy 
tablelands,  it  contains  within  itself  the 
greater  part  of  the  population,  wealth, 
and  industry  of  the  empire. 

The  chief  mountain  ranges  are  near 
the  southeastern  coast.  The  Serra  do 
Mar  or  Maritime  range  commences  in 
the  far  south,  and  travels  close  to  the 
coast-line  in  a northeasterly  direction 
till  it  reaches  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Cape 
Frio,  where  it  culminates  in  the  Serra 
dos  Orgaos,  or  Organ  Mountains,  from 
7000  to  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
forming  the  noblest  element  in  the 
marvelous  scenery  of  the  bay  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  West  of  the  Serra  do  Mar 
lies  the  Serra  Mantequeira,  which 
farther  north  is  known  as  the  Serra  do 
Espinhago.  Here  are  the  loftiest  sum- 
mits in  Brazil,  Itatiaia-Assu,  the  highest 
of  all,  being  10,040  feet  above  the  sea. 
Between  the  sources  of  , the  Tocantins 
and  Parana  are  the.  Montes  Pyrenees, 
the  second  most  elevated  ridge  in 
Brazil,  some  of  its  heights  being  esti- 
mated at  nearly  8000  and  10,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

As  almost  the  whole  of  Brazil  lies  s. 
of  the  equator,  and  in  a hemisphere 
where  there  is  a greater  proportion  of  sea 
than  land,  its  climate  is  generally  more 
cool  and  moist  than  that  of  countries 
in  corresponding  latitudes  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere.  In  the  s.  parts  of 
Brazil,  in  consequence  of  the  gradual 
narrowing  of  the  continent,  the  climate 
is  of  an  insular  character — cool  summers 
and  mild  winters.  The  quantity  of 
rain  differs  widely  in  different  localities. 
The  n.  provinces  generally  are  subject 
to  heavy  rains.  At  Rio,  where  the 
climate  has  been  much  modified  by  the 
clearing  away  of  the  forests  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  year  is  74°.  At  Pernambuco  the 
temperature  rarely  exceeds  82°;  in 
winter  it  descends  to  68°.  Generally 
the  climate  of  Brazil  is  delightful. 

Only  an  insignificant  portion  of  Brazil 
is  as  yet  under  cultivation.  The  pas- 
tures are  of  vast  extent,  and  support 


great  herds  of  horned  cattle,  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  the  wealth  of  the 
country.  The  chief  food  - supplying 
plants  are  sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  rice, 
tobacco,  maize,  wheat,  manioc  (or 
cassava),  beans,  bananas,  ginger,  yams, 
lemons,  oranges,  figs,  etc. — the  two 
first,  sugar  and  coffee,  being  the  staple 
products  of  the  empire.  As  much 
coffee,  indeed,  is  produced  in  Brazil  as 
in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  together. 
In  its  forests  Brazil  possesses  a great 
source  of  wealth.  They  yield  dyewoods 
and  fancy  woods  of  various  kinds, 
including  Brazil-wood,  rosewood,  fustic, 
cedar,  mahogany,  and  a variety  of 
others,  as  also  Brazil-nuts,  coconuts, 
vegetable  ivory,  india-rubber,  copaiba, 
arnotto,  piassava  fiber,  etc.  Other 
vegetable  products  are  vanilla,  sarsapa- 
rilla, ipecacuanha,  cinnamon,  and  cloves. 

The  principal  domestic  animals  of 
Brazil  are  horned  cattle  and  horses. 
Sheep  are  kept  only  in  some  parts, 
chiefly  in  the  south.  Goats  and  hogs 
are  abundant.  The  wild  animals  com- 
prise the  puma,  jaguar,  sloth,  porcu- 
pine, etc.  Monkeys  are  numerous. 
Among  the  feathered  tribes  are  the 
smallest,  the  humming-bird,  and  one  of 
the  largest,  the  rhea,  parrots  in  great 
variety,  tanagers,  toucans,  and  the 
harpy  eagle.  The  reptiles  consist  of  the 
boa-constrictor  and  other  species  of 
serpents,  some  of  them  venomous,  alli- 
gators, and  fresh-water  turtle,  the  eggs 
of  which  yield  a valuable  oil.  The 
insects  are,  many  of  them,  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  their  colors  and  their 
size,  especially  the  butterflies.  Among 
minerals  the  diamonds  and  other 
precious  stones  of  Brazil — emeralds, 
sapphires,  rubies,  beryls,  etc.  Gold  also 
is  procured  in  considerable  quantities. 
Other  minerals  are  quicksilver,  copper, 
manganese,  iron,  lead,  tin,  antimony, 
and  bismuth.  The  shores  and  rivers 
abound  with  fish. 

The  population  of  Brazil  consists  of 
whites,  Indians,  negroes,  and  people  of 
mixed  blood.  The  negroes  are  over 
2,000,000  in  number,  and  till  1888  were 
partly  slaves.  Of  the  Indians  some  are 
semi-civilized,  but  others  (estimated 
at  600,000)  roam  about  in  a wild  state, 
and  are  divided  into  a great  many 
tribes  speaking  different  languages.  The 
state  language  is  Portuguese.  Primary 
education  is  gratuitous,  but  the  great 
majority  of  the  people  are  illiterate, 
though  education  is  now  compulsory 
in  some  provinces. 

The  principal  imports  are  cottons, 
linens,  woolens,  machinery,  hardware 
and  cutlery,  wheat,  flour,  wine,  coals, 
etc.,  the  manufactured  articles  and  coals 
being  largely  from  Britain.  The  exports 
consist  of  coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  hides, 
cabinet  and  dye  woods,  drugs,  caout- 
chouc, and  diamonds. 

The  prevailing  religion  of  Brazil  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  but  all  religions  are 
now  on  an  equal  footing.  Previous  to 
1889  the  government  was  monarchical, 
but  in  that  year  a revolution  took  place 
and  a republic  was  established.  By  the 
new  constitution  of  1891  each  of  the 
old  provinces  forms  a state,  having  its 
own  local  government,  with  representa- 
tion in  a congress  appointed  by  popular 
vote,  and  consisting  of  a senate  and  a 


BRAZIL-NUT 


BREAD 


chamber  of  deputies.  The  standing 
army  numbers  about  30,000.  The  navy 
comprises  eleven  iron-clads,  besides  other 
vessels. 

Brazil  was  discovered  in  1499  by  Vin- 
cente Yanez  Pingon,  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  Columbus  in  the  service  of 
Spain,  and  next  year  was  taken  posses- 
sion of  by  Pedro  Alvares  de  Cabral  on 
behalf  of  Portugal.  The  first  governor- 
general  was  Thome  de  Sousa,  who  in 
1549  arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Bahia  and 
established  the  new  city  of  that  name, 
making  it  the  seat  of  his  government. 
The  usurpation  of  the  crown  of  Portugal 
by  Philip  II.  left  Brazil  in  a defenseless 
and  neglected  condition,  and  the  Eng- 
lish, French,  and  Dutch  made  successive 
attempts  to  obtain  a footing.  The 
Dutch  were  the  most  persevering,  and 
for  a time  almost  divided  the  Brazilian 
territory  with  the  Portuguese.  The 
tyranny  of  the  Dutch  governors,  how- 
ever, incited  their  native  and  Portuguese 
subjects  to  revolt,  and  after  a sanguinary 
war,  in  1654  the  Dutch  were  driven  out 
and  the  Portuguese  remained  masters 
of  an  undivided  Brazil.  The  value  of 
Brazil  to  Portugal  continued  steadily 
to  increase  after  the  discovery  of  the 
gold  mines  in  1698  and  the  discovery 
of  the  diamond  mines  in  1728.  The 
vigorous  policy  of  the  Portuguese  gov- 
ernment under  the  administration  of 
the  Marquis  de  Pombal  (1760-77)  did 
much  to  open  up  the  interior  of  Brazil, 
though  his  high-handed  modes  of  pro- 
cedure left  among  the  Brazilians  a dis- 
content with  the  home  government 
which  took  shape  in  the  abortive  revolt 
of  1789.  On  the  invasion  of  Portugal 
in  1808  by  the  French  the  sovereign  of 
that  kingdom,  John  VI.,  sailed  for 
Brazil,  accompanied  by  his  court  and 
a large  body  of  emigrants.  He  raised 
Brazil  to  the  rank  of  a kingdom,  and 
assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Portugal 
and  Brazil.  But  on  his  return  to  Portu- 
gal in  1820  he  found  the  Portuguese 
Cortes  unwilling  to  grant  civil  and 
political  equality  to  the  Brazilians — a 
fact  which  raised  such  violent  convul- 
sions in  Rio  Janeiro  and  other  parts  of 
Brazil  that  Dom  Pedro,  the  king’s  son, 
was  forced  to  head  the  party  resolved 
to  make  Brazil  independent,  and  in 
1822  a national  assembly  declared  the 
separation  of  Brazil  from  Portugal,  and 
appointed  Dom  Pedro  the  constitutional 
emperor.  In  1864  began  a severe  strug- 
gle between  Brazil  and  Paraguay, 
caused  principally  by  the  arbitrary 
conduct  of  Lopez,  the  dictator  of  Para- 
guay. Brazil,  though  joined  by  Uru- 
guay and  the  Argentine  Confederation, 
had  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  war,  which 
terminated  only  with  the  death  of  Lopez 
in  1870.  This  struggle  was  attended 
with  an  immense  expenditure  of  men 
and  money  to  Brazil,  but  it  established 
her  reputation  as  a great  power,  and 
secured  the  freedom  of  the  navigation 
of  the  La  Plata  river-system.  In  1871 
an  act  was  passed  for  the  gradual  eman- 
cipation of  slaves,  and  in  1888  slavery 
was  finally  abolished.  In  1889  took 
place  the  revolution  and  establishment 
of  the  republic.  The  proceedings  of  th? 
president,  Fonseca,  led  to  a revolution- 
ary movement  in  1891,  which  was  not 
quelled  without  difficulty. 


BRAZIL-NUT,  the  fruit  of  a South 
American  tree,  native  to  Guiana,  Vene- 
zuela, and  Brazil.  The  fruit  is  nearly 
round,  about  6 inches  in  diameter,  has 
a hard  shell,  and  contains  a number  of 
seeds,  from  twenty  to  twenty-four, 
wrinkled,  triangular  and  which  are 
pleasant  to  the  taste  and  are  used  as 
a dessert.  An  oil  is  also  extracted 
from  them. 

BRAZIL-WOOD,  a kind  of  wood 
yielding  a red  dye,  obtained  from  sev- 
eral trees,  natives  of  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  and  South  America.  The 
wood  is  hard  and  heavy,  and  as  it 
takes  on  a fine  polish  it  is  used  by 
cabinet-makers  for  various  purposes, 
but  its  principal  use  is  in  dyeing  red. 
The  dye  is  obtained  by  reducing  the 
wood  to  powder  and  boiling  it  in  water, 
when  the  water  receives  the  red  coloring 
principle,  which  is  a crystallizable  sub- 
stance called  brazilin.  The  color  is  not 
permanent  unless  fixed  by  suitable 
mordants. 

BRAZOS  (bra'zos),  a large  river, 
in  Texas,  rising  in  the  n.w.  part  of  the 
state,  and  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  after  a course  of  900  miles,  40 
miles  w.s.w.  Galveston.  During  the 
rainy  season,  from  February  to  May 
inclusive,  it  is  navigable  by  steamboats 
for  about  300  miles. 

BREACH,  the  aperture  or  passage 
made  in  the  wall  of  any  fortified  place 
by  the  ordnance  of  the  besiegers  for  the 
purpose  of  entering  the  fortress. — 
Breaching  batteries  are  batteries  of 
heavy  guns  intended  to  make  a breach. 

BREACH,  in  law,  any  violation  of  a 
law,  or  the  non-performance  of  a duty 
imposed  by  law. — Breach  of  Peace  is  an 
offense  against  the  public  safety  or 
tranquillity  either  personally  or  by 
inciting  others.  Breaches  of  peace  are 
such  as  affrays,  riots,  routs,  and  unlaw- 
ful assemblies,  forcible  entry  or  detainer 
by  violently  taking  or  keeping  posses- 
sion of  lands  or  tenements  with  menaces, 
force,  and  arms;  riding,  or  going,  armed 
with  dangerous  or  unusual  weapons, 
terrifying  people;  challenging  another 
to  fight,  or  bearing  such  a challenge, 
besides  certain  other  offenses. — Breach 
of  Promise  (of  marriage),  the  failure  to 
implement  one’s  premise  to  marry  a 
particular  person,  in  consequence  of 
which  that  person  may  raise  an  action 
for  damages,  though  it  is  only  the 
woman  as  a rule  that  gains  damages. — 
Breach  of  Trust  is  a violation  of  duty 
by  a trustee,  executor,  or  any  other 
person  in  a fiduciary  position,  as,  for 
instance,  when  a trustee  manages  an 
estate  entrusted  to  him  for  his  own  ad- 
vantage rather  than  for  that  of  the 
trust. 

BREAD  is  the  flour  or  meal  of  grain 
kneaded  with  water  into  a tough  and 
consistent  paste  and  baked.  There  are 
numerous  kinds  of  bread,  according  to 
materials  and  methods  of  prepara- 
tion; but  all  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  fermented,  leavened,  or  raised, 
and  unfermented,  unleavened,  not 
raised.  The  latter  is  the  simplest,  and 
no  doubt  was  the  original  kind,  and  is 
still  exemplified  by  oiscuits,  the  oat 
cakes  of  Scotland,  the  corn-bread  of 
Arfierica,  the  dampers  of  the  Australian 
colonies,  and  the  still  ruder  bread  of 


savage  races.  It  was  probably  by 
accident  that  the  method  of  bringing 
the  paste  into  a state  of  fermentation 
was  found  out,  by  which  its  toughness 
is  almost  entirely  destroyed,  and  it 
becomes  porous,  palatable,  and  digesti- 
ble. All  the  cereals  are  used  in  making 
bread,  each  zone  using  those  which  are 
native  to  it.  Thus  maize,  millet,  and 
rice  are  used  for  the  purpose  in  the 
hotter  countries,  rye,  barley,  and  oats 
in  the  colder,  and  wheat  in  the  inter- 
mediate or  more  temperate  regions.  In 
the  most  advanced  countries  bread  is 
made  from  wheat,  which  makes  the 
lightest  and  most  spongy  bread.  The 
fermentation  necessary  for  the  ordinary 
loaf-bread  is  generally  produced  by 
means  of  leaven  or  yeast.  The  chemical 
changes  that  take  place  during  the  proc- 
ess of  making  bread  may  be  explained 
in  the  following  way:  An  average  qual- 
ity of  flour  consists  of  gluten  12,  starch 
70,  sugar  5,  gum  3,  water  10;  total,  100. 
When  water  is  added  to  the  flour,  in  the 
first  operation  of  baking,  it  unites  with 
the  gluten  and  starch,  and  dissolves  the 
gum  and  sugar.  The  yeast  or  barm 
added  acts  now  upon  the  dissolved 
sugar,  especially  at  an  elevated  tem- 
perature, and  produces  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation, forming  alcohol  and  setting 
free  carbonic  acid  as  a consequence  of 
the  transformation  of  the  elements  of 
the  sugar.  The  gaseous  carbonic  acid 
is  prevented  from  escaping  by  the  gluten 
of  the  mass,  and  if  the  mixing  or  knead- 
ing has  been  propedy  performed  it  re- 
mains very  equally  diffused  through 
every  part  of  the  dough.  The  alcohol 
and  carbonic  acid  are  carried  into  the 
oven  with  the  dough,  and  the  former 
partially  escapes,  while  the  latter  gas, 
being  expanded  by  the  heat,  produces 
the  lightness  and  sponginess  of  the  loaf. 

It  may  be  produced  in  bread-making 
by  other  means  than  fermentation,  as 
by  some  of  those  well-known  prepara- 
tions called  “baking  powders,”  which 
usually  contain  bicarbonate  of  potash 
or  of  soda,  with  tartaric  acid.  Aerated 
bread  is  so  called  because  made  with 
aerated  water — that  is,  water  strongly 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  under 
pressure,  the  dough  being  also  worked 
up  under  pressure  and  caused  to.expand 
by  the  carbonic  acid  when  the  pressure 
is  removed. 

The  several  qualities  of  flour  used  for 
bread-making  are  known  by  the  names 
of  firsts  or  whites,  seconds  or  households, 
and  thirds,  according  to  the  degree  of 
fineness  resulting  from  the  process  of 
bolting  or  dressing.  The  latter  two  con- 
tain a certain  proportion  of  the  bran. 
Brown  or  whole-flour  bread  is  considered 
to  be  very  wholesome.  It  is  made  from 
undressed  wheat,  and  consequently  con- 
tains the  bran  as  well  as  the  flour. 

Various  adulterations  are  found  in 
bread,  such  as  chalk,  starch,  potatoes, 
etc. ; but  Ihe  commonest  is  alum,  which 
enables  the  baker  to  give  to  bread  of 
inferior  flavor  the  whiteness  of  the  best 
bread,  and  also  to  keep  in  the  loaf  an 
undue  quantity  of  water,  which,  of 
course,  increases  its  weight.  Boiled  rice 
also  is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
the  making  of  bread  the  flour  or  meal 
of  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  buckwheat, 
Indian  corn,  rice,  beans,  peas,  and 


BREADFRUIT 


BREEDING 


potatoes  may  be  used,  along  with 
salt,  eggs,  water,  milk,  and  leaven  or 
yeast  of  any  kind;  but  any  other  in- 
gredient is  regarded  as  an  adulteration. 

BREADFRUIT,  a large  globular  fruit 
of  a pale-green  color,  about  the  size 
of  a child’s  head,  marked  on  the  sur- 
face with  irregular  six-sided  depres- 
sions, and  containing  a white  and  some- 
what fibrous  pulp,  which  when  ripe  be- 


Breadfruit. 


comes  juicy  and  yellow.  The  tree  that 
produces  it  grows  wild  in  Otaheite  and 
other  islands  of  the  South  Seas,  whence 
it  was  introduced  into  the  West  Indies 
and  S.  America.  It  is  about  40  feet  high, 
with  large  and  spreading  branches,  and 
has  large  bright-green  leaves  deeply 
divided  into  seven  or  nine  spear-shaped 
lobes.  The  fruit  is  generally  eaten  im- 
mediately after  being  gathered,  but  is 
also  often  prepared  so  as  to  keep  for 
some  time  either  by  baking  it  whole  in 
close  underground  pits  or  by  beating  it 
into  paste  and  storing  it  underground, 
when  a slight  fermentation  takes  place. 
The  eatable  part  lies  between  the  skin 
and  the  core,  and  is  somewhat  of  the 
consistence  of  new  bread.  Mixed  with 
cocoanut  milk  it  makes  an  excellent 
pudding.  The  inner  bark  of  the  tree  is 
made  into  a kind  of  cloth.  The  wood  is 
used  for  the  building  of  boats  and  for 
furniture. 

BREADNUTS,  the  seeds  of  a tree  of 
the  same  order  as  the  breadfruit.  'The 
breadnut  tree  is  a native  of  Jamaica. 
Its  wood,  which  resembles  mahogany, 
is  useful  to  cabinet-makers,  and  its  nuts 
make  a pleasant  food,  in  taste  not  un- 
like hazelnuts. 

BREAK' WATER,  a work  constructed 
in  front  of  a harbor  to  serve  as  a protec- 
tion against  the  violence  of  the  waves. 
The  name  may  also  be  given  to  any 
structure  which  is  erected  in  the  sea 
with  the  object  of  breaking  the  force  of 
the  waves  without  and  producing  a 
calm  within.  Breakwaters  are  usually 
constructed  by  sinking  loads  of  un- 
wrought stone  along  the  line  where  they 
are  to  be  laid,  and  allowing  them  to  find 
their  angle  of  repose  under  the  action  of 
the  waves.  When  the  mass  rises  to  the 
surface,  or  near  it,  it  is  surmounted  with 
a pile  of  masonry,  sloped  outward  in 
such  a manner  as  will  best  enable  it  to 
resist  the  action  of  the  waves. 

BREAMING,  a nautical  term  mean- 
ing the  operation  of  clearing  a ship’s 
bottom  by  means  of  fire  of  the  shells, 
seaweeds,  barnacles,  etc.,  that  have 
P.  E.— 12 


become  attached  to  it.  It  is  performed 
by  holding  to  the  hull  kindled  furze, 
reeds,  or  such  like  light  combustibles, 
so  as  to  soften  the  pitch  and  loosen  the 
adherent  matters,  which  may  be  then 
easily  swept  off. 

BREAST,  The  female,  is  of  a glan- 
dular structure,  containing  vesicles  for 
the  secretion  of  milk,  and  excretory 
ducts,  which  open  by  small  orifices  in 
the  nipple,  and  discharge  the  secreted 
fluid  for  the  nourishment  of  the  child. 
At  the  center  of  each  breast  there  is  a 
small  projection,  the  nipple,  and  this  is 
surrounded  by  a dark  ring  termed  the 
areola.  The  breast  is  liable  to  many 
diseases,  from  irritation  during  nursing, 
bruises  of  the  part,  undue  pressure  from 
tight  clothes,  and  from  constitutional 
causes.  Among  the  most  common  of 
these  is  inflammation  arising  from  a 
superabundant  secretion  of  milk  during 
nursing. 

BREASTPLATE,  a piece  of  defensive 
armor  covering  the  breast,  made  of 
leather,  brass,  iron,  steel,  or  other 
metals.  Among  the  ancient  Jews  the 
name  was  given  to  a folded  piece  of  rich, 
ernbroidered  stuff  worn  by  the  high- 
priest.  It  was  set  with  twelve  precious 
stones  bearing  the  names  of  the  tribes. 

BREAST-WHEEL,  a water-wheel  in 
which  the  water  driving  it  is  delivered 
to  the  float-beards  between  the  top  and 


bottom,  generally  a little  below  the 
level  of  the  axis.  In  this  kind  of  wheel 
the  water  acts  partly  by  impulse,  partly 
by  weight. 

BREASTWORK,  in  the  military  art, 
a hastily-constructed  parapet  made  for 
protection  against  the  shot  of  the  enemy, 
generally  of  earth. 

BREATH,  the  air  which  issues  from 
the  lungs  during  respiration  through 
the  nose  and  mouth.  A smaller  portion 
of  oxygen  and  a larger  portion  of  car- 
bonic acid  are  contained  in  the  air  which 
is  exhaled  than  in  that  which  is  inhaled. 
There  are  also  aqueous  particles  in  the 
breath,  which  are  precipitated  by  the 
coldness  of  the  external  air  in  the  form 
of  visible  vapor;  likewise  other  sub- 
stances which  owe  their  origin  to  secre- 
tions in  the  mouth,  nose,  windpipe,  and 
lungs.  These  cause  the  changes  in  the 
breath  which  may  be  known  by  the 
smell.  A bad  breath  is  often  caused  by 
local  affections  in  the  nose,  the  mouth, 
or  the  windpipe;  viz.,  by  ulcers  in  the 
nose,  cancerous  polypi,  by  discharges 
from  the  mouth,  by  sores  on  the  lungs, 
or  peculiar  secretions  in  them.  It  is 
also  caused  by  rotten  teeth,  by  im- 
purities in  the  mouth,  and  by  some 
kinds  of  food.  The  remedies  of  course 


vary.  Frequent  washing,  gargles  of 
chlorine-water,  charcoal,  etc.,  are  pre- 
scribed according  to  the  disease. 

BREATHING.  See  Respiration. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  John  Cabell,  an 
American  soldier,  statesman,  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Kentucky  in  1821,  died 
in  1875.  He  was  elected  vice-president 
of  the  U.  States  with  Buchanan,  and 
in  1860  was  nominated  by  the  southern 
section  of  the  democracy  for  president, 
but,  with  Douglas,  was  defeated  by 
Lincoln.  Elected  to  the  senate,  he 
resigned,  entered  the  Confederate  mili- 
tary service,  and  fought  at  many  of  the 
principal  battles  of  the  civil  war,  sub- 
sequently becoming  a member  of  the 
cabinet  of  Jefferson  Davis.  After  the 
war  he  practiced  law. 

BREECH,  BREECH-LOADING.  The 
breech  is  the  solid  mass  of  metal  behind 
the  bore  of  a gun,  and  that  by  which  the 
shock  of  the  explosion  is  principally 
sustained.  In  breech-loading  arms  the 
charge  is  introduced  here,  there  being 
a mechanism  by  which  the  breech  can 
be  opened  and  closed.  In  small  arms 
the  advantages  of  breech-loading  for 
rapidity  of  fire,  facilit3'’  of  cleaning, 
etc.,  recommended  it  to  general  use, 
and  its  efficacy  for  military  purposes 
was  effectively  demonstrated  by  the 
Prussian  campaigns  against  Denmark 
and  Austria  in  1864  and  1866.  Since 
that  time  every  government  has 
adopted  the  new  system,  both  in  small- 
arms  and  heavy  ordnance,  while  breech- 
loading sporting-arms  are  also  in  general 
use.  The  chief  difficulty  in  breech- 
loading is  to  close  the  breech  so  as  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  highly  elastic 
gas  to  which  the  force  of  the  explosion 
is  due,  but  the  appliances  of  modern 
science  and  mechanical  art  may  be  said 
to  have  effectually  met  this  difficulty. 
See  Cannon,  Musket,  etc. 

BREECHES,  an  article  of  clothing 
for  the  legs  and  lower  part  of  the  body 
in  use  among  the  Babylonians  and 
other  ancient  peoples  as  well  as  among 
the  moderns.  In  Europe  we  find  them 
first  used  among  the  Gauls;  hence  the 
Romans  called  a part  of  Gaul  breeched 
Gaul.  Trousers  are  longer  and  looser 
than  the  breeches  that  used  to  be  worn. 

BREECHING,  a rope  used  to  secure 
a ship’s  gun  and  prevent  it  from  recoil- 
ing too  much  in  battle. 

BREEDING,  the  art  of  improving 
races  or  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  or 
modifying  them  in  certain  directions,  by 
continuous  attention  to  their  pairing, 
in  conjunction  with  a similar  attention 
to  their  feeding  and  general  treatment. 
Animals  (and  plants  no  less)  show  great 
susceptibility  of  modification  under 
systematic  cultivation;  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  by  such  cultivation 
the  sum  of  desirable  qualities  in  par- 
ticular races  has  been  greatly  increased, 
and  that  in  two  ways.  Individual 
specimens  are  produced  possessing  more 
good  qualities  than  can  be  found  in  any 
one  specimen  of  the  original  stock ; and 
from  the  same  stock  many  varieties  are 
taken  characterized  by  different  per- 
fections, the  germs  of  all  of  which  may 
have  been  in  the  original  stock  but  could 
not  have  been  simultaneously  developed 
in  a single  specimen.  But  when  an 
effort  is  made  to  develop  rapidly,  or  to 


BREEZE 


BREWING 


its  extreme  limit,  any  particular  quality, 
it  is  always  made  at  the  expense  of  some 
other  quality,  or  of  other  qualities  gen- 
erally, by  which  the  intrinsic  value  of 
the  result  is  necessarily  affected.  High 
speed  in  horses,  for  example,  is  only 
attained  at  the  expense  of  a sacrifice 
of  strength  and  power  of  endurance. 
So  the  celebrated  merino  sheep  are  the 
result  of  a system  of  breeding  which 
reduces  the  general  size  and  vigor  of  the 
animal,  and  diminishes  the  value  of  the 
carcass.  Much  care  and  judgment, 
therefore,  are  needed  in  breeding,  not 
only  in  order  to  produce  a particular 
effect,  but  also  to  produce  it  with  the 
least  sacrifice  of  other  qualities. 

Breeding,  as  a means  of  improving 
domestic  animals,  has  been  practiced 
more  or  less  systematically  wherever 
any  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  care 
of  live  stock.  Quantity  of  meat,  small- 
ness of  bone,  lightness  of  offal;  in  cows, 
yield  and  quality  of  milk;  in  sheep, 
weight  of  fleece  and  fineness  of  wool, 
have  all  been  studied  with  remarkable 
effects  by  modern  breeders. 

BREEZE,  BREEZE-FLY,  a name 
given  to  various  flies,  otherwise  called 
gadflies,  horseflies,  etc. 

BREEZES,  Sea  and  Land.  See  Wind. 

BREMEN  (bra'men),  a free  city  of 
Germany,  an  independent  member  of 
the  empire,  one  of  the  three  Hanse  towns, 
on  the  Weser,  about  50  miles  from  its 
mouth,  in  its  own  small  territory  of 
98  sq.  miles,  besides  which  it  possesses 
the  port  of  Bremerhaven  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  The  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments consist  of  tobacco  and  cigar 
factories,  sugar-refineries,  rice -mills, 
iron  - foundries,  machine  - works,  rope 
and  sail  works,  and  ship-building  yards. 
Its  situation  renders  Bremen  the  em- 
porium for  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hesse, 
and  other  countries,  traversed  by  the 
Weser,  and  next  to  Hamburg  it  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  export  and  import 
and  emigration  trade  of  Germany. 
Vessels  drawing  n\  feet  can  now  come 
up  to  the  town  itself;  but  the  bulk  of 
the  shipping  trade  centers  in  Bremer- 
haven. Bremerhaven  is  a place  of  over 
16,000  inhabitants,  has  docks  capable 
of  receivipg  the  largest  vessels,  and  is 
connected  by  railway  with  Bremen, 
where  the  chief  merchants  and  brokers 
have  their  offices.  The  chief  imports  are 
tobacco,  cotton  and  cotton  goods,  wood 
and  woolen  goods,  rice,  coffee,  grain, 
petroleum,  etc.,  which  are  chiefly  re- 
exported to  other  parts  of  Germany 
and  the  Continent.  Pop.  of  town, 
163,418;  of  total  territory  (including 
Bremerhaven),  224,967. 

Bremen  was  made  a bishopric  by 
Charlemagne  about  788,  was  afterward 
made  an  archbishopric,  and  by  the  end 
of  the  14th  century  had  become  virtually 
a free  imperial  city.  The  constitution 
is  in  most  repects  republican. 

BREN'EMAN,  Abram  Adam,  an  Amer- 
ican inventor,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1847.  He  is  noted  for  the  invention  of 
a process  for  making  iron  non-corrosive. 
In  1892  Breneman  was  elected  vice- 
resident of  the  American  Chemical 
ociety. 

BRENT  GOOSE,  a wild  goose,  smaller 
than  the  common  barnacle  goose  and  of 
much  darker  plumage,  remarkable  for 


length  of  wing  and  extent  of  migratory 
power,  being  a winter  bird  of  passage  in 
France,  Germany,  Holland,  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  United  States,  Canada,  etc.  It 
breeds  in  high  northern  latitudes;  it 
feeds  on  drifting  seaweeds  and  saline 
plants,  and  is  considered  the  most  deli- 
cate for  the  table  of  all  the  goose  tribe. 

BRESCIA  (bra'shi-a),  a city  of  north 
Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot 
of  the  Alps,  and  is  of  a quadrilateral 
form,  about  4 miles  in  circuit.  The  city 
contains  a museum  of  antiquities, 
picture-gallery,  botanic  garden,  a fine 
public  library,  a theater,  hospital,  etc. 
An  aqueduct  supplies  water  to  its  nu- 
merous fountains.  Near  the  to'wn  are 
large  ironworks,  and  its  firearms  are 
esteemed  the  best  that  are  made  in 
Italy.  It  has  also  silk,  linen,  and  paper 
factories,  tan-yards,  and  oil-mills,  and 
is  an  important  mart  for  raw  silk.  Pop. 
70,618.  The  province  has  an  area  of 
1644  sq.  miles;  pop.  537,690. 

BRESLAU  (bres'lou),  an  important 
city  of  the  German  Empire,  the  second 
largest  in  the  Prussian  dominions  (being 
excelled  in  population  only  by  Berlin), 
is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Silesia, 
and  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Oder. 
The  cathedral,  built  in  the  1 2th  century, 
and  the  Rathhaus,  or  town-hall,  a Gothic 
structure  of  about  the  14th  century,  are 
among  the  most  remarkable  buildings. 
There  is  a flourishing  university,  with  a 
museum,  library  of  400,000  volumes, 
observatory,  etc.  Breslau  has  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  railway-carriages, 
furniture  and  cabinet  ware,  cigars, 
spirits  and  liquors,  cotton  and  woolen 
yarn,  musical  instruments,  porcelain, 
glass,  etc.,  and  carries  on  an  extensive 
trade.  Pop.  422,738. 

BREST,  a seaport  in  the  n.w.  of 
France,  department  of  Finisterre.  It 
has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  France, 
and  is  the  chief  station  of  the  French 
marine,  having  safe  roads  capable  of 


containing  500  men-of-war  in  from  8 to 
1 5 fathoms  at  low  water.  The  entrance 
is  narrow  and  rocky,  and  the  coast  on 
both  sides  is  well  fortified.  Brest  stands 
on  the  summit  and  sides  of  a projecting 
ridge,  many  of  the  streets  being  exceed- 
ingly steep.  Several  of  the  docks  have 
been  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  a break- 
water extends  far  into  the  roadstead. 
The  manufactures  of  Brest  are  incon- 
siderable, but  it  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  cereals,  wine,  brandy,  sardines,  mack- 
erel, and  colonial  goods.  It  is  connected 
with  America  by  a cable  terminating 
near  Duxbury,  Mass.  Pop.  81,948. 

BRET'ONS,  the  inhabitants  of  Brit- 
tany. 


BREV'ET,  in  Britain  and  the  U. 
States  applied  to  a commission  to  an 
officer,  entitling  him  to  a rank  in  the 
army  higher  than  that  which  he  holds  in 
his  regiment,  without,  however,  confer- 
ring the  right  to  a corresponding  advance 
of  pay. 

BREV'IARY,  the  book  which'contains 
prayers  or  offices  to  be  used  at  the  seven 
canonical  hours  of  matins,  prime,  tierce, 
sext,  nones,  vespers,  and  compline  by 
all  in  the  orders  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
or  in  the  enjoyment  of  any  R.  Catholic 
benefice.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time 
the  use  of  the  breviary  was  first  enjoin- 
ed, but  the  early  offices  were  exhaustive 
from  their  great  length,  and  under 
Gregory  VII.  (1073-85)  their  abridgment 
was  considered  necessary,  hence  the 
origin  of  the  breviary.  In  1568  Pius  V. 
published  that  which  has  remained, 
with  few  modifications,  to  the  present 
day.  The  Roman  breviary,  however, 
was  never  fully  accepted  by  the  Galilean 
Church  until  after  the  strenuous  efforts 
made  by  the  Ultramontanes  from  1840 
to  1864.  The  Psalms  occupy  a large 
place  in  the  breviary;  passages  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  and  from 
the  fathers  have  the  next  place.  All  the 
services  are  in  Latin,  and  their  arrange- 
ment is  very  complex.  The  English 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  is  based  on  the 
Roman  Breviary. 

BREVIER  (bre-ver'),  a kind  of  print- 
ing type,  in  size  between  bourgeois  and 
minion,  the  same  as  the  type  of  this 
book, 

BREWER,  David  Josiah,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  in  Smyrna,  Asia  Minor, 
in  1837.  He  was  for  many  years  a 
federal  judge  in  Kansas,  and  in  1889 
was  appointed  an  associate  justice  of 
the  United  States  Supreme  court. 

BREWING,  the  process  of  extracting 
a saccharine  solution  from  malted  grain 
and  converting  the  solution  into  a fer- 
mented and  sound  alcoholic  beverage 
called  ale  or  beer.  The  preliminary  proc- 
ess of  malting  (often  a distinct  business 
to  that  of  brewing)  consists  in  promoting 
the  germination  of  the  grain  for  the  sake 
of  the  saccharine  matter  into  which  the 
starch  of  the  seed  is  thus  converted. 
The  barley  or  other  grain  is  steeped  for 
about  two  days  in  a cistern  and  then 
piled  in  a heap,  or  couch,  which  is  turned 
and  re-turned  until  the  radicle  or  root, 
and  acrospire  or  rudimentary  stem, 
have  uniformly  developed  to  some  little 
extent  in  all  the  heap  of  grain.  Tliis 
treatment  lasts  from  seven  to  ten  days, 
by  which  time  the  grain  has  acquired  a 
sweet  taste;  the  life  of  the  grain  being 
then  destroyed  by  spreading  the  whole 
upon  the  floor  of  a kiln  to  be  thoroughly 
dried.  At  this  point  begins  the  brewing 
process  proper,  which  in  breweries  is 
generally  as  follows : The  malt  is  crushed 
or  roughly  ground  in  a malt-mill,  whence 
it  is  carried  to  the  mashing-macliine,  and 
there  thoroughly  mixed  with  hot  water. 
The  mixture  is  now  received  by  the 
mash-tun — a cylindrical  vessel  with  a 
false  perforated  bottom  held  about  an 
inch  from  the  true  one.  In  the  mash-tun 
the  useful  elements  are  extracted  from 
the  malt  in  the  form  of  the  sweet  liquor 
known  as  wort,  and  the  tun,  therefore, 
is  fitted  with  an  elaborate  system  of 
revohdng  rakes  for  thoroughly  mixing 


BREWSTER 


BRIDGE 


the  malt  with  hot  water.  The  mixing 
completed,  the  mash-tun  is  covered  up 
and  allowed  to  stand  for  about  three 
hours,  when  the  taps  in  the  true  bottom 
are  opened  and  the  wort  or  malt-extract 
run  off.  The  wort  being  drained  into  a 
copper  the  hops  are  now  added,  and  the 
whole  boiled  for  about  two  hours,  the 
boiling,  like  the  addition  of  hops,  tend- 
ing to  prevent  acetous  and  putrefactive 
fermentation.  When  sufficiently  boiled 
the  contents  of  the  copper  are  run  into 
the  hop-back— a long  rectangular  vessel 
with  a false  bottom  8 or  9 inches  from 
the  true  bottom.  The  hot  wort  leaving 
the  spent  hops  in  the  hop-back  runs 
through  the  perforations  in  the  false 
bottom  and  thence  into  the  cooler — a 
large  flat  vessel  where  the  worts  are 
cooled  to  about  100°  Fah.  From  the 
cooler  the  liquor  is  admitted  to  the  re- 
frigerator— a shallow  rectangular  vessel, 
which  reduces  the  temperature  to  al- 
most that  of  the  cold  water,  or  about  58°. 
The  worts  are  next  led  by  pipes  into  the 
large  wooden  fermenting  tuns,  where 
yeast  or  barm  is  added  as  soon  as  the 
wort  begins  to  run  in  from  the  refriger- 
ator. During  the  operation  of  fermen- 
tation, by  which  a portion  of  the  sac- 
charine matter  is  converted  into  alcohol, 
the  temperature  rises  considerably,  and 
requires  to  be  kept  in  check  by  means 
of  a coil  of  copper  piping  with  cold 
water  running  through  it  lowered  into 
the  beer.  When  the  fermentation  has 
gone  far  enough,  and  the  liquor  has  been 
allowed  to  settle,  the  beer  becomes  com- 
paratively clear  and  bright,  and  may  be 
run  off  and  filled  into  the  trade  casks  or 
into  vats. 

BREWSTER,  Benjamin  Harris,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  New  Jersey 
in  1816,  died  in  1888.  From  1881  to 
1885  he  was  attorney-general  of  the 
U.  States,  prosecuting  the  famous  Star 
Route  trials  for  fraud. 

BREW'STER,  Sir  David,  natural  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Jedburgh  1781.  In 
1808  he  became  editor  of  the  Edinburgh 
Encyclopjedia,  and  in  1819  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Edinburgh  Philo- 
sophical Journal,  of  which  he  was  sole 
editor  from  1824-32.  Brewster  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, and  its  president  in  1850.  In  1832 
he  was  knighted  and  pensioned,  and 
both  before  and  after  this  time  his 
services  to  science  obtained  throughout 
Europe  the  most  honorable  recogni- 
tion. From  1838  to  1859  he  was  prin- 
cipal of  the  united  colleges  of  St.  Leon- 
ard’s and  St.  Salvador  at  St.  Andrews,, 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  chosen  prin- 
cipal of  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
— an  office  which  he  held  till  his 
death  in  1868.  Among  his  inventions 
were 'the  “polyzonal  lens”  (introduced 
into  British  lighthouses  in  1835),  the 
kaleidoscope,  and  the  improved  stereo- 
scope. 

BRI'AN,  a famous  chieftain  of  the 
early  Irish  annals,  who  succeeded  to 
Munster  in  978,  defeated  the  Danes  of 
Limerick  at  Waterford,  attacked  Mal- 
achi,  nominal  king  of  tne  whole  island, 
and  became  king  in  his  stead  (1002). 
He  was  slain  at  the  close  of  the  battle 
of  Clontarf,  near  Dublin,  in  1014,  after 
gaining  a signal  victory  over  the  revolted 
Maelmora  and  his  Danish  allies. 


BRIAN CON  (bre-^n-son).  A town 
and  fortress  of  France,  department  of 
Hautes-Alpes,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Durance.  It  occupies  an  eminence  4284 
ft.  above  the  sea  level  and  is --called  the 
Gibraltar  of  the  Alps.  Pop.  3,579. 


Briancon. 


BRIAR,  BRIER,  the  wild  rose.  The 
well-known  briar-root  tobacco-pipes  are 
made  from  the  root  of  a large  kind  of 
heath,  a^  native  of  southern  Europe, 
Corsica,  Sardinia,  Algeria,  etc. 

BRIBE,  a reward  given  to  a public 
officer  or  functionary  to  induce  him  to 
violate  his  official  duty  so  as  to  suit  the 
person  bribing;  especially  a corrupt  pay- 
ment of  money  for  the  votes  of  electors 
in  the  choice  of  persons  to  places  of 
trust  under  government.  Bribery  is  in 
most  countries  regarded  as  a crime 
deserving  severe  punishment. 

BRICK,  a sort  of— artificial  .stone, 
made  principally  of  aj:gillacepus  earth 
formed  in  molds,  dried  in  the  sun, 
and  baked  by  burning,  or,  as  in  many 
Eastern  countries,  by  exposure  to  the 
sun.  Sun-dried  bricks  of  great  antiqui- 
ty have  been  found  in  Egypt,  Assyria, 
and  Babylonia,  and  in  the  mud  walls 
of  old  Indian  towns.  Under  the  Romans 
the  art  of  making  and  building  with 
bricks  was  brought  to  great  perfection, 
and  the  impressions  on  Roman  bricks, 
like  those  on  the  bricks  of  Babylonia, 
have  been  of  considerable  historic 
value.  The  Roman  brick  was  afterward 
superseded  in  England  by  the  smaller 
Flemish  make.  Of  the  various  clays 
used  in  brickmaking,  the  simplest,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  silicates  of  alumina, 
are  almost  infusible,  and  are  known  as 
fire-elays.  Of  such  clays  fire-bricks  are 
made.  Clays  containing  Lime  and  no 
iron  burn  white,  the  colors  of  others 
being  due  to  the  presence  in  varying 
proportions  of  ferric  oxide,  which  also 
adds  to  the  hardness  of  bricks.  The 
clay  should  be  dug  in  autumn  and 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  frost  and 
rain.  It  should  be  worked  over  re- 
peatedly with  the  spade  and  tempered 
to  a ductile  homogeneous  paste,  and 
should  not  be  made  into  bricks  until 
the  ensuing  spring.  The  making  of 
bricks  by  hand  in  molds  is  a simple 
process.  After  being  made  and  dried 
for  about  nine  or  ten  days  they  are 
ready  for  the  burning,  for  which  purpose 
they  are  formed  into  kilns,  having 
flues  or  cavities  at  the  bottom  for  the 
insertion  of  the  fuel,  and  interstices 
between  them  for  the  fire  and  hot  air 
to  penetrate.  Much  care  is  necessary 
in  regulating  the  fire,  since  too  much 
heat  vitrifies  the  bricks  and  too  little 
leaves  them  soft  and  friable.  Bricks 
are  now  largely  made  by  machines  of 


various  construction.  In  one  the  clay 
is  mixed  and  comminuted  in  a cylin- 
drical pug-mill  by  means  of  rotatory 
knives  or  cutters  working  spirally  and 
pressing  the  clay  down  to  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder.  From  this  it  is  conveyed 
by  rollers  and  forced  through  an  opening 
of  the  required  size  in  a solid  rectan- 
gular stream,  which  is  cut  into  bricks 
by  wires  working  transversely.  Ma- 
chine-made bricks  are  heavier,  being 
less  porous  than  hand-made  bricks,  and 
are  more  liable  to  crack  in  drying;  but 
they  are  smoother,  and,  when  carefully 
dried,  stronger  than  the  hand-made. 

Bricks  were  made  in  Virginia  as  early 
as  1612,  in  New  England  in  1647,  and 
in  Philadelphia  in  1685.  The  various 
kinds  of  brick  made  in  the  U.  States  at 
present  are  as  follows:  Common  brick; 
stock,  or  pressed,  or  front  brick,  of 
prime  clay  and  very  smooth;  enameled 
or  glazed  brick;  ornamental  brick, 
variously  formed;  fire  brick,  from 
refractory  clays;  paving  and  vitrified 
brick,  of  specially  hard  quality. 

BRIDEWELL,  a name  given,  in  the 
U.  States,  to  penal  work-houses,  or 
minor  prisons  where  the  prisoners  are 
required  to  do  hard  labor.  The  name 
originates  from  a well  in  London  named 
for  St.  Bride.  The  name  Bridewell 
earne  to  be  applied  to  a palace  in  the 
vicinity,  which  was  afterward  used  as 
a house  of  correction.  The  original 
building  was  destroyed  in  1864. 

BRIDGE,  a structure  of  stone,  brick, 
wood,  or  iron,  affording  a passage  over 
a stream,  valley,  or  the  like.  The 
earliest  bridges  were  no  doubt  trunks 
of  trees.  The  arch  seems  to  have  been 
unknown  among  most  of  the  nations 
of  antiquity.  Even  the  Greeks  had  not 
sufficient  acquaintance  with  it  to  apply 
it  to  bridge-building.  The  Romans 
were  the  first  to  employ  the  principle  of 
the  arch  in  this  direction,  and  after  the 
construction  of  such  a work  as  the  great 
arched  sewer  at  Rome,  the  Cloaca 
Maxima,  a bridge  over  the  Tiber  would 
be  of  comparatively  easy  execution. 
One  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  Roman 
bridge  was  the  bridge  built  by  Augustus 
over  the  Nera  at  Narni,  the  vestiges  of 
which  still  remain.  It  consisted  of  four 
arches,  the  longest  of  142  feet  span. 
The  most  celebrated  bridges  of  ancient 
Rome  were  not  generally,  however,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  extraordinary  size 
of  their  arches,  nor  by  the  lightness  of 
their  piers,  but  by  their  excellence  and 
durability.  Old  London  Bridge  was 
commenced  in  1176,  and  finished  in 
1209.  It  had  houses  on  each  side  like  a 
regular  street  till  1756-58.  In  1831  it 
was  altogether  removed,  the  new  bridge, 
which  had  been  begun  in  1824,  having 
then  been  finished 

Stone  bridges  consist  of  an  arch  or 
series  of  arches,  and  in  building  them 
the  properties  of  the  arch,  the  nature 
of  the  materials,  and  many  other 
matters  have  to  be  carefully  considered. 
It  has  been  found  that  in  the  construc- 
tion of  an  arch  the  slipping  of  the  stones 
upon  one  another  is  prevented  by  their 
mutual  pressure  and  the  friction  of  their 
surfaces;  the  use  of  cement  is  thus 
subordinate  to  the  principle  of  construc- 
tion in  contributing  to  the  strength  and 
maintenance  of  the  fabric. 


BRIDGE 

The  first  iron  bridges  were  erected 
from  about  1777  to  1790.  The  same 
general  principles  apply  to  the  construc- 
tion of  iron  as  of  stone  bridges,  but  the 
greater  cohesion  and  adaptability  of  the 
material  give  more  liberty  to  the  archi- 
tect, and  much  greater  width  of  span 
is  possible.  At  first  iron  bridges  were 
erected  in  the  form  of  arches,  and  the 
material  employed  was  cast-iron;  but 
the  arch  has  now  been  generally  super- 
seded by  the  beam  or  girder,  with  its 
numerous  modifications;  and  wrought- 
iron  or  steel  is  likewise  found  to  be  much 
better  adapted  for  resisting  a great 
tensile  strain  than  cast-metal.  Numer- 
ous modifications  exist  of  the  beam  or 


1,  Suspension-bridge, Chelsea. 

S,  Lattice  bridge  on  railway  from  St.  Gall  to 
Appenzell. 

3,  The  Britannia  tubular  bridge. 

girder,  as  the  lattice-girder,  bow-string- 
girder,  etc.;  but  of  these  none  is  more 
interesting  than  the  tubular  or  hollow 
girder,  first  rendered  famous  from  Rs 
employment  by  Robert  Stephenson  in 
the  construction  of  the  railway  bridge 
across  the  Menai  Strait,  and  connecting 
Anglesey  with  the  mainland  of  North 
Wales.  This  is  known  as  the  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridge.  The  Victoria  Bridge 
over  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal, 
originally  tubular,  is  no  longer  so,  the 
upper  portion  having  been  reconstructed 
with  an  open  track.  It  is  nearly  two 
miles  in  length,  or  about  five  and  a half 
times  as  long  as  the  bridge  across  the 
Menai  Strait.  A girder  railway  bridge 
across  the  Firth  of  Tay  at  Dundee  was 
opened  in  1887,  being  the  second  built 
at  the  same  place,  after  the  first  had 
given  way  in  a great  storm.  It  is  2 
miles  73  yds.  long,  has  85  spans,  is  77 
feet  high,  and  carries  two  lines  of  rails. 


The  bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth,  at 
Queensferry,  completed  in  1889,  has 
two  chief  spans  of  1710  feet,  two  others 
of  680  feet,  fifteen  of  168  feet,  and  seven 
small  arches,  and  the  bridge  gives  a 
clear  headway  for  navigation  purposes 
of  150  feet  above  high-water  of  spring- 
tides.  The  great  spans  consist  of  a can- 
tilever at  either  end,  680  feet  long,  and  a 
central  girder  of  350  feet.  Both  the 
above  bridges  carry  the  lines  of  the  N. 
British  Railway.  The  Crumlin  Railway 
Viaduct,  S.  Wales,  having  lattice-girders 
supported  on  open-work  piers,  is  more 
remarkable  for  height  than  length, 
being  200  feet  high. 

Suspension-bridges,  being  entirely  in- 
dependent of  central  supports,  do  not 
interfere  with  the  river,  and  may  be 
erected  where  it  is  impracticable  to 
build  bridges  of  any  other  kind.  The 
entire  weight  of  a suspension-bridge 
rests  upon  the  piers  at  either  end  from 
which  it  is  suspended,  all  the  weight 
being  below  the  points  of  support.  Such 
bridges  always  swing  a little,  giving  a 
vibratory  movement  which  imparts  a 
peculiar  sensation  to  the  passenger. 
The  modes  of  constructing  these  bridges 
are  various.  The  roadway  is  suspended 
either  from  chains  or  from  wire-ropes, 
the  ends  of  which  require  to  be  anchored, 
that  is,  attached  to  the  solid  rock  or 
masses  of  masonry  or  iron.  One  of  the 
earlier  of  the  great  suspension-bridges  is 
that  constructed  by  Telford  over  the 
Menai  Strait  near  the  Britannia  Tubular 
Bridge,  finished  in  1825;  the  opening 
between  the  points  of  suspension  is 
580  feet.  The  Hammersmith  Chain- 
bridge,  the  Union  Suspension-bridge 
near  Berwick,  and  the  suspension- 
bridge  over  the  Avon  at  Clifton  are 
other  British  examples.  On  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  the  Fribourg  Suspen- 
sion-bridge in  Switzerland,  span  870 
feet,  erected  1834,  is  a celebrated  work; 
as  is  that  over  the  Danube  connecting 
Buda  with  Pesth.  In  America  the  lower 
suspension-bridge  over  the  Niagara,  7 
miles  below  the  falls,  supported  by  wire 
cables,  is  822  feet  long;  it  has  two  floors 
or  roadways  connected  together  but  15 
feet  apart,  the  lower  serving  for  ordinary 
trafiic,  the  upper  carr5dng  three  lines  of 
rails,  245  feet  above  the  river.  Another 
bridge,  close  to  the  falls,  has  a span 
of  1250  feet.  The  Cincinnati  bridge 
over  the  Ohio  has  a span  of  1057  feet. 
A suspension-bridge  of  great  magnitude, 
connecting  the  city  of  New  York  with 
Brooklyn,  was  opened  in  1883.  The 
central  or  main  span  is  1595J  feet  from 
tower  to  tower,  and  the  land  spans 
between  the  towers  and  the  anchorages 
930  feet  each;  the  approach  on  the  New 
York  side  is  2492  feet  long,  and  that 
on  the  Brooklyn  side  1901  feet,  making 
the  total  length  5989  feet.  The  height 
of  the  platform  at  the  center  is  135  feet 
above  high-water,  and  at  the  ends  119 
feet.  The  roadway  is  85  feet  broad,  and 
is  divided  into  five  sections,  the  two 
outside  for  veliicles,  the  two  inner  for 
tram-cars,  and  the  middle  one,  12  feet 
above  the  rest,  for  foot-passengers.  Of 
recent  devices  the  most  useful  is  that  of 
the  counterpoise  bridge,  or  jackknife 
bridge,  which  is  lifted  up  from  one 
end  or  from  the  middle  oy  counter- 
weights. . 


BRIG 

BRIDGE,  a game  of  cards  played  by 
four  players  and  one  pack  of  52  cards. 
The  players  are  known  as  the  leader, 
the  dummy,  the  pone,  and  the  dealer. 
One  of  the  varieties  of  bridge  is  called 
bridge-whist. 

BRIDGE,  Ship’s,  a raised  walk  on 
the  forward  end  of  a ship,  patrolled  by 
the  officer  in  charge. 

BRIDGE'MAN,  Laura,  a blind  deaf- 
mute,  born  in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1829.  Till  the  age  of  two  years  she 
was  a bright  active  child,  when  a severe 
illness  deprived  her  of  the  senses  of 
sight,  hearing,  and  smell,  and  partly 
also  of  that  of  taste.  She  was  put  under 
the  care  of  Dr.  Howe  of  Boston,  and  the 
history  of  the  methods  by  which  she 
was  gradually  taught  to  read,  write,  and 
eventually  perform  most  of  the  ordinary 
duties  and  even  some  of  the  accom- 
plishments of  life,  is  a very  interest- 
ing one.  She  became  herself  a teacher 
of  persons  similarly  afflicted,  and  led 
an  active  and  useful  life,  dying  in 
1889. 

BRIDGE'PORT,  a seaport  of  Con- 
necticut, 58  miles  n.e.  of  New  Y'ork,  on 
an  arm  of  Long  Island  Sound,  with  a 
large  coasting  trade,  but  chiefly  sup- 
ported by  its  manufactories,  including 
the  large  sewing-machine  factories  of 
Wheeler,  Wilson  & Co.,  Elias  Howe, 
etc.  Pop.  84,216. 

BRIDGETON  (brij'  tun),  a city,  port 
of  entry,  and  county-seat  of  Cumber- 
land Co.,  N.  J.,  38  miles  south  of  Phil- 
adelphia, at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
the  Cohansey  river,  and  on  the  New 
Jersey  Central  and  the  West  Jersey  and 
Seashore  railroads.  Pop.  15,418. 

BRIDGETOWN,  the  capital  of  the 
island  of  Barbados,  in  the  West  Indies, 
extending  along  the  shore  of  Carlisle 
Bay,  on  the  s.w.  coast  of  the  island,  for 
nearly  2 miles.  Bridgetown  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  governor-general  of  the 
Windward  Islands.  Pop.  25,000. 

BRIDG'MAN,  Elij'ah  Coleman,  an 
American  missionary  to  China,  born  in 
Massachusetts  iia  1801,  died  in  1861. 
In  1829  he  went  to  Clrina  as  a missionary 
and  founded  a mission  at  Shanghai. 

BRIDGMAN,  Frederick  Arthur,  an 
American  painter,  born  at  Tuskegee, 
Ala.,  in  1847.  He  exhibited  in  Paris 
in  1878  and  was  made  a Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  In  1900  two  of  his 
paintings  were  exhibited  at  the  Paris 
Exposition. 

BRIDGMAN,  Herbert  Lawrence,  an 
American  explorer,  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1844.  He  accompanied 
Peary  in  his  expedition  of  1894,  and  in 
1899  he  commanded  the  auxiliary 
Peary  expedition  on  the  ship  Diana. 

BMEF,  which  comes  from  the  Latin 
brevis,  short,  denotes  a brief  or  short 
statement  or  summary,  particularly  the 
summary  of  a client’s  case  which  the 
solicitor  draws  up  for  the  instruction  of 
counsel.  A brief  may  also  mean,  in  law, 
an  order  emanating  from  the  superior 
courts.  A papal  brief  is  a sort  of  pas- 
toral letter  in  which  the  pope  gives  his 
decision  on  some  matter  wliich  concerns 
the  party  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  The 
brief  is  an  official  document,  but  of  a 
less  public  character  than  the  bull. 

BRIG,  a sailing  vessel  with  two  masts 
rigged  like  the  foremast  and  mizzen- 


BRIGADE 


BRISTOL 


mast  of  a full-rigged  ship.  See  Brigan- 
tine. 

BRIGADE',  in  general  an  indeter- 
minate number  of  regiments  or  squad- 
rons. A number  of  brigades  form  a 
division,  and  several  divisions  an  army 
corps.  A brigadier  or  brigadier-general 
is  the  officer  who  commands  a brigade. 
See  Army. 


Brig. 


BRIGADIER-GENERAL,  an  army 
officer  who  commands  a brigade  of 
soldiers.  See  Army,  and  Brigade. 

BRIG'ANTINE,  a sailing  vessel  with 
two  masts,  the  foremast  rigged  like  a 
brig’s,  the  main-mast  rigged  like  a 
schooner’s.  Called  also  hermaphrodite 
brig. 

BRIGHT,  John,  a great  English  orator 
and  politician,  born  at  Greenbank,  near 
Rochdale,  Lancashire,  Nov.  16,  1811. 
He  first  became  known  as  a leading 
spirit  along  with  Mr.  Cobden  in  the 
Anti-Corn-Law  League.  In  1843  he  was 
chosen  M.P.  for  Durham,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a strenuous  advo- 
cate of  free-trade  and  reform.  In  1847 
he  sat  for  the  first  time  for  Manchester, 


John  Bright. 


but  in  1857  his  opposition  to  the  Crimean 
war  had  made  him  so  unpopular  in  the 
constituency  that  he  lost  his  seat  by  a 
large  majority.  He  was,  however,  re- 
turned for  Birmingham,  and  soon  after 
made  speeches  against  the  policy  of 
great  military  establishments  and  wars 
of  annexation.  In  1865  he  took  a lead- 
ing part  in  the  movement  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  franchise,  and  strongly  advo- 
cated the  necessity  of  reform  in  Ireland. 
In  the  Gladstone  ministry  formed  in 
1868  he  was  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  and  afterward  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  he  held  the 


latter  office  again  under  Mr.  Gladstone 
in  1880-82.  In  1886  he  joined  the 
Liberals  who  opposed  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
schemes  for  Ireland,  and  contributed  by 
his  letters  and  influence  to  the  over- 
throw of  the  Gladstone  party.  He  was 
a member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
He  died  March  27,  1889. 

BRIGHTON  (bri'tun),  a county  bor- 
ough and  favorite  watering-place  in 
England,  county  of  Sussex,  50^  miles 
from  London.  In  front  of  the  town  is 
a massive  sea-wall,  with  a promenade 
and  drive  over  3 miles  in  length,  one 
of  the  finest  in  Europe.  Among  the 
remarkable  buildings,  all  of  modern 
date,  is  the  Pavilion,  built  by  George 
IV.,  which  cost  upward  of  $5,000,000. 
It  is  in  the  oriental  style,  with  numerous 
cupolas,  spires,  etc.  The  building  and 
its  gardens,  which  are  open  to  the  public 
as  pleasure-grounds,  cover  9 acres. 
There  is-  a very  large  and  complete 
aquarium,  and  a fine  iron  pier.  Brigh- 
ton has  no  manufactures,  and  is  resorted 
to  chiefly  as  a watering-place.  It  was 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
that  Dr.  Russell,  an  eminent  physician, 
drew  attention  to  Brighton,  which  sub- 
sequently was  patronized  by  George  IV., 
then  Prince  of  Wales;  in  this  way  it  was 
converted  from  a decayed  fishing  village 
into  a fashionable  and  populous  water- 
ing place.  It  has  sent  two  members  to 
parliament  since  1832.  Pop.  153,393. 

BRIGHT’S  DISEASE,  a name  (de- 
rived from  a Dr.  Bright  of  London,  who 
first  described  the  disorder)  given  to 
various  forms  of  kidney  disease,  espe- 
cially to  that  which  is  characterized  by 
a granular  condition  of  the  cortical  part 
of  the  kidneys  and  inflammation  of  the 
malpighian  bodies.  The  urine  during 
life  contains  albumen,  and  is  of  less 
specific  gravity  than  natural.  The  dis- 
ease is  accompanied  with  uneasiness 
or  pain  in  the  loins,  pale  or  cachectic 
countenance,  disordered  digestion,  fre- 
quent urination,  and  dropsy.  The 
blood  contains  urea,  and  is  deficient  in 
albumen  and  corpuscles.  Progressive 
blood-poisoning  induces  other  visceral 
diseases,  and  in  the  end  gives  rise  to  the 
cerebral  disturbance  which  is  the  fre- 
quent cause  of  death. 

BRIM'STONE,  a name  of  sulphur. 
Sulphur,  in  order  to  purify  it  from 
foreign  matters,  is  generally  melted  in 
a close  vessel,  allowed  to  settle,  then 
poured  into  cylindrical  molds,  in  which 
it  becomes  hard,  and  is  known  in  com- 
merce as  roll  brimstone. 

BRINE,  water  saturated  with  com- 
mon salt.  It  is  naturally  produced  in 
many  places  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  is  also  made  artificially,  for 
preserving  meat,  a little  saltpeter  being 
generally  added  to  the  solution. 

BRIS'BANE,  the  capital  of  Queens- 
land, about  25  miles  by  water  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Brisbane,  which 
intersects  the  town.  Brisbane  was 
originally  settled,  in  1825,  as  a penal 
station  by  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane  (whence 
the  name  of  the  town).  In  1842  the  dis- 
trict was  opened  to  free  settlers,  and  on 
the  erection  of  Queensland  into  a sepa- 
rate colony  in  1859,  Brisbane  became 
the  capital.  Since  then  it  has  made 
great  progress,  and  now  possesses  many 
fine  public  buildings,  such  as  the  Houses 


of  Legislature,  the  town-hall  and  the 
Albert  Hall,  the  viceregal  lodge,  the 
post  and  telegraph  offices,  etc.  There 
are  also  botanical  gardens,  several  pub- 
lic parks,  etc.  The  climate  is  tropical. 


The  town  is  the  terminus  of  the  west- 
ern and  southern  railway  system,  and 
the  port  is  the  principal  one  in  the 
colony.  Pop.  (with  suburbs),  119,428. 

BRIS'BANE,  General  Sir  Thomas 
MacDougall,  a Scotch  soldier  and  as- 
tronomer, born  in  1773.  After  serving 
in  Flanders  and  the  West  Indies  he 
commanded  a brigade  under  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  during  the  Peninsular  war, 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Victoria, 
Orthes,  and  Toulouse.  In  1821  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  New  South  Wales, 
where  his  administration  tended  greatly 
to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  colony. 
At  the  same  time  he  devoted  himself 
to  astronomy,  and  from  his  observatory 
at  Paramatta  catalogued  7385  stars, 
until  then  scarcely  known.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Scotland  he  continued  his  as- 
tronomical pursuits,  and  died  in  1860. 

BRISSOT  (bre-so),  Jean  Pierre,  a 
French  political  writer,  born  in  1754, 
executed  30th  October,  1793.  He  early 
turned  his  attention  to  public  affairs, 
associating  himself  with  such  men  as 
P4tion,  Robespierre,  Marat,  etc.  Dur- 
ing the  revolution  he  made  himself 
known  as  a politician  and  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Girondist  party.  The 
extreme  views  of  the  men  of  the  “Moun- 
tain” having  prevailed  over  more  mod- 
erate counsels,  Brissot,  like  most  of  his 
party,  suffered  death  by  the  guillotine. 

BMSTLES,  the  stiff,  coarse,  glossy 
hairs  of  the  hog  and  the  wild  boar,  espe- 
cially of  the  hair  growing  on  the  back; 
extensively  used  by  brushmakers,  shoe- 
makers, saddlers,  etc.,  and  chiefly  im- 
ported from  Russia  and  Germany. 
Russia  supplies  the  finest  qualities, 
which  are  worth  about  $250  or  $300  per 
cwt. 

BRIS'TOL,  a cathedral  city  of  Eng- 
land, a municipal,  county,  and  pari, 
borough,  situated  partly  in  Gloucester- 
shire, partly  in  Somersetshire,  but  form- 
ing a county  in  itself.  It  stands  at  the 


BRISTOL-BOARD 


BRITAIN,  OR  GREAT  BRITAIN 


confluence  of  the  rivers  Avon  and 
Frome,  -which  unite  -within  the  city, 
■whence  the  combined  stream  (the  Avon) 
pursues  a course  of  nearly  7 miles  to  the 
Bristol  Channel.  The  Avon  is  a naviga- 
ble river,  and  the  tides  rise  in  it  to  a great 
height.  The  public  buildings  are  numer- 
ous and  handsome,  and  the  number  of 
places  of  worship  very  great.  The  most 
notable  of  these  arc  the  cathedral, 
founded  in  1142,  exhibiting  various  styles 
of  architecture,  and  recently  restored 
and  enlarged;  St.  Mary  Redcliff,  said 
to  have  been  founded  in  1293,  and  per- 
haps the  finest  parish  church  in  the 
kingdom.  Among  the  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  University  College, 
the  Theological  Colleges  of  the  Baptists 
and  Independents,  Clifton  College,  and 
the  Philosophical  Institute.  There  is 
a school  of  art,  and  also  a public  library. 
Bristol  has  glass-works,  potteries,  soap- 
works,  tanneries,  sugar-refineries,  and 
chemical  works,  ship-building  and  ma- 
chinery yards.  Coal  is  worked  exten- 
sively within  the  limits  of  the  borough. 
The  export  and  import  trade  is  large 
and  varied.  There  is  a harbor  in  the 
city  itself,  and  doc.ks  at  Avonmouth  and 
Portishead.  Bristol  is  one  of  the  most 
healthful  of  the  large  towns  of  the 
kingdom.  It  has  an  excellent  water 
supply,  chiefly  obtained  from  the  Mendip 
Hills.  Pop.  328,842. 

BRISTOL-BOARD,  a fine  kind  of 
pasteboard,  smooth,  and  sometimes 
glazed,  on  the  surface. 

BRISTOL  CHANNEL,  an  arm  of  the 
Altantic,  extending  between  the  south- 
ern shores  of  Wales  and  the  south- 
western peninsula  of  England,  and  form- 
ing the  continuation  of-The  estuary  of 
the  Severn.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
high  tides. 

BRITAIN,  or  GREAT  BRITAIN,  the 

island  consisting  of  the  three  countries, 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  the 
name  being  also  used  as  equivalent  to 
the  British  Islands  collectively,  or  to 
the  British  Empire.  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  with  their  connected  islands, 
form  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  British  Islands  form  a kind  of 
archipelago  in  the  northwest  of  Europe. 
The  principal  islands  are  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  separated  from  each  other 
by  the  Irish  Sea,  which,  near  the  center, 
attains  its  greatest  width  of  about  130 
miles;  but  between  Holyhead  in  Wales 
and  Howth  Head  in  Ireland  is  not  wider 
than  60  miles;  while  the  distance  be- 
tween the  Mull  of  Cantyre  in  Scotland 
and  Fair  Head  in  Ireland  is  only  about 
12  miles.  Great  Britain  is  the  largest 
island  in  Europe,  and  the  seventh 
largest  in  the  world.  Its  nearest  ap- 
proach to  the  continent  of  Europe  is  at 
its  s.e.  extremity,  where  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  separating  it  from  France,  is 
only  21  miles  broad.  The  British  Isles 
rise  from  a submarine  plateau  connect- 
ing them  geologically  with  the  rest  of 
Europe,  of  which  at  a remote  period  they 
must  have  actually  formed  a part.  This 
is  evidenced  too  by  the  similarity  of  the 
British  fauna  and  .flora  to  the  conti- 
nental. 

The  n.  part  of  Britain  is,  for  the  most 
part,  rugged,  mountainous,  and  barren, 
this  being  the  character  of  much  of 


Scotland.  The  chief  feature  of  the 
southern  portion  is  the  mountain  mass 
of  the  Grampians,  the  culminating 
points  of  which,  Bennevis  and  Benmac- 
dhui,  are  the  highest  British  summits, 
being  respectively  4406  and  4296  feet. 
South  of  the  Highlands  lies  the  plain 
of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  a region  of  coal 
and  iron,  in  which  the  chief  manufac- 
turing industries  of  Scotland  are  carried 
on. 

The  mountains  which  constitute  the 
principal  watersheds  of  Great  Britain 
being  generally  at  no  great  distance 
from  the  w.  coast,  the  rivers  which 
descend  from  them  in  that  direction 
have  generally  a short  course,  and  are 
comparatively  unimportant.  The  two 
great  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the 
Clyde  and  the  Severn,  which  owe  both 
their  volume  and  the  length  of  their 
course  to  a series  of  longituclinal  valleys, 
which,  instead  of  opening  directly  to  the 
coast,  take  a somewhat  parallel  direc- 
tion. The  chief  rivers  entering  the  sea 
on  the  e.  coast,  proceeding  from  n.  to  s., 
are  the  Spey,  Don,  Dee,  Tay,  Forth, 
Tweed,  Tyne,  Ouse,  Trent,  and  Thames, 
the  last  named  in  navigable  importance 
the  greatest  river  of  the  world.  Owing 
to  the  great  central  flat  of  Ireland  its 
rivers  usually  flow  on  in  a gently  wind- 
ing course  in  different  directions  to  the 
sea.  Those  of  importance  are  not  very 
numerous;  but  one  of  them,  the  Shan- 
non, is  the  longest  river  of  the  British 
Isles,  its  length  being  about  225  miles; 
while  the  Thames  is  215. 

Their  maritime  situation  has  a favor- 
able effect  on  the  climate  of  the  British 
Isles,  making  it  milder  and  more  equable 
than  that  of  continental  countries  in 
the  same  latitude. 

The  principal  cereal  crops  grown  in 
England  are  wheat,  barley,  and  oats, 
oats  now  covering  the  largest  area;  the 
principal  green  crops  are  turnips,  pota- 
toes, mangolds,  vetches,  etc.  In  Ireland 
and  Scotland  oats  are  by  far  the  prin- 
cipal grain  crop;  by  far  the  chief  green 
crop  being  in  Ireland  potatoes,  in  Scot- 
land turnips.  Hops  are  grown  to  a large 
extent  in  Kent,  and  less  extensively  in 
some  other  parts  of  southern  England. 

Such  is  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  that  there  is  scarcely  a metal  or 
mineral  product  of  economical  value 
which  is  not  worked,  to  a greater  or  less 
extent,  beneath  their  surface.  Among 
these  the  first  place  is  due  to  coal,  which, 
in  regard  both  to  the  quantity  raised 
annually  and  its  aggregate  value,  sur- 
passes any  other  mineral  product.  The 
coal-fields  are  not  confined  to  one  par- 
ticular district,  but  extend  as  a series  of 
basins  in  an  irregular  curve  from  central 
Scotland  through  northern  and  middle 
England  to  the  Bristol  Channel.  On  the 
east  side  of  Scotland  there  are  coal- 
fields both  north  and  south  of  the 
Forth;  farther  west  lie  the  coal-basins 
of  Lanark,  Renfrew,  and  Ayrshire;  the 
first  famous  throughout  the  world  for 
the  immense  manufacturing  establish- 
ments which  it  mainly  has  called  into 
existence  and  made  prosperous.  In  the 
north  of  England  is  the  great  coal-field 
centering  near  Newcastle,  which  gives  it 
its  name. 

Britain,  next  to  the  U.  States,  is  the 
most  important  commercial  country. 


Its  exports  exceed  $1,800,000,000  and 
its  imports  $2,900,000,000  annually. 
It  has  about  25,000  miles  of  railroad,  of 
which  upward  of  20,000  belong  to  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  Its  annual  tonnage 
is  about  110,000,000,  and  the  number 
of  its  vessels  about  20,000.  Two-thirds 
of  its  tonnage  is  steam. 

Every  form  of  religion  enjoys  the 
most  complete  toleration,  but  there  are 
two  churches,  one  in  England  having 
an  Episcopal  form  of  government,  and 
one  in  Scotland  with  a Presbyterian 
organization,  established  by  law  and 
partly  supported  by  state  endowments. 
Both  of  these  are  Protestant.  In  Ire- 
land there  has  been  no  state  church 
since  1871,  when  the  branch  of  the  Angli- 
can Church  there  established  was  dis- 
established. The  great  majority  of  the 
people  are  Roman  Catholics. 

All  education  in  England  was  long 
entirely  voluntary.  The  average  at- 
tendance is  about  5,000,000.  The  ele- 
mentary schools  number  3000,  the 
average  attendance  being  about  650,- 
000.  Ireland  is  still  far  behind  in  the 
matter  of  education. 

For  the  higher  education  there  are 
in  England  the  universities  of  Oxford, 
Cambridge,  London,  Durham,  Birming- 
ham, and  Liverpool;  Victoria  Univer- 
sity, Manchester;  the  University  of 
Wales;  also  colleges,  some  of  them  called 
“University  colleges,”  at  Newcastle, 
Nottingham,  Bristol,  etc.,  besides  in- 
stitutions giving  a university  education 
in  one  or  more  departments;  the  train- 
ing institutions  for  teachers;  and  the 
colleges  belonging  to  the  different 
religious  bodies.  London  University, 
which  till  1900  only  held  examinations 
and  conferred  degrees,  is  now  a teach- 
ing institution,  embracing  University 
College,  King’s  College,  etc.  In  Scot- 
land there  are  the  universities  of  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  St. 
Andrews,  the  last  with  a college  at 
Dundee,  St.  Mungo’s  College,  Glasgow 
— theological  colleges,  normal  schools, 
etc.  Ireland  has  the  University  of  Dub- 
lin, the  Queen’s  Colleges  of  Belfast, 
Cork,  and  Galway,  in  connection  with 
the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  which 
is  merely  an  examining  and  degree- 
conferring  body;  the  Roman  Catholic 
university,  and  Maynooth  and  other 
Roman  Catholic  colleges. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  United 
Kingdom  known  to  history  were  Celts, 
who  inhabited  both  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  at  the  time  of  the  Roman 
occupation.  In  the  5th  and  6th  centu- 
ries, however,  the  Celts  were  displaced 
through  the  greater  part  of  South 
Britain  and  in  the  eastern  lowlands  of 
North  Britain  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  a 
Teutonic  race  from  which  the  modern 
English  and  Lowland  Scotch  are  mainly 
descended.  The  Celts  as  a distinct  peo- 
ple were  gradually  confined  to  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  Wales  and  Cornwall 
and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  only 
in  Wales  and  Scotland  has  the  Celtic 
language  survived  in  Great  Britain,  be- 
ing still  also  spoken  by  many  in  the 
west  of  Ireland.  There  is  a considerable 
Celtic  element,  however,  among  the 
population  everyv’here.  The  English 
language  is  the  direct  descendant  of  that 
spoken  by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  con- 


BRITANNIA 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


tains  a strong  infusion  of  French  ele- 
ments introduced  by  the  Normans  in 
the  11th  and  following  centuries,  as  well 
as  other  elements,  chiefly  of  Latin  and 
Greek  origin,  introduced  in  later  times. 
The  population  is  as  follows:  England 
32,526,075;  Wales,  4,471,957;  Ireland, 
4,456,546;  islands,  150,000;  total,  41,- 
605,599. 

The  area  of  the  British  empire  is  about 
ll,4;>o,283  sq.  miles,  with  a popula- 
tion of  about  393,000,000,  distributed 
as  follows;  British  Isles  and  posses- 
sions in  Europe  (Gibraltar,  Malta,  and 
Gozoi,  area,  121,000  sq.  miles;  pop. 
about  41,605,000;  British  India  and 
feudatory  states,  (ileylon.  Straits  Settle- 
ments, Hong  Kong,  etc.,  in  Asia;  area, 

1.900.000,  pop.  about  295,000,000;  Cape 
Colony,  Natal,  Bechuanaland,  Sierra 
Leone,  Mauritius,  St.  Helena,  protec- 
torates and  other  African  possessions, 

2.500.000  sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated  40,- 
000,000;  Canada,  Newfoundland,  Ja- 
maica, Trinidad,  and  other  West  India 
islands;  Honduras,  Guiana,  and  all  pos- 
sessions in  America,  North  or  South, 

3.648.000  sq.  miles;  pop.  6,790,000; 
Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Fiji, 
New  Guinea,  islands  in  the  Pacific,  etc.; 
area,  3,270,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  about 

4.285.000.  The  increase  of  some  of  the 
British  colonies,  especially  of  Canada 
and  Australia,  in  population,  wealth, 
and  trade  has  been  something  prodigious 
within  the  last  few  years.  Self-govern- 
ment has  been  conceded  to  the  larger 
colonies. 

Under  the  name  of  a constitutional 
and  hereditary  monarchy  the  govern- 
ment of  Britain  is  vested  in  a sovereign 
and  the  two  houses  of  parliament — the 
House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. Laws  passed  by  these  houses, 
and  assented  to  by  the  sovereign,  be- 
come the  laws  of  the  land.  But  under 
this  general  fixity  of  form  the  center  of 
real  power  may  change  greatly,  as  it  has 
in  Great  Britain  within  the  last  two 
centuries.  The  sovereign’s  right  of  veto 
on  acts  of  parliament  has  practically 
passed  into  desuetude,  while  of  the  two 
legislative  houses  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, from  its  being  the  expression  of 
the  national  will  as  a whole,  has  become 
the  real  center  of  power  and  influence. 

The  British  army  has  a total  (peace 
footing)  of  270,128  men,  42,140  horses, 
and  984  guns.  It  has  a war  footing  of 

1.315.000  men,  98,040  horses,  and 
1764  guns.  The  British  navy  consists 
of  40  first-class  battle-ships,  20  second- 
class  battle-ships,  7 coast  defense  ships, 
24  armored  cruisers,  147  other  cruisers, 
97  sea-going  gunboats,  18  river  gun- 
boats, 149  torpedo  boat  destroyers, 
188  torpedo  boats,  383  transports  and 
other  service  boats,  29  training  ships, 
6740  officers,  and  124,930  men. 

The  island  in  the  remotest  times  bore 
the  name  of  Albion.  From  a very  early 
period  it  was  visited  by  Phoenicians,  Car- 
thaginians, and  Greeks,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  tin.  Csesar’s  two  expedi- 
tions, 55  and  54  B.C.,  made  it  known 
to  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  gen- 
erally called  Britannia;  but  it  was  not 
till  the  time  of  Claudius,  nearly  a hundred 
years  after,  that  the  Romans  made  a 
serious  attempt  to  convert  Britain  into 
A Roman  province.  Some  forty  years 


later,  under  Agricola,  the  ablest  of  the 
Roman  generals  in  Britain,  they  had 
extended  the  limits  of  the  Provincia 
Romana  as  far  as  the  line  of  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde.  Here  the  Roman  armies 
came  into  contact  with  the  Caledonians 
of  the  interior,  described  by  Tacitus  as 
large-limbed,  red-haired  men.  After 
defeating  the  Caledonians  under  Gal- 
gacus  at  “Mons  Grampius”  Agricola 
marched  victoriously  northward  as  far  as 
the  Moray  Firth,  establishing  stations 
and  camps,  remains  of  which  are  still  to 
be  seen.  But  the  Romans  were  unable 
to  retain  their  conquests  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  island,  and  were  finally 
forced  to  abandon  their  northern  wall 
and  forts  between  the  Clyde  and  the 
Forth  and  retire  behind  their  second 
wall,  built  in  120  a.d.  by  Hadrian,  be- 
tween the  Solway  and  the  Tyne.  Thus 
the  southern  part  of  the  island  alone 
remained  Roman,  and  became  specially 
known  as  Britannia,  while  the  northern 
portion  was  distinctively  called  Cale- 
donia. The  capital  of  Roman  Britain 
was  York  (Eboracum).  Under  the  rule 
of  the  Romans  many  flourishing  towns 
arose.  Great  roads  were  made,  travers- 
ing the  whole  country  and  helping  very 
much  to  develop  its  industries.  Chris- 
tianity was  also  introduced,  and  took 
the  place  of  the  Druidism  of  the  native 
British.  Under  the  tuition  of  the 
Romans  the  useful  arts  and  even  many 
of  the  refinements  of  life  found  their 
way  into  the  southern  part  of  the  island. 

British  history  since  the  Norman  con- 
quest is  really  a history  of  the  progress 
of  the  world  since  that  time  in  the  arts 
and  the  sciences.  The  principal  events 
of  its  external  political  history  are  the 
w'ar  of  the  grand  alliance  in  which  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough  commanded  the 
British  army  and  which  ended  in  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713;  the  loss  of 
the  American  colonies,  the  consolida- 
tion of  the  Canadian  colonies,  the  Napo- 
leonic wars,  the  acquisition  of  India, 
Australia,  and  parts  of  Africa,  and  the 
gradual  territorial  growth  of  the  empire, 
the  extent  of  w'hich  is  described  above. 

In  1900  the  Unionist  government 
appealed  to  the  country  on  their  South 
African  War  policy,  and  received  a 
majority  of  over  130.  Queen  Victoria 
died  on  Jan.  22,  1901,  and  was  succeeded 
by  her  eldest  son  Edward  VII.  In  May, 
1902,  the  South  African  War  ended,  and 
Lord  Salisbury  soon  afterward  resigned 
the  premiership  to  Mr.  A.  J.  Balfour. 
Edward  VII.  was  crowned  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey  on  Aug.  9,  1902.  In  1906 
Sir  Campbell-Bannerman  became  pre- 
mier, and  on  his  retirement  in  1908, 
owing  to  ill  health,  the  premiership  was 
assumed  by  Herbert  H.  Asquith. 

BRITANNIA,  the  ancient  name  of 
Britain. 

BRITANNIA  METAL,  also  called 
White  Metal,  a metallic  compound  or 
alloy  of  tin,  with  a little  copper  and 
antimony,  used  chiefly  for  tea-pots, 
spoons,  etc.  The  general  proportions  are 
85i  tin,  10^  antimony,  3 zinc,  and  1 
copper. 

BRITANNIA  TUBULAR  BRIDGE,  an 

iron  tubular  bridge  across  Menai  Strait, 
which  separates  Anglesey  from  Wales, 
about  one  mile  from  the  Menai  Suspen- 
sion Bridge.  It  has  two  principal  spans 


of  460  feet  each  over  the  water,  and  two 
smaller  ones  of  230  feet  each  over  the 
land;  constructed  1846-50.  See  Bridge. 

BRITAN'NICUS,  son  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Claudius,  by  Messalina,  born 
A.D.  42,  poisoned  .i.o.  56.  He  was  passed 
over  by  his  father  for  the  son  of  his  new 
wife  Agrippina.  This  son  became  the 
emperor  Nero,  whose  fears  that  he 
might  be  displaced  by  the  natural  suc- 
cessor of  the  late  emperor  caused  him  to 
murder  Britannicus. 

BRITISH  CHANNEL.  See  English 
Channel. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  a British  col- 
ony forming  with  Vancouver  Island  a 
province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
It  is  situated  partly  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  sea,  partly  between 
Alaska  and  the  meridian  of  120°  w.,  and 
extends  from  the  U.  States  boundary 
north  to  the  60th  parallel  n.  lat.  Area, 
341,305  sq.  miles  (including  Vancouver 
Island).  Till  1858  it  was  part  of  the 
Hudson  Bay  Territory;  in  that  year 
gold  discoveries  brought  settlers,  and 
it  became  a colony.  Vancouver  Island, 

16,000  sq.  miles,  became  a colony  at  the 
same  time,  but  was  afterward  joined 
to  British  Columbia;  the  conjoined 
colony  entered  the  Dominion  in  1871. 
The  coast-line  is  much  indented,  and  is 
flanked  by  numerous  islands,  the  Queen 
Charlotte  Islands  being  the  chief  after 
Vancouver.  The  interior  is  mountain- 
ous, being  traversed  by  the  Cascade 
Mountains  near  the  coast,  and  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains  farther  west.  There 
are  numerous  lakes,  generally  long  and 
narrow,  and  lying  in  the  deep  ravines 
that  form  a feature  of  the  surface  and 
are  traversed  by  numerous  rivers.  Of 
these  the  Fraser,  with  its  tributary  the 
Thomson,  belongs  entirely  to  the  colony, 
as  does  also  the  Skeena ; while  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Peace  river  and  of  the 
Columbia  also  belong  to  it.  All  except 
the  Peace  find  their  way  to  the  Pacific. 
Its  mountain  ranges  (highest  summits: 
Mount  Hooker,  15,700  feet,  and  Mount 
Brown,  16,000  feet)  afford  magnificent 
timber  (including  the  Douglas  pine  and 
many  other  trees);  and  between  the 
ranges  are  wide  grassy  prairies.  Part 
of  the  interior  is  so  dry  in  summer  as 
to  render  irrigation  necessary,  and  the 
arable  land  is  comparatively  limited  in 
area,  but  there  is  a vast  extent  of  splen- 
did pasture  land.  The  climate  is  mild 
in  the  lower  valleys,  but  severe  in  the 
higher  levels ; it  is  very  healthful.  The 
chief  products  of  the  colony  are  gold, 
coal,  silver,  iron,  copper,  galena,  mer- 
cury, and  other  metals;  timber,  furs, 
and  fish,  the  last,  particularly  salmon, 
being  very  abundant  in  the  streams  and 
on  the  coasts.  Gold  exists  almost  every- 
where, but  has  been  obtained  chiefly 
in  the  Cariboo  district.  The  total  yield 
since  1858  has  been  over  $75,000,000. 
The  coal  is  found  chiefly  in  Vancouver 
Island,  and  is  mined  at  Nanaimo,  where 
large  quantities  are  now  raised.  Mining, 
cattle-rearing,  agriculture,  fruit-grow- 
ing, salmon-canning,  and  lumbering  are 
the  chief  industries.  Victoria,  on  the 
s.e.  coast  of  Vancouver  Island,  is  the 
capital  and  chief  town  of  the  colony. 
Near  Victoria  is  Esquimalt,  a British 
naval  station.  New  Westminster,  on 
the  Fraser  river,  about  15  miles  from 


BRITISH  HONDURAS 


BROMINE 


its  mouth,  is  a place  of  some  importance ; 
but  the  new  town  Vancouver,  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser,  is  the  chief 
town  on  the  mainland  (pop.  17,000). 
Besides  this  railway  there  is  one  between 
Nanaimo  and  Victoria.  Steamers  now 
run  to  China  and  Japan  in  connection 
with  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and 
lines  to  Australia  and  India  are  pro- 
jected. Like  the  other  provinces  of  the 
Dominion,  British  Columbia  has  a 
separate  parliament  and  administration, 
with  a lieutenant-governor  of  its  own. 
(See  Canada.)  Schools  are  supported 
entirely  by  government.  Pop.  in  1881, 
65,954,  including  about  25,000  Indians; 
in  1891,  98,173;  in  1901,  177,272. 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.  See  Hon- 
duras, British. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM,  the  great  na- 
tional museum  in  London,  owes  its 
foundation  to  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  who,  in 
1753,  bequeathed  his  various  collec- 
tions, including  50,000  books  and  MSS., 
to  the  nation.  Montague  House  was 
appropriated  for  the  museum,  which 
was  first  opened  on  the  15th  January, 
1759.  The  Museum  is  under  the  man- 
agement of  48  trustees.  It  is  open 
daily,  free  of  charge.  Admission  to  the 
reading-room  as  a regular  reader  is  by 
ticket,  procurable  on  application  to  the 
chief  librarian,  there  being  certain 
simple  conditions  attached.  The  li- 
brary, which  is  now  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  valuable  in  the  world,  has 
been  enriched  by  numerous  bequests 
and  gifts,  among  others  the  splendid 
library  collected  by  George  III.  during 
his  long  reign.  A copy  of  every  book, 
pamphlet,  newspaper,  piece  of  music, 
etc.,  published  anywhere  in  British 
territory,  must  be  conveyed  free  of 
charge  to  the  British  Museum.  The 
museum  contains  eight  principal  de- 
partments; namely,  the  department  of 
printed  books,  maps,  charts,  plans,  etc.; 
the  department  of  manuscripts;  the 
department  of  natural  history;  the 
department  of  oriental  antiquities;  the 
department  of  Greek  and  Roman  an- 
tiquities; the  department  of  coins  and 
medals;  the  department  of  British 
and  medieval  antiquities  and  ethnog- 
raphy; and  the  department  of  prints 
and  drawings. 

BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA,  a name 
under  which  are  included  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  and  the  colony  of  Newfound- 
land, comprising  all  the  mainland  north 
of  the  U.  States  (except  Alaska)  and  a 
great  many  islands. 

BRITTANY,  or  BRETAGNE,  an  an- 
cient duchy  and  province  of  France, 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  modern 
departments  of  Finisterre,  Cotes  du 
Nord,  Morbihan,  Ille  et  Vilaine,  Loire 
Inf^rieure.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
received  its  name  from  the  Britons  who 
were  expelled  from  England  and  took 
refuge  here  in  the  5th  century.  Along 
the  coast  and  toward  its  seaward 
extremity  the  country  is  remarkably 
rugged,  but  elsewhere  there  are  many 
beautiful  and  fertile  tracts.  Fisheries 
employ  many  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
people  still  retain  their  ancient  language, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Welsh,  and 
is  exclusively  used  by  the  peasantry  in 
the  woslurn  part  of  the  province. 


BRI'ZA,  a genus  of  grasses,  commonly 
called  quaking  grass,  maiden’s  hair,  or 
lady’s  tresses.  There  are  about  thirty 
species,  chiefly  found  in  South  America. 

BROAD  ARROW,  a government  mark 
placed  on  British  stores  of  every  de- 
scription (as  well  as  on  some  other 
things)  to  distinguish  them  as  public  or 
crown  property,  and  to  obliterate  or 
deface  which  is  felony.  Persons  in  pos- 
session of  goods  marked  with  the  broad 
arrow  forfeit  the  goods  and  are  subject 
to  a penalty.  The  origin  of  the  mark  is 
not  clearly  known. 

BROAD'CAST,  a mode  of  sowing 
grain  by  which  the  seed  is  cast  or  dis- 
persed upon  the  ground  with  the  hand 
or  with  a machine  devised  for  sowing 
in  this  manner;  opposed  to  planting 
in  drills  or  rows. 

BROAD  CHURCH,  a name  given 
originally  to  a party  in  the  Church  of 
England,  assuming  to  be  midway  be- 
tween the  Low  Church  or  Evangelical 
section  and  the  High  Church  or  Ritual- 
istic; now  widely  applied  to  the  more 
tolerent  and  liberal  section  of  any 
denomination. 

BROAD'SIDE,  in  a naval  engagement, 
the  whole  discharge  of  the  artillery  on 
one  side  of  a ship  of  war.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  any  large  page  printed 
on  one  side  of  a sheet  of  paper,  and, 
strictly,  not  divided  into  columns. 

BROAD'SWORD,  a sword  with  a 
broad  blade,  designed  chiefly  for  cut- 
ting, formerly  used  by  some  regiments 
of  cavalry  and  Highland  infantry  in  the 
British  service.  The  claymore  or  broad- 
sword was  the  national  weapon  of  the 
Highlanders. 

BROADWAY,  the  leading  thorough- 
fare of  New  York  City.  It  begins  at 
Bowling  Green,  near  the  southern  point 
of  Manhattan  Island,  and  runs  diag- 
onally through  the  city  to  Central 
Park,  and  then  by  extension  to  the 
northern  part  of  Manhattan.  It  con- 
tains many  of  the  largest  theaters, 
hotels,  and  retail  shops,  and  is  one 
of  the  busiest  thoroughfares  in  the 
world. 

BROCADE',  a stuff  of  silk,  enriched 
with  raised  flowers,  foliage,  or  other 
ornaments.  The  term  is  restricted  to 
silks  figured  in  the  loom,  distinguished 
from  those  which  are  embroidered  after 
being  woven.  Brocade  is  in  silk  what 
damask  is  in  linen  or  wool. 

BROD'HEAD,  John  Romeyn,  Amer- 
ican historian,  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1814,  died  in  1873.  His  principal  work 
is  his  History  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
published  1853-71. 

BROGUE  (brog),  a coarse  and  light 
kind  of  shoe  made  of  raw  or  half-tanned 
leather,  of  one  entire  piece,  and  gath- 
ered round  the  foot  by  a thong,  for- 
merly worn  in  Ireland  and  the  High- 
lands of  Scotland.  The  term  is  also 
used  of  the  mode  of  pronunciation 
peculiar  to  the  Irish. 

BROKE,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere,  a 
British  admiral,  born  in  1776,  died  in 
1841 ; distinguished  himself,  particularly 
in  1813,  as  commander  of  the  Shannon, 
in  the  memorable  action  which  that 
vessel,  in  answer  to  a regular  challenge, 
fought  with  the  U.  States  vessel  Chesa- 
peake off  the  American  coast,  and  in 
which  the  latter  was  captured. 


BROKEN-WIND,  a disease  in  horses, 
often  accompanied  with  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  lungs  and  heart,  which  dis- 
ables them  for  bearing  fatigue.  In  this 
disease  the  expiration  of  the  air  from 
the  lungs  occupies  double  the  time  that 
the  inspiration  of  it  does;  it  requires  also 
two  efforts  rapidly  succeeding  to  each 
other,  attended  by  a slight  spasmodic 
action,  in  order  fully  to  accomplish  it. 
It  is  caused  by  rupture  of  the  air-cells, 
and  there  is  no  known  cure  for  it. 

BROKER,  an  agent  who  is  employed 
to  conclude  bargains  or  transact  busi- 
ness for  others  in  consideration  of  a 
charge  or  compensation,  which  is  usually 
in  proportion  to  the  extent  or  value  of 
the  transaction  completed  by  him,  and 
is  called  brokerage.  In  large  mercantile 
communities  the  business  of  each  broker 
is  usually  limited  to  a particular  class 
of  transactions,  and  thus  there  are  bro- 
kers with  several  distinctive  names,  as 
bill-brokers,  who  buy  and  sell  bills  of 
exchange  for  others;  insurance-brokers, 
who  negotiate  between  underwriters 
and  the  owners  of  vessels  and  shippers 
of  goods;  ship-brokers,  who  are  the 
agents  of  owners  of  vessels  in  chartering 
them  to  merchants  or  procuring  freights 
for  them  from  one  part  to  another; 
stock-brokers,  the  agents  of  dealers  in 
shares  of  joint-stock  companies,  govern- 
ment securities,  and  other  monetary 
investments. 

BROM'BERG,  a town  of  Prussia, 
province  of  Posen,  on  the  Brahe,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  Vistula.  Among 
its  industries  are  machinery,  iron- 
founding, tanning,  paper,  tobacco,  chic- 
ory, pottery,  distilling,  and  brewing. 
The  Bromberg  Canal  connects  the  Brahe 
with  the  Netz,  and  thus  establishes 
communication  between  the  Vistula, 
the  Oder,  and  the  Elbe.  Pop.  52,154. 

BROMELIA' CE.®,  the  pineapple 
family,  a natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  taking  its  name  from  the  genus 
Bromelia  (so  called  after  a Swedish  bo- 
tanist, Glaus  Bromel),  to  which  the 
pineapple  was  once  incorrectly  referred, 
and  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants  re- 
markable for  the  hardness  and  dryness 
of  their  gray  foliage.  They  abound  in 
tropical  America,  commonly  growing 
epiphytically  on  the  branches  of  trees. 
With  the  exception  of  the  pineapple  the 
Bromeliaceae  are  of  little  value,  but 
some  species  are  cultivated  in  hot-houses 
for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers.  They 
can  exist  in  dry  hot  air  without  contact 
with  the  earth,  and  in  hot-houses  arj 
often  kept  hung  in  moist  moss. 

BROMIDES,  certain  salts  consisting 
of  hydrobromic  acid  united  with  an- 
other substance  such  as  a metal,  or 
metallic  salts.  Bromides,  especiallj"  the 
bromide  of  potassium,  are  used  exten- 
sively in  medicine 

BRO'MINE,  a non-metallic  element 
discovered  in  1826.  In  its  general  chem- 
ical properties  it  much  resembles  chlo- 
rine and  iodine,  and  is  generally  asso- 
ciated with  them  It  exists,  but  in  very 
minute  quantities,  in  sea-water,  in  the 
ashes  of  marine  plants,  in  animals,  and 
in  some  salt  springs.  It  is  usually  ex- 
tracted from  bittern  by  the  agency  of 
chlorine.  .\t  common  temperatures  it 
is  a very  dark  reddish  liquid  of  a 
powerful  and  suffocating  odor,  a,  d 


BRONCHI 


BROOKLYN 


emitting  red  vapor.  It  has  bleaching 
powers  Tike  chlorine,  and  is  very  poison- 
ous. Its  density  is  about  four  and  a 
half  times  that  of  water.  It  combines 
with  hydrogen  to  form  hydrobromic 
acid  gas.  With  oxygen  and  hydrogen 
it  forms  bromic  acid. — Bromide  of 
potassium  has  sedative  and  other  prop- 
erties, and  is  used  in  medicine  (scrofula, 
goiter,  rheumatism,  etc.);  bromide  of 
silver  is  used  in  photography. 

BRON'CHI  (-kl),  the  two  branches 
into  which  the  trachea  or  wind-pipe 
divides  in  the  chest,  one  going  to  the 


Bronchi  and  their  ramifications. 


right  lung,  the  other  to  the  left,  and 
ramifying  into  innumerable  smaller 
tubes — the  bronchial  tubes. 

BRONCHITIS  (bron-ki'tis),  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
bronchial  tubes,  or  the  air-passages 
leading  from  the  trachea  to  the  lungs. 
(See  Bronchi.)  It  is  of  common  occur- 
rence, and  may  be  either  acute  or 
chronic.  Its  symptons  are  those  of  a 
feverish  cold,  such  as  headache,  lassi- 
tude, and  an  occasional  cough,  which 
are  succeeded  by  a more  frequent  cough 
occurring  in  paroxysms,  a spit  of  yellow- 
ish mucus,  and  a feeling  of  great  oppres- 
sion on  the  chest.  Slight  attacks  of 
acute  bronchitis  are  frequent  and  not 
very  dangerous.  They  may  be  treated 
with  mustard  poultices  or  fomentations. 
Acute  bronchitis  is  often  a formidable 
malady,  and  requires  prompt  treatment. 
Confirmed  chronic  bronchitis  is  hardly 
amenable  to  medical  treatment.  Its 
main  symptoms  are  cough,  shortness  of 
breath,  and  spit.  It  is  particularly  apt 
to  attack  a person  in  winter;  and  in  the 
end  may  cause  death  through  the  lungs 
becoming  unable  to  do  their  work,  and 
through  accompanying  complications. 

BRON'TE,  Charlotte  (afterward  Mrs. 
Nicholls),  English  novelist,  born  at 
Thornton,  in  Yorkshire,  21st  April,  1816; 
died  at  Haworth,  31st  March,  1855. 
The  success  of  Jane  Eyre,  which  was 
published  in  October,  1847,  was  imme- 
diate and  decided.  Her  second  novel, 
Shirley,  appeared  in  1849.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1852  her  third  novel,  Villette, 
was  published.  Shortly  after,  she  mar- 
ried her  father’s  curate,  the  Rev.  Arthur 
Bell  Nicholls,  but  in  nine  months  died  i 
of  consumption.  Her  originally  rejected 
tale  of  The  Professor  was  published  after 
her  death,  in  1857,  and  the  same  year  a 
biography  of  her  appeared  from  the  pen 
of  Mrs.  Gaskel). 


BRONTOSAU'RUS,  a gigantic  rep- 
tilian animal,  of  the  order  Dinosauria, 
found  fossil  in  secondary  strata  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  having  a long  neck 
and  tail,  a very  small  head,  and  strong 
limbs.  It  seems  to  have  lived  in 
swampy  localities,  and  to  have  been 
herbivorous.  Living  it  must  have 
weighed  between  20  and  30  tons. 

BRONZE  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin, 
to  which  other  metallic  substances  are 
sometimes  added,  especially  zinc.  It  is 
a fine-grained  metal,  taking  a smooth 
and  polished  surface,  harder  and  more 
fusible  than_cop2Der,  but  not  so  malle- 
able. In  various  parts  of  the  world 
weapons  and  implements  were  made  of 
this  alloy  before  iron  came  into  use,  and 
hence  the  bronze  age  is  regarded  as  one 
coming  between  the  stone  age  and  the 
iron  age  of  prehistoric  archoeology.  (See 
Archaeology.)  Both  in  ancient  and  mod- 
iern  times  it  has  been  much  used  in  mak- 
ing casts  of  all  kinds,  metals,  bas-reliefs, 
statues,  and  other  works  of  art;  and 
varieties  of  it  are  also  used  for  bells, 
gongs,  reflectors  of  telescopes,  cannon, 
etc.  Its  color  is  reddish,  brownish,  or 
olive-green,  and  is  darkened  by  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere.  Ancient  bronze 
generally  contains  from  4 to  15  per  cent 
of  tin.  An  alloy  of  about  85  parts  cop- 
per, 1 1 zinc,  and  4 tin  is  used  for  statues. 
Bell-metal  consists  of  78  of  copper  and 
22  of  tin.  An  alloy  called  phosphor 
bronze,  consisting  of  about  90  per  cent 
of  copper,  9 of  tin,  and  from  '5  to  '75  of 
phosphorus  has  been  found  to  have  pe- 
culiar advantages  for  certain  purposes. 
The  addition  of  phosphorus  increases  the 
homogeneousness  of  the  compound,  and 
by  varying  the  proportion  of  the  constit- 
uents the.  hardness,  tenacity,  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  alloy  may  be  modified  at 
{pleasure. — Aluminium  bronze  is  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  aluminium,  the  metals 
being  combined  in  different  proportions 
according  to  the  kind  of  bronze  wanted. 
One  variety  is  of  a yellow  or  golden  color, 
and  is  made  into  watch-chains  and  orna- 
mental articles. — Manganese  bronze  is  a 
bronze  containing  manganese  and  iron, 
and  is  said  to  possess  remarkable  prop- 
erties in  regard  to  strength,  hardness, 
toughness,  etc. — Bronzing  is  the  oper- 
ation of  covering  articles  with  a wash 
or  coating  to  give  them  the  appearance 
of  bronze.  Two  kinds  are  common,  the 
yellow  and  the  red.  The  yellow  is  made 
of  fine  copper  dust,  the  red  of  copper 
dust  with  a little  pulverized  red  ocher. 
The  fine  green  tint  which  bronze  ac- 
quires by  oxidization,  called  patina  an- 
tiqua,  is  imitated  by  an  application  of 
sal-ammoniac  and  salt  of  sorrel  dissolved 
in  vinegar.  Recently  bronze  has  been 
deposited  on  small  statues  and  other 
articles  with  good  effect  by  means  of 
the  electrotype  process. 

BRONZING.  See  Bronze. 

BROOCH  (broch),  a kind  of  orna- 
ment worn  on  the  dress,  to  which  it  is 
attached  by  a pin  stuck  through  the  fab- 
ric. They  are  usually  of  gold  or  silver, 
often  worked  in  highly  artistic  patterns 
and  set  with  precious  stones.  Brooches 
are  of  great  antiquity,  and  were  for- 
merly worn  by  men  as  well  as  women, 
especially  among  the  Celtic  races. 

BROOK  FARM,  a community  at  West 
Roxbury,  Mass.,  founded  by  George 


Ripley  to  test  the  socialistic  doctrines 
of  Fourier.  Among  the  members  were 
George  W.  Curtis,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
Charles  H.  Dana,  and  Margaret  Fuller. 
Hawthorne  based  his  story  “The  Blithe- 
dale  Romance”  on  Brook  Farm.  The 
community  fell  to  pieces  after  a short 
life. 

BROOKLYN,  a borough  of  Nerv  York 
City,  formerly  a city  in  Long  Island  on 
Long  Island  Sound.  Pojmlation,  1906, 
1,500,000.  It  consists  of  an  aggregation 
of  villages  which  have  gradually  grown 
together  to  form  a vast  city,  and  that 
is  why  the  streets  have  no  uniformity 
of  plan.  The  park  system  of  Brooklyn 
consists  of  36  parks,  with  a combined 
area  of  1566|  acres,  and  22  parkways, 
42^  miles  in  length.  The  principal 
park  is  Prospect;  area,  516^  acres. 
It  is  on  the  highest  ground  in  the  city, 
and  includes  110  acres  of  woodland. 
Fort  Greene  Park,  30  acres  of  beautiful 
grounds,  is  less  than  half  a mile  from  the 
Borough  Hall.  Here  11,000  victims  of 
the  Revolutionary  War  prison  ships  are 
entombed  The  Soldiers  and  Sailors’ 
Memorial  .\rch  on  Prospect  Park  Plaza, 
dedicated  in  1892,  is  of  white  marble; 
the  bas-reliefs  are  by  Maurice  J.  Power. 
Six  cemeteries  lie  wholly  or  partly  in 
Brooklyn,  and  others  are  just  beyond 
the  borough  boundary  in  Queens. 
Greenwood,  southwest  of  Prospect  Park, 
has  an  area  of  474  acres,  and  is  widely 
known  for  the  beauty  of  its  ground  and 
monuments.  Other  cemeteries  within 
Brooklyn’s  boundaries  are  Evergreens, 
Holy  Cross,  Kings  County  Farm  (Pot- 
ter’s Field),  Maimonides  Cemetery,  7J 
acres;  Mount  Hope,  12  acres;  Washing- 
ton Cemetery,  on  Ocean  Parkway.  The 
suspension-bridge  over  the  East  river 
W'as  commenced  Jan.  2,  1870.  The  first 
wire  was  runout  May  29,  1877,  and  the 
bridge  was  opened  to  the  public  May  24, 
1883.  The  bridge  railroad  was  opened 
Sept.  24, 1883.  Total  length,  wdth  exten- 
sions, 6537  feet.  The  original  cost  of 
construction  was  $15,000,000. 

Brooklyn  is  called  “the  city  of 
churches.”  There  are  400  Protestant 
churches,  with  a total  indebtedness  of 
$1,863,700,  and  property  valued  at 
$109,923,681.  There  are  84  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  with  property  to  the 
value  of  $10,086,000,  indebted  to  the 
extent  of  $1,342,859.  There  are  75 
religious  societies  and  Young  Men’s 
Christian  Associations,  besides  church 
societies,  100  city  missionaries,  31  mis- 
sions, 10  Chinese  missions,  41  church 
sewing  and  industrial  schools,  19  church 
kindergartens,  and  19  free  church  read- 
ing-rooms. There  are  6 high-schools,  a 
training-school  for  teachers,  122  day 
and  16  evening  schools,  10  industrial 
and  asylum  schools,  and  a truant  school. 
There  a^e  23  libraries,  having  an  aggre- 
gate of  more  than  480,000  volumes,  of 
which  208,445  volumes  are  also  in  free 
circulation.  Brooklyn  has  der^eloped 
an  extensive  commerce.  The  wharves 
and  docks  of  the  city  nave  a water 
frontage  of  more  than  25  miles,  lined 
with  great  storehouses  and  elevators, 
and  represent  an  investment  of  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  dollars.  Ninety  per 
cent  of  the  coffee  and  sugar  imported 
into  the  U.  States  is  received  there, 
Thirty-three  regular  lines  of  steamships, 


BROOKS 


BROWN 


and  a great  number  of  “tramp”  steam- ' 
ers  and  sailing  vessels,  dock  in  Brooklyn. 
Along  the  water-front  are  also  extensive 
liasins,  one  covering  40  acres  and  ac- 
commodating 500  vessels  at  one  time, 
ship-yards,  dry-docks,  and  marine  rail- 
ways. Here  also  is  the  Brooklyn  Nav}^- 
yard,  the  most  important  station  in  the 
U.  States,  where  four-fifths  of  the  stores 
for  the  entire  navy  are  handled,  and 
war-ships  repaired  and  fitted  for  sea. 
Pop.  1909,  1,492,970.  See  New  York. 

BROOKS,  Phillips,  a noted  American 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  and  preach- 
er, born  in  Boston  Dec.  13,  1835,  died 
in  1893.  He  served  in  charges  at  Phila- 
delphia and  Boston,  and  was  elected 
bishop  of  Massachusetts  in  1891.  His 
works  are:  Lectures  on  Preaching,  The 
Influence  of  Jesus,  and  several  volumes 
of  sermons.  His  hymn,  0,  Little  Town 
of  Bethlehem,  is  one  of  the  most  popular 
Christmas  hymns  of  the  church. 

BROOKS,  Preston  Smith,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  legislator,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1819,  died  in  1857.  He 
served  as  congressman  from  1852  to 
1856.  On  May  22,  1856,  he  assaulted 
Senator  Charles  Sumner  while  the  latter 
was  at  his  desk  in  the  senate  chamber, 
the  alleged  offense  being  Sumner’s 
arraignment  of  South  Carolina  in  his 
famous  speech  on  the  “Crime  of  Kan- 
sas,” delivered  a few  days  previously. 

BROOM,  a popular  name  which  in- 
cludes several  allied  genera  of  plants 
distinguished  by  a leguminous  fruit  and 
papilionaceous  flowers.  The  common 
broom  of  Europe  is  a bushy  shrub  with 
straight  angular  branches,  of  a dark- 
green  color,  deciduous  leaves,  and 
flowers  of  a deep  golden  yellow.  Its 
twigs  are  often  made  into  brooms,  and 
are  used  as  thatch  for  houses  and  corn- 
stacks.  They  have  also  been  used  for 
tanning.  The  whole  plant  has  a very 
bitter  taste,  and  a decoction  of  it  is 
diuretic,  in  strong  doses  emetic. — White 
broom  or  Portugal  broom  has  beautiful 
white  flowers. — Spanish  broom  or  Spart 
is  an  ornamental  flowering  shrub  grow- 
ing in  Africa,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  s.  of 
France.  It  has  upright,  round  branches, 
that  flower  at  the  top,  and  spear-shaped 
leaves.  Its  fiber  is  made  into  various 
textile  fabrics,  and  is  also  used  in  paper- 
making.— Dyer’s  broom  yields  a yellow 
color  used  in  dyeing. — Butcher’s  broom 
is  an  evergreen  shrub  of  the  order 
Liliacese,  and  therefore  entirely  different 
from  the  brooms  proper. 

BROOM-CORN,  BROOM-GRASS,  a 

plant  of  the  order  of  grasses,  with  a 
jointed  stem,  rising  to  the  height  of  8 
or  10  feet,  extensively  cultivated  in  N. 
America,  where  the  branched  panicles 
are  made  into  carpet-brooms  and  clothes- 
brushes.  The  seed  is  used  for  feeding 
poultry,  cattle,  etc. 

BROTH,  the  liquor  in  which  some 
kind  of  flesh  is  boiled  and  macerated, 
often  with  certain  vegetables,  to  give  it 
a better  relish.  Beef-tea  is  a kind  of 
Broth.  Scotch  broth  is  a kind  of  soup 
in  which  pot-barley  is  an  ingredient. 

BROTHERHOODS.  See  Fraternities. 

BROTHERS,  a term  applied  to  the 
members  of  monastic  and  military 
orders  as  being  united  in  one  family. 
Lay  brothers  were  an  inferior  class  of 


monks  employed  in  monasteries  as 
servants.  Though  not  in  holy  orders, 
they  were  bound  by  monastic  rules. 

BROUGH,  John,  an  American  gov- 
ernor and  politician,  born  in  Ohio  in 
1811,  died  in  1865.  He  is  known  as 
“the  war  governor  of  Ohio.” 

BROUGHAM  (brom  or  bro'em),  a 
close  four-wheeled  carriage,  with  a single 
inside  seat  for  two  persons,  glazed  in 
front  and  with  a raised  driver’s  seat, 
named  after  and  apparently  invented 
by  Lord  Brougham. 

BROUGHAM  (brom  or  bro'em), 
Henry,  Baron  Brougham  and  Vaux, 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  19th  September, 
1778;  died  at  Cannes  7th  May,  1868. 
He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  studied 
law  there,  and  was  admitted  a member 
of  the  Society  of  Advocates  in  1800. 
Along  with  Jeffrey,  Horner,  and  Sydney 
Smith,  he  bore  a chief  part  in  the  start- 


ing of  the  Edinburgh  Review  in  1802, 
to  which  he  contributed  a great  number 
of  articles.  Finding  too  circumscribed 
a field  for  his  abilities  in  Edinburgh  he 
removed  to  London,  and  in  1808  was 
called  to  the  English  bar.  In  1810  he 
entered  parliament  as  member  for  the 
borough  of  Camelford,  joined  the  Whig 
party,  which  was  in  opposition,  and 
soon  after  obtained  the  passing  of  a 
measure  making  the  slave-trade  felony. 
At  the  general  election  of  1830  he  was 
returned  for  the  large  and  important 
county  of  Y^ork.  In  the  ministry  of  Earl 
Grey  he  accepted  the  post  of  lord- 
chancellor,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
(22d  Nov.  1830),  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Brougham  and  Vaux.  In  this  post  he 
distinguished  himself  as  a law  reformer, 
and  aided  greatly  in  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Bill  of  1832.  Lord  Brougham 
accomplished  a large  amount  of  literary 
work,  contributing  to  newspapers,  re- 
views, and  encyclopedias,  besides  writ- 
ing several  independent  works;  and  he 
had  no  mean  reputation  in  mathematics 
and  physical  science. 

BROUGHTON  (br^'tun),  John  Cam 
Hobhouse,  Lord,  English  writer  and 
statesman;  born  1786,  died  1869.  He 
entered  parliament  in  1819  as  member 
for  Westminster.  In  1832  he  entered 
Lord  Melbourne’s  ministry  as  secretary 
at  war,  and  became  a privy-councilor. 
In  1833  he  was  made  chief-secretary  for 
Ireland,  and  in  1835  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  board  of  control.  He 


held  this  office  till  Sept.,  1841,  and  in 
Lord  Russell’s  administration,  1846-52. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Broughton  in  1851. 

BROUSSONET  (bro-so-na),  Pierre 
Marie  Auguste,  French  naturalist,  born 
1761,  died  1807.  He  was  professor  of 
botany  at  Montpellier,  and  a member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

BROWN,  a color  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  a mixture  of  red  and  black,  or 
of  red,  black,  and  yellow.  There  are 
various  brown  pigments,  mostly  of  min- 
eral origin,  as  bister,  umber,  cappagh 
brown,  etc. 

BROWN,  Charles  Brockden,  an  emi- 
nent American  novelist,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1771,  died  1810.  He 
was  originator  of  the  Monthly  Magazine 
and  American  Review  (1799-1800).  He 
also  founded  in  1805  the  Literary  Maga- 
zine and  American  Register,  which  he 
edited  for  five  years. 

BROWN,  John,  an  American  oppo- 
nent of  slavery,  born  1800,  hanged  1859. 
He  early  conceived  a hatred  for  slavery, 
and  having  removed  to  Osawatomie, 
Kansas,  in  1855,  he  took  an  active  part 
against  the  pro-slavery  party,  the  sla- 
very question  there  giving  rise  already 
almost  to  a civil  war.  In  the  summer  of 
1859  he  rented  a farmhouse  about  6 
miles  from  Harper’s  Ferry,  and  organ- 
ized a plot  to  liberate  the  slaves  of  Vir- 
ginia. On  Oct.  16  he,  with  the  aid  of 
about  twenty  friends,  surprised  and 
captured  the  arsenal  at  Harper’s  Ferry, 
but  was  wounded  and  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Virginia  militia  next  day,  tried,  and 
executed  at  Charlestown,  2d  Dec. 

BROWN,  Robert,  botanist,  born  at 
Montrose,  December  21,  1773;  died  in 
London  June  10,  1858.  In  1800  he  was 
appointed  naturalist  to  Flinders’s  sur- 
veying expedition  to  Australia.  He 
returned  with  nearly  4000  species  of 
plants,  and  was  shortly  after  appointed 
librarian  to  the  Linna;an  Society.  He 
was  the  first  English  writer  on  botany 
who  adopted  the  natural  system  of 
classification,  which  has  since  entirely 
superseded  that  of  Linnaeus.  In  1810 
he  received  the  charge  of  the  collections 
and  library  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks.  He 
transferred  them  in  1827  to  the  British 
Museum,  and  was  appointed  keeper  of 
botany  in  that  institution.  He  became 
a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1811, 
D.C.L.  Oxford  in  1832,  and  a foreign 
associate  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences  in  1833.  He  had  the  Copley 
medal  in  1839,  and  was  appointed  pres- 
ident of  the  Linnaean  Society  in  1849 
.\s  a naturalist  Brown  occupied  the  very 
highest  rank  among  men  of  science. 

BROWN,  Dr.  Thomas,  Scotch  meta- 
physician, was  born  at  Kirkmabreck, 
Kirkcudbright,  in  1778;  died  at  Bromp- 
ton,  London,  1820  He  distinguished 
himself,  at  a very  early  age,  by  an  acute 
review  of  the  medical  and  physiological 
theories  of  Dr.  Darwin,  in  a work  en- 
titled Observations  on  Darwin’s  Zoono- 
mia.  He  published  some  indifferent 
poems  which  were  collected  in  1820 
But  he  chiefly  deserves  notice  on  account 
of  his  metaphysical  speculations,  his 
chief  work  being  Lectures  on  the  Phi- 
losophy O’”  the  Human  Mind,  1822.  His 
system  reduces  the  intelle<^tual  faculties 
to  three  great  classes — perception,  sim,. 


BROWN  UNIVERSITY 


BRUCINE 


pie  suggestion,  and  relative  suggestion ; 
employing  the  term  suggestion  as  nearly 
synonymous  with  association.  He  held 
original  views  in  regard  to  the  part 
played  by  touch  and  the  muscular  sense 
in  relation  to  belief  in  an  external  world. 
His  development  of  the  theory  of  cause 
and  effect  was  first  suggested  by  Hume. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  founded  at 
Providence,  R.  I.,  in  1765,  and  named 
for  Nicholas  Brown,  one  of  its  sup- 
porters. The  university  confers  degrees 
in  art,  science,  and  philosophy.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  nearly  $2,000,000,  100 
instructors  and  a student  body  of  near- 
ly 1000.  The  libraries  contain  120,000 
volumes.  The  school  is  open,  in  all 
departments,  to  women. 

BROWNE,  Charles  Farrar,  an  Amer- 
ican humorist,  best  known  as  “Artemus 
Ward,”  was  born  at  Waterford,  Maine, 
1836;  died  at  Southampton,  England, 
1867.  Originally  a printer,  he  became 
editor  of  papers  in  Ohio,  where  his  hu- 
morous letters  became  very  popular. 
He  subsequently  lectured  on  California 
and  Utah  in  the  States  and  in  England, 
where  he  contributed  to  Punch.  His 
writings  consist  of  letters  and  papers  by 
“Artemus  Ward,”  a pretended  exhibitor 
of  wax  figures  and  wild  beasts,  and  are 
full  of  drollery  and  eccentricity. 

BROWNE,  Francis  Fisher,  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  critic,  born  in  South  Hali- 
fax, Vt.,  1843.  He  has  edited  several 
literary  publications,  including  The  Dial, 
of  which  he  has  been  the  editor  since 
1880.  He  has  published  several  col- 
lections of  poems. 

BROWNE,  Hablot  Knight,  an  Eng- 
lish designer  of  humorous  and  satirical 
subjects,  and  an  etcher  of  eonsiderable 
skill,  better  known  by  the  pseudonym 
of  “Phiz,”  born  at  Kennington,  Sur- 
rey, 1815,  died  at  Brighton  1882.  In 
1835  he  succeeded  Seymour  as  the  illus- 
trator of  Dickens’s  Pickwick,  and  was 
afterward  engaged  to  illustrate  Nicho- 
las Nickleby,  Dombey  & Son,  Martin 
Chuzzlewit,  David  Copperfield,  and 
other  works  of  that  author.  He  also 
illustrated  the  novels  of  Lever,  Ains- 
worth, etc.,  besides  sending  many  comic 
sketches  to  the  illustrated  serials  of  the 
time. 

BROWNIE,  in  Scotland,  an  imaginary 
spirit  formerly  believed  to  haunt  houses, 
particularly  farmhouses.  Instead  of 
doing  any  injury  he  was  believed  to  be 
very  useful  to  the  family,  particularly 
to  the  servants  if  they  treated  him  well, 
for  whom  he  was  wont  to  do  many  pieces 
of  drudgery  while  they  slept.  The 
brownie  bears  a close  resemblance  to 
the  Robin  Goodfellow  of  England,  and 
the  Kobold  of  Germany. 

BROWNING,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  Eng- 
lish poetess;  born  at  Burn  Hall,  Dur- 
ham, in  1809;  died  at  Florence  1861. 
Her  bodily  frame  was  from  the  first  ex- 
tremely delieate,  but  her  mind  was 
sound  and  vigorous,  and  disciplined  by 
a course  of  severe  and  exalted  study. 
She  early  began  to  commit  her  thoughts 
to  writing,  and  in  1826  a volume,  en- 
titled An  Essay  on  Mind,  with  other 
Poems,  appeared  of  her  authorship.  Her 
health  was  at  length  partially  restored, 
and  in  1846  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Robert  Browning,  soon  after  which  they 


settled  in  Italy,  and  continued  to  reside 
for  the  most  part  in  the  city  of  Florence. 
Her  Prometheus  Bound  ("from  the  Greek 
of  .iEschylus)  and  Miscellaneous  Poems 
appeared  in  1833;  the  Seraphim  and 
other  Poems  in  1838.  In  1856  a col- 
lected edition  of  Mrs.  Browning’s  works 
appeared,  including  several  new  poems, 
and  among  others  Lady  Geraldine’s 
Courtship.  Casa  Guidi  Windows,  a 
poem  on  the  struggles  of  the  Italians  for 
liberty  in  1848-49,  appeared  in  1851. 
The  longest  and  most  finished  of  all  her 
works,  Aurora  Leigh,  a narrative  and 
didactic  poem  in  nine  books,  was  pub- 
lished in  1857.  Poems  before  Congress 
appeared  in  1860,  and  two  posthumous 
volumes.  Last  Poems,  1862,  and  The 
Greek  Christian  Poets  and  the  English 
Poets  (prose  essays  and  translations), 
1863  were  edited  by  her  husband. 

BROWNING,  Robert,  poet,  born  at 
Camberwell  May  7,  1812;  died  Dec.  12, 
1889.  In  1846  he  married  Elizabeth 
Barrett  (see  above),  and  thereafter  re- 
sided chiefly  in  Italy,  making  occasional 


visits  to  England.  His  first  poem, 
Pauline,  was  published  in  1833;  fol- 
lowed by  Paracelsus  in  1835;  Strafford, 
a Tragedy  (1837),  produced  at  Covent 
Garden.  Sordello  appeared  in  1840, 
followed  by  Pippa  Passes,  A Blot  on  the 
Scutcheon,  Luria,  A Soul’s  Tragedy, 
the  well-known  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin, 
and  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News 
from  Ghent  to  Aix  (1841-46).  Between 
1846  and  1889  appeared  The  Ring  and 
the  Book,  his  longest  poem,  Fifine  at 
the  Fair;  Aristophanes’  Apology;  Dra- 
matic Idylls;  Jocoseria;  Ferishtah’s 
Fancies;  Asolando.  He  received  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford  in  1882. 
A Browning  Society  for  the  study  of  his 
works  was  formed  in  1881,  under  whose 
auspices  several  of  his  dramas  have  been 
performed.  His  poems  are  often  diffi- 
cult to  understand  from  the  quick  trans- 
itions of  thought,  and  they  are  not  in- 
frequently rugged  and  harsh  in  expres- 
sion, yet  they  are  among  the  chief  poetic 
utterances  of  last  century. 

BRUCE,  a family  name  distinguished 
in  the  history  of  Scotland.  The  family 
of  Bruce  (or  de  Brus)  was  of  Norman 


descent,  its  founder  having  obtained 
from  William  the  Conqueror  large 
grants  of  land  in  Northumberland. 
After  being  frequently  involved  in  bor- 
der warfare  with  the  Scots,  the  house 
of  Bruce  received  about  1130  from 
from  David  I.  a grant  of  the  lands  of 
Annandale,  thus  obtaining  a footing  in 
the  south  of  Scotland. 

BRUCE,  David.  See  David  II. 

BRUCE,  Edward,  a brother  of  Robert 

I. ,  who,  after  distinguishing  himself  in 
the  war  of  independence,  crossed  in  1315 
to  Ireland  to  aid  the  native  septs  against 
the  English.  After  many  successes  he 
was  crowned  king  of  Ireland  at  Carrick- 
fergus,  but  fell  in  battle  near  Dundalk  in 
1318. 

BRUCE,  Robert,  the  greatest  of  the 
kings  of  Scotland,  born  1274.  In  1296, 
as  Earl  of  Carrick,  he  swore  fealty  to 
Edward  I.,  and  in  1297  fought  on  the 
English  side  against  Wallace.  He  then 
joined  the  Scottish  army,  but  in  the 
same  year  returned  to  his  allegiance  to 
Edward  until  1298,  when  he  again 
joined  the  national  party,  and  became 
in  1299  one  of  the  four  regents  of  the 
kingdom.  In  the  three  final  campaigns, 
however,  he  resumed  fidelity  to  Edward, 
and  resided  for  some  time  at  his  court; 
but,  learning  that  the  king  meditated 
putting  him  to  death  on  information 
given  by  the  traitor  Comyn,  he  fled  in 
Feb.,  1306,  to  Scotland,  stabbed  Comyn 
in  a quarrel  at  Dumfries,  assembled  liis 
vassals  at  Lochmaben  Castle,  and 
claimed  the  crown,  which  he  received  at 
Scone,  March  27th.  Being  twice  de- 
feated, he  dismissed  his  troops,  retired 
to  Rathlin  Island,  and  was  supposed  to 
be  dead,  when,  in  the  spring  of  1307, 
he  landed  on  the  Carrick  coast,  defeated 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke  at  Loudon  Hill, 
and  in  two  years  had  wrested  nearly  the 
whole  country  from  the  English.  He 
then  in  successive  years  advanced  into 
England,  laying  waste  the  country; 
and  on  June  24,  1314,  defeated  at  Ban- 
nockburn the  English  forces  advancing 
under  Edward  II.  to  the  relief  of  the 
garrison  at  Stirling.  In  1316  he  went 
to  Ireland  to  the  aid  of  his  brother 
Edward,  and  on  his  return  in  1318,  in 
retaliation  for  inroads  made  during  his 
absence,  he  took  Berwick  and  harried 
Northumberland  and  Yorkshire.  Hos- 
tilities continued  until  the  defeat  of 
Edward  near  Byland  Abbey  in  1323,  and 
though  in  that  year  a truce  was  con- 
cluded for  thirteen  years,  it  was  speedily 
broken.  Not  until  March  4,  1328,  was 
the  treaty  concluded  by  which  the  in- 
dependence of  Scotland  was  fully  recog- 
nized. Bruce  did  not  long  survive  the 
completion  of  his  work,  dying  at  Car- 
dross  Castle  on  June  7,  1329.  He  was 
twice  married ; first  to  a daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Mar,  Isabella,  by  whom  he  had  a 
daughter,  Marjory,  mother  of  Robert 

II. ;  and  then  to  a daughter  of  Aymer  de 
Burgh,  Earl  of  Ulster,  Elizabeth,  by 
whom  he  had  a son,  David,  who  suc- 
ceeded him. 

BRUCINE,  an  alkaloid  accompanying 
strychnia  in  nux  vomica.  Its  taste  is 
exceedingly  bitter  and  acrid,  and  its 
action  on  the  animal  economy  is  entirely 
analogous  to  that  of  strychnia,  but 
much  less  powerful. 


BRUGES 


BRUNSAVICK,  NEAV 


BRUGES  (brtizh),  an  old  walled  city 
of  Belgium,  capital  of  AVest  Flanders, 
57  miles  n.w.  Brussels,  on  the  railway 
to  Ostend.  It  is  an  important  canal 
center,  and  has  over  fifty  bridges,  all 
opening  in  the  middle  for  the  passage  of 
vessels.  The  principal  canals  are  those 
to  Sluis,  Ghent,  and  Ostend,  on  all  of 
which  pretty  large  vessels  can  come  up 
to  Bruges.  Among  its  more  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  Halles  (containing 
cloth  and  other  halls  or  markets),  a fine 
old  building,  with  a tower  354  feet  high, 
in  which  is  a numerous  set  of  chimes; 
the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Bourse,  and  the 
Palace  of  Justice;  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame,  with  its  elevated  spire  and  splen- 
did tombs  of  Charles  the  Bold  and  Mary 
of  Burgundy;  etc.  The  town  possesses 
interesting  works  of  art  by  Jan  Van 
Eyck,  Memling,  the  Van  Oosts,  etc. 
Textile  goods,  lace,  etc.,  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  51,657. 

BRUHL  (brill),  Heinrich,  Count  von, 
minister  and  favorite  of  Augustus  III., 
king  of  Poland,  born  in  1700,  died  1763. 
In  1747  he  became  the  prime-minister 
of  Augustus,  to  gratify  whose  wishes  he 
exhausted  the  state,  plunged  the  coun- 
try into  debt,  and  greatly  reduced  the 
army.  lie  acquired  great  wealth  and 
lived  in  greater  state  than  the  king  him- 
self. His  profusion  was  often  beneficial 
to  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  his  library 
of  62,000  vols.  forms  a chief  part  of  the 
Rojml  Library  at  Dresden. 

BRUISE,  a hurt  caused  by  a blow  or 
other  violent  pressure  on  the  body. 
Owing  to  the  rupture  of  small  blood- 
vessels and  the  leakage  of  blood  into  the 
tissues  the  skin  becomes  discolored  in 
the  region  affected.  The  best  remedy 
for  bruises  is  rest.  The  pain  resulting 
from  small  bruises  may  be  relieved  by 
letting  cold  water  fall  on  the  part,  or  by 
immersing  the  part  in  cold  water. 

BRUMAIRE  (brii-mar),  the  second 
month  in  the  calendar  adopted  by  the 
first  Fi-ench  republic,  beginning  on  the 
23d  of  October  and  ending  21st  Novem- 
ber. The  18th  Brumaire  of  the  year  VIII. 
of  the  French  Revolution  (Nov.  9,  1799) 
witnessed  the  overthrow  of  the  Direc- 
tory by  Bonaparte.  The  next  day  he 
dispersed  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  was 
elected  consul. 

BRUMMELL,  George  Bryan  (Beau 
Brummell),  son  of  a clerk  in  the  Treas- 
ury, born  in  London  in  1778,  died  1840. 
He  was  educated  at  Et.on  and  at  Ox- 
ford, and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Prince  of  AVales, 
afterward  George  IV.,  who  made  him 
a cornet  in  his  own  regiment  of  the  10th 
Hussars,  and  secured  his  rapid  promo- 
tion. The  death  of  his  father  in  1794 
brought  him  a fortune  of  $150,000, 
which  he  expended  in  a course  of  sump- 
tuous living,  extending  over  twenty-one 
years,  during  which  his  dicta  on  matters 
of  etiquette  and  dress  were  received  in 
the  beau  monde  as  indisputable. 

BRUNEL',  Isambard  Kingdom,  Eng- 
lish engineer,  son  of  Sir  Mark  Isambard 
Brunei,  born  in  1806,  died  in  1859. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Henri  IV. 
College,  Paris;  and  commenced  practical 
engineering  under  his  father,  acting  at 
twenty  as  resident  engineer  at  the 
Thames  Tunnel.  Among  his  best-known 


works  were  the  Great  AVestern,  Great 
Britain,  and  Great  Eastern  steamships; 
the  entire  works  on  the  Great  AVestern 
Railway,  to  which  he  was  appointed 
engineer  in  1833;  the  Hungerford  Sus- 
pension-bridge; docks  at  Plymouth, 
Milford  Haven,  etc. 

BRUNEL',  Sir  Mark  Isambard,  a dis- 
tinguished engineer,  born  near  Rouen 
in  1769.  He  was  educated  in  Rouen,  his 
mechanical  genius  early  displaying 
itself.  Among  his  inventions  were  a 
machine  for  making  seamless  shoes, 
machines  for  making  nails  and  wooden 
boxes,  for  ruling  paper  and  twisting 
cotton  into  hanks,  and  a machine  for 
producing  locomotion  by  means  of 
carbonic  acid  gas;  but  his  greatest 
engineering  triumph  was  the  Thames 
Tunnel,  commenced  March,  1825,  and 
opened  in  1843.  In  1841  the  honor  of 
knighthood  was  conferred  on  him.  He 
died  in  Dec.,  1849. 

BRUNN  (brun),  an  Austrian  city, 
capital  of  Moravia,  on  the  railway  from 
Vienna  to  Prague,  nearly  encircled  by 
the  rivers  Schwarzawa  and  Zwittawa. 
It  contains  a cathedral  and  other  hand- 
some churches;  a landhaus,  where  the 
provincial  assembly  meets,  and  several 
palaces;  and  has  extensive  manufactures 
of  woolens,  which  have  procured  for  it 
the  name  of  the  Austrian  I^eeds.  Pop. 
108,944. 

BRUNO,  Giordano  (jor-da'no),  an 
Italian  philosopher  of  the  Renaissance, 
born  at  Nola  about  1550.  He  entered 
the  order  of  Dominicans,  but  was 
accused  of  impiety,  and,  after  endur- 
ing much  persecution,  fled  from  Rome 
about  1577  to  Geneva.  Here  he  was 
soon  persecuted  in  turn  by  the  Calvin- 
ists, and  traveled  slowly  through 
southern  France  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  offered  a chair  of  philosophy,  but 
declined  to  fulfil  its  conditions  of  at- 
tendance at  mass.  In  1583  he  went 
to  London,  where  he  published  sev- 
eral of  his  works,  and  to  Oxford, 
where  he  taught  for  a short  time.  In 

1585  he  went  by  way  of  Paris  and 
Marburg  to  AVittenberg,  and  from 

1586  to  1588  taught  his  philosophy 
there.  He  next  went  to  Prague  and  to 
Helmstedt,  where  he  remained  till  1589; 
thence  to  Frankfort  until  1592;  and 
finally  to  Padua,  where  he  remained 
until  the  inquisition  of  Venice  arrested 
him  and  transferred  him  to  Rome. 
After  an  imprisonment  of  seven  years, 
during  which  he  steadfastly  refused  to 
retract  his  doctrines,  he  was  burned, 
February  16,  1600,  for  apostasy,  heresy, 
and  violation  of  his  monastic  vows. 
His  doctrines  form  a more  complete 
Pantheistical  system  than  had  been 
previously  exhibited,  and  represent 
the  highest  level  of  the  thought  of  the 
period. 

BRUNO,  THE  GREAT,  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  and  Duke  of  Lorraine,  third 
son  of  Henry  the  Fowler,  and  brother 
of  the  Emperor  Otho  I.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  various  important  negotia- 
tions, and  was  a great  patron  of  learning. 
Commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  and 
some  biographies  of  saints,  are  ascribed 
to  him.  He  died  965,  at  Rheims. 

BRUNS'WICK,  a duchy  and  sovereign 
state  in  the  northwest  of  Germany,  area 


1425  sq.  miles.  A good  portion  of  it  is 
hilly  or  undulating,  and  it  partly  be- 
long to  the  Harz  mountain  system. 
Mining  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  the  Harz, 
and  the  minerals  include  iron,  lead, 
copper,  brown  coal,  etc.  About  half 
the  surface  is  arable,  and  the  chief  cul- 
tivated products  are  grain,  flax,  hops, 
tobacco,  potatoes,  and  fruit.  Brewing, 
distilling,  the  manufacture  of  linens, 
woolens,  and  leather,  the  preparation  of 
paper,  soap,  tobacco,  beet-sugar,  with 
agriculture  and  mining,  afford  the 
principal  employment  of  the  people. 
Pop.  464,251,  mostly  Lutherans  by 
religion. — Brunswick,  the  capital,  is  sit- 
uated on  the  Oker,  and  on  the  railway 
from  Hanover  to  Berlin.  The  principal 
buildings  of  note  are  the  ducal  palace, 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Blaise  (1173),  St. 
Catherine’s  Church  (dating  from  1172), 
and  St.  Magnus’s  (1031),  the  Gewand- 
haus,  and  the  fine  old  Gothic  Council 
House.  The  educational  institutions 
include  the  polytechnic  school,  a gym- 
nasium, etc.,  and  there  are  a city 
museum,  a ducal  museum,  and  a public 
library.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  wool,  linen,  jute,  machinery,  sewing- 
machines,  gloves,  lackered  wares,  etc., 
chemicals,  and  the  town  is  famous  for 
beer.  Pop.  128,177. 

BRUNSAVICK  (brunz'wik),  a city, 
port  of  entry,  and  county  seat  of  Glynn 
Co.,  Ga.,  90  miles  south  by  west  of  • 
Savannah,  on  Saint  Simon’s  Sound,  8 
miles  from  the  ocean,  and  on  the  Sea- 
board Air  Line,  the  Plant  System,  and 
the  Southern  railroads.  Pop.  10,840. 

BRUNSWICK,  a town  of  Maine,  on 
the  Androscoggin,  26  miles  n.e.  of  Port- 
land. At  Bowdoin  College,  in  this  towm, 
Hawthorne  and  Longfellow  graduated 
in  1825,  and  the  latter  filled  the  chair 
of  modern  languages  for  several  years. 
Pop.  10,125. 

BRUNSWICK,  Family  of,  a distin- 
guished family  founded  by  Albert  Azo 
II.,  Marquis  of  Reggio  and  Modena,  a 
descendant,  by  the  female  line,  of 
Charlemagne.  In  1047  he  married 
Cunigunda,  heiress  of  the  Counts  of 
Altorf,  thus  uniting  the  tv.’o  houses 
of  Este  and  Guelph.  From  his  son, 
Guelph,  who  was  created  Duke  of 
Bavaria  in  1071,  and  married  Judith  of 
Flanders,  a descendant  of  Alfred  of 
England,  descended  Henry  the  Proud, 
who  succeeded  in  1 1 25,  and  by  marriage 
acquired  Brunswick  and  Saxony.  Otho, 
the  great-grandson  of  Henry  by  a 
younger  branch  of  his  family,  was  the 
first  who  bore  the  title  of  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick (1235).  By  the  two  sons  of  Ernest 
of  Zell,  who  became  duke  in  1532,  the 
family  was  divided  into  the  two 
branches  of  Brunswick  - AA'clfenbuttel 
(11.)  and  Brunswick  - Hanover,  from 
the  latter  of  which  comes  the  present 
royal  family  of  Britain.  The  former  was 
the  German  family  in  possession  of  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick  until  the  death  of 
the  last  duke  in  1884.  George  Louis, 
son  of  Ernest  Augustus  and  Sophia, 
granddaughter  of  James  I.  of  England, 
succeeded  his  father  as  Elector  of  Han- 
over in  1698,  and  was  called  to  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain  in  1714  as 
George  I. 

BRUNSWICK,  NEW.  See  New  Bruns- 
wick, 


BRUNSWICK  BLACK 


BRUTUS 


BRUNSWICK  BLACK,  a varnish  com- 
posed chiefly  of  lamp-black  and  turpen- 
tine, and  applied  to  cast-iron  goods. 
Asphalt  and  oil  of  turpentine  also  are 
ingredients  in  some  kinds  of  it. 

BRUNSWICK  GREEN,  commonly  a 
carbonate  of  copper  mixed  with  chalk  or 
lime. 

BRUSA,  BROUSSA  (bro'sS,),  or 
BURSA,  a Turkish  city  in  Asia  Minor, 
south  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  about  20 
miles  distant  from  its  port  Mudania, 
with  a pop.  of  about  75,000  Turks, 
Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jcavs,  engaged 
in  commerce,  and  the  manufacture  of 
satins,  silk  stuffs,  carpets,  gauze,  etc. 

BRUSH,  Charles  Francis,  an  American 
inventor,  born  in  Ohio  in  1849.  His 
principal  inventions  are  the  dynamo 
which  bears  his  name  and  a number  of 
other  electric  devices,  being  chiefly 
improvements  on  his  dynamo.  He  is 
the  founder  of  the  Brush  Electric 
Company. 

BRUSH,  an  implement  for  removing 
dirt,  for  polishing  surfaces,  or  for  paint- 
ing. Brushes  are  made  of  broom  (which 
see),  bristles,  wire,  and  of  various  kinds 
of  hair.  Among  the  materials  prin- 
cipally used  in  the  manufacture  of 
brushes  are  bristles,  broom  straw,  feath- 
ers, and  the  hair  of  the  camel,  squirrel, 
goat,  badger,  and  bear.  Brushes  are 
simple  when  they  con.sist  of  a single 
tuft,  compound  when  they  consist  of  a 
series  of  tufts.  The  brush  industry  of 
the  U.  States  has  increased  vastly  dur- 
ing the  past  twenty  years. 

BRUSH- WHEEL,  a toothless  wheel 
sometimes  u.sed  in  light  machinery  to 
turn  a similar  wheel  by  means  of  bristles, 
or  some  brush-like  or  soft  substance,  as 
cloth,  buff-leather,  india-rubber,  or  the 
like. 

BRUS'SELS,  the  capital  of  Belgium 
and  of  tlie  province  of  Brabant,  is  situ- 


ated on  the  small  river  Senne,  which  is 
not  navigable,  but  serves  as  a canal- 
feeder.  The  city  consists  of^  north- 
v/estem  or  lower  portion  affd  a south- 
eastern or  upper  portion.  The  older 


part  is  surrounded  with  fine  boulevards 
on  the  site  of  its  fortifications,  and  in 
many  places  presents  a congeries  of 
twisted  streets.  The  upper  toAvn,  which 
is  partly  inside  the  boulevards  and  part- 
ly outside,  is  the  finest  part  of  the  city, 
and  contains  the  king’s  palace,  the 
palace  of  the  chambers,  the  palace  of 
justice,  the  palace  of  the  fine' arts,  the 
public  library  and  museum,  etc.;  and 
has  also  a fine  park  of  17  acres,  around 
which  most  of  the  principal  buildings  are 
situated.  The  lower  town  retains,  much 
of  its  ancient  appearance.  The  hotel 
de  ville  (1401-55)  is  an  imposing  Gothic 
structure,  with  a spire  3G4  feet  in  height, 
the  square  in  front  of  it  being  perhaps 
the  most  pictorial  of  all  the  public  places 
of  Brussels.  The  cathedral  of  Saint  Gu- 
dule  (dating  in  part  from  the  13th 
century)  is  the  finest  of  many  fine 
churches,  richly  adorned  with  sculp- 
tures and  paintings.  The  whole  town  is 
rich  in  monuments  and  works  of  art. 
The  institutions  comprise  a university, 
an  academy  of  science  and  the  fine  arts 
and  polytechnic  school;  one  of  the  finest 
observatories  in  Europe;  a conserva- 
torium  of  music;  a public  library,  con- 
taining 400,000  volumes  and  30,000 
MSS.;  a picture-gallery  with  the  finest 
specimens  of  Flemish  art;  and  many 
learned  societies  and  educational  organ- 
izations. The  manufactures  and  trade 
are  greatly  promoted  by  canal  communi- 
cations with  Charleroi,  Mechlin,  Ant- 
werp, and  the  ocean,  and  by  the  net- 
work of  Belgian  railways.  The  indus- 
tries are  varied  and  important.  Lace 
was  an  ancient  manufacture,  and  is  still 
of  great  importance;  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  woolen  fabrics,  paper, 
carriages,  and  many  minor  manufactures 
are  carried  on.  There  are  breweries, 
distilleries,  sugar-refineries,  foundries, 
etc.  The  language  spoken  by  the  upper 


classes  is  French,  and  Flemish  is  that 
of  the  lower;  but  German,  Dutch,  and 
English  are  also  a good  deal  spoken. 
Pop.  211,429,  or,  including  suburbs, 
about  590,000. 


BRUSSELS  CARPET.  See  Carpet. 

BRUTUS,  or  BRUTE,  the  first  king  of 
Britain-  a purely  mythical  personage, 
said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Sylvius,  and 
grandson  of  Ascanius,  the  son  of  .^Eneas. 
He  landed  in  Devonshire,  destroj^ed  the 
giants  then  inhabiting  Albion,  and 
called  the  island  from  his  own  name. 
At  his  death  the  island  was  divided 
among  his  sons;  Locrine,  Cumber,  and 
Albanact. 

BRUTUS,  Decimus  Juniu.s,  served 
under  Julius  Cresar  in  Gaul,  and  was 
afterward  commander  of  his  fleet,  but, 
like  his  relative,  Marcus  Junius  Brutus, 
joined  in  the  assassination  of  Ca;sar. 
He  was  afterward  for  a short  time  suc- 
cessful in  opposing  Antony,  but  was 
deserted  by  his  soldiers  in  Gaul  and 
betrayed  into  the  hands  of  his  opponent, 
who  put  him  to  death  in  b.c.  43. 

BRUTUS,  Lucius  Junius,  ancient 
Roman  hero,  son  of  Marcus  Junius  by 
the  daughter  of  the  elder  Tarquin.  He 
saved  his  life  from  the  persecutions  of 
Tarquin  the  Proud  by  feigning  himself 
insane,  whence  his  name  Brutus  (stupid). 
On  the  suicide  of  Lucretia  (see  Lucretia), 
however,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and 
headed  the  revolt  against  the  Tarquins. 
Having  secured  their  banishment,  he 
proposed  to  abolish  the  regal  dignity 
and  introduce  a free  government,  with 
the  result  that  he  was  elected  to  the  con- 
sulship, in  w-hich  capacity  he  condemned 
his  own  sons  to  death  for  conspiring  to 
restore  the  monarchy.  He  fell  in  battle 
n.c.  509. 

BRUTUS,  Marcus  Junius,  a distin- 
guished Roman,  born  b.c.  85;  was  at 
first  an  enemy  of  Pompey,  but  joined 
him  on  the  outbreak  of  civil  war  until 


Marcus  Junius  Brutus.— Antique  bust. 

the  battle  of  Pharsalia.  He  then  sur- 
rendered to  Ca2sar,  who  made  him  in  the 
following  year  governor  of  Cisalpine 
Gaul,  and  afterward  of  Macedonia. 
He  soon,  however,  joined  the  conspiracy 
against  Caesar,  and  by  his  influence 
insured  its  success.  After  the  assassina- 
tion he  took  refuge  in  the  East,  made 
himself  master  of  Greece  and  Macedonia, 
and  with  a powerful  army  joined  Cas- 
sius in  the  subjugation  of  the  Lyciaas 
and  Rhodians.  In  the  meantime  the 
triumvirs,  Octavianus,  Antony,  and 
Lepidus,  had  been  successful  at  Rome, 
and  were  prepared  to  encounter  the 
army  of  the  conspirators,  which,  cross- 
ing the  Hellespont,  assembled  at  Phi- 
lippi in  Macedonia.  Cassius  appears  to 
have  been  beaten  at  once  by  Antony; 
and  Brutus,  though  temporarily  success- 
ful against  Octavianus,  was  totally 


The  law  courts  or  Palais  de  Justice,  Brussels. 


BRUYERE 


BUCKBOARD 


defeated  twenty  days  later.  He  escaped 
with  a few  friends;  but,  seeing  that  his 
cause  was  hopelessly  ruined,  fell  upon 
the  sword  held  for  him  by  his  confidant 
Strato,  and  died  (n.c.  42). 

BRUYERE  (brix-yar'),  Jean  de  la,  a 
Fi’ench  writer,  born  at  Paris  in  1645. 
Through  the  influence  of  Bossuet  he 
was  employed  in  the  education  of  the 
Duke  of  Bourbon,  grandson  of  the 
great  Cond4,  with  a pension  of  3000 
livres,  and  was  attached  to  his  person 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  In 
1095  he  was  elected  a member  of  the 
French  Academy.  He  died  in  1696. 

BRYAN,  William  Jennings,  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  at  Salem,  111.,  in 
1800.  He  graduated  in  law  at  the 
Union  College  of  Law  in  Chicago,  and 
settled  in  Lincoln,  Neb.,  in  1887.  From 
1891  to  1895  he  was  congressman  from 
the  Lincoln  district;  in  1896  he  was  nom- 
inated by  the  Chicago  convention  for 
president  on  the  democratic  ticket. 
Defeated  by  McKinley,  he  was  again 
nominated  in  1900,  but  was  again  de- 
feated by  McKinley.  He  subsequently 
founded  The  Commoner,  a weekly  paper 
which  he  still  publishes.  Bryan  is  one 
of  the  most  appealing  orators  in  the 
United  States. 

BRYANT,  Henry  Grier,  an  American 
traveler,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1859. 
In  1892  he  was  second  in  command  of 
the  Peary  relief  expedition  to  Green- 
land, and  in  1894  was  the  commander 
of  a similar  expedition,  also  in  1897 
commander  of  the  expedition  to  Mount 
Elias. 

BRYANT,  William  Cullen,  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  journalist,  born  in  Hamp- 
shire, Mass.,  in  1794.  At  ten  years  of 
age  he  published  translations  from  Latin 
poets;  at  thirteen  wrote  The  Embargo; 


William  Cullen  Bryant. 


and  at  eighteen  the  Thanatopsis.  In 
1815  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
practiced  with  success  till  1825,  when 
lie  established  the  New  York  Review. 
In  1826  he  became  assistant  editor  of 
the  Evening  Post,  a leading  organ  of  the 
New  York  democrats,  of  which  he  was 
long  chief  editor.  His  poems,  first 
collected  in  1832,  took  rank  as  the  best 
America  had  up  to  that  time  produced. 
In  1842  he  issued  The  Fountain  and 
other  poems;  and  a new  edition  of  his 
poems  in  1858  was  followed  by  metrical 
tran.slations  of  the  Iliad  in  1869  and  of 
the  Odyssey  in  1871.  His  Letters  of  a 
Traveller  record  his  visits  to  Europe 


in  1834  and  subsequently.  He  died  in 
1878. 

BRYN  MAWR  ( mar  ) COLLEGE, 

founded  by  Joseph  W.  Taylor,  was  incor- 
porated in  1880,  and  opened  for  students 
in  1885,  at  Bryn  Mawr,  near  Philadel- 
phia. Bryn  Mawr  is  distinctive  among 
women’s  colleges  in  that  its  course  and 
method  of  study  are  based  upon  the 
university  model.  The  system  of 
“major  and  minor  electives  in  fixed 
combination”  has  been  adopted;  stu- 
dents are  grouped  in  accordance  with 
the  work  they  have  actually  accom- 
plished, instead  of  by  arbitrary  “classes”  ; 
original  research  is  in  all  cases  en- 
couraged ; and,  in  pursuance  of  the  same 
policy  of  placing  the  scholarship  of  the 
college  upon  a basis  of  pure  merit,  can- 
didates for  admission  as  undergraduates 
are  not  accepted  upon  certificate,  and 
honorary  degrees  are  not  granted.  The 
college  offers  the  graduate  degrees  of 
A.B.,  A.M.,  and  Ph.D.  Eleven  resident 
fellowships,  eight  graduate  scholarships, 
and  three  European  fellowships  are 
offered  to  graduate  students,  and  there 
are  also  scholarships  and  a students’ 
loan  fund  for  undergraduates. 

Bryn  Mawr  has  grown  rapidly  since 
its  foundation,  and  in  1902  had  45  pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  and  a student 
body  of  425. 

BUCCANEERS',  a name  derived  from 
Carib  boucan,  a place  for  smoking  meat, 
first  given  to  European  settlers  in  Hayti 
or  Hispaniola,  whose  business  was  to 
hunt  wild  cattle  and  swine  and  smoke 
their  flesh.  In  an  extended  sense  it  was 
applied  to  English  and  French  adven- 
turers, mostly  seafaring  people,  who, 
combining  for  mutual  defense  against 
the  arrogant  pretensions  of  the  Span- 
iards to  the  dominion  of  the  whole  of 
America,  frequented  the  W.  Indies  in 
the  17th  century,  acquired  predatory 
and  lawless  habits,  and  became  ulti- 
mately, in  many  cases,  little  better  than 
pirates.  The  earliest  association  of 
these  adventurers  began  about  1625, 
but  they  afterward  became  much  more 
formidable,  and  continued  to  be  a terror 
until  the  opening  of  the  18th  century, 
inflicting  heavy  losses  upon  the  shipping 
trade  of  Spain,  and  even  attacking  large 
towns.  Among  their  chief  leaders  were 
Montbars  (II  exterminador),  Peter  the 
Great  of  Dieppe,  L’Olonnas,  de  Busco, 
Van  Horn,  and  the  Welshman  Henry 
Morgan,  who,  in  1670,  marched  across 
the  Isthmus,  plundered  Panama,  and, 
after  being  knighted  by  Charles  II., 
became  deputy-governor  of  Jamaica. 
The  last  great  exploit  of  the  buccaneers 
was  the  capture  of  Carthagena  in  1697, 
after  which  they  are  lost  sight  of  in  the 
annals  of  vulgar  piracy. 

BUCEPH'ALUS,  the  horse  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  On  its  death  from  a 
wound  Alexander  built  over  its  grave, 
near  the  Hydaspes,  a city  called  Bu- 
cephala. 

BUCHANAN,  Franklin,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Maryland  in  1800, 
died  in  1874.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  was  an  officer  on  Perry’s  ship 
in  the  expedition  to  Japan.  In  1861  he 
resigned  from  the  United  States  navy, 
joined  the  confederate  navy  and  com- 
manded the  Merrimac  in  the  famous 
battle  with  the  Monitor  in  Hampton 


Roads.  After  the  war  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  life  of  an  educator. 

BUCHANAN,  James,  the  fifteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  born  in 
Stony  Batter,  Franklin  Co.,  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1791,  died  in  1868.  He  was 
educated  at  Dickinson  College  and 


James  Buchanan. 


qualified  for  the  bar.  In  1820  Buchanan 
became  a member  of  congress,  continu- 
ing in  that  capacity  for  ten  years.  He 
supported  Jackson  for  president,  was 
made  minister  to  Russia,  and  in  1833 
was  elected  United  States  senator.  He 
held  that  congress  had  no  power  over 
slavery,  but  favored  petition  for  aboli- 
tion. In  1845  he  became  secretary  of 
state  in  Polk’s  cabinet,  and  successfully 
handled  the  various  territorial  expan- 
sion questions  of  his  time.  In  1856  he 
was  nominated  for  president  by  the 
democrats,  defeating  Fremont,  the  can- 
didate of  the  newly-organized  republican 
party.  His  administration  was  marked 
by  much  activity  in  diplomatic  affairs, 
and  successfullj’'  avoided  the  brewing 
trouble  between  the  North  and  the 
South.  He  died  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 

BUCHANAN,  Robert,  an  English  poet, 
born  in  1841.  His  earliest  volumes  of 
verse — Undertones  (1863),  Idylls  and 
Legends  of  Inverburn  (1865),  and  Lon- 
don Poems  (1866) — gained  him  a good 
reputation  for  truth,  simplicity,  humor, 
and  pathos,  and  he  afterward  produced 
various  volumes  of  poetry  which  have 
been  no  less  well  received;  such  as  Way- 
side  Poesies  (1866),  North  Coast  and 
other  Poems  (1867);  The  Drama  of 
Kings  (1871);  Ballads  of  Life,  Love,  and 
Humour  (1882);  The  City  of  Dream 
(1888U  The  Wandering  Jew  (1893).  He 
also  wrote  novels — The  Shadow  of  the 
Sword,  God  and  the  Man,  The  Child  of 
Nature,  etc.,  and  plays.  He  died  in 
1901. 

BUCHAREST.  See  Bukarest. 

BUCHARIA.  See  Bokhara. 

BUCK,  the  male  of  the  fallow-deer,  of 
the  goat,  rabbit,  and  hare. 

BUCKBOARD,  a four-wheeled  vehicle 
in  which  a long  elastic  board  or  platform 
is  used  in  place  of  the  ordinary  body, 
springs,  and  gear.  It  is  fixed  as  a con- 
nection between  the  fore  and  rear  axles, 
and  may  have  one  or  more  seats.  It  is 
thus  the  most  simply  constructed  of 
any  four-wheeled  vehicle.  Buckboards 
were  first  used  only  in  mountain  dis- 
tricts where  the  roads  are  rugged,  and 


BUCKEYE 


BUDAUN 


were  for  a long  time  rudely  and  simply 
built.  When  the  Adirondack  region  and 
Mount  Desert  became  fashionable  re- 
sorts, the  summer  vistors  to  these 
places  had  the  primitive  buckboards 
reproduced  in  more  elegant  form  by 
carriage-builders,  so  that  the  buckboard 
now  usually  seen  differs  greatly  from 
the  model,  being  made  in  handsome 
woods  of  a light  color,  ash  or  hickory, 
with  springs,  silver  mountings,  and 
cushions  of  russet  leather. 

BUCKEYE,  an  American  name  for 
certain  species  of  horse-chestnuts. 

BUCK-HOUND,  a kind  of  hound 
similar  to  but  smaller  than  a stag-hound, 
once  commonly  used  in  Britain  for  hunt- 
ing bucks.  The  Master  of  the  Buck- 
hounds  is  still  the  title  of  an  officer  of 
the  royal  household  in  England. 

BUCK'INGHAM,  an  inland  county  of 
England,  bounded  by  Northampton, 
Bedford,  Hertford,  Middlesex,  Berks, 
and  Oxford;  area  about  730  sq.  miles, 
or  467,009  acres,  of  which  over  400,000 
are  under  crops  or  permanent  pasture. 
The  rich  vale  of  Aylesbury  stretches 
through  the  center,  and  a portion  of  the 
Chiltern  range  across  the  south  of  the 
county,  which  is  watered  by  the  Ouse,  the 
Thame,  and  the  Thames.  The  breeding 
and  fattening  of  cattle  and  pigs  are 
largely  carried  on,  also  the  breeding  of 
horses,  and  much  butter  is  made.  The 
manufactures  are  unimportant,  among 
them  being  straw-plaiting,  thread  lace, 
and  the  making  of  wooden  articles,  such 
as  beechen  chairs,  turnery,  etc.  There 
are  also  paper-mills,  silk-mills,  etc.  The 
mineral  productions  are  of  no  great  im- 
portance. The  county  comprises  eight 
hundreds,  those  of  Stoke,  Burnham,  and 
Desborough  being  known  as  “the  Chil- 
tern Hundreds.”  Buckingham  is  nom- 
inally the  county  town,  but  Aylesbury 
is  the  assize  town.  Pop.  195,534. — 
Buckingham,  the  county  town,  a munic- 
ipal, and,  until  1885,  a pari,  borough,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a peninsula 
formed  by  the  Ouse.  Malting  and  tan- 
ning are  carried  on,  and  some  lace  is 
made.  Pop.  3151. 

BUCKINGHAM,  George  Villiers,  Duke 
of,  favorite  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
of  England,  was  born  in  1592,  his  father 
being  George  Villiers,  Knight.  At  eigh- 
teen he  was  sent  to  France,  where  he 
resided  three  years,  and  on  his  return 
made  so  great  an  impression  on  James 
I.  that  in  two  years  he  was  made  a 
knight,  a gentleman  of  the  bed-chamber, 
baron,  viscount.  Marquis  of  Bucking- 
ham, lord  high-admiral,  etc.,  and  at  last 
dispenser  of  all  the  honors  and  offices  of 
the  three  kingdoms.  In  1623,  when  the 
Earl  of  Bristol  was  negotiating  a mar- 
riage for  Prince  Charles  with  the  Infanta 
of  Spain,  Buckingham  went  with  the 
prince  incognito  to  Madrid  to  carry  on 
the  suit  in  person  in  the  hope  of  securing 
the  Palatinate  as  dowry.  The  result, 
however,  was  the  breaking  off  of  the 
marriage,  and  the  declaration  of  war 
with  Spain.  During  his  absence  Buck- 
ingham was  created  duke.  After  the 
death  of  James  in  1625  he  was  sent  to 
France  as  proxy  for  Charles  I.  to  marry 
the  Princess  Henrietta  Maria.  In  1626, 
after  the  failure  of  the  Cadiz  expedition, 
he  was  impeached,  but  saved  by  the 


favor  of  the  king.  De^ite  the  difficulty 
in  obtaining  supplies  Buckingham  took 
upon  himself  the  conduct  of  a war  with 
France,  but  his  expedition  in  aid  of  the 
Rochellese  proved  an  entire  failure. 
Aug.  24,  1628,  he  was  stabbed  by  John 
Felton,  an  ex-lieutenant  who  had  been 
disappointed  of  promotion. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  a royal 
palace  in  London,  facing  St.  James’s 
Park,  built  in  the  reign  of  George  IV., 
and  forming  one  of  the  residences  of  the 
sovereign. 

BUCKLE,  Henry  Thomas,  English 
historical  writer,  born  1822.  His  chief 
work,  a philosophic  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion, of  which  only  two  volumes  (1858 
and  1861)  were  completed,  was  charac- 
terized by  much  novel  and  suggestive 
thought,  and  by  the  bold  coordination 
of  a vast  store  of  materials  drawn  from 
the  most  varied  sources.  He  died, 
while  traveling,  at  Damascus,  1862. 

BUCKLER,  a kind  of  small  shield 
formerly  worn  on  the  left  arm,  and  vary- 
ing in  form  and  material,  among  the 
latter  being  wickerwork,  wood  covered 
with  leather,  a combination  of  wood 
and  metal,  etc. 

BUCKNER,  Simon  Bolivar,  an  Ameri- 
can politician  and  soldier,  born  in  Ken- 
tucky in  1823.  He  graduated  from 
West  Point,  served  in  the  Mexican  war, 
and  was  a brigadier-general  of  the  Con- 
federate army.  In  1896  he  was  candi- 
date for  vice-president  with  John  M. 
Palmer  on  the  ticket  of  the  gold  wing 
of  the  democratic  party. 

BUCK'RAM,  a coarse  textile  fabric 
stiffened  with  glue  and  used  in  garments 
to  give  them  or  keep  them  in  the  form 
intended.  It  is  also  used  in  binding 
books. 

BUCK-SHOT,  a kind  of  large  leaden 
shot  used  for  killing  deer  or  other  large 
game. 

BUCK'SKIN,  a kind  of  soft  leather 
of  a yellowish  or  grayish  color,  made 
originally  frorn  deer-skins,  but  now 
usually  from  sheep-skins.  The  softness 
which  is  its  chief  characteristic  is  im- 
parted by  using  oil  or  brains  in  dressing 
it. 

BUCK'THORN,  the  name  of  an  exten- 
sive genus  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Several 
species  belong  to  N.  America.  The 
common  buckthorn,  a British  and 
N.  American  shrub,  grows  to  7 or  8 feet, 
has  strong  spines  on  its  branches,  ellipti- 
cal and  serrated  leaves,  male  and  female 
flowers  on  different  plants,  a greenish- 
yellow  calyx,  no  corolla,  and  a round 
black  berry.  It  flowers  in  May.  The 
berries  are  purgative,  but  harsh  in 
action.  The  bark  yields  a yellow  dye, 
the  berries  sap  green. 

BUCK' WHEAT , a plant  with  branch- 
ed herbaceous  stem,  somewhat  arrow- 
shaped  leaves,  and  purplish-white 
flowers,  growing  to  the  height  of  about 
30  inches,  and  bearing  a small  triangular 
grain  of  a brownish-black  without  and 
white  within.  The  shape  of  its  seeds 
gives  it  its  German  name  Buchweizen, 
“beech-wheat,”  whence  the  English 
name.  The  plant  was  first  brought  to 
Europe  from  Asia  by  the  Crusaders, 
and  hence  in  France  is  often  called 
Saracen  corn.  It  glows  on  the  poorest 


soils.  It  is  cultivated  in  China  and  other 
Eastern  countries  as  a bread-corn.  In 
Europe  buckwheat  has  been  principally 
cultivated  as  food  for  oxen,  swine,  and 
poultry;  but  in  Germany  it  serves  as  an 
ingredient  in  pottage,  puddings,  and 
other  food,  and  in  America  buckwheat 
cakes  are  common. 

BUD,  the  name  of  bodies  of  various 
form  and  structure,  which  develop  upon 
vegetables,  and  contain  the  rudiments 
of  future  organs,  as  stems,  branches, 
leaves,  and  organs  of  fructification. 
Upon  exogenous  plants  they  are  in  their 
commencement  cellular  prolongations 
from  the  medullary  rays,  which  force 
their  way  through  the  bark.  In  general 
a single  bud  is  developed  each  year  in 
the  axil  of  each  leaf,  and  there  is  one 
terminating  the  branch  called  a terminal 
bud.  The  life  of  the  plant  during  wunter 
is  stored  up  in  the  bud  as  in  an  embryo, 
and  it  is  by  its  vital  action  that  on  the 
return  of  spring  the  flow  of  sap  from 
the  roots  is  stimulated  to  renewed 
activity.  Buds  are  distinguished  into 
leaf-buds  and  flower-buds.  The  latter 
are  produced  in  the  axil  of  leaves  called 
floral  leaves  or  bracts.  The  termina, 
bud  of  a branch  is  usually  a flower-bud, 
and  as  cultivation  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing flower-buds  in  place  of  leaf-budsl 
the  one  is  probably  a modification  of  the 
other. 

BUDAPEST  (-pesht'),  the  official  name 
of  the  united  towns  of  Pest  and  Buda  or 
Ofen,  the  one  on  the  left,  the  other  on 
the  right,  of  the  Danube,  forming  the 
capital  of  Hungary,  the  seat  of  the  im- 
perial diet  of  the  Hungarian  ministry 
and  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice. 
Buda,  which  is  the  smaller  of  the  two, 
and  lies  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river, 
consists  of  the  fortified  Upper  Town  on 
a hill,  the  Lower  Town  or  Wasserstadt 
at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  several  other 
districts.  The  mineral  baths  of  Buda 
have  long  been  famous,  the  Bruckbad 
and  Kaiserbad  having  both  been  used 
by  the  Romans.  Pest,  or  the  portion  of 
Budapest  on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the 
river,  is  formed  by  the  inner  town  of 
Old  Pest  on  the  Danube,  about  which 
has  grown  a semicircle  of  districts — 
Leopoldstadt,  Theresienstadt,  Eliza- 
bethstadt,  etc.  There  is  a well-attended 
university.  In  commerce  and  industry 
Budapest  ranks  next  to  Vienna  in  the 
empire.  Its  chief  manufactures  are 
machinery,  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
iron  wares,  chemicals,  silk,  leather, 
tobacco,  etc.  A large  trade  is  done  in 
grain,  wine,  wool,  cattle,  etc.  Budapest 
is  strongly  Magyar,  and  as  a factor  in 
the  national  life  may  almost  be  regarded 
as  equivalent  to  the  rest  of  Hungary. 
It  was  not  until  1799  that  the  population 
of  Pest  began  to  outdistance  that  of 
Buda;  but  from  that  date  its  growth 
was  very  rapid  and  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  Buda.  In  1799  the 
joint  population  of  the  two  towns  was 
little  more  than  50,000;  in  1900  it  was 
713,383. 

BUDA'UN,  a town  of  India,  United 
Provinces,  consisting  of  an  old  and  a 
new  town,  the  former  partly  surrounded 
by  ancient  ramparts;  there  is  a hand- 
some mosque,  American  mission,  etc. 
Pop.  39,031.  The  district  of  Budaur 


BUDDHA 


BUENOS  AYRES 


has  an  area  of  2017  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  925,598. 

BUDDHA  (bud'ha),  the  sacred  name 
of  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  an  Indian 
sage  who  appears  to  have  lived  in  the 
5th  century  n.c.  His  personal  name 
was  Siddhartha,  and  his  family  name 
Gautama;  and  he  is  often  called  also 
Sakya-muni.  His  father  was  King  of 
Kapilavastu,  a few  days’  journey  north 
of  Benares.  Siddhartha,  filled  with  a 
deep  compassion  for  the  human,  race, 
left  his  father’s  court,  and  lived  for 
years  in  solitude  till  he  had  penetrated 
the  mysteries  of  life,  and  become  the 
Buddha.  He  then  began  to  teach  his 
new  faith,  in  opposition  to  the  prevail- 
ing Brahmanism,  commencing  at  Ben- 
ares. Among  his  earliest  converts  were 
the  monarchs  of  Magadha  and  Kosala, 
in  whose  kingdoms  he  chiefly  passed  the 
latter  portion  of  his  life,  respected, 
honored,  and  protected.  See  Buddhism. 

BUDDHISM,  the  religious  system 
founded  by  Buddha,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  doctrines  of  which  is  that 
NirvS.na,  or  an  absolute  release  from 
existence,  is  the  chief  good.  According 
to  it  pain  is  inseparable  from  existence, 
and  consequently  pain  can  cease  only 
through  Nirv5,na;  and  in  order  to  attain 
Nirv&na  our  desires  and  passions  must 
be  suppressed,  the  most  extreme  self- 
renunciation  practiced,  and  we  must,  as 
far  as  possible,  forget  our  own  person- 
ality. In  order  to  attain  Nirvana  eight 
conditions  must  be  kept  or  practiced. 
The  first  is  in  Buddhistic  language  right 
view;  the  second  is  right  judgment;  the 
third  is  right  language;  the  fourth  is 
right  purpose;  the  fifth  is  right  profes- 
sion; the  sixth  is  right  application;  the 
seventh  is  right  memory;  the  eight  is 
right  meditation.  The  five  fundamental 
precepts  of  the  Buddhist  moral  code  are ; 
not  to  kill,  not  to  steal,  not  to  commit 
adultery,  not  to  lie,  and  not  to  give  way 
to  drunkenness.  To  these  there  are 
added  five  others  of  less  importance,  and 
binding  more  particularly  on  the  relig- 
ious class,  such  as  to  abstain  from  re- 
pasts taken  out  of  season,  from  theatri- 
cal representations,  etc.  There  are  six 
fundamental  virtues  to  be  practiced 
by  all  men  alike,  viz.,  charity,  purity, 


Buddha— From  a Burmese  bron  ze 


patience,  courage,  contemplation,  and 
knowledge.  These  are  the  virtues  that 
are  said  to  “conduct  a man  to  the  other 
shore.”  The  devotee  who  strictly  prac- 
tices them  has  not  yet  attained  Nirvana, 
but  is  on  the  road  to  it.  The  Buddhist 


virtue  of  charity  is  universal  in  its 
application,  extending  to  all  creatures, 
and  demanding  sometimes  the  greatest 
self-denial  and  sacrifice.  There  is  a leg- 
end that  the  Buddha  in  one  of  his  stages 
of  existence  (for  he  had  passed  through 


Singhalese  Buddhist  priests  and  dagobah  at 
Kandy. 


innumerable  transmigrations  before  be- 
coming “the  enlightened”)  gave  him- 
self up  to  be  devoured  by  a famishing 
lioness  which  was  unable  to  suckle  her 
young  ones.  There  are  other  virtues 
less  important,  indeed,  than  the  six  car- 
dinal ones,  but  still  binding  on  believers. 
Thus  not  only  is  lying  forbidden,  but 
evil-speaking,  coarseness  of  language, 
and  even  vain  and  frivolous  talk,  must 
be  avoided.  Buddhist  metaphysics  are 
comprised  in  three  theories — the  theory 
of  transmigration  (borrowed  from  Brah- 
manism), the  theory  of  the  mutual  con- 
nection of  causes,  and  the  theory  of 
Nirv&,na.  The  first  requires  no  explana- 
tion. According  to  the  second,  life  is  the 
result  of  twelve  conditions,  which  are  by 
turns  causes  and  effects.  Thus  there 
would  be  no  death  were  it  not  for  birth'; 
it  is  therefore  the  effect  of  which  birth 
is  the  cause.  Again,  there  would  be  no 
birth  were  there  not  a continuation  of 
existence.  Existence  has  for  its  cause 
our  attachment  to  things,  which  again 
has  its  origin  in  desire;  and  so  on 
through  sensation,  contact,  the  organs 
of  sensation  and  the  heart,  name  and 
form,  ideas,  etc.,  up  to  ignorance.  This 
ignorance,  however,  is  not  ordinary 
ignorance,  but  the  fundamental  error 
wliich  causes  us  to  attribute  permanence 
and  reality  to  tilings.  This,  then,  is  the 
primary  origin  of  existence  and  all  its 
attendant  evils.  Nirvana  or  extinction  is 
eternal  salvation  from  the  evils  of  exist- 
ence, and  the  end  which  every  Buddhist 
is  supposed  to  seek.  Sakya-muni  did  not 
leave  his  doctrines  in  writing;  he  de- 
clared them  orally,  and  they  were  care- 
fully treasured  up  by  his  disciples,  and 
written  down  after  his  death.  The  de- 
termination of  the  canon  of  the  Buddhist 
scriptures  as  we  now  possess  them  'vs'as 
the  work  of  three  successive  councils, 
and  was  finished  two  centuries  at  least 


before  Christ.  From  Buddhism  involv- 
ing a protest  against  caste  distinctions 
it  was  eagerly  adopted  by  the  Dasyus  or 
non-Aryan  inhabitants  of  Hindustan. 
It  was  pure,  moral,  and  humane  in  its 
origin,  but  it  came  subsequently  to  be 
mixed  up  with  idolatrous  worship  of  its 
founder  and  other  deities.  Although 
now  long  banished  from  Hindustan  by 
the  persucutions  of  the  Brahmans, 
Buddhism  prevails  in  Ceylon,  Burmali, 
Siam,  Anam,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  China, 
Java,  and  Japan,  and  its  adherents  are 
said  to  comprise  about  a third  of  the 
human  race. 

BUDDING,  the  art  of  multiplying 
plants  by  causing  the  leaf-bud  of  one 
species  or  variety  to  grow  upon  the 
branch  of  another.  The  operation  con- 
sists in  shaving  off  a leaf-bud,  with  a 
portion  of  the  wood  beneath  it,  which 
portion  is  afterward  removed  by  a 
sudden  jerk  of  the  operator’s  finger  and 
thumb,  aided  by  the  budding-knife.  An 
incision  in  the  bark  of  the  stock  is  then 
made  in  the  form  of  a T;  the  two  side 
lips  are  pushed  aside,  the  bud  is  thrust 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  the 
upper  end  of  its  bark  is  cut  to  a level 
with  the  cross  arm  of  the  T,  and  the 
whole  is  bound  up  with  worsted  or  other 
soft  fastening,  the  point  of  the  bud  being 
left  exposed.  In  performing  the  opera- 
tion, a knife  with  a thin  flat  handle  and 
a blade  with  a peculiar  edge  is  required. 
The  bud  must  be  fully  formed;  the  bark 
of  the  stock  must  separate  readily  from 
the  wood  below  it ; and  young  branches 
should  always  be  chosen,  as  having  be- 
neath the  bark  the  largest  quantity  of 
cambium  or  viscid  matter  out  of  which 
tissue  is  formed.  The  maturer  shoots 
of  the  3’'ear  in  which  the  operation  is 
performed  are  the  best.  The  autumn 
is  the  best  time  for  budding,  though 
it  may  also  be  practiced  in  the  spring. 

BUELL,  Don  Carlos,  an  American 
soldier,  born  in  Ohio  in  1818,  died  in 
1898.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point, 
fought  in  the  Mexican  'W'ar,  and  was 
brigadier-general  of  the  Union  forces 


D.  C.  Buell. 


(volunteer)  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
war,  and  later  brigadier-general.  He 
took  part  in  several  of  the  great  battles 
of  the  civil  war,  and  was  subsequently 
appointed  pension  agent. 

BUENOS  AYRES  (by-en'6s  i'ras),  a 
city  of  S.  America,  capital  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  on  the  s.w.  side  of  the 
La  Plata,  150  miles  from  its  mouth. 
It  was  founded  in  1535  by  Don  Pedro  de 
Mendoza,  and  is  built  with  great  regu- 
larity, the  streets  uniformly  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles.  It  contains 
the  palace  of  the  president,  the  house  of 


BUFFALO 


BUILDING  ACTS 


representatives,  a town*hall,  a number 
of  hospitals  and  asylums,  a cathedral, 
several  monasteries,  nunneries,  and 
Catholic  and  Protestant  churches; 
several  theaters,  a university,  and  a 
custom-house.  The  university,  founded 
in  1821,  is  attended  by  about  800  stu- 
dents. There  are  also  a medical  school, 
normal  and  other  schools,  besides 
literary  and  scientific  societies.  For- 
merly large  vessels  could  only  come 
within  8 or  9 miles  of  the  town,  but 
they  can  now  come  up  to  it  and  enter 
the  extensive  docks  that  have  been  con- 
structed, about  $25,000,000  having  been 
spent  on  harbor  works  and  channels. 
La  Plata  (capital  of  the  province),  30 
miles  lower  down  the  estuary,  serves  as 
a subport.  Buenos  Ayres  is  one  of  the 
leading  commercial  centers  of  S.  Amer- 
ica. Chief  exports  are  wool,  wheat, 
maize,  meat,  hides  and  skins,  tallow, 
etc.  There  are  six  railways  running 
from  the  city,  and  100  miles  of  tram- 
way in  the  city  and  suburbs.  About 
one -fourth  of  the  inhabitants  are 
whites;  the  rest  are  of  mixed  blood 
or  Indians,  negroes,  etc.  Pop.  in  1900, 
795,323. — The  province  of  Buenos  Ayres 
has  an  area  of  177,777  sq.  miles,  and 
consists  mostly  of  level  or  slightly  un- 
dulating plains  (pampas),  which  afford 
pasture  to  vast  numbers  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses.  Pop.  1,140,067. 

BUF'FALO,  an  ungulate  or  hoofed 
ruminant  mammal,  family  Bovidse  or 
oxen,  the  best-known  species  of  which  is 
the  common  or  Indian  buffalo,  larger 
than  the  ox  and  with  stouter  limbs,  origi- 


1 , Head  of  Cape  bullalo. 

2,  Head  oi  Indian  buffalo. 


nally  from  India,  but  now  found  in  most 
of  the  warmer  countries  of  the  Eastern 
Continent.  A full-grown  male  is  a bold 
and  powerful  animal,  quite  a match  for 
the  tiger.  The  buffalo  is  less  docile  than 
the  common  ox,  and  is  fond  of  marshy 
places  and  rivers.  It  is,  however,  used 
in  tillage,  draft,  and  carriage  in  India, 
Italy,  etc.  The  female  gives  much  more 
milk  than  the  cow,  and  from  the  milk 
the  ghee  or  clarified  butter  of  India  is 
made.  The  hide  is  exceedingly  tough, 
and  a valuable  leather  is  prepared  from 
it,  but  the  flesh  is  not  very  highly 
esteemed.  Another  Indian  species  is  the 
arnee,  the  largest  of  the  ox  family.  The 
Cape  buffalo  is  distinguished  by  the  size 
of  its  horns,  which  are  united  at  their 
bases,  forming  a great  bony  mass  on  the 
front  of  the  head.  It  attains  a greater 
size  than  an  ordinary  ox.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  wild  oxen  in  general,  and 
particularly  to  the  bison  of  N.  America. 
See  Bison. 


BUFFALO,  a city  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  situated  on  Lake  Erie,  and  by 
virtue  of  its  position  one  of  the  principal 
ports  of  the  country.  It  is  400  miles 
from  New  York,  500  miles  from  Chicago, 
and  only  20  miles  from  Niagara  Falls. 
Its  population  in  1908  was  400,000. 
The  city  has  an  area  of  42  square  miles. 

Buffalo  is  one  of  the  most  marked  of 
large  American  cities  in  its  recent  de- 
velopment, and  owes  its  prosperity  to 
commerce.  Several  great  steamship 
lines  and  innumerable  independent  ves- 
sels ply  to  the  chief  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  there  are  several  ferries  to 
the  Canada  side,  besides  the  Inter- 
national Bridge,  completed  at  a cost  of 
$1,500,000.  The  city  is  connected  with 
the  tide-waters  of  the  Hudson  by  the 
Erie  Canal,  and  with  ports  on  Lake 
Ontario  and  the  Saint  Lawrence  river 
by  the  Welland  Canal,  and  is  also  the 
terminus  or  connecting-point  of  a score 
of  railroads,  the  commerce  of  Buffalo 
by  these  various  means  of  transpor- 
tation is  very  great.  With  a season 
of  only  about  2^46  days  in  the  year, 
Buffalo  ranks  with  the  leading  Amer- 
ican and  European  ports  in  extent  of 
traffic.  The  immense  quantity  of  flour 
and  grain  moved  from  the  Western 
States  to  the  seaboard  constitutes  the 
most  important  feature  of  its  commerce; 
but  live  stock,  lumber,  and  coal,  iron 
ore,  and  fish,  also,  are  of  importance. 
Some  part  of  the  lumber  and  iron  ore 
which  arrive  at  this  end  of  Lake  Erie  is 
received  at  Tonawanda,  a suburb  to 
the  north,  on  Niagara  river,  but  Buf- 
falo receives  large  quantities  of  each. 
Over  15,000,000  pounds  of  fish  are 
received  annually,  mainly  from  Georgian 
Bay,  and  are  distributed  as  far  east  as 
Boston  and  as  far  west  as  Denver.  The 
horse  market  and  sheep  market  of 
Buffalo  are  the  largest  in  the  U.  States, 
and  in  the  trade  in  cattle  and  hogs 
Buffalo  is  among  the  leading  American 
cities.  In  the  production  of  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products,  including  stoves, 
nails,  etc.,  and  agricultural  implements, 
the  city  ranks  among  the  foremost. 
Other  industries  are  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing,  refining  petroleum,  and 
ship-building;  clothing,  flouring-  and 
grist-mill  products,  brick,  stone,  lime, 
and  stucco,  malt  and  distilled  liquors, 
soap  and  candles,  starch,  furniture,  and 
tobacco  and  cigars,  are  extensively 
produced. 

BUFFALO-GRASS,  a strong-growing 
N.  American  grass,  so  called  from  form- 
ing a large  part  of  the  food  of  the  buffalo, 
and  said  to  have  excellent  fattening 
properties. 

BUFFER,  any  apparatus  for  deaden- 
ing the  concussion  between  a moving 
body  and  the  one  on  which  it  strikes. 
In  railway-carriages  they  are  placed  in 
pairs  at  each  end,  and  are  fastened  by 
rods  to  springs  under  the  frame-work 
to  deaden  the  concussions  caused  when 
the  velocity  of  part  of  the  train  is 
checked. 

BUFFET,  a cupboard,  sideboard,  or 
closet  to  hold  china,  crystal,  plate,  and 
the  like.  The  word  is  also  very  com- 
monly applied  to  the  space  set  apart  for 
refreshments  in  public  places. 


BUFF  LEATHER,  a sort  of  leather 
prepared  from  the  skin  of  the  buffalo 
and  other  kinds  of  oxen,  dressed  with 
oil,  like  shammy.  It  is  used  for  making 
bandoliers,  belts,  pouches,  gloves,  and 
other  articles. 

BUFF  ON  (bu-fon),  George  Louis 
Leclerc,  Count  de,  celebrated  French 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Montbard,  in 
Burgundy,  1707;  died  in  Paris  1788. 
In  1739  he  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent of  the  Royal  Garden  at  Paris  (now 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes),  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  great  work  on  Natural 
History,  which  occupied  the  most  of  his 
life.  It  is  now  obsolete  and  of  small 
scientific  value,  but  it  for  long  had  an 
extraordinary  popularity,  and  was  the 
means  of  diffusing  a taste  for  the  study 
of  nature  throughout  Europe.  After  an 
assiduous  labor  of  ten  years  the  three 
first  volumes  were  published,  and  be- 
tween 1749  and  1767  twelve  others, 
which  comprehend  the  theory  of  the 
earth,  the  nature  of  animals,  and  the 
history  of  man  and  the  Mammalia.  In 
these  Buffon  was  assised  by  Daubenton 
in  the  purely  anatomical  portions. 
Buffon  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  count 
by  Louis  XV.,  whose  favor,  as  also  that 
of  Louis  XVI.,  he  enjoyed.  His  works 
were  translated  into  almost  every  Euro- 
pean language. 

BUFFOON',  a merry-andrew,  a clown, 
a jester. 

BUFORD,  John,  an  American  soldier, 
born  in  Kentucky  in  1826,  died  in  1863. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Point,  fought 
in  the  Indian  wars,  and  was  a brigadier- 
general  in  the  Union  army  during  the 
civil  war.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  of  the  minor  generals  in  Ameri- 
can history. 

BUG,  a name  given  to  the  house-bug 
or  bedbug,  or  any  member  of  this  genus 
or  of  the  family  Cimicidse.  The  com- 
mon bug  is  about  inch  long,  wingless, 
of  a roundish  depressed  body,  dirty 
rust  color,  and  emits  an  offensive  smell 
when  touched.  The  female  lays  her 
eggs  in  summer  in  the  crevices  of  bed- 
steads, furniture,  and  walls  of  rooms. 
Its  larvse  are  small,  white,  and  semi- 
transparent. They  attain  full  size  in 
eleven  weeks.  The  mouth  of  the  bug 
has  a three-jointed  proboscis,  which 
forms  a sheath  for  a sucker.  It  is  fond 
of  human  blood,  but  eats  various  other 
substances. 

BUGGY,  a name  given  to  several 
species  of  carriages  or  gigs:  in  England, 
a light  one-horse  two-wheeled  vehicle 
without  a hood;  in  the  U.  States,  a 
light  one-horse  four-wheeled  vehicle, 
with  or  without  a hood  or  top ; in  India, 
a gig  with  a large  hood  to  screen  those 
who  travel  in  it  from  the  sun’s  rays. 

BU'GLE,  a military  musical  brass 
wind-instrument  of  the  horn  kind, 
sometimes  furnished  with  keys  or  valves. 
It  is  used  in  the  American  and  other 
armies  to  sound  signal-calls.  The  name 
is  an  abbreviation  of  bugle-horn,  that 
is,  buffalo-horn. 

BUGLE,  a shiny  elongated  glass  bead, 
usually  black,  used  in  decorating  female 
apparel  and  also  in  trafficking  with 
sav^e  tribes. 

BUILDING  ACTS,  laws  restricting  the 
rights  of  land  owners  in  the  matter  of 
improving  their  land  with  buildings. 


P.  K.— 13 


BUILDING  AND  LOAN  ASSOCIATIONS 


BULLDOG 


They  generally  have  to  do  with  the ' 
height,  stability,  material,  sanitation, 
etc.,  of  proposed  structures. 

BUILDING  AND  LOAN  ASSOCIA- 
TIONS, societies  the  purpose  of  which 
is  to  encourage  and  assist  individuals 
in  buying,  building,  and  paying  for  a 
home.  They  were  in  existence  in  Eng- 
land as  early  as  1781,  but  were  first 
introduced  in  the  U.  States  in  1831. 

Five  states,  New  York,  Massachu- 
setts, New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  Illinois, 
require  these  associations  to  make 
annual  returns,  the  same  as  is  required 
of  savings  banks.  In  all  the  other  states 
no  control  whatsoever  is  exercised  over 
them. 

BUILDING  LOANS,  loans  made  to 
owners  of  land  who  desire  to  build  upon 
the  land.  They  are  usually  secured  by  a 
mortgage  on  the  whole  property. 

BUILDING  STONE,  stone  used  in  the 
construction  of  buildings  of  any  kind, 
of  bridges,  walls,  or  other  structures  in 
which  stone  can  be  used.  The  principal 
building  stones  are  granite,  limestones 
of  various  kinds,  marbles,  sandstones, 
and  slate.  Granite  is  the  most  enduring 
of  stones,  as  it  is  not  so  easily  affected  by 
weather.  The  granite  quarries  of  the 
U.  States  are  practically  inexhaustible, 
and  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
in  respect  to  the  other  stones  used  for 
building  are  unsurpassed  in  the  world. 

BUKAREST',  the  capital  of  Rou- 
mania,  situated  on  the  Dimbovitza 
about  33  miles  north  of  the  Danube,  in 
a fertile  plain.  It  is  in  general  poorly 
built,  among  the  chief  buildings  being 


A Street  in  Bukarest. 


the  royal  palace,  the  National  Theater, 
the  university  buildings,  the  National 
Bank,  the  Mint,  and  the  Archiepiscopal 
Church.  There  are  handsome  public 
gardens.  Manufactures  are  varied  but 
unimportant;  the  trade  is  considerable, 
the  chief  articles  being  grain,  wool, 
honey,  wax,  wine,  hides.  The  mercan- 
tile portion  of  the  community  is  mostly 
foreign,  and  the  whole  population  pre- 
sents a curious  blending  of  nationalities. 
Bukarest  became  the  capital  of  Wala- 
chia in  1665,  in  1862  that  of  the  united 
principalities  of  Walachia  and  Moldavia. 

treaty  was  concluded  here  in  1812 
between  Turkey  and  Russia  by  which 
ihe  former  ceded  Bessarabia  and  part 
of  Moldavia:  Pop.  282,071. 

BUKOWINA  (bd-ko-ve'na),  an  Aus- 
trian duchy,  forming  the  southeastern 
coTner  of  Galicia.  Area,  4035  sq.  miles; 
pop.  571,671.  It  is  traversed  by  ramifi- 


cations of  the  Carpathians,  and  much  of 
the  surface  is  occupied  with  swamps  and 
forests.  Chief  town,  Czernowitz. 

BULANDSHAHR  (bu-land-shar'),  a 
district  of  India,  United  Provinces,  in 
the  alluvial  plain  between  the  Ganges 
and  the  Jumna;  producing  cotton,  in- 
digo, sugar,  etc.  Area,  1911  sq.  miles; 
pop.  949,914. — Bulandshahr,  the  capital, 
has  a pop.  of  16,900. 

BULB,  a modified  leaf-bud,  formed  on 
a plant  upon  or  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  emitting  roots  from  its  base, 
and  producing  a stem  from  its  center. 
It  is  formed  of  imbricated  scales  or  of 
concentric  coats  or  layers.  It  incloses 
the  rudiments  of  the  future  plant  and 
a store  of  food  to  nourish  it.  Examples 
of  bulbs  are  the  onion,  lily,  hyacinth, 
etc. 

BULGA'RIA,  a principality  tributary 
to  Turkey,  constituted  by  the  first 
article  of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  July  13, 
1878,  and  placed  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  sultan.  It  is  bounded  north  by 
Roumania  and  the  Dobrudsha,  east  by 
the  Black  Sea,  south  by  the  Balkan 
Mountains,  which  separate  it  from 
Eastern  Rumelia,  and  west  by  Servia. 
The  principal  towns  are  Widdin,  Sofia, 
Plevna,  Sistova,  Tirnova,  Rustchuk, 
Shumla,  Varna,  and  Silistria.  The 
country  almost  wholly  belongs  to  the 
north  slope  of  the  Balkans,  and  is  inter- 
sected by  streams  flowing  from  that 
range  to  the  Danube.  It  possesses 
much  good  agricultural  land  and  a good 
climate;  but  cultivation  is  backward, 
though  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  horses 
is  successfully  carried  on.  Agricultural 
produce  is  exported, manufactured  goods 
imported.  Education  is  backward,  but 
is  improving;  four  years’  school  attend- 
ance is  obligatory  in  principle.  The 
prevalent  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek 
Church.  The  revenue  and  expenditure 
are  each  about  $20,000,000.  Military 
service  is  obligatory;  the  war  strength 
of  the  army  is  about  130,000.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  a consti- 
tution was  drawn  up  by  an  assembly  of 
Bulgarian  notables  in  1879  By  this 
constitution,  as  subsequently  amended, 
the  legislative  authority  is  vested  in  a 
single  chamber,  called  the  Sobranje  or 
National  Assembly,  elected  by  man- 
hood suffrage  for  five  years,  the  mem- 
bers being  now  one  for  every  20,000  of 
the  population.  The  capital  is  Sofia, 
On  the  29th  of  April,  1879,  Prince  Alex- 
ander of  Battenberg,  cousin  of  the 
Grand-duke  of  Hesse,  was  elected  prince 
by  unanimous  vote  of  the  constituent 
assembly.  In  1885  a national  rising  took 
place  in  Eastern  Rumelia,  the  Turkish 
governor  was  expelled,  and  union  with 
Bulgaria  proclaimed.  In  consequence 
Servia  demanded  an  addition  to  her 
own  territory,  and  began  a war  against 
Bulgaria  (Nov.,  1885),  in  which  she  was 
severely  defeated.  By  the  treaty  which 
followed,  the  Prince  of  Bulgaria  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  Eastern 
Rumelia  for  a term  of  five  years,  to  be 
renominated  at  the  end  of  that  time  by 
sanction  of  the  great  powers.  These 
events  greatly  irritated  Russia,  whose 
agents  managed  to  seduce  certain  regi- 
ments of  Bulgarians;  and  in  August, 
1 886,  the  prince  was  seized  and  carried 


off,  while  a proclamation  was  issued  to 
the  effect  that  he  had  abdicated.  When 
he  was  set  free  on  Austrian  territory  he 
discovered  that  the  people  were  still 
with  him,  and  determined  to  return. 
Seeing,  however,  that  his  presence 
would  cause  an  immediate  interference 
on  the  part  of  Russia *he  formally  ab- 
dicated and  left  the  country  (7th  Sep., 
1886).  In  1887  Prince  Ferdinand  of 
Saxe-Coburg  accepted  an  invitation  to 
occupy  the  throne  and  the  six  great 
powers  sanctioned  the  step.  In  1908  Bul- 
garia proclaimed  its  independence.  The 
area  of  Bulgaria  proper  is  24,440  sq. 
miles  of  Eastern  Rumelia  or  southern 
Bulgaria,  13,500  sq.  miles.  The  total 
pop.  is  3,733,189. 

BULGARIANS,  a race  of  Finnish 
origin,  whose  original  seat  was  the  banks 
of  the  Volga,  and  who  subdued  the  old 
Mcpsian  population  and  established  a 
kingdom  in  the  present  Bulgaria  in  the 
7th  century.  They  soon  became  blended 
with  the  conquered  Slavs,  whose  lan- 
guage they  adopted.  In  the  14th  century 
the  country  was  conquered  by  the  Turks, 
and  has  until  lately  remained  part  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  (See  Bulgaria ) 
The  Bulgarian  language  is  divided  into 
two  dialects,  the  old  and  the  new;  the 
former  is  the  richest  and  best  of  the 
Slavonic  tongues,  and  although  extinct 
as  a living  tongue  is  still  used  as  the 
sacred  language  of  the  Greek  Church. 
The  Bulgarians  are  now  spread  over 
many  parts  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 

BULK-HEADS,  partitions  built  be- 
tween the  several  portions  of  the  in- 
terior of  a ship,  whether  to  separate  it 
into  rooms,  or  as  a safeguard  in  case  of 
wreck. 

BULL,  a letter,  edict,  or  rescript  of 
the  pope,  published  or  transmitted  to 
the  churches  over  which  he  is  head,  con- 
taining some  decree,  order,  or  decision, 
and  in  many  cases  having  a leaden  seal 
attached,  impressed  on  one  side  with 
the  heads  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  on 
the  other  with  the  name  of  the  pope. 
The  document  is  in  Latin  and  on  parch- 
ment. 

BULL,  the  name  given  to  the  male 
of  any  bovine  quadruped. 

BULL,  John,  the  English  nation  per- 
sonified, and  hence  any  typical  English- 
man: first  used  in  Arbuthnot’s  satire. 
The  History  of  John  Bull,  designed  to 
ridicule  the  Duke  of  Marlborough;  and 
in  which  the  French  are  personified  as 
Lewis  Baboon,  the  Dutch  as  Nicholas 
Frog,  etc. 

BULL,  Ole  Bornemann,  famous  vio- 
linist, born  at  Bergen,  in  Norway,  1810; 
died  1880.  He  secured  great  triumphs 
both  throughout  Europe  and  in  America 
by  his  wonderful  playing. 

BULL-BAITING,  the  barbarous  sport 
of  setting  dogs  on  a bull,  which  is  tied  to 
a stake  and  worried  by  the  dogs  for  the 
amusement  of  the  spectators.  It  was  a 
favorite  sport  in  England  from  a very 
early  period  till  it  was  finally  put  down 
by  act  of  parliament  in  1835. 

BULLDOG,  a variety  of  the  common 
dog,  remarkable  for  its  short,  broad 
muzzle,  and  the  projection  of  its  lower 
jaw,  which  causes  the  lower  front  teeth 
to  protrude  beyond  the  upper.  The 
head  is  massive  and  broad : the  lips  are 


BULLE^^ 


BUMPUS 


thick  and  pendulous;  the  ears  pendent 
at  the  extremity;  the  neck  robu:t  and 
short;  the  body  long  and  stout;  and 
the  legs  short  and  thick.  The  bulldog 
is  a slow-motioned,  ferocious  animal, 
better  suited  for  savage  combat  than 
for  any  purpose  requiring  activity  and 
intelligence.  For  this  reason  he  is  often 
employed  as  a watch-dog.  It  was  for- 
merly used — as  its  name  implies — for  the 
barbarous  sport  of  bull-baiting. — The 
bull  terrier  was  originally  from  a cross 
between  the  bulldog  and  the  terrier. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  bulldog,  lively, 
docile,  and  very  courageous. 

BULLEN,  Anne.  See  Boleyn. 

BULLER,  Sir  Henry  Redvers,  a 
British  soldier,  born  in  1839,  commander 
of  the  army  in  South  Africa  during 
the  early  part  of  the  Anglo-Boer  war  in 
1898.  His  command  was  marked  by 
numerous  disasters  and  defeats,  and 
his  military  reputation  totally  annihi- 
lated. He  was  soon  afterward  retired 
from  the  service.  Died  in  1908. 

BU’^  LET  (byl'et),  a projectile  in- 
tended to  be  discharged  from  firearms 
or  other  missile  weapons;  more  espe- 
cially, one  for  a rifle,  musket,  fowling- 
piece,  pistol,  or  similar  firearm.  Bullets 
used  to  be  solid  spherical  masses,  but  of 
late  many  changes  have  been  made  in 
their  shape  and  structure.  Bullets  used 
for  rifles  of  recent  construction  are  elon- 
gated and  generally  rounded,  conical,  or 
ogival  at  the  apex,  somewhat  like  half 
a.n  egg  drawn  out,  often  with  a hollow 
at  the  base,  into  which  a plug  of  wood 
or  clay  is  inserted.  When  the  rifle  is 
fired  the  plug  is  driven  forward,  forcing 
the  base  of  the  bullet  outward  till  the 
lead  catches  the  grooves  of  the  barrel. 

BULLETIN  (byl'e-tin),  an  authen- 
ticated official  report  concerning  some 
public  event,  such  as  military  operations, 
the  health  of  the  sovereign  or  other  dis- 
tinguished personage,  issued  for  the 
information  of  the  public.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  some  periodical  publi- 
cations recording  the  proceedings  of 
learned  societies. 

BULLET-TREE,  or  BULLY-TREE,  a 

forest  tree  of  Guiana  and  neighboring 
regions  yielding  an  excellent  gum  (the 
concreted  milky  juice)  known  as  balata, 
having  properties  giving  it  in  some  re- 
spects an  intermediate  position  between 
gutta-percha  and  india-rubber,  and 
making  it  for  certain  industrial  purposes 
more  useful  than  either.  In  the  U. 
States  it  is  used  as  a chewing  material. 
The  timber  of  the  tree  is  also  valuable. 

BULL-FIGHTS  are  among  the  favorite 
diversions  of  the  Spaniards.  They  are 
usually  held  in  an  amphitheater  having 
circular  seats  rising  one  above  another, 
and  are  attended  by  vast  crowds  who 
eagerly  pay  for  admission.  Thie  com 
batants,  who  make  bull-fighting  their 
profession,  march  into  the  arena  in  pro- 
cession. They  are  of  various  kinds — 
the  picadores,  combatants  on  horseback, 
in  the  old  Spanish  knightly  garb;  the 
chulos  or  banderilleros,  combatants  on 
foot,  in  gay  dresses,  with  colored  cloaks 
or  banners;  and  lastly,  the  matador 
(the  killer).  As  soon  as  the  signal  is 
given  the  bull  is  let  into  the  arena.  The 
picadores,  who  have  stationed  them- 
selves near  him,  commence  the  attack 


with  their  lances,  and  the  bull  is  thus 
goaded  to  fury.  Sometimes  a horse  is 
wounded  or  killed  (only  old  worthless 
animals  are  thus  employed),  and  the 
rid^  r is  obliged  to  run  for  his  life.  The 
chulos  assist  the  hor.semen  by  drawing 
the  attention  of  the  bull  with  their 
cloaks;  and  in  case  of  danger  they  save 
themselves  by  leaping  over  the  wooden 
fence  which  surrounds  the  arena.  The 
banderilleros  then  come  into  play. 
They  try  to  fasten  on  the  bull  their 
banderillas — barbed  darts  ornamented 
with  colored  paper,  and  often  having 
squibs  or  crackers  attached.  If  they 
succeed,  the  squibs  are  discharged,  and 
the  bull  races  madly  about  the  arena. 
The  matador  or  espada  now  comes  in 
gravely  with  a naked  sword,  and  a red 
flag  to  decoy  the  bull  with,  and  aims  a 
fatal  blow  at  the  animal.  The  slaughter- 
ed bull  is  dragged  away,  and  another  is 
let  out  from  the  stall.  Several  bulls  are 
so  disposed  of  in  a single  day. 

BULLFINCH,  an  insessorial  bird,  with 
short  thick  rounded  bill,  beak  and  crown 
of  the  head  black,  body  bluish-gray 
above  and  bright  tile-red  below.  It 


Bullfinch. 


occurs  in  Britain,  in  the  middle  and 
south  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia,  and  when 
tamed  may  be  taught  to  sing  musical 
airs. 

BULLFROG,  a large  species  of  frog 
found  in  North  America,  8 to  12  inches 
long,  of  a dusky-brown  color  mixed 
with  a yellowish  green,  and  spotted  with 
black.  These  frogs  live  in  stagnant 
water,  and  utter  a low  croaking  sound 
resembling  the  lowing  of  cattle,  whence 
the  name. 

BULLHEAD,  the  popular  name  of 
certain  fishes.  One  of  these,  a British 
fish,  is  about  4 inches  long,  with  head 
very  large  and  broader  than  the  body. 
The  armed  bull-head  is  found  in  the 
Baltic  and  northern  seas ; the  six-horned 
bull-head  is  a North  American  species. 
In  America  this  name  is  called  also  Cat- 
fish and  Horned-pout. 

BUL'LION  is  uncoined  gold  or  silver, 
in  bars,  plate,  or  other  masses,  but  the 
term  is  frequently  employed  to  signify 
the  precious  metals  coined  and  uncoined. 

BULL  RUN,  a stream  in  the  n.e  of 
Virginia,  flowing  into  the  Occoquan  river, 
14  miles  from  the  Potomac;  the  scene 
of  two  great  battles  during  the  American 
civil  war  in  which  the  Federals  were  de- 
feated. The  first  battle  was  fought  21st 
July,  1861';  and  the  second  on  30th 
August,  1862. 


BULLS  AND  BEARS,  in  stock-ex- 
change  slang,  manipulators  of  stocks; 
the  former  operating  in  order  to  effect  a 
rise  in  price,  the  latter  doing  all  they  can 
to  bring  prices  of  stock  down. 

BULL’S-EYE,  (1)  a round  piece  of 
thick  glass,  convex  on  one  side,  inserted 
into  the  decks,  ports,  scuttle-hatches, 
or  skylight-covers  of  a vessel  for  the 
purpose  of  admitting  light.  (2)'  A small 
lantern  with  a lens  in  one  side  of  it  to 
concentrate  the  light  in  any  desired 
direction.  (3)  In  rifle  shooting,  the 
center  of  a target,  of  a differerent  color 
from  the  rest  of  it  and  usually  round. 

BULOW  (bu'lc),  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
von,  Prussian  general,  born  175.5,  died 
1816.  He  was  actively  engaged  against 
the  French  at  the  earliest  periods  of  the 
revolutionary  war;  and  his  services  in 
1813  and  1814,  especially  at  Grosbeeren 
and  Dennewitz,  were  rewarded  with  a 
Grand  Knightship  of  the  Iron  Cross  and 
the  title  Count  Billow  von  Dennewitz. 
As  commander  of  the  fourth  division  of 
the  allied  army  he  contributed  to  the 
victorious  close  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

BULOW  (bii'lo),  Hans  Guido  von, 
pianist  and  composer,  born  at  Dresden 
1830.  He  studied  the  piano  under  Liszt, 
and  made  his  first  public  appearance  in 
1852.  In  1855  he  became  leading  pro- 
fessor in  the  Conservatory  at  Berlin ; in 
1858  was  appointed  court  pianist;  and 
in  1867  he  became  musical  director  to 
the  King  of  Bavaria.  His  compositions 
include  overture  and  music  to  Julius 
Caesar,  The  Minstrel’s  Curse,  and  Nir- 
wana;  songs,  choruses,  and  pianoforte 
pieces.  He  was  considered  one  of  the 
first  of  pianists  and  orchestral  conduct- 
ors. He  died  in  1894. 

BULOZ  (bii-loz),  Fran5ois,  born  near 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  1803,  died  at  Paris 
1877;  founder  and  editor  of  the  Revue 
des  Deux  Mondes,  the  celebrated  French 
fortnightly  literary  magazine. 

BULRUSH  (buF-),  the  popular  name 
for  large  rush-like  plants  growing  in 
marshes,  not  very  definitely  applied. 
Some  authors  apply  the  name  to  cat’s- 
tail  or  reed-mace.  But  it  is  more  gener- 
ally restricted  to  a tall  rush-like  plant 
from  which  the  bottoms  of  chairs,  mats, 
etc.,  are  manufactured. 

BULWER  (bill'-).  Sir  Henry  Lytton, 
Lord  Dalling  and  Bulwer,  diplomatist 
and  author,  elder  brother  of  Lord 
Lytton,  born  1804,  died  1872.  He  was 
attached  to  the  British  embas.sies  at 
Berlin,  Brussels,  and  the  Hague  from 
1827  to  1830,  when  he  entered  parlia- 
ment. In  1837  he  was  sent  as  secretary 
of  legation  to  Constantinople;  subse- 
quently he  was  minister  at  Madrid  and 
Washington;  and  he  succeeded  Lord 
Stratford  de  Redcliffe  as  ambassador 
at  the  Porte  (1858-6.5).  He  wrote, 
among  others,  France,  Social,  Literary, 
and  Political;  Life  of  Byron,  Life  of 
Palmerston,  and  Historical  Characters. 
He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1871. 

BULWER  LYTTON.  See  Lytton, 
Lord. 

BUM-BOAT,  a small  boat  used  to  sell 
vegetables,  etc.,  to  ships  lying  at  a dis- 
tance from  shore. 

BUMPUS,  Herman  Carey,  an  Ameri- 
can anatomist  and  zoologist,  born  in 
Maine  in  1862.  He  is  director  of  the 


BUNCE 


BUOY 


biological  laboratory  at  Am.  Mus.  Nat- 
ural History,  New  York. 

BUNCE,  Francis  Marvin,  an  American 
admiral,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1836. 
He  was  graduated  at  Annapolis  in  1857, 
was  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Charleston 
in  1863,  and  was  commander  of  the 
monitor  Monadnock  from  Philadelphia 
to  San  Francisco  in  1865.  In  1898  he 
was  retired  with  the  rank  of  rear  ad- 
miral. 

BUNCO,  a word  used  to  designate  a 
species  of  swindling  practiced  by  city 
sharpers  on  strangers.  The  stranger  is 
led  to  believe  that  the  “bunco  man”  is 
acquainted  with  people  of  influence  in 
the  stranger’s  locality,  and  in  one  way 
or  another  is  then  fleeced  of  money. 

BUNCOMBE,  BUNKUM,  a county  in 
South  Carolina;  area,  450  sq.  miles; 
pop.  21,910.  The  term  Bunkum,  mean- 
ing talking  for  talking’s  sake,  bombastic 
speech-making,  is  said  to  have  originated 
with  a congressional  member  for  this 
county,  who  declared  that  he  was  only 
talking  for  Buncombe,  when  attempts 
were  made  to  cut  his  oratory  short. 

BUNDELCUND,  a tract  of  country 
in  Upper  India  lying  between  the  river 
Jumna  on  the  n.,  and  the  Chambal  on 
the  n.  and  w.;  area,  20,658  sq.  miles; 
pop.  3,779,627.  It  comprises  the  British 
districts  of  Hamirpur,  Jalaun,  Jhansi, 
Lalitpur,  and  Banda,  and  tliirty-one 
native  states. 

BUNDESRATH  (bun'des-rat),  the 
German  federal  council  which  represents 
the  individual  states  of  the  empire,  as 
the  Reichstag  represents  the  German 
nation.  It  consists  of  sixty-two  dele- 
gates, and  its  functions  are  mainly  those 
of  a confirming  body,  although  it  has 
the  privilege  of  rejecting  measures 
passed  by  the  Reichstag. 

BUN'GALOW,  in  India,  a house  or 
residence,  generally  of  a single  floor. 
Native  bungalows  are  constructed  of 
wood,  bamboos,  etc.;  but  those  erected 


Bungalow  on  Penang  hills. 

by  Europeans  are  generally  built  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  and  thatched  or  tiled, 
and  are  of  all  styles  and  sizes,  but  in- 
variably surrounded  by  a veranda. 

BUNTON,  an  enlargement  and  in- 
flammation of  the  joint  of  the  great  toe 
arising  from  irritation  of  the  small  mem- 
branous sac  called  bursa  mucosa. 

BUNK,  a wooden  box  or  case  serving 
as  a seat  during  the  day  and  a bed  at 
night;  also  one  of  a series  of  sleeping 
berths  arranged  above  each  other. 

BUNKER  HILL,  a small  eminence  in 
Charlestown,  now  a part  of  Boston, 
Mass. ; scene  of  the  first  important  battle 
in  the  revolutionary  war,  fought  June 
17, 1775.  A considerable  body  of  Amer- 
icans having  been  sent  to  occupy 


the  peninsula  on  which  Charlestown 
stands,  a British  force  was  sent  to  dis- 
lodge them.  This  Tvas  not  effected  till 
after  three  assaults  on  their  intrenched 
position,  with  a loss  of  1000  men,  while 
the  Americans  did  not  lose  half  that 
number. 

BUNKUM.  See  Buncombe. 

BUNSEN,  Robert  Wilhelm  Eberard, 
eminent  German  chemist,  born  at  Got- 
tingen 1811.  Among  his  many  dis- 
coveries and  inventions  are  the  produc- 
tion of  magnesium  in  quantities,  mag- 
nesium light,  spectrum  analysis,  the 
Bunsen  burner,  etc.  He  died  in  1899. 

BUNSEN’S  BURNER,  a form  of  gas 
burner  especially  adapted  for  heating, 
consisting  of  a tube,  in  which,  by  means 
of  holes  in  the  side,  the  gas  becomes 
mixed  with  air  before  consumption  so 
that  it  gives  a non-illuminating  smoke- 
less flame. 

BUNT'ING,  a thin  woolen  stuff,  of 
which  the  colors  and  signals  of  a ship  are 
usually  formed;  hence,  a vessel’s  flags 
collectively. 

BUN'YAN,  John,  author  of  the  Pil- 
grim’s Progress,  was  the  son  of  a tinker, 
and  was  born  at  the  village  of  Elstow, 
near  Bedford,  in  1628,  died  in  London 
1688.  He  followed  his  father’s  employ- 
ment, but  during  the  civil  war  he  served 
as  a soldier.  Returning  to  Elstow,  after 
much  mental  conflict  his  mind  became 
impressed  with  a deep  sense  of  the  truth 
and  importance  of  religion.  He  joined 
a society  of  Anabaptists  at  Bedford,  and 
at  length  undertook  the  office  of  a public 
teacher  among  them.  Acting  in  defiance 
of  the  severe  laws  against  dissenters, 
Bunyan  was  detained  in  prison  for 
twelve  years  (1660-72),  but  was  at  last 
liberated,  and  became  pastor  of  the  com- 
munity with  which  he  had  previously 
been  connected.  During  his  imprison- 
ment he  wrote  Profitable  Meditations, 
The  Holy  City,  etc.,  and  also  the  curious 
piece  of  autobiography  entitled  Grace 
Abounding  to  the  Chief  of  Sinners.  In 
1675  he  was  sent  to  prison  for  six  months 
under  the  Conventicle  Act.  To  this  con- 
finement he  owes  his  chief  literary  fame, 
for  in  the  solitude  of  his  cell  he  produced 
the  first  part  of  that  admired  religious 
allegory,  the  Pilgrim’s  Progress.  His 
Holy  War,  his  other  religious  parables, 
and  his  devotional  tracts,  which  are 
numerous,  are  also  remarkable,  and 
many  of  them  valuable.  On  obtaining 
his  liberty  Bunyan  resumed  his  functions 
as  a minister  at  Bedford,  and  became 
extremely  popular.  He  died  when  on  a 
visit  to  London. 

BUONAPARTE.  See  Bonaparte. 

BUONAROTTI  (bu-o-na-rot'te),  Mi- 
chael Angelo,  of  the  ancient  family  of  the 
counts  of  Canossa,  born  at  Caprese,  in 
Tuscany,  1475,  died  at  Rome  1563;  a 
distinguished  Italian  painter,  sculptor, 
architect,  and  poet.  Having  distin- 
guished nimself  both  in  sculpture  and 
painting,  he  was  commissioned  (to- 
gether with  Leonardo  da  Vinci)  to  deco- 
rate the  senate-hall  at  Florence  with  a 
historical  design,  but  before  it  was  fin- 
ished, in  1505,  he  was  induced  by  Pope 
Julius  II.  to  settle  in  Rome.  Here  he 
sculptured  the  monument  of  the  pontiff 
(there  are  seven  statues  belonging  to  it) 
now  in  the  church  of  St.  Pietro  in  Vin- 


coli;  and  painted  the  dome  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  his  frescoes  representing 
the  creation  and  the  principal  events  of 
sacred  history.  In  1530  he  took  a lead- 
ing part  in  the  defense  of  Florence 


Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti. 


against  Charles  V.  Three  years  later 
he  began  his  great  picture  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  the  Last  Judgment,  which 
occupied  him  eight  years.  His  last  con- 
siderable works  in  painting  were  two 
large  pictures:  the  Conversion  of  St. 
Paul  and  the  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  in 
the  Pauline  Chapel.  In  sculpture  he 
executed  the  Descent  of  Christ  from  the 
Cross,  four  figures  of  one  piece  of  marble. 
His  statue  of  Bacchus  was  thought  by 
Raphael  to  possess  equal  perfection  with 
the  masterpieces  of  Phidias  and  Praxit- 
eles. As  late  as  1546  he  was  obliged  to 
undertake  the  continuation  of  the  build- 
ing of  St.  Peter’s,  and  planned  and 
built  the  dome,  but  he  did  not  live  long 
enough  to  see  his  plan  finished,  in 
which  many  alterations  were  made 
after  his  death.  Besides  this,  he  under- 
took the  building  of  the  Piazza  del 
Campidoglio  (Capitol),  of  the  Farnese 
Palace,  and  of  many  other  edifices.  His 
style  in  architecture  is  distinguished  by 
grandeur  and  boldness,  and  in  his  orna- 
ments the  untamed  character  of  the 
imagination  frequently  appears,  pre- 
ferring the  uncommon  to  the  simple  and 
elegant. 

BUOY  (boi),  any  floating  body  em- 
ployed to  point  out  the  particular  situa- 
tion of  a ship’s  anchor,  a shoal,  the 
direction  of  a navigable  channel,  etc. 


Buoys. 

1,  Can-buoy.  2,  Nun-buoy.  3,  Bell-buoy. 
‘ 4,  Mooring-buoy. 


They  are  made  of  wood,  or  now  more 
commonly  of  wrought-iron  plates  rivet- 
ed together  and  forming  hollow  cham- 
bers. They  are  generally  moored  by 
chains  to  the  bed  of  the  channel,  et" 


BURBANK 


BURGUNDY 


They  are  of  various  shapes,  and  receive ) 
corresponding  names;  thus  there  are 
the  can-buoy,  the  nun-buoy,  the  bell- 
buoy,  the  mooring-buoy,  as  represented 
in  the  accompanying  cuts.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  a floating  object  intended 
to  keep  a person  afloat  till  he  can  be 
taken  from  the  water:  more  particu- 
larly called  a life-bouy. 

BURBANK,  Luther,  an  American 
plant  grower,  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1849,  and  since  1875  the  proprietor 
of  an  experimental  farm  near  Santa 
Rosa,  Cal.  By  means  of  artificial  selec- 
tion he  has  bred  numerous  useful  varie- 
ties of  food  plant,  including  a thornless 
cactus  and  a white  blackberry. 

BURCHARD,  Samuel  Dickinson,  an 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  born 
in  New  York  in  1812,  died  in  1891.  He 
preached  to  New  York  City.  Burchard 
is  famous  chiefly  for  his  speech  in  1884 
during  the  Blaine-Cleveland  campaign, 
in  which  he  denounced  the  democratic 
party  as  the  party  of  Rum,  Romanism, 
and  Rebellion.  The  speech,  it  is  be- 
lieved, defeated  Blaine,  notwithstanding 
his  favor  with  many  Roman  Catholics. 

BURDEN,  Henry,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Scotland  in  1791,  died 
in  1871.  His  principal  inventions,  are 
improvements  in  the  plow,  a railroad 
spike  making  machine,  and  a horseshoe 
making  machine.  He  was  the  owner 
of  the  Troy  Iron  and  Nail  Works. 

BURDEN  OF  PROOF,  the  obligation 
resting  on  the  affirmant  of  a proposition 
to  prove  the  truth  of  his  affirmation. 
In  criminal  cases  the  burden  of  proof 
rests  with  the  state. 

BUR'DETT,  Sir  Francis,  English 
politician,  born  1770,  died  1844.  In 
1796  he  entered  parliament  as  member 
for  Boroughbridge,  and  advocated  par- 
liamentary reform  and  various  liberal 
measures.  He  afterward  sat  for  Middle- 
sex, and  in  1807-37  for  Westminster. 
In  his  later  years  he  became  a Tory, 
and  represented  North  Wilts.  In  1793 
he  married  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Thomas  Coutts  the  banker. 

BURDETT-COUTTS  (kots),  Angela 
Georgina,  daughter  of  the  above,  born 
1814,  has  become  deservedly  popular 
for  the  liberal  use  she  has  made  of  the 
immense  wealth  she  inherited  from  her 
grandfather  (Thomas  Coutts)  in  public 
and  private  charities.  In  1871  she 
received  a peerage  from  government, 
and  in  1881  married  a Mr.  Ashmead- 
Bartlett  who  has  assumed  the  name  of 
Burdett-Coutts.  She  died  in  1906. 

BUREAU  (bu-ro'),  a writing-table, 
also  the  chamber  of  an  officer  of  gov- 
ernment and  the  body  of  subordinate 
officers  who  labor  under  the  direction  of 
a chief. — Bureau  system,  or  bureau- 
cracy, is  a term  often  applied  to  those 
governments  in  which  the  business  of 
administration  is  carried  on  in  depart- 
ments, each  under  the  control  of  a chief; 
or,  more  broadly,  the  system  of  central- 
izing the  administration  of  a country 
through  regularly  graded  series  of  gov- 
ernment officials. 

BURGESS,  Edward,  an  American 
naval  architect,  born  in  1848,  died  in 
1891.  He  is  noted  for  his  designs  of 
racing  yachts,  including  the  Puritan, 
the  Mayflower,  and  the  Volunteer, 
which  were  successful  defenders  of 


the  America’s  cup  in  1885,  1886,  and 
1887. 

BURGESS,  Frank  Gelett,  an  Ameri- 
can humorist,  born  in  1866,  in  Boston. 
He  originated  in  1895  a fantastical 
weekly  called  The  Lark,  which  was  pub- 
lished with  poor  success  at  San  Fran- 
cisco. His  drawings  are  quaint  and 
most  pleasing. 

BURGESS,  Neil,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Boston  in  1846.  His  principal 
roles  have  been  those  of  Josiah  Allen’s 
Wife,  and  the  Widow  Bedott,  female 
characters  in  which  the  actor  evinced  a 
quaint  and  fetching  humor  which  has 
made  him  exceedingly  popular. 

BURG'LARY  is  defined  in  English 
law  to  be  a breaking  and  entering  the 
dwelling-house  of  another,  in  the  night, 
with  intent  to  commit  some  felony 
within  the  same,  whether  such  felonious 
intent  be  executed  or  not.  In  the  U. 
States  the  crime  of  burglary  has  been 
defined  in  many  states  by  statutes  in 
which  the  meaning  of  the  term  has  been 
considerably  widened  so  as  to  include 
the  breaking  into  any  building  at  any 
time  with  the  intention  of  committing 
a crime. 

BUR'GOMASTER,  the  chief  magis- 
trate of  a municipal  towm  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  Germany.  The  title  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  mayor  and  the  Scotch 
provost. 

BURGOS  (bur'gos),  a city  of  northern 
Spain,  once  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Old  Castile,  and  now  the  chief  town 
of  the  province  of  Burgos.  The  cathe- 
dral, commenced  in  1221,  is  one  of  the 


The  Cathedral  of  Burgos. 


finest  examples  of  Gothic  architecture 
in  Spain.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  the 
famous  Cid,  and  of  Don  Fernando,  both 
natives  of  Burgos,  and  celebrated 
throughout  Spain  for  their  heroic 
achievements  in  the  wars  with  the 
Moors.  Before  the  removal  of  the  court 
to  Madrid,  in  the  16th  century,  Burgos 
was  in  a very  flourishing  condition,  and 
contained  thrice  its  present  population. 
It  has  some  manufactures  in  woolens 
and  linens.  Pop.  29,683. — The  province 
has  an  area  of  5650  sq.  miles,  largely 
hilly  or  mountainous,  but  with  good 
agricultural  and  pastoral  land.  Pop. 
348  152 

BURGOYNE  (bur-goin'),  John,  an 
English  general  officer  and  dramatist; 
born  1722,  died  1792.  After  serving  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  he  was  in 
1777  appointed  commander  of  an  army 
against  the  revolted  Americans,  and 
took  Ticonderoga,  but  had  at  last  to 
surrender  with  his  whole  army  at  Sar- 
atoga. He  was  ill  received  on  his  return 
to  England,  and  deprived  of  his  com- 
mand of  the  76th  Light  Dragoons  and 
the  governorship  of  Fort  William. 

BURGUNDY,  a region  of  western 
Europe,  so  named  from  the  Burgun- 


dians, a Teutonic  or  Germanic  people 
originally  from  the  country  between  the 
Oder  and  the  Vistula.  They  migrated 
first  to  the  region  of  the  Upper  Rhine, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century 


passed  into  Gaul  and  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  southeastern  part  of  this 
country,  where  they  founded  a king- 
dom having  its  seat  of  government 
sometimes  at  Lyons,  and  sometimes  at 
Geneva.  They  were  at  last  wholly  sub- 
dued by  the  Franks.  In  879  Boson, 
Count  of  Autun,  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing the  royal  dignity  again  in  part  of 
this  kingdom.  He  styled  himself  King 
of  Provence,  and  had  his  residence  at 
Arles.  His  son  Louis  added  the  country 
beyond  the  Jura,  and  thus  established 
Cis-Juran  Burgundy.  A second  king- 
dom arose  when  Rudolph  of  Strettlingen 
formed  Upper  or  Transjuran  Burgundy 
out  of  part  of  Switzerland  and  Savoy. 
Both  these  Burgundian  kingdoms  were 
united,  and  finally,  on  the  extinction  of 
Rudolph’s  line,  were  incorporated  with 
Germany.  But  a third  state,  the  his- 
torical Duchy  of  Burgundy,  consisting 
principally  of  the  French  province  of 
Bourgogne  or  Burgundy,  had  been 
formed  as  a great  feudal  and  almost 
independent  province  of  France  in  the 
9th  century.  This  first  ducal  line  died 
out  with  a Duke  Philip,  and  the  duchy, 
reverting  to  the  crown,  was,  in  1363, 
granted  by  King  John  of  France  to  his 
son  Philip  the  Bold,  who  thus  became 
the  founder  of  a new  line  of  dukes  of 
Burgundy.  A marriage  wuth  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Louis  III.,  count  of  Flanders, 
brought  him  Flanders,  Mechlin,  Ant- 
werp, and  Franche-Comt4.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Duke  John  the 
Fearless,  whose  son  and  successor, 
Philip  the  Good,  so  greatly  extended 
his  dominions,  that  on  his  death  in  1467 
his  son  Charles,  surnamed  the  Bold, 
though  possessing  only  the  title  of  duke, 
was  in  reality  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
powerful  sovereigns  of  Europe.  (See 
Charles  the  Bold.)  Charles  left  a daugh- 
ter, Mary  of  Burgundy,  the  sole  heiress 
of  his  states,  who  by  her  marriage  to 
Maximilian  of  Austria  transferred  a 
large  part  of  her  dominions  to  that 
prince,  while  Louis  XI.  of  France  ac- 
quired Burgundy  proper  as  a male  fief 
of  France.  Burgundy  then  formed  a 
province,  and  is  now  repi'esented  by  the 
four  departments  of  Yonne,  Cote-d’Or, 
Saone-et-Loire,  and  Ain.  It  is  waterecl 
by  a number  of  navigable  rivers,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  provinces 
in  France,  especially  of  wines. 


BURGUNDY  PITCH 


BURMAH 


BURGUNDY  PITCH,  a resin  got  from  I 
the  Norway  spruce  and  several  other 
pines.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a 
simulating  plaster.  It  takes  its  name 
from  Burgundy  in  France,  where  it  was 
first  prepared. 

BURGUNDY  WINES  are  produced  in 
the  former  province  of  Burgundy,  espe- 
cially in  the  department  of  C6te-d’Or, 
and  in  richness  of  flavor  and  all  the  more 
delicate  qualities  of  the  juice  of  the 
grape  they  are  inferior  to  none  in  the 
world.  Among  the  red  wines  of  Bur- 
gundy the  finest  are  the  Chambertin, 
the  Clos  Vougeot,  Roman4e-Conty,  etc. 

BURIAL  (be'ri-al),  the  mode  of  dis- 
posing of  the  dead,  a practice  which 
varies  among  different  peoples.  Among 
savage  races,  and  even  among  some 
cultured  peoples  of  the  East,  exposure 
to  wild  animals  or  birds  of  prey  is  not 
uncommon.  The  careful  embalmment 
of  their  dead  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
may  be  regarded  as  a special  form  of 
burial.  But  by  far  the  most  common 
forms  of  disposing  of  the  dead  have  been 
burning  and  interring.  Among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  both  forms  were 
racticed,  though  among  the  latter 
urning  became  common  only  in  the 
later  times  of  the  republic.  In  this  form 
of  burial  the  corpse,  after  being  borne 
in  procession  through  the  streets,  was 
placed  upon  a pyre  built  of  wood,  and 
profusely  sprinkled  with  oils  and  per- 
fumes. Eire  was  set  to  the  wood,  and 
after  the  process  of  cremation  was  com- 
plete the  bones  and  ashes  were  carefully 
gathered  together  by  the  relatives  and 
placed  in  an  urn.  With  the  introduction 
of  the  Christian  religion,  consecrated 
places  were  appropriated  for  the  purpose 
of  general  burial,  and  the  Roman  custom 
of  providing  the  sepulcher  with  a stone 
and  inscription  was  continued  by  the 
Christians.  The  practice  of  cremation 
now  declined  and  finally  disappeared, 
but  has  recently  to  some  little  extent 
been  revived. 

BU'RIATS,  a nomadic  Tartar  people 
allied  to  the  Kalmucks,  inhabiting  the 
southern  part  of  the  government  of 
Irkutsk  and  Transbaikalia.  Their  num- 
ber is  about  200,000.  They  live  in  huts 
called  yurts,  which  in  summer  are 
covered  with  leather,  in  winter  with  felt. 
They  support  themselves  by  their 
flocks,  by  hunting,  and  the  mechanical 
arts,  particularly  the  forging  of  iron. 

BURKE,  Edmund,  a writer,  orator, 
and  statesman  of  great  eminence,  was 
born  in  Dublin,  Jan.  1,  1730.  The 
political  career  for  which  he  had  been 
arduously  preparing  himself  all  along  at 
length  opened  up  to  him  on  his  appoint- 
ment as  private  secretary  to  Mr.  W.  G. 
Hamilton,  Secretary  for  Ireland,  in 
1761.  On  his  return  he  obtained  the 
appointment  of  private  secretary  to  the 
Marquis  of  Rockingham,  then  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury.  Through  the 
same  interest  he  entered  parliament  as 
member  for  Wendover  (1765).  The 
great  question  of  the  right  of  taxing  the 
American  colonies  was  then  occupying 
parliament,  and  the  Rockingham  min- 
istry having  taken,  mainly  through 
Burke’s  advice,  a middle  and  undecided 
course,  was  soon  dissolved  (1766).  From 
1770  to  1782  Lord  North  was  in  power, 
and  Burke  held  no  office.  In  1774-80 


he  was  member  for  Bristol.  In  several 
magnificent  speeches  he  criticized  the 
ministerial  measures  with  regard  to  the 
colonies,  and  advocated  a policy  of 
justice  and  conciliation.  In  1782,  when 
the  Rockingham  party  returned  to 
power,  Burke  obtained  the  lucrative 
post  of  paymaster-general  of  the  forces, 
and  shortly  after  introduced  his  famous 


Edmund  Burke. 


bill  for  economical  reform,  which  passed 
after  considerable  modifications  had 
been  made  on  it.  On  the  fall  of  the  Duke 
of  Portland’s  coalition  ministry,  1783, 
of  which  Burke  had  also  been  part,  Pitt 
again  succeeded  to  power,  and  it  was 
during  this  administration  that  the  im- 
peachment of  Hastings,  in  which  Burke 
was  the  prime  mover,  took  place.  The 
lucidity,  eloquence,  and  mastery  of 
detail  which  Burke  showed  on  this 
occasion  haVe  never  been  surpassed. 
The  chief  feature  in  the  latter  part  of 
Burke’s  life  was  his  resolute  struggle 
against  the  ideas  and  doctrines  of  the 
French  revolution.  His  attitude  on  this 
question  separated  him  from  his  old 
friend  Fox,  and  the  Liberals  who  fol- 
lowed Fox.  His  famous  Reflections  on 
the  Revolution  in  France,  a pamphlet 
which  appeared  in  1790,  had  an  un- 
precedented sale,  and  gave  enormous 
impetus  to  the  reaction  which  had 
commenced  in  England.  From  this 
time  most  of  his  writings  are  powerful 
pleadings  on  the  same  side.  In  1794  he 
withdrew  from  parliament.  Three  years 
after,  on  July  8,  1797,  he  died,  his  end 
being  hastened  by  grief  for  the  loss  of  his 
only  son. 

BURLEIGH,  Lord.  See  Cecil. 

BURLESQUE  (bur-lesk')  signifies  a 
low  form  of  the  comic,  arising  generally 
from  a ludicrous  mixture  of  things  high 
and  low.  High  thoughts,  for  instance, 
are  clothed  in  low  expressions,  noble 
subjects  described  in  a familiar  manner, 
or  vice  versa.  The  true  comic  shows  us 
an  instructive,  if  laughable,  side  of 
things;  the  burlesque  Travesties  and 
caricatures  them  in  order  to  excite 
laughter  or  ridicule. 

BURLET'TA,  a light,  comic  species 
of  musical  drama,  which  derives^  its 
name  from  the  Italian  burlare,  to  jest. 
It  originated  in  Italy,  from  whence  it 
passed  to  the  Transalpine  countries. 

BURLINGTON,  city,  important  rail- 
road center,  and  river-port  of  Iowa; 
capital  of  Des  Moines  co. ; situated  on 
the  Mississippi  river;  207  miles  w.s.w.  of 
Chicago,  250  miles  by  water  above  St. 


Louis,  and  296  miles  by  railroad  east  of 
Omaha.  The  river  is  here  a broad,  deep, 
and  beautiful  stream.  The  plan  of  the 
city  is  regular,  and  the  houses  are  mostly 
of  brick  and  stone.  This  place  is  the 
seat  of  Burlington  University,  and  con- 
tains about  twenty-five  churches  and 
numerous  manufactories.  Pop.  27,400. 

BURLINGTON,  city,  and  railroad  cen- 
ter, of  Burlington  co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Del- 
aware river,  20  miles  above  Philadel- 
phia and  12  miles  s.w.  of  Trenton.  The 
principal  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  shoes,  canned  goods,  iron  pipes  of  all 
sizes,  stoves,  heaters,  and  carriages. 
Pop.  10,100. 

BURLINGTON,  city  and  railrgad  cen- 
ter and  county-seat  of  Chittenden  co., 
Vt.,  on  Burlington  Bay  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain ; 40  miles  w.  from  Montpelier,  the 
capital  of  the  state. 

The  heaviest  trade  in  the  city  is  in  lum- 
ber. There  are  large  quarries  of  build- 
ing-stone, of  limestone,  and  of  fine  mar- 
ble within  or  near  the  city  limits;  large 
cotton-mills,  steam  marble-mills,  ma- 
chine-shops, foundries,  sash,  chair,  fur- 
niture, patent  medicine,  malt  cereals, 
and  shoe  factories,  paper-mills,  and 
many  smaller  manufacturing  trades  are 
thriving. 

The  University  of  Vermont  and  State 
Agricultural  College  is  situated  here. 
Pop.  20,140. 

BURLINGTON  LIMESTONE,  a forma- 
tion of  the  carboniferous  period,  occur- 
ing  in  Missouri  and  Illinois,  adjacent  to 
the  Mississippi  river.  It  affords  a val- 
uable building-stone,  and  is  peculiarly 
interesting  to  naturalists.  The  upper 
bed  is  of  a light-gray  color,  and  is  nearly 
pure  carbonate  of  lime.  The  lower  bed 
contains  more  magnesia. 

BUR'MAH,  a country  of  southern 
Asia,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Assam 
and  Tibet,  on  the  east  by  Chinese 
territory  and  Siam,  elsewhere  mainly 
by  the  Bay  of  Bengal;  area  about  290,- 
000  sq.  miles.  It  is  traversed  by  great 
mountain  ranges  branching  off  from 
those  of  northern  India  and  running 
parallel  to  each  other  southward  to  the 
sea.  Between  these  ranges  and  in  the 
plains  or  valleys  here  situated  the  four 
great  rivers  of  Burmah — the  Irrawaddy, 
its  tributary  the  Kyen-dwen,the  Sittang, 
and  the  Salwen — flow  in  a southerly 
direction  to  the  sea,  watering  the  rich 
alluvial  tracts  of  Lower  Burmah,  and 
having  at  their  mouths  all  the  great 
seaports  of  the  country — Rangoon,  Bas- 
sein,  Moulmein,  Akyab,  etc.  The  Irra- 
waddy is  of  great  value  as  a liighway 
of  communication  and  traffic,  being 
navigable  beyond  Bhamo,  near  the 
Chinese  frontier,  or  over  800  miles. 
In  their  lower  courses  the  rivers  often 
overflow  their  banks  in  the  rainy  season. 
Though  its  resources  are  almost  entirely 
undeveloped,  the  country,  as  a whole, 
is  productive,  especially  in  the  lower 
portions.  Here  grow  rice,  sugar-cane, 
tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  etc.  Cotton  is 
grown  almost  everywhere;  tea  is  cul- 
tivated in  many  of  the  more  elevated 
parts.  The  forests  produce  timber  of 
many  sorts,  including  teak,  which  grows 
most  luxuriantly,  and  is  largely  ex- 
ported. Iron-wood  is  another  valuable 
timber;  and  among  forest  products  are 
also  the  bainboo,  cutch,  stick-lac,  and 


BURNABY 


BURNS  AND  SCALDS 


rubber.  Burmah  has  great  mineral 
wealth— gold,  silver,  precious  stones, 
iron,  marble,  lead,  tin,  coal,  petroleum, 
etc.;  but  these  resources  have  not  yet 
been  much  developed.  The  chief  pre- 
cious stone  is  the  ruby,  and  the  mines 
of  this  gem  belong  to  the  crown.  Sap- 
phire, amber,  and  jade  arc  also  obtained. 
Among  wild  animals  are  the  elephant, 
rhinoceros,  tiger,  leopard,  deer  of  various 
kinds,  and  the  wild  hog.  Among  do- 
mestic animals  are  the  ox,  buffalo, 
horse,  and  elephant.  The  rivers  abound 
with  fish.  The  most  common  fruits  are 
the  guava,  custard-apple,  tamarind, 
pine,  orange,  banana,  jack,  and  mango. 
The  yam  and  sweet-potato  are  culti- 
vated, and  in  some  parts  the  common 
potato.  The  climate  of  course  varies 
according  to  elevation  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, but  as  a whole  is  warm, 
though  not  unhealthful,  except  in  low 
jungly  districts.  The  rainfall  among 
the  mountains  reaches  as  high  as  190 
inches  per  annum. 

The  population  may  be  stated  at 
about  9,000,000  or  10,000,000,  made  up 
of  a great  variety  of  races  besides  the 
Burmese  proper,  as  Talaings,  Shans, 
Karens,  etc.  The  Burmese  proper  are 
of  a brown  color,  with  lank,  black  hair 
(seldom  any  on  the  face),  and  have 
active,  vigorous,  well  - proportioned 
frames.  They  are  a cheerful,  lively 
people,  fond  of  amusement,  averse  to 
continuous  exertion,  free  from  prejudice 
of  caste  or  creed,  temperate  and  hardy. 
The  predominant  religion  is  Buddhism. 
The  Burmese  language  is  monosyllabic, 
like  Chinese,  and  is  written  with  an 
alphabet  the  characters  of  which  (de- 
rived from  India)  are  more  or  less  cir- 
cular. There  is  a considerable  literature. 

Burmah  is  now  divided  into  Lower 
Burmah  and  Upper  Burmah,  the  former 
till  1886  being  called  British  Burmah, 
while  the  latter  till  that  date  was  an 
independent  kingdom  or  empire.  Lower 
Burmah  was  acquired  from  Independ- 
ent Burmah  in  1826  and  1852  as  the 
result  of  two  wars  terminating  in  favor 
of  Britain.  It  comprises  the  divisions 
of  Aracan,  Pegu,  Irrawaddy,  and  Tenas- 
serim;  area,  87,957  sq.  miles;  population 
5,371,328.  Under  British  rule  it  has 
prospered  greatly,  the  population  and 
trade  having  increased  immensely. 
Roads,  canals,  railways,  and  other 
public  works  have  been  carried  out. 
The  area  of  Upper  Burmah  under  direct 
British  administration  is  83,473  sq. 
miles;  pop.  3,849,833.  The  chief  city 
and  port  is  Rangoon,  which  is  now  con- 
nected by  railway  with  Mandalay  in 
Upper  Burmah. 

Under  its  native  kings  the  form  of 
government  in  Upper  Burmah  was 
absolute  monarchy,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment being  latterly  at  Mandalay.  The 
king  was  assisted  in  governing  by  a 
council  of  state  known  as  the  Hloot-daw, 
to  which  belonged  the  functions  of  a 
house  of  legislature,  a cabinet,  and  a 
supreme  court.  The  king  had  power  to 
punish  at  his  pleasure  any  one,  even  the 
great  officers  of  state.  The  revenue  was 
derived  from  taxes  levied  in  a very 
irregular  and  capricious  manner,  and 
official  corruption  was  rampant.  The 
criminal  laws  were  barbarously  severe. 
Capital  punishment  was  commonly 


inflicted  by  decapitation,  but  crucifixion 
and  disemboweling  were  also  practiced. 
After  the  loss  of  the  maritime  provinces 
the  influence  of  Independent  Burmah 
greatly  declined,  as  did  also  its  Asiatic 
and  foreign  trade. 

The  Burmese  empire  is  of  little  note  in 
ancient  or  general  history.  Upper  Bur- 
mah was  annexed  to  the  British  empire 
by  proclamation  of  the  Viceroy  of  India, 
1st  Jan.  1886.  The  area  thus  annexed 
was  about  200,000  sq.  miles,  of  which 
half  belonged  to  the  kingdom  proper, 
half  to  the  semi-independent  Shan 
states.  Its  government  is  now  organ- 
ized under  a single  lieutenant-governor, 
Upper  and  Lower  Burmah  forming  each 
a commissionership,  and  being  divided 
into  four  divisions  each,  which  again  are 
subdivided  into  districts. 

BUR'NABY,  Frederick  Gustavus,  Eng- 
lish soldier  and  traveler,  born  1842. 
In  1875  he  made  his  famous  ride  to 
Khiva.  In  1876  he  rode  through  Asiatic 
Turkey  and  Persia.  Of  both  these 
journeys  he  published  narratives.  In 
1885  (Jan.  17),  while  serving  as  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  Royal  Horse 
Guards  in  the  Egyptian  campaign,  he 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Abu-Klea. 

BURNETT,  Frances  Eliza  Hodgson,  an 
Anglo-American  novelist,  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1849  and  identified  with  Ameri- 
can literature  since  1872.  Her  most 
popular  works  are  That  Lass  o’  Lowrie’s, 
A Lady  of  Quality,  Little  Lord  Faunt- 
leroy,  and  Through  One  Administration. 
In  1873  she  married  Dr.  S.  M.  Burnett. 
She  lives  in  Europe  and  in  Washington. 

BURNING-GLASS,  a lens  which,  by 
bringing  the  sun’s  rays  rapidly  to  a 
focus,  produces  a heat  strong  enough  to 
kindle  combustible  matter.  The  lenses 
commonly  used  are  convex  on  both 
sides,  and  have  a small  focal  distance. 
That  such  a glass  may  produce  its  great- 
est effect  it  is  necessary  that  the  rays  of 
the  sun  should  fall  upon  it  in  a perpen- 
dicular direction.  The  effect  may  be 
greatly  augmented  by  the  use  of  a 
second  lens,  of  a .smaller  focal  distance, 
placed  between  the  first  and  its  focus. 
Some  immense  burning-glasses  have 
been  made,  producing  surprising  effects. 
Concave  burning-mirrors  produce  the 
same  kind  of  results,  and  have  almost 
four  times  more  power  than  burning- 
glasses  of  equal  extent  and  curvature. 
The  concavity  must  present  a surface  of 
high  reflecting  power  (polished  silver  or 
other  metal,  or  silvered  glass),  and  must 
be  either  spherical  or  parabolic.  Plane 
mirrors  may  also  be  employed  like  con- 
cave ones,  if  several  of  them  are  com- 
bined in  a proper  manner.  The  ancients 
were  acquainted  with  such  mirrors,  and 
Archimedes  is  said  to  have  set  the  Ro- 
man fleet  on  fire  at  the  siege  of  Syracuse 
(n.c.  212)  by  some  such  jneans.  In  1747 
Buffon  by  a combination  of  mirrors 
burned  wood  at  the  distance  of  200  feet 
and  melted  tin  at  the  distance  of  1 50,  etc. 

BURNING-MIRRORS.  See  preceding 
article. 

BURNISHER,  a blunt,  smooth  tool, 
used  for  smoothing  and  polishing  a 
rough  surface  by  rubbing.  Agates, 
tempered  steel,  and  dog’s  teeth  are  used 
for  burnishing. 

BURN'LEY^,  a pari.,  municipal,  and 
county  borough  of  England,  in  Lan- 


cashire, about  22  miles  n.  of  Manchester. 
Pop.  97,044. 

Burns,  Robert,  the  great  lyric  poet 
of  Scotland,  was  born  near  Ayr,  January 
25,  1759.  He  was  instructed  in  the 
ordinary  branches  of  an  English  edu- 
cation; to  these  he  afterward  added 
French  and  a little  mathematics.  But 


Robert  Burns. 


most  of  his  education  was  got  from  the 
general  reading  of  books,  to  which  he 
gave  himself  with  passion.  In  this 
manner  he  learned  what  the  best  Eng- 
lish poets  might  teach  him,  and  culti- 
vated the  instincts  for  poetry  which  had 
been  implanted  in  his  nature.  He  be- 
gan to  produce  poetical  pieces  which 
attracted  the  notice  of  his  neighbors  and 
gained  him  considerable  reputation. 
In  1786  Burns  was  about  to  set  sail 
for  Jamaica,  when  he  was  drawn  to 
Edinburgh  by  a letter  from  Dr.  Black- 
lock  to  an  Ayrshire  friend  of  his  and  the 
poet,  recommending  that  he  should  take 
advantage  of  the  general  admiration  his 
poems  had  excited,  and  publish  a new 
edition  of  them.  This  advice  was  eager- 
ly adopted,  and  the  result  exceeded  his 
most  sanguine  expectations.  After  re- 
maining more  than  a year  in  the  Scot- 
tish metropolis,  admired,  flattered,  and 
caressed  by  persons  of  eminence  for 
their  rank,  fortune,  or  talents,  he  retired 
to  the  countr}'^  with  the  sum  of  some 
82500,  wliich  he  had  realized  by  the 
second  publication  of  his  poems.  A part 
of  this  sum  he  advanced  to  his  brother, 
and  with  the  remainder  took  a consider- 
able farm  (Ellisland)  near  Dumfries,  to 
which  he  subsequently  added  the  office 
of  exciseman.  He  now  married  Jean 
Armour,  a Mauchline  girl.  But  the 
farming  at  Ellisland  was  not  a success, 
and  in  about  three  years  Burns  removed 
to  Dumfries  and  relied  on  his  employ- 
ment as  an  exciseman  alone.  He  con- 
tinued to  exercise  his  pen,  particularly 
in  the  composition  of  a number  of  beauti- 
ful songs  adapted  to  old  Scottish  tunes. 
In  the  winter  of  1795  his  constitution, 
broken  by  cares,  irregularities,  and 
passions,  fell  into  premature  decline; 
and  in  Juljq  1796,  a rheumatic  fever 
terminated  his  life  and  sufferings  at  the 
early  age  of  .thirty-seven. 

BURNS  AND  SCALDS  are  injuries 
produced  by  the  application  of  excessive 
heat  to  the  human  body.  They  are 
generally  dangerous  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  surface  they  cover,  and  a 
wide-spread  scald  may  cause  serious 
consequences  on  account  of  the  nervous 
shock.  Congestion  of  the  brain,  pneu- 


BURNSIDE 


BUSHRANGERS  • 


monia,  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  or 
lock-jaw  may  result  from  an  extensive 
burn.  Hence  the  treatment  requires  to 
be  both  local  and  constitutional.  If 
there  is  shivering  or  exhaustion  hot 
brandy  and  water  may  be  given  with 
good  eilect,  and  if  there  is  much  pain  a 
sedative  solution  of  opium.  The  local 
treatment  consists  in  dredging  the  burn 
with  fine  wheat  flour,  and  then  wrapping 
it  up  in  cotton-wool.  An  application  of 
equal  quantities  of  olive-oil  and  lime- 
water,  called  carron-oil,  is  much  recom- 
mended by  some,  the  part  being  after- 
ward covered  by  cotton-wool.  The 
main  thing  is  to  keep  the  air  from  the  in- 
jured part,  and  therefore,  when  a blister 
forms,  although  it  may  be  pricked,  the 
loose  skin  should  not  be  removed. 

BURNSIDE,  Ambrose  Everett,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  Indiana  in 
1824,  died  in  1881.  He  began  his  mili- 
tary career  as  a colonel  of  Rhode  Island 
volunteers  in  the  civil  war  and  took  part 


A.  E.  Burnside. 


in  the  battles  of  Antietam,  Fredericks- 
burg, and  other  engagements.  He  tried 
to  suppress  several  newspapers  in  the 
North,  but  his  orders  were  overruled  by 
popular  pressure.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major-general  of  volunteers,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  war  he  served 
under  Grant  in  the  Richmond  campaign. 
Burnside  subsequently  to  the  war  served 
in  the  senate  of  the  U.  States. 

BURNT-OFFERING,  something  of- 
fered and  burnt  on  an  altar  as  an  atone- 
ment for  sin;  a sacrifice.  The  burnt- 
offerings  of  the  Jews  were  either  some 
clean  animal,  as  an  ox,  a sheep,  a pigeon ; 
or  some  species  of  vegetable  substance, 
as  bread,  flour,  ears  of  wheat  or  barley. 

BURR,  Aaron,  third  vice-president  of 
the  U.  States,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1756.  After  serving  with  honor  in  the 
revolutionary  army  he  became  a law- 
yer, and  finally  leader  of  the  democratic 
party  and  vice-president  in  1801.  His 
duel  with  Alexander  Hamilton,  which 
ended  fatally  for  the  latter,  drove  him 
from  New  i'ork  to  settle  farther  west, 
where  he  conceived  an  audacious  and 
grandiose  scheme  of  founding  an  em- 
pire in  the  s.w.  He  was  tried  for  trea- 
son, and,  though  acquitted,  sank  into 
obscurity.  He  died  in  1836. 

BUR'RITT,  Elihu,  the  “learned  black- 
smith,” as  he  was  called,  was  born  at 
New  Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8,  1810.  He 
was  apprenticed  to  a blacksmith,  but, 
conceiving  a strong  desire  for  knowl- 
edge, he  began  to  read  English  literature, 
and  with  great  diligence  and  perse- 
verance at  length  acquired  proficiency 
not  only  in  the  ancient,  but  also  most 
of  the  modern  languages  of  Europe. 
In  1848  the  first  International  Peace 
Congress  was  held  under  his  guidance 
at  Brussels.  In  1865  he  was  consular 


agent  at  Birmingham.  In  1868  he 
returned  to  live  on  his  farm  in  America, 
and  died  March  7,  1879.  His  best- 


known  writings  are  Sparks  from  the 
Anvil;  Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home 
and  Abroad;  Chips  from  Many  Blocks; 
etc. 

BURROUGHS,  John,  an  American 
naturalist  and  writer,  born  at  Roxbury, 
N.  Y.,  in  1837.  His  chief  works  are 
concerned  with  descriptions  of  animals 
and  plants,  but  he  has  also  written  a 
considerable  number  of  essays  and 


criticisms.  Among  his  more  popular 
books  are  Wake,  Robin;  M inter  Sun- 
shine; Birds  and  Poets;  Locusts  and 
Wild  Honey;  Fresh  Fields;  Signs  and 
Seasons;  Indoor  Studies;  and  Squirrels 
and  Other  Fur-Bearers. 

BURROUGHS,  Marie,  an  American 
actress,  born  at  San  Francisco  in  1866. 
She  made  her  d6but  in  New  York  in 
The  Rajah,  and  subsequently  appeared 
with  E.  S.  Willard  in  The  Middleman, 
Judah  and  Ophelia,  and  other  plays. 
She  married  Robert  Barclay  MacPher- 
son  in  1901. 

BURROWING-OWL,  an  American 
owl  which  dwells  in  holes  in  the  ground 


either  made  by  itself  or  by  some  other 
animal,  as  the  prairie-dog  or  marmot. 

It  feeds  on  insects  and  seeks  it  food  by 
day. 

BURTON,  John  Hill,  historian  of  Scot- 
land, born  at  Aberdeen  1809,  died  near 
Edinburgh  1881.  His  first  book  was 
the  Life  and  Correspondence  of  David 
Hume  (1846),  followed  by  Lives  of  Lord 
Lovat  and  Duncan  Forbes  of  Culloden, 
and  other  works.  His  chief  work  was 
his  History  of  Scotland  from  the  Earliest 
Times  to  1746.  He  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Scottish  Prison  Board 
in  1854,  and  was  connected  with  this 
department  till  his  death. 

BURTON,  Sir  Richard  Francis,  K.C. 
M.G.,  English  traveler  and  linguist, 
born  in  1821.  In  1853  he  went  to  Arabia 
and  visited  Mecca  and  Medina  dis- 
guised as  a Mohammedan  pilgrim — a 
sufficiently  dangerous  journey.  He  vis- 
ited many  countries  and  published 
many  works,  and  translations  of  Cam- 
oens’s  Lusiads  and  of  the  Arabian 
Nights,  etc.  Died  1890. 

BUR'TON,  Robert,  an  English  writer, 
born  at  Lindley  in  Leicestershire  in 
1576.  His  vast  out-of-the-way  learning 
is  curiously  displayed  in  his  book  The 
Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1621.  Burton  died  in  1640. 

BURTON-UPON-TRENT,  a county 
borough  of  England,  in  Staffordshire. 
It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  excellent 
ale,  for  which  there  are  numerous 
breweries,  employing  upward  of  5000 
men  and  boys.  Pop.  50,386. 

BURY  (be'ri),  a municipal,  county, 
and  pari,  borough  of  England,  in  Lan- 
cashire, 8 miles  n.n.w.  of  Manchester. 
Sir  Robert  Peel  was  born  near  Bury 
in  1788,  and  a bronze  statue  of  him 
adorns  the  town.  Pop.  58,028. 

BURYING-BEETLE,  the  name  of  a 
genus  of  insects.  They  have  a very 
keen  scent,  which  guides  them  to  the 
dead  bodies  of  rats,  mice,  etc.,  which 
form  their  food.  Several  beetles  will 
unite  to  cover  such  animals,  burying 
them  sometimes  more  than  6 inches  in 
the  earth.  They  deposit  their  eggs  on 
the  carrion,  and  in  less  than  a fortnight 
the  larvae  issue.  The  species  are  com- 
mon everywhere. 

BUSBY  (buz'bi),  a military  head-dress 
worn  by  hussars,  artillerymen,  and 
engineers,  consisting  of  a fur  hat  with 
a bag,  of  the  same  color  as  the  facings 
of  the  regiment,  hanging  from  the  top 
over  the  right  side.  The  bag  appears 
to  be  a relic  of  a Hungarian  head-dress 
from  which  a long  padded  bag  hung 
over,  and  was  attached  to  the  right 
shoulder  as  a defense  against  sword-cuts. 

BUSHEL,  an  English  dry  measure, 
containing  8 gallons  or  4 pecks. 

BUSHMEN,  a race  of  people  who 
dwell  in  the  western  part  of  South  Africa, 
in  the  immense  plains  bordering  on  the 
n.  side  of  the  colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  They  are  the  most  degraded  of 
the  races  who  inhabit  this  part  of  the 
country.  Their  language  is  exceedingly 
poor,  consisting  only  of  a certain  click- 
ing with  the  tongue  and  harsh  gurgling 
tones,  for  which  we  have  no  letters. 

BUSH'RANGERS,  the  name  for 
desperadoes  in  Australia  who,  taking 
to  the  bush,  have  supported  themselves 
by  levying  contributions  on  the  prop- 


BUSINESS  COLLEGES 


BUTTERFLY 


erty  of  all  and  sundry  within  their 

BUSINESS  COLLEGES,  the  name  in 
America  for  the  higher-class  institutions 
specially  intended  to  give  a practical 
training  in  all  subjects  belonging  to 
commerce. 

BUSINESS  HOURS,  the  hours  of  the 
day  in  which  business  is  ordinarily  done. 
In  the  U.  States  from  8 a.  m.  till  6 p.  m. 
is  the  usual  business  day.  In  American 
banks  business  hours  are  from  10  a.  m. 
to  3 p.  m.  No  payment  is  made  nor 
deposit  received  except  in  these  hours. 
Bills  cannot  be  collected  nor  payment 
legally  tendered  except  during  business 
hours. 

BUST,  in  sculpture,  the  representation 
of  that  portion  of  the  human  figure 
which  comprises  the  head  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  body.  During  the  literary 
period  of  Greece  the  portrait  busts  of 
the  learned  formed  an  important  branch 
of  art,  and  in  this  way  we  come  to 
possess  faithful  likenesses  of  Socrates, 
Plato,  Demosthenes,  etc.,  in  which  the 
artists  showed  great  power  of  expressing 
the  character  of  those  represented.  The 
number  of  busts  belonging  to  the  time 
of  the  Roman  Empire  is  very  consider- 
able, but  those  of  the  Roman  poets  and 
men  of  letters  have  not  been  preserved 
in  nearly  so  large  numbers  as  those  of 
the  Greeks.  The  first  bust  that  can  be 
depended  upon  as  giving  a correct  like- 
ness is  that  of  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder. 

BUSTARD,  a bird  belonging  to  the 
order  Cursores,  or  runners,  but  ap- 
proaching the  waders.  The  great 
bustard  is  the  largest  European  bird, 
the  male  often  weighing  30  lbs.,  with  a 


Great  bustard. 


breadth  of  wing  of  6 or  7 feet.  The 
bustard  is  now  rare  in  Britain,  but 
abounds  in  the  south  and  east  of  Europe 
and  the  steppes  of  Tartary,  feeding  on 
green  corn  and  other  vegetables,  and 
on  earth-worms.  Its  flesh  is  esteemed. 
All  the  species  run  fast,  and  take  flight 
with  difficulty. 

BUTLER,  Alban,  English  Roman 
Catholic  writer,  born  1711,  died  1773. 
His  Lives  of  the  Saints  is  a monument 
of  erudition  which  cost  him  thirty  years’ 
labor. 

BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  politician  and  lawyer,  born 
in  New  York  in  1795,  died  1858.  He 
was  Martin  Van  Buren’s  partner  until 
1821,  revised  the  New  York  statutes, 
was  attorney-general  in  Jackson’s  cabi- 
net, and  secretary  of  war  in  Polk’s 
cabinet.  He  was  an  ardent  democrat. 

BUTLER,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  soldier,  politician,  and  gover- 
nor, born  in  Deerfield,  N.  H.,  in  1818, 
died  in  1893.  He  was  candidate  for 
governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1860,  and 
at  the  opening  of  the  civil  war  was  made 
major-general  of  volunteers.  Butler 


from  the  first  was  an  uncompromising 
enemy  of  slave-owners,  and  his  occupa- 
tion of  New  Orleans  from  1862  to  1863 
has  been  critized  severely.  His  chief 
offense  was  his  general  order  that  women 
insulting  officers  should  be  treated  as 
women  of  the  town.  Jefferson  Davis 
issued  a proclamation  that  Butler  was 
an  outlaw,  and  if  captured  should  be  at 
once  hanged.  Subsequently  to  the  war 
Butler  was  very  prominent  in  politics, 
and  in  1880  was  elected  governor  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1884  he  was  candi- 
date for  president  on  the  greenback- 
labor  ticket.  He  died  at  Washington. 

BUTLER,  Joseph,  an  English  prelate 
and  celebrated  writer  on  ethics  and 
theology,  born  in  Berkshire  in  1692. 
The  sermons  which  he  delivered  as 
preacher  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  an  appoint- 
ment he  occupied  in  1718-26,  still  hold 
a high  place  in  ethical  literature.  But 
his  great  work  is  the  Analogy  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitu- 
tion and  Course  of  Nature,  which  was 
published  in  1736,  and  acquired  for  him 
a great  reputation.  In  1738  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Bristol,  and  in  1750 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Durham.  He 
died  in  1752. 

BUTLER,  Nicholas  Murray,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1862,  educated  in  American  and  Eu- 
ropean universities,  and  in  1887  organ- 
ized the  New  York  College  for  the  Train- 
ing of  Teachers.  He  founded  the  Edu- 
cational Review  in  1891,  and  since  1901 
has  been  president  of  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

BUTLER,  Samuel,  English  satirical 
poet.  Butler  published  the  first  part  of 
Hudibras  after  the  Restoration,  in  1663. 
It  became  immensely  popular,  and 
Charles  II.  himself  was  perpetually 


Samuel  Butler. 


quoting  the  poem,  but  did  nothing  for 
the  author,  who  seems  to  have  passed 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  dependent  on 
the  support  of  friends,  and  died  in 
poverty  in  London  in  1680.  A second 
part  of  Hudibras  appeared  in  1664,  a 
third  in  1678.  The  poem  is  a sort  of 
burlesque  epic  ridiculing  Puritanism, 
and  fanaticism  and  hypocrisy  generally. 
Butler  was  author  also  of  various  other 
pieces,  including  a satire  on  the  Royal 
Society  entitled  the  Elephant  in  the 
Moon. 

BUTTE,  a city  and  county  seat  of 
Silverbow  Co.,  Mont.,  on  the  western 
slope  of  a range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  on  the  Oregon  Short  Line,  the 


Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  Northern, 
and  the  Montana  Union  railroads.  The 
famous  Anaconda  Copper  and  Silver 
Mine  is  located  here,  and  within  a 
few  miles  are  many  other  productive 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  deposits,  the 
industries  of  the  city  centering  almost 
entirely  in  the  mines.  In  copper,  the 
production  of  Butte  is  placed  at  about 
one-half  of  the  entire  output  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  amount  of  gold 
and  silver  mined  is  also  considerable,  the 
value  of  the  annual  production  of  these 
three  minerals  being  estimated  at  nearly 
$50,000,000.  Besides  the  mines,  there 
are  immense  mills  and  smelting-works. 
Pop.  33,125. 

BUTTER,  a fatty  substance  produced 
from  milk,  especially  cows’  milk.  When 
the  milk  is  first  drawn  this  fatty  matter 
is  disseminated  through  it  in  minute 
clear  globules  inclosed  in  membranous 
sacs  or  bags  which  in  a short  time  rise 
to  the  surface  and  form  cream.  The 
cream  is  then  skimmed  off  to  undergo 
the  operation  of  churning,  which  by 
rupturing  the  sacs  effects  a separation  of 
the  cream,  into  a solid  called  butter  and 
a liquid  called  buttermilk,  the  latter 
consisting  of  whey  and  other  caseous 
matter.  The  quality  of  the  butter  de- 
pends much  upon  the  treatment  of  the 
cream  at  this  stage.  Its  temperature 
in  warm  weather  ought  to  be  between 
53°  and  55°;  in  colder  weather  several 
degrees  higher.  If  too  cold  the  fat  is 
hard  and  does  not  coalesce,  and  if  too 
warm  it  becomes  semi -liquid.  The 
butter,  being  formed  into  lumps,  is 
washed  well  in  cold  water,  and  kneaded 
till  all  the  buttermilk  has  been  expelled. 
Butter  of  good  quality  has  a faint  sweet 
odor  and  a soft  delicate  flavor.  Its  com- 
position varies  somewhat  according  to 
the  way  in  which  it  is  made.  It  has 
usually  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  pure 
fat,  the  rest  consisting  of  casein,  water, 
and  salt.  The  water  should  not  amount 
to  more  than  10  per  cent,  nor  the  salt 
to  more  than  2 per  cent  of  the  whole 
weight,  but  butter  is  frequently  adul- 
terated by  the  excess  of  these  two  ele- 
ments. Butter  which  is  to  be  thoroughly 
“cured,”  so  as  to  keep  for  some  length 
of  time,  is  usually  prepared  with  from 
5 to  8 per  cent  of  common  salt. 

BUTTERCUP,  the  popular  name  of 
two  or  three  species  of  plants  with  bril- 
liant yellow-flowers. 

BUTTERFLY,  the  common  name  of 
all  diurnal  lepidopterous  insects.  One  of 
the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  these  beau- 
tiful insects  is  their  series  of  transforma- 
tions before  reaching  a perfect  state. 
The  female  butterfly  lays  a great  quan- 
tity of  eggs,  which  produce  larvae  com- 
monly called  caterpillars.  After  a short 
life  these  assume  a new  form,  and 
become  chrysalids  or  pupae.  These 
chrysalids  are  attached  to  other  bodies 
in  various  ways,  and  are  of  various  forms; 
they  often  have  brilliant  golden  or 
argentine  spots.  Within  its  covering 
the  insect  develops,  to  emerge  as  the 
active  and  brilliant  butterfly.  These 
insects  in  their  perfect  form  suck  the 
nectar  of  plants,  but  take  little  food, 
and  are  all  believed  to  be  short-lived, 
their  work  in  the  perfect  state  being 
almost  confined  to  the  propagation  of 


BUTTERING 


BYRON 


the  species.  Butterflies  vary  greatly 
in  size  and  coloring,  but  most  of  . them 
are  very  beautiful.  The  largest  are 
found  in  tropical  countries,  where  some 
measure  nearly  a foot  across  the  wings. 
They  may  generally  be  distinguished 
from  moths  by  having  their  wings  erect 
when  sitting,  the  moths  having  theirs 


1,3,  Chrysalis  of  the  white  butterfly-moth; 
a,  Palpi  or  feelers;  66,  wing-cases;  c,  sucker; 

eyes;  xx,  antennaj.  3,  Chrysalis  of  the  oak 
efger-moth. 

horizontal.  Some  of  them  have  great 
powers  of  flight.  Among  the  most 
remarkable  butterflies  are  those  that 
present  an  extraordinary  likeness  to 
other  objects — leaves,  green  or  withered, 
flowers,  bark,  etc. — a feature  that  serves 
greatly  to  protect  them  from  enemies. 
See  Lepidoptera  and  Mimicry. 

BUTTERINE,  a mixture  of  several 
kinds  of  fats,  worked  together,  churned 
in  milk,  colored,  and  sold  as  a substitute 
for  butter.  Its  manufacture  is  per- 
mitted by  U.  States  law,  but  it  must  not 
be  sold  as  butter,  but  must  be  marked 
plainly  “butterine.”  Some  states  forbid 
the  coloring  of  it,  and  dealers  supply 
coloring  matter  to  the  buyer,  who  may 
thus  evade  the  law  in  dealing  v/ith  bis 
consumei's.  Butterine  now  is  generally 
made  of  deodorized  lard  mixed  with 
cottonseed  stearine  and  a little  genuine 
butter,  and  churned  with  milk.  It  was 
formerly  made  of  “oleo  oil,”  that  is,  the 
fat  expressed  from  beef  tallow,  which 
was  mixed  and  churned  as  above. 
Butterine  is  not  an  unhealthful  article 
of  diet  when  properly  and  carefully 
manufactured. 

BUTTERMILK,  the  milk  from  which 
butter  has  been  extracted,  forming  a 
nutritious  and  agreeable  cooling  bever- 
age with  an  acidulous  taste. 

BUTTERNUT,  the  fruit  of  an  Ameri- 
can tree,  so  called  from  the  oil  it  con- 
tains. The  tree  bears  a resemblance  in 
its  general  appearance  to  the  black 
walnut,  but  the  wood  is  not  so  dark  in 
color. 

BUTTONS  are  of  almost  all  forms  and 
materials — wood,  horn,  bone,  ivory, 
steel,  copper,  silver,  brass,  etc. — which 
are  either  left  naked  or  covered  with  silk 
or  some  other  material.  A substance 
now  very  commonly  used  for  buttons 
is  vegetable  ivory  (seeds  of  the  ivory- 
nut  palm),  which  may  be  colored  accord- 
ing to  taste.  Mother-of-pearl  buttons 
are  another  common  kind. 

BUTTRESSES,  in  architecture,  espe- 
cially Gothic,  projections  on  the  outside 
of  the  walls  of  an  edifice,  extending  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top,  or  nearly,  and 
intended  to  give  additional  support  to 
the  walls  and  prevent  them  from  spread- 
ing under  the  weight  of  the  roof.  Flying 
buttresses,  of  a somewhat  arched  form, 
often  spring  from  the  top  of  the  ordinary 
buttresses,  leaning  inward  so  as  to  abut 
against  and  support  a higher  portion  of 


the  building,  such  as  the  wall  of  a elear- 
story,  thus  receiving  part  of  the  pressure 
from  the  weight  of  the  roof  of  the  central 
pile. 

BUTYR'IC  ACID,  an  acid  obtained 
from  butter;  it  also  occurs  in  perspira- 


Buttress  aud  flying  buttress. 


tion,  cod-liver  oil,  etc.  Butyric  acid  is 
a colorless  liquid,  having  a smell  like 
that  of  rancid  butter;  its  taste  is  acrid 
and  biting,  with  a sweetish  after-taste. 

BUZ'ZARD,  the  name  of  raptorial 
birds  which  form  one  of  the  sub-families 
of  the  diurnal  birds  of  prey;  characters, 
a moderate-sized  beak,  hooked  from  the 
base,  long  wings,  long  tarsi,  and  short 
weak  toes.  The  common  buzzard  is 
distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe 
as  well  as  the  north  of  Africa  and 
America.  Its  food  is  very  miscellaneous, 
and  consists  of  moles,  mice,  frogs,  toads, 
worms,  insects,  etc.  It  is  sluggish  in  its 
habits.  Its  length  is  from  20  to  22 
inches.  The  rough-legged  buzzard,  so 
called  from  having  its  legs  feathered  to 
the  toes,  is  also  a native  of  Britain.  Its 
habits  resemble  those  of  the  common 
buzzard.  The  red-tailed  hawk  of  the 
U.  States  is  a buzzard.  It  is  also  called 
hen-hawk,  from  its  raids  on  the  poultry- 
yard. 

BY-LAW,  a law  made  by  an  incorpo- 
rated or  other  body  for  the  regulation  of 
its  own  affairs,  or  the  affairs  intrusted 
to  its  care.  By-laws  must  of  course  be 
within  the  meaning  of  the  charter  of 
incorporation  and  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  the  land. 

BY'RON,  George  Gordon  Noel,  Lord 
Byron,  a great  English  poet,  was  born  in 
Holies  street,  London,  Jan.  22,  1788. 
In  1805  he  was  entered  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  Two  years  after,  in 
1807,  appeared  his  first  poetic  volume. 
Hours  of  Idleness,  which,  though  indeed 
containing  nothing  of  much  merit,  was 
castigated  with  overseverity  by  Brough- 
am in  the  Edinburgh  Review.  This 
caustic  critic  roused  the  slumbering 
energy  in  Byron,  and  drew  from  him  his 
first  really  notable  effort,  the  celebrated 
satire  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Re- 
viewers. In  1809,  in  company  with  a 
friend,  he  visited  the  southern  provinces 
of  Spain,  and  voyaged  along  the  shores 


of  the  Mediterranean.  The  fruit  of 
these  travels  was  the  fine  poem  of  Childe 
Harold’s  Pilgrimage,  the  first  two  cantos 
of  which  were  published  on  his  return 
in  1812.  The  poem  was  an  immense 
success,  and  Byron  “awoke  one  morning 
and  found  himself  famous.”  During 
the  next  two  years  (1813-14)  the  Giaour, 
the  Bride  of  Abydos,  the  Corsair,  Lara, 
and  the  Siege  of  Corinth  showed  the 
brilliant  work  of  which  the  new  poet 
was  capable.  On  the  2d  of  January, 
1815,  Byron  married  Anna  Isabella, 
only  daughter  of  Sir  Ralph  Milkanke, 
but  the  marriage  turned  out  unfortunate, 
and  in  about  a year  Lady  Byron,  having 
gone  on  a visit  to  her  parents,  refused  to 
return,  and  a formal  separation  took 
place.  He  visited  France,  the  field  of 
Waterloo  and  Brussels,  the  Rhine, 
Switzerland,  and  the  north  of  Italy,  and 
for  some  time  took  up  his  abode  at 
Venice,  and  latterly  at  Rome,  where  he 
completed  his  third  canto  of  Childe 
Harold.  Not  long  after  appeared  the 
Prisoner  of  Chillon,  The  Dream,  and 
other  poems;  and  in  1817  Manfred,  a 
tragedy,  and  the  Lament  of  Tasso. 
From  Italy  he  made  occasional  excur- 
sions to  the  islands  of  Greece,  and  at 
length  visited  Athens,  where  he  sketched 
many  of  the  scenes  of  the  fourth  and 
last  canto  of  Childe  Harold.  In  1819 
was  published  the  romantic  tale  of 
Mazeppa,  and  the  same  year  was  marked 
by  the  commencement  of  Don  Juan. 
In  1820  appeared  Marino  Faliero,  Doge 
of  Venice,  a tragedy;  the  drama  of 
Sardanapalus;  the  Two  Foscari,  a 


Lord  Byron. 


tragedy;  and  Cain,  a mystery.  After 
leaving  Venice  Byron  resided  for  some 
time  at  Ravenna,  then  at  Pisa,  and 
lastly  at  Genoa.  There  he  continued  to 
occupy  himself  with  literature  and 
poetry,  sustained  for  a time  by  the  com- 
panionship of  Shelley,  one  of  the  few 
men  whom  he  entirely  respected  and 
with  whom  he  was  quite  confidential. 
Besides  his  contributions  to  the  Liberal, 
a periodical  established  at  this  time  in 
conjunction  with  Leigh  Hunt  and  Shel- 
ley, he  completed  the  later  cantos  of 
Don  Juan,  with  Werner,  a tragedy,  and 
the  Deformed  Transformed,  a fragment. 
These  are  the  last  of  Byron’s  poetical 
efforts.  In  1823  he  conceived  the  idea 
of  throwing  himself  into  the  struggle 
for  the  independence  of  Greece.  In 
January,  1824,  he  arrived  at  Missolonghi, 
was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusi- 
asm, and  immediately  took  into  his  pay 
a body  of  500  Suliotes.  On  the  9th  of 


BYZANTINE  ART 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 


April,  1824,  while  riding  out  in  the  rain, 
he  caught  a fever,  which  ten  days  later 
ended  fatally.  Thus,  in  his  thirty- 
seventh  year,  died  prematurely  a man 
whose  natural  force  and  genius  were 
perhaps  superior  to  those  of  any  English- 
man of  his  time.  The  body  of  Byron 
was  brought  to  England  and  interred 
near  Newstead  Abbey. 

BYZAN'TINE  ART,  a style  which 
arose  in  southeastern  Europe  after 
Constantine  the  Great  had  made  Byza,n- 
tium  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire 
(330  A.D.),  and  ornamented  that  city, 
which  was  called  after  him,  with  all  the 
treasures  of  Gracian  art.  (See  Byzan- 
tine Empire.)  / One  of  the  chief  in- 
fluences in  Byzantine  art  was  Christian- 
ity, and  to  a certain  extent  Byzantine 
art  may  be  recognized  as  the  endeavor 
to  give  expression  to  the  new  elements 
which  Christianity  had  brought  into 
the  life  of  men.  The  tendency  toward 
Oriental  luxuriousness  and  splendor  of 
ornament  now  quite  supplanted  the 
simplicity  of  ancient  taste.  Richness 
of  material  and  decoration  was  the  aim 
of  the  artist  rather  than  purity  of  con- 
ception. Yet  the  classical  ideals  of  art, 
and  in  particular  the  traditions  of 
technical  processes  and  methods  carried 
to  Byzantium  by  the  artists  of  the 
Western  Empire,  held  their  ground  long 
enough,  and  produced  work  pure  and 
powerful  enough,  to  kindle  the  new 
artistic  life  which  began  in  Italy  with 
Cimadue  and  Giotto. 

Byzantine  architecture  may  be  said 
to  have  assumed  its  distinctive  features 
in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  built  by 
Justinian  in  the  6th  century,  and  still 
existing  as  the  chief  mosque  in  Con- 
stantinople. It  is  more  especially  the 
style  associated  with  the  Greek  Church 
as  distinguished  from  the  Roman.  The 
leading  forms  of  the  Byzantine  style  are 
the  round  arch,  the  circle,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  dome.  The  last  is  the  most 
conspicuous  and  characteristic  object 
in  Byzantine  buildings,  and  the  free  and 
full  employment  of  it  was  arrived  at 
when  by  the  use  of  pendentives  the 


Byzantine  Architecture— Ancient  cathedral, 
Athens. 


architects  were  enabled  to  place  it  on 
a square  apartment  instead  of  a circular 
or  polygonal.  In  this  style  of  building 
incrustation,  the  incrustation  of  ^ick 
with  more  precious  materials,  ^as 
largely  in  use.  It  depended  much  on 
color  and  surface  ornament  for  its  effect. 


and  with  this  intent  mosaics  wrought 
on  grounds  of  gold  or  of  positive  color 
are  profusely  introduced,  while  colored 
marbles  and  stones  of  various  kinds  are 
greatly  made  use  of.  The  capitals  are 
of  peculiar  and  original  designs,  the 
most  characteristic  being  square  and 


Byzantine  Architecture— Part  of  the  nave  of 
the  Palatine  chapel,  Palermo. 


tapering  downward,  and  they  are  very 
varied  in  their  decorations.  Byzantine 
architecture  may  be  divided  into  an 
older  and  a newer  (or  Neo-Byzantine) 
style.  The  most  distinctive  feature  of 
the  latter  is  that  the  dome  is  raised  on  a 
perpendicular  circular  or  polygonal 
piece  of  masonary  (technically  the 
drum)  containing  windows  for  lighting 
the  interior,  while  in  the  older  style  the 
light  was  admitted  by  openings  in  the 
dome  itself.  The  Cathedral  of  Athens 
(shown  in  the  accompanying  cut)  is  an 
example  of  the  Neo-Byzantine  style. 
The  Byzantine  style  had  a great  in- 
fluence on  the  architecture  of  Western 
Europe,  especially  in  Italy,  where  St. 
Mark’s  in  Venice  is  a magnificent  ex- 
ample, as  also  in  Sicily.  It  had  also 
material  influence  in  Southern  France 
and  Western  Germany. 

BYZAN'TINE  EMPIRE,  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire,  so  called  from  its  capital 
Byzantium  or  Constantinople.  The 
Byzantine  Empire  was  founded  in  a.d. 
395,  when  Theodosius  at  his  death 
divided  the  Roman  Empire  between 
his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honorius.  In  this 
empire  the  Greek  language  and  civili- 
zation were  prevalent;  but  the  rulers 
claimed  still  to  be  Roman  emperors,  and 
under  their  sway  the  laws  and  official 
forms  of  Rome  were  maintained.  It 
lasted  for  about  a thousand  years  after 
the  downfall  of  the  Western  Empire. 
It  is  also  known  as  the  Greek  Empire  or 
Lower  Empire.  Its  capital  was  natur- 
ally Constantinople,  a city  established 
by  Constantine  in  330  as  the  new  capi- 
tal of  the  whole  Roman  Empire. 


The  Eastern  Empire,  then  comprising 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Egypt,  Greece, Thrace, 
Moesia,  Macedonia,  and  Crete,  fell  to 
Theodosius’s  elder  son  Arcadius,  through 
whose  weakness  and  that  of  several 
of  his  immediate  successors  it  suffered 
severely  from  the  encroachments  of 
Huns,  Goths,  Bulgarians,  and  Per- 
sians. In  527  the  celebrated  Justinian 
succeeded,  whose  reign  is  famous  for  the 
codification  of  Roman  law,  and  the 
victories  of  his  generals  Belisarius  and 
Narses  over  the  Vandals  in  Africa,  and 
the  Goths  in  Italy,  which  was  hence- 
forth governed  for  the  Eastern  Empire 
by  an  exarch  residing  at  Ravenna.  But 
his  energy  could  not  revive  the  decaying 
strength  of  the  empire,  and  Justin  II. 
his  successor  (565-578),  a weak  and 
avaricious  prince,  lost  his  reason  by  the 
reverses  encountered  in  his  conflicts 
with  plundering  Lombards,  Avars,  and 
Persians.  Tiberius,  a captain  of  the 
guard,  succeeded  in  578,  and  in  582 
Mauricius;  both  were  men  of  ability.  In 
602  Phocas,  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
army,  succeeded,  and  produced  by  his 
incapacity  the  greatest  disorder  in  the 
empire. 

The  empire  was  in  sore  straits  when 
Leo  the  Isaurian  (Leo  III.),  general  of 
the  army  of  the  East,  mounted  the 
throne  (716),  and  a new  period  of  com- 
parative prosperity  began.  Some  writ- 
ers date  the  beginning  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire  proper,  and  the  end  of  the 
Eastern  Roman  Empire,  from  this  era. 
Numerous  reforms,  civil  and  military, 
were  now  introduced,  and  the  worship 
of  images  was  prohibited.  After  an 
interval  of  three  centuries  of  indifferent 
history  Isaac  Comnenus,  the  first  of 
the  Comnenian  dynasty,  ascended  the 
throne,  but  soon  after  became  a monk. 
The  three  chief  emperors  of  this  dynasty 
were  Alexius,  John,  and  Manuel  Com- 
nenus. During  the  reign  of  Alexius  I. 
(1081-1118)  the  Crusades  commenced. 
His  son,  John  II.,  and  grandson,  Manuel 
I.,  fought  with  success  against  the 
Turks,  whose  progress  also  was  con- 
siderably checked  by  the  Crusaders. 
The  Latins,  the  name  given  to  the 
French,  Venetian,  etc.,  crusaders,  now 
forced  their  way  to  Constantinople 
(1204),  conquered  the  city,  and  retained 
it,  together  with  most  of  the  European 
territories  of  the  empire.  Baldwin, 
count  of  Flanders,  was  made  emperor; 
Boniface,  marquis  of  Montferrat,  ob- 
tained Thessalonica  as  a kingdom,  and 
the  Venetians  acquired  a large  extent  of 
territory.  Theodore  Lascaris  seized  on 
the  Asiatic  provinces,  in  1206  made  Nice 
(Nicaea)  the  capital  of  the  empire,  and 
was  at  first  more  powerful  than  Baldwin. 
Neither  Baldwin  nor  his  successors, 
Henry,  Peter,  and  Robert  of  Courtenay, 
were  able  to  secure  the  tottering  throne. 
John,  emperor  of  Nice,  conquered  all  the 
remaining  Byzantine  territory  except 
Constantinople,  and  at  last,  in  1261, 
Michael  Palceologus,  king  of  Nice,  con- 
quered Constantinople,  and  thus  over- 
threw the  Latin  dynasty. 

In  1361  Sultan  Amurath  took  Adria- 
nople.  Bajazet  conquered  almost  all  the 
European  provinces  except  Constanti- 
nople, and  was  pressing  it  hard  when 
Timur’s  invasion  of  the  Turkish  prov- 
inces saved  Constantinople  for  this 


BYZANTIUM 


CABOT 


time  (1402).  Manuel  then  recovered  his 
throne,  and  regained  some  of  the  lost 
provinces  from  the  contending  sons  of 
Bajazet.  To  him  succeeded  his  son 
John,  Palseologus  II.  (1425),  whom 
Amurath  II.  stripped  of  all  his  terri- 
tories except  Constantinople,  and  laid 
under  tribute  (1444).  To  the  Emperor 
John  succeeded  his  brother  Constantine 
Palseologus.  With  the  assistance  of  his 
general  Giustiniani,  a Genoese,  he  with- 


stood the  superior  forces  of  the  enemy 
with  fruitless  courage,  and  fell  in  the 
defense  of  Constantinople,  by  the  con- 
quest of  which  (May  29,  1453)  Mo- 
hammed II.  put  an  end  to  the  Greek  or 
Byzantine  Empire.  The  Byzantine 
Empire,  which  thus  lasted  for  over  a 
thousand  years,  was  of  immense  service 
to  the  world  in  stemming  the  tide  of 
Mohammedan  advance,  in  spreading 
Christianity  and  civilization,  and  in 
maintaining  a regular  system  of  govern- 


ment, law,  and  policy  in  the  midst  of 
surrounding  barbarism. 

BYZANTIUM,  the  original  name  of 
the  city  of  Constantinople.  It  was 
founded  by  Greek  colonists  in  658  b.c., 
and  owing  to  its  favorable  position  for 
commerce  it  attained  great  prosperity, 
and  survived  the  decay,  of  most  of  the 
other  Greek  cities.  In  a.d.  330  a new 
era  began  for  it  when  Constantine  the 
Great  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  See  Constantinople. 


C,  the  third  letter  in  the  English  al- 
phabet and  the  second  of  the  consonants. 
In  English  it  serves  to  represent  two 
perfectly  distinct  sounds,  namely,  the 
guttural  sound  pertaining  to  k and  the 
hard  or  thin  sound  of  s,  the  former  being 
that  which  historically  belongs  to  it; 
while  it  also  forms  with  h the  digraph  ch. 
The  former  sound  it  has  before  the 
vowels  a,  o,  and  u,  the  latter  before  e,  i, 
and  y.  The  digraph  ch  has  three  dif- 
ferent sounds,  as  in  church,  chaise,  and 
chord.  To  these  the  Scotch  adds  a 
fourth,  heard  in  the  word  loch. 

C,  in  music,  (a)  after  the  clef,  the  mark 
of  common  time,  in  which  each  measure 
is  a semibreve  or  four  minims,  corre- 
sponding to  I or  I and  when  a bar  is  per- 
pendicularly drawn  through  it  alla-breve 
time  or  a quicker  movement  is  indicated, 
(b)  The  name  of  the  first  or  key-note  of 
the  modern  normal  scale,  answering  to 
the  do  of  the  Italians  and  the  ut  of  the 
French. 

CAAING  WHALE  (ka'ing),  the  round- 
headed  porpoise,  a cetaceous  animal  of 
the  dolphin  family,  characterized  by  a 
rounded  muzzle  and  a convex  head, 
attaining  a size  of  16  to  24  feet.  It 
frequents  the  shores  of  Orkney,  Shet- 
land, the  Faroe  Islands,  and  Iceland, 
appearing  in  herds  of  from  200  to  1000, 
and  numbers  are  often  caught.  They 
live  on  cod,  ling,  and  other  large  fish,  and 
also  on  molluscs,  especially  the  cuttle- 
fishes. 

CAB,  a kind  of  hackney-carriage  with 
two  or  four  wheels  drawn  by  one  horse. 
The  original  cab  was  for  only  one  pas- 
senger besides  the  driver,  and  was  a 
kind  of  hooded  chaise. 

CABBAGE,  the  popular  name  of  vari- 
ous species  of  cruciferous  plants,  espe- 
cially applied  to  the  plain-leaved,  heart- 
ing, garden  varieties,  cultivated  for  food. 
The  kinds  most  cultivated  are  the  com- 
mon cabbage,  the  savoy,  the  broccoli, 
and  the  cauliflower.  The  common  cab- 
bage forms  its  leaves  into  heads  or  bolls, 
the  inner  leaves  being  blanched.  Its 
varieties  are  the  white,  the  red  or  pur- 
ple, the  tree  or  cow  cabbage  for  cattle 
(branching  and  growing  when  in  flower 
to  the  height  of  10  feet),  and  the  very 
delicate  Portugal  cabbage.  The  garden 
sorts  form  valuable  culinary  vegetables, 
and  are  used  at  table  in  various  ways. 
In  Germany  pickled  cabbage  forms  a 
sort  of  national  dish,  known  as  sauer- 
kraut. 

CABBAGE-PALM,  a name  given  to 
various  species  of  palm-trees  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  terminal  bud. 


c 

which  is  of  great  size,  is  edible  and  re- 
sembles cabbage,  one  of  which  is  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies,  the  simple  un- 
branched stem  of  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  150  or  even  200  feet.  The  un- 
opened bud  of  young  leaves  is  much 
prized  as  a vegetable,  but  the  removal 
of  it  completely  destroys  the  tree,  as  it 
is  unable  to  produce  lateral  buds. 

CAB'INET,  the  collective  body  of 
ministers  who  direct  the  government  of 
a country.  In  Britain,  though  the  exec- 
utive government  is  vested  nominally 
in  the  crown,  it  resides  practically  in  a 
committee  of  ministers  called  the  cabi- 
net. Every  cabinet  includes  the  first 
lord  of  the  treasury,  who  is  usually  (not 
always)  the  prime-minister  or  chief  of 
the  ministry,  and  therefore  of  the  cabi- 
net ; the  lord-chancellor,  the  lord-presi- 
dent of  the  council,  the  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  the  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  the  five  secretaries  of 
state.  A number  of  other  ministerial 
functionaries,  varying  from  two  to  eight, 
have  usually  seats  in  the  cabinet,  and 
its  members  belong  to  both  houses  of 
parliament,  but  usually  adhere  to  that 
political  party  which  predominates  for 
the  time  being  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Its  meetings  are  secret,  and  no  minutes 
of  the  proceedings  are  taken.  Although 
the  cabinet  is  regarded  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  institutions  of  Great  Britain, 
it  has  never  been  recognized  b5’'  act  of 
parliament.  It  began  to  take  its  present 
form  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 

In  the  United  States  the  cabinet  of 
the  president  is  appointed  by  him  and 
assists  him  in  his  administration.  It 
consists  of  the  following  officials : secre- 
tary of  state,  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
secretary  of  war,  attorney-general,  post- 
master-general, secretary  of  the  navy, 
secretary  of  the  interior,  secretary  of 
agriculture,  and  secretary  of  commerce 
and  labor.  By  an  act  of  congress  which 
went  into  effect  Jan.  19,  1886,  in  case 
of  removal  by  death,  resignation,  or 
inability  of  both  the  president  and  the 
vice-president,  the  secretary  of  state,  and 
after  him,  in  the  order  above  given,  the 
other  members  of  the  cabinet,  shall 
act  as  president  until  the  disability  of 
the  president  is  removed  or  a new 
president  is  elected.  The  departments 
of  agriculture  and  of  labor  and  commerce 
were  created  after  the  passage  of  the 
above  law. 

CABLE,  a large  strong  rope  or  chain, 
such  as  is  used  to  retain  a vessel  at 
anchor.  It  is  made  usually  of  hemp  or 
iron,  but  may  be  made  of  other  mate- 


rials. A hemp  cable  is  composed  of  three 
strands,  each  strand  of  three  ropes,  and 
each  rope  of  three  twists.  A ship’s 
cable  is  usually  120  fathoms  or  720  feet 
in  length;  hence  the  expression  a cable’s 
length.  Chain-cables  have  now  almost 
superseded  rope-cables.  Although  defi- 
cient in  elasticity,  heavier,  and  more 
difficult  of  management,  yet  their  im- 
munity from  chafing  and  rotting,  their 
greater  compactness  for  stowage,  and 
the  fact  that  from  their  greater  weight 
the  strain  is  exerted  on  the  cable  rather 
than  on  the  ship,  more  than  counter- 
balance these  drawbacks. — A submarine 
telegraph  cable  is  composed  of  one  or 
more  copper  wires  embedded  in  a com- 
pound of  gutta  percha  and  resinous  sub- 
stances, encircled  by  layers  of  gutta 
percha  or  india-rubber,  hemp  or  jute 
padding,  and  coils  of  iron  wire. 

CABLE,  a bundle  of  wires  for  the  con- 
duction of  electricity,  covered  with  sub- 
stances which  protect  the  wires  from 
harm,  the  wires  themselves  being  sepa- 
rately insulated.  Cables  are  used  in 
several  ways;  they  are  strung  along 
posts  exposed  to  the  air,  or  upon  houses, 
or  other  structures;  they  are  placed 
underground  in  conduits,  or  otherwise; 
and  they  are  laid  in  the  beds  of  bodies 
of  water.  Various  materials  are  used 
for  their  insulation  and  protection,  such 
as  rubber,  bitumen,  jute,  hemp,  or  oil 
paper,  wax  or  other  resins,  rubber  tape, 
and  other  materials,  depending  upon  the 
situation  of  the  cable  and  the  nature  of 
the  reagents  which  attack  it. 

CABLE, George  Washington,  an  Amer- 
ican writer  and  novelist,  born  in  New 
Orleans  in  1844.  He  was  early  engaged 
in  journalism,  and  his  first  w’ork  of 
fiction  was  Old  Creole  Days,  a number 
of  short  stories  of  Louisiana  and  New 
Orleans.  He  has  published  The  Gran- 
dissimes,  Madame  Delphine,  Dr.  Sevier, 
Bonaventure,  and  other  highly  original 
works  of  fiction.  Since  1885  he  has  been 
living  in  New  England. 

CABLE  - MOLDING,  in  architecture, 
a molding  with  its  surface  cut  in  im- 
itation of  the  twisted  strands  of  a rope. 

CABOOSE',  the  cookroom  or  kitchen 
of  a ship.  In  smaller  vessels  it  is  an 
inclosed  fireplace,  hearth,  or  stove  for 
cooking  on  the  main  deck. 

CAB'OT,  Sebastian,  navigator,  was 
born  at  Bristol  about  1474,  died  about 
1557.  He  was  the  son  of  John  Cabot,  a 
Venetian  pilot,  who  resided  at  Bristol, 
and  was  highly  esteemed  for  his  skill  in 
navigation.  In  1497,  in  company  with 
his  father  and  two  brothers,  he  dis- 


CABRAL 


CADENCE 


covered  the  mainland  of  N.  America, 
having  visited  Nova  Scotia  and  New- 
foundland. In  1517  he  made  an  attempt 
to  discover  the  northwest  passage,  visit- 
ing Hudson’s  Bay.  In  1526,  when  in  the 


Sebastian  Cabot. 


Spanish  service,  he  visited  Brazil  and 
the  river  Plata.  In  1548  he  again  settled 
in  EnglaAd,  and  received  a pension  from 
Edward  VI.  He  was  the  first  who 
noticed  the  variations  of  the  compass; 
and  he  published  a large  map  of  the 
world. 

CABRAL',  Pedro  Alvarez,  the  dis- 
coverer (or  second  discoverer)  of  Brazil, 
a Portuguese,  born  about  1460,  died 
about  1526.  In  1500  he  received  com- 
mand of  a fleet  bound  for  the  East 
Indies,  and  sailed  from  Lisbon,  but 
having  taken  a course  too  far  to  the  west 
he  was  carried  by  the  South  American 
current  to  the  coast  of  Brazil,  of  which 
he  took  possession  in  name  of  Portugal. 
Continuing  his  voyage,  he  visited  Mo- 
zambique, and  at  last  reached  India, 
where  he  made  important  commercial 
treaties  with  native  princes,  and  then 
returned  to  Europe. 

CABUL  (ka-bul'),  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Afghanistan,  165  miles  from  the 


Indian  station  and  fort  of  Peshawur,  600 
from  Herat,  and  290  from  Candahar. 
It  stands  on  the  Cabul  river,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  6400  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
citadel,  Bala-Hissar,  contains  the  palace 


and  other  public  buildings,  the  fort,  etc. 
Cabul  carries  on  a considerable  trade 
with  Hindustan  through  the  Khyber 
Pass.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
1839  and  in  1842,  and  on  the  occasion  of 
a subsequent  war  with  the  British  in 
1879  Cabul  was  twice  taken  by  their 
troops.  Pop.  75,000. — The  Cabul  river 
rises  in  Afghanistan  at  the  height  of 
about  8400  feet,  flows  eastward,  passes 
through  the  Khyber  Pass  into  India, 
and  falls  into  the  Indus  at  Attock. 
Length  300  miles. 

CACA'O,  or  CO'COA,  the  chocolate- 
tree,  and  also  the  powder  and  beverage 
made  with  it  obtained  from  the  fruit 
of  this  tree.  The  tree  is  16  to  18  feet 
high,  a native  of  tropical  America,  and 
much  cultivated  in  the  tropics  of  both 
hemispheres,  especially  in  the  West  India 
Islands,  Central  and  South  America. 
Its  fruit  is  contained  in  pointed,  oval, 
ribbed  pods  6 to  10  inches  long,  each 
inclosing  50  to  100  seeds  in  a white, 
sweetish  pulp.  These  are  very  nutritive, 
containing  50  per  cent  of  fat,  are  of  an 
agreeable  flavor,  and  used,  both  in  their 
fresh  state  and  when  dried,  as  an  article 
of  diet.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  made 
from  them,  the  former  being  a powder 
obtained  by  grinding  the  seeds,  and 
often  mixed  with  other  substances  when 
prepared  for  sale,  the  latter  being  this 
powder  mixed  with  sugar  and  various 
flavoring  matters  and  formed  into  solid 
cakes.  The  seeds  when  roasted  and 
divested  of  their  husks  and  crushed  are 
known  as  cocoa  nibs.  The  seeds  jdeld 
also  an  oil  called  butter  of  cacao,  used  in 
pomatum  and  for  making  candles,  soap, 
etc.  The  term  cocoa  is  a corruption  of 
cacao,  but  is  more  commonly  used  in 
commerce;  cocoanuts,  however,  are  ob- 
tained from  an  entirely  different  tree. 

CACHALOT  (kash'a-lot).  See  Sperm- 
whale. 

CACHE  (ka,sh),  a hole  in  the  ground 
for  hiding  and  preserving  provisions 
which  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry:  used 


by  settlers  in  the  western  states  of 
America  and  Arctic  explorers. 

CACHET  (ka-sha),  Lettre  de,  a name 
given  especially  to  letters  proceeding 
from  and  signed  by  the  kings  of  France, 


and  countersigned  by  a secretary  of 
state.  They  were  at  first  made  use  of 
occasionally  as  a means  of  delaying  the 
course  of  justice,  but  they  appear  to 
have  been  rarely  employed  before  the 
17th  century  as  warrants  for  the  deten- 
tion of  private  citizens,  and  for  depriv- 
ing them  of  their  personal  liberty.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  their  use 
became  frightfully  common,  and  by 
means  of  them  persons  were  imprisoned 
for  life  or  for  a long  period  on  the  most 
frivolous  pretexts.  They  were  abolished 
at  the  Revolution. 

CACHOU  (ka-sho'),  a sweetmeat  in 
the  form  of  a pill,  made  from  the  ex- 
tract of  licorice,  cashew-nut,  gum,  etc., 
used  by  smokers  to  sweeten  the  breath. 

CACIQUE  (ka-sek'),  in  some  parts  of 
America  the  title  of  the  native  chiefs  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest  by  the  Span- 
iards. 

CACTUS,  a Linnrean  genus  of  plants, 
now  used  as  a name  for  any  of  the 
Cactaceae,  otherwise  called  the  Indian 
fig  order.  The  species  are  succulent 
shrubs,  with  minute  scale-like  leaves 


Cacti. 

(except  in  the  genus  Pereskia,  tree- 
cactus,  with  large  leaves),  ancl  with 
clusters  and  spines  on  the  stems.  They 
have  fleshy  stems,  with  sweetish  watery 
or  milky  juice,  and  they  assume  many 
peculiar  forms.  The  juice  in  some 
species  affords  a refreshing  beverage 
where  water  is  not  to  be  got.  All  the 
plants  of  this  order,  except  a single 
species,  are  natives  of  America.  They 
are  generally  found  in  very  dry  localities. 
Some  are  epiphytes.  Several  have  been 
introduced  into  the  Old  World,  and  in 
many  places  they  have  become  natural- 
ized. The  fruits  of  some  species  are 
edible,  as  the  prickly-pear  and  the 
Indian  fig,  cultivated  throughout  the 
Mediterranean  region.  The  flowers  are 
usually  large  and  beautifully  colored, 
and  many  members  of  the  order  are 
cultivated  in  hot-houses. 

CADE,  John  (better  knowm  as  Jack 
Cade),  a popular  agitator  of  the  15th 
century,  leader  of  an  insurrection  of  the 
common  people  of  Kent  (1450)  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  Having  defeated  a 
force  sent  against  him  he  advanced  to 
London,  which  he  ruled  for  two  days. 
On  a promise  of  pardon  being  given  the 
rebels  soon  dispersed,  but  Cade  himself 
was  killed  by  a gentleman  of  Kent 
named  Iden. 

CA'DENCE,  the  concluding  notes  of  a 
musical  composition  or  of  any  well- 
defined  section  of  it.  A cadence  is  per- 
fect, full,  or  authentic  when  the  last 
chord  is  the  tonic  preceded  by  the 
dominent ; it  is  imperfect  when  the 
chord  of  the  tonic  precedes  that  of  the 


Cabal— The  bazaar  during  the  fruit  season. 


CADET 

t* 

dominant;  it  is  plagal  when  the  closing 
tonic  chord  is  preceded  by  that  of  the 
sub-dominant;  and  it  is  interrupted, 
false,  or  deceptive  when  the  base  rises  a 
second,  instead  of  falling  a fifth.  Ca- 
dence, or  cadenza,  is  the  name  also 
given  to  a running  passage  which  a per- 
former may  introduce  at  the  close  of 
a movement. 

CADET,  a student  in  one  of  the  mili- 
tary schools  of  the  U.  States,  par- 
ticularly that  of  West  Point.  The 
appointment  of  cadet.s  to  West  Point  is 
generally  made  after  competitive  exam- 
ination, or  from  recommendation  by  a 
congressman,  each  congressional  dis- 
trict being  entitled  to  a cadet,  each  state 
to  two  cadets  at  large,  and  the  U.  States 
to  thirty  cadets  at  large.  Cadets  spend 
four  years  in  school  and  then  are  com- 
missioned in  the  army.  A naval  cadet 
is  the  holder  of  the  lowest  grade  in  the 
navy,  being  identical  with  that  of  mid- 
shipman. 

CADIZ  (ka-deth'),  a seaport  of  south- 
western Spain,  situated  at  the  extremity 
of  a long  tongue  of  land  projecting  from 
the  island  of  Leon,  which  is  separated 
by  a narrow  (bridged)  channel  from  the 


coast  of  .\ndalusia.  It  is  well  built,  well 
paved,  and  very  clean,  and  is  strongly 
fortified.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
great  hospital,  the  custom-house,  the 
old  and  new  cathedrals,  the  theaters, 
the  bull-ring,  capable  of  accommodating 
12,000  spectators,  and  the  lighthouse  of 
St.  Sebastian.  The  bay  of  Cadiz  is  a 
large  basin  inclosed  by  the  mainland  on 
one  side  and  the  projecting  tongue  of 
land  on  the  other,  with  good  anchorage, 
and  protected  by  the  neighboring  hills. 
It  has  four  forts,  two  of  which  form  the 
defense  of  the  grand  arsenal.  La  Carraca 
(4  miles  from  Cadiz),  at  which  ate  large 
basins  and  docks.  Cadiz  has  long  been 
the  principal  Spanish  naval  station. 
Its  trade  is  large,  its  exports  being 
especially  wine  and  fruit.  Cadiz  was 
founded  by  the  Phcenicians  about  b.c. 
1100,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  seats  of 


their  commerce  in  the  west  of  Europe. 
Pop.  70,177. — The  province  of  Cadiz  is 
the  most  southerly  in  Spain;  area,  2809 
sq.  miles;  pop.  434,250. 

CAD'MIUM,  a scarce  metal  which 
resembles  tin  in  color  and  luster,  but  is 
a little  harder.  It  is  very  ductile  and 
malleable;  has  a specific  gravity  of  8'6 
to  8'69;  and  fuses  a little  below  a red 
heat.  In  its  chemical  character  it  re- 
sembles zinc.  It  occurs  in  the  form  of 
carbonate,  as  an  ingredient  in  various 
kinds  of  calamine,  or  carbonate  of  zinc. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  form  of  a sulphide, 
as  the  rare  mineral  greenockite.  It 
forms  at  least  two  oxides,  one  chloride, 
and  one  sulphide. 

CADMIUM  YELLOW,  a pigment  pre- 
pared from  the  sulphide  of  cadmium. 
It  is  of  an  intense  yellow  color,  and 
possesses  much  body. 

CADMUS,  in  Greek  legend,  the  son  of 
Agenor  and  grandson  of  Poseidon 
(Neptune).  He  was  said  to  have  come 
from  PhcBnicia  to  Greece  about  1550 
B.C.,  and  to  have  built  the  city  of  Cad- 
mea  or  Thebes,  in  Boeotia.  Herodotus 
and  other  writers  ascribe  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Phoenician  alphabet  into 
Greece  to  Cadmus.  The  solar  mythists 
identify  him  with  the  sun-god. 

CADU'CEUS,  Mercury’s  rod ; a winged 
rod  entwisted  by  two  serpents,  borne 
by  Mercury  as  an  ensign  of  quality  and 
office.  In  modern  times  it  is  used  as  a 
symbol  of  commerce.  Mercury  being  the 
god  of  commerce.  The  rod  represents 
power;  the  serpents,  wisdom;  and  the 
two  wings,  diligence  and  activity. 

C.®DMON  (kad'mon),  the  first  Anglo- 
Saxon  of  note  who  wrote  in  his  own 
language,  flourished  about  the  end  of 
the  7th  century.  His  chief  work  (if  it 
can  all  be  attributed  to  him)  consists  of 
paraphrases  of  portions  of  the  Scriptures, 
in  Anglo-Saxon  verse,  the  first  part  of 
which  bears  sticking  resemblances  to 
Milton’s  narrative  in  Paradise  Lost. 

C.®'SAR,  a title,  originally  a surname 
of  the  Julian  family  at  Rome,  which, 
after  being  dignified  in  the  person  of  the 
dictator  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  was  adopted 
by  the  successive  Roman  emperors,  and 
latterly  came  to  be  applied  to  the  heir- 
presumptive  to  the  throne.  The  title 
was  perpetuated  in  the  Kaiser  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  and  in  the  Czar 
of  the  Russian  emperors. 

C.®'SAR,  Caius  Julius,  a great  Roman 
general,  statesman,  and  historian,  was 
born  B.c.  100,  died  b.c.  44.  He  w'as  the 
son  of  the  praetor  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  and 
of  Aurelia,  a daughter  of  Aurelius  Cotta. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  lost  his  father, 
and  shortly  after  he  married  Cornelia, 
the  daughter  of  Lucius  Cinna,  the  friend 
of  Marius.  This  connection  gave  great 
offense  to  Sulla,  the  dictator,  wKo  pro- 
scribed him  for  refusing  to  put  away  his 
wdfe.  His  friends  obtained  his  pardon 
with  difficulty,  and  Caesar  withdrew 
from  Rome,  and  went  to  Asia,  serving 
his  first  campaign  under  M.  Minucius 
Thermus,  the  praetor  in  Asia.  On  the 
death  of  Sulla  Caesar  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  as  an 
orator.  He  afterward  visited  Rhodes, 
when  he  was  taken  by  pirates,  and  com- 
pelled to  pay  fifty  talents  for  his  release. 
To  revenge  himself,  he  fitted  out  some 
vessels  at  Miletus,  overtook  the  pirates. 


C^SAR 

made  the  greater  number  of  them 
prisoners,  and  had  them  crucified  before 
Pergamus.  He  now  returned  to  Rome, 
where  his  eloquence  and  liberality  made 
him  very  popular.  He  was  pontifex 


Julius  Csesar— Marble  in  Brit.  Museum. 

maximus  in  63  b.c.,  praetor  in  62  b.c., 
and  governor  of  Spain  in  61  b.c.  On 
his  return  to  Rome,  having  united  with 
Pompey  and  Crassus  in  the  memorable 
coalition  called  “the  first  triumvirate,’’ 
he  became  consul,  and  then  obtained  the 
government  of  Gaul  wdth  the  command 
of  four  legions.  His  military  career  was 
rapid  and  brilliant.  He  compelled  the 
Helvetii,  who  had  invaded  Gaul,  to 
retreat  to  their  native  country,  subdued 
Ariovistus,  who  at  the  head  of  a German 
tribe  had  attempted  to  settle  in  the 
country  of  the  .(Edui,  and  conquered  the 
Belgae.  In  nine  years  he  reduced  all 
Gaul,  crossed  the  Rhine  twice  (b.c.  55 
and  53),  and  twice  passed  over  to  Britain, 
defeated  the  gallant  natives  of  this 
island  in  several  battles,  and  compelled 
them  to  give  him  hostages.  The  senate 
had  continued  his  government  in  Gaul 
for  another  period  of  five  years,  while 
Pompey  was  to  have  the  command  of 
Spain,  and  Crassus  that  of  Syria,  Egypt, 
and  Macedonia  for  five  years  also.  But 
the  death  of  Crassus  in  his  campaign 
against  the  Parthians  dissolved  the 
triumvirate;  and  about  the  same  time 
the  friendship  betw'een  Cresar  and 
Pompey  cooled.  The  senate,  influenced 
by  Pompey,  ordered  that  CjEsar  should 
resign  his  offices  and  command  within  a 
certain  time,  or  be  proclaimed  an  enemy 
to  the  state,  and  appointed  Pompey 
general  of  the  army  of  the  Republic. 
Upon  this  Ciesar  urged  his  soldiers  to 
defend  the  honor  of  their  leader,  passed 
the  Rubicon  (49  b.c.),  and  made  himself 
master  of  Italy  without  striking  a blow, 
Pompey  retiring  into  Greece.  CsEsa” 
then  levied  an  army  with  the  treasures 
of  the  state,  and  hastened  into  Spain, 
which  he  reduced  to  submission  without 
coming  to  a pitched  battle  with  Pom- 
pey’s  generals.  He  next  conquered  Mas- 
silia  (now  Marseilles),  and  returned  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  appointed  dictator. 
He  then  followed  Pompey  into  Greece, 
and  defeated  him  at  Pharsalia,  from 
which  Poiimey  escaped  only  to  be  assas- 
sinated in  Egypt.  In  Rome  the  senate 
and  the  people  strove  eagerly  to  gain 
the  favor  of  the  victor.  They  appointed 
him  consul  for  five  years,  dictator  for  a 
year,  and  tribune  of  the  people  for  life. 
When  his  dictatorship  had  expired  he 
caused  himself  to  be  chosen  consul 
again,  and  without  changing  the  ancient 
forms  of  government,  ruled  with  almost 
unlimited  power.  In  46  b.c.  he  crossed 


C^SAREA 


CAIRO 


to  Africa,  defeated  the  Pompeians 
Scipio  and  Cato  at  Chapsus,  and  return- 
ing to  Rome  he  was  received  with  the 
most  striking  marks  of  honor.  The  term 
of  his  dictatorship  was  prolonged  to  ten 
years,  the  office  of  censor  conferred  on 
him  alone;  his  person  was  declared 
inviolable,  and  his  statue  placed  beside 
that  of  Jupiter  in  the  capitol.  He  soon 
after  was  honored  with  four  several 
triumphs,  made  perpetual  dictator  and 
received  the  title  of  imperator  with  full 
powers  of  sovereignty.  In  February, 
44,  he  declined  the  diadem  which  An-, 
tony  publicly  offered  him,  and  next 
morning  his  statues  were  decked  with 
diadems.  His  glory,  however,  was 
short-lived,  for  a conspiracy  was  set  on 
foot  by  his  enemy  Cassius,  and  joined 
by  many  of  his  own  friends,  including 
M.  Brutus;  and,  notwithstanding  dark 
hints  had  been  given  to  him  of  his  dan- 
ger, he  attended  a meeting  of  the  senate 
on  15th  (ides)  March,  44  b.c.,  and  fell 
beneath  the  daggers  of  the  conspirators. 
Of  his  writings,  we  still  possess  the 
history  of  his  wars  with  the  Gauls  and 
with  Pompey.  Caesar  was  undoubtedly 
“the  foremost  man  of  all  this  world,” 
being  great  as  a statesman,  a general,  an 
orator,  a historian,  and  an  architect  and 
engineer,  and  his  assassination  was 
brought  about  more  by  jealousy  and 
envy  than  by  real  patriotism. 

CiESARE'A,  the  ancient  name  of 
many  cities,  such  as:  (1)  Caesarea 
Philippi  in  Palestine,  north  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  rebuilt  by  Philip,  tetrarch  of 
Galilee,  son  ol  Herod  the  Great. — (2) 
Caesarea,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, about  55  miles  n.w.  from  Jeru- 
salem, enlarged  and  beautified  by  Herod 
the  Great,  and  named  in  honor  of  Caesar 
Augustus;  the  place  where  St.  Paul  was 
imprisoned  two  years  (Acts  xxiii.— xxv.) 
— (3)  The  capital  of  Cappadocia  in  Asia 
Minor. 

C.ffiSA'REAN  OPERATION,  a surgical 
operation,  which  consists  in  delivering  a 
child  by  means  of  an  incision  made 
through  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  and 
womb;  necessary  when  the  obstacles  to 
delivery  are  so  great  as  to  leave  no  other 
alternative.  It  is  said  to  be  so  named 
because  Julius  Csesar  was  brought  into 
the  world  in  this  way. 

CiESIUM,  a rare  metal,  first  dis- 
covered by  Bunsen  and  Kirchoff  by 
spectrum  analysis  in  1860;  symbol  Cs, 
atomic  weight  133.  It  is  soft,  and  of  a 
silver-white  color.  It  is  always  found 
in  connection  with  rubidium.  It  be- 
longs to  the  same  group  of  elements 
with  lithium,  sodium,  potassium,  and 
rubidium,  viz.  the  group  of  the  alkali- 
metals. 

CAFF'EINE,  or  THE'INE,  the  active 
principle  of  tea  and  coffee,  a slightly 
bitter,  highly  azotized  substance,  crys- 
tallizing in  slender,  silk-like  needles, 
found  in  coffee-beans,  tea-leaves,  Para- 
guay tea,  guarana,  etc.  Coffee  contains 
from  0'8  to  3' 6,  and  tea  from  2 to  4 per 
cent.  Doses  of  2 to  10  grains  induce 
violent  nervous  and  vascular  excite- 
ment. 

CAGE-BIRDS,  birds  kept  in  cages  as 
pets  or  songsters.  A large  traffic  is  done 
in  birds  of  this  description,  particularly 
the  so-called  canary  birds  which  are 
Raised  in  the  Hartz  mountains  and  form 


a large  industry.  The  tame  bird  has, 
under  these  conditions,  altered  con- 
siderably from  its  wild  ancestor  in  the 
Canary  Islands.  Other  song  birds 
kept  in  cages  are  mockingbirds,  bull- 
finches, nightingales,  goldfinches,  cardi- 
nal birds,  parrots,  parakeets,  cockatoos, 
and  others  are  kept  for  their  power  of 
speech  or  beauty  of  plumage.  In  keep- 
ing cage  birds  the  cage  should  be  regu- 
larly cleaned,  should  be  large,  and  the 
bird  should  be  fed  generously  with 
proper  food. 

CAGLIOSTRO  (kM-yos'tro),  Count 
Alessandro  (real  name  Giuseppe  (Joseph) 
Balsamo),  a celebrated  charlatan,  born 
in  1743  at  Palermo.  He  was  the  son  of 
poor  parents,  and  entered  the  order  of 
the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  where  he  ac- 
quired a knowledge  of  the  elements  of 
chemistry  and  physic.  He  left,  or  had 
to  leave  the  order,  and  committed  so 
many  crimes  in  Palermo  that  he  was 
obliged  to  abscond.  He  subsequently 
formed  a connection  with  Lorenza 
Feliciani,  whose  beauty,  ability,  and 
want  of  principle  made  her  a valuable 
accomplice  in  his  frauds.  With  her  he 
traveled  through  many  countries,  as- 
suming other  names  besides  that  of 
Count  Cagliostro,  pretending  to  super- 
natural powers,  and  wringing  consider- 
able sums  from  those  who  became  his 
dupes.  In  England  he  established  an 
order  of  what  he  called  Egyptian 
Masonry,  in  which,  as  grand  kophta,  he 
pretended  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  futu- 
rity, and  made  many  dupes  among  the 
higher  classes.  In  Paris  he  was  im- 
plicated in  the  affair  of  the  diamond 
necklace  which  caused  so  great  a scan- 
dal in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Bastile,  but  escaped 
by  means  of  his  matchless  impudence. 
He  afterward  visited  England,  but  met 
with  little  success.  In  1789  he  revisited 
Rome,  where  he  busied  himself  about 
freemasonry,  but  being  discovered,  and 


committed  to  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
he  was  condemned  by  a decree  of  the 
pope  to  imprisonment  for  life  as  a free- 
mason, an  arch-heretic,  and  a very 
dangerous  foe  to  religion.  He  died  in 
prison  in  1795. 

CAI'MAN,  or  CAY'MAN.  See  Alliga- 
tor. 

CAIN,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve;  the  first  murderer,  who  slew  his 
brother  Abel.  For  the  biblical  history 


of  Cain  and  his  descendants  see  Gen. 
iv.-vii.  A Gnostic  sect  of  the  2d  cen- 
tury called  Cainites  held  that  Cain  was 
the  offspring  of  a superior  power  and 
Eve,  and  Abel  of  an  inferior  power — 
the  Jewish  God,  and  that  the  killing  of 
Abel  symbolized  the  defeat  of  the  in- 
ferior by  the  superior  power. 

CAINOZOTC,  a geological  term  ap- 
plied to  the  latest  of  the  three  divisions 
into  which  strata  have  been  arranged, 
with  reference  to  the  age  of  the  fossils 
they  include.  The  Cainozoic  system 
embraces  the  tertiary  and  postertiary 
systems  of  British  geologists,  exhibiting 
recent  forms  of  life,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Mesozoic,  exhibiting  intermediate, 
and  the  Pala30zoic,  ancient  and  extinct, 
forms.  It  corresponds  nearly  with  what 
has  been  called  the  age  of  mammals. 

CAIQUE  (ka-ek'),  a small  skiff  or 
rowing  boat ; especially  a light  skiff 
used  in  the  Bosporus,  where  it  almost 
monopolizes  the  boat  traffic.  It  may 
have  from  one  to  ten  or  twelve  rowers. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a Levantine 
vessel  of  a larger  size. 

CAIRN  (karn),  a heap  of  stones;  espe- 
cially one  of  those  large  heaps  of  stones 
common  in  Great  Britain,  particularly 
in  Scotland  and  Wales,  and  generally  of 
a conical  form.  They  are  of  various 
sizes,  and  were  probably  constructed  for 
different  objects.  Some  are  evidently 
sepulchral,  containing  urns,  stone  chests, 
bones,  etc.  Some  were  erected  to  com- 
memorate some  great  event,  others  ap- 
pear to  have  been  intended  for  religious 
rites,  while  the  modern  cairn  is  generally 
set  up  as  a landmark. 

CAIRO  (ki'ro),  the  capital  of  Modern 
Egypt,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Nile,  12  miles  above  the  apex  of  its 
delta,  and  150  miles  by  rail  from  Alexan- 
dria. The  character  of  the  town  is  still 
mainly  Arabic,  though  in  modern  times 
the  European  style  in  architecture  and 
other  matters  has  become  more  and 


more  prevalent.  The  city  is  partly  sur- 
rounded by  a fortified  wall,  and  is  inter- 
sected by  seven  or  eight  great  streets, 
from  which  run  a labyrinth  of  narrow 
crooked  streets  and  lanes.  There  are 
several  large  squares  or  places,  the  prin- 
cipal being  the  Ezbekiyeh.  To  the 
southeast  of  the  town  is  the  citadel, 
on  the  last  spur  of  the  Mokattam  Hills, 
overlooking  the  city.  It  contains  the 
fine  mosque  of  Mohammed  Ali,  a well 


CAIRO 


CALCULATORS,  LIGHTNING 


270  feet  deep  called  Joseph’s  Well,  cut 
in  the  rock,  the  palace  of  the  viceroy, 
etc.  There  are  upward  of  400  mosques. 
The  finest  is  that  of  Sultan  Hassan. 
There  are  also  some  forty  Christian 
churches,  Jewish  synagogues,  etc.  The 
tombs  in  the  burying-grounds  outside 
the  city  also  deserve  mention,  especially 
those  known  as  the  tombs  of  the  Caliphs. 
The  trade  of  Cairo  is  large,  and  the 
bazaars  and  markets  are  numerous. 
Of  these  the  Khan  el  Khalili,  in  the 
northeast  of  the  town,  consists  of  a 
series  of  covered  streets  and  courts  in 
which  all  kinds  of  eastern  merchandise 
are  displayed  in  open  stalls.  Cairo  has 
railway  communication  with  Alexan- 
dria, Suez,  and  Siout.  It  was  occupied 
by  the  British,  Sept.  1882.  Pop.  570,062. 

CAIRO  (ka'ro),  a city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Alexander  Co.,  111., 
at  the  junction  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Ohio  rivers,  150  miles  southeast  of 
Saint  Louis,  on  the  Illinois  Central, 
Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Cliicago  and 
Saint  Louis,  and  other  railroads.  Pop. 
15,141. 

CAIS'SON.  In  civil  engin.  (a)  a vessel 
in  the  form  of  a boat  used  as  a flood- 
gate in  docks,  (b)  An  apparatus  on 
which  vessels  may  be  raised  and  floated ; 
especially  a kind  of  floating-dock,  which 
may  be  sunk  and  floated  under  a vessel’s 
keel,  used  for  docking  vessels  while  at 
their  moorings,  without  removing  stores 
or  masts,  (c)  A water-tight  box  or 
casing  used  in  founding  and  building 
structures  in  water  too  deep  for  the 
cofferdam,  such  as  piers  of  bridges, 
quays,  etc. 

CAITH'NESS,  a county  occupying  the 
extreme  northeast  of  the  mainland  of 
Scotland;  area,  438,878  acres,  of  which 
about  a fourth  is  under  crop.  Caithness 
gives  the  title  of  earl  to  the  head  of  the 
Sinclair  family.  It  returns  one  member 
to  Parliament.  Pop.  33,859. 

CALABAR  BEAN,  the  seed  of  a legu- 
minous African  plant,  nearly  allied  to 
the  kidney-bean.  It  is  a powerful 
narcotic  poison,  operating  also  as  a 
purgative  and  emetic,  and  in  virtue  of 
these  last  qualities  is  the  famous  “ordeal 
bean’’  of  Africa,  administered  to  per- 
sons suspected  of  witchcraft.  If  it 
cause'  purging  it  indicates  crime;  if 
vomiting,  innocence.  It  induces  faint- 
ing fits  and  asphyxia,  and  weakens  or 
paralyzes  the  action  of  the  heart.  It  is 
employed  in  medicine,  chiefly  (exter- 
nally) as  an  agent  for  producing  con- 
traction of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  in  certain 
cases;  sometimes  also  (internally)  in 
neuralgia,  tetanus,  and  rheumatism 

CAL'ABASH,  a vessel  made  of  a dried 
gourd-shell  or  of  a calabash  shell,  used 
in  some  parts  of  America  and  Africa. 
They  are  so  closely  grained  and  hard 
that  when  they  contain  any  liquid  they 
may  be  put  on  the  fire  as  kettles. 

GALA'BRIA,  a name  anciently  given 
to  the  jteninsula  at  the  southeastern 
extremity  of  Italy,  but  now  applied  to 
the  s.w.  peninsula  in  which  Italy  ter- 
minates ; area 6663  sq.  miles ; pop.  1,304,- 
980.  Scene  in  1908  of  the  greatest 
earthquake  of  modern  times.  (See 
earthquake.) 

CALAIS  (kii-la),  a fortified  seaport 
town  of  France,  dep.  Pas-de-Calais,  on 
the  Strait  of,  and  25  miles  s-e-  of  Dover, 


and  distant  184  miles  by  rail  from  Paris. 
Pop.  56,857. 

CALAMAN'DER  WOOD,  a beautiful 
species  of  wood,  the  product  of  Ceylon. 
It  resembles  rosewood,  but  is  so  hard 
that  it  is  worked  with  great  diSiculty. 
It  takes  a very  high  polish,  and  is 
wrought  into  chairs  and  tables,  and 
yields  veneers  of  almost  unequaled 
beauty. 

CAL'AMARY,  the  general  name  for 
two-gilled  decapod  cuttle-fishes.  The 
bod}'  is  oblong,  soft,  fleshy,  tapering, 
and  flanked  behind  by  two  triangular 
fins,  and  contains  a pen-shaped  gladius 
or  internal  horny  flexible  shell.  They 
have  the  power  of  discharging,  when 
alarmed  or  pursued,  a black  fluid  from 
an  ink-bag.  The  species  are  found  in 
all  seas,  and  furnish  food  to  dolphins, 
whales,  etc.  Some  species  can  dash  out 
of  the  water  and  propel  themselves 
through  the  air  for  80  or  100  yards. 
It  occasionally  grows  to  the  length  of 
2^  feet.  Called  also  Squid. 

CAL'AMUS,  a genus  of  palms,  the 
stems  of  the  different  species  of  which 
are  the  rattan-canes  of  commerce.  The 
genus  holds  a middle  station  between 
the  grasses  and  palms,  with  the  habit  of 
the  former  and  the  inflorescence  of  the 
latter.  The  species  are  principally 
found  in  the  hotter  parts  of  the  East 
Indies. 

GALAS  (ka-la),  Jean,  a memorable 
victim  of  fanaticism,  born  1698,  exe- 
cuted 1762.  He  was  a Protestant,  and 
was  engaged  as  a merchant  in  Toulouse, 
when  his  eldest  son  committed  suicide; 
and  as  he  was  known  to  be  attached  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  a cry  arose 
that  he  had  on  that  account  been  mur- 
dered by  his  father.  Jean  Calas  and  his 
whole  family  were  arrested,  and  a prose- 
cution instituted  against  him,  in  support 
of  which  numerous  witnesses  came  for- 
ward. The  parliament  of  Toulouse 
condemned  him,  by  eight  voices  against 
five,  to  be  tortured  and  then  broken  on 
the  wheel,  which  sentence  was  carried 
out,  his  property  being  also  confiscated. 
Voltaire  became  acquainted  with  his 
family,  and  procured  a revision  of  the 
trial,  when  Calas  was  declared  innocent, 
and  his  widow  pensioned. 

CALCA'REOUS,  a term  applied  to 
substances  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
lime,  or  containing  quantities  of  lime. 
Thus  we  speak  of  calcareous  waters, 
calcareous  rocks,  calcareous  soils. — Cal- 
careous spar,  crystallized  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  is  found  crystallized  in  more 
than  700  different  forms,  all  having  for 
their  primitive  form  an  obtuse  rhomboid. 
— Calcareous  tufa,  an  alluvial  deposit 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  formed  generally 
by  springs,  which,  issuing  through  lime- 
stone strata,  hold  in  solution  a portion 
of  calc.areous  earth;  this  they  deposit  on 
coming  in  contact  with  air  and  light. 
Calc-sinter  is  a variety  of  it. 

CALCINATION,  the  operation  of 
roasting  a substance  or  subjecting  it  to 
heat,  generally  with  the  purpose  of 
driving  off  some  volatile  ingredient, 
and  so  rendering  the  substance  suitable 
for  further  operations.  The  term  was 
formerly  also  applied  to  the  operation 
of  converting  a metal  into  an  oxide  or 
metallic  calx : now  called  oxidation. 


CAL'CITE,  a term  applied  to  various 
minerals  all  of  which  are  modifications 
of  the  rhombohedral  form  of  carbonate 
of  calcium.  It  includes  limestone,  all 
the  white  and  most  of  the  colored  mar- 
bles, chalk,  Iceland-spar,  etc. 

CAL'CIUM,  the  metallic  base  of  lime ; 
in  the  metallic  state,  one  of  the  rarest 
of  substances;  combined,  one  of  the 
most  abundant  and  most  widely  dis- 
tributed. As  phosphate,  it  forms  the 
main  part  of  the  mineral  matter  of  the 
bones  of  animals;  as  carbonate,  chalk, 
limestone,  or  marble,  it  forms  mountain 
ranges;  as  sulphate  or  gypsum,  large 
deposits  in  various  geological  forma- 
tions; it  is  a constituent  of  many  miner- 
rals,  as  fluor-spar,  Iceland-spar,  etc.,  and 
is  found  in  all  soils,  in  the  ash  of  plants, 
dissolved  in  seawater,  and  in  springs, 
both  common  and  mineral.  It  was  first 
obtained  in  the  metallic  state  by  Sir 
H.  Davy  in  1808.  When  quite  pure,  it 
is  a pale-yellow  metal,  with  a high 
luster.  It  is  about  one  and  a half  times 
as  heavy  as  water,  ductile,  malleable, 
and  very  oxidizable.  Its  salts  are  for 
the  most  part  insoluble  or  sparingly 
soluble  in  water,  but  dissolve  in  dilute 
acids. 

CALC-SINTER,  a carbonate  of  lime, 
the  substance  which  forms  the  stalac- 
tites and  stalagmites  that  beautify  many 
caves. 

CALCULATING  MACHINES,  contriv- 
ances by  which  the  results  of  arithmet- 
ical operations  may  be  obtained 
mechanically.  Modern  calculating  ma- 
chines are  those  invented  by  Kummer 
in  1847,  and  by  Lagrous,  Djakoff  and 
Webb.  The  most  commonly  used  ma- 
chine is  called  the  slide  rule  machine, 
by  which  the  multiplication  of  large 
numbers  can  be  quickly  done.  They 
are  based  upon  the  principle  of  log- 
arithms.' The  following  machines  are 
extensively  used:  Beher’s  addition  ma- 
chine (1892),  of  keyboard  type,  limited 
to  sums  under  500;  Rlgen’s  calculator 
(1888),  limited  to  sums  under  1000; 
Runge’s  addition  machine,  Berlin  (1896), 
adding  numbers  of  several  figures;  Felt’s 
comptometer,  Chicago  (1887),  key- 
board type,  performing  all  four  opera- 
tions; Burrough’s  registering  account- 
ant, Saint  Louis  (1888),  an  addition 
machine  of  81  keys,  wdth  a capacity  of 
2000  entries  per  hour,  and  automatically 
printing  both  the  addenda  and  the  total 
sum;  Carney’s  cash  register,  Dayton 
(1890),  an  adding  and  printing  machine 
of  great  perfection. 

CALCULATORS,  LIGHTNING,  prodi- 
gies having  an  unusual  capacity  for 
combining  numbers.  Thus,  at  the  age 
of  6,  T.  H.  Safford  computed  mentally 
the  number  (617,760)  of  barley  corns  in 
1040  rods,  and  could  extract  the  cube 
roots  of  numbers  of  9 and  10  figures. 
Buxton  solved  the  problem,  to  find  the 
product  of  doubling  a farthing  139 
times,  the  result,  expressed  in  pounds, 
being  a number  of  39  figures.  Zerah 
Colburn,  at  9 years  of  age,  gave  at  sight 
the  factors  of  294,967,297,  and  in  20 
seconds  found  mentally  the  number  of 
hours  in  1811  years.  Raising  991  to  the 
fifth  power  in  13  operations,  and  gi\’ing 
the  product  of  any  pair  of  tow'-figure 
numbers  in  li  seconds,  are  feats  accom- 
plished by  Arthur  Griffith,  who  also 


CALCULUS 


CALENDAR 


memorized  the  squares  of  all  numbers 
up  to  130  and  the  cubes  up  to  100. 
Other  noted  prodigies  are  Annich,  Bid- 
der, Vinckler,  Pughiesi,  Mondeux,  Magi- 
melle,  and  Inaudi. 

CAL'CULUS,  The  Infinitesimal  or 
Transcendental  Analysis,  a branch  of 
mathematical  science.  The  lower  or 
common  analysis  contains  the  rules 
necessary  to  calculate  quantities  of  any 
definite  magnitude  whatever.  But 
quantities  are  sometimes  considered  as 
varying  in  magnitude,  oi>  as  having 
arrived  at  a given  state  of  magnitude 
by  successive  variations.  This  gives 
rise  to  the  higher  analysis,  which  is  of 
the  greatest  use  in  the  physico-mathe- 
matical  sciences.  Two  objects  are  here 
proposed:  First,  to  descend  from 

quantities  to  their  elements.  The 
method  of  effecting  this  is  called  the 
differential  calculus.  Second,  to  ascend 
from  the  elements  of  quantities  to  the 
quantities  themselves.  This  method  is 
called  the  integral  calculus.  Both  of 
these  methods  are  included  under  the 
general  name  infinitesimal  or  trans- 
cendental analysis.  Those  quantities 
which  retain  the  same  value  are  called 
con.stant;  those  whose  values  are  vary- 
ing are  called  variable.  When  variable 
quantities  are  so  connected  that  the 
value  of  one  of  them  is  determined  by 
value  ascribed  to  the  others,  that  vari- 
able quantity  is  said  to  be  a function  of 
the  others.  A quantity  is  infinitely 
great  or  infinitely  small,  with  regard 
to  another,  when  it  is  not  possible 
to  assign  any  quantity  sufficiently 
large  or  suflficiently  small  to  express 
the  ratio  of  the  two.  When  we  con- 
sider a variable  quantity  as  increas- 
ing by  infinitely  small  degrees,  if  we 
wish  to  know  the  value  of  these 
increments,  the  most  natural  mode  is  to 
determine  the  value  of  this  quantity 
for  any  given  period,  as  a second  of  time, 
and  the  value  of  the  same  for  the  period 
immediately  following.  This  difference 
is  called  the  differential  of  the  quantity. 
The  integral  calculus,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  is  the  reverse  of  the 
differential  calculus.  There  is  no  vari- 
able quantity  expressed  algebraically, 
of  which  we  cannot  find  the  differential; 
but  there  are  differential  quantities 
which  we  cannot  integrate:  some  be- 
cause they  could  not  have  resulted  from 
differentiation  j others  because  means 
have  not  yet  been  discovered  of  inte- 
grating them.  Newton  was  the  first 
discoverer  of  the  principles  of  the  in- 
finitesimal _ calculus,  having  pointed 
them  out  in  a treatise  written  before 
1669,  but  not  published  till  many  years 
after.  Leibnitz,  meanwhile,  made  the 
same  discovery,  and  published  it  before 
Isewton,  with  a much  better  notation, 
which  is  now  universally  adopted. 

CALCULUS,  in  pathology,  a general 
term  for  the  various  inorganic  concre- 
tions which  are  sometimes  formed  in  the 
body.  Such  are  biliary  calculi  or  gall- 
stones, formed  in  the  gall  bladder, 
urinary  calculi,  formed  by  a morbid 
denosition  from  the  urine  in  the  kidney 
or  bladder;  and  various  others  known  as 
salivary,  arthritic,  pancreatic,  lachry- 
mal, etc.  Urinary  and  biliary  calculi 
common.  The  former, 
when  the  particles  are  comparatively 

P.  U 


small  in  size,  are  known  as  gravel,  when 
larger  as  stone.  Both  cause  painful  and 
dangerous  symptoms. 

CALCUTTA,  capital  of  British  India 
and  of  Bengal;  situated  about  80  miles 
from  the  sea,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Hooghly  (Hugh'),  a branch  of  the 
Ganges,  navigable  up  to  the  city  for 
large  vessels.  The  river  opposite  the 
city  varies  in  breadth  from  about  two 
furlongs  to  three-quarters  of  a mile. 
Calcutta  extends  along  the  river  for 
about  five  miles  from  north  to  south, 
stretching  eastward  for  nearly  two 
miles  in  the  south  and  in  the  north  nar- 
rowing to  half  a mile.  Adjacent  to  the 
city  proper  are  extensive  suburbs,  which 
include  the  large  town  of  Howrah  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Hooghly,  connected 


educational  institutions  are  Calcutta 
Medical  College,  government  school  of 
art,  a school  of  engineering,  and  Calcutta 
University,  an  examining  and  degree- 
conferring  institution.  Pop.  1,026,987. 

CALDERON'  DE  LA  BARCA,  Don 
Pedro,  the  great  Spanish  dramatist,  born 
at  Madrid,  1600.  Before  his  fourteenth, 
year  he  had  written  his  third  play. 
Leaving  Salamanca  in  1625,  he  entered 
the  army  and  served  with  distinction  for 
ten  years  in  Milan  and  the  Netherlands. 
In  1636  he  was  recalled  by  Philip  IV., 
who  gave  him  the  direction  of  the  court 
entertainments.  The  next  year  he  was 
made  knight  of  the  order  of  Santiago, 
and  he  served  in  1640  in  the  campaign 
in  Catalonia.  Besides  heroic  comedies 
and  historical  plays,  some  of  which  merit 


Calcutta— Bazaar  on  the  Chltpore  road. 


with  Calcutta  by  a pontoon  bridge. 
The  celebrated  Fort  William  is  a mag- 
nificent octagonal  work,  said  to  have 
cost  altogether  $10,000,000.  It  was 
built  in  1757-73,  being  begun  by  Clive 
after  the  battle  of  Plassey.  Govern- 
ment-house, or  the  palace  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general, built  by  the  Marquis 
Wellesley  at  an  expense  of  15,000,000, 
stands  on  the  Esplanade,  a street  or  road 
running  along  the  north  side  of  the 
Maidan.  Here  also  are  the  high  court 
and  the  town-hall,  other  buildings  in 
this  quarter  being  the  currency- office, 
post-office.  Bank  of  Bengal,  mint,  etc. 
The  churches  include  the  cathedral, 
St.  John’s  (the  old  cathedral),  St.  An- 
drew's Scotch  Church,  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  etc.  Calcutta  has  an  exten- 
sive system  of  internal  navigation 
through  the  Ganges  and  its  connections, 
as  also  by  the  railways  (the  chief  of 
which  start  from  Howrah),  and  it  almost 
monopolizes  the  external  commerce  of 
this  part  of  India.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  opium,  cotton,  rice,  wheat, 
jute,  gunny-bags,  tea,  indigo,  seeds, 
raw  silk,  etc.  Of  the  imports  the  most 
important  in  respect  of  value  are  cotton 
goods.  The  j'ute  manufacture  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on,  as  also  that  of 
cottons.  The  religious,  educational,  and 
benevolent  institutions  of  Calcutta  are 
numerous.  The  educational  institu- 
tions comprise  the  Presidepcy  College, 
the  Mohammedan  College,  and  the 
Sanscrit  College,  all  government  colleges 
besides  others  mainly  supported  by 
missionary  or  native  efforts.  Other 


the  name  of  tragedies,  Calderon  wrote 
hundreds  of  preludes,  farces,  etc.  He 
wrote  his  last  play  in  the  eightieth  year 
of  his  age.  His  smaller  poems  are  now 
forgotten;  but  his  plays  have  main- 
tained their  place  on  the  stage  even 
more  than  those  of  Lope  de  Vega.  He 
died  May  25,  1681. 

CALEDO'NIA,  Caledonians,  the  names 
by  which  the  northern  portion  of  Scot- 
land and  its  inhabitants  first  became 
known  to  the  Romans,  when  in  the  year 
80  Agricola  occupied  the  country  up  to 
the  line  of  the  Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth. 
He  defeated  the  Caledonians  in  83,  and 
again  at  Mons  Grampius  in  84,  a battle 
of  which  a detailed  description  is  given 
by  Tacitus.  In  the  early  part  of  the  3d 
century  they  maintained  a brave  re- 
sistance to  Severus,  but  the  name  then 
lost  its  historic  importance.  Caledonia 
is  now  used  as  a poetical  name  of  Scot- 
land. 

CAL'ENDAR,  a record  or  marking  out 
of  time  as  systematically  divided  into 
years,  months,  weeks,  and  days.  The 
periodical  occurrence  of  certain  natural 
phenomena  gave  rise  to  the  first  division 
of  time,  the  division  into  weeks  being 
the  only  purely  arbitrary  partition.  The 
year  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  was  based 
on  the  changes  of  the  seasons  alone, 
without  reference  to  the  lunar  month, 
and  contained  365  days  divided  into 
twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each,  with 
five  supplementary  days  at,  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  Jewish  year  consisted  of 
lunar  months  of  which  they  reckoned 
twelve  in  the  year,  intercalating  a 


CALENDER 


CALIFORNIA 


thirteenth  when  necessary  to  maintain 
the  correspondence  of  the  particular 
months  with  the  regular  recurrence  of 
the  seasons.  The  Greeks  in  the  earliest 
period  also  reckoned  by  lunar  and  inter- 
calary months,  but  after  one  or  two 
changes  adopted  the  plan  of  Meton  and 
Euctemon,  who  took  account  of  the  fact 
that  in  a period  of  nineteen  years,  the 
new  moons  return  upon  the  same  days 
of  the  year  as  before.  This  period  of 
nineteen  years  was  found,  however,  to  be 
about  six  hours  too  long,  and  subsequent 
calculators  still  failed  to  make  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seasons  return  on  the 
same  fixed  day  of  the  year.  Each  month 
was  divided  into  three  decads.  The 
Romans  at  first  divided  the  year  into 
ten  months,  but  they  early  adopted  the 
Greek  methods  of  lunar  and  intercalary 
months,  making  the  lunar  year  consist 
of  354,  and  afterward  of  355  days, 
leaving  ten  or  eleven  days  and  a fraction 
to  be  supplied  by  the  intercalary 
division.  This  arrangement  continued 
till  the  time  of  Caesar.  The  first  day  of 
the  month  was  called  the  calends.  In 
March,  May,  July,  and  October  the  15th, 
in  other  months  the  13th,  was  called  the 
ides.  The  ninth  day  before  the  ides 
(reckoning  inclusive)  was  called  the 
nones,  being  therefore  either  the  7th  or 
the  5th  of  the  month.  From  the  inac- 
curacy of  the  Roman  method  of  reckon- 
ing the  calendar  came  to  represent  the 
vernal  equinox  nearly  two  months  after 
the  event,  and  at  the  request  of  Julius 
Caesar,  the  Greek  astronomer  Sosigenes, 
with  the  assistance  of  Marcus  Fabius 
contrived  the  so-called  Julian  calendar. 
The  chief  improvement  consisted  in 
restoring  the  equinox  to  its  proper  place 
by  inserting  two  months  between 
November  and  December,  so  that  the 
year  707  (b.c.  46),  called  the  year  of 
confusion,  contained  fourteen  months. 
In  the  number  of  days  the  Greek  com- 
putation was  adopted,  which  made  it 
365.  To  dispose  of  the  quarter  of  a 
day  it  was  determined  to  intercalate  a 
day  every  fourth  year  between  the  23rd 
and  24th  of  February.  This  calendar 
continued  in  use  among  the  Romans 
until  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and  through- 
out Christendom  till  1582. 

By  this  time,  owing  to  the  cumulative 
error  of  eleven  minutes,  the  vernal 
equinox  really  took  place  ten  days  earlier 
than  its  date  in  the  calendar,  and 
accordingly  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  issued 
a brief  abolishing  the  Julian  calendar  in 
all  Catholic  countries,  and  introducing 
in  its  stead  the  one  now  in  use,  the 
Gregorian  or  reformed  calendar.  In 
this  way  began  the  new  style,  as  opposed 
to  the  other  or  old  style.  Ten  days  were 
to  be  dropped;  every  hundredth  year, 
which  by  the  old  style  was  to  have  been 
a leap  year,  was  now  to  be  a common 
year,  the  fourth  excepted;  and  the 
length  of  the  solar  year  was  taken  to  be 
365  days,  five  hours,  forty-nine  minutes, 
and  twelve  seconds,  the  difference  be- 
tween which  and  subsequent  obser- 
vations is  immaterial.  Russia  alone 
retains  the  old  style,  which  now  differs 
twelve  days  from  the  new. 

In  France,  during  the  revolution,  a 
new  calendar  was  introduced  by  a decree 
of  the  National  Convention,  Nov.  24, 
1793.  The  time  from  which  the  new 


reckoning  was  to  commence  was  the 
autumnal  equinox  of  1792,  which  fell 
upon  the  22nd  of  September,  when  the 
first  decree  of  the  new  republic  had  been 
promulgated.  The  year  was  made  to 
consist  of  twelve  months  of  three 
decades  each,  and,  to  complete  the  full 
number,  five  fete  days,  or  sansculotides 
(in  leap  years  six)  were  added  to  the 
end  of  the  year.  The  common  Christian 
or  Gregorian  calendar  was  re-established 
in  France  on  the  1st  January,  1806,  by 
Napoleon.  For  the  Mohammedan  cal- 
endar, see  Hegira. 

CAL'ENDER,  a machine  consisting  of 
two  or  more  cylinders  (calenders)  re- 
volving so  nearly  in  contact  with  each 
other  that  cloth  or  paper  passed  be- 
tween them  is  smoothed  and  glazed  by 
their  pressure,  or  some  other  kind  of 
finish  is  imparted  to  the  surface. 

CALHOUN  (kal-hon'),  John  Caldwell, 
an  American  statesman,  born  in  1782, 
died  1850.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  of  S.  Carolina  in  1807,  and  in  1811 
was  sent  to  Congress,  where  he  distin- 


guished himself  by  his  eloquence.  In 
1817  he  was  made  secretary  of  war 
under  President  Monroe;  in  1825  he  was 
elected  vice-president  of  the  United 
States;  in  1831,  a senator;  in  1843 
secretary  of  state,  and  in  1845,  again  a 
senator.  He  continued  till  his  death  an 
advocate  of  extreme  state  rights,  and  of 
the  policy  of  the  slave-holding  states. 

CAL'IBER,  a technical  term  for  the 
diameter  of  the  bore  of  a firearm. 

CAL'ICO,  a general  term  for  any  plain 
white  cotton  cloth;  in  America  it  is 
usually  applied  to  printed  cottons. 

CALICO-PRINTING  is  the  art  of 
applying  colors  to  cloth  after  it  has  come 
from  the  hand  of  the  weaver  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  patterns  or  figures. 
This  art,  originally  brought  from  India, 
is  sometimes  practised  on  linen,  woolen, 
and  silk,  but  most  frequently  upon  that 
species  of  cotton  cloth  called  calico. 
The  process  was  first  introduced  into 
Britain  in  1738,  and  was  originally 
accomplished  by  means  of  hand-blocks 
made  of  wood  on  which  patterns  or 
parts  of  patterns  for  each  different 
color  were  cut.  The  machinery  now 
generally  used  consists  of  various  mod- 
ifications of  the  cylinder  printing- 


machine,  in  which  a number  of  separate 
engraved  cylinders  are  mounted,  corres- 
ponding to  the  number  of  colors  to  be 
printed.  Formerly  the  cloth  had  to 
pass  once  through  the  machine  for  every 
color;  but  now,  by  an  arrangement  of 
machinery  equally  ingenious  and  effec- 
tive, any  number  of  cylinders  are  fitted 
on  one  machine,  which  act  on  the  cloth 
one  after  the  other,  and  by  this  means 
the  pattern  is  finished  with  a corres- 
ponding number  of  colors  in  the  same 
time  that  was  formerly  employed  to 
give  one.  A great  variety  of  methods 
are  employed  in  calico-printing,  but  they 
all  fall  under  the  general  heads  of  dye- 
colors  and  steam-colors.  Under  the  first 
head  are  included  all  the  styles  in  which 
the  pattern  is  printed  on  the  cloth  by  a 
mordant — a substance  which  may  have 
little  or  no  color  itself,  but  has  an  affin- 
ity for  the  fiber  on  the  one  hand,  and 
for  the  coloring  matter  on  the  other — 
the  dye  or  coloring  matter  being  subse- 
quently fixed  by  dyeing  on  such  parts 
of  the  cloth  as  have  been  impregnated 
with  the  mordant,  and  thus  bringing 
out  the  pattern . In  steam-color  printing 
the  coloring  material  is  applied  to  the 
cloth  direct  from  the  printing-cylinder, 
and  subsequently  fixed  by  steaming. 
In  steam-colors  there  is  no  limit  to  the 
number  and  variety  of  shades  which 
may  be  produced,  each  color-box  on  the 
cylinder  printing-machine  containing 
the  whole  ingredients  essential  to  the 
production  and  fixation  of  a separate 
and  distinct  shade  of  color.  This  pro- 
cess is  superseding  most  of  the  other 
styles,  the  brilliant  coal-tar  colors  so 
extensively  used  being  almost  entirely 
fixed  by  steaming.  The  bodies  used  for 
fixing  are  tin  mordants,  tannic  acid,  etc., 
which  are  mixed  with  the  dye-colors  and 
printed  together.  The  effects  of  calico- 
printing  are  varied  by  numerous  other 
operations,  such  as  the  discharge-style, 
in  which  the  cloth  is  first  dyed  all  over, 
then  printed  in  a certain  pattern  with 
discharge-chemicals,  which  either  pro- 
duce a pattern  of  some  other  color,  or 
one  purely  white,  as  in  the  Turkey-red 
bandanna  handkerchiefs.  The  resist- 
style,  in  some  respects,  is  the  reverse 
of  the  discharge-style;  the  process  being 
to  print  a pattern  in  certain  chemicals, 
which  will  enable  those  parts  to  resist 
the  action  of  the  dye  subsequently  ap- 
plied to  all  other  parts  of  the  cloth. 
After  the  prints  have  undergone  the 
printing  process  they  are  submitted  to 
a series  of  finishing  operations,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  give  to  the  fabrics 
a pleasing  appearance  to  the  eye. 

CALTCUT,  a seaport  of  India,  pres- 
idency of  Madras,  on  the  Malabar  coast, 
which  was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1792. 
It  was  the  first  port  in  India  visited  by 
Europeans,  the  Portuguese  adventurer, 
Pedro  da  Covilham  having  landed  here 
about  1486,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1498. 
It  has  considerable  trade,  and  manu- 
factures cotton  cloth,  to  which  it  has 
given  the  name  calico.  Pop.  76,981. 

CALIF  and  CALIFATE.  See  Caliph. 

CALIFORNIA,  one  of  the  Pacific 
states,  the  second  in  size  of  the  U.  States, 
was  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United 
States  in  1847,  and  in  1850  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Oregon,  on  the  9puth 


CALIFORNIA 


CALIFORNIA 


by  Mexico  (Lower  California),  on  the 
east  by  Nevada  and  Arizona,  and 
on  the  west ' by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Its  population  in  1906  was  1,750,000. 
California  in  many  ways  is  the  most 
interesting  state  in  the  Union.  It  is 
750  miles  long  in  a direct  line,  but 
has  more  than  800  miles  of  coast  line. 
It  has  an  average  width  of  about  200 
miles  and  a measured  ar^  of  155,980 
sq.  miles  excluding  bodies  of  water 
indented  into  the  land,  or  a total  of 
158,360  sq.  miles,  including  bays,  lakes 
and  inlets.  To  make  the  dimensions 
more  clear  to  persons  familiar  with  the 
geography  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  it  may 
be  stated  as  being  approximately  true 
that  California  equals  in  area  all  of  that 
country  lying  east  of  the  Appalachian 
chain  of  mountains  and  extending  from 
Port  Royal,  South  Carolina  to  Boston, 
Massachusetts.  The  surface  of  Cali- 
fornia is  extreqiely  diversified.  The 
Coast  Range  of  mountains  follows  the 
coast  line  from  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  down  two-thirds  the  length  and 
then  extends  eastward  to  a junction 
with  the  Sierra  Nevada  range  which 
parallels  the  Coast  Range  from  the 
northern  boundary  to  this  junction, 
except  that  it  is  along  the  eastern  bor- 
der. Between  these  two  ranges  is  in- 
cluded the  great  valley  of  California, 
nearly  600  miles  in  length,  the  ranges 
being  distant  from  each  other  from  100 
to  140  miles,  a part  of  this  distance 
being  filled  with  local  detached  moun- 
tain areas  and  foot  hill  districts.  The 
valley  proper  has  an  ordinary  width  of 
from  40  to  60  miles.  Between  the  local 
detached  ranges  above  mentioned  and 
along  the  foot  hills  are  many  lesser 
valleys  opening  out  into  the  big  valley 
and  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Coast 
Range  are  also  many  small  valleys  and 
some  rather  large  ones'opening  out  upon 
the  sea  coast.  These  valleys  are  ex- 
tremely fertile  and  attractive,  as  also  is 
the  great  interior  valley.  This  interior 
valley  is  divided  at  about  the  middle  of 
the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  state  into 
the  Sacramento  Valley,  lying  to  the 
north  and  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  run- 
ning to  the  south,  each  of  these  valleys 
being  drained  by  rivers  of  the  same 
name.  The  principal  river  is  the  Sacra- 
mento, which  fluws  s.  for  upward  of  300 
miles,  receiving  numerous  affluents  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  falls  into  the 
Bay  of  Suisun.  The  San  Joaquin  rises 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  flows  n.  for  about 
250  miles,  and  joins  the  Sacramento 
about  15  miles  above  Suisun  Bay.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  Lake  Tule  or  Tu- 
lares,  and  has  numerous  tributaries. 
The  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  forming  the 
most  capacious  harbor  on  the  Pacific 
coast  is  about  60  miles  in  length,  14 
broad,  and  with  a coast-line  of  275  miles. 
It  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a 
strait  about  2 miles  wide  and  from  5 to 
7 long,  called  the  Golden  Gate.  The 
city  of  San  Francisco  stands  on  the  n.w. 
shore  of  the  southern  arm. 

The  peaks  of  the  Sierra  Nevada — 
Mount  Shasta,  Lassen’s  Butte,  Spanish 
Peak,  Pyramid  Peak,  Mounts  Dana, 
Lyell.  Brewer,  Tyndall,  Whitney,  and 
others  — reach  from  10  000  to  nearly 
15,000  feet  above  the  sea  (Mount  Whit- 
ney is  14,886).  The  volcanic  character 


of  the  state  is  manifested  by  the  moun- 
tain formations;  and  earthquakes  are 
frequent.  California  is  celebrated  for 
its  many  wonderful  natural  objects  and 
remarkable  scenery.  Noteworthy  are 
the  Yosemite  Valley  (which  see)  and  the 
“big  tree  groves”  containing  groups  of 
giant  redwood  trees  — some  of  which 
reach  the  height  of  nearly  400  feet. 

The  climate  of  California  is  peculiarly 
its  own.  Nothing  else  on  the  North 
American  continent  is  comparable  with 
it.  In  the  valley  portions  of  the  state 
the  year  is  divided  into  two  seasons  of 
approximately  equal  duration,  common- 
ly known  as  the  wet  and  the  dry  sea- 
son. The  wet  season  extends  from 
November  to  May,  and  during  this 
part  of  the  year  the  rains  fall  about  as 
they  do  in  the  eastern  states  during  the 
spring  and  summer,  although,  as  a rule, 
less  copiously.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  state  the  rains  are  abundant;  in 
the  central  part  sufficient,  and  in  the 
southern  part  half  scanty  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  irrigation  must  be  employed  in 


Seal  of  California. 


order  to  make  agriculture  certainly 
profitable.  During  the  dry  season  rains 
seldom  fall,  although  there  may  be 
showers  earlier  than  November  and 
later  than  May.  The  summers  in  the 
interior  are  warm.  Along  the  coast  the 
sun  is  warm,  but  the  ocean  breezes  are 
always  cool.  California  oft'ers  no 
climatic  hardships.  In  the  higher 
mountain  altitudes  there  is  a wintry 
season,  not  as  cold  as  in  the  Atlantic 
states,  but  with  a very  much  heavier 
snow  fall. 

Politically  speaking,  California  is 
divided  into  fifty-seven  counties.  The 
legislature  consists  of  forty  senators, 
elected  for  four  years  and  eighty 
assemblymen,  elected  for  two  years,  and 
the  legislature  convenes  biennially. 
The  legislators  draw  pay  at  the  rate  of 
$8.00  per  day  for  60  days  and  if  the 
legislature  sits  longer  than  60  days  the 
legislators  must  serve  without  further 
compensation.  The  governor  and  other 
state  officers  are  elected  every  four  years, 
elections  falling  in  mid-presidential 
terms  so  that  national  and  state  general 
elections  do  not  occur  simultaneously. 
In  national  elections  the  state  in  1892 
gave  Cleveland  eight  and  Harrison  one 
electoral  votes;  in  1896  it  gave  McKinley 
eight  and  Bryan  one.  In  the  elections 
of  1900,  1901  and  1908,  it  went  Republi- 
can. 


For  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1906,  the  property  tax  levied  and  col- 
lected in  California  amounted  to  .$7, .590 
387.87.  There  were  collected  from  all 
other  sources  $5,64-4,195.99,  being  a 
total  of  $13,234,583.86.  The  disburse- 
ments on  account  of  state  government 
were  $12,945,862.73. 

Included  in  this  disbursement  is  one 
item  of  state  aid  to  the  common  schools 
amounting  to  $3,952,806.75,  state  aid 
to  high  schools  being  $238,522.62, 
making  a total  of  $4,191,329.37. 

California  regards  education  as  pre- 
eminently of  concern  to  the  whole 
commonwealth  and  therefore  collects 
a large  part  of  the  entire  educational 
fund  from  the  state  as  a whole  and 
disburses  it  to  the  several  schools  in  a 
way  that  materially  aids  in  supporting 
schools  in  .sparsely  settled  districts. 

California  is  liberal  in  sustaining 
educational  institutions.  Its  support 
of  the  State  University,  with  its  3300 
students,  is  chiefly  given  in  the  form  of 
a levy  of  two  cents  on  each  $100  of 
assessed  valuation  of  all  property,  al- 
though the  university  has  special 
sources  of  revenue  in  addition  to  this. 
Besides  the  common  and  high  schools 
and  the  State  University,  the  state 
supports  five  normal  training  schools, 
two  industrial  state  schools  and  one 
polytechnic  and  elementary  agricul- 
tural school.  Stanford  University, 
with  an  endowment  valued  at  twenty 
millions  of  dollars  bears  an  important 
part  in  the  educational  work  of  the 
state  and  there  are  also  many  denomina- 
tional colleges  and  preparatory  schools 
which  unite  in  making  the  school  system 
of  California  the  equal  of  that  of  any 
other  state  in  the  union. 

The  wealth  of  the  state,  as  ascertained 
for  purposes  of  taxation  for  the  year 


1906,  is  as  follows: 

Assessed  value  of  real  estate  other 

than  city  aud  town  lots $416,238,889 

City  aud  town  lots 502,934,230 

Total  real  estate $919.173,119 

Assessed  value  of  improvements 
on  other  than  city  and  town  lots  $ 87,613,284 

City  and  town  lots 238,242,091 

Total  value  of  improvements. . $325,855,375 

Total  value  of  all  real  estate  and 

improvements  thereon $1,245,028,494 

Assessed  value  of  personal  prop- 
erty, other  than  money  and  solv- 
ent credits 237.929.012 

Money  and  solvent  credits 31,929,084 

Assessment  of  railroads  within 

state 81,010.821 

Total  assessed  valuation  of  all 
property $1  ..595.897,411 

The  Forestry  interests  of  California. 


are  very  important.  The  entire  stand 
of  merchantable  forests  originally 
amounted  to  about  17,000,000  acres, 
but  § of  this  has  been  cut  over,  at  least 
in  part,  leaving  only  about  6,000,000 
acres  as  yet  untouched.  Most  of  the 
cut  over  areas  are  capable  of  being 
speedily  reforested,  a work  to  which 
the  general  government,  as  well  as  the 
State  of  California  is  now  addressing 
itself.  The  U.  States  government  has 
withdrawn  from  sale  about  20,000,000 
acres  of  lands  either  forested  or  sus- 
ceptible of  becoming  forested,  which 
has  been  set  apart  as  forest  reserves 
or  national  parks. 

The  gold  mines  of  California  still 
yield  about  $20,000,000  a year  in  gold, 
silver  and  platinum  and  the  tendency 


CALIFORNIA 


CALOMEL 


IB  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the 
yield. 

The  manufacturing  interests  of  Cali- 
fornia are  steadily  developing.  Census 
Bulletin  49,  issued  by  the  U.  States 
department  of  commerce  and  labor, 
gives  the  following  figures  for  manufac- 
tures in  California : 

Between  1900  and  1905,  the  number 
of  manufacturing  establishments  in- 
creased .369  per  cent  and  now  total 
6,839  The  capital  invested  increased 
.611  per  cent  and  now  totals  $282,647,- 
201.00.  The  value  of  the  product  in- 
creased .427  per  cent  and  now  totals 
§367,218,494.00.  The  number  of  wage 
earners  increased  30  per  cent  and  totals 
100,355.  The  total  wages  increased 
.621  per  cent  and  for  the  year  1905 
amounted  to  $64,850,686.00.  This 
development  is  largely  the  result  of  the 
discovery  of  petroleum,  of  which  Cali- 
fornia is  now  a larger  producer  than  any 
other  state  in  the  Union,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  electrical  power  through 
the  utilization  of  the  streams  flowing 
down  from  the  higher  altitudes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains. 

California’s  fruit  and  fruit  products 
are  annually  sufficient  to  load  from 
75,000  to  85,000  ten-ton  freight  cars, 
and  this  product  is  shipped  to  nearly 
all  of  the  markets  of  the  world.  The 
canning  industry  now  ranks  first  among 
the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  state. 
The  wool  industry  adds  about  20,000,- 
000  pounds  of  wool  per  year  to  the 
country’s  wool  supply.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  open  door  in  Asia  and 
trade  with  the  Philippine  Islands  affords 
a ready  market  for  every  pound  of 
agricultural  products  at  remunerative 
prices. 

Ocean  steamers  run  regularly  between 
San  Francisco  and  Australia,  Panama, 
Mexico,  China  and  Japan. 

California  has  19  railroads,  having  a 
total  mileage  of  5,489  miles,  not  count- 
ing electrical  lines,  of  which  there  are 
about  a thousand  miles  of  road  in  the 
state,  including  the  state  railways.  The 
total  assessed  value  of  these  railroads 
for  purposes  of  taxation,  including 
Pullman  Car  Company's  rolling  stock 
is  $81,010,821.00.  There  are  already 
4 trans-contineijtal  lines  and  a fifth  line 
is  building  and  will  be  completed  within 
two  or  three  years.  There  are  also  three 
other  great  railroad  companies  that  are 
heading  toward  California  and  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  close  of  the  present 
decade  will  witness  the  completion  of 
at  least  two  of  these  to  a termination  at 
San  Francisco  Bay. 

The  principal  city  and  port  is  San 
Francisco,  the  capital  is  Sacramento. 
Of  the  other  cities  the  most  important 
are  Oakland  and  Los  Angeles. 

California  is  a very  prosperous  and 
growing  commonwealth  and  notwith- 
standing the  great  catastrophe  of  April 
18,  1906,  which  resulted  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  property  having  an  assessed 
value  of  $150,000,000.00,  the  assessed 
valuation  for  the  entire  state  for 
1906  is  only  about  $39,000,000.00  less 
than  for  1905.  The  general  prosper- 
ity has  come  so  near  to  making  good 
the  destruction  of  property  by  the 
great  San  Francisco  fire  of  1906.  Pop. 
1909,  about  1,800,000. 


CALIFORNIA,  Gulf  of,  a gulf  on  the 
w.  coast  of  N.  America,  in  Mexico,  lying 
between  the  peninsula  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia and  the  mainland.  It  is  about 
700  miles  long,  and,  through  most  of  its 
length,  is  less  than  100  miles  wide.  It 
has  long  had  a pearl  fishery. 

CALIFORNIA,  Lower,  a territory  of 
Mexico,  comprising  a peninsula  jutting 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  separated 
from  the  mainland  throughout  its  entire 
length  by  the  Gulf  of  California.  It  is 
nearly  800  miles  in  length,  and  in  dif- 
ferent places  30,  60,  90,  and  120  miles 
wide;  area  61,562  sq.  miles.  It  is  largely 
mountainous  and  arid,  but  is  said  to 
possess  valuable  agricultural  and  mineral 
resources.  The  chief  towns  are  Loretto 
and  La  Paz,  the  capital.  Pop.  47,082, 
of  whom  perhaps  a half  are  Indians. 

CALIG'ULA,  Caius  Caesar  Augustus 
Germanicus,  Roman  emperor,  son  of 
Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  was  born 
A.D.  12,  in  the  camp  at  Antium;  assas- 
sinated by  conspirators  a.d.  41.  He 


received  from  the  soldiers  the  surname 
of  Caligula,  on  account  of  his  wearing 
the  caligae,  a kind  of  boots  in  use  among 
them.  He  succeeded  Tiberius,  a.d.  37, 
and  made  himself  very  popular  by  his 
mildness  and  ostentatious  generosity; 
but  at  the  end  of  eight  months  he  was 
seized  with  a disorder,  caused  by  his 
irregular  mode  of  living,  which  appears 
to  have  permanently  deranged  his  in- 
tellect. After  his  recovery,  he  suddenly 
showed  himself  the  most  cruel  and  un- 
natural of  tyrants — a monster  of  de- 
bauchery and  prodigality,  a perpetrator 
of  the  greatest  crimes  and  follies.  The 
most  exquisite  tortures  inflicted  on  the 
innocent  served  him  for  enjoyments. 
In  the  madness  of  his  arrogance  he  even 
considered  himself  a god,  and  caused 
sacrifices  to  be  offered  to  himself.  One 
of  his  greatest  follies  was  the  building 
of  a bridge  between  Baiae  and  Puteoli 
(Puzzuoli),  in  order  that  he  might  be 
able  to  boast  of  marching  over  the  sea 
on  dry  land.  He  projected  expeditions 
to  Gaul,  Germany  and  Britain,  and 
having  reached  the  sea,  he  bade  his 
soldiers  gather  shells  for  spoils,  and  then 
led  them  back  to  Rome.  At  last  a band  ' 
of  conspirators  put  an  end  to  his  career 
in  the  29th  year  of  his  age. 

CALTPER  COMPASSES,  compasses 
made  either  with  arched  legs  to  measure 
the  diameters  of  cylinders  or  globular 
bodies,  or  with  straight  legs  and  re- 
tracted points  to  measure  the  interior 
diameter  or  bore  of  anything. 


CAL'IPH,  CALIF,  or  KHALIF  is  the 

name  assumed  by  the  successors  of 
Mohammed  in  the  government  of  the 
faithful  and  in  the  high-priesthood. 
Caliphate  is  therefore  the  name  given 
to  the  empire  of  these  princes  which  the 
Arabs  founded  in  Asia,  and  enlarged, 
within  a few  centuries,  to  a dominion, 
exceeding  even  the  Roman  empire  in 
extent.  The  appellation  of  caliph  has 
long  ago  been  swallowed  up  in  Shah, 
Sultan,  Emir,and  other  titles  peculiar  to 
the  East. 

CALISTHEN'ICS,  a less  correct  spell- 
ing of  Callisthenics.  (Which  see.) 

CALIX'TUS,  the  name  of  three  popes. 
— Calixtus  I.  was  a Roman  bishop  from 
217  to  224,  when  he  suffered  martyrdom. 
Calixtus  11.  was  elected  in  1119,  in  the 
monastery  of  Clugny,  successor  of  the 
expelled  pope,  Gelasius  II.,  who  had 
been  driven  from  Italy  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  had  died  in  this  monas- 
tery. He  excommunicated  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.  on  account  of  a dispute  re- 
specting the  right  of  investiture ; as  also 
the  anti-pope  Gregory  YIII.,  whom 
he  drove  from  Rome.  He  availed  him- 
self of  the  troubles  of  the  emperor  to 
force  him,  in  1122,  to  agree  to  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms.  He  died  in  1124. — 
Calixtus  III.,  chosen  in  1168  in  Rome, 
as  anti-pope  to  Paschal  III.,  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Emperor  Frederick  I., 
in  1178,  was  obliged  to  submit  to  Pope 
Alexander  III.  As  he  was  not  counted 
among  the  legal  popes,  a subsequent 
pope,  Alfonso  Borgia,  made  pope  in 
1455,  was  called  Calixtus  III.  He  died 
in  1458. 

CALLAO  (kM^ya'o),  a seaport  town 
of  Peru,  the  port  of  Lima,  from  which 
it  is  6 miles  distant,  and  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  a railway;  pop.  60,000. 
Callao  is  the  emporium  of  the  whole  of 
the  trade  of  Peru,  importing  manu- 
factured goods,  and  exporting  guano, 
copper  ore,  cubic  nitre,  wool,  bark,  etc. 
In  1746  the  old  town  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake,  wdth  mitfeh  loss  of  life 
and  damage  to  shipping. 

CAL'LIPERS.  See  Calliper  Com- 


passes. 

CALLISTHEN'ICS,  the  art  or  practice 
of  exercising  the  body  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  strength  to  the  muscles  and 
grace  to  the  carriage.  The  term  is 
usually  applied  to  the  physical  exer- 
cises of  females,  as  gymnastics  is  to  those 
of  males. 

CALLOS'ITY,  any  thickened  or  hard- 
ened part  of  the  human  skin  caused  by 
pressure  and  friction.  Also  the  natural 
cutaneous  thickenings  on  the  buttocks 
of  monkeys. 

CAL'LUS,  a callosity;  also  a new 
growth  of  osseous  matter  between  the 
extremities  of  fractured  bones,  serving 
to  unite  them. 

CALMS,  Regions  of,  tracts  in  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  on  the  con- 
fines of  the  trade-winds,  where  calms  of 
long  duration  prevail.  About  the  winter 
solstice  their  average  northern  limit  is 
in  5°  n.  lat.,  and  in  the  months  about  the 
summer  solstice  about  12°  n.  lat.  The 
southern  limit  lies  nearly  alwa3"s  to  the 
north  of  the  equator,  varj^ing  between 
1°  and  3°  n.  lat. 


CAL'OMEL, 
preparation  of 


mercurous  chloride ; a 
mercury  much  used  in 


calorescence 


CALYX 


medicine,  and  also  found  native  as  horn- 
quicksilver.  It  is  prepared  by  grinding 
in  a mortar  sulphate  of  mercury  with 
as  much  mercury  as  it  already  contains, 
and  heating  the  compound  which  is 
formed  with  common  salt  in  a retort 
until  the  mercury  sublimes.  The  calo- 
mel is  thus  produced  as  a white  powder. 
It  is  used  in  a variety  of  ailments,  as  a 
purgative,  a vermifuge,  etc. 

CALORES'CENCE,  thejransmutation 
of  heat  rays  into  light  r^s;  a peculiar 
transmutation  of  the  invisible  calorific 
rays,  observable  beyond  the  red  rays 
of  the  spectrum  of  solar  and  electric 
light,  into  visible  luminous  rays,  by 
passing  them  through  a solution  of 
iodine  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  which 
intercepts  the  luminous  rays  and  trans- 
mits the  calorific.  The  latter,  when 
brought  to  a focus,  produce  a heat  strong 
enough  to  ignite  combustible  substances, 
and  to  heat  up  metals  to  incandescence; 
the  less  refrangible  calorific  rays  being 
converted  into  rays  of  higher  refran- 
gibility,  whereby  they  become  luminous. 

CALORIM'ETER,  an  apparatus  for 
measuring  absolute  quantities  of  heat  or 
the  specific  or  latent  heat  of  bodies,  as 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  heat 
given  out  by  a body  in  cooling  from  the 
quantity  of  ice  it  melts  or  from  the  rise 
of  temperature  it  produces  in  water 
around  it. 

CALTANISSET'TA,  a town,  Sicily, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Salso, 
62  miles  s.  e.  of  Palermo.  In  the  vicinity 
are  springs  of  petroleum  and  of  hydrogen 
gas,  a mud-volcano,  and  important  sul- 
phur mines.  Pop.  44,600. — The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  1445  sq.  miles,  with 
a pop.  of  330,972. 

CAL'UMET,  a kind  of  pipe  used  by 
the  American  Indians  for  smoking 
tobacco.  Its  bowl  is  usually  of  soft  red 
soapstone,  and  the  tube  a long  reed, 
oramented  with  feathers.  The  cal- 
umet is  (or  was)  used  as  a symbol  or 
instrument  of  peace  and  war.  To  accept 
the  calumet  is  to  agree  to  the  terms  of 
peace,  and  to  refuse  it  is  to  reject  them. 
The  calumet  of  peace  is  used  to  seal  or 
ratify  contracts  and  alliances,  to  receive 
strangers  ^ kindly,  and  to  travel  with 
safety.  The  calumet  of  war,  differently 
made,  is  used  to  proclaim  war. 

CALVADOS  (kal-vi-dos),  a French 
dep.,  part  of  the  old  province  of  Nor- 
mandy, bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  and  e.  w.  and  s.  by  the 
deps.  Eure,  La  Manche,  and  Orne. 
Area,  2145  sq.  miles.  It  is  named  from 
a dangerous  ridge  of  rocks  which  extends 
along  the  coast  for  10  or  12  miles.  The 
dep.  is  undulating  and  picturesque,  and 
possesses  rich  pastures.  Chief  town 
Caen.  Pop.  410,178. 

CAL' VARY,  applied  to  the  place  out- 
side Jerusalem  where  Christ  was  cruci- 
fied, usually  identified  with  a small 
eminence  on  the  north  side  of  the  city. 
The  term  is  also  applied  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  to  a kind  of  chapel, 
sometimes  erected  on  a hill  near  a city 
and  sometimes  on  the  exterior  of  a 
church,  as  a place  of  devotion,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  place  where  our  Savior 
suffered;  as  also  to  a rocky  mound  or 
hill  on  which  three  crosses  are  erected, 
an  adjunct  to  religious  bouses. 


CALVIN,  John,  reformer  and  Protes- 
tant theological  writer,  born  at  Noyon, 
in  Picardy,  1509,  died  at  Geneva  1564 
He  went  to  Paris  and  entered  on  a 
course  of  regular  study.  He  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  teaching  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church;  in  consequence  he 
gave  up  his  cure,  and  took  to  the  study 
of  the  law  in  Orleans.  In  1532  he  re- 
turned to  Paris  a decided  convert  to  the 
reformed  faith,  and  was  soon  compelled 
to  fly,  when,  after  various  wanderings, 
he  found  a protector  in  Margaret  of 
Navarre.  In  1534  he  returned  to  Paris; 
but,  finding  that  the  persecution  against 
those  who  were  inclined  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  reformers  was  still  raging,  he 
retired  to  Basel  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year.  At  Basel  he  completed  and 
published  his  great  work.  The  Institutes 
of  the  Christian  Religion.  In  1538  he 
was  expelled  from  Geneva.  Here  he 
married  a widow,  Idelette  de  Burie, 
and  had  one  son,  who  died  early.  In 
1541  his  friends  in  Geneva  succeeded  in 
effecting  his  recall,  when  he  laid  before 
the  council  the  draft  of  his  ordinances 
respecting  church  discipline,  which  were 
immediately  accepted  and  published. 
Michael  Servetus,  passing  through 
Geneva  in  1553,  was  arrested,  and 
through  Calvin’s  instrumentality  was 
burnt  alive  because  he  had  attacked  the 
mystery  of  the  Trinity  in  a book  which 
was  neither  written  nor  printed  at 
Geneva.  This  has  been  regarded  as  the 
great  blot  on  Calvin’s  career,  though 
approved  of  by  many  others  of  the 
reformers.  His  energy  and  industry 
were  enormous:  he  preached  almost 
daily,  delivered  theological  lectures 
three  times  a week,  attended  all  delibera- 
tions of  the  consistory,  all  sittings  of  the 
association  of  ministers,  and  was  the 
soul  of  all  the  councils.  He  was  con- 
sulted, too,  upon  points  of  law  as  well 
as  of  theology.  Besides  this,  he  found 
time  to  attend  to  political  affairs  in  the 
name  of  the  Republic,  to  publish  a mul- 
titude of  writings  in  defense  of  his 
opinions,  and  to  maintain  a corres- 
pondence through  all  Europe.  Up  to 
1561  the  Lutherans  and  the  Calvinists 
were  as  one,  but  in  that  year  the  latter 
expressly  rejected  the  tenth  article  of 
the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  besides 
some  others,  and  hence  arose  the  name 
of  Calvinists  Calvin  retained  his  per- 
sonal influence  to  the  last;  but  a year 
or  two  before  his  death  his  health  had 
broken  down.  As  a theologian  Calvin 
was  equal  to  any  of  his  contemporaries 
in  profound  knowledge,  acuteness  of 
mind,  and  in  the  art  of  making  good  a 
point  in  question.  As  an  author  he 
merits  great  praise.  His  Latin  works 
are  written  with  much  method,  dignity, 
and  correctness.  He  was  also  a great 
jurist  and  an  able  politician. 

CALVINISM,  the  theological  tenets  or 
doctrines  of , John  Calvin,  including  a 
belief  in  predestination,  election,  total 
depravity,  original  sin,  effectual  calling, 
and  the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints. 
The  system  also  includes  several  other 
points  of  controversy,  such  as  that  of 
free-will,  the  Sonship  of  the  Second 
Person  of  the  Trinity,  and  other  dif- 
erences  in  doctrine  as  between  Calvinists 
and  Arminians.  Calvinism  is  the  theo- 
logical system  expounded  in  the  West- 


minster Confession  of  Faith,  and  is 
therefore  the  faith  officially  held  by  the 
Presbyterian  churches  generally,'  it  is 
also  substantially  identical  with  what 
is  known  as  “evangelicalism”  in  any 
of  the  churches  or  religious  bodies. 

CAL'YDON,  an  ancient  city  of  north- 
ern Greece,  in  ^tolia,  celebrated  in 
Greek  mythology  on  account  of  the 
ravages  of  a terrible  boar.  All  the 
princes  of  the  age  assembled  at  the 
famous  Hunt  of  the  Calydonian  Boar, 
which  was  finally  despatched  by  Melea- 
ger. 

CALYP'SO,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
nymph  who  inhabited  the  island  Ogygia, 
on  the  shores  of  which  Ulysses  was  ship- 
wrecked. She  promised  him  immor- 
tality if  he  would  consent  to  marry  her 
but  after  a seven  year’s  stay  she  was 
ordered  by  the  gods  to  permit  his  de- 
parture. 

CALYP'TRA,  the  hood  of  the  theca  or 
capsule  of  mosses.  The  same  name  is 


a.  Moss.  6,  Cassule  with  calyptra.  c.  Do, 
with  calj'ptra  removed. 

given  to  any  hood-like  body  connected 
with  the  organs  of  fructification  in 
flowering  plants. 

CA'LYX,  in  botany,  the  name  given 
to  the  exterior  covering  of  a flower,  that 
is,  the  floral  envelope  consisting  of  a 
circle  or  whorl  of  leaves  external  to  the 
corolla,  which  it  incloses  and  supports. 
The  parts  or  leaves  which  belong  to  it 
are  called  sepals;  they  may  be  united  by 
their  margins,  or  distinct,  and  are 


Forms  of  calyx. 


usually  of  a green  color  and  of  less 
delicate  texture  than  the  corolla.  In 
many  flowers,  however,  there  is  little  or 
no  difference  in  character  between  calyx 
and  corolla,  in  which  case  the  whole  gets 
the  name  of  perianth.  When  the  calyx 
leaves  are  distinct  the  calyx  is  called 
polysepalous  (a  a a in  accompanying 


CAM 


CAMEL 


cut) ; when  united,  gamosepalous  or 
monosepalous  (bb). 

CAM,  in  machinery,  a simple  contri- 
vance for  converting  a uniform  rotatory 
motion  into  a varied  rectilinear  motion, 
usually  a projecting  part  of  a wheel  or 
other  revolving  piece  so  placed  as  to 
give  an  alternating  or  yarying  motion  to 
another  piece  that  comes  in  contact  with 
it  and  is  free  to  move  only  in  a certain 
direction. 

CAMBACERES  (kan-ba-sa-ra)^  Jean 
Jacques  Regis  de,  Duke  of  Parma,  born 
in  1753  at  Montpellier;  died  at  Paris, 
1824.  He  was  trained  a lawyer,  and  by 
his  talents  soon  attracted  the  notice  of 
the  Convention,  and  was  appointed  to 
various  judicial  offices.  In  the  discus- 
sion relative  to  the  fate  of  the  king  he 
declared  Louis  guilty,  but  disputed  the 
right  of  the  Convention  to  judge  him, 
and  voted  for  his  provisory  arrest,  and 
in  case  of  a hostile  invasion,  death. 
For  a time  he  had  the  management  of 
foreign  affairs;  and  when  Bonaparte  was 
first  consul,  Cambaceres  was  chosen 
second.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
empire,  Cambaceres  was  created  arch- 
chancellor, grand  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  and  ultimately  Duke  of  Parma. 
He  was  banished  on  the  second  restora- 
tion of  Louis  XVIII.,  but  was  subse- 
quently permitted  to  return. 

CAM'BAY,  a feudatory  state  in  India, 
Bombay  Presidency ; lying  at  the  head  of 
the  gulf  of  the  same  name  in  the  western 
part  of  Gujarat.  Area,  350  sq.  miles; 
pop.  89,722.  Also,  chief  town  of  above 
state,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  formerly  a flourishing  port, 
but  now  decayed.  Pop.  31,390. — The 
gulf  separates  the  peninsula  of  Kathia- 
v/ar  from  the  northern  coast  of  Bombay, 
having  a length  of  about  80  miles,  and 
an  average  breadth  of  25  miles. 

CAMBO'DIA,  or  CAMBO'JA,  a coun- 
try in  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula, 
bounded  n.  by  Siam,  e.  by  Anam,  s.  by 
French  Cochin-China  and  Gulf  of  Siam, 
and  w.  by  Gulf  of  Siam  Pop.  estimated 
at  1,500,000,  partly  Cambodians  proper, 
partly  Siamese,  Annamese,  etc. 

CAMBRIAN  ROCKS,  in  geology,  an 
extensive  series  of  gritstones,  sand- 
stones, conglomerates,  slates,  and  shales, 
lying  under  the  Lower  Silurian  beds, 
and  above  the  Archaean,  and  divided 
into  the  Upper  and  Lower  Cambrian. 
Many  fossils  occur  in  the  series,  in- 
cluding sponges,  star-fishes,  trilobites, 
bracliiopods,  lamellibranchs,  pteropods, 
gasteropoda,  cephalopoda,  etc.  They 
may  be  regarded  as  the  bottom  rocks  of 
the  Silurian  system,  and  are  well  de- 
veloped in  N.  Wales  (hence  the  name), 
but  can  be  recognized  in  many  other 
regions. 

CAM'BRIC,  the  name  of  a fine  kind 
of  linen  which  was  originally  manufac- 
tured principally  at  Cambria,  in  French 
Flanders,  whence  the  name.  It  is  also 
applied  to  a cotton  fabric,  which  is  very 
extensively  manufactured  in  imitation 
of  the  true  cambric,  and  which  is  in 
reality  a kind  of  muslin. 

CAM'BRIDGE  (kam'brij),  an  inland 
county  of  England,  bounded  by  the 
counties  of  Lincoln,  Northampton, 
Huntingdon,  Bedford,  Hertford,  Essex, 
Suffolk,  and  Norfolk;  area,  524,935 
acres.  The  soil  is  diversified  and  gen- 


erally fertile ; a large  part  belongs  to  the 
fen  country.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Cam  or  Granta,  and  the  Ouse.  The 
county  abounds  in  dairy  farms,  cele- 
brated for  the  production  of  excellent 
butter  and  cheese.  The  county  town 
is  Cambridge;  other  towns  are  Ely, 
Wisbech,  Newmarket,  and  March.  Pop. 
190,687.  — Cambridge,  the  county  town, 
is  situated  on  the  river  Cam,  50  miles 
n.  of  London.  It  occupies  a perfect 
level  encompassed  by  the  colleges,  and 
their  beautiful  grounds  and  gardens,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Cam,  The  town  is 
supported  mainly  by  the  presence  of  the 
university;  but  has  some  manufactures. 
Pop.  38,393. 

CAMBRIDGE,  a city  separated  from 
Boston  by  the  Charles  River.  It  is  well 
laid  out,  with  fine  broad  streets  and 
avenues,  and  many  open  spaces  adorned 
with  shrubs  and  trees.  The  most  im- 
portant institution  it  contains  is  Har- 
vard University  (which  see).  Though 
distinct  from  Boston  it  really  forms 
part  of  it.  Pop.  100,000.  See  Boston. 

CAMBRIDGE,  University  of,  one  of 
the  two  great  English  universities,  as 
old  at  least  as  the  thirteenth  century, 
situated  in  the  above  town.  The  fol- 
lowing list  contains  the  names  of  the 
colleges  or  distinct  corporate  bodies 
comprised  in  the  university,  with  the 
time  when  each  was  founded; 


1.  St.  Peter’s  College,  or  Peter  House 1257 

2.  Clare  College,  formerly  Clare  Hall 1326 

3.  Pembroke  College 1347 

4.  Gonville  and  Caius  College 1348 

5.  Trinity  Hall 13.50 

6.  Corpus  Christ!  College 1352 

7.  King’s  College 1441 

8.  Queen’s  College 1448 

9.  St. Catherine’s  College,  or  Catherine  Hall  1473 

10.  Jesus  College 1496 

11.  Christ’s  College 1505 

12.  St.  John’s  College 1511 

13.  Magdalene  College 1519 

14.  Trinity  College.  1546 

15.  Emmanuel  College 1584 

16.  Sidney  Sussex  College 1598 

17.  Downing  College 1800 


There  is  also  Selwyn  College  (or 
hostel),  founded  in  1882,  for  Church  of 
England  students.  Each  of  the  colleges 
is  a separate  corporation,  which  is  gov- 
erned by  laws  and  usages  of  its  own 
although  subject  to  the  paramount  laws 
of  the  university.  The  university  is 
composed  of  a chancellor,  vice-chancel- 
lor, the  masters  or  heads  of  colleges, 
fellows  of  colleges,  and  students,  and  is 
incorporated  as  a society  for  the  study 
of  all  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences.  The 
senate,  which  is  composed  of  all  who 
have  taken  the  degree  of  Doctor  or 
Master,  is  the  great  legislative  assembly 
of  the  university.  The  chief  executive 
power  is  vested  in  the  chancellor,  the 
high-steward,  and  the  vice-chancellor, 
who  is  the  head  of  some  college.  Two 
proctors  superintend  the  discipline  of  all 
pupils.  The  number  of  undergraduate 
students  is  about  3000.  There  are  over 
forty  professors  in  the  various  depart- 
ments. A botanic  garden,  an  anatomi- 
cal school,  an  observatory,  and  a valua- 
able  library  containing  more  than 
300,000  printed  volumes,  besides  many 
manuscripts,  are  attached  to  the  uni- 
versity. The  museums  and  laboratories 
for  the  study  of  scffinee  are  among  the 
most  complete  in  the  country. 

CAMBY'SES,  (1)  a Persian  of  noble 
blood,  to  whom  King  Astyages  gave  his 


daughter  Mandane  in  marriage.  Asty- 
ages was  dethroned  by  Cyrus,  the  off- 
spring of  this  union.  (2)  The  son  of 
Cyrus  the  Great,  and  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  became,  after  the  death  of 
his  father.  King  of  the  Persians  and 
Medes,  b.c.  529.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his 
reign  he  invaded  Egypt,  conquering  the 
whole  kingdom  within  six  months.  But 
his  expeditions  against  the  Ammonites 
and  Ethiopians  having  failed,  his 
violent  and  vindictive  nature  broke  out 
in  cruel  treatment  of  his  subjects,  his 
brother  Smerdis  and  his  own  wife  being 
among  his  victims.  He  died  in  521  b.c. 

CAMDEN,  a town  of  New  Jersey, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Delaware,  and 
connected  with  Philadelphia,  on  the 
opposite  side,  by  a steamboat  service. 
There  are  manufactories  of  various 
kinds,  foundries,  saw-mills,  etc.  Pop. 
100.000. 

CAMEL,  a genus  of  ruminant  quad- 
rupeds, characterized  by  the  absence  of 
horns;  the  possession  of  incisive,  canine, 
and  molar  teeth;  a fissure  in  the  upper 
lip;  a long  and  arched  neck;  one  or  two 
humps  or  protuberances  on  the  back; 


Bactrian  camel. 

a broad  elastic  foot  ending  in  two  small 
hoofs,  which  does  not  sink  readily  in 
the  sand  of  the  desert.  The  native 
country  of  the  camel  is  said  to  extend 
from  Morocco  to  China,  within  a zone  of 
900  or  1000  miles  in  breadth.  The  com- 
mon camel,  having  two  humps,  is  only 
found  in  the  northern  part  of  this 
region,  and  exclusively  from  the  ancient 
Bactria,  now  Turkestan,  to  China.  The 
dromedary,  or  single-hump  camel,  or 
Arabian  camel,  is  found  throughout  the 
entire  length  of  this  zone,  on  its  southern 
side,  as  far  as  Africa  and  India.  The 
Bactrian  species  is  the  larger,  more 
robust,  and  more  fitted  for  carrying 
heavy  burdens.  The  dromedary  has 
been  called  the  race-horse  of  its  species. 
To  people  residing  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  great  deserts  the  camel  is  an  invalu- 
able mode  of  conveyance.  It  will  travel 
three  days  under  a load  and  five  days 
under  a rider  without  drinking.  The 
stronger  varieties  carry  from  700  to  1000 
lbs.  burden.  The  camel’s  power  of 
enduring  thirst  is  partly  due  to  the  pecu- 
liar structure  of  its  stomach,  to  which 
are  attached  little  pouches  or  water-cells, 
capable  of  straining  off  and  storing  up 
water  for  future  use,  when  journeying 
across  the  desert.  It  can  five  on  httle 
food,  and  of  the  coarsest  kind,  leaves  of 
trees,  nettles,  shrubs,  twigs,  etc.  In 
this  it  is  helped  by  the  fact  that  its 
humps  are  mere  accumulations  of  fat 


Camel 


CAMEROONS 


(the  back-bone  of  the  animal  being  quite 
straight)  and  form  a store  upon  which 
the  system  can  draw  when  the  outside 
supply  is  defective.  Hence  the  camel- 
driver  who  is  about  to  start  on  a journey 
takes  care  to  see  that  the  humps  of  his 
animal  present  a full  and  healthy  ap- 
pearance. Camels  which  carry  heavy 


one  1.35°,  and  the  other  two  each  67°  30'. 
One  of  the  two  faces  which  contain  the 
right  angle  is  turned  toward  the  object 
to  be  sketched.  Rays  falling  in  a 
straight  line  on  this  face,  as  from  f,  are 
totally  reflected  at  g from  the  face  c b to 
the  next  face  at  h,  whence  they  are 
again  totally  reflected  to  the  fourth  face. 


Figs.  1 and  2,  Arabian  camels  and  camel-driver. 


Fig.  3,  Bactrian  or  two-humped  camel. 


burdens  will  do  about  25  miles  a day, 
those  which  are  used  for  speed  alone, 
from  60  to  90  miles  a day.  The  camel 
is  rather  passive  than  docile,  showing 
less  intelligent  co-operation  with  its 
master  than  the  horse  or  elephant;  but 
is  is  very  vindictive  when  injured.  It 
lives  from  forty  to  fifty  years.  Its 
flesh  is  esteemed  by  the  Arab  and  its 
milk  is  his  common  food.  The  hair 
of  the  camel  serves  in  the  East  for  mak- 
ing cloth  for  tents,  carpets  and  wearing 
apparel.  It  is  imported  into  European 
countries,  for  the  manufacture  of  fine 
pencils  for  painting  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. The  South  American  members 
of  the  family  Camelidas  constitute  the 
genus  Auchenia,  to  which  the  llama  and 
alpaca  belong;  they  have  no  humps. 

CAMEL,  a water-tight  box  or  caisson 
used  to  raise  a sunken  vessel,  or  to  float  a 
vessel  over  a shoal  or  bar.  It  is  let  down 
with  water  in  it.  and  is  attached  to  the 
vessel,  after  which  the  water  is  pumped 
out,  and  the  camel  rises  from  its  buoy- 
ancy. 

CAMELLIA  (ka-mel'ya),  a genus  of 
plants,  with  .showy  flowers  and  elegant 
dark-green,  shining,  laurel-like  leaves, 
nearly  allied  to  the  plants  which  yield 
tea. 

CAM'EO,  a general  name  for  all  gems 
cut  in  relief,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  hollowed  out,  or  intaglios.  More 
particularly,  a cameo  is  a gem  composed 
of  several  different-colored  layers  having 
a subject  in  relief  cut  upon  one  or  more 
of  the  upper  layers,  an  under  layer  of  a 
different  color  forming  the  ground.  For 
this  purpose  the  ancients  used  the  onyx, 
sardonjrx,  agate,  etc.  The  shells  of 
various  molluscs  are  now  much  used  for 
making  cameos;  and  they  are  also  imi- 
tated on  glass. 

CAM'ERA  LXJ'CIDA,  an  optical  in- 
strument employed  to  facilitate  the 
sketching  of  objects  from  nature  by  pro- 
ducing a reflected  picture  of  them  upon 
paper.  Wollaston’s  apparatus  is  one  of 
the  commonest.  The  essential  part  is 
a totally-reflecting  prism  with  four 
angles,  one  of  which  is  90°,  the  opposite 


from  which  they  emerge  in  a straight 
line.  An  eye  (e)  placed  so  as  to  receive 
the  emergent  rays,  will  see  an  image  of 
the  object  in  the  direction  m,  and  by 
placing  the  sketching  paper  below  in 
this  place,  the  image  may  be  traced  with 
a pencil.  As  the  paper,  for  convenience 
of  drawing,  must  be  at  a distance  of 
about  a foot,  a concave  lens,  with  a focal 
length  of  something  less  than  a foot,  is 
placed  close  in  front  of  the  prism  in 
drawing  distant  objects.  By  raising  or 
lowering  the  prism  in  its  stand,  the 
image  of  the  object  to  be  sketched  may 
he  made  to  coincide  with  the  plane  of 
the  paper.  The  prism  is  mounted  in 
such  a way  that  it  can  be  rotated  either 
about  a horizontal  or  a vertical  axis; 
and  its  top  is  usually  covered  with  a 
movable  plate  of  blackened  metal, 
having  a semicircular  notch  at  one  edge, 
for  the  observer  to  look  through.  This 
form  of  camera  has  undergone  various 
modifications.  It  is  very  convenient 
on  account  of  its  portability. 


Camera  lucida. 


CAM'ERA  OBSCU'RA,  an  optical  in- 
strument employed  for  exhibiting  the 
images  of  objects  in  their  forms  and 
colors,  so  that  thej  may  be  traced  and 
a picture  drawn,  or  may  be  represented 
by  photography.  A simple  camera 
obscura  is  presented  by  a darkened 
chamber  into  which  no  light  is  permitted 
to  enter  excepting  by  a small  hole  in  the 
window-shutter.  A picture  of  the  ob- 
jects opposite  the  hole  will  then  be  seen 
on  the  wall,  or  on  a white  screen  placed 
opposite  the  opening.  A simple  camera 
obscura  is  shown  in  the  figure;  the  rays 


of  light  passing  through  a convex  lens  at 
A,  being  reflected  from  the  mirror  m 
(which  is  at  a slope  of  45°)  to  the  glass 
plate  N,  where  they  form  an  image  that 
may  be  traced.  Another  arrangement 
is  a kind  of  tent  surrounded  by  opaque 
curtains,  and  having  at  its  top  a revolv- 
ing  lantern,  containing  a lens  with  its 
axis  horizontal,  and  a mirror  placed 
behind  it  at  a slope  of  45°,  to  reflect  the 
transmitted  light  downward  on  the 
paper.  It  is  still  better  to  combine  lens 
and  mirror  in  one  by  using  a glass  of 
peculiar  shape,  in  which  rays  from  ex- 
ternal objects  are  first  refracted  at  a 
convex  surface,  then  totally  reflected 
at  the  back  of  the  lens,  which  is  plane, 
and  finally  emerge  through  the  bottom 
of  the  lens,  which  is  concave,  but  with 
a larger  radius  of  curvature  than  the 
first  surface.  The  camera  obscura  em- 
ployed by  photographers  is  commonly 
a box,  one  half  of  which  slides  into  the 
other,  with  a tube  in  front  containing 
an  object-glass  at  its  extremity.  At  the 
back  of  the  box  is  a slide  of  ground  glass, 
on  which  the  image  of  the  object  or  ob- 
jects to  be  depicted  is  thrown,  in  setting 
the  instrument.  The  focussing  is  per- 
formed in  the  first  place  by  sliding  the 
one  half  of  the  box  into  the  other,  and  by 
means  of  a pinion  attached  to  the  tube 


Camera  obscura. 


in  front  which  moves  the  lens.  When 
the  image  has  thus  been  rendered  as 
sharp  as  possible,  the  ground-glass  slide 
is  removed,  and  a sensitized  plate  sub- 
stituted, which  not  only  receives,  but 
retains  the  image. 

CAMERON,  Simon,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1799,  died  in  1889.  In  1845  he  became 
a United  States  senator,  and  was  ap- 
pointed by  Lincoln  to  be  secretary  of 
war,  a position  which  contributed  the 
largest  part  to  his  reputation.  After 
serving  (1862-66)  as  minister  to  Russia 
he  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
used  his  influence  for  the  second  nomina- 
tion of  Lincoln.  He  was  a strong 
opponent  of  civil  service  reform. 

CAMEROONS,  (1)  a district  on  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa,  on  the  Bight  of 
Biafra,  now  belonging  to  Germany,  and 
one  of  the  most  suitable  districts  for 
colonization  in  this  region.  (2)  A river 
in  the  Cameroons  territory.  It  falls 
into  a broad  estuary,  on  approaching 
which  it  has  a width  of  about  400  yards. 
There  are  several  large  and  thriving 
towns  (including  King  Bell’s  town)  on 
the  river,  through  which  an  extensive 
trade  is  carried  on  in  ivory  and  palm-oil. 
(3)  A mountain  range  in  the  territory, 
the  highest  peak  of  which  has  been 
estimated  at  over  13,000  feet.  It  is 
volcanic  in  character,  and  is  clothed  with 


CAMILLUS 


CAMPHOR 


a dense  growth  of  forest  to  the  height  of 
4000  or  5000  ft. 

CAMIL'LUS,  Marrjs  Furius,  a Roman 
patrician,  famous  as  the  deliverer  of  the 
city  of  Rome  from  the  Gauls.  In  b.c. 
396  he  was  made  dictator  during  the 
Veientine  war,  and  captured  the  town  of 
Veii  by  mining,  after  it  had  defied  the 
Roman  power  for  ten  years.  In  b.c. 
394  Camillus  besieged  the  Falerii,  and 
by  an  act  of  generosity  induced  them  to 
surrender.  Three  years  after,  Camillus 
was  appointed  dictator  a second  time, 
and  was  successful  in  repelling  the  in- 
vaders. After  having  been  four  times 
appointed  dictator,  a new  invasion  of 
the  Gauls  called  Camillus,  now  eighty 
years  old,  again  to  the  front,  and  for  the 
fifth  and  last  time,  being  appointed 
dictator,  he  defeated  and  dispersed  the 
barbarians.  He  died  in  b.c.  365. 

CAM'OENS,  Luis  de,  the  most  cele- 
brated poet  of  the  Portuguese,  born  at 
Lisbon  of  a good  family,  probably  in 
1524  or  1525.  An  affray  into  which  he 
was  drawn  was  the  cause  of  his  embark- 
ing in  1553  for  India.  He  landed  at  Goa, 
but,  being  unfavorably  impressed  with 
the  life  led  by  the  ruling  Portuguese 
there,  wrote  a satire  which  caused  his 
banishment  to  Macao  (1556).  Here, 
however,  he  was  appointed  to  an  honor- 
able position  as  administrator  of  the 
property  of  absentee  and  deceased 
Portuguese,  and  here,  too,  in  what  were 
the  quietest  and  most  prosperous  years 
of  his  life,  he  wrote  the  earlier  cantos 
of  his  great  poem,  the  Lusiads.  The 
Lusiads  was  printed  at  Lisbon  (1572), 
and  celebrating,  as  it  did,  the  glories  of 
the  Portuguese  conquests  in  India, 
acquired  at  once  a wide  popularity. 
The  king  himself  accepted  the  dedica- 
tion of  the  poem.  He  died  on  the  18th 
June,  1579.  Fifteen  years  after  his 
death  a magnificent  monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion on  it  which  called  him  the  prince  of 
poets.  The  Lusiads  is  an  epic  poem  in 
ten  cantos.  Its  subject  is  the  voyage  of 
Vasco  da  Gama  to  the  East  Indies;  but 
many  dther  events  in  the  history  of 
Portugal  are  also  introduced. 

CAMP,  the  place  and  aggregate  body 
of  tents  for  soldiers  in  the  field.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  Lacedaemonians  seem  to 
have  been  the  first  who  devoted  atten- 
tion to  the  art  of  forming  military 
camps,  adopting  a circular  form  with 
the  general’s  tent  in  the  center;  but  the 
Romans,  who  had  so  often  to  carry  on 
wars  in  distant  and  thinly-populated 
regions,  were  the  first  to  carry  the  art  of 
encampment  to  a high  degree  of  per- 
fection. Their  camps  as  a rule  were 
square,  and  were  strongly  intrenched 
so  as  to  provide  against  the  danger  of 
surprise.  Since  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder intrenched  camps  have  become 
much  more  elaborate  affairs  and  cover 
a much  greater  area.  They  may  con- 
sist of  intrenched  areas  permanently 
connected  with  and  under  the  protection 
of  fortified  places;  thus  they  are  some- 
times attached  to  certain  large  cities  on 
the  chief  roads,  partly  in  order  to  de- 
fend them  against  the  first  attack  of  the 
enemy,  partly,  to  give  to  retreating 
armies  rallying-points  able  to  furnish 
support  to  numerous  soldiers.  Camps 
which,  though  intrenched,  are  to  be 


occupied  merely  for  the  period  of  a 
campaign,  or  which  serve  as  a refuge  for 
a few  days  only  to  a subordinate  army, 
are  termed  “lines”  or  “temporary  posi- 
tions.” From  the  perfection  of  modern 
artillery  strong  detached  forts  form  the 
chief  defensive  feature  of  intrenched 
camps  of  the  present  day. 

CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA  (kam-pan'ya), 
the  coast  region  of  Middle  Italy,  in 
which  Rome  is  situated,  from  30  to  40 
mites  wide  and  100  long;  and  forming 
the  undulating,  mostly  uncultivated 
plain  which  extends  from  near  Civita 
Vecchia  or  Viterbo  to  Terracina,  and 
includes  the  Pontine  Marshes.  The 
district  is  volcanic,  and  its  lakes,  Regil- 
lus,  Albano,  Nemi,  etc.,  are  evidently 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  The  soil 
is  very  fertile  in  the  lower  parts,  though 
its  cultivation  is  much  neglected,  owing 
to  the  malaria  which  makes  residence 
there  during  midsummer  very  danger- 
ous; and  during  the  months  of  July, 
August,  and  September  its  inhabitants, 
chiefly  herdsmen  and  peasants,  seek 
refuge  in  Rome  or  the  neighboring  tov/ns. 

CAMPAIGN  (kam-pan'),  generally  de- 
notes the  series  of  operations  of  an  army 
during  the  time  it  keeps  the  field  in  one 
season  or  accomplishes  a determinate 
object.  Formerly  campaigns  lasted 
only  during  the  warmer  months,  and 
were  terminated  by  the  troops  retiring 
into  winter  quarters. 

CAMPA'NIA,  the  ancient  name  of  a 
province  of  Italy,  in  the  former  king- 
dom of  Naples,  which,  on  account  of  its 
beauty  and  fertility,  was  a favorite 
resort  of  wealthy  Romans,  who  built 
there  magnificent  country  houses.  It 
comprises  the  modern  provinces  of 
Caserta,  Naples,  and  parts  of  Salerno 
and  Avellino.  Cumae  (the  oldest  Greek 
settlement  in  Italy),  Puteoli,  Naples, 
Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  Baite,  Stabiae, 
Salernum,  and  Capua  (its  ancient  capi- 
tal) were  the  principal  cities  of  Cam- 
pania. Even  now  Campania  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  fruitful  part  of  Italy. 

CAMPBELL,  Alexander,  an  American 
religious  minister,  founder  of  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  widely  known  as  Camp- 
bellites.  Campbell  was  born  in  Ireland 
in  1788,  and  died  in  the  U.  States  in 
1866.  The  principle  upon  w'hich  he  | 
founded  the  new  method  of  interpreting 
the  Scriptures  was  based  on  the  idea 
that  where  the  Scriptures  are  silent 
the  interpreter  should  be  silent.  The 
new  method  spread  rapidly  and  now 
numbers  nearly  2,000,000  adherents. 

CAMPBELL,  Bartley,  an  American 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1843,  died  1888.  He  was  early  a 
journalist  but  left  that  profession  for 
play-writing.  His  principal  works  are 
Through  Fire  and  My  Partner. 

CAMPBELL,  Thomas,  a distinguished 
modern  poet,  was  born  at  Glasgow  27th 
July,  1777,  and  educated  at  its  uni- 
versity. After  leaving  the  university  he 
resided  for  a short  time  in  Edinburgh; 
and  all  at  once  attained  the  zenith  of 
his  fame  by  publisliing,  in  1799,  his 
Pleasures  of  Hope.  In  1803,  after 
spending  some  time  in  Germany,  Camp- 
bell published  an  edition  of  the  Pleasures 
of  Hope  with  the  addition  of  some  of  the 
finest  lyrics  in  the  English  language, 
including  Hohenlinden,  Ye  Mariners  of 


England,  and  the  Exile  of  Erin.  In  1809 
he  again  made  his  appearance  as  a poet, 
and  published  Gertrude  of  Wyoming, 
Lord  Ullin’s  Daughter,  and  the  Battle 
of  the  Baltic.  He  died  at  Boulogne, 
15th  June,  1844,  and  was  interred  at 
Poet’s  Corner  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
close  to  the  tomb  of  Addison. 

CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN,  Sir 
Henry,  a British  statesman,  premier  of 
England.  Was  born  in  1836.  He  has 
been  financial  secretary  of  the  war  oflSce, 
admiralty  secretary,  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland,  and  secretary  of  state  for  war. 
In  1899  he  became  leader  of  the  liberal 
party.  In  1906  he  became  premier.  He 
died  in  1908. 

CAMPEACHY,  or  CAMPECHE  (kam'- 
pechi,  kam'pech-e),  a seaport  of  Mexico, 
in  the  state  and  on  the  bay  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  w.  coast  of  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  a mart  for  logwood  and 
wax.  Cigars  are  manufactured,  and 
ships  are  built,  though  the  harbor  can 
only  admit  small  vessels.  Pop.  15,196. 
—The  state  of  Campeachy  has  an  area 
of  25,832  sq.  miles;  a pop.  of  90,413. 

CAMP  FOLLOWERS,  a term  applied 
to  servants,  small  merchants,  pur- 
veyors, women,  and  others  who  follow 
an  army  while  on  the  march.  In  former 
times  these  camp  followers  often  ex- 
ceeded in  number  the  army  itself,  thus 
becoming  a source  of  insurmountable 
difficulty  to  the  commander.  Their 
function,  however,  was  very  useful  to 
the  daily  life  of  the  soldiers. 

CAMPHENE  (kam'fen),  the  generic 
name  for  the  volatile  oils  or  hydrocar- 
bons, isomeric  or  polymeric  with  oil 
of  turpentine,  as  oil  of  bergamot, 
cloves,  copaiba,  hops,  juniper,  orange, 
pepper,  etc.  They  are  liquid  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  and  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  their  odors. 

CAMPHINE  (kam'fen),  the  commer- 
cial term  for  purified  oil  of  turpentine, 
obtained  by  distilling  the  oil  over  quick- 
lime to  free  it  from  resin.  It  is  used  in 
lamps,  and  gives  a very  brilliant  light; 
but,  to  prevent  smoking,  the  lamp  must 
have  a very  strong  draft.  With  oxy- 
gen it  forms  camphor. 

CAM'PHOR,  a whitish  translucent 
substance,  of  a granular  or  foliated 
I fracture,  and  somewhat  unctuous  to  the 


tribe.  It  has  a bitterish  aromatic  taste 
and  a strong  characteristic  smell.  In 
chemical  character  it  belongs  to  the 
vegetable  oils.  The  common  camphor 
of  the  shops  is  obtained  from  the  cam- 


CAMPI 


CANADA 


phot  laurel,  a native  of  China  and 
Japan,  now  naturalized  in  many  other 
countries.  The  camphor  is  chiefly  pre- 
pared in  the  island  of  Formosa,  though 
also  exported  from  Japan,  and  to  a 
small  extent  from  China  The  common 
camphor  is  obtained  from  the  wood  by 
distillation  and  sublimation.  Borneo 
camphor,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  pro- 
cured by  distillation,  but  is  found  in 
masses,  secreted  naturally  in  cavities 
in  the  trunk  and  greater  branches. 
Numerous  other  vegetables,  such  as 
thyme,  rosemary,  sage,  etc.,  are  found 
to  yield  camphor  by  distillation.  In 
medicine  camphor  is  used  both  as  an 
external  and  internal  stimulant.  In 
small  doses  it  acts  as  an  anodyne  and 
antispasmodic ; in  large  doses  it  acts  as  a 
poison.  Its  effluvia  being  very  noxious 
to  insects,  it  is  much  used  to  protect 
specimens  in  natural  history.  It  readily 
dissolves  in  alcohol,  oils,  etc.,  and  in  this 
way  is  much  used  as  a liniment.  It 
evaporates  or  volatilizes  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  A third  kind  of  camphor, 
blumea  camphor,  is  prepared  in  China 
from  Blum6a  balsamifSra,  a tall  com- 
posite plant. 

CAMPI,  a family  of  Italian  artists 
w’ho  founded  what  is  known  in  painting 
as  the  school  of  Cremona.  Of  the  four 
of  this  name,  Giulio,  Antonio,  Vincenzo, 
and  Bernardino,  the  first  and  last  are 
the  best  known.  Giulio  (1502-72),  the 
eldest  and  the  teacher  of  the  others,  was 
a pupil  of  Giulio  Romano,  and  acquired 
from  the  study  of  Titian  and  Pordenone 
a skill  in  coloring  which  gave  the  school 
its  high  place.  Bernardino  (1525-90), 
was  the  greatest  of  the  school.  He  took 
Romano,  Titian,  Correggio  in  succession 
as  his  models,  but  without  losing  his 
own  individuality  as  an  artist. 

CAMP-MEETING,  religious  gather- 
ings held  in  the  open  air  in  which  the 
audiences  are  addressed  by  prominent 
or  able  exhorters,  scholars,  enter- 
taining lecturers,  etc.  They  were  origi- 
nated in  Kentucky  by  a Methodist 
and  a Presbyterian  preacher,  two 
brothers  named  McGee.  Camp-meet- 
ings are  now  held  yearly  in  the  summer 
by  many  methodist  conferences,  and 
are  among  the  most  cherished  institu- 
tions of  that  church,  although  in  Eng- 
land the  church  itself  has  refused  them 
its  countenance. 

CAMPOBAS'SO,  a town  of  Italy, 
province  of  Campobasso,  on  a hill-slope, 
52  miles  n.e.  Naples;  has  manufactures 
of  cutlery,  and  a good  trade.  Pop. 
14,818. — The  prov.  (formerly  Molise) 
has  an  area  of  1771  sq.  miles;  pop. 
38.j,140. 

CAMPUS  MARTIUS,  was  a large 
place  in  the  suburbs  of  ancient  Rome, 
consisting  of  the  level  ground  between 
the  Quirinal,  Capitoline,  and  Pincian 
hills,  and  the  river  Tiber,  set  apart  for 
military  exercises  and  sacred  to  the  god 
Mars.  In  the  later  period  of  the  re- 
public it  was  a suburban  pleasure- 
ground  for  the  Romans,  and  was  laid 
out  with  gardens,  shady  walks,  baths, 
etc.  A large  part  of  the  modern  city 
stands  on  it. 

CANAAN  (ka'nan).  See  Palestine. 

CANAANITES,  the  general  name  for 
the  heathen  peoples  (Jebusites,  Hittites, 
Amorites,  etc.)  whom  the  Israelites 


found  dwelling  in  Canaan  (Palestine) 
west  of  the  Jordan,  and  whom  latterly 
they  utterly  subdued,  though  the  sub- 
jugation was  not  quite  complete  till 
Solomon’s  time.  They  are  believed  to 
have  been,  in  part  at  least,  of  kindred 
race  with  the  Israelites;  and  some 
authorities  find  traces  of  their  descend- 
ants among  the  present  inhabitants  of 
Palestine. 

CANADA,  Dominion  of,  an  extensive 
series  of  British  territories  in  North 
America,  the  greatest  of  Britain’s 
colonial  possessions,  comprising  the 
provinces  of  Ontario  (formerly  Upper 
Canada),  Quebec  (formerly  Lower 
Canada),  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, and  Manitoba,  along  with  the  vast 
regions  in  the  north  and  northwest 
known  as  the  Northwest  Territories, 
and  another  vast  region  north  of  Quebec 
known  as  the  Northeast  Territory. 
The  Dominion  thus  embraces  the  whole 
of  British  North  America,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Newfoundland  and  part  of 
Tjabrador  (which  belongs  to  Newfound- 
land), and  its  area,  3,729,620  sq.  miles, 
is  not  much  less  than  that  of  Europe. 

The  southern  boundary  is  most  re- 
markable for  passing  through  the 
system  of  great  lakes — Superior,  Huron, 
Erie,  and  Ontario,  between  the  last  two 
of  which  are  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  partly 
belonging  to  Canada,  partly  to  the 
United  States.  To  the  Atlantic  the 
drainage  of  these  lakes  is  carried  by 
the  St.  Lawrence,  with  which  river,  and 
the  great  gulf  into  which  it  expands,  are 
connected  the  provinces  of  Ontario, 
Quebec,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  Prince  Edward  Island,  together 
containing  by  far  the  greater  portion 
of  the  population  of  the  Dominion. 

The  chief  mountain  ranges  of  the 
east  are  north  and  south  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  and  run  nearly  parallel  to 
that  river.  On  the  Pacific  slope  we  have 
a distinctly  mountainous  region,  in- 
cluding the  Rockies,  some  peaks  of 
which  (Mt.  Hooker,  Mt.  Brown)  attain 
a height  of  about  16,000  feet,  as  also 
the  Gold  and  the  Cascade  Ranges.  In 
the  prairie  region  and  the  northwest  are 
great  lake  and  river  systems,  formed 
by  the  Saskatchewan,  Nelson,  Churchill, 
Athabasca,  and  Mackenzie  rivers,  and 
the  great  lakes  Winnipeg,  Athabasca, 
Great  Slave  and  Great  Bear.  The  Sas- 
katchewan, lying  in  the  heart  of  the 
rich  wheat-growing  district,  must  in 
time  prove  a far  more  important  water- 
way than  at  present.  The  Mackenzie 
and  its  connected  lakes  and  rivers  form 
the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  far 
northwest.  This  river,  including  its 
tributary  the  Peace,  has  a length  of 
perhaps  2500  miles,  and  drains  an  area 
of  550,000  sq.  miles,  or  almost  double 
that  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin.  Be- 
tween the  Mackenzie  system  and 
Hudson  Bay  is  a great  region  called 
from  its  desolate  character  the  Barren 
Grounds. 

Canada  has  great  mineral  wealth. 
Iron  of  the  best  quality  has  been  found 
in  great  abundance  in  Quebec,  Ontario, 
and  British  Columbia.  The  district 
round  Lake  Superior  and  the  upper 
part  of  Lake  Huron  abounds  in  copper 
and  has  much  silver  as  well;  and  Nova 


Scotia,  Assiniboia,  Alberta,  and  British 
Columbia  are  rich  in  coal.  In  Nova 
Scotia  there  are  a number  of  coal-mines 
worked;  gold  is  also  obtained  in  some 
quantity,  as  well  as  iron.  Coal  is  worked 
in  the  northwest,  and  more  extensively 
in  British  Columbia;  but  the  most 
valuable  mineral  of  the  latter  is  gold. 
British  Columbia  is  very  rich  in  iron. 
Gold  is  also  found  in  the  Klondike 
region,  near  Alaska. 

The  chief  wild  animals  (some  of  them 
represented  by  several  species)  are  the 
deer,  buffalo,  musk-ox,  bear,  wolf,  fox, 
otter,  beaver,  squirrel,  raccoon,  musk- 
rat, marten,  etc.  The  buffalo  is  now 
scarce,  and  will  probably  soon  be  exter- 
minated. The  largest  of  the  deer  kind 
is  the  moose,  or  elk,  which  is  found  in 
New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Quebec,  as  well  as  in 
the  far  west  and  northwest.  The  rein- 
deer occurs  in  the  north.  The  grizzly 
bear  is  met  with  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  the  polar  bear  in  the  extreme 
north  and  northeast.  Fur-bearing  ani- 
mals are  so  numerous  as  to  have  been 
a source  of  revenue  to  a large  trading 
company  like  the  Hudson  Bay  Co.,  for 
over  two  centuries.  There  are  birds  in 
great  variety,  Canada  having  more  than 
700  of  these  altogether.  They  include 
the  wild  swan,  wild  turkey,  geese  and 
ducks  of  various  kinds,  partridges,  quail, 
prairie-fowl,  pigeon,  woodcock,  snipe, 
plover,  etc.;  besides  eagles,  hawks,  owls, 
and  many  smaller  birds,  among  which 
are  two  species  of  humming-bird.  Ex- 
cept at  certain  seasons  game  of  all  kinds 
may  be  shot  at  will.  The  rattle-snake 
and  other  snakes  occur,  but  are  less 
common  than  in  the  States.  The  seas, 
lakes,  and  rivers,  especially  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  neighboring 
waters,  abound  in  almost  all  kinds  of 
fish,  and  the  fisheries  are  extremely 
valuable,  employing  over  250,000 
people.  The  chief  sea  fish  caught  are 
cod,  herring,  mackerel,  halibut,  had- 
dock, hake,  shad,  salmon,  etc.  The 
rivers  and  lakes  abound  with  salmon, 
white-fish,  bass,  trout,  sturgeon,  maski- 
nonge  (or  maskelonge),  pike,  pickerel, 
etc.  The  seal  and  whale  fisheries  are 
also  valuable.  Lobsters  and  oysters 
are  abundant  and  excellent. 

In  the  forests  grow  more  than  sixty 
kinds  of  trees. 

Generally  the  climate  of  the  Dominion 
shows  considerable  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  but,  except  in  some  of  the  coast 
regions,  the  exceeding  dryness  of  the 
Canadian  atmosphere  makes  both 
extremes  of  temperature  pleasant  and 
healthy. 

The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  rye,  pease,  maize,  buckwheat, 
potatoes,  turnips,  mangel-wurzel,  etc. 
The  breeds  of  cattle  are  now  being 
much  improved,  partly  by  the  intro- 
duction of  high-class  cattle  ; and  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  are  exported. 

The  trade  of  the  Dominion  is  chiefly 
with  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  About  four-fifths  of  the  whole 
exports  are  sent  to  these  two  countries, 
while  nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  imports 
come  from  them.  Besides  timlier, 
animals  and  their  produce,  and  agri- 
cultural products,  the  chief  articles  of 
export  are  fish,  coal  and  other  minerals, 


CANADA  BALSAM 


CANAL 


leather,  and  wooden  goods.  The  im- 
ports chiefly  consist  of  manufactured 
goods,  coal,  iron,  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 
cotton,  etc.  Canada  grain  and  flour, 
timber,  cattle,  bacon  and  hams,  cheese, 
butter,  furs,  and  fish  are  exported  to 
Great  Britain  and  U.  States. 

Of  the  railways  the  greatest  is  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  running 
from  Montreal  across  the  whole  con- 
tinent to  Vancouver  on  the  Pacific 
coast  in  British  Columbia ; length,  about 
2900  miles,  exclusive  of  branches.  The 
Grand  Trunk  Railway  connects  the 
maritime  provinces  and  the  North- 
eastern U.  States  with  the  western  rail- 
ways, running  from  Portland,  Maine,  to 
Sarnia  on  the  Detroit  River. 

Some  of  the  canals  are  stupendous 
achievements.  The  most  important, 
from  a commercial  point  of  view,  are  the 
St.  Lawrence  Canals  and  the  Welland 
Canal.  The  last  Canadian  canal  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  navigation  of  the 
St.  Lav/rence  to  Lake  Superior  is  St. 
Mary’s  Canal,  opened  in  189.5,  avoiding 
the  St,  Mary  rapids  (Sault  Ste.  Marie),  a 
tumultuous  descent  by  which  Lake 
Superior  pours  its  waters  into  Lake 
Huron.  Next  after  those  mentioned, 
the  most  important  of  the  Canadian 
canals  is  the  series  of  locks  and  short 
artificial  connections  known  as  the 
Rideau  Canal.  It  connects  Lake  Ontario 
at  Kingston  with  the  Ottawa  near  the 
city  of  that  name.  By  means  of  these 
works  large  vessels  can  now  sail  by  the 
St.  Lawrence  route  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior. 

By  the  Act  of  Confederation  of  1867 
the  constitution  of  the  Dominion  was 
required  to  be  similar  in  principle  to 
that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  There  is 
a central  federal  government  and 
separate  provincial  governments  and 
legislatures.  The  central  executive 
government  is  vested  in  the  sovereign 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  is 
carried  on  in  his  name  by  a governor 
general  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a 
privy-council.  The  governor-general 
has  a salary  of  $50,000  per  annum.  He 
is  assisted  by  a privy-council  consisting 
of  the  prime-minister  and  twelve  other 
ministers  or  heads  of  departments.  The 
legislative  authority  rests  with  a Par- 
liament consisting  of  two  houses,  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  Senate  consists  of  eighty-one  mem- 
bers, nominated  by  the  governor-general. 
The  House  of  Commons  is  elected  by  the 
people  for  five  years,  there  being  one 
member  for  about  every  22,000  of  the 
population.  Each  of  the  provinces  has 
a separate  parliament  and  administra- 
tion, independent  in  its  own  sphere, 
at  the  head  being  a lieutenant-governor 
appointed  by  the  central  government. 
The  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Nova 
Scotia  have  eaeh  two  chambers;  the 
other  provinces  have  only  one  There 
is  also  a very  perfect  system  of  municipal 
government  throughout  the  Dominion, 
the  counties  and  townships  having 
local  governments  or  councils  which 
regulate  their  local  taxation.  The  ad- 
ministration of  justice  is  based  on  the 
English  model,  except  in  Quebec  prov- 
ince, where  the  old  French  law  prevails. 
The  only  court  that  has  jurisdiction 
throughout  the  Dominion  (except  the 


‘dktk 


Exchequer  and  the  Maritime  Court),  is 
the  Supreme  Court,  the  ultimate  court 
of  appeal  in  civil  and  criminal  cases. 
In  certain  cases  an  appeal  may  be  had 
to  his  Majesty’s  Privy  Council.  The 
capital  of  the  Dominion  is  Ottawa,  but 
the  largest  cities  are  Montreal,  Toronto, 
and  Quebec.  Canada  has  both  a large 
volunteer  force  and  a militia.  The 
former  comprises  many  well-equipped 
organizations  in  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery.  A military  college  for  the 
training  of  officers  is  maintained  by  the 
Dominion  government  at  Kingston. 

There  is  no  state  church  in  the 
Dominion.  The  prevailing  religion  in 
Quebec  is  that  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  Ontario  Methodists  pre- 
dominate, then  Presbyterians,  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  and  the  Roman  Catholics. 
Of  the  total  population  in  1901 , 2,229,600 
were  Roman  Catholics,  91 6,886  Metho- 
dists, 842,442  Presbyterians,  680,620 
Anglicans.  Education  is  well  attended 
to,  being  everywhere  more  or  less  under 
the  supervision  of  government,  and 
excellent  free  schools  being  provided. 

The  population  is  increasing  rapidly 
both  naturally  and  by  means  of  immi- 
gration. Ontario  is  settled  principally 
by  emigrants  from  Great  Britain  and 
their  descendants,  with  considerable 
numbers  of  Germans  and  Americans. 
In  the  province  of  Quebec  the  people 
are  mostly  French  in  origin,  speech,  and 
customs,  being  mainly  descendants  of 
the  French  colonists  who  inhabited  the 
region  before  it  became  British.  There 
are,  besides,  the  Indian  tribes  and  the 
Eskimos,  the  latter  in  the  extreme 
north.  The  Indians  number  about 
130,000.  Population  about  6,000,000. 

CANADA  BALSAM,  a fluid  oleo-resm 
obtained  from  the  balsam-fir  common  in 
Canada  and  the  U.  States,  and  also  from 
Fraser’s  balsam-fir  and  the  hemlock 
spruce.  It  is  used  in  medicine  and  in 
making  varnishes,  etc. 

CANADA  GOOSE,  an  American  wild 
goose  30  to  35  inches  long,  brownish 
above,  lighter  below,  head,  neck,  bill. 


Canada  goose,  or  wild  goose. 


and  feet  black,  a white  patch  on  the 
cheek;  breeds  in  the  north  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  migrates  southward  when 
the  frost  becomes  severe. 


CANADA  HEMP,  a perennial  herb, 
of  the  dogbane  family,  native  of  N. 
America.  It  has  a strong  fiber  used  for 
twine,  nets,  woven  fabrics,  etc. 

CANADA  RICE,  a floating  grass  grow- 
ing in  lakes  and  sluggish  streams  in 
Canada  and  the  northern  U.  States, 
yielding  a grain  that  forms  part  of  the 
food  of  the  Indians,  and  is  eaten  by 
whites  also. 

CANAL,  an  artificial  water-course  for 
the  transportation  of  goods  or  passen- 
gers by  boats  or  ships,  or  for  purposes 
of  drainage  or  irrigation.  The  canals 
most  familiar  to  ordinary  readers  are  for 
navigation.  These  consist  usually  of  a 
number  of  different  sections,  each  on  one 
level  throughout  its  course,  but  differing 
in  relative  height  from  the  others.  From 
one  section  to  another  boats  are  trans- 
ferred by  means  of  locks,  or  it  may  be  by 
inclines  or  lifts.  The  lock  is  a water- 
tight inclosure  with  gates  at  either  end, 
constructed  between  two  successive 
sections  of  a canal.  When  a vessel  is 
descending,  water  is  let  into  the  lock 
till  it  is  on  a level  with  the  higher  water, 
and  thus  permits  the  vessel  to  enter; 
the  upper  gates  are  then  closed,  and  by 
the  lower  gates  being  gradually  opened, 
the  water  in  the  lock  falls  to  the  level  of 
the  lower  water,  and  the  vessel  passes 
out.  In  ascending  the  operation  is 
reversed.  The  incline  conveys  the 
vessel  from  one  reach  to  another,  gen- 
erally on  a specially-constructed  carriage 
running  on  rails,  by  means  of  drums 
and  cables.  The  lift  consists  of  two 
counterbalancing  troughs,  one  going 
up  as  the  other  descends,  carrying  the 
vessel  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  level, 
or  vice  versa.  Works  of  great  magni- 
tude in  the  way  of  cuttings,  embank- 
ments, aqueducts,  bridges,  tunnels, 
reservoirs  for  water-supply,  etc.,  are 
often  necessary  in  constructing  canals. 
Canals  have  been  known  from  remote 
times,  Egypt  being  intersected  at  an 
early  period  by  canals  branching  off 
from  the  Nile  to  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  for  purposes  of  irrigation  and 
navigation. 

The  chief  canal  in  Germany  is  the 
great  North  Sea  and  Baltic  Canal  for 
sea-going  vessels,  constructed  at  a cost 
of  $40,000,000,  starting  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe  and  reaching  the  Baltic  near 
Kiel.  The  greatest  British  canal  is  the 
Manchester  Canal,  a waterway  for 
ocean-going  vesesls  from  the  estuary  of 
the  Mersey,  near  Runcorn,  to  Man- 
chester, through  a few  locks  and  partly 
in  the  beds  of  the  Mersey  and  the  Irwell, 
begun  in  1887,  opened  in  1894;  total 
cost,  about  $75,000,000.  In  the  U. 
States  the  most  extensive  undertakings 
of  this  kind  are  the  canal  connecting  the 
Hudson  with  Lake  Erie  and  the  Chicago 
drainage  canal.  In  Canada,  besides  the 
Welland  Canal,  uniting  Lakes  Erie  and 
Ontario,  and  avoiding  the  Niagara  river 
and  its  falls,  there  are  several  other 
important  canals.  As  yet  the  greatest 
achievement  in  canal-making  has  been 
the  Suez  Canal.  It  is  an  example  of  a 
ship-canal  without  locks,  open  at  both 
ends  to  the  sea.  A similar  but  much 
smaller  canal  is  that  of  Corinth.  Two 
great  American  canals,  the  Panama 
Canal  and  the  Nicaragua  Canal — the 
one  of  very  different  character  from  the 


' ' ... . 


CANAL 


CANEBRAKE 


other — remain  as  yet  uncompleted. 
See  separate  articles. 

CANAL,  Chicago  drainage,  for  the  re- 
moval of  Chicago’s  sewage  was  begun 
Sept.  3,1892,  and  opened  Jan.  2,  1900. 
Some  sections  are  excavated  in  solid 
rock,  are  160  ft.  wide,  with  perpendicu- 
lar walls,  and  30  to  35  ft.  deep.  Where 
it  is  full  earth-cut  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  is  202  ft.  wide.  The  full  length 
of  the  channel  is  281^  mi.  Its  capacity 
per  minute  is  600,000  cubic  ft ; maxi- 
mum velocity  of  current  per  hour,  3 mi.; 
length  of  spillway,  397  ft.  The  total 
cost  of  construction  was  about 
$33,000,000. 

CAN'ARA,  a maritime  region  of  Hin- 
dustan, now  partly  in  the  Madras 
presidency  (south  Canara),  and  partly 
in  the  Bombay  presidency  (north 
(Canara),  extending  along  the  Indian 
Ocean  for  180  miles,  with  a mean 
breadth  of  40  miles.  The  Bombay  portion 
has  an  area  of  39.10  sq.  miles  and  a pop. 
of  446,351 ; the  Madras  portion  3902  sq. 
miles  and  1,056,081  inhabitants. 

CANA'RY,  a wine  not  unlike  Madeira, 
made  in  the  Canary  Islands,  chiefly  at 
Teneriffe. 

CANARY-BIRD,  an  insessorial  sing- 
ing bird,  a kind  of  finch  from  the  Canary 
Islands.  Many  of  the  cage  canaries  are 
really  mules,  produced  by  the  inter- 
breeding of  canaries  with  allied  spe- 
cies, such  as  the  goldfinch,  siskin,  lin- 
110^  0t)C 

CANARY,  GRAND,  or  GRAN  CANA- 
RIA, an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
about  180  miles  from  the  coast  of  Africa. 
It  is  the  most  fertile  and  important  of 
the  Canary  Islands,  to  which  it  gives 
name.  Area,  650  sq.  miles;  pop.  93,653. 
Canary,  or  Cividad  de  Palmas,  is  the 
capital. 

CANA'RY  ISLANDS,  or  CANARIES,  a 

cluster  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic,  60  or 
70  miles  from  the  n.w.  coast  of  Africa, 
and  belonging  to  Spain.  They  are 
thirteen  in  number,  seven  of  which  are 
considerable,  viz.:  Palma,  Ferro,  Gom- 
era,  Teneriffe,  Grand  Canary,  Fuer- 
teventura,  and  Lancerota.  The  other 
six  are  very  small:  Graciosa,  Roca  or 
Rocca,  Allegranza,  Sta.  Clara,  Inferno, 
and  Lobos.  All  are  volcanic,  rugged 
and  mountainous,  frequently  presenting 
precipitous  cliffs  to  the  sea.  The  prin- 
cipal peak  is  that  of  Teneriffe,  12,182 
feet;  El  Cumbre  in  Gran  Canaria  is  6650 
feet.  The  area  of  the  whole  has  been 
estimated  at  2808  sq.  miles.  Their  fine 
climate  and  their  fertility,  which  owes 
little  to  cultivation,  justified  their 
ancient  name  of  Fortunate  Islands. 
The  Canaries  form  a Spanish  province; 
pop.  358,564. 

CANARY-SEED,  the  seed  of  the 
canary-grass,  order  Graminaceae,  is  used 
as  food  in  the  Canaries,  Barbary,  and 
Italy,  and  is  largely  collected  for  canary- 
birds. 

CANA'RY- WOOD,  the  light  orange- 
colored  wood  of  trees  of  the  laurel  family 
belonging  to  the  Canaries  and  Madeira. 

CANBY,  Edward  Richard  Sprigg,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1819,  died  in  1873.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point,  served  in  the  Indian  and 
Mexican  wars,  and  during  the  civil 
war  repelled  the  attacks  of  Sibley  on 
New  Mexico.  In  1873  he  was  killed  by 


the  treachery  of  the  Modoc  Indians  in 
Oregon. 

CANCER,  in  astronomy,  the  fourth 
sign  in  the  zodiac,  entered  by  the  sun  on 
or  about  the  21st  of  June,  and  quitted 
about  the  22d  of  July.  The  constellation 
Cancer  is  no  longer  in  the  sign  of  Cancer, 
but  at  present  occupies  the  place  of  the 
sign  Leo.  | 

CANCER,  or  CARCINO'MA,  a malig- 
nant growth  or  structure  in  some  part 
of  the  human  body,  which  can  extend 
itself  and  spread  to  neighboring  parts, 
and  even  form  again  after  removal,  and 
usually  causes  death.  Cancer  is  often  a 
very  painful  disease,  but  in  many  cases 
is  not  attended  with  pain.  No  cure  for 
it  can  be  said  to  exist,  though  excision, 
if  performed  in  time,  may  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  a recurrence. 

CANCER,  Tropic  of.  See  Tropics. 

CANDAHAR.  See  Kandahar. 

CANDELA'BRUM,  an  ornamental 
candlestick  or  lamp-holder,  often  of  a 
branched  form.  Ancient  candelabra 
frequently  display  much  ingenious  treat- 
ment in  the  design,  presenting  columns, 
figures,  etc.,  and  the  branches  from  the 
central  shaft  were  often  numerous.  In 
ancient  times  Tarentum  and  .(Egina 
were  famous  for  their  elegant  candela- 
bra. Marble,  earthenware,  and  other 
materials,  as  well  as  metal,  were  em- 
ployed in  their  structure,  which  was 
sometimes  on  a large  scale. 

CAN'DIA,  one  of  the  most  important 
islands  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  situated 
in  the  Mediterranean,  81  miles  from 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Morea  and 
230  miles  from  the  African  coast,  160 
miles  long,  14  to  50  broad;  area,  4026 
sq.  miles.  The  inhabitants  (estimated 
at  1,200,000  in  ancient  times)  now  num- 
ber about  309,349,  of  whom  269,246 
are  Greek  Christians  (rapidly  increas- 
ing), and  38,281  Mahometans.  The  cap- 
ital, Canea,  the  seat  of  the  governor 
and  chief  place  of  trade,  has  24,537  in- 
habitants; Candia,  22,774. 

CAN'DIDATE,  a term  taken  from  the 
Latin  candidatus,  a candidate,  literally 
a person  dressed  in  white,  because, 
among  the  Romans,  a man  who  solicited 
an  office,  such  as  the  praetorship  or  con- 
sulship, appeared  in  a bright  white 
garment — toga  Candida. 

CANDLE,  a solid  cylindrical  rod  of 
some  fatty  substance,  with  a small 
bundle  of  loosely-twisted  threads  placed 
longitudinally  in  its  center,  used  for  a 
portable  light.  The  chief  material  used 
for  making  candles  is  tallow,  either  in  a 
pure  state  or  in  mixture  with  other  fatty 
substances,  as  palm-oil,  spermaceti, 
wax,  etc.  Paraffin  candles  are  now 
made  in  considerable  quantities  also. 
Ordinarily  tallow  candles  are  either 
dipped  or  moulded.  The  former,  gen- 
erally composed  of  the  coarser  tallow, 
are  made  by  attaching  a number  of 
separate  wicks  to  a frame  and  dipping 
the  whole  into  a cistern  of  melted  tallow 
as  often  as  may  be  necessary  to  give 
the  candle  the  required  thickness. 
Moulded  candles,  as  their  name  implies, 
are  formed  in  moulds.  These,  made 
generally  of  pewter,  are  hollow  cylinders 
of  the  length  of  the  candle,  and  open  at 
both  ends,  but  provided  at  the  upper 
end  with  a conical  cap,  in  which  there  is 
* a hole  for  the  wick.  A number  of  these 


moulds  are  inserted  in  a wooden  frame 
or  trough  with  their  heads  downward; 
the  wick  is  then  drawn  in  through  the 
top  hole  by  means  of  a wire,  and  kept 
stretched  while  the  moulds  are  filled  by 
running  melted  tallow  from  a boiler  into 
the  trough.  Considerable  modern  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  consists  in  not 
employing  the  whole  of  the  fatty  or  oily 
substances,  but  in  decomposing  them, 
and  then  using  only  the  stearine  of  the 
former  and  the  palmitine  of  the  latter 
class  of  substances.  AVax  cannot  be 
formed  into  candles  by  melting  it  and 
then  running  it  into  moulds.  Instead, 
the  wdcks,  properly  cut  and  twisted,  are. 
suspended  by  a ring  over  a basin  of 
liquid  wax,  which  is  poured  on  the  tops 
of  the  wicks  until  a sufficient  thickness 
is  obtained,  when  the  candles,  still  hot, 
are  placed  on  a smooth  walnut  table, 
kept  constantly  wet,  and  rolled  upon  it 
by  means  of  a flat  piece  of  boxwood. 
The  large  wax  candles  used  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches  are  merely  plates  of 
wax  bent  round  a wick  and  then  rolled. 

CANDLEBERRY,  Candleberry  Myrtle, 
Wax  Myrtle,  etc.,  a shrub  growing  from 
4 to  18  feet  high,  and  common  in  N. 
America,  where  candles  are  made  from 
its  drupes  or  berries,  which  are  about  the 


Candleberry  or  wax  myrtle. 


size  of  peppercorns,  and  covered  w'ith  a 
greenish-white  wax  popularly  known  as 
Blayberry  tallow.  The  wax  is  collected 
by  boiling  the  drupes  in  water  and  skim- 
ming off  the  surface.  A bushel  of  berries 
yields  from  4 to  5 lbs.  of  wax. 

CANDLE-FISH,  a sea-fish  of  the 
salmon  family,  frequenting  the  north- 
western shores  of  America,  of  about  the 
size  of  the  smelt.  It  is  converted  by  the 
Indians  into  a candle  simply  by  passing 
the  pith  of  a rush  or  a strip  of  the  bark 
of  the  cypress-tree  through  it  as  a wick, 
when  its  extreme  oiliness  keeps  the 
wick  blazing. 

CAN'DLEMAS,  a church  feast,  in- 
stituted in  492  in  commemoration  of  the 
presentation  of  Christ  in  the  temple  and 
of  the  purification  of  Mary.  It  falls  on 
February  2,  and  on  this  day  among 
Roman  Catholics  lighted  candles  are 
carried  about  in  procession,  and  all 
candles  and  tapers  which  are  to  be  used 
in  the  churches  during  the  entire  year 
are  consecrated. 

CANE.  See  Bamboo,  Rattan,  Sugar- 
cane. 

CANEBRAKE,  a reed  or  grass,  in- 
digenous to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  U. 
States.  It  grows  in  marshy  situations, 


CANEPHORUS 


CANOE 


where  it  attains  a height  of  10  to  30 
feet.  It  is  of  a genus  allied  to  the 
bamboo.  The  flowers  are  in  panicles. 
The  young  growth  of  this  cane  is  used 
as  fodder,  but  the  quality  is  rather  poor. 
The  stems  supply  fishing-rods,  pipe- 
stems,  splints  for  baskets,  chair-bottoms, 
mats,  etc. 

CANE'PHORUS,  one  of  the  bearers  of 
the  baskets  containing  the  implements 
of  sacrifice  in  the  processions  of  the 
Dionysia,  Panathenea,  and  other  ancient 
Grecian  festivals  an  office  of  honor 


Canephorus,  from  terra  cotta  in  British 
Museum. 

much  coveted  by  the  virgins  of  antiq- 
uity. The  term  is  applied  to  archi- 
tectural figures  bearing  baskets  on 
their  head,  sometimes  improperly  con- 
founded with  Caryatides. 

CANTD.®,  the  dog  family  of  animals. 

CANIS  MAJOR,  a constellation  of  the 
southern  hemisphere,  remarkable  as 
containing  Sirius,  the  brightest  star. — 
Canis  Minor,  is  a constellation  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  immediately 
above  Canis  Major,  the  chief  star  in 
which  is  Procyon 

CANISTER  SHOT,  Same  as  Case- 
shot. 

CANKER,  (1)  in  medicine,  a collection 
of  small  sloughing  ulcers  in  the  mouth, 
especially  of  children ; called  also  water 
canker.  (2)  In  horticulture,  a kind  of 
grangrenous  disease  to  which  fruit-trees 
especially  are  liable,  beginning  in  the 
younger  shoots  and  gradually  extending 
to  the  trunk.  (3)  In  farriery,  a disease 
in  horses’  feet  causing  a discharge  of 
fetid  matter  from  the  cleft  in  the  middle 
of  the  frog,  generally  originating  in  a 
diseased  thrush. 

CANKER-WORM,  a worm  or  larva 
destructive  to  trees  or  plants;  in  Amer- 
ica specifically  applied  to  moths. 

CANNA,  a genus  of  plants,  order 
Marantacece,  some  species  of  which  hav'e 
fine  flowers,  and  some  from  their  black, 
hard,  heavy  seeds  are  called  Indian  shot. 

CANNEL  COAL.  See  Coal. 

CANNES  (kiin),  a seaport  of  France, 
on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  dep. 
Alpes-Maritimes;  famous  as  a winter 
residence,  and  as  the  place  where  Na- 
poleon landed  when  he  returned  from 
Elba,  March  1,  1815.  Pop.  34,151. 

CANNIBALISM,  or  ANTHROPOPH- 
AGY, the  eating  of  human  flesh  as 
food,  a practice  that  has  been  known 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  in  the  most 
widely  spread  localities.  See  Anthro- 
pophagi. 


CANNING,  Charles  John,  Earl,  son  of 
George  Canning,  born  in  1812;  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  in  1856  went 
out  to  India  as  governor-general. 
Throughout  the  mutiny  he  showed  a 
fine  coolness  and  clear-headedness,  and 
though  his  carefully-pondered  decisions 
were  sometimes  lacking  in  promptness, 
yet  his  admirable  moderation  did  much 
to  re-establish  the  British  Empire  in 
India.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
earl  and  made  viceroy,  but  returned 
to  England  with  shattered  health  in 
1862,  dying  in  the  same  year. — CAN- 
NING, George,  a distinguished  orator 
and  statesman,  born  in  London  in  1770; 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  Oxford.  He 


George  Canning. 


was  first  brought  into  parliament  by 
Pitt  in  1793,  and  in  1796  became  under- 
secretary of  state.  In  1814  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Portugal,  and  re- 
mained abroad  about  two  years.  He 
refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  proceed- 
ings against  the  queen,  and  in  1822, 
having  been  nominated  governor-gen- 
eral of  India,  he  was  on  the  point  of 
embarking  when  the  death  of  Castlereagh 
called  him  to  the  cabinet  as  foreign 
secretary.  — CANNING,  Stratford,  Vis- 
count Stratford  de  Redcliffe,  an  Eng- 
lish diplomatist,  son  of  a London 
merchant  and  cousin  of  George  Canning, 
born  in  1788.  He  retired  from  diplo- 
matic work  in  1858,  but  exercised  no 
small  influence  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  as  late  as  1880  drew  up  a paper  on 
the  Greek  claims.  He  died  in  the  August 
of  that  year,  having  done  more  than 
any  one  man  to  establish  British  prestige 
in  the  East. 

CANNON,  a big  gun  or  piece  of  ord- 
nance. The  precise  period  at  which 
engines  for  projecting  missiles  by 
mechanical  force  (catapults,  etc.)  were 
supplanted  by  those  utilizing  explosive 
materials  is  a matter  of  controversy,  the 
invention  of  cannon  being  even  attri- 
buted to  the  Chinese,  from  whom  the 
Saracens  may  have  acquired  the  knowl- 
edge. A doubtful  authority  asserts 
their  use  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade  in 
1073;  but  they  were  certainly  brought 
into  use  in  France  as  early  as  1338. 

Great  improvements  and  changes  in 
the  manufacture  of  cannon  have  been 
introduced  in  recent  times.  Those  that 
are  now  made  of  bronze  have  often 
their  bore  widened  by  strong  cylinders 
of  steel  successively  forced  into  them, 
a process  which  condenses  and  hardens 
the  surrounding  bronze,  giving  it  a 
tenacity  approaching  that  of  cast-steel. 


The  heavy  guns  of  the  British  service, 
made  on  the  “Woolwich”  system, 
have  a steel  tube  to  form  the  bore,  over 
which  are  shrunk  coils  of  wrought  iron, 
increasing  in  thickness  about  the  breech. 
This  method  of  manufacture  was  first  in- 
troduced by  Sir  W.  (later  Lord)  Arm- 
strong about  1858.  This  construction 
presents  the  hard  steel  to  meet  the  wear 
and  tear  on  the  bore  of  the  gun,  while 
great  support  is  given  by  shrinking  on 
the  wrought-iron  hoops,  which  contract 
with  a tight  grip  upon  the  steel.  In 
the  U.  States  enormous  cast-iron 
smooth-bore  guns  have  been  made  on 
the  Rodman  system,  throwing  very 
heavy  spherical  projectiles  at  a low 
velocity,  intended  by  their  great  weight 
to  bend  and  open  armor  at  the  joints, 
thus  destroying  the  vessel  by  what  is 
termed  “racking.”  But  the  common 
system  is  to  punch  holes  in  the  armor 
by  means  of  rather  smaller  projectiles, 
made  of  chilled  iron,  which  strike  at  a 
high  velocity,  and  the  range  and  pene- 
tration of  modern  ordnance  are  some- 
thing enormous.  Thus  some  of  the 
larger  guns  are  sighted  for  5 miles,  and 
they  can  penetrate  30  inches  of  armor 
at  the  distance  of  1000  yards.  Eighty- 
ton,  100-ton,  and  110-ton  guns  have 
been  constructed  for  the  navy  and  land 
defenses. 

Rifled  cannon  load  either  at  the 
muzzle  or  breech.  The  former  system 
is  simpler  and  stronger.  The  latter 
facilitates  loading  and  exposes  the 
gunners  less  to  the  fire  of  the  enemy’s 
riflemen,  especially  when  the  gun  is 
firing  through  a ship’s  port  or  the  em- 
brasure of  a fort.  The  projectiles  for 
rifled  guns  are  not  spherical,  but  elon- 
gated, their  length  being  perhaps  2J  or 
3 times  their  diameter;  and  they  re- 
quire to  be  so  constructed  that  they 
may  take  hold  of  the  giooves  of  the 
bore  and  thus  get  the  required  rotation 
to  send  them  at  a high  speed  point 
first  through  the  air.  For  this  purpose 
they  used  to  have  rows  of  studs  pro- 
jecting and  fitting  into  the  grooves, 
or  a coating  of  lead,  which  served  the 
same  purpose;  but  the  projectile  now 
usually  has  a flanged  copper  disc  fitted 
on  to  the  base,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
gas  when  the  charge  is  exploded  forces 
out  the  flanges  into  the  grooves.  Among 
recent  improvements  may  be  mentioned 
the  use  of  a “powder  chamber”  of 
greater  diameter  than  the  rest  of  the 
bore,  and  the  adoption  of  an  increased 
twist  in  the  rifling  instead  of  a uniform 
one.  Guns  for  firing  charges  of  dyna- 
mite or  other  powerful  explosive  have 
recently  been  experimented  with.  See 
also  Gun-carriage,  Artillery,  Mortar, 
Howitzer,  Machine  Gun,  Shell,  etc. 

CANNON,  Joseph  G.,  an  American 
politician  and  congressman,  born  at 
Guilford,  N.  C.,  in  1836.  He  removed 
to  Illinois  and  from  1873  to  1906  has 
been  successively  elected  to  the  con- 
gresses between  those  years.  He  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives in  1903. 

CANOE  (ka-no'),  a light  boat  narrow 
in  the  beam,  and  adapted  to  be  pro- 
pelled by  paddles,  often  in  conjunction 
with  sails.  The  name  was  originally 
given  to  the  boats  of  uncivilized  races, 
but  its  application  has  been  consider- 


CANON 


CANTILEVER 


ably  extended,  and  canoes  of  home 
make  may  be  seen  on  the  waters  of  the 
most  civilized  countries.  They  are  of 
the  most  diverse  materials  and  con- 
struction. Often  they  are  hollowed 
out  of  a single  log.  The  Indian  canoes 
are  of  bark  on  a wooden  frame.  The 
Eskimo  kaiaks  consist  of  a light 
wooden  frame,  covered  with  seal-skins 
sewed  together  with  sinews,  and  having 
only  one  opening  to  admit  the  boatman 
to  his  seat.  In  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
the  natives  have  double  canoes,  united 
by  a strong  platform,  serving  in  this 
way  as  one  vessel. 

CAN'ON,  a term  given  collectively  to 
the  books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  uni- 
versally received  as  genuine  by  Chris- 
tian churches.  See  Bible,  Apocrypha. 

CAN'ON,  a church  dignitary  who 
possesses  a prebend,  or  revenue  allotted 
for  the  performance  of  divine  service  in  a 
cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 

CANON  (kan-yon'),  the  Spanish  word 
for  tube,  funnel,  cannon;  applied  by 
the  Spanish  Americans,  and  hence  in 
N.  America  generally  (often  with  the 
spelling  Canyon),  to  long  and  narrow 
river  gorges  or  deep  ravines  with  pre- 
cipitous and  almost  perpendicular  sides 
occurring  frequently  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  great 
western  plateaux  of  N.  America. 

CANONICAL  BOOKS,  the  books  of 
Scripture  belonging  to  the  canon.  See 
Canon. 

CANONICAL  HOURS,  certain  stated 
times  of  the  day  appropriated  by  ecclesi- 
astical law  to  the  offices  of  prayer  and 
devotion  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
viz.:  matins  with  lauds,  prime,  tierce, 
sext,  nones,  evensong  or  vespers,  and 
compline. 

CANONICALS,  the  dress  or  vestments 
of  the  clergy. 

CANONIZATION,  a ceremony  in  the 
Roman  Church,  by  which  deceased  per- 
sons are  declared  saints.  The  pope  in- 
stitutes a formal  investigation  of  the 
miraculous  and  other  qualifications  of 
the  deceased  person  recommended  for 
canonization;  and  an  advocate  of  the 
devil,  as  he  is  called,  is  appointed  to  op- 
pose the  canonization  and  submit  evi- 
dence. If  the  examination  is  satisfac- 
tory, the  pope  pronounces  the  beatifica- 
tion of  the  candidate,  the  actual  canon- 
ization generally  taking  place  some 
years  afterward,  when  a day  is  dedicated 
to  his  honor,  his  name  inserted  in  the 
calendar  of  the  Saints,  a solemn  mass  is 
celebrated  by  the  pope,  and  his  remains 
preserved  as  holy  relics. 

CANON  LAW,  a collection  of  eccle- 
siastical constitutions  for  the  regulation 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  ordinances  of  general 
and  provincial  councils,  decrees  promul- 
gated by  the  popes  with  the  sanction  of 
the  cardinals,  and  decretal  epistles  and 
bulls  of  the  popes.  There  is  also  a 
canon  law  for  the  regulation  of  the 
Church  of  England,  which  under  certain 
restrictions  is  used  in  ecclesiastical 
courts  and  in  the  courts  of  the  two  uni- 
versities. 

CAN'OPY,  a raised  and  ornamental 
covering  above  a throne,  a bed,  or  the 
like;'in  architecture,  a decorative  struc- 
ture serving  as  a hood  or  cover  above  an 
altar,  pulpit,  niche,  etc. 


CANO'VA,  Antonio,  an  Italian  sculp- 
tor, born  in  1757  at  Possagno,  in  Vene- 
tian territory.  He  was  first  an  appren- 
tice to  a statuary  in  Bassano,  from  whom 
he  went  to  the  Academy  of  Venice, 
where  he  had  a brilliant  career.  In 
1779  he  was  sent  by  the  senate  of  Venice 
to  Rome  with  a salary  of  300  ducats,  and 
there  produced  his  Theseus  and  the 
Slain  Minotaur.  In  1783  Canova  under- 
took the  execution  of  the  tomb  of  Pope 
Clement  XIV.  in  the  Church  of  the 
Apostles,  a work  in  the  Bernini  manner, 
and  inferior  to  his  second  public  monu- 
ment the  tomb  of  Pope  Clement  XIII. 
(1792)  in  St.  Peter’s.  From  1783  his 
fame  rapidly  increased.  He  established 
a school  for  the  benefit  of  young  Vene- 
tians, and  among  other  works  produced 
his  group  of  Venus  and  Adonis,  the 
Psyche  and  Butterfly,  a Repentant 
Magdalene,  the  well-known  Hebe,  the 
colossal  Hercules  hurling  Lichas  into  the 
Sea,  the  Pugilists,  and  the  group  of 
Cupid  and  Psyche.  In  1796  and  1797 
Canova  finished  the  model  of  the  cele- 
brated tomb  of  the  Archduchess  Chris- 
tina of  Austria,  and  in  1797  made  the 
colossal  model  of  a statue  of  the  King  of 
Naples  executed  in  marble  in  1803. 
He  afterwards  executed  in  Rome  his 
Perseus  with  the  Head  of  Medusa, 
which,  when  the  Belvidere  Apollo  was 
carried  to  France,  was  thought  not  un- 
worthy of  its  place  and  pedestal.  In 
1802  he  was  invited  by  Bonaparte  to 
Paris  to  make  the  model  of  his  colossal 
statue.  Among  the  later  works  of  the 
artist  are  a colossal  Washington,  the 
tombs  of  the  Cardinal  of  York  and  of 
Pius  VII.;  a Venus  Rising  from  the 
Bath;  the  colossal  group  of  Theseus 
Killing  the  Minotaur;  the  tomb  of 
Alfieri;  the  Graces  Rising  from  the 
Bath;  a Dancing  Girl;  a colossal  Hector; 
a Paris,  etc.  After  the  second  fall  of 
Napoleon,  in  1815,  Canova  Was  com- 
missioned by  the  pope  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  the  works  of  art  carried 
from  Rome.  He  went  from  Paris  to 
London,  and  returned  to  Rome  in  1816, 
where  he  was  made  Marquis  of  Ischia, 
with  a pension  of  3000  scudi.  He  died  at 
Venice,  Oct.  13,  1822. 

CANROBERT  (kan-ro-bar),  Francois 
Certain,  French  marshal,  Ijorn  1809. 
He  commanded  in  the  Crimean  war 
under  St.  Arnaud,  and  after  his  death 
received  the  chief  command,  but  could 
not  work  in  harmony  with  the  British 
and  made  way  for  P^lissier.  In  the 
Italian  war  (1859)  he  commanded  the 
3d  division,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  Magenta.  In  the  Franco-German 
war  he  belonged  to  the  force  that  was 
shut  up  in  Metz  and  had  to  capitulate. 
He  was  latterly  a French  senator.  He 
died  in  1895. 

CANTAL',  a central  department  in 
France,  area  2217  sq.  miles;  capital, 
Aurillac.  This  department,  formerly 
part  of  Upper  Auvergne,  is  named  from 
its  highest  mountain,  the  Plomb  du 
Cantal,  6094  feet  in  height.  The  prin- 
cipal crops  are  rye,  buckwheat,  potatoes, 
and  chestnuts,  hemp  and  flax.  Cattle, 
sheep,  pigs,  horses,  and  mules  are 
reared  in  large  numbers.  Large  quan- 
tities of  cheese  (“.Auvergne  cheese”)  are 
made.  Hot  mineral  springs  are  abund- 
ant. Pop.  241,742. 


CAN'TALIVER,  Cantilever,  a wooden 
or  iron  block  framed  into  the  wall  of  a 
house  and  projecting  from  it  to  carry 
mouldings,  eaves,  balconies,  etc.  Also 
a large  projecting  framework  forming 
part  of  an  iron  bridge  directly  carrying 
part  of  the  roadway,  and  also  supporting 
beams  or  girders  bridging  over  a space 
between  it  and  another  similar  structure. 

CAN'TALOUPE  (-lop),  a small  round 
variety  of  musk-melon,  globular,  ribbed, 
of  pale  green  or  yellow  color,  and  of 
delicate  flavor;  first  grown  in  Europe  at 
the  castle  of  Cantaloupe. 

CANTATA  (kan-ta'ta),  a vocal  com- 
position, consisting  of  an  intermixture 
of  air,  recitative,  duet,  trio,  quartette, 
and  chorus,  often  taking  the  form  of  a 
short  oratorio  or  unacted  opera. 

CANTEEN',  in  military  language,  a 
regimental  establishment  managed  by  a 
committee  of  officers,  for  the  sale  of 
liquors,  tobacco,  groceries,  etc.,  to  the 
soldiers  at  reasonable  prices.  The 
profits  are  employed  for  the  benefit  of 
the  soldiers  themselves. 

CAN'TERBURY,  a city,  and  pari., 
mun.,  and  county  borough  of  England, 
in  Kent,  55  miles  s.e.  of  London,  giving 
name  to  an  archiepiscopal  see,  the 
occupant  of  which  is  primate  of  all 
England.  The  foundation  of  the  archi- 
episcopal see  took  place  soon  after  the 
arrival  of  St.  Augustine  in  596.  In  the 
8th,  9th,  10th,  and  11th  centuries  the 
city  was  dreadfully  ravaged  by  the 
Danes,  but  at  the  Conquest  its  build- 
ings exceeded  in  extent  those  of  London. 
The  ecclesiastical  importance  of  the 
place  was  consummated  by  the  murder 
of  Thomas  a Becket  in  the  cathedral, 
the  priory  and  see  benefiting  by  the 
offerings  of  devotees  and  pilgrims  at  his 
shrine.  Henry  VIII.  dissolved  the 
priory  in  1539,  and  ordered  the  bones 
of  Becket  to  be  burned;  and  the  troopers 
of  Oliver  Cromwell  made  a stable  of  the 
cathedral. — The  cathedral,  one  of  the 
finest  ecclesiastical  structures  in  Eng- 
land, 530  feet  in  length  and  154  in 
breadth,  has  been  built  in  different  ages, 
the  oldest  part  dating  from  about  1174. 
The  great  tower,  235  feet  in  height,  is  a 
splendid  specimen  of  the  Pointed  style. 
Other  ecclesiastical  buildings  are  St. 
Augustine’s  monastery,  now  a Church 
missionary  college,  St.  Margaret’s 
Church,  and  the  church  dedicated  to 
St.  Martin,  believed  to  be  one  of  the 
oldest  existing  Christian  churches.  Can- 
terbury has  a royal  grammar-school, 
founded  by  Henry  VIII.,  numerous 
other  schools,  art  gallery,  etc.  There 
are  breweries  and  malting  establish- 
ments; and  the  principal  articles  of 
trade  are  corn  and  hops.  There  are 
extensive  barracks  for  cavalry  and 
infantry.  It  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  24,868. 

CANTERBURY,  a district  occupying 
most  of  the  center  of  South  Island,  New 
Zealand,  with  a coast -line  of  200  miles, 
and  a greatest  breadth  of  about  150 
miles.  The  western  part  is  traversed 
by  mountains,  from  which  a fertile 
plain  of  2,500,000  acres  slopes  gradually 
down  to  the  sea.  The  chief  places  in  the 
province  are  Christchurch,  the  capital; 
and  Lyttelton,  the  port  town,  8 miles 
from  Christchurch.  Pop.  143.040. 

CANTILEVER.  See  Cantaliver. 


CANTON 


CA'pa  cOLOisrY 


CANTON,  a large  and  important  city 
of  Southern  China,  80  miles  from  the  sea, 
on  the  Pearl  River,  in  the  province  of 
Quangtung  (of  which  name  Canton  is  a 
corruption).  The  city  proper  is  enclosed 
by  walls  25  feet  high  and  20  feet  thick. 


forming  a circuit  of  six  miles,  with  12 
gates;  and  it  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  a wall  running  east  and  west;  the 
larger  portion  north  of  this  wall  being 
called  the  old,  that  on  the  south  of  it  the 
new  city.  The  streets  are  long,  straight, 
and  in  general  paved,  but  very  narrow, 
and  gaudy  with  painted  signs.  The 
houses  of  the  poorer  classes  are  mere 
mud  hovels:  those  of  the  shop-keeping 
class  are  commonly  of  two  stories,  the 
lower  serving  as  the  shop.  The  foreign 
mercantile  houses,  and  the  British, 
French,  and  American  consulates,  have 
as  their  special  quarter  an  area  in  the 
suburbs  in  the  southwest  of  the  city, 
with  water  on  two  sides  of  it.  In  the 
European  quarter  are  churches,  schools, 
and  other  buildings  in  the  European 
style.  The  river  opposite  the  city  for 
the  space  of  four  or  five  miles  is  crowded 
with  boats,  a large  number  of  which — 
as  many  it  is  said  as  40,000 — are  fixed 
residences,  containing  a population  of 
200,000.  The  industries  of  Canton  are 
varied  and  important,  embracing  silk, 
cotton,  porcelain,  glass,  paper,  sugar, 
lacquered  ware,  ivory  carving,  metal 
goods,  etc.  It  was  the  chief  foreign 
emporium  in  China  until  1850,  when 
Shanghai  began  to  surpass  and  other 
ports  to  compete  with  it  but  it  exports 
and  imports  together  often  still  amount 
to  about  $40,000,000.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  colony  of  Hong-Kong  a 
flotilla  of  river  steamers  ply  daily  be- 
tween Canton,  Hong-Kong,  and  Macao. 
In  1856  the  foreign  factories  were  pil- 
laged and  destroyed  by  the  Chinese,  and 
about  a year  after  this  Canton  was  taken 
by  an  English  force,  and  occupied  by  an 
English  and  French  garrison  until  1861. 
Pop.  estimated  at  over  1,600,000. 

CANTON,  a city  and  county-seat  of 
Stark  Co.,  Ohio,  60  miles  south-south- 
east  of  (Cleveland,  on  the  Nimishillen 
Creek,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Canton  & 
Southern,  the  Baltimore  & Ohio,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  railroads.  Pop.  36,140. 

CANUCK,  in  the  U.  States,  a term 
used  to  designate  a Canadian.  In 
Canada  it  is  applied  to  French  Canadians, 
it  is  thought  by  some  to  have  an  Indian 
origin,  by  others  to  be  a corruption  of 
Connaught. 

CANUTE,  or  CNUT  (ka-nfit',  knut). 
King  of  England  and  Denmark,  suc- 


ceeded his  father  Swegen  or  Sweyn  on 
his  death  in  England  in  1014  a.d.,  and 
confirmed  the  Danish  power  in  England. 
He  began  by  devastating  the  eastern 
coast,  and  extended  his  ravages  in  the 
south,  where,  however,  he  failed  to 
establish  himself  until  after  the  assas- 
sination of  Edmund  Ironside,  when  he 
was  accepted  king  of  the  whole  of  Eng- 
land (1017).  Canute,  who  began  his 
reign  with  barbarity  and  crime,  after- 
ward became  a humane  and  wise  mon- 
arch. He  restored  the  English  customs 
at  a general  assembly,  and  ensured  to 
the  Danes  and  English  equal  rights  and 
equal  protection  of  person  and  property, 
and  even  preferred  English  subjects  to 
the  most  important  posts.  His  power 
was  confirmed  by  his  marriage  with 
Emma,  Ethelred’s  widow.  At  Harold’s 
death  in  1018  he  gained  Denmark;  in 
1028  he  conquered  Norway;  and  in  1031 
he  made  Malcolm  of  Scotland  admit  his 
superiority.  Sweden  also  was  vassal 
to  him.  He  died  in  1036  at  Shaftesbury, 
leaving  Norway  to  his  eldest  son,  Sweyn ; 
to  the  second,  Harold,  England;  to  the 
third,  Hardicanute,  Denmark. 

CAN'VAS,  a coarse  and  strong  cloth, 
made  of  flax  or  hemp,  and  used  for  sails, 
tents,  etc. 

CANVAS-BACK  DUCK,  a bird  pecu- 
liar to  N.  America,  and  considered  the 
finest  of  the  water -fowl  for  the  table. 
They  arrive  in  the  U.  States  from  the 
north  about  the  middle  of  October, 
sometimes  assembling  in  immense  num- 
bers. The  plumage  is  black,  white, 
chestnut-brown,  and  slate  color;  length 
about  20  inches. 

CAOUTCHOUC  (ko'chok  or  kou'- 
chok),  an  elastic  gummy  substance 
chemically  a hydrocarbon,  contained 
in  the  milky  juice  of  a number  of  tropical 
trees  of  various  orders,  growing  in  S. 
America.  The  name  is  also  used  as  an 
equivalent  of  india-rubber,  but  strictly 
caoutchouc  is  only  the  chief  ingredient 
of  india-rubber.  The  crude  india-rubber 
is  most  commonly  obtained  by  making 
incisions  in  the  trunks  of  the  trees, 
whence  the  sap  exudes  in  the  form  of  a 
milky  fluid  which  gradually  thickens 
and  solidifies.  Caoutchouc  is  a non- 
conductor of  electricity  and  a bad  con- 
ductor of  heat.  It  is  not  dissolved  by 
water,  hot  or  cold,  but  chloroform,  oil 
of  turpentine  bi-sulphide  of  carbon,  etc., 
dissolve  it.  India-rubber  was  at  first 
only  used  to  rub  out  pencil-marks,  but 
before  the  end  of  last  century  it  was 


used  to  render  leather  and  other  sub- 
stances water-tfght,  and  in  1823  Macin- 
tosh took  out  a patent  for  the  water- 
proof materials  prepared  with  caout- 
chouc which  bear  his  name.  Latterly  its 
uses  have  become  innumerable.  Gutta 


percha  is  a similar  substance  to  caout- 
chouc, and  is  often  popularly  con- 
founded with  it.  See  India-rubber. 

CAP,  in  ships,  a strong  piece  of  tim- 
ber placed  over  the  head  or  upper  end 
of  a mast,  having  in  it  a round  hole  to 
receive  the  top  or  top-gallant  masts, 
which  are  thus  kept  steady  and  firm. 

CAP,  a covering  for  the  head,  usually 
of  softer  materials  and  less  definite 
form  than  a hat.  Cap  of  maintenance, 
a cap  formerly  worn  by  dukes  and  eom- 


Cap  of  maintenance,  from  great  seal  of 
Henry  VII. 

manders  in  token  of  excellency,  now  an 
ornament  of  state  carried  before  the 
sovereigns  of  England  at  their  corona- 
tion, and  also  before  the  mayors  of 
some  cities. 

CAPE  BRETON,  an  island  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  separated  from 
Nova  Scotia,  to  which  province  it 
belongs,  by  the  narrow  Gut  or  Strait  of 
Canso;  area  3120  sq.  miles.  Chief  town, 
Sydney.  Pop.  of  Cape  Breton,  97,605. 

CAPE  COD,  a noted  peninsula  of  the 
United  States  on  the  s.  side  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay;  65  miles  long  and  from  1 
to  20  broad.  It  is  mostly  sandy  and 
barren,  but  populous. 

CAPE  COLONY,  a British  colony  oc- 
cupying the  southern  extremity  of 
Africa.  Area  (including  southern 
Bechuanaland),  276,700  sq.  miles;  pop. 
about  1,738,000.  The  coast  is  not  much 
indented;  the  principal  bays  are  St. 
Helena,  Saldanha,  Table,  False,  Walker, 
Mossel,  and  Algoa.  In  the  interior  al- 
most every  variety  of  soil  and  surface  is 
found,  but  a great  part  of  the  colony  is 
arid  and  uninviting  in  appearance. 
Several  ranges  of  mountains,  running 
nearly  parallel  to  the  southern  coast, 
divide  the  country  into  successive  ter- 
races, rising  as  they  recede  inland,  be- 
tween which  lie  belts  of  fertile  land,  or 
vast  barren-looking  plains,  one  of  them 
the  Great  Karroo,  being  300  miles  long 
and  100  broad.  The  principal  and 
furthest  inland  mountain  terrace, -aver- 
aging 6000  or  7000  ft.  in  height,  com- 
mences in  Namaqualand  and  runs  to 
the  northeast  frontier.  The  culminating 
point  is  the  Compass  Berg,  over  8000  ft. 
The  Table  Mountain  at  Cape  Town 
rises  almost  perpendicularly  about  3585 
feet  in  height.  The  climate  is  very 
healthy  and  generally  pleasant.  Ex- 
cept along  the  coast,  especially  the 
southeast  coast  district,  where  there  are 
extensive  forests,  timber  is  scarce,  but 
with  irrigation  trees  can  be  grown  any- 
where. The  quadrupeds  of  the  colony 
comprise  the  African  elephant,  still 
found  in  the  forests  of  the  southeast 
coast  region;  buffalo,  wild-boar,  zebra, 
quagga,  leopard,  hyena,  numerous  ante- 
lopes, baboon,  armadillo,  etc.  The 
birds  include  vultures,  eagles,  the  ser- 
pent-eater, pelicans,  flamingoes,  and, 
most  important  of  all,  the  ostrich,  now 
bred  in  farms  for  the  sake  of  its  feathers. 
The  cobra  and  other  reptiles  are  found. 


CAPE  HORN 


CAPILLARITY 


The  principal  minerals  are  copper  ore, 
coal,  iron  ore,  manganese,  and  dia- 
monds, amethysts,  agates,  etc.  Coal  and 
copper  are  worked,  and  the  diamonds 
have  brought  a great  amount  of  money 
into  the  colony  since  1869,  and  have 
given  rise  to  the  town  of  Kimberley,  the 
center  of  the  diamond-fields.  Wheat, 
maize,  and  other  cereals  can  be  grown 
almost  everywhere,  if  there  is  sufficient 
moisture,  in  some  years  yielding  a sur- 
plus for  exportation.  Sheep-rearing, 
especially  that  of  pure  merinos,  is  the 
most  important  industry,  and  wool  the 
chief  export.  Ostrich  feathers,  hides, 
and  skins  are  also  exported.  Both 
native  and  Angora  goats  are  bred,  and 
the  export  of  mohair  is  important. 
Cattle  breeding  is  also  carried  on  to 
some  extent.  The  colony  is  intersected 
by  2252  miles  of  railway,  far-inland 
Kimberley,  and  still  farther  Johannes- 
burg and  Pretoria,  being  now  thus  conr 
nected  with  Cape  Town  and  Port  Eliza- 
beth. The  total  value  of  diamonds  pro- 
duced is  over  $400,000,000.  The 
European  inhabitants  consist  in  part  of 
English  and  Scottish  settlers  and  their 
descendants,  but,  notwithstanding  the 
recent  infiux  of  settlers  from  Britain, 
the  majority  are  still  probably  of  Dutch 
origin.  The  colored  people  are  chiefly 
Hottentots,  Kaffirs,  Basutos,  Griquas, 
Malays,  and  a mixed  race.  The  laborers 
are  chiefly  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs.  For 
the  higher  education  there  are  four  col- 
leges, besides  a university  (at  Cape 
Town)  incorporated  in  1873.  Respon- 
sible government  has  been  possessed  by 
the  colony  since  1872.  The  executive 
is  vested  in  the  governor  (who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown  and  is  also  com- 
mander-in-chief)  and  an  executive  coun- 
cil of  office-holders  appointed  by  the 
crown.  The  legislative  is  in  the  hands 
of  a council  of  twenty-three  members 
(the  Upper  House);  and  a representa- 
tive house  of  assembly  of  ninety-five 
members  (the  Lower  House),  elected  for 
five  years.  After  Cape  Town  the  chief 
towns  are  Kimberley,  Port  Elizabeth, 
Grahamstown,  Beaconsfield,  Paarl,  and 
King  William’s  Town.  The  Dutch  first 
colonized  the  Cape  in  1652,  and  till  the 
end  of  the  18th  century  the  colony  was 
under  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
It  was  held  by  the  British  from  1795-, 
1801,  and  it  came  finally  into  British 
possession  in  1806.  The  progress  of  the 
colony  was  long  retarded  by  a series  of 
Kaffir  wars,  the  last  of  which  was  in 
1851-53.  Its  involvements  in  the  Boer 
war  of  1899-1902  are  still  fresh  in  the 
memory  of  everyone. 

CAPE  HORN,  or  THE  HORN,  the 
southern  extremity  of  an  island  of  the 
same  name,  forming  the  most  southerly 
point  of  South  America.  It  is  a dark, 
precipitous  headland,  500  to  600  feet 
high,  running  far  into  the  sea.  Navi- 
gation round  it  is  dangerous  on  account 
of  frequent  tempests.  The  cape  was 
first  doubled  in  1616  by  Schouten,  a 
native  of  Hoorn,  in  Holland,  whence 
its  name. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE,  a celebrated 
promontory  near  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  Africa,  at  the  termination  of  a 
mall  peninsula  extending  south  from 
Table  Mountain  which  overlooks  Cape 
Town.  This  peninsula  forms  the  west 


side  of  False  Bay,  and  on  its  inner  coast 
is  Simon’s  Bay  and  Simon’s  Town, 
where  there  is  a safe  anchorage  and  a 
British  naval  station.  Bartholomew 


Diaz,  who  discovered  the  Cape  in  1487, 
called  it  Cape  of  Storms;  but  John  II.  of 
Portugal  changed  this  to  its  present 
designation.  It  was  first  doubled  by 
Vasco  de  Gama  in  1497. 

CA'PER,  the  unopened  flower-bud  of  a 
low  trailing  shrub,  which  grows  from  the 
crevices  of  rocks  and  walls,  and  among 
rubbish,  in  the  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean.  Picked  and  pickled  in 
vinegar  and  salt  they  are  much  used  as  a 
condiment  (caper-sauce  being  especially 
the  accompaniment  of  boiled  mutton). 
The  plant  was  introduced  into  Britain 
as  early  as  1596,  but  has  never  been 
grown  on  a large  scale.  The  flower-buds 
of  the  marsh-marigold  and  nasturtium 
are  frequently  pickled  and  eaten  as  a 
substitute  for  capers. 

CAPERNAUM  (ka-per'na-um),  a town 
in  ancient  Palestine,  on  the  w.  side  of 
the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Nothing  of  it  now 
remains,  but  the  site  is  identified  with 
Tel  Hum. 

CA'PET,  the  name  of  the  French  race 
of  kings  which  has  given  118  sovereigns 
to  Europe,  viz.  36  kings  of  France,  22 
kings  of  Portugal,  11  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  5 of  Spain,  3 of  Hungary,  3 
emperors  of  Constantinople,  3 kings  of 
Navarre,  17  dukes  of  Burgundy,  12 
dukes  of  Brittany,  2 dukes  of  Lorraine, 
and  4 dukes  of  Parma.  The  first  of  the 
Capets  known  in  history  was  Robert  the 
Strong,  a Saxon , made  Count  of  Anjou  by 
Charles  the  Bold,  and  afterward  duke 
of  the  He  de  France.  His  descendant, 
Hugh,  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  was  in 
987  elected  king  of  France  in  place  of 
the  Carlovingians.  On  the  failure  of 
the  direct  line  at  the  death  of  Charles  IV. 
the  French  throne  was  kept  in  the 
family  by  the  accession  of  the  indirect 
line  of  Valois,  and  in  1589  by  that  of 
Bourbon.  Capet  being  thus  regarded 
as  the  family  name  of  the  kings  of 
France,  Louis  XVI.  was  arraigned  be- 
fore the  National  Convention  under  the 
name  of  Louis  Capet. 

CAPE  TOWN,  capital  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  S.  Africa,  at  the  head  of  Table 
Bay,  and  at  the  base  of  Table  Mountain, 
30  miles  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  port  has  a break-water  3554  feet 


long,  two  docks  16  acres  in  area,  a large 
graving-dock,  etc.  Pop.  83,718. 

CAPE  VERD,  the  extreme  w.  point 
of  Africa,  between  the  Senegal  and  the 
Gambia,  discovered  by  Fernandez,  1445. 

CAPE  VERD  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
ten  or  fifteen  volcanic  islands  and  rocks 
in  the  Atlantic,  320  miles  west  of  Cape 
Verd  (see  above),  belonging  to  Portugal. 
They  produce  rice,  maize,  coffee,  tobac- 
co, the  sugar-cane,  physic-nuts,  and 
various  fruits.  Coffee,  hides,  archil, 
physic-nuts,  etc.,  are  exported.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes  or  mixed 
race.  Porto  Grande,  on  Sao  Vicente,  is 
a coaling  station  for  steamers.  Pop. 
about  147,000. 

CA'PIAS,  in  English  law,  a writ  of 
two  sorts:  one  before  judgment,  called 
a capias  ad  respondendum,  to  take  the 
defendant  and  make  him  answer  to  the 
plaintiff;  the  other,  which  issues  after 
judgment,  of  divers  kinds;  as,  a capias 
ad  satisfaciendum,  or  writ  of  execution. 

CAPTLLARIES,  in  anatomy,  the  fine 
blood-vessels  which  form  the  links  of 
connection  between  the  extremities  of 
the  arteries  and  the  beginnings  of  the 
veins. 

CAPILLARTTY,  the  general  name  for 
certain  phenomena  exhibited  by  fluid 
surfaces  when  the  vessels  containing 
the  liquid  are  very  narrow,  and  also  ex- 
hibited by  that  portion  of  the  fluid  sur- 
face which  is  in  close  proximity  to  the 
sides  of  a larger  vessel,  or  to  any  inserted 
object.  Thus  if  an  open  tube  of  small 
bore  be  inserted  in  water,  it  will  be 
noted  that  the  liquid  rises  within  it 
above  its  former  level  to  a height  vary- 
ing inversely  as  the  diameter  of  the  bore, 
and  that  the  surface  of  this  column  is 
more  or  less  concave  in  form  (as  in  Fig. 
1) . The  same  phenomenon  occurs  in  any 
fluid  which  will  wet  the  tube;  but  in  the 
case  of  a fluid  like  mercury,  which  does 
not  wet  the  glass,  the  converse  phenom- 
enon appears,  the  liquid  being  de- 
pressed in  the  tube  below  its  former 
level,  and  the  portion  within  the  tube 
exhibiting  a convex  surface  (see  Fig.  2). 
Similarly  round  the  sides  of  the  respec- 
tive vessels,  and  round  the  outsides,  of 


Fig.  1. 


Fig,  2. 


Capillarity. 


the  inserted  tubes,  we  find  in  the  first 
case  an  ascension,  and  in  the  second  a de- 
pression of  the  liquid,  with  a correspond- 
ing concavity  or  convexity  at  its  ex- 
treme edge.  Two  parallel  plates  im- 
mersed in  the  liquids  give  kindred 
results.  As  these  phenomena  occur 
equally  in  air  and  in  vacuo  they  cannot 
be  attributed  to  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere, but  depend  upon  molecular 
actions  taking  place  between  the  parti- 
cles of  the  liquid  itself,  and  between  the 


CAPITAL 


CAPSICUM 


liquid  and  the  solid,  these  actions  being 
confined  to  a very  thin  layer  forming  the 
superficial  boundary  of  the  fluid.  Every 
liquid,  in  fact,  behaves  as  if  a thin  film 
in  a state  of  tension  formed  its  external 
layer;  and  although  the  theory  that 
such  tension  really  exists  in  the  super- 
ficial laj'er  must  be  regarded  as  a scien- 
tific fiction,  yet  it  adequately  represente 
the  effects  of  the  real  cause,  whatever 
that  may  be.  Scientific  calculations 
with  respect  to  capillary  depressions , 
and  elevations  proceed,  therefore,  on 
the  working  theory  that  the  superficial 
film  at  the  free  surface  is  to  be  regarded 
as  pressing  the  liquid  inward,  or  pulling 
it  outward  according  as  the  surface  is 
convex  or  concave — the  convex  or  con- 
cave film  being  known  as  the  meniscus 
(crescent).  The  part  which  capillarity 
plays  among  natural  phenomena  is  a 
very  varied  one.  By  it  the  fluids  cii’cu- 
late  in  the  porous  tissues  of  animal 
bodies;  the  sap  rises  in  plants,  and 
moisture  is  absorbed  from  air  and  soil  by 
the  foliage  and  roots.  For  the  same  rea- 
son a sponge  or  lump  of  sugar,  or  a piece 
of  blotting-paper  soaks  in  moisture,  the 
oil  rises  in  the  wick  of  a lamp,  etc. 

CAPITAL,  in  trade,  the  term  applied, 
as  the  equivalent  of  “stock,”  to  the 
money,  or  property  convertible  into 
money,  used  by  a producer  or  trader 
for  carrying  on  his  business;  in  political 
economy,  that  portion  of  the  produce  of 
former  labor  which  is  reserved  from  con- 
sumption for  employment  in  the  further 
production  of  wealth — the  apparatus  of 
production.  It  is  commonly  divided 
under  two  main  heads — circulating 
capital  and  fixed  capital.  Circulating 
capital  comprises  those  forms  of  capital 
which  require  renewal  after  every  use 
in  production,  being  consumed  (absorb- 
ed or  transformed)  in  the  .single  use,  e.g. 
raw  materials  and  wages.  Fixed  capital, 
on  the  other  hand,  comprises  every 
form  of  capital  which  is  capable  of  use 
in  a series  of  similar  productive  acts, 
e.g.  machinery,  tools,  etc.  From  the 
I ordinary  economic  point  of  view  capital 
is  conveniently  limited  to  material 
objects  directly  employed  in  the  repro- 
duction of  material  wealth,  but  from 
the  higher  social  point  of  view  many 
things  less  immediately  concerned  in 
productive  work  may  be  regarded  as 
capital.  Thus  Adam  Smith  includes  in 
the  fixed  capital  of  a country,  “the  ac- 
quired and  useful  abilities  of  all  the  in- 
habitants;” and  the  wealth  sunk  in 
prisons,  educational  institutions,  etc., 
plays  ultimately  a scarcely  less  im- 
portant part  in  production  than  that 
invested  in  directly  productive  machin- 
ery. 

CAPITAL,  an  architectural  term,  usu- 
ally restricted  to  the  upper  portion  of  a 
column,  the  part  resting  immediately 
on  the  shaft.  In  classic  architecture 
each  order  has  its  distinctive  capital, 
but  in  Egyptian,  Indian,  Saracenic, 
Norman,  and  Gothic  they  are  much 
diversified.  See  Column. 

CAPITAL  PUNISHMENT,  in  criminal 
law,  the  punishment  by  death.  For- 
merly it  was  the  ordinary  form  of  pun- 
ishment for  felonies  of  all  kinds;  but  a 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  nature 
and  remedies  of  crime,  a more  discrimi- 
nating sense  of  degrees  in  criminality. 


and  an  increased  regard  for  human  life 
have  latterly  tended  to  restrict,  if  not 
to  abolish,  the  employment  of  the 
penalty  of  death.  In  several  Euro- 
pean countries — Sweden,  Denmark, 
North  Germany,  Bavaria,  Austria — 
there  is  great  unwillingness  to  enforce 
capital  punishment,  though  the  penalty 
remains  upon  the  statute  books.  In 
Belgium  there  has  been  no  execution 
since  1863.  In  Switzerland  capital 
punishment  was  abolished  in  1874,  and 
though  the  right  of  restoring  it  was 
allowed  to  each  canton  in  consequence 
of  an  increase  of  murders,  only  7 out  of 
a total  of  22  have  availed  themselves 
of  it.  In  Roumania  it  was  abolished  in 
1864;  in  Holland  in  1870;  and  it  has  also 
been  discontinued  in  Portugal  and  Italy. 
In  several  of  the  U.  States — Michigan, 
Wisconsin,  Rhode  Island,  and  Maine, 
imprisonment  for  life  has  been  substi- 
tuted for  murder  in  the  first  degree; 
in  the  remainder  capital  punishment  is 
retained,  though  the  experiment  of  its 
abolition  was  made  for  a short  time  in 
New  York  and  Iowa. 

The  manner  of  inflicting  the  punish- 
ment of  death  has  varied  greatly.  Bar- 
barous nations  are  generally  inclined  to 
severe  and  vindictive  punishments;  and 
even  in  civilized  countries,  in  cases  of  a 
political  nature,  or  of  very  great  atroc- 
ity, the  punishment  has  been  sometimes 
inflicted  with  many  horrible  accompani- 
ments, such  as  tearing  the  criminal  to 
pieces,  starving  him  to  death,  breaking 
his  limbs  upon  the  wheel,  pressing  him 
to  death  in  a slow  and  lingering  manner, 
burning  him  at  the  stake,  crucifixion, 
etc.  In  modern  times  among  civilized 
nations,  public  opinion  is  strongly  dis- 
posed to  discountenance  the  punishment 
of  death  by  any  but  simple  means;  and 
even  in  governments  where  torture  is 
still  countenanced  by  the  laws  it  is  rarely 
or  never  resorted  to.  In  the  U.  States, 
except  New  York,  where  it  is  done  by 
electric  shock,  the  method  of  execution 
is  by  hanging.  In  Germany  and  France 
the  sword  and  the  guillotine  are  the 
usual  means;  in  Spain,  strangulation  by 
means  of  the  garrote,  a sort  of  iron 
collar  tightened  by  a screw.  Capital 
punishment  cannot  be  inflicted,  by  the 
general  humanity  of  the  laws  of  modern 
nations,  upon  persons  who  are  insane 
or  who  are  pregnant,  until  the  latter  are 
delivered  and  the  former  become  sane. 
In  military  law,  sentence  of  death  may 
be  passed  for  various  offenses,  such  as 
sedition,  violence  and  gross  neglect  of 
duty,  desertion,  assault  upon  superior 
officers,  disobedience  to  lawful  com- 
mands, etc. 

CAPITALS,  the  large  letters  used  in 
writing  and  printing,  most  commonly  as 
the  initial  letters  of  certain  words. 
As  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  so  also  in  the  early  part  of  the 
middle  ages,  all  books  were  written 
without  any  distinction  in  the  kind  of 
letters,  large  letters  (capitals)  being  the 
only  ones  used;  but  gradually  the  prac- 
tice became  common  of  beginning  a 
book,  subsequently,  also,  the  chief 
divisions  and  sections  of  a book,  with  a 
large  capital  letter,  usually  illuminated 
and  otherwise  richly  ornamented. 

CAPTTOL,  now  Campidoglio,  the 
citadel  of  ancient  Rome,  standing  on  the 


Capitoline  Hill,  the  smallest  of  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome.  It  is  used  as  a hotel  de 
ville,  museum,  etc.,  contains  some  fine 
statues  and  paintings,  and  commands  a 
superb  view  of  the  Campagna.  — The 
name  of  capitol  is  also  given  to  the 
edifice  in  Washington  where  Congress 
assembles.  The  various  states  also  call 
their  state-houses  capitols. 

CAPITULA'TION,  in  military  lan- 
guage, the  act  of  surrendering  to  an 
enemy  upon  stipulated  terms,  in  oppo- 
sition to  surrender  at  discretion. 

CAPO  D’ISTRIA,  John  Antony,  Count, 
Greek  statesman,  born  at  Corfu  in  1776. 

In  1809  he  entered  the  service  of  Russia 
and  obtained  an  appointment  in  the  de- 
partmei  t of  foreign  affairs.  As  im- 
perial Russian  plenipotentiary  he  sub- 
scribed the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Nov.  20 
1815.  In  1828  he  became  president  of 
the  Greek  Republic,  in  which  office  he 
was  very  unpopular,  and  in  1831  he  was 
assassinated. 

CAP'RICORNUS,  Capricorn,  a con- 
stellation of  the  southern  hemisphere, 
and  one  of  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
the  one  to  which  belongs  the  winter 
solstice,  represented  by  the  figure  of  a 
goat  or  a figure  having  the  fore-part  like 
a goat  and  the  hind-part  like  a fish. 

CAPRIVI,  Georg  Leo,  Count  von,  a 
German  statesman,  successor  to  Bis- 
marck in  the  chancellorship  of  the  Ger- 
man empire.  He  was  born  at  Charlotten- 
burg,  in  1831,  died  in  Brandenburg, 
1899.  Caprivi  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  after 
serving  in  high  commands  in  the  army 
was  made  chief  of  the  admiralty  in  1883. 
A.fter  Bismarck’s  decline  in  health, 
Caprivi  took  the  reins  of  government, 
but  his  administration  was  not  satis- 
factory. He  retired  in  1894. 

CAP'SICUM,  a genus  of  annual,  sub- 
shrubby  plants,  with  a wheel-shaped 
corolla,  projecting  and  converging 
stamens,  and  a many-seeded  berry. 
They  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  East  and  ' 


Capsicum. 


West  Indies,  Cluna,  Brazil,  and  Egypt, 
but  have  spread  to  various  other  tropi- 
cal or  sub-tropical  countries,  being  cul- 
tivated for  their  fruit,  which  in  some 
reaches  the  size  of  an  orange,  is  fleshy 
and  variously  colored,  and  contains  a 
pungent  principle  which  is  present  also 
and  more  largely  in  the  seed.  The  fruit 
or  pod  is  used  for  pickles,  sauces,  etc., 
and  also  medicinally.  Several  of  them 


CAPSTAN 


CARBON 


yield  Cayenne  pepper,  and  are  originally 
a native  of  S.  America. 

CAP'STAN,  a strong  upright  column 
of  timber,  movable  round  a strong  iron 
spindle,  and  having  its  upper  extremity 
pierced  to  receive  bars  or  levers,  for 
winding  a rope  round  it  to  raise  weights, 
such  as  the  anchors  of  a vessel,  or  to  per- 
form other  work  that  requires  great 
power.  It  is  distinguished  from  a wind- 
lass by  the  axis,  and  consequently  the 
barrel,  being  vertical. 

CAPTAIN,  one  who  is  at  the  head  or 
has  authority  over  others,  especially: 
(1)  The  military  officer  who  commands 
a company,  whether  of  infantry,  cavalry, 
or  artillery.  (2)  An  officer  in  the  navy 
commanding  a ship  of  war.  Captains  6f 
ships  were  formerly  designated  post- 
captains.— Captain  of  the  fleet  (in 
Britain),  a flag-officer  temporarily  ap- 
pointed by  the  admiralty,  who  acts  as 
adjutant-general  of  the  force,  sees  to  the 
carrying  out  of  the  orders  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief,  and  to  proper  dis- 
cipline being  maintained  in  the  fleet. 
(3)  The  master  of  a merchant  vessel. 

CAPTION,  in  law,  a certificate  stating 
the  time  and  place  of  executing  a com- 
mission in  chancery,  or  of  taking  a 
deposition,  or  of  the  finding  of  an  indict- 
ment, and  the  court  or  authority  before 
which  such  act  was  performed,  and  such 
other  particulars  as  are  necessary  to 
render  it  legal  and  valid. 

CAPUCHIN  MONKEY  (kap-u-shen'), 
a name  given  to  various  species  of  S. 
American  monkeys.  The  hair  of  their 
heads  is  so  arranged  that  it  has  the 
appearance  of  a capuchin’s  cowl,  hence 
the  name. 

CAPUCHINS  (kap-u-shenz'),  monks 
of  the  order  of  St.  Francis,  so  called 
from  the  capuchon  or  capuce,  a stuff 
cap  or  cowl,  the  distinguishing  badge 
of  the  order.  They  are  clothed  in  brown 
or  gray,  go  barefooted,  and  never  shave 
their  beard. 

CAPYBA'RA,  a species  of  rodent, 
sometimes  known  by  the  name  of  the 
water-hog,  and  of  the  family  Cavidse 
(guinea-pig).  It  attains  the  length  of 


Capybara. 


about  3 feet,  and  has  a very  large  and 
thick  head,  a thick  body  covered  with 
long,  coarse,  brown  hair,  and  short  legs, 
with  long  feet,  which,  being  in  a manner 
webbed,  fit  it  for  an  aquatic  life.  It  has 
no  tail.  It  is  common  in  several  parts 
of  S.  America,  and  particularly  in  Brazil. 
It  feeds  on  vegetables  and  fish,  which  it 
catches  somewhat  in  the  manner  of  the 
ottei 

CARABO'BO.  a state  of  Venezuela, 
washed  on  the  n by  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
Area  about  2984  sq.  miles;  pop.  167,499. 
P.  E. — 15 


The  capital  is  Valencia,  the  chief  port 
Puerto  Cabello. 

CARACAL'LA,  Marcus  Aurelius  An- 
tonins, eldest  son  of  the  Emperor 
Severus,  was  born  at  Lyons  a.d.  188, 
died  217.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  with  his 
brother  Antoninus  Geta,  whom  he 
speedily  murdered.  To  effect  his  own 
security  upward  of  20,000  oth  r vic.ims 
were  butchered.  He  was  himself  assassi- 
nated by  Macrinus,  the  pretorian  perfect, 
who  succeeded  him. 

CARAC'AS,  a city  of  S.  America,  capi- 
tal of  Venezuela,  situated  in  a fine  valley 
about  3000  feet  above  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  connected  by  railway  with  the  port 
La  Guayra,  about  10  miles  distant.  In 
1812  it  was  in  great  part  destroyed  by 
an  earth-quake,  and  nearly  12,000  per- 
sons buried  in  the  ruins.  Pop.  72,429. 

CARAFE  (ka-raP),  the  French  name 
for  an  ordinary  glass  bottle  or  decanter 
for  holding  drinking  water. 

CAR'AMEL,  the  brown  mass  which 
cane-sugar  becomes  at  220°  C.,  used  in 
cookery  as  a coloring  and  flavoring  in- 
gredient, in  giving  a brown  color  to 
spirits,  etc.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
kind  of  candy. 

CAR' AT,  a weight  of  3 17  troy  grains, 
used  by  jewelers  in  weighing  precious 
stones  and  pearls.  The  term  is  also  used 
to  express  the  proportionate  fineness  of 
gold.  The  whole  mass  of  gold  is  divided 
into  twenty-four  equal  parts,  and  it  is 
called  gold  of  so  many  carats  as  it  con- 
tains twenty-fourth  parts  of  pure  metal. 
Thus  if  a mass  contain  twenty-two  parts 
of  pure  gold  out  of  every  twenty-four 
it  is  gold  of  twenty-two  carats. 

CARAV  AGGIO,  Michel  Angelo  Ameri- 
ghi,  or  Merighi  da,  a celebrated  painter, 
born  at  Caravaggio  1569,  died  1609. 
He  attained  distinction  as  a colorist  of 
the  Neapolitan  school,  being  considered 
the  head  of  the  so-called  Naturalists’ 
school.  He  was  coarse  and  violent  in 
his  character  and  habits,  and  was  in  con- 
tinual trouble  through  his  quarrelsome 
disposition.  Among  his  chief  pictures 
are  the  Card  Player  (at  Dresden),  the 
Burial  of  Christ,  St.  Sebastian,  Supper 
at  Emmaus,  and  a Holy  Family. 

CAR'AVAN,  a Persian  word  used  to 
denote  large  companies  which  travel 
together  in  Asia  and  Africa  for  the  sake 
of  security  from  robbers,  having  in  view, 
principally,  trade  or  pilgrimages.  In 
Mohammedan  countries  caravans  of 
pilgrims  are  annually  formed  to  make 
the  journey  to  Mecca.  The  most  im- 
portant are  those  which  annually  set 
out  from  Damascus  and  Cairo.  Camels 
are  used  as  a means  of  conveyance  on 
account  of  their  remarkable  powers  of 
endurance. 

CAR'AVEL,  the  name  of  different 
kinds  of  v'^essels,  particularly  a small 
ship  used  by  the  Spaniards  and  Por- 
tuguese in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 
for  long  voyages.  It  was  narrow  at  the 
poop,  wide  at  the  bow,  and  carried  a 
double  tower  at  its  stern  and  a single 
one  at  its  bows.  It  had  four  masts  and  a 
bowsprit,  and  the  principal  sails  vvere 
lateen  sails.  It  was  in  command  of  three 
such  caravels  that  Columbus  crossed  the 
Atlantic  and  discovered  America. 

CAR' AWAY,  an  umbelliferous  bien- 
' nial  plant,  with  a tapering  fleshy  root. 


a striated  furrowed  stem,  and  white  or 
pinkish  flowers.  It  produces  a well- 
known  seed  used  in  confectionery,  and 
from  which  both  a carminative  oil  is 
extracted  and  the  liquor  called  ktimmel 
prepared. 


Caravel  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


CARBAZOT'IC  ACID,  a crystallizable 
acid  and  bitter  substance  obtained  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  indigo  and 
some  other  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances. It  is  of  great  importance  in 
dyeing.  When  silk  which  has  been 
treated  with  a mordant  of  alum  or  cream 
of  tartar,  is  immersed  in  a solution  of 
this  acid,  it  is  dyed  of  a beautiful  per- 
manent yellow  color.  It  is  also  called 
Picric  Acid,  and  is  used  as  an  explosive. 

CAR'BIDE,  a compound  of  carbon 
with  a metal,  the  usual  effect  of  which 
is  to  render  it  hard  and  brittle.  From 
calcium  carbide  acetylene  gas  is  pre- 
p3»r0d 

CARBOL'IC  ACID,  an  acid  obtained 
from  coal-tar.  It  is,  when  pure,  a color- 
less crystalline  substance,  but  it  is 
usually  found  as  an  oily  liquid,  colorless, 
with  a burning  taste  and  the  odor  of 
creosote.  Carbolic  acid  is  now  much 
employed  as  a therapeutic  and  disin- 
fectant. It  may  be  taken  internally  in 
cases  in  v/hich  creosote  is  indicated; but 
its  principal  use  in  medicine  is  as  an 
external  application  to  unhealthy  sores, 
compound  fractures,  and  to  abscesses 
after  they  have  been  opened,  over  which 
it  coagulates,  forming  a crust  imperme- 
able to  air  and  to  the  organic  germs 
floating  in  the  atmosphere,  which  pro- 
duce decomposition  in  the  wound.  The 
action  of  the  acid  is  not  only  to  exclude 
these  germs  but  also  to  destroy  such  as 
may  have  been  admitted,  for  which 
reason  it  is  introduced  into  the  interior 
of  the  wound.  Called  also  Phenic  Acid 
and  Phenol. 

CARBON,  one  of  the  elements,  exist- 
ing uncombined  in  three  forms,  char- 
coal, graphite  or  plumbago,  and  the 
diamond.  The  diamond  is  the  purest 
form  of  carbon;  in  the  different  varieties 
of  charcoal,  in  coal,  anthracite,  etc.,  it 
is  more  or  less  mixed  with  other  sub- 
stances. Pure  charcoal  is  a black, 
brittle,  light,  and  inodorous  substance. 
It  is  usually  the  remains  of  some  vege- 
table body  from  which  all  the  volatile 
matter  has  been  expelled  by  heat ; but 
it  may  be  obtained  from  most  organic 
matters,  animal  as  well  as  vegetable, 
by  ignition  in  close  vessels.  Carbon 
being  one  of  those  elements  which  exist 
in  various  distinct  forms  is  an  example 
of  what  is  called  allotropy.  The  com- 


Carbon  ATi!lj5 


cardinal 


pounds  of  this  element  are  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  all  the  other  elements 
taken  together.  With  hydrogen  espe- 
cially it  forms  a very  large  number  of 
compounds,  called  hydrocarbons,  which 
are  possessed  of  the  most  diverse  prop- 
erties, chemicals  and  physical.  With 
oxygen,  again,  carbon  forms  only  two 
compounds,  but  union  between  the  two 
elements  is  easily  effected.  It  is  one  of 
the  regular  and  most  characteristic 
constituents  of  both  animals  and  plants. 
See  Diamond,  Charcoal,  Graphite,  Bone 
Black,  Carbonic  Acid,  Coke,  etc. 

CAR'BONATES,  compounds  formed 
by  the  union  of  carbonic  acid  with  a 
base,  as  the  carbonate  of  lime,  the  car- 
bonate of  copper,  etc.  Carbonates  are 
an  important  class  of  salts,  many  of 
them  being  extensively  used  in  the  arts 
and  in  medicine. 

CAR'BONDALE,  a city  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, about  110  miles  n.n.w.  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  the  center  of  a rich  coal- 
field. Pop.  17,000. 

CARBON'IC  ACID,  a gaseous  com- 
pound of  12  parts  by  weight  of  carbon 
and  32  of  oxygen,  colorless,  without 
smell,  twenty-two  times  as  heavy  as 
hjTlrogen,  turning  blue  litmus  slightly 
red,  and  existing  in  the  atmosphere  to 
the  extent  of  1 volume  in  2500.  It  is 
incapable  of  supporting  combustion  or 
animal  life,  acting  as  a narcotic  poison 
when  present  in  the  air  to  the  extent  of 
only  4 or  5 per  cent.  It  is  disengaged 
from  fermenting  liquors  and  from  de- 
composing vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances, and  is  largely  evolved  from 
fissures  in  the  earth,  constituting  the 
choke-damp  of  mines.  From  its  weight 
it  has  a tendency  to  subside  into  low 
places,  vaults  and  wells,  rendering  some 
low-lying  places,  as  the  upas  valley  of 
Java,  and  many  caves,  uninhabitable. 
It  has  a pleasant,  acidulous,  pungent 
taste,  and  aerated  beverages  of  all  kinds 
kinds — beer,  champagne,  and  carbon- 
ated mineral  water — owe  their  refresh- 
ing qualities  to  its  presence,  for  though 
poisonous  when  taken  into  the  lungs, 
it  is  agreeable  when  taken  into  the 
stomach.  This  acid  is  formed  and  given 
out  during  the  respiration  of  animals, 
and  in  all  ordinary  combustions,  from 
the  oxidation  of  carbon  in  the  fuel.  It 
exists  in  large  quantity  in  all  limestones 
and  marbles.  It  is  evolved  from  the 
colored  parts  of  the  flowers  of  plants 
both  by  night  and  day,  and  from  the 
green  parts  of  plants  during  the  night. 
During  the  day  plants  absorb  it  from 
the  atmosphere  through  their  leaves, 
and  it  forms  an  important  part  of  their 
nourishment. 

CARBONIC  OXIDE,  a substance  ob- 
tained by  transmitting  carbonic  acid 
over  red-hot  fragments  of  charcoal,  con- 
tained in  a tube  of  iron  or  porcelain,  and 
also  by  several  other  processes.  It  is  a 
colorless  inodorous  gas,  has  neither  acid 
nor  alkaline  properties,  is  very  poison- 
ous, and  burns  with  a pale  lavender 
flame. 

CARBONIF'EROUS  SYSTEM,  in  ge- 

i logy,  the  great  group  of  strata  which 
lie  between  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
below  and  the  Permian  or  Dyas  forma- 
tion above,  named  from  the  quantities 
of  coal,  shale,  and  other  carbonaceous 
matter  contained  in  them.  They  in- 


clude the  coal  measures,  millstone  grit, 
and  mountain  limestone,  the  first  being 
uppermost  and  containing  the  chief 
coal-fields  that  are  worked.  Iron-ore, 
limestone,  clay,  and  building-stone  are 
also  yielded  abundantly  by  the  car- 
boniferous strata  which  are  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  often  covering 
large  areas.  As  coal  consists  essentially 
of  metamorphosed  vegetable  matter, 
fossil  plants  are  very  numerous  in  the 
carboniferous  rocks,  more  than  1500 
species  of  them  having  been  named,  a 
large  proportion  of  whch  are  ferns,  tree 
lycopods,  and  large  horse-tail-like  plants. 
The  animals  include  insects,  scorpions, 
amphibians,  numerous  corals,  crinoids, 
molluscs,  cephalopods,  sharks,  and  other 
fishes. 

CARBON  POINTS,  in  electric  lighting, 
two  pieces  of  very  hard,  compact  car- 
bon, between  which  the  electric  current 
is  broken,  so  that  the  resistance  which 
they  offer  to  the  passage  of  the  current 
produces  a light  of  extraordinary 
brilliancy. 

CARBUN'CLE,  a beautiful  gem  of  a 
deep  red  color  with  a mixture  of  scarlet, 
found  in  the  East  Indies.  When  held 
up  to  the  sun  it  loses  its  deep  tinge,  and 
becomes  exactly  of  the  color  of  a burn- 
ing coal.  The  carbuncle  of  the  ancients 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a garnet. 

CARBUN'CLE,  in  surgery,  an  in- 
flammation of  the  true  skin  and  tissue 
beneath  it  akin  to  that  occurring  in  boils. 
It  is  more  extensive  than  the  latter,  and 
instead  of  one  has  several  cores.  It  is 
associated  with  a bad  state  of  general 
health,  from  which  condition  its  danger 
arises,  for  it  may  threaten  life  by  ex- 
haustion or  blood  poisoning.  With 
regard  to  the  local  treatment,  the  prin- 
cipal thing  to  be  done  is  to  make  a free 
incision  into  the  tumor;  as  much  of  the 
contents  as  possible  should  then  be 
pressed  out,  and  a poultice  applied.  The 
patient’s  strength  should  be  supported 
by  nourishing  and  easily-digested  food, 
and  tonics  and  cordials  should  be  ad- 
ministered. 

CAR'BURETTED  HYDROGEN,  the 

name  given  to  two  compounds  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  one  known  as  light  car— 
buretted  hydrogen,  and  the  other  as 
olefiant  gas.  The  former  is  the  com- 
pound which  occurs  in  coal-mines  (fire- 
damp) and  about  the  neighborhood  of 
stagnant  pools.  Mixed  with  atmos- 
pheric air  from  7 to  14  times  that  of  the 
gas  it  explodes  The  latter  is  obtained 
from  distilling  coal  or  fat  substances  in 
close  vessels.  It  explodes  when  mixed 
with  ten  or  twelve  volumes  of  atmos- 
pheric air. 

CARD,  an  instrument  for  combing, 
opening,  and  breaking  wool,  flax,  etc., 
freeing  it  from  the  coarser  parts  and 
from  extraneous  matter.  It  is  made  by 
inserting  bent  teeth  of  wire  in  a thick 
piece  of  leather,  and  nailing  this  to  a 
piece  of  oblong  board  to  which  a handle 
is  attached.  But  wool  and  cotton  are 
now  generally  carded  in  mills  by  teeth 
fixed  on  a wheel  moved  by  machinery. 

CARD,  an  oblong  piece  of  thick  paper 
or  pasteboard  prepared  for  various  pur- 
poses. (1)  A piece  of  card-board  with 
one’s  name  written  or  printed  on  it,  used 
in  visiting,  and  generally  for  indicating 
the  name  of  the  person  presenting  it. 


(2)  A piece  of  card-board  on  which  are 
printed  certain  colored  devices  or  figures 
forming  one  of  a pack,  and  used  in  play- 
ing games.  A modern  pack  of  playing- 
cards  numbers  fifty-two,  and  consists 
of  four  suits,  two  red  (hearts  and  dia- 
monds), and  two  black  (spades  and 
clubs),  each  suit  comprising  thirteen 
cards — three  picture-cards  (court-cards), 
the  king,  queen,  and  knave;  and  ten 
other  cards  numbered  from  one,  the  ace, 
to  ten,  according  to  the  pips  or  marks 
belonging  to  the  respective  suits  printed 
on  them. 

CAR'DAMOMS,  the  aromatic  cap- 
sules of  different  species  of  plants  em- 
ployed in  medicine  as  well  as  an  in* 
^redient  in  sauces  and  curries. 

CARD'BOARD,  a kind  of  stiff  paper 
or  paste-board  for  cards,  etc.,  usually 
made  by  sticking  together  several  sheets 
of  paper. 

CARDIAC  MEDICINES,  medicines 
which  act  upon  the  heart. 

CAR'DIFF,  a municipal,  county,  and 
pari,  borough  and  seaport,  the  county 
town  of  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Taff  on  the  estuary 
of  the  Severn.  Iron  ship-building  is 
carried  on,  and  there  are  iron  and  other 
works  on  a large  scale  Among  the  chief 
buildings  are  the  county  buildings, 
town-hall,  infirmary,  university  college 
(for  S.  Wales  and  Monmouthshire), 
law  courts,  free  library  and  museum, 
etc.  The  docks  are  extensive  and  well 
constructed.  There  is  here  a castle 
which  dates  from  1080.  It  is  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  and  has 
been  modernized  and  part  of  it  con- 
verted into  a residence.  Pop.  164,420. 

CAR'DIGAN,  the  county  town  of  Car- 
diganshire, S.  Wales,  on  the  river  Teifi, 
about  3 miles  from  its  mouth  in  Cardigan 
Bay.  The  salmon  fishery  is  extensively 
carried  on.  Pop.  3511. — The  county  of 
Cardigan  has  an  area  of  443,387  acres,  of 
which  two -thirds  is  under  crops  or  pas- 
ture. Pop.  60,237. 

CAR'DINAL,  an  ecclesiastical  prince 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  who  has 
a voice  in  the  conclave  at  the  election  of 
a pope,  the  popes  being  taken  from  the 
cardinals.  The  cardinals  are  appointed 
by  the  pope,  and  are  divided  into  three 


Cardinal's  hat. 

classes  or  orders,  comprising  six  bishops, 
fifty  priests,  anci  fourteen  deacons, 
making  seventy  at  most.  These  con- 
stitute the  Sacred  College  and  compose 
the  pope’s  council.  Originally  they 
were  subordinate  in  rank  to  bishops; 
but  they  now  have  the  precedence.  The 
chief  symbol  of  the  dignity  of  cardinal 
is  a low-crowned,  broad-brimmed  red 
hat,  with  two  cords  depending  from  it, 
one  from  either  side,  each  having  fifteen 
tassels  at  its  extremity.  Other  insignia 


CARDIXAL  BIRD 


CARLOS  1)E  BOURBON 


are  a red  biretta,  a purple  cassock,  a 
sapphire  ring,  etc. 

CARDINAL  BIRD,  a North  American 
bird  of  the  finch  family,  with  a fine  red 
plumage,  and  a crest  on  the  head.  Its 
song  resembles  that  of  the  nightingale, 
hence  one  of  its  common  names,  Vir- 
ginian Nightingale.  In  size  it  is  about 
equal  to  the  starling.  Called  also  Scarlet 
Grosbeak  or  Cardinal  Grosbeak  and  Red- 
bird. 

CARDINAL-FLOWER,  the  name  com- 
monly given,  becau.se  of  its  large,  very 
showy,  and  intensely  red  flowers;  it  is  a 
native  of  North  America. 

CARDINAL  POINTS,  the  n.,  s.,  e.,  and 
w.  points  of  the  horizon ; the  four  inter- 
sections of  the  horizon  with  the  meridian 
and  the  prime  vertical  circle. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES,  or  PRINCIPAL 
VIRTUES,  in  morals,  a name  applied  to 
justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and  forti- 
tude. 

CARDING,  the  process  wool,  cotton, 
flax,  etc.,  undergo  previous  to  spinning, 
to  lay  the  fibers  all  in  one  direction,  and 
remove  all  foreign  substances.  See  Card. 

CARDI'TIS,  inflammation  of  the  heart 
substance.  Inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  is  endocarditis,  of  the  ex- 
ternal membrane  pericarditis.  See 
Heart. 

CARDS,  PLAYING.  See  Card. 

CA'REY,  Henry,  a composer,  dram- 
atist, and  poet,  born  at  London  in  1696. 
He  composed  the  words  and  music  of 
many  popular  songs,  including  Sally 
in  Our  Alley,  God  Save  the  King,  etc. 
He  also  wrote  farces  and  other  works. 
He  is  said  to  have  committed  suicide, 
1743. 

CAREY,  Henry  Charles,  American 
economist,  born  in  Philadelphia  1793, 
died  1<S79.  In  that  year  he  published  an 
essay  on  the  Rate  of  Wages,  vdiich  he 
afterward  expanded  into  Principles  of 


William  Carey. 

Political  Economy.  His  other  im- 
portant works  are  The  Credit  System, 
The  Past,  the  Present,  and  the  Future, 
j’he  Principles  of  Social  Science,  etc. 
Originally  a free-trader  he  became  an 
advocate  for  protection;  held  that  the 
growth  of  populationwas  self-regulating; 
and  was  opposed  to  the  theories  of 
Ricardo  and  others  on  the  law  of  dimin- 
ished returns  from  the  soil  and  on  rent. 
He  was  also  opposed  to  any  arrange- 
ment on  the  subject  of  international 
copyright. 

CAREY,  William,  D.D.,  an  English 
oriental  scholar  and  Christian  mis- 


sionary, born  in  1761,  died  at  Serampore 
1834.  In  1793  he  sailed  for  the  East 
Indies  as  a Baptist  missionary,  and  in 
1800,  in  conjunction  with  Marshman, 
Ward,  and  others,  he  founded  the  mis- 
sionary college  at  Serampore.  Here  he 
had  a printing-press,  and  issued  various 
translations  of  the  Scriptures.  His 
first  work  was  a Bengali  Grammar. 
Under  his  direction  the  whole  Bible  was 
translated  into  six,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  twenty-one  Hindustani  dia- 
lects. He  was  long  professor  of  San- 
skrit, Mahratta,  and  Bengali,  in  Cal- 
cutta. 

CARGO,  the  goods  or  merchandise 
carried  by  a trading  vessel  from  one 
place  to  another.  When  part  of  the 
cargo  is  on  deck  it  is  called  the  deck 
cargo,  as  distinguished  from  the  inboard 
cargo. 

CARTACOU,  the  Virginian  deer, 
found  in  all  parts  of  North  America 
up  to  43°  n.  lat.  It  is  smaller  than  the 
common  stag,  and  its  color  varies  with 
the  season.  In  spring  it  is  reddish- 
brown,  in  autumn  slaty-blue,  and  in 
winter  dull-brown.  Written  also  Car- 
jacou. 

CARIBBE'AN  SEA,  that  portion  Of 
the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  lying  between 
the  coasts  of  Central  and  South  America, 
and  the  West  India  Islands.  It  com- 
municates with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
the  Yucatan  Channel. 

CARTBBEES,  or  LESSER  ANTILLES, 
usually  divided  into  the  Windward  and 
Leeward  Islands,  a section  of  the  West 
India  Islands. 

CAR'IBOU,  the  name  of  two  American 
species  of  reindeer,  sometimes  regarded 
as  specifically  identical  with  the  Old 
World  reindeer.  They  have  never  been 
brought  under  the  sway  of  man,  but  are 
a great  object  of  chase  for  the  sake  of 
their  flesh.  The  woodland  caribou  most 
nearly  resembles  the  common  reindeer. 
It  is  found  over  considerable  tracts  of 
Canada,  as  also  in  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  and  is  migratory  in  its  habits. 
The  Barren  Ground  caribou  is  much 
smaller,  but  has  larger  horns.  It  in- 
habits the  Barren  Grounds  northwest  of 
Hudson  Bay,  and  also  extends  into 
Greenland.  It  executes  considerable 
migrations,  going  north  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  summer,  and  returning  in 
autumn. 

CAR'IBS,  the  original  inhabitants  of 
the  W.  Indian  Islands,  and,  when  Euro- 
peans became  acquainted  with  Amer- 
ica, also  found  in  certain  portions  of 
Central  America  and  the  north  of  South 
America.  At  present  only  a few  remain 
on  Trinidad,  Dominica,  and  St.  Vincent. 

CAR'ICA.  See  Papaw. 

CAR'ICATURE,  a representation  of 
the  qualities  and  peculiarities  of  an  ob- 
ject, but  in  such  a way  that  beauties  are 
concealed  and  peculiarities  or  defects 
exaggerated,  so  as  to  make  the  person  or 
thing  ridiculous,  while  a general  likeness 
is  retained.  Though  a degenerate,  it  is 
one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  art.  Egyptian 
art  has  numerous  specimens  of  carica- 
ture, and  it  has  an  important  place  in 
Greek  and  Roman  art.  It  flourished  in 
every  European  nation  during  the 
middle  ages,  and  in  the  present  day  it  is 
a chief  feature  in  the  comic  and  also 
in  the  leading  daily  journals. 


CA'RIES  (ka'ri-ez),  a disease  of  bone 
analogous  to  ulceration  in  soft  tissues. 
The  bone  breaks  down,  or  may  be  said 
to  melt  down  into  unhealthy  matter, 
which  works  its  way  to  the  surface  and 
bursts.  Excision  of  the  carious  portion 
of  the  bone  is  often  effected  with  good  re- 
sults, but  the  disease  often  results  in 
death.  Caries  of  the  teeth  is  decay  of 
the  dentine  or  body  of  the  tooth. 

CARINTHTA,  a western  duchy  or 
province  of  Austria,  on  the  borders  of 
Italy;  area,  4006  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
367,344. 

CARLETON,  Will,  an  American  poet, 
born  in  Michigan  in  1845.  His  first 
volume  of  poems  appeared  in  1871. 
Farm  Ballads  appeared  in  1873,  Farm 
Legends  in  1875,  Young  Folks  Centen- 
nial Rhymes  in  1876,  Farm  Festivals  in 
1881,  City  Ballads  in  1885,  City  Festi- 
vals in  1892,  and  Rhymes  of  Our  Planet 
in  1895.  Carlton’s  best  vein  is  domestic 
verses. 

CARLISLE  (kar-llF),  a parliamentary 
and  municipal  borough  of  England, 
county  town  of  Cumberland.  Sacked 
by  the  Danes,  it  was  rebuilt  by  William 
Rufus.  It  was  held  by  the  Scots  during 
their  tenure  of  Cumberland,  and  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary’s  was  founded  by 
David  I.,  who  died  here.  During  the 
border  wars  Carlisle  underwent  many 
sieges.  It  surrendered  to  Charles  Ed- 
ward in  1745.  It  is  a bishop’s  see.  The 
cathedral,  begun  in  the  reign  of  William 
Rufus,  was  partly  destroyed  by  Crom- 
well in  1648.  Carlisle  is  the  seat  of  vari- 
ous manufactures,  of  which  cotton  is 
the  principal.  Pop.  45,478. 

CARLISLE,  a town,  in  Pennsylvania, 
1 14  miles  w.  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Dickinson  Methodist  College,  founded 
in  1783.  Pop.  11,526. 

CARLISLE,  John  Griffin,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  lawyer,  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1835,  and  speaker  of  the 
national  house  of  representatives  from 
1883  to  1889.  In  1890  be  became 
United  States  Senator  and  was  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  in  the  second  cabinet 
of  Cleveland. 

CAR'LISTS,  the  name  given  to  the 
followers  of  Don  Carlos  of  Bourbon  and 
his  descendants.  See  Carlos  de  Bourbon. 

CARLOS',  Don,  Infant  of  Spain,  son 
of  Philip  II.,  born  1545,  died  1568.  He 
was  deformed  in  person,  of  a violent 
and  vindictive  disposition.  He  was 
presumably  murdered,  but  of  this 
there  is  no  proof.  The  story  of  Don 
Carlos  has  furnished  the  subject  of 
several  tragedies,  viz.,  by  Otway  (Eng- 
lish), Schiller  (German),  and  Alfieri 
(Italian). 

CARLOS  DE  BOURBON,  Don  Maria 
I.sidor,  the  second  son  of  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain  and  brother  of  Ferdinand  VII., 
born  1788,  died  1855.  He  was  heir  pre- 
sumptive to  the  throne  until  the  birth  of 
Maria  Isabella  in  1830.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother  he  claimed  the  throne  as 
legitimate  king  of  Spain,  and  was  recog- 
nized as  such  by  a considerable  party, 
who  excited  a civil  war  in  his  favor,  and 
thenceforward  were  designated  by  the 
title  of  Carlists.  After  a course  of 
hostilities  he  found  himself  obliged  in 
1839  to  take  shelter  in  France.  In  the 
meantime  he  and  his  descendants  had 
been  formally  excluded  from  the  sue- 


CARLOTTA 


CARMELITRS 


Cession  by  a vote  of  the  Cortes  in  1836. 
In  1845  he  resigned  his  claims  in  favor  of 
his  eldest  son,  and  in  1847  was  permitted 
to  take  up  his  abode  in  Trieste,  where 
he  died.  His  eldest  son,  Don  Carlos 
(1818-61),  married  Maria  Carolina  Ferdi- 
nanda,  a sister  of  Ferdinand  II.,  king 
of  Naples.  His  nephew,  Don  Carlos, 
duke  of  Madrid,  born  1848,  is  the  pres- 
ent representative  of  the  Carlists.  He 
married  the  sister  of  the  late  Count  of 
Chambord.  In  1873  he  instigated  a 
rising  in  the  north  of  Spain,  and  con- 
tinued the  struggle  till  after  Alfonso 
XII.  came  to  the  throne,  when  he  was 
defeated  and  withdrew.  See  Spain. 

CARLOTTA,  Empress,  the  daughter 
of  King  Leopold  I.  of  Belgium  and  wife 
of  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  emperor 
of  Mexico.  She  was  born  in  1840, 
accompanied  her  husband  to  Mexico 
in  1864,  but  the  disasters  which  over- 
took her  husband  affected  her  mind,  and 
she  has  lived  in  retirement  in  Belgium. 

CARLOVIN'GIANS,  the  second  dy- 
nasty of  the  French  or  Frankish  kings, 
which  supplanted  the  Merovingians, 
deriving  the  name  from  Charles  Martel 
or  his  grandson  Charlemagne  (that  is, 
Karl  or  Charles  the  Great).  Charles 
Martel  (715-741)  and  his  son  Pepin  (741- 
768)  were  succeeded  by  Charlemagne 
and  his  brother  Carloman  (768-771). 
Charlemagne  became  sole  king  in  771, 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  Empire  of  the 
West  by  his  son  Louis  le  Debonnaire  814. 
He  divided  his  empire  among  his  sons, 
and  at  his  death  (840)  his  son  Charles 
the  Bald  became  king  of  France.  He 
died  in  877,  and  was  succeeded  by  a 
number  of  feeble  princes.  The  dynasty 
came  to  an  end  with  Louis  V.,  who  died 
in  987. 

CARLSBAD  (karls'bat),  a town  of 
Bohemia,  famous  for  its  hot  mineral 
springs,  and  much  frequented  by  visitors 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  being  useful 
in  diabetes,  gout,  biliary  diseases,  etc. 
Permanent  pop.  about  15,000. 

CARLSRUHE  (karls'ro),  the  capital 
of  the  Grand-duchy  of  Baden,  3 miles 
from  the  Rhine,  laid  out  in  1715,  one 
of  the  most  regularly  - built  towns  in 
Europe.  The  castle  of  the  grand-duke 
stands  as  a center,  and  from  this  point  a 
number  of  streets  radiate  at  regular  dis- 
tances, thus  forming  a kind  of  fan. 
There  are  many  handsome  edifices. 
The  court  library  contains  100,000 
volumes;  there  are  also  a large  public 
library,  several  valuable  museums  and 
art  collections,  a botanic  garden,  poly- 
technic school,  etc.  The  industries  are 
active  and  varied.  Pop.  97,164. 

CARLYLE,  Thomas,  one  of  the  great- 
est English  writers  of  the  19th  century, 
born  4th  December,  1795,  at  Ecclefe- 
chan,  Dumfriesshire;  died  at  Chelsea, 
Feb.  5th,  1881.  He  was  the  eldest  son 
of  James  Carlyle,  a mason,  afterward 
a farmer,  and  was  intended  for  the 
church,  with  which  object  he  was  care- 
fully educated  at  the  parish  school  and 
afterward  at  the  burgh  school  of 
Annan.  In  his  fifteenth  year  (in  1810) 
he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, wliere  he  developed  a strong 
taste  for  mathematics.  Having  re- 
nounced the  idea  of  becoming  a minister 
after  finishing  his  curriculum  (in  1814), 
he  became  a teacher  for  about  four  years. 


first  at  Annan,  afterwards  at  Kirkcaldy. 
In  1818  he  removed  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  supported  himself  by  literary 
work,  devoted  much  time  to  the  study 
of  German,  and  went  through  a varied 
and  extensive  course  of  reading  in 
history,  poetry,  romance,  and  other 
fields.  His  first  literary  productions 
were  short  biographies  and  other  articles 
for  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia.  His 
career  as  an  author  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  with  the  issue  in  monthly  por- 
tions of  his  Life  of  Sehiller  in  1823,  this 
work  being  enlarged  and  published 


Thomas  Carlyle. 


separately  in  1825.  In  1824  he  pub- 
lished a translation  of  Legendre’s 
Geometry,  with  an  essay  on  proportion 
by  himself  prefixed.  The  same  year 
appeared  his  translation  of  Goethe’s 
Wilhelm  Meister’s  Apprenticeship.  He 
was  next  engaged  in  translating  speci- 
mens of  the  German  romance  writers; 
published  in  4 vols.  in  1827.  In  1826 
he  married  Miss  Jane  Bailie  Welsh, 
daughter  of  a doctor  at  Haddington,  and 
a lineal  descendant  of  John  Knox.  After 
his  marriage  he  resided  for  a time  in 
Edinburgh,  and  then  withdrew  to 
Craigenputtock,  a farm  in  Dumfriesshire 
belonging  to  his  wife,  about  15  miles 
from  the  town  of  Dumfries.  Here  he 
wrote  a number  of  eritical  and  bio- 
graphical articles  for  various  periodicals ; 
and  here  was  written  Sartor  Resartus, 
the  most  original  of  his  works.  The 
publication  of  Sartor  soon  made  Carlyle 
famous,  and  on  his  removal  to  London 
early  in  1834  he  became  a prominent 
member  of  a brilliant  literary  circle 
embracing  John  Stuart  Mill,  Leigh 
Hunt,  John  Sterling,  Julius  Charles 
and  Augustus  William  Hare,  F.  D. 
Maurice,  etc.  He  fixed  his  abode  at 
Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  where  his  life 
henceforth  was  mainly  spent.  His  next 
work  of  importance  was  on  the  French 
Revolution,  published  in  1837.  About 
this  time,  and  on  one  or  two  subsequent 
years,  he  delivered  several  series  of 
lectures,  the  most  important  of  these, 
On  Heroes  and  Hero-worship,  being 
published  in  1840.  Chartism,  published 
in  1839,  and  Past  and  Present,  in  1843, 
were  small  works  bearing  more  or  less 
on  the  affairs  of  the  time.  In  1845 
appeared  his  Oliver  Cromwell’s  Letters 
and  Speeches,  with  Elucidations,  a 


work  of  great  research,  and  brilliantly 
successful  in  vindicating  the  character 
of  the  great  Protector.  In  1850  came 
out  his  Latter-day  Pamphlets.  This 
work  was  very  repulsive  to  many  from 
the  exaggeration  of  its  language  and 
its  advocacy  of  harsh  and  coercive  meas- 
ures. He  next  wrote  a life  of  his  friend 
John  Sterling,  published  in  1851,  and 
regarded  as  a finished  and  artistic  per- 
formance. The  largest  and  most  labori- 
ous work  of  his  life,  The  History  of 
Friedrich  II.  of  Prussia,  called  Frederick 
the  Great,  next  appeared,  the  first  two 
volumes  in  1858,  the  second  two  in  1862, 
and  the  last  two  in  1865,  and  after  this 
time  little  came  from  his  pen.  In  1866, 
having  been  eleeted  Lord  Rector  of 
Edinburgh  University,  he  delivered 
an  installation  address  to  the  students 
On  the  Choice  of  Books.  He  had  ap- 
pointed James  Anthony  Froude  his 
literary  executor,  who,  in  conformity 
with  his  trust,  published  Reminiscences 
of  Thomas  Carl3de,  1881;  Thomas 
Carlyle;  the  First  Forty  Years  of  his 
Life,  1882;  Letters  of  Jane  Welsh 
Carlyle,  1883;  and  Thomas  Carljde: 
Life  in  London,  1884.  The  character  of 
Carlyle  presented  in  these  volumes  gave 
an  unexpected  shock  to  the  public,  and 
a bitter  controversy  has  raged  regarding 
Froude’s  conduct  in  the  matter. 

CARMARTHEN,  or  CAERMAR'- 
THEN,  a maritime  county,  S.  Wales, 
the  largest  of  the  Welsh  counties;  area, 
594,405  acres,  of  which  about  440,000 
are  under  tillage  or  permanent  pasture. 
Pop.  135,325. — Carmarthen,  the  county 
town,  is  situated  9 miles  from  the  sea, 
on  the  Towy,  which  is  navigable  to  its 
outlet  in  Carmarthen  Bay.  Pop.  9935. 

CAR'MELITES,  mendicant  friars  of 
the  order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel. 
From  probably  the  4th  century  holj 


Carmelite. 


men  took  up  their  abode  as  hermits  on 
Mount  Carmel,  in  Syria,  but  it  was  not 
till  about  the  year  1150  that  pilgrims 
established  an  association  for  the  pur* 


CARMINATIVES 


CARP 


pose  of  leading  a secluded  life  on  this 
mountain,  and  so  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  order.  Being  driven  by  the 
Saracens  to  Europe  in  1247  they  adopted 
all  the  forms  of  monastic  life  and  a some- 
what milder  rule.  In  lime  they  became 
divided  into  several  branches,  one  of 
them  distinguished  by  walking  bare- 
footed. They  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  The  habit 
of  the  order  is  of  a dark-brown  color,  and 
over  it  when  out  of  doors  they  wear  a 
white  cloak,  with  a hood  to  cover  the 
head. 

CAR'MINATIVES,  medicines  ob- 
tained chiefly  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  used  as  remedies  for  flatulence 
and  spasmodic  pains. 

CAR'MINE,  the  fine  red  coloring 
matter  or  principle  of  cochineal,  from 
which  it  is  prepared  in  several  ways. 
It  is  used  to  some  extent  in  dyeing,  in 
water-color  painting,  to  color  artificial 
flowers,  confectionery,  etc. 

CARNA'RIA.  Same  as  Carnivora. 

CARNAR'VON  or  CAERNARVON,  a 
maritime  county  of  N.  Wales,  forming 
the  n.w.  extremity  of  the  mainland; 
area,  369,477  acres.  Although  the  most 
mountainous  county  in  Wales  there  are 
many  tracts  of  low  and  fertile  land,  but 
the  arable  area  is  small.  Pop.  126,835. 
— Carnarvon,  the  county  town,  is  a 
seaport  and  parliamentary  borough  on 
the  s.e.  side  of  the  Menai  Strait.  The 
magnificent  castle  or  palace  of  Edward 
I.,  and  in  which  Edward  II.  was  born, 
stands  at  the  w.  end  of  the  town,  and 
is  still  externally  entire.  Pop.  9760. 

CARNATION,  the  popular  name  of 
varieties  of  the  clove-pink.  The  carna- 
tions of  the  florists  are  much  prized  for 
the  beautiful  colors  of  their  sweet- 


Carnation. 


scented  double  flowers.  They  are 
arranged  into  three  classes  according 
to  color,  viz.;  bizarres,  flakes,  and 
picotees. 

CARNEGIE,  Andrew,  an  American 
philanthropist  and  steel  manufacturer, 
born  in  Dumferline,  Scotland,  in  1837. 
He  removed  to  the  U.  States  as  a boy 
and  early  became  associated  with  the 
iron  industry  at  Pittsburg.  In  1868 
he  introduced  the  Bessemer  process  into 
this  country  and  retired  from  active 
business  life  in  1901  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion. He  has  given  upward  of  $40,000,- 
000  in  donations  to  education. 

CARNEGIE  HERO  FUND,  a fund  of 
$5,000,000  for  the  benefit  of  “the  de- 


pendents of  those  losing  their  lives  in 
heroic  effort  to  save  their  fellow  men,  or 
for  the  heroes  themselves  if  injured 
only,"  created  by  Andrew  Carnegie  in 
1904.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
medals  to  be  given  in  commemoration 
of  heroic  acts.  The  endowment  known 
as  “The  Hero  Fund”  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a commission  composed  of 
twenty  persons,  residents  of  Pittsburg, 
Pa.  The  first  awards  were  made  by  the 
commission  in  May,  1905.  Nine  persons 
were  awarded  medals  for  brave  acts,  six 
of  them  receiving  bronze  medals,  and 
three  silver  medals.  To  three  widows 
who  lost  their  husbands  while  the  latter 
were  performing  acts  of  bravery  money 
was  given. 

CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION,  a founda- 
tion of  Andrew  Carnegie  for  scientific 
research,  with  the  co-operation  of  uni- 
versities and  other  institutions.  The 
institute  was  incorporated  on  Jan.  4, 
1902,  with  a fund  of  $10,000,000.  It 
is  administered  by  27  trustees,  one  of 
them  being  the  president  of  the  U. 
States  (ex  officio).  The  purpose  of  the 
foundation  is  to  encourage  research  in 
all  departments  of  science  and  to  pay 
the  expenses  of  workers  while  devoting 
themselves  to  the  work.  The  office  of 
the  institute  is  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

CARNIO'LA,  a duchy  or  province  of 
Austria,  bounded  by  Carinthia,  Styria, 
Croatia,  and  Italy;  area,  3856  sq.  miles. 
There  are  iron,-  lead,  and  quicksilver 
mines,  and  abundance  of  coal,  marble, 
and  valuable  stone.  Pop.  508,348.  The 
capital  is  Laibach. 

CAR'NIVAL,  the  feast  or  season  of 
rejoicing  before  Lent,  observed  in  Catho- 
lic countries  with  much  revelry  and 
merriment. 

CARNIV'ORA,  a term  applicable  to 
any  creatures  that  feed  on  flesh  or 
animal  substances,  but  now  applied 
specially  to  an  order  of  mammals  which 
prey  upon  other  animals.  The  head  is 
small,  the  jaws  powerful,  and  the  skin 
is  well  covered  with  hair.  -Two  sets  of 
teeth,  deciduous  or  milk  and  permanent, 
are  always  developed  in  succession,  and 
in  both  sets  incisors,  canines,  and  molars 
are  ditinguishable.  The  stomach  is 
simple  and  the  alimentary  canal  short, 
thus  making  the  body  as  light  and 
slender  as  possible  for  the  purpose  of 
hunting  and  springing  on  its  prey. 
The  muscular  activity  of  the  Carnivora 
is  very  great,  their  respiration  and  cir- 
culation very  active,  and  their  demand 
for  food  is  consequently  constant.  Car- 
nivora comprise  the  bears,  badgers,  rac- 
coons, lions,  tigers,  cats,  dogs,  Seals  and 
walruses. 

CARNOT  (kar-no),  Lazare  Nicolas 
Marguerite,  a French  statesman,  general, 
and  strategist,  was  born  in  1753,  and 
died  in  1823.  When  the  revolution 
broke  out  he  was  captain  in  the  corps 
of  engineers.  In  1791  he  was  appointed 
deputy  to  the  constituent  assembly. 
In  the  following  March  he  was  sent  to 
the  Army  of  the  North,  where  he  took 
command,  and  successfully  repulsed  the 
enemy.  On  his  return  he  was  made 
member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  directed  and  organized  the 
French  armies  with  great  ability  and 
success.  In  1797  Carnot,  having  un- 
successfully opposed  Barras,  had  to 


escape  to  Germany,  but  returned,  and 
was  appointed  minister  of  war  by 
Napoleon  (1800).  In  1814  Napoleon 
gave  him  the  chief  command  at  Ant- 
werp, and  in  1815  the  post  of  minister 
of  the  interior.  After  the  emperor’s 
second  fall  he  retired  from  France.  A 
grandson  of  his,  Marie  Frangois  Sadi, 
born  in  1837,  was  elected  president  of 
the  French  republic  in  1887,  and  assas- 
sinated in  1894. 

CAR'OL,  a song,  especially  one  ex- 
pressive of  joy.  It  often  signifies, 
specifically,  a religious  song  or  ballad 
in  celebration  of  Christmas. 

CAROLI'NA,  North.  (See  North 
Carolina.) 

CAROLI'NA,  South.  (See  South 
Carolina.) 

CAROLINA-PINK,  a name  given  to 
a N.  American  plant  bearing  scarlet 
flowers,  and  having  a root  used  as  a 
vermifuge. 

CAROLINE,  British  queen,  was  a 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel,  bojn  May  17,  1768.  In 
1795  she  was  married  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  George  IV.  The 
marriage  was  not  to  his  liking,  and  after 
the  birth  of  the  Princess  Charlotte  he 
separated  from  her.  She  died  7th  Aug. 
1821. 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS,  or  NEW 
PHILIPPINES,  a large  archipelago. 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  between  lat.  3° 
and  12°  n.  and  Ion.  132°  and  163°  6'  e., 
and  between  the  Philippines  and  the 
Marshall  Isles,  first  discovered  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1543,  if  not  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1525.  Many  of  the  islands  are 
mere  coral  reefs  little  elevated  above 
the  ocean.  The  islands  were  long  in  the 
possession  of  Spain,  but  in  1899,  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  between  that 
power  and  the  U.  States,  they  were  sold 
to  Germany. 

CARO'TID  ARTERIES,  the  two  great 
arteries  which  convey  the  blood  from 
the  aorta  to  the  head  and  the  brain. 
The  common  carotids,  one  on  either  side 
of  the  neck,  divide  each  into  an  external 
and  an  internal  branch.  The  external 
carotid  passes  up  to  the  level  of  the 
angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  where  it  ends  in 
branches  to  the  neck,  face,  and  outer 
parts  of  the  head.  The  internal  carotid 
passes  deeply  into  the  neck,  and  through 
an  opening  in  the  skull  behind  the  ear 
enters  the  brain,  supplying  it  and  the 
eye  with  blood.  Wounds  of  the  carotid 
trunks  cause  almost  immediate  death. 

CARP,  a genus  of  soft-finned  abdomi- 
nal fish,  distinguished  by  the  small 
mouth,  toothless  jaws,  and  gills  of  three 
flat  rays.  They  have  but  one  dorsal  fin. 


Carp. 


and  the  scales  are  generally  of  large  size. 
They  frequent  fresh  and  quiet  waters, 
feeding  chiefly  on  vegetable  matters, 
also  on  worms  and  molluscs.  The 
common  carp  is  olive-green  above  and 
yellowish  below,  and  in  many  parts  is 
bred  in  ponds  for  the  use  of  the  table. 
It  sometimes  weighs  many  pounds,  is  of 


CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


CARRIER  PIGEON  ' 

V 


quick  growth,  and  spawns  thrice  a year. 
It  is  said  to  live  to  the  great  age  of  100 
or  even  200  years. 

CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a range 
of  mountains  in  southern  Europe, 
chiefly  in  Austria,  forming  a great  semi- 
circular belt  of  nearly  800  miles  in  length. 
The  Carpathian  range  is  rich  in  minerals, 
including  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  cop- 
per, and  iron.  Salt  occurs  in  beds, 
which  have  sometimes  a thickness  of 
600  or  700  feet.  On  the  plateaux  corn 
and  fruit  are  grown  to  the  height  of  1500 
feet.  Higher  up  the  mountain  steeps 
are  covered  with  forests  of  pine.  There 
is  much  remarkable  scenery. 

CARPENTER-BEE,  the  common 
name  of  the  different  species  of  insects 
numerous  in  Asia,-  Africa,  and  America, 
and  one  species  inhabits  the  south  of 


Carpenter-bee,  half  the  natural  size. 

1,  A piece  of  wood  bored  by  the  bee,  and  grubs 
and  food  deposited  in  the  cells.  2,  Two  of  the 
cells  drawn  larger  to  show  the  partitions. 

Europe.  They  are  generally  of  a dark 
violet-blue,  and  of  considerable  size. 
They  usually  form  their  nests  in  pieces  of 
half-rotten  W'ood,  cutting  out  various 
apartments  for  depositing  their  eggs. 

CAR'PENTRY  is  the  art  of  combining 
pieces  of  timber  to  support  a weight  or 
sustain  pressure.  The  work  of  the  car- 
penter is  intended  to  give  stability  to  a 
structure,  that  of  the  joiner  is  applied  to 
finishing  and  decoration.  An  explana- 
tion of  some  of  the  terms  employed  in 
carpentry  may  be  useful.  The  term 
frame  is  applied  to  any  assemblage  of 
pieces  of  timber  firmly  connected  to- 
gether. The  points  of  meeting  of  the 
pieces  of  timber  in  a frame  are  called 
joints.  Lengthening  a beam  is  uniting 
pieces  of  timber  into  one  length  by 
joining  their  extremities.  When  neat- 
ness is  not  required  this  is  done  by  fish- 
ing, that  is,  placing  a piece  of  timber 
on  each  side  of  where  the  beams  meet 
and  securing  it  by  bolts  passed  through 
the  W'hole.  When  the  width  of  the 
beam  must  be  kept  the  same  through- 
out scarfing  is  employed.  This  is  cut- 
ting from  each  beam  a part  of  the 
thickness  of  the  timber,  and  on  op- 
posite sides,  so  that  the  pieces  may  be 
jointed  together  and  bolted  or  hooped. 
When  greater  strength  is  required  than 
can  be  produced  by  a single  beam  build- 
ing and  trussing  beams  are  resorted  to. 
Building  beams  is  combining  two  or 
more  beams  in  depth  so  as  to  have  the 
effect  of  one.  In  trussing  the  beam  is 
cut  in  two  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
and  supported  with  cross-beams,  as  in 
roofing.  Mortise  and  tenon  is  a mode 
of  jointing  timber.  An  excavation 
called  the  mortise  is  made  in  one  piece. 


and  a projecting  tongue  to  fit  it  called 
the  tenon  in  the  other.  The  timber 
framework  of  floors  is  called  naked 
flooring,  and  is  single  if  there  be  but  a 
single  series  of  joists,  double  if  there  are 
cross-binding  joists,  and  framed  if  there 
are  girders  or  beams  in  addition  to  the 
joists.  The  roof  is  the  framework  by 
which  the  covering  of  a building  is  sup- 
ported. It  may  consist  of  a series  of 
sloping  pieces  of  timber,  with  one  end 
resting  on  one  wall  and  the  other  end 
meeting  in  a point  with  a corresponding 
piece  resting  on  the  opposite  wall:  these 
are  called  rafters.  There  is  usually  a 
third  piece  which  connects  the  lower 
extremities  of  the  rafters  and  prevents 
them  from  spreading.  This  is  called  a 
tie,  and  the  whole  frame  a couple.  The 
principal  instruments  used  in  carpentry 
are  saws,  as  the  circular-,  band-,  and 
tenon-saws;  planes,  as  the  jack-plane, 
smoothing-plane,  moulding-plane,  etc.; 
chisels,  gouges,  brad-awls,  gimlets,  etc. 

CARPET,  a thick  fabric,  generally 
composed  wholly  or  principally  of  wool, 
for  covering  the  floors  of  apartments, 
staircases,  and  passages  in  the  interior 
of  a house.  The  Persian,  Turkish,  and 
Indian  carpets  are  all  woven  by  hand, 
and  the  design  is  formed  by  knotting 
into  the  warp  tufts  of  woolen  threads 
of  the  proper  color  one  after  the  other. 
The  Brussels  carpet  is  a common  and 
highly-esteemed  variety.  It  is  com- 
posed of  linen  thread  and  W’orsted,  the 
latter  forming  the  pattern.  The  linen 
basis  does  not  appear  on  the  surface, 
being  concealed  by  the  worsted,  which 
is  drawn  through  the  reticulations  and 
looped  over  wires  that  are  afterward 
withdrawn,  giving  the  surface  a ribbed 
appearance.  Wilton  carpets  are  similar 
to  Brussels  in  process  of  manufacture, 
but  in  them  the  loops  are  cut  open  by 
using  wires  with  a knife-edge,  and  the 
surface  thus  gets  a pile.  Tapestry  tar- 
pets  also  have  a pile  surface,  the  great 
specialty  of  which  is  that  the  threads 
are  particolored  by  printing  in  the 
proper  manner  for  each  design  before 
being  woven  up.  The  Kidderminster 
or  Scotch  carpet  consists  of  two  distinct 
webs  woven  at  the  same  time  and 
knitted  together  by  the  woof.  The 
pattern  is  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the 
cloth,  but  the  colors  are  reversed.  An 
improvement  upon  this  is  the  three-ply 
carpeting,  made  originally  at  Kilmar- 
nock. The  original  Axminster  carpets 
were  made  on  the  principle  of  the  Per- 
sian or  Turkey  carpets.  Patent  Axmin- 
ster carpets  have  a fine  pile,  which  is 
produced  by  using  chenille  as  the  weft, 
the  projecting  threads  of  which  form 
the  pile,  which  is  dyed  before  being  used. 
Carpets  of  felted  wool,  with  designs 
printed  on  them,  are  also  used,  and  are 
very  cheap.  Cheap  jute  carpets  are  also 
made. 

CARPET-BAGGER,  a needy  political 
adventurer  who  goes  about  the  country 
pandering  to  the  prejudices  of  the 
ignorant  with  the  view  of  getting  into 
place  or  power,  so  called  because  re- 
garded as  having  no  more  property  than 
might  fill  a carpet-bag.  Originally 
applied  to  needy  adventurers  of  the 
northern  states  of  America  wdio  tried  in 
this  way  to  gain  the  votes  of  the  negroes 
of  the  southern  states, 


CARPET-SWEEPER,  a device  con- 
sisting of  a closed  box  from  which  the 
ends  of  a brush  protrude,  used  for 
sweeping  carpets.  The  box  is  on  rollers, 
is  pushed  by  a long  handle,  and  the  dust 
is  swept  into  the  cavity  of  the  box  which 
can  be  opened  and  emptied  at  will. 

CARPUS,  in  anatomy,  the  bones  be- 
tween the  forearm  and  hand,  the  wrist 
in  man,  or  corresponding  part  in  other 
animals. 

CARRACCI  (kar-rach'e),  Ludovico, 
Agostino,  and  Annibale,  the  three 
founders  of  the  .Bologna,  or,  as  it  has 
been  called,  the  eclectic  school  of  paint- 
ing. — Ludovico  was  born  in  1555  at 
Bologna.  He  set  up  a studio  in  Bologna, 
and  established  a school  of  painting 
characterized  particularly  by  its  atten- 
tion to  composition  and  its  principle  of 
eclecticism,  or  endeavor  to  imitate  and 
unite  the  chief  excellencies  of  different 
great  masters,  the  drawing  of  Raphael, 
the  coloring  of  Titian,  etc.  To  assist 
him  Ludovico  had  his  two  younger 
cousins,  Agostino  and  Annibale,  edu- 
cated as  artists;  and  after  the  comple- 
tion of  their  studies  all  three  by  their 
able  work  soon  made  a high  reputation 
for  the  academy  of  the  Carracci  at 
Bologna.  He  died  in  1619. — Agostino 
was  born  in  1558  at  Bologna;  he  died 
at  Parma  in  1601.  He  engraved  more 
pieces  than  he  painted,  though  some  of 
his  pictures  were  admired  by  contem- 
poraries even  more  than  those  of  his 
brother  Annibale. — Annibale  was  born 
in  1560  at  Bologna.  In  1600  he  was 
invited  by  Cardinal  Farnese  to  Rome, 
where  the  influence  of  Raphael  and 
Michael  Angelo’s  work  tempered  the 
characteristics  he  had  acquired  from 
the  Lombard  and  Venetian  schools. 
His  chief  work  is  the  series  of  frescoes 
for  the  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome,  which 
kept  him  eight  years.  He  is  generally 
considered  the  greatest  of  the  Carracci. 
He  died  at  Rome  in  1609. 

CARRA'RA,  a city  of  northern  Italy, 
59  miles  s.w.  of  Modena,  a few  miles 
from  the  coast.  It  is  surrounded  by 
hills  which  contain  fine  white  statuary 
marble,  in  the  preparation  of  which  and 
commoner  sorts  most  of  the  inhabitants 
are  occupied.  Pop.  16,000. — The  Car- 
rara marble  is  the  variety  generally 
employed  by  statuaries.  It  was  for- 
merly supposed  to  be  a primitive  lime- 
stone, but  is  now  considered  an  altered 
limestone  of  the  Oolitic  period.  Al- 
though the  Carrara  quarries  have  been 
worked  for  2000  years,  having  furnished 
the  material  for  the  Pantheon  at  Rome, 
the  supply  is  still  practically  inexhausti- 
ble. They  employ  6000  or  7000  men. 

CARRIAGE,  a general  name  for  a 
vehicle,  but  more  especially  for  one  of 
the  lighter  and  more  ornamental  kind. 

CAR'RIER,  is  a person  who  under- 
takes to  transport  the  goods  of  other 
persons  from  place  to  place  for  him. 
Persons  who  undertake  this  as  a sys- 
tematic business  are  called  common 
carriers,  and  come  under  special  legal 
regulations,  such  as  that  thej'  shall  be 
responsible  for  the  goods  intrusted  to 
them  so  long  as  in  their  custod}^ 

CARRIER  PIGEON  is  a large  bird 
with  long  wings,  large  tuberculated  mass 
of  naked  skin  at  the  base  of  the  beak, 
and  with  a circle  of  naked  skin  round 


CARRINGTON 


CARTHAGE 


the  eyes.  I'hc  practice  of  sending  letters 
by  pigeons  belongs  originally  to  eastern 
countries.  An  actual  post-system  in 
which  pigeons  were  the  messengers  was 
established  at  Bagdad  by  the  Sultan 
Nureddin  Mahmud,  who  died  in  1174, 
and  lasted  till  12.58.  These  birds  can  be 
utilized  in  this  way  only  in  virtue  of 
what  is  called  their  “homing”  facidty  or 
instinct,  which  enables  them  to  find 
their  way  back  home  from  surprising 
distances.  But  if  they  are  taken  to  the 
place  from  which  the  message  is  to  be 
sent  and  kept  there  too  long,  say  over  a 
fortnight,  they  will  forget  their  home 
and  not  return  to  it.  By  the  use  of 
microphotography  a long  message  may 
be  conveyed  in  this  way,  and  such  were 
received  by  the  besieged  residents  in 
Paris  during  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of 
1870-71,  the  birds  being  conveyed  out 
of  the  city  in  balloons.  Seventy-two 
miles  in  two  and  a half  hours,  a hundred 
and  eighty  in  four  and  a half,  have  been 
accomplished  by  carrier  pigeons. 

CARRINGTON,  Henry  Beebee,  an 
American  historian  and  soldier,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1824.  In  the  civil  war 
he  was  a brigadier-general  of  volunteers, 
and  was  subsequently  an  educator. 
He  has  published  Battles  of  the  Revo- 
lution, Russia  as  a Nation  and  other 
military  hi-storical  works  of  note. 

CARRION-CROW,  in  Britain  the 
common  crow,  so  called  because  it  often 
feeds  on  carrion.  In  America  the  name 
is  given  to  a small  species  of  vulture 
called  the  Black  Vulture. 

CARROLL,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  an 
American  gentleman  and  patriot,  born 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1737,  died  1832. 
He  was  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 


tion  of  Independence.  He  helped  to 
draft  the  Maryland  constitution  and  in 
1789  was  elected  U.  States  senator.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion to  die. 

CARROLL,  .John,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  bishop,  the  first  in  the 
U.  States.  He  was  born  in  Maryland 
in  1735,  and  was  a cousin  of  Charles 
Carroll  of  Carrollton.  He  was  the  first 
archbishop  of  Baltimore  and  the  founder 
of  Georgetown  College.  He  died  in  1815. 

CARRONADE,  an  iron  gun  introduced 
in  1779  by  the  director  of  the  Carron 
Foundry,  from  which  it  took  its  name. 
They  were  of  large  caliber,  but  short  and 
much  lighter  than  comfnon  cannon. ' 


They  were  of  great  service  in  close  naval 
engagements,  but  they  had  a very  short 
range,  and  have  been  superseded  by 
more  modern  inventions. 

CARROT,  a biennial  umbelliferous 
plant,  a native  of  Britain  and  other  parts 
of  Europe.  The  leaves  are  tripinnate, 
of  a handsome  feathery  appearance. 
The  plant  rises  to  the  height  of  2 feet, 
and  produces  white  flowers.  The  root, 
in  its  wild  state,  is  small,  tapering,  of  a 
white  color,  and  strong-flavored;  but 
that  of  the  cultivated  variety  is  large, 
succulent,  and  of  a red,  yellow,  or  pale 
straw-color,  and  shows  remarkably  the 
improvement  which  may  be  effected  by 
cultivation.  It  is  cultivated  for  the 
table  and  as  a food  for  cattle.  Carrots 
contain  a large  proportion  of  saccharine 
matter,  and  attempts  have  been  made 
to  extract  sugar  from  them. 

CARROUSEL  (kar'6-zel),  a name 
given  in  the  middle  ages  to  a tilting 
match  or  other  occasion  when  knightly 
exercises,  such  as  riding  at  the  ring, 
throwing  the  lance,  were  publicly  en- 
gaged in.  They  were  superseded  by 
tournaments,  but  were  again  revived 
when  the  latter  had  fallen  out  of  use, 
and  were  frequent  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XIV.  In  the  U.  States  the  name  is  ap- 
plied to  a merry-go-round  or  movable 
platform  filled  with  wooden  horses  on 
which  children  ride. 

CARRYING-TRADE,  that  department 
of  trade  or  commerce  which  consists  in 
the  carriage  of  commodities  from  one 
place  or  country  to  another;  generally 
applied  to  the  carrying  of  merchan- 
dise from  one  country  to  another  by 
sea,  especially  when  the  vessels  convey- 
ing the  goods  belong  to  a different 
country  from  either  of  the  other  two. 

CARSON,  Christopher  (“Kit”),  an 
American  scout  and  trapper,  born  in 
Kentucky  in  1809,  died  in  1868.  He 
lived  for  a time  in  Missouri,  crossed  the 
continent  to  California  in  1829,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the  west 
during  the  civil  war.  Carson  knew  the 
American  Indian  perhaps  better  than 
any  other  scout  and  his  adventures  read 
like  romances  rather  than  sober  facts. 
Several  biographies  of  him  have  been 
published. 

CARSTAIRS,  or  CARSTARES,  Will- 
iam, a Scottish  divine  of  political 
eminence,  born  in  1649  near  Glasgow, 
died  1715.  He  studied  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  afterward  at  Utrecht. 
He  was  introduced  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  on  whom  he  made  a favorable 
impression.  When  William  was  settled 
on  the  throne  Carstairs  was  constantly 
consulted  by  him  on  Scotch  affairs. 
He  was  the  chief  agent  between  the 
Church  of  Scotland  and  the  court,  and 
w'as  very  instrumental  in  the  establish- 
ment of  Presbyterianism,  to  which 
William  was  averse.  On  the  death  of 
William  he  was  no  longer  employed  on 
public  business,  but  Anne  retained  him 
as  her  chaplain  royal,  and  made  him 
principal  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. When  the  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms  was  agitated  he  took  a de- 
cided part  in  its  favor.  He  was  re- 
peatedly moderator  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  church.  His  country- 
men have  mostly  looked  upon  him  as  an 
enlightened  patriot.  ^ 


CART,  a carriage  with  two  wheels, 
with  or  without  springs,  fitted  to  be 
drawn  by  one  horse,  and  used  for  carry- 
ing goods,  or  as  a vehicle  for  conveying 
persons. 

CARTAGENA  (kar-ta-Aa'n  ),  or  CAR- 
THAGENA  (kar-tha-je'na),  a fortified 
town  and  seaport  of  Spain,  ii  the  prov- 
ince of  and  31  miles  s.s.c.  Murcia;  with 
a harbor  which  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
safest  in  the  Mediterranean,  sheltered 
by  lofty  hills.  It  is  a naval  and  military 
station,  with  an  arsenal,  dockyards,  etc. 
Lead  smelting  is  largely  carried  on; 
and  there  are  in  the  neighborhood  rich 
mines  of  excellent  iron.  Cartagena  was 
founded  by  the  Carthaginians  under 
Hasdrubal  about  243  n.c.,  and  was 
called  New  Carthage.  It  was  taken  by 
Scipio  Africanus  n.c.  210,  and  was  long 
an  important  Roman  town.  It  was 
ruined  by  the  Goths,  and  revived  in  the 
time  of  Philip  II.  Pop.  99,871. 

CARTE-BLANCHE  (kart-blansh),  a 
blank  paper,  duly  signed,  intrusted  to  a 
person  to  fill  up  as  he  pleases,  and  thus 
giving  unlimited  power  to  decide. 

CARTE-DE-VISITE  (kart-dc-vi-zet'), 
literally  a visiting  card,  a name  applied 
to  a size  of  photographs  somewhat 
larger  than  a visiting  card,  and  usually 
inserted  in  a photographic  album. 

CAR'TEL,  an  agreement  for  the  de- 
livery of  prisoners  or  deserters;  also,  a 
written  challenge  to  a duel. — Cartel- 
ship,  a ship  commissioned  in  time  of  war 
to  exchange  prisoners. 

CARTER,  James  Coolidge,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1850.  He  served  on  the  New  York  con- 
stitutional commission  in  1888  and,  in 
1892  represented  the  U.  States  before 
the  Bering  Sea  tribunal. 

CAR'THAGE,  the  most  famous  city 
of  Africa  in  antiquity,  capital  of  a rich 
and  powerful  commercial  republic,  situ- 
ated in  the  territory  now  belonging  to 
Tunis.  Carthage  was  the  latest  of  the 


Phoenician  colonies  in  this  district,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
settlers  from  Tyre  and  from  the  neigh- 
boring Utica  about  the  middle  of  the 
9th  century  before  Christ.  The  story 
of  Dido  and  the  foundation  of  Carthage 
is  mere  legend  or  invention.  The  history 
of  Carthage  falls  naturally  into  tliree 
epochs.  The  first,  from  the  foundation 
to  410  B.C.,  comprises  the  rise  and  cul- 
mination of  Carthaginian  power  ; the 
second  from  410  to  265  b.c.,  is  tire 
period  of  the  wars  with  the-  Sicilian 
Greeks;  the  third,  from  265  to  146  b.c.j 


CARTHAGE 


CARTRIDGE 


the  period  of  the  wars  with  Rome,  end- 
ing with  the  fall  of  Carthage. 

The  rise  of  Carthage  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  superiority  of  her  site 
for  commercial  purposes,  and  the  enter- 
prise of  her  inhabitants,  which  soon 
acquired  for  her  an  ascendency  over  the 
earlier  Tyrian  colonies  in  the  district, 
Utica,  Tunis,  Hippo,  Septis  and  Had- 
rumetum. 

In  extending  her  commerce  Carthage 
was  naturally  led  to  the  conquest  of  the 
various  islands  which  from  their  posi- 
tion might  serve  as  entrepots  for  traffic 
with  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Sardinia  was  the  first  con- 
quest of  the  Carthaginians,  and  its 
capital,  Caralis,  now  Cagliari,  was 
founded  by  them.  Soon  after  they 
occupied  Corsica,  the  Balearic,  and 
many  smaller  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. When  the  Persians  under 
Xerxes  invaded  Greece  the  Carthagin- 
ians, who  had  already  several  settle- 
ments in  the  west  of  Sicily,  cooperated 
by  organizing  a great  expedition  of 
300,000  men  against  the  Greek  cities 
in  Sicily.  But  the  defeat  of  the  Car- 
thaginians at  Himera  by  the  Greeks 
under  Gelon  of  Syracuse  effectually 
checked  their  further  progress  (480  b.c.). 
The  war  with  the  Greeks  in  Sicily  was 
not  renewed  till  410.  Hannibal,  the  son 
of  Gisco,  invaded  Sicily,  reduced  first 
Selinus  and  Himera,  and  then  Agri- 
gentum.  Syracuse  itself  was  only  saved 
a little  later  by  a pestilence  which  en- 
feebled the  army  of  Himilco  (396). 
The  struggle  between  the  Greeks  and 
the  Carthaginians  continued  at  inter- 
vals with  varying  success,  its  most 
remarkable  events  being  the  military 
successes  of  the  Corinthian  Timoleon 
(345-340)  at  Syracuse,  and  the  invasion 
of  the  Carthaginian  territory  in  Africa 
by  Agathocles  b.c.  310.  After  the 
death  of  Agathocles  the  Greeks  called 
in  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to  their  aid, 
but  notwithstanding  numerous  defeats 
(b.c.  277-5),  the  Carthaginians  seemed, 
after  the  departure  of  Pyrrhus,  to  have 
the  conquest  of  all  Sicily  at  length  within 
their  power.  The  intervention  of  the 
Romans  was  now  invoked,  and  with 
their  invasion,  b.c.  264,  the  third  period 
of  Carthaginian  history  begins.  The 
first  Punic  war  (L.  Punicus,  Phoenician), 
in  which  Rome  and  Carthage  contended 
for  the  dominion  of  Sicily,  was  pro- 
longed for  twenty-three  years,  b.c.  264 
to  241,  and  ended,  through  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  resources  of  Carthage,  in  her 
expulsion  from  the  island.  The  loss 
of  Sicily  led  to  the  acquisition  of  Spain 
for  Carthage,  which  was  almost  solely 
the  work  of  Hamilcar  and  Hasdrubal. 
The  second  Punic  war,  arising  out  of 
incidents  connected  with  the  Carthagin- 
ian conquests  in  Spain,  and  conducted 
on  the  side  of  the  Carthaginians  by  the 
the  genius  of  Hannibal,  and  distin- 
guished by  his  great  march  on  Rome 
and  the  victories  of  Lake  Trasimene, 
Trebia,  and  Cannae,  lasted  seventeen 
years,  b.c.  218  to  201,  and  after  just 
missing  the  overthrow  of  Rome,  ended 
in  the  complete  humiliation  of  Carthage. 
The  policy  of  Rome  in  encouraging  the 
African  enemies  of  Carthage  occasioned 
the  third  Punic  war,  in  which  Rome 
was  the  aggressor.  This  war,  begun 


b.c.  150,  ended  b.c.  146,  in  the  total 
destruction  of  Carthage. 

CARTHAGE,  a city  and  county-seat 
of  Jasper  Co.,  Mo.,  150  miles  southeast 
of  Kansas  City,  on  Spring  River,  and  on 
the  Missouri  Pacific,  the  Saint  Louis  and 
San  Francisco,  and  other  railroads.  It 
has  lead  and  zinc  mines,  stone  and  lime 
works,  foundries,  flour-mills,  etc.  Pop 
11,220. 

CARTHU'SIANS,  a religious  order 
instituted  by  St.  Bruno,  who  about 
1084,  built  several  hermitages  4 leagues 
from  Grenoble  in  s.e.  France,  and,  with 
six  companions,  united  the  ascetic  with 


Carthusian  monk. 


the  monastic  life.  They  practiced  the 
greatest  abstinence,  wore  coarse  gar- 
ments, and  ate  only  vegetables  and  the 
coarsest  bread.  From  their  original  seat 
(La  Chartreuse)  they  were  called  Car- 
thusians. Their  habit  is  a hair-cloth 
shirt,  a white  tunic,  a black  cloak,  and 
a cowl. 

CARTIER,  Sir  George  Etienne,  Cana- 
dian statesman,  born  at  St.  Antoine, 
Quebec,  in  1814;  died  in  England  in 
1873.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1835,  took  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1837, 
and  had  for  a time  to  leave  Canada. 
In  1848  he  entered  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment, and  in  1855  became  provincial 
secretary.  Next  year  he  became  attor- 
ney-general for  Lower  Canada,  in  which 
post  he  was  active  in  behalf  of  legal 
reforms.  In  1857  he  was  a member  of 
the  Macdonald  ministry,  and  in  1858 
he  himself  became  premier,  remaining 
in  this  position  till  1862.  He  was  active 
in  bringing  about  the  establishment  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  in  1867,  and 
held  a post  in  the  first  Dominion  cabinet. 
The  following  year  he  received  a 
baronetcy. 

CARTIER  (kiir-tya),  Jacques,  a French 
navigator,  born  at  St.  Malo  1479,  time 
of  death  not  known.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  to  N.  America  in  1534, 
entered  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  and 
took  possession  of  the  mainland  of 
Canada  in  name  of  Francis  I.  Next 
year  he  sailed  up  the  St.  Lawrence  as 


far  as  the  present  Montreal.  He  sub- 
sequently went  to  found  a settlement  in 
Canada,  and  built  a fort  near  the  site 
of  Quebec.  He  was  living  in  France  in 
1552. 

CARTILAGE,  or  GRISTLE,  a firm 
and  very  elastic  substance  occurring  in 
vertebrate  animals.  When  cut,  the 
surface  is  uniform,  and  contains  no 
visible  cells,  cavities,  nor  pores,  but 
resembles  the  section  of  a piece  of  glue. 
It  enters  iato  the  composition  of  parts 
whose  functions  require  the  combination 
of  firmness  with  pliancy  and  flexibility, 
the  preservation  of  a certain  external 
form  with  the  power  of  yielding  to 
external  force  or  pressure.  The  ends  of 
bones  entering  into  the  formation  of  a 
joint  are  always  coated  with  cartilage. 
Temporary  cartilages  are  those  from 
which  bones  are  formed  by  ossification. 
The  permanent  cartilages  are  of  various 
kinds.  They  are  found  in  the  external 
ear  and  aid  in  forming  the  nose,  the 
larynx,  etc. 

CARTOON',  in  painting,  a drawing  on 
stout  paper  or  other  material,  intended 
to  be  used  as  a model  for  a large  picture 
in  fresco,  a process  in  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  picture  portion  by 
portion  and  in  which  a fault  cannot 
afterward  be  easily  corrected.  The 
cartoon  is  made  exactly  the  size  of  the 
picture  intended,  and  the  design  is 
transferred  to  the  surface  to  be  orna- 
mented by  tracing  or  other  processes. 
Cartoons  executed  in  color,  like  paint- 
ings, are  used  for  designs  in  tapestries, 
mosaics,  etc.  The  most  famous  are 
those  painted  by  Raphael  for  the  Vati- 
can tapestries,  seven  of  which  are  still 
preserved  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  London.  In  modern  times 
the  term  is  also  applied  to  a pictorial 
sketch  relating  to  some  notable  charac- 
ter or  events  of  the  day. 

CARTOUCHE  (kar'tosh),  (1)  in  archi- 
tecture, a sculptured  ornament  in  the 
form  of  a scroll  unrolled,  often  appear- 
ing on  the  cornices  of  columns,  used  as  a 
field  for  inscriptions,  etc. — (2)  In 


Cartouche. 

heraldry,  a sort  of  oval  shield,  much 
used  by  the  popes  and  secular  princes 
in  Italy,  and  others,  both  clergy  and 
laity,  for  painting  or  engraving  their 
arms  on. — (3)  The  name  given  to  that 
oval  ring  or  border  which  includes,  in 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  the  names 
of  persons  of  high  distinction.  The 
annexed  cut  shows  a cartouche  of  one 
of  the  Ptolemies,  kings  of  Egypt,  with 
the  inscription  “Ptolemy  eternal  be- 
loved of  Phtah.” 

CARTRIDGE,  a case  of  paper,  parch- 
ment, or  flannel  suited  to  the  bore  of 
fire-arms,  and  holding  the  exact  charge, 
including,  in  the  case  of  small  arms,  both 
powder  and  bullet  (or  shot).  In  loading 
with  the  old  style  of  cartridge  for  muz- 
zle-loading rifles,  the  paper  over  the 
powder  was  bitten  or  twisted  off  and  the 
powder  poured  in,  the  bullet  being  then 
inserted  and  rammed  homo.  The  car- 


CARTWRIGHT 


CASHMERE 


tridges  used  for  breech-loading  rifles 
contain  the  powder  in  a case  of  solid 
brass,  and  have  the  percussion-cap  by 
which  they  are  ignited  fixed  in  the  base. 
Such  cases  can  be  refilled  and  used  a 
number  of  times  in  succession.  Cart- 
ridges for  shot-guns  are  similar  to  those 
for  rifles,  but  are  usually  of  less  solid 
construction,  being  commonly  of  strong 
paper  with  a base  of  metal.  Those 
for  large  guns  are  usually  made  of  flannel 
and  contain  only  the  powder.  Blank- 
cartridge  is  a cartridg3  without  ball  or 
shot.  Cartridges  for  blasting  are  filled 
with  dynamite  or  other  explosive. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Edmund,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  power-loom,  was  born  in 
1742  in  Nottinghamshire,  Eng.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  took  orders  in 
the  church.  In  1785,  he  brought  his 
first  power-loom  into  action.  Although 
much  opposed  both  by  manufacturers 
and  workmen,  it  made  its  way,  and  in  a 
developed  and  improved  form  is  now 
in  universal  use.  He  died  in  1823. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Peter,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Virginia  in  1785, 
died  1872.  He  was  noted  for  the  re- 
vivals he  preached  in  Illinois  and  for  the 
large  number  of  converts  he  made. 

CARVING,  as  a branch  of  art,  is  the 
process  of  cutting  a hard  body  by  means 
of  a sharp  instrument  into  some  particu- 
lar shape,  and  is  a term  generally  em- 
ployed in  speaking  of  figures  cut  out  in 
ivory  or  wood,  in  contradistinction  to 
sculpture,  or  figures  pi'oduced  in  stone 
or  metal.  The  art  of  carving  is  of  the 
highest  antiquity.  Even  among  the 
most  uncivilized  tribes,  rudely-carved 
representations  in  wood  are  common. 
In  the  early  and  middle  ages  wood- 
carving became  general  for  the  decora- 
tion of  Christian  churches  and  altars. 
One  of  the  latest  developments  of  the 
art  of  carving  is  the  modern  invention 
of  carving  by  machinery.  A machine 
patented  in  1845  is  capable  of  copying 
any  carved  design  that  can  be  produced, 
so  far  as  that  is  possible,  by  revolving 
tools;  the  finish  is  ,afterward  given  by 
•hand-labor. 

CARY,  Alice  and  Phoebe,  two  Ameri- 
can poets,  sisters.  Alice  was  born  in 
Ohio,  in  1820,  and  died  in  1871,  Phoebe 
was  born  in  Ohio  in  1824,  and  died  in 
1871.  Their  first  book  of  poems  ap- 
peared in  1850  under  the  title  Poems  of 
Alice  and  Phoebe  Cary.  From  1850  to 
1869  the  sisters  issued  numerous  vol- 
umes of  verses  which  won  them  inter- 
national fame.  They  died  within  three 
months  of  each  other. 

CARY,  Alice  Louise,  an  American 
operatic  singer,  born  in  Maine  in  1842. 
Her  rich  contralto  voice  early  attracted 
attention  and  after  studying  in  Italy, 
made  her  debut  in  Copenhagen  in  1868. 
In  1870  she  appeared  in  New  York  and 
for  many  years  was  the  favorite  Ameri- 
can singer.  She  married  Charles  M. 
Raymond  in  1882. 

CARYATTDES  (-dez;,  or  CAR'YAT- 
IDS,  in  architecture,  figures  of  women 
dressed  in  long  robes,  serving  to  sup- 
port entablatures. 

CARYOPHYLLA'CEvE,  an  order  of 
plants,  of  which  the  pink,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  type.  The  plants  have 
opposite  undivided  leaves,  without 
stipules,  tumid  articulations  of  the  stems. 


and  seeds  disposed  upon  a free  central 
placenta,  surrounded  by  several  car- 
pellary  leaves.  The  great  proportion 
of  the  species  are  inconspicuous  weeds, 
like  chick-weed,  sandwort,  etc.,  but 


Caryatides. 


many  are  found  as  favorite  plants  in  our 
gardens,  as  the  carnation,  sweet-william, 
etc. 

CASCADE  RANGE,  a range  of  moun- 
tains in  North  America,  near  the  Pacific 
coast,  to  which  they  are  parallel,  ex- 
tending from  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  Cali- 
fornia northward  to  Alaska.  It  con- 
tains several  active  volcanoes.  Highest 
peak.  Mount  St.  Elias,  18,017  feet.  The 
highest  peaks  in  the  U.  States  portion  of 
it  are  in  Washington  territory,  where 
Tacoma  reaches  14,444  feet. 

CASE,  in  grammar,  a term  indicating 
certain  relationships  in  which  nouns 
and  pronouns  may  stand  as  regards 
other  words,  and  which  are  often 
marked  by  special  forms  or  inflections. 
A word  that  is  the  subject  of  a verb  is 
generally  said  to  be  in  the  nominative 
case,  one  that  is  an  object  in  the  objec- 
tive or  accusative  case.  In  English 
these  two  cases  are  alike  except  in  pro- 
nouns, the  only  inflected  noun-case  in 
English  being  the  possessive.  English 
pronouns  have  three  cases — nominative, 
possessive,  and  objective,  as  he,  his,  him. 
In  Sanskrit  there  are  eight  cases.  In 
French,  Italian,  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
there  are  no  case-forms.  In  German 
there  are  four  cases,  nominative,  geni- 
tive, dative,  accusative. 

CASE,  in  law,  a cause  or  action,  or  a 
statement  on  which  a decision  is  to  be 
given. 

CASE-HARDENING  is  a process  by 
which  iron  is  superficially  converted 
into  steel,  in  such  articles  as  require  the 
toughness  of  the  former  conjointly  with 
the  hardness  of  the  latter  substance. 
The  articles  intended  for  case-hardening 
are  first  manufactured  in  iron,  and  are 
then  placed  in  an  iron  box,  with  char- 
coal in  powder,  and  heated  to  redness. 
Immersion  into  water  then  converts  the 
surface  into  a coating  of  steel. 


CASEIN  (ka'se-in),  that  ingredient  in 
milk  which  is  neither  coagulated  spon- 
taneously, like  fibrin,  nor  by  heat,  like 
albumen,  but  by  the  action  of  acids 
alone,  and  constituting  the  chief  part 
of  the  nitrogenized  matter  contained  in 
it.  Cheese  made  from  skimmed  milk 
and  well  pressed  is  fully  half  casein. 
Casein  is  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  of  animal  food  as  found  in 
milk  and  leguminous  plants.  It  con- 
sists of  carbon  53'7  per  cent,  hydro- 
gen 7T5,  nitrogen  15'65,  oxygen  22'65, 
and  sulphur  0'85. 

CASE'MATES  (from  the  Spanish 
casa,  a house,  and  matare,  to  kill),  in 
for.  iJfication,  vaults  which  are  proof 
against  bombs,  and  which  may  serve 
as  a place  for  keeping  ordnance,  am- 
munition, etc.,  and  in  case  of  necessity 
as  habitations  for  the  garrison. 

CASEMENT,  a frame  inclosing  part  of 
the  glazing  of  a window  and  opening  on 
hinges. 

CASER'TA,  or  CASERTA  NUOVA, 

the  capital  of  the  province  of  Caserta, 
south  Italy,  in  a plain,  7 miles  e.s.e.  of 
Capua  and  18  from  Naples.  The  prin- 
cipal edifice  is  the  royal  palace,  a large 
and  richly-decorated  structure,  com- 
menced in  1752  by  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 
Pop.  20,000. — The  province  has  an  area 
of  2307  sq.  miles  and  a pop.  of  805,305. 

CASE-SHOT,  in  artillery,  is  formed  by 
putting  a quantity  of  small  iron  balls 
into  a cylindrical  tin  box  called  a can- 
ister, that  just  fits  the  bore  of  the  gun. 
This  kind  of  shot  is  very  injurious  to  an 
enemy  within  a short  distance.  The 
shrapnel-shell  is  a modern  variety  of 
case-shot.  ' 

CASH  CREDIT.  A cash  credit  is  an 
account  which  the  trader  may  overdraw 
to  a certain  amount  as  he  may  require, 
paying  cash  in  and  taking  it  out  accord- 
ing to  his  needs  within  that  limit. 
Heritable  property,  two  sureties,  or 
some  other  form  of  security  is  usually 
demanded  by  the  bank. 

CASH'MERE,  an  extensive  princi- 
pality in  the  n.w.  of  Hindustan,  subject 
to  a ruler  (the  Maharajah)  belonging  to 
the  Sikh  race.  The  principality  em- 
braces not  only  Cashmere  proper,  but 
also  Jamoo  or  Jummoo,  Baltistan  or 
Little  Tibet,  Ladakh,  Gilghit,  etc.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  80,000  sq.  miles. 
It  extends  from  about  32°  to  37°  n.  lat., 
and  from  about  73°  to  80°  e.  Ion.,  and  is 
largely  a region  of  mountains,  contain- 
ing magnificent  glaciers.  The  elevated 
situation  of  the  valley,  and  the  moun- 
tains of  snow  which  surround  it,  render 
the  climate  rather  cold;  but  the  region 
is  well  watered  by  streams  and  very 
fertile.  Among  its  minerals  are  iron  and 
plumbago.  Sulphur  springs  are  com- 
mon. Earthquakes  frequently  occur, 
and  in  1885  one  caused  the  loss  of  thou- 
sands of  lives.  Bears,  leopards,  wolves, 
the  ibex,  and  chamois  are  among  the 
animals.  The  flora  has  a strong  affinity 
to  that  of  Europe;  the  deodar  cedar 
forms  extensive  and  valuable  forests. 
The  chief  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  rice, 
and  Indian  corn,  and  two  harvests  are 
reaped  in  the  year.  The  chief  manufac- 
ture is  that  of  the  celebrated  Cashmere 
shawls.  The  genuine  Cashmere  shawls 
owe  their  superiority  to  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made,  which  is,  properly 


CASHMERE  GOAT 


CASSINI 


speaking,  not  wool,  but  a fine  kind  of 
down  with  which  the  animals  of  this 
region  are  clad  during  the  winter  season, 
and  which  in  length  and  fineness  far 
surpasses  the  merino  wool.  This  down 
is  obtained  in  great  quantities  from  the 
Cashmere  goat,  the  yak  of  Tibet,  and  the 
wild  sheep.  The  average  time  taken  to 
manufacture  a good  Cashmere  shawl 
is  from  sixteen  to  twenty  weeks.  The 
inhabitants  of  Cashmere  are  a fine  race 
physically,  tall,  strong,  and  well-built, 
with  regular  features.  There  are  thir- 
teen separate  dialects  in  use.  The 
Maharajah  is  independent,  but  his  rela- 
tions with  other  states  are  subject  to  the 
authority  of  the  government  of  India. 
The  capital  of  the  whole  principality  is 
Srinagar  (or  Cashmere),  which  is  the 
Maharajah’s  usual  residence  and  the 
largest  town.  Population  2,906,173, 
about  1,800,000  being  Mohammedans 
and  700,000  Hindus. 

CASHMERE  GOAT,  a variety  of  the 
common  goat  remarkable  for  its  fine 
downy  fleece,  said  to  be  found  in  per- 
fection only  in  Tibet  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Lhassa,  but  also  found  in  other 
parts  of  this  region,  including  Ladakh, 
now  a province  of  Cashmere.  The  colder 
the  region  where  the  goat  pastures,  the 
heavier  is  its  fleece.  A full-grown  goat 
yields  not  more  than  8 ounces,  the  fine 
curled  wool  being  close  to  the  skin.  A 
large  shawl  of  the  finest  quality  requires 
5 lbs.  of  the  wool;  one  of  the  inferior 
quality  from  3 to  4 lbs. 

CASHMERE  SHAWL.  See  Cashmere 
and  Cashmere  Goat. 

CASINO,  a word  used,  in  the  U.  States 
to  designate  some  place  of  amusement 
or  recreation.  It  is  derived  from  the 
Italian  in  which  tongue  it  means  a little 
house,  and  formerly  Italian  noblemen 
built  casinos  adjacent  to  their  castles. 

CASPIAN  SEA,  a large  lake  or  inland 
sea  between  Europe  and  Asia,  730  miles 
in  length  from  n.  to  s.,  and  from  130 
to  270  in  breadth;  area,  170,000  sq. 
miles,  the  largest  isolated  sheet  of  water 
on  the  globe.  Its  surface  is  85  feet  be- 
low that  of  the  Sea  of  Azof;  greatest 
depth  about  3250  feet.  Russian  terri- 
tory surrounds  it  on  three  sides,  Persia 
on  the  fourth. 

CASS,  George  Washington,  an  Ameri- 
can engineer  and  railroad  man,  born  in 
Ohio  in  1810,  died  in  1888.  He  assisted 
in  the  development  of  the  Adams  Ex- 
press Company,  of  the  Pittsburg,  Fort 
Wayne  & Chicago,  and  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  railroads. 

CASS,  Lewis,  an  American  politician, 
born  in  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1782.  In  1813,  having  entered  the 
army,  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  general ; in 
1814-30  was  governor  of  Michigan,  was 
minister  of  war  in  1831,  was  a candidate 
for  the  presidency  several  times,  was 
long  a senator,  and  in  1857-60  was  sec- 
retary of  state.  He  wrote  the  History 
Traditions,  Languages,  etc.,  of  Indians 
in  the  U.  States.  He  died  in  June,  1866. 

CASSAN'DER,  a king  of  Macedonia, 
born  about  354  n.c.  He  displaced  his 
brother  Polysperchon  in  the  regency, 
removed  in  succession  the  mother,  the 
wife,  and  the  son  of  Alexander  the  Great 
to  make  way  for  himself  to  the  throne. 
He  married  Thessalonica,  Ale.xander’s 
half  -sister,  and  founded  the  city  of  that 


name  in  her  honor.  In  company  with 
Seleucus,  Ptolmy,  and  Lysimachus  he 
defeated  and  slew  Antigonus,  king  of 
Asia,  whose  dominions  were  divided 
among  the  conquerors.  He  died  in 
297  B.c. 

CASSAN'DRA,  in  Greek  legend,  a 
daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba.  She 
is  fabled  to  have  been  endowed  by 
Apollo  with  the  gift  of  prophecy,  coupled 
with  this  disadvantage,  that  her  proph- 
ecies should  never  he  believed.  She 
frequently  foretold  the  fall  of  Troy,  and 
warned  her  countrymen  in  vain  against 
the  stratagem  of  the  horse. 

CASSATION,  a term  used  in  the 
courts  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
signifying  the  annulling  of  any  act  or 
decision,  if  the  forms  prescribed  by  law 
have  been  neglected,  or  if  anything  is 
contained  in  it  contrary  to  law. — Court 
of  Cassation,  one  of  the  most  important 
institutions  of  modern  France,  estab- 
lished by  the  first  national  assembly  in 
1790.  In  1814  the  number  of  its  mem- 
bers was  fixed  at  forty-nine,  at  which  it 
still  remains.  The  members  are  ap- 
pointed for  life.  The  sphere  of  this  court 
is  to  decide  on  the  competency  of  the 
other  courts,  and  on  the  petitions  to 
have  their  decisions  reviewed  or  an- 
nulled. Its  decisions  are  uot  only  re- 
corded in  the  journals  of  the  courts  the 
decisions  of  which  are  reversed,  but 
published  likewise  in  an  official  bulletin. 
It  has  enjoyed  from  its  commencement 
the  respect  and  confidence  of  France. 


CASSA'VA,  a South  American  shrub, 
about  8 feet  in  height,  with  broad, 
shining,  and  somewhat  hand-shaped 
leaves,  and  beautiful  white  and  rose- 
colored  flowers.  A nutritious  starch  is 
obtained  from  the  white  soft  root  of  the 
plant,  and  is  called  by  the  same  name. 
It  is  prepared  in  the  West  Indies, 
tropical  America,  and  in  Africa  in  the 
following  manner : — The  roots  are 
washed,  stripped  of  their  rind,  and 
grated  down  to  a pulp,  which  is  put  into 
coarse,  strong  canvas  bags,  and  sub- 
mitted to  powerful  pressure  to  express 
the  juice,  which  is  highly  poisonous  in 
its  natural  state.  The  flour  that  remains 
after  pressing  is  formed  into  cakes,  and 
baked  on  a hot  iron  plate.  In  this  state 
it  forms  a valuable  article  of  food,  upon 
which  many  of  the  inhabitants  of 


southern  America  live  almost  entirely. 
From  cassava  the  tapioca  of  commerce 
is  prepared.  Another  species,  the  sweet 
cassava,  has  roots  the  juice  of  which  is 
not  poisonous,  and  which  are  an  agree- 
able and  nutritive  food. 


Cassava  plant. 


CAS'SEL,  or  KASSEL,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
is  now  the  chief  town  in  the  province  of 
Hessen-Nassau,  Prussia,  on  the  Fulda, 

91  miles  n.n.e.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
There  are  many  fine  walks  and  public 
gardens  in  the  vicinity ; among  the  latter 
are  the  gardens  of  Wilhelmshohe,  in 
which  is  situated  the  ex-elector’s  sum- 
mer palace,  the  residence  of  the  late  ' 
Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  after  his  being 
taken  prisoner  at  Sedan,  from  Sept.  5,  • 
1870,  to  March  19,  1871.  Pop.  106,001. 

CASSIMIR-PERIER,  Jean  Paul  Pierre, 
a French  statesman,  born  in  1857  at 
Paris,  and  president  of  the  French 
Republic  in  1894  and  1895.  He  won 
distinction  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war, 
was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies 
in  1874,  vice-president  of  the  chamber 
in  1890  and  president  of  the  chamber  in 
1893.  In  December  of  that  year  Cas- 
simir-Perier  was  called  to  be  prime 
minister  under  Carnot  and  in  1894,  on 
the  assassination  of  Carnot  he  was 
elected  to  the  presidency  of  the  republic. 
Although  believed  to  be  a royalist,  he 
has  always  acted  as  a moderate  repub-  i, 
lican. 

CASSIN,  John,  an  American  ornithol- 
ogist, born  in  1813  at  Chester,  Pa.,  died 
1869.  He  wrote  several  authoratitive 
works  on  North  American  birds. 

CASSI'NI,  a name  famous  in  as- 
tronomy and  physics  for  three  genera- 
tions:— (1)  Giovanni  Domenico,  born 
in  1625  near  Nice.  He  discovered  four  ’■ 
new  satellites  of  Saturn  and  the  zodiacal 
light,  proved  that  the  axis  of  the  moon 
is  not  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  showed  the  causes  o f her  ' 
libration.  He  died  in  1712. — (2)  Jacques, 
his  son,  born  at  Paris  in  1677.  After 
several  essays  on  subjects  in  natural  * 
philosophy,  etc.,  he  completed  his  great 
work  on  Saturn’s  satellites  and  ring,  fj 
He  died  in  1756. — (3)  Cassini  de  Thury,  K 
C^sar  FranQois,  son  of  the  preceding,  H 
born  in  1714,  member  of  the  Academy 
from  his  twenty-second  year,  under- 
took a geometrical  survey  of  the  whole  of 
France,  which  was  completed  by  his  son. 

He  died  in  1784. — (4)  Cassini,  Jean 
Dominique,  Count  de  Thury,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  at  Paris  1748  In  1787 
he  completed  the  topographical  work 


CASSIN(') 

which  was  begun  by  his  father,  and 
which  in  its  complete  state  consists  of 
180  sheets.  He  died  in  1845. 

CASSI'NO,  a game  at  cards  somewhat 
resembling  whist. 

CAS'SIUS,  full  name  Caius  Cassius 
Longinus,  a distinguished  Roman,  one 
of  the  assassins  of  Julius  Cssar.  In  the 
civil  war  that  broke  out  between  Pom- 
pey  and  Cajsar  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  former,  and,  as  commander  of  his 
naval  forces,  rendered  him  important 
services.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia 
he  was  apparently  reconciled  with 
Csesar,  but  later  was  among  the  more 
active  of  the  conspirators  who  assas- 
sinated him  B.c.  44.  He  then,  together, 
with  Brutus,  raised  an  army,  but  they 
were  met  by  Octavianus  and  Antony  at 
Philippi.  The  wing  which  Cassius 
commanded  being  defeated,  he  imagined 
that  all  was  lost,  and  killed  himself, 
B.c.  42. 

CAS'SOCK,  a tight-fitting  coat  worn 
under  the  gown  or  surplice  by  the  clergy. 
The  cassock  is  generally  black;  but  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  only  the  ordinary 
riests  wear  black  cassocks,  those  of 
ishops  being  purple,  of  cardinals  scar- 
let, and  that  of  the  pope  white. 

CAS'SOWARY,  a family  of  birds  akin 
to  the  ostrich,  emeu,  etc.,  among  living, 
the  moa  and  others  among  extinct, 
birds.  The  shortness  of  their  wings 


Helmeted  cassowary. 


totally  unfits  them  for  flying,  and,  like 
others  of  their  order,  the  pectoral  or 
wing  muscles  are  comparatively  slight 
and  weak,  while  those  of  their  posterior 
limbs  are  very  robust  and  powerful. 

CAST,  in  the  fine  arts,  is  an  impres- 
sion taken  by  means  of  wax  or  plaster 
of  Paris  from  a statue,  bust,  bas-relief, 
or  any  other  model,  animate  or  inani- 
mate. When  plaster  casts  are  to  be 
exposed  to  the  weather  their  durability 
is  greatly  increased  by  saturating  them 
with  linseed-oil,  with  which  wax  or  rosin 
may  be  combined. 

CAS'TANETS,  an  instrument  com- 
posed of  two  small  concave  shells  of 
ivory  or  hardwood,  shaped  like  spoons, 
placed  together,  fastened  to  the  thumb. 


Castanets. 

and  beat  with  the  middle  finger.  This 
instrument  is  used  by  the  Spaniards  and 
Moors  as  an  accompaniment  to  their 
dances  and  guitars. 


CASTE,  a term  applied  to  a distinct 
class  or  section  of  a people  marked  off 
from  others  by  certain  restrictions,  and 
whose  burdens  or  privileges  are  heredi- 
tary. The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Portuguese  casta,  a breed  or  race,  and 
was  originally  applied  to  the  classes  in 
India  whose  occupations,  customs,  privi- 
leges, and  duties  are  hereditary.  It  is 
probable  that  wherever  caste  exists  it 
was  originally  grounded  on  a difference 
of  descent  and  mode  of  living,  and  that 
the  separate  castes  were  originally 
separate  races.  It  now  prevails  prin- 
cipally in  India,  but  it  is  known  to  exist 
or  have  existed  in  many  other  regions. 
“The  effect  of  the  caste  system  is,”  as 
the  Cyclopedia  of  India  says,  “that  no 
man  may  lawfully  eat  with  any  in- 
dividual of  any  other  caste,  or  partake 
of  food  cooked  by  him,  or  marry  into 
another  caste  family;  but  he  may  be  his 
friend,  his  master,  his  servant,  his 
partner.”  Those  that  are  outside  of 
any  caste  are  known  as  pariahs. 

CASTELAR',  Emilio,  a Spanish  politi- 
cian and  author,  born  in  1833.  In  1856 
he  was  made  professor  of  history  in  the 
University  of  Madrid,  but  becoming 
involved  in  the  republican  disturbances 
of  1866,  he  had  to  take  refuge  in  Switz- 
erland. Having  gone  back  to  Spain  in 
1868  he  was  returned  to  the  Cortes  in 
the  following  year.  In  1873  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  republican 
Cortes,  but  resigned  in  Jan.  1874,  in 
consequence  of  the  vote  of  confidence 
being  defeated.  After  the  pronuncia- 
miento  in  favor  of  Alphonso  XII.,  Dec. 
13,  1874,  Castelar  retired  from  Spain, 
but  in  a year  or  two  returned,  and 
again  sat  in  the  Cortes.  He  died  in 
1899.  He  published  many  novels, 
poems,  and  popular  works. 

CASTELLON-DE-LA-PLANA  (kas-tel- 
yon'),  a town,  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Castellon,  40  miles  n.n.e.  of 
Valencia,  in  a large  and  fertile  plain, 
with  manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  woolen 
and  hempen  fabrics,  ropes,  paper,  soap, 
etc.,  and  some  trade  in  hemp,  grain,  and 
fruit.  Pop.  of  town,  31,272;  of  province, 
304,477 ; area  of  latter,  2445  sq.  miles. 

CASTILE  (kas-tel'),  an  ancient  king- 
dom of  Spain,  the  nucleus  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy,  extends  over  a large  part  of 
the  peninsula  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
southward.  It  is  divided  into  New 
Castile  and  Old  Castile.  The  former 
occupies  nearly  the  eenter  of  the  penin- 
sula; area,  28,010  sq.  miles.  It  is  trav- 
ersed from  e.  to  w.  by  three  lofty 
mountain  ehains,  nearly  parallel  to  each 
other — the  Sierra  Guadarrama,  the 
mountains  of  Toledo  and  Sierra  Molina, 
and  the  Sierra  Morena.  Between  these 
chains,  which  form  the  great  water- 
sheds of  the  province,  lie  two  extensive 
plains  or  plateaux,  almost  without  wood, 
and  arid  and  barren  in  appearance. 
Dryness,  indeed,  is  the  curse  of  the  whole 
country,  and  there  is  a great  deficiency 
of  method  alike  in  agriculture  and  in- 
dustries. The  inhabitants  are  of  a 
grave,  manly  character,  with  much  of 
the  old  Spanish  pride  and  probity,  but 
devoid  of  enterprise,  and  content  to  live 
on  from  day  to  day  as  their  fathers  did 
before  them.  This  ancient  province  now 
forms  the  five  provinces  of  Madrid, 
Ciudad-Real,  Cuenca,  Guadalajara,  and 


Castle 

Toledo.  Pop.  1,853,314. — Old  CasUle 
stretches  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to  New 
Castile;  area,  25,405  sq.  miles.  It  is 
traversed  by  three  mountain  chains — 
the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  the  Sierra  de 
Deza,  and  the  Cantabrian  jMountains. 
It  is  less  dry  than  New  Castile,  and  grain, 
particularly  wheat,  is  raised  in  great 
abundance.  The  pastures  both  of  the 
mountains  and  the  plains  are  exeellent, 
and  much  merino  wool  is  produced. 
Old  Castile  now  forms  the  provinces  of 
Burgos,  Logrono,  Santander,  Soria, 
Segovia,  Avila,  Palencia,  and  Valla- 
dolid. Pop.  1,761,440. 

CASTING,  the  running  of  melted 
metal  into  a mold  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose, so  as  to  produee  an  article  of  a 
certain  shape.  Iron-casting  (or  iron- 
founding) is  the  most  important  branch. 
In  ordinary  operations  the  pattern  is 
laid  on  a board  known  as  the  turn-over 
board,  and  the  flask  placed  over  it,  the 
sand  being  carefully  rammed  into  the 
flask  till  it  is  full.  Another  board, 
known  as  the  bottom-board,  is  then  laid 
upon  it.  The  flask  is  then  turned  over, 
the  first  or  turn-over  board  taken  off, 
the  one  side  of  the  pattern  uncovered,  a 
fine  facing  of  sand  spread  upon  the  sur- 
face to  prevent  adhesion,  after  which  a 
second  flask,  called  the  cope,  sometimes 
made  with  crossbars  to  strengthen  it  and 
help  to  hold  the  sand,  is  placed  upon  it 
and  sand  carefully  rammed  in.  The 
cope  or  second  flask  is  them  lifted  off, 
the  sand  which  it  contains  carrying  the 
impression  of  the  upper  side  of  the 
pattern;  the  pattern  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  flask,  or  drag,  is  then  carefully 
drawn  out,  and  any  injuries  which  the 
mold  receives  during  the  operation  is 
repaired.  Holes  or  passages  are  then 
cut  into  the  sand  for  pouring  in  the 
metal,  all  loose  sand  carefully  removed, 
the  cope  replaced  and  secured  to  the 
drag  by  clamps.  The  mold  is  now 
ready  for  the  molten  metal.  In  pouring, 
the  metal  is  generally  run  through  two 
or  three  different  passages  at  the  same 
time  to  prevent  it  losing  fluidity  by 
cooling.  It  is  only  in  lighter  castings 
that  sand,  of  the  proper  degree  of  dry- 
ness, porosity,  and  adhesiveness,  is  used. 
In  heavy  castings  the  mold  is  usually 
made  of  loam,  which  is  more  adhesive, 
and  in  complicated  articles  the  making 
of  the  mold  is  often  a difficult  process. 

CASTING-VOTE,  the  vote  of  a pre- 
siding officer  in  an  assembly  or  council 
which  decides  a question  when  the 
votes  of  the  assembly  or  house  are 
equally  divided  between  the  affirmative 
and  negative. 

CAST-IRON,  the  name  given  to  the 
iron  obtained  from  the  blast-furnace  by 
running  the  fused  metal  into  molds 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  The  molds 
are  in  the  form  of  long  narrow  channels, 
from  which  the  iron,  when  it  has  cooled 
and  solidified,  is  taken  in  bars  called 
pigs,  between  3 and  4 feet  long  and  3 or 
4 inches  broad.  See  Iron. 

CASTLE,  an  edifiee  serving  at  once 
as  a residence  and  as  a place  of  defense, 
especially  such  an  edifice  belonging  to 
feudal  times.  Castles  differed  some- 
what at  different  times  and  in  different 
places,  but  they  had  all  several  features 
of  similarity.  The  first  defense  of  a 
castle  was  usually  the  moat  or  ditch, 


CASTLE  GARDEN 


CATACOMBS 


that  sometimes  comprised  several  acres; 
and  behind  it  was  the  outer  wall,  gen- 
erally of  great  height  and  thickness, 
strengthened  with  towers  at  regular 
distances,  and  pierced  with  loopholes 
through  which  missiles  could  be  dis- 
charged at  the  assailants.  The  main 
entrance  through  the  outer  wall  was 
protected  by  the  barbican,  with  its 
narrow  archway,  and  strong  gates  and 
portcullis,  and  inside  there  were  usually 
an  outer  and  an  inner  court,  and  the 
strong  more  or  less  detached  building 
known  as  the  keep,  which  formed  the 
residence  of  the  owner  and  his  family. 
This  was  the  most  strongly  constructed 
of  all  the  buildings,  to  which  the  de- 
fenders retreated  only  in  the  last  ex- 
tremity. The  cut  shows  the  castle  of 
the  Sires  de  Coucy,  France,  built  in  the 
13th  century.  In  the  foreground  is  the 
outer  bailey  or  esplanade,  fortified,  and 
containing  a chap.l,  stables,  and  other 
buildings.  The  outer  entrance  to  this 
was  formed  by  the  barbican,  a,  is 
the  fosse,  20  yards  broad;  b,  the 
gateway,  approached  by  two  swing- 
bridges,  defended  by  two  guard-rooms, 
and  having  a double  portcullis  within, 
giving  entrance  to  vaulted  guard- 
rooms  with  sleeping  apartments,  etc.. 


Castle— Chateau  de  Coucy. 


above,  c;  d,  inner  bailey  or  courtyard; 
e,  covered  buildings  for  the  men  defend- 
ing the  walls  or  curtains;  f,  apartments 
for  the  family,  entered  by  the  grand 
staircase,  g;  h,  great  hall,  with  store- 
rooms and  vaults  below;  i,  donjon  or 
keep  (the  chapel  is  seen  behind  it),  the 
strongest  part  of  the  castle,  with  walls 
of  immense  thickness.  At  k was  a 
postern  leading  from  the  donjon  and 
communicating  with  an  outer  postern, 
drawbridge,  etc.;  1,  m,  n,  o,  towers  or 
bastions  flanking  the  walls. 

CASTLE  GARDEN,  a building  in 
Battery  Park,  New  York  City,  and  long 
used  as  a landing  place  for  immigrants. 
It  is  now  used  as  a public  swimming  place 
and  has  a collection  of  salt-water  and 
fresh-water  Ashes. 

CAS'TOR,  Casto'reum,  a reddish- 
brown  substance,  of  a strong  penetrating 
smell,  secreted  by  two  glandular  sacs 
connected  with  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion of  the  beaver,  and  used  by  per- 
fumers. 


CASTOR  AND  POLLUX,  in  Greek 
mythology,  twin  divinities,  sons  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Leda,  also  called 
Dioscuri  (sons  of  Zeus).  Castor  was 
mortal,  but  Pollux  was  immortal.  The 
former  was  particularly  skilled  in  break- 
ing horses,  the  latter  in  boxing  and 
wrestling.  They  were  the  patron 
deities  of  mariners.  In  the  heavens 
they  appear  as  one  of  the  twelve  con- 
stellations of  the  zodiac,  with  the  name 
of  Gemini  (the  Twins). 

CASTOR  AND  POLLUX  are  two  min- 
erals which  are  found  together  in  granite 
in  the  island  of  Elba.  Castor  is  a silicate 
of  aluminium  and  lithium,  pollux  is  a 
silicate  of  aluminium  and  the  rare 
element  caesium. 

CASTOR-OIL,  the  oil  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  a plant,  a native  of  India, 
but  now  distributed  over  all  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  globe.  The  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  seeds  by  bruising  and  pressing. 


The  oil  that  first  comes  away,  called 
cold-drawn  castor-oil,  is  reckoned  the 
best;  an  inferior  quality  being  obtained 
by  heating  or  steaming  the  pressed 
seeds,  and  again  subjecting  them  to 
pressure.  The  oil  is  afterward  heated 
to  the  boiling  point,  which  coagulates 
and  separates  the  albumen  and  im- 
purities. Castor-oil  is  used  medicinally 
as  a mild  but  efficient  purgative.  It  is 
chiefly  imported  from  India.  The  plant 
is  often  cultivated  as  an  ornamental 
plant. 

CASTRATION,  the  act  of  depriving 
a male  animal  of  the  testicles.  It  is 
practiced  on  domestic  animals  (as  oxen 
and  horses)  with  the  object  of  rendering 
them  more  submissive  and  docile,  etc. 
Men  who  are  castrated  are  known  as 
eunuchs. 

CAST-STEEL,  steel  made  by  fusing 
the  materials  and  running  the  product 
into  molds. 

CAS'UISTRY,  that  part  of  the  old 
theology  and  morals  which  relates  to  the 
principles  by  which  difficult  cases  of 
conscience  (especially  where  there  is  a 
collision  of  different  duties)  are  to  be 
settled.  Hence  a casuist  is  a moralist 
who  endeavors  to  solve  such  doubtful 
question. 

CASUS  BELLI,  the  material  grounds 
which  justify  a declaration  of  war. 

CAT,  a well-known  domesticated 
quadruped,  order  Carnivora,  the  same 
name  being  given  also  to  allied  forms 
of  the  same  order.  It  is  believed  that 
the  cat  was  originally  domesticated  in 
Egypt,  and  the  gloved  cat  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia  has  by  some  been  considered  the 
original  stock  of  the  domestic  cat. 


though  more  probably  it  was  the  Egypt- 
ian cat.  It  was  seldom,  if  at  all,  kept 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  till 
long  after  the  Christian  era  was  rare  in 
many  parts  of  Europe.  Some  have 
thought  that  the  domestic  breed  owed 
its  oiigin  to  the  wild  cat;  but  there  are 
considerable  differences  between  them, 
the  latter  being  larger,  and  having  a 
shorter  and  thicker  tail,  which  also  does 
not  taper.  The  domestic  cat  belongs 
to  a genus — that  which  contains  the 
lion  and  tiger — better  armed  for  the 
destruction  of  animal  life  than  any  other 
quadrupeds.  The  short  and  powerful 
jaws,  trenchant  teeth,  cunning  dispo- 
sition, combined  with  nocturnal  habits 
(for  which  their  eyesight  is  naturally 
adapted)  and  much  patience  m pursuit, 
give  these  animals  great  advantages 
over  their  prey.  The  cat  in  a degree 
partakes  of  all  the  attributes  of  her  race. 
Its  food  in  a state  of  domestication  is 
necessarily  very  various,  but  always 
of  flesh  or  fish  if  it  can  be  obtained. 
Instances  of  its  catching  the  latter  are 
known,  though  usually  the  cat  is  ex- 
tremely averse  to  wetting  itself.  It  is  a 
very  cleanly  animal,  avoiding  to  step 
in  any  sort  of  filth,  and  preserving  its 
fur  in  a very  neat  condition.  Its  fur  is 
very  easily  injured  by  water  on  account 
of  the  want  of  oil  in  it,  and  it  can  be 
rendered  highly  electric  by  friction. 
The  cat  goes  with  young  for  sixty-three 
days,  and  brings  forth  usually  from 
three  to  six  at  a litter,  which  remain 
blind  for  nine  days.  It  is  usually  re- 
garded as  less  intelligent  than  the  dog, 
but  this  is  by  no  means  certain.  It  has  a 
singular  power  of  finding  its  way  home 
when  taken  to  a distance  and  covered  up 
by  the  way. 

CAT'ACLYSM,  in  geol.  a physical 
catastrophe  of  great  extent,  supposed  to 
have  occurred  at  different  periods,  and 
to  have  been  the  efficient  cause  of 
various  phenomena  observed  in  the 
surface  configuration  of  localities. 

CAT'ACOMBS,  (a  hollow  or  recess), 
caves  or  subterranean  places  for  the 
burial  of  the  dead,  the  bodies  being 
placed  in  graves  or  recesses  hollowed 
out  in  the  sides  of  the  cave.  Caves  of 


Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes,  Home. 


this  kind  were  common  among  the 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Persians,  and  maiiy 
oriental  nations.  In  Sicily  and  Asia 
Minor  numerous  excavations  have  been 
discovered  containing  sepulchers,  and 
the  catacombs  near  Naples  are  remark- 
ably extensive.  Those  of  Rome,  how- 


CAT  ACOUSTICS 


CATARACT 


ever,  are  the  most  important.  The  term 
catacumbse  is  said  to  have  been  origi- 
nally applied  to  the  district  near  Rome 
which  contains  the  chapel  of  St.  Sebas- 
tian, in  the  vaults  of  which,  according 
to  tradition,  the  body  of  St.  Peter  was 
first  deposited;  but  (besides  its  general 
application)  it  is  now  applied  in  a 
special  way  to  all  the  extensive  sub- 
terranean burial-places  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Rome,  which  extend  under- 
neath the  town  itself  as  well  as  the 
neighboring  country,  and  are  said  to 
contain  not  less  than  6,000,000  tombs. 
They  consist  of  long  narrow  galleries 
usually  about  8 feet  high  and  5 feet 
wide,  which  branch  off  in  all  directions, 
forming  a perfect  maze  of  corridors. 
Different  stories  of  galleries  lie  one  below 
the  other.  Vertical  shafts  run  up  to  the 
outer  air,  thus  introducing  light  and  air, 
though  in  small  quantity.  The  graves 
lie  longwise  in  the  galleries.  They  are 
closed  laterally  by  a slab,  on  which  there 
is  occasionally  a brief  inscription  or  a 
symbol,  such  as  a dove,  an  anchor,  or  a 
palm-branch,  and  sometimes  both. 
The  earliest  that  can  be  dated  with  any 
certainty  belongs  to  the  year  111  a.d. 
It  is  now  regarded  as  certain  that  in 
times  of  persecution  the  early  Christians 
frequently  took  refuge  in  the  cata- 
combs, in  order  to  celebrate  there  in 
secret  the  ceremonies  of  their  religion; 
but  it  is  not  less  certain  that  the  cata- 
combs served  also  as  ordinary  places  of 
burial  to  the  early  Christians,  and  were 
for  the  most  part  excavated  by  the 
Christians  themselves. 

CAT'ACOUSTICS,  the  science  of  re- 
flected sounds,  or  that  part  of  acoustics 
which  considers  the  properties  of  echoes. 

CATAFAL'CO,  Catafalque,  a tem- 
porary and  ornaments  I structure,  rep- 
resenting a tomb  placed  over  the  coffin 
of  a distinguished  person  or  over  a 
grave. 

CATALEP'SY,  a spasmodic  disease, 
generally  connected  with  hysteria,  in 
which  there  is  a sudden  suspension  of 
the  senses  and  volition,  with  statue-like 
fixedness  of  the  body  and  limbs  in  the 
attitude  immediately  preceding  the 
attack,  while  the  action  of  the  heart 
and  lungs  continues,  and  the  pulse  and 
temperature  remain  natural.  It  is  gen- 
erally the  consequences  of  some  other 
disease,  or  of  a constitution  enfeebled 
by  the  gradual  operation  of  unobserved 
causes. 

CATALOGUING,  the  art  of  making 
classified  lists  of  books,  or  other  things. 
Book  catalogues,  especially  those  of  large 
hbraries  have  been  superseded  by 
card  indexes,  although  catalogues  are 
still  used  by  libraries  for  the  purpose 
of  distribution  to  other  libraries.  Cata- 
logues are  made  in  a systematic  manner 
by  name  of  author  and  subject  each 
“crossed”  with  the  other. 

CATALO'NIA,  an  old  province  of 
Spain,  bounded  n.  by  France,  e.  and 
s.e.  by  the  Mediterranean,  s.  by  Val- 
encia, and  w.  by  Arragon.  The  country 
in  general  is  mountainous,  but  inter- 
sected with  fertile  valleys,  while  the 
mountains  themselves  are  covered  with 
valuable  woods  and  fruit-trees,  the 
slopes  being  cut  in  terraces  and  plenti- 
fully supplied  with  water  by  an  artificial 
eystem  of  irrigation.  Wheat,  wine,  oil, 


flax,  hemp,  vegetables,  and  almost  every 
kind  of  fruit  are  abundant.  There  are 
mines  of  lead,  iron,  alum,  etc.  On  the 
coast  is  a coral-fishery.  Catalonia, 
though  less  fertile  than  most  of  Spain, 
stands  pre-eminent  for  the  industry  of 
its  inhabitants,  who  speak  the  Catalan 
dialect  (see  Catalan).  Pop.  1,942,245; 
area,  12,480  sq.  miles.  It  comprises  the 
modern  provinces  of  Tarragona,  Gerona, 
Lerida,  and  Barcelona. 

CATAL'PA,  a genus  of  plants.  The 
species  are  trees  with  simple  leaves  and 
large,  gay,  trumpet-shaped  flowers. 
A North  American  species,  is  well 
adapted  for  large  shrubberies,  and  has 
been  introduced  into  England  and  other 
parts  of  Europe. 

CATAL'YSIS,  or  CONTACT  ACTION, 

the  chemical  change  which  occurs  when 
one  body  decomposes  another  without 
being  itself  changed;  thus  oxide  of 
cobalt  decomposes  a solution  of  bleach- 
ing-powder  into  chloride  of  calcium  and 
oxygen,  itself  remaining  without  change. 


nificence  unknown  in  other  parts  of  the 
island,  and  the  town  has  a title  to  rank 
among  the  elegant  cities  of  Europe. 
The  ruins  of  the  amphitheater,  which 
was  more  extensive  than  the  Colosseum 
at  Rome,  are  still  to  be  seen,  as  also  the 
remains  of  the  theater,  baths,  aque- 
ducts, sepulchral  chambers,  hippo- 
drome, and  several  temples.  The  har- 
bor was  choked  up  by  the  eruption  of 
1669,  but  latterly  has  been  greatly 
improved.  The  trade  is  of  some  im- 
portance, the  chief  exports  being  sul- 
phur, oranges,  and  lemons,  grain,  wine, 
oil,  etc.  Pop.  113,.391. 

CATANZA'RO,  a cathedral  city.  South 
Italy,  capital  of  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  a height,  5 miles  from  the  Gulf 
of  Squillace,  with  manufactures  of  silk 
and  velvet  and  some  trade  in  wheat, 
wine,  oil,  etc.  Pop.  20,931.  Area  of 
prov.  2307  sq.  miles;  pop.  433,975. 

CAT'APULT,  a machine  of  the  an- 
cients for  projecting  missiles,  chiefly 
arrows.  They  may  be  described  as  a 


CATAMARAN',  a sort  of  raft  used  in 
the  East  Indies,  Brazil,  and  elsewhere. 
Those  of  the  island  of  Ceylon,  like  those 
of  Madras  and  other  parts  of  that  coast, 
are  formed  of  three  logs  lashed  together. 
Their  length  is  from  20  to  25  feet,  and 
breadth  2^  to  3^^  feet.  The  center  log 
is  much  the  largest,  and  is  pointed  at 
the  fore-end.  These  floats  are  navigated 
with  great  skill  by  one  or  two  men  in  a 
kneeling  posture.  They  think  nothing 
of  passing  through  the  surf  which  lashes 
the  beach  at  Madras  when  boats  of  the 
best  construction  would  be  swamped. 

CATAMAR'CA,  a province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  S.  America;  area, 
about  31,500  sq.  miles;  mountainous  in 
all  directions  except  the  s.  Pop.  102,000. 
The  capital  is  Catamarca,  or  more  fully 
San  Fernando  de  Catamarca.  Pop. 
about  6000. 

CAT'AMOUNT,  or  CATAMOUNTAIN, 

the  wild  cat.  In  America  the  name  is 
also  given  to  the  tiger  or  the  puma. 

CATA'NIA,  a city  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Catania,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Etna.  It  has  been  re- 
peatedly visited  by  tremendous  earth- 
quakes, one  of  the  worst  of  which  was  in 
1693,  when  18,000  people  were  destroyed 
and  has  been  partially  laid  in  ruins  by 
lava  from  eruptions  of  Mount  Etna. 
Most  of  the  edifiees  have  an  air  of  mag- 


kind of  gigantic  cross-bows.  Balistae 
were  engines  somewhat  similarly  con- 
structed, but  were  cliiefly  confined  to 
the  shooting  of  stones. 

CAT'ARACT,  a disease  of  the  eye, 
consisting  in  an  opacity  of  the  crystal- 
line lens,  or  its  capsule,  or  both.  It  is 
quite  different  from  amaurosis,  which  is 
a disease  of  the  retina.  In  cataract  the 
lens  becomes  opaque,  and  is  no  longer 
capable  of  transmitting  the  Light.  Its 
earliest  approach  is  marked  by  a loss  of 
the  natural  color  of  the  pupil,  and  when 
developed  it  causes  the  pupil  to  have  a 
milk-white  or  pearly  color.  It  is  most 
common  in  old  or  elderly  people,  and 
is  quite  painless.  Cataract  is  treated 
by  different  surgical  operations,  all  of 
them  consisting  in  removing  the  dis- 
eased lens  from  its  situation  opposite 
the  transparent  cornea.  In  couching, 
the  lens  is  depressed,  removed  down- 
ward, and  kept  from  rising  by  the  vitre- 
ous humor;  but  this  method  is  now  al- 
most entirely  given  up  in  favor  of 
removal  of  the  lens  by  extraction.  Ex- 
traction consists  in  making  an  incision 
in  the  cornea,  and  in  the  capsule  of  the 
lens,  by  which  the  lens  may  be  brought 
forward,  and  through  the  cut  in  the 
cornea,  so  as  to  be  altogether  removed. 
The  third  operation  is  by  absorption. 
This  consists  in  wounding  the  capsule. 


CATARACT,  OR  WATERFALL 


CATHARINE  DE’  MEDICI 


breaking  down  the  crj’’stalline,  and 
bringing  the  fragments  into  the  anterior 
chamber  of  the  eye,  where  they  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  aqueous 
humor,  and  are  at  length  absorbed  and 
disappear.  Extraction  is  now  the 
regular  method,  and  after  it  is  effected 
a special  kind  of  spectacles  are  required. 

CAT'ARACT,  or  WATERFALL,  the 
leap  of  a stream  over  a ledge  or  precipice 
occurring  in  its  course.  Many  cataracts 
are  remarkable  for  their  sublimity,  the 
grandest  being  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  on 
the  Niagara  River  between  Lakes  Erie 
and  Ontario,  in  N.  America,  the  river 
having  here  a fall  of  about  160  feet. 
Among  other  notable  falls  are  those  of 
the  river  Montmorency,  a tributary  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  which  are  242  feet  in 
height;  that  of  the  river  Potaro,  in 
British  Guiana,  about  822  feet  high  and 
369  broad;  that  of  the  Yosemite  River, 
California,  which  makes  a perpendicular 
leap  of  2100  feet;  the  Victoria  Falls,  on 
the  river  Zambesi,  in  south  Africa, 
about  370  feet  high  and  1860  yards 
broad.  The  cataract  of  the  Riukanfoss, 
on  the  river  Maan,  in  Norway,  is  about 
900  feet  high.  The  cascade  of  Gavarnie, 
in  the  Pyrenees,  is  reputed  the  loftiest 
in  Europe,  being  about  13,000  feet,  but 
its  volume  is  so  small  that  it  is  converted 
into  spray  before  reaching  the  bottom. 
The  fall  of  the  Staubbach  at  Lauter- 
brunnen,  in  Switzerland,  is  between 
800  and  900  feet,  but  has  also  a very 
small  volume  of  water;  the  falls  of  the 
Rhine  at  Schaffhausen,  renowned  over 
Europe,  are  300  feet  broad  and  nearly 
100  feet  in  height.  In  Italy  the  falls  of 
Terni,  on  the  Velino,  and  those  of  the 
Anio,  at  Tivoli,  are  artificial  but  very 
beautiful  Among  British  waterfalls, 
the  falls  of  the  Clyde,  three  in  number, 
viz.,  Bonniton  Linn,  30  feet,  Corra  Linn, 
84  feet,  and  Stonebyres  Linn,  80  feet, 
are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and 
grandeur. 

CATARRH  (ka-tar'),  an  increased 
secretion  of  mucus  from  the  membranes 
of  the  nose,  fauces,  and  bronchi,  ac- 
companied with  fever  and  attended  with 
sneezing,  cough,  thirst,  lassitude,  and 
want  of  appetite.  There  are  two  species 
of  catarrh,  one  which  is  very  common, 
and  is  called  a cold  in  the  head;  and 
another,  the  influenza,  or  epidemic 
catarrh.  It  is  seldom  fatal  except  in 
scrofulous  habits  by  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  consumption. 

CAT-BIRD,  a well-known  species  of 
American  thrush,  which  during  the 
summer  is  found  throughout  the  Middle 
and  New  England  States,  frequenting 
thickets  and  shrubberies.  Its  note  is 
strikingly  similar  to  the  plaint  of  a 
kitten  in  distress.  The  plumage  is  a 
deep  slate-color  above  and  lighter  below, 
and  it  is  about  9 inches  in  length.  In 
habit  it  is  lively,  familiar,  and  un- 
suspicious; the  song  is  largely  imitative 
of  those  of  other  birds.  During  the 
winter  it  inhabits  the  extreme  south  of 
the  U.  States,  and  is  found  also  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  The  cat- 
bird frequently  attacks  the  common 
black  snake,  which,  in  the  absence  of  the 
bird,  rifles  its  nest. 

CAT-BOAT,  a sailboat  with  one  large 
fore-and-aft  sail,  and  generally  not 


longer  than  25  or  30  feet.  Cat-boats  are 
fast  sailers  and  easily  managed. 

CATECHISM  (kat'e-kizm),  an  ele- 
mentary book  containing  a summary 
of  principles  in  any  science  or  art,  but 
particularly  in  religion,  reduced  to  the 
form  of  questions  and  answers. 

CAT'ECHU  (-sho),  a name  common 
to  several  astringent  extracts  prepared 
from  the  wood,  bark,  and  fruits  of 
various  plants.  Catechu  is  one  of  the 
best  astringents  in  the  materia  medica. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  tannin,  and  is  used 
in  tanning,  in  calico-printing,  etc.  It 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  Burmah. 

CATERPILLAR.  See  Butterfly. 

CAT-FISH,  a remarkably  voracious 
fish,  belonging  to  the  family  of  gobies, 
known  also  as  the  wolf-fish;  also  the 
name  common  to  several  N.  American 
fish.  The  common  cat-fish  is  known 
also  as  the  horned  pout  and  bull-head. 
It  is  excellent  eating. 

CAT'GUT,  a cord  made  from  the  in- 
testines of  sheep,  and  sometimes  from 
those  of  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  but 
not  from  those  of  cats.  The  manufac- 
ture is  chiefly  carried  on  in  Italy  and 
France  by  a tedious  process.  Catgut 
for  stringed  instruments  as  violins  and 
harps,  is  made  principally  in  Milan  and 
Naples,  the  latter  having  a high  reputa- 
tion for  treble  strings. 

CATHARINE  I.,  Empress  of  Russia 
and  wife  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  a 
woman  of  humble  origin,  who,  having 
become  mistress  to  Prince  Menschikoff, 
was  relinquished  by  him  to  the  czar. 
In  1708  and  1709  she  bore  the  emperor 
the  Princesses  Anna  and  Elizabeth,  the 
first  of  whom  became  the  Duchess  of 
Holstein  by  marriage,  and  mother  of 
Peter  III.  The  second  became  Empress 
of  Russia.  In  1711  the  emperor  publicly 
acknowledged  Catharine  as  his  wife,  and 
she  was  subsequently  proclaimed  em- 
press, and  crowned  in  Moscow  in  1724. 
When  Peter  with  his  army  seemed 
irreparably  lost  on  the  Pruth  in  1711 
Catharine  secured  the  relief  of  her  hus- 
taand  by  bribing  the  Turkish  general. 
At  Peter’s  death  in  1725  Catharine  was 
proclaimed  empress  and  autocrat  of  all 
the  Russias,  and  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  her  was  taken  anew.  Catharine  died 
suddenly  in  1727,  her  death  having 
been  hastened  by  dissipation. 

CATHARINE  II.,  Empress  of  Russia, 
was  born  in  1729,  her  father  being 
Christian  Augustus,  prince  of  Anhalt- 
Zerbst.  In  1745  she  was  married  to 
Peter,  nephew  and  successor  of  the 
Russian  Empress  Elizabeth,  on  whose 
death  in  1762  her  husband  succeeded  as 
Peter  III.  In  danger  of  being  sup- 
planted by  his  mistress,  the  Countess 
Woronzoff,  Catharine,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  her  lover,  Gregory  Orloff,  and 
others,  won  over  the  guards  and  was 
proclaimed  monarch  (July,  1762).  Peter 
attempted  no  resistance,  abdicated  al- 
most immediately,  and  was  strangled 
in  prison  a few  days  later,  apparently 
without  Catharine's  knowledge.  On 
the  death  of  Augustus  III.  of  Poland  she 
caused  her  old  lover,  Poniatowski,  to  be 
placed  on  the  throne  with  a view  to  the 
extension  of  her  influence  in  Poland,  by 
which  she  profited  in  the  partition  of 
that  country  in  the  successive  dismem- 
berments of  1772,  1793,  and  1795.  By 


the  war  with  the  Turks,  which  occupied 
a considerable  part  of  her  reign,  she 
conquered  the  Crimea  and  opened  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Russian  navy.  Her 
dream,  however,  of  driving  the  Turks 
from  Europe  and  restoring  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire  was  not  to  be  fulfilled.  Her 
relations  with  Poland  and  with  other 
European  powers  induced  her  to  make 
peace  with  Turkey  in  1792,  and  accept 
the  Dniester  as  the  boundary  line  be- 


Catharine  II  of  Russia. 


tween  the  two  countries.  She  appears 
to  have  been  successful  in  improving 
the  administration  of  justice,  amelio- 
rated the  condition  of  the  serfs,  con- 
structed canals,  founded  the  Russian 
Academy,  and  in  a variety  of  ways  con- 
tributed to  the  enlightenment  and  pros- 
perity of  the  country.  Her  enthusiasm 
for  reform,  however,  was  summarily 
checked  by  the  events  of  the  French 
revolution;  and  the  dissipation  and  ex- 
travagance of  her  court  were  such  that 
there  was  even  a danger  of  its  ex- 
hausting the  empire.  She  died  in  1796. 

CATHARINE,  St.,  in  the  Roman 
hagiology  there  are  six  saints  of  this 
name,  of  whom  only  two  are  of  im- 
portance:— (1)  St.  Catharine,  a virgin 
of  Alexandria  who  suffered  martyrdom 
in  the  4th  century.  She  is  represented 
with  a wheel;  and  the  legend  of  her 
marriage  with  Christ  has  been  painted 
by  several  of  the  first  masters.  (2)  St. 
Catharine  of  Siena,  born  in  1347,  who 
was  preternaturally  pious  from  her 
birth,  and  at  six  years  of  age  was  given 
to  self-castigation  and  other  penances. 
Urban  VI.  and  Gregor}"  XI.  sought  her 
advice,  and  in  1460 — 80  years  after  her 
death — she  was  canonized.  Her  poems 
and  letters  have  been  published. 

CATHARINE  DE’  MEDICI  (da-med'i- 
che),  wife  of  Henry  II.,  king  of  France, 
born  at  Florence  in  1519,  the  only 
daughter  of  Lorenzo  de’  Medici,  duke 
of  Urbino,  and  the  niece  of  Pope  Clement 
VII.  She  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  afterward  Henry  II.,  in  1533, 
but  had  little  or  no  influence  at  the 
French  court  either  during  the  reign  of 
her  husband,  who  was  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  mistress  Diana  de  Poitiers, 
or  during  the  reign  of  her  eldest  son, 
Francis  II.,  who,  in  consequence  of  his 
marriage  with  Mary  Stuart,  was  de- 
voted to  the  party  of  the  Guises.  The 
death  of  Francis  placed  the  reins  of 
government  during  the  minority  of  her 
son  Charles  IX.,  in  her  hands.  Waver- 


CATHARINE  HOWARD 


CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


ing  between  the  Guises  on  one  side,  who 
had  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  the 
Catholics,  and  Conde  and  Coligny  on  the 
other,  who  had  become  very  powerful 
by  the  aid  of  the  Protestants,  she  played 
off  one  faction  against  the  other  in  the 
hope  of  increasing  her  own  power;  and 
the  thirty  years  of  civil  war  which  fol- 
lowed were  mainly  due  to  her.  Her 
influence  with  Charles  IX.  was  through- 
out of  the  worst  kind,  and  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew’s  Day  was  largely 
her  work.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
IX.,  in  1574,  her  third  son  succeeded  as 
Henry  III.,  and  her  mischievous  in- 
fluence continued.  She  died  in  1589, 
shortly  before  the  assassination  of  Henry 
III.  Of  her  two  daughters,  Elizabeth 
married  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  Mar- 
garet of  Valois  married  Henry  of  Na- 
varre, afterward  Henry  IV. 

CATHARINE  HOWARD,  Queen  of 
England,  fifth  wife  of  Henry  VIII., 
daughter  of  Lord  Edmund  Howard,  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk;  born  1522.  Her 
beauty  and  vivacity  induced  the  king 
to  marry  her  in  1 540,  but  her  conquest 
appears  to  have  been  of  a dubious  kind 
both  before  and  after  marriage,  and  she 
was  charged  in  1541  with  adultery. 
Her  paramours  Derham  and  Culpepper 
were  beheaded,  and  two  months  later 
(Feb.,  1542),  she  shared  the  same  fate. 

CATHARINE  OF  ARAGON,  Queen  of 
England,  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and  Isabella  of 
Castile,  was  born  in  1485.  In  1501  she 
was  married  to  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales, 
son  of  Henry  VII.  Her  husband  dying 
about  five  months  after,  the  king,  un- 
willing to  return  her  dowry,  caused  her 
to  be  contracted  to  his  remaining  son, 
Henry,  and  a dispensation  was  procured 
from  the  pope  for  that  purpose.  On 
his  accession  to  the  throne  as  Henry 
VIII.  in  1509  she  was  crowned  with  him, 
and  despite  the  inequality  of  their  ages 
retained  her  ascendency  with  the  king 
for  nearly  twenty  years.  Her  children, 
however,  all  died  in  infancy,  excepting 
Mary,  and  on  the  advent  of  Anne  Boleyn 
Henry  affected  to  doubt  the  legality  of 
his  union  with  Catharine.  He  applied 
therefore  to  Rome  for  a divorce,  but  the 
attitude  of  the  papal  court  ultimately 
provoked  him  to  throw  off  his  submission 
to  it,  and  declare  himself  head  of  the 
English  church.  In  1532  he  married 
Anne  Boleyn ; upon  which  Catharine,  no 
longer  considered  queen  of  England, 
retired  to  Ampthill  in  Bedfordshire. 
She  died  in  January,  1536. 

CATHARINE  OF  BRAGANZA,  wife 
of  Charles  II.,  king  of  England,  and 
^ daughter  of  John  IV.,  king  of  Portugal, 
was  born  in  1638.  In  1693  she  returned 
to  Portugal,  where,  in  1704,  she  was 
made  regent,  and  in  the  conduct  of 
affairs  during  the  war  with  Spain 
showed  marked  ability.  She  died  in 
1705. 

CATHARINE  PARR,  sixth  and  last 
wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England  was 
born  in  1.512,  and  had  had  two  husbands 
before  she  became  Henry’s  queen  in 
1543.  After  the  death  of  the  king  she 
espoused  the  Lord-admiral  Lord  Thomas 
Seymour,  uncle  to  Edward  VI. ; but  the 
union  was  an  unhappy  one.  She  died 
in  1548.  I 


CATHAR'TICS,  a general  name  for 

purgative  medicines. 

CATHAY',  an  old  name  of  China. 

CATHE'DRAL,  the  principal  church 
of  a diocese,  so  called  from  its  possessing 
the  episcopal  chair  or  cathedra.  This 
is  really  what  distinguishes  a cathedral 
from  other  churches,  though  most 
cathedrals  are  also  larger  and  more 
elaborate  structures  than  ordinary 
churches,  and  have  various  dignitaries 
and  functionaries  connected  with  them. 
The  cathedral  establishments  in  Eng- 
land regularly  consist  of  a dean  and 
chapter,  presided  over  by  the  bishop, 
the  chapter  being  composed  of  a certain 
number  of  canons.  The  dean  and  chap- 
ter meet  in  the  chapter-house  of  the 


Plan  of  Amiens  Cathedral. 


A,  Apsidal  aisle.  BB,  Outer  aisles  of 
choir. 

FG,  Transepts.  H,  Central  tower. 

IJ,  Western  turrets. 

M,  Principal  or  western  doorway. 

NN,  Western  side  doors. 

PQ,  North  and  south  aisles  of  choir. 
RRR,  Chapels. 

TU.  North  and  south  aisles  of  naive. 


cathedral;  in  them  the  property  of  the 
cathedral  is  vested,  and  they  nominally 
elect  the  bishop  on  a cong4  d'elire  from 
the  crown.  There  are  often  a certain 
number  of  honorary  canons,  also  “minor 
canons”  who  assist  in  the  performance 
of  the  choral  services,  choristers,  etc. 
As  regards  architecture  cathedrals 
naturally  vary  much.  Those  in  Eng- 
land are  almost  all  in  the  Gothic  style, 
cruciform  or  cross-shaped  in  arrange- 
ment, and  having  connected  with  them 
a chapter-house,  side  chapels  (varying 
in  number  and  position),  cloisters, 
crypt,  etc.  This  style  and  arrangement 
are  also  common  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  in  most  modern  cathedrals; 
but  the  Romanesque,  Renaissance,  and 
Byzantine  styles  of  architecture  are  also 
employed.  Many  cathedrals  furnish 
the  most  magnificent  examples  of  the 
architecture  of  the  middle  ages;  and  as 
they  were  intended  to  accommodate 
great  numbers  of  people,  and  to  exhibit 
imposing  religious  services,  they  are 


often  of  great  size  (St.  Peter’s,  Rome, 
is  613  feet  long  and  450  across  the  tran- 
septs). Among  the  most  notable  cathe- 
drals are  St.  Peter’s,  the  largest  of  all, 
founded  1450;  the  cathedral  at  Milan, 
founded  in  1386,  built  of  white  marble; 
the  cathedral  at  Florence,  begun  about 
1294,  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
Italian-Gothic  style;  Cologne  Cathedral, 
commenced  in  1248  (and  only  finished 
recently);  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  begun 
1163;  and  those  of  Amiens,  Chartres, 
and  Rheims.  The  most  noteworthy 
English  cathedrals  are  St.  Paul’s, 
London  (1675-1711),  in  the  Renaissance 
style,  and  those  of  Canterbury,  Ely, 
Exeter,  Lichfield,  Lincoln,  Norwich, 
Salisbury,  Wells,  Westminster,  and 


Plan  of  Wells  Cathedral. 


A,  Apse  or  apsis.  B,  Altar,  altar-platform, 
and  altar-steps.  DE,  Eastern  or  lesser  tran- 
sept. PG,  Western  or  greater  transept.  H, 
Central  tower.  IJ,  Western  towers.  K,  North 
porch.  L,  Library  or  register.  M.  Principal 
or  western  doorway.  NN,  Western  side  doors. 
O,  Cloister  yard  or  garth.  PQ,  North  and 
sou  th  aisles  of  choir.  RS,  East  and  west  aisles 
of  transept,  TU,  North  and  south  aisles  of 
nave.  RR,  Chapels.  V,  Rood  screen  or  organ 
loft.  W,  Altar  of  Lady  chapel. 

York.  The  cathedrals  of  Glasgow  and 
Kirkwall  are  the  only  entire  cathedrals 
in  Scotland,  exclusive  of  modern  edifices. 

CATHERINE.  See  Catharine. 

CATHERWOOD,  Mary  Hartwell,  an 
American  novelist  born  in  Ohio  in  1847, 
died  1902.  Her  stories  are  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  early  days  of  the  Middle 
West. 

CATHETOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  small  differences  of  level  be- 
tween two  points;  in  its  simplest  form, 
a vertical  graduated  rod,  upon  which 
slides  a horizontal  telescope.  With  the 
telescope  the  observer  sights  the  two 
objects  under  examination,  and  the  dis- 
tance on  the  graduated  rod  moved  over 
by  the  telescope  is  the  measure  of  the 
distance  of  height  between  the  two 
objects. 

CATH'OLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 

See  Irvingites. 

CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  the  universal 
church,  the  whole  body  of  true  believers 
in  Christ;  but  the  term  is  often  used  as 


CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION 


CATTLE 


equivalent  to  the  Roman  or  Western 
Church.  See  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION,  i.e.,  the 
abolition  of  those  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
restraints  to  which  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Great  Britain,  and  particularly  of 
Ireland,  were  once  subjected.  By  the 
statutes  of  William  III.  Roman  Catho- 
lics were  forbidden  to  hold  property  in 
land,  and  their  spiritual  instructors 
were  open  to  the  penalties  of  felony; 
and  although  latterly  these  restrictions 
had  not  been  enforced,  they  lemained 
unrepealed  in  England  until  1778.  The 
proposal  to  repeal  similar  enactments 
on  the  Scotch  statute-books  was  de- 
layed by  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the 
Protestant  associations,  in  connection 
with  which  the  Lord  Gordon  riots 
occurred.  In  1791,  however,  a bill  was 
passed  allowing  Roman  Catholics  who 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  hold 
landed  property,  enter  the  legal  pro- 
fession, and  enjoy  freedom  of  education. 
In  Ireland  the  Roman  Catholics  had 
been  even  more  unjustly  treated.  Their 
public  worship  was  proscribed,  all 
offices  and  the  learned  professions  were 
closed  against  them,  they  were  deprived 
of  the  guardianship  of  their  children, 
and  if  they  had  landed  estates  they  were 
forbidden  to  marry  Protestants.  Burke 
and  a strong  body  of  followers  took  up 
their  cause,  and  in  1792  and  1793  the 
Wf'rst  of  the  disabilities  were  removed 
by  the  Irish  parliament.  Restraints  on 
worship,  education,  and  disposition  of 
property  were  removed;  they  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  franchise,  and  to  some  of 
the  higher  civil  and  military  offices,  and 
to  the  honors  and  endowments  of  the 
Dublin  University. 

CATHOLIC  KNIGHTS  OF  AMERICA, 
a Roman  Catholic  fraternal  order 
founded  in  1877.  It  is  the  pioneer  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  assessment  insurance 
organizations,  and  the  only  one  which 
admits  women  to  membership  on  the 
same  footing  as  men.  There  are  now 
600  branches  in  the  order,  with  a total 
membership  of  about  25,000;  it  also  has 
a uniform  rank,  with  a membership  of 
2000.  It  has  paid  about  !fl5,500,000 
to  the  beneficiaries  of  its  deceased 
members. 

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY,  a title  which 
Fope  Alexander  VI.  gave  to  the  kings  of 
Spain,  in  memory  of  the  complete  ex- 
ulsion  of  the  Moors  from  Spain  in  1491 
y Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  But  even 
before  that  time,  and  especially  after 
the  council  at  Toledo  in  589,  several 
Spanish  kings  are  said  to  have  borne 
this  title. 

CATHOLIC  UNIVERSITY  OF  AMER- 
ICA, founded  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
1887,  and  was  opened  in  1889.  The  fac- 
ulties at  present  organized  are  those  of 
theology,  philosophy,  law,  and  tech- 
nology. Its  library  contains  approxi- 
mately 32,000  volumes,  exclusive  of 
pamphlets. 

CATHCLIC  YOUNG  MEN’S  NATION- 
AL UNION,  a society  of  young  men 
among  Roman  Catholics,  organized  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1875.  It  has  over 
50,000  members,  distributed  in  more 
than  300  societies. 

CATILINE  (Lucius  Sergius  Catillna), 
a Roman  conspirator,  of  patrician  rank, 
born  about  108  e.c.  In  his  youth  he 


attached  himself  to  the  party  of  Sulla, 
but  his  physical  strength,  passionate 
nature,  and  unscrupulous  daring  soon 
gained  him  an  independent  reputation. 
Despite  the  charges  of  having  killed  his 
brother-in-law  and  murdered  his  wife 
and  son,  he  was  elected  prsetor  in  b.c. 
68,  and  governor  of  Africa  in  67.  In 
B.c.  66  he  returned  to  Rome  to  contest 
the  consulship,  but  was  disqualified  by 
an  impeachment  for  maladministration 
in  his  province.  Urged  on  by  his  neces- 
sities as  well  as  his  ambition,  he  entered 
into  a conspiracy  with  other  disaffected 
nobles.  The  plot,  however,  was  re- 
vealed to  Cicero,  and  measures  were  at 
once  taken  to  defeat  it.  Thwarted  by 
Cicero  at  every  turn,  and  driven  from 
the  senate  by  the  orator’s  bold  denun- 
ciations, Catiline  fled,  and  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  a large  but  ill-armed  follow- 
ing. The  news  of  the  suppression  of  the 
conspiracy  and  execution  of  the  ring- 
leaders at  Rome  diminished  his  forces, 
and  he  led  the  rest  toward  Gaul. 
Metellus  Celer  threw  himself  between 
the  rebels  and  their  goal,  while  Antonius 
pressed  upon  their  rear,  and,  driven  to 
bay,  Catiline  turned  upon  the  pursuing 
army  and  perished  fighting  (62  B.c.). 

GATLIN,  George,  a writer  on  the 
American  Indians,  born  in  Pennsylvania 
1796,  died  1872.  After  practising  as  a 
lawyer  for  two  years  he  set  up  at  New 
York  as  a portrait-painter,  and  in  1832 
commenced  special  studies  of  Indian 
types,  residing  many  years  among  them 
both  in  N.  and  S.  America.  In  1840  he 
went  to  Europe,  and  subsequently  in- 
troduced three  parties  of  American 
Indians  to  European  courts.  His  finely 
illustrated  works  are:  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, and  Condition  of  the  N.  American 
Indians  (1841);  North  American  Port- 
folio (1844);  Eight  Years’  Travel  in 
Europe  (1848);  Last  Rambles  Among 
the  Indians,  etc.  (1868). 

CATMINT,  or  CATNIP,  a plant  of  the 
natural  order  Labiatoe,  not  uncommon 
in  England,  scarce  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, and  widely  diffused  throughout 
Europsi  N.  America,  etc.  It  grows 
erect  to  a height  of  2 or  3 feet,  has 
whorls  oU* rose-tinged,  whitish  flowers, 
and  stalked,  downy,  heart-shaped  leaves. 
It  has  much  the  same  fascination  for 
cats  as  valerian  root. 

CATO,  Marcus  Porcius,  the  Censor, 
a celebrated  Roman,  born  234  b.c.  at 
Tusculum.  He  served  his  first  cam- 
paign, at  the  age  of  seventeen,  under 
Fabius  Maximus,  was  present  at  the 
siege  of  Capua  in  214  b.c.  ; and  five  years 
after  fought  under  the  same  commander 
at  the  siege  of  Tarentum.  He  rose 
rapidly,  accompanied  Scipio  to  Sicily 
as  quaestor  in  b.c.  204,  became  an  sedile 
in  199,  and  in  198  was  chosen  praetor, 
and  appointed  to  the  province  of  Sar- 
dinia. Three  years  later  he  gained  the 
consulship,  and  in  194  for  his  brilliant 
campaign  in  Spain  obtained  the  honor 
of  a triumph.  His  election  to  the  cen- 
sorship in  184  set  an  official  seal  to  his 
efforts,  the  unsparing  severity  of  which 
has  made  his  name  proverbial.  From 
that  year  until  his  death,  in  149,  he  held 
no  public  office,  though  zealously  con- 
tinuing his  unofficial  labors  for  the  state. 
His  hostility  to  Carthage,  the  destruc- 
tion of  which  he  advocated  in  every 


speech  made  by  him  in  the  forum,  was 
the  most  striking  feature  of  his  closing 
years.  His  incessant  “Delenda  est 
Carthago”  (Carthage  must  be  destroyed) 
did  much  to  further  the  third  Punic  war. 

CATO,  Marcus  Porcius  (called  Cato 
of  Utica,  the  place  of  his  death,  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  Censor,  his  great- 
grandfather), a distinguished  Roman, 
born  95  b.c.  He  formed  an  intimacy 
with  the  Stoic  Antipater  of  Tyre,  and 
ever  remained  true  to  the  principles  of 
the  Stoic  philosophy.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a volunteer  in  the  war  against 
Spartacus,  served  as  military  tribune 
in  Macedonia  in  b.c.  67,  was  made 
quaestor  in  b.c.  65.  His  rigorous  re- 
forms won  him  general  respect,  and  in 
b.c.  63  he  was  chosen  tribune  of  the 
people.  On  the  breach  between  Pom- 
pey  and  Caesar  he  threw  in  his  lot  with 
Pompey,  and  guarded  the  stores  at 
Dyrrhachium,  while  Pompey  pushed 
on  to  Pharsalia.  After  receiving  news 
of  Pompey’ s defeat  he  sailed  to  Cyrene 
and  effected  a junction  with  Metellus 
Scipio  at  Utica,  in  b.c.  47.  He  took 
command  of  that  city,  but  its  defense 
appearing  hopeless  after  the  defeat  of 
Scipio  at  Thapsus,  he  determined  on 
suicide,  and  after  spending  some  time 
in  the  perusal  of  the  Phaedo  of  Plato, 
stabbed  himself  with  his  sword.  His 
wounds  were  bound  up  by  his  attend- 
ants, but  he  tore  off  the  bandages  and 
died.  b.c.  46. 

CAT'S-EYE,  a mineral,  a variety  of 
quartz,  very  hard  and  semi-transparent, 
and  from  certain  points  exhibiting  a 
yellow  opalescent  radiation  or  chatoyant 
appearance,  somewhat  resembling  a 
cat’s  eye. 

CATSKILL  MOUNTAINS,  a fine  range 
of  mountains  in  New  York  state.  They 
lie  on  the  w.  side  of  and  nearly  parallel 
to  the  Hudson,  from  which  their  base  is, 
at  the  nearest  point,  8 miles  distant. 
The  two  most  elevated  peaks  are  Round 
Top  and  High  Peak;  the  former  3804 
feet,  the  latter  3718  feet  high. 

CATTLE,  a term  applied  in  the  U. 
States  to  horned  animals,  horses,  and 
sheep,  and  to  almost  all  domestic 
mammals.  Specifically,  however,  the 


Shortaom. 


term  applies  to  bovine  animals  used  for 
purposes  of  food.  The  principal  breeds 
of  beef  cattle  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  States  are  the  Shorthorn,  Hereford, 
Galloway,  Devon,  and  Aberdeen- Angus. 
These  breeds  all  originated  in  Great 
Britain,  and  for  the  most  part  took  their 
names  from  the  county  or  district 
whence  the  came.  Alvord  says:  “The 
cattle  which  have  been  most  famous  as 
a breed  in  England  and  America,  which 
have  received  the  longest  and  closest 


CATTLE  PLAGUE 


CAUSTIC 


attention  of  breeders  and  improvers, 
which  have  commanded  prices,  singly 
and  in  herds,  far  above  all  others,  and 
which  have  made  the  greatest  impres- 
sion upon  the  live  stock  of  both  coun- 
tries during  the  19th  century,  are  the 
Shorthorns  or  Durhams.”  The  name 


Hereford. 


Shorthorns  was  probably  given  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  rival  race  of 
Blackwell’s  Longhorns,  which  they  soon 
surpassed.  They  are  red  and  white 
cattle,  the  colors  being  variously  blended 
and  often  roan,  rectangular  in  outline 
and  having  horns  of  moderate  length. 
They  are  notable  for  early  maturity, 
beauty  of  form,  quick  fattening  qualities 
and  minimum  amount  of  waste  in 
slaughtering.  Although  unsurpassed 
as  beef  cattle,  many  of  the  cows  are 
good  milkers,  the  best  of  any  of  the 
strictly  beef  breeds.  The  Herefords, 
originated  in  the  county  of  Hereford, 
may  be  described  as  red  with  white  on 
face,  chest,  belly,  feet,  and  over  the  tops 
of  tne  shoulders.  They  are  close  rivals 
or  the  equals  of  Shorthorns  as  beef 
cattle.  The  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  most 
common  in  the  U.  States  and  England 
at  the  present  time  are  Ayrshire,  Hol- 
stein, Guernsey,  Jersey,  Red  Poll,  and 
Shorthorns.  The  Jersey  and  Guernsey 
breeds  were  both  originated  in  the 
Channel  Islands. 

Guernseys  are  rather  larger  than  the 
Jerseys,  stronger  boned,  and  are  claimed 
to  be  hardier.  They  are  light  in  color, 
with  darker  shades  approaching  brown. 


Jersey. 

and  have  a yellow  skin.  The  milk  of 
both  breeds  is  unusually  rich  in  fat,  the 
fat-globules  being  large  and  separating 
readily  in  creaming.  The  Guernseys 
are  liberal  milkers.  The  average  cow 
is  expected  to  produce  5000  pounds 
of  milk  and  300  pounds  of  butter  a 
year  without  high  feeding.  There 
are  records  of  several  herds  which  have 
averaged  over  6000  pounds  of  milk  and 
350  pounds  of  butter  a year.  Individual 
cows  have  produced  10,000,  and  nearly 
13,000  pounds,  of  milk,  and  500  to  700 
pounds  of  butter  a year.  The  Jerseys 
are  the  smallest  of  the  better  dairy 

P-E.— 16  ' ^ 


breeds,  though  in  the  TJ.  States  they 
have  been  considerably  increased  in  size. 
Good  herds  produce  from  3500  to  4500 
pounds  of  milk  a year,  and  several  herd 
records  show  averages  of  6000  and  7000 
pounds  per  cow.  Single  cows  produce 
1000,  1200  pounds  of  butter,  and  even 
more.  There  are.  numerous  records  of 
25  to  30  pounds  of  butter  a week,  and 
individual  records  run  all  the  way  from 
600  to  800,  and  even  1000  pounds  of 
butter  in  a year.  The  Holsteins,  or 
Holstein-Friesians,  of  north  Holland 
and  Friesland,  are  black  and  white, 
irregularly  marked,  but  not  mixed, 
large  in  frame,  strong,  and  usually  in 
good  flesh.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a cow 
to  give  more  than  her  own  weight  in 
milk  every  month  for  ten  or  twelve 


Holstein. 


consecutive  months,  and  there  are 
numerous  instances  of  yields  of  100 
pounds  or  more  a day,  and  20,000  to 
30,000  pounds  a year,  although  40  to  60 
pounds  a day,  or  7500  to  8000  pounds  a 
year,  is  considered  an  average. 

CATTLE  PLAGUE,  or  MURRAIN,  a 
fever  which  attacks  cattle  and  sheep 
and  which  is  almost  always  fatal.  It 
does  not  occur  in  the  U.  States,  Texas 
fever,  with  which  it  is  sometimes  con- 
fused, being  a totally  different  disease. 
The  disease  lasts  from  5 to  7 days. 
Murrain  is  very  ancient  and  has  been 
described  by  Roman  writers. 

CATUL'LUS,  Caius  (or  Quintus)  Val- 
erius, a famous  Roman  lyric  poet,  born 
probably  b.c.  94,  at  Verona,  died  prob- 
ably about  B.c.  54.  Almost  all  the 
known  details  of  his  life  are  derived  by 
inference  from  his  works,  and  relate  to 
such  matters  as  his  passion  for  Lesbia, 
his  journey  to  Bithynia,  and  voyage 
home  in  his  yacht,  his  pleasant  villa  on 
Lake  Benacus,  etc.  He  was  the  first  of 
the  Romans  who  successfully  caught 
the  Greek  lyric  spirit,  and  gave  to  the 
Roman  literature  its  most  genuine  songs. 

CAUCA  (kou'ka),  a S.  American  river 
in  Colombia,  an  important  tributary  of 
the  Magdalena;  length  600-700  miles. 
It  gives  its  name  to  a department  or 
state  of  Colombia ; area,  52,000  sq.  milesj 
pop.  450,000. 

CAUCASIAN  RACE,  a term  intro- 
duced into  ethnology  by  Blumenbach, 
in  whose  classification  of  mankind  it 
was  applied  to  one  of  the  five  great  races 
into  which  all  the  different  nations  of  the 
world  were  divided.  Blumenbach 
believed  this  to  be  the  original  race 
from  wliich  the  others  were  derived, 
and  he  gave  it  the  epithet  of  Caucasian 
because  he  believed  that  its  most  typical 
form — which  was  also  that  of  man  in 
his  highest  physical  perfection — was  to 
be  met  with  among  the  mountaineers  of 
the  Caucasus.  In  later  classifications 


this  "race”  is  usually  divided  into  Aryan 
or  Indo-European,  and  Semitic.  Most 
of  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  Caucasus 
belong  to  the  Turanian  class. 

CAtJ'CASUS,  a chain  of  mountains 
which  gives  name  to  a lieutenancy  under 
Russian  government  lying  to  the  south- 
east of  Russia  Proper,  between  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  The  total 
area  of  the  lieutenancy  (including  the 
district  of  Armenia,  acquired  in  1878) 
is  179,527  sq.  miles,  and  the  pop.  about 
5,900,000.  The  Causasus  chain  of  moun- 
tains traverses  the  lieutenancy  from 
northwest  to  southeast  through  a length 
of  700  miles.  It  does  not  form  a single 
chain,  but  is  divided,  at  least  for  part  of 
its  length,  into  two,  three,  or  even  four 
chains,  which  sometimes  run  parallel  to 
one  another,  and  sometimes  meet  and 
form  mountain  ganglions.  The  heights 
of  the  chief  summits  are  Elbruz,  18,572 
feet;  Koshtan-tau,  17,123;  Dych-tau, 
16,928;  Kasbek,  16,546. 

CAU'CUS,  a term,  for  a private  meet- 
ing of  citizens  to  agree  upon  candidates 
to  be  proposed  for  election  to  offices  or 
to  concert  measures  for  supporting  a 
party. 

CAUL,  a popular  name  for  a mem- 
brane investing  the  viscera,  such  as  the 
peritoneum  or  part  of  it,  or  the  pericard- 
ium; also  a portion  of  the  amnion  or 
membrane  enveloping  the  fetus,  some- 
times encompassing  the  head  of  a child 
when  born.  This  caul  was  supposed  to 
predict  great  prosperity  to  the  person 
born  with  it,  and  to  be  an  infallible 
preservative  against  drowning,  as  well 
as  to  convey  the  gift  of  eloquence. 

CAU'LIFLOWER,  a garden  variety  of 
cabbage,  in  which  cultivation  has  caused 
the  inflorescence  to  assume  when  young 
the  form  of  a compact  fleshy  head, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  as  a table 
vegetable. 

CAULKING  (kak'ing),  of  a sliip, 
driving  a quantity  of  oakum  into  the 
seams  of  the  planks  in  the  ship’s  decks 
or  sides  in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  water.  After  the  oakum  is  driven 
very  hard  into  these  seams  it  is  covered 
with  hot  melted  pitch  to  keep  the  water 
from  rotting  it. 

CAUSALITY,  a term  of  metaphysics 
which  designates  in  general  the  idea 
of  cause.  See  Cause. 

CAUSE,  that  which  produces  an 
effect;  that  from  which  anything  pro- 
ceeds and  without  which  it  would  not 
exist.  In  the  system  of  Aristotle  the 
word  rendered  by  cause  and  its  equiva- 
lents in  modern  language  has  a more 
extensive  signification.  He  divides 
causes  into  four  kinds;  efficient,  formal, 
material,  and  final.  The  efficient  or 
first  cause  is  the  force  or  agency  by 
wliich  a result  is  produced;  the  formal, 
the  means  or  instrument  by  which  it  is 
produced;  the  material,  the  substance 
from  which  it  is  produced;  the  final, 
the  purpose  or  end  for  wliich  it  is  pro- 
duced. In  a general  sense  the  term  is 
used  for  the  reason  or  motive  that  urges, 
moves,  or  impels  the  mind  to  act  or 
decide. 

CAUSTIC,  a name  given  to  substances 
which  have  the  property  of  burning, 
corroding,  or  disintegrating  animal 
matter;  or  of  combining  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  organized  subsitances  and 


CAUSTIC 


CAVOUR 


destroying  their  texture. — Lunar  Caus- 
tic, a name  given  to  nitrate  of  silver  when 
cast  into  sticks  for  the  use  of  surgeons, 
etc. — Caustic  potash,  the  hydrate  of 
potassium. — Caustic  soda,  protoxide  of 
sodium. 

CAUSTIC,  in  optics,  the  name  given 
to  the  curve  to  which  the  rays  of  light, 
reflected  or  refracted  by  another  curve, 
are  tangents. 

CAU'TERY,  in  surgery  the  searing  or 
burning  of  living  flesh  by  a hot  iron 
(actual  cautery)  or  a caustic  substance 
(potential  cautery). 

CAUTION,  a legal  term  signifying 
much  the  same  as  guarantee  or  security, 
now  mostly  used  in  Scots  law. 

CAVAIGNAC  (ka-van-yak),  Louis 
Eugene,  French  general,  born  1802, 
died  1857.  Cavaignac  in  1824  joined 
the  2d  Regiment  of  Engineers,  and 
being  at  Arras  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  was  the  first 
officer  in  his  regiment  to  declare  for  the 
new  order  of  things.  In  1832  he  was 
sent  to  Africa,  where  he  remained  for 
several  years,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself.  When  the  revolution  of  1848 
broke  out  Cavaignac  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  Algeria;  but  on 
being  elected  a member  of  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  he  returned  to  Paris 
and  was  appointed  minister  of  war. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  June  insurrection 
Cavaignac  was  appointed  dictator  with 
unlimited  powers.  Fo'’  three  days  Paris 
presented  a dreadful  scene  of  tumult 
and  bloodshed.  About  15,000  persons 
perished,  and  property  was  destroyed 
to  the  value  of  upward  of  $1,000,000. 
By  the  energy  of  Cavaignac,  aided  by 
the  loyalty  of  the  army  and  the  National 
Guard,  the  insurrection  was  suppressed, 
and  France  saved  from  a threatened 
dissolution  of  all  the  bonds  of  society. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  year  he  became 
a candidate  for  the  presidency  of  the 
republic,  but  was  defeated,  and  Louis 
Napoleon  was  preferred  to  the  office. 
On  20th  December  he  resigned  his  dic- 
tatorship. After  the  coup  d’etat  of  2d 
December,  1851,  he  was  arrested  and 
conveyed  to  the  fortress  of  Ham,  but 
was  liberated  after  about  a month’s 
detention.  In  1852  and  in  1857  he  was 
elected  member  for  Paris  of  the  legis- 
lative body,  but  on  both  occasions  was 
incapacitated  from  taking  his  seat  by 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  emperor. 

CAVALIER  (ka-va-ler'),  a horseman, 
especially  an  armed  horseman;  applied 
in  history  to  the  partisans  of  Charles  L, 
as  opposed  to  Roundheads,  the  ad- 
herents to  the  parliament. 

CAV'ALRY,  a body  of  troops  which 
serve  on  horseback,  one  of  the  three 
great  classes  of  troops,  and  a formidable 
power  in  the  hands  of  a leader  who 
knows  how  to  employ  it  with  effect. 
Its  adaptation  to  speedy  movements  is  a 
great  advantage,  which  enables  a com- 
mander to  avail  himself  immediately 
of  a decisive  moment,  when  the  enemy 
exposes  a weak  point,  or  when  disorder 
appears  in  his  ranks.  It  is  a very  im- 
portant instrument  in  completing  the 
defeat  of  an  enemy,  in  disconcerting  him 
by  a sudden  attack,  or  overthrowing 
him  by  a powerful  shock.  It  is  very 
serviceable  in  protecting  the  wings  and 


center  of  an  army,  for  escorts,  for 
blockading,  for  intercepting  the  supplies, 
of  the  enemy,  for  procuring  intelli- 
gence, for  covering  a retreat,  for  forag- 
ing, etc. 

CAVALRY  AND  LIGHT  ARTILLERY 
SCHOOL,  a school  for  officers  of  the 
cavalry  and  light  artillery  arms  of  the 
United  States  Army.  The  curriculum 
of  the  school  includes  all  that  pertains 
to  the  art  and  science  of  war,  so  far  as 
regards  the  cavalry  and  artillery.  Im- 
provements in  equipment  and  tactics, 
or  the  application  of  new  principles 
affecting  either  branch  of  the  service, 
are  here  tested,  reported  upon,  and 
formulated  to  the  army  at  large.  The 
school  is  located  at  Fort  Riley,  Kan., 
and  is  governed  by  special  regulations 
of  the  War  Department. 

CAV'AN,  an  inland  Irish  county  in 
Ulster;  area,  477,399  acres,  of  which 
three-fourths  are  arable.  Pop.  97,368. 

CAVE,  or  CAVERN,  an  opening  of 
some  size  in  the  solid  ci'ust  of  the  earth 
beneath  the  surface.  Caves  are  prin- 
cipally met  with  in  limestone  rocks, 
sometimes  in  sandstone  and  in  volcanic 
rocks.  Some  of  them  have  a very  grand 
or  picturesque  appearance,  such  as 
Fingal’s  Cave  in  Staffa;  others,  such  as 
the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky,  which 
incloses  an  extent  of  about  40  miles  of 
subterranean  windings,  are  celebrated 
for  their  great  size  and  subterranean 
waters.  Caves  in  which  the  bones  of 
extinct  animals  are  found  owe  their 
origin,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  ac- 
tion of  rain-water  on  limestone  rocks. 
The  deposit  contained  in  them  us- 
ually consists  of  clay,  sand,  and  gravel 
combined.  In  this  are  embedded  the 
animal  remains,  and  stones  either  angu- 
lar or  rounded.  Some  of  the  remains 
found  in  European  caverns  belong  to 
animals  now  found  only  in  the  tropical 
or  subtropical  regions,  and  others  are 
the  remains  of  animals  now  living  in 
more  northerly  areas;  others,  again,  are 
the  relics  of  extinct  animals.  Among 
the  latter  class  of  animals  are  the  cave 
bear  and  lion,  the  mammoth  and  masto- 
don, species  of  rhinoceros,  etc.  Of 
others  that  have  only  migrated  may  be 
mentioned  the  reindeer,  which  is  no 
longer  found  in  Southern  Europe;  and 
the  hyena,  found  in  the  Gibraltar 
caves,  which  now  lives  in  south  Africa. 
The  ibex,  the  chamois,  and  a species  of 
ground  squirrel,  are  shown  to  have  once 
lived  in  the  Dordogne,  but  are  now 
found  only  on  the  heights  of  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees.  Thus  it  is  evident  that 
the  geographical  conditions  of  the 
country  must  have  been  very  different 
from  what  they  are  now.  Man’s  rela- 
tion to  these  extinct  animals,  and  his 
existence  at  the  time  these  changes  took 
place,  are  demonstrated  by  such  dis- 
coveries as  those  of  human  bones  and 
worked  flints  beneath  layers  of  hyena 
droppings. 

CA'VEAT,  in  law,  a process  in  a court 
to  stop  proceedings,  as  to  prevent  the 
enrolment  of  a decree  in  chancery  in 
order  to  gain  time  to  present  a petition 
of  appeal  to  the  lord-chancellor.  In 
the  U.  States  this  name  is  given  to  a 
notice  lodged  in  the  patent-office  by  a 
person  who  wishes  to  patent  an  inven- 
tion, but  desires  to  be  protected  till  he 


has  perfected  it.  It  stands  good  for  a 
year. 

CAVE-MEN,  prehistoric  races  who 
lived  in  caves.  'That  they  were  at  a low 
state  of  civilization,  though  possessed 
of  some  artistic  faculty,  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  they  were  ignorant  of 
the  metals,  of  pottery,  and  of  agricul- 
ture, and  had  no  domestic  animals. 
Their  chief  food  seems  to  have  been  the 
reindeer,  and  their  manner  of  life  was 
probably  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
Eskimos. 

CAVENDISH,  or  CANDISH,  Thomas, 
an  English  circumnavigator  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth;  born  about  1555,  died 
1592.  Having  collected  three  small 
vessels  for  the  purpose  of  making  a pred- 


Thomas  Cavendish. 


atory  voyage  to  the  Spanish  colonies, 
he  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  1586,  took 
and  destroyed  many  vessels,  ravaged 
the  coasts  of  Chili,  Peru,  and  New  Spain, 
and  returned  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
having  circumnavigated  the  globe  in 
two  years  and  forty-nine  days,  the 
shortest  period  in  which  it  had  then  been 
effected.  In  1591  he  set  sail  on  a similar 
expedition,  during  which  he  died. 

CAVIARE  (kav'i-ar),  the  roes  of  cer- 
tain large  fish  prepared  and  salted, 
"rhe  best  is  made  from  the  roes  of  the 
sterlet  and  sturgeon,  caught  in  the  lakes 
or  rivers  of  Russia. 

CAVTD.ffi,  the  guinea-pig  tribe.  See 
Cavy. 

CAVITE  (ka-ve'ta),  a town  in  the 
island  of  Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippines; 
situated  on  the  Bay  of  Manilla,  about  1 1 
miles  s.  w.  of  lilanilla.  It  gives  name  to 
a province  with  a pop.  of  57,000.  Pop. 
of  town  about  7000. 

CAVOUR  (ka-v6r'),  Count  Camillo 
Benso  di,  a distinguished  Italian  states- 
man, was  born  at  Turin  in  1809  or  1810, 
died  1861.  He  became  a member  of  the 
Sardinian  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1849, 
and  the  following  year  minister  of  com- 
merce and  agricullture.  In  1852  he  be- 
came premier,  and  not  long  afterward 
took  an  active  part  in  cementing  an 
alliance  with  Great  Britain  and  France, 
and  making  common  cause  with  these 
powers  against  Russia,  during  the 
Crimean  War.  The  attitude,  however, 
thus  taken  by  Sardinia  could  not  fail  to 
prove  offensive  to  Austria.  A collision, 
therefore,  was  inevitable,  resulting  in 
the  campaign  of  1859.  The  intimate 
connection  formed  at  that  time  with 
France,  who  lent  her  powerful  assistance 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  waa 


CAVY 


CECILIA 


mainly  due  to  the  agency  of  Cavour, 
who  was  accused  by  some  on  this 
occasion  of  having  purchased  the  assist- 
ance of  Napoleon  III.  by  unduly  coun- 
tenancing his  ambitious  projects.  In 
1860  Garibaldi’s  expedition  to  Sicily 


Count  Cavour. 


took  place;  but  toward  this  and  the 
subsequent  movements  of  the  Italian 
liberator  Count  Cavour  was  forced  to 
maintain  an  apparent  coldness.  He 
lived  to  see  the  meeting  of  the  first 
Italian  parliament,  which  decreed  Victor 
Emmanuel  king  of  Italy. 

CA'VY,  the  popular  name  for  a genus 
of  rodent  animals,  family  Cavidae,  char- 
acterized by  molars  without  roots,  fore- 
feet with  five  toes,  hinder  with  three, 
and  the  absence  of  a tail  and  clavicles. 
They  are  natives  of  tropical  America, 
the  most  familiar  example  of  this  genus 
being  the  guinea-pig. 

CAWNPORE',  a town,  India,  United 
Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  which  is  here  about  a mile  wide, 
130  miles  n.w.  from  Allahabad,  628 
miles  n.w.  of  Calcutta,  and  266  miles 
s.e.  of  Delhi.  Pop.  197,170. 

In  1857  the  native  regiments  stationed 
here  mutinied  and  marched  off,  placing 


themselves  under  the  command  of  the 
Rajah  of  Bithoor,  the  notorious  Nana 
Sahib.  General  Wheeler,  the  com- 
mander of  the  European  forces,  de- 
fended his  position  for  some  days,  was  at 
length  iiiduced  to  surrender  to  the  rebels 
on  condition  of  his  party  being  allowed 
to  quit  the  place  uninjured.  This  was 


agreed  to ; but  after  the  European 
troops  had  embarked  in  boats  on  the 
Ganges,  they  were  treacherously  fired 
on  by  the  rebels;  many  were  killed,  and 
the  remainder  conveyed  back  to  the 
city,  where  the  men  were  massacred 
and  the  women  and  children  placed  in 
confinement.  The  approach  of  General 
Havelock  to  Cawnpore  roused  the  brutal 
instincts  of  the  Nana,  and  he  ordered 
his  hapless  prisoners  to  be  slaughtered, 
and  their  bodies  to  be  thrown  into  a well. 
The  following  day  he  was  obliged,  by 
the  victorious  progress  of  Havelock,  to 
retreat  to  Bithoor. 

CAXAMARCA,  or  CAJAMARCA  (ka- 
/ia-mar'kii),  a department  and  town, 
Peru;  area  of  the  department  about 
14,200  sq.  miles;  pop.  442,412.  The 
town  is  situated  about  70  miles  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  280  n.  Lima.  Pop. 
18,400. 

CAXTON,  William,  the  introducer  of 
the  art  of  printing  into  Britain,  was  born 
in  the  Weald  of  Kent  about  1422,  died 
at  Westminster  1491.  He  had  trans- 
lated the  popular  mediaeval  romance 
Le  Recueil  des  Histoires  de  Troye 
(Collection  of  the  Histories  of  Troy), 
and  in  order  to  multiply  copies  he 
learned  the  newly-discovered  art  of 
printing.  It  was  printed  either  at 
Cologne  or  Bruges  about  1474,  and  is  the 
earliest  specimen  of  typography  in  the 
English  language.  The  Game  and  Playe 
of  the  Chesse,  Bruges,  1475,  is  the  second 
English  book  printed.  In  1476  he 
returned  to  England,  and  in  1477 
printed  at  Westminster  The  Dictes  and 
Sayings  of  the  Philosophers,  the  first 
book  printed  in  England.  In  fourteen 
years  he  printed  nearly  80  separate 
books,  nearly  all  of  folio  size,  some  of 
which  passed  through  two  editions,  and  a 
few  through  three.  He  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  St.  Margaret’s,  Westminster. 

CAYENNE  PEPPER,  or  CAPSICUM, 
the  name  given  to  the  powder  formed 


of  the  dried  and  ground  fruits,  and  more 
especially  the  seeds,  of  various  species 
of  Capsicum.  It  is  used  as  a condiment 
to  improve  the  flavor  of  food,  aid  diges- 
tion, and  prevent  flatulence.  In  medi- 
cine it  is  used  as  a stimulent,  and  is  a 
valuable  gargle  for  a relaxed  throat. 
See  Capsicum. 


CAYMAN.  See  Caiman. 

CAYVAN,  Georgia,  an  American 
actress  born  at  Bath,  Me.,  in  1858.  She 
made  her  debut  as  Hebe  in  Pinafore  at 
Boston  in  1879.  In  1880  her  first 
success  as  an  actress  wa.s  made  in  Hazel 
Kirke,  and  until  her  retirement  in  1897 
she  played  in  various  society  plays  and 
melodramas. 

CEARA  (sa-a-ra'),  a state  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Brazil;  area,  50,247 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  of  state,  805,687;  of 
town  Ceara,  40,902. 

CEBU  (tha-bo'),  one  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  lying  between  Luzon  and  Slin- 
danao,  135  miles  long,  with  an  extreme 
width  of  30  miles.  Sugar  cultivation 
and  the  manufacture  of  abaca  are  the 
chief  industries.  Pop.  320,000.  The 
town  of  Cebu,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
island,  the  oldest  Spanish  settlement  on 
the  Philippines,  is  a place  of  considerable 
trade,  and  has  a cathedral  and  several 
churches 

CECIL  (ses'il),  Robert,  Earl  of  Salis- 
bury, English  statesman,  second  son  of 
William  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh,  born 


about  1563.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Francis 
Walsingham  he  succeeded  him  as  prin- 
cipal secretary,  and  continued  to  be  a 
confidential  minister  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth to  the  end  of  her  reign.  In  1608 
Lord  Salisbury  was  made  lord  high- 
treasurer,  an  office  which  he  held  till  his 
death  in  1612. — William,  Lord  Burleigh, 
eminent  English  statesman,  was  the  son 
of  Richard  Cecil,  master  of  the  robes 
to  Henry  VIII.,  and  was  born  at  Bourne, 
in  Lincolnshire,  in  1520,  died  1598. 
He  held  no  public  office  during  the 
reign  of  Mary,  and  by  extraordinary 
caution  managed  to  escape  persecution. 
On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was 
appointed  privy-councillor  and  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  during  all  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  was  at  the  helm  of  affairs. 
On  the  suppression  of  the  northern 
rebellion  in  1571  Elizabeth  raised  him 
to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron 
Burleigh.  Much  of  the  glory  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  is  due  to  the  counsels 
and  measures  of  Cecil.  His  character 
in  private  life  was  very  attractive. 

CECILTA,  Saint,  the  patron  saint  of 
music,  who  has  been  falsely  regarded  as 
the  inventress  of  the  organ,  and  who  is 
said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  a..d. 
230,  although  other  dates  are  given. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  her 
festival  (Nov.  22)  is  made  the  occasion 
of  splendid  music.  Her  story  forms  one 
of  Chaucer’s  Canterbury  ^ Tales,  and 


CEDAR 


CELLULOID 


Dryden  in  his  Alexander’s  Feast,  and 
Pope  in  his  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia’s  Day, 
have  sung  her  praises.  Raphael,  Domeni- 
chino,  Dolce,  and  Mignard,  have  rep- 
resented her  in  celebrated  paintings. 

CE'DAR,  a tree  which  forms  fine 
woods  on  the  mountains  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  an  evergreen,  grows 
to  a great  size,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  durability.  Of  the  famous  cedars  of 


Cedar  of  Lebanon. 

Lebanon  comparatively  few  now  remain, 
and  the  tree  does  not  grow  in  any  other 
part  of  Palestine.  The  most  celebrated 
group  is  situated  not  far  from  the  village 
of  Tripoli,  at  an  elevation  of  about  6000 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  circumference 
of  the  twelve  largest  trees  here  varies 
from  about  18  to  47  feet.  Cedar  timber 
was  formerly  much  prized,  but  in  mod- 
ern times  is  not  regarded  as  of  much 
value,  perhaps  from  the  trees  not  being 
of  sufficient  age.  The  name  is  given 
also  to  the  deodar  wliich  is  indeed  re- 
garded by  many  botanists  as  a mere 
variety  of  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and 
which  produces  excellent  timber.  It 
is  a native  of  India,  and  is  a large  and 
handsome  tree,  growing  in  the  Hima- 
layas to  the  height  of  150  feet,  with  a 
circumference  of  30.  It  has  wide- 
spreading  branches,  whfth  droop  a little 
at  the  extremities.  The  leaves  are 
tufted  or  solitary,  larger  than  those  of 
the  cedar  of  Lebanon  and  very  numer- 
ous, of  a dark-bluish  green,  and  covered 
with  a glaucous  bloom.  The  cones  are 
rather  larger  than  those  of  the  Lebanon 
cedar,  and  very  resinous.  The  wood  is 
well  adapted  for  building  purposes, 
being  compact  and  very  enduring. 

CEDAR  RAPIDS,  a flourishing  town 
in  Iowa,  on  Red  Cedar  River,  with  large 
railway  machine-shops  and  numerous 
industrial  establishments.  Pop.  30,000. 

CEILING,  the  inner  covering  of  a 
room,  apartment,  hall,  or  other  en- 
closure. Ceilings  may  be  decorated  in 
various  ways,  by  paintings,  sculpture 
in  bas  relief,  stucco,  or  by  those  curved 
lines  called  in  the  Pompeiian  style. 
Ceilings,  especially  of  domes,  or  dome- 
like structures  may  be  made  in  glass. 
Famous  ceilings  are  those  of  numerous 
churches  in  Europe,  as  St.  Mark’s  in 
Venice,  and  the  Byzantine  churches  of 
Constantinople. 

CELEBES  (seTe-bez),  one  of  the  larger 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  be- 
tween Borneo  on  the  w.  and  the  Moluc- 


cas on  the  e.  Gold  is  found  in  all  the 
valleys  of  the  north  peninsula,  which 
abounds  in  sulphur.  Copper  occurs  at 
various  points,  and  in  Macassar  tin  also. 
Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones  are 
found.  The  maritime  districts  are  in- 
habited by  Malays;  the  Peninsula  of 
Macassar  is  occupied  by  Bugis  and 
Macassars.  Mandhars  dwell  in  the  w. 
of  the  island,  and  , the  mountainous 
regions  in  the  interior,  especially  in  the 
n.,  are  inhabited  by  Alfoories.  The 
inhabitants  may  be  classed  into  two 
groups;  the  Mohammedan  semi-civilized 
tribes,  and  the  pagans,  who  are  more  or 
less  savages.  The  capital  is  Macassar,  in 
the  s.w.  of  the  island.  Pop.  estimated 
at  1,000,000. 

CEL'ERY,  an  umbelliferous  plant. 
There  are  two  varieties  in  cultivation, 
viz.  red  and  white  stalked,  and  of  these 
many  sub-varieties.  Celery  is  commonly 
blanched  by  heaping  up  the  soil  about 
the  plants. 

CELTBACY,  the  state  of  being  celibate 
or  unmarried;  specially  applied  to  the 
voluntary  life  of  abstinence  from  mar- 
riage followed  by  many  religious  de- 
votees and  by  some  orders  of  clergy,  as 
those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  ancient  Egyptian  priests  preserved 
a rigid  chastity;  the  priestesses  of 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome  were  pledged 
to  perpetual  virginity;  and  celibacy  is 
the  rule  with  the  Buddhist  priests  of  the 
East.  Among  Christians  the  earliest 
aspirants  to  the  spiritual  perfection 
supposed  to  be  attainable  through  celib- 
acy were  not  ecclesiastics  as  such,  but 
hermits  and  anchorites  who  aimed  at 
superior  sanctity.  During  the  first  three 
centuries  the  marriage  of  the  clergy  was 
freely  permitted,  but  by  the  Council  of 
Elvira  (305)  continence  was  enjoined 
on  all  who  served  at  the  altar.  For 
centuries  this  subject  led  to  many 
struggles  in  the  church,  but  was  finally 
settled  by  Gregory  VII.  positively  for- 
bidding the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (1593)  confirmed 
this  rule.  In  the  Greek  Church  celibacy 
is  not  compulsory  on  the  ordinary 
clergy.  Protestants  hold  that  there  is  no 
moral  superiority  in  celibacy  over  mar- 
riage, and  that  the  church  has  no  right 
to  impose  such  an  obligation  on  any 
class  of  her  ministers. 

CELL,  a term  of  various  applications. 
(1)  Ecclesiastically  it  was  sometimes 
applied  to  a lesser  or  subordinate  re- 
ligious house,  dependent  upon  a greater. 
The  apartments  or  private  dormitories 


Cells  of  round  or  oval  form, 
a,  Border  of  the  cell  or  cell-wall;  6,  cell  sub- 
stance; cc,  nuclei;  dd.  nucleoli. 

of  monks  and  nuns  are  also  called  cells. 
The  term  cell  is  applied  also  to  the  part 
of  the  interior  of  a temple  where  the 
image  of  a god  stood.  (2)  In  electricity 
the  term  is  appUed  to  a single  jar,  bath, 
or  division  of  a compound  vessel,  con- 
taining a couple  of  plates,  generally 


copper  and  zinc,  united  to  their  op- 
posites or  to  each  other,  usually  by  a 
wire.  (3)  In  biol.  a cell  is  a micro- 
scopically small  semi-fluid  portion  of 
matter,  consisting  of  a soft  mass  of 
living,  contractile,  jelly-like  matter,  and 
a central  structure,  consisting  of  a small, 
roundish  body,  called  the  nucleus, 
generally  more  solid  than  the  rest  of 
the  cell,  and  which  may  have  within  it 
a still  more  minute  body,  the  nucleolus. 
The  cell  substance  or  protoplasm  (see 
Protoplasm)  wliich  surrounds  the  nu- 
cleus is  an  albuminous  substance  possess- 
ing fundamental  vital  properties,  and 
believed  to  be  the  starting  point  of  all 
animal  and  vegetable  organisms.  The 
cell-wall  when  present  consists  of  an 
alteration  of  the  external  portion  of  the 
cell  body,  and  is  not  a separate  structure. 
All  cells  have  but  a very  limited  dura- 
tion, so  the  tissues  are  being  constantly 
renewed. 

CELLA,  part  of  a temple.  See  Cell. 

CELLINI  (chel-le'ne),  Benvenu'to,  a 
sculptor,  engraver,  and  goldsmith,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1500,  and  died  there 
in  1571  or  1572.  Of  a bold,  honest,  and 
open  character,  but  vain  and  quarrel- 
some, he  was  often  entangled  in  disputes 
which  frequently  cost  his  antagonists 
their  lives.  At  the  siege  of  Rome  (if 
we  believe  his  own  account,  given  in  his 
autobiography)  he  killed  the  Constable 
of  Bourbon  and  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
He  was  afterward  imprisoned  on  the 
charge  (probably  false)  of  having  stolen 
the  jewels  of  the  Papal  crown,  and  with 
difficulty  escaped  execution.  He  then 
visited  the  court  of  Francis  I.  of  France. 
He  afterward  returned  to  Florence, 
and  under  the  patronage  of  Cosmo  de’ 
Medici  made  a Perseus  with  the  head 
of  Medusa  in  bronze,  which  is  still  an 
ornament  of  one  of  the  public  squares; 
also  a statue  of  Christ,  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Pitti  Palace,  besides  many  ex- 
cellent dies  for  coins  and  medals. 

CELLULAR  THEORY,  in  physiology, 
that  theory  which  derives  all  vegetable 
and  animal  tissues  from  the  union  and 
metamorphosis  of  primitive  cells. 

CELLULAR  TISSUE,  in  physiology, 
a name  for  what  is  also  called  the  areolar 
tissue.  In  botany,  the  term  is  applied 


Cellular  tissue  in  plants. 


to  the  soft  substance  of  plants,  com- 
posed of  elementary  vesicles  or  cells 
without  woody  or  vascular  tissues. 

CELL'ULOID,  an  artificial  substance 
e-xtensively  used  as  a substitute  for 


. .Mr  -< 


CELLULOSE 


CENTER  OF  OSCILLATION 


ivory,  bone,  hard  rubber,  coral,  etc,, 
having  a close  resemblance  to  these 
substances  in  hardness,  elasticity,  and 
texture.  It  is  composed  of  cellulose  or 
vegetable  fibrine  reduced  by  acids  to 
pyroxyline  (or  gun-cotton),  camphor 
is  then  added,  and  the  compound 
moulded  by  heat  and  pressure  to  the 
desired  shape.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  such 
articles  as  buttons,  handles  for  knives, 
forks,  and  umbrellas,  billiard-balls, 
backs  to  brushes,  piano  keys,  napkin- 
rings,  opera-glass  frames,  etc.  It  can 
be  variously  colored. 

CELL'ULOSE,  the  substance  of  which 
the  permanent  cell-membranes  of  plants 
are  always  composed.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  sugar,  dextrin,  or  gum  and 
starch,  and  is  changed  into  the  latter  by 
heat,  sulphuric  acid,  or  caustic  potash. 

CELTS,  the  earliest  Aryan  settlers  in 
Europe  according  to  the  common  theory. 
They  appear  to  have  been  driven  west- 
ward by  succeeding  waves  of  Teutons, 
Slavonians,  and  others,  but  there  are  no 
means  of  fixing  the  periods  at  which  any 
of  these  movements  took  place.  Herod- 
otus mentions  them  as  mixing  with 
the  Iberians  who  dwelt  round  the  river 
Ebro  in  Spain.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
historic  period  they  were  the  predomi- 
nant race  in  Britain,  Ireland,  France, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  N.  Italy,  Spain, 
and  elsewhere.  The  Romans  called 
them  generally  Galli,  that  is  Gauls  or 
Gael.  They  appear  to  have  reached  the 
zenith  of  their  power  in  the  2d  and  3d 
centuries  b.c.  Some  tribes  of  them 
overrunning  Greece,  settled  in  a part  of 
Asia  Minor,  to  which  the  name  of 
Galatia  was  given.  They  finally  went 
down  before  the  resistless  power  of 
Rome,  and  either  became  absorbed 
with  the  conquering  races  or  were 
cooped  up  in  the  extreme  n.w.  of  Europe. 
At  at  early  date  the  Celts  divided  into 
two  great  branches,  speaking  dialects 
widely  differing  from  each  other,  but 
doubtless  belonging  to  the  same  stock. 
One  of  these  branches  is  the  Gadhelic 
or  Gaelic,  represented  by  the  Highland- 
ers of  Scotland,  the  Celtic  Irish,  and  the 
Manx;  the  other  is  the  Cymric,  repre- 
sented by  the  Welsh,  the  inhabitants  of 
Cornwall,  and  those  of  Brittany.  The 
Cornish  dialect  is  now  extinct.  The  sun 
seems  to  have  been  the  principal  object 
of  worship  among  the  Celts,  and  groves 
of  oak  and  the  remarkable  circles  of 
stone  commonly  called  “Druidical  Cir- 
cles,” their  temples  of  worship.  All 
the  old  Celts  seem  to  have  possessed  a 
kind  of  literary  order  called  Bards. 
The  ancient  Irish  wrote  in  a rude 
alphabet  called  the  Ogham,  later 
they  employed  the  Roman  alpha- 
bet, or  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  it.  The 
chief  literature  existing  consists  of  the 
hymns,  martyrologies,  annals,  and  laws 
of  Ireland,  written  from  the  9th  to  the 
16th  centuries.  The  Scottish  Gaelic 
literature  extant  includes  a collection 
of  MSS.  in  the  Advocates'  Library, 
Edinburgh,  some  of  which  date  from 
the  12th  century;  the  Book  of  the  Dean 
of  Lismore,  16th  century;  a number  of 
songs  from  the  17th  century  to  the 
present  day;  and  the  co-called  poems  of 
Ossian.  The  Welsh  literary  remains 
date  from  the  9th  century,  and  consist 
of  glossaries,  grammars,  annals,  gene- 


alogies, histories,  poems,  prose  tales,  etc. 

CEMENTS',  the  general  name  for 
glutinous  or  other  substances  capable  of 
uniting  bodies  in  close  cohesion.  In 
building  the  name  is  given  to  a stronger 
kind  of  mortar  than  thatt  which  is 
ordinarily  used,  consisting  of  those 
hydraulic  hmes  which  contain  silica 
and  therefore  set  quickly.  Cements  are 
variously  composed,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  surfaces  to  which  they  are 
applied  and  their  exposure  to  heat  or 
moisture.  Hydraulic  or  water  cements 
harden  under  water  and  consolidate 
almost  immediately  on  being  mixed. 
Of  this  kind  are  the  Roman  and  Port- 
land cements. 

CEM'ETERY.  See  Burying-places. 

CENCI  (chen'che),  Beatrice,  called 
the  beautiful  parricide,  the  daughter  of 
Francesco  Cenci,  a noble  and  wealthy 
Roman  (1527-98),  who,  according  to  the 
common  story,  after  his  second  marriage, 
behaved  toward  the  children  of  his  first 
marriage  in  the  most  shocking  manner, 
procured  the  assassination  of  two  of  his 
sons,  on  their  return  from  Spain,  and 
debauched  his  youngest  daughter  Bea- 
trice. She  failed  in  an  appeal  for  pro- 
tection to  the  pope,  and  planned  and 
executed  the  murder  of  her  father.  She 
was  beheaded  1599  and  the  Cenci  estates 
confiscated. 

CENIS  (se-ne').  Mount,  a mountain 
belonging  to  the  Graian  Alps,  between 
Savoy  and  Piedmont,  11,755  feet  high. 
It  is  famous  for  the  winding  road  con- 
structed by  Napoleon  I.  which  leads 
over  it  from  France  to  Italy,  and  for 
an  immense  railway  tunnel,  which,  after 
nearly  fourteen  years’  labor,  was  fin- 
ished in  1871.  The  tunnel  does  not 
actually  pass  through  the  mountain, 
but  through  the  Col  de  Fr^jus,  about  15 
miles  to  the  s.w.,  where  it  was  found 
possible  to  construct  it  at  a lower  level. 
The  Mount  Cenis  Pass  is  6765  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  whereas  the 
elevation  of  the  entrance  to  the  tunnel 
on  the  side  of  Savoy  is  only  3801  feet, 
and  that  on  the  sid^  of  Piedmont  4246 
feet.  The  total  length  of  the  tunnel  is 
12,849  meters  (42,145  feet,  or  nearly  8 
miles).  The  total  cost  amounted  to 
$13,000,000,  which  was  borne  partly  by 
the  French  and  Italian  governments 
and  partly  by  the  Northern  Railway 
Company  of  Italy.  The  tunnel  super- 
seded a grip  railway  which  was  con- 
structed over  the  mountain  by  Mr.  Fell, 
an  English  engineer,  1864-68. 

CEN'SER,  a vase  or  pan  in  which 
incense  is  burned;  a vessel  for  burning 
and  wafting  incense.  Among  the 
ancient  Jews  the  censer  was  used  to 
offer  perfumes  in  sacrifices.  Censers, 
called  also  thuribles,  are  still  used  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  at  mass,  ves- 
pers, and  other  offices,  as  well  as  in 
some  Anglican  and  other  churches. 
They  are  of  various  forms.  In  Shake- 
speare’s time  the  term  was  applied  to  a 
bottle  perforated  and  ornamented  at 
the  top,  used  for  sprinkling  perfume, 
or  to  a pan  for  burning  any  odoriferous 
substance. 

CENSUS,  an  enumeration  of  the  peo- 
ple of  a country,  together  with  an 
ascertainment  of  all  the  various  social 
and  industrial  facts  concerning  them. 
The  first  census  of  the  United  States  was 


taken  in  1790  for  the  purpose  of  appor- 
tioning representatives.  Each  succeed- 
ing decade  a new  census  is  taken  and 
the  facts  thus  gathered  are  carefully 
correlated  and  published  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  director  of  the  census  is 
appointed  by  the  president.  Census 
taking  originated  with  King  Servius 
of  Rome  in  577  b.c. 

CENT,  Centime  (san-tem),  etc.,  the 
name  of  a small  coin  in  various  countries, 
so-called  as  being  equal  to  a hundredth 
part  of  some  other  coin.  In  the  U. 
States  and  in  Canada  the  cent  is  the 
hundredth  part  of  a dollar.  In  France 
the  centime  is  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
franc.  Similar  coins  are  the  centavo 
of  Chili;  and  the  centesimo  of  Italy, 
Peru,  etc.  Cents  or  centimes,  and  their 
equivalents,  are  written  simply  as 
decimals  of  the  unit  of  value. 

CEN'TADRS,  in  Greek  myth,  fabulous 
beings  represented  as  half  man,  half 
horse. 


CEN'TENARY,  the  commemoration 
of  any  event,  as  the  birth  of  a great 
man,  which  occurred  100  years  before. 

CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION,  an  in- 
ternational exposition  held  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1876  to  commemorate  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  There 
were  upward  of  50,000  exhibits  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  13,104  exhibitors, 
and  a total  of  9,910,966  admissions. 
The  largest  number  of  persons  attend- 
ing in  any  one  day  was  274,919  on 
Pennsylvania  Day  (Sept.  28).  It  was 
the  first  of  the  great  international  ex- 
positions held  in  the  U.  States  and 
marked  a new  era  in  the  industrial 
development  of  the  nation. 

CENTER-BOARD,  a sort  of  movable 
keel  used  especially  in  American  yachts, 
and  capable  of  being  raised  and  lowered 
in  a well  extending  longitudinally 
amidships.  It  tends  to  prevent  leeway 
and  gives  the  vessel  greater  stability 
when  under  a press  of  canvas. 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY,  that  point  of 
a body  through  which  the  line  of  the 
resultant  of  the  weights  of  all  the  par- 
ticles composing  the  body  always  passes, 
whatever  be  the  position  of  the  body. 

CENTER  OF  GYRATION,  the  point 
at  which,  if  the  whole  mass  of  a revolv- 
ing body  were  collected,  the  rotatory 
effect  would  remain  unaltered. 

CENTER  OF  OSCILLATION,  that 
point  of  a body  suspended  by  an  axis, 
at  which,  if  all  the  matter  were  concen- 


CENTER  OF  PRESSURE 


CERUSITE 


trated,  the  oscillations  would  be  per- 
formed in  the  same  time. 

CENTER  OF  PRESSURE,  that  point 
of  a body  at  which  the  whole  amount 
of  pressure  may  be  applied  with  the 
same  effect  as  it  would  produce  if  dis- 
tributed ; specifically,  in  hydro-statics, 
that  point  in  the  side  of  a vessel  con- 
taining a liquid,  to  which,  if  a force  were 
applied  equal  to  the  total  pressure  and 
in  the  opposite  direction,  it  would 
exactly  balance  the  effort  of  the  total 
pressure. 

CENTIGRADE.  See  Thermometer. 

CENTIME.  See  Cent. 

CEN'TIPEDE,  a term  applied  to  vari- 
ous insect-like  creatures  having  many 
feet,  and  a body  consisting  of  numerous 
similar  rings  or  segments.  Those  of 
tropical  countries  inflict  severe  and  often 
dangerous  bites.  They  sometimes  grow 
to  a foot  in  length. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA,  a geographical 
division,  including  the  stretch  of  ter- 
ritory from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  but  by 
political  arrangements  the  limits  most 
generally  assigned  to  it  include  the  five 
republican  states  of  Guatemala,  Hon- 
duras, San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Rica,  with  British  Honduras, 
and  the  Mosquito  Coast.  It  thus  has 
Mexico  on  the  n.w.,  Colombia  on  the 
s.e.,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Carib- 
bean Sea  on  either  side.  Its  entire 
length  may  be  about  800  miles,  with  a 
breadth  varying  from  between  20  and  30 
to  350  miles.  It  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, contains  a number  of  active 
volcanoes,  and  on  the  whole  is  a rich 
and  fertile,  but  almost  totally  un- 
developed region.  The  area  is  about 
181,500  sq.  miles;  the  pop.  5,000,000. 

CENTRAL  FALLS,  a city  in  Provi- 
dence Co.,  R.  I.,  4 miles  north  of 
Providence  on  the  Blackstone  River, 
and  on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and 
Hartford  Railroad.  Pop.  21,717. 

CENTRAL  INDIA  AGENCY,  a collec- 
tion of  states  in  Hindustan,  consisting 
of  four  divisions  or  agencies,  viz. : 
Gwalior,  Bundelkhand,  Baghelkhand, 
and  Nimar,  and  Malwa,  under  the 
ultimate  charge  of  the  governor-gen- 
eral’s agent  at  Indore ; chief  states, 
Gwalior,  Indore,  Bhopal,  and  Rewah. 
These  states  cover  an  area  of  78,772 
sq.  miles,  and  have  a pop.  o/  8,628,781. 

CENTRALIZATION,  a term  in  a 
specific  sense  applied  to  a system  of 
government  where  the  tendency  is  to 
administer  by  the  central  government 
matters  which  had  been  previously,  or 
might  very  well  be,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  local  authorities. 

CENTRAL  PROVINCES,  an  extensive 
British  territory  in  India.  They  became 
a separate  administration  in  1861,  and 
are  under  the  authority  of  a chief  com- 
missioner. Their  total  area  is  115,936 
sq.  miles,  of  which  86,501  sq.  miles  are 
British  territory,  and  29,435  the  terri- 
tory of  native  protected  states,  fifteen 
in  number.  In  1891  the  population, 
including  the  native  states,  was  12,944,- 
805  persons;  in  1901  it  was  11,873,029. 
For  administrative  purposes  the  prov- 
ince is  divided  into  four  commissioner- 
ships,  Jabalpur,  (Jubbulpore),  Nagpur, 
Narbada  (Nerbudda),  and  Chhattis- 
garh. 


CENTRIF'UGALand  CENTRIP'ETAL, 

in  bot.,  terms  applied  to  two  kinds  of 
inflorescence,  the  former  being  that  in 
which  the  terminal  or  central  flower  is 
the  first  to  expand,  as  in  a true  cyme 
(examples,  elder  and  valerian),  the  latter 
being  that  kind  in  which  the  lower  or 
outer  flower  is  the  first  to  expand,  as  in 
spikes,  racemes,  umbels,  and  corymbs. 
The  laburnum,  hemlock,  and  daisy  are 
examples. 

CENTRIFUGAL  AND  CENTRIPETAL 
FORCE.  See  Central  Forces. 

CENTU'RION,  in  the  ancient  Roman 
army,  the  commander  of  a century,  or 
body  of  100  men,  but  afterward  an 
indefinite  number,  the  sixtieth  part  of  a 
legion.  The  rank  of  a centurion  cor- 
responded pretty  much  to  that  of  a 
captain  in  modern  armies. 

CENTURY- PLANT,  a popular  name 
of  the  American  aloe. 

CERAM',  an  island  in  the  Moluccas, 
lying  w.  of  New  Guinea;  area  about 
7000  sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated  at  200,- 
000. 

CERAM'IC  ART,  that  department  of 
plastic  art  which  comprises  all  objects 
made  of  baked  clay,  as  vases,  cups,  urns, 
bassi-nlievi,  statuettes,  etc.,  and  in- 
cluding all  the  varieties  of  earthenware 
and  porcelain  which  can  be  regarded  as 
works  of  art. 

CERASTES,  a genus  of  African 
vipers,  remarkable  for  their  fatal  venom, 
and  for  two  little  horns  formed  by  the 


Cerastes  vulgaris. 

scales  above  the  eyes.  Hence  they  have 
received  the  name  of  horned  vipers. 
The  tail  is  very  distinct  from  the  body. 

CER'BERUS,  in  classical  mythology, 
the  dog-monster  of  Hades,  variously 
described  as  having  a hundred,  fifty, 


Cerberus— Antique  bronze. 

and  three  heads,  with  a serpent’s  tail, 
and  a mane  consisting  of  the  heads  of 
various  snakes.  He  was  subdued  by 
Hercules. 


CE'REALS,  a term  derived  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  corn,  though  some- 
times extended  to  leguminous  plants, 
as  beans,  lentils,  etc.,  is  more  usually 
and  properly  confined  to  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  oats,  and  other  grasses,  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  their  seed  as  food. 

CEREBRA'TION,  exertion  or  action 
of  the  brain,  conscious  or  unconscious. 

CEREBRO-SPINAL,  pertaining  to  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  together,  looked 
on  as  forming  one  nerve  mass. 

CEREBRUM  and  CEREBELLUM. 
See  Brain. 

CEREMONY,  an  act  done  with  a cer- 
tain amount  of  solemnity,  v/hether  of  a 
joyous,  sad,  indifferent  nature.  Cere- 
monial institutions  are  traced  back 
to  remote  antiquity  and  have  an  un- 
doubted primitive  origin.  That  origin 
is  doubtless  of  a religious  nature  and  all 
living  ceremonies  have  some  associa- 
tion, whether  obvious  or  not,  with 
ancient  religious  fear,  veneration,  fit 
piety. 

CERES  (se'rez),  a Roman  goddess, 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  Demeter; 
she  was  the  daughter  of  Kronos  and 
Rhea,  and  the  mother  of  Proserpine  and 
Bacchus.  She  was  the  goddess  of  the 
earth  in  its  capacity  of  bringing  forth 
fruits,  especially  watching  over  the 
growth  of  grain  and  other  plants.  The 
Romans  celebrated  in  her  honor  the 
festival  of  the  Cerealia.  Ceres  was 
always  represented  in  full  attire,  her 
attributes  being  ears  of  corn  and 
poppies,  and  her  sacrifices  consisted  of 
pigs  and  cows. — Also  a planet  discovered 
by  M.  Piazzi  at  Palermo,  in  Sicily,  in 
1801.  It  was  the  first  discovered  of  the 
asteroids.  Its  size  is  less  than  that  of  the 
moon. 

CERTIFICATE,  a written  attestation 
of  the  truth  of  a fact.  Certificates  are 
used  to  attest  graduation  from  high 
schools  (diplomas),  and  the  law  often 
requires  certificates  for  the  practice  of 
trade  or  professions.  The  United  States 
army  issues  certificates  of  merit  which 
entitle  the  holder  to  extra  pay  of  $2 
per  month 

CERTIORA'RI,  in  law,  a writ  issuing 
out  of  a superior  court  to  call  up  the 
records  of  an  inferior  court  or  remove 
a cause  there  depending,  that  it  may 
be  tried  in  the  superior  court.  This  writ 
is  obtained  upon  the  complaint  of  a 
party  that  he  has  not  received  justice, 
or  that  he  cannot  have  an  impartial 
trial  in  the  inferior  court. 

CERU'LEUM,  a blue  pigment,  con- 
sisting of  stannate  of  protoxide  of 
cobalt  mixed  with  stannic  acid  and 
sulphate  of  lime. 

CERU'MINOUS  GLANDS,  the  glands 
of  the  ear  which  secrete  the  cerumen  or 
wax  which  lubricates  the  passage  to  the 
tympanum  and  prevents  the  entrance 
of  foreign  matter. 

CERUSE  (se'rus),  white-lead,  car- 
bonate of  lead  produced  by  exposing 
the  metal  in  thin  plates  to  the  vapor  of 
acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  It  is  much  used 
in  painting,  and  a cosmetic  is  made 
from  it. 

CE'RUSITE,  a native  carbonate  of 
lead,  next  to  galena  the  must  abundant 
ore  of  lead.  When  heated  it  decrepitates 
and  is  converted  into  oxide  of  lead. 


CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA 


CEYLON 


CERVANTES  SAAVEDRA  (tlier-van'- 
tes  sii-a-va'c/ra-),  Miguel  de,  author  of 
Don  Quixote,  born  at  Alcala  de  Henares 
in  1547,  and  removed  thence  to  Madrid 
at  the  age  of  seven.  He  commenced 
writing  verses  at  an  early  age,  and  his 
pastoral  Filena  attracted  the  notice  of 
Cardinal  Acquaviva,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  Italy  as  page.  In  1570  he 
served  under  Colonna  in  the  war  against 
the  Turks  and  African  corsairs,  and  in 
the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571)  he  lost  the 
use  of  his  left  hand.  After  this  he  joined 
the  troops  at  Naples,  in  the  service  of 
the  Spanish  king,  winning  the  highest 
reputation  as  a soldier.  In  1575,  while 
returning  to  liis  country,  he  was  taken 
by  the  corsair  Arnaut  Mami,  and  sold 
in  Algiers  as  a slave — a condition  in 
wliich  he  remained  for  seven  years,  dis- 
playing great  fortitude.  In  1580  his 
friends  and  relations  at  length  ran- 
somed him,  and,  rejoining  his  old 
regiment,  he  fought  in  the  naval  battle 
and  subsequent  storming  of  Terceira. 
In  1583,  however,  he  retired  from 
service  and  recommenced  his  literary 
work,  publishing  in  1584  his  pastoral 
Galatea.  In  the  same  year  he  married, 
and  lived  for  a long  time  by  writing  for 
the  stage,  to  which  he  contributed 
between  twenty  and  thirty  plays,  of 
which  two  only  have  survived.  From 
1588  to  1599  he  lived  retired  at  Seville, 
where  he  held  a small  ofSce.  He  did 
not  appear  again  as  an  author  till  1605, 
when  he  produced  the  first  part  of  Don 
Quixote,  a work  having,  as  its  immediate 
aim,  the  satirical  treatment  of  the 
novels  of  cliivalry  then  popular,  but 
embodying  at  the  same  time  human 
types  of  cosmopolitan  interest,  and 
having  a profounder  bearing  upon  life 
than  its  express  object  covered.  In 

1613  his  twelve  Exemplary  Novels 
(his  best  work  after  Don  Quixote),  in 

1614  his  Journey  to  Parnassus,  and  in 

1615  eight  new  dramas,  with  inter- 
mezzos, were  published.  In  1614  an 
unknown  writer  published,  under  the 
name  of  Alonzo  Fernandez  de  Avel- 
laneda,  a continuation  of  Don  Quixote, 
full  of  abuse  of  Cervantes,  who  there- 
upon published  the  real  continuation 
which  was  the  last  work  of  his  issued 
during  his  lifetime.  His  novel  Persiles 
and  Sigismunda  was  published  after 
his  death,  which  took  place  at  Madrid 
on  the  same  day  as  that  of  Shakespeare, 
April  23,  1616. 

CESTUS,  a leathern  thong  or  bandage, 
often  covered  with  knots  and  loaded 


Various  forms  ot  cestus. 


with  lead  and  iron,  anciently  worn  by 
Roman  pugilists  to  increase  the  force  of 
the  blow. 

CETA'CEA,  an  order  of  marine 
animals,  surpassing  in  size  all  others 
in  existence.  They  are  true  mammals, 
since  they  suckle  their  young,  have 


warm  blood,  and  respire  by  means  of 
lungs,  for  which  purpose  they  come  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  take  in  fresh 
supplies  of  air.  The  body  is  fish-like 
in  form,  but  ends  in  a bilobate  tail, 
which  is  placed  horizontally,  not,  as  in 
the  fishes,  vertically.  The  posterior 
limbs  are  wanting,  and  the  anterior  are 
converted  into  broad  paddles  or  flippers, 
consisting  of  a continuous  sheath  of  the 
thick  integument,  within  which  are 
present  representatives  of  all  the  bones 
usually  found  in  the  fore-limb  of 
mammals.  The  fish-like  aspect  is  fur- 
ther increased  by  the  presence  of  a 
dorsal  fin,  but  tms  is  a simple  fold  of 
integument,  and  does  not  contain  bony 
spines.  The  right  whale  and  its  allies 
have  no  teeth  in  the  adult  state,  their 
place  being  taken  by  the  triangular 
plates  of  baleen  or  whalebone  which 
are  developed  on  transverse  ridges  of 
the  palate,  but  the  fcetal  whales  possess 
minute  teeth,  which  are  very  soon  lost. 
The  nostrils  open  directly  upward  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  closed  by 
valvular  folds  of  integument  which  are 
under  the  control  of  the  animal.  When 
it  comes  to  the  surface  to  breathe  it 
expels  the  air  violently  (popularly 
known  as  “blowing”  or  “spouting”), 
and  the  vapor  it  contains  becomes  con- 
densed into  a cloud,  which  resembles  a 
column  of  water  ana  spray.  The  blood- 
vessels in  these  animals  break  up  into 
extensive  plexuses  or  net-works,  in 
which  a large  amount  of  oxygenated 
blood  is  delayed,  and  they  are  thus 
enabled  to  remain  a considerable  time 
under  water.  Injury  to  these  dilated 
vessels  leads  to  profuse  hemorrhage, 
and  hence  the  whale  is  killed  by  the 
comparatively  trifling  wound  of  the 
harpoon.  The  Cetacea  (which  are 
grouped  broadly  as  Mysticeti  or  tooth- 
less whales;  and  Odontoceti,  Denticeti, 
or  toothed  whales)  are  commonly 
divided  into  five  families : (1)  whalebone 
whales,  divided  into  two  sections; 
smooth  whales,  with  smooth  skin  and 
no  dorsal  fin,  and  furrowed  whales,  with 
furrowed  skin  and  a dorsal  fin;  (2) 
sperm-whales  or  cachalots,  the  palates 
of  which  have  no  baleen-plates,  and 
which  are  furnished  with  teeth,  de- 
veloped in  the  lower  jaw  only;  (3)  a 
family  possessing  teeth  in  both  jaws, 
and  including  the  dolphins,  porpoises, 
and  narwhal ; (4)  a family  allied  to  the 
sperm-whales,  but  having  only  a pair  or 
two  pairs  of  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  a 
pointed  snout  or  beak,  a single  blow- 
hole, etc.;  (5)  an  extinct  family,  dis- 
tinguished from  all  the  tooth-bearing 
whales  by  the  possession  of  molar  teeth 
implanted  by  two  distinct  fangs,  etc. 
The  last  family  is  exclusively  confined 
to  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  and  Pliocene 
periods.  The  manatees  and  dugongs, 
have  sometimes  been  classified  among 
the  Cetacea,  but  they  must  be  regarded 
as  forming  a separate  order. 

CETEWAYO  (kech-wa'6),  a Kaffir 
chief  or  king,  son  of  Panda,  king  of  the 
Zulus.  A dispute  regarding  lands  on  the 
frontier  was  settled  by  arbitration  in 
favor  of  the  Zulus;  but  on  the  refusal  of 
Cetewayo  to  comply  with  the  conditions 
imposed  war  was  declared  against  him 
by  the  British,  and  the  king  made 
prisoner  soon  after  the  battle  of  Ulundi 


(July,  1879).  In  1882  he  was  condition- 
ally restored  to  part  of  his  dominions. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  driven  from 
power  by  the  chief  Usibepu,  and  re- 
mained under  the  protection  of  the 
British  until  his  death  in  1884. 

CETTE  (set),  a fortified  seaport  of 
France,  dep.  H4rault.  After  Marseilles, 
Cette  is  the  principal  trading  port  in  the 
south  of  France,  and  it  is  much  resorted 
to  as  a watering-place.  Pop.  35,517. 

CEVENNES  (se-venz'),  a chain  of 
mountains  in  the  southeast  of  France, 
The  length  of  the  chain,  exclusive  of  the 
Cote  d’Or,  is  about  330  miles,  the 
average  height  not  more  than  3000  feet. 
It  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the 
northern  and  southern  Cevenne..;  the 
dividing  point  is  Mount  Loz^re,  in  the 
department  of  the  same  name,  5582  feet 
high.  The  highest  peak  is  Mezenc,  5753 
feet.  The  Cevennes  form  the  watershed 
between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  Medi- 
terranean, separating  the  basins  of  the 
Garonne  and  Loire  from  those  of  the 
Rhone  and  Saone.  They  are  rich  in 
minerals,  containing  mines  of  copper, 
iron,  lead,  and  coal,  and  quarries  of 
granite,  porphyry,  marble  and  plaster. 

ceyl6n  (si-lon'),  an  island  belonging 
to  Great  Britain  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
50  to  60  miles  southeast  of  the  southern 
extremity  of  Hindustan,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  and 
Palk’s  Strait,  and  by  a chain  of  sand- 
banks, called  Adam’s  Bridge,  impas- 
sable by  any  but  very  small  vessels. 
Length,  about  270  miles  north  to  south; 
average  breadth,  100  miles;  area,  25,364 
sq.  miles.  The  north  and  northwest 
coasts  are  flat  and  monotonous,  those 
on  the  south  and  east  bold,  rocky,  and 
picturesque,  with  exuberant  vegetation. 
The  mountainous  regions  are  confined 
to  the  center  of  the  south  and  broader 
part  of  the  island  Their  average  height 
is  about  2000  feet,  but  several  summits 
are  upward  of  7000  and  one  over  8000 
feet  high,  the  culminating  point  being 
Pidurutallagalla,  8296  feet.  Adam’s 
Peak,  reaching  7420  feet,  is  the  most 
remarkable  from  its  conical  form,  the 
distance  from  which  it  is  visible  from 
the  sea,  and  from  the  legend  that  thence 
Buddha  ascended  to  heaven,  leaving  in 
evidence  a gigantic  footprint. 

In  respect  of  climate,  where  the  jungle 
has  been  cleared  away,  and  the  land 
drained  and  cultivated,  the  country 
is  perfectly  healthy;  but  where  low 
wooded  tracts  and  flat  marshy  lands 
abound  it  is  malarial  and  insalubrious 
The  east  part  of  the  island  being  exposed 
to  the  northeast  monsoon  has  a hot  and 
dry  climate;  while  the  west  division, 
being  open  to  the  southwest  monsoon 
has  a temperate  and  humid  climate 

In  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetable 
productions  Ceylon  rivals  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  in  some 
respects  bears  a strong  resemblance  to 
them.  Its  most  valuable  products  are 
tea,  cofliee,  rice,  cinnamon  (which  is 
found  almost  exclusively  in  the  south- 
west), and  the  cocoa-nut  palm  Coffee 
used  to  be  very  extensively  cultivated, 
but  disease  has  within  recent  years 
reduced  the  produce  to  a fraction  of  its 
former  amount,  and  tea  cultivation  ha 
taken  its  place,  and  is  rapidly  increasing 
The  island  abounds  with  timber  o 


CHAFFINCH 


CHALMERS 


various  descriptions,  including  ebony, 
satin,  rose,  sapan,  iron,  jack,  and  other 
beautiful  woods  adapted  for  cabinet 
work.  Attention  has  been  directed 
latterly  to  the  cultivation  of  cinchona, 
cacao,  and  silk.  The  chief  mineral 
products  are  iron,  plumbago  or  graphite, 
and  a variety  of  gems,  including  sap- 
phires, rubies,  etc.  The  pearl-fisheries 
of  Ceylon  are  famous. 

The  commerce  of  Ceylon  is  now  im- 
portant. The  exports  comprise  tea, 
cofiFee,  plumbago,  areca-nuts,  cocoa-nut 
oil  fibre  and  kernals  (copra),  cinnamon, 
cinchona,  cacao,  etc.  The  principal 
articles  of  import  are  manufactured 
goods,  iron  and  steel  manufactures, 
machinery,  dried  fish,  rice,  wheat,  sugar, 
tea,  cowries,  etc.  Ceylon  is  one  of  the 
British  crown  colonies,  the  government 
being  conducted  by  a governor  and  two 
councils,  executive  and  legislative,  of 
both  of  which  the  governor  is  president. 
The  present  population  of  Ceylon  is 
composed  of  Singhalese  or  Cingalese, 
who  are  the  Ceylonese  proper,  Tamils 
(from  India),  Moormen  or  Moors, 
Malays,  Veddahs,  a small  proportion 
of  Europeans  and  their  descendants, 
and  negroes.  The  Singhalese  are  in 
stature  rather  below  the  middle  size; 
their  limbs  slender,  but  well  shaped, 
eyes  dark,  finely-cut  features,  hair  long, 
smooth,  and  black,  turned  up  and  fixed 
with  a tortoise-shell  comb  on  the  top  of 
the  head;  color  varying  from  brown  to 
black,  or  rather  from  the  lightest  to  the 
darkest  tints  of  bronze.  The  general 
population  of  the  island  was  decreasing 
for  several  centuries.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, on  the  increase,  and  latterly  this 
increase  has  been  rapid.  In  1901  the 
population  was  3,576,990,  of  whom 
9583  were  Europeans,  and  4913  Boer 
prisoners  of  war.  The  Singhalese 
numbered  2,334,817,  the  Tamils  952,- 
237.  The  population  in  1891  was 
3,008,466. 

Buddhism  prevails  in  the  interior,  and 
generally  among  the  Singhalese  of  the 
sea-coasts.  The  .Singhalese  have  a 
colloquial  language  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, but  their  classic  and  sacred 
writings  are  either  in  Pali  or  Sanskrit. 
The  Hindu  religion  (Brahmanism)  pre- 
vails among  the  Tamils  or  population 
of  Indian  extraction,  which  forms  a 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  north  and  northeast  districts.  The 
Tamils  speak  their  own  Tamil  tongue. 

The  Singahalese  possess  a native 
chronicle,  the  Mahawanso,  which  records 
liistory  of  the  island  from  543  b.c. 
onward,  under  a long  series  of  kings 
reigning  most  frequently  at  the  ancient 
capital  Anuradhapura,  the  earliest  of 
these  being  leader  of  an  invading  host 
from  India.  Buddhism  was  introduced 
307  B.c.  The  island  was  not  known  to 
Europeans  till  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  their  knowledge  of  it 
was  long  vague  and  meager.  Little, 
however,  was  known  in  Europe  regard- 
ing the  island  until  1505,  when  the 
Portuguese  established  a regular  inter- 
course with  it,  and  latterly  made  them- 
selves masters  of  it.  When  they  arrived 
the  Malabars  were  in  possession  of  the 
north,  the  Moors  or  Arabs  held  all  the 
seaports,  the  rest  was  under  petty  kings 
and  chiefs.  The  Portuguese,  who  were 


cruel  and  oppressive  rulers,  were  sub- 
sequently expelled  by  the  Dutch  in 
1658,  after  a twenty  years’  struggle. 
The  Dutch  in  turn  were  driven  from  the 
island  by  the  British  in  1796,  though  a 
part  of  the  island  remained  independent 
under  native  princes.  The  King  of 
Kandy,  nominally  the  sovereign  of  the 
island,  was  deposed  in  1815  on  account 
of  his  cruelties,  aaid  the  island  was  then 
finally  annexed  by  Britain,  though  a 
rebellion  had  to  be  put  down  in  1817. 
The  principal  towns  are  Colombo  (the 
capital  and  chief  port),  Kandy,  Galle, 
Jaffna,  and  Trincomalee. 

CHAFFTNCH,  a lively  and  handsome 
bird  of  the  finch  family.  The  male  is  6 
or  7 inches  in  length,  and  is  very  agree- 
ably colored,  having  a chestnut  back, 
reddish-pink  breast  and  throat,  and  a 
yellowish-white  bar  on  the  wings.  The 
food  consists  of  seeds  and  of  insects  and 
their  larvae.  The  nest,  which  is  generally 
placed  in  the  fork  of  a tree,  is  an  elegant 
structure  usually  covered  with  moss  and 
lichens. 

CHAFIN,  Eugene"  Wilder,  born  at 
East  Troy,  Wis.,  Nov.  1,  1852;  educated 
in  public  school;  graduated  from  law 
department  of  University  of  Wisconsin, 
1875;  practiced  law  in  Waukesha,  Wis., 
1876-1900;  grand  chief  templar  of  Good 
Templars  of  Wisconsin  and  Illinois; 
Prohibition  candidate  for  various  offices; 
nominated  for  president  of  the  United 
States  by  Prohibitionist  national  con- 
vention at  Columbus,  O. , in  1908. 

CHAILLE-LONG,  Charles,  an  Ameri- 
can traveler,  born  in  Maryland  in  1840. 
He  served  on  the  Union  side  during  the 
civil  war  and  in  1875  was  chief  of  staff 
to  Gordon  in  the  latter’s  expedition  up 
the  Nile.  Returning  to  America  he 
studied  international  law,  and  in  1887 
was  made  consul  general  in  Korea.  He 
has  published  several  works  on  the 
Orient. 

CHAIN,  in  surveying,  is  a measure 
consisting  of  100  links,  each  7'92  inches 
in  length,  and  having  a total  length  of  4 
rods,  or  66  feet.  It  is  sometimes  called 
Gunter’s  chain,  from  its  inventor. 

CHAIN-ARMOR,  coats  and  other 
pieces  of  mail,  formed  of  hammered 
iron  links,  constituting  a flexible  gar- 
ment which  fitted  to  the  person. 

CHAIN-PUMP,  a pump  consisting  in 
principle  of  an  endless  chain  equipped 


with  a number  of  valves  or  buckets 
moving  round  two  wheels,  one  above 
ana  one  below.  The  chain  in  its  ascent 


passes  through  a tube  closely  fitting  the 
valves  or  buckets,  the  water  being  dis- 
charged either  from  the  top  of  the  tube 
or  from  an  orifice  in  it. 

CHAINS,  strong  links  or  plates  of  iron, 
the  lower  ends  of  which  are  bolted  to  a 
ship’s  side,  used  to  contain  the  blocks 
called  dead-eyes,  by  which  the  shrouds 
of  the  masts  are  fastened. 

CHAIN-SHOT,  two  cannon-balls  con- 
nected by  a chain,  which,  when  dis- 
charged, revolve  upon  their  shorter 
axis,  and  mow  down  masts,  rigging,  etc. 

CHALCED'ONY  (kal-sed'o-ni),  a min- 
eral, a variety  of  quartz,  called  also 
white  agate,  resembling  milk  diluted 
with  water,  semi-transparent  or  trans- 
lucent, and  more  or  less  clouded  with 
circles  and  spots.  It  is  found  usually  in 
cavities  of  rocks  uncrystallized,  in  veins, 
botryoidal  masses,  etc.,  and  is  used  in 
jewelry.  There  are  several  varieties, 
such  as  the  common  chalcedony,  chryso- 
prase,  sard,  and  sardonyx. 

CHALD.^A,  in  ancient  geography, 
the  southerly  part  of  Babylonia,  or  in  a 
wider  sense  corresponding  to  Babylonia 
itself.  The  name  Chaldaeans  was  espe- 
cially applied  latterly  to  a portion  of  the 
Babylonian  Magi,  who  were  devoted 
to  the  pursuit  of  astronomy  and  magical 
science.  See  Babylonia. 

CHAL'ICE,  a term  generally  applied 
to  a communion  cup  for  the  wine  in  the 
Eucharist,  often  of  artistic  and  highly 
ornamental  character. 

CHALK  (chak),  a well-known  earthy 
limestone,  of  an  opaque  white  color,  soft 
and  admitting  no  polish.  It  is  an  im- 
pure carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  used 
as  an  absorbent  and  ant-acid,  and  for 
making  marks  for  various  purposes,  as 
on  the  black-board  in  schools,  and  by 
artisans  and  others. — Black  chalk  is  a 
soft  variety  of  argillaceous  slate.  (See 
Black  Chalk.) — Brown  chalk,  a familiar 
name  for  umber. — Red  chalk,  another 
name  for  ruddle. — French  chalk,  steatite 
or  soap-stone,  a soft  magnesian  mineral. 
Drawing  chalks  were  originally  re- 
stricted in  colors  to  white,  black,  and 
red,  but  now  chalks  of  every  color  are 
used,  and  are  known  by  the  name  of 
crayons. — In  geology  chalk  is  the  rock 
which  forms  the  higher  part  of  a series 
or  group  of  strata,  comprising  rocks  of 
different  kinds,  termed  the  cretaceous 
system, 

CHAL'LENGE,  to  jurors,  is  an  ob- 
jection either  to  the  whole  panel  or 
array,  that  is,  the  whole  body  of  jurors 
returned,  or  to  the  polls,  that  is,  to  the 
jurors  individually;  and  it  is  either 
peremptory,  that  is,  without  assigning 
any  reason,  or  for  cause  assigned.  See 
Jury. 

CHALMERS,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  emi- 
nent Scottish  divine,  born  in  1780,  at 
Anstruther  Easter,  Fife.  In  1803  he 
was  presented  to  the  parish  of  Kilmany, 
in  Fife,  where  he  made  a high  reputation 
as  a preacher.  In  1808  he  published  an 
Inquiry  into  the  Extent  and  Stability 
of  National  Resources.  In  1813  his 
article  on  Christianity  appeared  in  the 
Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  and  shortly 
afterward  his  review  of  Cuvier’s  Theory 
of  the  Earth,  in  the  Christian  Instructor. 
His  fame  as  a preacher  had  by  this  time 
extended  itself  throughout  Scotland, 
and  in  1815  he  was  inducted  to  the  Tron 


CHAMBER 


CHAMOIS 


Church  of  Glasgow.  His  astronomical 
discourses  delivered  there  in  the  follow- 
ing winter  produced  a sensation  not 
only  in  the  city  but  throughout  the 
country.  In  1832  he  published  his 
Political  Economy,  and  shortly  after- 
ward his  Bridgewater  Treatise  On  the 
.Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the 
Moral  and  Intellectual  Constitution  of 
Man.  During  this  period  he  was 
occupied  with  the  subject  of  church 


extension  on  the  voluntary  principle, 
but  it  was  in  the  great  non-intrusion 
movement  in  the  Scottish  church  that 
his  name  became  most  prominent. 
Throughout  the  whole  contest  to  the 
Disruption  in  1843,  he  acted  as  the 
leader  of  the  party  that  then  separated 
from  the  Establishment,  and  mey  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland,  of  the  first  assem- 
bly of  which  he  was  moderator.  His 
death  took  place  suddenly,  and  appar- 
ently during  sleep,  in  the  night  preceding 
May  31,  1847.  He.-was  a D.D.  of  Glas- 
gow University  and  a D.C.L.  of  Oxford. 

CHAMBER,  a word  used  in  many 
countries  to  designate  a branch  of 
government  whose  members  assemble  in 
a common  apartment,  as  the  chamber  of 
deputies  in  France,  or  applied  to  bodies 
of  various  kinds  meeting  for  various 
purposes.  The  imperial  chamber  (in 
German  Reichskammergericht)  of  the 
old  German  Empire  was  a court  estab- 
lished at  Wetzlar,  near  the  Rhine,  by 
Maximilian  I.  in  149.5,  to  adjust  the  dis- 
putes between  the  different  independent 
members  of  the  German  Empire,  and 
also  such  as  arose  between  them  and  the 
emperor. — Chambers  of  commerce  are 
associations  of  the  mercantile  men  of 
towns  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  and 
furthering  the  interests  of  the  com- 
mercial community. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  Joseph,  English 
statesman,  born  in  London  in  1836,  and 
educated  at  London  University  school 
In  1876  he  entered  parliament  as  a rep- 
resentative of  Birmingham,  and  at  the 
general  election  of  1880  he  was  chosen 
for  the  same  city  along  with  Mr.  Bright 
, and  Mr.  Muntz.  Under  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
premiership  he  became  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  and  a cabinet-minister, 
and  was  able  to  pass  the  Bankruptcy  Act 
now  in  force,  though  he  failed  with  his 
merchant  shipping  bill.  In  the  Glad- 
stone government  of  1886  he  was  pres- 
ident of  the  Local  Government  Board. 
As  colonial  secretary  in  the  Unionist 
government  in  1895-1903  he  has  been 


prominent  in  other  affairs  besides  the 
Boer  War  of  1899-1902. 

CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE,  an  or- 
ganization of  traders  or  merchants  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  transactions 
of  business,  making  a central  market, 
etc.  The  term  has  been  superseded  in 
many  American  cities  by  the  term  Board 
of  Trade.  Chambers  of  Commerce  use 
their  influence  for  legislation  favorable 
to  trade,  collect  and  publish  trade 
statistics,  and  take  part  in  public 
enterprises  for  the  commercial  good  of 
the  community.  The  New  York  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  was  organized  in  1768, 
and  many  Chambers  of  Commerce  in 
Europe  antedate  it  by  many  years. 

CHAMBERS,  Robert,  historical  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  the  younger  of 
two  brothers  originally  composing  the 
publishing  firm  of  W.  & R.  Chambers, 
was  born  at  Peebles  in  1802.  Besides 
editing  or  compiling  many  instructive 
works  of  a high  class,  including  the 
Cyclopaedia  of  English  Literature;  the 
Domestic  Annals  of  Scotland;  Ancient 
Sea-Margins;  and  the  Book  of  Days.  He 
also  edited  a valuable  edition  of  Burns. 
He  died  at  St.  Andrews  in  1871.  His 
name  was  long  associated  with  the 
authorship  of  the  famous  “Vestiges  of 
Creation,’’  and  it  was  not  known  to  be 
really  his  till  years  after  his  death. — 
William  Chambers  wrote  Things  as  They 
Are  in  America,  History  of  Peebles-shire; 
France,  its  History  and  Revolutions; 
Memoir  of  Robert  Chambers,  with  Auto- 
biographical Reminiscences,  etc.  He 
was  twice  lord-provost  of  Edinburgh. 
He  died  in  1883,  just  as  a baronetcy  was 
to  be  conferred  on  him. 

CHAMBERS,  Robert  William,  an 
American  writer  and  artist,  born  in 
New  York  in  1865.  He  has  pubished 
several  volumes  of  fiction  and  exhibited 
in  the  Paris  salon  of  1889. 

CHAMBERSBURG,  a town  in  Penn- 
sylvania, in  a fertile  and  populous  dis- 
trict. Pop.  10,000. 

CHAMBERTIN  (shan-ber-tan),  a su- 
perior kind  of  red  Burgundy  wine, 
named  after  the  place  where  it  is  pro- 
duced. 

CHAMBORD  (shan-bor),  Henri  Charles 
Ferdinand  Marie  Dieudonn^,  Comte- 
de,  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  the  last  repre- 
sentative of  the  elder  branch  of  the 
French  Bourbon  dynasty,  called  by  his 
partisans  Henry  V.  of  France.  He  was 
born  in  1820,  seven  months  after  the 
assassination  of  his  father.  Prince 
Charles  Ferdinand  d’Artois,  duke  de 
Berry.  Charles  X.,  after  the  revolu- 
tionary outbreak  of  1830,  abdicated  in 
his  favor;  but  the  young  count  was 
compelled  to  leave  the  country  with  the 
royal  title  unrecognized  by  the  nation. 
In  1846  he  married  the  Princess  Maria- 
Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Modena;  and  in  1851  inherited  the 
domain  of  Frohsdorf,  near  Vienna, 
where  for  the  most  part  he  subsequently 
resided.  He  died  in  1883,  leaving  no 
heir. 

CHAME'LEON  (ka-me'li-on),  a genus 
of  reptiles  belonging  to  the  Saurian  or 
lizard  order,  a native  of  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  the  south  of  Europe.  The 
best-known  species,  has  a naked  body 
6 or  7 inches  long,  with  a prehensile  tail 
of  about  5 inches,  and  feet  suitable  for 


grasping  branches.  The  skin  is  cold 
to  the  touch,  and  contains  small  grains 
or  eminences  of  a bluish-gray  color  an 
the  shade,  but  in  the  light  of  the  sun  all 
parts  of  the  body  become  of  a grayish- 
brown  or  tawny  color.  It  possesses  the 
curious  faculty,  however,  of  changing 
its  color,  either  in  accordance  with  its 
environment,  or  with  its  temper  when 
disturbed,  the  change  being  due  to  the 
presence  of  clear  or  pigment-bearing 


contractile  cells  placed  at  various  depths 
in  the  skin,  their  contractions  and  dila- 
tions being  under  the  influence  of  the 
nervous  system.  Their  power  of  fasting 
and  habit  of  inflating  themselves  gave 
rise  to  the  fable  that  they  lived  on  air,  but 
they  are  in  reality  insectivorous,  taking 
their  prey  by  rapid  movements  of  a 
long  viscid  tongue.  In  general  habit 
they  are  dull  and  torpid. 

CHAMELEON  MINERAL,  a name 
given  to  manganate  of  potassium,  be- 
cause a solution  of  it  changes  from 
green,  through  a succession  of  colors, 
to  a rich  purple. 

CHAMOIS  (sham'wil),  a species  of 
goat-like  antelope  inhabiting  high  inac- 
cessible mountains  in  Europe  and  West- 
ern Asia.  Its  horns,  which  are  about 
6 or  7 inches  long,  are  round,  almost 


Chamois. 


smooth,  perpendicular  and  straight 
until  near  the  tip,  where  they  suddenly 
terminate  in  a hook  directed  back- 
ward and  downward.  Its  hair  is  brov/n 
in  winter,  brown  fawn  color  in  summer, 
and  erayish  in  spring.  The  head  is  of 
a pare  yellow  color  with  a black  band 


CHAMOMILE 


CHANNING 


from  the  nose  to  the  ears  and  surround- 
ing the  eyes.  The  tail  is  black.  Its 
agility,  the  nature  of  its  haunts,  and  its 
powers  of  smell,  render  its  pursuit  an 
exceedingly  difficult  and  hazardous 
occupation. 

CHAMOMILE  or  CAMOMILE  (kam'o- 
tnil),  a well-known  European  plant.  It 
is  perennial,  and  has  slender,  trailing, 
hairy,  and  branched  stems.  The  flower 
is  white,  with  a yellow  center.  Both 
leaves  and  flowers  are  bitter  and  aro- 
matic. The  fragrance  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  an  essential  oil,  called  oil  of 
chamomile,  of  a light  blue  color  when 
first  extracted,  and  used  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  certain  medicines.  Both  the 
leaves  and  the  flowers  are  employed  in 
fomentations  and  poultices,  and  also  in 
the  form  of  an  infusion  as  a stimulant 
or  anti-spasmodic. 

CHAMPAGNE  (sham-pan'),  a French 
wine,  white  or  red,  which  is  made  chiefly 
in  the  department  of  Marne,  in  the 
former  province  Champagne,  and  is 
generally  characterized  by  the  property 
of  creaming,  frothing,  or  effervescing 
when  poured  from  the  bottle,  though 
there  are  also  still  Champagne  wines. 
The  creaming  or  slightly  sparkling 
Champagne  wines  are  more  highly  valued 
by  connoisseurs,  and  fetch  greater  prices 
than  the  full-frothing  wines,  in  which 
the  small  quantity  of  alcohol  they  con- 
tain escapes  from  the  froth  as  it  rises  to 
the  surface,  carrying  with  it  the  aroma 
and  leaving  the  liquor  nearly  vapid . The 
property  of  creaming  or  frothing  pos- 
sessed by  these  w’ines  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  partly  fermented  in  the 
bottle,  carbonic  acid  being  thereby  pro- 
duced. Wine  of  a similar  kind  can  of 
course  be  made  elsewhere,  and  some  of 
the  German  champagnes  are  hardly  to 
be  distinguished  from  the  French. 
Much  artificial  or  imitation  champagne 
is  sold. 

CHAMPAIGN,  (sham-pan'),  a city 
in  Champaign  County,  111.,  128  miles 
south  by  west  of  Chicago,  on  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chi- 
cago and  Saint  Louis,  and  a branch  of 
the  Wabash  railroads.  Pop.,  13,160. 

CHAMP-DE-MARS  (shan-de-mars), 
that  is  Field  of  Mars,  an  extensive  piece 
of  ground  in  Paris,  used  as  a place  of 
military  exercise.  It  was  here  that 
Louis  XVI.  swore  to  defend  the  new  con- 
stitution in  1790,  and  it  was  the  site  of 
the  exhibitions  of  1867  and  1878. 

CHAMPLAIN  (sham-plan')  Lake,  a 
lake,  chiefly  in  the  United  States,  be- 
tween the  states  of  New  York  and  Ver- 
mont, but  having  the  north  end  of  it  in 
Canada ; extreme  length,  north  to  south, 
about  120  miles;  breadth,  from  half  a 
mile  to  15  miles;  area,  about  600  square 
miles.  It  is  connected  by  canal  with 
the  Hudson  River,  and  has  for  outlet 
the  river  Richelieu,  or  Sorel,  flowing 
north  to  the  St. Lawrence.  Its  scenery  is 
beautiful,  and  attracts  many  vistors. 

CHAMPLAIN  (shan-plan),  Samuel,  a 
French  naval  officer  and  maritime  ex- 
plorer, born  about  1570.  His  exploits  in 
the  maritime  war  against  Spain  in  1595 
attracted  the  attention  of  Henry  IV., 
who  commissioned  him  in  1603  to  found 
establishments  in  North  America.  After 
three  voyages  for  that  purpose,  in  the 
last  of  which  he  founded  Quebec,  he  was 


in  1620  appointed  governor  of  Canada. 
He  wrote  an  account  of  his  voyages,  and 
died  in  1635. 


Champlain. 


CHAMPOLLION  (shan-pol-yon),  Jean 
Frangois,  French  scholar,  celebrated  for 
his  discoveries  in  the  department  of 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  born  at  Figeac, 
department  of  Lot,  in  1790.  At  an  early 
age  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  Coptic,  etc.,  and  in 
1809  became  professor  of  history  at 
Grenoble.  He  soon,  however,  retired  to 
Paris,  where,  with  the  aid  of  the  trilin- 
gual inscription  of  the  Rosetta  Stone  and 
the  suggestions  thrown  out  by  Dr. 
Thomas  A'oung,  he  at  length  discovered 
the  key  to  the  graphic  system  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  three  elements  of  which 
— figurative,  ideographic,  and  alpha- 
betic— he  expounded  before  the  Insti- 
tute in  a series  of  memoirs  in  1823. 
These  were  published  in  1824  at  the 
expense  of  the  state.  In  1826  Charles 
X.  appointed  him  to  superintend  the 
department  of  Egyptian  antiquities  in 
the  Louvre;  in  1828  he  went  as  director 
of  a scientific  expedition  to  Egypt;  and 
in  1831  the  chair  of  Egyptian  archaeol- 
ogy was  created  for  him  in  the  College 
de  France.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1832. 

CHANCE,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation 
of  the  term,  an  unexpected  occurrence. 
Chance  exists  only  in  so  far  as  the  in- 
tention, desires,  or  knowledge  of  men  are 
concerned.  See  Cause. 

CHAN'CELLOR,  a high  official  in 
many  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  the 
office  including  in  its  duties  the  super- 
vision of  charters  and  other  official  wri- 
tings of  the  crown  requiring  solemn 
authentication.  The  title  and  office 
are  also  ecclesiastical,  and  hence  each 
bishop  still  has  his  chancellor,  the 
principal  judge  of  his  consistory.  In  the 
new  German  empire,  the  chancellor 
(Reichskanzler)  is  president  of  the 
Federal  Council,  and  has  the  general 
conduct  of  the  imperial  administration. 
In  the  United  States,  a chancellor  is  the 
judge  of  a court  of  chancery  or  equity 
established  by  statute. 

CHAN'CELLORSVILLE,  the  site  of  one 
of  the  greatest  battles  of  the  American 
civil  war,  in  which,  on  the  2d,  3d,  and 
4th  of  May,  1863,  a nominal  victory  was 
gained  bj'’  the  Confederates  under 
Generals  Lee  and  Jackson  over  the 
Federal  troops,  commanded  by  General 
Hooker.  The  Federal  troops,  though 
compelled  to  retreat  across  the  Rappa- 
hannock, carried  with  them  some  thou- 
sands of  prisoners  and  one  more  gun 


than  they  had  lost,  while  the  Con- 
federates lost  from  15,000  to  18,000 
men  and  their  brilliant  leader  Jackson. 

CHAN'CERY,  in  England,  the  highest 
court,  next  to  parliament,  and  presided 
over  by  the  I.ord  High  Chancellor.  In 
the  U.  States,  a court  established  in 
many  states  under  this  name  and,  in 
effect,  a court  of  equity.  In  most  states 
there  are  no  separate  courts  of  chancery 
or  equity,  the  same  judge  presiding  over 
the  court  of  common  law  and  the  equity 
court  also.  The  court  of  equity  origi- 
nated the  injunction,  and,  in  many  ways, 
has  larger  power  than  a law  court. 

CHANDA  (chan-da'),  a town  of  India, 
Central  Provinces,  surrounded  by  a wall 
5^  miles  long,  with  manufactures  and  a 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  16,137. — The 
District,  has  an  area  of  10,785  sq.  miles, 
a pop.  of  697,610. 

CHAN'DLER,  William  Eaton,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  1835  in 
New  Hampshire.  He  occupied  several 
positions  in  the  departments  of  the 
national  government  from  1865  to  1881, 
and  from  the  latter  year  to  1901  was 
U.  States  senator  from  New  Hampshire. 

CHANDLER,  Zachariah,  an  Ameri- 
can legislator  born  in  New  Hampshire 
in  1813,  removed  to  Detroit  in  1833, 
and  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  repub- 
lican party.  In  1857  he  was  elected 
United  States  senator  from  Michigan  and 
was  twice  re-elected.  In  1875-7  he  was 
secretary  of  the  interior  under  Grant, 
and  in  1879  was  again  elected  to  the 
senate.  As  chairman  of  the  national 
republican  committee  he  aroused  much 
enmity  by  his  forceful  methods.  He 
died  suddenly  in  1879. 

CHANG-CHOW-FOO,  a city,  China, 
province  of  Fokien,  36  miles  s.w.  of 
Amoy,  which  is  its  pert.  It  stands  in  a 
valley  surrounded  by  hills  and  inter- 
sected by  a river,  and  is  the  center  of 
the  silk  manufacture  of  the  province. 
Pop.  estimated  at  from  800,000  to 
1,000,000. 

CHANNEL,  English,  See  English 
Channel. 

CHANNEL  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
islands  in  the  English  Channel,  off  the 
w.  coast  of  department  La  Manche,  in 
France.  They  belong  to  Britain,  and 
consist  of  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Alderney, 
and  Sark,  with  some  dependent  islets. 
They  form  the  only  remains  of  the 
Norman  provinces  once  subject  to 
England.  Area  112  sq.  miles,  pop. 
95,841. 

CHANNEL  TUNNEL.  See  English 
Channel. 

CHANNING  (chan'ing),  William  El- 
lery, American  preacher  and  writer, 
born  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1780, 
He  studied  at  Harvard  College,  became 
a decided  Unitarian,  and  pi'opagated 
Unitarian  tenets  with  great  zeal  and 
success.  His  first  appointment  as  a 
pastor  was  in  1803,  when  he  obtained 
the  charge  of  a congregation  in  Boston, 
and  ere  long  be  became  known  as  one  of 
the  most  popular  preachers  of  America. 
His  reputation  was  still  further  increased 
by  the  publication  of  writings,  chiefly 
sermons,  reviews,  etc.,  on  popular  sub- 
jects. He  died  at  Burlington,  Vermont, 
in  1842. — His  nephew,  William  Henry 
Channing,  born  1810,  also  a Unitarian 
preacher  (for  some  time  at  IJvcrpool) 


CHANT 


CHARIOT 


and  supporter  of  the  socialistic  move- 
ment, wrote  a memoir  of  his  uncle  and 
other  works.  He  died  in  1884. 

CHANT,  a short  musical  composition 
consisting  generally  of  a long  reciting 
note,  on  which  an  indefinite  number  of 
words  may  be  intoned,  and  a melodic 
phrase  or  cadence.  A single  chant  con- 
sists of  two  strains,  the  first  of  three 
and  the  second  of  four  bars  in  length. 
A double  chant  has  the  length  of  two 
single  ones. 

CHAOS  (ka'os),  in  old  theories  of  the 
earth,  the  void  out  of  which  sprang  all 
things  or  in  which  they  existed  in  a con- 
fused, unformed  shape  before  they  were 
separated  into  kinds. 

CHAP-BOOKS,  a species  of  cheap 
literature  which  preceded  the  popular 
periodicals  of  the  present  day.  They 
usually  consisted  of  coarsely  printed 
(and  often  coarsely  written)  publica- 
tions sold  for  a copper  or  two,  and  were 
so  called  because  they  were  prepared 
by  the  popular  publishers  expressly  for 
sale  by  the  chapmen  or  pedlars,  who 
hawked  them  from  district  to  district. 
They  included  lives  of  heroes  and  won- 
derful personages,  tales  of  roguery  and 
broad  humor,  witch  and  ghost  stories 
etc. 

CHAP'EL,  a term  applied  to  buildings 
of  various  kinds  erected  for  some  sort  of 
religious  service. 

CHAPELLE,  Placide  Louis,  an  Ameri- 
can Roman  Catholic  churchman,  born 
in  France  in  1842,  and  studied  in  Mary- 
land. In  1891  he  was  made  coadjutor  of 
Santa  Fe,  in  1897  archbishop  of  New 
Orleans,  and  in  1899  apostolic  delegate 
to  the  Philippine  Islands. 

CHAPLAIN  (chap'lin),  literally  a per- 
son who  is  appointed  to  a chapel,  as  a 
clergyman  not  having  a parish  or  similar 
charge,  but  connected  with  a court,  the 
household  of  a nobleman,  an  army,  a 
prison,  a ship,  or  the  like. 

CHAPTER,  one  of  the  chief  divisions 
of  a book.  As  the  rules  and  statutes  of 
ecclesiastical  establishments  were  ar- 
ranged in  chapters,  so  also  the  assembly 
of  the  members  of  a religious  order,  and 
of  canons,  was  called  a chapter.  The 
orders  of  knights  used  this  expression 
for  the  meetings  of  their  members,  and 
some  societies  and  corporations  call 
their  assemblies  chapters. 

CHARADE  (sha-rad'  or  sha-rad'),  a 
kind  of  riddle,  the  subj'ect  of  which  is  a 
word  that  is  proposed  for  discovery 
from  an  enigmatical  description  of  its 
several  syllables,  taken  separately  as  so 
many  individual  and  significant  words. 
When  dramatic  representation  is  used 
to  indicate  the  meaning  of  the  syllables 
and  the  whole  word  it  is  called  an  acting 
charade. 

CHAR'COAL,  a term  applied  to  an 
impure  variety  of  carbon,  especially 
such  as  is  produced  by  charring  wood. 
One  kind  of  it  is  also  obtained  from  bones 
(see  Bone  Black) ; lampblack  and  coke 
are  also  varieties.  . Wood  charcoal  is 
prepared  by  piling  billets  of  wood  in  a 
pyramidal  form,  with  vacuities  between 
them  for  the  admission  of  air,  and 
causing  them  to  burn  slowly  under  a 
covering  of  earth.  In  consequence  of 
the  heat,  part  of  the  combustible  sub- 
stance is  consumed,  part  is  volatilized, 
together  with  a portion  of  water,  and 


there  remains  behind  the  carbon  of  the 
wood,  retaining  the  form  of  the  ligneous 
tissue.  Another  process  consists  in 
heating  the  wood  in  close  vessels,  by 
which  the  volatile  parts  are  driven  off, 
and  a charcoal  remains  in  the  retorts, 
not  so  dense  as  that  obtained  by  the 
other  process.  Wood  charcoal,  well 
prepared,  is  of  a deep-black  color, 
brittle,  and  porous,  tasteless  and  in- 
odorous. It  is  infusible  in  any  heat  a 
furnace  can  raise;  but  by  the  intense 
heat  of  a powerful  galvanic  apparatus  it 
is  hardened,  and  at  length  is  volatilized, 
presenting  a surface  with  a distinct  ap- 
pearance of  having  undergone  fusion. 
Charcoal  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  is  not 
affected  by  it  at  low  temperatures ; hence, 
wooden  stakes  which  are  to  be  immersed 
in  water  are  often  charred  to  preserve 
them,  and  the  ends  of  posts  stuck  in  the 
ground  are  also  thus  treated.  Owing 
to  its  peculiarly  porous  texture,  charcoal 
possesses  the  property  of  absorbing  a 
large  quantity  of  air  or  other  gases  at 
common  temperatures,  and  of  yielding 
the  greater  part  of  them  when  heated. 
Charcoal  likewise  absorbs  the  odorifer- 
ous and  coloring  principles  of  most 
animals  and  vegetable  suostances,  and 
hence  is  a valuable  deodorizer  and  dis- 
infectant. Water  which,  from  having 
been  long  kept  in  wooden  vessels,  as 
during  long  voyages,  has  acquired  an 
offensive  smell,  is  deprived  of  it  by 
filtration  through  charcoal  powder. 
Charcoal  can  even  remove  or  prevent 
the  putrescence  of  animal  matter.  It 
is  used  as  fuel  in  various  arts,  where  a 
strong  heat  is  required,  without  smoke, 
and  in  various  metallurgic  operations. 
By  cementation  with  charcoal,  iron  is 
converted  into  steel.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  In  its 
finer  state  of  aggregation,  under  the 
form  of  ivoryblack,  lampblack,  etc., 
it  is  the  basis  of  black  paint ; and  mixed 
with  fat  oils  and  resinous  matter,  to  give 
a due  consistence,  it  forms  the  composi- 
tion of  printing-ink. 

CHARENTE  (sha-rant),  a river  in 
Western  France,  rising  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Vienne,  and  falling  into 
the  sea  about  8 miles  below  Rochefort, 
opposite  to  the  isle  of  Oleron,  after  a 
course  of  aborit  200  miles.  It  gives  its 
name  to  two  departments. — Charente, 
an  inland  department;  area,  2294  sq. 
miles;  capital  Angouleme.  Soil  gen- 
erally thin,  dry  and  arid ; one-third  de- 
voted to  tillage,  a third  to  vineyards, 
and  the  remainder  meadows,  woods, 
and  waste  lands.  The  wines  are  of  in- 
ferior quality,  but  they  yield  the  best 
brandy  in  Europe,  the- celebrated  cognac 
brandy  being  made  in  Cognac  and  other 
districts.  Pop.  350,305. 

CHARENTE-INFERIEURE  (an-fa-ri- 
eur),a  maritime  department;  area,  2635 
sq.  miles.  Surface  in  general  flat;  soil 
chalky  and  sandy,  fertile,  and  well  culti- 
vated; a considerable  portion  planted 
with  -vines;  salt  marshes  along  the  coast. 
The  pastures  are  good,  and  well  stocked 
with  cattle,  horses  and  sheep.  Oysters 
and  sardines  abound  on  the  coast. 
Salt  and  brandy  are  the  only  articles 
manufactured  to  any  great  extent. 
Capital  La  Rochelle.  Pop.  452,149. 

CHARGE,  in  heraldry,  signifies  the 
various  figures  depicted  on  the  escutch- 


eon.— In  gunnery  charge  signifies  the 
quantity  of  powder  used  at  one  dis- 
charge of  a gun. — Charge,  in  military 
tactics,  is  the  rapid  advance  of  infantry 
or  cavalry  against  the  enemy,  with  the 
obj'ect  of  breaking  his  lines  by  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  attack.  Infantry  gen- 
erally advance  to  about  100  yards  and 
fire,  then  gradually  quicken  their  pace 
into  the  charge-step,  and  dash  at  the 
enemy’s  lines.  Cavalry  charge  in 
echelon  or  column  against  infantry, 
which  is  usually  formed  in  squares  to 

v'PpAi'trA  tnATn 

CHARGE-b’AFFAIRES  (shar-zha- 
d&f-ar),  the  title  of  an  inferior  rank  of 
diplomatic  agents.  See  Minister,  For- 
eign. 

CHARIOT,  a term  applied  to  vehicles 
used  both  for  pleasure  and  in  war. 
Ancient  chariots,  such  as  those  used 
among  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Greeks 
and  Romans,  were  of  various  forms. 


A common  form  was  open  behind  and 
closed  in  front,  and  had  only  two  wheels. 
In  ancient  warfare  chariots  were  of  great 
importance;  thus  we  read  of  the  900 
iron  chariots  of  Sisera,  as  giving  him  a 
great  advantage  against  the  Israehtes. 
The  Philistines  in  their  war  against  Saul 
had  30,000  chariots.  The  sculptures 
of  ancient  Egypt  show  that  the  chariots 
formed  the  strength  of  the  Egyptian 
army,  these  vehicles  being  two-horsed 
and  carrying  the  driver  and  the  warrior, 
sometimes  a third  man,  the  shield- 
bearer.  There  is  no  representation  of 
Egyptian  soldiers  on  horse-back,  and 
consequently  when  Moses  in  his  song  of 
triumph  over  Pharaoh  speaks  of  the 
“horse  and  his  rider,”  “rider”  must  be 
understood  to  mean  chariot-rider.  In 
the  Egyptian  chariots  the  framework, 
wheels,  pole,  and  yoke  -were  of  wood, 
and  the  fittings  of  the  inside,  the  bind- 
ings of  the  framework,  as  well  as  the 
harness  were  chiefly  of  raw  hide  or  of 
tanned  leather.  We  have  also  numbers 
of  sculptures  which  give  a clear  idea  of 
the  Assyrian  chariots.  These  resembled 
the  Egyptian  in  all  essential  features, 
containing  almost  invariably  three  men 
— the  warrior,  the  shield-bearer,  and  the 
charioteer.  A peculiarity  of  both  is  the 
quiver  or  quivers  full  of  arrows  attached 
to  the  side.  The  Assyrian  war-chariot 
shown  in  the  figure  is  drawn  by  three 
horses  abreast,  and  all  the  appointments 
are  rich  and  elaborate.  It  has,  as  will 
be  noticed,  two  quivers  crossing  each 
other  on  the  side,  filled  with  arrows,  and 
each  also  containing  a small  axe.  A 
socket  for  holding  the  spear  is  also 


CHARITIES 


CHARLES  I. 


attached.  From  the  front  of  the  chariot 
a singular  ornamental  appendage 
stretches  forward.  War-chariots  had 
sometimes  scythe-like  weapons  attached 
to  each  extremity  of  the  axle,  as  among 
the  ancient  Persians  and  Britons. 


king,  and  divided  the  kingdom  of  the 
Franks  with  his  younger  brother  Carlo- 
man,  at  whose  death  in  771,  Charle- 
magne made  himself  master  of  the  whole 
empire,  which  embraced,  besides  France, 
a large  part  of  Germany.  His  first  great 


Assyrian  war-chariot. 


Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  chariot- 
races  were  common.  In  Britain  the 
name  chariot  was  formerly  given  to  a 
kind  of  light  travelling  carriage. 

CHARITIES,  institutions  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor,  sick,  or  otherwise 
disabled  or  incompetent  members  of 
society.  Within  the  past  25  or  30  years 
organized  charity  has  grown  with  tre- 
mendous strides  until  at  present  they 
represent  vast  sums  of  wealth  and  innu- 
merable workers,  paid  and  .unpaid- 
These  charities  care  for  destitute  adults, 
incurables  of  various  kinds,  criminals, 
the  sick,  children,  homeless  aged,  in- 
digent families,  and  many  other  types 
of  pitiable  persons.  The  majority  of 
these  institutions  are  independent  of 
the  state  and  are  supported  by  private 
donations  and  bequests. 

CHARITIES,  United,  societies  for 
charitable  purposes  in  various  cities, 
consisting  of  a union  of  many  or  most 
of  the  charity  organizations  in  the  city. 
These  united  charity  organizations 
have  been  established  in  140  cities  of 
the  U.  States  and  in  10  Canadian  cities. 
The  purpose  is  to  secure  co-ordination 
of  work  and  to  prevent  imposition,  or 
systematic  deception  or  double  dealing 
on  the  part  of  applicants. 

CHARITIES  AND  CORRECTION,  the 
national  conference  of,  an  organization 
with  1500  members  scattered  through- 
out the  U.  States,  Canada,  and  Mexico. 
The  first  meeting  was  held  in  New  York 
in  1874.  In  1879  the  conference  met  in 
Chicago,  and  yearly  meetings  are  held 
in  varions  cities.  A fee  of  $2.50  is 
charged  for  membership  which  entitles 
the  member  to  the  annual  publications. 
The  general  secretary  is  J.  P.  Byers, 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

CHARITY,  Sisters  of.  See  Sisters  of 
Charity. 

CHARLEMAGNE  (shar-le-man') , King 
of  the  Franks,  and  subsequently  Em- 
peror of  the  West,  was  born  in  742, 
probably  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  His  father 
was  Pepin  the  Short,  king  of  the  Franks, 
son  of  Charles  Martel.  On  the  decease 
of  his  father,  in  768,  he  was  crowned 


enterprise  was  the  conquest  of  the 
Saxons,  a heathen  nation  living  between 
the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  which  he  under- 
took in  772;  but  it  was  not  till  803  that 
they  were  finally  subdued,  and  brought 
to  embrace  Christianity.  While  he  was 
combating  the  Saxons,  Pope  Adrian 
implored  his  assistance  against  Desider- 
ius,  king  of  the  Lombards.  Charle- 
magne immediately  marched  with  his 
army  to  Italy,  took  Pavia,  overthrew 
Desiderius,  and  was  crowned  King  of 
Lombardy  with  the  iron  crown.  In 
778  he  repaired  to  Spain  to  assist  a 
Moorish  prince,  and  while  returning  his 
troops  were  surprised  in  the  valley  of 
Roncesvalles  by  the  Biscayans,  and  the 
rear-guard  defeated;  Roland,  one  of  the 
most  famous  warriors  of  those  times, 
fell  in  the  battle.  As  his  power  in- 
creased, he  meditated  more  seriously  the 
accomplishemnt  of  the  plan  of  his  an- 
cestor, Charles  Martel,  to  restore  the 
Western  Empire.  Having  gone  to 
Italy  to  assist  the  pope,  on  Christmas-day 
800  he  was  crowned  and  proclaimed 
Caesar  and  Augustus  by  Leo  III.  His 
son  Pepin,  who  had  been  made  king  of 
Italy,  died  in  810,  and  his  death  was 
followed  the  next  year  by  that  of  Charles 
his  eldest  son.  Thus  of  his  legitimate 
sons  one  only  remained,  Louis,  king  of 
Aquitania,  whom  Charlemagne  adopted 
as  his  colleague  in  813.  He  died  Jan. 
28,  814,  in  the  forty-seventh  year  of  his 
reign,  and  was  buried  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
his  favorite  and  usual  place  of  residence. 
Charlemagne  was  a friend  of  learnitig, 
and  deserves  the  name  of  restorer  of  the 
sciences  and  teacher  of  his  people.  He 
attracted  by  his  liberality  the  most  dis- 
tinguished scholars  to  his  court  (among 
others,  Alcuin,  from  England),  and 
established  an  academy  in  his  palace  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  sittings  of  which 
he  attended  with  all  the  scientific  and 
literary  men  of  his  court.  He  invited 
teachers  of  language  and  mathematics 
from  Italy  to  the  principal  cities  of  the 
empire,  and  founded  schools  of  theology 
and  the  liberal  sciences  in  the  monas- 
teries. He  strove  to  cultivate  his  mind 


by  intercourse  with  scholars;  and,  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  this  intercourse 
remained  his  favorite  recreation.  His 
mother-tongue  was  a form  of  German, 
but  he  spoke  several  languages  readily, 
especially  the  Latin,  and  was  naturally 
eloquent.  He  sought  to  improve  the 
liturgy  and  church  music,  and  attempted 
unsuccessfully  to  introduce  uniformity 
of  measures  and  weights.  He  built  a 
lighthouse  at  Boulogne,  constructed 
several  ports,  encouraged  agriculture, 
and  enacted  wise  laws.  He  convened 
councils  and  parliaments,  published 
capitularies,  wrote  many  letters  (some 
of  which  are  still  extant),  a grammar, 
and  several  Latin  poems.  His  empire 
comprehended  France,  most  of  Cata- 
lonia, Navarre,  and  Aragon;  the  Nether- 
lands, Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  Saale, 
and  Eider,  Upper  and  Middle  Italy, 
Istria,  and  a part  of  Sclavonia. 

CHARLES  I.,  surnamed  le  Chauve,  or 
the  Bald,  King  of  France,  was  son  of 
Louis  le  I)(5bonnaire,  and  was  born  823. 
He  died  in  877.  CHARLES  II.,  sur- 
named le  Gros,  or  the  Fat,  King  of 
France,  is  also  known  as  Charles  III., 
emperor  of  Germany,  and  was  born 
about  832.  He  was  the  son  of  Louis  the 
German,  and  ascended  the  French 
throne  in  885  to  the  prejudice  of  his 
cousin,  Charles  the  Simple,  but  was 
deposed  in  887  and  died  the  following 
year.  CHARLES  III.,  King  of  France, 
surnamed  the  Simple,  was  the  son  of 
Louis  the  Stammerer,  and  born  in  879, 
died  in  929.  CHARLES  IV.,  King  of 
France,  surnamed  le  Bel,  or  the  Hand- 
some, third  son  of  Philippe  le  Bel  was 
born  in  1294,  and  ascended  the  throne 
in  1322.  He  died  in  1328.*  CHARLES 
V.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  King  of  France, 
was  the  son  of  King  John,  and  was  born 
in  1337.  He  died  in  1380.  He  erected 
the  Bastille  for  the  purpose  of  over- 
awing the  Parisians.  CHARLES  VI., 
surnamed  the  Silly.  King  of  France,  and 
son  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1368,  and  in  1388  took  the  reins  of 
government  into  his  own  hands.  Four 
years  later  he  lost  his  reason,  and  one  of 
the  most  disastrous  periods  of  French 
history  began.  Charles  died  in  1422. 
CHARLES  VII.,  King  of  France,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1403.  He  succeeded 
only  to  the  southern  provinces  of  the 
kingdom,  Henry  VI.  of  England  being 
proclaimed  king  of  France  at  Paris. 
The  English  dominion  in  France  was 
under  the  government  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  and  so  skilfully  did  the  Eng- 
lish general  conduct  his  operations  that 
Charles  had  almost  abandoned  the 
struggle  as  hopeless,  when  the  appear- 
ance of  Jeanne  d’Arc,  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  gave,  as  if  by  a miracle,  a 
favorable  turn  to  his  affairs,  and  the 
struggle  ended  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
English  from  all  their  possessions  in 
France,  except  Calais.  Charles  died  in 
1461.  CHARLES  VIII.,  King  of  France, 
son  of  Louis  XI.,  was  born  in  1470,  died 
in  1498.  CHARLES  IX.,  King  of  France, 
son  of  Henry  II.,  and  Catharine  de’ 
Medici,  born  in  1550,  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  ten  years.  His 
haughty  and  ambitious  mother  seized 
the  control  of  the  state.  Along  with 
the  Guises  she  headed  the  Catholic 
League  against  the  Calvinists,  and  her 


CHARLES  IV. 


CHARLES  XII 


tortuous  and  unscrupulous  policy  helped 
to  embitter  the  religious  strife  of  the 
factions.  After  a series  of  Huguenot 
persecutions  and  civil  wars  a peace  was 
made  in  1570,  which,  two  years  later,  on 
24th  August,  1572,  was  treacherously 
broken  by  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew’s. The  king,  who  had  been  little 
more  than  the  tool  of  his  scheming 
mother,  died  two  years  afterward,  in 
1574.  CHARLES  X.,  King  of  France, 
Comte  d’Artois,  born  at  Versailles  in 
1757,  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  the  dauphin,  and 
brother  of  Louis  XVI.  He  died  in  1836. 
His  grandson,  the  Comte  de  Chambord 
(which  see),  claimed  the  French  throne 
as  his  heir. 

CHARLES  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
of  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  was  born 
1316,  and  was  the  son  of  King  John  of 
Bohemia.  In  1346  he  was  elected 
emperor  by  five  of  the  electoral  princes. 


diaries  V,  of  Germany. 


while  the  actual  emperor  Louis  the 
Bavarian  was  still  alive.  On  the  death 
of  the  latter  a part  of  the  electors 
elected  Count  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg, 
who  soon  after  died;  and  Charles  at 
'length  won  over  his  enemies,  and  was 
elected  and  consecrated  emperor  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  He  died  at  Prague 
in  1378.  CHARLES  V.,  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  King  of  Spain  (in  the 
latter  capacity  he  is  called  Charles  I.), 
the  eldest  son  of  Philip,  archduke  of 
Austria,  and  of  Joanna,  the  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  was 
born  at  Ghent,  Feb.  24,  1500.  Charles 
was  thus  the  grandson  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  and  Mary,  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  last  duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  inherited  from  his  grandparents  on 
both  sides  the  fairest  countries  in 
Europe,  Aragon,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, Castile,  and  the  colonies  in  the 
New  World,  Austria,  Burgundy,  and  the 
Netherlands.  On  the  death  of  Ferdi- 
nand, his  grandfather,  Charles  assumed 
the  title  of  King  of  Spain.  Foiled  in  his 
schemes  and  dejected  with  repeated 
failures,  Charles  resolved  to  resign  the 
imperial  dignity,  and  transfer  his  heredi- 
tary estates  to  his  son  Philip.  In  1555 
he  conferred  on  him  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Netherlands,  and  on  January  15, 
1556,  that  of  Spain,  retiring  himself  to  a 
residence  beside  the  monastery  of  Yuste, 
’n  Estremadura,  where  he  amused 
himself  by  mechanical  labors  and  the 
cultivation  of  a garden.  He  still  took  a 
strong  interest  in  public  affairs,  though 
latterly  he  was  very  much  of  an  invalid, 


his  ill  health  being  partly  caused  by  his 
high  living.  He  died  on  Sept.  21,  1558. 
CHARLES  VI.,  German  emperor,  the 
second  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I., 
was  born  Oct.  1,  1685.  He  was  destined 
according  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  in- 
heritance to  succeed  his  relative  Charles 
II.  on  the  throne  of  Spain.  But  Charles 
II.  by  his  will  made  a French  prince, 
Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  heir  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy. This  occasioned  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  in  which  England 
and  Holland  took  the  part  of  the 
Austrian  claimant.  In  1733  a war  with 
France  and  Spain  regarding  the  succes- 
sion in  Poland  terminated  unfavorably 
for  him,  he  having  to  surrender  Sicily, 
Naples,  and  part  of  Milan,  to  Spain,  and 
Lorraine  to  France.  In  1737  he  renewed 
the  war  with  the  Turks,  this  time  un- 
successfully. Charles  died  Oct.  20, 1740. 
CHARLES  VII.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
born  in  1697,  was  the  son  of  Maximilian 
Emanuel,  elector  of  Bavaria.  In  1726 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  Elector  of 
Bavaria.  In  support  of  his  claims  he 
invaded  Austria  with  an  army,  took 
Prague,  was  crowned  king  of  Bohemia, 
and  in  1742  was  elected  emperor.  But 
fortune  soon  deserted  him.  The  armies 
of  Maria  Theresa  reconquered  all  Upper 
Austria,  and  overwhelmed  Bavaria. 
Charles  fled  to  Frankfort,  and  returning 
to  Munich  in  1744,  died  there  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

CHARLES  I.,  King  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland,  was  born  at  Dun- 
fermline, Scotland,  in  the  year  1600, 
and  was  the  third  son  of  James  VI.  and 
Anne  of  Denmark.  He  married  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  in  1625  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  receiving  the  kingdom  em- 
broiled in  a Spanish  war.  The  first 
parliament  which  he  summoned,  being 


Charles  I,  of  England. 


more  disposed  to  state  grievances  than 
grant  supplies,  was  dissolved.  Next 
year  (1626)  a new  parliament  was  sum- 
moned; but  the  House  proved  no  more 
tractable  than  before,  and  was  soon  dis- 
solved. In  1628  the  king  was  obliged  to 
call  a new  parliament,  which  showed 
itself  as  much  opposed  to  arbitrary 
measures  as  its  predecessor,  and  after 
voting  the  supplies  prepared  the  Petition 
of  Right,  which  Charles  was  constrained 
to  pass  into  a law.  In  was  in  Scotland, 
however,  that  formal  warlike  opposition 
was  destined  to  commence.  The  king 
had  on  his  side  the  great  bulk  of  the 
gentry,  while  nearly  all  the  Puritans  and 


the  inhabitants  of  the  great  trading 
towns  sided  with  the  parliament.  The 
first  action,  the  battle  of  Edgehill  (23d 
Oct.,  1642),  gave  the  king  a slight  ad- 
vantage; but  nothing  very  decisive 
happened  till  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor, 
in  1644,  where  Cromwell  routed  the 
royalists.  Charles  at  length  gave  him- 
self up  to  the  Scottish  army  at  Newark 
(5th  May,  1646)  All  interposition  being 
vain,  he  was  beheaded  before  the  Ban- 
queting House,  Whitehall,  on  30tn  Jan., 
1649,  meeting  his  fate  with  great 
dignity  and  composure. 

CHARLES  II.,  King  of  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Scotland,  son  of  Charles  I.  and 
Henrietta  Maria  of  France,  was  born  in 
1630.  He  was  a refugee  at  the  Hague  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  on  which  he 
immediately  assumed  the  royal  title. 
Cromwell  was  then  all-powerful  in  Eng- 
land ; but  Charles  accepted  an  invitation 
from  the  Scots,  who  had  proclaimed  him 
their  king  July,  1650,  and,  passing  over 


Charles  II. 


to  Scotland,  was  crowned  at  Scone 
(1651).  Cromwell’s  approach  made  him 
take  refuge  among  the  English  royal- 
ists, who,  having  gathered  an  army, 
encountered  Cromwell  at  Worcester, 
and  were  totally  defeated.  With  great 
difficulty  Charles  escaped  to  France. 
On  the  death  of  Cromwell  the  Restor- 
ation, effected  without  a struggle  by 
General  Monk,  set  Charles  on  the 
throne  after  the  declaration  of  Breda, 
his  entry  into  the  capital  (29th  May, 
1660)  being  made  amidst  universal  ac- 
clamations. In  1662  he  married  the 
Infanta  of  Portugal,  Catharine  of  Bra- 
ganza,  a prudent  and  virtuous  princess, 
but  in  no  way  calculated  to  acquire  the 
affection  of  a man  like  Charles.  For  a 
time  his  measures,  mainly  counselled  by 
the  chancellor  Lord  Clarendon,  were 
prudent  and  conciliatory.  But  the 
indolence,  extravagance,  and  licentious 
habits  of  the  king  soon  involved  the 
nation  as  well  as  himself  in  difficulties. 
He  died  from  the  consequences  of  an 
apoplectic  fit  in  February,  1685,  after 
having  received  the  sacrament  accord- 
ing to  the  rites  of  the  Roman  Church. 

CHARLES  XII.,  King  of  Sweden,  was 
born  at  Stockholm,  June  27,  1682.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1697,  when  he 
was  but  fifteen  years  old,  he  was  de- 
clared of  age  by  the  estates.  Unfor- 
tunate in  his  campaigns  against  fhe 
Russians  he  returned  to  his  own  coun- 
try and  set  about  the  measures  neces- 
sary to  defend  the  kingdom,  and  the 
fortunes  of  Sweden  were  beginning  to 
assume  a favorable  aspect  when  he  was 


CHARLES  XIV. 


CHARM 


blain  by  a cannon-ball  as  he  was  besieg- 
ing Frederikshall,  Nov.  30,  1718.  Firm- 
ness, valor,  and  love  of  justice  were  the 
great  featui'es  in  the  character  of  Charles, 
but  were  disfigured  by  an  obstinate 
rashness.  After  his  death  Sweden  sank 
from  the  rank  of  a leading  power. 
CHARLES  XIII.,  King  of  Sweden,  was 
born  in  1748,  being  the  second  son  of 
King  Adolphus  Frederick.  In  the  war 
with  Russia,  in  1788,  he  received  the 
command  of  the  fleet,  and  defeated  the 
Russians  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  He 
adopted  as  his  successor  Marshal  Berna- 
dette, who  became  king  on  the  death  of 
Charles.  Feb.  5,  1818. 

CHARLES  XIV.  See  Bernadotte. 

CHARLES  I.,  King  of  Spain.  See 
Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 

CHARLES  IV.,  King  of  Spain,  born 
at  Naples  12th  Nov.  1748,  succeeded 
his  brother  Ferdinand  VI.  in  1788,  was 
all  his  life  completely  under  the  influ- 
ence of  his  wife  and  her  paramour 
Godoy.  In  1808  Charles  abdicated  in 
favor  of  Napoleon.  He  died  in  1819. 

CHARLES,  Archduke  of  Austria, 
third  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II., 
was  born  in  Florence  5th  Sept.  1771. 
After  distinguishing  himself  in  various 
campaigns,  in  1796  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Austrian 
army  on  the  Rhine,  and  won  several 
victories  against  the  French.  In  1805 
he  commanded  in  Italy  against  Massena, 
and  won  Caldiero  (31st  Oct.);  but  in  the 
campaign  of  1809  in  Germany  against 
Napoleon  he  was  unsuccessful,  the  battle 
of  Wagram  (5th  and  6th  July)  laying 
Austria  at  the  feet  of  the  French  em- 
peror. With  that  event  the  military 
career  of  Charles  closed.  He  died  in 
1847.  He  published  several  military 
works  of  value. 

CHARLES  ALBERT,  King  of  Sar- 
dinia, born  1798,  was  the  son  of  Charles 
Emmanuel,  prince  of  Savoy-Carignan. 
He  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor 
Emmanuel,  and,  retiring  to  Portugal, 
died  28th  July,  1849. 

CHARLES  EDWARD  STUART,  called 
the  Pretender,  grandson  of  James  II. 
king  of  England,  son  of  James  Edward 
and  Clementina,  daughter  of  Prince 
Sobieski,  was  born  in  1720  at  Rome. 


Prince  Charles  Edwai-cl  Stuart. 


In  1 742  he  went  to  Paris  and  persuaded 
Louis  XV.  to  assist  him  in  an  attempt 
to'  recover  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 
Fifteen  thousand  men  were  on  the  point 
of  sailing  from  Dunkirk,  when  the  Eng- 
lish admiral  Norris  dispersed  the  whole 
fleet.  Charles  now  determined  to  trust 
to  his  own  exertions.  .Accompanied  by 


seven  officers  he  landed  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,  from  a small  ship  call- 
ed the  Doutelle.  Many  Lowland  nobles 
and  Highland  chiefs  went  over  to  his 
party.  With  a small  army  thus  formed 
he  marched  forward,  captured  Perth, 
then  Edinburgh  (Sept.  17,  1745),  de- 
feated an  army  of  4000  British  under 
Sir  John  Cope  at  Prestonpans  (Sept.  22), 
and  advancing  obtained  possession  of 
Carlisle.  He  now  caused  his  father  to 
be  proclaimed  king,  and  himself  regent 
of  England;  removed  his  head-quarters 
to  Manchester,  and  soon  found  him- 
self within  100  miles  of  London,  where 
many  of  his  friends  awaited  his  arrival. 
The  rapid  successes  of  the  adventurer 
now  caused  a part  of  the  British  forces 
in  Germany  to  be  recalled.  Want  of 
support,  disunion,  and  jealousy  among 
the  adherents  of  the  house  of  Stuart, 
some  errors,  and  the  superior  force  op- 
posed to  him,  compelled  Prince  Charles 
to  retire  in  the  beginning  of  1746.  He 
latterly  fell  into  habits  of  intoxication, 
and  he  died  Jan.  31,  1788. 

CHARLES  MARTEL',  ruler  of  the 
Franks,  was  a son  of  Pepin  Heristal. 
His  father  had  governed  as  mayor  of 
the  palace  under  the  weak  Frankish 
kings  with  so  much  justice  that  he  was 
enabled  to  make  his  office  hereditary 
in  his  family.  Chilperic  II..  king  of  the 
Franks,  refusing  to  acknowledge  Charles 
Martel  as  mayor  of  the  palace,  the  latter 
deposed  him,  and  set  Clothaire  IV.  in  his 
place.  After  the  death  of  Clothaire  he 
restored  Chilperic,  and  subsequently 
placed  Thierri  on  the  throne.  Charles 
Martel  rendered  his  rule  famous  by  the 
great  victory  which  he  gained  in  Octo- 
ber, 732,  over  the  Saracens,  near  Tours, 
from  which  he  acquired  the  name  of 
Martel,  signifying  hammer.  He  died 
741.  Charlemagne  was  his  grandson. 
See  Charlemagne. 

CHARLES  THE  BOLD,  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, son  of  Philip  the  Good  and  Isa- 
bella of  Portugal,  born  at  Dijon  Nov.  10, 
1433.  While  his  father  yet  lived  Charles 
left  Burgundy,  and  foi'ming  an  alliance 
with  some  of  trie  great  French  nobles  for 
the  purpose  of  preserving  the  power  of 
the  feudal  nobility,  he  marched  on  Paris 
with  20,000  men,  defeated  Louis  XI.  at 
Montlh6ri,  and  won  the  counties  of 
Boulogne,  Guines,  and  Ponthieu.  Suc- 
ceeding his  father  in  1467  be  commenced 
his  reign  by  severe  repression  of  the 
citizens  of  Liege  and  Ghent.  Charles 
now  turned  his  arms  against  the  Swiss, 
took  the  city  of  Granson,  putting  800 
men  to  the  sword.  But  this  cruelty  was 
speedily  avenged  by  the  descent  of  a 
Swiss  army,  which  at  the  first  shock 
routed  the  duke’s  forces  at  Granson, 
March  3,  1476.  Mad  with  rage  and 
shame  Charles  gathered  another  army, 
invaded  Switzerland,  and  was  again 
defeated  with  great  loss  at  Morat.  The 
Swiss,  led  by  the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  now 
undertook  the  reconquest  of  Lorraine, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Nancy. 
Charles  marched  to  recover  it,  but  was 
utterly  routed  and  himself  slain. 

CHARLESTON,  a city  and  seaport  of 
South  Carolina,  on  a tongue  of  land 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  rivers 
Cooper  and  Ashley,  which  unite  just 
below  the  city,  and  form  a spacious  and 
convenient  harbor  extending  about 


miles  to  the  Atlantic,  and  defended  by 
several  forts.  The  city  is  regularly  laid 
out,  most  of  the  principal  thoroughfares 
being  60  to  70  feet  wide  and  bordered 
with  fine  shade-trees.  It  is  much  the 


largest  town  in  the  state,  and  is  one  of 
the  leading  commercial  cities  in  the 
south.  The  staple  exports  are  cotton 
(to  the  value  of,  say,  $20,000,000 
annually),  cotton-seed,  rice,  rosin  and 
turpentine,  lumber,  and  phosphate.  The 
civil  war  greatly  damaged  the  trade,  but 
there  has  since  been  marked  commer- 
cial and  industrial  progress.  Yellow 
fever  has  made  frequent  ravages  in 
Charleston,  but  on  the  whole  it  is 
considered  more  healthy  than  most 
other  Atlantic  towns  in  the  southern 
states.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  on  April  12,  1861, 
and  was  evacuated  by  the  Confederates 
on  February  17,  1865.  On  31st  August, 
1886,  the  coast  region  of  the  U.  States 
from  Alabama  to  New  York  experienced 
a series  of  earthquake  shocks,  from  which 
Charleston  inparticularsuffered  severely, 
many  lives  and  about  five  million  dollars 
worth  of  property  being  destroyed. 
Pop.  64.000. 

CHARLESTON,  the  county  seat  of 
Kanawha  county,  and  capital  of  West 
Virginia,  is  situated  on  the  Kanawha 
river  at  the  confluence  of  Elk  river  65 
miles  from  its  mouth  and  150  miles  s.s.w. 
of  Wheeling.  Pop.  13,109. 

CHARLOTTE,  a city  and  county- 
seat  of  Mecklenburg  County,  N.  C.,  125 
miles  west  by  south  of  Raleigh,  on  Sugar 
Creek,  and  on  the  Southern  and  the  Sea- 
board Air-line  railroads.  It  is  in  the 
gold  region  of  the  State,  and  a branch 
mint  was  established  here  in  1838.  Pop. 
21,040. 

CHARLOTTENBURG  (shar-lot'en- 
buvh),  a town  of  Prussia,  on  the  Spree, 
about  3 miles  from  Berlin,  with  a ro3'al 
palace  and  park,  great  teclmical  school 
or  college,  also  a number  of  industrial 
and  maufacturing  establishments.  Pop. 
189,290. 

CHARLOTTE-RUSSE  (shar'lot-rus),  a 
dish  made  of  whipped-cream  surrounded 
with  a border  of  sponge-cake. 

CHARM,  anything  believed  to  possess 
some  occult  or  supernatural  power,  such 
as  an  amulet,  spell,  etc.,  but  properly 


/ 


CHARNEL-HOUSE 


CHATHAM 


applied  (as  the  name,  derived  from  Lat. 
carmen,  a song,  indicates)  to  spells 
couched  in  formulas  of  words  or  verses. 

CHARNEL-HOUSE,  a chamber  or 
building  under  or  near  churches  where 
the  bones  of  the  dead  are  deposited. 

CHARON  (ka'ron).  in  Greek  mythol- 
ogy,  the  son  of  Erebus  and  Night.  It 
was  his  office  to  ferry  the  dead  in  his 
crazy  boat  over  the  rivers  of  the  infernal 
regions,  for  which  office  he  received  an 
obolus,  or  farthing,  which  accordingly 
was  usually  put  into  the  mouth  of  the 
deceased.  He  was  represented  as  an 
old  man,  with  a gloomy  aspect,  matted 
beard,  and  tattered  garments. 

CHART,  a hydrographical  or  marine 
map,  that  is  a draft  or  projection  _ of 
some  part  of  the  earth’s  surface,  with 
the  coasts,  islands,  rocks,  banks,  chan- 
nels, or  entrances  into  harbors,  rivers, 
and  bays,  the  points  of  compass,  sound- 
ings, or  depth  of  water,  etc.,  to  regulate 
the  courses  of  ships  in  their  voyages. 
The  term  chart  is  applied  to  a marine 
map ; map  is  applied  to  a draft  of 
some  portion  of  land  (often  including 
sea  also).  A plane  chart  is  one  in  which 
the  meridians  are  supposed  parallel  to 
each  other,  the  parallels  of  latitude  at 
equal  distances,  and  of  course  the  de- 
grees of  latitude  and  longitude  every- 
where equal  to  each  other.  A great 
number  of  excellent  charts  are  pro- 
duced by  the  hjffirographic  department 
of  the  British  admiralty.  The  United 
States  Coast  Survey  Department  pro- 
duces similar  charts. 

CHARTER,  a franchise  or  power, 
given  to  a corporation  by  a state  en- 
abling the  corporation  to  perform  the 
functions  described  in  the  charter. 
Charters  were  granted  by  the  English 
kings  to  all  sorts  of  associations  in 
the  American  colonies.  In  the'  United 
States  today  corporations  of  all  kinds 
are  chartered  by  legislatures,  inclusive 
of  the  cities  incorporated  within  the 
state.  Thus  all  public  or  civic  corpora- 
tions, of  whatever  kind,  being  creatures 
of  the  state,  can  be  nullified  or  destroyed 
by  the  state  at  the  will  of  the  legislature. 
But  the  state  cannot  nullify  the  charter 
of  a private  corporation  as  this  is  for- 
bidden by  the  federal  constitution 
which  provides  that  no  state  can  pass 
a law  impairing  the  obligation  of  con- 
tracts— unless  this  power  is  reserved 
by  the  state  when  it  grants  the 
ctis-rtsr 

CHARTER-HOUSE,  a celebrated 
school  and  charitable  foundation  in  the 
city  of  London.  In  1371  Sir  Walter 
Manny  built  and  endowed  it  as  a priory 
for  Carthusian  monks  (hence  the  name, 
a corruption  of  Chartreuse,  the  cele- 
brated Carthusian  convent).  After  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  it  passed 
through  several  hands  till  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  Thomas  Sutton,  who 
converted  it  into  a hospital  and  school, 
richly  endowed,  consisting  of  a master, 

reacher,  head  schoolmaster,  forty-four 

qys  and  eighty  decayed  gentlemen, 
vdth  a physician  and  other  officers  and 
servants.  Among  famous  men  who 
have  received  their  education  at  the 
Charter-house  are  Isaac  Barrow,  Addi- 
son, Steele,  .lohn  Wesley,  Blackstone, 
Grote,  Thirlwall,  Havelock,  John  Leech, 
and  Thackeray. 


CHARTER  OAK,  a great  oak  tree  In 
Hartford,  Conn.,  which  was  blown  down 
in  1856,  and  which  was  believed  to  have 
been  standing  for  1000  years  previously. 
It  received  its  name  from  the  tradition 
that  the  charter  of  Connecticut  had  been 
concealed  in  its  hollow. 

CHARTREUSE  (shar-trewz)  or  GREAT 
CHARTREUSE,  a famous  Carthusian 
monastery  in  Southeastern  France,  a 
little  northeast  of  Grenoble,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  high  mountains,  3280 
feet  above  sea-level,  the  head-quarters 
of  the  order  of  the  Carthusians.  It  was 
founded  in  1084,  but  the  present  build- 
ing, a huge,  plain-looking  pile,  dates 
from  1676.  The  monks  of  this  mon- 
astery manufacture  the  well-known 
liquor  called  Chartreuse,  which  owes  its 
special  properties  to  the  aromatic  plants 
growing  on  the  Alps. 

CHARYBDIS  (ka-rib'dis),  an  eddy  or 
whirlpool  in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  cele- 
brated in  ancient  times,  and  regarded 
as  the  more  dangerous  to  navigators 
because  in  endeavoring  to  escape  it  they 
ran  the  risk  of  being  wrecked  upon 
Scylla,  a rock  opposite  to  it.  There  are 
several  whirlpools  in  this  region  which 
may  have  been  dangerous  enough  to  the 
undecked  boats  of  the  Greeks,  but  none, 
which  the  modern  navigator  with  due 
caution  may  not  easily  pass. 

CHASE:  (1)  in  printing,  an  iron  frarne 
used  to^  confine  types  when  set  in 
columns  or  pages.  (2)  The  part  of  a 
gun  between  the  trunnions  and  the 
swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  in  modern  guns, 
in  which  the  muzzle  has  no  swell,  the 
whole  of  that  part  of  a gun  which  is  in 
front  of  the  trunnions. 

CHASE,  Salmon  Portland,  American 
statesman  and  jurist,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, 1808.  Having  adopted  the  law 
as  his  profession  he  settled  at  Cincinnati 
and  acquired  a practice  there.  He  early 
showed  himself  an  opponent  of  slavery, 
and  was  the  means  of  founding  the  Free- 
soil  party,  which  in  time  gave  rise  to  the 
great  Republican  party — the  power  that 
brought  the  downfall  of  slavery.  In 
1849-55  he  was  a member  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  in  which  he  vigorously 
opposed  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 
new  territories.  In  1855  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Ohio,  being  re-elected  in 
1857.  In  1860  he  was  a.n  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  presidency.  In  1861 
he  was  nominated  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  and  in  this  post  was  signally 
successful  in  providing  funds  for  carry- 
ing on  the  civil  war.  In  1864  he  resigned 
office,  and  was  appointed  chief-justice 
of  the  supreme  courts.  He  died  in  1783. 

CHASING  is  the  art  of  working 
decorative  forms  in  low-relief  in  gold, 
silver,  or  other  metals.  It  is  generally 
practised  in  connection  with  repouss6 
work,  in  which  the  figures  are  punched 
out  from  behind  and  are  then  sculptured 
on  the  front  or  chased  with  the  graver. 

CHASSEPOT  RIFLE  (shas-p6),  a 
breech-loading  rifle,  named  after  its 
inventor,  and  adopted  as  the  firearm 
of  the  French  infantry  in  1866,  but  since 
given  up.  It  was  about  4 lbs.  lighter 
than  the  needle-gun  and  about  1 lb. 
lighter  than  the  Martini-Henry  rifle. 

CHASSEURS  (shas-ear),  a name  given 
to  various  sections  of  light  infantry  and 
cavalry  in  the  French  service. 


CHAS'UBLE,  the  upper  garment  worn 
by  a priest  during  the  celebration  of 
mass.  It  was  originally  circular,  had  a 
hole  in  the  middle  for  the  head,  but  no 
holes  for  the  arms.  In  later  times  the 
sides  were  cut  away  to  give  a freer 


A,  Ancient  form  of  chasuble:  1,  Apparel  of  the 
neck.  2232,  Chasuble.  3 3,  Orphreys  of  the 
chasuble.  4,  The  stole.  5 5,  The  alb.  6,  Ap- 
parel of  the  alb.  7.  The  maniple. 

B,  Modern  form  of  chasuble. 

motion  to  the  arms,  and  it  has  now 
become  an  oblong  garment  hanging 
down  before  and  behind,  made  of  rich 
materials,  as  silk,  velvet,  cloth  of  gold, 
and  has  a cross  embroidered  on  the 
back. 

CHAT,  the  popular  name  of  birds  of 
the  family  Sylviadse  or  warblers.  They 
are  small,  lively  birds,  moving  inces- 
santly and  rapidly  about  in  pursuit  of 
the  insects  on  which  they  chiefly  live. 
There  are  three  species  found  in  Britain, 
the  stone-chat,  whin-chat,  and  wheatear. 
The  yellow-breasted  chat  of  the  United 
States  is  a larger  bird,  belonging  to  the 
family  Turdidse  or  thrushes. 

CHATEAU  (sha-to),  the  French  term 
for  a castle  or  mansion  in  the  country; 
a country-seat. — Chateau  en  Espagne, 
literaly,  a castle  in  Spain;  a castle  in 
the  air:  a phrase  of  doubtful  origin. 

CHATEAUBRIAND  (sha-to-bri-an), 
Frangois  Auguste,  Vicomte  de,  a cele- 
brated French  author  and  politician, 
was  born  at  St.  Malo  in  Brittany,  of  a 
noble  family,  September  14,  1768.  After 
serving  in  the  navy  and  the  army  he 
travelled  in  North  America;  but  the 
news  of  the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  and  his 
arrest  at  Varennes  brought  him  back 
to  France.  Shortly  after  he  quitted 
France  and  joined  with  other  emigrants 
the  Prussian  army  on  the  Rhine.  In 
1800  he  returned  to  France,  and  in  the 
following  year  published  his  romance 
of  Atala,  the  sc.ene  of  which  is  laid  in 
America,  and  the  year  after  his  cele- 
brated work,  Le  G4nie  du  Christianisme, 
which  is  a kind  of  brilliant  picture  of 
Christianity  in  an  sesthetic  and  romantic 
aspect.  Style,  power  of  description,  and 
eloquence  are  the  merits  of  the  book 
rather  than  any  depth  of  thought;  but 
it  carried  the  author’s  reputation  far 
and  wide,  and  contributed  much  to  the 
religious  reaction  of  the  time.  In  his 
later  years  he  wrote  several  works,  but 
none  of  the  value  of  his  earlier  produc- 
tions. He  died  4th  July,  1848. 

CHATHAM,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of, 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  statesmen  of 


CHATTANOOGA 


Briiainj  the  son  of  Robert  Pitt  of 
Boconnoc,  in  Cornwall,  born  Nov.  15, 
1708,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford. 
He  entered  parliament  and  soon  at- 
tracted notice  as  a powerful  opponent 
of  Walpole.  In  spite  of  the  king’s  dis- 
like Pitt  was  powerful  enough  to  win  a 


William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham. 


place  in  the  administration  (1746),  first 
as  vice-treasurer  of  Ireland,  and  after- 
ward as  paymaster-general.  In  1756 
he  became  secretary  of  state  and  real 
head  of  the  government.  Dismissed  in 
1757  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the 
king’s  Hanoverian  policy,  no  stable 
administration  could  be  formed  without 
him,  and  he  returned  to  power  the  same 
year  in  conjunction  with  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle.  In  was  under  this  adminis- 
tration and  entirely  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  Pitt  that  Britain  rose  to  a place 
among  the  nations  she  had  not  before 
occupied.  Wolfe  and  Clive,  both  stimu- 
lated and  supported  in  their  great 
designs  by  Pitt,  won  Canada  and  India 
from  the  French,  and  the  support  the 
Great  Commoner  gave  Frederick  of 
Prussia  contributed  not  a little  to  the 
destruction  of  French  predominance  in 
Europe.  The  accession  of  George  III. 
brought  Lord  Bute  into  power,  and 
Pitt,  disagreeing  with  Bute,  resigned  in 
1761.  In  1766  he  strongly  advocated 
conciliatory  measures  toward  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  and  undertook  the  same 
year  to  form  an  administration,  he  going 
to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham. But  the  ministry  was  not  a suc- 
cess, and  in  1768  he  resigned.  After  this 
his  principal  work  was  his  appeals  for  a 
conciliatory  policy  toward  the  colonies. 
But  his  advice  was  disregarded,  and  the 
colonies  declared  themselves  independ- 
ent in  1776.  Chatham  died  May  11, 
1778.  He  received  a public  funeral  and 
a magnificent  monument  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  The  character  of  Chatham  was 
marked  by  integrity,  disinterestedness, 
and  patriotism.  With  great  oratorical 
gifts  and  the  insight  of  a great  states- 
man he  had  liberal  and  elevated  senti- 
ments; but  he  was  haughty  and  showed 
too  marked  a consciousness  of  his  own 
superiority. 

CHAT'TANOO'GA,  a city  and  county- 
seat  of  Plamilton  Co.,  Tenn.,  150  miles 
southeast  of  Nashville,  on  the  Tennes- 
see River.  The  river  is  navigable  eight 
months  of  the  year  as  far  as  this  place, 
and  several  lines  of  railroad  pass  through 
the  city,  making  it  an  important  rail- 
road center.  The  Chickamauga  Na- 
tional Military  Park,  laid  out  by  the 
Federal  Government  on  the  site  of  the ' 


CHEESE 


battle  of  Chickamauga,  is  south  by  east 
of  the  city,  and  was  dedicated  in  1895. 
Another  feature  of  interest  is  the 
National  Cemetery,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  country,  containing  13,322  graves. 
Pop.  84,000. 

CHATTELS,  property  movable  and 
immovable,  not  being  freehold.  The 
word  chattel  is  originally  the  same  word 
with  cattle,  formed  from  late  Latin 
capitalia,  meaning  heads  of  cattle,  from 
L.  caput,  head.  Chattels  are  divided 
into  real  and  personal.  Chattels  real  are 
such  as  belong  not  to  the  person  im- 
mediately, but  dependently  upon  some- 
I thing,  as  an  interest  in  a land  or  tene- 
ment, or  a lease,  or  an  interest  in  ad- 
vowsons.  Any  interest  in  land  or  tene- 
ments, for  example,  is  a real  chattel;  so 
also  is  a lease,  an  interest  in  advowsons, 
etc.  Chattels  personal  are  goods  which 
belong  immediately  to  the  person  of  the 
owner,  and  include  all  movable  property. 

CHATTERERS,  the  popular  name  of 
certain  insessorial  birds  of  the  family 
Ampelidse,  as  the  Bohemian  chatterer 
or  waxwing  and  the  chatterer  of  Caro- 
lina. 

CHATTERTON,  Thomas,  a youth 
whose  genius  and  melancholy  fate  have 
gained  him  much  celebrity,  was  born 
at  Bristol  in  1752,  of  poor  parents,  and 
educated  at  a charity  school.  The  most 
remarkable  of  his  poems  are  those  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of,  Rowley, 
spurious  antiques,  such  as  The  Tragedy 
of  AHla,  The  Battle  of  Hastings,  The 
Bristow  Tragedy,  etc.  He  committed 
suicide  in  1776. 

CHAU'CER,  Geoffrey,  “the  father  of 
English  poetry,’’  born  in  London  prob- 
ably about  1340;  died  there  on  the  25th 
of  October,  1400.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  education,  but  in  1356-59  he  was  a 


Geoffrey  Cliaucer. 


page  to  Princess  Lionel.  In  1367  we 
find  his  name  as  a valet  of  the  king’s 
chamber.  Between  1370  and  1380  he 
was  employed  abroad  in  seven  diplo- 
matic missions.  In  one  of  these,  in 
1372,  he  was  sent  to  Genoa  as  a com- 
missioner to  negotiate  a commercial 
treaty.  In  1374  he  was  appointed 
comptroller  of  the  customs  on  wool  at 
London.  In  1377  he  was  sent  to  Flan- 
ders and  France  on  diplomatic  business 
and  next  year  to  Lombardy.  In  1382 
he  was  appointed  comptroller  of  the 
petty  customs.  In  1386  he  was  returned 
to  parliament  as  knight  of  the  shire  for 
Kent,  but  in  the  same  year  he  shared 
the  disgrace  of  his  patron,  John  of 


Gaunt,  was  dismissed  from  his  comp- 
trollerships,  and  reduced  to  a state  of 
comparative  poverty.  His  most  cele- 
brated work.  The  Canterbury  Tales,  was 
written  at  different  periods  between 
1373  and  1400.  It  consists  of  a series 
of  tales  in  verse  (two  in  prose),  supposed 
to  be  told  by  a company  of  pilgrims  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  (Becket)  at 
Canterbury  in  1386.  In  its  pages  we  get 
such  pictures  of  English  life  and  English 
ways  of  thought  in  the  14th  century  as 
are  found  nowhere  else.  Besides  his 
great  work  Chaucer  wrote  many  poems, 
some  of  which  are  founded  on  French 
or  Italian  works.  He  was  buried  in  Wes- 
minster  Abbey. 

CHAUFFEUR  (sh^'fer)  a French 
word,  meaning  stoker,  applied  generally 
to  the  operator  of  an  automobile.  It 
also  is  used  to  designate  certain  ruffians 
who  during  the  French  Revolution  ter- 
rorized the  country  districts  by  garrot- 
ing  helpless  persons. 

CHAUTAU'QUA,  a beautiful  lake  in 
New  York,  18  miles  long  and  1 to  3 
broad,  726  feet  above  Lake  Erie,  from 
which  it  is  8 miles  distant.  On  its 
banks  is  the  ^'illage  of  Chautauqua, 
the  center  of  a religious  and  educa- 
tional movement  of  some  interest. 
This  originated  in  1874,  when  the  village 
was  selected  as  a summer  place  of  meet- 
ing for  all  interested  in  Sunday-schools 
and  missions.  Since  then  the  Chautauqua 
Literary  and  Scientific  Circle  has  taken 
origin  here,  the  most  prominent  feature 
of  which  is  to  engage  the  members — 
wherever  they  may  reside — in  a regular 
and  systematic  course  of  reading,  ex- 
tending, when  completed,  over  four 
years  and  entitling  the  student  to  a 
diploma.  There  are  many  local  branches 
or  societies,  and  it  is  attempted  to  start 
the  movement  in  Britain. 

CHAUVINISM  (sho'viu-izm),  an  un- 
reflecting and  fanatical  devotion  to  any 
cause,  especially'hn  exaggerated  patriot- 
ism, so  called  from  Nicholas  Chauvin, 
a soldier  so  enthusiastically  devoted  to 
Napoleon  I.  and  so  demonstrative  in  his 
adoration  that  his  comrades  turned  him 
into  ridicule. 

CHECK.  See  Cheque. 

CHECKERS,  the  common  ■ name  for 
the  game  of  draughts. 

CHED'DAR,  a parish  and  thriving 
village,  England,  county  Somerset,  18 
miles  s.w.  Bristol.  The  dairies  in  the 
neighborhood  have  long  been  famous 
for  the  excellence  of  their  cheese,  which 
is  made  from  the  whole  milk,  on  a highly 
approved  method  now  widely  practised. 

CHEESE,  one  of  the  most  important 
products  of  the  dairy,  is  composed 
principally  of  casein,  which  exists  in 
cows’  milk  to  the  extent  of  about  3 or  4 
per  cent,  fat,  and  water.  It  is  made 
from  milk,  skimmed  wholly,  partiallj’', 
or  not  at  all,  the  milk  being  curdled  or 
coagulated,  and  the  watery  portion  or 
whey  separated  from  the  insoluble  curd, 
which  being  then  worked  into  a uniform 
mass,  salted  (as  a rule),  and  pressed  in 
a vat  or  mold  forms  cheese,  but  requires 
to  be  cured  or  ripened  for  a time  before 
being  used.  The  coagulation  of  the  milk 
may  be  effected  either  by  adding  an  acid 
as  in  Holland,  or  sour  milk  as  in  Switzer- 
land, or  rennet  as  usual  in  Britain  and 
this  country.  There  are  a great  many 


CHEIROMANCY 


CHEMISTRY 


varieties  of  cheese,  of  which  the  most 
notable  are  Stilton,  Cheshire,  Cheddar, 
Dunlop,  among  British;  and  Parmesan, 
Gruy^re,  Gorgonzola,  Gouda,  among 
foreign  ones.  In  the  United  States 
immense  quantities  of  cheese  are  made, 
almost  all  the  different  European  kinds 
being  imitated.  Large  factories  are 
devoted  to  the  manufacture.  Other 
kinds  are  known  as  sour-milk,  skimmed- 
milk,  cream,  sweet-milk,  etc.,  cheese. 
Sheep’s  and  goat’s  milk  cheese  are 
also  made.  The  output  of  cheese  in 
the  United  States  is  upward  of  300,- 
00,000  pounds  annually.  New  York 
and  Wisconsin  are  the  two  most  pro- 
ductive states,  and  production  has  been 
materially  assisted  by  the  experiments 
of  the  United  States  agricultural  de- 
artment  with  various  ferments  which 
asten  the  process. 

CHEIROMANCY  (ki'ro-),  or  PALM- 
ISTRY, the  art  of  divining  by  inspection 
of  the  lines  of  the  hand;  it  was  prac- 
tised in  India  in  the  remotest  ages;  in 
Europe,  during  the  middle  ages,  it  was 
in  great  repute,  but  latterly  it  took  re- 
fuge among  the  gypsies,  who  to  this  day 
find  profit  in  the  exercise  of  their  fav- 

OFltO  fliPt 

CHEIROPTERA  (kl-rop'te-ra),  or 
BATS,  an  order  of  mammals,  the  essen- 
tial character  of  which  is  the  possession 
of  a patagium,  or  expansion  of  the  in- 
tegument of  the  body  which  connects 
the  tail  throughout  its  whole  length  to 
the  hinder  limbs  as  far  as  the  ankle,  and 
thence  passes  along  the  side  of  the  body 
to  the  fore-limbs,  which  are  greatly 
elongated,  and  give  support  and  varied 
movement  to  the  expansion  (which  is 
popularly  called  the  wing)  by  means  of 
the  very  Jong  and  slender  digits.  Other 
mammals,  as  some  of  the  squirrels  and 
the  flying  lemur,  have  the  power  of 
gliding  through  the  air  for  some  dis- 
tance, but  none  of  them  have  the  power 
of  sustained  flight,  nor  are  the  anterior 
extremities  modified  in  the  same  way 
as  are  those  of  the  bats.  The  Cheirop- 
tera are  divided  into  two  sub-orders. 
Fruit-eaters,  and  Insect-eaters.  (See 
Bat.) 

CHE-KIANG,  a maritime  province, 
China,  between  lat.  27°  and  31°  n.,  and 
including  the  Chusan  Archipelago ; area, 
39,150  sq.  miles;  pop. . 11,588,692.  It 
is  traversed  by  the  Grand  Canal,  and 
has  as  its  principal  ports  Ningpo  and 
Hangchow,  the  capital.  Staple  exports, 
silk  and  tea. 

CHELONIANS  (ke-lo'-),  or  CHE- 
LONIA,  an  order  of  reptiles  including 
the  tortoises  and  turtles,  and  distin- 
guished by  the  body  being  inclosed  in  a 
double  shell,  out  of  which  the  head,  tail, 
and  four  legs  protrude.  See  Tortoise, 
Turtle. 

CHELSEA  (chel'se),  a suburb  of  Lon- 
don, and  a mun.  and  pari,  borough,  on 
the  Thames,  opposite  Battersea,  and 
chiefly  distinguished  for  containing  a 
royal  military  hospital,  originally  com- 
menced by  James  I.  as  a theological 
college,  but  converted  by  Charles  II. 
for  the  reception  of  sick,  maimed,  and 
superannuated  soldiers.  The  building 
was  finished  in  1692  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.  Connected  with  the  hospital  is  a 
royal  military  asylum,  founded  in  1801, 
for  the  education  and  maintenance  of 
P.  E.— 17 


soldiers’  children.  The  parliamentary 
borough  returns  one  member.  Pop. 
pari.  bor.  93,841. 

CHELSEA,  a city  in  Suffolk  Co.,  Mass., 
and  a suburb  of  Boston,  from  which  it  is 
distant  2 miles,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad.  It  is  connected  with  Charles- 
town by  a bridge  across  the  Mystic 
River,  and  with  Boston  by  ferry  and 
steam  and  electric  railroads.  Pop. 
40,000. 

CHELTENHAM  (chel'tn-am),  a mu- 
nicipal and  parliamentary  borough  and 
fashionable  watering-place  in  England, 
in  the  county  of  Gloucester,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  small  river  Clhelt,  within 
the  shelter  of  the  Cotswold  Hills.  It 
grew  rapidly  into  a place  of  fashionable 
resort  after  the  discovery  of  its  saline, 
sulphuric,  and  chalybeate  springs  in 
1716,  to  which,  in  1788,  George  III. 
paid  a visit.  Pop.  49,439. 

CHEMICAL  RAYS,  a not  very  appro- 
priate name  given  to  the  blue  and 
violet  rays  of  the  spectrum,  and  also 
the  non-luminous  rays  at  the  violet  end 
of  the  spectrum,  which  have  a peculiarly 
powerful  chemical  effect  on  silver  com- 
pounds. 

CHEMISTRY,  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  nature,  laws  of  combination,  and 
mutual  actions  of  the  minute  particles 
of  the  different  sorts  of  matter  compos- 
ing our  universe,  and  the  properties  of 
the  compounds  they  form.  As  a science 
it  is  entirely  of  modern  origin,  in  its 
earliest  phases  being  identical  with 
alchemy  (which  see),  the  great  object  of 
which  was  the  discovery  of  the  philoso- 
pher’s stone.  In  this  pursuit  most 
minerals,  especially  such  as  presented 
the  characters  of  metallic  ores,  were  sub- 
jected to  numerous  experiments,  and 
many  important  isolated  discoveries 
were  made  by  Basil  Valentine,  Raymond 
Lully,  Paracelsus,  Van  Helmont,  and 
others.  But  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  17th  century  the  belief  in  alchemy 
was  greatly  on  the  wane,  and  just  at  its 
close  the  German  chemist  Becher  threw 
out  certain  speculations  regarding  the 
cause  of  combustion,  which  were  after- 
ward taken  up  and  extended  by  Stahl 
in  the  “phlogistic  theory,’’  and  consti- 
tute the  first  generalization  of  the 
phenomena  of  chemistry,  though  the 
theory  itself  was  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  truth.  About  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  Dr.  Black  made  his  great 
discovery  of  a gas  differing  from  atmos- 
pheric air,  rapidly  followed  by  that  of  a 
number  of  other  gases  by  Cavendish, 
Rutherford,  Priestley,  Scheele,  etc.;  and 
the  discovery  of  oxygen  by  the  two 
last-named  chemists  afforded  to  La- 
voisier the  means  of  revolutionizing  and 
systematizing  the  science.  By  a series 
of  experiments  he  showed  that  all  sub- 
stances, when  burned,  absorb  oxygen, 
and  that  the  weight  of  the  products  of 
combustion  is  exactly  equal  to  that  of 
the  combustible  consumed  and  of  the 
oxygen  which  has  disappeared.  The 
application  of  this  theory  to  the  great 
majority  of  the  most  important  chemical 
phenomena  was  obvious,  and  the  Stahl- 
ian  hypothesis  disappeared  from  the 
science.  A yet  more  important  step 
was  the  discovery  by  Dalton  of  the  laws 
of  chemical  combination.  His  theory 
was  immediately  taken  up  by  Berzelius, 


to  whose  influence  and  careful  deter- 
mination of  the  chemical  equivalents  of 
almost  all  the  elements  then  known,  its 
rapid  adoption  was  mainly  due.  To 
Berzelius  we  owe  almost  all  the  modern 
improvements  in  the  methods  of  analy- 
sis, and  to  Sir  H.  Davy  the  foundation 
of  electro-chemistry.  Of  late  years 
every  branch  of  the  science  has  ad- 
vanced, but  the  most  extraordinary 
progress  has  been  made  in  organic 
chemistry.  The  investigations  of  chem- 
ists have  shown  that  the  great  ma- 
jority of  the  different  substances  fo\md 
at  the  surface  of  the  earth  can  be 
broken  up  into  several  substances  of 
less  complicated  nature,  which  resist  all 
further  attempts  to  decompose  them, 
and  appear  to  consist  of  only  one  kind  of 
matter.  These  substances,  by  union 
of  which  all  the  different  sorts  of  known 
matter  are  built  up,  are  about  seventy 
in  number,  and  are  called  the  chemical 
elements.  When  any  two  or  more  of 
these  elements  are  brought  in  contact, 
under  the  proper  conditions,  they  may 
unite  and  form  chemical  compounds 
of  greater  or  less  complexity,  in  which 
the  constituents  are  held  in  union  by  a 
form  of  energy  which  has  received  the 
name  of  chemical  affinity.  This  affinity 
is  characterized  by  its  acting  between 
dissimilar  particles,  and  producing  a 
new  kind  of  matter,  readily  distinguish- 
able from  either  of  the  substances  com- 
bining to  form  it,  and  which  cannot  be 
again  separated  into  its  elements  by 
merely  mechanical  processes. 

The  properties  of  chemical  com- 
pounds may  be  classified  not  merely 
under  the  head  of  the  particular  ele- 
ments they  contain,  but  also  according 
to  their  special  chemical  functions.  The 
advantages  of  the  latter  method  were 
early  recognized,  and  the  distinction 
between  acids  and  alkalies  dates  back 
to  a period  long  previous  to  the  ascer- 
tainment of  their  true  nature.  These, 
and  the  class  of  salts  which  are  produced 
by  the  mutual  action  of  an  acid  and  a 
base,  are  the  most  important  classes  of 
chemical  compounds.  An  acid  is  now 
described  as  a compound  containing  a 
certain  quantity  of  hydrogen,  easily 
replaceable  by  a metal  when  it  comes 
in  contact  with  it  either  in  the  free  state 
or  as  an  oxide. 

Bases  are  compounds  which,  by  re- 
acting on  acids,  yield  salts.  The  most 
important  bases  are  oxides  of  metals, 
and  they  are  divided  into  several  sec- 
tions, of  which  the  most  important  are 
the  alkalies.  These  substances  are  the 
hydrates  of  the  so-called  alkaline  metals, 
and  may  be  compared  to  water  in  which 
an  atom  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an 
atom  of  metal.  Most  of  the  bases,  ex- 
cepting the  alkalies,  are  insoluble  in 
water,  and  without  any  effect  on  vege- 
table colors.  Another  class  of  bases  of 
great  importance  is  typified  by  ammonia. 

Sulphides  are  compounds  of  the 
metals  with  sulphur,  and  form  a very 
important  class  of  compounds.  They 
are  obtained  either  by  heating  the 
metals  with  sulphur  in  proper  propor- 
tions, or  by  passing  a current  of  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid  gas  through  a solution  of 
a salt.  They  exist  abundantly  in  the 
mineral  kingdom,  and  form  some  of  the 
most  important  ores.  Some  of  the  sul- 


CHEMIOTS 


GHERUB 


phides  are  capable  of  acting  as  bases  and 
others  as  acids,  and  by  combination  a 
class  of  salts,  usually  distinguished  as  sul- 
phur salts,  can  be  obtained.  The  greater 
part  of  the  sulphides  are  insoluble  in 
water,and  some  of  them  possess  extreme- 
ly fine  colors,  and  are  used  as  paints. 

Organic  chemistry  is  that  oranch  of 
the  science  which  treats  of  the  com- 
pounds existing  in  plants  and  animals, 
or  which  may  be  produced  from  sub- 
stances found  ready  formed  in  their 
tissues.  It  was  at  first  believed  that 
these  compounds  were  peculiar  in  their 
constitution,  quite  distinct  in  their 
chemical  relations,  and  produced  by 
what  was  called  vital  affinity.  The  dis- 
covery by  Wohler,  however,  that  urea 
could  be  produced  artificially  from 
purely  mineral  substances  entirely 
altered  this  view;  and  since  then  the 
artificial  production  of  many  organic 
compounds  has  practically  annulled  the 
distinction  between  organic  and  in- 
organic chemistry  except  as  a matter 
of  convenience.  Organic  chemistry  is 
now  most  commonly  defined  as  the 
chemistry  of  the  carbon  compounds, 
for  that  element  is  found  in  every  sub- 
stance which  can  be  extracted  from 
plants  and  animals,  in  combination  with 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  less 
frequently  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 
These  elements  are  so  combined  as  in 
many  cases  to  form  compounds  of  ex- 
treme complexity,  the  constitution  of 
some  of  which  is  still  a matter  of  much 
difference  of  opinion  among  chemists; 
but  the  constitution  of  the  simpler 
organic  compounds  is  now  thoroughly 
understood. 

CHEMISTS  and  DRUGGISTS,  in  the 

United  States,  retail  venders  of  drugs 
and  various  chemical  reagents.  They 
are  regulated  by  law  and  prohibited 
from  indiscriminately  selling  certain 
poisons  and  other  drugs  that  are  deemed 
dangerous  or  may  be  used  for  criminal 
purposes. 

CHEMNITZ  (fcem'nits),  the  principal 
manufacturing  town  in  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  on  the  Chemnitz,  39  miles 
southwest  of  Dresden.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  white  and  printed 
calicoes,  ginghams,  handkerchiefs,  wool- 
en and  half-woolen  goods,  etc.  There 
are  also  extensive  cotton-spinning  mills, 
and  mills  for  the  spinning  of  combed 
wool  and  floss-silk;  dye-works,  print- 
works, bleach-works,  chemical  works; 
large  manufactures  of  cotton  hose,  etc. 
Pop.  206,584. 

CHEMULPO  (che-mul'po),  one  of  the 
new  treaty-ports  of  Korea,  exporting 
beans,  ginseng,  etc.,  and  importing 
European  and  American  manufactures. 

CHENEY,  Charles  Edward,  an  Ameri- 
can bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church,  born  in  New  York  in  1836.  He 
was  ordained  in  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal church  and  in  1873  he  joined  the 
reformed  church  in  Chicago. 

CHENG,  a Chinese  musical  instru- 
ment, consisting  of  a series  of  tubes 
having  free  reeds.  Its  introduction  into 
Europe  led  to  the  invention  of  the 
accordion,  harmonium,  and  other  free- 
reed  instruments. 

CHENILLE  (she-nil'),  a sort  of  orna- 
mantal  fabric  of  cord-like  form,  made 
by  weaving  or  twisting  together  warp- 


threads,  with  a transverse  filling  or 
weft,  the  loose  ends  of  which  project  all 
round  in  the  form  of  a pile.  Chenille 
carpets  have  a weft  of  chenille,  the 
loose  threads  of  which  produce  a fine 
velvety  pile. 

CHEOPS  (ke'ops),  the  name  given  by 
Herodotus  to  the  Egyptian  despot  whom 
the  Egyptians  themselves  called  Khufu. 
He  belonged  to  the  rulers  who  had  for 
their  capital  Memphis;  lived  about 
2800-2700  B.C.,  and  built  the  largest  of 
the  pyramids.  According  to  Herodotus 
he  employed  100,000  men  on  this  work 
constantly  for  20  years. 

CHEPHREN  (kef'ren),  or  CEPHREN, 
was  the  successor  of  Cheops  as  king  of 
Egypt,  and  the  builder  of  the  second 
pyramid.  His  name  is  properly  Khafra. 

CHEQUE,  or  CHECK,  a draft  or  bill 
on  a bank  payable  on  presentation.  A 
check  may  be  drawn  payable  to  the 
bearer,  or  to  the  order  of  some  one 
named:  the  first  form  is  transferable 
without  endorsation,  and  payable  to 
any  one  who  presents  it;  the  second 
must  be  endorsed,  that  is  the  person  in 
whose  favor  it  is  drawn  must  write  his 
name  on  the  back  of  it.  Checks  are  a 
very  important  species  of  mercantile 
currency  wherever  there  is  a well- 
organized  system  of  banking.  The 
regular  use  of  them  for  all  payments, 
except  of  small  amount,  makes  the 
transfer  of  funds  a mere  matter  of  cross- 
entries and  transferring  of  balances 
among  bankers,  and  tends  greatly  to 
economize  the  use  of  the  precious  metals 
as  a currency. 

CHER  (shar),  a department  of  Cen- 
tral France,  named  from  the  river  Cher, 
and  formed  from  part  of  the  old  prov- 
inces of  Berry  and  Bourbonnais;  area, 
2779  square  miles;  capital,  Bourges. 
Pop.  355,349. 

CHERBOURG  (shar-bor),  a fortified 
seaport  and  naval  arsenal  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  La  Manche,  196  miles 
w.n.w.  Paris.  The  fortifications  are 


very  extensive,  and  have  been  greatly 
strengthened  in  recent  years,  so  that 
Cherbourg,  if  not  impregnable  from  the 
sea,  is  at  least  very  difficult  of  attack. 
There  is  a great  digue  or  breakwater, 
stretching  across  the  roadstead,  which, 
though  protected  on  three  sides  by  the 
land,  was  formerly  open  to  the  heavy 


seas  from  the  north.  The  digue  was 
commenced  under  Louis 'XVI.,  is  4120 
yards  long,  and  is  2J  miles  from  the 
harbor,  in  water  varying  from  42  to  62 
feet  deep.  A fort  and  lighthouse  occupy 
the  center  of  the  digue,  and  there  are 
circular  forts  at  the  extremities.  The 
principal  industry  of  the  town  is  cen- 
tered in  the  works  of  the  dockyard,  the 
commercial  trade  and  manufactures  be- 
ing comparatively  insignificant.  William 
the  Conqueror  founded  a hospital,  and 
built  the  castle  church.  The  castle,  in 
which  Henry  II.  frequently  resided,  was 
one  of  the  strongholds  of  Normandy. 
The  town  was  taken  by  the  British  in 
1758.  Pop.  42,952. 

CHEROKEES',  a tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  occupying  an  allotted  re- 
gion in  the  Indian  Territory.  Their  old 
seats  were  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Tennessee.  The  Cherokees 
are  the  most  enlightened  of  the  Indian 
tribes,  have  invented  an  alphabet, 
printed  books  and  newspapers  in  their 
own  language,  live  in  well-built  villages, 
and  have  an  excellent  school  system. 
Their  numbers  are  about  20,000. 

CHEROOT  (she-rot').  See  Cigar. 

CHERRY,  a fruit-tree  of  the  prune  or 
plum  tribe.  It  is  a native  of  most  tem- 
perate countries  of  the  northern  hemis- 
phere. The  cultivated  varieties  prob- 
ably belong  to  two  species.  The  fruit 
of  the  wild  cherry,  or  gean,  is  often  as 
well  flavored,  if  not  quite  so  large,  as 
that  of  the  cultivated  varieties.  It  is 
said  that  this  fruit  was  brought  from 
Cerasus,  in  Pontus,  to  Italy,  by  Lucullus 
about  B.c.  70,  and  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Romans  about  a.d.  46.  The 
cherry  is  used  in  making  the  liquors 
Kirschwasser  and  Maraschino.  The 
American  wild  cherry  is  a fine  large 
tree,  the  timber  of  which  is  much  used 
by  cabinet-makers  and  others,  though 
the  fruit  is  rather  astringent. 

CHERUB  (cher'ub),  one  of  an  order 
of  angels  variously  represented  at  differ- 


ent times,  but  generally  as  winged 
spirits  with  a human  countenance,  and 
distinguished  by  their  knowledge  from 
the  seraphs,  whose  distinctive  quality 
is  love.  The  first  mention  of  cherubs  is 
in  Gen.  iii.  24.  The  cherubs  in  Ezekiel’s 
vision  had  each  four  heads  or  faces,  the 
hands  of  a man,  and  wings.  The  four 


CHERUBINI 


CHESTNUT 


faces  were  the  face  of  a bull,  that  of  a 
man,  that  of  a lion,  and  that  of  an  eagle. 
(Ezek.  iv.  and  x.)  In  the  celestial 
hierarchy  cherubs  are  represented  as 
spirits  next  in  order  to  seraphs. 

CHERUBINI  (ke-ru-be'ne),  Maria 
Luigi  Carlo  Zenobio  Salvatore,  an 
eminent  Italian  composer,  born  at 
Florence  in  1760.  His  first  opera, 
Quinto  Fabio,  was  produced  in  Alessan- 
dria in  1780,  and  in  Rome  (in  an  altered  j 
form)  in  1783,  with  such  success  as  to  ■ 
spread  his  fame  over  Italy.  After  visit- 
ing London  he  finally  settled  in  Paris, 
where  he  became  director  of  the  Ecole 
Royale  in  1822,  and  died  in  1842. 
Among  his  compositions  are  Iphigenia 
in  Aulide,  Lodoiska,  Faniska,  Les  Deux 
Journdes,  etc.  In  his  later  years  he  con- 
fined himself  almost  exclusively  to  the 
composition  of  sacred  music,  and  gained 
a lasting  fame  by  his  Coronation  Mass, 
and  more  especially  his  gorgeous  Re- 
quiem. 

CHES'APEAKE  BAY,  a spacious  bay 
of  North  America,  in  the  states  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland.  Its  entrance  is  be- 
tween Cape  Charles  and  Cape  Henry, 
16  miles  wide,  and  it  extends  180  miles 
to  the  northward.  It  is  from  10  to  30 
miles  broad,  and  at  most  places  as  much 
as  9 fathoms  deep,  affording  many  com- 
modious harbors  and  a safe  and  easy 
navigation.  It  receives  the  Susque- 
hanna, Potomac,  and  James  River. 

CHESHIRE  (chesh'ir),  or  CHESTER, 
a maritime  county  and  county  palatine 
of  England,  bounded  by  the  counties  of 
Lancaster,  York,  Derby,  Stafford,  Salop, 
Denbigh,  Flint,  the  estuaries  of  the  Dee 
and  Mersey,  and  the  Irish  Sea.  The 
area  is  657,123  acres,  of  which  only  a 
sixteenth  is  uncultivated.  The  surface 
is  generally  level,  the  soil  mostly  a rich 
reddish  loam  variously  clayey  or  sandy. 
There  is  some  of  the  finest  pasture  land 
in  England ; and  cheese,  the  main 
produce  of  the  Cheshire  farmer,  is  made 
in  great  quantities.  Extensive  tracts  of 
land  are  cultivated  as  market-gardens, 
the  produce  being  sent  to  Liverpool, 
Manchester,  and  other  towns.  Minerals 
abound,  especially  rock-salt  and  coal, 
which  are  extensively  worked.  Cotton 
manufacture  is  carried  on  at  Stockport, 
Stalybridge,  and  the  northeastern  dis- 
trict, ship-building  at  Birkenhead  and 
othe-'-  places.  Pop.  814,555. 

CHESS,  a well-known  game  of  great 
antiquity  and  of  eastern  origin,  having 
probably  arisen  in  India,  and  thence 
spread  through  Persia  and  Arabia  to 
Europe.  The  name  itself  as  well  as 
many  of  the  terms  used  in  the  game  are 
clearly  of  eastern  origin,  the  word  chess 
being  formed  from  the  old  French 
eschecs,  from  Persian  shlh,  a king; 
rook  is  from  the  Sanskrit  roka,  mean- 
ing a ship  or  chariot;  checkmate  from 
Persian  shS,h  mS,t,  the  king  is  dead.  The 
game  is  played  by  two  persons  on  a 
board  which  consists  of  sixty-four  squares 
arranged  in  eight  rows  of  eight  squares 
each,  alternately  black  and  white.  Each 
pla3'er  has  sixteen  men,  eight  of  which, 
known  as  pawns,  are  of  the  lowest  grade ; 
the  other  eight,  called  pieces,  are  of 
various  grades.  They  are,  on  each  side, 
king  and  queen;  two  bishops,  two 
knights,  and  two  rooks  or  castles.  The 
board  must  be  placed  so  that  each  player 


shall  have  a white  square  to  his  right 
hand.  The  men  are  then  set  upon  the 
two  rows  of  squares  next  the  players; 
the  pieces  on  the  first  the  pawns  on  the 
second  row,  leaving  oetween  each  side 
four  unoccupied  rows.  The  king  and 
queen  occupy  the  central  squares  facing 
the  corresponding  pieces  on  the  opposite 
side.  The  queen  always  occupies  her 
own  color,  white  queen  on  white  square, 
black  on  black.  The  two  bishops  occupy 


bishops;  the  rooks  the  last  or  corner 
squares.  The  pawns  fill  indiscriminate- 


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Chess-board. 


ly  the  squares  of  the  second  or  front  row. 
The  men  standing  on  the  king’s  or 
queen’s  side  of  the  board  are  named 
respectively  king’s  and  queen’s  men. 
Thus  king’s  bishop  or  knight  is  the  bis- 
hop or  knight  on  the  side  of  the  king. 
The  pawns  are  named  from  the  pieces  in 
front  of  which  they  stand;  king’s  pawn, 
king’s  knight’s  pawn,  queen’s  rook’s 
pawn,  etc.  The  names  of  the  men  are 
contracted  as  follows; — King,  K.; 
King’s  Bishop,  K.B.;  King’s  Knight, 
K.Kt.;  King’s  Rook,  K.R.;  Queen,  Q.; 
Queen’s  Bishop,  Q.B.;  Queen’s  Knight, 
Q.  Kt.;  Queen’s  Rook,  QJl.  The  pawns 
are  contracted:  K.P.,  Q-Pv  K.B.P., 
Q.Kt.P.,  etc.  The  board  is  divided,  in- 
versely from  the  position  of  each  player, 
into  eight  rows  and  eight  files.  Counting 
from  White’s  right  hand  to  his  left,  or 
from  Black’s  left  to  his  right,  each  file  is 
named  from  the  piece  which  occupies  its 
first  square,  and  counting  inversely 
from  the  position  of  each  player  to  that 
of  the  other,  the  rows  are  numbered 
from  1 to  8.  At  White’s  right-hand 
corner  we  have  thus  K.R.  square; 
immediately  above  this  K.R.  2;  and  so 
on  to  K.R.  8,  which  completes  the  file; 
the  second  file  begins  with  K.Kt.  square 
on  the  first  row,  and  ends  with  K.Kt.  8 
on  the  eighth.  White’s  K.R.  8 and 
K.Kt.  8 are  thus  Black’s  K.R.  square 
and  K.Kt.  square,  and  the  moves  of 
each  player  are  described  throughout 
from  his  own  position,  in  inverse  order 
to  the  moves  of  his  opponent. 

The  definite  aim  in  chess  is  the  reduc- 
tion to  surrender  of  the  opposing  king. 
The  K.  in  chess  is  supposed  to  be  in- 
violable, that  is,  he  cannot  be  taken, 
he  can  only  be  in  such  a position  that 
if  it  were  any  other  piece  it  would  be 
taken.  Notice  of  every  direct  attack 
upon  him  must  be  given  by  the  adver- 
sary saying  check,  and  when  the  K.  is 


attacked  all  other  plans  must  be  aban- 
doned, and  all  other  men  sacrificed,  if 
necessary,  to  remove  him  from  danger, 
cover  the  attack,  or  capture  the  assail- 
ant. It  is  also  a fundamental  rule  of  the 
game  that  the  K.  cannot  be  moved  into 
check.  When  the  K.  can  no  longer  be 
defended  on  being  checked  by  the  ad- 
versary, either  by  moving  him  out  of 
danger,  or  by  interposing,  or  by  capture, 
the  game  is  lost,  and  the  adversary 
announces  this  by  saying  checkmate. 
When,  by  inadvertence  or  want  of  skill, 
the  player  having  the  superior  force 
blocks  up  his  opponent’s  K.  so  that  he 
cannot  move  without  going  into  check, 
and  no  other  man  can  be  moved  without 
exposing  him,  the  player,  reduced  to 
this  extremity,  cannot,  without  vio- 
lating the  fundamental  rule  referred  to, 
play  at  all.  In  such  a case,  the  one 
player  being  unable  to  play  and  the 
other  out  of  turn,  the  game  is  consid- 
ered drawn,  that  is,  concluded  without 
advantage  to  either  player.  The  laws  of 
the  game  must  be  sought  in  some  special 
manual.  Perhaps  the  best  code  is  that 
given  in  Staunton’s  Chess  Praxis. 

CHEST,  in  man  and  the  higher  verte- 
brates, the  cavity  formed  by  the  breast- 
bone in  front  and  the  ribs  and  backbone 
at  the  sides  and  behind,  shut  off  from 
the  abdomen  below  by  the  diaphragm 
or  midriff.  It  contains  the  heart,  lungs, 
etc.,  and  the  gullet  passes  through  it. 
§06  TThorstx 

CHESTER,  a city  in  Delaware  County, 
Pa.,  14  miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia, 
on  the  Delaware  River,  and  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  railroads. 
Pop.  39,100. 

CHESTER,  an  English  pari.,  county, 
and  municipal  borough,  county  town  of 
Cheshire,  situated  on  the  Dee  about  16 
miles  from  Liverpool.  It  is  a bishop’s 
see,  and  contains  an  old  and  interest- 
ing cathedral  recently  restored.  Pop. 
46,204. 

CHESTNUT,  a genus  of  plants,  allied 
to  the  beech.  The  common  or  Span- 
ish chestnut  is  a stately  tree,  with 
large,  handsome,  serrated,  dark-green 
leaves.  The  fruit  consists  of  two  or 
more  seeds  enveloped  in  a prickly 


husk.  Probably  a native  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  tree  grows  freely  and 
may  reach  the  age  of  many  centuries. 
Its  fruit  ripens  only  in  some  cases, 
however,  and  the  chestnuts  eaten  in 
Britain  are  mustly  imported.  Chestnuts 
form  a staple  article  of  food  among 
the  peasants  of  Spain  and  Italy.  The 
timber  of  the  trefe  was  formerly  more  ia 


CHETAH 


CHICAGO 


use  than  it  is  now;  it  is  inferior  to  that 
of  the  oak,  though  very  similar  to  it  in 
appearance,  especially  when  old.  Two 
American  species  of  chestnuts,  have 
edible  fruits.  The  former  is  often  re- 
garded as  identical  with  the  European 
tree. — The  horse-chestnut  is  quite  a dif- 
ferent tree  from  the  common  chestnut. 

CHETAH  (che'ta),  or  hunting  leopard 
of  India,  a native  of  Arabia  and  Asia 
Minor.  It,  has  its  specific  name  from 
a short  mane-like  crest  at  the  back  of 
the  head.  When  used  for  hunting  it  is 
hooded  and  placed  in  a car.  When  a 
herd  of  deer  is  seen,  its  keeper  places  its 
head  in  the  proper  direction  and  removes 
its  hood.  It  slips  from  the  car,  and,  ap- 
proaching its  prey  in  a stealthy  manner, 
springs  on  it  with  several  bounds.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a large  greyhound,  has 
a cat-like  head,  but  a body  more  like  a 
dog’s.  A slightly  different  species  in- 

rlQnltc  AtPI/'Q 

CHEVALIER  (she-va-lya),  Michel,  a 
celebrated  economist,  born  at  Limoges 
in  France,  Jan.  13,  1806.  He  was  edu- 
cated as  an  engineer  in  the  School  of 
Mines.  M.  Chevalier  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  and  to  England  on  special 
missions.  He  became  a councilor  of 
state  (1838),  professor  of  political 
economy  in  the  College  de  France  (1840), 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies 
(1846),  and  member  of  the  Institute 
(1851).  He  was  known  as  a strong  advo- 
cate of  free-trade,  and  as  a specialist  on 
questions  of  currency.  Along  with  Cob- 
den  and  Bright  he  had  a great  part  in 
the  commercial  treaty  of  1860  between 
France  and  Britain.  He  died  in  1879. 

CHEVIOT  SHEEP,  a variety  of  sheep, 
noted  for  their  large  carcass  and  valu- 
able wool,  which  qualities,  combined 
with  a hardiness  second  only  to  that  of 
the  black-faced  breed,  constitute  them 
the  most  valuable  race  of  mountain 
sheep.  The  fleece  weighs  from  3 to  4 
lbs.,  and  the  carcass  of  ewes  varies  from 
12  to  16  lbs.  per  quarter,  that  of  wethers 
from  16  to  20  lbs. 

CHEV'RON,  a heraldic  and  orna- 
mental form,  variously  used.  _ In 
heraldry,  the  chevron  is  an  ordinary 

7 


Chevron  molding. 

supposed  to  represent  two  rafters  meet- 
ing at  top.  It  is  one  of  charges  called 
honorable  ordinaries,  and  is  usually 
placed  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cut.  A similar  form  is  used  for  the  dis- 
tinguishing badge  worn  on  the  arm  of 
a non-commissioned  officer  in  the 


British  army.  In  architecture,  the 
chevron  molding  consists  of  a variety 
of  fret  ornament  of  a zigzag  form,  com- 
mon in  Norman  architecture. 

CHEWING-GUM,  a substance,  in- 
soluble in  saliva,  used  for  continuous 
exercise  of  the  jaws.  It  is  usually 
manufactured  of  paraffin,  tolu  balsam, 
and  certain  resins,  sweetened  and 
flavored.  The  habit  is  general  through- 
out the  United  States,  men  and  women 
indulging  freely  in  it.  The  chewing 
of  gum  is  believed  to  have  a beneficial 
effect  upon  the  digestion. 

CHEYENNE  (shl-yen'),  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Wyoming,  on  the  Union 
Pacific  Railway,  where  it  is  joined  by 
the  Denver  Pacific;  a rising  place.  Pop. 
17,640. — The  river  Cheyenne,  or  Big 
Cheyenne,  a tributary  of  the  Missouri, 
is  formed  by  two  branches,  the  N.  Fork 
and  the  S.  Fork,  which  rise  in  this  state, 
and  have  the  Black  Hills  between  them, 
each  about  300  miles  long,  the  Big  Chey- 
enne being  150  more. 

CHIAPAS  (chi-a'pis),  a state  of 
Mexico  on  the  Pacific  coast,  area  16,048 
square  miles.  It  is  in  many  parts  moun- 
tainous, is  intersected  by  the  river 
Chiapas,  and  covered  with  immense 
forests.  Capital,  Tuxtla-Gutierrez.  Pop. 
363,607. 

CHICA  (che'ka),  a red  coloring  matter 
which  the  Indians  on  the  upper  parts  of 
the  Orinoco  and  the  Rio  Negro  prepare 
from  the  leaves  of  a plant  native  to  that 
region  called  Bignonia  Chica,  and  with 
which  they  paint  their  skin,  in  order  to 
be  better  able  to  resist  the  rays  of  the 
sun.  See  Bignonia. 

CHICA  (che'ka),  a kind  of  beer  made 
from  maize,  in  general  use  in  Chile,  Peru, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  South  America.  The  usual 
method  of  preparing  it  is  to  steep  the 
maize  till  it  begins  to  grow,  when  it  is 
exposed  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  malt 
thus  prepared  is  then  ground,  mixed 
with  warm  water,  and  left  to  ferment. 
The  beer,  when  ready,  has  a dark-yellow 
color,  and  a pleasant  and  somewhat 
bitter  and  sour  taste,  and  is  very  intoxi- 
cating. Sometimes  the  Indians  instead 
of  grinding  the  malt  chew  it,  and  this 
variety  of  the  liquor  is  considered  the 
best.  It  is  the  national  drink  of  the 
Indians,  and  consumed  by  them  in  great 
quantities.  Pito  and  poso  are  other 
names  for  it. 

CHICAGO,  the  second  city  of  the 
United  States  in  population  and  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  importance. 
It  is  the  metropolis  of  the  west,  the 
largest  railroad  center  in  the  country, 
and  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  great 
lakes.  Situated  on  the  southwest  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan,  it  lies  910  miles  from 
New  York,  810  miles  from  Washington, 
910  miles  from  New  Orleans,  and  2400 
from  San  Francisco,  and  has  an  area 
of  191  square  miles.  The  city  is  natur- 
ally cut  into  three  divisions,  or  “sides,” 
the  north,  the  south,  and  the  we.st  sides, 
by  the  Chicago  River,  and  its  north  and 
south  forks.  The  entire  site  of  Chicago 
is  very  flat,  its  highest  point  being  but 
a few  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake 
Michigan.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  2,500,000. 

The  plan  upon  which  Chicago  is  laid 
out  was  a wise  provision  of  the  makers 


of  the  city,  who  had  an  eye  to  its  future 
growth.  Its  park  and  boulevard  system 
is  unsurpassed  by  any  city  in  the  world. 
Of  parks  there  are  over  2600  acres,  the 
chief  being  Lincoln  Park,  with  many 
monuments,  Jackson  Park,  and  the 
newly  prospected  Grant  Park,  on  the 
lake  front  before  the  main  part  of  the 
town.  Of  boulevards,  which  connect  the 
parks  into  a system,  there  are  65  miles 
of  magnificent  driveways.  The  bus- 
iness center  is  comparatively  small,  oc- 
cupying an  area  less  than  a mile  square, 
bounded  on  the  e.  by  the  lake  and  n. 
and  w.  by  Chicago  river.  Here  are  sit- 
uated most  of  the  great  railway  depots, 
the  post-office,  the  court-house,  the 
board  of  trade  building  and  custom- 
house, the  Art  Institute,  the  principal 
stores,  banks,  theaters,  and  hotels,  the 
lofty  structures  that  are  the  chief  arch- 
itectural features  of  the  city.  The  ship- 
ping business  is  transacted  along  the 
river  and  the  canal,  the  former  having  a 
frontage,  including  docks,  of  41  miles. 
The  livestock  and  meat  industry  is  car- 
ried on  at  the  Union  stock-yards,  extend- 
ing from  Thirty-ninth  Street  to  Forty- 
seventh  Street,  in  the  geographical  cen- 
ter of  the  city.  The  value  of  the  prod- 
ucts in  1908  was  about  !rt3on.000,0(X). 

After  several  years’  agitation  and  dis- 
cussion a plan  for  the  construction  of  a 
new  waterway,  160  feet  wide  and  at 
least  16  feet  deep,  from  the  Chicago 
river  to  the  Desplaines,  and  so  on  to 
Joliet,  was  adopted,  and  the  work  was 
begun  in  1891.  On  Jan.  2,  1900,  this 
great  canal  was  opened,  the  cost  to  that 
date  having  been  $33,525,700.  The 
city  is  supplied  with  water  from  Lake 
Michigan.  Pure  water  is  obtained  at 
“cribs”  located  from  2 to  4 miles  from 
the  shore,  and  is  conveyed  thence  to  the 
city  through  five  tunnels  under  the  lake. 
It  is  distributed  by  ten  pumping  works 
capable  of  supplying  the  city  with 
532,000,000  gals,  daily.  The  cost  of  the 
system  was  $30,000,000. 

The  Chicago  river  is  spanned  by  fifty- 
four  swinging  bridges,  of  from  200  to 
250  feet  in  length,  operated  by  steam. 
By  the  elevation  of  260  miles  of  rail- 
way tracks  and  the  construction  of 
254  subways,  dangerous  grade  cross- 
ings have  been  eliminated.  Among  the 
public  buildings  the  new  post-office  and 
custom  house,  by  Henry  Ives  Cobb,  re- 
cently finished,  is  by  far  the  most  pic- 
turesque. A new  county  building  has 
recently  been  erected  and  a new  city 
hall  is  in  prospect. 

Chicago  is  the  center  of  twenty-five 
railroads,  has  1500  miles  of  track,  seven 
depots,  and  handles  275  through  and 
800  local  trains  per  day.  It  has  a lake 
tonnage  of  12,600,000,  and  450  miles  of 
street  railroad  of  which  50  are  elevated. 

The  Public  Library  is  the  largest  in 
the  Northwest,  containing  over  260,000 
volumes.  It  was  established  in  1873, 
and  is  supported  by  city  taxation.  It 
is  housed  in  a magnificent  fireproof 
building  on  Michigan  avenue.  It  is  a 
free  circulating  library,  with  reading 
and  reference  rooms.  The  Newberry 
Library  is  named  after  its  founder, 
Walter  L.  Newberry,  who  left  in  his  will 
for  its  esablishment  property  from  which 
has  been  realized  over  $2^500,000.  It 
occupies  a handsome  building  facing 


CHICAGO,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


CHILD  LABOR 


Washington  Place,  on  the  north  side. 
The  library  is  for  reference  only,  and 
over  200,000  volumes,  many  of  them 
rare  and  costly,  have  been  collected. 
The  Chicago  Law  Institute  has  a fine 
law  library  in  the  county  building. 
The  Crerar  Library,  with  an  endowment 
of  over  $2,000,000  from  John  Crerar, 
is  to  be  located  on  the  south  side,  and, 
in  accordance  with  the  founder’s  will, 
must  be  kept  free  from  sensational  and 
skeptical  works. 

The  city  is  governed  by  a mayor, 
who  receives  a salary  of  $7,000;  and  a 
common  council,  composed  of  70  aider- 
men,  whose  terms  are  two  years,  each  of 
the  thirty-five  wards  into  which  the  city 
is  divided  electing  one  each  year. 

The  manufacturing  industries  of  Chi- 
cago are  second  in  magnitude  only  to 
those  of  New  York  city  and  are  growing 
rapidly.  The  total  value  of  manufac- 
tures for  l'J08  was  1,000,000,000.  Tha 
receipts  of  grain,  and  flour  in  its  grain 
equivalent,  aggregate  about  350,000,000 
bushels  yearly. 

The  principal  hotels  in  the  heart  of 
the  city  are  the  Auditorium  and  its 
Annex,  the  Great  Northern,  the  Palmer 
House,  the  Grand  Pacific,  the  Welling- 
ton, the  Victoria,  Sherman,  and  the 
Tremont  House;  the  Virginia,  the  Met- 
ropole,  the  Lexington,  and  in  course  of 
erection  the  Blackstone  and  LaSalle. 
The  “downtown”  theaters,  with  the 
Auditorium,  are  Orchestra  Hall,  Mc- 
Vicker’s,  the  Illinois,  Chicago,  Garrick, 
the  Grand,  Whitney,  Powers,  the  Great 
Northern,  Studebaker,  Olympic,  Majes- 
tic, Colonial,  Coliseum, ithe  LaSalle,  Prin- 
cess, and  American  Music  Hall. 

Chicago  was  founded  in  1803  with  the 
establishment  of  Fort  Dearborn  on  the 
site  of  the  present  city.  The  first  village 
was  laid  out  in  1830,  the  town  was 
incorporated  in  1833,  and  the  city  in 
1837.  On  Oct.  8,  1871,  the  great  fire 
began  which  in  two  days  virtually 
wiped  out  the  city.  The  losses  were 
about  $190,000,000  in  property  but  only 
a few  lives  were  lost. 

CHICAGO,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  founded 
by  John  D.  Rockefeller,  in  1889  and 
situated  on  the  Midway  Plaisance  in 
Chicago.  It  has  a productive  fund  of 
about  $15,000,000,  and  an  annual  out- 
lay of  over  $1,000,000.  The  libraries 
contain  nearly  400,000  volumes,  and 
the  registration  is  about  3000  students. 
The  university  offers  all  degrees  except 
for  mechanical  and  civil  engineering, 
its  doctorate  of  philosoph'y  covering  the 
sciences.  It  has  law,  medical,  and 
theological  departments  and  a quad- 
rangle devoted  to  the  biological  sciences 
which  cost  $1,000,000  to  found.  It  has 
ten  periodical  publications,  a faculty  of 
400  instructors,  a school  of  education, 
and  an  academic  department.  Much 
of  the  revenue  of  the  university  is 
derived  from  its  real  estate,  of  which  it 
owns  nearly  a solid  mile  fronting  the 
Midway  Plaisance. 

CHICK' ADEE,  the  popular  name  in 
America  of  the  black-cap  titmouse  and 
other  allied  species,  being  given  from 
their  note. 

CHICKAHOM'INY,  a river  in  Virginia, 
rising  about  20  miles  n.w.  of  Richmond, 
flowing  s.e.  till  it  joins  the  James  river. 
Near  this  river  many  important  battles 


during  the  civil  war  took  place — the 
battle  of  Williamsburg,  of  the  Seven 
Pines,  of  Gaines’s  Mill,  etc. 

CHICKAMAU'GA,  a small  tributary 
of  the  Tennessee  river,  state  of  Tennes- 
see, U.  States,  where  a battle  took  place 
Sept.  19-20,  1863,  between  the  Federal 
troops  under  Rosecrans  and  the  Con- 
federates under  Bragg  and  Longstreet, 
the  latter  gaining  the  victory. 

CHICKAMAUGA  NATIONAL  PARK, 
a military  park  on  the  site  of  the  Battle 
of  Chickamauga,  near  Chattanooga  on 
the  Georgia-Tennessee  line.  It  has  an 
area  of  15  sq.  miles  and  is  laid  out  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  conform  to  the 
state  of  affairs  at  the  time  of  the  battle 
itself.  The  park  was  dedicated  Sept., 
1895,  since  which  time  a number  of 
fine  monuments  have  been  erected  in  it 
by  the  different  states.  The  cost  of 
the  improvements  was  upward  of 
$1,000,000,  three-fourths  of  which  was 
appropriated  by  Congress,  the  remainder 
by  the  separate  states. 

CHICK'ASAW  INDIANS,  a tribe  of 
American  Indians  of  the  Appalachian 
nation.  In  1833  they  gave  up  to  the 
United  States  the  last  of  their  lands  south 
of  the  Tennessee  river,  receiving  as  com- 
pensation a money  indemnity  and  new 
lands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Red  river, 
in  the  Indian  Territory.  The  Chicka- 
saws  number  about  8000.  They  have 
made  considerable  advances  toward 
civilization,  have  a senate,  house  of 
representatives,  and  more  than  a million 
dollars  in  deposit  with  the  Union  gov- 
ernment. 

CHICKEN-BREASTED,  having  that 
form  of  breast,  resulting  from  malfor- 
mation or  from  carious  disease  or  spinal 
weakness,  in  which  the  vertebral  column 
is  curved  forward,  giving  rise  to  pro- 
jection of  the  sternum  or  breast-bone. 

CHICKEN-POX,  an  infectious  dis- 
ease mainly  confined  to  children.  It 
commences  with  feverishness,  and  an 
eruption  of  pimples,  which  speedily 
become  blebs  filled  with  clear  fluid  and 
as  large  as  split-peas.  Within  a week 
these  dry  up  into  dark-colored  scabs, 
which  within  another  week  have  fallen 
off.  The  disease  is  never  fatal,  and  has 
no  evil  results.  A little  opening  medi- 
cine and  a mild  diet  is  all  tne  treatment 
requires. 

CHICK'ERING,  Jonas,  born  1737,  a 
self-taught  piano  maker  of  Boston,  who 
eventually  established  the  largest  piano 
manufactory  in  the  U.  States.  He  was 
greatly  esteemed  for  his  public  spirit 
and  benevolence.  He  died  1853. 

CHICK'WEED,  the  popular  name  of 
one  of  the  most  common  weeds.  It  has 
a procumbent  more  or  less  hairy  stem, 
with  ovate  pointed  leaves,  and  many 
small  white  flowers.  It  is  much  used 
for  feeding  cage-birds,  which  are  very 
fond  both  of  its  leaves  and  reeds. 

CHIC'OPEE,  a city  in  Hampden  Co., 
Mass.,  three  miles  north  of  Springfield, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Connecticut  river, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Chicopee,  and  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  Railroad.  Pop. 
19,167. 

CHIC'ORY,  a genus  of  composite 

Elants.  The  leaves  are  sometimes 

lanched,  to  be  used  as  salad.  But  the 
most  important  part  of  the  plant  is  its 
long,  fleshy,  and  milky  root,  which  when 


roasted  and  ground  is  now  extensively 
used  for  mixing  with  coffee.  Its 
presence  among  coffee  may  easily  be 
detected  by  putting  a spoonful  of  the 
mixture  into  a glass  of  clear  cold  water. 


Chicory. 


when  the  coffee  will  float  on  the  surface, 
and  the  chicory  separate  and  discolor 
the  water  as  it  subsides. 

CHIEF- JUSTICE,  the  presiding  judge 
of  a judicial  body.  In  England  the 
chief  justice  is  the  superior  judge  of  the 
king’s  bench  and  of  the  court  of  common 
pleas.  In  the  U.  States  he  is  the  pre- 
siding judge  of  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court — of  a state  supreme  court. 
The  chief  justice  of  the  Federal  Supreme 
Court  administers  the  oath  of  office  to 
the  president. 

CHIGNON  (shen-yon),  a French  word, 
properly  signifying  the  nape  of  the  neck, 
now  used  in  English  and  other  languages 
to  denote  ladies’  back  hair  when  raised 
and  folded  up,  usually  round  a pad,  in  a 
sort  of  roll  on  the  back  part  of  the  head. 

CHIH-LE  (chi-le'),  or  PE-CHI-LE, 
one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China, 
watered  by  the  Pei-ho,  containing 
Peking,  the  imperial  capital.  Area 
about  59,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  18,000,000. 

CHIHUAHUA  (che-wa'wa),  a city, 
Mexican  Confederation,  capital  of  the 
state  of  the  same  name,  generally  well 
built,  and  supplied  with  water  by  a 
notable  aqueduct.  It  is  surrounded  by 
silver  mines,  and  is  an  important  entre- 
pot of  trade.  Pop.  about  18,279. — The 
state  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  the  U. 
States,  and  on  the  n.e.  by  the  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte;  has  a healthy  climate, 
and  is  rich  in  silver  mines.  Pop. 
327,004. 

CHIL'BLAINS  are  painful  inflam- 
matory swellings,  of  a deep  purple  or 
leaden*  color,  to  which  the  fingers,  toes, 
heels,  and  other  extreme  parts  of  the 
body  are  subject  on  being  exposed  to  a 
severe  degree  of  cold.  The  pain  is  not  I 
constant,  but  rather  pungent  and  shoot- 1 
ing  at  particular  times,  and  an  insup- 1 
portable  itching  attends  it.  It  some) 
instances  the  skin  remains  entire,  but  I 
in  others  it  breaks  and  discharges  a thin  j 
fluid.  Compound  camphor  liniment  is  a | 
useful  application,  and  the  parts  should 
be  kept  warm. 

CHILDBIRTH.  See  Birth.  ; 

CHILD  LABOR,  the  employment  of 
children  under  the  age  provided  by  law 
at  which  children  are  allowed  to  work. 
Child  labor  is  one  of  the  most  distressing 
problems  of  social  life.  Although  the 


CHILDREN,  SOCIETIES  FOR 


CHIMPANZEE 


law  forbids  it,  yet  poverty  compels  it, 
and  both  employers  and  employed  thus 
conspire  to  defeat  the  laws  which,  in 
most  states,  in  virtually  all,  are  really 
a dead  letter.  Very  young  children  are 
employed  in  mines,  offices,  stores, 
factories  of  many  kinds,  and,  in  a word, 
in  all  trades  or  occupations  in  which 
they  can  be  used.  Disease,  stunted 
growth,  defectiveness,  moral  ruin  and 
general  vitiation  are  some  of  the  results. 
Before  this  great  wrong  society  stands 
avowedly  helpless. 

CHILDREN,  SOCIETIES  FOR  THE 
BENEFIT  OF,  associations  to  care  for 
homeless  children,  to  prevent  cruelty  to 
(see  Bergh,  Henry),  to  encourage  the 
industry  of  children,  and  to  relieve  dis- 
eased or  crippled  children.  In  the  U. 
States  vast  sums  of  wealth  are  devoted 
to  these  various  designs. 

CHILDS,  George  William,  an  Ameri- 
ican  philanthropist  and  journalist,  born 
in  Baltimore  in  1829,  died  in  1894.  In 
1864  he  purchased  the  Philadelphia 
Public  Ledger  and  soon  became  quite 
rich.  His  gifts  to  charity  and  education 
were  exceedingly  large. 

CHILI,  or  CHILE  (che'le,  cheTa),  a 
country  of  S.  America,  extending  along 
the  Pacific  coast  from  lat.  18°  s.  nearly 
to  Cape  Horn,  and  including  Chiloe  and 
many  other  islands  and  part  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by  i 
Peru  (the  river  Sama  being  the  bound- 
ary), on  the  n.e.  and  e.  by  Bolivia  and 
the  Argentine  Republic,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  chief  range  of  the 
Cordilleras.  Its  length  from  n.  to  s. 
is  about  2400  miles;  its  breadth,  on  an 
average  120  miles;  area,  293,310  sq. 
miles,  divided  into  a number  of  prov- 
inces and  territories;  pop.  3,110,085. 
By  the  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia  which 
terminated  in  1882  Chili  gained  all  the 
sea-board  of  Bolivia,  and  annexed  also 
the  Peruvian  provinces  of  Tarapaca 
and  Tacna.  The  chief  towns  are  San- 
tiago or  St.  Jago  (the  capital)  and  Val- 
paraiso. The  rivers  are  numerous,  but 
small,  and  have  generally  rapid  currents. 
The  surface  is  greatly  diversified,  but 
rises  in  elevation  as  it  recedes  from  the 
coast  and  approaches  the  Andes,  along 
the  watershed  of  which  great  part  of  the 
boundary  runs.  Some  of  the  summits 
here  rise  to  20,000  feet  or  more,  but  the 
elevation  decreases  toward  the  south. 
Chiloe  and  numerous  other  islands 
fringe  the  coast  in  the  south.  Earth- 
quakes are  common,  those -of  1822, 
1835,  and  1868  being  particularly 
violent.  In  the  Chilian  Andes  there  are 
twenty  volcanoes  at  least,  three  of 
which  (Antuco,  Villarcia,  and  Osorno) 
are  still  active.  The  climate  is  remark- 
ably salubrious.  In  the  northern  prov- 
inces it  rarely  rains — in  some  parts  per- 
haps never;  in  the  central  parts  rain  is 
sufficiently  abundant,  while  in  the  ex- 
treme south  there  is  even  an  excess  of 
moisture.  Among  the  minerals  of  Chili 
are  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  zinc, 
antimony,  manganese,  arsenic,  tin, 
sulphur,  alum,  salt,  and  cubic  nitre. 
Silver  and  copper  are  the  two  most  im- 
portant metals.  The  copper  mines  are 
most  numerous  in  the  northern  districts. 
The  cubic  niter,  or  Chili  saltpeter,  is  a 
great  source  of  wealth.  Coal  is  mined 
{it  several  places.  From  the  29th 


degree  of  latitude  southward  green 
valleys  and  fertile  tracts  appear,  the 
character  of  the  vegetation  getting 
always  richer,  till  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces we  find  the  sides  of  the  Andes 
clothed  with  forests  and  with  herbaceous 
plants  and  flowers  of  the  richest  and 
most  beautiful  hues.  In  some  of  the 
northern  districts  maize  is  cultivated ; 
in  the  southern  districts  wheat  and 
barley  are  the  chief  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. Fruits  are  abundant — apples, 
pears,  apricots,  peaches,  figs,  grapes, 
oranges,  water-melons,  etc.  The  wild 
animals  include  the  guanaco,  puma,  or 


Costumes  of  the  environs  of  Santiago. 


American  lion,  the  chinchilla,  coypu, 
deer,  etc.  Cattle  are  raised  in  great 
numbers,  from  4000  to  20,000  being 
sometimes  reared  on  one  farm.  The 
manufactures  are  of  little  importance. 
Mineral  products  form  five-sixths  of  the 
total  exports,  the  principal  article  being 
cubic  niter  (or  Chili  saltpeter)  next  come 
copper,  iodine,  wheat,  silver,  etc. 

Chili  is  a republic,  and  is  considered 
the  best  regulated  in  S.  America.  It  is 
under  a president  elected  for  five  years 
and  a council  of  state.  The  legislature 
is  composed  of  a senate  elected  for  six 
years,  and  a house  of  deputies  elected 
for  three  years.  The  army  numbers 
about  6000  men ; the  chief  vessels  of  the 
navy  are  three  iron-clads  and  five  pro- 
tected cruisers.  The  Chilians  are  mostly 
of  Spanish  or  Indian  descent. 

Chili  originally  belonged  to  the  Incas 
of  Peru,  fi'om  whom  it  was  wrested  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Pizarro  and  Almagro 
in  1535.  From  this  period  Chili  con- 
tinued a colony  of  Spain  till  1810,  when 
a revolution  commenced,  which  ter- 
minated in  1817  in  the  independence  of 
Chili.  Several  internal  commotions 
have  since  occurred;  but  the  country 
has  been  free  from  these  compared  with 
other  S.  American  states.  A war  begun 
with  Spain  in  1865  led  to  the  blockade 
of  the  coast  by  the  Spanish  fleet,  and 
the  bombardment  of  Valparaiso  in 
1866.  In  1879-81  a war  was  success- 
fully waged  with  Bolivia  and  Peru,  in 
reference  to  the  rights  of  Chili  in  the 
mineral  district  of  Atacama.  In  1891 
an  insurrection  arose  against  President 
Balmaceda’s  administration,  a move- 
ment which  resulted  in  his  overthrow 
and  suicide.  Since  which  time  the 
country  has  been  prosperous  and  peace- 
ful. 

The  earthquakes  in  Chili  are  very  se- 
vere. The  last  one  of  importance  oc- 


curred on  Aug.  5,  1906,  and  continued 
for  several  days.  More  than  500  people 
were  killed  and  a property  loss  of  $8,- 
000,000  was  sustained,  none  of  which 
was  insured. 

CHILLED  IRON,  iron  cast  ir  metal 
molds  called  chills,  where,  on  account 
of  the  rapid  conducting  of  the  heat,  the 
iron  cools  more  quickly  on  the  surface 
than  it  would  do  if  cast  in  sand.  Chilled 
iron  is  whiter  and  has  a harder  surface 
than  iron  cast  in  any  other  way. 

CHILLICOTHE  (-koth'e),  a town  in 
Ohio,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Scioto, 
with  manufacturing  and  other  indus- 
tries. Pop.  15,488. 

CHILTERN  HILLS,  a range  of  flint 
and  chalk  hills,  England,  extending 
through  Oxford,  Hertford,  and  Buck- 
ingham shires,  loftiest  summit  905  feet. 
These  hills  were  anciently  covered  with 
forests,  and  were  "infested  by  numerous 
bands  of  robbers.  To  protect  the  in- 
habitants of  the  neighboring  districts 
an  officer  was  appointed  by  the  crown, 
called  the  Steward  of  the  Chiltern 
Hundreds,  and  although  the  duties  and 
emoluments  have  long  ceased  the  office 
still  exists,  and  is  made  use  of  to  afford 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
(who  cannot  give  up  their  seats  directly) 
an  opportunity  of  resigning  their  seats 
when  they  desire  to  do  so.  Being  re- 
garded as  an  appointment  of  honor  and 
profit  under  government,  the  acceptance 
of  it  disqualifies  a member  from  retaining 
his  seat 

CHIMjERA  (ki-me'ra),  in  class,  myth, 
a fire-breathing  monster,  the  foreparts  of 
whose  body  were  those  of  a lion,  the 
middle  of  a goat,  and  the  hinder  of  a 
dragon.  Thus  the  name  came  to  be  used 
for  an  unnatural  production  of  the  fancy. 

CHIMES,  a species  of  music,  mechan- 
ically produced  by  the  strokes  of  ham- 
mers against  a series  of  bells,  tuned 
agreeably  to  a given  musical  scale.  The 
hammers  are  lifted  by  levers  acted  upon 
by  metallic  pins,  or  wooden  pegs,  stuck 
into  a large  barrel,  which  is  made  to 
revolve  by  clock-work,  and  is  so  con- 
nected with  the  striking  part  of  the 
clock  mechanism  that  it  is  set  in  motion 
by  it  at  certain  intervals  of  time,  usually 
every  hour,  or  every  quarter  of  an  hour. 
The  chime  mechanism  is  sometimes  so 
constructed  that  it  may  be  played  like 
a piano. 

CHIM'NEY,  an  erection  generally  of 
stone  or  brick  containing  a passage  by 
which  the  smoke  of  a fire  or  furnace 
escapes  to  the  open  air.  In  this  sense 
the  first  chimneys  we  hear  of  are  no 
earlier  than  the  middle  ages.  The 
longer  a chimney  is  the  more  perfect  is 
its  draught,  provided  the  fire  is  great 
enough  to  heat  the  column  of  air  in  it, 
because  the  tendency  of  the  smoke  to 
draw  upward  is  in  proportion  to  the 
difference  of  weight  between  the  heated 
air  in  a chimney  and  an  equal  column 
of  external  air. 

CHIMNEY-SWALLOW.  See  Swallow. 

CHIMPAN'ZEE,  the  native  Guinea 
name  of  a large  West  and  Central  .\fri- 
can  ape  belonging  to  the  anthropoid  or 
man-like  monkeys,  and  to  the  same 
genus  as  the  gorilla.  When  full  grown 
it  is  sometimes  about  5 feet  high,  with 
black  hair,  and  is  not  so  large  and  power- 
ful as  the  gorilla.  Like  the  orang  it  has 


CHINA 


CHINA 


Ihe  hair  on  its  forearm  turned  back- 
ward, but  differs  from  it  in  having  an 
additional  dorsal  vertebra  and  a thir- 
teenth pair  of  ribs.  It  walks  erect  better 
than  most  of  the  apes.  It  feeds  on 


Chimpanzee. 

fruits,  often  robs  the  gardens  of  the 
natives,  and  constructs  a sort  of  nest 
among  the  branches.  It  is  common  in 
menageries,  where  it  shows  much  in- 
telligence and  docility. 

CHINA,  an  immense  empire  stretch- 
ing from  the  center  of  Asia,  about  75° 
e.  ion.,  for  3000  miles  to  the  east  coast 
of  Corea,  in  128°  e.  Ion.;  and  from  the 
Siberian  frontier  at  the  river  Amoor, 
about  50°  30'  n.  lat.,  for  2400  miles 
southward  to  the  island  of  Hainan. 
This  vast  empire,  second  in  magnitude 
only  to  that  of  Russia  and  Great  Britain, 
has  an  area  of  about  4,500,000  sq.  miles, 
and  a population  variously  estimated 
at  300,000,000  and  400,000,000,  or 
more,  and  is  usually  divided  into  China 
Proper,  and  the  dependencies;  Man- 
churia, Mongolia,  Eastern  Turkestan, 
Dzoungaria,  and  Tibet,  of  which  Tibet 
is  practically  autonomous.  The  depend- 
encies, though  they  cover  more  than 
3,000,000  sq.  miles,  contain  but  a small 
and  relatively  unimportant  part  of  the 


most  remarkable  of  human  structures, 
being  an  artificial  barrier  1500  miles 
long.  Two  thirds  of  the  interior  are 
estimated  to  be  mountainous.  The 
general  slope  is  from  west  to  east,  and 
the  mountains  are  a continuation  of 
those  of  Tibet  and  Central  Asia.  The 
great  Kuen-lun  range  throws  off 
branches,  the  Tsing-Ling,  Fu-niu-shan 
and  Mu-ling,  which,  running  eastward 
between  the  great  valleys  of  the  Hoang- 
Ho  and  Yang-tse-kiang,  traverse  almost 
the  whole  breadth  of  China.  Further 
north  the  Nan-shan  branch  of  the  Kuen- 
lun  range  runs  under  various  names 
(Kuliang,  Alashan,  Inshan,  etc.)  along 
the  northeast  of  China  till  it  reaches  the 
frontier  of  Manchuria,  north  of  Peking. 
The  third  great  mountain  system  of 
China  is  in  the  southeast,  where  exten- 
sive chains  such  as  the  Nanshan,  the 
Ta-yu-ling,  and  Pu-ling  stretch  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang  all  the 
way  form  the  highlands  of  Yunnan  to 
the  eastern  sea-board.  The  two  great 
rivers  of  China  are  the  Hoang-ho  and 
the  Yang-tse-kiang.  Here  lie  the  cen- 
tral and  richest  provinces  of  China.  On 
both  sides  of  the  lower  Iloang-ho  is  an 
immense  delta  plain,  consisting  gen- 
erally of  a deep  alluvial  soil  of  un- 
paralleled fertility.  As  they  approach 
the  sea-coast  the  two  rivers  are  con- 
nected by  the  Grand  Canal,  700  miles 
in  length,  thus  completing  a magnificent 
system  of  inland  navigation. 

The  greater  part  of  China  belongs  to 
the  temperate  zone,  but  it  has  what  is 
called  an  excessive  climate.  At  Peking 
in  summer  the  heat  ranges  from  90°  to 
100°  in  the  shade,  while  the  winter  is  so 
cold  that  the  rivers  are  usually  frozen 
from  December  to  March.  At  Shanghai, 
lat.  31°  20',  the  maximum  temperature 
reaches  100°,  and  the  minimum  falls  at 
least  to  20°  below  freezing  point  (12° 
Fahr.).  In  the  south  the  climate  is  of  a 
tropical  character,  the  summer  heat 


Chlnese  manaarln,  lady,  boy,  female  attendant,  soldier,  and  bird’s-nest  seller. 


population  (about  30,000,000),  China 
Proper  being  the  center  of  power  and 
population. 

Great  part  of  the  country  is  not  well 
known.  The  coast-line  forms  an  irregu- 
lar curve  of  about  2500  miles.  The  in- 
land boundaries  are  formed  mainly  by 
Tonquin,  Burmah,  Tibet,  and,  on  the 
north,  partly  by  the  Great  Wall  separat- 
ing China  from  Mongolia,  one  of  the 


rising  to  120°.  Here  the  southwest  and 
northeast  monsoons  blow  with  great 
regularity,  and  divide  the  year  between 
them. 

China  is  well  supplied  with  minerals, 
including  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and 
other  metals,  and  there  are  very  exten- 
sive coal-fields,  though  the  quantity 
raised  from  them  is  comparatively  small. 
Salt  is  abundant,  and  there  are  inex- 


haustible beds  of  kaolin,  or  porcelain 
earth.  Among  animals  it  is  difficult  to 
mention  any  that  are  characteristic  of 
the  country;  many  of  them  are  identical 
with  or  differ  but  little  from  those  of 
Europe.  Among  birds  the  most  beauti- 
ful are  the  gold  and  silver  pheasants. 
Fish  swarm  in  all  inland  waters  as  well 
as  on  the  coast,  the  natural  supply  being 
immensely  increased  by  artificial  means. 
As  regards  the  flora  of  China,  it  is  tropi- 
cal in  the  south  (coco  and  sago  palms, 
banana,  pandanus,  etc.),  sub-tropical 
farther  north,  and  still  farther  north 
prevails  a number  of  plants  and  trees 
identical  with  or  closely  akin  to  those 
of  middle  Europe.  Flowering  plants, 
shrubs,  and  trees  are  so  exceedingly 
abundant  as  to  form  a feature.  The 
bamboo,  from  the  immense  number  of 
uses  to  which  it  is  put,  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  trees.  Oaks,  the  chestnut, 
hazel,  pines,  yew,  walnut,  etc.,  are 
among  forest  trees.  Wax  and  camphor 
trees  abound.  Azaleas  are  exceedingly 
numerous;  other  flowering  plants  are 
the  camellia  rose,  passion-flower,  cactus, 
lagerstroemia,  etc.  Fruits  are  abundant 
and  varied.  Rice,  as  the  principal  food 
of  the  people,  is  the  staple  crop.  Three 
plants  of  the  greatest  economical  im- 
portance to  China  are  the  mulberry, 
cultivated  to  provide  food  for  silkworms, 
cotton,  and  tea,  the  last  for  long  re- 
garded as  exclusively  a Chinese  product. 
Another  important  crop  is  the  opium 
poppy,  which  is  extensively  grown, 
though  the  product  is  inferior  to  that 
of  India. 

Among  the  chief  industries  is  the  silk 
manufacture,  which  produces  some 
varieties  of  stuffs  unsurpassed  any- 
where. The  porcelain  of  China  has 
been  famous  from  the  earliest  periods, 
and  the  manufacture  of  the  finest  forms 
of  it  was  long  known  to  the  Chinese 
alone,  though  their  productions  are  now 
surpassed  by  those  of  Europe.  Paper 
is  made  of  a great  variety  of  substances, 
and  the  art  of  making  it — like  various 
others — was  practiced  in  China  long 
before  Europe  acquired  it. 

The  inland  trade  of  China,  aided  by 
its  vast  system  of  water  communication, 
is  of  incalculable  magnitude,  the  rivers 
and  canals  literally  swarming  with 
junks,  barges,  and  boats  of  all  sizes. 
The  chief  of  ports  are:  Shanghai  (by 
far  the  first).  Canton,  Hankow,  Swatow, 
Tientsin,  Ningpo,  and  Foo-chow.  The 
main  articles  of  export  are  tea  and  raw 
and  manufactured  silk;  the  main  im- 
ports cotton  goods,  opium,  metals  and 
metal  goods.  The  total  exports  and 
imports  have  increased  considerably  in 
recent  years.  The  chief  article  of  ex- 
port is  tea.  The  quantity  of  opium 
imported,  almost  wholly  from  India, 
reaches  the  value  of  $30,000,000  an- 
nually. Silver  bullion,  called  sycee, 
and  gold  bullion,  usually  stamped  with 
the  name  of  the  banker  and  the  year 
and  district  in  which  it  is  cast,  are  used 
in  larger  transactions. 

The  Chinese  belong  to  the  Mongolian 
race,  but  in  them  its  harsher  features, 
as  represented  in  the  genuine  Tartars, 
are  considerably  softened.  They  are 
generally  of  low  stature,  have  small 
hands  and  feet  (the  last  artificially  made 
so  small  in  the  females  as  to  become  a 


CHINA  ASTER 


CHINA-WARE 


deformity),  a dark  complexion,  a wide 
forehead,  black  hair,  eyes  and  eyebrows 
obliquely  turned  upward  at  the  outer 
extremities.  They  are  strongly  attached 
to  their  homes,  hold  age  in  respect,  toil 
hard  for  the  support  of  their  families, 
and  in  the  interior,  where  the  worst 
kind  of  foreign  intercourse  has  not 
debased  them,  exhibit  an  unsophisti- 
cated simplicity  of  manners  which  re- 
calls the  age  of  the  patriarchs.  The 
Chinese  use  great  politeness  in  their 
intercourse  with  each  other.  They 
scrupulously  avoid  all  contradiction 
and  offensive  expressions  in  conversation. 
Drunkenness  has  hitherto  been  rare 
among  them,  but  the  habit  of  opium- 
smoking  has  much  extended  of  late. 
Hard  work,  done  in  the  most  uncom- 
plaining way,  has  become  second  nature 
with  them.  Filial  piety  is  also  a striking 
feature  of  their  character,  and  is,  in  fact, 
the  principle  upon  which  Chinese  society 
is  constituted.  They  have  chambers  set 
apart  for  the  worship  of  their  ancestors, 
where  religious  ceremonies  are  regularly 
performed. 

The  Chinese  is  the  most  important 
and  most  widely  spread  of  the  so-called 
monosyllabic  languages  of  eastern  Asia, 
in  which  each  word  is  uttered  by  a 
single  movement  of  the  organs  of  speech. 
There  is  no  alphabet,  each  word  being 
represented  by  a single  symbol  or  char- 
acter. The  chief  religions  in  China  are 
Confucianism,  Taouism,  and  Buddhism, 
the  last  introduced  subsequently  to  the 
others.  In  the  western  parts  Moham- 
medanism has  many  followers. 

Government,  Administration,  etc. — 
The  government  is  an  absolute  despot- 
ism. The  reigning  dynasty  is  of  Manchu- 
Tartar  blood.  The  monarch  unites  in 
his  person  the  attributes  of  supreme 
magistrate  and  sovereign  pontiff,  and  as 
the  “Son  of  Heaven”  is  in  theory 
accountable  only  to  heaven.  Four 
principal  ministers,  two  of  whom  are 
Manchus  and  two  Chinese^  form,  along 
with  two  assistants,  the  inner  council 
of  state.  The  Chinese  army  is  said  to 
number  300,000  men  on  a peace  footing, 
and  1,000,000  on  a war  footing,  but 
only  a small  proportion  of  these  are  of 
any  value  for  actual  service,  the  great 
bulk  of  the  men  having  received  no 
proper  military  training  or  discipline 
and  being  equipped  only  with  obsolete 
weapons.  The  navy  consists  of  two 
fleets — one  for  rivers  and  another  for 
sea;  but  though  it  numbers  many  vessels 
it  is  not  very  efficient,  and  is  scarcely 
able  to  clear  the  Chinese  coast  from  the 
pirates  who  infest  the  creeks  and  islets. 

The  early  history  of  the  Chinese  is 
shrouded  in  fable,  but  it  is  certain  that 
civilization  had  advanced  much  among 
them  when  it  was  only  beginning  to 
dawn  on  the  nations  of  Europe.  The 
Chow  dynasty,  which  was  founded  by 
Woo-wang,  and  lasted  from  about  1100 
B.c.  to  258  B.C.,  is  perhaps  the  earliest 
that  can  be  regarded  as  historic,  and  even 
of  it  not  much  more  is  historic  than  the 
name.  The  present  reigning  house  is  of 
Manchu  origin.  European  relations 
with  the  Chinese  began  in  1596  and 
European  interference  has  gone  on 
uninterruptedly  ever  since.  The  Chinese 
are  refractive  to  European  civilization 
end  have  resisted  intercourse  persist- 


ently. In  spite  of  this,  however,  every 
European  nation  of  importance  has 
secured  a foothold  in  China.  In  1850 
began  the  great  Tai  Ping  rebellion 
against  the  government.  In  1894-5 
was  fought  the  Japanese-Chinese  war 
resulting  in  the  defeat  of  China,  the 
payment  of  an  indemnity  and  the  re- 
linquishment of  Formosa  to  Japan.  In 
1900  an  anti-foreign  movement  broke 
out  in  north  China,  mainly  instigated, 
it  would  seem,  by  a secret  nationalist 
society,  whose  members  are  known  to 
Europeans  as  the  Boxers.  Native 
Christians  and  European  and  other 
missionaries  were  murdered;  and  for  a 
time  the  members  of  the  legations  in 
Peking  were  isolated  and  in  danger  of 
being  massacred.  An  international 
relief  force,  however,  succeeded  in 
effecting  their  rescue..  Tsi-Au,  the 
empress  dowager,  died  in  November, 
1908,  the  emperor  was  poisoned  and  an- 
other infant,  Pu-Yi  ascended  the  throne. 

CHINA  ASTER,  the  common  name 
of  a composite  plant,  hardy  and  free 
flowering.  See  Asters. 

CHINA  GRASS,  a plant  of  the  nettle 
family,  a native  of  southern  and  eastern 
Asia  and  the  Asiatic  islands,  and  now 
more  or  less  cultivated  in  many  other 
countries,  such  as  southern  France, 
Algeria,  Natal,  Mauritius,  Australia,  the 
U.  States,  Mexico,  Jamaica,  etc.  It 
yields  a fiber  which  possesses  most 
valuable  properties,  and  has  long  been 
made  in  China  into  a beautiful  cloth, 
and  is  probably  destined  to  play  a much 
more  important  part  as  a textile  ma- 
terial. It  is  very  strong,  presents 
unusual  resistance  to  the  effects  of 
moisture,  and  is  fine  and  silky  in  ap- 
pearance. With  wool,  hemp,  cotton, 
and  flax  it  is  believed  that  it  may 
successfully  compete,  but  its  full  capa- 
bilities are  hardly  as  yet  known,  though 
it  is  long  since  trials  have  been  made 
with  it  as  a subject  of  manufacture. 

CHINA,  GREAT  WALL  OF,  the 
largest  artificial  structure  on  the  face  of 
the  earth,  a barrier  extending  for  about 
1500  miles- in  the  north  of  China  proper, 
of  which  it  partly  forms  the  boundary. 
Its  western  end  is  in  the  deserts  of 
central  Asia,  its  eastern  reaches  the  sea 
to  the  north-eastward  of  Peking.  It 
was  erected  as  a barrier  against  the 
inroads  of  the  barbarous  tribes,  and 
dates  from  about  214  b.c.  It  is  carried 
over  height  and  hollow,  and  avoids  no 
inequality  of  the  ground,  reaching  in 
one  place  the  height  of  over  5000  ft. 
above  the  sea.  Earth,  gravel,  brick, 
and  stone  were  used  in  its  construction, 
and  in  some  places  it  is  much  more 
substantial  than  in  others.  Its  greatest 
height,  including  the  parapet  on  its  top, 
is  about  50  feet,  and  it  is  strengthened 
by  towers  at  regular  distances. 

CHINA  INK,  a black  solid,  which, 
when  rubbed  down  with  water,  forms 
a very  pure  black  indelible  ink.  It  has 
been  used  in  China  from  time  immemor- 
ial. There  are  different  accounts  of  the 

Erocess,  but  it  appears  to  be  made  by 
oiling  the  juices  of  certain  plants  with 
water  to  a syrup,  adding  to  tnis  a quan- 
tity of  gelatine,  and  then  thoroughly 
incorporating  the  carbonaceous  matter. 
There  is  generally  added  some  perfume 
— a little  musk  or  camphor.  The  mass 


is  then  made  into  square  columns  of 
different  sizes,  which  are  often  decorated 
with  figures  and  Chinese  characters. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
imitate  Chinese  ink,  some  of  which  have 
been  tolerably  successful.  Good  Chinese 
ink  should  have  a velvety-black  ap- 
pearance, with  a gloss  which  becomes 
very  conspicuous  on  rubbing.  The 
color  it  gives  on  paper  should  be  pure 
black  and  homogeneous,  and  if  water  be 
passed  over  it  it  should  not  run  or  be- 
come streaky.  It  is  indelible  by  ordi- 
nary solvents,  but  may  be  removed 
sometimes  mechanically. 

CHINA  ROSE,  the  name  given  to  a 
number  of  varieties  of  garden  rose. 

CHINA  SEA,  that  part  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  bounded  n.  by  Formosa, 
n.w.  by  China,  v/.  by  Anam  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  s.e.  b,y  Borneo,  and  e. 
by  the  Philippines.  It  contains  numer- 
ous islands,  receives  several  considerable 
rivers,  and  forms  the  important  Gulfs 
of  Siam  and  Tonquin. 

CHINA-WARE,  porcelain,  the  finest 
and  most  beautiful  of  all  the  kinds  of 
earthenware,  so  called  from  China 
being  the  country  which  first  supplied 
it  to  Europeans.  The  Chinese  are  said 
to  have  manufactured  porcelain  pre- 
vious to  the  Christian  era,  but  it  was  not 
till  five  or  six  centuries  later  that  they 
attained  any  great  perfection  in  the  art. 
Japan  also  appears  to  have  been  early 
acquainted  with  the  manufacture.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  the 
ware  was  first  introduced  into  Europe, 
and  won  immediate  popularity  by  its 
beauty  and  novelty.  For  long  it  was 
thought  impossible  to  fabricate  any- 
thing similar  in  Europe,  but  at  length 
John  Frederick  Bottcher  or  Bottiger,  a 
native  of  Saxony  who  had  long  devoted 
himself  to  alchemy,  discovered  a means 
of  producing  a porcelain  equal  in  white- 
ness to  that  of  China.  This  led  to  the 
establishment  by  the  government  of 
the  far-famed  porcelain  manufactory 
at  Meissen,  near  Dresden.  The  Saxon 
porcelain  soon  became  celebrated  over 
Europe,  and  rivalled  that  of  China  in 
the  excellence  of  its  quality,  and  the 
beauty  of  its  decorations.  Subsequently 
porcelain  works  were  established  at 
Vienna,  Munich  and  elsewhere  in  Ger- 
many. In  France  also  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century  the  celebrated 
factory  at  Sevres  was  set  up  and  soon 
acquired  a great  renown.  The  first 
successful  attempt  in  England  to  manu- 
facture porcelain  was  made  by  some 
Germans,  who  established  a factory  at 
Chelsea,  from  which,  in  1748,  it  was 
transferred  to  Derby.  About  twenty 
years  afterward  the  valuable  discovery 
in  Cornwall  of  an  excellent  species  of 
clay  contributed  greatly  to  improve 
the  quality  of  English  porcelain,  which 
now  began  to  be  largely  manufactured 
in  Staffordshire  under  the  auspices  of 
the  celebrated  Josiah  Wedgwood.  China- 
ware,  when  broken,  presents  a granular 
surface,  with  a texture  compact,  dense, 
firm,  hard,  vitreous,  and  durable.  It  is 
semi-transparent,  with  a covering  of, 
white  glass,  clear,  smooth,  unaffected 
by  all  acids  excepting  the  hydrofluoric, 
and  resisting  uninjured  sudden  changes 
of  temperature.  For  the  process  of 
manufacture  sge  Pottery. 


CHINA  WAX 


CHLORIC  ETHER 


CHINA  WAX,  a sort  of  wax  deposited 
py.  insects  on  a deciduous  tree  with 
light-green  ovate,  serrated  leaves,  cul- 
tivated in  the  province  of  Si-chuen 
(Ssu-chuan)  in  south-western  China. 
The  insects,  a species  of  Coccus,  are 
bred  in  galls  which  are  formed  on  a 
different  tree,  an  evergreen  (a  species  of 
Ligustrum  or  privet),  and  these  galls  are 
transported  in  great  quantities  to  the 
districts  where  the  wax  trees  are  grown, 
to  the  branches  of  which  they  are  sus- 
pended. Having  emerged  from  the 
galls  the  insects  spread  themselves  over 
the  branches,  which  gradually  become 
coated  with  a white  waxy  substance, 
reaching  in  90  or  100  days  the  thicknes 
of  a quarter  of  an  inch.  The  branches 
are  then  lopped  off  and  the  wax  removed. 
It  is  white  in  color  and  is  chiefly  made 
into  candles;  it  melts  at  160°  whereas 
tallow  melts  at  about  95°. 

CHINCH,  the  popular  name  of  certain 
fetid  American  insects,  resembling  the 
bed-bug,  very  destructive  to  wheat, 
maize,  etc.,  in  the  southern  and  western 
states.  Also  applied  to  the  common 
bed-bug. 

CHINCHIL'LA,  a genus  of  S.  Ameri- 
can herbivorous  rodents  very  closely 
allied  to  the  rabbit,  which  they  resemble 
in  the  general  shape  of  the  body,  in  the 
limbs  being  longer  behind  than  before, 
in  the  conformation  of  the  rootless 
molars,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  fur, 
which  is  more  wooly  than  silky;  but 
differing  from  the  rabbit  in  the  number 
of  their  incisors  and  molars,  in  a greater 
length  of  tail,  and  also  in  having  broader 
and  more  rounded  ears.  One  species 
about  15  inches  long,  is  covered  with  a 
beautiful  pearly-gray  fur,  which  is 
highly  esteemed  as  stuff  for  muffs, 
pelisses,  linings,  etc.  The  chinchilla 


Chinchilla. 


lives  gregariously  in  the  mountains  of 
most  parts  of  S.  America,  and  makes 
numerous  and  very  deep  burrows.  It 
is  of  a gentle  nature,  very  sportive, 
losing  none  of  its  gaiety  in  captivity, 
and  very  cleanly. 

CHINCHONA  (chin-cho'ni) . See  Cin  - 
chona. 

CHINESE  EDIBLE  DOG,  a small  dog, 
in  form  somewhat  like  a greyhound, 
reared  by  the  Chinese  to  be  used  as  an 
article  of  food. 

CHINESE  IMMIGRATION,  a political 
question  in  the  U.  States,  arising  from 
a fear  that  American  labor  would  be 
injured  by  imported  labor  from  China. 
In  1882  the  Chinese  exclusion  act  was 
passed  by  congress  and  has  been  con- 
tinued in  force  ever  since.  By  its  pro- 
vision all  Chinese  are  excluded  except 
those  who  are  certified  not  to  be  laborers. 
In  1900  there  were  89,863  Chinese  in 
the  U.  States. 


CHINESE  LANTERN,  a lantern  made 
of  thin  paper,  usually  variously  colored 
and  much  used  in  illuminations. 

CHINESE  WHITE,  oxide  of  zinc  used 
in  the  arts  instead  of  white  lead.  It 
is  valuable  principally  as  a color. 

CHING'LEPUT  (ching'gl-put),  or 
CHENGALPAT,  a coast  district,  and  its 
capital,  Hindustan,  presidency  Madras. 
The  district,  which  lies  s.  of  Arcot  and 
Madras — area,  about  2842  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  1,136,928. 

CHINIQUY,  Charles  Pascal  Teles- 
phore,  a Canadian  clergyman,  born  in 
Quebec  in  1809,  died  in  1899.  He  took 
part  in  the  temperance  crusade  of  1846 
and  in  1851  established  a Roman 
Catholic  colony  at  Kankakee,  111.  He 
published  Fifty  Years  in  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

CHIN-KIANG,  or  TCHANG-KIANG,  a 

city,  China,  province  of  Kiangsu.  Pop. 
135,000. 

CHINOOK,  a dialect  consisting  of 
English,  Chinook  and  other  Indian 
tongues,  used  largely  as  a trade  language 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

CHINTZ,  cotton  cloth  or  calico 
printed  with  flowers  or  other  devices  in 
various  colors  and  now  generally  glazed. 
Originally  a manufacture  of  the  East 
Indies  it  is  now  largely  manufactured  in 
Europe. 

CHIP'MUNK,  CHIP'MUCK,  the  popu- 
lar name  in  America  of  the  ground- 
squirrel. 


Chipmunk. 


CHIPPEWAYS  (chip'e-waz),  or  OJIB- 
BEWAYS,  a tribe  of  N.  American  In- 
dians, U.  States  and  Canada.  They 
are  distributed  in  bands  round  both 
sides  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  they  once  owned  vast  tracts. 
They  are  of  the  Algonquin  stock,  tall, 
active,  and  well  formed,  subsist  chiefly 
by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  number 
about  18,000. 

CHIPPING  SPARROW,  a common  N. 
American  bird,  some  five  or  six  inches 
long. 

CHIRAGRA  (ki-rag'ra),  that  species 
of  gout  which  attacks  the  joints  of  the 
hand  (the  wrist  and  knuckles)  and 
hinders  their  motions.  It  gradually 
bends,  distorts,  and  finally  stiffens  the 
fingers. 

CHIROMANCY  (ki-'ro-man-si).  See 
Cheiromancy. 

CHISHOLM  VS.  GEORGIA,  a cele- 
brated case  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  U.  States  in  1793,  in  which 
the  court  decided  that  the  federal 
judiciary  could  not  exercise  power  in 
an  action  brought  by  a citizen  of  one 
state  against  the  government  of  another 
state. 


CHISHOLM,  William  Wallace,  an 
American  politician,  born  in  Georgia 
in  1830,  died  1877.  He  was  a fierce 
partisan  republican  in  Geor^a  and  in 
1877  was  arrested  charged  with  having 
murdered  John  W.  Gully,  a democratic 
leader.  Chisholm  was  attacked  in  jail 
by  a mob  and  shot  to  death. 

CHITTAGONG  (chit'-),  a district, 
Hindustan,  in  the  s.e.  of  Bengal,  having 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  w. ; area,  2563 
sq.  miles;  pop.  1,290,167.  Chittagong 
is  also  the  name  of  a commissionership 
or  division  of  Bengal.  Area,  12,118  sq. 
miles;  pop.  4,190,081. 

CHIVALRY  (chiv'al-ri),  a term  which 
indicates  strictly  the  organization  of 
knighthood  as  it  existed  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  in  a general  sense  the  spirit 
and  aims  which  distinguished  the 
knights  of  those  times.  The  chief 
characteritics  of  the  chivalric  ages  were 
a warlike  spirit,  a lofty  devotion  to  the 
female  sex,  a love  of  adventure,  and  an 
undefinable  thirst  for  glory.  The 
Crusades  gave  for  a time  a religious  turn 
to  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  and  various 
religious  orders  of  knighthood  arose, 
such  as  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  the 
Templars,  the  Teutonic  Knights,  etc. 

CHLO'RAL,  a liquid  first  prepared  by 
Liebig  by  passing  dry  chlorine  gas 
through  absolute  alcohol  to  saturation, 
afterward  by  Stiideler  by  the  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  and  manganese  on 
starch.  The  hydrate  of  chloral,  as  now 
prepared,  is  a white  crystalline  sub- 
stance, which,  in  contact  with  alkalies, 
separates  into  chloroform  and  formic 
acid.  Chloral  kills  by  paralyzing  the 
action  of  the  heart.  It  is  a hypnotic  as 
well  as  an  anaesthetic,  and  is  frequently 
substituted  for  morphia.  It  has  been 
successfully  used  in  delirium  tremens, 
St.  Vitus’s  dance,  poisoning  by  strychnia, 
in  tetanus,  and  in  some  cases  of  asthma 
and  whooping-cough.  It  should  be 
taken  with  great  caution  and  under 
medical  advice,  as  an  extra  dose  may 
produce  serious  symptoms  and  even 
death.  The  treatment  of  poisoning  by 
chloral  is  to  keep  the  person  warm  by 
means  of  blankets,  warm  bottles,  etc. 
Warm  stimulating  drinks  should  also 
be  administered,  such  as  hot  coffee,  hot 
tea,  negus,  etc.  It  has  been  shown  that 
an  animal  kept  warm  by  wrapping  in 
cotton  wool  recovered  from  a dose  of 
chloral  that  otherwise  would  have 
killed  it. 

CHLO'RATE,  a salt  of  chloric  acid. 
The  chlorates  are  very  analogous  to  the 
nitrates.  They  are  decomposed  by  a 
red  heat,  nearly  all  of  them  being  con- 
verted into  metallic  chlorides,  with 
evolution  of  pure  oxygen.  They  de- 
flagrate with  inflammable  substances 
with  such  facility  that  an  explosion  is 
produced  by  slight  causes.  The  chlor- 
ates of  sodium  and  potassium  are  used 
in  medicine.  The  latter,  in  doses  of 
from  five  to  twenty  grains,  is  largely 
used  in  scarlet  fever,  inflamed  throat, 
etc.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  lucifer-matches,  fireworks,  and  per- 
cussion-caps. 

CHLORIC  ETHER,  a volatile  liquid 
obtained  by  passing  hydrochloric  acid 
gas  into  alcohol  to  saturation  and  dis- 
tilling the  products. 


CHLORIDE  OF  LIME 


CHOPIN 


CHLORIDE  OF  LIME.  See  Bleach- 

ing-powder. 

CHLORIM'ETRY,  the  process  of  test- 
ing the  bleaching  power  of  any  combina- 
tion of  chlorine,  but  especially  of  thfe 
commercial  articles,  the  chlorides  of 
lime,  potash  and  soda. 

CHLO'RINE  is  a very  heavy  gas,  being 
about  two  and  a half  times  as  heavy  as 
ordinary  air;  it  has  a peculiar  smell, 
and  irritates  the  nostrils  most  violently 
when  inhaled,  as  also  the  windpipe  and 
lungs.  It  exercises  a corrosive  action 
upon  organic  tissues.  It  is  not  com- 
bustible, though  it  supports  the  com- 
bustion of  many  bodies,  and,  indeed, 
spontaneously  burns  several.  In  com- 
bination with  other  elements  it  forms 
chlorides,  which  act  most  important 
parts  in  many  manufacturing  processes. 
This  gas  may  be  liquefied  by  cold  and 
pressure,  when  it  becomes  a trans- 
parent, greenish-yellow,  limpid  liquid. 
Chlorine  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
bleaching  agents,  this  property  belong- 
ing to  it  through  its  strong  affinity  for 
hydrogen.  It  is  a valuabe  disinfectant 
where  it  can  be  conveniently  applied, 
as  in  the  form  of  chloride  of  lime. 

CHLO'RODYNE,  a popular  patent 
medicine  used  in  allaying  pain  and  in- 
ducing sleep,  and  containing  morphia, 
chloroform,  prussic  acid,  extract  of 
Indian  hemp,  etc.  There  are  several 
makes  of  it,  but  all  have  to  be  used  with 
caution. 

CHLO'ROFORM,  a volatile  colorless 
liquid  of  an  agreeable,  fragrant,  sweetish 
apple  taste  and  smell,  discovered  by 
Soubeiran  and  Liebig  in  1832.  It  is 
prepared  by  cautiously  distilling  to- 
gether a mixture  of  alcohol,  water, 
and  chloride  of  lime  or  bleaching-poM^der. 
Its  use  as  an  anaesthetic  was  introduced 
in  1847  by  Prof.  Simpson  of  Edinburgh. 
For  this  purpose  its  vapor  is  inhaled. 
The  inhalation  of  chloroform  first  pro- 
duces slight  intoxication ; then,  fre- 
quently, slight  muscular  contractions, 
unruliness,  and  dreaming;  then  loss  of 
voluntary  motion  and  consciousness, 
the  patient  appearing  as  if  sound  asleep; 
and  at  last,  if  too  much  be  given,  death 
by  coma  and  syncope.  When  skilfully 
administered  in  proper  cases  it  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  safest  of  anaesthetics; 
but  it  requires  to  be  used  under  certain 
precautions,  as  its  application  has 
frequently  proved  fatal.  Chloroform 
is  a powerful  solvent,  dissolving  resins, 
wax,  iodine,  etc.,  as  well  as  strychnine 
and  other  alkaloids. 

CHLORO'SIS  or  GREEN  SICKNESS, 
a disease  specially  affecting  young  girls, 
is  characterized  by  a greenish  or  yellow- 
ish hue  of  the  skin,  languor,  indigestion 
and  general  debility,  and  derangement 
of  the  system.  The  pathological  con- 
dition of  chlorosis  is  a diminution  in 
quantity  of  the  red  globules  of  the  blood, 
an  important  constituent  of  which  is 
iron,  and  accordingly  the  administra- 
tion of  iron  forms  a leading  part  of  the 
treatment  of  this  disease.  — -The  term  is 
also  applied  to  a disease  of  plants  in 
which  a deficiency  of  chlorophyll  causes 
a blanched  and  yellow  appearance  in- 
stead of  a healthy  green  in  the  plant. 
It  is  artificially  produced  in  some 
esculent  vegetables  to  destroy  their 
bitter  flavor. 


CHOATE,  Joseph  Hodges,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomat  and  lawyer,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1832.  He  became 
noted  for  his  part  as  counsel  for  the 
defense  in  the  Tweed  Ring  case,  the 
Tilden  will  contest  and  the  Chinese 
exclusion  case.  He  represented  the  U. 
States  in  the  Bering  Sea  dispute,  and  in 
1899  was  appointed  ambassador  to 
England. 

CHOATE,  Rufus,  a noted  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1799, 
died  in  1859.  He  was  a member  of  the 


U.  States  senate  for  some  years  and  was 
an  ardent  advocate  of  protection. 
Choate  was  particularly  noted  for  his 
fine  oratory. 

CHO'COLATE,  a paste  composed  of 
the  kernels  of  the  Theobroma  Cacao  or 
cacao-tree,  ground  and  combined  with 
sugar  and  vanilla,  cinnamon,  or  other 
flavoring  substance;  also  a beverage 
made  by  dissolving  chocolate  in  boiling 
water  or  milk.  It  was  used  in  Mexico 
long  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
and  is  now  largely  used. 

CHOC'TAWS,  a N.  American  Indian 
tribe  now  settled  on  a portion  (10,450 
sq.  miles)  of  the  Indian  Territory  on  the 
Red  river.  They  formerly  inhabited 
what  is  now  the  w.  part  of  Alabama  and 
s.  part  of  Mississippi.  They  cultivate 
the  soil,  are  partially  civilized,  having  a 
regular  constitution  prefaced  with  a 
bill  of  rights,  courts  of  justice,  books 
and  newspapers. 

CHOIR  (cjuir),  that  part  of  a cruci- 
form church  extending  eastward  from 
the  nave  to  the  altar,  frequently  in- 
closed by  a screen,  and  set  apart  for  the 
performance  of  the  ordinary  service. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  the  organized 
body  of  singers  in  church  services. 

CHOKE-CHERRY,  a popular  name 
for  one  or  more  species  of  cherry  dis- 
tinguished by  their  astringency. 

CHOKE-DAMP,  or  AFTER-DAMP, 
the  name  given  to  the  irrespirable  gas 
(carbonic  acid)  found  in  coal-mines 
after  an  explosion  of  fire-damp  or  light 
carburetted  hydrogen. 

CHOLAGOGUE  (ko'la-gog),  a medi- 
cine which  has  the  property  of  carrying 
off  bile. 

CHOLERA  (kol'e-ra),  an  acute  con- 
tagious and  very  fatal  disease.  In  its 


more  ordinary  form  it  commences  with 
sickness,  vomiting,  or  perhaps  two  or 
three  loose  evacuations  of  the  bowels; 
after  which  follow  a sense  of  burning  at 
the  prsecordia,  an  increased  purging 
and  vomiting  of  a white  or  colorless 
fluid,  great  prostration  of  strength, 
spasms  at  the  extremities,  which  in- 
crease in  violence  with  the  vomiting 
and  purging.  Such  cases  may  last  from 
twelve  to  thirty-six  hours;  after  this  the 
patient  generally  sinks  into  a state  of 
extreme  collapse,  and  this  stage  in  most 
cases  passes  by  a gradual  transition  into 
a febrile  one,  which  in  a majority  of 
instances  proves  fatal.  Sometimes  the 
patient  is  suddenly  stricken  down  and 
dies,  collapsed  within  a few  hours  with- 
out diarrhtea  or  vomiting.  This  disease 
is  endemic  in  certain  parts  of  Asia 
(hence  it  is  sometimes  called  Asiatic 
cholera),  and  is  liable  to  spread  to  other 
parts  of  the  world,  usually  by  the  ordi- 
nary channels  of  commerical  inter- 
course. It  first  appeared  in  Europe  in 
1829,  and  reached  Britain  in  1831, 
spreading  thence  to  America.  Western 
Europe  was  again  visited  by  it  in  1847, 
1853,  1865,  1873,  1875,  and  in  1885.' 
In  1892  Russia  and  western  Europe 
suffered  severely. 

The  primary  and  essential  element  in 
the  production  of  cholera  has  been  as- 
certained to  be  a constituent  of  the 
excreta  of  cholera  patients.  Whether 
this  particular  substance  is  the  germ  of 
a fungus  or  other  form  of  minute  life 
is  not  quite  certain,  but  that  it  is  an 
organism  capable  of  propagating  itself 
when  it  is  taken  into  the  alimentary 
canal  in  food,  impure  water,  or  the  like, 
is  beyond  a doubt.  Dr.  Koch  asserts 
that  the  essential  cause  is  a bacillus, 
having  the  form  of  a curved  rod,  hence 
called  the  comma  bacillus,  and  that  the 
disease  is  caused  by  the  multiplication 
of  this  organism  in  the  small  intestines. 
The  fact  that  great  numbers  are  present 
in  persons  suffering  from  cholera  is  gen- 
erally admitted,  but  it  is  doubted  by 
other  experts  if  they  do  actually  produce 
the  disease.  A method  of  protective 
inoculation  against  cholera  has  been 
lately  tried  in  Spain,  but  with  small 
success.  The  contagion  of  cholera  is 
not  so  likely  to  be  conveyed  by  personal 
intercourse  as  by  residence  in  an  in- 
fected district.  Sanitary  measures 
have  proved  to  be  the  only  efficacious 
means  of  arresting  an  epidemic;  in- 
sanitary conditions  decidedly  favor  it. 


Chopines. 


CHOPIN  (sho-pan),  Fr6d4ric  Francois, 
pianist  and  musical  composer,  of  Frencn 
extraction,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1810, 
went  to  Paris  in  1831  on  account  of  the 
political  troubles  of  Poland,  and  died 


CHOPINE 


CHRISTIANITY 


there  in  1849.  He  wrote  nurnerous 
pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  nocturnes,  polonaises,  waltzes, 
and  mazurkas;  all  of  which  display 
much  poetic  fancy,  abounding  in  subtle 
ideas  with  graceful  harmonic  eS’ects. 

CHOPINE  (chop-enO,  a very  high  shoe 
or  elevated  clog,  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  Venice,  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  which  became  the 
fashionable  wear  of  court  ladies  during 
that  reign.  They  were  made  of  wood 
covered  with  leather  of  sundry  colors, 
white,  red,  yellow,  and  sometiines  gut. 
Some  of  them  were  of  great  height,  as 
much  as  18  inches,  the  height  of  the 
chopine  being  seemingly  regarded  aa  a 
mark  of  the  rank  of  the  wearer. 

CHOP-STICKS,  the  Chinese  substi- 
tute for  our  knife,  fork,  and  spooii  at 
meals,  consisting  of  two  smooth  sticks 
of  bamboo,  wood,  or  ivory,  which  are 
used  for  conveying  meat  to  the  mouth 
with  wonderful  dexterity. 

CHORAL  SERVICE,  in  the  Church  of 
England,  service  with  intoned  responses, 
and  the  use  of  music  throughout  where- 
ever  it  is  authorized.  The  service  is 
said  to  be  partly  choral  when  only  can- 
ticles, hymns,  etc.,  are  sung;  wholly 
choral,  when,  in  addition  to  these,  the 
versicles,  responses,  etc.,  are  sung. 

CHORD  (kord),  in  music,  the  simul- 
taneous combination  of  different  sounds, 
consonant  or  dissonant.  The  common 
chord  consists  of  a fundamental  or  bass 
note  with  its  third  and  fifth.  When 
the  interval  between  the  bass  note  and 
its  third  is  two  full  tones  the  combina- 
tion is  a major  chord;  when  the  interval 
is  a tone  and  a half  the  combination  is 
termed  a minor  chord;  when  the  inter- 
vals between  the  bass  note  and  its  third 
and  the  third  and  the  fifth  are  each  a 
tone  and  a half,  the  chord  is  called 
diminished.  The  tonic  chord  is  made  up 
of  the  key-note  and  its  third  and  fifth; 
the  dominant  chord,  consists  of  the 
dominant  or  fifth  of  the  scale  accom- 
panied by  its  third  and  fifth;  the  sub- 
dominant chord  has  for  its  root  or  bass 
the  subdominant  or  fourth  of  the  scale, 
accompanied  with  its  third  and  fifth. — 
In  geom.  a chord  is  a straight  line  drawn, 
or  supposed  to  extend,  from  one  end  of 
an  arc  of  a circle  to  the  other. 

CHOROID  (ko'-),  a term  applied  in 
anat.  to  various  textures;  as  the  choroid 
membrane,  one  of  the  membranes  of 
the  eye,  of  a very  dark  color,  situated 
between  the  sclerotic  and  the  retina,  and 
terminating  anteriorly  at  the  great  cir- 
cumference of  the  iris. 

CHORUS  (ko'rus),  originally  an  an- 
cient Greek  term  for  a'troop  of  singers 
and  dancers,  intended  to  heighten  the 
pomp  and  solemnity  of  festivals.  Dur- 
ing the  most  flourishing  period  of  ancient 
tragedy  (b.c.  500-400)  the  Greek  chorus 
was  a troop  of  males  and  females,  who, 
during  the  whole  representation,  were 
spectators  of  the  action,  never  quitting 
the  stage.  In  the  intervals  of  the  action 
the  chorus  chanted  songs,  which  related 
to  the  subject  of  the  performance. 
Sometimes  it  even  took  part  in  the  per- 
formance, by  observations  on  the  con- 
duct of  the  personages,  by  advice,  con- 
solation, exhortation,  or  disuasion. 
In  the  beginning  it  consisted  of  a great 
number  of  persons,  sometimes  as  many 


as  fifty;  but  the  number  was  afterv;ard 
limited  to  fifteen.  In  music,  the  chorus 
is  that  part  of  a composite  vocal  per- 
formance which  is  executed  by  the  whole 
body  of  the  singers,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  solo  airs,  and  concerted  pieces  for 
selected  voices.  The  singers  who  join 
in  the  chorus  are  also  called  the  chorus. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  verses 
of  a song  in  which  the  company  join  the 
singer,  or  the  union  of  a company  with  a 
singer  in  repeating  certain  couplets  or 
verses  at  certain  periods  in  a song. 

CHOTA  NAGPORE,  a division  of  Brit- 
ish India,  presidency  Bengal.  Total 
area,  43,020  sq.  miles.  Pop.  4,645,590. 

CHOW-CHOW,  a kind  of  mixed 
pickles  put  up  in  mustard.  It  originated 
in  India. 

CHOW  CHOW,  a Chinese  dog,  marked 
by  the  possession  of  a black  tongue.  It 
was  introduced  into  the  U.  States  in 
1901. 

CHOWDER,  a dish  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  fish  or  clams,  potatoes, 
biscuit,  vegetables  and  other  ingredi- 
ents. The  word  and  dish  are  of  French 


origin. 

CHRIST,  a title  of  our  Savior,  now 
used  almost  as  a name  or  part  of  his 
name.  See  Christianity  and  Jesus  Christ. 

CHRISTENING,  the  ceremony  at 
which  a person  or  thing  is  given  a name. 
In  former  times  it  was  generally  accom- 
panied by  baptism  at  which  time  the 
person  baptized  was  believed  to  become 
a Christian,  as  previous  to  baptism 
the  individual  w^as  still  a pagan.  The 
ceremony  of  christening  a ship  was  first 
practiced  in  1418.  Nowadays  ships  are 
always  christened  by  a woman,  pre- 
ferably young,  who  breaks  a bottle  of 
champagne  on  the  prow  as  the  vessel  is 
launched  from  the  ways. 

CHRISTIAN,  the  name  of  nine  Danish 
kings.  Christian  II.,  King  of  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  was  born  1480, 
died  1559.  He  attained  the  throne  in 
1513,  and  in  1518  usurped  the  throne  of 
Sweden,  from  which  he  was  expelled  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  in  1522.  He  was  deposed 
by  his  Danish  subjects  in  1523,  and  re- 
tired to  the  Netherlands,  whence  he 
returned  in  1531  with  an  army,  but  was 
defeated,  and  kept  in  confinement  till 
his  death. — Christian  IV.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, son  of  Frederick  II.  and  the 
Princess  Sophia  of  Mecklenburg,  born 
in  Zealand  in  1577,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  as  a minor  in  1588,  and  died  1648. 
In  the  Thirty  Years’  war  he  was  beaten 
by  Tilly  at  Lutter  in  1626,  but  after- 
ward, in  conjunction  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  obtained  thn  Treaty  of  Lii- 
beck,  1629.  He  has  the  merit  of  having 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Danish  navy, 
extended  the  trade  of  his  subjects  to  the 
East  Indies,  and  fitted  out  several  expe- 
ditions for  the  discovery  of  a north- 
west passairp.  Christi.nn  TX  died  1906. 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS  COLLEGE, 
a scliool  at  St.  Louis  founded  by  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
(Roman  Catholic)  in  1855,  and  having 
a regular  college  curriculum  of  arts  and 
sciences.  It  has  about  450  students, 
and  income  of  $30,000. 

CHRISTIAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH, 
the  name  given  by  John  Alexander 
Dowie  to  a denomination  founded  by 
him  in  1890  at  Chicago.  The  faith  was 


based  on  the  belief  that  miraculous 
healing  is  possible.  Dowie  removed 
his  organization  to  Zion  City,  near 
Chicago,  a town  built  by  the  Zionites 
and  governed  by  them,  since  1902. 
In  late  years  Dowie  claimed  to  be  Elijah, 
reincarnated.  His  followers  revolted 
in  1905  and  his  place  was  taken  by 
Voliva,  a subordinate.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  business  of  Zion  is  now  in 
the  hands  of  a receiver. 

CHRISTIAN  ENDEAVOR,  YOUNG 
PEOPLE’S  SOCIETY  OF,  a society 
founded  in  1881  by  Francis  E.  Clark  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  It 
grew  with  great  rapidity  and  recently 
had  a membership  of  upward  of 
3,000,000.  The  object  of  the  society  is 
to  cultivate  religious  activity  in  simple 
things  of  daily  life. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA,  the  great  era  now 
almost  universally  employed  in  Chris- 
tian countries  for  the  computation  of 
time.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  begin 
with  the  year  of  the  birth  of  Christ ; but 
that  event  seems  to  have  taken  place 
four  years  before  the  present  established 
beginning  of  the  era.  Time  before 
Christ  is  marked  b.c.,  after  Christ  a.d. 
The  era  is  computed  from  the  1st  Jan. 
in  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  olym- 
piad, and  the  753d  year  from  the  build- 
ing of  Rome.  It  was  first  used  by 
Dionysius,  a Syrian  monk,  in  the  6th 
century,  but  did  not  become  general 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  15th 
eentury. 

CHRISTIANIA,  a city  and  port,  the 
capital  of  Norway,  province  Aggershuus 


or  Christiania,  at  the  head  of  the  long 
narrow  inlet  called  Christiania  Fjord, 
about  60  miles  from  the  open  sea  or 
Skagerraek.  Important  public  build- 
ings are  the  royal  palace,  the  house  of 
representatives  or  Storthing,  the  gov- 
ernor’s palace,  and  the  cathedral.  At- 
tached to  the  university — the  only  one 
in  Norway,  opened  in  1813 — is  a muse- 
um, containing  a fine  collection  of 
antiquities.  The  manufactures  of  the 
city  consist  of  woolen  cloth,  ironware, 
tobacco,  paper,  leather,  soap,  spirits, 
glass,  etc.,  and  there  are  extensive 
breweries.  The  exports  are  principally 
timber  and  iron.  The  environs  are 
exceedingly  beautiful.  Pop.  225,686. 

CHRISTIANITY,  the  religion  insti- 
tuted by  Jesus  Christ.  Though  th® 


CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE 


CHRISTY 


great  moral  principles  which  it  reveals 
and  teaches,  and  the  main  doctrines  of 
the  gospel,  have  been  preserved  without 
interruption,  the  genius  of  the  different 
nations  and  ages  have  materially  col- 
ored its  character.  The  first  com- 
munity of  the  followers  of  Jesus  was 
formed  at  Jerusalem  soon  after  the 
death  of  their  Master.  Another  at 
Antioch  in  Syria  first  assumed  (about 
65)  the  name  of  Christians;  and  the 
travels  of  the  apostles  spread  Chris- 
tianity through  the  provinces  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Palestine,  Syria,  Asia 
Minor,  Greece,  the  islands  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, Italy,  and  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  as  early  as  the  1st  cen- 
tury, contained  societies  of  Christians. 
At  the  end  of  the  3d  century  almost 
one-half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  and  of  several  neighboring 
countries,  professed  this  belief.  While 
Christianity  as  a system  was  thus 
spreading,  many  heretical  branches 
had  sprung  from  the  main  trunk.  From 
the  Gnostics,  who  date  from  the  days 
of  the  apostles,  to  the  Nestorians  of 
the  5th  century  the  number  of  sects 
was  large,  and  some  of  them  exist  to 
the  present  day.  The  most  important 
events  in  the  subsequent  history  of 
Christianity  are  the  separation  of  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches  early 
in  the  8th  century;  and  the  Western 
reformation,  which  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  with  the  sectaries  of  the 
13th  century  and  ended  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  Protestantism  in  the  16th. 
The  number  of  Christians  now  in  the 
world  is  computed  at  450,000,000.  Of 
these  about  212,000,000  are  Roman 
Catholics,  83,000,000  belong  to  the 
Greek  Church,  and  155,000,000  are 
Protestants.  Of  the  various  sects  of 
Protestants  the  most  numerous  are  the 
Lutheran,  the  Calvinistic,  and  the 
Anglican  Church. 

CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE,  Society 
for  Promoting,  a society  founded  in 
London  in  169^8,  in  connection  with  the 
Church  of  England,  having  for  its  main 
objects  the  establishment  of  churches, 
schools,  and  libraries,  and  the  publica- 
tion and  circulation  of  religious  and 
moral  literature.  It  is  still  in  active 
operation,  publishes  a great  number  of 
religious  and  instructive  works,  and 
recently  established  a training  college 
for  schoolmistresses. 

CHRISTIANS,  the  general  name  of 
the  followers  of  Christ.  See  Christianity. 

CHRISTIANS,  or  Christian  Connec- 
tion, the  name  of  a denomination  in  the 
United  States  and' Canada,  adopted  to 
express  their  renunciation  of  all  sec- 
tarianism. They  are  to  be  met  with  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  the  number  of 
their  churches  being  estimated  at  over 
1000.  Each  church  is  an  independent 
body;  the  Scriptures  are  their  only  rule 
of  faith,  and  admission  to  the  church  is 
obtained  by  a simple  profession  of  belief 
in  (Christianity.  As  a rule  they  are  anti- 
Trinitarians  and  Baptists. 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE,  a religio- 
scientific  discovery  claimed  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Baker  Eddy  of  Concord,  N.  H., 
to  have  been  made  by  her  in  1866. 
Christian  Science  purports  to  reveal  the 
science  of  God,  also  the  science  of  life 
and  of  man.  It  claims  to  be  the  science 


of  the  divine  Mind  or  Omniscience.  It 
affirms  the  divine  individuality  of  God, 
and  denies  all  man-made  conceptions  of 
Him  as  a finite  personality.  It  declares 
that  God  can  only  be  spiritually  dis- 
cerned, and  that  the  material  senses 
cannot  cognize  or  comprehend  God. 
Mrs.  Eddy  adds  to  the  accepted 
synonyms  for  Deity  such  as  Life,  Truth, 
Love  and  Spirit,  that  God  is  the  Divine 
Principle  of  all  true  being;  the  creative 
principle,  the  cause,  origin,  source,  basis, 
foundation,  government  and  law  of  all 
that  has  actual  and  permanent  existence. 
She  repudiates  all  assumption  that  God 
has  created  or  consented  to  any  form  of 
evil,  sin,  sickness  or  death.  She  declares 
that  all  of  God’s  laws  mean  and  pro- 
vide for  life,  and  life  only. 

It  denies  the  personality  of  evil  as 
devil,  and  avers  that  evil  has  no  real 
entity  or  immortality.  Sin  or  evil  is  a 
negation — a wrong  sense  of  the  truth  of 
being — a wrong  sense  of  that  which  is 
eternally  right.  It  asserts  that  the 
primary  cause  of  sickness  is  to  be  found 
in  the  mental  realm.  It  declares  that 
fear,  sin,  superstition  and  ignorance 
have  involved  the  human  race  in  mor- 
tality, and  that  when  the  world  fully 
learns  this  fact,  it  will  begin  to  scien- 
tifically cope  with,  and  permanently 
master  disease. 

Christian  Scientists  believe  in  God, 
in  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  in 
the  divinity  of  Christ,  in  the  supremacy 
of  God  as  Spirit,  in  prayer  without 
ceasing,  and  in  all  the  essentials^  of 
Christianity,  and  claim  that  the  prime 
office  of  Christian  Science  is  to  destroy 
evil  and  reform  mankind.  They  be- 
lieve that  all  evil  will  eventually  be  de- 
stroyed and  become  extinct. 

CHRISTI'NA,  Queen  of  Sweden, 
daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  born 
1626,  died  1689.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus,  at  Liitzen,  in  1632,  the  states- 
general  appointed  guardians  to  the 
Queen  Christina,  then  but  six  years 
old.  In  1644  she  took  upon  herself  the 
government.  A great  talent  for  busi- 
ness, and  great  firmness  of  purpose, 
distinguished  her  first  steps.  She  ter- 
minated the  war  with  Denmark  begun 
in  1644,  and  obtained  several  provinces 
by  the  treaty  concluded  at  Bromsebro 
in  1645.  In  1654  she  abdicated  in  favor 
of  her  cousin  Charles  Gustavus,  reserv- 
ing to  herself  a certain  income,  entire 
independence,  and  full  power  over  her 
suite  and  household.  She  left  an  im- 
mense art  collection  and  a large  number 
of  valuable  MSS.  Her  writings  were 
collected  and  published  in  1752. 

CHRISTMAS  (kris'mas),  the  festival 
of  the  Christian  church  observed  an- 
nually on  25th  December  in  memory 
of  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  celebrated  by 
a particular  church  service.  The  time 
W'hen  the  festival  was  first  observed  is 
not  known  with  certainty;  but  it  is 
spoken  of  in  the  beginning  of  the  3d 
century  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century 
Chrysostom  speaks  of  it  as  of  great 
antiquity.  As  to  the  day  on  which  it 
was  celebrated,  there  was  long  consider- 
able diversity,  but  by  the  time  of 
(Chrysostom  the  Western  Church  had 
fixed  on  the  25th  of  December,  though 
no  certain  knowledge  of  the  day  of 


Christ’s  birth  existed.  The  Eastern 
Church,  which  previously  had  generally 
favored  the  6th  of  January,  gradually 
adopted  the  same  date.  Many  believe 
that  the  existence  of  heathen  festivals 
celebrated  on  or  about  this  day  had 
great  influence  on  its  being  selected ; and 
the  Brumalia,  a Roman  festival  held  at 
the  winter  solstice,  when  the  sun  is  as  it 
were  born  anew,  has  often  been  in- 
stanced as  having  a strong  bearing  on 
the  question. 

CHRISTMAS-BOXES,  boxes  in 
which  presents  were  deposited  at  Christ- 
mas; hence  a Christmas  gift.  The  cus- 
tom of  bestowing  Christmas  boxes  arose 
in  the  early  days  of  the  church,  when 
boxes  were  placed  in  the  churches  for  the 
reception  of  offerings;  these  boxes  were 
opened  on  Christmas  day,  and  their 
contents  distributed  by  the  priests  on 
the  morrow  (boxing-day). 

CHRISTMAS  CARDS,  ornamental 
cards  containing  words  of  Christmas 
greeting  to  friends  to  whom  they  are 
sent.  The  first  of  them  appeared  about 
1862,  and  consisted  of  pictures  of  robins, 
holly,  etc.;  since  then  highly  artistic 
designs  have  been  introduced,  and  their 
manufacture  has  become  a considerable 
industry  in  Germany,  France  and  Eng- 
land. Immense  quanties  of  them  pass 
through  the  post-office  every  Christmas. 

CHRISTMAS  CAROL,  a carol  or 
song  descriptive  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
or  of  incidents  connected  with  it,  sung 
especially  at  Christmas. 

CHRISTMAS  ROSE,  the  black 
hellebore,  so  called  from  its  flower, 
which  resembles  a large  white  single 
rose  ; its  foliage  is  dark  and  evergreen, 
and  the  plant  blossoms  during  the 
winter  months. 

CHRISTMAS  TREE,  a smaU  fir- 
tree  lighted  up  by  means  of  tiny  small 
candles  of  colored  wax  or  small  Chinese 
lanterns,  ornamented  with  flags,  tinsel 
ornaments,  etc.,  and  hung  all  over  with 
gifts  for  children. 

CHRISTOLOGY,  that  branch  of  the 
study  of  divinity  which  deals  directly 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of 
Christ,. 

CHRiSTOPHE  (kris-tof),  Henri,  King 
of  Hayti,  was  born  in  the  West  Indies 
in  1767,  and  was  employed  as  a slave  in 
St.  Domingo  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
blacks  against  the  French  in  1793. 
From  the  commencement  of  the  troubles 
he  signalized  himself  by  his  energy, 
boldness,  and  activity  in  many  bloody 
engagements.  In  1811  he  had  himself 
proclaimed  King  of  Hayti  by  the  name 
of  Henri  I.  His  cruelty  provoked  a 
revolt,  which  being  unable  to  quell  he 
shot  himself,  1820. 

CHRISTOPHER’S,  St.  (commonly 
called  St.  Kitt’s),  a British  island  in  the 
West  Indies,  one  of  the  Leeward  Is- 
lands, 23  miles  in  length,  and  in  general 
about  5 in  breadth;  area  68  sq.  miles, 
or  44,000  acres,  of  which  about  17,000 
acres  are  appropriated  to  the  growth  of 
sugar,  and  4000  to  pasturage.  It  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493  and 
colonized  by  the  English  in  1623. 
Pop.  29,782. 

CHRISTY,  Howard  Chandler,  an 
American  illustrator,  born  in  Ohio  in 


CHROMATE 


CHUQUISACA 


1873.  In  1893  be  began  his  career  as  a 
magazine  illustrator  and  in  1901  drew 
the  pictures  with  which  Winston 
Churchill’s  Crisis  is  illustrated. 

CHROMATE.  See  Chrome  Iron  Ore, 
Chrome  Yellow. 

CHROMATIC  PRINTING.  See  Color 
Printing. 

CHROMATICS,  the  science  of  colors; 
that  part  of  optics  which  treats  of  the 
properties  of  the  colors  of  light  and  of 
natural  bodies. 

CHRO'MIUM,  a metal  which  forms 
very  hard  steel-gray  masses;  it  never 
occurs  native,  but  may  be  obtained  by 
reducing  the  oxide.  In  its  highest  de- 
gree of  oxidation  it  forms  a compound 
of  a ruby-red  color.  By  itself  it  has 
received  no  practical  applications.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  various  and 
beautiful  colors  which  its  oxide  and  acid 
communicate  to  minerals  into  whose 
composition  they  enter.  It  is  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  emerald  and  beryl. 
Chromium  is  employed  to  give  a fine 
deep  green  to  the  enamel  of  porcelain, 
glass,  etc.  The  oxide  of  chromium  is  of 
a bright  grass-green  or  pale-yellow  color. 
This  element  was  originally  discovered 
in  1797  by  Vauquelm,  in  the  native 
chromate  of  lead  of  Siberia.  See  pre- 
ceding articles. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY,  a method 
of  producing  a colored  or  tinted  litho- 
graphic picture,  by  using  various  stones 
having  different  portions  of  the  picture 
drawn  upon  them  with  inks  of  various 
colors  and  so  arranged  as  to  blend  into 
a complete  picture.  Sometimes  as  many 
as  twenty  different  colors  are  employed.. 
In  printing,  the  lighter  shades  are 
printed  off  first  and  the  darkest  last. 

CHRO'MOSPHERE,  the  name  given 
to  the  gaseous  envelope  which  exists 
round  the  body  of  the  sun,  through 
which  the  light  of  the  photosphere,  an 
inner  envelope  of  incandescent  matter, 
passes.  Dunng  total  eclipses  it  had  been 
observed  that  a red-colored  envelope 
surrounded  the  sun,  shooting  up  to 
great  distances  from  the  surface.  It 
seems  to  have  been  first  recognized  by 
Secchi ; and  the  projecting  portions  of  it 
are  commonly  described  as  “red-colored 
protuberances”  and  “red  flames.”  To 
this  red  envelope  the  name  chromo- 
sphere was  given  by  Mr.  Lockyer.  The 
light  from  it  is  much  fainter  than  that 
from  the  photosphere;  and  till  1868, 
when  M.  Janssen  and  Mr.  Lockyer 
almost  simultaneously  pointed  out  a 
method  of  viewing  it,  it  was  never  seen 
except  during  eclipses.  The  chromo- 
sphere and  its  prominences,  when  ex- 
amined with  the  telespectroscope,  ex- 
hibit a spectrum  of  bright  lings  due  to 
incandescent  gases.  The  most  elevated 
portions  consist  entirely  or  almost  en- 
tirely of  hydrogen,  the  lightest  of  the 
gases.  Lower  down  are  found  the  gases 
or  vapors  of  the  heavier  metals — of 
sodium,  magnesium,  barium,  iron,  and 
others.  The  lower  the  layer  of  the 
chromosphere  examined  the  more 
densely  is  the  spectrum  filled  with  lines 
of  metals,  and  in  the  prominences  the 
red  hydrogen  flames  tower  high  above 
all. 

CHRONIC,  a term  applied  to  diseases 
which  are  inveterate  or  of  long  con- 


tinuance. in  distinction  to  acute  dis- 
eases, which  speedily  terminate. 

CHRONICLES,  Books  of,  two  books 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  formed 
only  one  book  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  in 
which  it  is  placed  last.  The  name 
Chronicles  was  given  to  it  by  Jerome. 
The  book  is  one  of  the  latest  composi- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament,  and  is  sup- 

Eosed  to  have  been  written  by  the  same 
and  as  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  Accord- 
ing to  its  contents  the  book  forms  three 
great  parts: — 1,  genealogical  tables; 
2,  the  history  of  the  reigns  of  David  and 
Solomon;  3,  the  history  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  from  the  separation  under 
Rehoboam  to  the  Babylonian  captivity, 
with  a notice  in  the  last  two  verses  of 
the  permission  granted  by  Cyrus  to  the 
exiles  to  return  home  and  rebuild  their 
temple.  The  Chronicles  present  many 
points  of  contact  with  the  earlier  scrip- 
tures, historical  and  prophetical,  more 
especially,  however,  with  the  books  of 
Samuel  and  of  Kings. 

CHRON'OGRAPH,  the  name  given  to 
various  devices  for  measuring  and 
registering  very  minute  portions  of 
time  with  extreme  precision.  Benson’s 
chronograph  is,  in  principle,  a lever 
watch  with  a double  seconds  hand,  the 
one  superimposed  on  the  other.  The 
outer  end  of  the  loM'ermost  hand  has 
a small  cup  filled  with  a black  viscid 
fluid,  with  a minute  hole  at  the  bottom, 
while  the  corresponding  end  of  the 
uppermost  is  bent  down  so  as  just  to 
reach  the  hole.  At  the  starting  (say)  of 
a horse-race,  the  observer  pulls  a string, 
whereupon  the  bent  end  of  the  upper 
hand  passes  through  the  hold  and  makes 
a black  mark  on  the  dial,  instantly 
rebounding.  Again,  as  each  horse  passes 
the  winning-post  the  string  is  redrawn 
and  a dot  made,  and  thus  the  time  occu- 
pied by  each  horse  is  noted.  This  chron- 
ograph registers  to  one-tenth  of  a second. 
Strange’s  chronograph  is  connected 
with  the  pendulum  of  an  astronomical 
clock,  which  makes  a mark  on  a sheet 
of  paper  at  the  beginning  and  end  of 
eacn  swing.  By  touching  a spring  on 
the  appearance  (say)  of  a particular 
star  in  the  field  of  a telescope,  an  ad- 
ditional dot  is  made  intermediate  be- 
tween the  two  extreme  ones,  and  by 
measuring  the  distance  of  this  from 
either  of  these  extremes  the  exact  time 
can  be  ascertained  to  one-hundredth 
of  a second.  Schultze’s  chronograph, 
in  which  electricity  is  applied,  is  yet  far 
more  precise,  registering  time  to  the 
five  - hundred  - thousandtn  part  of  a 
second. 

CHRONOL'OGY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  time,  and  has  for  its  object  the 
arrangement  and  exhibition  of  historical 
events  in  order  of  time  and  the  ascer- 
taining of  the  intervals  between  them. 
Its  basis  is  necessarily  the  method  of 
measuring  or  computing  time  by  regular 
divisions  or  periods,  according  to  the 
revolutions  of  the  earth  or  moon.  The 
motions  of  these  bodies  produce  the 
natural  division  of  time  into  years, 
months,  and  days.  As  there  can  be  no 
exact  computation  of  time  or  placing  of 
events  without  a fixed  point  from  which 
to  start,  dates  are  fixed  from  an  arbi- 
trary point  or  epoch,  which  forms  the 
beginning  of  an  era.  The  more  im- 


portant of  these  are  the  creation  of  the 
world  among  the  Jews;  the  birth  of 
Christ  among  Christians;  the  Olympiads 
among  the  Greeks;  the  building  of  Rome 
among  the  Romans;  the  Hejira  or  flight 
of  Mohammed  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans, etc.  See  Epoch,  Calendar. 

CHRONOM'ETER,  any  instrument 
that  measures  time,  as  a clock,  watch, 
or  dial;  but,  specifically,  this  term  is 
applied  to  those  time-keepers  which  are 
used  for  determining  the  longitude  at 
sea,  or  for  any  other  purpose  where  an 
accurate  measure  of  time  is  required, 
with  great  portability  in  the  instrument. 
The  chronometer  differs  from  the  ordi- 
nary^ watch  in  the  principle  of  its 
escapement,  which  is  so  constructed 
that  the  balance  is  free  from  the  wheels 
during  the  greater  part  of  its  vibration, 
and  also  in  being  fitted  with  a “com- 
pensation adjustment,”  calculated  to 
prevent  the  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  metal  by  the  action  of  heat  and 
cold  from  affecting  its  movements. 
Marine  chronometers  generally  beat 
half-seconds,  and  are  hung  in  gimbals 
in  boxes  6 or  8 inches  square.  The 
pocket  chronometer  does  not  differ  in 
appearance  from  a watch  except  that 
it  is  somewhat  larger. 

CHRON'OSCOPE,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  duration  of  extremely 
short-lived  phenomena,  such  as  the 
electric  spark;  more  especially  the  name 
given  to  instruments  of  various  forms 
for  measuring  the  velocity  of  projectiles. 

CHRYS'ALIS,  a form  which  butter- 
flies, moths,  and  most  other  insects 
assume  when  they  change  from  the 
state  of  larva  or  caterpillar  and  before 
they  arrive  at  their  winged  or  perfect 
state.  In  the  chrysalis  form  the  animal 
is  in  a state  of  rest  or  insensibility,  and 
exists  without  nutriment,  the  length 
of  time  varying  with  the  species  and 
season.  During  this  period  an  elabora- 
tion is  going  on  in  the  interior  of  the 
chrysalis,  giving  to  the  organs  of  the 
future  animal  their  proper  development. 

CHRYSAN'THEMUM,  a large  genus 
of  composite  plants,  consisting  of  herbs 
or  shrubs  with  single,  large-stalked 
yellow  flowers  or  with  many  small 
flowers;  the  rays  are  sometimes  white. 

CHRYS'OSTOM,  John,  St.,  a cele- 
brated Greek  father  of  the  church,  born 
in  Antioch  about  a.d.  344,  died  at 
Comana  in  Pontus  407. 

CHUB,  a fish  of  the  genus  carps. 
The  body  is  oblong,  nearly  round;  the 
head  and  back  green,  the  sides  silvery, 
and  the  belly  white.  It  frequents  deep 


Chub. 


holes  in  rivers  shaded  by  trees,  but  in 
warm  weather  floats  near  the  surface, 
and  furnishes  sport  for  anglers.  It  is 
indifferent  food,  and  rarely  attains  the 
weight  of  5 lbs. 

CHUQUISACA  (ch6-kS-sa'k5i),  or 
SUCRE,  a city  of  S.  America,  the  capital 
of  Bolivia;  well  situated  on  a plateau 
1 between  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata 


CHURCH 


CIGAR 


rivers,  9343  feet  above  sea-level.  It 
has  a cathedral  and  a university.  It 
was  founded  by  one  of  Pizarro’s  officers 
in  1539.  Pop.  estimated  at  about 

25.000.  — The  province  of  Chuquisaca 
has  an  area  of  72,000  sq.  miles;  pop. 

200.000. 

CHURCH,  a word  which  in  its  widest 
sense  denotes  the  whole  community  of 
Christians,  and  was  tlius  used  by  the 
New  Testament  writers.  In  more 
restricted  significations  it  denotes  a 
particular  section  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity differing  in  doctrinal  matters 
from  the  remainder,  as  the  Roman 
Catholic  Chui’ch,  the  Protestant  Church, 
etc.;  or  to  designate  the  recognized 
leading  church  of  a nation,  as  the  Eng- 
lish, Scotch,  or  French  Church.  Gen- 
erally speaking  any  building  set  apart 
for  religious  ordinances  is  called  a 
church,  though  when  of  a minor  kind  it 
is  usually  designated  a chapel. 

CHURCH  CALENDAR,  a table  of  the 
holy  days,  feasts,  and  fasts  of  a church. 
It  originated  in  448  a.d.  and  has  been 
retained  by  the  Roman  Catholic,  the 
Lutheran,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches. 

CHURCH,  FATHERS  OF  THE, 

teachers  and  writers  of  the  ancient 
church  who  flourished  after  the  time  of 
the  apostles  and  apostolic  fathers  (the 
immediate  disciples  of  the  apostles), 
from  the  2nd  to  the  6th  century.  The 
most  celebrated  among  the  Greek 
fathers  are  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
Origen,  Eusebius,  Athanasius,  and 
Chrysostom.  The  most  distinguished 
among  the  Latin  fathers  are  Tertullian, 
Augustine,  Ambrose  and  Jerome. 

CHURCH,  Frederick  Edwin,  an  Amer- 
ican painter,  born  in  1826  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  died  1900.  He  painted  N.  and  S. 
American  mountains  and  American 
landscapes  in  general.  His  best  known 
picture  is  his  Horseshoe  Falls,  Niagara. 

CHURCH,  States  of  the.  See  Papal 
States. 

CHURCHILL,  Randolph  Henry  Spen- 
cer, Lord,  second  son  of  the  sixth  Duke 
of  Marlborough,  born  1849.  Having 
entered  parliament  in  1874,  by  1884  he 
had  risen  to  the  position  of  a recognized 
leader  of  the  Conservative  party,  and 
in  1885  became  Indian  secretary  in 
Lord  Salisbury’s  government.  Op  the 
defeat  of  Gladstone’s  Irish  Bill  in  1886 
Churchill  became  leader  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, posts  which  he  unexpectedly 
resigned  in  December,  1886.  He  died 
in  1895. 

CHURCH  OF  GOD,  a religious  de- 
nomination of  the  U.  States,  the  doc- 
trines of  which  are  substantially  those  of 
the  Baptist  church.  It  originated  with 
the  revival  work  of  John  Winebrener, 
in  1830,  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.  There  are 
about  500  ministers,  580  churches,  and 
40,000  communicants.  The  denomina- 
tion has  a college  at  Findlay,  Ohio,  and 
does  considerable  mis.sionary  work. 

CHURCH  TRIUMPHANT,  an  organi- 
zation founded  by  George  Schweinfurth 
in  1883,  and  centered  at  Rockford,  111. 
Schweisifurth  claimed  that  he  was 
another  incarnation  of  Christ.  The 
church  has  about  400  members. 

CHURCH  WARDENS,  officials  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  elected 


for  the  purpose  of  caring  for  the  church 
property.  In  the  U.  States  they  are 
generally  two  and  are  elected  annually. 

CHURN,  a vessel  for  preparing  butter 
from  cream  or  milk,  in  which  cream  is 
agitated  to  separate  its  buttery  globules 
in  a solid  mass  from  the  fluid  portions. 

CIBBER,  Colley,  a diamatic  writer 
and  actor,  born  in  London  1671,  died 
1757.  He  took  to  the  stage  in  1689. 
His  first  dramatic  effort.  Love’s  Last 
Shift,  appeared  in  1695;  and  it  was  fol- 
lowed "by  Woman’s  Wit,  the  Careless 
Husband,  and  the  Non-juror,  of  which 
the  Hypocrite  of  the  modern  stage  is  a 
new  version.  A court  pension  and  the 
appointment  of  pcet -laureate  drew  upon 
him  the  rancor  of  the  wits  and  poets 
of  the  day,  including  Pope.  He  is 
author  of  about  twenty-five  dramas, 
the  amusing  Apology  for  the  Life  of 
Colley  Cibber,  etc. 

CICERO,  Marcus  Tullius,  the  greatest 
Roman  orator,  was  born  106  b.c.  at 
Arpinum.  He  received  the  best  educa- 
tion available,  studied  philosophy  and 
law,  became  familiar  with  Greek  litera- 
ture, and  acquired  some  military  knowl- 


edge from  serving  a campaign  in  the 
Marsic  war.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  came  forward  as  a pleader,  and  hav- 
ing undertaken  the  defense  of  Sextus 
Roscius,  who  was  accused  of  parricide, 
procured  his  acquittal.  In  b.c.  76  he 
was  appointed  quaestor  of  Sicily,  and  be- 
haved with  such  justice  that  the  Sicilians 
gratefully  remembered  him  and  re- 
quested that  he  would  conduct  their 
suit  against  their  governor  Verrcs. 
After  this  suit  Cicero  was  elected  to  the 
office  of  aedile,  n.c.  70,  became  praetor 
in  6f,  and  consul  in  63.  It  was  now  that 
he  succeeded  in  defeating  the  conspiracy 
of  Catiline,  after  whose  fall  he  received 
greater  honors  than  had  ever  before 
been  bestowed  upon  a Roman  citizen. 
But  Cicero’s  fortune  had  now  reached 
the  culminating  point,  and  soon  was  to 
decline.  The  Catilinarian  conspirators 
who  had  been  executed  had  not  been 
sentenced  according  to  law,  and  Cicero, 
as  chief  magistrate,  was  responsible  for 
the  irregularity.  Publius  Clodius,  the 
tribune  of  the  people,  raised  such  a storm 
against  him  that  he  was  obliged  to  go 
into  exile  (b.c.  58).  On  the  fall  of  the 
Clodian  faction  he  was  recalled  to  Rome, 
but  he  never  succeeded  in  regaining  the 


influence  he  had  once  possessed.  In 
B.c.  52  he  became  proconsul  of  Cilicia, 
a province  which  he  administered  with 
eminent  success.  As  soon  as  his  terra 
of  office  had  expired  he  returned  to 
Rome  (Jan.  b.c.  49),  which  was 
threatened  with  serious  disturbances 
owing  to  the  rupture  oetween  Ctesar 
and  Pompey.  He  espoused  the  cause 
of  Pompey,  but  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia  he  made  his  peace  with  Cffisar, 
with  whom  he  continued  to  all  appear- 
ance friendly,  and  by  whom  he  was 
kindly  treated,  until  the  assassination 
of  the  latter  (44  b.c.).  Antony  having 
taken  Csesar’s  place,  Cicero  composed 
those  admirable  orations  against  him, 
delivered  in  b.c.  43,  wliich  are  known 
to  us  by  the  name  of  Philippics  (after 
the  speeches  of  Demosthenes  against 
Philip  of  Macedon).  He  died  in  his 
sixty-fourth  year,  n.c.  43.  Cicero’s 
eloquence  has  always  remained  a model. 
After  the  revival  of  learning  he  was  the 
most  admired  of  the  ancient  writers; 
and  .the  purity  and  elegance  of  his  style 
will  always  place  him  in  the  first  rank 
of  Roman  classics.  His  works,  which 
are  very  numerous,  consist  of  orations; 
philosophical,  rhetorical,  and  moral 
treatises;  and  letters  to  Atticus  and 
other  friends. 

CID,  an  epithet  applied  to  Ruy  or 
Roderigo  Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar  (born 
1026,  died  1099),  the  national  hero  of 
Spain.  He  signalized  himself  by  his 
exploits  in  the  reigns  of  Ferdinand, 
Sancho,  and  Alphonso  VI.  of  Leon  and 
Castile;  but  the  facts  of  his  career  have 
been  so  mixed  with  glorifying  myths 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  separate 
them.  His  life,  however,  appears  to 
have  been  entirely  spent  in  fierce  war- 
fare with  the  Moors,  then  masters  of  a 
great  part  of  Spain.  His  exploits  are  set 
forth  in  a special  chronicle,  and  in  a 
Castilian  poem,  probably  composed 
about  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  The 
story  of  his  love  for  Ximena  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Le  Cid  of  Corneille.  Whatever 
chronicles  and  songs  have  conveyed  to 
us  of  the  history  of  the  Cid  is  collected 
in  Southey’s  Chronicle  of  the  Cid. 

CI'DER,  a fermented  liquor  made 
from  the  expressed  juice  of  apples.  The 
apples  are  ground  a’ld  crushed  until  they 
are  reduced  to  a pulp,  the  juice  is  allowed 
to  run  into  casks,  where  it  is  freely 
exposed  to  the  air  until  fermentation 
takes  place,  when  a clear  liquor  of  a 
pale-brown  or  amber  color  is  the  result. 

CIENFUEGOS  (the-en-fo-a'gos),  a sea- 
port of  Cuba,  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
island,  with  a safe  and  capacious  harbor 
on  the  bay  of  Jagua,  130  miles  s e.  of 
Havana,  with  which  (and  other  towns) 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  among 
the  finest  towns  of  the  island,  and  ex- 
ports sugar,  wax,  timber,  etc.  During 
the  Spanish-American  war  it  was 
blockaded  by  Admiral  Schley.  Pop. 
30,038. 

CIGAR  (si-gar'),  a small  roll  of  manu- 
factured tobacco  leaves  carefully  made 
up,  and  intended  to  be  smoked  by  light- 
ing at  one  end  and  drawing  the  smoke 
through  it.  The  choicest  cigars  are 
those  made  in  and  imported  from 
Havana.  Medicated  cigars,  or  cigars 
made  of  some  substance  having  remedial 
properties,  are  often  used  for  certain 


CIGARETTE 


CINNABAR 


complaints,  as  stramonium  cigars  for 
asthma.  Cheroots  are  peculiarly-shaped 
cigars  much  thicker  at  one  end  than  the 
other,  and  are  largely  imported  from 

CIGARETTE  (sig-a-ret'),  a sort  of 
small  cigar  made  by  rolling  fine-cut 
tobacco  in  thin  paper  specially  prepared 
for  the  purpose. 

CrMON,  an  ancient  Athenian  general 
and  statesman,  was  a son  of  the  great 
Miltiades.  He  fought  against  the 
Persians  in  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480 
B.C.),  and  shared  with  Aristides  the 
chief  command  of  the  fleet  sent  to  Asia 
to  deliver  the  Greek  colonies  from  the 
Persian  yoke.  The  return  of  Aristides 
to  Athens  soon  after  left  Cimon  at  the 
head  of  the  whole  naval  force  of  Greece. 
He  died  shortly  after,  in  449,  while 
besieging  Citium  in  Cyprus. 

CINCHONA  (sin-ko'na  or  sin-cho'na), 
the  trees,  shrubs,  or  herbaceous  plants, 
with  simple  opposite  leaves.  They  are 
found  almost  exclusively  in  the  tropics, 
and  many  of  the  species  are  of  great 
medicinal  importance  as  tonics,  febri- 
fuges, emetics,  and  purgatives.  Among 


Clncliona. 


their  chief  products  are  Peruvian  bark, 
quinine,  ipecacuanha,  coffee,  chay-root, 
etc.  The  genus  trees  seldom  exceed  40 
or  50  feet  in  height,  with  simple,  oppo- 
site, entire  leaves  and  small  flowers, 
inhabiting  chiefly  the  east  side  of  the 
Andes  of  Peru,  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  and 
Colombia.  The  valuable  Peruvian  bark 
is  yielded  by  various  species.  From 
the  wasteful  method  of  cutting  down 
the  trees  to  get  their  bark  it  was  believed 
that  there  would  soon  be  a dearth  of  the 
valuable  medicine,  and  hence  chinchona 
plants  were  taken  from  their  native 
regions  and  plantations  formed  in 
various  tropical  countries,  so  that 
Ceylon,  India,  Java,  etc.,  are  now  im- 

Eortant  sources  of  Peruvian  bark.  The 
ark  is  taken  off  in  strips  longitudinally, 
and  is  in  time  renewed  by  natural 
growth. 

CINCINNATI,  the  chief  city  of  Ohio, 
situated  on  the  Ohio  river.  It  is  300 
miles  from  Chicago,  764  miles  from  New 
York,  and  610  miles  from  Washington. 
The  city  is  built  on  a number  of  eleva- 
tions which  rise  in  plateaux  from  the 
river  and  is  bounded  by  a semicircle  of 
hills  upon  which  the  fine  residences  are 
situated.  It  has  an  area  of  36  sq.  miles 
and  was  laid  out  on  a plan  similar  to 
fthat  of  Philadelphia, 


The  city  was  settled  in  1788  and  the 
settlement  passed  through  various  vicis- 
situdes until  1819  when  it  was  incor- 
porated. Its  limits  were  several  times 
increased.  The  principal  public  build- 
ings are  the  U.  States  building  for  post- 
office,  courts,  etc.,  constructed  entirely 
of  brick,  iron  and  granite,  at  a cost  of 
$5,000,000;  the  city  hall,  completed  in 
1893,  a substantial,  spacious,  and  elegant 
structure  costing  $1,500,000;  the  Music 
Hall,  with  a seating  capacity  of  5,000; 
the  Chamber  of  &mmerce  building; 
the  County  Court-house;  the  Cincinnati 
College;  the  Ohio  and  Miami  Medical 
Colleges;  the  Public  Library;  the  Central 
Union  R.  R.  d4p(')t;the  Masonic  Tem- 
ple; the  Odd  Fellows’  building;  the 
Scottish  Rite  Cathedral;  the  City  Hospi- 
tal, and  the  Art  Museum  in  Eden  Park. 
Among  theaters,  the  Pike,  Grand  Opera- 
house  and  Walnut  Street  are  very 
creditable  The  Ohio  Mechanics’  In- 
stitute has  long  been  a great  educational 
force  in  the  city.  It  owns  an  ample 
building,  with  library,  lecture-hall,  and 
school-rooms.  It  maintains  courses  of 
lectures  specially  devoted  to  the  me- 
chanic arts,  and  a night-school  with  700 
pupils,  where  instruction  is  given  in  the 
rudiments  of  science,  mathematics, 
architecture,  and  kindred  subjects. 
The  principal  libraries  are  the  Public 
Library,  with  212,262  books  and  33,867 
pamphlets;  the  Young  Men’s  Mercantile, 
with  50,000  volumes;  the  Law  Library, 
with  8,000  volumes;  the  library  of  the 
Historical  Society,  with  a large  number 
of  rare  books,  pamphlets,  manuscripts, 
etc.;  and  the  horary  of  the  Mechanics’ 
Institute. 

The  government  of  the  city  has  much 
of  the  so-called  “federal”  plan.  The 
mayor  is  elected  every  three  years,  and 
is  not  eligible  for  re-election.  He  ap- 
points a bboard  of  review,  six  members, 
with  authority  to  examine  and  super- 
vise city  officers  and  fix  rates  of  taxa- 
tion; and  a board  of  elections,  four 
members,  which  appoints  all  election 
officers,  and  conducts  the  elections  and 
canvasses  returns.  He  also  appoints 
the  prosecutor  of  the  police  court.  He 
is  the  chief  of  police,  with  powers 
similar  to  those  belonging  to  an  officer 
of  the  army — to  discipline  and  com- 
mand, but  not  to  appoint  or  discharge. 
There  is  a board  of  four  police  com- 
missioners, appointed  by  the  governor 
of  the  state.  The  mayor  nominates  all 
officers  of  the  police  court,  and  with  the 
approval  of  the  board  appoints  them. 
Police  oflicers  hold  during  “good  be- 
havior,” and  can  only  be  removed  or 
punished  upon  charges  and  a hearing 
by  the  board.  They  must  pass  a medi- 
cal and  a literary  examination  before 
appointment.  A board  of  service, 
chosen  by  popular  vote,  consisting  of 
five  members,  has  charge  of  the  streets, 
waterworks,  city  infirmary,  and  parks. 

The  vigorous  growth  of  railway 
facilities  has  apparently  reduced  the 
importance  of  river  transportation; 
figures  show  an  enormous  tonnage  by 
river  each  year.  The  city  is  also  a rail- 
way center,  every  important  railway 
system  having  lines  passing  through  it. 
Its  inland  situation  precludes  it  from 
foreign  commerce,  but  its  location  in 
the  most  productive  portion  of  the  U. 


States,  with  its  ample  means  of  commu- 
nication, must  always  make  it  a most 
mportant  center  of  domestic  trade. 

It  is,  however,  chiefly  a manufactur- 
ing city.  Its  industries  ran  in  this  direc- 
tion at  an  early  date.  The  distance 
from  any  source  of  supply  and  the  con- 
venience of  all  sorts  of  materials  made 
manufacturing  profitable,  and  there  was 
a steady  and  increasing  demand  from 
the  growing  regions  lying  south  and  west. 
Pop.  475,000. 

CINCINNATI  MUSICAL  FESTIVAL, 

a musical  feast  originated  by  Theodore 
Thomas  in  1873,  held  every  two  years, 
comprehending  seven  concerts.  The 
Chicago  orchestra  furnishes  the  music 
and  a local  chorus  of  500  assists. 

CINCINNATI,  SOCIETY  OF  THE,  a 
patriotic  society  to  perpetuate  the 
traditions  of  the  American  revolutionary 
war.  Its  members  consist  of  lineal 
descendants  Of  officers  who  fought  in 
that  war  and  membership  is  restricted 
to  the  eldest  male  descendants  of  such 
officers.  The  society  was  organized  in 
1783  at  Fishkill,  N.  Y.,  and  the  name 
was  adopted  from  that  of  the  Roman 
patriot  (lincinnatus  (which  see).  There 
are  at  present  about  860  members, 
organized  into  13  state  societies. 

CINCINNATI,  UNIVERSITY  OF, 
founded  in  1858  by  Charles  McMicken, 
and  subsequently  enlarged  by  appro- 
priations set  apart  by  the  city  of  Cin- 
cinnati. The  university  has  a law  and 
a medical  school,  an  academic  apart- 
ment, a college  of  engineering,  a college 
of  dentistry,  and  a pathological  school. 
It  has  a fund  of  $3,500,000,  164  in- 
structors, 1100  students,  and  a library 
of  68,000  volumes. 

CINCINNA'TUS,  Lucius  Quinctiua, 
a wealthy  patrician  in  the  early  days  of 
the  Roman  Republic,  born  about  519 
B.c.  After  violently  opposing  the 
passage  of  the  Terentilian  law  for  the 
equalization  at  law  of  patricians  and 
plebians,  he  succeeded  Publicola  in  the 
consulship,  and  then  retired  to  cultivate 
his  small  estate  beyond  the  Tiber. 
Here,  when  Minucius  was  surrounded 
by  the  .iEquians,  the  messengers  of  the 
senate  found  him  at  work  when  they 
came  to  summon  him  to  the  dictator- 
ship. He  rescued  the  army  from  its 
peril,  marched  to  Rome  laden  with 
spoil,  and  then  returned  quietly  to  his 
farm.  At  the  age  of  eighty  he  was  again 
appointed  dictator  to  oppose  the  am- 
bitious designs  of  Spurius  Mselius. 

CINNA,  Lucius  (Cornelius,  an  eminent 
Roman,  an  adherent  of  Marius,  who, 
obtaining  the  consulship  b.c.  87,  along 
with  Cneius  Octavius,  impeached  Sulla 
and  endeavored  to  secure  the  recall  of 
Marius.  Being  driven  from  the  city 
by  Octavius,  he  raised  the  Italian  cities, 
and  invested  Rome  while  Marius  block- 
aded it  from  the  sea.  On  its  capture  the 
friends  of  Sulla  were  massacred,  and 
Cinna  and  Marius  made  themselves  con- 
suls (b.c.  86);  but  after  the  death  of 
Marius  the  army  refused  to  follow  Cinna 
against  Sulla,  and  put  him  to  death  in 
B.c.  84. 

CIN'NABAR,  red  sulphide  of  mercury, 
the  principal  ore  from  which  that  metal 
is  obtained,  occurring  abundantly  in 
Spain,  California,  China,  etc.  It  is  of  a 
cochineal-red  color,  and  is  used  as  a 


CINNAMON 

pigment  under  the  name  of  vermil- 
ion. 

CIN'NAMON,  the  bark  of  the  under 
branches  of  a species  of  laurel,  which  is 
chiefly  found  in  Ceylon,  but  grows  also 
in  Malabar  and  other  parts  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  tree  attains  the  height  of 
20  or  30  feet,  has  oval  leaves,  pale-yellow 


Cinnamon. 

flowers,  and  acorn-shaped  fruit.  The 
Ceylonese  bark  their  trees  in  April  and 
November,  the  bark  curling  up  into 
rolls  or  quills  in  the  process  of  drying; 
the  smaller  quills  being  introduced  into 
the  larger  ones.  These  are  then  assorted 
according  to  quality  by  tasters,  and 
made  up  into  bundles. 

CIPHERS,  signs  used  to  represent 
numbers,  whether  borrowed  signs,  or 
letters,  with  which  the  Greeks  desig- 
nated their  numbers,  or  peculiar  charac- 
ters, as  the  modern  or  Arabic  ones.  The 
ciphers,  such  as  they  are  at  present  1, 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0,  did  not  come  in 
common  European  use  until  the  11th 
century.  For  cipher  as  applied  to 
methods  of  secret  writing  see  Crypto- 
graphy. 

CIRCAS'SIA,  or  TCHERKESSIA,  a 

mountainous  region  in  the  southeast 
of  European  Russia,  lying  chiefly  on  the 


Circassians— From  Hommaire  de  Hell. 

north  slope  of  the  Caucasus,  partly  also 
on  the  south,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Black  Sea,  and  now  forming  part 
of  the  government  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  mountains,  of  which  the  cul- 
minating heights  are  those  of  Mount 
Elbruz,  are  intersected  everywhere  with 


steep  ravines  and  clothed  with  thick 
forests,  and  the  territory  is  principally 
drained  by  the  Kuban  and  its  tribu- 
taries. Its  climate  is  temperate,  its 
inhabitants  healthy  and  long-lived. 
They  are  divided  into  several  tribes 
speaking  widely-different  dialects. 
While  they  retained  their  independence 
their  government  was  of  a patriarchal 
character,  but  every  free  Circassian  had 
the  right  of  expressing  his  opinion  in 
the  assemblies.  They  possessed  none 
but  traditional  annals  and  laws.  Polyg- 
amy was  permissible  in  theory,  but  not 
common.  The  duties  of  hospitality  and 
vengeance  were  alike  binding,  and  a 
Spartan  morality  existed  in  the  matter 
of  theft.  Their  religion,  which  is  nomin- 
ally Moslem,  is  in  many  cases  a jumble  of 
Christian,  Jewish,  and  heathen  tradi- 
tions and  ceremonies.  As  a race  the 
Circassians  are  comely,  the  men  being 
prized  by  the  Russians  as  warriors,  and 
the  women  by  the  Turks  as  mistresses, 
a position  generally  desired  by  the 
women  themselves.  The  early  history  of 
Circassia  is  obscure.  Between  the  10th 
and  13th  centuries  it  formed  a portion  of 
the  empire  of  Georgia,  but  in  1424  the 
Circassians  were  an  independent  people, 
and  at  war  with  the  Tartars  of  the 
Crimea,  etc.,  to  whose  khans,  however, 
some  were  occasionally  tributary.  In 
1705  the  Tartars  were  defeated  in  a 
decisive  battle,  but  shortly  after  the 
territorial  encroachments  of  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  Caucasian  regions  began, 
and  in  1829  the  country  was  formally 
annexed  by  them.  The  Circassians, 
properly  so  called,  have  been  estimated 
to  number  from  500,000  to  600,000. 

CIRCE  (ser-se),  a fabled  sorceress  of 
Greek  mythology,  who  lived  in  the 
Island  of  jEsea,  represented  by  Homer 
as  having  converted  the  companions  of 
Ulysses  into  swine  after  causing  them  to 
partake  of  an  enchanted  beverage. 
Ulysses  under  the  guidance  of  Hermes 
compelled  her  to  restore  his  companions, 
and  afterward  had  two  sons  by  her. 

CIRCLE  is  a plane  figure  contained  by 
one  line,  which  is  called  the  circum- 
ference, and  is  such  that  all  straight 
lines  drawn  from  a certain  point  (the 
center)  within  the  figure  to  the  circum- 
ference are  equal  to  one  another.  The 
properties  of  the  circle  are  investigated 
in  books  on  geometry  and  trigonometry. 
Properly  the  curve  belongs  to  the  class 
of  conic  sections,  and  is  a curve  of  the 
second  order.  A great  circle  of  a sphere 
is  one  that  has  its  center  coinciding 
with  that  of  the  sphere.  The  celebrated 
problem  of  “squaring  the  circle,”  is  to 
find  a square  v/hose  area  shall  be  equal 
to  the  area  of  any  given  circle.  It  is 
not  possible  to  do  so.  All  that  can  be 
done  is  to  express  approximately  the 
ratio  of  the  length  of  the  circumference 
of  the  circle  to  the  diameter,  and  to  de- 
duce the  area  of  the  figure  from  this  ap- 
proximation. 

CIRCUIT,  a division  of  a country,  or 
a county,  or  a state,  in  which  the  same 
judges  hold  court  for  the  trial  of  facts. 
In  the  United  States,  the  federal  judi- 
ciary sits  in  nine  circuits  comprising 
the  whole  territory  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  federal  judges  move  about  in 
these  circuits  holding  court  in  different 
parts  thereof.  In  certain  states,  also 


CIRCUMCISION  I 

there  are  a number  of  circuits.  In 
Britain  a certain  number  of  counties 
form  a circuit,  and  the  time  of  court 
is  called  assizes. 

CIRCULATION,  in  an  organism,  the 
flowing  of  sap  or  blood  through  the  veins 
or  channels,  by  means  of  which  the  per-  - 
petual  and  simultaneous  movements  of 
composition  and  decomposition  mani- 
fested in  organic  life  are  carried  on.  Al- 
though Galen,  who  had  observed  the 
opposite  directions  of  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  and  veins,  may  be  said  to  have 
been  upon  the  very  point  of  discovering 
the  circulation,  the  discovery  was  re- 
served for  William  Harvey,  who  in  1628 
pointed  out  the  continuity  of  the  connec- 
tions between  the  heart,  arteries,  and 
veins,  the  reverse  directions  taken  by  the 
blood  in  the  different  vessels,  the  ar- 
rangements of  valves  in  the  heart  and 
veins  so  that  the  blood  could  flow  only  in 
one  direction,  and  the  necessity  of  the 
return  of  a large  proportion  of  blood  to 
the  heart  to  maintain  the  supply.  In  1661 
Malpighi  exhibited  microscopically  the 
circulation  in  the  web  of  a frog’s  foot, 
and  showed  that  the  blood  passed  from 
arteries  to  veins  by  capillaries  or  inter- 
mediate vessels.  This  finally  established 
the  theory  with  regard  to  animals,  but 
the  movements  of  sap  in  vegetables  were 
only  traced  with  difficulty  and  after 
numerous  experiments.  Many  physi- 
ologists indeed  are  still  disposed  to 
refuse  the  term  “circulation”  to  this 
portion  of  the  economy  of  plants;  but 
though  sap,  unlike  the  blood,  does  not 
exhibit  movements  in  determinate  ves- 
sels to  and  from  a common  center,  a 
definite  course  is  observable.  In  the 
stem  of  a dicotyledonous  tree,  for 
example,  the  sap  describes  a sort  of 
circle,  passing  upward  from  the  roots 
through  the  newer  woody  tissue  to  the 
leaves,  where  it  is  elaborated  under  the 
action  of  air  and  light;  and  thence  de- 
scending through  the  bark  toward  the 
root,  where  what  remains  of  it  is  either 
excreted  or  mixed  with  the  new  fluid, 
entering  from  the  soil  for  a new  period  of 
circulation. 

CIRCUMCISION,  a rite  common 
among  the  Semites,  though  by  no  means 
eculiar  to  them,  and  possibly  derived 
y them  from  the  Egyptians  or  from 
some  non-Semitic  source.  At  any  rate 
the  antiquity  of  its  institution  in  Egypt 
is  fully  established  by  the  monuments, 
which  make  it  evident  that  it  was  prac- 
ticed at  a period  very  much  earlier  than 
the  Exodus.  It  was,  however,  a primi- 
tive Arab  custom,  and  its  practice 
among  the  Jews  may  with  equal  proba- 
bility be  assigned  to  an  Arab  source. 
Whatever  its  origin,  the  rite  is  confined 
to  no  single  lace.  It  was  practiced  by 
the  Aztecs  and  other  peoples  of  Central 
America,  and  is  still  to  be  found  among 
tribes  on  the  Amazon,  among  the 
Australian  tribes,  the  Papuans,  the 
inhabitants  of  New'  Caledonia,  and  those 
of  the  New  Hebrides.  In  Africa  it  is 
common  among  the  Kaffirs  and  other 
tribes  widely  removed  from  Semitic 
influence.  It  is  practised  also  by  the 
Abyssinian  Christians,  and  although  not  ' 
enjoined  in  the  Koran  has  been  adopted 
by  the  Mahometans  on  the  example  of 
Mahomet  himself.  It  was  possibly  in 
its  origin  a sacrifice  tc  the  deity  pre- 


CIRC  U -vl;:  A V IG  ATORS 

siding  over  generation,  though  in  cer- 
tain nations  the  rite  has  acquired  a new 
symbolic  significance  according  to  the 
stage  of  their  spiritual  development. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS,  a term  usual- 
ly applied  to  the  early  navigators  who 
sailed  round  the  globe.  Magellan,  a 
Portuguese  in  the  service  of  Spain 
headed  the  first  expedition  which  suc- 
ceeded in  circumnavigating  the  globe, 
though  he  did  not  live  to  complete  the 
voyage. 

CIRCUMSTANTIAL  EVIDENCE.  See 

Evidence. 

CIRCUMVALLA'TION,  or  LINE  OF 
CIRCUMVALLATION,  in  military  af- 
fairs, a line  of  field-works  consisting 
of  a rampart  or  parapet,  with  a trench 
surrounding  a besieged  place,  or  the 
camp  of  a besieging  army. 

CIR'CUS.  among  the  Romans,  a near- 
ly oblong  building  without  a roof,  in 
which  public  chariot-races  and  exhi- 
bitions of  pugilism  and  wrestling,  etc., 
took  place.  The  largest  of  these  build- 
ings in  Rome  was  the  Circus  Maximus, 
capable,  according  to  Pliny,  of  contain- 
ing 260,000,  and  according  to  Aurelius 
Victor,  385,000  spectators.  The  games 
celebrated  in  these  structures  were 
known  collectively  by  the  name  of 
ludi  circenses,  circensian  games,  or 
games  of  the  circus,  which  under  the 
emperors  attained  the  greatest  magnif- 
icence. The  passion  of  the  common  or 
poorer  class  of  people  for  these  shows 
appears  from  the  cry  with  which  they 
addressed  their  rulers — panem  et  cir- 
censes (bread  and  the  games!).  The 
festival  was  opened  by  a splendid  pro- 
cession, or  pompa,  in  which  the  magis- 
trates, senate,  priests,  augurs,  vestal 
virgins,  and  athletes,  took  part,  carry- 
ing with  them  the  images  of  the  great 
gods,  the  Sibylline  books,  and  some- 
times the  spoils  of  war.  On  reaching  the 
circus  the  procession  went  round  once 
in  a circle,  the  sacrifices  were  performed, 
the  spectators  took  their  places,  and 
the  games  commenced.  These  were: 

1.  Races  with  horses  and  chariots,  in 
which  men  of  the  highest  rank  engaged. 

2.  The  gymnastic  contests.  3.  The 
Trojan  games,  prize  contests  on  horse- 
back, revived  by  Julius  Caesar.  4.  The 
combats  with  wild  beasts  or  with  men 
(criminals  or  volunteers).  5.  Repre- 
sentations of  naval  engagements  for 
which  purpose  the  circus  could  be  laid 
under  water.  The  expense  of  these 
games  was  often  immense.  Pompey, 
m his  second  consulship,  brought  for- 
ward 500  lions  at  one  combat  of  wild 
beasts,  which,  with  eighteen  elephants, 
were  slain  in  five  days. 

The  modern  circus  is  a place  where 
horses  are  trained  to  perform  antics,  and 
where  exhibitions  of  acrobats  and  vari- 
ous pageantries,  including  a large 
amount  of  buffoonery,  are  presented. 

CIRRHO'SIS,  a disease  characterized 
bjy  growth  of  fibrous  tissue  which  gradu- 
ally encroaches  on  and  by  compression 
destroys  the  true  structure  of  the  organ 
attacked.  It  is  very  frequent  in  the 
liver  as  a consequence  of  spirit-drinking; 
and  hence  the  term  “drunkard’s  liver”. 

CISAL'PINE  REPUBLIC,  a state  set 
up  in  1797  by  Napoleon  I.  in  North 
Italy,  recognized  by  Germany  as  an 
independent  power  at  the  Peace  of 
F.  K— 18  “ 


CampO'Formlo.  It  comprised  Austrian 
Lombardy,  together  with  the  Mantuan 
and  the  Venetian  provinces,  Bergamo, 
Brescia,  Crema;  Verona,  and  Rovigo, 
the  duchy  of  Modena,  the  principality 
of  Massa  and  Carrara,  Bologna,  Ferrara, 
and  Romagna,  and  latterly  its  area  was 
16,337  sq.  miles;  its  pop.  3,500,000. 
The  legislative  body  held  its  sessions  in 
Milan.  On  January  25,  1802,  it  received 
the  name  of  the  Italian  Republic;  from 
1805  to  1814  it  formed  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy;  and  it  was  given  to  Aus- 
tria by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1615 
as  the  Lombardo- Venetian  Kingdom. 

CIST,  a place  of  interment  of  an  early 
or  prehistoric  period,  consisting  of  a 
rectangular  stone  chest  or  inclosure 
formed  of  rows  of  stones  set  upright. 


Cist,  found  near  Driffield,  Yorkshire . 

and  covered  by  similar  flat  stones. 
Such  cists  are  found  in  barrows  or 
mounds,  inclosing  bones.  In  rocky  dis- 
tricts cists  were  sometimes  hewn  in  the 
rocl^ 

CISTER'CIANS,  a religious  order 
named  from  its  original  convent,  Citeaux 
not  far  from  Dijon,  in  Eastern  France, 
where  the  society  was  formed  in  1098 
by  Robert,  abbot  of  Molesme,  under  the 
strictest  observance  of  the  rule  of  St. 


Benedict.  The  Cistercians  led  a severely 
ascetic  and  contemplative  life,  and 
having  freed  themselves  from  episcopal 
supervision,  formed  a kind  of  spiritual 
republic  under  a high  council  of  twenty- 
five  members,  with  the  abbot  of  Citeaux 
as  president. 

CIT'ADEL,  a strong  fortress  in  or  near 
a city  intended  to  keep  the  inhabitants 
in  subjection,  or  to  form  a final  point  of 
defense  in  case  of  an  attack  of  enemies, 


CITRUS 

CITATION,  a summons  or  official 
notice  given  to  a person  to  appear  in  a 
court  as  a party  or  witness  in  a cause. 

CITH'ERN,  or  CITTERN,  an  old 
instrument  of  the  guitar  kind,  strung 
with  wire  instead  of  gut.  Its  eight 


Cittern,  In  South  Kensington  museum. 

strings  were  tuned  to  4 notes,  G,  B,  D, 
and  E.  It  was  frequently  to  be  found  in 
barbers’  shops  for  the  amusement  of  the 
waiting  customers. 

CITIES  OF  REFUGE,  six  out  of  the 
forty-eight  cities,  given  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi  in  the  division  of  Canaan,  set  apart 
by  the  law  of  Moses  as  places  of  refuge 
for  the  man-slayer  or  accidental  homi- 
cide. Their  names  were  Kedesh,  Shec- 
hem,  and  Hebron  on  the  west  side  of 
Jordan;  and  Bezer,  Ramoth-Gilead,  and 
Golan  on  the  east. 

CITIES  OF  THE  PLAIN.  See  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah. 

CITIZEN,  an  individual  member  of 
a political  community  or  state.  In  the 
United  States  the  term  has  the  very 
same  significance  as  it  had  under  the 
Republic  in  ancient  Rome,  that  is,  a 
free  individual,  co-sovereign  with  all 
other  free  individuals,  sharing  the  power 
of  governing  with  those  others.  Citi- 
zenship in  the  United  States  is  restricted 
to  males,  21  years  old,  either  born  in 
the  United  States  or  its  jurisdiction,  or 
naturalized.  The  term  citizen,  however, 
is  also  applied  in  a more  getieral  way, 
to  all  persons,  not  aliens,  living  in  the 
United  States,  whether  they  have  the 
rights  of  sovereign  citizens  or  not. 

CIT'RJC  ACID,  the  acid  of  lemons, 
limes,  and  other  fruits.  It  is  generally 
prepared  from  lemon-juice,  and  when 
pure  is  white,  inodorous  and  extremely 
sharp  in  its  taste.  In  combination  with 
metals  it  forms  cyrstalline  salts  known 
as  citrates.  The  acid  is  used  as  a dis- 
charge in  calico-printing  and  as  a 
substitute  for  lemon  in  making  bever- 
ages. « 

CIT'RON,  a small  evergreen  shrub 
introduced  into  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe  from  Asia,  and  yielding  a fruit 
which  is  candied  with  sugar.  The  rind 
is  considered  superior  to  the  pulp.  The 
juice  is  less  acid  than  that  of  the  lemou. 
See  Citrus. 

CIT'RUS,  an  important  genus  of  trees, 
characterized  by  simple  ovate  acuminate 
leaves  or  leaflets  united  by  a distinct 
joint  to  the  leaf-like  stalk;  by  having 
the  stamens  united  by  their  filaments 
into  several  irregular  bundles,  and  by 
yielding  a pulpy  fruit  with  a spongy 
rind, — Citrus  medica  is  the  citron 


CITY 


CIVIL  RIGHTS  BILL 


Other  species  are  the  lemon,  the  sweet 
orange,  the  bitter  orange,  the  shaddock, 
and  the  forbidden  fruit,  sometimes  used 
as  an  ornamental  addition  to  dessert. 
The  genus  furnishes  the  essential  oils 
of  orange  and  lemon  peels,  of  orange 
flowers,  of  citron  peel,  of  bergamot,  and 
oil  of  orange  leaves — all  much  esteemed 
in  perfumery.  See  Lemon,  Orange,  etc. 

CITY,  in  the  United  States,  a muni- 
cipality chartered  by  a state  and  having 
a magistrate  called  aTnayor.  In  Britain 
a city  is  an  incorporated  town  in  which 
there  is  a cathedral.  In  ancient  Rome 
and  Greece,  a city  was  synonymous  with 
a state,  as  Rome  and  the  city  states  of 
Greece.  In  Germany  today  there  are 
certain  “free  cities,”  such  as  Hamburg. 
During  the  19th  century  cities,  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  have  grown  so  vastly 
at  the  expense  of  the  country  popu- 
lation that  fear  is  expressed  of  the  city 
ultimately  swallowing  up  the  rural 
population.  In  50  years  the  city  popu- 
lation of  Britain  has  increased  20  per 
cent  ovei  the  rural.  In  France  the  only 
increase  has  been  in  cities,  the  rural 
population  having  actually  decreased, 
and  in  the  United  States  33  per  cent  of 
the  people  live  in  cities.  Efforts  to 
remedy  this  state  of  affairs  have  not 
been  successful,  as  those  who  are  making 
them  persist  in  living  in  cities  them- 
S©1  v©s 

CIUDAD-REAL  (thi-o-d^d-ra-il'),  a 
town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of 
same  name.  Pop.  14,769. — The  prov- 
ince occupies  the  south  extremity  of 
New  Castile,  between  the  parallel  ranges 
of  the  Sierra  Toledo  and  Sierra  Morena; 
area,  7840  sq.  miles.  Pop.  305,002. 

CIV'ET,  a genus  of  carnivorous  mam- 
mals found  in  N.  Africa,  and  in  Asia 
from  Arabia  to  Malabar  and  Java,  and 
distinguished  by  having  a secretory 
apparatus  in  which  collects  the  odorif- 
erous fatty  substance  known  as  civet. 
The  animal,  which  in  form  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  weasel  and  the  fox, 
and  from  2 to  3 feet  long  by  10  inches 
high,  is  of  a cinereous  color,  tinged  with 
yellow  and  marked  by  dusky  spots  dis- 
posed in  rows.  They  are  nocturnal, 
and  prey  upon  birds  and  small  animals, 
and  may  be  considered  as  forming  the 
transition  from  the  musteline  or  marten 
kind  to  the  feline  race.  The  genus  has 
been  divided  into  two  sub-genera — the 
true  civets,  having  the  pouch  large  and 
well  marked;  and  the  genets,  in  which 
there  is  a simple  depression  instead  of  a 
pouch.  Two  species  of  the  first  and 
eight  of  the  second  are  at  present  known, 
the  chief  scent-yielding  species  being 
the  common  civet  of  N.  Africa  and  the 
zibeth  of  Asia.  The  pouch  is  situated 
between  the  anus  and  the  genitals,  and 
the  odorous  matter  obtained  from  it 
is,  when  good,  of  a clear  yellowish  or 
brown  color,  and  of  about  the  consist- 
ence of  butter.  In  its  natural  state  the 
smell  is  powerful  and  very  offensive, 
but  when  largely  diluted  with  oil  or 
other  materials  it  becomes  an  agreeable 
perfume. 

CIVIL  ADMINISTRATION,  the 

method  of  conducting  the  affairs  of  a 
state  in  all  those  respects  in  which  the 
interests  of  the  individual  come  into 
conflict  with  the  interests  of  the  com- 
munity, or  which  is  virtually  the  same 


thing,  into  conflict  with  the  interests  of 
other  individuals.  Civil  administration 
varies  in  form  from  that  of  an  absolute 
monarchy  like  Turkey,  a feudalism  such 
as  that  of  India,  or  a federalism  like 
that  of  the  United  States  with  its  auton- 
omy of  commonwealth,  county,  town, 
and  village.  An  aspect  of  civil  admin- 
istration, quite  ancient,  is  that  affecting 
colonies,  which  support  an  independent 
police  and  city  administration,  an 
elective  government,  and  so  on.  The 
particulars  of  civil  administration  will 
be  found  explained  in  separate  articles. 

CIVIL  DAMAGE  ACTS,  laws  of  cer- 
tain states  in  the  Union  in  which  per- 
sons selling  intoxicants  are  made  liable 
for  injuries  sustained  because  of  the 
intoxication  by  the  person  intoxicated. 

CIVIL  DEATH.  See  Death,  Civil. 

CIVILIZATION,  the  sum  at  any  given 
time  of  the  attainments  and  tendencies 
by  which  the  human  race  or  any  section 
of  it  is  removed  from  the  savage  state. 
The  history  of  progress  in  civilization  is 
usually  presented  from  one  of  two  points 
of  view — the  first  conceiving  the  race 
as  starting  from  a high  civilization,  to 
which  in  point  of  intellectual  and  moral 
power  it  nas  yet  to  return;  the  second 
viewing  the  civilization  of  any  period  as 
the  result  of  a constant  and  increasingly- 
Euccessful  stream  of  effort  upward  from 
an  origin  comparable  with  the  condition 
of  the  lower  animals.  The  latter  is  the 
prevailing  scientific  theory,  which  finds 
the  secret  of  progress  in  the  interaction 
of  function  and  environment.  Accord- 
ing to  it  primitive  man,  at  first  feeding 
on  wild  fruits  and  berries,  and  sheltering 
himself  under  overhanging  rocks  or 
caves,  entered  upon  the  stone  age,  in 
which,  as  the  contemporary  of  the  mam- 
moth and  cave-bear,  he  made  himself 
sharp-edged  tools  by  chipping  the  flakes 
of  flint  found  in  the  drift  under  gravel 
and  clay.  In  the  newer  stone  age  he 
learned  the  art  of  polishing  these  rough 
implements,  with  which  he  cut  down 
trees  to  make  canoes,  killed  wild  animals 
for  food,  and  broke  their  bones  for  mar- 
row, or  shaped  them  into  weapons.  Fire 
he  turned  to  account  to  hollow  out  trees, 
to  cook  his  food,  to  fashion  clay  ware. 
Artificial  means  of  shelter  were  con- 
structed by  piling  rude  huts  of  stones, 
by  digging  holes  in  the  ground,  or  by 
driving  piles  into  the  beds  of  lakes  and 
raising  dwellings  on  them.  The  artistic 
instincts  found  expression  in  drawings  of 
animals  scratched  upon  bone  or  slate. 
The  discovery  of  metals  constituted  a 
great  step  in  advance.  Gold  and  copper 
came  early  into  use,  and  bronze  was  soon 
discovered,  though  a long  time  passed 
before  iron  was  smelted  and  substituted 
for  bronze  where  hardness  was  required. 
Gradually  the  roving  savage  became  a 
nomadic  shepherd  and  herdsman,  or  a 
tiller  of  the  soil,  according  to  his  environ- 
ment. The  practice  of  barter  was  in 
part  superseded  by  the  beginnings  of 
some  sort  of  currency.  Gesture  language 
gave  place  in  part  to  an  enlarged  vocabu- 
lary, and  picture-writing  to  the  use  of 
phonetic  signs.  In  the  meantime  man 
had  begun  to  question  himself  and  the 
world  on  profounder  issues,  entering 
upon  the  myth-making  age,  in  which 
was  projected  outward  on  the  chief 
phenomena  of  nature  some  shadow  of 


his  own  personality.  The  worship  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  a faith  in  a 
future  life,  the  worship  of  dead  ances- 
tors, fetishes,  animals,  etc.,  the  belief 
in  magic  and  witchcraft,  all  sprang  into 
being.  Prayer  came  spontaneously  to 
him;  the  idea  of  propitiation  by  sacrifice 
would  arise  from  his  dealings  with  his 
fellows  and  his  foes;  the  sacred  books 
began  to  shape  themselves.  Tribal  and 
national  relations,  arising  from  ties  of 
family  and  exigencies  of  defense,  were 
cemented  by  unity  of  faith,  and  the 
higher  social  unit  began  to  perfect  it- 
self under  the  rule  of  the  patriarch,  the 
bravest  warrior,  etc.  With  varying 
needs,  arising  from  diversity  of  environ- 
ment, distinctions  of  nationality  became 
more  and  more  emphatic,  and  the  his- 
tory of  civilization  becomes  the  history 
of  the  nations  viewed  from  the  philo- 
sophic standpoint. 

CIVIL  LAW,  among  the  Romans  the 
term  nearly  corresponding  to  what  in 
modern  times  is  implied  by  the  phrase 
positive  law,  that  is,  the  rules  of  right 
established  by  any  government.  They 
contradistinguished  it  from  natural  law, 
by  which  they  meant  a certain  natural 
order  followed  by  all  living  beings;  also 
from  the  general  laws  of  mankind 
established  by  the  agreement  of  all 
nations  and  governments.  The  final 
digest  of  Roman  law  was  made  in  the 
6th  century  a.d.  under  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  but  at  first  was  only  admitted 
as  formally  binding  in  a small  part  of 
Italy.  After  the  11th  century,  in  Upper 
Italy,  particularly  in  the  school  of 
Bologna,  the  body  of  the  Roman  law, 

Eut  together  by  Justinian,  was  formed 
y degrees  into  a system  applicable  to 
the  wants  of  all  nations;  and  on  this 
model  the  ecclesiastical  and  papal 
decrees  were  arranged,  and  to  a con- 
siderable degree  the  native  laws  of  the 
new  Teutonic  states.  From  all  these  the 
Roman  law  was  distinguished  under  the 
name  of  civil  law.  In  this  sense,  there- 
fore, civil  law  means  ancient  Roman 
law;  and  it  is  contradistinguished  from 
canon  law  and  feudal  law,  though  the 
feudal  codes  of  the  Lombards  have  been 
received  into  the  body  of  civil  law.  As 
the  Roman  code  exerted  the  greatest 
influence  on  the  private  law  of  modern 
Europe,  the  expression  civil  law  is  also 
used  to  embrace  all  the  rules  relating  to 
the  private  rights  of  citizens.  Under 
the  term  civil  law,  therefore,  in  both 
Europe  and  America,  is  to  be  under- 
stood not  only  the  Roman  law,  but 
also  the  modern  private  law  of  the 
various  countries;  for  example,  in  Ger- 
many, Das  gemeine  Deutsche  Privat- 
recht;  in  France  the  Code  Civil  des 
Frangais  or  Code  Napoleon.  In  this 
sense  it  is  chiefly  opposed  to  criminal 
law,  particularly  in  reference  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  which  is  to  be 
divided  into  civil  justice  and  criminal 
justice. 

CIVIL  LIST,  a list  of  allowances  made 
to  government  officials.  The  term  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  salary  lists  of 
officials  in  the  United  States,  but  more 
generally  it  is  applied  to  the  allow- 
ances made  by  European  states  to 
members  of  reigning  families. 

CIVIL  RIGHTS  BILL,  a bill  passed 
by  congress  in  1866,  giving  equality  in 


CIVIL  SERVICE 


CLARINET 


citizenship  rights  to  all  persons,  ex- 
cept Indians  not  taxed.  Its  purpose 
was  to  secure  civil  rights  to  the  newly 
emancipated  negroes,  a condition  cover- 
ed by  the  words  of  the  statute  “without 
regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  con- 
dition of  slavery  or  involuntary  servi- 
tude except  as  a punishment  for  crime, 
whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly 
convicted.” 

CIVIL  SERVICE,  a term  applied  to 
all  branches  of  public  service  in  a state, 
or  a government  of  any  kind,  exclusive 
of  the  army  and  the  navy.  In  the 
United  States  the  federal  civil  service 
employs  100,000  officials,  pertaining  to 
the  nine  general  departments,  of  state, 
navy,  treasury,  post-office,  war,  agri- 
culture, interior,  justice,  and  labor  and 
commerce,  and  congress.  In  state, 
city  and  county  government  civil 
service  consists  of  virtually  the  entire 
machinery  of  these  governmental  units, 
the  city  having,  as  a matter  of  necessity, 
the  largest  number  of  employes. 

CIVIL  SERVICE  REFORM,  a move- 
ment beginning  in  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century  to  purify  the  civil 
service  of  the  federal  government,  and 
latterly  extending  to  the  purification 
of  state,  county,  and  city  governments. 
The  cause  of  civil  service  reform  was 
the  policy,  instituted  in  1829  by 
President  Jackson,  to  the  effect  that 
“to  the  victor  belong  the  spoils,” 
spoils  here  meaning  the  “patronage,” 
or  positions  in  the  gift  of  an  admin- 
istration. Each  new  administration 
would  in  turn  clear  the  offices  of  their 
incumbents  and  replace  them  with  men 
who  helped  to  elect  the  party  ticket. 
The  merit  system  was  introduced  in 
1875  after  ten  years  of  effort  to  pass 
it  in  congress,  since  which  time  the 
largest  part  of  the  civil  service  has 
been  free  from  interference.  Employes 
cannot  now  be  removed  “without 
cause.”  The  reform  has  spread  to  cer- 
tain states  and  cities,  Chicago  being  an 
especial  example  of  civil  service  reform 
among  the  larger  cities. 

CIVIL  WAR  VETERAN  SOCIETIES. 
See  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic,  Sons  of 
Veterans,  etc.,  under  their  names. 

CLAFLIN,  Horace  Brigham,  an  Amer- 
ican business  man,  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1811,  died  1885.  His  house  in  New 
York,  as  early  as  1865,  did  an  annual 
volume  of  business  of  $72  000,000,  and 
since  that  time  the  house  has  probably 
been  the  largest  in  America. 

CLAIM,  in  common  law,  the  assertion 
of  right  of  title  to  property  of  any  kind. 
In  the  United  States  the  term  is  used 
to  designate  the  rights  of  settlers  to 
government  lands,  and  of  prospectors  to 
mining  property  found  by  them. 

CLAIMS,  COURT  OF,  a tribunal 
created  by  congress,  or  by  the  legisla- 
tures of  the  several  states  for  the  ad- 
judication of  claims  against  the  govern- 
ment. A sovereign  cannot  be  sued  at 
the  law  and  hence,  the  United  States, 
or  any  of  the  separate  states,  being 
sovereign,  cannot  so  be  sued.  It  can 
be  petitioned,  however,  and  it  is  to 
provide  for  this  process  that  courts  of 
claims  have  been  created. 

CLAIRVOYANCE,  an  alleged  faculty 
by  which  certain  persons  in  certain  states, 
or  under  certain  conditions,  are  said  to 


be  able  to  see  things  by  some  sort  of 
mental  or  spiritual  vision  apart  alto- 
gether from  the  sense  of  sight;  thus 
they  are  said  to  be  able  to  tell  what  an 
absent  person  is  doing,  to  describe  the 
contents  of  a closed  box,  etc.  It  is 
claimed  that  clairvoyance  is  the  result 
of  a kind  of  natural  state  of  trance,  or 
may  be  induced  by  mesmerism;  and 
in  evidence  of  its  existence  in  ancient 
times  the  utterances  of  prophets,  sybils, 
etc.,  have  been  adduced. 

CLAM,  the  popular  name  of  certain 
bivalvular  shell-fish  of  various  genera 
and  species,  e.g.  the  thorny  clam,  the 
yellow  clam,  the  giant  clam,  the  com- 
mon clam  of  the  United  States,  etc.  The 
giant  clam  has  the  largest  shell  known, 
and  the  animal  is  used  as  food  in  the 
Pacific.  The  common  U.  States  clam  is 
also  much  used  for  food. 

CLAN,  among  the  Highlanders  of 
Scotland,  consisted  of  the  common 
descendants  of  the  same  progenitor, 
under  the  patriarchal  control  of  a chief, 
who  represented  the  common  ancestor. 
The  name  of  the  clan  was  frequently 
formed  of  that  of  the  original  progenitor 
with  the  affix  mac  (son) : thus  the  Mac- 
Donalds were  the  sons  of  Donald,  and 
every  individual  of  this  name  was  con- 
sidered a descendant  of  the  founder  of 
the  clan,  and  a brother  of  every  one  of 
its  members.  The  chief  exercised  his 
authority  by  right  of  primogeniture,  as 
the  father  of  his  clan:  the  clansmen 
revered  and  served  the  chief  with  the 
blind  devotion  of  children.  The  clans 
each  occupied  a certain  portion  of  the 
country,  and  hostilities  with  neigh- 
boring clans  were  extremely  common. 
Next  in  rank  to  the  chief  were  a certain 
number  of  persons,  commonly  near 
relations  of  the  chief,  to  whom  portions 
of  land  were  assigned,  during  pleasure 
or  on  short  leases.  Each  of  these  usually 
had  a subdivision  of  the  clan  under  him, 
of  which  he  was  chieftain,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  general  head  of  the  sept. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  chiefs  was  not 
very  accurately  defined,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  consult,  in  some  measure, 
the  opinions  of  the  most  influential 
clansmen  and  the  general  wishes  of  the 
whole  body. 

CLAN-NA-G.®L,  a secret  society 
founded  by  patriotic  Irishmen  in  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
timidating England  into  granting  Ire- 
land home  rule.  It  is  charged  that  the 
dynamite  outrages  in  London  in  1883 
were  due  to  Clan-na-Gael  agents. 

CLARE,  a maritime  county,  Ireland, 
province  Munster  (capital,  Ennis),  be- 
tween Galway  Bay  and  the  Shannon 
estuary;  area,  827,994  acres,  of  which 
140,000  are  under  tillage.  Oats,  pota- 
toes, wheat,  and  barley  are  the  prin- 
cipal crops.  The  chief  minerals  are 
limestone,  lead,  and  slate,  but  the  prod- 
uce of  the  county  is  almost  wholly 
agricultural.  Lakes  are  numerous,  but 
generally  of  small  size,  and  the  county 
is  deficient  in  wood.  The  salmon-fish- 
eries are  valuable,  and  there  are  im- 
mense oyster-beds  in  some  places.  Pop. 
112,129. 

CLARENDON,  George  William  Fred- 
erick Villiers,  Earl  of.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  entered  the  civil  service 


at  an  early  age,  and  in  1820  was  attach- 
ed to  the  embassy  at  St.  Petersburg.  In 
1831  he  was  sent  to  PYance  to  negotiate 
a commercial  treaty,  and  in  1833,  as 
minister  plenipotentiary  at  Madrid,  was 
instrumental  in  negotiating  the  Quad- 
ruple Alliance  signed  in  1834.  Having 
succeeded  to  his  uncle’s  title  in  1838  he 
returned  home  in  the  following  year,  and 
in  Jan.  1840  was  appointed  lord  privy- 
seal,  and  in  October  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster.  He  supported  the 
repeal  of  the  corn-laws  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  duties,  and  in  1846  was  appointed 
president  of  the  board  of  trade  in  Lord 
J.  Russell’s  mini.stry,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
He  resigned  with  his  party  in  1852, 
when  the  Earl  of  Derby  took  office,  but 
soon  after  the  formation  of  the  Aberdeen 
ministry  he  was  appointed  to  the  foreign 
secretaryship,  which  he  held  until  Jan. 
1855.  After  a few  weeks’  interval  he 
returned  to  the  post  under  Lord  Palm- 
erston, and  retained  it  until  1858,  being 
one  of  the  signatories  of  the  Treaty  of 
Paris.  In  1861  Clarendon  was  sent  as 
ambassador-extraordinary  to  the  coro- 
nation of  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  in 
1864  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster.  In  the  following 
administration,  under  Russell,  he  re- 
sumed the  direction  of  the  foreign  office. 
He  was  sent  in  1868  on  a special  mission 
to  the  pope  and  the  King  of  Italy,  and 
again  occupied  the  post  of  foreign 
secretary  in  the  Gladstone  ministry  till 
his  death,  in  June,  1870. 

CLAR'ENDON  PRESS,  the  press  of 
the  University  of  Oxford.  In  January, 
1586,  delegates  de  impressione  lib ro rum 
were  appointed  by  the  Convocation  of 
the  university,  Joseph  Barnes  and  others 
after  him  being  styled  “Printer  to  the 
University.”  The  management  of  the 
printing-office  is  committed  to  a dele- 
gacy consisting  of  the  vice-chancellor 
and  ten  other  members  of  Convocation. 
The  north  side  of  the  present  building, 
called  the  “learned”  or  classical  side,  is 
set  apart  for  the  printing  of  university 
documents  and  authorized  books,  the 
“south”  for  the  printing  of  Bibles  and 
Prayer-books. 

CLAR'ET,  the  name  given  in  Britain, 
and  the  United  States,  etc.,  to  the  red 
wines  of  Bordeaux.  See  Bordelais  Wines. 

CLARIFICA'TION,  or  the  separation 
of  the  insoluble  particles  that  prevent  a 
liquid  from  being  transparent,  may  be 
performed  by  depuration,  in  which  the 
liquid  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the 
particles  are  precipitated,  and  then 
decanted;  by  filtration,  or  .straining 
through  wool,  sand,  charcoal,  etc.;  or 
by  coagulation,  in  which  the  albumen 
contained  in  or  added  to  the  liquid  is 
solidified  and  precipitated  by  the  action 
either  of  heat  or  of  acids,  the  extraneous 
substances  being  precipitated  with  it. 
See  also  Fining. 

CLARINET,  or  CLARIONET,  a wind- 
instrument  of  the  reed  kind,  played  by 
holes  and  keys.  Its  lowest  note  is  E 
below  the  F clef,  from  which  it  is  cap- 
able, in  the  hands  of  good  performers,  of 
ascending  more  than  three  octaves. 
Clarinets  in  A natural  and  B fiat  are 
those  chiefly  used  in  the  orchestra, 
while  instruments  in  B flat  and  E flat 
are  used  in  reed  bands. 


CLARK 


CLAUDIUS 


CLARK,  Alvan,  an  American  optician 
and  maker  of  telescope  lenses,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1808,  died  1887.  He 
founded  an  establishment  at  Cambridge- 
port,  Mass.,  in  1844,  at  wliich  have  been 
ground  the  largest  telescope  lenses  in 
the  world. 

CLARK,  Alvan  Graham,  an  Ameri- 
can optician,  son  of  Alvan  Clpk,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1832,  died  1897. 
He  made  the  objectives  of  the  great 
Lick  and  the  great  Yerkes  observatories, 
and  discovered  the  Companion  Star  to 
Sirius. 

CLARK,  George  Rogers,  an  Ameri- 
can soldier,  born  in  Virginia  in  1752, 
died  in  1818.  In  1778  he  began  his 
famous  expedition  into  Illinois  capturing 


many  of  the  French  villages  and  de- 
feated the  English  general,  Hamilton  in 
1779.  In  1783  the  Virginia  legislature 
made  him  a grant  of  8000  acres  for  his 
services. 

CLARK,  John  Bates,  an  American 
economist,  born  in  Rhode  Island  in 
1847.  He  is  the  originator  of  a new 
conception  of  economic  science  and 
has  published  several  works  of  high 
value  to  social  science  and  philosophy. 
Since  1895  he  has  been  professor  of 
economics  at  Columbia  University. 

CLARK  UNIVER.SITY,  founded  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1887  by  Jonas 
Gilman  Clark.  It  is  exclusively  a 
graduate  school  and  has  an  endow- 
ment of  upward  of  $3,000,000.  The 
University  publishes  The  American 
Journal  of  Psychology,  The  Pedagog- 
ical Seminary,  and  the  Mathematical 
Review. 

CLARK,  William,  an  American  trav- 
eler and  soldier,  born  in  Virginia  1770, 
died  in  1838.  He  was  one  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  famous  Lewis  and  Clark 
expedition  and  was  engaged  in  the 
early  fighting  against  the  Indians.  He 
was  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs 
at  St.  Louis  from  1822  until  his  death. 

CLARK,  William  Andrews,  an  Ameri- 
can legislator  and  capitalist,  bom  in 


PSnnsylvahia  in  1839.  He  emigrated  to 
Montana  in  1863  and  acquired  immense 
wealth  as  a merchant.  He  was  elected 
in  1899  to  the  United  States  senate  but 
was  rejected  by  the  committee  on  elec- 
tions. He  at  once  resigned  from  the 
senate  but  was  forthwith  appointed  by 
the  governer  of  Montana  to  the  seat 
vacated  by  his  resignation.  In  1901  he 
was  duly  elected  senator. 

CLARKE,  James  Freeman,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman,  born  in  New  Hampshire 
in  1810,  died  in  1888.  He  began  to 


preach  to  Unitarian  charges  in  1833,  and 
during  his  busy  life  published  a mass  of 
literature  dealing  with  the  liberal  aspect 
of  religion,  the  more  important  of  which 
were  Christian  Doctrine  of  Prayer,  Or- 
thodoxy, Its  Truths  and  Errors,  The  Ten 
Great  Religions,  Common  Sense  in  Reli- 
mon.  Essentials  and  Non-Essentials  in 
Religion,  Manual  of  Unitarian  Belief. 

CLARKE,  John  Sleeper,  an  Ameri- 
can actor,  born  in  Baltimore  in  1833, 
died  in  1 899.  In  1 867  he  visited  England 
where  he  succeeded  so  well  that  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  that  country^  al- 
though he  afterward  paid  several  visits 
to  the  United  States. 

CLARKE,  William  Horatio,  an  Ameri- 
can musician  and  organist,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1840.  For  ten  years, 
until  1887,  he  was  organist  at  Tremont 
Temple,  Boston.  He  is  the  author  of 
A New  Method  for  Reed  Organs,  a work 
which  has  had  a tremendous  sale. 

CLARKS'VILLE,  a city  and  the 
county-seat  of  Montgomery  County, 
Tenn.,  45  miles  northwest  of  Nashville; 
near  the  junction  of  the  Cumberland 
and  Red  rivers,  and  on  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville  Railroad.  It  is  one  of 
the  great  tobacco  markets  of  the  south, 
and  has  manufactures  of  iron,  agri- 
cultural implements,  etc._  Pop.  11,232. 

CLASSIC,  a term  derived  from  L. 
classic!,  the  name  given  to  the  citizens 
belonging  to  the  first  or  highest  of  the 
six  classes  into  which  the  Romans  were 
divided.  Hence  the  Greek  and  Roman 
authors  have  been  in  modern  times 
called  classics,  that  is,  the  excellent,  the 
models.  The  Germans,  however,  soon 
gave  the  word  klassisch  (classical)  a 
wider  sense,  making  it  embrace:  1,  the 


standard  works  of  any  nation;  and  2, 
ancient  literature  and  art,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  modern. 

CLASSIFICATION  is  commonly  de- 
fined as  the  arrangement  of  things,  or  of 
our  notions  of  them,  according  to  their 
resemblances  or  identities;  and  its 
general  object  is  to  provide  that  things 
shall  be  thought  of  in  such  groups,  and 
the  groups  in  such  an  order,  as  will  best 
promote  the  remembrance  and  ascertain- 
ment of  their  laws.  As  any  collection  of 
objects  may  be  classified  in  a variety  of 
ways,  no  fixed  method  can  be  laid  down; 
but  it  will  be  obvious  that  in  correct 
classification  the  definition  of  any 
group  must  hold  exactly  true  of  all  the 
members  of  that  group  and  not  of  the 
members  of  any  other  group.  The  best 
classification  again  will  be  that  which 
shall  enable  the  greatest  possible  num- 
ber of  general  assertions  to  be  made;  a 
criterion  which  distinguishes  between  a 
natural  and  an  artificial  system  of 
classification.  Classification  is  perhaps 
of  most  importance  in  natural  history — 
for  example,  botany  and  zoology.  In 
the  former  the  artificial  or  Linnsean 
system  long  prevailed,  in  opposition  to 
the  modern  or  natural. 

CLAUDIA'NUS,  Claudius  (commonly 
called  Claudian),  a Latin  poet,  native  of 
Alexandria,  lived  at  the  end  of  the  4th 
and  beginning  of  the  5th  century  after 
Christ,  under  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
and  his  sons.  He  did  much  to  recall  to 
dying  Rome  the  splendors  of  the  Augus- 
tan literature,  ranking  considerably 
above  any  other  of  the  later  poets.  Be- 
sides several  panegyrical  poems  on 
Honorius,  Stilicho,  and  others,  we 
possess  two  of  his  epic  poems,  the  Rape 
of  Proserpine,  and  an  unfinished  War  of 
the  Giants,  eclogues,  epigrams,  and  occa- 
sional poems. 

CLAU'DIUS,  often  also  called  Clodius, 
the  name  of  a distinguished  Roman 
family  of  antiquity.  See  Appius  Clau- 
dius. 

CLAU'DIUS,  or,  in  full  Tiberius 
Claudius  Drusus  Nero  Germanicus,  a 
Roman  emperor,  son  of  Claudius  Drusus 
Nero,  stepson  of  Augustus  and  Antonia, 


the  daughter  of  Augustus’s  sister;  bom 
at  Lyons  (10  b.c.).  He  lived  in  privacy, 
occupying  himself  with  literature,  the 
composition  of  a Roman  history,  and 


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CLAVICLE 


CLEMENS 


other  works,  until  the  murder  of  Calig- 
ula, when  he  was  dragged  from  his 
hiding-place  and  proclaimed  emperor 
(41  A.D.).  The  early  years  of  his  reign 
were  marked  by  the  restoration  of  the 
exiles,  the  embellishment  of  Rome,  the 
addition  of  Mauritania  to  the  Roman 
provinces,  and  successes  in  Germany 
and  Britain.  But  latterly  he  became 
debauched,  left  the  government  to  his 
wives,  and  in  particular  to  Messalina, 
who  with  his  freedmen  committed  the 
reatest  enormities.  He  was  poisoned 
y his  fourth  wife,  Agrippina  (mother  of 
Nero),  A.D.  54. 

CLAV'ICLE,  the  collar-bone,  a bone 
forming  one  of  the  elements  of  the 
shoulder  girdle  in  vertebrate  animals. 
Tn  man  and  sundry  quadrupeds  there 
are  two  clavicles  each  ]oined  at  one  end 
to  the  scapula  or  shoulder-bone,  and  at 
the  other  end  to  the  sternum  or  breast- 
bone. In  many  quadrupeds  the  clavicles 
are  absent  or  rudimentary,  while  in 
birds  they  are  united  in  one  piece  popu- 
larly called  the  “merry-thought.” 

CLAY,  the  name  of  various  earths, 
which  consist  of  hydrated  silicate  of 
aluminium,  with  small  proportions  of 
the  silicates  of  iron,  calcium,  magnesium, 
potassium,  and  sodium.  All  the  varie- 
ties are  characterized  by  being  firmly 
coherent,  weighty,  compact,  and  hard 
when  dry,  but  plastic  wnen  moist, 
smooth  to  touch,  not  readily  diffusible 
in  water,  but  when  mixed  not  readily 
subsiding  in  it.  Their  tenacity  and 
ductility  when  moist  and  their  hard- 
ness when  dry  has  made  them  from  the 
earliest  times  the  materials  of  bricks, 
tiles,  pottery,  etc.  Of  the  chief  varieties 
porcelain-clay,  kaolin,  or  china-clay,  a 
white  clay  with  occasional  gray  and 
yellow  tones,  is  the  purest.  Potter’s- 
clay  and  pipe-clay,  which  are  similar 
but  less  pure,  are  generally  of  a yellow- 
ish or  grayish  color,  from  the  presence  of 
iron.  Fire-clay  is  a very  refractory 
variety,  always  found  lying  immediately 
below  the  coal;  it  is  used  for  making  fire- 
bricks, crucibles,  etc.  Loam  is  the  same 
substance  mixed  with  sand,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  various  other  foreign  ingre- 
dients. The  boles,  which  are  of  a red  or 
yellow  color  from  the  presence  of  oxide 
of  iron,  are  distinguished  by  their  con- 
choidal  fracture.  The  ochres  are  similar 
to  the  boles,  containing  only  more  oxide 
of  iron.  Other  varieties  are  fuller’s- 
earth,  Tripoli,  and  boulder-clay,  the 
last  a hard  clay  of  a dark-brown  color, 
wth  rounded  masses  of  rock  of  all 
sizes  embedded  in  it,  the  result  of  glacial 
action.  The  distinctive  property  of 
clays  as  ingredients  of  the  soil  is  their 
power  of  absorbing  ammonia  and  other 
gases  and  vapors  generated  on  fertile 
and  manured  lands ; indeed  no  soil  will 
long  remain  fertile  unless  it  has  a fair 
proportion  of  clay  in  its  composition. 

CLAY,  Henry,  an  American  states- 
man, born  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  in 
1777.  After  acting  as  clerk  in  two  or 
three  state  offices  he  commenced  busi- 
ness in  1797  as  a lawyer  at  Lexington, 
Kentucky.  He  soon  became  famous 
as  a public  speaker,  and  at  the  age  of 
twenty-six  was  a member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky legislature.  In  1806  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate;  and  in 
1811  to  the  House  of  Representatives, 


where  he  was  at  once  made  speaker. 
In  1814  he  proceeded  to  Europe  and 
acted  as  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
adjusting  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Ghent 
between  America  and  Great  Britain.  He 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1824,  1832,  and  1844. 


He  is  best  known  for  his  endeavors  to 
shut  out  European  influences  from 
America,  and  in  connection  with  the 
“Missouri  Compromise  of  1820,”  re- 
stricting slavery  to  the  states  south  of 
lat.  36°  30'  n.;  and  another  similar  com- 
promise of  1850  regarding  the  admission 
of  California,  New  Mexico,  and  Utah, 
etc.  He  died  at  Washington  in  1852. 

CLAYMORE,  formerly  the  large  two- 
handed,  double-edged  sword  of  the 
Scotch  Highlanders;  now  a basket- 
hilted.  double-edged  broad-sword. 

CLAY-SLATE,  in  geology,  a rock  con- 
sisting of  clay  which  has  been  hardened 
and  otherwise  changed,  for  the  most 
part  extremely  fissile  and  often  affording 
good  roofing-slate.  In  color  it  varies 
from  greenish  or  bluish  gray  to  lead 
color.  The  cleavage  is  independent  of 
the  stratification.  It  rarely  lies  parallel 
to  the  bedding,  generally  crossing  the 
strata  at  all  angles. 

CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY,  a 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Britain  ratified  in  1850,  establishing 
the  relations  of  the  two  countries  as 
to  their  powers  over  the  projected  inter- 
oceanic  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  According  to  its  provisions 
neither  power  was  to  fortify,  nor  ex- 
clusively control  the  canal  or  any  part 
of  central  America,  its  neutrality  was 
to  be  preserved,  and  other  powers  were 
to  be  invited  to  participate  in  these 
agreements.  The  treaty  was  superseded 
by  the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  of  1901. 

CLEARANCE  OF  VESSELS,  the  ex- 
amination of  them  by  the  proper  cus- 
tom-house officers,  and  the  giving  of  a 
certificate  that  the  regulations  have 
been  duly  complied  with.  Vessels  are 
said  to  clear  inward  or  outward  accord- 
ing as  they  arrive  or  set  sail. 

CLEARING  HOUSE,  an  institution  in 
a city  by  which  the  banks  of  the  city 
can  settle  all  their  relations  to  each 
other  by  a single  transaction  instead  of 


each  bank  settling  separately  with  the 
other.  In  the  United  States  there  are 
nearly  100  clearing  houses,  the  largest 
being  that  of  New  York,  the  clearings  of 
which  are  about  $80,000,000,000  (eighty 
billions)  annually.  The  total  clearings 
of  all  the  banks  in  the  country  are  about 
$120,000,000,000,  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  million  of  dollars 
annually.  American  clearing  houses 
are  united  in  an  association  which  has 
proved  quite  helpful  to  business. 

CLEAVAGE,  the  manner  or  direction 
in  which  substances  regularly  cleave  or 
split.  The  regular  structure  of  most 
crystallized  bodies  becomes  manifest  as 
soon  as  they  are  broken.  Each  frag- 
ment presents  the  form  of  a small  poly- 
hedron, and  the  very  dust  appears  under 
the  miscroscope  an  assemblage  of  minute 
solids,  regularly  terminated.  The  direc- 
tions in  which  such  bodies  thus  break 
up  are  called  their  planes  of  cleavage; 
and  the  cleavage  is  called  basal,  cubic, 
diagonal,  or  lateral  (or  peritomous), 
according  as  it  is  parallel  to  the  base  of 
a crystal,  to  the  faces  of  a cube,  to  a 
diagonal  plane,  or  to  the  lateral  planes. 
In  certain  rocks  again  there  is  a tendency 
to  split  along  planes  which  may  coincide 
with  the  original  plane  of  stratification, 
but  which  more  frequently  cross  it  at  an 
angle.  This  tendency  is  the  conse- 
quence of  the  readjustment  by  pressure 
and  heat  of  the  components  of  rocks, 
which  is  one  of  the  phases  of  metamor- 
phism. 

CLEAVELAND,  Moses,  an  American 
soldier  and  pioneer,  the  founder  of  the 
city  of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  change  of 
the  form  of  the  name  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  editor  of  a newspaper 
spelled  the  name  without  the  letter  a 
in  the  first  syllable  because  of  lack  of 
space.  Cleaveland  was  born  in  Con- 
necticut in  1754  and  died  in  1806. 

CLEF  (French  for  key),  in  music,  a 
sign  placed  on  a line  of  a staff,  and  which 
determines  the  pitch  of  the  staff  and 
the  name  of  the  note  on  its  lines.  There 
are  three  clefs  now  in  use ; the  treble  or 

G clef,  ^ written  on  the  second  line;  the 

mean  or  C clef,  ^ which  may  be  placed 

on  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  lines; 

and  the  bass  or  F clef,  § seated  on  the 

fourth  line.  The  mean  clef  is  very 
seldom  used  in  writing  vocal  music  in 
England. 

CLEM'ATIS,  a genus  of  woody  climb- 
ing plants.  The  most  common  species, 
virgin’s  bower  or  traveler’s  joy,  is  con- 
spicuous by  its  copious  clusters  of  white 
blossoms,  and  afterward  by  its  feather 
tailed  silky  tufts  attached  to  the  fruits. 

CLEM'ENS,  Samuel  Langhorne,  an 
American  humorist,  more  generally 
known  by  his  pseudonym  “Mark 
Twain,”  born  in  Missouri  in  1835.  He 
worked  for  some  time  as  a compositor  in 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  and  then 
in  1855  learned  the  business  of  pilot  on 
the  Mississippi.  Thence  he  went  to  the 
Nevada  mines;  became  in  1862  local 
editor  of  a newspaper  in  Virginia  City; 
went  to  San  Francisco;  was  fo.  some 
time  a reporter,  and  worked  in  the 


CLEMENT 


CLEVELAND 


Calaveras  gold-diggings.  In  1866  he 
went  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  on 
his  return  commenced  his  lecturing 
career.  He  edited  for  a time  a paper  in 
Buffalo,  and  finally  married  and  settled 
in  Hartford,  Conn.  Mr.  Clemens  under- 
took publishing,  but  failed,  and  settled 
dollar  for  dollar.  He  removed  to  Eng- 
land, recovered  much  of  his  fortune  by 
writing,  and  recently  came  to  the  United 
States  to  spend  his  remaining  years  in 
New  York.  His  chief  books  are  the 
Jumping  Frog,  etc.,  Roughing  It,  The  In- 
nocents Abroad,  Tom  Sawyer,  A Tramp 
Abroad,  Life  on  the  Mississippi,  Huckle- 
berry Finn,  American  Claimant,  Tom 
Sawyer  Abroad,  The  Prince  and  The 
Pauper,  An  American  at  King  Arthur’s 
Court. 

CLEM'ENT,  the  name  assumed  by 
many  popes,  the  first  being  Clement  of 
Rome.  Clement  XIV.,  who  abolished 
the  order  of  Jesuits,  was  one  of  the  most 
distinguished.  He  died  in  1774. 

CLEMEN'TI,  Muzio,  pianist  and  com- 
poser, born  in  Rome  in  1752.  As  early 
as  his  twelfth  year  he  wrote  a successful 
mass  for  four  voices.  He  w^ent  in  1780 
to  Paris,  and  in  1781  to  Vienna,  where 
he  played  with  ^lozart  before  the 
emperor.  In  1784  he  repeated  his  visit 
to  Paris,  but  after  that  remained  in 
England  till  1802,  when  he  went  back 
to  the  Continent.  He  returned  in  1810 
to  England,  where  he  settled  down  as 
superintendent  of  one  of  the  principal 
musical  establishments  in  London.  He 
died  in  1832,  and  was  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  He  represented  per- 
haps the  highest  point  of'  technique  of 
his  day,  and  his  influence  upon  modern 
execution  has  led  to  his  being  character- 
ized as  “the  father  of  pianoforte  play- 
ing.” 

CLEOPAT'RA,  a Greek  queen  of 
Egypt,  born  b.c.  69,  the  eldest  daughter 
of  Ptolemy  Auletes.  When  she  was 
seventeen  her  father  died,  leaving  her 
as  joint-heir  to  the  throne  with  his 
eldest  son  Ptolemy,  whom  she  was  to 
marry — such  marriages  being  common 
among  the  Ptolemies.  Being  deprived 
of  her  part  in  the  government  (b.c.  49) 
she  won  Caesar  to  her  cause,  and  was 
reinstated  by  his  influence.  In  a second 
disturbance  Ptolemy  lost  his  life,  and 
Caesar  proclaimed  Cleopatra  queen  of 
Egypt;  though  she  was  compelled  to 
take  her  brother,  the  younger  Ptolemy, 
then  eleven  years  old,  as  husband  and 
colleague.  Caesar  continued  some  time 
at  Cleopatra’s  court,  had  a son  by  her 
named  Caesarion  (afterward  put  to 
death  by  Augustus),  and  gave  her  a 
magnificent  reception  when  she  subse- 
quently visited  him  at  Rome.  By 
poisoning  her  brother  she  remained  sole 
possessor  of  the  regal  power,  took  the 
part  of  the  triumvirs  in  the  civil  war  at 
Rome,  and  after  the  battle  of  Philippi 
sailed  to  join  Antony  at  Tarsus.  Their 
meeting  was  celebrated  by  splendid 
festivals;  she  accompanied  him  to  Tyre, 
and  was  followed  by  him  on  her  return 
to  Egypt.  After  his  conquest  of  Ar- 
menia he  again  returned  to  her  and  made 
his  three  sons  by  her,  and  also  Caesarion, 
kings.  On  the  commencement  of  the 
war  between  Augustus  and  Antony  the 
latter  lost  a whole  year  in  festivals  and 
amusements  with  Cleopatra  at  Ephesus, 


Samos,  and  Athens,  and  when  at  last 
the  fleets  met  at  Actium,  Cleopatra 
suddenly  took  to  flight,  with  all  her 
ships,  and  Antony,  as  if  under  the 
influence  of  frenzy,  immediately  fol- 
lowed her.  They  fled  to  Egypt,  and 
declared  to  Augustus  that  if  Egypt  were 
left  to  Cleopatra’s  children  they  would 
thenceforth  live  in  retirement.  Au- 
gustus, however,  demanded  Antony’s 
death  and  advanced  on  Alexandria. 
Believing  Cleopatra,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  her  mausoleum,  to  be  treacher- 
ous and  dead,  Anthony  threw  himself 
on  his  sword,  and  shortly  afterward 
Cleopatra  killed  herself  by  applying  an 
asp  to  her  arm  to  escape  the  ignominy 
of  being  led  in  a Roman  triumph  (b.c. 
30).  With  her  the  dynasty  of  the 
Ptolemies  ended. 

CLEOPATRA’S  NEEDLES,  the  name 
given  to  two  Egyptian  obelisks,  former- 
ly at  Alexandria,  but  one  of  which  is- 
now  in  London,  the  other  in  New  York. 
They  are  made  of  the  rose-red  granite 
of  Syene,  and  were  originally  erected  by 
the  Egyptian  king  Thothmes  III.  in 
front  of  the  great  temple  of  Heliopolis, 
the  On  of  the  Scriptures,  where  Moses 
was  born  and  brought  up.  They  were 
taken  to  Alexandria  shortly  before  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  after  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  but 
possibly  in  pursuance  of  a design  origi- 
nated by  her.  The  London  obelisk, 
which  stands  on  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment, was  presented  to  the  British 
government  in  1820,  but  was  long  left 
uncared  for.  In  1877-78,  however,  it 
was  brought  to  London  by  the  private 
munificence  of  Sir  Erasmus  Wilson,  and 
erected  in  its  place  at  a cost  of  some 
5'50,000.  The  New  York  obelisk  was 
presented  to  the  U.  States  by  the  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt,  and  was  set  up  in  the 
Central  Park  in  1881.  Each  is  about 
70  feet  high  and  inscribed  with  numerous 
hieroglyphics. 

CLERGY,  the  body  of  ecclesiastical 
persons,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
laity.  At  first  there  was  no  strongly- 
marked  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,  but  the  former  soon  drew  apart, 
consisting,  after  the  apostolic  age,  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  and  in  the 
4th  century  of  many  additional  inferior 
orders,  such  as  sub-deacons,  acolytes, 
etc.  With  the  increased  complexity  of 
the  hierarchy  there  was  a steady  accre- 
tion of  privileges  until  the  burden  of 
these  became  intolerable  to  the  laity. 
The  Episcopalians  recognize  three  classes 
of  clergy — bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
cons; and  generally  hold  the  doctrine 
of  the  apostolic  succession.  Large 
numbers  of  Protestants  however,  reject 
this  dogma,  and  believe  in  the  ministry 
of  only  one  order.  The  Catholic  clergy- 
man, according  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  endowed 
in  his  spiritual  character  with  a super- 
natural power,  which  distinguishes  him 
essentially  from  the  layman. 

CLEVELAND,  a city  of  Ohio,  capital 
of  Cuyahoga  County,  on  the  Cuyahoga 
river,  255  miles  from  Cincinnati,  343  < 
miles  from  Chicago,  and  183  miles  from 
Buffalo.  Population  in  1908,  525,000. 

It  has  an  area  of  33  sq.  miles  and  is 
built  upon  a gentle  slope  from  the  bank 
of  Lake  Erie,  the  river  cutting  the  city 


into  two  parts.  The  business  part  of 
the  city  extends  eastward  from  the 
lower  reaches  of  the  river,  parallel  with 
the  lake-front,  for  about  a mile. 

Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  Central  Armory,  the  Cleveland 
Grays’  Armory,  the  Western  Reserve 
Historical  Society  Library,  Women’s 
College,  Lakeside  Hospital,  several 
lesser  hospitals,  U.  S.  building.  Northern 
Ohio  Insane  Asylum,  House  of  Correc- 
tion, Adelbert  College,  Case  School  of 
Applied  Science,  Cleveland  Medical 
College,  city-hall,  county  court-house, 
and  Union  Railway  Depot.  The  board 
of  education  has  under  it  73  schools 
with  58,000  enrolled  pupils,  of  whom 
3,460  boys  and  girls  are  in  the  five  high 
schools.  The  Cleveland  Public  Li- 
brary, opened  in  1853,  has  about  150,000 
volumes,  and  is  free;  the  Case  Library 
Association,  with  property  valued  at 
$600,000,  maintains  for  subscribers  a 
circulating  and  reference  collection  of 
over  45,000  volumes;  the  I^aw  Library, 
opened  in  1870,  has  20,000  volumes; 
the  Western  Reserve  Historical  Society 
has  25,000  books  and  a valuable  collec- 
tion of  antiquities. 

The  city  is  governed  by  a mayor  and 
a city  council,  comprising  two  repre- 
sentatives for  each  of  the  11  districts 
formed  from  the  42  wards. 

The  Lake  Shore  and  Mich.  Southern, 
the  Erie,  the  N.  Y.,  Chicago  and  St.  L. 
(Nickel  Plate),  the  Cl.,  Cin.,  Chic,  and 
St.  L.,  the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg,  as 
part  of  the  Pennsylvania  system,  and 
the  Balt,  and  Ohio,  are  six  great  trunk 
lines  carrying  the  traffic  of  Cleveland, 
while  several  smaller  railways  enter  the 
city.  The  lake  commerce  is  large  and 
expanding,  and  fine  passenger  steamers 
run  daily  to  various  ports  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Six  suburban  street  railways 
radiate  from  Cleveland. 

Cleveland  is  an  important  manufac- 
turing center.  In  the  building  of  iron 
and  steel  vessels  Cleveland  surpasses  all 
lake  ports,  on  the  average  of  the  last  ten 
years.  Sternposts  and  shafts  for  U. 
States  naval  vessels  built  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  are  forged  in  Cleveland ; also 
heavy  castings  and  forgings  for  bridges, 
street-railway  machinery,  and  lifts  for 
unloading  vessels.  Here  is  the  center  of 
the  malleable-iron  trade  in  the  U.  States. 
Important  optical  instruments  and 
their  mountings  are  made  in  Cleveland. 
Petroleum  refining,  hardware,  boots  and 
shoes,  and  chemicals  give  rise  to  im- 
portant industries. 

CLEVELAND,  Grover,  twenty-second 
president  of  the  U.  States,  born  in  New 
Jersey  in  1837.  He  settled  in  Buffalo, 
and  having  acquired  an  excellent  posi- 
tion as  a lawyer  "was  elected  mayor  in 
1881.  Next  year  he  was  elected  by  the 
democrats  governor  of  New  York  State, 
and  in  1884,  having  been  nominated  for 
the  presidency  by  the  democratic 
national  convention  at  Chicago,  was 
elected  on  Nov.  4.  Civil  ser\dce  reform 
and  tariff  reform  •n'ere  advocated  by 
him  during  his  tenure  of  office,  which 
came  to  an  end  in  1889.  President 
Harrison  then  succeeded,  but  Cleveland 
was  again  elected  president  in  1892. 
His  second  administration  was  marked 
by  the  Venezuela  boundary  dispute 
with  Britain  in  which  Mr.  Cleveland 


CLIFF-DWELLEU 


CLINTON 


E Tactically  threatened  war  on  England. 

[is  administration  kept  clear  of  Cuban 
affairs  which  confronted  Mr.  McKinley, 
his  successor.  He  has  lately  become 


Grover  Cleveland. 


identified  with  one  of  the  large  life  in- 
surance companies.  He  died  in  1908. 

CLIFF-DWELLER,  a name  given  to 
a certain  extinct  people  who  presumably 
built  and  inhabited  the  cliff  ruins  which 
abound  in  southwest  Colorado.  Several 
expeditions  have  been  made  to  these 
ruins  but  with  little  effect.  It  is  held  by 
some  that  the  cliff  dwellers  were  the 
ancestors  of  the  Pueblo  Indians. 

CLIMACTERIC,  according  to  an  old 
theory,  a critical  period  in  human  life 
in  which  some  great  alteration  is  sup- 
posed to  take  place  in  the  constitution. 
The  first  climacteric  is,  according  to 
some,  the  seventh  year;  the  others  are 
multiples  of  the  first,  as  14,  21,  etc.; 
63  is  called  tlxe  grand  climacteric. 

CLI'MATE,  the  character  of  the 
weather  or  atmospheric  phenomena 
eculiar  to  every  country  as  respects 
eat  and  cold,  humidity  and  dryness,  the 
direction  and  force  of  the  prevailing 
winds,  the  alteration  of  the  seasons, 
etc.,  especially  as  such  conditions  affect 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  In  general, 
geographical  latitude  is  the  principal 
circumstance  to  be  taken  into  view  in 
considering  the  climate  of  a country, 
and  thus  the  torrid,  temperate,  and 
frigid  zones  may  each  be  said  roughly 
to  have  a climate  of  its  own.  The 
highest  degree  of  heat  is  found  in  the 
equatorial  regions,  and  the  lowest,  or 
the  greatest  degree  of  cold,  at  the  poles. 
In  the  former  the  temperature  continues 
practically  the  same  all  the  year  round, 
though  there  may  be  alternating  rainy 
seasons  and  dry  seasons.  The  varia- 
tions in  temperature  are  very  con- 
siderable in  the  temperate  zones,  and 
increase  as  we  approach  the  polar  circles. 
The  heat  of  the  higher  latitudes, 
especially  about  59°  or  60°,  is,  in  July, 
greater  than  that  of  countries  10°  nearer 
the  equator,  and  at  Tornea,  in  Lapland, 
where  the  sun’s  rays  are  very  oblique 
even  in  summer,  the  heat  is  sometimes 
equal  to  that  of  the  torrid  zone,  because 
the  sun  is  almost  always  above  the 
horizon.  But  even  in  the  equatorial 
regions,  and  still  more  in  intermediate 


regions,  the  temperature  is  affected  by 
local  configuration  and  circumstances. 
In  the  deserts  of  Africa,  for  instance, 
owing  to  the  exceptional  radiating  power 
of  sandy  plains  and  the  absence  of 
aqueous  vapor  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
heat  is  excessive,  while  in  the  corres- 
ponding latitudes  of  south  America  the 
mountainous  character  of  the  country 
makes  the  climate  more  moderate.  Al- 
titude above  the  sea  indeed  has  every- 
where the  same  effect  as  removal  to  a 
greater  distance  from  the  equator,  and 
thus  in  the  Andes  we  may  have  a tropi- 
cal climate  at  the  sea-level  and  an  arctic 
one  on  the  mountain  summits.  The 
winds  to  which  a country  is  most  ex- 
posed by  its  situation  have  also  a great 
influence  on  the  climate.  In  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  if  north  and  east  winds 
blow  frequently  in  any  region  it  will  be 
colder,  the  latitude  being  the  same,  than 
another  which  is  often  swept  by  milder 
breezes  from  the  south  and  west.  The 
climate  of  southern  Europe,  for  instance, 
is  decidedly  affected  by  the  warm 
south  winds  which  blow  from  the  hot 
deserts  of  Africa.  The  greater  or  lesser 
extent  of  coast-line  a country  possesses 
in  proportion  to  its  area  has  a decided 
influence  on  the  climate.  The  almost 
unvarying  temperature  of  the  ocean 
equalizes  in  some  degree  the  periodic 
distribution  of  heat  among  the  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  proximity 
of  a great  mass  of  water  moderates,  by 
its  action  on  the  atmosphere,  the  heat  of 
summer  and  the  cold  of  winter.  Hence 
the  more  equable  temperature  of  is- 
lands and  coasts  as  compared  with  that 
of  places  far  inland,  and  hence  the  terms 
insular  climate  and  continental  climate. 
The  British  Isles,  Tasmania,  and  New 
Zealand  enjoy  a mild  or  insular  climate 
as  compared  with,  say.  Central  Russia, 
or  Central  Asia.  Thus  it  happens  that 
London  has  a milder  winter  and  a cooler 
summer  than  Paris,  though  the  latter  is 
nearly  3°  farther  south.  Similarly, 
though  Warsaw  and  Amsterdam  are 
almost  in  the  same  latitude,  the  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  former  is 
46'48°,  while  it  reaches  at  the  latter 
53'4°  Fahr.  The  proximity  of  large 
masses  of  water  involves  also  the  pres- 
ence of  much  aqueous  vapor  in  the  at- 
mosphere, which  may  be  condensed  in 
abundant  rains  so  as  to  greatly  influence 
the  plant-life  of  a country.  Direction 
of  mountain  chains,  set  of  ocean  cur- 
rents, nature  of  soil,  are  other  modifying 
elements.  In  exhibiting  graphically  the 
chief  climatic  facts  of  a region  various 
methods  may  be  adopted,  but  in  all  the 
use  of  isothermal  lines  is  one  of  the  most 
instructive  features.  These  are  lines 
drawn  on  a map  or  chart  connecting 
those  places  which  have  the  same  mean 
annual  temperature  or  same  mean  sum- 
mer and  mean  winter  temperature. 
In  this  way  we  may  divide  the  earth  into 
zones  of  temperature  which  by  no  means 
coincide  with  the  limits  of  the  zones  into 
which  the  earth  is  astronomically 
divided,  and  when  compared  with  these 
on  a map  show  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive divergences.  Geology  teaches  that 
vast  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
climate  of  most  if  not  of  all  countries, 
the  causes  of  which  are  not  fully  under- 
stood. 


CLI'MAX,  a rhetorical  figure  in  which 
a series  of  propositions  or  objects  are 
presented  in  such  a way  that  the  least 
impressive  comes  first,  and  there  is  a 
regular  gradation  from  this  to  the  most 
impressive  or  final. 

CLIMBERS,  a name  applied  to  birds 
of  the  order  Scansores  from  their  climb- 
ing habits.  They  have  two  toes  before 
and  two  behind,  and  are  represented  by 
parrots,  cockatoos,  etc. 

CLIMBING  PERCH,  a singular  fish, 
remarkable  for  having  the  pharyngeal 
bones  enlarged  and  modified  into  a 
series  of  cells  and  duplications  so  that 
they  can  retain  sufficient  water  to  keep 


Climbing  perch. 


the  gills  moist  and  enable  the  fish  to 
live  out  of  water  six  days.  The  climbing 
perch  of  India  proceeds  long  distances 
overland  in  search  of  water  when  the 
I pools  in  which  it  has  been  living  have 
I dried  up. 

CLIMBING  PLANTS  are  plants  of 
weak  stems  which  naturally  seek  sup- 
port from  their  surroundings  to  rise  from 
the  ground.  Some  are  twining  plants, 
rising  by  winding  themselves  or  their 
tendrils  round  the  trunks  of  trees,  etc. 
Such  are  the  honey-suckle  and  scarlet- 
runner.  Others,  like  the  ivy,  attach 
themselves  by  small  roots  developed 
from  the  stem  as  they  ascend.  Some 
in  climbing  always  twine  spirally  from 
right  to  left,  others  again  always  take 
the  opposite  direction. 

CLIN'ICAL  MEDICINE,  that  depart- 
ment of  medicine  which  teaches  how  to 
investigate,  at  the  bedside  of  the  sick, 
the  nature  of  diseases,  to  note  their 
course  and  termination,  and  to  study 
the  effects  of  the  various  modes  of 
treatment  to  which  they  are  subjected. 
A clinical  lecture  is  the  instruction  which 
the  teacher  gives  his  pupil  at  the  bed- 
side of  the  patient. 

CLINOMETER,  an  instrument  used 
for  taking  the  dip  and  strike  of  rock 
strata. 

CLINTON,  a town  in  Iowa,  on  the 
Mississippi,  42  miles  above  Davenport, 
with  railway  workshops,  foundries,  etc. 
Pop.  26,820. 

CLINTON,  DeWitt,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  New  York  state  in 
1769,  died  in  1828.  He  became  a lawyer 
and  w'as  one  of  the  opponents  of  the 
federal  constitution.  In  1802  he  was 
elected  U.  States  senator  from  New  York, 
but  resigned  to  become  mayor  of  New 
York  City,  a post  he  filled  until  1815. 
In  1812  he  was  republican  candidate 
for  president  but  was  defeated  by 
Madison.  His  greatest  service  was  the 
persistent  work  he  did  for  the  promotion 
of  the  Erie  canal. 

CLINTON,  George,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  New  York  state 
in  1739,  died  in  1812.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  continental  congress,  was  a 
brigadier-general  on  the  revolutionary 
army,  and  the  first  governor  of  New 


CLINTON 


CLOCK 


York,  a position  he  held  until  1805,  when 
he  became  vice-president  of  the  U. 
States,  filling  that  office  until  the  time 
of  his  death.  He  opposed  the  adoption 
of  the  federal  constitution. 

CLINTON,  Sir  Henry,  a British  gen- 
eral who  served  in  the  Hanoverian  war, 
and  was  sent  to  America  in  1775  with 
the  rank  of  major-general,  where  he 


Sir  Henry  Clinton. 


distinguished  himself  in  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill.  He  defeated  the  Ameri- 
cans at  Long  Island,  but  had  to  evacuate 
Philadelphia  to  Washington.  In  1782 
Clinton  retired  to  England.  He  died 
in  1795. 

CLI'O,  in  Greek  mythology,  daughter 
of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne;  the  muse  of 
history.  Her  attributes  are  a wreath  of 
laurel  upon  her  head,  a trumpet  in  her 
right  hand,  and  a roll  of  papyrus  in  her 
left. 

CLIPPER,  a modern  build  of  sailing 
ship,  having  a long  sharp  bow,  the 
greatest  beam  abaft  the  center,  and  a 
great  rate  of  speed. 

CLIVE,  Robert,  Lord  Clive  and  Baron 
of  Plassey,  English  general  and  states- 
man, was  born  in  1725  in  Shropshire. 
In  his  nineteenth  year  he  entered  the 
East  India  Company’s  service  at  Madras 
as  a writer,  but  in  1747  quitted  the  civil 
for  the  military  service.  In  1751  Clive, 
who  had  already  a reputation  for  skill 
and  courage,  marched  on  the  large  city 


Lord  Clive. 


of  Arcot  vdth  200  British  troops  and 
300  Sepoys,  and  took  it,  although 
strongly  garrisoned,  without  a blow, 
withstood  a siege  by  Chunda  Sahib  for 
nearly  two  months,  and  at  last  routed 
the  enemy,  took  possession  of  important 
posts,  and  returned  to  Madras  com- 
pletely victorious.  In  1753  he  sailed 
to  England  to  recover  his  health,  and 
was  received  with  much  honor.  Two 


years  later  he  was  back  in  India,  in  his 
overnorship  of  St.  David’s,  from  which 
e was  soon  summoned  to  command  the 
expedition  sent  to  Bengal,  where  the 
nabob  Suraj-ud-Dowlah  had  attacked 
the  British,  destroyed  their  factories, 
taken  Calcutta,  and  suffocated  over  120 
of  his  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole.  Clive 
soon  took  possession  of  Calcutta  and 
brought  Suraj-ud-Dowlah  to  terms, 
but  having  no  trust  in  the  loyal  inten- 
tions of  the  nabob  he  resolved  to  de- 
throne him.  With  the  help  of  Meer 
Jaffier,  one  of  the  nabob’s  officers,  he 
effected  his  purpose,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Plassey  completely  overthrew  Suraj- 
ud-Dowlah’s  forces.  Meer  Jaffier  now 
became  the  new  nabob,  and  Clive  was 
made  governor  of  Calcutta.  Here  he  was 
equally  successful  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Dutch,  defeating  their 
forces  both  by  sea  and  land.  In  1761  he 
was  raised  to  the  Irish  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Clive,  Baron  of  Plassey. 
In  1764  fresh  troubles  in  India  brought 
him  back,  but  now  as  president  of  Ben- 
gal, with  command  of  the  troops  there. 
Before  his  arrival,  however.  Major 
Adams  had  already  defeated  the  Nabob 
of  Oude,  and  Lord  Clive  had  only  the 
arranging  of  the  treaty  by  which  the 
Company  obtained  the  disposal  of  all 
the  revenues  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and 
Orissa.  In  1767  he  finally  returned  to 
England.  His  health  was  by  this  time 
broken,  and  in  one  of  his  habitual  fits  of 
melancholy  he  put  an  end  to  his  life, 
November  22,  1774. 

CLOCK,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
time  and  indicating  hours,  minutes, 
and  usually  seconds,  by  means  of  hands 
moving  on  a dial-plate,  and  differing 
from  a watch  mainly  in  having  the 
movement  of  its  machinery  regulated  by 
a pendulum,  and  in  not  being  portable. 
The  largest  and  most  typical  clocks  also 
differ  in  having  their  machinery  set  in 
motion  by  means  of  a falling  weight 
or  weights,  the  watch  wheel-work  being 
moved  by  the  force  of  an  uncoiling 
spring;  but  many  clocks  also  have  a 
spring  setting  their  works  in  motion. 
The  use  of  a horologium,  or  hour-teller, 
was  common  even  among  the  ancients, 
but  their  time-pieces  were  nothing  else 
than  sun-dials,  hour-glasses,  and  clepsy- 
drae. In  the  earlier  half  of  our  era  we 
have  accounts  of  several  attempts  at 
clock  construction:  that  of  Boethius  in 
the  6th  centhry,  the  clock  sent  by 
Harun  al  Rashid  to  Charlemagne  in  809, 
that  made  by  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of 
Verona,  in  the  9th  century,  and  that  of 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  in  the  10th  century. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  any  of  these 
was  a wheel-and-weight  clock,  and  it 
is  probably  to  the  monks  that  we  owe 
the  invention  of  clocks  set  in  motion 
by  wheels  and  weights.  In  the  12th 
century  clocks  were  made  use  of  in  the 
monasteries,  which  announced  the  end 
of  every  hour  by  the  sound  of  a bell  put 
in  motion  by  means  of  wheels.  From 
this  time  forward  the  expression,  “the 
clock  has  struck,”  is  often  met  with. 
The  hand  for  marking  the  time  is  also 
made  mention  of.  In  the  14th  century 
there  are  stronger  traces  of  the  present 
system  of  clock-work.  Dante  particu- 
larly mentions  clocks.  Richard,  abbot 
of  St.  Albans  in  England,  made  a clock 


in  1326,  such  as  had  never  been  heard 
of  till  then.  It  not  only  indicated  the 
course  of  the  sun  and  moon,  but  also 
the  ebb  and  flood  tide.  Large  clocks  on 
steeples  likewise  were  first  made  use  of 
in  the  14th  century.  Watches  are  a much 
later  invention,  although  they  have 
likewise  been  said  to  have  been  invented 
as  early  as  the  14th  century.  A cele- 
brated clock,  the  construction  of  which 
is  well  know'n,  was  set  up  in  Paris  for 
Charles  V.  in  1379,  the  maker  being 
Henry  de  Vick,  a German.  It  probably 


Strassburg  clock. 


formed  a model  on  which  clocks  were 
constructed  for  nearly  300  years,  and 
until  Huyghens  applied  the  pendulum 
to  clock-work  as  the  regulating  power, 
about  1657.  The  great  advantage  of  the 
pendulum  is  that  the  beats  or  oscillations 
of  a pendulum  all  occupy  substantially 
the  same  time  (the  time  depending  on 
its  length),  hence  its  utility  in  imparting 
regularity  to  a time-measurer.  The 
mechanism  by  which  comparative  regu- 
larity was  previously  attained,  though 
ingenious  and  simple,  was  far  less  perfect ; 
and  the  first  pendulum  escapement, 
that  is,  the  contrivance  by  which  the 
pendulum  was  connected  with  the  clock- 
work, was  also  less  perfect  than  others 
subsequently  introduced,  especially  Gra- 
ham’s dead-beat  escapement,  invented 
in  1700.  In  a watch  the  balance-wheel 
and  spring  serves  the  same  purpose  as 
the  pendulum,  and  the  honor  of  being 
the  inventor  of  the  balance-spring  was 
contested  between  Hugyhens  and  the 
English  philosopher  Dr.  Hooke.  Vari- 
ous improvements  followed,  such  as  the 
chronometer  escapement,  and  the  addi- 
tion of  a compensation  adjustment,  by 
which  two  metals  having  unequal  rates 
of  expansion  and  contraction  under 
variations  of  temperature  are  combined 
in  the  pendulum  or  the  balance-wheel, 
so  that,  each  metal  counteracting  the 
other,  the  vibrations  are  isochronous 


CLOISTER 


CLOUD 


under  any  change  of  temperature.  This 
arrangement  was  perfected  by  Harrison 
in  1726,  and  is  especially  useful  in 
navigation.  See  Watch. 

CLOISTER,  an  arched  way  or  gallery, 
often  forming  part  of  certain  portions  of 
monastic  and  collegiate  buildings,  usual- 
ly having  a wall  of  the  building  on  one 
side,  and  an  open  colonnade,  or  a series 


Part  of  the  cloister— Westminster  Abbey. 

of  windows  with  piers  and  columns  ad- 
joining an  interior  yard  or  court  on  the 
other  side.  Such  galleries  were  origin- 
ally intended  as  places  of  exercise  and 
recreation,  the  persons  using  them  being 
under  cover.  The  term  is  also  used  as 
equivalent  to  convent  or  monastery. 

CLOSE  CORPORATION,  a corpora- 
tion which  fills  up  its  own  vacancies, 
the  election  of  members  not  being  open 
to  the  public. 

CLOSE-HAULED,  in  navigation,  said 
of  a ship  when  the  general  arrangement 
or  trim  of  the  sails  is  such  as  to  enable 
her  to  sail  as  nearly  against  the  wind  as 
possible. 

CLO'SURE,  a rule  in  British  parlia- 
mentary procedure  adopted  in  1887 
by  which,  at  any  time  after  a question 
has  been  proposed,  a motion  may  be 
made  with  the  speaker’s  or  chairman’s 
consent  “That  the  question  be  now  put,” 
when  the  motion  is  immediately  put  and 
decided  without  debate  or  amendment. 
So  also  if  a clause  of  a bill  is  under  debate 
a motion  that  it  stand  or  be  added  may 
be  put  and  carried  in  the  same  way. 
The  motion  must  be  supported  by  more 
than  100  members  and  opposed  by  less 
than  40,  or  have  the  support  of  200  mem- 
bers. The  introduction  of  the  closure 
was  intended  to  prevent  debates  from 
being  too  much  spun  out. 

CLOTH,  a fabric  formed  by  inter- 
weaving threads  or  fibers  of  animal  or 
vegetable  origin,  as  w.ool,  hair,  cotton, 
flax,  hemp,  etc.  Cloth  may  also  be 
made  by  felting  as  well  as  by  weaving. 
See  Cotton,  Woolen,  Silk,  etc. 

CLOTHES-MOTH,  the  name  com- 
mon to  several  moths,  whose  larvae  are 
destructive  to  woolen  fabrics,  feathers, 
furs,  etc.,  upon  which  they  feed,  using 
at  the  same  time  the  material  for  the 
construction  of  the  cases  in  which  they 
assume  the  chrysalis  state. 

CLOTHING,  the  clothes  or  dress,  that 
is  the  artificial  coverings  collectively, 
which  people  wear.  Nothing  is  more 
necessary'to  comfort  than  that  the  body 
should  be  kept  in  nearly  a uniform 
temperature,  thus  preventing  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  important  excretory 
functions  of  the  skin  by  the  influence  of 


heat  or  cold.  Hence  in  a changeable 
climate  the  question  of  clothing  becomes 
of  special  importance.  The  chief  end 
proposed  by  clothing  ought  to  be  pro- 
tection from  the  cold.  A degree  of  cold 
amounting  to  shivering  cannot  be  felt 
without  injury  to  the  health,  and  the 
strongest  constitution  cannot  resist  the 
benumbing  influence  of  a sensation  of 
cold  constantly  present,  even  though  it 
be  so  moderate  as  not  to  occasion  im- 
mediate complaint,  or  to  induce  the 
sufferer  to  seek  protection  from  it.  This 
degree  of  cold  often  lays  the  foundation 
of  the  whole  host  of  chronic  diseases, 
foremost  among  which  are  found  scrof- 
ula and  consumption.  The  only  kind  of 
dress  that  can  afford  the  protection  re- 
quired by  the  changes  of  temperature 
to  which  the  cooler  or  temperate 
climates  are  liable,  is  woolen.  Those  who 
would  receive  the  advantage  which  the 
wearing  of  woolen  is  capable  of  affording, 
must  wear  it  next  the  skin;  for  it  is  in 
this  situation  only  that  its  health-pre- 
serving power  can  be  felt.  The  great 
advantages  of  woolen  cloth  are  briefly 
these: — the  readiness  with  which  it 
allows  the  escape  of  sweat  through  its 
texture;  its  power  of  preserving  the 
sensation  of  warmth  to  the  skin  under 
all  circumstances;  the  slowness  with 
which  it  conducts  heat;  the  softness, 
lightness,  and  pliancy  of  its  texture. 
Cotton  cloth,  though  it  differs  but  little 
from  linen,  approaches  nearer  to  the 
nature  of  woolen,  and  on  that  account 
must  be  esteemed  as  the  next  best  sub- 
stance of  which  clothing  may  be  made. 
Silk  is  the  next  in  point  of  excellence, 
but  it  is  very  inferior  to  cotton  in  every 
respect.  Linen  possesses  the  contrary 
of  most  of  the  properties  enumerated 
as  excellencies  in  woolen.  It  retains  the 
matter  of  perspiration  in  its  texture,  and 


Cloud— Cirrus. 


misery  and  suffering  arising  from  it 
often  begin  while  we  are  yet  in  the 
cradle. 

CLOUD,  a collection  of  visible  vapor 
or  watery  particles  suspended  in  the 
atmosphere  at  some  altitude.  They 
differ  from  fogs  only  by  their  height  and 
less  degree  of  transparency.  The  aver- 
age height  of  clouds  is  calculated  to  be 
2}  miles,  thin  and  light  clouds  being 
much  higher  than  the  highest  moun- 
tains, while  thick  heavy  clouds  often 
touch  low  mountains,  steeples,  and  even 
trees.  Clouds  differ  much  in  form  and 
character,  but  are  generally  classed 
(following  Luke  Howard,  in  his  Essay 
on  Clouds)  into  three  single  or  primary 
forms,  viz.; — 1.  The  cirrus,  so  called 
from  its  resemblance  to  a lock  of  hair, 
and  consisting  of  fibers  which  diverge 
in  all  directions.  Clouds  of  this  descrip- 
tion float  at  a great  height,  usually  from 
3 to  5 miles  above  the  earth’s  surface. 
2.  The  cumulus  or  heap,  a cloud  which 
assumes  the  form  of  dense  convex  or 
conical  heaps,  resting  on  a flattish  base, 
called  also  summer-cloud.  Under  ordi- 
nary circumstances  these  clouds  accom- 
pany fine  weather,  especially  in  the  heat 
of  summer.  They  attain  their  greatest 
size  early  in  the  afternoon  and  gra- 
dually decrease  toward  sunset.  3.  The 
stratus,  so  named  from  its  spreading 
out  uniformly  in  a horizontal  layer, 
which  receives  all  its  augmentations  of 
volume  from  below.  It  belongs  essen- 
tially to  the  night,  and  is  frequently 
seen  on  calm  summer  evenings  after  sun- 
set ascending  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  grounds,  and  dispersing  in  the 
form  of  a cumulus  at  sunrise.  These 
three  primary  forms  of  clouds  are  sub- 
divided as  follows: — 1.  The  cirro-cumu- 
lus, composed  of  a collection  of  cirri 
and  spreading  itself  frequently  over  the 


Cloud— Cumulus. 


Cloud— Stratus. 

speedily  becomes  imbued  with  it;  it 
gives  an  unpleasant  sensation  of  cold  to 
the  skin;  it  is  very  readily  saturated 
with  moisture,  and  it  conducts  heat  too 
rapidly.  Clothes  should  be  so  made  as 
to  allow  the  body  the  full  exercise  of 
all  its  motions.  The  neglect  of  this  pre- 
caution is  productive  of  more  miscnief 
than  is  generally  believed,  and  the 


Cloud— Nimbus. 

sky  in  the  form  of  beds  of  delicate  snow- 
flakes. 2.  The  cirro-stratus  or  wane- 
cloud,  so  called  from  its  being  generally 
seen  slowly  sinking,  and  in  a state  of 
transformation;  when  seen  in  the  dis- 
tance, a collection  of  t?hese  clouds  sug- 
gests the  resemblance  of  a shoal  of  fish, 
and  the  sky,  when  thickly  mottled  with 
them,  is  called  in  popular  language  a 


CLOUD-BURST 


CLYMER 


mackerel  sky.  3.  The  cumulo-stratus  or 
twain-cloud,  one  of  the  grandest  and 
most  beautiful  of  clouds,  and  consisting 
of  a collection  of  a large  fleecy  clouds 
overhanging  a flat  stratum  or  base. 
4.  The  nimbus,  cumulo-cirro-stratus,  or 
rain-cloud,  recognizable,  according  to 
Mr.  Howard,  by  its  fibrous  border  and 
uniformly  gray  aspect.  It  is  a dense 
cloud  spreading  out  into  a crown  of 
cirrus  and  passing  beneath  into  a shower. 
It  presents  one  of  the  least  attractive 
appearances  among  clouds,  but  it  is 
only  when  the  dark  surface  of  this  cloud 
forms  its  background  that  the  splendid 
phenomenon  of  the  rainbow  is  exhibited 
in  perfection. 

CLOUD-BURST,  a sudden  and  very 
heavy  fall  of  rain.  The  term  was  first 
used  in  the  United  States  and  after- 
ward in  India,  to  describe  the  same 
phenomenon.  Cloud-bursts  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in 
which  10  to  21  inches  of  rain  fall  within 
an  hour. 

CLOUD  ON  TITLE,  a defect  or  fault 
in  a title  to  realty.  It  may  be  removed 
by  a proceeding  in  a court  of  equity. 

CLOVER,  or  TREFOIL,  a name  of 
different  species  of  plants.  There  are 
about  150  species.  Some  are  weeds, 
but  many  species  are  valued  as  food  for 
cattle.  Common  red  clover,  is  a bien- 
nial, and  sometimes,  especially  on  chalky 
soils,  a triennial  plant.  This  is  the  kind 
most  commonly  cultivated,  as  it  yields 
a larger  product  than  any  of  the  other 
sorts.  White  clover,  is  a most  valuable 
plant  for  pasturage  over  the  whole  of 
Europe,  Central  Asia,  and  North  Ameri- 
ca, and  has  also  been  introduced  into 
South  America.  The  bee  gathers  much 
of  its  honey  from  the  flowers  of  this 
species. 

CLOVES,  a very  pungent  aromatic 
spice,  the  dried  flower-buds  of  a native 
of  the  Molucca  Islands,  belonging  to  the 
myrtle  tribe,  now  cultivated  in  Sumatra, 
Zanzibar,  Malacca,  Jamaica,  etc.  The 


tree  is  a handsome  evergreen  from  15  to 
30  feet  high,  with  large  elliptic  smooth 
leaves  and  numerous  purplish  flowers  on 
jointed  stalks.  Every  part  of  the  plant 
abounds  in  the  volatile  oil  for  which  the 
flower-buds  are  prized.  The  spice  yields 
a very  fragrant  odor,  and  has  a bitterish, 
pungent,  and  warm  taste.  It  is  some- 
times employed  as  a hot  and  stimulating 
medicine,  but  is  more  frequently  used  in 
culinary  preparations. 

CLOVIS,  King  of  the  Franks,  born 
465,  succeeded  his  father  Childeric  in 
the  year  481,  as  chief  of  the  warlike 
tribe  of  Salian  Franks,  who  inhabited 
Nothern  Gaul.  In  486  he  overthrew  the 
Roman  governor  at  Soissons  and  occu- 
pied the  country  between  the  Somme 


and  the  Loire.  He  died  at  Paris, 
which  he  had  made  his  capital,  on  Nov. 
27,  511,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his 
reign. 

CLOWN,  the  buffoon  or  practical 
jester  in  pantomime  and  circus  per- 
formances. On  the  old  English  stage  the 
clown  was  the  privileged  laughter- 
provoker,  who,  without  taking  any  part 
in  the  dramatic  development  of  the 
piece  represented,  carried  on  his  im- 
provised jokes  and  tricks  with  the 
actors,  often  indeed  addressing  himself 
directly  to  the  audience  instead  of 
confining  himself  to  what  was  going  on 
on  the  stage.  In  Shakespeare’s  dramas, 
a distinct  part  is  assigned  to  the  clown, 
who  no  longer  appears  as  an  extempore 
jester,  although  the  part  he  plays  is  to 
a certain  extent  in  keeping  with  his 
traditional  functions.  He  is  now  con- 
fined to  the  pantomime  and  the  circus. 

CLUB,  an  association  of  men,  or  of 
men  and  women,  or  of  women  algne, 
for  social  purposes,  for  political  pur- 
poses, or  for  purposes  other  than  these. 
The  club  originated  in  England,  but 
there  is  not  in  the  United  States,  pro- 
bably, a single  club  which,  in  its  usages, 
is  precisely  similar  to  the  English 
clubs.  The  London  clubs  originated  in 
the  coffee  houses  and  the  first  of  impor- 
tance was  that  which  met  in  the 
Mermaid  Tavern.  This  was  attended  by 
Raleigh,  Shakespeare,  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher  and  other  literary  celebrities 
of  that  time.  The  first  political  club 
was  established  in  1659  and  from  this 
time  forward  clubs  grew  in  number  and 
variety  representing  every  art,  profes- 
sion, and  business  in  existence,  one  may 
almost  say.  A bare  list  of  the  clubs  of 
London  would  fill  several  pages  of  this 
book.  London  has  scores  of  sporting 
club:!,  athletic  clubs,  travelers’  clubs, 
pistol  and  gun  clubs,  in  short  clubs  for 
every  kind  of  purpose  which  could 
possibly  bring  men  together,  from  the 
study  of  oriental  tongues  to  prize- 
fighting and  moral  reform. 

In  the  United  States  the  club  idea 
has  been  expanded  so  as  to  include 
women  and  their  purposes.  — The 
women’s  clubs — organized  chiefly  for 
reform — are  associated  in  a national 
federation  which  meets  annually.  This 
federation  takes  in  not  only  the  reform 
clubs  of  women  but  also  self-improve- 
ment clubs,  temperance  clubs,  art  and 
press  clubs  and  all  clubs  forjned  ex- 
clusively of  women. 

Of  men’s  clubs  in  the  United  States. 
New  York  City  is  the  center  and  its 
clubs  are  the  most  famous  in  America. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  The 
Union  Club  (1836),  The  Century  Club 
(1846),  The  Union  League  Club  (1863), 
The  University  Club  (1865),  The  Knick- 
erbocker Club  (1871),  The  Lotus,  a 
literary  club  (1870),  The  Manhattan 
Cllub  (1864),  a political  club.  The 
Plajmrs’  Club  (1888)  and  the  Lambs’ 
Club.  Chicago  has  a number  of  strong 
political  clubs  the  more  noted  of  which 
are  the  Marquette  Club  (republican)  and 
the  Iroquois  (democratic).  The  Press 
Club  of  Chicago  is  the  best  known  press 
club  in  the  world.  Every  large  city  in 
the  United  States  has  its  quota  of 
clubs,  virtually  of  the  same  character. 
In  this  country  the  tendency  of  the 


larger  clubs  is  to  extend  the  lodging 
house  feature  of  the  establishment 
which  until  recently  was  not  a general 
practice  in  American  clubs. 

CLUB-FOOT,  a congenital  distortion 
of  the  foot.  There  are  several  varieties. 
Sometimes  the  foot  is  twisted  inward; 
sometimes  the  heel  is  raised  and  the  toes 
only  touch  the  ground;  sometimes  the 
foot  is  twisted  outward;  or  it  rests 
only  on  the  heel.  In  most  cases  the 
deformity  is  curable  by  modern  surgery. 

CLYDE  (klld),  a river  of  Scotland, 
which  has  its  sources  amid  the  hills  that 
separate  Lanarkshire  from  the  counties 
of  Peebles  and  Dumfries,  passes  by 
Lanark,  Hamilton,  Glasgow,  Renfrew, 
Dumbarton,  Greenock,  etc.,  and  forms 
finally  an  extensive  estuary  or  firth 
before  it  enters  the  Irish  Sea,  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Bute.  From  its  source  to  Glasgow, 
where  navigation  begins,  its  length  is 
70  or  80  miles.  The  Clyde,  by  artificial 
deepening,  has  been  made  navigable 
for  large  vessels  up  to  Glasgow,  and  is 
the  most  valuable  river  in  Scotland  for 
commerce. 

CLYDE,  Lord,  Sir  Colin  Campbell, 
was  born  in  Glasgow,  in  1792.  He 
served  in  Spain  under  Sir  John  Moore 
and  Wellington,  being  engaged  in  the 
battles  of  Barossa  and  Vittoria,  and 


Lord  Clyde. 


having  displayed  distinguished  gal- 
lantry at  the  siege  of  San  Sebastian, 
where,  as  well  as  at  the  Bidassoa,  he 
was  severely  wounded.  In  1854  he 
became  major-general,  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  Higliland  Brigade  in  the 
Crimean  war.  His  services  at  the  battles 
of  Alma  and  Balaklava,  and  during  the 
war  generall}'^,  were  conspicuous,  so  that 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian  mutiny 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
there.  Landing  at  Calcutta  on  29th 
August,  1857,  he  relieved  Havelock  and 
Outran!  at  Lucknow,  and  crushed  the 
rebellion  entirely  before  the  end  of  the 
year.  For  his  services  here  Sir  Colin 
received  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  was  created  a peer  wdth 
the  title  of  Baron  Clyde.  In  1862  he 
was  made  field-marshal.  He  died 
.\ugust  14,  1863,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

CLYMER,  George,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
born  in  Philadelphia  in  1739,  died  1813. 
He  was  one  of  the  treasurers  of  the 
continental  congress  and  took  part  in 
the  revolutionary  war  both  as  soldier 


COACH 


COAL  GAS 


and  investigating  delegate  from  con- 
gress. Clymer  was  a member  of  the 
constitutional  convention  of  1787  and  a 
member  of  congress  from  1789  to  1791. 

COACH,  a general  name  for  all  cov- 
ered carriages  drawn  by  horses  and  in- 
tended for  the  rapid  conveyance  of 
passengers.  The  earliest  carriages  ap- 
pear to  have  been  all  open,  if  we  may 
Judge  from  the  figures  of  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  chariots  found  on  the 
monuments  discovered  amid  the  ruins 
of  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  At  Rome 
both  covered  and  uncovered  carriages 
were  in  use.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  they  went  out  of  use  again,  and 
during  the  feudal  ages  the  custom  was 
to  ride  on  horseback,  the  use  of  carriages 
being  considered  effeminate.  They  do 
not  appear  to  have  become  common  till 
the  15th  century,  and  even  then  were 
regarded  exclusively  as  vehicles  for 
women  ^<nd  invalids.  Later  on  they 
became,  especially  in  Germany,  part  of 
the  appendage  of  royalty.  They  seem 
to  have  been  introduced  into  England 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
but  were  for  long  confined  to  the  aristoc- 
racy and  the  wealthy  classes.  Hack- 
ney-coaches were  first  used  in  London 
in  1625.  They  were  then  only  twenty 
in  number,  and  were  kept  at  the  hotels, 
where  they  had  to  be  applied  for  when 
wanted.  In  1634  coaches  waiting  to  be 
hired  at  a particular  stand  were  intro- 
duced, and  had  increased  to  200  in 
1652,  to  800  in  1710,  and  to  1000  in 
1771.  Stage-coaches  were  introduced 
into  England  about  the  same  time  as 
hackney-coaches. — The  first  stage-coach 
in  London  appears  to  have  run  early 
in  the  17th  century,  and  before  the 
end  of  the  century  they  were  started 
on  three  of  the  principal  roads  in  Eng- 
land. Their  speed  was  at  first  very 
moderate,  about  3 or  4 miles  an  hour. 
They  could  only  run  in  the  summer, 
and  even  then  their  progress  was  often 
greatly  hindered  by  floods  and  by  the 
wretched  state  of  the  roads  generally. 
In  1700  it  took  a week  to  travel  from 
York  to  London;  in  1754  a body  of 
Manchester  merchants  started  a con- 
veyance, the  Flying  Coach,  of  an  im- 
proved kind,  which  did  the  journey  to 
London  in  the  unusually  short  period 
of  four  days  and  a half,  and  thirty  years 
later  a Mr.  Palmer  of  Bath,  after  a 
considerable  amount  of  opposition, 
succeeded  in  inducing  the  government 
to  put  in  practice  certain  suggestions 
which  he  made,  by  which  he  showed 
that  great  saving  both  of  time  and 
money  in  the  conveyance  of  passengers 
and  letters  would  be  effected.  The 
result  was  the  establishment  of  the 
system  of  mail-coaches,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  the  means  of  traveling  in 
England  until  their  place  was  taken  by 
the  railways.  The  first  mail-coach 
started  between  London  and  Bristol 
on  the  8th  of  August,  1784. 

The  revival  of  coaching  as  a sport  in 
recent  years  has  caused,  of  course  a 
revival  of  the  industry  of  coach  build- 
ing, and  elegant  coaches  are  now 
turned  out  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States  by  numerous  factories.  The 
weight  of  a road  coach  varies  from 
2200  to  3000  pounds  and  it  is  drawn  by 
four  horses.  The  typical  American 


coach  is  that  made  at  Concord,  N.  H. 
Other  vehicles,  such  as  hackney-coaches, 
landaus,  etc.,  are  not  coaches  at  all. 
For  their  description  see  separate 
articles. 

COACH-DOG,  a short-haired  dog  of 
moderate  size,  and  rather  handsome 
shape,  white  with  numerous  black  spots, 
kept  as  an  attendant  upon  carriages, 
and  of  no  use  otherwise.  Called  also 
Dalmatian  dog. 

COACHING,  the  art  or  sport  of  driv- 
ing a four-in-hand  coach.  Coaching  as 
a necessary  means  of  transportation- is 
treated  in  the  article  on  Coach  (which 
see).  Coaching  was  never  brought  to 
a high  degree  of  perfection  in  America 
until  it  recently  came  into  vogue  as  a 
pastime.  In  America  it  is  used  for 
sight  seeing  in  large  American  and 
European  cities,  and  in  Europe  until 
recently  was  practiced  as  a pastime. 
Today  its  place  is  almost  entirely  filled 
by  the  rapid  growth  of  the  automo- 
bile. 

COADJU'TOR,  a Latin  term,  nearly 
synonymous  in  its  original  meaning  with 
assistant.  The  term  is  especially  applied 
to  an  assistant  bishop  appointed  to  act 
for  and  succeed  one  who  is  too  old  or 
infirm  for  duty. 

COAGULATION,  the  changing  of  a 
fluid  into  a more  or  less  solid  substance, 
or  the  separation  of  a substance  from  a 
solution,  through  the  substance  becom- 
ing more  or  less  solid.  Thus  albumen  of 
egg  can  be  dissolved  in  cold  water,  but 
if  the  solution  be  warmed,  the  albumen 
undergoes  a change,  separates  out  in 
white  floeky  masses,  and  cannot  again 
be  redissolved  in  the  water.  Coagu- 
lation is  well  exemplified  by  the  “curd- 
ling” of  milk  and  “clotting”  of  blood. 

COAHUILA  (ko-a-we'la),  a state  of 
Mexico,  on  the  frontier  of  the  United 
States,  rich  in  woods  and  pastures,  and 
having  several  silver-mines;  area,  50,890 
square  miles;  pop.  280,899. 

COAL,  a solid,  opaque,  inflammable 
substance,  mainly  consisting  of  carbon, 
found  in  the  earth,  largely  employed  as 
fuel,  and  formed  from  vast  masses  of 
vegetable  matter  deposited  through  the 
luxuriant  growth  of  plants  in  former 
epochs  of  the  earth’s  history.  In  the 
varieties  of  coal  in  common  use  the  com- 
bined effects  of  pressure,  heat,  and 
chemical  action  upon  the  substance  have 
left  few  traces  of  its  vegetable  origin; 
but  in  the  sandstones,  claj's,  and  shales 
accompanying  the  coal,  the  plants  to 
which  it  principally  owes  its  origin  are 
presented  in  a fossil  state  in  great  pro- 
fusion, and  frequently  with  their  struc- 
ture so  distinctly  retained,  although  re- 
placed by  mineral  substances,  as  to 
enable  the  microscopist  to  determine 
their  botanical  affinities  with  existing 
species.  The  great  system  of  strata  in 
which  coal  is  chiefly  found  is  known  as 
the  carboniferous.  There  are  many 
varieties  of  coal,  varying  considerably 
in  their  composition,  as  anthracite, 
nearly  pure  carbon,  and  burning  with 
little  flame,  much  used  for  furnaces  and 
malt  kilns;  bituminous  (popularly  so 
called)  or  “household  coal;”  and  cannel 
or  “gas-coal,”  which  burns  read’ly  like 
a candle,  and_  is  much  used  in  gas-mak- 
ing. All  varieties  agree  in  containing 
from  60  to  over  90  per  cent  of  carbon, 


the  other  elements  being  chiefly  oxygen 
and  hydrogen,  and  frequently  a small 
portion  of  nitrogen.  For  manufactur- 
ing purposes  coals  are  generally  con- 
sidered to  consist  of  two  parts,  the 
volatile  or  bituminous  portion,  which 
yields  the  gas  used  for  lighting,  and  the 
substance  comparatively  fixed,  usually 
known  as  coke,  which  is  obtained  by 
heating  the  coal  in  ovens  or  other  close 
arrangements,  and  thus  removing  the 
volatile  or  smoke-yielding  matter,  while 
the  full  heating  power  of  the  coal  still 
remains  in  the  coke. 

The  principal  coal  deposits  of  Europe 
and  America  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France, 
Belgium,  Russia,  and  Austria-Hungary, 
Coal  is  found  in  immense  quantities  in 
China  and  Japan,  in  India,  and  other 
oriental  countries  but  its  production 
there  is  limited.  In  the  United  States 
the  largest  deposits  are  found  in  the 
great  coal  belt  of  the  Appalachians 
which  extends  from  Pennsylvania  to 
Alabama,  a tract  about  800  miles  long 
and  nearly  100  wide.  In  this  region 
all  kinds  of  coal  are  produced.  Bitu- 
minous coal  is  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky. 
The  western  states  from  Colorado  to  the 
Pacific  are  also  rich  in  coal  but  its 
mining  is  backward. 

The  coal  production  of  the  world 
at  present  is  about  900,000,000  tons 
annually  of  which  the  LTnited  States  pro- 
duces 270,000,000,  Great  Britain  250,- 
000,000  and  Germany  165,000,000  tons. 
Austria  Hungary  comes  fourth  and  falls 
to  40,000,000. 

Coal  is  mined  by  means  of  shafts  and 
tunnels  which  tap  the  seams  in  which 
great  chambers  are  mined,  the  coal  be- 
ing transported  underground  on  trucks, 
and  brought  to  the  surface  through  the 
shafts.  Various  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery have  recently  facilitated  the 
work,  although  coal  mining  still  remains 
one  of  the  most  disagreeable  and  dan- 
gerous trades  practiced. 

COAL  BRASS,  the  iron  pyrites  found 
in  coal-measures,  so  named  on  account 
of  its  brassy  appearance.  Coal  con- 
taining much  pyrites  is  bad  for  iron 
smelting,  and  it  is  unpleasant  for 
domestic  use  on  account  of  the  sulphur- 
ous acid  which  it  gives  off  on  burning. 
Coal  brass  is  useful  in  the  manufacture 
of  copperas,  and  in  alkali  works. 

COAL-CUTTING  MACHINE,  any  ma- 
chine for  cutting  out  coal  in  the  pit,  the 
chief  objects  they  are  intended  to  serve 
being  the  cheapening  of  the  work,  the 
saving  of  a large  quantity  of  coal,  which 
in  the  ordinary  process  of  holing  by 
hand-labor  with  the  pick  is  broken  up 
into  slack  and  dust,  and  the  removal  of 
the  danger  attending  upon  the  employ- 
ment of  hand-labor.  The  instruments 
of  excavation  in  these  machines  are  con- 
structed on  various  principles,  some 
having  an  action  like  that  of  an  ordinary 
pick,  others  a horizontal  cutting-tool. 
There  are  usually  arrangements  for 
regulating  the  depth  and  force,  and  to 
a certain  extent  the  direction  of  the 
blow,  and  the  precision  obtained  is 
fully  equal  to  that  of  hand-labor. 

COAL  GAS,  the  variety  of  carburetted 
hydrogen  which  produces  common  gas- 
light. 


COALING-STATIONS 


COCA 


1 


COALING-STATIONS,  stations  estab- 
lished by  government  at  various  im- 
portant points  throughout  the  world, 
where  the  ships,  both  of  the  navy  and 
the  mercantile  marine,  may  obtain 
supplies  of  coal.  The  utility  of  such 
stations,  when  properly  fortified,  as 
points  of  refuge,  defense,  and  repair  for 
ships  in  the  event  of  war  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated. 

COALITION,  a term  used  in  diplo- 
macy and  politics  to  denote  a union 
between  different  parties  not  of  the 
same  opinions,  but  who  agree  to  act  to- 
gether for  a particular  object.  Among 
states  it  is  understood  to  mean  theoret- 
ically someting  less  general  in  its  ends, 
and  less  deeply  founded  than  an  alli- 
ance. 

COAL-TAR,  or  GAS-TAR,  a substance 
obtained  in  the  distillation  of  coal  for 
the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  a 
dark-colored  more  or  less  viscid  mass, 
consisting  principally  of  oily  hydrocar- 
bons. It  passes  over  with  the  gas  into 
the  condenser,  along  with  ammonia 
liquor,  but  being  heavier  than  the  latter, 
it  is  easily  separated  from  it  when  the 
whole  is  allowed  to  stand.  It  was 
formerly  of  comparatively  little  use; 
but  in  recent  years  a great  number  of 
valuable  products  have  been  derived 
from  it  by  distillation,  such  as  ammonia, 
naphtha,  creosote,  carbolic  acid,  and 
benzine,  while  it  is  also  the  source  of  the 
whole  series  of  aniline  colors,  and  other 
dyes,  of  alizarine,  salicylic  acid,  etc. 

COAL  TAR  COLORS,  dyes  made  from 
the  combinations  of  various  hydro- 
carbons derived  from  coal  tar.  The 
possibility  of  making  these  dyes  was 
discovered  by  the  German  chemist, 
Runge,  in  1834.  This  observation  was 
carried  farther  by  Perkins  in  1856, 
but  the  most  interesting  discovery 
in  this  connection  was  that  of  the 
German  chemists  Graebe  and  Lieber- 
mann  who  made  a color  from  anthracene 
which  was  really  the  coloring  matter 
found  in  madder  root.  This  was  in  1868 
and  the  progress  of  organic  chemistry 
since  then  has  made  it  possible  to 
prepare  from  aniline  and  other  hydro- 
carbons a variety  of  dyes  varying  in- 
finitely in  shade. 

COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY, 

The  United  States,  a bureau  pertaining 
to  the  department  of  the  treasury,  for  the 
purpose  of  surveying  the  coasts  and 
boundaries  of  the  country  and  determin- 
ing geographical  positions  in  the  interior. 
It  was  organized  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  President  Jefferson  in  1807  and 
its  work  since  that  time  has  included 
almost  every  region  in  the  United 
States.  Some  ot  the  important  work 
done  by  the  survey  was  triangulation, 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  Florida 
Keys,  observation  of  the  gulf  stream, 
surveys  of  the  boundary  line  between 
Alaska  and  British  Columbia,  soundings 
in  all  American  waters,  explorations  of 
rivers  and  mountains,  and  magnetic 
observations  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  bureau  issues  a line  of 
publications  important  for  commerce, 
science,  and  defense. 

COAST  ARTILLERY,  artillery  for  the 
defense  of  coasts.  The  United  States 
uses  8,  10,  and  12-inch  breech  loading 
guns,  rapid-fii’e  guns,  and  other  forms 


of  ordnance.  The  16-inch  breech  load- 
ing rifle  of  the  United  States  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  effective  rifles 
in  existence.  It  requires  a charge  of 
576  pounds  smokeless,  and  1176  pounds 
black  powder,  and  fires  a projectile  of 
2400  pounds,  a velocity  (muzzle)  of 
2300  feet  per  second.  The  Italian  and 
French  rifles  are  a little  larger  but  not 
so  effective.  English  coast  artillery  has 
not  been  brought  to  the  same  per- 
fection or  that  of  the  United  States. 

COAST  DEFENSE,  the  art  of  fortify- 
ing and  defending  a coast  from  an 
enemy.  This  is  done  by  the  use  of  large 
guns  (see  Coast  Artillery),  by  tactics 
which  obstruct  the  enemy’s  advance, 
by  harassing  the  enemy  from  different 
points  of  attack  with  isolated  instru- 
ments or  boats,  by  mining  the  water 
with  torpedoes,  and  by  the  use  of 
search  lights  to  disclose  the  enemy’s 
location.  Since  modern  coast  defense 
methods  have  been  perfected  no  good 
opportunity  of  testing  it  has  offered. 
The  test  made  by  Dewey  at  Manila 
Bay  in  1898  was  not  a fair  one,  as  the 
Spaniards  were  not  only  poor  tacticians 
but  their  torpedoes  were  worthless. 

COAT  OF  ARMS.  See  Arms  and 
Heraldry. 

COAT  OF  MAIL,  a piece  of  armor  in 
the  form  of  a shirt,  consisting  of  a net- 
work of  iron  or  steel  rings,  or  of  small 
laminae  or  plates,  usually  of  tempered 
iron,  laid  over  each  other  like  the  scales 
of  a fish,  and  fastened  to  a strong  linen 
or  leather  jacket. 

CO'BALT  , a metal  of  a grayish-white 
color,  very  brittle,  of  a fine  close  grain, 
compact,  but  easily  reducible  to  pow- 
der. It  crystallizes  in  parallel  bundles 
of  needles.  It  is  never  found  in  a pure 
state,  but  usually  as  an  oxide,  or  com- 
bined with  arsenic  or  its  acid,  with  sul- 
phur, iron,  etc.  The  great  use  of  cobalt 
is  to  give  a permanent  blue  color  to 
glass  and  enamels  upon  metals,  porce- 
lain, and  earthenwares. 

COBB,  Howell,  an  American  legis- 
lator, born  in  Georgia  in  1815,  died  in 
1868.  He  was  congressman  for  four 
terms  until  1851,  and  in  the  last  term 
was  speaker  of  the  house.  His  other 
positions  were  governor  of  Georgia 
(1855)  secretary  of  the  treasury  in 
Buchanan’s  cabinet,  and  president  of 
the  congress  which  adopted  the  con- 
stitution of  the  confederacy.  He  was 
a bitter  anti-reconstructionist. 

COB'DEN,  Richard,  English  politi- 
cian, the  “apostle  of  free  trade,”  born 
in  Sussex  3d  June,  1804,  died  in  London 
2d  April,  1865.  His  first  political  writ- 
ing was  a pamphlet  on  England,  Ire- 
land, and  America,  which  was  followed 
by  another  on  Russia.  In  both  of  these 
he  gave  clear  utterance  to  the  political 
views  to  which  he  continued  through  his 
life  rigidly  to  adhere,  advocating  non- 
intervention in  the  disputes  of  other 
nations,  and  maintaining  it  to  be  the 
only  proper  object  of  the  foreign  policy 
of  England  to  increase  and  strengthen 
her  connections  with  foreign  countries 
in  the  way  of  trade  and  peaceful  inter- 
course. Having  joined  the  anti-corn- 
law  league,  formed  in  1838,  it  was 
chiefly  the  extraordinary  activity  of 
Cobden,  together  with  Bright  and  other 
zealous  fellov'-workers,  which  won  vic- 


tory for  the  movement.  In  1841  Cobden 
entered  parliament  as  member  for  Stock- 
port,  and  after  several  years  of  un- 
wearied efforts  at  last  induced  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  then  prime  minister,  to 
bring  in  a bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  corn 


Richard  Cobden. 


laws,  a measure  which  became  law  in 
1846.  His  last  great  work  was  the 
commercial  treaty  w'hich  he  was  the 
means  of  bringing  about  between  Britain 
and  France  in  1860.  During  his  later 
years  he  lived  a good  deal  in  retirement. 

COBDEN  CLUB  , an  association  formed 
about  a year  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Cob- 
den, mainly  by  the  influence  of  Mr. 
Bright  and  Mr.  T.  B.  Potter,  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  the  growth  and 
diffusion  of  those  economical  and  polit- 
ical principles  with  which  Mr.  Cobden’s 
name  is  associated.  The  Cobden  Club 
has  distributed  a vast  number  of  books 
and  pamphlets. 

COBRA  DE  CAPELLO,  the  Portu- 
guese name  of  the  hooded  or  spectacled 
snake,  which  is  found  in  Southern  Asia, 
a closely  allied  species,  also  called  cobra, 
or  asp,  being  found  in  Egypt.  It  is 
called  spectacled  snake  from  a singular 
marlung  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  while 
its  other  name  is  given  from  the  remark- 
able manner  in  which  it  spreads  out  the 
skin  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  head 
when  disturbed  or  irritated,  raising  the 
anterior  part  of  its  body  so  as  to  appear 
to  stand  erect,  and  expanding  its  hood. 
So  exceedingly  poisonous  is  its  bite, 
that  in  numerous  instances  death  has 
followed  within  a few  minutes,  and  under 
ordinary  circumstances  a few  hours 
is  the  longest  term  where  prompt 
measures  have  not  been  taken.  But 
indeed  recovery  rarelj'  takes  place, 
though  injection  of  potash  into  the 
veins  is  said  to  be  a remedy.  In  India 
thousands  of  natives  lose  their  lives 
yearly  through  cobra  bites.  Its  food 
consists  of  small  reptiles,  birds,  frogs, 
fishes  (being  an  excellent  swimmer), 
etc.  Its  great  enemy  is  the  ichneumon. 
It  is  one  of  the  snakes  that  the  snake- 
charmers  perform  tricks  with. 

COBWEB,  the  web  or  network  spun 
by  spiders  to  catch  their  prey. 

COCA,  a South  American  plant.  The 
leaf  is  a stimulating  narcotic,  and  is 
chewed  by  the  inhabitants  of  countries 
on  the  Pacific  side  of  South  America, 
mixed  with  finely-powdered  chalk.  It 
has  effects  somew'hat  similar  to  those  of 
opium.  A small  quantity  of  it  enables 
a person  to  bear  up  against  fatigue  ever 
when  receiving  less  food  than  usual 


COCAINE 


COCOA-NUT 


and  it  prevents  the  difficulty  of  respira- 
tion experienced  in  climbing  high 
mountains.  Used  in  excess  it  brings 
on  various  disorders,  and  the  desire  for 
it  increases  so  much  with  indulgence 
that  a confirmed  coca-chewer  is  said 
never  to  have  been  reclaimed.  Coca- 
leaves  depend  for  their  influence  on  a 
crystallizable  alkaloid  called  cocaine, 
which,  besides  having  effect  similar  to 
the  leaf,  possesses  valuable  anaesthetic 
properties,  and  in  recent  times  has  been 
e.specially  employed  to  prevent  suffering 
in  operations  on  the  eye,  having  also 
similar  effects  when  applied  to  the 
tongue,  larynx,  ear,  etc. 

COCAINE  (ko'ka-in).  See  Coca. 

COCCUS,  a genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  Hemiptera,  family  Coccidae,  or 
scale-insects.  The  males  are  elongated 
in  their  form,  have  large  wings,  and 
are  destitute  of  any  obvious  means  of 
suction;  the  females,  on  the  contrary, 
are  of  a rounded  or  oval  form,  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  length,  have  no 
wings,  but  possess  a beak  or  sucker,  by 
which  they  suck  up  the  juices  of  the 
plants  on  which  they  live.  At  a certain 
period  of  their  lives  the  females  attach 
themselves  to  the  plant  or  tree  which 
they  inhabit,  and  remain  thereon  im- 
movable during  the  rest  of  their  exist- 
ence. In  this  situation  they  are  im- 
pregnated by  the  male;  after  which 
their  body  increases  considerably,  in 
many  species  losing  its  original  form 
and  assuming  that  of  a gall,  and,  after 
depositing  the  eggs,  drying  up  and 
forming  a habitation  for  the  young. 
Cochineal  consists  of  the  bodies  of  the 
females  of  the  Coccus  cacti,  a native  of 
Mexico,  which  feeds  on  various  species  of 
cactus,  particularly  on  one  called  nopal. 

COCH'IN,  a small  native  state  of 
India,  on  the  s.  w.  or  Malabar  coast 
connected  with  the  Presidency  of 
Madras.  Area,  1361  sq.  miles;  pop. 
815.218. 

COCHIN-CHINA,  a country  forming 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  South-eastern 
Asia,  and  generally  regarded  as  com- 
prising the  whole  of  Anam  and  Lower 
or  French  Cochin-China.  The  latter 
belonged  to  Anam  till,  in  1863  a portion 
of  it  was  finally  ceded  to  France  after  a 
war  occasioned  by  the  persecution  of 
French  missionaries;  another  portion 
being  declared  French  territory  in  1867. 
The  territory  thus  acquired  covers 
21,710  sq.  miles,  and  in  189^  had  a pop. 
of  2,226,935. 

COCHIN-CHINA,  a term  applied  to  a 
variety  of  the  domestic  fowl,  imported 
from  Cochin-China.  It  is  a large  un- 
gainly bird,  valuable  chiefly  owing  to  its 
fecundity,  eggs  being  laid  even  during 
the  winter. 

COCHINEAL  (koch'in-el),  a dye-stuff 
consisting  of  the  dried  bodies  of  the 
females  of  a species  of  insect,  a na- 
tive of  the  warmer  parts  of  America, 
particularly  Mexico,  and  found  living  on 
a species  of  cactus  called  the  cochineal- 
fig.  The  insects  are  brushed  softly  off, 
and  killed  by  being  placed  in  ovens  or 
dried  in  the  sun,  having  then  the  appear- 
ance of  small  berries  or  seeds.  A pound 
of  cochineal  contains  about  70,000  of 
them.  The  finest  cochineal  is  prepared 
in  Mexico,  where  it  was  first  discovered, 
and  Guatemala;  but  Peru,  Brazil, 


Algiers,  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
the  Canary  Islands  have  also  entered 
into  this  industry  with  more  or  less 
success.  Cochineal  produces  crimson 
and  scarlet  colors,  and  is  used  in  making 
carmine  and  lake. 

COCHRANE,  John,  an  American 
legislator  and  soldier,  born  in  New  York 
State  in  1813,  died  in  1898.  He  was 
democratic  member  of  congress  from 
1856  to  1862  and  was  a brigadier-gen- 
eral in  the  Union  army  during  the  civil 
war.  In  1864  he  was  candidate  for  the 
vice  presidency  with  Fremont. 

COCK.  See  Fowl. 

COCKADE',  a plume  of  cock’s  feath- 
ers, with  which  the  Croats  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  French  in  the  17th  century 
adorned  their  caps.  A bow  of  colored 
ribbons  was  adopted  for  the  cockade  in 
France,  and  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion the  tricslored  cockade — red,  white, 
and  blue — became  the  national  dis- 
tinction. National  cockades  are  now  to 
be  found  over  all  Europe. 

COCKATOO',  the  name  of  a number  of 
climbing  birds  belonging  to  the  family 
of  the  parrots.  They  have  a large,  hard 
bill ; a crest,  capable  of  being  raised  and 
lowered  at  the  will  of  the  bird,  com- 
monly white,  but  sometimes  yellow, 
red,  or  blue;  a tail  somewhat  longer 
than  that  of  the  parrot,  and  square  or 
rounded;  long  wings;  and,  for  the  most 


Leadbeater’s  cockatoo. 


part,  a white  plumage,  though  in  some 
genera  the  plumage  is  dark.  They  are 
found  especially  in  the  Eastern  Archi- 
pelago and  Australia.  They  live  on 
roots,  fruits,  grain,  insects,  etc.,  and 
usually  congregate  in  flocks.  These 
birds  are  easily  tamed,  and  when 
domesticated  become  very  familiar. 

COCK'CHAFER,  a species  of  lamel- 
licorn  beetle,  remarkable  for  the  length 
of  its  life  in  the  worm  or  larva  state,  as 
well  as  for  the  injury  it  does  to  vegeta- 
tion after  it  has  attained  its  perfect  con- 
dition. The  common  cockchafer  is 
hatched  from  an  egg  which  the  parent 
deposits  in  a hole  about  6 inches  deep, 
which  she  digs  for  the  purpose.  At  the 
end  of  about  three  months  the  insect 
emerges  as  a small  grub  or  maggot,  and 
feeds  on  the  roots  of  vegetables  in  the 
vicinity  with  great  voracity.  When 
full  grown  it  is  over  an  inch  in  length; 
it  makes  its  way  underground  with  ease, 
and  commits  great  devastation  on  grass 
and  corn  crops.  In  the  fourth  year  the 
insect  appears  as  a perfect  coleopterous 
insect — a beetle  over  an  inch  long,  of  a 
black  color,  with  a whitish  down.  It 
usually  emerges  from  the  ground  about 


the  beginning  of  May,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance the  English  name  May  bug 
or  beetle  has  been  given  it.  In  its  per- 
fect state  it  is  very  destructive  to  the 
leaves  of  various  trees. 

COCKER,  a dog  of  the  spaniel  kind, 
allied  to  the  Blenheim  dog,  used  for 
raising  woodcocks  and  snipes  from  their 
haunts  in  woods  and  marshes. 

COCK-FIGHTING,  an  amusement 
practiced  in  various  countries,  first  per- 
haps among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
At  Athens  there  were  annual  cock- 
fights, and  among  the  Romans  quails 
and  partridges  were  also  used  for  this 
purpose. 

COCK'NEY,  a nickname  for  a London 
citizen,  as  to  the  origin  of  which  there 
has  been  much  dispute.  The  word  is 
often,  but  not  always,  employed  slight- 
ingly as  implying  a peculiar  limitation  of 
taste  or  judgment.  The  epithet  is  as 
old  at  least  as  the  time  of  Henry  II. 

COCK  OF  THE  PLAINS,  a large  North 
American  species  of  grouse,  inhabiting 
desolate  plains  in  the  western  states. 

COCK  OF  THE  ROCK,  a South  Amer- 
ican bird  of  a rich  orange  color  with  a 
beautiful  crest,  belonging  to  the  mana- 
kin  family. 

COCKPIT,  in  a man-of-war,  the  place 
where  the  wounded  are  dressed  in  battle 
or  at  other  times,  and  where  medicines 
are  kept. 

COCK'ROACH,  a genus  of  insects, 
characterized  by  an  oval,  elongated, 
depressed  body,  which  is  smooth  on  its 
superior  surface.  They  have  parch- 
ment-like elytra,  and  in  the  female  the 
wings  are  imperfectly  developed.  They 
are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  exceeding- 
ly agile,  and  devour  provisions  of  all 
kinds.  Cockroaches,  like  other  orthop- 
terous insects,  do  not  undergo  a com- 
plete metamorphosis:  the  larvse  and 
nymphs  resemble  the  perfect  insect, 
except  that  they  have  merely  rudiments 
of  wings.  The  eggs  are  carried  below 
the  abdomen  of  the  female  for  seven  or 
eight  days  till  she  finally  attaches  them 
to  some  solid  body  by  means  of  a gummy 
fluid.  The  species  are  numerous. 

COCKSWAIN  (colloquially  cok'sn), 
the  officer  who  manages  and  steers  a 
boat  and  has  the  command  of  the  boat’s 
crew. 

CO'COA,  a name  given  to  the  ground 
kernels  of  the  Yacao  or  chocolate  tree 
prepared  to  be  made  into  a beverage. 
See  Cacao. 

CO'COA-NUT,  or  COCO-NUT,  a woody 
fruit  of  an  oval  shape,  from  3 or  4 to  6 or 
8 inches  in  length,  covered  with  a 
fibrous  husk,  and  lined  internally  with 
a white,  firm,  and  fleshy  kernel.  The 
tree  which  produces  the  cocoa-nut  is  a 
palm,  from  40  to  60  feet  high.  The 
trunk  is  straight  and  naked,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a crown  of  feather-like 
leaves.  The  nuts  hang  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  tree  in  clusters  of  a dozen  or 
more  together.  The  external  rind  of  the 
nuts  has  a smooth  surface.  This  in- 
closes an  extremely  fibrous  substance, 
of  considerable  thickness,  which  im- 
mediately surrrounds  the  nut.  The 
latter  has  a thick  and  hard  shell,  with 
three  black  scars  at  one  end,  through 
one  of  which  the  embryo  of  the  future 
tree  pushes  its  way.  This  scar  may  be 
pierced  with  a pin;  the  others  are  as 


COCOA-NUT  OIL 


COTFEE 


hard  as  the  rest  of  the  shell.  The  kernel 
incloses  a considerable  quantity  of 
sweet  and  watery  liquid,  of  a whitish 
color,  which  has  the  name  of  milk.  This 
palm  is  a native  of  Africa,  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  and  South  America,  and 
is.  now  grown  almost  everywhere  in 
tropical  countries.  Food,  clothing,  and 
the  means  of  shelter  and  protection  are 
all  afforded  by  the  cocoa-nut  tree  The 
kernels  are  used  as  food  in  various  modes 
of  dressing,  and  yield  on  pressure  an  oil 
which  is  largely  imported  into  various 
countries.  When  dried  before  the  oil  is 
expressed  they  are  known  as  copra.  The 
fibrous  coat  of  the  nut  is  made  into  the 
well-known  cocoa-nut  matting;  the 
coarse  yarn  obtained  from  it  is  called 
coir,  which  is  also  used  for  cordage. 
The  hard  shell  of  the  nut  is  polished 
and  made  into  a cup  or  other  domestic 
utensil.  The  fronds  are  wrought  into 
baskets,  brooms,  mats,  sacks,  and  many 
other  useful  articles;  the  trunks  are 
made  into  boats  or  furnish  timber  for 
the  construction  of  houses.  By  boring 
the  tree  a white  sweetish  liquor  called 
toddy  exudes  from  the  wound,  and 
yields  by  distillation  one  of  the  varieties 
of  the  spirit  called  arack.  A kind  of 
sugar  called  jaggery  is  also  obtained 
from  the  juice  by  inspissation. 

COCOA-NUT  OIL,  a solid  vegetable 
fat,  largely  used  in  candle  - making 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and 
pomatum.  This  fat  is  got  by  pressure 
from  the  albumen  of  the  cocoa-nut  ker- 
nel, and  is  as  white  as  lard,  and  some- 
what firmer.  Manila  and  Ceylon  send 
large  quantities  of  .the  oil  to  the  U.  S. 

COCOON',  the  name  given  to  the  web 
or  ball  spun  by  caterpillars  before  pass- 
ing into  the  chrysalis  state.  The  valu- 
able product  thus  obtained  from  the 
silkworm  is  well  known. 

COD,  a genus  of  well-known  soft- 
finned  fishes,  distinguished  by  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics: — A smooth,  ob- 
long, or  fusiform  body,  covered  with 
small  soft  scales;  ventrals  attached 
beneath  the  throat;  gills  large,  seven- 
rayed,  and  opening  laterally;  a small 
beard  at  the.  tip  of  the  lower  jaw; 
generally  two  or  three  dorsal  fins,  one 
or  two  anal,  and  one  distinct  caudal 
fin.  The  most  interesting  species  is 
the  common  or  bank  cod.  Though 
found  plentifully  on  the  coasts  of  other 
northern  regions,  as  Britain,  Scandi- 
navia, and  Iceland,  a stretch  of  sea 
near  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  is 
the  favorite  annual  resort  of  count- 
less multitudes  of  cod,  which  visit  the 
the  Grand  Banks  to  feed  upon  the 
crustaceous  and  molluscous  animals 
abundant  in  such  situations,  and  thus 
attract  fleets  of  fishermen.  Few  mem- 
bers of  the  animal  creation  are  more 
universally  serviceable  to  man  than  the 
codfish.  Both  in  its  fresh  state  and  when 
salted  and  dried  it  is  a substantial  and 
wholesome  article  of  diet;  the  tongue  is 
considered  a delicacy,  and  the  swim- 
ming-bladders or  sounds,  besides  being 
highly  nutritious,  supply,  if  rightly 
prepared,  an  isinglass  equal  to  the  best 
Russian.  The  oil  extracted  by  heat 
and  pressure  from  the  liver  is  of  great 
medicinal  value,  and  contributes  con- 
siderably to  the  high  economic  value  of 
the  cod.  The  cod  is  enormously  prolific, 


the  ovaries  of  each  female  containing 
more  than  9,000,000  of  eggs;  but  the 
numbers  are  kept  down  by  a host  of 
enemies.  The  spawning  season,  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland,  begins  about 
the  mouth  of  March  and  terminates  in 
June;  but  the  regular  period  of  fishing 
does  not  commence  before  April  on 
account  of  the  storms,  ice,  and  fogs. 
The  season  lasts  till  the  end  of  June, 
when  the  -cod  commence  their  migra- 
tions. The  average  length  of  the  com- 
mon cod  is  about  or  3 feet,  and  the 
weight  between  30  and  50  lbs.,  though 
sometimes  cod  are  caught  weighing 
three  times  this.  The  color  is  a yellow- 
ish-gray on  the  back,  spotted  with 
yellowish  and  brown;  the  belly  white 
or  reddish,  with  golden  -spots  in  young 
individuals.  It  is  caught  by  lines  and 
hooks. 

COD,  Cape.  See  Cape  Cod. 

CODE,  in  jurisprudence,  is  a name 
given  to  a systematic  collection  or 
digest  of  laws.  The  following  are  the 
chief  codes  which  have  affected  the  laws 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States:  The 
Theodosian  Code,  a compilation  ' exe- 
cuted in  429  by  a commission  on  behalf 
of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  and  pro- 
mulgated as  law  throughout  the  eastern 
and  western  empires.  The  Justinian 
Code,  a code  compiled  in  528,  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  incor- 
porating all  the  codes,  rescripts,  edicts 
previously  in  use  (see  Civil  Laws).  The 
Code  Napoleon,  or  Code  Civil,  under- 
taken under  the  consulship  of  Napoleon 
by  the  most  eminent  jurists  of  France, 
and  published  in  1804.  The  Code  Na- 
poleon (under  which  name  other  four 
codes  of  commercial  law,  criminal  law, 
penal  law,  and  law  of  procedure,  drawn 
up  at  the  same  time,  are  often  included) 
was  a code  in  the  strictest  sense,  that  is, 
not  merely  a collection  of  laws,  but  a 
complete  and  exclusive  statement  of  the 
law  virtually  amounting  to  a recasting 
of  the  laws  of  the  country.  Under  the 
first  empire  the  adoption  of  the  Code 
Napoleon  was  made  obligatory  on  all 
the  countries  subject  to  the  French, 
and  although  it  has  been  judged  defect- 
ive in  some  technical  respects,  its  brev- 
ity, clearness,  and  modern  spirit  have 
made  it  popular  in  all  the  countries 
where  it  has  been  introduced.  At  present 
it  is  recognized  in  Belgium  (with  some 
modifications),  in  Baden,  in  Italy,  and 
elsewhere  in  Europe. 

CODEINE  (ko-de'-in),  a crystallizable 
alkaloid  obtained  from  opium,  in  which 
it  exists  to  the  amount  of  6 or  8 ozs.  per 
100  lbs.  It  is  used  to  produce  sleep  and 
to  soothe  irritable  coughs ; and  is  the  chief 
remedy  in  diabetes;  dose  I grain  and 
upward.  It  is  a poison  in  excessive  doses. 

COD'ICIL,  in  law,  a supplement  to  a 
will,  to  be  considered  as  a part  of  it, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  or 
altering  or  of  adding  to  or  subtracting 
from  the  testator’s  former  disposition. 
A codicil  may  not  only  be  written  on  the 
same  paper  or  affixed  to  or  folded  up 
with  the  will,  but  may  be  written  on  a 
different  paper  and  deposited  in  a 
different  place.  In  general  the  law 
relating  to  codicils  is  the  same  as  that 
relating  to  wills,  and  the  same  proofs  of 
genuineness  must  be  furnished  by 
signature,  and  attestation  by  witnesses. 


A man  may  make  as  many  codicils  as 
he  pleases,  and.  if  not  contradictory, 
all  are  equally  valid. 

COD-LIVER  OIL,  an  oil  extracted 
from  the  livers  of  different  kinds  of  cod. 
The  finest  and  palest  oil  is  got  from 
fresh  and  carefully-cleaned  liver,  the 
oil  being  extracted  either  in  the  cold  or 
by  a gentle  heat.  The  darker  kinds  are 
got  at  a higher  temperature,  and  often 
from  the  livers  in  a putrefying  state. 
Only  the  pale  oils  are  used  in  medicine; 
the  dark  oils  are  too  rank  and  acrid,  and 
they  are  only  used  in  dressing  leather^^ 
Cod-liver  oil  is  a somewhat  complex^ 
substance,  but  the  main  ingredients 
appear  to  be  olein  and  margarin.  Acetic  ^ 
butyric,  and  other  acids  are  also  present, 
and  to  these  the  oil  may  owe  some  of  its 
odor.  This  oil  is  now  a recognized  agent 
in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism,  gout, 
scrofula,  and  especially  of  consumption, 
being  taken  internally  and  containing 
a quantity  of  easily-assimilated  nutritive 
matter. 

CODY,  William  Frederick  (Buffalo 
Bill),  an  American  scout,  marksman 
and  showman,  born  in  Iowa  in  1845.  ■ 
During  the  civil  war  he  was  a scout  for 
the  Union  army  and  was  subsequently 
a contractor  for  the  supply  of  buffalo 
meat  to  the  constructors  of  the  Kansas 
Pacific  Railroad,  an  enterprise  which 
earned  him  his  soubriquet.  Of  late  years 
he  originated  his  “Wild  West  Show,” 
which  took  Europe  by  storm. 

CO-EDUCATION,  the  education  of 
the  two  sexes  (1)  in  the  same  institution, 
and  (2)  in  the  same  class  room  or  labora- 
tory. The  practice  is  almost  universal 
in  the  public  schools  and  state  colleges 
and  universities,  and  in  many  of  the 
large  endowed  colleges  and  universities. 

In  Europe  women  are  not  admitted  to 
the  large  schools  except  in  England, 
Sweden,  Switzerland  and  Austria.  In 
this  country  co-education  was  advo- 
cated as  early  as  1826  by  Horace  Mann 
in  the  high  schools  of  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1833  Oberlin  College  opened  its 
doors  to  women.  Today  virtually  all 
the  universities  of  the  U.  States  and 
Canada  (with  the  exception  of  a few 
religious  institutions)  admit  women 
either  as  undergraduate  students,  grad- 
uate students,  or  both.  The  merits 
of  the  controversy  as  to  the  desirability 
of  co-education  is  a very  difficult 
question  to  decide. 

COFFEE  is  the  seed  of  an  evergreen 
shrub  which  is  cultivated  in  hot  climates, 
and  is  a native  of  Abyssinia  and  of 
Arabia.  This  shrub  is  from  15  to  20 
feet  in  height,  and  belongs  to  the  Rubi- 
aceae.  The  leaves  are  green,  glossy  on 
the  upper  surface,  and  the  flowers  are 
white  and  sweet-scented.  The  fruit  is 
of  an  oval  shape,  about  the  size  of  a 
cherry,  and  of  a dark-red  color  when 
ripe.  Each  of  these  contains  two  cells, 
and  each  cell  a single  seed,  which  is  the 
coffee  as  we  see  it  before  it  undergoes 
the  process  of  roasting.  Great  attention 
is  paid  to  the  culture  of  coffee  in  Arabia. 
The  trees  are  raised  from  seed  sown  in 
nurseries  and  afterward  planted  out  in 
moist  and  shady  situations,  on  sloping 
grounds  or  at  the  foot  of  mountains. 
Care  is  taken  to  conduct  little  rills  of 
water  to  their  roots,  which  at  certain 
seasons  require  to  be  constantly  sur- 


COFFER-DAM 


COINAGE 


rounded  with  moisture.  When  the 
fruit  has  attained  its  maturity  cloths 
are  placed  under  the  trees,  and  upon 
these  the  laborers  shake  it  down.  They 
afterward  spread  the  berries  on  mats, 
and  expose  them  to  the  sun  to  dry.  The 
husk  is  then  broken  off  by  large  and 
heavy  rollers  of  wood  or  iron.  When  the 
coffee  has  been  thus  cleared  of  its  husk 
it  is  again  dried  in  the  sun,  and,  lastly, 
winnowed  with  a large  fan,  for  the  pur- 

Eose  of  clearing  it  from  the  pieces  of 
usks  with  which  it  is  intermingled. 
A pound  of  coffee  is  generally  more 
than  the  produce  of  one  tree ; but  a tree 
in  great  vigor  will  produce  3 or  4 lbs. 
Nexf  in  quality  to  the  Mocha  coffee  may 
perhaps  be  ranked  that  of  Southern 
India  and  that  of  Ceylon,  which  is  strong 
and  well  flavored;  but  comparatively 
little  coffee  now  comes  from  Ceylon. 


Java  and  Central  America  produce  large 
quantities  of  excellent  coffee.  Brazilian 
coffee,  though  produced  more  abun- 
dantly than  any  other,  stands  at  the 
bottom  of  the  list  as  regards  quality. 
Liberian  coffee  may  also  be  mentioned. 
Of  the  best  Mocha  coffee  grown  in  the 
province  of  Yemen  little  or  none  is  said 
to  reach  the  western  markets.  Arabia 
itself,  Syria,  and  Egypt  consume  fully 
two-thirds,  and  the  remainder  is  ex- 
clusively absorbed  by  Turkish  or 
Armenian  buyers.  The  only  other 
coffee  which  holds  a first  rank  in  eastern 
opinion  is  that  of  Abyssinia.  Then 
comes  the  produce  of  India,  which  those 
accustomed  to  the  Yemenite  variety 
are  said  to  consider  hardly  drinkable. 
American  coffee  holds  in  the  judgment 
of  all  Orientals  the  very  last  rank. 

COFFER-DAM,  a temporary  wooden 
inclosure  formed  in  water  in  order  to 
obtain  a firm  and  dry  foundation  for 
bridges,  piers,  etc.  It  is  usually  formed 
of  two  or  more  rows  of  piles  driven  close 
together,  with  elay  packed  in  between 
the  rows. 

COFFIN,  the  chest  or  box  in  which  a 
dead  body  is  inclosed  for  burial.  Coffins 
were  used  by  the  ancients  mostly  to 
receive  the  bodies  of  persons  of  dis- 
tinction. Among  the  Romans  it  was 
latterly  the  almost  universal  custom 
to  consume  the  bodies  with  fire,  and 


deposit  the  ashes  in  urns.  In  E^pt 
coffins  seem  to  have  been  used  in  ancient 
times  universally.  They  were  of  stone, 
earthenware,  glass,  wood,  etc.  A sort 
of  ancient  coffin  is  known  as  a sarcoph- 
agus. Coffins  among  Christians  weje 
introduced  with  the  custom  of  burying. 
(See  Burial.)  Modern  coffins  are  usually 
made  of  wood,  and  are  sometimes  in- 
closed in  a leaden  case.  It  has  been 
often  proposed  that  they  should  be  made 
with  a hole  opposite  the  place  of  the 
mouth  of  the  body,  so  as  to  allow 
breathing  in  case  of  revival.  Of  course 
it  would  he  necessary,  at  the  same  time, 
to  let  the  coffin  stand  for  some  days  in  a 
convenient  place,  as  is  the  custom  in 
some  parts  of  Germany.  It  has  re- 
cently been  proposed  to  employ  coffins 
of  wicker-work,  while  some  strenuously 
advocate  the  burning  of  all  dead  bodies. 
See  Cremation. 

COFFIN,  Charles  Carleton,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  writer,  born  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1823,  died  in  1896.  He 
was  war  correspondent  during  the  civil 
war  for  the  Boston  Journal  and  later 
made  a tour  of  the  world.  His  pub- 
lished works  deal  largely  with  war  and 
travel. 

COFFIN,  James  Henry,  an  American 
mathematician  and  scientist,  born  in 
Massachusetts  in  1806,  died  in  1873. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  scientists  ap- 
pointed to  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
and  his  publications  deal  with  meteor- 
ology, astronomy  nad  psychology. 

COFFIN,  William  Anderson,  an  Ameri- 
can painter,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1855.  His  paintings  are  chiefly  land- 
scapes. His  picture.  Rain,  was  pur- 
chased by  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
and  he  was  awarded  a bronze  medal 
at  the  Paris  exposition  of  1889. 

COGHLAN,  Rose,  ah  Anglo-American 
actress,  born  in  England  in  1853.  Her 
first  appearance  was  as  one  of  the 
witches  in  Macbeth.  She  made  her 
American  debut  with  E.  A.  Sothern  in 
1871  at  New  York,  and  since  that  time 
has  appeared  in  Shakespearean  and 
other  parts  in  the  principal  American 
cities. 

COGNAC  (kon-yak),  a town  in  France, 
dep.  Charente,  and  near  the  river 
Charente,  22  miles  w.  Angouleme, 
pleasantly  situated  on  a hill,  crowned 
by  the  remains  of  an  old  castle.  It  is 
famous  for  the  brandy  which  bears  its 
name,  and  which  is  exported  to  all  parts 
uf  the  world.  Pop.  18,932. 

COGNATES,  relations  by  the  mother’s 
side.  See  Agnates. 

COG'NISANCE,  in  heraldry,  a crest, 
coat  of  arms,  or  similar  badge  of  dis- 
tinction appertaining  to  a person  or 
family;  in  law,  judicial  or  formal  notice 
or  acknowledgment  of  a fact. 

COGNO'MEN,  the  hereditary  family 
name  (such  ns  Cicero,  Cato,  etc.)  among 
the  ancient  Romans.  The  other  two 
names  generally  borne  by  every  well- 
born Roman,  viz.  the  praenomen  and 
nomen  (as  in  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero) 
served  to  denote  the  individual  (Marcus), 
and  the  gens  (Tullius)  or  clan  to  which 
his  family  belonged. 

COGNO'VIT,  in  law,  is  a written  con- 
fession given  by  the  defendant  that  the 
action  of  the  plaintiff  is  just,  or  that  he 
has  no  available  defense. 


COG-WHEEL,  a wheel  with  cogs  oi 
teeth. 

COHABITATION,  the  living  together 
of  a man  and  woman  as  husband  and 
wife.  The  term  does  not  exclusively 
mean  the  very  act  of  sexual  intercourse 
itself,  but  implies  it. 

COHE'SION,  the  force  by  which  the 
various  particles  of  the  same  material 
are  kept  in  contact,  forming  one  con- 
tinuous mass.  Its  action  is  seen  in  a 
solid  mass  of  matter,  the  parts  of  which 
cohere  with  a certain  force  which  resists 
any  mechanical  action  that  would  tend 
to  separate  them.  In  different  bodies  it 
is  exerted  with  different  degrees  of 
strength,  and  it  is  measured  by  the 
force  necessary  to  pull  them  asunder. 
Cohesion  acts  at  insensible  distances, 
or  between  particles  in  contact,  and  is 
thus  distinguished  from  the  attraction 
of  gravitation.  It  unites  particles  into 
a single  mass,  and  that  without  pro- 
ducing any  change  of  properties,  and 
is  thus  distinguished  from  adhesion, 
which  takes  place  between  different 
masses  or  substances ; and  from  chemical 
attraction  or  affinity,  which  unites 
particles  of  a different  kind  together  and 
produces  a new  substance.  Hardness, 
softness,  tenacity,  elasticity,  mallea- 
bility, and  ductility  are  to  be  considered 
as  modifications  of  cohesion.  The  great 
antagonist  of  cohesion  is  heat. 

COHESION  FIGURES,  a class  of 
figures  produced  by  the  attraction  of 
liquids  for  other  liquids  or  solids  with 
which  they  are  in  contact,  and  divided 
into  surface,  submersion,  breath,  and 
electric  cohesion  figures.  Thus  a drop 
of  an  independent  liquid,  as  oil  or 
alcohol,  will  spread  itself  out  on  the 
surface  of  water  always  in  a definite 
figure,,  but  differing  with  each  fluid 
dropped  on  the  water.  Breath  figures 
are  produced  by  putting  a drop  of  the 
liquid  to  be  examined  on  a slip  of  mica, 
and  breathing  on  it,  when  each  fluid 
takes  a distinct  characteristic  shape. 
Electric  cohesion  figures  are  produced 
by  electrifying  drops  of  various  liquids 
placed  on  a plate  of  glass. 

COHOBA'TION,  the  repeated  dis- 
tillation of  the  same  liquid  from  the  same 
materials. 

COHOES  (ko-hoz'),  a city  of  Albany 
Co.,  New  York,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mohawk,  with  unlimited  water-power 
derived  from  the  Mohawk  Falls.  There 
are  large  cotton  and  other  mills.  Pop. 
26,140. 

COIMBATORE  (ko-im-ba-tor'),  a town 
of  Hindustan,  Madras  Presidency,  capi- 
tal of  district  to  which  it  gives  name, 
situated  on  the  river  Noyil,  with  wide 
streets,  abundant  water,  and  a healthy 
climate.  Pop.  53,080. — The  district  has 
an  area  of  7860  square  miles.  It  is  fer- 
tile, producing  sugar,  cotton  rice,  and 
tobacco;  and  well  watered  by  several 
rivers.  Pop.  2,202,312. 

COINAGE,  Coins.  See  Coining,  Money, 
Numismatics,  Currency. 

COINAGE,  the  conversion  of  a metal 
into  pieces  of  money,  (coins)  stamped 
with  impressions  which  are  provided 
for  by  law.  The  right  to  coin  money  is 
a prerogative  of  the  State  and  one  of  the 
foremost  marks  of  sovereignty.  The 
circulation  of  coins  rests,  in  the  first 


COKE 


COLEOPTERA 


instance,  upon  the  authority  of  the  State, 
but  that  authority  must  be  exercised 
in  good  faith.  Coinage  issued  by  in- 
dividuals would  lack  authority  and 
lack  also  the  guaranty  of  good  faith. 
There  have  been  occasions  of  great 
dearth  of  money  where  private  persons 
have  issued  coins.  Such  issues  are 
known  as  tokens,  and  gain  circulation 
either  from  their  similarity  to  legal  coins 
or  from  the  promise  of  redeeming  them. 
Their  total  lack  of  uniformity  gives  a 
picture  of  what  might  be  expected  were 
the  issue  of  coins  left  wholly  to  private 
initiative.  Almost  equally  obvious  is 
the  necessity  for  the  manufacture  by 
the  State  of  the  coins  which  it  issues. 
To  delegate  the  manufacture  of  its  coins 
to  a private  establishment,  as  was  done 
in  France  before  1879,  required  such 
a minute  control  of  all  itiS  operations  by 
State  officials  that  the  plan  has  gener- 
ally been  abandoned.  The  greater  in- 
tegrity of  a national  mint  over  a private 
enterprise  is  further  illustrated  by  the 
fact  that  the  mints  of  the  leading  nations 
are  frequently  called  upon  to  execute 
the  coinage  for  smaller  States  which 
have  no  mints  of  their  own.  Thus,  in 
1901,  the  United  States  Mint  executed  a 
gold  coinage  for  Costa  Rica. 

In  many  countries,  notably  England 
and  the  United  States,  the  government 
makes  no  charge  for  coining  gold 
(free  coinage)  and  in  others  a charge  is 
made,  called  seignorage,  the  term  being 
derived  from  the  feudal  system  of 
France.  Perfectly  free  coinage  has  been 
found  to  be  most  advantageous  to  the 
general  welfare  of  a nation. 

COKE,  the  carbonaceous  residue  of 
coal  which  has  been  heated  in  an  oven  or 
retort,  or  in  any  way  by  which  little  air  is 
admitted,  until  all  volatile  matter  has 
been  expelled.  The  simplest  method  of 
producing  coke  is  based  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  wood  charcoal,  the  coal  being 
arranged  in  heaps  which  are  smothered 
with  clay  or  coal-dust,  and  then  set  on 
fire,  sufficient  air  being  admitted  to 
keep  the  mass  at  the  proper  temperature 
for  decomposition  without  wasting  the 
coke.  After  the  volatile  portions  are  got 
rid  of,  the  heap  is  allowed  to  cool,  or  is 
extinguished  with  water,  and  the  coke 
is  then  ready.  Methods  of  heating  the 
coal  in  close  or  open  ovens  until  the 
gaseous  and  fluid  products  are  driven  off 
are  also  commonly  used.  Gas-coke  is 
that  which  remains  in  the  retorts  after 
the  gas  has  been  given  off.  Good  oven- 
coke  has  an  iron-gray  color,  sub-metallic 
luster,  is  hard,  and  somewhat  vesicular; 
but  gas-coke  has  rather  a slagged  and 
cindery  look,  and  is  more  porous.  Coke 
contains  about  90  per  cent  of  carbon, 
and  is  used  where  a strong  heat  is 
wanted  without  smoke  and  flame,  and 
it  is  accordingly  largely  consumed  in 
drying  malt  and  similar  purposes.  It 
used  to  be  burned  regularly  in  locomo- 
tive-engines, but  raw  coal  is  now  com- 
monly substituted.  The  largest  quanti- 
ties are  consumed  in  smelting  opera- 
tions. 

COKE,  Sir  Edward,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  was  the  son  of  a Norfolkshire 
gentleman  and  was  born  in  1551.  He 
died,  September,  1634.  His  principal 
works  are  Reports,  from  1600  to  1615; 
Institutes  of  the  Laws  of  England,  in 


four  parts;  the  first  of  which  contains 
the  celebrated  commentary  on  Little- 
ton’s Tenures  (“Coke  Upon  Littleton’’); 
A Treatise  of  Bail  and  Mainprise,  Com- 
plete Copyholder. 


‘fA 


i 


Sir  Edward  Coke. 

COLBERT  (kol-bar),  Jean  Baptiste, 
a celebrated  French  minister  of  finances, 
born  at  Rheims  in  1619.  After  serving 
in  various  subordinate  departments  Col- 
bert was  made  intendant,  and  at  length 
comptroller-general  of  the  finances.  His 
task  was  a difficult  one.  He  found  dis- 
order and  corruption  everywhere.  The 
state  was  the  prey  of  the  farmers- 
general,  and  at  the  same  time  main- 
tained only  by  their  aid.  The  people 
were  obliged  to  pay  90,000,000  livres 
of  taxes,  of  which  the  king  received 
scarcely  35,000,000,  the  revenues  were 
anticipated  for  two  years,  and  the 
treasury  empty.  Colbert  at  once  com- 
menced a system  of  stringent  reforms, 
abolishing  useless  offices,  retracting 
burdensome  privileges,  diminishing  sala- 
ries, and  distributing  and  collecting  the 
taxes  by  improved  methods  till  he  had 
reduced  them  almost  to  one-half.  To 
his  talents,  activity,  and  enlarged  views 
the  development  and  rapid  progress 
of  industry  and  commerce  in  France 
was  largely  due.  He  constructed  the 
Canal  of  Languedoc;  declared  Mar- 
seilles and  Dunkirk  free  ports;  granted 
premiums  on  goods  exported  and  im- 
ported; regulated  the  tolls;  estab- 
lished insurance  offices;  made  uniform 
laws  for  the  regulation  of  commerce, 
labored  to  render  the  pursuit  of  it  well 
esteemed,  and  invited  the  nobility  to 
engage  in  it.  The  French  colonies  in 
Canada,  Martinique,  etc.,  showed  new 
signs  of  life;  new  colonies  were  estab- 
lished in  Cayenne  and  Madagascar,  and 
to  support  these  Colbert  created  a con- 
siderable naval  force.  Under  the  pro- 
tection and  in  the  house  of  the  minister 
(1663)  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  was 
founded.  Three  years  afterward  he 
founded  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
in  1671  the  Academy  of  Architecture. 
He  enlarged  the  Royal  Library  and  the 
Garden  of  Plants,  and  built  an  observ- 
atory, in  which  he  employed  Huyghens 
and  Cassini.  He  began  the  measurement 
of  the  meridian  in  France,  and  sent  men 
of  science  to  Cayenne.  After  having 
conferred  the  greatest  benefits  on  his 
country  he  died  in  1683,  out  of  favor 
with  the  king  and  the  people. 

COLD,  the  absence  of  sensible  heat, 
especially  such  a want  of  heat  as  causes 


some  discomfort  or  uneasiness.  The 
temperature  in  which  man  and  other 
animals  live  is  generally  below  the  na- 
tural heat  of  the  body,  but  this  is  easily 
kept  up  in  ordinary  cases  by  means  of 
the  food  taken  in  and  digested.  A high 
degree  of  cold,  however,  produces  bodily 
depression,  and  is  a frequent  source  of 
disease,  or  even  of  death.  For  the  ail- 
ment called  a cold,  see  Catarrh. 

COLD-BLOODED  ANIMALS,  a term 
applied  to  those  animals,  such  as  rep- 
tiles, the  temperature  of  whose  blood 
ranges  from  the  freezing-point,  or  near 
it,  to  90°  Fahr.,  in  accordance  with  that 
'of  the  surrounding  medium. 

COLD  CREAM,  a cooling  ointment 
prepared  in  various  ways.  A good 
variety  may  be  made  by  heating  four 
parts  of  olive-oil  with  one  of  white  wax. 
This  ointment  cools  the  skin,  rendering 
it  soft  and  pliable,  and  is  successfully 
applied  for  the  cure  of  chapped  hands. 

COLD-WATER  CURE.  See  Hydrop- 
athy. 

COLD  WAVE,  a term  used  by  the 
United  States  weather  bureau  and 
applied  to  sudden  changes  in  tempera- 
ture. Cold  waves  are  caused  by  the 
pressure  of  the  heavy  cold  air  of  the 
north  or  northwest  upon  the  lighter 
warm  air  of  the  Southern  and  Eastern 
parts  of  the  United  States.  They  ad- 
vance with  an  even  front  causing  the 
temperature  to  drop  from  a few  degrees 
to  40  or  50  degrees  in  a few  hours. 

COLE,  Timothy,  an  American  en- 
graver, born  in  England  in  1852  and 
known  as  the  engraver  of  numerous 
fine  pictures  published  by  the  Century 
company  of  New  York.  Many  cities 
consider  Mr.  Cole  the  best  of  modem  en- 
gravers. 

COLEMAN,  William  Tell,  an  Ameri- 
can pioneer,  one  of  the  49’ers  who  went 
to  California  with  the  prospectors  on 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  that  state. 
He  was  conspicious  as  a leader  of  early 
vigilance  committees.  Coleman  was 
born  in  Kentucky  in  1824  and  died  in 
1893. 

COLEN'SO,  John  William,  D.D.,  Bish- 
op of  Natal,  born  in  1814;  educated  at 
Cambridge;  assistant-master  at  Harrow 
till  1842;  appointed  in  1853  first  bishop 
of  Natal,  South  Africa.  He  published 
treatises  on  Algebra  and  Arithmetic 
which  have  been  popular  text-books  in 
schools  and  colleges.  His  work  on  the 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua,  which 
called  in»question  the  historical  accuracy 
of  these  books,  involved  the  author  in  a 
conflict  with  his  ecclesiastical  superiors, 
and  he  was  deposed  by  the  Bishop  of 
Cape  Town.  But  the  decisions  of  the 
privy-council  of  chancery  were  in  his 
favor,  and  he  continued  to  officiate  as 
bishop.  He  died  in  1883. 

COLEOP'TERA,  an  order  of  insects, 
commonly  known  as  beetles.  They  have 
four  wings,  of  which  the  two  superior 
are  not  suited  to  flight,  but  form  a cover- 
ing and  protection  to  the  two  inferior, 
and  are  of  a hard  and  horny  or  parch- 
ment-like nature.  The  inferior  wings, 
when  not  in  use,  are  folded  transversely 
under  the  superior.  The  coleoptera 
undergo  a perfect  metamorphosis.  The 
larva  generally  resembles  a short  thick 
worm  with  six  legs  and  a scaly  head  and 
mouth. 


COLERIDGE 


COLLISION 


COLERIDGE,  Samuel  Taylor,  a cele- 
brated English  poet  and  philosopher, 
was  born  on  21st  October,  1772,  at 
Otterj’  St.  Mary,  Devonshire.  He  died 
July  25th,  1 834.  The  dreamy  and  trans- 
cendental character  oLColeridge’s  poetry 
eminently  exhibits  the  man.  In  his  best 
moments  he  has  a fine  sublimity  of 
thought  and  expression  not  surpassed  by 
Milton;  but  he  is  often  turgid  and  ver- 
bose. As  a critic,  especially  of  Shake- 
spere,  Coleridge’s  work  is  of  the  highest 
rank,  combining  a comprehensive  grasp 
of  large  critical  principles  and  a singu- 
larly subtle  insight  into  details.  Coler- 
idge’s poetical  works  include  The 
Ancient  Mariner,  Christabel  (incom- 
plete), Remorse,  a tragedy,  Kubla  Khan, 
a translation  of  Schiller’s  Wallenstein, 
etc.;  his  prose  works,  Biographia  Liter- 
aria,  The  Friend,  The  Statesman’s  Man- 
ual, Aids  to  Reflection,  On  the  Consti- 
tution of  Church  and  State,  etc.  Pos- 
thumously were  published  specimens  of 
his  Table  Talk,  Literary  Remains,  etc. 


One  of  the  coleoptera, 

a, Head.  &,  Thorax,  c,  Abdomen,  dd,  Elytra. 
«e,  Wings.  //.Antennae. 

COLFAX,  Schuyler,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1823,  died  in  1885.  In  1836  he  settled 
in  Indiana  and  started  the  South  Bend 
Register.  After  serving  seven  terms  in 
congress  he  was  speaker  for  six  years  till 
1869,  he  was  elected  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  in  the  last  mentioned 
year. 

COLGATE,  James  Boorman,  an  Amer- 
ican banker,  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1818.  He  was  conspicuous  during  the 
panic  of  1873  for  his  large  loans  to  the 
government 

COLGATE,  Samuel,  an  American 
philanthropist  and  capitalist,  born  in 
New  York  City  in  1822,  died  in  1897. 
He  was  famous  as  a manufacturer  of 
soaps  and  for  his  liberal  distribution  to 
religion  and  education  of  a part  of  the 
fortune  he  made  in  his  business.  In 
honor  of  him  the  name  of  Madison 
University  was  changed  in  1889  to 
Colgate  University. 

COLGATE  UNIVERSITY,  founded  at 
Hamilton,  N.  Y.,  in  1818  by  the  Baptist 
Education  Societj'’.  In  1846  it  was  in- 
corporated as  Madison  University,  and 
its  name  was  changed  in  1889  to  Col- 
gate University  in  honor  of  Samuel 
Colgate,  its  greatest  benefactor.  The 
University  has  a property  of  $2,160,000, 
a library  of  35,000  volumes,  and  a regis- 
tration of  300  students.  A Baptist 
divinity  school  forms  part  of  the  insti- 
tution. 

CO'LIC,  a painful  disorder  of  the 
bowels,  usually  of  a spasmodic  character, 
unaccompanied  by  diarrhoea,  and  pre- 
senting itself  in  various  forms.  When 
the  pain  is  accompanied  with  a vomit- 
ing of  bile  or  with  obstinate  costiveness 
P.  E.— 19 


it  is  called  a bilious  colic ; if  with  windy 
distension,  it  takes  the  name  of  flatulent 
or  windy_  coMc ; if  with  heat  and  inflam- 
mation, it  takes  the  name  of  inflamma- 
tory colic,  or  enteritis.  There  are  many 
other  varieties  of  this  complaint,  some 
of  which  are  peculiar  to  certain  occupa- 
tions or  districts,  as  the  painters’  colic 
(see  Lead  Poisoning),  the  Devonshire 
colic. 

COLIGNY  (kol-in-ye),  Gaspard  de, 
French  admiral,  born  in  1517,  dis- 
tinguished himself  under  Francis  I. 
and  Henry  IT.,  who  made  him  in  1552 
Admiral  of  France.  After  the  death 
of  Henry  II.,  Coligny  took  the  Protest- 
ant side  in  the  religious  strifes  of  the 
time,  and  became  the  head  of  the 
Huguenot  party.  He  was  generally 
unfortunate  in  the  battles  he  fought, 
but  speedily  repaired  his  defeats  by 
prudence  and  good  management.  When 
peace  was  made  Coligny  was  received 
with  apparent  favor  at  court.  But  this 
was  only  a blind;  and  on  the  night  of 
St.  Bartholomew’s  (Aug.  24,  1572) 
Coligny  was  basely  slaughtered,  and  his 
corpse  given  up  to  the  outrages  of  the 
mob. 

COLLAT'ERAL  RELATIONS,  de- 
scendants of  brothers  or  sisters,  or  the 
brothers  or  sisters  of  the  ascending  lines. 

COLLATERAL  SECURITY,  additional 
security,  such  as  a deed  granted  over 
other  property  besides  that  already 
mortgaged. 

COLLATION,  a comparison  of  one 
copy  or  thing  of  a like  kind  with  another, 
especially  manuscripts  and  editions  of 
books. — In  canon  law,  the  presentation 
of  a clergyman  to  a benefice  by  a bishop 
who  has  the  right  of  patronage.  In  such 
a case  the  combination  of  the  act  of 
presentation  and  institution  constitute 
collation. 

COL'LEGE,  in  a general  sense,  a body 
or  society  of  persons  invested  with  cer- 
tain powers  and  rights,  performing  cer- 
tian  duties,  or  engaged  in  some  common 
employment  or  pursuit.  In  the  U. 
States  and  Great  Britain  some  societies 
of  physicians  are  called  colleges.  So, 
also,  there  are  colleges  of  surgeons,  a 
college  of  heralds,  etc.  The  most  famil- 
iar application  of  the  term  college, 
however,  is  to  a society  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  the  pursuits  of  literature,  in- 
cluding the  professors,  lecturers,  or 
other  officers,  and  the  students.  As 
applied  to  an  educational  institution 
the  name  is  somewhat  loosely  used.  The 
higher  class  of  colleges  are  those  in 
which  the  students  engage  in  study  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  a degree  in  arts, 
medicine,  or  other  subjects,  and  are 
connected  with,  or  have  more  or  less 
the  character  of  universities.  The  early 
history  of  these  institutions  is  somewhat 
obscure;  the  probability  is  that  they 
were  originally  founded  in  the  various 
universities  of  the  middle  ages,  with 
similar  objects  and  from  the  same 
charitable  motives.  Hostels  or  board- 
ing-houses were  provided  (principally 
by  the  religious  orders,  for  the  benefit 
of  those  of  their  own  fraternity),  in 
which  the  scholars  lived  under  a certain 
superintendence,  and  the  endowment  of 
these  hostels  by  charitable  persons  for 
the  support  of  poor  scholars  completed 
the  foundation  of  a college.  Out  of  this 


has  developed  the  modern  English 
college  as  seen  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
where  each  college,  though  a member  or 
component  part  of  the  university,  is  a 
separate  establishment  whose  fellows, 
tutors,  and  students  live  together  under 
a particular  head,  called  master,  princi- 
pal, warden,  etc.,  of  the  college.  In 
Scotland,  the  U.  States,  and  Germany 
the  college  is  practically  one  with  the 
university,  the  latter  body  performing 
all  the  functions  alike,  of  teaching, 
examining,  degree-conferring,  etc.  See 
Universities. 

COLLIE,  a variety  of  dog  especially 
common  in  Scotland,  and  from  its 
intelligence  of  much  use  to  shepherds. 
It  is  of  medium  size  and  varies  much  in 
coloring,  black  and  white  being  com- 
mon, and  black  with  tan-colored  legs, 
muzzle,  etc.,  being  highly  esteemed. 
The  head  is  somewhat  fox-shaped,  the 
ears  erect,  but  with  drooping  points, 
the  tail  rather  long,  bushy,  and  with  a 
strong  curl. 

COLLIMATION,  Line  of,  in  an  as- 
tronomical instrument,  such  as  a teles- 
cope or  transit  instrument,  the  straight 
line  which  passes  through  the  center  of 
the  object-glass  and  intersects  at  right 


angles  a system  of  spider-threads  placed 
at  the  focus  of  the  eye-piece.  The  prop- 
er adjustment  of  the  line  of  collimation 
of  the  instrument  is  necessary  to  accur- 
ate observation  of  the  time  at  which 
movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies  take 
place. 

COLLIMA'TORS,  two  small  sub- 
sidiary telescopes  used  for  collimating 
astronomical  instruments,  that  is,  for 
adjusting  the  line  of  collimation,  and  for 
determining  the  collimation  error. 

COLLINS,  William  Wilkie,  born  in 
London  in  1'824.  He  was  educated  for 
the  bar,  but  turned  aside  to  literature, 
in  which  he  has  specially  distinguished 
himself  as  a novelist  of  great  dramatic 
and  constructive  power.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  Antonina,  The 
Woman  in  White,  The  New  Magdalen, 
The  Evil  Genius,  etc.  He  died  in  1889. 

COLLISION,  in  maritime  affairs,  the 
shock  of  two  ships  coming  into  violent 
contact,  whereby  one  or  both  may 
suffer  more  or  less  injury.  Collision  may 
happen  without  blame  being  imputa- 
ble to  either  party,  as  where  the  loss  is 
occasioned  by  a storm,  in  which  case  the 
misfortune  must  be  borne  by  the  party 
on  whom  it  happens  to  light.  Or  a col- 
lision may  arise  where  both  parties  are 
to  blame — where  there  has  been  a want 


COLLODION 


COLON 


of  due  diligence  or  skill  on  both  sides ; in 
which  case  neither  party  has  an  action 
against  the  other.  Thirdly,  it  may 
happen  by  the  misconduct  of  the  suffer- 
ing party  only,  and  then  the  rule  is  that 
the  sufferer  must  bear  his  own  burden. 
Lastly,  it  may  have  been  the  fault  of  the 
ship  which  ran  the  other  down;  and  in 
that  case  the  injured  party  would  be  en- 
titled to  an  entire  compensation  from 
the  other.  Strict  laws  and  regulations 
to  prevent  collisions  have  been  laid 
down,  which  contain  rules  concerning 
lights,  and  sailing  and  steering  rules. 
By  the  rule  of  the  road  at  sea,  if  two 
sailing  ships  are  approaching  each  other 
end  on,  or  nearly  so,  the  helms  of  both 
must  be  put  to  port,  so  that  each  may 
pass  on  the  port  side  of  the  other;  in 
crossing  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision 
the  sailing  ship  with  the  wind  on  the  port 
side  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
ship  with  the  wind  on  the  starboard,  but 
if  they  have  both  the  wind  on  the  same 
side  the  ship  which  is  to  windward  shall 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  one  that  has 
it  to  leeward.  If  a steam  ship  and  a 
sailing  ship  are  approachin-g,  so  as  to 
involve  collision  the  former  must  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  latter.  If  one 
vessel  is  overtaking  another  she  must 
keep  out  of  the  way  of  the  last-named 
vessel. 

COLLO'DION,  a substance  prepared 
by  dissolving  pyroxiline  (gun-cotton) 
in  ether,  or  in  a mixture  of  ether  and 
alcohol,  which  forms  a useful  substitute 
for  adhesive  plaster  in  the  case  of  slight 
wounds.  When  the  fluid  solution  is 
applied  to  the  cut  or  wound  it  immedi- 
ately dries  into  a semi-transparent, 
tenacious  film,  which  adheres  firmly  to 
the  part,  and  under  it  the  wound  or 
abrasion  heals  without  inflammation. 
In  a slightly  modified  form  collodion 
is  also  employed  as  the  basis  of  a photo- 
graphic process  called  the  collodion  pro- 
cess. See  Photography. 

COL'LOIDS,  non-crystallizable  sub- 
stances, such  as  gelatine,  gum,  etc. 
See  Dialysis. 

COLLOT  D'HERBOIS  (kol-6-dar- 
bwa),  Jean  Marie,  French  revolutionary, 
born  in  1750,  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  he  soon  became  prominent 
as  a leader  of  the  Mountain  or  extreme 
party.  After  filling  several  missions  he 
was  sent  by  Robespierre  along  with 
Fouch6  to  Lyons  in  1793,  with  almost 
unlimited  powers,  and  was  guilty  of  the 
most  flagrant  enormities.  Returning 
to  Paris  he  became  a determined  op- 
ponent of  Robespierre,  and  being  chosen 
president  of  the  Convention  (19th  July, 
1794),  contributed  to  his  fall.  A few 
weeks  after  he  was  banished  to  Cayenne, 
where  he  died  in  1796. 

COLLU'SION,  in  law,  a secret  agree- 
ment between  opposing  litigants  to  ob- 
tain a particular  judicial  decision  on  a 
preconcerted  statement  of  facts,  whether 
true  or  false,  to  the  injury  of  a third 
party.  Collusion,  when  proved  to  exist, 
nullifies  the  judgment  obtained  through 
it. 

COLOGNE  (ko-l6n'),  German,  Koln 
(kewln),  a city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  forming,  in  con- 
nection with  Deutz,  which  serves  as  a 
t6te-du-pont  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  (across  which  is  a bridge  of  boats 


and  an  iron  railway  and  general  traffic 
bridge),  a fortress  of  the  first  rank.  The 
old  fortifications,  dating  from  the  middle 
ages,  are  being,  or  have  been  recently, 
swept  away,  new  works  being  construct- 
ed in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
modern  fortification.  There  are  many 
fine  old  buildings  as  well  as  excellent 
modern  ones;  the  churches  in  particu- 
lar are  interesting.  The  most  important 
edifice  of  all  is  the  cathedral,  begun  in 
1248,  one  of  the  finest  and  largest  Gothic 


Cologne,  showing  cathedral  and  church 
of  St.  Martin. 


structures  in  Europe.  It  was  only 
completed  in  the  19th  century,  there 
being  expended  on  it  in  1828-84  over 
$5,000,000.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a cross; 
its  entire  length  is  about  445  feet; 
breadth,  200  ft.;  height  to  ridge  of  roof, 
202  ft.,  height  of  the  two  western  towers, 
between  which  is  a grand  portal,  520 
feet,  being  thus  among  the  highest 
edifices  in  the  world.  The  council- 
house,  museum,  and  the  great  St.  Martin 
Church  with  its  imposing  tower  should 
also  be  mentioned.  The  manufactures 
embrace  sugar,  tobacco,  glue,  carpets, 
leather,  machinery,  chemicals,  pianos, 
and  the  celebrated  eaude  Cologne.  The 
trade  by  river  and  railway  is  very  great. 
— It  was  annexed  to  the  German  Empire 
in  870,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
powerful  and  wealthy  cities  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  but  latterly  it  de- 
clined. In  1792’  it  ceased  to  be  a free 
city.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in 
1794,  ceded  to  them  by  the  Treaty  of 
Lun4ville  in  1801,  and  restored  to 
Prussia  in  1814.  Pop.  372,229. 

COLOM'BIA,  Republic  of,  formerly 
called  New  Granada,  a republic  of  South 
America,  consisting  of  the  eight  depart- 
ments or  states  of  Antioquia,  Bolivar, 
Boyaca,  Cauca,  Cundinamarca,  Mag- 
dalena, Santander,  and  Tolima.  The 
population  is  now  about  3,593,600. 
The  chief  towns  are  Bogota,  the  capital, 
Medellin,  Barranquilla,  Cartagena,  and 
Bucaramanga.  The  area  is  estimated 
officially  at  473,202  sq.  miles,  but  there 
is  much  disputed  boundary  territory 
in  the  inland  regions  toward  the  south 
and  east.  Late  in  1903  the  department 
of  Panama  proclaimed  itself  an  inde- 
pendent republic,  and  was  at  once 
recognized  by  the  U.  States,  which 
has  concluded  with  it  an  agreement  for 
the  construction  of  a canal  across  the 
isthmus.  The  flora  is  rich  and  luxuriant. 
A great  part  of  the  country  is  still 
covered  with  virgin  forests,  which  yield 
excellent  building-wood,  Peruvian  bark, 
caoutchouc,  vanilla,  etc.  The  fauna 
includes  the  jaguar,  puma,  tapir,  arma- 


dillo, sloth,  various  species  of  deer,  and  • 
the  gigantic  condor.  The  mineral  wealth 
is  various  and  abundant,  though  still 
imperfectly  explored.  It  comprises  coal, 
gold,  silver  (both  now  largely  worked 
by  foreign  companies),  emeralds,  and 
salt.  Industry  is  at  a very  low  stage. 
Maize,  bananas,  and  plantains  are  the 
chief  articles  of  food.  Tobacco  and 
coffee  are  cultivated  and  exported. 
Sugar  IS  also  grown.  Manufactures  can 
scarcely  he  said  to  exist,  Panama  hats, 
mats,  and  coarse  cotton  cloths  being 
almost  the  only  articles  that  can  be 
mentioned  in  this  class.  The  chief  ports 
are  Sabanilla,  the  port  of  Barranquilla 
and  Cartagena.  The  loss  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  has  deprived  Colombia  of 
much  of  its  commercial  importance 
The  foreign  trade  of  the  country  is 
chiefly  with  Britain  and  the  United 
States.  The  exports  are  chiefly  precious 
metals,  hides,  coffee,  tobacco,  etc.;  the 
imports,  manufactured  goods. — By  the  ' 
constitution,  as  amended  in  1886,  the 
executive  power  is  vested  in  a president 
elected  for  six  years,  the  legislative 
power  in  a congress  of  two  houses — the  j 

Senate  and  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. The  former  consists  of  twenty-  3 
four  representatives,  three  from  each  ] 
department,  the  latter  of  representatives  I 
elected  by  universal  suffrage  for  four  1 
years,  one  for  every  50,000  inhabitants. 
The  revenue  is  generally  under  the  ex-  J 
penditure  and  the  finances  are  in  an  ! 
unsatisfactory  state.  New  Granada  ^ 
was  discovered  by  Alonso  de  Ojeda  in 
1499;  it  was  visited  by  Columbus  on  ^ 
his  fourth  voyage,  in  1502.  The  first  ; 
Spanish  settlement  was  made  in  1510 
at  Santa  Maria  in  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  j 
and  the  whole  country  was  formed  into 
a province  under  a captain-general  in  i 
1547.  New  Granada  declared  its  inde- 
pendence of  Spain  in  1811,  and  after 
eleven  years  of  warfare  succeeded  with 
the  help  of  Venezuela  in  effecting  its  lib- 
eration. Both  states  then  united  with  ; 
Ecuador,  also  freed  from  the  Spanish  i 
domination,  to  form  the  first  republic  ' 
of  Colombia;  but  internal  dissensions  ’ 
arising,  the  three  states  again  separated 
in  1831,  forming  three  independent 
republics,  which  have  had  a very  . 
troubled  existence.  In  1861  the  states 
forming  New  Granada  by  agreement 
adopted  a new  constitution,  the  republic 
henceforth  to  be  called  the  United 
States  of  Colombia.  This  title  was  re- 
tained till,  by  the  new  constitution 
adopted  in  1886,  the  state  ceased  to  be 
a federal  republic  and  became  a unitary 
republic,  with  the  name  of  Republic  of 
Colombia.  The  secession  of  Panama  in 
1903  was  partly  brought  about  by  the 
dilatoriness  of  the  central  government 
in  concluding  a satisfactory  arrange- 
ment with  the  United  States  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  an  interoceanic 
canal. 

COLOM'BO,  a seaport  town,  the 
capital  of  Ceylon,  on  the  south  west  : 
coast,  and  about  70  miles  west  by  south  ■ 
of  Kandy,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  , 
railway  Pop.  158,093.  ‘ 

CO'LON,  the  middle  portion  of  the  ; 
large  intestine,  or  that  which  lies  be-  ^ 
tween  the  c£ecum  and  the  rectum,  or  ^ 
terminal  portion.  In  man  it  is  about  ,w 
feet  long,  and  forms  a series  of  ■ 


COLON 


COLORADO 


pouches  in  which  the  digested  food  is 
for  a time  detained.  It  is  itself  believed 
to  have  some  digestive  power. 

CO'LON,  a punctuation  mark,  thus: 
used  to  mark  a pause  in  the  sense  that 
might  also  be  indicated  by  a full  stop. 

COLON',  or  ASPINWALL  (the  former 
is  the  official  name),  a free  port  of 
Panama,  on  Manzanillo  Island,  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  at 
the  Atlantic  extremity  of  the  inter- 
oceanic  railway,  and  near  that  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  Established  in  con- 
nection with  the  railway,  it  had  an  im- 
portant transit  trade  before  the  canal 
was  begun,  and  since  then  the  place  has 
been  entirely  transformed,  a new  town 
with  wide  and  regular  streets  having 
been  built  on  a tract  of  land  reclaimed  by 
the  builders  of  the  canal.  There  is 
extensive  harbor  accommodation.  Pop. 
estimated  at  8,000  to  10,000. 

COLONEL  (ker'nel),  a military  title 
indicative  of  a rank  under  that  of  briga- 
dier general.  In  the  United  States  army 
a colonel  commands  a regiment.  In 
England  and  Europe  generally  the  title 
has  more  an  honorary  than  an  actual 
value. 

COLONIAL  DAMES  OF  AMERICA, 

national  society  of,  an  organization  of 
women  patriots,  founded  in  1890,  mem- 
bership in  which  is  limited  to  women 
lineally  descended  from  an  ancestor  of 
distinction  who  resided  in  the  colonies 
previously  to  1776.  Its  purpose  is  the 
collection  of  interesting  documents 
relative  to  colonial  and  revolutionary 
affairs. 

COLONIAL  DAMES  OF  AMERICA,  a 

patriotic  society  of  women  organized 
in  1892  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
records,  manuscripts,  etc.,  pertaining  to 
the  colonies.  Membership  is  conditioned 
on  being  descended  from  a worthy 
ancestor  settling  in  the  colonies  pre- 
viously to  1750.  It  has  a membership 
of  5,000  and  is  distinct  from  the  other 
society  of  the  same  name. 

COLON'NA,  an  Italian  family  that 
had  become  important  as  early  as  the 
8th  century.  Its  fame  during  the  middle 
ages  eclipsed  that  of  every  other  Roman 
family  except  the  great  rival  house  of 
the  Orsini.  The  Colonna  family  is  at 
present  represented  by  several  branches, 
the  Colonna-Sciarra,  Colonna-Stigliano, 
etc.  It  played  an  important  part  in 
the  affairs  of  Europe,  became  allied  to 
the  greatest  houses  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Germany  and  has  furnished  many  cele- 
brated warriors,  popes,  and  cardinals. 

COLON'NA,  Vittoria,  the  most  re- 
nowned poetess  of  Italy,  was  born  in 
1490.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  she  was 
married  to  Ferdinand,  Marquis  of 
Pescara,  the  companion  of  her  youth, 
who  became  one  of  the  distinguished 
n\en  of  his  age.  All  her  poems  were 
devoted  to  the  memory  of  her  husband. 
She  died  at  Rome  in  1547.  Her  most 
celebrated  work  is  the  Rime  Spirituali, 
1538.  They  are  considered  among  the 
happiest  imitations  of  Petrarca. 

COLONNADE',  in  architecture,  any 
series  or  range  of  columns  placed  at 
certain  intervals  from  each  other.  When 
surrounding  the  building  on  the  ex- 
terior the  ^olonnade  is  called  a peristyle ; 
when  projecting  beyond  the  line  of  the 
building  it  is  called  a portico. 


COL'ONY,  a settlement  formed  in  one 
country  by  the  inhabitants  of  another. 
Colonies  may  either  be  formed  in  de- 
pendence on  the  mother  country  or  in 
independence.  In  the  latter  case  the 
name  of  colony  is  retained  only  in  a 
historical  sense.  Properly,  perhaps, 
the  term  should  be  limited  to  a settle- 
ment which  carries  on  a direct  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  as  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  or  Australia;  such  settle- 
ments as  those  of  the  British  in  Hindus- 
tan or  Malta  being  the  mere  super 
position  on  the  natives  of  a ruling  race 
which  takes  little  or  no  part  in  the 
general  industry  of  the  country.  The 
motives  which  lead  to  the  formation  of 
colonies,  and  the  manner  of  their  forma- 
tion, are  various.  Sometimes  the  am- 
bition of  extending  territory  and  the 
desire  of  increasing  wealth  have  been 
the  chief  impulses  in  colonization;  but 
colonies  may  now  be  said  to  have  be- 
come a necessity  for  the  redundant 
population  of  European  states.  Among 
ancient  nations  the  principal  pro- 
moters of  colonization  were  the  Phoeni- 
cians, the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans; 
the  greatest  colonizers  in  modern  times 
have  been  the  English  and  the  Spani- 
ards, next  to  whom  may  be  reckoned 
the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch,  and  the 
French. 

The  Germans  have  colonized  parts  of 
South  America  and  Africa,  and  since 
the  war  with  Spain  the  United  States, 
by  the  acquisition  of  Porto  Rico  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  have  become  one 
of  the  colonial  powers  of  the  world. 

COLOR,  the  sensation  in  the  brain 
produced  by  different  rates  of  vibration 
of  light  waves  which  stimulate  the 
retina  and  give  rise  to  chemical  changes 
therein  which  when  reaching  the  brain 
are  interpreted  in  a change  of  conscious- 
ness; also  the  pigment  used  in  art  to 
produce  the  sensation.  Different 
lengths  in  the  light  waves  produce 
different  colors.  For  example,  when 
the  light-wave  is  of  an  inch  long, 

red  is  the  color  produced,  and  as  the 
waves  decrease  in  force,  we  see  yellow, 
green,  blue,  and  so  on,  through  the 
spectrum.  According  to  the  theory  of 
Chevreuil,  iiow  generally  accepted, 
white  light  is  the  union  of  all  colors, 
and  its  decomposition  by  an  object  re- 
veals the  color  separated  from  the  rest. 
Thus,  a rose  absorbs  all  colors  but  red, 
which  it  reflects;  while  a white  sub- 
stance, rejecting  all  colors,  is  therefore 
colorless.  Correctly  speaking,  there  are 
but  six  colors — three  primary  (red,  blue, 
and  yellow),  and  three  secondary 
(orange,  violet,  and  green).  Orange  is 
composed  of  purple  and  yellow,  violet 
of  red  and  blue,  green  of  yellow  and 
blue.  All  other  colors  are  compounds 
of  these. 

Complementary  Colors  are  those 
which,  combined  with  another  color 
or  colors,  make  up  the  three  primary 
colors  constituting  white  light.  If  the 
given  color  be  primitive,  its  comple- 
ment is  composed  of  the  other  two 
primitive  colors-  For  example,  the 
complementary  color  of  blue  is  orange 
— that  is  to  say,  red  and  yellow.  If  the 
given  color  be  a secondary,  its  comple- 
mentary is  the  remaining  primitive 
color — ^as,  for  instance,  the  comple- 


mentary color  of  green  (blue  and  yel- 
low) is  red.  In  painting,  brilliancy  of 
coloring  may  be  obtained  by  placing 
complementary  colors  side  by  side, 
because  each  lends  to  the  other  a favor- 
able halo,  while  the  juxtaposition  of 
non-complementary  colors  has  the  op- 
posite effect  of  dullness.  This  method 
of  heightening  and  softening  colors  was 
used  with  great  effect  by  Delacroix,  and 
is  today  much  practiced  by  French  and 
Spanish  painters. 

The  fact  that  color  is  really  a sensa- 
tion in  the  brain,  rather  than  a quality 
of  the  thing  that  is  colored,  is  proved 
by  the  strange  power  which  many  peo- 
ple have  of  being  able  to  hear  colors. 
Statistics  go  to  show  that  one  person 
in  every  eight  can  hear  colors;  that  is 
to  say,  one  person  in  every  eight,  when 
looking  at  certain  vivid  colors,  can  hear 
peculiar  sounds.  On  the  other  hand 
many  persons,  on  hearing  certain 
musical  sounds,  can  see  certain  colors; 
sound  on  the  one  hand,  producing  color 
sensations,  color  on  the  other,  produ- 
cing sound  sensations.  These  interest- 
ing facts  are  easily  understood  when  we 
remember  that  in  the  brain  there  are 
different  receiving  centers  for  the 
various  senses — sight,  hearing,  taste, 
smell — and  a vast  area  of  the  brain 
used  in  the  coordination  of  these  sensa- 
tions. Slight  derangements  of  the 
cerebral  machinery  might  well  be 
imagined  to  cause  a mixing  of  the 
functions  of  these  coordinating  parts 
and  thus  produce  the  phenomena  men- 
tioned. A Swiss  boy  was  discovered 
recently  who  could  taste,  see,  and  smell 
sounds,  see  and  hear  odors,  and  so  on. 
The  problem  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting in  the  phy.siology  of  the  brain. 

COLORADO,  (kol-o  -ra'do)  one  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  situated  in 
the  central  belt  of  states  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  between  lat.  37°  and  41°  n., 
and  Ion.  102°  and  109°  w. , and  containing 


an  area  of  103,645  sq.  miles,  being  sixth 
in  size  among  the  states.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Wyoming  and 
Nebraska;  east  by  Nebraska  and  Kan- 
sas; south  by  Oklahoma  and  New  Mex- 
ico, and  west  by  Utah.  Its  form  is  that 
of  a perfect  parallelogram,  and  it  is  the 
only  state  whose  lines  are  so  defined. 
It  is  traversed  from  north  to  south  by 
the  main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  plains  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and 
Colorado  were,  in  passed  ages,  covered 


COLORADO 


COLOR-BLINDNESS 


by  a great  paleozoic  ocean,  and  are  now 
filled  with  fossil  remains  of  fishes,  rep- 
tiles and  animals.  They  rise  gradually 
from  the  Missouri  river  to  the  base  of 
the  great  Rocky  chain.  This  broad  and 
comparatively  level  expanse  is  destitute 
of  timber,  excepting  a fringe  of  cotton- 
woods on  the  borders  of  the  streams, 
but  IS  covered  with  short  nutritious 
grasses. 

The  plains  east  of  the  mountains  con- 
stitute about  one-third  of  the  total  area. 
Among  the  elevated  ranges  are  four 
large  natural  parks — the  North,  South, 
Middle, and  San  Luis, which  form  distinct, 
picturesque  and  beautiful  features  of 
the  mountain  system  and  are  watered 
by  numerous  streams  and  covered  with 
verdure.  Thousands  of  square  miles 
are  covered  by  forests,  chiefly  yellow 
and  white  pine  and  spruce.  None  of 
the  harder  woods,  except  a few  clusters 
of  scrub  oaks,  worthless  for  anything  but 
fuel,  exist  in  Colorado.  Four-fifths  of 
the  state  has  an  elevation  of  4,000  to 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  lowest 
on  the  eastern  border  is  3,703  feet,  and 
on  the  western,  4,435.  The  mountain 
parks  are  8,000  to  9,500  feet  above 
tide  water.  The  summit  of  the  main 
range  averages  11,000  feet.  Seventy-two 
peaks  from  which  the  snow  never  disap- 
pears, rise  to  heights  between  13,500  and 
14,500  feet.  The  loftiest  of  these  is  the 
Sierra  Blanca,  a part  of  the  chain  en- 
closing the  San  Luis  park,  14,483  feet 
high.  Among  the  others  being  Pikes 
Peak  and  Longs  Peak. 

The  geographical  center  of  Colorado 
is  at  a point  three  miles  north-northeast 
of  Spinney  Station,  on  the  Colorado 
Midland  railway,  in  Park  county. 

The  climate  of  Colorado  is  remarka- 
bly healthful.  The  air  is  dry,  clear, 
and  well  adapted  to  the  cure  of  diseases 
of  the  lungs  and  throat.  The  annual 
range  of  temperature  is  much  less  than 
in  other  sections  of  the  country.  In 
the  various  parts  it  is  about  60°  F.,  and 
the  highest  temperature  does  not  ex- 
ceed 80°  nor  the  lowest  20°  below. 
Health  resorts  are  numerous  in  the 
mountain  regions  and  there  are  also 
mineral  and  thermal  springs.  The  mean 
temperature  at  Denver  is  50°. 

The  soil  is  fruitful  and  the  climate  is 
well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cereals. 
There  is  a large  supply  of  native  grass 
in  Colorado,  and  this  furnishes  pasture 
for  the  large  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
Vegetables  of  all  kinds  and  many  fruits 
are  successfully  grown.  The  soil  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  state  is  very  fruitful 
where  it  can  have  sufficient  moisture. 
Irrigation  is  used  to  a great  extent,  and 
in  such  regions,  wheat,  corn,  barley, 
oats,  hay,  and  potatoes  are  staple 
products.  Cattle  and  sheep  raising  are 
important  industries. 

The  chief  industry  of  the  state  is  min- 
ing, and  in  its  yield  of  gold  and  silver  it 
is  the  leading  state  of  the  Union. 
Nearly  every  known  mineral  is  found 
within  the  state.  There  are  thousands 
of  mines  which  produce  lodes  of  silver 
and  gold.  There  are  also  large  deposits 
of  lead  ores,  and  the  state  produces 
about  45  per  cent  of  the  entire  lead  out- 
put of  the  whole  country.  One  of  the 
richest  gold  fields  in  the  world  was 
opened  up  in  the  Cripple  Creek  district 


in  1896.  In  various  parts  of  the  state 
are  iron  mines.  There  are  large  sup- 
plies of  copper,  zinc,  cement,  silica, 
gypsum,  onyx,  and  several  valuable 
clays.  There  are  many  veins  of  anthra- 
cite and  bituminous  coal. 

The  principal  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  in  connection  with  the  mineral 
products  of  the  state;  they  are  brass 
works,  lead  works,  machine  shops, 
foundries,  iron  works, building  materials, 
tin,  copper  works,  flouring  mills,  and 
furniture. 

Colorado  has  a state  university,  agri- 
cultural college,  school  of  mines,  state 
normal  school,  all  of  which  are  sustained 
by  legislative  appropriations.  Other 
institutions  of  learning  are  Colorado  Col- 
lege, University  of  Denver,  Westminster 
University  of  Colorado,  Presbyterian 
College  of  the  Southwest. 

Colorado  was  a part  of  the  immense 
Territory  of  Louisiana  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
in  1803.  The  first  explorations  were 
made  by  Spaniards  from  Mexico  in  1540- 
42,  the  first  of  which,  under  Francisco 
Vasquiz  di  Coronado,  found  in  New  Mex- 
ico near  the  southern  border  of  Colorado  a 
peculiar  race  of  people  dwelling  in  towns 
built  of  stone  and  adobe,  and  far  super- 
ior in  intelligence  to  the  savage  tribes  of 
nomads.  The  southwestern  part  of  the 
state  is  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  these 
people,  who  were  of  Aztec  or  Toltec 
origin,  probably  the  former,  ancestors 
or  contemporaries  of  the  vast  horde 
which  swept  down  into  Anahuac,  over- 
threw the  Toltecs  and  occupied  their 
lands.  Several  other  expeditions  came 
up  from  the  south  in  later  times,  and 
some  of  them  penetrated  the  plains  as 
far  east  as  the  Missouri  river.  The 
remnant  of  Hernando  De  Soto’s  army, 
after  the  death  of  the  conqueror  of 
Florida,  came  west  to  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, but  did  not  explore  them.  A 
Spanish  cavalier,  Don  Juan  de  Onato, 
passed  up  the  Rio  Grande  river  into  the 
San  Luis  park  in  1695,  and  discovered 
gold  and  silver  there.  Several  French 
expeditions  from  New  Orleans  pene- 
trated far  out  upon  the  plains  toward 
the  mountains,  the  first  in  1712,  others 
from  the  same  source  occurred  in 
1741. 

The  first  regularly  organized  Ameri- 
can exploration  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains occurred  in  1806.  It  was 
conducted  by  Lieut.  Zebulon  M.  Pike, 
whose  report  contained  the  first  authen- 
tic record  of  the  extent  and  value  of  the 
region.  The  second  was  by  Maj.  Stephen 
S.  Long  in  1820.  In  1842  John  C.  Fre- 
mont began  a series  of  five  explorations, 
which  developed  practicable  routes  for 
the  Pacific  railways,  and  led  ultimately  to 
the  construction  of  the  Union  Pacific 
railway  from  the  Missouri  river  to  San 
Francisco.  The  Territory  of  Colorado 
was  organized  by  act  of  congress  ap- 
proved February  28,  1861,  and  Maj. 
William  Gilpin  was  appointed  governor. 
It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
State,  August  1,  1876.  From  1876  to 
1888  Colorado  was  republican  in  national 
politics,  but  in  the  three  presidential 
elections  after  1888  the  silver  interests  of 
the  State  made  it  decidedly  democratic. 
In  1896  and  1900  especially,  the  demo- 
crats, populists,  and  Silver  republicans. 


in  fusion,  controlled  a large  proportion 
of  votes  in  the  State.  In  1904  and  1908 
the  state  was  carried  by  the  republic- 
ans. 

Colorado  is  the  most  populous  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  States.  The  following 
gives  the  population  by  decades;  186'>, 
34,277 : 1870,  39,864;  1880,  194,327; 

1890,  412,198;  1900,  539,700,  of  which 
only  10,654  were  colored;  1908,  800,- 
000. 

COLORADO,  a name  of  two  rivers  of 
the  United  States. — (1)  The  Western  Col- 
orado, or  Rio  Colorado,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Green  and  Grand  Rivers, 
at  about  lat.  38°  n.;  Ion.  110°  w.,  in 
Utah.  It  flows  southwest  and  south 
through  Arizona,  and  between  Arizona 
and  Nevada  and  California,  and  after  a 
total  course,  including  Green  River,  of 
about  1200  miles,  falls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Cahfornia.  Among  the  most  wonderful 
natural  objects  in  North  America  is  the 
Big  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  between  Ion. 
112°  and  115°w.  Here  the  river  flows 
between  walls  of  rock  which  are  nearly 
vertical,  and  are  in  some  places  6000 
feet  high.  This  canon  is  more  than  300 
miles  long.  (2)  A river  in  Texas  which 
rises  in  the  northwest  part  of  the  State, 
flows  generally  southeast,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  900  miles  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the  town  of  Mata- 
gordo. 

COLORADO  BEETLE,  an  American 
species  of  beetle,  nearly  half  an  inch  in 
length,  almost  oval,  of  a yellowish  color 
marked  with  black  spots  and  blotches, 
and  on  the  elytra  with  ten  black  longi- 
tudinal stripes.  The  wings,  which  are 
folded  under  the  elytra,  are  of  a blood- 
red  color.  It  is  a native  of  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
works  great  havoc  among  the  potato 
crops. 

CpLORADO  COLLEGE,  an  endowed 
institution  at  Colorado  Springs,  founded 
in  1874.  It  has  a library  of  35,000 
volumes,  has  about  700  students  and 
S450,000  productive  funds. 

COLORADO  DESERT,  a region  in 
southern  California,  considerably  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  consisting  of 
arid,  sandy  wastes. 

COLORADO  SPRINGS,  a thriving 
town  of  El  Paso  County,  Colo.,  noted 
for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate  and  its 
fine  mineral  springs.  Pop.  25,000. 

COLORADO  STATE  AGRICULTUR- 
AL COLLEGE,  a school  of  agriculture  at 
Tort  Collins,  Colo.,  founded  in  1876. 
It  has  an  attendance  of  400  and  a 
library  of  15,000  volumes. 

COLORADO,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  the 
state  university  of  Colorado  at  Boulder, 
Colo.,  founded  in  1861  and  opened  in 
1877.  It  is  a complete  university  with 
medical  and  law  schools,  and  offers  full 
courses  in  the  arts  and  the  sciences. 
It  has  a library  of  25,000  volumes,  and 
a registration  of  above  500  students. 

COLOR-BLINDNESS,  total  or  partial 
incapability  of  distinguishing  colors. 
Color-blindness  has  been  divided  into 
three  grades:  (a)  Inability  to  discern 
any  color,  so  that  light  and  shade,  or 
black  and  white,  are  the  only  variations 
perceived,  (b)  Inabihty  to  distinguish 
the  nicer  shades  of  the  more  composite 
colors,  as  browns,  grays,  and  neutral 
tints,  (c)  Inability  to  distinguish  be- 


COLORIMETER 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


tween  the  primary  colors,  red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  or  between  them  and  their 
secondaries,  green,  purple,  orange,  and 
brown.  Red  is  the  color  which  the 
color-blind  are  most  commonly  unable 
to  distinguish,  while  yellow  is  the  most 
easily  recognized.  Color  - blindness 
occurs  in  eyes  whose  power  of  vision, 
as  to  form  and  distance,  is  quite  per- 
fect, and  may  exist  unknown  to  the 
person  affected  by  it.  This  defect  is 
common  especially  among  men.  The 
cause  of  it  in  almost  every  case  which 
has  been  carefully  investigated  has 
been  found  to  be  seated  in  the  sen- 
sorium,  not  in  the  visual  apparatus. 
It  will  be  easily  understood  that  those 
whose  eyesight  is  thus  defective  are 
disqualified  for  holding  various  posi- 
tions. 

COLORIM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  depth  of  color  in  a liquid 
by  comparison  with  a standard  liquid 
of  the  same  tint. 

COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY,  photog- 
raphy which  will  reproduce  the  colors 
of  the  thing,  scene,  or  person  photo- 
graphed. Experiments  have  been  made 
for  years  to  succeed  in  accomplishing 
this  much-to-be  desired  purpose,  but 
thus  far  without  avail.  Experiments 
have  been  made  upon  a suggestion  of 
J.  Clark  Maxwell  concerning  the  physiol- 
ogy of  color  but  the  problem  is  as  yet 
unsolved. 

COLOR  PRINTING,  the  art  of  produ- 
cing pictures,  designs,  cards,  etc.,  in  vari- 
ous colors  by  means  of  lithography, 
printing  from  metal  blocks,  etc.  The  or- 
dinary methods  are:  (1)  the  chromo- 
lithographic,  in  which  a tracing  of  the 
original  picture,  or  the  like,  is  first 
made,  and  a copy  transferred  to  as 
many  stones  as  there  are  colors  in  the 
original,  every  color  requiring  a fresh 
stone.  The  drawing  on  each  stone  is 
made  to  fit  in,  or  register,  with  the 
preceding  one,  and  as  the  paper  passes 
through  the  machine  an  additional 
color  is  added  each  time,  and  thus  the 
picture  is  built  up  color  upon  color 
(each  being  allowed  to  dry  before  the 
next  is  put  on)  until  it  is  completed. 
Some  chromos  or  oleographs  may  have 
as  many  as  25  or  30  printings  or  colors. 
(2)  Block  or  surface  color  printing  is 
specially  adapted  for  book  illustrations 
or  similar  work  where  nicety  of  detail 
or  rapidity  of  production  is  required. 
As  in  chromo-lithography  various  print- 
ings are  necessary;  but  these,  while 
producing  similar  effects,  are  reduced  in 
number  by  a method  of  printing  several 
tints  of  the  .same  color  at  one  operation. 
Each  block,  which  is  usually  of  zinc  and 
prepared  in  the  usual  way,  is  capable  of 
producing  three  or  more  gradations  of 
the  same  color;  the  darkest  shade  from 
the  normal  surface,  lighter  shades  being 
got  from  parts  which  have  been  bitten 
or  corroded  in  an  almost  inperceptible 
degree — the  deeper  corrosions  giving, 
of  course,  the  lightest  shade.  When  all 
the  tints  of  one  color  are  thus  printed 
from  one  block  and  at  one  operation,  a 
second  block  with  gradations,  in  the 
same  way,  is  used,  registering  as  in 
chromo-lithography,  and  so  on  until  the 
picture  is  finished. 

COLORS,  a term  used  to  indicate  the 
flag  or  standard,  of  a people  or  a partyj 


hence,  in  popular  speech,  anything 
which  shows  the  true  state  of  affairs. 

The  colors  carried  in  the  United  States 
Army  by  the  various  regiments  and 
battalions  are  two  in  number,  the  na- 
tional flag  (see  Flag)  and  the  regimental 
color,  both  of  which  are  of  prescribed 
size  and  form  for  the  various  arms  of 
the  service.  The  battalions  of  engineers 
carry  the  national  flag,  with  the  title  of 
the  battalion  embroidered  in  silver  on 
the  center  stripe;  and  the  battalion 
color,  of  scarlet  silk  having  in  the  center 
a castle,  with  the  number  of  the  bat- 
talion placed  above  the  castle,  and  the 
words  “U.  S.  Engineers”  below.  The 
artillery  corps  have  similar  colors,  on 
which  the  corps  device  of  two  crossed 
cannon  are  emblazoned.  Infantry  regi- 
ments have  the  same  national  color  as 
artillery  and  engineers;  the  regimental 
color  being  of  blue  silk,  the  coat  of  arms 
of  the  United  States  embroidered  in  silk 
on  the  center,  beneath  the  eagle,  a red 
scroll  with  number  and  name  of  regi- 
ment embroidered  in  white;  cavalry 
standards  in  size  are  somewhat  smaller 
than  those  carried  by  the  infantry  and 
consist  of  a national  flag  made  of  silk. 
The  regimental  standard  is  of  yellow 
silk,  with  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  United 
States  embroidered  in  silk  on  the  center, 
beneath  the  eagle  a red  scroll,  with 
number  and  name  of  regiment  em- 
broidered in  yellow,  fringe  yellow. 

COLOSSE'UM,  a name  given  to  the 
Flavian  Amphitheatre  in  Rome,  a large 
edifice  for  gladiatorial  combats,  fights 
of  wild  beasts,  and  similar  sports.  It 
was  begun  by  Vespasian,  and  finished 
by  Titus  80  a.d.  The  outline  of  the 
Colosseum  is  elliptic,  the  exterior  length 
of  the  building  being  620  and  its  breadth 
513  feet;  it  is  pierced  with  eighty  open- 
ings or  vomitoria  in  the  ground  story, 
over  which  are  superimposed  three  other 
stories,  the  whole  rising  perpendicularly 
to  the  height  of  160  feet.  Although  two- 
thirds  of  the  original  building  have  dis- 
appeared it  is  still  a wonderful  structure. 

COLOS'SIANS,  Epistle  to  the.  was 
written  to  the  Colossians  by  the  Apostle 
Paul  either  from  Rome  or  Csesarea,  at 
the  same  time  that  he  wrote  the  Epistles 
to  the  Ephesians  and  to  Philemon.  The 
epistle  contains  a summary  of  Christian 
doctrine,  especially  dwelling  on  the  di- 
vine power  and  majesty  of  Christ,  and 
a series  of  practical  exhortations  to 
specific  duties  of  Christian  morality. 

COLOS'SUS,  in  sculpture,  a statue  of 
enormous  magnitude.  The  Asiatics,  the 
Egyptians,  and  in  particular  the  Greeks, 
have  excelled  in  these  works.  Among 
the  colossi  of  Greece  the  most  celebrated 
was  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  a brass 
statue  of  Apollo  70  cubits  high,  esteemed 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  erected 
at  the  port  of  Rhodes  by  Chares,  290  or 
288  B.c.  It  was  thrown  down  by  an 
earthquake  about  224  b.c.  There  is  no 
authority  for  the  popularly-received 
statement  that  it  bestrode  the  harbor 
mouth,  and  that  the  Rhodian  vessels 
could  pass  tmder  its  legs;  and  Bar- 
tholdi’s statue  of  Liberty  presented  to 
the  U.  States  by  the  French  nation,  and 
which  measures  104  feet,  or  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  torch  in  the  hand  of  the 
figure  138  feet.  It  is  erected  at  New 
York  harbor  on  a pedestal  114  feet,  is 


constructed  for  a lighthouse  with  one  of 
the  most  powerful  fixed  lights  in  the 
world,  and  stands  317  feet  above  mean 
tide. 

COLQUITT,  Alfred  Holt,  an  Ameri- 
can senator,  governor,  and  soldier,  born 
in  Georgia  in  1824,  died  in  1894.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  war,  was  a mem- 
ber of  congress  from  1853-5,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Con- 
federate army.  He  was  governor  of 
Georgia  from  1876  to  1882  and  from 
that  year  to  his  death  United  States 
Senator  from  Georgia. 

COLT,  Samuel,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  1814,  died  in  1862. 
Colt  invented  the  revolver  and  his 
name  is  a synonym  for  the  weapon. 
He  got  the  idea  while  working  in  his 
father’s  factory  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  and 
made  frequent  improvements  on  his 
original  patent.  He  laid  the  first  sub- 
marine cable  in  New  York  harbor  and 
was  the  first  to  construct  a rational 
protective  armor  for  water  cables  of  any 
kind. 

COLTON,  Walter,  an  American  pio- 
neer and  author,  born  in  Vermont  in 
1797,  died  in  1851.  He  was  early  a 
teacher  and  having  gone  to  California 
in  the  early  forties  he  founded  The 
Californian,  the  first  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  the  state.  His  newspaper 
was  the  first  to  announce  the  discovery 
of  gold  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

COLT’S  REVOLVER.  See  Revolver. 

COLUM'BIA,  the  capital  of  South 
Carolina,  situated  on  an  elevated  plain 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Congaree.  It  is 
regularly  laid  out,  and  contains  some  fine 

Eublic  buildings,  including  the  state- 
ouse.  Among  the  educational  institu- 
tions are  the  South  Carolina  University, 
founded  in  1804,  and  a Presbyterian 
theological  college.  Pop.  25,100. 

COLUMBIA,  a city  in  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  Susquehanna,  a great  mart  for 
lumber.  Pop.  14,116. 

COLUMBIA,  British.  See  British 
Columbia. 

COLUMBIA,  District  of,  a small  tract 
of  country  in  the  U.  States,  on  the 
Potomac,  about  120  miles  from  its 
mouth,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
Maryland,  forming  a neutral  district 
for  the  seat  of  the  national  government. 
It  has  an  area  of  64  sq.  miles;  was 
formed  into  a territory  in  1871;  and 
contains  the  city  of  Washington,  which 
has  been  the  national  capital  since  1800 
(and  now  includes  also  Georgetown). 
The  affairs  of  the  district  and  of  Wash- 
ington are  administered  by  three  com- 
missioners directly  under  Congress. 
Pop.  298,718. 

COLUMBIA  RIVER,  or  OREGON,  a 

river  in  N.  America,  flowing  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  rising  at  the  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  in  British  Colum- 
bia. It  has  a very  winding  course  partly 
in  British  Columbia  but  mainly  in  the 
U.  States,  where  it  receives  two  large 
tributaries,  Clark’s  River  and  Snake 
River.  Latterly  it  turns  abruptly  to 
the  west  and  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Washington  Territory  and  Ore- 
gon. It  drains  an  area  of  298,000  sq. 
miles,  and  has  a length  of  about  1400 
miles. 

COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY,  a large 
institution  in  New  York  City,  founded 


COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY 


CPOLUMN 


in  1746.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
$20,000,000,  an  income  of  nearly 
$1,000,000,  a library  of  315,000  volumes, 
and  a total  attendance  of  3632  students. 
The  university  is  made  up  of  an  under- 
graduate department  and  graduate 
schools  of  science,  medicine  and  law, 
wliile  its  affiliations  with  various  theo- 
logical schools  in  New  York  enable 
it  to  offer  education  in  theology  also. 
For  many  years  it  has  been  slowly 
adding  institution  after  institution  to 
its  body  until  now  it  is  virtually 
equipped  as  a complete  university.  It 
confers  all  degrees,  including  engineer- 
ing (mechanical  and  mining)  and  re- 
cently it  absorbed  Barnard  College  and 
Teachers’  College,  thus  providing  peda- 
gogy to  its  curricula.  It  is  governed  by 
a board  of  24  trustees. 

COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY,  an  in- 
stitution at  Washington,  D.  C.,  founded 
in  1821  by  members  of  the  Baptist 
church.  It  offers  courses  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  in  medicine,  law,  dentistry, 
theology,  and  in  electrical,  mining,  and 
mechanical  engineering.  The  univer- 
sity has  an  endowment  of  $1,000,000,  a 
library  of  20,000  volumes,  and  a regis- 
tration of  1420  students. 

COL'UMBINE,  the  popvdar  name  of 
plants  with  five  colored  sepals  and  five 
spurred  petals.  The  common  columbine 
is  a favorite  flower,  and  owes  its  name 
to  the  fancied  resemblance  of  the  petals 
to  the  form  of  pigeons. 

COL'UMBINE,  in  the  older  pan- 
tomimes, a female  mask  with  whom 
Harlequin  was  In  love;  their  marriage 
formed  the  denouement.  In  modern 
pantomime  the  chief  female  dancer  in 
the  harlequinade. 

COLUM'BIUM.  See  Niobium. 

COLUMBUS,  a town  in  Georgia,  on 
the  Chattahoochee  River,  well  built, 
with  cotton  and  other  manufactures. 
Pop.  20,000. 

COLUM'BUS,  Ohio,  the  capital  of  the 
state,  in  Franklin  county,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Scioto.  It  contains  some 
notable  public  buildings.  The  capitol 
is  second  in  size  only  to  that  of  Wash- 


State  capitol,  Columbus,  O. 

Ington,  and  is  built  of  gray  limestone  in 
the  simple  Doric  style  Other  buildings 
are  the  deaf  and  dumb  institution,  in- 
stitution for  the  blind,  lunatic  asylum, 
penitentiary,  R.  Catholic  cathedral,  etc. 
Educational  institutions  include  the 
state  university,  Columbus  medical 
college^  Starling  medical  college,  etc. 
"rhere  is  a very  extensive  trade,  and  the 
manufactures  are  important  and  varied. 
Pop.  179,370. 

COLUM'BUS,  Christopher,  was  born 
in  Genoese  territory  in  1435  or  1436, 
died  at  Valladohd,  Spain,  1506.  His 


father,  Domenico  Colombo,  a poor  wool- 
comber,  gave  him  a careful  education. 
He  appears  to  have  gone  to  sea  at  an 
early  age  and  to  have  navigated  all 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  and  some  of 
the  coasts  beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibral- 
tar. In  1470  we  find  him  at  Lisbon, 
where  he  married  the  daughter  of  Bar- 
tolommeo de  Palestrello,  a distinguished 
navigator.  He  had  gradually  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  were  unknown 


Columbus. 

lands  belonging  to  Eastern  Asia  sepa- 
rated from  Europe  by  the  Atlantic: 
while  the  Portuguese  were  seeking  to 
reach  India  by  a southeast  course  round 
Africa  he  was  convinced  that  there  must 
be  a shorter  way  by  the  west.  He 
applied  in  vain  to  Genoa  for  assistance, 
and  equally  fruitless  were  his  endeavors 
to  interest  John  II.  of  Portugal  in  the 
enterprise.  He  then  determined  to 
apply  to  the  Spanish  court;  and  after 
many  disappointments  he  induced  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  to  equip  and  man 
three  vessels  for  a voyage  of  discovery. 
It  was  early  in  the  morning  of  Friday, 
on  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  that  Colum- 
bus set  sail  from  the  port  of  Palos,  and 
after  sailing  for  two  months  the  expe- 
dition narrowly  escaped  failure.  The 
variation  of  the  needle  so  alarmed  the 
crews  that  they  were  on  the  point  of 
breaking  out  into  open  mutiny,  and  he 
was  obliged  to  promise  that  he  would 
turn  back  if  three  more  days  brought 
no  discovery.  On  the  third  day  (12th 
Oct.  1492)  the  island  of  Guanahani  or 
San  Salvador  was  sighted,  which  Colum- 
bus believed  to  belong  to  Eastern  Asia 
and  to  be  connected  with  India — a 
belief  which  he  carried  with  him  to  his 
grave.  Hence  the  mistaken  name  of 
Indians  applied  to  the  natives  of  Ameri- 
ca, and  that  of  West  Indies  applied  to 
the  group  of  islands.  Columbus,  planted 
the  royal  standard,  and  in  the  name  of 
his  sovereigns  took  possession _ of  the 
country,  which,  in  memory  of  his  reser- 
vation he  called  San  Salvador.  He 
then  sailed  in  search  of  other  lands,  and 
discovered  Cuba,  St.  Domingo,  and 
some  other  of  the  West  India  Islands. 
Being  so  far  successful,  he  built  a fort 
at  Hispaniola,  Hayti,  left  some  of  his 
men  there,  and  set  out  on  his  return  to 
Europe,  where  he  was  received  with 


almost  royal  honors.  In  1493  he  set  out 
on  his  second  great  voyage  from  Cadiz, 
with  three  large  ships  of  heavy  burden 
and  fourteen  caravels,  carrying  1500 
men.  He  discovered  the  island  of 
Dominica,  and  afterwards  Mariegalante, 
Guadeloupe,  and  Porto  Rico,  and  at 
length  arrived  at  Hispaniola.  Finding 
the  colony  destroyed,  he  built  a fortified 
town,  which  he  called,  in  honor  of  the 
queen,  Isabella.  He  then  left  the  island 
in  order  to  make  new  discoveries, 
visited  Jamaica,  and  returning  after  a 
voyage  of  five  months,  worn  down  with 
fatigue,  found  to  his  great  joy  that  his 
brother  Bartolommeo  had  arrived  at 
Isabella  with  provisions  and  other  : 
supplies  for  the  colony.  In  May,  1498,  I 
he  sailed  with  six  vessels  on  his  third 
voyage.  Three  of  his  vessels  he  sent 
direct  to  Hispaniola;  with  the  three 
others  he  took  a more  southerly  direc- 
tion, and  having  discovered  Trinidad 
and  the  continent  of  America,  returned 
to  Hispaniola.  His  colony  had  now 
been  removed  from  Isabella,  according 
to  his  orders,  to  the  other  side  of  the 
island,  and  a new  fortress  erected  called 
St.  Domingo.  Columbus  found  the 
colony  in  a state  of  confusion,  but  soon 
restored  tranquility.  His  enemies,  in 
the  meantime,  endeavored  to  convince 
his  sovereigns  that  his  plan  was  to  make 
himself  independent,  and  Columbus  was 
not  only  displaced,  but  Francisco  de 
Bobadilla,  a new  governor  who  had 
come  from  Spain,  even  sent  him  to  that 
country  in  chains.  On  his  arrival  (in 
1500)  orders  were  sent  directing  him 
to  be  set  at  liberty  and  inviting  him  to 
court,  but  for  this  injurious  treatment  he 
never  got  redress,  though  great  promises 
were  made.  After  some  time  he  was 
able  to  set  out  on  his  fourth  and  last 
voyage  (1502)  in  four  slender  vessels 
supplied  by  the  court.  In  this  expedi- 
tion he  was  accompanied  by  his  brother 
Bartolommeo  and  his  son  Hernando. 
He  encountered  every  imaginable  dis- 
aster from  storms  and  shipwreck,  and 
returned  to  Spain,  sick  and  exhausted, 
in  1504.  The  death  of  the  queen  soon 
followed,  and  he  urged  in  vain  on  Fer- 
dinand the  fulfilment  of  his  promises; 
but  after  two  years  of  illness,  humilia- 
tions, and  despondency,  Columbus  died 
at  Valladolid.  His  remains  were  trans-  . 
ported,  according  to  his  will,  to  St. 
Domingo,  but  on  the  cession  of  His- 
paniola to  France  they  were  removed  to  ' 
Havana  in  Cuba  in  1796.  In  1899  they 
were  carried  back  to  Spain. 

COL'UMN,  in  architecture,  a round 
pillar,  a cylindrical  solid  body  set  up- 
right and  primarily  intended  to  support  ' 
some  superincumbent  weight.  A col- 
umn has  as  its  most  essential  portion  , 
a long  solid  body,  called  a shaft,  set 
vertically  on  a stylobate,  or  on  a con-  ^ 
geries  of  moldings  which  forms  its  base,  I 
the  shaft  being  surmounted  by  a more  or  i 
less  bulky  mass  which  forms  its  capital,  if. 
In  classical  architectecture  columns  t 
have  commonly  to  support  an  entable-  * 
ture  consisting  of  three  divisions,  the 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  adorned  S 
with  moldings,  etc.  The  accompany-  ^ 
ing  cut  will  illustrate  these  and  other  ^ 
terms.  Columns  are  distinguished  by  « 
the  names  of  the  styles  of  architecture 
to  which  they  belong;  thus  there  are  > 


COLUMN 


COMETS 


Hindu,  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Roman,  and 
Gothic  columns.  In  classic  architecture 
they  are  further  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong, 
as  Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  Composite 
or  Tuscan  columns.  They  may  also  be 
characterized  by  some  peculiarity  of 
position,  of  construction,  of  form,  or  of 


CJolumn  (Tuscan  order),  illustrating  the  terms 
applied  to  the  several  parts. 

ornament,  as  attached,  twisted,  cabled, 
etc.,  columns.  Columns  are  chiefly  used 
in  the  construction  or  adornment  of 
buildings.  They  have  also  been  used, 
however,  singly  for  various  purposes, 
especially  for  monuments.  See  Corinth- 
ian, Doric,  Ionic,  Gothic,  etc. 

COLUMN,  in  military  tactics,  a 
formation  of  troops  drawn  up  in  deep 
files,  showing  a small  front;  as  dis- 
tinguished from  line,  which  is  extended 
in  front  and  thin  in  depth.  They  are 
said  to  be  close  or  open  according  to  the 
intervals  between  the  battalions,  regi- 
ments, etc.,  of  which  they  are  composed. 
Sometimes  the  name  column  is  given  to 
a small  army,  especially  when  actively 
engaged. 

COMA,  in  medicine,  a state  of  com- 
plete insensibility,  resulting  from  various 
diseases,  as  apoplexy ; from  narcotics, 
as  opium;  from  accident  or  injury  to 
the  brain;  or  from  excessive  cold. 

COMANCHES  (ko-man'chez),  an 
American  Indian  tribe  formerly  roam- 
ing through  Texas  and  part  of  Mexico. 
They  were  excellent  horsemen,  and 
extremely  warlike,  but  their  numbers 
are  now  insignificant.  Some  of  them 
have  been  collected  on  a reservation  in 
the  western  part  of  the  Indian  Territory. 


COMB,  an  instrument  with  teeth, 
made  of  tortoise-shell,  ivory,  horn, 
wood,  bone,  metal,  or  other  material, 
used  for  dressing  the  hair,  and  by 
women  for  keeping  the  hair  in  its  place 
when  dressed.  Combs  have  been  used 
from  the  earliest  times  by  rude  as  well 
as  by  civilized  races. 

COMBINATION,  in  the  United  States, 
a union  of  persons  for  the  furtherance  of 
their  business  interests.  Combination 
is  lawful  when  it  is  not  in  restraint  of 
trade,  nor  made  with  a view  of  violent- 
ly or  fraudulently,  interfering  with 
others  in  the  pursuit  of  their  occupa- 
tion. When  so,  it  is  called  conspiracy 
and  is  punishable  under  conspiracy  acts. 

COMBUSTION,  the  operation  of  fire 
on  inflammable  substances;  or  the 
union  of  an  inflammable  substance  with 
oxygen  or  some  other  supporter  of  com- 
bustion, attended  with  heat  and  in 
most  instances  with  light.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  combination  of  the  carbon 
in  fuel  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  being 
the  universal  method  of  getting  heat  and 
light,  and  as  when  the  action  takes 
place  the  fuel  is  said  to  burn  or  undergo 
combustion,  the  latter  term  has  been 
extended  to  those  cases  in  which  other 
bodies  than  carbon — for  example,  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  metals,  etc. — burn  in 
the  air  or  in  other  substances  than  air— 
for  example,  chlorine.  Though  the 
action  between  the  gas  and  the  more 
solid  material,  as  coal,  w'ood,  char- 
coal, of  whose  combination  combustion 
is  the  result,  is  mutual,  the  one  having 
as  much  to  do  with  the  process  as  the 
other,  yet  the  former,  as  oxygen, 
chlorine,  iodine,  and  the  compounds 
which  they  form  with  each  other  and 
with  nitrogen,  have  received  the  name  of 
supporters  of  combustion,  while  to  the 
latter  the  term  combustibles  has  been 
assigned. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  is  the  igni- 
tion of  a body  by  the  internal  develop- 
ment of  heat  without  the  application 
of  fire.  It  not  unfrequently  takes  place 
among  heaps  of  rags,  wmol,  and  cotton 
when  lubricated  with  oil ; hay  and 
straw  when  damp  or  moistened  with 
water ; and  coal  in  the  bunkers  of 
vessels.  In  the  first  case  the  oil  rapidly 
combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
this  being  accompanied  with  great 
heat;  in  the  second  case  the  heat  is 
produced  by  a kind  of  fermentation; 
in  the  third  by  the  pyrites  of  the  coal 
rapidly  absorbing  and  combining  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  extraordinary  alleged 
phenomenon  of  the  human  body  being 
reduced  to  ashes  without  the  direct 
application  of  fire.  It  is  said  to  have 
occurred  in  the  aged  and  persons  that 
were  fat  and  hard  drinkers;  but  most 
chemists  reject  the  theory  altogether, 
maintaining  that  none  of  the  instances 
adduced  are  well  authenticated. 

COMEDIE  FRANCAISE,  the  national 
subsidized  theater  of  France,  formed 
in  1680  by  the  fusion  of  the  two  bodies 
into  which  Moli^re’s  company  of  actors 
had  split.  It  is  at  present  managed  by 
regulations,  made  in  1812,  modified  by 
subsequent  resolutions. 

COMEDIET'TA,  a dramatic  com- 
position of  the  comedy  class,  but  not  so 
much  elaborated  as  a regular  comedy. 


and  generally  consisting  of  one  or  at 
most  two  acts. 

COM'ETS,  certain  celestial  bodies 
which  appear  at  irregular  intervals, 
moving  through  the  heavens  in  paths 
which  seem  to  correspond  with  parabolic 
curves,  or  in  a few  instances  in  elliptical 
orbits  of  great  eccentricity.  The  for- 
mer, after  being  visible  from  the  earth  for 
a shorter  or  longer  time,  disappear  into 
space  apparently  never  to  return;  the 
latter  return  to  us  periodically.  Some 
comets  aro  only  visible  by  the  aid  of  the 
telescope,  while  others  can  be  seen  by 
the  naked  eye.  In  the  latter  case  they 
usually  appear  like  stars  accompanied 
with  a train  of  light,  sometimes  short 
and  sometimes  extending  over  half  the 
sky,  mostly  single  and  more  or  less  curved 
but  sometimes  forked.  In  a comet 
which  appeared  in  1744  the  train  was 
divided  into  several  branches,  spreading 
out  from  the  head  like  a fan.  The  train 
is  not  stationary  relatively  to  the  head, 
but  is  subject  to  remarkable  move- 
ments. The  direction  in  which  it  points 
is  always  opposite  to  the  sun.  and  as  the 
comet  passes  its  perihelion  the  train 
changes  its  apparent  position  with  ex- 
traordinary velocity  The  head  of  the 
comet  is  itself  of  different  degrees  of 
luminosity,  there  being  usually  a cen- 
tral core,  called  the  nucleus,  of  greater 
brilliancy  than  the  surrounding  envel- 
ope, called  the  coma. 

Comets  were  long  regarded  as  super- 
natural objects,  and  usually  as  portents 
of  impending  calamity,  Tycho  Brahe 
■was  the  first  who  expressed  a rational 
opinion  on  the  subject,  coming  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  comet  of  1577  was  a 
heavenly  body  at  a greater  distance 
from  the  earth  than  that  of  the  moon. 
The  general  law  of  the  motion  of  bodies, 
as  well  as  his  own  observations  on  the 
comet  of  1680,  led  Newton  to  conclude 
that  the  orbits  of  the  comets  must,  like 
those  of  the  planets,  be  ellipses,  having 


Comet  of  1811. 

the  sun  in  one  focus,  but  far  more  eccen- 
tric; and  having  their  aphelions,  or 
greater  distances  from  the  sun,  far  re- 
mote in  the  regions  of  space.  This  idea 
was  taken  up  by  Halley,  who  collated 
the  observations  which  had  been  made 
of  all  the  twenty-four  comets  of  which 
notice  had  been  taken  previous  to  1680. 
The  results  were  very  interesting.  With 
but  few  exceptions  the  comets  had 
passed  within  less  than  the  earth’s 
shortest  distance  from  the  sun,  some  of 
them  •within  less  than  one-third  of  it, 
and  the  average  about  one-half.  Out 
of  the  number,  too,  nearly  fwo-thirds 


COMITY  OF  NATIONS 


COMMISSION,  MILITARY 


had  had  their  motions  retrograde,  or 
moved  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
planets.  While  Halley  was  engaged 
on  these  comparisons  and  deductions 
the  comet  of  1682  made  its  appearance, 
and  he  found  that  there  was  a wonder- 
ful resemblance  between  it  and  three 
other  comets  that  he  found  recorded — 
the  comets  of  1456,  of  1531,  and  of  1607. 
The  times  of  the  appearance  of  these 
comets  had  been  at  very  nearly  regular 
intervals,  the  average  period  being  be- 
tween seventy-five  and  seventy-six 
years.  Their  distances  from  the  sun, 
when  in  perihelion,  or  when  nearest  to 
that  luminary,  had  been  nearly  the 
same,  being  nearly  six-tenths  of  that 
of  the  earth,  and  not  varying  more 
than  one-sixtieth  from  each  other. 
The  inclination  of  their  orbits  to  that  of 
the  earth  had  also  been  nearly  the  same, 
between  17°  and  18°;  and  their  motions 
had  all  been  retrograde.  Putting  these 
facts  together,  Halley  concluded  that 
the  comets  of  1456, 1531,  1607,  and  1682 
were  reappearances  of  one  and  the  same 
comet,  which  revolved  in  an  elliptic  or- 
bit round  the  sun,  performing  its  circuit 
in  a period  varying  from  a little  more 
than  seventy-six  years  to  a little  less 
than  seventy-five;  or  having,  as  far  as 
the  observations  had  been  carried,  a 
variation  of  about  fifteen  months  in 
the  absolute  duration  of  its  year,  meas- 
ured according  to  that  of  the  earth. 

It  now  became  possible  to  predict  the 
reappearance  of  comets  with  certainty. 
Sometimes  a comet  may  split  up  into 
thousands  of  small  pieces  and  reappear 
as  “shooting  stars.”  Among  the  famous 
comets  are  those  of  Encke  (1786  and 


Donati’s  comet,  1868. 

1818),  Biela’s  comet  (1826,  1839,  1845), 
which  in  1846  split  in  two  and  has  since 
been  entirely  dissipated;  and  Donati’s 
comet  (1858).  The  tails  of  comets  are 
sometimes  many  millions  of  miles  in 
length. 

That  the  comets  are  formed  of  matter 
of  some  sort  or  other  we  know  from  the 
dense  and  opaque  appearance  of  their 
nucleus,  as  well  as  from  the  action  of 
the  planets  upon  them;  but  as  their 
action  upon  the  planets  has  not  been 
great,  or  even  perceptible,  we  are  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  not 
bodies  of  the  same  density  or  magni- 
tude as  even  the  smallest  and  rarest  of 
the  planets.  One  modern  theory  of  the 
nature  of  comets  is  that  these  bodies 
were  ejected  millions  of  years  ago  from 
the  interios*  of  suns,  or  planets  in  a sun- 
like state.  When  a comet  is  viewed 
through  a telescope  of  considerable 
power  there  appears  a dense  nucleus  in 
the  center  of  the  luminous  and  appar- 
ently vaporous  matter  of  which  the 
external  parts  are  composed;  and  the 
opacity  of  this  nucleus  varies  in  different 


comets.  On  its  first  appearance,  and 
again  when  it  recedes,  the  luminous 
part  of  the  comet  is  faint  and  does  not 
extend  far  from  the  nucleus;  but  as  it 
moves  on  toward  the  perihelion  the 
brightness  increases,  and  the  luminous 
matter  lengthens  into  a train,  which,  in 
some  cases,  has  extended  across  a fourth 
of  the  entire  circumference  of  the 
heavens.  The  most  remarkable  dis- 
covery of  recent  times  regarding  comets 
is  the  identity  of  the  course  of  some  of 
them  with  the  orbit  of  certain  showers 
of  shooting-stars.  This  was  first  demon- 
strated by  the  Italian  astronomer 
Schiaparelli,  who  proved  the  agreement 
between  the  orbit  of  the  great  comet  of 
1862  and  that  of  the  star-shower  seen 
annually  about  August  9,  10.  It  has 
since  been  demonstrated  that  every 
meteoric  stream  follows  in  the  train  of 
some  comet  large  or  small,  which 
either  ex:sts  now  or  has  been  dissipated, 
as  Biela’s  comet  was,  leaving  only  its 
meteoric  trail  to  show  where  it  once 
traveled;  and  that  every  comet  is 
followed  or  preceded  by  a train  of 
meteors,  extending  over  a greater  or 
less  portion  of  the  comet’s  orbit  accord- 
ing to  the  length  of  time  during  which 
the  comet  has  existed. 

COMITY  OF  NATIONS,  a phrase 
adopted  in  international  law  to  denote 
that  kind  of  courtesy  by  which  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  one  state  or  country 
are  recognized  and  given  effect  to  by 
the  government  of  another. 

COMMA,  in  punctuation,  the  point 
[,]  denoting  the  shortest  pause  in  reading, 
and  separating  a sentence  into  divisions 
or  members  according  to  the  construc- 
tion.— In  music,  a comma  is  the  smallest 
enharmonic  interval,  being  the  differ- 
ence between  a major  and  a minor  tone, 
and  expressed  by  the  ratio  80:81. 

COMMAN'DER,  a chief;  the  chief 
officer  of  an  army  or  any  division  of  it. 
The  office  of  commander-in-chief  is  the 
highest  staff  appointment  in  the  army. 
The  title  is  sometimes  not  command- 
er-in-chief, but  field-marshal  command- 
ing-in-chief, the  difference  being  that 
the  former  is  appointed  by  patent  for 
life,  while  the  latter  is  appointed  by  a 
letter  of  service,  and  holds  oflSce  only 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign. 
In  the  navy,  a commander  holds  a 
definite  rank  above  lieutenant  and  under 
captain.  In  matters  of  etiquette  he 
ranks  with  a lieutenant-colonel  in  the 
army.  In  large  vessels  there  is  a com- 
mander as  well  as  a captain,  but  in 
sloops  and  vessels  of  that  class  the 
commander  is  the  highest  oflBcer. 

COMMAN'DERY,  a term  used  in 
several  senses  in  connection  with  some 
of  the  military  and  religious  orders. 
Among  several  orders  of  knights  as  the 
Templars,  Hospitallers,  etc.,  it  was  a 
district  under  the  control  of  a member 
of  the  order  (called  a commander  or 
preceptor),  who  received  the  income  of 
the  estates  belonging  to  the  knights 
within  that  district,  and  expended  part 
for  his  own  use  and  accounted  for  the 
rest;  in  England,  more  especially 
applied  to  a manor  belonging  to  the 
priory  of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  or 
Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  In 
certain  religious  orders,  as  those  of  St. 
Bernard  and  St.  Anthony,  it  was  the 


district  under  the  authority  of  a digni- 
tary called  a commander. 

COMMENCEMENT,  in  the  universi- 
ties of  the  United  States,  the  day  when 
masters  of  arts  and  doctors  receive 

COMMEN'SURABLE,  an  appellation 
given  to  such  quantities  or  magnitudes 
as  can  be  measured  by  one  and  the  same 
common  measure.  Commensurable 
numbers  are  such  as  can  be  measured  or 
divided  by  some  other  number  without 
any  remainder;  such  are  12  and  18,  as 
being  measured  by  6 or  3. 

COMM'ENTARY,  a term  used  (1)  in 
the  same  sense  as  memoirs,  for  a nar- 
rative of  particular  transactions  or 
events  as  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar. 
(2)  A series  or  collection  of  comments  or 
annotations.  These  may  either  be  in 
the  form  of  detached  notes,  or  may  be 
embodied  in  a series  of  remarks  written 
and  printed  in  a connected  form. 

COMM'ERCE,  the  interchange  of 
goods,  merchandise,  or  property  of  any 
kind  between  countries  or  communities; 

COMMERCIAL  LAW,  the  law  which 
regulates  commercial  affairs  among  the 
merchants  of  different  countries,  or 
among  merchants  generally.  It  is  de- 
rived from  the  different  maritime  codes 
of  mediaeval  Europe,  the  imperial  code 
of  Rome,  international  law,  and  the 
custom  of  merchants. 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES,  treaties 
entered  into  between  two  countries  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  and  extending 
their  commercial  relations;  each  coun- 
try engaging  to  abolish  or  to  reduce  to 
an  agreed  rate  or  otherwise  modify  the 
duties  on  articles  of  production  and 
manufacture  imported  from  the  one 
country  into  the  other.  They  are  usually 
for  a limited  period,  but  may  be  renewed 
and  modified  according^  to  altering 
conditions.  In  these  treaties  the  phrase, 
“most  favored  nations,”  implies  con- 
cessions equal  to  the  most  favorable 
granted  under  any  similar  treaty.  The 
first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  Eng- 
land with  any  foreign  nation  was  entered 
into  with  the  Flemings  in  1272;  the 
second  was  with  Portugal  and  Spain, 
1308.  Among  modern  treaties  the  most 
famous  is  that  negotiated  between 
Richard  Cobden,  the  English  free- 
trader, and  the  ministers  of  Napoleon 
III.  in  1860,  and  which  resulted  in 
great  benefit  to  both  nations.  A second 
one  was  signed  in  1873,  but  negotiations 
for  a third  in  1882  fell  through  chiefly 
owing  to  French  protectionist  prej- 
udices. Several  treaties  of  reciprocity 
have  been  made  between  the  United 
States  and  other  countries,  notably 
France  and  Canada. 

COMMISSA'RIAT,  the  department  of 
an  army  whose  duties  consist  in  supply- 
ing transport,  provisions,  forage,  camp 
equipage,  etc.,  to  the  troops,  but  not 
arms,  ammunition,  etc.5  also  the  body  of 
officers  in  that  department. 

COMMISSION,  MILITARY,  the  au- 
thorization of  rank  or  right  to  command 
in  the  army,  generally  in  the  form  of  a 
certificate.  A commission  is  issued  only 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
In  Britain  military  commissions  were 
formerly  purchasable  but  this  custom 
was  abolished  in  1871. 


COMMISSIONAIRE 


COMMUNE  OF  PARIS 


COMMISSIONAIRE,  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  hotel  runners  and  general 
servants  of  hotels  who  look  after  the 
luggage  of  guests  whom  they  meet  at 
the  railway  stations  or  docks.  In  Ger- 
many commissionaires  are  analogous 
to  messenger  boys  in  the  United  States. 

COMMITMENT,  a warrant  of  a mag- 
istrate holding  an  accused  person  to 
trial.  The  word  is  also  used  to  designate 
an  order  sending  a person  to  jail  for 
contempt  of  court,  or  other  offense. 

COMMITTEE,  one  or  more  persons 
elected  or  appointed  to  attend  to  any 
matter  or  business  referred  to  them 
either  by  a legislative  body,  or  by  a 
court,  or  by  any  corporation,  or  by  any 
society  or  collective  body  of  men  acting 
together.  In  legislative  bodies,  when 
a committee  consists  of  the  whole  mem- 
bers of  the  body  acting  in  a different 
capacity  from  that  which  usually  be- 
longs to  them  it  is  called  a committee  of 
the  whole  house,  the  business  of  which 
is  conducted  under  somewhat  different 
regulations  from  those  under  which 
the  business  of  the  house  when  not  in 
committee  is  carried  on. — Standing 
committees  are  such  as  continue  during 
the  existence  of  legislature,  and  to 
these  are  committed  all  matters  that 
fall  within  the  purposes  of  their  appoint- 
ment, as  the  committee  of  elections  or 
of  privileges,  etc. — Select  committees 
are  appointed  to  consider  and  report  on 
particular  subjects. 

COMMITTEE  OF  PUBLIC  SAFETY,  a 
body  elected  by  the  French  Convention 
(6th  April,  1793)  from  among  its  own 
members,  at  first  having  very  limited 
powers  conferred  upon  it — that  of  super- 
vising the  executive  and  of  accelerating 
its  actions.  Subsequently,  however, 
its  powers  became  extended;  all  the 
executive  authority  passed  into  its 
hands,  and  the  ministers  became  merely 
its  scribes.  It  was  at  first  composed 
of  nine,  but  was  increased  to  twelve 
members  viz.:  Robespierre,  Danton, 
Couthon,  St.  Just,  Prieur,  Robert-Lin- 
det,  H^ault  de  S4chelles,  Jean-Bon 
St.  Andre,  BarrSre,  Carnot,  Collot 
d’Herbois,  and  Billaud  Varennes.  The 
severe  government  of  this  body  is 
known  as  the  Reign  of  Terror,  which 
ended  with  the  execution  of  Robes- 
pierre and  his  associates  in  July,  1794. 
During  the  commune  (March  to  May, 
1871)  a similar  committee  was  estab- 
lished in  Paris. 

COM'MODORE,  in  the  navy,  an 
officer,  generally  a captain,  holding 
a temporary  commission  with  a rank 
between  that  of  captain  and  admiral, 
who  commands  a ship  or  detachment  of 
ships  in  the  absence  of  an  admiral. 
They  are  of  two  kinds — one  having  a 
captain  under  him  in  the  same  ship,  and 
the  other  without  a captain.  They 
both  carry  distinguishing  pennants. 
The  title  is  also  given  to  the  senior  cap- 
tain of  a line  of  merchant  vessels,  and 
also  to  the  president  of  a yachting 
club. 

COMMON  CARPJERS.  See  Carriers. 

COMMON  COUNCIL,  the  council  of  a 
city  or  corporate  town,  empowered  to 
inake  by-laws  for  the  government  of  the 
citizens.  The  common  councils  some- 
times consist  of  two  houses,  chambers,  or 
courts,  and  sometimes  form  only  one. 


Thus  the  common  council  of  London 
consists  of  two  houses,  the  upper  house, 
composed  of  the  lord-mayor  and  aider- 
men,  and  the  lower  house  of  the  com- 
mon council  men,  who  are  elected 
annually.  In  the  United  States  several 
cities  have  two  houses  of  municipal 
legislature,  notably  St.  Louis.  The 
term  common  council  is  not  used  so 
familiarly  in  this  country  as  in  Eng- 
land, the  term  city  council  being  pre- 
ferred. 

COM'MONER,  IN  BRITAIN,  a term 
applied  to  all  citizens  except  the  heredi- 
tary nobility. 

COMMON  LAW,  the  unwritten  law, 
the  law  that  receives  its  binding  force 
from  immemorial  usage  and  universal 
reception,  in  distinction  from  the  writ- 
ten or  statute  law;  sometimes  from 
the  civil  or  canon  law;  and  occasionally 
from  the  lex  mercatoria,  or  commercial 
and  maritime  jurisprudence.  It  con- 
sists of  that  body  of  rules,  principles, 
and  customs  which  have  been  received 
from  former  times,  and  by  which  courts 
have  been  guided  in  their  judicial 
decisions.  The  evidence  of  this  law 
is  to  be  found  in  the  reports  of  those 
decisions  and  the  records  of  the  courts. 
Some  of  these  rules  may  have  originated 
in  edicts  or  statutes  which  are  now  lost, 
or  in  the  terms  and  conditions  of  par- 
ticular grants  or  charters;  but  it  is 
quite  certain  that  many  of  them  origi- 
nated in  judicial  decisions  founded  on 
natural  justice  and  equity,  or  on  local 
customs.  It  is  contrasted  with  (1)  the 
statute  law  contained  in  acts  of  parlia- 
ment; (2)  equity,  which  is  also  an 
accretion  of  judicial  decisions,  but 
formed  by  a new  tribunal,  which  first 
appeared  when  the  common  law  had 
reached  its  full  growth;  and  (3)  the 
civil  law  inherited  by  modern  Europe 
from  the  Roman  Empire.  Wherever 
statute  law,  however,  runs  counter  to 
common  law,  the  latter  is  entirely  over- 
ruled; but  common  law,  on  the  other 
hand,  asserts  its  pre-eminence  where 
equity  is  opposed  to  it. 

COMMON  PLEAS,  Court  of,  formerly 
one  of  three  superior  courts  of  common 
law  in  England,  presided  over  by  a lord 
chief -justice  and  five  (at  an  earlier  period 
four)  puisn6  judges,  and  having  cogni- 
zance of  all  civil  causes,  real,  personal, 
or  mixed,  as  well  by  original  writ  as  by 
removal  from  the  inferior  courts;  now 
merged  in  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 

COMMON  PRAYER,  Book  of,  the 
liturgy  or  public  form  of  prayer  pre- 
scribed by  the  Church  of  England  to  be 
used  in  all  churches  and  chapels,  and 
which  the  clergy  are  to  use  under  a 
certain  penalty.  The  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  is  used  also  by  the  English- 
speaking  Episcopal  churches  in  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  America,  and  the  colonies, 
as  well  as  by  some  non-episcopal  bodies, 
with  or  without  certain  alterations. 
It  dates  from  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. ; 
was  published  in  1549,  and  again  with 
some  changes  in  1 552.  Some  slight  alter- 
ations were  made  upon  it  when  it  was 
adopted  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In 
the  reign  of  James  I.^  and  finally  soon 
after  the  Restoration,  it  underwent  new 
revisions. 

COMMONS,  House  of.  See  Britain 
and  Parliament. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS,  in  the  United 
^States,  the  public  schools,  including 
the  primary  and  high  schools,  and  the 
normal  schools.  The  present  system  of 
graded  schools  is  a vast  enlargement 
and  improvement  of  the  elementary 
schools  of  colonial  times.  To  assist 
in  the  support  of  the  public  schools  the 
government,  and  sometimes  the  several 
states,  particularly  in  the  west,  have 
given  grants  of  land  the  sale  of  which 
has  helped  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
public  education.  About  16,000,000 
children  are  enrolled  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
instruction  of  these  nearly  500,000 
teachers  are  engaged,  and  the  total 
expenditures  for  the  support  of  these 
schools  aggregate  nearly  $220,000,000 
annually. 

COMMON  TIME,  in  music,  is  that  in 
which  every  bar  contains  an  even  num- 
ber of  subdivisions,  such  as  two  minims, 
four  quavers,  or  their  equivalents.  It 
is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 
Simple  common  time  is  that  which  in- 
cludes four  beats  in  a bar,  or  any  division 
of  that  number,  or  square  of  the  num- 
ber or  its  divisions.  Compound  com- 
mon time  includes  two  or  four  beats  of 
three  crochets  or  quavers  to  each  beat. 

COM'MONWEALTH,  the  whole  body 
of  people  in  a state;  the  body  politic. 
In  Eng.  hist,  the  name  given  to  the 
form  of  government  establislied  after 
the  death  of  Charles  I.,  and  which 
lasted  until  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.  (1649-59). 

COM'MUNALISM,  the  theory  of  gov- 
ernment by  communes  or  corporations 
of  towns  and  districts,  adopted  by  the 
advanced  republicans  of  France  and 
elsewhere.  The  doctrine  is  that  every 
commune,  or  at  least  every  important 
city  commune,  as  Paris,  Marseilles 
Lyons,  etc.,  should  be  a kind  of  inde- 
pendent state  in  itself,  and  France 
merely  a federation  of  such  states. 
This  system  must  not  be  confounded 
with  communism,  with  which,  however, 
it  is  naturally  and  historically  allied, 
though  the  two  are  perfectly  dis- 
tinct in  principle. 

COM'MUNE,  a small  territorial  dis- 
trict in  France,  being  one  of  the  sub- 
ordinate divisions  into  which  that 
country  is  parcelled  out';  the  name 
is  also  given  to  similar  divisions  in 
some  other  countries,  as  Belgium.  In 
the  country  a commune  sometimes  em- 
braces a number  of  \’illages,  while  some 
large  cities  are  divided  into  a number  of 
communes.  In  either  case  each  com- 
mune is  governed  by  an  officer  called 
a mayor. 

COMMUNE  OF  PARIS.— 1.  A revolu- 
tionary committee  which  took  the  place 
of  the  municipality  of  Paris  in  the 
French  revolution  of  1789,  and  soon 
usurped  the  supreme  authority  in  the 
state.  Among  its  chiefs  were  some  of 
the  most  violent  of  the  demagogues,  such 
as  Hubert,  Danton,  and  Robespierre. 
2.  The  name  adopted  by  the  ultra-radical 
party  in  PSiIs  brought  once  more  into 
prominence  by  the  events  of  the  Franco- 
German  war,  more  immediately  by  the 
siege  of  Paris  (Oct.  1870  to  Jan.  1871). 
They  ruled  over  Paris  for  a brief  period 
after  the  evacuation  of  the  German 
troops,  and  had  to  be  suppressed  by 


COMMUNION 


COMPOSITE  ORDER 


troops  collected  by  the  National  As- 
sembly of  France.  The  rising  was 
entirely  political  and  confined  to  Paris; 
it  was  based  on  no  well  defined  dogmas, 
only  a fractional  part  of  the  communal 
government  being  communists  in  the 
economic  sense,  and  these  were  soon 
thrust  aside  by  their  more  violent  and 
unscrupulous  comrades.  Much  blood- 
shed and  wanton  destruction  of  property 
took  place  before  the  rising  was  put 
down  by  M.  Thiers’  government. 

COMMU'NION,  the  act  of  partaking 
with  others  of  the  sacramental  symbols 
in  the  Lord’s  Supper.  See  Lord’s 
Supper. 

COM'MUNISM,  the  economic  system 
or  theory  which  upholds  the  absorption 
of  all  proprietary  rights  in  a common 
interest,  an  equitable  division  of  labor, 
and  the  formation  of  a common  fund 
for  the  supply  of  all  the  wants  of  the 
community;  the  doctrine  of  a com- 
munity of  property,  or  the  negation  of 
individual  rights  in  property.  No  com- 
munistic society  has  as  yet  been  suc- 
cessful. Robert  Owen  made  several 
experiments  in  modified  communism, 
but  they  failed.  St.  Simon,  Fourier,  and 
Proudhon  have  been  the  chief  exponents 
of  the  system  in  France;  and  under  the 
names  of  socialism,  nihilism,  etc.,  it 
seems  to  be  working  as  a great  unseen 
force  in  several  countries. 

COMO,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Como,  in  the  north  of  Italy  (Lombardy), 
24  miles  n.n.w.  of  Milan.  Pop.  25,560. — 
The  province  of  Como  has  an  area  of 
1049  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  515,134. 

COMPANTON,  a raised  hatch  or 
cover  to  the  cabin  stair  of  a merchant 
vessel. — Companion  Ladder,  the  steps 
or  ladder  by  which  persons  ascend  to 
and  descend  from  the  quarter-deck. 

COM'PANY,  in  military  language,  a 
subdivision  of  an  infantry  regiment  or 
battalion,  corresponding  to  a troop  of 
cavalry  or  a battery  of  artillery,  con- 
sisting of  from  60  to  100  men  and  com- 
manded by  a captain. 

COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.  See 
Anatomy. 

COMPARISON,  Degrees  of,  in  gram- 
mar, inflections  of  adjectives  or  adverbs 
to  express  degrees  of  the  original 
quality,  usually  divided  into  positive, 
comparative,  and  superlative;  as  strong, 
stronger,  strongest,  glorious,  more  glori- 
ous, most  glorious. 

COMPASS,  an  instrument  used  to 
indicate  the  magnetic  meridian  or  the 
position  of  objects  with  respect  to  that 
meridian,  and  employed  especially  on 
ships,  and  by  surveyors  and  travelers. 
Its  origin  is  unknown,  but  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  brought  from  China  to 
Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century.  As  now  generally  used  it  con- 
sists of  three  parts : namely,  the  box, 
the  card  or  fly,  and  the  needle — the 
latter  being  the  really  essential  part,  and 
consisting  of  a small  magnet  so  sus- 
pended that  it  may  be  able  to  move 
freely  in  a horizontal  direction.  The 
box,  which  contains  the  card  and  needle, 
is,  in  the  case  of  the  common  mariner’s 
compass,  a circular  brass  receptacle 
hung  within  a wooden  one  by  two  con- 
centric rings  called  gimbals,  so  fixed  by 
the  cross  centers  to  the  box  that  the 
inner  one,  or  compass-box,  shall  retain 


a horizontal  position  in  all  motions  of 
the  ship.  The  circular  card  is  divided 
into  thirty-two  equal  parts  by  lines 
drawn  from  the  center  to  the  circum- 
ference, called  points  or  rhumbs;  the 
intervals  between  the  points  are  also 
divided  into  halves  and  quarters,  and 
the  whole  circumference  into  equal 
parts  or  degrees,  360  of  which  complete 
the  circle;  and,  consequently,  the  dis- 


Snip’s  compass. 

a 6,  Needle,  c c.  Box.  d d.  Inner  glmbal.  //, 
Outer  glmbal.  i.  Pivot  upon  which  the  card  is 
placed.  TO,  Reflector,  rr,  Card,  tt.tiu.  Sup- 
porting pivots. 

tance  or  angle  comprehended  between 
any  two  rhumbs  is  equal  to  11}°.  The 
four  principal  are  called  cardinal  points : 
viz..  North,  South,  East,  and  West.  The 
names  of  the  rest  are  compounded  of 
these.  The  needle  is  a small  bar  of 
magnetized  steel.  It  is  fixed  on  the 
under  side  of  the  card,  and  in  the  center 
Is  placed  a conical  socket,  which  is 
poised  on  an  upright  pointed  pin  fixed 
in  the  bottom  of  the  box;  so  that  the 
card,  hanging  on  the  pin,  turns  freely 
round  its  center,  and  one  of  the  points, 
by  the  property  of  the  needle,  will  al- 


ways be  directed  tow'ard  the  north  pole. 
The  needle,  however,  is  liable  to  a cer- 
tain deviation  owing  to  the  magnetism 
of  the  ship  itself,  and  this  is  especially 
strong  in  iron  ships.  (See  Deviation.) 
To  obviate  this  Sir  W.  Thomson  (Lord 
Kehdn)  invented  a compass,  having  a 
number  of  needles  arranged  in  a partic- 
ular manner  instead  of  one.  In  this 
compass  quadrantal  errors  are  corrected 


by  means  of  two  iron  globes  fixed  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  binnacle ; while  the 
various  components  of  the  ship’s  mag- 
netic force  are  neutralized  by  a series  of 
bar-magnets  so  arranged  as  to  act  as 
correctors.  In  the  compass  used  by 
land-surveyors  and  others  the  needle 
is  not  fixed  to  the  card,  but  plays  alone, 
the  card  being  drawn  on  the  bottom  of 
the  box. 

COMPASSES,  or  PAIR  OF  COM- 
PASSES, a mathematical  instrument 
used  for  the  describing  of  circles,  measur- 
ing lines,  etc.  They  consist  simply  of 
two  pointed  legs,  m.ovable  on  a joint 
or  pivot,  and  are  used  for  measuring  and 
transferring  distances.  For  describing 
circles  the  lower  end  of  one  of  the  legs  is 
removed  and  its  place  supplied  by  a 
holder  for  a pencil  or  pen. — Hair  Com- 
passes are  compasses  having  a spring 
tending  to  keep  the  legs  apart,  and  a 
finely-threaded  screw  by  which  the 
spring  can  be  compressed  or  relaxed 
with  the  utmost  nicety,  and  the  distance 
of  the  legs  regulated  to  a hair’s-breadth. 
— Bow  Compasses  are  compasses  having 
the  two  legs  united  by  a bow  passing 
through  one  of  them,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  legs  being  adjusted  by  means 
of  a screw  and  nut. — Proportional  Com- 
passes are  compasses  used  for  reducing 
or  enlarging  drawings,  having  the  legs 
crossing  so  as  to  present  a pair  on  each 
side  of  a common  pivot.  By  means  of  a 
slit  in  the  legs,  and  the  movable  pivot, 
the  relative  distances  between  the 
points  at  the  respective  ends  may  be  ad- 
justed at  pleasure  in  the  required  pro- 
portion. 

COMPLEXION,  the  color  or  hue  of 
the  skin,  particularly  of  the  .face.  The 
color  depends  partly  on  pigment  in  the 
deep  cells  of  the  epidermis  and  partly 
on  the  blood  supply.  The  nature  and 
color  of  the  hair  seems  closely  con- 
nected with  the  complexion,  and  these 
combined  are  important  distinguishing 
marks  of  different  races.  See  Ethnology. 

COMPLUTENSIAN  POLYGLOT,  a 
celebrated  polyglot  edition  of  the  Bible 
published  at  Complutum,  the  ancient 
name  of  Alcala  de  Henares,  in  Spain, 
1514-17,  by  Cardinal  Ximenes.  See 
Polyglot. 

COMPOSTTiE,  the  largest  known  nat. 
order  of  plants,  containing  over  12,000 
described  species  of  herbs  or  shrubs  dis- 
tributed all  over  the  world.  The  flowers 
(generally  called  florets)  are  numerous 
(with  few  exceptions)  and  sessile,  form- 
ing a close  head  on  the  dilated  top  of  the 
receptacle,  and  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volucre of  whorled  bracts.  The  head 
of  numerous  florets  was  called  by  the 
older  botanists  a compound  flower, 
hence  the  name.  Many  are  common 
weeds,  like  the  daisy,  dandelion,  thistle, 
etc.;  many  are  cultivated  in  gardens, 
such  as  the  asters,  marigold,  etc. ; others 
have  some  economic  or  medicinal  value, 
as  chicory,  artichoke,  chamomile,  let- 
tuce, wormwood,  arnica,  etc. 

COMPOSITE  ORDER,  in  arch,  the 
last  of  the  five  orders;  so  called  be- 
cause the  capital  belonging  to  it  is  com- 

Cosed  out  of  those  of  the  other  orders, 
orrowing  a quarter-round  from  the 
Tuscan  and  Doric,  a row  of  leaves  from 
the  Corinthian,  and  volutes  from  the 
Ionic.  Its  cornice  has  simple  modil- 


COMPOSITION  OF  FORCES  AND  MOTIONS 


CONCORD 


lions  of  dentils.  It  is  called  also  the 
Roman  or  the  Italic  order. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FORCES  AND 
MOTIONS,  in  mechanics,  the  union  or 
assemblage  of  several  forces  or  motions 
that  are  oblique  to  one  another,  into 
an  equivalent  force  or  motion  in  another 
direction.  Thus  two  forces  acting  in  the 
directions  of  the  adjacent  sides  of  a 
parallelogram,  compose  one  force  acting 
in  the  direction  of  the  diagonal,  and  if 
the  lengths  of  the  adjacent  sides  repre- 
sent also  the  magnitudes  of  the  forces, 
the  diagonal  will  represent  the  magni- 
tude of  the  compound  force  or  resultant. 


Composite  order. 


COMPOSITION  WITH  CREDITORS, 

an  arrangement  whereby  a debtor  who 
has  failed,  compromises  with  all  or  a 
number  of  his  creditors  who  agree  to 
discharge  him  from  his  indebtedness 
for  a percentage  of  their  claims.  If 
the  arrangement  be  made  secretly  it 
is  held  to  be  void. 

COMPOUND  ANIMALS,  animals, 
many  of  which  by  no  means  belong  to 
the  lowest  types,  in  which  individuals, 
distinct  as  regards  many  of  the  func- 
tions of  life,  are  yet  connected  by  some 
part  of  their  frame  so  as  to  form  a 
united  whole.  Such  are  the  polyzoa  and 
some  of  the  ascidia. 

COMPOUNDING  A FELONY,  the  act 
of  agreeing  not  to  prosecute  a person 
accused  of  a crime  for  a consideration 
of  value.  In  the  United  States  com- 
pounding a felony  is  punishable  by 
imprisonment  and  a fine. 

COMPRESSED  AIR,  atmospheric  air 
compressed  by  means  of  pumps,  etc., 
and  used  in  driving  stationary  and  loco- 
motive engines,  and  excavating  ma- 
chines; as  also  in  working  pneumatic 
despatch-tubes,  railway-brakes,  etc. 

COMPRESSED-AIR  ENGINE,  an 
engine  operated  by  the  escape  of  air 
from  a tank  in  which  atmospheric  air 
has  been  stored  under  high  pressure. 

COMPRESSED-AIR  LOCOMOTIVE, 
a locomotive  in  which  the  motive  power 
is  compressed  air.  Many  devices  for 
this  kind  of  locomotive  have  been 
invented  but  none  of  them  have  stood 
the  practical  tests  through  which  they 
have  been  put.  Compressed  air  motors 
have  been  tried  on  the  street  car  lines  of 
New  York  and  other  cities  with  small 
success. 


COMPRESSED-AIR  TREATMENT, 

atmospheric  pressure  brought  to  bear 
on  the  body  for  the  purpose  of  curing 
diseases.  It  is  applied  by  causing  the 
patient  to  breathe  compressed  air,  or 
to  exhaust  the  air  from  a cabinet  in 
which  his  body  is  placed,  while  he 
breathes  the  ordinary  air  through  a 
tube  communicating  with  the  outside. 
It  has  not  been  successful. 

COMPRESSIBILITY,  the  property  of 
bodies  in  virtue  of  which  they  may  be 
pressed  into  smaller  bulk.  All  bodies 
are  probably  compressible,  though  the 
liquids  are  but  slightly  so.  The  gases 
are  exceedingly  compressible,  and  may 
be  liquefied  by  pressure  and  cold  com- 
bined. Those  bodies  which  occupy 
their  former  space'  when  the  pressure  is 
removed,  are  called  elastic. 

COMSTOCK,  Anthony,  an  American 
reformer,  noted  for  his  detestation  of 
improper  literature.  He  was  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1844,  and  served  during 
the  civil  war  on  the  Union  side.  Com- 
stock organized  the  society  for  the 
suppression  of  vice,  in  1873,  and  has 
done  much  to  suppress  immoral  litera- 
ture. 

COMSTOCK  LODE,  a famous  vein  of 
gold  and  silver  ore  in  Nevada  (Storey 
county)  in  the  Sierra  mountains.  It 
was  discovered  in  1859,  is  about  four 
miles  long  and  2900  feet  at  its  widest 
part.  In  30  years  the  vein  has  produced 
$350,000,000.  Its  greatest  production 
in  any  one  year  was  $38,000,000  in  1877. 

COMTE  (kont),  Isidore  Auguste  Marie 
Francois  Xavier,  founder  of  the  “posi- 
tive” system  of  philosophy,  was  born  at 
Montpellier  on  12th  January,  1798,  died 
at  Paris  1857.  In  1826  Comte  com- 
menced a course  of  lectures  on  positive 
philosophy,  but  only  four  lectures  were 
given  when  he  became  deranged  in 
mind,  and  did  not  recover  till  the 
end  of  1827.  In  1830  he  commenced 
the  publication  of  his  Cours  de  Phi- 
losophic Positive,  which  was  completed 
in  six  volumes  in  1842.  In  1845  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Clotilde  de 
Vaux,  who  seems  to  have  inspired  him 
■with  a depth  and  tenderness  of  moral 
and  aesthetic  feeling  before  unknown  in 
him.  This  appears  in  his  second  great 
work.  Positive  Polity  (1851-54) ; the 
Positivist  Catechism  (1852);  and  his 
last  work.  Subjective  Synthesis  (1855). 
In  his  Religion  of  Humanity  he  himself 
assumed  the  office  of  high-priest,  per- 
forming marriage  and  funeral  rites  on 
behalf  of  the  disciples  who  had  been 
induced  to  adopt  his  system.  These, 
however,  were  never  very  numerous; 
and  as  a practical  faith  his  system  is 
now  stationary,  though  as  a philosophy 
of  knowledge  it  is  ■widely  accepted.  His 
works  have  been  made  known  to 
American  readers  mainly  by  Mr.  G.  H. 
Lewes’  Comet’s  Philosophy  of  the  Sci- 
ences and  Miss  Martineau’s  translation 
above  mentioned. 

CONCAN,  a maritime  subdivision  of 
Hindustan,  in  the  presidency  of  Bom- 
bay. Area  about  13,500  sq.  miles; 
pop.  about  3,000,000. 

CONCAVE,  hollow  and  curved  or 
rounded,  as  the  inner  surface  of  a 
spherical  body.  A surface  is  concave 
when  straight  lines  drawn  from  point 
to  point  in  it  fall  between  the  surface 


and  the  spectator;  and  convex  when 
the  surface  comes  between  him  and 
such  lines. 

CONCEALMENT,  in  law  the  hiding 
of  facts  bearing  upon  a crime,  or  the 
hiding  of  property  in  litigation,  or  of 
persons. 

CONCEPCION',  a seaport  of  Chili, 
capital  of  a province  of  the  same  name. 
Concepcion  was  founded  in  1550,  and 
has  suffered  much  from  earthquakes 
and  attacks  by  the  Araucanians.  Pop. 
55  458 

CONCEP'TION,  the  act  or  power  of 
conceiving  in  the  mind;  in  philosophy, 
that  mental  act  or  combination  of  acts 
by  which  an  absent  object  of  perception 
is  brought  before  the  mind  by  the 
imagination. 

CONCEPTION,  Immaculate,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  doctrine 
that  the  Virgin  Mary  was  born  without 
the  stain  of  original  sin.  This  doctrine 
came  into  favor  in  the  12th  century, 
when,  however,  it  was  opposed  by  St. 
Bernard,  and  it  afterward  became  a 
subject  of  vehement  controversy  be- 
tween the  Scotists,  who  supported, 
and  the  Thomists,  who  opposed  it.  In 
1708  Clement  XI.  appointed  a festival 
to  be  celebrated  throughout  the  church 
in  honor  of  the  immaculate  conception. 
Since  that  time  it  was  received  in  the 
Roman  Church  as  an  opinion,  but  not 
as  an  article  of  faith  until  the  year  1854, 
when  the  pope  issued  a bull  which 
makes  the  immaculate  conception  a 
point  of  faith. 

CON'CERT,  a public  or  private  musi- 
cal entertainment,  at  wliich  a number 
of  vocalists  or  instrumentalists,  or  both, 
perform  singly  or  combined. 

CONCERTI'NA,  a musical  instrument 
invented  by  Professor  Wheatstone,  the 
principle  of  which  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  accordion.  It  is  composed  of  a bel- 
lows, with  two  faces  or  ends,  generally 
polygonal  in  shape,  on  which  are  placed 
the  various  stops  or  studs,  by  the  action 
of  which  air  is  admitted  to  the  free 
metallic  reeds  which  produce  the 
sounds. 

CONCERTO  (kon-cher'to),  in  music, 
a kind  of  composition,  usually  in  a sym- 
phonic form,  written  for  one  principal 
instrument,  •with  accompaniments  for 
a full  orchestra. 

CONCERT  PITCH.  See  Pitch. 

CONCH  (kongk),  a marine  shell, 
especially  a large  spiral  shell  of  a trum- 
pet shape,  and  which  may  be  blown  as 
a trumpet,  as  is  the  practice  in  Hindus- 
tan and  some  of  the  Pacific  Islands. 

CONCHOL'OGY,  the  science  of  shells, 
that  department  of  zoology  which  treats 
of  the  nature,  formation,  and  classifica- 
tion of  the  shells  with  which  the  bodies 
of  many  mollusca  are  protected;  or  the 
word  may  be  used  also  to  include  a 
knowledge  of  the  animals  themselves, 
in  which  case  it  is  equivalent  to  malaco- 
logy. In  systems  of  conchology  shells 
are  usually  divided  into  three  orlers. 
Univalves,  Bivalves,  and  Multivalves, 
according  to  the  number  of  pieces  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

CON'CORD,  in  music,  the  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  sounds  pleasing  to 
the  ear.  Concords  are  the  octawe,  the 
fifth,  third',  and  sixthf  The  two  first  are 
called  perfect,  because  as  concords  they 


CONCORD 


CONDOR 


are  not  liable  to  any  alteration  by 
sharps  or  flats.  The  two  last  are  called 
imperfect,  as  being  alterable. 

CONCORD,  the  capital  of  New 
Hampshire,  on  the  Merrimac,  60  miles 
n.n.w.  Boston,  one  of  the  largest  rail- 


State  eapitol,  Concord,  N.  H. 


way  centers  in  New  England.  It  has 
manufactures  of  carriages,  hardware, 
cutlery,  woolen  fabrics,  paper,  etc. 
Pop.  21,632. 

CONCOR'DANCE,  a book  in  which 
the  principal  words  used  in  any  work  or 
number  of  works,  as  the  Scriptures, 
Shakespeare,  Milton,  Tennyson,  Homer, 
etc.,  are  arranged  alphabetically,  and 
the  book,  chapter,  and  verse,  or  act, 
scene,  line,  or  other  subdivision  in  which 
each  word  occurs,  are  noted;  designed 
to  assist  an  inquirer  in  finding  any 
passage  by  means  of  any  leading  word 
which  he  can  recollect,  or  to  show  the 
character  of  the  language  and  style  of 
any  writer. 

CON'CRETE,  a technical  term  in 
logic,  applied  to  an  object  as  it  exists  in 
nature,  invested  with  all  its  attributes, 
or  to  the  notion  of  such  on  object.  Con- 
crete is  opposite  to  abstract.  The 
names  of  individuals  are  concrete;  those 
of  classes,  abstract.  A concrete  name 
is  a name  which  stands  for  a thing;  an 
abstract  name  is  a name  which  stands 
for  the  attribute  of  a thing. 

CON'CRETE,  a composition  used  in 
building,  consisting  of  hydraulic  or 
other  mortar  mixed  with  gravel  or  stone 
chippings  about  the  size  of  a nut.  It 
is  used  extensively  in  building  under 
water,  for  example,  to  form  the  bottom 
of  a canal  or  sluice,  or  the  foundation  of 
any  structures  raised  in  the  sea;  and  it 
is  also  frequently  used  to  make  a bed 
for  asphalt  pavements,  or  to  form 
foundations  for  buildings  of  any  kind. 
It  is  sometimes  even  used  as  the  mater- 
ial with  which  the  walls  of  houses  are 
built,  the  concrete  being  firmly  rammed 
into  molds  of  the  requisite  shape,  and 
then  allowed  to  set. 

CONCU'BINAGE,  sexual  cohabitation 
of  a man  without  legal  marriage.  It 
was  permitted  among  the  ancient 
Hebrews  and  the  Greeks  without  limita- 
tion; but  among  the  Romans  in  the 
case  of  unmarried  men  concubinage  was 
limited  to  a singly  concubine  of  mean 
clcscoiit 

CONCURRENT  JURISDICTION,  the 
jurisdiction  of  different  courts  author- 


j ized  to  take  cognizance  of  the  same  kind 
of  case.  In  criminal  cases  the  court 
which  first  takes  up  a case  has  the  right 
of  prevention,  that  is,  of  deciding  upon 
that  case  exclusive  of  the  other  courts 
which  but  for  that  right  would  have  been 
equally  entitled  to  take  cognizance  of 
it.  In  civil  cases  it  lies  with  the  suitor 
to  bring  his  cause  before  any  court  he 
pleases,  which  is  competent  to  take  it  up. 

CONCUSSION  OF  THE  BRAIN,  a 
term  applied  to  certain  injuries  of  the 
brain  resulting  from  blows  and  falls, 
though  unattended  with  fracture  of  the 
skull.  Stupor  or  insensibility,  sickness, 
impeded  respiration,  and  irregular  pulse 
are  the  first  symptoms,  and  though 
these  may  subside  there  is  always  for  a 
time  more  or  less  risk  of  serious  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain  setting  in. 

CONDE,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  founder  of 
the  house  of,  born  1530;  killed  after 
battle  of  Jarmac,  1569.  See  Bourbon. 

CONDE,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  of 
(the  Great  Cond6),  a famous  general, 
born  in  1621.  In  1641  he  married  a 
niece  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  His  defeat 
of  the  Spanish  at  Rocroi,  in  1643,  was 
followed,  in  1645,  by  his  defeat  of  Mercy 
at  Nordlingen,  and  by  his  capture  of 
Dunkirk  in  1646,  the  year  in  which  he 
inherited  his  father’s  title.  During  the 
troubles  of  the  Fronde  he  at  first  took 
the  side  of  the  court;  but  believing 
himself  to  be  ill  requited  by  Mazarin, 
he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  faction 
of  the  Petits  Maitres,  and  was  imprison- 
ed for  a year  by  Mazarin  (1650).  On 
his  release  he  at  once  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a new  Fronde,  entered  upon 
negotiations  with  Spain,  and,  his  at- 
tack on  Paris  being  indecisive,  retired 
to  the  Netherlands,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed generalissimo  of  the  Spanish 
armies.  In  this  capacity  he  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  Arras  in  1654;  but  he 
was  more  fortunate  at  Valenciennes  in 
1656,  and  at  Cambrai  in  1657.  In  1658 
he  was  defeated  before  Dunkirk  by 
Turenne,  but  was  restored  to  his  rank 
in  France  after  the  peace  of  1659.  In 
1668  he  accomplished  the  reduction  of 
Franche  Comt6  in  three  weeks;  and 
in  1674  he  defeated  the  Prince  of  Orange 
at  Senef.  His  successes  over  Montecu- 
culi  in  Alsace  inl675  closed  his  military 
career.  Four  years  later  he  retired 
to  Chantilly,  near  Paris,  and  died  at 
Fontainebleau  in  1687. 

CONDENSA'TION,  ir  chemistry  and 
physics,  the  act  of  reducing  a gas  or 
vapor  to  a liquid  or  solid  form.  Sur- 
face condensation,  a mode  of  condensing 
steam  by  bringing  it  in  contact  with 
cold  metallic  surfaces  in  place  of  by 
injecting  cold  water. 

CONDENSED  MILK,  milk  preserved 
by  evaporating  part  of  its  moisture, 
mixing  with  refined  powdered  sugar, 
and  packing  in  air-tight  cans  hermetic- 
ally sealed:  the  sugar  may  also  be 
omitted. 

CONDENSER,  an  apparatus  for  re- 
ducing the  volume  of  a gas,  or  for 
reducing  a gas  to  a liquid,  or  a liquid  to 
a solid.  Condensers  are  used  in  steam 
engines  to  condense  the  exhaust,  and 
on  shipboard  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing the  boilers. 

CONDENSER,  an  electric  apparatus 
used  to  collect  electricity  and  to  store 


it.  The  Leyden  jar  is  a classic  example 
of  a condenser.  The  electricity  is  col- 
lected by  brushes  and  passed  into  the 
jar.  Another  form  of  condenser  is  the 
Franklin  plate,  consisting  of  a glass 
plate  with  strips  of  tin  foil  on  the  sides. 

CONDENSING  STEAM-ENGINE.  See 
Steam-engine. 

CONDILLAC  (kon-de-yak),  Etienne 
Bonnot  de,  French  philosopher,  born 
in  1715.  His  essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Human  Knowledge  (1746),  in  large 
part  a polemic  against  abstract  methods 
of  philosophizing,  struck  the  key-note  of 
his  system,  and  his  Treatise  on  Systems, 
(1749)  continued  the  condemnation  of 
all  systems  not  evolved  from  experience, 
from  sensation.  In  1754  appeared  his 
Treatise  on  Sensation,  and  in  1755  his 
Treatise  on  Animals,  a criticism  on 
Buffon.  The  sagacity  and  clearness  of 
his  writings  led  to  his  appointment  as 
tutor  to  the  nephew  of  Louis  XV.,  the 
infant  Duke  of  Parma,  for  whom  he 
wrote  in  1755  his  Cours  d’Etudes,  in- 
cluding a grammar.  The  Art  of  Writing,. 
The  Art  of  Reasoning,  The  Art  of 
Thinking,  and  a general  history.  His; 
work  Commerce  and  Government  ap- 
peared in  the  same  year  as  the  Wealth 
of  Nations  (1776),  and  was  no  un- 
worthy companion  to  it.  In  1768  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy.  He  died 
shortly  after  the  publication  of  his 
Logic  in  1780,  his  work  on  Calculus 
being  published  posthumously  in  1798. 

CONDONA'TION,  in  law,  forgiveness 
of  injury.  In  an  action  for  divorce  on 
the  ground  of  adultery  it  is  a legal  plea 
in  defense. 

CON'DOR,  a South  American  bird, 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  Vulturidae  or 
vulturine  birds.  In  its  essential  features 
it  resembles  the  common  vultures,  dif- 
fering from  them  mainly  in  the  large 


cartilaginous  caruncle  which  surmounts 
its  beak,  and  in  the  large  size  of  its  oval 
and  longitudinal  nostrils  placed  almost 
at  the  extremity  of  the  cere.  Despite 
the  many  stories  of  its  gigantic  pro- 
portions, Humboldt  met  with  no  speci- 
mens whose  wings  exceeded  9 feet  in 
expanse,  though  it  has  occasionally  been 
known  to  attain  an  expanse  of  14  feet. 
It  is  found  in  greatest  numbers  in  the 
Andos  chain,  frequenting  regions  from 
10,000  to  15,000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  w’here  they  breed,  depositing 
their  two  white  eggs  on  the  bare  rock. 
They  are  generally  to  be  seen  in  groups 
of  three  or  four,  and  only  descend  to 
the  plains  under  stress  of  hunger,  when 
they  will  successfully  attack  sheep, 
goats,  deer,  and  bullocks.  They  prefer 
carrion,  however,  and,  when  they  have 
opportunity  gorge  themselves  until  they 


CONDORCET 


CONFIDENTIAL  COMMUNICATION 


become  incapable  of  rising  from  the 
ground. 

CONDORCET  (kon-dor-sa),  Marie 
Jean  Antoine  Nicolas  de  Caritat,  Mar- 
quis de,  an  eminent  French  writer,  born 
in  1743.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he 
presented  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  an 
Essai  Sur  le  Calcul  Integral,  and  in  1767 
his  Memoire  on  The  Problem  of  Three 
Points  appeared,  both  being  afterward 
united  under  the  title  of  Essays  on 
Analysis.  The  merit  of  this  work  gained 
for  him  in  1769  a seat  in  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  of  which,  after  the  pub- 
lication of  hjs  Eulogies  of  Academicians, 
who  died  previously  to  1699,  (1773),  he 
was  appointed  perpetual  secretary 
(1777).  In  1777  his  Theory  of  Comets 
gained  the  pririe  offered  by  the  Academy 
of  Berlin;  he  enriched  the  transactions 
of  many  learned  sccieties;  and  took 
an  active  part  in  Ihe  Encyclopedic. 
During  the  tioubles  of  the  first  French 
revolution  his  sympathies  were  strongly 
engaged  on  the  side  of  the  people.  The 
fall  of  the  Girondist  party.  May  31, 1793, 
prevented  the  constitution  which  Con- 
dorcet  had  drawn  up  from  being  ac- 
cepted, and  as  he  freely  criticised  the 
constitution  which  took  its  place  he 
was  denounced  as  being  an  accomplice 
of  Brissot.  Madame  Verney,  a woman 
of  noble  feelings,  secreted  him  for  eight 
months,  during  which  he  wrote  his 
Sketch  of  an  Historic  Picture  of  the 
Progress  of  the  Human  Spirit.  Lest  he 
should  endanger  her  safety,  however, 
he  left  the  house  secretly  in  opposition 
to  her  wishes,  fled  from  Paris,  and 
wandered  about  till  arrested  and  thrown 
into  prison,  where,  March  28,  1794,  he 
was  found  dead  on  the  floor,  having 
apparently  swallowed  poison. 

CONDUCTION.  See  Heat. 

CONDUC'TOR,  or  LIGHTNING  CON- 
DUCTOR, an  instrument  by  means  of 
which  either  the  electricity  of  the  clouds, 
the  cause  of  lightning,  is  conducted 
without  explosion  into  the  earth,  or  the 
lightning  itself  is  received  and  con- 
ducted quietly  into  the  earth  or  water 
without  injuring  buildings,  ships,  etc. 
It  was  invented  by  Benjamin  Franklin 


Lightnlng-cond  uctor. 

o6«,  Various  forms  of  rods,  cdf.  Various 
forms  of  tips.  ghi,V arlous  forms 
of  attachments. 

about  1752,  and  met  with  speedy 
general  adoption,  the  first  conductor  in 
England  being  erected  in  1762.  It 
usually  consists  of  a stout  iron  rod  with 
one  or  more  points  at  the  top,  the  lower 
end  being  metallically  connected  with 
thick  strips  of  copper  which  are  carried 
into  the  ground  to  a considerable  depth 
and  terminated,  if  possible,  in  water 
or  in  wet  earth.  Vanous  other  forms  of 
conductors  have  been  introduced,  such 
as  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut, 
where  a is  a conductor  consisting  of 


metallic  strips  joined  together,  b a con- 
ductor of  copper  wires  intertwined  with 
iron  rods,  e a conductor  consisting  of  a 
metallic  strip  forming  a tube  with  spiral 
flanges.  Various  kinds  of  tips  are  also 
in  use,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  cut,  d being 
formed  of  several  metals  inclosed  the  one 
within  the  other,  the  most  fusible  being 
outside;  g,  h,  i show  how  in  some  cases 
successive  sections  of  rods  are  connected. 

CONDUIT  (kun'dit),  a line  of  pipes  or 
an  underground  channel  of  some  kind 
for  the  conveyance  of  water. 

CONE,  as  used  in  geometry,  generally 
means  a right  circular  cone,  which  may 
be  defined  as  the  solid  figure  traced  out 
when  a right-angled  triangle  is  made  to 
revolve  round  one  of  the  sides  that  con- 
tain the  right  angle.  A more  compre- 
hensive definition  may  be  given  as 
follows: — Let  a straight  line  he  held 
fixed  at  one  point,  and  let  any  other 
point  of  the  line  be  made  to  describe 
any  closed  curve  which  does  not  cut 
itself;  the  solid  figure  traced  out  is  a 
cone.  When  the  curve  which  the  second 
point  describes  is  a circle,  the  cone  is  a 
right  circular  cone.  The  cubical  con- 
tent of  a right  circular  cone  is  one-third 
of  that  of  a cylinder  on  the  same  base 
and  of  the  same  altitude,  and  is  there- 
fore found  by  multiplying  the  area  of 
the  base  by  the  altitude,  and  taking  one- 
third  of  the  product.  See  also  Conic 
Sections. 

CONE,  in  botany,  a dry  compound 
fruit,  consisting  of  many  open  scales, 
each  with  two  seeds  at  the  base,  as  in 
the  conifers;  a strobilus. 

CONEY  ISLAND,  a small  island  9 
miles  southeast  of  New  York,  at  the 
west  end  of  Long  Island,  a favorite 
summer  bathing  resort,  having  a fine 
beach,  splendid  hotels,  and  numerous 
other  attractions  and  accommodations 
for  visitors. 

CONFECTIONERY,  an  edible  sub- 
stance made  principally  from  sugar  and 
including  what  is  generally  called  candy. 
Confections  were  formerly  used  chiefly 
as  vehicles  for  medicine  and  were  made 
by  druggists  or  medicine  venders. 
Since  their  manufacture  on  a large 
scale  began  in  the  last  century  they 
have  been  adulterated  with  various 
substances  injurious  to  health,  such 
as  coal  tar  colors,  clay,  etc.  The  value 
of  confectionery  products  in  the  United 
States  amounts  to  $70,000,000  or  more 
annually. 

CONFEDERACY,  United  Daughters 
of  the,  a society  of  women  patriots 
formed  in  1894  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
for  the  perpetuation  of  the  memory  of 
the  part  which  the  women  of  the  South 
took  in  the  civil  war.  It  is  organized 
into  state  divisions  and  has  a member- 
ship of  over  30,000. 

CONFEDERATE  STATES,  the  name 
given  to  eleven  of  the  Southern  States  of 
America,  which  attempted  to  secede 
from  the  Union  on  the  election  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  the  abolitionist  candidate, 
to  the  presidency  in  November,  1860, 
thus  leading  to  the  great  civil  war 
which  lasted  till  1865.  See  United 
States. 

CONFEDERATE  VETERANS  , United, 
an  organization  of  former  soldiers  of 
the  Confederate  army,  founded  at  New 
Orleans  in  1889,  for  social,  patriotic. 


and  historical  purposes.  It  has  a mem- 
bership  of  nearly  70,000  and  publishes 
a periodical.  The  Confederate  Veteran, 
which  is  the  official  organ  of  the  society, 

CON'FERENCE,  (1)  a meeting  of  the 
representatives  of  different  foreign  coun- 
tries for  the  discussion  of  some  question. 
(2)  A meeting  between  delegates  of  the 
two  houses  of  parliament  called  to  dis- 
cuss the  provisions  of  a bill  with  regard 
to  which  they  are  disagreed,  with  the 
object  of  effecting  an  agreement  between 
them.  (3)  The  annual  meetings  of 
Wesleyan  preachers  for  deliberation  on 
the  affairs  of  the  body. 

CONFESSION,  Auricular,  in  the  strict- 
est sense,  the  disclosure  of  sins  to  the 
priest  at  the  confessional,  with  a view 
to  obtain  absolution  for  them.  The 
person  confessing  is  allowed  to  conceal 
no  sin  of  consequence  which  he  remem- 
bers to  have  committed,  and  the  father 
confessor  is  bound  to  perpetual  secrecy. 
The  practice  of  a public  acknowledg- 
ment of  great  sins  was  altered  by  Pope 
Leo  the  Great,  in  450,  into  a secret  one 
before  the  priest,  and  the  Fourth  General 
Lateran  council  (1215)  ordained  that 
every  one  of  the  faithful,  of  both  sexes, 
come  to  years  of  discretion,  should 
privately  confess  all  their  sins  at  least 
once  a year  to  their  own  pastor,  an 
ordination  still  binding  on  members  of 
the  R.  Catholic  Church.  Confession  is 
a part  of  the  sacrament  of  penance. 

CONFESSIONAL,  in  Roman  Catholic 
churches  and  chapels,  a kind  of  inclosed 
seat  in  which  the  priest  sits  to  hear 
persons  confess  their  sins.  The  con- 
fessional is  often  not  unlike  a sentry- 
box,  the  priest  sitting  within  and  the 


Confessional,  cathedral  of  St.  Gudule, 
Brussels. 


penitent  kneeling  without  and  speak- 
ing through  an  aperture.  Many  con- 
fessionals are  in  three  divisions  or  com- 
partments, the  center,  which  is  for  the 
reception  of  the  priest,  being  closed 
half-way  up  by  a dwarf  door,  and  hav- 
ing a seat  within  it.  The  side  compart- 
ments, which  communicate  with  the 
center  by  grated  apertures,  are  for  the 
penitents. 

CONFIDENTIAL  COMMUNICATION, 

in  law,  a communication  made  by  one 
person  to  another  which  the  latter  can- 
not be  compelled  to  give  in  evidence  as  a 
witness.  Generally  all  communications 
made  between  a client  and  his  agent, 
between  the  agent  and  the  counsel  in  a 
suit,  or  between  the  several  parties  to  a 
suit,  are  treated  as  confidential.  The 
privilege  of  confidentiality  does  not  ex- 
tend to  disclosures  made  to  a medical 
adviser,  and  in  England  it  has  been 


CONFIRMATION 


CONIFERiE 


decided  also  that  confessions  made  to 
a priest  are  not  to  be  treated  as  con- 
fidential. 

CONFIRMATION,  the  ceremony  of 
laying  on  of  hands  by  a bishop  in  the 
admission  of  baptized  persons  to  the 
enjoyment  of  Christian  privileges,  the 
person  confirmed  then  taking  upon  him- 
self the  baptismal  vov/s  made  in  his 
name.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  churches 
a delay  of  7 years  is  interposed  after 
baptism,  in  the  Lutheran  from  13  to  16, 
and  in  the  English  Church  from  14  to 
18,  though  in  the  latter  there  is  no  fixed 
eriod.  The  Lord’s  Supper  is  not  taken 
y these  sects  until  after  confirmation. 

CONFISCATION,  the  act  of  condemn- 
ing as  forfeited,  and  adjudging  to  the 
public  treasury,  the  goods  of  a criminal 
in  part  punishment  of  a crime. 

CONFOR'MABLE,  in  geol.,  lying  in 
parallel  or  nearly  parallel  planes,  and 


b e a 


Conformable  strata  a and  fi.unconformable  at  c 

having  the  same  dip  and  changes  of  dip ; 
said  of  strata,  the  opposite  term  being 
unconformable. 

CONFU'CIUS,  or  KONG-FU-TSE,  that 
is,  “the  teacher,  Kong,”  the  famous 
Cninese  sage,  born  about  550  b.c.  in  the 

Erovinee  of  Shantung.  The  deaths  of 
is  favorite  disciples  Yen  Hwin  and 
Tze-lu  in  481  and  478  did  much  to  further 
his  own,  which  took  place  in  the  latter 
year.  Confucius  left  no  work  detailing 
his  moral  and  social  system,  but  the  five 
canonical  books  of  Confucianism  are  the 
Yih-king,  the  Shu-king,  the  Shi-king, 
the  Le-king,  and  the  Chun-tsien,  with 
which  are  grouped  the  “Four  Books,”  by 
disciples  of  Confucius,  the  Ta-heo  or 
Great  Study,  the  Chung-Yung  or  In- 
variable Mean,  the  Tun-yu  or  “Philos- 
ophical Dialogues,”  and  the  Hi-tse, 
written  by  Meng-tse  or  Mencius.  The 
teaching  of  Confucius  has  had^  and  still 
has,  an  immense  influence  in  China, 
though  he  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
founded  either  a religion  or  a philosophy. 
All  his  teaching  was  devoted  to  prac- 
tical morality  and  to  the  duties  of  man 
in  this  world  in  relation  to  his  fellow- 
men;  in  it  was  summed  up  the  wisdom 
acquired  by  his  own  insight  and  ex- 
perience, and  that  derived  from  the 
teaching  of  the  sages  of  antiquity.  It 
is  doubtful  if  he  had  any  real  belief  in  a 
personal  god. 

CONGENITAL  DISEASE,  a disease 
with  which  one  is  afflicted  at  the  time  of 
birth,  not  necessarily  an  inherited 
disease,  although  most  inherited  dis- 
eases are  congenital.  Many  congem'tal 
diseases  are  due  to  defects  of  the 
mothei  or  to  accidental  causes  during 
the  term  of  pregnancy. 

CONGER-EEL  (kong'ger),  a genus 
of  marine  eels  characterized  by  a long 
dorsal  fin  beginning  near  the  nape  of  the 
neck,  immediately  above  the  origin  of 
the  pectoral  fins,  and  by  having  the 
upper  jaw  longer  than  the  lower. 

CONGESTION,  in  medicine,  an  ex- 
cessive accumulation  of  blood  in  an 


organ,  which  thereby  becomes  disorder- 
ed. Among  the  causes  of  congestion  are 
the  different  periods  of  development  of 
the  human  body,  each  of  which  renders 
some  particular  organ  unusually  active; 
diseased  conditions;  and  the  accidental 
exertions  of  certain  organs.  Again,  if 
the  current  of  blood  to  one  organ  is 
checked  the  blood  tends  to  accumulate 
in  another*  and  the  vessels  wliich  bring 
back  the  blood  to  the  heart — that  is  the 
veins — are  sometimes  obstructed,  as 
by  external  pressure,  by  tumors,  etc. 
Congestion  sometimes  lasts  a short  time 
only;  but  if  not  early  cured,  and  its 
return,  which  would  otherwise  be  fre- 
quent, prevented,  it  is  only  the  begin- 
ning of  other  diseases.  Sometimes  it 
terminates  in  bleeding,  which  is  a 
remedy  for  it;  sometimes  it  increases 
into  inflammation;  sometimes  it  be- 
comes a chronic  disease,  that  is,  the 
blood  accumulates  for  a long  time  and 
expands  the  veins,  the  expansion  be- 
comes permanent,  and  dropsy  may  re- 
sult. 

CONGLOM'ERATE,  a term  applied 
by  geologists  to  rocks  consisting  mostly 
of  water-worn  pebbles  cemented  to- 
gether by  a matrix  of  siliceous,  calcare- 
ous,'-or  other  cement. 

CONGO,  or  ZAIRE,  one  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  world,  in  Southern  Africa, 
having  its  embouchure  in  the  South 
Atlantic.  It  carries  more  water  to  the 
ocean  than  the  Mississippi,  its  volume 
being  next  to  that  of  the  Amazon.  Its 
total  length  is  perhaps  3000  miles.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Aruwimi  and 
the  Mobangi  from  the  right,  and  the 
Ikelemba  and  Kwa  from  the  left,  which 
latter  represents  the  collected  waters  of 
immense  rivers  from  the  south,  such  as 
the  Kassai,  the  Kwango,  etc.  It  is 
navigable  for  about  110  miles  from  its 
mouth,  after  which  the  navigation  is 
interrupted  by  cataracts. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE,  a state  re- 
cently founded  on  the  river  Congo,  in 
Central  South  Africa,  stretching  by  a 
kind  of  narrow  neck  of  territory  to  the 
river’s  mouth,  but  expanding  inland  so 
as  to  cover  an  immense  area,  mainly 
lying  south  of  the  river.  The  central 
government  is  at  Brussels,  consisting 
of  the  King  of  Belgium  as  sovereign,  and 
three  departmental  chiefs.  In  Africa 
there  is  a governor-general  with  many 
officials,  and  an  armed  force.  The 
revenue  is  partly  from  funds  provided 
by  King  Leopold.  A number  of  stations 
have  been  formed  on  the  river,  the 
chief  of  which  is  Boma,  70  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  chief  exports  are  palm 
oil  and  kernels,  caoutchouc,  ivory,  copal, 
ground-nuts,  wax,  etc.  From  Matadi, 
opposite  Vivi,  a railway  has  been  laid 
to  Stanley  Pool,  and  steamers  have 
been  placed  on  the  river.  Area  esti- 
mated at  900,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  at 
8,000,000  to  40,000,000. 

CONGO  PEA.  See  Pigeon  Pea. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS,  a Chris- 
tian sect  claiming  to  continue  the  primi- 
tive form  of  church  government.  Each 
congregation  is  autonomous^  and  wholly 
independent  of  extraneous  jurisdiction, 
the  union  of  Congregational  churches 
having  only  such  indirect  authority 
as  attends  the  cumulative  expression 
of  opinion.  In  doctrine  the  majority 


are  evangelical,  though  in  individual 
churches  considerable  latitude  is  shown. 

CONGRESS,  generally  speaking  a 
meeting  of  international  representatives 
for  the  purpose  of  considering  particular 
or  general  questions  concerning  inter- 
national politics,  art,  science,  economy, 
or  religion.  A series  of  world’s  con- 
gresses were  held  at  the  Chicago  World’s 
Fair  in  1893.  International  treaty 
congresses  will  be  found  described  under 
their  separate  heads. 

CONGRESS,  the  name  given  to  the 
legislative  assembly  of  the  U.  States, 
consisting  of  two  houses — a senate  and 
a house  of  representatives.  The  sen- 
ate consists  of  two  members  elected  by 
each  state  for  a period  of  six  years,  one- 
third  of  whom  are  elected  every  two 
years.  The  representatives  in  the  lower 
house  are  elected  by  the  several  states 
every  two  years,  and  their  number 
varies  in  each  state  in  proportion  to  the 
population  as  determined  by  the  de- 
cennial census.  The  united  body  of 
senators  and  representatives  for  the  two 
years  during  which  the  representatives 
hold  their  seats  is  called  one  congress. 
See  United  States. 

CONGRESSMAN  AT  LARGE,  a mem- 
ber of  the  U.  States  house  of  represen- 
tatives who  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  all 
of  the  people  of  a state  and  not  by  a 
single  district.  They  are  elected  _ to 
provide  for  the  excess  of  population 
until  the  state  can  be  regularly  redis- 
tricted. 

CONIC  SECTIONS,  three  curves,  the 
hyperbola,  the  parabola,  and  the  eclipse, 
so  called  because  they  are  formed  by 
the  intersection  of  the  surface  of  a cone 
with  planes  that  cut  the  cone  in  various 


directions.  If  the  cutting-plane  be 
parallel  to  the  axis  the  curve  formed  is 
the  hyperbola  (1) ; if  parallel  to  the  slope 
of  the  cone  the  curve  is  a parabola  (2); 
if  passing  through  both  sides  of  the  cone 
obliquely  the  section  is  an  ellipse  (3). 
A section  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of 
the  cone  forms  a circle  (4),  which  may 
also  be  considered  one  of  the  conic  sec- 
tions. A perpendicular  plane  through 
the  apex  gives  a triangle  (5). 

CONIF'ER^,  the  pines,  firs,  and  their 
allies,  the  essential  character  of  which 
consists  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
ovules,  not  inclosed  in  an  ovary,  receive 
directly  the  action  of  the  pollen  without 
the  intervention  of  a stigma.  The 
ovules  in  these  plants  are  borne  on  scales 
or  modified  leaves,  which  are  spread  out, 
not  folded,  and  generally  grouped  in 
sueh  a manner  as  to  form  a cone  com- 
posed of  a greater  or  smaller  number  of 
these  leaves,  of  which  only  a portion 
may  be  fertile  and  bear  ovules. 


CONJUGAL  RIGHTS 


CONNEMARA 


CON'TUGAL  RIGHTS,  in  law,  the 
right  which  husband  and  wife  have  to 
each  other’s  society,  comfort,  and  affec- 
tion. A suit  for  restitution  of  conjugal 
rights  is  competent  by  either  party. 

CONJUGATION.  See  Verb. 

CONJUNCTION,  in  grammar,  a con- 
nective indeclinable  particle  serving  to 
unite  words,  sentences,  or  clauses  of  a 
sentence,  and  indicating  their  relation 
to  one  another.  They  are  classifiable 
into  two  main  groups:  (1)  Coordi- 
nating conjunctions,  joining  independent 
propositionsj  and  subdivisible  into  cop- 
ulative, disjunctive,  adversative,  and 
illative  conjunctions;  (2)  Subordinating 
conjunctions,  linking  a dependent  or 
modifjdng  clause  to  the  principal  sen- 
tence. The  only  active  influence  which 
the  conjunction  can  be  said  to  exercise 
grammatically  in  a sentence  is  in  respect 
of  the  mood  of  the  verb  following  it  in 
dependent  sentences,  the  rule  being  to 
employ  the  subjunctive  where  futurity 
and  contingency  are  implied,  the  in- 
dicative where  they  are  not;  as  “I  will 
do  it,  though  he  be  there”  (which  he  may 
or  may  not  be) ; or  “I  will  do  it,  though 
he  is  there”  (which  he  is). 

CONJUNCTION,  in  astronomy,  the 
position  of  two  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
as  two  planets,  or  the  sun  and  a planet, 
when  they  have  the  same  longitude 
(are  in  the  same  direction  from  the 
earth).  _ When  it  is  simply  said  that  a 
planet  is  in  conjunction,  conjunction 
with  the  sun  is  to  be  understood. 
Superior  conjunction  and  inferior  con- 
junction are  terms  used  of  the  planets 
whose  orbits  are  nearer  to  the  sun  than 
that  of  the  earth,  according  as  the  sun 
is  between  us  and  them,  or  they  between 
Us  and  the  sun. 

CON'JURING.  See  Legerdemain. 

CONKLING,  Roscoe,  an  American 
senator  and  orator,  born  in  Albany,  N.Y., 
in  1829,  died  in  1888.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1850  and  was  early  in  the 
political  field  as  a stump-speaker.  He 
was  several  times  elected  congressman. 
Up  to  1867,  and  his  ability  as  a debater 
and  orator  won  him  great  fame.  At 
38  he  was  elected  U.  States  senator  and 
soon  became  one  of  the  foremost  leaders 
of  the  republican  party.  In  1876  he 
appeared  as  a presidential  candidate, 
opposed  civil  service  reform,  and  in 
1880  led  the  movement  to  nominate 
Grant  for  a third  time.  He  quarreled 
with  Garfield  for  appointing  anti- 
Conkling  men  to  federal  offices  and  soon 
afterward  retired  from  active  politics 
to  the  practice  of  law.  Conkling  was  a 
very  positive  man,  strong  in  his  friend- 
ships and  enmities  and  his  work  was  for 
the  most  part  ephemeral. 

CONNAUGHT  (kon'nat),  the  smallest 
of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland,  situated 
between  Leinster  and  the  Atlantic;  area, 
4,392,086  acres.  A large  proportion  of 
the  province  is  bog,  and,  generally  it  is 
the  least  fertile  of  all  of  the  provinces. 
It  is  divided  into  five  counties — Galway, 
Mayo,  Roscommon,  Leitrim,  and  Sligo. 
Pop.  649,635. 

CONNECTICUT  (kon-net'i-kut),  a 
river.  U.  States,  the  west  branch  of 
which  forms  by  treaty  the  boundary 
between  the  U.  States  and  Canada  to 
Jat.  45°  n.  It  rises  on  the  north  border 
-of  New  Hampshire;  forms  the  boundary 


between  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire 
passes  through  the  west  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  the  central  part  of  Con- 
necticut, and  falls  into  Long  Island 
Sound.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels 
drawing  from  8 to  10  feet  for  about  300 
miles  from  its  mouth,  subsidiary  canals, 
however,  being  required  above  Hart- 
ford; total  length,  450  miles.  It  is 
famed  for  its  shad  fisheries. 

CONNECTICUT,  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  American  Union; 
bounded  by  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Long  Island  Sound; 
length,  east  to  west,  about  95  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  north  to  south,  about 
72  miles;  area,  4845  sq.  miles.  It  con- 
tains several  distinct  ranges  of  hills,  but 
none  of  them  have  any  great  elevation. 
Its  principal  river  is  the  Connecticut, 
which  divides  it  into  two  nearly  equal 
parts.  The  coast  is  indented  with 
numerous  bays  and  creeks  which  fur- 
nish many  harbors.  In  former  geologic 
times  the  area  of  Connecticut  is  believed 
to  have  formed  a part  of  the  southern 
slope  of  a great  mountain  mass,  whose 
summits  are  perhaps  indicated  bj"  the 
present  White,  Green,  and  Ad'rondack 
mountains.  Long-continued  erosion  of 


Connecticut  seal. 


streams  and  perhaps  of  ice  reduced  this 
region  to  a plain,  with  low  relief  and 
shallow  stream  valleys.  A compara- 
tively recent  tilting  of  the  land  has 
slightly  depressed  the  coast  and  elevated 
the  interior.  This  has  revived  the  cut- 
ting power  of  the  streams,  which  are  now 
actively  eroding  thcli  valleys,  most  of 
them  in  hard  rocks,  in  which  slow  prog- 
ress is  made.  The  Connecticut  Valley 
is,  however,  largely  of  relatively  softer 
rocks,  which  have  been  eroded  away 
with  greater  rapidity.  In  recent  geo- 
logic times  the  area  of  the  state  was 
covered  by  the  Laurentian  glacier, 
which  did  much  erusiqn  and  deposition, 
scouring  out  lake  basins,  and  thus  form- 
ing the  multitude  of  little  lakes  and 
ponds  which  diversify  the  surface,  and 
modifying  the  streams’  courses,  pro- 
ducing rapids  and  falls,  now  utihzed 
for  water-power. 

Among  the  highest  points  in  Connecti- 
cut are  Bear  Mountain,  2355  feet; 
Gridley  Mountain,  2200  feet;  Riga 
Mountain,  all  in  Salisbury;  Bradford 
Mountain,  in  Canaan,  1927;  Dutton 
Mountain,  1620  feet,  and  Mount  Ball, 


1780,  In  Norfolk;  Above  All  Mountain, 
1456,  in  Warren;  Ivy  Mountain,  in 
Goshen,  1640  feet;  and  Ellsworth  Hill, 
1580  feet,  in  Sharon.  Its  minerals  com- 

Crise  iron,  copper,  lead,  cobalt,  plum- 
ago,  marbie,  free-stone,  porcelain-clay, 
and  coal.  Lime  is  produced  in  large 
quantities,  and  there  is  abundance  of 
building  stone.  The  soil  is  in  general 
better  suited  for  grazing  than  tillage, 
abounding  in  fine  meadows.  But  where 
agriculture  is  practiced  there  are  ample 
crops  of  Indian  corn,  rye,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  hay,  to- 
bacco, etc.:  and  fruits,  particularly 
apples,  flourish.  Connecticut  is  nota- 
bly a manufacturing  state,  19.5  per 
cent  of  the  total  population  being  en- 
gaged in  that  industry.  Though  one 
of  the  smallest  states  of  the  Union, 
it  ranks  eleventh  in  the  importance  of 
its  manufactures.  Influential  among  the 
factors  which  have  developed  these  in- 
terests have  been  the  favorable  geo- 
graphical location  and  the  excellence  of 
the  land  and  water  communication  of 
the  state,  the  water  power  afforded  by 
its  streams,  and  especially  the  inventive 
talents  and  industrious  habits  of  its 
people. 

By  the  twelfth  census  the  state  sur- 
passed any  other  state  in  11  important 
industries,  producing  75  per  cent  in 
value  of  the  total  ammunition  output 
of  the  country;  56  per  cent  of  the  brass 
manufactures;  63  per  cent  of  the  clocks; 
47  per  cent  of  the  hardware;  76  per  cent 
of  the  plated  and  britannia  ware;  64 
per  cent  of  the  needles  and  pins.  The 
development  of  its  manufactures  has 
been  consistent.  The  cotton-mills  of  the 
state  are  clustered  on  the  streams  that 
flow  into  the  Thames  at  Norwich.  The 
principal  exports  consist  of  agricultural 
produce  and  manufactures.  The  foreign 
commerce  is  nearly  all  carried  on  through 
New  York  and  Boston,  but  there  is  a 
considerable  coasting  trade,  and  a large 
amount  of  tonnage  engaged  in  the  cod- 
fisheries.  Fish-culture  has  received 
special  attention,  many  millions  of  shad 
ova  and  young  salmon  having  been 
introduced  into  the  rivers.  The  state  is 
intersected  in  various  directions  by 
railways.  The  chief  educational  insti- 
tution is  Yale  University,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  world.  Connecti- 
cut is  divided  into  eight  counties;  Hart- 
ford is  the  capital.  The  state  at  first 
consisted  of  two  colonies — Connecticut, 
with  its  seat  of  government  atHartford; 
and  New  Haven,  at  New  Haven.  Con- 
necticut was  settled  in  1633  by  emi- 
grants from  Massachusetts.  Hartford 
was  settled  by  English  in  1635,  the 
Dutch  having  previously  built  a fort 
there.  The  colony  of  New  Haven  was 
settled  by  English  in  1638,  and  the  two 
colonies  were  united  in  1665  by  a charter 
granted  by  Charles  II.  In  national 
elections  the  state  went  Democratic  in 
1888  and  1892;  in  1896,  1900, 1904,  1908, 
Republican.  Pop.  1,000,000. 

CONNECTIVE  TISSUE.  See  Areolar 
Tissxi6» 

CONNEMARA  (“the  Bays  of  the 
Ocean”),  a boggy  and  mountainous  dis- 
trict occupying  the  west  portion^  of 
county  Galway,  Ireland;  about  30  miles 
in  length  and  15  to  20  miles  in  breadth. 
Its  coasts  are  broken,  and  there  are  nu* 


■ CONRAD  II. 


CONSTANTINE 


merous  small  lakes.  It  is  subdivided 
into  Connemara  Proper  in  the  west,  Jar- 
Connaught  in  the  south,  and  Joyce 
Country  in  the  north. 

CON'RAD  II,,  king  of  Germany  and 
emperor  of  the  Romans,  reigned  from 
1024  to  1039,  and  is  regarded  as  the  true 
founder  of  the  Franconian  or  Salic  line. 

CONRAD  III.,  king  of  Germany,  and 
emperor  of  the  Romans  from  1138  to 


and  is  performed  by  a bishop;  (3)  the 
act  of  the  priest  in  celebrating  the 
eucharist  by  which  the  elements  are 
solemnly  dedicated  to  their  sacred 
purpose. 

CONSENT',  in  law,  is  understood  to  be 
a free  and  deliberate  act  of  a rational 
being.  It  is  invalidated  by  any  undue 
means — intimidation,  improper  influx 
ence,  or  imposition — used  to  obtain  it. 


by  an  act  consolidating  several  separate 
stocks  bearing  interest  at  3 per  Cent 
into  one  general  stock.  At  the  period 
when  the  consolidation  took  place  the 
principal  of  the  funds  united  amounted 
to  $45,000,000;  but  through  the  addi- 
tion of  other  loans  it  has  increased  sO 
much  that  how,  after  considerable  re- 
ductions. it  still  amounts  to  more  than 
half  of  tne  national  debt.  The  interest 
of  about  flve  million  pounds  is  payable 
in  Dublin,  that  of  the  remainder  in 
London. 

CON'SONANCE,  in  music,  an  agree- 
able accord  of  sounds,  such  as  the  third, 
fifth,  and  octave.  See  Concord. 

CON'SONANT,  a letter  so  named  as 
being  sounded  only  in  connection  with  a 
vowel,  though  some  consonants  have 
hardly  any  sound  even  w’hen  united 
with  a vowel,  serving  merely  to  de- 
termine the  manner  of  beginning  or 
ending  the  vowel  sounds;  as  in  ap,  pa, 
at,  ta.  In  uttering  a consonant  there  is 
greater  or  less  contact  of  some  parts  of 
the  organs  of  speech;  in  uttering  a 
vowel  there  is  a want  of  such  contact, 
the_  vocal  passage  being  open  though 
variously  modified.  They  are  classed 
as  liquids,  mutes,  sibilants,  labials, 
dentals,  palatals,  gutturals,  etc. 

CONSPIR'ACY,  in  law,  an  offense 
ranked  as  a misdemeanor,  and  punish- 
able by  imprisonment  and  hard  labor. 
It  is  constituted  by  a combination  be- 
tween several  persons  to  carry  into 
effect  any  purpose  injurious  either  to 
individuals,  particular  classes,  or  the 
community  at  large.  When  the  con- 
spiracy leads  to  any  overt  act  of  an  un- 
lawful kind,  the  offense  becomes  felony. 


Cornice  supported  by  Consoles*  a 


CONSTABLE,  in  the  common  modern 
acceptation  of  the  term  constables  are 
olice  officers  in  towns,  counties,  etc., 
aving  as  their  duties  the  repression  of 
felonies,  the  keeping  of  the  peace,  the 
execution  of  legal  warrants,  etc.  In 
case  of  special  disturbance  a certain 
number  of  private  citizens  may  be  sworn 
in  as  special  constables. 

CON'STANTINE,  Caius  Flavius  Val- 
erius Aurelius  Claudius,  Roman  em- 
peror, surnamed  the  Great,  son  of  the 
Emperor  Constantins  Chlorus,  was  born 
a.d.274.  After  the  death  of  his  father 
he  was  chosen  emperor  by  the  soldiery, 
in  the  year  306,  and  took  possession  of 
the  countries  which  had  been  subject  to 
his  father,  namely,  Gaul,  Spain,  and 
Britain.  In  the  campaign  in  Italy  he 
saw,  it  is  said,  the  vision  of  a flaming 
cross  in  the  heavens,  beneath  the  sun, 
bearing  the  inscription,  “In  hoc  signo 
vinces.”  Under  the  standard  of  the 
cross,  therefore,  he  vanquished  the 
army  of  Maxentius  under  the  walls  of 
Rome,  and  entered  the  city  in  triump]^ 


Scene  In  Connemara — Going  to  market. 


1152,  was  the  founder  of  the  Suabian 
dynasty  of  Hohenstaufen.  His  marriage 
with  a Greek  princess  led  to  his  adoption 
of  the  double-headed  eagle  now  appear- 
ing on  the  Austrian  arms.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew  Frederick 
Barbarossa. 

CONSANGUIN'ITY,  the  relation  of 
persons  descended  from  the  same  ances- 
tor. It  is  either  lineal  or  collateral — 
lineal  between  father  and  son,  grand- 
father and  grandson,  and  all  persons  in 
the  direct  line  of  ancestry  and  descent, 
from  one  another;  collateral  between 
brothers,  cousins,  and  other  kinsmen 
descended  from  a common  ancestor, 
but  not  from  one  another. 

CONSCIENCE,  that  power  or  faculty, 
or  combination  of  faculties,  which  de- 
cides on  the  rightness  and  wrongness  of 
actions;  otherwise  called  the  Moral 
Sense. 

CONSCIOUSNESS,  a term  used  in 
various  senses,  most  commonly  perhaps 
to  denote  the  mind’s  knowledge  or 
cognizance  of  its  own  action. 

CONSCRIP'TION,  the  enlisting  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a country  capable  of 
bearing  arms,  by  a compulsory  levy,  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  government,  being 
thus  distinguished  from  recruiting,  X)r 
voluntary  enlistment.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  U.  States  a small  militia 
obtained,  if  necessary,  by  conscription 
s usually  kept  up  in  time  of  peace,  but 
the  rule  is  voluntary  enlistment. 

CONSECRA'TION,  the  dedication 
with  certain  rites  or  ceremonies  of  a 
person  or  thing  to  the  service  of  God; 
especially  (1)  the  ordination  of  a bishop 
or  archbishop,  which  requires  the  co- 
operation of  at  least  three  bishops; 
(2)  the  dedication  of  a church  to  God’s 
service,  which  is  practiced  in  the  .An- 
glican and  Roman  Catholic  churches 


Idiots,  pupils,  etc.,  cannot  give  legal 
consent;  neither  can  persons  in  a state 
of  absolute  drunkenness,  though  partial 
intoxication  will  not  afford  legal  ground 
for  annulling  a contract. 

CONSERVATION  OF  ENERGY.  See 
Energy,  Conservation  of. 

CONSER'VATORY,  a name  given  to  a 
systematic  school  of  musical  instruction. 

CONSER'VATORY,  in  gardening,  a 
term  generally  applied  by  gardeners  to 
plant-houses,  in  which  the  plants  are 
raised  in  a bed  or  border  without  the  use 
of  pots,  the  building  being  frequently 
attached  to  a dwelling-house. 

CON'SERVE,  a form  of  medicine  in 
which  flowers,  herbs,  fruits,  roots,  are 
preserved  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their 
natural  fresh  state. 

CONSIGN'MENT,  a mercantile  term 
which  means  either  the  sending  of  goods 
to  a factor  or  agent  for  sale,  or  the  goods 
so  sent. 

CON'SISTORY,  the  highest  council  of 
state  in  the  Papal  government.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  court  of 
every  diocesan  bishop,  held  in  their 
cathedral  churches  for  the  trial  of 
ecclesiastical  causes  arising  within  the 
diocese.  In  the  English  Church  the  con- 
sistory is  held  by  the  bishop’s  chancellor 
or  commissary  and  by  archdeacons  and 
their  officials  either  in  the  cathedral 
church  or  other  convenient  place  in  the 
diocese. 

CON'SOLE,  in  architecture,  a project- 
ing ornament  or  bracket  having  for  its 
contour  generally  a curve  of  contrary 
ffexure.  It  is  employed  to  support  a 
cornice,  bust,  vase,  or  the  like,  but  is 
frequently  used  merely  as  an  ornament. 

CON'SOLS,  or  CONSOLIDATED  AN- 
NUITIES, a public  stock  forming  the 
greater  portion  of  the  national  debt  of 
Great  Britain.  It  was  formed  in  1751 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


CONSTITUTION 


la  313,  together  with  his  son-in-law, 
the  eastern  emperor,  Licinius,  he  pub- 
lished the  memorable  edict  of  toleration 
in  favor  of  the  Christians,  and  subse- 
quently declared  Christianity  the  re- 
ligion of  the  state.  Licinius,  becoming 
jealous  of  his  fame,  twice  took  up  arms 
against  him,  but  was  on  each  occasion 
defeated,  and  finally  put  to  death.  Thus 


in  325  Constantine  became  the  sole 
head  of  the  Roman  Empire.  His  in- 
ternal administration  was  marked  by  a 
wise  spirit  of  reform,  and  by  many  hu- 
mane concessions  with  regard  to  slaves, 
accused  persons,  v/idows,  etc.  In  329 
he  laid  the  foundation  of  a new  capital  of 
the  empire,  at  Byzantium,  which  was 
called  after  him  Constantinople,  and 
soon  rivalled  Rome  herself.  In  337  he 
was  taken  ill  near  Nicomedia,  was 
baptized,  and  died  after  a reign  of 
thirty-one  years,  leaving  his  empire  be- 
tween his  three  sons,  Constantine,  Con- 
stantins, and  Constans. 

CONST ANTINO'PLE,  a celebrated  city 
of  Turkey  in  Europe,  capital  of  the 
Turkish  Empire,  situated  on  a pro- 
montory jutting  into  the  Sea  of  Mar- 


Golden  Horn,  an  inlet 
of  the  latter,  on  the  north  and  the  Bos- 
pori^  on  the  east.  The  city  proper 
18  thus  surrounded  by  water  on  all 
sides  excepting  the  west,  where  is  an 
ancient  and  lofty  double  wall  of  4 miles 
in  length,  stretching  across  the  promon- 
wy.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  Golden 
Horn  ai-e  Galata,  Pera,  and  other 

P.  E.— 20 


suburbs,  while  on  the  Asiatic  side  of 
the  Bosporus  entrance  is  Skutari. 
Occupying  the  extreme  point  of  the 
promontory  on  which  the  city  stands  is 
the  seraglio  or  palace  of  the  sultan, 
which,  with  its  buildings,  pavilions, 
gardens,  and  groves,  includes  a large 
space  At  the  principal  entrance  is  a 
large  and  lofty  gate,  called  Bab  Humay- 
um,  "the  high  door”  or  “sublime  porte,” 
from  which  has  been  derived  the  well- 
known  diplomatic  phrase.  Of  the  300 
mosques,  the  most  remarkable  are  the 
royal  mosques,  of  which  there  are  about 
fifteen,  esteemed  the  finest  in  the  world. 
First  among  these  is  the  mosque  of 
St.  Sophia,  the  most  ancient  existing 
Christian  church,  converted  into  a 
mosque  in  1453  on  the  capture  of  the 
city  by  the  Turks.  Another  magnificent 
mosque  is  that  of  Soliman ; after  which 
are  those  of  the  Sultana  Valide,  built  by 
the  mother  of  Mohammed  IV.,  and  of 
Sultan  Achmet,  the  most  conspicuous 
object  in  the  city  when  viewed  from 
the  Sea  of  Marmora.  The  harbor,  the 
Golden  Horn,  which  more  resembles  a 
large  river  than  a harbor,  is  deep,  well- 
sheltered,  and  capable  of  containing 
1200  large  ships,  which  may  load  and 
unload  alongside  the  quays.  It  is  about 
6 miles  long,  and  a little  more  than  half 
a mile  broad  at  the  widest  part.  Among 
the  imports  are  corn,  timber,  cotton 
stuffs,  and  other  manufactured  goods. 
The  exports  consist  of  silk,  carpets, 
hides,  wool,  goats’-hair,  valonia^  etc. 
— Constantinople  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Byzantium,  and  was  named 
after  Constantine  the  Great,  who  re- 
built it  about  A.D.  330.  It  was  taken  in 
1204  by  the  Crusaders,  who  retained  it 
till  1261;  and  by  tne  Turks  under 
Mohammed  II.,  May  29,  1453 — an  event 
which  completed  the  extinction  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  See  Byzantine 
Empire  and  Byzantium.  Pop.  1,125,- 
000. 

CONSTELLA'TIONS  are  the  groups 
into  which  astronomers  have  divided 
the  fixed  stars,  and  which  have  received 
names  for  the  convenience  of  description 
and  reference.  It  is  plain  that  the  union 
of  several  stars  into  a constellation,  to 
which  the  name  of  some  animal,  person 
or  inanimate  object  is  given  must  be 
entirely  arbitrary,  since  the  several 
oints  (the  stars)  may  be  united  in  a 
undred  different  ways,  just  as  imagi- 
nation directs.  The  grouping  adopted 
by  the  Egjmtians  was  accordingly 
modified  by  tne  Greeks,  though  they 
retained  the  Ram,  the  Bull,  the  Dog, 
etc.;  and  the  Greek  constellations  were 
again  modified  by  the  Romans  and 
again  by  the  Arabians.  Ptolemy 
enumerated  forty-eight  constellations, 
which  are  still  called  the  Ptolemsean. 
They  are  the  following- — 1.  The  twelve 
signs  of  the  zodiac  (see  Zodiac).  2. 
Twenty-one  constellations  found  in  the 
northern  hemisphere — the  Great  Pear 
(Ursa  Major),  the  Little  Bear  (Ursa  Mi- 
nor), Perseus,  the  Dragon,  Cepheus, 
Cassiopeia,  Andromeda,  Pegasus,  Equu- 
lus  (Horse’s  Head),  the  Triangle,  the 
Wagoner  (Auriga),  Bootes,  the  North- 
ern Crown  (Corona  Borealis),  Ophiu- 
chus,  the  Serpent  (Serpentarius),  Hercu- 
les, the  Arrow  (Sagitta),  the  Lyre,  the 
Swan  (Cygnus),  the  Dolphin,  the  Eagle 


(Aqufla).  3.  Fifteen  constellations  in 
the  southern  hemisphere— Orion,  the 
Whale  (Cetus),  Eridanus,  the  Hare 
(Lepus),  the  Great  Dog  (Canis  Major)., 
the  Little  Dog  (Canis  Minor),  Hydra/ 
the  Cup  (Crater),  the  Crow  (CorV^rs)/ 
the  Centaur,  the  Wolf  (Lupus),  the 
Altar  (Ara),  the  Southern  Fish  (Piscis 
Australis),  the  Argo,  the  Southern 
Crown  (Corona  Australis).  Others  were 
subsequently  added,  this  being  especi- 
ally rendered  necessary  by  the  increased 
navigation  of  the  southern  hemisphere,- 
and  now  the  different  groups  of  stars 
have  come  to  be  associated  with  all 
sorts  of  animals  and  objects,  including: 
the  Camelopard,  the  Fly,  the  Air-pUmp,. 
the  Compasses^  etc.  The  different  sturss 
of  a constellation  are  marked  by  Greek 
letters,  a denoting  those  of  the  first 
magnitude,  /3  those  of  the  second,  and 
so  on.  Stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude  are 
the  smallest  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Several  stars  have  also  particular  names. 

CONSTIPA'TION,  the  undue  retention^ 
of  feces.  Its  immediate  effects  are; 
disordered  appetite,  a dry  coated  or' 
clammy  tongue,  thirst,  or  a disagreeable! 
taste  in  the  mouth,  dullness,  giddiness, 
or  pain  in  the  head,  torpor,  irritability, 
and  despondency.  Its  less  immediate 
effects  are  cutaneous  affections,  dj^spep- 
sia,  cohc,  hysteria,  hemorrhoids,  etc. 
In  most  cases  it  is  produced  by  indi- 
gestible food,  astringent  and  stimu- 
lating drinks,  sedentary  habits,  exces- 
sive indulgence  in  sleep,  etc.  The  im- 
mediate use  of  purgatives,  followed  by 
strict  attention  to  regimen,  is  in  many 
cases  all  that  is  necessary. 

CONSTITU'TION,  the  fundamental 
law  of  a state,  whether  it  be  a written 
instrument  of  a certain  date,  as  that  of 
the  United  States  or  an  aggregate  of  laws 
and  usages  which  have  been  formed  in 
the  course  of  ages,  like  the  English  con- 
stitution. The  ideal  constitution  isJ 
that  established  by  a free  sovereign 
people  for  their  own  regulation,  though 
the  expediency  of  other  forms  at  various 
stages  of  national  development  cannot 
but  be  recognized.  The  chief  of  these 
are: — 1.  Constitutions  granted  by  the 
plenary  power  of  absolute  monarchs, 
or  constitutions  octroyees;  such  as 
Louis  XVIII. ’s  Charte.  2.  Those 
formed  by  contract  between  a ruler  and 
his  people,  the  contract  being  mutually 
binding — a class  under  which,  in  a great 
degree,  the  British  constitution  must 
be  placed  3 Those  formed  by  a com- 
pact between  different  sovereign  powers, 
such  as  the  constitutions  of  the  German 
Empire,  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
Holland,  and  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

In  regard  to  political  principles,  con- 
stitutions are : 1 . Democrat  ic,  when  the 
fundamental  law  guarant*  es  to  every 
citizen  equal  rights,  protection,  and 
participation,  direct  or  indirect,  in  the 
government,  such  as  the  constitutions  of 
the  United  States  and  of  some  cantons 
of  Switzerland.  2.  Aristocratic,  when 
the  constitution  recognizes  privileged 
classes,  as  the  nobility  and  clergy,  and 
intrusts  the  government  entirely  to 
them,  or  allows  them  a very  dispropor- 
tionate share  in  it.  Such  a constitution 
was  that  of  Venice,  and  such  at  one  time 
those  of  some  Swiss  cantons,  for  in- 
stance, BerQ,  3.  Of  a mixed  character. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


To  this  latter  division  belong  some 
monarchical  constitutions,  which  recog- 
nize the  existence  of  a king  whose  power 
is  modified  by  other  branches  of  govern- 
ment of  a more  or  less  popular  cast. 
The  British  constitution  belongs  to  this 
division. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW,  a branch 
of  law  which  has  to  do  with  the  organi- 
zation of  government,  the  soundness  of 
statutory  law  in  relation  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  a state’s  constitution,  and 
with  the  power  of  a government  over  its 
citizens  or  subjects.  In  the  United 
States  the  interpretation  of  the  con- 
stitution is  open  to  all  courts  but  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
has  the  final  jurisdiction  in  all  ques- 
tions of  the  federal  constitution  while 
the  supreme  courts  of  the  several  states 
have  final  jurisdiction  over  all  questions 
concerned  with  the  constitutions  of 
the  separate  states  themselves. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  the  organic  law  of  the  United 
States.  The  constitution  was  drawn  up 
by  a constitutional  convention  which 
began  its  work  on  May  14,  1787,  in 
Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia.  The 
work  was  finished  on  Sept.  17,  1787,  and 
was  ratified  by  all  the  thirteen  states  by 
1790.  Several  amendments  have  been 
made  to  the  constitution  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  national  growth.  The 
following  is  a complete  transcript  of  the 
constitution  as  it  exists  today: 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
in  order  to  form  a more  perfect  union, 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common  de- 
fense, promote  the  general  welfare,  and 
secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  our- 
selves and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and 
establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Article  I.,  Sec.  1.  All  legislative 
powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested 
in  a congress  of  the  United  States, 
which  shall  consist  of  a senate  and 
house  of  representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  house  of  representatives 
shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  states,  and  the  electors  in  each 
state  shall  have  the  qualifications 
requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  num- 
erous branch  of  the  state  legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a representative 
who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven 
years  a citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  state  in  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes 
shall  oe  apportioned  among  the  several 
states  which  may  be  included  within 
this  Union  according  to  their  respective 
numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by 
adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free 
persons,  including  those  bound  to  ser- 
vice for  a term  of  years,  and  excluding 
Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all 
other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration 
shall  be  made  within  three  years  after 
the  first  meeting  of  the  congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  within  every  subse- 
quent term  of  ten  years,  in  such  man- 
ner as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The 


number  of  representatives  shall  not 
exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand, 
but  each  state  shall  have  at  least  one 
representative;  and  until  such  enu- 
meration shall  be  made,  the  state  of 
New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
choose  3;  Massachusetts,  8;  Rhode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  1 ; 
Connecticut,  5;  New  York,  6;  New 
Jersey,  4;  Pennsylvania,  8;  Delaware, 
1;  Maryland,  6;  Virginia,  10;  North 
Carolina,  5;  South  Carolina,  5;  and 
Georgia,  3. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  repre- 
sentation from  any  state,  the  executive 
authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of 
election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  house  of  representatives  shall 
choose  their  speaker  and  other  officers; 
and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  im- 
peachment. 

Sec.  3.  The  senate  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  composed  of  two  sena- 
tors from  each  state,  chosen  by  the 
legislature  thereof,  for  six  years;  and 
each  senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  as- 
sembled in  consequence  of  the  first  elec- 
tion, they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as 
may  be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of 
the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  va- 
cated at  the  expiration  of  the  second 
year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third 
class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year, 
so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every 
second  year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by 
resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the 
recess  of  the  legislature  of  any  state,  the 
executive  thereof  may  make  temporary 
appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of 
the  legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such 
vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a senator  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a citi- 
zen of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall 
not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  state  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  shall  also  be  president  of  the 
senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless 
they  be  equally  divided. 

The  senate  shall  choose  their  other 
officers,  and  also  a president  pro  tem- 
pore, in  the  absence  of  the  vice-president 
or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of 
president  of  the  United  States. 

The  senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments;  when  sitting  for 
that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or 
affirmation.  When  the  president  of  the 
United  States  is  tried,  the  chief  justice 
shall  preside;  and  no  person  shall  be 
convicted  without  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment 
shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal 
from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold 
and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or 
profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the 
party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be 
liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial, 
judgment,  and  punishment,  according 
to  law. 

Sec.  4.  The  times,  places,  and  manner 
of  holding  elections  for  senators  and 
representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in 
each  state  by  the  legislature  thereof; 
but  the  congress  may  at  any  time,  by 
law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  ex- 


cept as  to  the  places  of  chosing  sena- 
tors. 

The  congress  shall  assemble  at  least 
once  in  every  year,  and  such  meeting 
shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December 
unless  they  shall,  by  law,  appoint  a dif- 
ferent day. 

Sec.  5.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge 
of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifica- 
tions of  its  own  members,  and  a majority 
of  each  shall  constitute  a quorum  to  do 
business;  but  a smaller  number  may 
adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of 
absent  members,  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  house  may 
provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules 
of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  members 
for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a mem- 
ber. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a journal  of  its 
proceedings  and  from  time  to  time  pub- 
lish the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as 
may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy, 
and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of 
either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the 
desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be 
entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  sessions  of 
congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that 
in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  6.  The  senators  and  representa- 
tives shall  receive  a compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law, 
and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases, 
except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the 
peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during 
their  attendance  at  the  sessions  of  their 
respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning'  from  the  same ; and  for  any 
speech  or  debate  in  either  house  they 
shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall, 
during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected, 
be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the 
authority  of  the^  United  States,  which 
shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emolu- 
ments whereof  shall  have  been  increased 
during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding 
any  office  under  the  United  States  shall 
be  a member  of  either  house  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue 
shall  originate  in  the  house  of  representa- 
tives; but  the  senate  may  propose  or 
concur  with  amendments,  as  on  other 
bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
house  of  representatives  and  the  senate 
shall,  before  it  become  a law,  be  present- 
ed to  the  president  of  the  United  States; 
if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it ; but  if  not, 
he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections, 
to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objec- 
tions at  large  on  their  journal,  and  pro- 
ceed to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  re- 
consideration two-thirds  of  that  house 
shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  objections  to 
the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  like- 
wise be  reconsidered ; and  if  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become 
a law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of 
both  houses  shall  be  determined  b3’'  yeas 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons 
voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be 
entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be 
returned  by  the  president  within  ten 
days  (Sunday  excepted)  after  it  shall 
have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a law  in  like  manner  as  if  he 
had  signed  it,  unless  the  congress  by 
their  adjournment  prevent  its  return;  in 
which  case  it  shall  not  be  a law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to 
which  the  concurrence  of  the  senate  and 
the  house  of  representatives  may  be 
necessary  (except  on  a question  of  ad- 
j'ournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the 
president  of  the  United  States;  and  be- 
fore the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved 
by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 
of  the  senate  and  house  of  representa- 
tives, according  to  the  rules  and  limita- 
tions prescribed  in  the  case  of  a bill. 

Sec.  8.  The  congress  shall  have  power 
to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defense  and  gener- 
al welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all 
duties,  imposts,  and  excise  shall  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  United  States; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign 
nations,  and  among  the  several  states, 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  natur- 
alization, and  uniform  laws  on  the  sub- 
j'ect  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the 
United  States; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value 
thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of 
counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current 
coin  of  the  United  States; 

To  establish  post-oflBces  and  post- 
roads ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science 
and  useful  arts,  by  securing  for  limited 
times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the 
exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writ- 
ings and  discoveries; 

To  constitue  tribunals  inferior  to  the 
supreme  court; 

To_  define  and  punish  piracies  and 
felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas, 
and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  mar- 
que and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  con- 
cerning captures  on  land  and  water ; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no 
appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall 
be  for  a longer  term  than  two  years; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a navy; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia 
to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  sup- 
press insurrections,  and  repel  invasions ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming, 
and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for 
governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  states  repect- 
ively  the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed 
by  congress; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all 
cases  whatsoever  over  such  district  (not 
exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by 


cession  of  particular  states,  and  the 
acceptance  of  congress,  become  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all 
places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
legislature  of  the  state  in  which  the 
same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts, 
magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  and 
other  needful  buildings;  and 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  neces- 
sary and  proper  for  carrying  into  execu- 
tion the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other 
powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  or 
in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Sec.  9.  The  migration  or  importa- 
tion of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  states 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  ad- 
mit shall  not  be  prohibited  by  congress 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight;  but  a tax  of  duty 
may  be  imposed  on  such  importation, 
not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless 
when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion 
the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto 
law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall 
be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  cen- 
sus or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed 
to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported  from  any  state. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any 
regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to 
the  ports  of  one  state  over  those  of  an- 
other; nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or 
from  one  state  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear, 
or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the 
treasury  but  in  consequence  of  appro- 
priations made  by  law;  and  a regular 
statement  and  account  of  the  receipts 
and  expenditures  of  all  public  money 
shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted 
by  the  United  States;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under 
them  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu- 
ment, office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  what- 
ever, from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign 
state. 

Sec.  10.  No  state  shall  enter  into  any 
treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation;  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin 
money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  any- 
thing but  gold  and  silver  coin  a tender 
in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of 
attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  im- 
pairing the  obligation  of  contracts,  or 
grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  congress,  lay  any  imposts  or  duties 
on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may 
be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing 
its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any 
state  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for 
the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  sub- 
j'ect  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the 
congress. 

No  state  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep 
troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace, 
enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact 
with  another  state,  or  with  a foreign 


power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually 
invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

Article  II.,  Sec.  1.  The  executive 
power  shall  be  vested  in  a president  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  He  shall 
hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 
years,  and,  together  with  the  vice-presi- 
dent, chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected  as  follows: 

Each  state  shall  appoint,  in  such  man- 
ner as  the  legislature  thereof  may  direct, 
a number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole 
number  of  senators  and  representatives 
to  which  the  state  may  be  entitled  in 
the  congress;  but  no  senator  or  repre- 
sentative, or  persons  holding  an  office  of 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States, 
shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

The  congress  may  determine  the  time 
of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on 
which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which 
day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
United  States. 

No  person,  except  a natural-born  citi- 
zen or  a citizen  of  the  United  States  at 
the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  consti- 
tution, shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of 
president;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  at  the  age  of  thirty-five  years, 
and  been  fourteen  years  resident  within 
the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  president 
from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation, 
or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall 
devolve  on  the  vice-president,  and  the 
congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the 
case  of  removal,  death,  resignation  or 
inability,  both  of  the  president  and  vice- 
president,  declaring  what  officer  shall 
then  act  as  president,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability 
be  removed,  or  a president  shall  be 
elected. 

The  president  shall,  at  stated  timesj 
receive  for  his  services  a compensation, 
which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor 
diminished  during  the  period  for  which 
he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall 
not  receive  within  that  period  any  other 
emolument  from  the  United  States,  or 
any  of  them. 

Before  he  enters  on  the  execution  of 
his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following 
oath  or  affirmation:  “I  do  solemnly 
swear  (or  affirm)  that  I will  faithfully 
execute  the  office  of  president  of  the 
United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of 
myability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.” 

Sec.  2.  The  president  shall  be  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of 
the  several  states  when  called  into  the 
actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he 
may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing, of  the 
principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive 
departments  upon  any  subj'ect  relating 
to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices, 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  for  offenses  against 
the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  to 
make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of 
the  senators  present  concur;  and  he 
shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  senate,  shall 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters and  consuls,  judges  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
States,  whose  appointments  are  not 
herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which 
shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the 
congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appoint- 
ment of  such  inferior  officers  as  they 
think  proper  in  the  president  alone,  in 
the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments. 

The  president  shall  have  power  to  fill 
up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during 
the  recess  of  the  senate,  by  granting 
commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the 
end  of  their  next  session. 

Sec.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time 
give  to  the  congress  information  of  the 
state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to 
their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he 
may  on  extraordinary  occasions  convene 
both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in 
cases  of  disagreement  between  them, 
with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment, 
he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he 
shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  am- 
bassadors and  other  public  ministers; 
he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faith- 
fully executed,  and  shall  commission  all 
the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  4.  The  president,  vice-president, 
and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeach- 
ment for,  and  conviction  of,  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors. 

Article  III.,  Sec.  1.  The  judicial  power 
of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in 
one  supreme  court,  and  in  such  inferior 
courts  as  the  congress  may  from  time  to 
time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges, 
both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  courts, 
shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  be- 
havior, and  shall,  at  stated  times,  re- 
ceive for  their  services  a compensation, 
vhich  shall  not  be  diminished  during 
their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  ex- 
tend to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  constitution,  the  laws 
of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their 
authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  am- 
bassadors, other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies 
to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a 
party;  to  controversies  between  two 
or  more  states;  between  a state  and 
citizens  of  another  state;  between  citi- 
zens of  different  states;  between  citizens 
of  the  same  state  claiming  lands  under 
grants  of  different  states,  and  between 
a state,  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and 
those  in  which  a state  shall  be  party,  the 
supreme  court  shall  have  original  juris- 
diction. In  all  the  other  cases  before 
mentioned,  the  supreme  court  shall  have 
appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law 
and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under 
such  regulations  as  the  congress  shall 
make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases 
of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury;  and 
such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  state  where 
the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted ; but  when  not  committed  within 


any  state,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such 
place  or  places  as  the  congress  may  by 
law  have  directed. 

Sec.  3.  Treason  against  the  United 
States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their 
enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  trea- 
son unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  wit- 
nesses to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  con- 
fession in  open  court. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  de- 
clare the  punishment  of  treason ; but  no 
attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corrup- 
tion of  blood,  or  forfeiture  except  during 
the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV.,  Sec.  1.  Full  faith  and 
credit  shall  be  given  in  each  state  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings of  every  other  state.  And  the 
congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe 
the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records, 
and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  state  shall 
be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties of  citizens  in  the  several  states. 

A person  charged  in  any  state  with 
treason,  felonyj  or  other  crime,  who 
shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in 
another  state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the 
executive  authority  of  the  state  from 
which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be 
removed  to  the  state  having  jurisdiction 
of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in 
one  state,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escap- 
ing into  another,  shall  in  consequence  of 
any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  dis- 
charged from  such  service  or  labor,  but 
shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may 
be  due. 

Sec.  3.  New  states  may  be  admitted 
by  the  congress  into  this  Union;  but  no 
new  state  shall  be  formed  or  erected 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other 
state,  nor  any  state  be  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts 
of  states,  without  the  consent  of  the 
legislatures  of  the  states  concerned  as 
well  as  of  the  congress. 

The  congress  shall  have  power  to  dis- 
pose of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and 
regulations  respecting  the  territory  or 
other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States ; and  nothing  in  this  constitution 
shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any 
claims  of  the  United  States,  or  any 
particular  state. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guar- 
antee to  every  state  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and 
shall  protect  each  of  them  against  in- 
vasion, and,  on  application  of  the  legis- 
lature, or  of  the  executive  (when  the 
legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against 
domestic  violence. 

Article  V.  The  congress,  whenever 
two-thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to 
this  constitution,  or,  on  the  application 
of  the  legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the 
several  states,  shall  call  a convention 
for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in 
either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  as  part  of  this  constitution, 
when  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  several  states,  or  by  con- 
ventions in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the 
one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification 


naay  be  proposed  by  the  congress;  pro- 
vided, that  no  amendment  which  may 
be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any 
manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first 
article;  and  that  no  state,  without  its. 
consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  senate. 

Article  VI.  All  debts  contracted  and 
engagements  entered  into  before  the 
adoption  of  this  constitution  shall  be  as 
valid  against  the  United  States  under 
this  constitution,  as  under  the  con- 
federation. 

This  constitution  and  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  which  shall  be  made  in 
pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made, 
or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;  and 
the  judges  in  every  state  shall  be  bound 
thereby,  anything  in  the  constitution 
or  laws  of  any  state  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives 
before  memtioned,  and  the  members  of 
the  several  state  legislatures,  and  all 
executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of 
the  United  States  and  of  the  several 
states,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion to  support  this  constitution;  but 
no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required 
as  a qualification  to  any  office  or  public 
trust  under  the  United  States. 

Article  VII.  The  ratification  of  the 
conventions  of  nine  states  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  estabhshment  of  this 
constitution  between  the  states  so 
ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention,  by  the  unani- 
mous consent  of  the  states  present  the 
17th  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America  the 
twelfth. 

AMENDMENTS. 

Article  I.  Congress  shall  make  no 
law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of 
speech  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of 
the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and 
to  petition  the  government  for  redress  uf 
grievances. 

Article  II.  A well-regulated  militia 
being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a free 
state,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and 
bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Article  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time 
of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor 
in  time  of  war  but  in  a manner  to  be 
prescribed  by  law. 

Article  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to 
be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreason- 
able searches  and  seizure.s,  shall  not  be 
violated;  and  no  warrants  shall  issue 
but  upon  probable  cause,  supported 
by  oath  or  affirmation,  and  particularly 
describing  the  place  to  be  searched, 
and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Article  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to 
answer  for  a capital  or  otherwise  in- 
famous crime,  unless  on  a presentment 
or  indictment  of  a grand  jury  oxcept 
in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 


OONStTL 


CONSUL 


eervice,  in  time  of  war  and  public 
danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  sub- 
ject for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put 
in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb,  nor  shall  be 
compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be 
a witness  against  himself;  nor  to  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public 
use  without  just  compensation. 

Article  VI.  In  all  criminal  prosecu- 
tions, the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right 
to  a speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  im- 
partial jury  of  the  state  and  district 
wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been 
committed,  which  district  shall  have 
been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and 
to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of 
the  accusations;  to  be  confronted 
with  the  witnesses  against  him;  to 
have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining 
witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the 
assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

Article  VII.  In  suits  at  common  law, 
where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial 
by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a jury  shall  be  otherwise  re- 
examined in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
common  law. 

Article  VIII.  Excessive  bail  shall  not 
be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishment  in- 
flicted. 

Article  IX.  The  enumeration  in  the 
-constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not 
be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others 
retained  by  the  people. 

Article  X.  The  powers  not  delegated 
to  the  United  States  by  the  constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states, 
are  reserved  to  the  states  respectively, 
or  to  the  people. 

Article  XI.  The  judicial  power  of  the 
United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to 
extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity  com- 
menced or  prosecuted  against  one  of 
the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another 
state,  or  by  citizens  or  subject  of  any 
foreign  state. 

Article  XII.  The  electors  shall  meet 
in  their  respective  states,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  president  and  vice-president, 
one  of  whom  at  least  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  state  with  them- 
selves. They  shall  name  in  their  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  president,  and 
in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for 
as  vice-president;  and  they  shall  make 
distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
president,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
as  vice-president,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall 
sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the 
senate.  The  president  of  the  senate 
shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  senate  and 
hou^  of  representatives,  open  all  the 
certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 
counted ; the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  for  president  shall  be 
the  president,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  elec- 
tors appointed;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  a majority,  then  from  the  persons 
having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceed- 
ing three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as 
president,  the  house  of  representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the 


president.  But  in  choosing  the  presi- 
dent, the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states, 
the  representation  from  each  state  hav- 
ing one  vote;  a quorum  for  this  purpose 
shall  consist  of  a member  or  members 
from  two-thirds  of  the  states,  and  a ma- 
jority of  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary 
to  a choice.  And  if  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives shall  not  choose  a president, 
whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  de- 
volve upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day 
of  March  next  following,  then  the  vice- 
president  shall  act  as  president,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  death  or'other  constitu- 
tional disability  of  the  president.  The 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  vice-president  shall  be  the  vice- 
president,  if  such  number  be  a majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
pointed; and  if  no  person  have  a ma- 
jority, then  from  the  two  highest  num- 
bers on  the  list  the  senate  shall  choose 
the  vice-president;  a quorum  for  the 
purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of 
the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be 
necessary  to  a choice.  But  no  person 
constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of 
president  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of 
vice-president  of  the  United  States. 

Article  XIII.,  Sec.  1.  Neither  slavery 
nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party 
shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any 
place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Sec.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to 
enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

Article  XIV.,  Sec.  1.  All  persons  born 
or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the 
state  wherein  they  reside.  No  state 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immuni- 
ties of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor 
shall  any  state  deprive  any  person  of 
life,  liberty,  or  property  without  due 
process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person 
within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  pro- 
tection of  the  laws. 

Sec.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  states 
according  to  their  respective  numbers, 
counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  state,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  as 
any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors 
for  president  and  vice-president  of  the 
United  States,  representatives  in  con- 
gress, the  executive  and  judicial  officers 
of  a state,  or  the  members  of  the  legis- 
lature thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the 
male  inhabitants  of  such  state  being 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged,  except  for  participation  in 
rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of 
representation  therein  shall  be  re- 
duced in  the  proportions  which  the 
number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear 
to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  state. 

Sec.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a senator  or 
representative  in  congress,  cr  elector  of 
president  and  vice-president,  or  hold 
any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the 
United  States,  or  under  any  state,  who, 
having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a 
member  of  congress,  or  as  an  officer  of 


the  United  States,  or  as  a member  of  any 
state  legislature,  or  as  ada  executive  or 
judicial  officer  of  any  sifete,  to  support 
tbfr  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid 
or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
congress  may,  by  a vote  of  two-thirds  of 
each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

Sec.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public 
debt  of  the  United  States  authorized 
by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for 
payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for 
services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or 
rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But 
neither  the  United  States  nor  any  state 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obliga- 
tion incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or 
any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation 
of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obliga- 
tions, and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and 
void. 

Sec.  5.  The  congress  shall  have  power 
to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation, 
the  provisions  of  this  article. 

Article  XV.,  Sec.  1.  The  right  of  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 
United  States,  or  by  any  state,  on  ac- 
count of  race,  color,  or  previous  con- 
dition of  servitude. 

Sec.  2.  The  congress  shall  have  power 
to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

CON'SUL,  a name  originally  given  to 
the  two  highest  magistrates  in  the  re- 
public of  Rome.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  republic  the  authority  of  the  consuls 
was  almost  as  great  as  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding kings.  They  could  declare  war, 
conclude  peace,  make  alliances,  and  even 
order  a citizen  to  be  put  to  death;  but 
their  powers  were  gradually  curtailed, 
especially  by  the  establishment  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people,  early  in  the  5th 
century.  But  they  still  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  whole  republic;  all  officers 
were  under  them,  the  tribunes  of  the 
people  only  excepted:  they  convoked 
the  senate,  proposed  what  they  thought 
fit,  and  executed  the  laws.  In  times  of 
emergency  they  received  unlimited 
power,  and  could  even  sentence  to  death 
without  trial,  levy  troops,  and  make 
war  without  the  resolve  of  the  people 
first  obtained.  Under  the  emperors  the 
consular  dignity  sunk  to  a shadow,  and 
became  merely  honorary.  The  last  con- 
sul at  Rome  was  Theodorus  Paulinus 
(a.d.536). 

In  France  the  name  of  consul  was 
temporarily  adopted  for  the  chief 
magistrates  after  the  revolution.  As 
early  as  Aug.  2,  1802,  Bonaparte  was 
proclaimed  first  consul  for  life,  and  thus 
the_  constitution  of  France  became 
again  practically  monarchical.  On 
April  10,  1804,  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor,  and  even  the  nominal  consu- 
late ended. 

At  present  consuls  are  officials  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  of  one  coun- 
try to  attend  to  its  commercial  interests 
in  seaports  or  other  towns  of  another 
country.  The  duties  of  a consul  gen- 
erally speaking  are  to  promote  the 
trade  of  the  country  he  represents;  to 
give  advice  and  assistance  when  called 
upon  to  his  fellow-subjects;  to  uphold 
their  lawful  interests  and  privileges  if 


CONSUMPTION 


CONVERSION 


any  attempt  be  made  to  injure  them; 
to  transmit  reports  of  trade  to  his 
own  government,  to  authenticate  cer- 
tain aocuments,  etc.  They  are  gener- 
ally of  three  ranks : consuls-general,  con- 
suls, and  vice-consuls. 

CONSUMPTION,  or  PHTHISIS,  a 
disease  known  by  emaciation,  debility, 
cough,  hectic  fever,  and  purulent  ex- 
pectoration. The  predisposing  causes 
are  very  variable — hereditary  taint, 
scrofulous  diathesis,  syphilis,  small-pox, 
etc.;  exposure  to  fumes  and  dusty  air 
in  certain  trades;  violent  passions  and 
excess  of  various  kinds,  sudden  lower- 
ing of  the  temperature  of  the  body,  etc. 
The  more  immediate  or  occasional 
causes  are  pneumonic  inflammation 
proceeding  to  suppuration,  catarrh, 
asthma,  and  tubercles  in  the  lungs,  the 
last  of  which  is  by  far  the  most  general. 
The  incipient  symptoms  usually  vary 
with  the  cause  of  the  disease;  but  when 
it  arises  from  tubercles  it  is  usually 
marked  by  a short  dry  cough  that  be- 
cimes  habitual,  but  from  which  nothing 
is  spit  up  for  some  time  except  a frothy 
mucus.  The  breathing  is  at  the  same 
time  somewhat  impeded,  the  body  be- 
comes gradually  leaner,  and  great  lan- 
guor, with  indolence,  dejection,  and 
loss  of  appetite  prevail.  At  a later 
stage  the  cough  becomes  more  trouble- 
some, particularly  by  night,  and  is 
attended  with  an  expectoration,  the 
matter  of  which  assumes  a greenish 
color  and  purulent  appearance,  being 
cn  many  occasions  streaked  with  blood. 
In  some  cases  a more  severe  degree  of 
blood-spitting  attends,  and  the  patient 
spits  up  a considerable  quantity  of 
florid,  frothy  blood.  At  a mere  ad- 
vanced period  of  the  disease  a pain  is 
sometimes  felt  on  one  side  in  so  high  a 
degree  as  to  prevent  the  person  from 
lying  easily  on  that  side;  but  it  more 
frequently  happens  that  it  is  felt  only  on 
making  a full  inspiration,  or  coughing. 
At  the  first  commencement  of  the  dis- 
ease the  pulse  is  often  natural,  but  it 
afterwards  becomes  full,  hard,  and  fre- 
quent. At  the  same  time  the  face 
flushes,  particularly  after  eating,  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet 
are  affected  with  burning  heat;  the 
respiration  is  difficult  and  laborious; 
evening  exacerbations  become  obvious, 
and  by  degrees  the  fever  assumes  the 
hectic  form  with  remittent  exacerba- 
tions twice  every  day,  at  noon  and 
evening.  From  the  first  appearance  of 
the  hectic  symptoms  the  urine  is  high 
colored,  and  deposits  a copious  branny 
red  sediment.  At  this  time  the  patient 
is  usually  costive;  but  in  the  more 
advanced  stages  a diarrhoea  often  comes 
on,  colliquative  sweats  likewise  break 
out,  and  these  alternate  with  each  other, 
and  induce  great  debility.  Some  days 
before  death  the  extremities  become 
cold.  In  some  cases  a delirium  precedes 
that  event.  The  morbid  appearance 
most, frequently  to  be  met  with  on  the 
dissection  of  those  who  die  of  phthisis 
is  the  existence  of  tubercles  in  the 
cellular  substance  of  the  lungs,  most 
usually  at  the  upper  and  back  part; 
but,  in  some  instances,  occupying  the 
outer  part,  and  forming  adhesions  to 
the  pleura.  In  some  cases  life  has  been 
protracted  till  not  one-twentieth  part 


of  the  lungs  appeared,  on  dissection, 
fit  for  performing  their  function.  The 
left  lobe  is  oftener  affected  than  the 
right.  The  diet  in  this  disorder  should 
be  nutritious,  but  not  heating,  or  diffi- 
cult of  digestion.  Milk,  especially  that 
of  the  ass;  farinaceous  vegetables; 
acescent  fruits;  animal  soups;  and, 
above  alb  cod-liver  oil,  etc.  are  usually 
given.  It  is  also  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  see  that  the  digestive  organs 
are  in  proper  working  order.  As  much 
open  air  as  possible,  combined  with 
abundance  of  nutritious  food,  is  at 
present  the  treatment  in  vogue.  With 
regard  to  urgent  symptoms  requiring 
palliation,  the  cough  may  be  allayed  by 
demulcents,  but  especially  mild  opiates 
swallowed  slowly;  colliquative  sweats 
by  acids,  particularly  the  mineral;  di- 
arrhoea by  chalk  and  other  astringents, 
or  by  small  doses  of  opium. 

CONTA'GION,  the  communication  of 
disease  by  contact  direct  or  indirect. 
A distinction  has  sometimes  been  made 
between  contagion,  as  the  communica- 
tion of  disease  strictly  by  contact,  and 
infection,  as  communication  of  disease 
by  the  miasmata,  exhalations  or  germs 
which  one  body  gives  out  and  the  other 
receives.  There  is  little  doubt  that  ex- 
cessively minute  disease  germs  proceed 
from  the  breath,  the  perspiration  or 
other  excretions  of  a diseased  person, 
and  are  capable  of  propagating  the 
disease  in  another  person ; but  the  true 
nature  of  these  is  little  understood. 
Antiseptics,  or  disinfectants,  are  used 
to  destroy  the  poisonous  particles,  such 
as  carbolic  acid,  sulphur,  permanganate 
of  potasffi  chlorine  gas,  etc. 

CONTEMPT,  a term  applied  to  an  act 
of  disobedience,  impertinence,  etc.,  to  a 
judge  or  his  mandates.  It  is  really  a 
crime  and  can  be  punished  by  the  court 
as  the  court  sees  fit.  Some  American 
judges  have  tried  to  punish  persons  not 
connected  with  a law  case  who  have 
criticized  the  conduct  of  the  judge  out- 
side the  court,  but  this  power  has  never 
been  legally  established. 

CONTINENT,  a connected  tract  of 
land  of  great  extent,  forming  a sort  of 
whole  by  itself,  as  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
North  and  South  America;  or  we  may 
speak  of  the  eastern  and  western  con- 
tinents, Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  being 
regarded  as  one,  and  North  and  South 
America  another.  Australia,  from  its 
size,  may  also  be  regarded  as  a con- 
tinent. 

CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM,  a plan  de- 
vised by  Napoleon  to  exclude  Britain 
from  all  intercourse  with  the  continent 
of  Europe.  It  began  with  the  decree  of 
Berlin  of  November  21,  1806,  by  which 
the  British  Islands  were  declared  to  be 
in  a state  of  blockade;  all  commerce, 
intercourse,  and  correspondence  were 
prohibited;  every  Briton  found  in 
France,  or  a country  occupied  by  French 
troops,  was  declared  a prisoner  of  war; 
all  property  belonging  to  Britons,  fair 
prize,  and  all  trade  in  goods  from 
Britain  or  British  colonies  entirely 
prohibited.  Britain  replied  by  orders  in 
council  prohibiting  trade  'ndth  French 
ports,  and  declaring  all  harbors  of 
France  and  her  allies  subjected  to  the 
same  restrictions  as  if  they  were  closely 
blockaded.  Further  decrees  on  the  part 


of  France,  of  a still  more  stringent  kind, 
declared  all  vessels,  of  whatever  flag, 
which  had  been  searched  by  a British 
vessel  or  paid  duty  to  Britain,  de- 
nationalized, and  directing  the  burning 
of  all  Britisn  goods,  etc.  These  decrees 
caused  great  annoyance,  and  gave  rise 
to  much  smugghng,  till  annulled  at  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  1814. 

CONTRABAND,  in  commerce,  all 
goods  and  wares  exported  from  or  im- 
ported into  any  country,  against  the 
laws  of  said  country.  There  are,  also,  a 
number  of  articles  termed  contraband 
of  war  which  neutrals  may  be  prevented, 
by  one  belligerent,  from  carrying  to 
another.  These  generally  include  not 
only  arms  and  munitions  of  war,  but  all 
the  articles  out  of  which  they  may  be 
made.  In  recent  times  even  provisions 
in  certain  cases  have  been  considered 
contraband  of  war. 

CONTRACT,  in  law,  an  agreement  or 
covenant  between  two  or  more  persons, 
in  which  each  party  binds  himself  to  do 
or  forbear  some  act,  and  each  acquires 
a right  to  what  the  other  promises.  Con- 
tracts may  be  in  express  terms  or  im- 
plied from  the  acts  of  the  parties;  they 
may  be  verbal  or  written,  and  at  com- 
mon law  both  forms  are  binding;  but  by 
statute  law  a promise  must  be  in  writing. 
To  be  valid,  a contract  must  be  entered 
into  W parties  legally  competent,  that  is, 
of  sound  mind  and  of  full  age  The  act 
contracted  for  must  not  be  contrary  to 
law  or  public  policy.  Thus  an  agree- 
ment to  do  injury  to  another,  or  a con- 
tract not  to  marry  at  all  is  void.  The 
contract  must  be  founded  on  a con- 
sideration either  of  money  or  some  act 
whereby  an  undoubted  advantage  ac- 
crues to  the  party  sued.  Lastly,  the  con- 
tract is  voidable,  if  obtained  by  fraud, 
mistake  or  compulsion. 

CONTRALTO,  in  music,  the  highest 
voice  of  a male  adult,  or  the  lowest  of  a 
woman  or  a boy,  called  also  the  alto,  or 
when  possessed  by  a man  counter-tenor. 
It  is  next  below  the  treble  and  above 
the  tenor,  its  easy  range  being  from 
tenor  G to  treble  C. 

CONVENTION,  a coming  together  of 
persons  delegated  to  act  for  others,  or 
not  so  delegated,  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  make  agreements,  treaties,  nomina- 
tions or  elections  for  office,  transact 
business  of  various  kinds  and  to  do 
other  things  that  may  seem  desirable  to 
the  convention.  Political  conventions 
generally  have  to  do  with  the  machinery 
of  politics  not  connected  with  the  actual 
government  of  a state.  The  first 
national  convention  of  a political  party 
was  that  of  the  anti-masonic  party  in 
1828.  The  idea  immediately  was 
adopted  and  today  seems  to  form  an 
inalienable  and  necessary  part  of  Ameri- 
can political  procedure. 

CONVERSAZIONE  (sat-si-6'ne),  a re- 
ception, usually  on  a large  scale  and  in 
the  evening,  at  which  the  company 
move  about,  converse  with  their  ac- 
quaintances, partake  of  tea,  coffee,  or 
other  refreshments,  and  often  have 
objects  of  art,  science,  or  general,  in- 
terest set  out  for  their  inspection. 

CONVERSION,  a term  in  lomc.  A 
proposition  is  converted  when  the  pre- 
dicate is  put  in  the  place  of  the  suoject, 
and  the  subject  in  place  of  the  predicatej 


CONVEX  LENS 


COOLIE 


as.  “no  A is  B”  (“no  virtuous  man  is  a 
rebel”),  the  converse  of  which  is  “no  B 
is  A”  (“no  rebel  is  a virtuous  man”). 
Simple  conversion,  however,  in  this 
manner  is  not  always  logical.  In  the 
case  of  universal  affirmatives,  for  ex- 
ample, “all  A are  B”  (say,  “all  men  are 
animals”),  the  simple  converse  “all  B 
are  A”  (“all  animals  are  men”)  would 
not  be  true. 

CONVEX  LENS.  See  Lens. 

CONVEY'ANCING,  the  practice  of 
drawing  deeds,  leases,  or  other  writings 
(conveyances)  for  transferring  the  title 
to  property  from  one  person  to  another, 
of  investigating  the  title  of  the  vendors 
and  purchasers  of  property,  and  of  fram- 
ing those  multifarious  deeds  and  con- 
tracts which  govern  and  define  the  rights 
and  liabilities  of  families  and  individuals. 

CON'VICT,  the  general  term  for  a 
person  who  has  been  found  guilty  of  a 
serious  offense  and  sentenced  to  penal 
servitude. 

CONVIC'TION,  the  finding  a person 
guilty  of  an  offense  by  the  verdict  of  a 
jury.  In  certain  cases  of  minor  offenses, 
such  as  are  tried  before  justices  of  the 
peace,  etc.,  the  law  allows  of  convictions 
without  the  intervention  of  a jury. 

CONVICT  LABOR,  labor  performed 
by  felons,  or  other  convicts,  and  espe- 
cially a term  applied  to  the  labor  of  con- 
victs the  products  of  which  are  pur- 
chased by  contractors  at  an  annual 
ayment.  The  convict  labor  plan  has 
een  bitterly  opposed  by  labor  unions 
as  destructive  to  the  interests  of  free 
labor  and  this  view  has  been  confirmed 
by  experience.  Convict  labor,  even 
when  used  for  public  purposes,  such  as 
road  building,  has  been  found  expensive, 
undesirable  and  inefficient. 

CONVOL'VULUS,  a genus  of  plants, 
consisting  of  slender  twining  herbs  with 
milky  juice;  bell-shaped  flowers  and  five 

CONVUL'SION,  a diseased  action  of 
muscular  fibers,  known  by  violent  and 
involuntary  contractions  of  the  muscu- 
lar parts,  with  alternative  relaxations. 
Convulsions  are  universal  or  partial,  and 
have  obtained  different  names  accord- 
ing to  the  parts  affected,  or  the  symp- 
toms. The  muscles  principally  affected 
in  all  species  of  convulsions  are  those 
immediately  under  the  direction  of  the 
will,  as  those  of  the  eyelids,  eye,  face, 
jaws,  neck,  superior  and  inferior  ex- 
tremities. Convulsions  are  produced 
commonly  by  irritation  of  some  part  of 
the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  such  as  the 
general  convulsions  in  inflammation  of 
the  brain  membrances,  or  of  the  nerves 
themselves.  Children  of  a nervous 
temperament  are  often  the  subjects  of 
convulsions  during  dentition,  particu- 
larly when  accompanied  by  a disordered 
state  of  the  bowels  or  the  presence  of 
worms. 

CONWAY,  Moncure  Daniel,  an  Ameri- 
^n  author,  clergjanan  ,and  historian. 
He  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1832  and 
early  allied  himself  with  the  abolitionist 
party  and  the  Unitarian  Church.  In 
1863  he  went  to  England  and  resided 
there  for  20  years.  He  recently  re- 
turned to  the  United  States.  His 
principal  works  are  The  Rejected  Stone, 
Idols  and  Ideals,  Demonology  and  Devil 
Lore,  and  a number  of  literary  essays. 


COOCH-BEHAR',  or  KUCH-BEHAR', 

a native  state  in  India,  in  political  re- 
lation with  the  government  of  Bengal. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  soil  is  fertile 
and  well-cultivated.  Area,  1307  sq. 
miles;  pop.  578,868. — The  chief  town, 
Cooch-Behar,  contains  some  handsome 
public  buildings  and  a splendid  new 
palace  of  the  Maharajah.  Pop.  11,480. 

COOK,  Eliza,  English  poetess,  born  in 
London  in  1818.  She  published  a col- 
lection of  poems  under  the  title  of 
Melaia  and  Other  Poems.  She  after- 
ward wrote  a great  many  poems  mostly 
of  a lyric  cast,  and  some  of  her  songs 
have  been  highly  popular.  She  died  in 
1889. 

COOK,  James,  a famous  British  navi- 
gator, born  in  Yorkshire,  1728.  In  1755 
he  entered  the  royal  navy,  and  four 
years  later  as  sailing-master  of  the  Mer- 
cury performed  valuable  services  in 
surveying  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 


Captain  Cook. 


the  coast  of  Newfoundland.  Some  ob- 
servations on  a solar  eclipse,  communi- 
cated to  the  Royal  Society,  brought 
him  into  notice,  and  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  a scientific  expedition  to 
the  Pacific,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
in  the  navy.  During  this  expedition  he 
successively  visited  Tahiti,  New  Zea- 
land, discovered  New  South  Wales, 
and  returned  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
to  Britain  in  1771.  In  1772  Captain 
Cook,  now  raised  to  the  rank  of  a com- 
mander in  the  navy,  commanded  a 
second  expedition  to  the  Pacific  and 
Southern  Oceans,  which  resulted  like 
the  former  in  many  interesting  obser- 
vations and  discoveries.  He  returned  to 
Britain  in  1774.  Two  years  later  he 
again  set  out  on  an  expedition  to  ascer- 
tain the  possibility  of  a north-west 
passage.  On  this  voyage  he  explored 
the  western  coast  of  North  America, 
and  discovered  the  Sandwich  Islands,  on 
one  of  which,  Hawaii,  he  was  killed  by 
the  natives,  February  14,  1779. 

COOK,  Joseph,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  author,  born  in  New  York  in 
1838,  died  in  1901.  For  six  years  until 
1880  he  delivered  his  famous  “Boston 
Monday  Lectures”  and  subsequently 
toured  the  country  as  a lecturer. 

COOKE,  Jay,  a noted  American 
financier,  born  in  Ohio  in  1821.  During 
the  civil  war  he  negotiated  loans  of 


over  $2,000,000,000  for  the  govern- 
ment and  was  one  of  the  most  effect- 
ive advocates  of  the  present  national 
banking  system.  He  died  in  1905. 

COOKE,  John  Esten,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Virginia  in  1830,  died 
in  1886.  His  literary  career  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  civil  war  in  which  he  took 
an  active  part.  His  principal  works  of 
fiction  are  The  Virginia  Comedians,  and 
a sequel  to  that  work.  The  Story  of 
Eagle’s  Nest,  Leather  Stocking  and 
Silk,  Elbe,  or  the  Human  Comedy,  and 
Henry  St.  John,  Gentleman.  He  also 
wrote  several  works  of  history. 

COOKE,  Rose  Terry,  an  American 
story  writer  and  poet,  born  in  Connecti- 
cut in  1827,  died  in  1892.  She  pub- 
lished Poems  in  1860,  Steadfast  in  1889, 
Happy  Dodd  in  1879  and  several  col- 
lections of  short  stories  which  in  their 
day  were  widely  read. 

COOKERY,  the  preparation  of  food 
so  as  to  render  it  more  palatable  and 
more  digestible.  The  art  is  of  great  im- 
portance, not  only  for  comfort  but  also 
for  health.  Food  is  mainly  prepared  by 
submitting  it  to  the  action  of  fire,  as  by 
roasting,  boiling,  stewing,  etc.  These 
processes  give  each  a different  flavor  to 
food,  but  result  alike  in  rendering  the 
tissues,  both  of  animal  and  vegetable 
food,  softer  and  much  more  easily  dealt 
with  by  the  digestive  organs.  The  art 
of  cookery  was  carried  to  considerable 
perfection  among  some  of  the  ancient 
nations,  as  for  instance  the  Egyptians, 
Persians,  and  Athenians.  Extravagance 
and  luxury  at  table  were  notable 
features  of  Roman  life  under  the  empire. 
Among  moderns  the  Italians  were  the 
first  to  reach  a high  degree  of  art  in  this 
department.  Their  cooking,  like  that 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  is  distinguished 
by  a free  use  of  oil.  Italian  cookery 
seems  to  have  been  transplanted  by  the 
princesses  of  the  House  of  Medici  to 
France,  and  was  carried  there  to  per- 
haps the  highest  degree  of  perfection; 
even  yet  the  skill  and  resource  which 
the  French  cook  shows  in  dealing  often 
with  very  slight  materials  is  a highly 
creditable  feature  in  the  domestic 
economy  of  the  nation. 

COOLEY,  Thomas  McIntyre,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist  and  author,  born  in  New 
York  in  1824,  died  in  1898.  For  several 
years  he  was  a professor  in  the  law 
school  of  the  University  of  Michigan 
and  from  1864  to  1885  an  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Michi- 
gan. His  various  publications  are 
authority  on  constitutional  law. 

COOLIDGE,  Thomas  Jefferson,  an 
American  diplomat,  born  at  Boston  in 
1831.  He  served  as  United  States 
minister  to  France  in  1892  and  served 
subsequently  on  the  Canadian  American 
Joint  High  Commission. 

COOLIE,  a name  in  Hindustan  for  a 
day  laborer,  also  extended  to  those  of 
some  other  eastern  countries.  Many  of 
these  have  been  introduced  into  the 
West  Indies,  Mauritius,  and  other 
places,  their  passage  being  paid  for  them 
on  their  agreeing  to  serve  for  a term  of 
years.  The  first  coolie  emigrants  appear 
to  have  been  those  sent  to  British 
Guiana  from  Calcutta  in  1839  to  supply 
the  want  of  labor  felt  after  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  The  coolies  employed  in 


COOLIDGE 


COPENHAGEN 


Guiana  are  still  chiefly  from  India,  but 
there  is  also  a considerable  number  of 
Chinese.  Coolies  have  also  been  intro- 
duced into  Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Natal, 
and  large  numbers  into  Mauritius,  the 
Indian  population  of  the  latter  island 
being  nearly  250,000.  The  Chinese 
coolies  have  been  principally  sent  to 
Cuba  and  Peru.  Chinese  coolies  were 
excluded  from  the  United  States  by  act 
of  Congress  in  1888.  Through  the  ex- 
clusion of  Japanese  from  the  schools  in 
San  Francisco,  a movement  is  now 
being  made  to  have  Japanese  coolies 
also  excluded. 

COOL-TANKARD,  an  old  English 
beverage  of  various  composition,  but 
usually  made  of  ale,  with  a little  wine  or 
wine  and  water,  with  an  addition  of 
lemon  juice,  spices,  etc. 

COOM'ASSIE,  a town.  West  Africa, 
capital  of  Ashantee,  130  miles  north 
of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  It  was  taken  and 
burned  by  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  in  1874. 
In  1900  it  was  invested  by  Ashanti  na- 
tives, but  was  relieved  after  severe 
fighting.  Pop.  50,000. 

COON  OYSTER,  in  the  southern 
states  an  oyster  which  ^ows  close 
enough  to  shore  to  be  obtained  by  the 
raccoon. 

COOPER,  Henry  Ernest,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  in  Indiana  in  1857. 
He  settled  in  Honolulu  and  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  American  revolution 
in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  He  filled 
several  offices  of  the  provisional  govern- 
ment pending  the  annexation  of  the 
islands  to  the  United  States. 

COOPER,  James  Fenimore,  American 
novelist,  born  at  Burlington,  New 
Jersey,  in  1789,  studied  at  Yale  College, 
and  entered  the  American  navy  as  a 
midshipman  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  In 


1821  appeared  the  novel  of  Precaution, 
the  first  production  of  his  pen.  Though 
successful  it  gave  no  scope,  for  his  pecu- 
liar powers,  and  it  was  not  till  the  pro- 
duction of  The  Spy  and  The  Pioneers 
that  he  began  to  take  a high  place 
among  contemporary  novelists.  Af- 
ter that  came  a steady  flow  of  novels 
dealing  with  life  on  the  sea  and  in  the 
backwoods,  most  of  which,  like  The 
Pilot,  Red  Rover,  Waterwitch,  Pathfind- 
er, Deer-slayer,  and  Last  of  the  Mohi- 


cans, are  familiar  names  to  the  novel- 
reading public.  After  visiting  Europe 
and  serving  as  consul  for  the  United 
States  at  Lyons  for  three  years.  Cooper 
returned  to  America,  where  he  died 
at  Cooperstown,  New  York,  1851.  Be- 
sides his  novels  he  wrote  a history  of  the 
U.  S.  navy,  and  some  volumes  descrip- 
tive of  his  travels. 

COOPER,  Peter,  American  inventor, 
manufacturer,  and  philanthropist,  born 
1791,  died  1883.  He  started  life  with 
few  advantages,  being  almost  self  edu- 
cated; but  by  dint  of  energy,  persever- 
ance, sagacity  and  integrity,  accumu- 
lated a large  fortune.  He  carried  on 
the  manufacture  of  glue  and  isinglass 
for  over  fifty  years,  and  was  also  con- 
nected with  the  iron-manufacture,  the 
railways  (he  designed  and  built  the  first 
American  locomotive),  and  the  tele- 
graphs of  the  U.  States. 

CO-OPE^TIVE  SOCIETIES  are  asso- 
ciations of  individuals  for  mutual  assist- 
ance in  industrial  or  commercial  ob- 
jects. One  form  of  co-operative  socie- 
ties is  that  of  an  association  of  men  be- 
longing to  some  trade  or  industry  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  it  on  entirely 
by  their  own  efforts,  and  thus  securing 
all  the  profits  of  their  labors  to  them- 
selves; but  much  more  common  associa- 
tions are  those  the  object  of  which  is  to 
provide  the  members,  and  sometimes 
also  the  general  public,  with  the  ordi- 
nary household  necessaries,  at  as  near 
as  possible  the  prime  cost.  Associations 
of  the  former  kind  are  thus  associations 
for  production,  those  of  the  latter  for 
distribution,  by  means  of  what  are 
commonly  known  as  Co-operative  Stores. 

COOPER’S  CREEK,  or  the  BARCOO, 
called  by  the  latter  name  chiefly  in  its 
upper  course,  the  largest  inland  river  of 
Australia,  which  rises  in  Queensland  by 
two  branches,  the  Thomson  and  Victoria 
(or  Barcoo),  and  flows  southwest  to 
Lake  Eyre. 

COOPER  UNION,  an  institution  for 
the  advancement  of  art  and  science, 
founded  in  New  York  in  1859  by  Peter 
Cooper.  The  purpose  is  to  educate  the 
people  by  means  of  day  and  night 
classes  in  the  different  technical  trades 
and  sciences.  The  institution  has  over 
$5,000,000  in  property  and  is  in  reality 
a technical  school  which  is  very  well 
attended.  It  has  about  2,000  students 
and  confers  degrees. 

COORG,  or  KURG,  an  ancient  prin- 
cipality now  a province  in  Southern 
Hindustan,  lying  between  Mysore  on  the 
east  and  northeast  and  the  districts  of 
South  Canara  and  Malabar  on  the  west ; 
area,  1583  sq.  miles.  The  country  has 
a healthy  climate,  and  yields  coffee, 
spices,  timber,  etc.  The  capital  is 
Merkara.  Pop.  180,607. 

CO'OS.  See  Cos. 

CO-PARTNERSHIP.  See  Partnership. 

COPE,  a sacerdotal  vestment,  re- 
sembling a sleeveless  cloak  with  a hood, 
reaching  from  the  shoulders  to  the  feet, 
worn  on  solemn  occasions,  and  particu- 
larly in  processions,  by  the  pope  and 
other  bishops  as  well  as  by  priests.  It 
was  one  of  the  vestments  retained  at  the 
reformation  in  the  Anglican  Church. 

COPE,  Edward  Drinker,  an  American 
zoologist  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1840, 
1 died  in  1897.  For  many  years  he  was 


professor  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  from  1878  was  the  editor  of 
the  American  Naturalist.  Cope’s  prin- 
cipal contribution  to  science  was  his  fine 
collections  of  fossils  and  the  classifica- 
tion and  interpretation  of  the  same. 
His  principal  writings  are  Origin  of  the 
Fittest,  Origin  of  Genera,  and  Primary 
Factors  of  Organic  Evolution. 


Cope. 

A,  Probably  Dr.  Robert  Langton,  Queen’s 
Coll.  Oxon.  1,  Cope. 

B,  Figure  of  Pugin's  Glossary.  3 2;2,  Cope. 

CO'PECK,  a Russian  copper  coin,  so 
called  from  the  impression  of  St.  George 
bearing  a lance,  the  hundredth  part  of  a 
silver  ruble,  or  about  the  eightieth  part  of 
a paper  ruble.  It  is  equal  to  about  three 
quarters  of  a cent. 

COPENHA'GEN,  the  capital  of  Den- 
mark, on  the  Sound,  the  larger  and  older 
portion  of  it  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Island  of  Zealand,  a smaller  portion  on 
the  north  point  of  the  island  of  Amager, 
with  between  them  a branch  of  the  sea 
forming  the  harbor.  It  has  a citadel 
and  several  strong  forts  protecting  it 
on  the  sea  side;  and  is  mostly  well  built, 
principally  of  brick.  The  chief  buildings 
are  the  royal  palace  of  Rosenborg,  with 
many  antiques  and  precious  articles; 
the  Amalienborg,  consisting,  properly 
speaking,  of  four  palaces,  one  of  them 
the  usual  residence  of  the  sovereign;  the 
palace  of  Charlottenburg,  now  the  re- 
pository of  the  Academy  of  Arts;  the 
Royal  Library,  containing  550,000  vol- 
umes and  25,000  manuscripts;  Thor- 
waldsen’s  Museum,  containing  a great 
many  of  the  sculptor’s  works;  the  uni- 
versity buildings;  the  Vor  Frue  Kirke; 
the  arsenal;  etc.  The_  university, 
founded  by  Christian  I.  in  1478,  has 
about  700  professors  and  teachers,  five 
faculties,  and  a library  of  200,000 
volumes.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  com- 
modious. Copenhagen  is  the  principal 
station  of  the  Danish  fleet  and  the  cen- 
ter of  the  commerce  of  Denmark.  It 
carries  on  an  active  trade  with  Norway, 
Sweden,  Russia,  and  Germany,  and  in 
particular  with  Britain,  the  principal  ex- 
ports being  grain,  butter,  cheese,  beef, 
pork,  cattle,  horses,  hides,  etc.  It  has 
foundries  and  machine-works,  woolen 
and  cotton  mills,  porcelain  works,  brew- 
eries, distilleries,  etc.,  and  produces  also 
watches,  clocks,  pianofortes,  etc.  Sugar- 
refining and  tanning  are  carried  on. 
1 Pop.  with  suburbs,  476,806. 


COPERjnICUS 


CORAL 


COPER'NICUS,  Nicholas,  astronomer, 
born  at  Thorn,  then  in  Poland,  Feb.  19, 
1473,  his  family  being  supposed  to  have 
come  originally  from  Westphalia.  Hav- 
ing studied  medicine  at  Cracow,  he 
afterward  devoted  himself  to  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy,  and  in  1500 
taught  mathematics  at  Rome  with  great 
success.  Returning  to  his  own  country 
he  was  made  a canon  in  the  cathedral 
of  Frauenburg,  and  began  now  to  work 
out  his  new  system  of  astronomy. 
Doubting  that  the  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  could  be  so  confused 
and  so  complicated  as  the  Ptolemaic 
system  made  them,  he  was  induced  to 
consider  the  simpler  hypothesis  that  the 
sun  was  the  center  round  which  the 
earth  and  the  other  planets  revolve. 
Besides  this  fundamental  truth  Coperni- 
cus anticipated,  for  he  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  proved,  many  other  of  the 
principal  facts  of  astronomical  science, 
such  as  the  motion  of  the  earth  round  its 
axis,  the  immense  distance  of  the  stars 
which  made  their  apparent  position  the 
same  from  any  part  of  the  earth’s  orbit, 
etc.  His  general  theory  also  enabled 
him  to  explain  for  the  first  time  many 
of  the  important  phenomena  of  nature, 
such  as  the  variations  of  the  seasons  and 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes.  The 
great  work  in  which  Copernicus  ex- 
plained his  theory,  De  Orbium  Coeles- 
tiuin  Revolutionibus  (On  the  Revolu- 
tions of  the  Celestial  Orbs),  was  com- 
pleted in  1510,  and  published  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1543.  It  was  long  among  books 
forbidden  to  Roman  Catholics.  He 
died  at  Frauenburg,  24th  May,  1543. 

COPTER,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
known  metals,  deriving  its  name  from 
Cyprus,  large  supplies  having  in  Greek 
and  Roman  times  come  from  that 
island.  It  is  a metal  of  a pale  red  color 
tinged  with  yellow.  Next  to  gold, 
silver,  and  platinum  it  is  the  most  ductile 
and  malleable  of  metals;  it  is  more 
elastic  than  any  metal  except  steel,  and 
the  most  sonorous  of  all  except  alumin- 
ium. Its  conducting  power  for  heat 
and  electricity  is  inferior  only  to  that 
of  silver.  ' It  has  a distinct  odor  and  a 
nauseous  metallic  taste.  It  is  not 
altered  by  water,  but  tarnishes  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  becomes 
covered  with  a green  carbonate.  It 
occurs  native  in  branched  pieces, 
dendritic,  in  thin  plates,  and  rarely  in 
regular  crystals,  in  the  primitive  and 
older  secondary  rocks.  Blocks  of  native 
copper  have  sometimes  been  got  weigh- 
ing many  tons.  Its  ores  are  numerous 
and  abundant.  Of  these  several  contain 
sulphur  and  iron  or  other  metal,  such  as 
copper  glance  or  vitreous  copper;  gray 
copper  or  Fahlerz,  one  of  the  most 
abundant  and  important  ores;  and 
copper  pyrites  or  yellow  copper  ore,  and 
other  abundant  ore.  The  red  oxide  of 
copper  forms  crystals  of  a fine  red 
color,  and  is  used  for  coloring  glass. 
There  are  two  native  carbonates,  the 
blue  and  the  green,  the  latter  being  the 
beautiful  mineral  malachite,  the  former 
also  known  as  blue  malachite.  Blue 
Vitrol  is  a sulphate,  and  is  used  for 
dyeing  and  preparing  pigments,  as  are 
various  other  copper  compounds.  Ver- 
digris is  an  acetate.  The  arsenite  of 
popper  is  the  pigment  Scheele’s  green. 


Schweinfurth  green  is  another  copper 
pigment.  All  the  compounds  of  copper 
are  poisonous.  It  is  found  in  most 
European  countries,  in  Australia  and 
Japan,  in  Africa  and  in  North  and  South 
America  (especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lake  Superior).  In  Britain  the  mines 
of  Cornwall  are  the  richest. 

COP'PERAS,  sulphate  of  iron  or  green 
vitriol,  a salt  of  a peculiar  astringent 
taste  and  of  a fine  green  color.  When 
exposed  to  the  air  it  assumes  a brownish 
hue.  It  is  much  used  in  dyeing  black 
and  in  making  ink,  and  in  medicine 
as  a tonic.  The  copperas  of  commerce 
is  usually  made  by  the  decomposition 
of  iron  pyrites. 

COPPER-HEAD,  a venomous  N. 
American  serpent,  of  the  rattlesnake 
family. 

COPPER-HEADS,  a n%ae  given  to 
residents  of  the  north  during  the  civil 
war  who  either  sympathized  with  the 
south,  or  opposed  the  prosecution  of 
the  war  against  th§  south. 

COPPER-PLATE,  a polished  plate  of 
copper  on  which  the  lines  of  some  draw- 
ing or  design  are  engraved  or  etched  to 
be  printed  from ; also  a print  or  impres- 
sion from  such  a plate. 

COPPER  PYRI'TES,  or  yellow  copper 
ore,  a double  sulphide  of  copper  and  iron 
composed  in  equal  parts  of  copper, 
sulphur,  and  iron.  It  occurs  mostly  in 
primary  and  metamorphic  rocks,  and 
is  the  chief  copper  ore  of  England, 

COPTS,  a name  given  to  the  Christian 
descendants  of  the  Ancient  Egyptian 
race,  belonging  mostly  to  the  Jacobite 
or  Monophysite  sect.  Reduced  by  a 
long  course  of  oppression  and  misrule  to 
a state  of  degradation,  the  number  and 
national  character  of  the  Copts  have 
greatly  declined.  At  present  they  do  not 
amount  to  more  than  perhaps  350,000. 
Their  costume  resembles  that  of  the 
Moslems,  but  they  are  very  generally 
in  the  habit  of  wearing  a black  turban 
for  distinction’s  sake.  In  various  other 
respects  they  resemble  the  Moslem,  and 
they  practice  circumcision  and  abhor 
the  flesh  of  swine.  The  women  go  out 
with  veiled  faces  like  the  Moslem  women. 
There  are  schools  for  the  male  children, 
but  very  few  of  the  females  are  taught 
to  read.  Confession  is  required  of  all. 
Fasting  holds  a prominent  place  in  the 
life  of  the  Copt,  who  is,  indeed,  required 
to  fast  (that  is,  to  abstain  from  all 
animal  food  except  fish)  during  the 
greater  part  of  every  year.  The  head  of 
the  Coptic  Church  is  the  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria,  who  is  also  head  of  the 
Abyssinian  Church.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  successor  of  St.  Mark,  by  whom 
the  Copts  believe  that  Christianity  was 
introduced  among  them.  They  are 
very  strict  and  exclusive  in  their  religion 
but  a certain  number  have  latterly  been 
converted  to  Protestantism.  The  Copts 
are  quiet  and  industrious,  have  a good 
capacity  for  business,  but  are  said  to  be 
servile  and  crafty.  The  Coptic  scribes 
form  a close  guild.  What  is  called  the 
Coptic  language  is  no  longer  spoken, 
Arabic  having  taken  its  place.  It  is 
still  used,  however,  in  a formal  way  in 
their  religious  services.  It  is  regarded 
as  the  direct  descendant  of  the  ancient 
sacred  language  of  the  Egyptians. 
Ther?  is  a tolerably  abundant  Coptic 


Christian  literature,  chiefly  lives  of 
saints,  homilies,  etc.  It  is  written  in 
what  is  substantially  the  Greek  a'phabet 
with  some  additional  letters. 

COPYING  MACHINES,  devices  for 
making  several  copies  of  a writing,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  socalled  mimeo- 
graph and  the  papyrograph,  the  former 
an  invention  of  Edison.  Various  other 
devices  consist  of  sheets  of  jelly-like 
substance  upon  which  the  original, 
written  in  colored  ink,  is  pressed  leaving 
a reversed  copy  upon  the  surface  of  the 
jelly  and  from  which  other  copies  are 
made.  No  perfectly  satisfactory  copy- 
ing machine  has  yet  been  devised. 

COPYRIGHT,  the  exclusive  property 
right  to  reproduce  in  writing,  engraving, 
printing,  or  by  any  other  means,  of  an 
artistic  or  literary  thing  for  the  purpose 
of  sale.  In  the  U.  States  a copyright 
is  obtained  by  sending  to  the  librarian 
of  congress  at  Washington  two  copies 
of  the  thing  with  a fee  of  50  cents  (or 
$1  if  papers  are  desired),  on  or  before 
the  day  of  publication.  Copyright  was 
originated  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne 
of  England  and  has  been  practiced  in 
the  U.  States  since  the  beginning  of  this 
government.  The  right  extends  only  to 
the  form  of  the  thing  copyrighted  and 
not  to  its  substance.  The  right  is 
granted  for  a period  of  28  years  and  this 
period  may  be  extended  for  an  ad- 
ditional period  of  14  years.  Inter- 
pretation of  the  law  is  somewhat  plastic, 
and  infringement  is  a matter  that  must 
be  decided  by  a court.  By  the  act  of 
1891  foreign  works  may  be  copyrighted 
in  America  if  printed  from  plates  made 
in  this  country  and  published  simul- 
taneously. 

COQUELIN  (ko'klan),  Benoit  Con- 
stant, a noted  French  actor,  born  at 
Boulogne-sur-Mer,  Jan.  23,  1841.  He 
visited  the  U.  States  in  1888,  in  1893, 
and  in  1894.  His  most  celebrated 
character  is  that  of  Cyrano  de  Bergerac 
in  Rostand’s  play.  Died  1909. 

COQUELIN^,  Ernest  Alexandre 
Honore,  brother  of  Constant  Coquelin, 
a French  actor,  born  in  1848.  He  is  as 
well  known  for  his  success  as  a dramatic 
writer  as  for  his  histrionic  talent. 

COQUIMBO  (ko-kim'bo),  or  Laserena, 
a town  of  Chili,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Coqumibo,  stands  near  the  sea, 
on  a river  of  the  same  name.  It  is  the 
see  of  a bishop.  Pop.  13,000. — Porto 
Coquimbo,  the  port  of  the  above,  from 
which  it  is  distant  7 miles  to  the  s.w., 
has  smelting  works  and  a large  e;xport 
trade,  chiefly  in  copper  and  the  precious 
metals.  Pop.  5100. — The  province  is 
rich  in  copper,  silver,  gold,  and  other 
metals,  and  is  mountainous.  Pop. 
165,474. 

COR'ACLE,  a small  boat  or  canoe  of 
oval  form  and  made  of  wicker-work 
covered  with  skins.  It  was  used  by  the 
ancient  Britons,  and  something  similar 
is  still  in  use  among  Welsh  fishermen 
and  on  the  Irish  lakes. 

COR'ACOID  BONE,  a bone  in  birds 
joining  the  sternum  and  shoulder-bone, 
and  giving  support  to  the  wing.  In 
mammals  it  is  represented  by  the  cora- 
coid process  of  the  scapula. 

COR'AL,  the  name  applied  to  the 
calcareous  stony  structures  secreted  by 
many  of  the  sea-anemones,  etc.  Two 


CORBEL 


CORELLI  ' 


kinds  of  corals  are  distinguished  by 
naturalists,  those  in  which  the  cal- 
careous skeleton  is  developed  in  the 
walls  of  the  body,  as  in  the  reef-building 
corals,  and  those  in  which  (as  in  the  red 
coral  of  commerce)  the  skeleton  is  ex- 
ternal or  cuticular.  Reproduction  takes 
place  by  ova,  but  chiefly  by  budding, 
the  new  individual  remaining  in  organic 


6 ^ f 

Formation  of  coral  reefs,  according  to 
Darwin. 


union  with  the  old.  The  coral  masses 
grow  not  merely  by  the  multiplication 
of  individuals,  but  by  the  increase  in 
height  of  each  of  the  latter,  which,  as 
they  grow,  become  divided  transversely 
by  partitions.  The  animal,  distended 
with  ova,  collapses  on  their  discharge, 
and  thus  becomes  too  small  for  the  cup 
which  it  formerly  occupied;  it  cuts  off 
the  waste  space  by  a horizontal  layer  of 
coral,  and  the  repetition  of  this  process 
gradually  adds  to  the  height  of  the  mass. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  coral  reefs  and 
islands,  occurring  in  such  abundance 
in  the  Pacific,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the 
Red  Sea,  are  built  up — works  of  such 
stupendous  and  astonishing  bulk  when 
compared  with  the  tiny  creatures  that 
produce  them. 

COR'BEL,  in  architecture,  a piece  of 
stone,  wood,  or  iron  projecting  from  the 
vertical  face  of  a wall,  to  support  some 
superincumbent  mass.  Corbels  are  of  a 


Corbel-table. 


great  variety  of  forms,  and  are  orna- 
mented in  many  ways.  They  are  some- 
times used  in  rows  to  support  a project- 
ing course  called  a corbel-table. 

CORCORAN  ART  GALLERY,  a col- 
lection of  paintings  and  sculptures  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  presented  to  that 
city  by  W.  W.  Corcoran,  containing 
numerous  famous  pieces.  It  is  housed 
in  a white  marble  building  given  by 
Ernest  Flagg. 

CORDAY  D’ARMANS  (kor-da-dar- 
man),  Marie  Anne  Charlotte,  commonly 
called  Charlotte  Corday,  was  born  in 
Normandy  in  1768,  of  a family  which 
counted  the  poet  Corneille  among  its 
ancestors.  Her  lover,  an  officer  in  the 
garrison  of  Caen,  was  accused  by  Marat 


as  a conspirator  against  the  republic, 
and  assassinated  by  villains  hired  for 
that  purpose.  This,  as  well  as  a deep- 
rooted  hatred  against  all  oppressors, 
determined  Charlotte  Corday  to  free 
her  country  from  Marat.  Having 
obtained  an  interview  with  Marat  at  his 
own  house  she  plunged  her  dagger  into 
his  bosom,  and  gave  herself  up  to  the 
attendants  who  rushed  in  at  his  cries. 
When  tried  for  the  murder  before  the 
revolutionary  tribunals,  her  air  was 
dignified  and  her  replies  firm.  In  spite 
of  the  fervid  eloquence  of  her  advocate’s 
defense  she  was  condemned  to  the 
guillotine,  and  was  executed  on  17th 
July,  1793. 

CORDELIERS  (kor'de-lerz),  originally 
an  order  of  Franciscan  monks  who  wore 
as  part  of  their  dress  a girdle  of  knotted 
cords;  afterward  the  name  given  to  a 
society  of  Jacobins,  to  which  the  names 
of  Marat,  Danton  and  Camille  Des- 
moulins gave  some  reputation.  The 
club  lasted  from  1792  to  1794,  and  took 
its  name  from  their  place  of  meeting. 

CORDITE,  a new  smokeless  explosive 
for  use  in  ordnance,  so  named  from 
being  made  in  cordlike  forms. 

COR'DON,  in  a military  sense,  troops 
so  disposed  as  to  keep  up  an  uninter- 
rupted line  of  communication,  to  pre- 
serve an  area  either  from  hostile  invasion 
or  from  contagious  diseases.  In  the 
latter  sense  it  is  called  cordon  sanitairp. 

COR'DOVA,  an  ancient  Spanish  city 
on  the  Guadalquiver,  in  Andalu.sia, 
capital  of  a province  of  the  same  name. 
A part  of  the  town  is  of  Roman,  a part 


of  Moorish  origin.  Pop.  55,614. — The 
province  includes  the  fertile  and  beau- 
tiful valley  of  the  Guadalquiver  and  the 
mountains  of  Sierra  Morena.  Ai-ea, 
5188  sq.  miles;  pop.  420,728. 

COR'DOVA,  a town  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  capital  of  province  of  same 
name.  It  occupies  a beautiful  site  on 
the  Primero,  and  has  various,  important 
buildings  and  institutions,  including  a 
university.  Pop.  58,275. — The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  54,000  sq.  miles,  a 
pop.  of  456,000. 

CORDUROY',  a thick  cotton  stuff 
corded  or  ribbed  on  the  surface. — Cor- 
duroy road,  in  N.  America,  a road  con- 
structed with  logs  laid  together  over 
swamps  or  marshy  places  for  carriages 
to  pass  over. 


CORD-WOOD,  wood  cut  and  piled 
for  sale  by  the  cord,  in  distinction  from 
long  wood;  properly,  wood  cut  to  the 
length  of  4 feet ; but  in  this  respect  the 
practice  is  not  uniform. 

CORE'A,  a kingdom  of  Asia,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  a peninsula  lying  north 
east  of  China,  bounded  n.  by  Manchuria, 
e.  by  the  Sea  of  Japan,  s.  by  a narrow 


sea  which  parts  it  from  the  Japanese  J 

Islands,  and  w.  by  the  Yellow  Sea  Pop.  ^ 

vaguely  estimated  at  about  9,000,000  i 

or'Tnore;  area  about  80,000  sq.  miles.  1 

Soul  or  Seoul,  is  the  capital.  The  1 

peninsula  is  traversed  through  its  length  J 

by  a mountain  range,  abrupt  and  pre-  I 

cipitous  on  the  east,  but  forming  a J 

gentle  slope  on  the  west  side,  which,  1 

being  watered  by  the  principal  rivers  j 

of  the  country  is  exceedingly  fertile.  S 

In  the  north  the  only  grain  that  can  be  4 

grown  is  barley ; but  in  the  south,  wheat, 
cotton,  rice,  millet,  and  hemp  are  grown 


extensively.  The  ginseng  root  is  a pro- 
duction greatly  valued  in  China  and 
Japan.  Tigers,  panthers,  foxes,  wolves, 
and  sables  are  abundant.  The  penin- 
sula abounds  in  minerals,  gold,  silver, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  and  coal.  Corea  is 
governed  bj’’  a king,  whose  sway  is 
nominally  absolute.  Till  recently  China 
was  suzerain  of  Corea,  but  the  war  with 
Japan  ended  this.  Buddhism,  Confu- 
cianism, and  Taouism  are  the  chief 
religions. 

CORELLI,  Marie.  An  English  nov-  . 
elist,  the  adopted  daughter  of  Charles 
Mackay,  the  poet.  She  was  born  in  Italy 
in  1864,  and  educated  in  London  and  in 
a convent  in  France.  A musical  career 
was  planned  for  her,  but  she  early 
adopted  literature  instead.  Among  her  ,■ 


Cordova. 


COREOPSIS 


CORNEILLE 


writings  are:  The  Romance  of  Two 
Worlds;  Thelma;  The  Sorrows  of  Satan; 
The  Mighty  Atom ; The  Murder  of  Deli- 
cia;  Ziska;  Jane;  The  Master-Christian ; 
Boy;  and  Temporal  Power. 

CO'REOP'SIS,  An  herbaceous  annual 
or  perennial  plant  of  the  order  Com- 
positJE,  nearly  all  natives  of  easte/n 
N.  America,  and  popularly  known  as 
tick-seed,  the  fruit  neing  in  the  shape  of 
a small  tick.  It  is  often  raised  for  its 
showy  yellow  or  rose-purple  flowers 
with  yellow  or  brown  discs.  The 
perennials  are  grown  in  hardy  borders; 
the  annuals  in  the  garden  in  almost  any 
soil. 

COR'FU,  a Greek  island  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, the  most  northerly  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Adriatic,  near  the  coast  of  Albania,  about 
40  miles  long,  and  from  15  to  20  wide; 
square  miles,  427.  The  surface  rises  at 
one  point  to  the  height  of  3000  feet,  the 
scenery  is  beautiful,  the  climate  pleasant 
and  healthy,  the  soil  fertile.  Oranges, 
citrons,  grapes,  honey,  wax,  oil,  ana 
salt  are  abundant. 

CORTNTH,  a once  celebrated  city 
upon  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name, 
which  unites  Peloponnesus  with  North- 
ern Greece.  It  was  renowned  among  the 
cities  of  Greece,  commanded  by  its  ad- 
vantageous position  a most  important 
transit  trade,  and  possessed  all  the 
splendor  whicn  wealth  and  luxury  could 
create.  St.  Paul  lived  here  a year  and  a 
half,  and  two  of  his  epistles  are  addressed 
to  the  Corinthians. — New  Corinth  is  a 
village  on  the  shore  of  the  gulf,  several 
miles  n.  w.  from  the  site  of  ancient 
Corinth ; it  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 
Pop.  3000. 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER,  that  order  of 
Grecian  architecture  of  which  the  most 
characteristic  feature  is  the  capital  of 
the  column,  which  is  adorned  with 


Corinthian  order. 


a a,  Dentils  of  the  Corinthian  cornice. 

beautifully  carved  acanthus  leaves,  but 
varies  considerably  in  minor  details. 
The  column  is  generally  fluted,  with  a 
fillet  between  the  flutings,  and  stands 
upon  a base.  The  entablature  is  va/- 


riously  decorated,  especially  the  cornice; 
the  frieze  may  be  quite  plain,  or 
sculptured  with  foliage  and  animals. 
The  Corinthian  order  was  not  very 
common  in  Greece  before  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great ; among  the  Romans 
it  was  much  employed. 

CORINTHIANS,  Epistles  to  the,  two 
^istles  addressed  to  the  church  at 
Corinth  about  a.d.  57  or  58,  which  have 
been  admitted  as  genuine  writings  of  St. 
Paul  by  even  the  most  critical  assailants 
of  the  New  Testament  canon. 

CORIOLA'NUS,  the  name  given  to  an 
ancient  Roman,  Caius,  or  more  properly 
Cneius,  Marcius,  because  the  city  of 
Corioli  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
the  Volsci,  was  taken  almost  solely  by 
his  exertions.  He  was  banished  for 
seeking  to  deprive  the  plebeians  of  their 
hard-earned  privileges,  and  in  particular 
of  the  tribimeship;  and  seeking  revenge, 
he  took  refuge  among  the  Volsci,  the 
bitterest  enemies  of  Rome,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  them  to  go  to  war  with  her. 
The  story  of  Coriolanus,  which  is  now 
regarded  as  legendary,  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  one  of  Shakespeare’s  plays. 

CORK,  a city  in  the  south  of  Ireland, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Cork,  situated 
on  the  river  Lee.  It  is  15  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  besides  an  upper  harbor 
at  the  city  itself,  and  quays  extending 
over  four  miles  in  length,  there  is  a lower 
harbor  at  Queenstown,  11  miles  below 
the  town.  The  entrance,  deep  and 
narrow,  is  strongly  fortified  on  each  side. 
Cork  is  the  third  city  in  Ireland,  and 
exports  great  quantities  of  grain,  butter, 
bacon,  hams,  eggs,  and  live  stock.  The 
principal  industries  are  tanning,  dis- 
tilling, brewing,  and  the  making  of 
tweeds  and  friezes.  Pop.  100,022. — 
The  county  is  the  most  southerly  and 
the  largest  in  Ireland,  having  an  area  of 
2885  sq.  miles,  or  1,849,686  aeres,  of 
which  less  than  a fourth  is  under  crops. 
The  county  town  is  Cork;  other  towns 
are  Queenstown,  Fermoy,  Youghal, 
Bandon,  Mallow,  and  Kinsale.  Pop. 
404,813. 

CORK  is  the  external  bark  of  a species 
of  oak  which  grows  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  other  southern  parts  of  Europe 
and  in  the  north  of  Africa,  and  is 
distinguished  by  the  great  ^thickness 
and  sponginess  of  its  bark,  and  by 
the  leaves  being  evergreen,  oblong, 
somewhat  oval,  downy  underneath, 
and  waved.  The  outer  bark  falls  off  of 
itself  if  left  alone,  but  for  commer- 
cial purposes  it  is  stripped  off  when 
judged  sufficiently  matured,  this  being 
when  the  tree  has  reached  the  age  of 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  years.  The  first 
stripping  yields  the  coarsest  kind  of  bark. 
In  the  course  of  eight  or  nine  years,  or 
even  less,  the  same  tree  will  yield 
another  supply  of  cork  of  better  quality, 
and  the  removal  of  this  outer  bark  is 
said  to  be  beneficial,  the  trees  thus 
stripped  reaching  the  age  of  150  years  or 
more.  Cork  is  light,  elastic,  impervious 
to  water,  and  by  pressure  can  be  greatly 
redueed  in  bulk,  returning  again  to  its 
original  size.  These  qualities  render  it 
peculiarly  serviceable  for  the  stopping 
of  vessels  of  different  kinds,  for  floats, 
buoys,  swimming-belts  or  jackets,  arti- 
ficial limbs,  etc.  Corks  for  bottles  are 
cut  either  by  hand  or  by  means  of  a 


machine.  The  best  corks  are  cut  across 
the  grain. 

COR'MORANT  (a  sea-crow),  the  name 
of  several  large  web-footed  birds  of  the 
pelican  family,  or  forming  a family  by 
themselves.  They  have  a longish  and 
strongly-hooked  bill,  long  neck,  short 
wings,  and  rather  long  rounded  tail; 


Common  cormorant. 

all  the  toes  are  united  by  a web,  and, 
though  excellent  swimmers,  they  are 
able  to  perch  on  trees;  color  generally 
black  or  dark.  The  common  cormorant 
of  Europe  is  larger  than  a goose,  but 
with  smaller  wings.  It  occupies  cliffs 
by  the  sea,  feeds  on  fish,  and  is  ex- 
tremely voracious.  It  dives  and  swims 
with  great  power,  and  pursues  its  prey 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  often 
to  a great  depth.  Among  the  Chinese 
cormorants  have  long  been  trained  to 
fish  for  man.  At  first  a ring  is  placed 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  bird’s  neck  to 
prevent  it  swallowing  the  prey,  and  in 
time  it  learns  to  deliver  the  fish  to  its 
master  without  such  a precaution  being 
necessary. 

CORMUS.  See  Corm. 

CORN,  a hardened  portion  of  the 
cuticle  of  the  foot,  appearing  as  a sort 
of  distinct  growth,  produced  by  pres- 
sure. Corns  are  generally  found  on  the 
outside  of  the  toes,  but  sometimes  be- 
tween them,  on  the  sides  of  the  foot,  op 
even  on  the  ball.  They  appear  at  first, 
as  small  dark  points  in  the  hardened 
skin,  and  in  this  state  stimulants  op 
escharotics,  as  nitrate  of  silver  (lunap 
caustic),  are  recommended.  Perhaps 
the  most  efficacious  remedy  for  corns  is 
the  application  of  glacial  acetic  acid 
night  and  morning. 

CORN  is  the  generic  term  for  all  kinds 
of  grain  used  for  making  bread,  and  is 
applied  specifically  to  the  principal 
breadstuff:  in  England  to  wheat,  in  the 
U.  States  generally  to  maize,  and  fre- 
quently in  Scotland  to  oats. 

CORN,  Indian.  See  Maize. 

CORNEILLE  (kor-na-ye),  Pierre,  the 
father  of  French  tragedy  and  classic 
comedy  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1606,  at 
which  place  his  father  was  advocate- 
general.  He  began  his  dramatic  ca- 
reer with  comedy,  and  a series  of 
vigorous  dramas,  M61ite  (1629),  Cli- 
tandre,  La  Veuve,  La  Suivante,  etc., 
announced  the  advent  of  a dramatist 
of  a high  order.  In  1635  he  entered 
the  field  of  tragedy  with  Medea;  but 
it  was  not  till  the  appearance  of  his 
next  work,  the  famous  Cid,  that  Cor- 
neille’s claim  was  recognized  to  a place 
amongst  the  great  tragic  poets.  Tha 
Cid  was  an  imitation  of  a Spanish  drama. 


CORNELIA 


CORNWALL 


and  though  gravely  defective  in  the 
improbabilities  of  the  plot  and  other 
respects,  acliieved  an  immense  success 
for  a certain  sublimity  of  sentiment 
and  loftiness  of  ideal,  which  are  the 
native  characteristics  of  Corneille’s 
poetry.  After  the  Cid  appeared  in 
rapid  succession  Horace  (1639);  Cinna 
(1639),  his  masterpiece,  according  to 
Voltaire;  and  Polyeuete  (1640),  works 
which  show  Corneille’s  genius  at  its 
best.  He  died  in  1684. 

CORNE'LIA,  daughter  of  Scipio  Afri- 
canus  the  elder,  married  Tiberius  Sem- 
pronius  Gracchus,  censor  b.c.  169,  by 
whom  she  was  the  mother  of  the  two 
tribunes,  Tiberius  and  Caius  Gracchus. 

CORNE'LIAN,  or  Carnelian,  a gem  of 
a light-red  or  flesh  color.  It  consists 
of  sihca  along  with  minute  quantities  of 
the  oxides  of  iron,  aluminium,  and 
sometimes  of  other  metals,  and  is  used 
for  seals,  bracelets,  necklaces,  and 
other  articles. 

CORNE'LIUS  NEPOS,  a Roman 
author  of  the  1st  century  b.c.,  the  con- 
temporary of  Cicero  and  Catullus.  The 
only  extant  work  attributed  to  him  is 
a collection  of  short  biographies,  prob- 
ably an  abridgment  of  a work  written 
by  Nepos.  These  biographies  have 
long  been  a favorite  school-book,  and 
popular  editions  of  them  are  very 
numerous. 

CORNE'LIUS,  Peter  von,  German 
painter,  born  at  Diisseldorf  in  1787,  died 
in  1867.  He  early  exhibited  a taste  for 
art,  and  studied  the  great  masters,  espe- 
cially Raphael.  In  1811  he  went  to 
Rome,  where,  in  conjunction  with  Over- 
beck, Veit,  and  other  associates,  he  may 
be  said  to  have  founded  a new  school  of 
German  art,  and  revived  fresco-painting 
in  imitation  of  Michael  Angelo  and  Ra- 
phael. He  left  Rome  in  1819  for  Diis- 
seldorf,  where  he  had  been  appointed 
director  of  the  academy,  but  ne  soon 
settled  in  Munich  to  give  his  whole  at- 
tention to  the  painting  of  the  Glyptothek 
and  the  Ludwigskirche  there.  In  these 
two  great  works  he  was  assisted  by  his 
Munich  pupils.  In  1833  he  made  an- 
other visit  to  Rome,  and  in  1839  he  vis- 
ited Paris.  In  1841  he  was  invited  to 
Berlin  by  Frederick  William  IV.,  who 
intrusted  him  with  the  painting  of  the 
royal  mausoleum  or  Campo  Santo. 
The  most  celebrated  cartoon  in  this  series 
is  the  Four  Riders  of  the  Apocalypse. 
The  series  consists  of  twelve  paintings, 
which  have  been  engraved.  Cornelius, 
a true  representative  of  modem  German 
thought,  introduced  into  art  a meta- 
physical and  subjective  element  which 
is  easily  liable  to  be  abused;  and  in  his 
work  grandeur  of  conception  and  eleva- 
tion of  tone  have  to  make  up  for  the 
want  of  the  finest  natural  effects. 

CORNELL',  Alonzo  B.,  American 
olitician,  son  of  Ezra  Cornell,  was 
orn  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  1832.  He  was 
the  Republican  candidate  for  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  New  York  in  1863,  and 
from  1869  to  1873  was  surveyor  of 
customs  in  NewYork.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  Republican  State  Committee 
from  1870  to  1878,  and  was  three  times 
Speaker  of  the  New  York  Assembly. 
From  1880  to  1883  he  was  Governor 
pf  New  York. 


CORNELL,  Ezra,  American  capitalist 
and  philanthropist,  founder  of  Cornell 
University  was  born  in  1807  in  West- 
chester County,  N.  Y.  His  attention 
being  turned  accidentally  in  1842  to 
the  project  of  constructing  a telegraph 
line_  from  Baltimore  to  Washington, 
he  invented  a machine  for  laying  the 
wires  under  ground  and  was  subse- 
quently put  in  charge  of  the  work.  The 
insulation  being  poor,  however,  the 
plan  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  on 
Cornell’s  suggestion  the  wires  were 
strung  on  poles,  and  the  line  was  thus 
speedily  completed.  Subsequently  Cor- 
nell devoted  his  attention  almost  wholly 
to  the  construction  of  telegraph  lines 
and  the  organization  of  telegraph  com- 
panies, and  was  instrumental  in  forming 
the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Com- 
pany in  1855.  He  was  a member  of  the 
first  Republican  National  Convention  in 
1856,  was  president  of  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society  in  1862,  and 
was  a member  of  the  State  Assembly  in 
1862-63,  and  of  the  State  Senate  in 
1864-67.  In  1868  “The  Cornell  Univer- 
sity,” so  founded,  was  formally  opened. 
Mr.  Cornell  also  built  a public  library 
at  Ithaca.  He  died  in  1874. 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY,  founded  by 
Ezra  Cornell  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  in  1865. 
Cornell  University  comprises  the  fol- 
lowing departments  and  colleges;  'The 
Graduate  Department,  having  charge  of 
all  ^aduate  studies  pursued  at  the  uni- 
versity under  the  several  faculties.  This 
department  offers  courses  leading  to  the 
degrees  of  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  etc.  Twenty- 
four  fellowships,  ranging  from  $500  to 
$600  a year,  and  17  scholarships,  of  the 
annual  value  of  $300  a year,  are  avail- 
able for  students.  The  Academic  De- 
partment offers  elective  courses  lead- 
ing, whether  sciences,  letters,  or  the 
classics  are  mainly  chosen,  to  the  degree 
of  A.B.  The  College  of  Law  offers 
courses  leading  to  the  LL.B.  degree. 
The  Medical  College,  partially  conducted 
at  New  York  City,  confers  the  degree 
of  M.D.  The  College  of  Agriculture  of- 
fers courses  leading  to  the  B.S.A.  de- 
gree. Connected  with  this  college  is  an 
agricultural  experiment  station,  estab- 
lished by  the  Federal  Government  in 
1887.  'She  New  York  State  Veterinary 
College  confers  the  degree  of  D.V.M. 
The  State  College  of  Forestry  confers 
the  degree  of  F.E.  The  College  of  Archi- 
tecture confers  the  degree  of  B.Arch. 
The  College  of  Civil  Engineering  confers 
the  degree  of  C.E.  Sibley  College  of 
Mechanical  Engineering  and  Mechanic 
Arts,  consisting  of  the  departments  of 
mechanical,  electrical,  experimental  en- 
gineering, the  department  of  mechamc 
arts,  etc.,  confers  the  degree  of  M.E. 

The  libraries,  including  the  famous 
Andrew  D.  White  collection  on  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  Fisk  Dante 
collection,  contain  261,852  volumes, 
besides  43,000  pamphlets.  The  income 
of  the  university  from  all  sources  is 
about  $800,000  a year.  The  presidents 
since  its  inception  have  been:  Andrew 
D.  White,  LL.D.  (1865-85);  Charles 
Kendall  Adams,  LL.D.  (1885-92);  Jacob 
Gould  Schurman,  LI..D  (1892 — ■). 

CORNER,  a trade  term  applied  to 
the  act  of  acquiring  control  of  all  or 
pearly  all  of  a commodity,  or  of  the 


stock-shares  of  a company  (when  they 
are  to  be  bought  in  the  market),  the 
purpose  being  to  force  those  who  are 
bound  to  deliver  the  goods  into  bupng 
the  goods  (or  shares)  from  those  who 
control  them,  at  the  latter’s  prices. 
When  those  who  are  engineering  the 
corner  are  forced  through  lack  of  means, 
to  throw  their  holdings  on  the  market 
the  corner  is  said  to  be  smashed.  Few 
corners  have  been  successful. 

CORNET,  a wind-instrument  of  former 
times,  originally  curvilinear  or  serpen- 
tine in  form  and  increasing  in  diameter 
from  the  mouthpiece  to  the  lower  end. 


Cornet-^pistons. 


The  modern  comet  is  a keyed  bugle 
which  has  a very  agreeable  tone,  and 
is  much  used  in  orchestras  and  military 
bands. 

CORN-HUSKING,  Corn-shucking,  an 
assemblage  of  friends  and  neighbors  at 
the  house  of  a farmer  to  assist  him  in 
stripping  the  husks  or  shucks  from  his 
Indian  com. 

CORN'ING,  a city  and  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  Steuben  county,  N.  Y., 
18  miles  w.n.w.  of  Elmira;  on  the  Che- 
mung river,  and  on  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral, the  Erie,  and  the  Lackawanna  rail- 
road. Pop.  12,061. 

CORN-LAWS,  a name  commonly 
given  to  certain  statutes  passed  to  pro- 
tect the  agricultural  interest  in  Britain. 

CORN'WALL,  a maritime  county  of 
England,  forming  the  southwestern 
extremity  of  the  island,  bounded  e.  by 
Devonshire,  and  surrounded  on  all 
other  sides  by  the  sea;  area,  1350  sq. 
miles  or  863,665  acres.  The  chief  wealth 
of  the  county  is  in  its  minerals,  especially 
its  mines  of  copper  and  tin,  though  the 
value  of  both  has  diminished.  Several 
mines  exceed  350  fathoms  in  depth. 
In  the  Botallack  Copper  Mine,  a few 
miles  north  of  Land’s  End,  the  work- 
ings are  carried  below  the  sea.  Corn- 
wall, with  the  Scilly  Isles,  seems  to 
have  been  the  Cassiterides  or  Tin  Islands 
of  antiquity.  The  natives  long  main- 
tained their  independence  against  the 
Saxons,  and  their  country  was  spoken 
of  as  West  Wales.  Their  language  also 
long  continued  to  be  Celtic.  It  mves 
the  title  Duke  of  Cornwall  to  the  eldest 
son  of  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain, 


CQRNWALLIb 


CCRPUS  CHRISTI 


and  forms  a royal  duchy,  the  revenues 
of  which  belong  to  the  Prince  of  Wales 
7or  the  time  being.  The  dukedom 
was  created  for  the  Black  Prince  in 
1337.  Pop.  322,957. 

CORN'WALLIS,  Charles,  Marquis  of, 
son  of  the  first  Earl  Cornwallis,  born  in 
1738.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  American 
war  he  sailed  with  his  regiment,  served 
with  distinction  under  Howe  and 
Clinton,  and  in  1780  was  left  in  inde- 
pendent command  in  South  Carolina 
with  1000  men.  He  defeated  Gen. 
Gates  at  Camden  1780,  and  General 
Green  at  Guilford  in  1781,  but  six 
months  afterward  was  besieged  in 
Yorktown  and  compelled  to  surrender 
19th  Oct.  1781.  This  disaster  proved 
decisive  of  the  war.  In  1786  Lord 
Cornwallis  went  out  to  India  with  the 
double  appointment  of  commander-in- 
chief  and  governor-general,  invaded 


Lord  Cornwallis. 


Mysore  in  1791,  and  obliged  Tippoo 
Saib  to  surrender  much  territory. 
Having  returned  to  Britain  he  was 
created  a marquis  (1792),  appointed 
Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  again 
in  1804  governor-general  of  India.  He 
’died  the  following  year. 

COROL'LA,  in  botany,  the  portion  of 
the  flower  inside  the  calyx;  the  inner 
floral  envelope.  The  corolla  surrounds 
the  parts  of  fructification  and  is  com- 
posed of  leaves  called  petals.  When 
there  are  several  free  leaves  it  is  called  a 
polypetalous  corolla,  as  in  the  rose;  but 
when  the  petals  are  united  by  the  mar- 
gins into  a continuous  structure  it  is 
called  monopetalous,  or  more  correctly 
gamopetalous.  It  may  generally  be  dis- 
toguished  from  the  calyx  by  the  fine- 
ness of  its  texture  and  the  gayness  of  its 
colors;  but  there  are  many  exceptions. 

CORONA,  the  beautiful,  brilliant 
streamers  which  are  seen  radiating 
from  the  opaque  disc  of  the  sun  during 
a total  echpse.  The  nature  of  the 
corona  is  wholly  unknown,  although 
it  is  believed  to  be  of  electric  or  mag- 
netic origin.  As  no  two  coronae  are 
alike  the  presumption  is  that  the  corona 
itself  is  a perpetually  changing  radiation. 
The  streamers  are  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  miles  in  length. 

CORONA'TION,  the  placing  of  the 
crown  on  a monarch’s  head  with  solemn 
rites  and  ceremonies.  Part  of  the 


ceremon>  usually  consists  in  the  oath 
which  the  monarch  takes  that  he  will 
govern  justly,  will  always  consult  the 
real  welfare  of  his  people,  and  will 
conscientiously  observe  the  fundamen- 
tal laws  of  the  state. 


Corona. 


COR'ONER,  an  official  whose  chief 
duty  is  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  the 
death  of  persons  killed  or  dying  sud- 
denly. His  examination  is  made  in  all 
cases  with  the  aid  of  a jury,  in  sight  of 
the  body,  and  at  the  place  where  the 
death  happened.  If  the  body  is  not 
found  he  cannot  sit.  If  the  jury  have 
brought  in  a verdict  of  murder  or  man- 
slaughter the  coroner  may  commit  the 
accused  party  to  prison  or  admit  him 
to  bail. 

COR'ONET,  such  a variety  of  crown  as 
is  worn  by  princes  and  noblemen.  The 
coronet  of  a British  duke  is  adorned  with 
strawberry  leaves ; that  of  a marquis  has 


1,  Coronet  of  a duke.  2.  Do.  of  a marquis. 

3,  Do.  of  an  earl.  4.  Do.  of  a vis- 
count. 4.  Do.  of  a baron. 

leaves  with  pearls  interposed ; that  of  an 
earl  raises  the  pearls  above  the  leaves; 
that  of  a viscount  is  surrounded  with 
pearls  only;  that  of  a baron  has  only 
six  pearls. 

COROT  (ko-ro),  Jean-Baptiste-Ca- 
mille,  French  artist,  born  at  Paris  in 
1796.  He  exhibited  for  the  first  time 
in  the  Salon  in  1827,  but  some  years 
elapsed  before  the  high  qualities  of  his 
work  were  recognized.  The  fortune 
which  he  inherited  from  his  father  en- 
abled him,  however,  to  follow  out  the 
bent  of  his  genius,  and  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  of  his  life  were  a continuous 
triumph.  He  died  in  187.5  He  fre- 


queiitly  painted  figure  subjects,  in- 
cluding^  the  large  sacred  pictures,  the 
Flight  into  Egypt  and  the  Baptism  of 
Christ;  but  his  most  characteristic  and 
successful  work  was  in  landscape.  His 
woodland  scenes,  painted  for  the  most 
part  at  dawn  or  twilight  in  a scheme  of 
pale  greens  and  silvery  grays,  show  a 
singularly  subtle  feeling  for  this  phase 
of  nature,  and  are  undoubtedly  among 
the  most  important  contributions  of  the 
century  to  landscape  art. 

COR'PORAL,  0 petty  officer  ranking 
just  above  the  ordinary  private  and  be- 
low the  sergeant.  He  has  charge  of  one 
of  the  squads  of  the  company,  places 
and  relieves  sentinels,  etc. 

CORPORA'TION,  in  English  common 
law  (the  first  modern  definition  of  a 
corporation)  a body  with  certain  legal 
rights  and  powers.  A corporation  has 
essentially  three  factors — persons  who 
are  its  members,  persons  who  are  its 
trustees,  and  a legal  charter  for  its 
existence.  A corporation  consisting 
of  only  one  person  (as  the  sovereign  of 
England,  or  the  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  New  York  or  Chicago)  is 
called  a sole  corporation;  and  a cor- 
poration consisting  of  several  persons  is 
called  an  aggregate  or  sole  corporation. 
Corporations  may  be  ecclesiastical, 
civil,  eleemosynary,  and  so  on.  Strictly 
speaking  joint  stock  companies,  such  as 
railroads,  modern  “trusts,”  etc.,  are 
not  corporations  although  generally 
so  termed  in  the  United  States. 

CORPS  (kor),  a word  often  used  as  a 
military  and  a political  term. — A corps 
d’arm4e,  or  army  corps,  one  of  the 
largest  divisions  of  an  army. — Corps 
diplomatique,  the  body  of  ministers  or 
diplomatic  characters. — Corps  legislatif 
(kor  la-zhis-la-tef),  the  lower  house  of 
the  French  legislature  in  1857-70. 

COR'PULENCE,  the  unwieldy  state 
of  the  human  body  due  to  the  excessive 
deposition  of  fat.  It  is  promoted  by  a 
diet  too  rich  in  fat-forming  materials, 
fats,  starch  and  sugars,  bodily  inactivity 
tranquillity  of  mind,  etc.  There  is, 
however,  a diseased  state  of  the  system, 
which,  independently  of  all  these  in- 
fluences, wiU  increase  the  production 
and  deposition  of  fat.  If  corpulence  is 
excessive  it  becomes  troublesome  and 
at  length  dangerous.  In  curing  cor- 
pulency due  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  regulating  of  the  diet,  exercise,  and 
sleep  of  the  individual.  Especial  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  kind  of  diet. 
Avoid  all  kinds  of  fat-forming  food,  such 
as  fat,  cream,  butter,  sugar,  potatoes, 
farinaceous  food  and  malt  liquors,  and 
indeed  alcoholic  liquors  of  all  kinds. 
Little  bread  should  be  eaten ; a moderate 
increase  in  animal  foods,  lean  beef,  fish, 
fowl,  eggs,  is  allowed:  green  vegetables 
and  fresh  fruit  may  be  partaken  of. 
Regular  exercise  to  suit  the  person’s 
powers  should  be  engaged  in.  A noted 
instance  of  corpulency  is  Daniel  Lam- 
bert, who  weighed  over  50  stone,  or 
more  than  700  lbs.  Moderate  corpu- 
lence may  be  quite  consistent  with 
health. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI,  the.  consecrated 
host  at  the  Lord’s  supper,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  doctrines  of  the  R.  Catho- 
lic Church,  is  changed  by  the  act  of  con- 
secration into  the  real  body  of  Christ, 


CORPUSCULAR  THEORY  OF  LIGHT 


CORUNDUM 


This  doctrine  caused  the  adoration  of  the 
consecrated  host,  and  hence  the  R. 
Catholic  Church  has  ordained  for  the 
host  a particular  festival,  called  the 
Corpus  Christ!  feast.  This  was  insti- 
tuted in  1264  by  Pope  Urban  IV.  by 
a bull,  in  which  he  appointed  the  Thurs- 
day of  the  v/eek  after  Pentecost  for  the 
celebration  of  the  Corpus  Christ!  festival 
throughout  Christendom.  Since  then 
this  festival  has  been  kept  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Splen- 
did processions,  in  which  the  host  is 
carried  by  a priest  in  a precious  box, 
form  an  essential  part  of  it.  In  France  it 
is  known  as  the  fete-dieu. 

CORPUS'CULAR  THEORY  OF 
LIGHT,  the  older  theory,  which  ex- 
plained the  phenomena  of  light  by 
supposing  that  a luminous  body  emits 
excessively  minute  particles  of  matter, 
corpuscules  at  they  were  called  which 
striking  the  eye  produce  the  sensation 
of  light.  Newton  held  the  corpuscular 
theory,  and  supported  it  with  great 
ingenuity.  This  theory  has  long  been 
displaced  by  the  undulatory  theory 
(which  see). 

CORRAL',  in  South  America  and 
elsewhere,  a yard  or  stockade  for 
cattle. 

CORREGGIO  (kor-rej'6),  Antonio  Al- 
legri, Italian  painter,  born  at  Correggio, 
near  Modena,  in  1494.  Among  his  best 
pictures  are  Night,  in  which  the  chief 
light  is  the  glory  beaming  from  the  In- 
fant Savior;  the  St.  Jerome;  the  Mar- 
riage of  St.  Catherine;  several  Madon- 
nas, one  of  them  (called  La  Zingarella, 
or  the  Gipsy  Girl)  said  to  represent  his 
wife;  the  Pentitent  Magdalene;  the 
altar-pieces  of  St.  Francis,  St.  George, 
and  St.  Sebastian;  Christ  in  the  Garden 
of  Clives;  the  fresco  of  the  Ascension 
in  the  Church  of  St.  John,  Parma;  the 
Assumption  of  the  Virgin  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  the  same  city;  the  Ecce  Homo, 
and  Cupid,  Mercury,  and  Venus,  both 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  He 
died  in  1534. 

CORREZE  (kor-raz),  an  inland  de- 
partment, France;  area,  2265  sq.  miles; 
capital.  Tulle.  It  belongs  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne.  Ex- 
cept in  a few  valleys  the  soil  is  far  from 
fertile,  heaths  occupying  a great  ex- 
tent of  surface,  and  agriculture  being 
in  a very  backward  state.  Pop.  326,494. 

CORRIEN'TES,  a town,  Argentine 
Republic,  capital  of  the  province  of 
same  name,  on  the  Parana,  near  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Paraguay,  390  miles 
n.  Buenos  Ayres.  Pop.  15,500.  Pop.  of 
prov.  290,000. 

CORRIGAN,  Michael  Augustine,  an 
American  Roman  Catholic  archbishop, 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1839,  died  in 
1902.  From  1868  to  1873  he  was  pres- 
ident of  Seton  Hall  College;  in  1873 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Newark;  in  1880 
coadjutor  to  Cardinal  McCloskey,  arch- 
bishop of  New  York,  and  in  1885  arch- 
bishop of  New  York,  which  he  re- 
mained until  his  death.  Archbishop 
Corrigan  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
ablest  scholars  of  the  American  hier- 
archy. 

CORRO'SIVES,  in  surgery,  substances 
which  eat  away  whatever  part  of  the 
body  they  are  applied  to;  such  are 
glacial  acetic  acid,  burned  alum,  white 


percipitate  of  mercury,  red  precipitate 

of  mercury,  butter  of  antimony,  etc. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE,  the  bi- 
chloride of  mercury,  a white  crystalline 
solid,  and  an  acrid  poison  of  great 
virulence.  The  stomach-pump  and 
emetics  are  the  surest  preventives  of  its 
deleterious  effects  when  accidentally 
swallowed;  white  of  egg  is  also  service- 
able, in  counteracting  its  poisonous  in- 
fluence on  the  stomach.  It  is  a power- 
ful antiseptic. 

COR'RUGATED  IRON,  sheet -iron 
strengthened  by  being  bent  into  parallel 
furrows.  It  is  largely  used  for  rooflng, 
and  when  dipped  in  melted  zinc,  to 
give  it  a thin  coating,  is  commonly 
known  as  galvanized  iron. 

CORRUPT  PRACTICES,  fraudulent 
methods  used  in  public  elections.  The 
term  is  especially  used  in  England  and 
special  laws  have  been  enacted  by 
parliament  bearing  on  the  matter. 
Most  corrupt  practices  are  provided  for 
by  common  law,  but  statutes  have  been 
made  in  most  of  the  United  States  pro- 
viding for  the  punishment  of  fraud  of 
every  kind  in  elections. 

COR'SAIRS,  the  Anglicized  form  of 
the  term  used  in  the  south  of  Europe  to 
denote  those  pirates  who  sailed  from 
Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  the  ports  of 
Morocco. 

CORSELET  (kors'let) : (1st)  a cuirass 
or  armor  to  protect  the  body  from  in- 
jury, worn  formerly  by  pikemen,  gener- 
ally of  leather,  and  pistol  proof.  (2d) 
The  part  of  a winged  insect  which 
answers  to  the  breast  of  other  animals. 

CORSET,  a piece  of  underclothing 
worn  to  give  shape  to  the  body,  con- 
sisting of  a sort  of  closely-fitting  jacket, 
usually  stiffened  by  strips  of  steel, 
whalebone,  or  other  means,  and  tight- 
ened'by  a lace.  The  materials  of  which 
it  is  made  should  be  smooth  and  elastic, 
and  it  should  be  specially  fitted  for  the 
individual  wearer,  as  no  two  human 
figures  are  precisely  alike.  It  should 
be  remembered,  also,  that  corsets  are 
meant  to  preserve  a good  figure,  not 
to  make  one,  and  any  forcible  com- 
pression of  the  shape,  especially  on 
young  persons,  will  only  end  in  destroy- 
ing natural  grace  of  movement  and  in 
serious  injury  to  the  health. 

COR'SICA,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, forming  the  French  department 
of  same  name.  It  is  separated  from  the 
island  of  Sardinia,  on  the  south,  by  the 
Strait  of  Bonifacio,  about  10  miles 
wide;  length,  n.  to  s.,  110  miles;  breath, 
near  its  center,  53  miles;  area,  3377 
sq.  miles.  The  most  distinguished  men 
to  whom  Corsica  has  given  birth  are 
Paoli  and  Napoleon.  Pop.  288,596. 

COR'SO,  an  Italian  term  given  to  a 
leading  street  or  fashionable  carriage- 
drive. 

CORT,  Henry,  the  inventor  of  the 
processes  of  puddling  and  rolli»g  iron, 
born  at  Lancaster  in  1740.  He  died  in 
1800. 

CORTES  (kor'tes),  the  old  assembly 
of  the  estates  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 
In  early  times  the  king  was  very  de- 
pendent upon  them,  especially  in  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon.  When  the  king- 
doms of  Aragon  and  Castile  were  united 
under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  the  crown 
succeeded  in  rendering  itself  more  inde- 


pendent of  the  estates,  and  in  1538 
Charles  abolished  the  assembly  of  the 
estates  in  Castile  altogether.  Gradually 
the  popular  liberties  were  encroached 
upon,  and  the  cortes  at  length  were  con- 
vened only  for  the  purpose  of  homage  or 
ceremony,  or  when  a question  regarding 
the  succession  arose.  In  1808  Napoleon 
revived  the  cortes  for  his  own  ends.  The 
present  cortes  of  Spain  are  composed  of 
a senate  and  congress  equal  in  author- 
ity, and  having  the  power  along  with 
the  king  to  make  laws.  (See  Spain.) 
The  Portuguese  cortes  is  coeval  with  the 
monarchy,  and  has  had  a history  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  Spanish. 

COR'TEZ,  or  CORTES,  Fernando,  or 
Hernan,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  was 
born  in  1485  at  Medellin,  in  Estrema- 
dura;  died  near  Seville  1547.  He  went 
to  the  West  Indies  in  1504,  where  Velas- 


Fernando  Cortez. 


quez,  governor  of  Cuba,  under  whom 
he  had  greatly  distinguished  himself, 
gave  him  the  command  of  a fleet,  which 
was  sent  on  a voyage  of  discovery. 
Cortez  quitted  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  1518, 
with  eleven  vessels,  about  700  Spaniards, 
eighteen  horses,  and  ten  small  field- 
pieces.  He  landed  on  the  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  where  he  caused  his 
vessels  to  be  burned,  in  order  that  his 
soldiers  might  have  no  other  resource 
than  their  own  valor.  Having  i n- 
duced  the  Totonacs  and  Tlaxcalans  to 
become  his  allies  he  marched  toward 
Mexico,  where  he  was  amicably  received ; 
but,  having  seized  their  monarch 
Montezuma,  and  treated  the  people  with 
great  cruelty,  they  finally  resisted. 
After  a desperate  struggle,  in  which 
100,000  Mexicans  are  said  to  have 
perished,  the  city  was  taken,  and  soon 
after  the  whole  country  was  subjugated. 
In  1528  he  returned  to  Spain;  but  two 
years  after  he  was  again  sent  out  to 
Mexico,  where  he  remained  for  ten  years, 
discovering  meanwhile  the  peninsula  of 
California.  He  returned  once  more  to 
Spain,  where,  notwithstanding  his  great 
services,  he  was  coldly  received  and 
neglected.  After  taking  part  in  an 
expedition  to  Algiers  in  1541  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  solitude. 

CORUN'DUM,  the  earth  alumina  as 
found  native  in  a crystalline  state.  In 
hardness  it  is  next  to  the  diamond  The 
amethyst,  ruby,  sapphire,  and  topaz  are 
considered  as  varieties  of  this  mineral, 
which  is  found  in  India  and  China,  and 
is  most  usually  in  the  form  of  a six- 
sided  prism  or  six-sided  pyramid.  It  is 
nearly  pure  anhydrous  alumina,  and  its 
specific  gravity  is  nearly  four  times  that 
of  water.  Its  color  is  various — green, 
blue,  or  red,  inclining  to  gray,  due  to 


CORUNA 


COTTON 


traces  of  iron,  copper,  etc.  Emery  is  a 
variety  of  corundum. 

CORUN'A,  a seaport  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name  in  Galicia, 
on  the  northwest  coast,  on  a peninsula 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Betanzos. 


Pop.  37,251. — The  province  ^s  hilly  and 
its  inhabitants  chiefly  engaged  in  agri' 
culture  and  fishing.  Area,  3079  sq 
miles,  pop.  616,043. 

COR'VETTE,  a vessel  of  war,  ship- 
rigged,  haviiig  a flush  deck,  with  no 
quarter-deck  and  only  one  tier  of  guns; 
but  the  term  is  now  somewhat  loosely 
used.  In  the  British  navy  there  ij  a 
class  of  corvettes  built  of  iron  o;  steel, 
swift  vessels,  propelled  by  steam  as 
well  £-8  by  a large  spread  of  canvas,  and 
carrying  heavy  guns. 

COR'VID.®,  the  crows,  a family  of 
birds,  in  which  the  bill  is  strong,  of 
conical  shape,  more  or  less  compressed, 
and  the  gape  straight.  The  nostrils  are 
covered  with  stiff  bristle-like  feathers 
directed  forward.  The  family  in- 
cludes the  common  crow,  rook,  raven, 
magpie,  jay,  jackdaw,  nut-cracker,  cor- 
nish  chough,  etc. 

CORYBAN'TES,  frantic  priests  of 
Cybele,  who  celebrated  the  mysteries 
with  orgiastic  dances  to  the  sound  of 
drum  and  cymbal. 

COR'YMB,  in  botany,  that  form  of  in- 
florescence in  which  the  flowers,  each  on 
its  own  pedicel  of  different  lengths,  are  so 
arranged  along  a common  axis  as  to 
form  a flat  broad  mass  of  flowers  with 
a convex  or  level  top,  as  in  the  hawthorn 
and  candytuft. 

CORYPH.$'NA,  a genus  of  fishes  of 
the  mackerel  family.  The  body  is 
elongated,  compressed,  covered  with 
small  scales,  and  the  dorsal  fin  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  back,  or  nearly 
so.  All  the  species,  natives  of  the  seas 
of  warm  climates,  are  very  rapid  in 
their  motions,  and  very  voracious. 
They  are  of  brilliant  colors,  and  are 
objects  of  admiration  to  every  voyager. 

CORYPHiE'US,  the  leader  of  the 
chorus  in  the  Greek  dramas.  His 
functions  were  often  as  wide  as  those 
of  our  stage-manager,  conductor,  and 
ballet-master.  The  name  coryph4e  is 
now  applied  to  a ballet-dancer. 

COSMET'ICS,  external  preparations 
for  rendering  the  skin  soft,  pure,  and 
white,  or  for  beautifying  and  improving 
the  complexion.  To  these  may  be 
added  preparations  for  preserving  or 
beautifying  the  teeth,  and  those  which 
are  applied  to  the  hair. 

COSMIC  DUST,  the  fine  dust  which 
tails  upon  the  earth  from  regions  be- 
yond the  earth.  This  may  be  ob- 
served often  after  a heavy  rain  in  favor- 
able places.  The  origin  of  this  extra- 


terrestrial material  is  believed  to  be 
m©t©oric 

COSMOG'ONY,  a theory  of  the  origin 
or  formation  of  the  universe.  Such 
theories  may  be  comprehended  under 
three  classes: — 1.  The  first  represents 
the  world  as  eternal,  in  form  as  well  s 
substance.  2.  The  matter  of  the  world 
is  eternal,  but  not  its  form.  3.  The 
matter  and  form  of  the  universe  is 
ascribed  to  the  direct  agency  of  a spirit- 
ual cause;  the  world  had  a beginning, 
and  shall  have  an  end. 

COSMOS,  order  or  harmony,  and 
hence  the  universe  as  an  orderly  and 
beautiful  system.  In  this  sense  it  has 
been  adopted  Py  Humboldt  as  the  title 
of  his  celebrated  work,  which  describes 
the  nature  ot  the  heavens  as  well  as  the 
physical  phenomena  of  the  earth. 

COSSACK  POSTS,  ..n  the  U.  States 
army  a system  of  outposts  consisting  of 
four  men  and  a non-commissioned 
officer.  They  are  used  instead  of  the  old 
style  line  of  pickets  and  are  claimed,  by 
American  army  officers  to  be  far  more 
efficient  and  self-reliant,  owing  to  the 
support  which  the  members  of  the  out- 
post lend  cc  one  another. 

COS'SACKS,  tribes  who  inhabit  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Russia, 
paying  no  taxes,  but  performing  in- 
stead the  duty  of  soldiers.  They  supply 
the  empire  with  one  of  the  most  valua- 
ble elements  in  ’ts  national  army,  form- 
ing a first-rate  irregular  cavalry,  and 
rendering  excellent  service  as  scouts 
and  skirmishers.  In  1570  they  built 
their  principal  “stanitza”  and  rendez- 
vous, called  Tcherkask,  on  the  Don,  not 
far  above  its  mouth.  As  it  was  ren- 
dered unhealthy  by  the  overflowing  of 
the  island  on  which  it  stood.  New 
Tcherkask  was  founded  in  1805  some 
miles  from  the  old  city,  to  which  nearly 
all  the  inhabitants  removed.  This 
forms  the  capital  of  the  country  of  the 
Don  Cossacks,  which  constitutes  a 
government  of  Russia,  and  has  an  area 
of  61,900  sq.  miles  and  a population  of 
1,474,133.  It  has  a military  organiza- 
lion  of  its  own. 

COSTA  RICA,  the  most  southern  state 
of  the  republics  of  Central  America; 
bounded  n.  by  Nicaragua,  e.  and  n.  by 
the  Caribbean  Sea;  e.  and  s.  by  Colom- 
bia; and  s.  and  w by  the  Pacific.  Area, 
about  23,200  sq.  miles.  The  capital  is 
San  Jos4,  and  the  two  established  ports 
are  Punta  Arenas,  on  the  Pacific  side, 
and  Port  Limon,  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  It  has  been  an  independent  state 
since  1821,  from  1824  to  1839,  forming 
a part  of  the  Central  American  Confed- 
eration, but  subsequently  separate.  Pop. 
243,000,  mostly  of  Spanish  descent. 

COSTER,  Laurens  (called  Janszoon, 
that  is,  son  of  John),  whose  name  is  con- 
nected with  the  origin  of  printing,  was 
born  in  Haarlem  in  1370  or  1371,  died 
about  1440.  According  to  a statement 
first  found  in  Junius’  Batavia  (1588),  he 
was  the  original  inventor  of  movable 
types,  and  on  this  ground  the  Dutch 
have  erected  statues  in  his  honor. 

COSTS,  in  law,  are  the  expenses  in- 
curred by  the  plaintiff  and  defendant. 
As  a rule  these  are  paid  by  the  loser  in  a 
suit,  but  there  are  always  extra-judicial 
expenses  incurred  by  both  parties,  which 
each  has  to  pay  whatever  be  the  issue 


of  the  suit.  In  criminal  cases  the  party 
accused  may  have  his  expenses  if  the 
court  thinks  the  accusation  unreason- 
able. In  matrimonial  suits,  the  wife, 
whether  petitioner  or  respondent,  is  gen- 
erally entitled  to  her  costs  from  the 
husband. 

COS'TUME,  the  style  of  attire  char- 
acteristic of  an  individual,  community, 
class,  or  people;  the  modes  of  clothing 
and  personal  adornment  which  prevail 
in  any  period  or  country. — Costume 
balls,  also  called  fancy  dress  balls,  are 
entertainments  at  which  the  guests 
adopt  a style  of  dress  different  from 
the  one  usually  worn.  It  may  be  one 
which  was  worn  at  another  period,  or 
one  worn  in  another  country,  or  a 
modern  dress  worn  by  some  particular 
class  of  society  A favorite  plan  is  to 
make  up  as  some  well-known  character 
in  history  or  literature. 

COTE-D’OR,  an  inland  and  eastern 
department  of  France,  part  of  the  old 
province  of  Burgundy,  having  Dijon 
as  its  capital.  Area,  3382  sq.  miles. 
The  vineyards  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Cote-d’Or  produce  the  celebrated 
wines  of  Upper  Burgundy.  Iron,  coal, 
marble,  etc.,  are  found.  Pop.  381,  574. 

COTES-DU-NORD  (kot-du-nor),  a 
maritime  department  in  the  north  of 
France,  forming  part  of  ancient  Brit- 
tany; capital  &ieuc.  Area,  2659  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  628,256. 

COTIL'LION,  a brisk  dance  of  French 
origin,  performed  by  eight  persons 
together,  resembling  the  quadrille  which 
superseded  it.  The  name  is  now  given 
to  a dance  which  often  winds  up  a ball, 
and  which  is  danced  with  any  number 
of  dancers  and  with  a great  variety  of 
figures  the  pairs  of  dancers  following 
in  this  the  leading  pair,  and  partners 
being  successively  changed. 

COTTON,  a vegetable  fiber  used 
extensively  in  the  manufactures  and 
highly  valuable  because  of  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  grown  and  its  structural 
value  in  the  weaving  arts.  Cotton  is 
cultivated  in  those  parts  of  the  globe 


Cotton  plant  in  bloom. 


between  the  two  thirty-fifth  parallels 
of  latitude  (a  region  which  contains  the 
largest  portion  of  the  land  surface  of  the 
globe),  although  its  most  profitable 
cultivation  is  between  the  twentieth 
and  thirty-fifth  parallels  north  of  the 
equator.  Within  this  belt  lie  the  cotton 
districts  of  the  United  States,  northern 
Mexico,  Egypt,  northern  Africa,  and 
Asia,  except  the  extreme  southern 


COTTON 

parts  of  India  and  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
South  of  the  equator  cotton  is  grown 
in  Brazil,  nearly  all  of  which  country 
is  said  to  be  favorably  adapted  to  its 
cultivation;  in  Australia,  though  not 
to  any  great  extent;  in  Africa,  where 
the  extent  of  production  is  not  known; 
and  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

All  the  species  are  perennial  shrubs, 
though  in  cultivation  they  are  some- 
times treated  as  if  they  were  annuals. 
They  have  alternate  stalked  and  lobed 
leaves,  large  yellow  flowers,  and  a three 
or  five  celled  capsule,  which  bursts  open 
when  ripe  through  the  middle  of  the  cell, 
liberating  the  numerous  black  seeds 
covered  with  the  beautiful  filamentous 
cotton.  The  North  American  cotton 
is  produced  by  two  well-marked  va- 
rieties, the  long-staple  cotton,  which 
has  a fine  soft  silky  fibre  nearly  two 
inches  long,  and  the  short- staple 
cotton,  which  has  a fibre  little  over 
one  inch  long  adhering  closely  to  the 
seed.  The  long-staple  variety  known 
as  Sea  Island  cotton  holds  the  first 
place  in  the  market.  It  is  grown  in 
some  of  the  southern  states  of  Amer- 
ica, especially  on  islands  bordering 
the  coast.  The  mode  of  cultivation  is 
usually  as  follows: — The  seeds  are  sown 
in  the  spring  in  drills  of  about  a yard  in 
width,  the  plant  appearing  above  ground 
in  about  eight  days  afterwards.  The 
rows  of  young  plants  are  then  carefully 
weeded  and  hoed,  a process  which  re- 
quires to  be  repeated  at  two  or  three 
subsequent  periods.  No  hoeing  takes 
place  after  the  flowering  has  commenced, 
from  which  a period  of  70  days  generally 
elapses  till  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  To 
prevent  the  lustre  of  the  cotton  wool 
from  being  tarnished,  the  pods  must  not 
remain  ungathered  longer  than  eight 
days  after  coming  to  maturity.  The 
cotton  wool  is  collected  by  picking  with 
the  fingers  the  flakes  from  the  pods,  and 
then  spreading  out  to  dry,  an  operation 
which  requires  to  be  thoroughly  per- 
formed. The  cotton  now  comes  to  be 
separated  from  the  seeds,  a process  form- 
erly effected  by  manual  labour,  but 
which  is  now  generally  accomplished  by 
machinery.  After  being  cleansed  from 
the  seeds,  the  cotton  wool  is  formed  into 
bales,  and  is  now  ready  for  delivery  to 
the  manufacturer. 

Cotton  has  been  cultivated  in  India 
and  the  adjacent  islands  from  time  im- 
memorial. It  was  known  in  Egypt  in 
the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian 

imported 


era,  but  was  then  probably 
from  India.  It  was  not  till  a compara- 
tively late  period  that  the  nations  of  the 
West  became  acquainted  with  this  useful 

;omrnodity,  and  even  then  it  cruiser  Harvard  durin; 

nly  to  have  been  used  as  an  article  ofil 
h. 

frc 
eff 
ph 
Cc 
wa 


nly  to  have  been  used  as  an  article  of!  Spain 

he  greatest  luxury.  The  introduction,  ttawtw 


f the  cotton-shrub  into  Europe  dates! 
from  the  ninth  century,  and  was  first* 
effected  by  the  Spanish  Moors,  who 
planted  it  in  the  plains  of  Valencia. 


wards  established  at  Cordova,  Granada, , i 
and  Seville;  and  by  the  14th  centuiy 
the  cotton  stuffs  manufactured  in  thje 
Kingdom  of  Granada  had  come  to  be  rfn; 
garded  as  superior  in- quality  to  those  4f! 
Syria.  About  the  14th  century  cottcm 
thread  began  to  be  imported  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Venetians  and  Genoese.  Ifi 


Lto 


China  the  cotton-shrub  was  known  at 
very  early  period,  but  it  does  not  appe; 
to  have  been  turned  to  any  account 
an  article  of  manufacture  till  the  sixt 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  nor  was  it  ex  ^ 
tensivelyjused  for  that  purpose  till  nearly 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  In  the 
newworld  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth 
appears  to  have  been  well  understood  by 
the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  long  before 
the  advent  of  Europeans.  It  was  plant- 
ed by  the  English  colonists  of  Virginia 
in  1621,  but  only  as  an  experiment,  and 
the  amount  produced  was  long  very 
small,  the  crop  only  amounting  to  about 
2,000,000  pounds  in  1791.  After  this  it 
rapidly  increased,  and  in  1810  94,000,-: 
000  pounds  were  exported  The  quantity 
now  produced  is  enormous,  the  crop  of 
1906-7  being  estimated  at  13,551 ,000  bales, 
averaging  492  pounds  each.  The  chief 
cotton  growing  states  are  Texas,  Georgia, 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  South  Carolina, 
Arkansas,  Louisiana,  North  Carolina, 
Tennessee  and  Florida.  The  United 
States  furnishes  two-thirds  of  the  cotton 
supply  of  the  world.  The  raw  cotton 
exported  in  1907  was  9,036,434  bales  of 
500  pounds  each. 

As  a general  rule,  cotton  is  a dry-; 
weather  plant,  heavy  rainfall  interfer-j 
ing  with  both  the  culture  and  the  stand  " 
although  an  extremely  dry  spring  inter: 
feres  with  the  growth.  The  experlmen] 
stations  in  the  southern  states  have  aid3 
ed  in  introducing  improved  methods  ol 
cultivating,  fertilizing,  and  handlings 
the  crop.  Rotation  of  crops  and  greet? 
manuring  have  been  shown  to  be  o^ 
great  advantage.  From  the  date  ofi  ^ 
bloom,  warm,  dry  weather  is  needful.^ 
until  picking  time,  which  usually  com 
mences  from  July  10  in  Southernl 
Texas,  up  to  September  10  in  Tennessee',* 
ajid  continues  until  frost  puts  a stop  to 
further  growth.  During  the  harvest 
all  available  hands  are  called  into  full 
employment.  The  cotton  is  gathered, 
into  baskets  or  bags  hung  from  th 
shoulders  of  the  pickers,  and  when  th 
crop  has  been  secured  it  is  spread  out,; 


CODES 


COTTON-GRASS,:  a kind  of  plant  with 
long  silky  hairs  'upon  the  fruit.  It  i 
grows  freely  in  the  U.  States  and  is 
regarded  as  good  food  for  sheep. 

COTTON  INSECTS,  insects  injurious 
growing  cotton,  the  chief  of  which  is 
he  larva  of  a moth.  Millions  of  dollars 
re  annually  lost  in  crops  owing  to  the 
avages  of  this  destructive  insect.  The 
oth  is  a night  flier  and  deposits  its 
;gs  on  the  under  side  of  the  cotton 
af.  Here  they  hatch  during  the  sum- 
er  and  the  worm  feeds  on  the  plant, 
he  bud-worm  is  another  insect  destruc- 
ive  to  cotton. 

COTTON  SEED,  COTTON  SEED  OIL, 

he  seed  of  the  cotton  plant  and  the  oil 
xtracted  from  it.  After  the  oil  has 
een  pressed  out  of  the  cotton  seed, 
he  residuum  is  the  pulp  of  the  seed, 
ailed  cotton  seed  stearine,  or  cotton 
leed  cake.  It  is  a highly  valuable  prod- 
ct  for  cattle  food  and  fertilizer.  The 
il  is  used  for  cooking,  for  the  adultera- 
ion  of  lard  and  lard  oil,  while  the 
tearine  is  often  used  for  the  adultera- 
ion  of  lard.  The  hulls  of  the  seed  are 
sed  as  a low  grade  food  for  animals. 
COTTON-SPINNING,  a term  employed 
o describe  in  the  aggregate  all  the 
>perations  involved  in  transforming  raw 
cotton  into  yarn. 

COTTONTAIL,  the  popular  name  of  a 
small  American  hare. 

COTTON-WOOD,  a tree  of  the  poplar 
kind,  a native  of  N.  America.  The 
“cotton"  from  the  seeds  has  been  used 
in  France  and  Germany  for  making  cloth 
hats  and  paper,  but  the  experiment  was 
’ le. 


OTYLE'DONS,  the  seea=Ii 
seed-lobes  of  the  embryo  plant,  form- 
ing, together  with  the  radicle  and 
lumule,  the  embryo,  wliich  exists  in 
very  seed  capable  of  germination, 
ome  plants  have  only  one  cotyledon, 
and  are  accordingly  termed  monocotyle- 
donous;  others  have  two,  and  are  dicot- 
yledonous. These  differences  aie  ac- 
companied by  remarkable  differences 
in  the  structure  of  the  stems,  leaves,  and 


dried,  and  then  the  fiber  separated- 1 blossoms,  which  form  the  basis  for  the 


from  the  seeds.  For  long-staple  or  Seaj 
Island  cotton  in  South  Carolina,  th 
usual  date  to  begin  preparing  land  i 
February  1 ; planting  begins  April 
and  ends  May  1 ; picking  is  fttato  August 
25.,t,o  Elec- 

/COTTONrCh^  tries^Stanhope,  an  Amer-j 


VW  A A WAl  I V/Xim  iXli.  XLli-ivA  ^ 

Jfcan  naval  officer,  born  at  Milwaukee^ 
»Vis.,  in  1843.  He  was  graduated  at 
liaval  academy  and  took  part  in  th  ' 
Ipattle  between  the  Merrimac  ani 
jiMonitor  in  March,  1862.  He  was  com 


COTTON-FAMINE,  a term  used  to- 
designate  the  stagnation  of  the  cotton 
industry  in  England  during  the  last 
years  of  the  civil  war,  owing  to  the  arrest 


Cotton  manufactories  were  shortly  aftei-:  indusHy  of  cotton 

- ■ growing  in  the  U.  States.  Owing  to  this 
stagnation  nearly  400,000  persons  were 
thrown  out  of  employment  in  England 
and  maintained  by  charity  for  nearly 
two  years. 

COTTON-GIN,  a machine  invented 
by  Eli  Whitney  in  1794  for  separating 
the  cotton  fiber  from  the  seed 


division  of  flowering  plants  into  two 
great  classes.  The  embryo  plant  of  the 
Conifer®  has  many  (three  to  twelve) 
cotyledons,  and  is  called  polycotyledon- 
ous.  The  cotyledons  contain  a supply 
of  food  for  the  use  of  the  germinating 
(plant.  In  some  plants  the  store  is  very 
and  in  germination  the  seed- 
es  remain  under  the  ground,  as  in 
the  pea  and  oak ; in  others  the  store  is  not 
so  large,  and  the  seed-leaves  appear 
above  ground  and  perform  the  functions 
of  true  leaves;  while  there  is  a large 
class  of  seeds  where  the  embryo  is  very 
small,  and  the  food  is  stored  up  around 
t,  as  in  wheat  and  the  buttercup 
COUCH  ANT,  in  heraldry  said  of  a 
east  lying  down  with  the  head  raised. 
COUES,  Elliott,  an  American  zoolo- 
st  and  anatomist,  born  in  New  Hamp- 
ire  in  1842,  died  1899  He  was 
turalist  for  the  Northern  Boundary 
mmission  in  1873-6  and  from  1877 
1887  was  professor  of  anatomy  at 
National  Medical  college  at  Wash- 
.„ton.  He  published  numerous  scien- 
fi^c  works  upon  ornithology  in  which 
cience  he  was  a distinguished  specialist 


COUDERT 


COUP 


COUDERT,  Frederic  Rene,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  diplomat,  born  in  New 
York  in  1832.  He  appeared  for  the  U. 
States  before  the  International  Bering 
Sea  Commission  and  was  a member  in 
1896-8  of  the  Venezuela  Boundary 
Commission. 

COUGAR  (ko'gar),  or  PUMA,  a quad- 
ruped of  the  cat  kind,  inhabiting  most 
parts  of  America.  Its  color  is  a uniform 
fawn  or  reddish-brown,  without  spots 


Cougar. 


or  markings  of  any  kind.  It  may  attain 
a length  of  9 feet,  inclusive  of  the  tail. 
In  habits  it  is  stealthy  and  cowardly, 
and  seldom  or  never  attacks  man.  It  is 
by  some  called  the  panther  or  red  tiger, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  all 
the  animals  of  America,  particularly  in 
the  warmer  climates,  where  it  carries  off 
fowls,  dogs,  cats,  and  other  domestic 
animals. 

COUGH,  a sudden  and  forcible  ex- 
piration immediately  preceded  by  clos- 
ure of  the  glottis  or  narrowed  portion 
of  the  box  of  the  windpipe.  The  force 
for  the  action  is  obtained  by  a deep 
breath,  then  follows  the  closure  of  the 
glottis,  succeeded  by  .the  expiratory 
effort  forcing  open  the  glottis.  The 
action  is  performed  by  the  expiratory 
muscles,  that  is  the  abdominal  muscles, 
by  whose  contraction  the  diaphragm  is 
forced  up,  and  the  muscles  of  the  chest, 
by  which  the  ribs  are  pulled  down.  The 
cavity  of  the  chest  being  thus  diminished 
air  is  driven  out  of  the  lungs.  The 
object  of  the  cough  is  usually  to  expel 
any  foreign  material  in  the  lungs  or 
air-tubes.  The  offending  material  may 
be  there  present  as  the  result  of  inflam- 
mation, catarrh,  etc.  It  may  also  have 
gained  entrance  from  without.  Thus 
the  irritating  material  may  be  merely 
some  food  or  drink  which  has  slipped 
into  the  larynx,  or  it  may  be  dust,  etc., 
in  the  air  inhaled,  and  the  cough  is  the 
means  of  expelling  the  intruder.  But 
cough  may  also  be  produced  when  there 
is  no  irritating  material  present.  The 
larynx  or  windpipe  may  be  in  an  in- 
flamed and  irritable  condition,  in  which 
state  even  the  entrance  of  cold  air  will 
excite  coughing.  Moreover,  cough  may 
be  produced  by  irritation  of  nerves, 
distant  from  the  lungs  and  air-passages, 
by  what  is  called  reflex  action.  Thus 
irritation  of  the  stomach,  irritation  con- 
nected with  the  ear,  irritation  of  cer- 
tain nerves  by  pressure  of  growths,  etc., 
may  produce  cough,  when  the  respira- 
tory organs  are  not  directly  affected  at 
all.  Irritation  at  the  back  of  the  throat, 
as  of  the  tickling  of  a long  uvula,  and  so 
on,  also  produces  it.  A catarrhal  cough 
IS  generally  considered  unimportant,  par- 
ticma,rly  if  there  be  no  fever  connected 
with  it.  But  every  cough  lasting  longer 

P.  E.— 21 


than  two  or  three  days  is  suspicious, 
and  ought  to  be  medically  treated. 

COUNCIL,  an  assembly  met  for  de- 
liberation, or  to  give  advice.  The  term 
specially  applies  to  an  assembly  of  the 
representatives  of  independent  churches, 
convened  for  deliberation  and  the 
enactment  of  canons  or  ecclesiastical 
laws.  The  four  general  or  oecumenical 
councils  recognized  by  all  churches  are: 
1,  the  Council  of  Nice,  in  325,  by  which 
the  dogma  respecting  the  Son  of  God 
was  settled;  2,  that  of  Constantinojile, 
381,  by  which  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  decided;  3,  that  of 
Ephesus,  431 ; and  4,  that  of  Chalcedon, 
451 ; in  which  two  last  the  doctrine  of 
the  union  of  the  divine  and  human 
nature  in  Christ  was  more  precisely 
determined.  Among  the  principal  Latin 
councils  are  that  of  Clermont  (1096), 
in  the  reign  of  Urban  II.,  in  which  the 
first  crusade  was  resolved  upon;  the 
Council  of  Constance,  the  most  numer- 
ous of  all  the  councils,  held  in  1414, 
which  pronounced  the  condemnation 
of  John  Huss  (1415),  and  of  Jerome  of 
Prague  (1416);  the  Council  of  Basel,  in 
1431,  which  intended  a reformation, 
if  not  in  the  doctrines,  yet  in  the  con- 
stitution and  discipline  of  the  church; 
and  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  began 
its  session  in  1545,  and  labored  chiefly 
to  confirm  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church  against  the  Protestants.  On 
the  8th  of  December,  1869,  an  cecumeni- 
cal  council,  summoned  by  a bull  of  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  assembled  at  Rome.  This 
council  adopted  a dogmatic  Decree  or 
Constitutio  de  Fide,  and  a Constitutio 
de  Ecclesia,  the  most  important  article 
of  which  latter  declares  the  infallibility 
of  the  pope  when  speaking  ex  cathedra. 

COUNCIL  BLUFFS,  a city  and  im- 
portant manufacturing  center,  Potta- 
wattamie Co.,  Iowa,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Missouri,  opposite  Omaha  City,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a bridge  2750 
feet  in  length  and  50  feet  above  high 
water.  The  name  is  derived  from  a 
council  held  here  with  the  Indians  in 
1804.  Pop.  35,000. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAR,  an  assembly  of 
oflicers  of  high  rank  called  to  consult 
with  the  commander-in-chief  of  an 
army  or  admiral  of  a fleet  on  matters  of 
supreme  importance. 

COUNSEL,  a person  retained  by  a 
client  to  plead  his  cause  in  a court  of 
Judicature. 

COUNT,  in  modern  times  the  custom 
of  styling  all  the  sons  of  a count  also 
counts  makes  this  designation  on  the 
Continent  very  common,  and  the  rank 
little  more  than  nominal.  In  point  of 
rank,  the  English  earls  are  considered 
as  corresponding  to  the  continental 
counts,  an  earl’s  wife  being  styled  a 
countess. 

COUNT,  in  law,  an  independent  part 
of  a declaration  or  indictment,  which, 
if  it  stood  alone,  would  constitute  a 
ground  of  action. 

COUNTERFEITING,  a term  generally 
applied  to  the  making  of  imitation 
money,  coin  or  paper.  The  U.  States 
secret  service  has  examples  of  counter- 
feit coins  and  bills  so  like  the  original 
that  they  are  distinguished  only  with 
the  greatest  difficulty  by  experts.  An 
enormous  amount  of  counterfeit  money 


must  be  in  constant  circulation.  The 
crime  is  a felony. 

COUNTER-IRRITANT,  in  med.  a sub- 
stance employed  to  produce  an  artificial 
or  secondary  disease,  in  order  to  relieve 
another  or  primary  one.  The  term  is 
more  specifically  applied  to  such  irritat- 
ing substances,  as,  when  applied  to  the 
skin,  redden  or  blister  it,  or  produce 
pustules,  purulent  issues,  etc.  The 
commonest  counter-irritants  are  such 
as  mustard,  turpentine,  cantharides  or 
Spanish  flies,  croton  oil,  and  the  cautery. 

COUNTERPOINT,  in  music,  a term 
equivalent  to  harmony,  or  the  writing 
of  a carefully  planned  accompanying 
part;  or  that  branch  of  the  art  which, 
musical  thought  being  given,  teaches 
the  development  of  it,  by  extension  or 
embellishment,  by  transposition,  repeti- 
tion, or  imitation  throughout  the  dif- 
ferent parts.  Counterpoint  is  divided 
into  simple,  florid  or  figurate,  and  double. 
Simple  counterpoint  is  a composition  in 
two  or  more  parts,  the  notes  of  each  part 
being  equal  in  value  to  those  of  the 
corresponding  part  or  parts  and  con- 
cords. In  florid  counterpoint,  two  or 
more  notes  are  written  against  each 
note  of  the  subj'ect,  or  canto-fermo,  and 
discords  are  admissible.  Double  coun- 
terpoint is  an  inversion  of  the  parts,  so 
that  the  base  may  become  the  subject, 
and  the  subject  the  base,  etc.,  thus  pro- 
ducing new  melodies  and  new  harmonies. 

COUNTERSIGN,  a private  signal, 
word,  or  phrase  given  to  soldiers  on 
guard,  with  orders  to  let  no  man  pass 
unless  he  first  give  that  sign;  a military 
watchword. 

COUNTY,  an  administrative  unit  of  a 
state  or  a government,  or  the  territory 
ruled  over  by  a count.  In  England  the 
term  shire  is  used  instead  of  county. 
Counties  in  the  U.  States  are  in  reality 
units  of  administration,  which  each 
send  one  or  more  representatives  to  the 
state  legislature.  Counties  have  taxing 
power,  prosecute  crime,  and  administer 
justice  generally.  Cities  are  parts  of 
counties,  a city  often  being  conterminous 
with  a county,  as  Chicago  and  Philadel- 
phia. New  York  includes  four  counties. 
St.  Louis  has  a separate  charter  and  has 
no  connection  with  the  county,  sending 
its  own  members  to  the  legislature . 

COUNTY  COUNCILS,  administrative 
bodies  created  by  the  British  parliament 
in  1888  to  replace  the  justices  of  the 
peace  who  had  formerly  administered 
county  affairs  and  to  give  local  self- 
government  to  the  counties.  These 
councils  are  elective  administrative 
bodies,  and  were  perfected  in  1894  by 
the  local  self-government  act. 

COUNTY  COURT,  a tribunal  of 
justice  the  jurisdiction  of  which  is 
limited  to  the  county  in  which  it  exists. 
In  this  much  the  English  and  the 
American  county  courts  are  much  the 
same  thing,  although  the  county  court 
in  England  is  a relatively  more  im- 
portant body. 

COUP  (ko) , a term  used  in  various  con- 
nections to  convey  the  idea  of  prompt- 
ness and  force. — Coup  de  main,  a 
prompt,  vigorous,  and  successful  attack. 
— Coup  d’etat,  a sudden  decisive  blow 
in  politics ; a stroke  of  policy ; specifically, 
an  exertion  of  prerogative  to  alter  the 
laws  or  the  constitution  of  a country 


COUPLE 


COWLEY 


without  the  consent  or  concurrence  of 
the  people  expressed  through  their 
representatives,  especially  when  such 
exertion  is  supported  by  armed  force. — 
Coup  de  soleil.  See  Sunstroke. 

COUPLE,  in  dynamics,  two  equal 
and  parallel  forces  acting  in  different 
directions,  and  applied  to  the  same  body. 
The  distance  between  their  lines  of 
action  is  called  the  arm  of  the  couple, 
and  the  product  of  one  of  the  two  equal 
forces  by  this  arm  is  called  the  moment 
of  the  couple. 

COUPLET,  two  verses  or  lines  of 
poetry  of  equal  length  and  rhythm, 
often  embodying  an  idea  of  the  nature 
of  an  aphorism. 

COUPLING,  in  machinery,  a contri- 
vance for  connecting  one  portion  of  a 
system  of  shafting  with  another,  and  of 
which  there  are  various  forms.  A com- 
mon form  is  the  flange  or  plate  coupling, 
which  consists  of  two  flanges  separately 


Flange  coupling. 


fitted  on  to  the  two  contiguous  ends  of 
the  lengths  of  shaft  to  be  connected,  and 
firmly  secured  together  by  screws.  The 
most  useful  kinds  of  couplings  are  those 
that  are  adjustable,  or  can  be  readily 
put  on  and  off. — The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  an  organ  register,  by  which  two 
or  more  rows  of  keys  can  be  connected 
by  a mechanism,  so  that  they  can  be 
played  together. 

COUPON  (ko'pan),  an  interest-certifi- 
cate printed  at  the  bottom  of  transfera- 
ble bonds,  and  so  called  because  it  is  cut 
off  or  detached  and  given  up  when  a 
payment  is  made.  Also  one  of  a series 
of  tickets  which  binds  the  issuer  to 
make  certain  payments,  perform  some 
service,  or  give  value  for  certain 
amounts  at  different  periods,  in  consid- 
eration of  money  received. 

COURIER,  a bearer  of  special  des- 
patches, whether  public  or  private; 
also  an  attendant  on  a party  traveling 
abroad,  v/hose  especial  duty  is  to  make 
all  arrangements  at  hotels  and  on  the 
journey. 

COURLAND,  a government  in  Russia, 
bounded  n.  by  Livonia  and  the  Gulf  of 
Riga,  w.  the  Baltic,  s.  Kovno,  and  e.  by 
Vitebsk;  area,  10,535  sq.  miles]  pop. 
712,700. 

COURSING,  a kind  of  sport  in  which 
hares  are  hunted  by  greyhounds,  which 
follow  the  game  by  sight  instead  of  by 
scent. 

COURTj  a term  generally  applied  to 
the  judicial  part  of  a government’s 
machinery,  and  sometimes  to  bodies 
with  judicial  powers  to  settle  disputes 
outside  of  litigation,  properly  so  called. 
Courts  have  existed  in  all  ages  and  are 
an  evolution  from  the  power  of  the 
chief  or  king  in  savage  or  prehistoric 

E copies.  In  England  and  the  United 
tates  courts  are  essentially  the  same 
and  have  the  same  powers,  although 
there  are  a few  minor  differences.  In 
the  United  States  two  distinct  systems 
of  courts  exist,  the  federal  courts  which. 


with  the  exception  of  the  supreme 
court  (a  constitutional  creation)  are  the 
creation  of  the  congress,  and  state 
courts  which,  (with  the  exception  of 
the  state  supreme  court)  are  creatures 
of  the  state  legislature.  In  the  federal 
system  there  is  a court  of  claims,  courts 
for  the  various  territories, _ district 
courts  and  circuit  courts,  the  judges  of 
which  are  all  appointed  by  the  pres- 
ident and  retain  their  positions  on 
good  behavior.  The  state  courts  con- 
sist of  tribunals  arranged  with  a view  to 
the  territory  of  the  state  and  its  divi- 
sions and  the  judges,  as  those  also  of  the 
state  supreme  court  are  elected  by  the 
people.  There  are  county  courts, 
circuit  courts,  and  appellate  courts,  the 
court  of  last  appeal  being  the  supreme 
court.  The  federal  judiciary  tries  all 
cases  concerned  with  the  federal  govern- 
ment, or  cases  of  an  interstate  kind. 

COURT,  MILITARY,  COURTS-MAR- 
TIAL, in  the  United  States  judicial 
bodies  created  by  congress  for  the 
trial  of  offenses  committed  by  soldiers. 
Soldiers,  however,  can  be  prosecuted  in 
the  civil  courts  for  other  than  military 
offenses.  Military  courts  are  of  several 
kinds,  as  general  court,  summary  court, 
garrison  court,  regimental  court,  and 
court  of  inquiry. 

COURT-PLASTER  (so  called  because 
originally  applied  by  ladies  of  the  court 
as  patches  on  the  face),  black,  flesh- 
colored,  or  transparent  silk  varnished 
over  with  a solution  of  isinglass,  which 
is  often  perfumed  with  benzoin,  used 
for  covering  slight  wounds. 

COUSIN  (ko-zan),  Victor,  French 
philosopher  and  writer,  founder  of  the 
so-called  Eclectic  school  of  philosophy, 
was  born  at  Paris  1792,  died  as  Cannes 
1867.  The  head  and  founder  of  the 
modern  school  of  eclecticism  in  France, 
he  borrowed  from  many  sources.  His 
eclecticism  was  based  on  the  principle 
that  every  system,  however  erroneous, 
which  has  anywhere  commanded  assent, 
contains  some  elements  of  truth,  by 
which  its  acceptance  may  be  explained, 
and  that  it  is  the  business  of  philosophi- 
cal criticism  to  discover  and  combine 
these  scattered  elements  of  truth. 

COUTHON  (ko-ton),  Georges,  a noted 
French  revolutionist,  was  born  in  1756, 
and  was  bred  to  the  profession  of  a 
lawyer.  Some  time  after  the  revolution 
he  was  chosen  a member  of  the  national 
assembly,  and  allying  himself  with 
Robespierre  aided  and  abetted  the 
latter  in  all  his  atrocities.  On  the  down- 
fall of  Robespierre’s  party  Couthon 
shared,  along  with  him  and  St.  Just,  in 
the  decree  of  arrest,  and  was  guillotined, 
July  28,  1794. 

COUVADE  (k6-vad0,  a singular  cus- 
tom prevalent  in  ancient  as  well  as 
modern  times  among  some  of  the  primi- 
tive races  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  After 
the  birth  of  a child  the  father  takes  to 
bed,  and  receives  the  food  and  compli- 
ments usually  given  elsewhere  to  the 
mother.  The  custom  was  observed, 
according  to  Diodorus,  among  the  Corsi- 
cans; and  Strabo  notices  it  among  the 
Spanish  Basques,  by  whom,  as  well  as 
by  the  Gascons,  it  is  still  to  some  ex- 
tent practiced.  Travelers  from  Marco 
Polo  downward  have  met  with  a some- 
what similar  custom  among  the  Chinese, 


the  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  the  negroes,  the 
aboriginal  tribes  of  North  and  South 
America,  etc. 

COVENANT,  in  law,  an  agreement 
between  two  or  more  parties  in  writing 
signed,  sealed,  and  delivered,  whereby 
they  agree  to  do,  or  not  to  no,  some 
specified  act.  In  theology,  the  promises 
of  God  as  revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
conditional  on  certain  terms  on  the  part 
of  man,  as  obedience,  repentance,  faith, 
etc. 

COVENANTERS,  in  Scottish  his- 
tory, the  name  given  to  the  party  which 
struggled  for  religious  liberty  from  1637 
on  to  the  revolution;  but  more  especi- 
ally applied  to  the  insurgents  who,  after 
the  passing  of  the  act  of  1662  denounc- 
ing the  solemn  league  and  covenant  as 
a seditious  oath,  took  up  arms  in  de- 
fense of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  church 
government. 

COVENTRY,  a city  in  England, 
county  of  Warwick,  85  miles  northwest 
of  London.  Coventry  is  the  center  of 
the  ribbon  trade,  and  manufactures  also 
silk  fabrics,  cambric  frilling,  cottons, 
watches,  machinery,  and  bicycles.  It 
sends  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
69,877. 

COVERDALE,  Miles,  the  earliest 
translator  of  the  Bible  into  English, 
was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  1487,  died  1568. 

COVTNGTON,  a city  of  Kentucky,  on 
the  s.  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  opposite 
Cincinnati,  of  which  it  is  substantially  a 
suburb,  connected  by  means  of  bridges 
and  ferries.  It  has  a large  general  trade 
and  manufacturing  business.  Pop. 
50,145. 

COW,  the  general  term  applied  to  the 
females  of  the  genus  Bos  or  ox,  the  most 
valuable  to  man  of  all  the  ruminating 
animals.  Among  the  best  breeds  of 
dairy  cows  in  Britain  are  the  Devon- 
shire, the  Ayrshire,  the  shorthorn,  the 
polled  Angus  or  Aberdeenshire,  and  the 
Alderney.  See  Ox  and  cattle. 

COW-BERRY,  the  red  whortleberry, 
a procumbent  shrub  of  high  moorlands 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  N.  America,  has 
evergreen  box-like  leaves,  and  pro- 
duces a red  acid  berry  used  for  jellies  and 
preserves. 

COWBOYS,  a name  first  applied  to 
cattle  thieves  during  the  war  of  the 
American  Revolution  and  later  to  the 
herdsmen  upon  the  large  cattle  ranches 
of  Texas  and  the  West.  Cowboys  are 
excellent  horsemen  and  acquire  great 
skill  in  catching  and  “rounding  up”  the 
cattle  on  a large  range.  They  are  pro- 
verbial for  their  generosity  and  manli- 
ness. 

COW-BUNTING,  an  American  bird 
about  the  size  of  the  sky-lark.  It  drops 
its  eggs  into  the  nests  of  other  birds  to 
be  hatched  by  them,  but  has_ never  been 
known  to  drop  more  than  one  egg  into 
the  same  nest.  It  is  migratory  spending 
its  winters  regularly  in  the  lower  parts  of 
North  and  South  Carolina  and  (jeorgia, 
and  appearing  in  Pennsylvania  about 
the  end  of  March.  These  birds  often 
frequent  corn  and  rice  fields  in  company 
with  the  red-winged  troopials,  but  are 
more  commonly  found  accompanying 
the  cattle,  feeding  on  seeds,  worms,  etc. 

COWLEY  (kou'li),  Abraham,  an  Eng- 
lish poet  of  great  celebrity  in  his  day, 
was  born  at  London  in  1618,  died  1667. 


COWPER 


CRAMP 


He  published  his  first  volume,  Poetic 
Blossoms,  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  He 
took  a considerable  interest  in  science, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Royal  Society.  His  chief  works  are: 
Love’s  Riddle,  a pastoral  comedy;  Da- 


Young  cow-bunting  fed  by  female 
yellow-throat. 

videis,  a scriptural  epic;  Naufragium 
Joculare;  The  Mistress,  a collection  of 
love  verses;  Pindarique  Odes;  Liber 
Plantarum;  etc. 

COWPER  (k6'p6r  or  kou'per),  Will- 
iam, English  poet,  born  at  Berkham- 
stead  in  1731,  died  at  East  Dereham,  in 
Norfolk,  1800.  In  1776,  on  the  advice 
of  Mrs.  Unwin,  he  commenced  a poem 
on  the  Progress  of  Error,  which  he  fol- 
lowed by  three  other  poems.  Truth, 
Table-talk,  and  Expostulation;  these 
with  some  others  were  published  in  a 
volume  in  1782.  The  Task,  together 
with  Tirocinium,  formed  a second 
volume  in  1785.  The  History  of  John 
Gilpin  is  also  due  to  the  suggestion 
of  Lady  Austen.  The  translation  of 
Homer,  begun  in  1784,  occupied  him 
for  the  next  six  years,  and  was  pub- 
lished in  1791.  He  removed  during  its 
progress,  in  1786,  from  Olney  to  Weston. 
In  the  beginning  of  1794  he  was  again 
attacked  with  madness,  which  was 
aggravated  by  the  death  of  Mrs.  Unwin 
in  1796.  The  revisal  of  his  Homer,  and 
the  composition  of  some  short  pieces, 
occupied  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  He 
is  considered  among  the  best  of  descrip- 
tive poets 

COW-POX,  the  vaccine  disease  which 
appears  on  the  teats.,  of  the  cow,  in  the 
form  of  vesicles  of  a blue  color,  ap- 
proaching to  livid.  These  vesicles  are 
elevated  at  the  margin  and  depressed  at 
the  center;  they  are  surrounded  with 
inflammation  and  contain  a limpid  fluid. 
This  fluid  or  virus  is  capable  of  com- 
municating genuine  cow-pox  to  .the 
human  subject,  and  of  protecting  against 
small-pox  either  completely,  or,  at  least, 
against  the  virulent  form  of  the  disease. 
See  Vaccination. 

COW'SLH*,  the  popular  name  of 
several  varieties  of  a favorite  wild  flower 
found  in  pastures.  It  has  umbels  of 
small,  buff-yellow,  scented  flowers  on 
short  pedicels.  Its  flowers  possess  seda- 
tive properties,  and  have  been  used  as 
an  anodyne,  a sort  of  wine  being  pre- 
pared from  them. 

COW-TREES,  a name  of  various  trees 
having  an  abundance  of  milky  juice 
especially  a South  American  tree,  which, 
when  wounded,  yields  a rich  milky  nu- 
tritious juice  in  such  abundance  as  to 
render  it  an  important  article  of  food. 


This  fluid  resembles  in  appearance  and 
quality  the  milk  of  the  cow.  The  tree  is 
common  in  Venezuela,  growing  to  the 
height  of  100  ft.  The  leaves  are  leath- 
ery, about  1 ft.  long  and  3 or  4 inches 
broad. 

COX,  Kenyon,  an  American  painter, 
born  in  Ohio  in  1856.  He  studied  paint- 
ing in  Paris  and  on  his  return  to  New 
York  painted  several  portraits  which 
became  well  known. 

COX,  Palmer,  an  American  artist  and 
illustrator,  born  in  Quebec  in  1840. 
His  most  widely  known  work  is  his 
quaint  Brownies,  consisting  of  drawings 
and  verses. 

COX,  Samuel  Sullivan,  an  American 
author  and  legislator,  born  in  Ohio  in 
1824,  died  in  1889.  He  was  congress- 
man from  1857  almost  continually  un- 
til his  death  representing  districts  in 
Ohio  and  New  York  to  which  state  he 
removed  in  1866.  He  was  minister  to 
Turkey  in  1885-6.  Cox  published 
several  light  books  of  politics  and 
travel.  He  was  nicknamed  “Sunset 
Cox’’  because  of  one  of  his  glowing 
descriptions. 

COYOTE,  the  American  prairie  wolf, 
several  varieties  of  which  inhabit  the 
Western  United  States  and  British 
Columbia.  The  animal  is  noted  for  its 


CRAB-APPLE,  a small,  wild,  very 
sour  species  of  apple.  See  Apple. 

CRACOW',  the  old  captital  of  Poland, 
in  1815-46  capital  of  a republic  of  the 
same  name  now  forming  part  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Vistula,  where  it  becomes  navigable, 
and  consists  of  Cracow  proper,  or  the  old 
city,  and  several  suburbs.  It  is  the  see  of 
a bishop,  is  well  built  and  regularly 
fortified.  The  cathedral,  a fine  old 
Gothic  edifice,  contains  monuments  of 
many  Polish  kings,  of  Kosciusko,  etc. 
The  university  was  founded  in  1364, 
but  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  was 
reorganized  in  1817.  It  has  a library 
of  300,000  volumes.  On  a hill  near  the 
town  stands  the  monument  of  Kos- 
ciusko, 120  feet  high.  Pop.  74,593 
(21,000  being  Jews);  with  all  its  suburbs, 
94,696. 

C^DLE  OF  LIBERTY,  a name  often 
applied  to  Faneuil  Hall,  Boston,  owing 
to  the  early  indignation  meetings  against 
British  rule  held  there. 

CRAFTS,  James  Mason,  an  American 
chemist,  born  in  Boston  in  1839.  His 
investigations  have  been  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  organic  chemistry  and  also 
with  physical  chemistry.  His  method 
of  making  certain  compounds  syn- 
thetically is  one  of  the  most  important 


The  cathedral.  Cracow. 


disconcerting  and  continuous  yelping 
during  the  night.  It  travels  in  packs, 
is  as  large  as  a setter  dog,  and  seldom 
attacks  men.  The  hair  is  reddish- 
yellow  tipped  with  black. 

CRAB,  a popular  name  for  all  the 
ten-footed,  short-tailed  crustaceans  com- 
prising many  genera,  distinguished  from 
the  lobster  and  other  long-tailed  deca- 
pods by  the  shortness  of  their  tail,  which 
is  folded  under  the  body.  Most  inhabit 
the  sea,  others  fresh  water,  some  the 
land,  only  going  to  the  sea  to  spawn. 
Of  the  crabs  several  species  are  highly 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  food,  and  the 
fishery  constitutes  an  important  trade 
on  many  coasts. 

CRAB,  a name  given  to  various  ma- 
chines, especially  to  a kind  of  portable 
windlass  or  machine  for  raising  weights, 
etc.  Crabs  are  much  used  in  building 
operations  for  raising  stones  or  other 
weights,  and  in  loading  and  discharging 
vessels. 


of  the  recent  discoveries  in  chemistry. 
Crafts  has  been  honored  with  member- 
ship in  several  learned  societies  of 
Europe  and  America. 

CRAIK,  Dinah  Maria,  English  novel- 
ist, born  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  1826,  her 
father’s  name  being  Mulock  She 
became  the  wife  of  George  Lillie  Cra’k 
in  1865.  She  published  a volume  of 
poems  under  the  title  of  Thirty  Years; 
many  essays  and  papers  on  etliical  and 
domestic  subjects;  books  tor  young 
people,  and  about  twenty-four  novels, 
the  best  of  which  a e:  John  Halifax, 
Gentleman;  A Life  for  a Life;  Agatha’s 
Husband;  and  The  Woman  s Kingdom. 
She  died  in  1887. 

CRAMP,  an  involuntary  contraction 
of  a voluntary  muscle  produced  by 
cold  or  by  long  continued  action.  It 
can  be  removed  by  heat  or  friction. 
When  a swimmer  is  attacked  by  cramp 
of  the  leg-muscles  he  should  turn  on  his 
back,  “float,”  and  vigorously  rub  the 


CRAMP 


CRAVAT 


muscles  of  the  legs.  Cramp  accom- 
panies colic,  cholera,  and  tetanus,  and 
often  attacks  the  muscles  of  persons 
who  use  the  hands  continuously,  such 
as  writers,  telegraph  operators,  etc. 

CRAMP,  Charles  Henry,  an  American 
ship  builder  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1828,  and  head  of  the  Cramp  Ship 
Building  Compoany.  It  was  this  com- 
pany that  built  the  battleship  Maine 
which  was  destroyed  in  Havana  Harbor 
Feb.  15,  1898. 

CRAN'BERRY,  a native  of  Europe, 
N.  Asia,  and  N.  America.  The  berry, 
when  ripe,  is  globose  and  dark  red,  and 
a little  more  than  ^ inch  in  diameter. 
These  berries  form  a sauce  of  exquisite 
flavor,  and  are  used  for  tarts.  The 
American  cranberry,  a native  of  Canada 
and  the  U.  States,  has  larger  berries 
than  the  European  species,  and  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  some  localities. 

CRANE,  the  common  name  of  birds 
of  the  genus  Grus.  They  are  generally 
of  considerable  size,  and  remarkable  for 
their  long  necks  and  stiltlike  legs,  which 
eminently  fit  them  for  living  in  marshes 


Crowned  crane. 


and  situations  subject  to  inundations, 
where  they  usually  seek  their  food 
This  is  partly  of  vegetable  matter,  but 
they  also  devour  insects,  worms,  frogs, 
lizards,  reptiles,  small  fish,  and  the 
spawn  of  various  aquatic  animals 
They  build  their  nests  among  bushes  or 
upon  tussocks  in  marshes,  and  lay  but 
two  eggs.  Cranes  annually  migrate  t.o 
distant  regions,  and  perform  voyages 
astonishing  for  their  great  length.  The 
common  crane  has  the  general  plumage 
ash-gray,  the  throat  black,  the  rump 
ornamented  with  long,  stiff,  and  curled 
feathers,  the  head  with  bristly  feathers; 
legs  black;  length  about  4 feet.  It  in- 
habits Europe,  Asia,  and  the  north  of 
Africa.  The  crowned  crane  has  the 
general  plumage  bluish  ash-gray,  the 
tail  and  primary  quills  black,  the  wing 
coverts  pure  white ; the  head  is  crowned 
with  a tuft  of  slender  yellow  feathers, 
which  can  be  spread  out  at  pleasure. 
It  inhabits  North  and  West  Africa. 
The  demoiselle  crane  is  so  called  from 
the  elegance  of  its  form.  It  is  ash-gray, 
and  the  head  is  adorned  with  two  tufts 
of  feathers  formed  by  a prolongation 
of  the  ear-coverts.  Its  habitat  is  Africa 
and  the  south  of  Europe.  Among  North 
American  species  _ are  the  whooping 
crane,  a larger  species  than  the  common 
crane,  and  the  brown  or  sand-hill  crime. 

CRANE,  a machine  for  raising  great 
weights  and  depositing  them  at  some 
distance  from  their  original  place,  for 
example,  raising  bales  from  the  hold  of  a 


sliip  and  depositing  them  on  the  quay. 
Cranes  are  generally  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  cog- 
wheel, or  wheel  and  pinion.  A very 
efficient  wheel-and-pinion  crane  much 
used  on  quays  consists  of  a jib  or  trans- 
verse beam,  inclined  to  the  vertical  at 
an  angle  of  from  40°  to  50°,  which,  by 
means  of  a collar,  turns  on  a vertical 
shaft.  The  upper  end  of  the  jib  carries 
a fixed  pulley,  and  the  lower  end  a 
cylinder,  which  is  put  in  motion  by  a 
wheel  and  pinion.  The  weight  is  made 
fast  to  a rope  or  chain  which  passes  over 
the  pulley  and  is  wound  round  the 
cylinder.  On  turning  the  cylinder 
(either  by  a winch  handle  attached  to 
the  wheel  which  works  in  the  pinion,  or 
by  the  application  of  steam-power)  the 
weight  is  raised  as  far  as  necessary. 
The  jib  is  then  turned  on  its  arbor  till 
the  weight  is  brought  immediately  over 
the  spot  where  it  is  to  be  deposited,  and 
the  moving  power  is  withdrawn  so  as  to 
allow  the  weight  to  descend  by  its  own 
graAuty. 

CRANE,  Stephen,  an  American  writer, 
born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1870,  died  1900. 
He  was  early  a war-correspondent  and 
published  several  military  stories,  the 
chief  of  which  was  The  Red  Badge  of 
Courage  (1896). 

CRANE,  William  Henry,  an  American 
actor,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1845. 
He  became  noted  in  1877  for  his  power 
of  comedy  when  he  appeared  with 
Stuart  Robson  in  Our  Boarding  House. 
Crane  for  many  years  was  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  joint  performance  with 
Robson  in  which  the  partners  played 
the  two  Dromios  in  Shakespeare’s 
Comedy  of  Errors.  After  his  separation 
from  Robson  he  attempted  Falstaff  but 
with  poor  success. 

CRA'NIUM.  See  Skull. 

CRANK,  an  iron  axis  with  the  end 
bent  like  an  elbow,  serving  as  a handle 
for  communicating  circular  motion;  as, 
the  crank  of  a grindstone;  or  for  chang- 
ing circular  into  longitudinal  motion, 
as  in  sonie  saw-mills,  or  longitudinal 
into  circular  motion,  as  in  a steam- 
engine.  The  single  crank  (1)  can  only 
be  used  on  the  end  of  an  axis.  The 


1 Single  crank  2,  Double  crank. 

3,  Bell  crank. 

double  crank  (2)  is  employed  when  it  is 
necessary  that  the  axis  should  be  ex- 
tended on  both  sides  of  the  point  at 
which  the  reciprocating  motion  is 
applied.  An  exemplification  of  this 
arrangement  is  afforded  by  the  ma- 
chinery of  steam-boats.  The  bell- 
crank  (3),  so  called  from  its  being  much 
used  in  bell-hanging,  is  for  a totally 
different  purpose  to  the  others,  being 
used  merely  to  change  the  direction  of 
motion,  as  from  a horizontal  to  a vertical 
line. 


CRAN'MER,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  famous  for  the  part  he 
played  in  the  English  reformation  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  born 
at  Aslacton,  Nott^  in  1489;  executed 
by  burning  at  Oxford,  1556.  An 
opinion  which  he  gave  on  the  question 
of  Henry  VIII. ’s  proposed  divorce  from 
Catharine  brought  him  under  the 
favorable  notice  of  the  king.  Cranmer 
was  sent  for  to  court,  made  a king’s 
chaplain,  and  commanded  to  write  a 
treatise  on  the  su  bject  of  the  divorce.  In 
1530  he  was  sent  abroad  with  others  to 
collect  the  opinions  of  the  divines  and 
canonists  of  France,  Italy,  and  Ger- 
many, on  the  validity  of  the  king’s 
marriage.  At  Rome  he  presented  his 
treatise  to  the  pope,  but  his  mission  was 
fruitless.  In  January,  1533,  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Soon  after  he  set  the  papal  authority 
at  defiance  by  pronouncing  sentence  of 
divorce  between  Henry  and  Catharine, 
and  confirming  the  king’s  marriage  v’ith 
Anne  Boleyn.  The  pope  threatened 
excommunication,  and  an  act  of  par- 
liament was  immediately  passed  for 
abolishing  the  pope’s  supremacy,  and 
declaring  the  king  chief  head  of  the 
Church  of  England.  In  1536  he  pan- 
dered to  Henry’s  passions  by  promot- 
ing the  diAmrce  of  Anne  Boleyn.  He  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  on  the  accession  of 
Mary.  He  was  tried  and  was  sentenced 
to  be  degraded  and  deprived  of  office. 
After  this  flattering  promises  were 
made,  which  induced  him  to  sign  a 
recantation  of  his  alleged  errors,  and 
become  in  fact,  a Catholic  convert. 
But  when  he  was  brought  into  St. 
Mary’s  Church,  Oxford,  to  read  his  re- 
cantation in  public,  instead  of  confessing 
the  justness  of  his  sentence,  and  sub- 
mitting to  it  in  silence  or  imploring 
mercy,  he  calmly  acknowledged  that 
the  fear  of  death  had  made  him  belie 
his  conscience;  and  declaring  that 
nothing  could  afford  him  consolation 
but  the  prospect  of  extenuating  his  guilt 
by  encountering,  as  a Protesfant  peni- 
tent, with  firmne.ss  and  resignation,  the 
fiery  torments  which  awaited  him.  He 
was  immediately  hurried  to  the  stake, 
where  he  behaved  with  the  resolution  of 
a martyr. 

CRAPE,  a light  transparent  stuff, 
like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk,  gummed 
and  twisted  on  the  mill,  woven  with- 
out crossing,  and  much  used  in  mourn- 
ing. 

CRAPS,  a dice  game.  When  the 
amount  of  the  stake  is  decided  upon  the 
first  player  throws  the  dice.  If  the 
number  thrown  is  two,  three  or  twelve 
he  loses.  If  seven  or  eleven  he  wins.  If 
none  of  these  numbers  is  thrown  he 
keeps  on  “shooting”  until  he  again 
throws  the  first  number,  when  he  wins, 
or  seven,  when  he  loses. 

CRATER,  the  orifice  or  mouth  of  a 
Amlcano.  Craters  may  be  central  or 
lateral,  and  there  may  be  several  sub- 
sidiary ones,  which  may  shift  their 
places,  or  become  merged  by  subsidence 
into  others. 

CRAVAT',  a neckcloth;  an  article  of 
silk,  muslin,  or  other  material,  worn  by 
men  about  the  neck;  so  called  from  Fr. 
craAmte,  a Croat,  because  this  piece  of 
dress  was  adopted  in  the  17th  century 


CRAWFISH 


CREDIT  FONCIER 


CREASY  (kre'si),  Sir  Edward  Shep- 
herd, English  historian,  was  born  at 
Bexley,  Kent,  in  1812,  died  1878.  His 
principal  works  are:  The  Rise  and 
Progress  of  the  British  Constitution, 
and  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the 
World. 

CREA'TIONISM,  the  doctrine  that  a 
soul  is  specially  created  for  each  human 
fetus  as  soon  as  it  is  formed  in  the 
womb : opposed  to  traducianism,  which 
teaches  that  the  souls  of  children  as  well 
as  their  bodies  are  begotten  by  repro- 
duction from  the  substance  of  the 
parents;  and  to  infusionism,  which 
holds  that  souls  are  pre-existent,  and 
that  a soul  is  divinely  infused  into  each 
human  fetus  as  soon  as  it  is  formed  by 
generation.  Many  theologians,  how- 
ever, regard  the  mode  of  the  soul’s 
coming  into  being  as  a part  of  the  mys- 
tery which  envelops  the  whole  subject 
of  the  existence  and  transmission  of  life. 
The  term  creationism  has  also  recently 
been  applied  to  that  theory  of  the  origin 
of  man  which  is  opposed  to  evolution. 

CRECHE  (krash),  a public  nursery 
for  the  children  of  poor  women  who  have 
to  work  out  during  the  day,  where  for  a 
small  payment  they  are  nursed  and  fed 
during  the  day,  remaining  with  their 
parents  at  night.  These  institutions 
were  first  started  in  Paris  in  1844;  they 
were  soon  afterward  introduced  into 
Great  Britain,  and  are  now  common  in 
large  towns  in  the  U States. 

CRECY,  or  Cressy,  a small  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Somme,  9 
miles  north  of  Abbeville  and  100  miles 
north  of  Paris;  pop.  1,748.  It  is  cele- 


each other’s  honesty,  solvency,  and 
resources.  By  means  of  a credit  system 
a comparatively  small  stock  of  money 
can  be  made  to  do  duty  for  carrying  on  a 
number  of  different  transactions;  but 
it  is  indispensable  for  every  good  system 
of  credit  that  money  must  Be  instantly 
available  when  required,  and  this  prin- 
ciple applies  to  every  species  of  trans- 
action where  postponed  payment  is  con- 
cerned. Public  credit  is  the  confidence 
which  men  entertain  in  the  ability  and 
disposition  of  a nation  to  make  good  its 
engagements  with  its  creditors;  or  the 
estimation  in  which  individuals  hold 
the  public  promises  of  payment,  whether 
such  promises  are  expressed  or  implied. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  general 
credit  of  individuals  in  a nation;  when 
merchants  and  others  are  wealthy  and 
punctual  in  fulfilling  engagements;  or 
when  they  transact  business  with  honor 
and  fidelity;  or  when  transfers  of  prop- 
erty are  made  with  ease.  So  we  speak  of 
the  credit  of  a bank  when  general  con- 
fidence is  placed  in  its  ability  to  redeem 
its  notes,  and  the  credit  of  a mercantile 
house  rests  on  its  supposed  ability  and 
probity,  which  induce  men  to  trust  to 
its  engagements.  When  the  public 
credit  is  questionable  it  raises  the  pre- 
mium on  loans. 

CREDIT,  Letter  of,  an  order  given  by 
bankers  or  others  at  one  place  to  enable 
a person  to  receive  money  from  their 
agents  at  another  place. 

CREDIT  FONCIER  (kra-de  fon-sya), 
a peculiar  m.ode  of  raising  money  on 
land  in  France,  the  peculiarity  of  which 
is  that  the  advance  must  not  exceed 


Battlefield  of  CrScv. 


from  the  Croats  who  entered  the  French 
service. 

CRAWFISH,  or  CRAYFISH,  a name 
of  various  crustaceous  animals,  the 
common  crawfish  being  the  river  lobster, 
a macrurous  (long-tailed),  ten-footed 
crustacean,  resembling  the  lobster  in 
appearance  and  habits.  The  crawfish 
by  t’neir  burrowing  habits  injure  mill- 
dams  and  the  levees  of  the  Mississippi. 
Crawfish  are  regarded  by  many  as  fur- 
nishing a delicate  dish  for  the  table. 

CRAWFORD,  Francis  Marion,  an 
American  novelist,  born  in  Italy  in  1854. 
His  first  publication  was  Mr.  Isaacs  1882, 
since  which  time  he  has  produced  an  av- 
erage of  two  novels  a year.  His  prin- 
cipal stories  are  laid  in  Italy.  Died  1909. 

CRAY'ONS,  colored  pencils  obtained 
from  certain  mineral  substances  in  their 
natural  state,  but  more  commonly 
manufactured  from  a fine  paste  of  chalk 
or  pipe-clay  colored  with  various  pig- 
ments, and  consolidated  by  means  of 
gum,  wax,  etc.  A kind  of  crayon  paint- 
ing (or  pastel  painting)  is  practiced  to 
some  extent,  the  coloring  matter  in  a 
soft  state  being  rubbed  on  with  the 
finger.  Its  chief  advantages  consist  in 
the  great  facility  of  its  execution,  and 
the  soft  beauty  and  richness  of  coloring 
of  effects  so  easily  produced.  The  paper 
used  has  a specially  granulated  sur- 
face. 

CREAM,  the  yellowish,  thick,  oily 
layer  which  forms  at  the  surface  when 
new  milk  is  allowed  to  remain  at  rest. 
When  it  is  agitated  or  churned  butter 
is  formed. 

CREAMERY,  a name  applied  to  a 
factory  where  butter  is  made.  The 
growth  of  the  creamery  industry  in  the 
U.  States  has  been  enormous  since  its 
beginning  in  1864.  The  creamery  is 
usually  situated  in  the  middle  of  a milk 
producing  region  and  the  milk  is  de- 
livered daily  to  the  factory,  and  the 
butter  is  manufactured  by  machinery 
at  a great  reduction  in  cost.  The 
largest  creamery  district  in  the  U. 
States  is  that  near  Elgin,  111. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR,  cr  POTASSIUM 
BITARTRATE,  exists  in  grapes,  tamar- 
inds, and  other  foods.  It  is  prepared 
from  the  crystalline  crust  (crude  tartar 
01  argol)  deposited  on  the  vessels  in 
which  grape  juice  has  been  fermented. 
The  argol  is  dissolved  by  boiling  with 
water,  the  mixture  filtered,  and  the 
cream  of  tartar  allowed  to  crystallize 
out.  The  commercial  product  usually 
contains  a small  percentage  of  calcium 
tartrate.  It  is  frequently  employed  in 
medicine  for  its  diuretic,  cathartic,  and 
refrigerant  properties;  as  a mordant  in 
dyeing  wool;  and  as  an  ingredient  in 
baking-powder. 

CRE'ASOTE,  a substance  discovered 
by  Reichenbach  about  1831  in  wood- 
tar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
tedious  process.  It  is  generally  ob- 
tained, however,  from  the  products  of 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood. 
In  a pure  state  it  is  oily,  heavy,  eolorless, 
has  a sweetish  burning  taste  and  a 
strong  smell  of  peat  smoke  or  smoked 
meat.  It  is  a powerful  antiseptic. 
Wood  treated  with  it  is  not  subject  to 
dry-rot  or  other  disease.  It  has  been 
used  in  surgery  and  medicine  with  great 
success. 


brated  on  account  of  a battle  fought  here, 
August  26,  1346,  between  the  English 
and  French.  Edward  III.  and  his  son, 
the  Black  Prince,  were  both  engaged, 
and  the  French  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter,  30.000  foot  and  1,200  horse 
being  left  dead  on  the  field;  among 
whom  were  the  King  of  Bohemia,  the 
Count  of  Alencon,  Louis,  count  of  Flan- 
ders, with  many  others  of  the  French 
nobility, 

CREDTT,  in  economics,  is  the  post- 
ponement agreed  on  by  the  parties  of 
the  p.ayment  of  a debt  to  a future  day. 
It  implies  confidence  of  the  creditor  in 
the  debtor;  and  a “credit  system’’  is 
one  of  general  confidence  of  people  in 


one-half  of  the  value  of  the  property 
pledged  or  hypothecated,  and  that  the 
repayment  of  the  loan  is  by  an  annuity 
terminable  at  a certain  date.  Several 
companies  have  been  established  by 
the  French  government  with  the  priv- 
ilege of  making  such  loans. 

CREDIT  MOBILIER  (kra-de  mo-bel- 
ya),  a scheme  which  originated  in  France 
in  1852,  its  objects  being  to  undertake 
trading  enterprises  of  all  kinds  on  the 
principle  of  limited  liability,  to  buy  up 
existing  trading  companies,  and  to 
carry  on  the  business  of  bankers  and 
stock-jobbers 

CREDITOR,  one  who  has  given  credit 
to  another  Creditors  are  “general,” 


CREDIT  MOBILIER 


CRIBBAGE 


when  they  have  only  right  of  action 
against  the  debtor;  “secured,”  when 
they  have  a lien  protecting  them; 
“preferred”  when  the  law  secures  them 
a special  right  in  preference  to  other 
creditors.  A judgment  creditor  is  one 
who  secured  judgment  against  a 
debtor. 

CREED,  a summary  of  belief,  from 
the  Latin  credo  (I  believe),  with  which 
the  Apostles’  and  Nicene  Creeds  begin. 
These  two  creeds,  together  with  the 
Athanasian  Creed,  are  the  most  ancient 
authoritative  Christian  creeds,  though 
numerous  ancient  formularies  of  faith 
are  preserved  in  the  writings  of  the  early 
fathers,  Irenseus,  Origen,  Tertullian, 
etc.,  which  agree  in  substance,  though 
with  some  diversity  of  expression. 
The  Nicene  Creed  was  so  called  from 
being  adopted  as  the  creed  of  the  church 
at  the  Council  of  Niciea  or  Nice,  325 
A.D.,  though  its  terms  were  subsequently 
somewhat  altered.  The  Apostles’  Creed 
probably  dates  from  the  end  of  the  4th 
century;  but  there  is  no  evidence  of  its 
being  accepted  in  its  present  form  till 
the  middle  of  the  8th.  The  Athanasian 
Creed  was  certainly  not  drawn  up  by 
St  Athanasius,  as  there  is  no  sufficient 
evidence  for  its  existence  before  the 
end  of  the  8th  or  beginning  of  the  9th 
century.  In  addition  to  these  three 
creeds,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
the  creed  of  Pius  IV.,  put  forth  in  1564, 
and  consisting  of  the  Nicene  Creed  with 
additional  articles  adopted  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  to  which  is  now  added  a 
profession  of  belief  in  the  definitions  of 
the  Vatican  Council.  The  English 
Church  adopts  as  “thoroughly  to  be  re- 
ceived and  believed”  the  three  ancient 
creeds,  which  as  part  of  her  liturgy  may 
be  read  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
but  does  not  consider  any  of  them  to  be 
inspired.  Besides  the  creeds,  there  are 
numerous  Confessions  of  Faith,  which 
have  been  adopted  by  different  churches 
and  sects.  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  form  a 
confession  of  faith  for  the  Anglican 
Church.  The  creed  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  other  Presbyterian 
churches  is  contained  in  the  Confession 
of  Faith,  drawn  up  by  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines,  and  completed  in 
1646. 

CREEDMOOR,  a station  on  the  Long 
Island  railway,  11  miles  east  of  the  city 
of  New  York.  It  is  much  frequented 
by  riflemen  for  target  practice. 

CREEK,  a small  inlet,  bay,  or  cove; 
a recess  in  the  shore  of  the  sea  or  of  a 
river.  In  America  and  Australia  the 
term  is  often  applied  to  a small  river  or 
rivulet. 

CREEKS,  American  Indians  formerly 
in  Georgia  and  Alabama,  but  now 
planted  in  the  Indian  Territory.  The 
number  of  warriors  used  to  amount  to 
about  6000,  but  altogether  the  tribe 
does  not  now  exceed  15,000.  They  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  agricul- 
ture, and  raise  horses,  cattle,  fowls,  and 
hogs,  and  cultivate  tobacco,  rice,  and 
corn. 

CREEPERS,  a family  of  birds  which 
strongly  resemble  the  woodpeckers  in 
their  habit  of  creeping  on  the  stems  of 
trees  with  the  aid  of  the  strong  quills 
which  project  from  the  tail-feathers, 


and  of  securing  their  insect  food  by  an 
exsertile  tongue.  The  common  creeper 
is  European,  but  is  represented  by 
American  species.  It  is  a pretty  and 
interesting  little  bird,  which  builds  its 
nest  usually  in  holes  or  crevices  of  trees. 
The  wall-creeper  of  Southern  Europe 
searches  for  its  insect  food  on  rocks. 
The  family  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

CREMA'TION,  the  burning  of  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  a practice  which  was 
frequent  in  ancient  times  instead  of 
burial,  and  which  has  recently  been 
advocated  on  hygienic  grounds  by 
many  scientific  men  in  Europe  and 
America  on  account  of  the  dangers  to 
the  living  caused  by  the  presence  of 
graveyards  and  cemeteries.  Various 
methods  of  cremation  have  been  pro- 
posed, the  great  difficulty  being  to  con- 
sume the  body  without  permitting  the 
escape  of  noxious  exhalations,  and  with- 
out mingling  the  ashes  with  foreign 
substances.  In  Siemens’  process,  a 
modification  of  a plan  of  Sir  Henry 
Thompson,  this  is  successfully  accom- 
plished. Cremation  societies  exist  in 
many  countries,  and  crematories  have 
been  erected  in  or  near  not  a few  towns 

CREMO'NA,  a city  of  Italy,  capital  of 
province  of  same  name,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Po,  47  miles  s e.  by  e.  of  Milan. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  wet 
ditches,  its  circumference  being  nearly 
five  miles.  The  most  remarkable  edifice 
is  the  cathedral,  begun  in  1107  and  com- 
pleted about  1491.  Close  by  and  con- 
nected with  the  cathedral,  is  the 
Torazzo,  one  of  the  .loftiest  and  most 
beautiful  towers  in  Italy.  Cremona  is 
the  seat  of  a bishopric,  and  has  consider- 
able manufactures  of  silk,  wool,  cotton, 
etc.  It  was  at  one  time  celebrated  for 
its  violins,  especially  those  made  by 
Antonius  Straduarius,  Joseph  Guar- 
nerius,  and  members  of  the  Amati 
family.  Pop.  37,693.  The  province  has 
an  area  of  about  500  sq.  miles,  and  a 
population  of  300,000. 

CRE'OLE  is  the  name  which  was 
originally  given  to  ail  the  descendants 
of  Spaniards  born  in  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  now  used  in  a wider 
sense  to  signify  the  descendants  of 
Europeans  of  any  nation  born  in  S. 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  localities. 

CREOSOTE.  See  Creasote. 

CRESCENDO  (kre-shen'do),  or  Cres. 
(Italian),  a musical  term  signifying  that 
the  notes  of  the  passage  over  which  it  is 
placed  are  to  be  gradually  swelled. 

CRES'CENT,  an  emblem  representing 
the  moon  in  her  horned  state.  This 
emblem  is  of  very  high  antiquity,  being 
that  of  the  Greek  goddess  Artemis  or 
Diana.  It  is  found  on  medals  of  many 
ancient  cities,  particularly  of  Byzan- 
tium, from  whence  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  borrowed  by  the  Ottomans.  Since 
their  establishment  in  Europe  it  has 
been  the  universal  emblem  of  their 
empire.  The  crescent  has  given  name 
to  a Turkish  order  of  knighthood  from 
the  form  of  the  badge,  instituted  by 
Selim,  sultan  of  Turkey,  in  1801. 

CRESS,  the  name  of  several  species  of 
plants.  Water-cress  is  used  as  a salad, 
and  is  valued  in  medicine  for  its  anti- 
scorbutic qualities.  The  leaves  have  a 


moderately  pungent  taste.  It  grows 
on  the  brinks  of  rivulets  and  in  moist 
grounds 

CRESSELLE  (kre-seP)  ,a  wooden  rattle 
used  in  some  Roman  Catholic  countries 
during  Passion  Week  instead  of  bells, 
to  give  notice  of  divine  worship. 

CRESSET,  a name  which  appears  to 
have  been  given  in  the  middle  ages  and 
later  indifferently  to  the  fixed  candle- 
sticks in  great  halls  and  churches,  to  the 


Various  forms  of  cressets. 


great  lights  used  as  beacons  and  other- 
wise; and  to  lamps  or  fire-pans  sus- 
pended on  pivots  and  carried  on  poles  in 
processions,  municipal  and  military 
watches,  etc. 

CRESSY.  See  Cr4cy 

CRETA'CEOUS  (or  Chalk)  SYSTEM, 
in  geol.  the  upper  strata  of  the  Second- 
ary series,  immediately  below  the  Ter- 
tiary series,  and  superincumbent  on  the 
Oolite  system.  This  group  is  common 
to  Europe,  and  also  to  a part  of  Asia. 
It  consists  of  chalk  resting  upon  arena- 
ceous and  argillaceous  deposits,  which 
are  also  regarded  as  part  of  the  system. 

CRETE.  See  Candia» 

CRET'INISM,  a form,  .of  idiocy  asso- 
ciated with  a peculiar  condition  of  the 
body,  occurring  in  Switzerland  and 
other  mountainous  countries.  Cretins 
are  usually  affected  with  goitre,  and  are 
usually  the  offspring  of  goitrous  parents 
They  are  ill  grown  and  stunted,  with 
swollen  bellies.  The  skin  is  coarse,  head 
large,  the  nose  sunken  and  flattened  at 
the  bridge,  the  lips  thick,  chin  pro- 
truding, mouth  wide  and  gaping,  the 
tongue  large.  The  countenance  is  dull 
and  heavy;  there  is  general  muscular 
weakness  and  slowness  of  sensibility. 
Associated  with  these  are  feebleness  or 
want  of  intellect,  varying  in  degree  from 
absolute  vacuity  to  a certain  power  of 
acquiring  a little  knowledge;  sometimes 
deafness  and  dumbness,  perhaps  squint- 
ing and  blindness.  Careful  training  may- 
do  much  for  them,  along  with  good  food, 
cleanliness,  exercise,  etc. 

CRETONNE  (kre-ton'),  a cotton  cloth 
with  various  textures  of  .surface,  printed 
on  one  side  with  pictorial  and  other 
patterns,  and  used  for  curtains,  covering 
furniture,  etc. 

CREUSE  (kreuz),  an  inland  depart-*- 
ment,  France,  comprising  most  part  of 
the  old  province  of  Mar^e;  area,  2150 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  284,942. 

CRIB'BAGE,  a game  at  cards  played 
with  the  whole  pack.  It  may  be  played’ 
by  two,  three,  or  four  persons;  and  when 
by  two,  five  or  six  cards  may  be  dealt 
to  each.  Five-card  cribbage  played  b^ 
two  persons  is  the  most  scientific  game.” 
Sixty-one-points  make  the  game;  there 
are  no  tricks  and  no  trumps,  the 
object  being  to  make  pairs,  fifteens, 
sequences,  or  the  go,  or  prevent  the 
adversary  from  doing  the  same.  Court 


CRICHTON 


CRIMEAN  WAR 


cards  and  tens  count  as  ten  each,  and 
all  the  rest  count  for  the  number  of 
“pips”  upon  them.  Every  pair,  that  is, 
every  couple  of  cards  of  the  same  value 
belonging  to  different  suits  (two  aces, 
two  fours,  two  kings,  etc.),  counts  two; 
and  when  there  are  three  or  four  similar 
cards,  as  many  pairs  are  counted  as 
there  are  different  combinations  of  the 
cards  taken  two  at  a time.  Every  com- 
bination of  cards,  the  united  pips  of 
which  make  up  fifteen,  counts  two. 
A sequence  consists  of  three  or  more 
cards  of  any  suit  following  one  another 
in  rank,  and  counts  one  for  each  card. 
When  the  player  whose  turn  it  is  to  play 
cannot  play  a card  without  going  be- 
yond thirty-one,  the  other  player  scores 
one  for  having  been  the  nearest  to 
thirty-one.  This  is  called  scoring  one 
for  “the  go.”  The  remaining  cards 
after  thirty-one,  or  the  next  point  to  it, 
is  made,  are  thrown  up,  and  each 
player’s  cards  are  counted.  When  all 
the  cards  in  a hand,  either  with  or  with- 
out the  turn-up  card,  are  of  one  suit, 
or  when  all  the  cards  in  the  crib,  with 
the  turn-up  card,  are  of  one  suit,  it  is 
called  a flush,  and  counts  one  for  each 
card  When  the  turn-up  card  is  a knave 
the  dealer  scores  two  (“two  for  his 
heels”).  When  a knave  of  the  same  suit 
with  the  turn-up  card  is  found  in  the 
hand  of  either  player,  the  player  inwhose 
hand  it  is  scores  one  (“one  for  his  nob”). 

CRICHTON  (kri'ton),  James,  sur- 
named  the  Admirable,  a Scottish  celeb- 
rity, son  of  Robert  Crichton,  lord- 
advocate,  was  born  in  1560,  died  about 
1585.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrews,  and  according  to  the 
current  accounts  of  him,  before  his 
twentieth  year,  had  run  through  the 
whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  could  speak 
and  write  to  perfection  ten  different 
languages  and  was  equally  distinguished 
for  his  skill  in  riding,  fencing,  singing, 
and  playing  upon  all  sorts  of  instru- 
ments. He  visited  Paris,  Xlenoa,  Venice, 
Padua,  etc.,  challenging  all  scholars  to 
learned  disputations,  vanquishing  doc- 
tors of  the  universities,  and  disarming 
the  most  famous  swordsmen  of  the  time 
in  fencing.  He  was  latterly  tutor  to  a 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  stabbed  to  the  heart  in  a 
dastardly  manner  by  his  pupil.  The 
story  of  his  achievements  seems  to  be 
rather  highly  colored;  but  he  was  ex- 
travagantly praised  by  Aldus  Manutius 
the  printer  of  Venice,  by  whom  he  was 
well  known.  He  left  some  Latin  poems, 
which  are  said  to  be  possessed  of  no 
remarkable  quality. 

CMCKET,  the  house-cricket  is  about 
an  inch  long,  with  antennae  of  about 
an  inch  and  a half,  of  a pale  yellow- 
ish color  mixed  with  brown  By  the 
friction  of  the  peculiarly-formed  wing- 
covers  the  males  produce  that  strid- 
ulous  sound  by  which  these  insects 
are  so  well  known,  and  which  has  be- 
come associated  with  ideas  of  cheerful 
domestic  comfort.  They  live  in  holes 
and  crevices  near  fire  places  or  in  other 
warm  situations,  whence  they  come  out 
at  night  to  feed  on  crumbs  and  other 
fragments^  of  food.  The  field-cricket 
makes  a similar  noise. 

CRICKET,  an  open-air  game  played 
with  bats,  balls,  and  wickets  on  a place 


of  smooth  green  sward.  It  is  played  by 
two  opposite  sets  or  sides  of  players, 
generally  numbering  eleven  each.  Two 
wickets  of  , three  stumps  each  are 
pitched  fronting  each  other  at  a distance 
of  about  22  yards  apart,  the  stumps 
being  upright  rods  stuck  in  the  ground, 
and  projecting  27  inches.  On  the  top 
of  each  set  of  stumps  are  placed  two 
small  pieces  of  wood  called  bails.  After 
the  rival  sides  have  tossed  for  the  choice 
of  either  taking  the  bat  or  fielding,  two 
men  are  sent  to  the  wickets  bat  in  hand. 
The  opposite  or  fielding  side  are  all 
simultaneously  engaged;  one  (the  bowl- 
er) being  stationed  behind  one  wicket 
for  the  purpo.se  of  bowling  his  ball 
against  the  opposite  wicket,  where  his 
coadjutor  (the  wicket-keeper)  stands 
ready  to  catch  the  ball  should  it  pass 
near  him ; the  other  fielders  are  placed  in 
such  parts  of  the  field  as  is  judged  most 
favorable  for  stopping  the  ball  after  it 
has  been  struck  by  the  batsman  or 
missed  by  the  wicket-keeper.  It  is  the 
object  of  the  batsman  to  prevent  the 
ball  delivered  by  the  bowler  reaching 
his  wicket  either  by  merely  stopping  it 
with  his  bat  or  by  driving  it  away  to  a 
distant  part  of  the  field.  Should  the  ball 
be  driven  any  distance  the  two  batsmen 
run  across  and  exchange  wickets,  and 
continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  there  is  no 
risk  in  being  “run  out,”  that  is,  of  having 
the  stumps  struck  by  the  ball  while 
they  are  out  of  their  position  near  the 
wickets.  Each  time  the  batsmen  run 
between  the  wickets  is  counted  as  a 
“run,”  and  is  marked  to  the  credit  of  the 
striker  of  the  ball.  If  the  batsman 
allows  the  ball  to  carry  away  a bail  or  a 
stump,  if  he  knocks  down  any  part  of 
his  own  wicket,  if  any  part  of  his  person 
stops  a ball  that  would  have  otherwise 
reached  his  wicket,  or  if  he  strikes  a ball 
so  that  it  is  caught  by  one  of  the  op- 
posite party  before  it  reaches  the  ground 
he  is  “out,”  that  is,  he  gives  up  his  bat 
to  one  of  his  own  side;  and  so  the  game 
goes  on  until  all  the  men  on  one  side 
have  played  and  been  put  out.  This 
constitutes  what  is  called  an  “innings.” 
The  other  side  now  take  the  bat  and  try 
to  defend  their  wickets  and  make  runs 
as  their  rivals  did.  Generally  after  two 
innings  each  have  been  played  by  the 
contestants  the  game  comes  to  an  end, 
that  side  being  the  victors  who  can 
score  the  greatest  number  of  runs. 

CRILLON  (kre-yon),  Louis  des  Balbes 
de  Berton  de,  great  French  warrior  of 
the  16th  century,  born  in  1541,  died 
1615.  He  distinguished  himself  in  five 
successive  reigns. 

CRIME,  a term  used  to  indicate  some- 
times a violation  of  the  higher  moral 
law,  sometimes  more  specifically  the 
violation  of  a certain  group  of  the  laws 
formulated  by  a nation.  This  group 
properly  comprises  in  its  scheme  all 
offenses  endangering  the  welfare  of  the 
community,  as  distinct  from  civil  or 
private  injuries,  which  are  as  between 
person  and  person,  and  terminate  with 
the  compensation  of  the  injured.  Hence, 
from  the  legal  point  of  view  crime  is 
sometimes  defined  as  an  offense  punish- 
able by  law  directly,  as  opposed  to  an 
offense  which  the  law  punishes  indirectly 
by  granting  damages  to  the  person 
wronged,  (^e  Criminal  Law.)  Whether 


used  in  the  legal  or  the  moral  sense 
crime  implies  freedom  of  will,  the  power 
of  distinguishing  between  right  and 
wrong,  and  a fulfilled  intention.  Hence, 
though  the  theoretic  rule  of  common 
law  is  that  all  infraction  of  law  is 
criminal  and  penal,  it  is  held  that  young 
children,  madmen,  and  idiots  cannot 
commit  crimes. 

CRIME'A,  The,  a peninsula  of  south- 
ern Russia;  area,  10,000  sq.  miles. 
Three-lourths  of  the  Crimea  belongs  to 
the  regions  of  steppes,  but  the  other 
part,  confided  entirely  to  the  south, 
and  stretching  along  the  coast  from 
west  to  east,  abounds  in  beautiful 
mountain  scenery.  Here  the  valleys 
looking  southward  are  luxuriant  with 
vines  and  olive  and  mulberry  planta- 
tions, while  the  northern  slope  gives  a 
large  yield  in  cereals  and  fruits.  The 
climate,  however,  is  unequal,  and  in 
winter  is  severe.  The  forests  are  of 
limited  extent.  Pop.  estim.  at  450,000. 
The  chief  town  and  port  is  Sebastopol. 
In  1783  the  Russians  took  possession  of 
the  country;  and  with  the  view  of  over- 
awing the  Turks  the  great  naval  arsenal 
of  Sebastopol,  occupying  the  most  com- 
manding position  in  the  Black  sea,  was 
begun  by  Catharine  II.  in  1786.  Its  mili- 
tary resources  were  steadily  developed 
up  to  the  time  of  the  Anglo-French 
campaign  (see  Crimean  War)  of  1854, 
when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  allies. 

CRIME'AN  WAR,  the  struggle  be- 
tween England,  France,  and  Turkey  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Russia  on  the  other, 
to  prevent  the  undue  preponderance  of 
Russia  in  the  east  of  Europe;  1854  to 
1856.  The  old  plans  for  the  extension  of 
Russian  power  conceived  by  Catharine 
II.  and  Potemkin  were  resuscitated  by 
Nicholas  I.,  who,  believing  tha't  he  had 
secured  himself  from  interference  on  the 
part  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  that 
an  Anglo-French  alliance  was  impos- 
sible, prepared  to  carry  them  into  action. 
Servia,  Bosnia,  Bulgaria,  and  the  prin- 
cipalities of  the  Danube  were  to  become 
Russian  protectorates,  and  Constanti- 
nople was  to  be  provisionally  occupied 
by  Russian  troops.  The  first  markedly 
aggressive  step — the  demand  by  Russia 
for  a protectorate  over  the  Greek  Church 
throughout  the  Turkish  empire — 
brought  matters  to  a crisis.  An  ulti- 
matum presented  by  Menschikoff  in 
May,  1853,  was  rejected  by  the  Porte; 
the  Russians  occupied  the  Danubian 
principalities;  and  war  was  declared  by 
the  Porte  in  October,  1853,  by  France 
and  England  in  1854,  and  by  Sardinia 
in  1855.  A French  and  English  fleet 
entered  the  Baltic  and  captured  Bo- 
marsund  and  one  of  the  Aland  Is- 
lands, and  in  the  south  the  allies 
landed  at  Varna,  under  Lord  Raglan 
and  Marshal  St.  Arnaud  as  com- 
manders-in-chief. While  the  allies 
were  making  preparations  Prussia  and 
Austria  demanded  the  evacuation  of  the 
Danubian  principalities,  and  on  evacua- 
tion being  ordered  by  Nicholas,  “for 
strategic  reasons,”  the  principalities 
were  provisionally  occupied  by  the 
Austrians.  It  soon  became  obvious  that 
the  Crimea  must  be  the  seat  of  the  war, 
and  50,000  French  and  English  troops 
with  6000  Turks  were  landed  at  Eupa- 
toria  (Sept.  1854).  Five  days  later  the 


CRIMINAL  LAW 


CROCODILE 


battle  of  Alma  was  won  by  the  allies  (20th 
Sept.),  and  the  march  continued  toward 
the  south  side  of  Sebastopol.  Soon 
after  St.  Arnaud  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  Canrobert.  The  siege  of  Sebastopol 
was  commenced  by  a grand  attack 
which  proved  a failure,  and  the  Russians 
under  Liprandi  retaliated  by  attacking 
the  English  at  Balaklava  (Oct.  25),  but 
were  defeated  with  heavy  loss.  It  was 
at  this  battle  that  the  famous,  but 
useless,  charge  was  made  by  the  Light 
Brigade.  A second  attack  at  Inkerman 
was  again  repulsed  by  the  allies,  but  the 
siege  works  made  slow  progress  during 
the  winter,  in  which  the  ill-supplied 
troops  suffered  great  privations.  The 
death  of  Nicholas  and  succession  of 
Alexander  II.,  in  March,  1855,  brought 
no  change  of  policy.  Canrobert  re- 
signed in  favor  of  Pelissier;  and  shortly 
after  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  those 
parts  of  the  fortification  known  as  the 
Malakhoff  and  Redan  Lord  Raglan  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Simpson.  The 
bombardment  was  continued,  and  in 
September  the  French  successfully 
stormed  the  Malakhoff,  the  simultaneous 
attack  on  the  Redan  by  the  British 
proving  a failure.  The  Russians,  how- 
ever, then  withdrew  from  the  city  to  the 
north  forts  and  the  allies  took  possession. 
The  chief  subsequent  event  was  the 
capture  of  Kars,  in  Asia,  by  the  Rus- 
sians after  a splendid  defense  by  the 
Turks  under  General  Williams  By 
this  time,  however,  the  allies  had 
practical  possession  of  the  Crimea,  and 
overtures  of  peace  were  gladly  accepted. 
A treaty  was  accordingly  concluded  at 
Paris  on  27th  April,  1856,  by  which  the 
independence  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
was  guaranteed.  See  Paris,  Treaty  of. 

CRIMINAL  LAW,  the  law  relating  to 
crimes  The  general  theory  of  the  com- 
mon law  is,  that  all  wrongs  are  divisible 
into  two  species:  first,  civil  or  private 
wrongs  or  torts;  secondly,  criminal  ©r 
public  wrongs.  The  former  are  to  be 
redressed  by  private  suits  or  remedies 
instituted  by  the  parties  injured.  The 
latter  are  redressed  by  the  state  acting 
in  its  sovereign  capacity.  The  general 
description  of  the  private  wrongs  is, 
that  they  comprehend  those  injuries 
which  affect  the  rights  and  property  of 
the  individual,  and  terminate  there; 
that  of  public  wrongs  or  offenses  being, 
that  they  comprehend  such  acts  as 
injure,  not  merely  individuals,  but  the 
community  at  large,  by  endangering 
the  peace,  the  comfort,  the  good  order, 
the  poliejq  and  even  the  existence  of 
society.  In  the  first,  therefore,  so  far 
as  the  law  is  concerned,  the  compen- 
sation of  the  individual,  whose  rights 
have  been  infringed  is  held  to  be  a suffi- 
cient atonement;  but  in  the  second 
class  of  offenses  it  is  demanded  that 
the  offender  make  satisfaction  to  the 
community  as  acting  prejudically  to 
its  welfare.  The  exact  boundaries  be- 
tween these  classes  are  not,  however, 
always  ea.sy  to  be  discerned,  even  in 
theory;  for  there  are  few  private  wrongs 
which  do  not  exert  an  influence  beyond 
the  individual  whom  they  directly  in- 
jure. The  divisions,  torts  and  crimes, 
are  thus  not  necessarily  mutually  ex- 
clusive, cases  sometimes  occurring  in 
which  the  person  injured  obtains  dam- 


ages, while  at  the  same  time  the  crimi- 
nal is  subjected  to  punishment,  not  as 
against  the  individual,  but  as  against 
the  state.  It  is,  moreover,  obvious  that 
legal  ci-iminality  is  not  in  any  strict 
sense  the  measure  of  the  morality  of 
actions,  though  the  legal  enactment 
tends  to  enforce  itself  as  a moral  law. 
In  large  part  it  is  only  an  approximate 
expression  of  the  current  sense  of  justice, 
this  expression  being  both  aided  and 
hindered  by  the  historical  and  con- 
stantly reflexive  character  of  legal 
method.  The  basis  of  the  criminal  law 
of  Britain  and  the  United  States  is  to 
be  found  in  a series  of  loose  definitions 
and  descriptions,  of  which  many,  and 
those  among  the  more  important,  date 
from  the  13th  century.  The  irregular 
superstructure  reared  upon  these  con- 
sists mainly  of  parliamentary  enact- 
ments which  originated  in  the  18th 
century. 

In  the  United  States  the  common  law 
of  England  generally  obtains,  in  some 
states  more  than  in  oihers,  while  in 
all  there  is  a criminal  code,  or  a mass 
of  statutes  defining  crime  and  fixing  the 
punishment.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
United  States  itself  has  a criminal  code 
consisting  of  congressional  enactments. 
The  various  states  have  wide  differ- 
ences in  their  statutory  laws  with 
reference  to  crime. 

CRIMINOLOGY,  the  science  which 
deals  with  crime  and  its  social  and  in- 
dividual causes.  Criminology  in  its 
most  rational  form,  is  embodied  in  the 
writings  of  Cesare  Lombroso,  the 
Italian  alienist,  but  the  attempts  of 
less  capable  persons,  such  as  professors 
of  sociology,  ])rison  chaplains,  wardens, 
“students,”  and  uncultured  physicians, 
have,  especially  in  the  United  States, 
reduced  the  entire  discussion  to  the 
level  of  a farce.  Intelligently  to  under- 
stand criminology  one  must  first  master 
the  main  facts  of  organic  evolution, 
anthropology,  and  human  anatomy. 

CRIMSON,  a rich  deep  red  color,  a 
red  that  owes  its  characteristic  tint  to  a 
certain  admixture  of  blue. 

CRIN'OLINE,  properly  a kind  of 
fabric  made  chiefly  of  horse-hair,  but 
afterward  generally  applied  to  a kind 
of  petticoat  supported  by  steel  hoops, 
and  intended  to  distend  or  give  a cer- 
tain set  to  the  skirt  of  a lady’s  dress. 
Hooped  skirts  (farthingales  or  fardin- 
gales),  supported  by  whalebone,  were 
worn  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  James  I.,  and  the  fashion  was  again 
introduced  in  the  time  of  George  II. 
The  crinoline  proper  came  in  about  1856, 
and  was  worn  by  women  of  all  ranks, 
sometimes  proving  by  their  portentous 
dimensions  a source  of  much  incon- 
venience and  no  little  danger.  The 
immense  bell-shaped  crinolines  happily 
fell  into  disuse  about  1866.  Crinoline 
wire  was  for  years  a leading  branch  in 
the  steel  trade.  A horse-hair  and 
cotton  fabric  used  as  a material  for 
making  ladies’  bonnets  is  also  called 
crinoline. 

CRIP'PLE  CREEK,  a town  and  coun- 
ty-seat of  Teller  County,  Col.,  30  miles 
west-southwe'st  of  Colorado  Springs.  It 
was  founded  in  1890,  developed  rapidly 
after  1893,  and  was  nearly  destroyed 


by  fire  in  1896.  Population,  10,147;  the 
district  contains  about  50,000. 

CRI'SIS,  in  medicine,  the  turnings 
point  in  a disease  at  which  a decided 
change  for  the  better  or  the  worse  takes 
place.  In  regular  fevers  the  crisis  takes 
place  on  regular  days,  which  are  called 
critical  days  (the  7th,  14th,  and  21st) 
sometimes,  however,  a little  sooner  or 
later,  according  to  the  climate  and  the 
constitution  of  the  patient.  The  word 
crisis  is  also  figuratively  used  for  a deci- 
sive point  in  any  important  affair  or 
business,  for  instance,  in  politics  and 
commerce.  Commercial  crises  have 
been  in  an  especial  degree  the  subjects 
of  study  at  the  hands  of  economists 
with  the  result  of  establishing  a curious 
periodicity  in  their  recurrence. 

CRISP,  Charles  Frederic,  an  Ameri- 
can politician  and  lawyer,  born  in  Eng- 
land in  1845,  died  1896.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  as  a child.  He 
fought  in  the  Confederate  army  and 
from  1891  to  1895  was  speaker  of  the 
national  house  of  representatives. 

CRISPI,  Francesco,  an  Italian  states- 
man born  in  Sicily  in  1819,  died  in  1901. 
He  was  a helper  of  Garibaldi,  and  in 
1876  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  From  that  time 
to  1898  he  was  prominent  in  European 
politics  as  cabinet  officer  and  prime 
minister  of  Italy.  In  1898  he  retired  to 
the  practice  of  law  and  occasionally 
wrote  for  popular  magazines  on  ques- 
tions of  European  policy. 

CRIT'TENDEN,Jolin  Jordan,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  in  Kentucky  in 
1787,  died  in  1863.  He  served  in  the 
war  of  1812,  was  United  States  senator 
for  20  years,  governor  of  Kentucky  in 
1848-50,  and  twice  United  States  at- 
torney-general. He  proposed  the  Crit- 
tenden compromise,  which  aimed  at 
the  permanent  retention  of  slavery  in 
all  states  in  which  slavery  existed. 

CROA'TIA,  a country  which  forms 
with  Slavonia  and  the  former  “Military 
Frontiers”  a province  of  the  Hungarian 
portion  of  the  Austrianmonarchy,  partly 
bounded  by  the  Adriatic;  total  area, 
16,411  sq.  miles.  The  inhabitants  are 
Croats  and  Serbs  (both  Slavs  by  race), 
with  a mixture  of  Germans,  Hungarians, 
Jews,  and  Gypsies.  About  three-fourths 
of  the  population  are  R.  Catholics,  the 
rest  belong  chiefly  to  the  Greek  Church. 
The  chief  towns  are  Agram  (the  capital), 
Warasdin,and  Karlstadt.  Pop.  2,184,414. 

CROCHET  (kro'sha),  a species  of 
knitting  performed  with  a small  hook, 
of  ivory,  steel,  or  wood,  the  material 
used  being  woolen,  cotton,  or  silk  thread. 
Various  fancy  articles  are  made  in 
crochet-work. 

CROCKETT,  David,  an  American 
backwoodsman,  born  in  Tennessee  in 
1786,  died  in  1836.  He  was  the  origina- 
tor of  the  aphorism  “Be  sure  jmu’re 
right,  then  go  ahead.”  Crockett  was 
the  ideal  of  the  American  pioneer.  He 
fought  in  the  Indian  war  under  Jackson 
and  was  elected  to  congress  and  was 
killed  while  defending  the  Alamo. 

CROC'ODILE,  a genus,  family,  and 
order  of  saurian  reptiles,  comprising  the 
largest  living  forms  of  reptiles.  The 
characters  of  the  order  Crocodilia  are  as 
follows: — The  skin  is  covered  with 
square  bonj"^  plates;  the  tail  is  long  and 


CROCUS 


CROMWELL 


compressed  laterally.  The  four  feet  are 
short,  and  there  are  five  toes  on  each 
of  the  two  fore-feet,  and  four  on  each  of 
the  two  hind-feet,  the  latter  more  or  less 
webbed;  the  limbs  are  feeble.  The 
jaws  are  long  and  their  gape  of  enor- 
mous width.  The  nostrils  are  at  the 
extremity  of  the  snout,  and  capable 
of  being  closed  to  prevent  ingress  of 
water.  The  heart  is  four-chambered. 
Crocodiles  have  unequal  teeth  and  no 


Crocodile. 


abdominal  plates,  and  the  cervical  and 
dorsal  plates  are  distinct  for  the  most 
part.  The  crocodile  of  the  Nile  is  the 
best-known  member  of  the  order; 
another  species  is  met  with  in  South 
Asia,  Sunda,  and  the  Moluccas.  The 
crocodile  is  formidable  from  its  great 
size  and  strength,  but  on  shore  its  short- 
ness of  limb,  great  length  of  body,  and 
difficulty  of  turning  enable  men  and 
animals  readily  to  escape  pursuit.  In 
the  water  it  is  active  and  formidable. 
It  is  exclusively  carnivorous,  and  al- 
ways prefers  its  food  in  a state  of  putre- 
faction. In  Egypt  it- is  no  longer  found  I 
except  in  the  upper  or  more  southern 
parts,  where  the  heat  is  greatest  and  the 
population  least  numerous.  Crocodiles 
are  still  common  enough  in  the  river 
Senegal,  the  Congo,  Niger,  etc.  They 
grow  sometimes  to  a length  of  30  feet, 
and  apparently  live  to  a vast  age. 

CROCUS,  a genus  of  plants,  forming 
one  of  the  most  common  ornaments  of 
the  garden.  They  may  be  divided,  ac- 
cording to  their  period  of  flowering, 
into  vernal  and  autumnal.  Among  the 
vernal  crocuses  may  be  mentioned  the 
white  and  purple,  distinguished  by  the 
yellow  tube  of  its  flower  bearded  with 
hairs,  and  its  sweet  scent;  the  Scotch 
crocus,  with  beautiful  pencilled  sepals, 
and  clear  or  bluish-white  petals.  Among 
the  autumnal  species  are  two  whose 
long,  reddish-orange,  drooping  stigmas, 
when  dried,  form  saffron.  See  Saffron. 

CRCESUS,  the  last  king  of  Lydia,  son 
of  Alyattes,  whom  he  succeeded  in  560 
n.c.,  extending  the  empire  from  the 
northern  and  western  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  to  the  Halys  on  the  east  and 
Mount  Taurus  on  the  south,  including 
the  Greek  colonies  of  the  mainland. 
His  riches,  obtained  chiefly  from  mines 
and  the  gold-dust  of  the  river  Pactolus, 
were  greater  than  those  of  any  king 
before  him,  so  that  his  wealth  became 
proverbial. 

CROFTERS,  petty  farmers  renting  a 
few  acres  of  land,  with  sometimes  the 
right  of  grazing  their  cattle  in  common 
on  a piece  of  rough  pasture.  Crofters 
are  numerous  in  the  Highlands  and  in 
the  Western  Islands  of  Scotland,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  localities. 

CROKER,  Richard,  an  American 
politician  born  in  Ireland  in  1843,  emi- 


grated to  N.  Y.  City  as  a child.  He  be- 
gan life  as  a laborer  and  entered  politics 
as  a ward  worker.  He  served  as  aider- 
man,  rose  in  power  in  Tammany  Hall, 
and  in  1886  became  the  democratic 
leader  of  New  York  City  politics.  In 
1902  he  resigned  from  Tammany  and 
went  to  England  to  live. 

CROLY,  Jane  Cunningham,  (Jennie 
June),  an  American  writer,  born  in 
England  in  1831,  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  as  a girl.  She  died  in 
1901.  She  was  widely  known  for  the 
part  she  took  in  women’s  reform  move- 
ments and  women’s  clubs.  She  was 
a liberal  contributor  to  newspapers  and 
magazines  and  published  several  books 
for  women. 

CROMLECH  (krom'lek),  an  ancient 
monument  consisting  of  two  or  more 
columns  of  unhewn  stone  supporting  a 
large  tabular  block  so  as  to  form  a 
rectangular  chamber,  beneath  the  floor 


Cromlech  at  Lanyon,  Cornwall. 


of  which  is  sometimes  found  a cist  in- 
closing a skeleton  and  relics.  Some- 
times the  cromlech  was  encircled  by  a 
ring  of  standing-stones,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  standing-stones  of  Stennis,  in 
Orkney;  and  sometimes  it  was  itself 
buried  beneath  a large  mound  of  earth. 

I CROM'WELL,  Oliver,  Lord-protector 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland,  was  born  at  Hunt- 
ingdon April  25,  1599.  The  first  really 
authentic  fact  in  his  biography  is  his 
leaving  school  at  Huntingdon  and 
entering  Sidney-Sussex  College,  Cam- 
bridge, April  23,  1616.  On  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1617  he  returned  home, 
and  in  1620  married  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Sir  James  Bourchier.  In  1628  he 


Oliver  Cromwell. 


was  member  of  parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Huntingdon,  to  which  he 
returned  on  the  dissolution  in  1629. 
During  the  short  and  long  parlia- 
ments he  represented  Cambridge,  his 
influence  gradually  increasing.  At  the 
battle  of  Winceby  (1643)  he  led  the  van 
narrowly  escaping  death,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  led  the  victorious  left 
at  Marston  Moor,  deciding  the  result  of 
the  battle.  As  the  result  of  the  disci- 
pline introduced  by  Cromwell  the  decisive 
victory  of  Naseby  was  gained  in  1645, 
and  Leicester,  Taunton,  Bridgewater, 


Bristol,  Devizes,  Winchester,  and  Dart- 
mouth fell  into  the  hands  of  the  parlia- 
ment. On  the  occasion  of  the  surrender 
of  Charles  by  the  Scottish  army  in  1646 
Cromwell  was  one  of  the  commissioners. 
Though  at  first  supporting  parliainent  in 
its  wish  to  disband  the  army,  which  re- 
fused to  lay  down  its  arms  till  the 
freedom  of  the  nation  was  established, 
he  afterward  saw  reason  to  decide  in 
favor  of  the  latter  course.  Hastily 
suppressing  the  Welsh  rising,  he  march- 
ed against  the  Scottish  royalists,  whom 
he  defeated  with  a much  inferior  force 
at  Preston  (Aug.  17,  1648).  Then  fol- 
lowed the  tragedy  of  the  king’s  execu- 
tion, Cromwell’s  name  standing  third 
in  order  in  the  death-warrant.  Affairs 
in  Ireland  demanding  his  presence,  he 
was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  and  com- 
mander-in-chief ; and  by  making  a 
terrible  example  of  Drogheda  (Septem- 
ber, 1649),  crushed  the  royalist  party  in 
that  country  within  six  months.  Re- 
signing the  command  to  Ireton,  he 
undertook,  at  the  request  of  the  parlia- 
ment, a similar  expedition  against  Scot- 
land, where  Charles  II.  had  been  pro- 
claimed king.  With  an  army  greatly 
reduced  by  sickness  he  saved  himself 
from  almost  inevitable  disaster  hy  the 
splendid  victory  at  Dunbar  (Sept.  3, 
1650),  and  a year  later  put  an  end  to  the 
struggle  by  his  total  defeat  of  the 
royalists  at  Worcester  (Sept.  3,  1651). 

He  already  exerted  a weighty  in- 
fluence in  the  supreme  direction  of 
affairs,  being  instrumental  in  restoring 
the  continental  relations  of  England, 
which  had  been  almost  entirely  dis- 
solved, and  regulating  them  so  as  to 
promote  the  interests  of  commerce.  The 
navigation  act,  from  which  may  be 
dated  the  rise  of  the  naval  power  of 
England,  was  framed  upon  his  sug- 
gestion, and  passed  in  1651.  The 
rump  parliament,  as  the  remnant  of 
the  long  parliament  was  called,  had 
become  worse  than  useless,  and  on  April 
20,  1653,  Cromwell,  with  300  soldiers, 
dispersed  that  body.  He  then  sum- 
moned a council  of  state,  consisting 
mainly  of  his  principal  officers,  which 
finally  chose  a parliament  of  persons 
selected  from  the  three  kingdoms,  nick- 
named Barebone’s  Parliament,  or  the 
Little  Parliament.  Fifteen  months  after 
a new  annual  parliament  was  chosen; 
but  Cromwell  soon  prevailed  on  this 
body,  who  were  totally  incapable  of 
governing,  to  place  the  charge  of  the 
commonwealth  in  his  hands.  The  chief 
power  now  devolving  again  upon  the 
council  of  officers  (Dec.  12,  1653),  they 
declared  Oliver  Cromwell  sole  governor 
of  the  commonwealth,  under  the  name 
of  Lord-protector,  with  an  assistant 
council  of  twenty-one  men.  The  new 
protector  behaved  with  dignity  and 
firmness.  Despite  the  innumerable 
difficulties  which  beset  him  from  adverse 
parliaments,  insurgent  royalists,  and 
mutinous  republicans,  the  early  months 
of  his  rule  established  favorable  treaties 
with  Holland,  Sweden,  Portugal,  Den- 
mark, and  France.  In  Sept.  1656  he 
called  a new  parliament,  which  under- 
took the  revisal  of  the  constitution  and 
offered  Cromwell  the  title  of  king.  On 
his  refusal  he  was  again  installed  as 
Lord-protector,  but  with  his  powers 


CRONSTADT 

now  legally  defined.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  however,  he  peremptorily 
dissolved  the  house,  which  had  rejected 
the  authority  of  the  second  chamber. 
Abroad  his  influence  still  increased, 
reaching  its  full  height  after  the  victory 
of  Dunkirk  in  June,  1658.  But  his 
masterly  administration  was  not  effected 
without  severe  strain,  and  upon  the 
death  of  his  favorite  daughter,  Eliza- 
beth Claypole,  in  the  beginning  of 
August,  1658,  his  health  began  to  fail 
him.  Toward  the  end  of  the  month  he 
was  confined  to  his  room  from  a tertian 
fever,  and  on  Sept.  3,  1658,  died  at 
Whitehall,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his 
age.  He  was  buried  in  King  Henry 
VII. ’s  Chapel,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but 
after  the  restoraton  his  body  was  taken 
up  and  hanged  at  Tyburn,  the  head 
being  fixed  on  a pole  at  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  the  rest  of  the  remains 
buried  under  the  gallows. — Great  as  a 
general,  Cromwell  was  still  greater  as  a 
civil  ruler. 

CRONSTADT  (kron'stat),  a town  of 
Austria,  in  Transylvania,  after  Her- 
mannstadt  the  principal  seat  of  the 
industry  and  trade  of  the  province, 
lying  in  a mountainous  but  well-wooded 
and  romantic  district  near  its  southeast 
corner.  Pop.  34,511. 

CRONSTADT,  a maritime  fortress  of 
Russia,  about  20  miles  w.  St.  Petersburg, 
both  by  its  position  and  the  strength  of 
its  fortifications,  the  bulwark  of  the 
capital,  and  being  also  the  most  im- 
portant naval  station  of  the  empire. 
Cronstadt  used  to  be  the  commercial 
port  of  St.  Petersburg,  but  since  the 
construction  of  a canal  giving  large 
vessels  direct  access  to  the  capital  it  has 
lost  this  position.  Pop.  48,276. 

CROOKES,  Sir  William,  a noted 
British  chemist  and  physicist,  born  in 
London  in  1832.  He  was  one  of  the  ear- 
liest physicists  to  study  radio-activity, 
and  invented  the  term  “radiant  matter.” 
He  did  most  valuable  work  in  spectros- 
copy, in  the  chemistry  of  dyes,  and 
devised  the  Crookes  tubes  Avhich  led  to 
the  discovery  of  the  X-ray.  His  radiom- 
eter, a little  instrument  which  is  moved 
by  light-rays,  is  familiar  to  almost 
everyone  who  has  looked  into  the  show- 
vfindow  of  an  optician. 

CROQUET  (kro'ka),  an  open-air  game 
played  with  balls,  mallets,  hoops,  and 
pegs  on  a level  area,  which  should  be  at 
least  30  yards  long  by  20  wide.  The 
iron  hoops  (shaped  like  the  letter  U)  are 
fixed  with  their  two  ends  in  the  ground, 
arranged  in  a somewhat  zigzag  manner 
over  the  ground;  they  are  usually  ten 
in  number.  The  posts  or  pegs  (two  in 
number)  are  placed  at  the  near  and  far 
end  of  the  field  respectively,  marking 
the  starting  and  turning  points.  The 
game  may  be  played  by  any  number  of 
persons  up  to  eight,  either  individually, 
or  arranged  in  couples  or  in  sides.  The 
object  of  the  players  is  to  drive  with  the 
mallets  the  balls  belonging  to  their 
own  side  through  the  hoops  and  against 
the  posts  in  a certain  order,  and  to 
prevent  the  balls  of  their  opponents  from 
completing  the  journey  before  their 
own  by  playing  them  against  those  of 
the  enemy,  and  driving  them  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  hoop  or  post  to  be 
played  for;  the  player  or  players  whose 


balls  first  complete  the  course  claiming 
the  victory. 

CROSBY,  Frances  Jane,  an  American 
writer  of  hymns,  born  in  New  York  in 
1820.  She  became  blind  when  a child, 
a fact  which  probably  influenced  her 
religious  emotionality.  Among  her 
well  known  hymns  are  “Safe  in  the 
Arms  of  Jesus,”  and  “Pass  Me  Not  O 
Gentle  Savior.” 

CROSS,  one  straight  body  laid  at  any 
angle  across  another,  or  a symbol  of  simi- 
lar shape.  Among  the  ancients  a piece  of 
wood  fastened  across  a tree  or  upright 
post  formed  a cross,  on  which  were  exe- 
cuted criminals  of  the  worst  class  It 
had,  therefore,  a place  analogous  to 
that  of  the  modern  gallows  as  an  instru- 
ment of  infamous  punishment  until  it 


which  is  placed  at  one-third  the  distance  from 
the  top  of  the  perpendicular  portion,  supposed 
to  be  the  form  of  cross  on  which  Christ  suffered. 
3,  Tau  Cross,  (so  called  from  being  formed  like 
the  Greek  letter  r , tau) , or  cross  of  St.  Anthony , 
one  of  the  most  ancient  forms  of  the  cross.  4, 
Cross  of  Lorraine.  5,  Patriarchal  Cross.  6,  St. 
Andrew’s  Cross,  the  form  of  cross  on  which  St. 
Andrew,  the  national  saint  of  Scotland,  is  said 
to  have  suffered.  7,  Greek  Cross,  or  cross  of 
St.  George,  the  national  saint  of  England,  the 
red  cross  which  appears  on  British  flags.  8, 
Papal  Cross.  9,  Cross  nowy  quadrat,  that  is, 
having  a square  expansion  In  the  center.  10, 
Maltese  Cross,  formed  of  four  arrow-heads 
meeting  at  the  points;  the  badge  of  the  Knights 
of  Malta.  11,  Cross  fourch6e  or  forked.  12, 
Cross  pattfie  or  form6e.  13,  Cross  potent  or 
Jerusalem  Cross.  14,  Cross  fleury,  from  the 
fleur  de  11s  at  its  ends. 

acquired  honor  from  the  crucifixion  of 
Christ.  The  custom  of  making  the  sign 
of  the  cross  in  memory  of  Christ  may 
be  traced  to  the  3d  century.  Constan- 
tine had  crosses  erected  in  public  places, 
palaces,  and  churches,  and  adopted  it, 
according  to  a legend,  as  the  device  for 
a banner  in  consequence  of  a dream 
representing  it  as  the  symbol  of  victory. 
In  his  time  also  Christians  painted  it  at 
the  entrance  of  their  houses  as  a sign  of 
their  faith,  and  subsequently  the 
churches  were  for  the  most  part  built  in 
the  form  of  a cross.  It  did  not,  however, 
become  an  object  of  adoration  until 
after  the  alleged  discovery  of  the  true 
cross  by  the  Empress  Helena  (a.d.  326). 
Its  adoption  as  the  Christian  symbol 
may  be  held  to  connect  itself  with  the 
fact  that  it  was  used  emblematically 
long  before  the  Christian  era,  in  the 
same  way  that  traces  of  belief  in  a 
trinity,  in  a war  in  heaven,  in  a paradise, 
a flood,  a Babel,  an  immaculate  con- 
ception, and  remission  by  the  shedding 
of  blood,  are  to  be  found  diffused 
amongst  widely  sundered  peoples.  The 
general  meaning  attached  to  the  sign 
appears  to  have  been  that  of  life  and 
regeneration  Since  its  adoption  by 
Christianity  it  has  undergone  many 


\ 

CROSS-EXAMINATION 

modifications  of  shape,  and  has  been 
employed  in  a variety  of  ways  for  orna- 
ments, badges,  heraldic  bearings,  etc. 
After  the  introduction  of  the  cross  into 
the  military  ensigns  of  the  crusaders 
its  use  in  heraldry  became  frequent, 
and  its  form  was  varied  more  than  that 
of  any  other  heraldic  ordinary,  some  of 
the  varieties  being  of  great  beauty.  The 
name  cross  is  also  given  to  various 
architectural  structures,  of  which  a 
cross  in  stone  was  a prominent  feature; 
thus  we  have  market  crosses,  peaching 
crosses,  monumental  crosses,  etc 
CROSS,  Exaltation  of  the,  a Catholic 
festival  celebrated  on  the  14th  of 
September  in  honor  of  the  recovery  of 
a portion  of  the  true  cross  from  the 
Persians  by  Heraclius  (628  a.d.)  and 
its  erection  on  Mount  Calvary. 

CROSS,  Victoria.  See  Victoria  Cross 
CROSS'BILL,  a genus  of  birds  of  the 
finch  family,  deriving  their  name  from 
a peculiarity  of  their  bill,  the  mandibles 
of  which  are  curved  at  the  tips,  so  as  to 


American  crossbill. 

cross  each  other,  sometimes  on  the  one 
side  and  sometimes  on  tbe  other.  The 
form  of  the  bill  enables  them  to  extract 
wdth  ease  the  seeds  of  the  pine,  their 
usual  food,  from  underneath  the  scales  of 
the  cones.  They  build  and  also  breed 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  in  December, 
as  in  March,  April,  or  May 

CROSS-BILL,  a bill  brought  by  a 
defendant  against  he  complainant  in 
an  action  at  law.  It  is  used  in  equity  or 
chancery  cases,  and  its  purpose  is  to 
bring  the  details  of  the  case  more 
fully  before  the  court. 

CROSS-BOW,  or  ARBALIST,  form- 
erly a very  common  weapon  for  shooting, 
consisting  of  a bow  fastened  athwart  a 
stock.  The  bow,  which  was  often  of 
steel,  was  usually  bent  by  a lever  wind- 
lass, or  other  mechanical  contrivance, 
the  missile  usually  consisting  of  a square- 
headed  bolt  or  quarrel,  but  occasionally 
of  short  arrows,  stones,  and  leaden  bul- 
lets. Though  largely  used  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent  the  cross-bow  was  super- 
seded at  an  early  period  in  England  by 
the  more  efficient  long-bow,  from  which 
twelve  arrows  could  be  despatched  per 
minute  to  three  bolts  of  the  cross-bow 

CROSS-BREEDING,  the  breeding  to- 
■gether  of  animals  of  different  races  or 
stocks.  See  Breeding. 

CROSS-EXAMINATION,  a term  ap- 
plied to  the  examination  given  a vfit- 
ness  by  one  party  to  a suit  after  the 
other  party  has  finished  the  direct 
examination.  Cross  examination  always 
assumes  previous  examination  There 


cross-fertilization 


CROWNINSHlELi) 


is  re-cross  examination  (when  re-direct 
examination  has  been  taken  up  after 
cross-examination)  and  cross-examina- 
tion “in  rebuttal” — to  re-direct  exami- 
nation. Cross  examination  must  be 
limited  to  matters  touched  upon  by 
direct  examination.  Its  purpose  is  to 
weaken  the  value  of  the  witness’s  testi- 
mony. 

CROSS-FERTILIZATION,  in  botany, 
the  fertilization  of  the  ovule  of  one 
flower  by  the  pollen  of  another,  usually 
effected  by  the  agency  of  insects,  the 
action  of  the  wind,  water,  etc.  See 
Botany. 

CROSS-TREES,  in  ships,  certain  pieces 
of  timber  at  the  upper  ends  of  the  lower 
and  top  masts,  athwart  which  they  are 


laid,  to  sustain  the  frame  of  the  tops  in 
the  one,  and  extend  the  top-gallant 
shrouds  on  the  other. 

CRO'TON,  a genus  of  herbaceous 

Elants,  shrubs,  and  trees,  order  Euphor- 
iacese,  comprehending  a great  number 
of  species,  many  of  which  possess  im- 
portant medical  properties.  See  Croton 
Oil. 

CROTON-OIL,  a vegetable  oil  ex- 
pressed from  the  seeds  of  the  Croton. 
It  is  so  strongly  purgative  that  one  drop 
is  a full  dose,  and  half  a drop  will  some- 
times produce  a powerful  effect,  and  it 
should  never  be  used  except  by  the 
direction  of  an  experienced  physician. 
When  applied  externally  it  causes 
irritation  and  suppuration,  and  thus  it 
is  used  as  a counter-irritant  in  neu- 
ralgia, etc. 

CROUCH,  Frederick  Nicholls,  an 
American  musician  born  in  London  in 
1808,  died  in  Maine  in  1896.  His  prin- 
cipal works  were  Kathleen  Mavourneen, 
The  Soldier’s  Grave,  The  Emigrant's 
Lament,  Friendship,  and  Twenty  Years 
Ago. 

CROUP  (krop).  Two  diseases  are 
commonly  confounded  under  the  term 
“croup,”  one  a simple  and,  if  promptly 
treated,  a readily  subdued  disease,  the 
other  most  fatal.  The  former  is  simple 
inflammation  of  the  inner  lining  mem- 
brame  of  the  larynx — the  box  of  the 
windpipe — or  of  the  windpipe  itself,  or 
of  both._  It  is  common  in  children,  and 
as  the  air-passage  of  children  is  narrow, 
the  swelling  produced  by  the  inflam- 
mation so  diminishes  the  fair-way  that 
difficult  breathing,  hoarseness  of  voice, 
and  a cough  like  a muffled  bark  are 
quickly  produced,  while  the  breathing 
sounds  loud  and  harsh.  The  other 
disease  is  diphtheria  of  the  larynx  or 
windpipe,  or  both,  in  which  a false 
membrane  is  formed  which  lines  the  air- 
passages,  and  so  narrows  them.  Croup 


frequently  proves  fatal  by  suffocation, 
induced  either  by  spasm  affecting  the 
glottis,  or  by  a quantity  of  matter 
blocking  up  the  air-passages.  The 
earliest  symptoms  should  be  noted,  and 
the  treatment  in  the  absence  of  im- 
mediate medical  advice  should  consist 
in  the  application  of  hot  poultices  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  child  is  made  to  inhale 
the  steam  from  hot  water.  Hot  drinks 
are  beneficial,  and  the  bowels  should  be 
freely  opened. 

CROW,  a genus  of  birds,  type  of  the 
family  Corvidae.  It  includes,  as  British 
species,  the  carrion-crow,  the  hooded  or 
Royston  crow,  the  raven,  the  rook,  and 
the  jackdaw,  the  last  three  of  which  are 
described  under  their  respective  heads. 
The  carrion-crow,  or  simply  the  crow, 
is  18  or  19  inches  in  length,  and  about  36 
between  the  tips  of  the  w’ings.  Its 
plumage  is  compact  and  glossy  blue- 
black  with  some  greenish  reflections 
Its  favorite  food  is  carrion  of  all  kinds; 
but  it  also  preys  upon  small  quadrupeds, 
young  birds,  frogs,  lizards,  etc.,  and  is  a 
confirmed  robber  of  the  nests  of  game 
birds  and  poultry.  It  is  not  gregarious, 
being  generally  met  with  either  solitary 
or  in  pairs.  It  builds  a large  isolated 
nest,  with  from  four  to  six  eggs,  gen- 
erally of  a bluish-green  with  blotches  of 
brown.  The  carrion-crow  is  easily 
tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to  articulate 
words.  The  American  crow  is  similar 
to  the  foregoing,  but  is  smaller  and  less 
robust,  and  is  somewhat  gregarious. 
This  crow  is  common  in  all  parts  of  the 
U.  States,  and  is  deemed  a great  nuisance 
by  farmers  from  preying  on  their  corn. 
The  fish-crow,  another  American  crow, 
resembling  the  preceding  but  smaller, 
is  abundant  in  the  coast  districts  of  the 
southern  states.  Its  favorite  food  is 
fish,  but  it  also  eats  all  kinds  of  garbage, 
mollusca,  etc.  In  winter  its  food  is 
chiefly  fruit,  and  it  is  then  fat  and  con- 
sidered good  eating. 

CROW-BLACKBIRD,  the  name  of 
certain  American  birds.  The  great 
crow-blackbird,  found  in  the  southern 
states,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies,  is 
16  inches  long,  and  of  a glossy  black 
plumage.  The  female  is  of  a light-brown 
above  and  whitish  beneath.  The  purple 
grackle,  lesser  or  common  crow-black- 
bird, is  similar  in  color  to  the  preceding, 
but  smaller.  They  reach  the  middle 
states  of  America  from  the  south  in 
flocks  in  the  latter  part  of  March,  and 
build  in  April  in  the  tall  pines  or  cedars 
On  their  first  arrival  they  feed  upon 
insects,  but  afterward  commit  great 
ravages  upon  the  young  corn.  In 
November  they  fly  southward  again. 

CROWN,  a circular  ornament  for  the 
head.  As  now  used  the  name  is  limited 
to  the  head-dress  worn  by  royal  per- 
sonages as  a badge  of  sovereigntv,  but 
it  was  formerly  used  to  include  the 
wreaths  or  garlands  worn  by  the  ancients 
upon  special  occasions.  Thus,  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  crowns  made 
of  grass,  flowers,  twigs  of  laurels,  oak, 
olive,  parsley,  etc.,  and  latterly  of  gold, 
were  made  use  of  as  honors  in  atheletic 
contests,  as  rewards  for  military  valor, 
and  at  feasts,  funerals,  etc.  It  is,  how- 
ever, with  the  eastern  diadem  rather 
than  with  the  classic  corona  that  the 


crown  as  a symbol  of  royalty  is  con- 
nected; indeed,  is  was  only  introduced 
as  such  a symbol  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  followed  the  Persian  usage. 
Antony  wore  a crown  in  Eg5'pt,  and  the 
Roman  emperors  also  wore  crowns  of 
various  forms,  from  the  plain  golden 
fillet  to  the  radiated  or  rayed  crown 
In  modern  states  they  were  also  of 
various  forms  until  heralds  devised  a 
regular  series  to  mark  the  grades  of 
rank  from  the  imperial  crown  to  the 
baron’s  coronet.  The  English  crown 


^ 1,  Crown  of  England.  2,  Rnssian  Crown.  3,  French 

Jrown.  4,  Austrian  Crown.  6,  Imperial  Crown  (Cbarle* 

tnagne’s). 

has  been  gradually  built  up  from  the 
plain  circlet  with  four  trefoil  heads  worn 
by  William  the  Conqueror.  This  form 
was  elaborated  and  jeweled,  and 
finally  arched  in  with  jeweled  bands 
surmounted  by  the  cross  and  scepter. 
As  at  present  existing  the  crown  of 
England  is  a gold  circle,  adorned  with 
pearls  and  precious  stones,  having 
alternately  four  Maltese  crosses  and 
four  fleurs-de-lis.  From  the  top  of  the 
crosses  rise  imperial  arches,  closing 
under  a mound  and  cross.  The  whole 
covers  a crimson  velvet  cap  with  an 
ermine  border.  The  crown  of  Charle- 
magne, which  is  preserved  in  the  im- 
perial treasury  of  Vienna,  is  composed 
of  eight  plates  of  gold,  four  large  and 
four  small,  connected  by  hinges.  The 
large  plates  are  studded  with  precious 
stones,  the  front  one  being  surmounted 
with  a cross;  the  smaller  ones,  placed 
alternately  with  these,  are  ornamented 
with  enamels  representing  Solomon, 
David,  Hezekiah,  and  Isaiah,  and  Christ 
seated  between  two  flaming  seraphim. 
The  Austrian  crown  is  a sort  of  cleft 
tiara,  having  in  the  middle  a semi-circle 
of  gold  supporting  a mound  and  cross; 
the  tiara  rests  on  a circle  with  pendants 
like  those  of  a miter.  The  royal  crown 
of  France  is  a circle  ornamented  with 
eight  fleurs-de-lis,  from  which  rise  as 
many  quarter-circles  closing  under  a 
double  fleur-de-lis.  The  triple  crown 
of  the  popes  is  more  commonly  called 
tiara. 

CROWN,  a British  silver  coin  value 
five  shillings  ($1.20),  first  coined  by 
Henry  VIII.  None  were  coined  from 
1851  to  1887.  In  1847  and  1848  some 
pattern  crowns  were  struck  with  a gold 
center,  but  the  experiment  was  carried 
no  further. 

CROWN'INSHIELD,  Arthur  Schuyler, 
an  American  naval  officer,  born  in  1843 
and  educated  at  the  naval  academy. 
He  took  part  in  the  naval  battles  of  the 
civil  war,  and  during  the  Spanish  war 
was  a member  of  the  Board  of  Naval 


CEOWN  LANDS 


CRUSADES 


Strategy  which  sat  at  Wasliington, 
D.  C.  He  died  in  1809. 

CROWN  LANDS,  the  lands  belonging 
to  the  British  crown.  These  are  now 
surrendered  to  the  country  at  the  be- 
ginning of  every  sovereign’s  reign  in 
return  for  an  allowance  (the  civil  list) 
fixed  at  a certain  amount  for  the  reign 
by  parliament.  They  are  placed  under 
commissioners,  and  the  revenue  de- 
rived from  them  becomes  part  of  the 
consolidated  fund. 

CROWN  SOLICITOR,  in  England,  the 
solicitor  to  the  treasury,  who  instructs 
counsel  in  all  state  prosecutions.  In 
Ireland,  an  officer  attached  to  each 
circuit,  paid  by  a salary,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  take  charge  of  every  case  for  the 
crown  in  criminal  cases. 

CROY'DON,  a mun.,  pari.,  and  co., 
borough,  England,  in  county  Surrey,  10 
miles  s.  of  London,  of  which  it  is  prac- 
tically a suburb,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Wandle,  and  near  the  Banstead  Downs. 
Of  special  interest  are  the  remains  of 
the  ancient  palace,  long  a residence  of 
the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury.  Pop. 
133  885 

CROZIER.  See  Crosier. 

CRU'CIBLE,  a vessel  employed  to 
hold  substances  which  are  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  a high  temperature  without 
collecting  the  volatile  products  of  the 
action.  It  is  usually  of  a conical, 
circular,  or  triangular  shape,  closed  at 
the  bottom  and  open  at  the  top,  and  is 
made  of  various  materials,  such  as  fire- 
clay, platinum,  a mixture  of  fire-clay 
and  plumbago,  porcelain,  etc. 

CRU'CIFIX,  a cross  bearing  the  figure 
of  Christ.  As  a rule  the  figures  on  the 
most  ancient  crucifixes  were  not  carved, 
but  were  engraved  on  gold,  silver,  or  iron 
crosses.  At  a later  period  they  were 
painted  on  wood,  and  it  is  only  in  the 
9th  century  in  the  pontificate  of  Leo 
III.,  that  the  figure  of  Christ  appears 
carved  upon  the  cross  in  bas-relief. 
Originally  the  body  was  represented 
clothed  in  a tunic  reaching  to  the  feet ; 
afterward  the  clothing  was  removed 
with  the  exception  of  a cloth  round  the 
loins.  Until  the  11th  century  Christ 
is  represented  alive;  since  that  period 
he  has  been  represented  as  dead.  In  the 
earlier  crucifixes,  also,  the  number  of 
nails  by  which  Christ  is  fixed  to  the 
cross  is  four, one  through  each  hand  and 
each  foot,  while  in  the  more  modern 
ones  one  foot  is  laid  above  the  other 
and  a single  nail  driven  through  both. 
Many  crucifixes  bear  also  the  super- 
scription in  an  abbreviated  form,  and 
accessory  symbbls  and  figures. 

CRUCIFIXION,  a mode  of  inflicting 
capital  punishment,  by  affixing  crim- 
inals to  a wooden  cross,  formerly 
widely  practiced,  but  now  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  Mohammedans.  Different 
kinds  of  crosses  were  employed,  espe- 
cially that  consisting  of  two  beams  at 
right  angles,  and  the  St.  Andrew’s 
cross. 

CRUDEN,  Alexander,  compiler  of  the 
Concordance  to  the  Scriptures,  was  born 
at  Aberdeen  in  1701.  He  took  the 
degree  of  M.  A.,  at  Marischal  College, 
and  in  1722  proceeded  to  London.  His 
great  work  appeared  in  1737,  under  the 
title  of  A Complete  Concordance  of  the 


Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament.  He  died  in  Islington  in 
1770. 

CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS,  in  the 

modern  sense  the  wanton  maltreatment 
of  beasts.  Until  recent  times  the  senti- 
ment against  cruelty  to  animals  did  not 
take  definite  form  until  1826,  when  the 
first  society  of  prevention  was  organized 
in  England.  The  first  apostle  of  pre- 
vention in  the  U.  States  was  Henry 
Bergh,  through  whose  efforts  almost 
all  states  have  been  led  to  adopt  laws 
severely  punishing  cruelty  to  animals. 

CRUELTY  TO  CHILDREN,  the  mod- 
ern notion  that  it  Is  a crime  to  mistreat 
one’s  own  children.  In  1875  the  New 
York  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Cliildren  was  organized  and 
has  been  widely  copied  in  other  cities. 
The^e  societies  do  not  concern  them- 
selves with  child  labor,  which  is  cruelty 
to  children  on  a social  scale  and  one  of 
the  greatest  crimes  of  which  society  is 
guilty. 

CRUIKSHANK,  George,  the  greatest 
of  English  pictorial  satirists  after 
Hogarth,  born  in  London  1792,  of 
Scottish  extraction.  The  earliest  of  his 
drawings  known  is  dated  1799,  when 
he  was  only  seven  years  of  age,  and 
when  fifteen  he  was  comparatively 
distinguished.  In  1837  he  commenced 
in  Bentley’s  Miscellany  his  famous 
series  of  etchings  on  steel  illustrative  of 
Dickens’  Oliver  Twist,  followed  two 
years  later  by  those  for  Ainsworth’s 
Jack  Sheppard,  and  then  by  those  for 
Windsor  Castle  and  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. Having  connected  himself  with 
the  temperance  movement  he  produced 
the  Bottle,  a powerful  and  popular 
series  of  designs,  but  marking  clearly 
the  limits  of  his  art.  His  temperance 
connection  and  'his  absurd  claims  to 
having  suggested  the  idea  of  Dicken’s 
Oliver  Twist,  undermined  his  artistic 
reputation.  Poorly  paid  for  work  by 
which  others  profited,  he  was  latterly 
obliged  to  part  with  the  vast  collection 
of  his  works,  and  in  1866  $250.00  a year 
was  settled  on  him  from  the  Royal 
Academy’s  Turner  Annuities.  He  lat- 
terly turned  his  attention  to  oil-painting, 
his  most  noteworthy  pictures  being  Tam 
o’  Shanter,  Disturbing  a Congregation, 
and  The  Worship  of  Bacchus.  He  died 
in  1878. 

CRUSADES,  the  wars  carried  on  by 
the  Christian  nations  of  the  West,  from 
the  end  of  the  11th  till  the  latter  half  of 
the  13th  century,  for  the  conquest  of 
Palestine.  They  were  called  Crusades, 
because  the  warriors  wore  the  sign  of 
the  cross.  The  antagonism  between  the 
Christian  and  Mohammedan  nations 
had  been  intensified  by  the  possession 
of  the  Holy  Land  by  the  Turks  and  by 
their  treatment  of  pilgrims  to  Jerusa- 
lem ; and  the  first  strenuous  appeal  was 
assured  of  response  alike  from  the  pious, 
the  adventurous,  and  the  greedy.  The 
immediate  cause  of  the  first  crusade 
was  the  preaching  of  Peter  of  Amiens, 
or  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  in  1093  had 
joined  other  pilgrims  on  a journe3^  to 
Jerusalem.  A well-conducted  regular 
army  of  80,000  men  was  headed  by 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon;  Hugh  of  Verman- 
dois,  brother  to  Philip,  king  of  France; 
Baldwin,  brother  of  Godfrey;  Robert 


II.  of  Flanders;  Robert  II.  of  Nor- 
mandy, brother  of  William  II.,  king  of 
England;  Raymond  of  Toulouse;  and 
other  heroes.  After  remaining  nearly  a 
year  in  the  neighborhood  of  Antioch 
they  commenced,  in  May,  1099,  their 
march  against  Jerusalem,  the  siege  of 
which  they  commenced  in  June.  Their 
numbers  were  now  reduced  to  little 
more  than  20,000  men;  but  after  a 
fierce  struggle  the  town  was  taken  by 
storm  on  July  15,  and  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  was  chosen  king  of  Jerusalem, 
or,  as  he  preferred  to  term  himself. 
Protector  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher.  At 
his  death  in  1100  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Baldwin,  who  had  in  the 
eai'ly  part  of  the  crusade  established 
himself  in  Edessa,  and  made  himself 
ruler  of  an  extensive  territory  stretching 
over  the  Armenian  mountains  and  the 
plain  of  Mesopotamia. 

The  second  great  and  regularly-con- 
ducted  crusade  was  occasioned  by  the 
loss  of  Edessa,  which  the  Saracens 
conquered  in  Dec.,  1144.  Fearing  still 
graver  losses.  Pope  Eugenius  III., 
seconded  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux, 
exhorted  the  German  emperor  Conrad 

III. ,  and  the  King  of  France,  Louis  VII., 
to  defend  the  cross.  Both  these 
monarchs  obeyed,  and  in  1147  led  large 
forces  to  the  East,  but  returned  without 
accomplishing  anything  in  1149. 

The  third  crusade  w’as  undertaken 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Saladin  in  1187,  the  monarchs  Frederick 

I.  (Barbarossa)  of  Germany,  Philip 
Augustus  of  France,  and  Richard  I. 
(Occur  de  Lion)  of  England,  leading 
their  armies  in  person.  Richard  de- 
feated Saladin  and  occupied  Jaffa  or 
Joppa;  but  having  twice  vainly  set  out 
with  the  design  of  besieging  Jerusalem, 
he  concluded  (Sept.  2,  1192)  a truce  of 
three  years  and  three  months  with 
Saladin,  who  agreed  that  pilgrims 
should  be  free  to  visit  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher, and  that  the  whole  sea-coast  from 
Tyre  to  Jaffa  (including  the  important 
fortress  of  Acre)  should  belong  to  the 
crusaders. 

The  fourth  crusade  was  set  on  foot 
by  Pope  Innocent  III.,  v/ho  commis- 
sioned Fulk  of  Neuilly  to  preach  it  in 
1198.  Among  its  chief  promoters  was 
Godfrey  of  Villehardouin,  seneschal  of 
Champagne;  Baldwin,  count  of  Flan- 
ders and  Hainaut;  Dandolo,  the  aged 
doge  of  Venice;  and  the  Marquis  of 
Montferrat,  who  was  chosen  leader. 
The  crusaders  assembled  at  Venice  in 
the  spring  of  1201,  but  were  diverted 
from  their  original  purpose  first  by  the 
capture  of  the  Dalmatian  town  of  Zara, 
and  then  by  the  expedition  which  ended 
in  the  sack  of  Constantinople  and  the 
establishment  of  a Latin  empire  there 
(1204)’. 

The  fifth  crusade,  undertaken  by 
Andreas  of  Hungary  in  1217,  and  shared 
in  by  John  of  Brienne,  to  whom  the 
title  of  King  of  Jerusalem  was  given 
had  little  other  result  than  the  tem- 
porary occupation  of  the  Nile  delta. 

The  sixth  crusade,  that  of  Frederick 

II. ,  emperor  of  German3’,  was  under- 
taken at  the  instance  of  Popes  Honorius 

III.  and  Gregory  IX.  The  seventh  and 
eighth  Crusades  were  led  by  St.  Louis  of 
France  (Louis  IX.)  in  person. 


CRUSTACEA 


CUBA 


Despite  their  want  of  success,  the 
crusades  were  of  considerable  indirect 
value  in  that  by  these  joint  enterprises 
the  European  nations  became  more 
connected  with  each  other,  the  class  of 
citizens  increased  in  influence,  partly 
because  the  nobility  suffered  by  extrava- 
gant contributions  to  the  Crusades,  and 
partly  because  a more  intimate  com- 
mercial intercourse  greatly  augmented 
the  wealth  of  the  cities,  and  a numlaer 
of  arts  and  sciences,  till  then  unknown 
in  Europe,  were  introduced. 

CRUSTA'CEA,  one  of  the  primary 
branches  into  which  is  divided  the  great 
group  of  Articulate  or  Annulose  animals. 
The  body  is  divided  into  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen,  of  which  the  two  former 
are  united  into  a single  mass,  cephalo- 
thorax,  covered  with  a shield  or  cara- 
pace, and  the  abdomen  usually  presents 
the  appearance  of  a tail.  In  some — the 
sand-hopper,  wood-louse,  etc. — the  head 
is  partially  distinct  from  the  thorax. 
The  Crustacea  breathe  by  branchias  or 
gills,  or  by  membraneous  vesicles,  or  by 
the  general  surface;  and  the  body  is  com- 
posed of  a series  of  rings  more  or  less 
distinct.  They  possess  the  faculty  of 
reproducing  lost  parts  in  an  eminent 
degree. 

-CRWTH  (kruth),  a Welsh  name  for  a 
kind  of  violin  with  six  strings,  formerly 
much  used  in  Wales.  Four  of  the 


Crwth. 

strings  were  played  on  by  a bow,  and 
two  were  struck  or  twitched  by  the 
thumb.  Its  general  length  was  22 
inches,  and  its  thickness  H inch. 

CRYPT,  originally  a subterranean 
cell  or  cave,  especially  one  constructed 
for  sepulture.  From  the  usage  of  these 
by  the  early  Christians  crypt  came  to 
signify  a church  underground  or  the 
lower  story  of  a cathedral  or  church. 
It  is  usually  set  apart  for  monumental 
purposes,  but  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
chapel.  The  crypt  is  a common  feature 
of  cathedrals,  being  always  at  the  east 
end,  under  the  chancel  or  apse.  The 
largest  in  England  is  that  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral;  that  of  Glasgow  Cathedral, 
formerly  used  as  a sepai-ate  church,  is 
one  of  the  most  perfect  pieces  of  archi- 
tecture in  Britain. 

CRYPTOG'RAPHY,  the  art  of  writing 
in  secret  characters  or  cipher,  or  with 
sympathetic  ink.  The  simplest  method 
consists  in  choosing  for  every  letter  of 
the  alphabet  some  sign,  or  another 
letter  or  group  of  letters.  Thus  the 
letter  of  Charles  I.  to  the  Earl  of  Gla- 
morgan with  respect  to  the  Catholics 
of  Ireland  was  composed  in  an  alphabet 
of  24  strokes  variously  placed  about  a 
line.  The  names  in  the  records  of  the 
Clan-na-Gael  Society  were,  according 
to  the  Times  newspaper,  written  in  a 


cipher  formed  by  taking  in  each  case 
the  letter  previous  to  that  intended; 
and  the  cipher  devised  by  Lord  Bacon 
consisted  in  an  alphabet  formed  by 
difl'erent  arrangements  of  the  letters 
a and  b in  groups  of  five.  All  these 
methods,  however,  are  easily  de'uphered 
by  experts,  as  also  is  that  employed  by 
the  Earl  of  Argyle  in  his  plot  against 
James  II.,  in  which  the  words  of  the 
letter  were  set  down  at  concerted  dis- 
tances, the  intervals  being  filled  up 
with  mi.sleading  words.  Even  the  more 
complex,  however,  present,  as  a rule, 
only  temporary  difficulty  to  an  expert. 
The  fact  that  the  most  frequently 
recuriin,g  letter  in  the  English  language 
is  the  letter  e;  (hat  the  most  common 
double  vowels  are  ea  and  ou,  that  r,  s, 
and  t are  the  most  frequent  terminal 
letters,  etc.,  are  of  no  small  assistance  in 
forming  a key  to  any  given  cryptogram. 

CRYSTAL,  in  chemistry  and  miner- 
alogy, any  body  which,  by  the  mutual 
attraction  of  its  particles,  has  asfsumed 
the  form  of  some  one  of  the  regular 


geometric  solids,  being  bounded  by  a 
certain  number  of  plane -surfaces.  The 
chemist  procures  crystals  either  by 
fusing  the  bodies  by  heat  and  then 
allowing  them  gradually  to  cool,  or  by 
dissolving  them  in  a fluid  and  then  ab- 
stracting the  fluid  by  slow  evaporation. 
A ciysfal  consists  of  three  parts.  1st, 
Plane  surfaces,  called  faces,  which  are 
said  to  be  similar  when  they  are  equal 
to  one  another  and  similarly  situated; 
dissimilar,  when  they  are  unequal  or 
have  a different  position.  2d,  Edges, 
foi-med  by  the  meeting  of  two  faces. 
They  are  said  to  be  similar  when  formed 
by  similar  faces;  dissimilar,  by  dis- 
similar faces.  Equal  edges  are  formed 
when  the  faces  are  inclined  at  the  same 
angle  to  one  another;  unequal,  when 
they  are  inclined  at  different  angles. 
3d,  Solid  angles,  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  three  or  more  faces;  and  in  this  case 
also  there  are  similar  and  dissimilar, 
equal  and  unequal  solid  angles,  accord- 
ing as  the}'  are  formed  by  similar  or  dis- 
similar faces,  and  equal  or  unecjiial 
angled  edges.  The  angles  of  crystals  are 
measured  by  an  instrument  called  the 
goniometer. 

CRYSTAL'LOMARCY,  a mode  of 
divining  by  means  of  a transparent 
body,  as  a precious  stone,  crystal  globe, 
etc.  The  operator  first  muttered  over 
it  certain  formulas  of  prayer,  and  then 
gave  the  crystal  (a  beryl  was  preferred) 
into  the  hands  of  a young  man  or  virgin, 
who  feceived  an  answer  from  the  spirits 
within  the  crystal. 

CUBA,  the  largest  and  most  westerly 
of  the  West  India  Islands,  lying  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  about 
150  miles  from  Florida  and  Yucatan. 
Its  length  is  750  miles;  breadth,  20  to 
over  120;  area,  43,220  sq.  miles.  Since 
the  Spanish-American  war  of  1898 
Cuba  has  been  independent,  and  is  now 


under  its  own  republican  government 
The  navigation  of  the  coast  is  unsafe,  on 
account  of  rocks  and  shoals,  but  there 
are  many  excellent  and  easily-accessible 
ports  and  anchoring  places.  The  chief 
commerical  ports  and  harbors  are,  on  the 
north,  Havana  (the  capital),  Matanzas, 
Cardenas,  Sagua,  Remedies;  on  the 
south,  Santiago,  Trinidad,  Cienfuegos, 
and  Guantanamo.  The  surface  ex- 
hibits various  chains  or  groups  of  hills 
extending  from  west  to  east,  and  in  the 
extreme  southeast  is  a mountain  range 
rising  to  the  height  of  over  8000  feet. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hills  the  country  opens 
into  extensive  savannahs.  A consider- 
able number  of  small  streams  water  the 
island  on  both  sides.  Cuba  is  rich  in 
minerals;  those  worked  are  chiefly 
copper  and  iron.  Bitumen  is  plentiful, 
both  in  a liquid  form  and  in  a soft 
resinous  state.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs,  and  on  the  north  coast  are  ex- 
tensive lagoons,  which  in  dry  years 
produce  immense  quantities  of  marine 
salt.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry  during 
greater  part  of  the  year,  Lut  is,  on  the 
whole,  more  temperate  than  that  of 
some  other  islands  in  the  same  latitude. 
Rain  often  descends  in  torrents  from 
July  to  September,  but  no  snow  is 
known  to  fall  on  the  highest  mountains, 
though  frost  occurs  occasionally.  The 
soil  is  fertile  and  the  vegetation  is  ex- 
ceedingly luxuriant.  Forests  of  mahog- 
any. ebony,  cedar,  fustic,  and  other 
useful  woods,  abound;  and  the  fields 
are  covered  with  flowers  and  odoriferous 
plants.  The  principal  cereal  cultivated 
is  the  indigenous  maize,  or  Indian  corn. 
Rice  is  also  produced  in  many  districts; 
but  the  principal  crops  are  sugar  and 
tobacco,  with  a little  cotton,  cocoa, 
coffee,  indigo,  etc.  The  best  tobacco  is 
growTi  in  the  district  of  Vuelta  Abajo, 
near  Havana.  A considerable  extent  of 
country  is  appropriated  also  to  cattle- 
breeding  farms,  and  to  farms  on  which 
fruit  and  vegetables  are  raised.  The 
principal  fruits  are  the  pine-apple, 
oranges,  .shaddocks,  plantains,  bananas, 
m_e!ons,  lemons,  and  sweet  limes;  figs 
and  strawberries  are  also  to  be  had. 
The  most  valuable  domestic  animals  aro 
the  ox,  horse,  and  pig,  which  form  a 
large  proportion  of  the  wealth  of  the 
island;  the  sheep,  goat,  and  mule  are 
inferior  in  quality  and  numbers.  Among 
the  few  indigeneous  mammals  are  two 
species  of  aguti  and  an  opossum.  The 
sylvan  birds  are  numerous  and  in  great 
^-ariety;  but  birds  of  prey  are  few,  and 
snakes  and  reptiles  are  not  very  numer- 
ous. The  shores  a’ ound  with  turtle, 
and  in  the  deep  gulfs  and  bays  the 
alligator  is  found.  The  manati  is  met 
with  in  the  deep  pools  of  fresh  water, 
and  the  iguana  is  not  uncom_mon.  The 
manufactures  are  confined  to  the  making 
of  sugar,  rum,  molasses,  and  cigars, 
and  these,  with  tobacco,  form  the  chief 
exports.  Next  in  commercial  impor- 
tance rank  mahogany  and  other  valuable 
timber  and  fruit.  The  chief  imports  are 
grain  and  flour,  salted  provisions, 
brandy,  wines,  hardware,  and  cotton, 
linen,  and  woolen  manufactures.  Th* 
great  b ulk  of  the  trade  is  with  the  U. 
States.  There  is  also  a considerable 
trade  between  Cuba  and  Great  Britain. 
The  legal  system  of  money,  weights,  and 


CUBATURE  OF  A SOLID 


CUMBERLAND 


measures  of  Cuba  are  the  same  as  those 
of  Spain.  The  internal  traffic  of  the 
island  has  been  greatly  facilitated  by 
road  improvements  and  by  railways, 
the  length  of  which  in  operation  now 
amounts  to  about  1000  miles.  Steam- 
vessels  ply  between  Havana  and  other 
parts  of  the  coast.  Under  Spain  Cuba 
was  governed  by  a captain-general. 
Cuba  was  first  discovered  on  October  28, 
1492,  by  Columbus,  who  revisited  it  in 
1494,  and  again  in  1502.  In  1511  the 
Spaniards  formed  the  first  settlement  on 
the  island,  and  the  native  inhabitants 
were  soon  extirpated.  Negro  slaves 
were  introduced  in  1524  Attempts  to 
put  an  end  to  slavery  were  made  in  1820 
and  1845  without  result;  but  in  1868  a 
law,  designed  gradually  to  put  an  end 
to  slavery,  was  passed.  In  that  year 
commenced  an  insurrectionary  struggle 
against  the  mother  country,  which 
lasted  for  ten  years.  The  final  abolition 
of  slavery  dates  only  from  1886.  In 
1895  began  another  insurrection,  which 
continued  till  the  war  with  the  U.  States. 
The  pop.  is  1,772,797,  of  whom  over 
500,000  are  colored.  During  1906  an 
insurrection  took  place  against  the 
Palma  government  which  necessitated, 
on  the  appeal  of  the  Cubans,  the  placing 
of  an  American  military  governor  with 
forces  on  the  island  pending  the  settle- 
ment of  the  troubles.  Reciprocity  with 
the  United  States  was  adopted  in  1903. 
The  U.  S.  troops  were  withdrawn  in  1909. 

CUBATURE  OF  A SOLID,  the  finding 
of  the  solid  or  cubic  contents  of  it 

CUBE,  in  geometry,  a regular  solid 
body  with  six  equal  square  sides.  The 
solid  content  of  any  cube  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  superficial  area  of  one 
of  the  sides  by  the  height;  or,  what 
comes  to  the  same  thing,  by  multiplying 
the  number  that  expresses  the  length  of 
one  of  the  edges  by  itself,  and  the  prod- 
uct thus  found  by  that  number  again. 
Cubes  are  to  one  another  in  the  triplicate 
ratio  of  their  diagonals. — Cube,  or  cubic 
number,  in  arithmetic,  that  which  is 
produced  by  the  multiplication  of  a 
square  number  by  its  root;  thus  64 
is  a cube  number,  and  arises  by  mul- 
tiplying 16,  the  square  of  4,  by  the  root  4. 

CUBE  ROOT,  the  number  or  quantity 
which,  multiplied  into  itself  and  then 
into,  the  product,  produces  the  cube; 
or  which,  twice  multiplied  into  itself, 
produces  the  number  of  which  it  is  the 
root:  as  2 is  the  cube  root  of  8,  because 
twice  2 are  4,  and  twice  4 are  8. 

CUBIC  FOOT  of  an^  substance,  so 
much  of  it  as  is  contained  in  a cube 
whose  side  is  1 foot. 

CUBIT,  in  the  mensuration  of  the 
ancients,  a long  measure,  equal  to  the 
length  of  a man’s  arm  from  the  elbow 
to  the  tip  of  the  fingers,  or,  say  equal 
to  18  inches. 

CUCK'OO,  a scansorial  or  climbing 
bird.  The  note  from  which  it  derives 
its  name  is  a love-call  used  only  in  the 
mating  season.  The  greater  number  of 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  are  con- 
fined to  hot  countries,  more  especially 
India  and  Africa,  though  some  are 
summer  visitants  of  colder  climates. 
In  America  no  true  cuckoos  are  found, 
the  genus  to  which  the  so-called  Ameri- 
can cukcoo  belongs,  differing  very 
essentially  from  them  in  its  habits. 


CU’CUMBER,  the  fruit  of  the  plant 
belonging  to  the  Cucurbitacese  or. gourd 
order,  and  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  imported  into  Europe  from 
the  Levant.  Though  grown  in  England 
in  the  14th  century,  it  did  not  become 
generally  used  until  after  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  It  is  an  annual  with 
rough  trailing  stems,  large  angular 
leaves,  and  yellow  male  and  female 
flowers  set  in  the  axils  of  the  leaf -stocks 
Other  species  of  the  cucumber  genus  are 
the  common  melon,  and  the  water 
melon. 

CUCUMBER-TREE,  a fine  American 
forest  tree,  so  named  from  the  appear- 
ance of  its  fruit. 


The  cuckoo. 

CUD'DAPAH,  or  KADAPA,  a district 

and  town,  Hindustan,  presidency  Ma- 
dras. The  district  area  is  8745  sq.miles. 
The  forests  contain  much  valuable  tim- 
ber, and  the  minerals  include  iron  ore, 
lead,  copper,  diamonds,  etc.  Pop. 
1,272,072. — The  town  lies  on  a small 
river  of  same  name,  an  affluent  of  the 
Pennar,  140  miles  n.w.  Madras.  It  ex- 
ports indigo  and  cotton.  Pop.  17,387. 

CUIRASS  (kwi-rasO,  an  article  of  de- 
fensive armor,  protecting  the  body  both 
before  and  behind,  and  composed  of 


of  Charles  11. , and  in  France  a little 
later.  It  was  reintroduced  by  Napo- 
leon I.,  and  the  achievements  of  his 
cuirassiers  led  to  its  adoption  for  regi- 
ments of  heavy  cavalry  in  most  Eu- 
ropean armies. 

CULLO'DEN  MOOR,  a heath  in  Scot- 
land, 4 miles  e.  of  Inverness,  celebrated 
for  the  victory  obtained  April  27,  1746, 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  over  Prince 
Charles  Edward  Stuart  (the  Pretender) 
and  his  adherents.  The  battle  was  the 
last  fought  on  British  soil,  and  the 
termination  of  the  attempts  of  the 
Stuart  family  to  recover  the  throne  of 
England. 

CULLOM,  Shelby  Moore,  an  Ameri- 
can senator,  boim  in  Jventucky  in  1829, 
removed  to  Illinois  in  1855  as  a lawyer. 

He  served  in  the  state  legislature  and 
was  twice  speaker  of  the  house  (1861 
and  1873),  was  a member  of  congress  for 
three  terms,  governor  of  Illinois  from 
1876  to  1883  and  since  then  has  been 
United  States  senator.  He  is  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  republican  party  in  ' 
Illinois. 

CULMIN  ATION,  in  astronomy,  the 
passing  of  a star  through  the  meridian,  ■ 
because  it  has  at  that  moment  reached 
the  highest  point  of  its  apparent  path  j 
in  the  sky.  i 

CUM'BERLAND,  the  extreme  north-  \ 
western  county  of  England.  Length,  - 
north  to  south,  75  miles;  extreme 
breadth  45  miles;  area,  970,161  acres, 
rather  more  than  a half  of  which  is 
under  cultivation.  There  is  great 
variety  of  surface  in  different  parts. 
The  two  largest  rivers  are  the  Eden  ‘ 
and  the  Derwent  The  county  em-  t 
braces  part  of  the  “lake  country”  of  '• 
England.  The  largest  lakes  are  Der-  ; 
wentwater,  Bassenthwaite,  Loweswater, 
Crummock,  Buttermere,  Ennerdale,  A 
Wastwater,  Thirlmere,  and  part  of  • 
Ullswater.  Cumberland  is  rich  in  min- 
erals, including  lead,  gypsum,  zinc,  and 
especially  coal  and  rich  hematite  iron- 
ore.  In  the  western  division  of  the 
county  there  are  a great  many  blast- 
furnaces, and  works  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  steel  and  finished  iron.  The 


CuUoden  moor. 


leather,  metal,  or  other  materials  vari- 
ously worked.  It  was  in  common  use 
throughout  Europe  in  the  14th  century. 
In  England  it  fell  into  disuse  in  the  time 


principal  crops  raised  are  oats,  barley, 
wheat,  and  turnips,  but  the  bulk  of  the  IE- 
inclosed  lands  is  sown  in  clover  and  ' 


CUMBERLAND 


CURFEW 


and  dairy  farming  are  engaged  in  to  a 
fcohsiderable  extent.  Pop.  266,549. 

CUMBERLAND,  county  seat  of  Alle- 
gany county,  Maryland,  on  the  Poto- 
mac, 179  miles  by  rail  from  Baltimore. 
It  is  on  the  edge  of  the  great  coal-basin 
of  the  same  name,  and  iron  is  also  largely 
worked  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  about 
19,000. 

CUMBERLAND,  a river  of  the  U. 
States  which  runs  through  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee  into  the  Ohio,  having  a 
course  of  about  600  miles,  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  Nashville,  near  200  miles. 

CUMBERLAND  MOUNTAINS,  in  Ten- 
nessee, part  of  a range  of  the  Appala- 
chian system,  rarely  exceeding  2000 
feet  in  height. 

CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIANS,  a 
small  American  sect,  so  named  from  tne 
Cumberland  country  in  Tennessee, 
founded  early  in  the  last  century,  and 
holding  Calvinistic  doctrines,  except  in 
regard  to  predestination.  It  has  three 
universities  and  several  colleges  con- 
nected with  it. 

CUMBRIAN  MOUNTAINS,  a range  of 
hills,  England,  occupying  part  of  the 
counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland, 
and  North  Lancashire.  The  mountains 
rise  with  steep  acclivities,  inclosing  in 
some  parts  narrow  but  well-cultivated 
valleys,  with  numerous  picturesque 
lakes,  this  being  the  English  “Lake 
Country”  so  much  frequented  by 
tourists. 

CUMMINS,  Maria  Susanna,  an  Amer- 
ican story  writer,  born  in  Massachusetts 
In  1827,  died  in  1863.  Her  principal 
success  was  The  Lamplighter  (1854), 
which  Is  still  read. 


CUTUULATIVE  VOTE,  the  system  by 
which  every  voter  is  entitled  to  as  many 
votes  as  there  are  persons  to  be  elected, 
and  may  give  them  all  to  one  candidate, 
or  may  distribute  them  among  the  can- 
didates, as  he  thinks  fit. 

CUM'YN,  COMYN,  or  CUMMING,  a 
family  whose  name  appears  frequently 
in  the  early  history  of  England  and 
Scotland.  It  had  its  original  possessions 
near  the  town  of  Comines  in  France, 
and  from  one  of  the  branches  sprang  the 
historian  Philip  de  Comines.  The 
English  Comyns  came  over  with  the 
Conqueror,  and  Robert  Comyn  was  sent 
by  William  with  700  men  to  reduce  the 
northern  provinces.  His  nephew  be- 
came chancellor  of  Scotland  about  1133, 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  13th  century 
the  family  counted  among  its  members 
four  Scottish  earls.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  14th  century  it  was  almost  annihi- 
lated by  Robert  Bruce,  who  slew  the  son 


of  its  head  (the  Lord  of  Badenoch)  in 
Dumfries.  The  Comyns  who  escaped 
settled  down  in  the  English  court,  and 
established  important  connections.  See 
Comyn. 

CUNDINAMARCA,  one  of  the  depart- 
ments of  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 
Area,  estim.  79,810  square  miles;  pop. 
537,658. 

CUNE'IFORM  WRITING,  the  name 
applied  to  the  wedge-shaped  characters 
of  the  inscriptions  on  old  Babylonian 
and  Persian  monuments ; sometimes  also 
described  as  arrow-headed  or  nail- 
headed characters.  They  appear  to 
have  been  originally  of  the  nature  of 
hieroglyphs,  and  to  have  been  invented 
by  the  primitive  Accadian  inhabitants 
of  Chaldea  (a  Turanian  race),  from 
whom  they  were  borrowed  with  con- 
siderable modification  by  the  conquer- 
ing Batoylonians  and  Assyrians,  who 
were  Semites  by  race  and  spoke  an 
entirely  different  language.  The  use  of 
the  character,  however,  ceased  shortly 
after  the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great; 
and  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years  it  was  doubted  by  many  if 
the  signs  had  ever  had  an  intelligible 
meaning.  They  were  even  regarded  by 
some  as  the  work  of  a species  of  worm, 
by  others  as  mere  talisraanic  signs, 
astrological  symbols,  and  the  like.  The 
first  hints  toward  decipherment  were 
given  by  Karstens  Niebuhr  late  in  the 
18th  century;  and  the  labors  of  Grote- 
fend,  Rask,  Burnouf,  Lassen,  Rawlin- 
son,  and  other  investigators  slowly  per- 
fected the  means  of  translation.  Most 
of  the  inscriptions  first  discovered  were 
in  three  different  languages  and  as  many 


varieties  of  cuneiform  writing,  the  most 
prominent,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
simplest  and  latest,  being  the  Persian 
cuneiform  writing  with  about  sixty  let- 
ters. Next  older  in  time  and  much  more 
complex  is  what  is  designated  the  As- 
syrian or  Babylonian  system  of  writing, 
consisting  of  from  600  to  700  characters, 
partly  alphabetic,  partly  syllabic,  or 
representing  sound  groups  Lastly 
comes  the  Accadian  inscriptions,  the 
oldest  of  all,  originally  proceeding  from 
a people  who  had  reached  a high  state 
of  civilization  three  thousand  years  be- 
fore Christ,  and  whose  language  (allied 
to  Turkish)  ceased  to  be  a living  tongue 
about  1700  B.c.  The  most  celebrated 
trilingual  inscription  is  that  at  Behistun, 
cut  upon  the  face  of  a rock  1700  feet 
high,  and  recording  a portion  of  the  his- 
tory of  Darius.  The  British  Museum 
contains  many  thousands  of  inscribed 
clay  tablets,  cylinders,  prisms,  etc., 


the  decipherment  of  which  is  in  prog- 
ress. 

CU'PID,  the  god  of  love;  correspond- 
ing with  the  Greek  Eros.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a winged  infant,  naked,  armed 
with  a bow,  and  a quiver  full  of  arrows. 

CUPPING,  a surgical  operation  con- 
sisting in  the  application  of  the  cupping- 
glass  in  cases  where  it  is  desirable  to 
abstract  blood  from,  or  draw  it  to,  a 
particular  part  When  blood  is  removed 
the  operation  is  simply  termed  cupping; 
when  no  blood  is  abstracted,  it  is  dry- 
cupping. 

CURACAO  (k6-r4-sa'6),  an  island, 
Dutch  West  Indies,  Carribbean  Sea,  46 
miles  n.  the  coast  of  Venezuela  • 36  miles 
long  and  8 miles  broad;  capital  Willem- 
stad, principal  harbor  Santa  Anna. 
The  tamarind,  cocoa-palm,  banana,  and 
other  useful  trees  are  reared — among 
them  three  varieties  of  orange,  from  one 
of  which  the  Curasao  liquor  is  made. 
Sugar,  tobacco,  cochineal,  and  maize  are 
also  produced,  but  the  staple  exports 
are  salt,  and  a valuable  phosphate  of 
lime  used  as  a manure  in  its  natural 
state,  or  made  to  yield  valuable  super- 
phosphates. Pop.  44,066. 

CURACAO,  or  Curacoa,  a liquor  or 
cordial  prepared  from  a peculiar  kind 
of  bitter  oranges  growing  in  Curagao, 
which  have  a persistent  aromatic  odor 
and  taste.  It  ^ prepared  from  the  yel- 
low part  of  the  rind,  which  is  steeped  in 
strong  alcohol,  the  infusion  being  after- 
ward distilled  and  rectified  and  mixed 
with  syrup.  For  the  true  orange,  the 
common  hitter  orange  of  Europe  is 
often  substituted,  and  the  genuine  deep- 
yellow  color  imitated  by  caramel,  etc. 

CURAS'SOW,  or  Hocco,  the  name 
given  to  gallinaceous  birds  natives  of  the 
warm  parts  of  America.  The  crested 


Crested  curassow. 


curassow  found  in  Guiana,  Mexico, 
and  Brazil,  is  a handsome  bird,  nearly 
as  large  as  the  turkey  and  more  im- 
posing in  appearance,  being  of  a dark 
violet  color,  with  a purplish-green  gloss 
above  and  on  the  breast;  the  abdomen 
is  snow-white,  and  the  crest  golden.  An- 
other species  is  the  red  curassow,  also 
a native  of  South  America,  and  about 
the  size  of  a turkey. 

CURD.  See  Cheese  and  Milk. 

CUR'FEW,  a practice  originated  in 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
who  Erected  that  at  the  ringing  of  the 


Part  of  a Babylonian  brick,  with  cuneiform  writing. 


CURICO 


CURRENTS 


bell  at  eight  o’clock  all  fires  and  lights 
should  be  extinguished.  The  law  was 
repealed  by  Henry  I.  in  1100,  but  the 
bell  continued  to  be  rung  in  many  dis- 


Curfew  for  fire. 


tricts  to  modern  times,  and  probably 
may  still  be  heard.  The  name  was  also 
given  formerly  to  a domestic  utensil  for 
covering  up  a fire. 

CURICO',  a town  of  Chili,  capital  of 
prov.  of  same  name  Pop.  9000.  Area 
of  prov.  2913  sq.  miles;  pop.  102,647. 

CURIE,  Pierre  and  Madame,  discov- 
erers of  the  metal  radium.  Professor 
Curie  and  Madame  Curie  were  collabo- 


rators in  physics  at  one  of  the  Paris 
institutes.  In  1903  they  were  awarded 
the  Nobel  prize  for  their  discovery. 
Professor  Curie  was  killed  in  a street 
accident  at  Paris  on  April  19,  1906,  his 
wife  taking  his  place  as  lecturer  in  the 
Sarbonne. 

CURLEW,  a genus  of  birds  belonging 
to  the  same  family  as  the  snipe  and 
woodcock.  The  genus  is  characterized 
by  a very  long,  slender,  and  arcuated 
bill,  tall  and  partly  naked  legs,  and  a 
short  somewhat  rounded  tail.  The  bill 
is  more  or  less  covered  with  a soft  sensi- 
tive skin  by  which  the  bird  is  enabled  to 
detect  its  food  in  the  mud.  Three 
species  of  curlew  are  inhabitants  of 
America — the  long-billed  curlew,  about 
29  inches  long,  with  a bill  7 to  9 inches 
in  length;  the  Hudsonian,  or  short- 
billed curlew;  and  the  Esquimo  curlew 

CURLING,  a favorite  Scottish  winter 
amusement  on  the  ice.  in  which  contend- 
ing parties  slide  large  smooth  stones 


having  somewhat  the  shape  of  a flat- 
tened hemisphere,  weighing  from  30  to 
45  lbs.  each,  with  an  iron  or  wooden 
handle  at  the  top,  from  one  mark  to  an- 
other. The  space  within  which  the 
stones  move  is  called  the  rink,  and  the 
hole  or  mark  at  each  end  the  tee  The 
length  of  the  rink  from  tee  to  tee  varies 
from  30  to  50  yards.  The  players  are 
arranged  in  two  parties,  each  headed  by 
a skip  or  director.  The  number  of  play- 


ers upon  a rink  is  eight  or  sixteen — 
eight  when  the  players  use  two  stones 
each,  and  sixteen  when  they  use  one 
stone  each.  There  may  be  one  or  more 
rinks  according  to  the  number  of  curl- 
ers. The  object  of  the  player  is  to  lay 
his  stone  as  near  to  the  mark  as  possible, 
to  guard  that  of  his  partner  which  has 


been  well  laid  before,  or  to  strike  off 
that  of  his  antagonist.  When  the  stones 
on  both  sides  have  been  all  played  the 
stone  nearest  the  tee  counts  one,  and  if 
the  second,  third,  fourth,  etc.,  belong  to 
the  same  side,  each  counts  one  more,  the 
number  playtd  for  being  generally 
twenty-one.  If  a player’s  stone  does 
not  cross  a line,  called  the  hog-score,  at 
some  distance  in  front  of  the  tee  his  shot 
goes  for  nothing  and  the  stone  is  re- 
moved from  the  rink.  The  set  matches 
are  termed  bonspiels. 

CUR'RANT,  the  name  of  two  well- 
known  shrubs,  cultivated  for  their  fruit. 
The  red  currant,  the  fruit  of  which  is 
used  principally  for  tarts  and  jellies,  is 
a native  of  S.  Europe,  Asia,  and  N. 
America.  The  white  currant  is  a culti- 
vated variety  of  the  red,  and  is  used 
chiefly  for  dessert  and  for  conversion 
into  wine.  The  black  currant,  a native 
to  most  parts  of  Europe,  and  found 
abundantly  in  Russia  and  Siberia,  is 
used  for  tarts  and  puddings  and  for  a 
fine  jelly  recommended  in  cases  of  sore 
throat. 

CURRANTS,  a small  kind  of  dried 
grape  imported  from  the  Levant,  chief- 
ly from  the  vicinity  of  Patras  in  the 
Morea,  as  also  from  Zante,  Cephalonia, 
and  Ithaca,  of  which  islands  they  are 
the  staple  produce.  The  plant  is  deli- 
cate and  the  crop  precarious,  and  as  the 
plantation  must  be  six  or  seven  years 
old  before  it  bears,  its  cultivation  re- 
quires a great  outlay  of  capital  After 
being  dried  the  currants  are  exported 
in  large  butts. 

CURRANT  WINE,  a wine  made  of  the 
juice  of  the  white  or  red  currant  (prefer- 
ably the  former).  A pint  of  water  is 
added  to  every  four  pints  of  berries  and 


afterward  a pound  and  a half  of  sugar 
to  each  pint,  a little  spirits  being  mixed 
in  the  liquor  before  it  is  set  aside  to  fer- 
ment. Fermentation  requires  several 
weeks,  and  the  wine  is  not  fit  for  use  for 
some  months.  For  black-currant  wine 
the  berries  are  first  put  over  the  fire 
and  heated  to  the  boiling  point  in  as 
small  a quantity  of  water  as  possible. 

CURRENCY,  the  medium  of  exchange 
used  in  ordinary  business  and  in- 
dustry. It  is  generally  in.  the  form  of 
coin  or  paper,  and  circulates  from  hand 
to  hand.  The  currency  of  the  civilized 
world  is  based  on  gold  or  silver,  and 
large  quantities  of  safe  currency  in 
paper  are  thus  kept  afloat.  The  total 
currency  of  the  United  States  is  con- 
siderably above  $2,000,000,000,  al- 
though all  of  this  is  never  in  circulation. 
Paper  currency  consists  of  the  promis- 
sory notes  of  the  government  or  of 
banks,  and  certificates  for  gold  and 
silver  coin,  good  for  their  face  amount 
in  the  coin  specified  at  the  United 
States  treasury. 

CURRENTOM'ETER,  Current  Gauge, 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  veloc- 
ity of  cunients.  It  may  be  constructed 


in  various  ways,  e.g.  a simple  tube 
which  is  bent  and  has  its  lower  end  open 
to  the  current,  the  ascension  of  water 
in  the  vertical  part  indicating  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  current. 

CURRENTS,  Marine,  masses  of  sea- 
water flowing  or  moving  forward  in  the 
manner  of  a great  stream.  They  are 
henomena  of  the  highest  importance, 
oth  on  account  of  their  influence  upon 
the  climate  of  many  maritime  regions — 
an  influence  often  reaching  far  inland 
— and  their  practical  relation  to  the  art 
of  navigation.  These  currents  are  very 
numerous,  and  taken  together  constitute 
an  oceanic  circulation  the  intricacy  and 
irregularity  of  whose  form  is  owing  to 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  agencies 
at  work.  Among  the  theories  which 
have  been  put  forward  to  account 
for  the  existence  of  currents  the  chief 
place  belongs  to  the  theory  of  a circuit 
maintained  between  equatorial  and 
polar  waters.  According  to  this  theory 
there  is  in  either  hemisphere  an  area 
within  which  the  waters  of  the  ocean 
are  colder,  and  hence  by  many  degrees 
denser,  than  within  the  belt  of  the 
tropics.  The  natural  result  is  a tendency 
of  the  colder  and  heavier  water  to  sink 
and  to  diffuse  itself  over  the  lower 
portion  of  the  ocean-bed,  and  a move- 
ment of  the  warmer  and  lighter  water  in 
the  direction  of  the  surface,  over  which 
it  tends  to  become  diffused.  In  other 
words,  the  colder  waters  will  move  be- 
neath the  surface  in  the  direction  of 
the  equator,  and  the  warmer  waters 
will  flow  along  the  surface  in  the  direc- 
tion of  either  pole.  Hence,  in  either  half 
of  the  globe  two  great  and  opposite 
currents — a cold  current  flowing  from 
the  pole  toward  the  equator,  and  a 


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CURRICULUM 


CUSTER 


■p-arin  nirrent  flowing  from  the  equator 
in  the  direction  of  the  pole.  This  theory 
lias  been  excellently  illustrated  by  Dr. 
Carpenter’s  experiment,  in  which  a 
trough  of  glass  filled  with  water  and 
having  a lump  of  ice  at  one  end  and  a 
heated  bar  of  iron  at  the  other  exhibits  a 
similar  circulation  of  hot  and  cold  cur- 
rents. To  this  theory  Sir  C.  Wyville 
Thomson  opposed  a theory  of  evapora- 
tion as  the  general  cause  of  the  move- 
ment, holding  that  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  at  least  the  return  of  moisture  to 
the  south  to  balance  the  cold  indraft 
of  water  that  comes  from  thence  takes 
place  in  a large  measure  through  the  at- 
mosphere. Another  great  general  cause 
of  currents  is  to  be  found  in  the  axial 
rotation  of  the  earth  eastward,  by  which 
the  movement  of  tropical  waters  to- 
ward the  pole  is  deflected  eastward,  and 
becomes  in  the  northern  hemisphere  a 
north-eastwardly  current  and  in  the 
southern  a southeastwardly  one.  Under 
the  operation  of  the  same  laws  the 
opposite  currents  from  polar  latitudes  to 
the  equator  are  deflected  in  southwester- 
ly and  northwesterly  directions  respect- 
ively. It  is  to  such  influences  that  we 
may  in  the  main  attribute  the  well- 
known  differences  between  the  climates 
of  North  America  and  Europe  within 
correspondent  parallels. 

CURRIC'ULUM,  originally,  in  Latin, 
the  course  over  which  the  race  was  run, 
hence  the  whole  course  of  study  at  a 
university  necessary  to  qualify  for  a 
particular  degree. 

CURRY,  an  Eastern  condiment,  a 
powder  composed  of  cayenne-pepper, 
coriander,  ginger,  turmeric,  and  other 
strong  spices. 

CURRYING  is  the  art  of  dressing  cow- 
hides, calves’-skins,  seal-skins,  etc.,  prin- 
cipally for  shoes,  saddlery,  or  harness, 
after  they  have  come  from  the  tanner 
In  dressing  leather  for  shoes  the  leather 
is  first  soaked  in  water  until  it  is 
thoroughly  wet;  then  the  flesh  side  is 
shaved  to  a proper  surface  with  a knife 
of  peculiar  construction,  rectangular  in 
form  with  two  handles  and  a double 
edge.  The  leather  is  then  thrown  into 
the  water  again,  scoured  upon  a stone 
till  the  white  substance  called  bloom  is 
forced  out,  then  rubbed  with  a ^easy 
substance  and  hung  up  to  dry.  wTien 
thoroughly  dry  it  is  grained  with  a 
toothed  instrument  on  the  flesh  side 
and  bruised  on  the  grain  or  hair  side 
for  the  purpose  of  softening  the  leather. 
A further  process  of  paring  and  graining 
makes  it  ready  for  waxing  or  coloring, 
in  which  oil  and  lamp-black  are  used  on 
the  flesh  side.  It  is  then  sized,  dried, 
and  tallowed.  In  the  process  the  leather 
is  made  smooth,  lustrous,  supple,  and 
water-proof. 

CURTIN,  Andrew  Gregg,  an  Ameri- 
can politician  and  governor,  known  as  the 
“war  governor”  of  Pennsylvania.  He 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1817  and 
died  in  1894.  He  early  allied  himself 
with  the  republican  party  and  was 
governor  of  Pennsylvania  during  the 
civil  war.  He  was  subsequently  a 
member  of  qongress  and  minister  to 
Russia. 

CURTIS,  George  Ticknor,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1812,  died,  1894-  He  appeared  as 
P.  E.~22 


counsel  in  the  Dred  Scott  case,  in  the 
legal  tender  cases,  the  sewing  machine 
cases,  and  the  Colt  revolver  suits.  He 
published  in  its  complete  form  in  1896 
his  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 
States,  and  he  was  the  author  also  of 
numerous  valuable  treatises  on  law, 
and  a Life  of  Daniel  Webster. 

CURTIS,  George  William,  an  Ameri- 
can publicist,  editor,  and  critic,  born  in 
Rhode  Island  in  1824  and  died  in  1892. 
He  was  a member  in  1842  of  the  famous 
Brook  Farm  Community,  traveled  in 
the  Orient,  and  in  1853  was  placed  in 
charge  of  the  Editor’s  Easy  Chair,  a 
department  of  Harper  Bros.’  periodi- 
cals. In  this  he  continued  until  his 
death.  He  published  a number  of  vol- 
umes of  essays  and  critiques  and  a few 
novels. 

CURVE,  a line  which  may  be  cut  by  a 
straight  line  in  more  points  than  one;  a 
line  in  which  no  three  consecutive  points 
lie  in  the  same  direction.  The  doctrine 
of  curves  and  of  the  figures  and  solids 
generated  from  them  constitutes  what 
is  called  the  higher  geometry,  and  forms 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  im- 
portant branches  of  mathematical 
science.  Curve  lines  are  distinguished 
into  algebraical  or  geometrical  and 
transcendental  or  mechanical.  The 
varieties  of  curves  are  innumerable; 
that  is,  they  have  different  degrees  of 
bending  or  curvature.  The  curves  most 
generally  referred  to,  besides  the  circle, 
are  the  ellipse,  the  parabola,  and  the 
hyperbola,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
cycloid. 

CUR'ZON,  George  Nathaniel,  Baron 
Curzon  of  Kedleston,  an  English  states- 
man and  author,  born  at  Kedleston  in 
1859.  He  served  in  parliament  from 
1886  to  1898,  in  1891-2  was  under- 
secretary of  state  for  India,  and  subse- 
quently under-secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs.  In  1898  he  was  ap- 
pointed viceroy  and  governor-general 
of  India,  He  is  the  author  of  several 
important  books  on  the  Orient. 

CUSCO.  See  Cuzco. 

CUSCO-BARK,  the  bark  of  a tree, 
which  comes  from  Cuzco,  in  S.  America, 
and  is  exported  from  Arequipa.  It 
contains  a peculiar  alkaloid  called  cusco- 
cinchonine,  or  cusconine,  which  resem- 
bles cinchonine  in  its  physical  qualities, 
but  differs  from  it  in  its  chemical  prop- 
erties. When  applied  medicinally  it 
excites  warmth  in  the  system,  and  is 
therefore  recommended  to  be  given  in 
cold  intermittents  and  low  typhoid 
states  of  the  system. 

CUSH,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham,  and 
also  a country  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament,  probably  in  Africa, 
south  of  Egypt.  In  other  places  it  is 
evident  that  the  name  Cush  must  also 
be  understood  as  referring  to  some 
part  of  Arabia. 

CUSHING,  Caleb,  an  American  diplo- 
mat and  statesman,  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1800,  died  in  1879.  In  1844 
he  was  appointed  the  first  American 
minister  to  China.  He  assisted  in  the 
work  of  the  treaty  of  Nankin  and  estab- 
lished the  rights  of  Christian  mission- 
aries in  China.  Cushing  fought  in  the 
Mexican  war,  was  attorney-general  in 
Pierce’s  cabinet,  was  counsel  for  the 
United  States  in  the  Alabama  olaims 


case  and  was  latterly  minister  to  Spain. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  talented  of 
American  statesmen. 

CUSHMAN,  Charlotte,  an  American 
actress,  born  at  Boston  in  1816,  died, 
1876.  She  made  her  first  appearance  as 
an  opera  singer  in  1835  but,  on  the 
failure  of  her  voice,  took  up  the  drama. 
She  became  noted  for  her  fine  rendition 
of  roles  such  as  Lady  Macbeth,  Meg 
Merrilies,  Queen  Gertrude,  and  Ophelia, 
and  for  many  years  was  the  foremost 
actress  of  the  American  stage. 

CUSP,  the  point  at  which  two  con- 
verging curves  meet  and  have  a com- 
mon tangent.  Such  points  are  numer- 
ous in  architecture  in  the  internal 
curvings  of  trefoils,  heads  of  Gothic 
windows,  etc.  In  the  Decorated  and 


Architectural  Cusps — 1,  Henry  VII.  ’s  chapel. 
2.  Monument  of  Sir  James  Douglas,  Douglas 
church.  3,  Beauchamp  chapel,  Warwick. 

perpendicular  styles  the  cusps,  in 
addition  to  leaves,  flowers,  etc.,  were 
frequently  ornamented  with  heads  or 
animals.  In  the  romanesque  and 
norman  styles  they  were  often  orna- 
mented with  a small  cylinder  which  bore 
a flower  or  similar  ornament. 

CUS'TARD,  a composition  of  milk  or 
cream  and  eggs,  sweetened  with  sugar 
and  variously  flavored.  It  may  be 
cooked  in  the  oven  or  stew-pan. 

CUSTARD-APPLE,  a delicious  fruit, 
a native  of  the  West  Indies,  but  cul- 
tivated in  most  tropical  countries.  The 
fruit  is  large,  and  heart-shaped,  with  a 
thick,  rou^  exterior,  and  conta-ining  a 
pulp  of  a sweet  flavor,  very  cooling  and 
agreeable. 

CUSTER,  George  Armstrong,  an 
American  soldier,  born  in  Ohio  in  183^, 
and  was  killed  in  the  summer  of  1876 
by  the  Indians  of  Sitting  Bull  arid 
Crazy  Horse  in  the  Black  Hills  in 


George  A.  Custer. 

Montana.  Custer  fought  during  the 
civil  war  in  the  Richmond  campaign 
and  was  bre vetted  major-general  of  the 
regular  army  with  the  actual  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel  in  1866.  He  led 
'Terry’s  column  against  the  Sioux  in  the 
Black  Hills  in  1876.  Coming  upon  a 
large  encampment  on  the  Little  Big 
Horn  River  he  divided  his  regiment  in 


CUSTOM 


cyclamen 


two,  ordering  one  detachment  to  attack 
the  Indians  from  the  rear  while  he  him- 
self led  the  attack  in  front.  The  force 
attacking  the  rear  was  driven  back  and 
then  the  Indians  turned  on  Custer’s 
detachment  and  massacred  him  and  his 
entire  force. 

CUSTOM,  social  habit.  In  law 
custom  has  the  force  of  law,  and  law 
itself  is  largely  codified  custom.  Gen- 
eral custom  constitutes  the  body  of 
common  law,  and  particular  custom 
binds  the  inhabitants  of  special  districts, 
occupations,  etc.  As  an  example  of  the 
force  of  general  custom  is  the  right  of  the 
inhabitants  of  a country  to  the  use  of 
the  sea  shore. 

CUSTOM-HOUSE,  an  establishment 
■where  commodities  are  entered  for  im- 
portation or  exportation  and  the  duties, 
ibounties,  etc.,  on  the  same  are  payable. 

CUSTOMS,  duties  charged  upon  goods 
exported  from  or  imported  into  a 
country.  The  revenue  derived  from 
this  source  in  the  U.  States  is  nearly 
three  hundred  million  dollars. 

CUTCH,  a state  in  the  west  of  India, 
lying  to  the  south  of  Sind,  under  British 
protection;  area,  6500  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
558,415. 

CU'TICLE,  the  epidermis  or  outer- 
most layer  of  the  skin,  a thin,  pellucid, 
insensible  membrane  that  covers  and 
defends  the  true  skin. 

CUT'LASS,  a short  sword  used  by 
seamen.  A guard  over  the  hand  is  an 
advantage.  It  is,  if  well  understood,  a 
very  effectual  weapon  in  close  contact; 
on  account  of  its  shortness  it  can  be 
handled  easily,  and  yet  is  long  enough 
to  protect  a skilful  swordsman. 

CUT'LERY  is  a term  applied  to  all 
cutting  instruments  made  of  steel. 
The  finer  articles,  such  as  the  best 
scissors,  penknives,  razors,  and  lancets 
are  made  of  cast-steel.  Table-knives, 
plane-irons,  and  chisels  of  a very 
superior  kind  are  made  of  shear-steel, 
while  common  steel  is  wrought  up  into 
ordinary  cutlery. 

CUTTACK,  a town  of  Hindustan,  in 
Orissa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maha- 
nuddy,  60  miles  from  its  embouchure 
and  230  s.s.w.  Calcutta,  It  has  little 
trade,  and  is  known  mainly  for  its 
beautiful  filagree  work  in  gold  and 
silver.  Pop.  51,364. — The  district  of 
Cuttack  has  an  area  of  3517  sq.  miles. 
It  is  well  watered,  and  rice,  pulse,  sugar, 
spices,  dye-stuffs,  etc.,  are  grown  along 
the  coast,  which  is  low  and  marshy,  and 
wheat  and  maize  in  the  hilly  regions. 
On  the  coast  salt  is  extensively  manu- 
factured. Pop.  1,937,671. 

CUTTER,  a small  vessel  resembling  a 
sloop,  with  one  mast,  and  a straight 
running  (not  fixed)  bowsprit,  the  sails 
being  usually  a fore-and-aft  mainsail, 
gaff  topsail,  stay  foresail,  and  jib. 

CUTTLEFISH,  any  one  of  m'any 
mollusks,  the  species  of  which  are 
numerous  and  almost  world-wide  in  dis- 
tribution. They  are  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  an  ink-bag  filled  with 
black  or  brown  “sepia,”  a substance 
which  the  animal  ejects  when  pursued, 
so  as  to  conceal  itself  from  view  by 
coloring  the  waters  around  it.  Cuttle- 
bone  is  in  reality  the  calcareous  internal 
shell  of  these  animals.  When 
it  is  sold  under  the  name  of  ‘ 


powdered 

'pounce,” 


and  is  used  for  polishing,  for  tooth- 
powder,  and  in  making  molds  for  deli- 
cate castings.  It  was  formerly  much 
used  in  medicine,  but  is  valuable  only 
for  its  feebly  antacid  properties.  In 


Cuttlefish. 


the  tropical  seas  cuttlefish  have  been 
found  weighing  2 tons.  They  are  all 
marine.  Many  fossil  species  occur. 
Several  species  are  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  U.  States.  See  Squid. 

CUTWORM,  any  worm  or  grub  which 
is  destructive  to  cultivated  plants,  as 
cabbage,  corn,  beans,  etc. 

CUVIER  (kuv-ya),  Georges  Leopold 
Chr6tien  Fr6d4ric  Dagobert,  Baron,  a 
distinguished  modern  naturalist,  was 
born,  Aug.  23,  1769,  at  Montbeliard, 
then  belonging  to  the  duchy  of  Wiirtem- 
berg.  A natural  classification  of  worms 
was  his  first  labor.  The  ability  and 
knowledge  shown  in  this  work  procured 
him  the  friendship  of  the  greatest 
naturalists  of  France.  He  was  in-vited 
to  Paris,  established  at  the  Central 
School  there,  and  received  by  the  Insti- 
tute as  a member  of  the  first  class.  His 
lectures  on  natural  history,  distin- 
guished not  less  for  the  elegance  of  their 
style  than  for  profound  knowledge  and 
elevated  speculation,  were  attended  by 
all  the  accomplished  society  of  Paris. 
In  Jan.  1800,  be  was  appointed  to  the 
College  de  France.  Under  Napoleon, 
who  fully  recognized  his  merits,  Cuvier 
held  important  offices  in  the  department 
of  public  instruction.  In  1819  he  was 
received  among  the  forty  members  of 
the  French  Academy.  He  died  at 
Paris,  13th  May,  1832. 

CUZCO,  an  ancient  city  in  Peru, 
capital  of  a department  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  in  a wide  valley  about 
1 1 ,300  feet  above  sea-level,  between  the 
Apurimac  and  Urubamba.  The  houses 
are  built  of  stone,  covered  with  red 
tiles,  and  are  many  of  them  of  the  era 
of  the  Incas.  The  ruins  of  the  fortress 
built  by  the  Incas,  a stupenduous 
specimen  of  cyclopean  architecture,  are 
still  to  be  seen,  as  well  as  other  massive 
specimens  of  ancient  Peruvian  architec- 
ture. The  inhabitants  manufacture 
sugar,  soap,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods. 


etc.  There  is  a University,  k cathedralj  ^ 
etc.  Cuzco  is  the  inost  ancient  of  the 
Peruvian  Cities,  and  ■was  at  one  time  the  ^ 
capital  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  In 
1534  it  was  taken  by  Pizarro.  Pop.  , 
18,730.  Area  of  the  department, 
95,547  sq.  miles;  pop.  238,445.  ^ 

CY'ANIDE,  a combination  of  cyan-  i 
ogen  with  a metallic  base.  Cyanide  of  , 
potassium  is  used  in  photography  and 
to  separate  gold  from  ores,  especially 
in  treating  “tailings.” 

CY'ANIN,  the  blue  coloring  matter  of 
certain  flowers,  as  of  the  ■violet,  corn- 
flower, etc. 

CY'ANITE,  a mineral  of  the  garnet 
family  found  both  massive  and  in  regu- 
lar crystals.  Its  prevailing  color  is  blue 
but  of  varying  shades.  It  is  found  only 
in  primitive  rocks. 

CYAN'OGEN,  a compound  radical 
composed  of  one  atom  of  carbon  and 
one  of  nitrogen.  It  is  a gas  of  a strong 
and  peculiar  odor,  resembling  that  of 
crushed  peach  leaves,  and  burning 
with  a rich  purple  flame.  It  is  unrespir- 
able  and  highly  poisonous.  It  unites 
with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  most  non- 
metallic  elements,  and  also  ■with  the 
metals,  forming  cyanides.  Combined 
with  hydrogen  it  forms  prussic  acid. 

CYANOM'ETER,  is  the  name  of  an 
instrument  invented  by  Saussure  for 
ascertaining  the  intensity  of  color  in  the 
sky.  It  consists  of  a circular  piece  of 
metal  or  pasteboard,  ■with  a band 
divided  by  radii  into  fifty-one  portions, 
each  of  which  is  painted  with  a shade  of 
blue,  beginning  with  the  deepest,  not 
distinguishable  from  black,  and  de- 
creasing gradually  to  the  lightest,  not 
distinguishable  from  white.  The  ob- 
server holds  this  up  between  himself  and 
the  sky,  turning  it  gradually  round  till 
he  finds  the  tint  of  the  instrument  ex- 
actly corresponding  to  the  tint  of  the 
sky. 

CYAN'OTYPE  PROCESS,  a photo- 
graphic picture  obtained  by  the  use  of  a 
cyanide.  This  process  is  in  very  com- 
mon use  by  architects  and  engineers  for 
copying  plans,  producing  an  image  with 
white  lines  upon  a blue  ground.  Sen- 
sitive paper  is  made  by  brushing  it  over 
with  a solution  of  ferric  oxalate ; it  is 
then  exposed  under  the  positive  and 
treated  ■with  a solution  of  potassium 
ferricyanide,  by  which  the  image  is 
developed.  The  color  of  the  ground  is 
deepened  by  subsequent  washing  ■with 
solution  of  potassium  bisulphate. 


Cyclamen. 


CY'CLAMEN,  a genus  of  bulbous 
plants,  nat.  order  Primulaceae  or  prim-- 
roses.  The  species  are  low-growing 


CYCLE 


CYPRUS 


herbaceous  plants,  with  very  handsome 
flowers.  Several  of  them  are  favorite 
spring-flowering  green-house  plants. 
The  fleshy  root-stalks,  though  acrid,  are 
greedily  sought  after  by  swine;  hence 
the  vulgar  name,  sowbread. 

CYCLE  is  used  for  every  uniformly- 
returning  succession  of  the  same  events. 
On  such  successions  or  cycles  of  years 
rests  all  chronology,  particularly  the 
calendar.  Our  common  solar  year, 
determined  by  the  periodical  return  of 
the  sun  to  the  same  point  in  the  ecliptic, 
everybody  knows  contains  fifty-two 
weeks  and  one  day,  and  leap-year  a day 
more.  Consequently  in  different  years 
the  same  day  of  the  year  cannot  fall 
upon  the  same  day  of  the  week.  And 
as  every  fourth  year  is  a leap-year,  it 
will  take  twenty-eight  years  (4x7)  be- 
fore the  days  return  to  their  former 
order  according  to  the  Julian  calendar. 
Such  a period  is  called  a solar  cycle. 
The  cycle  of  the  moon,  or  golden  num- 
ber, or  Metonic  cycle  is  a period  of 
nineteen  years  after  which  the  new  and 
full  moons  return  on  the  same  days  of 
the  month. 

CYCLING,  the  art  of  locomotion  by 
means  of  a machine  consisting  of  two, 
three,  or  sometimes  four  wheels  con- 
nected by  a light  framework  of  steel 
and  having  a seat  or  seats  for  one  or 
more  riders.  It  is  propelled  by  the 
pressure  of  the  rider’s  feet  on  two 
cranks  attached  to  an  axle.  To  the 
practiced  cyclist  his  cycle  is  a rapid  and 
easy  mode  of  traveling,  and  on  it  he 
can  cover  as  much  as  300  miles  in  a day. 
Fully  500  miles  have  been  accomplished 
by  a professional  in  24  hours  on  a pre- 

f)ared  track.  A remarkable  cycling 
eat  was  the  journey  of  12,000  miles  by 
Mr.  Thomas  Stevens  across  the  conti- 
nents of  America,  Europe,  and  Asia  on  a 
bicycle.  Commencing  in  April,  1884, 
he  crossed  first  America,  then  Europe, 
then  Asia,  finishing  at  Yokohama  in 
December  of  the  same  year.  The 
cycle  is  now  made  use  of  for  various 
practical  purposes,  in  business,  military 
affairs,  etc.  See  Bicycle  and  Tricycle. 

CYCLONE  (si'klQn),  a circular  or 
rotatory  storm  or  system  of  winds, 
varying  from  50  to  500  miles  in  diameter 
revolving  round  a center,  which  ad- 
vances at  a rate  that  may  be  as  high  as 
40  miles  an  hour,  and  toward  which  the 
winds  tend.  Cyclones  of  greatest 
violence  occur  within  the  tropics^  and 
they  revolve  in  opposite  directions  in  the 
two  hemispheres — in  the  southern  with, 
and  in  the  northern  against,  the  hands 
of  a watch — in  consequence  of  which, 
and  the  progression  of  the  center,  the 
strength  of  the  storm  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  greater  on  the  south  of  the 
line  of  progression  and  smaller  on  the 
north,  than  it  would  be  if  the  center 
were  stationary,  the  case  being  reversed 
in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

CYCLOPAEDIA.  See  Encyclopaedia. 
CYL'INDER,  a geometrical  solid 
which,  in  popular  language,  may  be 
described  as  a long  round  solid  body, 
terminating  in  two  flat  circular  surfaces 
which  are  equal  and  parallel.  There  is 
a distinction  between  right  cylinders 
and  oblique  cylinders.  In  the  first  case, 
the  axis,  that  is,  the  straight  line  joining 
the  center  of  the  two  opposite  bases, 


must  be  perpendicular,  and  it  may  be 
regarded  as  described  by  the  revolution 
of  a rectangular  parallelogram  round 
one  of  its  longer  sides  (the  axis) ; in  the 
second,  the  axis  must  form  an  angle 
with  the  inferior  base. — In  steam- 
engines,  the  cylinder  is  the  chamber  in 
which  the  force  of  the  steam  is  exerted 
on  the  piston. 

CYLIN'DRICAL  LENS,  a lens  whose 
surfaces  are  cylindrical,  instead  of 
spherical  which  is  usually  the  case. 
A convex  cylindrical  lens  brings  the 
image  of  a source  of  hght  to  a focus  in  a 
line  instead  of  in  a point.  They  are 
usually  piano-cylindrical,  that  is,  cylin- 
drical on  one  side  and  flat  on  the  other. 

CYLINEDRICAL  VAULTING,  in  arch, 
the  most  ancient  mode  of  vaulting, 
called  also  a wagon,  barrel,  or  tunnel 
roof.  It  is  a plain  half-cylinder  without 
either  groins  or  ribs. 

CYM'BALS,  musical  instruments  con- 
sisting of  two  hollow  basins  of  brass, 
which  emit  a ringing  sound  when  struck 
together.  They  are  military  instru- 
ments, but  are  now  occasionally  used  in 
orchestras. 

CYNICS  (sin'iks),  a sect  of  philoso- 
phers among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
founded  by  Antisthedes,  a scholar  of 
Socrates,  at  Athens,  about  300  B.c. 
Their  pMosophy  was  a one-sided  de- 
velopment of  the  Socratic  teaching  by 
Antisthenes  and  his  followers,  who 
looked  only  to  the  severer  aspect  of 
their  master’s  doctrines,  and  valued 
themselves  on  their  contempt  of  arts, 
sciences,  riches,  and  all  the  social 
civilization  of  life.  They  made  virtue  to 
consist  in  entire  self-denial  and  in- 
dependence of  external  circumstances. 
In  time  this  attitude  degenerated  into 
a kind  of  philosophic  savagery  and 
neglect  of  decency,  and  the  cynics  fell 
into  contempt. 

CY'PRESS,  a genus  of  coniferous  trees. 
The  common  cypress  is  a dark-colored 
evergreen  with  extremely  small  leaves, 
entirely  covering  the  branches.  I<^  has 


Cypress. 


a quadrangular,  or,  where  the  top 
branches  diminish  in  length,  pyramidal 
shape.  Cypress-trees,  though  of  a some- 
what somber  and  gloomy  appearance, 
may  be  used  with  great  effect  in  shrub- 
beries and  gardens.  They  are  much 
valued  also  on  account  of  their  wood, 
which  is  hard,  compact,  and  very  durable, 
of  a reddish  color  and  a pleasant  smell. 
The  deciduous  cypress  of  the  U.  States 


and  Mexico,  is  frequently  called  the 
Virginian  cypress.  Its  timber  is  valu- 
able, and  under  water  is  almost  im- 
perishable. In  parts  of  the  U.  States 
this  cypress  constitutes  forests  hundreds 
of  miles  in  extent. 

CY'PRUS,  an  island  lying  on  the 
south  of  Asia  Minor,  and  the  most 
easterly  in  the  Mediterranean.  Its 
greatest  length  is  145  miles,  maximum 
breadth  about  60  miles;  area,  3678  sq. 
miles.  The  chief  features  of  its  surface 
are  two  mountain  ranges,  both  stretch- 
ing east  and  west,  the  one  running  close 
to  the  northern  shore,  and  extending 
through  the  long  north-eastern  horn 
or  prolongation  of  the  island,  the  other 
and  more  massive  (Mt.  Olympus) 
occupying  a great  part  of  the  south  of 
the  island,  and  rising  in  Trobdos  to 
6590  feet.  Between  them  is  the  bare 
and  mostly  uncultivated  plain  called 
Messaria.  There  is  a deficiency  of 
water.  The  climate  is  in  general  healthy. 
The  mountains  are  covered  with  forests 
of  excellent  timber  (now  under  govern- 
ment supervision),  and  the  island  is 
esteemed  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
fertile  in  the  Levant.  Agriculture, 
however,  is  in  a very  backward  state, 
and  locusts  sometimes  cause  great 
damage.  Wheat,  barley,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, olives,  raisins,  and  carobs  are  the 
most  important  vegetable  products. 
The  wine  is  famous,  especially  that 
known  as  commandery.  Silk-worms 
are  reared,  and  a coarse  kind  of  silk  is 
woven.  Salt  in  large  quantities  is  pro- 
duced. The  minerals  are  valuable;  the 
copper-mines  were  of  great  importance 
in  ancient  times  (the  name  copper  is 
derived  from  that  of  this  island),  and 
are  again  being  worked.  Large  num- 
bers of  sheep  and  goats  are  reared  on 
the  extensive  pasture  lands  of  the  island. 
The  principal  towns  are  Lefkosia  or 
Nicosia,  the  capital,  the  only  consider- 
able inland  town,  and  the  seaports  are 
Larnaca  and  Limassol.  The  chief 
exports  are  carobs,  wine,  and  cotton, 
with  cheese,  raisins,  cocoons,  wool,  etc. 

After  belonging  successively  to  the 
Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Egypt,  Persia,  and 
again  Egypt,  Cyprus  in  57  b.c.  became 
a Roman  province,  and  passed  as  such 
to  the  eastern  division  of  the  empire. 
In  1191  it  was  bestowed  by  Richard  of 
England  (who  had  conquered  it  when 
engaged  in  the  third  crusade)  on  Guy  de 
Lusignan,  and  after  his  line  was  extinct 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians 
(1489),  with  whom  it  remained  till  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1571 
and  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
In  1878  it  was  ceded  to  Britain  by  the 
convention  of  Constantinople  concluded 
between  England  and  Turkey,  its 
reversion  to  Turkey  being  provided  if 
Russia  should  give  up  Batoum  and  Kars 
The  island  has  become  much  more 
prosperous  under  British  administra- 
tion, and  roads,  harbor-works,  etc.,  have 
been  constructed,  trees  planted,  and 
schools  opened.  The  head  of  the 
government  is  the  high  commissioner, 
and  there  is  a legislative  council  of 
twelve  elected  and  six  official  members, 
nine  of  the  former  being  Greeks,  the 
others  Mohammedans.  Pop.  237,022, 
of  whom  three-fourths  belong  to  the 
Greek  Church. 


CYRUS 


DAGOBA 


CY'RUS,  King  of  Persia,  a celebrated 
conqueror.  Cyrus  conquered  his  grand- 
father (b.c.  559),  and  thus  became  king 
of  Media  and  Persia.  In  546  he  con- 
quered Croesus  of  Lydia,  and  two  years 
later  took  Babylon.  He  also  subdued 
Phoenicia  and  Palestine,  and  restored 
the  Jews  from  their  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. He  was  slain  in  battle  with  a 
Scythian  nation  in  b.c.  529. 

CZAR  (zar  or  tsarh  a title  of  the 
Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias,  not  im- 
probably a corruption  of  the  Roman 
title  Cajsar.  It  was  first  adopted  in  1579 
by  Ivan  II.  The  feminine  of  czar  is 
czarina,  meaning  the  Empress  of  Russia. 

CZAREV'NA,  the  wife  of  the  czaro- 
witz. 

CZAROWITZ  or  CZAREVITCH  (za'ro- 
vits,  za're-vich),  the  title  of  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Czar  of  Russia. 

CZECHS  (che/is),  the  most  westerly 
branch  of  the  great  Slavonic  family  of 
races.  The  Czechs  have  their  head- 
quarters in  Bohemia,  where  they 
arrived  in  the  5th  century.  The  original 
of  the  name  is  unknown.  The  total 
number  of  the  Czechs  (including  Mora- 
vians, Slovaks,  etc.)  is  about  7,500,000, 
nearly  sill  of  whom  live  in  the  Austrian 


Empire.  The  Czechs  proper,  in  Bo- 
hemia, number  about  3,200,000.  They 
speak  a Slavonic  dialect  of  great  an- 
tiquity and  of  high  scientific  cultivation. 
The  Czech  language  is  distinguished  as 
highly  inflectional,  with  great  facility 
for  forming  derivatives,  frequentatives, 
inceptives,  and  diminutives  of  all  kinds. 
Like  the  Greek  it  has  a dual  number, 
and  its  manifold  declensions,  tenses,  and 
participial  formations,  with  their  subtle 
shades  of  distinction,  give  the  language 
a complex  grammatical  structure.  The 
alphabet  consists  of  forty-two  letters, 
expressing  a great  variety  of  sound. 
In  musical  value  the  Czech  comes  next 
to  Italian. 

CZENSTOCHOWA  (chen-sto-^io'va), 
a town  in  Russian  Poland,  government 
of  Petrokow.  There  is  here  a convent 
containing  a famous  picture  of  the 
Virgin,  which  is  visited  by  vast  numbers 
of  pilgrims.  Pop.  65,000. 

CZERNOWITZ  (cher-no'vits),  a city 
of  Austria,  chief  town  of  Bukowina,  138 
miles  s.c.  of  Lemberg.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  clocks,  silver-plate,  carriages, 
toys,  etc.  Pop.  (including  suburbs), 
54,171,  a considerable  proportion  being 
Jews. 


CZERNY  (cher'ni),  George,  hospodar 
of  Servia,  born  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Belgrade  about  1770;  beheaded  by  the 
Turks  July,  1817.  His  true  name  was 
George  Petrovitch,  but  he  was  called 
Czerny  or  Kara  George,  i.  e..  Black 
George.  In  1801  he  organized  an  in- 
surrection of  his  countrymen  against 
the  Turks,  took  Belgrade,  and  forced 
the  Porte  to  recognize  him  as  hospodar  of 
Servia.  In  1813,  however,  he  had  to 
retire  before  a superior  force  and  took 
refuge  in  Austria.  Returning  to  his 
country  in  1817  he  was  taken  and  put 
to  death. 

CZERNY  (clw?r'ni),  Karl,  pianist  and 
musical  composer,  born  1791,  died  1857. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Liszt,  Thalberg, 
and  other  distinguished  musicians. 

CZOLGOSZ  (chol'gotch),  Leon,  the 
assassin  of  President  McKinley.  He 
was  born  at  Detroit  in  1873  and  he  was 
therefore  only  28  when  he  killed  McKin- 
ley. He  was  a fanatical  anarchist,  a 
dreamer,  but  was  said  to  be  sane.  He  was 
executed  Oct.  29,  1901.  (See  McKinley, 
William.) 


13 


D,  the  fourth  letter  in  our  alphabet, 
representing  a dental  sound  formed  by 
placing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against 
the  foot  of  the  upper  teeth,  and  then 
forcing  up  vocalized  breath,  or  voice, 
into  the  mouth,  the  soft  palate  being 
raised  to  prevent  its  escape  through  the 
nose.  T is  formed  in  the  same  way, 
except  that  it  is  uttered  with  breath 
merely  and  not  with  voice.  As  a 
numeral  D represents  500. 

DAB,  a fish  belonging  to  the  family  ot 
flat-fishes,  comprising  also  the  sole, 
turbot,  halibut,  plaice,  and  flounder,  the 
last  two  being  included  in  the  same 


Dab. 


fenus  with  the  dab  It  is  of  a pale- 
rownish  color  spotted  with  white  on 
the  side  which  it  usually  keeps  upper- 
most, and  white  on  the  underside,  and 
has  rougher  scales  than  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  same  genus.  It  is  preferred 
to  the  flounder  for  the  table. 

DACCA,  a commissioner’s  division  of 
Hindustan  in  Bengal,  at  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Bengal;  area,  15,000  sq.  miles. 
It  is  one  of  the  richest  districts  in  India, 
and  produces  such  quantities  of  rice  as 
to  be  called  the  granary  of  Bengal. 
Pop.  9,844,127,  Mohammedans  being 
in  a decided  majority.  Dacca,  its 
capital,  is  about  150  miles  northeast  of 
Calcutta,  being  free  from  violent  heats, 
is  one  of  the  healthiest  and  pleasantest 
stations  in  Bengal.  Pop.  90,542, 


DACE,  a small  river  fish  of  the  family 
Cybrindise,  and  resembling  the  roach 
but  longer  and  thinner.  It  is  a gregar- 


Dace. 


ious  fish  swimming  in  shoals  and  in- 
habiting chiefly  deep  clear  streams  with 
a gentle  current.  It  seldom  exceeds  a 
pound  in  weight. 

DACHSHUND  (daks'hunt).  See  Badg- 
er Dog. 

DACRYO'MA,  a disease  of  the  lachry- 
mal duct  of  the  eye,  by  which  the  tears 
are  prevented  from  passing  into  the  nose 
and  consequently  trickle  over  the  cheek. 

DAC'TYI  /,  in  versification,  a foot  con- 
sisting of  one  long  followed  by  two  short 
syllables,  or,  in  English,  one  accented 
and  two  unaccented,  as  happily. 

DADDY-LONG-LEGS,  a name  given 
to  a species  of  the  crane-fly,  and  to  a 
species  of  the  common  house  spider. 

DA'DO,  in  classical  architecture,  the 
middle  part  of  a pedestal,  that  is  to  say, 
the  solid  rectangular  part  between  the 
plinth  and  the  cornice;  also  called  the 
die.  In  the  interior  of  houses  it  is  ap- 
plied to  a skirting  of  wood  several  feet 
high  round  the  lower  part  of  the  walls, 
or  an  imitation  of  this  by  paper  or 
painting. 

DAFF'ODIL,  the  popular  name  of  a 
plant  which  is  one  of  the  earliest 
ornaments  of  woods  and  meadows. 
Many  varieties  of  the  daffodil  are  in 
cultivation,  differing  chiefly  in  bulk  and 
in  the  form  of  the  flower,  which  is  of  a 
bright  primrose-yellow  color.  There  are 
other  forms  of  the  name  in  local  or 
partial  use. 


DAGGER,  a weapon  resembling  a 
short  sword,  with  sharp-pointed  blade. 
In  single  combat  it  was  wielded  in  the 
left  hand  and  used  to  parry  the  adver- 
sary’s blow,  and  also  to  despatch  him 
when  vanquished. 

DAGHESTAN',  a promnce  of  Russia, 
in  the  Caucasus,  stretching  along  the 
west  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea;  area, 
11,036  square  miles.  Pop.  601,987. 

DA'GOBA,  in  Buddhist  countries  and 
those  which  at  one  time  held  the  Budd- 
hist faith,  a solid  structure  erected  to 
contain  some  sacred  relic  or  relics,  as 
distinguished  from  the  term  stupa  or 


Ceylonese  dagoba. 

tope,  which  in  its  specific  application 
is  usually  restricted  to  monuments 
which  commemorate  some  event  or 
mark  some  spot  sacred  to  the  followers 
of  Buddha.  Dagobas  are  built  of  brick 
or  stone,  are  circular  in  form,  generally 
vith  a dome-shaped  top,  and  are 
erected  on  natural  or  artificial  mounds, 
while  the  stone  or  brick  structure  itself 
sometimes  rises  to  an  immense  height. 
These  dagobas  have  always  been  held 
in  the  highest  veneration  by  the  Budd- 
hists, and  a common  mode  of  testifying 


DAGUERRE 


DALMATIC 


their  veneration  is  to  walk  round  them, 
repeating  prayers  the  while. 

DAGUERRE  (dii-gar),  Louis  Jacques 
Mand6,  was  born  in  1789  at  Cormeilles, 
dep.  Seine-et-Oise.  He  was  a scene- 
painter  at  Paris,  and  as  early  as  1814  had 
his  attention  directed  to  the  subject  of 
photographic  pictures  on  metal,  but  it 
was  not  till  July  5,  1833,  that  Daguerre 
succeeded  in  perfecting  the  process 
since  called  daguerreotype.  The  new 
process  excited  the  greatest  interest. 
Daguerre  was  made  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  an  annuity  of 
6000  francs  was  settled  on  him.  Da- 
guerre died  July  10,  1851. 

DAGUERREOTYPE  PROCESS  (da- 
ger'ro-tip),  the  original  photographic 
process,  consisting  in  sensitizing  a silver 
plate  with  the  vapor  of  iodine,  and  then 
placing  it  in  a camera  obscura  previous- 
ly focussed,  and  afterward  developing 
the  picture  by  vapor  of  mercury.  It  is 
then  fixed  by  immersion  in  hyposulphate 
of  sodium.  After  thorough  washing  and 
drying  the  picture  is  covered  with  glass 
to  prevent  its  being  rubbed  off. 
Daguerreotype  has  now  been  super.se- 
ded  by  the  collodion  and  other  processes. 

DAHABIEH  (da-ha-be'e),  a boat  used 
on  the  Nile  for  conveyance  of  travelers. 
It  varies  considerably  in  size;  has  one  or 


two  masts  with  a very  long  slanting 
yard  on  each  mast  supporting  a triangu- 
lar sail,  and  accommodates  from  two 
to  eight  passengers. 

DAHLGREN,  John  Adolf,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1809,  died  in  1870.  In  1850  he  invented 
the  Dahlgren  gun  which  was  found  to 
be  very  efficient  during  the  civil  war. 
In  1862  he  was  made  chief  of  the  bureau 
of  ordnance,  in  1863  became  a rear- 
admiral,  commanded  the  South  At- 
lantic Squadron  during  the  siege  of 
Charleston,  silenced  Fort  Sumter,  and 
performed  other  valuable  services  dur- 
ing the  war.  After  the  war  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  U.  S.  Navy 
Yard  in  Washington  where  he  remained 
until  his  death. 

DAHLGREN  (dal'gren)  GUNS,  an 
improved  kind  of  cannon  invented  by 
John  A.  Dahlgren,  admiral  of  the  United 
States  navy.  Their  chief  peculiarity 
consists  in  their  having  less  metal  be- 
tween the  muzzle  and  the  trunnions 
than  ordinary  cannons. 

DAHO'MEY,  a French  possession  in 

est  .\frica,  formerly  a negro  kingdom, 
notorious  for  the  savagery  of  its  in- 
habitants, and  especially  for  the  human 


sacrifices  or  “customs”  offered  up  by 
the  king.  It  lies  between  the  German 
colony  of  Togoland  on  the  west  and  the 
British  territories  of  Lagos,  etc.,  on 
the  east,  and  extends  inland  for  about 
130  miles  with  a breadth  of  about  70. 

It  is  well  wooded  and  watered,  and  very 
fertile.  The  chief  export  is  palm-oil. 
The  king  used  to  keep  up  an  army  of 
10,000,  a number  being  female  warriors. 
The  capital  is  Abomey,  the  chief  port 
Whydah.  In  1890  the  king  granted 
France  a protectorate  over  the  coast. 
A year  or  two  after,  hostilities  broke  out 
with  the  French,  who  defeated  the  king 
and  have  made  Dahomey  a colonial 
possession.  Pop  600,000. 

DAIRY,  the  department  of  a farm 
which  is  concerned  with  the  production 
of  milk  and  its  manufacture  into  butter 
and  cheese.  As  a rule  the  soil  and 
climate  of  a country,  and  the  nearness 
of  suitable  markets,  determine  in  a 
great  measure  the  choice  between  til- 
lage and  dairy  husbandry.  For  milk 
dairies  cows  that  yield  abundantly  are 
selected,  while  for  butter  and  cheese 
dairies  the  rich  quality  of  the  milk  is 
the  principal  point.  Regularity  in 
feeding  is  very  important,  and  the 
nature  of  the  food  given  has  a great 
effect  on  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The 
younger  the  cow  is  the  richer  is  her 
milk,  and  the  second  and  third  years, 
therefore,  are  generally  the  most  pro- 
fitable, both  quantity  and  quality 
being  taken  into  account.  In  general, 
after  the  seventh  or  eighth  year  it  is  not 
considered  advisable  to  continue  the 
cow  longer  in  milk,  as  her  milk  is  fast 
deteriorating  and  she  consumes  more 
food  than  a young  one. 

DAIS,  a platform  or  raised  floor  at  the 
upper  end  of  an  ancient  dining-hall, 
where  the  high  table  stood;  also  a seat 
with  a high  wainscot  back,  and  some- 
times with  a canopy,  for  those  who  sat 
at  the  high  table.  The  word  is  also 
sometimes  applied  to  the  high  table 
itself. 

DAISY,  the  name  of  a plant  which  is 
very  familiar,  and  a great  favorite.  It 
never  ceases  to  flower,  is  found  in  all 
pastures  and  meadows,  and  ascends 
nearly  to  the  summit  of  the  highest 
mountains.  Its  name  is  literally  day’s 
eye,  being  given  because  it  opens  and 
closes  its  flower  with  the  daylight. 

DAKOITY.  See  Dacoity. 

DAKOTA,  North.  See  North  Dakota. 

DAKOTA,  South.  See  South  Dakota. 

DAKOTA  INDIANS.  See  Sioux. 

DALHOUSIE  (dal-ho'zi),  James  An- 
drew Brown  Ramsay,  tenth  Earl  and 
first  Marquis  of,  born  in  1812;  British 
statesman.  After  filling  the  offices  of 
vice-president  (1843),  and  president  of 
the  board  of  trade  (1844),  he  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  India 
(1847).  In  this  post  he  showed  high 
administrative  talent,  establishing  rail- 
way lines,  telegraphs,  irrigation  works, 
etc.,  on  a vast  scale.  He  greatly  ex- 
tended the  British  empire  in  India, 
annexing  the  Punjab,  Oude,  Berar, 
and  other  native  states,  as  well  as 
Pegu  in  Burmah.  In  1849  he  was  made 
a marquis,  and  obtained  the  thanks  of 
both  houses  of  parliament.  He  out- 
stayed his  term  of  office  to  give  the 
government  the  aid  of  his  experience 


in  the  annexation  of  Oude;  and  when 
he  returned  to  Europe  in  1856  it  was 
with  a constitution  so  completely  shat- 
tered that  he  was  never  able  to  appear 


again  in  public  life,  and  died  on  19th 
December,  1860.  As  he  left  no  direct 
male  issue,  his  marquisate  expired  with 
him. 

DALLAS,  a city  of  Texas,  county  seat 
of  Dallas  County,  on  the  five  principal 
railroads  running  through  Texas.  The 
city  has  large  grain  and  manufacturing 
interests,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  dis- 
tributing centers  of  agricultural  in- 
struments in  the  United  States.  It  has 
a Roman  Catholic  and  a Protestant 
Episcopal  Cathedral,  a $300,000  court 
house,  a hospital,  a handsome  con- 
federate monument  and  many  beauti- 
ful residences.  The  population  is 
90,000. 

DALLAS,  George  Mifflin,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman,  born  in  Philadelphia  in 
1792,  died  1864.  He  accompanied 
Gallatin  on  his  mission  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, studied  law,  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate  in  1831,  was  made 
minister  to  Russia  in  1837,  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  from  1845  to 
1849,  and  minister  to  Britain  from 
1856  to  1861.  Dallas’s  forte  lay  in  his 
talent  as  a diplomat. 

DALLES  (dalz),  the  name  given  to 
various  rapids  and  cataracts  in  North 
America.  The  Great  Dalles  of  the 
Columbia  are  about  200  miles  from  its 
mouth,  where  the  river  is  compressed 
by  lofty  basaltic  rocks  into  a roaring 
torrent  about  58  yards  in  width;  the 
Dalles  of  the  St.  Louis  are  a series  of 
cataracts  near  Duluth,  Minnesota. 

DALMA'TIA,  a province  of  Austria, 
with  the  title  of  kingdom,  the  most 
southern  portion  of  the  Austrian  do- 
minions. It  consists  of  a long  narrow 
triangular  tract  of  mountainous  country 
and  a number  of  large  islands  along 
the  northeast  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
and  bounded  n.  by  Croatia,  and  n.e.  by 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  In  breadth 
it  is  very  limited,  not  exceeding  40 
miles  in  any  part;  its  whole  area  is 
4940  English  square  miles.  Pop.  527,- 
426. 

DALMATIAN  DOG,  a variety  of  dog, 
called  also  the  Danish,  spotted,  or 
coach  dog.  See  Coach-dog. 

DALMATTC,  or  DALMATIC  A,  an 
ecclesiastical  vestinent  worn  by  the  dea- 
con at  mass,  so  called  bec.ause  it  was  an 


DALTON 


DAMIENS 


imitation  of  Dalmatian  costume.  It 
is  worn  also  by  bishops  under  the 
chasuble.  It  is  a long  robe  with  large 
full  sleeves  with  black  or  red  longitu- 


DalmaUca,  cathedral  of  Chartres  (twelfth 
century). 

dinal  stripes  and  partially  unclosed 
sides.  A similar  robe  was  worn  by 
kings  and  emperors  at  high  solemnities, 
and  continues  still  to  be  worn  by  the 
sovereigns  of  England  on  such  occasions. 

DALTON,  John,  an  English  chemist 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  in  1766. 
After  teaching  for  twelve  years  at 
Kendal,  in  1793  his  reputation  as  a 
mathematician  won  for  him  the  chair 
of  mathematics  at  the  New  College, 
Manchester.  Here  he  continued  to 
reside  (though  the  college  was  removed 
in  1799L  publishing  from  year  to  year 
valuable  essays  and  papers  on  scientific 
subjects,  while  he  also  lectured  in 
London,  and  visited  Paris.  In  1808  he 
announced  (New  System  of  Chemical 
Philosophy)  his  atomic  theory  of  chemi- 
cal action,  the  discovery  of  which  spread 
his  fame  over  Europe.  Various  academ- 
ic and  other  honors  were  bestowed 
upon  him,  and  in  1833  he  received  a 
pension  of  $750,  afterward  increased 
to  $1500.  He  died  July  27,  1844. 

DALY,  John  Augustin,  an  American 
theatrical  manager,  born  in  North  Caro- 
lina in  1838,  died  in  1899.  In  1869  he 
opened  the  Fifth  Avenue  Theater  in 
New  York  in  which  appeared  Fanny 
Davenport,  Mrs.  Scott  Siddons,  E.  L. 
Davenport,  Clara  Morris  and  others. 
In  1879,  after  a visit  to  Europe,  he 
opened  Daly’s  Theater  on  Broadway. 
He  produced  many  of  the  best  of 
American  plays  and  was  one  of  the 
most  efficient  managers  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  American  stage. 

DAM,  a bank  or  construction  of  stone, 
earth,  or  wood  across  a stream  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  back  the  current  to 
give  it  increased  head,  for  holding  back 
supplies  of  water,  for  flooding  lands,  or 
for  rendering  the  stream  above  the 
dam  navigable  by  increased  depth.  Its 
material  and  construction  will  depend  on 
its  situation  and  the  amount  of  pressure 
it  has  to  bear.  For  streams  which  are 
broad  and  deep  strong  materials  are 
required,  usually  stone  masonry  bound 
in  hydraulic  cement  and  a strong  frame- 
work of  timber.  The  common  forms 
of  a dam  are  either  a straight  line  cross- 
ing the  stream  transversely,  or  one  or 
two  straight  lines  traversing  it  diagon- 
ally, or  an  arc  with  its  convex  side  to- 


ward the  current.  See  Embankment 
and  Reservoir. 

DAM,  Tinker’s,  a small  bank  of  clay 
or  dough  which  a tinker  places  around 
his  solder  until  it  sets.  The  phrase 
is  used  facetiously,  as  in  the  expression, 
“not  to  give  a tinker’s  dam,”  deriving 
its  force  from  the  insignificance  of  the 
instrument  itself  and  its  worthlessness 
after  it  has  served  its  purpose. 

DAM'AGES,  in  law,  pecuniary  com- 
pensation paid  to  a person  for  loss  or 
injury  sustained  by  him  through  the 
fault  of  another.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  act  should  have  been  a fraudu- 
lent one;  it  is  enough  that  it  be  illegal, 
unwarrantable,  or  malicious.  If,  how- 
ever, a person  has  suffered  a loss  through 
fraud  or  delict  on  the  part  of  another, 
that  person  has  not  only  a claim  to 
ordinary  damages,  but  may  also  claim 
remote  or  consequential  damages,  and 
may  estimate  the  amount  of  the  loss  he 
has  sustained  not  at  its  real  value,  but 
at  the  imaginary  value  which  he  him- 
self may  put  upon  it,  subject,  however, 
to  the  modification  of  a judge  or  a jury. 
In  other  cases  the  damages  cover  only 
the  loss  sustained  estimated  at  its  real 
value,  together  with  the  expenses  in- 
curred in  obtaining  damages. 

DAMAN  (da-man'),  a seaport,  Hin- 
dustan, at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Cam- 
bay,  100  miles  north  from  Bombay.  It 
belongs  to  the  Portuguese;  area,  82  sq. 
miles;  pop.  49,084. 

DAMAS'CUS,  a celebrated  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Syria,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  most  ancient  city  in  the 


ornamented  vdth  trees  and  spouting 
fountains,  the  rooms  adorned  with 
arabesques  and  filled  with  splendid 
furniture.  Damascus  is  an  important 
emporium  of  trade  in  European  manu- 
factures; it  is  also  a place  of  consider- 
able manufacturing  industry  in  silk, 
damasks,  cotton  and  other  fabrics,  to- 
bacco, glass,  soap,  etc.  Saddles,  fine 
cabinet-work,  and  elegant  jewelry  are 
well  made;  but  the  manufacture  of  the 
famous  Damascus  blades  no  longer 
exists.  It  is  one  of  the  holy  moslem 
cities,  and  continues  to  be  the  most 
thoroughly  oriental  in  its  features  of 
any  city.  Of  its  origin  nothing  certain 
is  known;  but  it  is  mentioned  as  a 
place  of  some  note  in  Gen.  xiv.  15. 
After  being  held  by  the  Israelites, 

I Assyrians,  Persians,  Greeks,  Romans, 
I and  Arabs,  it  passed  in  1516  to  the 
Turks.  It  now  has  gas-works  and  tram- 
ways, and  railways  connect  it  with 
Beyrout  and  the  Hauran.  Pop.  215,000. 

DAMASCUS-STEEL,  a kind  of  steel 
originally  made  in  Damascus  and  the 
East,  greatly  valued  in  the  making  of 
swords  for  its  hardness  of  edge  and 
flexibility.  It  is  a laminated  metal  of 
pure  iron  and  steel  of  peculiar  quality, 
carbon  being  present  in  excess  of  ordi- 
nary proportions,  produced  by  careful 
heating,  laborious  forging,  doubling, 
and  twisting. 

DAM'ASK,  the  name  given  to  textile 
fabrics  of  various  materials,  ornamented 
I with  raised  figures  of  flowers,  landscapes, 
and  other  forms,  being  the  richest  species 
1 of  ornamental  weaving,  tapestry  ex- 


world. It  is  beautifully  situated  on  a 
plain  which  is  covered  with  gardens  and 
orchards  and  watered  by  the  Barrada. 
The  appearance  of  the  city,  as  it  first 
opens  on  the  view,  has  been  rapturously 
spoken  of  by  all  travelers;  but  the 
streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  and  in  parts 
dilapidated,  and,  except  in  the  wealthy 
Moslem  quarter,  the  houses  are  low, 
with  flat-arched  doors  and  accumula- 
tions of  filth  before  the  entrance.  With- 
in, however,  there  is  often  a singular  con- 
i trast,  in  courts  paved  with  marble  and 


cepted.  Damask  is  very  commonly 
made  in  linen  for  table  napery. 

DAMASKEEN'ING,  the  ornamenting 
of  iron  and  steel  with  designs  produced 
by  inlaying  or  incrusting  with  another 
metal,  as  gold,  silver,  etc.,  by  etching, 
and  the  like. 

DAMIENS  (da-me-an),  Robert  Fran- 
cois, notorious  for  his  attempt  to  assas- 
sinate Louis  XV.,  born  in  1715  in  the 
village  of  Tieulloy.  On  Jan.  5,  1757,  as 
Louis  XV.  was  getting  into  his  carriage 

to  return  from  Versailles  to  Trianon,  he 

< 


DAMOCLES 


DANIELL’S  BATTERY 


/ 

was  stabbed  by  Damiens  in  the  right 
side.  The  wound  was  of  a trifling  na- 
ture, and  Damiens,  who  made  no  at- 
tempt to  escape,  declared  he  never  in- 
tended to  kilt  the  king.  Damiens  was 
condemned  and  torn  in  quarters  by 
horses  March  28,  1757,  on  the  Place  de 
Gr^ve  at  Paris. 

DAM'OCLES,  a native  of  Syracuse, 
and  one  of  the  courtiers  and  flatterers 
of  the  tyrant  Dionysius  the  elder.  One 
day  he  was  extolling  the  grandeur  and 
happiness  of  Dionysius,  whereupon  the 
latter  invited  him  to  a magnificent 
banquet,  where  he  would  be  regaled 
with  regal  fare  and  regal  honors.  In  the 
midst  of  the  entertainment,  however. 
Damocles  happened  to  look  upward, 
and  perceived  with  dismay  a naked 
sword  suspended  over  his  head  by  a 
single  hair,  and  was  thus  taught  to 
form  a better  estimate  of  royal  honors. 

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS,  two  illus- 
trious Syracusans,  celebrated  as  models 
of  constant  friendship.  Pythias  had 
been  unjustly  condemned  to  death  by 
Dionysius  the  younger,  tyrant  of  Sicily; 
but,  having  to  leave  Syracuse  to  arrange 
his  affairs,  his  friend  Damon  was  taken 
as  a pledge  that  Pythias  should  return 
on  the  day  fixed.  Pythias,  however, 
being  unexpectedly  detained,  had  great 
difficulty  in  reaching  Syracuse  in  time 
to  save  Damon  being  executed  in  his 
place;  and  Dionysius  was  so  affected  by 
this  proof  of  their  friendship  that  he 
pardoned  Pythias. 

DAMPERS,  certain  movable  parts  in 
the  internal  frame  of  a pianoforte, 
which,  whenever  the  finger  leaves  the 
key,  descend  upon  the  wires  and  in- 
stantly check  the  vibration. — Dampers 
also  denote  the  iron  plates  used  to 
regulate  the  draft  of  flues. 

DAMPS,  noxious  exhalations  issuing 
from  the  earth,  and  deleterious  or  fatal 
to  animal  life.  Damps  exist  in  wells 
which  continue  long  covered  and  not 
used,  and  in  mines  and  coal-pits;  and 
sometimes  they  issue  from  the  old 
lavas  of  volcanoes.  These  damps  are 
distinguished  by  miners  under  the 
names  of  choke-damp,  consisting  chiefly 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  instantly 
suffocates;  and  fire-damp,  consisting 
chiefly  of  light  carburetted  hydrogen, 
so  called  from  its  tendency  to  explode. 

DAM'ROSCH,  Leopold,  a German- 
American  composer  and  conductor, 
born  in  Pasen,  Prussia,  in  1832,  died 
in  1885.  In  1855  he  began  his  musical 
career  as  a violinist,  and  became  promi- 
nent in  Germany  as  a composer  and 
director.  In  1871  he  removed  to  New 
York  as  director  of  the  Arion  Society. 
In  1884  he  established  German  opera 
in  New  York  and  in  other  ways  aided 
musical  growth  in  the  U.  States. 

DAM'ROSCH,  Walter  Johannes,  an 
American  musician,  son  of  Leopold 
Damrosch,  born  in  Breslau,  Prussia,  in 
1862,  and  was  brought  to  the  U.  S.  by 
his  parents  in  1871.  He  has  been  con- 
duc^r  of  several  important  musical  or- 
ganizations and  opera  performances  and 
n 1896  produced  the  Scarlet  Letter,  an 
'pera  founded  on  Hawthorne’s  novel. 

DAM'SON,  a variety  of  the  common 
plum.  The  fruit  is  rather  small  and 
oval,  and  its  numerous  sub-varieties  are 
of  different  colors:  black,  bluish,  dark 


purple,  yellow,  etc.  The  damson  (cur- 
ruption  of  Damascene),  as  its.  name 
imports,  is  from  Damascus. 

DAN,  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  by  his 
concubine  Bilhah.  At  the  time  of  the 
exodus  the  Danites  numbered  62,700 
adult  males,  being  then  the  second  tribe 
in  point  of  numbers.  The  territory 
assigned  them  in  Canaan  lay  on  the 
coast,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  hardy  and  well-equipped  Philis- 
tines, and  the  Danites  were  pushed 
back  into  a more  mountainous  region. 
The  tribe  also  possessed  an  isolated 
portion  of  territory  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Canaan,  containing  the  town  of 
Laish  or  Dan,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
proverbial  expression  “from  Dan  to 
Beersheba.”  The  most  notable  person 
connected  with  the  tribe  was  Samson. 

DA'NA,  Charles  Anderson,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  born  in  New  Hampshire 
in  1819,  died  in  1897.  He  was  one  of 
the  socialists  of  the  Brook  Farm  experi- 
ment and  from  1847  to  1862  was  con- 
nected with  the  New  York  Tribune. 
In  1863-4  he  was  assistant  secretary 
of  war,  and  after  the  war  became  the 
proprietor  of  the  New  York  Sun,  which 
he  remained  until  his  death. 

DANA,  James  Dwight,  a noted  Ameri- 
can geologist,  born  in  New  York  in  1813, 
died  in  1895.  His  principal  work  was 
done  as  a member  of  the  Wilkes  Ex- 
ploring Expedition  (U.  States  govern- 
ment) the  results  of  which  were  pub- 
lished by  the  government  in  1846,  1849, 
and  1852.  From  1846  he  was  the  editor 
of  the  American  Journal  of  Science. 
Dana  was  honored  by  foreign  scientific 
societies  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
American.  Since  1850  he  had  been 
professor  of  natural  science  at  Yale. 

DANA,  Richard  Henry,  an  American 
writer  and  poet,  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1787,  died  1879.  In  1815  he  was 
made  editor  of  the  North  American 
Review,  and  later  worked  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Bryant  in  a journalistic  ven- 
ture called  the  Idle  Fellow.  His  col- 
lected works  were  published  in  1850. 

DANA,  Richard  Henry,  an  American 
writer,  son  of  Richard  Henry  Dana, 
the  poet.  He  was  born  in  Massachusetts 
in  1815,  and  died  in  1882.  He  con- 
tributed to  periodicals  and  published 
several  works  dealing  with  travel  and 
nautical  life.  He  left  no  lasting  work. 

DAN'AE,  in  Greek  mythology,  daugh- 
ter of  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos.  She  was 
shut  up  by  her  father  in  a brazen  tower, 
but  Zeus,  inflamed  with  passion  for  her, 
transformed  himself  into  a golden 
shower,  and  descended  through  the 
apertures  of  the  roof  into  her  embraces. 
Set  adrift  on  the  waves  by  her  father, 
she  reached  safely  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
where  her  child,  Perseus,  was  brought 
up. 

DAN'BURY,  a town  in  Connecticut, 
about  53  miles  n.n.e.  of  New  York. 
It  has  notable  manufactures  of  hats, 
shirts,  and  sewing-machines.  Pop. 
18,140. 

DANCE  OF  DEATH.  See  Death, 
Dance  of. 

DANCING,  a studied  and  rhythmical 
movement  of  the  limbs  generally  ad- 
justed to  the  measure  of  a tune.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  generally  an  ex- 
pression of  religious,  patriotic,  or  mili- 


tary feeling,  as  in  the  case  of  the  dance 
of  David  before  the  ark,  the  choric 
dances,  or  the  Pyrrhic  dange  of  the 
Greeks.  The  Romans,  however,  like 
the  orientals,  had  their  dancing  done  by 
hired  slaves.  This  solemn  character  of 
the  dance  has  declined  with  the  progress 
of  refinement  and  civilization,  and  it  is 
now  nothing  more  than  an  elegant  social 
amusement  and  an  agreeable  spectacle 
at  public  entertainments. 

DANCING  FAUN,  a bronze  sculpture 
found  in  Pompeii  in  1853,  which  has 
given  the  name  to  the  ruined  house  in 
which  it  was  discovered. 

DANCING  GIRLS,  the  Nautch  girls 
of  India. 

DANCING  MANIA,  a form  of  hysteria 
in  medieval  Europe,  in  which  men  and 
women,  apparently  crazed,  danced  in 
the  streets  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  until 
they  fell  exhausted.  This  frenzy 
was  of  a religious  order  and  spread  over 
many  cities  of  Europe.  The  mania 
seemed  to  yield  to  the  exorcisms  of  the 
priests. 

DANDELI'ON,  a plant  indigenous  to 
Europe,  but  now  also  common  in 
America.  The  leaves  are  all  radical, 
and  runcinate  or  jagged  on  the  margin. 
From  this  circumstance  has  been  de- 
rived its  French  name  dent  de  lion 
(lion’s  tooth),  of  which  the  English 
appellation  is  a corruption.  The  stems 
are  hollow  and  have  one  large  bright- 
yellow  flower  and  a tapering  milky 
perennial  root,  which  acts  as  an  aperient 
and  tonic,  and  is  much  esteemed  in 
affections  of  the  liver.  The  whole 
plant  is  full  of  a milky  and  bitter  juice. 
The  seed  of  the  plant  is  furnished  with 
a white  pappus,  and  is  transported  far 
and  wide  by  the  wind. 

DANE'GELT,  Dane'geld  (that  is, 
“Dane  tax’’),  in  English  history,  an 
annual  tax  laid  on  the  English  nation 
for  maintaining  forces  to  oppose  the 
Danes,  or  to  furnish  tribute  to  procure 
peace.  It  was  at  first  one  shilling,  and 
ultimately  seven,  for  every  hide  of  land, 
except  such  as  belonged  to  the  church, 
When  the  Danes  became  masters  of 
England  the  danegelt  was  a tax  levied 
by  the  Danish  princes  on  every  hide 
of  land  owned  by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

DAN'IEL,  the  prophet,  a contem- 
porary of  Ezekiel,  was  born  of  a dis- 
tinguished Hebrew  family.  In  hia 
youth,  B.c.  605,  he  was  carried  captive 
to  Babylon,  and  educated  in  the  Baby- 
lonish court  for  the  service  of  King 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Thrown  into  the 
lions’  den  for  conscientiously  refusing 
to  obey  the  king  he  was  miraculously 
preserved,  and  finally  made  prime- 
minister  in  the  court  of  the  Persian 
king  Darius.  He  ranks  with  what  are 
called  the  “greater  prophets.”  The 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  which  bears 
his  name  is  divided  into  a historical  and 
a prophetic  part.  Modern  criticism 
generally  regards  it  as  written  during 
the  oppression  of  the  Jews  under 
Antiochus,  about  170  B.c.  It  is  partly 
in  Chaldee. 

DANIELL’S  BATTERY,  a galvanic 
battery  the  cells  of  which  were  originally 
constructed  in  the  following  way.  A 
tall  cylindrical  copper  vessel  was  nearly 
filled  with  saturated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper.  A rod  of  amalgamated  zinc 


DANITES 


DANUBE 


was  inclosed  in  a skin  or  bladder,  which 
was  filled  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
and  was  suspended  in  the  copper  cylin- 
der. When  the  zinc  rod  is  connected 
by  a wire  with  the  copper  vessel,  which 
itself  forms  one  of  the  plates  of  the 
battery,  the  current  passes,  according 
to  common  phraseology,  from  the 
copper  through  the  wire  to  the  zinc. 
Instead  of  the  bladder  or  skin  porous 
earthenware  pots  are  now  employed  to 
contain  the  dilute  sulphuric  acid  in 
which  the  zinc  is  immersed.  In  im- 
proved modifications  of  Daniell’s  bat- 
tery the  most  important  change  is  that 
of  substituting  for  the  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  that  surrounds  the  zinc,  solution  of 
sulphate  of  zinc,  and  in  this  case  the 
zinc  is  not  amalgamated.  By  doing 
away  with  the  sulphuric  acid  local  waste 
of  the  zinc  is  to  a great  extent  prevented. 


Daniell’s  Battery.— Section  of  Cell. 

0,  Outer  copper  cell,  b,  Solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper.  D,  Shelf  for  sulphate  uf.  copper.  £,  Pofous 
cell.  A,  Sulphuric  acid.  z.  Ziuc. 

and  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  is 
used  instead  of  pure  water  on  account 
of  the  very  high  resistance  of  water 
impregnated  with  salts. 

DAN'ITES,  the  band  of  assassins  and 
“avengers  on  the  gentiles”  which  was 
organized  among  the  Mormons  in  1837; 
also  called  “the  destroying  angels.” 
Many  crimes  were  attributed  to  the 
Danites,  whose  existence,  by  the  way, 
has  always  been  denied  by  the  Mormons 
themselves. 

DAN'NAT,  William  T.,  an  American 
painter,  born  in  New  York  in  1853. 
He  became  a resident  of  Paris,  a teacher 
in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  and  has 
exhibited  at  numerous  European  ex- 
hibitions. Dannat  has  lived  contin- 
uously in  Europe  since  boyhood  and 
is  an  American  only  in  name. 

DANTE  ALIGHIERI  (dan'ta  a-le- 
ge-a're),  the  greatest  of  Italian  poets, 
was  born  in  Florence  about  the  end  of 
May,  1265.  He  seems  to  have  been 
quite  a boy,  no  more  than  nine  years  of 
age,  when  he  first  saw  Beatrice  Portinari 
and  the  love  she  awakened  in  him  he  has 
described  in  that  record  of  his  early 
years,  the  Vita  Nuova,  as  well  as  in  his 
later  great  work,  the  Divina  Commedia, 
in  terms  which  make  it  hard  to  distin- 
guish the  real  personality  of  Beatrice 
from  some  ideal  power  of  beauty  and 
virtue  of  which  she  is  to  Dante  the 
symbol.  Their  actual  lives  at  least  went 
far  enough  apart,  Beatrice  marrying  a 
noble  Florentine,  Simone  Bardi,  in 
1287,  and  dying  three  years  afterward- 
while  the  year  following  Dante  marfiea 
Gemma  dei  Donati,  by  whom  he  had 
seven  children.  He  died  Sept.,  1321. 


His  great  poem,  the  Divina  Commedia 
(Divine  Comedy),  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  entitled  Hell,  Purgatory,  and 
Paradise.  The  poet  dreams  that  he  has 
wandered  into  a dusky  forest,  when  the 


Dante. 


shade  of  Virgil  appears  and  offers  to 
conduct  him  through  hell  and  purgatory. 
Further  the  pagan  poet  may  not  go, 
but  Beatrice  herself  shall  lead  him 
through  paradise.  The  journey  through 
hell  is  first  described,  and  the  imagina- 
tive power  with  which  the  distorted 
characters  of  the  guilty  and  the  punish- 
ments laid  upon  them  are  brought  before 
us ; the  impressive  pathos  of  these  short 
histories — often  compressed  in  Dante’s 
severe  style  into  a couple  of  lines — of 
Pope  and  Ghibelline,  Italian  lord  and 
lady;  the  passionate  depth  of  charac- 
terization, the  subtle  insight  and  intense 
faith,  make  up  a whole  which  for  sig- 
nificance and  completeness  has  perhaps 
no  rival  in  the  work  of  any  one  man. 
From  hell  the  poet,  still  in  the  company 
of  Virgil,  ascends  to  purgatory,  where 
the  scenes  are  still  mostly  of  the  same 
kind  though  the  punishments  are  only 
temporary.  In  the  earthly  paradise 
Dante  beholds  Beatrice  in  a scene  of 
surpassing  magnificence,  ascends  with 
her  into  the  celestial  paradise,  and  after 
roaming  over  seven  spheres  reaches  the 
eighth,  where  he  beholds  the  “glorious 
company  which  surrounds  the  trium- 
phant Redeemer.”  In  the  ninth  Dante 
feels  himself  in  presence  of  the  divine 
essence,  and  sees  the  souls  of  the  blessed 
on  thrones  in  a circle  of  infinite  mag- 
nitude. The  Diety  himself,  in  the  tenth 
he  cannot  see  for  excess  of  light. 

DANTON  (dan-ton),  Georges  Jacques, 
an  advocate  by  profession,  and  one  of 
the  great  figures  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, born  1759.  His  colossal  stature, 
athletic  frame,  and  powerful  voice  con- 
tributed not  a little,  together  with  his 
intellectual  gifts  and  audacity,  to  win 
him  a prominent  position  among  the 
revolutionaries.  He  founded  the  club 
of  the  Cordeliers,  was  foremost  in  organ- 
izing and  conducting  the  attack  on  the 
Tuileries,  Aug.  10,  1792,  and  as  a reward 
for  such  services  was  made  minister  of 
justice  and  a member  of  the  provisional 
executive  council.  When  the  advance 
of  the  Prussian  army  spread  consterna- 
tion among  the  members  of  the  govern- 
ment Danton  alone  preserved  his 
courage,  and  in  a celebrated  speech 
summoned  all  Frenchmen  capable  of 
bearing  arms  to  march  against  the 
enemy.  He  voted  for  the  capital  pun- 


ishment of  all  returning  aristocrats,  but 
undertook  the  defense  of  religious 
worship,  and  along  with  Robespierre 
brought  Hubert  and  the  worshipers  of 
the  goddess  Reason  to  the  scaffold. 
But  the  rivalry  of  the  two  great  leaders 
had  now  reached  a point  when  one  must 
succumb,  and  the  crafty  Robespierre 
succeeded  in  having  Danton  denounced 
and  thrown  into  prison,  31st  March, 
1794.  Five  days  afterward  he  was  con- 
demned by  the  revolutionary  tribunal 
as  an  accomplice  in  a conspiracy  for  the 
restoration  of  monarchy,  and  executed 
the  same  day. 

DANTZIG,  or  DANZIG  (dant'zi/i),  a 
fortified  town  and  port,  Prussia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  West  Prussia,  253 
miles  n.e.  Berlin,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
west  arm  of  the  Vistula,  about  3 miles 
above  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic,  and  inter- 


sected by  the  Mottlau,  which  here 
divides  into  several  arms.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  important  seaports  in  the 
Prussian  monarchy.  The  prosperity  of 
the  town  is  founded  chiefly  on  its  transit 
trade,  particularly  in  wheat  from  Poland. 
Thpre  is  also  a considerable  trade  in 
amber.  Pop.  140,539. 

DAN'UBE,  a celebrated  river  of 
Europe,  originates  in  two  small  streams 
rising  in  the  Schwarzwald,  or  Black 
Forest,  in  Baden,  and  uniting  at  Donau- 
eschingen.  The  direct  distance  from 
source  to  mouth  of  the  Danube  is  about 
1000  miles,  and  its  total  length,  includ- 
ing windings,  about  1670  miles.  From 
its  source  the  Danube  flows  in  a north- 
easterly direction  to  Ulm,  in  Wurtem- 
berg,  where  it  becomes  navigable  for 
vessels  of  100  tons;  thence  to  Ratisbon 
in  Bavaria,  where  it  becomes  navigable 
for  steamers.  Here  it  turns  in  a south- 
easterly direction,  entering  Austria  at 
Passau,  passing  Vienna  and  Budapest, 
above  which  latter  town  it  suddenly 
turns  due  south,  holding  this  direction 
till  it  is  joined  by  the  Drave,  after  which 
it  runs  s.s.e.  and  enters  Servia  at  Bel- 
grade. Continuing  its  general  course 
eastward  it  forms  for  a long  distance  the 
boundary  line  between  Roumania  and 
Bulgaria.  At  Silistria  it  once  more 
turns  northward,  and  flowing  between 
Roumania  and  Bessarabia  falls  into  the 
Black  Sea  by  three  different  outlets. 
In  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  through 
Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  the  Danube 
flows  through  some  of  the  most  fertile 
and  populous  districts  of  its  basin.  Its 
principal  affluents  here  are  the  Iser  and 
Lech.  In  Austria  it  passes  through  a 
succession  of  picturesque  scenery  till 
past  Vienna,  the  land  on  both  sides  being 


DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES 


DARIUS 


well  peopled  and  cultivated.  The 
principal  affluents  are  the  March,  or 
Morawa,  and  the  Ens.  After  passing 
through  what  is  called  the  Carpathian 
Gate,  at  Pressburg,  where  it  enters 
Hungary,  it  gives  off  a number  of 
branches,  forming  a labyrinth  of  islands 
known  as  Schtitten,  but  on  emerging 
it  flows  uninterruptedly  southward 
through  wide  plains  interspersed  with 
pools,  marshes,  and  sandy  wastes. 
The  principal  affluents  here  are  the  Save, 
the  Drave,  and  the  Theiss.  Sixty 
miles  before  entering  Roumania  the  river 
passes  through  a succession  of  rapids  or 
cataracts  which  it  has  made  in  cutting 
a passage  for  itself  through  the  cross 
chain  of  hills  which  connect  the  Carpa- 
thian Mountains  with  the  Alps.  The 


last  of  these  cataracts,  at  Old  Orsova, 
is  called  the  Iron  Gate.  The  lower 
course  of  the  Danube,  in  Roumania  and 
Bulgaria,  is  through  a flat  and  marshy 
tract,  fertile  but  badly  cultivated  and 
thinly  peopled.  In  this  part  it  increases 
its  width  from  1400  to  2100  yards,  and 
latterly  forms  an  expanse  like  a sea, 
and  is  studded  with  islands.  Of  the 
three  outlets  the  Sulina  Mouth  is  the 
deepest,  and  is  usually  chosen  by  ships 
bound  up  the  river.  The  Danube  is 
navigable  for  steamers  up  to  Regens- 
burg (Ratisbon),  nearly  1500  miles  from 
its  mouth.  Some  of  its  tributaries,  such 
as  the  Save,  the  Theiss,  and  the  Drave, 
are  also  navigable,  so  that  the  water 
system  of  the  Danube  may  be  estimated 
as  admitting  of  about  2500  miles  of 
steam  navigation. 

DANUBIAN  PRINCIPALITIES.  See 
Roumania. 

DAN'VERS,  a town  including  several 
villages,  in  Essex  Co.,  Mass.,  four  miles 
northwest  of  Salem;  on  the  Boston  and 
Maine  Railroad.  The  manufactures  in- 
clude shoes,  leather,  morocco,  brick, 
motor  vehicles,  electric  lamps,  iron, 
rubber,  soap,  etc.  Pop.  10,100. 

DAN'VILLE,  a city  and  county  seat 
of  Vermilion  Co.,  111.,  125  miles  south  of 
Chicago;  on  the  Vermilion  River,  and  on 
the  Wabash,  the  Chicago  and  Eastern 


Illinois,  and  the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis  railroads.  It 
has  coal-mining  interests,  foundries, 
and  manufactures  of  woolen  goods, 
glass,,  and  bricks.  Pop.  1900,  18,354. 

DANVILLE,  a borough  and  county- 
seat  of  Montour  co..  Pa.,  on  the  north 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna  River,  12 
miles  from  its  intersection  with  the  West 
Branch,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
Lackawanna,  and  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  railroads.  Pop.  10,100. 

DANVILLE,  a city  in  Pittsylvania 
CO.,  Va.,  141  miles  southwest  of  Rich- 
mond; on  the  Dan  River  and  on  railroads 
of  the  Southern  Railway  System.  It  was 
for  a short  time  the  seat  of  government 
of  the  Southern  Confederacy  during  its 
last  days.  Pop.  17,424. 


DAPH'NE,  the  Greek  name  for  laurel, 
in  Greek  mythology  a nymph  beloved 
by  Apollo.  Deaf  to  the  suit  of  the 
god,  and  fleeing  from  him,  she  besought 
Zeus  to  protect  her.  Her  prayer  was 
heard,  and  at  the  moment  Apollo  was 
about  to  encircle  her  in  his  arms  she  was 
changed  into  a laurel,  a tree  thence- 
forth consecrated  to  the  god. 

DARBHAN'GAH,  a town  of  Hindus- 
tan, in  the  Patna  division  of  Behar,  in  a 
low-lying  district  subject  to  inundation; 
it  is  the  residence  of  the  Maharaja  of 
Darbhangah,  who  has  a fine  new  palace 
here.  Pop.  66,244. 

DAR'DANELLES  (-nelz),  a narrow 
channel  which  connects  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  with  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
and  at  this  particular  point  separates 
Europe  from  Asia.  It  is  about  40  miles 
in  length,  and  varies  in  breadth  from 
1 to  4 miles.  On  both  shores  there  are 
numerous  forts  and  batteries.  Two 
castles  on  the  opposite  shores  occupy 
the  sites  of  ancient  Sestos  and  Abydos, 
and  recall  the  story  of  Hero  and  Lean- 
der.  By  treaty  made  in  1841  between 
the  five  great  powers  and  Turkey,  con- 
firmed by  the  Peace  of  Paris  in  1856, 
it  is  settled  that  no  non-Turkish  man-of 
war  shall  pass  the  strait  without  the 
express  permission  of  the  Turkish 
government. 


DARFUR',  or  DARFOOR',  a consider- 
able region  of  Central  Africa,  forming  a 
large  oasis  in  the  s.e.  corner  of  the  Great 
Desert.  The  inhabitants  are  Moham- 
medans and  negroes,  and  semi-barbar- 
ous. Their  occupation  is  chiefly  agri- 
culture, and  cattle  form  their  principal 
wealth.  The  commerce  with  Egypt  is 
extensive,  and  is  carried  on  entirely  by 
the  African  system  of  caravans.  It 
exports  slaves,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers, 
gum,  copper,  etc.,  and  receives  in  ex- 
change sugar,  cotton  cloth,  hardware, 
fire-arms,  etc.  Unlimited  polygamy  is 
allowed,  and  the  morals  and  manners 
of  the  natives  are  of  a very  degraded 
kind.  Darfur  is  part  of  the  Egyptian 
Soudan.  Pop.  estimated  at  4,000,000. 

DARIC,  an  ancient  Persian  gold  coin 
of  Darius,  weighing  about  129  grains, 
value  about  $6.00,  and  bearing  on  one 


Golden  daric,  from  British  museum. 

side  the  figure  of  an  archer.  In  later 
times  the  name  has  been  applied  to  a 
silver  coin  having  the  figure  of  an  archer. 

DA'RIEN,  Gulf  of,  a gulf  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  at  the  north  extremity  of  South 
America,  between  the  Isthmus  of  Pana- 
ma and  the  mainland. 

DARIEN,  Isthmus  of,  often  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  Isthmus  of  Pana- 
ma, but  more  strictly  applied  to  the 
neck  of  land  between  the  Gulf  of  Darien 
and  the  Pacific. 

DARIEN  SCHEME,  a celebrated  finan- 
cial project,  conceived  and  set  afloat  by 
William  Paterson,  a Scotchman,  toward 
the  close  of  the  17th  century.  He  pro- 
posed to  form  an  emporium  on  each 
side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  or  Pana- 
ma for  the  trade  of  the  opposite  con- 
tinents. The  settlement  thus  formed 
would  become  the  entrepot  for  an  im- 
mense exchange  between  the  manufac- 
tures of  Europe  and  the  produce  of 
South  America  and  Asia.  In  1698  five 
large  vessels  laden  with  stores,  etc  , and 
with  1200  intending  colonists,  sailed  for 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  The  settlement 
was  found  in  a suitable  position,  and 
the  colonists  fortified  a secure  and 
capacious  harbor;  but  nothing  else  had 
been  rightly  calculated.  For  eight 
months  the  colony  bore  up,  but  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  survivors  were  com- 
pelled by  disease  and  famine  to  abandon 
their  settlement  and  return  to  Europe. 
Two  of  the  ships  were  lost  on  the  way 
home,  and  only  about  thirty,  including 
Paterson,  reached  Scotland. 

DARI'US,  the  name  of  several  Persian 
kings.  (1)  Darius  I.,  fourth  king  of 
Persia,  son  of  Hystaspes,  a prince  of 
the  royal  family  of  the  Aclijemenidse, 
attained  the  throne  in  n.c.  521.  His 
reign  was  distinguished  by  many  im- 
portant events,  died  b.c.  485. — (2) 
Darius  II , ascended  the  throne  in  123, 
and  died  in  404.  His  son  Cyrus  is 
familiar  to  us  through  Xenophon’s  Ana- 
basis.— (3)  Darius  III.,  grandson  of 
Darius  IR,  was  the  twelfth  and  last  king 


DARJEELING 


DATE 


of  Persia.  He  ascended  the  throne 
B.c.  336,  died  330  b.c. 

DARJEEL'ING,  a district  of  India, 
in  the  extreme  north  of  the  lieutenant- 
governorship  of  Bengal,  division  of 
Cooch-Behar;  area,  1234  sq.  miles. 
Tea,  coffee,  cinchona,  and  cotton  are 
cultivated  more  or  less,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  the  tea-plant  and  the  mak- 
ing of  tea  is  now  the  staple  industry. 
Pop.  223,314.  — Darjeeling,  the  chief 
town  in  the  district,  is  a sanatory 
station  for  the  British  troops,  and 
though  little  more  than  36  miles  from 
the  plains  stands  at  an  elevation  of  7400 
feet  above  sea-level,  on  a ridge  with  deep 
valleys  on  either  side,  in  a bleak  but 
healthy  situation.  There  is  a residence 
of  the  lieutenant-governor,  barracks,  a 
sanitarium,  etc.  Pop.  13,037,  much 
increased  in  the  hot 'weather. 

DARK  HORSE,  an  American  political 
term  used  to  designate  an  unlooked-for, 
or  comparatively  unknown,  candidate 
in  a political  convention  who  suddenly 
comes  to  the  front  and  wins  the  nomina- 
tion. The  term  originated  in  the  story 
of  the  trotting  race  in  which  a dark 
horse,  upon  which  nobody  counted, 
turned  up  winner. 

DARLING,  Grace,  a celebrated  Eng- 
lish heroine,  was  born  in  1815  in  the 
Longstone  Lighthouse  (Fame  Islands, 
coast  of  Northumberland),  of  which 
her  father  was  keeper.  In  1838  the 
steamer  Forfarshire,  with  forty-one 
passengers  on  board  besides  her  crew, 
became  disabled  off  the  Fame  Islands 
during  a storm,  and  was  thrown  on  a 
rock  where  she  broke  into  two,  part  of 
the  crew  and  passengers  being  left 
clinging  to  the  wreck.  Next  morning 
* William  Darling  descried  them  from 
Longstone,  about  a mile  distant,  but  he 
shrank  from  attempting  to  reach  the. 
wreck  through  a boiling  sea  in  a boat. 
His  daughter  Grace,  however,  implored 
him  to  make  the  attempt  and  let  her 
accompany  him.  At  last  he  consented, 
and  father  and  daughter  each  taking 
an  oar,  they  reached  the  wreck  and  suc- 
ceeded in  rescuing  nine  sufferers.  The 
news  of  the  heroic  deed  soon  spread 
and  the  brave  girl  received  testimonials 
from  all  quarters.  Four  years  after- 
ward she  died  of  consumption,  20th 
October,  1842. 

DARMSTADT  (darm'stat),  Germany, 
capital  of  the  Grand-duchy  of  Hesse,  in 
a sandy  plain,  on  the  Darm,  15  miles  s. 
Frankfort.  Among  the  remarkable 
buildings  are  the  old  palace  (with  a 
library  of  500,000  volumes  and  4000 
MSS.,  a picture-gallery,  and  a rich  mu- 
seum of  natural  history),  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  the  Rathhaus  or 
town-hall,  built  in  1580.  Pop.  56,399. 

DARMSTADT,  or  HESSE-DARM- 
STADT.  See  Hesse. 

DARN'LEY,  Henry  Stuart,  Lord,  son 
of  the  Earl  of  Lennox  and  Lady  Mar- 
garet Douglas,  a niece  of  Henry  VIII., 
and  by  her  first  marriage  queen  of  James 
IV.,  born  1541.  In  1565  he  was  married 
to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  It  was  an 
unfortunate  match,  and  ere  long  gave 
rise  first  to  coolness,  then  to  open 
quarrel,  and  finally  to  deadly  hate, 
which  the  murder  of  Rizzio,  to  which 
Darnley  was  a party,  only  increased. 
Mary  affected,  however,  to  be  reconciled 


to  him,  but  could  not  long  conceal  her 
contempt  for  the  handsome  imbecile. 
After  the  birth  of  a son,  subsequently 
James  VI.,  Darnley  was  seized  at  Glas- 
gow with  smallpox,  from  which  he  had 
barely  recovered  when  Mary  visited 
him,  and  had  him  conveyed  to  an  iso- 
lated house  called  Kirk  of  Field,  close  to 
the  Edinburgh  city  walls.  This  dwell- 
ing, which  belonged  to  a retainer  of 
Bothwell’s,  the  rapidly  rising  favorite, 
was  blown  into  the  air  with  gunpowder 
(10th  February,  1567).  The  dead 
bodies  of  the  king  and  his  page  were 
found  in  a field  at  a distance  of  80  yards 
from  the  house,  quite  free  from  any 
mark  which  such  an  explosion  would 
cause.  Strong  circumstantial  evidence 
points  to  Bothwell  as  the  murderer,  and 
to  Mary  as  an  accomplice  in  the  crime. 

DARRANG,  an  administrative  dis- 
trict of  Hindustan,  forming  a portion  of 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  in 
the  prov.  of  Assam ; area,  3418  sq.  miles ; 
pop.  307,  761.  Virgin  forests  cover  a 
large  portion  of  the  region. 

DARTMOOR',  an  extensive  upland 
tract  in  England,  in  the  western  part 
of  Devonshire,  often  called  the  Forest  of 
Dartmoor,  and  belonging  to  the  Duchy 
of  Cornwall;  reaching  from  Brent  s.,  to 
Oakhampton  n.,  22  miles,  with  a breadth 
of  about  20  miles,  and  occupying  from 
130,000  to  150,000  acres.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  fed  on  the  coarse  grass  during 
the  summer  months.  Several  of  the 
rugged  granite  hills  (here  called  tors) 
are  of  considerable  height.  Yes  Tor  rising 
2050  feet  above  the  plain.  Dartmoor 
prison,  built  in  1809  as  a state-prison,  is 
now  a convict  depot. 

DARTMOOR  MASSACRE,  an  incident 
of  the  war  of  1812,  in  which  a number  of 
American  prisoners  in  Dartmouth  pris- 
on, England,  were  shot  by  a company  of 
British  troops.  The  charge  was  made 
that  the  Americans  were  at  the  bottom 
of  a conspiracy  to  escape.  The  massacre 
was  justified  by  a joint  high  commission, 
although  the  prisoners  were  found 
guiltless  and  the  British  government 
made  ample  provision  for  the  injured 
and  the  families  of  the  dead. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,  situated  at 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  and  organized  in  1750 
at  Lebanon,  Conn.  Besides  the  collegi- 
ate department  there  is  a medical  school, 
an  engineering  school,  a finance  school, 
and  an  agricultural  school.  There  are 
800  or  more  students  and  90,000  volumes 
in  the  library. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE  CASE,  an 

important  law  case  concerning  the 
charter  of  Dartmouth  college.  The 
charter  was  originally  granted  by 
Britain  but  in  1816  the  New  Hampshire 
legislature  passed  a law  taking  over  the 
school.  The  Dartmouth  trustees  re- 
jected the  new  charter  and  in  this  they 
were  upheld  by  the  decision  of  the 
supreme  court. 

DAR'WIN,  Charles  Robert,  English 
naturalist,  born  at  Shrewsbury  in  1809, 
died  at  Down,  near  Beckenham  in  Kent, 
1882.  He  early  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  natural  history,  and  in  1831  he 
was  appointed  naturalist  to  the  survey- 
ing voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Beagle.  The 
vessel  sailed  in  Dec.  1831,  and  did  not 
return  till  Oct.  1836,  after  having  cir- 
cumnavigated the  globe.  In  1839  he 


married  his  cousin  Emma  Wedgwood 
In  1859  his  name  attained  its  great 
celebrity  by  the  publication  of  The 
Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural 
Selection.  This  work,  scouted  and 
derided  though  it  was  at  first  in  certain 
quarters,  may  be  said  to  have  worked 
nothing  less  than  a revolution  in  bio- 
logical science.  In  it  for  the  first  time 


Charles  Darwin. 


was  given  a full  exposition  of  the  theory 
of  evolution  as  applied  to  plants  and 
animals,  the  origin  of  species  being  ex- 
plained on  the  hypothesis  of  natural 
selection.  The  rest  of  his  works  are 
largely  based  on  the  material  he  had 
accumulated  for  the  elaboration  of  this 
great  theory.  Mr.  Darwin  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

DAR'WINISM,  the  views,  especially 
regarding  the  origin  and  development  of 
animals  and  plants,  expressed  in  detail 
and  advocated  with  much  earnestness 
in  the  works  of  Charles  Darwin.  See 
Evolution,  Natural  Selection,  etc. 

DATE,  that  addition  to  a writing 
which  specifies  the  year,  month,  and 
day  when,  and  usually  the  place  where, 
it  was  given  or  executed;  also  the  time 
when  any  event  happened,  when  any- 
thing was  transacted,  or  when  anything 
is  to  be  done. 

DATE,  the  fruit  of  the  date-palm  or 
the  tree  itself.  The  fruit  is  used  exten- 
sively as  an  article  of  food  by  the  natives 
of  Northern  Africa  and  of  some  coun- 
tries of  Asia.  It  consists  of  an  external 
pericarp,  separable  into  three  portions, 
and  covering  a seed  which  is  hard  and 
horny  in  consequence  of  the  nature  of 
the  albumen  in  which  the  embryo  plant 
is  buried.  Next  to  the  cocoanut  tree 
the  date  is  unquestionably  the  most 
interesting  and  useful  of  the  palm  tribe. 
Its  stem  shoots  up  to  the  height  of  50  or 
60  feet  without  branch  or  division,  and 
of  nearly  the  same  thickness  throughout 
its  length.  From  the  summit  it  throws 
out  a magnificent  crown  of  large  feather- 
shaped  leaves,  and  a number  of  spadices, 
each  of  which  in  the  female  plant  bears 
a bunch  of  from  180  to  200  dates,  each 
bunch  weighing  from  20  to  25  lbs.  The 
fruit  is  eaten  fresh  or  dried.  Cakes  of 
dates  pounded  and  kneaded  together 
are  the  food  of  the  Arabs  who  traverse 
the  deserts.  A liquor  resembling  wine 
is  made  from  dates  by  fermentatiqn. 


DATIA 


DAVIS 


Persia,  Palestine,  Arabia,  and  the  north 
of  Africa  are  best  adapted  for  the  culture 
of  the  date-tree,  and  its  fruit  is  in  these 
countries  an  important  article  of  food. 


Date  palm. 


DATIA  (dat'-io),  a native  state  in 
Bundelkhand,  Hindustan,  under  the 
Central  India  Agency.  Area,  836  sq. 
miles;  pop.  186,440. — Datia,  the  chief 
town  of  the  state,  is  situated  125  miles 
s.e.  of  Agra.  Pop.  24,071. 

DAUDET  (do-da),  Alphonse,  French 
novelist,  born  at  Nimes  1840.  He 
settled  in  Paris  in  1857,  and  wrote 
poems,  essays,  plays,  etc.,  without  much 
success,  till  he  discovered  his  powers 
as  a novelist,  when  he  speedily  became 
famous.  He  died  in  1897. 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
REVOLUTION,  Society  of,  a patriotic 
society  for  women,  organized  in  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  Oct.  11,  1890.  Its  purpose 
is  to  perpetuate  traditions  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  and  membership  is 
restricted  to  female  descendents  of 
ancestors  who  aided  the  revolution. 
The  society  has  from  40,000  to  50,000 
members,  scattered  in  state  chapters 
throughout  the  Union.- 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  CONFED- 
ERACY, The  United.  (See  Confederacy, 
United  Daughters  of). 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  KING,  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  organization  for 
women,  organized  in  New  York  City  in 
1885  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  work 
in  the  church.  It  has  a membership  of 
about  18,000. 

DAUGHTERS  OF  THE  REVOLU- 
TION, Society  of,  a patriotic  society  for 
women,  organized  in  New  York  City  in 
1891,  with  objects  similar  to  those  of  the 
Daughters  of  the  American  Revolution, 
but  with  a membership  restricted  to 
lineal  female  descendents  who  by  assist- 
ing the  revolution  because  guilty  of 
treason  to  Britain.  The  membership  is 
about  5,000. 

, DAU'PHIN,  the  title  of  the  eldest  son 
of  the  King  of  France  prior  to  the 


revolution  of  1830,  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  dolphin,  the  crest  of  the  lords 
of  Dauphiny.  The  name  was  assumed 
towards  the  middle  of  the  9th  century 
by  the  lord  of  Dauphiny,  which  prov- 
ince was  bequeathed  by  Humbert  II. 
to  the  King  of  France  in  1349,  on  con- 
dition that  the  heir  of  the  throne 
should  bear  the  title  of  Dauphin  of 
Viennois 

DAVENPORT,  a city  of  Iowa,  on  the 
Mississippi  River  about  300  miles  north 
of  St.  Louis.  Connecting  it  with  Rock 
Island  are  two  iron  bridges  built  at  a 
cost  of  $2,000,000.  Davenport  has 
splendid  transportation  facilities  by 
water  and  rail.  It  has  a public  library, 
two  theaters,  several  important  educa- 
tional institutions,  and  a number  of 
large  factories.  The  town  was  founded 
in  1851  by  George  Davenport.  It  has 
a population  of  5U,000. 

DAVENPORT,  Charles  Benedict,  an 
American  zoologist  born  in  Connecticut 
in  1866.  He  has  written  a number  of 
monographs  on  zoological  subjects. 

DAVENPORT,  Edward  Loomis,  an 
American  actor,  born  in  Boston  in  1816, 
died  in  1877.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance at  Providence,  R.  I.,  as  Sir  Giles 
Overreach  and  subsequently  became 
noted  as  a most  excellent  interpreter  of 
Shakespearean  roles. 

DAVENPORT,  Fanny  Lily  Gipsy,  an 
American  actress,  daughter  of  E.  L. 
Davenport,  born  in  England  in  1850, 
died  in  1898.  She  began  her  stage  career 
as  a little  girl,  and  by  1883  had  appeared 
with  great  success  in  a variety  of  parts 
of  wide  range.  In  the  last  mentioned 
year  she  began  to  appear  in  Sardou’s 
dramas  in  which  she  disclosed  new 
power.  She  married  Willet  Melbourne 
Mac  Dowell  in  1889. 

DAVID,  King  of  Israel,  the  youngest 
son  of  Jesse,  a citizen  of  Bethlehem, 
and  descended  through  Boaz  from  the 
ancient  princes  of  Judah.  The  life  of 
David  is  recorded  in  the  first  and  second 
books  of  Samuel  and  the  first  book  of 
Chronicles.  The  book  of  Psalms,  a 
large  portion  of  which  has  been  attrib- 
uted to  him  (see  Psalms),  also  contains 
frequent  allusions  to  incidents  in  his 
life.  He  reigned  from  1055  b.c.  to  1015 
B.C.,  according  to  the  usual  chronology, 
but  recent  investigations  put  the  dates 
of  David’s  reign  from  30  to  50  years 
later.  Under  David  the  empire  of  the 
Israelites  rose  to  the  height  of  its  power, 
and  his  reign  has  always  been  looked  on 
by  the  Jews  as  the  golden  age  of  their 
nation’s  history. 

DAVID  I.,  Kng  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore;  born  about  1080; 
succeeded  his  brother  Alexander  I.  in 
1124;  died  1153.  He  was  the  first  to 
introduce  feudal  institutions  and  ideas 
into  his  native  land. 

DAVID  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of 
Robert  Bruce,  born  1322;  succeeded 
to  the  throne  1329;  died  1370. 

DAVID,  Jacques  Louis,  the  founder 
of  the  modern  French  school  of  paint- 
ing, born  at  Paris  1748,  died  at  Brussels 
1825.  What  is  considered  his  master- 
piece, The  Rape  of  the  Sabines,  was 
painted  in  1799.  He  was  appointed 
first  painter  to  Napoleon  about  1804; 
and  after  the  second  restoration  of 
Louis  XVIII,  he  was  included  in  the 


decree  which  banished  all  regicides  from 
France,  when  he  retired  to  Brussels. 

DAVID,  Pierre  Jean,  a French  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Angers  in  1789  (hence 
commonly  called  David  d’ Angers),  died 
1856.  In  1831  he  began  the  magnifi- 
cent sculptures  of  the  Pantheon,  his 
most  important  work,  which  he  finished 
in  1837.  He  executed  a great  number 
of  medallions,  busts,  and  statues  of 
celebrated  persons  of  all  countries, 
among  whom  we  may  mention  Walter 
Scott,  Canning,  Washington,  Lafayette, 
Guttenberg,  Cuvier,  Victor  Hugo,  B6- 
ranger,  Paganini,  and  Madame  de  Stael. 

DAVIS,  Jefferson,  president  of  the 
Confederate  States  of  America  during 
the  civil  war;  born  in  Kentucky  1808. 
He  was  trained  at  West  Point  Military 


Jefferson  Davis. 


Academy,  and  from  1828  to  1835  saw 
a good  deal  of  service  on  the  frontier. 
At  the  latter  date  he  became  a cotton 
planter  in  the  State  of  Mississippi.  He 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1845,  but  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Mexican  war 
he  left  congress  and  engaged  actively 
in  the  contest.  He  entered  the  senate 
in  1847,  and  held  various  posts  in  the 
government,  upholding  the  pohcy  of 
t^he  slave  states  and  the  doctrine  of 
slave  rights.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  Southern  States,  was  taken  prisoner 
after  the  fall  of  Richmond,  imprisoned 
for  two  years  in  Fortress  Monroe,  and 
set  at  liberty  by  the  general  amnesty 
of  1868.  He  subsequently  wrote  a 
history  of  the  war.  He  died  in  1889. 

DAVIS,  John  Chandler  Bancroft,  an 
American  diplomat,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1822.  He  was  an  agent  of  the 
United  States  in  the  Alabama  claims  case 
and  was  minister  to  Germany  from  1874 
to  1877. 

DAVIS,  John  D.,  an  American  oriental 
scholar,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1854. 
He  has  published  (1898)  a Dictionary 
of  the  Bible,  and  (1894)  Genesis  and 
Shemitic  Tradition. 

DAVIS,  Nathan  Smith,  an  American 
physician  born  in  New  York  in  1817,  and 
educated  in  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  of  Western  New  York. 
He  was  the  projector  and  founder  of  the 
American  Medical  Association  in  1845 
and  soon  afterward  removed  to  Chicago 
where  he  become  associated  with  the 


DAVIS 


DAY 


Rush  Medical  College.  He  became 
noted  as  an  advocate  of  teetotalism 

DAVIS,  Rebecca  Harding,  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  in  1831  in  Pennsylvania. 
She  has  written  several  short  stories 
which  have  received  considerable  praise. 

DAVIS,  Richard  Harding,  an  Ameri- 
can editor  and  short  story  writer,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1864.  He  was  for  a 
time  editor  of  Harper’s  Weekly  and  in 
1891  published  his  first  successful  short 
story  book  called  Gallagher  and  Other 
Stories.  This  was  followed  by  numer- 
ous other  such  books,  and  a number  of 
books  made  up  of  descriptive  articles 
previously  published  in  magazines. 
His  style  is  vigorous  and  interesting. 

DAVIS,  Varina  Anne  Jefferson,  daiigh- 
ter  of  Jefferson  Davis,  born  in  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  in  1864,  died  in  1898.  She 
was  known  as  “The  Daughter  of  the 
Confederacy.” 

DAVIS,  William  Morris,  an  American 
astronomer  and  meteorologist,  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1850.  He  has  been 
for  many  years  a teacher  at  Harvard 
University. 

DAVIS’  STRAIT,  a narrow  sea  wdiich 
separates  Greenland  from  Baffin’s  Land, 
and  unites  Baffin’s  Bay  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  lat.  60°  to  70°  n. 

DA'VITS,  two  projecting  pieces  of 
wood  or  iron  on  the  side  or  stern  of  a 
vessel,  used  for  suspending  or  lowering 
and  hoisting  the  boats  by  means  of 
sheave  and  pulley.  They  are  fixed  so 
as  to  admit  of  being  shipped  and  un- 
shipped at  pleasure. 

DA'VITT,  Michael,  an  Irish  patriot, 
politician  and  parliamentarian,  born  in 
Mayo  in  1846.  He  began  his  career  as  a 
journalist,  began  anti-landlord  agitation 
in  1867  and  was  several  times  elected 
member  of  parliament.  Davitt  visited 
the  U.  States  on  a number  of  occasions 
to  raise  money  for  the  Irish  cause.  He 
was  one  of  Parnell’s  most  bitter  op- 
ponents. He  died  in  1906. 

DA'VY,  Sir  Humphry,  Bart.,  dis- 
tinguished English  chemist,  was  born  at 


Sir  Humphry  Davy. 


Penzance,  1778,  died  at  Geneva  1829. 
His  discoveries  with  the  galvanic 
battery,  his  decomposition  of  the  earths 
and  alkalies  and  ascertaining  their 
metallic  bases,  his  demonstration  of  the 


simple  nature  of  the  oxymuriatic  acid 
(to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  chlorine), 
etc.,  obtained  him  an  extensive  reputa- 
tion; and  in  1810  received  the  prize  of 
the  French  Institute.  The  numerous 
accidents  arising  from  fire-damp  in 
mines  led  him  to  enter  upon  a series  of 
experiments  on  the  nature  of  the  ex- 
plosive gas,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
invention  of  his  safety-lamp.  He  was 
knighted  in  1812,  and  created  a baronet 
in  1818. 

DAVY-LAMP.  See  Safety-lamp. 

DAW,  or  JACKDAW;  a bird  of  the 
crow  family,  found  in  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa;  14  inches  long,  black,  with  a 
smoky-gray  neck.  Daws  are  very  cun- 


Daw,  or  jackdaw. 


ning,  social,  and  active  birds,  often  nest- 
ing in  church-towers  and  old  castles. 
They  build  a nest  of  sticks,  of  which 
they  sometimes  collect  a large  quantity 

DAY,  either  the  interval  of  time 
during  which  the  sun  is  continuously 
above  the  horizon,  or  the  time  occupied 
by  a revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis, 
embracing  this  interval  (the  period  of 
light)  as  well  as  the  interval  of  darkness. 
The  day  in  the  latter  sense  may  be 
measured  in  more  than  one  way.  If 
we  measure  it  by  the  apparent  move- 
ment of  the  stars,  caused  by  the  rotation 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  we  must  call  day 
the  period  between  the  time  when  a 
star  is  on  the  meridian  and  when  it 
again  returns  to  the  meridian;  this  is  a 
sidereal  day.  It  is  uniformly  equal  to 
23  hours,  56  minutes,  4 098  seconds. 
But  more  important  than  this  is  the 
solar  day,  or  the  interval  between  two 
passages  of  the  sun  across  the  meridian 
of  any  place.  The  latter  is  about  4 
minutes  longer  than  the  former,  owing 
to  the  revolution  of  the  earth  round  the 
sun,  and  it  is  notof  uniform  length,  ow- 
ing to  the  varying  speed  at  which  the 
earth  moves  in  its  orbit  and  to  the  obli- 
quity of  the  ecliptic.  For  convenience 
an  average  of  the  solar  day  is  taken,  and 
this  gives  us  the  mean  solar  or  civil  day 
of  24  hours,  the  difference  between 
which  and  the  actual  solar  day  at  any 
time  is  the  equation  of  time. 

The  length  of  the  days  and  nights  at 
any  place  varies  with  the  latitude  and 
season  of  the  year,  owing  to  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  earth’s  axis.  In  the  first 
place,  the  days  and  nights  are  equal 
(twelve  hours  each)  all  over  the  world  on 
the  21st  of  March  and  the  21st  of  Sep- 
tember, which  dates  are  called  the 
vernal  (spring)  and  autumnal  equinoxes 
(Lat.  sequus,  equal;  nox,  night).  Again, 
the  days  and  nights  are  always  of  equal 
length  at  the  equator,  which,  for  this 
reason,  is  sometimes  called  the  equi- 
noctial line.  With  these  exceptions,  we 
find  the  difference  between  the  duration 


of  the  day  and  the  night  varying  more 
and  more  as  we  recede  from  the  equator. 
I'his  will  be  easily  understood  from  a 
consideration  of  the  accompanying 
figure,  which  represents  the  position 
of  the  earth  at  the  northern  summer 
solstice.  Let  s a,  s'd,  s"b  represent  the 
sun’s  rays,  then  the  vertical  circle  a f b g 
will  be  the  circle  of  illumination,  that  is, 
the  line  which  separates  the  illuminated 
and  dark  hemispheres  of  the  earth. 
Consider  a place  f.  As  the  earth  turns 
round  it  would  describe  a circle  f d g h, 
the  greater  part  of  which,  f d g,  is  per- 
formed in  the  sunlight,  and  the  smaller 
part,  g h f,  in  the  dark.  In  other  words, 
the  day  for  the  place  f would  be  longer 
than  its  night.  It  will  be  also  seen  that 
for  any  place  within  the  Arctic  circle 
a k the  sun  does  not  set,  while  in  the 
Antarctic  circle  the  sun  never  rises  so 
long  as-  the  earth  is  in  this  position. 
At  the  northern  winter  solstice  the 
reverse  of  all  this  is  the  case — the 
Arctic  circle  never  comes  into  the  light 
area,  and  places  within  the  Antarctic 
circle  never  enter  into  the  dark.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  at  both  poles  the 
year  consists  of  one  day  of  six  months’ 
duration,  and  one  night  of  the  same 
length. 

The  Babylonians  began  the  day  at 
sun-rising;  the  Jews  at  sun-setting; 
the  Egyptians  and  Romans  at  mid- 
night, as  do  most  modern  peoples. 
The  civil  day  in  most  countries  is 
divided  into  two  portions  of  twelve 
hours  each.  The  abbreviations  p.m.  and 
a.  m.  (the  first  signifying  postmeridian, 
Latin  for  afternoon;  the  latter  ante- 
meridian, forenoon)  are  requisite,  in 
consequence  of  this  division  of  the  day. 
The  Italians  in  some  places  reckon  the 
day  from  sunset  to  sunset,  and  enumer- 
ate the  hours  up  to  twenty-four;  the 
Chinese  divide  it  into  twelve  parts  of 
two  hours  each.  For  astronomical 
purposes  the  day  is  divided  into  twenty- 
four  hours  instead  of  two  parts  of  twelve 
hours.  Formerly  it  began  at  noon,  but 
since  1st  Jan.  1885,  the  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours  begins  at  midnight  at  Green- 
wich Observatory;  and  this  reckon- 
ing is  now  generally  adopted  for  astro- 
nomical purposes  elsewhere  than  at 


length  of  day  and  night. 

Greenwich.  The  Greenwich  day  prac- 
tically determines  the  date  for  all  the 
world.  At  mid-day  at  Greenwich  the 
date  (day  of  the  week  and  month)  is 
everywhere  the  same,  though  there  are 


day 


DEAF  AND  DUMB 


flll  possible  differences  in  namii^  the 
hour  of  the  day.  But  mid-day  at  Green- 
wich is  tlie  only  instant  at  which  we 
ever  have  the  same  date  all  over  the 
world.  The  meridian  of  midnight, 
which  is  then  at  180°  e.  or  w.,  goes  on 
revolving,  gradually  bringing  a new 
date  to  every  place  to  the  west  of  that 
line,  but  obviously  not  bringing  that 
new  date  to  the  places  immediately  to 
the  east  of  that  line  till  twenty-four 
hours  after.  From  this  it  follows  that 
whereas  places  on  the  one  side  of  the 
globe  never  have  a different  date  except 
when  midnight  lies  between  them,  places 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe,  and 
on  different  sides  of  the  meridian  of 
180°  e.  or  w.,  never  have  the  same  date 
except  when  midnight  lies  between  them. 
The  actual  difference  of  time  between 
Wellington  in  New  Zealand  and  Hono- 
lulu in  the  Sandwich  Islands  is  only 
about  2 hours;  yet  a person  at  Welling- 
ton may  date  a letter  9 o’clock  a.  m. 
26th  June,  while  another  writing  at  the 
same  instant  at  Honolulu  dates  his 
11  o’clock  a.  m.  25th  June. 

DAY,  William  Rufus,  an  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  born  in  Ohio  in 
1849,  studied  law,  and  in  1897  was 
appointed  assistant  secretary  of  state, 
and  subsequently  secretary  of  state  in 
succession  to  John  Sherman.  In  1899 
he  was  made  judge  of  the  sixth  circuit 
of  the  U.  States  circuit  court. 

DAY-BOOK,  a journal  of  accounts; 
a book  in  which  are  recorded  the  debts 
and  credits  or  accounts  of  the  day. 
See  Book-keeping. 

DAYS  OF  GRACE  are  days  allowed 
for  the  payment  of  a promissory  note 
or  bill  of  exchange  after  it  becomes  due. 
The  time  varies  in  different  countries. 

DAYTON,  a town  in  Ohio,  capital  of 
Montgomery  county,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Mad  and  Great  Miami  rivers,  52 
miles  n.e.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  a place  of 
great  industrial  activity,  a center  of 
railway  communication,  and  in  the 
variety  and  extent  of  its  manufactures  it 
stands  in  the  front  rank  of  western 
towns  of  its  size.  The  National  Home  for 
Disabled  Soldiers  and  Sailors  is  situated 
here.  The  city  is  laid  out  with  wide 
streets  adorned  with  numerous  hand- 
some buildings.  There  is  a Greek  court- 
house, a fine  high  school,  several  hos- 
pitals, and  a public  library.  Pop. 
130,000. 

DEACON,  ecclesiastically,  a person  in 
the  lowest  degree  of  holy  orders.  The 
office  of  deacon  was  instituted  by  the 
' apostles,  and  seven  persons  were  chosen 
at  first  to  serve  at  the  feasts  of  Chris- 
tians, and  distribute  bread  and  wine  to 
the  communicants,  and  to  minister  to 
the  wants  of  the  poor.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  deacon  is  the  chief 
minister  at  the  altar.  He  assists  the 
priest  in  the  celebration  of  mass,  and  on 
certain  conditions  can  preach  and  bap- 
tize. In  the  Church  of  England  the 
deacon  is  the  lowest  of  the  three  orders 
of  priesthood,  these  being  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  The  deacon  may 
perform  all  the  ordinary  offices  of  the 
Christian  priesthood  except  consecrating 
the  elements  at  the  administration  of 
the  Lord’s  Supper,  and  pronouncing  the 
absolution.  In  Presbyterian  churches 
the  deacon’s  office  is  to  attend  to  the 


secular  interests,  and  in  Independent 
churches  it  is  the  same,  with  the  addition 
that  he  has  to  distribute  the  bread  and 
wine  to  the  communicants. 

DEAD,  BOOK  OF  THE,  a name  ap- 
plied to  a number  of  texts  and  other 
writings  in  the  religious  system  of 
Egypt.  The  origin  of  the  name  lay  in 
the  belief  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  that 
this  book,  or  these  texts  were  of  great 
assistance  to  the  dead  in  the  wandering 
of  their  souls  in  the  spiritual  world. 
The  book  was  placed  in  the  coffin  with 
the  dead  person,  or  under  his  arm. 

DEAD-LETTER,  a letter  which  lies 
for  a certain  period  uncalled  for  at  the 
post-office,  or  one  which  cannot  be  de- 
livered from  defect  of  address,  and 
which  is  sent  to  the  general  post-office 
at  Washington  to  be  opened  and  re- 
turned to  the  writer.  The  department 
which  deals  with  such  letters  is  now 
called  the  Returned  Letter  Office. 

DEAD  RECKONING,  the  calculation 
of  a ship’s  place  at  sea  without  any  ob- 
servation of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  is 
obtained  by  keeping  an  account  of  the 
distance  which  the  ship  has  run  by  the 
log,  and  of  her  course  steered  by  the 
compass,  and  by  rectifying  these  data 
by  the  usual  allowance  for  drift,  leeway, 
etc.,  according  to  the  ship’s  known  trim. 

DEAD  SEA,  a celebrated  lake  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  near  the  south  extremity 
of  Palestine,  in  the  pashalic  of  Damasus. 
The  basin  or  hoflow  in  which  the  Dead 
Sea  reposes  forms  the  south  termination 
of  the  great  depression  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows,  that  river  entering  it 
at  its  north  extremity.  It  receives 
several  other  tributaries,  but  has  no 
outlet.  The  surface  is  1312  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  984 
feet  below  Lake  Tiberias,  from  which 
the  Jordan  issues.  It  lies  deeply  im- 
bedded between  lofty  cliffs  of  naked 
limestone,  its  shores  presenting  a scene 
of  indescribable  desolation  and  solitude, 
encompassed  by  desert  sands,  and  bleak, 
strong  salt  hills.  Sulphur  and  rock  salt, 
lava,  and  pumice,  abound  along  its 
shores.  The  water  is  nauseous  to  the 
taste  and  smell,  and  so  buoyant  that  the 
human  body  will  not  sink  in  it.  At 
about  a third  of  its  length  from  the 
north  end  it  attains  a maximum  depth 
of  1308  feet.  The  southern  portion  is 
a mere  lagoon,  12  feet  deep  in  the  middle 
and  3 at  the  edges. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB,  or  Deaf-mutes, 
persons  both  deaf  and  dumb,  the  dumb- 
ness resulting  from  deafness  which  has 
either  existed  from  birth  or  from  a very 
early  period  of  life.  Such  persons  are 
unable  to  speak  simply  because  they 
have  not  the  guidance  of  the  sense  of 
hearing  to  enable  them  to  imitate 
sounds.  Among  the  causes  assigned  for 
congenital  deafness  are  consanguineous 
marriages,  hereditary  transmission,  scrof- 
ula, certain  local  or  climatic  conditions, 
ill  health  of  the  mother  during  preg- 
nancy, etc.  Acquired  or  accidental  deaf- 
ness, which  occurs  at  all  ages,  is  fre- 
quently due  to  such  diseases  as  small- 
pox, measles,  typhus,  paralysis,  hydro- 
cephalus, and  other  cerebral  affections, 
but  more  particularly  to  scarlet  fever, 
which  is  somewhat  apt  to  leave  the 
patient  deaf  owing  to  the  inflammatory 
state  of  the  throat  extending  to  the  inter- 


nal ear,  and  thus  causing  suppuration 
and  destruction  of  the  extremely  deli- 
cate parts  of  the  auditory  apparatus. 
In  the  greater  proportion  of  deaf-mutes 
no  defect  is  visible,  or  can  be  detected 
by  anatomical  examination,  and  no 
applications  yet  discovered  appear  to  be 


useful.  The  necessity  of  communica- 
tion, and  the  want  of  words,  oblige  the 
deaf-mute  to  observe  and  imitate  the 
actions  and  expressions  which  accom- 
pany various  states  of  mind  and  of  feel- 
ing, to  indicate  objects  by  their  appear- 
ance and  use,  and  persons  by  some 
peculiar  mark,  and  to  describe  their 
actions  by  direct  imitation.  In  this 
way  he  and  his  friends  are  led  to  form  a 
dialect  of  that  universal  language  of 
attitude,  gesture,  and  expression  which 
becomes  a substitute  for  words  in  the 
hands  of  the  pantomimic  actor,  and 
w'hich  adds  force  and  clearness  to  the 
finest  effusions  of  the  orator;  in  other 
words,  the  natural  sign  language.  This 
language,  in  its  elements,  is  to  be  found 
among  all  nations,  and  has  ever  been  the 
medium  of  communication  bet^ween 
voyagers  and  the  natives  of  newly  dis- 
covered countries.  It  is  employed  by 
many  savage  tribes  to  supply  the  pau- 
city of  expression  in  their  language  and 
to  communicate  with  other  tribes. 
Among  some  of  the  Indians  of  North 
America  it  exists  as  a highlj^-organized 
language  Such  a means  of  communica- 
tion is  after  all  very  imperfect,  however, 
and  various  more  perfect  systems  have 
been  devised  to  enable  deaf-mutes  to 
communicate  with  one  another  and  with 
the  rest  of  mankind,  and  thus  to  gain 
such  an  education  as  people  in  general 
possess.  In  1648  John  Bulwer  published 
the  earliest  work  in  English  on  the  in 
struction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  This 
was  followed  by  Dalgarno’s  Ars  Signo- 
rum  (Art  of  Signs)  in  1661,  and  Dr.  W. 
D.  Holder’s  Elements  of  Speech.  Dal- 
garno,  who  was  a native  of  Scotland, 
likewise  published,  in  1680,  Didascaloco- 
phus;  or.  the  Dea^  and  Dumb  Man’s 
> Tutor,  a work  of  considerable  merit. 


DEAFNESS 


DEATH-WATCH 


To  Dr.  John  Wallis,  however,  Savilian 
professor  of  mathematics  at  Oxford,  is 
generally  ascribed  the  merit  of  having 
been  the  first  Englishman  who  succeed- 
ed in  imparting  instruction  to  deaf- 
mutes.  In  1743  the  practicability  of  in- 
structing deaf-mutes  was  first  publicly 
demonstrated  in  France  by  Pereira,  a 
Spaniard,  before  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  which  gave  its  testimony  to  the 
success  of  the  method.  About  the  same 
time  the  Abb6  de  L’Ep4e,  who  devoted 
his  life  and  fortune  to  this  subject,  intro- 
duced a system  for  the  instruction  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  which  was  taught  with 
great  success  in  the  Royal  Parisian 
Institution,  and  afterward  still  further 


Two-handed  alphabet. 


developed  by  his  pupil  and  successor, 
the  Abbe  Sicard.  In  1779  a public 
institution  for  the  education  of  deaf- 
mutes  was  established  at  Leipzig, 
through  the  labors  of  Samuel  Heinicke, 
the  great  upholder  of  the  vocal  or  articu- 
latory system,  which  is  still  retained 
at  Vienna  and  throughout  Germany. 
About  twenty  years  previously  Thomas 
Braidwood  had  established  near  Edin- 
burgh in  1760  a deaf  and  dumb  school 
on  the  articulating  system,  which  was 
visited  by  Dr.  Johnson  during  his  tour  in 
Scotland.  The  first  public  institution  in 
Great  Britain  for  the  gratuitous  educa- 
tion of  the  deaf  and  dumb  was  founded 
at  Bermondsey  in  1792  by  the  Rev. 
Messrs.  Townsend  ?nd  Mason.  From 
this  establishment  originated  the  Lon- 
don Asylum  in  Kent  Road,  which  was 
opened  in  1807.  In  1810  a school  for 
affording  instruction  gratuitously  to  the 
dumb  was  founded  in  Edinburgh,  and 
others  of  a similar  description  were  sub- 
sequently established  at  Birmingham, 
Glasgow,  Manchester,  and  other  towns. 
An  association  for  the  oral  instruction  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  was  founded  in 
London  in  1871. 

The  two  chief  methods  of  conveying 
instruction  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  are  by 
means  of  the  manual  alphabet,  and  by 
training  them  to  watch  the  lips  of  the 


teacher  during  articulation.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  manual  alphabet:  the 
double-handed  alphabet,  where  the 
letters  are  expressed  by  the  disposition 
of  the  fingers  of  both  hands;  and  the 
single-handed,  in  which  the  letters  are 
formed  with  the  fingers  of  one  hand. 
Particular  gestures  which  are  attached  to 
each  word  as  its  distinctive  sign  are 
largely  used,  as  are  also  real  objects  and 
models,  pictures,  etc.  The  method  of 
teaching  oy  articulation,  the  pupil  learn- 
ing to  recognize  words,  and  in  time  to 
utter  them,  by  closely  watching  the 
motions  of  the  lips  and  tongue  in  speech, 
and  by  being  instructed  through  dia- 
grams as  to  the  different  positions  of  the 
vocal  organs,  is  now  receiving  much 
attention,  and  has  given  excellent  re- 
sults, cases  being  known  where  persons 
have  conversed  with  the  deaf  and  dumb 
and  remained  ignorant  that  those  to 
whom  they  were  speaking  were  afflicted 
in  this  way.  It  is  by  no  means  a novel 
system,  but  of  late  it  has  vastly  increased 
in  favor  with  authorities.  A new  mode 
of  teaching  articulation  has  recently  been 
brought  into  notice,  consisting  in  the 
use  of  the  system  of  visible  speech 
devised  by  Mr.  Melville  Bell.  The  char- 
acters of  the  alphabet  on  which  this 
.system  is  founded  are  intended  to  reveal 
to  the  eye  the  position  of  the  vocal 
organs  in  the  formation  of  any  sound 
which  the  human  mouth  can  utter.  Its 
practical  value  as  a means  of  instruc- 
tion with  all  classes  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  has  not  as  yet  been  sufficiently 
tested. 

DEAFNESS,  the  partial  or  total  ina- 
bility to  hear.  This  is  a symptom  of 
most  affections  of  the  ear.  It  may  be 
due  simply  to  an  accumulation  of  wax. 
If  it  come  on  suddenly  without  pain  in  a 
healthy  person  this  is  probably  the  cause. 
When  it  comes  on  with  a cold  in  the 
head  it  is  the  result  of  a cold  or  catarrh, 
and  is  likely  to  pass  off  in  a few  days. 
Attended  by  pain,  ringing  in  the  ears, 
etc.,  some  degree  of  inflammation  is 
likely  present.  The  most  intractable 
form  of  deafness  comes  on  very  gradually 
and  painlessly,  and  is  connected  with 
disease  of  the  middle  ear.  If  a skilled 
ear-surgeon  were  consulted  in  time  much 
might  probably  be  done  to  stay  its  prog- 
ress. Deafness  due  to  the  disease  of  the 
nerve  of  hearing  is  usually  very  intense, 
comes  on  suddenly  or  advances  very 
rapidly,  and  is  not  easily  reached  by 
treatment.  As  to  other  causes  of  com- 
plete deafness  see  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

DEAL,  the  division  of  a piece  of  tim- 
ber made  by  sawing;  a board  or  plank. 
The  name  deal  is  chiefly  applied  to 
boards  of  fir  above  7 inches  in  width  and 
of  various  lengths  exceeding  6 feet.  If  7 
inches  or  less  wide  they  are  called  bat- 
tens, and  when  under  6 feet  long  they 
are  called  deal-ends.  The  usual  thick- 
ness is  3 inches,  and  width  9 inches. 
The  standard  size,  to  which  other  sizes 
may  be  reduced,  is  inch  thick,  11 
inches  broad,  and  12  feet  long.  Whole 
deal  is  deal  which  is  IJ  inch  tliick;  slit 
deal,  half  that  thickness. 

DEAN,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary, 
said  to  have  been  so  called  because  he 
presided  over  ten  canons  or  prebenda- 
ries; but  more  probably  because  each 
diocese  was  divided  into  deaneries,  each 


comprising  ten  parishes  or  churches,  and 
Avith  a dean  presiding  over  each. 

DEAN  OF  FACULTY,— (1)  In  some 
universities,  as  that  of  London  and  those 
of  Scotland,  the  chief  or  head  of  a faculty 
(as  of  arts,  law,  or  medicine) ; in  the 
United  States,  a registrar  or  secretary 
of  the  faculty  in  a department  of  a col- 
lege, as  in  a medical,  theological,  or 
scientific  department.  (2)  The  presi- 
dent for  the  time  being  of  an  incorpora- 
tion of  barristers  or  law  practitioners; 
specifically,  the  president  of  the  incor- 
poration of  advocates  in  Edinburgh. 

DEATH  is  that  state  of  a being,  ani- 
mal or  vegetable,  but  more  particularly 
of  an  animal,  in  which  there  is  a total  and 
permanent  cessation  of  all  the  vital 
functions,  when  the  organs  have  not 
only  ceased  to  act,  but  have  lost  the 
susceptibility  of  renewed  action.  Death 
takes  place  either  from  the  natural  decay 
of  the  organism,  as  in  old  age,  or  from 
derangements  or  lesions  of  the  vital 
organs  caused  by  disease  or  injury.  The 
signs  of  actual  death  in  a human  being 
are  the  cessation  of  breathing  and  the 
beating  of  the  heart ; insensibility  of  the 
eye  to  light,  pallor  of  the  body,  com- 
plete muscular  relaxation,  succeeded  by 
a statue-like  stiffness  or  rigidity  wliich 
lasts  from  one  to  nine  days;  and  decom- 
position, which  begins  to  take  place 
after  the  rigidity  has  yielded,  beginning 
first  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  body  and 
gradually  extending  to  the  chest  and 
face.  What  becomes  of  the  mind  or 
thinking  principle,  in  man  or  animal, 
after  death,  is  a matter  of  philosophical 
conjecture  or  religious  faith. 

DEATH,  Dance  of,  a grotesque  allegori- 
cal representation  in  which  the  figure  of 
Death,  generally  in  the  form  of  a skele- 
ton, is  represented  interrupting  people 
of  every  condition  and  in  all  situations,! 
and  carrying  them  away ; so  called  from  I 
the  mocking  activity  usually  displayed 
by  the  figure  of  Death  as  he  leads  away 
his  victims. 

DEATH-RATE,  the  proportion  of 
deaths  among  the  inhabitants  of  a town, 
country,  etc.  In  the  U.  S.  it  is  usually 
calculated  at  so  many  per  thousand  per 
annum. 

DEATH  VALLEY,  a stretch  of  desert 
in  Inyo  County,  Cal.,  surrounded  by 
four  small  ranges  of  mountains.  The 
length  of  the  valley  is  about  150  miles 
and  its  breadth  from  10  to  20  miles.  Its 
lowest  level  is  nearly  500  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  sea.  The  soil  is  destitute  of 
vegetation,  the  temperature  rises  to  122 
degrees  Fahr.  in  the  shade,  and  sand 
storms  are  common.  The  desert  is 
occupied  by  reptiles  only. 

DEATH-WATCH,  the  popular  name 
of  the  insect  that  inhabits  the  wood- 
work of  houses.  In  calling  to  one  an- 

Death-watch  beetle— 1.  Natural  size.  2.  Mag- 
nified. 3,  Head  as  seen  from  underneath, 

other  they  make  a peculiar  ticking 
sound,  which  superstition  has  inter- 
preted as  a forerunner  of  death. 


DEBENTURE 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


DEBENTURE,  a deed-poll  given  by  a 
ublic  company  in  acknowledgment  of 
orrowed  money.  It  gives  the  holder 
the  first  claim  for  dividends,  while  the 
capital  sum  lent  is  usually  assured  on 
the  security  of  the  whole  undertaking. 
With  the  deed,  coupons  or  warrants  for 
the  payment  of  interest  at  specified 
dates  are  generally  issued.  Custom- 
house certificates  of  drawback  are  also 
termed  debentures. 

DEBRECZIN  (de-bret'sin),  a town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  edge  of  the  great  cen- 
tral plain  113  miles  e.  of  Budapest. 
Debreczin  is  considered  the  head-quar- 
ters of  Hungarian  Protestantism.  Pop. 
72,351. 

DEBS,  Eugene  Victor,  an  American 
socialist  and  labor  leader  born  in  Indiana 
in  1855.  He  was  early  a locomotive 
fireman,  was  an  Indiana  legislator,  and 
led  the  strike  of  the  American  Railway 
Union  in  1894.  In  1900  he  was  the  can- 
didate of  the  Social  democratic  party 
for  president  of  the  United  States. 

DEBT,  National.  See  National  Debt. 

DECADE  (dek'ad),  is  sometimes  used 

for  the  number  ten,  or  for  an  aggregate 
of  ten.  In  the  French  revolution,  de- 
cades, each  consisting  of  ten  days,  took 
the  place  of  weeks  in  the  division  of  the 
year.  The  term  is  now  usually  applied 
to  an  aggregate  of  ten  years. 

DEC'AGON,  in  geometry,  a figure  of 
ten  sides  and  angles. 

DECALOGUE  dek'a-log),  the  ten 
commandments,  which,  according  to 
Exod.  XX.  and  Deut.  v.,  were  given  by 
God  to  Moses  on  two  tables.  The  Jews 
call  them  the  ten  words.  Jews  and 
Christians  have  divided  the  ten  com- 
mandments differently;  and  in  some 
Catholic  catechisms  the  second  com- 
mandment has  been  united  with  the 
first,  and  the  tenth  has  been  divided  into 
two. 

DECAM'ERON.  See  Boccaccio. 

DECANDOLLE(dekan-dol),  Augustin 
Pyrame,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of 
modern  botanists,  whose  natural  system 
of  classification,  with  some  modifications 
is  the  one  still  generally  used,  was  born 
at  Geneva  in  1778,  died  there  1841. 
In  1804  he  lectured  in  the  College  of 
France  on  vegetable  physiology;  and 
the  following  year  published  an  outline 
of  his  course,  under  the  title  of  Principes 
de  Botanique,  prefixed  to  the  third 
edition  of  Lamarck’s  Flore  Fran§aise. 
In  this  outline  he  laid  the  basis  of  the 
system  of  classification  which  he  after- 
ward developed  in  larger  and  more  cele- 
brated works.  In  1816  he  returned  to 
Geneva,  where  a chair  of  natural  history 
was  expressly  created  for  him,  and 
where  he  continued  for  many  years  to 
extend  the  boundaries  of  his  favorite 
science  by  his  lectures  and  publications. 

DECAPITATION,  beheading,  capital 
punishment  inflicted  by  the  sword,  ax, 
or  guillotine. 

DECA'TUR,  a city  and  important 
railway  center  of  Illinois,  39  miles  e.  of 
Sprin^eld.  It  has  a large  rolling-mill, 
and  is  a place  of  considerable  trade. 
Pop.  23,750. 

DECA'TUR,  Stephen,  American  naval 
commander,  born  1779,  killed  in  a duel 
1820.  Among  the  chief  exploits  of  his 
life  were  the  capture  of  the  British  frig- 
ate Macedonian  in  1812;  his  attempted 


escape  from  the  blockade  of  New  York 
harbor,  1813 — 14;  and  his  chastise- 
ment of  the  Algerines,  1815. 


Stephen  Decatur. 


DECEASED  WIFE’S  SISTER,  a term 
used  in  the  old  English  law  which  for- 
bade the  marriage  of  a widower  with 
his  deceased  wife’s  sister.  The  law 
originated  among  the  Jews. 

DECEDENT,  in  law,  a deceased  per- 
son, the  term  being  used  only  of  a person 
who  has  left  a will,  or  an  estate  to  be 
administered,  and  almost  always  now 
used  of  a person  who  has  died  intestate. 

DECEIT,  a term  of  law  designating  an 
act  by  which  through  trick  or  misrepre- 
sentation legal  injury  or  damage  is  done 
to  another. 

DECEM'BER,  the  twelfth  month  of 
our  year,  from  the  Latin  decern,  ten, 
because  in  the  Roman  year  instituted 
by  Romulus  it  constituted  the  tenth 
month,  the  year  beginning  with  March. 
In  December  the  sun  enters  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  and  passes  the  winter  sol- 
stice. 

DECEM'VIRS,  the  ten  magistrates 
who  had  absolute  authority  in  ancient 
Rome  (b.c.  451-449).  See  Appius 
Claudius. 

DECID'UOUS  is  a term  applied  in 
botany  to  various  organs  of  plants, 
particularly  leaves,  to  indicate  their 
annual  fall.  A tree  of  which  the  leaves 
fall  annually  is  called  a deciduous  tree, 
and  the  same  term  is  applied  to  the 
leaves  themselves.  The  term  is  also 
applied  in  zoology  to  parts  which  fall 
off  at  a certain  stage  of  an  animal’s 
existence,  as  the  hair,  horns,  and  teeth 
of  certain  animals. 

DECIMAL  FRACTIONS.  See  Frac- 
tions. 

DECIMAL  SYSTEM  is  the  name  given 
to  any  system  of  weights,  measures,  or 
money  in  which  the  unit  is  always  multi- 
plied by  10  or  some  power  of  10  to  give 
a higher  denomination,  and  divided  by 
10  or  a power  of  10  for  a lower  denomina- 
tion. This  system  has  been  rigidly  car- 
ried out  in  France,  and  the  principle 
obtains  in  the  coinage  of  Belgium,  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  the  United  States,  and 
other  countries.  To  express  the  higher 
denominations,  that  is  to  say,  the  unit 
multiplied  by  10,  100,  1000,  10,000,  the 
French  make  use  of  the  prefixes  d6ca, 
hecto,  kilo,  myria,  derived  from  the 
Greek ; thus,  the  mfetre  being  the  unit  of 
length,  decametre  is  10  metres,  hecto- 
metre 100  metres,  kilometre  1000  metres. 
To  express  lower  denominations,  that  is, 
tenths,  hundredths,  etc.,  the  Latin  pre- 
fixes d4ci,  centi,  milli  are  used  in  the 
same  way;  thus  a centilitre  is  the  hun- 
dredth part  of  a litre,  decilitre  t he  tenth 


part  of  a litre.  The  basis  of  the  whole 
system  is  the  linear  measure,  the  unit  of 
which  is  the  metre,  supposed  to  be  the 
ten-millionth  part  of  a quadrant  of  the 
earth’s  meridian  (39‘37  inches).  The 
square  of  10  metres,  or  square  decame- 
tre, called  an  arc,  is  the  unit  of  surface 
measure.  The  cube  of  the  tenth  part  of 
the  metre,  or  cubic  decimetre,  called  a 
litre,  is  the  unit  of  liquid  capacity.  The 
cube  of  the  metre,  called  a stere,  is  the 
unit  of  solid  measure.  The  weight  of  a 
cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  water  at 
39°'2  Fahr. ; (4°  centigrade),  called  a 
gramme,  is  the  unit  of  weight.  The 
unit  of  money  is  the  franc,  which  is 
divided  into  decimes  and  centimes. 

DECK,  a horizontal  platform  or  floor, 
extending  from  side  to  side  of  a ship, 
and  formed  of  planking  supported  by  the 
beams.  In  ships  of  large  size  there  are 
several  decks  one  over  the  other.  The 
quarter-deck  is  that  above  the  upper- 
deck,  reaching  forward  from  the  stern 
to  the  gangway. 

DECLAJ^TION,  an  avowal  or  formal 
statement;  especially  a simple  affirma- 
tion, or  affidavit,  which  English  law 
allows  in  a variety  of  cases,  such  as  those 
which  relate  to  the  revenues  of  customs 
or  excise,  the  post-office,  and  other 
departments  of  administration.  Justices 
of  the  peace,  notaries,  etc.,  are  also  em- 
powered in  various  cases  to  take  vol- 
untary declarations  in  lieu  of  oaths, 
solemn  affirmations  and  affidavits. — 
Declaration  of  war,  the  formal  notice 
which  by  the  usage  of  nations  belliger- 
ents are  expected  to  give  before  com- 
mencing hostilities.  — Declaration  of 
rights,  or  bill  of  rights.  See  Bill. 

DECLARATION,  DYING,  the  ante- 
mortem statement  made  by  a person 
injured  by  another  as  to  the  cause  of 
his  death.  Such  a statement  has  force 
in  a trial  but  only  such  parts  of  it  as 
the  deceased  would  be  allowed  to  testify 
to  were  he  alive. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPEND- 
ENCE, AMERICAN,  the  document  pro- 
claiming the  independence  of  the  Amer- 
ican colonies,  uttered  by  the  continent- 
al congress  on  July  4,  1776.  It  was 
drafted  by  Thomas  Jefferson  and  from 
the  beginning  has  been  almost  contin- 
uously in  the  possession  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  State.  Facsimiles  of  the  paper 
have  been  made,  and  the  original  in 
1894  was  withdrawn  from  public  view 
and  carefully  sealed  from  the  light  and 
air  to  prevent  decomposition.  The  full 
text  of  the  declaration,  and  the  signers, 
follow : 

THE  UNANIMOUS  DECLARATION  OF  THE 
THIRTEEN  UNITED  STATES  OF 
AMERICA. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events, 
it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have 
connected  them  with  another,  and  to 
assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth, 
the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature’s  God 
entitled  them,  a decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  which  impel 
them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident 
— that  all  men  are  created  equal;  that 
they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDEFTCE 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE 


certain  unalienable  rights;  that  among 
these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness.  That  to  secure  these  rights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men, 
deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed;  that  whenever 
any  form  of  government  becomes  de- 
structive of  these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of 
the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and 
to  institute  a new  government,  laying 
its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and 
organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as 
to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect 
their  safety  and  happiness.  Prudence 
indeed,  will  dictate  that  governments 
long  established  should  not  be  changed 
for  light  and  transient  causes;  and, 
accordingly,  all  experience  hath  shown, 
that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suf- 
fer, while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to 
right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms 
to  which  they  are  accustomed.  But 
when  a long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpa- 
tions, pursuing  invariably  the  same 
object,  evinces  a design  to  reduce  them 
under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their 
right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such 
government,  and  to  proA'ide  new  guards 
for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been 
the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies, 
and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which  con- 
strains them  to  alter  their  former  systems 
of  government.  The  history  of  the 
present  king  of  Great  Britain  is  a his- 
tory of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpa- 
tions, all  having,  in  direct  object,  the 
establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny 
over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let 
facts  be  submitted  to  a candid  world; 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the 
most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the 
public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to 
pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing 
importance,  unless  suspended  in  their 
operation  till  his  assent  should  be  ob- 
tained; and,  when  so  suspended,  he  has 
utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for 
the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of 
people,  unless  those  people  would  re- 
linquish the  right  of  representation  in 
the  legislature;  a right  inestimable  to 
them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative 
bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable, 
and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their 
public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with 
his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative 
houses  repeatedly  for  opposing  with 
manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the 
rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a long  time  after 
such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected;  whereby  the  legislative  powers, 
incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned 
to  the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise; 
the  state  remaining,  in  the  meantime, 
exposed  to  all  the  danger  of  invasion 
from  Avithout  and  conAmlsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the 
population  of  these  states;  for  that 
purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  the 
naturalization  of  foreigners;  refusing 
to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migra- 
tion hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of 
new  appropriations  of  lands. 

He  has  obslructed  the  administration 
of  justice  by  refusing  his  assent  to 


laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his 
will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices, 
and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their 
salaries. 

He  has  erected  a multitude  of  new 
offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers 
to  harass  our  people  and  eat  up  their 
substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of 
peace,  standing  armies,  without  the 
consent  of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military 
independent  of,  and  superior  to,  the 
civil  power. 

He  has  combined,  Avith  others,  to  sub- 
ject us  to  a jurisdiction  foreign  to  our 
constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by 
our  laws,  giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of 
pretended  legislation: 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed 
troops  among  us;  • 

For  protecting  them,  by  a mock  trial, 
from  punishment,  for  any  murders 
Avhich  they  should  commit  on  the  in- 
habitants of  these  states; 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts 
of  the  world; 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  mthout  our 
consent; 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the 
benefits  of  trial  by  jury; 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be 
tried  for  pretended  offenses; 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  Eng- 
lish laws  in  the  neighboring  province, 
establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  govern- 
ment, and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so 
as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and 
fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same 
absolute  rule  into  these  colonies; 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolish- 
ing our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering, 
fundamentally,  the  powers  of  our 
governments; 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures, 
and  declaring  themselves  invested  with 
power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases 
whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by 
declaring  us  out  of  his  protection,  and 
waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged 
our  coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and  de- 
stroyed the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large 
armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  com- 
plete the  works  of  death,  desolation, 
and  tyranny,  already  begun,  with  cir- 
cumstances of  cruelty  and  perfidy 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous 
ages,  and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a 
civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens, 
taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to  bear 
arms  against  their  country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  their  friends  and 
brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  their 
hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections 
among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring 
on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the 
merciless  Indian  savages,  Avhose  knoAvn 
rules  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished 
destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  con- 
ditions. 

In  eA'ery  stage  of  these  oppressions  we 
have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms;  our  repeated  petitions 
haA^e  been  ansAA’ered  only  by  repeated 
injury.  A prince  Avhose  character  is 


thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may 
define  a tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of 
a free  people. 

Nor  haAm  we  been  wanting  in  atten- 
tion to  our  British  brethren.  We  have 
warned  them  from  time  to  time  of  at- 
tempts made  by  their  legislature  to  ex- 
tend an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over 
us.  We  haA'e  reminded  them  of  the  cir- 
cumstances of  our  emigration  and  settle- 
ment here.  We  have  appealed  to  their 
native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we 
have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our 
common  kindred,  to  disavow  these 
usurpations,  Avdiich  wmuld  ineA'itably 
interrupt  our  connection  and  corres- 
pondence. They,  too,  have  been  deaf 
to  the  voice  of  justice  and  consanguinity. 
We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the 
necessity  which  denounces  our  separa- 
tion, and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest 
of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace, 
friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  in  general 
congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the 
supreme  judge  of  the  world  for  the  recti- 
tude of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name 
and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people 
of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and 
declare;  That  these  United  Colonies  are, 
and  of  right  ought  to  be, ‘free  and  inde- 
pendent states;  that  they  are  absoh'ed 
from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown, 
and  that  all  political  connection  between 
them  and  the  state  of  Great  Britain  is, 
and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved;  and 
that,  as  free  and  independent  states,  they 
have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude 
peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  com- 
merce, and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things 
which  independent  states  may  of  right 
do.  And,  for  the  support  of  this  declara- 
tion, with  a firm  reliance  on  the  protec- 
tion of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually 
pledge  to  each  other,  our  liA^es,  our 
fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

The  fifty-six  signers  of  the  Declaration 
were  as  follows : Roger  Sherman,  Samuel 
Huntington,  William  Williams,  and 
Oliver  Wolcott,  of  Connecticut;  Csesar 
Rodney,  George  Read,  and  Thomas 
McKean,  of  Delaware;  Button  Gwin- 
nett, Lyman  Hall,  and  George  Walton, 
of  Georgia;  Samuel  Chase,  William  Paca, 
Thomas  Stone,  and  Charles  Carroll  of 
Carrollton,  of  Jlaryland;  John  Hancock, 
Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams,  Robert 
Treat  Paine,  and  Elbridge  Gerry,  of 
Massachusetts;  Josiah  Bartlett,  William- 
Whipple,  and  MattheAV  Thornton,  of 
New  Hampshire;  Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon,  Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart,  and  Abraham  Clark,  of  New 
Jersey;  William  Floyd,  Philip  Living- 
ston, Francis  Lewis,  and  Lewis  IMorris, 
of  New  York;  William  Hooper,  Joseph 
Hewes,  and  John  Penn,  of  North  Caro- 
lina; Robert  Morris,  Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Morton, 
George  Clymer,  James  Smith,  George 
Taylor,  James  Wilson,  and  George  Ross, 
of  Pennsylvania  ; Stephen  Hopkins  and  ' 
William  Ellery,  of  Rhode  Island?^ 
Edward  Rutledge,  Thomas  He5’ward,  • 
Jun.,  Thomas  Lynch.  Jun.,  and  Arthur 
Middleton,  of  South  Carolina;  andi 
George  Wythe,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  I 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Benjamin  Harrison,  J 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jun.,  Francis  Lightfoot^ 
Lee,  and  Carter  Braxton,  of  Virginia,  '‘■t 


X' 


m ^ 


m' 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS 


DEER-STALKING 


DECLARATION  OF  PARIS,  an  agree- 
ment defining  the  regulations  of  mari- 
time war,  which  was  signed  at  Paris 
April  16,  1856,  by  France,  Britain, 
Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  Turkey,  and 
Sardinia.  By  it  privateering  was 
abolished,  neutral  goods  under  enemy’s 
flag  cannot  be  captured,  and  blockades 
must  be  effective  in  order  to  be  binding. 
These  rules  are  still  in  force  and  were 
observed  during  the  late  Spanish  Amer- 
ican war. 

DECLARATION  OR  AFFIRMATION, 
SOLEMN,  terms  applied  to  the  assevera- 
tion made  by  a witness  who,  for  any 
reason,  declines  taking  the  oath.  Al- 
though the  oath  is  not  administered  in 
such  cases,  violation  of  the  affirmation 
constitute  perjury. 

DECLINATION,  in  astronomy,  the 
distance  of  a heavenly  body  from  the 
celestial  equator  (equinoctial),  measured 
on  a great  circle  passing  through  the 
pole  and  also  through  the  body.  It  is 
said  to  be  north  or  south  according  as 
the  body  is  north  or  south  of  the  equator. 
Great  circles  passing  through  the  poles, 
and  cutting  the  equator  at  right  angles, 
are  called  circles  of  declination.  Twenty 
four  circles  of  declination,  dividing  the 
equator  into  twenty-four  arcs  of  15° 
each,  are  called  hour  circles  or  horary 
circles  — Declination  of  the  compass  or 
needle,  or  magnetic  declination,  is  the 
variation  of  the  magnetic  needle  from 
the  true  meridian  of  a place.  This  is 
different  at  different  places,  and  at  the 
same  place  at  different  times.  The  de- 
clination at  London  was  11°  15'  e.  in 
1576,  0°  in  1652,  19°  30'  w.  in  1760, 
24°  27'  w.,  its  maximum,  in  1815,  21° 
6'  w.  in  1865,  19°  15'  w.  in  1870,  and 
17°  4'  in  ,1894. 

DECOMPOSITION,  Chemical,  is  the 
separation  of  the  constituents  of  a body 
from  one  another.  Roughly  speaking — 
for  it  is  a difference  of  degree  rather  than 
of  kind — decomposition  is  either  artifi- 
cial or  spontaneous.  Artificial  decom- 
position is  produced  in  bodies  by  the 
action  of  heat,  light,  electricity  or  chemi- 
cal reagents;  spontaneous,  in  bodies 
which  quickly  undergo  change  in 
ordinary  circumstances,  unless  special 
precautions  are  taken  to  preserve  them. 
The  bodies  of  the  mineral,  and  the 
definite  crystallized  principles  of  the 
organic  world,  belong  to  the  first;  or- 
ganized matter,  such  as  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues,  organic  fluids,  such  as 
blood,  milk,  bile,  and  the  complex  non- 
crystallized  bodies,  albumen,  gelatine, 
emulsine,  etc.,  belong  to  the  second. 

DEC'ORATEDSTYLE,in  architecture, 
the  second  style  of  pointed  (Gothic) 
architecture,  in  use  in  Britain  from  the 
end  of  the  13th  to  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century,  when  it  passed  into  the 
Perpendicular.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  Early  English,  from  which  it  was 
developed,  by  the  more  flowing  or  wavy 
lines  of  its  tr§,cery,  especially  of  its 
windows,  by  the  more  graceful  com- 
binations of  its  foliage,  by  the  greater 
richness  of  the  decorations  of  the  capitals 
of  its  columns,  and  of  the  moldings  of 
its  doorways  and  niches,  finials,  etc.,  and 
generally  by  a style  of  ornamentation 
more  profuse  and  naturalistic,  though 
perhaps  somewhat  florid.  The  most  dis- 
tinctive ornament . of  the  style  is  the 
' P.  E.~2S 


ball-flower,  which  is  usually  inserted  in 
a hollow  molding.  The  Decorated  style 
has  been  divided  into  two  periods,  viz. 
the  Early  or  Geometrical  Decorated  pe- 
riod, in  which  geometrical  figures  are 
largely  introduced  in  the  ornamenta- 


Decorated  style— York  cathedral,  west  front. 

tion ; and  the  Decorated  style  proper,  in 
which  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
style  are  exhibited.  To  this  latter  pe- 
riod belong  some  of  the  finest  monu- 
ments of  British  architecture. 

DECORATION  DAY,  a memorial  day. 
May  30,  observed  in  the  northern 
states  by  decorating  with  flowers  the 
graves  of  soldiers  who  perished  in  the 
civil  war.  It  is  observed  in  the  south 
by  decorating  the  graves  of  the  con- 
federate dead. 

DECREE',  in  general,  an  order,  edict, 
or  law  made  by  a superior  as  a rule  to 
govern  inferiors.  In  law  it  is  a judicial 
decision  or  determination  of  a litigated 
cause. 

DEDICA'TION,  the  act  of  consecra- 
ting something  to  a divine  being,  or  to  a 
sacred  use,  often  with  religious  solemni- 
ties. Also  an  address  prefixed  to  a book, 
and  formerly  inscribed  to  a patron, 
testifying  respect  and  recommending 
the  work  to  his  protection  and  favor; 
now  chiefly  addressed  to  friends  of  the 
author,  or  to  public  characters,  simply 
as  a mark  of  affection  or  esteem. 

DEDUC'TION,  in  reasoning,  the  act  or 
method  of  drawing  inferences,  or  of 
deducing  conclusions  from  premises;  or 
that  which  is  drawn  from  premises.  See 
Logic. 

DEED,  in  law,  a writing  containing 
some  contract  or  agreement,  and  the 
evidence  of  its  execution,  made  between 
parties  legally  capable  of  entering  into  a 
contract  or  agreement;  particularly 
an  instrument  on  paper  or  parchment, 
conveying  real  estate  to  a purchaser  or 
donee. 

DEEM'STER,  an  officer  formerly 
attached  to  the  high  court  of  justiciary 
in  Scotland,  who  formally  pronounced 
the  doom  or  sentence  of  death  on  con- 
demned criminals.  The  office  was  con- 
joined with  that  of  executioner.  The 
name  is  now  given  in  the  Isle  of  Man  to 


two  judges  who  act  as  the  chief-justices 
of  the  island,  the  one  presiding  over  the 
northern,  the  other  over  the  southern 
division.  They  hold  courts  weekly  at 
Douglas,  Ramsey,  and  other  places. 

DEEP  SEA  EXPLORATION,  investi- 
ation  of  the  physical  and  organic  con- 
itions  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  This 
kind  of  investigation  had  its  systematic 
beginnings  in  1873  with  the  Challenger 
expedition  backed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment. Since  that  time  much  of  interest 
has  been  discovered  by  various  explora- 
tions. The  deepest  sounding  was  that 
at  Guam,  of  nearly  six  miles.  Deep  sea 
dredging  has  disclosed  numerous  forms 
of  life  unknown  before. 

DEER,  a general  name  for  the  un- 
gulate or  hoofed  ruminating  animals 
constituting  the  family  Cervidae,  of 
which  the  typical  genus  is  the  stag 
or  red-deer.  The  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  the  genus  are,  that  the 
members  of  it  have  solid  branching 
horns  which  they  shed  every  year, 
and  eight  cutting  teeth  in  the  lower 
jaw  and  none  in  the  upper.  The  horns 
or  antlers  always  exist  on  the  head 
of  the  male,  and  sometimes  on  that  of 
the  female.  The  forms  of  the  horns  are 
various;  sometimes  they  spread  into 
broad  palms  which  send  out  sharp  snags 
around  their  outer  edges;  sometimes 
they  divide  fantastically  into  branches, 
some  of  which  project  over  the  forehead, 
whilst  others  are  reared  upward  in  the 
air;  or  they  may  be  so  reclined  back- 
ward that  the  animal  seems  almost 


Blacktail.  or  mule-deer. 


forced  to  carry  its  head  in  a stiff  erect 
posture.  They  are  used  as  defensive 
and  offensive  weapons,  and  grow  with 
great  rapidity.  There  are  many  spe- 
cies of  deer,  as  the  red-deer  or  stag,  the 
fallow-deer,  the  roebuck,  the  reindeer, 
the  moose,  the  elk.  Deer  are  pretty 
widely  distributed  over  the  world 
though  there  are  none  in  Australia  and 
few  in  Africa,  where  the  antelopes  (whose 
horns  are  permanent)  take  their  place. 
The  rein  deer  alone  has  been  domesti- 
cated. 

DEERHOUND.  See  Staghound. 

DEER-MOUSE,  the  common  name  of 
the  animals  belonging  to  an  American 
genus  of  rodent  animals  allied  to  the 
mice  and  the  jerboas  of  the  Old  World. 
The  deer-mouse  of  Canada  is  a pretty 
animal  of  the  size  of  a mouse,  with  very 
long  hind-legs  and  tail,  and  very  short 
fore-legs. 

DEER-STALKING,  an  exciting  but 
laborious  mode  of  hunting  the  red-deer, 
in  which,  on  account  of  the  extreme  shy- 
ness of  the  game,  their  far-sightedness 
and  keen  sense  of  smell,  they  have  to  be 
approached  by  cautious  maneuvering 
before  a chance  of  obtaining  a shot  oc- 


DE  FACTO 


DEISM 


curs.  Great  patience  and  tact  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  ground  are 
essential  to  a good  stalker,  who  has  to 
undergo  many  discomforts  in  crouching, 
creeping,  wading  through  bogs,  etc.  Ad- 
vance from  higher  to  lower  ground  is 
usually  made,  since  the  deer  are  always 
apt  to  look  to  the  low  ground^  as  the 
source  of  danger.  “Deer-driving”  to- 
ward a point  where  the  shooters  are  con- 
cealed is  often  practiced,  but  is  looked 
on  as  poor  sport  by  the  true  deer-stalker. 

DE  FACTO,  a legal  term  meaning  in 
very  fact,  as  opposed  to  de  jure,  which 
means  by  legal  right.  The  exercise  of 
de  facto  authority  is  always  a usurpa- 
tion. 

DEFAMATION  OF  CHARACTER,  the 

publication  or  circulation  of  a report 
injurious  to  the  character  or  reputation 
of  a person.  It  is  actionable  when  dam- 
age has  been  done  the  individual  de- 
famed. 

DEFAULT',  in  law,  signifies  generally 
any  neglect  or  omission  to  do  something 
which  ought  to  be  done.  Its  special 
application  is  to  the  non-appearance  of  a 
defendant  in  court  when  duly  summoned 
on  an  appointed  day.  If  he  fail  to  ap- 
pear judgment  may  be  demanded  and 
given  against  him  by  default. 

DEFEND'ANT,  in  law,  the  party 
against  whom  a complaint,  demand,  or 
charge  is  brought ; one  who  is  summoned 
into  court,  and  defends,  denies,  or  op- 
poses the  demand  or  charge,  and  main- 
tains his  own  right.  The  term  is  applied 
even  if  ihe  party  admits  the  claim. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH,  a title 
belonging  to  the  King  of  England,  as 
Catholicus  to  the  King  of  Spain,  Chris- 
tianissimus  to  the  King  of  France,  etc. 
Leo  X.  bestowed  the  title  of  Defender  of 
the  Faith  on  Henry  VIII.  in  1521,  on 
account  of  his  book  against  Luther,  and 
the  title  has  been  used  by  the  sovereigns 
of  England  ever  since. 

DEFENSE,  in  law,  the  repulsion  of  an 
attack  on  the  person,  the  property,  or 
the  family  of  an  individual.  There  are 
certain  limitations  to  the  rights  which 
vary  in  different  states. 

DEFILE,  a narrow  passage  or  way  in 
which  troops  may  march  only  in  a file, 
or  with  a narrow  front;  a long  narrow 
pass,  as  between  hills,  etc. 

DEFINITION,  a brief  and  precise 
description  of  a thing  by  its  properties; 
an  explanation  of  the  signification  of  a 
word  or  term,  or  of  what  a word  is  under- 
stood to  express. 

DEFOE  (de-fo'),  Daniel,  an  English 
writer  of  great  ingenuity  and  fertility, 
was  born  in  1661  in  London.  In  1719 
appeared  the  most  popular  of  all  his 
writings;  The  Life  and  Surprising  Ad- 
ventures of  Robinson  Crusoe,  the  favor- 
able reception  of  which  was  immediate 
and  universal.  The  success  of  Defoe  in 
this  performance  induced  him  to  write  a 
number  of  other  lives  and  adventures  in 
character;  as  Moll  Flanders,  Captain 
Singleton,  Roxana,  Duncan  Campbell, 
The  Memoirs  of  a Cavalier,  Journal  of 
the  Plague,  etc.  He  died  in  London  in 
1731. 

DEFORCEMENT,  in  law,  the  holding 
of  lands  or  tenements  to  which  another 
person  has  a right;  a general  term  in- 
cluding any  species  of  wrong  by  which 
he  who  has  a right  to  the  freehold  is 


kept  out  of  possession.  In  Scots  law, 
it  is  the  resisting  of  an  officer  in  the  exe- 
cution of  law. 

DEFORMITY,  a malformation  whether 
congenital  or  not,  which  mars  the 
symmetry  of  the  body.  It  was  formerly 
believed  that  congenital  deformities, 
so  called  birth  marks,  were  produced  by 
shocks  to  the  mind  of  the  mother  while 
bearing  young.  This  idea  is  wholly 
false.  The  child  is  never  affected  in 
this  way  by  the  mental  state  of  the 
mother.  Strawberry  marks,  and  other 
fancied  resemblances  of  that  kind,  are 
due  to  causes  entirely  apart  from  the 
mother’s  “state  of  mind.”  These  stories 
are  chiefly  old  women’s  tales. 

DEGENERACY,  a very  loose,  un- 
scientific term  used  to  describe  any 
state  of  mind  or  body  which  deviates 
highly  from  the  normal  type.  Results  of 
atavism,  reversion  to  ancestral  type, 
effects  of  nutrition,  and  numerous  other 
and  more  obscure  traits  have  been 
called  degenerate.  The  term  degen- 
eracy has  also  been  applied  to  epilepsy 
in  its  thousand  forms.  The  use  of  the 
term  is  confusing  and  leads  to  unending 
misunderstanding. 

DEGREDATION,  the  ecclesiastical 
censure  by  which  a clergyman  is  divested 
of  his  holy  orders. 

DEGREE',  in  geometry  or  trigonom- 
etry, the  360th  part  of  the  circum- 
ference of  any  circle,  the  circumference 
of  every  circle  being  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called 
degrees.  A degree  of  latitude  is  the 
360th  part  of  the  earth’s  circumference 
north  or  south  of  the  equator,  measured 
on  a great  circle  at  right  angles  to  the 
equator,  and  a degree  of  longitude  the 
same  part  of  the  surface  east  or  west  of 
any  given  meridian,  measured  on  a 
circle  parallel  to  the  equator.  Degrees 
are  marked  by  a small-°  near  the  top  of 
the  last  figure  of  the  number  which  ex- 
presses them;  thus  45°  is  45  degrees. 
The  degree  is  subdivided  into  sixty 
equal  parts  called  minutes;  and  the 
minute  is  again  subdivided  into  sixty 
equal  parts  called  seconds.  Thus,  45° 
12'  20"  means  45  degrees,  12  minutes, 
and  20  seconds.  The  magnitude  or 
quantity  of  angles  is  estimated  in  de- 
grees and  parts  of  a degree,  because 
equal  angles  at  the  center  of  a circle  are 
subtended  by  equal  arcs,  and  equal 
angles  at  the  centers  of  different  circles 
are  subtended  by  similar  arcs,  or  arcs 
containing  the  same  number  of  degrees 
and  parts  of  a degrees.  An  angle  is  said 
to  be  so  many  degrees  as  are  contained 
in  the  arc  of  any  circle  intercepted  be- 
tween the  lines  which  contain  the  angle, 
the  angular  point  being  the  center  of  the 
circle.  Thus  we  say  an  angle  of  90°,  or 
of  45°  24'.  It  is  also  usual  to  say  that  a 
star  is  elevated  so  many  degrees  above 
the  horizon,  or  declines  so  many  degrees 
from  the  equator,  or  such  a town  is 
situated  in  so  many  degrees  of  latitude 
or  longitude.  The  length  of  a degree 
depends  upon  the  radius  of  the  circle 
of  the  circumference  of  which  it  is  a part, 
the  length  being  greater  the  greater  the 
length  of  the  radius.  Hence  the  length 
of  a degree  of  longitude  is  greatest  at  the 
equator,  and  diminishes  continually 
toward  the  poles,  at  which  it  = 0. 
Under  the  equator  a degree  of  longitude 


contains  60  geographical,  and  695 
statute  miles.  The  degrees  of  latitude 
are  found  to  increase  in  length  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles.  Oaring  to  the  figure 
of  the  earth.  Numerous  measurements 
have  been  made  in  order  to  determine 
accurately  the  length  of  degrees  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude  at  different  parts  of 
the  earth’s  surface  and  thus  settle  its 
dimensions  and  magnitude.  When  the 
French  determined  to  establish  their 
system  of  measures  and  weights  based 
upon  the  metre  (see  Decimal  System), 
they  settled  that  this  basis  was  to  be  the 
ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance  from 
the  equator  to  the  pole,  which  distance 
had  to  be  found  by  accurate  measure- 
ment. Ten  degrees  of  latitude  were  ac- 
cordingly measured,  from  Dunldrk  to 
Formentera,  one  of  the  Balearic  islands. 
Similar  measurements  having  been  made 
in  Britain,  the  length  of  a total  arc  of 
twenty  degrees  has  been  found.  Many 
measurements  have  also  been  made 
elsewhere.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  divisions,  spaces,  or  intervals 
marked  on  a mathematical,  meteorologi- 
cal, or  other  instrument,  as  a thermom- 
eter or  barometer. 

DEGREE,  in  universities,  a mark  of 
distinction  conferred  on  students,  mem- 
bers, or  distinguished  strangers,  .as  a 
testimony  of  their  proficiency  in  the  arts 
or  sciences,  or  as  a mark  of  respect,  the 
former  known  as  ordinary,  the  latter  as 
honorary  degrees.  The  degrees  are 
bachelor,  master,  and  doctor,  and  are 
conferred  (though  not  all  of  them)  in 
arts,  letters  or  literature,  science,  medi- 
cine, surgery,  law,  philosophy,  divinity, 
and  music.  Various  universities  now 
admit  women  to  degrees. 

DEGREE,  in  algebra,  a term  used  in 
speaking  of  equations,  to  express  what 
is  the  highest  power  of  the  unknown 
quantity.  Thus  if  the  index  of  that 
power  be  3 or  4 (x®,  i/),  the  equation  is 
respectively  of  the  third  or  fourth 
degree. 

DEHORNING,  the  art  of  depriving 
cattle  of  their  horns.  It  is  done  by  a 
huge  pair  of  clippers,  and  although 
painful  to  the  animal,  works  out  a 
great  saving  in  the  long  run  by  pre- 
venting the  animals  from  injuring  one 
another.  After  the  operation  the 
animal  becomes  docile.  The  horn  does 
not  regenerate. 

DEI  GRATIA  (de'I  gra'shi-a),  a for- 
mula which  sovereigns  add  to  their  title. 
The  expression  is  taken  from  several 
apostolical  expressions  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

DE'ISM,  a philosophical  system  which, 
as  opposed  to  Atheism,  recognizes  a 
great  First  Cause;  as  opposed  to  Pan- 
theism, a Supreme  Being  distinct  from 
nature  or  the  universe;  while,  as  op- 
posed to  Theism,  it  looks  upon  God  as 
wholly  apart  from  the  concerns  of  this 
world.  It  thus  implies  a disbelief  in 
revelation,  skepticism  as  regards  the 
value  of  miraculous  evidence,  and  an 
assumption  that  the  light  of  nature 
and  reason  are  the  only  guides  in  doc- 
trine and  practice.  It  is  thus  a phase  of 
Rationalism.  In  the  18th  century  there 
were  a series  of  writers  who  are  spoken 
of  distinctively  as  the  English  deists. 
They  include  Collins,  Toland,  Tindal, 
etc. 


DE  KOVEN 


DELEGATE 


DE  KOVEit,  Henry  Louis  Reginald,  an 
American  song  and  light  opera  writer, 
born  in  Connecticut  in  1859.  He 
studied  music  in  Europe  and  in  1882 
settled  in  Chicago  where  he  wrote  and 
produced  Robin  Hood,  The  Begum, 
The  Fencing  Master,  Rob  Roy,  The 
Highwayman,  Maid  Marian  and  other 
small  operas. 

DELACROIX  (de-la-krwil),  Ferdinand 
Victor  Eugene,  an  eminent  French 
painter,  born  1799,  died  1863.  He  is 
considered  the  chief  of  the  rnodern 
French  romantic  school  of  painters. 
His  chief  pictures  up  to  1830  are:  Dante 
and  Virgil  in  the  Infernal  Regions, 
Massacre  in  Scio,  the  Execution  of  the 
Doge  Marino  Falieri,  the  Death  of  Sar- 
danapalus,  the  Murder  of  the  Bishop  of 
Lidge.  In  1831  he  joined  the  embassy 
sent  by  Louis  Philippe  to  the  Emperor 
of  Morocco.  To  this  journey  we  are  in- 
debted for  several  pictures  remarkable 
for  their  vivid  realization  of  oriental  life 
as  well  as  their  rhasterly  coloring.  They 
are:  The  Jewish  Marriage,  Muley  Ab- 
derrhaman  With  His  Body-guard,  Al- 
gerian Ladies  in  Their  Chamber,  Moorish 
Soldiers  at  Exercise,  and  several  scenes 
of  eommon  life.  He  decorated  several  of 
the  public  buildings  of  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  into  the  Institute  in  1857. 

DELAGO'A  BAY,  in  Southeast  Africa, 
a large  sheet  of  water  partly  separated 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  by  the  peninsula 
and  island  of  Inyack.  The  bay  stretches 
north  and  south  upward  of  40  miles, 
with  a breadth  of  from  16  to  20  miles, 
and  is  situated  near  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Portuguese  possessions 
here,  which  surround  it. 

DELAROCHE  (de-la-rosh),  Hippolyte, 
probably  the  greatest  painter  of  the 
French  school,  born  in  Paris  in  1797, 
died  1856.  He  studied  landscape-paint- 
ing for  a short  time,  but  applied  himself 


Hippolyte  Delaroche. 


afterward  to  historical  painting,  and 
rapidly  rose  to  eminence.  His  subjects 
are  principally  taken  from  French  and 
English  history.  His  merits  consist  in 
correct  drawing,  appropriate  expression, 
harmonious  color,  and  great  distinctness 
and  perspicuity  in  treatment,  rendering 
the  story  of  his  pictures  at  once  intelligi- 
ble. He  held  a middle  place  between  the 
classical  and  the  romantic  schools,  and 
is  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  so-called 
“eclectic  school.” 

DEL'AWARE,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  which  rises  in  Catskill  Moun- 


tains in  New  York,  separates  Pennsyl- 
vania from  New  Ifork  and  New  Jersey, 
and  New  Jersey  from  Delaware,  and 
loses  itself  in  Delaware  Bay.  It  has  a 
course  of  about  300  miles,  and  is  naviga- 
ble for  smaller  craft  to  the  head  of  tide- 
water at  Trenton  (155  miles). 

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  United  States  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and,  next,  to  Rhode  Island,  the 
smallest  state  in  the  Union,  named  after 
Lord  Delaware,  one  of  the  early  gover- 


nors of  Virginia.  It  is  bounded  north  by 
Pennsylvania,  east  by  the  Delaware 
River  and  Bay  and  by  the  ocean,  south 
and  west  by  Maryland;  area,  2120 
square  miles.  It  is  divided  into  three 
counties,  Kent,  Newcastle,  and  Sus,‘ex, 
and  has  nearly  the  form  of  a right- 
angled  triangle  (hence  its  popular  name 
“the  diamond  state”).  In  the  south  and 
toward  the  coast  the  surface  is  very 
level,  but  the  north  part  is  rather  hilly. 
An  elevated  swampy  table-land  toward 
the  west  traverses  the  state,  forming 
the  water-shed  between  the  Bay  of 
Chesapeake  and  the  Delaware. 

Situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
continent,  Delaware  has  a temperate 
climate,  with  a considerable  range  of 
temperature  and  an  ample  rainfall. 

The  soils  are  sedimentary,  derived 
from  the  underlying  tertiary  rocks.  In 
the  rolling  northern  portion  of  the  state 
the  soil  is  clay,  passing  through  me 
various  gradations  from  a heavy  clay 
to  a loamy  clay,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
raising  fruits,  grasses,  grains.  In  the 
undulating  middle  section,  approxi- 
mately covered  by  Kent  County,  the 
soil  is  generally  loamy.  Hero  fruits, 
berries,  vegetables,  and  the  vine  flourish. 
In  the  flat  southern  section  of  Sussex 
County  the  soil  is  sandy,  with  here  and 
there  outcrops  of  loamy  clay.  This 
region  is  best  adapted  for  strawberry  and 
peach  culture,  and  the  canning  and  dry- 
ing of  fruits  are  important  industries. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry, 
farms  constituting  85  per  cent  of  the 
total  land  surface.  During  the  last 
half-century  there  has  been  a continuous 
and  marked  increase  in  the  number  of 
farms,  and  a corresponding  decrease  in 
the  average  size. 

In  no  state  have  fertilizers  become  so 
generally  used,  the  average  amount  per 
farm  (S55.65)  being  three  times  that  for 
the  North  Atlantic  states.  There  has 
been  a marked  increase  during  the  de- 
; cade  in  the  two  principal  crops — corn 


and  wheat.  The  wheat  acreage  is  several 
times  that  for  all  the  New  England 
states.  The  other  cereals  are  relatively 
unimportant.  The  oats  crop  has  de- 
creased to  one-third  the  acreage  of  1890. 
Hay  ranks  third  in  acreage.  Orchard 
and  small  fruits  have  long  constituted 
one  of  the  main  sources  of  income. 

The  manufacturing  industry  employs 
over  22,000  people,  and  rivals  agriculture 
in  importance.  The  falls  noar  the  mouth 
of  the  Brandywine  have  been,  from  an 
early  date  extensively  utilized  for  manu- 
facturing purposes.  The  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  products  leads  in  im- 
portance. This  industry  includes  steel 
and  rolling  mills,  car-shops,  foundry  and 
machine  shops,  and  ship-building  yards. 

A number  of  the  trunk  lines  connect- 
ing the  East  with  the  South  and  West 
pass  through  the  northern  part  of  the 
state.  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays 
are  connected  by  a canal  13^-  miles  long, 
66  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  deep.  This 
work  was  completed  in  1829,  at  a cost  of 
$2,250,000.  The  masrive  breakwater 
at  Lewes  was  begun  in  1828,  and  com- 
pleted in  1869,  at  a cost  of  over  $2,000,- 
000.  There  is  some  foreign  commerce 
direct  _ through  Wilmington,  but  such 
trade  is  generally  through  Baltimore  or 
some  northern  port.  The  coasting  trade 
is  important,  especially  with  New  York, 
with  which  Wilmington  is  connected  by 
a line  of  steamers.  Wilmington  is  a 
customs  disti’ict,  and  there  are  deputy 
collectors  at  New  Castle  and  Lewes. 
The  capital  is  Dover.  In  National 
elections  the  state  in  1888  and  1892 
went  Democratic ; in  1896,  1900,  1904 
and  1908,  Republican.  Pop,  1909, 
200,000. 

DELAWARE,  a city  and  the  county- 
seat  of  Delaware  County,  Ohio,  24  miles 
north  of  Columbus,  on  the  Whetstone 
(Olentangy)  River,  and  on  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  the 
Columbus,  Sandusky  and  Hocking, 
and  the  Columbus,  Hocking  Valley  and 
Toledo  railroads.  Population,  11,000. 

DELAWARE  BAY,  an  estuary  or  arm 
of  the  sea  between  the  states  of  Dela- 
ware and  New  Jersey.  At  the  entrance, 
near  Cape  Henlopen,  is  situated  the 
Delaware  Breakwater,  which  affords 
vessels  a shelter  within  the  cape.  It 
was  erected  by  the  Federal  government 
and  cost  about  $300,000. 

DELAWARE  COLLEGE,  founded  at 
Newark,  Del.,  in  1833.  It  has  an  annual 
income  of  $45,000  and  a library  of  13,000 
volumes.  There  is  also  here  a valuable 
government  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion. 

DELAWARE  INDIANS,  a tribe  be- 
longing to  the  Algonquin  family,  origin- 
ally known  as  living  on  the  Delaware 
river,  and  called  by  themselves  Lenni 
Lenape.  They  had  to  leave  their  original 
settlements  about  the  middle  of  last 
century,  going  farther  W'est,  and  latterly 
they  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory. Their  numbers  are  now  insignifi- 
cant. 

DELAWARE  WATER  GAP,  a gorge 
in  the  Appalachian  chain  near  Strouds- 
burg, Pa.  The  Delaware  River  flows 
through  it,  1400  feet  below  the  top  of  the 
sides  of  the  gorge. 

DEL'EGATE,  a person  appointed  and 
sent  by  another  or  by  others,  with 


DELFT 


DEMAND  AND  SUPPLY 


powers  to  transact  business  as  his  or 
their  representative.  The  title  was 
given  to  members  of  the  first  continental 
congress  in  America,  1774.  Representa- 
tives to  congress  from  the  U.  S.  terri- 
tories are  still  designated  by  this  term. 
They  have  the  right  of  discussion,  but 
have  no  vote. 

DELFT,  formerly  Delf,  a town,  Hol- 
land, 8 miles  n.w  Rotterdam,  inter- 
sected in  all  directions  by  canals.  Delft 
was  formerly  the  center  of  the  manu- 


is densely  occupied  by  the  shops  and 
dwellings  of  the  native  population;  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  turtuous,  but 
some  of  the  main  thoroughfares  of  the 
city  are  splendid  streets,  the  chief  being 
the  Chandni  Chauk,  or  Silver  Street. 
During  the  mutiny  Delhi  was  seized  by 
the  Sepoys,  who  held  possession  for  four 
months,  during  which  many  atrocities 
were  committed.  Pop.  208,385. 

DELIQUES'CENCE,  a change  of  form 
from  the  solid  to  the  liquid  state,  by  the 


DE'LOS,  an  island  of  great  renown 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  fabled  to  be 
the  birthplace  of  Apollo.  It  was  a center 
of  his  worship,  ana  the  site  of  a famous 
oracle.  It  is  the  eentral  and  smallest 
island  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  a rugged  mass  of  granite  about  12 
square  miles  in  extent.  Abundant  ruins 
of  its  former  magnificence  yet  exist,  and 
excavations  resulting  in  interesting 
archaeological  discoveries  have  recently 
been  made. 

DELPHI,  an  ancient  Greek  town, 
originally  called  Pytho,  the  seat  of  the 
famous  oracle  of  Apollo,  was  situated  in 
Phocis,  on  the  southern  side  of  Parnas- 
sus, about  8 miles  north  of  the  Corin- 
thian Gulf.  It  was  also  one  of  the  meet- 
ing-places of  the  Amphictyonic  Council, 
and  near  it  were  held  the  Pythian  games. 
The  oracles  were  delivered  by  the  mouth 
of  a priestess  who  was  seated  on  a 
tripod  above  a subterranean  opening, 
whence  she  received  the  vapors  ascend- 
ing from  beneath,  and  with  them  the  in- 
spiration of  the  Delphian  god.  The 
oracular  replies  were  alwa5’8  obscure  and 
ambiguous;  yet  they  served,  in  earlier 
times,  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  to 
regulate  and  uphold  the  political,  civil 
and  religious  relations  of  Greece. 

DELTA,  the  name  of  the  Greek  letter 
A,  answering  to  the  English  D.  The 
island  formed  by  the  alluvial  deposits 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Nile,  from 
its  resemblance  to  this  letter,  was  named 
Delta  by  the  Greeks;  and  the  same 
name  has  since  been  extended  to  those 
alluvial  tracts  at  the  mouths  of  great 
rivers  which,  like  the  Nile,  empty  them- 
selves into  the  sea  by  two  or  more  di- 
verging branches. 

DEL'UGE,  the  universal  inundation 
which,  according  to  the  Mosaic  history, 
took  place  to  punish  the  great  iniquity 
of  mankind.  It  was  produced,  according 
to  Genesis,  by  a rain  of  forty  days;  and 
covered  the  earth  15  cubits  above  the 
tops  of  the  highest  mountains,  and 
killed  every  living  creature  except  Noah, 
with  his  family,  and  the  animals  which 
entered  the  ark  by  the  command  of  God. 
Many  other  nations  mention,  in  “the 
mythological  or  prehistoric  part  of  their 
history,  inundations  which,  in  their 
essential  particulars,  agree  with  the 
Scriptural  account  of  Noah’s  preser- 
vation, each  nation  localizing  the  chief 
events  and  actors  as  connected  with 
itself. 

DEMAGOGUE  (dem'a-gog),  originally 
simply  one  who  leans  or  directs  the 
people  in  political  matters;  now  it 
usually  means  one  who  acquires  in- 
fluence with  the  populace  by  pandering 
to  their  prejudices  or  playing  on  their 
ignorance. 

DEMAND  AND  SUPPLY,  the  law 
which,  it  was  formerly  believed,  regu- 
lated prices.  Price  really  determines 
demand,  not  the  reverse.  The  whole 
quantit}’’  of  goods  in  the  market  repre- 
sents the  demand  for  goods  in  the 
market.  Demand  and  desire  for  goods 
are  not  the  same  thing.  Demand  is 
desire  for  commodities  plus  the  ability 
to  pay.  When  the  supply  of  a commod- 
ity is  large,  the  price  is  low  and  the 
demand  great.  When  the  supply  is 
small  the  price  is  high  and  the  demand 
small. 


The  town-hall.  Delft. 


facture  of  the  pottery  called  delft-ware ; 
its  chief  industries  now  embrace  car- 
pets, leather,  soap,  oil,  gin,  etc.  Pop. 
27,131. 

DELFT-WARE,  or  Delf,  is  a kind  of 
pottery  covered  with  an  enamel  or  white 
glazing  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of 
porcelain.  It  was  originally  manufac- 
tured in  Delft  in  the  14th  century,  is 
now  considered  coarse,  but  was  among 
the  best  of  its  day. 

DELHI  (del'i),  a city  of  Hindustan,  in 
the  Punjab,  anciently  capital  of  the 
Patan  and  Mogul  Empires,  about  954 
miles  n.w.  Calcutta.  It  was  at  one  time 
the  largest  city  in  Hindustan,  covering 
a space  of  20  square  miles,  and  having  a 
population  of  2,000,000.  A vast  tract 
covered  with  the  ruins  of  palaces,  pavil- 
ions, baths,  gardens,  mausoleums,  etc., 
marks  the  extent  of  the  ancient  metrop- 
olis. The  present  city  abuts  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  is  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  a lofty  stone 
wall  5^  miles  long.  The  palace  or  resi- 
dence of  the  Great  Mogul,  built  by  Shah 
Jehan,  commenced  in  1631,  and  now 
known  as  “the  fort,”  is  situated  in  the 
east  of  the  city,  and  abuts  directly  on 
the  river.  It  is  .surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  an  embattled  wall  of  reddish 
sandstone  nearly  60  feet  high,  with 
round  towers  at  intervals,  and  a gateway 
on  the  west  and  south.  Since  the  mutiny 
in  1857  a great  portion  has  been  demol- 
ished in  order  to  make  room  for  military 
barracks.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
objects  in  the  city  is  the  Jamma  Musjid 
or  Great  Mosque,  a magnificent  struc- 
ture in  the  Byzantine-Arabic  style, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  in  the 
17th  century.  The  East  Indian  Rail- 
way enters  the  city  by  a bridge  over  the 
Jumna.  The  s.w  quarter  of  the  town 


absorption  of  moisture  from  the  atmos- 
phere. It  occurs  in  many  bodies,  such  as 
caustic  potash,  carbonate  of  potassium, 
acetate  of  potassium,  chloride  of  cal- 
cium, chloride  of  copper,  chloride  of 
zinc,  etc. 

DELIR'IUM,  a temporary  disordered 
state  of  the  mental  faculties  occurring 
during  illness  either  of  a febrile  or  of  an 
exhausting  nature.  It  may  be  the  effect 
of  disordered  or  inflammatory  action 
affecting  the  brain  itself,  or  it  may  be 
sympathetic  with  active  disease  in  other 
parts  of  the  body,  as  the  heart;  it  may 
be  caused  by  long-continued  and  ex- 
hausting pain,  and  by  a state  of  inanition 
of  ;.hc  nervous  system. 

DELIRIUM  TRE'MENS,  an  affection 
of  the  brain  which  arises  from  the  in- 
ordinate and  protracted  use  of  ardent 
spirits.  It  is  therefore  almost  peculiar 
to  drunkards.  The  principal  symptoms 
of  this  disease,  as  its  name  imports,  are 
delirium  and  trembling.  The  delirium 
is  a constant  symptom,  but  the  tremor 
is  not  always  present,  or,  if  present  is 
not  always  perceptible.  Frequently  the 
sufferer  thinks  he  sees  the  most  frightful, 
grotesque,  or  extraordinary  objeets,  and 
may  thus  be  put  into  a state  of  extreme 
terror.  It  is  properly  a disease  of  the 
nervous  system.  The  common  treat- 
ment is  to  administer  soporifics  so  as  to 
get  the  patient  to  sleep. 

DE  LONG,  George  Washington,  an 
American  explorer  and  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1844,  died  in 

1881.  He  was  an  officer  of  the  Juniata 
when  that  ship  went  to  search  for  the 
Polaris  in  1873.  He  commanded  the 
Jeanette  in  her  polar  expedition  of 
1879  and  perished  of  starvation  in  that 
expedition.  His  body  was  found  in 

1882. 


DEMENTIA 


DENARIUS 


DEMEN'TIA,  a form  of  insanity  in 
which  unconnected  and  imperfectly  de- 
fined ideas  chase  each  other  rapidly 
through  the  mind,  the  powers  of  con- 
tinued attention  and  reflection  being 
lost.  It  often  implies  such  general 
feebleness  of  the  mental  faculties  as  may 
occur  in  old  age. 

DEMERA'RA,  or  Demarara,  a divi- 
sion of  British  Guiana,  which  derives  its 
name  from  the  river  Demarara  or  De- 
merara.  It  extends  about  100  miles 
along  the  coast,  lying  on  the  east  of 
Essequibo  and  on  the  west  of  Berbice. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile,  producing  abun- 
dant crops  of  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  rice, 
etc.  Chief  town,  Georgetown.  Pop.  of 
province,  125,000. — The  river,  after  a 
course  of  about  120  miles,  flows  into  the 
Atlantic. 

DEMESNE  (de-man'),  or  Domain,  in 
law,  a manor-house  and  the  land  adja- 
cent or  near,  which  a lord  keeps  in  his 
own  hands  or  immediate  occupation,  for 
the  use  of  his  family,  as  distinguished 
from  his  tenemental  lands,  distributed 
among  his  tenants. 

DEMET'RIUS,  or  DMITRI,  the  name 
of  a series  of  impostors  who  usurped 
supreme  authority  in  Russia,  and  led  to 
some  of  its  remarkable  revolutions. 

DEMET'RIUS,  king  af  ancient  Mace- 
donia, son  of  Antigonus,  a successor  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  was  born  about 
B.c.  339,  and  died  in  Syria  283  b.c. 

DEMI-MONDE,  an  expression  first 
used  by  the  younger  Dumas  in  a drama  of 
the  same  name  (first  performed  in  1855), 
to  denote  that  class  of  gay  female  ad- 
venturers who  are  only  half-acknowl- 
edged in  society;  popularly,  disrepu- 
table female  society;  courtezans. 

DEMISE',  in  law,  a grant  by  lease;  it 
is  applied  to  an  estate  either  in  fee- 
simple,  fee-tail,  or  for  a term  of  life  or 
years.  As  applied  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land, demise  signifies  its  transmission  to 
the  next  heir  on  being  laid  down  by  the 
sovereign  at  death. 

DEMISEMIQUAVER,  in  music,  half  a 
semiquaver,  or  the  thirty  second  part 
of  a semibreve. 

DEMOC'RACY,  the  rule  of  a people  by 
the  people  themselves;  that  form  of 
government  in  which  the  sovereignty  of 
the  state  is  vested  in  the  people,  and 
exercised  by  them  either  directly,  as  in 
the  small  republics  of  ancient  Greece,  or 
indirectly,  by  means  of  representative 
institutions,  as  in  the  constitutional 
states  of  modern  times.  The  term  is 
also  applied  in  a collective  sense  to  the 


article. 

DEM'OCRAT,  one  who  adheres  to 
democracy.  In  the  U.  States,  a member 
of  one  of  the  two  great  political  parties 
into  which  that  country  is  divided;  op- 
posed to  republican.  The  main  features 
of  their  system  of  principles  are  decen- 
tralization and  self-government  of  the 
states. 

DEMOC'RITUS,  a Greek  philosopher 
of  the  new  Eleatic  school,  a native  of 
Abdera,  who  was  born  between  470  and 
460  B.c.  He  explained  the  origin  of  the 
world  by  the  eternal  motion  of  an  in- 
finite number  of  invisible  and  indivisible 
bodies  or  atoms,  which  differ  from  one 
another  in  form,  position,  and  arrange- 


ment, and  which  have  a primary  motion, 
which  brings  them  into  contact,  and 
forms  innumerable  combinations,  the 
result  of  which  is  seen  in  the  productions 
and  phenomena  of  nature.  In  this  way 
the  universe  was  formed,  fortuitously, 
without  the  interposition  of  a First 
Cause.  The  eternal  existence  of  atoms 
(of  matter  in  general)  he  inferred  from 
the  consideration  that  time  could  be 
conceived  only  as  eternal  and  without 
beginning.  He  applied  his  atomical 
theory,  also,  to  natural  philosophy  and 
astronomy.  Even  the  gods  W con- 
sidered to  have  arisen  from  atoms,  and 
to  be  perishable  like  the  rest  of  things 
existing.  In  his  ethical  philosophy 
Democritus  considered  the  acquisition  of 
peace  of  mind  as  the  highest  aim  of 
existence.  He  is  said  to  have  written  a 
great  deal;  but  nothing  has  come  to  us 
except  a few  fragments.  He  died  370 
B.C.,  at  an  advanced  age.  His  school 
was  supplanted  by  that  of  Epicurus. 

DE'MON,  a spirit  or  immaterial  being 
of  supernatural  but  limited  powers, 
especially  an  evil  or  malignant  spirit. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  the  name 
was  given  to  beings  similar  to  those 
spiritual  existences  called  angels  in  the 
Bible.  In  the  New  Testament  evil 
spirits  are  called  demons  (commonly 
translated  "devils”).  A belief  in  demons 
is  found  in  the  oldest  religions  of  the 
East.  Buddhism  reckons  six  classes  of 
beings  in  the  universe:  two,  gods  and 
men,  are  accounted  good;  the  other 
four  are  malignant  spirits.  The  Per- 
sians and  the  Egyptians  had  also  a 
complete  system  of  demons;  and  in 
Europe,  up  till  the  middle  ages,  the 
divinities  of  oriental,  classical,  and  Scan- 
dinavian mythology  often  figure,  from 
the  Christian  point  of  view,  as  evil 
spirits.  In  later  times  phases  of  de- 
monology may  be  seen  in  the  witchcraft 
mania  and  the  spiritualism  of  the 
present  day. 

DEMO'NIAC,  a person  whose  mental 
faculties  are  overpowered,  and  whose 
body  is  possessed  and  actuated  by  some 
created  spiritual  being;  especially  a 
person  possessed  of  or  controlled  by 
evil  spirits.  The  New  Testament  has 
many  narratives  of  demoniacs,  and 
various  opinions  are  entertained  in 
regard  to  the  character  of  their  affliction. 

DEMONOLOGY,  the  science  which 
studies  the  various  beliefs  and  supersti- 
tions of  men  concerning  the  existence  of 
personal  devils,  or  evil  powers  invisible 
to  human  eyes,  but  exerting  an  impor- 
tant influence  or  human  affairs.  De- 
mons have  existed  in  the  beliefs  of  all 
peoples  and  do  still  exist  in  the  belief  of 
many.  Faith  in  a personal  devil  is  one 
of  the  scriptural  qualifications  of  a 
Christian,  however  much  the  idea  may 
be  ridiculed  by  modern  teachers.  Nu- 
merous works  have  been  written  upon 
the  science  of  demonology.  (See  Demon). 

DEMONSTRATION,  in  a logical  sense, 
any  mode  of  connecting  a conclusion 
with  its  premises,  or  an  effect  with  its 
cause.  In  a more  rigorous  sense  it  is 
applied  only  to  those  modes  of  proof  in 
which  the  conclusion  necessarily  follows 
from  the  premises.  In  ordinary  lan- 
guage, however,  demonstration  is  often 
used  as  synonymous  with  proof. 


DEMOS'THENES  (-ngz),  the  famous 
ancient  Greek  orator.  He  was  born  in 
382  (according  to  some  in  385)  b.c.  He 
thundered  against  Philip  of  Macedon  in 
his  orations  known  as  the  Philippics,  and 
endeavored  to  instil  into  his  fellow-citi- 
zens the  hatred  which  animated  his  own 
bosom.  He  labored  to  get  all  the  Greeks 
to  combine  against  the  encroachments 
of  Philip,  but  their  want  of  patriotism 
and  Macedonian  gold  frustrated  his 
efforts.  He  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Chaeroneia  (380  b.c.),  in  which  the 
Athenians  and  Boeotians  were  defeated 
by  Philip,  and  Greek  liberty  crushed. 
On  the  accession  of  Alexander  in  336 
Demosthenes  tried  to  stir  up  a general 
rising  against  the  Macedonians,  but 
Alexander  at  once  adopted  measures  of 
extreme  severity,  and  Athens  sued  for 
mercy.  It  was  with  difficulty  that 
Demosthenes  escaped  being  delivered  up 
to  the  conqueror.  In  324  he  was  im- 
prisoned on  a false  charge  of  having 
received  a bribe  from  one  of  Alexander's 
generals,  but  managed  to  escape  into 
exile.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  next 
year  he  was  recalled,  but  the  defeat  of 
the  Greeks  by  Antipater  caused  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  temple  of  Poseidon, 
in  the  island  of  Calauria,  on  the  coast  of 
Greece,  where  he  poisoned  himself  to 
escape  from  the  emissaries  of  Antipater 
(322  b.c  ).  The  character  of  Demos- 
thenes is  by  most  modern  scholars  con- 
sidered almost  spotless.  His  fame  as 
an  orator  is  equal  to  that  of  Homer  as  a 
poet.  Cicero  pronounces  him  to  be 
the  most  perfect  of  all  orators.  He 
carried  Greek  prose  to  a degree  of  per- 
fection which  it  never  before  had  reach- 
ed. Everything  in  his  speeches  is 
natural,  vigorous,  concise,  symmetrical 

DEMURR'AGE,  in  maritime  law,  the 
time  during  which  a vessel  is  detained 
by  the  freighter  beyond  that  originally 
stipulated,  in  loading  or  unloading. 
When  a vessel  is  thus  detained  she  is 
said  to  be  on  demurrage.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  compensation  which 
the  freighter  has  to  pay  for  such  delay 
or  detention.  Demurrage  must  be 
paid  though  it  be  proved  the  delay  is 
inevitable;  but  it  cannot  be  claimed 
where  it  arises  from  detention  by  an 
enemy,  tempestuous  weather,  or  through 
the  fault  of  the  owner,  captain,  or  crew. 
The  term  is  applied  also  to  detention  of 
freight  by  railroads. 

DEMURRER,  in  law,  a stop  at  some 
point  in  the  pleadings,  and  a resting  of 
the  decision  of  the  cause  on  that  point; 
an  issue  on  matter  of  law.  A demurrer 
confesses  the  fact  or  facts  to  be  true, 
but  denies  the  sufficiency  of  the  facts  in 
point  of  law  to  support  the  claim  or 
defense. 

DEMY',  a size  of  writing  paper  16x21 
inches  intervening  between  cap  14x17 
inches  and  folio  17x22  inches.  Printing 
demy  measures  24x36  inches.  Double 
demy  is  36x48  inches. 

DENARIUS,  a Roman  silver  coin 
worth  10  asses  or  10  lbs.  of  copper  orig- 
inally, and  afterward  considered  equal 
to  16  asses,  when  the  weight  of  the  as 
was  reduced  to  an  ounce  on  account  of 
the  scarcity  of  silver.  The  denarius  was 
equivalent  to  about  15  cents  There 
was  also  a gold  denarius  ecjual  in  value 
to  25  silver  ones. 


DENBIGH 


DENMARK 


DENBIGH  (den'bi),  a county  of  North 
Wales,  on  the  Irish  Sea;  area,  392,005 
acres,  of  which  about  a fourth  is  arable. 
Barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  grown  on 
the  uplands;  and  in  the  rich  valleys 
wheat,  beans,  and  pease.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  reared,  and  dairy  husbandry 
is  carried  on  to  a considerable  extent. 
The  minerals  consist  of  lead,  iron,  coal, 
freestone,  slate,  and  millstone.  Flannels, 
coarse  cloths,  and  stockings  are  manu- 
factured. The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Clwyd,  the  Dee,  and  the  Conway  Pop. 
129,933. — The  county  town  Denbigh  is 
a municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
near  the  center  of  the  Vale  of  Clwyd, 
25  miles  w.  of  Chester.  Pop.  6439;  of 
dist.  of  boroughs,  26,934. 


DEN'DRITE,  a stone  or  mineral,  on 
or  in  which  are  figures  resembling  shrubs, 
trees,  or  mosses.  The  appearance  is 
due  to  arborescent  crystallization,  re- 
sembling the  frostwork  on  our  vdndows. 
The  figures  generally  appear  on  the  sur- 
faces of  fissures  and  in  joints  in  rocks, 
and  are  attributable  to  tlie  presence  of 
the  hydrous  oxide  of  manganese,  which 
generally  assumes  such  a form. 

DENIS,  St.,  a town  in  France,  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine,  6 miles  north  of  Paris, 
lying  within  the  lines  of  forts  surround- 
ing the  capital.  It  contains  the  famous 
abbey  church  of  St.  Denis,  a noble 
Gothic  structure  in  part  dating  from  the 
11th  century  or  earlier.  The  church  is 
about  354  feet  long  and  92  high.  The 
town  has  tanneries,  breweries,  manu- 
factories of  calicoes,  gelatine,  soda,  etc. 
Pop.  50,992. 

DENISON,  a city  in  Grayson  county, 
Tex.,  72  miles  north  by  east  of  Dallas, 
on  the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas,  the 
Texas  and  Pacific,  the  Houston  and 
Texas  Central,  and  the  Saint  Louis  and 
San  Francisco  railroads.  Pop.  13,510. 

DEN'MARK,  a northern  kingdom  of 
Europe,  consisting  of  a peninsular  por- 
tion called  Jutland,  and  an  extensive 
archipelago  lying  east  of  it  and  com- 
prising the  islands  of  Seeland  (or  Sjal- 
land),  Fiinen  (or  Fyen),  Laaland  (or  Lol- 
land), Falster,  Langeland,  Moen,  Samso, 
Laso,  Arro,  Bornholm,  and  many  smaller 
ones.  Besides  these  there  are  the  out- 
lying possessions  of  Iceland,  Greenland, 
and  the  Faroe  Islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and 
St.  John  in  the  West  Indies.  The  area 
of  the  home  possessions  is  15,388  sq. 
miles  of  which  Jutland  occupies  9755; 
the  ])op.  in  1908,  2,535,660.  Including 
Iceland,  part  of  Greenland,  etc.,  the 
total  area  of  the  Danish  possessions  is 
102,022  sq.  miles  ; pop.  2,706,550.  Co- 
penhagen is  the  capital.  For  administra- 
tive purposes  Denmark  is  divided  into 
eighteen  provinces  or  districts,  besides 
the  capital,  nine  of  these  making  up  Jut- 
land, wliile  the  others  embrace  the 
islands. 

On  the  south  Denmark  is  bounded  by 
Germany  and  the  Baltic  i on  the  west  it 


is  washed  by  the  North  Sea;  northward  it 
is  separated  from  Norway  by  the  Skagei-- 
rack;  eastward  it  is  separated  from 
Sweden  by  the  Kattegat  and  the  Sound. 
Denmark,  whether  insular  or  mainland, 
is  a very  low-lying  country,  the  eastern 
side  of  Jutland  where  the  highest  eleva- 
tion occurs,  not  exceeding  550  feet.  The 
country  was  once  covered  with  great 
forests,  but  these  have  disappeared,  and 
Denmark  is  largely  dependent  on  other 
countries  for  her  supplies  of  timber. 
Woods  of  some  extent  still  exist,  how- 
ever, especially  in  the  islands.  In  ear- 
liest perhistoric  times  (the  stone  age) 
the  Scotch  fir  was  the  prevailing  tree 
and  suljsequently  the  oak.  The  prin- 
cipal tree  now  is  the  beech,  the  oak  form- 
ing but  a small  portion  of  the  timber  of 
Denmark.  The  elm,  ash,  willow,  aspen, 
and  birch  are  met  with  in  small  numbers 
or  singly.  Pine  forests  have  been  plant- 
ed in  the  north  of  Jutland  and  else- 
where. Denmark  has  numerous  streams 
but  no  large  rivers;  the  principal  is  the 
Guden,  which  flows  northeast  through 
Jutland  into  the  Kattegat.  It  is  naviga- 
ble for  part  of  its  course.  The  lakes  are 
very  numerous  but  not  large,  none  ex- 
ceeding 5^  miles  in  length  by  about  \\ 
miles  broad.  Copenhagen,  Aalborg, 
Aarhuus,  and  Randers  are  the  chief 
seaports.  Ov/ing  to  the  lowness  of  the 


Danish  mansion— Castle  on  the  island  ot 
Piinen. 


land  and  its  proximity  to  the  sea  on  all 
sides,  the  climate  is  remarkably  tem- 
perate for  so  northerly  a region,  though 
the  thermometer  in  winter  may  sink 
to  22°  below  zero,  and  in  summer  rise 
to  89°.  Violent  winds  are  frequent,  and 
rains  and  fogs  prevalent,  but  the  climate 
is  favorable  to  vegetation. 

The  agricultural  land  is  greatly  sub- 
divided, as  the  law  interdicts  the  union 
of  small  farms  into  larger.  Among  crops 
the  greatest  area  is  occupied  by  oats, 
which  are  grown  all  over  the  country, 
but  best  in  Jutland.  Barley  is  grown 
chiefly  in  Seeland,  and  is  largely  used 
in  brewing  beer,  the  common  beverage 
of  the  country.  Rye  is  extensively 
raised,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  bread 
used  in  Denmark  is  made  from  it.  Tur- 
nips, beans,  pease,  flax,  hemp,  hops, 
tobacco,  etc.,  are  also  grown;  but  in 
general  cattle-breeding,  grazing,  and  the 


dairy  take  up  most  of  the  farmers’  atten- 
tion in  Denmark. 

The  commerce  of  Denmark  is  carried 
on  chiefly  with  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia,  Great 
Britain  possessing  the  larger  share,  and 
Germany  coming  ^ little  behind  her. 
The  chief  imports  are  textile  manufac- 
tures, metal  goods,  coal,  timber,  oil, 
coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  fruit,  etc.  The 
chief  exports  are  butter  (the  most  im- 
portant item),  cattle,  horses,  and  swine, 
bacon,  grain,  hides,  eggs,  and  other 
edibles.  The  Danish  mercantile  marine 
has  a total  tonnage  of  about  416,500 
tons.  The  railways  have  a length  of 
about  1300  miles. 

The  population  of  Denmark  is  com- 
posed almost  exclusively  of  Danes,  with 
a few  thousand  Jews  and  others.  The 
Danes  have  regular  features,  fair  or 
brownish  hair,  and  blue  eyes.  .\t  the 
head  of  the  educational  institutions 
stand  the  University  of  Copenhagen  and 
the  Holberg  Academy  at  Soroe.  The 
provinces  are  well  supplied  with  gym- 
nasia and  middle  schools,  and  primary 
instruction  is  given  at  the  public  ex- 
pense in  the  parochial  schools.  It  is  rare 
to  meet  a peasant  who  cannot  read  and 
write  even  among  the  poorer  class. 

The  government  of  Denmark  was 
originally  an  elective  monarchy.  In 
1661  it  became  a hereditary  and  abso- 
lute monarchy,  and  in  1849  a hereditary 
constitutional  one,  the  legislative  power 
being  in  the  king  and  diet  jointly.  The 
diet  or  Rigsdag  consists  of  two  chambers, 
the  Landsthing  or  upper  house,  the 
Folkething  or  lower  house.  The  army 
consists  of  all  the  able  bodied  young  men 
of  the  kingdom  who  have  arrived  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years.  The  time  of 
service  is  eight  years  in  the  regular 
troops,  and  afterward  eight  more  in  the 
reserve.  Every  corps  has  to  drill  for 
thirty  to  forty-five  days  every  year. 
The  army  on  a war  footing  has  a total 
strength  of  about  60,000  men.  The  navy 
is  of  no  great  strength. 

History. — The  oldest  inhabitants  of 
Denmark  whom  we  find  mentioned  by 
name  were  the  Cimbri,  who  dwelt  in  the 
peninsula  of  Jutland,  thq  Chersonesus 
Cimbrica  of  the  Romans.  They  first 
struck  terror  into  the  Romans  by  their 
incursion,  with  the  Teutones,  into  the 
rich  provinces  of  Gaul  (113-101  n.c.). 
After  this,  led  by  the  mysterious  Odin, 
the  Goths  broke  into  Scandinavia,  and 
appointed  chiefs  from  their  own  nation 
over  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 
For  a considerable  time  Denmark  was 
divided  into  a number  of  small  states, 
whose  inhabitants  lived  mostly  by  piracy 
along  the  neighboring  coasts.  In  787 
they  began  to  make  their  descents  on  the 
eastern  coasts  of  England,  and  along 
with  other  inhabitants  of  Scandinavia 
they  conquered  Normandy  in  876-7. 
Under  Gorm  the  Old  all  the  small  Danish 
states  were  united  in  920,  and  his  grand- 
son Sweyn,  now  the  head  of  a powerful 
kingdom,  commenced  the  conquest  of 
Norway  and  of  England,  which  was 
ultimately  completed  by  his  son  Canute 
Canute  died  in  1035,  lea^^ng  a powerful 
kingdom  to  his  successors,  who,  in  1042, 
lost  England,  and  in  1047  Norway.  In 
.1047  Sweyn  Magnus  Estridsen  ascended 
the  throne,  but  with  the  exception  of 


DENNISON 


DENVER 


the  great  Waldemar  the  new  dynasty 
furnished  no  worthy  ruler,  and  the  power 
of  the  kingdom  decayed  considerably 
till  the  accession  of  the  politic  Queen 
Margaret  in  1387,  who  established  the 
union  of  Calmar  in  1397  uniting  under 
her  rule  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
In  1448  Christian  I.,  count  of  Oldenburg 
was  elected  to  the  throne,  thus  founding 
the  royal  family  of  Oldenburg,  which 
kept  possession  of  the  throne  till  1863. 
Under  the  rule  of  Christina,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Schleswig,  and  Holstein  were 
connected  with  the  crown  of  Denmark, 
but  under  his  successor  Christian  II. 
Sweden  established  its  independence. 
Under  Frederick  I.  (1523-33)  the  re- 
formation was  introduced.  Christian 
IV  of  Denmark  ascended  the  throne  in 
1588,  took  paid  in  the  Thirty  Years’ 
war,  and  engaged  twice  in  a war  with 
Sweden,  with  most  unfortunate  results. 
Frederick  III.  again  engaging  in  war 
with  Sweden  in  1657  was  equally  unsuc- 
cessful, Christian  V.  and  Frederick  IV. 
were  conquered  in  the  war  with  Charles 
XII.  Denmark,  however,  after  the  fall 
of  Charles  XII.,  gained  by  the  Peace  of 
1720  the  toll  on  the  Sound,  and  main- 
tained possession  of  Schleswig.  After 
this  Denmark  enjoyed  a long  repose. 
In  1800,  having  acceded  to  the  northern 
confederacy,  the  kingdom  was  involved 
in  a war  with  Great  Britain,  in  which 
the  Danish  fleet  was  defeated  at  Copen- 
hagen April  2,  1801.  In  1807,  there 
being  reason  to  think  that  Denmark 
would  join  the  alliance  with  France,  a 
British  fleet  was  sent  up  the  Sound  to 
demand  a defensive  alliance  or  the  sur- 
render of  the  Danish  fleet  as  a pledge 
of  neutrality.  Both  were  denied,  till  the 
Danish  capital  was  bombarded  and 
forced  to  capitulate,  the  whole  fleet  being 
delivered  up  to  the  British.  The  war, 
however,  was  continued,  Denmark  form- 
ing new  alliances  with  Napoleon  till 
1814,  when  a peace  was  concluded  by 
which  she  ceded  Heligoland  to  England 
in  exchange  for  the  Danish  West  India 
Islands,  and  Norway  to'  Sweden  in  ex- 
change for  Swedish  Pomerania  and 
Rugen,  which,  however,  she  shortly 
after  surrendered  to  Prussia,  receiving 
in  return  Lauenburg  and  a pecuniary 
compensation.  In  June  1815  the  king 
entered  into  the  German  confederacy 
as  representing  Holstein  and  Lauenburg. 
In  1 848  Schleswig  and  Holstein  revolted 
and  were  not  Anally  subdued  till  1852. 
In  1857  the  Sound  dues  were  abolished. 
Frederick  VII.  died  in  1863  and  with 
him  the  Oldenburg  line  became  extinct. 
He_  was  succeeded  by  Christian  IX. 
(Prince  of  Sonderburg-Glucksburg).  At 
the  commencement  of  1864  the  Danish 
territory  was  politically  distributed 
into  four  parts,  viz.  Denmark  Proper 
(consisting  of  the  Danish  islands  and 
North  Jutland),  the  duchy  of  Schleswig 
or  South  Jutland,  with  a population 
more  than  one-half  Danish,  the  remain- 
der Frisian  and  German;  the  duchy  of 
Lauenburg,  also  German.  The  measures 
of  the  Danish  government  compelling 
the  use  of  the  Danish  language  in  state 
schools  having  given  great  umbrage  to 
the  (jerman  population  of  the  duchies, 
the  disputes  resulted  in  the  intervention 
of  the  German  confederation,  and 
ultimately  Holstein  was  occupied  by  the 


troops  of  Austria  and  Prussia  (1864). 
After  a short  campaign  the  Prussians 
captured  Alsen,  overran  the  greater  part 
of  Jutland,  and  forced  the  Danes  to 
accept  a peace  (Aug.  1),  by  which  they 
renounced  their  right  to  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauenburg.  A 
difference  now  arose  between  Austria 
and  Prussia  as  to  what  should  be  done 
with  the  duchies,  and  Prussia  showing 
an  evident  intention  of  annexing  them, 
the  result  was  a war  between  the  two 
powers,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat 
of  Austria  at  Sadowa,  or  Koniggriitz,  3d 
July,  1866.  By  the  treaty  which  follow- 
ed Austria  relinquished  all  claim  to  the 
duchies,  which  thus  fell  to  Prussia.  The 
chief  events  since  then  have  been  the 
prolonged  struggle  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  Folkething;  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  centenary  of  the  emanci- 
pation of  the  Danish  peasants  and  the 
jubilee  of  King  Christian  (1888)  and  the 
strengthening  of  the  national  defenses. 
King  Christian  died  in  1906  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Frederick  VIII. 

DENNISON,  William,  an  American 
cabinet  officer  and  governor,  born  in  Cin- 
cinnati in  1815,  died  in  1882.  He  was 
governor  of  Ohio  during  the  civil  war 
and  raised  30,000  troops  for  the  Union 
side.  He  was  postmaster-general  in  the 
cabinets  of  Lincoln  and  Johnson. 

DENOUEMENT  (da-no-man),  a French 
term  naturalized  in  England,  and  sig- 
nifying the  winding  up  or  catastrophe  of 
a plot,  the  solution  of  any  mystery,  etc. 

DEN'SITY,  in  physics,  the  quantity  of 
matter  contained  in  a body  under  a 
given  bulk.  If  a body  of  equal  bulk  with 
another  contains  double  the  quantity 
of  matter  it  is  of  double  the  density. 
Or  if  a body  contain  the  same  quantity 
of  matter  as  another,  but  under  a less 
bulk,  its  density  is  greater  in  proportion 
as  its  bulk  is  less  than  that  of  the  other. 
Hence  the  density  is  directly  proportion- 
al to  the  quantity  of  matter,  and  inverse- 
ly proportional  to  the  bulk  or  magnitude. 
The  relative  quantities  of  matter  in 
bodies  are  known  by  their  gravity  or 
weight,  and  when  a body,  mass,  or 
quantity  of  matter  is  spoken  of,  its 
weight  or  gravity  is  always  understood, 
that  being  the  proper  measure  of  the 
density  or  quantity  of  matter.  The 
weights  of  different  bodies,  of  equal 
bulks,  indicate  their  relative  densities. 
The  density  of  solids,  fluids,  and  gases, 
as  compared  with  that  of  water,  is  their 
Specific  Gravity  (which  see).  As  for  the 
density  of  the  earth  see  Earth. 

DENTAL  FORMULA,  an  arrange- 
ment of  symbols  and  numbers  used  to 
signify  the  number  and  kinds  of  teeth 
of  a mammiferous  animal.  The  dental 
formula  of  man  is: 


which  is  read  thus:  Two  incisors  on  each 
side  of  both  jaws,  one  canine  tooth  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws,  two  prmmolars 
on  each  side  of  both  jaws,  and  three  true 
molars  on  each  side  of  both  jaws,  in  all 
32  teeth. 

DENTA'RIA,  coral-root,  a genus  of 
plants.  There  are  about  twenty  sp'-cies, 
natives  of  temperate  countries.  They 
are  ornamental  herbs,  with  creeping 
singularly  toothed  root-stocks,  from 
which  they  received  the  names  of  coral- 


root  and  tooth-wort.  The  stem-leaves 
are  opposite  or  in  whorls  of  three,  and 
the  flowers  are  large  and  purple. 

DEN'TIFRICE,  a preparation  for 
cleaning  the  teeth,  of  which  there  are 
various  kinds  in  the  form  of  tooth- 
powders,  tooth-washes,  or  tooth-pastes. 
Cuttle-fish  bone,  finely-powdered  chalk, 
and  charcoal  are  common  dentifrices. 
Rhatany,  catechu,  myrrh,  and  mastic 
are  also  often  employed. 

DEN'TILS,  in  arch.,  the  little  cubes 
resembling  teeth,  into  which  the  square 


a a.  Dentils  of  the  Corinthian  cornice. 

member  in  the  bed-molding  of  an  Ionic, 
Corinthian,  or  Composite  cornice  is 
divided. 

DEN'TINE,  the  ivory  tissue  lying 
below  the  enamel  and  constituting  the 
body  of  a tooth.  It  consists  of  an 
organic  basis  disposed  in  the  form  of 
extremely  minute  tubes  and  cells,  and 
of  earthy  particles. 

DENTISTRY,  the  art  of  curing,  re- 
pairing, extracting,  and  treating  the 
teeth.  Dentistry  was  practiced  in  a 
crude  way  among  the  ancients,  and 
modern  dentistry  is  an  almost  wholly 
American  art.  The  art  is  divided  into 
mechanical  dentistry  and  operative  or 
surgical  dentistry,  the  former  having  to 
do  with  the  cleaning,  filling,  and  replac- 
ing of  teeth  (except  the  transplanting  of 
teeth,  which  would  fall  under  the  surgi- 
cal di^^sion).  The  oldest  dental  school 
in  the  world  is  the  Baltimore  College  of 
Dental  Surgery,  founded  in  1839,  the 
second  oldest  is  the  Ohio  College  of 
Dental  Surgery  founded  in  1845.  Almost 
all  large  universities  and  medical  schools 
now  have  dental  colleges.  This  increase 
in  the  educational  facilities  of  dentistry 
has  placed  the  modern  dentist  on  a 
professional  level  as  high  as  that  of  the 
medical  doctor  and  has  opened  up  a 
new  art  of  surgery  called  stomatology, 
or  the  science  of  diseases  of  the  mouth. 
By  means  of  mechanical  appliances  the 
j aw  can  be  lengthened  and  the  expression 
of  face  entirely  altered.  Dentistry,  in  a 
somewhat  high  form,  has  been  practiced 
for  centuries  by  the  Chinese. 

DENTITION.  See  Teeth,  Teething. 

DENUDATION,  in  geology,  the  act 
of  washing  away  the  surface  of  the 
earth  by  water,  either  in  the  form  of  con- 
stant currents  or  of  occasional  floods. 

DENVER,  a city  and  important  rail- 
way center;  capital  of  Colorado  and  of 
Arapahoe  County;  beautifully  situated 
on  South  Platte  river,  15  miles  e.  of  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains;  5200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  com- 
mands a magnificent  view  of  moun- 
tain scenery,  including  Pike’s,  Long’s, 
and  other  noted  peaks  perpetually  cov- 
ered with  snow.  The  streets  are  wide 
and  shady,  and  the  residences  and  pub- 
lic buildings,  built  largely  of  brick  and 
yellow  stone,  are  stately,  handsome, 
and  attractive.  Denver  is  appropri- 
ately called  “The  Queen  City  of  the 
Plains.” 


'V-  T 


-r  -»■ 


DENVER,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


DERBY 


The  citj'  has  over  150  churches,  among 
them  St.  John’s  Cathedral  (Protestant 
Episopal),  noted  for  its  stained  glass 
window  representing  the  crucifixion. 
The  public  school  system  is  excellent. 
There  are  ten  public  and  private  libra- 
ries. The  city  is  also  the  seat  of  Denver 
University,  three  medical  colleges,  and 
several  private  schools.  The  State 
Capitol  is  383  feet  long  and  313  feet  wide. 
It  stands  on  Capitol  Hill,  where  is  ob- 


State  capitol,  Denver,  Col. 


tained  the  best  view  of  the  city.  Other 
prominent  buildings  are  the  city-hall, 
the  county  court-house,  and  especially 
the  U.  States  court-house  and  post-office. 
Denver  has  143  miles  - of  electric  street 
railways,  and  is  lighted  by  gas  and  elec- 
tricity It  has  an  excellent  system  of 
water-works ; water  is  brought  from  the 
mountains  Seven  railways  center  here, 
and  there  is  a large  and  commodious 
union  depot.  All  the  eastern  trunk 
lines  maintain  offices  here.  Denver  has 
eleven  parks,  the  largest.  City  Park, 
containing  340  acres.  It  is  an  im- 
portant center  for  mining,  agriculture, 
and  stock-raising,  the  leading  industries 
of  the  state.  It  has  a branch  U.  States 
mint  and  many  important  manufac- 
tories. 

The  city  was  settled  as  a mining-camp 
in  1858-59.  Its  growth  has  been  rapid 
and  steadv.  Pop.  1909.  200,000. 

DENVER,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  founded 
at  Denver,  Colo.,  in  1864,  by  methodists. 
It  has  collegiate,  medical,  law,  music, 
dental,  and  theological  schools,  an 
endowment  of  nearly  .11,000,000,  nearly 
2,000  students,  and  200  instructors. 

DEODORI'ZERS,  chemical  substances 
which  have  the  power  of  destroying 
fetid  effluvia,  as  chlorine,  chloride  of 
lime,  etc. 

DEPART'MENT,  the  name  given  to 
the  principal  territorial  divisions  of 
France.  At  the  time  of  the  French 
revolution  department  replaced  the  old 
division  into  provinces,  the  change  being 
voted  in  the  constituent  assembly  in 
1789.  There  are  at  present  eighty-seven 
departments,  each  of  which  is  sub- 
divided into  arrondissements. 

DE  PAUW  UNIVERSITY,  at  Green- 
castle,  Putnam  county,  Indiana,  one  of 
the  chief  institutions  of  learning  main- 
tained by  the  methodist  church  in  Amer- 
ica, constituted  in  1837.  It  is  excellent- 
ly endowed,  mainly  by  the  liberality  of 
the  Hon.  W.  C.  de  Pauw,  has  a staff  of 
40  professors  and  teachers,  and  over  900 
students. 

DEPENDENT  CHILDREN,  children, 
who,  although  not  defective,  must  be 
supported  bj’’  others  than  their  parents. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  numer- 


ous children’s  aid  societies  and  homes 
for  dependent  children,  and  large  sums 
of  money  are  devoted  to  the  proper 
rearing  of  such  children.  After  a good 
training  the  children  are  placed  in 
private  families  whose  desirability  has 
been  specially  investigated. 

DEPEW,  Chauncey  Mitchell,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  senator,  ■ and  railroad 
president,  born  in  New  York  in  1834. 
Since  1866  he  has  been  identified  with 
the  Vanderbilt  railroads  and  in  1899 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate. 

DEPO'NENT,  (1)  in  grammar,  a verb 
passive  in  form  but  active  or  neuter  in 
signification.  (2)  In  law,  a person  who 
makes  an  affidavit,  or  one  who  gives  his 
testimony  in  a court  of  justicej  a witness 
upon  oath. 

DEPOSIT,  in  law,  something  given 
or  entrusted  to  another  as  security  for 
the  performance  of  a contract,  as  a sum 
of  money  or  a deed.  In  commerce,  a 
deposit  is  generally  either  money  re- 
ceived by  banking  or  commercial  com- 
panies with  a view  to  employ  it  in  their 
business,  or  documents,  bonds,  etc., 
lodged  in  security  for  loans.  In  the 
first  case  interest  is  usually  paid  to  the 
depositor.  The  receipt  given  by  the 
banker  for  money  deposited  with  him  is 
called  a deposit  receipt. 

DEPOSIT,  in  geology,  a layer  of 
matter  formed  by  the  settling  down  of 
mud,  gravel,  stones,  detritus,  organic 
remains,  etc.,  which  had  been  held  in 
suspension  in  water. 

DEPOSITION,  in  law,  the  testimony 
given  in  court  by  a witness  upon  oath. 
It  is  also  used  to  signify  the  attested 
written  testimony  of  a witness  by  way 
of  answer  to  interrogatories.  Deposi- 
tions are  frequently  taken  conditionally, 
or  de  bene  esse,  as  it  is  called;  for  in- 
stance, when  the  parties  are  sick,  aged, 
or  going  aliroad,  depositions  are  taken, 
to  be  read  in  court  in  case  of  their  death 
or  departure  before  the  trial  comes  on. 

DEPOT  (da'po  or  dep'6),  a French 
word  in  general  use  as  a term  for  a place 
where  goods  are  received  and  stored; 
hence,  in  military  matters,  a magazine 
where  arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  are  kept. 
The  term  is  now  usually  applied  to  those 
companies  of  a regiment  which  remain  at 
home  when  the  rest  are  away  on  foreign 
service.  In  America  it  is  the  common 
term  for  a railway-station. 

DEPRIVATION,  the  removing  of  a 
clergyman  from  his  benefice  on  account 
of  heresy,  misconduct,  etc.  It  entails,  of 
course,  loss  of  all  emoluments,  but  not 
the  loss  of  clerical  character. 

DE  PROFUNDIS,  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  one  of  the 
seven  penitential  psalms,  the  130th  of 
the  Psalms  of  David,  which  in  the  vul- 
gate  begins  with  these  words,  signifying 
“Out  of  the  depths.”  It  is  sung  when 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  are  committed  to 
the  grave. 

DEPTFORD  (det'ford),  a pari,  and 
mun.  borough,  England,  in  the  counties 
of  Kent  and  Surrey,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  forming  now  part  of  Lon- 
don. It  has  some  manufactures  of 
pottery,  chemicals,  soap,  etc.  Pop. 
110,513. 

DEP'UTY,  one  who  exercises  an  office 
as  representing  another. — Chamber  of 
Deputies,  the  lower  of  the  two  legislative 


chambers  in  France  and  in  Italy,  elected 
by  popular  suffrage,  and  corresponding 
in  some  respects  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  Britain.  See  France,  Italy. 

DE  QUINCEY,  Thomas,  author  of  Con- 
fessions of  an  English  Opium  Eater 
was  born  at  Greenhay,  near  Manchester, 
on  15th  August,  1785.  He  died  at  Edin- 
burgh December  8,  1859.  His  writings, 
nearly  all  contributions  to  magazines, 
are  distinguished  by  power  of  expression, 
subtle  thought,  and  an  encyclopaedic 
abundance  of  curious  information. 

DERA  GHAZI  KHAN,  a district  and 
town  in  the  Punjab,  Hindustan.  The 
former,  which  is  in  Derajat  division, 
has  an  area  of  5606  sq.  miles  and  a popu- 
lation  of  404,031.  The  town  has  a 
population  of  23,731,  half  Hindus  and 
half  Mohammedans.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and  coarse 
cutlery.  ! 

DERAJAT  (-jat'),  a commissionership 
of  Hindustan,  in  the  west  of  the  Punjab,  > 
occupying  part  of  the  valley  of  the  ( 
Indus.  It  is  well  watered  and  fertile, 
and  contains  numerous  towns  and  > 

villages.  Pop.  1,643,603,  mostly  Mo- 
hammedans. - 

DERBY,  a municipal,  pari.,  and  coun- 
ty  borough  in  England,  capital  of  Derby- 
shire, 115  miles  n.n.w.  London.  Derby 
is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  kingdom,  *■ 
and  is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  a ^ 
Roman  station,  Derventio.  Under  the  ii 
Danes  it  took  the  name  of  Deoraby. 
Richardson,  the  novelist  and  Herbert 
Spencer  were  natives.  Pop.  105,785. — 

The  county  of  Derby  in  the  center  of 
the  kingdom,  is  about  55  miles  long 
and  from  15  to  30  broad;  area,  658,624 
acres,  or  1029  square  miles,  five-sixths 
being  arable  or  in  permanent  pasture. 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Derwent, 
the  Trent,  the  Wye,  the  Erwash,  the 
Dove,  and  the  Rother.  Oats  and  tur-  S 
nips  are  important  crops,  and  dairy-  « 
husbandry  is  carried  on  to  a large  * 
extent.  Coal  is  abundant  in  various  (S 
parts  of  the  county,  iron  ore  is  also  3 
plentiful,  and  lead,  gypsum,  zinc,  fluor-  aj 
spar,  and  other  minerals  are  obtained.  * 
The  manufactures  are  very  consider-  i 
able,  especially  of  silk,  cotton,  and  lace, 
machinery,  and  agricultural  implements,  a 
Pop.  620,196.  1 

DERBY,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  ^ 


Edward,  Hth  Earl  of  Derby. 

Stanley,  fourteenth  Earl  of,  an  English 
statesman,  born  in  Knowsley  Park, 
Lancashire,  March  29,  1799;  died  there 


DERBY-DAY 


DES  MOINES 


Oct.  23,  1869.  In  1820  he  was  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  as  member 
for  Stockbridge,  and  in  1830  became 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland,  in  Lord 
Grey’s  government.  In  1841  he  became 
colonial  secretary  under  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
but  resigned  on  Peel’s  motion  for  repeal 
of  the  corn-laws.  In  1851  and  1858  he 
formed  ministries  which  held  office  only 
for  a short  period;  and  again  in  1866, 
when  his  administration  signalized  it- 
self by  the  reform  of  the  government  in 
India,  the  conduct  of  the  Abyssinian 
war,  and  the  passing  of  a bill  for  elec- 
toral reform  (1867). 

DERBY-DAY,  the  great  annual  Lon- 
don holiday,  on  which  the  horse-race  for 
the  stakes  instituted  by  Lord  Derby  in 
1780  is  run.  It  always  falls  on  a Wed- 
nesday, being  the  second  day  of  the 
grand  race  meeting  which  takes  place  in 
the  week  after  Trinity  Sunday.  The 
race  is  run  on  Epsom  Downs,  an  ex- 
tensive plain  in  the  neighborhood  of 
London.  The  entry-money  for  each  sub- 
scriber is  fifty  guineas,  and  the  stakes  are 
run  for  by  colts  of  three  years.  In  the 
first  year  of  the  Derby  there  were  only 
thirty-six  entries,  but  now  they  are  so 
numerous  that  the  value  of  the  stakes 
reaches  several  thousand  pounds.  The 
Epsom  races  are  the  most  popular  of  the 
English  horse-races.  The  Ascot  races 
are  patronized  by  royalty,  the  world  of 
fashion  is  to  be  seen  at  Goodwood,  but 
on  Epsom  Downs,  on  the  Derby-day,  are 
assembled  all  classes,  high  and  low. 

DER'ELICT,  a vessel  or  anything  re- 
linquished or  abandoned  at  sea,  but 
most  commonly  applied  to  a ship  aban- 
doned by  the  crew  and  left ' floating 
about. 

DERIVATION.  See  Etymology. 

DERMA,  Dermis,  the  true  skin,  or 
under  layer  of  the  skin,  as  distinguished 
from  the  cuticle,  epidermis,  or  scarf- 
skin. 

DERMATOLOGY,  the  branch  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  skin  and  its 
diseases. 

DER'RICK,  a lifting  apparatus,  con- 
sisting of  a single  post  or  pole,  supported 
by  stays  and  guys,  to  which  a boom 
vdth  a pulley  or  pulleys  is  attached,  used 
in  loading  and  unloading  vessels,  etc. 
Floating  derricks  of  the  strongest  con- 
struction, with  an  immense  boom  and 
numerous  blocks,  are  also  used. 

DERRICK-CRANE,  a kind  of  crane 
combining  the  advantages  of  the  com- 
mon derrick  and  those  of  the  ordinary 
crane.  The  jib  of  this  crane  is  fitted  with 
a joint  at  the  foot,  and  has  a chain  in- 
stead of  a tension-bar  attached  to  it  at 
the  top,  so  that  the  inclination,  and  con- 
sequently the  sweep,  of  the  crane  can  be 
altered  at  pleasure. 

DERRY.  See  Londonderry. 

DER'VISH,  a Mohammedan  devotee, 
distinguished  by  austerity  of  life  and  the 
observance  of  strict  forms.  There  are 
many  different  orders  of  them.  Some 
live  in  monasteries,  others  lead  an  itin- 
erant life,  others  devote  themselves  to 
menial  or  arduous  occupations. 

DESCARTES  (da-kart),  Ren6,  a great 
French  philosopher  and  mathematician, 
with  whom  the  modern  or  new  philoso- 
phy is  often  considered  as  commencing, 
was  born  March  31,  1596,  at  La  Haye, 
in  Touraine.  Descartes,  seeing  the 


errors  and  inconsistencies  in  which  other 
philosophers  had  involved  themselves, 
determined  to  build  up  a system  anew 
for  himself,  divesting  himself  first  of  all 
the  beliefs  he  had  acquired  by  education 
or  otherwise,  and  resolving  to  accept  as 
true  only  what  could  stand  the  test  of 


Traveling  dervish  of  Khorasan. 

reason.  Proceeding  in  this  way  he 
found  that  there  was  one  thing  that  he 
could  not  doubt  or  divest  himself  of  the 
belief  of  and  that  was  the  existence  of 
himself  as  a thinking  being,  and  this 
ultimate  certainty  he  expressed  in  the 
celebrated  phrase  “I  think,  therefore  I 
am.”  Here,  then,  he  believed  he  had 
found  the  test  of  truth.  Starting  from 
this  point  Descartes  found  the  same 
kind  of  certainty  in  such  propositions  as 
these:  that  the  thinking  being  or  soul 
differs  from  the  body  (whose  existence 
consists  in  space  and  extension)  by  its 
simplicity  and  immateriality  and  by  the 
freedom  that  pertains  to  it;^that  every 
perception  of  the  soul  is  not  distinct; 
that  it  is  so  far  an  imperfect  finite  being; 
that  this  imperfection  of  its  own  leads 
it  to  the  idea  of  an  absolutely  perfect 
being;  and  from  this  last  idea  he  deduces 
all  further  knowledge  of  the  truth. 
Descartes  also  contributed  greatly  to  the 
advancement  of  mathematics  and  phys- 
ics. The  higher  departments  of  geom- 
etry were  greatly  extended  by  him.  His 
works  effected  a great  revolution  in  the 
principles  and  methods  of  philosophi- 
zing. In  1647  the  French  court  granted 
him  a pension,  and  two  years  later,  on 
the  invitation  of  Christina  of  Sweden, 
he  went  to  Stockholm,  where  he  died 
Feb.  11,  1650. 

DESCENDANTS.  See  Descent. 

DESCENT',  in  law,  is  the  transmission 
of  the  right  and  title  to  lands  to  the  heir, 
on  the  decease  of  the  proprietor,  by  the 
mere  operation  of  law.  The  rule  deter- 
mining to  whom  an  estate  belongs,  on 
the  decease  of  the  proprietor,  is  that  of 
consanguinity,  or  relationship  by  blood, 
though  with  some  exceptions,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  portion,  or  the  use  of  a 
portion,  of  a man’s  property  given  by 
the  law  to  his  widow.  The  rules  of 
descent,  designating  what  relations  shall 
inherit,  and  their  respective  shares,  will 
be  determined  by  the  genius  and  policy  of 
the  government  and  institutions.  Hence 
the  practice  of  entailments  in  the  feudal 
system.  And  wherever  the  govern- 
ment is  founded  in  family  privileges,  or 
very  intimately  connected  with  them, 


as  is  the  case  in  all  governments  where 
the  hereditarily  aristocratical  part  of  the 
community  have  a great  preponderance, 
the  sustaining  of  families  will  very  prob- 
ably be  a characteristic  feature  in  the 
code  of  laws.  Thus,  in  Britain,  all  the 
lands  of  the  father,  unless  otherwise 
directed  by  will  go  to  the  eldest  son.  In 
the  U.  States  this  distinction  in  favor 
of  the  eldest  son  has  been  abolished,  and 
the  laws  are  founded  upon  the  principle 
of  equal  distribution  both  of  real  and 
personal  estate  among  heirs  of  the  near- 
est surviving  degree.  Kindred  in  blood 
are  divided  into  three  general  classes, 
viz.  1,  descendants;  2,  ancestors;  3, 
collateral  relatives,  that  is,  those  who 
have  descended  from  the  same  common 
ancestor.  The  civil  law'  computes  the 
degrees  by  counting  the  generations  up 
to  the  common  ancestor,  as  father, 
grandfather,  great-grandfather;  or  moth- 
er, grandmother,  great-grandmother; 
and  from  him  or  her  down  to  the 
collateral  relative,  as  brother,  cousin, 
etc.,  making  the  degree  of  relationship 
the  sum  of  these  two  series  of  genera- 
tions. Every  person  has  two  sets  of 
ancestors,  the  paternal  and  maternal, 
and  therefore  two  sets  of  collateral 
relatives.  There  is  also  a distinction  of 
collateral  kindred,  into  those  of  the 
whole  blood  and  those  of  the  half  blood. 

DES'ERET.  See  Utah. 

DES'ERT,  a term  more  particularly 
applied  to  vast  barren  plains  such  as  are 
found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  which  may 
also  be  used  to  designate  any  solitude  or 
uninhabited  place  whether  barren  or  not. 
See  Sahara  and  Gobi. 

DESERT'ER,  a soldier  or  sailor  who 
quits  the  service  without  leave.  Desert- 
ers are  tried  by  court-martial,  which 
may  inflict  death  as  the  extreme  punish- 
ment, or  a less  severe  punishment,  ac- 
cording to  the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

DESERTION,  by  husband  or  w'ife, 
without  due  cause,  is  ground  for  a judi- 
cial separation.  A wife  may  obtain  an 
order  to  protect  any  money  or  property 
she  may  have  acquired  since  desertion, 
against  her  husband  or  his  creditors. 

DESICCATION,  a process  of  dispelling 
moisture  by  the  use  of  air,  heat,  or  chem- 
ical agents  such  as  chloride  of  calcium, 
quicklime,  oil  of  vitriol,  and  fused  car- 
bonate of  potash. — Desiccation  cracks, 
in  geology,  are  the  fissures  caused  in 
clayey  beds  by  the  sun’s  heat,  and  seen 
in  various  rock  strata. 

DESIGN,  the  art  of  creating  orna- 
mental devices  of  any  kind,  or  for  any 
purpose.  Design  is  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient of  arts  and  has  been  carried  to  its 
highest  complexity  and  development  in 
the  orient.  Schools  of  design  were 
originated  in  France  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  w'ere  later  introduced 
into  England  and  other  countries,  and 
most  recently  in  America.  Principles  of 
design  are  taught  in  these  schools, 
covering  the  designing  of  patterns  for 
laces,  rugs,  carpets,  wall  paper,  glass- 
ware, in  short,  everything  to  w^hich  an 
ornamental  design  can  add  beauty. 

DES  MOINES  (de  moin),  capital  of  the 
state  of  Iowa  and  of  Polk  county,  on  the 
Des  Moines  River,  about  350  miles  west 
of  Chicago.  Among  its  chief  buildings 
are  the  state  house,  the  state  arsenm, 
colleges,  opera-houses,  etc.  There  are 


DES  MOINES 


DEVIL-FISH 


coal-mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  manu- 
factures and  other  industries  are  varied 
and  increasinff.  Pop.  1909,  80,000. 

DES  MOINES,  the  largest  river  in  tire 
state  of  Iowa,  rises  in  the  s.w.  of  Min- 
nesota and  flows  in  a south-easterly 


State  capltol,  Des  Moines,  la. 

direction  till  it  falls  into  the  Mississippi 
about  4 miles  below  Keokuk,  after  a 
course  of  300  miles. 

DESMOL'OGY,  that  branch  of  anat- 
omy which  treats  of  the  ligaments  and 
sinews. 

DESMOULINS  (da-mo-lan),  Benoit 
Camille,  born  in  1760  or  1762,  was  con- 
spicuous during  the  first  period  of  the 
French  revolution.  He  was  among 
the  most  notable  of  the  pamphleteers 
and  orators  who  urged  the  multitude 
forward  in  the  path  of  revolution.  In 
1793  he  gave  his  vote  for  the  death  of 
the  king.  Having  become  closely  con- 
nected with  Danton  and  the  party  of 
opposition  to  Robespierre,  and  inveigh- 
ing against  the  reign  of  blood  and  terror, 
he  was  arrested  on  the  order  of  the  latter 
on  30th  March,  1794,  tried  on  the  2d 
April,  and  executed  on  the  5th.  He  met 
his  fate  in  an  agony  of  despair. 

DE  SOTO,  Hernando,  a Spanish  ex- 
lorer  and  discoverer  of  the  JVIississippi, 
orn  about  1496,  died  in  1542.  He  ac- 
companied expeditions  to  the  New 
World  under  Davila  and  Pizarro,  and 
played  a distinguished  part  in  the  con- 
quest of  Peru.  In  1536  he  led  an  expedi- 
tion to  Florida,  whence  after  many  diffi- 
culties he  penetrated  to  the  Mississippi, 
where  he  was  attacked  with  fever  and 
died. — The  name  De  Soto  has  been  given 
to  a county  in  the  n.w.  of  Mississippi,  and 
to  several  places  in  the  U.  States. 

DES'POT,  originally  a master,  a lord; 
at  a later  period  it  became  an  honorary 
title  which  the  Greek  emperors  gave  to 
their  sons  and  sons-in-law  when  gover- 
nors of  provinces.  At  present  despot 
means  an  absolute  ruler,  as  the  Emperor 
of  Russia,  and  in  a narrower  sense  a 
tyrannous  one. 

DESSAU  (des'ou),  a town  in  Germany, 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Anhalt.  The 
manufactures  consist  of  woolens,  woolen 
yarn,  carpets,  machinery,  tobacco,  etc. 
The  ducal  palace  has  a picture-gallery 
and  interesting  relics  and  antiquities. 
Pop.  50,677. 

DETACH'MENT,  a body  of  troops 
selected  from  the  main  army  for  some 
special  service. 

DET'ONATING  POWDERS,  certain 
chemical  compounds,  which,  on  being 


exposed  to  heat  or  suddenly  struck,  ex- 
plode with  a loud  report,  owing  to  one  or 
more  of  the  constituent  parts  suddenly 
assuming  the  gaseous  state.  The 
chloride,  and  iodide  of  nitrogen  are  very 
powerful  detonating  substances.  The 
compounds  of  ammonia  with  silver  and 
old,  fulminate  of  silver  and  of  mercury, 
etonate  by  slight  friction  by  means  of 
heat,  electricity,  or  sulphuric  acid. 

DETROIT,  1 the  principal  city  of 
Michigan,  a port  of  entry  and  county- 
seat  of  Wayne  county,  situated  on  the 
Detroit  River,  285  miles  northeast  of 
Chicago,  connecting  Lakes  Erie  and  St. 
Clair.  Pop.  1909,  400,000. 

The  city  has  an  area  of  29  sq.  miles, 
and  is  finely  situated  on  ground  rising 
gradually  from  the  river.  It  has  broad, 
clean,  well  shaded  and  paved  streets. 
Most  of  the  streets  cross  at  right  angles, 
but  these  are  intersected  by  several 
broad  avenues,  radiating  from  the  Grand 
Circus,  a semicircular  park  of  five  and 
a half  acres  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 
Woodward  Avenue  extends  through 
this,  and  divides  the  city  into  nearly 
equal  portions. 

Detroit  has  a superb  park  system  the 
central  feature  of  which  is  Belle  Isle,  an 
island  park  of  707  acres.  The  city  con- 
tains a number  of  institutions  of  higher 
education,  an  excellent  public  school 
system,  and  numerous  hospitals  and 
charitable  institutions.  In  trade  it 
ranks  among  the  Canada  export  cities 
of  the  United  States  and  it  is  also  a very 
large  manufacturing  center.  It  was 
settled  by  the  French  in  1810. 

DETROIT  RIVER,  or  STRAIT  OF  ST. 
CLAIR,  a river  or  strait  of  North  Amer- 
ica, which  runs  from  Lake  St.  Clair  to 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  28  miles  long,  and  of 
sufficient  d^pth  for  the  navigation  of 
large  vessels.  It  is  about  J mile  wide 
opposite  Detroit  and  enlarges  as  it 
descends. 

DEUTERON'OMY,  the  last  of  the 
books  of  the  Pentateuch,  so  called  from 
its  consisting  in  part  of  a restatement  of 
the  law  as  already  given  in  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  and  containing 
also,  in  addition  to  special  commands 
and  admonitions  not  previously  given, 
an  account  of  the  death  of  Moses.  See 
Pentateuch. 

DEVIATION  OF  THE  COMPASS,  the 

deviation  of  a ship’s  compass  from  the 
true  magnetic  meridian,  caused  by  the 
near  presence  of  iron.  In  iron  ships  the 
amount  of  deviation  depends  upon  the 
direction,  with  regard  to  the  magnetic 
meridian,  in  which  the  ship  lay  when 
being  built.  It  is  least  when  the  ship 
has  been  built  with  her  head  south. 
Armor-plated  ships  should  be  plated 
with  their  head  in  a different  direction 
from  that  in  which  they  lay  when  built. 
The  mode  now  generally  employed  to 
correct  deviation  is  by  introducing  on 
board  ship  masses  of  iron  and  magnets 
to  exactly  neutralize  the  action  of  the 
ship’s  magnetism.  Compasses  are  some- 
times carried  on  masts  in  iron  vessels  as 
a means  of  removing  them  from  the 
disturbing  influence  of  the  iron  of  the 
hull.  In  this  position  they  serve  as 
standards  of  comparison  for  the  binnacle 
compass.  Wooden  ships  are  also  affect- 
ed, though  in  a far  less  degree,  by  the 


direction  in  which  they  lie  when  build- 
ing. 

DEVICE',  a name  common  to  all 
figures,  ciphers,  characters,  rebuses, 
mottoes,  etc.,  which  are  adopted  by  a 
person  or  a family  by  way  of  badge  or 
distinctive  emblem,  often  a representa- 
tion of  some  natural  body,  with  a motto 
or  sentence  applied  in  a figurative 
sense. 

DEVIL,  in  theology,  an  evil  spirit  or 
being;  specifically  the  evil  one,  repre- 
sented in  Scripture  as  the  traducer, 
father  of  lies,  etc.  Most  of  the  old  re- 
ligions of  the  East  acknowledge  a host 
of  devils.  The  doctrine  of  Zoroaster, 
who  adopted  an  evil  principle  called 
Ahriman,  opposed  to  the  good  prin- 
ciple and  served  by  several  orders  of 
inferior  spirits,  spread  the  belief  in  such 
spirits  among  the  people.  The  Gre^ 
mythology  did  not  distinguish  with  the 
same  precision  between  good  and  bad 
spirits.  With  the  Mohammedans  Eblis, 
or  the  devil,  was  an  archangel  whom 
God  employed  to  destroy  a pre-Adamite 
race  of  jinns,  or  genii,  and  who  was  so 
filled  with  pride  at  his  victory  that  he 
refused  to  obey  God.  The  Satan  of  the 
New  Testament  is  also  a rebel  against 
God.  He  uses  his  intellect  to  entangle 
men  in  sin  and  to  obtain  power  over 
them.  But  he  is  not  an  independent 
self-existent  principle  like  the  evil  prin- 
ciple of  Zoroaster,  but  a creature  subject 
to  omnipotent  control.  The  doctrine 
of  Scripture  on  this  subject  soon  became 
blended  with  numerous  fictions  of 
human  imagination,  with  the  various 
superstitions  of  different  countries,  and 
the  mythology  of  the  pagans.  The 
excited  imaginations  of  hermits  in  their 
lonely  retreats,  sunk  as  they  were  in 
ignorance  and  unable  to  account  for 
natural  appearances,  frequently  led 
them  to  suppose  Satan  visibly  present; 
and  innumerable  stories  were  told  of  his 
appearance,  and  his  attributes — the 
horns,  the  tail,  cloven  foot,  etc. — dis- 
tinctly described.  In  consequence  of  the 
cures  which  Christ  and  his  apostles  per- 
formed on  the  possessed,  the  early 
church  believed  in  a power  connected 
with  the  consecration  of  priests  to  drive 
out  evil  spirits.  (See  Exorcism.)  The 
belief  in  evil  spirits,  witches,  etc.,  was  in 
the  17th  century  so  common  that  they 
became  the  objects  of  judicial  process. 
With  the  progress  of  the  natural  sciences, 
however,  in  the  18th  century  many 
wonderful  phenonema  became  explain- 
ed, and  less  was  heard  of  witchcraft. 

DEVIL,  the  machine  through  which 
cotton  or  wool  is  first  passed  to  prepare 
it  for  the  carding-machines ; a teasing- 
machine. 

DEVIL-FISH,  the  popular  name  of 
various  fishes,  one  of  them  being  the 
angler  (which  see).  Among  others  the 
name  is  given  to  several  large  species  of 
ray  occasionally  captured  on  the  Atlan- 
tic and  Pacific  coasts  of  America,  and 
much  dreaded  by  divers,  whom  they 
are  said  to  devour  after  enveloping  them 
in  their  vast  vdngs.  During  gales  of 
wind  or  from  strong  currents  these  im- 
mense fish  are  driven  into  shoal  water, 
and  being  unable  to  extricate  them- 
selves, fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  vigilance 
of  the  fishermen,  who  obtain  consider- 
able quantities  of  oil  from  their  livers. 


DEVIL’S  PUNCH-BOWL 


DHOW 


DEVIL’S  PUNCH-BOWL,  a small 
lake  of  Ireland,  near  the  Lakes  of  Kil- 
larney,  between  2,000  and  3,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  supposed  to  be  the  crater 
of  an  ancient  volcano. 

DEVIL-WORSHIP,  the  worship  paid 
to  the  devil,  an  evil  spirit,  a malignant 
deity,  or  the  personified  evil  principle  in 
nature,  by  many  of  the  primitive  tribes 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  under  the 
assumption  that  the  good  deity  does  not 
trouble  himself  about  the  world;  or  that 
the  powers  of  evil  are  as  mighty  as  the 
power  of  good,  and  have  in  conse- 
quence to  be  bribed  and  reconciled. 
There  is  a sect  called  devil-worshipep 
inhabiting  Turkish  and  Russian  Armenia 
and  the  valley  of  the  Tigris,  who  pay 
respect  to  the  devil,  to  Christ,  and  to 
Allah  or  the  supreme  being,  and  also 
worship  the  sun. 

DE  VINNE,  (de-vin'-ne),  Theodore 
Low,  an  American  printer,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1828.  He  is  the  founder 
of  the  Typothetse  Society  and  has  done 
much  for  the  improvement  of  typo- 
graphical art  in  the  United  States. 

DEVON,  Devonshire,  a maritime 
county  in  the  s.  w.  of  [England,  its 
northern  coast  being  on  the  Bristol 
Channel  and  its  southern  on  the  English 
Channel;  area,  1,655,208  acres,  or  2586 
square  miles,  the  county  being  the  third 
largest  of  England.  Tin,  lead,  iron, 
copper,  manganese,  granite,  and  the 
clay  used  by  potters  and  pipe-makers 
are  the  chief  mineral  products.  The 
geological  formation  of  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone  is  so  largely  developed  that 
the  term  Devonian  has  to  some  extent 
become  its  synonym.  Agriculture  is  in 
a somewhat  backward  state,  owing,  prob- 
ably, to  the  general  preference  given  to 
dairy  husbandry,  for  which  the  extent 
and  richness  of  its  grass  lands  make  the 
county  most  suitable.  Wheat,  barley, 
beans,  pease,  and  potatoes  are  the  prin- 
cipal crops.  Pop.  660,444. 

DEVO'NIAN  SYSTEM,  in  geology,  a 
name  originally  given  to  rocks  of  Devon- 
shire and  Cornwall,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  Silurian  and  carboniferous 
strata,  and  consisting  of  sandstones  of 
different  colors,  calcareous  slates  and 
limestones,  etc.  They  are  divided  into 
lower,  middle,  and  upper  groups,  all  con- 
taining fossils,  but  the  middle  most 
abounding  in  them,  including  corals, 
crinoids,  crustaceans,  mollusca  (especi- 
ally brachiopods),  and  cephalopods. 
Devonian  rocks  occupy  a large  area  in 
Central  Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  Eastern  Canada,  and  Nova 
Scotia.  The  term  has  been  often  used  as 
equivalent  to  Old  Red  Sandstone. 

DEV'ONPORT,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  and  port  of  England, 
county  of  Devon,  contiguous  to  Ply- 
mouth. It  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  royal 
dockyards,  and  an  important  naval  and 
military  station.  Pop.  69,674. 

DEVONSHIRE.  See  Devon. 

DEVONSHIRE,  Duke  of.  See  Caven- 
dish. 

DEW  is  a deposition  of  water  from 
the  atmosphere  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth  in  the  form  of  minute  globules. 
During  the  day  the  earth  both  absorbs 
and  emits  heat,  but  after  sunset  its 
supply  of  warmth  is  cut  off,  while  it  still 
continues  to  radiate  heat  into  the  sur- 


rounding space.  Crass,  flowers,  and  foil- 1 
age  being  good  radiators,  lose  after  sunset  | 
the  heat  which  has  previously  been  ab- 
sorbed by  them,  without  receiving  any 
in  return,  and  their  temperature  conse- 
quently falls  considerably  below  that  of 
the  atmosphere.  From  the  proximity 
of  these  cold  substances  the  particles  of 
vapor  in  the  adjoining  air  are  condensed 
and  deposited  upon  their  surfaces  in  the 
form  of  dew,  or  of  hoar-frost  where  the 
temperature  of  the  earth  is  below  32°. 
When  the  sky  is  clouded  the  heat  ab- 
stracted from  the  earth’s  surface  by 
radiation  is  restored  by  the  clouds, 
which,  being  good  radiators,  send  back 
an  equal  amount  of  heat  to  what  they 
receive;  and  a balance  of  temperature 
being  thus  maintained  between  the  earth 
and  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  no 
dew  is  formed.  The  deposition  of  dew  is 
likewise  prevented  by  wind,  which 
carries  away  the  particles  of  air  before 
the  vapor  contained  in  them  has  been 
condensed.  Horizontal  surfaces,  and 
those  which  are  exposed  to  a wide  ex- 
panse of  sky,  receive  a greater  supply  of 
dew  than  sheltered  or  oblique  sur- 
faces, where  circumstances  diminish  the 
amount  of  radiation.  The  radiation  from 
the  earth’s  surface  is  one  of  those  happy 
revisions  for  the  necessities  of  living 
eings  with  which  nature  everywhere 
abounds.  The  heavy  dews  which  fall 
in  tropical  regions  are  in  the  highest 
degree  beneficial  to  vegetation,  which, 
but  for  this  supply  of  moisture,  would, 
in  countries  where  scarcely  any  rain 
falls  for  months,  be  soon  scorched  and 
withered.  But  after  the  high  tempera- 
ture of  the  day  the  ground  radiates  under 
these  clear  skies  with  great  rapidity,  the 
surface  is  quickly  cooled,  and  the  watery 
vapor,  which,  from  the  great  daily 
evaporation,,  exists  in  large  quantities  in 
the  atmosphere,  is  deposited  abundant- 
ly. This  deposition  is  more  plentiful 
also  on  plants,  from  their  greater  radi- 
ating power;  while  on  hard,  bare 
ground  and  stones,  where  it  is  less 
wanted,  it  is  comparatively  trifling. 
In  cold  climates  the  earth,  being  cold 
and  sufficiently  moist,  requires  little 
dew;  accordingly  the  clouds,  which 
are  so  common  in  damp  and  chilly 
regions,  prevent  the  radiation  of  heat ; 
the  surface  is  thus  preserved  warm,  and 
the  deposition  of  dew  is,  in  a great 
measure,  prevented. 

DEWAS,  a native  state  of  Central 
India  consisting  of  two  combined  states 
with  two  chiefs.  Total  pop.  152,073. 
Dewas,  the  chief  town,  has  a pop.  of 
15,100. 

DE  WET,  Christian,  a Boer  soldier 
born  in  South  Africa  in  1853.  He 
fought  with  distinction  in  the  Anglo- 
Boer  war  of  1880-1  and  later  in  that  of 
1899-1902.  He  finally  submitted  to 
the  English. 

DEWEY,  George,  an  American  ad- 
miral, born  in  Vermont  in  1837.  He 
served  under  Farragut  during  the  civil 
war,  and  at  the  opening  of  the  Spanish- 
American  he  was  the  commodore  com- 
manding the  oriental  station.  Dewey 
at  once  proceeded  to  Manila,  destroyed 
the  Spanish  ships  there  and  took  pos- 
session of  Manila.  On  his  return  home 
in  1899  he  was  given  a popular  ovation 
and  promoted  to  the  rar.k  of  admiral,  a 


rank  which  Farragut  and  Porter  only 
had  won  before  him. 

DEWEY,  Melvil,  an  American  libra- 
rian born  in  New  York  state  in  1851. 
His  principal  work  is  the  invention  of  a 
decimal  system  of  cataloguing. 


George  Dewey. 


DE  WITT,  Jan,  Grand-pensionary  of 
Holland,  celebrated  as  a statesman  and 
for  his  tragical  end,  was  born  in  1625  or 
1632.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  polit- 
ical party  opposed  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  and  in  1652,  two  years  after  the 
death  of  William  II.,  was  made  grand- 
pensionary. In  1665  the  W'ar  with  Eng- 
land was  renewed  and  conducted  by 
De  Witt  with  great  ability  till  its  termin- 
ation in  1665.  In  1672  Louis  XIV.  in- 
vaded the  Spanish  Netherlands  and 
involved  Holland  in  war.  De  Witt’s 
popularity,  already  on  the  decline, 
suffered  still  further  in  the  troubles  thus 
occasioned,  and  he  felt  it  necessary  to 
resign  his  office  of  grand-pensionary. 
At  this  time  his  brother  Cornelius,  who 
had  been  tried  and  put  to  torture  for 
conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  young 
Prince  of  Orange,  lay  in  prison.  Jan  de 
Witt  went  to  visit  him,  when  a tumult 
suddenly  arose  among  the  people,  and 
both  brothers  were  murdered,  Aug.  20, 
1672.  De  Witt  was  a man  of  high  char- 
acter, simple  and  modest  in  all  his  rela- 
tions. 

DEW-POINT,  the  temperature  at 
which  condensation  of  the  vapor  in  the 
air  takes  place.  When  the  temperature 
of  the  air  has  been  reduced  by  radiation 
to  the  dew-point,  dew  is  deposited  and 
an  amount  of  heat  set  free  which  raises 
the  temperature  of  the  air.  Thus  the 
dew-point  will  indicate  what  the  mini- 
mum temperature  of  the  night  is  likely  to 
be,  a knowledge  of  which  is  useful  to  the 
horticulturist. 

DEY,  a title  formerly  assumed  by  the 
rulers  (under  the  Turkish  Sultan)  of  Al- 
giers, Tripoli,  and  Tunis. 

DHAR  (dhar),  a small  native  state  in 
Central  India,  with  an  area  of  about 
1740  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
yields  wheat,  rice,  opium,  etc.  Pop. 
169,474. 

DHARWAR,  the  chief  town  of  Dhdr- 
war  district,  in  the  Bombay  presidency, 
Hindustan.  Pop.  32,841.  The  Dhdrwhr 
district  has  an  area  of  4535  sq.  miles; 
pop.  1,051,314. 

DHOLPUR,  native  state  of  Central 
India,  Rajputana;  area,  1200  square 
miles;  pop.  279,657.  The  capital  is 
also  called  Dholpur.  Pop.  15,833. 

DHOW  (dou),  an  Arab  sea-going 
vessel,  ranging  from  a comparatively 
small  size  up  to  250  tons  burden,  with 
one  mast  and  a large  square  sail.  It  is 


DIABEl'ES 


DIAMOND 


used  for  merchandise  and  is  often  em- 
ployed in  carrying  slaves  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa  to  Arabia. 


Slave  dhow,  east  coast  of  Africa. 

DIABE'TES,  a disease  of  which  the 
most  remarkable  symptoms  are:  a 
great  increase  in  the  quantity  of  urine, 
a voracious  appetite,  a stoppage  of  the 
cutaneous  perspiration,  thirst,  emacia- 
tion, and  great  muscular  debility.  In 
true  diabetes  the  composition  of  the 
urine  is  also  greatly  affected,  an  abund- 
ance of  saccharine  matter  (diabetic 
sugar)  being  found  in  it.  This  disease 
usually  attacks  persons  of  a debilitated 
constitution  and  often  without  any 
obvious  cause.  With  respect  to  treat- 
ment a diet  should  be  employed  of  which 
farinaceous  or  saccharine  matter  (starch 
and  sugar)  forms  no  part,  ordinary  bread 
or  biscuits,  rice,  arrow-root,  pastry,  and 
fruits  being  accordingly  forbidden, 
though  almost  any  kind  of  animal  food, 
including  eggs,  cheese,  butter,  cream, 
etc.,  as  also  various  vegetables  may  be 
eaten.  Tea,  coffee,  dry  wines,  spirits, 
and  bitter  ale  may  be  drunk.  Milk 
should  be  taken  only  sparingly.  The 
disease  is  essentially  a chronic  one, 
though  death  may  occur  with  great 
rapidity.  Diseases  of  the  lungs  are 
liable  to  attack  a diabetic  person. 

DIABETIC  SUGAR,  the  sweet  prin- 
ciple of  diabetic  urine.  It  is  identical 
with  starch-sugar,  grape-sugar,  etc.  It 
is  a constant  though  trifling  constituent 
of  healthy  urine,  but  in  diabetes  amounts 
to  8 or  10  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases 
more. 

DIACOUS'TICS,  the  science  or  doc- 
trine of  sounds  as  they  are  refracted  by 
passing  through  different  mediums. 

DI'ADEM,  an  ancient  ornament  of 
royalty.  It  was  originally  a head-band 
or  fillet  made  of  silk,  linen,  or  wool,  worn 
round  the  temples  and  forehead,  the 
ends  being  tied  behind  and  let  fall  on 
the  neck,  as  seen  in  old  representations 
of  the  diadem  of  the  Indian  Bacchus. 
Latterly  it  was  usually  set  with  pearls 
and  other  precious  stones.  The  term  is 
also  used  as  equivalent  to  crown  or 
coronet. 

DIAGNO'SIS,  in  medicine,  the  dis- 
crimination of  diseases  by  their  distinc- 
tive marks  or  symptoms;  the  discovery 
of  the  true  nature  and  seat  of  a disease. 

DIAG'ONAL,  in  geometry,  a straight 
line  drawn  between  the  opposite  angles 
of  a quadrilateral  figure. 

DIAG'ONAL  SCALE,  a scale  which 
consists  of  a set  of  parallel  lines  drawn 
on  a ruler,  with  lines  crossing  them  at 
right  angles  and  at  equal  distances. 
One  of  these  equal  divisions,  namely. 


that  at  the  extremity  of  the  ruler.  Is 
subdivided  into  a number  of  equal  parts, 
and  lines  are  drawn  through  the  points 
of  division  obliquely  across  the  parallels. 


Diagonal  scale. 

With  the  help  of  the  compasses  such  a 
scale  facilitates  the  laying  down  of  lines 
of  any  required  length  to  the  200th  part 
of  an  inch. 

DI'AGRAM,  a figure  or  geometrical 
delineation  applied  to  the  illustration  or 
solution  of  geometrical  problems,  or  any 
illustrative  figure  in  which  outlines  are 
chiefly  presented,  and  the  details  more 
or  less  omitted. 

DIAL,  or  SUN-DIAL,  an  instrument 
for  showing  the  hour  of  the  day  from  the 
shadow  thrown  while  the  sun  is  shining 
by  a stile  or  gnomon  upon  a graduated 
surface.  Tlus  instrument  has  been 
known  from  the  earliest  times  among 
Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  and  Hebrews. 
From  those  eastern  nations  it  came  to 
the  Greeks.  It  was  introduced  into 
Rome  during  the  first  Punic  war.  Dials 
are  of  various  constructions,  horizontal, 
inclined,  or  upright,  the  principle  in 
every  case  being  to  show  the  sun’s  dis- 
tance from  the  meridian  by  means  of 
the  shadow  cast  by  the  stile  or  gnomon. 
The  stile  is  made  parallel  with  the  earth’s 
axis,  and  may  be  considered  as  coin- 
ciding with  the  axis  of  the  diurnal  rota- 
tion. Consequently  as  the  sun  moves 
westward  the  shadow  of  the  stile  moves 
round  in  the  opposite  direction,  falling 
on  the  meridian  lines  so  marked  as  to 
represent  the  hours  of  the  day.  The 
dial  of  course  gives  solar  time,  which, 
except  on  four  days  of  the  year,  is  slight- 
ly different  from  that  of  a well-regulated 
clock.  Dials  are  now  rather  articles  of 
curiosity  or  ornament  than  of  use. 

DI'ALECT,  the  language  of  a part  of  a 
country,  or  a distant  colony,  deviating 
either  in  its  grammar,  vocabulary,  or 
pronunciation,  from  the  language  of  that 
part  of  the  common  country  whose 
idiom  has  been  adopted  as  the  literary 
language,  and  the  medium  of  inter- 
course between  well-educated  people. 

DIALEC'TICS,  the  old  name  of  logic, 
or  the  art  of  reasoning,  but  used  in 
Kant’s  philosophy  to  mean  the  logic  of 
appearance,  or  that  logic  which  treats  of 
inevitable  tendencies  toward  error  and 
illusion  in  the  very  nature  of  reason. 

DI'ALOGUE,  a conversation  or  dis- 
course between  two  or  more  persons. 
The  word  is  used  more  particularly  for  a 
formal  conversation  in  theatrical  per- 
formances, and  for  a written  conversa- 
tion or  composition,  in  which  two  or 
more  persons  carry  on  a discourse.  This 
form  was  much  in  favor  among  the, 
ancient  philosophers  as  a medium  for 
expressing  their  thoughts  on  subjects. 
The  Dialogues  of  Plato  are  the  finest 
example.  Many  of  the  great  French 
and  Italian  writers  have  used  this  form. 
Landor’s  Imaginary  Conversations  is 
the  best  production  of  this  kind  in 
English. 


DIAMAGNETTC,  a term  applied  to 
substances  which,  when  under  the 
influence  of  magnetism  and  freely 
suspended,  take  a position  at  right 
angles  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  that 
is,  point  east  and  west.  From  the  ex- 
periments of  Faraday  it  appears  that 
all  matter  is  subject  to  the  magnetic 
force  as  universally  as  it  is  to  the 
gravitating  force,  arranging  itself  into 
two  great  divisions,  the  paramagnetic 
and  diamagnetic.  Among  the  former 
are  iron,  nickel,  cobalt,  platinum, 
palladium,  titanium,  and  a few-  other 
substances;  and  among  the  latter  are 
bismuth,  antimony,  cadmium,  copper, 
gold,  lead,  mercury,  silver,  tin,  zinc, 
and  most  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous 
substances.  When  a paramagnetic  sub- 
stance is  suspended  freely  between 
the  poles  of  a powerful  horseshoe 
magnet  it  points  in  a line  from  one  pole 
to  the  other,  which  Faraday  terms  the 
axial  line.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a 
diamagnetic  substance  is  suspended  in 
the  same  manner  it  is  repelled  alike 
by  both  poles,  and  assumes  an  equato- 
rial direction,  or  a direction  at  right 
angles  to  the  axial  line. 

DIAM'ETER,  the  straight  line  drawn 
through  the  center  of  a circle,  and 
touching  the  two  opposite  points  of  the 
circumference.  It  thus  divides  the 
circle  into  two  equal  parts,  and  is  the 
greatest  chord.  The  length  of  the 
diameter  is  to  the  length  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle  as  1 to  3T4159265..., 
the  latter  number  being  an  interminable 
decimal. 

DIAMOND,  the  hardest  and  most 
valuable  of  gems  and  the  purest  form 
in  which  the  element  carbon  is  found. 
A diamond  and  a piece  of  charcoal  are 
the  same  thing,  that  is,  both  are  carbon, 
only  that  the  molecules  are  differently 
arranged.  Diamonds  can  be  made 
artificially,  but  the  Expense  attaching 
to  the  work  is  too  great  to  give  the 
process  a commercial  value.  Previous 


Five  of  the  great  diamonds  of  the  world.  The 
“Great  Mogul”  in  the  middle:  left  hand 
upper  corner,  “Star  of  the  South” ; right 
hand,  “Koh-i-nur”;  left  hand  lower,  "Re- 
gent”; right  hand,  “Orloff.”  About  one- 
half  actual  size. 

> 

to  the  discovery  of  the  Brazilian  mines 
Borneo  and  India  were  chief  sources  of 
supply.  The  South  African  mines,  it 
is  believed,  now  absolutely  control  the 
diamond  market  of  the  world. 

The  most  valuable  gems,  among 
which  there  are  some  exceeding  100 
carats  in  weight,  are  generally  owned 
by  royal  families  or  are  treasured  by 
governments  as  state  jewels.  One 


DIAMOND  NECKLACE 


DICKENS 


of  the  largest  is  the  Orloff,  owned  by 
the  Czar  of  Russia,  whieh  weighs  195 
carats,  and  is  eut  in  rose  form.  Its 
origin  is  doubtful;  aeeording  to  one 
aceount,  it  was  stolen  from  a Brahman 
temple  in  India,  while  another  indicates 
that  it  was  owned  by  Nadir  Shah  of 
Persia,  and  came  after  his  death  into 
the  hands  of  an  Armenian  merchant. 
In  1772  it  was  purchased  by  the  Em- 
press Catharine  II.,  at  a price  said  to 
have  been  $450,000,  besides  an  annuity 
of  $4,000  and  a Russian  title.  The 
Koh-i-nur,  weighing  102J  carats,  and 
owned  by  the  royal  family  of  England, 
was  found,  according  to  legend,  in 
India  long  before  the  Christian  Era. 
After  having  been  handed  down  through 
a long  line  of  Indian  princes,  it  was 
seized  during  the  British  invasion  of 
the  Punjab,  and  carried  to  England. 
The  stone  is  said  to  have  weighed 
originally  794  carats,  having  been 
reduced  to  its  present  size  by  repeated 
cutting.  The  Regent  or  Pitt  diamond,  in 
the  Louvre- in  Paris,  weighs  136  carats, 
and  is  valued  at  $2,500,000.  It  is 
perhaps  the  finest  of  large  brilliants. 
The  Hope  diamond,  weighing  44J 
carats,  is  a beautiful  blue  stone,  valued 
at  $125,000.  A light  green  diamond 
of  48i  carats,  in  the  Green  Vault  at 
Dresden,  and  a red  diamond  of  10  carats 
among  the  crown  jewels  of  Russia,  are 
.unique  specimens.  Among  the  most 
valuable  stones  found  in  recent  times 
are  the  Victoria,  weighing  180  carats, 
which  was  purchased  by  the  Nizam  of 
Hyderabad ; the  De  Beers,  weighing 
225  carats;  and  the  Tiffany,  weighing 
125 

DIAMOND  NECKLACE,  an  affair 
of  some  note  in  French  history  imme- 
diately preceding  the  Revolution. 

DIAN'A,  in  mythology,  an  ancient 
Italian  goddess  whom  the  Romans 
latterly  identified  with  the  Greek 
Artemis,  with  whom  she  had  various 
attributes  in  common,  being  the  virgin 


Diana — Antique  statue  in  the  Louvre. 

goddess  of  the  moon  and  of  the  chase,' 
and  having  as  attribute's  the  crescent 
moon,  bow,  arrows,  and  quiver.  The 
name  is  a feminine  form  of  Janus.  She 
seems  to  have  been  originally  the  patron 
divinity  of  the  Sabines  and  Latins. 
She  was  worshiped  especially  by 
women  as  presiding  over  births,  no  man 
being  allowed  to  enter  her  temple.  See 
Artrmis. 

DIANA  OF  POITIERS,  Duchess  of 
Valentinois,  born  in  1499.  She  was  the 


mistress  of  King  Henry  II.  of  France, 
and  descended  from  the  noble  family  of 
Poitiers,  in  Dauphiny.  At  an  early  age 
she  married  the  Grand-seneschal  of 
Normandy,  Louis  de  Brez6,  became  a 
widow  at  thirty-one,  and  some  time 
after  the  mistress  of  the  young  Duke  of 
Orleans.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne, 
in  1547,  as  Henry  II.,  Diana  continued 
to  exercise  an  absolute  empire  over 
him  till  his  death  in  1559.  After  that 
event  she  retired  to  her  castle  of  Anet, 
where  she  died  in  1566. 

DIAPA'SON,  in  music,  the  concord 
of  the  first  and  last  notes  of  an  octave. 
The  word  is  also  used  for  the  most 
important  foundation-stops  of  an  organ. 
They  are  of  several  kinds,  as  open  diapa- 
son, stopped  diapason,  double  diapason. 
The  French  use  the  term  as  equivalent 
to  pitch  in  music. 

DI'APER,  a kind  of  textile  fabric 
much  used  for  towels  and  napkins,  and 
formed  either  of  linen  or  cotton,  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  upon  the  surface  of 
which  a flowered  or  figured  pattern  is 
produced  by  a peculiar  mode  of  twill- 
ing. 

DIAPHORET'ICS  are  agents  used  in 
medical  practice  for  producing  a greater 
degree  of  perspiration  than  is  natural, 
but  less  than  in  sweating.  The  Turkish 
bath  and  a large  part  of  hydropathic 
treatment,  diluent  drinks,  etc.,  are 
employed  for  this  purpose.  Diaphoret- 
ics increase  only  the  insensible  per- 
spiration, while  sudorifics  excite  the 
sensible  discharge  called  sweat. 

DIAPHRAGM  (di'a-fram),  in  anat- 
omy, a muscular  membrane  placed 
transversely  in  the  trunk,  and  dividing 
the  chest  from  the  abdominal  cavity.  In 
its  natural  situation  the  diaphragm  is 
convex  on  the  upper  side  and  concave 
on  its  lower,  but  when  the  lungs  are 
filled  with  air  it  becomes  almost  flat. 
It  is  the  principal  agent  in  respiration, 
particularly  in  inspiration.  A com- 
plete diaphragm  is  found  only  in  mam- 
malia. 

DIARRHCE'A,  a very  common  dis- 
ease, which  consists  in  an  increased 
discharge  from  the  alimentary  canal, 
the  evacuations  being  but  little  affected, 
except  in  their  assuming  a more  liquid 
consistence.  They  are  generally  pre- 
ceded or  accompanied  by  flatulence 
and  a griping  pain  in  the  bowels,  and 
frequently  by  sickness.  Diarrhoea  is 
often  produced  by  indigestible  food, 
repletion  of  the  stomach,  cold  applied 
to  the  surface  of  the  body,  impressions 
on  the  nervous  system.  It  is  often 
also  a symptom  of  some  other  disease. 
In  its  simple  form  diarrhoea  is  not  diffi- 
cult of  cure,  mild  purgatives  given  in 
small  doses  and  accompanied  by  quanti- 
ties of  mild  diluents  being  frequently 
successful.  Castor-oil,  rhubarb,  mag- 
nesia are  the  most  generally  applicable. 
The  food  should  be  of  the  least  stimu- 
lating kind. 

DIARY,  a daily  record  of  any  kind, 
customarily  kept  in  a blank  book  with 
forms  printed  for  this  purpose.  The 
diary  form  of  narration  is  often  made  use 
of  by  novelists  to  relieve  the  monotony 
of  an  otherwise  tiresome  narration. 

DIATH'ESIS,  in  medicine,  a certain 
general  habit  or  constitution  of  body 
as  predisposing  to  certain  diseases. 


DIAZ  (de-as),  Porfirio,  a Mexican 
statesman  and  soldier,  president  of 
Mexico,  born  at  Oaxaca  in  1380.  As  a 
youth  he  entered  the  army,  led  a bat- 
talion against  Santa  Anna,  was  a mem- 
ber of  congress  in  1861,  and  took  Puebla 
in  1867  after  the  evacuation  of  the 
French.  In  1867  he  became  a candidate 
for  the  presidency  but  was  defeated. 
He  revolted  successfully  against  the 
government  and  in  1877  was  elected 
president,  a post  he  has  held  almost 
continuously  since  that  time.  He  has 
ruled  Mexico  with  a hand  of  iron,  but 
the  people  like  him,  and  he  has  been 
very  successful  in  bringing  foreign 
capital  into  the  country. 

DICE,  cubical  pieces  of  bone  or  ivory, 
marked  with  dots  on  each  of  their  six 
faces,  from  one  to  six,  according  to  the 
number  of  faces.  They  are  shaken  in 
a small  box  and  then  thrown  on  the 
table.  Dice  are  often  loaded  or  falsified 
in  some  way  so  as  to  make  the  high  or 
low  side  turn  down.  Dice  are  very 
ancient,  being  well  known  among  the 
Egyptians  and  Greeks. 

DICHROSCOPE  (dl'kro-skop),  an  op- 
tical instrument,  usually  consisting  of  an 
achromatized  double-image  prism  of 
Iceland-spar,  fixed  in  a brass  tube, 
which  has  a small  square  hole  at  one  end 
and  a convex  lens  at  the  other,  of  such  a 
power  as  to  give  a sharp  image  of  the 
square  hole.  On  looking  through  the 
instrument  the  square  hole  appears 
double,  and  if  a dichroic  crystal  is  placed 
in  front  of  it  the  two  images  will  appear 
of  different  colors. 

DICKENS,  Charles,  one  of  the  greatest 
English  novelists,  was  born  February 
7th,  1812,  at  Landport,  Portsmouth, 
died  1870.  Having  perfected  himself 
in  shorthand,  however,  he  became  a 


newspaper  critic  and  reporter,  was  en- 
gaged on  the  Mirror  of  Parliament  and 
the  True  Sun,  and  in  1835  on  the  Morn- 
ing Chronicle.  For  some  time  previous- 
ly he  had  been  contributing  humorous 
pieces  to  the  Monthly  Magazine;  but 
at  length,  in  1835,  appeared  in  the 
Sketches  by  Boz  which,  brought  Digk.ens 


DICKINSON  COLLEGE 


DIETETICS 


into  fame.  In  1836  he  was  engaged  to 
prepare  the  letterpress  for  a series  of 
comic  sketches  on  sporting  subjects,  the 
result  being  the  immortal  Pickwick 
Papers.  The  great  characteristics  of 
Dickens’  genius  were  now  fully  apparent, 
and  his  fame  rose  at  once  to  the  highest 
point  it  was  possible  for  a writer  of  fiction 
to  reach.  He  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  Dickens’  work  as  a novelist 
is  firmly  based  upon  a wide  and  keen 
observation  of  men.  It  is  true  that  most 
of  his  characters  suffer  from  being  creat- 
ed to  exhibit  little  more  than  one  trait 
or  quality  alone,  and  thus  receive  an 
air  of  grotesqueness  and  exaggeration 
which  approaches  caricature.  But  the 
single  trait  of  quality  which  they  em- 
body is  so  truly  conceived,  and  exhibited 
with  such  vitality  and  humor,  as  to 
place  Dickens,  in  spite  of  all  that  is 
grotesque  and  overstrained  in  his  work, 
among  the  great  artists. 

DICKINSON  COLLEGE,  founded  in 
1783  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  and  named  for 
John  Dickinson.  It  has  a preparatory, 
a collegiate,  and  a law  school,  about  500 
students,  property  worth  $1,000,000, 
and  a library  of  30,000  volumes. 

DICKINSON,  John,  an  American  polit- 
ical writer,  known  as  “the  penman  of 
the  revolution.’’  He  was  born  in 
Marjfland  in  1732  and  died  in  1808. 
Dickinson  studied  law  in  London  and 
early  allied  himself  with  the  revolu- 
tionary movement.  He  was  a member 
of  several  of  the  early  and  later  con- 
ventions, but  was  chiefly  distinguished 
for  his  state  papers  and  pamphlets. 
He  refused  to  sign  the  declaration  of 
independence,  which  caused  his  in- 
fluence to  wane. 

DICTATOR,  an  extraordinary  magis- 
trate of  the  Roman  Republic,  first  insti- 
tuted 13.  c.  501.  The  power  of  naming  a 
dictator  when  an  emergency  arose  re- 
quiring a concentration  of  the  powers 
of  the  state  in  a single  superior 
officer,  was  vested  by  a resolution  of 
the  senate  in  one  of  the  consuls. 
The  dictatorship  was  limited  to  six 
months,  and  the  person  who  held  it 
could  not  go  out  of  Italy.  This  rule 
was  laid  aside  during  the  first  Punic 
war.  The  dictator  was  also  forbidden  to 
appear  in  Rome  on  horseback  without 
the  permission  of  the  people,  and  he  had 
no  control  over  the  public  funds  without 
the  permission  of  the  senate.  He  had 
the  power  of  life  and  death,  and  could 
punish  without  appeal  to  the  senate  or 
people.  All  the  other  magistrates  were 
under  his  orders.  . 

DICTIONARY,  a book  containing  the 
words,  or  subjects,  which  it  treats,  ar- 
ranged in  alphabetical  order.  It  may  be 
either  a vocabulary,  or  collection  of  the 
words  in  a language,  with  their  defini- 
tions; or  a special  work  on  one  or  more 
branches  of  science  or  art  prepared  on 
the  principle  of  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment, such  as  dictionaries  of  biography, 
law,  music,  medicine,  etc.  The  best- 
known  American  dictionary  of  the  Eng- 
lish. language  is  that  by  Noah  Webster, 
published  in  1828,  and  since  entirely  re- 
cast. The  largest  complete  English 
dictionary  is  the  Century  Dictionary, 
Webster’s  International  Dictionary  and 
The  Standard  Dictionary  are  other  well 
known  American  works.  > 


DIDACTIC  POETRY,  that  kind  of 
poetry  which  professes  to  give  a kind  of 
systematized  instruction  on  a definite 
subject  or  range  of  subjects.  In  a larger 
sense  of  the  word  most  great  poems 
might  be  called  didactic,  since  they 
contain  a didactic  element  in  the  shape 
of  history  or  moral  teaching,  Dante’s 
Divina  Commedia,  Milton’s  Paradise 
Lost,  or  Goethe’s  Faust,  for  example. 
The  difference  may  be  said  to  be  this, 
that  in  the  one  case  the  materials  are 
limited  and  controlled  by  nothing  but 
the  creative  fancy  of  the  poet,  while  in 
the  other  they  are  much  more  deter- 
mined by  the  actual  nature  of  the  sub- 
ject treated  of. 

DIDEROT  (ded-ro)  Denis,  a French 
writer  and  philosopher,  was  born  in  1713, 
at  Langres,  in  Champagne.  In  1749  he 
had  begun  along  with  D’Alembert  and 
some  others  the  Encyclopaedia.  At  first 
it  was  intended  to  be  mainly  a transla- 
tion of  one  already  published  in  English 
by  Chambers.  Diderot  and  D’Alembert, 
however,  enlarged  upon  this  project,  and 
made  the  new  Encyclopaedia  a magnifi- 
cently comprehensive  and  bold  account 
of  all  the  thought  and  science  of  the 
time.  Diderot,  besides  revising  the 
whole,  undertook  at  first  the  mechanical 
arts,  and  subsequently  made  contribu- 
tions in  history,  philosophy,  and  art. 
criticism.  But  the  profits  of  all  his 
labor  were  small,  and  it  was  only  the 
liberality  of  the  Empress  Catharine, 
who  purchased  his  library  for  50,000 
livres  and  made  him  a yearly  allowance 
of  1000  livres,  that  saved  Diderot  from 
indigence.  In  1773  he  visited  St.  Peters- 
burg to  thank  his  benefactress  and  was 
received  with  great  honor.  On  his  re- 
turn to  France  he  lived  in  retirement, 
and  died  in  1784. 

DIDUN'CULUS,  a genus  of  birds  allied 
to  the  pigeons.  This  bird  is  of  special 
interest  as  being  the  nearest  living  ally 
of  the  extinct  dodo.  It  has  a length  of 
about  14  inches,  with  a glossy  plumage 


Dldunculus  striglrostrls. 


verging  from  a velvety  black  on  the  back 
to  greenish  black  on  the  head,  breast, 
and  abdomen.  The  large  beak,  which  is 
nearly  as  long  as  the  head,  is  greatly 
arched  on  the  upper  half,  while  the  lower 
is  furnished  with  two  or  three  tooth-like 
indentations. 

DIE,  a metallic  stamp  for  impressing 
a design  or  figure  upon  coins  or  other 
metallic  objects.  See  Die-sinking. 

DIEFFENBACH  (de'fen-ba/i.),  Johann 
Friedrich,  German  surgeon,  born  at 
Kanigsbergin  1792.  Surgery  is  particu- 
larly indebted  to  him  for  new  methods 
of  forming  artificial  no?es,  eyelids-  lies. 


etc.,  and  curing  squinting,  stammering, 
etc.  He  died  in  1847. 

DI'ELECTRIC,  a name  applied  by 
Faraday  to  any  medium  through  or 
across  which  electrostatic  induction  can 
take  place.  Faraday  first  showed  that 
electrostatic  induction  was  not  action 
at  a distance,  but  took  place  by  means 
of  the  insulating  medium  separating 
the  two  conductors.  The  medium  he 
named  a dielectric,  and  measured  its 
specific  inductive  capacity  by  taking 
that  of  common  air  as  unity. 

DIEPPE  (de-ep'),  a seaport  town, 
France,  department  Seine-Inf^rieure,  on 
the  English  Channel,  at  the  embouchure 
of  the  Arques,  93  miles  n.n.w.  Paris. 
The  port  is  spacious,  admitting  vefssels 
of  1200  tons  burden;  but  it  cannot  be 
entered  at  low  water.  Dieppe  is  one  of 
the  chief  watering-places  of  France,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  visitors  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn.  The  manufactures 
include  works  in  ivory,  the  most  famed 
in  Europe;  works  in  horn  and  bone, 
lace-making,  sugar-refining,  ship-build- 
ing, etc.  Pop.  20,804. 

DIE-SINKING  is  the  art  of  preparing 
dies  for  stamping  coins,  buttons,  medal- 
lions, jewelry,  fittings,  etc.  The  steel 
for  the  manufacture  of  dies  is  carefully 
selected,  forged  at  a high  heat  into  the 
rough  die,  softened  by  careful  annealing, 
and  then  handed  over  to  the  engraver. 
After  the  engraver  has  worked  out  the 
design  in  intaglio  the  die  is  put  through 
the  operation  of  hardening,  after  which, 
being  cleaned  and  polished,  it  is  called  a 
matrix.  This  is  not,  however,  generally 
employed  in  multipl5dng  impressions, 
but  is  used  for  ma^ng  a punch  or  steel 
impression  for  relief.  For  this  purpose 
another  block  of  steel  of  the  same  quality 
is  selected,  and,  being  carefully  annealed 
or  softened,  is  compressed  by  proper 
machinery  upon  the  matrix  till  it  re- 
ceives the  impression.  When  this  pro- 
cess is  complete  the  impression  is  re- 
touched by  the  engraver,  and  hardened 
and  collared  like  the  matrix.  Any  num- 
ber of  dies  may  now  be  made  from  this 
punch  by  impressing  upon  it  plugs  of 
soft  steel.  In  place  of  this  process  pat- 
terns are  now  frequently  engraved  upon 
rollers  for  transference  to  sheet  metal 
by  rolling  pressure. 

DI'ET,  a meeting  of  some  body  of  men 
held  for  deliberation  or  other  purposes; 
a term  especially  applied  to  the  legis-. 
lative  or  administrative  assemblies  of 
the  German  empire,  Austria,  etc. 

DIETET'ICS,  that  part  of  medicine 
which  relates  to  the  regulation  of  diet. 
The  ideal  diet  is  clearly  that  which, 
without  burdening  the  viscera  uselessly, 
furnishes  all  necessary  nutritive  ele- 
ments, with  due  consideration  for  special 
physiological  conditions  in  any  given 
case.  No  single  substance  contains  the 
elements  needed  to  replace  this  waste  ^ 
in  their  requisite  proportions,  and  a 
mixed  diet  is  therefore  necessary.  For 
instance  to  secure  the  required  amount 
of  carbon  a man  would  need  to  eat  about 
4 lbs.  of  lean  beef,  while  1 lb.  would  yield 
all  the  nitrogen  required;  thus,  apart 
from  the  labor  of  digesting  4 lbs.  of  beef, 
the  body  would  be  compelled  to  get  ria 
of  the  excess  of  nitrogen.  Bread,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  carbon  in  abundance, 
but  is  deficient  in  nitrogen;  so  that  by 


DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT 


DIKE 


uniting  2 lbs.  of  bread  with  f lb.  of  lean 
meat,  the  due  proportion  of  carbon  and 
nitrogen  is  satisfactorily  supplied.  Milk 
and  oatmeal  taken  together  also  con- 
tain nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous 
substances  in  nearly  the  required  pro- 
portions. A certain  proportion  of  saline 
matter  is  also  necessary.  The  nature  of 
the  food  most  suitable  for  a healthy  man 
is  dependent  in  part  upon  general  con- 
ditions such  as  climate  and  season,  and 
in  part  upon  special  conditions  of  in- 
dividual habit.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
arctic  regions  need  large  quantities  of 
oleaginous  food;  those  of  the  tropics 
live  chiefly  on  starchy  products.  With 
increased  activity  and  exertion,  as  in 
training,  an  increase  in  the  nitrogenous 
foods  becomes  necessary.  In  a state  of 
health  we  need  not  draw  hair-breadth 
distinctions  as  to  the  superior  salubrity 
of  the  several  sorts  of  diet,  the  quantity 
rather  than  the  quality  of  food  being  the 
main  consideration.  Those  persons  who 
have  been  most  remarkable  for  health 
and  long  life  have  generally  been  con- 
tented with  two  moderate  meals  a day 
which  are  certainly  quite  sufficient  dur- 
ing a state  of  health. 

In  all  diseases  attended  with  much 
fever  or  quickness  of  pulse  the  stomach 
loathes  animal  food,  and  there  is  gener- 
ally a great  increase  of  thirst,  to  quench 
which  water,  either  quite  cold,  or  iced, 
or  tepid,  or  rendered  acid,  may  be  freely 
indulged.  Infusions,  too,  of  barley,  sage, 
balm,  etc.,  may  be  taken.  In  chronic 
diseases  attended  with  hectic  fever, 
milk  is  the  most  proper  diet.  The  best 
food  for  infants  is,  of  course,  their 
mother’s  milk;  but  whenever  they  begin 
to  cut  teeth  a little  animal  food,  such 
as  soft-boiled  eggs,  beef-tea,  and  even 
chicken  minced  very  fine,  may  be  given. 
Many  infants  suffer  from  having  too 
much  sugar  given  them  in  their  food. 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT  (dyew  e mon 
drwa),  the  motto  of  the  arms  of  England, 
first  assumed  by  Richard  I.,  and  revived 
by  Edward  III.  when  he  claimed  the 
crown  of  France.  Except  during  the 
reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  Anne,  who  used 
the  motto  Semper  eadem,  and  of  William 
III.,  who  personally  used  Je  maintien- 
dray,  it  has  ever  since  been  the  royal 
motto  of  England. 

DIFFERENTIAL  CALCULUS.  See 
Calculus. 

DIFFERENTIAL  - THERMOMETER, 

an  instrument  for  determining  very 
minute  differences  of  temperature.  Les- 
lie’s differential  thermometer  consists  of 
two  glass  bulbs  containing  air  connected 
by  a bent  tube  containing  some  sulphuric 
acid,  the  movement  of  which  (as  the  air 
expands  and  contracts)  serves  to  indi- 
cate any  slight  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  two  bulbs. 

DIFFRACTION,  a term  applied  to 
certain  phenomena  connected  with  the 
modification  that  rays  of  light  undergo 
in  passing  close  to  the  edge  of  an  opaque 
body.  Thus  w'hen  a beam  of  direct  sun- 
light is  admitted  into  a dark  room 
through  a narrow  slit,  and  falls  upon  a 
screen  placed  to  receive  it,  there  appears 
a line  of  white  light  bordered  by  colored 
fringes;  these  fringes  are  produced  by 
diffraction.  See  Interference. 

DIFFU'SION,  the  gradual  dispersion 
of  particles  of  one  liquid  or  gas  among 


those  of  another.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
gases,  when  a jar  of  oxygen  and  a jar  of 
hydrogen  are  connected  together  by  a 
tube  or  opening  of  any  kind,  they  rapidly 
become  mixed;  and  their  mixture  does 
not  depend  on  gravity,  but  takes  place 
in  opposition  to  that  force,  as  may  be 
shown  by  placing  the  jar  of  hydrogen  gas 
above  the  other.  Oxygen  is  sixteen 
times  heavier  than  hydrogen,  bulk  for 
bulk,  but  the  heavier  gas  moves  upward 
and  the  lighter  downward,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  intermixture,  or  diffusion,  goes 
on  till  the  two  gases  are  apparently 
equably  distributed  throughout  the 
whole  space.  After  that  they  have  no 
tendency  whatever  to  separate.  Similar- 
ly, if  two  vessels,  one  containing  oxygen 
and  the  other  hydrogen,  be  connected 
by  a tube  which  is  stuffed  with  a plug  of 
porous  material,  such  as  plaster  of  Paris, 
the  gases  gradually  diffuse  on^  into  the 
other  through  the  porous  plug.  The 
two  gases,  however,  do  not  pass  through 
the  porous  separator  at  equal  rates,  but 
in  inverse  proportion  to  the  square  roots 
of  the  densities  of  the  gases.  Thus  in 
the  case  of  two  vessels,  one  containing 
hydrogen  and  the  other  oxygen,  which 
is  sixteen  times  as  heavy  as  hydrogen, 
the  hydrogen  will  pass  toward  the 
oxygen  jar  four  times  as  quickly  as  the 
oxygen  will  pass  toward  the  hydrogen 
jar.  Kindred  phenomena  occur  when 
two  liquids  that  are  capable  of  mixing, 
such  as  alcohol  and  water,  are  put  in 
contact,  the  two  gradually  diffusing  one 
into  the  other  in  spite  of  the  action  of 
gravity.  In  some  cases,  however,  as 
where  ether  and  water  are  employed, 
the  diffusion  is  only  partial,  extending  a 
comparatively  small  distance  on  either 
side  of  the  original  line  of  separation. 
When  solutions  of  various  solid  bodies 
are  placed  in  contact,  interdiffusion  also 
takes  place.  On  the  results  of  his  ex- 
amination of  the  phenomena  of  diffusion 
of  liquids  and  salts  across  porous  mem- 
branes or  septa,  Graham  founded  a 
method  of  separating  colloid  from 
crystalloid  bodies,  which  he  called 
dialysis. 

DI'GEST,  a name  originally  given  to  a 
collection  or  body  of  Roman  laws,  di- 
gested or  arranged  under  proper  titles 
by  order  of  the  emperor  Justinian. 
Hence  applied  to  any  somewhat  similar 
collection. 

DIGESTER,  a strong  vessel  of  copper 
or  iron,  on  which  is  screwed  an  air-tight 
cover  with  a safety-valve,  the  object 
being  to  prevent  loss  of  heat  by  evapora- 
tion. Water  may  be  thus  heated  to  400° 
Fahr.;  at  which  temperature  its  solvent 
power  is  so  greatly  increased  that  bones 
are  converted  into  a jelly. 

DIGESTION  is  that  process  in  the 
animal  body  by  which  the  aliments  are 
so  acted  upon  that  the  nutritive  parts 
are  prepared  to  enter  the  circulation, 
and  separated  from  those  which  cannot 
afford  nourishment  to  the  body.  The 
organs  effecting  this  process  are  called 
the  digestive  organs,  and  consist  of  the 
stomach,  the  great  and  small  intestines, 
etc.  (see  Intestine,  Stomach),  the  liver, 
and  pancreas.  When  the  aliments, 
after  being  properly  prepared  and  mixed 
with  saliva  by  mastication,  have  reached 
the  stomach,  they  are  intimately  united 
with  a liquid  substance  called  the  gastric 


juice,  by  the  motion  of  the  stomach. 
By  this  motion  the  aliments  are  mechan- 
ically separated  into  their  smallest  parts, 
penetrated  by  the  gastric  juice,  and 
transformed  into  a uniform  pulpy  or 
fluid  mass.  The  gastric  juice  acts  upon 
the  albuminous  parts  of  the  food,  con- 
verting them  into  peptones,  V’hich  can 
pass  through  organic  membranes  and 
thus  enter  the  blood.  This  action  is 
aided  by  the  warmth  of  the  stomach. 
The  pulpy  mass,  called  chyme,  proceeds 
from  the  stomach,  through  the  pylorus, 
into  that  part  of  the  intestinal  canal 
called  the  small  intestine,  where  it  is 
mixed  with  the  pancreatic  juice,  bile, 
and  intestinal  juice.  The  pancreatic 
juice  converts  starch  into  sugar,  albu- 
mins into  peptones,  and  emulsionizes 
fats,  so  that  all  these  kinds  of  food  are 
rendered  capable  of  absorption.  The 
process  is  aided  by  the  intestinal  juice. 
The  bile  also  acts  upon  fats,  and  thus 
the  food  is  formed  into  the  chyle,  which 
is  absorbed  into  the  system  by  the  capil- 
lary vessels  called  lacteals  while  the 
non-nutritious  matters  pass  down  the 
intestinal  canal  and  are  carried  off. 

DIGIT  (dij'it),  in  arithmetic,  any  one 
of  the  ten  numerals,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
9,  0.  Digit  is  also  a measure  of  a finger’s 
breadth,  equal  to  f inch. — Digit,  in 
astronomy,  is  the  measure  by  which  we 
estimate  the  quantity  of  an  eclipse.  The 
diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon’s  disc  is 
conceived  to  be  divided  into  twelve 
equal  parts,  called  digits;  and  according 
to  the  number  of  those  parts  or  digits 
which  are  obscured,  so  many  digits  are 
said  to  be  eclipsed. 

DIJON  (de-zhon),  a town  in  Eastern 
France,  capital  of  the  department  Cote- 
d’Or,  in  a fertile  plain,  at  the  foot  of  a 
range  of  vineclad  slopes,  formerly  sur- 
rounded by  ramparts,  which  now  furnish 
beautiful  promenades.  At  some  dis- 
tance it  is  surrounded  by  a series  of  forts. 
Some  of  the  buildings  belong  to  the 
period  when  Dijon  was  capital  of  the 
dukedom  of  Burgundy,  the  chief  being 
the  cathedral,  a building  of  vast  extent 
with  a lofty  wooden  spire  above  300 
feet  high;  the  churches  of  Notre  Dame 
and  St.  Michael;  the  ancient  palace  of 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  now  used  as  the 
hotel  de  ville  and  museum;  and  the 
palais  ■ de  justice,  formerly  the  parlia- 
ment house  of  Burgundy.  It  has  im- 
portant educational  institutions  and  a 
valuable  library.  Industries:  woolens, 
hosiery,  candles,  mustard,  vinegar, 
chemicals,  paper-hangings,  etc.,  tan- 
neries, foundries,  machine  factories, 
cotton  and  oil  mills.  The  trade  is  con- 
siderable, particularly  in  the  wines  of 
Burgundy.  Pop.  65,428. 

DIKE,  or  DYKE,  a w'ord  variously 
used  in  different  localities  to  represent 
a ditch  or  trench,  and  also  an  embank- 
ment, rampart,  or  wall.  It  is  specially 
applied  to  an  embankment  raised  to 
oppose  the  incursions  of  tlie  sea  or  of  a 
river,  the  dikes  of  Holland  being  notable 
examples  of  work  of  this  kind.  These 
are  often  raised  40  feet  above  the  high- 
water  mark,  and  are  wide  enough  at  the 
top  for  a common  roadway  or  canal, 
sometimes  for  both.  The  Helder  Dike, 
one  of  the  largest,  is  about  6 miles  in 
length  and  involves  an  annual  outlay 
of  over  $30,000. 


DIKE 


DIOMEDES 


DIKE,  DYKE,  in  geology,  a terin 
applied  to  intrusions  of  igneous  rock, 
such  as  basalt,  greenstone,  etc.,  'svhich 
fill  up  veins  and  fissures  in  the  stratified 
systems,  and  sometimes  project  on  the 
surface  like  walls. 

DILEM'MA,  in  logic,  a form  of  argu- 
ment used  to  prove  the  falsehood  or 
absurdity  of  some  assertion,  as  in  the 
following  instance : If  he  did  go  he  must 
be  either  foolish  or  wicked;  but  we 
know  he  is  neither  foolish  nor  wicked; 
therefore  he  cannot  have  done  so.  The 
two  suppositions,  which  are  equally 
untenable,  are  called  the  “horns”  of  the 
dilemma. 

DILETTANTE  (di-let-tan'ta),  an  Ital- 
ian expression,  signifying  a lover  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  who  devotes  his  leisure 
to  them  as  a means  of  amusement  and 
gratification,  being  thus  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  amateur. 

DILL,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  a native 
of  the  southern  countries  of  Europe,  the 
fruits,  commonly  but  erroneously  called 
seeds,  of  which  are  moderately  warming, 
pungent,  and  aromatic,  and  are  employ- 
ed medicinally  as  a carminative.  In 
appearance  it  resembles  the  fennel.  Dill- 
seeds  yield  dill-water,  which  is  used  as  a 
remedy  in  flatulency  and  gripes  of 
children. 

DIL'UENTS,  in  medicine,  are  those 
substances  which  are  taken  to  increase 
the  proportion  of  fluid  in  the  blood. 
They  consist  of  water  and  watery  liquors. 

DILU'VIUM,  the  name  formerly  given 
by  geologists  to  certain  gravels  and  com- 
paratively recent  deposits,  which  seem 
to  have  been  the  result  of  a rush  of  water 
or  deluge. 

DIME,  the  term  for  a silver  coin,  the 
tenth  part  of  a dollar  or  ten-cent  piece 
in  the  United  States. 

DIMIN'UTIVE,  in  grammar,  a word 
having  a special  affix  which  conveys  the 
idea  of  littleness,  and  all  other  ideas 
connected  with  this,  as  tenderness,  affec- 
tion, contempt,  etc.  The  opposite  of 
diminutive  is  augmentative.  In  Latin, 
diminutives  almost  always  ended  in 
lus,  la,  or  lum ; as  Tulliola,  meum  corcu- 
lum,  little  Tullia,  my  dear  or  little  heart ; 
homunculus,  a manikin.  The  Italian  is 
particularly  rich  in  diminutives  and 
augmentatives,  such  compound  dimin- 
utives as  fratellinucciettinetto  (a  di- 
minutive of  frate,  brother)  being  some- 
times employed.  Among  English  di- 
minutive affixes  are  kin,  as  in  manikin,  a 
little  man;  pipkin,  a little  pipe;  ling,  as 
in  gosling,  a little  goose;  darling,  that 
is,  dearling,  or  little  dear;  and  et,  as  in 
pocket,  from  poke,  a bag  or  pouch ; 
tablet,  a little  table.  Diminutives  are 
also  formed,  in  colloquial  and  familiar 
language,  by  adding  y or  ie  to  the  names, 
as  Charley,  Mousie,  etc. 

DIM'ITY,  a stout  cotton  fabric,  orna- 
mented in  the  loom  either  by  raised 
stripes  or  fancy  figures.  It  is  usually 
employed  white,  as  for  bed  and  bed- 
room furniture. 

DINAJPUR',  a town,  Hindustan, 
Bengal,  capital  of  a district  of  same 
name,  205  miles  north  of  Calcutta;  pop. 
12,000.  The  district  covers  an  area  of 
about  4118  square  miles-  pop.  1,555,835. 

DINGN,  the  native  wild  dog  of  Austra- 
lia, of  a wolf-like  appearance  and  ex- 
tremely fierce.  The  ears  are  short  and 


erect,  the  tail  rather  bushy,  and  the  hair 
of  a reddish-dun  color.  It  is  very  de- 
structive to  the  flocks,  killing  more  than 
it  eats. 

DINO'CERAS,  a fossil  mammal  found 
in  the  Eocene  strata  of  U.  America,  in 
some  respects  akin  to  the  elephant  and 
of  equal  size,  but  without  a proboscis. 
Its  bones  were  very  massive;  it  had  two 
long  tusks  in  the  upper  jaw,  three  pairs 
of  horns,  and  the  smallest  .brain,  pro- 
portionally, of  any  known  mammal. 

DINOR'NIS,  an  extinct  genus  of  large 
wingless  birds — classed  among  the  Stru- 
thionidse  or  ostrich  tribe — the  bones  of 
five  species  of  which  have  been  found  in 


Dinornis  (pelvic  and  leg  bones  and  outline 
of  body). 

New  Zealand.  The  largest  must  have 
stood  at  least  14  feet  in  height,  several 
of  its  bones  being  at  least  twice  the  size 
of  those  of  the  ostrich.  The  body  seems 
to  have  been  even  more  bulky  in  pro- 
portion, the  tarsus  being  shorter  and 
stouter  in  order  to  sustain  its  weight. 
They  do  not  appear  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct until  the  17th  or  18th  century,  and 
are  spoken  of  as  moas  by  the  natives, 
who  buried  the  eggs  with  their  dead  as 
provision  for  their  journey  to  the  other 
world. 

DINOSAU'RIA,  a group  of  colossal 
lizards,  resembling  the  pachydermatous 
mammals  in  general  appearance,  but  in 
reality  intermediate  between  the  stru- 
thious  birds  and  lizards.  The  majority, 
as  the  Megalosaurus,  which  attained  to 
40  feet  in  length,  were  carnivorous;  the 
Iguanodon,  however,  was  herbivorous. 
They  were  the  land  reptiles  of  the  Juras- 
sic, Wealden,  and  inferior  Cretaceous 
continents. 

DINOTHE'RIUM,  a genus  of  extinct 
gigantic  mammals,  the  remains  of  which 
occur  in  Tertiary  formations  in  several 
parts  of  Europe.  The  largest  species  is 


Dinoiherium  restored. 


calculated  to  have  attained  the  length 
of  18  feet.  It  had  a proboscis  and  mso 
two  tusks  placed  at  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity of  the  lower  jaw,  and  curved 
downward  somewhat  after  the  manner 


of  those  in  the  upper  jaw  of  the  walrus. 
The  zoological  position  of  the  Dinother- 
ium  is  that  of  a proboscidean  allied  to 
the  elephant.  The  skull,  molar  teeth, 
and  scapular  bone  are  the  only  portions 
yet  discovered.  Kaup  regarcls  it  as 
intermediate  between  the  mastodons 
and  tapirs,  and  terrestrial;  while  Blain- 
ville  and  Pictet  regard  it  as  allied  to 
the  sea-cows,  and  inhabiting  the  em- 
bouchure of  great  rivers. 

DI'OCESE,  the  circuit  or  extent  of  a 
bishop’s  jurisdiction.  Each  diocese  is 
divided  into  archdeaconries,  each  arch- 
deaconry (nominally)  into  rural  dean- 
eries, and  each  deanery  into  parishes. 

DIOCLE'TIAN,  a native  of  Dalmatia, 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  Rome  by  the 
army  284  a.d.  He  was  compelled  by  the 
dangers  threatening  Rome  to  share  the 
government  with  M.  Aurelius  Valerius 
Maximian.  In  292  C.  Galerius  and  Con- 
stantins Chlorus  were  also  raised  to  a 
share  in  the  empire,  which  was  thus 
divided  into  four  parts,  of  which  Diocle- 
tian administered  Thrace,  Egypt,  Syria, 
and  Asia.  As  the  result  of  his  reconsti- 
tution of  the  empire  there  followed  a 
period  of  brilliant  successes  in  which  the 
barbarians  were  driven  back  from  all  the 
frontiers,  and  Roman  power  restored 
from  Britain  to  Egypt.  In  305,  in  con- 
junction with  Maximian,  he  resigned 
the  imperial  dignity  at  Nicomedia,  and 
retired  to  Salona  in  Dalmatia,  where  he 
cultivated  his  garden  in  tranquillity 
until  his  death  in  313.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  he  was  induced  to 
sanction  a persecution  of  the  Christians. 

DIOGENES  of  Sinope,  (on  the  Black 
Sea)  the  most  famous  of  the  Cynic  phi- 
losophers, born  about  412  b.c.  Having 
been  banished  from  his  native  place 
with  his  father,  who  had  been  accused 
of  coining  false  money,  he  went  to 
Athens,  and  thrust  himself  upon  An- 
tisthenes  as  a disciple.  Like  Antis- 
thenes  he  despised  all  philosophical 
speculations,  and  opposed  the  corrupt 
morals  of  his  time;  but  while  the 
stern  austerity  of  Antisthenes  was  re- 
pulsive, Diogenes  exposed  the  follies 
of  his  contemporaries  with  wit  and  good 
humor.  As  an  exemplar  of  Cynic  virtue 
he  satisfied  his  appetite  with  the  coarsest 
food,  practiced  the  most  rigid  temper- 
ance, walked  through  the  streets  of 
Athens  barefoot,  without  any  coat,  with 
a long  beard,  a stick  in  his  hand,  and  a 
wallet  on  his  shoulders,  and  by  night, 
according  to  the  popular  story,  slept  in  a 
tub  (or  large  earthenware  vessel).  On 
a voyage  to  the  island  of  .lEgina  he  fell 
into  the  hands  of  pirates,  who  sold  him 
as  a slave  to  the  Corinthian  Xeniades  in 
Crete.  The  latter  emancipated  him,  and 
intrusted  him  -sv-ith  the  education  of  his 
children.  He  attended  to  the  duties  of 
his  new-  employment  with  the  greatest 
care,  commonly  living  in  summer  at 
Corinth  and  in  winter  at  Athens.  He 
died  323  B.c.,  at  a great  age. 

DIOMEDES  (dl-o-me'dez),  in  Greek 
mythology,  (1)  A king  of  the  Bistones, 
who  fed  nis  horses  on  human  flesh,  and 
used  to  throw  all  strangers  who  entered 
his  territories  to  those  animals  to  be 
devoured.  He  was  killed  bj-^  Hercules, 
who  carried  off  the  horses.  (2)  One  of 
the  heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  the  son 
of  Tydeus  and  Deipyle,  and  king  of 


DIONYSIUS 


DIPSOMANIA 


Argos,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Helen.  After 
she  was  carried  off  Diomedes  engaged  in 
the  expedition  against  Troy,  in  which 
his  courage  and  the  protection  of  Pallas 
rendered  him  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished heroes.  He  wounded  Aphrodite 
and  ^res,  and  thrice  assailed  Apollo; 
and  by  carrying  off  the  horses  of  Rhoesus 
from  the  enemies’  tents,  and  aiding  Ulys- 
ses in  the  removal  of  Philoctetes  from 
Lemnos,  he  fulfilled  two  of  the  condi- 
tions on  which  alone  Troy  could  be 
conquered.  Finally  he  was  one  of  the 
heroes  concealed  in  the  wooden  horse  by 
whom  the  capture  of  Troy  was  at  length 
accomplished.  Different  accounts  were 
given  of  his  after-life.  He  is  often  called 
Diomede. 

DIONYSIUS  of  Halicaonassus,  in 
Caria,  a Greek  critic  and  teacher  of  elo- 
quence, born  about  70  b.c.  He  went  to 
Rome  about  30  b.c.,  where  he  wrote  his 
Roman  Antiquities,  in  twenty  books,  in 
which  he  relates  (in  Greek)  the  early 
history  of  Rome  and  its  government  up 
to  the  times  of  the  first  Punic  war. 

DIONYSIUS  the  Areopagite,  that  is, 
one  of  the  judges  of  the  Areopagus,  at 
Athens,  a convert  to  Christianity  by  the 
Apostle  Paul  about  the  middle  of  the 
first  century,  and  the  first  bishop  at 
Athens,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom. 

DIONYSIUS  the  Elder,  in  Greek  his- 
tory, tyrant  or  absolute  ruler  of  Syra- 
cuse, born  about  430  b.c.  of  obscure 
parentage.  He  obtained  the  rank  of 
general,  and  afterward  of  commander- 1 
in-chief ; and  gaining  the  support  of  the 
army,  he  seized  the  supreme  power  in 
Syracuse,  though  only  twenty-five  years 
of  age.  He  gained  a complete  victory 
over  the  Carthaginians  under  the  walls  of 
Syracuse.  In  368  he  commenced  a new 
war  against  the  Carthaginians,  but  failed 
to  drive  them  entirely  out  of  Sicily.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  from  a potion  ad- 
ministered at  the  instigation  of  his  son 
Dionysius  the  Younger  (367  b.c.). 

DIONYSIUS  the  Little,  a Serbian 
monk  who  was  abbot  of  a monastery  at 
Rome  in  the  bemnning  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, and  died  about  the  year  530,  cele- 
brated as  the  author  of  the  computation 
of  time  from  the  Christian  era.  This 
mode  of  computation,  however,  was  not 
publicly  used  until  the  8th  century. 

DIONYSIUS  the  Younger,  a tyrant  of 
Syracuse,  who  in  367  b.c.  succeeded  his 
father,  Dionysius  the  Elder.  For  the 
purpose  of  recalling  him  from  the  ex- 
cesses to  which  he  was  addicted  Dion- 
ysius persuaded  him  to  invite  Plato  to 
his  court,  but  the  influence  of  the  phil- 
osopher effected  no  permanent  change. 
Timoleon,  who  came  to  Syracuse  with 
aid_  from  Corinth  against  the  Cartha- 
ginians, desposed  him  in  344  b.c. 

DIOPTRICS,  that  part  of  optics 
which  treats  of  the  refraction  of  light 
passing  through  different  mediums,  as 
through  air,  water  or  glass,  and  especially 
through  lenses.  These  phenomena,  how- 
ever, are  now  more  commonly  treated 
under  the  head  of  refraction. 

DIORA'MA,  a mode  of  painting  and  of 
scenic  exhibition  invented  by  Messrs. 
Daguerre  and  Bouton,  and  first  exhibited 
in  1823.  It  secures  a higher  degree  of 
illusion  than  the  ordinary  panorama,  by 
a mode  of  uniting  transparent  painting 
to  the  usual  opaque  method,  ancl  causing 
P.IS.— 24 


the  light  to  fall  upuu  the  picture  both 
from  before  and  behind.  At  the  same 
time,  by  means  of  colored  transparent 
blinds,  suspended  both  above  and  be- 
hind the  picture,  the  rays  of  light  can  be 
intercepted  and  made  to  fall  at  pleasure 
in  graduated  tints  upon  every  part  of  the 
picture  in  succession. 

DIP  of  the  horizon,  an  allowance  made 
in  all  astronomical  observations  of  alti- 
tude for  the  height  of  the  eye  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

DIP,  in  geology,  the  inclination  or 
angle  at  which  strata  slope  or  dip  down- 
ward into  the  earth.  The  degree  of 
inclination  or  amount  of  the  dip,  which 
is  easily  measured  by  a special  instru- 
ment, is  determined  by  the  angle  which 
a line  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  stratum  makes  with  the 
horizon.  The  line  in  which  such  strata 
cut  the  surface  is  called  the  strike,  and 
is  always  at  right  angles  to  the  dip. 

DIPHTHE'RIA,  a malignant  dise^e 
characterized  by  the  formation  of  a thick 
leathery  false  membrane  in  the  throat, 
and  allied  to  croup,  which,  indeed,  is 
often  considered  a form  of  it,  the  disease 
being  called  diphtheria  when  it  attacks 
principally  the  tonsQs  and  parts  in  their 
neighborhood,  and  croup  when  it  prin- 
cipally attacks  the  larynx.  (See  Croup.) 
It  has  only  in  recent  times  attracted 
public  attention  by  its  frequency  and 
peculiar  symptoms.  It  is  a most  fatal 
disease,  resulting  from  the  introduction 
I into  the  body  of  a specific  poison,  is  con- 
tagious, often  epidemic,  and  in  some 
places  endemic.  It  is  always  accom- 
panied by  a very  low  state  of  the  system, 
indicating  the  necessity  of  giving  stimu- 
lating nourishment  very  freely.  The 
membrane  may  spread  more  or  less,  go- 
ing down  into  the  windpipe  or  up  the 
nose,  and  death  may  be  caused  by  suffo- 
cation and  exhaustion,  or  the  violence 
of  the  poison  may  cause  it  without  the 
formation  of  a membrane.  The  patient’s 
strength  must  be  well  kept  up,  and  anti- 
septic agents  applied.  Injection  of  anti- 
toxic serum,  from  the  blood  of  a horse 
previously  inoculated  with  the  disease, 
IS  now  successfully  employed. 

DIPHTHONG,  a coalition  or  union  of 
two  vowels  pronounced  in  one  syllable. 
In  uttering  a proper  diphthong  both 
vowels  are  pronounced ; the  sound  is  not 
simple,  but  the  two  sounds  are  so  blend- 
ed as  to  be  considered  as  forming  one 
syllable,  as  in  void,  bough.  The  term 
improper  diphthong  is  applied  to  the 
union  in  one  syllable  of  two  or  more 
vowels,  of  which  only  one  is  sounded,  as 
in  bean. 

DIPLEI'DOSCOPE,  an  instrument  for 
indicating  the  passage  of  the  sun  or  a 
star  over  the  meridian,  by  the  coin- 
cidence of  two  images  of  the  object,  the 
one  formed  by  single  and  the  other  by 
double  refiection.  It  consists  of  an 
equilateral  hollow  prism,  two  of  whose 
sides  are  silvered  on  the  inside  so  as  to 
be  mirrors,  while  the  third  is  formed  of 
glass.  The  prism  is  adjusted  so  that  one 
of  the  silvered  sides  shall  be  exactly  in 
the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  the  trans- 
parent side  toward  the  object. 

DIPLO'MA,  literally  a document  fold- 
ed but  once,  and  therefore  divided  into 
twq  parts.  It  is  used  to  signify  a docu- 
ment signed  ^nd  sealed,  iri  wMcb  cer- 


tain rights,  privileges,  dignities,  etc., 
are  conferred,  especially  a university 
d©gr66. 

DIPLO'MACY,  the  science  or  art  of 
conducting  negotiations,  arranging  trea- 
ties, etc.,  between  nations;  the  branch 
of  knowledge  which  deals  with  the  rela- 
tions of  independent  states  to  one  an- 
other; the  agency  or  management  of  en- 
voys accredited  to  a foreign  court;  the 
forms  of  international  negotiations. 
Diplomatic  agents  are  of  several  degrees: 
1,  ambassadors;  2,  envoys  extra  ordinary 
and  ministers  plenipotentiary;  3,  minis- 
ters resident;  4,  charges  d’affaires;  5, 
secretaries  of  legation  and  attaches. 
Their  rank  was  regulated  in  Europe,  in 
the  above  order,  by  the  congress  assem- 
bled at  Vienna  in  1814.  Among  the 
European  powers  it  is  agreed  that  of 
ministers  of  the  same  rank  he  who  ar- 
rives first  shall  have  the  precedence  over 
his  colleagues. 

DIPPER,  a bird  of  the  genus  Cinclus, 
allied  to  the  thrushes.  The  common 

aer  is  about  7 inches  in  length, 
a very  short  tail,  small  rounded 
wings,  and  large  powerful  feet;  the  bill 


is  of  moderate  length,  straight,  and 
slender.  The  male  has  the  upper  part 
of  the  body  dark  brown,  the  throat  and 
breast  white,  belly  rusty.  The  dipper 
frequents  streams,  and  feeds  largely  on 
water-insects  and  larvae.  It  can  dive 
and  walk  under  water,  effecting  its  prog- 
ress by  grasping  the  stones  with  its 
feet.  The  song  is  sweet  and  lively. 

DIPPING-NEEDLE,  or  INCLINATION 
COMPASS,  an  instrument  for  showing 
the  direction  of  one  of  the  components 
of  the  earth’s  magnetism.  In  essentials 
the  instrument  consists  of  a light  mag- 
netized steel  bar  supported  on  a horizon- 
tal axis  which  passes,  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble, through  the  center  of  inertia  of  the 
bar.  When  a needle  thus  mounted  is 
placed  anywhere  not  in  the  magnetic 
equator,  it  dips  or  points  downward; 
and  if  the  vertical  plane,  in  which  it 
moves,  coincides  with  the  magnetic 
meridian  the  position  of  the  needle 
shows  at  once  the  direction  of  the  mag- 
netic force.  The  intersection  of  two  or 
more  directions  found  by  making  the 
experiment  at  different  places,  indicates 
the  place  of  the  magnetic  pole. 

DIPSOMA'NIA,  a term  recently  intro- 
duced to  denote  an  insane  craving  for 
intoxicating  liquors,  when  occ\irring  in  a 
confirmed  or  habitual  form.  It  is  often 
of  hereditary  origin,  but  may  result 
from  sunstroke,  from  some  injury  to  the 
brain,  or  from  disease.  The  only  remedy 
appears  to  be  seclusion,  with  enforced 
abstinence  and  healthy  occupation. 


DIPTERA 


DISEASES  OF  PLANTS 


DIP'TERA,  an  order  of  two-winged 
insects,  of  which  the  common  house-fly 
and  blue-bottle  are  familiar  examples. 

DIRECTORS,  persons  elected  to  meet 
together  at  short  fixed  intervals  and  con- 
sult about  the  affairs  of  corporations  or 
joint-stock  companies,  and  to  advise  and 
assist  the  manager.  Directors  are  ap- 
pointed by  a general  meeting  of  the 
shareholders  in  the  undertaking,  and  a 
certain  number  of  them,  usually  a third, 
retire  every  year.  Ordinary  directors 
are  granted  a certain  remuneration  for 
their  services.  The  duties  and  responsi- 
bilities of  directors  are  defined  by  the 
constitution  of  the  company,  or  by  the 
various  acts  of  the  legislature  affecting 
joint-stock  and  other  companies. 

DIRECTORY,  the  name  given  to  a 
body  of  five  officers  to  whom  the  execu- 
tive authority  in  France  was  committed 
by  the  constitution  of  the  year  III. 
(1795).  The  two  legislative  bodies, 
called  the  councils,  elected  the  members 
of  the  directory:  one  member  was 
obliged  to  retire  yearly,  and  his  place 
was  supplied  by  election.  This  body 
was  invested  with  the  authority,  which, 
by  the  constitution  of  1791,  had  been 
granted  to  the  king.  By  the  revolution 
of  the  18th  Brumaire  the  directory  and 
the  constitution  of  the  year  III.  were 
abolished.  It  was  succeeded  by  the 
consulate. 

DIRECTRIX,  in  math,  a line  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  a conic  section,  and 
so  placed  that  the  distance  from  it  of  any 
point  in  the  curve  is  to  the  distance  of 


Directrix  of  a parabola. 

the  same  point  from  the  focus  in  a con- 
stant ratio ; also,  the  name  given  to  any 
line,  whether  straight  or  not,  that  is  re- 
quired for  the  description  of  a curve. 
The  directrix  of  a parabola  is  a line  per- 
pendicular to  the  axis  produced,  and 
whose  distance  from  the  vertex  is  equal 
to  the  distance  of  the  vertex  from  the 
focus.  Thus  A B is  the  directrix  of  the 
parabola  v e d,  of  which  f is  the  focus. 

DIRK,  a kind  of  dagger  formerly  used 
as  a weapon  of  offense  by  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland.  Dirks  are  worn  by 
midshipmen-  and  cadets  of  the  English 
navy,  and  still  form  part  of  the  full  high- 
land costume. 

DISABILITY,  in  law,  incapacity  to  do 
any  legal  act.  It  is  either  absolute, 
which  wholly  disables  the  person;  such 
as  outlawry  or  excommunication  — or 
partial,  such  as  infancy,  coverture,  in- 
sanity or  drunkenness. 

DISBANDING,  the  breaking  up  of  a 
regiment  or  other  body  of  military,  and 
releasing  them  from  service,  when  they 
are  no  longer  required,  or  it  may  be  on 
account  of  insubordination. 

DISBARRING,  expelling  an  attorney 
from  the  bar.  The  party  disbarred  may 
lodge  an  appeal  with  the  judges  in  their 
capacity  of  citizen. 

DISC,  DISK,  the  central  part  of  a 
radiate  compound  flower  surrounded  by 
the  ray.  Also  c,  part,  sometimes  cup- 


shaped, at  the  base  of  the  stamens,  con- 
sisting in  some  cases  of  rudimentary 
stamens,  in  others  of  the  modified  re- 
ceptacle.— In  astronomy  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  face  or  circular  figure  ex- 
hibited by  the  sun,  moon,  or  a planet  in 
the  sky. 

DISCHARGING  ARCH,  an  arch  form- 
ed in  the  substance  of  a wall  to  relieve 
the  part  which  is  below  it  from  the  super- 


incumbent weight.  Such  arches  are 
commonly  used  over  lintels  and  flat- 
headed openings. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST,  also  called 
Christians,  a religious  denomination 
formed  by  Thomas  Campbell  and  his 
son  Alexander,  their  general  principle 
being  announced  in  the  aphorism, 
“Where  the  scriptures  speak,  we  speak; 
where  the  scriptures  are  silent,  we  are 
silent.”  The  denomination  sprang  up 
in  1812  in  Pennsylvania,  and  has  grown 
very  rapidly  until  today  it  numbers 
nearly  1,500,000.  The  Christians  ac- 
cept the  inspiration  of  the  scriptures, 
baptize  by  immersion,  and  in  church 
government  are  congregational. 

DISCLAIM'ER,  in  its  stricter  legal 
sense,  a plea  containing  renunciation  or 
a denial  of  some  claim  alleged  to  have 
been  made  by  the  party  pleading. 

DIS'CORD,  in  music,  a dissonant  or 
inharmonious  combination  of  sounds,  so 
called  in  opposition  to  the  concord.  See 
Til  Cl  n 

DIS'COUNT,  the  charge  made  by  a 
banker  for  interest  of  money  advanced 
by  him  on  a bill  or  other  document  not 
presently  due.  In  advancing  money  on 
such  security  the  banker  deducts  the 
charge  for  interest  on  his  advance  from 
the  total  amount  represented  on  the 
security,  pays  the  difference,  which  is 
called  the  proceeds  of  the  bill,  to  the  per- 
son parting  with  it,  and  collects  the  full 
amount  to  reimburse  himself  for  outlay 
and  interest  at  maturity.  Popularly  the 
term  discount  is  applied  to  any  deduc- 
tion from  the  full  amount  of  an  account 
made  by  the  party  to  whom  it  is  paid, 
especially  on  prompt  or  early  payment. 
When  a bill  which  has  been  discounted 
is  paid  by  the  acceptor  before  it  is  due, 
the  discount  allowed  for  prepayment  is 
called  rebate. 

DISCOV'ERY,  in  law,  the  act  of  re- 
vealing or  making  known  any  matter  by 
a defendant  in  his  answer  to  a bill  in 
chancery.  The  word  is  also  used  in 
reference  to  the  disclosure  by  a bank- 
rupt of  his  property  for  the  benefit  of  his 
creditors 

DISCRIMINATION,  a term  applied  to 
the  practice  of  railroads  or  other  com- 
mon carriers  of  favoring  certain  users  of 
the  road,  or  other  utility  to  the  prejudice 
of  other  users,  particularly  in  the  matter 
of  charges.  Railway  discrimination  has 


been  continuously  practiced  in  the  U. 
States  for  many  years  and  much  legisla- 
tion has  been  directed  against  it,  with- 
out, it  would  seem,  any  useful  or  efficient 
result.  Federal  and  state  laws  against 
discrimination  seem  all  to  be  mere  dead 
letters.  Similar  legislation  in  England 
seems  to  have  fallen  as  far  short  of  the 
mark  as  in  the  U.  States. 

DISCUS,  DISC,  or  DISK,  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  a quoit  of  stone  or 
metal,  convex  on  both  its  sides,  some- 
times perforated  in  the  middle.  The 
players  aimed  at  no  mark,  but  simply 
tried  to  throw  the  quoit  to  the  greatest 
possible  distance.  It  was  sometimes 
furnished  with  a thong  of  leather  to  assist 
in  the  throwing. 

DISEASE,  any  morbid  state  of  , the 
body,  or  of  any  organ  or  part  of  the  body. 
Diseases  are  described  as  local  or  con- 
stitutional, idiopathic,  symptomatic, 
epidemic,  endemic,  contagious,  acute, 
chronic,  etc.  The  influence  of  the  parents 
on  the  organization  of  the  child  is  so 
great  that  not  only  peculiarities  of  ex- 
ternal form,  but  the  peculiar  constitu- 
tion, the  greater  or  less  activity  and  de- 
velopment of  the  organs,  are  found  to 
pass  from  parent  to  child.  As  it  is  in  the 
particular  state  of  the  several  organs  and 
functions  that  a very  great  part  of  dis- 
eases have  their  foundation,  the  liability 
to  certain  diseases  is  inevitably  inherited 
with  the  organic  structure,  and  the  son  is 
not  unfrequently  attacked  by  various 
comfSaints  at  the  same  period  of  life  in 
which  his  father  was.  These  diseases 
are  called  hereditary;  but  it  is  only  the 
predisposition  to  them  that  is,  properly 
speaking,  inherited.  Hence  the  actual 
development  of  hereditary  diseases  re- 
quires certain  cooperating  circumstan- 
ces. Constitutional  diseases  are  very 
often  not  hereditary,  but  depend  on  cir- 
cumstances which  affect  the  fetus  dur- 
ing pregnancy.  Among  the  diseases 
which  are  most  frequently  hereditary 
are  scrofula,  bleeding  (especially  at  the 
lungs)  and  hemorrhoids,  consumption, 
gout,  the  gravel  and  stone,  cancer,  dis- 
orders of  the  mind  and  spirits,  hysterical 
and  hypochondriac  affections,  apoplexy, 
epilepsy,  and  organic  diseases  of  par- 
ticular parts,  especially  of  the  heart. 
Inherited  diseases  are  much  more  diffi- 
cult to  cure  than  those  which  originate 
in  accidental  external  causes,  and  special 
care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  adopt 
an  environment  and  mode  of  life  calcu- 
lated to  counteract  the  inherited  predis- 
position. As  to  the  origin  of  certain  dis- 
eases see  Germ  Theory. 

DISEASE,  FEIGNING  OF,  a practice 
used  by  many  persons  for  the  attain- 
ment of  an  end,  sometimes  fraudulent, 
sometimes  not.  A disease  commonly 
simulated  is  epilepsy,  the  simulator 
using  a little  soap  in  the  mouth  for  the 
making  of  foam  at  the  lips.  The  detec- 
tion of  such  fraud  is  often  quite  difficult, 
but  there  are  certain  physiological  tests 
unknown  to  malingerers  wliich  generally 
disclose  the  fraud. 

DISEASES  OF  PLANTS  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  main  classes:  those  pro- 
duced by  temperature,  excess  or  de- 
ficiency of  moisture  and  light,  impure 
air,  the  composition  of  the  soil,  and  other 
mechanical  or  chemical  agencies;  and 
those  produced  by  other  organized  be*. 


DISHONOR  OF  A BILL 


DISTILLATION 


mgs,  whether  belonging  to  the  animal  or 
vegetable  world. 

DISHONOR  OF  A BILL,  the  refusal  or 
neglect  to  accept  or  pay  when  due,  a bill 
of  exchange,  or  promissory  note,  or  draft 
on  a banker.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  holder  of  a dishonored  bill 
should  give  immediate  notice  of  the  non- 
payment to  the  drawer  or  indorsers. 

DISINFECTANT,  any  substance  that 
destroys  the  germs  of  contagious  and  in- 
fectious diseases.  The  most  important 
for  practical  purposes  are  chlorine,  car- 
bolic acid,  sulphurous  acid,  manganate 
and  permanganate  of  potash,  chloride  of 
zinc.  Carbolic  acid  is  one  of  the  most 
effective,  needing,  however,  some  little 
care  in  the  handling,  as  it  sometimes 
causes  severe  burns.  It  does  not  in  its 
common  form  mix  with  water,  but  floats 
on  the  surface  undiluted.  In  cases  of 
infectious  or  contagious  disease,  disin- 
fectants such  as  chlorinated  lime  or  car- 
bolic acid  should  at  once  be  placed  about 
the  house,  especially  in  the  sick  room 
and  in  the  passages  and  landing  outside 
it.  A large  sheet  also  should  be  nailed  so 
as  to  hang  across  the  door,  and  this 
should  be  kept  constantly  wet  with  car- 
bolic acid.  All  excretions  should  be  in- 
stantly disinfected  and  also  the  closet 
which  receives  them.  In  a country  place 
it  is  best  to  bury  them  in  a considerable 
depth  of  earth.  Every  article  of  cloth- 
ing and  furniture  should  be  carefully 
treated,  as  the  germs  may  lurk  in  them 
and  break  out  after  a lapse  of  months  or 
years. 

DISINTEGRATOR,  a machine  for  pul- 
verizing and  sometimes  for  mixing  var- 
ious materials,  such  as  rock,  asphalt,  ore, 
artificial  manures,  sugars,  corn,  the  in- 
gredients of  mortar,  etc. 

DISLOCATION,  a surgical  term  ap- 
plied to  cases  in  which  the  articulating 
surfaces  of  the  bones  have  been  forced 
out  of  their  proper  places.  The  particu- 
lar dislocation  takes  its  name  either  from 
the  joint  itself  or  its  furthest  bone,  and 
is  called  compound  when  accompanied 
with  an  external  wound.  The  most 
common  dislocations  are  those  of  the 
hip,  shoulder,  elbow,  knee,  and  ankle, 
and  the  chief  obstacle  to  their  reduction 
is  the  spasmodic  and  violent  contraction 
of  the  muscles  consequent  upon  theni, 
the  application  of  considerable  force  be- 
ing often  necessary  to  set  the  joint. 
Chloroform  is  of  great  use,  not  only  in 
preventing  pain  but  in  relaxing  the 
muscles.  The  most  daqgerous  disloca- 
tions are  those  of  the  bones  of  the  spine. 
— In  geology  \t  signifies  the  displace- 
ment of  parts  of  rocks  or  portions  of 
strata  from  the  situations  they  originally 
occupied. 

DISMAL  SWAMP,  a large  tract  of 
marshy  land  in  America,  beginning  a 
little  south  of  Norfolk,  in  Virginia,  and 
extending  into  North  Carolina,  contain- 
ing 150,000  acres:  30  miles  long,  from 
north  to  south,  and  10  broad.  This 
tract  was  entirely  covered  with  trees, 
with  almost  impervious  brushwood  be- 
tween them,  but  it  has  now  in  part  been 
cleared  and  drained. 

DISPEN'SARY,  a charitable  institu- 
tion for  the  free  supply  of  medicine  to 
the  poor.  Each  institution  has  one  or 
more  physicians,  surgeons,  and  apothe- 
caries, who  attend  at  stated  times  in 


order  to  prescribe  for  the  sick,  and,  if 
necessary,  to  visit  them  at  their  own 
habitations.  A note  from  a subscriber 
or  governor  is  usually  required  by  would- 
be  patients.  Provident  dispensaries  are 
similar  institutions  in  which  a small  fee 
is  exacted. 

DISPERSION,  an  optical  term  applied 
to  the  angular  separation  experienced  by 
the  component  rays  of  a pencil  of  light 
on  emerging  from  a refracting  medium, 
whose  surfaces  are  not  parallel  to  each 
other,  e.  g.  the  common  prism.  The 
length  of  the  spectrum  and  the  relative 
space  occupied  by  the  colored  rays  vary 
greatly  according  to  the  refracting  me- 
dium, the  speetrum  from  a prism  of  oil  of 
cassia  being  two  or  three  times  longer 
than  one  formed  by  a glass  prism. 

DISRAELI,  Benjamin.  See  Beacons- 
field. 

D’ISRAELI  (diz-ra'e-li),  Isaac,  man 
of  letters,  and  father  of  the  well-known 
statesman,  was  born  at  Enfield,  Middle- 
sex, in  1766.  An  anonymous  reply  to 
Peter  Pindar,  entitled  On  the  Abuse  of 
Satire,  was  followed  in  1791-1793  by  the 
appearance  of  his  Curiosities  of  Litera- 
ture, the  success  of  which  determined 
much  of  his  afterwork.  He  died  in 
1848. 

DISSENTERS,  the  common  name  by 
which  in  Britain  all  Christian  denomina- 
tions, excepting  that  of  the  Established 
Churches,  are  usually  designated,  though 
in  acts  of  parliament  it  generally  in- 
cludes only  Protestant  dissenters,  Ro- 
man Catholics  being  referred  to  under 
their  specific  name. 

DISSOCIATION,  a chemical  term  used 
to  express  the  partial  decomposition 
which  takes  place  when  chemical  com- 
pounds are  exposed  to  a high  tempera- 
ture; as  when  by  the  passage  of  steam 
through  a white-hot  platinum  tube  some 
of  it  is  decomposed  and  an  explosive 
mixture  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  may  be 
coll©ct©d 

DISSOLVING  VIEWS  are  paintings 
upon  glass  magnified  and  thrown  with 
great  distinctness  upon  a screen  by 
means  of  one  or  two  magic  lanterns  with 
strong  lenses,  and  illuminated  by  the 
oxyhydrogen  light.  If  one  lantern  is 
used  the  picture  is  drawn  out  of  focus 
gradually,  and  a second  substituted, 
which  is  brought  gradually  into  focus, 
thus  producing  the  haze  and  brilliancy 
which  have  gained  this  sort  of  exhibition 
its  name.  If  two  lanterns  are  used,  they 
are  placed  side  by  side  with  their  lens 
tubes  slightly  convergent,  so  that  the 
images  may  be  superposed  on  the  screen. 
By  means  of  a revolving  shutter  either 
lantern  can  be  wholly  or  partially  shut 
off  and  the  image  of  other  lanterns  be 
correspondingly  disclosed. 

DISTAFF,  the  first  instrument  em- 
ployed in  spinning.  It  consisted  of  a 
staff,  on  one  end  of  which  the  wool  or  flax 
was  rolled.  The  spinner  held  it  in  the 
left  hand,  and  drew  out  the  fibers  with 
the  right,  at  the  same  time  twisting 
them.  A small  piece  of  wood  called  a 
spindle  was  attached  to  the  thread,  the 
weight  of  which  carried  it  down  as  it  was 
formed.  When  the  spindle  reached  the 
ground  the  thread  which  had  been  spun 
was  wound  round  it,  and  it  was  then 
again  fastened  near  the  beginning  of  the 
new  thread. 


DISTEMP'ER,  a disease  of  the  dog 
commonly  considered  as  of  a catarrh^ 
nature.  In  most  cases  a running  from 
the  nose  and  eyes  is  one  of  the  first  and 
chief  symptoms,  the  deduction  becoming 
after  some  time  mucous  and  purulent. 
The  animal  is  subject  to  violent  fits  of 
coughing  combined  with  vomiting,  loses 
its  appetite,  its  flesh  begins  to  waste,  and 
if  the  disease  be  virulent,  symptoms  of 
affection  of  the  brain  manifest  them- 
selves, accompanied  by  fits,  paralysis,  or 
convulsive  twitchings.  In  the  first  stage 
of  the  disease  laxatives,  emetics,  and 
occasional  bleeding  are  the  principal 
remedies ; diarrhoea  should  be  checked  by 
astringents,  and  to  reduce  the  violence 
of  the  fits  warm  bathing  and  antispas- 
modics  should  be  resorted  to.  The  dis- 
temper is  generally  contagious,  and 
occurs  but  once  in  a lifetime. 

DISTILLATION,  the  volatilization 
and  subsequent  condensation  of  a liquid 
by  a special  apparatus,  resulting  in  the 
separation  of  the  liquid  from  a mixture. 
The  operation  is  performed  by  heating 


the  crude  liquid  or  mixture  in  a retort  or 
vessel  known  as  the  body  of  the  still. 
This  is  made  of  various  shapes  and  ma- 
terials, and  is  closed  with  the  exception 
of  a slender  neck  which  opens  into  the 
condenser,  a long  tube  through  which  the 
hot  vapor  from  the  still  is  passed.  The 
tube  is  kept  at  a sufficiently  low  tem- 
perature to  cause  the  vapor  to  condense, 
the  common  method  of  securing  this  be- 
ing to  surround  the  tube  with  a con- 
stantly renewed  stream  of  cold  water. 
In  some  cases  ice  or  a freezing  mixture 
may  be  required  to  effect  condensation. 
On  a large  scale  the  condensing  tube  is 
coiled  round  and  round  in  a tub  or  box, 
and  is  known  as  a worm.  From  the  end 
of  it  the  vapor  condensed  into  a liquid 
drops  or  distils  into  a receiver.  The 
simplest  case  of  distillation  is  that  of 
water  containing  solid  matter  in  solu- 
tion, the  solid  matter  remaining  behind 
in  the  still  or  retort  while  the  water 
trickles  pure  into  the  receiver.  The  cut 
which  represents  a simple  form  of  still, 
shows  b,  a copper  boiler,  the  “body”  of 
the  still,  a being  the  “head,”  and  c the 
“neck,”  which  communicates  with  the 
spiral  worm  d placed  in  a vessel  which 
contains  cold  water,  the  distilled  liquid 
trickling  out  at  o.  The  cold  water  round 
the  worm  requires  to  be  continually  re- 
newed, as  otherwise  it  gets  heated. 
When  the  mixture  to  be  distilled  con- 
sists of  two  or  more  fluids  of  different 
boiling-points,  such  as  alcohol  and  watet 
the  more  volatile  comes  off  first,  accom- 
panied by  a certain  proportion  of  the 
vapor  of  the  other,  so  that  it  is  hardly 
ossible  completely  to  separate  bodies 
y one  distillation.  This  is  effected  by 


DISTRESS 


DIVING-BELL 


repeated  successive  distillations  of  the 
liquid  with  or  without  the  addition  of 
substances  to  retain  the  impurities. 
When  the  production  of  one  of  the  in- 
gredients only  is  aimed  at  by  this  proc- 
ess, it  is  called  rectification,  but  when  it 
is  desired  to  separate  and  collect  all  the 
liquids  present,  or  to  divide  a mixture 
into  portions  lying  within  certain  ranges 
of  temperature  ascertained  either  by  the 
thermpmeter  or  by  the  amount  of  liquor 
run  off,  or  by  the  appearance  of  the  dis- 
tillate, etc. , the  process  is  called  fractional 
distillation.  In  the  laboratory,  distilla- 
tion is  employed  for  purifying  water, 
for  recovering  alcohol  and  ether,  for  the 
prepai-ation,  purification,  and  separa- 
tion of  a great  number  of  bodies.  On  the 
large  scale  distillation  is  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  potassium,  sodium,  zinc, 
mercury;  of  sulphuric  acid,  ether,  chloro- 
form, sulphide  and  chloride  of  carbon, 
essential  oils  and  perfumes;  purification 
of  coal  and  wood  tar,  and  the  products 
obtained  from  them ; and  most  extensive 
of  all,  the  manufacture  of  whisky, 
brandy,  or  other  spirit.  Sea-water  is 
also  distilled  in  many  cases  for  drinking 
or  cooking  purposes.  Destructive  dis- 
tillation differs  from  the  preceding  in  this 
respect,  that  the  original  substance  is 
not  merely  separated  into  the  bodies  by 
the  mixture  of  which  it  is  formed,  but  is 
so  acted  on  that  it  is  completely  decom- 
posed, and  bodies  are  produced  which 
had  no  existence  in  the  original  matter. 
The  term  is  restricted  to  the  action  of 
heat  upon  complex  organic  substances 
out  of  contact  with  the  air.  The  prod- 
ucts of  destructive  distillation  are  nu- 
merous and  varied.  On  the  manufac- 
turing scale  the  process  is  conducted 
sometimes  for  one  part,  sometimes  for 
another  part  of  the  products.  Coal,  for 
example,  is  distilled  primarily  for  the 
gas,  but  also  for  ammoniacal  water, 
benzol,  anthracene,  and  sometimes  for 
the  sake  of  the  fixed  carbon  or  coke,  the 
volatile  portions  being  neglected  and 
practically  wasted.  Wood  is  distilled 
partly  for  the  sake  of  the  pyroligeneous 
acid  and  the  tar,  partly  for  the  charcoal. 
Bones  are  distilled  for  the  sake  of  the 
charcoal,  though  the  oil  is  also  collected. 
Shale  is  distilled  solely  for  the  sake  of 
the  oil. 

DISTRESS',  in  law,  is  the  taking  of  a 
personal  chattel  of  a wrong-doer  or  a 
tenant,  in  order  to  obtain  satisfaction  for 
the  wrong  done,  or  for  rent  or  service 
due.  If  the  party  whose  goods  or  cattle 
are  seized  disputes  the  injury,  service, 
duty,  or  rent,  on  account  of  which  the 
distress  is  taken,  he  may  replevy  the 
things  taken,  ^ving  bonds,  at  the  same 
time,  to  return  them  or  pay  damages  m 
case  the  party  making  the  distress  shows 
that  the  wrong  has  been  done,  or  the 
service  or  rent  is  due.  Another  descrip- 
tion of  distress  is  that  of  attachment,  to 
compel  a party  to  appear  before  a court 
when  summoned  for  this  purpose.  The 
distresses  most  frequently  made  in  Eng- 
land are  on  account  of  rent  and  taxes 
and  damage-feasance. 

DISTRICT  ATTORNEY,  a public  pros- 
ecutor of  the  federal  district  or  (in 
many  states)  the  county  courts.  U. 
States  district  attorneys  are  appointed 
by  the  president  and  their  compensation 
is  in  the  form  of  fees. 


DISTRICT  COURT,  a court  the  juris- 
diction of  which  is  restricted  to  one  sec- 
tion of  territory.  Several  of  the  states 
are  so  divided  into  districts.  In  the 
federal  judiciary,  a court  having  juris- 
diction in  one  of  the  districts  into  which 
each  of  the  nine  circuits  of  the  U.  States 
is  divided. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  a territory 
of  sixty  miles  area  between  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  occupied  by  the  city  of 
Washington.  The  district  is  governed 
by  three  commissioners  appointed  by 
the  president  and  approved  by  the 
senate.  (See  Washington.) 

DISTRICTS,  Congressional,  the  divi- 
sions in  the  U.  States  which  each  return 
a member  to  congress.  Their  number 
varies  at  different  times,  being  fixed 
after  each  decennial  census.  At  present 
(1907)  they  are  386. 

DITCH,  a trench  in  the=earth  made  by 
digging,  particularly  a trench  for  drain- 
ing wet  land,  or  for  making  a fence  to 
guard  inclosures. 

DITMARSHES,  a district  of  Holstein, 
in  Germany,  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Elbe  and  the  Eider,  are  so  little  raised 
above  the  sea  as  to  require  the  protec- 
tion of  strong  embankments.  The  area 
is  500  sq.  miles,  and  the  total  pop. 
above  70,000. 

DIURET'ICS,  medicines  intended  to 
increase  the  secretion  and  discharge  of 
urine.  They  either  act  directly  on  the 
kidneys,  exciting  these  organs  to  in- 
creased action ; or  indirectly  by  influenc- 
ing the  circulation  first.  Of  the  first 
class  are  squill,  broom,  juniper,  alcohol, 
potash,  etc.;  of  the  second,  digitalis, 
elaterium,  cream  of  tartar,  etc. 

DIVAN,  a Persian  word  having  several 
significations.  It  is  used  in  Turkey  for 
the  highest  council  of  state,  the  Turkish 
ministry;  and  for  a large  hall  for  the 
reception  of  visitors.  Among  several 
oriental  nations  this  name  is  given  to 
certain  collections  of  lyric  poems  by  one 
author.  The  divans  of  Hafiz  and  Saadi, 
the  Persian  poets,  are  among  the  most 
important.  In  Western  Europe  the  term 
is  applied  to  a cafe,  and  to  a kind  of 
cushion  seat. 

DIVERS,  birds  remarkable  for  the 
habit  of  diving.  The  divers  are  a family 
of  swimming  Birds,  characterized  by  a 
strong,  straight,  rather  compressed 
pointed  bill  about  as  long  as  the  head; 
a short  and  rounded  tail;  short  wings; 
thin,  compressed  legs,  placed  very  far 
back,  and  the  toes  completely  webbed. 
They  prey  upon  fish,  which  they  pursue 
under  water,  making  use  partly  of  their 
wings,  but  chiefly  of  their  legs  and 
webbed  feet  in  their  subaqueous  pro- 
gression. These  birds  inhabit  the  Arctic 
seas  of  the  New  and  Old  Worlds;  they 
are  abundant  in  the  Hebrides,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Russia.  The  great  north- 
ern diver,  loon,  or  ember  goose  is  about 
2}  feet  long,  and  is  of  handsome  plum- 
age. 

DIV'IDEND,  lit.  what  is  to  be  divided, 
a term  used  in  aritlunetic  and  in  refer- 
ence to  stocks,  etc.  In  the  latter  sense  it 
is  the  interest  or  profit  of  stocks  divided 
among,  and  paid  to,  the  owners.  It  also 
signifies  the  payment  made  to  creditors 
out  of  the  estate  of  a bankrupt.- 

DIVIDERS,  a pair  of  compasses  or 
similar  instrument. 


DIVIDING  ENGINE,  a machine  for 
marking  the  divisions  on  the  scales  of 
scientific,  mathematical,  or  other  instru- 
ments. Some  of  these  perform  work  of 
extraordinary  fineness  and  accuracy. 

DIVINA  COMMEDIA.  See  Dante. 

DIVINATIONj  the  act  of  divining;  a 
foretelling  future  events,  or  discovering 
things  secret  or  obscure,  by  the  aid  of 
superior  beings,  or  by  other  than  human 
means.  In  ancient  times  divination  was 
divided  into  two  kinds,  natural  and 
artificial.  Natural  di-vination  was  sup- 
posed to  be  effected  by  a kind  of  inspira- 
tion or  divine  afflatus;  artificial  divina- 
tion was  effected  by  certain  rites,  experi- 
ments, or  observations,  as  by  sacrifices, 
observation  of  entrails  and  flight  of 
birds,  lots,  omens,  position  of  the  stars, 
etc. 

DIVINE  RIGHT,  the  claim  set  up  by 
some  sovereigns  or  their  supporters  to 
the  absolute  obedience  of  subjects  as 
ruling  by  appointment  of  God,  inso- 
much that,  although  they  may  them- 
selves submit  to  restrictions  on  their 
authority,  yet  subjects  endeavoring  to 
enforce  those  restrictions  by  resistance 
to  their  sovereign’s  acts  are  considered 
guilty  of  a sin. 

DIVING,  the  art  or  act  of  descending 
into  water  to  considerable  depths,  and 
remaining  there  for  a time.  The  uses  of 
diving  are  important,  particularly  in 
fishing  for  pearls,  corals,  sponges,  ex- 
amining the  foundations  of  bridges, 
recovering  valuables  from  sunken  ships, 
and  the  like.  Without  the  aid  of  arti- 
ficial appliances  a skilful  diver  may  re- 
main under  water  for  two,  or  even  three 
minutes'  accounts  of  longer  periods  are 
doubtful  or  absurd.  Various  methods 
have  been  proposed  and  engines  con- 
trived to  render  di-ving  more  safe  and 
easy.  The  great  object  in  all  these  is  to 
furnish  the  diver  with  fresh  air,  -without 
which  he  must  either  make  but  a short 
stay  under  water  or  perish, 

DIVING-BELL,  a contrivance  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  persons  to  descend 
and  to  remain  below  the  surface  of  water 


Di-vlng-dress  and  diving-helmet. 
a,  Pipe  by  which  air  is  supplied;  6.  valve  by 
which  it  escapes. 


for  a length  of  time,  to  perform  various 
operations,  such  as  examining  the 
foundations  of  bridges,  blasting  rocks, 
recovering  treasure  from  sunken  vessels, 
etc.  Di-ving-bells  have  been  made  of 


DIVING-DRESS 


DIVORCE 


various  forms,  more  especially  in  that  of 
a bell  or  hollow  truncated  cone,  with  the 
smaller  end  close,  and  the  larger  one, 
which  is  placed  lowermost,  open.  The 
air  contained  within  these  vessels  pre- 
vents them  from  being  filled  with  water 
on  submersion,  so  that  the  diver  may 
descend  in  them  and  breathe  freely  for 
a long  time,  provided  he  can  be  furnish- 
ed with  a new  supply  of  fresh  air  when 
the  contained  air  becomes  vitiated  by 
respiration.  The  diving-bell  is  generally 
made  of  cast-iron,  and  has  several  strong 
convex  lenses  set  in  the  upper  side  or 
roof,  to  admit  light  to  the  persons  with- 
in. It  is  suspended  by  chains  from  a 
barge  or  lighter,  and  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  pleasure  upon  signals  being 
given  by  the  persons  within,  who  are 
supplied  with  fresh  air  injected  into  a 
flexible  pipe  by  means  of  forcing  pumps 
placed  in  the  lighter,  while  the  heated 
air  escapes  by  a cock  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  bell.  A form,  called  the  nautilus, 
has  been  invented  which  enables  the 
occupants,  and  not  the  attendants 
above,  to  raise  or  sink  the  bell,  move  it 
about  at  pleasure,  or  raise  great  weights 
with  it  and  deposit  them  in  any  desired 
spot. 

DIVING-DRESS,  a waterproof  dress  of 
india-rubber  cloth  used  by  professional 
divers,  and  covering  the  entire  body 
except  the  head.  The  dress  has  a neck- 
piece or  breastplate,  fitted  with  a seg- 
mental screw  bayonet  joint,  to  which  the 
head-piece  or  helmet,  the  neck  of  which 
has  a corresponding  screw,  can  be  at- 
tached or  removed.  The  helmet  has 
usually  three  eyeholes,  covered  with 
strong  glass,  and  protected  by  guards. 
Air  is  supplied  by  means  of  a flexible 
tube  which  enters  the  helmet  and  com- 
municates with  an  air-pump  above.  To 
allow  of  the  escape  of  the  used  air  there 
is  sometimes  another  flexible  tube, 
which  is  led  from  the  back  part  of  the 
helmet  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  But 
in  the  more  improved  forms  of  the  dress, 
the  breathed  air  escapes  by  a valve  so 
constructed  as  to  prevent  water  from 
getting  in,  though  it  lets  the  air  out. 
Leaden  weights  are  attached  to  the  diver, 
and  his  shoes  are  weighted,  that  he  may 
be  able  to  descend  a ladder,  walk  about 
below,  etc.  Communication  can  be 
carried  on  with  those  above  by  means  of 
a cord  running  between  the  diver  and 
the  attendants;  or  he  may  converse 
with  them  through  a speaking  tube  or  a 
telephonic  apparatus.  One  form  of 
diving-dress  makes  the  diver  independ- 
ent of  any  connection  with  persons 
above  the  water.  It  is  elastic  and 
hermetically  closed.  A reservoir  con- 
taining highly  compressed  air  is  fixed  on 
the  diver’s  back,  which  supplies  him 
with  air  by  a self-regulating  apparatus 
at  a pressure  corresponding  to  his  depth. 
When  he  wishes  to  ascend  he  simply  in- 
flates his  dress  from  the  reservoir.  An- 
other form,  known  as  the  Fleuss  dress, 
makes  the  diver  also  independent  of 
exterior  aid.  The  helmet  contains  a 
supply  of  compressed  oxygen,  and  the 
exhaled  breath  is  passed  through  a filter 
in  the  breast-piece  which  deprives  it  of 
its  carbonic  acid,  while  the  nitrogen 
goes  back  into  the  helmet  to  be  mixed 
with  the  oxygen,  the  supply  of  which  is 
under  the  diver’s  own  control,  and  to  be 


breathed  over  again.  A diver  has  re- 
mained an  hour  and  a half  under  35  feet 
of  water  in  this  dress.  The  safe  limit 
of  depth  at  which  operations  can  be 
carried  on  with  the  diving-dress  is  120 
to  150  feet.  Diving  for  pearls,  sponges, 
or  corals  is  now  to  a great  extent  carried 
on  by  means  of  diving-dresses. 

DIVINING-ROD,  a rod,  usually  of 
hazel,  wdth  two  forked  branches,  used 
by  persons  who  profess  to  discover  min- 
erals or  water  under  ground.  The  rod, 
if  carried  slowly  along  by  the  forked 
ends,  dips  and  points  downward,  it  is 
affirmed,  when  brought  over  the  spot 
where  the  concealed  mineral  or  water  is 
to  be  found.  The  use  of  the  divining- 
rod  is  still  common  in  many  parts,  and 
quite  recently  various  wonderful  in- 
stances of  its  efficacy  in  discovering 
water  have  been  published  in  respect- 
able prints. 

DIVISIBILTTY,  that  general  property 
of  bodies  by  which  their  parts  or  com- 
ponent particles  are  capable  of  separa- 
tion. Numerous  examples  of  the  divi- 
sion of  matter  to  a degree  almost  ex- 
ceeding belief,  may  be  easily  instanced. 
Thus  glass  test-plates  for  miscroscopes 
have  been  ruled  so  fine  as  to  have  225,- 
000  spaces  to  the  inch.  Cotton  yarn  has 
been  spun  so  fine  that  one  pound  of  it 
extended  upward  of  1000  miles,  and  a 
Manchester  spinner  is  said  to  have  at- 
tained such  a marvelous  fineness  that 
one  pound  would  extend  4770  miles. 
One  grain  of  gold  has  been  beaten  out 
to  a surface  of  52  square  inches,  and 
leaves  have  been  made  367,500  of  which 
would  go  to  the  inch  of  thickness.  Iron 
has  been  reduced  to  wonderfully  thin 
sheets.  Fine  tissue  paper  is  about  the 
1200th  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  but 
sheets  of  iron  have  been  rolled  much 
thinner  than  this,  and  as  fine  as  one 
4800th  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
Wires  of  platinum  have  been  drawn  out 
so  fine  as  to  be  only  the  30,000th  part  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Human  hair  varies 
in  thickness  from  the  250th  to  the  600th 
part  of  an  inch.  The  fiber  of  the  coarsest 
wool  is  about  the  500th  part  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  that  of  the  finest  only 
the  1500th  part.  The  silk  line,  as  spun 
by  the  worm,  is  about  the  5000th  part 
of  an  inch  thick;  but  a spider’s  line  is 
only  the  30,000th  part  of  an  inch  in 
diameter;  insomuch  that  a single  pound 
of  this  attenuated  substance  might  be 
sufficient  to  encompass  our  globe.  The 
trituration  and  levigation  of  powders, 
and  the  perennial  abrasion  and  waste  of 
the  surface  of  solid  bodies,  occasion  a 
disintegration  of  particles  almost  ex- 
ceeding the  powers  of  computation.  The 
solutions  of  certain  saline  bodies,  and  of 
other  colored  substances,  also  exhibit  a 
prodigious  subdivision  of  matter.  A 
single  grain  of  the  sulphate  of  copper 
or  blue  vitrol,  will  communicate  a flne 
azure  tint  to  five  gallons  of  water.  In 
this  case  the  sulphate  must  he  attenuated 
at  least  10,000,000  times.  Odors  are 
capable  of  a much  wider  diffusion.  A 
single  grain  of  musk  has  been  known  to 
perfume  a large  room  for  the  space  of 
twenty  years.  At  the  lowest  computa- 
tion the  musk  had  been  subdivided  into 
320  quadrillions  of  particles,  each  of 
them  capable  of  affecting  the  olfactory 
organs. 


DIVISION,  in  arithmetic,  the  dividing 
of  a number  or  quantity  into  any  parts 
assigned;  one  of  the  four  fundamental 
rules,  the  object  of  which  is  to  find  how 
often  one  number  is  contained  in  an- 
other. The  number  to  be  divided  is  the 
dividend,  the  number  which  divides  is 
the  divisor,  and  the  result  of  the  division 
is  the  quotient.  Division  is  the  converse 
of  multiplication. 

DIVISION,  in  military  matters,  a por- 
tion of  an  army  consisting  of  two  or 
more  brigades,  composed  of  the  various 
arms  of  the  service,  and  commanded  by 
a general  officer.  In  the  navy,  a select 
number  of  ships  in  a fleet  or  squadron 
of  men-of-war.  The  term  is  now  practi- 
cally abolished  since  the  introduction  of 
gigantic  heavily-armed  iron-clad  ships 
into  the  navy. 

DIVISION  OF  LABOR,  a principle 
employed  in  great  industries  for  the 
simplification  of  the  work  to  be  done  by 
each  of  the  workmen  engaged  in  it.  The 
separation  of  complicated  processes  into 
a series  of  simple  operations  not  only 
results  in  a great  saving  of  time,  but 
also  demands  much  less  ability  on  the 
part  of  the  workman,  in  order  that  he 
may  acquire  the  necessary  skill  in  per- 
forming any  particular  operation.  Ow- 
ing to  both  of  these  causes,  the  saving 
of  time,  and  the  employment  of  cheaper 
labor,  the  cost  of  producing  complicated 
articles  is,  by  the  application  of  this 
principle,  immensely  reduced.  Division 
of  labor  tends  to  the  invention  of  ma- 
chinery, and  to  the  effectual  use  of 
machinery  when  invented.  It  increases 
the  skill  and  dexterity  of  the  individual 
workman;  it  effects  a great  saving  of 
time  and  capital,  and  it  conduces  to 
the  more  economical  distribution  of 
labor  by  classing  work-people  accord- 
ing to  their  capacity.  It  has,  however, 
a deteriorating  effect  on  the  laborer’s 
usefulness  as  an  all-round  workman. 

DIVORCE  is  a separation,  by  law,  of 
husband  and  wife,  and  is  either,  a com- 
plete dissolution  of  the  marriage  bonds, 
or  a divorce,  whereby  the  parties  are 
legally  separated,  but  not  unmarried. 
The  causes  admitted  by  different  codes 
of  laws  as  grounds  for  the  modification 
or  entire  dissolution  of  the  marriage  con- 
tract, as  well  as  the  description  of  tri- 
bunal which  has  jurisdiction  of  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  form  of  the  proceed- 
ings, are  various.  Divorce  was  per- 
mitted by  the  law  of  Moses,  but  for- 
bidden in  the  New  Testament,  except  for 
unchastity.  The  early  laws  of  Rome 
pertnitted  the  husband  to  divorce  his 
wife  for  adultery  and  many  other  alleged 
offenses.  The  facility  of  divorce  con- 
tinued, without  restriction,  under  the 
Roman  emperors,  but  as  the  modern 
nations  of  Europe  emerged  from  the 
ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire,  they  adopt- 
ed the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament. 
Marriage,  under  the  Roman  Church, 
instead  of  a civil  contract,  came  to  be 
considered  a sacrament  of  the  church, 
which  it  was  unlawful  to  dissolve.  In 
the  United  States,  marriage,  though  it 
may  be  celebrated  before  clergymen  as 
well  as  civil  magistrates,  is  considered  to 
be  a civil  contract,  and  the  laws  as  to 
divorce,  and  the  facility  or  difficulty  of 
obtaining  it,  differ  greatly  in  the  several 
states.  In  France  divorce  was  legalized 


DIXON 


DOE 


In  1884,  with  conditions,  after  having 
been  prohibited  for  many  years. 

DIXON,  William  Hepworth,  miscel- 
laneous writer,  born  at  Manchester  1821, 
died  in  London  1879.  He  published 
several  very  popular  works,  including 
the  Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon, 
The  Holy  Land,  and  New  America,  the 
last  being  followed  by  Spiritual  Wives; 
in  the  last  ten  years  of  his  life,  he  gave 
to  the  world  somewhere  about  twenty- 
five  volumes  of  history,  travel,  and 
fiction,  among  others.  Free  Russia;  Her 
Majesty’s  Tower ; The  Switzers;  History 
of  Two  Queens,  Catharine  of  Aragon  and 
Anne  Boleyn;  Diana  Lady  Lyle,  and 
Ruby  Grey  (both  novels);  and  his  last 
work.  Royal  Windsor. 

DJOKDJOKARTA,  a Dutch  residency 
in  the  island  of  Java,  on  the  south  coast, 
with  a capital  of  the  same  name.  Pop. 
441,800.  The  town  is  large  and  regular, 
and  contains  the  sultan’s  water-palace, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Dutch  resident,  which 
is  a fort  commanding  both  the  palace 
and  the  town.  Pop.  45,000. 

DNIEPER  (ne'per),  a great  river  of 
Russia  which  rises  in  the  government  of 
Smolensk,  flows  first  southwest,  then 
southeast,  and  latterly  again  southwest 
to  the  Black  Sea.  It  begins  to  be  navi- 
gable a little  above  Smolensk,  and  has 
a total  length,  including  windings,  of 
1230  miles.  Since  1838  there  have  been 
steamboats  on  the  river,  and  the  trade 
carried  by  it  is  considerable. 

DNIESTER  (nes'ter),  a large  river  of 
Europe,  which  has  its  source  in  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  in  Austrian  Galicia, 
enters  Russia  at  Chotin,  and  empties 
itself  into  the  Black  Sea,  after  a course 
of  about  750  miles.  Its  navigation  is 
difficult  on  account  of  frequent  shallows 
and  rapids. 

DOBRUD'SHA,  The,  a territory  form- 
ing part  of  the  kingdom  of  Roumania, 
included  between  the  Danube,  which 
forms  its  boundary  on  the  west  and 
north,  the  Black  Sea  on  the  east,  and  on 
the  south  by  a line  stretching  from  Silis- 
tria  to  a point  a few  miles  south  of  Man 
galia.  Pop.  about  100,000. 

DOCKS  are  usually  artificial  inclosures 
for  the  reception  of  vessels,  and  provided 
with  gates  to  keep  in  or  shut  out  the  tide. 


Dry  or  graving  dock. 


They  are  called  wet-docks  when  they 
are  intended  to  receive  vessels  for  load- 
ing and  unloading,  the  gates  being  in 
this  case  constructed  so  as  to  keep  in  the 
tide,  and  thus  preserve  the  water  within 
the  docks  as  nearly  as  possible  at  the 


uniform  level  of  high  water.  They  are 
called  dry-docks,  or  graving-docks,  when 
they  are  intended  to  admit  vessels  to  be 
examined  and  repaired,  the  gates  in  this 
case  being  such  as  to  keep  out  the  tide 
wliile  the  shipwrights  are  engaged  on  the 


vessel.  There  is  another  kind  of  dry- 
docks  called  floating-docks,  which  float 
on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  may  be 
sunk  sufficiently  to  allow  of  a vessel  be- 
ing floated  into  them,  and  then  raised 
again,  by  pumping  the  water  out  of  the 
tanks  round  the  sides.  One  of  the  ciiief 
uses  of  a wet-dock  is  to  keep  a uniform 
level  of  water,  so  that  the  business  of 
loading  and  unloading  ships  can  be  car- 
ried on  without  any  interruption  and 
without  danger  of  damage  to  the  vessel 
from  straining,  low  tides,  storms,  etc. 

Graving-docks  are  built  of  strong  ma- 
sonry, and  their  entrance  is  closed  either 
by  swinging  gates  opening  in  the  middle, 
and  when  shut  presenting  a salient  angle 
to  the  water  in  the  river  or  harbor  from 
which  the  dock  is  entered,  or  by  a frame- 
work called  a caisson,  built  like  the  hull 
of  a ship,  with  a keel  and  a stem  at  both 
ends.  When  the  caisson  is  empty  it 
floats,  and  may  be  removed  to  admit  of  a 
vessel  being  floated  into  the  dock.  The 
caisson  being  then  placed  at  the  entrance 
and  filled  with  water,  again  sinks  into 
the  grooves  intended  for  it  and  closes 
the  graving-dock.  The  water  is  then 
pumped  out,  leaving  the  ship  dry  and 
supported  by  wooden  blocks  and  props. 
With  regard  to  floating-docks,  a com- 
mon type  of  construction  is  the  iron 
floating-dock  built  in  water-tight  com- 
partments, and  not  closed  in  at  either 
end.  It  is  sunk  to  the  required  depth  by 
the  admission  of  water  into  so  many  of 
the  compartments,  till  the  vessel  to  be 
docked  can  float  easily  above  its  bottom, 
and  it  is  then  raised  by  pumping  out  the 
water  until  the  ship  can  be  propped  up 
as  in  a dry-dock. 

A kind  of  dry-dock,  called  the  hy- 
draulic lift  dock,  consists  of  a double  row 
of  iron  columns,  each  of  which  contains 
a hydraulic  press.  All  these  hydraulic 

Cresses  can  be  worked  simultaneously 
y a powerful  steam-engine,  and  their 
combined  action  has  the  effect  of  raising 
a series  of  transverse  iron  girders  stretch- 
ing from  the  columns  on  one  side  to 
those  of  the  other.  An  iron  pontoon  is 
first  floated  above  these  girders,  and 
then  sunk  so  as  to  rest  on  them,  and  the 
ship  to  be  docked  is  floated  above  the 
pontoon  and  supported  by  blocks  resting 
only  upon  the  pontoon,  so  that  the  ship 
is  in  no  wav  connected  with  the  columns 
on  each  side.  The  hydraulic  presses  are 
then  set  to  work,  the  girders  with  the 


pontoon  and  ship  are  raised  high  enough 
for  the  water  to  be  run  out  of  the  pon- 
toon, which  is  then  sufficiently  buoyant 
to  float  the  ship.  The  pontoon  may  now 
be  floated  away  clear  of  the  dock,  and 
another  take  its  place.  By  this  plan  a 
number  of  vessels  can  be  floated  for  over- 
hauling and  repairs  in  very  shallow 
water  at  comparatively  slight  expense. 

DOCTOR,  a term  literally  signifying 
teacher.  In  the  middle  ages,  from  the 
12th  century,  it  came  into  use  as  a title 
of  honor  for  men  of  great  learning,  such 
as  Thomas  Aquinas  (Doctor  Angelicus), 
Duns  Scotus  (Doctor  Subtilis),  etc.  It 
was  first  made  an  academical  title  by  the 
University  of  Bologna,  and  emperors 
and  popes  soon  afterward  assumed  the 
right  of  granting  universities  the  power 
of  conferring  the  degree  in  law.  The 
faculties  of  theology  and  medicine  were 
soon  included,  but  for  a long  time  the 
faculty  of  arts  retained  the  older  title  of 
Magister,  till  the  German  universities 
substituted  that  of  Doctor.  The  title  of 
Doctor  is  in  some  cases  an  honorary 
degree,  and  in  other  cases  (as  in  medi- 
cine and  science)  conferred  after  exami- 
nation. The  title  of  D.C.L.  (Doctor  of 
Civil  Law),  for  example,  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  and  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  is  an  honorary  degree,  and  so 
also  are  those  of  D.D.  (Doctor  of  Divin- 
ity) and  LL.D.  (Doctor  of  Laws)  at 
various  universities.  The  popes  and  the 
archbishops  of  Canterbury  exercise  the 
right  of  conferring  the  degree  of  Doctor 
both  in  law  and  divinity. 

DODGE,  Mary  Abigail,  an  American 
writer,  better  known  as  Gail  Hamilton, 
born  at  Hamilton,  Mass.,  in  1830,  died 
in  1896.  Her  work  was  ephemeral, 
chiefly  on  current  topics,  but  possessed 
a crispness  that  made  it  in  demand. 

DODGE,  Mary  Elizabeth  Mapes,  an 
American  poet,  editor,  and  writer,  born 
in  New  York  in  1838.  She  was  editor  of 
St.  Nicholas  for  many  years.  One  of  her 
best  knowm  works  is  Hans  Brinker,  or. 
The  Silver  Skates,  which  still  retains  its 
place,  although  published  in  1865.  This 
work  was  translated  into  several  Euro- 
pean languages  and  crowned  by  the 
French  academy. 

DODO,  an  extinct  genus  of  birds  once 
abundant  on  the  island  of  Mauritius,  and 
assigned  by  naturalists  to  the  order 
ColumbjB  or  pigeons,  though  an  extreme 
modification  of  the  type.  It  w^as  a mas- 


Dodo. 

sive  clumsy  bird,  larger  than  a swan, 
covered  with  down  instead  of  feathers 
with  short  ill-shaped  legs,  a strong 
bulky  hooked  beak,  and  wungs  and  tail 
so  short  as  to  be  useless  for  flight. 

DOE,  John,  and  Richard  Doe,  two 
fictitious  personages  of  the  English  law 
who  formerly  appeared  in  a suit  of 


DOG 


DOLPHIN 


ejectment.  This  fictitious  form  of  pro- 
cedure was  abolished  in  1852. 

DOG,  a well-known  mammal,  largely- 
domesticated,  carnivorous  in  the  wild 
state,  of  very  high  intelligence,  and  of 
all  the  lower  animals  the  most  closely 
associated  with  man  in  sympathy 
and  sociality.  Wild  dogs  exist  in 
Asia  and  Australia  and  all  domesti- 
cated dogs  are  derived  from  some  form 
of  the  wild  animals,  or  from  the  ming- 
ling of  various  strains  under  domestica- 
tion. 

No  one  probably  has  ever  attempted 
to  make  a complete  catalogue  of  the 
varieties  of  domestic  dogs  known 
throughout  the  world,  but  Fitzinger 
estimated  the  number  in  1876  at  about 
185.  All  these  fall  into  certain  groups, 
or  types,  as  will  presently  be  noted; 
and  the  study  of  their  points  of  likeness 
and  unlikeness  has  been  made  by 
several  recent  investigators  of  the  law 
of  variation. 

Breeds  of  dogs  have  been  variously 
classified.  One  Roman  grouping  men- 
tioned by  old  writers  was  into  fighters 
(pugnaces),  wise  dogs  (sagaces),  and 
swift-footed  ones  (celeres);  the  sagaces 
were  said  to  have  come  from  Greece, 
and  the  pugnaces  from  Asia.  Another 
ancient  grouping  was  into  house-dogs, 
sheep-dogs,  and  sporting-dogs,  the  last 
embracing  fighters,  hounds  hunting  by 
scent,  and  hounds  hunting  by  sight. 
Modern  naturalists  have  substantially 
agreed  Upon  six  groups,  with  consider- 
able differences  in  composition,  however. 
Thus  Col.  Hamilton  Smith,  about  1830, 
arranged  the  list  as  follows:  The 
wolf-dogs,  including  the  Siberian  dog, 
Eskimo  dog,  Iceland  dog,  Newfoundland 
dog,  Nootka  dog,  sheep-dog,  great  wolf- 
dog,  great  Saint  Bernard  dog,  Pomer- 
anian dog,  etc.  The  watch  and  cattle 
dogs,  including  the  German  boar- 
hound,  Danish  dog,  matin,  dog  of  the 
North  American  Indians,  etc.  The 
greyhounds,  including  the  Brinjaree 
dog,  different  kinds  of  greyhound, 
Irish  hound,  lurcher,  Egyptian  street 
dog,  etc.  The  hounds,  including  the 
bloodhound,  old  southern  hound,  stag- 
hound,  foxhound,  harrier,  beagle, 
pointer,  setter,  spaniel,  springer,  cocker, 
Blenheim  dog,  water-dog  or  poodle, 
etc.  The  cur  dogs,  including  the  terrier 
and  its  allies.  The  mastiffs,  including 
different  kinds  of  mastiff,  the  bulldog, 
pug  dog,  etc.  _ 

The  latest  arrangement  is  that  by 
Windle,  based  upon  the  shape  of  the 
skull  and  other  features,  rather  than 
upon  form  and  function,  yet  not  greatly 
different  from  its  predecessors.  It  is 
as  follows:  Wolf -like  Dogs.  — Arctic 
sledge-dogs;  shepherd  dogs  (collies); 
Newfoundland  dog;  Saint  Bernard, 
rough  and  smooth,  and  Pomeranian  or 
Spitz  dog.  Greyhound. — Old  Irish  wolf- 
dog;  modern  Irish  wolf-dog;  grey- 
hound; Italian  greyhound ; West  Indian 
naked  dog.  Spaniels. — All  varieties. 
Hounds. — Bloodhound;  foxhound;  har- 
rier; otter-hound,  beagle,  pointer,  set- 
ter, etc.,  (hunting-dogs). 

DOG-BANE,  an  American  plant  found 
from  Canada  to  Carolina.  The  whole 

lant  is  milky;  the  root  is  intensely 

itter  and  nauseous,  and  is  employed 
in  America  instead  of  ipecacuanha. 


DOG-CART,  a sort  of  double-seated 
gig  for  four  persons,  those  before  and 
those  behind  sitting  back  to  back;  it  is 
often  furnished  with  a boot  for  holding 
dogs. 

DOG-DAYS,  the  name  applied  by  the 
ancients  to  a period  of  about  forty  days, 
the  hottest  season  of  the  year,  at  the 
time  of  the  heliacal  rising  of  Sirius,  the 
dog-star.  The  time  of  the  rising  is 
now,  owing  to  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  different  from  what  it  was 
to  the  ancients  (1st  July) ; and  the  dog- 
days  are  now  counted  from  3d  July  to 
Aug.  11,  that  is,  twenty  days  before  and 
twenty  days  after  the  heliacal  rising. 

DOG-FISH,  a name  given  to  several 
species  of  small  shark,  common  around 
the  British  isles.  The  rough  skin  of  one 
of  the  species,  the  lesser-spotted  dog- 
fish, is  used  by  joiners  and  other  arti- 
ficers in  polishing  various  substances, 
particularly  wood.  This  species  is 
rarely  3 feet  long.  The  greater  dog-fish 
is  in  length  from  3 to  5 feet.  It  is 
blackish-brown  in  color,  marked  with 
numerous  small  dark  spots.  Both 
species  are  very  voracious  and  destruc- 
tive. Their  flesh  is  hard,  dry,  and  un- 
palatable. The  common  or  picked 
dog-fish  is  common  in  British  and  N. 
American  seas,  and  is  sometimes  used 
as  food.  It  is  fierce  and  voracious. 

DOGGER,  a Dutch  vessel  equipped 
with  two  masts  and  somewhat  resem- 


Dutch  dogger. 


bling  a ketch.  It  is  used  particularly 
in  the  German  Ocean  for  tne  cod  and 
herring  fisheries. 

DOGMA,  an  article  of  religious  belief, 
one  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
faith.  The  history  of  dogmas,  as  a 
branch  of  theology,  exhibits  in  a 
historical  way  the  origin  and  the  changes 
01  the  various  Christian  systems  of 
belief,  showing  what  opinions  were 
received  by  the  various  sects  in  different 
ages  of  Christianity,  the  sources  of  the 
different  creeds,  by  what  arguments 
they  were  attacked  and  supported, 
what  degrees  of  importance  were 
attached  to  them  in  different  ages,  the 
circumstances  by  which  they  were 
affected,  and  the  mode  in  which  the 
dogmas  were  combined  into  systems. 

DOGMAT'ICS,  a systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  articles  of  Christian  faith 
(dogmas),  or  the  branch  of  theology 
that  deals  with  them.  (See  Dogma.) 
The  first  attempt  to  furnish  a complete 
and  coherent  system  of  Christian  dog- 
mas was  made  by  Origen  in  the  3d  cen- 
tury. 


DOG-STAR,  a name  for  Sirius,  the 
star  that  gives  their  name  to  the  dog- 
days  (which  see). 

DOILEY,  a small  ornamental  napkin 
used  at  table  to  set  glasses  on  at  dessert. 

DOL'DRUMS,  among  seamen,  the 
parts  of  the  ocean  near  the  equator  that 
abound  in  calms,  squalls,  and  light 
baffling  winds. 

DOLE,  Nathan  Haskell,  an  American 
editor,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1852. 
He  has  translated  Daudet,  Tolstoi,  and 
other  foreign  authors  with  much  success, 
and  has  published  a number  of  original 
poems  and  essays. 

DOLE,  Sanford  Ballard,  an  Hawaiian 
agitator,  revolutionist,  and  statesman, 
born  in  Honolulu  in  1844.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  provisional  government  in 
1893,  and  in  1894  was  elected  president 
of  the  Hawaiian  republic.  He  is  a most 
capable  jurist. 

DOLLAR,  the  unit  of  money  in  the  U. 
States  and  Canada.  The  American  dol- 
lar was  established  by  act  of  congress  in 
1792.  The  silver  dollar  consists  of  412J 
grains  .900  fine,  and  the  gold  dollar  of 
25.8  grains  .900  fine.  The  gold  dollar 
was  made  the  standard  by  the  act  of 
March  14,  1900,  but  no  coin  of  that  de- 
scription has  been  made. 

DOL'MAN,  a long  robe  worn  by  the 
Turks  as  an  upper  garment.  It  is  open  in 
front,  and  has  narrow  sleeves.  It  has 
given  its  name  to  a kind  of  loose  jacket 
worn  by  ladies. 

DOL'OMITE,  a mineral,  also  called 
magnesian  limestone.  It  is  composed 
of  carbonate  of  calcium  and  carbonate 
of  magnesium,  and  varies  from  gray 
or  yellowish-white  to  yellowish-brown. 

DOLPHIN,  a cetaceous  animal,  which 
includes  also  the  porpoises  and  narwhal. 
Dolphins  are  cosmopolite  animals,  in- 
habiting every  sea  from  the  equator 
to  the  poles;  they  are  gregarious,  and 
swim  with  extraordinary  velocity.  The 
common  dolphin  measures  from  6 to 
10  feet  in  length,  has  a long,  sharp 
snout  with  numerous  nearly  conical 
teeth  in  both  jaws;  its  flesh  is  coarse, 
rank,  and  disagreeable,  but  is  used  by 
the  Laplanders  as  food.  It  lives  on 
fish,  mollusea,  etc.,  and  often  may  be 
seen  in  numbers  round  shoals  of  herring. 
The  animal  has  to  come  to  the  surface  at 


Common  dolphin. 

short  intervals  to  breathe.  The  blow- 
hole is  of  a semilunar  form,  with  a kind 
of  valvular  apparatus,  and  opens  on  the 
vertex,  nearly  over  the  eyes.  The 
structure  of  the  ear  renders  the  sense  of 
hearing  very  acute,  and  the  animal  is 
observed  to  be  attracted  by  regular  or 
harmonious  sounds.  One  or  two  young 
are  produced  by  the  female,  who 


DOM 


DOMREMY  LA  PUCELLE 


suckles  and  watches  them  with  great 
care  and  anxiety,  long  after  they  have 
acquired  considerable  size. 

DOM,  a Portuguese  title  corresponding 
with  the  Spanish  Don. 

DOMAIN',  same  as  Demesne  (which 
see);  also  applied  especially  to  crown 
lands  or  government  lands. — Right  of 
eminent  domain,  the  dominion  of  the 
sovereign  power  over  all  the  property 
within  the  state,  by  which  it  is  entitled 
to  appropriate  any  part  necessary  to 
the  public  good,  compensation  being 
pven. 

DOME,  a vaulted  roof  of  spherical 
ar  other  curvature,  covering  a building 
ar  part  of  it,  and  forming  a common 
feature  in  Byzantine  and  also  in 


Section  of  dome  of  San  Pedro  in  Montorio, 
Rome,  end  of  15tti  century. 

Renaissance  architecture.  Cupola  also 
is  used  as  a synonym,  or  is  applied 
to  the  interior,  dome  being  applied  to 
the  exterior.  Most  modern  domes  are 
semielliptical  in  vertical  section,  and 
are  constructed  of  timber;  but  the 
ancient  domes  were  nearly  hemispher- 
ical, and  constructed  of  stone.  Of 
domes  the  finest,  without  any  com- 
parison, ancient  or  modern,  is  that  of 
the  Rotunda  or  Pantheon  at  Rome 
(142J  feet  internal  diameter  and  143 
feet  internal  height),  erected  under 
Augustus,  and  still  perfect. 

DOMESDAY  (or  Doomsday)  BOOK, 
a book  containing  a survey  of  all  the 
lands  in  England,  compiled  in  the 
reign  and  by  the  order  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  The  survey  was  made  by 
commissioners,  who  collected  the  in- 
formation in  each  district  from  a sworn' 
jury  consisting  of  sheriffs,  lords  of 
manors,  presbyters,  bailiffs,  villeins — 
all  the  classes,  in  short,  interested  in 
the  matter.  The  extent,  tenure,  value, 
and  proprietorship  of  the  land  in  each 
district,  the  state  of  culture,  and  in 
some  cases  the  number  of  tenants, 
villeins,  serfs,  etc.,  were  the  matters 
chiefly  recorded.  The  survey  was  com- 
pleted within  a year. 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS,  such  as  are 
reared  and  kept  by  man,  and  are  to 
some  extent  in  a tame  state;  as  the 
dog,  cat,  ox,  sheep,  swine,  horse,  ass, 
elephant,  camel,  llama,  reindeer,  etc. 

DOM'ICILE,  in  law,  the  place  where 
a person  has  a home  or  established 
residence.  Domicile  is  often  an  impor- 


tant question  in  determining  the  efficacy 
of  legal  citations,  the  validity  of  mar- 
riage, the  right  of  succession  to  prop- 
erty, etc.  For  some  purposes  what  is 
called  a temporary  domicile  is  sufficient, 
but  in  questions  of  marriage  and  suc- 
cession it  is  the  permanent  domicile 
that  determines  the  decision.  A per- 
manent domicile  may  be  constituted 
by  birth,  by  choice,  or  by  operation 
of  the  law.  To  constitute  a domicile  by 
choice  both  actual  residence  and  the 
intention  to  make  it  the  permanent 
home  are  required.  It  is  a legal  prin- 
ciple that  the  wife  takes  the  domicile 
of  her  husband.  As  a general  rule  the 
old  domicile,  and  especially  the  domicile 
of  origin,  continues  till  a new  one  has 
been  acquired. 

DOMIN'GO,  San,  capital  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  (or  San  Domingo) 
in  the  island  of  Hayti.  It  lies  on  the 
southeast  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ozama,  and  has  a commodious  port. 
It  is  the  oldest  European  city  in  the 
New  World,  having  been  founded  in 
1494  by  Bartholomew  Columbus.  Pop. 
about  16,000. 

DOM'INIC,  Saint,  the  founder  of  the 
order  of  the  Dominicans,  was  born  in 
1170  at  Calahorra,  in  Old  Castile.  He 
early  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal 
for  the  reform  of  canonical  life  and  by 
his  success  as  a missionary  among 
the  Mohammedans.  Saint  Dominic  is 
usually  considered  the  founder  of  the 
Inquisition,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  with  his  mission  to  the 
AlWgenses;  but  his  claim  is  denied,  on 
the  ground  that  two  Cistercian  monks 
were  appointed  inquisitors  in  1198. 

DOMINICA  (dom-i-ne'ka),  a British 
West  India  island.  It  is  about  29  miles 
in  length,  north  to  south,  and  12  miles 
in  breadth  east  to  west;  area,  186,436 
acres.  The  principal  exports  consist  of 
sugar,  molasses,  cocoa,  and  lime-juice. 
Dominica  was  ceded  by  France  to  Great 
Britain  in  1763.  Roseau  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  26,841  (including  about  300  abori- 
ginal Caribs). 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC,  or  SAN 
DOMINGO,  a republic  occupying  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  island  of  Hayti; 
area,  18,000  sq.  miles.  It  is  fertile  and 
exports  mahogany,  sugar,  tobacco, 
cocoa,  etc.,  but  its  resources  are  as  yet 
iDUt  little  developed.  It  formerly  be- 
longed to  Spain,  and  is  the  oldest  colon- 
ial settlement  in  America.  Its  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  negroes  and  mulattoes. 
Capital,  San  Domingo.  Pop.  estimated 
at  504,000.  See  Hayti. 

DOMIN'ICANS,  called  also  predicants, 
or  preaching  friars  (praedicatores),  de- 
rived their  name  from  their  founder,  St. 
Dominic.  At  their  origin  (1216,  at 
Toulouse)  they  were  governed  by  the 
rulfe  of  St.  Augustine,  perpetual  silence, 
poverty,  and  fasting  being  enjoined  upon 
them;  and  the  principal  object  of  their 
institution  was  to  preach  against 
heretics.  Their  distinctive  dress  con- 
sists of  a white  habit  and  scapular  with 
a large  black  mantle,  and  hence  they 
have  been  commonly  known  as  Black 
Friars. 

DOM'INO,  formerly  a dress  worn  by 
priests  in  the  winter,  which,  reacliing  no 
lower  than  the  shoulders,  served  to  pro- 
tect the  face  and  head  from  the  weather. 


At  present  it  is  a masquerade  dress  worn 
by  gentlemen  and  ladies,  consisting  of  a 
long  silk  mantle  with  wide  sleeves  and  a 
masking  hood.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a half -mask  formerly  worn  on  the  face 
by  ladies  when  traveling  or  at  mas- 
querades. 


■Dominican  or  black  friar. 


DOM'INOES,  a game  played  with 
small  flat  rectangular  pieces  of  ivory, 
about  twice  as  long  as  they  are  broad. 
They  are  marked  with  spots  varying  in 
number.  When  one  player  leads  by 
laying  down  a domino,  the  next  must 
follow  by  placing  alongside  of  it  another 
which  has  the  same  number  of  spots  on 
one  of  its  sides.  Thus  if  the  first  player 
lays  down  6-4,  the  second  may  reply 
with  4-8,  or  6-7,  etc. ; in  the  former  case 
he  must  turn  in  the  4,  placing  it  beside 
the  4 of  the  first  domino,  so  that  the 
numbers  remaining  out  will  be  6-8;  in 
the  latter  case  he  must  turn  in  the  6 to 
the  6 in  like  manner,  leaving  4-7,  to 
wliich  his  opponent  must  now  respond. 
The  player  who  cannot  follow  suit  loses 
his  turn,  and  the  object  of  the  game  is  to 
get  rid  of  all  the  dominoes  in  hand,  or  to 
hold  fewer  spots  than  your  opponent 
when  the  game  is  exhausted  by  neither 
being  able  to  play. 

DOMITIAN,  or  in  full  Titus  Flavius 
Domitianus  Augustus,  Roman  emperor, 
son  of  Vespasian,  and  brother  of  Titus, 
was  born  a.d.  51,  and  in  81  succeeded  to 


the  throne.  At  first  he  ruled  with  a show 
of  moderation  and  justice,  but  soon  re- 
turned to  the  cruelty  and  excesses  for 
which  his  youth  had  been  notorious.  He 
established  the  most  stringent  laws 
against  high  treason,  which  enabled 
almost  anything  to  be  construed  into  this 
crime.  At  length  a conspiracy,  in  which 
his  wife,  Domitia  took  part,  -u'as  formed 
against  him,  and  he  was  assassinated  in 
liis  bed-room  a.d.  96. 

DOMREMY  LA  PUCELLE  (don-re-mi 
la  pu-sal),  the  birth-place  of  Joan  of  -)  re. 


DON 


DORMANT  STATE 


a small  French  village,  department  of  the 
Vosges,  7 miles  n.  of  NeufchUteau.  The 
house  is  still  shown  hero  in  which  the 
heroine  was  born,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood is  the  monument  erected  to  her 
memory. 

DON,  a Spanish  title  of  honor,  ori^n- 
ally  given  only  to  the  highest  nobility, 
afterward  to  all  the  nobles,  and  finally 
used  indiscriminately  as  a title  of  cour- 
tesy. It  corresponds  with  the  Portuguese 
Dom.  During  the  Spanish  occupation 
it  was  introduced  and  became  natural- 
ized in  some  parts  of  Italy,  and  was  par- 
ticularly applied  to  the  priests. 

DONA'TI’S  COMET,  so  called  from  the 
Italian  astronomer  Donati,  who  first  ob- 
served it  in  June,  1858.  Next  to  the 
comet  of  1811  it  was  the  most  brilliant 
that  appeared  last  century.  It  was 
nearest  the  earth  on  the  10th  October, 
1858. 

DON'EGAL,  a maritime  county,  Ire- 
land, province  of  Ulster,  bounded  n.  and 
w.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  area,  1,197,- 
154  acres,  of  which  about  a fifth  is  under 
crops.  The  manufactures  are  limited, 
and  consist  chiefly  of  linen  cloth,  woolen 
stockings,  and  worked  muslin.  The 
fisheries  are  extensive  and  valuable,  and 
form  the  chief  employment  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  coast  and  islands.  Grain 
butter,  and  eggs  are  exported.  The 
minerals  include  marble,  lead,  copper, 
etc.,  but  are  not  wrought  to  advantage. 
Pop.  173,625.  — Donegal,  the  county 
town,  is  a small  seaport  on  the  bay  of 
the  same  name,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Esk.  Pop.  1323. 

DONELSON,  Andrew  Jackson,  an 
American  diplomat,  born  in  Tennessee 
ii\  1800,  died  1871.  He  was  private  sec- 
retary to  Jackson  in  1829,  and  subse- 
quently served  as  minister  to  Prussia 
and  the  federal  German  government. 
He  took  no  part  in  the  civil  war. 

DON'GOLA,  a district  of  Upper  Nubia, 
extending  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile  from 
about  lat.  18°  to  lat.  20°  n.  After  having 
belonged  to  Egypt  the  rebellion  under 
the  Mahdi  caused  its  evacuation  by  the 
Egyptian  government,  leaving  it  in  an 
unsettled  state;  but  under  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  authorities  it  has  again  been 
occupied.  Its  chief  products  are  dates, 
cotton,  indigo,  and  maize.  The  popula- 
tion is  a mixture  of  Arabs  and  indigen- 
ous Nubians.  Its  chief  town  is  New 
Dongola,  on  the  Nile.  Pop.  6000. 

DONIZET'TI,  Gaetano,  Italian  com- 
poser, born  in  1798,  at  Bergamo.  In 
1830  appeared  his  Anna  Bolena,  which 
first,  along  with  Lucrezia  Borgia  and 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor — the  latter  his 
masterpiece — acquired  for  him  a Euro- 
pean fame.  Donizetti  removed  in  1840 
to  Paris,  bringing  with  him  three  new 
operas,  Les  Martyrs,  La  Favorita,  and 
La  Fille  du  Regiment,  of  which  the  last 
two  are  among  his  most  popular  pro- 
ductions. He  died  8th  April,  1848.  He 
had  written  as  many  as  sixty-four  operas 

DON  JUAN  {hu-kn'),  the  hero  of  a 
Spanish  legend  which  seems  to  have  had 
some  historical  basis  in  the  history  of  a 
member  of  the  noble  family  of  Tenorio  at 
Seville.  According  to  the  legend  Don 
Juan  was  a libertine  of  the  most  reckless 
character.  An  attempt  to  seduce  the 
daughter  of  a governor  of  Seville  brought 
the  indignant  father  and  the  profligate 


don  into  deadly  conflict,  in  which  the 
former  was  slain.  Don  Juan  afterward, 
in  a spirit  of  wild  mockery,  goes  to  the 
grave  of  the  murdered  man  and  invites 
the  statue  of  him  erected  there  to  a 
revel.  To  the  terror  of  Don  Juan  the 
“stony  guest”  actually  appears  at  the 
table  to  bear  him  away  to  the  infernal 
world.  The  legend  has  furnished  the 
subject  for  many  dramas  and  operas. 
The  most  famous  of  the  latter  is  Mozart’s 
Don  Giovanni,  which  has  made  the  story 
familiar  to  everybody.  The  Don  Juan  of 
Byron  bears  no  relation  to  the  old  story 
but  in  name  and  in  the  libertine  char- 
acter of  the  hero. 

DONKEY-ENGINE,  a small  engine 
used  in  various  operations  where  no 
great  power  is  required.  Thus  a donkey- 
engine  is  often  stationed  on  the  deck  of  a 
ship  to  work  a crane  for  loading  and  un- 
loading. 

DONNYBROOK,  a village,  Ireland, 
now  mostly  in  the  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  Dublin.  Its  famous  fair,  which 
seldom  passed  off  without  riot  and  blood- 
shed, was  abolished  in  1855. 

DON  QUIXOTE  (ke-/i6'ta),  the  title  of 
a famous  romance  by  Cervantes.  The 
name  of  the  hero,  Don  Quixote,  is  used 
as  a synonym  for  foolish  knight-errantry 
or  extravagant  generosity. 

DOOMSDAY  BOOK,  See  Domesday 
Book. 

DORCAS  SOCIETY  (from  Dorcas  men- 
tioned in  Acts  ix.),  an  association  gen- 
erally composed  of  ladies  for  supplying 
clothes  to  the  poor.  Frequently  the 
members  of  the  society  meet  at  stated 
times  and  work  in  common. 

DORDOGNE  (dor-dony),  a depart- 
ment of  France,  which  includes  the 
greater  part  of  the  ancient  province  of 
P^rigord,  and  small  portions  of  Limousin, 
Angoumois,  and  Saintonge.  Area,  3544 
sq.  miles,  of  which  about  a third  is  fit 
for  the  plow.  The  climate  is  mild  but 
somewhat  changeable.  Pop.  492,205. 

DORE  (d5-ra),  Paul  Gustave,  a pro- 
lific French  draftsman  and  painter,  born 
at  Strasbourg  Jan.  6,  1833.  He  studied 
at  Paris,  contributing,  when  only  six- 
teen years  of  age,  comic  sketches  to  the 
Journal  Pour  llire.  He  distinguished 
himself  greatly  as  an  illustrator  of  books. 
His  illustrations  of  Rabelais,  of  Per- 
rault’s  Tales,  Sue’s  Wandering  Jew, 
Dante’s  Divina  Commedia,  and  Cer- 
vantes’ Don  Quixote,  displayed  great 
fertility  of  invention,  and  the  fine  fan- 
tasy of  his  landscapes  and  the  dramatic 
effectiveness  of  his  groups  acquired  for 
him  a European  reputation.  His  illus- 
trations of  the  Bible,  of  Ariosto’s  Or- 
lando Furioso,  and  Milton’s  Paradise 
Lost,  are  also  of  high  excellence.  As  a 
painter  he  has  grandeur  of  conception 
and  a bold  expressive  style.  Among  his 
chief  works  are  Christ  leaving  the  Prae- 
torium,  Paolo  and  Francesca  di  Rimini, 
The  Flight  into  Egypt,  Mont  Blanc,  etc. 
In  later  years  Dor6  also  won  fame  as  a 
sculptor.  He  died  23d  June,  1883. 

DORIANS,  one  of  the  four  great 
branches  of  the  Greek  nation  who  mi- 
grated from  Thessaly  southward,  set- 
tling for  a time  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Doris  in  Northern  Greece  and 
finally  in  Peloponnesus.  Their  migra- 
tion to  the  latter  was  said  to  have  taken 
I place  in  b.c.  1104;  and  as  among  their 


leaders  were  certain  descendants  of  Her- 
cules (or  Herakles),  it  was  known  as  the 
return  of  the  Heraclidae.  The  Dorians 
ruled  in  Sparta  with  great  renown  as  a 
strong  and  warlike  people,  though  less 
cultivated  than  the  other  Greeks  in  arts 
and  letters.  Their  laws  were  severe  and 
rigid,  as  typified  in  the  codes  of  the  great 
Doric  legislators  Minos  and  Lycurgus. 
(See  Sparta.) — The  Doric  dialect  was 
characterized  by  its  broadness  and  hard- 
ness, yet  on  account  of  its  venerable  and 
antique  style  was  often  used  in  solemn 
odes  and  choruses. 

DORIC  ORDER,  in  architecture,  is 
the  oldest,  strongest,  and  simplest  of  the 
three  Grecian  orders,  and  the  one  that  is 
best  repre.sented  among  the  remains  of 
ancient  Greek  architecture.  The  Doric 


Doric  entablatur 


I 


entablature;  a, epistyle  or  architrave;  5, 
trieze;  c,  cornice.  (From  Archaeol.  Inst. 
Report  on  Assos  Expedition. 


column  is  distinguished  by  its  want  of  a 
base  (in  the  more  ancient  examples,  at 
least),  by  the  small  number  of  its  flutings 


Grecian  Doric  order. 

and  by  its  massive  proportions,  the  true 
Grecian  Doric  having  the  height  of  its 
pillars  six  times  that  of  the  diameter. 
The  capital  was  small  and  simple,  and 
the  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice  were 
rather  plain  and  massive. 

DORMANT  STATE,  a state  of  torpid- 
ity in  which  certain  animals  pass  a por- 
tion of  the  year.  In  cold  and  temperate 
climates  this  period  of  long  sleep  takes 
place  during  the  winter  months,  and  is 
properly  cmled  hibernation.  It  com- 
mences when  the  food  of  the  animals 
begins  to  get  scarce,  continues  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  period,  and  is  deeper 
or  lighter  according  to  the  habits  and 
constitution  of  the  animal.  Bats,  bears, 
some  animals  of  the  rodent  order,  such 


DORMER  WINDOWS 


DOUGLAS 


as  the  porcupine,  the  dormouse,  the 
squirrel,  etc.,  all  the  animals  belonging 
to  the  classes  of  Amphibia  and  Reptilia, 
such  as  tortoises,  lizards,  snakes,  frogs, 
etc.,  and  many  species  of  molluscs  and 
insects,  hibernate  more  or  less  complete- 
ly, retiring  to  suitable  places  of  conceal- 
ment— the  bat  to  dark  caves,  the  hedge- 
h,og  to  fern-brakes,  snakes  to  holes  in 
trees,  etc.  During  hibernation  there  is  a 
great  decrease  of  heat  in  the  bodies  of 
the  animals,  the  temperature  some- 
times sinking  to  40°  or  even  20°  Fahr., 
or  in  general  to  a point  a little  above  that 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  The 
respiration  as  well  as  the  pulsation  of  the 
heart  is  exceedingly  slow,  and  the  irrita- 
bility of  the  animal  often  so  low  that  in 
some  cases  it  can  be  awakened  only  by 
strong  electric  shocks.  With  frogs  and 
amphibious  reptiles  the  dormant  state 
is  very  common,  and  if  the  temperature 
is  kept  low  by  artificial  means  they  may 
remain  dormant  for  years.  The  term 
ajstivation  has  been  used  to  describe  a 
similar  condition  into  which  certain 
animals,  such  as  serpents  and  crocodiles, 
in  tropical  countries  pass  during  the 
hottest  months  of  the  year 

DORMER  WINDOWS  are  windows 
inserted  in  the  inclined  plane  of  a sloping 
roof,  on  a frame  rising  vertically  above 
the  rafters. 

DORMOUSE,  a genus  of  mammiferous 
quadrupeds,  of  the  order  Rodentia. 
These  little  animals,  which  appear  to  be 
intermediate  between  the  squirrels  and 
the  mice,  inhabit  temperate  and  warm 
countries,  and  subsist  entirely  on  vege- 
table food.  Their  pace  is  a kind  of  leap, 
but  they  have  not  the  activity  of  squir- 
rels. Whilst  feeding  they  sit  upright  and 
carry  the  food  to  their  mouth  M'ith  their 
paws.  The  dormice  pass  the  winter 
in  a lethargic  or  torpid  state,  reviving 
only  for  a short  time  on  a warm  sunny 
day,  when  they  take  a little  of  their 
hoarded  stores  and  then  relapse  into  the 
dormant  state. 

D’ORSAY,  Alfred,  Count,  a dilettante 
artist  and  man  of  fashion,  born  at  Paris 
1798,  died  1852.  When  a 3mung  man  he 
visited  England,  and  became  acquainted 
with  Byron  and  other  literary  and  fash- 
ionable celebrities.  He  married  a daugh- 
ter of  the  Earl  of  Blessington,  but  after 
the  earl’s  death  a separation  took  place, 
and  D’Orsay  became  an  inmate  of  Gore 
House,  which  the  Countess  of  Blessing- 
ton  had  made  the  center  of  a famous 
literary  coterie  A zealous  Bonapartist, 
he  followed  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  to 
Paris  in  1849,  whose  favor  he  enjoyed 
till  his  death. 

DORSET,  Dorsetshire,  a . maritime 
county  in  the  south  of  England,  having 
on  the  south  the  English  Channel;  area, 
627,265  acres,  over  490,000  being  under 
crop.  The  general  surface  of  the  county 
is  undulating;  its  principal  elevations 
being  chalk  hills  known  as  the  North  and 
South  Downs,  upon  which  immense 
flocks  of  sheep  are  pastured.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  those  of  flax, 
canvas,  duck,  etc.,  also  silk  and  woolens. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Stour,  the 
Frome,  and  the  Piddle.  Dorchester  is 
the  county  town.  Other  towns  are  Brid- 
port,  Poole,  and  Weymouth.  Pop. 
202,962. 


DORSET,  Earls  of.  See  Sackville. 

DORT'MUND,  a city  of  Prussia,  prov- 
ince of  Westphalia,  on  the  Emscher, 
47  miles  n.n.e.  of  Cologne,  starting-point 
of  an  important  canal  to  the  lower  Ems. 
It  was  once  a free  imperial  Hanseatic 
town,  and  the  seat  of  the  chief  tribunal 
of  the  Vehme.  Pop.  142,733. 

DORY,  a fish  belonging  to  the  mackerel 
family,  celebrated  for  the  delicacy  of  its 
flesh.  It  seldom  exceeds  18  inches  in 
length,  and  is  yellowish-green  in  color 
with  a blackish  .spot  on  each  side,  which. 


Dory. 


according  to  an  old  superstition,  is  the 
mark  of  St.  Peter’s  fore-finger  and 
thumb.  The  dory  is  found  on  the  At- 
lantic shores  of  Europe  and  in  the  Med- 

DOUAI  ’(do-a),  or  DOUAY,  a town, 
France,  department  Nord,  on  the  Scarpe, 
18  miles  south  of  Lille.  It  is  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  France,  of  which  it  be- 
came part  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
It  is  strongly  fortified,  has  a fine  town- 
house,  several  handsome  churches,  an 
academy  of  arts  and  law,  a lyceum, 
museum  and  public  library,  Benedictine 
college,  hospital,  etc. ; a cannon  foundry, 
linen  manufactories,  machine-works, 
tanneries,  etc.  There  was  long  here  a 
college  for  British  Roman  Catholic 
priests,  the  most  celebrated  of  its  kind. 
Pop.  30,030. 

DOUAI  BIBLE,  the  English  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  used  among  English- 
speaking  R.  Catholics,  and  executed  by 
divines  connected  with  the  English 
College  at  Douai.  The  New  Testament 
was  published  in  1582  at  Rheims,  the 
Old  in  1609 — 10  at  Douai,  the  transla- 
tion being  based  on  the  vulgate.  Vari- 
ous revisions  have  since  materially 
3<lt'Gr0ci  it 

DOUBLE  CONSCIOUSNESS,  an  alleg- 
ed morbid  “state  of  mind,”  in  which 
the  same  person  at  different  times  ap- 
pears to  have  a different  personality. 
It  is  seriously  discussed  by  psycholo- 
gists, who  compare  it  with  hypnosis,  and 
it  is  probably  due  to  incomplete  co- 
ordination in  the  associational  region  of 
the  cerebral  cortex. 

DOUBLE-EAGLE,  an  American  gold 
coin  of  the  value  of  twenty  dollars,  so 
called  because  double  the  value  of  the 
coin  called  the  eagle. 

DOUBLE-ENTRY.  See  Book-keep- 

DOUBLE-INSURANCE,  the  effecting 
of  two  insurances  upon  the  same  goods. 
In  marine  insurance  it  is  lawful  for  a 
shipper  to  insure  his  goods  twice,  but 
only  to  give  an  additional  security  in 
the  event  of  the  failure  of  the  first  under- 
writers. In  the  event  of  a loss  it  is 
ultimately  divided  among  the  under- 
writers in  the  ratio  of  the  risks  they  have 
taken. 


DOUBLE-STANDARD  OF  MONE- 
TARY VALUE.  See  Currency,  Bi- 
metallism. 

DOUBLE-STARS,  or  BINARY  STARS, 

stars  which  are  so  close  together  that 
they  appear  as  one  to  the  naked  eye, 
but  are  seen  to  be  double  when  viewed 
through  a telescope.  One  of  these  stars 
may  revolve  about  the  other,  or  both 
may  revolve  round  a common  center. 
See  Stars. 

DOUBLET,  a close-fitting  garment, 
covering  the  body  from  the  neck  to  a 
little  below  the  waist.  It  was  intro- 
duced from  France  into  England  in  the 


1,  Doublet,  time  of  Edward  IV,  8,  3,  Doublets, 
time  of  Elizabeth.  4,  Doublet,  time  of 
Charles  1. 


14th  century,  and  was  worn  by  both 
sexes  and  all  ranks  until  the  time  of 
Charles  II.,  when  it  was  superseded  by 
the  vest  and  waistcoat.  The  garment 
got  its  name  from  being  originally  lined 
or  wadded  for  defense. 

DOUBS  (do),  a department  of  France, 
having  Switzerland  on  its  eastern  fron- 
tier. Its  surface  is  traversed  by  four 
chains  of  the  Jura.  The  temperature  is 
variable,  and  the  climate  somewhat 
rigorous.  About  a third  of  the  land  is 
arable,  but  much  the  greater  part  is 
covered  with  forests.  Maize,  potatoes, 
hemp,  flax,  are  the  principal  crops 
Much  dairy  produce  is  made  into 
Gruyere  cheese.  The  minerals  include 
iron,  lead,  and  marble.  Pop.  310,963. 

DOUCHE  (dosh),  a jet  or  current  of 
water  or  vapor  directed  upon  some  part 
of  the  body;  employed  in  bathing 
establishments.  When  water  is  applied 
it  is  called  the  liquid  douche,  and  when 
a current  of  vapor  the  vapor  douche. 

DOUGHFACE,  a name  applied,  be- 
fore and  during  the  ci\dl  war,  to  any 
resident  of  the  North  who  favored  the 
slave  owners  of  the  South.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  name  is  not  clear. 

DOUGLAS  (dug'las),  a family  dis- 
tinguished in  the  annals  of  Scotland. 
Their  origin  is  unknown.  They  were 
already  territorial  magnates  at  the  time 
when  Bruce  and  Baliol  were  competitors 
for  the  crown.  .\s  their  estates  lay  on 
the  borders  they  early  became  guardians 
of  the  kingdom  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  English,  and  acquired  in 
this  way  power,  habits,  and  experience 


DOUGLAS 


DRAGON 


which  frequently  made  them  formidable 
to  the  crown. 

DOUGLAS,  Stephen  Arnold,  American 
statesman,  born  in  Vermont  1813,  died 
1861.  Having  gone  to  Jacksonville,  111., 
be  became  an  attorney,  was  appointed 
attorney-general  for  the  state,  and  in 
1843  was  elected  a member  of  the  U. 


Stephen  A.  Douglas. 


States  house  of  representatives.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  to  the  senate,  and 
by  re-election  was  a member  of  this 
body  till  his  death.  He  was  especially 
prominent  in  connection  with  the  ques- 
tion at  to  the  extension  of  slavery  into 
new  states  and  territories,  which  he 
maintained  was  a matter  to  be  settled  by 
the  people  of  the  respective  states  or 
teiritories,  and  not  by  congress.  He 
was  a presidential  candidate  in  1860, 
when  Lincoln  was  elected. 

DOUGLASS,  Frederick,  American  lec- 
turer and  journalist,  was  the  son  of  a 
negro  slave,  and  was  born  at  Tuckahoe 
in  Maryland,  about  1817.  Although  his 
father  was  a white  man,  he  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  law,  reared  as  a slave.  In 
1832  he  was  purchased  by  a Baltimore 
ship-builder,  but  made  his  escape  in  1838. 
As  he  had  taught  himself  to  read  and 
write,  and  showed  talent  as  an  orator, 
he  was  employed  by  the  anti-slavery 
society  as  one  of  their  lecturers.  In 
1845  he  published  his  autobiography, 
and  afterward  made  a successful  lectur- 
ing tour  in  England.  In  1870  he  started 
a journal  entitled  the  The  New  National 
Era;  in  1871  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  commission  to  Santo  Domingo; 
in  1872,  presidential  elector;  in  1877 
marshal  for  the  district  of  Columbia, 
then  commissioner  of  deeds  for  that 
district,  and  in  1889  United  States 
minister  to  Hayti.  He  died  in  1895. 

DOUM  PALM  (dom),  a palm-tree.  It 
is  remarkable,  like  the  other  species  of 
the  genus,  for  having  a repeatedly- 
branched  stem.  Each  branch  terminates 
in  a tuft  of  large  fan-shaped  leaves.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  an  apple;  it 
has  a fibrous  mealy  rind,  which  tastes 
like  gingerbread  (whence  the  name 
gingerbread  tree  sometimes  applied  to 
this  palm),  and  is  eaten  by  the  poorer 
inhabitants  of  Upper  Egypt,  where  it 
grows.  An  infusion  of  the  rind  is  also 
used  as  a _ cooling  beverage  in  fevers. 
The  seed  is  horny,  and  is  made  into 
small  ornaments.  Ropes  are  made  of 
the  fibers  of  the  leaf -stalks. 

DOVE.  See  Turtle-dove  and  Pigeon. 

DOVER,  a city  in  New  Hampshire. 
It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Coche- 
cho,  which  has  here  a fall  of  over  30  feet, 
affording  abundant  water-power  for  the 
large  iron  and  cotton  manufactories, 
fop.  13,214. 


DO'VER,  a mun.  and  pari,  borough  of 
England,  county  Kent,  67  miles  south- 
east of  London.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
way terminus,  and  as  a port  for  mail  and 
packet  service  with  the  Continent  has 
a large  passenger  traffic.  Pop.  41,782. 


Doum  palm. 


DOVER,  Straits  of,  the  narrow  chan- 
nel between  Dover  and  Calais  which 
separates  Great  Britain  from  the  French 
coast.  At  the  nanowest  part  it  is  only 
21  miles  wide.  The  depth  of  the  channel 
at  a medium  in  the  highest  spring-tides 
is  about  25  fathoms.  On  both  the 
French  and  English  sides  the  chalky 
cliffs  show  a correspondency  of  strata 
which  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  they 
Were  once  united,  although  this  is  known 
otherwise. 

DOVER’S  POWDER,  a preparation 
frequently  used  in  medical  practice  to 
produce  perspiration.  It  consists  of  1 
grain  of  opium,  1 of  ipecacuanha,  and  8 
of  sulphate  of  potash  in  every  10  grains, 
which  constitute  a full  dose.  In  pre- 
paring it  the  ingredients  must  be 
thoroughly  mixed. 

DOVE-TAILING,  in  carpentry,  is  the 
fastening  boards  together  by  letting  one 
piece  in  the  form  of  a dove-tail  into  a 
corresponding  cavity  in  another.  The 
dove-tail  is  the  strongest  kind  of  joint- 
ing. 

DOW,  Neal,  an  American  temperance 
advocate,  born  in  Maine  in  1804,  died 
in  1897.  He  fought  in  the  civil  war  on 
the  Union  side,  rose  to  be  brigadier- 
general,  was  a prisoner  in  Libby  prison 
and  in  1880  was  prohibition  candidate 
for  president  of  the  United  States.  His 
whole  life  long  he  consistently  worked  for 
total  abstinence. 

DOWER,  in  English  law,  is  the  right 
which  a wife  (not  being  an  alien)  has  in 
the  lands  and  tenements  of  which  her 
husband  dies  possessed.  By  common 
law  this  right  amounts  to  one-third  of 
his  estate  during  her  life;  by  local  cus- 
tom it  is  frequently  greater. 

DOWN,  a county  of  Ireland,  in 
Ulster,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Belfast 
Lough  and  on  the  east  by  the  Irish  Sea; 
area,  610,730  acres,  of  which  over  five- 
sixths  are  productive.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  linen  and  muslin.  The 


fisheries  on  the  coast,  principally  cod, 
haddock,  and  herring,  are  considerable, 
the  county  town  is  Downpatrick.  Bop. 
289  335 

DOWNING,  Andrew  Jackson,  an 
American  horticulturist,  born  in  New 
York  in  1815,  died  in  1852.  He  intro- 
duced into  this  country  the  English 
niethod  of  landscape  gardening,  de- 
signed the  garden  of  the  capitol  at 
Washington,  and  other  government 
garden  works. 

DOXOL'OGY,  a set  form  of  words 
givi,ng  glory  to  God,  and  especially  a 
name  given  to  two  short  hymns  dis- 
tinguished by  the  title  of  greater  (Glory 
be  to  God  on  high,  etc.)  and  lesser  (Glory 
be  to  the  Father,  etc.).  Both  the  doxol- 
ogies  have  a place  in  the  Church  of 
England  liturgy,  the  latter  being  re- 
peated after  every  psalm,  and  the  former 
used  in  the  communion  service. 

DOYLE,  Sir  Arthur  Conan,  English 
novelist,  born  at  Edinburgh,  185ff, 
studied  medicine,  and  for  some  years 
practiced,  but  gave  up  the  profession 
for  that  of  literature.  Among  his  books 
are  Micah  Clarke;  The  Sign  of  Four; 
The  White  Company;  The  Adventures 
of  Sherlock  Holmes,  etc. 

DRACHMA  (drak'ma),  the  unit  of 
weight  and  of  money  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  It  was  the  principal  Greek  coin, 
was  made  of  silver  and  was  worth  (the 
Attic  drachma)  about  20  cents.  As  a 
weight  among  the  Greeks  it  was  about 
2 dwt.  7 grains  troy. 

DRACO,  a legislator  of  Athens,  about 
620  B.C.,  whose  name  has  become  pro- 
verbial as  an  inexorable  and  blood- 
thirsty lawgiver,  and  wdiose  laws  were 
said  to  have  been  written  in  blood,  not 
ink. 

DRACO,  the  Dragon,  a constellation 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  containing, 
according  to  Flamsteed,  eighty  stars. 
The  star  Draconis  is  celebrated  as  the 
one  used  in  determining  the  coefficient 
of  aberration  of  the  fixed  stars. 

DRAFT,  or  DRAUGHT,  a bill  drawn 
by  one  person  on  another.  Also  a rough 
copy  of  any  document  intended  to  be 
afterward  transcribed. 

DRAG,  (1)  a long  coach  or  carriage, 
generally  uncovered  and  seated  round 
the  sides.  (2)  An  apparatus  for  retard- 
ing or  stopping  the  rotation  of  one  wheel 
or  of  several  wheels,  in  carriages  espe- 
cially. (3)  An  apparatus,  consisting  of  a 
frame  of  iron  with  a bag-net  attached, 
used  to  recover  articles  lost  in  the  water. 

DRAG-NET,  a net  drawn  along  the 
bottom  of  a river  or  pond  to  catch  fish. 
The  use  of  drag-nets  is  usually  pro- 
hibited in  rivers  where  fish  breed,  as  it 
takes  all  indiscriminately. 

DRAGO  DOCTRINE,  so  called  from 
Argentine,  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
of  that  name,  who  in  1906  declared  the 
debts  of  one  nation  should  not  be  forci- 
bly collected  by  army  and  navy  of  an- 
other nation,  but  left  to  the  courts. 

DRAG'ON,  a fabulous  monster,  the 
stories  regarding  which  reach  back  al- 
most as  far  as  history.  His  form  is  de- 
scribed as  generally  resembling  that  of  a 
winged  and  two-legged  serpent,  the  body 
covered  with  scales,  the  head  crested, 
and  the  mouth  spouting  fire.  The  im- 
mediate source  of  the  mediaeval  concep- 
tion is  probably  the  Scriptures,  modi- 


DRAGON 


DRAIN-TRAP 


fied  by  accounts  brought  home  by  the 
crusaders  of  the  crocodiles  in  Egypt. 

DRAGON,  or  DRAGON-LIZARD,  a 
name  for  several  species  of  lizards  in- 
habiting Asia,  Africa,  and  South  Amer- 
ica. The  common  flying  lizard,  the  best 


The  dragon  of  fable. 

type  01  the  genus,  is  about  10  or  12 
inches  in  length,  the  tail  being  extremely 
long  in  proportion  to  the  body.  The 
sides  are  furnished  with  peculiar  exten- 
sions of  the  skin,  forming  a kind  of  wings, 
which  help  to  support  it  in  the  air  when 
it  springs  from  branch  to  branch.  Its 
food  consists  almost  exclusively  of 
insects. 

DRAGON-FLY,  a family  of  neurop- 
terous  insects.  They  have  a large  head, 
large  eyes,  and  strong  horny  mandibles. 
They  are  beautiful  in  form  and  color,  and 
are  of  very  powerful  flight.  They  live  on 


Dragon-fly. 


insects,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
voracity.  The  dragon-fly  deposits  its 
eggs  in  the  water,  where  the  larvse  and 
pupae  live  on  aquatic  insects.  The  larval 
stage  lasts  for  a year.  The  family  is  of 
very  wide  distribution. 

DRAGON’S  BLOOD,  a resinous  juice, 
usually  obtained  by  incision  from  vari- 
ous tropical  plants.  It  differs  in  com- 
position, and  is  often  much  adulterated. 
It  is  opaque,  of  a reddish-brown  color, 
brittle,  and  has  a smooth  shining  con- 
choidal  fracture.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  oil,  but  scarcely  so  in  water.  It  is 
used  for  coloring  varnishes,  staining 
marble,  leather,  and  wood,  for  tooth 
tinctures,  etc. 

DRAGON-TREE,  a tree-like  lilaceous 
plant,  with  a stem  simple  or  divided  at 
top,  and  in  old  age  often  much  branched. 
It  is  a native  of  the  Canaries,  and  yields 
the  resin  known  as  dragon’s  blood.  It 
ie  often  grown  in  stoves  and  greenhouses. 


DRAGOON',  a kind  of  mounted  sol- 
dier, so  called  originally  from  his  mus- 
ket (dragon)  having  on  the  muzzle  of  it 
the  head  of  a dragon.  At  one  time 
dragoons  served  both  as  mounted  and 
foot  soldiers,  but  now  only  as  the  former. 

DRAINAGE,  in  agriculture,  a method 
of  improving  the  soil  by  withdrawing 
the  water  from  it  by  means  of  channels 
that  are  generally  covered  over.  The 
successful  practice  of  draining  in  a great 
measure  depends  on  a proper  knowledge 
of  the  superficial  strata,  of  their  situa- 
tion, relative  degrees  of  porosity,  etc. 
Some  strata  allow  water  to  pass  through 
them,  while  others  more  impervious 
force  it  to  run  or  filtrate  along  their  sur- 
faces till  it  reaches  more  level  ground 
below.  In  general  where  the  grounds 
are  in  a great  measure  flat  and  the  soils 
of  materials  which  retain  the  excess  of 


1,  Horse-shoe  tile  with  sole.  Sections  of  drain 
— 2,  Stone  drain.  3.  Drain  with  horse-shoe 
tiles.  4,  Drain  with  pipe-tiles. 

moisture,  they  require  artificial  means  of 
drainage  to  render  them  capable  of 
yielding  good  crops  whether  of  grain  or 
grass.  The  wetness  of  land  which  makes 
it  inferior  for  agricultural  purposes,  may 
appear  not  only  as  surface-water  but  as 
water  which  flows  through  the  low'er 
strata,  and  to  draw  off  these  there  are 
the  two  distinct  operations  of  surface- 
draining  and  under-draining.  The 
rudest  form  of  open  drains  are  the  deep 
furrows  lying  between  high-backed 
ridges,  and  meant  to  carry  off  the  sur- 
plus water  after  the  soil  is  completely 
saturated,  but  in  doing  so  they  generally 
carry  off  also  much  of  the  best  of  the 
soil  and  of  the  manure  which  has  been 
spread  upon  it.  The  ordinary  ditch  is  a 
common  form  of  water-course  useful  in 
certain  cases,  as  in  hill  pastures.  But 
covered  drains  at  a depth  of  4 feet  or  so 
are  the  common  forms  in  draining  agri- 
cultural lands.  They  are  generally  either 
stone-drains  or  tile-drains.  Stone-drains 
are  either  formed  on  the  plan  of  open 
culverts  of  various  forms,  or  of  small 
stones  in  sufficient  quantity  to  permit 
a free  and  speedy  filtration  of  the  water 
through  them.  The  box-drain,  for  in- 
stance, is  formed  of  flat  stones  neatly 
arranged  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  the 
whole  forming  an  open  tube.  In  tile- 
drains,  tiles  or  pipes  of  burnt  clay  are 
used  for  forming  the  conduits.  They 
possess  all  the  qualities  which  are  re- 
quired in  the  formation  of  drains,  afford- 
ing a free  ingress  to  water,  while  they 
effectually  exclude  vermin,  earth,  and 
other  injurious  substances.  Drainage 
tiles  and  pipes  have  been  made  in  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  the  earliest  of 


which,  since  the  introduction  of  thor- 
ough draining,  was  the  horse-shoe  tile, 
so  called  from  its  shape.  These  should 
always  rest  on  soles,  or  flats  of  burned 
clay.  Pipe  tiles,  which  combine  the  sole 
and  cover  in  one  piece,  have  been  made 
of  various  shapes,  but  the  best  form 
appears  to  be  the  cylinder.  An  impor- 
tant department  of  draining  is  the  drain- 
ing off  of  the  waters  which  are  the 
sources  of  springs.  Sometimes  the  judi- 
cious application  of  a few  simple  drains, 
made  to  communicate  with  the  watery 
layers,  will  often  dry  swamps  of  great  ex- 
tent, where  large  sums  of  money,  ex- 
pended in  forming  open  drains  in  the 
swamp  itself,  would  leave  it  but  little 
improved.  In  the  laying  out  of  drains 
the  first  point  to  be  determined  is  the 
place  of  outfall,  which  should  always 
afford  a free  and  clear  outlet  to  the 
drains,  and  must  necessarily  be  at  the 
lowest  point  of  the  land  to  be  drained. 
The  next  point  to  be  determined  is  the 
position  of  the  minor  drains;  in  the  lay- 
ing out  of  which  the  surface  of  each  field 
must  be  regarded  as  being  made  up  of 
one  or  more  planes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
for  each  of  which  the  drains  should  be 
laid  out  separately.  Level  lines  are  to 
be  set  out  a little  below  the  upper  edge  of 
each  of  these  planes,  and  the  drains  must 
then  be  made  to  cross  these  lines  at  right 
angles.  By  this  means  the  drains  will 
run  in  the  line  of  the  greatest  slope,  no 
matter  how  distorted  the  surface  of  the 
field  may  be.  All  the  minor  drains 
should  be  made  to  discharge  into  mains 
or  submains,,and  not  directly  into  an 
open  ditch  or  water-course.  As  a gen- 
eral rule  there  should  be  a main  to  re- 
ceive the  waters  of  the  minor  drains 
from  every  5 acres.  The  advantages  of 
drainage  are  obvious.  In  the  first  place 
it  allows  the  soil  to  be  brought  into  a 
more  suitable  condition  for  the  growth  of 
plants,  aiding  in  producing  the  finely- 
divided  and  porous  state  by  which  the 
roots  and  rootlets  can  spread  themselves 
at  will  in  order  to  obtain  the  needed  sup- 
plies of  food,  air,  and  moisture.  It  also 
allows  the  sun’s  rays  to  produce  their 
full  effect  on  the  soil  and  plants  without 
being  robbed  of  great  part  of  it  by  the 
stagnant  water. 

DRAINAGE  TUBES  are  used  in  sur- 
gery to  effect  a discharge  of  matter  from 
an  abscess  or  other  collection  of  matter 
when  a free  incision  cannot  be  safely  or 
convenietitly  made.  They  are  usually 
made  of  india-rubber  or  caoutchouc,  and 
are  introduced  into  the  abscess  or  wound 
so  that  one  end  is  in  contact  with  the 
seat  of  discharge,  while  the  other  reaches 
to  the  surface-of  the  skin. 

DRAIN-TRAP,  a contrivance  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  foul  air  from  drains, 
but  to  allow  the  passage  of  water  into 
them.  They  are  of  various  forms.  In 


Drain-trap. 

the  traps  represented  above  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  must  always  be  certain 
quantity  of  water  maintained  to  bar  the 
1 way  against  the  escape  of  the  gas  from 


DRAKE 


DRAUGHTS 


the  drain  or  sewer.  When  additional 
liquid  is  conveyed  to  the  trap  there  is  of 
course  an  overflow  into  the  drain.  In 
the  left-hand  figure  the  gas  is  prevented 
from  escaping  By  a metal  plate  thrown 
obliquely  over  the  drain  mouth  and 
dipping  into  the  water  in  the  vessel  be- 
yond it. 

DRAKE,  Sir  Francis,  an  English  navi- 
gator, born  at  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire, 
in  1539.  He  joined  Sir  John  Hawkins 
in  his  last  expedition  against  the  Span- 
iards (1567).  Having  gathered  a num- 


Sir  Francis  Drake. 


ber  of  adventurers  round  him  he  con- 
trived to  fit  out  a vessel  in  which  he  made 
two  successful  cruises  to  the  West  Indies 
in  1570  and  1571.  Next  year,  with  two 
small  ships,  he  again  sailed  for  the  Span- 
ish Main,  captured  the  cities  of  Nombre 
de  Dios  and  Vera  Cruz,  and  took  a rich 
booty  which  he  brought  safely  home.  In 
1577  Drake  made  another  expedition  to 
the  Spanish  Main,  having  this  time  com- 
mand of  five  ships.  On  this  the  most 
famous  of  his  voyages  Drake  passed  the 
Straits  of  Magellan,  plundered  all  along 
the  coast  of  Chili  and  Peru,  sacked 
several  ports,  and  captured  a galleon 
laden  with  silver,  gold,  jewels,  etc.,  to 
the  value  of  perhaps  $1,000,000.  He 
then  ran  north  as  far  as  48°  n.  lat.,  seek- 
ing a passage  to  the  Atlantic,  but  was 
compelled  to  return  to  Port  San  Fran- 
cisco on  account  of  the  cold.  He  then 
steered  for  the  Moluccas,  and  holding 
straight  across  the  Indian  Ocean  doubled 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  arrived  at 
Plymouth  3d  Nov.,  1580,  being  thus  the 
first  of  the  English  circumnavigators. 
In  1593  he  represented  Plymouth  in  par- 
liament. His  later  expeditions,  that  in 

1595  against  the  Spanish  West  Indies 
and  that  to  Panama,  were  not  so  succes- 
ful,  and  his  death,  which  took  place  in 

1596  at  sea  off  Porto  Bello,  was  hastened 
by  disappointment. 

DRAMA,  a class  of  writings  which  al- 
most entirely  consist  of  dialogue,  per- 
sons being  represented  as  acting  and 
speaking,  and  the  pieces  being  usually 
intended  to  be  acted  on  a stage  by  parties 
assuming  the  characters  of  the  respec- 
tive persons.  Its  two  great  branches  are 
tragedy  and  comedy,  the  former,  rough- 
ly speaking,  melancholy  in  character, 
the  latter  cheerful.  The  origin  of  the 
drama  must  be  sought  for  in  the  love  of 
imitation,  and  dramatic  performances  of 
some  kind  are  to  be  met  with  probably 
among  all  nations.  Dramatic  composi- 
tions are  found  in  the  Old  Testament, 
for  example,  in  Job  and  the  Song  of 


Solomon;  and  ancient  India  and  China 
both  developed  a dramatic  literature  of 
their  own.  The  European  drama  had  its 
origin  in  Greece.  Both  forms,  tragic  and 
comic,  took  their  rise  in  the  celebrations 
of  the  Greek  festivals  of  Dionysius 
(Bacchus),  at  which  hymns  and  chants 
were  sung  by  choruses  in  honor  of  the 
god,  and  the  chorus  continued  to  be  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  old  Greek 
drama.  Greek  comedy  commenced 
about  580-560  b.c.,  with  Susarion,  but  it 
was  long  in  attaining  regular  form.  Of 
the  old  Greek  comedy  the  chief  repre- 
sentatives were  Cratinus,  Eupolis,Phere- 
crates,  and  Aristophanes — the  last  the 
greatest.  The  invention  of  tragedy  is 
generally  ascribed  to  Thespis  about  530 
B.C.,  who  was  followed  by  Phrynichus. 
But  the  true  creator  of  tragedy  was 
.(Eschylus,  in  whose  works  and  those  of 
Sophocles  and  Euripides  it  found  its 
most  perfect  expression. 

In  most  modern  European  countries 
the  regular  drama  took  its  rise  in  the 
mysteries,  miracle-plays,  and  moralities 
of  the  middle  ages.  In  Italy,  however, 
it  began  with  a reproduction  in  Latin  of 
classical  models.  The  earliest  tragedy 
in  Italian  is  Trissino’s  Sofonisba  (1502). 
Regular  comedies  in  Italian  were  written 
by  Ariosto,  Aretino,  Macchiavelli,  and 
others;  and  to  the  same  period  (15th  and 
16th  centuries)  belongs  the  Italian  Pas- 
toral Drama,  which  sprung  from  the 
ancient  idylls,  and  aimed^  at  a fanciful 
delineation  of  Arcadian  and  mythologi- 
cal scenes.  Among  the  pastoral  drama- 
tists of  this  period  are  Poliziano,  Tasso 
and  Guarini.  Tlie  pastorals  gave  birth 
to  the  opera,  early  masters  of  which,  so 
far  as  it  may  be  included  in  the  poetic 
drama,  are  Zeno  and  Metastasio.  The 
Italian  drama  waned  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, but  in  the  18th  genuine  comedy 
ana  classic  tragedy  were  restored,  the 
former  by  Goldoni,  the  latter  by  Alfieri. 
Monti,  Manzoni,  and  Niccolini  are  among 
the  later  writers  of  tragedy. 

The  other  European  nations  culti- 
vated the  dramatic  art  much  later  than 
the  Italians.  The  English  and  Spaniards 
devoted  their  attention  to  it  almost  at 
the  same  time ; the  former  reaching  their 
acme  in  Shakespeare,  the  latter  in  Lope 
de  Vega  and  Calderon.  The  history  of 
the  English  theater  and  the  drama  is 
naturally  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
first  of  which  begins  with  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  and  ends  with  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  With  Charles  II.  the  drama 
reappeared,  and  exhibited  a licentious- 
ness hardly  equalled  by  that  of  any  other 
Christian  nation.  During  the  19th  cen- 
tury many  writers  have  been  conspicu- 
ous by  their  dramas.  Among  the  chief 
of  these  may  be  noted  Byron,  Coleridge, 
Landor,  Shelley,  Maturin,  Talfourd,  Mil- 
man,  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  the  first  Lord 
Lytton,  Knowles,  R.  H.  Horne,  Arnold, 
Browning,  Swinburne,  and  Tennyson. 
Among  other  19th  century  writers  for 
the  stage,  who,  however,  may  be  called 
playwrights  rather  than  dramatists,  may 
Be  named,  Douglas  Jerrold,  Tom  Taylor, 
Charles  Reade,  Thomas  Robertson,  W. 
G.  Wills,  Henry  Byron,  Robert  Bu- 
chanan, Dion  Boucicault,  W.  S.  Gilbert, 
etc. 

The  French  drama  was  in  a miserable 
state  before  Corneille  (1606-84),  who 


indeed  is  looked  on  as  the  founder  of  the 
drama  in  France.  Racine,  MoliSre, 
Voltaire,  and  in  later  times  Hugo,  are 
some  of  the  other  distinguished  French 
dramatists.  Since  about  1820  a new 
dramatic  school  has  been  formed  in 
France,  which,  departing  from  the  an- 
cient strictness  of  what  is  called  the 
classic,  approaches  more  and  more  to  the 
German  or  British,  or  what  is  called  the 
romantic  school. 

The  German  drama  is  of  later  birth 
than  any  we  have  mentioned,  and  for  a 
long  time  the  Germans  contented  them- 
selves with  translations  and  adaptations 
from  the  French.  Lessing  was  the  first 
who,  by  word  and  deed,  broke  the  French 
sway  (1755),  and  he  was  succeeded  by 
Schiller  and  Goethe,  who  rank  as  the 
greatest  of  the  more  modern  dramatists. 
Prominent  names  in  the  German  drama 
are  Kotzebue,  Korner,  Schlegel,  Tieck, 
Brentano,  Grillparzer,  Hebbel,  Ludwig, 
Gutzkow,  Frey  tag,  Laube,  Von  Moser, 
etc.  The  Dutch  drama  begins  with  the 
classical  tragedies  of  Koster  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  17th  century,  and  reached 
its  highest  in  Vondel  (1587-1659).  Hol- 
berg,  Heiberg,  Oehlenschlager,  Ibsen, 
and  Bjornson  are  the  chief  names  con- 
nected with  the  Scandinavian  drama. 

The  American  drama  is  on  the  same 
order  as  the  English,  and  although  no 
great  dramatists  have  been  developed 
in  the  U.  States  many  plays  of  power 
have  been  written  by  American  authors. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  The 
Contrast,  by  Royall  Tyler;  The  Prince  of 
Parthia,  by  Godfrey;  Brutus,  or  the  Fall 
of  Tarquin,  by  John  Howard  Payne; 
Metamora,  by  John  A.  Stone;  and  The 
Gladiator,  by  R.  N.  Bird.  More  recently 
a number  of  fairly  good  plays  have  been 
written,  but  the  U.  States  has  not  pro- 
duced a classic  play  since  those  above 
mentioned. 

DRAPER,  John  William,  an  American 
historian,  chemist,  and  philosopher, 
born  in  England  in  1811,  died  in  1882. 
He  came  to  the  U.  States  as  a boy  and 
was  early  a teacher  in  Sidney  College, 
Va.  He  made  important  contributions 
to  the  science  of  physical  chemistry,  but 
is  popularly  known  for  his  two  works 
The  History  of  the  Intellectual  De- 
velopment of  Europe  (1863)  and  The 
History  of  the  Conflict  Between  Religion 
and  Science  (1874). 

DRAPERY,  the  clothes  or  hangings 
with  which  any  object  is  draped  or  hung; 
specifically  in  sculpture  and  painting, 
the  representation  of  the  clothing  or 
dress  of  human  figures. 

DRAUGHT,  the  depth  of  a body  of 
water  necessary  to  float  a ship;  or  the 
depth  a ship  sinks  in  water,  especially 
when  laden. 

DRAUGHTS,  a game  resembling  chess 
played  on  a board  divided  into  sixty- 
four  checkered  squares.  Each  of  the 
two  players  is  provided  with  twelve 
pieces  or  “men”  placed  on  every  alter- 
nate square  at  each  end  of  the  board. 
The  men  are  moved  forward  diagonally 
to  the  right  or  left  one  square  at  a time, 
the  object  of  each  player  being  to  cap- 
ture all  his  opponent’s  men,  or  to  hem 
them  in  so  that  they  cannot  move.  A 
piece  can  be  captured  only  when  the 
square  on  the  diagonal  line  behind  it  is 
unoccupied.  When  a player  succeeds  in 


DRAWBACK 


DRESDEN 


moving  a piece  to  the  further  end  of  the 
board  (the  crown-head),  that  piece  be- 
comes a king,  and  has  the  power  of 
moving  or  capturing  diagonally  back- 
ward or  forward.  When  it  so  happens 
that  neither  of  the  players  has  sufficient 
advantage  in  force  or  position  to  enable 
him  to  win,  the  game  is  drawn.  Check- 
ers is  the  eommon  American  name  of  the 
game. 

DRAWBACK,  usually  a certain 
amount  of  duties  or  customs  dues  paid 
back  or  remitted  to  an  importer  when 
he  exports  goods  that  he  has  previously 
imported  and  paid  duty  on,  as,  for  in- 
stance, tobacco,  etc. ; or  a certain  amount 
of  excise  paid  back  or  allowed  on  the 
exportation  of  home  manufactures. 

DRAWBRIDGE,  a bridge  with  a lift- 
ing floor,  such  as  were  formerly  used  for 
crossing  the  ditches  of  fortresses,  or  any 
movable  bridge  over  a navigable  chan- 
nel where  the  height  of  the  roadway  is 
insufficient  to  allow  vessels  to  pass  under- 
neath. Modern  drawbridges  across 
rivers,  canals,  the  entrances  of  docks, 
etc.,  are  generally  made  to  open  hori- 
zontally, and  the  movable  portion  is 
called  a bascule,  balance,  or  lifting 
bridge,  a turning,  swivel,  or  swing 
bridge,  or  a rolling  bridge,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  mode  in  which  it  is  made 
to  open.  Swing-bridges  are  usually 
divided  into  two  parts  meeting  in  the 
middle,  and  each  moved  on  pivots  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  channel,  or  they 
ma}^  move  as  a whole  on  a pivot  in  the 
middle  of  the  channel.  Rolling  bridges 
are  suspended  from  a structure  high 
above  the  water,  and  are  propelled  back- 
ward and  forward  by  means  of  rollers. 

DRAWING  is  the  art  of  representing 
upon  a fiat  surface  the  forms  of  objects, 
and  their  positions  and  relations  to  each 
other.  The  idea  of  nearness  or  distance 
is  given  by  the  aid  of  perspective,  fore- 
shortening, and  gradation.  The  term 
drawing,  in  its  strict  sense,  is  only  ap- 
plicable to  the  representing  of  the  forms 
of  objects  in  outline,  with  the  shading 
necessary  to  develop  roundness  or 
modeling.  In  art,  however,  the  term 
has  a wider  significance.  Highly- 
finished  paintings  in  water-color  are 
called  drawings,  as  are  also  sketches  or 
studies  in  oils.  Drawing,  in  its  restricted 
sense,  may  be  divided  into  these  kinds: 
(1)  pen  drawing;  (2)  chalk  drawing, 
which  may  include  lead-pencil  drawings; 
(3)  crayon  drawing;  (4)  drawing  shaded 
with  the  brush  or  hair-pencil;  (5)  archi- 
tectural or  mechanical  drawing.  Pen 
drawings  are  often  confined  to  pure  out- 
lines; an  appearance  of  relief  or  projec- 
tion being  given  by  thickening  or  doub- 
ling the  lines  on  the  shadow  side.  Fin- 
ished pen  drawings  have  all  the  shading 
produced  by  combinations  of  lines. 
Chalk  drawings  (including  lead-pencil 
drawings)  are  most  suited  for  beginners, 
as  errors  can  be  easily  corrected.  Black, 
red  and  white  chalks  are  used.  When 
the  chalk  is  powdered  and  rubbed  in 
with  a stump,  large  masses  and  broad 
effects  can  be  produced  with  much 
rapidity.  A combination  of  hatching 
and  stumping  is  generally  preferable  to 
adhering  exclusively  to  either  mode. 
Crayon  drawings  are  those  in  which  the 
true  colors  of  the  objects  represented  are 
more  or  less  completely  wrought  out 


with  different  colored  crayons.  Draw- 
ings shaded  with  the  brush  are  outlined 
with  the  pencil  or  pen,  the  shading  being 
laid  on  or  washed  in  with  the  brush  in 
tints  of  India  ink,  sepia,  or  color.  Archi- 
tectural and  mechanical  drawings  are 
those  in  which  the  proportions  of  a build- 
ing, machine,  etc.,  are  accurately  set  out 
for  the  guidance  of  the  constructor : ob- 
jects are  in  general  delineated  by  geo- 
metric or  orthographic  projection. 

DREAMS,  trains  of  ideas  which  pre- 
sent themselves  to  the  mind  during  .sleep. 
The  principal  feature  of  the  state  of 
dreaming  is  the  absence  of  voluntary 
control  over  the  current  of  thought,  so 
that  the  principle  of  suggestion  has  un- 
limited sway.  There  is  usually  an  utter 
want  of  coherency  in  the  images  that 
appear  before  the  mental  eye,  but  this 
want  excites  no  surprise  in  the  dreamer. 
Occasionally,  however,  intellectual  ef- 
forts are  made  during  sleep  which 
would  be  difficult  to  surpass  in  the  wak- 
ing state.  It  is  said  that  Condillac  often 
brought  to  a conclusion  in  his  dreams 
reasonings  on  which  be  had  been  em- 
ployed during  the  day;  and  that  Frank- 
lin believed  that  he  had  been  often  in- 
structed in  his  dreams  concerning  the 
issue  of  events  wliich  at  that  time  occu- 
pied his  mind.  Coleridge  composed  from 
200  to  300  lines  during  a dream;  the 
beautiful  fragment  of  Kubla  Khan, 
which  was  all  he  got  committed  to  paper 
when  he  awoke,  remains  a specimen  of 
that  dream-p'o'em.  Dreams  are  subjec- 
tive phenomena  dependent  on  natural 
causes.  They  generally  take  their  rise 
and  character  from  external  bodily  im- 
pressions, or  from  something  in  the  pre- 
ceding state  of  body  or  mind.  They  are, 
therefore,  retrospective  and  resultant 
instead  of  being  prospective  or  prophetic. 
The  latter  opinion  has,  however,  pre- 
vailed in  all  ages  and  among  all  nations; 
and  hence  the  common  practice  of 
divination  or  prophesying  by  dreams, 
that  is,  interpreting  them  as  presages  of 


other  deposits  from  the  bottom  of  har- 
bors, canals,  rivers,  docks,  etc.  The 
steam  dredging-machine  now  in  common 
use  has  a succession  of  strong  iron 
buckets  on  an  endless  chain,  which 
traverses  on  a frame  whose  lower  end  is 
vertically  adjustable  so  as  to  regulate 
the  depth  at  which  it  works.  It  is 
worked  by  steam,  and  the  buckets  tear 
up  the  matter  at  the  bottom,  raise  it, 
and  discharge  it  into  punts  or  hoppers 
stationed  close  to  the  dredging  vessel. 
Dredging  is  also  the  operation  of  drag- 
ging the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  order  to 
bring  up  oysters,  or  to  procure  shells, 
plants,  and  other  objects  for  scientific 
observation.  The  oyster  dredge  is  a 
light  iron  frame  with  a scraper  like  a 
narrow  hoe  on  one  side,  and  a suspend- 
ing apparatus  on  the  other.  To  the 
frame  is  attached  a bag  made  of  some 
kind  of  netting  to  receive  the  oysters. 
The  dredges  used  by  naturalists  are 
mostly  modifications  of  or  somewhat 
similar  to  the  oyster  dredge.  Scientific 
dredging  has  of  late  assumed  a high  im- 
portance as  making  us  acquainted  with 
the  life  of  deep-sea  areas. 

DRED  SCOTT  CASE,  a celebrated 
case  decided  by  the  United  States  Su- 
preme Court  in  1857.  Scott  was  the 
slave  of  a Missouri  owner  who  brought 
him  into  Illinois  and  later  into  Min- 
nesota. There  he  was  permitted  to 
marry  and  raise  a family  On  his  return 
to  Missouri  he  sued  for  freedom  on  the 
ground  that  his  residence  in  Illinois  and 
Minnesota  (which  were  free  soil)  had  en- 
franchised him.  All  the  lower  courts  de- 
cided against  him  and  so  did  the  supreme 
court  which  held  that  negroes  descended 
from  negro  slaves  had  no  standing  in  the 
courts.  In  his  decision  Justice  Taney 
used  the  oft-quoted  words,  “the  negroes 
had  no  rights  which  the  white  man  was 
bound  to  respect.” 

DRENTHE  (dren'te),  a province,  Hol- 
land, bounded  by  Hanover,  Overijssel, 
Friesland,  and  Groningen;  area,  948  sq 


Dresden— The  old  bridge,  Court  church,  and  church  of  Our  Lady. 


coming  events.  Some  authorities  de- 
clare that  all  our  dreams  take  place  when 
we  are  in  process  of  going  to  sleep  or  be- 
coming awake,  and  that  during  deep 
sleep  the  mind  is  totally  inactive.  This 
is  denied  by  the  majority  of  pliilosophers, 
and  with  apparent  reason. 

DREDGING,  a term  applied  to  the 
operation  of  removing  mud,  silt,  and 


miles.  Drenthe  is  remarkable  for  the 
great  number  of  so-called  “giants” 
graves’  or  barrows  scattered  over  th/e 
country.  Its  capital  is  Assen.  Pop. 
125,792. 

DRES'DEN,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  is  situated  in  a beautiful 
valley  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Elbe, 
which  is  here  spanned  by  three  stone 


DRESDEN  CHINA 


DROMEDARY 


bridges.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history 
in  1206,  and  has  been  the  residence  of 
the  sovereigns  since  1485;  was  greatly 
extended  and  embellished  by  Augustus 
the  Strong  (1694-1736),  and  rapidly  in- 
creased duing  the  19th  century.  Among 
the  chief  edifices  besides  several  of  the 
churches  are  the  Museum  (joined  on  to 
an  older  range  of  buildings  called  the 
Zwnger),  a beautiful  building  contain- 
ing a famous  picture-gallery  and  other 
treasures;  the  Japanese  Palace  (Augus- 
teum),  containing  the  royal  library  of 
from  300,000  to  400,000  volumes,  beside 
a rich  collection  of  manuscripts;  the 
Johanneum,  containing  the  collection  of 
porcelain  and  the  historical  museum,  a 
valuable  collection  of  arms,  armor, 
domestic  utensils,  etc.,  belonging  to  the 
middle  ages.  The  city  is  distinguished 
for  its  excellent  educational,  literary, 
and  artistic  institutions,  among  which 
are  the  Polytechnic  School,  much  on  the 
plan  and  scale  of  a university;  the  Con- 
servatory and  School  of  Music;  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Aids,  etc.  The  chief  glory 
of  Dresden  is  the  gallery  of  pictures,  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world,  which  first  be- 
came of  importance  under  Augustus  II., 
king  of  Poland  and  elector  of  Saxony, 
but  owes  its  most  valuable  treasures  to 
Augustus  III.,  who  purchased  the  greater 
portion  of  the  gallery  of  the  Duke  of 
Modena.  The  pictures  number  about 
25,000,  and  in  particular  comprise  many 
fine  specimens  of  the  Italian,  Dutch,  and 
Flemish  schools.  Besides  this  fine  col- 
lection the  museum  contains  also  en- 
gravings and  drawings  amounting  to  up- 
ward of  350,000.  There  is  here  also  a 
rich  collection  of  casts  exemplifying  the 
progress  of  sculpture  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  including  copies  of  all  the 
most  important  antiques  . Pop.  (1900), 
395,349. 

DRESDEN  CHINA,  a delicate,  semi- 
transparent, highly-finished  china  made 
at  Meissen,  near  Dresden.  The  manu- 
facture resulted  from  an  accidental  dis- 
covery made  by  Bottger,  a young 
chemist,  in  1710,  and  the  vases, 
statuettes,  groups  of  figures,  candelabra, 
clocks,  etc.,  manufactured  during  the 
18th  century  are  highly  prized.  They 
are  more  remarkable  for  excellence  of 
execution  than  for  puiltj'’  of  design. 

DREW,  Daniel,  an  American  capital- 
ist, born  in  New  York  in  1788,  died  in 
1879.  He  was  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  earlier  railroad  builders  and 
developers  and  was  at  one  time  asso- 
ciated with  Cornelius  Vanderbilt. 

DREW,  John,  an  American  actor, 
born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1825,  died  in 
1862.  He  was  well  known  in  his  day  as 
a clever  comedian. 

DREW,  John,  an  American  actor,  son 
of  John  Drew,  born  in  1853.  About 
1879  he  became  the  leading  man  with 
Daly’s  company,  and  in  1892  he  ap- 
peared as  a star.  Drew  has  a wide  range 
of  comedy  power  from  Petruchio,  in  the 
Taming  of  the  Shrew,  to  Richard  Carvel. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  popular  of  Ameri- 
can actors. 

DREW  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY, 

a Methodist  Episcopal  theological  school 
founded  in  1866  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  by 
donations  . from  Daniel  Drew.  The 
property  of  the  seminary  amounts  to 
$1,170,000,  and  the  library  contains 


73,000  volumes.  No  tuition  fees  are 
charged. 

DREXEL  INSTITUTE  of  Art,  Science, 
and  Industry,  an  institution  founded  by 
Anthony  Drexel  at  Philadelphia  in  1891. 
The  buildings  and  endowments  aggre- 
gate $6,000,000,  technical  courses  are 
given,  and  there  is  a registration  of  per- 
haps 5,000  students.  The  library  con- 
tains 30,000  volumes,  and  the  institute 
conducts  extension  lectures  and  courses 
of  great  utility. 

DREYFUS,  Alfred,  a French  officer  of 
artillery,  who  was  convicted  of  treason 
in  1894,  stripped  of  his  uniform  and  ban- 
ished to  the  He  du  Diable  off  the  coast 
of  Guiana.  During  his  imprisonment  his 
friends  unearthed  the  conspiracy  which 
caused  his  conviction,  and  Dreyfus  was 
recalled,  re-tried  and  fully  acquitted. 
His  rank  and  uniform  were  returned  to 
him';  he  was  made  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  other  honors  were 
done  him,  one  especially  being  worthy 
of  mention,  that  of  placing  the  body  of 
Emile  Zola  in  the  Pantheon  because  he 
had  defended  the  honor  of  Dreyfus. 
Although  the  case  made  a great  stir  its 
chief  interest  (aside  from  the  sufferings 
of  the  victim)  hinges  on  the  stupidity  of 
the  French  courts  and  the  hatred  of  the 
French  for  Jews. 

DRIFT.  in  geology,  a term  applied  to 
earth  and  rocks  which  have  been  con- 
veyed by  icebergs  or  glaciers  and  de- 
posited over  the  surface  of  a country; 
variously  called  Diluvium,  Diluvial, 
Glacial,  or  Northern  Drift,  Boulder 
Formation,  etc.  Geologists  now  often 
use  instead  of  Drift  the  terms  stratified 
or  unstratified  Boulder  Clay,  which  were 
not  formerly  recognized  as  distinct 
formations. 

DRIFT,  in  mining,  the  course  or  direc- 
tion of  a tunnel  or  gallery;  or  a passage 
between  two  mine  shafts. 

DRIFT  SAND,  sand  thrown  up  by  the 
waves  of  the  sea,  and  blown  when  dry 
some  distance  inland  until  arrested  by 
large  stones,  tree  roots,  or  other  ob- 
stacles, round  which  it  gradually  accu- 
mulates until  the  heaps  attain  consider- 
able dimensions,  often  forming  dunes 
or  sand-hills. 

DRILL,  a tool  used  for  boring  holes  in 
wood,  metal,  stone,  ivory,  etc.  It  con- 
sists of  a sharp  chisel  to  which  a circular 
motion  is  communicated  by  various  con- 
trivances. For  drilling  iron,  steel,  etc., 
a lathe  driven  by  steam  is  generally  used, 
the  drill  being  fixed  into  a chuck  and  the 
work  pressed  against  it  as  it  revolves. 
For  rock-boring  the  diamond  rock-drill, 
an  instrument  with  cutting  edges  made 
of  boart  or  black  diamond,  is  now  gen- 
erally adopted.  See  Boring. 

DRILL,  a fine  linen  texture  of  a satiny 
finish,  used  for  gentlemen’s  summer 
dresses.  Plain  drills  are  worked  with 
five  shafts,  fancy  patterns  with  eight. 

DRILL,  the  course  of  instruction  in 
which  a soldier  or  sailor  is  taught  the  use 
of  arms  and  the  practice  of  military  and 
naval  evolutions. 

DRILL,  a species  of  baboon,  of  a 
smaller  size  and  less  fierce  disposition 
than  the  mandrill,  and  like  it  a native  of 
the  coast  of  Guinea.  The  face  and  ears 
are  bare  and  of  a glossy  black  color,  the 
palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet 


are  also  naked  and  of  a deep  copper 
color. 

DRILLING,  the  plan  of  sowing  in 
parallel  rows  as  distinguished  from  sow- 
ing broadcast.  The  crops  which  are  now 
generally  drilled  are  turnips,  potatoes, 
beans,  pease,  carrots,  clover,  cereals, 
flax,  etc.  The  first  form  of  drill  was  of 
very  simple  construction,  and  was  only 
adapted  for  sowing  one  row  at  a time, 
but  now  a great  variety  of  improved  im- 
plements are  in  use. 

DRINK.  See  Dietetics. 

DRINKING  FOUNTAIN,  an  erection, 
often  ornate  and  artistic,  on  or  near  a 
public  thoroughfare  or  place  of  resort, 
for  supplying  people,  and  sometimes  also 
horses,  dogs,  etc.,  with  water  to  quench 
their  thirst, 

DRIPSTONE,  a projecting  tablet  or 
molding  over  the  head  of  a doorway, 
window,  archway,  or  niche  to  throw  off 
the  rain.  It  is  also  called  a weather 


Dripstone,  Westminster  Abbey. 


molding,  and  label  when  it  is  turned 
square.  It  is  of  various  forms;  some- 
times a head  is  used  as  a termination  or 
support,  at  others  an  ornament  or  simple 
molding  is  adopted. 

DRIVING-WHEEL,  in  machinery,  a 
wheel  that  communicates  motion  to  an- 
other or  others;  in  railway  locomotives 
the  large  wheel  which  is  fixed  upon  the 
crank-axle  or  main  shaft. 

DROME,  a southeast  department  of 
France,  covered  almost  throughout  by 
ramifications  of  the  Alps,  the  average 
height  of  which,  however,  does  not  ex- 
ceed 4000  feet;  area,  2508  sq.  miles. 
Valence  is  the  capital.  Pop.  314,615 

DROMEDARY,  the  Arabian  and  Af- 
rican camel,  difierent  from  the  Bactrian 
camel  in  having  only  one  hump  on  the 
back.  It  has  also  more  slenderness  and 
symmetry  of  form.  Its  usnal  pace  is  a 


Dromedary,  or  Arabian  camel. 

trot,  which  it  often  maintains  for  manj'- 
hours  together  at  the  rate  of  9 miles  an 
hour.  The  dromedary  surpasses  other 
camels  in  speed,  and  can  travel  several 
several  days  without  drink.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  as  a beast  of  burden  in 
Africa  and  Arabia. 


DROPSY 


DRUM 


DROPSY,  a disease  which  consists  in 
the  collection  of  serous  or  watery  fluid 
in  the  cellular  tissue,  or  in  different 
cavities  of  the  body.  It  receives  dif- 
ferent appellations  according  to  the  par- 
ticular situation  of  the  fluid.  When  it  is 
diffused  through  the  cellular  tissue, 
either  generally  or  partially,  it  is  called 
anasarca;  when  it  is  deposited  in  the 
cavity  of  the  cranium  it  is  called  hydro- 
cephalus; when  in  the  chest,  hydro- 
thorax, or  hydrops  pectoris;  when  in  the 
abdomen,  ascites;  in  the  uterus,  hydro- 
metra;  within  the  scrotum,  hydrocele; 
and  within  the  ovary,  ovarian  dropsy. 
Obstructive  organic  disease  of  the  heart 
and  degenerative  diseases  of  the  kidneys 
are  the  most  common  causes  of  general 
dropsy.  The  treatment  often  includes 
removal  of  the  fluid  from  the  cavities 
containing  it  by  tapping  or  puncturing; 
otherwise  drugs  which  stimulate  excre- 
tion by  the  skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys  are 
employed,  but  all  remedies  frequently 
prove  ineffectual. 

DROSKY,  a kind  of  light,  four- 
wheeled  carriage  used  by  the  Russians. 
It  is  not  covered,  and  in  the  middle  there 
rises  a sort  of  bench  placed  lengthwise 
on  which  the  passengers  ride  as  on  a 
saddle;  but  the  name  is  now  applied  to 
various  kinds  of  vehicles,  as  to  the 
common  cabs  plying  in  the  streets  of 
German  cities,  etc. 

DROWNING  means  death  by  the  air 
being  prevented  entering  the  lungs 
owing  to  the  mouth  and  nostrils  being 
immersed  in  a liquid,  the  liquid  being 
commonly  water.  Death  may,  there- 
fore, occur  by  drowning  in  a small 


lungs.  When  death  has  been  caused 
by  drowning,  the  skin  presents  the  ap- 
pearance called  goose-skin  (cutis  an- 
serina),  the  face  and  surface  of  the  body 
generally  are  usually  pale,  a frothy 
liquid  is  found  in  the  lungs  and  air- 
passages,  and  about  the  bps  and  nos- 
trils; water  may  be  found  in  the  stomach 
and  clenched  fingers,  holding  substances 
grasped  at,  may  serve  to  show  that  a 
struggle  had  taken  place  in  the  water 
and  that  the  body  was  ahve  at  the  time 
of  immersion.  Complete  insensibihty 
arises,  it  is  probable,  in  from  one  to  two 
minutes  after  submersion,  recovery, 
however,  being  still  possible,  and  death 
occurs  in  from  two  to  five  minutes.  So 
long  as  the  heart  continues  to  beat, 
recovery  is  possible;  after  it  has  ceased 
it  is  impossible.  Newly  born  children 
and  young  puppies  stand  submersion 
longer  than  the  fully  grown. 

Remedies:  Pull  the  body  up  on  to 
dry  ground.  Send  immediately  for  med- 
ical assistance,  warm  blankets,  dry 
clothing,  brandy  and  hot  water,  if  any 
one  is  at  hand  to  send.  No  delay  must 
be  permitted,  however,  in  treating  the 
person,  so  that  if  only  one  person  is 
on  the  spot,  he  must  begin  to  treat 
the  person  instantly,  without  seeking 
assistance.  Remove  all  clothing  from 
the  neck  and  chest.  Fold  the  article 
of  dress  removed  so  as  to  make  a firm 
pillow,  which  is  to  be  placed  under  the 
shoulders,  so  that  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  is  slightly  raised  and  the 
head  slightly  thrown  back.  Cleanse 
the  mouth  and  nostrils,  open  the  mouth 
and  pull  forward  the  tongue.  If  natural 


Howard’s  method  for  restoring  the  apparently  drowned. 


quantity  of  water.  Thus  a child  may 
fall  head  downwards  into  a tub  and  be 
drowned,  though  the  tub  is  not  half  full 
of  water,  sufficient  to  cover  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  being  all  that  is  necessary 
and  a man  overcome  by  a fit  or  by 
drunkenness  may  fall  on  a road  with  his 
head  in  a ditch  or  pool  of  water,  and 
thus  meet  death.  Death  is  thus  due  to 
suffocation,  to  the  stoppage  of  breathing 
and  to  the  entrance  of  water  into  the 


efforts  to  breathe  are  made,  try  to  stimu- 
late them  by  brisk  rubbing  of  the  sides 
of  the  chest  and  of  the  face.  If  no  effort 
to  breathe  is  made,  proceed  to  produce 
the  entrance  and  outflow  of  air  from  the 
lungs  bj’  Sylvester’s  or  Howard’s  method. 

Sylvester’s  method:  Stand  or  kneel 
behind  the  person’s  head,  grasp  each 
arm  at  the  elbow,  draw  both  arms  simul- 
taneously upward  till  they  are  extended 
in  line  with  the  body^  as  a man  places 


them  when  he  stretches  himself.  Let 
this  movement  occupy  about  2 seconds. 
This  enlarges  the  chest  and  causes  the 
entrance  of  air  to  the  lungs.  Without  a 
pause  carry  the  arms  down  to  the  sides, 
making  them  overlap  the  chest  a little, 
and  firmly  press  them  on  the  chest. 
This  mov^ent  should  occupy  another 
2 seconds.  It  expels  air  from  the  lungs. 
Repeat  the  movements,  and  maintain 
them  steadily  and  patiently  at  the  rate 
of  15  times  a minute,  until  breathing 
has  been  fully  restored,  or  until  medicm 
aid  arives,  or  until  death  is  certain.  An 
hour  is  not  too  long  time  to  persist,  and 
so  long  as  there  seems  at  least  effort  to 
breathe  the  efforts  must  be  persevered 
in. 

Howard’s  method : Place  the  body  on 
its  face,  with  the  roll  of  clothing  under 
the  stomach;  the  head  being  supported 
on  the  hand  as  shown  in  Figure  1.  Pull 
the  body  over  the  roll  of  clothing  to  ex- 
pel water  from  the  chest.  Then  turn  the 
body  on  the  back,  the  shoulders  being 
supported  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Kneel 
over  the  body.  Place  both  hands  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  chest,  so  that  the 
thumbs  hook  in  under  the  lowest  ribs 
and  the  fingers  are  spread  out  on  the 
chest.  Steadily  press  forward,  raising 
the  ribs,  your  own  body  being  thus 
thrown  leaning  forward.  This  enlarges 
the  cavity  of  the  chest  and  causes  air  to 
enter.  When  the  ribs  have  been  raised 
to  the  utmost  extent,  with  a slight  effort 
push  yourself  back  to  the  more  erect 
position,  allowing  the  ribs  to  recoil  to 
their  former  position.  This  expels  the 
air.  Repeat  the  process  15  times  a min- 
ute. One  person  will  find  it  more  easy 
to  maintain  this  method  for  a prolonged 
period  than  Sylvester’s,  especially  if  the 
patient  be  big  and  heavy. 

Meanwhile,  if  other  persons  are 
present  they  should  be  occupied  rubbing 
the  body  and  limbs  (always  upward) 
with  hands  or  warm  flannel,  applying 
hot  flannels,  bottles,  etc.,  to  the  limbs, 
feet,  arm-pits,  etc.  As  soon  as  the 
person  is  sufficiently  restored  to  be  able 
to  swallow,  give  small  quantities  of  hot 
brandy  and  water,  hot  wine  and  water, 
hot  coffee,  etc.,  and  use  every  effort  to 
restore  and  maintain  warmth. 

Drowning  was  formerly  a mode  of 
capital  punishment  in  Europe.  The 
last  person  executed  by  drowning  in 
Scotland  suffered  death  in  1611.  In 
Ireland  there  was  an  execution  by 
drowning  as  late  as  1777. 

DRUGGET,  a coarse  kind  of  woolen 
felt  or  cloth,  formerly  used  by  the  lower 
classes  for  purposes  of  clothing,  but  now 
chiefly  used  as  a covering  for  carpets. 

DRUGS,  a general  name  for  any  sub- 
stances, vegetable,  animal  or  mineral, 
used  in  the  composition  or  preparation 
of  medicines ; also  applied  to  ingredients 
used  in  chemical  preparations  employed 
in  the  arts. 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  of  the  Celts  of 
Gaul  and  Britain.  According  to  Julius 
Caesar  they  possessed  the  greatest 
authority  among  the  Celtic  nations. 
They  had  some  knowledge  of  geometry, 
natural  philosophy,  etc.,  superintended 
the  affairs  of  religion  and  morality,  and 
performed  the  office  of  judges. 

DRUM,  a musical  instrument  of  per- 
cussion, of  Eastern  origin,  either  cylin- 


DRUM-FISH 


DUBLIN 


drical  or  hemispherical  in  shape,  with 
the  end  or  ends  covered  with  tightened 
parchment,  which  is  stretched  or  slack- 
ened at  pleasure  by  means  of  cords  with 
sliding  knots  or  screws.  Drums  are  of 
three  kinds:  (1)  the  long  or  bass  drum 
played  with  stuffed-nob  drum-sticks, 
and  used  only  in  large  orchestras  or  mili- 
tary bands;  (2)  the  side-drum,  having 
two  heads,  the  upper  one  only  being 
played  upon  by  two  sticks  of  wood; 
(3)  the  kettle-drum,  a hemisphere  of 
brass  or  copper,  the  end  of  which  is 
covered  with  parchment,  always  used 
in  pairs,  one  drum  being  tuned  to  the 
key-note,  and  the  other  to  the  fifth  of 
the  key,  the  compass  of  the  two  to- 
gether being  an  octave. 

DRUM-FISH,  and  other  species  of  the 
same  genus,  fishes  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coasts  of  N.  America,  and  so  named 
from  the  deep  drumming  sound  they 
make.  They  often  weigh  about  20  lbs. 

DRUM-MAJOR,  or  SERGEANT- 
DRUMMER,  a non-commissioned  officer 
whose  duty  it  is  to  teach  and  direct  the 
drummers.  He  marches  at  the  head  of 
the  band  carrying  the  regimental  baton. 

DRUMMOND,  Prof.  Henry,  was  born 
at  Stirling  in  1851,  and  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Tubingen. 
He  died  in  1897.  He  traveled  much,  and 
wrote  a popular  book  on  Tropical  Africa 
(1888).  His  most  remarkable  work  is 
Natural  Law  in  the  Spiritual  World 
(1883),  which  has  passed  through  many 
editions  and  been  translated  into  various 
languages.  He  is  author  also  of  Travel 
Sketches  in  Our  New  Protectorate; 
The  Greatest  Thing  in  the  World;  The 
Ascent  of  Man  (1894),  etci 

DRUMMOND,  Thom.as,  the  inventor 
of  the  lime-ball  light  known  by  his  name, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  October,  1797, 
and  died  at  Dublin,  April  15,  1840.  He 
invented  a heliostat,  and  first  used  the 
light  which  bears  his  name  about  1825 
during  the  survey  of  Ireland.  He  subse- 
quently entered  political  life,  and  be- 
came in  1835  under-secretary  for  Ire- 
land, a country  which  he  practically 
ruled  with  the  utmost  success  for  five 
years. 

DRUMMOND  LIGHT,  a very  intense 
light  produced  by  turning  two  streams  of 
gas,  one  of  oxygen  and  the  other  of 
hydrogen,  in  a state  of  ignition  upon  a 
ball  of  lime.  This  light  was  proposed  by 
Capt.  Drummond  to  be  employed  in 
light-houses.  See  Lime-light. 

DRUNKENNESS,  the  state  of  being 
drunk  or  overpowered  by  alcoholic 
liquor,  or  the  habit  of  indulging  in  intoxi- 
cation. A similar  condition  may  be  pro- 
duced by  numerous  agents,  but  the  term 
is  always  applied  to  the  act  or  habit  of 
drinking  alcoholics  to  excess.  Drunken- 
ness is  no  excuse  for  any  crime,  but  it 
renders  a contract  invalid  if  either  of  the 
parties  was  in  a state  of  complete  drunk- 
enness when  the  contract  was  signed. 

DRUSUS,  the  name  of  several  dis- 
tinguished Romans,  among  whom  were: 
— Marcus  Livius,  orator  and  politician; 
became  tribune  of  the  people  in  122  b.c. 
He  opposed  the  policy  of  Caius  Gracchus, 
and  became  popular  by  planting  colo- 
nies.— Marcus  Livius,  son  of  the  above, 
was  early  a strong  champion  of  the 
senate  or  aristocratic  party,  but  showed 
great  skill  in  manipulating  the  mob. 
P.  E.— 25 


He  rose  to  be  tribune  of  the  people,  and 
was  assassinated  n.c.  91. — Nero  Clau- 
dius, brother  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius, 
born  B.c.  38.  By  a series  of  brilliant 
campaigns  he  extended  the  Roman 
empire  to  the  German  Ocean  and  the 
river  Elbe,  and  was  hence  called  Ger- 
manicus.  By  his  wife  Antonia,  daughter 
of  Mark  Antony,  he  had  a daughter, 
Livia,  and  two  sons,  Germanicus  and 
Claudius,  the  latter  of  whom  afterward 
became  emperor.  He  died  in  b.c.  9. 

DRY'ADS,  wood  nymphs,  in  the  Greek 
mythology;  supposed  to  be  the  tutelar 
deities  of  trees.  Each  particular  tree  or 
wood  was  the  habitation  of  its  own 
special  dryad. 

DRY'DEN,  John,  English  poet,  was 
born  near  Aldwinkle,  Northampton- 
shire, in  1631,  and  went  to  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  being  here  elected  to  a 
scholarship.  After  leaving  the  university 
he  went  to  London,  and  on  the  death  of 


John  Dryden. 

the  Protector  he  wrote  his  Heroic  Stan- 
zas on  that  event.  In  1661  he  produced 
his  first  play.  The  Duke  of  Guise.  This 
was  followed  by  The  Indian  Queen,  a 
tragedy,  and  The  Indian  Emperor, 
which  at  once  raised  Dryden  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  public  estimation,  an 
elevation  which  he  retained  till  his  death. 
He  published  a translation  of  Juvenal, 
and  one  of  Persius.  About  a third  part 
of  Juvenal  was  translated  by  Dryden, 
who  wrote  an  essay  on  satire  which  was 
prefixed  to  the  whole.  His  poetic  trans- 
lation of  Virgil  appeared  in  1697,  and, 
soon  after,  that  masterpiece  of  Bwic 
poetry,  Alexander’s  Feast,  his  Fables, 
etc.  He  died  May  1st,  1700,  in  the 
sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Dryden 
is  unequalled  as  a satirist  among  Eng- 
lish poets,  and  the  best  of  his  tragedies 
are  unsurpassed  by  any  since  written. 
His  poetry  as  a whole  is  more  remark- 
able for  vigor  and  energy  than  beauty, 
but  he  did  much  to  improve  English 
verse.  He  was  also  an  admirable  prose 
writer.  Personally  he  was  modest  and 
kindly. 

DRYING-MACHINE,  a machine  used 
in  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  laundry 
establishments,  consisting  of  two  con- 
centric drums  or  cylinders,  one  within 
the  other,  open  at  the  top,  and  having 
the  inner  cylinder  perforated  at  its  side 
with  numerous  small  holes.  The  goods 
to  be  dried  are  placed  within  the  inner 
cylinder,  and  the  machine  is  then  made 
to  rotate  with  great  velocity,  when,  by 


the  action  of  centrifugal  forc«r,'  the  watjur 
escapes  through  the  holes  in  the  side. 
The  action  of  the  drying-machine  is 
the  same  in  principle  as  that  witnessed 
when  a person  trundles  a mop  to  dry  it. 

DRYING-OIL,  the  name  given  to  lin- 
seed and  other  oils  which  have  been 
heated  with  oxide  of  lead;  they  are  the 
bases  of  many  paints  and  varnishes. 
When  exposed  to  the  air  they  absorb 
oxygen,  and  are  converted  into  a trans- 
parent, tough,  dry  mass  or  varnish. 

DRY-POINT,  a sharp-pointed  instru- 
ment used  by  engravers  to  incise  fine 
lines  in  copper  without  the  plate  being 
covered  with  etching-ground  or  the  lines 
bit  in  .by  acid.  This  tool  is  much  em- 
ployed in  working  the  more’  delicate 
portions  of  plates  produced  as  etchings. 

DRY-ROT,  a well-known  disease  af- 
fecting timber,  occasioned  by  various 
species  of  fungi,  the  mycelium  of  which 
penetrates  the  timber,  destroying''it. 

DUAL,  in  grammar,  that  number 
which  is  used,  in  some  languages,  to 
designate  two  things,  whilst  another 
number  (the  plural)  exists  to  express 
many.  The  Greek,  Sanskrit,  and  Gothic 
of  ancient  languages,  and  the  LiUmanian 
and  Arabic  of  modern,  possess  forms  of 
the  verb  and  noun  in  which  two  persons 
or  things  are  denoted,  called  the  dual 
numbers. 

DUBAR'RY,  Marie  Jeanne,  Comtesse, 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  at 
Vaucouleurs  1746.  She  came  young  to 
Paris,  entered  on  an  immoral  course, 
and  was  presented  to  the  king  in  1769, 
who  had  her  married  for  form’s  sake  to 
the  Count  du  Barry.  She  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  at  court,  and  with 
some  of  her  confidants  completely  ruled 
the  king.  Important  offices  and  priv- 
ileges were  in  her  gift,  and  the  courtiers 
abased  themselves  befoi'e  her.  After 
the  death  of  Louis  she  was  dismissed 
from  court  and  sent  to  live  in  a convent 
near  Meaux.  She  received  a pension 
from  Louis  XVI.  During  the  reign  of 
terror  she  was  arrested  as  a royalist  and 
executed,  Nov.  1793. 

DUB'LIN,  the  metropolis  of  Ireland, 
is  situated  in  co.  Dublin,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Liffey,  the  banks  of  which  for  more  than 
two  miles  from  the  sea  are  lined  with 
quays.  The  river,  which  divides  the 
city  into  two  unequal  parts,  is  crossed  by 
numerous  bridges.  The  principal  public 
secular  buildings  are  the  Castle,  the 
official  residence  of  the  viceroy;  the 
Bank  of  Ireland,  formerly  the  Irish 
parliament  house;  Trinity  College;  the 
courts  of  justice ; the  custom-house ; the 
King’s  Inns;  the  post-office;  rotunda; 
corn  exchange;  commercial  buildings; 
the  mansion  house;  city  hall  or  corpora- 
tion buildings;  etc.  The  most  impor- 
tant literary  and  scientific  institutions 
are  Trinity  College  (Dublin  University); 
the  Royal  Univerfsity;  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Science;  the  Roman  Catholic 
University;  the  College  of  Surgeons; 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society;  the  Royal 
Hibernian  Academy  of  Painting,  Sculp- 
ture and  Architecture;  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy  for  Promoting  the  Study  of 
Science,  Literature,  and  Antiquities; 
the  Archaeological  Society;  the  Royal 
Zoological  Society;  etc.  Dublin  con- 
tains two  Protestant  Episcopal  cathe- 


DUBLIN 


DUCTILITY 


drals — St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral,  erected 
in  1190,  and  thoroughly  restored  be- 
tween 1860  and  1865;  and  Christ’s 
Church,  built  in  1038  and  also  recently 
restored,  both  restorations  being  carried 
on  by  private  munificence.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Cathedral  is  a very  large  edifice. 
A little  northwest  of  the  city,  up  the 
Liffey,  is  the  Phoenix  Park,  with  an  area 
of  1759  acres.  In  it  are  the  Viceregal 
Lodge,  the  residence  of  the  Lord  Lieu- 


The  scholarships  are  tenable  for  five 
years,  or  till  the  degree  of  M.A.  is 
attained.  The  course  of  general  in- 
struction extends  over  four  years.  The 
college  possesses  a library  of  about 
200,000  printed  volumes  and  1700 
manuscripts.  It  has  also  a botanic 
garden  and  museum. 

DUBUQUE  (du-buk'),  a city  in  Iowa, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  It 
occupies  an  important  commerical  posi- 


Sackville  street,  Dublin,  showing  the  O 
the  Nelson 

tenant;  the  chief  secretary’s  and  under 
secretary’s  official  residences;  the  Royal 
Hibernian  Military  School,  and  the 
depot  of  the  Royal  Irish  Constabulary; 
as  also  the  gardens  of  the  Royal  Zoo- 
logical Society.  The  manufactures 
carried  on  are  of  little  note:  poplins,  for 
which  Dublin  has  been  long  celebrated, 
are  still  in  some  request,  and  brewing 
and  distilling  are  largely  carried  on. 
Pop.  289,108. — The  county,  which  is  in 
the  province  of  Leinster,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  island,  has  an  area  of  226,- 
895  acres,  or  354  square  miles,  about  a 
third  of  it  under  crops  of  various  kinds, 
chiefly  grass  and  clover.  Pop.  447,266. 

DUBLIN,  University  of,  an  institution 
founded  in  1591,  when  a charter,  or 
letters-patent,  was  grantd  by  Queen 
Elizabeth  for  the  incorporation  of  the 
“College  of  the  Holy  and  Undivided 
Trinity,’’  the  University  and  Trinity 
College  being  practically  the  same.  The 
corporation  now  consists  of  a provost, 
seven  senior  fellows,  twenty-six  junior 
fellows,  and  seventy  foundation  scholars. 
The  senate  of  the  university  consists  of 
“the  chancellor  of  the  university,  or, 
in  his  absence,  of  the  vice-chancellor, 
and  such  doctors  or  masters  of  the  uni- 
versity as  shall  have  and  keep  their 
names  on  the  books  of  Trinity  College.’’ 
The  senate  possesses  the  right  of  electing 
the  chancellor  of  the  university;  it  is 
also  the  body  which  grants  degrees. 
The  fellows  are  appointed  for  life,  after 
an  examination.  The  scholars  are 
chosen  from  among  the  under-graduates, 
after  an  examination  in  mathematics 
and  logic,  or  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  logic. 


Connell  monument,  the  post  office,  and 
monument. 

tion  as  a railway  center  and  entrepot  for 
the  agricultural  and  mineral  products  of 
the  northern  half  of  Iowa,  and  the  tim- 
ber of  Wisconsin,  and  also  from  the 
valuable  lead-mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop. 
1909,  50,000. 

DU  CHAILLU  (du-sha-yii),  Paul  Bel- 
loni,  traveler,  born  in  Paris,  1835.  He 
spent  his  youth  in  the  French  settlement 
at  the  Gaboon,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  where  his  father  was  a merchant. 
In  1852  he  came  to  the  U.  States,  of 
which  he  afterward  became  a natural- 
ized citizen.  In  1855  he  began  his  first 
journey  through  western  Africa,  and 
spent  till  1859  alone  among  the  different 
tribes,  traveling  on  foot  upward  of 
8000  miles.  He  collected  several  gorillas 
never  before  hunted,  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
before  seen  by  any  European.  The  re- 
sult of  this  journey  was  published  in 
1861.  A second  expedition  was  made  in 
1863,  an  account  of  which,  under  the 
title  A Journey  to  Ashango  Land,  ap- 
peared in  1867.  The  Land  of  the  Mid- 
night Sun,  an  account  of  a tour  in 
northern  Europe  (1881),  had  a consider- 
able success.  He  died  in  1903. 

DUCK,  the  name  common  to  all  the 
web-footed  birds  constituting  the  land- 
ducks  and  sea-ducks.  The  ducks  are 
very  numerous  as  species,  and  are  met 
with  all  over  the  world.  They  are  often 
migratory,  going  northward  in  summer 
to  their  breeding-places.  Their  food  is 
partly  vegetable,  partly  animal.  The 
common  mallard  or  wild-duck  is  the 
original  of  the  domestic  duck.  In  its, 
wild  state  the  male  is  characterized  by 
the  deep  green  of  the  plumage  of  the 


head  and  neck,  by  a white  collar  separat- 
ing the  green  from  the  dark  chestnut  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  by  hav- 
ing the  four  middle  feathers  of  the  tail 
recurved.  The  wild-duck  is  taken  in 
large  quantities  by  decoys  and  other 
means.  Some  tame  ducks  have  nearly 
the  same  plumage  as  the  wild  ones; 
others  vary  greatly,  being  generally 
duller  or  pure  white,  but  all  the  males 
have  the  four  recurved  tail-feathers. 
There  are  several  favorite  varieties  of 
the  domestic  duck,  those  of  Normandy 
and  Picardy  in  France,  and  the  Ayles- 
bury ducks  in  England,  being  remark- 
able for  their  great  size  and  delicacy  of 
flesh.  The  musk-duck,  erroneously 
called  Muscovy  duck,  a native  of  south 
America,  is  the  largest  of  the  duck  kind, 
and  approaches  nearly  to  the  size  of  a 
goose.  The  canvas-back  duck  is  peculiar 
to  America,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  ex- 
cellence of  its  flesh.  Other  species  of 
ducks  are  the  shoveler,  remarkable  for 
the  strange  form  of  its  bill;  the  gadwall, 
which  is  more  rare  in  America  than  in 
Europe;  the  pintail  or  sprigtail,  remark- 
able for  the  form  of  its  tail,  abundant  in 
both  hemispheres;  the  black  or  dusky 
duck,  peculiar  to  America,  and  very 
abundant;  the  summer  or  wood  duck, 
remarkable  for  its  great  beauty,  and  for 
its  migrations  being  directly  opposed  to  4 
those  of  the  other  species;  the  teal;  the  j 
eider-duck,  so  well  known  for  its  valu-  j 
able  down;  the  scoter;  the  pochard  or  J 
red-head;  the  scaup-duck  or  blue-bill;  I 
the  long-tailed  duck;  the  harlequin-duck 
all  found  on  both  continents.  j 

DUCK,  a species  of  coarse  cloth  made 
of  flax,  lighter  and  finer  than  canvas.  * 
DUCKING-STOOL,  a stool  or  chair  in 
which  common  scolds  were  formerly  tied 
and  plunged  into  water.  They  were  of  : 
different  forms,  but  that  most  common-  : 
ly  in  use  consisted  of  an  upright  post 
and  a transverse  movable  beam  on  i 
which  the  seat  was  fitted  or  from  which 
it  was  suspended  by  a chain.  The  duck-  ■ 
ing-stool  is  mentioned  in  the  Doomsday  • 
survey : it  was  extensively  in  use  through- 
out the  country  from  the  15th  till  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century,  and  in 
one  rare  case  at  least — at  Leominster — 
was  used  as  recently  as  1809. 

DUCKWEED,  the  popular  name  of 
several  species  of  plants  growing  in 
ditches  and  shallow  water,  floating  on 
the  surface,  and  serving  for  food  for  ■ 
ducks  and  geese.  Five  species  are  known  i( 
in  Britain,  and  others  are  common  in  ,, 
America.  They  consist  of  small  fronds 
bearing  naked  unisexual  flowers.  , 

DUCTILTTY,  the  property  of  solid 
bodies,  particularly  metals,  which  ren-  * 
ders  them  capable  of  being  extended  by  j 
drawing,  while  their  thickness  or  dia-  ' 
meter  is  diminished,  without  any  actual  J 
fraction  or  separation  of  their  parts.  'B 
On  this  property  the  wire-drawing  of  ■ 
metals  depends.  The  following  is  nearly  jB 
the  order  of  ductility  of  the  metals  wiiich  M 
possess  the  property  in  the  highest  de-  J 
gree,  that  of  the  first  mentioned  being 
the  greatest:  gold,  silver,  platinum,  iron,  ' 
copper,  zinc,  tin,  lead,  nickel,  palladium,  H 
cadmium.  Dr.  Wallaston  succeeded  inS 
obtaining  a wire  of  platinum  only  9 

of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  ductility  of  ■ 
glass  at  high  temperatures  seems  to  befl 
unlimited,  while  its  flexibility  increases^ 


DUDEVANT 


DULCIMER 


in  proportion  to  the  fineness  to  which  its 
threads  are  drawn. 

DUDEVANT  (dud-van),  Armantine- 
Lucile-Aurore  Dupin,  Madame,  better 
known  by  the  non  de  plume  of  George 
Sand,  one  of  the  greatest  of  French 
novelists,  born  1804,  died  1876.  In  1822 
she  married  Baron  Dudevant,  to  whom 
she  bore  a son  and  a daughter;  but  in 
1831  separated  from  him,  and  took  up 
her  residence  in  Paris.  In  conjunction 
with  Jules  Sandeau,  a young  lawyer,  she 
wrote  Rose  et  Blanche,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1831,  with  the  pseudonym  Jules 
Sand.  The  reception  it  met  with 
afforded  her  an  opportunity  of  publish- 
ing a novel  solely  by  herself — Indiana, 
under  the  name  of  George  Sand,  which 
she  ever  after  retained.  Indiana  had  a 
brilliant  success,  but  excited  much 
criticism  by  its  extreme  views  on  social 
questions.  This  was  also  the  case  with 
many  others  of  her  works.  She  visited 
Italy  with  Alfred  de  Musset;  and  lived 
eight  years  with  Frdd^ric-Fran^ois 
Chopin,  the  composer.  These  relations 
also  influenced  or  occasioned  some  of 
her  works  (as  Elle  et  Lui,  1858).  In  1836 
she  obtained  a judicial  separation  from 
her  husband,  with  the  care  of  her  chil- 
dren. _ She  took  an  active  interest  in  the 
revolution  of  1848,  and  contributed  con- 
siderably to  newspaper  and  other  politi- 
cal literature.  In  1854  she  published 
Histoire  de  Ma  Vie,  a psychological 
autobiography.  Her  published  works 
consist  of  upward  of  sixty  separate 
novels,  a large  number  of  plays,  and 
numerous  articles  in  literary  journals. 

DUE  BILL,  a brief  acknowledgment 
of  indebtedness,  generally  taking  the 
form  of  the  familiar  “I.  O.  U”  (I  owe 
you).  It  is  not  a negotiable  instrument, 
it  does  not  promise  to  pay,  but  it  is 
legally  assignable  by  the  payee. 

DUEL,  a premeditated  and  prear- 
arranged  combat  between  two  persons 
with  deadly  weapons,  for  the  purpose  of 
deciding  some  private  difference  or  quar- 
rel. The  combat  generally  takes  place  in 
the  presence  of  witnesses  called  seconds, 
who  make  arrangements  as  to  the  mode 
of  fighting,  place  the  weapons  in  the 
hands  of  the  combatants,  and  see  that 
the  laws  they  have  laid  down  are  carried 
out.  Upon  every  insult  or  injury  which 
seemed  to  touch  his  honor,  a gentleman 
thought  himself  entitled  to  draw  his 
sword,  and  to  call  on  his  adversary  to 
give  him  satisfaction,  and  it  is  calculated 
that  6000  persons  fell  in  duels  during 
ten  years  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  His 
minister.  Sully,  remonstrated  against 
the  practice’  but  the  king  connived  at  it, 
supposing  that  it  tended  to  maintain  a 
military  spirit  among  his  people.  In 
1602,  however,  he  issued  a decree  against 
it,  and  declared  it  to  be  punishable  with 
death.  Many  subsequent  prohibitions 
were  issued,  but  they  were  all  powerless 
to  stop  the  practice.  During  the  mi- 
nority of  Louis  XIV.  more  than  4000 
nobles  are  said  to  have  lost  their  lives  in 
duels.  The  practice  of  duelling  was  in- 
troduced into  England  from  France  in 
the  reign  of  James  I.;  but  it  was  never 
so  common  as  in  the  latter  country. 
Cromwell  was  an  enemy  of  the  duel,  and 
during  the  protectorate  there  was  a ces- 
sation of  the  practice.  It  came  again 
into  vog;ue,  however,  after  the  restora- 


tion, thanks  chiefly  to  the  French  ideas 
that  then  inundated  the  court.  As 
society  became  more  polished  duels  be- 
came more  frequent,  and  they  were 
never  more  numerous  than  in  the  reign 
of  George  III.  In  France  duelling  still 
prevails  to  a certain  extent;  but  the 
combats  are  usually  very  bloodless  and 
ridiculous  affairs.  In  the  German  army 
it  is  common,  and  is  recognized  by  law. 
The  duels  of  German  students,  so  often 
spoken  of,  seldom  cause  serious  blood- 
shed. In  the  United  States  duels 
are  now  uncommon.  In  some  of  the 
states  the  killing  of  a man  in  a duel  is 
punishable  by  death  or  by  forfeiture  of 
political  rights,  and  in  a large  number 
the  sending  of  a challenge  is  a felony. 
In  the  army  and  navy  it  is  forbidden. 
Among  the  celebrated  duels  fought  in 
the  U.  States  were  those  between  Charles 
Lee  and  John  Laurens,  McIntosh  and 
Gwinnett,  Cadwallader  and  Conway, 
Hamilton  and  Burr,  Dickinson  and 
Jackson,  Benton  and  Lucas,  Clinton 
and  Swartout,  Randolph  and  Clay,  and 
Graves  and  Cilley. 

DUEN'NA,  the  chief  lady-in-waiting 
on  the  Queen  of  Spain.  In  a more  gen- 
eral sense,  an  elderly  female  holding  a 
middle  station  between  a governess  and 
companion,  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  the  younger  female  members  of 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  families. 

DUE  PROCESS  OF  LAW,  a term  used 
to  designate  the  regular  procedure  in 
litigation,  prosecution,  etc.  It  is  very 
ancient,  having  been  used  in  magna 
charta  and  also  in  the  constitution  of 
the  U.  States. 

DUET,  a musical  composition  for  two 
voices  or  instruments. 

DUFF'ERIN,  Frederick  Temple  Ham- 
ilton-Blackwood,  Marquis  of,  British 
statesman,  born  at  Florence  1826.  He 
began  his  public  services  in  1855,  when 
he  was  attached  to  Earl  Russell’s  mission 
to  Vienna.  Subsequently  he  was  gov- 
ernor general  of  Canada  and  viceroy  of 
India.  He  died  in  1902.  Beside  being 
a noted  diplomatist  he  was  also  a popu- 
lar author.  In  1847  he  published  Nar- 
rative of  a Journey  from  Oxford  to 
Skibbereen  during  the  year  of  the  Irish 
Famine;  in  1860,  Letters  from  High 
Latitudes;  also  various  pamphlets  on 
Irish  qnestions.  In  1888  he  w’as  made 
Marquis  of  Dufferin  and  Ava. 

DU'GONG,  a herbivorous  mammal, 
belonging  to  the  order  Sirenia,  which  in- 
cludes the  manatees.  It  is  a native  of 
the  Indian  seas;  possesses  a tapering 


Dugong. 


body  ending  in  a crescent-shaped  fin, 
and  is  said  sometimes  to  attain  a length 
of  20  feet,  though  generally  it  is  about  7 
or  8 feet  in  length.  The  skin  is  thick  and 
smooth,  with  a few  scattered  bristles; 
the  color  bluish  above  and  white  be- 
neath. In  its  osteology  it  exhibits  some 


points  of  correspondence  with  the  Pachy- 
dermata.  Its  food  consists  of  marine 
plants;  it  yields  little  or  no  oil,  but  is 
hunted  by  the  Malays  for  its  flesh,  which 
resembles  young  beef,  and  is  tender  and 
palatable. 

DU  GUECSLIN  (du-ga-klan),  Ber- 
trand, Constable  of  France,  born  about 
1314,  died  1380.  Mainly  to  him  must  be 
attributed  the  expulsion  of  the  English 
from  Normandy,  Guienne,  and  Poitou. 
He  was  captured  by  Chandos  at  the 
battle  of  Auray  in  1364,  and  ransomed 
for  100,000  francs.  While  serving  in 
Spain  against  Peter  the  Cruel  he  was 
made  prisoner  by  the  English  Black 
Prince,  but  was  soon  liberated.  For 
his  services  in  Spain  he  was  made  Con- 
stable of  Castile,  Count  of  Trastamare, 
and  Duke  of  Molinas;  and  in  1370  he  was 
made  'constable  of  France. 

DUKE,  a title  belonging  originally  to 
a military  leader.  In  Britain  it  is  the 
highest  rank  in  the  peerage,  the  corres- 
ponding female  title  being  duchess. 
Royal  Dukes  have  a special  status  and 
precedence.  The  first  hereditary  duke 
in  England  was  the  Black  Prince, 
created  by  his  father,  Edward  III.,  in 
1336.  The  duchy  of  Cornwall  was  be- 
stowed upon  him,  and  was  henceforward 
attached  to  the  eldest  son  of  the  king, 
who  is  considered  a duke  by  birth.  The 
duchy  of  Lancaster  was  soon  after  con- 
ferred on  Edward’s  third  son,  John  of 
Gaunt,  and  hence  arose  the  special 
privileges  which  these  two  duchies  still 
in  part  retain.  A duke  in  the  British 
peerage,  not  of  royal  rank,  is  styled 
“your  grace,”  and  is  “most  noble;”  his 
wife  is  a duchess.  The  coronet  consists 
of  a richly-chased  gold  circle,  having  on 
its  upper  edge  eight  golden  leaves  of  a 
conventional  type  called  strawberry 
leaves ; the  cap  of  crimson  velvet  is  closed 
at  the  top  with  a gold  tassel,  lined  with 
sarcenet,  and  turned  up  with  ermine. 
(See  Coronet.)  At  various  periods  and 
in  different  continental  countries  the 
title  duke  (Herzog  in  Germany)  has  been 
given  to  the  actual  sovereigns  of  small 
states.  The  titles  “grand-duke”  and 
“grand-duchess,”  “archduke”  and  “arch- 
duchess,” are  in  use  also  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  the  latter  to  distinguish 
the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  Aus- 
trian imperial  family.  In  the  Bible  the 
word  dukes  is  used,  Gen.  xxxvi.,  for  the 
duces  of  the  vulgate 

DUL'CIMER,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
musical  instruments,  used  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world.  The  modern  instru- 
ment consists  of  a shallow  trapezium- 
shaped box  without  a top,  across  which 


Italian  dulcimer. 


runs  a series  of  wires,  tuned  by  pegs  at 
the  sides,  and  played  on  by  being  struck 
by  two  cork-headed  hammers.  It  is  in 
much  less  common  use  in  Europe  now 
than  it  was  a century  or  two  ago,  and  is 
interesting  chiefly  as  being  the  proto- 
type of  the  piano.  It  is  still,  however, 
occasionally  to  be  met  with  on  the  Con- 


DULUTH 


DUNDEE 


tinent  at  rustic  rejoicings,  and  in  Eng- 
land in  the  hands  of  street  musicians. 
The  Hebrew  psaltery  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a variety  of  the  dulcimer. 

DULUTH  (du-liithO,  capital  of  St. 
Louis  CO.,  Minnesota,  at  the  s.w.  ex- 
tremity of  Lake  Superior.  The  Northern 
Pacific  and  Lake  Superior,  and  Missis- 
sippi railways  terminate  here;  and  ex- 
tensive docks  and  other  works  have  been 
constructed  affording  a convenient  out- 
let for  the  surrounding  wheat  region. 
1909,  88,000. 

DUMA,  name  of  the  Eussian  con- 
sultative national  assembly  granted  to 
Russia  by  Czar  Nicholas  II.  Aug.  19. 
1905.  The  first  and  second  duma  were 
dismissed  for  advocating  policies  op- 
posed by  the  government,  and  in  1908  a 
third  w'as  assembled  that  was  sub- 
servient to  the  bureaucracy. 

DUMAS  (dii-ma),  Alexander,  French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  born  at  Villers- 
Cotterets  1803.  In  1823  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  obtained  an  assistant-secre- 
taryship from  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
afterward  Louis  Philippe.  He  soon  be- 


Alexander  Dumas. 


gan  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  in  1829 
scored  his  first  success  with  his  drama 
Henry  III.  It  was  produced  when  the 
battle  between  the  Romanticists  and  the 
Classicists  was  at  its  height,  and  hailed 
as  a triumph  by  the  former  school  The 
same  year  appeared  his  Christine,  and 
in  quick  succession  Antony,  Richard 
d’ Arlington,  Teresa,  Le  Tour  de  Nesle, 
Catharine  Howard,  Mile,  de  Belle-Isle, 
etc.  Dumas  had  now  become  a noted 
Parisian  character.  The  critics  fought 
over  the  merits  of  his  pieces,  and  the 
scandal-mongers  over  his  prodigality 
and  galanteries.  Turning  his  attention 
to  romance,  he  produced  a series  of 
historical  romances,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned,  Les  Deux  Dianes;  La 
Reine  Margot ; Les  Trois  Mousquetaires, 
with  its  continuations  Vingt  Ans  Apres, 
and  Vicomte  de  Bragelonne.  His  Monte 
Cristo  and  several  others  are  also  well 
known  to  English  readers  through  trans- 
lations. Several  historical  works  were 
also  written  by  him.  The  works  wdiich 
bear  liis  name  ainount  to  some  1200 
volumes,  including  about  60  dramas; 
but  the  only  claim  he  could  lay  to  a 
great  number  of  the  productions  issued 
under  his  name,  was  that  he  either 
sketched  the  plot  or  re^'^sed  them  be- 
fore going  to  press.  He  earned  vast 
sums  of  money,  but  his  recklessness  and 
e.xtravagance  latterly  reduced  him  to 
the  adoption  of  a shifty,  scheming  mode 
of  living.  In  1860  he  accompanied  Gari- 


baldi in  the  expedition  which  freed 
Naples  from  the  Bourbons.  He  died 
at  the  residence  of  his  son,  at  Puys,  near 
Dieppe,  in  1870. 

DUMAS,  Alexander,  son  of  the  above, 
born  1824;  novelist  and  dramatist. 
His  works  treat  mostly  of  the  relations 
between  vice  and  morals.  His  first 
novels.  La  Dame  aux  Camillas  and 
Diane  de  Lys,  were  very  successful,  as 
were  also  the  plays  which  were  founded 
on  them.  His  dramas,  which  are  much 
superior  to  his  novels,  deal  satirically 
with  the  characters,  follies,  and  manners 
of  French  society.  He  died  in  1895. 

DU  MAURIER  (du-mo'ri-a),  George 
Louis  Palmella  Busson,  artist  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Paris  1834.  After  studying 
in  Belgium  and  France  he  returned  to 
London,  and  soon  began  to  contribute 
drawings  to  Punch,  Once  a Week,  Corn 
hill  Magazine,  etc.  He  succeeded  Leech 
on  Punch,  and  became  famous  chiefly 
through  his  drawings  for  that  publica- 
tion. He  also  illustrated  various  books, 
and  wrote  Trilby  and  two  other  tales. 
He  died  in  1896 

DUMB.  See  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

DUMBAR'TON,  a royal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  and  seaport,  Scotland, 
chief  town  of  Dumbarton  co.,  stands  on 
the  Leven  near  it6  junction  with  the 
Clyde,  16  miles  w.n.w.  Glasgow.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on  to  a great  extent, 
etc.  Pop.  113.870. 

DUMB-BELLS,  weights  usually  in  the 
form  of  two  iron  balls  connected  by  a 
straight  piece  for  holding,  used  in  gym 
nastic  exercises  for  strengthening  the 
muscles  of  the  arms  and  chest. 

DUMBNESS.  See  Deaf  and  Dumb, 

DUMFRIES  (dum-fres'),  a river  port, 
railway  center,  and  parliamentary  burgh, 
Scotland,  capital  of  the  county  of 
same  name,  and  the  chief  place  in  the, 
south  of  Scotland.  There  are  iron- 
foundries,  hosiery  and  tweed  factories, 
tanneries,  coach-building  works,  etc. 
Dumfries  is  a place  of  great  antiquity. 
The  church  of  the  Minorites  which  once 
stood  here  was  the  scene  of  the  murder 
of  the  Red  Comyn  by  Bruce  in  1306. 
Burns  spent  his  closing  years  here,  and 
the  street  in  which  he  lived  now  bears 
his  name.  His  remains  rest  under  a 
handsome  mausoleum,  and  a statue  of 
him  was  erected  in  1882.  Pop.  20,240. — 
The  county  abuts  on  the  Solway  Firth, 
havung  on  its  borders  the  counties  of 
Lanark,  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Roxburgh, 
Ayr,  and  Kirkcudbright;  area,  about 
1100  sq.  miles  or  702,946  acres,  of  which 
about  a third  are  under  cultivation. 
The  minerals  most  abundant  are  coal, 
lead,  iron,  antimony,  and  gypsum.  Coal 
and  lead  are  ■worked  to  a small  extent. 
Limestone  and  freestone  abound  in 
various  parts.  Its  principal  towns  are 
Dumfries,  Annan,  Sanquhar,  Lockerbie, 
Moffat,  and  Lochmaben.  Pop.  72,569. 

DUMOURIEZ  (du-mo-ri-a),  Charles 
Frangois  Duperrier,  a French  general  of 
great  military  talent,  was  born  at  Cam- 
brai  in  1739,  died  near  Henley-on- 
Thames  1823.  He  served  as  an  officer 
in  the  Seven  Years’  war.  In  1778  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Cherbourg; 
in  1792  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
War  breaking  out  between  France  and 
Austria  he  resigned  in  order  to  fake 
command  of  the  army;  invaded  Flan- 


ders, and  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Jemappes  and  conquered  Belgium.  In- 
stead of  prosecuting  the  war  vigorously 
he  now  entered  upon  measures  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  revolutionary  govern- 
ment, issued  a proclamation,  in  which 
he  promised  the  restoration  of  the  consti- 
tutional monarchy  in  the  person  of  the 


General  Dumourlez. 

heir  to  the  crown,  but  was  attacked  by 
the  Versailles  volunteers,  and  compelled 
to  flee  (April  4,  1793).  The  convention 
set  a price  of  300,000  fivres  upon  his 
head.  At  first  he  retired  to  Brussels,  and 
after  various  wanderings  found  a final 
refuge  in  England,  where  he  died  in 
1823. 

DUNABURG  (du'na-biirg),  or  Dvina- 
burg,  a fortified  town,  Russia,  govern- 
ment of  Vitebsk,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Dfina,  or  D-vina,  112  miles  southeast 
from  Riga.  It  carries  on  various  in- 
dustries, a considerable  trade,  and  has 
three  yearly  fairs.  The  official  name  is 
Dvinsk.  Pop.  72,518. 

DUNBAR,  Paul  Laurence,  an  Ameri- 
can negro  poet,  born  in  Ohio  in  1872 
died  1906.  He  published  several  vol- 
umes of  poetry  of  considerable  merit, 
among  them  being  Oak  and  Ivy,  Lyrics 
of  Lowly  Life,  Poems  of  Cabin  and  Field, 
and  Lyrics  of  the  Hearth  Side,  When 
Melandy  Sings,  Howdy,  Honey,  Howdy, 
etc.  Dunbar’s  verses  were  commend- 
ed by  William  Dean  Howells,  to  whose 
encouragement  the  poet  owed  much 
of  his  perseverance. 

DUNBAR',  William,  the  most  eminent 
of  all  the  old  Scottish  poets,  was  born, 
probably  in  East  Lothian,  about  1460- 
65.  On  the  marriage  of  James  IV.  to 
Margaret  of  England  Dunbar  celebrated 
the  event  in  a poem  of  great  beauty, 
entitled.  The  Tliistle  and  the  Rose.  He 
ffied  about  1520. 

DUN'CIAD,  THE,  a celebrated  satiri- 
cal poem  by  Pope,  in  which  he  gibbets 
his  critics  and  foes.  The  first  three 
books  were  published  in  1728;  the 
fourth  book,  or  New  Dunciad,  appeared 
in  1742,  with  illustrations  by  Scriblerus 
and  notes  variorum.  Cibber  was  latter- 
ly substituted  for  Theobald  as  the  hero; 
and  among  others  who  figured  in  the 
satire  were  'Ambrose  Philips,  Black- 
more,  Bentley,  Defoe,  Dennis,  Shadwell, 
Settle,  etc. 

DUNDEE',  a city,  royal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh,  and  seaport,  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Forfar,  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  Firth  of  Taj',  about  8 miles 
from  the  open  sea,  37  miles  nm.e.  of 


DUNDONALD 


DUODENUM 


Edinbuirgh.  The  most  conspicuous 
building  IS  St.  Mary’s  Tower,  or  the  Old 
Steeple  as  it  is  popularly  called,  156  feet 
high,  erected  in  the  middle  of  the  14th 
century,  and  to  which  three  modern 
parochial  churches  have  been  built  in 
form  of  a cathedral,  the  nave,  choir,  and 
transept  respectively  forming  a separate 
church.  Among  public  buildings  are: 
the  town-hall,  several  public  halls,  the 
high  school,  exchange,  infirmary,  lunatic 
asylum,  Albert  Institute  and  free 
library,  etc.  The  chief  educational 
institution  is  the  University  College,  for 
males  and  females,  whose  first  session 
opened  in  1883.  The  town  has  long  been 
celebrated  for  its  textile  manufactures, 
particularly  those  of  the  coarser  de- 
scriptions of  linen,  and  it  is  now  the  chief 
seat  of  the  linen  trade  in  Scotland  and 
of  the  jute  trade  in  Great  Britain,  there 
being  a great  number  of  mills  and  fac- 
tories engaged  in  the  spinning  and  weav- 
ing of  flax,  jute,  and  hemp.  Ship-build- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on,  and  there 
are  large  engineering  establishments,  etc. 
Population  160,871. 

DUNDON'ALD,  Thomas  Cochrane, 
Tenth  Earl  of,  British  admiral,  was  born 
in  Lanarkshire  1775,  died  1860.  In  1800 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Speedy  sloop-of- 
war  of  fourten  guns,  and  in  the  course  of 
thirteen  months  captured  over  fifty 
vessels.  In  1805,  while  in  command  of 
the  Pallas  frigate,  he  took  some  rich 
prizes,  and  for  the  next  four  years  in  the 
Imperieuse  performed  remarkable  ex- 
ploits in  cutting  out  vessels,  storming 
batteries,  destroying  signals,  etc.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  entered  parlia- 
ment, and  by  his  attacks  on  the  abuses 
of  the  naval  administration  made  him- 
self obnoxious  to  the  authorities.  In 
1818  he  took  service  in  the  Chilian  navy, 
his  exploits  greatly  aiding  the  national 
independence  of  that  country,  as  well 
as  soon  after  of  Brazil.  He  did  much  to 
promote  the  adoption  of  steam  and  the 
screw  propeller  in  war  ships. 

DUNEDIN  (dun-e'din),  capital  of  the 
pro\’incial  district  of  Otago,  New  Zea- 
land, and  the  most  important  commer- 
cial town  in  the  colony,  stands  at  the 
upper  extremity  of  an  arm  of  the  sea. 


about  9 miles  from  its  port.  Port  Chal- 
mers, with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  Though  founded  in  1848,  its 
more  rapid  progress  dates  only  from 
1861,  when  extensive  gold-fields  dis- 
covered in  Otago  attracted  a large  influx 


of  population.  Wood  is  the  staple  ex- 
port. There  is  a regular  line  of  steam- 
ers between  this  port  and  Melbourne  and 
communication  is  frequent  with  all  ports 
of  New  Zealand.  Population  52,390. 

DUNES,  low  hills  of  sand  accumu- 
lated on  the  sea-coasts  of  Holland, 
Britain,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  in 
some  places  encroaching  on  and  covering 
what  once  was  cultivated  land,  but  in 
others  serving  as  a natural  barrier  to 
protect  the  country  from  the  destructive 
encroachments  of  the  sea. 

DUNGARPUR  (don-gar-por'),  an  In- 
dian native  state  in  Rajputana;  area, 
1000  sq.  miles;  pop.  153,381. — Dun- 
garpur  is  also  the  name  of  the  chief  town 
and  residence  of  the  Maharawal  of  the 

DUNG  BEETLE,  a name  applied  to  a 
large  number  of  coleopterous  insects 
from  their  habit  of  burying  their  eggs 
in  dung. 

DUNKERS,  or  TUNKERS,  a religious 
sect  in  America,  founded  by  Conrad 
Peysel,  a German,  in  1724,  and  which 
takes  its  name  from  the  Ger.  tunken,  to 
dip,  from  their  mode  of  baptizing  con- 
verts. They  reject  infant  baptism;  use 
great  plainness  of  dress  and  language- 
refuse  to  take  oaths  or  to  fight;  and 
anoint  the  sick  with  oil  in  order  to  their 
recovery,  depending  on  this  unction 
and  prayer,  and  rejecting  the  use  of 
medicine.  Every  brother  is  allowed  to 
speak  in  the  congregation,  and  their  best 
speaker  is  usually  set  apart  as  their 
minister.  Called  also  Dippers,  but  by 
themselves  Brethren. 

DUNKIRK,  a city,  port  of  entry,  and 
railway  center  in  Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y. ; 
situated  on  Lake  Erie,  40  miles  s.w.  of 
Buffalo.  It  is  the  western  terminus  of 
the  Erie  R.  R.,  which  connects  it  with 
New  York  city,  459  miles  distant,  and 
has  a good  harbor  and  an  advantageous 
position  for  trade.  Pop.  13,726. 

DUN'LIN,  a British  bird,  a species  of 
sandpiper,  occurring  in  vast  flocks  along 
sandy  shores.  It  is  about  8 inches  in 
length  from  the  point  of  the  bill  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail,  and  its  plumage 


Dipper. 


undergoes  marked  variations  in  summer 
and  winter,  the  back  passing  from  black 
with  reddish  edges  to  each  feather,  to  an 
ashen  gray,  and  the  breast  from  mottled 
black  to  pure  white.  The  American 
red-backed  sandpiper  is  a different 
variety  of  dunlin,  larger  and  with  a 
longer  or  more  decurved  bill. 

DUNLOP',  a parish  of  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, which  has  given  its  name  to  an 
esteemed  variety  of  cheese. 


DUN'NAGE,  faggots,  boughs,  or  loose 
wood  laid  in  the  hold  of  a ship  to  raise 
heavy  goods  above  the  bottom  to  pre- 
vent injury  from  water ; also  loose  articles 
of  lading  wedged  between  parts  of  the 
cargo  to  hold  them  steady. 

DUNNE,  Finley  Peter,  an  American 
humorist,  born  at  Chicago  in  1867,  and 
from  1885  to  1891  engaged  as  reporter, 
and  later  as  editor  and  editorial  writer 
for  Chicago  newspapers.  In  1898  he 
published  his  first  book  of  humor,  “Mr. 
Dooley  in  Peace  and  War.”  Since  that 
time  he  has  published  several  other 
volumes,  all  devoted  to  the  sayings  of 
“Mr.  Dooley,”  a convenient  medium  for 
the  propagation  of  Mr.  Dunne’s  deep 
and  searching  satire  on  human  society 
and  its  shams.  Mr.  Dunne  is  probably 
the  foremost  of  American  humorists. 

DUNOIS  (du-nwa),  Jean,  Count  of 
Orleans  and  of  Longueville;  a French 
hero,  natural  son  of  Louis,  duke  of 
Orleans,  born  1402,  died  1468.  Dunois 
made  the  name  “I3astard  of  Orleans” 
illustrious  by  his  military  exploits.  He 
began  his  career  with  the  defeat  of  War- 
wick and  Suffolk,  whom  he  pursued  to 
Paris.  Being  besieged  by  the  English  he 
defended  Orleans  until  relieved  by  the 
Maid  of  Orleans.  In  1450  he  had  com- 
pletely freed  France  from  the  English, 
and  was  rewarded  by  the  title  of  “de- 
liverer of  his  country,”  the  county  of 
Longueville,  and  the  dignity  of  high 
chamberlain  of  France. 

DUNS,  John,  commonly  called  Duns 
Scotus,  an  eminent  scholastic  divine, 
born  1265  or  1275,  but  whether  in  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  or  Ireland  is  uncertain. 
In  1304  he  went  to  Paris,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  and  regent  in  the  theo- 
logical schools,  in  which  situation  he 
acquired  the  title  of  “the  subtle  doctor.” 
Duns  opposed  Thomas  Aquinas  on  the 
subject  of  grace  and  free-will;  and  hence 
the  Scotists  are  opposed  to  the  Thomists. 
Duns  was  the  apostle  of  realism,  which 
was  opposed  to  the  systems  of  nominal- 
ism and  conceptualism  promulgated  by 
the  other  sections  into  which  the  school- 
men were  divided.  He  died,  it  is  said, 
at  Cologne  in  1308,  leaving  behind  him 
numerous  works. 

DUNWOODY,  Henry  Harrison  Chase, 
an  American  meteorologist,  born  in 
Ohio  in  1842.  Educated  at  West  Point, 
he  served  for  a time  in  the  army,  espe- 
cially with  the  signal  service  and  organ- 
ized a large  number  of  the  weather 
stations  in  the  U.  States.  He  has  pub- 
lished a number  of  important  papers  on 
meteorological  subiects. 

DUODECIMAL  SYSTEM,  in  numera- 
tion, a system  of  numbers  the  scale  of 
which  is  twelve.  Duodecimals  is  a term 
applied  to  an  arithmetical  method  of 
ascertaining  the  number  of  sciuare 
feet,  etc.,  in  a rectangular  area  or  surface 
whose  sides  are  given  in  feet,  inches  and 
lines. 

DUODEC'IMO  (often  contracted 
12mo.)  is  that  form  of  volume  in  which 
each  leaf  forms  a twelfth  part  of  the 
sheet. 

DUODE'NUM,  the  commencement  of 
the  intestinal  canal,  the  first  of  the 
smaller  intestines,  so  called  because  its 
length  is  about  twelve  fingers’  breadth 
(Lat.  duodeni,  by  twelves). 


DUQUESNE 


DUST  COUNTER 


DUQUESNE  (d65-kan'),  a town  in 
Alleghen}’^  County,  Pa.,  one  mile  from 
McKeesport ; on  the  Monongahela  River, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania  railroad.  Its 
steelworks  and  blast-furnaces  are  ex- 
tensive. Pop.  10,416. 

DURAN'GO,  a town  in  Mexico,  capital 
of  the  state  of  Durango,  about  500  miles 
n.  w.  Mexico,  on  an  elevation  6845  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  is  well  built,  has  a 
cathedral,  a mint,  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  woolen  goods,  leather,  etc. 
Pop.  20,000. — The  state  (area,  42,530 
sq.  miles)  is  partly  mountainous  and  un- 
productive, but  has  valuable  gold,  silver, 
and  iron  mines,  and  also  fertile  tracts. 
Pop.  196,852. 

DUR'BAN,  the  chief  port  of  the  colony 
of  Natal,  S.  Africa,  on  a landlocked  bay 
(Port  Natal).  Pop.  57,000. 

DURER  (dti'rer),  Albert,  German 
painter,  designer,  sculptor,  and  engraver 
on  wood  and  metal,  born  at  Nilrnberg 
1471,  died  there  1528.  In  1505  he  went 
to  Venice  to  improve  himself  in  his  art. 


His  abilities  excited  envy  and  admira- 
tion. He  painted  the  Martyrdom  of 
Bartholomew  for  St.  Mark’s  church, 
which  painting  was  purchased  by  the 
Emperor  Rudolph  and  removed  to 
Prague.  He  also  traveled  to  Bologna, 
to  improve  his  knowledge  of  perspective. 
On  his  return  to  Nurnberg  his  fame 
spread  far  and  wide.  Maximilian  I.  ap- 
pointed him  his  court-painter,  and 
Charles  V.  confirmed  him  in  this  office. 
All  the  artists  and  learned  men  of  his 
time  honored  and  loved  him,  and  for 
many  years  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
burghers  of  his  native  town.  Profound 
application  and  great  facility  in  the 
mechanical  part  of  his  art  were  the  char- 
acteristics of  Durer,  and  enabled  him  to 
exert  a great  influence  on  German  art. 
He  was  the  first  in  Germany  who  taught 
the  rules  of  perspective,  and  of  the  pro- 
portions of  the  human  figure.  He  not 
only  made  use  of  the  burin,  like  his  pre- 
decessors, but  was  also  among  the  first 
to  practice  etching.  He  invented  the 
method  of  printing  woodcuts  with  two 
colors. 

DU'RESS,  in  law,  restraint  or  com- 
pulsion, is  of  two  kinds;  duress  of  im- 
prisonment, which  is  imprisonment  or 
restraint  of  personal  liberty;  and  duress 
by  menaces  or  threats  (per  minas), 
when  a person  is  threatened  with  loss  of 
Hfe,  or  w'ith  some  kind  of  injury.  An  act 
done  under  duress  is  voidable  or  ex- 
cusable. 

DURGA  (dur'ga),  a Hindu  divinity, 
one  of  the  names  given  to  the  consort  of 


Siva.  She  is  generally  represented  with 
ten  arms.  In  one  hand  she  holds  a spear, 
with  which  she  is  piercing  Mahisha,  the 
chief  of  the  demons,  the  killing  of  whom 
was  her  most  famous  exploit ; in  another 


Durga. 

a sword;  in  a third  the  hair  of  the  demon 
chief ; and  in  others,  the  trident,  discus, 
ax,  club,  and  shield.  A great  festival 
in  her  honor,  the  Durga  puja,  is  cele- 
brated annually,  lasting  for  ten  days. 

DURHAM  (du'ram),  an  ancient  city 
and  parliamentary  borough  in  England, 
capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  river  Wear,  which  is  crossed  here 
by  four  bridges,  14  miles  s.  of  Newcastle. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
ancient  castle — now  appropriated  to  the 
uses  of  the  university — the  cathedral, 
and  other  churches,  the  town-hall, 
county  prison,  grammar-school,  etc. 
The  educational  institutions  comprise 
the  university,  the  grammar-school,  a 
training-school  for  schoolmistresses,  and 
other  schools.  There  are  manufactures 
of  carpeting  and  mustard.  The  cathe- 
dral occupies  a height  overlooking  the 
Wear.  The  larger  portion  of  it  is  Nor- 
man in  style,  with  insertions  in  all  the 
English  syles.  Three  magnificent  and 
elaborately  ornamented  towers  spring  up 
from  the  body  of  the  building,  one  from 
the  center  212  feet  high,  and  two  to- 
gether from  the  west  end  each  143  feet 
high;  the  entire  length  is  420  feet.  It 
was  founded  by  William  de  Carilepho, 
assisted  by  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  in 
1093.  Pop.  14,641. — Durham  Univer- 
sity was  founded  in  1832,  opened  in  1833, 
incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1837. 
It  is  in  some  relations  connected  with 
the  bishopric  of  Durham,  the  office  of 
warden  being  annexed  to  the  deanery  of 
Durham,  and  a canonry  in  the  cathedral 
being  annexed  to  each  of  the  professors 
of  divinity  and  classical  literature.  There 
are  also  professors  of  mathematics, 
Hebrew,  medicine,  etc.  There  are  a col- 
lege of  physical  science  and  a college  of 
medicine  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  con- 
nection with  the  university. — The  county 
is  on  the  n.e.  coast  of  England,  having 
on  the  e.  the  German  Ocean,  on  the  n. 
Northumberland,  from  which  it  is 
divided  by  the  rivers  Tyne  and  Derwent, 
Cumberland  on  the  w.,  and  Yorkshire  on 
the  s.,  the  river  Tees  parting  the  two 
counties.  Its  area  is  647,592  acres,  of 
which  two-thirds  are  under  cultivation. 


The  chief  towns  besides  Durham  are 
Sunderland,  Gateshead,  S.  Shields, 
Stockton,  Darlington,  and  Hartlepool. 
Pop.  1,187,324. 

DUROC  (dii-rok),  Michel  Gerard 
Christophe,  Duke  of  Friuli,  a distin- 
guished general  under  Bonaparte,  was 
born  at  Pont-4-Mousson  in  1772;  killed, 
1813,  at  the  battle  of  Bautzen.  He 
served  as  aide-de-camp  to  Napoleon  in 
the  Italian  and  E^ptian  campaigns. 
In  1805  he  was  made  grand-marshal  of 
the  palace,  and  was  frequently  employed 
in  diplomatic  missions,  though  he  still 
took  his  full  share  in  the  wars  of  France 
till  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  a 
great  favorite  of  Napoleon,  and  was 
killed  by  his  side. 

DURUY  (dii-ru-e),  Victor,  French  his- 
torian and  educationalist,  borr  at  Paris 
1811.  He  is  author  of  History  France, 
History  of  Greece,  History  of  the 
Romans,  History  of  Ancient  Greece,  and 
History  of  the  World.  He  died  in  1894. 

DUSE  (doo'zay),  Eleonora,  an  Italian 
actress  born  in  1859  in  Piedmont.  Her 
first  great  success  was  at  Milan  in  1885. 
In  1892  she  appeared  at  Vienna  and  in 
1893  she  made  her  American  debut  in 
New  York  as  Camille.  Duse  has  played 
with  great  success  as  Juliet,  Magda, 
Francesca  da  Rimini  and  other  noted 
parts. 

DUSSELDORF  (dus'sel-dorf),  a town 
of  Prussia,  in  the  Rhenish  province, 
beautifully  situated  among  villas  and 
gardens  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
22  miles  n.n.w.  Cologne,  one  of  the  hand- 
somest towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine. 
It  is  a great  focus  of  railway  and  steam- 
boat communication,  and  has  a number 
of  handsome  public  buildings,  and 
several  remarkable  churches.  Among 
the  public  institutions  particular  notice 
is  due  to  the  Academy  of  Art,  founded, 
1767,  by  the  Elector  Theodore.  The 
industries  embrace  iron,  cotton,  leather, 
tobacco,  carpets,  chemicals,  objects  of 
art,  etc.,  and  the  trade  is  large.  Pop. 
213,767. 

DUST,  very  small  particles  of  various 
kinds  of  matter,  vegetable,  animal,  and 
mineral,  which  fills  the  atmosphere  of 
the  earth,  at  least  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
beams  of  the  sun  when  passed  through 
a mass  of  air,  as  in  a room.  No  local- 
ities are  free  from  dust.  It  is  found 
over  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  on  the 
tops  of  mountains,  and  in  the  most  se- 
cluded places.  It  consists  of  the  pollen 
of  plants,  vegetable  fibers  of  many  kinds, 
hairs,  and  fragments  of  various  kinds, 
such  as  metallic  salts,  iron,  etc.  There 
are  living  organisms  in  dust  wliich  are 
not  revealed  by  the  microscope  except 
by  special  tests,  such  as  their  power  to 
propogate.  In  this  way  disease  germs 
and  moulds  of  various  kinds  are  scat- 
tered about,  find  lodging  places  in 
favorable  media,  and  in  the  bodies  of 
man  and  animals  produce  what  is  called 
disease.  Dust  is  largely  made  up  of  vol- 
canic matter,  finely  ground,  and  of  the 
comminuted  meteroites  oxized  in  their 
swift  passage  through  the  air.  It  is 
known  that  dust  produces  rain  and 
causes  moulds. 

DUST-BRAND.  See  Smut. 

DUST  COUNTER,  an  instrument  for 
counting  the  particles  of  dust  in  the  air. 


DUST  STORMS 


DYNAMICS 


A small  volume  of  air  is  forced  into  a 
receptacle  with  a glass  bottom  ruled  into 
very  small  squares.  The  air  is  sud- 
denly expanded  and  a fog  is  formed 
which,  when  it  settles,  carries  down  the 
dust.  The  number  of  particles  per  square 
are  counted  and  a calculation  is  made  by 
which  the  number  of  particles  in  a cubic 
centimeter  of  air  can  be  estimated.  The 
instrument  was  invented  by  J ohn  Aitken. 

DUST  STORMS,  extraordinary  whirl- 
winds caused  by  the  rapid  rise  of  the  air 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  very  hot 
climates.  They  are  seen  in  India,  the 
Sahara  Desert,  and  in  the  western  part 
of  the  U.  States.  The  vertical  motion  of 
the  air  sucks  in  the  dust  from  the  earth, 
dead  leaves,  sticks,  and  other  objects, 
and  carries  them  sometimes  up  to  the 
clouds,  but  ordinarily  only  1000  feet 
above  the  earth.  In  hot  desert  regions 
several  of  these  whirls  are  often  seen 
together  whirling  about  a center  like 
dancing  pillars  of  sand. 

DUTCH,  the  people  and  language  of 
Holland  or  the  Netherlands.  See  Neth- 
erlands. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  a 

company  founded  in  1602,  which  was 
given  a trade  monopoly  of  the  Dutch 
colonies  in  Java,  and  the  East.  It  went 
out  of  existence  in  1795. 

DUTCH  EAST  INDIES,  a term  applied 
to  the  possessions  of  Holland  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  They  include  Java, 
Madura,  Sumatra,  part  of  Borneo,  and 
other  islands,  the  total  area  of  which  is 
736,400  miles  and  the  popidation  34,- 
090,000.  The  total  European  popula- 
tion, numbering  not  more  than  75,000, 
consists  chiefly  of  Dutch. 

DUTCH  GOLD,  an  alloy  of  eleven 
parts  of  copper  and  two  of  zinc.  Called 
also  pinchbeck.  See  also  Dutch  Metal. 

DUTCH  METAL,  an  alloy  containing 
84’5-84‘7  per  cent  of  copper  and 
15‘5-15'3  per  cent  of  zinc,  with  a fine 
golden-yellow  color,  ductile,  malleable, 
and  tenacious.  When  beaten  out  by  a 
process  analogous  to  that  for  gold-leaf, 
until  the  sheets  are  less  than  ^T^jth  part 
of  an  inch  thick,  it  constitutes  Dutch 
leaf  or  Dutch  foil,  and  is  used  instead  of 
gold-leaf  for  ornamental  purposes. 

DVORAK  (dvor-sh  k'),  Anton,  a 
Bohemian  musical  composer,  born  in 
1841.  He  studied  at  the  Prague  Con- 
servatoire and  at  Vienna.  He  has  com- 
osed  several  operas  on  national  Bo- 
emian  subjects,  a number  of  songs, 
orchestral  arrangements  of  Bohemian 
dances,  several  symphonies,  a Stabat 
Mater,  a cantata  The  Specter  Bride, 
an  oratorio  St.  Ludmilla.  Died  1904. 

DWARF,  a term  applied  to  any  ani- 
mal or  plant  greatly  below  the  usual  size 
of  its  kind,  particularly  to  a human  be- 
ing of  small  dimensions.  Accounts  of 
dwarf  tribes  have  been  common  from 
early  times,  such  tribes  being  located 
especially  in  Africa;  and  it  would  ap- 
ear  from  the  accounts  of  Du  Chaillu, 
chweinfurth,  and  other  travelers  that 
there  are  several  dwarfish  tribes  through 
out  this  continent.  The  Obongo,  a race 
of  dwarfs,  are  described  as  living  in 
woods  near  the  Okanda  river,  in  wretch- 
ed huts  made  of  branches.  Other  races 
are  the  Mabongo,  and  the  Akka  dwarfs 
of  Central  Africa;  and  a race  is  said  to 
exist  in  the  Congo  State,  not  as  a dis- 


tinct community,  however,  but  mixed 
with  other  tribes.  Individual  dwarfs 
occur  in  all  races,  and  were  formerly  a 
fashionable  appendage  to  the  courts  of 
princes  and  the  families  of  nobles. 

DWARFING,  the  process  of  training 
up  trees  or  shrubs  for  ornament  in  houses 
so  as  to  cause  them  never  to  reach  more 
than  a very  small  size,  by  keeping  them 
in  poor  soil,  giving  them  little  water, 
pinching  off  strong  shoots,  etc.  Prac- 
ticed among  the  Cliinese  and  Japanese. 

DWIGHT  (dwit),  Timothy,  American 
divine,  born  in  Massachusetts  1752,  died 
1817.  His  father  was  Colonel  Timothy 
Dwight,  and  his  mother  was  a daughter 
of  Jonathan  Edwards.  He  served  as 
chaplain  in  the  revoluntionary  army, 
and  ultimately  became  president  of  Yale 
College.  His  Theology  (1818)  was  for 
long  a standard  both  in  Britain  and  in 
America.  He  was  also  the  author  of  two 
poems,  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  and 
Greenfield  Hill,  besides  numerous  unim- 
portant w'orks,  consisting  of  disserta- 
tions, occasional  sermons,  etc. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  American 
educator  and  clergyman,  born  in  Con- 
necticut in  1828.  In  1886  he  was  elected 
president  of  Yale,  and  resigned  in  1899. 
He  has  w’ritten  a number  of  valuable 
commentaries  on  biblical  literature. 

DWIGHT,  William  Buck,  an  Ameri- 
can geologist,  born  in  1833  at  Constanti- 
nople, where  his  father  was  a missionary. 
He  has  been  professor  at  Vassar  College 
since  1878  and  curator  of  the  museum. 
He  has  published  several  papers  on 
geological  subjects. 

DY'AKS,  the  aborigines  of  Borneo, 
chiefly  inhabiting  the  interior  of  the 
island.  They  are  a finely-formed  race, 
of  a yellow  complexion,  and  are  de- 
scribed as  docile,  industrious,  and  su- 
perior to  the  Malays.  The  more  ad- 
vanced of  them  practice  agriculture  and 
dwell  in  neatly-constnicted  and  toler- 
ably comfortable  houses.  In  Sarawak 
they  have  made  considerable  advances 
in  civilization.  They  are  mostly  heathen. 
The  practice  of  head-hunting  (hunting 
their  enemies  to  make  trophies  of  their 
heads)  is  practiced  among  them,  but  has 
-been  abolished  where  European  in- 
fluence prevails.  See  Borneo*. 

DYAS,  in  geology,  a name  for  the  Per- 
mian system. 

DYCK,  Sir  Anthony  Van.  See  Van- 
dyck. 

DYEING  is  the  art  of  fixing  a new  and 
permanent  color  on  textile  substances, 
usually  cotton,  linen,  silk,  and  wool. 
Some  preliminary  operations  are  neces- 
sary in  order  to  cleanse  the  stuff  from 
any  foreign  matters  which  would  pre- 
vent the  dye  having  free  access  to  it,  as 
well  as  to  remove  any  natural  coloring 
which  would  interfere  with  the  produc- 
tion of  bright  clear  tints.  Cotton  and 
linen  fabrics  go  through  a prolonged 
series  of  operations  in  bleaching  (which 
see).  Silk  is  boiled  in  a solution  of  fine 
soap,  to  remove  the  fatty  matter;  and 
wool  is  cleansed  by  scouring  in  weak 
soap  or  soda-lye  or  weak  ammonia. 

The  process  of  dyeing  varies  much 
according  to  the  stuff  and  the  coloring 
matters  used.  In  general  animal  fibers, 
like  silk  and  wool,  combine  more  easily 
with  most  colors  than  vegetable  fibers 


such  as  linen  and  cotton.  In  the  case  of 
the  former,  for  example,  a simple  im- 
mersion in  aniline  dyes  is  sufficient  to 
produce  a fixed  color.  Such  colors  are 
said  to  be  substantive,  in  relation  to  the 
stuffs  with  which  they  thus  combine. 
Dyes  which  will  not  unite  directly  with 
the  fibers  so  as  to  produce  a good  and 
permanent  color,  are  termed  adjective. 
These  dyes  require  the  intervention  of 
another  agent  to  fix  them  on  the  differ- 
ent stuffs,  and  the  name  of  mordant  is 
applied  to  those  substances  which  are 
employed  to  make  the  stuff  to  be  dyed 
and  the  dyeing  color  combine.  Alum, 
acetate  of  alumina,  chloride  of  tin,  salts 
of  iron,  albumen,  gluten,  tannin,  etc., 
are  common  mordants.  The  mordant  is 
generally  dissolved  in  water  into 
which  the  stuffs  to  be  dyed  are  plunged. 
In  some  cases  it  is  mixed  with  the  color 
and  both  are  simultaneously  applied  to 
the  stuff.  An  important  characteristic 
of  mordants  is  their  power  of  affecting 
the  natural  tint  of  the  dye  and  thus 
enabling  a variety  of  shades  to  be  pro- 
duced at  small  expense.  Thus  nitrates 
tend  to  give  a yellow  tinge  to  the  colors, 
alumina  deepens  and  oxide  of  tin  bright- 
ens the  natural  tints.  A process  of  dye- 
ing to  which  the  name  of  Aero-hydraulic 
dyeing  has  been  given,  consists  in  for- 
cing the  color  through  the  material  by 
hydraulic  pressure.  The  advantages  of 
the  process  are  that  the  color  is  forced 
equally  through  any  thickness  of  the 
stuff,  which  thus  remains  bright  till 
completely  worn  out. 

The  dye-stuffs  in  use  at  the  present 
day  are  derived  alike  from  the  animal, 
mineral,  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 
Among  the  most  notable  additions  to 
the  list  of  coloring  stuffs  within  recent 
years  are  the  aniline  dyes  of  coal-tar 
origin  (see  Aniline),  which  yield  a great 
variety  of  brilliant  colors,  such  as 
magenta,  mauve,  aniline,  purple,  rose- 
ine,  violine,  etc.  From  coal-tar  also  the 
two  coloring  principles  of  madder 
(alizarine  and  purpurine)  have  been 
artificially  produced.  There  are  few 
organic  substances  which  under  proper 
treatment  will  not  yield  coloring  matter, 
and  of  late  new  coloring  matters  have 
been  obtained  from  wood-sawdust, 
lichens,  mosses,  paper  and  cotton  waste, 
bran,  starch,  sugar,  soot,  etc. 

DYE-STUFFS.  See  Dyeing. 

DYING  DECLARATION.  (See  Dec- 
laration, Dying.) 

DYKE.  See  Dike. 

DYNAM'ETER,  an  instrument  used 
for  measuring  the  magnifying  power  of 
telescopes.  It  consists  of  a small  com- 
pound microscope,  with  a transparent 
plate,  exactly  divided,  which  is  fixed  to 
the  tube  of  a telescope,  in  order  to  meas- 
ure exactly  the  diameter  of  the  distinct 
image  of  the  eye-glass.  Also  same  as 
Dynamometer. 

DYNAMTCS  is  the  science  which  deals 
with  the  laws  of  force  in  their  relation  to 
matter  at  rest  or  in  motion,  and  as  such 
it  is  differentiated  from  kinematics, 
which  considers  motion  mathematically, 
and  apart  from  the  forces  producing  it. 
It  is  to  Newton  that  we  owe  the  clear 
statement  of  the  three  primary  laws  of 
force.  These  are:  (1)  that  every  body 
remains  in  a state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform 
motion  along  a straight  line,  unless  it  is 


DYNAMIC  THEORY 


DYNAMOMETER 


compelled  by  force  to  change  that  state. 

(2)  That  change  of  motion  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  force  employed,  and  occurs 
along  the  straight  line  in  which  the  force 
acts.  This  change  of  motion  includes 
both  change  of  rate  and  of  direction. 

(3)  That,  as  the  result  of  every  action, 

there  is  also  and  always  an  equal  re- 
action. These  laws,  which  were  formu- 
lated from  experiment,  involve  the  con- 
ception of  force  as  a primary  influence 
or  action  expressed  in  terms  of  space, 
time,  and  matter.  Now,  in  dealing  with 
the  laws  of  force,  a standard  of  measure- 
ment is  required  which  shall  be  applica- 
ble to  all  forces  at  all  times,  and  we 
therefore  require  to  begin  by  establish- 
ing units  of  space,  time,  and  mass. 
There  are  two  systems  of  units  in  use, 
the  one  ISritish,  the  other  French.  In 
the  British  system  the  foot  is  taken  as 
the  unit  of  length,  and  the  second  as  the 
unit  of  time.  In  the  French  the  centi- 
metre is  the  unit  of  length,  the  second 
the  unit  of  time;  the  unit  velocity  in  the 
one  case  being  that  of  one  foot  per  sec- 
ond, in  the  other  one  centimetre  per 
second.  The  British  unit  of  mass  is  the 
pound  (the  mass  of  a certain  lump  of 
platinum  deposited  in  the  exchequer 
office,  London) ; the  French  the  gramme ; 
and  accordingly  the  French  units  of 
space,  mass,  and  time  are  commonly 
known  as  the  C.G.S.  (centimetre, 
gramme,  second)  units.  As  the  weight 
of  a pound  (or  a gramme)  is  not  the 
same  at  all  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface 
it  cannot  give  us  of  itself  an  absolute  or 
dynamical  unit  of  force,  that  is,  an  in- 
variable unit;  but  taking  it  in  conjunc- 
tion with  unit  time  and  unit  velocity, 
we  do  obtain  such  a unit.  Two  absolute 
units  of  force  are  in  common  use  in 
dynamics,  the  poundal  and  the  dyne; 
the  latter  being  the  absolute  unit  in  the 
C.G.S.  system.  The  former  is  that  force 
which,  acting  on  the  mass  of  one  pound 
for  one  second,  generates  in  that  mass  a 
velocity  of  one  foot  per  second.  The 
latter  is  that  force  which,  acting  on  the 
mass  of  one  gramme  for  one  second, 
generates  in  that  mass  a velocity  of  one 
centimetre  per  second.  It  is  important 
in  dynamics  to  distinguish  between  mass 
and  weight.  The  mass  of  one  pound  is 
the  quantity  of  matter  equal  to  a certain 
standard  quantity  (a  certain  lump  of 
metal)  and  is  quite  independent  of  force. 
The  weight  of  one  pound  is  the  force  with 
which  the  mass  of  one  pound  is  attracted 
to  the  earth’s  surface  by  the  force  of 
gravity.  Another  important  term  is 
momentum;  the  momentum  of  a body 
in  motion  at  any  instant  is  the  product 
of  the  mass  of  the  body  and  the  velocity 
at  that  instant.  Dynamics  is  divided 
into  t^TO  great  branches:  statics,  which 
treats  of  solid  bodies  at  rest  under  the 
action  of  forces;  and  kinetics,  which 
treats  of  the  action  of  forces  in  produ- 
cing motion  in  solid  bodies.  Formerly 
the  alone  was  called  dynamics, 

and  to  tms,  in  conjunction  with  statics, 
the  general  name  mechanics  was  given. 
In  the  wide  sense  dynamics  includes  also 
hydrostatics. 

DYNAMIC  THEORY,  a theory  ex- 
planatory of  the  essential  constitution 
of  matter.  In  the  dynamic  theory  every 
body  is  considered  as  a space  filled  with 
■wntinuous  matter;  porosity  then  be- 


comes an  accidental  quality,  but  com- 
pressibility and  dilatability  essential 
properties.  The  state  of  a body  depends 
entirely  on  certain  attracting  and  repel- 
ling forces;  and  its  volume  must  change 
with  every  change  in  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  these  forces.  It  is  opposed  to 
the  atomic  theory,  which  supposes  every 
body  to  be  composed  of  indivisible  and 
impenetrable  particles  termed  atoms. 
These  are  almost  infinitely  small,  with 
void  spaces  between  them,  so  that  this 
theory  makes  porosity  essential  to 
matter. 

DY'NAMITE,  an  explosive  substance 
patented  - by  A.  Nobel  in  1867.  As 
originally  made  it  consists  of  a siliceous 
earth  obtained  at  Oberlohe  in  Hanover 
and  known  as  kieselguhr,  impregnated 
with  75  per  cent  of  nitro-glycerine  (see 
Nitro-glycerine),  the  object  of  the  mix- 
ture being  to  facilitate  the  carriage  and 
use  of  the  substance  by  diminishing  its 
susceptibility  to  explode  by  shock  while 
not  destroying  its  explosive  force.  The 
siliceous  matter  is  of  diatomaceous  origin ; 
it  is  extremely  friable  and  porous,  and 
has  a considerable  absorbent  power. 
Dynamite  thus  prepared  has  the  appear- 
ance of  raw  sugar.  Diatomite,  a sub- 
stance superior  to  kieselguhr,  is  now 
also  employed,  and  various  other  sub- 
stances have  been  used  to  mix  with  the 
nitro-glycerine,  such  as  charcoal,  sand, 
saw-dust,  etc.  The  mixture  remains 
without  change  for  any  length  of  time. 


by  means  of  continuous  relative  motion 
between  electrical  conductors  and  a 
magnetic  field,  or  fields,  such  motion 
causing  the  conductors  to  cut  or  trav- 
erse the  lines  of  force  of  the  fields.  In 
an  electric  motor  electrical  energy  is 
transformed  into  mechanical  energy  by 
means  of  continuously  supplying  a sys- 
tem of  electrical  conductors  with  an 
electric  current,  which  causes  a magnetic 
force  to  act  between  the  conductors 
carrying  it  and  the  magnetic  field,  or 
fields,  thereby  producing  continuous 
relative  motion  between  the  conductors 
and  the  magnetic  fields. 

The  preceding  definitions  are  general 
and  necessarily  technical.  To  compre- 
hend them  fully  a knowledge  of  the  fun- 
damental principles  involved  in  the 
operation  of  dynamo-electric  machines 
is  necessary.  They  may,  however,  be 
in  a measure  elucidated  by  a descriptive 
definition  as  follows : All  generators 
consist  essentially  of  one  or  more  electro- 
magnets between  the  poles  of  which  an 
armature,  consisting  of  a soft  iron  core 
wound  with  coils  of  insulated  copper 
wire,  is  made  to  revolve  very  rapidly  by 
means  of  a steam-engine,  a water-wheel, 
or 'other  prime  mover.  In  the  trans- 
mission of  energy  by  electricity  the  cur- 
rent produced  by  the  generator  is  made 
to  pass  through  another  machine, 
similar  and  often  identical  in  construc- 
tion, and  there  causes  the  armature  to 
revolve,  and  this  revolution  may  be  em- 


unless exposed  to  water.  It  burns  away 
quietly  if  a light  is  applied  to  it,  but 
explodes  if  heated  to  a high  tempera- 
ture. Usually  it  is  exploded  by  a 
specially  arranged  fulminating  cap. 
Its  explosive  force  is  several  times  that 
of  gunpowder,  which  it  has  largely 
superseded  for  blasting. 

DYNAMO,  an  electro-magnetic  device 
for  the  production  of  electricity,  which 
serves  either  as  a generator  or  a motor. 
For  example,  the  motor  of  a trolley  car 
is  a dynamo  in  all  essentials  the  same 
as  the  dynamo  at  the  power  house 
which  generates  the  current. 

In  an  electric  generator  mechanical 
energy  is  convertedinto  electrical  energy 


ployed  to  do  any  kind  of  mechanical 
work.  This  second  machine,  working 
in  reverse  order  from  the  first,  is  an 
electric  motor.  This  description  makes 
it  clear,  as  do  the  preceding  definitions, 
that  to  understand  thoroughly  the 
dynamo-electric  machine  requires  a 
knowledge  of  three  great  branches  of 
science — magnetism,  electricity,  and 
mechanics.  The  necessity  for  this 
special  knowledge  makes  the  subject  of 
dynamo-electric  machines  a difficult  one 
to  discuss  in  familiar  terms. 


DYNAMOM'ETER,  any  instrument ; 
for  measuring  the  relative  strength  of^ 
men  or  animals,  or  the  force  of  ma-; 
rihinery.  Commonly  it  consists  of 


FHE  HAPPY  HENS  OF  Hbi 

Ve  are  g®bappy!”pr°“d'  and 

beauty;  , j,  do  our 

Are  matrons  brave  a 

And,  bke  °tbe^  ® ‘ and  the  r 
We  rule  the  roost,  ^ackleat 

We’re  active  birds  . 


DYSENTERY 


EAGLE 


spiral  spring  suitably  applied.  When 
the  pull  upon  a draft  implement,  as  a 
plow  for  instance,  is  the  point  to  be 
determined,  the  dynamometer  is  made 
a link  in  the  draft-chain,  and  the 
amount  of  extension  or  collapse  which 
it  suffers  indicates  the  intensity  of  the 
strain. 

DYS'ENTERY,  a dangerous  disorder 
of  the  intestines,  known  by  fever;  fre- 
quent griping  stools;  tenesmus;  stools 
chiefly  mucous,  sometimes  mixed  with 
blood,  the  natural  feces  being  retained, 
or  voided  in  small,  compact,  hard 
masses;  loss  of  appetite  and  nausea.  It 
may  be  occasioned  by  a sudden  check 
in  the  perspiration,  or  the  use  of  un- 
wholesome and  putrid  food,  or  by 
noxious  exhalations  and  vapors,  and  it 
is  often  the  result  of  a specific  con- 
tagion. When  the  symptoms  run  high, 
produce  great  loss  of  strength,  and  are 
accompanied  with  a putrid  tendency 
and  a fetid  and  involuntary  discharge, 
the  disease  often  terminates  fatally  in  a 
few  days.  In  some  cases  the  febrile  state 
wholly  disappears  after  a time,  while 
the  proper  dysenteric  symptoms  may  be 
of  long  continuance.  Hence  the  dis- 
tinction into  acute  and  chronic  dysen- 
tery. Saline  purgatives,  and  for  severe 
cases  laudanum  (20  or  30  drops)  or 


Dover’s  powder,  are  useful.  The  en- 
demic dysentery  of  Egypt  is  a distinct 
disease  caused  by  the  presence  of  a worm 
in  the  intestines. 

DYSMENORRHCE'A,  a disease  of 
women,  consisting  in  painful  or  difficult 
menstruation,  which  may  be  caused  in 
various  ways. 

DYSPEP'SIA,  difficulty  of  digestion. 
The  action  of  the  stomach  on  the  food 
is  that  usually  designated  as  digestion, 
and  it  is  the  derangement  of  this  process 
that  is  usually  expressed  by  the  term 
dyspepsia.  This  derangement  may  be 
caused  by  disorders  of  a very  various 
and  even  opposite  character.  The  sub- 
acute and  chronic  forms  of  gastric  irrita- 
tion and  inflammation  are  the  most  com- 
mon forms  of  dyspepsia,  and  are  often 
caused  by  too  highly-seasoned  or  too 
abundant  food  and  stimulant  drinks,  or 
by  the  improper  use  of  emetics,  tonics, 
or  stimulants.  Another  class  of  dys- 
peptic diseases  is  connected  with  irrita- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
duodenum,  causing  perversion  of  secre- 
tions and  disorder  of  functions.  A third 
class  of  dyspeptic  diseases  depends  on 
the  nerves  connected  with  the  digestive 
viscera.  Hence  arises  an  order  of  dys- 
peptic symptoms  independent  of  any 
immediate  affection  of  the  stomach. 


Dyspepsia  is  therefore  not  a disease  of 
a uniform  character,  but  is  rather  at- 
tached as  a symptom  to  a variety  of  dis- 
eases. The  most  common  cause  of 
dyspepsia  are  excesses  of  various  kinds, 
especially  in  the  quantity  of  food  eaten. 
Persons  of  a sedentary  life  require  less 
nutriment  than  those  of  active  habits. 
Exercise  and  the  quantity  of  food  to  be 
digested  must  be  proportioned  to  each 
other.  The  quality  of  food  as  well  as  its 
quantity  has  to  be  considered.  Good 
cookery,  which  renders  the  food  tender 
and -pulpy,  is  one  preservative  against 
dyspepsia.  Tough  and  badly-dressed 
meats,  crude  vegetables,  hot  bread  and 
cakes,  and  the  daily  use  of  hot  tea  or 
coffee  for  breakfast,  are  among  the  nu- 
merous causes  of  this  ailment. 

DZOUNGARIA,  a Chinese  territory  in 
Central  Asia,  stretching  from  about  43° 
to  48°  n.  lat.  and  from  about  82°  to  86° 
e.  Ion.  It  has  an  area  of  147,950  sq. 
miles,  and  pop.  600,000.  It  is  adminis- 
tratively connected  with  Kuldja,  and 
since  the  surrender  of  Kuldja  by  the 
Russians  in  1880  is  again  under  Chinese 
rule.  Dzoungaria,  once  the  center  of  an 
independent  empire,  was  first  conquered 
by  the  Chinese  in  1757. 


E 


E,  the  second  vowel  and  the  fifth 
letter  of  the  English  alphabet.  It  occurs 
more  frequently  in  English  words  than 
any  other  letter  of  the  alphabet.  Its 
long  or  natural  sound  in  English  coin- 
cides with  the  sound  of  i in  the  Italian 
and  French  languages,  as  in  here,  mere, 
me.  It  has  also  another  principal  sound, 
a short  one,  heard  in  met,  men.  It  has 
besides  a sound  like  a in  bare,  as  in  there, 
where,  etc.,  and  the  obscure  sound  which 
is  heard  in  her.  As  a final  letter  in  Eng- 
lish it  is  generally  silent,  but  it  serves 
to  indicate  that  the  preceding  vowel  is 
to  have  its  long  sound,  as  in  mane, 
cane,  plume.  When  two  e’s  come  to- 
gether the  sound  is  generally  the  same 
as  that  of  the  single  e long,  as  in  deem, 
esteem,  need  (comp,  however  pre-exist, 
etc.). 

E,  in  music,  is  the  third  note  or  de- 
gree of  the  diatonic  scale,  answering  to 
the  mi  of  the  Italians  and  French. 

EADS,  James  Buchanan,  an  American 
civil  engineer  and  inventor,  born  in 
Indiana  in  1820,  died  1887.  He  removed 
to  St.  Louis  in  1833  and  figured  in  the 
civil  war  as  an  adviser  of  Lincoln  in  the 
matter  of  ironclads.  In  1867  he  began 
his  famous  work  on  the  great  Eads 
bridge  at  St.  Louis,  and  1874  undertook 
the  construction  of  the  jetties  at  New 
Orleans,  by  which  the  channel  of  the 
Mississippi  river  was  deepened.  The 
latter  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
engineering  works  abroad. 

_ EAGLE,  the  general  name  of  raptorial 
birds  that  form  a group  of  the  great 
family  Falconidae,  which  includes  the 
eagles,  falcons,  and  hawks.  The  eagle 
is  popularly  regarded  as  the  noblest  and 
most  courageous  of  the  rapacious  birds. 
It  soars  to  a greater  height  than  any 


other  bird,  from  which  circumstance  the 
ancients  considered  it  as  the  bird  or 


Golden  eagle. 

which  includes  the  most  typical  eagles, 
is  distinguished  by  its  long  and  powerful 


bill,  the  curve  commencing  at  the  cere, 
by  its  wings  reaching  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  by  its  tarsi  being  feathered  to 
the  toes.  The  imperial  eagle  of  Centra 
Europe  is  probably  the  species  to  which 
the  popular  belief  in  the  courage, 
strength,  and  nobleness  of  eagles  is  to 
be  traced.  The  golden  eagle,  is  the  chief 
British  species.  It  measures  over  6 feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  expanded  wings. 


Imperial  eagle. 

and  3 feet  from  the  beak  to  the  end  of 
the  tail.  The  adults  have  the  body 
brownish,  becoming  darker  with  age; 
the  feathers  of  the  head  and  neck  pointed 
and  of  a golden-red  hue.  This  species  is 
found  all  over  the  northern  hemisphere. 
The  bald  eagle,  found  in  N.  America  and 
northeast  Asia,  is  the  symbol  of  the  U. 
States.  Like  all  members  of  the  genus 
his  diet  is  less  restricted  than  that  of  the 
true  eagles;  and  he  even  takes  carrion. 
Another  eagle,  the  serpent  eagle,  or 
short-toed  eagle,  ranges  through  south- 


EAGLE 


EARLY  ENGLISH  ARCHITECTURE 


ern  Europe,  Asia,  and  especially  North 
Africa.  In  structure  and  habits  this 
bird  approaches  the  buzzards. 

EAGLE,  as  a symbol.  The  eagle  first 
appears  as  a war  standard  among  the 
Persians,  through  whom  it  reached  the 
Egyptians.  As  the  standard  of  the 
Roman  armies  it  w;as  first  used  by  Mar- 
ius, and  latterly  took  the  place  of  all  the 


Roman  eagles. 


other  emblems  at  the  head  of  the  legions. 
In  the  mediaeval  ages  the  eagle  became 
the  heraldic  emblem  of  the  old  German 
Empire,  and  was  made  double-headed 
in  the  14th  century.  When  the  old  Ger- 
man Empire  ceased  the  double-headed 
eagle  was  retained  by  Austria.  A double- 
headed eagle  is  also  the  national  military 
symbol  of  Russia,  as  a single-headed 
eagle  is  that  of  Prussia  and  the  United 
States  of  America;  the  latter  stands  with 
outspread  wings  guarding  a shield,  with 
the  motto  E Pluribus  Unum.  The  eagle 
is  also  the  badge  of  several  orders,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  order  of  the  Black 
Eagle,  founded  in  1701,  and  the  highest 
order  in  Prussia;  the  order  of  the  Red 
Eagle,  also  a Prussian  order  and  founded 
in  170.5;  the  Russian  order  of  the  White 
Eagle,  originally  Polish,  and  instituted 
in  1325. 

EAGLE,  a gold  coin  in  the  U.  States 
of  the  value  of  ten  dollars,  first  coined  in 
1795.  There  are  also  half-eagles,  quar- 
ter-eagles, and  double-eagles. 

EAGLE-OWL,  a name  for  several 
large  horned  owls,  little  inferior  in  size 
to  the  golden  eagle,  found  in  many  parts 
of  Europe  and  sometimes  in  Britain. 
An  allied  species,  the  Virginian  horned 
owl  is  common  in  the  U.  States. 

EAMES,  Emma  (Mrs.  Julian  Story), 
an  American  opera  singer,  born  in  1867 
in  China,  where  her  father  was  engaged 
in  law.  Her  studies  were  made  in  Boston 
and  in  Paris  (under  Marches!).  In  1889 
she  made  her  first  appearance  in  Faust 
and  at  once  took  her  place  among  the 
great  soprano  singers  of  the  time. 
Madame  Eames  has  sung  in  Europe  and 
the  U.  States  in  all  the  most  difficult 
grand  operas. 

EAR,  the  organ  of  hearing.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  side  of  the  head,  and  in  the 
higher  vertebrates  is  divided  into  the 
outer,  middle  and  inner  ear.  The  external 
ear,  which  is  a cartilaginous  funnel  for 
collecting  the  sound  waves  and  directing 
them  inward,  is  composed  of  the  pavil- 
ion, or  projecting  part,  and  of  the  audi- 
tory canal,  which  extends  from  the 
concha,  or  central  hollow  of  the  pavilion. 


to  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  or 
drum.  This  membrane  is  a partition 
stretched  obliquely  across  the  bottom  of 
the  auditory  canal,  which  it  separates 
from  the  middle  ear  or  drum ; it  is  semi- 
transparent and  very  delicate.  It 
vibrates  with  the  waves  of  sound  which 
strike  against  it,  and  transmits  the  vi- 
brations to  certain  little  bones  of  the 
cavity  of  the  tympanum.  These  bones, 
which  have  been  named  respectively 
the  hammer  (malleus),  the  anvil  (incus), 
and  the  stirrup  (stapes),  transmit  the 
vibrations  to  the  internal  ear,  forming 
a chain  communicating  at  one  end  with 
the  membrane  just  mentioned,  and  at 
the  other  with  the  inner  ear.  The  inter- 
nal ear  consists  of  a bony  cavity  called 
the  vestibule,  three  semicircular  canals, 
and  a bony  structure  in  the  form  of  a 
spiral  shell,  called  the  cochlea.  The 
vestibule  communicates  with  the  tym- 
panum, the  cochlea,  and  the  semi- 
circular canals,  and  is  entered  by 
branches  of  the  nerve  of  hearing.  The 
various  parts  of  the  internal  ear,  which 
together  form  the  osseous  labyrinth, 
are  lodged  in  the  hardest  part  of  the 
temporal  bone;  they  are  lined  through- 
out with  a very  thin  membrane,  and 
are  full  of  a very  thin  and  limpid  fluid. 
They  contain  a structure  of  corre- 
sponding form  called  the  membran- 
ous labyrinth,  consisting  of  sacs  and 
canals,  also  containing  a fluid.  With- 


in the  membranous  canal  of  the  cochlea 
is  lodged  the  complicated  apparatus 
which  is  believed  to  be  the  chief  agent 
in  the  perception  of  sound.  The  mid- 
dle ear  communicates  with  the  throat 
and  pharynx  by  the  Eustachian  tube, 
through  which  air  from  the  mouth  may 
be  pressed  against  the  membrane  of  the 
drum.  In  the  external  auditory  canal 
of  the  ear  is  produced  the  cerumen  or 
ear-wax,  which  if  allowed  to  accumulate 
may  cause  deafness.  The  cut  shows  a 
the  pavilion,  b the  external  canal,  c the 
drum  membrane  partly  removed,  d 
cavity  of  middle  ear,  e anvil  and  m ham- 
mer, the  small  bones  communicating 
with  the  drum  and  vestibule,  h cochlea, 
g semi-circular  canals,  i Eustachian  tube. 

EARL,  a degree  of  the  British  nobility 
between  marquis  and  viscount,  the  title 
of  highest  antiquity  in  England.  The 
title  was  made  hereditary  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  for  a time  was  used 
interchangeably  with  that  of  count,  the 
corresponding  title  on  the  Continent. 
The  wife  of  an  earl  is  still  called  a coun- 
tess. An  earl’s  coronet  is  composed  of 
eight  pearls  raised  upon  points,  with 
small  leaves  between,  above  the  rim. 
See  Coronet. 


The  ear  of  the  right  side. 


EARLSTON,  a village  of  Scotland  in 
Berwickshire.  Near  it  are  the  ruins  of 
the  ancient  tower,  which  belonged  to  the 
famous  Thomas  the  Rhymer.  Pop.  1060. 

EARLY,  Jubal  Anderson,  an  American 
confederate  general,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1816,  died  in  1894.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  fought  in  the  Mexican  War, 
joined  the  confederate  forces  in  1861, 
fought  at  Bull  Run,  Williamsburg, 
Antietam,  and  other  important  battles 
of  the  civil  war.  Subsequently  to  the 
war  general  Early  practiced  law  and 
was  distinguished  for  being  the  most 
prominent  of  the  “unreconstructed 
rebels.’’  He  never  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  U.  States  and  died  a 
confederate.  He  published  several  in- 
teresting memoirs. 

EARLY  ENGLISH  ARCHITECTURE, 

the  first  of  the  Pointed  or  Gothic  styles 
of  architecture  that  prevailed  in  Eng- 
land. It  succeeded  the  Norman  in  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.  (1189),  and  continued 
to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  in 


Early  English  capital,  Salisbury. 

1272,  a period  of  123  years,  when  it 
gradually  merged  into  the  Decorated 
style.  One  of  the  leading  peculiarities  in 
this  style  is  the  form  of  the  windows, 


Early  English  architecture— Galilee  porch  and 
south  transept  of  Lincoln  cathedral. 


which  are  narrow  in  proportion  to  their 
height,  and  terminate  in  a pointed  arch, 
resembling  the  blade  of  a lancet. 
Throughout  the  early  period  of  the  style 
they  are  very  plain,  particularly  in  small 
churches;  but  in  cathedrals  and  other 
large  buildings  the  windows,  frequently 
combined  two  or  more  together,  are  car- 


EAR-RiNGt 


EARTH 


ried  to  a great  height,  are  richly  and 
deeply  molded,  and  the  jambs  orna- 
mented with  slender  shafts.  Though 
separated  on  the  outside,  these  lancets 
are  in  the  interior  combined  into  one  de- 
sign, thus  giving  the  first  idea  of  a com- 
pound window.  The  doorways  are  in 
general  pointed,  and  in  rich  buildings 
sometimes  double;  they  are  usually 
molded,  and  enriched  with  the  tooth- 
ornament.  The  buttresses  are  often 
very  bold  and  prominent,  and  are  fre- 
quently carried  up  to  the  top  of  the 
building  with  but  little  diminution,  and 
terminate  in  acutely -pointed  pediments, 
which,  when  raised  above  the  parapet, 
produce  in  some  degree  the  effect  of 
pinnacles.  In  this  style,  likewise,  flying- 


Early  English  style— North-west  transept 
of  Beverly  minster. 

buttresses  were  first  introduced,  and  the 
buttresses  themselves  much  increased 
:in  projection  owing  to  the  comparative 
.tightness  of  the  walls,  which  required 
some  counter-support  to  resist  the  out- 
ward pressure  of  the  vaulting.  The  roof 
,.n  the  Early  English  style  appears  al- 
ways to  have  been  high  pitched,  and  the 
towers  surmounted  by  lofty  pointed 
spires,  as  at  Salisbury  cathedral.  In 
the  interior  the  arches  are  usually  lancet- 
shaped,  and  the  pillars  often  reduced  to 
very  slender  proportions.  As  if  to  give 
still  greater  lightness  of  appearance,  they 
are  frequently  made  up  of  a center  pillar, 
surrounded  by  slight  detached  shafts, 
only  connected  with  the  pillar  by  their 
capitals  and  bases,  and  bands  of  metal 
placed  at  intervals.  The  architects  of 
this  style  carried  their  ideas  of  lightness 
to  the  utmost  limits  of  prudence,  and 
their  successors  have  been  afraid  to 
imitate  their  example.  The  abacus  of 
the  capitals  is  generally  made  up  of  two 
bold  round  moldings,  with  a deep 
hollow  between.  The  foliage  is  peculiar, 
generally  very  gracefully  drawn,  and 
thrown  into  elegant  curves;  it  is  usually 
termed  stiff-leaved,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  its  rising  with  a stiff  stem 
from  the  neck-mold  of  the  capital. 
The  trefoil  is  commonly  imitated,  and  is 
very  characteristic  of  the  style.  The 


moldings  of  this  style  have  great  bold- 
ness, and  produce  a striking  effect  of 
light  and  shade.  They  consist  chiefly  of 
rounds  separated  by  deep  hollows,  in 
which  a peculiar  ornament,  called  the 
dog’s-tooth,  is  used,  whenever  orna- 
ment can  be  introduced.  This  ornament 
is  as  characteristic  of  the  Early  English 
as  the  zig-zag  is  of  the  Norman. 

EAR-RING,  an  ornament  for  the  ear, 
consisting  of  a ring  or  hook  passing 
through  the  lobe,  with  a pendant  of 
diamonds,  pearls,  or  other  jewels  fre- 
quently attached.  Ear-rings  were  com- 
monly worn  among  the  Oriental  nations, 
and  by  both  sexes,  from  the  earliest 
times.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
they  were  not  so  commonly  worn  by 


Early  English  style— Detached  shaft  in  Lady 
Chapel,  Salisbury  cathedral. 

men  as  by  women.  In  England  the 
Romanized  Britons  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  wore  them,  but  the  fashion  de- 
clined in  the  10th  century,  and  was  again 
introduced  in  the  16th  century,  in  Queen 
Elizabeth’s  time. 

EARTH,  the  planet  which  we  inhabit, 
a nearly  spherical  body  which  every 
twenty-four  hours  rotates  from  west  to 
east  round  an  imaginary  line  called  its 
axis — this  axis  having  as  its  extremities 
the  north  and  south  poles  respectively — 
while  in  the  course  of  a year  it  completes 
a revolution  round  the  sun.  To  an 
observer  whose  view  is  not  obstructed 
any  part  of  the  earth  presents  itself  as  a 
circular  and  horizontal  expanse,  on  the 
circumference  of  which  the  heavens 
appear  to  rest.  Accordingly,  in  remote 
antiquity,  the  earth  was  regarded  as  a 
flat,  circular  body,  floating  on  the  water. 
But  even  in  antiquity  the  spherical  form 
of  the  earth  began  to  be  suspected.  It 
is  only  on  this  suppo.sition  that  we  can 
explain  how  the  horizon  of  vision  grows 
wider  and  wider  the  higher  the  position 
we  choose,  how  the  tops  of  towers  and 
mountains  at  a distance  become  visible 
before  the  bases,  how  the  hull  of  a ship 
first  disappears  as  she  sails  away,  and 
how,  aawe  go  from  the  poles  toward  the 
equator,  new  stars  become  visible 
Besides  these  proofs  there  are  many 


others,  such  as  the  circular  shadow  of 
the  earth  seen  on  the  moon  during  an 
eclipse,  the  gradual  appearance  and  dis- 
appearance of  the  sun,  and,  lastly,  the 
fact  that  since  1519  it  has  been  regularly 
circumnavigated. 

The  earth  is  not,  however,  an  exact 
sphere,  but  is  very  slightly  flattened  at 
the  poles,  so  as  to  have  the  form  known 
as  an  oblate  spheroid.  In  this  way  the 
polar  diameter,  or  diameter  from  pole  to 
pole,  is  shorter  than  the  diameter  at 
right  angles  to  this — the  equatorial 
diameter.  The  most  accurate  measure- 
ments make  the  polar  diameter  about  27 
miles  less  than  the  equatorial,  the  equa- 
torial diameter  being  found  to  be  7925'6 
miles,  and  the  polar  7899'  14  The  earth 
is  regarded  as  divided  into  two  halves — 
the  northern  and  the  southern  hemis- 
phere— by  the  equator,  an  imaginary 
line  going  right  round  it  midway  be- 
tween the  poles.  In  order  to  indicate 
with  precision  the  position  of  places  on 
the  earth  additional  circles  are  imagined 
to  intersect  one  another  on  the  surface 
in  such  a manner  that  those  of  the  one 
set  all  pass  through  both  poles,  while 
those  of  the  other  are  drawn  parallel  to 
the  equator.  The  former  are  called 
meridians,  the  latter  parallels  of  latitude 
and  by  them  we  can  tell  the  latitude  and 
longitude,  and  thus  the  exact  position 
of  any  place. 

Many  experiments  by  various  methods 
have  been  made  in  order  to  determine 
the  average  density  of  the  earth,  that  is, 
the  quantity  of  matter  it  contains. 
Among  these  methods  may  be  men- 
tioned: (1)  that  of  determining  the 
attraction  of  a mountain  on  the  direc- 
tion of  a plumb-line  and  calculating 
from  thence  the  density  of  the  earth; 
(2)  that  founded  on  the  difference  of 
oscillation  in  a pendulum  when  placed 
at  the  summit  of  a mountain  and  when 
at  the  sea-level;  (3)  the  converse  of  the 
preceding  method,  by  the  determination 
of  the  difference  of  gravity  at  the  top 
and  the  bottom  of  a deep  mine,  by  pen- 
dulum experiments;  (4)  Cavendish’s  ex- 
periment with  the  torsion  balance,  which 
attempts  to  compare  the  attractive  force 
of  two  large  lead  balls  over  other  two 
small  lead  balls  with  that  exercised  by 
the  earth.  From  these  and  other  ex- 
periments it  has  been  calculated,  taking 
the  mean  of  all  results,  that  the  density 
of  the  earth  is  to  that  of  water  as  5' 639 
to  1. 

The  earth,  in  common  with  the  other 
planets,  moves  round  the  sun,  complet- 
ing its  revolution  in  about  365  days  and 
six  hours,  and  thus  forming  our  common 
year.  The  orbit  of  the  earth  is  an  ellipse, 
with  the  sun  in  one  of  its  foci.  Hence 
the  earth  is  not  equally  distant  from  the 
sun  in  all  parts  of  the  year;  being  about 
3,000,000  miles  nearer  at  one  time  than 
another,  its  least  distance  (perihelion 
distance)  according  to  recent  calcula- 
tions being  89,897,000  miles,  its  greatest 
(aphelion  distance)  92,963,000,  and  the 
the  mean  distance,  or  half  the  length  of 
the  long  axis  of  the  orbit,  91,430,000 
miles.  From  this  it  may  be  calculated 
that  the  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit 
is  about  17  miles  a second.  In  winter 
(speaking  of  the  northern  hemisphere) 
the  earth  is  nearest  the  sun  and  in  sum- 
mer farthest  from  it;  for  the  difference 


EARTH-CURRENTS 


EARTH-CURRENTS 


in  the  summer  and  winter  temperature 
is  not  occasioned  by  the  greater  or  less 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  but 
by  the  more  or  less  oblique  direction  of 
the  sun’s  rays.  The  passage  of  the  earth 
round  its  orbit  causes  the  sun  to  appear 
as  if  it  described  a similar  orbit  in  the 
heavens ; and  hence  it  is  that  at  one  time 
of  the  year  one  group  of  stars  is  seen  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  sun  at  sunrise 
and  sunset  and  at  another  time  another 
group.  This  apparent  path  of  the  sun  is 
the  ecliptic,  and  corresponds  with  what 
would  be  the  path  of  the  earth  as  seen 
from  the  sun;  and  the  groups  of  stars 
through  which  the  sun  successively 
passes  form  the  zodiac. 

The  earth’s  daily  motion  about  its  own 
axis  takes  place,  according  to  mean 
time,  in  twenty-three  hours,  fifty-six 


the  equator  the  sun  is  directly  overhead  i 
at  every  point  in  succession  twice  in  the 
year.  The  circles  which  bound  this 
region  are  called  the  tropics,  that  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  being  the  tropic  of 
Cancer,  that  in  the  southern  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn,  while  the  region  between  is 
the  torrid  zone.  The  regions  between 
the  tropics  and  the  polar  circles  are  re- 
spectively the  north  and  south  temper- 
ate zones. 

From  the  evidence  furnished  by  vol- 
canoes, hot  springs,  sinking  of  mines, 
etc.,  it  is  known  that  the  earth  has  a high 
internal  temperature  of  its  own.  Taking 
the  average  of  the  various  observed  rates 
of  increase  this  temperature  seems  to  in- 
crease 1°  Fahr.  for  every  60  feet  of  de- 
scent. Assuming  this  to  continue,  the 
rocks  at  a depth  of  2 miles  would  be  as 


tions  of  portions  of  the  earth’s  surface 
which  are  constantly  taking  place,  and 
that  this  allows  the  rocks  to  liquefy. 
Water  may  then  soak  down  to  these 
liquid  rocks,  and  being  converted  into 
steam  produce  the  various  volcanic 
phenomena. 

The  earth  (like  the  other  planets)  is 
believed  to  have  condensed  and  solidi- 
fied from  a gaseous  or  nebular  condition, 
and  to  have  once  had  a far  higher  tem- 
perature than  now.  If  such  were  the 
case  the  outer  surface,  losing  heat  by 
radiation,  would  be  the  first  part  to  cool 
quickly;  while  the  interior,  losing  its 
heat  by  conduction,  would  not  cool  so 
rapidly,  and  therefore  would  naturally 
have  a higher  temperature  than  the 
portion  at  the  surface.  This  is  what  all 
observations  indicate  the  condition  of 
the  earth  to  be,  and  the  shape  of  the 
earth  also  indicates  that  it  must  once 
have  been  in  a fluid  state.  Even  the 
time  at  which  it  was  in  the  fluid  state 
has  been  roughly  calculated  by  Sir  W. 
Thomson  (Lord  Kelvin),  whose  esti- 
mate makes  it  about  200  millions  of 
years  ago.  See  Nebular  Hypothesis. 

Another  feature  that  the  earth  as  a 
whole  presents  is  its  magnetism.  When 
a magnetic  needle  is  balanced  on  a point 
it  remains  at  rest  in  one  position  only, 
pointing  then  nearly  due  north  and 
south.  ■■  This  can  be  explained  only  on 
the  supposition  that  the  earth  acts  as  a 
great  magnet.  It  has  in  fact  two  poles — 
a north  and  a south  magnetic  pole — 
which  are  not  very  far  from,  but  by  no 
means  coincident  with,  the  geographical 
poles.  There  is  also  a neutral  line  or 
magnetic  equator,  which  does  not 
greatly  diverge  from  the  geographical 
equator.  The  earth  acts  upon  all  mag- 
nets as  they  act  upon  each  other,  and  it 
is  for  this  reason  that  they  point  north 
and  south. 

The  surface  of  the  earth  contains  over 
196,000,000  square  miles,  of  which 
scarcely  a third-part  is  dry  land,  the  re- 
maining two-thirds  being  water.  The 
land  is  arranged  into  masses  of  irregular 
shape  and  size,  the  greatest  connected 
mass  being  in  the  eastern  hemisphere. 
The  chief  masses  receive  the  name  of  con- 
tinents, detached  masses  of  smaller  size 
forming  islands.  The  surface  of  the  land 
is  variously  diversified,  exhibiting  moun- 
tains, valleys,  plains,  plateaux,  deserts, 
etc.  The  water  area  of  the  earth  is 
divided  into  oceans,  seas,  bays,  gulfs, 
etc.,  while  rivers  and  lakes  may  be  re- 
garded as  features  of  the  land  surface. 
The  great  phenomena  of  the  oceans  are 
currents  and  tides.  The  population  of 
the  whole  earth  is  estimated  at  from 
1350  to  1450  millions.  The  earth  is 
attended  by  the  moon  as  a subordinate 
or  subsidiary  planet.  See  also  such 
articles  as  Climate,  Currents,  Ocean, 
Earthquake,  Seasons,  etc. 

EARTH-CURRENTS, violent  electrical 
disturbances  of  the  nature  of  tran- 
sient currents,  which  rush  in  one  direc- 
tion or  the  other,  and  by  which  tele- 
graph lines,  and  particularly  long  sub- 
marine lines,  are  constantly  troubled. 
Their  origin  and  nature  are  not  thor- 
oughly understood,  but  they  are  found 
to  be  very  intimately  connected  with 
the  perturbations  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism called  magnetic  storms,  and 


WATER  bEMlSPHEBE..  LAND  HEMISPHERE 

The  earth. 


minutes,  and  four  seconds.  This  diurnal 
revolution  is  the  occasion  of  the  alterna- 
tion of  day  and  night.  As  the  axis  on 
which  the  earth  performs  its  diurnal 
rotation  forms  with  the  plane  of  its  path 
about  the  sun  an  angle  of  23^°  (which 
angle  also  represents  that  between  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic  and  the  plane  of  the 
earth’s  equator),  the  sun  ascends  in  the 
heavens,  from  March  21  to  June  21  (the 
summer  solstice),  about  23^°  above  the 
equator  toward  the  north  pole,  and  de- 
scends again  toward  the  equator  from 
June  21  to  September  23;  it  then  sinks 
till  December  21  (the  winter  solstice), 
about  23^°  below  the  equator,  toward 
the  south  pole,  and  returns  again  to  the 
equator  by  March  21.  This  arrangement 
is  the  cause  of  the  seasons,  and  the  in- 
equality of  day  and  night  attending 
them.  For  all  countries  lying  beyond 
the  equator,  day  and  night  are  equal 
only  twice  in  the  year  (at  tlie  equinoxes). 
At  the  summer  solstice  the  north  pole 
of  the  earth  is  turned  toward  the  sun, 
and  the  south  pole  away  from  it,  and  for 
23^°  round  the  former  there  is  a period 
of  longer  or  shorter  duration  during 
which  the  sun  is  continually  above  the 
horizon  for  more  than  24  hours,  while 
round  the  latter  there  is  an  equal  extent 
of  surface  within  which  the  sun  for 
similar  periods  is  below  the  horizon. 
(See  Day.)  The  reverse  state  of  matters 
occurs  at  the  winter  solstice.  The  cir- 
cles bounding  these  regions  are  called 
respectively  the  arctic  and  the  antarctic 
circle,  and  the  regions  themselves  the 
polar  or  frigid  zones.  Throughout  a 
region  extending  to  23^°  on  each  side  of 


hot  as  boiling  water,  and  at  a depth  of 
50  miles  the  heat  would  be  such  as  at  the 
surface  would  melt  every  known  solid. 
This  being  so,  various  theories  as  to  the 
internal  condition  of  the  earth  have  been 
proposed:  (1)  That  a thin  envelope  or 
crust  surrounds  a molten  interior.  It 
can  be  shown,  however,  that  as  tides 
must  be  produced  in  such  a molten  mass 
the  cool  outer  crust  would  be  unable  to 
withstand  the  enormous  force  of  these 
unless  it  were  about  2000  miles  thick. 
(2)  That  the  interior  is  solid,  with  spaces 
here  and  there  filled  with  liquid  or 
gaseous  material.  This  theory  assumes 
that  there  are  within  the  earth  enormous 
cavities  filled  with  molten  rock,  which 
escapes  when  local  pressure  is  removed  in 
the  form  of  volcanic  outbursts.  (3)  That 
the  earth  consists  of  a thin  crust,  a large 
solid  nucleus,  and  a liquid  film  between 
the  nucleus  and  the  crust;  the  tempera- 
ture at  the  center  being  not  much  greater 
than  comparatively  near  the  surface. 
(4)  That  the  earth  is  solid  to  the  center, 
but  any  part  may  become  liquid  if  local 
pressure  is  removed.  We  know  that  if 
the  pressure  on  a solid  be  increased  the 
melting  point  is  correspondingly  raised; 
now  the  pressure  at  the  center  of  the 
earth,  or  even  at  the  depth  of  50  or  100 
miles,  must  be  something  enormous,  and 
probably  is  so  great  as  to  keep  the  rocks 
there  permanently  in  a solid  condition, 
notwithstanding  the  heat.  This  last 
theory  is  considered  the  most  probable. 
On  the  supposition  of  its  correctness 
volcanoes  might  be  explained  by  sup- 
posing that  at  certain  points  here  and 
there  pressure  is  removed  by  the  eleva- 


EARTHENWARE 


EASTER 


these,  it  is  well  known,  are  closely  con- 
nected both  with  the  appearance  of 
the  aurora  borealis  and  with  the  occur- 
rence of  the  sun’s  spots. 

EARTHENWARE,  a name  applied  to 
the  more  common  sorts  of  pottery-ware. 
The  older  kinds  of  earthenware,  such  as 
Majolica,  Delft%are,  Faience,  and 
Palissy-ware  are  not  only  glazed,  but 
are  besides  elaborately  colored  and 
enameled  and  ornamented  with  raised 
figures  of  various  kinds. 

EARTHQUAKE,  a shaking  of  certain 
parts  of  the  earth’s  surface,  produced 
by  causes  not  perceivable  by  our  senses. 
This  motion  occurs  in  very  different 
ways,  having  sometimes  a perpendic- 
ular, sometimes  a horizontal  undu- 
lating, and  sometimes  a whirling  motion. 
It  also  varies  much  in  degrees  of 
violence,  from  a shock  which  is  hardly 
perceptible  to  one  which  bursts  open 
chasms  and  changes  the  appearance  of 
the  ground  itself.  During  these  shocks 
sometimes  smoke  and  flames,  but  more 
frequently  stones  and  torrents  of  water 
are  discharged.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  earthquakes  and  volcanic  eruptions 
are  kindred  phenomena,  the  latter  dif- 
fering from  the  former  principally  in 
proceeding  from  a permanent  ci’ater. 
All  observations  go  to  prove  that  both 
are  due  to  disruptions  produced  by 
internal  heat  at  a great  depth  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Of  the  partic- 
ular way  in  which  this  force  works, 
however,  there  are  various  theories. 
It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  the 
center  of  earthquakes  and  volcanic  dis- 
turbances is  always  near  the  sea  or 
other  large  supplies  of  water,  and  that 
the  disturbances  are  directly  caused 
by  the  filtration  of  the  water  down  to 
igneous  matter,  and  the  consequent 
generation  of  vast  quantities  of  steam 
which  frees  itself  by  explosion.  Others 
have  sought  to  explain  earthquakes  as 
part  of  the  phenomena  of  a planet  cool- 
ing at  the  surface.  The  steady  con- 
traction of  matter  caused  by  the  decay 
of  heat  would  be  likely  to  produce  large 
cavities  with  an  increasing  tension  of 
the  neighboring  strata  till  a tremendous 
subsidence  involving  convulsions  reach- 
ing to  the  earth’s  surface  removed  the 
strain.  The  most  remarkable  earth- 
quakes of  modern  times  are  those 
which  destroyed  Lima,  in  1746,  and 
Lisbon  in  1755;  still  more  recent  are  the 
earthquakes  that  visited  Calabria  in 
1857,  Peru  and  Ecuador  in  1868,  the 
island  of  Ischia  in  1884,  Charleston  and 
that  district  of  the  United  States  in 
1886,  Mentone  and  the  Riviera  of  Italy 
in  1887. 

The  great  earthquake  which  destroyed 
San  Francisco  (see  San  Francisco)  was 
connected,  it  is  believed,  with  the 
recent  disastrous  eruption  of  Vesuvius 
(see  Vesuvius)  and  with  the  earth- 
quake all  along  the  coast  of  South 
America  on  August  5,  1906,  and  fol- 
lowing, in  which  200  people  were  killed, 
and  Valparaiso,  Chile,  was  almost  de- 
stroyed, with  a loss  of  12,000,000  of 
property,  none  of  which  was  insured. 

Measured  by  the  immediate  destruc- 
tion of  human  life  and  of  property  and 
the  resultant  misery  and  suffering  to 
human  beings  yet  alive,  the  earth- 
quake of  December  28, 1908,  in  Sicily  and 


Calabria  was  the  most  direful  calamity 
in  the  world’s  history.  Two  hundred 
thousand  lives  and  more  than  .$1,000,- 
000,000  worth  of  property — these  figures 
tell  the  terrible  story  of  Italy’s  misfor- 
tune and  grief.  The  cities  of  Messina 
and  Reggio,  the  former  in  Sicily  and 
the  latter  on  the  mainland  almost  op- 
posite, with  their  combined  population 
of  170,000  were  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed. These  cities  and  a number  of 
smaller  towns  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
were,  in  less  than  five  minutes,  crushed 
to  heaps  of  smoking  ruins. 

Sicily  and  Calabria  have  always  been 
known  to  be  in  the  so-called  earth- 
quake belt.  This  region  has  been 
much  studied  by  seismologists,  and 
this  latest  convulsion  has  revived  the 
speculation  as  to  the  cause  of  earth- 
quakes. Volcanic  activity  on  the  part 
of  Etna,  Vesuvius  and  Stromboli  was 
looked  for  at  the  time  of  the  shock,  but 
no  serious  eruption  actually  occurred. 
All  of  the  seriously  entertained  theories 
of  earthquake  causes  have  been  ad- 
vanced to  explain  the  shocks  in  south- 
ern Italy,  for  there  were  many  minor 
shocks  after  the  first  great  one,  not  only 
in  Italy,  but  in  Austria  and  Turkey  as 
well  The  most  generally  accepted 
theory  is  that  an  earthquake  is  the  re- 
sult of  a “fault”  in  the  geological 
formation  under  the  affected  region,  in 
this  case  the  fault  constituting  a line  of 
contact  between  tne  volcanic  strata 
underlying  Mt.  Etna  and  Mt.  Vesuvius. 
It  is  believed  that  the  strata  underly- 
ing the  Sti’ait  of  Messina  slipped  along 
the  line  of  this  fault,  and  that  the  so- 
called  tidal  wave  resulted  from  this 
I’apid  and  radical  altering  of  the  sea’s 
bed.  In  support  of  the  theory  now 
w'idely  held  that  earthquakes  are  gen- 
erally caused  by  the  seeping  of  vast 
quantities  of  water  into  the  earth’s  hot 
interior,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
gas  and  steam,  it  b.as  been  pointed  out 
by  Professor  Milne,  perhaps  the  great- 
est living  authority  on  seismology,  that 
an  analysis  of  more  than  10,000  observa- 
tions in  Japan  shows  that  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  earthquakes  origina- 
ted beneath  the  ocean  or  along  the  sea- 
board, ‘‘and  as  they  radiated  inland 
they  became  more  and  more  feeble  un- 
til on  reaching  the  backbone  of  the 
country,  w'hich  is  drilled  by  numerous 
volcanic  vents,  they  were  almost  im- 
perceptible.” Another  idea  is  that  the 
quiet,  ceaseless  work  of  the  world’s 
great  rivers  in  carrying  to  the  ocean 
sand  and  mud  in  immense  quantities 
gradually  alters  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  globe  and  causes  a shift  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis.  Many  physicists 
agree  with  Prof.  Percival  Lowell,  the 
eminent  astronomer,  in  the  contention 
that  the  earth  is  rapidly  aging  and  that 
it  is  the  wrinkling  and  consequent 
shrinking  of  the  “skin”  of  the  planet 
which  is  really  the  primary  cause  of 
earthquakes. 

EARTHS,  a term  applied  to  certain 
tasteless,  inodoi’ous,  dry,  uninflam- 
mable substances  of  a moderate  specific 
gravity,  which  constitute  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  the  gravel  and  soil  that 
go  to  make  up  the  mountains,  valleys, 
and  plains  of  our  globe.  They  include 
lime,  baryta,  strontia,  magnesia,  alu- 


mina, etc.  The  earths  were  regarded  as 
simple  bodies  until  Sir  H.  Davy  proved 
them  to  be  compounds  of  oxygen 
with  metals. 

EARTH-SHINE,  in  astron.  a name 
given  to  the  faint  light  visible  on  the 
part  of  the  moon  not  illuminated  by 
the  sun,  due  to  the  illumination  of  that 
portion  by  the  light  which  the  earth 
reflects  on  her.  It  is  most  conspicuous 
when  the  illuminated  part  of  the  disc  is 
at  its  smallest,  as  soon  after  new  moon. 
This  phenomenon  is  popularly  de- 
scribed as  “the  old  moon  in  the  new 
moon’s  arms.” 

EARTHWORM,  a genus  of  common 
worms.  They  have  a long,  cylindrical 
body,  divided  by  transverse  furrows 
into  numerous  rings.  The  mouth  is 
destitute  of  teeth,  and  they  have  no 
eyes,  tentacles,  or  cirrhi.  They  are 
hermaphrodite.  The  common  earth- 
worm attains  nearly  a foot  in  length. 
It  subsists  on  roots,  woody  fibers, 
animal  matter,  etc.  It  moves  by  the 
contractions  of  successive  parts  of  the 
body  aided  by  a double  row  of  bristles. 
They  are  of  great  service  to  the  agricul- 
turist by  loosening  the  soil  and  increas- 
ing its  depth.  This  is  chiefly  the  result 
of  their  mode  of  nourishment,  since  they 
deposit  the  soil  they  have  swallowed, 
after  digestion,  in  heaps  called  w'orm 
castings  which  bring  up  rich  fine  soil  to 
the  surface,  gradually  covering  the 
upper  layer  sometimes  to  the  extent  of 
several  inches. 

EAR-TRUMPET,  an  artificial  instru- 
m.ent  for  aiding  the  collection  of  the 
vibrations  or  waves  of  sound,  and  carry- 
ing them  in  an  intensified  form  to  the 
internal  parts  of  the  ear. 

EARWIG,  a common  orthopterous 
insect  whose  name  is  derived  from  its 
supposed  habit  of  insinuating  itself  into 
the  ears  of  persons.  This  is  practically 
impos-sible,  yet  the  notion  is  widely 
spread.  Much  damage  is  sustained 
by  gardeners  from  the  depredations  of 
these  insects  among  fruit  and  tender 
vegetables,  which  constitute  their  proper 
food.  The  earwig  is  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  having 
the  wings  folded  under  very  short  and 
truncate  elytra  or  wing-cases,  and  the 
extremity  of  the  abdomen  armed  with 
a horny  forceps. 

EASEL  (e'zel),  the  frame  on  which  an 
artist  supports  his  canvas.  It  is  usually 
made  to  fold  up  after  use. 

EASEMENT,  in  law,  a right  or  privi- 
lege which  one  proprietor  may  have 
to  use  the  land  of  another  in  connection 
with  the  needs  of  his  own  land,  as  the 
use  of  a way,  a water-course,  etc.  The 
right  to  an  easement  may  be  acquired 
either  by  grant  or  by  uninterrupted 
enjoyment  for  a period  of  years. 

EAST,  one  of  the  four  cardinal  points, 
being  the  point  in  the  heavens  where  the 
sun  is  seen  to  rise  at  the  equinox,  or  the 
corresponding  point  on  the  earth;  that 
point  of  the  norizon  lying  on  the  right 
hand  when  one’s  face  is  turned  toward 
the  north  pole. 

EASTER,  the  festival  commemorating 
the  resurrection  of  Christ,  observed  in 
the  Roman  Catholic,  the  Greek,  Angli- 
can, Lutheran,  and  other  branches  of 
the  Christian  church.  By  the  first 
Christians  it  waa  considered  to  continue 


EASTERN  ARCHIPELAGO 


EBONY 


the  feast  of  the  passover,  at  which  the 
paschal  lamb,  a t3'pe  of  Christ,  was  sac- 
rificed. Hence  its  name  in  Greek  (pas- 
cha),  French  (paques),  and  other  Ro- 
mance languages  is  taken  from  the 
Hebrew  pesach,  passover.  The  English 
name  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Eostre,  a goddess  of  light  or  spring, 
whose  festival  was  celebrated  in  April. 
There  was  a long  dispute  in  the  Christian 
church  as  to  the  proper  time  for  holding 
Easter,  the  Christians  of  the  East  cele- 
brating it  on  the  same  day  as  that  on 
which  the  Jewish  passover  fell,  that  is, 
the  14th  of  Nisan  (hence  they  were 
called  quarto  decimani),  while  the 
majority  of  the  church  celebrated  it  on 
the  Sunday  next  after  this  day.  The 
controversy  was  decided  by  the  Council 
of  Nice  (Nic£ea)  in  325,  which  settled 
that  it  was  to  be  reckoned  as  at  present, 
namely,  that  Easter  is  the  first  Sunday 
after  the  full  moon  which  happens  upon 
or  next  after  the  21st  of  March,  and  if 
the  full  moon  happens  on  a Sunday, 
Easter-day  is  the  Sunday  after,  but, 
properly  speaking,  for  the  “full  moon” 
in  the  above  the  “fourteenth  day  of  the 
moon”  should  be  substituted. 

EASTERN  ARCHIPELAGO.  See  Malay 
Archipelago. 

EASTERN  CHURCHES,  a collective 
term  for  the  Greek,  Armenian,  Coptic, 
Abyssinian,  Syrian,  and  other  kindred 
ohurctiGs 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  See  Byzantine 
Empire. 

EASTERN  QUESTION,  the  name 
given  to  the  diplomatic  and  national 
interests  affected  by  the  gradual  retro- 
cession of  the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe, 
and  the  problem  of  disposing  of  the  ter- 
ritory thus  left,  or  presumably  to  be  left. 
Bulgaria,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Greece 
are  the  new  states  which  have  naturally 
arisen  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  Turkish 
power,  and  their  history  in  connection 
with  the  respective  policies  of  England, 
France,  Austria,  and  Russia  toward 
them  is  the  history  of  the  phases  of  the 
“Eastern  Question”  so  far.  The  Crimean 
war  of  1854-56  with  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
which  followed,  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
of  1877-78  with  the  Treaty  of  Berlin, 
and  the  Greco-Turkish  war  of  1897,  are 
among  the  notable  events  connected 
with  this  subject. 

EASTERN  ROUMELIA,  a portion  of 
the  Turkish  dominions  in  Europe  lying 
on  the  south  of  Bulgaria  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Balkan  Mountains; 
area,  13,500  sq.  miles.  The  country  is 
fertile,  but  agriculture  is  backward; 
wheat,  wine,  tobacco,  etc.,  are  produced ; 
timber  is  abundant.  The  chief  town  is 
Philippopolis.  East  Roumelia  was  con- 
stituted an  autonomous  province  of 
Turkey  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878, 
but  has  since  attached  itself  to  Bul- 
garia. (See  Bulgaria.)  Pop.  975,000. 

EAST  INDIA  COMPANY,  a great  Eng- 
lish company,  originally  simply  a trad- 
ing association,  which  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  history  of  Hindustan. 
It  was  formed  in  1599  in  London,  with  a 
subscribed  capital  of  about  $150,000, 
for  the  purpose  of  trade  with  the  East 
Indies.  A charter  was  granted  to  it  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  on  31st  December, 
1600,  for  fifteen  years,  renewable  for  a 
similar  period.  In  this  charter  the  com-  ^ 


pany  is  styled,  “The  Governor  and  Com- 
pany of  the  Merchants  of  London  trad- 
ing into  the  East  Indies.”  In  1617-18 
the  company  was  so  enlarged  as  to'in- 
clude  954  proprietors,  while  a new  joint- 
stock  of  $8,000,000  was  subscribed.  A 
new  charter,  granted  by  Charles  II.  in 
1660,  enlarged  the  powers  of  the  com- 
pany, giving  it  political  and  judicial 
authority  in  the  factories  and  colonies 
established  by  it,  with  the  right  to 
appoint  governors.  On  the  revolution 
of  1688  the  company  was  involved  in 
new  difficulties,  and  in  1692  the  com- 
mons presented  an  address  to  the  crown 
praying  for  their  dissolution.  A resolu- 
tion in  favor  of  the  formation  of  a new 
company  passed  the  House  of  Commons 
on  4th  May,  1698,  and  this  company 
was  actually  constituted  by  Act  9, 
William  III.  This  act  provided  for  the 
extinction  of  the  old  company,  but  an 
amalgamation  was  eventually  arranged 
in  1708.  The  renewal  of  the  company’s 
charter  in  1834  took  place  amid  con- 
tinued opposition  to  their  mercantile, 
and  even  to  their  legislative  privileges. 
It  continued  them  in  all  their  possessions 
except  the  island  of  St.  Helena,  put  an 
end  to  the  exclusive  right  of  trade  with 
China,  and  enacted  that  the  company 
should  with  all  convenient  speed  close 
their  commercial  business,  and  make 
sale  of  all  their  property  not  retained 
for  government  purposes;  all  their  other 
property  was  to  be  held  in  trust  for  the 
crown,  which  was  to  take  over  their 
debts  and  guarantee  their  dividend  out 
of  the  revenues  of  India.  Henceforth 
the  company  existed  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  payment  of  its  capital, 
and  of  the  dividends  due  upon  capital 
until  its  repayment. 

EAST  INDIES,  the  name  loosely  ap- 
plied to  Hindustan,  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula,  and  a portion  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  but  excluding  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  New  Guinea,  and  Australia. 

EASTLAKE,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  Eng- 
lish painter,  president  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  born  at  Plymouth  17th 
November,  1793.  He  studied  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  London,  and  at  Paris. 
In  1830  he  was  elected  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  in  1850  became 
its  president,  receiving  at  the  same  time 
the  honor  of  knighthood.  He  died  at 
Pisa  23d  December,  1865. 

EAST  LIVERPOOL,  a city  in  Colum- 
biana CO.,  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  river;  44 
miles  w.n.w.  of  Pittsburg  and  44  miles  e. 
of  Wheeling;  has  excellent  educational 
advantages;  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant pottery-ware  manufacturing  centers 
in  the  U.  States,  having  thirty  potteries. 
Pop.  69,285. 

EASTON,  a city  and  railway  center, 
the  capital  of  Northampton  co..  Pa., 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Dela- 
ware and  Lehigh  rivers;  75  miles  from 
New  York  and  60  miles  fom  Philadel- 
phia. The  famous  treaty  with  the  Five 
Nations  is  recorded  as  having  taken 
place  at  the  forks  of  the  Delaware. 
Pop.  29,848. 

EAST  ORANGE,  a town  in  Essex  co., 
N.  J.,  situated  on  the  D.,  L.  and  W. 
railroad  and  the  Wachung  branch  of 
the  N.  Y.  and  Greenwood  Lake  rail- 
way; 12  miles  from  New  York  and  ad- 
joining Newark  on  the  west.  It  is  a place 


of  suburban  residences  for  New  York 
business  men.  Pop.  25,170. 

EAST  RIVER,  a strait  in  New  York 
state,  separating  New  York  from  Brook- 
lyn and  connecting  Long  Island  Sound 
with  New  York  Bay,  about  20  miles 
long.  A great  supension-bridge  crosses 
between  New  York  and  Brooklyn. 

EAST  SAGINAW,  the  eastern  portion 
of  Saginaw  city,  Michigan,  on  the  navi- 
gable river  Saginaw,  about  17  miles 
from  its  mouth  in  Saginaw  Bay  (Lake 
Huron).  It  has  a large  trade  and  im- 
portant manufactures.  See  Saginaw. 

EAST  SAINT  LOUIS,  a city  of  Illinois, 
in  St.  Clair  county,  opposite  Saint  Louis, 
Mo.  It  is  an  important  manufacturing 
and  railroad  center  and  contains  manj' 
large  buildings  and  'several  miles  of 
paved  streets.  It  has  a population  of 
30,000. 

EAU  (6),  a French  word  signifying 
water,  and  used  in  English  with  some 
other  words  for  several  spirituous 
waters,  particularly  perfumes,  as  eau  de 
Cologne,  eau  de  Luce,  etc. — Eau  de 
Cologne  is  a fragrant  water,  made  origin- 
ally and  in  most  perfection  in  Cologne. 
It  consists  of  spirits  of  wine  flavored  by 
different  essential  oils  blended  so  as 
to  yield  a fine  fragrant  scent.— Eau 
Creole,  a highly-esteemed  liqueur  made 
in  Martinique  by  distilling  the  flowers 
of  the  mammee  apple  with  spirit  of 
wine. — Eau  de  Luce  (“water  of  Luce”), 
is  made  by  dissolving  white  soap  in 
spirit  of  wine,  and  adding  oil  of  amber 
and  sal  ammoniac.  It  is  a milky  fluid, 
antispasmodic  and  stimulant. — Eau  de 
Vie  (“water  of  life”),  a term  used  by 
the  French  for  the  coarser  kinds  of 
brandy,  cognac  being  the  name  of  the 
best. 

EAU  CLAIRE  (6  klar),  the  county 
seat  of  Eau  Claire  county,  Wis.,  85 
miles  from  Saint  Paul,  Minn.  It  has 
considerable  manufacturing  interests. 
Pop.  21,517. 

EBERS  (a'berz),  Georg  Moritz,  Ger- 
man Egyptologist  and  novelist,  born  1st 
March  1837  at  Berlin.  His  most  im- 
portant works  have  been  translated  into 
English,  such  as  Egypt,  Descriptive, 
Historical,  and  Picturesque,  and  the 
novels.  An  E^ptian  Princess,  Uarda, 
Homo  Sum,  The  Emperor,  The  Sisters, 
all  dealing  with  old  Egj'^ptian  life:  The 
Burgomaster’s  Wife,  Only  a Word,  etc. 
He  died  in  1898 

EB'ONY,  the  popular  name  of  various 
plants  of  different  genera,  agreeing  in 
having  wood  of  a dark  color.  The  most 


Ebony. 


valuable  is  the  heart-wood,  which  grows 
in  great  abundance  in  the  flat  parts  of 
Ceylon,  and  is  of  such  size  that  logs  of 
its  heart-wood  2 feet  in  diameter  and 
from  10  to  15  feet  long  are  easilj'  pro- 


EBULLITION 


ECLIPSE 


cured.  Ebony  is  hard,  heavy,  and  dur- 
able, and  admits  of  a fine  polish  or  gloss. 
The  most  usual  color  is  black,  red,  or 
green.  The  best  is  jet  black,  free  from 
veins,  very  heavy,  astringent,  and  of  an 
acrid  pungent  taste.  On  burning  coals 
it  yields  an  agreeable  perfume,  and 
when  green  it  readily  takes  fire  from  its 
abundance  of  fat.  It  is  wrought  into 
toys,  and  used  for  mosaic  and  inlaid 
work. 

EBULLITION,  the  boiling  of  a fluid. 
See  Boil. 

ECARTE  (a-kar'ta),  a game  at  cards 
for  two  persons  played  with  thirty-two 
cards,  the  small  cards  from  two  to  six 
being  excluded.  In  the  English  mode  of 
playing  the  game  the  players  cut  for  the 
deal,  which  is  decided  by  the  lowest 
card.  The  dealer  gives  five  cards  to 
either  player,  three  and  two  at  a time, 
and  turns  up  the  eleventh  card  for 
trump.  If  he  turns  up  a king  he  scores 
one,  and  if  a king  occurs  in  the  hand  of 
either  player  he  may  score  one  by  an- 
nouncing it  before  the  first  trick.  The 
cards  rank  as  follows;  king  (highest), 
ueen,  knave,  ace,  ten,  etc.  The  non- 
ealer  leads ; trumps  take  all  other  suits, 
but  the  players  must  follow  suit  if  they 
can.  Three  tricks  count  one  point,  five 
tricks  two  points;  five  points  make 
ame.  Before  play  begins  the  non- 
ealer  may  claim  to  discard  (^carter) 
any  of  the  cards  in  his  hand,  and  have 
them  replaced  with  fresh  ones  from  the 
-pack.  This  claim  the  dealer  may  or  may 
not  allow.  Should  he  allow  he  can  dis- 
card as  many  as  he  pleases.  Sometimes 
only  one  discard  is  allowed,  sometimes 
more. 

ECCE  HOMO  (ek'se-),  a name  often 
given  to  crucifixes  and  pictures  which 
represent  Christ  bound  and  crowned 
with  thorns. 

ECCENTRIC,  a term  in  mechanics 
applied  to  contrivances  for  converting 
circular  into  reciprocating  (backward 
and  forward)  rectilinear  motion,  con- 
sisting of  variously-shaped  discs  attach- 


Eccentrlc  of  steam-engine — a,  Eccentric  wheel ; 

6,  Eccentric-strap:  c.  Eccentric-rod. 

ed  to  a revolving  shaft  not  in  their 
center.  An  eccentric  wheel  is  a wheel 
fixed  on  an  axis  that  does  not  pass 
through  the  center.  Its  action  is  that  of 
a crank  of  the  same  length  as  the  eccen- 
tricity. 

ECCLESIASTES  (-tez),  the  title  by 
which  the  Septuagint  translators  render- 
ed the  Hebrew  Coheleth  (“the  gatherer 
of  the  people”),  a symbolic  name  ex- 
plained by  the  design  of  the  book  and 
the  dramatic  position  occupied  by 
Solomon  in  it,  one  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  According  to 
Jewish  tradition  it  was  written  by  Solo- 
mon; but  the  best  modern  criticism  has 
decided  that  its  style  and  language,  no 
less  than  its  thought,  belong  to  a much 
later  date. 

ECHIDNA  (e-kid'na),  a genus  of  Aus- 
tralian monotrematous,  toothless  mam- 
mals, in  size  and  general  appearance 


I resembling  a large  hedgehog,  excepting 
that  the  spines  are  longer,  and  the 
muzzle  is  protracted  and  slender,  with  a 
small  aperture  at  the  extremity  for  the 
protraction  of  a long  flexible  tongue. 
The  habits  of  the  Echidna  are  nocturnal; 
it  burrows,  having  short  strong  legs 
with  five  toes,  and  feeds  on  insects. 


Porcupine  ant  eater. 

which  it  catches  by  protruding  its  long 
sticky  tongue.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
Ornithorhynchus,  the  two  forming  a 
peculiar  class  of  animals,  having  in  their 
structure  some  peculiarities  at  once  of 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles.  In  1884 
it  was  found,  that,  as  Geoffroy  St. 
Hilaire  had  suspected,  the  echidna  and 
ornithorhynchus,  although  essentially 
mammals,  were  yet  oviparous,  pro- 
ducing their  young  from  eggs.  One 
species  from  its  appearance,  is  popu- 
larly known  as  the  porcupine  ant- 
eater. 

ECHO  (ek'6),  the  repetition  of  a 
sound  caused  by  the  reflection  of  sound- 
waves at  some  moderately  even  surface, 
as  the  wall  of  a building.  The  waves  of 
sound  on  meeting  the  surface  are  turned 
back  in  their  course  according  to  the 
same  laws  that  hold  for  reflection  of 
light.  In  order  that  the  echo  may  return 
to  the  place  from  which  the  sound  pro- 
ceeds the  reflection  must  be  direct,  and 
not  at  an  angle  to  the  line  of  transmis- 
sion, otherwise  the  echo  may  be  heard 
by  others  but  not  by  the  transmitter  of 
the  sound.  This  may  be  effected  either 
by  a reflecting  surface  at  right  angles  to 
the  line  of  transmission,  or  by  several 
reflecting  surfaces  which  end  in  bringing 
the  sound  back  to  the  point  of  issue. 
Sound  travels  about  1125  feet  in  a 
second ; consequently,  an  observer  stand- 
ing at  half  that  distance  from  the  re- 
flecting object  would  hear  the  echo  a 
second  later  than  the  sound.  Such  an 
echo  would  repeat  as  many  words  and 
syllables  as  could  be  heard  in  a second. 
As  the  distance  decreases  the  echo  re- 
peats fewer  syllables  till  it  becomes 
monosyllabic.  The  most  practiced  ear 
cannot  distinguish  in  a second  more 
than  from  nine  to  twelve  successive 
sounds,  so  that  a distance  of  not  less 
than  60  feet  is  needed  to  enable  a com- 
mon ear  to  distinguish  between  the  echo 
and  the  original  sounds.  At  a near  dis- 
tance the  echo  only  clouds  the  original 
sounds,  and  this  often  interferes  with 
the  hearing  in  churches  and  other  large 
buildings.  Woods,  rocks,  and  moun- 
tains produce  natural  echoes  in  every 
variety,  for  which  particular  localities 
have  become  famous. — In  Greek  mythol. 
Echo  was  a nymph  (one  of  the  Oreads) 
who  fell  in  love  with  Narcissus,  and 
because  he  did  not  reciprocate  her 
affection  she  pined  away  until  nothing 
was  left  but  her  voice. 


ECKELS,  James  Herron,  an  Ameri- 
can financier,  born  in  Princeton,  111., 
1858.  He  was  comptroller  of  the  cur- 
rency from  1893  to  1898,  since  which 
time  he  has  been  president  of  the  Com- 
mercial National  IBank  of  Chicago. 

ECKFORD,  Henry,  an  American  ship 
designer,  born  in  Scotland  in  1775,  died 
in  1832.  In  1796  he  removed  to  the 
United  States,  established  a ship  yard, 
and  built  the  Robert  Fulton,  the  first 
successful  ocean-going  steamship. 

ECLECTICS  is  a name  given  to  all 
those  philosophers  who  do  not  follow  one 
system  entirely,  but  select  what  they 
think  the  best  parts  of  all  systems.  In 
this  century  the  eclectic  method  found 
a notable  supporter  in  the  French 
philosopher  Victor  Cousin. 

ECLECTIC  SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE,  a 
school  of  medicine,  founded  in  the  United 
States  in  1826  and  represented  today  by 
22  colleges  and  a considerable  number 
of  practitioners.  The  eclectic  school 
teaches  that  the  best  practice  of  medicine 
is  found  in  choosing  remedies  regardless 
of  the  “isms”  of  the  discoverers. 

ECLIPSE  (ek-lips'),  an  interception 
or  obscuration  of  the  light  of  the  sun 
moon  or  other  heavenly  body  by  the 
intervention  of  another  and  nonlumi- 
nous  heavenly  body.  Stars  and  planets 
may  suffer  eclipse,  but  the  principal 
eclipses  are  those  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  is  an  obscura- 
tion of  the  light  of  the  moon  occasioned 
by  an  interposition  of  the  earth  between 
the  sun  and  the  moon;  consequently, 
all  eclipses  of  the  moon  happen  at  full 
moon;  for  it  is  only  when  the  moon  is 
on  that  side  of  the  earth  which  is  turned 
away  from  the  sun,  and  directly  oppo- 
site, that  it  can  come  vdthin  the  earth’s 
shadow.  Further,  the  moon  must  at 


Diagram  illustrating  the  theory  of  eclipses. 


that  time  be  in  the  same  plane  as  the 
earth’s  shadow;  that  is,  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic  in  which  the  latter  always 
moves.  But  as  the  moon’s  orbit  makes 
an  angle  of  more  than  5°  with  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic,  it  frequently  happens 
that  though  the  moon  is  in  opposition 
it  does  not  come  within  the  shadow  of 
the  earth.  The  theory  of  lunar  eclipses 
will  be  understood  from  Fig.  1,  where  s 
represents  the  sun,  e the  earth,  and  m 
the  moon.  If  the  sun  were  a point  of 
light  there  would  be  a sharp  outlined 
shadow  or  umbra  only,  but  since  the 
luminous  surface  is  so  large  there  is 
always  a region  in  which  the  light  of  the 
sun  is  only  partially  cut  off  by  the  earth, 
which  region  is  known  as  the  penumbra 
(p  p),  Hence  during  a lunar  eclipse  the 
, moon  first  enters  the  penumbra,  then  is 


ECLIPTIC 


EDDA 


totally  eclipsed  by  the  umbra,  then 
emerges  through  the  penumbra  again. 

An  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  an  occulta- 
tion  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  face  of 
the  sun  occasioned  by  an  interposition 
of  the  moon  between  the  earth  and  the 
sun;  thus  all  eclipses  of  the  sun  happen 
at  the  time  of  new  moon.  Fig.  2 is  a 
diagram  showing  the  principle  of  a solar 
eclipse.  The  dark  or  central  part  of  the 
moon’s  shadow,  where  the  sun’s  rays 
are  wholly  intercepted,  is  here  the 
umbra,  and  the  light  part,  where  only 
a part  of  them  are  intercepted,  is  the 
penumbra;  and  it  is  evident  that  if  a 
spectator  be  situated  on  that  part  of  the 
earth  where  the  umbra  falls  there  will 
be  a total  eclipse  of  the  sun  at  that 
place;  in  the  penumbra  there  will  be  a 
partial  eclipse,  and  beyond  the  penum- 
bra there  will  be  no  eclipse.  As  the 
earth  is  not  always  at  the  same  distance, 
from  the  moon,  and  as  the  moon  is  a 
comparatively  small  body,  if  an  eclipse 
should  happen  when  the  earth  is  so  far 
from  the  moon  that  the  moon’s  shadow 
falls  short  of  the  earth,  a spectator 
situated  on  the  earth  in  a direct  line 
between  the  centers  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
would  see  a ring  of  light  round  the  dark 
body  of  the  moon;  such  an  eclipse  is 
called  annular,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3;  when 
this  happens  there  can  be  no  total  eclipse 
anywhere,  because  the  moon’s  umbra 
does  not  reach  the  earth.  An  eclipse 
can  never  be  annular  longer  than  12 
minutes  24  seconds,  nor  total  longer 
than  7 minutes  58  seconds;  nor  can  the 
entire  duration  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
ever  exceed  2 hours. 

An  eclipse  of  the  sun  begins  on  the 
western  side  of  his  disc  and  ends  on  the 
eastern;  and  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
begins  on  the  eastern  side  of  her  disc 
and  ends  on  the  western.  The  average 
number  of  eclipses  in  a year  is  four,  two 
of  the  sun  and  two  of  the  moon ; and  as 
the  sun  and  moon  are  as  long  below  the 
horizon  of  any  particular  place  as  they 
are  above  it,  the  average  number  of 
visible  eclipses  in  a year  is  two,  one  of 
the  sun  and  one  of  the  moon. 

ECLIPTIC,  the  sun’s  path,  the  great 
circle  of  the  celestial  sphere,  in  which  the 
sun  appears  to  describe  Iris  annual  course 
from  west  to  east — really  corresponding 
to  the  path  which  the  earth  describes. 
(See  Earth.)  The  Greeks  observed  that 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  took  place 
near  this  circle;  whence  they  called  it  the 
ecliptic.  The  ecliptic  has  been  divided 
tnto  twelve  eqiial  parts,  each  of  which 
contains  30  degrees,  and  which  are 
occupied  by  the  twelve  celestial  signs  or 
constellations,  viz.‘ 
np  = Aries  (the  Ram),  March  20. 
b = Taurus  (the  Bull),  April  20. 
n = Gemini  (the  Twins),  May  21. 

25  = Cancer  (the  Crab),  June  21. 

SI  =Leo  (the  Lion),  July  22. 
tijt  = Virgo  (the  Virgin),  August  23. 

^ = Libra  (the  Balance),  September  23. 
IR  = Scorpio  (the  Scorpion),  October  23. 
t = Sagittarius  (the  Archer^  Nov.  22. 

=Caprieornus  (the  Goat),  Dec.  21. 
;x:“  Aquarius  (the  Water-carrier),  Jan. 

19. 

X •“  Pisces  (the  Fishes),  February  18. 
These  are  also  called  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
the  zodiac  being  a belt  of  the  heavens 
extending  9 degrees  on  each  side  of  the 


ecliptic.  The  days  of  the  month  an- 
nexed show  when  the  sun,  in  its  annual 
revolution,  enters  each  of  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  From  the  first  point  of 
Aries,  or  the  place  of  the  sun  at  the 
vernal  >equinox,  the  degrees  of  the 
ecliptic  are  counted  from  \vest  to  east. 
The  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is  that  by  which 
the  position  of  the  planets  and  the  lati- 
tude and  longitude  of  the  stars  are 
reckoned.  The  points  at  wliich  the 
equator  and  ecliptic  intersect  are  sub- 
ject to  a continual  variation,  receding 
westward  at  the  rate  of  about  50  seconds 
a year.  The  angle  at  which  the  ecliptic 
stands  to  the  equator  is  also  variable, 
and  has  been  diminisliing  for  about  4000 
years  at  the  rate  of  about  50  seconds  in  a 
century.  Laplace  showed,  however, 
that  this  variation  has  certain  fixed 
limits,  and  that  after  a certain  time  the 
angle  will  begin  to  increase  again.  The 
combined  result  of  these  two  changes  is 
to  cause  the  pole  of  the  earth  not  to 
point  constantly  to  the  same  spot  in  the 
heavens,  but  to  describe  an  undulating 
circle  round  a certain  point;  but  this 
movement  is  so  slow  that  it  takes  many 
thousand  years  to  complete  it.  See 
Nutation  and  Precession. 

ECLOGUE  (ek'log),  a term  usually 
applied  to  what  Theocritus  called  idyls 
-y-short,  highly-finished  poems,  prin- 
cipally of  a descriptive  or  pastoral  land. 

ECOLE  POLYTECHNIQUE,  a school 
in  Paris  established  with  the  purpose  of 
giving  instruction  in  matters  connected 
with  the  various  branches  of  the  public 
service,  such  as  mines,  roads  and  bridges, 
engineering,  the  army  and  the  navy, 
government  manufactures,  etc.  It  was 
founded  in  1794,  and  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minister  of  war.  Candidates 
are  admitted  only  by  competitive  ex- 
amination, and  have  to  pay  for  their 
board  1000  francs  (about  $200)  a year. 
The  pupils  who  pass  satisfactory  exam- 
inations at  the  end  of  their  course  are 
admitted  to  that  branch  of  public  serv- 
ice which  they  select. 

ECUADOR  (ek-wa-dSr'),  a republic  of 
S.  America,  situated  under  the  equator, 
whence  it  takes  its  name,  between  Peru 
and  Colombia.  Area,  about  248,386  sq. 
miles,  or  including  the  Galapagos  Is- 
lands, 251,337  sq.  miles.  The  mountain 
region  is  formed  by  a double  range  of 
snow-clad  mountains — several  of  them 
active  volcanoes — which  inclose  a longi- 
tudinal valley  or  table-land,  with  a 
breadth  of  20  to  40  miles,  and  varying 
in  elevation  from  8500  to  13,900  feet. 
The  most  elevated  of  these  mountains 
are,  in  the  western  range,  Clumborazo, 
Pichincha,  and  Cotacachi,  Chimborazo 
being  20,703  feet  high.  The  chief  towns 
here  are  Quito,  the  capital,  with  a pop. 
of  80,000;  Riobamba,  and  Cuenca,  all 
situated  at  a height  of  9000  feet  or  more 
above  the  sea.  The  chief  ports  of  Ecua- 
dor are  Guayaquil  and  Esmeraldas. 
The  most  considerable  rivers,  the  Tigre, 
Napo,  Pastaza,  etc.,  belong  to  the  basin 
of  the  Amazon.  Ecuador  is  compara- 
tively poor  in  mammalia;  although  var- 
ious kinds  of  deer  as  well  as  tapirs  and 
peccaries  are  found  in  the  forests.  Par- 
rots and  humming-birds  are  also  nu- 
merous, but  perhaps  the  most  remark- 
able of  the  birds  in  Ecuador  is  the  con- 
dor, which  dwells  on  the  slopes  of  the 


Andes.  Reptiles,  Including  serpents, 
are  numerous.  The  forests  yield  cin- 
chona bark,  caoutchouc,  sarsaparilla, 
vegetable  ivory,  etc.  The  climate  on  the 
plains,  both  in  the  east  and  the  west,  is 
moist,  hot,  and  unhealthy.  In  the 
higher  regions  the  climate  is  rough  and 
cold,  but  in  great  part  the  elevated 
valleys,  as  that  of  Quito,  enjoy  a de- 
lightful climate.  Here  the  chief  pro- 
ductions are  potatoes,  barley,  wheat, 
and  European  fruits.  In  the  lower 
regions  are  grown  all  the  food-products 
of  tropical  climates,  cacao,  coffee,  sugar, 
etc.  Cacao  forms  three-fourths  (or  more) 
of  the  whole  export;  the  remainder  is 
made  up  of  coffee,  hides,  vegetable 
ivory,  caoutchouc,  etc.  The  people  are 
poorly  educated.  The  religion  is  exclu- 
sively Roman  Catholic.  The  executive 
goveriunent  is  vested  in  a president 
elected  for  four  years,  who  is  assisted  by 
a council  of  state.  The  congress  is  the 
legislative  body,  and  consists  of  two 
houses,  one  formed  of  senators,  two  for 
each  province,  the  other  of  deputies, 
one  for  every  30,000  inhabitants,  both 
elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  money 
unit  is  the  sucre,  equivalent  to  a 5-franc 
piece,  but  the  coins  of  the  U.  States, 
France,  and  Britain  circulate.  Rail- 
ways and  telegraphs  have  made  little 
progress. — Ecuador  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards 
formed  part  of  the  great  empire  of  the 
Incas.  Of  the  present  population,  the 
aboriginal  red  race  form  more  than  half ; 
the  rest  are  negroes,  mulattoes,  mesti- 
zos, a degenerate  breed  of  mixed  negio 
and  Indian  blood,  and  Spanish  Creoles 
or  whites.  The  latter  are  the  chief  pos- 
sessors of  the  land,  but  are  deficient  in 
energy.  Pop.  estimated,  1,275,000. 

ECUMENICAL  COUNCIL,  a general 
ecclesiastical  council  regarded  as  rep- 
resenting the  whole  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  last  was  held  at  Rome  in 
1870.  There  were  present  803,  including 
cardinals,  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots, 
and  generals  of  orders.  After  much  dis- 
cussion, and  the  withdrawal  of  a number 
of  bishops,  the  infallibility  of  the  pope 
as  head  of  the  church  was  affirmed  and 
promulgated. 

EC'ZEMA,  a disease  of  the  skin, 
marked  by  an  eruption  of  small  vesicles, 
preceded  by  redness,  heat,  and  itching 
of  the  part.  In  course  of  time  the  mi- 
nute vesicles  burst,  and  discharge  a thin 
acrid  fluid,  which  often  gives  rise  to  ex- 
coriation. The  most  severe  form  of  this 
disease  arises  from  constitutional  con- 
ditions, but  purely  local  attacks  are  like- 
wise caused  by  exposure  of  the  skin  to 
irritating  substances. 

EDDA,  the  name  given  to  two  ancient 
Icelandic  works,  the  one  consisting  of 
mythological  poems,  the  other  being 
mainly  in  prose.  The  first  of  these  col- 
lections, called  the  Older  or  Poetic  Edda, 
was  compiled  in  the  13th  century.  For 
a long  time  an  earlier  date  was  given, 
the  compiler  being  erroneousl}^  believed 
to  have  been  Ssemund  Sigfusson,  a 
learned  Icelandic  clergyman,  who  lived 
from  about  1056  to  1133.  It  consists  of 
thirty-three  pieces,  written  in  allitera- 
tive verse,  and  comprising  epic  tales  of 
the  Scandinavian  gods  and  goddesses, 
and  narratives  dealing  with  the  Scan- 
dinavian heroes.  These  poems  are  now 


EDDY 


EDINBURGH 


t 

/ ' 
?;■ 

i 

I 


i 

I, 

^ 

I 


I 


(. 


assigned  to  a period  extending  from  the 
9th  to  the  11th  century.  The  prose 
Edda,  or  Younger  Edda,  presents  a kind 
of  prose  synopsis  of  the  Northern  myth- 
ology; a treatise  on  the  Scaldic  poetry 
and  versification,  with  rules  and  ex- 
amples; and  lastly  a poem  (with  a com- 
mentary) in  honor  of  Haco  of  Norway 
(^ed  1263).  In  its  earliest  form  this 
collection  is  ascribed  to  Snorri  Sturluson, 
who  was  born  in  Iceland  in  1178,  and 
was  assassinated  there  in  1241  on  his 
return  from  Norway,  where  he  had  been 
scald  or  court  poet. 

EDDY,  Clarence,  an  American  organ- 
ist, born  in  Massachusetts  in  1851.  In 
1894  he  became  organist  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  in  Chicago.  He 
has  composed  a considerable  quantity 
of  organ  music  and  has  translated  im- 
portant text-books  from  the  German. 

EDDY,  Mary  Baker  Glover,  the 
founder  of  Christian  Science,  born  in 
' New  Hampshire  in  1822.  She  discovered 
j Christian  Science  in  1866,  founded  the 
. first  Christian  Science  Church  in  1879  at 
! Boston,  and  the  Massachusetts  Meta- 
I physical  College  in  1881.  Her  principal 
■ work  is  Science  and  Health,  with  Key  to 
the  Scriptures,  in  which  the  doctrines 
of  Christian  Science  are  set  forth.  (See 
Christian  Science.) 

EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE,  a light- 
house in  the  English  Channel,  erected  to 
mark  a group  of  rocks  lying  in  the  fair 
way  from  the  Start  to  the  Lizard.  The 
rocks  are  covered  only  at  the  flood. 

EDELWEISS  (a'del-vis),  a composite 
plant  inhabiting  the  Alps,  and  often 
growing  in  the  most  inaccessible  places. 
Its  flower-heads  are  surrounded  by  a 


Edelweiss. 

spreading  foliaceous  wooly  involucre, 
and  its  foliage  is  also  of  the  same  woolly 
character.  It  is  not  difficult  to  cultivate, 
but  is  apt  to  lose  its  peculiar  woolly  ap- 
pearance. 

E'DEN,  the  original  residence  of  the 
first  human  pair.  It  is  said  to  have  had 
a garden  in  the  eastern  part  of  it,  and  we 
are  told  that  a river  went  out  of  Eden  to 
water  this  garden,  and  from  thence  it 
was  parted  into  four  heads,  which  were 
called  respectively  Bison,  Gihon,  Hid- 
dekel, and  Euphrates  (Phrat),  but  this 
does  not  enable  us  to  identify  the  local- 
ity. It  was  not  the  whole  of  Eden  that 
was  assigned  to  man  for  his  first  habita- 
tion, but  the  part  toward  the  east,  to 
which  the  translators  of  the  Authorized 
Version  have  given  the  name  of  the 
P.  E.— 26 


Garden  of  Eden,  and  which  Milton,  in 
Paradise  Lost,  calls  Paradise,  that  word 
(originally  Persian)  having  in  its  Greek 
form  (paradeisos)  been  applied  to  the 
Garden  of  Eden  by  the  translators  of  the 
Septuagint. 

EDENTA'TA  (e-),  or  toothless  ani- 
mals, the  name  of  an  order  of  Mam- 
malia, though  only  two  genera  of  the 
order  want  teeth,  the  ant-eaters,  and 
the  pangolins.  The  remainder  are  merely 


1,  Skull  and  (3)  tooth  of  a small  species  of 
armadillo.  3,  Skull  of  Great  ant-eater. 

destitute  of  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  jaws. 
The  teeth  they  possess,  however,  are 
destitute  of  enamel,  do  not  have  com- 
plete roots,  and  are  not  replaced  by  a 
second  set.  This  order  is  also  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  great  claws 
surrounding  the  ends  of  the  toes,  and 
more  or  less  approximating  to  the  nature 
of  hoofs.  It  is  divided  into  two  sections, 
the  first  comprehending  the  sloths, 
which  subsist  on  vegetable  food,  and  the 
gigantic  fossil  animals  the  Megatherium 
and  the  Megalon3rx ; and  the  second  in- 
cluding the  armadillos  and  the  ant- 
eaters,  which  live  mainly  on  insects, 
though  some  of  the  armadillos  eat  other 
sorts  of  animal  food,  and  also  vegetables. 

EDGAR  ATHELING,  grandson  of  Ed- 
mund Ironside  and  son  of  Edward  the 


but  made  peace  with  William  and  ac- 
cepted the  Earldom  of  Oxford. 

EDIBLE  BIRDS’  NESTS.  See  Birds’- 
nests.  Edible. 

EDICT,  a public  proclamation  by  a 
sovereign,  a governor,  or  other  com- 
petent official. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.  See  Nantes. 

ED'INBURGH,  the  metropolis  of 
Scotland,  and  one  of  the  finest  as  well  as 
most  ancient  cities  in  the  British  em- 
pire, lies  within  2 miles  of  the  south 
shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated,  being  built  on  three 
eminences  which  run  in  a direction  from 
east  to  west,  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  lofty  hills  except  on  the  north,  where 
the  ground  slopes  gently  toward  the 
Firth  of  Forth.  The  central  ridge, 
which  constituted  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city,  is  terminated  by  the  castle  on  the 
west,  situated  on  a high  rock,  and  by 
Holyrood  House  on  the  east,  not  far 
from  which  rise  the  lofty  elevations  of 
Salisbury  Crags,  Arthur’s  Seat  (822  feet 
high),  and  the  Calton  Hill  overlooking 
the  city.  Among  the  notable  buildings 
are  the  ancient  Parliament  House,  now 
the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts  of  Scot- 
land; St.  Giles’s  Church  or  Cathedral,  an 
imposing  edifice  in  the  later  Gothic  stjde, 
recently  carefully  restored;  the  Tron 
Church;  Victoria  Hall  (where  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  Established  Church 
meets),  with  a fine  spire;  the  Bank  of 
Scotland;  etc.,  besides  some  of  the  old 
family  houses  of  the  Scottish  nobility 
and  other  buildings  of  antiquarian  in- 
terest. In  the  old  town  the  most  remark- 
able public  building  is  the  castle.  This 
fortress  contains  accommodation  for 
2000  soldiers,  and  the  armory  space  for 
30,000  stand  of  arms.  In  an  apartment 


Edinljurgh,  showing  the  prison,  the  castle,  Scott  monument,  Princess  street,  etc. 


Outlaw,  was  born  in  Hungary,  where  his 
father  had  been  conveyed  in  infancy  to 
escape  the  designs  of  Canute.  After  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  Edgar  (who  had  been 
brought  to  England  in  1057)  was  pro- 
claimed king  of  England  by  the  Saxons, 


here  are  kept  the  ancient  regalia  of  Scot- 
land. The  palace  of  Holyrood,  or  Holy- 
rood  House,  as  it  is  more  generally  called, 
stands  at  the  lower  or  eastern  extremity 
of  the  street  leading  to  the  castle.  In 
the  northwest  angle  of  the  building  are 


EDINBURGH 


EDUCATION 


the  apartments  which  were  occupied  by 
Queen  Mary,  nearly  in  the  same  state  in 
which  they  were  left  by  that  unfortunate 
princess.  Adjoining  the  palace  are  the 
ruins  of  the  chapel  belonging  to  the 
Abbey  of  Holyrood,  founded  in  1128  by 
David  I.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Old 
Town,  and  separated  from  it  also  by  a 
hollow  crossed  by  two  bridges  (the 
South  Bridge  and  George  IV.  Bridge), 
stands  the  remaining  portion  of  the  city, 
which,  with  the  exception  of  a few  unim- 
portant streets,  is  mostly  modern.  Be- 
sides the  buildings  already  noticed  Edin- 
burgh possesses  a large  number  of  im- 
portant edifices  and  institutions,  chief 
among  which  are  the  Royal  Institution 
(accommodating  the  Royal  Society  and 
other  bodies),  the  National  (Picture) 
Gallery,  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 
the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  the 
Episcopal  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary’s,  the 
High-school  register  office,  etc.  Among 
the  more  prominent  educational  insti- 
tutions are  the  University,  the  High- 
school,  the  Academy,  the  Free  Church 
Theological  College,  the  United  Presby- 
terian Theological  Hall,  the  Edinburgh 
School  of  Medicine,  the  Veterinary  Col- 
lege, the  Fettes  College,  on  the  model  of 
the  great  English  public  schools,  the 
Heriot-Watt  College,  technical,  com- 
mercial, and  literary,  several  endowed 
secondary  schools.  The  Advocates’ 
Library,  the  largest  in  Scotland,  con- 
tains upward  of  300,000  printed  vol- 
umes and  3000  MSS. ; the  University  Li- 
brary, 200,000;  the  Library  of  Writers  to 
the  Signet,  90,000.  There  is  also  a rate- 
supported  public  library.  The  town 
was  made  a royal  burgh  in  the  time  of 
David  I.;  but  it  was  not  till  the  15th 
century  that  it  became  the  recognized 
capital  of  Scotland.  Pop.  316,479. — 
The  county  of  Edinburgh  or  Midlothian 
is  bounded  n.  by  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
along  which  it  extends  11  or  12  miles; 
and  by  the  counties  of  Linlithgow,  Had- 
dington, Berwick,  Lanark,  Peebles, 
Selkirk,  and  Roxburgh;  area,  234,926 
acres,  over  half  of  which  is  aralsle  or  un- 
der permanent  pasture.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  North  and  South  Esks  and 
the  Water  of  Leith,  all  running  into  the 
Forth.  The  chief  crops  are  oats,  barley, 
turnips,  and  potatoes.  The  manufac- 
tures are  comparatively  limited,  but 
include  ale,  whisky,  gunpowder,  paper, 
tiles,  etc.  The  fisheries  are  valuable. 
The  chief  towns  are:  Edinburgh,  Leith, 
Dalkeith,  Musselburgh,  and  Portobello. 
Pop.  488.647. 

EDINBURGH,  Duke  of,  H.R.H.,Prince 
Alfred  Ernest  Albert,  K.G.,  K.T.,  K.P., 
etc.,  late  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
the  second  son  of  Queen  Victoria,  was 
born  at  Windsor  Castle,  Aug.  6,  1844. 
In  1862  he  declined  the  offer  of  the 
throne  of  Greece.  In  1874  he  married 
the  Grand-duchess  Marie,  only  daughter 
of  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  In  1893  he 
succeeded  his  uncle  as  ruler  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  He  had  one  son  (who 
predeceased  him)  and  four  daughters. 
He  died  in  1900. 

EDINBURGH  UNIVERSITY,  the  lat- 
est of  the  Scottish  universities,  was 
founded  in  1582  by  a charter  granted  by 
James  VI.  The  number  of  chairs  is  now 
over  forty,  besides  assistants.  The 
universitjr  is  a corporation  consisting  of 


a chancellor,  rector,  principal,  professors, 
registered  graduates  and  alumni,  and 
matriculated  students.  Its  government 
is  administered  by  the  University  Court, 
the  Senatus  Academicus,  and  the 
General  Council,  as  in  the  other  Scottish 
universities,  in  all  of  which  new  ordi- 
nances have  been  introduced  under  the 
Universities  (Scotland)  Act  of  1889. 
The  University  Court,  which  is  the 
supreme  governing  body  of  the  uni- 
versity, consists  of  the  rector,  who  is 
president,  the  principal,  the  Lord-pro- 
vost of  Edinburgh,  and  eleven  assessors. 
The  Senatus  superintends  the  teaching 
and  discipline  of  the  university,  and 
consists  of  the  principal  and  professors. 
The  General  Council  consists  of  the 
chancellor,  who  is  president,  tfie  mem- 
bers of  the  University  Court  and  Sena- 
tus, and  the  graduates  of  the  university. 
It  takes  cognizance  of  matters  generally 
affecting  the  well-being  of  the  university. 
The  chancellor  is  the  official  head  of  the 
university,  and  it  is  through  him  or  his 
deputy,  the  vice-chancellor,  that  de- 
grees are  conferred.  He  is  elected  for  life 
by  the  general  council.  The  principal  is 
the  resident  head  of  the  university  and 
president  of  the  Senatus,  and  is  appoint- 
ed for  life  (at  Edinburgh  by  a body  called 
the  “Curators,”  elsewhere  by  the  crown). 
The  rector  is  elected  for  three  years  by 
the  matriculated  students.  There  are 
six  faculties  in  the  university,  viz.  arts, 
science,  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and 
music.  The  library  contains  200,000 
volumes.  There  are  bursaries,  scholar- 
ships, and  fellowships,  amounting  annu- 
ally to  about  $60,000. 

EDISON,  Thomas  Alva,  a noted  Amer- 
ican inventor,  born  in  Ohio  in  1847. 
He  began  his  career  as  a newsboy  on  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railway,  and  early  began 
to  experiment  with  mechanical  and 
electrical  devices.  He  learned  the  art  of 
telegraphy  at  Mount  Clemens,  Mich., 
and  soon  afterward  invented  his  auto- 
matic repeater.  Going  to  Boston  he 
secured  work  as  an  operator  and  was 
meanwhile  busy  with  new  inventions, 
among  them  a vote  recorder,  and  the 
so-called  “ticker”  for  tbe  printing  of 
market  quotations.  His  greatest  in- 
vention was  that  of  the  quadruplex 
telegraph  system  which  revolutionized 
the  art  of  telegraphy.  He  improved  the 
telephone,  invented  the  phonograph, 
and  perfected  the  incandescent  electric 
light.  Edison  has  taken  out  hundreds 
of  patents  many  of  which  have  proved 
to  be  failures.  He  may  be  truly  said, 
however,  to  be  the  greatest  inventor 
of  history. 

ED'MONTON,  a town  in  England, 
county  of  Middlesex,  7J  miles  north  of 
London,  with  an  extensive  trade  in  tim- 
ber, carried  on  by  the  Lea  River  na%’iga- 
tion.  The  “Bell  at  Edmonton”  has  be- 
come famous  by  association  with  the 
adventures  of  Cowper’s  John  Gilpin. 
Pop.  46,899. 

EDMUND  I.,  King  of  England,  an 
able  and  spirited  prince,  succeeded  his 
brother  Athelstan  in  940.  He  con- 
quered Cumbria,  which  he  bestowed  on 
Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  on  condition 
of  doing  homage  for  it  to  himself.  He 
was  slain  at  a banquet  May  26,  946. 

EDMUND  H.,  surnamed  Ironside, 
IGng  of  England,  was  the  eldest  son  of  I 


Ethelred  II.,  and  was  born  in  989.  He 
was  chosen  king  in  1016,  Canute  having 
been  already  elected  king  by  another 
party.  He  won  several  victories  over 
Canute,  but  was  defeated  at  Assandun 
in  Essex,  and  forced  to  surrender  the 
midland  and  northern  counties  to 
Canute.  He  died  after  a reign  of  only 
seven  months. 

EDRIOPHTHAL'MATA,  one  of  the 
great  divisions  of  the  Crustacea,  includ- 
ing all  those  genera  which  have  their 
eyes  sessile,  or  imbedded  in  the  head. 


Edriophthalmata. 

1,  Fresh-water  shrimp,  a,  single  eye.  2.  Head 

of  cymothoa.  b,  clusters  of  simple  eyes. 

and  not  fixed  on  a peduncle  or  stalk  as 
in  the  crabs,  lobsters,  etc.  It  includes 
slaters,  sandhoppers,  woodlice,  etc. 
Some  are  parasitic  on  fishes,  and  of  the 
others  some  live  in  the  sea  and  some  on 
land,  as  the  common  and  the  sea  wood- 
louse. 

EDSON,  Cyrus,  an  American  physi- 
cian born  in  New  York  in  1857.  He  has 
been  active  in  the  sanitation  affairs  of 
New  York  City  and  is  the  inventor  of 
several  important  surgical  instruments. 

EDUCATION,  in  the  widest  sense,  all 
that  course  of  instruction  and  discipline 
which  is  intended  to  enlighten  the  under- 
standing, correct  the  temper,  cultivate 
the  taste,  and  form  the  manners  and 
habits  of  youth,  and  fit  them  for  useful- 
ness in  their  future  stations.  Or  it  may 
be  defined  as  the  art  or  scientifically- 
matured  system  of  developing  and  culti- 
vating the  various  physical,  intellectual, 
sesthetic,  and  moral  faculties;  and  may 
thence  be  divided  into  four  branches — 
physical,  intellectual,  esthetic,  and 
moral  education.  Under  physical  edu- 
cation is  included  all  that  relates  to  the 
healthy  development  of  the  organs  of 
sensation  and  the  muscular  and  nervous 
system.  Intellectual  education  compre- 
hends the  means  by  which  the  powers 
of  the  understanding  are  to  be  developed 
and  improved,  and  the  imparting  of 
instruction  in  the  various  branches  of 
knowledge.  ^Esthetic  education  com- 
prehends the  agencies  which  purify  and 
refine  the  mind  by  training  it  to  per- 
ceive and  take  delight  in  what  is  beauti- 
ful, true,  and  pure  in  nature,  literature, 
and  art.  Moral  education  (in  which 
may  or  may  not  be  included  religious 
education)  embraces  the  various  meth- 
ods of  cultivating  and  regulating  the 
affections  of  the  heart.  In  the  popular 
view  education  is  much  the  same  as 
instruction,  and  is  regarded  as  consist- 
ing simply  in  the  lessons  and  discipline 
learned  in  connection  with  attendance 
at  school.  So  far  as  governments  or 
other  public  bodies  have  interested 
themselves  in  the  education  of  youth 
this  view  is  tolerably  correct;  but 
probably  the  most  perfect  system  of 
education  would  be  one  in  which 
schools  formed  no  part  whatever. 
Schools,  however,  seem  to  have  been. 


EDUCATION 


EDWARD  IV. 


established  at  a very  early  period  in  the 
history  of  all  civilized  communities, 
though  not  necessarily  in  connection 
with  any  system  of  national  education. 
Indeed  a thoroughly-organized  system  of 
national  education  exists  in  but  few 
states,  Germany  being  the  most  con- 
spicuous example  of  such.  In  England 
no  national  system  existed  till  the  pass- 
ing of  the  education  act  of  1870,  and  in 
Britain  it  is  only  elementary  education 
that  can  be  said  to  be  established  on  a 
satisfactory  footing.  A complete  sys- 
tem of  national  education  ought  to 
make  satisfactory  provision  for  primary 
or  elementary  education,  secondary 
education,  and  higher  or  university  edu- 
cation, besides  providing  for  the  due 
education  of  teachers,  and  for  technical 
education,  commercial  education,  artis- 
tic education,  etc.;  but  how  far  educa- 
tion in  any  department  should  be  free 
(or  at  the  expense  of  the  state)  is  a 
question  on  which  authorities  are  not 
agreed.  Elementary  education  is  prac- 
tically free  in  Britain,  France,  Italy, 
Germany,  the  United  States,  Canada, 
several  of  the  Australian  colonies,  and 
elsewhere.  In  a properly-organized  sys- 
tem the  three  great  classes  of  educational 
institutions  would  be  interdependent, 
the  primary  schools  supplying  pupils 
satisfactorily  equipped  for  passing  into 
the  secondary  schools,  and  these  again 
passing  on  a certain  number  of  their 
pupils  to  the  university  sufficiently 
equipped  for  entering  on  their  more 
advanced  studies.  It  is  generally  agreed 
that  elementary  education  should  be 
compulsory,  and  this  is  now  the  law  in 
Britain,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  Den- 
mark, many  of  the  United  States,  etc.; 
but  the  law  may  exist  with  more  or  less 
laxity  in  the  enforcement  of  it.  The 
elementary  schools  have,  at  their  special 
province,  the  teaching  of  those  branches 
of  education  that  everyone  ought  to  be 
instructed  in,  such  as  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  etc.; 
but  they  usually  teach  also  a number  of 
other  subjects.  The  secondary  schools 
include  institutions  known  as  high 
schools,  academies,  grammar-schools, 
colleges,  etc.  The  sunjects  taught  in 
them  are  such  as  ancient  and  modern 
languages,  mathematics,  science,  history, 
geography,  etc.,  and  they  may  either 
prepare  pupils  who  intend  to  engage  in 
commerce  or  other  business,  or  who 
intend  to  proceed  to  the  university. 
Thus  in  some  secondary  schools  there 
is  a modern  side  and  a classical  side  (or 
similar  divisions);  while  in  Germany 
there  are  the  two  distinct  classes  of 
schools,  the  “real-schools,”)  for  modern 
subjects),  and  the  gymnasia.  The  uni- 
versities provide  an  education  for  the 
so-called  “learned  profession,”  as  well 
as  for  all  who  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  a university  training.  Their  most 
characteristic  feature  is  the  privilege 
of  granting  degrees.  Since  1900,  Eng- 
lish education,  primary,  secondary,  and 
technical,  has  been  under  the  control  of 
the  board  of  education,  consisting  of  a 
president,  the  lord-president  of  the 
council,  the  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  the  first  commissioner  of  the 
treasury,  and  the  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer. There  are  separate  education 
departments  for  Scotland  and  Ireland. 


EDUCATION,  COMMERCIAL,  in  the 

United  States  the  teaching  of  account 
keeping,  and  other  arts  used  in  the  con- 
duct of  business  generally.  Commercial 
education  differs  from  technical  educa- 
tion in  that  the  American  business  or 
commercial  college  does  not  include  the 
sciences  in  its  curriculum.  Of  recent 
years  institutions  of  higher  education 
have  taken  up  technical  and  commercial 
education  on  a scale  much  larger  than 
before,  and  the  importance  of  this 
branch  of  learning  is  a constantly  grow- 
ing quantity  in  American  educational 
systems.  The  number  of  students  in 
independent  business  colleges  agregates 
hundreds  of  thousands. 

EDUCATION,  COMMISSIONER  OF, 
the  title  of  the  chief  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington, 
D.C.  He  is  appointed  by  the  president 
and  has  charge  of  all  educational  statis- 
tics. 

EDUCATIONAL  ASSOCIATION,  the 

National,  an  association  of  American 
teachers,  organized  in  1857  and  incor- 
porated in  1886.  Annual  meetings  of 
the  association  are  held  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  and  the  members  read 
papers  upon  and  discuss  all  aspects  of 
their  profession.  The  annual  reports  of 
the  society  are  the  most  important 
educational  documents  published  in  the 
United  States. 

EDWARD,  known  as  the  Elder,  King 
of  England,  son  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
born  about  870,  succeeded  his  father  in 
901.  His  reign  was  distinguished  by 
successes  over  the  Danes.  He  died  in 
925. 

EDWARD,  surnamed  the  Martyr, 
IGng  of  England,  succeeded  his  father, 
Edgar,  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  in  975.  He 
was  treacherously  slain  in  979  by  a ser- 
vant of  his  step-mother,  at  her  residence, 
Corfe  Castle.  The  pity  caused  by  his 
innocence  and  misfortune  induced  the 
people  to  regard  him  as  a martyr. 

EDWARD,  King  of  England,  sur- 
named the  Confessor.  On  the  death  of 
his  maternal  brother,  Hardicanute  the 
Dane,  in  1041,  he  was  called  to  the 
throne,  and  thus  renewed  the  Saxon  line. 
His  queen  was  the  daughter  of  Godwin, 
earl  of  Kent.  He  died  in  1066,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Harold,  the  son  of  Godwin. 
He  caused  a body  of  laws  to  be  com- 
piled from  those  of  Ethelbert,  Ina,  and 
Alfred,  to  which  the  nation  was  long 
fondly  attached.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Alexander  III.  in  1166. 

EDWARD,  Prince  of  Wales,  surnamed 
the  Black  Prince,  born  June  15,  1330, 
the  eldest  son  of  Edward  III.  and 
Philippa  of  Hainault.  In  1346  he  com- 
manded part  of  the  forces  at  the  battle 
of  Cr^cy,  and  earned  the  praise  of  his 
warlike  father.  It  was  on  this  occasion 
hat  he  adopted  the  motto  Ich  dien 
(I  serve),  used  by  all  succeeding  princes' 
of  Wales.  He  died  in  1376. 

EDWARD  I.  (of  the  Norman  line), 
King  of  England,  son  of  Henry  III.,  was 
born  at  Winchester  in  1239.  The  con- 
tests between  his  father  and  the  barons 
called  him  early  into  active  life,  and  he 
finally  quelled  all  resistance  to  the  royal 
authority  by  the  decisive  defeat  of 
Leicester  at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  in 
1265.  During  his  reign  great  progess 
was  made  in  the  establishment  of  law 


and  oraer  throughout  the  land.  He 
died  in  1307. 

EDWARD  II.,  King  of  England,  born 
at  Caernarvon  Castle  in  1284,  and  the 
first  English  Prince  of  Wales,  succeeded 
his  father,  Edward  I.,  in  1307.  The 
king’s  fondness  for  a favorite,  Hugh  le 
Despenser,  had  made  a number  of 
malcontents,  and  Queen  Isabella,  mak- 
ing a visit  to  France,  entered  into  a 
correspondence  with  the  exiles  there, 
and  formed  an  association  of  all  hostile 
to  the  king.  Aided  with  a force  from 
the  Count  of  Hainault  she  landed  in 
Suffolk  in  1326.  Her  army  was  com- 
pletely successful.  The  Despensers  were 
captured  and  executed,  and  the  king 
was  taken  prisoner  and  confined  in 
Kenilworth,  and  ultimately  in  Berkeley 
Castle,  where  he  was  murdered  21st 
Sept.  1327. 

EDWARD  III.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  Edward  II.  by  Isabella  of  France, 
was  born  in  1313.  On  his  father’s 
deposition  in  1327  he  was  proclaimed 
king  under  a council  of  regency.  Col- 
lecting an  army  and  accompanied  by 
the  Black  Prince,  he  crossed  over  to 
France.  The  memorable  battle  of 
Crecy  followed,  August  25,  1346,  which 
was  succeeded  by  the  siege  of  Calais. 
In  the  meantime  DaA'id  II.,  having  re- 
covered the  throne  of  Scotland  invaded 
England  with  a large  army,  but  was 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  a much 
inferior  force  under  Lord  Percy.  In 
1348  a truce  was  concluded  with  France; 
but  on  the  death  of  King  Philip,  in  1350, 
Edward  again  invaded  France,  plunder- 
ing and  devastating.  Recalled  home 
by  a Scottish  inroad  he  retaliated  by 
carrying  fire  and  sword  from  Berwick 
to  Edinburgh.  In  the  meantime  the 
Black  Prince  had  penetrated  from  Gui- 
enne  to  the  heart  of  France,  fought  the 
famous  battle  of  Poictiers,'^nd  taken 
King  John  prisoner.  A truce  was  then 


Edward  the  Black  Prince— Effigy  at 
Canterbury. 


made  at  the  expiration  of  which  (1359) 
Edward  again  crossed  over  to  France 
and  laid  waste  the  provinces  of  Picardy 
and  Champagne,  but  at  length  consented 
to  a peace.  This  confirmed  him  in  the 
possession  of  several  provinces  and  dis- 
tricts of  France  which  were  intrusted  to 
the  Prince  of  AVales  (the  Black  Prince), 
but  gradually  all  the  English  possessions 
in  France,  with  the  exception  of  Bor- 
deaux, Bayonne,  and  Calais,  were  lost. 
King  Edward  died  a year  after  his  heroic 
son.  June  21,  1377. 

EDWARD  IV.,  King  of  England,  was 
born  in  1441 . His  father,  Richard,  Duke 


EDWARD  V, 


EGGLESTON 


of  York,  was  grandson  of  Edmund,  Earl 
of  Cambridge  and  Duke  of  York,  fourth 
son  of  Edward  III.,  while  the  rival  line 
of  Lancaster  descended  from  John  of 
Gaunt,  the  third  son.  The  victory  of 
Towton,  soon  after  his  accession,  con- 
firmed his  title,  and  three  years  after,  on 
May  4,  1464,  the  battle  of  Hexham  com- 
pletely overthrew  the  party  of  Henry  VI. 
The  king  now  made  an  imprudent  mar- 
riage with  Elizabeth,  widow  of  Sir  John 
Grey,  at  the  very  time  when  he  had  de- 
spatched the  Earl  of  Warwick  to  nego- 
tiate a marriage  for  him  with  the  sister  of 
the  French  king.  He  thus  alienated 
powerful  friends,  and  Warwick,  passing 
over  to  the  Lancastrian  cause,  gathered 
a large  army,  and  compelled  Edward  to 
flee  the  country.  Henry’s  title  was  once 
more  recognized  by  parliament.  But  in 
1471  Edward,  at  the  head  of  a small 
force  given  him  by  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, landed  at  Ravenspur  in  York- 
shire, and  his  army,  being  ciuickly  in- 
creased by  partisans,  marched  swiftly  on 
London  and  took  the  unfortunate  Henry 
prisoner.  Warwick  now  advanced  with 
an  army  to  Barnet,  where  a battle  was 
fought,  4th  April,  1471,  which  ended  in 
the  death  of  Warwick  and  a decisive 
victory  for  Edward.  The  Idng  was  pre- 
paring for  an  expedition  against  France 
when  he  died,  in  April,  1483. 

EDWARD  V.,  King  of  England,  the 
eldest  son  of  Edward  IV.,  was  in  his 
thirteenth  year  when  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  1483.  His  uncle,  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  soon  made  himself  king  as 
Richard  III.,  and  caused  the  young  king 
and  his  brother  to  be  sent  to  the  Tower, 
where,  it  is  said,  he  had  them  smothered 
by  ruffians. 

EDWARD  VI.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  Henry  VIII.  by  Jane  Seymour,  was 
born  in  1537.  His  reign  was  uneventful. 
Edward  died  of  a pulmonary  complaint 
in  July,  1553. 

EDWARD  VII.,  King  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  and  Emperor  of  India, 
eldest  son  of  Queen  Victoria  and  the 
Prince  Consort,  was  born  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace  on  Nov.  9,  1841.  In  Decem- 
ber he  was  created  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
was  educated  under  private  tutors  and 
at  Edinburgh,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge; 
visited  Canada  and  the  U.  States  in  1860; 
and  underwent  military  training  at  the 
Curragh  camp  in  1861.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  general  in  1862, 
and  in  that  year  visited  Palestine  and 
the  East.  Next  year  he  took  his  seat  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  On  March  10,  1863, 
he  was  married  in  St.  George’s  Chapel, 
Windsor  Castle,  to  Princess  Alexandra, 
eldest  daughter  of  the  King  of  Denmai'k, 
and  from  this  time  onward  he  discharged 
many  public  ceremonial  functions.  At- 
tacked by  typhoid  fever  in  the  winter  of 
1871,  his  life  was  for  a time  despaired  of, 
but  he  recovered  early  in  1872,  his  re- 
covery being  made  the  occasion  of  a 
thanksgiving  service  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathe- 
dral. He  visited  India  in  1875-76.  He 
was  a member  of  the  poor  law  com- 
mission of  1893.  He  promoted  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Imperial  Institute  as 
a memorial  of  Queen  Victoria’s  jubilee 
(1887),  and  he  commemorated  her  dia- 
mond jubilee  (1897)  by  founding  the 
Prince  of  Wales’s  hospital  fund  for  the 
better  financial  support  of  the  London  I 


hospitals.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria on  Jan.  22,  1901,  he  succeeded  to 
the  throne.  To  him  and  Queen  Alex- 
andra have  been  born:  Albert  Victor 
Christian  Edward,  Duke  of  Clarence  and 
Avondale,  born  1864,  died  1892;  George 
Frederick  Ernest  Albert,  now  Prince  of 
Wales  and  heir-apparent,  born  1865, 
married  1893,  to  Princess  Victoria  Mary 
of  Teck;  Princess  Louise,  born  1867, 
married  1889,  to  the  Duke  of  Fife; 
Princess  Victoria,  born  1868;  and  Prin- 
cess Maud,  born  1869,  married  1896,  to  a 
son  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Denmark. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  a celebrated 
American  theologian  and  metaphysician, 
born  at  East  Windsor,  Connecticut, 
October  5,  1703.  He  entered  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1716,  and  studied  till  1722,  when 


he  received  a license  as  preacher.  In 
1723  he  was  elected  a tutor  in  Yale  Col- 
lege, but  resigned  in  1726  to  be  ordained 
as  minister  at  Northampton,  Mass. 
After  more  than  twenty-three  years  of 
zealous  service  here  he  was  dismissed  by 
the  congregation  owing  to  the  severity 
with  wluch  he  sought  to  exercise  church 
discipline.  He  then  went  as  a mission- 
ary among  the  Indians  at  Stockbridge, 
in  Massamiusetts.  Here  he  composed 
his  famous  work  on  the  Freedom  of  the 
Will,  a masterpiece  of  metaphysical 
argument.  It  appeared  in  1754,  and 
was  completed  within  four  months  and  a 
half.  In  1757  he  was  chosen  president 
of  the  college  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
but  died  shortly  afterward,  March  22, 
1758. 

EDWY,  King  of  England,  son  of  Ed- 
mund I.,  succeeded  his  uncle  Edred  in 
955.  He  died  in  959,  being  probably 
not  more  than  eighteen  or  nineteen 
years  old. 

EEL,  the  general  name  of  a family  of 
fishes.  The  eel  is  characterized  by  its 
serpent-like  elongated  body,  by  the  ab- 
sence of  ventral  fins,  and  the  continuity 
of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  round  the 
extremity  of  the  tail.  The  dorsal  fin 
commences  half-way  between  the  head 
and  the  anal  fin,  and  the  lower  jaw  pro- 
jects beyond  the  upper.  The  conger  eel 
which  is  exclusively  marine,  the  dorsal 
fin  commences  above  the  pectoral,  and 
the  upper  jaw  is  the  longer.  The  smooth- 
ness of  the  body — the  scales  being  in- 
conspicuous— and  the  serpentine  move- 
ments of  eels  are  proverbial. 

EFFEN'DI,  a Turkish  title  which  sig- 
nifies lord  or  master.  It  is  particularly 
applied  to  the  civil,  as  aga  is  to  the  mili- 
tary officers  of  the  sultan.  Thus  the 


sultan’s  first  physician  is  called  Hakim 
effendi,  the  priest  in  the  seraglio  Iman 
effendi,  etc. 

EFFERVES'CENCE,  the  rapid  escape 
of  a gas  from  a liquid,  producing  a tur- 
bulent motion  in  it,  and  causing  it  to 
boil  up.  It  is  produced  by  the  actual 
formation  of  a gas  in  the  liquid,  as  in 
fermentation,  or  by  the  liberation  of  a 
gas  which  has  been  forced  into  it,  as  in 
aerated  beverages. 

EF'FIGY,  an  image  or  portrait,  most 
frequently  applied  to  the  figures  on 
sepulchral  monuments. — To  burn  or 
hang  in  effigy,  is  to  burn  or  , hang  an 
image  or  picture  of  a person,  a mode  in 
which  the  populace  sometimes  expresses 
its  feelings  respecting  an  obnoxious  per- 
sonage. 

EFFLORES'CENCE,  the  fine  white, 
feathery  crystallization  of  sulphate  and 
carbonate  of  sodium  which  appears  on 
walls,  or  similar  crystallizations  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  in  decomposing 
rocks,  etc.  In  medicine  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  an  eruption  or  rash,  as  in 
measles,  etc. 

EFFLUVIUM  (pi.  Effluvia),  a noxious 
or  disagreeable  exhalation. 

EGAN,  Patrick,  an  Irish-American 
politician,  born  in  Ireland  in  1841. 
Until  1883  he  was  active  in  the  home  rule 
movement  in  Ireland,  but  in  that  year 
settled  in  the  U.  States  at  Lincoln,  Neb. 
He  was  appointed  minister  to  Cliile  by 
President  Harrison  in  1888.  Egan  for 
some  time  was  the  leader  of  the  Irish 
revolutionists  in  America. 

EGBERT,  considered  the  first  king  of 
all  England,  was  of  the  royal  family  of 
Wessex.  He  succeeded  Brihtric  in  802 
as  King  of  Wessex.  He  reduced  the 
other  kingdoms  and  rendered  them  de- 
pendent on  him  in  829,  thus  becoming 
their  overlord.  He  died  in  839. 

EGG,  a body  specially  developed  in 
the  females  of  animals,  and  in  which,  by 
impregnation,  the  development  of  the 
young  animal  takes  place.  Birds,  rep- 
tiles, fishes,  insects,  and  worms  are  ovip- 
arous, i.  e.  bring  forth  eggs  or  ova,  as 
do  also,  among  mammalia,  the  ornithor- 
hynchus  and  echidna.  The  egg  contains 
the  germ  of  the  young  animal,  as  well  as 
the  substance  which  serves  for  its 
nourishment.  All  it  needs  for  its  de- 
velopment is  external  heat.  The  eggs  of 
animals  lower  than  the  birds  have 
usually  only  three  parts,  viz.  the  ger- 
minal spot  or  dot,  the  germinal  vesicle, 
and  the  vitellus  or  yolk;  the  first  being 
contained  in  the  vesicle,  and  that  again 
in  the  yolk.  Besides  these  parts  the  eggs 
of  birds  have  the  white  or  albumen,  and 
the  shell,  which  consists  of  a membrane 
coated  with  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
eggs  of  birds,  especially  of  fowls,  are  a 
pleasant  and  nutritive  food.  The  com- 
mon domestic  fowl,  the  turke}',  the  pea- 
hen, and  the  common  duck  produce  the 
the  eggs  which  are  commonest  in  the 
market.  Among  reptiles,  turtle  produce 
eggs  wluch  are  good  for  eating.  The 
eggs  of  fishes  are  their  roe  or  spawn. 

EGGLESTON,  Edward,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Indiana  in  1837,  died  in 
1902.  In  1870  he  was  made  literary 
editor  of  the  New  York  Independent, 
and  was  later  editor  of  the  Hearth  and 
Home.  Eggleston’s  works,  such  as  the 
Hoosier  Schoolmaster,  The  Mystery  of 


EGGLESTON 


EGYPT 


Metropolisville,  The  Circuit  Rider,  and 
other  tales,  are  full  of  originality  and 
ower  and  occupy  an  unique  place  in 
terature. 

EGGLESTON,  George  Cary,  an  Ameri- 
can writer  and  editor,  born  in  Indiana  in 
1839.  He  has  served  as  the  editor  of 
numerous  newspapers  since  1870  and 
has  published  several  volumes  of  his- 
torical memoirs  and  a number  of  novels. 

EGG-NOG,  a drink  consisting  of  the 
yolk  of  eggs  beaten  up  with  sugar,  and 
the  white  of  eggs  whipped,  with  the 
addition  of  wine  or  spirits. 

EGG-PLANT,  an  herbaceous  plant, 
from  1 foot  to  18  inches  high,  with  large 
white  or  purplish  flowers  The  fruit  is 


Egg-plant. 


about  the  size  of  a goose’s  egg,  and  gen- 
erally yellow,  white,  or  violet,  and  when 
boiled  or  stewed  is  used  as  an  article  of 
food. 

EG'LA^TINE,  one  of  the  names  of  the 
sweet-briar,  a kind  of  wild  rose.  The 
name  has  sometimes  been  erroneously 
used  for  other  species  of  the  rose  and  for 
the  honeysuckle. 

E'GOTISM,  as  a philosophical  doc- 
trine, the  view  that  the  elements  of  all 
knowledge  and  the  reality  of  the  things 
known  are  dependent  on  the  personal 
existence  of  the  knower.  Hence  the 
logical  position  of  the  egotist  is  to  doubt 
the  substantial  reality  of  everything 
except  his  own  existence. 

EG'RET,  a name  given  to  those 
species  of  white  herons  which  have  the 
feathers  of  the  lower  part  of  the  back 


American  great  white  egret. 


elongated  and  their  webs  disunited, 
reaching  to  the  tail  or  beyond  it  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year.  Their  forms 
are  more  graceful  than  those  of  common 
herons.  The  American  egret  is  about  37 


inches  long  to  the  end  of  the  tail ; plum- 
age soft  and  blended;  head  not  crested; 
wings  moderate;  the  tail  short,  of  twelve 
weak  feathers.  The  European  egret  is 
about  40  inches  long,  of  a pure  white 
plumage;  the  bill  is  black  or  dark  brown, 
yellow  at  the  base  and  about  the  nos- 
trils, and  the  legs  are  almost  black. 
The  little  egret  is  about  22  inches  long 
from  bill  to  end  of  tail,  the  plumage  is 
white. 

EGYPT  (e'jipt),  a country  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Africa,  governed  by  a 
ruler  (the  khedive  or  viceroy)  who  pays 
tribute  to  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  but  is 
virtually  independent.  Egypt  is  bounded 
on  the  n.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on 
the  e.  by  Arabia  and  the  Red  Sea,  and 
on  the  w.  by  the  Libyan  Desert.  Its 
natural  southern  frontier  may  be  placed 
about  Assouan  (about  500  miles  south 
of  the  Mediterranean),  near  which  cul- 
tivated land  almost  disappears  and  the 
counti-y  begins  to  assume  the  features  of 
the  Nubian  Desert.  Another  point  at 
which  the  southern  boundary  has  been 
placed  is  the  second  cataract  of  the 
Nile  at  Wady  Haifa  (about  C70  miles 
south  of  the  Mediterranean),  which  is  the 
limit  of  free  navigation  for  larger  vessels. 
Farther  south  lies  the  extensive  region 
known  as  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  This 
territory  was  acquired  by  conquest  and 
occupied  for  many  years  previous  to  the 
Mahdist  revolt  of  1883,  but  the  success 
of  the  rebels  led  to  its  evacuation.  Lord 
Kitchener’s  expedition  in  1897-98, 
however,  regained  the  country  for  Egypt. 
On  the  Red  Sea  littoral  the  farthest 
point  south  under  the  Egyptian  flag  is 
Suakin.  A small  strip  of  n.  w.  Arabia 
on  the  east  of  the  Red  Sea  belongs  to 
Egypt,  as  also  the  Sinaitic  peninsula  and 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  - The  area  is  about 
394,000  sq.  miles  (only  some  13,000  be- 
ing inhabited),  with  a population  of 
9,734,405.  The  capital  and  largest  town 


is  Cairo,  the  next  largest  and  chief  sea- 
port is  Alexandria. 

The  inhabited  portion  of  Egypt  is 
mainly  confined  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
which,  where  widest  (at  the  Delta),  does 
not  exceed  80  miles,  and  narrows  stead- 
ily as  we  ascend  its  stream  till,  at  the 


southern  frontier,  it  is  only  2 miles  wide. 
The  Nile  has  no  tides,  but  runs  con- 
stantly toward  the  sea  at  the  rate  of 
to  3 miles  an  hour.  After  it  enters 
Egypt  it  flows  in  a northward  direction 
but  with  considerable  bends  till  it 
reaches  lat.  30°  15',  a little  beyond 
Cairo,  where  it  divides  into  two  main 
streams,  the  Rosetta  and  Damietta 
branches,  which  inclose  that  portion  of 
land  known  as  the  Delta  and  formed  by 
deposits  of  alluvial  matter.  Bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean  are  several  salt 
lakes  or  lagoons,  Menzaleh  being  the 
largest,  through  which  is  carried  the 
Suez  Canal,  connecting  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Red  Sea;  and  also  pass- 
ing through  other  salt  lakes;  about  150 
miles  south  of  the  Mediterranean  is  the 
lake  Birket-el-Kurun,  fed  by  the  Nile. 
As  very  little  rain  falls  in  Egypt,  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  entirely  de- 
pends upon  the  Nile,  and  especially  upon 
the  yearly  overflow  of  the  river,  which  so 
fertilizes  the  soil  with  a brown  slimy 
deposit  that  it  produces  two  crops  a 
year.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  inunda- 
tion and  of  ii-rigation  there  is  no  culti- 
vation whatsoever.  The  Nile  begins  to 
rise  in  June,  and  continues  to  increase 
until  September,  overflowing  the  low 
lands  along  its  course,  the  waters  being 
conveyed  by  canals  where  natural  chan- 
nels fail.  The  Delta  then  looks  like  an 
immense  marsh  interspersed  with  is- 
lands, villages,  towns,  and  plantations, 
just  above  the  level  of  the  water.  After 
a few  days  the  water  begins  to  subside, 
and  leaves  the  land  again  dry  about  the 
end  of  October.  The  seed  is  then  sown, 
and  artificial  irrigation  is  maintained  by 
water  raised  from  the  river,  and  dis- 
tributed by  means  of  channels  through- 
out the  fields.  The  appliances  for  rais- 
ing water  are  simple  and  primitive; 
chiefly  the  shadoof  worked  by  two  men, 
and  the  sakieh  driven  by  a donkey  or  an 


ox.  The  land  is  soon  covered  with 
green  crops,  and  the  first  harvest  is  in 
March. 

The  atmosphere  in  Egypt  is  extremely 
clear  and  dry,  the  temperature  regular 
and  exceedingly  hot.  The  winter  months 
are  the  most  delightful  part  of  the  year: 


Chandler’s  shops,  Lower  Egypt. 


EGYPT 


EGYPT 


later,  the  ground  becomes  parched  and 
dry,  and  in  May  the  suffocating  kham- 
seen.  or  simoom,  begins  to  blow  from 
the  desert  plains.  Rain  is  scanty  except 
near  the  sea-shore;  but  at  night  the  dews 
are  heavy  in  lower  Egypt,  and  the  air 
cool  and  refreshing.  Egypt  is  not  re- 
markably healthy,  as,  in  addition  to 
visitations  of  plague  and  cholera,  opthal- 
mia,  diarrhaea,  dysentery,  and  boils  are 
very  prevalent. 

N ow  as  formerly  there  is  little  timber, 
the  principal  trees,  besides  the  date- 
palm  and  tamarisk,  being  the  sycamore 
fig,  and  acacia  or  gum-arabic  tree.  The 
pipyrus  plant,  once  so  important,  is 
now  to  be  found  only  in  one  or  two  spots. 
Of  it  was  manufactured  a paper  which 
was  supplied  to  all  the  ancient  world. 
Beside  the  lotus  or  water-lily  of  the  Nile, 
Egypt  has  always  been  celebrated  for  its 
production  of  corn,  barley,  a great 
variety  of  the  bean  class,  leeks,  garlic, 
onions,  flax,  and  for  plants  of  the  cucum- 
ber tribe.  To  the  products  of  ancient 
times  have  been  added  the  sugar-cane, 
cotton  plant,  indigo,  and  tobacco. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  at  least  two 
and  sometimes  three  successive  crops 
may  be  gathered  in  a year,  agriculture  in 
Egypt  is  still  in  a very  low  state;  and 
the  extreme  poverty  and  generally 
wretched  condition  of  the  cultivators 
render  improvement  difficult.  There 
are  few  trades  which  have  attained  a 
development  of  any  importance. 

Of  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  those  of 
the  peasant  class,  or  fellahs  as  they  are 
called,  appear  to  be  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  mixed  with  Arab 
blood.  Having  embraced  Mohamme- 
danism, they  are  often  denominated 
Arabs,  though  regarded  by  the  true 
Arab  with  contempt.  The  Copts  are 
the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians who  embrace  and  still  cling  to  the 
Christian  religion.  With  those  aborigi- 
nal inhabitants  are  mingled,  in  various 
proportions,  Turks,  Arabs  (chiefly  Be- 
douins), Armenians,  Berbers,  negroes, 
and  a considerable  number  of  Euro- 
peans, especially  Greeks  and  Levantines. 

The  government  of  Egypt  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  khedive  or  viceroy,  who  is 
assisted  by  a ministry  formed  on  the 
model  of  those  of  Western  Europe.  The 
title  and  government  are  hereditary,  but 
the  khedive,  as  a Turkish  vassal,  has  to 
pay  an  annual  tribute  to  the  sultan  of 
about  $3, .500, 000. 

The  Egyptians  are  the  earliest  people 
known  to  us  as  a nation.  When  Abra- 
ham entered  the  Delta  from  Canaan 
they  had  been  long  enjoying  the  ad- 
vantages of  a settled  government.  They 
had  built  cities,  invented  hieroglyphic 
signs,  and  improved  them  into  syllabic 
writing,  and  almost  into  an  alphabet. 
They  had  invented  records,  and  wrote 
their  kings’  names  and  actions  on  the 
massive  temples  which  they  raised.  The 
arrangement  of  Egyptian  chronology  is 
still  a much-disputed  point  among 
scholars.  A list  of  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
arranged  in  30  dynasties  was  given  by 
the  priest  Manetho  about  250  n.c.,  and 
this  division  is  still  used.  Egyptologists 
go  back  as  far  as  5,702  years  before 
Christ,  and  trace  the  founding  of  Egypt 
by  Mena,  about  that  date,  with  the  build- 
ing of  its  capital,  Memphis.  The  chro- 


nology carries  down  with  more  or  less 
breaks  through  the  various  dynasties 
until  the  conquest  of  Egypt  in  332  b.c. 
by  Alexander  the  Great.  Egypt  be- 
came a Greek  state,  subsequently  a 
Roman  province,  and  finally  in  640  a.d., 
a mere  territory  of  the  Mohammedan 
power  which  it  remains  to  the  present 
day.  Its  glories  are  all  in  its  ancient 
civilization.  This  cilivization  of  the 
Egyptian  had  reached  a high  pitch  from 
the  earliest  period  to  which  we  can  trace 
their  history.  The  masonry  of  the 
passages  in  the  'great  pyramid  has  not 
been  surpassed  at  any  age.  More  than 
2000  B.c.  the  Egyptians  had  duodecimal 
as  well  as  decimal  numbers;  weights  and 
measures  adjusted  to  a pound  of  1400 
grains.  In  mechanical  arts  the  carpen- 
ter, boat-builder,  potter,  leather-cutter, 
glass-blower,  and  others  are  frequently 
represented  on  their  ancient  monu- 
ments, and  we  see  the  blow-pipe,  bel- 
lows, and  siphons;  the  press,  balance, 
lever;  the  saw,  the  adze,  the  chisel,  the 
forceps,  the  syringe,  harpoon,  razors; 
we  have  also  glazed  pottery,  the  potter’s 
wheel,  and  the  kiln;  and  dated  speci- 
mens of  glass  of  the  time  of  Thothmes 
III.,  1445  B.c.  Gold-beating,  damascen- 
ing, engraving,  casting,  inlaying,  wire- 
drawing, and  other  processes,  were 
practiced.  The  processes  of  growing 
and  preparing  flax,  as  well  as  the  looms 
employed,  are  all  depicted.  The  social 
and  domestic  life  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians is  pictured  for  us  on  the  walls  of 
their  temples  and  tombs.  The  rich  spent 
much  of  their  time  in  hospitality  and 
entertainments,  especially  of  a musical 
kind.  In  the  country  districts  the 
superintendence  of  the  agricultural 
works  or  the  fisheries  on  their  estates 
was  varied  by  the  sports  and  pleasures 
of  a country  life.  The  lower  orders  were 
poor  and  uneducated,  scantily  fed  and 
clothed,  and  held  in  contempt  by  the 
higher  classes.  But  there  was  no  strict 
separation  into  caste;  and  although  the 
priests  form  a ruling  bureaucracy,  the 
highest  posts  were  open  to  the  suc- 
cessful scholar  Next  to  the  priesthood 
in  importance  was  the  military  class  or 
order,  who  were  all  landholders  and 
bound  to  serve  in  time  of  war.  Below 
these  were  the  husbandmen,  who  paid  a 
small  rent  to  the  king.  Egyptian  cus- 
tom seems  to  have  allowed  but  one  wife, 
who  occupied  an  honorable  and  well- 
established  position  as  the  “lady  of  the 
house  ’’ 

The  two  main  principles  on  which  the 
religion  of  Egypt  was  based  appear  to 
have  been  the  existence  of  an  omnip- 
otent Being,  whose  various  attributes 
being  deified,  formed  a series  of  divini- 
ties; and  the  deification  of  the  sun  and 
moon.  Each  group  of  divinities  formed 
a triad  composed  of  a chief  male  deity, 
with  a wife  or  sister  and  a son,  as  Osiris, 
Isis,  and  Horus,  or  Amun,  Maut,  and 
Khonso.  Among  the  other  gods  of  the 
Egyptian  Pantheon  are  Ra,  the  sun, 
usually  represented  as  a hawk-headed 
man.  Mentu  and  Atmu  are  merely  two 
phases  of  Ra,  the  rising  and  the  setting 
sun.  The  worship  of  the  bull  Apis  is 
connected  with  Osiris.  Serapis  is  the 
defunct  Apis,  who  has  become  Osiris. 
Seth  or  Set  represents  the  power  of  evil. 
Ammon  (Egyptian  Amen),  originally  a 


local  god,  owed  his  importance  to  the 
greatness  of  his  city,  Thebes.  Thoth 
is  the  chief  moon-god,  and  is  generally 
represented  as  ibis-headed.  Anubis, 
the  jackal -headed,  belonged  to  the 
family  of  Osiris,  and  presided  over  mum- 
mification. Besides  these  deities  the 
Egyptians  worshiped  beasts,  reptiles, 
and  even  vegetables,  probably  as  sym- 
bols. The  Egyptians  believed  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls  and  in  the  exist- 
ence of  a future  state,  in  which  mankind 
would  be  rewarded  or  punished  accord- 
ing to  their  actions  while  on  earth. 

The  monuments  we  have  left  to  us 
in  Egypt  are  of  two  main  periods — those 


Fig.  1 Plan  of  the  Memnonium,  Thebes. 

built  in  the  times  of  the  Paraohs  or 
native  kings,  and  those  built  during 
the  rule  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
(subsequently  to  330  b.c.).  The  former 


Fig.  2.  Types  of  Egyptian  columns. 

period  was  by  far  the  longer  and  more 
important,  and  to  it  belong  the  most 
characteristic  examples  of  Egyptian 
architecture  and  sculpture,  such  as 
pyramids,  vast  temples,  some  of  them 
cut  in  the  solid  rock  (as  at  Ipsambul), 
rock-cut  tombs,  gigantic  monolithic 
obelisks,  and  colossal  statues.  The 
characteristic  features  of  the  style 
are  solidity,  boldness,  and  originality. 
Among  its  peculiar  characteristics  may 
be  noted — symmetry  of  structure;  the 
gradual  converging  of  the  walls  of  some 
of  its  edifices,  especially  of  the  propylsea 
or  tower  gateways  of  its  temples;  roofs 
and  covered  ways  being  flat,  and  com- 
posed of  immense  blocks  of  stone  reach- 
ing from  one  wall  or  column  to  another, 
the  arch  not  being  employed  nor  yet 


EGYPT 


EGYPT 


Fig.  6.  Plan  of  Ptolemaic  temple  at  Edf< 


timber;  columns  numerous,  close,  and 
massive,  generally  without  bases,  and 
exhibiting  great  variety  in  their  capitals, 
from  a simple  square  block  to  an  elab- 
orate composition  of  palm-leaves  or  other 
forms  suggested  by  vegetation  Fig.  2) ; 


doubt  that  these  structures  were  in- 
tended as  the  tombs  of  kings.  The  lead- 
ing features  of  the  Egyptian  temples 
were  these:  a gateway  flanked  by  two 
lofty  pylons  (Fig.  3)  formed  the  entrance 
to  a square  court  (see  Fig.  1,  a entrance, 


customary  to  place  the  name  and  titles 
of  the  Pharaoh  or  king;  the  architrave 
stone  was  symbolically  ornamented 
with  the  names  of  the  divinities  to 
whom  the  temple  was  dedicated,  and  of 
the  sovereign  in  whose  time  it  was  built. 
The  abacus  of  the  column  was  invari- 
ably decorated  with  the  royal  titles. 
The  capitals  were  painted  in  accordance 
with  the  intention  of  the  form;  if,  for 
instance,  the  expanded  papyrus  was 
shown*  the  leaves  of  the  calyx  would 
be  yellow  and  the  filaments  green.  Be- 
neath were  horizontal  bands  of  blue  and 
white,  and  then  a representation  of  the 
king  off'ering  gifts  to  the  gods  of  the 
temple;  and  lastly,  the  yellow  and  red 
lines  at  the  base  of  the  shaft  signified 
the  brown  leaves  that  envelop  the  base 
of  the  stalk  of  the  natural  plant,  The 
Egyptian  temple  was  invariably  rectan- 
gular, with  its  walls  inclining  inward, 
and  never  more  than  one  story  high, 
and  the  approach  to  it  was  frequently 


Sphinx  and  pyramid. 

through  an  avenue  of  sphinxes  Fig.  3). 
The  temples  built  during  the  sway  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  though  having 
a general  resemblance  to  the  earlier 
ones,  differed  in  some  respects,  as  in 
the  use  of  more  elaborate  capitals, 
more  salient  forms  in  the  architectural 
and  sculptural  decorations,  etc.  (The 
Ptolemaic  temple  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.)  A 
peculiar  kind  of  mural  sculpture  was 


Fig.  3.  Restoration  of  the  prodylon  or  gate  of  the  Temple  of  Luxor. 


the  employment  of  a large  concave  mold- 
ing in  the  entablature,  decorated  with 
vertical  flutings  or  leaves;  walls  and 
columns  decorated  with  a profusion  of 


Fig.  4.  Hall  of  columns  in  the  Memnonium— 
Time  of  the  Pharaohs. 

sculptures  in  outline  or  low  relief  repre- 
senting divinities,  men,  and  animals, 
with  innumerable  hieroglyphics,  bril- 
liant coloring  being  often  superadded. 
One  remarkable  feature  associated  with 


b b pylons,  c court).  From  this  court 
the  way  leads  through  a second  gate- 
way to  an  inner  court  (d),  surrounded 
by  a colonnade.  Beyond  this  is  the 
chamber  of  the  temple  known  as  the 
Hall  of  Columns  (Fig.  1 e,  and  Fig.  4),  the 
center  avenue  of  which  was  higher  than 
the  rest  of  the  hall,  and  consisted  usually 
of  twelve  columns,  which  supported  a 
flat  roof  formed  of  massive  stones,  light 
being  admitted  at  the  sides  of  this 
elevated  portion.  To  the  Hall  of  Col- 
umns succeeded  a series  of  smaller  cham- 
bers, the  roofs  of  which  were  generally 
supported  by  six  or  four  columns. 
These  apartments  frequently  surrounded 
a dark  chamber — the  most  sacred  in  the 
temple — the  holy  of  holies.  The  surface 


this  style  is  the  grandeur  of  its  mechani- 
cal operations  in  cutting,  polishing, 
®^'^^Pturing,  and  transporting  vast  blocks 
of  lirnestone  and  of  granite.  The 
Py^’^id  is  one  of  the  best-known  forms 
of  Egyptian  art,  and  there  is  little 


Temple  of  Denderah. 


of  each  architectural  feature  was  en- 
graved with  its  particular  ornament 
appropriately  colored.  In  the  cavetto, 
or  hollow  molding  of  the  cornice,  it  was 


practiced  among  the  Egyptians,  the 
outline  of  the  object  to  be  represented 
being  cut  into  the  surface,  while  the 
minor  forms  and  rotundity  are  shown 


EGYPTIAN  BEAN 


ELASTICITY 


within  this  incised  outline,  thus  forming 
a kind  of  “hollow  relief.”  For  further 
illustrations  of  Egyptian  architecture, 
see  Architecture,  Esneh,  Karnak;  and 
for  an  account  of  the  hieroglyphics  of 
ancient  Egypt  see  Hieroglyphics.  ’ 

EGYPTIAN  BEAN,  a name  sometimes 
given  to  the  bean-like  fruits  of  the  Nel- 
umbium  speciosum,  or  sacred  lotus, 
found  in  China,  India,  Australia,  but  no 
longer  on  the  Nile. 

EGYPTIAN  BLUE,  a brilliant  pig- 
ment consisting  of  the  hydrated  pro- 
toxide of  copper  mixed  with  a minute 
quantity  of  iron. 

EGYPTIAN  VULTURE,  a bird  that 
frequents  both  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, but  rarely  passes  farther  north, 
though  it  has  been  found  in  the  British 
islands.  It  is  one  of  the  smaller  vultures, 
about  the  size  of  a raven.  The  general 
color  is  white,  the  quill  feathers  of  the 
wing  being  dark  brown.  It  frequents 
the  streets  of  eastern  towns,  where  it  is 
protected  on  account  of  its  services  as 
a scavenger. 

EGYPTOLOGY,  the  science  of  Egyp- 
tian antiquities,  or  that  branch  of  knowl- 
edge which  deals  with  the  language, 
history,  etc.,  of  ancient  Egypt. 

EIDER  DUCK,  a species  of  duck 
found  from  45°  north  to  the  highest 
latitudes  yet  visited,  both  in  Europe  and 
America.  Its  favorite  haunts  are  soli- 
tary rocky  shores  and  islands.  In  Green- 


Eider  duck. 


land  and  Iceland  they  occur  in  great 
numbers,  and  also  breed  on  the  western 
islands  of  Scotland.  The  eider  duck  is 
about  twice  the  size  of  the  common 
duck,  being  about  2 ft.  3 in.  in  length, 
3 feet  in  breadth  of  wing,  and  from  6 to  7 
lbs.  in  weight.  The  male  is  black,  head 
and  back  white,  with  a black  crown. 
The  female  is  reddish  drab  spotted 
with  black,  and  with  two  white  bands  on 
the  wings.  They  feed  largely  on  shell- 
fish, crustaceans,  etc.  Their  nests  are 
usually  formed  of  drift  grass,  dry  sea- 
weed, etc.,  lined  with  a large  quantity 
of  down,  which  the  female  plucks  from 
her  own  breast.  In  this  soft  bed  she 
lays  five  eggs,  which  she  covers  over 
with  a layer  of  down.  If  this,  with  the 
eggs,  is  removed  the  bird  repeats  the 
process.  One  female  generally  furnishes 
about  ^ lb.  of  down,  but  the  quantity  is 
reduced  by  cleaning.  This  down,  from 
its  superior  warmth,  lightness,  and 
elasticity,  is  in  great  demand  for  beds 
and  coverlets;  and  the  districts  in  Nor- 
way and  Iceland  where  these  birds 
abound  are  guarded  with  the  greatest 
vigilance  as  a most  valuable  property. 
As  found  in  commerce  this  down  is  in 
balls  of  the  size  of  a man’s  fist,  and 
weighing  from  3 to  4 lbs.  It  is  so  fine 
and  elastic  that  5 lbs.  of  the  best  quality 
is  sufficient  for  a whole  bed.  The  down 


from  the  dead  birds  is  little  esteemed, 
having  lost  its  elasticity.  The  king  eider 
duck  is  another  species  resembling  the 
preceding  and  inhabiting  the  same 
coasts. 

EIFFEL,  Alexandre  Gustave,  a 
French  engineer,  designer  of  the  Eiffel 
Tower  at  Paris.  He  was  born  in  France 
in  1832,  and  was  the  designer  of  several 
important  bridges.  The  frame  work  of 
Bartholdi’s  statue  of  Liberty  at  New 
York,  was  planned  by  M,  Eiffel.  (See 
Eiffel  Tower). 

EIFFEL  TOWER,  a gigantic  steel 
tower  at  Paris,  the  tallest  building  of 
any  kind  in  the  world.  It  was  erected  as 
a special  “wonder”  for  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion of  1889  by  Alexandre  Gustave  Eiffel 
(which  see).  Its  total  height  is  984  feet. 
It  is  built  of  four  great  piers,  merging 
into  one  at  a height  of  620  feet  from  the 
ground.  On  various  levels  are  great 
floor  areas  for  entertainment,  obser- 
vation, and  refreshment  the  first  of  these 
having  an  area  of  38,000  square  feet. 
Seven  thousand  tons  of  steel  were  used 
in  the  construction  of  the  tower,  at  a 
cost  of  upwards  of  $1,000,000.  From 
the  top  of  the  tower  a view  to  a dis- 
tance of  85  miles  can  be  had. 

EIGHT-HOUR  DAY,  a term  applied 
to  the  ideal  working  day  of  the  labor 
unions.  It  had  its  origin  in  England 
and  its  greatest  growth  in  the  United 
States,  where  numerous  trades  unions 
have  established  it  as  part  of  their  bar- 
gain-contracts with  employers.  The 
eight-hour  working  day  is  established 
by  law  for  all  kinds  of  government 
work.  Several  states  and  cities  have 
adopted  it  for  their  employes,  but  it  is 
as  yet  by  no  means  universal  in  the 
United  States.  In  Australia  the  move- 
ment has  succeeded  better  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  world. 

EJECT'MENT,  in  law,  an  action 
wherein  the  title  to  lands  and  tenements 
may  be  tried  and  the  possession  re- 
covered. It  is  commenced  by  a writ 
addressed  to  the  tenant  in  possession 
and  all  entitled  to  defend  the  possession, 
bearing  that  the  plaintiff  lays  claim  to 
the  property  in  question,  and  calling 
upon  all  interested  to  appear  within  a 
certain  time  to  defend  their  right,  failing 
which  the  tenant  in  possession  will  be 
ejected.  In  its  older  form  the  action  was 


Flowering  branch  of  oleaster,  a.  Fruit. 
b.  Section  of  same. 


remarkable  for  certain  curious  legal 
fictions  on  which  procedure  was  based; 
and  the  name  of  John  Doe,  an  imaginary 
plaintiff,  and  of  Richard  Roe,  an  equally 
imaginary  defendant,  were  long  familiar 
in  cases  of  this  kind  in  the  courts. 


EKAT'ERINOSLAV,  a town  of  south- 
ern Russia,  capital  of  a government  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Dnieper,  250  miles  n.  e.  of  Odessa.  It 
was  founded  in  1787  by  Prince  Potem- 
kin, and  consists  of  a number  of  long, 
broad,  and  dirty  streets.  Pop.  46,876. — 
The  government,  which  is  intersected  by 
the  I)neiper  and  at  one  point  reaches  the 
Sea  of  Azow,  mostly  consists  of  steppes; 
area,  26,140  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,792,831. 

EL.®AGNA'CE.®,  the  oleaster  family 
of  plants,  a small  natural  order  of  opetal- 
ous  oxogens  scattered  over  the  northern 
regions.  Several  species  are  cultivated 
for  their  silvery  scurfy  foliage.  The 
silver-berry  is  a native  of  northern 
America. 

E'LAND,  a species  of  antelope  inhabit- 
ing Africa,  the  largest  of  all  the  antelopes 
being  about  the  size  of  an  ox.  Its  flesh, 
especially  that  of  the  thighs,  which  are 
dried  and  used  in  this  state,  is  highly 
prized,  and  consequently  the  animal  is 


Eland. 


now  nearly  exterminated  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Cap'e  Colony,  where  it  was 
once  common.  The  color  is  a light  or 
grayish  brown,  and  it  possesses  a short 
mane.  The  horns,  which  are  about  18 
inches  long  and  nearly  straight,  are 
spirally  keeled. 

ELASMOBRANCHII  f-brang'ki-i),  an 
order  of  fishes,  including  the  sharks, 
skates,  and  chimaera,  in  which  the  skull 
is  not  composed  of  distinct  bones,  but 
simply  forms  a kind  of  cartilaginous  box, 
the  vertebral  column  sometimes  cartil- 
aginous, sometimes  consisting  of  dis- 
tinct vertebrae,  the  integumentary  skele- 
ton in  the  form  of  placoid  scales,  the 
intestines  being  very  short,  and  provided 
with  a spiral  valve.  Thej^  have  two 
pairs  of  fins  (pectorals  and  ventrals),  two 
responding  to  the  fore  and  hind  limbs, 
and  the  ventral  fins  are  close  to  the  anus. 
The  heart  consists  of  an  auricle,  a ven- 
tricle, and  a muscular  arterial  bulb.  The 
gills  are  fixed,  and  form  a number  of 
pouches,  which  open  internally  into  the 
pharynx,  communicating  outwardly  by 
a series  of  apertures  placed  on  the  side  of 
the  neck. 

ELAS'MODON,  a sub-genus  of  the 
genus  Elephant,  under  which  are  in- 
cluded the  mammoth  and  Asiatic  species, 
the  African  elephant  belonging  to  the 
sub-genus  Loxodon. 

ELASTICTTY  is  the  property  in  virtue 
of  which  bodies  resist  change  of  volume 
and  change  of  shape,  and  recover  their 
former  figure  or  state  after  external 
pressure,  tension,  or  distortion.  The 
former  is  called  elasticity  of  volume,  the 


ELBA 


ELECTRIC  BATTERY 


latter  elasticity _ of  shape.  The  name 
compressibility  is  also  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  elasticity  of  volume;  and 
rigidity,  or  resistance  to  change  of 
shape  in  connection  with  the  latter. 
Fluids  possess  no  rigidity  whatever; 
they  offer  no  permanent  resistance  to 
change  of  shape;  while  a solid  body,  un- 
less it  is  cUstorted  beyond  certain  limits, 
called  the  limits  of  elasticity,  tends  to 
return  to  its  original  form.  Both  fluid 
and  solids  possess  elasticity  of  volume, 
and  tend  to  resume  their  original  volume 
after  compression.  The  elasticity  of 
volume  of  the  former  is  perfect;  what- 
ever compression  they  have  been  sub- 
jected to,  they  return  under  the  same 
conditions  of  temperature  to  precisely 
their  original  volumes  when  the  forces  of 
compression  are  removed.  In  the  case 
of  solids  there  are  limits  to  their 
elasticity  of  volume  as  well  as  to  their 
elasticity  of  form;  thus  gold  may  be 
made  permanently  denser  by  hammer- 
ing. 

ELBA,  a small  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  the  province  of  Livorno 
(Leghorn),  Italy,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Strait  of  Piombino, 
about  6 miles  wide.  The  island  is  18 
miles  long  and  from  2^  to  lOJ  miles 
broad,  and  is  traversed  by  mountains 
rising  to  a height  of  over  3000  feet.  It 
is  rich  in  iron,  marble,  granite,  salt,  etc. ; 
and  iron  ore  is  exported.  Excellent  wine 
and  fruits  are  produced.  It  has  two 
seaports — Porto-Ferrajo  (the  capital) 
and  Porto-Longone.  The  Treaty  of 
Paris  in  1814  erected  Elba  into  a sover- 
eignty for  Napoleon,  who  resided  in  it 
from  May  4, 1814,  to  February  26, 1815. 
Pop.  24,000 

ELBE,  river  of  Germany,  one  of  the 
largest  in  Europe.  It  rises  on  the  s.w. 
slopes  of  the  Schneekoppe  or  snowcap, 
one  of  the  Riesengebirge,  between  Bo- 
hemia and  Silesia.  From  this  point  it 
flows  nearly  due  s.  into  Bohemia  for 
about  50  miles,  when  it  turns  to  the  w., 
and  after  about  40  miles  takes  a general 
n.n.w.  direction  till  it  falls  into  the  North 
Sea,  intersecting  Saxony,  a considerable 
portion  of  Prussia,  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  its  course  separating  Holstein  on  its 
right  from  Hanover  on  the  left.  The 
length,  including  windings,  is  upward  of 
780  miles.  It  is  more  or  less  navigable 
for  about  470  miles,  but  its  estuary  at 
Cuxhaven  is  much  encumbered  with 
sand-banks.  In  1870  its  navigation  was 
declared  free  from  Hamburg  to  Melnik 
in  Bohemia.  The  North  Sea  and  Baltic 
ship  canal  now  connects  its  estuary  with 
Kiel  Bay.  The  Elbe  is  well  stocked 
with  fish. 

ELBERFELD  (el'ber-felt),  a town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  in  the  government  of 
and  15  miles  e.  of  Diisseldorf,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Wupper,  inclosed  by  lofty 
hills.  Taken  with  Barmen  it  stretches 
along  the  Wupper  valley  for  about  6 
miles.  Linen,  woollen,  silk,  and  mixed 
goods,  ribbons,  and  velvet  are  exten- 
sively made  and  exported.  There  are 
numerous  mills  for  spinning  cotton 
twist,  linen  yarn,  and  worsted,  and 
numerous  dye-works,  and  miscellaneous 
industrial  establishments.  The  en- 
virons are  almost  entirely  taken  up  with 
bleach-fields.  Pop.  156,937;  with  Bar- 
men, 298,884. 


ELDER,  a name  given  to  different 
species  of  small  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
opposite  and  pinnated  leaves,  bearing 
small  white  flowers  in  large  and  con- 
spicuous corymbs,  small  berries  of  a 
black  or  red  color,  and  bitter  and  nause- 
ous leaves  possessing  purgative  and 
emetic  properties.  The  wood  of  the 
young  shoots  contains  a very  large  pro- 
portion of  pith.  The  common  elder  is  a 
wild  shrub  or  small  tree,  distinguishable 
by  its  winged  leaves;  its  clusters  of  small, 
cream-white  flowers,  and  the  small  black 
berries  by  which  these  are  succeeded, 
and  from  which  a kind  of  wine  is  some- 
times made.  Two  species  inhabit  N. 
America : a common  plant  from  the  49th 
to  the  30th  parallel  of  latitude,  the  ber- 
ries of  which  are  black  and  have  a sweet 
taste;  and  one  which  bears  red  berries, 
and  inhabits  Canada,  the  northern  parts 
of  New  England,  and  the  Alleghany 
Mountains.  Elder  wood  is  yellow,  and 
in  old  trees  becomes  so  hard  that  it  is 
often  substituted  for  box-wood.  Its 
toughness  also  is  such  that  it  is  made 
into  skewers,  tops  for  fishing-rods,  etc. 
The  light  pith  is  utilized  for  balls  for 
electric  experiments,  and  various  oint- 
ments, drinks,  and  medicinal  decoctions 
are  made  from  the  bark,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  berries. 

ELDERS,  persons  who,  on  account  of 
their  age,  experience,  and  wisdom,  are 
selected  for  office,  as,  among  the  Jews, 
the  seventy  men  associated  with  Moses 
in  the  government  of  the  people.  In  the 
modern  Presbyterian  churches  elders  are 
officers  who,  with  the  pastors  or  minis- 
ters, compose  the  consistories  or  kirk- 
sessions,  with  authority  to  inspect  and 
regulate  matters  of  religion  and  dis- 
cipline in  the  congregation. 

EL  DORA'DO,  a country  that  Orel- 
lana, the  lieutenant  of  Pizarro,  pre- 
tended he  had  discovered  in  South  Amer- 
ica; and  between  the  Orinoco  and  Ama- 
zon rivers ; and  which  he  named  thus  on 
account  of  the  immense  quantities  of 
gold  and  precious  metals  which,  he  as- 
serted,he  had  seen  in  Manoa,  the  capital 
of  the  country. 

ELECTION,  in  politics  the  choosing  of 
public  officials  by  the  vote  of  the  electors 
(persons  having  the  suffrage  right).  In 
the  U.  States  elections  may  be  direct,  as 
in  the  case  of  congressmen,  legislators, 
judges,  etc.,  or  indirect,  as  in  the  case  of 
U.  States  senators  and  the  president, 
the  former  being  chosen  by  the  state 
legislatures  and  the  latter  by  an  electoral 
college  (which  see).  Candidates  are 
named  in  various  ways,  or  may  be  self- 
constituted,  and  the  law  in  many  in- 
stances recognizes  the  machinery  by 
W'hich  candidates  are  chosen.  The 
various  states  have  various  laws  regulat- 
ing elections  and  contests  of  elections. 
All  contested  elections,  however,  are 
always  decided  by  party  considerations 
and  not  by  justice — unless  party  con- 
siderations be  considered  as  being  suf- 
ficiently just. 

ELECTION,  in  theology,  the  doctrine 
that  God  has  from  the  beginning  elected 
a portion  of  mankind  to  eternal  life, 
passing  by  the  remainder.  It  is  founded 
on  the  literal  sense  of  certain  passages  of 
Scripture,  and  has  been  amplified  by 
the  labors  of  systematic  theologians 
into  a complete  and  logical  system. 


It  dates  in  ecclesiastical  history  from 
the  time  of  Augustine;  but  Calvin  has 
stated  it  so  strongly  and  clearly  in  his 
Institutes,  that  it  is  generally  associated 
with  his  name. 

ELECTIVE  STUDIES,  studies  w^hich 
are  optional  with  the  student  in  an 
educational  institution,  In  American 
universities  a certain  number  of  specific 
studies  are  “required”  for  a degree. 
Thus  for  the  A.B.  degree  the  candidate  is 
required  to  do  a definite  amount  of  work 
in  the  languages,  history,  etc.,  but  he  is 
given  a choice  as  to  the  kind  of  work  he 
will  do  within  certain  limits.  Elective 
studies  have  been  found  to  be  very 
efficient  in  stimulating  interest,  as  they 
enable  a candidate  for  a degree  to  select 
the  branches  in  which  he  is  most  inter- 
ested. The  system,  however,  has  many 
eminent  opponents. 

ELECTOR,  the  title  of  certain  princes 
of  the  old  German  Empire  who  had  the 
right  of  electing  the  emperors. 

ELECTORAL  COLLEGE,  in  the  U. 
States  the  body  of  the  electors  chosen 
by  the  people  to  vote  for  the  president. 
The  people  vote  not  for  their  favorite 
candidate  for  president  but  for  the  can- 
didate for  elector  wdio  invariably  votes 
for  the  head  of  the  party  ticket.  This 
fact  shows  how  really  little  force  the 
American  constitution  has  upon  the  will 
of  the  people.  In  effect  it  is  the  popular 
vote  that  elects  the  president,  not  the 
vote  of  the  electors.  The  electors  of 
each  state  meet,  vote  by  ballot  for  the 
president  and  vice-president,  and  after 
being  signed  by  the  governor  the  vote  is 
sent  to  the  president  of  the  U.  States 
senate  and  counted  in  the  presence  of 
both  houses  of  congress.  All  tliis  work, 
however,  is  merely  formal,  the  result 
of  the  election  being  known  as  soon  as 
the  popular  vote  is  known. 

ELECTORAL  COMMISSION,  a body 
of  men  empowered  by  congress  in  1877 
to  settle  the  electoral  votes  of  Florida, 
Louisiana,  Oregon,  and  South  Carolina, 
in  the  presidential  election  of  1876. 
These  four  states  presented  conflicting 
certificates  and  congress  could  not  agree. 
The  commission  consisted  of  five  sena- 
tors, five  representatives,  and  five  mem- 
bers of  the  supreme  court.  The  com- 
mission found  that  Hayes  and  Wheeler 
had  been  elected  over  Tilden  and  Hen- 
dricks by  a majority  of  one  electoral 
vote. 

ELECTRICAL  FISHES,  a name  given 
to  fishes  possessing  the  property  of  com- 
municating an  electric  shock  when 
touched  with  the  hand  or  any  electric 
conductor.  One  of  the  best  known  is 
the  electric  eel,  a native  of  South  Ameri- 
ca. It  is  of  nearly  equal  thickness 
throughout;  head  and  tail  obtuse; 
ordinary  length,  3J  to  4 feet.  The  seat 
of  the  four  electrical  organs  is  along  the 
under  side  of  the  tail,  and  they  are  said 
to  possess  the  power  of  knocking  down  a 
man,  and  of  painfully  numbing  the  af- 
fected limb  for  several  hours  after  the 
shock.  After  a few  discharges,  however, 
the  faculty  of  producing  a shock  is  im- 
paired, and  an  interval  of  rest  is  re- 
quired for  a new  storage  of  force. 

ELECTRIC  BATTERY,  the  original 
name  of  what  is  now  more  commonly 
called  a battery  of  Leyden-jars,  the  old 
name  having  been  given  before  galvanic 


ELECTRIC  CLOCK 


ELECTRICITY 


batteries  were  invented.  See  Leyden- 
jar. 

ELECTRIC  CLOCK,  a clock  driven  or 
controlled  by  electrictity,  the  latter 
being  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  term. 
One  clock  driven  in  the  ordinary  way 
can  be  made  to  control  by  electric 
currents  another  clock  (or  clocks)  also 
driven  in  the  ordinary  way  so  as  to  make 
it  keep  accurate  time.  By  means  of  it 
one  high-class  clock  (usually  in  an  as- 
tronomical observatory)  compels  a num- 
ber of  other  clocks  at  considerable  dis- 
tances to  keep  time  with  it.  The  clocks 
thus  controlled  ought  to  be  so  regulated 
that  if  left  to  themselves  they  would 
always  gain  a little,  but  not  more  than  a 
few  minutes  per  day.  The  pendulum  of 
the  controlling  clock,  in  swinging  to 
either  side,  makes  a brief  contact, 
which  completes  the  circuit  of  a galvanic 
battery,  and  thus  sends  a current  to  the 
controlled  clock.  The  currents  pass 
through  a coil  in  the  bob  of  the  pendu- 
lum of  the  controlled  clock,  and  the 
action  between  these  currents  and  a pair 
of  fixed  magnets  urges  the  pendulum  to 
one  side  and  to  the  other  alternately. 
The  effect  is  that,  though  the  controlled 
clock  may  permanently  continue  to  be 
a fraction  of  a second  in  advance  of  the 
controlling  clock,  it  can  never  be  so 
much  as  half  a second  in  advance.  An 
electrically-controlled  clock  usually  has 
close  beside  it  a small  magnetic  needle, 
which  moves  to  the  one  side  or  the  other 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent, and  thus  shows  whether  the 
currents  are  coming.  The  arrange- 
ments are  usually  such  that  at  every 
sixieth  second  (that  is  at  every  exact 
minute)  no  current  is  sent,  and  the 
needle  stands  still.  Any  small  error  is 
thus  at  once  detected. 

ELECTRIC  HEATER,  a device  used 
to  convert  an  electric  current  into  heat 
for  the  purpose  of  heating  a house,  an 
apartment,  or  an  interior.  The  heater 
consists  of  coils  of  metal,  placed  in  a 
box  containing  air  which,  on  the  passage 
of  the  current  through  the  coils,  thus 
heating  the  coils,  becomes  itself  hot 
and  heats  the  air  surrounding  the  box. 
Numerous  variations  of  this  idea  have 
been  patented,  nearly  all  of  which  are 
satisfactory.  Electric  heating  is  the 
ideal  system  for  warming  houses  of  any 
kind,  but  its  expense  prevents  its 
general  adoption. 

ELECTRICTTY,  the  name  given  to 
the  unknown  cause  of  certain  effects  of 
very  various  kinds  which  are  found  to 
be  closely  connected  one  with  another. 
They  include  two  distinct  kinds  of  at- 
traction and  repulsion  (electrostatic  and 
electrodynamic),  the  magnetization  of 
iron,  the  deflection  of  magnetic  needles, 
the  production  of  heat  and  light  in  cer- 
tain circumstances,  the  separation  of 
certain  chemical  compounds  into  their 
constituents,  and  spasmodic  actions  on 
the  nervous  and  muscular  systems  of 
animals.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  electron,  amber,  the  fact  that 
amber  when  rubbed  attracts  light  par- 
ticles, such  as  small  pieces  of  paper, 
having  been  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Friction  was  the  only  artificial 
source  of  electricity  employed  until  Gal- 
vani,  near  the  close  of  last  century, 
accidentally  obtained  it  by  the  contact 


of  two  metals  with  the  limbs  of  a frog; 
and  Volta,  developing  Galvani’s  dis- 
covery, invented  the  first  galvanic  or 
voltaic  battery.  Electricity  produced 
by  friction  is  called  frictional  electricity; 
that  produced  by  chemical  action  on 
metals,  voltaic  electricity. 

All  substances  which,  like  amber, 
could  be  made  to  show  electrical  at- 
traction by  rubbing  them,  were  called 
electrics  by  early  writers  on  electricity. 
They  included  glass,  amber,  sulphur, 
shellac,  rosin,  silk,  flannel,  etc.  The 
name  non-electrics  was  given  to  other 
bodies  which  were  supposed  not  to  be 
susceptible  of  excitation  by  friction. 
The  bodies  called  non-electrics  were  also 
called  conductors,  from  the  power 
which  they  exhibited  of  allowing  elec- 
tricity to  pass  through  them.  Electrics 
were  also  called  non-conductors.  The 
names  conductor  and  non-conductor 
are  still  retained,  but  the  names  electric 
and  non-electric  are  discarded  as  being 
founded  on  a mistake.  Electricity  can 
be  excited  by  the  friction  of  a conductor 
against  a non-conductor,  and  is,  in  fact, 
so  excited  in  the  ordinary  electrical 
machine,  in  which  glass  rubs  against  an 
amalgam  spread  on  a cushion.  A 
metallic  rod  furnished  with  a glass 
handle  ean  be  electrified  by  rubbing  it 
with  flannel,  the  glass  preventing  the 
electricity  from  being  conducted  away 
through  the  hand.  Substances  thus 
electrified  exhibit  two  opposite  kinds  of 
electricity,  known  respectively  as  posi- 
tive and  negative.  Bodies  charged 
with  the  same  kind  of  electricity  repel 
each  other;  those  charged  with  opposite 
kind  attract  each  other.  An  instrument 
for  indicating  the  presence  of  electricity 
is  called  an  electroscope. 

All  solid  and  liquid  substances  allow 
electricity  to  pass  through  them  to  some 
e.xtent,  but  the  differences  of  degree  are 
enormous.  The  best  conductors  are  the 
metals,  especially  gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per. Perfectly  pure  copper  conducts 
about  seven  times  as  well  as  iron.  Sub- 
stances which  have  excessively  small 
conducting  power  are  not  called  con- 
ductors, but  insulators,  so  that  a good 
insulator  is  another  name  for  an  ex- 
cessively bad  conductor.  Among  the 
best  insulators  may  be  mentioned  glass, 
paraffin  (the  wax,  not  the  oil),  ebonite, 
shellac,  mica,  india-rubber,  and  gutta 
percha.  The  ratio  of  the  conducting 
power  of  a metal  to  that  of  one  of  these 
substances  is  about  a thousand  million 
billions  to  one.  Water  occupies  an  in- 
termediate position  between  these  two 
extremes.  In  experiments  with  fric- 
tional or  influence  machines  it  behaves 
as  a conductor,  but  in  experiments  with 
galvanic  batteries  it  behaves  as  an  insu- 
lator. The  word  resistance  is  used  in  the 
opposite  sense  to  conducting  power;  a 
good  insulator  is  said  to  have  high  re- 
sistance, and  a good  conductor  to  have 
low  resistance. 

Electrostatics  is  that  branch  of  the 
general  science  of  electricity  which 
treats  of  the  repulsions  between  like  and 
the  attractions  between  unlike  kinds  of 
electricity.  The  fundamental  law  of 
electrostatics ’s  that  if  e and  4 denote 
two  quantities  of  electricity  collected 
in  two  spaces  very  small  in  comparison 
with  the  distance  between  them,  the 


mutual  force  which  they  exert  upon 
each  other  is  directly  as  the  product  e4, 
and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance. If  the  two  quantities  ee  are  both 
positive,  or  both  negative,  the  force  is  a 
repulsion;  but  if  one  is  positive  and  the 
other  negative,  it  is  an  attraction.  Elec- 
trostatic attractions  and  repulsions 
manifest  themselves  in  two  distinct 
ways,  namely,  (1)  as  attractions  and 
repulsions  between  electrified  bodies; 
(2)  as  producing  changes  in  the  distri- 
bution of  electricity  on  conductors. 
This  second  effect  is  called  electrostatic 
induction.  The  different  portions  of  the 
charge  of  one  and  the  same  conductor 
act  upon  one  another  according  to  the 
general  law  of  repulsion,  and  thus  pro- 
duce the  actual  distribution,  which  is 
entirely  on  the  surface,  all  electricity 
being  repelled  from  the  interior.  The 
interposition  of  an  insulating  substance 
between  two  quantitities  of  electricity 
alters  the  amount  of  the  forces  which 
they  exert  upon  each  other.  In  a broad 
sense  electrostatics  may  be  held  to  in- 
clude within  its  range  all  the  phenomena 
of  frictional  electricity  and  of  the  elec- 
tricity produced  by  influence  machines, 
such  as  those  of  Holtz,  Voss,  and  Wims- 
hurst. 

The  rapid  escape  of  electricity  from  a 
charge  body  is  an  electric  discharge. 
When  the  discharge  takes  place  through 
a conductor  it  is  called  continuous,  and 
when  it  takes  place  through  a non- 
conductor (for  example  through  air)  it 
is  called  a disruptive  discharge.  The 
name  “electric  discharge”  is  especially 
applied  to  cases  in  which  the  escaping 
electricity  produces  luminosity.  Three 
kinds  of  such  discharge  have  been  dis- 
tinguished— the  spark,  the  brush,  and 
the  glow.  The  spark  is  accompanied  by 
a sound  which  varies  from  a faint  crack 
to  a loud  bang.  In  nature  it  is  seen  on 
the  largest  scale  in  the  case  of  lightning, 
which  is  a discharge  of  atmospheric 
electricity.  In  many  cases  the  electric 
spark  presents  no  definite  shape,  but 
looks  like  a mere  point  of  fire,  or,  if  very 
bright,  is  enlarged  by  its  dazzling  effect 
on  the  retina;  but  when  it  leaps  across 
a space  of  several  inches  of  air  it  assumes 
a crooked  shape  bearing  a remarkable 
resemblance  to  a flash  of  lightning.  The 
brush  discharge  is  only  faintly  luminous. 
It  occurs  especially  at  sharp  points  and 
edges  of  highly-charged  bodies.  It  is 
barely  visible  bj"-  daylight,  and  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  dark  is  that  of  a lumin- 
ous halo.  It  projects  only  a small  dis- 
tance into  the  air  surrounding  the  body 
from  which  the  charge  is  escaping.  The 
glow  discharge  simply  renders  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  luminous,  and  does  not 
extend  into  the  air  at  all.  In  some 
modern  electric  apparatus  beautiful 
effects  of  electric  discharge  are  shown. 
Thus  by  causing  a discharge  to  take 
place  in  highly-rarefied  air  or  gas  it  is 
made  to  jump  across  a considerable 
interval;  and  the  whole  intervening 
space  is  filled  with  a beautiful  nebulous 
luminosity,  the  color  of  which  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  gas.  If  the  vacuum 
is  sufficiently  good  the  luminosity  is 
seen  to  be  disposed  in  transverse  stripes, 
t clinically  called  stria!. 

An  electrified  body  left  to  itself  grad- 
ually loses  its  electricity.  This  effect 


ELECTRICITY 


ELECTRICITY 


is  due  to  more  causes  than  one.  If  the 
body  is  a conductor  and  has  any  sharp 
points  or  edges,  these  afford  a ready 
channel  for  the  escape  of  the  charge  into 
the  air.  Some  loss  occurs  by  particles  of 
dust  in  the  air  being  attracted  to  the 
body  and  then  repelled  after  coming  in 
contact  with  it.  But  the  chief  loss  in  the 
case  of  a smooth  conductor  on  insulating 
supports  usually  occurs  by  leakage  over 
the  surface  of  the  supports,  owing  to  a 
thin  film  of  moisture  from  which  it  is 
difficult  to  keep  them  free.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  glass  supports. 
Dissipation  can  be  almost  completely 

Crevented  by  surrounding  the  electrified 
ody  with  an  artificially  dried  atmos- 
phere. The  most  usual  means  of  doing 
this  is  to  place  a shallow  dish  of  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  closed  vessel  in  which  the 
body  is  contained.  The  loss  by  dissi- 
pation can  thus  be  reduced  to  one  or  two 
per  cent  of  the  entire  charge  per  diem. 

When  a conductor  has  a permanent 
charge,  there  is  no  electricity  in  its 
interior.  The  charge  resides  entirely 
at  the  surface,  and  is  not  distributed 
equally  over  the  whole  surface  but  is 
thickest  (so  to  speak)  at  those  parts 
which  project  most.  The  dotted  lines  in 


Distribution  of  electricity— Relative  amounts 
on  curved  surfaces. 


figures  above  illustrate  by  their  distances 
from  the  conductor,  the  thickness  (tech- 
nically called  density)  of  the  electricity 
at  the  different  parts  of  the  surface.  At 
sharp  edges,  and  still  more  at  sharp 
points,  the  density  is  exceedingly  great 
and  hence  the  electricity  has  a strong 
tendency  to  leak  away. 

What  is  known  as  an  electric  current 
is  a peculiar  condition  of  a wire  or  other 
conductor  of  electricity,  in  virtue  of 
which  it  deflects  magnetic  needles  in  its 
neighborhood,  magnetizes  a piece  of 
soft  iron  round  which  is  it  coiled,  has  its 
own  temperature  raised,  and  exhibits 
various  other  effects.  This  condition 
of  a wire  occurs  both  in  connection  with 
frictional  and  voltaic  electricity,  and 
can  be  produced  by  attaching  its  ends  to 
the  two  terminals  of  a galvanic  battery, 
or  to  the  two  terminals  of  a magneto- 
electric machine,  and  in  various  other 
ways.  An  electric  current  may  be  re- 
garded at  pleasure  as  consisting  in  the 
flow  of  positive  electricity  in  one  direc- 
tion through  the  wire  in  question,  or  of 
negative  electricity  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection, or  of  both  electricities  simul- 
taneously one  in  each  direction.  What 
is  conventially  called  the  direction  of 
the  current  is  the  direction  in  which 
the  positive  electricity  may  be  re- 
garded as  flowing.  The  “strength”  of 
a current  denotes  the  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity that  passes  through  the  wire 
In  the  unit  of  time.  The  deflecting  force 
which  a current  exerts  on  a magnetic 
needle — other  things  being  equal — is 
proportional  to  the  strength  of  a cur- 
rent; but  the  quantity  of  heat  which 
it  generates  in  a given  time  is  propor- 
tional to  the  square  of  its  strength.  One 
effect  of  currents  is  the  decomposition 


of  certain  chemical  compounds,  and 
this  effect,  like  that  first  mentioned,  is 
simply  proportional  to  the  strength  of 
the  current.  Instruments  for  measuring 
the  strengths  of  currents  by  chemical 
decomposition  are  called  voltameters, 
and  instruments  for  measuring  them 
by  the  deflection  of  magnetic  needles  are 
called  galvanometers.  The  current  by 
which  telegraphs  are  worked  are  usually 
obtained  from  galvanic  batteries;  but 
the  far  stronger  currents  required  for 
electric  lighting  are  usually  produced  by 
machines  called  dynamos  driven  by 
steam  or  water  power.  The  currents  in 
such  machines  are  due  to  magneto- 
electric induction. 

Electro-dynamics  is  that  branch  of 
electrical  science  which  treats  of  the 
attractions  and  repulsions  exhibited 
between  wires  or  other  conductors 
through  which  currents  are  passing. 
If  two  wires  are  paralled,  they  will 
attract  each  other  when  currents  are 
passing  the  same  way  through  them 
both,  and  will  repel  each  other  when  the 
currents  are  opposite.  If  the  wires  are 
inclined  to  each  other  at  any  angle 
there  is  not  only  an  attraction  or  repul- 
sion, but  a still  more  marked  tendency 
to  rotation,  which  is  not  satisfied  till 
the  wires  have  become  parallel  and  the 
currents  flow  in  the  same  direction 
through  them  both.  When  there  are 
only  two  straight  wires  these  forces  are 
feeble  and  require  delicate  apparatus  for 
their  exhibition;  but  by  employing 
coils  of  wire  the  forces  are  multiplied, 
and  an  instrument  constructed  on  this 
principle  called  the  electro-dynamom- 
eter has  been  much  employed  for  the 
measurement  of  currents.  The  whole 
science  of  electro-dynamics  is  due  to 
Ampere,  who  discovered  its  main  facts, 
and  reduced  them  by  ingenious  ex- 
periments, combined  with  very  abstruse 
reasoning,  to  a-  single  mathematical 
formula  which  includes  them  all. 

Daily  experience  with  the  electric 
telegraph  shows  that  electrical  action  is 
propagated  with  great  rapidity.  The 
time  that  intervenes  between  the  send- 
ing of  a signal  from  one  station  and  its 
visible  effect  at  another,  depends  on  a 
variety  of  circumstances  The  time  is 
notably  longer  for  underground  or  sub- 
marine wires  than  for  wires  suspended 
in  the  air  on  poles  When  one  end  of  a 
long  submarine  or  subterranean  tele- 
graph wire  is  suddenly  put  in  connection 
with  a galvanic  battery  or  other  source 
of  electricity,  the  current  which  flows 
out  of  the  other  end  into  the  earth  does 
not  begin  sharply  but  gradually,  and 
takes  a measurable  time  to  attain  its 
full  strength.  Hence  an  instrument 
which  is  delicate  enough  to  show  a very 
feeble  current,  will  show  the  effect  earlier 
than  one  which  requires  a strong  current 
to  move  it.  An  instrument  in  which  the 
moving  parts  are  small  and  light  has 
also  an  advantage  over  one  in  which  they 
are  large  and  heavy.  Something,  too, 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  source  of 
electricity  employed.  A source  which 
acts  with  sudden  violence,  like  the  dis- 
charge of  a Leyden-jar  or  an  induction- 
coil,  will  make  the  effect  appear  earlier 
than  a comparatively  gentle  source, 
such  as  an  ordinary  galvanic  battery. 
Electrictiy  has  not  a definite  velocity 


like  light  or  sound.  It  is  rather  com- 
parable to  waves  on  water,  which  travel 
with  very  various  speeds  according  to 
their  length  and  the  depth  of  the  water. 
The  highest  speed  ever  observed  in  the 
transmission  of  electric  effects  was  that 
obtained  by  Wheatstone  in  his  cele- 
brated experiment  with  a rotating 
mirror.  In  this  experiment  a Leyden- 
jar  was  discharged  through  half  a mile 
of  wire  with  three  interruptions  in  it, 
at  each  of  which  a spark  was  formed 
by  the  electricity  leaping  across.  One 
interruption  was  in  the  middle,  and  the 
other  two  were  at  the  ends,  one  end 
being  close  to  the  knob  of  the  jar,  and 
the  other  end  close  to  its  outer  coating. 
The  wire  was  so  arranged  that  all  three 
interruptions  were  near  together;  and 
by  observing  the  reflections  of  the  three 
sparks  in  a rotating  mirror,  he  was  able 
to  discover  that  the  middle  spark  oc- 
curred sensibly  later  than  those  at  the 
two  ends,  these  latter  being  simulta- 
neous. The  lagging  of  the  middle  spark 
behind  the  other  two  was  regarded 
as  the  time  that  electricity  took  to 
travel  through  a quarter  of  a mile  of 
wire,  and  the  velocity  thus  found  for 
electricity  was  230,000  miles  per  second, 
a velocity  greater  than  that  of  light, 
which  is  between  185,000  and  186,000 
miles  per  second.  Observations  made 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  the  electric 
telegraph  for  determining  longitudes, 
have  shown  that  the  time  which  inter- 
venes between  the  sending  and  receiving 
of  a signal  was  about  four-tenths  of  a 
second  between  Aden  and  Bombay, 
two-tenths  of  a second  between  Alexan- 
dria and  Malta,  two-tenths  between  Mal- 
ta and  Berlin,  and  about  one-eighth  of 
a second  between  Greenwich  and 
Valentia. 

If  we  endeavor  to  explain  electrical 
phenomena  by  regarding  electricity  as  a 
substance,  we  are  met  by  two  difficulties : 
one  is  that  electricity  adds  nothing  to 
the  weight  of  a body;  the  other  is  that 
electrical  phenomena  are  dual,  as  if  there 
were  two  opposite  kinds  of  electricity 
which  destroy  each  other  when  they 
unite,  Du  Paye  maintained  the  exist- 
ence of  two  electrical  fluids  endowed 
with  opposite  qualities,  and  called  them 
the  vitreous  and  the  resinous  fluid. 
Franklin  endeavored  to  account  for  the 
same  phenomena  by  assuming  the 
existence  of  a single  electric  fluid,  and 
supposing  an  electrified  body  to  be  a 
body  which  possesses  either  more  or  less 
than  the  normal  quantity  of  this  fluid. 
If  more,  it  was  said  to  be  positively,  and 
if  less,  negatively  electrified.  Franklin’s 
positive  and  negative  corresponded 
with  Du  Faye’s  vitreous  and  resinous. 
Whenever  electricity  is  generated  the 
two  opposite  kinds  are  always  produced, 
and  produced  in  exactly  equal  quantity. 
Modern  theories  favor  the  idea  that 
electricity  is  not  a substance  or  a pair 
of  substances,  but  a special  kind  of 
motion,  and  that  the  two  opposite  elec- 
tricities are  two  opposite  states  of  mo- 
tion of  the  particles  of  a medium  which 
is  believed  to  pervade  all  bodies  and  all 
space:  the  same  medium  whose  vibra- 
tions constitute  light. 

The  employment  of  electricity  com- 
mercially and  industrially  is  daily 
increasing  in  importance.  The  electric 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT 


ELECTRIC  LIGHT 


telegraph  has  long  been  familiar,  and  the 
telephone  is  now  almost  equally  so. 
Electric  lighting  is  rapidly  extending, 
and  electric  railways  or  tramways  are 
increasing  in  number.  The  operations 
of  electro-metallurgy  are  also  of  great 
importance. 

The  electric  transmission  of  power 
is  the  transmission  of  power  to  a distance 
by  electricity,  effected  by  employing  the 
source  of  power  to  drive  a machine  called 
a dynamo  which  generates  an  electric 
current.  This  current  is  conveyed  by  a 
copper  conductor  insulated  from  the 
earth  to  the  distant  station,  where  it 
passes  through  a machine  called  an 
electro-motor  (see  that  article),  one  part 
of  which  (called  the  armature)  is  thereby 
made  to  revolve,  and  imparts  its  motion 
to  the  machinery  which  is  to  be  driven. 

This  is  the  simplest  arrangement,  and 
is  that  which  is  commonly  employed 
when  the  original  currents  are  not  of 
such  high  tension  as  to  be  dangerous  to 
life  in  the  case  of  accidental  shocks. 
There  is,  however,  a great  waste  of 
power  in  employing  low-tension  cur- 
rents when  the  distance  is  great ; hence 
it  is  becoming  a common  practice  to 
employ  high-tension  currents  for  trans- 
mission through  the  long  conductor 
which  connects  the  two  stations,  and  to 
convert  these  into  low-tension  currents 
before  they  reach  the  houses  or  work- 
shops where  they  are  to  be  used.  This 
is  done  sometimes  by  employing  the 
high-tension  currents  to  drive  a local 
dynamo  which  generates  low-tension 
currents,  sometimes  by  employing  them 
to  charge  storage  cells  arranged  in  long 
series,  and  afterward  connecting  these 
cells  in  shorter  series.  When  the  original 
currents  are  alternating  they  are  made 
to  generate  induced  currents  by  means 
of  an  instrument  called  a transformer, 
which  is  similar  in  principle  to  an  ordi- 
nary Ruhmkorff  coil,  with  the  important 
difference  that  the  primary  wire  is  long 
and  thin,  and  the  secondary  wire  short 
and  thick.  These  methods  of  trans- 
mission and  transformation  are  em- 
ployed not  only  for  giving  out  mechani- 
cal power,  but  also  for  electric  lighting. 
In  the  gigantic  installation  which  has 
been  recently  erected  for  supplying  a 
large  district  in  London  with  electricity 
sent  from  Deptford,  the  currents  are 
alternating,  and  the  conductors  consist 
not  of  copper  wires,  but  of  two  copper 
tubes  one  within  the  other,  insulated 
from  one  another,  the  outer  one  being 
connected  with  the  earth.  It  is  believed 
that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when 
electricity  will  be  generally  laid  on  to 
houses  in  large  towns  as  gas  and  water 
are  now,  and  will  be  available  both  for 
electric  lighting  and  for  mechanical 
work  such  as  driving  lathes  and  sewing- 
macliines,  raising  lifts,  etc. 

The  phrase,  “distribution  of  elec- 
tricity,” has  been  used  during  the  last 
few  years  to  denote  the  supplying  of 
strong  currents  of  electricity  from  cen- 
tral stations  where  they  are  generated, 
to  houses,  street  lamps,  etc.,  in  their 
vicinity.  The  central  station  contains 
a few  powerful  dynamo  machines, 
driven  usually  by  steam-power.  The 
positive  and  negative  terminals  of  the 
dynamo  are  put  in  connection  with  the 
positive  and  negative  main  conductors 


which  are  to  supply  the  district,  and 
from  these  mains  smaller  conductors 
branch  off  to  the  houses  or  lamps.  All 
these  conductors  are  of  copper,  that 
metal  when  pure  having  seven  times  the 
conductivity  of  iron.  Different  methods 
are  in  use  for  keeping  the  supply  of  elec- 
tricity steady  in  spite  of  the  varying 
demands  made  upon  it.  In  some  sys- 
tems of  distribution,  instead  of  the  two 
main  conductors  being  one  positive 
and  the  other  negative,  each  is  positive 
and  negative  alternately,  the  reversals 
taking  place  some  hundreds  of  times  per 
second.  The  currents  are  then  said  to 
be  alternating.  When  such  reversals  do 
not  take  place,  the  currents  are  said  to 
be  direct. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHT,  a light  obtained 
through  heating  a suitable  body  to 
incandescence  by  causing  a current  of 
electricity  to  pass  through  the  body. 
The  substance  usually  employed  for  this 
purpose  in  carbon,  which  has  two  recom- 


Fig.  1.  Arc  light  carbons. 


mendations  : first,  its  power  of  bearing  a 
very  high  temperature  without  melting; 
and  secondly,  its  high  emissive  power, 
which  is  the  source  of  most  of  the  light 
in  the  flame  of  a candle,  an  oil  lamp, 
or  a jet  of  gas. 

Until  quite  recent  years  the  only  kind 
of  electric  light  in  practical  use  was  what 
is  now  called  the  arc  light.  The  arc  light 
is  obtained  by  causing  two  sticks  of 
carbon,  one  of  them  in  connection  with 
the  positive  and  the  other  with  the 
negative  terminal  of  a battery  or  dyna- 
mo, to  touch  each  other  for  an  instant  so 
as  to  complete  the  circuit,  and  then 
separating  them  and  keeping  them 
steadily  at  a small  distance  apart.  Be- 
fore the  carbons  have  touched,  the  cold 
air  between  them  prevents  the  current 
from  passing,  but  as  soon  as  they  touch 
they  become  intensely  heated,  and  if 
they  are  not  separated  too  far  the  air 
between  them  is  hot  enough  to  serve  as 
a conductor.  The  light  is  emitted  partly 
by  the  ends  of  the  carbons,  especially  of 
the  positive  carbon,  and  partly  by  the 
gaseous  matter  (containing  also  fine 
particles  of  solid  carbon)  which  accupies 
the  intervening  space  and  forms  the  arc 
or  streak  of  light  joining  the  two  carbon 
points.  When  the  source  of  electricity 
is  an  alternating-current  machine  each 
carbon  is  alternately  positive  and  nega- 
tive several  times  in  a second,  and  the 
two  points  behave  alike.  When  the 


source  is  a direct-current  machine  or  a 
galvanic  battery  the  positive  carbon 
wears  away  about  twice  as  fast  as  the 
negative,  and  the  positive  carbon  be- 
comes hollow  at  the  end,  while  the  nega- 
tive remains  pointed.  The  hollow  in  the 
positive  carbon  is  the  brightest  part  of 
the  whole  arrangement ; and  when  a beam 
of  light  is  to  be  thrown  in  some  definite 
direction,  care  should  be  taken  that  this 
hollow  is  exposed  to  view  in  that  direc- 
tion. 

Fig.  1 contains  a representation  of  the 
two  carbons  of  the  arc  light  as  they  ap- 
pear when  cold,  the  positive  carbon 
being  marked  + and  the  negative  — . 
Also  a magnified  representation  such  as 
can  be  obtained  by  throwing  an  image 
of  the  burning  carbons  on  a screen  by 
means  of  a lens. 

To  keep  the  carbons  at  the  proper 
distance  apart  a special  contrivance 
called  a “regulator”  is  employed.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  regulator,  but  they 
all  depend  on  the  principle  that  increase 
of  distance  between  the  carbons  causes 
increase  of  resistance.  They  usually 
contain  an  electro-magnet  through 
which  either  the  whole  or  a portion  of 
the  current  passes,  and  the  variations  in 
the  strength  of  this  magnet  arising  from 
change  of  resistance  are  taken  advan- 
tage of  to  cause  the  motion,  in  one  direc- 
tion or  the  opposite,  of  a piece  of  iron 
which  locks  and  unlocks  the  mechanism. 

As  regards  the  material  of  the  carbon 
sticks,  Sir  Humphry  Davy  used  pieces 
of  wood-charcoal,  and  the  substance  de- 
posited in  the  interior  of  gas  retorts  has 
sometimes  been  employed,  but  it  is  now 
usual  to  employ  a mixture  of  powdered 
carbon  (from  gas  retorts),  lamp-black, 
syrup,  and  gum,  with  a very  little  water. 
The  sticks  are  obtained  by  forcing  this 
pasty  mixture  through  a draw-plate; 
they  are  then  baked,  and  after  being 
again  impregnated  with  syrup  are  heated 
to  a high  temperature. 

Arc  lights  give  the  largest  amount  of 
light  for  a given  amount  of  horse-power 
expended  in  driving  the  dynamo ; but  in- 
candescent lights,  which  have  been 
introduced  by  Edison,  Swan,  and  other 
inventors  of  late  years,  possess  several 


Fig.  2.  The  Swan  lamp. 


advantages.  Fig.  2 represents  Swan’s 
incandescent  lamp,  a is  a glass  vessel 
of  globular  form  exhausted  very  per- 
fectly of  air;  b b is  a fine  elastic  filament 
of  carbon,  prepared  from  parchment 
paper,  and  becoming  incandescent  when 
the  current  is  sent  through  it.  Its  two 
ends  are  attached  to  two  platinum  wires 
which,  where  they  pass  out  of  the  bulb, 
are  hermetically  sealed  into  its  wall  by 


ELECTRIC  MACHINES 


ELECTRIC  MACHINES 


fusion  of  the  glass  around  the  wires. 
These  two  wires  are  in  connection  with 
the  two  binding-screws,  c c when  the 
lamp  is  upon  the  stand,  where  it  is  held 
in  its  place  by  the  spiral  wire  d. 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  oxygen,  there 
is  no  combustion  in  an  incandescent 
lamp,  and  hence  the  carbon  does  not 
waste  away.  The  want  of  means  to 
obtain  a sufficiently  good  vacuum  was 
the  chief  cause  which  prevented  the 
earlier  introduction  of  such  lamps. 
Sprengel’s  murcurial  pump,  with 
Crookes’s  improvements,  has  supplied 
this  want.  All  the  incandescent  lamps 
agree  in  having  a carbon  filament  sus- 
pended in  vacuo,  but  they  differ  in  the 
mode  of  preparation  of  the  carbons  and 
in  other  details. 

The  light  of  an  incandescent  lamp  is 
extremely  steady,  affording  a great  con- 
trast to  the  flickering  which  is  never 
altogether  absent  from  arc  lights.  Its 
temperature  is  lower,  and  hence  its 
color  is  not  blue  or  violet,  like  that  of 
most  arc  lights,  but  slightly  yellow, 
though  whiter  than  gas.  It  is  superior 
both  to  gas  and  to  the  arc  light  in  giving 
off  no  products  of  combustion  to  vitiate 
the  air  of  an  apartment 

The  Jablochkoff  light,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  3,  occupies  an  interme- 


Jablocnkofl  lamp. 


diate  place,  but  more  nearly  resembles 
the  arc  lamps.  The  two  sticks  of  carbon 
(a  a)  are  side  by  side  at  the  distance  of  i 
inch  or  ^ inch  according  to  the  power  of 
the  lamp,  and  this  intervening  space  is 
occupied  either  with  plaster  of  paris  or 
china-clay  (b).  The  lower  ends  of  the 
carbon  are  inserted  in  copper  or  brass 
tubes  (c  c)  separated  by  asbestos.  The 
lamp  is  lighted  by  temporarily  inserting 
a piece  of  carbon  to  connect  the  ends  of 
the  two  sticks;  and  after  a fair  start  has 
once  been  obtained,  the  top  of  the  plas- 
ter of  paris  is  hot  enough  to  act  as  a con- 
ductor. Its  incandescence  contributes  a 
portion  of  the  light  of  the  lamp,  and  it 
gradually  burns  away  so  as  never  to 
project  quite  so  far  as  the  carbons. 
Alternating  currents  are  now  always 
used  with  it,  as  the  two  carbons  may 
then  be  exactly  alike  and  will  wear  away 
equally. 

The  introduction  of  electric  lights  for 
commercial  uses  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  lighting  of  the  Avenue  de 
rOp^ra  at  Paris  by  Jablochkoff  lamps, 
a few  years  previous  to  the  Paris  Elec- 
trical Exhibition  of  1881.  The  electric 
light,  as  previously  known,  was  con- 
sidered too  dazzling  for  street  purposes, 


but  the  Jablochkoff  “candles,”  which 
even  when  naked  are  far  less  dazzling 
than  “arc”  lights,  were  concealed  from 
direct  view  by  opal  globes,  and  instead 
of  single  points  of  dazzling  brightness, 
presented  an  appearance  like  a row  of 
full  moons.  The  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  street  lighting  having  thus  been 
proved  to  be  feasible,  the  attention  of 


Incandescent  and  arc  lamps. 


inventors  was  directed  to  the  subject, 
and  rapid  improvements  followed.  The 
subsequent  invention  of  “incandescent” 
or  “glow”  lamps  rendered  electricity 
applicable  as  an  illuminant  for  domestic 
purposes.  The  electric  lights  now  used 
for  street  lighting  are  sometimes  Jab- 
lochkoff candles,  but  more  frequently 
arc  lights  in  opal  globes.  For  the  light- 
ing of  harbors  and  open  spaces,  naked 
arc  lights  are  preferred,  as  they  give 
more  light  in  proportion  to  the  expense 
than  any  other  arrangement.  For 
hotels,  shops,  dwelling-houses,  and 
steamboats,  incandescent  lamps  are 
almost  evclusively  employed.  The  cur- 
rents necessary  for  producing  the  light 
are  always  obtained  either  directly  or 
indirectly  from  dynamo  or  magneto  ma- 
chines driven  by  steam-engines  or  other 
prime  movers.  When  we  say  “indirect- 
ly,” we  allude  to  the  fact  that  galvanic 
batteries  of  the  kind  called  storage  bat- 
teries or  accumulators  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  give  the  currents;  but  these 
accumulators  must  first  be  charged  by 
sending  currents  through  them  from 
dynamos,  and  can  produce  no  current 
on  their  own  account.  For  the  methods 
of  conveying  currents  from  a central  sta- 
tion to  different  parts  of  a district,  see 
Electricity.  For  an  explanation  of  the 
action  of  dynamos,  see  Magneto-electric 
Machines. 

ELECTRIC  MACHINES,  any  ma- 
chine for  producing  powerful  electrical 


Fig.  1.  Cylinder  electric  machine. 

effects.  The  name  is,  however,  seldom 
applied  to  machines  depending  on  mag- 
neto-electric principles,  and  is  prac- 


tically confined  to  two  classes  of  ma- 
chines— those  which  act  by  friction,  and 
those  which  act  by  electro-static  induc- 
tion. The  former  are  called  friction 
machines,  and  the  latter  influence  ma- 
chines. For  many  years  the  former 
were  the  only  kind  known,  but  they  have 
now  been  almost  superseded  by  the 
latter.  In  friction  machines  the  elec- 
tricity is  generated  by  the  friction  of 
either  a glass  cylinder  or  a circular  gla.ss 
plate  against  cushions  covered  with  an 
amalgam  of  zinc  and  tin.  The  positive 
electricity  which  is  thus  developed  on 
the  surface  of  the  glass  is  given  off  to  an 
insulated  brass  conductor  furnished  with 
teeth  like  those  of  a comb,  the  sharp 
points  of  which  are  nearly  in  contact 
with  the  glass.  The  negative  electricity 
which  is  at  the  same  time  generated  on 
the  cushion  must  be  provided  with  some 
means  of  escaping,  or  the  action  of  the 


Fig.  2.  Plate  electric  machine. 


machine  would  soon  stop.  It  is  usually 
allowed  to  escape  to  the  earth  by  a brass 
chain  connected  with  the  cushions;  but 
in  some  machines  a negative  conductor 
connected  with  the  cushions  is  insulated 
like  the  positive  conductor  by  a glass 
support.  Negative  sparks  can  then  be 
drawn  from  this  conductor  at  the  same 
time  that  positive  sparks  are  drawn  from 
the  other.  A cylinder  machine  having 
both  a positive  and  a negative  conductor 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  and  a plate  machine 
in  Fig.  2„ 

An  influence  machine  (that  of  Voss)  is 
exhibited  in  Fig.  3.  Of  the  two  glass 
plates  which  it  contains  the  larger  is 
stationary,  and  has  two  patches  of  tin- 


Flg. 3.  Voss’s  Influence  macMne. 

foil  on  its  back,  one  of  which  has  a posi- 
tive and  the  other  a negative  charge. 
One  of  them  covers  the  left-hand  and 
upper  portion  of  the  back,  and  the  other 
the  right-hand  and  lower  portion.  The 
revolving  plate  has  six  metallic  studs 
like  that  seen  at  d set  in  it  at  ecjual  dis- 
tances. The  sloping  bar  seen  in  front  Of 
it  is  of  brass  and  carries  two  little  brusheg 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY 


ELECTRO-MACNET 


a a of  thin  brass  wire,  against  which  the 
studs  rub  as  they  pass  by,  and  this  hap- 
pens at  the  same  moment  for  both 
brushes.  When  the  studs  have  ad- 
vanced about  a quarter  of  a revolution, 
they  come  in  contact  with  another  pair 
of  brushes  b b which  are  in  connection 
with  the  two  patches  of  tinfoil,  and  serve 
to  replenish  their  charges. 

There  are  also  two  brass  combs  fixed 
opposite  the  two  horizontal  radii  of  the 
plate,  one  row  collecting  positive  and  the 
other  negative  electricity.  They  are  in 
connection  with  the  two  knobs  c which 
are  seen  in  front  of  the  machine,  and  a 
brilliant  discharge  of  electricity  takes 
place  between  these  knobs.  The  first 
influence  machine  that  came  into  exten- 
sive use  was  that  of  Holtz,  and  the  latest 
(and  probably  the  best)  is  that  of  Wims- 
hurst,  in  which  both  the  plates  revolve, 
their  directions  of  rotation  being  op- 

Eosite.  The  machine  of  Holtz  is  started 
y holding  a flat  piece  of  vulcanite, 
which  has  been  excited  by  friction,  at 
the  back  of  the  fixed  plate.  The  ma- 
chines of  Voss  and  Wimshurst,  if  kept 
dry,  will  usually  work  without  such 
assistance,  their  action  being  such  as  to 
rapidly  increase  any  casual  charge  pos- 
sessed by  the  plates.  For  other  kinds  of 
machine  by  which  electric  shocks  can  be 
obtained,  see  Electro-medical  Machines. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY,  a railway  in 
which  the  propulsion  is  effected  by 
means  of  an  electro-motor,  that  is,  a 
machine  one  part  of  which  can  be  made 
to  revolve  by  sending  a current  through 
it.  This  revolving  part,  called  the  arma- 
ture, is  geared  to  the  driving-wheels  and 
forces  them  to  revolve  whenever  the 
current  passes.  The  current  is  supplied 
in  some  cases  by  storage  cells  carried  in 
the  car,  these  cells  having  themselves 
been  first  charged  by  a dynamo-machine. 
More  usually  the  current  is  conveyed 
direct  from  a dynamo  to  the  electro- 
motor, by  means  of  a long  conductor 
insulated  from  the  ground,  which  is 
fixed  either  beside  or  between  the  rails, 
and  is  rubbed  by  a metallic  brush  at- 
tached to  the  car,  this  brush  being  in 
connection  with  the  electro-motor.  The 
current,  after  passing  through  the 
electro-motor,  escapes  to  the  axles  of  the 
driving-wheels,  and  so  through  the 
driving-wheels  themselves  to  the  rails, 
which  need  not  be  insulated.  In  many 
electric  railways  (or  tramways)  the  con- 
ductor is  an  overhead  wire  from  which 
the  current  is  obtained  to  drive  the  cars. 
The  first  permanent  electric  railway  was 
laid  down  at  Berlin  in  1881. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  See  Tele- 
graph, Electric. 

ELECTROCUTION,  execution  by  elec- 
tricity; that  is,  the  killing  of  a man  by  an 
electric  shock.  This  method  of  killing 
condemned  criminals  was  adopted  by 
New  York  in  1888  and  by  Ohio  in  1896. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  method  is  more 
humane  than  that  of  hanging.  The  con- 
demned is  led  to  a chair,  an  electrode  is 
placed  upon  his  bared  leg,  and  enough 
current  is  sent  into  him  to  kill  him. 
Many  people  think  that  electrocution  is 
even  more  horrible  than  hanging.  The 
courts,  however,  have  decided  that  it  is 
less  so. 

ELECTRODE,  a term  Introduced  by 
Faraday  to  denote  the  wires  or  other 


terminals  by  which  electricity  either  en- 
ters or  leaves  a body  which  is  undergoing 
electrolytic  decomposition,  in  order  to 
avoid  an  implied  theory  connected  with 
the  use  of  the  older  terms  pole,  positive 
pole,  negative  pole.  He  called  the  elec- 
trode at  which  the  current  enters  the 
anode  (ana,  upward),  and  the  electrode 
at  which  the  current  leaves  the  elec- 
trolyte the  cathode  (kata,  downward). 
(See  Electro-metallurgy.)  The  two 
latter  terms  have  now  been  introduced 
in  metallurgic  practice;  and  the  term 
electrode  has  become  common  in  the  ex- 
tended sense  of  the  way  by  which  elec- 
tricity enters  or  leaves  an  instrument. 
For  instance,  we  speak  of  the  electrodes 
of  an  electrometer  or  a galvanometer,  or 
of  a battery. 

ELECTRO-DYNAMOMETER,  an  in- 
strument used  for  the  measurement  of 
electric  currents  by  means  of  the  me- 
chanical forces  which  they  exert  upon 
each  other.  It  contains  two  coils  of  wire, 
one  fixed  and  the  other  movable;  the 
latter  being  either  larger  or  smaller  than 
the  other  so  as  to  be  able  to  pass  either 
outside  it  or  through  it.  Both  coils  are 
in  vertical  planes  and  have  the  same 
vertical  diameter,  round  which  the 
movable  one  can  revolve  so  as  to  set  its 
own  plane  at  any  angle  with  the  plane  of 
the  other.  The  terminals  of  the  mov- 
able coil  dip  in  cups  of  mercury,  one  of 
which  is  in  connection  with  one  end  of 
the  fixed  coil,  and  the  other  with  one  of 
the  binding-screws  of  the  instrument. 
The  other  binding-screw  is  in  connection 
with  the  other  end  of  the  fixed  coil. 
Hence  when  the  two  binding-screws  are 
connected  with  a battery  or  other  source 
of  electricity,  the  current  has  to  pass 
through  both  coils.  Its  effect  is  ex- 
hibited by  a tendency  in  the  movable 
coil  to  set  its  plane  in  coincidence  with 
that  of  the  fixed  coil,  and  in  such  a man- 
ner that  the  current  will  circulate  the 
same  way  round  both  coils.  This  ten- 
dency is  resisted  by  mechanical  means 
provided  for  the  purpose — usually  by 
the  torsion  of  a wire  from  the  end  of 
which  the  movable  coil  hangs;  and  the 
measurement  is  usually  made  by  apply- 
ing torsion  until  the  planes  of  the  two 
coils  are  at  right  angles.  The  amount  of 
torsion  thus  applied  is  proportional  to 
the  mutual  force  exerted  by  the  two 
coils,  and  this  is  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  current,  since  when  we 
double  the  current  through  one  we  also 
double  the  current  through  the  other. 

ELECTROL'YSIS  is  the  chemical  de- 
composition of  certain  compound  bodies 
under  the  action  of  a current  of  elec- 
tricity. The  following  are  the  main 
facts  to  be  mentioned.  When  an  elec- 
trolyte (as  a body  capable  of  electrolytic 
decomposition  is  called)  is  subjected  to  a 
current  of  electricity  of  sufficient  in- 
tensity, it  is  broken  up  into  two  elements, 
which  appear,  one  of  them  at  one  elec- 
trode and  the  other  at  the  other  electrode ; 
thus,  if  two  platinum  plates  connected 
with  the  first  and  last  plates  of  a battery 
be  plunged  in  a trough  containing  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  silver,  the  chlorine 
is  given  off  at  the  plate  by  which  positive 
electricity  enters,  that  is,  at  the  plate 
which  is  connected  with  the  copper 
plate  of  the  battery,  and  the  silver  is 
deposited  at  the  plate  connected  with  I 


the  zinc  plate  of  the  battery.  The  two 
elements  are  liberated  at  these  places  in 
quantities  chemically  equivalent.  Thus 
for  every  108  grammes  of  silver  de- 
posited at  one  side  of  the  vessel  35' 5 
grammes  of  chlorine  are  given  off  at  the 
other  side.  When  a compound  consist- 
ing of  a metallic  and  a non-metallic  part 
is  decomposed,  the  non-metallic  part  is 
set  free  at  the  electrode  at  which  the 
current  enters  and  the  metallic  part  at 
the  opposite  electrode.  Hydrogen  acts 
as  a metal.  Electrolysis  takes  place  only 
when  the  electrolyte  is  in  a liquid  state, 
and  involves  a transfer  of  the  materials 
of  which  the  compound  is  composed 
from  one  part  of  the  vessel  to  another. 

The  electrolytic  action  of  the  current 
is  the  same  at  all  parts  of  the  circuit.  If 
the  current  is  made  to  traverse  several 
vessels,  each  containing  the  same  sub- 
stance, all  in  series  (that  is,  the  current 
that  leaves  the  first  entering  the  second, 
and  so  on),  it  will  be  found  that  in  each 
of  the  cells  precisely  the  same  amount 
of  decomposition  goes  on.  There  will  be 
the  same  weight  of  silver  deposited  at 
one  side,  and  the  same  weight  of  chlorine 
set  free  at  the  other. 

The  same  quantity  of  electricity  de- 
composes chemically  equivalent  quan- 
tities of  different  electrolytes.  If  we 
pass  the  current  through  a series  of  cells 
containing  different  electrolytes,  for  ex- 
ample, water,  chloride  of  silver,  sulphate 
of  soda,  and  collect  the  products  of  de- 
composition, we  find  that  the  quantities 
of  hydrogen,  silver,  and  sodium  set  free 
are  strictly  proportional  to  the  chemical 
equivalents  of  these  bodies.  Further, 
in  the  battery  which  gives  rise  to  the 
electric  current,  if  precautions  are  taken 
to  avoid  disturbance  by  local  action  on 
the  plates,  it  is  found  that  the  action 
which  goes  on  in  each  of  its  cells  is  chem- 
ically equivalent  to  that  in  each  of  the 
decomposing  cells. 

The  quantity  of  the  electrolyte  de- 
composed in  a given  time  is  proportional 
to  the  strengtn  of  the  current.  Cur- 
rents are  often  measured  in  practice  by 
observing  the  weight  of  copper  deposited 
in  a given  time  from  a solution  of  sul- 
phate of  copper. 

ELECTROLYTE.  See  previous  article 

ELECTRO-MAGNET,  a piece  of  iron 
temporarily  converted  into  a magnet  by 
means  of  a current  of  electricity  sent 
through  a wire  which  is  coiled  round  it. 
The  wire  is  usually  covered  with  silk, 
cotton,  gutta  percha,  or  some  other  in- 
sulator, to  prevent  the  current  from 
leaping  across,  and  compel  it  to  travel 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  ware. 
The  more  pure  and  soft  the  iron  is,  the 
stronger  will  its  magnetism  be  while  it 
lasts,  and  the  more  completely  will  it 
disappear  when  the  current  stops.  Steel 
is  less  affected  than  soft  iron  for  the 
time,  but  remains  permanently  mag- 
netized after  the  current  ceases.  Electro- 
magnets are  usually  much  more  power- 
ful than  other  magnets  of  the  same  size. 
The  iron  which  is  magnetized  by  the  cur- 
rent passing  round  it  is  called  the  core. 
It  is  frequently  straight,  the  wire  being 
wound  upon  it  like  thread  upon  a reel; 
but  very  frequently  it  has  the  shape  of  a 
U,  or  horse-shoe,  the  wire  being  coiled 
round  the  tw'o  ends  and  the  bend  of  the 
U left  uncovered. 


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM 


electro-metallurgy 


To  predict  which  end  will  be  the  north 
pole,  the  following  rule  may  be  em- 
ployed: Let  the  core  be  a straight  bar  of 
iron  held  in  front  of  you  pointing  left 
and  right,  then  if  the  current  ascends  on 
the  side  next  you,  and  descends  on  the 
further  side,  the  north  pole  is  to  your 
left  hand  and  the  south  pole  to  your  right. 
If  the  straight  bar  is  then  bent  into 
horse-shoe  shape,  its  poles  will  not  be 
changed.  There  is  no  necessity  to  in- 
quire whether  the  wire  forms  a right- 
handed  or  a left-handed  helix,  this  cir- 
cumstance having  no  influence  on  the 
question  of  poles.  Indeed,  in  most  cases 
(just  as  in  the  case  of  thread  on  a reel) 
the  helices  are  some  right-handed  and 
some  left-handed. 

An  electro-magnet  is  said  to  be  made 
when  the  current  is  sent  through  its  coil, 
and  unmade  when  the  current  is  stopped. 
In  some  applications  of  electro-magnets 
it  is  necessary  to  make  and  unmake 
them  in  rapid  succession.  It  is  then 
referable  for  the  core  to  consist  of  a 
undle  of  iron  wires  rather  than  of  a solid 
bar. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM,  a term  that 
in  its  broadest  sense  denotes  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  relations  between 
magnetism  and  electricity.  In  a nar- 
rower sense  a magnetic  effect  produced 
by  electricity  is  said  to  be  electro- 
magnetic, while  an  electrical  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  agency  of  magnets  is  called 
magneto-electric.  In  the  preceding 
article  we  have  described  one  electro- 
magnetic effect — the  making  of  an 
electro-magnet  by  means  of  a current. 
Another  important  electro  - magnetic 
effect  is  the  deflection  of  a magnetic 
needle  by  a current  of  electricity  passing 
near  it.  The  simplest  experiment  to 
illustrate  this  action  is  to  take  an  ordi- 
nary mariner’s  compass,  hold  just  above 
it  a copper  wire  parallel  to  the  needle  of 
the  compass,  and  then,  while  the  wire  is 
in  this  position,  let  its  two  ends  be  con- 
nected with  the  two  poles  of  a galvanic 
battery.  The  needle  will  instantly  turn 
away  from  its  north-and-south  position, 
and  will  remain  deflected  as  long  as  the 
current  continues  to  pass  over  it.  If 
the  current  flows  from  south  to  north, 
the  north  end  of  the  needle  is  turned  to 
the  west ; and  if  the  current  is  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  the  needle  turns  the 
other  way.  This  is  the  easiest  test  for 
determining  the  direction  in  which  a cur- 
rent is  flowing  through  a wire;  and  it  is 
the  basis  of  the  construction  of  galvano- 
meters, which  are  the  instruments 
chiefly  employed  for  the  measurement 
of  currents.  The  current  tends  to  make 
the  needle  take  a position  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  the  current ; but  as  the 
earth  tends  to  make  the  needle  point 
north  and  south,  the  position  actually 
taken  is  between  the  two.  The  fact  that 
a current  deflects  a needle  was  dis- 
covered by  (Ersted  of  Copenhagen,  and 
the  general  rule  for  the  direction  of  the 
deflection  was  thrown  into  the  following 
form  by  Ampere:  Imagine  the  current 
to  enter  at  your  feet  and  come  out  at 
your  head,  then  the  north  pole  of  a 
needle  in  front  of  you  will  be  deflected 
to  your  left.  This  rule  holds  good 
whether  the  current  is  above  the  needle, 
below  it,  or  in  any  other  position.  The 
rule  may  also  be  put  in  the  following 


form ; Imagine  an  ordinary  screw  placed 
so  that  the  current  is  in  its  axis;  the 
north  pole  of  the  needle  will  turn  to  the 
same  side  to  which  that  part  of  the  cir- 
cumference which  is  next  it  turns  when 
the  screw  advances  in  the  direction  of 
the  current. 

The  leading  fact  of  magneto-elec- 
tricity is  that  when  a magnet  is  moved 
in  the  neighborhood  of  a wire  or  other 
conductor,  the  motion  causes  a current 
of  electricity  in  the  conductor;  and  a 
similar  effect  occurs  if  the  wire  is  moved 
while  the  magnet  remains  at  rest.  In 
the  experiment,  above  described,  of 
making  a magnetic  needle  turn  on  its 
pivot  by  sending  a current  through  a 
wire  held  above  it,  the  motion  of  the 
needle  produces  for  the  time  being  a 
weakening  of  the  current.  If  the  needle 
were  made  by  mechanical  means  to  turn 
the  contrary  way,  it  would  strengthen 
the  current  for  the  time  being.  If  there 
were  no  original  current,  the  turning  of 
the  needle  to  either  side  by  mechanical 
means  would  produce  a current  in  the 
wire.  The  current  thus  produced  is  al- 
ways opposite  in  direction  to  that  which 
would  aid  the  motion. 

ELECTRO  - MEDICAL  MACHINES, 
machines  intended  for  giving  shocks  for 
medical  purposes.  They  are  of  various 
kinds,  but  they  all  produce  their  effects 
by  a rapid  succession  of  either  interrup- 
tions or  reversals  of  an  electric  current. 
Such  interruptions  or  reversals  are  al- 
ways accompanied  by  the  action  called 
self-induction,  especially  when  the  origi- 


Electro-medical  machine. 


nal  current  flows  through  a coil  of  many 
convolutions,  and  still  more  if  these  con- 
volutions encircle  an  iron  core.  Self- 
induction  in  such  cases  shows  itself  as  a 
sudden  and  violent  action,  having  the 
same  sort  of  relation  to  a steady  current 
that  a blow  has  to  a steady  pressure. 
One  form  of  electro-medical  machine  is 
shown  above.  At  the  top  of  the  figure 
are  shown  two  small  galvanic  cells,  in 
which  for  greater  portability  materials 
of  pasty  consistency  are  used  instead  of 
liquids.  The  bottle  shown  below  is  for 
replenishing  them.  In  the  center  of  the 
figure  are  seen  two  cylindrical  coils, 
through  which  the  current  from  the  two 
cells  passes.  They  have  cores  of  soft  iron 
to  strengthen  their  action,  and  they 
have  also  sliding  covers  of  copper  for 
mitigating  their  action.  These  are 
shown  in  the  figure  as  pulled  out  a short 
distance,  so  as  to  uncover  a small  portion 


of  the  coils.  The  shocks  become  stronger 
as  these  covers  are  drawn  further  out. 
The  action  of  the  covers  may  be  de- 
scribed as  a muffling  or  cushioning  of  the 
sudden  violence  of  self-induction.  Some 
of  the  commonest  forms  of  electro- 
medical machine  are  magneto-electric, 
their  currents  being  produced  by  mak- 
ing a coil  of  copper  wire  rotate  rapidly 
between  the  poles  of  a strong  magnet. 
The  employment  of  such  a machine  for 
administering  shocks  to  patients  is 
called  faradisation,  from  Faraday,  the 
discoverer  of  magneto-electricity. 

ELECTRO-METAL'LURGY,  the  art 
of  depositing  metals  from  solutions  of 
their  salts  upon  metallic  or  other  con- 
ducting surfaces  by  the  agency  of  an 
electric  current.  Its  operations  may  be 
classified  under  three  heads:  the  making 
of  facsimilies,  the  formation  of  perma- 
nent coatings,  and  the  obtaining  of  a 
pure  metal  from  an  impure.  In  every 
instance  the  current  enters  the  solution 
by  a plate  of  the  metal  in  question, 
which  is  immersed  in  it,  and  leaves  the 
solution  by  the  conducting  surface  on 
which  the  deposit  is  formed.  The  plate 
at  which  the  current  enters  (called  the 
anode)  is  gradually  dissolved,  and  an 
equal  quantity  of  the  metal  is  at  the 
same  time  deposited  on  the  surface  by 
which  file  current  leaves  the  solution 
(called  the  cathode).  The  source  em- 
ployed for  giving  the  current  was  for- 
merly a galvanic  battery,  but  is  now 
more  frequently  a dynamo  machine,  in 
which  the  armature  is  constructed  of 
much  stouter  wire  than  is  used  in  dyna- 
mos intended  for  other  purposes.  Cop- 
per lends  itself  with  special  readiness  to 
electrical  deposition,  and  the  solution 
employed  for  the  purpose  is  usually  a 
saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper; 
but  if  the  surface  to  be  coated  is  of  iron, 
steel,  or  zinc,  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
an  alkaline  solution,  in  which  cyanide  of 
potassium  and  carbonate  of  soda  are 
usually  the  chief  ingredients,  a salt  of 
copper  being  present  in  comparatively 
small  quantity.  For  electro-gilding,  a 
solution  containing  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium and  cyanide  of  gold  is  employed; 
and  for  electro-plating,  a solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  cyanide  of 
silver.  It  so  happens  that  the  impurities 
which  usually  occur  in  copper  roughly 
smelted  from  the  ore  consist  of  sub- 
stances which  either  cannot  be  dissolved 
in  a solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  or 
cannot  be  deposited  on  a copper  surface 
from  such  a solution.  Hence  when  a 
plate  of  crude  copper  is  used  as  the 
anode,  pure  copper  is  deposited  on  the 
cathode,  and  most  of  the  impurities  fall 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  Pure  copper 
is  now  produced  in  enormons  quantities 
by  this  method,  purity  being  an  essential 
requisite  in  copper  wire  for  electrical 
purposes. 

The  most  important  instance  of  the 
position  of  a permanent  coating  is 
electro-plating.  To  ensure  good  adhe- 
sion it  is  necessary  to  remove  every  par- 
ticle of  grease  and  oxide  from  the  sur- 
face (usually  German  silver)  on  which 
the  silver  is  to  be  deposited.  With  this 
view  the  article  to  be  plated,  after  being 
well  scoured,  is  boiled  in  a strong  lye 
of  caustic  potash  or  soda,  and  dipped  in 
dilute  acid,  technically  called  pickle; 


electrometer 


ELECTROSCOPE 


after  which  it  is  washed  in  distilled 
water,  and  then  quickly  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury  until  it 
appears  white  on  the  surface.  Finally 
it  is  suspended  in  the  silver  solution, 
when  it  is  immediately  coated  with  a 
thin  film  of  silver.  This  operation  is 
called  striking.  After  a few  seconds  it  is 
taken  out  and  well  brushed,  generally 
with  bundles  of  brass  wire  attached  to  a 
lathe;  it  is  then  washed  and  replaced  in 
the  plating  solution,  where  it  is  allowed 
to  remain  for  a longer  or  shorter  period 
according  to  the  thickness  of  deposit 
required.  An  immersion  of  a few  hours 
is  generally  sufficient.  To  ascertain  the 
amount  of  metal  deposited  it  is  only 
necessary  to  weigh  the  articles  from 
time  to  time.  One  and  a quarter  or  one 
and  a half  ounce  of  silver  to  the  square 
foot  gives  an  excellent  plate  about  the 
thickness  of  common  writing-paper. 
In  ordinary  circumstances  the  coating 
of  deposited  silver  is  chalk-white,  and 
has  a dead  or  matted  appearance,  which 
is  much  esteemed  for  medals.  Some- 
times the  operator  is  desirous  of  having 
his  object  bright,  either  entirely  or 
partially.  In  this  case  the  object  is 
brushed  over  with  old  beer  or  dipped 
into  a solution  of  soft  soap,  and  is  then 
submitted  to  the  burnisher.  Certain 
chemicals  added  to  the  solution  will 
cause  the  original  deposit  to  have  a 
metallic  luster 

The  production  of  copper  facsimiles 
by  the  electric  current  is  called  electro- 
type, and  is  the  oldest  branch  of  electro- 
metallurgy. One  of  its  most  important 
applications  is  the  copying  of  type  set 
up  for  printing,  and  of  wood  blocks  for 
wood-cuts.  A mould  is  first  obtained  in 
gutta  percha  or  some  similar  material. 
This,  being  a non-conductor,  is  brushed 
over  with  plumbago  in  its  interior,  so  as 
to  give  it  a conducting  surface  to  re- 
ceive the  deposit.  After  several  hours 
the  deposit  is  detached  from  the  mould 
and  backed  by  pouring  in  melted  solder, 
the  surface  being  first  moistened  with 
chloride  of  zinc  to  make  the  solder  ad- 
here. In  the  copying  of  steel  engravings 
the  mould  is  obtained  by  electro-deposi- 
tion of  copper  on  the  steel,  the  surface  of 
which  must  first  be  specially  prepared 
to  prevent  adhesion;  and  a second 
electro-deposition  of  copper,  on  the 
mould  thus  obtained,  gives  the  required 
copy,  from  which  impressions  can  be 
printed. 

ELECTROM'ETER,  an  instrument  in- 
tended for  accurate  electro-statical 
measurements.  Stated  in  precise  tech- 
nical language,  its  purpose  is  to  measure 
the  difference  of  potential  between  two 
conductors.  Most  of  the  electrometers 
in  actual  use  are  inventions  of  Sir  Will- 
iam Thomson,  who  was  the  first  to  give 
accuracy  to  this  branch  of  electrical 
measurement.  His  quadrant-electrom- 
eter is  the  instrument  chiefly  used,  and  its 
indications  are  usually  given  by  means 
of  a small  movable  mirror  wliieh  reflects 
a spot  of  light  from  a lamp  on  to  a paper 
scale.  When  the  two  conductors  which 
are  tested  have  the  same  potential  the 
spot  of  light  stands  in  the  middle  of  the 
scale,  and  its  movement  to  either  side 
indicates  the  difference  of  their  poten- 
tials. The  instrument  is  sufficiently 
delicate  to  give  a sensible  displacement 


when  the  two  conductors  are  the  two 
plates  of  a single  galvanic  cell ; and  a dis- 
placement twice  as  great  will  be  ob- 
tained by  combining  two  such  cells. 

ELECTRO-MOTIVE  FORCE,  a phrase 
(commonly  abbreviated  into  the  three 
initial  letters  e.m.f.)  which  is  of  very 
frequent  use  in  modern  electrical  litera- 
ture, especially  in  connection  with 
electric  currents.  The  e.m.f  in  a wire 
through  which  a current  is  flowing  may 
be  compared  to  the  difference  of  pres- 
sures in  a long,  narrow,  horizontal  pipe, 
through  which  water  is  flowing.  As  the 
difference  of  the  pressure  at  the  two  ends 
of  the  pipe  forces  the  water  through  in 
spite  of  frictional  resistance,  so  the  differ- 
ence of  the  potentials  at  the  two  ends  of 
the  wire  forces  the  current  through  in 
spite  of  the  electrical  resistance  of  the 
wire.  This  difference  of  potentials  is 
another  name  for  electro-motive  force. 
Each  cell  of  a battery  is  a source  of  e.m.f. 
and  when  the  cells  are  connected  in  the 
usual  way  (technically  called  in  series) 
their  e.m.f.’s  are  added  together,  so  that, 
for  example,  the  e.m.f.  of  a battery  of 
ten  cells  Is  ten  times  the  e.m.f.  of  one 
cell.  E.m.f.  can  also  be  produced  in  a 
wire  by  moving  a magnet  in  its  neighbor- 
hood, and  this  e.m.f.  will  be  exactly  pro- 
portional (other  things  being  equal)  to 
the  velocity  of  the  motion.  The  com- 
mercial unit  of  e.m.f.  is  the  volt.  Its 
magnitude  may  be  inferred  from  the 
statement  that  the  e.m.f.  of  a single  cell 
is  usually  more  than  one  volt,  and  less 
than  volts.  The  highest  e.m.f.  per- 
mitted by  the  board  of  trade  in  wires 
which  are  liable  to  be  touched  by  the 
public  is  about  200  volts.  It  is  no  un- 
usual tiling  for  a dynamo  to  give  an 
e.m.f.  of  1000  or  2000  volts.  Currents 
produced  by  a source  of  high  e.m.f.  are 
often  called  currents  of  high  tension. 
They  are  necessary  when  several  arc 
lamps  are  to  be  supplied  in  series,  and 
they  are  also  necessary  (on  the  score  of 
economy)  when  power  is  to  be  trans- 
mitted by  electricity  to  great  distances. 

ELECTRO-MOTORS,  or  ELECTRO- 
MAGNETIC ENGINES,  are  contrivances 
for  making  a current  produce  continu- 
ous rotatory  motion,  the  force  produc- 
ing the  motion  being  sufficient  to  over- 
come a considerable  amount  of  me- 
chanical resistance,  and  so  do  useful 
work.  Until  quite  recent  years  this  ob- 
ject was  effected  by  the  alternate  mak- 
ing and  unmaking  of  electro-magnets, 
which  attracted  pieces  of  iron  provided 
for  the  purpose,  and  caused  them  to 
move  in  the  directions  required  for  pro- 
ducing continuous  rotation.  In  modern 
electro-motors  the  action  is  greatly  in- 
tensified by  employing,  instead  of  the 
above-mentioned  pieces  of  iron,  electro- 
magnets whose  poles  are  alternately 
attracted  and  repelled  by  those  of  the 
fixed  electro-magnets.  In  order  to  pro- 
duce these  alternate  attractions  and  re- 
pulsions the  currents  in  the  moving 
electro-magnets  are  continually  reversed, 
while  the  currents  in  the  fixed  magnets 
are  always  in  the  same  direction.  The 
revolving  electro-magnet  or  group  of 
electro-magnets  is  called  the  armature. 
It  revolves  with  great  rapidity,  and  its 
movement  is  transmitted  bj'  a belt  or 
otherwise  to  the  machinery  which  is  to 
be  driven.  The  construction  of  an 


electro-motor  is  almost  precisely  similat 
to  that  of  a direct-current  dynamo. 
Indeed  the  same  machines  have  often 
been  used  interchangeably  for  both  pur- 
poses. See  Electric  Railway,  Electricity. 

ELECTROPH'ORUS,  an  electrical  in- 
strument consisting  of  two  plates,  the 
lower  of  vulcanite  or  shellac,  with  tin- 
foil  or  other  metal  at  the  bottom,  and 
the  upper  of  brass,  with  a glass  handle 
The  operator  begins  by  applying  friction 


Electrophorus. 


with  a catskin  or  flannel  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  lower  plate,  which  thus 
acquires  a negative  charge.  The  upper 
plate  is  then  placed  upon  it  and  pressed 
closely  down.  In  this  process  the  upper 
plate,  being  in  connection  with  the  earth 
through  the  body  of  the  operator,  ac- 
quires a positive  charge  by  induction; 
and  if  the  upper  plate  be  now  lifted  off 
by  its  glass  handle,  a good  spark  can  be 
obtained  from  it.  It  may  then  be  pressed 
down  again,  removed  again,  and  an- 
other spark  obtained,  and  so  on,  time 
after  time.  If  the  insulation  is  thor- 
oughly good,  hundreds  of  sparks  can  be 
drawn  in  this  way  without  the  necessity 
of  renewing  the  charge  on  the  surface  of 
the  lower  plate.  It  might  have  been 
expected  that  the  upper  plate  would 
require  a coating  of  insulating  varnish 
to  prevent  it  from  touching  the  lower 
one;  but  experience  shows  that  this  pre- 
caution is  unnecessary.  A smooth  plate 
of  metal  does  not  easily  receive  elec- 
tricity from  an  insulating  substance  with 
which  it  is  brought  in  contact.  The 
electrophorus  is  often  so  constructed 
that  when  the  two  plates  are  in  contact, 
the  upper  plate  is  in  conducting  com- 
munication with  the  metal  base  of  the 
lower  plate.  This  arrangement  saves 
time,  as  it  is  then  unnecessary  to  touch 
the  upper  plate  with  the  hand. 

ELECTROPLATE.  See  Electro-met- 
allurgy. 

ELEC'TROSCOPE,  any  apparatus  for 
showing  the  presence  of  electricity  with- 
out giving  quantitative  measurements. 
One  form  consists  of  two  stiff  straws 
loosely  tied  together  at  the  top,  so  that 


Gold  leaf  electroscope. 


they  are  free  to  open  out  at  the  bottom 
whenever  they  repel  each  other.  If  they 
are  placed  in  conducting  communication 
with  an  electrified  bod}'  they  will  open 
out.  A more  sensitive  instrument  is  the 


ELECTROTYPE 


ELEPHANT 


gold-leaf  electroscope,  which  is  repre- 
sented in  the  adjoining  figure.  Here 
the  two  gold  leaves  are  shown  diverging 
under  the  influence  of  an  electrified  body 
held  over  the  instrument.  The  gold 
leaves  are  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  a 
short  rod  of  brass,  whose  upper  end 
carries  the  brass  knob  which  forms  the 
top  of  the  instrument.  These  metal 
parts  are  supported  by  the  glass  shade 
which  insulates  them  from  the  earth, 
and  the  upper  part  of  which  is  repre- 
sented in  the  figure  as  coated  with  var- 
nish, but  this  is  not  essential.  The  two 
gold  leaves  originally  hang  down  parallel 
and  nearly  touching  each  other.  When 
an  electrified  body  is  slowly  brought 
down  over  the  knob  from  a good  height 
above  it,  the  unlike  electricity  is  at- 
tracted to  the  knob,  and  the  like  elec- 
tricity is  repelled  into  the  gold  leaves, 
which,  in  consequence  of  being  thus 
electrified,  repel  each  other.  The  two 
little  brass  columns  standing  up  from 
the  base  are  in  connection  with  the 
earth,  and  their  presence  increases  the 
divergence  of  the  leaves.  As  soon  as  the 
electrified  body  above  is  removed,  the 
leaves  come  together  again.  If,  how- 
ever, while  the  leaves  are  standing  apart 
under  the  influence  of  the  body  over- 
head, the  knob  is  touched  with  the  finger 
the  leaves  will  instantly  come  together. 
It  will  then  be  found  that  either  lowering 
or  raising  the  influencing  body  causes 
them  to  open  out  again;  and  if  the  in- 
fluencing body  is  removed  they  will  open 
out  to  the  same  width  at  which  they 
stood  just  before  the  knob  was  touched. 
The  leaves  and  knob  have  now  a charge 
opposite  to  that  of  the  influencing  body, 
and  the  electroscope  can  now  be  used  to 
show  whether  the  charge  of  a second 
influencing  body  is  positive  or  negative. 
If  the  second  body  has  the  same  kind  of 
electricity  as  the  first,  it  will  diminish 
the  repulsion;  if  it  has  the  opposite  kind, 
it  will  increase  the  repulsion. 

ELECTROTYPE,  that  branch  of 
electro-metallurgy  which  deals  with  the 
production  of  facsimiles.  See  Electro- 
metallurgy. 

EL'EGY,  a mournful  and  plaintive 
poem  or  funeral  song,  or  any  serious 
poem  of  a melancholy  contemplative 
kind.  In  classic  poetry  what  is  known 
as  elegiac  verse  is  composed  of  couplets 
consisting  of  alternate  hexameter  and 
pentameter  lines. 

ELEMENTAL  SPIRITS,  according  to 
a belief  common  in  the  middle  ages, 
spirits  proper  to  and  partaking  of  the 
four  so-called  elements,  viz.  salamanders 
or  fire  spirits,  sylphs  or  aerial  spirits, 
gnomes  or  earth  spirits,  and  undines  or 
water  spirits. 

ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION.  See 
Education. 

EL'EMENTS,  the  simplest  constituent 
principles  or  parts  of  anything;  in  a 
special  sense,  the  ultimate  indecomposi- 
ble  constituents  of  any  kind  of  matter. 
In  ancient  philosophies  the  term  was 
applied  to  fire,  air,  earth,  and  water. 
The  mediaeval  chemists,  however,  ob- 
sorbed  in  the  study  of  metals  and  min- 
eral substances,  supposed  that  the  metals 
consisted  of  an  elemental  sulphur  and  an 
an  elemental  mercury  mixed  together 
more  or  less  perfectly  and  in  different 
proportions.  To  these  were  subsequent- 
P.  E.— 27 


ly  added  salt  and  some  others,  so  that 
about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  the 
first  principles  amounted  to  five,  divided 
into  two  classes:  the  active,  consisting 
of  mercury  or  spirit,  sulphur  or  oil,  and 
salt;  and  the  passive,  consisting  of  water 
or  phlegm,  and  earth  or  the  terrestrial 
part.  The  names  remained,  not  so  much 
as  denoting  substances  or  ultimate  prin- 
ciples as  gradually  coming  to  denote 
functions;  the  first  great  modification 
being  the  expansion  of  the  idea  of 
elemental  sulphur  into  phlogiston  by 
Stahl,  as  the  result  of  which  the  adher- 
ents of  the  phlogistic  theory  applied  the 
term  to  phlogiston,  to  the  gases  then 
discovered,  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  acids,  the  alkalies,  earths,  and 
metallic  calces,  oil,/ alcohol,  and  water. 
The  substances  considered  as  simple 
naturally  changed  with  the  change  of 
theory  introduced  by  Lavoisier,  who 
considered  as  elements,  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, hydrogen,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
and  carbon,  the  metals  and  the  earths, 
and,  as  Boyle  had  already  suggested, 
practically  defined  an  element  as  a body 
not  yet  decomposed,  the  definition  now 
commonly  adopted.  For  list  of  known 
elements  see  Chemistry. 

EL'EPHANT,  the  popular  name  of  a 
genus  or  sub-family  of  five-toed  pro- 
boscidian mammals,  usually  regarded 
as  comprehending  two  species,  the  Asiat- 


African  elephant. 


ic  and  the  African.  From  a differ- 
ence in  the  teeth,  however,  the  African 
species  is  sometimes  treated  as  a distinct 
genus,  and  some  authors  divide  the 


Asiatic  elephant. 

Asiatic  elephants  into  several  species, 
such  as  the  Indian  elephant,  the  Ceylon 
elephant  and  the  Sumatra  elephant. 
The  so-called  white  elephants  are  merely 
albinos.  The  African  elephant  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Asiatic  species  by 
its  greater  height,  its  larger  ears,  its  less 
elevated  head  and  bulging  or  convex 


forehead,  the  closer  approximation  of  the 
roots  of  the  tjusks,  and  the  greater 
density  of  the  bone.  It  has  also  only 
three  external  hoofs  on  the  hind-feet, 
while  the  Asiatic  has  four.  All  elephants 


Indian  elephant. 


are  remarkable  for  their  large,  heavy, 
short  bodies  supported  on  columnar 
limbs,  a very  short  neck,  a skull  with 
lofty  crown  and  short  face-bones,  with 
the  exception  of  the  premaxillaries, 
which  are  enlarged  to  form  tusk-sockets. 
To  compensate  for  the  short  neck,  they 
have  the  long  proboscis,  often  4 or  5 feet 


Head  of  Indian  elephant. 


in  length,  produced  by  the  union  and 
development  of  the  nose  and  upper  lip. 
It  is  made  up  of  muscular  and  mem- 
braneous tissue,  the  only  cartilages  be- 
ing the  valves  at  the  entrance  of  the 
nares.  The  trunk  is  of  great  strength 
and  sensibility,  and  serves  alike  for 
respiration,  smell,  taste,  suction,  touch, 
and  prehension.  The  tusks,  which  are 


Head  of  African  elephant. 


enormously  developed  upper  incisor 
teeth,  are  not  visible  in  young  animals, 
but  in  a state  of  maturity  they  project, 
in  some  instances  7 or  8 feet.  The 
largest  on  record  (possibly  that  of  an 
extinct  species)  weighed  350  lbs.  Ele- 
phants sometimes  attain  the  height  of 
15  feet,  but  their  general  height  is  a.bout 
9 or  10.  Their  weight  ranges  from  4000 
to  9000  lbs.  The  female  is  gravid  twenty 
months,  and  seldom  produces  more  than 
one  at  a birth:  this,  when  first  born,  is 
about  3 feet  high,  and  continues  to  grow 
till  it  is  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age. 
It  is  said  they  live  to  the  age  of  100 
years  and  upward.  They  feed  on  vege- 
tables, the  young  shoots  of  trees,  grain, 


ELEPHANTIASIS 


ELISHA 


and  fruit.  They  are  polygamous,  asso- 
ciating in  herds  of  a considerable  size  un- 
der the  guidance  of  a single  leader.  The 
domesticated  elephant  requires  much 
care,  and  a plentiful  supply  of  food, 
being  liable  to  many  ailments.  The 
daily  consumption  of  a working  elephant 
is,  2 cwts.  of  green  food,  about  half  a 
bushel  of  grain,  and  about  40  gallons  of 
water.  Their  enormous  strength, 
docility,  and  sagacity  make  them  of 
great  value  in  the  East  for  road-making, 
building  and  transport.  They  are  used 
on  occasions  of  pomp  and  show,  being 
often  richly  caparisoned,  and  bearing  on 
their  back  a howdah  containing  one  or 
more  riders,  besides  the  mahout  or 
driver  sitting  on  the  animal’s  neck. 
Tiger-shooting  is  often  practiced  from 
an  elephant’s  back.  The  fossil  remains 
of  the  genus  Elephas  indicate  the  former 
existence  of  at  least  fourteen  species; 
and  a still  larger  number  of  species  be- 
long to  the  allied  genus  Mastodon. 

ELEPHANTI'ASIS,  a disease  chiefly 
occurring  in  tropical  climates,  charac- 
terized by  a pecuUar  overgrowth  of  the 
skin  and  subjacent  textures,  and  attack- 
ing especially  the  legs,  which  become 
enlarged  and  elephantine.  It  appears  to 
arise  from  repeated  inflammation  of  the 
skin  and  a concurrent  obstruction  of  the 
veins  and  l5rmphatic  glands  of  the  im- 
flamed  part.  The  disease  occasionally 
affects  the  scrotum,  enlarging  it  to 
enormous  dimensions.  In  general  it  is 
attended  with  little  pain,  and  the  health 
may  remain  otherwise  unaffected  for 
many  years.  In  the  early  stages  wet 
bandaging  or  ligature  of  the  main  artery 
has  been  found  serviceable,  but  ampu- 
tation may  be  necessary. 

ELEPHANT-SEAL,  the  proboscis  seal, 
or  sea-elephant,  the  largest  of  the  seal 
family.  There  are  probably  two  species, 
one  found  only  on  the  coast  of  California 
and  Western  Mexico,  the  other  found  in 
Patagonia,  Kerguelen  Island,  Heard’s 
Island,  and  other  parts  of  the  southern 
seas.  They  vary  in  length  from  12  to 
30  feet,  and  in  girth  at  the  chest  from  8 
to  18  feet.  The  proboscis  of  the  male 
is  about  15  inches  long  when  the  creature 
is  at  rest,  but  elongates  under  excite- 
ment. The  females  have  no  proboscis, 
and  are  considerably  smaller  than  the 
male.  Both  species  are  becoming  rare 
from  their  continual  slaughter. 

ELEPHANT’S-EAR,  a name  some- 
times given  to  plants  of  the  genus 
Begonia. 

ELEVATION,  in  architecture,  a geo- 
metrical delineation  of  the  front  or  any 
face  of  a building  in  which  all  the  parts 
are  drawn  according  to  scale,  and  not 
shown  as  they  would  appear  in  perspec- 
tive.— In  astronomy,  it  is  the  height  of  a 
celestial  object  above  the  horizon. 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST,  in  the 
ritual  of  the  Mass,  is  the  lifting  up  of  the 
elements  immediately  after  consecra- 
tion, to  be  worshiped  by  the  people. 
It  was  introduced  into  the  Latin  Church 
in  the  11th  century. 

EL'EVATOR,  a mechanical  contriv- 
.'ince  consisting  of  a series  of  boxes  or 
buckets  attached  to  a belt  traveling 
round  two  drums,  one  above  and  one 
below,  for  hoisting  grain,  meal,  etc., 
into  a mill  or  storehouse  from  a ship’s 
Jiold,  etc.  In  the  U.  States  large  buildings 


containing  such  contrivances,  and  in 
which  grain  is  stored,  receive  the  same 
name. — (2)  An  apparatus  for  raising  or 
lowering  persons  or  goods  to  or  from 
different  levels  in  warehouses,  hotels, 
etc.,  consisting  usually  of  a cage  or  mov- 
able platform  worked  by  hydraulic, 
steam,  or  electric  power. 

ELF.  See  Fairy. 

ELGIN,  a royal  and  parliament  burgh 
of  Scotland,  capital  of  Elgin  county, 
finely  situated  on  the  Lossie,  about 
5 miles  from  its  influx  into  the  Moray 
Firth,  70  miles  n.w.  of  Aberdeen.  Pop. 
8260.— The  county  of  Elgin,  also  called 
Morayshire,  is  a maritime  count3q 
bounded  by  the  Moray  Firth,  Banff- 
shire, Inverness-shire,  and  Nairnshire; 
area,  340,000  acres.  Pop.  44,808. 

ELGIN,  a town  on  the  Fox  river  in 
Kane  co..  111.,  noted  for  its  important 
manufacturing  and  agricultural  indus- 
tries. It  is  charmingly  situated  on  a 
number  of  pretty  hills  and  is  the  centre 
of  one  of  the  prettiest  districts  in 
America.  Here  is  situated  the  Elgin 
watch  works  the  products  of  which  have 
a world-wide  reputation.  Elgin  is  also 
the  center  of  one  of  the  finest  dairy 
farming  districts  in  the  world.  The 
Illinois  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  is 
the  largest  public  institution.  Pop. 
25,000. 

ELGIN,  James  Bruce,  Eighth  Earl  of, 
and  twelfth  Earl  of  Kincardine,  Gover- 
nor-general of  India,  born  in  1811.  He 
died  in  1863. 

EL  HASA,  a fertile  district  of  Eastern 
Arabia,  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  pro- 
duces dates,  wheat,  millet,  rice,  etc. 
Pop.  estimated  at  160,000. 

ELI,  one  of  the  Hebrew  judges,  the 
predecessor  of  Samuel.  He  was  high- 
priest  and  judge  for  fort5’’  years,  but  was 
less  successful  as  head  of  his  own  hou.se- 
hold.  His  two  sons  having  been  slain 
and  the  ark  taken  in  battle  by  the 
Philistines,  the  news  proved  so  severe  a 
shock  that  he  fell  and  broke  his  neck,  at 
the  age  of  ninety-eight.  Little  is  really 
known  of  the  history  of  Eli,  since  he  is 
only  shown  to  us  in  the  weakness  of  old 
age,  unable  to  control  his  sons  Hophni 
and  Phinehas,  whose  wickedness  dis- 
gusted and  alienated  the  people. 

ELI' AS,  the  New  Testament  form  of 
Elijah. 

ELIAS,  Mount  St.  See  Saint  Elias, 
Mount. 

ELI'JAH,  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  prophets  of  Irsael,  flourished  in  the 
9th  century  b.c.,  during  the  reigns  of 
Ahab  and  Ahaziah,  and  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  his 
special  function  being  to  denounce  ven- 
geance on  the  kings  of  Israel  for  their 
apostasy.  He  incurred  the  anger  of 
Jezebel,  wife  of  Ahab,  for  slaying  the 
prophets  of  Baal,  but  escaped  to  Horeb, 
afterward  returning  to  Samaria  to  de- 
nounce Ahab  for  the  murder  of  Naboth. 
Elijah  at  length  ascended  to  heaven  in  a 
chariot  of  fire,  Elisha,  his  successor,  be- 
ing witness.  See  1 Kings  xra.  to  xxi. 
and  2 Kings  i.  and  ii. 

ELIOT,  Charles  William,  a noted 
American  educator,  born  in  Boston  in 
1834.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard  and 
held  several  chairs  in  the  university 
until  1869,  when  he  became  its  presi- 
dent. Under  his  administration  the 


university  had  its  greatest  growth.  He 
remodeled  the  curriculum,  devised  the 
elective  system  of  studies  and  soon  be- 
came the  acknowledged  authority  in 
America  on  higher  education.  He  has 
published  several  text-books  and  a num- 
ber of  essays  and  addresses.  He  re- 
signed the  presidency  of  Harvard  in 
1908. 


EL'IOT,  George,  the  assumed  literary 
name  of  Mary  Ann,  or,  as  she  preferred 
to  write  the  name  in  later  years,  Marian 
Evans,  English  novelist.  Born  at  Griff, 
near  Nuneaton,  on  22d  November,  1820. 
She  received  at  Coventry  an  excellent 
education,  comprising  the  classical  and 
modern  languages,  and  shortly  after  her 
twenty-first  year  became  a convert  to 
rationalism.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
January,  1857,  that  she  came  prominent- 
nently  into  public  notice,  with  the  first 
of  a series  of  tales  entitled  Scenes  from 
Clerical  Life.  The  series  came  to  an  end 
in  November,  1857,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  publication  of  Adam  Bede 
placed  her  in  the  first  rank  of  writers  of 
fiction.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  Mill  on 
the  Floss  (1860),  Silas  Marner  (1861), 
Romola  (186.3),  Felix  Holt  (1866),  Mid- 
dlemarch  (1872),  and  Daniel  Deronda 
(1876).  In  addition  to  those  prose  works 
she  published  three  volumes  of  poems. 
The  Spanish  Gj-psy  (1868),  Agatha 
(1869),  and  the  Legend  of  Jubal  (1874). 
Her  last  work  published  during  her  life 
was  the  series  of  essays  entitled  The 
Impressions  of  Theophrastus  Such 
(1879),  but  a volume  of  mixed  essays 
was  issued  posthumously.  For  many 
years  she  was  happily  associated  both  in 
life  and  work  with  George  Henry  Lewes, 
though  a legal  union  was  impossible 
during  the  lifetime  of  Mrs.  Lewes.  In 
Majq  1880,  after  Mr.  Lewes’  death,  she 
married  Mr.  John  Cross,  but  did  not 
sur^^ve  the  marriage  many  months, 
dying  rather  suddenly  at  Chelsea  on  the 
22d  December  of  that  year. 

ELI'SHA,  a Hebrew  prophet,  the  dis- 
ciple and  successor  of  Elijah.  Many 
miracles  of  prediction  and  cure,  and  even 


ELIXIR 

of  raising  the  dead,  are  ascribed  to  him, 
but  his  figure  is  less  original  and  heroic 
than  that  of  his  master.  He  held  the 
office  of  prophet  for  fully  sixty-five  years 
from  the  reign  of  Ahab  to  that  of  Joash 
(latter  half  of  9th  century  b.c.). 

ELIX'IR,  a word  of  Arabic  origin,  ap- 
plied by  the  alchemists  to  a number  of 
solutions  employed  in  attempting  the 
transmutation  of  metals  into  gold,  and 
also  to  a potion,  the  elixir  vita;,  or  elixir 
of  life,  supposed  to  confer  immortality. 
It  is  still  used  for  various  popular  reme- 
dies, for  the  most  part  composed  of 
various  aromatic  and  stimulative  sub- 
stances held  in  solution  by  alcohol. 

ELIZABETH,  a city  in  New  Jersey,  14 
miles  s.w.  from  New  York,  with  which 
it  has  ample  communication  by  railway 
and  steamer.  It  is  a favorite  residence 
of  New  York  business  men.  The  Singer 
Sewing  Machine  Co.  has  a large  factory 
here,  and  there  are  also  foundries,  oil- 
cloth factories,  etc.  Pop.  1909,  70,000. 

ELIZABETH,  Queen  of ' England, 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  was  born  at  Greenwich  Sep- 
tember 7th,  1533,  and  almost  immedia- 
ately  declared  heiress  to  the  crown. 
On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  Eliza- 
beth was  committed  to  the  care  of  the 


Queen  Elizabeth. 


queen-dowager  Catherine.  The  first 
great  object  of  her  reign  was  the  settle- 
ment of  religion,  to  effect  which  a par- 
liament was  called  on  25th  January,  and 
dissolved  on  the  8th  May,  its  object 
having  been  accomplished.  The  nation 
was  prepared  for  a return  to  the  re- 
formed faith,  and  the  parliament  was  at 
the  bidding  of  the  court.  The  ecclesias- 
tical system  devised  in  her  father’s  reign 
was  re-established,  the  royal  supremacy 
as.serted,  and  the  revised  prayer-book 
enforced  by  the  act  of  uniformity. 
While,  however,  the  formal  establish- 
ment of  the  reformed  religion  was  easily 
completed,  the  security  and  defense  of 
the  settlement  was  the  main  object  of 
the  policy  and  the  chief  source  of  all  the 
struggles  and  contentions  of  her  reign. 
With  the  unfortunate  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  were  connected  many  of  the  politi- 
cal events  of  Elizabeth’s  reign.  On  her 
accession  the  country  was  at  war  with 
France.  Peace  was  easily  concluded 
(1559);  but  the  assumption  by  Francis 
and  Mary  of  the  royal  arms  and  titles  of 
England  led  to  an  immediate  interfer- 
ence on  the  part  of  Elizabeth  in  the 
affairs  of  Scotland.  The  detention  of 
Mary  in  England  (1568-87),  whither  she 


fled  to  the  protection  of  Elizabeth,  led  to 
a series  of  conspiracies,  beginning  with 
that  under  the  Earls  of  Northumberland 
and  Westmoreland,  and  ending  with  the 
plot  of  Babington,  which  finally  deter- 
mined Elizabeth  to  make  away  with  her 
captive.  The  execution  of  Queen  Mary 
(1587),  though  it  has  stained  her  name  to 
posterity,  tended  to  confirm  her  power 
among  her  contemporaries,  and  caused 
Philip  of  Spain  to  send  the  Armada 
against  England  (see  Armada).  The 
war  with  Spain  dragged  on  till  the  close 
of  Elizabeth’s  long  reign.  During  her 
reign  the  splendor  of  her  govei-nment  at 
home  and  abroad  was  sustained  by  such 
men  as  Burleigh,  Bacon,  Walsingham, 
and  Throgmorton;  but  she  had  personal 
favorites  of  less  merit  who  were  often 
more  brilliantly  rewarded.  Chief  of 
these  were  Dudley,  whom  she  created 
Earl  of  Leicester,  and  whom  she  was 
disposed  to  marry,  and  Essex,  whose 
violent  passions  brought  about  his  ruin. 
He  was  beheaded  in  1601,  but  Elizabeth 
never  forgave  herself  his  death.  Her 
own  health  soon  after  gave  way,  and  she 
died  on  24th  March,  1603,  naming  James 
VI.  of  Scotland  as  her  successor. 

ELIZ'ABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE,  a 
style  of  architecture  which  prevailed  in 
England  during  the  reigns  of  EJizabeth 
and  James  I.  It  succeeded  to  the  Tudor 
style,  properly  so  called,  with  which  it 
is  sometimes  confounded.  The  Eliza- 
bethan is  a mixture  of  inferior  Gothic 
and  debased  Italian,  producing  a singu- 
lar heterogeneousness  in  detail,  with, 
however,  wonderful  picturesqueness  in 
general  effect,  and  domestic  accommo- 
dation more  in  accordance  with  the 
wants  of  an  advancing  civilization  than 
was  afforded  by  the  styles  which  pre- 
ceded it.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
Elizabethan  architecture  are:  windows 


Elizabethan  architecture— Hargrave  hall , 
England. 

of  great  size  both  in  the  plane  of  the  wall 
and  deeply  embayed,  ceilings  very  richly 
decorated  in  relief,  galleries  of  great 
length,  very  tall  and  highly-decorated 
chimneys,  as  well  as  a profuse  use  of 
ornamental  strap-work  in  the  parapets, 
window-heads,  etc.  The  Elizabethan 
style  is  the  last  stage  of  the  Tudor  or 


ELIZADETiJ  PETP.OWNA 

Perpendicular,  and  from  its  correspond- 
ing in  point  of  period  with  the  Renais- 
sance of  the  Continent  has  sometimes 
been  called  the  English  Renaissance. 
The  epithet  Jacobean  has  sometimes 


Drawing-room  of  Bramhall  hall,  Cheshire. 
Time  of  Elizabeth. 

been  given  to  the  very  latest  stage  of  the 
Elizabethan,  differing  from  the  Eliza- 
bethan proper  in  showing  a greater  ad- 
mixture of  debased  Italian  forms.  The 


/I 


Elizabethan  window,  Rushton  hall. 

princely  houses  which  arose  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  are  numerous,  and 
many  even  yet  remain  to  attest  the 
splendor  of  the  time.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned  Burghley  House,  Hardwick 
Hall,  and  Bramhall  Hall. 

ELIZABETH  FARNESE  (far-na'za). 
Queen  of  Spain,  daughter  of  Edward  II., 
prince  of  Parma,  born  1692.  On  be- 
coming the  second  wife  of  Philip  V.  she 
surprised  those  who  had  counseled  the 
marriage  by  assuming  the  practical 
headship  of  the  kingdom,  and  her  am- 
bition and  that  of  her  minister  Alberoni 
disturbed  the  whole  of  Europe.  The 
“termagant  tenacious  woman,’’  as  Car- 
lyle called  her,  died  in  1766. 

ELIZABETH  OF  VALOIS,  or  ISA- 
BELLA, Queen  of  Spain,  was  born  in 
1545,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  France 
and  Catherine  de  Medici.  She  was 
destined  by  the  Treaty  of  Cateau- 
Cambr6sis  to  be  the  wife  of  the  infante, 
Don  Carlos,  but  his  father,  Philip  11. , 
being  left  a widower,  became  fascinated 
and  married  her  himself.  She  died  in 
1568. 

ELIZABETH  PETROWNA,  Empress 
of  Russia,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great 
and  Catherine,  born  in  1709  or  1710, 
ascended  the  throne  on  7th  Dec.  1741, 
as  the  result  of  a conspiracy,  in  which 


ELIZABETH  STUART 


ELOHLM 


Ivan  VI.,  a minor,  was  deposed.  Eliza- 
beth is  said  to  have  rivalled  her  mother 
in  beauty,  and  to  have  surpiassed  her  in 
her  love  of  pleasure,  and  her  government 
was  largely  conducted  by  favorites.  She 
was  a patron  of  literature,  founded  the 
University  of  Moscow,  and  corresponded 
with  Voltaire.  She  died  in  1762. 

ELIZABETH  STUART,  Queen  of 
Bohemia,  daughter  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land and  VI.  of  Scotland,  born  in  Falk- 
land Palace,  Fifeshire,  1596.  Her  mar- 
riage with  the  Palatine  Frederick  was 
celebrated  at  Whitehall  in  1613.  Her 
husband,  then  at  the  head  of  the  Prot- 
estant interest  in  Germany,  accepted 
in  1619  the  crown  of  Bohemia  offered  to 
him  by  the  revolted  Protestants  of  that 
country;  but  after  his  defeat  by  the 
imperialists  at  the  battle  of  Prague  in 
1620  he  and  his  wife  were  obliged  to  flee, 
first  to  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  then  to 
the  Hague.  She  returned  to  England  at 
the  Restoration  with  her  nephew  Charles 
II.,  and  died  at  Leicester  House,  London 
on  13th  Feb.,  1662. 

ELK,  Moose,  or  Moose  Deer,  the  larg- 
est of  the  deer  family,  a native  of  north- 
ern Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  The 
American  form  (to  which  the  name 
moose  is  usually  given)  is  sometimes 
separated  from  the  European,  but  most 
naturalists  find  no  specific  difference 
between  them.  The  elk  or  moose  has  a 


Elk. 

short  compact  body,  standing  about  6 
feet  in  height  at  the  shoulders,  a thick 
neck,  large  clumsy  head,  and  horns 
which  flatten  out  almost  from  the  base 
into  a broad  palmate  form  with  numer- 
ous snags.  In  color  the  elk  is  grayish 
brown,  the  limbs,  sides  of  head,  and 
coarse  mane  being,  however,  of  a lighter 
hue.  Their  flesh  resembles  beef  rather 
than  venison.  For  the  most  they  are 
inoffensive,  and  so  exceedingly  wary 
that  they  are  app'roached  only  with 
difficulty.  In  America  the  Indians  and 
half-breeds  are  the  most  skilful  moose- 
hunters.  The  moose  has  a wide  range  in 
Canada,  extending  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  British  Columbia  to  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia;  and  it  is 
found  also  in  Maine.  It  feeds  largely  on 
the  shoots  of  trees  or  shrubs,  such  as  the 
willow  and  maple,  and  on  bark,  etc. 
In  Sweden  its  destruction  is  illegal,  and 
in  Norway,  there  are  many  restrictions. 

ELK'HART,  a town  of  Indiana,  on  the 
Elkhart  River,  with  railroad  works, 
paper-mills,  etc.  Pop.  13,140. 

ELKINS,  Stephen  Benton,  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  in  Ohio  in  1841.  He 


studied  law,  began  practice  in  Missouri, 
removed  to  New  Mexico  in  1864  and  was 
territorial  delegate  from  1873  to  1877. 
He  removed  to  West  Virginia,  was  secre- 
tary of  war  in  President  Harrison’s 
cabinet  and  in  1894  was  elected  L^. 
States  senator  from  West  Virginia. 

ELKS,  Benevolent  and  Protective 
Order  of,  a fraternal  association  organ- 
ized in  1868  and  consisting  chiefly  of 
theatrical  people.  It  has  lodges  in 
numerous  cities  of  the  U.  States  and  is 
very  active  in  contributing  to  all  kinds 
of  charities  through  its  great  “benefit” 
performances.  The  membership  is 
upward  of  150,000. 

ELLIOTT,  Maxine,  an  American 
actress,  born  in  Maine.  She  made  her 
first  important  appearance  in  1890  in 
The  Middleman  and  subsequently  joined 
Daly’s  company  going  to  London,  where 
she  played  in  Shakespearean  parts.  In 
1898  she  was  married  to  N.  C.  Goodwin, 
with  whom  she  has  appeared  in  various 
plays  with  great  success. 

ELLIPSE',  a figure  in  geometry  rank- 
ing next  in  importance  to  the  circle,  and 
produced  when  any  cone  is  cut  by  a 
plane  which  passes  through  it  not 
parallel  to  nor  cutting  the  base.  Kepler 


discovered  that  the  paths  described  by 
the  planets  in  their  revolutions  round 
the  sun  are  ellipses,  the  sun  being  placed 
in  one  of  the  foci.  To  describe  an  ellipse ; 
— At  a given  distance  on  the  surface  on 
which  the  ellipse  is  to  be  described  fix 
two  pins,  a and  b,  and  pass  a looped 
string  round  them.  Keep  the  string 
stretched  by  a pencil,  c,  and  move  the 
pencil  round,  keeping  the  string  at  the 
same  tension,  then  the  ellipse  e g f h will 
be  described;  f and  g are  the  foci,  d the 
center,  e f the  major  axis,  and  g h the 
minor  axis,  d a or  d b is  the  eccentricity 
of  the  ellipse.  A line  drawn  from  any 
point  in  the  curve  perpendicularly  to 
the  axis  is  an  ordinate  to  the  axis.  Any 
straight  line  drawn  through  the  center 
and  terminated  both  ways  by  the  curve 
is  called  a diameter. 

ELLIP'SIS,  in  grammar,  the  omission 
of  one  or  more  words,  which  may  be 
easily  supplied  by  the  connection. 

ELLIPTIC'ITY  of  the  earth,  the  de- 
viation of  the  form  of  the  earth  from 
that  of  a sphere.  See  Earth,  Degree. 

ELLSWORTH,  Ephraim  Elmer,  an 
American  'soldier-hero,  born  in  New 
York  in  1837,  died  in  1861.  In  April. 
1861  he  organized  a Zouave  regiment  in 
Chicago,  went  to  the  front,  ana  was  the 
first  man  killed  in  the  north.  On  May 
24  he  was  shot  dead  at  Alexandria  by 
an  inn-keeper  from  whom  he  had  just 
torn  a confederate  flag. 

ELLSWORTH,  Oliver,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1745,  died 
in  1807.  He  took  a leading  part  in  the 
continental  congress  and  in  the  early 
Connecticut  legislature  and  from  1796' 


to  1800  was  chief  justice  of  the  U.  States 
Supreme  Court. 

ELM,  a genus  of  trees,  consisting  of 
thirteen  species,  all  natives  of  the  north- 
ern temperate  zone.  They  have  bisexual 
flowers  with  a campanulate  calyx,  as 
many  stamens  as  there,  are  divisions  in 
the  limb  of  the  calyx,  and  two  styles. 


Flowering  branch  and  foliage  of  English  elm 
with  flower  ami  fruit  on  larger  scale. 

The  American  or  white  elm  is  abundant 
in  the  Western  States,  attaining  its  loft- 
iest stature  between  lat.  42°  and  46°; 
here  i,  reaches  the  height  of  100  feet, 
with  a trunk  4 or  5 feet  in  diameter, 
rising  sometimes  60  or  70  feet  before  it 
separates  into  a few  primary  limbs.  Its 
wood  is  not  much  esteemed.  The  red  or 
slippery  elm  is  found  over  a great  extent 
of  country  in  Canada,  Missouri,  and  as 
far  south  as  lat.  31°;  it  attains  the  height 
of  50  or  60  feet,  with  a trunk  15  or  20 
inches  in  diameter;  the  wood  is  of  better 
quality  than  that  of  the  white  elm.  The 
leaves  and  bark  yield  an  abund'ant 
mucilage.  The  wahoo,  inhabiting  from 
lat.  37°  to  Florida,  Louisiana,  and  Ar- 
kansas, is  a small  tree,  30  feet  high.  The 
branches  are  furnished  on  two  opposite 
sides  with  wings  of  cork  2 or  3 lines  wide; 
the  wood  is  fine-grained  and  heavy. 

ELMI'RA,  a town  in  New  York,  on 
the  Chemung  River;  with  a college  for 
women,  the  state  reformatory,  fine  court- 
house, etc.  Its  industrial  establishments 
comprise  rolling-mill,  blast-furnace, 
foundries,  machine-works,  etc.  Pop. 
1909,  42,000. 

ELMO’S  FIRE,  St.,  a meteoric  ap- 
pearance often  seen  playing  about  the 
masts  and  rigging  of  ships.  If  two 
flames  are  visible  (Castor  and  Pollux) 
the  sailors  consider  it  a good  omen;  if 
only  one  (Helena),  they  regard  it  as  a 
bad  one. 

ELOCUTION,  the  art  by  which,  in  de- 
livering a discourse  before  an  audience, 
the  speaker  is  enabled,  with  greatest 
east  and  certainty,  to  render  it  effective 
and  impressive.  The  value  of  an  elocu- 
tionary training  is  verj"^  great,  as  w'ell  in 
sparing  the  voice  as  in  overcoming 
natural  defects  in  delivery,  and  in  culti- 
vating and  developing  the  natural  taste. 

ELO'HIM,  one  of  the  Hebrew  names 
for  God,  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
Bible.  Elohim  is  used  in  speaking  both 
of  the  true  God  and  of  false  gods,  while 
Jehovah  is  confined  to  the  true  God. 
The  plural  form  of  Elohim  has  caused  a 
good  deal  of  controversy,  some  con- 
sidering it  as  containing  an  allusion  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  trinity,  others  re- 
garding it  as  the  plural  of  excellence, 
others  holding  it  as  establishing  the  fact 


ELONGATION 


EMANCIPATION  PROCLAMATION 


of  a primitive  polytheism.  The  Elohis- 
tic  passages  in  the  Pentateuch,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  passages  in  which  the 
Almighty  is  always  spoken  of  as  Elohim, 
are  supposed  to  have  been  written  at  an 
earlier  period  than  those  in  which  he  is 
spoken  of  as  Jehovah.  The  Elohistic 
passages  are  simpler  and  more  primitive 
in  character  than  the  Jehovistic;  thus 
Gen.  i.  27  is  Elohistic;  Gen.  ii.  21-24  is 
Jehovistic. 

ELONGATION,  Angle  of,  the  angular 
distance  of  a planet  from  the  sun,  as  it 
appears  to  the  eye  of  a spectator  on  the 

ELOPEMENT,  in  law,  the  desertion  of 
her  husband  by  a woman  and  her  co- 
habitation with  another  man.  The  term 
does  not  legally  apply  to  unmarried  per- 
sons who  flee  or  abscond  for  the  purpose 
of  becoming  married,  although  it  is  gen- 
erally used  in  that  way.  The  consequent 
of  the  act  today  is  to  free  the  husband 
from  all  responsibility  for  his  wife’s 
debts  or  her  support. 

EL  PASO,  the  capital  of  El  Paso  co., 
Texas,  a railway  center  and  port  of 
entry;  situated  on  the  Rio  Grande.  Near 
it  the  river  passes  through  a mountain- 
gap  called  El  Paso  del  Norte  (North 
Pass),  which  is  the  chief  thoroughfare 
between  Mexico  and  New  Mexico.  On 
the  opposite  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in 
Chihuahua,  Mexico,  is  Ciudad  Jaurez, 
formerly  called  Paso  del  Norte,  a village 
important  as  the  starting-point  of  the 
Mexican  Central  Railroad,  and  having 
a custom-house,  through  which  a large 
amount  of  goods  pass  in  transit  between 
the  U.  States  and  Mexico.  Pop.  18,575. 

ELPHINSTONE,  Hon.  Mountstuart, 
Indian  administrator,  born  in  Scotland 
in  1778.  He  joined  the  Bengal  civil 


Mountstuart  Eiphinstone. 


service  in  1795,  was  ambassador  to  the 
Afghan  court  in  1808,  was  resident  at 
the  court  of  Poonah  from  1810  to  1817, 
and  was  British  commissioner  to  that 
province  from  1817  to  1819,  when  he 
became  governor  of  Bombay,  During  a 
government  of  seven  years  he  estab- 
lished a code  of  laws,  lightened  taxes, 
and  paid  great  attention  to  schools  and 
public  institutions.  He  resigned  in 
*1827.  A college  established  by  the 
natives  was  called  after  him  Eiphin- 
stone College.  He  was  offered  the 
governor-generalship  of  India  in  1835, 
and  afterward  that  of  Canada,  both  of 


which  he  declined.  He  died  in  1859. 

ELSSLER,  Fanny,  an  Austrian  dancer 
born  in  1810,  died  in  1884.  In  1841  she 
visited  the  U.  States  and  was  received 
with  much  enthtrsiasm  by  lovers  of  the 
ballet.  Her  sister  Therese  also  became 
proficient  as  a dancer.  She  was  created 
Baroness  von  Barnim  by  the  King  of 
Prussia. 

ELVES.  See  Elf. 

ELWELL,  Frank  Edwin,  an  American 
sculptor,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1858. 
He  has  made  a number  of  noted  figures 
and  groups  including  “Awakening  of 
Egypt,”  “Death  of  Strength,”  “Intelh- 
gence,”  and  several  monumental  groups. 

ELWOOD,  a town  in  Madison  co., 
Ind.,  on  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Ch.  and  St.  L. 
and  Erie  railways;  45  miles  n.n.e.  of 
Indianapolis.  It  is  a shipping-point  for 
grain  and  stock.  Pop.  15,160. 

ELY,  Isle  of,  a portion  of  the  county  of 
Cambridge,  separated  by  the  Ouse  from 
the  rest  of  the  county,  and  forming  it- 
self a sort  of  county.  It  is  about  28 
miles  long  by  25  miles  broad;  area, 
239,259  acres.  Pop.  63,861. 

ELYRIA,  the  capital  of  Lorain  co., 
Ohio,  beautifully  situated  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  eastern  and  western 
branches  of  Black  river;  7 miles  s.  of 
Lake  Erie  and  25  miles  w.  of  Cleveland. 
Sandstone  is  one  of  the  chief  exports. 
Pop.  10,391. 

ELYSTUM,  Elysian  Fields,  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  the  regions  in- 
habited by  the  blessed  after  death.  They 
are  placed  by  Homer  at  the  extremities 
of  the . earth,  by  Plato  at  the  antipodes, 
and  by  others  in  the  Fortunate  Islands 
(the  Canaries).  They  were  at  last  trans- 
ferred to  the  interior  of  the  earth,  which 
is  Virgil’s  notion. 

EMANCIPATION,  Liberation  from 
slavery  or  subjection  of  some  kind.  See 
Catholic  Emancipation,  Slavery. 

EMANCIPATION,  PROCLAMATION 
OF,  the  paper  issued  by  President  Lin- 
coln, Jan.  1,  1863,  declaring  the  negro 
slaves  free.  It  was  issued  as  a war  meas- 
ure. The  proclamation  read  as  follows : 

BY  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

A PROCLAMATION. 

Whereas,  on  the  22d  day  of  Septem- 
ber, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  sixty-two,  a procla- 
mation was  issued  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  containing  among 
other  things,  the  following,  to  wit; 

“That  on  the  1st  day  of  January,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  sixty-three,  all  persons  held  as 
slaves  within  any  state,  or  designated 
part  of  a state,  the  people  whereof  shall 
then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and 
forever  free;  and  the  executive  goyern- 
ment  of  the  United  States,  including 
the  military  and  naval  authority  there- 
of, will  recognize  and  maintain  the  free- 
dom of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no 
act  or  acts  to  repress  such  persons,  or 
any  of  them,  in  anv  efforts  they  may 
make  for  their  actual  freedom. 

“That  the  executive  will,  on  the  first 
day  of  January,  aforesaid,  by  proclama- 
tion, designate  the  states  and  parts  of 
states,  if  any,  in  which  the  people  thereof 
respectively  shall  then  be  in  rebellion 


against  the  United  States,  and  the  fact 
that  any  state,  or  the  people  thereof, 
shall  on  that  day  be  in  good  faith  repre- 
sented in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  by  members  chosen  thereto  at 
elections  wherein  a majority  of  the  quali- 
fied voters  of  such  state  shall  have  par- 
ticipated, shall,  in  the  absence  of  strong 
countervailing  testimony,  be  deemed 
conclusive  evidence  that  such  state  and 
the  people  thereof  are  not  then  in  re- 
bellion against  the  United  States.” 

Now,  therefore,  I,  Abraham  Lincoln, 
President  of  the  United  States,  by  virtue 
of  the  power  in  me  vested  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the 
United  States  and  as  a fit  and  necessary 
war  measure  for  repressing  said  rebellion, 
do,  on  this  first  day  of  January,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  sixty-three,  and  in  accordance 
with  my  purpose  so  to  do,  publicly 
proclaimed  for  the  full  period  of  100 
days  from  the  day  first  above  men- 
tioned, order  and  designate  as  the  states 
and  parts  of  states  wherein  the  people 
thereof,  respectively,  are  this  day  in 
rebellion  against  the  United  States,  the 
following,  to  wit: 

Arkansas,  Texas,  Louisiana,  (except 
the  parishes  of  Saint  Bernard,  Plaque- 
mines, Jefferson,  Saint  John,  Saint 
Charles,  Saint  James,  Ascension,  As- 
sumption, Terre  Bonne,  Lafourche, 
Saint  Mary,  Saint  Martin,  and  Orleans, 
including  the  city  of  New  Orleans), 
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia, 
South  Carolina,  North  Carolina,  and 
Virginia  (except  the  forty-eight  counties 
designated  as  West  Virginia,  and  also 
the  counties  of  Berkeley,  Accomac, 
Northampton,  Elizabeth  City,  York, 
Princess  Ann,  and  Norfolk,  including 
the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth), 
and  which  excepted  parts  are,  for  the 
present,  left  precisely  as  if  this  proclama  ■ 
tion  were  not  issued. 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the 
purpose  aforesaid,  I do  order  and  declare 
that  all  persons  held  as  slaves  within 
said  designated  states  and  parts  of  states 
are,  and  henceforward  shall  be  free;  and 
and  that  the  executive  government  of 
the  United  States,  including  the  military 
and  naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recog- 
nize and  maintain  the  freedom  of  said 
persons. 

And  I hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people 
so  declared  to  be  free,  to  abstain  from  all 
violence,  unless  in  necessary  self-de- 
fense; and  I recommend  to  them  that  in 
all  cases,  when  allowed,  they  labor 
faithfully  for  reasonable  wages. 

And  I further  declare  and  make 
known  that  such  persons  of  suitable  con- 
dition will  be  received  into  the  armed 
service  of  the  United  States  to  garrison 
forts,  positions,  stations,  and  other 
places,  and  to  man  vessels  of  all  sorts  in 
said  service. 

And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed 
to  be  an  act  of  justice,  warranted  bj^  the 
constitution,  upon  military  necessity,  I 
invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  man- 
kind and  the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty 
God. 

In  witness  whereof,  I have  hereunto 
set  my  hand,  and  caused  the  seal  of  the 
United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington,  this 
first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our 


EMANUEL  THE  GREAT 


EMERSON 


Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  sixty- 
three,  and  of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  eighty- 
seventh. 

[l.s.]  By  the  President: 

Abr.\ham  Lincoln. 
William  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State. 
EMAN'UEL  the  great,  King  of 

Portugal,  ascended  the  throne  in  1495. 
During  his  reign  were  performed  the 
voyages  of  discovery  of  Vasco  da  Gama, 
of  Cabral,  of  Americus  Vespucius,  and 
the  heroic  exploits  of  Albuquerque,  by 
whose  exertions  a passage  was  found  to 
the  East  Indies,  the  Portuguese  domin- 
ion in  Goa  was  established,  the  Brazils, 
the  Moluccas,  etc.,  were  discovered. 
The  commerce  of  Portugal,  under  Eman- 
uel was  more  prosperous  than  at  any 
former  period.  The  treasures  of  America 
flowed  into  Lisbon,  and  the  reign  of 
Emanuel  was  justly  called  “the  golden 
age  of  Portugal.”  He  died  in  1521,  aged 
fifty-two. 

EMBALMING  (em-bam'ing),  the  pro- 
cess of  filling  and  surrounding  with 
aromatic  and  antiseptic  substances  any 
bodies,  particularly  corpses,  in  order  to 
preserve  them  from  corruption.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  employed  the  art  on 
a great  scale,  and  other  peoples,  for 
example  the  Assyrians  and  Persians, 
followed  them,  but  by  no  means  equalled 
them  in  it.  The  ancient  Peruvians  ap- 
pear to  have  injected  and  washed  the 
corpses  with  the  fluid  that  flows  from 
imperfectly  burned  wood,  which  would 
of  course  contain  pyroligneous  acid, 
creosote,  and  other  antiseptics.  Pliny 
alludes  to  the  use  of  a similar  fluid  by 
the  Egyptians  for  embalming.  In  later 
times  bodies  have  been  preserved  a long 
time  by  embalming,  especially  when 
they  have  remained  at  a low  and  uni- 
form temperature,  and  have  been  pro- 
tected from  the  air.  The  body  of  Ed- 
ward I.  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1307,  and  in  1770  was  found 
entire.  Canute  died  in  1036;  his  body 
was  found  very  fresh  in  1776  in  Win- 
chester Cathedral.  The  bodies  of  Will- 
iam the  Conqueror  and  of  Matilda,  his 
wife,  were  found  entire  at  Caen  in  the 
16th  century.  Of  the  various  modern 
artificial  means  of  preserving  bodies, 
impregnation  with  corrosive  sublimate 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective, 
next  to  immersion  in  spirits.  An  in- 
jection of  sulphate  of  zinc  into  the  blood- 
vessels is  said  to  be  very  effective. 

EMBANK'MENT,  a mound  of  earth, 
etc.,  thrown  up  either  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a roadway  at  a level  different 
from  that  of  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  for  keeping  a large  body  of 
water  within  certain  limits. 

EMBAR'GO,  in  commerce,  an  arrest 
on  ships  or  merchandise  by  public 
authority;  or  a prohibition  of  state, 
commonly  on  foreign  ships,  in  time  of 
war,  to  prevent  their  going  out  of  or 
coming  into  port.  A breach  of  em- 
bargo, under  knowledge  of  the  insured, 
discharges  the  underwriters  of  all  lia- 
bility. 

EM'BASSY,  in  its  strict  sense,  signifies 
a mission  presided  over  by  an  ambassa- 
dor, as  distinguished  from  a legation  or 
mission  intrusted  to  an  envoy.  An 
ambassador,  as  the  representative  of  the 
person  of  his  sovereign,  can  demand  a 


private  audience  of  the  sovereign  to 
whom  he  is  accredited,  while  an  envoy 
must  communicate  with  the  minister  for 
foreign  affairs. 

EMBER-DAYS,  in  the  Anglican  and 
Roman  Catholic  Churches,  fast-days 
occurring  at  the  times  in  the  year  ap- 
pointed for  ordination.  As  now  ob- 
served they  are  the  Wednesday,  Friday 
and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in 
Lent,  after  the  feast  of  Pentecost  or 
Whitsunday,  after  the  festival  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (14th  Sept.),  and  after  the 
festival  of  St.  Lucia  (13th  Dec.).  The 
weeks  in  which  these  days  fall  are  called 
Ember-weeks. 

EMBER-GOOSE,  a bird,  known  also 
as  the  great  northern  diver  and  loon. 
See  Divers. 

EMBERIZ'ID.®,  a family  of  small 
birds  belonging  to  the  order  Insessores 
and  tribe  Conirostres,  typical  genus 
Emberiza.  It  includes  the  buntings,  the 


Texas  sparrow. 


snow-flake,  the  yellow-hammer,  and  reed 
sparrow.  The  ortolan  belongs  to  this 
family.  By  some  naturalists  they  are 
classified  as  a sub-family  of  the  finches. 
The  Texas  sparrow  or  green-finch  is  a 
common  species  in  the  lower  Rio  Grande 
valley. 

EMBEZ'ZLEMENT  is  the  appropria- 
tion, by  a clerk  or  servant,  to  himself,  of 
money  or  property  put  into  his  hands  in 
trust.  In  English  law  it  is  a felony  pun- 
ishable by  penal  servitude  for  not  more 
than  fourteen  years,  or  by  imprison- 
ment; and  in  the  case  of  a male  under 
the  age  of  sixteen,  by  whipping  in  ad- 
dition to  the  imprisonment. 

EM'BLEM,  specifically  a picture  rep- 
resenting one  thing  to  the  eye  and  an- 
other to  the  understanding.  The  most 
common  emblems  are  such  as  a balance, 
which  represents  justice;  a crown,  an 
emblem  of  royalty;  the  serpent,  of  cun- 
ning; etc. 

EM'BOLISM,  the  blocking  up  of  a 
blood-vessel  by  a clot  of  blood  that 
comes  from  some  distance,  till  it  reaches 
a vessel  too  small  to  permit  its  onward 
progres.s,  often  the  cause  of  sudden 
paralysis  and  death,  or  of  gangrene  and 
pyaemia. 

EMBOS'SING,  the  art  of  producing 
raised  figures  upon  plane  surfaces,  such 
as  on  leather  and  cloth  for  bookbinding, 
etc.;  on  paper  for  envelopes,  etc.;  on 
wood  or  bronze,  in  architecture  or 
sculpture. 

EMBROI'DERY,  figured  work  in  gold, 
or  silver,  or  silk  thread,  wrought  by  the 
needle,  upon  cloths,  stuffs,  or  muslins. 


The  art  was  common  in  the  East  in  very 
ancient  times.  The  Jews  appear  to  have 
acquired  it  from  the  Egyptians;  Homer 
makes  frequent  allusion  to  it;  and 
Phrygia  was  celebrated  for  its  embroi- 
dery, which  was  in  great  demand  at 
Rome.  Embroidery  is  commonly  divided 
into  two  classes;  white  embroidery  ap- 
plied to  dress  and  furniture,  in  which  the 
French  and  the  Swiss  excel;  and  em- 
broidery in  silk,  gold,  and  silver,  chiefly 
in  demand  for  ecclesiastical  vestments, 
etc.  The  Chinese,  Hindus,  Persians,  and 
Turks  excel  in  work  of  this  kind. 

EM'BRYO,  (1)  in  zoology,  the  earliest 
and  rudimentary  form  in  which  any 
young  animal  appears;  it  may  be  the 
first  rudiments  of  the  animal  in  the 
womb,  before  the  several  members  are 
distinctly  formed,  after  which  it  is  called 
the  fetus.  (2)  In  plants  the  embryo 
is  the  rudimentary  organism  contained 
in  the  seed. 

EMBRYOL'OGY,  the  branch  of  biology 
comprising  the  history  of  animals  from 
the  first  appearance  of  organization  in 
the  egg  or  ovum  (the  embryo  stage)  up 
to  the  attainment  of  the  perfect  form. 
The  importance  of  the  study  partly  de- 
pends upon  the  fact  that  the  history  of 
animals  thus  traced  reveals  the  exist- 
ence of  structures  which  disappear  at  a 
later  period,  or  become  obscured  by 
arrest  of  their  development,  or  by  union 
with  other  parts,  and  permits  us  to 
follow  the  steps  by  which  complex  organs 
arise  by  the  combination  of  simpler 
parts.  Thus  points  of  affinity  are  de- 
tected between  species  and  orders  whose 
adult  aspect  is  very  unlike. 

EM'ERALD,  a well-known  gem  of 
pure  green  color,  somewhat  harder  than 
quartz ; it  is  a silicate  of  aluminium  and 
the  rare  element  glucinum  or  beryllium, 
which  was  detected  in  it  by  Vauquelin 
after  it  had  been  discovered  by  the  same 
chemist  in  the  beryl.  Its  color  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  chromium.  Its  natural 
form  is  either  rounded  or  that  of  a short 
six-sided  prism.  It  is  one  of  the  softest 
of  the  precious  stones,  but  is  not  acted 
on  by  acids.  Emeralds  of  large  size  and 
at  the  same  time  free  from  flaws  ai;e  rare ; 

EM'ERSON,  Ralph  Waldo,  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Bos- 
ton in  1803.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1821,  for  five  years  taught  in  a school, 
and  in  1829  became  minister  to  a Unita- 
rian church  in  Boston,  but  in  1832  re- 
signed his  charge.  He  spent  greater 
part  of  1833  in  Europe,  and  on  his  return 
began  his  career  as  a lecturer  on  various 
subjects,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  for 
a long  series  of  years.  In  1835  he  took 
up  his  permanent  residence  at  Concord, 
Mass.,  and  in  1836  published  a small 
volume  called  Nature.  Fie  was  one  of 
the  original  editors  of  the  Dial,  a trans- 
cendental magazine  begun  in  1840. 
Two  volumes  of  his  essays  were  pub- 
lished in  1841  and  1844,  and  his  poems 
in  1846.  His  miscellaneous  addresses 
had  been  published  in  England  in  1844, 
and  on  visiting  Great  Britain  in  1847 
he  was  welcomed  by  a large  circle  of 
admirers.  In  1850  he  published  Rep- 
resentative Men;  in  1856,  English  Traits; 
in  1860,  The  Conduct  of  Life;  in  1869, 
May  Day  and  Other  Poems,  and  Society 
and  Solitude;  in  1871,  Parnassus,  a col- 
lection of  poems;  in  1876,  Letters  ana 


j 

1 

1 


EMERY 


EMPEROR  MOTH 


Social  Aims.  lie  died  April  27,  1882. 
Emerson  showed  certain  similarities 
with  Carlyle,  of  whom  he  was  a friend 
and  correspondent.  Their  correspond- 
ence appeared  in  1883.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  original  and  influential  writers 
that  the  U.  States  have  produced. 


EM'ERY,  an  impure  variety  of  corun- 
dum, of  blackish  or  bluish-gray  color, 
chiefly  found  in  shapeless  masses  and 
mixed  with  other  minerals.  It  contains 
about  82  per  cent  of  alumina  and  a 
small  portion  of  iron;  is  very  hard;  is 
infusible,  and  is  not  attacked  by  acids. 
The  best  emery  is  brought  from  the 
Levant,  chiefly  from  Cape  Emeri  in 
Naxos.  It  also  occurs  in  Spain,  and  in  a 
few  iron-mines  in  Great  Britain.  It  is 
employed  in  cutting  and  polishing 
precious  stones;  in  smoothing  the  sur- 
face of  the  finer  kinds  of  lenses  prepara- 
tory to  their  being  polished;  in  the  pol- 
ishing of  marble;  by  cutlers,  locksmiths, 
glaziers,  and  other  artisans.  For  all  these 
purposes  it  is  pulverized  in  large  iron 
mortars  or  in  steel  mills,  and  the  powder, 
which  is  rough  and  sharp,  is  carefully 
washed  and  sifted  into  eight  or  ten  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  fineness.  Emery-paper 
and  emery-cloth  are  made  by  laying  a 
thin  coat  of  glue  upon  the  fabric,  and 
dusting  the  emery  from  a sieve  of  the 
required  size. 

EMETTC,  any  substance  adminis- 
tered to  induce  vomiting.  Emetics  are 
most  commonly  administered  to  remove 
poisonous  or  indigestible  substances 
from  the  stomach,  or  to  clear  the  air- 
passages  of  obstructive  morbid  material 
in  cases  of  bronchitis,  croup,  etc.  Ipecac- 
uanha and  sulphate  of  zinc  are  fre- 
quently given  for  these  purposes,  or,  as 
a readily  obtainable  substitute,  mustard 
stirred  into  water.  They  should,  how- 
ever, always  be  administered  with  cau- 
tion, or  serious  injury  to  the  system  may 
result. 

EMEU,  EMU  (e'mu),  a large  cursorial 
bird,  formerly  dispersed  over  the  whole 
Australian  continent,  but  now  almost 
extirpated  in  many  districts.  It  is 
alied  to  the  cassowary,  but  is  distin- 


guished by  the  absence  of  a “helmet” 
on  the  top  of  the  head.  It  nearly  equals 
the  ostrich  in  bulk,  being  thicker  in  the 
body,  though  its  legs  and  neck  are 
shorter.  Its  feet  are  three-toed  (the 
ostrich  has  two  toes),  and  its  feathers, 
which  are  double,  are  of  a dull  sooty- 
brown  color,  those  about  the  neck  and 


Emu. 


head  being  of  a hairy  texture.  The 
wings  are  small  and  useless  for  flight, 
but  the  bird  can  run  with  great  speed, 
and  emeu  coursing  as  a sport  is  said  to 
surpass  that  of  the  hare.  The  flesh  of 
the  young  emeu  is  by  some  considered  a 
delicacy.  The  emeu  is  a bird  of  the 
plain,  the  cassowary  of  the  forest.  It  is 
easily  tamed,  and  may  be  kept  out  of 
doors  in  temperate  climates.  It  feeds 
on  vegetable  matter,  fruits,  roots,  etc. 

EMIGRATION.  See  Immigration. 

EMIGRES  (a-mi-gras),  a name  given 
more  particularly  to  those  persons  who 
left  France  at  the  commencement  of 
the  French  revolution. 

EMINENT  DOMAIN,  the  right  of  a 
state  or  sovereign,  to  appropriate  prop- 
erty for  the  use  of  the  state,  or  public  use. 
In  the  U.  States  the  right  imbues  in  the 
general  government  and  in  all  of  the 
several  states,  either  by  right  of  their 
sovereignty  or  by  vestment  from  the 
constitution.  The  right,  however,  has 
its  restrictions.  Property  cannot  be 
taken  by  eminent  domain  except  “by 
due  process  of  law,”  and  just  compen- 
sation given  to  the  person  or  persons 
from  whom  the  property  has  been  taken. 
The  usual  procedure  is  to  condemn  the 
property  and  then  to  pay  to  the  owner 
the  compensation  fixed  by  a court  or 
other  body,  this  compensation  being  full 
value  for  present  or  future  interests  in 
the  property. 

EM'MET,  Robert,  an  Irish  patriot, 
born  at  Cork  in  1780.  He  was  expelled 
from  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1798, 
on  the  ground  of  exciting  disaffection 
and  rebellion,  and  having  become  an 
object  of  suspicion  to  the  government, 
quitted  Ireland.  He  returned  there  on 
the  repeal  of  the  suspension  of  the 
habeas  corpus  act,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  United  Irish- 
men for  the  establishment  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Ireland.  In  July,  1803,  he 
was  the  leader  in  the  rebellion  in  which 
Lord  Kilwarden  and  others  perished. 
He  was  arrested  a few  days  afterward, 
fried,  and  executed.  His  fate  excited 
special  interest  from  his  attachment  to 
Miss  Sarah  Curran,  daughter  of  the  cele- 
brated barrister.  Emmet’s  speech 
before  his  execution  is  one  of  the  most 
stirring  and  eloquent  masterpieces  of 
the  world’s  oratory.  His  remains  are 


buried  in  Trinity  churchyard.  New  York. 

EMMETT,  Daniel  Decatur,  an  Ameri- 
can writer  of  songs  and  singer,  born  in 
Ohio  in  1815,  died  in  1902.  He  was  the 
author  of  the  song  “Dixie”  which,  car- 
ried south  during  the  civil  war  by  Union 
soldiers,  became  the  war  song  of  the 
south.  Among  his  other  famous  songs 
were  “Old  Dan  Tucker”  and  “Walk 
Along  John.” 

EMOTION,  a term  variously  used  by 
psychologists;  sometimes  as  one  of  the 
divisions  of  feeling  the  other  being  sensa- 
tion; sometimes  as  opposed  to  feeling 
when  the  latter  is  identified  with  sensa- 
tion, and  sometimes  as  distinct  from 
both  sensation  and  feeling,  when  the 
last  term  is  rigidly  confined  to  the  sense 
of  pleasure  or  pain.  In  any  one  of  these 
uses,  however,  emotions  are  distin- 
guished from  sensations  in  that  sensa- 
tions are  primary  forms  of  consciousness 
arising  by  external  excitation,  are  com- 
paratively simple  and  immediately 
presentative  phenomena,  and  are  def- 
inite in  character  and  capable  of  locali- 
zation; while  emotions  are  secondary  or 
derived  forms  of  consciousness,  are 
complex  and  representative,  and  are 
vague  and  diffused.  Sensations  are  said 
to  be  “peripherally  initiated,”  while 
emotions  are  centrally  initiated.  When, 
in  addition  to  its  being  distinguished 
from  sensation,  it  is  also  distinguished 
from  feeling,  emotion  is  applied  to  the 
whole  physical  condition  accompanying 
the  sense  of  pleasure  or  pain  (feeling). 
The  muscles  of  the  body  and  the  organic 
functions  of  the  system  are  often  con- 
siderably influenced  by  emotion,  which 
naturally  seeks  an  outward  expression 
unless  held  in  check  by  what  Darwin 
has  called  ser^dceable  associated  habits. 

EM'PEROR,  the  title  of  the  highest 
rank  of  sovereigns.  The  word  imperator 
from  imperare,  to  command,  in  its  most 
general  sense  signified  the  commander 
of  an  army.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
Roman  republic  imperator  became  the 
title  of  the  rulers  or  emperors,  and  in- 
dicated their  supreme  power.  Charle- 
magne was  crowned,  by  Leo  III.,  as 
“Carolus  Augustus,  the  God-sent  pious 
and  great  emperor  of  Rome.”  Napoleon 
I.  adopted  the  old  idea  of  an  empire  as  a 
general  union  of  states  under  the  pro- 
tection, or  at  least  political  preponder- 
ance, of  one  powerful  state;  and  he  was 
followed  in  this  by  his  nephew,  Napoleon 
III.  In  1806  the  first  German  Empire, 
1000  years  old,  became  extinct,  and  the 
German  Emperor,  Francis  II.,  adopted 
the  title  of  Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Austria. 
In  December,  1870,  the  second  German 
Empire  was  formed.  King  William  of 
Prussia  having  accepted  the  imperial 
office  and  title  offered  him  at  Versailles 
while  engaged  in  the  siege  of  Paris.  Brit- 
ain is  considered  as  an  empire,  the  crown 
as  imperial,  and  the  paliament  is  styled 
the  Imperial  Parliament  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland;  but  the  sovereign  has  not 
the  imperial  title  in  reference  to  the 
home  dominions,  though  the  king  bears 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  India. 

EMPEROR  MOTH,  a British  moth  of 
the  silk-worm  family.  The  color  is 
grayish-brown,  with  a faint  purple 
tinge.  The  wings  are  about  3 inches  in 
expanse,  and  in  the  center  of  each  is  a 
large  eye-like  spot.  The  larva  is  of  a 


EMPHASIS 


ENCA'CLOPJ^DIA 


green  color,  with  a black  band  on  each 
segment. 

EM'PHASIS,  in  rhetoric,  a special 
stress  or  force  given  to  some  syllable, 
word,  or  words  in  speaking,  in  order  to 
impress  the  hearers  in  some  desired 
manner,  thus  differing  from  accent,  the 
position  of  which  is  fixed. 


Emperor  Moth. 

«,  eggs;  6,  larva,  dorsal  view:  c,  pupa,  lateral 
view;  d,  male  butterfly,  with  partial  out- 
line of  female.  (All  natural  size.) 

EMPIRE,  the  dominions  of  an  em- 

Seror. — Empire  State,  a name  given  to 
few  A'ork  State,  New  York  being  called 
the  Empire  City. 

EMPIR'IC,  in  medical  history  an  ap- 
pellation assumed  by  a sect  of  physi- 
cians who  contended  that  observation 
and  experience  alone  were  the  founda- 
tion of  the  art  of  medicine.  An  empiric, 
in  modern  medicine,  is  a physician  who 
has  had  no  regular  professional  educa- 
tion, but  W'ho  relies  on  what  is  fre- 
quently a very  crude  experience. 

EMPLOYERS’  LIABILITY,  the  lia- 
bility of  persons  employing  others  for 
the  injuries  such  employes  sustain  in  the 
service  of  their  employers.  The  liability, 
however,  is  limited.  The  servant  enter- 
ing the  employ  of  another  person  is 
assumed  to  take  the  ordinary  risks  of 
the  service  or  business,  including  the 
risks  from  the  negligence  of  fellow  em- 
ployes. The  employer  is  liable  for  in- 
juries employes  sustain  when  the  injury 
is  due  to  negligence  on  the  part  of  the 
employer  himself. 

ElVIPLOYMENT  BUREAU,  an  agency 
which  secures  positions  for  unemployed 
persons  and  secures  helpers  for  those  in 
want  of  help.  In  several  foreign  coun- 
tries the  government  engages  in  this  kind 
of  intermediation.  Also  labor  unions 
operate  employment  agencies.  Several 
states  of  the  U.  States  have  tried  the 
experiment  and  certain  cities  have  em- 
ployment bureaus  in  operation  with 
some  success.  The  great  mass  of  this 
business  is,  however,  undertaken  by 
private  enterprises  which  receive  fees 
from  both  sides.  Employment  agencies, 
owing  to  fraudulent  practices  by  dis- 
reputable concerns,  are  now  generally 
regulated  by  law. 

EMPORIA,  city  and  railway  center; 
capital  of  Lyon  co.,  Kan.,  on  the  A.,  T. 
and  S.  F.  and  the  M.,  K.  and  T.  R.  Rs; 
6 miles  above  the  junction  of  the  Neosho 
and  Cottonwood  rivers,  in  a fine  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  region.  Pop. 
10,120. 

EMPO'RIUM,  a center  of  extensive 
commerce,  a trading  town  or  city.  I 


EMS,  a beautiful  watering-place  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on 
the  river  Lahn,  not  far  from  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Rhine.  Its  mineral 
waters  are  warm — from  70°  to  118° 
Fahr.,  contain  large  quantities  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  are  u.^ed  in  chronic 
catarrhs,  pulmonary  complaints,  dis- 
eases of  the  stomach,  gout,  and  some 
diseases  of  the  urinary  vessels.  There 
are  about  8,000  visitors  each  season. 
Pop.  6,943. 

EMU.  See  Emeu. 

EMUL'SION,  a medical  preparation, 
consisting  of  an  oily  or  resinous  sub- 
stance made  to  combine  with  water  by 
some  substance  that  itself  has  the  prop- 
erty of  combining  with  both,  such  as  gum 
arabic,  the  yolk  of  eggs,  almonds,  etc. 

ENAM'EL,  a vitreous  glaze  of  various 
colors  fused  to  the  surface  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  other  substances.  The  art 
of  enameling,  wliich  is  of  great  antiq- 
uity, was  practiced  by  the  Assyrians 
and  by  the  Egyptians,  from  whom  it 
may  have  passed  into  Greece,  and  thence 
into  Rome  and  its  provinces,  including 
Great  Britain,  where  various  Roman 
antiquities  with  enameled  ornamenta- 
tion has  been  discovered.  The  basis  of 
all  kinds  of  enamel  is  a perfectly  trans- 
parent and  fusible  glass,  which  is  ren- 
dered either  semi-transparent  or  opaque 
by  the  admixture  of  metallic  oxides. 
White  enamels  are  composed  by  melting 
the  oxide  of  tin  with  glass,  and  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  manganese  or  phos- 
phate of  calcium  to  increase  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  color.  The  addition  of  the 
oxide  of  lead,  or  antimony,  or  oxide  of 
silver,  produces  a yellow  enamel.  Reds 
are  formed  by  copper,  and  by  an  inter- 
mixture of  the  oxides  of  gold  and  iron. 
Greens,  violets,  and  blues  are  formed 
from  the  oxides  of  copper,  cobalt,  and 
iron.  In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
enameling  was  largely  applied  to  the 
decoration  of  snuff-boxes;  tea-canisters, 
candlesticks,  and  other  small  articles. 
Of  late  years  it  has  been  extensively 
applied  to  the  coating  of  Iron  vessels  for 
domestic  purposes,  the  protection  of  the 
insides  of  baths,  cisterns,  and  boilers, 
and  the  like.  Enameling  in  colors  upon 
iron  is  now  common,  iron  plales  being 
thus  treated  by  means  of  various  mix- 
tures, and  words  and  designs  of  various 
kinds  being  permanently  fixed  upo-fi 
them  by  stencilling,  for  advertising, 
sign-boards,  etc. 

ENCAMPMENT.  See  Camp. 

ENCAR'PUS,  in  architecture,  a sculp- 
tured ornament  in  imitation  of  a garland 


Enoarpus— From  Palazzo  Niccollnl,  Rome. 

of  fruits,  leaves,  or  flowers,  suspended 
between  two  points.  The  garland  is  of 
greatest  size  in  the  middle,  )and  dimin- 
ishes gradually  to  the  points  of  suspen- 


sion, from  which  the  ends  generally 
hang  down.  The  encarpus  is  sometimes 
composed  of  an  imitation  of  drapery 
similarly  disposed,  and  sometimes  of  an 
assemblage  of  musical  instruments, 
implements  of  war  or  of  the  chase. 

ENCAUSTIC  TILES,  ornamental  pav- 
ing-tiles of  baked  pottery,  much  used 
during  the  middle  ages  in  the  pavements 
of  churches  and  othes  ecclesiastical 
edifices.  The  encaustic  tile,  strictly 
so-called,  was  decorated  with  patterns 


Part  of  medieval  pavement  of  encaustic  tiles 
— Church  of  St.  Pierre-sur-Dive,  Normandy. 

formed  by  different  colored  clays  in- 
laid in  the  tile  and  fired  with  it.  The 
art  appears  to  have  originated  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  12th  century,  to  have 
attained  its  highest  perfection  during 
the  13th,  and  to  have  sunk  into  disuse  in 
the  15th.  During  the  whole  of  this 
period  it  was  principally  carried  on  in 
England  and  Normandy.  After  a long 
lapse  the  art  was  revived  in  England  in 
1830  by  Wright,  a Shelton  potter.  In 
modern  manufacture  two  methods  are 
employed,  the  “plastic”  and  the  “semi- 
dry” or  “dust”  method.  The  first  is, 
in  all  essentials,  that  used  in  the  middle 
ages,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  perfection 
of  modern  molding  appliances;  the 
second  consists  in  ramming  pulverized 
clay  with  a minimum  of  moisture  into 
metal  dies,  the  subsequent  firing  of  tiles 
thus  consolidated  being  attended  with 
less  risk  from  shrinkage. 

ENCEINTE  (an-sant'),  in  fortification, 
the  continuous  line  of  works  which  forms 
the  main  enclosure  of  a town  or  fortress. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  area 
within  this  line. 

ENCKE  (en'ke),  Johann  Franz,  Ger- 
man astronomer,  born  at  Hamburg  in 
1791.  He  calculated  the  orbit  of  the 
comet  observed  by  Mechain,  Miss  Her- 
schel,  and  Pons,  predicted  its  return,  and 
detected  a gradual  acceleration  of  move- 
ment, ascribed  by  him  to  the  presence  of 
a resisting  medium.  The  comet  is  now 
known  as  Encke’s  comet.  The  fame  of 
his  works  The  Distance  of  the  Sun, Tran- 
sit of  Venus  of  1769  led  to  his  appoint- 
ment as  director  of  the  Berlin  Obser- 
vatory (1825),  a position  which  he  held 
till  his  death  in  1865. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA,  CYCLOP.®DIA,  or 
CYCLOPEDIA,  a systematic  view  of  the 
whole  extent  of  human  knowledge  or  of 
particular  departments  of  it,  with  the 
subjects  arranged  generally  in  alpha- 
betic order.  Varro  and  Pliny  the  elder, 
among  the  Romans,  attempted  works 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ENGINE 


of  an  encyclopaedic  nature,  the  latter 
in  his  well-known  Historia  Naturalis,  or 
Natural  History.  Other  ancient  ency- 
clopedic works  were  those  of  Stobseus 
and  Suidas,  and  especially  of  Marcianus 
Capella.  In  the  13th  century  a work  on 
a regular  plan  was  compiled  by  the  Do- 
minican Vincent  of  Beauvais  (d.  1264), 
in  which  was  exhibited  the  whole  sum  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  middle  ages.  His 
work  was  entitled  Speculum  Historiale, 
Naturale,  Doctrinale,  to  which  an  anony- 
mous author  added,  some  years  later,  a 
Speculum  Morale.  Roger  Bacon’s  Opus 
Majus  also  belonged  to  the  encyclopedic 
class.  An  exceedingly  popular  work  was 
the  De  Proprietatibus  Rerum  of  Bar- 
tholomeus  de  Glanvilla,  an  English 
Franciscan  friar,  which  maintained  its 
reputation  from  1360  to  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century.  In  the  17th  century 
various  encyclopedic  works  were  com- 
piled, such  as  the  Latin  one  of  Johann 
Heinrich  Alsted  (in  7 vols.,  Herborn, 
1620).  In  1674  appeared  the  first  edi- 
tion of  Moreri’s  Le  Grand  Dictionnaire 
Historique;  in  1677  Johann  Jacob  Hoff- 
mann published  at  Basel  his  Lexicon 
Universale ; and  in  1697  appeared  Bayle’s 
famous  Dictionnaire  Historique  et 
Critique,  which  is  still  of  great  value. 
The  first  English  alphabetical  encyclo- 
ptedia  was  the  Lexicon  Technicum, 
published  in  1704.  ' Among  the  chief 
English  works  of  this  kind  are:  1.  Eph- 
riam  Chambers’s  Cyclopaedia,  or  a Uni- 
versal Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
published  in  1728  in  2 vols.  folio.  2. 
The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  pub- 
lished in  Edinburgh,  in  nine  editions — 
the  first  in  1788,  the  last  in  1875-88 
(24  vols.  4to,  with  supplement,  11  vols., 
1902-03L  3.  Rees’  Cyclopaedia,  39  vols. 
4to,  illustrated,  1802-20.  4.  Edinburgh 
Encyclopaedia,  1810-30,  18  vols.  4to, 
conducted  by  Sir  David  (then  Dr.) 
Brewster.  5.  Encyclopaedia  Metropoli- 
tana,  London,  29  vols.  4to,  and  contain- 
ing some  valuable  complete  treatises. 
6.  The  London  Encyclopaedia,  by 
Thomas  Curtis,  22  vols.  4to;  London, 
1829.  7.  The  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  in  28 
vols.  small  folio,  1838-43;  since  recast 
under  the  name  of  the  English  Cyclo- 
paedia. 8.  Chambers’s  Encyclopaedia,  in 
10  vols.  large  8vo,  1860-68;  new  edition 
in  1888-92.  9.  The  Popular  Encyclo- 

paedia, in  7 vols.  large  8vo,  183^38; 
now  issued  in  14  vols.  The  cnief  Ameri- 
can encyclopaedias  are  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Americana,  in  13  vols.,  1829-33; 
the  New  American  Cyclopaedia,  in  16 
vols.,  1858-63  and  1881,  Johnson’s 
Universal  C!yclopedia,  4 vols.,  1874-77, 
and  8 vols.,  1895,  and  the  Interna- 
tional Encyclopaedia,  17  vols.  1904,  20 
vols.  1906.  Of  the  French  cyclo- 
paedias the  most  famous  is  the  great 
Dictionnaire  Encyclop6dique,  by  Diderot 
and  D’Alembert  (see  next  article);  the 
Encyclop6die  M6thodique,  ou  par  Ordre 
des  Mati4res,  Paris,  1781-1832,  in  201 
vols.  4to,  of  which  47  are  plates;  the 
Encyclop6die  Moderne,  1824-32,  26 

vols.;  the  Encyclop4die  des  Gens  du 
Monde,  1835-44,  22  vols.;  the  Diction- 
naire de  la  Conversation  et  de  la  Lecture 
1851-58;  the  excellent  Grande  Encylco- 
p4die,  31  vols.;  and  the  large  and  valu- 
able Grand  Dictionnaire  Universel  du 
XIX  Si4cle,  edited  by  Larousse,  16  vols. 


folio  (with  supplementary  vols.).  Nu- 
merous works  of  this  kind  have  been 

Eublished  in  Germany,  the  most  popular 
eing  the  Conversations-Lexikon  of 
Brockhaus,  now  in  its  fourteenth  edition ; 
Meyer’s  Konversations-Lexicon,  in  its 
fifth  edition;  Pierer’s  Konversations- 
Lexikon,  in  its  seventh  edition ; and  that 
issued  by  Spamer,  now  in  its  second 
edition.  The  most  comprehensive  is  the 
Allgemeine  Encyklopadie,  originally 
edited  by  Professors  Ersch  and  Gruber, 
begun  in  1818,  and  not  yet  completed. 

ENCYCLOPEDIE  (in-gik-lo-pa-de), 
the  French,  the  most  important  work  of 
the  18th  century  after  the  works  of 
Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  originated  in  a 
French  translation  of  Ephriam  Cham- 
bers’s Cylcopajdia.  Diderot  was  ap- 
pointed to  edit  it,  and  enlisted  the  ablest 
men  of  the  time  as  contributors.  Diderot 
himself  was  a prolific  contributor  on  a 
wide  variety  of  topics. 

ENDEM'IC,  a name  commonly  ap- 
plied to  diseases  which  attack  the  in- 
habitants of  a particular  district  or 
country,  and  have  their  origin  in  some 
local  cause,  as  the  physical  character  of 
the  place  where  they  prevail,  or  in  the 
employment,  habits,  and  mode  of  living 
of  the  people.  Diseases  which  are  en- 
demic in  one  country  may  also  appear  in 
others,  and  become  epidemic  under  in- 
fluences resembling  those  which  are  the 
cause  of  the  endemic  in  the  former  place. 

ENDLESS  SCREW,  a mechanical  con- 
trivance, consisting  of  a screw,  the  thread 
of  which  gears  into  a wheel  with  skew 
teeth,  the  obliquity  corresponding  to  the 


Endless  screw  and  wheel. 


angle  of  pitch  of  the  screw.  It  is  gen- 
erally employed  as  a means  of  producing 
slow  motion  in  the  adjustments  of  ma- 
chines, rather  than  as  transmitter  of  any 
great  amount  of  power. 

ENDOG'AMY,  a custom  among  some 
savage  peoples  of  marrying  only  within 
their  own  tribe;  opposite  to  exogamy. 

ENDOGENOUS  PLANTS  (en-doj'- 
e-nus),  or  ENDOGENS,  one  of  the  large 
primary  classes  into  which  the  vegetable 
kingdom  is  divided,  so  named  in  conse- 
quence of  the  new  woody  bundles  being 
developed  in  the  interior  of  the  stem, 
in  which  there  is  no  distinction  of  pith 
and  bark.  In  transverse  section  these 
bundles  appear  scattered  through  the 
cellular  matter,  being  more  compact 
toward  the  circumference.  The  other 
organs  of  the  plants  are  also  character- 
istic. The  leaves  are  generally  parallel- 
veined,  the  flowers  usually  with  three 
organs  in  each  whorl,  the  seed  has  an 
embryo  with  one  cotyledon,  and  the 
radicle  issues  from  a sheath  and  is  never 
developed  into  a tap-root  in  germination. 
To  this  class  belong  palms,  grasses, 
rushes,  lilies,  etc,  Endogens  increase  in 


thickness  only  to  a limited  extent ; hence 
they  are  not  injured  by  twining  plants 
as  exogens  are. 

ENE'MA,  any  liquid  or  gaseous  form 
of  medicine  for  injection  into  the  rec- 
tum. It  is  most  commonly  administered 
to  induce  peristaltic  action  of  the  bowels, 
but  it  is  often  the  most  desirable  means 
of  conveying  into  the  system  nourish- 
ment or  stimulants. 

EN'ERGY,  in  physics,  the  power  that 
a body  or  system  possesses  of  doing  work. 
A body  may  possess  energy  in  one  of  two 
forms,  viz.  as  kinetic  energy,  that  is  the 
energy  due  to  motion,  and  potential 
energy,  that  is  energy  due  to  what  may 
be  called  a position  of  advantage.  Thus 
a moving  mass,  a bullet  for  example,  can 
do  work  in  virtue  of  its  motion,  and  the 
name  kinetic  energy  is  given  to  energy 
of  this  kind.  Under  this  name  is  also 
included  energy  belonging  to  molecular 
motion,  to  electricity  in  motion,  to  heat 
and  light,  and  to  actual  chemical  action. 
Again,  as  examples  of  potential  energy 
we  may  take  the  case  of  a mass  raised  up 
to  a position  in  which  it  is  capable  of 
doing  work  by  falling — the  weight  of  a 
clock  for  instance;  but  the  term  also  in- 
cludes the  energy  due  to  electrical  sepa- 
ration, to  absorb  heat,  and  to  chemical 
separation,  as  in  gunpowder,  which  is 
ready  to  do  work  by  means  of  its  ex- 
plosion. From  the  investigations  of 
Joule  and  others  into  the  nature  and 
phenomena  of  heat  and  the  discovery  of 
the  equivalence  of  a definite  quantity  of 
mechanical  energy  to  a definite  quan- 
tity of  heat,  the  grand  principle  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  was  established. 
This  asserts  that  the  total  amount  of 
energy  in  the  universe,  or  in  any  hmited 
system  which  does  not  receive  energy 
from  without,  or  part  with  it  to  external 
matter,  is  invariable.  If  energy  of  any 
form  seems  to  disappear  in  such  a case 
it  reappears  in  some  other  form.  Thus, 
mechanical  energy  may  be  converted 
into  heat.  Heat  again  may  be  converted 
into  the  energy  of  electricity  in  motion, 
or  into  the  potential  energy  of  chemical 
separation.  And  electrical  energy, 
whether  potential  or  kinetic,  and  the 
energy  of  chemical  separation,  are  also 
convertible  into  heat.  (See  also  Corre- 
lation of  Physical  Forces.)  Connected 
with  this  principle  is  another  which 
states  that  no  known  natural  process  is 
exactly  reversible,  and  that  if  we  trans- 
form mechanical  energy  into  heat,  for 
example,  we  never  can  pass  back  and 
obtain  from  the  heat  produced  precisely 
the  amount  of  mechanical  energy  with 
which  we  commenced.  Whatever  at- 
tempt is  made  to  transform  and  re- 
transform energy  by  an  imperfect  process 
and  no  known  process  is  perfect,  part  of 
the  energy  is  necessarily  transformed 
into  heat,  and  is  dissipated  so  as  to  be 
incapable  of  further  useful  transforma- 
tion. It  therefore  follows,  that  as  energy 
is  in  a constant  state  of  transformation, 
there  is  a constant  process  of  degrada- 
tion of  energy  going  on,  a process  by 
which  energy  constantly  approaches  the 
unavailable  form  of  uniformly  diffused 
heat ; and  this  will  go  on  till  the  whole  of 
the  energy  of  the  universe  has  taken  this 
final  form. 

EN'GINE,  a mechanical  contrivance 
in  which  one  or  other  of  the  natural 


ENGINEER  CORPS 


ENGLAND 


forces  is  utilized  for  the  performance  of 
work  of  some  kind;  often  distinctively 
a steam-engine. 

ENGINEER  CORPS,  the  name  ap- 
plied to  the  body  of  engineers  of  the  U. 
States  navy,  established  by  the  act  of 
congress  which  was  approved  Aug.  31, 
1842.  The  engineers  came  into  the  navy 
with  the  adoption  of  steam  power,  and 
their  importance  has  steadily  increased 
since  that  time.  In  1866  the  first  cadet 
engineers  were  admitted  to  the  naval 
academy  and  the  number  grew  yearly 
until,  in  1899,  the  engineer  corps,  as  an 
acknowledged  separate  body  was  lost  in 
the  general  plan  of  officers,  thus  putting 
an  end  to  the  ill  feeling  which  had 
existed  in  the  navy  between  the  en- 
gineers and  the  line  officers. 

ENGINEERING  INSTRUMENTS,  in- 
struments used  by  civil  engineers  in  the 
various  work  attendant  upon  surveying. 
They  are  used  generally  for  measuring 
levels  or  horizontal  lines,  measuring 
distances,  measuring  angles,  and  for 
other  work.  Distance  is  measured  by 
the  chain,  the  surveyor’s  compass  is  used 
for  measuring  direction,  the  level  is  used 
for  determining  horizontal  lines,  and  the 
theodolite  for  measuring  angles. 

ENGINEERS  in  the  United  States 
Navy  are  commissioned  officers  having 
charge  of  the  machinery  of  steam- 
vessels.  A thorough  practical  education 
in  the  construction  and  management  of 
steam  machinery  is  required.  In  military 
law  they  are  considered  non-combat- 
ants. 

ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF,  the  body  of 
engineers  of  the  U.  States  army,  the 
duties  of  which  consist  of  all  kinds  of 
surveying,  reconn oitering,  construct  ino 
of  fortifications,  planning  of  all  defen- 
sive works,  laying  out  of  routes,  and 
constructing  roads  and  bridges.  The 
engineers  are  regarded  as  combatant 
and  often  take  part  in  battle,  although 
their  proper  work  is  often  more  import- 
ant than  mere  fighting. 

ENGLAND,  inducting  Wales,  the 
southern  and  larger  portion  of  the  island 
of  Great  Britain,  is  situated  between  50° 
and  55°  46'  n.  lat.,  and  1°  46'  e.  and  5° 
42'  w.  Ion.  On  the  n.  it  is  bounded  by 
Scotland;  on  all  other  sides  it  is  washed 
by  the  sea;  on  the  e.  by  the  North  Sea  or 
German  Ocean;  on  the  s.  by  the  English 
Channel;  and  on  the  w.  by  St  George’s 
Channel  and  the  Irish  Sea.  The  area  is 
37,319,221  acres  or  58,311  square  miles, 
of  which  32,597,398  acres  or  50,933 
square  miles  are  in  England,  and  4,721,- 
823  acres  or  7378  square  miites  in  Wales. 
This  is  exclusive  of  the  Channel  Islands 
and  the  Isle  of  Man,  which  together 
would  add  193,647  acres  or  302  square 
miles  more  to  the  area.  For  popula- 
tion, etc.,  see  Britain. 

The  capital  of  England  and  of  the 
British  Empire  is  London.  The  cities 
next  in  size  (in  order  of  population)  are: 
Liverpool,  Manchester  and  Salford,  Bir- 
mingham, Leeds,  Sheffield,  Bristol,  Not- 
tingham, Bradford,  and  Hull. 

The  chief  indentations  are : on  the  east 
the  Humber,  the  Wash,  and  the  Thames 
estuary;  on  the  west,  the  Solway  Firth, 
Morecambe  Bay,  Cardigan  Bay,  and  the 
Bristol  Channel;  those  on  the  south  are 
less  prominent,  though  including  some 
useful  harbors.  The  chief  islands  are: 


Holy  Island,  the  Fame  Islands,  Sheppy, 
and  Thanet  on  the  east  coast ; the  Isle  of 
Wight  on  the  south;  the  Scilly  Isles  at 
the  south-west  extremity;  and  Lundy 
Island,  Anglesey,  Holyhead,  and  Wal- 
ney  on  the  west. 

The  loftiest  heights  of  England  and 
Wales  are  situated  at  no  great  distance 
from  its  western  shores,  and  consist,  not 
so  much  of  a continuous  chain  as  of  a 
succession  of  mountains  and  hills, 
stretching,  with  some  interruptions,from 
north  to  south,  and  throwing  out  numer- 
ous branches  on  both  sides,  but  particu- 
larly to  the  west,  where  all  the  culminat- 
ing summits  are  found.  Amid  these 
mountains  lie  the  celebrated  English 
lakes,  of  which  the  most  important  are 
Windermere,  Derwent  Water,  Coniston 
Lake,  and  Ullswater.  Here  also  is  the 
highest  summit  of  Northern  England, 
Scawfell  (3210  feet).  A large  part  of  the 
surface  of  England  consists  of  wide  val- 
leys and  plains.  Beginning  in  the  north 
the  first  valleys  on  the  east  side  are  those 
of  the  Coquet,  Tyne,  and  Tees;  on  the 
west  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Eden, 
gradually  widens  out  into  a plain  of 
about  470  square  miles,  with  the  town  of 
Carlisle  in  its  center.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  the  northern  plains  is  the  Vale  of 
York,  which  has  an  area  of  nearly  1000 
sq.  miles.  Properly  speaking  it  is  still 
the  same  plain  which  stretches,  with 
scarcely  a single  interruption,  across  the 
counties  of  Lincoln,  Suffolk,  and  Essex, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  and  to  a 
considerable  distance  inland,  compris- 
ing the  Central  Plain  and  the  region  of 
the  Fens.  On  the  west  side  of  the  island, 
in  S.  Lancashire  and  Cheshire,  is  the  fer- 
tile Cheshire  Plain. 

England  is  well  supplied  with  rivers, 
many  of  them  of  great  importance  to  in- 
dustry and  commerce.  Most  of  them 
carry  their  waters  to  the  North  Sea.  If 
we  consider  the  drainage  as  a whole,  four 
principal  river  basins  may  be  distin- 
guished, those  of  the  Thames,  Wash,  and 
Humber  belonging  to  the  German  Ocean 
and  the  Severn  belonging  to  the  Atlan- 
tic. In  regard  to  minerals,  manufac- 
turing, etc.,  see  Britain. 

The  history  of  England  proper  begins 
when  it  ceased  to  be  a Roman  possession. 
On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  forces, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century 
A.D.,  the  South  Britons,  or  inhabitants 
of  what  is  now  called  England,  were  no 
longer  able  to  withstand  the  attacks  of 
their  ferocious  northern  neighbors,  the 
Scots  and  Piets.  In  the  middle  of  the 
5th  century  the  occasional  Teutonic  in- 
cursions gave  place  to  persistent  in- 
vasion with  a view  to  settlement.  These 
Teutonic  invaders  were  Low  German 
tribes  from  the  country  about  the 
mouths  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser,  the 
three  most  prominent  being  the  Angles, 
the  Saxons,  and  the  Jutes.  Of  these  the 
Jutes  were  the  first  to  form  a settlement, 
taking  possession  of  part  of  Kent,  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  etc.,  but  the  larger  con- 
quests of  the  Saxons  in  the  south  and 
the  Angles  in  the  north  gave  to  these 
tribes  the  leading  place  in  the  kingdom. 
The  struggle  continued  150  years,  and 
at  the  end  of  that  period  the  whole 
southern  part  of  Britain,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Strathclyde,  Wales,  and  West 
Wales  (Cornwall)  was  in  the  hands  of  the 


Teutonic  tribes.  This  conquered  terri- 
tory was  divided  among  a number  of  i 
small  states  or  petty  chieftaincies. 

While  this  work  of  conquest  and  of  in- 
ter-tribal strife  had  been  in  progress 
toward  the  establishment  of  a united 
kingdom,  certain  important  changes  had 
occurred.  The  conquest  had  been  the 
slow  expulsion  of  a Christian  race  by  a 
purely  heathen  race,  and  the  country 
had  returned  to  something  of  its  old 
isolation  with  regard  to  the  restofEurope. 

But  long  before  the  close  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury Christianity  had  secured  a footing. 

The  legal  and  political  changes  immedi- 
ately  consequent  upon  the  adoption  of  ^ 
Christianity  were  not  great,  but  there  ; 
resulted  a more  intimate  relation  with 
Europe  and  the  older  civilizations,  the 
introduction  of  new  learning  and  culture 
the  formation  of  a written  literature, 
and  the  fusion  of  the  tribes  and  petty 
kingdoms  into  a closer  and  more  lasting 
unity  than  that  which  could  have  been 
otherwise  secured. 

The  kingdom,  however,  was  still  kept 
in  a state  of  disturbance  by  the  attacks 
of  the  Danes,  who  had  made  repeated 
incursions  during  the  whole  of  the  Saxon 
period,  and  about  half  a century  after 
the  unification  of  the  kingdom  became 
for  the  moment  masters  of  nearly  the 
whole  of  England.  But  the  genius  of  ' 
Alfred  the  Great,  who  had  ascended  the 
throne  in  871,  speedily  reversed  matters 
by  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  at  Ethandune 
(878).  _ Guthrum,  their  king,  embraced 
Christianity,  became  the  vassal  of  the 
Saxon  king,  and  retired  to  a strip  of 
land  on  the  east  coast  including  North- 
umbria and  called  the  Danelagh.  During 
the  10th  century  many  changes  had 
taken  place  in  the  Teutonic  constitution.  ( 
Feudalism  was  already  taking  root;  the 
king’s  authority  had  increased;  the 
folkland  was  being  taken  over  as  the 
king’s  personal  property;  the  nobles  by 
birth,  or  ealdormen,  were  becoming  of 
less  importance  in  administration  than 
the  nobility  of  thegns,  the  officers  of  the 
king’s  court.  Animosities  between  the  ‘ 
English  and  the  Danes  who  had  settled 
among  them  became  daily  more  violent, 
and  a general  massacre  of  the  latter  took  1' 
place  in  1002.  The  following  year  V 
Sweyn  invaded  the  kingdom  with  a 
powerful  army  and  assumed  the  crown 
of  England.  Ethelred  was  compelled  5 
to  take  refuge  in  Normandy;  and  though 
he  afterward  returned,  he  found  in 
Canute  and  adversary  no  less  formidable 
than  Sweyn.  Ethelred  left  his  kingdom  j, 
in  1016  to  his  son  Edmund,  who  dis-  J 
played  great  valor,  but  was  compelled  to  ^ 
divide  his  kingdom  with  Canute;  and  ^ 
when  he  was  assassinated  in  1017  the 
Danes  succeeded  to  the  sovereignty  of  ^ 
the  whole.  f 

Canute  (Knut),  who  espoused  the  \ 
widow  of  Ethelred,  that  he  might  recon- 
cile his  new  subjects,  obtained  the  name  _ 
of  Great,  not  only  on  account  of  his  per-  J 
sonal  qualities,  but  from  the  extent  of 
his  dominions,  being  master  of  Denmark 
and  Norway  as  well  as  England.  In 
1035  he  died,  and  in  England  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  two  Danish  kings, 
Harold  and  Hardicanute,  whose  joint 
reigns  lasted  till  1042,  after  which  the 
English  line  was  again  restored  in  the 
person  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Ed- 

jj 


ENGLAND 


ixiisGLAND 


ward  was  a weak  prince,  and  in  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  had  far  leSs  real  power 
than  his  brother-in-law  Harold,  son  of 
the  great  earl  Godwin.  On  Edward’s 
death  in  1066  Harold  accordingly  ob- 
tained the  crown.  He  found,  however, 
a formidable  opponent  in  the  second- 
cousin  of  Edward,  William  of  Normandy 
who  instigated  the  Danes  to  invade  the 
northern  counties,  while  he,  with  60,000 
men,  landed  in  the  south.  Harold  van- 
quished the  Danes,  and  hastening  south- 
wards met  the  Normans  near  Hastings, 
at  Senlac,  afterwards  called  Battle. 
Harold  and  his  two  brothers  fell  (Oct. 
14,  1066),  and  William  (1066-87)  im- 
mediately claimed  the  government  as 
lawful  king  of  England,  being  subse- 
quently known  as  William  I.,  the  Con- 
querer. 

At  his  death,  in  1087,  V*  illiam  II., 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  Rufus, 
the  conqueror’s  second  son,  obtained 
the  crown,  Robert,  the  eldest  son,  re- 
ceiving the  duchy  of  Normandy.  In 
1100,  when  William  II.  was  accidently 
killed  i.n  the  New  Forest,  Robert  was 
again  cheated  of  his  throne  by  his 
younger  brother  Henry  (Henry  I.),  who 
in  1106  even  wrested  from  him  the 
duchy  of  Normandy.  He  supported  his 
quarrel  with  firmness,  and  brought  it  to 
a not  unfavorable  issue.  His  reign  was 
also  marked  by  the  suppression  of  the 
greater  Norman  nobles  in  England, 
whose  power  threatened  to  overshadow 
that  of  the  king,  and  by  the  substitution 
of  a class  of  lesser  nobles.  In  1135  he 
died  in  Normandy,  leaving  behind  him 
only  a daughter,  Matilda. 

By  the  will  of  Henry  I.  his  daughter 
Maud  or  Matilda,  wife  of  Godfrey  Plan- 
tagenet.  Count  of  Anjou,  and  frequently 
styled  the  Empress  Matilda,  because  she 
had  first  been  married  to  Henry  V., 
emperor  of  Germany,  was  declared  his 
successor.  But  Stephen,  son  of  the 
Count  of  Blois,  and  of  Adela,  daughter 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  raised  an 
army  in  Normandy,  landed  in  England, 
and  declared  himself  king.  After  years 
of  civil  war  and  bloodshed  an  amicable 
arrangement  was  brought  about,  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  Stephen  should 
continue  to  reign  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life,  but  that  he  should  be  suc- 
ceeded by  Henry,  son  of  Matilda  and 
the  Count  of  Anjou.  Stephen  died  in 
1154,  and  Henry  Plantagenet  ascended 
the  throne  with  the  title  of  Henry  II., 
being  the  first  of  the  Plantagenet  or 
Angevin  kings.  A larger  dominion  was 
united  under  his  sway  than  had  been 
held  by  any  previous  sovereign  of  Eng- 
land, for  at  the  time  when  he  became 
King  of  England  he  was  already  in  the 
possession  of  Anjou,  Normandy,  and 
Aquitaine. 

Henry  II.  found  far  less  difficulty  in 
restraining  the  license  of  his  barons  than 
in  abridging  the  exorbitant  privileges  of 
the  clergy,  who  claimed  exemption  not 
only  from  the  taxes  of  the  state,  but  also 
from  its  penal  enactments,  and  who  were 
supported  in  their  demands  by  the  pri- 
mate Becket.  Henry  w^as  the  first  who 
placed  the  common  people  of  England  in 
a situation  which  led  to  their  having  a 
share  in  the  government.  The  system 
of  frank-pledge  was  revived,  trial  by 
jury  was  instituted  by  the  Assize  of 


Clarendon,  and  the  Eyre  courts  were 
made  permanent  by  the  Assize  of  Not- 
tingham. 

Richard  I.,  called  Coeur  de  Lion,  who 
in  1189  succeeded  to  his  father,Henry 
II.,  spent  most  of  his  reign  away  from 
England.  Having  gone  to  Palestine 
to  join  in  the  third  crusade  he  proved 
himself  an  intrepid  soldier.  Returning 
homeward  in  disguise  through  Germany 
he  was  made  prisoner  by  Leopold,  duke 
of  Austria,  but  was  ransomed  by  his  sub- 
jects. In  the  meantime  John,  his 
brother,  had  aspired  to  the  crown,  and 
hoped,  by  the  assistance  of  the  French, 
to  exclude  Richard  from  his  right. 
Richard’s  presence  for  a time  restored 
matters  to  some  appearance  of  order; 
but  having  undertaken  an  expedition 
against  France,  he  received  a mortal 
wound  at  the  siege  of  Chalons,  in  1199. 

John  was  at  once  recognized  as  King 
of  England,  and  secured  possession  of 
Normandy;  but  Anjou,  Maine,  and 
Touraine  acknowledged  the  claim  of 
Arthur,  son  of  Geoffrey,  second  son  of 
Henry  II.  On  the  death  of  Arthur, 
while  in  John’s  power,  these  four  French 
provinces  were  at  once  lost  to  England. 
John’s  exactions  and  misgovernment 
had  equally  embroiled  him  with  the 
nobles.  In  1213  they  refused  to  follow 
him  to  France,  and  on  his  return  de- 
feated, they  at  once  took  measures  to 
secure  their  own  privileges  and  abridge 
the  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  King  and 
barons  met  at  Runnymede,  and  on  June 
15,  1215,  the  Great  Charter  (Magna 
Charta)  was  signed.  In  1216,  however, 
John  died,  and  his  turbulent  reign  was 
succeeded  by  the  almost  equally  tur- 
bulent reign  of  Henry  III. 

During  the  first  years  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  the  abilities  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  who  was  regent  until  1219, 
retained  the  kingdom  in  tranquility;  but 
when,  in  1227,  Henry  assumed  the  reins 
of  government  he  showed  himself  in- 
capable of  managing  them. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  III.,  in  1272, 
Edward  I.  succeeded  without  opposition. 
From  1276  to  1284  he  was  largely  oc- 
cupied in  the  conquest  and  annexation 
of  Wales.  In  1292  Balliol,  whom  Ed- 
ward had  decided  to  be  rightful  heir  to 
the  Scottish  throne,  did  homage  for  the 
fief  to  the  English  king;  but  when,  in 
1294,  war  broke  out  with  France,  Scot- 
land also  declared  war.  The  Scots  were 
defeated  at  Dunbar  (1296),  and  the 
country  placed  under  an  English  regent ; 
but  the  revolt  under  Wallace  (1297)  was 
followed  by  that  of  Bruce  (1306),  and 
the  Scots  remained  unsubdued.  In  1295 
the  first  perfect  parliament  was  sum- 
moned, the  clergy  and  barons  by  special 
writ,  the  commons  by  writ  to  the  sheriff’s 
directing  the  election  of  two  knights 
from  each  shire,  two  citizens  from  each 
city,  two  burghers  from  each  borough. 
The  great  aim  of  Edward,  to  include 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  in  one 
kingdom  proved  a failure,  and  he  died  in 
1307  marching  against  Robert  Bruce. 

The  reign  of  his  son  Edward  II.  was 
unfortunate  to  himself  and  to  his  king- 
dom. He  made  a feeble  attempt  to 
carry  out  his  father’s  last  and  earnest 
request  to  prosecute  the  war  with  Scot- 
land, but  the  English  were  almost  con- 
stantly unfortunate;  and  at  length,  at 


Bannockburn  (1314),  they  received  a 
defeat  from  Robert  Bruce  which  insured 
the  independence  of  Scotland.  He  died 
in  1327. 

The  reign  of  Edward  III.  was  as  bril- 
liant as  that  of  his  father  had  been  the 
reverse.  The  main  projects  of  the  third 
Edward  were  directed  against  France, 
the  crown  of  which  he  claimed  in  1328  in 
virtue  of  his  mother,  the  daughter  of 
King  Philip.  The  victory  won  by  the 
Black  Prince  at  Crecy  (1346),  the  cap- 
ture of  Calais  (1347),  and  the  victory  of 
Poitiers  (1356),  ultimately  led  to  the 
Peace  of  Br^tigny  in  1360,  by  which 
Edward  III.  received  all  the  west  of 
France  on  condition  of  renouncing  his 
claim  to  the  French  throne.  Before  the 
close  of  his  reign,  however,  these  advan- 
tages were  all  lost  again,  save  a few 
principal  towns  on  the  coast. 

Edward  III.  was  succeeded  in  1377  by 
his  grandson  Richard  II.,  son  of  Edward 
the  Black  Prince.  The  people  of  Eng- 
land now  began  to  show,  though  in  a tur- 
bulent manner,  that  they  had  acquired 
just  notions  of  government.  In  1380  an 
unjust  and  oppressive  poll-tax  brought 
their  grievances  to  a head,  and  100,000 
men,  under  V>’at  Tyler,  marched  toward 
London  (1381).  Wat  Tyler  was  killed 
while  conferring  with  the  king,  and  the 
prudence  and  courage  of  Richard  ap- 
peased the  insurgents.  Despite  his  con- 
duct on  this  occasion  Richard  was  de- 
ficient in  the  vigor  necessary  to  curb  the 
lawlessness  of  the  nobles.  In  1398  he 
banished  his  cousin,  Henry  Bolingbroke 
and  on  the  death  of  the  latter’s  father, 
the  Duke  of  Lancaster,  unjustly  ap- 
propriated his  cousin’s  partimony.  'To 
avenge  the  injustice  Bolingbroke  landed 
in  England  during  the  king’s  absence  in 
Ireland,  and  at  the  head  of  60,000  mal- 
contents compelled  Richard  to  surren- 
der. He  was  confined  in  the  Tower 
and  despite  the  superior  claims  of 
Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March, 
Henry  was  appointed  king  (1399),  the 
first  of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  Rich- 
ard was,  in  all  probability,  mui'dered 
early  in  1400. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, now  Henry  IV.,  acquired  the 
crown  rendered  his  reign  extremely  tur- 
bulent, but  the  vigor  of  his  administra- 
tion quelled  every  insurrection.  During 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  the  clergy  of  Eng- 
land first  began  the  practice  of  burning 
heretics  under  the  act  de  haeretico  com- 
burendo,  passed  in  the  second  year  of 
his  reign.  Henry  died  in  1413,  leaving 
his  crown  to  his  son,  Henry  V.,  who  re- 
vived the  claim  of  Edward  III.  to  the 
throne  of  France  in  1415,  and  invaded 
that  country  at  the  head  of  30,000  men. 
The  disjointed  councils  of  the  French 
rendered  their  country  an  easy  prey;  the 
victory  of  Agincourt  was  gained  in  1415 ; 
and  after  a second  campaign  a peace  was 
concluded  at  Troyes  in  1420,  by  which 
Henry  received  the  hand  of  Katherine, 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.,  was  appointed 
regent  of  France  during  the  reign  of  his 
father-in-law,  and  declared  heir  to  the 
throne  on  his  death.  The  two  kings, 
however,  died  within  a few  weeks  of  each 
other  in  1422,  and  the  infant  son  of 
Henry  thus  became  king  of  England 
(as  Henry  VI.)  and  France  at  the  age  of 
uine  months. 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 


England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 
was  subjected,  in  the  first  place,  to  all  the 
confusion  incident  to  a long  minority, 
and  afterward  to  all  the  misery  of  a 
civil  war.  In  France  (1422-53)  the  Eng- 
lish forces  lost  ground,  and  were  finally 
expelled  by  the  celebrated  Joan  of  Arc, 
Calais  alone  being  retained.  The  rebel- 
lion of  Jack  Cade  in  1450  was  suppressed 
only  to  be  succeeded  by  more  serious 
trouble.  In  that  year  Richard,  duke  of 
York,  the  father  of  Edward,  afterward 
Edward  IV.,  began  to  advance  his  pre- 
tensions to  Hie  throne,  which  had  been 
so  long  usurped  by  the  house  of  Lancas- 
ter. The  wars  which  resulted,  called  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  from  the  fact  that  a 
red  rose  was  the  badge  of  the  house  of 
Lancaster  and  a white  one  that  of  the 
house  of  York,  lasted  for  thirty  years, 
from  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans,  May 
22,  1455,  to  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  Aug. 
22,  1485.  Henry  VI.  was  twice  driven 
from  the  throne  (in  1461  and  1471)  by 
Edward  of  York,  whose  father  had  pre- 
viously been  killed  in  battle  in  1460. 
Edward  of  York  reigned  as  Edward  IV. 
from  1461  till  his  death  in  1483,  with  a 
brief  interval  in  1471 ; and  was  succeeded 
by  two  other  sovereigns  of  the  house  of 
York,  first  his  son  Edward  V.,  who 
reigned  for  eleven  weeks  in  1483;  and 
then  by  his  brother  Richard  III.,  who 
reigned  from  1483  till  1485,  when  he  was 
defeated  and  slain  on  Bosworth  field 
by  Henry  Tudor,  of  the  House  of  Lan- 
caster, who  then  became  Henry  VII. 

Henry  VII.  was  at  this  time  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  house  of  Lancaster 
and  in  order  at  once  to  strengthen  his 
own  title,  and  to  put  to  an  end  the 
rivalry  between  the  houses  of  York  and 
Lancaster,  he  married  in  1486  Elizabeth, 
sister  of  Edward  V.  and  heiress  of  the 
house  of  York.  His  administration 
throughout  did  much  to  increase  the 
royal  power  and  to  establish  order  and 
prosperity.  He  died  in  1509. 

The  authority  of  the  English  crown, 
which  had  been  so  much  extended  by 
Henry  VII.,  was  by  his  son  Henry  VIII. 
exerted  in  a tyrannical  and  capricious 
manner.  The  most  important  event  of 
the  reign  was  undoubtedly  the  Refor- 
mation; though  it  had  its  origin  rather 
in  Henry’s  caprice  and  in  the  casual 
situation  of  his  private  affairs  than  in  his 
conviction  of  the  necessity  of  a reforma- 
tion in  religion,  or  in  the  solidity  of 
reasoning  employed  by  the  reformers. 
Henry  had  been  espoused  to  Catherine 
of  Spain,  who  was  first  married  to  his 
elder  brother  Arthur,  a prince  who  died 
young.  Henry  became  disgusted  with 
his  queen,  and  enamored  of  one  of  her 
maids  of  honor,  Anne  Boleyn.  He  had 
recourse,  therefore,  to  the  pope  to  dis- 
solve a marriage  which  had  at  first  been 
rendered  legal  only  by  a dispensation 
from  the  pontiff;  but  failing  in  his  de- 
sires he  broke  away  entirely  from  the 
Holy  See,  and  in  1534  got  himself  recog- 
nized by  act  of  parliament  as  the  head  of 
the  English  Church.  He  died  in  1547. 
He  was  married  six  times,  and  left  three 
children,  each  of  whom  reigned  in  turn. 
These  were:  Mary,  by  his  first  wife, 
Catherine  of  Aragon;  Elizabeth,  by  his 
second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn ; and  Edward, 
by  his  third  wife,  Jane  Seymour. 

Edward,  who  reigned  first,  with  the 


title  of  Edward  VI.,  was  nine  years  of 
age  at  the  time  of  his  succession,  and 
died  in  1553,  when  he  was  only  sixteen. 
His  short  reign,  or  rather  the  reign  of  the 
Earl  of  Hertford,  afterward  Duke  of 
Somerset,  who  was  appointed  regent, 
was  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  success 
which  attended  the  measures  of  the  re- 
formers, who  acquired  great  part  of  the 
power  formerly  engrossed  by  the  Catho- 
lics. The  intrigues  of  Dudley,  duke  of 
Northumberland,  during  the  reign  of 
Edward,  caused  Lady  Jane  Grey  to  be 
declared  his  successor;  but  her  reign,  if 
it  could  be  called  such,  lasted  only  a few 
days.  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII., 
was  placed  upon  the  throne,  and  Lady 
Jane  Grey  and  her  husband  were  both 
executed.  Mary,  a bigoted  Catholic, 
seems  to  have  wished  for  the  crown  only 
for  the  purpose  of  re-establishing  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith.  Political  motives 
had  induced  Philip  of  Spain  to  accept 
of  her  a spouse  • but  she  could  never  pre- 
vail on  her  suDjects  to  allow  him  any 
share  of  power.  She  died  in  1558. 

Elizabeth,  who  succeeded  her  sister 
Mary,  was  attached  to  the  Protestant 
faith,  and  found  little  difficulty  in  estab- 
lishing it  in  England.  Having  concluded 
peace  with  France  (1559),  Elizabeth  set 
herself  to  promote  the  confusion  which 
prevailed  in  Scotland,  to  which  her 
cousin  Mary  had  returned  from  France 
as  queen  in  1561.  In  this  she  was  so  far 
successful  that  Mary  placed  herself  in 
her  power  (1568),  and  after  many  years’ 
imprisonment  was  sent  to  the  scaffold. 
( 1 587) . As  the  most  powerful  Protestant 
nation,  and  as  a rival  to  Spain  in  the 
New  World,  it  was  natural  that  England 
should  become  involved  in  difficulties 
with  that  country.  The  dispersion  of 
the  Armada  by  the  English  fleet  under 
Howard,  Drake,  and  Hawkins  was  the 
most  brilliant  event  of  a struggle  which 
abounded  in  minor  feats  of  valor. 

To  Elizabeth  succeeded  (in  1603) 
James  VI.  of  Scotland  and  I.  of  England, 
son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  Darnley. 
His  accession  to  the  crown  of  England  in 
addition  to  that  of  Scotland  did  much 
to  unite  the  two  nations,  though  a cer- 
tain smouldering  animosity  still  lin- 
gered. His  son  Charles  I.,  succeeded 
him  in  1625,  and  his  marriage  with  a 
Catholic,  his  arbitrary  rule,  and  illegal 
methods  of  raising  money,  provoked 
bitter  hostility.  Under  the  guidance  of 
Laud  and  Strafford  things  went  from 
bad  to  worse.  Civil  war  broke  out  in 
1642  between  the  king’s  party  and  that 
of  the  parliament,  and  the  latter  proving 
victorious,  in  1649  the  king  was  be- 
headed. 

A commonwealth  or  republican  gov- 
ernment was  now  established,  in  which 
the  most  prominent  figure  was  Oliver 
Cromwell.  Mutinies  in  the  army  among 
Fifth-monarchists  and  Levellers  were 
subdued  by  Cromwell  and  Fairfax,  and 
Cromwell  in  a series  of  masterly  move- 
ments subjugated  Ireland  and  gained 
the  important  battles  of  Dunbar  and 
Worcester.  At  sea,  Blake  had  destroyed 
the  Royalist  fleet  under  Rupert,  and 
was  engaged  in  an  honorable  struggle 
with  the  Dutch  under  Van  Tromp.  But 
within  the  governing  body  matters  had 
come  to  a deadlock.  A dissolution  was 
necessary,  yet  parliament  shrank  from 


dissolving  itself,  and  in  the  meantime 
the  reform  of  the  law,  a settlement  with 
regard  to  the  church,  and  other  impor- 
tant matters  remained  untouched.  In 
April,  1653,  Cromwell  cut  the  knot  by 
forcibly  ejecting  the  members  and  put- 
ting the  keys  of  the  house  in  his  pocket. 
From  this  time  he  was  practically  head 
of  the  government,  which  was  vested  in 
a council  of  thirteen.  A parliament — 
the  Little  or  Barebones  Parliament — 
was  summoned,  and  in  the  December  of 
the  same  year  Cromwell  was  installed 
Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  With 
more  than  the  power  of  a king,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  dominating  the  confusion  at 
home  and  made  the  country  feared 
throughout  the  whole  of  Europe.  Crom- 
well died  in  1658,  and  the  brief  and  feeble 
protectorate  of  his  son  Richard  followed. 

There  was  now  a wide-spread  feeling 
that  the  country  would  be  better  under 
the  old  form  of  government,  and  Charles 

II. ,  son  of  Charles  I.,  was  called  to  the 
throne  by  the  Restoration  of  1660.  He 
took  complete  advantage  of  the  popular 
reaction  from  the  narrowness  and  intol- 
erance of  Puritanism,  and  even  latterly 
endeavored  to  carry  it  to  the  extreme 
of  establishing  the  Catholic  religion. 

As  Charles  II.  left  no  legitimate  issue, 
his  brother  the  Duke  of  York  succeeded 
him  as  James  II.  (1685-88).  An  in- 
vasion by  an  illegitimate  son  of  Charles, 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  who  claimed 
the  throne,  was  suppressed,  and  the 
king’s  arbitrary  rule  was  supported  by 
the  wholesale  butcheries  of  such  instru- 
ments as  Kirke  and  Jeffreys.  The  king’s 
zealous  countenance  of  Roman  Cathol- 
icism and  his  attempts  to  force  the 
church  and  the  universities  to  submis- 
sion provoked  a storm  of  opposition. 
The  whole  nation  was  prepared  to  wel- 
come any -deliverance,  and  in  1688  Will- 
iam of  Orange,  husband  of  James’ 
daughter  Mary,  landed  in  Torbay.  James 
fled  to  France,  and  a convention  sum- 
moned by  William  settled  the  crown 
upon  him,  he  thus  becoming  William 

III.  Annexed  to  this  settlement  was  a 
Declaration  of  Rights  circumscribing 
the  royal  prerogative  by  depriving  him 
of  the  right  to  exercise  dispensing  power, 
or  to  exact  money,  or  maintain  an  army 
without  the  assent  of  parliament.  This 
placed  henceforward  the  right  of  the 
British  sovereign  to  the  throne  upon  a 
purely  statutory  basis.  A bill  for  trien- 
nial parliaments  was  passed  in  1694.  the 
year  in- which  Queen  Mary  died.  For  a 
moment  after  her  death  William’s  popu- 
larity was  in  danger,  but  his  successes 
at  Namur  and  elsewhere,  and  the  ob- 
vious exhaustion  of  France,  once  more 
confirmed  his  power.  The  treaty  of 
Ryswick  followed  in  1697,  and  the  death 
of  James  II.  in  exile  in  1701  removed  a 
not  unimportant  source  of  danger. 
Early  in  the  following  year  William  also 
died,  and  by  the  act  of  settlement  Anne 
succeeded  him. 

The  closing  act  of  William’s  reign  had 
been  the  formation  of  the  grand  alliance 
between  England,  Holland,  and  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  and  the  new  queen’s  rule 
opened  with  the  brilliant  successes  of 
Marlborough  at  Blenheim  (1704)  and 
Ramifies  (1706).  Throughout  the  earlier 
part  of  her  reign  the  Marlboroughs 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND 


practically  ruled  the  kingdom,  the  duke’s 
wife,  Sarah  Jennings,  being  the  queen’s 
most  intimate  friend  and  adviser.  In 
1707  the  history  of  England  becomes  the 
history  of  Britain,  the  Act  of  Union 
passed  in  that  year  binding  the  parlia- 
ments and  realms  of  England  and  Scot- 
land into  a single  and  more  powerful 
whole.  See  art.  Britain. 

The  first  religion  of  the  Celts  of  Eng- 
land was  Druidism.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured that  Christianity  may  have 
reached  Britain  by  way  of  France  (Gaul) 
before  the  conclusion  of  the  1st,  or  not 
long  after  the  commencement  of  the 
2d  century,  but  the  period  and  manner 
of  its  introduction  are  uncertain.  It  had, 
however,  made  considerable^  progress  in 
the  island  previous  to  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine the  Great  (306-337). 

A period  of  almost  total  eclipse  fol- 
lowed the  inroad  of  the  pagan  Saxons, 
and  it  was  not  until  a.d.  570  that  signs 
of  change  showed  themselves  in  the 
new  nationality.  On  the  coming  of 
Austin,  or  St.  Augustine,  sent  over  in 
596  by  Gregory,  the  Great,  a residence  at 
Canterbury  was  assigned  to  him,  and 
Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  and  most  of 
his  subjects,  adopted  Christianity. 

The  clergy  in  course  of  time  attained, 
particularly  after  the  Norman  conquest, 
to  such  a height  of  domination  as  to  form 
an  imperium  in  imperio.  Under  Anselm 
(1093-1109)  the  church  was  practically 
emancipated  from  the  control  of  the 
state,  and  the  power  of  the  pope  became 
supreme.  Witn  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
the  new  system  of  parliaments  came  as 
an  effective  rival  of  the  church  synods, 
and  various  acts  restrained  the  power  of 
the  clergy.  In  the  14th  century  the 
teaching  of  Wickliffe  promised  to  pro- 
duce a thorough  revolt  from  Rome;  but 
the  diflBculties  of  the  house  of  Lancaster 
which  drove  its  members  to  propitiate 
the  church,  and  the  Wars  of  tne  Roses, 
prevented  matters  coming  to  a head. 

A steady  decay  of  vital  power  set  in 
however,  and  when  Henry  VIII.  re- 
solved to  recast  the  English  church 
there  was  no  effective  protest.  In  1534 
the  papal  authority  was  set  aside  by  act 
of  parliament,  and  by  another  act  of 
parliament,  passed  in  1535,  Henry  as- 
sumed the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

With  the  reign  of  Mary  the  old  re- 
ligion was  re-established;  and  it  was  not 
till  that  of  Elizabeth  that  the  Church  of 
England  was  finally  instituted  in  its 
present  form.  The  doctrines  of  the 
church  were  again  modified,  and  the 
forty-two  articles  were  reduced  to  thirty 
nine  by  the  convocation  of  the  clergy  in 
1563.  As  no  change  was  made  in  the 
episcopal  form  of  government,  and  some 
rites  and  ceremonies  were  retained  which 
many  of  the  reformed  considered  as 
superstitious,  this  circumstance  gave 
rise  to  many  future  dissensions.  In  1559 
before  the  close  of  the  first  year  of  Eliza- 
beth’s reign,  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and 
Uniformity  were  passed  with  the  object 
of  brinmng  about  the  entire  subjection 
of  the  church  and  the  people  in  religious 
matters  to  the  royal  authority. 

From  James  I.  some  relief  was  antici- 
ated  by  Puritans  and  nonconformists, 
ut  they  were  disappointed.  Under 
Charles  I.  the  attempt  was  made, 


through  the  instrumentality  of  Laud,  to 
reduce  all  the  churches  of  Great  Britain 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  bishops.  But 
after  the  death  of  Laud  the  parliament 
abolished  the  episcopal  government, 
and  condemned  everything  contrary  to 
the  doctrine,  worship,  and  discipline  of 
the  Church  of  Geneva.  In  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  and  particularly  in  1689, 
the  divisions  among  the  friends  of  Epis- 
copacy gave  rise  to  the  two  parties  called 
the  high-churchmen  or  non-jurors,  and 
low-churchmen.  The  former  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  passive  obedience 
to  the  sovereign;  that  the  hereditary 
succession  to  the  throne  is  of  divine  in- 
stitution; that  the  church  is  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  God  alone;  etc.  The 
gradual  progress  of  civil  and  religious 
liberty  since  that  time  has  settled  prac- 
tically many  such  controversies. 

As  at  present  constituted  the  estab- 
lished religion  of  England  is  Episcopacy. 
The  sovereign  Is  the  supreme  head.  The 
church  is  governed  by  two  archbishops 
and  thirty-one  bishops.  The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  is  styled  the  primate  of  all 
England,  and  to  him  belongs  the  privi- 
lege of  crowning  the  kings  and  queens  of 
England.  The  province  of  Canterbury 
comprehends  24  bishoprics;  in  the  prov- 
ince of  the  Archbishop  of  York,  who  is 
styled  primate  of  England,  there  are  9 
bishoprics,  the  province  comprising 
Cheshire,  Lancashire,  Yorkshire,  and 
the  other  northern  counties.  Arch- 
bishops and  bishops  are  appointed  by 
the  sovereign  by  what  is  called  a cong^ 
d’dlire,  or  leave  to  elect,  naming  the 
person  to  be  chosen  and  sent  to  the  dean 
and  chapter.  The  archbishops  and  bish- 
ops, to  the  number  of  24,  have  seats  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  are  styled 
spiritual  lords.  As  regards  architecture 
little  can  be  said  with  regard  to  the  style 
prevalent  between  the  invasion  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, from  the  fact  that  the  remains  of 
buildings  erected  in  England  before  the 
Conquest  are  few  and  insignificant.  The 
Norman  style  was  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  though 
the  workmen,  both  then  and  after  the 
Conquest,  being  English,  the  earlier 
work  preserved  many  native  character- 
istics. The  Norman  period  proper  ex- 
tends from  about  1090  to  1150,  some  of 
the  best  examples  being  parts  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Rochester,  Winchester, 
Durham,  and  Canterbury.  In  the  brief 
period  1160  to  1195  a marked  change 
took  place  in  the  adoption  of  the  pointed 
arch  and  what  is  known  as  the  Early 
English  style.  Improved  methods  of 
construction  led  to  the  use  of  lighter 
walls  and  pillars  instead  of  the  heavy 
masses  employed  in  the  Norman  style. 
Narrow  lancet-shaped  windows  took 
the  place  of  the  round  arch;  bold  pro- 
jecting buttresses  were  introduced;  and 
the  roofs  and  spires  became  more  lofty 
and  more  pointed,  while  in  the  interiors 
pointed  arches  rested  on  lofty  clustered 
pillars.  The  best  Early  English  type  is 
Salisbury  Cathedral.  The  Early  English 
style  has  been  regarded  as  lasting  from 
1190  to  1270,  when  the  Decorated  style 
of  Gothic  began  to  prevail.  The  tran- 
sition to  the  Decorated  st-yle  was  grad- 
ual, but  it  may  be  considered  as  last- 
ing to  1377.  Exeter  Cathedral  is  an 


excellent  example  of  the  earliest  Dec- 
orated style.  Between  1360  and  1399 
the  Decorated  style  gave  place  to  the 
Perpendicular,  which  prevailed  from 
1377  to  1547,  and  was  an  exclusively 
English  style.  Gothic  architecture, 
though  it  lingered  on  in  many  districts, 
practically  came  to  an  end  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  The 
Elizabethan  and  Jacobean  styles  which 
followed  were  transitions  from  the 
Gothic  to  the  Italian,  with  which  these 
styles  were  more  or  less  freely  mixed. 
About  1836  the  Gothic  revival  com- 
menced, and  that  style  has  been  em- 
ployed with  considerable  success  in  the 
churches  erected  in  recent  times.  At 
the  present  day  Gothic  is  much  em- 
ployed for  ecclesiastical  and  collegiate 
buildings,  and  a mild  type  of  Renais- 
sance for  civil  buildings.  Of  late  years 
a style  that  has  received  the  name  of 
“Queen  Anne’’  is  much  in  vogue  for 

Erivate  residences.  It  is  very  mixed, 
ut  withal  highly  picturesque.  The 
most  striking  novelties  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury have  been  introduced  by  the  ex- 
tensive use  of  iron  and  glass,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  Exhibition  building  of 
1851,  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  and 
the  great  railway-stations. 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  state  of  the 
art  of  painting  among  the  Anglo-Saxons; 
but  in  the  9th  century  Alfred  the  Great 
caused  numerous  MSS.  to  be  adorned 
with  miniatures,  and  about  the  end  of 
the  10th  century  Archbishop  Dunstan 
won  reputation  as  a miniature  painter. 
Under  William  the  Conqueror  and  his 
two  sons  the  painting  of  large  pictures 
began  to  be  studied,  and  Lanfranc,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  adorned  the  vault 
of  his  church  with  paintings.  Numerous 
miniatures  of  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
turies have  come  down  to  us,  rude  in 
execution,  but  not  without  originality. 
Of  native  artists  few  are  of  importance 
prior  to  that  original  genius  William 
Hogarth  (1697-1764).  Throughout  the 
18tn  century  English  artists  attained 
higher  eminence  in  portrait  painting 
than  in  other  departments,  and  it  cul- 
minated in  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (1723- 
92),  Thomas  Gainsborough  (1727-88), 
and  Romney  (1734-1802).  Landscape- 
painting was  represented  by  Richard 
Wilson,  1714-82,  who  painted  classical 
scenes  with  figures  from  heathen  my- 
thology, and  by  Gainsborough  already 
mentioned,  who  painted  scenes  of  Eng- 
lish nature  and  humble  life.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts,  of  which  Reynolds 
was  the  first  president,  was  established 
in  London  in  1769.  In  landscape  the 
reputation  of  Turner  (1775-1857) 
“stands  alone,  solitary,  colossal.”  In 
historical  painting  Hilton  (1786-1839), 
Eastlake  (1793-1865),  Etty  (1787-1849), 
E.  M.  Ward  (1816-97),  C.  W.  Cope 
(b.  1811),  and  D.  Maclise  (1811-70) 
attained  celebrity.  Landseer  (1802-73) 
stands  by  himself  as  a painter  of  animals. 

In  1824  the  nucleus  of  the  National 
Gallery  was  formed  by  the  purchase  of 
the  Angerstein  collection,  and  in  1832 
the  vote  was  passed  for  the  erection  of 
the  National  Gallery  building. 

The  modern  group  of  British  painters 
may  be  held  to  date  from  about  1850. 
Prominent  among  these  the  following 
may  be  named:  In  historical  painting 


ENGLAND 


ENGLISH 


T 

Leighton,  Alma-Tadema,  Watts,  Poyn- 
ter.  Long,  Goodall,  Holman  Hunt,  Noel 
Paton,  Burne-Jones,  and  Madox  Brown, 
as  also  W.  P.  Frith,  whose  Derby  Day 
and  Railway  Station,  so  descriptive  of 
modern  life,  may  well  be  classed  as  his- 
torical. In  figure  painting  or  genre  T. 
Faed,  Erskine  Nicol,  Fildes,  Orchard- 
son,  Herkomer,  and  Pettie.  In  por- 
traiture Millais,  Frank  Holl,  Ouless,  and 
Richmond.  In  landscape  Linnell,  Hook, 
Peter  Graham,  John  Brett,  Vicat  Cole, 
H.  Moore,  and  Keeley  Halswelle.  In 
water-colors  the  most  eminent  artists 
have  been  Girtin  (1773-1802),  Cotman 
(1782-1842),  Liverseege  (1803-32),  Sto- 
thard  (1755-1834),  Turner,  David  Cox 
(1788-1859),  De  Wint  (1784-1849),  Cop- 
ley Fielding  (1787-1855),  Barret  (1774- 
1842),  Samuel  Prout  (1783-1852),  W.  H. 
Hunt  (1790-1864),  Louis  Haghe  (1806- 
85),  W.  L.  Leitch  (1804-83,  Sam 
Bough  (1822-74),  J.  F.  Lewis  (1805-76). 

The  language  spoken  in  England  from 
the  settlement  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  to 
the  Norman  Conquest  (say  500-1066) 
is  popularly  known  as  Anglo-Saxon, 
though  simply  the  earliest  form  of  Eng- 
lish. (See  Anglo-Saxons.)  It  was  a 
highly  inflected  and  purely  Teutonic 
tongue  presenting  several  dialects.  The 
Conquest  introduced  the  Norman- 
French,  and  from  1066  to  about  1250 
two  languages  were  spoken,  the  native 
English  speaking  their  own  language, 
the  intruders  speaking  French.  During 
this  period  the  grammatical  structure  of 
the  native  language  was  greatly  broken 
up,  inflexions  fell  away,  or  were  assimi- 
lated to  each  other;  and  towards  the  end 
of  the  period  we  find  a few  works  written 
in  a language  resembling  the  English  of 
our  own  day  in  grammar,  but  differing 
from  it  by  being  purely  Saxon  or  Teu- 
tonic in  vocabulary.  Finally,  the  two 
languages  began  to  mingle,  and  form  one 
intelligible  to  the  whole  population, 
Normans  as  well  as  English,  this  change 
being  marked  by  a great  infusion  of 
Norman-French  words,  and  English 
proper,  being  the  result.  English  is  thus 
in  its  vocabulary,  a composite  language, 
deriving  part  of  its  stock  of  words  from 
a Teutonic  source  and  part  from  a Latin 
source,  Norman-French  being  in  the 
main  merely  a modified  form  of  Latin. 
In  its  grammatical  structure  and  general 
character,  however,  English  is  entirely 
Teutonic,  and  is  classed  with  Dutch  and 
Gothic  among  the  Low  German  tongues. 
If  we  divide  the  history  of  the  English 
language  into  periods  we  shall  find  three 
most  distinctly  marked;  1st,  the  Old 
English  or  Anglo-Saxon,  extending 
down  to  about  1100;  2d,  the  Middle  Eng- 
lish, 1100-1400  (to  this  period  belong 
Chaucer,  Wickliffe,  Langland) ; 3d,  Mod- 
ern English.  A more  detailed  subdivi- 
sion would  give  transition  periods  con- 
necting the  main  ones.  The  chief  change 
which  the  language  has  experienced 
during  the  modern  period  consists  in  its 
absorbing  new  words  from  all  quarters 
in  obedience  to  the  requirements  of  ad- 
vancing science,  more  complicated  social 
relations,  and  increased  subtlety  of 
thought.  At  the  present  time  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  sciences  already  existing, 
and  the  creation  of  new  ones,  have 
caused  whole  grouj^s  of  words  to  be  in- 
troduced, chiefly  from  the  Greek, 


Before  any  English  literature,  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  term,  existed,  four 
literatures  had  arisen  in  England — the 
Celtic,  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Anglo- 
Norman.  With  the  coming  of  the  Nor- 
mans, although  the  Anglo-Saxon  chroni- 
cle was  continued  until  1154,  the  native 
language  practically  ceased  for  a time  to 
be  employed  in  literature,  Latin  being 
employed  in  law,  history,  and  philoso- 
phy, French  in  the  lighter  forms  of  liter- 
ature. 

Apart  from  a few  brief  fragments,  the 
first  English  writings  after  the  Conquest 
are  the  Brut  of  Layamon  (about  1200), 
based  on  the  Brut  of  Wace;  and  the 
Ormulum,  a collection  of  metrical  homi- 
lies attributed  to  Orm  or  Ormin,  an 
Augustine  monk.  Between  the  begin- 
ning and  middle  of  the  14th  century  the 
English  speech  had  entered  upon  a new 
phase  of  development  in  the  absorption 
of  Norman-French  words.  A rapid  ex- 
pansion of  the  literature  followed,  hav- 
ing as  the  foremost  figure  that  of 
Chaucer  (1340-1400),  who,  writing  at 
first  under  French  influences,  and  then 
under  Italian,  became  in  the  end  the 
most  representative  English  writer  of 
the  time. 

The  period  from  the  time  of  Chaucer 
to  the  appearance  of  Spenser,  that  is, 
from  the  end  of  the  14th  to  near  the  end 
of  the  16th  century,  is  a very  barren  one 
in  English  literature,  in  part  probably 
owing  to  foreign  and  domestic  wars,  the 
struggle  of  the  people  toward  political 
power,  and  the  religious  controversies 
preceding  and  attending  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

Several  events  of  European  impor- 
tance combined  to  stimulate  life  and  en- 
large the  mental  horizon — the  invention 
of  printing,  or  rather  of  movable  types, 
the  promulgation  of  the  Copernican  sys- 
tem of  astronomy,  the  discovery  of 
America,  the  Renaissance,  and  the 
Reformation.  The  Renaissance  spread 
from  Florence  to  England  by  means  of 
such  men  as  Colet,  Linacre,  Erasmus, 
and  Sir  Thomas  More  (1480-1535),  the 
last  noteworthy  as  at  the  head  of  a new 
race  of  historians.  Important  contribu- 
tions to  the  prose  of  the  time  were  the 
Tyndale  New  Testament,  printed  in 
1525,  and  the  Coverdale  Bible  (1535). 
The  first  signs  of  an  artistic  advance  in 
poetic  literature  are  to  be  found  in 
Wyatt  (1503-42)  and  Surrey  ) 151 6-47), 
who  nationalized  the  sonnet,  and  of 
whom  the  latter  is  regarded  as  the  intro- 
ducer of  blank  verse. 

After  the  death  of  James  I.  the  course 
of  literature  breaks  up  into  three  stages, 
the  first  from  1625  to  1640,  in  which  the 
survivals  from  the  Elizabethan  age 
slowly  die  away.  The  second  stage 
(1640-60)  was  almost  wholly  given  up  to 
controversial  prose,  the  Puritan  revolu- 
tion checking  the  production  of  pure 
literature.  In  this  controversial  prose 
of  the  time  Milton  was  easily  chief.  With 
the  restoration  a third  stage  was  begun. 
Milton  turned  his  new  leisure  to  the  com- 
position of  his  great  poems;  the  drama 
was  revived,  and  Davenant  and  Dryden, 
with  Otway,  Wycherley,  and  Congreve 
in  their  first  plays,  and  minor  play- 
wrights, are  the  most  representative 
writers  of  the  period.  Butler  established 
a genre  in  satire,  and  Marvell  as  a satirist 


in  some  respects  anticipated  Swift ; Other 
features  of  the  last  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury were  the  immense  advance  in  phys- 
ical science  under  Boyle,  Isaac  Newton, 
Harvey,  and  others,  and  the  rise  of  the 
newspaper  press. 

Dryden’s  death  in  1700  marks  the 
commencement  of  the  so-called  Augus- 
tan age  in  English  literature.  During  it, 
however,  no  greater  poet  appeared  than 
Pope  (1688-1744),  in  whom  sagacity, 
wit,  and  fancy  take  the  place  of  the 
highest  poetic  faculty,  but  who  was  a 
supreme  artist  within  the  formal  limits 
of  his  conception  of  metrical  art. 

With  the  French  Revolution,  or  a few 
years  earlier,  the  modern  movement  in 
literature  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced. The  departure  from  the  old 
traditions,  traceable  in  Gray  and  Collins, 
was  more  clearly  exhibited  in  the  last 
years  of  the  century  in  Cowper  (1731- 
1800)  and  Burns  (1759-96),  and  was  de- 
veloped and  perfected  in  the  hands  of 
Blake  (1757-1828),  Bowles  (1762-1850), 
and  the  “Lake  poets”  Wordsworth 
(1770-1850),  Coleridge  (1772-1834),  and 
Southey  (1774-1843).  A more  import- 
ant group  was  that  of  Byron  (1788- 
1824),  Shelley  (1792-1822),  and  Keats 
(1796-1821),  with  which  may  be  asso- 
ciated the  names  of  Leigh  Hunt  (1784- 
1859),  Thomas  Moore  (1779-1852),  and 
Landor  (1775-1864).  Among  the  earlier 
writers  of  fiction  there  were  several 
women  of  note,  such  as  Maria  Edge- 
worth  (1767-1849)  and  Jane  Austen 
(1775-1817).  The  greatest  name  in  fic- 
tion is  unquestionably  that  of  Scott. 
Other  prose  writers  were  Mackintosh, 
Malthus,  Hallam,  James  Mill,  Southey, 
Robert  Hall,  William  Hazlitt,  Sydney 
Smith,  Francis  Jeffrey,  Lord  Brougham. 
In  the  literature  since  1830  poetry  has 
included  as  its  chief  names  those  of 
Hood,  Aytoun,  Charles  Mackay,  Philip 
James  Bailey,  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown- 
ing, Coventry  Patmore,  Lord  Lytton 
(Owen  Meredith),  Matthew  Arnold, 
Dante  G.  Rossetti,  Robert  Buchanan, 
Wm.  Morris,  Lewis  Morris,  Jean  Inge- 
low,  Swinburne,  and  last  and  greatest, 
Tennyson  and  Browning.  A brilliant 
list  of  novelists  for  the  same  period  in- 
cludes Marryat,  Lord  Lytton,  Ainsworth 
Dickens,  Thackeray,  Charles  Kingsley, 
Charlotte  Bronte,  Lover,  Lever,  Wilkie 
Collins,  Mayne  Reid,  George  Macdonald 
Charles  Reade,  George  Eliot,  Anthony 
Trollope,  William  Black,  Thomas  Hardy 
R.  D.  Blackmore,  George  Meredith, 
Thackeray,  anc^others.  To  the  historical 
and  biographical  list  belong  Alison,  Mac- 
aulay, Buckle,  Carlyle,  Grote,  Milman, 
Froude,  Lecky,  Kinglake,  John  Richard 
Green,  E.  A.  Freeman,  John  Morley, 
Leslie  Stephen.  In  science  and  philoso- 
phy among  the  chief  writers  have  been 
Whewell,  Sir  W.  Hamilton,  Mansel,  John 
Stuart  Mill,  Alexander  Bain,  Hugh  Mil- 
ler, Charles  Darwin,  Huxley,  Tyndall 
Max  Mtillrr,  Herbert  Spencer,  T.  H. 
Green.  Of  the  other  prose  writers  of  im- 
portance the  chief  are  De  Quincey,  Har- 
riet Martineau,  Sir  Arthur  Helps,  Ruskin, 
Matthew  Arnold,  W.  E.  Gladstone. 

ENGLISH,  Thomas  Dunn:  poet  and 
physician;  born  in  Philadelphia,  1819. 
Among  his  works  are  several  successful 
dramas,  numerous  novels,  among  them 
Walter  Woolfe,  a volume  of  poems,  and 


ENGLISH 


ENLISTMENT 


American  Ballads.  The  best  known  of 
his  poems  is  the  popular  ballad,  Ben 
Bolt.  He  died  in  1902. 

ENGLISH,  William  Hayden:  lawyer 
and  politician;  born  Lexington,  Ind., 
1822.  Was  elected  to  U.  S.  House  of 
Representatives  in  1852,  and  three 
times  re-elected,  retiring  in  I860;  was 
nominated  for  vice-president  of  the  U. 
S.  by  the  democratic  convention  at  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  June  2-1,  1880.  He  was 
president  of  the  Indiana  Historical 
Society,  and  the  author  of  works  on  the 
history  and  constitution  of  that  state. 
Died  in  Indianapolis,  1896. 

ENGLISH  CHANNEL,  the  arm  of  sea 
which  separates  England  from  France, 
extending,  on  the  English  side,  from 
Dover  to  the  Land’s  End;  and  on  the 
French,  from  Calais  to  the  Island  of 
Ushant.  On  the  east  it  communicates 
with  the  German  Ocean  by  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  21  miles  wide ; and  on  the  west  it 
opens  into  the  Atlantic  by  an  entrance 
about  100  miles  wide.  At  its  greatest 
breadth  it  is  about  150  miles.  The  pil- 
chard and  mackeral  fisheries  are  very 
important. 

ENGRAVING,  the  art  of  representing 
objects  and  depicting  characters  on 
metal,  wood,  precious  stones,  etc.,  by 
means  of  incisions  made  with  instru- 
ments variously  adapted  to  the  sub- 
stances operated  upon  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  work  intended.  Impressions 
from  metal  plates  are  named  engravings, 
prints,  or  plates;  those  printed  from 
wood  being  called  indifTerently  wood  en- 
gravings and  wood-cuts.  While,  how- 
ever, these  impressions  are  not  altogether 
dissimilar  in  appearance,  the  processes 
are  distinct.  In  plates  the  lines  intended 
to  print  are  incised,  and  in  order  to  take 
an  impression  the  plate  is  daubed  over 
with  a thick  ink  which  fills  all  the  lines. 
The  surface  is  then  wiped  perfectly  clean, 
leaving  only  the  incised  lines  filled  with 
ink.  A piece  of  damp  paper  is  now  laid 
on  the  face  of  the  plate,  and  both  are 
passed  through  the  press,  which  causes 
the  ink  to  pass  from  the  plate  to  the 
paper.  This  operation  needs  to  be  re- 
peated for  every  impression.  In  the 
wood  block,  on  the  contrary,  the  spaces 
between  the  lines  of  the  drawing  are 
cut  out,  leaving  the  lines  standing  up 
like  type,  the  printing  being  from  the 
inked  surface  of  the  raised  lines,  and 
effected  much  more  rapidly  than  plate 
printing. 

Engraving  on  wood,  intended  for 
printing  or  impressing  from,  long  pre- 
ceded engraving  on  metals.  The  art  is 
of  eastern  origin,  and  at  least  as  early  as 
the  10th  century  engraving  and  printing 
from  wood  blocks  was  common  in  China. 
We  first  hear  of  wood  engraving  being 
cultivated  in  Europe  by  the  Italians  and 
Germans  in  the  13th  century.  For  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  however,  there 
is  small  indication  of  the  practice  of  the 
art,  which  was  at  first  confined  to  the 
production  of  block-books,  playing 
cards,  and  religious  prints.  In  the  15th 
century  the  art  of  printing  from  en- 
graved plates  was  discovered  in  Flor- 
ence by  Maso  Finiguerra.  Engraving 
had  long  been  used  as  a means  of  decora- 
rating  armor,  metal  vessels,  etc.,  the 
engravers  generally  securing  duplicates 
of  their  work  before  laying  in  the  niello 


(a  species  of  metallic  enamel)  by  filling 
the  lines  with  dark  color,  and  taking 
casts  of  them  in  sulphur.  The  discovery 
of  the  practicability  of  taking  impres- 
sions upon  paper  led  to  engraving  upon 
copper  plates  for  the  purpose  of  printing 
from.  The  date  of  the  earliest  known 
niello  proof  upon  paper  is  1452.  The 
substitution  of  steel  for  copper  plates 
(1820-30)  gave  the  power  of  producing  a 
much  larger  number  of  fine  impressions, 
and  opened  new  possibilities  for  highly- 
finished  work.  During  the  closing  years 
of  the  18th  century  line  engraving  at- 
tained a depth  of  color  and  fulness  of 
tone  in  which  earlier  works  generally 
are  deficient,  and  during  the  19th  cen- 
tury it  reached  a perfectness  of  fin- 
ish which  it  had  not  previously  attained. 
A picture,  whether  figure  or  landscape, 
may  be  translated  by  line  engraving 
with  all  its  depths  of  color,  delicacy  of 
tone,  and  effect  of  light,  and  shade;  the 
various  textures,  whether  of  naked  flesh, 
silk,  satin,  woolen,  or  velvet,  all  success- 
fully rendered  by  ingenious  modes  of 
laying  the  lines  and  combination  of  lines 
of  varying  strength,  width,  and  depth. 
In  the  period  1820-60  landscape  en- 
graving attained  a perfection  in  Great 
Britain  which  it  had  not  attained  in  any 
other  country,  or  at  any  other  time. 
Through  lack  of  encouragement,  change 
of  fashion,  and  the  adoption  of  other 
methods  of  reproduction,  line  engraving 
is  rapidly  becoming  a lost  art. 

Line  Engraving,  as  implied  by  the 
term,  is  executed  entirely  in  lines.  The 
tools  are  few  and  simple.  They  consist  of 
the  graver  or  burin,  the  point,  the 
scraper,  and  the  burnisher;  and  oil- 
stone or  hone,  dividers,  a parallel  square, 
a magnifying  lens;  a bridge  on  which  to 
rest  the  hand ; a blind  or  shade  of  tissue 
paper,  to  make  the  light  fall  equally  on 
the  plate,  callipers  for  levelling  import- 
ant erasures,  a small  steel  anvil,  a small 
pointed  hammer,  and  punches.  In 
etching,  the  following  articles  are  re- 
quired: a resinous  mixture  called  etch- 
ing-ground, capable,  when  spread  very 
thinly  over  the  plate,  of  resisting  the 
action  of  the  acids  used;  a dauber  for 
laying  the  ground  equally;  a hand-vise; 
some  hair-pencils  of  different  sizes,  and 
bordering  wax,  made  of  burgundy-pitch, 
bees’ -wax,  and  a little  oil. 

In  engraving,  the  plate,  which  is 
highly  polished  and  must  be  free  from 
all  scratches, 'is  first  prepared  by  spread- 
ing over  it  a thin  layer  of  ground.  The 
surface  is  then  smoked,  and  the  outline 
of  the  picture  transferred  to  it  by  pres- 
sure from  the  paper  on  which  it  has  been 
drawn  in  fine  outlines  by  a black-lead 
pencil.  The  picture  is  then  drawn  on 
the  ground  with  the  etching-needle, 
which  removes  the  ground  in  every  form 
produced  by  it,  and  leaves  the  bright 
metal  exposed.  A bank  of  wax  is  then 
put  round  the  plate  and  diluted  acid 
poured  on  it,  which  eats  out  the  metal 
from  the  lines  from  which  the  ground  has 
been  removed,  but  leaves  the  rest  of  the 
plate  untouched.  The  plate  is  then  gone 
over  with  the  graver,  the  etched  lipes 
clearly  defined,  broken  lines  connected, 
new  lines  added,  etc.  Sometimes  the 
plate  is  rebitten  more  than  once,  those 
parts  which  are  sufficiently  bitten  in  the 
first  treatment  being  stopped  with  var- 


nish, and  only  the  selected  parts  ex- 
posed to  after-biting.  Finally  the  bur- 
nisher is  brought  into  play  alternately 
with  the  graver  and  point  to  give  per- 
fectness and  finish.  Such  is  the  process 
for  landscape  engraving.  In  historical 
and  portrait  engraving  of  the  highest 
class,  the  lines  are  first  drawn  on  the 
metal  with  a fine  point  and  then  cut  in 
by  the  graver,  first  making  a fine  line 
and  afterward  entering  and  re-entering 
till  the  desired  width  and  depth  of  lines 
is  attained.  Much  of  the  excellence  of 
such  engravings  depends  on  the  mode 
in  which  the  lines  are  laid,  their  relative 
thickness,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
cross  each  other.  In  historical  engrav- 
ing etching  is  but  little  used,  and  then 
only  for  accessories  and  the  less  import- 
ant parts. 

The  wood'  best  adapted  for  engraving 
is  box.  It  is  cut  across  the  grain  in  thick- 
nesses equal  to  the  height  of  type,  these 
slices  being  subjected  to  a lengthened 
process  of  seasoning,  and  then  smoothed, 
for  use.  Every  wood  engraving  is  the 
representative  of  a finished  drawing 
previously  made  on  the  block;  the  un- 
shaded parts  being  cut  away,  and  the 
lines  giving  form,  shading,  texture,  etc., 
left  standing  in  relief  by  excavations  of 
varied  size  and  character,  made  between 
them  by  gravers  of  different  forms. 

Drawings  on  wood  are  made  either 
with  black-lead  pencil  alone  or  with  pen- 
cil and  Indian  ink,  the  latter  being  em- 
ployed for  the  broader  and  darker 
masses.  It  is  now  much  the  practice  to 
photograph  drawings  made  in  black  and 
white  upon  the  wood  instead  of  making 
the  drawing  on  the  wood  block.  When 
the  drawing  is  put  on  the  wood  by  washes 
or  by  photography  instead  of  being  en- 
tirely done  by  pencil  lines,  the  engraver 
has  to  devise  the  width  and  style  of  lines 
to  be  employed  instead  of  cutting  in  fac- 
simile, as  is  the.icase  when  the  drawing 
is  made  entirely  in  lines.  The  tools  re- 
quired for  wood  engraving  are  similar 
but  more  numerous  than  those  of  the  en- 
graver on  copper  or  steel.  See  also  Diq- 
sinking.  Gems,  Half-tone  and  Zinc  En- 
graving. 

ENGROSSING,  in  law,  denotes  extend- 
ing a deed,  that  is,  rewriting  it  out  fully 
in  fair  and  legible  characters. 

ENLIST'MENT,  the  method  by  which 
an  army  is  supplied  with  troops,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  conscription.  L'p  to 
1802  the  enlistment  of  men  for  the  Brit- 
ish army  was  left  in  the  hands  of  private 
undertakers,  or  middlemen,  who  re- 
ceived a commission  on  the  recruits  they 
procured;  but  the  abuses  of  this  system 
induced  the  government  to  take  the 
matter  into  their  own  management.  At 
an  early  period  enlistment  was  for  short 
periods,  but  this  was  soon  changed  to 
enlistment  for  life.  The  act  of  1847 
limited  the  term  of  enlistment  to  ten 
years  for  the  infantry  and  twelve  for  the 
cavalry,  artillery,  and  ordnance;  re- 
enlistments for  periods  of  eleven  and 
twelve  years  might  be  made,  after  serv- 
ing which  retiring  pensions  were  granted. 
By  the  acts  of  1870  and  1881  the  system 
of  long  and  short  service  was  introduced. 
By  both  acts  the  term  of  long  service 
was  fixed  for  twelve  years,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  which  period  the  soldier  may  re- 
enlist for  other  nine  years,  service  for 


ENOCH 


ENTREES 


the  two  terms,  or  twenty-one  years,  en- 
titling him  to  a pension.  The  short  serv- 
ice of  the  first  act  extended  over  six 
j-^ears  with  the  regular  army  and  six 
years  in  the  first-class  reserve ; the  short 
service  of  the  act  of  1881  is  seven  years 
in  the  regular  army  and  five  in  the  re- 
serve. In  the  navy  a seaman  may  en- 

fage  for  five  or  ten  years,  for  the  period 
is  ship  is  in  commission,  or  for  a longer 
period.  He  receives  higher  pay  for  longer 
service.  In  the  U.  States  men  are  en- 
listed for  five  years’  duty  in  every  branch, 
and  recruits  are  assigned  to  regiments 
by  order  of  the  war  department. 

ENOCH  (e'nok),  (1)  The  eldest  son  of 
Cain,  who  called  the  city  which  he  built 
after  his  name  (Gen.  IV.  17).  (2)  One  of 
the  patriarchs,  the  father  of  Methuselah. 
He  “walked  with  GocH  and  he  was  not; 
for  God  took  him”  (Gen.  v.  24)  at  the 
age  of  365  years.  The  words  quoted  are 
generally  understood  to  mean  that 
Enoch  did  not  die  a natural  death,  but 
was  removed  as  Elijah  was. 

ENOCH,  Book  of,  an  apocryphal  book 
of  an  assumedly  prophetical  character, 
to  which  considerable  importance  has 
been  attached  on  account  of  its  sup- 
posed quotation  by  St.  Jude  in  the  14th 
and  15th  verses  of  his  epistle.  It  is  re- 
ferred to  by  many  of  the  early  fathers; 
is  of  unknown  authorship,  but  was  prob- 
ably written  by  a Palestinian  Hehrew. 
Its  date  is  also  uncertain,  critical  con- 
jecture ranging  from  144  b.c.  to  132  a.Dj 
EN'SIGN,  formerly,  in  the  British 
army,  the  officer  who  carried  the  flag 
or  colors  of  an  infantry  regiment;  for 
this  title,  second  lieutenant  has  been 
substituted.  In  naval  language  the  en- 
sign is  the  flag  over  the  poop  or  stern 
which  distinguishes  the  ships  of  different 
nations.  In  the  royal  navy  of  Britain  it 
is  a flag  with  a white  field  divided  into 
quarters  by  the  red  cross  of  _St.  George, 
and  having  the  union  (or  Union  Jack  as 
it  is  commonly  called)  in  the  upper  cor- 
ner next  the  staff.  In  the  United  States 
navy  an  ensign  ranks  next  below  lieu- 
tenant. , 

ENTAJB'LATURE,  in  architecture,  the 
horizontal,  continuous  work  which  rests 


Entablature  of  Tuscan  Column. 

upon  a row  of  columns,  and  belongs  espe- 
cially to  classical  architecture.  It  con- 
sists of  three  principal  divisions — the 
architrave  immediately  above  the  aba- 
cus of  the  column,  next  the  frieze,  and 
then  the  cornice.  In  large  buildings 
projections  similar  to  and  known  also  as 
entablatures  are  often  carried  round  the 
whole  edifice,  or  along  one  front  of  it. 

ENTAIL'  in  law,  the  settlement  of  an 
estate  by  which  a freehold  is  limited  to  a 
person  and  the  heirs  of  his  body,  with 
such  particular  restrictions  as  the  donor 


may  specify.  Entailed  estates  are 
divided  into  general  and  special,  the 
former  when  the  estate  is  given  to  the 
donee  and  his  heirs  without  exception, 
the  latter  when  the  estate  is  limited  to 
certain  heirs  to  the  exclusion  of  others. 

ENTENTE  CORDIALE  (an'tant'  kor'- 
dyM').  A term  used  specifically  to  sig- 
nify a certain  cordiality,  based  either  on 
sentiment  or  on  community  of  interests, 
between  different  countries  and  states- 
men. It  suggests  a relation  bordering  on 
an  alliance,  though  a formal  alliance  is 
by  no  means  necessary  to  create  it. 

ENTER'IC  FEVER.  See  Typhoid 
Fever. 

ENTERI'TIS  (Greek,  enteron,  intes- 
tine), inflammation  of  the  intestines. 
There  are  several  forms  of  the  disease  of 
great  severity  and  very  fatal.  A com- 
mon form,  whicb  is  of  the  nature  of  an 
intestinal  catarrh,  generally  yields  to 
simple  treatment;  but  other  forms  are 
of  great  danger,  and  demand  skilled  and 
attentive  treatment. 

ENTOMOL'OGY,  the  branch  of  zo- 
ology which  treats  of  the  insects.  The 
true  insects  are  those  animals  of  the 
division  Arthropoda  or  Articulata  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  classes  of  the 
division  by  the  fact  that  the  three  divi- 


Plgure  showing  parts  of  insects. 

A,  B,  O,  Mandlbulate  mouth.  A,  Head  of 
Hornet,  and  upper  side  of  mouth,  m,  Clypeus. 
n.  Ocelli,  stemmata,  or  simple  eyes,  o,  Com- 
pound eyes.  B,  Head  of  beetle,  and  0,  under 
side  of  mouth  of  beetle,  m,  Clydeus.  o,  Eyes. 
p,  Labrum  or  upper  lip.  ?■,  Mandibles  or  up- 
per Jaws,  r,  Maxillae  or  lower  jaws,  s.  Max- 
illary palpi,  t.  Labium  or  under  lip.  u.  Lab- 
ial palpi.  V,  Mentum  or  chin.— D and  E,  Haus- 
tellate  mouths.  D,  Spiral  sucker  of  a butter- 
fly, called  antlia.  E,  Straight  sucker  of  a 
plant-bug  (pentatoma)  called  haustellum. — 
F,  Leg  of  stag-beetle,  g.  Coxa,  h,  Trochanter, 
i,  Femur,  j.  Tibia  fc,  Calcarla  or  spurs.  I, 
Tarsus,  which  in  this  Instance  is  pentamerous. 
or  consisting  of  flvepieces.—G.  Thorax  of  stag- 
beetle.  c.  Abdomen,  dd,  Elytra.  ««,  Wings. 
w.  Prothorax,  x,  Mesothorax.  y.  Metathorax. 
z,  Scutellum. 

sions  of  the  body — the  head,  thorax,  and 
abdomen — are  always  distinct  from  one 
another.  There  are  never  more  than 
three  pairs  of  legs  in  the  perfect  insect, 
and  these  are  all  borne  upon  the  thorax. 
Each  leg  consists  of  from  six  to  nine 
joints.  The  first  of  these  is  called  the 
“coxa,”  and  is  succeeded  by  a short 
joint  called  the  “trochanter.”  This  is 
followed  by  a joint,  often  of  large  size, 
called  the  “femur,”  succeeded  by  the 


"tibia,”  and  this  has  articulated  to  it 
the  “tarsus,”  which  may  be  composed  of 
from  one  to  five  joints.  Normally  two 
pairs  of  wings  are  present,  but  one  or 
other  may  be  wanting.  The  wings  are 
expansions  of  the  sides  of  the  second 
and  third  sections  of  the  thorax,  and  are 
attached  by  slender  tubes  called  “ner- 
vures.”  In  the  beetles  the  anterior  pair 
of  wings  becomes  hardened  so  as  to  form 
rotective  cases  for  the  posterior  mem- 
raneous  wings,  and  are  called  in  this 
condition  “elytra”  or  “wing-cases.” 
Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  air- 
tubes  or  tracheiE,  which  commence  at 
the  surface  of  the  body  by  lateral  aper- 
tures called  “stigmata”  or  “spiracles,” 
and  ramify  through  every  part  of  the 
body.  The  head  is  composed  of  several 
segments  amalgamated  together,  and 
carries  a pair  of  feelers  or  “antennae,”  a 
pair  of  eyes,  usually  compound,  and  the- 
appendages  of  the  mouth.  The  thorax 
is  composed  of  three  segments,  also 
amalgamated,  but  generally  pretty 
easily  recognized.  The  abdominal  seg- 
ments are  usually  more  or  less  freely 
movable  upon  one  another,  and  never 
carry  locomotive  limbs;  but  the  ex- 
tremity is  frequently  furnished  with  ap- 
pendages connected  with  generation, 
and  which  in  some  cases  serve  as  offen- 
sive and  defensive  weapons  (stings). 
The  organs  of  the  mouth  take  collective- 
ly two  typical  forms,  the  masticatory 
and  the  suctorial,  the  former  exempli- 
fied by  the  beetles,  the  latter  by  the 
butterflies,  in  which  the  mouth  is  purely 
for  suction.  The  alimentary  canal  con- 
sists of  the  oesophagus  or  gullet,  a crop, 
a gizzard,  a stomach,  and  an  intestine, 
terminating  in  a cloaca.  There  is  no 
regular  system  of  blood-vessels;  the 
most  important  organ  of  the  circulation 
is  a contractile  vessel  situated  dorsally 
and  called  the  "dorsal  vessel.”  The 
nervous  system  is  mainly  composed  of  a 
series  of  ganglia  placed  along  the  ventral 
aspect  of  the  body  and  connected  by  a 
set  of  double  nerve-cords.  The  sexes  are 
in  different  individuals,  and  most  in- 
sects are  oviparous.  Reproduction  is 

fenerally  sexual,  but  non-sexual  repro- 
uction  also  occurs.  Generally  the 
young  are  very  different  from  the  full- 
grown  insect,  and  pass  through  a “meta- 
morphosis” before  attaining  the  mature 
stage.  When  this  metamorphosis  is 
complete  it  exhibits  three  stages — that 
of  the  larva,  caterpillar,  or  grub,  that  of 
the  pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  that  of  the 
imago  or  perfect  winged  insect. 

ENTOZO'A,  a general  name  for  those 
annulose  parasitical  animals,  which  in- 
fest the  bodies  of  other  animals.  Some 
are  found  in  the  intestines,  others  in  the 
liver,  brain,  muscles,  and  other  tissues. 
They  pass  through  different  stages  in 
their  development,  and  at  each  stage 
occupy  a different  tissue  and  usually  a 
different  animal.  Thus  the  cystic  or 
bladder  worm,  whose  presence  ip  the 
brain  of  sheep  causes  staggers,  is  the 
immature  form  of  the  tapeworm  of  the 
dog,  etc.  'The  number  of  species  is  being 
reduced  as  the  relations  of  the  different 
forms  are  studied. 

ENTREES  (hn-traz),  in  cookery,  made- 
dishes  comprising  cutlets,  fricassees, 
sweetbreads,  and  similar  dishes,  usually 
served  hot  before  the  joints  at  dinner. — 


ENTREPOT 


EPIC 


Entremets  are  similar  dishes,  but  of  a 
more  delicate  character,  served  between 
the  main  dishes  of  the  second  course  at 
dinner. 

ENTREPOT  (an-tr-p6;  Fr.),  a port 
where  foreign  merchandise  which  can- 
not enter  the  interior  of  a country  is  de- 
posited in  magazines  under  the  surveil- 
lanee  of  the  custom-house  officers  till  it 
is  re-exported;  also,  any  place  where 
goods  are  sent  to  be  distributed  where- 
ever  customers  are  found. 

ENTRE  RIOS  (en'tre  re'os;  “between 
rivers”),  a province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  lying  between  the  Uruguay 
and  the  Parana: ; area  estimated  at 
45,000  sq.  miles:  pop.  300,000.  The 
rovince  is  largely  pastoral.  Capital, 
oncepcion,  with  a pop.  of  10,000. 


Part  ol  bouse  on  Boulevard  Malesherbes,  Paris. 
E,  E,  entresol. 


ENTRESOL  (en'ter-sol;),  a low  story 
between  two  of  greater  height,  generally 
the  ground  and  first  stories. 

EN'TRY,  in  law,  the  act  of  taking 
possession  of  lands  or  tenements  by  en- 
tering or  setting  foot  on  the  same. 

EN'VELOPES,  the  paper  covers  that 
inclose  letters  or  notes.  They  became 
common  shortly  after  the  introduction 
of  the  penny  postal  system ; were  at  first 
made  chieflv  oy  hand,  but  are  now  not 
only  shaped,  but  folded,  gummed,  etc., 
by  machinery. 

ENVIRONMENT,  in  zofilogy  and 
botany,  the  sum  of  the  conditions  or  sur- 
roundings of  animal  and  plant  life. 
Climate,  the  physical  features  of  a coun- 
try, absence  or  presence  of  enemies,  and 
ease  or  difficulty  of  procuring  food  are 
among  the  more  important  factors  of 
environment. 

EN'VOY,  ajierson  deputed  by  a ruler 
or  government  to  negotiate  a treaty,  or 
transact  other  business,  with  a foreign 
ruler  or  government.  We  usually  apply 
the  word  to  a public  minister  sent  on  a 
special  occasion  or  for  one  particular 
purpose;  hence  an  envoy  is  distinguished 
from  an  ambassador  or  permanent  resi- 
dent at  a foreign  court,  and  is  of  inferior 
rank. 

E'OCENE,  in  geology,  a term  applied 
to  the  lower  division  of  the  Tertiary 
strata.  The  Eocene  beds  are  arranged 
in  two  groups,  termed  the  Lower  and 
Upper  Eocene : the  strata  formerly  called 
Upper  Eocene  being  now  known  as 
Oligocene.  They  consist  of  marls,  lime- 
stones, clays,  and  sandstones,  and  are 
found  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  in  the 
southeast  of  ICngland  and  northwest  of 
France,  in  Central  Europe,  Western  Asia, 

P.  E.— 38 


Northern  Africa,  and  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  North  America. 

EOLIAN  HARP.  See  jEolian  Harp. 

EOLITH'IC  PERIOD,  in  archaeology, 
the  early  part  of  the  palaeolithic  period 
of  prehistoric  time. 

EOZOTC  ROCKS,  the  name  given  to 
the  oldest  fossiliferous  rocks,  su(m  as  the 
Laurentian  and  Huronian  of  Canada, 
from  their  being  supposed  to  contain  the 
first  or  earliest  traces  of  life  in  the  strati- 
fied systems. 

EOZO'ON,  a supposed  gigantic  fossil 
foraminifer  found  in  the  limestone  of  the 
Laurentian  rocks  of  Canada,  and  in  the 
Archaean  rocks  of  Germany;  so  called  as 
being  the  oldest  form  of  life  traceable  in 
the  past  history  of  the  globe.  There  is 
doubt,  however,  as  to  their  being  true 
fossils,  many  geologists  now  regarding 
them  as  of  mineral  origin. 

EP'ACT,  in  chronology,  the  excess  of 
the  solar  month  above  the  lunar  synodi- 
cal month,  and  of  the  solar  year  above 
the  lunar  year  of  twelve  synodical 
months.  The  epacts  then  are  annual 
and  menstrual  or  monthly.  Suppose  the 
new  moon  to  be  on  the  1st  of  January; 
the  month  of  January  containing  31 
days,  and  the  lunar  month  only  29  days, 
12  hours,  44  minutes,  3 seconds;  the  dif- 
ference, 1 day,  11  hours,  15  minutes,  57 
seconds,  is  the  menstrual  epact.  The 
annual  epact  is  nearly  11  days;  the  solar 
year  being  365  days,  and  the  lunar  year 
354.  The  epacts  were  once  of  some  im- 
ortance  in  ecclesiastical  chronology, 
eing  used  for  finding  when  Easter 
would  fall. 

EPARCH  (ep'ark),  in  Greece,  the  gov- 
ernor or  prefect  of  a provincial  division 
called  an  eparchy,  a subdivision  of  a 
nomarchy  or  province  of  the  kingdom. 
In  Russia  an  eparchy  is  the  diocese  or 
areh-diocese  of  a bishop  or  archbishop. 

EPAULEMENT  (e-pal'ment),  in  forti- 
fication, a term  for  the  mass  of  earth  or 
other  material  which  protects  the  guns 
in  a battery  in  front  and  on  either  flank. 

EP'AULET,  EP'AULETTE,  an  orna- 
mental shoulder-piece  belonging  to  a 
mOitary  or  other  dress.  Epaulettes 
were  worn  in  the  British  army  till  1855, 
and  are  stfil  worn  in  the  navy  by  all 
officers  of  and  above  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant, and  by  some  civil  officers. 

EPHEM'ERA,  are  known  as  may- 
flies or  day-flies,  and  are  characterized 
by  the  slenderness  of  their  bodies;  the 
delicacy  of  their  wings,  which  are  erect 
and  unequal,  the  anterior  being  much 
the  larger;  the  rudimentary  condition  of 
the  mouth;  and  the  termination  of  the 
abdomen  in  three  filiform  appendages. 
In  the  state  of  larvae  and  pupae  they  are 
equatic  and  exist  for  years.  When  ready 
for  their  final  change  they  creep  out  of 
the  water,  generally  toward  sunset  of  a 
fine  summer  evening,  beginning  to  be 
seen  generally  in  May.  They  shed  their 
whole  skin  shortly  after  leaving  the 
water,  propagate  their  species,  and  die, 
taking  no  food  in  the  perfect  state.  The 
may-fly  is  well  known  to  anglers,  who 
imitate  it  for  bait. 

EPHE'SIANS,  The  Epistle  to  the,  a 
canonical  epistle  addressed  by  the 
apostle  Paul  to  the  church  which  he  had 
founded  at  Ephesus.  It  was  written 
during  his  first  captivity  at  Rome,  im- 
mediately after  he  bad  written  the 


Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (a.d.  62);  and 
was  sent  by  the  hands  of  Tychicus,  who 
also  bore  the  message  to  the  church  at 
Colossse. 

EPH'ESUS,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of 
Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  one  of  the  twelve 
Ionian  cities,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Caystrus,  near  its  mouth.  It  was  at  one 
time  the  grand  emporium  of  Western 
Asia,  having  a convenient  and  spacious 
harbor.  The  apostle  Paul  visited  Ephe- 
sus and  established  a Christian  church 
there,  to  which  he  dedicated  one  of  his 
epistles.  It  was  famous  for  its  temple  of 
Artemis  (Diana),  called  Artemision,  the 
largest  and  most  perfect  model  of  Ionic 
architecture,  and  reckoned  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  first 
great  temple,  begun  about  b.c,  650  and 
finished  after  120  years,  was  burnt  by 
the  notorious  Herostratus  in  order  to 
perpetuate  his  name  b.c.  356  (the  night 
of  Alexander  the  Great’s  birth).  A sec- 
ond and  more  magnificent  was  then 
erected,  which  was  burned  by  the  Goths 
in  A.D.  262.  Some  interesting  remains 
have  recently  been  discovered  by  exca- 
vation. Several  church  councils  were 
held  here,  especially  the  third  ecumenical 
council  of  431,  at  which  Nestorius  was 
condemned.  The  site  of  the  city  is  now 
desolate;  near  it  is  a poor  village,  Aiaso- 
luk. 

EPH'OD,  a sp  ecies  of  vestment  worn 
by  the  Jewish  high-priest  over  the  sec- 
ond tunic.  It  consisted  of  two  main 
pieces,  one  covering  the  back,  the  other 
the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the  body, 
fastened  together  on  the  shoulders  by 
two  onyx  stones  set  in  gold,  on  each  of 
which  were  engraved  the  names  of  six 
tribes  according  to  their  order.  A girdle 
or  band,  of  one  piece  with  the  ephod, 
fastened  it  to  the  body.  Just  above  the 
girdle,  in  the  middle  of  the  ephod,  and 
joined  to  it  by  little  gold  chains,  rested 
the  square  breastplate  with  the  Urim 
and  Thummim.  The  ephod  was  origin- 
ally intended  to  be  worn  by  the  high- 
pnest  exclusively,  but  a similar  vest- 
ment of  an  inferior  material  seems  to 
have  been  in  common  use  in  later  times 
amongthe  ordinary  priests. 

E'PHRAIM,  the  younger  son  of 
Joseph,  and  the  founder  of  one  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  When  the 
Israelites  left  Egypt  the  Ephraimites 
numbered  40,500,  and  their  possessions 
in  the  very  center  of  Palestine  included 
most  of  what  was  afterwards  called 
Samaria. 

EPTC,  a poem  of  the  narrative  kind. 
Some  authorities  restrict  the  term  to 
narrative  poems  written  in  a loftj’^  style 
and  describing  the  exploits  of  heroes. 
Others  widen  the  definition  so  as  to  in- 
clude not  only  long  narrative  poems  of 
romantic  or  supernatural  aaventure, 
but  also  those  of  a historical,  legendary, 
mock-herioc,  or  humorous  character. 
Epic  is  distinguished  from  drama  in  so 
far  as  the  author  frequently  speaks  in 
his  own  person  as  narrator;  and  from 
lyrical  poetry  by  making  the  predomi- 
nant feature  the  narration  of  action 
rather  than  the  expression  of  emotion. 
Among  the  more  famous  epics  of  the 
world’s  literature  maybe  noted ; Homer’s 
Iliad  and  Odyssey;  Virgil’s  .®neid;  the 
German  Nibelungenlied;  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  of  Beowulf;  the  French 


EPICTETUS 


EPIGRAM 


Song  of  Roland;  Dante’s  Divina  Corn- 
media;  Tasso’s  Gierusalemnie  Liberata; 
Arosto’s  Orlando  Furioso;  Milton’s  Para- 
dise Lost;  Spenser’s  Fairy  Queen- 
Camoens’  Lusiads  (Portuguese) ; and 
Firdusi’s  Shah  Nameh  (Persian). 
Hesiod’s  Theogony;  the  poetic  Edda; 
the  Finnish  Kalewala;  the  Indian 
Mahabh^rata  may  be  described  as  col- 
lections of  epic  legends.  The  historical 
epic  has  an  excellent  representative  in 
Barbour’s  Bruce;  and  specimens  of  the 
mock-heroic  and  humorous  epic  are 
found  in  The  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and 
Mice;  Reynard  the  Fox;  Butler’s  Hudi- 
bras;  and  Pope’s  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

EPICTETUS,  a Greek  Stoic  philoso- 
pher, born  in  Phrygia  about  a.d.  60.  He 
lived  long  at  Rome,  where,  in  his  youth, 
he  was  a slave.  Though  nominally  a 
Stoic,  he  was  not  interested  in  Stoicism 
as  an  intellectual  system ; he  adopted  its 
terminology  and  its  moral  doctrines,  but 
in  his  discourses  he  appeared  rather  as  a 
moral  and  religious  teacher  than  as  a 
philosopher.  His  doctrines  approach 
more  nearly  to  Christianity  than  those 
of  any  of  the  earlier  Stoics,  and  although 
there  is  no  trace  in  what  is  recorded  of 
them  of  his  having  been  directly  ac- 
quainted with  Christianity,  it  is  at  least 
probable  that  the  ideas  diffused  by 
Christian  teachers  may  have  indirectly 
influenced  them.  The  excellence  of  his 
system  was  universally  acknowledged. 
When  Domitian  banished  the  philoso- 
phers from  Rome  (a.d.  94)  Epictetus  re- 
tired to  Epirus.  There  he  is  supposed  to 
have  died.  His  disciple  Arrian  collected 
his  opinions,  which  are  preserved  in  two 
treatises  called  the  Discourses  of  Epicte- 
tus, and  the  Manual  or  Enchiridion. 

EPICURE'AN  PHILOSOPHY.  See 
Epicurus. 

EPICU'RUS,  a Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  the  Epicurean  school,  was 
born  in  the  island  of  Samos  n.c.  342, 
died  at  Athens  n.c.  270.  He  settled  at 
Athens,  n.c.  306,  and  purchased  a gar- 
den in  a favorable  situation,  where  he 
established  a philosophical  school.  Here 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  living 
in  a simple  manner  and  taking  no  part 
in  public  affairs.  His  pupils  were  nu- 
merous and  enthusiastically  devoted  to 
him.  His  theory  of  the  universe  was 
based  on  the  atomic  theory  of  Democ- 
ritus. The  fundamental  principle  of 
his  ethical  system  was  that  pleasure  and 
pain  are  the  chief  good  and  evil,  the 
attainment  of  the  one  and  the  avoidance 
of  the  other  of  which  are  to  be  regarded 
as  the  end  of  philosophy.  He  endeav- 
ored, however,  to  give  a moral  ten- 
dency to  this  doctrine.  He  exalted  the 
pure  and  noble  enjoyments  derived  from 
virtue,  to  which  he  attributed  an  im- 
perishable existence,  as  incalculably 
superior  to  the  passing  pleasures  which 
disturb  the  peace  of  mind,  the  highest 
good,  and  are  therefore  detrimental  to 
happiness.  Peace  of  mind,  based  on 
meditation,  he  considered  as  the  origin 
of  all  good.  The  philosophy  of  Epicurus 
has  been  violently  opposed  and  fre- 
quently misrepresented;  but  while  it  is 
not  open  to  the  charges  of  gross  sensual- 
ism which  have  been  brought  against  it, 
it  cannot  be  considered  as  much  better 
than  a refinement  of  sensualism.  In  an- 
ciefit  times  his  philosophy  appears  to* 


have  been  more  popular  in  Greece  than 
in  Rome,  although  his  disciples  were 
numerous  in  both,  and  the  Latin  poem 
of  Lucretius,  De  Rerum  Natura,  is  a 
poetical  exposition  of  his  doctrines. 
Epicurus  was  a very  voluminous  writer, 
but  few  of  his  writings  are  extant,  and 
what  we  possess  comprising  only  some 
fragments  of  a Treatise  on  Nature,  two 
letters,  and  detached  passages.  Lucre- 
tius, Cicero,  Pliny,  and  Diogenes  Laer- 
tius are  our  chief  authorities  for  his 
doctrines. 

EPTCYCLE,  in  the  ancient  astronomy 
a small  circle  supposed  to  move  round 
the  circumference  of  a larger,  a hypothet- 
ical mode  of  representing  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  planets,  which  were  sup- 
posed to  have  such  a motion  round  the 
circumference  of  a large  circle,  called 
the  deferent,  having  the  earth  in  its 
center. 

EPICY'CLOID,  in  geometry,  a curve 
generated  by  the  movement  of  a circle 
upon  the  convex  side  of  another  curve, 
that  generated  by  the  movement  of  a 
circle  upon  the  concave  side  of  a fixed 
curve  being  called  a hypocycloid. 

EPICYCLOPDAL  WHEEL,  a wheel 
or  ring  fixed  to  a framework,  toothed  on 
its  inner  side,  and  having  in  gear  with  it 
another  toothed  wheel  of  half  the  diame- 
ter of  the  first,  fitted  so  as  to  revolve 


about  the  center  of  the  latter.  It  is 
used  for  converting  circular  into  alter- 
nate motion,  or  alternate  into  circular. 
While  the  revolution  of  the  smaller 
wheel  is  taking  place  any  point  whatever 
on  its  circumference  will  describe  a 
straight  line,  or  will  pass  arid  repass 
through  a diameter  of  the  circle,  once 
during  each  revolution.  In  practice,  a 
piston-rod  or  other  reciprocating  part 
may  he  attached  to  any  point  on  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  smaller  wheel. 

EPIDEMTC,  or  EPIDEMIC  DISEASE, 
signifies  a disease  which  attacks  a peo- 
ple, suddenly  spreading  from  one  to  the 
other  in  all  directions,  prevailing  a cer- 
tain time  and  then  dying  away.  It 
usually  travels  from  place  to  place  in  the 
direction  of  the  most -frequented  lines  of 
communication.  The  reason  is  that  such 
diseases  are  commonly  due  to  some  in- 
fective material  capable  of  being  con- 
veyed from  one  individual  to  another, 
and  of  being  transported  from  place  to 
place.  In  the  U.  S.  small-pox  and  cholera 
are  occasionally  epidemic,  while  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  chicken-pox,  diphtheria, 
typhoid  fever,  etc.,  are  almost  invariably 
so.  Certain  diseases  which  appear  to  be 
more  mental  than  physical  sometimes 
* occur  so  numerously  as  to  assume  an 


epidemic  form,  such  as  St.  Vitus’  dance, 
convulsionary  diseases,  suicidal  mania, 
etc.  See  Endemic. 

EPIDER'MIS,  in  anatomy,  the  cuticle 
or  scarf-skin  of  the  bod}^;  a thin  mem^ 
brane  covering  the  true  skin  of  animals, 
consisting  of  two  layers,  an  inner  of 
mucous  layer,  called  the  rete  mucosum, 
composed  of  active  cells  containing 
granules  of  coloring  matter,  and  an  outer 
or  horny  layer,  consisting  of  flattened 
scale-like  cells,  dry,  inactive,  and  effete 
which  are  constantly  being  shed  in  the 
form  of  dust.  Both  layers  are  destitute 
of  feeling,  and  of  vessels  or  nerves. — 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  cellular 
layer  which  covers  the  surface  of  plants, 
usually  formed  of  a layer  or  layers  of 
more  or  less  compressed  and  flattened 
cells.  It  may  be  thin  and  soft  or  dense 
and  hard,  and  has  often  appendages  in 
the  form  of  hairs,  glands,  etc. 

EPIGjEA  (-je'a),  a genus  of  shrubs  of 
the  heath  order,  characterized  by  having 
three  leaflets  on  the  outside  of  the  five- 


Traillng  arbutus. 


parted  calyx-  and  by  the  corolla  being 
salver-shaped,  five  cleft,  with  its  tube 
hairy  on  the  inside,  the  trailing  arbutus, 
is  the  May-flower  of  N.  America. 

EPIGASTRIUM,  Epigastric  Region, 
that  part  of  the  abodmen  that  lies  over 
the  stomach.  See  Abdomen. 

EPIGLOTTIS,  a cartilaginous  plate 
behind  the  tongue,  which  covers  the 
glottis  like  a lid  during  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing, and  thus  prevents  foreign  bodies 
from  entering  the  larynx.  In  its  ordi- 
nary position  during  respiration  it  is 
pointed  upwards,  but  in  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing it  is  pressed  downwards  and  back- 
ward by  the  drawing  up  of  the  wind- 
pipe beneath  the  base  of  the  tongue,  and 
thus  closes  the  entrance  to  the  air- 
passages.  See  Larynx. 

EPIGRAM,  in  a restricted  sense,  a 
short  poem  or  piece  in  verse,  which  has 
only  one  subject,  and  finishes  by  a witty 
or  ingenious  turn  of  thought;  in  a gen- 
eral sense,  a pointed  or  witty  and  an- 
tithetical saying.  The  term  was  origin- 
ally given  by  the  Greeks  to  a poetical 
inscription  placed  upon  a tomb  or  pub- 
lic monument,  and  was  afterward  ex- 
tended to  every  little  piece  of  verse 
expressing  with  precision  a delicate  or 
ingenious  thought,  as  the  pieces  in  the 
Greek  anthology.  In  Roman  classical 
poetry  the  term  was  somewhat  indis- 
criminately used,  but  the  epigrams  of 


EPILEPSY 


EPSOM  SALT 


Martial  contain  a great  number  with  the 
modern  epigrammatic  character. 

EPTLEPSY,  a nervous  disease,  the 
falling-sickness,  so-called  because  the 
patient  falls  suddenly  to  the  ground.  It 
depends  on  various  causes,  often  exceed- 
ingly complicated  and  incapable  of  be- 
ing removed;  hence  it  is  often  an  incur- 
able periodical  disease,  appearing  in 
single  paroxysms.  In  its  fully-developed 
form,  convulsions,  attended  by  com- 
plete unconsciousness,  are  the  promi- 
nent feature.  Among  the  different 
causes  may  be  mentioned  hereditary 
tendency,  gastric  disturbances,  or  some 
irritation  within  the  skull  itself,  such  as 
tumors,  etc.  It  is,  for  the  most  part, 
preceded  by  a tingling  sensation,  creep- 
ing up  from  the  foot  or  hand  to  the  breast 
and  head,  or  some  other  premonitory 
symptom  such  as  spectral  illusions, 
headache,  giddiness,  confusion  of  thought, 
sense  of  fear,  etc.;  but  sometimes  there 
are  no  precursive  symptoms.  During 
the  paroxysm  all  that  is  to  be  attended 
to  is  to  prevent  the  patient  from  in- 
juring himself;  and  this  is  to  be  accom- 
plished by  raising  the  head  gently  and 
loosening  all  tight  parts  of  the  dress.  It 
is  advisable  to  protect  the  tongue  from 
being  bitten  by  introducing  a piece  of 
india-rubber,  cork,  or  soft  wood  between 
the  teeth. 

EPTLOGUE,the  closing  speech  or  short 
poem  addressed  to  the  audience  at  the 
end  of  a play.  The  epilogue  is  the  oppo- 
site of  the  prologue,  or  opening  address. 

EPINAY,  Louise  Florence  P6tronille, 
Madame  d’,  French  authoress,  born  in 
1725,  died  1783.  She  became  the  wife 
of  M.  Delalive  d’Epinay,  who  filled  the 
office  of  farmer-general.  In  1748  she  be- 
came acquainted  with  Rousseau,  and 
gave  him  a cottage  in  which  he  passed 
many  of  his  days.  She  was  the  author 
of  Les  Conversations  d’Emilie,  Lettres  ^ 
Mon  Fils,  and  Mes  Moments  Heureux. 
She  left  interesting  memoirs  and  corres- 
pondence. 

EPIPH'ARY,  a festival,  otherwise 
called  the  manifestation  of  Christ  to  the 
Gentiles,  observed  on  the  6th  of  January 
in  honor  of  the  adoration  of  our  Savior 
by  the  three  magi,  or  wise  men,  who 
came  to  adore  him  and  bring  him  pres- 
ents, led  by  the  star.  As  a separate 
festival  it  dates  from  813. 

EPIS'COPACY,  the  system  of  church 
government  in  which  bishops  are  estab- 
lished as  distinct  from  and  superior  to 
priests  or  presbyters,  there  being  in  the 
church  three  distinct  orders — deacons, 
priests,  and  bishops.  See  Bishop. 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  THE  PROT- 
ESTANT, the  religious  body  formerly 
known  as  “The  Church  of  England  in 
America,”  and  generally  styled  the 
“American  Episcopal  Church.”  The 
full  legal  title  of  this  communion  is 
“The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America,”  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  those  Christians,  on  the 
one  hand,  who  acknowledge  the  papal 
supremacy,  and  from  those,  on  the  otlier 
who  reject  the  authority  of  bishops. 
Whether  this  W'ere  really  intended  or 
not  is  perhaps  doubtful;  the  name,  how- 
ever, describes  with  suflScient  accuracy 
the  relations  of  this  church  to  the  other 
religious  bodies  in  the  U.  States. 

The  Episcopal  Church  is  the  descend- 


ant and  representative  of  that  branch  of 
the  Church  of  England  which  was  estab- 
lished in  the  North  American  colonies  in 
the  17th  century.  The  English  ad- 
venturers of  that  and  the  preceding  age, 
like  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  car- 
ried their  national  religion  with  them, 
and  introduced  it  wherever  they  gained 
a footing. 

The  first  services  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  England  within  the  territory 
now  occupied  by  the  U.  States  were  held 
probably  at  Point  Reyes,  Drake’s  Bay, 
on  the  California  coast,  in  June  and  July, 
1579.  Francis  Fletcher,  priest  and 
preacher  of  the  little  company  in  the 
Golden  Hind,  in  which  Sir  Francis 
Drake  at  this  time  circumnavigated  the 
globe,  records  in  the  World  Encom- 
passed the  use  of  the  church’s  prayers 
on  the  eve,  or  on  the  festival,  of  St.  John 
Baptist,  June  24,  at  which  service  sailors 
and  savages  were  the  worshipers,  and 
the  crew  of  the  Golden  Hind  besought 
their  God  in  behalf  of  the  natives  at- 
tracted to  thes^  solemn  rites  that  He 
would  “open  their  blinded  eyes  to  the 
knowledge  of  Him,  and  of  Jesus  Christ 
the  salvation  of  the  Gentiles.” 

EPISCOPAL  SYSTEM,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  that  theory  according 
to  which  the  highest  clerical  power  is 
vested  in  the  whole  body  of  bishops. 
This  theory  was  most  prominently 
brought  forward  in  the  papal  elections 
of  the  14th  century,  and  its  followers 
declared  the  church,  as  represented  in 
its  general  assemblies,  to  be  above  the 
pope.  But  the  declaration  of  papal  in- 
fallibility put  an  end  to  these  differences, 
and  made  an  impossibility  of  the  episco- 
pal system.  In  the  German  Protestant 
churches  the  episcopal  system  is  that 
theory  according  to  which  the  authority 
of  the  bishops,  which  had  been  suspend- 
ed in  the  Protestant  countries  in  con- 
sequence of  the  peace  of  1555,  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  ruler  of  the  country. 

EPTSODE,  an  incidental  narrative,  or 
digression  in  a poem,  which  the  poet  has 
connected  with  the  main  plot,  but  which 
is  not  essential  to  it. 

EP'ITAPH,  an  inscription  upon  a 
tomb  or  monument  in  honor  or  memory 
of  the  dead.  Epitaphs  were  in  use  both 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
Greeks  distinguished  by  epitaphs  only 
their  illustrious  men.  Among  the 
Romans  they  became  a family  institu- 
tion and  private  names  were  regularly 
recorded  upon  tombstones.  The  same 
practice  has  generally  prevailed  in  Chris- 
tian countries.  On  Christian  tombstone 
epitaphs  usually  give  brief  facts  of  the 
deceased’s  life,  sometimes  also  the  pious 
hopes  of  survivors  in  reference  to  the 
resurrection  or  other  doctrines  of  the 
Christian  faith,  etc.  Many  so-called 
epitaphs  are  mere  witty  jeux  d’esprit, 
which  might  be  described  as  epigrams, 
and  which  were  never  intended  seriously 
for  monumental  inscriptions.  The  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  is  very  large. 

EPITHALAMIUM,  a nuptial  song  or 
poem  in  praise  of  a bride  and  bride- 
groom. Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
it  was  sung  by  young  men  and  maids  at 
the  door  of  the  bridal  chamber  of  a new- 
married  couple. 

EPITHE'LIUM,  in  anatomy,  the  cel- 
lular layer  which  lines  the  internal 


cavities  and  canals  of  the  body,  both 
closed  and  open,  as  the  mouth,  nose, 
respiratory  organs,  blood-vessels,  etc., 
and  which  is  analogous  to  the  cuticle  of 
the  outer  surface.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  epithelium.  The  epithelium 
lining  the  blood-vessels  is  called  some- 
times endothelium. 

EPIZOOTTC,  or  EPIZOOTIC  DIS- 
EASE, a disease  that  at  some  particular 
time  and  place  attacks  great  numbers  of 
the  lower  animals  just  as  an  epidemic 
attacks  man.  Pleuro-pneumonia  is  often 
an  epizootic,  as  was  also  the  rinderpest. 

E PLU'RIBUS  U'NUM.  The  national 
motto  of  the  United  States,  proposed  by 
the  committee  appointed  by  Congress  on 
July  4,  1776,  to  prepare  designs  for  a 
seal.  The  intended  meaning  was  “One 
formed  of  many,”  in  reference  to  the 
composition  of  the  government. 

EPOCH,  or  ERA,  is  a fixed  point  of 
time,  commonly  selected  on  account  of 
some  remarkable  event  by  W'hich  it  has 
been  distinguished,  and  W'hich  is  made 
the  beginning  or  determining  point  of  a 
particular  year  from  which  all  other 
years,  whether  preceding  or  ensuing,  are 
computed.  The  creation  and  the  birth 
of  Christ  are  the  most  important  of  the 
historical  epochs.  The  creation  has 
formed  the  foundation  of  various  chro- 
nologies, the  chief  of  which  are:  1.  The 
epoch  adopted  by  Bessuet,  Ussher,  and 
other  Catholic  and  Protestant  divines, 
which  places  the  creation  in  b.c.  4004. 

2.  The  Era  of  Constantinople  (adopted 
by  Russia),  which  places  it  in  b.c.  5508. 

3.  The  Era  of  Antioch,  used  till  a.d.  284, 

placed  the  creation  b.c.  5502.  4.  The 

Era  of  Alexandria,  which  made  the 
creation  b.c.  5492.  This  is  also  the  Abys- 
sinian Era.  5.  The  Jewish  Era,  which 
places  the  creation  in  b.c.  3760.  The 
Greeks  computed  their  time  by  periods 
of  four  years,  called  Olympiads,  from 
the  occurrence  every  fourth  year  of  the 
Olympic  games.  The  first  Olympiad, 
being  the  year  in  w'hich  Coroebus  was 
victor  in  the  Olympic  games,  was  in  the 
year  b.c.  776.  The  Romans  dated  from 
the  supposed  era  of  the  foundation  of 
their  city  (Ab  Urbe  Condita,  A.U.C.), 
the  21st  of  April,  in  the  third  year  of  the 
sixth  Olympiad,  or  b.c.  753  (according 
to  some  authorities  b.c.  752).  The  Chris- 
tian Era,  or  mode  of  computing  from 
the  birth  of  Christ  as  a starting-point, 
w'as  first  introduced  in  the  6th  century, 
and  was  generally  adopted  by  the  year 
1000.  This  event  is  believed  to  have 
taken  place  earlier,  perhaps  by  four 
years,  than  the  received  date.  The 
Julian  epoch,  based  on  the  coincidence 
of  the  solar,  lunar,  and  indictional  per- 
iods, is  fixed  at  4713  b.c.,  and  is  the  only 
epoch  established  on  an  astronomical 
basis.  The  Mohammedan  Era,  or 
Hejira,  commences  on  16th  July,  622, 
and  the  years  are  computed  by  lunar 
months.  The  Chinese  reckon  their  time 
by  eycles  of  60  years.  Instead  of  num- 
bering them  as  we  do,  they  give  a differ- 
ent name  to  every  year  in  the  cycle.  See 
Chronology,  Calendar. 

EPSOM  SALT,  sulphate  of  magnesium 
a cathartic  salt  which  appears  in  capil- 
lary fibers  or  acicular  crystals.  It  is 
found  covering  crevices  of  rocks,  in 
mineral  springs,  etc.;  but  is  commonly 
prepared  by  artificial  processes  from 


EQUATION 


EQUIVALENTS 


magnesian  limestone  by  treating  it  with 
sulphui’ic  acid,  or  by  dissolving  the 
mineral  kieserite  in  boiling  water,  allow- 
ing the  insoluble  matter  to  settle,  and 
crystallizing  out  the  Epsom  salt  from 
the  clear  solution.  It  is  employed  in 
medicine  as  a purgative,  and  in  the  arts. 
The  name  is  derived  from  its  having 
keen  first  procured  from  the  mineral 
waters  at  Epsom. 

EQUATION,  in  algebra,  a proposition 
asserting  the  equality  of  two  quantities, 
and  expressed  by  the  sign  = between 
them;  or  an  expression  of  the  same 
quantity  in  two  dissimilar  terms,  but  of 
equal  value;  as,  3s.  = 36d.  or  x = b + m 
— r.  In  the  latter  case  x is  equal  to  h 
added  to  m with  r subtracted,  and  the 
quantities  on  the  right  hand  of  the  sign 
of  equation  are  said  to  be  the  value  of  x 
on  the  left  hand.  An  equation  is  termed 
simple,  quadratic,  cubic,  or  biquadratic, 
or  of  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth 
degree,  according  as  the  index  of  the 
highest  powder  of  the  unknown  quantity 
is  one,  two,  three,  or  four. 

EQUATION,  in  astronomy,  the  correc- 
tion or  quantity  to  be  added  to  or  sub- 
tracted from  the  mean  position  of  a 
heavenly  body  to  obtain  the  true  posi- 
tion. The  term  personal  equation  is  the 
quantity  of  time  by  which  a person  is  in 
the  habit  of  noting  a phenomenon 
wrongly;  it  may  be  called  positive  or 
negative,  according  as  he  notes  it  after 
or  before  it  really  takes  place. 

EQUATION  OF  TIME,  the  difference 
between  mean  and  apparent  time,  or  the 
difference  of  time  as  given  by  a clock 
and  as  given  by  a sun-dial,  arising  chiefly 
from  the  varying  velocity  of  the  earth 
in  its  orbit  and  the  eccentricity  of  the 
orbit.  The  sun  and  the  clock  agree  four 
times  in  the  year;  the  greatest  difference 
between  them  at  the  beginning  of  No- 
vember is  fully  sixteen  minutes.  See 
Day. 

EQUATION,  PERSONAL,  the  con- 
stant which  must  be  applied  to  every 
time  observation  recorded  by  an  observer 
(as  in  astronomy)  in  order  to  make  the 
mean  of  such  observations  agree  with 
those  of  another  observer.  It  is  found 
by  experience  that  different  persons,  in 
recording  the  results  of  observations 
will  make  various  errors,  some  anticipat- 
ing the  event,  but  others  failing  to  re- 
cord it  at  the  proper  time.  When  it  is 
found  possible,  by  examining  a long 
series  of  records  made  of  the  same  event 
by  two  observers,  to  discover  the  aver- 
age difference  between  their  records  of 
events,  a very  important  correction  of 
time-intervals  may  sometimes  be  intro- 
duced into  a computation  based  upon 
such  records.  Such  a correction  is  called 
the  relative  personal  equation  of  the 
two  astronomers.  When  it  is  found  that 
an  observer  habitually  makes,  or  is 
likely  to  make,  a certain  error  in  his 
time-records,  such  error  (or  absolute  per- 
sonal equation)  can  bereadilyallowedfor. 

EQUA'TOR,  that  great  circle  of  our 
globe  every  point  of  which  is  90°  from 
the  poles.  All  places  which  are  on  it 
have  invariably  equal  days  and  nights. 
Our  earth  is  divided  by  it  into  the  north- 
ern and  southern  hemispheres.  From 
this  circle  is  reckoned  the  latitudes  of 
places  both  north  and  south.  There  is 
»U»  a corresponding  celestial  equator 


in  the  plane  of  the  terrestrial,  an  imagin- 
ary great  circle  in  the  heavens  the 
plane  of  which  is  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  earth.  It  is  everywhere  90° 
distant  from  the  celestial  poles,  which 
coincide  with  the  extremities  of  the 
earth’s  axis,  supposed  to  be  produced 
to  meet  the  heavens.  During  his  ap- 
parent yearly  course  the  sun  is  twice 
in  the  celestial,  and  vertically  over  the 
terrestrial  equator,  at  the  beginning  of 
spring  and  of  autumn.  Then  the  day  and 
night  are  equal  all  over  the  earth,  whence 
the  name  equinox. — The  magnetic  equa- 
tor is  a line  which  pretty  nearly  coin- 
cides with  the  geographical  equator,  and 
at  every  point  of  which  the  vertical 
component  of  the  earth’s  magnetic  at- 
traction is  zero;  that  is  to  say,  a dipping 
needle  carried  along  the  magnetic 
equator  remains  horizontal.  It  is  hence 
also  called  the  aclinic  line. 

EQUATO'RIAL,  an  astronomical  in- 
strument contrived  for  the  purpose  of 
directing  a telescope  upon  any  celestial 
object,  and  of  keeping  the  object  in 
view  for  any  length  of  time,  notwith- 
standing the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth. 
For  these  purposes  a principal  axis  rest- 
ing on  firm  supports  is  mounted  exactly 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth’s  rota- 
tion, and  consequently  pointing  to  the 
poles  of  the  heavens,  being  fixed  so  as  to 
turn  on  pivots  at  its  extremities.  To 
this  there  is  attached  a telescope  mov- 
ing on  an  axis  of  its  own  in  such  a way 
that  it  may  either  be  exactly  parallel  to 
the  other  axis,  or  at  any  angle  to  it; 
when  at  right  andes  it  points  to  the 
celestial  equator.  By  this  means  a star 
can  be  followed  by  one  motion  from  its 
rising  to  its  setting.  In  some  observa- 
tories the  equatorials  have  the  necessary 
motion  given  them  by  clock-work. 

EQUESTRIAN  STATUE,  a complete 
figure  of  a person  on  horseback,  exe- 
cuted generally  in  bronze  or  stone.  In 
ancient  Greece,  where  plastic  art  at- 
tained its  highest  perfection,  statues  of 


Skeleton  of  horse. 


fr,  frontal  bone;  P,  cervical  vertebrae;  Z),  dor- 
sal vertebrae;  i.  lumbar  vertebrae;  erf,  caudal 
vertebrae ; sc,  scapula : pelvis : ma,  mandible ; 
Itu,  humerus:  ra,  radius;  cp,  carpus:  me,  meta- 
carpus: /«,  femur:  tib,  tibia;  ca,  calcaneum; 
tar,  tarsus;  mt,  metatarsus :p,  phalanges. 

men  and  horses  were  often  of  the  'first 
excellence,  but  horses  were  more  com- 
monly represented  as  attached  to  the 
chariot.  In  Rome,  equestrian  statues 
of  the  emperors  mere  common. 

EQ'UIDjE,  the  horse  family,  a family 
belonging  to  the  order  Ungulata,  or 
hoofed  mammals,  and  subdivision  peris- 
sodactyla,  characterized  by  an  undivided 
hoof  formed  of  the  third  toe  and  its 
enlarged  horny  nail,  a simple  stomach,  a 
mane  on  the  neck,  and  by  six  incisor 
teeth  on  each  jaw,  seven  molars  on 


either  side  of  both  jaws,  and  by  two 
small  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  ja,w  of 
the  males,  and  sometimes  in  both  jaws. 
It  is  divided  into  two  groups — one  in- 
cluding the  asses  and  zebras,  the  other 
comprising  the  true  horses. 

EQUILIB'RIUM,  a state  of  equipoise ; 
a state  of  rest  produced  by  the  mutual 
counteraction  of  two  or  more  forces,  as 
the  state  of  the  two  ends  of  a lever  or 
balance,  when  both  are  charged  with 
equal  weight.  When  a bodjq  being 
slightly  moved  out  of  any  position,  al- 
ways tends  to  return  to  its  position,  that 
position  is  said  to  be  one  of  stable  equilib- 
rium; when  the  body  will  not  thus  re- 
turn to  its  previous  position,  its  position 
is  said  to  be  one  of  unstable  equilibrium. 

EQUINOC'TIAL,  in  astronomy,  the 
circle  in  the  heavens  otherwise  known  as 
the  celestial  equator.  When  the  sun  is 
on  the  equator  there  is  equal  length  cf 
day  and  night  over  all  the  earth:  hence 
the  name  equinoctial.  — Equinoctial 
gales,  storms  which  are  observed  gen- 
erally to  take  place  about  the  time  of  the 
sun’s  crossing  the  equator,  that  is,  at 
the  vernal  and  autumnal  equinox,  in 
March  and  September.  (See  Equinox.) — 
Equinoctial  points  are  the  two  points 
wherein  the  celestial  equator  and  eclip- 
tic intersect  each  other;  the  one,  being  in 
the  first  point  of  Aries,  is  called  the 
vernal  point;  and  the  other,  in  the  first 
point  of  Libra,  the  autumnal  point. 
These  points  are  found  to  be  moving 
backward  or  westward  at  the  rate  of  50" 
of  a degree  in  a year.  This  is  called  the 
precession  of  the  equinoxes. 

EQ'UINOX,  the  precise  time  when  the 
sun  enters  one  of  the  equinoctial  points, 
or  the  first  point  of  Aries  about  the  21st 
of  March,  and  the  first  point  of  Libra 
about  the  23d  of  September,  making  the 
day  and  night  of  equal  length  all  over 
the  world.  At  all  other  times  the  length 
of  the  day  and  of  the  night  are  unequal, 
their  difference  being  the  greater,  the 
more  we  approach  either  pole,  while  in 
the  same  latitude  it  is  everywhere  the 
same. 

EQ'UITY,  in  law,  the  system  of  sup- 
plemental law  administered  in  certain 
courts,  founded  upon  defined  rules,  re- 
corded precedents,  and  established  prin- 
ciples, the  judges,  however,  liberally  ex- 
pounding and  developing  them  to  meet 
new  exigencies.  While  it  aims  to  assist 
the  defects  of  the  common  law,  by  ex- 
tending relief  to  those  rights  of  property 
which  the  strict  law  does  not  recognize, 
and  by  giving  more  ample  and  distribu- 
tive redress  than  the  ordinary  tribunals 
afford,  equity  by  no  means  either  con- 
trols, mitigates,  or  supercedes  the  com- 
mon law,  but  rather  guides  itself  by  its 
analogies,  and  does  not  assume  any 
power  to  subvert  its  doctrines.  Courts 
of  equity  grant  redress  to  all  parties 
where  they  have  right,  and  modify  and 
fashion  that  redress  according  to  circum- 
stances. They  bring  before  them  all  the 
parties  interested  in  the  subject-matter 
of  the  suit,  and  adjust  the  rights  of  all. 

EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION,  in  law, 
the  advantage  allowed  to  a mortgagor  of 
a reasonable  time  to  redeem  an  estate 
mortgaged,  when  it  is  of  greater  value 
than  the  sum  for  which  it  is  mortgaged. 

EQUTV'ALENTS,  in  chemistry,  a term 
for  the  proportions  in  which  the  elements 


ERA 


ERMINE 


combine  with  one  another  to  form  com- 
pounds. See  Chemistry. 

ERA.  See  Epoch. 

ERAS'MUS,  Desiderius,  a Dutch 
scholar,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1467.  His 
original  name  was  Gerard,  but  this  he 
changed  according  to  a fashion  of  the 
time.  In  14'92  he  traveled  to  Paris  to 
perfect  himself  in  theology  and  polite 
literature.  He  went  to  England  in  1497, 
where  he  was  graciously  received  by  the 
king.  He  returned  soon  after  to  the 
Continent,  and  took  his  doctor’s  degree. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1510;  wrote 
his  Praise  of  Folly  and  was  appointed 
Margaret  professor  of  divinity  and  Greek 
lecturer  at  Cambridge.  In  1514  he  re- 
turned to  the  Continent  and  lived  chiefly 
at  Basel,  where  he  died  in  1536.  To  ex- 
tensive learning  Erasmus  joined  a re- 
fined taste  and  a delicate  wit.  He  ren- 
dered great  and  lasting  service  to  the 
cause  of  reviving  scholarship.  Although 
he  took  no  direct  part  in  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  was  reproached  by  Luther  for 
lukewarmness,  he  attacked  the  disorders 
of  monasticism  and  superstition,  and 
everywhere  promoted  the  cause  of  truth. 


He  edited  various  classics,  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Testament  from  MSS. 
(with  Latin  translation),  etc.,  but  his 
best-known  books  are  the  Encomium 
Mori®,  or  Praise  of  Folly,  and  his  Col- 
loquies. 

ER'EBUS,  in  the  Greek  mythology, 
the  son  of  Chaos  and  Darkness.  The 
name  Erebus  was  also  given  to  the  in- 
fernal regions. 

ER'FURT,  an  important  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  on  the 
river  Gera,  formerly  a fortress  with  two 
citadels,  now  given  up  as  such.  Pop. 
72,360. 

ER'GOT,  the  altered  seed  of  rye  and 
other  grasses  caused  by  the  attack  of  a 
fungus.  The  seed  is  replaced  by  a dense 
homogeneous  tissue  largely  charged 
with  an  oily  fluid.  In  its  perfect  state 
this  germinates  and  produces  the  Clavi- 
ceps.  When  diseased  rye  of  this  kind  is 
eaten  in  food  for  some  time  it  sometimes 
causes  death  by  a kind  of  mortification 
called  dry  gangrene.  Ergot  is  used  in 
obstetric  practice  to  promote  the  con- 
traction of  the  uterus. 

ERICA  (e-ri'ka),  the  heath,  a large 
genus  of  branched  rigid  shrubs,  most  of 
which  are  natives  of  South  Africa,  a few 
being  found  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The 


leaves  are  narrow  and  rigid,  the  flowers 
are  globose  or  tubular,  and  four-lobed. 


1,  Heads  ol  ergot  (aa)  produced  on  a grass. 
2,  Clavideps  purpurea  (bb)  springing  from  the 
Ergot. 

ER'ICSSON,  John,  engineer,  born  in 
Sweden,  1803.  He  served  for  a time  in 
the  Swedish  army;  removed  to  London 
in  1826,  and  to  New  York  in  1839.  He 
is  identified  with  numerous  inventions 


John  Ericsson. 


and  improvements  on  steam  machinery 
and  its  applications.  His  chief  inven- 
tions are  his  caloric  engine,  the  screw 
propeller  (1836),  which  has  revolution- 
ized navigation,  and  his  turret-ships, 
the  first  of  which,  the  Monitor,  distin- 
guished itself  in  the  American  civil  war, 
and  inaugurated  a new  era  in  naval  war- 
fare. He  latterly  devoted  himself  to 
studies  of  the  earth’s  motion  and  the  in- 
tensity of  solar  heat.  He  died  in  1889. 

ERIE  (e'ri),  one  of  the  great  chain  of 
North  American  lakes,  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Ontario,  about  265  miles 
long,  63^  miles  broad  at  its  center,  from 
40  to  60  fathoms  deep  at  the  deepest 
part ; area  9600  square  miles.  The  whole 
of  its  southern  shore  is  within  the  terri- 
tory of  the  U.  States,  and  its  northern 
within  that  of  Canada.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  the  upper  lakes  by  Detroit 
river  at  its  southwestern  extremity,  and 
discharges  its  waters  into  Lake  Ontario 
by  th&  Niagara  river  at  its  northeast  end. 
The  Welland  Canal  enables  vessels  to 
pass  from  it  to  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  shal- 
low compared  with  the  other  lakes  of 
the  series,  and  is  subject  to  violent 
storms.  The  principal  harbors  are  those 
on  the  U.  States  side — Buffalo,  Erie, 
Cleveland,  etc. 

ERIE,  a city  in  Pennsylvania;  an  im- 
portant railway  and  commerical  center 
on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie. 
There  are  numerous  iron-works  (includ- 
ing foundries,  rolling-mills,  blast-fur- 
naces, etc.),  petroleum  refineries,  brew- 
eries, tanneries,  wood-working  factories, 
etc.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the 
lake.  Population,  19U9,  68,U00. 

ERIE  CANAL,  the  largest  in  the  U. 
States,  serving  to  connect  the  great 
lakes  with  the  sea.  It  begins  at  Buffalo 
on  Lake  Erie,  and  extends  to  the  Hud- 
son at  Albany.  It  is  363  miles  long;  has 
in  all  72  locks;  a surface  width  70  feet, 


bottom  width  42  feet,  and  depth  7 feet 
It  is  carried  over  several  large  streams 
on  stone  aqueducts;  cost  nearly  $10,000, 
000,  and  was  opened  in  1825.  The 
navigation  is  free. 

ERIODEN'DROL,  the  wool  - tree. 
There  are  eight  species  natives  of 
America,  but  one  belongs  to  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  species  are  noble  plants. 


Wool-tree. 


growing  from  50  to  100  feet  high,  having 
palmate  leaves,  and  red  or  white  flowers. 
The  woolly  coat  of  the  seeds  of  some  of 
the  species  is  used  in  different  countries 
for  stuffing  cushions  and  similar  pur- 
poses. 

ERIOM'ETER,  an  optical  instrument 
for  measuring  the  diameters  of  minute 
particles  and  fibers,  from  the  size  of  the 
colored  rings  produced  by  the  diffraction 
of  the  light  in  which  the  objects  are 
viewed. 

ERTVAN,  a Russian  town,  capital  of 
government  of  the  same  name  in  the 
lieutenancy  of  the  Caucasus,  on  the 
Sanga,  north  of  Mount  Ararat.  It  has  a 
citadel,  barracks,  a cannon  foundry,  and 
some  manufactures.  Pop.  12,505.  The 
government  has  an  area  of  10,705  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  of  583,957. 

ER'MINE,  the  stoat,  a quadruped  of 
the  weasel  tribe,  found  over  temperate 
Europe,  but  common  only  in  the  north. 
In  consequence  of  the  change  that 
occurs  in  the  color  of  its  fur  at  different 
seasons — by  far  most  marked  in  the 


Ermine. 


Arctic  regions — it  is  not  generally  known 
that  the  ermine  and  stoat  are  the  same. 
In  winter,  in  cold  countries  or  severe 
seasons,  the  fur  changes  from  a reddish- 


U’.y.tr 


Ermine. 


brown  to  a yellowish-white,  or  almost 
pure  white,  under  which  shade  the  ani- 
mal is  recognized  as  the  ermine.  In 
both  states  the  tip  of  the  tail  is  black. 
Like  many  other  species  of  this  genua 


EROS 


ESCURIAL 


the  ermine  has  the  faculty  of  ejecting  a 
fluid  of  a musky  odor.  Its  fur  is  short, 
soft,  and  silky.  It  was  formerly  one  of 
the  insignia  of  royalty,  and  is  still  used 
by  judges.  When  used  as  linings  of 
cloaks  the  black  tuft  fromthetail  issewed 
to  the  skin  at  irregular  distances. — In 
heraldry,  ermine  is  one  of  the  furs,  repre- 
sented with  its  peculiar  spots  black  on  a 
white  ground. 

E'ROS,  the  Greek  name  of  Cupid  and 
Amor. 

EROSION  THEORY,  in  geology,  the 
theory,  now  held  by  all  geologists,  that 
valleys  are  due  to  the  wearing  influences 
of  water  and  ice,  the  latter  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  glaciers,  as  opposed  to  the  theory 
which  regards  them  as  the  result  of 
fissures  in  the  earth’s  crust  produced  by 
strains  during  its  upheaval. 

EROTTC,  relating  to  love. — Erotic 
Poetry,  amatory  poetry. — The  name  of 
erotic  writers  has  been  applied,  in  Greek 
literature,  particularly  to  a class  of  ro- 
mance writers,  and  to  the  writer  of  the 
Milesian  Tales. 

ERRA'TA,  the  list  of  errors  and  cor- 
rections placed  at  the  end  or  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a book. 

ERRATICS,  or  ERRATIC  BLOCKS, 

in  geology,  boulders  or  large  masses  of 
angular  rock  which  have  been  trans- 
ported to  a distance  from  their  original 
mountains  by  the  action  of  ice  during 
the  glacial  period.  Thus  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Jura  Mountains  immense  blocks 
of  granite  are  found  which  have  traveled 
60  miles  from  their  original  situation. 
Similarly  masses  of  Scotch  and  Lake- 
district  granites  and  of  Welsh  rocks 
(some  of  which  weigh  several  tons)  occur 
not  uncommonly  in  the  surface  soil  of 
the  Midland  counties  of  England. 

ERROR,  WRIT  OF,  in  law,  a formal 
instrument,  issued  by  or  under  authority 
of  a court,  commanding  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  addressed  to  do  a certain  act 
tfierein  specified.  It  is  written  in  the 
form  of  a mandate  from  the  highest 
authority  in  the  state — the  king  in 
Great  Britain,  the  president,  people,  or 
commonwealth  in  the  United  States, 
attested  by  the  chief  judge  of  the  court, 
sealed  and  signed  by  the  clerk,  and  may 
be  issued  either  at  the  commencement  of 
an  action  or  proceeding,  or  during  its 
progress,  to  the  sheriff  or  to  some  other 
person,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
various  acts  to  be  done  in  connection 
with  such  action  or  proceeding. 

ERSKINE,  Thomas,  Lord  Erskine, 
Scottish  lawyer,  the  youngest  son  of  the 
tenth  earl  of  Buchan,  was  born  in  1750, 
and  died  in  1823.  After  serving  four 
years  in  the  navy  and  seven  in  the  army 
he  commenced  the  study  of  law,  and  in 
1778  took  his  degree  at  Cambridge 
and  was  called  to  the  bar.  His  success 
w'as  immediate.  In  May,  1783,  he  was 
elected  a member  of  parliament  for 
Portsmouth,  a seat  he  held  till  1806, 
when  he  'was  raised  to  the  peerage.  The 
rights  of  juries  he  firmly  maintained  on 
all  occasions.  In  1792,  being  employed 
to  defend  Thomas  Paine,  when  prose- 
cuted for  the  second  part  of  his  Rights  of 
Man,  he  declared  that,  waiving  all  per- 
sonal convictions,  he  deemed  it  right,  as 
an  English  advocate,  to  obey  the  call; 
by  the  maintenance  of  which  principle 
he  lost  his  office  of  attorney-general  to 


the  Prince  of  Wales.  In  the  trials  of 
Hardy,  Tooke,  and  others  for  high 
treason  in  1794,  the  ability  displayed  by 
Erskine  was  acknowledped  by  all  parties. 
He  was  a wa  m partisan  of  Fox,  and  a 
strenuous  opposer  of  the  war  with 
France.  On  the  death  of  Pitt,  in  1806, 
Erskine  was  created  a peer,  and  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  lord-chancellor.  Dur- 
ing his  short  tenure  of  office  the  bill  for 
the  abolition  of  slavery  was  passed. 

ERUPTIVE  ROCKS,  in  geology,  those 
which,  like  lava,  basalt,  granite,  etc., 
have  broken  through  other  rocks  while 
in  a molten  state. 

ERYSIP'ELAS,  the  rose,  or  St.  An- 
thony’s fire,  a disease  characterized  by 
diffused  inflammation  of  the  skin  or  some 
part  of  the  body,  but  chiefly  of  the  face 
or  head,  and  attended  by  fever.  It  is, 
generally,  an  acute  affection,  its  medium 
duration  being  from  ten  to  fourteen  days. 
It  should  be  treated  by  nourishing  food 
and  iron  tonics,  the  parts  being  pro- 
tected from  cold. 

ERYTHE'MA,  a mild  form  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  skin  somewhat  resembling 
erysipelas.  Some  forms  are  connected 
wdth  constitutional  diseases,  as  rheu- 
matism, gout,  etc. 

ERZERUM,  ERZEROUM,  or  ERZE- 
ROOM  (er'ze-rom),  a city  of  Turkish 
Armenia,  capital  of  a vilayet  with  an 
area  of  27,000  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of 
582,745.  The  town  is  about  6000  feet 
above  sea-level,  forms  an  important 
strategical  center,  and  has  become  a 
principal  frontier  fortress.  The  Moslem 
element  prevails  largely  over  the  Chris- 
tian, although  it  is  the  metropolis  of  the 
Armenian  church  in  union  with  Rome. 
In  addition  to  important  manufactures, 
especially  in  copper  and  iron,  it  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade,  and  is  a chief  halt- 
ing-place for  Persian  pilgrims  on  their 
way  to  Mecca.  Pop.  38,894. 

ESARHAD'DON,  the  son  of  Senna- 
cherib, and  one  of  the  most  powerful  of 
all  the  Assyrian  monarchs.  He  ex- 
tended the  empire  on  all  sides,  and  is 
the  only  Assyrian  monarch  who  actually 
reigned  at  Babylon.  He  died  about  667 

B.C. 

E'SAU,  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac,  and 
twin-brother  of  Jacob.  His  name 
(which  signifies  rough,  hairy)  was  due  to 
his  singular  appearance  at  birth,  being 
“red,  and  all  over  like  an  hairy  garment.’’ 
The  story  of  his  marriage,  of  his  loss  of 
birthright  through  the  craft  of  Rebekah 
and  Jacob,  and  of  his  quarrel  and  recon- 
ciliation with  Jacob,  are  told  in  the  book 
of  Genesis.  He  was  the  progenitor  of 
the  Edomites,  who  dwelt  on  Mount  Seir. 

ESCANABA,  the  capital  of  Delta  co., 
Mich.,  situated  on  the  C.  and  N.  W. 
Railway  and  on  Green  Bay,  360  miles 
north  of  Chicago.  It  ships  annually 
over  4,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore  and  large 
quantities  of  coal,  lumber,  and  fish. 
Pop.  10,760. 

ESCAPE'MENT,  the  general  contriv- 
ance in  a time-piece  by  which  the  pres- 
sure of  the  wheels  (which  move  always 
in  one  direction)  and  the  vibratory 
motion  of  the  pendulum  or  balance- 
wheel  are  accommodated  the  one  to  the 
other.  By  this  contrivance  the  wheel- 
work  is  made  to  communicate  an  im- 
pulse to  the  regulating  power  (which  in 
a clock  is  the  pendulum  and  in  a watch 


the  balance-wheel),  so  as  to  restore  to  it 
the  small  portion  of  force  which  it  loses 
in  every  vibration,  in  consequence  of 
friction  and  the  resistance  of  the  air.  The 
leading  requisite  of  a good  escapement 
is  that  the  impulse  communicated  to  the 


Watch  and  clock  escapements. 

1,  Anchor  escapement  of  a common  clock.  2, 
Duplex  escapement.  3,  Lever  escapement.  4, 
Horizontal  or  cylinder  escapement. 

pendulum  or  balance-wheel  shall  be  in- 
variable, notwithstanding  any  irregular- 
ity of  foulness  in  the  train  of  wheels. 
Various  kinds  of  escapements  have  been 
contrived,  some  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figure.  See  also 

ESCHATOL'OGY  (es-ka-),  in  theol. 
the  “doctrine  respecting  the  last  things,’’ 
which  treats  of  the  millennium,  the  sec- 
ond advent  of  Christ,  the  resurrection, 
judgment,  conflagration  of  the  world, 
and  the  final  state  of  the  dead. 

ESCHEAT  (es-chet'),  in  law,  a species 
of  reversion  arising  from  default  of  heirs 
or  by  forfeiture.  That  which  falls  or 
lapses  to  the  original  proprietor,  or  to 
the  state,  as  lands  or  other  property. 
By  modern  legislation  there  can  be  no 
escheat  on  failure  of  the  whole  blood 
wherever  there  are  persons  of  the  half- 
blood  capable  of  inheriting. 

ESCROW',  a legal  writing  delivered 
to  a third  person  to  be  delivered  by  him 
to  the  person  whom  it  purports  to  bene- 
fit, when  some  condition  is  performed. 
Upon  the  performance  of  this  condition 
it  becomes  an  absolute  deed,  but  if  the 
condition  be  not  performed  it  remains  an 
escrow  or  scroll. 

ESCU'RIAL,  a remarkable  building  in 
Spain,  comprising  at  once  a palace,  a 
convent,  a church,  and  a mausoleum. 
It  is  distant  from  Madrid  about  24  miles 
in  a northwesterly  direction,  and  situ- 
uated  on  the  acclivity  of  the  Sierra  Gua- 
darrama,  the  range  of  mountains  which 
divides  New  from  Old  Castile.  It  was 
built  by  Philip  II.,  and  dedicated  to  St. 
Lawrence,  in  commemoration  of  the 
victory  of  St.  Quentin,  fought  on  the 
festival  of  the  saint  in  1557.  It  is  popu- 
larly considered  to  be  built  on  the  plan 
of  a gridiron,  from  the  fact  that  St. 
Lawrence  is  said  to  have  been  broiled 
alive  on  a sort  of  large  gridiron.  The 
building  is  a rectangular  parallelogram 
measuring  744  feet  in  length  by  580  in 
breadth.  The  interior  is  divided  into 
courts,  formerly  inhabited  by  monks 
and  ecclesiastics,  while  a projection  460 
feet  in  length  (the  handle  of  the  gridiron) 
contains  the  ro5ml  palace.  It  was  begun 
in  1563  and  finished  in  1584.  It  is  of 
moderate  height,  and  its  innumerable 
windows  (said  to  be  11,000)  give  it 
(apart  from  the  church)  somewhat  the 


ESCUTCHEON 


ESSEN 


aspect  of  a large  mill  or  barracks.  The 
church  is  the  finest  portion  of  the  whole 
building.  The  dome  is  60  feet  in  diame- 
ter, and  its  height  at  the  center  is  about 
320  feet.  Under  it  is  the  Pantheon  or 
! family  vault  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns. 
S The  library  contains  a valuable  collec- 
J tion,  including  a rich  store  of  Arabic 
f MSS.  The  Escurial  was  partly  burned 
p-  in  1671,  when  many  MSS.  were  de- 
r stroyed,  and  was  pillaged  by  the  French 
^ in  1808  and  1813.  It  was  restored  by 
t Ferdinand  VII.,  but  the  monks,  with 
[ their  revenues  which  supported  it,  have 
f long  since  disappeared.  In  1872  it  was 
[ fired  by  lighting,  and  suffered  serious 
damage. 

t ESCUTCHEON,  in  heraldry,  the  shield 
f whereon  coats  of  arms  are  represented, 
i See  Heraldry. 

ESDRAE'LON,  Plain  of,  a plain  e.x- 
tending  across  Palestine  from  the  Medi- 
i terranean  to  the  Jordan,  and  drained  by 
! the  river  Kishon.  Among  its  subsidiary 
; valleys  are  those  of  Engannin,  Taanach, 
J and  Megiddo.  This  plain  is  celebrated 
^ for  many  important  events  in  Old  Testa- 
; merit  history. 

i ESDRAS,  Books  of,  two  apocryphal 
' books,  which,  in  the  Vulgate  and  other 
r editions,  are  incorporated  with  the 
I canonical  books  of  Scripture.  In  the 
^ Vulgate  the  canonical  books  of  Ezra  and 
t Nehemiah  are  called  the  first  and  second 
[ and  the  aprocryphal  books  the  third  and 
f fourth  books  of  Esdras.  The  Geneva 
K Bible  (1560)  first  adopted  the  present 
s nomenclature,  calling  the  two  aprocy- 
b phal  books  first  and  second  Esdras  The 
[■  subject  of  the  first  book  of  Esdras  is  the 
I same  as  that  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  and 
in  general  it  appears  to  be  copied  from 
, the  canonical  Scriptures.  The  second 
book  of  Esdras  is  .supposed  to  have  been 
either  of  much  later  date,  or  to  have 
been  interpolated  by  Christian  writers. 

SES'KIMOS.  See  Esquimaux. 

ESMARCH  (es'milrh),  Johannes  Fried- 
rich August,  German  surgeon;  born 
1823.  He  held  high  official  positions 
during  the  Schleswig-Holstein  and 
Franco-German  wars;  is  a great  author- 
I ity  on  gun-shot  wounds;  has  originated 
f valuable  improvements  in  barrack- 
* hospitals,  ambulances,  etc.;  and  is  the 
autlior  of  several  surgical  works. 

LES'NEH,  a town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  28  miles  s.s.w. 
[T  of  Thebes,  capital  of  a province  of  same 
U name,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Latopo- 
^ lis.  Among  the  ruins  there  is  a beautiful 
* portico  of  twenty-four  lofty  and  massive 
: columns,  belonging  to  a temple  of  Kneph 
^ (the  only  portion  of  the  temple  cleared 
’ out),  and  erected  in  the  Ptolemaic  and 
Roman  period,  with  a zodiac  on  the 
ceiling.  Esneh  is  the  entrepot  of  the 
Senaar  caravans;  has  manufactures  of 
cottons,  pottery,  etc.;  and  is  reckoned 
the  healthiest  place  in  Egypt,  Pop.  7000. 
ESOP.  See  Hilsop. 

ESPERANTO  LANGUAGE.  An  effort 


to  establish  an  international  language. 
In  1887  Dr.  Zamenhof,  a Russian  phy- 
sician, issued  a pamphlet  suggesting  a 
new  international  language,  to  be  called 
Esperanto.  Only  trifling  progress  was 
made  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  move- 
ment. The  famous  French  lin^ist, 
M.  de  Beaufort  threw  his  own  scheme 
aside  and  accepted  that  of  Dr.  Zamenhof 


as  better  suited  for  the  purpose  intended. 
From  France  the  movement  extended  to 
Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
and  England.  During  the  last  few 
years  active  work  has  been  undertaken 
in  the  U.  States.  Books  on  the  Esper- 
anto language  are  now  printed  in  more 
than  twenty  languages  .and  the  number 
of  periodicals  is  estimated  at  30.  At  the 
Bologne  congress,  delegates  from  22 
countries  spoke  the  language  freely. 

The  Esperanto  vocabulary  is  much 
smaller  than  any  other  language,  having 
only  about  2,000  words  as  compared  to 
32,000  in  the  French  and  100,000  words 
in  the  English  languages. 


Interior  of  temple,  Esneh. 


ESPIRTTO-SANTO  (“Holy  Spirit”), 
a maritime  province,  Brazil,  bounded 
north  by  Bahia,  south  by  Rio-de-Janeiro, 
length,  about  260  miles;  breadth,  about 
120  miles;  area,  43,290  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
121,560. 

ESPLANADE',  in  fortification,  the 
wide  open  space  left  between  a citadel 
and  the  nearest  houses  of  the  city.  The 
term  is  also  frequently  applied  to  a kind 
of  terrace,  especially  along  the  sea-side, 
for  public  walks  or  drives. 

ESPOU'SAL  or  BETROTHAL,  con- 
sists of  a deliberate  mutual  promise  of 
marriage,  expressed  by  outward  signs, 
between  two  persons,  both  of  whom 
may  lawfully  and  validly  enter  into  such 
an  engagement.  When  such  promise  is 
made  and  accepted  on  both  sides,  neither 
party  can  lawfully  withdraw  from  it 
without  the  other’s  consent  or  unless 
something  comes  to  light,  which,  had  it 
been  known  in  time,  would  have  pre- 
vented the  engagement. 

ESQUIMAULT  (es-ke'mMt),  a harbor 
and  naval  station  on  the  southeast  coast 
of  Vancouver  Island,  about  3 miles  from 
Victoria,  the  capital  of  British  Columbia. 
The  harbor  is  almost  landlocked,  and 
with  the  “Royal  Roads”  outside,  is 
capable  of  giving  safe  anchorage  to  a 
fleet  of  vessels  of  the  largest  size.  It  is 
the  station  of  H.M.  ships  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  is  being  fortified  and  pro- 
vided with  all  the  necessaries  of  a first- 
class  naval  arsenal. 


ESQUIMAUX  (es'ki-moz),  or  ESKI- 
MOS, a race  inhabiting  the  Arctic  coasts 
of  North  America,  from  Greenland  to 
Bering’s  Strait,  and  extending  into 
Asia.  They  call  themselves  Inu-it,  the 
people;  their  other  name  is  from  an 
Algonquin  word  signifying  eaters  of  raw 
flesh.  They  consist  of  three  principal 
stocks— the  Greenlanders;  the  Esqui- 
maux proper,  in  Labrador;  and  the  west- 
ern Esquimaux,  found  along  Hudson’s 
Bay,  the  west  side  of  Baffin’s  Bay,  the 
polar  shores  as  far  as  the  mouths  of  the 
Coppermine  and  Mackenzie  rivers,  and 
both  on  the  American  and  Asiatic  sides 
of  Bering’s  Strait.  Their  leading 
physical  peculiarities  are  a stunted 
stature,  flattened  nose,  projecting  cheek- 
bones, eyes  often  oblique,  and  yellow 
and  brownish  skin.  Seal-skins,  reindeer 
and  other  furs  are  used  as  materials  for 
dress,  according  to  the  season,  as  well  as 
skins  of  otters,  foxes,  martins,  etc.  In 
summer  they  live  in  tents,  covered  with 
skins;  in  winter  they  may  be  said  to  bur- 
row beneath  the  snow.  In  Greenland 
houses  built  of  stone  and  cemented  with 
turf  are  used  as  permanent  habitations. 
Vegetation  being  extremely  stunted 
within  the  limits  of  their  territories, 
their  food  consists  of  the  flesh  of  whales, 
seals,  walrus,  etc.,  often  eaten  raw;  and 
they  show  remarkable  skill  in  fishing 
and  hunting.  Their  weapons  are  bows 
and  arrows,  spears  or  lances,  generally 
pointed  with  bone,  but  sometimes  with 
metal.  Their  only  domestic  animal  is 
the  Esquimaux  dog  (which  see).  In 
intellect  they  are  by  nome.ans  deficient; 
in  manners  they  are  kind  and  hospitable. 
Their  religious  ideas  appear  scanty,  but 
success  has  attended  the  labors  of  the 
Danish  missionaries  in  teaching  them 
the  Christian  religion. 

ESQUIMAUX  DOG,  or  ESKIMO  DOG, 
a breed  of  dogs  extensively  spread  over 
the  northern  regions  of  America  and 
of  eastern  Asia.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  English  pointer,  but  appears  less 
on  account  of  the  shortness  of  its  legs. 
It  has  oblique  eyes,  an  elongated  muz- 
zle, and  a bushy  tail,  which  give  it  a 
wolfish  appearance.  The  color  is  gen- 
erally a deep  dun,  obscurely  barred  and 
patched  with  darker  color.  It  is  the 
only  beast  of  burden  in  these  lati- 
tudes, and  with  a team  of  such  dogs 
attached  to  his  sledge  the  Eskimo  will 
cover  60  miles  a day  for  several  succes- 
sive days. 

ES'SAY,  a composition  in  which  some- 
thing is  attempted  to  be  proved  or  illus- 
trated, usually  shorter  and  less  methodi- 
cal and  finished  than  a systematic  or 
formal  treatise;  so  that  it  may  be  a short 
disquisition  on  a subject  of  taste,  phil- 
osophy, or  common  life.  Caution  or 
modesty  has  induced  many  writers  of 
note  to  give  the  title  of  essay  to  their 
most  elaborate  productions;  thus  we 
have  Locke’s  Essay  on  the  Human  Un- 
derstanding. 

ESSEN,  a town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  18 
miles  northeast  of  Diisseldorf,  founded 
in  the  9th  century,  and  adorned  with  a 
fine  church  dating  from  873.  It  has 
recently  increased  with  great  rapidity 
and  is  celebrated  for  the  steel  and  iron 
works  of  Krupp,  the  most  extensive  in 
Europe,  employing  about  20,000  work- 
men. Pop.  78,706. 


ESSENCES 


ETHICS 


ESSENCES,  solutions  of  the  volatile  or 
essential  oils  in  spirits. 

ESSENES  (es-senz'),  or  ESS.®ANSj  a 
sect  among  the  Jews,  the  origin  of  which 
is  unknown,  as  well  as  the  etymology  of 
their  name.  It  appears  to  have  sprung 
up  in  the  course  of  the  century  preced- 
ing the  Christian  era,  and  disappeared 
on  the  dispersion  of  the  Jews  after  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem.  The  sect  appears  to 
have  been  an  outcome  of  Jewish  mysti- 
cism, which  gradually  assumed  the  form 
of  a distinct  organization.  They  were 
remarkable  for  their  strictness  and  ab- 
stinence, and  had  a rule  of  life  analogous 
to  that  of  a monastic  order. 

ESSENTIAL  OILS,  volatile  oils  usually 
drawn  from  aromatic  plants  by  subject- 
ing them  to  distillation  with  water,  such 
as  the  oils  of  lavender,  cloves,  pepper- 
mint, etc. 

ESSEX,  a maritime  county  in  the  s.e. 
of  England,  bounded  by  Suffolk,  the 
Thames,  Hertford,  and  Middlesex;  area 
is  987, 032  acres.  The  surface  is  generally 
level,  except  in  the  n.w.,  where  it  is  un- 
dulating and  sometimes  hilly.  The  soil 
is  in  general  extremely  fertile.  The  prin- 
cipal productions  are  potatoes,  barley, 
wheat,  oats,  mangolds,  turnips,  tares, 
rape,  mustard,  and  trefoil.  The  raising 
of  caraway,  coriander,  and  teaze,  is 
almost  peculiar  to  this  county.  The 
chief  towns  are  Chelmsford,  the  county 
town;  West  Ham,  Colchester,  Maldon, 
and  Harwich.  The  county  has  eight 
parliamentary  divisions,  each  returning 
one  member  Pop.  785,399. 

ESSEX,  Robert  Devereux,  Second 
Earl  of,  was  born  in  1567.  Having  ap- 
peared at  court,  he  soon  became  a favor- 
ite of  Queen  Elizabeth,  by  whom  he  was 
kept  in  attendance  against  his  will  dur- 
ing the  danger  of  the  Armada.  He 
served  with  more  or  less  distinction  in 
expeditions  to  Portugal  and  France,  the 
latter  on  behalf  of  Henry  of  Navarre.  In 
1596  he  was  commander  of  the  troops  in 
an  expedition  against  Spain,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  capture  of 
Cadiz.  In  an  expedition  next  year  he 
was  less  fortunate,  and  the  queen,  with 
whom  he  was  always  quarreling,  re- 
ceived him  coldly.  Presuming  on  the 
favor  of  Elizabeth  he  behaved  with 
rudeness  to  her  at  a privy-council  and 
received  a box  on  the  ear,  and  was  told 
to  “go  and  be  hanged.”  After  some 
months  a reconciliation  took  place,  and 
he  was  appointed  Lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland  (1599),  which  was  then  in  a state 
of  rebellion.  He  returned  to  England  in 
September,  having  been  entirely  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  government.  He  was  made 
a prisoner  in  his  own  house,  and  foolishly 
tried  to  excite  an  insurrection  in  London. 
After  a skirmish  with  a party  of  soldiers 
he  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  sent 
to  the  Tower.  He  was  tried  for  treason 
on  19th  February,  and  executed  on 
26th  February,  1601. 

ESTABLISHED  CHURCH,  a church 
having  a form  of  doctrine  and  govern- 
ment established  by  law  in  any  country 
for  the  teaching  of  Christianity  within 
its  boundaries,  and  usually  endowed  by 
the  state.  The  upholders  of  the  estab- 
lishment theory  maintain  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  a state  to  provide  for  the  religious 
i«.struction  of  the  people.  On  the  other 
viana,  it  is  argued  that  the  state  has  no 


right  to  endow  or  support  any  particular 
sect  or  denomination,  unless  they  assume 
that  that  denomination  alone  is  pos- 
sessed of  religious  truth  and  worth. 

ESTATE,  the  interest  or  quantity  of 
interest  a man  has  in  lands,  tenements, 
or  other  effects.  Estates  are  real  or  per- 
sonal. Real  estate  comprises  lands,  tene- 
ments, and  hereditaments,  held  in  free- 
hold. Personal  estate  comprises  inter- 
ests for  term  sofy  ears  in  lands,  tenements 
and  hereditaments,  and  property  of 
every  other  description.  Real  estate  de- 
scends to  heirs;  personal  to  executors  or 
administrators.  In  ordinary  language, 
an  estate  is  a piece  of  landed  property; 
a definite  portion  of  land  in  the  owner- 
ship of  some  one. 

ESTHER,  a Jewess,  who  became  the 
queen  of  Ahasuerus,  King  of  Persia,  and 
whose  story  is  told  in  the  book  of  the 
Old  Testamentcalled  by  her  name.  This 
book  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  com- 
position of  Mordecai  himself,  the  uncle 
of  the  heroine.  Various  opinions  are 
held  regarding  the  time  and  truth  of  the 
story;  but  the  feast  of  Purim  which  com- 
memorates the  events  narrated  is  still 
observed  by  the  Jews  during  the  month 
Adar. 

ESTHONIA,  a maritime  government 
of  Russia,  bounded  by  the  gulf  of  Fin- 
land, the  Baltic,  and  the  governments  of 
Livonia  and  St.  Petersburg.  It  includes 
several  islands,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  Dagoe  and  Oesel;  area, 
about  7610  sq.  miles.  The  peasantry  are 
almost  all  of  Finnish  origin,  and  speak  a 
Finnish  dialect.  In  the  10th  and  12th 
centuries  it  belonged  to  Denmark,  it  was 
afterward  annexed  by  Sweden,  and  in 
1710  was  seized  by  Russia.  Revel  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  392,738. 

ESTOP'PEL,  in  law,  anything  done  by 
a party  himself,  which  puts  a period  to 
an  action  by  closing  the  ground  of  con- 
troversy. 

ESTREMADU'RA,  a western  division 
of  Spain,  consisting  of  the  provinces  of 
Badajoz  and  Caceres.  The  area  is  about 
16,700  sq.  miles,  and  the  pop.  818,211. 

ESTREMADURA,  a maritime  province 
of  Portugal.  The  principal  city  is  Lis- 
bon. Area,  6876  sq.  miles.  Pop.  946,- 
472. 

ES'TUARY,  the  wide  mouth  of  a river 
opening  out  so  as  to  form  an  arm  of  the 
sea. 

ETA'WAH,  a town,  Hindustan,  N. 
W.  Provinces,  capital  of  the  district  of 
same  name,  on  left  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
picturesqnely  situated  among  ravines, 
and  richly  planted  with  trees.  Pop. 
34,721.  The  district  has  an  area  of  1694 
sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  722,371. 

ETCHING,  the  art  of  producing  de- 
signs upon  a plate  of  steel  or  copper  by 
means  of  lines  drawn  with  an  etching- 
needle  (a  fine-pointed  steel  tool),  the  lines 
being  drawn  through  a coating  or  varnish 
(the  ground),  and  bitten  in  by  some 
strong  acid  which  can  only  affect  the  plate 
where  the  varnish  has  been  removed. 

ETHELBERT,  King  of  England,  son 
of  Ethelwulf,  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  eastern  side  of  the  kingdom 
in  857,  and  in  860,  on  the  death  of  his 
brother  Ethelbald,  became  sole  king. 
He  died  in  866. 

ETH'ELBERT,  King  of  Kent,  born 
about  560,  died  616.  He  succeeded  his 


father,  Hermenric,  and  reduced  all  the 
Anglo-Saxon  states,  except  Northum- 
berland, to  the  condition  of  his  depend- 
ants. Ethelbert  was  the  first  Anglo- 
Saxon  king  to  draw  up  a code  of  laws. 

ETH'ELRED  I.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  Ethelwulf,  succeeded  his  brother 
Ethelbert  in  866.  Ethelred  died  in  con- 
sequence of  a wound  received  in  an  ac- 
tion with  the  Danes  in  871,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Alfred. 

ETHELRED  II,,  King  of  England,  son 
of  Edgar,  born  968,  succeeded  his  brother, 
Edward  the  Martyr,  in  978,  and,  for  his 
want  of  vigor  and  capacity,  was  sur- 
named  the  Unready.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don in  the  midst  of  his  struggle  with 
Canute  (1016). 

ETH'ELWULF,  King  of  England, 
succeeded  his  father,  Egbert,  about  837 ; 
died  857.  He  is  best  remembered  for  his 
donation  to  the  clergy,  which  is  often 
quoted  as  the  origin  of  the  system  of 
tithes. 

E'THER,  a hypothetical  medium  of 
extreme  tenuity  and  elasticity  supposed 
to  be  diffused  throughout  all  space  (as 
well  as  among  the  molecules  of  which 
solid  bodies  are  composed),  and  to  be  the 
medium  of  the  transmission  of  light  and 
heat. 

ETHER,  in  chem.  a very  light,  volatile 
and  inflammable  fluid,  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  alcohol  with  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  lighter  than  alcohol,  of  a 
strong,  sweet  smell,  susceptible  of  great 
expansion,  and  has  a pungent  taste. 
A mixture  of  vapor  of  ether  with  atmos- 
pheric air  is  extremely  explosive.  Ether 
produces  an  intoxication  of  short  dura- 
tion, and  is  sometimes  used  as  an  anaes- 
thetic. 

ETHTCS,  otherwise  called  Moral  Phil- 
osophy or  Morals,  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  nature  and  laws  of  the  ac- 
tions of  intelligent  beings,  considered  as 
to  w'hether  they  are  right  or  wrong,  good 
or  bad.  The  science  is  more  or  less 
closely  connected  with  theology,  psy- 
chology, politics,  political  economy,  and 
jurisprudence,  but  what  most  strictly 
belongs  to  it  is  the  investigation  of  the 
principles  and  basis  of  duty  or  the  moral 
law,  and  an  inquiry  into  the  nature  and 
origin  of  the  faculty  by  which  duty  is 
recognized.  Various  answers  have  been 
given  to  the  question  why  we  call  an 
action  good  or  bad,  such  as  that  it  is  con- 
sistent or  not  with  the  w’ill  of  God,  or 
with  the  nature  of  things,  or  with  the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber, or  that  an  inward  faculty  decides 
it  to  be  such  or  such;  and  a great  variety 
of  ethical  systems  have  been  proposed. 
The  foundations  of  the  leading  systems 
were  laid  in  antiquity,  the  names  of 
Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Epicurus,  the 
Cynics  and  the  Stoics  being  especially 
prominent.  The  introduction  of  Chris- 
t ianity  brought  a new  element  into  ethical 
speculation,  and  among  Christians  ethics 
were  intimately  associated  with  theol- 
ogy, and  morality  was  regarded  as  based 
on  and  regulated  by  a definite  code  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  writings.  The  specu- 
lations of  the  Greeks  were  not.  however, 
disregarded,  and  some  of  the  ablest 
Cliristian  moralists  (as  Augustine,  Peter 
Lombard,  Erigena,  Anselm,  Aquinas, 
etc.)  endeavored  to  harmonize  the  Greek 
theories  with  the  Christian  dogmatics. 


ETHIOPIA 


ETHNOLOGY 


Most  modern  ethical  systems  consider 
the  subject  as  apart  from  theology  and 
as  based  on  independent  philosophical 
principles,  and  they  fall  into  one  of  two 
great  classes — the  utilitarian  systems, 
which  recognize  as  the  chief  good,  hap- 
piness, or  the  greatest  possible  satisfac- 
tion of  the  tendencies  of  our  nature;  and 
the  rationalistic  systems,  which  recog- 
nize that  ideas  of  law  and  obligation  can 
have  their  source  only  in  reason.  The 
first  of  the  modern  school  in  England 
was  Hobbes  (1588-1679).  Among  sub- 
sequent names  are  those  of  Cudworth, 
Locke,  Clarke,  Shaftesbury,  Butler, 
Hutchison,  Hume,  Adam  Smith,  Reid, 
Paley,  Whewell,  Bentham,  J.  S.  Mill,  etc. 
Among  those  who  maintain  the  utilitar- 
ian theory  of  morals  is  Paley,  who  holds 
that  men  ought  to  act  so 'as  to  further 
the  greatest  possible  happiness  of  the 
race,  because  God  wills  the  happiness  of 
men,  and  rewards  and  punishes  them 
according  to  their  actions,  the  divine 
commands  being  ascertained  from  Scrip- 
ture and  the  light  of  nature.  Bentham’s 
utilitarianism  is  considerably  different 
from  Paley’s.  It  was  entirely  dissoci- 
ated from  theology  or  Scripture,  and 
maintained  that  increase  of  happiness 
ought  to  be  the  sole  object  of  the  moral- 
ist and  legislator,  pleasure  and  pain  be- 
ing the  sole  test  of  actions.  To  utilitar- 
ianism as  a special  development  belong 
the  later  “evolution  ethics”  represented 
by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  which  biologi- 
cal conceptions,  such  as  “the  preserva- 
tion of  the  human  race,”  take  the  place 
of  the  Benthamite  criterion  for  deter- 
mining what  is  good  and  bad  in  actions. 
Another  theory  of  ethics  places  the 
moral  principal  in  the  sentimental  part 
of  our  nature,  that  is,  in  the  direct  sym- 
pathetic pleasure  or  sympathetic  indig- 
nation we  have  with  the  impulses  which 
prompt  to  action  or  expression.  By 
means  of  this  theory,  which  he  treats  as 
an  original  and  inexplicable  fact  in 
human  nature,  Adam  Smith  explains  all 
the  phenomena  of  the  moral  conscious- 
ness. In  considering  the  systems  which 
recognize  that  the  ideas  of  law  and  obli- 
gation can  have  their  source  only  in  rea- 
son, the  question,  what  is  the  source  of 
the  laws  by  which  reason  governs,  gives 
rise  to  a number  of  psychological  theories 
among  which  we  may  notice  Clarke’s 
view  of  the  moral  principles  as  rational 
intuitions  or  axioms  analogous  to  those 
of  mathematics;  Butler’s  theory  of  the 
natural  authority  of  conscience;  the 
position  of  Reid,  Stewart,  and  other 
members  of  the  later  intuitional  school, 
who  conceive  a moral  faculty  implanted 
in  man  which  not  only  perceives  the 
“rightness”  or  “moral  obligation”  of 
actions,  but  also  impels  the  will  to  per- 
form what  is  seen  to  be  right.  Very 
similar  as  far  as  classification  goes,  is  the 
position  of  Kant,  who  holds  that  reason 
recognizes  the  immediate  obligation  of 
certain  kinds  of  conduct,  and  that  an 
action  is  only  good  when  done  from  a 
ood  motive,  and  that  this  motive  must 
e essentially  different  from  a natural 
inclination  of  any  kind. 

ETHIOPIA,  or  ^ETHIOPIA  (Hebrew, 
Cush),  in  ancient  geography,  the  country 
lying  to  the  soutn  of  Egypt,  and  com- 
prehending the  modern  Nubia,  Kordo- 
fan,  Abyssinia,  and  other  adjacent  di.s- 


tricts;  but  its  limits  were  not  clearly  de- 
fined. In  ancient  times  its  history  was 
closely  connected  with  that  of  Egypt,  and 
about  the  8th  century  n.c.  it  imposed  a 
dynasty  on  Lower  Egypt,  and  acquired 
a predominant  influence  in  the  valley  of 
the  Nile.  In  sacred  history  Ethiopia  is 
repeatedly  mentioned  as  a powerful 
military  kingdom  (see  particularly  Isaiah 
XX.  5).  In  the  6th  century  b.c.  the 
Persian  Cambyses  invaded  Ethiopia; 
but  the  country  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence till  it  became  tributary  to  the 
Romans  in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Sub- 
sequently Ethiopia  came  to  be  the  desig- 
nation of  the  country  now  known  as 
Abyssinia,  and  the  Abyssinian  monarchs 
still  call  themselves  rulers  of  Ethiopia. 

ETHNOL'OGY  AND  ETHNOG'RA- 
PHY,  sciences  treating  of  man,  the  form- 
er analyzing  the  social  phenomena  of 
mankind  as  shown  in  their  customs, 
languages,  institution,  etc.;  the  latter 
being  more  concerned  with  descriptive 
details  and  the  orderly  collection  of  facts 
relating  to  particular  tribes  and  locali- 
ties. Besides  these  terms  there  is  the 
term  Anthropology,  used  by  some  to  in- 
dicate the  general  science  or  natural  his- 
tory of  mankind,  of  which  the  other  two 
are  parts.  Here  we  can  only  give  a few 
particulars  bearing  on  the  strictly  ethno- 
logical and  ethnographic  divisions  of  the 
subject.  (As  to  the  place  of  man  in  the 
animal  kingdom  see  Man.)  The  unity  or 
plurality  of  species  of  the  human  race  is 
a question  which  has  given  rise  to  much 
discussion.  The  most  common  view  has 
probably  been  that  which  regards  all 
mankind  as  descended  from  Adam  and 
Eve,  attributing  the  great  differences 
exhibited  by  different  races  to  climate 
and  other  causes  acting  for  a long  period 
of  time.  Many  have  held  that  such  dif- 
ferences were  not  to  be  so  accounted  for 
and  that  the  various  t j^pical  races  of  the 
earth  were  not  descended  from  a single 
pair,  but  were  separately  created  in 
separate  localities.  The  belief  that  rrian 
may  have  originated  from  a single  pair 
is  supported  by  the  researches  of  Dar- 
win, who  has  shown  how  an  accumula- 
tion of  differences  amounting  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  a distinct  species  may  arise 
from  continual  modifications  of  a single 
primordial  form.  Certainly  among  men 
the  variability  of  the  same  race  under 
different  climatic  conditions  is  very 
striking.  Even  within  a comparatively 
small  period  of  time  physical  surround- 
ings have  induced  typical  differences  be- 
tween the  lithe,  sparsely-fleshed  Yankee 
of  New  England  and  the  plump,  rosy- 
cheeked  Englishman;  and  the  Boer 
of  South  Africa,  with  its  dry  climate,  has 
developed  a type  as  decidedly  different 
from  his  original  stock  in  moist  Holland. 
The  theory  of  the  development  of  the 
human  race  from  a single  species  de- 
mands a vast  duration  of  time;  and  the 
flint  implements  discovered  intermingled 
with  remains  of  the  mammoth  and  other 
extinct  animals  have  proved  that  man 
was  a contemporary  of  the  mammoth, 
the  cave  bear,  and  other  mammalia  of 
the  geological  period  antecedent  to  our 
own,  though  how  distant  that  period 
was  as  measured  by  thousands  of  years 
it  is  difficult  to  say.  Another  interesting 
point  is  in  regard  to  the  first  home  of  the 
human  race.  This  of  course  is  quite  un- 


certain, but  probably  it  was  either  in 
western  Asia  or  in  Africa,  and  we  may 
naturally  conclude  that  where  the  mam- 
malia of  the  highest  characteristics  ap- 
pear there  was  the  possible  birthplace 
and  center  of  distribution  of  mankind. 

When  we  attempt  to  classify  mankind 
we  can  scarcely  find  any  one  physical 
characteristic  belonging  exclusively  to  a 
single  race.  At  most  we  can  only  say 
that  certain  characteristics  are  the  pre- 
ponderant ones  in  certain  races.  In 
seeking  racial  characteristics  ethnolo- 
gists make  use  of  various  principles  of 
classification.  Some  give  the  first  place 
to  the  shape  of  the  head.  Camper,  the 
Dutch  anatomist,  was  the  first  who  at- 
tempted to  make  a scientific  distinction 
of  races  on  this  principle,  taking  as  the 
basis  of  measurement  the  amount  of  the 
facial  angle.  But  Camper’s  method, 
though  it  illustrates  excellently  the 
great  differences  which  exist,  between, 
say,  the  anthropoid  apes  with  an  angle 
of  42°,  the  African  negro  with  an  angle 
of  70°,  and  the  European  with  an  angle 
of  80°,  is  without  certainty,  it  being  pos- 
sible to  find  in  the  population  of  a single 
large  town  as  wide  variations  of  the 
facial  angle  as  exist  between  distinct 
races.  Camper’s  method  was  therefore 
superseded  by  the  method  of  Blumen- 
bach,  which  is  based  on  consideration  of 
all  the  chief  distinctions  in  shape  of  the 
head  according  to  which  he  classified  the 
human  family  into  five  varieties;  the 
Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Ethiopian,  Malay 
and  American.  These  five  varieties 
were  cut  down  to  three  by  Cuvier,  who 
treated  the  Malay  and  American  as  sub- 
divisions of  the  Mongolian ; and  extended 
by  Dr.  Prichard,  who  divided  the  Cau- 
casian class  into  a Semitic  and  an  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  class.  Latham's 
classification  was  into  1.  Mongolidse 
(Chinese,  Turks,  Malays,  American  races 
etc.);  2.  Atlantidae  (African  races,  Jew 
and  Arabs);  3.  Japetidae  (Indo-Euro- 
peans). Among  the  later  attempts  made 
to  find  a new  principle  of  classification 
we  may  mention  that  of  Retzius,  based 
on  the  relative  length  and  breadth  of  the 
skull,  according  to  which  mankind  are 
divided  into  Dolichocephalic  or  long- 
skulled  and  Brachycephalic  or  short, 
broad-skulled  races.  Later  develop- 
ments of  craniology  have  introduced  a 
third  class,  the  Mesocephailic,  represent- 
ing a mean  between  the  other  two.  The 
general  rule  for  measurement  is  that  the 
longitudinal  diameter  being  rated  as  100, 
the  lateral  diameter  is  expressed  in  a 
percentage  of  these  units.  If  the  index 
of  breadth  is  from  74  to  78  the  skull  is 
termed  mesocephalous;  if  below  74  it  is 
dolichocephalous,  a narrow  or  long  skull ; 
if  it  reaches  79  it  is  brachycephalous,  a 
broad  or  short  skull.  The  capacity  of 
the  brain  cavity  is  also  a favorite  method 
with  some  ethnologists.  Here  the 
European  stands  highest  with  92‘1  cubic 
inches;  the  Australian  lowest  with  81‘7. 
The  character  of  hair  and  color  of  skin 
has  always  been  used  by  Huxley  as  the 
basis  of  his  classifications,  which  divides 
mankind  into  1.  Ulotrichi,  crisp  or 
woolly  haired  people  with  yellow  or 
black  skin,  comprising  Negroes,  Bush- 
men, and  Malays;  2.  Leiotrichi,  smooth- 
haired people,  subdivided  into  Austra- 
lioid,  Mongoloid,  Xanthochroic  (fair 


ETHYL 


ETNA 


whites)  and  Melanochroic  (dark  whites) 
groups.  But  many  ethnologists  hesitate 
to  accept  a classification  which  brings 
together  nations  apparently  unrelated, 
such  as  the  Australians,  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  the  tribes  of  southern 
India.  On  the  other  hand,  the  character 
of  the  hair  is  found  to  be  one  of  the 
surest  tests  in  separating  neighboring 
races,  such  as  the  Papuan,  and  the  Ma- 
layan and  Australian  tribes.  Oscar  Pes- 
chel’s  classification,  based  on  a number 
of  different  particulars,  such  as  the 
shape  of  the  skull,  the  color  of  the  skin, 
the  nature  and  color  of  the  hair,  the 
shape  of  the  features,  etc.,  is  as  follows: 

1.  The  Australians. — Characters:  skull 
of  the  dolichocephalic  type,  the  jaws  be- 
ing also  prognathous  or  protruded.  The 
nose  is  narrow  at  the  root,  widening 
greatly  below.  The  mouth  is  wide  and 
unshapely.  The  body  is  thickly  covered 
with  hair;  the  hair  is  black,  elliptical  in 
section,  that  on  the  head  being  frizzly, 
and  standing  out  so  as  to  form  a shaggy 
crown.  The  color  of  the  skin  is  dark  as  a 
rule,  sometimes  black,  though  a light 
copper-red  also  occurs. 

2.  The  Papuans. — This  race,  which  is 
the  one  most  closely  allied  to  the  Austra- 
lians, occupies  New  Guinea,  New  Cale- 
donia, the  Solomon  Islands,  New  Heb- 
rides, the  Fiji  Islands,  etc.  The  most 
distinctive  mark  is  their  peculiarly  flat- 
tened and  abundant  hair,  growing  in 
tufts,  and  forming  a spreading  crov/n 
round  the  head.  The  skin  is  always 
dark,  the  skull  high  and  narrow  (dolicho- 
cephalic) ; the  jaws  prognathous;  the  lips 
fleshy  and  somewhat  swollen;  the  nose 
hooked  somewhat  after  the  Jewish  tj'pe. 

3.  The  Mongoloid  Nations. — To  this 
race  belong  the  Polynesian  and  Asiatic 
Malays,  the  people  of  southeastern  and 
eastern  Asia,  the  Tibetese,  all  the  North- 
ern Asiatics,  with  their  kinsmen  in  north- 
ern Europe,  and  lastly  the  aboriginal 
population  of  America.  The  common 
characteristics  are:  long  straight  hair, 
circular  in  section;  almost  complete  ab- 
sence of  beard  and  body  hair;  skin  dark- 
colored,  varying  from  leather-yellow  to 
deep  brown,  sometimes  inclining  to  red; 
prominent  cheek-bones,  and  eyes  in 
general  set  obliquely.  The  various  mem- 
bers of  the  Mongoloid  race  may  be 
classed  under  the  following  subdivisions : 
(a)  The  Malay  race,  comprising  the 
Malays  of  Malacca,  Sumatra,  Java,  etc., 
the  inhabitants  of  Madagascar,  the  New 
Zealanders,  the  natives  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  etc.  (b)  Southern  Asiatics  with 
monosyllabic  languages,  comprising  the 
Chinese,  Indo-Chinese  (Burmese,  Siamese, 
Anames,  etc.),  Tibetese,  etc.  (c)  Coreans 
and  Japanese,  (d)  Northern  Mongoloids 
of  the  Old  World,  comprising  the  true 
Mongols,  Turks,  Finns,  Lapps,  Magyars, 
Bulgarians,  etc.,  all  much  resembling 
the  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese  group  in 
physical  characters,  (e)  Northern  Na- 
tions of  doubtful  position. — The  Yenisei 
Ostiakas,  the  Ainos  of  Yesso,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Saghalien,  etc.  (f)  The  Beh- 
ring’s Nations,  of  which  the  Esquimaux 
or  Eskimo,  are  the  most  important,  (g) 
The  American  Aborigines  or  Red  Indian. 

4.  The  Dravidians  or  Aborigines  of 
India. — These  tribes  have  the  skin  gen- 
erally very  dark,  frequently  quite  black; 
their  hair  is  long  and  black,  not  straight 


but  crimped  or  curly;  the  hair  of  beard 
and  body  grows  profusely;  the  lips  are 
thick  and  fleshy,  somewhat  like  those  of 
the  negroes,  but  the  jaws  are  never 
prominent.  The  Dravidians  comprise 
the  Tamuls,  Telugus,  Gonds,  Santals  or 
Sonthals,  etc. 

5.  The  Hottentots  and  Bushmen. — 
These  are  tribes  of  little  importance  in- 
habiting South  Africa.  They  have  the 
hair  tufted  and  matted,  the  beard  scanty, 
the  body  almost  hairless;  the  lips  are  full 
but  not  so  much  so  as  with  the  negroes; 
the  nose  is  of  the  snub  shape;  the  open- 
ing of  the  eyes  is  narrow  but  not  oblique. 
They  are  slimly  built,  and  the  Bushmen 
are  particularly  low  in  stature;  their  color 
is  yellowish  or  yellowish-brown. 

6.  The  Negroes. — The  negroes  inhabit 
Africa  from  the  southern  margin  of  the 
Sahara  to  the  territory  of  the  Hottentots 
and  Bushmen,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Indian  Ocean.  They  display  great 
variety  in  external  characteristics,  and 
what  is  popularly  considered  the  typical 
negro  is  rarely  met  with.  The  color  of 
the  skin  passes  through  every  gradua- 
tion, from  ebony-black  to  dark  brown, 
copper-red,  olive,  or  yellow.  In  some 
tribes  the  nose  is  straight,  in  others  hook- 
ed, though  often  broad  and  flat.  The 
hair  of  the  head  is  generally  short, 
elliptic  in  section,  and  much  crimped; 
that  on  the  body  is  not  plentiful;  whisk- 
ers are  comparatively  rare.  The  negroes 
may  be  divided  into  the  Bantu  negroes 
(including  the  Kaffirs,  Bechuanas,  etc.) 
and  the  Soudan  negroes,  these  divisions 
being  based  on  differences  in  language. 
It  is  in  the  Soudan  region  that  the  most 
typical  members  of  the  negro  race  are 
found. 

7.  The  Mediterranean  Nations. — 
These  include  all  Europeans  who  are  not 
Mongoloids,  the  north  Africans,  all  west- 
ern Asiatics,  and  the  Hindus.  Among 
them  are  the  highest  members  of  the 
human  race.  The  northern  nations  have' 
the  skin  quite  fair;  the  southern  have  it 
darker;  in  North  Africa  and  eastern  Asia 
it  becomes  yellow,  red,  or  brown.  The 
nose  has  always  a high  bridge;  prognath- 
ism and  prominence  of  the  jaw's  and 
cheek-bones  are  rare;  the  lips  are  never 
intumescent,  and  in  no  other  race  are 
refined  and  noble  features  so  frequent. 
Subdivisions  are : (a)  The  Hamites,  com- 
prising the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  Copts 
of  Egj^pt  and  the  Nubians,  the  Berbers 
and  Gallas.  (b)  The  Semites. — These 
comprise  the  Jews,  Arabs,  and  Abyssin- 
ians,  and  the  ancient  Canaanites,  Assyr- 
ians, Babylonians,  and  Phoenicians,  (c) 
The  Indo-European  or  Arjmn  family. — - 
This  family  is  divided  into  two  branches, 
a European  and  an  Asiatic.  The  Euro- 
pean eomprises  the  Germanic  or  Teu- 
tonic nations  (English,  Germans,  Dutch, 
Danes,  Norwegians,  Swedes,  etc.),  the 
Romance  nations  (French,  Italians, 
Spaniards,  Portuguese),  the  Slavonians 
(Russians,  Bohemians,  Servians,  etc.), 
the  Greeks,  and  lastly  the  Celts.  The 
Asiatic  comprises  the  Hindus,  Afghans, 
Persians,  Armenians,  and  Kurds,  (d) 
Europeans  of  doubtful  position. — These 
include  the  Basques  of  the  northeast  of 
Spain  and  southwest  of  France  and  vari- 
ous tribes  in  the  Cauca.sus. 

ETH'YL,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
radicle  which  is  contained  in  ether  and 


alcohol.  It  is  a colorless  gas,  which  is 


flame. 


ETH'YLAMINE,  an  organic  base 
formed  by  the  substitution  of  ethyl  for  all 
or  part  of  the  hydrogen  of  ammonia.  It 
has  the  odor  and  many  of  the  reactions 
of  ammonia.  i 

ETIENNE  (a-ti-an),  St.,  a town  of 
southern  France,  dep.  Loire,  on  the 
Furens,  32  miles  s.w.  of  Lyons.  The 
town  stands  in  the  eenter  of  one  of  the  i 
most  valuable  mineral  fields  of  France; 
and  in  addition  to  the  extensive  collier-  ' 
ies,  blast-furnaces,  and  other  ironworks  . 
in  the  vicinity,  has  manufactures  of  rib-  ' 
bons,  silks,  cutlery,  firearms,  etc.  The 
collieries  alone  employ  about  16,000 
men.  Pop.  1891,  133,443. 

ETIQUETTE  (et'i-ket),  a collective  ' 

term  for  the  established  ceremonies  and  ' 
usages  of  society,  from  the  forms  which  ( 
are  to  be  observed  in  particular  places 
such  as  courts,  levees,  and  public  occa- 
sions, to  the  general  forms  of  polite 
society.  Among  courts  the  Byzantine 
and  Spanish  courts,  and  the  French 
court  under  Louis  XIV.  and  XV.,  have 
been  noted  for  the  strictness  of  their 
etiquette.  Social  etiquette  consists  in  so 
many  minute  observances  that  a toler- 
able familiarity  with  it  can  be  acquired 
only  by  a considerable  intercourse  with  . 
polite  society.  It  is  often  said  that  all 
that  is  necessary  to  constitute  good  social 
manners  is  common  sense  and  good  feel- 
ing; but  not  to  mention  those  formal 
rules  of  society  which,  though  intrinsi- 
cally worthless,  demand  a certain  amount 
of  respect,  there  are  also  many  difficult- 
ies and  emergencies  in  social  intercourse 
which  require  peculiar  tact  and  delicacy  . 
of  judgment.  Hence  quickness  of  sym- 
pathy and  a certain  fineness  of  observa- 
tion are  more  needed  for  proficiency  in 
this  sphere  than  pure  power  of  intellect. 

ETNA,  or  HStna  Mount,  the  greatest 
volcano  in  Europe,  a mountain  in  the 
'province  of  Catania  in  Sicily;  height 
10,874  feet.  It  rises  immediately  from 
the  sea,  has  a circumference  of  more 


Etna. 


than  100  miles,  and  dominates  the  whole 
northeast  part  of  Siciljq  having  a num- 
ber of  towns  and  villages  on  its  lower  ' 
slopes.  The  top  is  covered  with  per- 
petual snow,  midway  down  is  the- woody  ' 
or  forest  region;  at  the  foot  is  a region  of 
orchards,  vineyards,  olive  groves,  etc.  i 
Etna  thus  presents  the  variety  of  cji-d- 


ETRURIA 


EUCALYPTUS 


mates  common  to  high  mountains  in 
lower  latitudes,  oranges  and  lemons  and 
other  fruits  growing  at  the  foot,  the  vine 
rather  higher  up,  then  oaks,  chestnuts, 
beeches,  and  pines,  while  on  the  loftiest 
or  desert  region  vegetation  is  of  quite  a 
stunted  character.  A more  or  less  dis- 
tinct margin  of  cliff  separates  the  moun- 
tain proper  from  the  surrounding  plain ; 
and  the  whole  mass  seems  formed  of  a 
series  of  superimposed  mountains,  the 
tenninal  volcano  being  surrounded  by  a 
number  of  cones,  all  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  nearly  100  of  which  are  of  consider- 
able size.  The  different  aspects  of  the 
mountain  present  an  astonishing  variety 
of  features — woods,  forests,  pastures, 
cultivated  fields,  bare  rocky  precipices, 
streams  of  lava,  masses  of  ashes  and 
scoriffi,  as  also  picturesque  towns  and 
villages.  From  the  summit  the  view 
presents  a splendid  panorama,  embrac- 
ing the  whole  of  Sicily,  the  Lipari  Is- 
lands, Malta,  and  Calabria.  The  erup- 
tions of  Etna  have  been  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  destructive.  That  of.  1169 
overwhelmed  Catania  and  buried  15,000 
persons  in  the  ruins.  In  1669  the  lava 
spread  over  the  country  for  forty  days, 
and  10,000  persons  are  estimated  to 
have  perished.  In  1693  there  was  an 
earthquake  during  the  eruption,  when 
over  60,000  lives  were  lost.  One  erup- 
tion was  in  1755,  the  year  of  the  Lisbon 
earthquake.  Among  more  recent  erup- 
tions are  those  of  1832,  1865,  1874,  1879. 
An  eruption  is  ordinarily  preceded  by 
premonitory  symptoms  of  longer  or 
shorter  duration. 

ETRU'RIA,  the  name  anciently  given 
to  that  part  of  Italy  which  corresponded 
partly  with  the  modern  Tuscany,  and 
was  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Apennines,  the  river  Magra,  and  the 
Tiber.  The  name  of  Tusci  or  Etrusci 
was  used  by  the  Romans  to  designate 
the  race  of  people  anciently  inhabiting 
this  country,  but  the  name  by  which 
they  called  themselves  was  Rasena  (or 
perhaps  more  correctly  Ta-rasena). 
These  Rasena  entered  Italy  at  a very 
early  period  from  the  north,  and  besides 
occupying  Etruria  proper,  extended  their 
infiuence  to  Campania,  Elba,  and  Cor- 
sica. Etruria  proper  was  in  a flourish- 
ing condition  before  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  753  b.c.  It  was  known  very  early 
as  a confederation  of  twelve  great  cities, 
each  of  which  formed  a republic  of  itself. 
Among  the  chief  were  Veii,  Clusium, 
Volsinii,  Arretium,  Cortona,  Falerii,  and 
Faesulae;  but  the  list  may  have  varied 
at  different  epochs.  The  chiefs  of  these 
republics  were  styled  lucumones,  and 
united  the  office*  of  priest  and  general. 
They  were  elected  for  life.  After  a long 
struggle  with  Rome  the  Etruscan  power 
was  completely  broken  by  the  Romans 
in  a series  of  victories,  from  the  fall  of 
Veii  in  376  b.c.  to  the  battle  at  the  Vadi- 
monian  Lake  (283  b.c.).  The  Etruscans 
had  attained  a high  state  of  civilization. 
They  carried  on  a flourishing  commerce, 
and  at  one  time  were  powerful  at  sea. 
They  were  less  warlike  than  most  of  the 
nations  around  them,  and  had  the  cus- 
tom of  hiring  mercenaries  for  their 
armies.  Of  the  Etruscan  language  little 
is  known,  although  more  than  3000  in- 
scriptions have  been  preserved.  It  was 
written  in  characters  essentially  the 


same  as  the  ancient  Greek;  but  philolo- 
gists have  not  as  yet  been  able  to  decide 
with  what  language  it  is  connected,  nor 
to  agree  in  the  decipherment  of  almost 
any  inscription.  The  Etruscans  were 
specially  distinguished  by  their  religious 
institutions  and  ceremonies,  which  re- 
veal tendencies  gloomy  and  mystical. 
Their  gods  were  of  two  orders,  the  first 
nameless,  mysterious  deities,  exercising 
a controlling  influence  in  the  background 
on  the  lower  order  of  gods,  who  manage 
the  affairs  of  the  world.  At  the  head  of 
these  is  a diety  resembling  the  Roman 
Jupiter  (in  Etruscan  Tinia).  But  it  is 
characteristic  of  the  Etruscan  religion 
that  there  is  also  a Vejovis  or  evil  Jupi- 
ter. The  Etruscan  name  of  Venus  was 
Turan,  of  Vulcan  Sethlans,  of  Bacchus 
Phuphluns,  of  Mercury  Turms.  Etrus- 
can art  was  in  the  main  borrowed  from 
Greece.  For  articles  in  terra-cotta,  a 
material  which  they  used  mainly  for 
ornamental  tiles,  sarcophagi,  and  statues 
Etruscans  were  especially  eelebrated. 
In  the  manufacture  of  pottery  they  had 
made  great  advances;  but  most  of  the 
painted  vases  popularly  known  as 
Etruscan  are  undoubtedly  productions 
of  Greek  workmen.  The  skill  of  the 
Etruscans  in  works  of  metal  is  attested 
by  ancient  writers,  and  also  by  numerous 
extant  specimens,  such  as  necklaces, 
ear-rings,  bracelets,  etc.  The  bronze 
candelabra,  of  which  many  examples 
have  been  preserved,  were  eagerly  sought 
after  both  in  Greece  and  Rome.  A pe- 
culiar manufacture  was  that  of  engraved 


Etruscan  sarcophagus  in  terra-cotta,  from 
Chiusi;  period  of  full  development. — 
Museo  Egizio,  Florence. 

bronze  mirrors.  These  were  polished  on 
one  side,  and  have  on  the  other  an  en- 
graved design,  taken  in  most  cases  from 
Greek  legend  or  mythology.  The  Etrus- 
cans showed  great  constructive  and  en- 
gineering skill.  They  were  acquainted 
with  the  principle  of  the  arch,  and  the 
massive  ruins  of  the  walls  of  their  an- 
cient cities  still  testify  to  the  solidity  of 
their  constructions.  Various  arts  and 
inventions  were  derived  by  the  Romans 
from  the  Etruscans. 

ETRUSCAN  LANGUAGE.  See  Etruria. 

ETRUSCAN  VASES,  a class  of  beauti- 
ful ancient  painted  vases  made  in 
Etruria,  but  not  strictly  speaking  a prod- 
uct of  Etruscan  art,  since  they  were 
really  the  productions  of  a ripe  age  of 
Greek  art,  the  workmanship,  subjects, 
style,  and  inscriptions  being  all  Greek. 
They  are  elegant  in  form  and  enriched 
with  bands  of  beautiful  foliage  and  other 
ornaments,  figures  and  similar  subjects 
of  a highly  artistic  character.  One  class 


has  black  figures  and  ornaments  on  a red 
ground — the  natural  color  of  the  clay; 
another  has  the  figures  left  of  the  natural 
color  and  the  ground  painted  black.  The 
former  class  belong  to  a date  about  600 
B.C.,  the  latter  date  about  a century 


Etruscan  vases. 

later,  and  extend  over  a period  of  about 
300  or  350  years,  when  the  manufacture 
seems  to  have  ceased.  During  this  per- 
iod there  was  much  variety  in  the  form 
and  ornamentation,  gold  and  other 
colors  besides  the  primitive  ones  of  black 
and  red  being  frequently  made  use  of. 
The  subjects  represented  upon  these 
vases  frequently  relate  to  heroic  per- 
sonages of  the  Greek  mythology,  but 
many  scenes  of  an  ordinary  and  even  of 
a domestic  character  are  depicted.  The 
figures  are  usually  in  profile;  temples  are 
occasionally  introduced;  and  many  cur- 
ious particulars  may  be  learned  from 
these  vase  pictures  regarding  the  Hel- 
lenic ritual,  games,  festivities,  and  do- 
mestic life. 

ETYMOL'OGY,  a term  applied  (1)  to 
that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the 
various  inflections  and  modifications  of 
words  and  shows  how  they  are  formed 
from  simple  roots;  (2)  to  that  branch  of 
philology  which  traces  the  history  of 
words  from  their  origin  to  their  latest 
form  and  meaning.  Etymology  in  this 
latter  sense,  or  the  investigation  of  the 
origin  and  growth  of  words,  is  among  the 
oldest  of  studies.  Plato  and  other  Greek 
philosophers,  the  Alexandrian  gram- 
marians, the  scholiasts,  the  Roman 
Varro,  and  others  wrote  much  on  this 
subject.  But  their  work  is  made  up  of 
conjectures  at  best  ingenious  rather 
than  sound,  and  very  often  wild  and 
fantastic.  It  was  not  till  recent  times, 
and  particularly  since  the  study  of  Sans- 
krit, that  et}mology  has  been  scientifi- 
cally studied.  Languages  then  began  to 
be  properly  classed  in  groups  and  fam- 
ilies, and  words  were  studied  by  a com- 
parison of  their  growth  and  relationship 
in  different  languages.  It  was  recog- 
nized that  the  development  of  language 
is  not  an  arbitrary  or  accidental  matter, 
but  proceeds  according  to  general  laws. 
The  result  was  a great  advance  in  ety- 
mological knowledge  and  the  formation 
of  a new  science  of  philology. 

EUBCE'A,  formerly  called  Negropont, 
a Greek  island,  the  second  largest  island 
of  the  ^gean  Sea.  It  is  90  miles  in 
length;  30  in  greatest  breadth,  reduced 
at  one  point  to  4 miles.  The  island  was 
aneiently  divided  among  seven  inde- 
pendent cities,  the  most  important  of 
which  were  Chalcis  and  Eretria,  and  its 
history  is  for  the  most  part  identical 
with  that  of  those  two  cities.  With  some 
small  islands  it  forms  a modern  nom- 
archy,  with  a pop.  of  95,136. 

EUCALYPTUS,  a genus  of  trees, 
mostly  natives  of  Australia,  and  re- 
markable for  their  gigantic  size,  some  of 


EUCHARIST 


EURE-ET-LOIRj 


them  attaining  the  height  of  480  or  500 
feet.  In  the  Australian  colonies  they 
are  known  by  the  name  of  gum-trees, 
from  the  gum  which  exudes  from  their 
trunks;  and  some  of  them  have  also  such 
names  as  “stringy  bark,”  “iron  bark,” 
etc.  The  wood  is  excellent  for  ship- 


building and  such  purposes.  The  blue 
gum  yields  an  essential  oil  which  is 
valuable  as  a febrifuge,  antiasthmatic, 
and  antispasm  odic ; the  medicinal  prop- 
erties of  this  tree  also  make  it  useful  a^  a 
disinfectant,  and  as  an  astringent  in 
affections  of  the  respiratory  passages, 
being  employed  in  the  form  of  an  infu- 
sion, a decoction,  or  an  extract,  and 
cigarettes  made  of  the  leaves  being  also 
smoked.  Two  species  have  an  excellent 
sanitary  effect  when  planted  in  malari- 
ous districts  such  as  the  Roman  Cam- 
pagna,  parts  of  which  have  already  been 
reclaimed  by  their  use.  This  result  is 
partly  brought  about  by  the  drainage 
of  the  soil  (the  trees  absorbing  great 
quantities  of  moisture),  partly  perhaps 
by  the  balsamic  odor  given  out.  The 
Eucalyptus  has  been  introduced  with 
success  into  India,  Algiers,  southern 
France,  etc. 

EUCHARIST  (u'ka-rist),  a name  for 
the  sacrament  of  the  Lord’s  supper,  in 
reference  to  the  blessing  and  thanks- 
giving which  accompany  it.  See  Lord’s 
Supper. 

EUCHRE  (u'ker),  a game  of  cards, 
played  mostly  by  two  of  four  persons. 
After  cutting  for  the  deal,  five  cards  are 
dealt  (either  by  twos  and  threes  or  by 
threes  and,  twos)  to  each  player.  The 
uppermost  card  of  those  undealt  is 
turned  for  trump.  The  first  player  has 
the  option  either  to  “order  up”  (i.e.  to 
make  this  card  trump)  or  “pass.”  In 
the  latter  case  it  is  left  to  the  next  player 
to  decide  if  he  will  play  first  or  pass,  and 
so  on  till  the  turn  of  the  dealer  comes, 
who  must  either  play  on  this  trump  or 
turn  it  down,  when  all  the  players  have 
again  their  choice  in  turn  of  making  a 
new  trump  or  passing.  If  a trump  is 
“ordered  up”  or  taken  in  the  first  round, 
the  dealer  may  take  it  into  his  cards, 
discarding  instead  his  poorest  card.  If 
the  player  who  elects  to  play  wins  five 
tricks,  he  counts  two;  if  he  wins  three 
tricks  he  counts  one ; if  he  wins  fewer  than 
three  tricks  he  is  euchred,  and  each  in- 
dependent opponent  counts  two.  The 
cards  rank  as  at  whist,  except  that  the 
knave  of  the  trump  suit,  called  the  right 
bower  (from  Ger.  bauer,  a peasant),  is 
the  highest  card,  and  the  knave  of  the 


other  suit  of  the  same  color  the  second 
highest. 

EUCLID,  of  Alexandria,  a distin- 
guished Greek  mathematician,  who 
flourished  about  300  b.c.  His  Elements 
of  Geometry  in  thirteen  books,  are  still 
extant,  and  form  the  most  usual  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  geometry.  The 
severity  and  accuracy  of  his  methods  of 
demonstration  have  as  a whole  never 
been  surpassed.  Besides  the  Elements, 
some  other  works  are  attributed  to 
Euclid. 

EUGENE  (u-jen'),  or  FRANCOIS 
EUGENE,  Prince  of  Savoy,  fifth  son  of 
Eugene  Maurice,  duke  of  Savoy-Carig- 
nan,  and  Olympia  Mancini,  a niece  of 
Cardinal  Mazarin,was  born  at  Paris,  Oct. 
18, 1663.  He  entered  the  Austrian  serv- 
ice in  1683,  serving  his  first  campaign 
as  a volunteer  against  the  Turks.  On  the 
outbreak  of  war  between  France  and 
Austria  he  received  the  command  of  the 
imperial  forces  sent  to  Piedmont  to  act 
in  conjunction  with  the  troops  of  the 
Duke  of  Savoy.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
he  was  sent  as  commander-in-chief  to 
Hungary,  where  he  defeated  the  Turks 
at  the  battle  of  Zenta  (Sept.  11,  1697). 


Prince  Eugene. 


The  Spanish  war  of  succession  brought 
Eugene  again  into  the  field.  In  northern 
Italy  he  outmaneuvered  Catinat  and 
Villeroi,  defeating  the  latter  at  Cremona 
(1702).  In  1703  he  commanded  the  im- 
perial army  in  Germany,  and  in  co- 
operation with  Marlborough  frustrated 
the  plans  of  France  and  her  allies.  In 
the  battle  of  Hochstadt  or  Blenheim, 
Eugene  and  Marlborough  defeated  the 
French  and  Bavarians  under  Marshal 
Tallard,  Aug.  13,  1704.  Next  year  Eu- 
gene, returning  to  Italy,  forced  the 
French  to  raise  the  siege  of  Turin,  and 
in  one  month  drove  them  out  of  Italy. 
During  the  following  years  he  fought  on 
the  Rhine,  took  Lille,  and,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Marlborough,  defeated  the 
French  at  Oudenarde  (1708),  and  Mal- 
plaquet  (1709),  where  he  himself  was 
dangerously  wounded.  In  the  war  with 
Turkey,  in  1716,  Eugene  defeated  two 
superior  armies  at  Peterwaradin  and 
Temesvar,  and,  in  1717,  took  Belgrade, 
after  having  gained  a decisive  victory 
over  a third  army  that  came  to  its  relief. 
He  died  in  Vienna  April  21,  1736.  He 
was  one  of  the  great  generals  of  modern 
times. 

EUGENIE  (eu-zha-ne),  Marie  de  Guz- 
man, Ex-empress  of  the  French,  born  at 
Granada  in  Spain  in  1826.  On  Jan.  29, 
1853,  she  became  the  wife  of  Napoleon 
III.  and  empress  of  the  French.  On 


March  16,  1856,  a son  was  bom  of  the 
marriage.  When  the  war  broke  out  with 
Germany  she  was  appointed  regent 
(July  27,  1870)  during  the  absence  of  the 
emperor,  but  on  the  4th  Sept,  the  revolu- 
tion forced  her  to  flee  from  France.  She 
went  to  England,  where  she  was  joined 
by  the  prince  imperial  and  afterward 
by  the  emperor.  On  Jan.  9,  1873,  the 
emperor  died,  and  six  years  later  the 
prince  imperial  was  slain  while  with  the 
English  army  in  the  Zulu  war.  In  1881 
the  empress  transferred  her  residence  to 
Farnborough  in  Hampshire. 

EU'NUCH,  a male  of  the  human  species 
emasculated  by  castration.  The  term  is 
of  Greek  origin;  but  eunuchs  became 
known  to  the  Greeks  no  doubt  from  the 
practice  among  Eastern  nations  of  hav- 
ing them  as  guardians  of  their  women’s 
apartments.  Eunuchs  were  employed 
in  somewhat  similar  duties  among  the 
Romans  in  the  luxurious  times  of  the 
empire,  and  under  the  Byzantine 
monarchs  they  were  common.  The 
Mohammedans  still  have  them  about 
their  harems.  Emasculation,  when 
effected  in  early  life,  produces  singular 
changes  in  males  and  assimilates  them  in 
some  respects  to  women,  causing  them 
in  particular  to  have  the  voice  of  a fe- 
male. Hence,  not  so  long  ago,  it  was 
not  uncommon  in  Italy  to  castrate  boys 
in  order  to  fit  them  for  soprano  singers 
when  grown  to  manhood. 

EUPHRA'TES,  or  EL  FRAT,  a cele- 
brated river  of  western  Asia,  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  having  a double  source  in  two 
streams  rising  in  the  Anti-Taurus  range. 
Its  total  length  is  about  1750  miles,  and 
the  area  of  its  basin  260,000  sq.  miles. 

It  flows  mainly  in  a southeasterly  course 
through  the  great  alluvial  plains  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Chaldsea  till  it  falls  into  the 
Persian  Gulf  by  several  mouths,  of  which 
only  one  in  Persian  territory  is  navigable. 
About  100  miles  from  its  mouth  it  is 
joined  by  the  "figris,  when  the  united 
streams  take  the  name  of  Shatt-el-Arab. 

It  is  navigable  for  about  1200  miles,  but 
navigation  is  somewhat  impeded  by 
rapids  and  shallows.  The  melting  of 
snow  in  the  Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus 
causes  a flooding  in  spring.  The  water 
is  highest  in  May  and  June,  when  the 
current,  which  rarely  exceeds  3 miles  an 
hour,  rises  to  5. 

EURA'SIANS,  a name  sometimes 
given  to  the  “half-castes”  of  India,  the 
offspring  of  European  fathers  and  In- 
dian mothers.  They  are  particularly 
common  in  the  three  presidential  capi- 
tals— Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay. 
They  generally  receive  a European 
education,  and  the  young  men  are  often 
engaged  in  government  or  mercantile 
offices.  The  girls  in  spite  of  their  dark 
tint  are  generally  very  pretty  and  often 
marry  Europeans. 

EURE  (eur),  a river  of  n.w.  France, 
which  rises  in  the  department  of  the 
Orne,  and  falls  into  the  Seine  after  a 
course  of  124  miles,  being  navigable  for 
about  half  the  distance.  It  gives  its 
name  to  a department  in  the  n.w.  of 
France,  forming  part  of  Normandy; 
area,  2300  sq.  miles.  Evreux  is  the  capi- 
tal. Pop.  349,471. 

EURE-ET-LOIR  (eur-6-lwar),  a de- 
partment in  the  n.w.  of  France,  forming  -* 
part  of  the  old  provinces  of  Orl^annais  1 


EUREKA 


EUROPE 


and  Ile-de-France;  area,  2267  sq.  miles. 
The  department  is  essentially  agricul- 
tural, and  has  few  manufactures.  The 
capital  is  Chartres.  Pop.  284,683. 

EURE'KA,  (I  have  found  it),  the  ex- 
clamation of  Archimedes  when,  after  long 
study,  he  discovered  a method  of  de- 
tecting the  amount  of  alloy  in  King 
Hiero’s  crown.  Hence  the  word  is  used 
as  an  expression  of  triumph,  as  a dis- 
covery. 

EURIPTDES  (-dez),  a celebrated 
Athenian  tragedian,  born  b.c.  480,  or, 
according  to  the  Arundel  marbles,  485, 
at  Salamis.  He  began  to  write  tragedies 
at  the  age  of  eighteen,  although  his  first 
published  play,  the  Peliades,  appeared 


Euripides. 


only  in  455  b.c.  He  was  not  successful 
in  gaining  the  first  prize  till  the  year  441 
B.C.,  and  he  continued  to  exhibit  till  408 
B.C.,  when  he  exhibited  the  Orestes. 
The  violence  of  unscrupulous  enemies, 
who  accused  him  of  impiety  and  unbe- 
lief in  the  gods,  drove  Euripides  to  take 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Archelaus,  king  of 
Macedonia,  where  he  was  held  in  the 
highest  honor.  According  to  a tradition 
he  was  killed  by  hounds  in  406  b.c. 
Euripides  is  a master  of  tragic  situations 
and  pathos,  and  shows  much  knowledge 
of  human  nature  and  skill  in  grouping 
characters,  but  his  works  lack  the  artis- 
tic completeness  and  the  sublime  earnest- 
ness that  characterize  .iEschylus  and 
Sophocles.  Euripides  is  said  to  have 
composed  seventy-five,  or  according  to 
another  authority  ninety-two  tragedies. 
Of  these  eighteen  (or  nineteen,  including 
the  Rhesus)  are  extant,  viz.:  Alcestis, 
Medea,  Hippolytus,  Hecuba,  Heracleidae 
Supplices,  Ion,  Hercules,  Furens,  An- 
dromache, Troades,  Electra,  Helena, 
Iphigenia  in  Tauris,  Orestes,  Phcenissse, 
Bacchse,  Iphigenia  in  Aulis,  and  Cyclops. 

EURIPUS  (u-rl'pus),  in  ancient  geog- 
raphy, the  strait  between  the  island  of 
Euboea  and  Boeotia  in  Greece. 

EURO'PA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians, and  the  sister  of  Cadmus.  The 
fable  relates  that  she  was  abducted  by 
Jupiter,  who  for  that  occasion  had  as- 
sumed the  form  of  a bull,  and  swam  with 
his  prize  to  the  island  of  Crete.  Here 
Europa  bore  to  him  Minos,  Sarpedon, 
and  Rhadamanthus. 

EUROPE,  the  smallest  of  the  great 
continent.?,  but  the  most  important  in 
the  history  of  civilization  for  the  last 
two  thou.sand  years.  It  forms  a huge 
eninsula  projecting  from  Asia,  and  is 
ounded  on  the  n.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean; 
on  the  w.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean ; on  the 
6.  by  the  Mediterranean,  the  Black  Sea, 


and  the  Caucasus  range ; on  the  east  by 
the  Caspian  Sea,  the  Ural  river,  and 
the  U ral  mountains.  The  most  northerly 
point  on  the  mainland  is  Cape  Nordkyn, 
in  Lapland,  in  lat.  71°  6';  the  most 
southerly  points  are  Punta  da  Tarifa, 
lat.  36°  n.,  in  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
and  Cape  Matapan,  lat.  36°  17',  which 
terminates  Greece.  The  most  westerly 
point  is  Cape  Roca  in  Portugal,  in  Ion. 
9°  28',  w.,  while  Ekaterinburg  is  in  Ion. 
60°  36'  e.  From  Cape  Matapan  to 
North  Cape  is  a direct  distance  of 
2400  miles,  from  Cape  St.  Vincent  to 
Ekaterinburg,  northeast  by  east,  3400 
miles;  area  of  the  continent,  about 
3,800,000  sq.  miles.  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  Iceland,  Nova  Zembla,  Corsica, 
Sardinia,  Sicily,  Malta,  Crete,  the  Ionian 
and  the  Balearic  islands  are  the  chief 
islands  of  Europe.  The  shores  are  very 
much  indented,  giving  Europe  an  im- 
mense length  of  coast-line  (estimated  at 
nearly  50,000  miles).  The  chief  seas  or 
arms  of  the  sea  are : the  White  Sea  on  the 
north;  the  North  Sea  or  German  Ocean 
on  the  west,  from  which  branches  off 
the  great  gulf  or  inland  sea  known  as  ^'he 
Baltic;  the  English  Channel,  between 
England  and  France;  the  Mediterranean 
communicating  with  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar  (at  one  point  only  19 
miles  wide) ; the  Adriatic  and  Archi- 
pelago, branching  off  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean; and  the  Black  Sea,  connected 
with  the  Archipelago  through  the  Helles- 
pont, Sea  of  Marmora,  and  Bosphorus. 

The  mountains  form  several  distinct 
groups  or  systems  of  very  different  geo- 
logical dates,  the  loftiest  mountain 
masses  being  in  the  south  central  region. 
The  Scandinavian  mountains  in  the 
northwest,  to  which  the  great  northern 
peninsula  owes  its  form,  extend  above 
900  miles  from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  south 
point  of  Norway.  The  highest  summits 
are  about  8000  feet.  The  Alps,  the  high- 
est mountains  in  Europe  (unless  Mount 
Elbruz  in  the  Caucasus  is  claimed  as 
European),  extend  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean first  in  a northerly  and  then  in  an 
easterly  direction,  and  attain  their 
greatest  elevation  in  Mont  Blanc  (15,781 
feet),  Monte  Rosa,  and  other  summits. 
Branching  off  from  the  Alps,  though  not 
geologically  connected  with  them,  are 
the  Apennines,  which  run  southeast 
through  Italy,  constituting  the  central 
ridge  of  the  peninsula.  The  highest  sum- 
mit is  Monte  Corno  (9541  feet).  Mount 
Vesuvius,  the  celebrated  volcano  in  the 
south  of  the  peninsula,  is  quite  distinct 
from  the  Apennines.  By  southeastern 
extensions  the  Alps  are  connected  with 
the  Balkan  and  the  Despoto-Dagh  of 
the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Europe. 
Among  the  mountains  of  southwestern 
Europe  are  several  massive  chains,  the 
loftiest  summits  being  in  the  Pyrenees, 
and  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  the  south  of 
the  Iberian  Peninsula.  The  highest 
point  in  the  former.  La  Maladetta  or 
Mont  Maudit,  has  an  elevation  of  11,065 
feet;  Mulahacen,  in  the  latter,  is  11,703 
feet,  and  capped  by  perpetual  snow. 
West  and  northwest  of  the  Alps  are  the 
Cevennes,  Jura,  and  Vosges;  north  and 
northeast,  the  Harz,  the  Thuringerwald, 
Mountains,  the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Erzge- 
birge and  Bohmerwaldgebirge.  Further 
I to  the  east  the  Carpathian  chain  in- 


closes the  great  plain  of  Hungary,  attain- 
ing  an  elevation  of  8000  or  8500  feet. 
The  Ural  Mountains  between  Europe 
and  Asia  reach  the  height  of  5540  feet. 
Besides  Vesuvius  other  two  volcanoes 
are  Etna  in  Sicily,  and  Hecla  in  Iceland. 
A great  part  of  northern  and  eastern 
Europe  is  level.  The  great  plain  of  north 
Europe  occupies  part  of  France,  western 
and  northern  Belgium,  Holland,  the 
northern  provinces  of  Germany,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Russia.  A large  portion 
of  this  plain,  extending  through  Holland 
and  North  Germany,  is  a low  sandy  level 
not  unfrequently  protected  from  inroads 
of  the  sea  only  by  means  of  strong  dykes. 
The  other  great  plains  of  Europe  are  the 
plain  of  Lombardy  (the  most  fertile  dis- 
trict in  Europe)  and  the  plain  of  Hun- 
gary. Part  of  southern  and  southeast- 
ern Russia  consists  of  steppes. 

The  main  European  watershed  runs 
in  a winding  direction  from  southwest  to 
northeast,  at  its  northeastern  extremity 
being  of  very  slight  elevation.  From  the 
Alps  descend  some  of  the  largest  of  the 
European  rivers,  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone, 
and  the  Po,  while  the  Danube,  a still 
greater  stream,  rises  in  the  Black  Forest 
north  of  the  Alps.  The  Volga,  which 
enters  the  Caspian  Sea,  an  inland  sheet 
without  outlet,  is  the  longest  of  Euro- 
pean rivers,  having  a direct  length  of 
nearly  1700  miles,  including  windings 
2400  miles.  Into  the  Mediterranean 
flow  the  Ebro,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Po; 
into  the  Black  Sea,  the  Danube,  Dnieper, 
Dniester,  and  Don  (through  the  Sea  of 
Azov) ; into  the  Atlantic,  the  Gaudal- 
quiver,  the  Guadiana,  the  Tagus,  and  the 
Loire;  into  the  English  Channel,  the 
Seine;  into  the  North  Sea,  the  Rhine, 
the  Elbe;  into  the  Baltic,  the  Oder,  the 
Vistula,  and  the  Duna;  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  the  Dwina.  The  lakes  of  Europe 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  the 
southern  and  the  northern.  The  former 
run  along  both  sides  of  the  Alps,  and 
among  them,  on  the  north  side,  are  the 
lakes  of  Geneva,  Neuchatel,  Thun, 
Lucerne,  Zurich,  and  Constance;  on  the 
south  side,  Lago  Maggiore,  and  the 
lakes  of  Como,  Lugano,  Iseo,  and  Garda. 
The  northern  lakes  extend  across 
Sweden  from  west  to  east,  and  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Baltic  a number  of  lakes, 
stretching  in  the  same  direction  across 
Finland  on  the  borders  of  Russia,  mark 
the  continuation  of  the  line  of  depression. 
It  is  in  Russia  that  the  largest  European 
lakes  are  found — Lakes  Lagoda  and 
Onega. 

The  geological  features  of  Europe  are 
exceedingly  varied.  The  older  forma- 
tions prevail  in  the  northern  part  as 
compared  with  the  southern  half  and 
the  middle  region.  North  of  the  latitude 
of  Edinburgh  and  Moscow  there  is  very 
little  of  the  surface  of  more  recent  origin 
than  the  strata  of  the  Upper  Jura  be- 
longing to  the  mesozoic  period,  and 
there  are  vast  tracts  occupied  either  by 
eruptive  rocks  or  one  or  other  of  the 
older  sedimentary  formations.  Den- 
mark and  the  portions  of  Germany  ad- 
joining belong  to  the  Cretaceous  period, 
as  does  also  a large  part  of  Russia  be- 
tween the  Volga  and  the  basin  of  the 
Dnieper.  Middle  and  eastern  Germany 
with  Poland  and  the  valley  of  the  Dnie- 
' per  present  on  the  surface  Eocene  for- 


EUROPE 


EUROPE 


mations  of  the  tertiary  period.  The  re- 
mainder of  Europe  is  remarkable  for  the 
great  diversity  of  its  superficial  structure 
rocks  and  deposits  belonging  to  all  pe- 
riods being  found  within  it,  and  having 
for  the  most  part  no  great  superficial  ex- 
tent. Europe  possesses  abundant  stores 
of  those  minerals  which  are  of  most  im- 
portance to  man,  such  as  coal  and  iron, 
Britain  being  particularly  favored  in 
this  respect.  Coal  and  iron  are  also  ob- 
tained in  France,  Belgium,  and  Ger- 
many. Gold  is  found  to  an  unimportant 
extent,  and  silver  is  widely  spread  in 
small  quantities.  The  richest  silver  ores 
are  in  Norway,  Spain,  the  Erzgebirge, 
and  the  Harz  Mountains.  Spain  is  also 
rich  in  quicksilver.  Copper  ores  are 
abundant  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  Thur- 
ingia, Cornwall,  and  Spain.  Tin  ores  are 
found  in  Cornwall,  the  Erzgebirge,  and 
Brittany. 

Several  circumstances  concur  to  give 
Europe  a climate  peculiarly  genial,  such 
as  its  position  almost  wholly  wdthin  the 
temperate  zone,  and  the  great  extent  of 
its  maritime  boundaries.  Much  benefit  is 
also  derived  from  the  fact  that  its  shores 
are  exposed  to  the  warm  marine  currents 
and  warm  winds  from  the  southwest, 
which  prevent  the  formation  of  ice  on 
most  of  its  northern  shores.  The  eastern 
portion  has  a less  favorable  climate  than 
the  western.  The  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture are  greater,  the  summer  being  hot- 
ter and  the  winter  colder,  while  the  line 
of  equal  mean  temperature  decline  south 
as  we  go  east.  The  same  advantages  of 
mild  and  genial  temperature  which 
western  has  over  eastern  Europe,  the 
continent  collectively  has  over  the  rest 
of  the  Old  World.  The  diminution  of 
mean  temperature,  as  well  as  the  inten- 
sity of  the  opposite  seasons,  increases  as 
we  go  east.  Peking,  in  lat.  40°  n.,  has  as 
severe  a winter  as  St.  Petersburg  in  lat. 
60°. 

With  respect  to  the  vegetable  king- 
dom Europe  may  be  divided  into  four 
zones.  The  first,  or  most  northern,  is 
that  of  fir  and  birch.  The  birch  reaches 
almost  to  North  Cape' the  fir  ceases  a 
degree  further  south.  The  cultivation  of 
grain  extends  further  north  than  might 
be  supposed.  Barley  ripens  even  under 
the  seventieth  parallel  of  north  latitude ; 
wheat  ceases  at  64°  in  Norway,  62°  in 
Sweden.  Within  this  zone,  the  southern 
limit  of  which  extends  from  lat.  64°  n. 
Norway  to  lat.  62°  in  Russia,  agriculture 
has  little  importance,  its  inhabitants  be- 
ing chiefly  occupied  with  the  care  of 
reindeer  or  cattle,  and  in  fishing.  The 
next  zone,  which  may  be  called  that  of 
the  oak  and  beech,  and  cereal  produce, 
extends  from  the  limit  above  mentioned 
to  the  48th  parallel.  The  Alps,  though 
beyond  the  limit,  by  reason  of  their  ele- 
vation belong  to  this  zone,  in  the  moister 
parts  of  which  cattle  husbandry  has  been 
brought  to  perfection.  Next  we  find  the 
zone  of  the  chestnut  and  vine,  occupy- 
ing the  space  between  the  48th  parallel 
and  the  mountain  chains  of  southern 
Europe.  Here  the  oak  still  flourishes, 
but  the  pine  species  become  rarer.  Rye, 
which  characterizes  the  preceding  zone 
on  the  continent,  gives  way  to  wheat./ 
and  in  the  southern  portions  of  it  to 
maize  also.  The  fourth  zone,  compre- 
hending the  southern  peninsulas,  is  that 


of  the  olive  and  evergreen  woods.  The 
orange  flourishes  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  it,  and  rice  is  cultivated  in  a few 
spots  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

As  regards  animals  the  reindeer  and 
polar-bears  are  peculiar  to  the  north. 
In  the  forest  of  Poland  and  Lithuania 
the  urus,  a species  of  wild  ox,  is  still 
occasionally  met  with.  Bears  and 
wolves  still  inhabit  the  forests  and 
mountains;  but,  in  general,  cultivation 
and  population  have  expelled  wild  ani- 
mals. The  domesticated  animals  are 
nearly  the  same  throughout.  The  ass 
and  mule  lose  their  size  and  beauty 
north  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Alps.  The 
Mediterranean  Sea  has  many  species  of 
fish,  but  no  great  fishery;  the  northern 
seas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  annually 
filled  with  countless  shoals  of  a few 
species,  chiefly  the  herring,  mackerel, 
cod,  and  salmon. 

Europe  is  occupied  by  several  differ- 
ent peoples  or  races,  in  many  parts  now 
greatly  intermingled.  The  Celts  once 
possessed  the  west  of  Europe  from  the 
Alps  to  the  British  Islands.  But  the 


garians,  all  immigrants  into  Europe  in 
comparatively  recent  times.  The  Bas- 
ques at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Pyrenees  are  a people  whose  affinities 
have  not  yet  been  determined.  The 
total  population  of  Europe  is  about  330,- 
000,000 ; nine-tenths  speak  the  languages 
of  the  Indo-European  family,  the  Teu- 
tonic group  numbering  about  108,000,- 
000,  the  Slavonic  and  Latin  over  95,000,- 
000  each.  The  prevailing  religion  is  the 
Christian,  embracing  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic, various  sects  of  Protestants  (Luth- 
eran, Calvinistic,  Anglican,  Baptists, 
Methodists,  etc.),  and  the  Greek  Church. 
A part  of  the  inhabitants  profess  the 
Jewish,  a part  the  Mohammedan  religion 

The  states  of  Europe,  with  their  re- 
spective areas  and  populations,  are  as 
shown  below.  In  addition  to  those  given 
in  the  table,  there  are  also  the  insignifi- 
cant states  of  Andorra,  Monaco,  and 
San  Marino,  which  still  maintain  a kind 
of  precarious  independence. 

Europe  was  probably  first  peopled 
from  Asia,  but  at  what  date  we  know  not. 
The  first  authentic  history  begins  in 


States. 

Area  in 
Eng.  sq. 
Miles. 

POPUTJK.- 

TION. 

Designation. 

Austria-Hunearv 

240,942 

46,973,359 

Empire. 

Principality. 

Annexed  hy  Austria. 

Liechtenstein. . 

62 

9,124 

Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  etc.  

23,262 

1,504,091 

Belgium 

11,373 

14,789 

7,074,910 

Kingdom. 

Kingdom. 

Denmark 

2,484,770 

Faroe  and  Iceland. ... 

40,266 

83,665 

France 

204,090 

39.118,995 

Republic. 

Empire. 

Kingdom. 

Germany 

211,149 

60,600,183 

Britain. 

120,832 

145 

41,606,177 

European  Possessions 

175,186 

Greece 

29,014 

2,433,806 

Kingdom. 

Kingdom. 

Netherlands . . . 

12,648 

5,347,182 

Luxemburg 

999 

213,283 

Grand-duchy. 

Kingdom. 

Principality. 

Kingdom. 

Kingdom 

Empire. 

Kingdom. 

Italy 

114,410 

32,475,253 

Montenegro 

3,658 

236,000 

Portugal” 

36,028 

5,423,132 

Roumania. ...  . .... 

48.307 

5,500,00(1 

143,364,649 

Russia 

2,095,504 

Servia 

18,800 

2,493,691 

Spain .... 

191,100 

18,891,674 

Kingdom. 

Kingdom. 

Kingdom. 

Sweden . . . . 

170,979 

6,136,441 

Norway 

122,869 

2,240,032 

Switzerland 

15,992 

3,315,443 

Confederative  Republic. 

Turkey 

63,850 

6,130,200 

Empire. 

Principality. 

Joined  to  Bulgaria. 

Bulgaria 

24,650 

3,744,300 

Eastern  Roumelia 

13.500 

Celtic  nationalities  were  broken  by  the 
wave  of  Roman  conquest,  and  the  suc- 
ceeding invasions  of  the  Germanic  tribes 
completed  their  political  ruin.  At  the 
present  day  the  Celtic  language  is  spoken 
only  in  the  Scotch  Highlands  (Gaelic), 
in  some  parts  of  Ireland  (Irish),  in  Wales 
(Cymric),  and  in  Brittany  (Armorican). 
Next  to  the  Celtic  comes  the  Teutonic 
race,  comprehending  the  Germanic  and 
Scandinavian  branches.  The  former  in- 
cludes the  Germans,  the  Dutch,  and  the 
English.  The  Scandinavians  are  divided 
into  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians. 
To  the  east,  in  general,  of  the  Teutonic 
race,  though  sometimes  mixed  with  it, 
come  the  Slavonians,  that  is,  the  Rus- 
sians, the  Poles,  the  Czechs  or  Bohe- 
mians, the  Servians,  Croatians,  etc.  In 
the  south  and  southeast  of  Europe  are 
the  Greek  and  Latin  peoples,  the  latter 
comprising  the  Italians,  French,  Span- 
ish, and  Portuguese.  All  the  above 
peoples  are  regarded  as  belonging  to.  the 
Indo-European  or  Aryan  stock.  To  the 
Mongolian  stock  belong  the  Turks, 
Finns,  Lapps,  and  Magyars  or  Ilun- 


Greece  at  about  776  b.c.  Greek  civiliza- 
tion was  at  its  most  flourishing  period 
about  430  B.c.  After  Greece  came  Rome 
which,  by  the  early  part  of  the  Christian 
era,  had  conquered  Spain,  Greece,  Gaul, 
Helvetia,  Germany,  between  the  Danube 
and  the  Alps,  Illyria,  Dacia,  etc.  Im- 
proved laws  and  superior  arts  of  life 
spread  with  the  Roman  empire  through- 
out Europe,  and  the  unity  of  govern- 
ment was  also  extremely  favorable  to 
the  extension  of  Christianity.  With  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  a great 
change  in  the  political  constitution  of 
Europe  was  produced  by  the  universal 
migration  of  the  northern  nations.  The 
Ostrogoths  and  Lombards  settled  in 
Italy,  the  Franks  in  France,  the  Visi- 
goths in  Spain,  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  in 
South  Britain,  reducing  the  inhabitants 
to  subjection,  or  becoming  incorporated 
with  them.  Under  Charlemagne  (771- 
814)  a great  Germanic  empire  was  estab- 
lished, so  extensively  that  the  kingdom 
of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Burgundy, 
Lorraine,  and  Navarre  were  afterward 
formed  out  of  it.  About  this  time  the 


EURYDICE 


northern  and  eastern  nations  of  Europe 
began  to  exert  an  influence  in  the  affairs 
of  Europe.  The  Slavs,  or  Slavonians, 
founded  kingdoms  in  Bohemia,  Poland, 
Russia,  and  the  north  of  Germany:  the 
Magyars  appeared  in  Hungary,  and  the 
Normans  agitated  all  Europe,  founding 
kingdoms  and  principalities  in  England, 
France,  Sicily,  and  the  East.  The  Cru- 
sades and  the  growth  of  the  Ottoman 
power  are  among  the  principal  events 
which  influenced  Europe  from  the  12th 
to  15th  century.  The  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople by  the  Turks  (1453),  by 
driving  the  learned  Greeks  from  this 
city,  gave  a new  impulse  to  letters  in 
western  Europe,  which  was  carried  on- 
ward by  the  invention  of  printing,  and 
the  Reformation.  The  discovery  of 
America  was  followed  by  the  temporary 
preponderance  of  Spain  in  Europe,  and 
next  of  France.  Subsequently  Prussia 
and  Russia  gradually  increased  in  terri- 
tory and  strength.  The  French  revolu- 
tion (1789)  and  the  Napoleonic  wars  had 
a profound  effect  on  Europe,  the  disso- 
lution of  the  old  German  Empire  being 
one  of  the  results.  Since  then  the  most 
important  events  in  European  history 
have  been  the  establishment  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece;  the  disappearance 
of  Poland  as  a separate  stat^  the  unifi- 
cation of  Italy  under  Victor  Emmanuel; 
the  Franco-German  war,  resulting  in  the 
consolidation  of  Germany  into  an  em- 
pire under  the  leadership  of  Prussia ; and 
the  partial  dismemberment  of  the  'Rirk- 
ish  Empire. 

EURYDICE  (u-rid'i-se),  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  wife  of  Orpheus.  See 
Orpheus. 

EUSE'BIUS,  the  father  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal history,  a Greek  writer,  born  in 
Palestine  about  265  a.d.,  died  about  340. 
About  315  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Caesarea.  He  became  an  advocate  of  the 
Arians  and  condemned  the  doctrines  of 
Anthanasius.  His  ecclesiastical  history 
extends  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  324. 
Among  his  other  extant  works  is  a life  of 
Constantine  the  Great. 

EUS'TIS,  James  Biddle,  an  American 
lawyer,  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1834. 
During  the  civil  war  he  served  in  the 
Confederate  army  as  judge-advocate  on 
the  staffs  of  Generals  Magruder  and 
Johnston,  and  afterward  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  sent  by  Louisiana  to  con- 
fer with  President  Johnson  with  regard 
to  the  “reconstruction”  of  that  state. 
He  served  for  several  terms  in  the  state 
legislature,  and  was  afterward  twice  sent 
j to  the  U.  States  senate,  serving  from 
1877  to  1879,  and  again  from  1885  to 
1891.  From  1879  to  1884  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  civil  law  in  the  University  of 
Tji’  Louisiana,  and  from  1893  to  1899,  after 
his  second  term  in  the  senate,  was  U. 
States  minister  and  first  U.  States  am- 
‘ ' bassador  to  France.  He  died  in  1899. 
EUTHANASIA,  (u'tha-na'zhi-a),  the 
use  of  narcotics  or  other  means  for  short- 
ening life,  in  disease,  has  become  a sub- 
, . ject  of  discussion  in  civilized  countries; 
and  it  is  often  a very  practical  question 
as  to  how  far  such  means  are  admissible 
for  soothing  the  last  hours  of  life,  when 
the  approach  of  death  does  not  of  itself 
^ dull  the  consciousness  and  the  sensibility 
to  pain.  It  must  be  decided  according 
'*  to  all  the  surrounding  circumstances. 


medical  and  otherwise,  in  each  individ- 
ual case. 

EUXANTHINE,  a substance  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  bile  or  urine  of 
the  buffalo, camel,  or  elephant.  It  comes 
from  India  under  the  name  of  purree  or 
Indian  yellow,  and  is  used  as  a pigment. 

EUXTNE,  the  ancient  name  for  the 
Black  Sea. 

EVANGELTCAL,  a term  often  used  to 
qualify  certain  theological  views,  espe- 
'cially  strict  views  on  the  question  of  the 
atonement,  justification  by  faith,  the  in- 
spiration and  authority  of  the  Scriptures 
and  allied  doctrines.  In  a more  general 
sense  the  word  implies  a peculiar  fer- 
vency and  earnestness  in  insisting  on 
such  doctrines  as  regeneration,  redemp- 
tion, etc. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE,  an  asso- 
ciation of  members  of  different  sections 
of  the  Christian  church,  organized  in 
London  in  1846,  to  lend  its  influence  in 
favor  of  evangelical  doctrines,  religious 
union  and  liberty,  and  against  super- 
stition and  unbelief.  The  alliance  has 
branches  throughout  the  world,  the 
American  branch  being  especially  strong 
and  has  held  meetings  at  Paris,  Berlin, 
Amsterdam,  Geneva,  New  York,  etc. 

EVAN'GELISTS,  the  writers  of  the 
history  or  doctrines,  precepts,  actions, 
life,  and  death  of  Christ;  in  particular, 
the  four  evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark, 
Luke,  and  John.  The  ancient  symbols  of 
the  four  evangelists  are : for  Matthew,  a 
man’s  face;  for  Mark,  a lion;  for  Luke, 
an  ox;  and  for  John,  a flying  eagle. 

EVANS,  Marian.  See  Eliot,  George. 

EV'ANS,  Oliver,  born  at  Newport, 
Del.,  in  1755,  was  the  inventor  of  the 
automatic  flour-mill  and  the  high-press- 
ure steam-engine.  He  died  in  New  York, 
21st  April,  1819. 

EVANS,  Robley  Dunglison,  naval 
officer,  born  in  Virginia  in  1846.  In  the 
civil  war  he  took  part  in  both  attacks  on 
Fort  Fisher,  and  was  so  seriously 
wounded  that  he  was  retired  from  active 
service.  After  his  recovery  he  was  re- 
stored to  the  service  at  his  own  request. 
During  the  Chilian  imbroglio  of  1891  he 
commanded  the  Yorktown;  in  1896  he 
was  put  in  command  of  the  Indiana,  and 
in  1898  was  put  in  command  of  the  Iowa, 
which  was  assigned  to  blockade  duty  off 
the  coast  of  Cuba  during  the  war  with 
Spain,  and  which  took  a prominent  part 
in  the  battle  of  July  3 near  Santiago.  In 
Oct,,  1898,  he  was  appointed  a member 
of  the  board  of  inspection  and  survey. 
He  published  A Sailor’s  Log  in  1901. 

EV'ANSTON,  a town  in  Illinois,  on 
Lake  Michigan,  12  miles  n.  of  Chicago. 
It  has  a university  with  museum  and  ex- 
tensive library.  Pop.  25,620. 

EV'ANSVILLE,  a city  in  Indiana, 
pleasantly  situated  on  a height  above 
the  Ohio.  It  contains  some  handsome 
buildings,  including  custom-house  and 
post-office,  etc.  Coal  and  iron  abound  in 
the  vicinity,  and  there  are  numerous 
factories,  flour-mills,  iron-foundries, 
etc.,  and  a large  shipping  trade.  Pop. 
69,140. 

EVAPORATION,  the  conversion  of  a 
liquid  or  solid  by  heat  into  vapor  or 
steam,  which  becomes  dissipated  in  the 
atmosphere  in  the  manner  of  an  elastic 
fluid.  The  process  of  evaporation  is  con- 
stantly going  on  at  the  surface  of  the 


EVERLASTING-FLOWERS 

earth,  but  principally  at  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  of  lakes,  rivers,  and  pools.  The 
vapor  thus  formed,  being  specifically 
lighter  than  atmospheric  air,  rises  to 
considerable  heights  above  the  earth’s 
surface;  and  afterward,  by  a partial  con- 
densation, forms  clouds,  and  finally  de- 
scends in  rain. 

EVARTS,  Wm.  M.,  was  born  in  Bos- 
ton, in  1818.  In  1868  was  counsel  for 
President  Johnson  in  the  impeacliment 
trial.  In  1872  was  counsel  for  the  U. 
States  in  the  Alabama  claims.  His  fees 
have  amounted  to  150,000  for  a single 
opinion.  He  was  secretary  of  state  un- 
der President  Hayes,  and  U.  States  sena- 
tor from  1885  to  1891.  He  died  1901. 

EVENING-STAR,  or  Hesperus,  the 
name  given  to  the  planet  Venus  when 
visible  in  the  evening.  See  Venus. 

EVERETT,  Edward,  an  American 
statesman  and  author,  born  at  Dorches- 
ter, Massachusetts,  April  11,  1794.  Aftei 
traveling  for  some  years  in  Germany 
and  England  he  returned  to  America  ir 


1819  to  occupy  the  chair  of  Greek  litera- 
ture at  Harvard.  He  became  editor  of 
the  North  American  Review,  and  enter- 
ing the  political  world  became  succes- 
sively member  of  Congress,  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary in  England  (1840).  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  president  of  Harvard 
College,  and  in  1852  secretary  of  state. 
Shortly  after  he  retired?,[into  private  life. 
He  died  at  Boston,  January  15,  1865. 

EVERETT,  a city  in  Middlesex  co.. 
Mass.,  adjoining  Boston,  Chelsea,  and 
Malden,  of  which  last  it  formed  part 
until  incorporated  as  a town  in  1870. 
Pop.  29,625. 

EVERGLADES,  a low  marshy  tract 
of  country  in  Southern  Florida,  inun- 
dated with  water  and  interspersed  with 
patches  or  portions  covered  with  high 
grass  and  trees.  They  are  160  miles 
long  and  60  broad. 

EVERGREEN,  a plant  that  retains  its 
verdure  through  all  the  seasons,  as  the 
fir,  the  holly,  the  laurel,  the  cedar,  the 
cypress,  the  juniper,  the  holm-oak,  and 
many  others.  Evergreens  shed  their  old 
leaves  in  the  spring  or  summer,  after  the 
new  foliage  has  been  formed,  and  con- 
sequently are  verdant  through  all  the 
winter  season.  They  form  a consider 
able  part  of  the  shrubs  commonly  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  and  are  beautiful  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year. 

EVERLASTING-FLOWERS,  a name 
applied  to  certain  plants  which,  when 


EVEREST,  MOUNT 

dried,  suffer  little  change  in  their  ap- 
pearance. 

EV'EREST,  MOUNT,  the  highest 
mountain  of  the  earth;  in  the  eastern 
range  of  the  Himalayas,  in  Northern  Ne- 
paul;  lat.  27°  59'  12"  n..  Ion.  86°  58'  6"  e. 
According  to  the  measurement  of  Waugh 
in  1856,  the  altitude  is  29,002  feet. 

EVERSION  OF  THE  EYELIDS,  ectro- 
pium,  a disease  in  which  the  eyelids  are 
turned  outward,  so  as  to  expose  the 
red  internal  tunic.  It  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  the  lower  eyelid. 

EVICTION,  the  dispossession  of  a per- 
son from  the  occupancy  of  lands  or  tene- 
ments. The  term  occurs  most  commonly 
in  connection  with  the  proceedings  by 
which  a landlord  ejects  his  tenant  for 
non-pa3anent  pf  rent  or  on  determination 
of  the  tenancy.  In  the  case  of  evic- 
tions of  tenants  in  Ireland,  generally  for 
non-payment  of  rent,  the  tenants  are 
frequently  readmitted  as  caretakers,  or 
under  some  other  title. 

EVIDENCE  is  that  which  makes  evi- 
dent, which  enables  the  mind  to  see 
truth.  It  may  be  (a)  intuitive,  i.  e.  rest- 
ing on  the  direct  testimony  of  conscious- 
ness, of  perception  or  memory,  or  on 
fundamental  principles  of  the  human  in- 
tellect; or  it  may  be  (b)  demonstrative 
i.e.  in  a strict  sense,  proofs  which  estab- 
lish with  certainty  as  in  mathematical 
science  certain  conclusions;  or  it  may  be 
(c)  probable,  under  which  class  are  rank- 
ed moral  evidence,  legal  evidence,  and 
generally  every  kind  of  evidence  which, 
though  it  may  be  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
mind,  is  not  an  absolutely  certain  and 
incontrovertible  demonstration. 

EVIDENCES  OF  CHRISTIANITY, 
these  may  be  divided  broadly  into  two 
great  classes,  viz.  external  evidences,  or 
the  body  of  historical  testimonies  to  the 
Christian  relation;  and  internal  evi- 
dences, or  arguments  drawn  from  the 
nature  of  Christianity  itself  as  exhibited 
in  its  teachings  and  effects,  in  favor  of 
its  divine  origin.  The  first  Christian 
apologies — those  of  Justin  Martyr,  Minu- 
cius  Felix,  and  Tertullian,  written  in 
the  2d  century — were  mainly  intended 
as  justifications  of  the  Christian  religion 
against  the  charges  of  atheism,  im- 
morality, etc.,  commonly  made  at  that 
time.  Of  a more  philosophical  kind 
and  dealing  more  comprehensively  with 
the  principles  of  religion  and  belief  in 
general,  are  the  works  of  Origen,  Arno- 
bius,  and  Augustine  in  the  centuries 
immediately  succeeding.  During  the 
middle  ages,  the  scientific  representation 
of  Christianity  is  mostly  the  work  of 
the  schoolmen  occupied  in  welding 
Aristotelian  or  Platonic  philosophy 
with  the  fabric  of  Christian  dogmatics, 
or  writing  attacks  on  the  Jewish  and 
Mahommedan  faiths. 

EVIL  EYE,  a power  which,  accord- 
ing to  an  old  and  wide-spread  super- 
stition, resides  in  some  people  of  doing 
injury  to  others  by  a mere  look,  or  a 
look  accompanied  by  certain  words 
or  charms.  This  belief,  common 
among  the  ancients,  is  still  prevalent 
among  the  more  ignorant  classes  in 
Italy,  Russia,  Andalusia,  Turkey,  Egypt, 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  other 
places. 

EVOLUTION,  a term  used  to  denote 
(usually)  the  theory  that  all  forms 


of  life  are  derived  from  one  or  a few 
forms  which,  by  gradual  change,  have 
been  transmitted  into_  the  millions 
of  forms  we  now  see.  The  general  idea  of 
evolution  was  familiar  to  the  ancients, 
but  it  was  not  until  Goethe,  Lamarck, 
and  Kant  suggested  the  cousinship  of 
all  living  things  that  the  idea  of  modern 
evolution  arose. 

The  chief  interest  attaching  to 
evolution  in  the  popular  mind  dates 
from  Darwin’s  work,  “The  Origin  of 
Species,”  because  it  was  seen  that  if 
Darwin’s  theory  was  true,  man  was  not 
specially  created  by  a deity  but  was 
descended  in  a straight  line  from  an 
ape-hke  animal,  and  more  remotely 
from  still  lower  forms. 

Darwin’s  theory  is  important  not  be- 
cause it  holds  that  man  is  thus  descended , 
but  because  it  was  the  first  rational 
attempt  to  establish  the  doctrine  of 
evolution  on  a scientific  basis.  The 
heart  of  Darwinism  is  the  process  he 
calls  “natural  selection.”  Organisms 
inherit  their  traits  from  their  parents. 
But  as  a new  generation  is  slightly  dif- 
ferent from  the  preceding  generation, 
the  individuals  having  favorable  traits 
survive,  while  those  who  have  not, 
perish.  Thus  the  “unfit”  are  eliminated 


before  they  can  propagate;  and  this 
process,  going  on  for  centuries  or  ages, 
produces  the  most  divergent  types. 
In  this  way  millions  of  species  have 
disappeared  and  the  millions  that 
survive  are  still  changing  their  forms. 
It  has  been  well  said  that  before  Darwin 
the  living  beings  of  the  earth  were  as 
wax-figures  in  a museum.  Darwin’s 
suggestion  imbued  them  with  life  and 
they  began  to  move. 

Since  Darwin’s  time  natural  selection 
has  been  applied  to  the  entire  universe ; 
to  the  survival  of  chemical  elements, 
which,  among  themselves,  are  in  a 
“struggle  for  existence”;  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  star-clusters  and  planet-systems ; 
to  disease,  to  society,  in  a word  to 
all  the  phenomena  of  being. 

The  doctrine  of  evolution  as  appUed 
to  man  is  of  special  interest.  Man  is 
the  most  highly  organized  member  of 
the  animal  world.  The  endeavor  has 
often  been  made  in  classification  to 
separate  man  from  the  brute  creation. 
One  system,  expressing  a vast  gap  be- 


EVOLUTION 

tween  the  Quadrumana  and  man,  classi- 
fies man  in  the  order  Bimana  (“two- 
handed”),  the  highest  division  of  the 
Mammalian  class;  and  relegates  the 
monkeys  and  apes  to  the  lower  and 
distinct  order — that  of  the  Quadrumana 
(“four-handed”).  The  more  recent 
arrangements,  however,  classify  man 
and  the  monkeys  in  one  order,  making 
man  the  highest  family  or  group  of 
this  order.  From  the  purely  anatomical 
point  of  view  the  differences  which 
separate  the  anthropoid  apes  from  man 
are  in  some  respects  less  than  those 
which  separate  these  higher  apes  from 
apes  lower  in  the  scale.  But  the  mental 
or  psychical  endowments  of  man  oblige 
us  to  remove  him  far  above  the  highest 
Quadrumana;  and  even  the  characters 
by  which  he  is  anatomically  separated 
from  the  highest  apes  form  a very  dis- 
tinct and  appreciable  series.  The  first 
grand  characteristic  of  man  is  his  erect 
position  and  bipedal  progression.  The 
lower  limbs,  with  the  feet  broad  and 
plantigrade  and  the  well-developed 
heel,  are  devoted  exclusively  to  pro- 
gression and  supporting  the  weight  of 
the  body;  while  the  upper  limbs  have 
nothing  to  do  with  progression,  but 
subserve  prehension  entirely.  The  bones 


of  the  face  in  man  do  not  project  for- 
ward, while  they  are  elongated  in  sif 
downward  direction;  and  the  face  and 
forehead  are  in  the  more  civilized  races 
situated  nearly  in  the  same  plane,  so 
that  the  face  immediately  underlies  the 
brain.  Similarly  the  development  of  a 
distinct  chin  is  also  a peculiarly  human 
feature,  and  one  which  in  the  highest 
varieties  of  mankind  becomes  most 
marked.  The  great  cranial  capacity 
of  man,  or  the  greater  size  of  the  cranial 
or  brain  portion  as  compared  with  the 
facial  portion  of  the  skull,  forms  another 
noteworthy  and  distinctive  character 
of  the  human  form.  The  brain  con- 
volutions also  are  more  numerous  and 
complex  than  is  the  case  with  any  other 
mammal.  The  teeth  of  man  are  arranged 
in  a continuous  series,  and  without 
any  diastema  or  interval.  The  develop- 
ment of  hair  too  is  very  partial.  The 
gorilla  presents  of  all  the  apes  the  near- 
est approach  to  the  human  tj’pe  taken 
in  its  entirety;  but  it  differs  in  the 
relative  number  of  vertebrae  (13  dorsal 


GiBnoN,  Obako.  Chimpanzee.  Gorilla.  Man. 

Photographicallij  rr.dnccd  from  Diagrams  of  the  natural  size  {except  that  of  Che  Gibbon^  which  was  twice  as  large 
as  nature),  drawn  by  Mr  Waterhouse  Hawkins  from  specimens  in  the  Mitseum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 


EWALD 


EXECUTION 


and  4 lumbar,  to  12  and  5 respectively 
in  man),  in  the  order  of  dental  succession 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  interval  or 
diastema,  in  the  less  prominent  mus- 
cular development  of  the  buttocks  and 
calves,  and  in  other  minor  differences. 
The  orangs  most  closely  approach  man’s 
structure  in  the  number  of  ribs  and  in 
the  form  of  the  cerebrum,  while  they 
exhibit  the  greatest  differences  from 
him  in  the  relative  length  of  the  limbs. 
The  chin^anzees  are  most  anthropoid 
in  the  shape  of  the  cranium,  in  the 
arrangement  and  succession  of  the 
teeth,  and  in  the  length  of  the  arms  as 
■compared  with  that  of  the  legs.  Of 
the  higher  apes  the  gibbons  are  those 
furthest  removed  from  the  human  type 
of  structure.  Chief  among  the  psychical 
features,  or  rather  among  the  results  of 
the  operation  of  the  principle  of  mind, 
we  note  the  possession  of  the  moral 
sense  of  right  and  wrong.  The  possession 
of  an  articulate  language,  by  which  he 
can  communicate  his  thoughts,  is  also 
the  exclusive  possession  of  man,  and 
draws  a sharp  line  of  separation  between 
him  and  all  other  animals.  With  re- 
gard to  the  geological  history  of  man, 
the  earliest  traces  yet  discovered  belong 
to  the  Post-pliocene  deposits  in  con- 
junction with  existing  species  of  shells 
and  some  extinct  species  of  mammals. 
Man’s  advent  upon  the  earth  is  conse- 
quently referred  to  a period  much 
anterior  to  that  which  former  limits 
and  theological  ideas  prescribed.  Among 
the  modern  theories  regarding  the 
origin  of  man  may  be  noted  those  of  (1) 
Darwin ; that  man  is  directly  descended 
from  an  extinct  form  of  anthropoid  ape, 
with  a tail  and  pointe'd  ears,  arboreal 
in  its  habits  and  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Old  World;  further,  that  man  has 
diverged  into  different  races  or  sub- 
species, but  that  all  the  races  agree 
in  so  many  unimportant  details  of 
structure,  and  in  so  many  mental 
peculiarities,  that  they  can  be  accounted 
for  only  through  inheritance  from  a 
common  progenitor.  _ (2)  Wallace  also 
affirms  the  original  unity  of  man,  and 
places  him  apart  as  not  only  the  head 
and  culminating  point  of  the  grand 
series  of  organic  nature,  but  as,  in  some 
degree,  a new  and  distinct  order  of 
being;  maintaining  that  a superior 
intelligence  has  guided  the  develop- 
ment of  man  in  a definite  direction 
and  for  a special  purpose,  just  as  man 
guides  the  development  of  many  animal 
and  vegetable  forms.  (3)  Carl  Vogt 
-bolds  a rfurality  of  the  race;  adopts 
"Darwin’s  idea  of  natural  selection 
accounting  for  the  origin  and  endow- 
ments of  plan,  but  rejects  Wallace’s 
idea  of  the  higher  controlling  Mntelli- 
gence.  (4)  Mivart  propounds  a theory 
of  a natural  evolution  of  man  as  to  his 
body,  combined  with  a supernatural 
creation  as  to  his  soul. 

EWALD  (a'vMt),  Johannes,  Danish 
poet,  born  at  Copenhagen  in  1743.  After 
_ studying  theology  at  Copenhagen'  Uni- 
"versity  he  ran  away  and  enlisted  in  the 
Prussian  service, -which  he  soon  deserted 
for  the  Austrian.  Having  returned  to 
Copenhagen  an  elegy  which  he  wrote 
on  the  death  of  Frederick  V.,  of  Denmark 
was  received  with  general  admiration, 
and  awoke  in  himself  the  consciousness 
P.  E.— 29 


of  poetic  talent.  His  reputation  rapidly 
increased  with  the  publication  of  his 
tragedies.  The  Death  of  Balder,  Adam 
and  Eve,  Rolfkrage,  etc.;  and  his  odes 
and  songs. 

EWELL,  Benjamin  Stoddert,  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  in  1810.  He  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Hampden-Sidney  College  in 
1839-1846  ,and  filled  a similar  chair  at 
Washington  University  in  1854,  and 
William  and  Mary  College  of  which  he 
became  president  in  1854.  He  was  in 
command  of  the  32nd  regiment  Virginia 
Volunteers  from  1861-2  and  adjutant- 
general  of  the  confederate  army  on  the 
staff  of  Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  when 
he  was  commander  of  the  department  of 
Tennessee  and  Mississippi.  He  died  in 
1883. 

EWELL,  Richard  Stoddert,  American 
soldier,  born  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  in 
1817.  He  served  during  the  Mexican 
war  with  Scott  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the 
City  of  Mexico.  He  was  actively  en- 
gaged on  the  side  of  the  confederacy 
during  the  civil  war  and  attained  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general.  He  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  second  corps 
of  Gen.  Lee’s  army  upon  the  death  of 
“Stonewall”  Jackson.  He  led  the  charge 
of  the  corps  at  the  capture  of  Winchester, 
at  Gettysburg,  the  Wilderness  and, 
Spottsylvania  Court  House.  He  died  in 
1872. 

EWING,  Thos.,  statesman,  was  born 
in  Ohio  co.,  Va.,  in  1789.  In  1831  and 
1850  was  elected  to  the  U.  States  senate. 
In  1841  appointed  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  In  1849  was  made  the  first 
secretary  of  the  interior.  He  died  in 
1871. 

EX'CELLENCY,  a title  given  to  am- 
bassadors and  plenipotentiaries,  gov- 
ernors of  colonies,  the  president  of  the 
United  States,  etc. 

EXCELSIOR,  a material  widely  used 
for  packing  and  as  stuffing  in  mattresses 
and  upholstery.  It  is  made  from  logs  of 
wood  that  have  been  divided  into  18 
inch  blocks.  The  fibers  are  separated 
from  the  blocks  by  knife-points  and 
packed  in  bales  of  250  pounds'  weight. 
About  45,000  tons  are  manufactured 
annually  in  the  U.  States  of  which  large 
quantities  are  exported. 

EXCHANGE,  a place  in  large  com- 
mercial towns  where  merchants,  agents, 
bankers,  brokers,  and  others  concerned 
in  commercial  affairs  meet  at  certain 
times  for  the  transaction  of  business. 
The  institution  of  exchanges  dates  from 
the  16th  century.  They  originated  in 
the  important  trading  cities  of  Italy, 
Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  from 
which  last-named  country  they  were 
introduced  into  England.  In  some  ex- 
changes only  a special  class  of  business 
is  transacted.  Thus  there  are  stock  ex- 
changes, corn  exchanges,  coal  exchanges, 
cotton  exchanges,  etc. 

EXCHANGE,  in  commerce,  that  spe- 
cies of  transactions  by  which  the  debts 
of  individuals  residing  at  a distance  are 
canceled  by  order,  draft,  or  bill  of  ex- 
change, without  the  transmission  of 
specie.  The  process  of  liquidating  obli- 
gations between  different  nations  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  same  way  by  an  exchange 
of  foreign  bills.  When  all  the  accounts  of 
one  country  correspond  in  value  with 


those  of  another,  so  that  there  is  an  even 
balance,  the  exchange  between  the 
countries  will  be  at  par,  that  is,  the  sum 
for  which  the  bill  is  drawn  in  the  one 
country  will  be  the  exact  value  of  it  in 
the  other.  Exchange  is  said  to  be  at 
par  when,  for  instance,  a bill  drawn  in 
New  York  for  the  payment  of  $500  in 
London  can  be  purchased  there  for 
$500.  If  it  can  be  purchased  for  less, 
exchange  is  under  par  and  is  against 
London.  If  the  purchaser  is  obliged  to 
give  more,  exchange  is  above  par  and  in 
favor  of  London.  Although  the  thou- 
sand circumstances  which  incessantly 
affect  the  state  of  debt  and  credit  pre- 
vent the  ordinary  course  of  exchange 
from  being  almost  ever  precisely  at  par, 
its  fluctuations  are  confined  within  nar- 
row limits,  and  if  direct  exchange  is  un- 
favorable between  two  countries  this 
can  often  be  obviated  by  the  interposi- 
tion of  bills  drawn  on  other  countries 
where  an  opposite  state  of  matters  pre- 
vails. See  also  Bill  of  Exchange. 

EXCHEQ'UER,  in  Britain,  the  de- 
partment which  deals  with  the  moneys 
received  and  paid  on  behalf  of  the  public 
services  of  the  country.  The  public 
revenues  are  paid  into  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land (or  of  Ireland)  to  account  of  the 
exchequer,  and  these  receipts  as  well 
as  the  necessary  payments  for  the  public 
service  are  under  the  supervision  of  an 
important  official  called  the  controller 
and  auditor  general,  the  pa}^ents  be- 
ing granted  by  him  on  receipt  of  the 
proper  orders  proceeding  through  the 
treasury.  The  public  accounts  are  also 
audited  in  his  department. 

EXCISE',  an  inland  duty  or  impost 
laid  on  commodities  produced  and  con- 
sumed within  a country,  and  also  on 
licenses  to  manufacture  and  deal  in 
certain  commodities. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  the  exclusion 
of  a Christian  from  the  communion  and 
spiritual  privileges  of  the  church.  Ex- 
communication  was  practiced  early  by 
the  Christian  church.  A distinction 
gradually  arose  between  a lesser  and  a 
greater  excommunication,  the  former 
being  a suspension  from  church  privi- 
leges, the  latter  a formal  expulsion  ex- 
cluding from  all  comiq,union  with  the 
faithful.  In  the  middle  ages  the  pope 
often  excommunicated  whole  cities  and 
kingdoms.  In  such  a case  all  religious 
services  ceased  and  the  grave  inconven- 
iences thus  caused  made  excommunica- 
tion a formidable  weapon  in  the  hands 
of  the  pope,  till  with  frequent  abuse  it 
lost  its  force.  Besides  excommunication 
an  extreme  degree  of  denunciation  called 
anathema,  and  cutting  the  offender  off 
from  all  the  hopes  and  consolations  of 
the  Christian  faith,  is  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land both  the  less  and  the  greater  ex- 
communication  are  recognized. 

EXCRE'TION,”  in  physiology,  the 
separation  and  carrying  off  of  waste 
matter  from  an  animal  body,  a function 
performed  by  the  lungs,  kidneys,  blad- 
der, and  tb'^  skin,  besides  the  action  of 
the  intestinal  canal. 

EXECUTION,  in  law,  is  a judicial  writ 
grounded  on  a judgment  of  the  court  by 
which  the  writ  is  issued,  and  is  granted 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  judgment 
into  effect,  by  having  it  executed.  Exe- 


EXECUTIONER 


EXMOUTH 


cution  is  granted  by  a court  only  upon 
the  judgments  given  by  the  same  court, 
not  upon  those  pronounced  by  another. 

EXECUTIONER,  the  official  who  car- 
ries into  effect  a sentence  of  death,  or 
inflicts  capital  punishment  in  pursuance 
of  a legal  warrant.  In  England  the  duty 
of  executing  the  extreme  sentence  of  the 
law  devolves  upon  the  sheriff,  and  in 
Scotland  on  the  civic  magistracy,  but  in 
practice  the  duty  is  performed  by  an- 
other in  their  presence.  In  the  U.  States 
the  duty  devolves  upon  the  sheriff. 

EXEC'UTIVE,  that  branch  of  the 
government  of  a country  by  which  the 
laws  are  carried  into  effect  or  the  en- 
forcement of  them  superintended.  The 
term  is  used  in  distinction  from  the 
legislative  and  the  judicial  departments, 
and  includes,  the  supreme  magistrate 
whether  emperor,  king,  president,  or 
governor,  his  cabinet  or  ministers,  and  a 
host  of  minor  officials. 

EXEC'UTOR,  in  law,  is  one  appointed 
by  a man’s  last  will  to  carry  its  pro- 
visions into  execution  after  the  testator’s 
death.  The  testator  may,  by  the  com- 
mon law,  appoint  any  person  of  sound 
mind  and  discretion,  though  otherwise 
under  some  legal  disabilities  as  to  con- 
tracting and  transacting  business  in  gen- 
eral, such  as  a married  woman,  or  a minor. 
The  duties  of  executors  and  of  adminis- 
trators are,  in  general,  the  same,  the  dif- 
ference of  the  two  depending  mostly  on 
the  mode  of  appointment,  'the  executor 
being  nominated  by  the  testator,  the 
administrator  being  appointed  by  the 
judge  of  probate.  An  executor  is  liable 
for  any  loss  occurring  to  the  estate 
through  negligence;  for  paying  legatees 
before  all  debts  are  discharged. 

EXEGESIS  (-je'sis),  the  exposition  or 
interpretation  of  The  Scriptures.  The 
science  which  lays  down  the  principles  of 
the  art  of  sacred  interpretation  is  called 
exegetics  or  hermeneutics. 

EX'ETER,  a city,  river-port,  and 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
of  England,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Exe,  10  miles  north- 
west from  its  outlet  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel. By  means  of  a canal  vessels  of  300 
tons  can  reach  the  city.  The  largest 
vessels  remain  at  Exmouth.  Exeter  is  a 
place  of  remote  antiquity,  having  been  a 
British  settlement  long  prior  to  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Romans,  Pop.  37,580. 

EXHIBITION,  Industrial,  an  exhibi- 
tion of  works  of  industry  and  art  for  the 
purpose  of  exciting  public  interest  and 
promoting  trade  and  manufactures.  In 
1798  an  industrial  exhibition  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  French  industry  was  held  at 
Paris,  and  proved  so  successful  that  in 
1802,  during  the  consulate  of  Napoleon,- 
another  was  held.  The  beneficial  effects 
of  these  exhibitions  were  so  obvious  that 
a series  of  them  was  held  at  intervals, 
the  eleventh  and  last  being  held  at  Paris 
in  1849.  In  Britain  exliibitions  of  a more 
or  less  local  nature  had  been  held  in 
Dublin  (1829),  Manchester,  Liverpool,^ 
and  Birmingham,  and  annually  in  Lon- 
don in  thd  premises  of  the  Society  of 
Arts.  All  these  had  been  generally  suc- 
cessful, but  the  necessity  of  holding  one 
on  an  international  scale  was  first 
brought  fairly  before  the  public  in  1848 
by  Prince  Albert.  A vast  structure  of 
-iron  and  glass,  the  design  of  Joseph  Pax- 


ton, was  erected  in  Hyde  Park,  London, 
and  was  opened  by  Queen  Victoria  on 
the  1st  of  May,  1851.  The  entire  area 
was  about  19  acres;  the  number  of  ex- 
hibitors reached  15,000.  In  1855  the 
first  French  Exposition  Universelle  was 
opened  in  Paris.  The  buildings  were 
erected  in  the  Champs  Elys6es,  and 
covered  about  24  acres.  There  were  in 
all  about  24,000  exhibitors.  This  was 
followed  by  the  national  exhibitions  of 
the  Dutch  at  Haarlem  and  the  Belgians 
at  Brussels,  both  in  1861,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  by  the  second  great  interna- 
tional exhibition  held  in  London.  The 
second  French  International  Exhibition 
was  opened  on  the  1st  April,  1867,  and 
closed  on  the  3d  November.  It  was 
erected  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  and 
covered  about  37  acres.  The- exhibitors 
numbered  nearly  50,000,  the  visitors 
about  10,000,000.  In  1873  the  first  Aus- 
trian international  exhibition  was  held 
in  Vienna.  A great  exhibition  was  held 
at  Philadelphia  in  1876  upon  the  occas- 
sion  of  the  centennial  festival  of  the 
American  declaration  of  independence. 
It  occupied  60  acres,  and  had  nearly 
10,000,000  visitors.  A third  French  In- 
ternational Exhibition  was  held  at  Paris 
in  1878,  the  area  occupied  amounting  in 
all  to  140  acres,  the  visitors  numbering 
about  17,000,000.  A fourth  was  held  in 
1889,  the  latter  being  partly  intended  to 
commemorate  the  centenary  of  the 
French  Revolution.  One  of  the  features 
in  connection  with  it  is  the  famous  Eiffel 
Tower  of  iron,  984  feet  high,  and  thus 
more  than  400  feet  higher  than  any 
other  structure.  In  1883  a series  of  ex- 
hibitions began  at  South  Kensington, 
London,  where  the  exhibits  were  con- 
fined to  articles  having  relation  to  a 
special  department.  To  this  series  be- 
longed The  Fisheries  Exhibition  of  1883, 
the  Health  Exhibition  of  1884,  the  Ex- 
hibitions of  Inventions  in  1885  and  the 
Exhibition  of  Colonial  and  Indian  Prod- 
ucts in  1886.  This  latter  was  visited  by 
5,550,749  persons.  Besides  these  Edin- 
burgh had  an  International  Exhibition 
of  Industry,  Science,  and  Arts  in  1886, 
visited  by  2,769,632  persons.  In  1887  a 
Royal  Jubilee  Exhibition  of  Arts  and 
Manufactures  was  opened  at  Manches- 
ter, and  was  visited  by  4,765,000  persons 
In  the  following  year  a great  Interna- 
tional Exhibition  of  Industry,  Science, 
and  Art  was  held  at  Glasgow,  and  at- 
tracted during  the  season  5,748,379 
visitors..  In  1892-93  an  International 
Exhibition  of  majestic  proportions  was 
held  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  to  commemor- 
ate the  400th  anniversary  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America.  The  total  number  of 
visitors  was  27,539,521.-  This  exhibition 
presented  the  finest  examples  of  archi- 
tectural beauty  and  grandeur  ever  seen 
on  earth.  Other  notable  exhibitions  in 
the  U.  S.  were  the  California  Mid-Winter 
Exhibition  in  San  Francisco  in  1894; 
The  Cotton  States  and  Industrial  Expo- 
sition in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  1895;  the  Ten- 
nessee Centennial  Exposition  in  Nash- 
ville in  1897.  In  1898  the  Trans-Missis- 
sippi Exposition  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  was 
unqualifiedly  successful.  In  1899  a Na- 
tional Export  Exposition  was  held  in 
Philadelphia,  whicn  resulted  in  a great 
increase  of  foreign  trade.  The  Pan- 
American  Exposition  in  Buffalo  to  cele- 


brate the  achievements  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere  during  one  hundred  years,  ^ 
and  to  promote  commerce  among  the 
Pan-American  countries,  was  opened  • 

May  1 and  closed  Nov.  1,  1901.  The  J 
site  occupied  350  acres.  The  South 
Carolina  Inter-State  and  West  Indian  ■ 

Exposition  in  Charleston  in  1901-02,  the 
World’s  Fair  in  St.  Louis  in  1904  in  cele-  j 
bration  of  the  Louisiana  purchase.  The 
French  held  a great  International  Expo-  * 
sition  at  Paris,  1900,  which,  in  the  num-  • 
ber  of  admissions,  was  far  in  excess  of 
any  similar  affair.  This  was  opened  by 
President  Loubet,  April  14,  and  closed 
Nov.  12. 

EXILE,  the  condition  of  a person  who  ^ 
either  voluntarily  or  by  penal  sentence  »' 
absents  himself  from  his  own  country  in 
order  to  escape  the  consequences  to  life, 
liberty,  or  property  that  residence  at 
home  would  bring  with  it ; also,  the  per- 
son who  so  absents  himself.  Exile  is  as  a 
punishment  unknown  to  English  law, 
unless  it  be  in  the  form  of  transportation 
by  act  of  Parliament,  or  as  a condition 
of  release  by  the  executive  from  a capi- 
tal or  other  severe  punishment.  ^ 

Free  countries,  unless  overawed  by 
superior  power,  have  generally  given 
refuge  to  political  exiles,  and  seldom 
have  they  delivered  them  up  on  demand 
from  the  exile’s  country.  This  was  the 
boast  of  Athens,  which  Demosthenes 
calls  the  common  place  of  refuge  for 
Greece;  he  also  pronounces  it  to  be  the 
common  usage  of  all  men  to  give  shelter 
to  an  exile.  The  connection  of  the  exile 
with  his  native  land  of  course  ceases. 

The  jurisdiction  over  him  depends  on 
the  laws  of  the  land  where  he  is  domi- 
ciled. If,  as  sometimes  happens,  he  en- 
gages in  plots  \yith  accomplices  in  his 
native  country,  he  is  amenable  to  the 
law  of  his  domicile  for  any  criminal  acts 
he  may  commit  within  its  jurisdiction. 

Such  a person  is  sometimes  demanded 
by  the  authorities  of  his  original  home, 
in  order  to  be  proceeded  against  by  its 
laws  and  modes  of  trial.  But  a free 
country  will  refuse  to  surrender  its  ter- 
ritorial rights  in  such  cases. 

EXMOUTH,  Edward  Pellew,  Vis- 
count, a British  naval  officer,  born  in 
1757.  He  went  to  sea  at  the  age  of  thir- 


Vlscount  Exmouth. 


teen,  served  as  midshipman  in  the  Blond 
frigate  during  the  American  war,  and 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  Lake 
Champlain.  In  1804  we  was  sent  to  take 
the  chief  command  on  the  East  Indian 


JEXODUS 

station,  in  the  Culloden,  of  seventy-four 
guns;  and  here  he  remained  till  1809, 
when  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  vice- 
admiral.  In  1816  he  proceeded  to  Algiers 
in  command  of  a combined  fleet  of 
twenty-flve  English  and  Dutch  ships  to 
enforce  the  terms  of  a treaty  regarding 
the  abolition  of  Christian  slavery  which 
the  dey  had  isolated.  He  bombarded  the 
city  for  seven  hours,  and  inflicted  such 
immense  damage  that  the  dey  consented 
to  every  demand.  Twelve  hundred 
Christian  slaves  were  by  this  exploit  re- 
stored to  liberty.  Lord  Exmouth  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a viscount  for 
this/service.  He  died  in  1833. 

EX'ODUS,  the  name  given  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  to  the  second  book  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, because  it  describes  the  depart- 
ure of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  The 
contents  of  the  book  are  partly  historical 
describing  the  departure  of  the  Israelites 
from  Egypt,  and  partly  legislative,  de- 
scribing the  promulgation  of  the  Sinaiti 
law.  One  of  the  difficulties  connected 
with  this  book  is  that,  according  to 
Scriptural  chronology,  the  residence  of 
the  Israelites  in  Egypt  was  only  215 
years,  and  it  seems  incredible  that  in 
this  time  “the  threescore  and  ten  souls” 
who  accompanied  Jacob  to  Egypt  could 
have  become  the  two  and  a half  millions 
who  left  with  Moses. 

EXOGENOUS  PLANTS  (eks-oj'e-nus), 
or  EXOGENS,  those  plants  whose  stems 
are  formed  by  successive  additions  to  the 
outside.  The  e.xogens  are  the  largest 
primary  class  of  plants  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  their  increase  by  annual 
additions  of  new  layers  to  the  outside  of 


^ Exogenous  plants. 

:■  • 1,  Section  of  a branch  of  three  years'  growth. 

a.  Medulla  or  pith.  6,  Medullary  sheath,  ee, 
“ Medullary  rays,  c c,  Circles  of  annual  growth. 
•"  d.  Bark.  2,  Netted  veined  leaf  of  exogen  (Oak). 
‘ 3,  Dicotyledonous  seed  of  exogen.  a a,  Coty- 

ledons. 4.  Germination  of  dicotyledonous 
seed,  a a,  Seed-leaves  of  cotyledons,  o,  Plum- 
ula.  5,  Exogenous  flower  (crowfoot) . 

their  stems,  formed  in  the  cambium  be- 
tween the  wood  and  the  bark,  is  a feature 
in  which  they  differ  essentially  from  en- 
dogens,  whose  wood  is  formed  by  suc- 
cessive augmentations  from  the  inside. 
S The  concentric  circles  thus  annually 
formed,  distinguishable  even  in  the 
oldest  trees,  aid  in  computing  the  age  of 
the  tree.  The  stem  and  branches  also  ex- 
hibit a central  pith  and  medullary  rays 
extending  outwards  to  the  bark.  All 
the  trees  of  cold  climates,  and  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  those  in  hot,  are  exogenous, 
and  are  readily  distinguished  from  those 
that  are  endogenous  by  the  reticulated 
venation  of  their  leaves,  and  by  their 
seeds  having  two  cotyledons  (dicotyle- 
donous). The  parts  of  the  flower  are 
generally  in  fours  or  fives. 


I 

EX'ORCISM,  the  casting  out  of  evil 
spirits  by  certain  forms  of  words  or  cere- 
monies. An  opinion  prevailed  in  the  an- 
cient church  that  certain  persons,  those 
particularly  who  were  afflicted  with  cer- 
tain diseases,  especially  madness  and 
epilepsy,  were  possessed  by  evil  spirits. 
Over  such  persons  forms  of  conjuration 
were  pronounced,  and  this  act  was  called 
exorcism.  There  were  even  certain  men 
who  made  this  a regular  profession,  and 
were  called  exorcists.  Exorcism  still 
makes  a part  of  the  beliefs  of  some 
churches.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
exorcist  is  one  of  the  inferior  orders  of 
the  clergy. 

EXOTTC,  belonging  to  foreign  coun- 
tries; a term  used  especially  of  plants. 
Exotic  plants  are  such  as  belong  to  a soil 
and  climate  entirely  different  from  the 
place  where  they  are  raised.  They  are 
nearly  always  greenhouse  or  hothouse 
plants. 

EXPANSION^  in  physics,  is  the  en- 
largement or  increase  in  the  bulk  of 
bodies,  in  consequence  of  a change  in 
their  temperature.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  general  effects  of  heat,  being  com- 
mon to  all  bodies  whatever,  whether 
solid  or  fluid.  The  expansion  of  fluids 
varies  considerably,  but,  in  general,  the 
denser  the  fluid,  the  less  the  expansion ; 
thus  water  expands  more  than  mercury, 
and  spirits  of  wine  more  than  water ; and, 
commonly,  the  greater  the  heat,  the 
greater  the  expansion;  but  this  is  not 
universal,  for  there  are  cases  in  which  ex- 
ansion  is  produced,  not  by  an  increase, 
ut  by  a diminution  of  temperature. 
Water,  in  cooling,  ceases  to  contract  at 
42°  F. ; and  at  about  39°,  just  before  it 
reaches  the  freezing  point  (32°),  it  begins 
to  expand  again,  and  more  and  more  rap- 
idly as  the  freezing  point  is  reached. 
This  expansion  is  about  one-eleventh  of 
its  bulk,  and  accounts  for  the  bursting  of 
pipes,  etc. , when  wateris  freezing  in  them. 

EX  PARTE,  a title  frequently  used  in 
legal  proceedings.  If  Black  is  adjudged 
bankrupt  the  title  of  the  bankruptcy 
proceedings  is  In  re  Black;  and  if  a 
creditor  named  Smith  makes  an  applica- 
tion in  the  cause  for  an  order  or  deter- 
mination in  his  behalf,  his  proceeding  is 
entitled.  Ex  parte  Smith  in  re  Black. 
So  if  Jones  applied  for  leave  to  sue  on 
official  bond  this  preliminary  proceed- 
ing is  entitled  Ex  parte  Jones.  The  term 
is  also  used  to  describe  the  application 
or  proceeding  itself:  Statements  made 
in  a judicial  proceeding  under  such  cir- 
cumstances that  the  opposite  party  has 
no  opportunity  to  challenge  their  ac- 
curacy are  often  spoken  of  as  ex  parte. 

EXPATRIATION,  the  voluntary  aban- 
donment of  one's  native  country  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  a citizen  of 
another  state.  The  right  of  a person  to 
throw  off  the  obligation  of  allegiance  has 
been  denied"  by  eminent  writers  and 
some  governments.  The  true  view  would 
seem  to  be  that  the  power  to  determine 
when  the  allegiance  of  the  citizen  may 
cease  belongs  to  the  state  of  which  he  is 
a member,  rather  than  to  himself.  At 
the  same  time  the  freedom  of  intercourse 
between  nations  in  modern  times  and 
the  interests  of  civilization  require  that 
the  various  nations  should  provide 
liberal  rules  by  which  at  proper  times 
the  relation  of  the  citizen  to  the  state 


EXPLOSION 

may  cease,  and  the  individual,  freed  from 
the  ties  of  burdensome  allegiance,  may 
assume  another  citizenship  if  ho  so  desire. 

EXPECTATION,  in  the  doctrine  of 
chances,  the  value  of  any  prospect  of 
prize  or  property  depending  upon  the 
happening  of  some  uncertain  event. 
A sum  of  money  in  expectation  upon  a 
certain  event  has  a determinate  value 
before  that  event  happens.  If  the 
chances  of  receiving  or  not  receiving  a 
hundred  pounds,  when  an  event  arrives, 
are  equal;  then,  before  the  arrival  of  the 
event  the  expectation  is  worth  half  the 
money. — Expectation  of  life,  the  prob- 
able duration  of  the  life  of  individuals  of 
any  given  age.  A rough  estimate  of  any- 
one’s expectation  of  life  is  made  by  cal- 
culating two-thirds  of  the  difference  be- 
tween his  or  her  present  age  and  eighty. 

EXPEC'TORANTS,  in  pharmacy,  mea- 
icines  which  favor  the  discharge  of 
mucus  from  the  windpipe  and  air-pas- 
sages of  the  lungs.  Such  are  the  stimu- 
lating gums  and  resins,  squills,  ipecac- 
uanha, etc. 

EXPERTMENT,  an  operation  de- 
signed to  discover  some  unknown  truth, 
principle,  of  effect,  or  to  establish  it 
when  discovered.  It  differs  from  obser- 
vation in  the  fact  that  the  phenomena 
observed  are,  to  a greater  or  less  extent, 
controlled  by  human  agency.  Experi- 
ment distinguishes  the  modern  method 
of  investigating  nature,  and  to  it  we  owe 
the  rapid  strides  made  in  chemistry, 
physics,  etc. 

EXPERT,  a person  eminently  skilled 
in  any  particular  branch  or  profession- 
specifically  a scientific  or  professional 
witness  who  gives  evidence  on  matters 
connected  with  his  profession,  as  an 
analytical  chemist  or  a person  skilled  in 
handwriting. 

EXPERT  TESTIMONY,  in  law,  the 
testimony  of  expert  witnesses,  or,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  experts.  The  func- 
tion of  an  expert  witness  is  to  examine  a 
real  or  supposed  case  of  facts  and  inter- 
pret them.  They  are  called  to  give  their 
testimony  because,  by  reason  of  their 
special  knowledge  or  skill  in  the  matter 
in  question,  they  are  able  to  interpret  or 
give  accurate  opinions  concerning  them 
where  other  men  would  not  be  qualified 
so  to  do.  Their  function  is  to  give  their 
opinions  or  judgments  merely  as  wit- 
nesses of  a matter  of  fact,  actual  or  sup- 
posititious, presented  to  them,  to  aid  the 
final  judges  of  fact  (the  court  or  jury,  as 
the  case  may  be),  but  not  to  bind  them. 
Notwithstanding  the  opinion  either  one 
way  or  the  other  of  the  expert  witness 
employed  to  testify  in  any  matter  or  pro- 
ceeding at  law,  the  final  judgment  as  to 
the  actual  facts  of  the  case,  which  shall 
be  binding  upon  the  parties  to  the  litiga- 
tion or  proceeding,  if  for  the  jury,  judge, 
or  referee,  as  the  case  may  be.  'The  ex- 
pert witness  judges  of  the  relation  of  the 
phenomena  which  he  sees  or  perceives 
by  his  senses  to  the  general  rules  of  the 
science  or  art  in  which  he  is  skilled  or 
learned;  but  he  has  no  part  in  the  judg- 
ment as  to  the  relation  of  the  facts  in- 
volved in  the  case  to  legal  rules.  He 
usually  states  what  in  his  opinion  would 
be  a fact  upon  the  supposition  that  cer- 
tain other  facts  are  true. 

EXPLO'SION,  a sudden  bursting,  gen- 
erally due  to  the  rapid  production  of 


EXPLOSIVES 


EYE 


gaseous  matter  from  solids  to  liquids. 
Thus  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  is  due 
to  the  sudden  formation  and  expansion 
of  gases  into  which  the  powder  is  con- 
verted by  chemical  agency.  Explosions 
are  often  caused  by  the  elastic  force  of 
steam  confined  in  boilers,  etc. 

EXPLO'SIVES,  are  compounds  prac- 
tically available  in  war,  in  mining,  and  in 
general  use  for  the  sudden  development 
of  immense  force.  They  comprise  gun- 
powder, gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine  with 
its  compounds  dynamite,  litho-fracteur, 

EX  POST  FACTO,  in  law,  by  some- 
thing done  after  and  bearing  upon  some- 
thing previously  done ; thus  a law  is  said 
to  be  ex  post  facto,  or  retrospective, 
when  it  is  exacted  to  punish  an  offense 
committed  before  the  passing  of  the  law. 

EXPRESS',  a special  message,  mes- 
senger, or  conveyance,  sent  on  a particu- 
lar occasion.  The  name  is  given  to  any 
regular  provision  made  for  the  speedy 
transmission  of  messages,  parcels,  com- 
missions, and  the  like;  and  particularly 
to  a railway  train  which  travels  at 
specially  high  rate  of  speed,  stopping 
only  at  the  principal  stations.  ^ 

EXPRESS,  (1)  Fast  passenger  service. 
The  minimum  standard  of  express  trains 
in  the  U.  States  is  about  40  miles  an 
hour.  An  express  on  the  New  York 
Central  road,  running  from  New  York 
to  Buffalo,  makes  440  miles  in  6 hours 
and  forty-seven  minutes.  On  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  Buffalo  to 
Chicago,  525  miles  in  seven  hours  and 
fifty  minutes. 

(2)  Arrangements  for  fast  conveyance 
of  parcels.  In  continental  Europe  this 
service  is  performed  by  the  post-office; 
in  the  United  Kingdom  mainly  by  the 
railways  themselves,  though  the  parcels- 
post  is  also  well  developed;  in  North 
America  by  companies  specially  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose.  The  parcels  ex- 
press business  was  started  by  W.  F. 
Hamden  between  Boston  and  New  York 
in  1839,  this  forming  the  beginning  out 
of  which  the  Adams  Express  Company 
ultimately  grew.  The  Wells-Fargo  Ex- 
press was  started  in  1845,  and  the  Ameri- 
can Express  some  five  years  later.  Be- 
sides these  the  most  important  com- 
panies are  the  United  States  and  the 
Southern. 

EXPRESSED  OILS,  in  chemistry,  are  j 
those  which  are  obtainable  from  bodies 
only  by  pressing,  to  distinguish  them 
from  mineral  and  essential  oils,  which 
last  are,  for  the  most  part,  obtained  by 
distillation. 

EX'TRACT,  a term  to  denote  all  that 
can  be  dissolved  out  of  a substance  by  a 
specified  menstruum,  such  as  water, 
alcohol,  ether,  etc.  In  modern  phar- 
macy the  term  is  applied  to  two  kinds 
of  preparation  from  vegetables.  One  is 
got  by  digesting  the  plant  in  water  or 
other  solvent,  and  evaporating  or  distill- 
ing away  the  excess  of  solvent  until  the 
extracted  . matter  is  sufficiently  in- 
spissated. The  other  is  got  by  bruising 
the  plant  in  a mortar,  separating  the 
juice,  warming  it  until  the  green  color- 
ing matter  separates,  and  filtering  it  off. 
The  juice  is  next  heated  until  the  albu- 
men coagulates,  and  again  filtered.  The 
juice  is  now  evaporated  to  a S3rrup,  the 
green  coloring  matter  added  and  well 


mixed,  and  the  evaporation  is  thereafter 
continued  until  the  required  concentra- 
tion is  attained.  Extracts  must  be 
capable  of  being  redissolved,  so  as  to 
form  a solution  like  that  from  which 
they  were  derived.  Extracts  are  used  in 
cookery,  medicine,  and  the  manufacture 
of  perfumery. 

EXTRACT  OF  MEAT,  a preparation 
of  beef,  and  sometimes  of  mutton,  or  of 
both  combined,  in  which  the  muscular 
fiber,  fat,  and  gelatin  are  removed,  and 
the  highly  nitrogenous  elements  pre- 
served and  condensed  into  a semi-solid 
mass  of  about  the  consistence  of  ordi- 
nary butter.  Most  of  what  is  sold  in 
Europe  and  the  U.  States  comes  from 
Buenos  Ayres,  where  its  manufacture 
was  first  established  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  chemist  Liebig. 

Extract  of  meat  is  of  variable  quality 
and  composition,  and  at  the  best  but  im- 
perfectly represents  the  beef  it  was  made 
from;  some  forms  of  it  are  stimulants 
merely.  Nevertheless,  it  is  useful  in  pre- 
paring soups,  and  especially  in  nourish- 
ing those  who  are  sick  of  low  fevers, 
pysemia,  and  other  like  diseases. 

EXTRADI'TION,  the  act  by  which  a 
person  accused  of  a crime  is  given  up  by 
the  government  in  whose  territories  he 
has  taken  refuge  to  the  government  of 
which  he  is  a subject.  Treaties  have 
been  entered  into  by  the  U.  States  with 
almost  all  civilized  countries  for  the  ap- 
prehension and  extradition  of  persons 
charged  with  particular  offenses,  such  as 
murder,  robbery,  embezzlement  by  pub- 
lic officers,  arson,  rape,  piracy,  etc.  The 
constitution  of  the  U.  States  provides 
that  “a  person  charged  in  any  state  with 
treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall 
flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in'another 
state,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive 
authority  of  the  state  from  which  he  fled, 
be  delivered  up  to  be  removed  to  the 
state  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime.” 

EXTRAVAGAN'ZA,  in  music,  the 
drama,  etc.,  a species  of  composition  de- 
signed to  produce  effect  by  its  wild  irreg- 
ularity and  incoherence;  differing  from  a 
burlesque  in  being  an  original  composi- 
tion and  not  a mere  travesty. 

EXTREME  UNCTION  has  been,  since 
the  12th  century,  one  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments of  the  Catholic  Church.  It  is  per- 
formed in  cases  of  mortal  disease  by 
anointing  in  the  form  of  a cross,  the  eyes; 
ears,  nose,  mouth,  hands,  feet,  and  reins 
(in  the  case  of  males).  It  is  administered 
after  confession  and  the  eucharist,  and 
is  believed  to  remove  the  last  stains  of 
sin.  It  can  only  be  administered  by  a 
bishop  or  priest,  and  is  not  applied  in  the 
case  of  young  children  or  excommuni- 
cated persons. 

EXTREMITIES,  the  limbs,  as  distin- 
guishing them  from  the  other  divisions 
of  the  animal,  the  head  and  trunk.  The 
extremities  are  four  in  number,  in  man 
named  upper  and  lower;  in  other  animals 
anterior  and  posterior. 

EYCK  (ik),  Hubert  and  Jan  van, 
brothers,  famous  painters  of  the  old 
Flemish  school,  born  at  Maaseyck, 
Hubert  in  1366,  Jan  probably  about 
1390.  They  lived  first  at  Bruges,  whence 
the  younger  brother  is  called  John  of 
Bruges,  and  afterwards  at  Ghent,  to 
which  they  removed  about  1420.  Here 
they  executed  the  celebrated  Adoration 


of  the  Lamb  for  the  cathedral  of  Ghentij 
a painting  which,  in  its  different  parts, 
contains  above  three  hundred  figures, 
and  is  a masterpiece.  It  was  in  two  hori- 
zontal divisions,  comprising  ten  panels, 
of  which  only  the  two  central  ones  re- 
main at  Ghent,  the  others  being  at  Ber- 
lin. Hubert  did  not  live  to  see  it  com- 
pleted. He  died  at  Ghent  (1426),  as  did 
also  his  sister  Margaret,  who  was  like- 
wise a painter  (1431).  Jan  finished  the 
work  in  1432,  and  returned  to  Bruges, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1441,  and  executed  several 
excellent  pieces.  His  reputation  became 
very  great  even  during  his  lifetime,  by 
his  share  in  the  introduction  of  oil- 
painting,  the  original  invention  of  which 
has  been  incorrectly  ascribed  to  him  by 
many.  Jan  van  Eyck  also  introduced 
improvements  in  linear  and  aerial  per- 
spective, and  in  painting  upon  glass. 

EYE,  the  visual  apparatus  of  animals, 
consisting  in  man  of  the  globe  of  the  eye, 
the  muscles  which  move  it,  and  of  its 
appendages,  which  are  the  eyelids  and 
eyebrows,  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus. 
The  walls  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  are 
formed  principally  of  two  fibrous  mem- 
branes; one  white  and  opaque — the 
sclerotic  (Gr.  skleros,  hard) — which  en- 
velops two-thirds  of  the  globe  poster- 
iorly; and  the  other  transparent,  and 
resembling  a horny  plate,  whence  its 
name,  cornea  (Lat.  corneus,  horny). 
The  sclerotic  is  a tough  fibrous  coat,  and 
is  the  part  to  which  tfie  phrase  ‘‘white  of 


Human  eye. 

Interior,  o.  Pupil.  6,  Iris.  e.  Cornea,  d. 
Crystalline  lens,  e.  Vitreous  humor.  ^.Retina. 
g.  Choroid  coat.  A,  Sclerotic  coat,  ti,  Central 
vein  of  the  retina,  k.  Optic  nerve,  m.  Ciliary 
processes,  n.  Ciliary  ligament  or  circle. 

Exterior.  I,  Eyebrow,  o p.  Upper  and  lower 
eyelid,  a:®,  Eyelashes.  The  pupil  and  iris  are 
also  shown  at  a and  b respectively. 

the  eye”  is  applied.  In  the  front  of  the 
globe  the  sclerotic  is  abruptly  trans- 
formed into  the  transparent  portion 
(the  cornea),  which  is  circular  and  which 
forms  a window  through  which  one  can 
see  into  the  interior.  A mucous  mem- 
brane, the  conjunctiva,  so  named  be- 
cause it  unites  the  eye  to  the  lid,  spreads 
over  the  anterior  portion  of  the  globe, 
and  then  folds  back  on  itself  and  lines 
the  internal  surface  of  the  eyelids.  On 
the  internal,  surface  of  the  sclerotic  is  a 
vascular  membrane  called  the  choroid. 
This  is  essentially  the  blood-vessel  coat 
of  the  eyeball.  The  front  part  of  the 
choroid  terminates  about  the  place 
where  the  sclerotic  passes  into  the  cor- 
nea in  a series  of  ridges,  the  ciliary  pro- 
cesses. The  circular  space  thus  left  in 
front  by  the  termination  of  the  choroid  is 
occupied  by  the  iris,  a round  curtain,  the 
structure  seen  through  the  cornea,  dif- 
ferently colored  in  different  individuals. 
In  its  center  is  a round  hole,  the  pupil, 
which  appears  as  if  it  were  a black  spot. 
The  iris  forms  a sort  of  transverse  par- 
tition dividing  the  cavity  of  the  eyeball 
into  two  chambers,  a small  anterior 


EYE-PIECE 


EZRA 


chamber  filled  with  the  aqueous  humor, 
and  a large  posterior  chamber  filled 
with  vitreous  humor.  The  iris  consists 
of  a framework  of  connective  tissue,  and 
its  posterior  surface  is  lined  by  cells  con- 
taining pigment  which  gives  the  color  to 
the  eye.  In  its  substance  are  bundles  of 
involuntary  muscular  fibres,  one  set  be- 
ing arranged  in  a ring  round  the  margin 
of  the  pupil,  the  other  set  radiating  from 
the  pupil  like  the  spokes  of  a wheel.  In  a 
bright  light  the  circular  fibres  contract 
and  the  pupil  is  made  smaller;  but  in  the 
dark  these  fibres  relax  and  cause  the 
pupil  to  dilate  more  or  less  widely,  thus 
allowing  only  that  quantity  of  luminous 
rays  to  enter  the  eye  which  is  necessary 
to  vision.  , Just  behind  the  pupil  is  the 
crystalline  lens,  resembling  a small,  very 
strongly  magnifying  glass,  convex  on 
each  side,  though  more  so  behind.  The 
greater  or  less  convexity  of  the  surfaces 
of  the  lens  determines  whether  the  vision 
is  long  or  short.  The  internal  surface  of 
the  choroid,  or  rather  the  pi^entary 
layer  which  covers  it  is  lined  by  the 
retina  or  nervous  tunic  upon  which  the 
objects  are  depicted  that  we  see.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  formed  by  the  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve,  which  enters  the  eye  at 
its  posterior  part  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  to  the  inner  side  of  the  axis  of  the 
eyeball,  and  forms  at  the  bottom  of  the 
globe  an  enlargement,  which  is  called  the 
papilla  of  the  optic  nerve.  Microscopists 
describe  the  retina  as  being  composed  of 
five,  or  even  eight  layers,  of  which  the 
internal  one  is  vascular  and  in  contact 
with  the  vitreous ; the  external  one,  very 
important  in  a physiological  point  of 
view,  is  the  membrane  of  Jacob.  It  is 
composed  of  cones  and  cylinders  or  rods, 
joined  together  like  the  stakes  of  a pali- 
sade, perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
membrane,  and  forming  by  their  free 
extremities  a mosaic,  each  microscopic 
division  of  which  is  about  O'OOl  of  a line 
in  diameter  according  to  Robin,  and 
O’OOOS  of  a line  according  to  Helmholtz; 
and  represents  a section  of  a rod.  These 
rods  and  cones  are  believed  to  be  the 
agents  by  whose  aid  the  waves  of  light 
become  transformed  into  the  stimulus 
of  a sensation.  The  ocular  globe  is  put 
in  motion  in  the  orbit  by  six  muscles, 
grouped  two  by  two,  which  raise  or 
lower  the  eye,  turn  it  inward  or  out- 
ward, or  on  its  antero-posterior  axis. 
In  these  movements  the  center  of  the 
globe  is  immovable,  and  the  eye  moves 
round,  its  transverse  and  vertical  diame- 
ters. These  three  orders  of  movements 
are  independent  of  each  other,  and  may 
be  made  singly  or  in  combination,  in  such 
a manner  as  to  direct  the  pupil  toward 
all  points  of  the  circumference  of  the 
orbit.  Each  eye  is  furnished  with  two 
eyelids,  moved  by  muscles,  which  shield 
it  from  too  much  light  and  keep  it  from 
being  injured.  They  are  fringed  with 
short  fine  hairs  called  eyelashes;  and 
along  the  edge  of  the  lids  is  a row  of 
glands  similar  to  the  sebaceous  glands  of 
the  skin.  The  eyebrows,  ridges  of  thick- 
ened integument  and  muscle,  situated 
on  the  upper  circumference  of  the  orbit 
and  covered  with  short  hairs,  also  regu- 


late to  som6  extent  the  admission  of 
light  by  muscular  contraction.  In  rep- 
tiles, some  fishes  (sharks,  etc.),  in  birds  i 
and  in  some  mammals  a third  eyelid  or  i 
nictitating  member  is  present,  and  can  i 
be  drawn  over  the  surface  of  the  eye  so  i 
as  to  clear  it  of  foreign  matters,  and  also  i 
to  modify  the  light.  The  lachrymal  ap-  i 
paratus  is  composed  of,  firstly,  the  ' 
lachrymal  gland,  which  lies  in  a depres-  ( 
sion  of  the  orbital  arch ; secondly,  of  the  i 
lachrymal  canals,  by  which  the  tears  are  i 
poured  out  upon  the  conjunctiva  a little  1 
above  the  border  of  the  upper  lid;  third-  i 
ly,  the  lachrymal  ducts,  which  are  des-  ; 
tined  to  receive  the  tears  after  they  have  1 
bathed  the  eye,  and  of  which  the  orifices  j 
or  lachrymal  points  are  peen  near  the  i 
internal  commissure  of  the'lids ; fourthly, 
the  lachrymal  sac,  in  which  the  lachry- 
mal ducts  terminate,  and  which  empties 
the  tears  into  the  nasal  canaL  The  tears, 
by  running  over  th^  surface  of  the  con- 
junctiva, render  it  supple  and  facilitate 
the  movements  of  the  globe  and  eyelids 
by  lessening  the  friction.  The  influence 
of  moral  or  physical  causes  increases 
their  secretion,  and  when  the  lachrymal 
ducts  do  not  suffice  to  carry  them  off 
they  run  over  the  lids. 

Vision. — The  retina  renders  the  eye 
sensible  of  light,  and  we  may  therefore 
consider  it  as  the  essential  organ  of 
vision.  The  function  of  the  other  por- 
tions is  to  converge  the  luminous  rays  to 
a focus  on  the  surface  of  the  retina,  a 
condition  necessary  for  distinct  vision 
and  the  clear  perception  of  objects.  The 
visual  impressions  are  transmitted  from 
the  retina  to  the  brain  by  means  of  the 
optic  nerve,  of  which  that  membrane 
appears  to  be  the  expansion.  The  two 
optic  nerves  converge  from  the  base  of 
the  orbit  toward  the  center  of  the  base 
of  the  skull,  where  there  is  an  inter- 
lacement of  their  fibres  in  such  a man- 
ner that  a portion  of  the  right  nerve  goes 
to  the  left  side  of  the  brain,  and  a part 
of  the  left  nerve  to  the  right  side ; this  is 
called  the  chiasma  or  commissure  of  the 
optic  nerves.  Tl/e  principal  advantage 
of  having  two  eyes  is  in  the  estimation  of 
distance  and  the  perception  of  relief. 
In  order  to  see  a point  as  single  by  two 
eyes  we  must  make  its  two  images  fall 
on  corresponding  points  of  the  retinas; 
and  this  implies  a greater  or  less  con- 
vergence of  the  optic  axes  according  as 
the  object  is  nearer  or  more  remote.  To 
accommodate  the  eye  to  different  dis- 
tances the  lens  is  capable  of  altering  it- 
self with  great  precision  and  rapidity. 
When  we  look  at  a near  object  the  an- 
terior surface  of  the  lens  bulges  forward 
becoming  more  convex  the  nearer  the 
object;  the  more  distant  the  object  the 
more  the  lens  is  flattened.  When  the 
transparency  of  the  cornea,  the  crygtal 
line  lens,  or  any  of  the  humors,  is  de- 
stroyed, either  partially  or  entirely,  then 
will  partial  or  total  blindness  follow, 
since  no  image  can  be  formed  upon  the 
retina;  but  although  all  the  humors  and 
the  cornea  be  perfectly  transparent,  and 
retain  their  proper  forms,  which  is  like- 
wise necessary  to  distinct  vision,  yet, 
from  weakness  or  inactivity  of  the  optic 


nerve,  or  injury  of  the  central  ganglia 
with  which  it  is  connected,  weakness  of 
sight  or  total  blindness  may  ensue.  De- 
fective vision  may  also  arise  from  the 
crystalline  lens  being  so  convex  as  to 
form  an  image  before  the  rays  reach  the 
retina  (a  defect  known  as  short  sight  or 
myopia),  in  which  case  distinct  vision 
will  be  procured  by  interposing  a con- 
cave lens  between  the  eye  and  the  object 
of  such  a curvature  as  shall  cause  the 
rays  that  pass  through  the  crystalline 
lens  to  meet  on  the  retina;  or  the  lens 
may  be  too  flat,  as  in  the  case  in  old  age, 
a defect  which  is  corrected  by  convex 
lenses.  In  the  lower  forms  of  life  the  or- 
gans of  sight  appear  as  mere  pigment 
spots.  Ascending  higher,  simple  lenses 
or  refracting  bodies  occur.  Insects,  crus- 
taceans, etc.,  have  large  masses  of  simple 
eyes  or  ocelli  aggregated  together  to 
form  compound  eyes — the  separate 
facets  or  lenses  being  optically  distinct, 
and  sometimes  numbering  many  thou- 
sands. In  the  molluscs  well-developed 
eyes  approaching  in  structure  those  of 
the  highest  animals  are  found;  and  in  all 
vertebrate  animals  the  organ  of  vision 
corresponds  generally  to  what  has  been 
described,  though  they  vary  much  in 
structure  and  adaptation  to  the  sur- 
roundings of  the  animal. 

EYE-PIECE,  in  a telescope,  micro- 
scope, or  other  optical  instrument,  the 
lens,  or  combination  of  lenses  to  which 
the  eye  is  applied. 

EZE'KIEL  (“God  shall  strengthen”), 
the  third  of  the  great  prophets,  a priest, 
and  the  son  of  Buzi.  He  was  carried 
away  when  young  (about  599  b.c.)  into 
the  Babylonish  captivity.  His  prpphetic 
career  extended  over  a period  of  22 
years,  from  the  5th  to  the  27th  year  of 
the  captivity.  The  Book  of  Ezekiel  con- 
tains predictions  made  before  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem^  586  b.c.  (chaps.  I.-xxiv.); 
prophecies  against  some  of  the  neigh- 
boring tribes  (chaps,  xxv.-xxxii.) ; proph- 
ecies concerning  the  future  of  Israel 
(xxxiii.-xxxix.) ; and  a series  of  visions 
relating  to  the  circumstances  of  the  peo- 
ple after  the  restoration. 

EZRA.,  a celeb rate(^  Jewish  scribe  and 
priest.  Under  his  guidance  the  second 
. expedition  of  the  Jews  set  out  from 
; Babylon  to  Palestine  under  the  reign  of 
• Artaxerxes  I.,  about  458  b.c.  The  im- 
5 portant  services  rendered  by  Ezra  to  his 
> countrymen  on  that  occasion,  and  also 

- in  arranging,  and  in  some  measure,  it  is 

- believed,  settling  the  canon  of  Scripture, 
. are  especially  acknowledged  by  the  Jews, 

- and  he  has  even  been  regarded  as  the 
I second  founder  of  the  nation.  Josephus 
} states  that  he  died  in  Jerusalem;  others 
i assert  that  he  returned  to  Babylon,  and 
3 died  there  at  the  age  of  120  years.  The 
1 Book  of  Ezra  contains  an  account  of  the 

- favors  bestowed  upon  the  Jews  by  the 
1 Persian  monarchs,  the  rebuilding  of  the 
, temple,  Ezra’s  mission  to  Jerusalem, 
3 and  the  various  regulations  and  forms 
1 introduced  by  him.  It  is  written  partly 
1 in  Hebrew  and  partly  in  Chaldee,  which 

- have  led  some  to  conclude  that  it  is  the 
, work  of  different  hands. 


p 


F^CES 


F,  the  sixth  letter  of  the  English  al- 
phabet, is  a labio-clental  articulation, 
formed  by  the  passage  of  breath  between 
the  lower  lip  and  the  upper  front  teeth. 
It  is  classed  as  a surd  spirant,  its  corres- 
ponding sonant  spirant  being  v,  which  is 
distinguished  from  f by  being  pro- 
nounced with  voice  instead  of  breath, 
as  may  be  perceived  by  pronouncing  ef, 
ev.  (In  if,  of,  however,  f is  = v.)  The 
figure  of  the  letter  F is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  ancient  Greek  digamma,  which  it 
also  closely  resembles  in  power. 

F,  in  music,  is  the  fourth  note  of  the 
diatonic  scale. 

FA,  the  name  given  by  Guido  to  the 
fourth  note  of  the  natural  diatonic  scale 
of  C. 

FABLE,  in  literature,  a term  applied 
originally  to  every  imaginative  tale,  but 
confined  in  modern  use  to  short  stories, 
either  in  prose  or  ver^e,  in  which  animals 
and  sometimes  inanimate  things  are 
feigned  to  act  and  speak  with  human  in- 
terests and  passions  for  the  purpose  of 
inculcating  a moral  lesson  in  a pleasant 
and  pointed  manner.  The  fable  consists 
properly  of  two  phrts — the  symbolical 
representation  and  the  application,  or 
the  instruction  intended  to  be  deduced 
from  it,  which  latter  is  called  the  moral 
of  the  tale,  and  must  be  apparent  in  the 
fable  itself.  The  oldest  fables  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  oriental;  among  these 
the  Indian  fables  of  Pilpay  or  Bidpai, 
and  the  fables  of  the  Arabian  Lokman, 
are  celebrated.  ((See  Bidpai  and  Lok- 
man.) /vmong  the  Greeks,  ^sop  is  the 
master  of  a simple  but  very  effective 
style  of  fable.  The  fables  of  Phaedrus  are 
a second-rate  Latin  version  of  those  of 
.iEsop.  In  modern  times  Gellert  and 
Lessing  among  the  Germans,  Gay  among 
the  English,  the  Spanish  Yriarte,  and 
the  Russian  Ivan  Kriloff,  are  celebrated. 
The  first  place,  however,  among  modern 
fabulists  belongs  to  the  French  writer 
La  Fontaine. 

FACADE  (fa-sad'  or  fa-sad'),  the  face, 
front  view,  or  principal  elevation  of  a 
building.  It  usually  contains  the  princi- 
pal entrance. 

FACE,!  the  front  part  of  the  head,  the 
seat  of  most  of  the  senses.  The  bony 
basis  of  the  face,  exclusive  of  the  thirty- 
two  teeth  (these  not  being  in  the  strict 
sense  bones),  is  composed  of  fourteen 
bones,  called,  in  anatomy,  the  bones  of 
the  face.  The  anterior  part  of  the  skull 
also  forms  an  important  feature  of  the 
face.  Of  all  these  bones  the  lower  jaw 
only  is  movable,  being  articulated  with 
the  base  of  the  skull.  The  other  bones 
are  firmly  joined  together  and  incapable 
of  motion.  In  brutes  the  jaws  project 
much  more  than  in  men,  and  form  the 
prominent  feature  of  the  face,  while  the 
forehead  recedes.  The  face  of  birds  com- 
prehends the  ophthalmic  regions,  cheeks, 
temples,  forehead  and  vertex;  the  face 
of  insects  includes  all  between  the  pro- 
boscis and  the  prothorax. 

FACIAL  ANGLE,  an  angle  of  import- 
ance in  the  method  of  skull  measurement 
introduced  by  Camper,  the  Dutch 
anatomist,  who  sought  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  magnitude  of 


this  angle  and  the  intelligence  of  differ- 
ent animals  and  men,  maintaining  vhat 
it  is  always  greater  as  the  intellectual 
powers  are  greater.  Suppose  a straight 
line  drawn  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  from 
the  great  occipita  cavity,  across  the  ex- 
ternal orifice  of  the  ear  to  the  bottom  of 
the  nose,  and  another  straight  line  from 
the  bottom  of  the  nose,  or  from  the  roots 
of  the  upper  incisors,  to  the  most  promi- 
nent part  of  the  forehead,  then  both 


Facial  angle. 

1,  European.  2,  Negro. 


lines  will  form  an  angle  which  will  be 
more  or  less  acute.  In  apes  this  angle  is 
only  from  45°  to  60°;  in  the  skull  of  a 
negro,  about  70°;  in  a European,  from 
75°  to  85°.  In  another  mode  of  drawing 
the  lines  the  angle  included  between 
them  varies  in  man  from  90°  to  120°, 
and  is  more  capable  of  comparison 
among  vertebrate  animals  than  the 
angle  of  Camper.  This  angle  though  of 
some  importance  in  the  comparison  of 
races,  is  fallacious  as  a test  of  individual 
capacity. 

FACIAL  NERVE,  a nerve  of  the 
seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves,  a motor 
nerve  which  supplies  the  muscles  of  ex- 
pression on  either  side  of  the  face.  Paraly- 
sis of  this  nerve  produces  facial  paralysis, 
the  result  of  which  is  that  the  affected 
side  is  smooth,  unwrinkled,  and  motion- 
less, the  eyelids  are  wide  open  and  cannot 
be  closed,  and  the  muscles  of  the  sound 
side  having  it  all  their  own  way  drag  the 
mouth  to  that  side. 

FACTOR,  in  arithmetic,  the  multiplier 
and  multiplicand,  from  the  multiplica- 
tion of  which  proceeds  the  product;  thus 
7 and  4 are  the  factors  of  28.  In  algebra 
any  expression  which  is  considered  as 
part  of  a product  is  considered  a factor. 

FAC'TORY  (from  factor),  a name 
which  appears  originally  to  have  been 
given  to  establishments  of  merchants 
and  factors  resident  in  foreign  countries; 
it  now  more  commonly  signifies  a place 
in  which  the  various  processes  of  a par- 
ticular manufacture  are  carried  on  simul- 
taneously. The  rapid  growth  of  factories 
in  this  sense  is  a comparatively  recent 
development  of  industry,  resulting  from 
the  free  use  of  machinery  and  the  con- 
sequent subdivision  of  labor.  Among  the 
advantages  of  the  factory  system  are 
generally  counted:  1st,  increased  pro- 
ductiveness arising  from  the  minute 
division  of  labor;  2d,  the  mechanical 
accuracy  and  the  cheapness  of  the  pro- 
duct turned  out  by  machinery;  3d,  the 
facilities  for  union  and  co-operation  for 
common  inprovement  afforded  by  bring- 
ing large  masses  of  workmen  together. 
But  this  last  consideration  is  probably 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
smaller  amount  of  independent  intelli- 


gence called  forth  in  the  individual 
worker,  through  the  monotony  of  the 
minutely  subdivided  operations.  De- 
cided disadvantages  of  the  factory  sys- 
tem are  the  unhealthiness  of  the  crowd- 
ed rooms,  where  the  air  is  full  of  deleteri- 
ous elements;  and  the  increasing  de- 
mand on  the  labor  of  women  and  child- 
ren, interfering  as  it  does  with  the 
economy  of  domestic  life. 

FACTORY  ACTS,  acts  passed  for  the 
regulation  of  factories  and  similar  estab- 
lishments. Considering  that  women  and 
children  were  not  qualified  fully  to  pro- 
tect themselves  against  the  strain  of 
competition,  the  British  legislature  has 
passed  a series  of  acts  to  regulate  the 
conditions  of  their  emplo5rment  in 
factories.  Various  acts  were  passed  up 
to  1878,  when  what  is  known  as  the 
Factory  and  Workshop  Act  was  passed. 
It  consolidates  the  previous  series  of 
statutes,  and  may  be  said  to  contain 
practically  all  the  law  dealing  with  the 
subject.  It  has  general  provisions  regard- 
ing drainage,  ventilation,  and  fencing  of 
dangerous  machinery,  etc.  In  textile 
factories  the  hours  of  labor  for  women 
aresTestricted  to  ten,  with  Saturday  for  a 
half -holiday.  The  hours  for  children 
(those  under  fourteen  years  of  age)  are 
fixed  at  half  of  those  allowed  to  women 
and  young  persons  (“young  persons” 
being  defined  as  those  between  fourteen 
and  eighteen).  Provision  is  made  for 
holidays  and  for  attendance  at  school  of 
children  employed  in  factories.  Special 
provisions  for  particular  kinds  of  fac- 
tories are  made  by  separate  acts,  and 
under  these  the  employment  of  females 
and  young  persons  is  regulated  in  bleach- 
ing and  dyeing  works,  lace-factories, 
manufactories  of  earthenware,  lucifer 
matches,  percussion  caps,  cartridges, 
blast-furnaces,  copper-mills,  forges,  foun- 
dries, manufactories  of  machinery , metal, 
india-rubber,  gutta-percha,  paper,  glass, 
tobacco,  letterpress  printing,  book- 
binding, etc.  In  all  the  states  of  the 
American  Union  in  which  the  factory  is 
an  industrial  feature  there  is  some  legis- 
lation relative  to  the  employment  of 
women  and  children.  Attention  is  given 
to  the  age  of  children  employ- ed,  and 
attendance  at  public  schools  for  a cer- 
tain period  each  year  is  obligatory.  The 
daily  hours  of  labor  are  regulated.  In 
some  states  the  belting,  shafting,  etc.', 
employed  must  be  Securely  guarded. 
Penalties  for  violation  of  these  pro- 
visions are  designated. 

FACULTY,  the  members  taken  col- 
lectively of  the  medical  or  legal  profes- 
sions; thus  we  speak  of  the  medical 
faculty,  etc.  The  term  is  also  used  for 
the  professors  and  teachers  collectively 
of  the  several  departments  in  a uni- 
versity'; as,  the  faculty  of  arts,  of  theol- 
ogy, of  medicine,  or  of  law. 

FACULTY,  in  law,  is  a power  to  do 
something,  the  right  to  do  which  the  law 
admits,  or  a special  privilege  granted  by 
law  to  do  something  which  would  other- 
wise be  forbidden. 

F.®CES,  the  excrementitious  part 
evacuated  by  animals.  It  varies  of 
course  with  different  species  of  animals, 


FAHRENHEIT 


FAIR  WEATHER 


according  to  their  diet.  The  main  con- 
stituents are  unassimilable  parts  of  the 
food,  on  which  the  digestive  process  has 
no  effect,  ahd  other  portions,  quite  nu- 
tritious, but  which  have  escaped  diges- 
tion, also  certain  waste  matters,  etc.  In 
disease  the  composition  varies  ex- 
tremely. 

FAHRENHEIT,  (fa'r^n-hit),  Gabriel 
Daniel,  German  physicist,  known  for  his 
arrangement  of  the  thermometer,  was 
born  at  Dantzig  in  1686.  Abandoning 
the  commercial  profession  for  which  he 
had  been  designed,  he  settled  in  Holland 
to  study  natural  philosophy.  In  1720  he 
effected  a great  improvement  by  the  use 
of  quicksilver  instead  of  spirits  of  vine 
in  thermometers.  He  invented  the 
Fahrenheit  scale  (see  Thermometer), 
and  made  several  valuable  discoveries  in 
physics.  He  died  in  1736. 

FAIENCE  (fa-yens'),  imitation  porce- 
lain, a kind  of  fine  pottery,  superior  to 
the  common  pottery,  in  its  glazing, 
beauty  of  form,  and  richness  of  painting, 
and  of  which  several  kinds  are  distin- 
guished by  critics.  It  derived  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Faenza,  in  Italy,  where 
a fine  sort  of  pottery  called  majolica  was 
manufactured  as  early  as  the  14th  cen- 
tury. The  majolica  reached  its  greatest 
perfection  between  1530  and  1560.  In 
the  Louvre,  at  Berlin,  and  at  Dresden 
are  rich  collections  of  it.  The  modern 
faience  appears  to  have  been  invented 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  at 
Faenza  as  an  imitation  of  rnajolica,  and 
obtained  its  name  in  France,  where  a 
man  from  Faenza,  having  discovered  a 
similar  kind  of  clay  at  Nevers,  had  in- 
troduced the  manufacture  of  it.  True 
faience  is  made  of  a yellowish  or  ruddy 
earth,  covered  with  an  enamel  which  is 
usually  white,  but  may  be  colpred.  This 
enamel  is  a glass  rendered  opaque  by 
oxide  of  tin  or  other  suitable  material, 
and  is  intended  not  only  to  glaze  the 
body,  but  to  conceal  it  entirely.  See 
Pottery. 

FAINTING,  or  syncope,  a sudden  sus- 
pension of  the  heart’s  action,  of  sensa- 
tion, and  the  power  of  motion.  It  may 
be  produced  by  loss  of  blood,  pain, 
emotional  disturbance,  or  organic  or 
other  diseases  of  the  heart.  It  is  to  be 
treated  by  placing  the  patient  on  his 
back  in  a recumbent  position  or  even 
with  his  head  slightly  depressed,  sprink- 
ling cold  water  on  his  face,  applying  stim- 
ulant scent  to  the  nostrils,  or  anything 
which  tends  to  bring  back  the  blood  to 
the  brain.  The  admission  of  fresh  cool 
air  and  the  loosening  of  any  tight  article 
of  dress  are  important. 

FAIRBAIRN,  Sir  William,  British 
civil  engineer,  born  at  Kelso,  Roxburgh- 
shire in  1789.  About  1831,  his  Attention 
having  been  attracted  to  the  use  of  iron 
as  a material  for  ship-building,  he  built 
the  first  iron  ship.  He  shares  with  Mr. 
Stephenson  the  merit  of  constructing 
the  great  tubular  bridge  across  the 
Menai  Strait'.  Fairbairn  was  one  of  the 
earliest  members  of  the  British  associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  science,  of 
which  he  was  president  in  1861-62.  He 
was  created  a baronet  in  1869.  He  died 
18th  August,  1874. 

FAIRBANKS,  Charles  Warren,  Ameri- 
can statesman,  was  born  in  Union  co., 
Ohio,  in  1852.  In  1874  he  was  admitted 


to  the  bar  of  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio 
at  Columbus,  and  in  the  same  year  he 
removed  to  Indianapolis,  Ind.  In  1893 
he  was  delegate  at  large  to  the  Republi- 
can National  Convention  at  St.  Louis, 
in  1896,  and  was  temporary  chairman  of 
the  convention.  He  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  United  States  and  British 
Joint  High  Commission  which  met  in 
Quebec  in  1898  for  the  adjustment  of 
Canadian  questions,  especially  referring 
to  the  seal  fisheries  of  Alaska.  He  was 
elected  to  the  U.  States  senate  in  1897. 
In  1904  he  was  elected  vice-president  on 
the  republican  ticket. 

FAIRBANKS,  Thaddeus,  American 
inventor,  born  in  Brimfield,  Mass.,  in 
1796.  In  June,  1831,  he  patented  the 
platform  scales  being  his  name.  After- 
ward about  fifty  different  improvements 
were  made  on  these  scales  which  have 
been  sold  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  He 
died  in  1886. 

FAIRCHILD,  Charles  Stebbins,  Ameri- 
can financier,  born  in  Cazendria,  N.  Y., 
in  1842.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1865  and  became  deputy-attorney-gen- 
eral of  New  York  in  1874,  and  attorney- 
general  in  1876.  He  was  assistant  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury  in  1857  to  1887,  and 
secretary  in  1887-9. 

FAIRCHILD,  Lucius,  American  sol- 
dier, born  in  Kent,  Ohio,  in  1831.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  en- 
listed as  a private  in  the  federal  army 
and  in  1861  was  appointed  a captain  in 
the  regular  army  and  major  in  the  volun- 
teer army.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Bull  Run  and  Antietam,  and  led  the 
charge  up  Seminary  Hill  at  Gettysburg, 
lie  was  promoted  brigadier-general  in 
1863  but  resigned  to  become  secretary 
of  state  of  Wisconsin.  He  was  after- 
ward elected  governor  and  served  six 
consecutive  terms.  In  1886  he  was 
chosen  commander  in  chief  of  the  Grand 
Army  of  the  Republic.  He  died  in 
1896. 

FAIRFAX,  Thomas,  Lord,  a distin- 
guished commander  and  leading  charac- 
ter in  the  civil  v/ars  which  distracted 
England  in  the  17th  century.  He  was 
born  in  1611,  at  Denton,  in  Yorkshire, 
being  son  and  heir  of  Ferdinando,  Lord 
Fairfax,  to  whose  title  and  estates  he 
succeeded  in  1648.  After  serving  in  the 
Netherlands  with  some  reputation  he 
returned  to  England,  and  on  the  rupture 
between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament 
joined  the  forces  of  the  latter.  In  1642 
he  was  appointed  general  of  the  horse, 
and  two  years  later  held  a chief  com- 
mand in  the  army  sent  to  co-operate 
with  the  Scots.  In  1645,  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  Fairfax  be- 
came general-in-chief  of  the  parliamen- 
tary army.  After  the  victory  at  Naseby 
he  marched  into  the  western  countries, 
quelling  all  opposition,  put  down  the 
insurgents  in  Kent  and  Essex  in  1647, 
and  captured  Colchester.  In  April,  1649, 
he  was  occupied  along  with  Cromwell  in 
suppressing  revolt  in  the  army;  but 
positively  declined  to  march  against  the 
Scottish  Presbyterians.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  Cromwell’s  first  parliament.  He 
co-operated  in  the  restoration  of  Charles 
II.,  being  one  of  the  committee  charged 
to  secure  his  return.  He  died  at  Nun 
Appleton,  Yorkshire,  12th  November, 
1671. 


FAIRIES,  Elves,  etc.,  imaginary  super- 
natural beings  or  spirits  supposed  to 
have  considerable  influence  for  good  or 
evil  in  the  affairs  of  men.  In  the  12th 
century  the  poem  of  Lancelot  of  the 
Lake  introduced  the  poetical  treatment 
of  the  fairy  world  into  France;  and  the 
fairies  played  at  important  part  in  the 
romantic  works  of  the  time.  In  the  last 
part  of  the  17th  century  the  true  fairy 
tales  first  became  popular,  the  Italians 
taking  the  lead  in. the  Pentameron  of 
Basilio.  The  fashion  passed  to  France, 
where  Perrault  in  1697  published  Contes 
de  ma  Mere  I’Oye.  Numerous  imitations 
soon  appeared.  The  best  collections  of 
later  times  have  been  those  of  the 
Brothers  Grimm  in  German,  and  in 
English  those  of  Keightley  and  Croker. 
As  an  original  writer  of  fairy  tales,  Hans 
Christian  Andersen,  the  celebrated  Dane 
deserves  particular  mention. 

FAIRS,  periodical  meetings  of  per- 
sons having  goods  or  wares  for  sale  in  an 
open  market  held  at  a particular  place, 
and  generally  for  the  transaction  of  a 
particular  class  of  business.  The  origin 
of  fairs  is  obviously  to  be  traced  to  the 
convenience  of  bringing  together  at 
stated  times  the  buyers  and  sellers  of 
the  stock-produce  of  a district.  In 
Europe  the  numerous  festivals  of  the 
church  afforded  the  most  favorable  op- 
portunity for  the  establishment  of  these 
markets.  This  association  is  indicated 
in  the  German  name  of  a fair,  which  is 
identical  with  that  used  for  the  cere- 
mony of  the  mass.  In  the  middle  ages 
fairs  were  of  great  importance,  and  were 
specially  privileged  and  chartered  by 
princes  and  magistrates,  public  procla- 
mation being  made  of  their  commence- 
ment and  duration.  But  modern  facili- 
ties of  communication  have  much  di- 
minished the  necessity  for  periodical 
markets,  and  it  is  now  chiefly  among 
agriculturists  that  they  are  of  much  im- 
portance, large  agricultural  meetings  be- 
ing held  in  various  districts  for  the  sale 
of  cattle  and  horses,  and  for  the  ex- 
hibition of  agricultural  implements. 
There  are  also,  especially  in  Scotland,  a 
considerable  number  of  hiring  fairs  for 
farm-servants.  In  the  less  developed 
commerce  of  the  east,  however,  they 
still  retain  much  of  their  ancient  import- 
ance and  magnitude.  In  Europe  the 
most  important  fairs  of  the  present  day 
are  those  at  Leipzig,  and  Frankfort-on- 
the  Main  in  Germany,  at  Lyons  in 
France,  and  at  Nijni-Novgorod  in  Rus- 
sia. The  latter  is,  indeed,  the  largest  fair 
in  the  world.  The  fairs  of  Great  Britain 
now  mostly  consist  of  the  weekly  mar- 
ket-days of  country  towns  and  the  agri- 
cultural meetings  already  mentioned. 
In  many  places  the  old  fair-days  are  still 
kept,  but  are  now  merely  an  assemblage 
of  penny-theaters,  peep-shows,  and  such 
amusements.  In  the  U.  States  there  are 
no  fairs  of  the  kind  so  common  in  the  old 
world;  the  term  is  applied  so  a variety 
of  exhibitions,  especially  of  cattle  and 
agricultural  products.  It  also  includes 
exhibitions  and  sales  for  religious  and 
charitable  purposes. 

FAIRWEATHER,  Mount,  on  the  wnst 
coast  of  North  America,  in  Alaska  terri- 
tory. It  rises  to  the  height  of  14,900 
feet,  and  is  covered  with  perpetual 
snow. 


FAITH 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


- FAITH,  the  assent  of  the  mind  to  the 
truth  of  what  is  declared  by  another, 
resting  on  his  authority  and  veracity, 
either  without  other  evidence  or  on 
probable  evidence  of  any  kind.  In  a 
special  sense  the  term  faith  is  used  for 
the  assent  of  the  mind  to  what  is  given 
forth  as  a revelation  of  man’s  relation  to 
God  and  the  infinite,  i.  e.  a religious 
faith ; and  in  Christian  theology  we  have 
(1st)  historical  or  speculative  faith,  or 
belief  in  the  historic  truthfulness  of  the 
Scripture  narrative  and  the  claims  of 
Scripture  to  an  inspired  and  super- 
natural origin : (2d)  Evangelical  or  saving 
faith,  that  emotion  of  the  mind  (as 
Dwight  defines  it)  which  is  called  trust, 
or  confidence  exercised  toward  the  moral 
character  of  God,  and  particularly  of  the 
Savior. 

FAITH,  Confession  of.  See  Confession 
of  Faith. 

FAITH  CURE,  the  curing  or  attempt- 
ing to  cure  disease  by  appealing  to  the 
patient’s  faith.  Also  any  cure  supposed 
to  have  been  effected  by  such  means. 
The  legal  status  of  practitioners  of  faith 
cure — divine  healing,  faith  healing, 
mental  science,  prayer  cure,  etc. — have 
in  recent  years  arisen  in  different  states 
but  thus  far  no  final  determination  of 
them  has  been  reached. 

FAKIRS  (fa-kerz'),  a kind  of  fanatics 
met  with  chiefly  in  India  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries,  who  retire  from  the 
world  and  give  themselves  up  to  con- 
templation. They  are  properly  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  but  the  term  is 
bften  used  for  a medicant  of  any  faith. 
They  are  found  both  living  in  com- 
munities and  solitary.  The  wandering 
fakirs  gain  the  veneration  of  the  lower 
classes  by  absurd  penances  and  self 
mutilations. 

FALCON  (fa'kn),  a name  of  various 
birds  of  prey.  The  falcons  proper  for 
strength,  symmetry,  and  powers  of  flight 
are  the  most  perfectly  developed  of  the 
feathered  race.  They  are  distinguished 


by  having  the  beak  curved  from  the 
base,  hooked  at  the  point,  the  upper 
mandible  with  a notch  or  tooth  on  its 
cutting  edge  on  either  side,  wings  long 
and  powerful,  the  second  feather  rather 
the  longest,  legs  short  and  strong.  The 
largest  European  falcons  are  the  jer- 
falcon  or  gyrfalcon  proper,  a native  of 
the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  and  the 
Iceland  falcon,  to  which  may  be  also 
added  the  Greenland  falcon.  Between 
these  three  species  much  confusion  at 
one  time  prevailed,  but  they  are  now 
distinctly  defined  and  described.  In  the 
Greenland  falcon  the  prevailing  color  at 


all  ages  is  white,  in  the  Iceland  falcon 
dark.  The  latter  more  nearly  resembles 
the  true  gyrfalcon  of  Norway,  which, 
however,  is  generally  darker,  rather 
smaller,  but  with  a longer  tail.  The 
average  length  of  any  of  these  falcons  is 
about  2 feet . The  Greenland  species  used 
to  be  the  most  highly  prized  by  falcon- 
ers. Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  ptarmi- 
gans, hares,  and  water-fowl.  It  is  found 
over  a wide  range  of  northern  territory. 
The  peregrine  falcon  is  not  so  large  as 
the  jerfalcon,  but  more  elegant  in  shape. 
It  chiefly  inhabits  wild  districts,  and 
nestles  among  rocks.  It  preys  on  grouse, 
partridges,  ptarmigans,  pigeons,  rab- 
bits, etc.  Its  flight  is  exceedingly  swift, 
said  to  be  as  much  as  150  miles  an  hour. 
The  peregrine  falcon  was  one  of  those 
most  frequently  used  in  falconry.  Other 
British  falcons  are  the  hobby,  formerly 
a great  favorite  for  the  chase  of  small 
game  when  falconry  was  in  fashion;  the 
merlin,  small  but  swift  and  spirited;  the 
kestrel,  one  of  the  most  common  British 
falcons.  The  term  falcon  is  by  sportsr 
men  restricted  to  the  female,  the  male, 


Gerfalcon. 


which  is  smaller  and  less  courageous, 
being  called  tiercel,  tersel,  tercelet,  or 
falconet. 

FALCON'IDjE,  a family  of  birds  of 
prey,  in  which  the  destructive  powers 
are  most  perfectly  developed.  The  fam- 
ily includes  the  different  species  of  eagles 
as  well  as  the  hawks  and  falcons  proper- 
ly so-called,  comprising  the  sub-families, 
buzzards,  eagles,  falcons,  kites,  hawks, 

Q H n Cl  I'T*!  PTC 

FALCONRY  (fa'kn-ri),  the  pursuit  of 
game  by  means  of  trained  falcons  or 
hawks;  also  called  hawking.  Falconry 
is  a very  old  amusement  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was  the 
favorite  sport  of  princes  and  nobles;  and, 
as  ladies  could  engage  in  it,  it  became 
very  prevalent.  Charlemagne  passed 
laws  in  regard  to  falconry.  In  Germany 
Henry  the  Fowler  and  the  Emperor 
Frederick  the  Second  were  much  ad- 
dicted to  this  sport,  the  latter  having 
written  a work  on  falconry.  In  France  it 
reached  its  height  under  Francis  - 1., 
whose  grand  falconer  had  under  him  an 
establishment  of  15  nobles  and  50  fal- 
coners. In  Britain  it  was  practiced 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  but  grew  still 
more  in  favor  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest. In  England  the  Duke  of  St. 
Albans  is  still  hereditary  grand  falconer, 
and  presents  the  king  with  a cast  (or 
pair)  of  falcons  on  the  day  of  his  corona- 
tion. Falconry  continued  in  favor  till 
the  17th  century;  but  the  invention  of 
fire-arms  gradually  superseded  it,  though 


in  isolated  instances  gentlemen  may  be 
still  be  found  who  pursue  the  sport  to 
some  little  extent.  In  Persia  and  other 
eastern  countries  hawking  is  still  in 
great  favor.  The  training  of  a hawk  is  a 
matter  requiring  great  pains  and  pro- 


Gosliawk  hooded  for  falconry. 


tracted  attention,  the  natural  wildness 
and  intractableness  of  the  birds  being 
difficult  to  overcome.  When  a hawk 
suffers  itself  to  be  hooded  and  unhooded 
quietly  and  will  leap  on  the  hand  of  the 
trainer  to  receive  food,  its  education  is 
considered  far  advanced,  and  the  trainer 
now  endeavors  to  accustom  it  to  the  lure. 
This  may  be  a piece  of  leather  or  wood 
covered  with  the  wings  and  feathers  of 
a bird  and  attached  to  a cord.  The  falcon 
is  fed  from  it,  and  is  recalled  by  the 
falconer  swinging  the  lure  round  his 
head  with  an  accompanying  cry.  When 
it  has  been  taught  to  obey  the  lure  it  is 
then  practiced  in  the  mode  of  seizing 
its  game,  which  is  first  done  with  tame 
game  attached  to  a peg.  It  is  then  made 
to  fly  at  free  game,  and  when  it  is  fully 
trained  it  is  used  for  sport.  It  is  always 
kept  hooded  during  excursions,  until  it 
is  wanted  to  fly. 

FAL'KIRK,  a parliamentary  burgh 
of  Scotland,  in  Stirlingshire,  2}^  miles 
west  by  north  of  Edinburgh.  Falkirk  is 
of  great  antiquity,  and  is  associated  with 
many  remarkable  historical  events.  In 
the  neighborhood  was  fought  the  Battle 
of  Falkirk  in  1297  between  Sir  William 
Wallace  and  Edward  I.,  the  Scots,  who 
were  much  inferior  in  numbers,  being 
defeated.  About  1 mile  southwest  from 
the  town  the  Highlanders  under  Prince 
Charles  defeated  the  royal  forces  under 
General  Hawley,  Jan.  17,  1746.  Pop. 
16,615. 

FALKLAND,  (fak'land),  an  ancient 
royal  burgh  of  Scotland,  county  of  Fife, 
21  miles  north  of  Edinburgh.  It  was 
once  the  residence  of  the  Scottish  kings, 
and  possesses  remains  of  an  ancient 
palace  and  some  curious  old  houses. 
There  was  formerly  a castle  here,  in 
which  David,  eldest  son  of  Robert  III., 
was  starved  to  death  by  order  of  his 
uncle  the  Duke  of  Albany,  but  no  trace 
of  it  now  remains.  Pop.  972. 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS,  an  island 
group  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Ocean,  about  300  miles 
east  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  They 
consist  pf  two  larger  islands.  East  Falk- 
land and  West  Falkland,  containing  re- 
spectively about  3000  and  2300  sq. 
miles,  with  a great  number  of  smaller 
ones  surrounding  them ; total  area,  6500 


' FALLACY 

eq.  miles.  They  are  hilly  and  boggy, 
entirely  destitute  of  trees,  but  covered 
with  a variety  of  grasses  very  nutritive 
for  the  sheep  and  cattle,  the  rearing  of 
which  is  the  principal  industry.  Fish 
and  sea-fowl  abound.  The  climate  is 
equable  and  very  healthy.  The  Falk- 
land Islands  were  discovered  by  Davis 
on  the  14th  August,  1592.  In  1710  a 
French  vessel  from  St.  Malo  touched  at 
them,  and  named  them  Isles  Malouines. 
Settlements  were  afterwards  formed  on 
them  by  tlife  French,  Spaniards,  and 
English  alternately,  but  the  latter  have 
ultimately  retained  possession  of  them. 
The  colony  has  a governor  and  other 
officers  appointed  by  the  crown.  Port 
Stanley,  in  East  Falkland,  is  a thriving 
settlement.  Pop.  of  the  group,  1800. 

FAL'LACY,  in  logic,  is  when  an  argu- 
ment is  used  as  decisive  of  a particular 
issue,  which  in  reality  it  does  not  decide. 
Properly  a fallacy  is  a fault  in  the  form 
of  reasoning  but  the  term  is  applied  also 
to  faults  in  the  substance  of  the  argu- 
ment or  proving  one  proposition  by 
assuming  another  which  is  identical 
with  it;  or  mistaking  the  point  at  issue; 
or  arguing  as  if  sequence  were  the  same 
thing  as  cause  and  effect. 

FALLING  SICKNESS.  See  Epilepsy. 

FALLING  STARS.  See  Meteors. 

FALL  OF  BODIES,  all  bodies  on  the 
dearth,  by  virtue  of  the  attraction^  of 
•gravitation,  tend  to  the  center  of  the 
earth.  A ball  held  injthe  hand  presses 

• downward;  if  dropped,  it  descends  per- 
pendicularly; if  placed  on  an  inclined 
plane,  it  rolls  down,  in  doing  which  it 
presses  the  plane  with  a part  of  its 
weight.  In  the  air  bodies  fall  with  un- 
equal velocities,  a piece  of  paper,  for  in- 
stance, more  slowly  than  a ball  of  lead ; 
and  it  was  formerly  thought  that  the 
velocity  of  the  fall  of  bodies  was  in  pro- 
portion to  their  weight.  This  error  was 
attacked  by  Galileo,  who,  experimenting 
with  balls  of  different  substances  which 
he  dropped  from  the  tower  of  Pisa,  was 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  resistance 

• of  the  air  acting  on  different  extents  of 
surface  was  the  cause  of  the  unequal 
velocities,  and  that  in  a vacuum  all 
bodies  would  fall  with  the  same  velocity. 
The  truth  of  this  last  proposition  was 
first  demonstrated  by  Newton  in  his 
celebrated  “guinea-and-feather”  experi- 
ment, where  a guinea-and  feather  are 
ishown  to  fall  side  by  side  in  the  vacuum 
of  the  air-pump.  This  experiment  proves 
ihat  the  force  of  gravitation  in  bodies  is 
proportional  to  their  inertia,  that  is  to 
their  mass.  The  laws  of  falling  bodies, 
that  is  of  bodies  falling  freely  in  a straight 
line  and  through  a distance  short  in  com- 
parison with  the  earth’s  center,  are  the 
iollowing; 

1.  When  a body  falls  from  rest  it  ac- 
quires velocity  at  the  rate  of  about  32'2 
feet  per  second.  This  number,  which 
.represents  the  acceleration  due  to  the 
■force  of  gravity,  varies  slightly  with  the 
locality,  increasing  from  the  equator  to 
Ihe  poles,  and  diminishing  as  we  recede 
from  the  center  of  the  earth.  At  the  end 
(of  five  seconds  therefore,  the  body  would 
Le  found  to  be  moving  at  the  rate  of 
5 x 32'2,  that  is  161  feet  per  second. 

2.  The  space  fallen  through  in  the 
first  second  is  half  of  32‘2,  that  is  16'1 
feet;  and  the  space  fallen  through  in  any 


given  time  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
square  of  the  number  of  seconds  by  16T. 
Thus,  in  three  seconds  a body  falls 
9 X 16T  feet,  or  144'9  feet. 

3.  The  square  of  the  velocity  ac- 
quired by  falling  through  any  number 
of  feet  is  found  by  multiplying  twice 
that  number  by  32'2.  Thus  if  a body 
falls  9 feet,  the  square  of  the  velocity 
acquired  is  2 x 32  x 9,  or  576  feet  per 
second,  32  being  used  instead  of  32'2 
and  taking  the  square  root  of  576,  we 
find  that  a velocity  of  24  feet  is  acquired 
in  a fall  of  9 feet. 

4.  When  a body  is  projected  vertically 
upward  with  a given  velocity,  it  con- 
tinues to  rise  during  a number  of  seconds 
found  by  dividing  the  number  that  ex- 
presses the  velocity  of  projection  by 
32‘2;  and  it  rises  to  a height  found  by 
dividing  the  square  of  that  number  by 
2 X 32-2,  or  64-4. 

FALL  OF  MAN,  a commonly  received 
doctrine  of  Christianity,  founded  upon 
the  historical  narrative  contained  in  the 
third  chapter  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  to- 
gether with  the  allusions  to  the  same 
matter  in  other  parts  of  Scripture. 
Adam,  having  eaten  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  is  said  to  have  fallen;  and  the  rela^- 
tion  of  mankind  in  general  to  this  fall  is 
stated  by  St.  Paul  in  the  words:  “By 
one  man’s  disobedience  many  were  made 
sinners”  (Rom.  v.  19).  Thus,  in  the  fall 
of  Adam,  all  men  are  held  to  have  fallen 
and  to  have  contracted  “original  sin,” 
alienating  them  from  God  and  rendering 
them  morally  inadequate.  The  doctrine 
of  the  fall  does  not  stand  alone  in  Scrip- 
ture. It  is  universally  agreed  by  inter- 
preters that  in  the  original  sentence  pro- 
nounced on  the  transgressors  there  is 
contained  the  promise  of  a redemption, 
and  that  the  whole  scope  of  Scripture  is 
directed  to  the  development  of  this 
promise,  and  of  the  divine  scheme  of 
providence  associated  with  it. 

FALLOPIAN  TUBES,  in  anatomy,  are 
two  ducts  which  open  by  one  extremity 
into  the  womb,  one  at  either  angle  of  the 
fundus,  and  terminate  at  the  other  end 
in  an  open  trumpet-shaped  mouth, 
which  at  certain  times  grasps  the  ovary 
and  receives  the  ovum.  They  are  named 
after  Fallopius  or  Falloppio,  an  Italian 
anatomist  of  the  16th  century,  who  first 
recognized  their  functions. 

FALLOW  DEER,  a European  and 
Western  Asiatic  deer.  It  is  smaller  than 
the  stag,  of  a brownish-bay  color,  whitish 
beneath,  on  the  insides  of  the  limbs,  and 
beneath  the  tail.  The  horns,  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  male,  are  very  different 
from  those  of  the  stag;  they  are  not 
properly  branched,  but  are  broader 
toward  the  upper  part,  and  divided  into 
processes  down  the  outside.  A simple 
snag  arises  from  the  base  of  each,  and  a 
similar  one  at  some  distance  from  the 
first.  It  was  introduced  at  an  early 
period  into  Britain. 

FALLOWS,  Samuel,  clergyman,  born 
at  Pendleton,  near  Manchester,  England 
1835;  removed  with  his  parents  to  Wis- 
consin 1845;  became  a minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  entered 
the  army  as  chaplain  1861;  afterward 
engaged  in  active  military  service; 
reached  the  rank  of  colonel  and  brevet 
brigadier-general;  became  rector  of  St. 
Paul’s  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 


FAMINE 

Chicago,  1875;  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Appeal,  the  organ  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church,  1876;  and  was  chosen 
a bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church  1876,  He  has  published  a Sup- 
plemental Dictionary  and  Past  Noon, 
and  has  edited  many  well-known  books. 

FALL  RIVER,  a city  and  port,  Bristol 
CO.,  Massachusetts,  on  an  arm  of  Nar- 
raganset  Bay  and  Taunton  river,  53 
miles  s.s.w.  of  Boston.  It  is  at  the  head 
of  deep-water  navigation,  and  the  ter- 
minus of  a line  qf  steamers  from  New 
York.  It  contains  several  handsome 
streets,  and  has  extensive  cotton,  woolen 
and  calico-printing  factories,  iron-works, 
etc.  Pop.  1909,  115,000. 

FALSE  IMPRISONMENT,  the  unlaw- 
ful imprisonment  or  detention  of  any 
person.  Every  confinement  of  the  per- 
son is  imprisonment,  whether  in  a com- 
mon prison  or  a private  house,  or  even 
by  forcibly  detaining  one  in  the  streets 
or  highways.  The  law  punishes  false 
imprisonment  as  a crime,  besides  giving 
reparation  to  the  party  injured,  through 
an  action  of  trespass. 

FALSE  PERSONATION,  all  forms  of 
false  personation,  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining the  property  of  others,  are  pun- 
ishable by  the  criminal  law;  as  instances, 
the  personation  of  the  owner  of  any 
share,  stock,  or  annuity,  etc. ; the  false 
personation  of  voters  at  an  election  is  a 
misdemeanor,  the  punishment  of  which 
is  determined  by  state  statute,  involv- 
ing fine,  imprisonment,  and  deprivation 
of  the  rights  of  citizenship  for  a certain 
period. 

FALSE  PRETENSES,  false  repre- 
sentations and  statements,  made  with  a 
fraudulent  design  to  otbtain  “money, 
goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,”  with 
intent  to  cheat.  At  common  law  a mis- 
demeanor, punishable  by  statute. 

FALSET'TO,  applies  in  singing,  to  the 
notes  above  the  natural  compass  of  the 
voice.  It  is  also  called  the  head  or  throat 
voice,  in  contradistinction  to  the  chest 
voice,  which  is  the  natural  one.  The 
falsetto  voice  is  produced  by  tightening 
the  ligaments  of  the  glottis. 

FAMILIAR  SPIRITS,  demons  or  evil 
'spirits  supposed  to  be  continually  within 
call  and  at  the  service  of  their  masters, 
sometimes  under  an  assumed  shape, 
sometimes  attached  to  a magical  ring,  or 
the  like,  sometimes  compelled  by  magic 
skill,  and  sometimes  doing  voluntary 
service.  AVe  find  traces  of  this  belief  in 
ages  and  countries,  under  various  forms. 

FAMILY,  in  zoological  classifications, 
a group  of  individuals  more  compre- 
hensive than  a genus  and  less  so  than  an 
order,  a family  usually  containing  a 
number  of  genera,  while  an  order  con- 
tains so  many  families.  Family  names 
usually  terminate  in  -idse  (after  Latin 
patronymics,  such  as  iEacidae,  sons  or 
descendants  of  iEacus).  In  botany  it  is 
sometimes  used  as  a synonym  of  order. 

FAMINE,  a dire  want  of  food  affecting 
considerable  numbers  of  people  at  the 
same  time.  Irregular  rainfalls  in  tropical 
climates,  imperfect  methods  of  irriga- 
tion, or,  as  in  Ireland,  the  too  exclusive 
dependence  of  the  mass  of  people  on  a 
single  article  of  food  which  happens  to 
fail,  are  among  the  commonest  causes  of 
famines.  In  the  early  and  mediaeval  ages 
they  were  frequent;  but  the  rapidity  of 


FAN 


FARADAY 


modern  communication  and  transport 
has  made  the  rigor  of  famine  almost  im- 
possible in  Europe.  In  Ireland  the  years 
1814,  1816,  1822,  1831,  1846,  were 
marked  by  failure  of  the  potato  crop, 
and  in  the  last-mentioned  year  the 
dearth  was  so  great  that  tert  millions 
were  voted  by  parliament  for  relief  of 
the  sufferers.  India  has  long  been  the 
seat  of  terrific  famines;  but  of  late  the 
British  officials  have  been  very  success- 
ful in  organizing  relief  measures.  Among 
the  more  recent  are  that  in  Northwest 
India  (1899-00),  in  which  above  800,000 
perished;  that  in  Bengal  and  Orissa 
(1865-66),  when  about  a million  per- 
ished; that  in  Bengal  (1874),  which  was 
very  successfully  treated;  that  in  Bom- 
bay, Madras,  Mysore  (1877),  in  which 
about  half  a million  died.  In  China,  a 
great  famine  took  place  in  1877-78,  in 
which  over  nine  millions  are  said  to  have 
perished;  another  took  place  in  1888-89 
owing  to  the  overflow  of  Ihe  Yellow  river. 

FAN,  the  name  of  various  instruments 
for  exciting  a current  of  air  by  the  agita- 
tion of  a broad  surface.  (1)  An  instru- 
ment made  of  wood  or  ivory,  feathers, 
thin  skin,  paper,  variously  constructed 
and  mounted,  and  used  by  ladies  to  agi- 
tate the  air  and  cool  the  face.  As  an 
article  of  luxury  the  fan  was  well  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  They  are 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  (2)  Any  contrivance  of  vanes  or 
flat  discs  revolving  by  the  air  of  ma- 
chinery, as  for  winnowing  grain,  for 
cooling  fluids,  urging  combustion,  assist- 
ing ventilation,  etc.,  is  also  so-called. 

FARAT'ICISM  is  the  term  applied 
more  particularly  to  the  extravagance 
manifested  in  religious  matters  by  those 
who  allow  themselves  to  be  hurried  away 
by  their  fancy  and  feelings,  to  the  adop- 
tion not  only  of  wild  enthusiasitc  views, 
but  also  of  inordinate  and  not  unfre- 
quently  persecuting  measures.  By  an 
extension  of  the  term  it  is  also  some- 
times applied  to  other  forms  of  extrav- 
agance. 

FANCY,  a term  approaching  imagina- 
tion in  meaning.  In  its  general  accepta- 
tion it  refers  both  to  the  forms  of  the 
imagination  and  to  the  mental  faculty 
which  produces  them ; but  it  is  used  fre- 
quently for  the  lighter  or  more  fantastic 
forms  of  the  imagination,  and  for  the 
active  play  of  that  faculty  which  pro- 
duces them. 

FANDT^'GO,  an  old  Spanish  dance, 
which  originated  most  probably  with 
the  Moors  in  Andalusia.  It  is  seldom 
danced  but  at  the  theater,  and  in  the 

Carties  of  the  lower  classes.  It  is  danced 
y two  persons  only,  who  never  touch 
so  much  as  each  other’s  hands;  their 
reciprocal  allurements,  retreats,  ap- 
proaches, and  varied  movements,  by 
turns  pursuing  and  pursued,  their  looks, 
attitudes,  and  whole  expression,  are 
grossly  indicative  of  voluptuousness. 

FANEUIL  HALL  (fan'u-il),  a public 
building  in  Boston,  famous  as  the  place 
where  stirring  speeches  were  made  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  for  American 
independence.  It  obtained  the  name 
“The  cradle  of  American  liberty.”  It 
was  enlarged  in  1805. 

FANFARE,  a short,  lively,  loud,  and 
warlike,  piece  of  music,  composed  for 


trumpets  and  kettle-droms.  Also  small, 
lively  pieces  performed  on  hunting- 
horns,  in  the  chase. 

FANNING  ISLANDS,  a group  of  coral 
islands  in  Central  Polynesia  between  1° 
57'  and  5°  49'  n.  lat.,  and  between  157° 
and  162°  w.  Ion. 

FAN-PALM,  a name  sometimes  given 
to  the  taliput  palm,  a native  of  Ceylon 
and  Malabar  It  is  also  applied  to  the 
Mauritia  palm,  a tree  which  grows  in 
great  abundance  on  the  banks  of  the 
Orinoco  river  in  South  America,  and 
which  yields  the  natives  of  these  regions 
food,  wine  (made  from  its  sap),  and 
cordage,  besides  serving  them  for  hous- 
ing during  the  inundations  to  which  the 
country  is  subject. 

FAN-TAIL,  a variety  of  the  domestic 
pigeon,  so  called  from  the  fan-like  shape 


Pantails. 


of  their  tails.  Also  a name  applied  to 
certain  Australian  birds  of  the  fly- 
catcher family.  ^ 

FAN'TAN,  In  the  American  game  a 
pack  of  52  cards  is  used.  The  deal  starts 
by  cutting  the  cards.  Ace  high  deals. 
The  cards  are  then  dealt  to  the  left,  one 
at  a time.  As  many  as  eight  persons  may 
play.  The  cards  remaining  at  the  finish 
of  the  deal  are  dealt  face  down  to  the 
center  of  the  table.  The  first  player  at 
the  left  of  the  dealer  must  have  an  ace 
to  play,  in  which  event  he  plays  the  ace 
to  the  center  of  the  table.  Having  no 
ace,  he  must  ante  the  amount  agreed 
upon  (usually  5 cents  or  less)  to  the 
center  of  the  table,  and  draw  one  of  the 
remaining  cards.  Thus  the  game  pro- 
ceeds until  an  ace  can  be  played,  after 
which  the  different  stacks  of  cards  are 
built  up  consecutively  to  the  king.  The 
first  player  ridding  himself  of  his  cards 
wins  the  pot.  Failure  to  play  a card  in 
turn  is  punished  by  a fine  equal  to  the 
amount  of  the  ante  for  every  card  re- 
maining in  all  of  the  player’s  hands. 

FANTA'SIA,  in  music,  a species  of 
composition  in  which  the  author  ties 
himself  to  no  particular  theme,  ranging 
as  his  fancy  leads  him  amid  various  airs 
and  movements. 

Fan-tracery,  in  architecture,  elab- 
orate geometrical  carved  work,  .which 
spreads  over  the  surface  of  a vault- 
ing, rising  from  a corbel  and  diverg- 
ing like  the  folds  of  a fan.  Fan-tracery 
vaulting  is  much  used  in  the  Perpendicu- 
lar style,  in  which  the  vault  is  covered 
by  ribs  and  veins  of  tracery,  of  which  all 
the  principal  lines  diverge  from  a point, 
as  in  Henry  VII. ’s  chapel,  Westminster. 

FAR'ADAY,  Michael,  one  of  the  great- 
est of  English  chemists  and  physicists, 
was  born  in  humble  circumstances  at 
Newington  Butts,  near  London,  on  the 
22d  September,  1791.  Early  in  life  he 


was  apprenticed  to  a bookbinder  in  Lon 
don,  but  occupied  himself  at  his  leisure 
hours  with  electrical  and  other  scientific 
experiments.  Having  been  taken  by  a 
friend  to  Sir  Humphrey  Davy’s  lectures 
he  attended  the  course,  and  conceived 
such  an  ardent  desire  for  study  that  he 
resolved  to  quit  trade.  With  this  end  he 
sent  his  notes  of  the  lectures  to  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy,  who  was  so  struck 
with  the  great  ability  they  showed  that 


Fan-tracery  vaulting,  Beauchamp  chapel, 
Warwick. 


he  appointed  him  his  assistant  at  th 
Royal  Institution.  In  1829  he  became 
lecturer  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
at  Woolwich,  and  in  1833  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  newly-established  chair  of 
chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution.  It 
was  while,  in  this  office  that  he  made 
most  of  his  great  electrical  discoveries. 
His  communications  to  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions  have  been  published 
separately  in  three  vols.  (1839,  1844, 
1855).  In  1832  he  received  the  honorary 


Fan-tracery,  Cloisters  of  Gloucester  cathedral, 
England. 


degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Oxford,  was  made 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Academy 
at  Berlin,  with  many  other  honors  too 
numerous  to  mention.  He'died  Aug.  25, 
1867.  As  an  experimentalist  Faraday 
was  considered  the  very  first  of  his  time.. 
As  a popular  lecturer  he  was  equally  dis- 
tinguished, and  even  used  to  draw  crowds- 
to  the  Friday  evening  lecture  at  the 
Royal  Institution.  Among  his  pub- 
lished works  we  may  mention  the  fol- 


FARALLONES 


FASCINATION 


lowing:  Researches  in  Electricity  (1831- 
55),  Lectures  on  Non-metallic  Elements 
(1853),  Lectures  on  the  Forces  of  Matter 
(I860),  Lectures  on  the  Chemical  His- 
tory of  a Candle  (1861). 

FARALLO'NES,  a group  of  small 
islands  in  the  Pacific,  about  30  miles 
from  the  entrance  to  the  Bay  of  San 
Francisco. 

FARCE,  a dramatic  piece  of  low  comic 
character.  It  is  grotesque  and  extrava- 
gant rather  than  artistically  humorous. 

FARCY,  a disease  to  which  horses  are 
liable,  intimately  connected  with  glan- 
ders, the  two  diseases  generally  running 
into  each  other.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
disease  of  the  absorbents  of  the  skin, 
and  its  first  indication  is  generally  the 
appearance  of  little  tumors  called  farcy 
buds  on  the  face,  neck,  or  inside  of  the 
thigh. 

FARDEL-BOUND,  a term  applied  to 
cattle  and  sheep  affected  with  a disease 
caused  by  the  retention  of  food  in  the 
maniplies  or  third  stomach,  between  the 
numerous  plaits  of  which  it  is  firmly  im- 
pacted. Over-ripe  clover,  vetches,  or 
rye-grass  are  liable  to  produce  the  dis- 
ease. 

FARGO,  a city  and  railway  center, 
the  capital  of  Cass  co.,  N.  Dak.,  situated 
on  the  Gt.  Northern,  C.,  M.  and  St.  P., 
and  Northern  Pacific  railways,  and  on 
the-  west  bank  of  the  Red  river  of  the 
North;  at  the  head  of  navigation,  op- 
posite Moorehead,  Minn.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  markets  for  wheat  and 
farm  machinery  in  the  Northwest.  Pop. 
11,362. 

FARIBAULT  (far-i-bo'),  a city  and 
railway  center,  the  capital  of  Rice  co., 
Minn.,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
Straight  and  Cannon  rivers;  53  miles  s. 
of  St.-Paul.  Pop.  10,160. 

FARID  PUR  (fa-red-p6r'),  a district  of 
India,  in  the  Dacca  Division  of  Bengal; 
area,  2276  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,631,734 
Chief  town,  Faridpur,  on  the  Mard 
Padmd.  Pop.  10,263. 

FARI'NA,  a term  given  to  a soft, 
tasteless,  and  commonly  white  powder, 
obtained  by  trituration  of  the  seeds  of 
cereal  and  leguminousplants,and  of  some 
roots,  as  the  potato.  It  consists  of  gluten, 
starch  and  mucilage. 

FARI'NI,  Luigi  Carlo,  an  Italian 
statesman  and  author,  born  in  1812. 
He  became  known  as  a nationalist  and 
patriot  in  the  political  movements  of 
1841,  had  to  leave  the  country  for  a 
time,  but  returned  and  was  made  a mem- 
ber of  the  reform  ministry  at  Rome 
during  the  disturbances  of  1848.  After 
the  peace  of  Villafranca  he  was  chosen 
dictator  of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and 
Modena,  and  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  inducing  them  to  unite  with  the  Pied- 
montese monarchy.  His  History  of  the 
Papal  States  from  1814  to  1850  is  well 
known.  In  1862  he  became  president  of 
the  ministry,  lost  his  reason  in  1863, 
and  died  1st  August,  1866. 

FARMERS-GENERAL,  private  con- 
tractors, to  whom  under  the  old  French 
monarchy  was  let  out  the  collection  of 
various  branches  of  the  revenue,  poll- 
tax,  duties  on  salt  and  tobacco,  customs, 
etc.  These  contractors  made  enormous 
profits  on  the  farming  of  the  public 
revenues.  A revenue  collected  in  this 
way  not  only  imposed  a much  heavier 


burden  on  the  people  but  the  merciless 
rigor  of  irresponsible  and  uncontrolled 
exactors  subjected  them' to  hardships 
and  indignities  to  which  they  could  not 
submit  without  degradation.  In  1790 
the  system  was  suppressed  by  the  con- 
stituent assembly. 

FARMERS’  INSTITUTES,  gather- 
ings of  farmers  held  annually  in  the 
various  states.  The  object  of  these  in- 
stitutes is  the  bringing  together  the 
workers  in  agricultural  science  and  the 
practical  farmers  for  the  discussion  of 
questions  of  mutual  interest.  The 
growth  of  farmers’  institutes  has  been 
largely  owing  to  the  impetus  given  to 
the  agricultural  interests  by  the  Morrill 
Land  Grant  Act  of  1862.  Gatherings  are 
held  in  over  40  states,  generally  in  the 
winter  when  the  farmers  are  free  to  at- 
tend them. 

FARMING.  See  Agriculture. 

FARNE  (or  Feme)  ISLANDS,  a group 
of  islets,  England,  in  the  German  Ocean 
off  the  north  coast  of  Northumberland, 
2 miles  e.  by  s.  of  Bamborough  Castle, 
and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
channel  of  about  1%  mile.  They  have 
been  the  scene  of  several  disastrous 
shipwrecks. 

FARO,  or  PHARO,  a game  of  hazard 
at  cjwds,  played  chiefly  in  gambling 
establishments,  and  in  which  the  player 
plays  against  the  bank,  represented  by  a 
professional  faro-banker. 

FARO,  a promontory  forming  the 
northeast  point  of  Sicily  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Strait  of  Messina.  The  point  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  on  it  there  is  a 
lighthouse  200  years  old. 

FAROE  ISLANDS  (fa'ro),  a group  of 
islands  in  the  North  Atlantic,  lying  be- 
tween Iceland  and  Shetland.  They  be- 
long to  Denmark,  and  are  twenty-five 
in  number,  of  which  seventeen  are  in- 
habited. The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  fishing  and  the  rearing  of  sheep. 
Thorshavn,  in  Stromb,  the  largest  island, 
is  the  seat  of  government.  Pop.  12,965. 

FAR'RAGUT,  David  Glasgow,  ad- 
miral of  the  U.  States,  was  born  in  1801, 
and  entered  the  navy  as  midshipman  at 
the  age  of  9^.  In  1821  he  was  promoted 
to  a lieutenancy,  and  was  actively  en- 
gaged in  his  profession  up  till  1851,  when 


David  G.  Farragut. 


he  was  oppointed  assistant  inspector  of 
ordnance.  In  1855  he  received  a com- 
mission as  captain.  In  1861  he  was  as- 
signed to  go  with  the  expedition  against 
New  Orleans,  undertaken  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  confederacy,  and  sailed  in 
February  of  the  following  year.  New 


Orleans  surrendered  to  the  combined 
attack  of  the  land  and  naval  forces  on 
25th  April,  and  Farragut  proceeded  to 
Vicksburg,  running  past  successfully. 
In  consequence  of  his  success  at  New 
Orleans  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral.  In  1863  Farragut  at- 
tempted to  pass  the  batteries  of  Port 
Hudson,  but  was  unsuccessful.  In  Aug- 
ust, 1864,  he  attacked  the  confederate 
fleet  in  the  bay  of  Mobile,  and  forced  it 
to  surrender,  thus  making  the  fall  of 
Mobile  merely  a question  of  time.  July 
25,  1866,  he  was  made  admiral,  a grade 
which  had  not  hitherto  existed  in  the 
U.  States  navy.  He  died  14th  August, 
1870. 

FARRAR,  Frederic  William,  The 
Ven.,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  born  in  Bombay, 
Aug.  7,  1831.  He  has  published  several 
popular  theological  works  and  works  of 
fiction,  and  is  known  as  a popular  lec- 
turer. He  was  Bampton  Lecturer  in 
1885.  Among  his  principal  works  are: 
The  Life  of  Christ,  Life  of  St.  Paul,  The 
Early  Days  of  Christianity,  Lives  of  the 
Fathers.  He  died  in  1903. 

FARRIERY.  See  Veterinary  Art. 

FARS,  or  FARSISTAN,  a maritime 
province  in  the  southwest  of  Persia, 
abutting  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  manu- 
factures include  woolen,  silk,  and  cotton 
goods;  and  in  these  and  other  articles  an 
active  trade  is  carried  on,  chiefly  with 
Hindustan.  Pop.  estimated  at  1,700,000. 

FARTHING,  the  fourth  part  of  a 
penny;  the  modern  form  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  feorthung,  the  fourth  part  of  any- 
thing. 

FAR.THINGALE,  or  FARDINGALE, 

an  article  of  ladies’  attire  worn  in  the 
days  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  closely 
resembling  the  modern  crinoline.  It  was 
formed  of  circles  of  whalebone  hoops, 
and  protruded  more  at  the  waist  than 
the  modern  crinoline. 

FARUKHABAD,  or  FARRAKHA- 
BAD  (far-ak-a-badO,  a city  in  the  north- 
west Provinces  of  British  India,  2 or  3 
miles  from  the  Ganges,  a handsome  well- 
built  town,  with  avenues  of  trees  in 
many  of  its  streets.  Pop.  78,032. 

FASCES  (fas'sez),  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  a bundle  of  polished  rods,  in 
the  middle  of  which  was  an  axe,  carried 
by  lictors  before  the  superior  magistrates. 
The  number  of  fasces  and  lictors  varied 
with  the  dignity  of  the  magistrate.  In 
the  city  the  axe  was  laid  aside. 

FASCINATION,  the  exercise  of  an 
overpowering  and  paralyzing  influence 
upon  some  animals  attributed  to  certain 
snakes  corresponding  somewhat  to  the 
so-called  evil-eye  among  human  beings. 
Squirrels,  mibe,  and  the  smaller  birds 
are  said  to  be  the  most  subject  to  this 
power;  but  the  fact  is  far  from  clearly 
explained,  and  is  not  perhaps  even  suf- 
ficiently demonstrated.  Most  of  the 
accounts  agree  in  describing  the  animal 
fascinated  as  having  a painful  conscious- 
ness of  its  danger,  and  the  power  exer- 
cised over  it,  but  to  be  unable  to  resist 
the  desire  to  approach  the  fascinator. 
Some  have  endeavored  to  explain  this 
power  as  the  effect  of  narcotic  emana- 
tions from  the  serpent  which  stupefy  the 
weaker  animal.  Others  regard  it  as 
bearing  as  striking  analogy  to  the  mes- 
meric influence  which  one  human  being 
sometimes  has  over  another. 


FASCINES 


fault: 


FASCINES,  (fa-senz'),  in  the  miliatry 
art,  bundles  of  boughs  or  rods  from  6 to 
18  feet  in  length  and  usually  1 foot  in 
diameter,  used  in  raising  batteries, 
strengthening  parapets,  revetting  slopes 
etc.  The  twigs  are  drawn  tightly  to- 
gether by  a cord,  and  bands  are  passed 
round  them  at  the  distance  of  2 feet 
from  each  other.  Very  long  thin  ones  are 
called  saucissons  or  battery-sausages. 

FASHODA,  a large  town  built  by  the 
Egyptians  in  1867  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  in  the  Soudan,  n.  lat.  10°.  It  gives 
its  name  to  that  portion  of  the  district. 
Since  1884  it  has  been  in  ruins,  tjie 
Mahdi  overthrowing  Egyptian  rule  in 
that  year.  In  1898  Marchand,  a French 
adventurer,  hoisted  the  French  flag 
there,  but  was  ousted  by  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sirdar,  General  Herbert  Kitch- 
ener. 

FASTING,  the  partial  or  total  ab- 
stinence of  mankind  and  animals  from 
the  ordinary  requisite  supply  of  aliment, 
by  which  it  is  to  be  understood  that 
quantity  which  is  adapted  to  preserve 
them  in  a healthy  and  vigorous  condi- 
tion. It  would  appear  that  various  warm 
blooded  animals  are  eapable  of  sustain- 
ing total  abstinence  much  longer  than 
human  beings.  Cats  and  dogs  have  sur- 
vived for  several  weeks  without  nourish- 
ment of  any  kind,  but  it  is  probable  that 
few  human  beings  eould  survive  such 
deprivation  for  more  than  a week.  The 
use  of  water  without  solid  food  enables 
life  to  be  sustained  much  longer  than 
it  eould  otherwise  be. 

FASTS,  temporary  abstentions  from 
food,  especially  on  religious  grounds. 
Abstinence  from  food,  accompanied 
with  signs  of  humiliation  and  repentance 
or  grief,  is  to  be  found  more  or  less  in 
almost  all  religions.  Among  the  Jews 
fasts  were  numerous,  and  we  find  many 
instances  of  occasional  fasting  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Herodotus  says  that  the 
Egyptians  prepared  themselves  by  fast- 
ing for  the  celebration  of  the  great  festi- 
val of  Isis.  So  in  the  Thesmophoria  at 
Athens,  and  in  the  rites  of  Ceres  at 
Rome,  it  was  practiced.  The  Church  of 
Rome,  distinguishes  between  days  of 
fasting  and  of  abstinence.  The  former 
are:  1,  the  forty  days  of  Lent;  2,  the 
Ember  days,  being  the  Wednesday, 
Friday,  and  Saturday  of  the  first  week 
in  Lent,  of  Whitsun  week,  of  the  third 
week  in  September,  and  of  the  third 
week  in  Advent;  3,  the  Wednesdays  and 
Thursdays  of  the  four  weeks  in  Advent ; 
4,  the  vigils  or  eves  of  Whitsuntide,  of 
the  feasts  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  of 
the  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  of  All 
Saints,  and  of  Christmas  Day.  When  any 
fasting  days  fall  upon  Sunday  it  is  ob- 
served on  the  Saturday  before.  The 
Greek  Chureh  observes  four  principal 
fasts:  that  of  Lent,  one  beginning  in  the 
week  after  Whitsuntide,  one  for  a fort- 
night before  Assumption,  one  forty  days 
before  Christmas.  In  the  East,  however, 
the  strict  idea  of  a fast  is  more  preserved 
than  in  the  West. 

FAT,  an  oily  concrete  substance,  a 
compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  deposited  in  the  cells  of  the 
adipose  or  cellular  membrane  of  animal 
bodies.  In  most  parts  of  the  body  the 
fat  lies  immediately  under  the  skin.  Fat 
is  of  various  degrees  of  consistence,  as  in 


tallow,  lard  and  oil.  It  is  generally  white 
or-yellowish,  with  little  smell  or  taste. 
It  consists  of  two  substances,  stearine 
and  elaine  or  oleine,  the  former  of  which 
is  solid,  the  latter  liquid.  These  elements 
are  separated  by  pressing  the  fat  be- 
tween folds  of  bibulous  paper,  which 
absorbs  the  liquid  or  oil.  By  after-treat- 
ment with  water  the  oil  is  separated 
from  the  paper.  Fats  are  insoluble  in 
water.  When  boiled  with  caustic  alka- 
lies they  are  decomposed  (saponification 
yielding  an  alkaline  salt  of  the  fatty  acid 
(soap)  apd  glycerine.  Human  fat  ap- 
pears to  contain  no  stearine,  but  mar- 
garine and  oleine.  It  is  an  excellent 
packing  material  in  the  body,  and  gives 
the  human  frame  its  smooth  rounded 
contour.  Being  a bad  conductor  of  heat, 
it  is  useful  in  retaining  warmth,  but  its 
chief  function  is  that  of  nutrition. 

FA'TALISM,  the  belief  in  fate,  or  an 
unchangeable  destiny,  to  which  every- 
thing is  subject,  uninfluenced  by  reason, 
and  pre-established  either  by  chance  or 
the  Creator.  Among  notable  historical 
examples  of  the  belief  in  fate  may  be 
mentioned  the  old  Greek  conception  of  a 
fate  which  stood  behind  the  gods  them- 
selves as  a controlling  power;  the  Mo- 
hammedan fatalism,  wliich  regards  all 
things  great  and  small  as  inexorably 
predetermined,  so  that  no  accident  is 
possible;  the  theological  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination among  Calvinists.  See  Pre- 
destination. 

FATEHPUR  (fat-e-p6r'),  Indian  town 
in  district  of  the  same  name,  Allahabad 
division.  Northwest  Provinces,  50  miles 
s.e.  of  Cawnpore.  Pop.  21,328.  The  dis- 
trict was  an  area  of  1639  sq.  miles,  and 
a pop.  of  683,745. 

FATES,  in  Greek  and  Latin  mythol- 
ogy, the  inexorable  sisters  who  spin 
the  thread  of  human  life.  The  appella- 
tion Clotho  (the  spinner)  was  probably 
at  first  common  to  them  aU  among  the 
Greeks.  As  they  were  three  in  number, 
and  poetry  endeavored  to  designate 
them  more  precisely,  Clotho  became  a 
proper  name,  as  did  also  Atropos  and 
Lachesis.  Clotho  means  she  who  spins 
(the  thread  of  life) ; Atropos  signifies  un- 
alterable fate;  Lachesis,  lot  or  chance; 
so  that  all  three  refer  to  the  same  sub- 
ject under  different  points  of  view.  They 
know  and  predict  what  is  yet  to  happen. 
Lachesis  is  represented  with  a spindle, 
Clotho  with  the  thread,  and  Atropos 
with  scissors,  with  which  she  cuts  it  off. 
We  find  also  in  the  northern  mythology 
three  beautiful  virgins,  the  Nornen,  Who 
determine  the  fate  of  men.  Their  names 
are  Urd  (the  past),  Varande  (the  present) 
and  Skuld  (the  future). 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  or 
CHRISTIAN  FATHERS.  See  Church, 
Fathers  of  the. 

FATHOM,  a unit  of  length  equal  to  6 
feet.  It  is  chiefly  used  by  sailors,  who 
measure  soundings,  etc.,  in  fathoms. 

FAT'IMITE  DYNASTY,  a line  of 
caliphs  claiming  descent  from  Fatima, 
the  favorite  daughter  of  Mohammed, 
and  of  Ali  her  cousin,  to  whom  she  was 
married.  In  the  year  909  Abu-Moham- 
med  Obeidalla,  giving  himself  out  as  the 
grandson  of  Fatima,  endeavored  to  pass 
himself  off  as  the  Mahdi  or  Messiah  pre- 
dicted by  the  Kora.  Denounced  as  an 
imposter  by  the  reigning  caliph  of  Bag- 


dad he  fled  into  Egypt,  became  caliph  of 
Tunis,  and  soon  conquered  all  Northern 
Africa  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to 
the  borders  of  Egypt.  His  son  wrested 
Egypt  from  the  Abbasides  in  970  and 
founded  Cairo.  The  Fatimite  dynasty 
was  extinguished  on  the  death  of  Adhed, 
the  fourteenth  cailph,  and  a new  line 
began  with  Saladin. 

FATTY  ACIDS,  a name  given  to  such 
acids  as  have  been  separated  from  fats. 
Fats  and  fixed  oils  are  composed  of  one 
or  more  acids  combined  with  the  radical 
glycyl.  By  boiling  with  potash  or  soda 
the  fat  is  decomposed,  glycerin  and  a 
soap  being  the  products.  By  treating 
this  soap  with  hydro-chloric  or  sulphuric 
acid  the  base  is  removed  and  the  fatty 
acid  obtained  free.  These  acids  are  such 
as  butyric,  caproic,  steraic,  margaric, 
palmitic,  pelargonic,  valerianic,  acteic, 
etc.  Formic  acid  has  also  been  included, 
in  the  fatty  series  of  acids,  as  it  beloiigs 
to  the  same  order  as  those  named. 

FATTY  DEGENERATION,  an  abnor- 
mal condition  found  in  the  tissues  of  the 
animal  body,  in  which  the  healthy  pro- 
toplasm is  replaced  by  fatty  granules. 
It  is  a sign  of  defective  nutrition,  and  is 
common  in  old  age,  affecting  the  muscles 
the  heart,  the  arteries,  kidneys,  etc.  It 
is_  accoftapanied  by  great  muscular 
flabbiness  and  want  of  energy,  the  suf- 
ferer looking  at  the  same  time  fat  and 
comparatively  well. 

FATTY  TISSUE,'  in  anatomy,  the 
adipose  tissue,  a tissue  composed  of 
minute  cells  or  vesicles,  having  no  com- 
munication with  each  other,  but  lying 
side  by  side  in  the  meshes  of  the  cellular 
tissue,  which  serves  to  hold  them  to- 
gether, and  through  which  also  the 
blood-vessels  find  their  way  to  them. 
In  the  cells  of  this  tissue  the  animal 
matter  called  fat  is  deposited. 

FAUBOURG  (fo-bor),  a suburb  of 
French  cities;  the  name  is  also  given  to 
districts  now  within  the  city,  but  which 
were  formerly  suburbs  without  it.  Thus 
the  Faubourg  St.  Germain  is  a fashion- 
able quarter  of  Paris  in  which  the  an- 
cient nobility  resided. 

FAU'CET,  a form  of  valve  or  cock  in 
which  a spigot  or  plug  opens  or  closes  a 
part  of  a pipe  for  the  passage  of  liquid. 

FAULT,  in  geology,  a-  fracture  of 
strata,  accompanied  by  a sliding  down  or 
an  upheaval  of  the  deposits  on  the  one 
side  of  the  fracture  to  a greater  distance 


Section  showing  displacement  of  strata  by  a 
fault,  a and  a were  once  a continuous  mass  of 
rock. 

than  the  other.  Faults  are  frequently 
met  with  in  coal-beds,  the  miner  coming 
unexpectedly  upon  an  abrupt  wall  of 
other  strata.  The  angle  this  makes  with 
the  plane  of  the  bed  he  is  working  indi- 
cates whether  he  must  look  up  or  down 
for  its  continuation  on  the  other  side  of 
the  fracture.  In  mines  these  faults  often 


FAUNA ' 


FEEHAN 


T 


serve  for  natural  drains.  The  cut  shows 
at  a a the  change  of  position  in  strata 
caused  by  a fault. 

FAUNA,  a collective  word  signifying  all 
the  animals  of  a certain  region,  and  also 
the  description  of  them,  corresponding 
to  the  word  flora  in  respect  to  plants. 

FAURE,  rran5ois  Felix,  (friin-swa-fa- 
leks  for)  French  president,  born  in  Paris 
in  1841.  During  the  Franco-Prussian 
w^ar  he  commanded  a body  of  volunteers 
and  gained  the  ribbon  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  entered  the  assembly  in 
1881,  served  as  colonial  and  coramerical 
minister  in  the  cabinets  of  Gambetta, 
Jules  Favre,  and  Tirad,  and  as  minister 
of  marine  in  that  of  Dupuy.  He  was 
elected  president  of  the  republic  in  1895 
He  died  in  1899. 

FAUST,  Doctor  John,  a celebrated 
dealer  in  the  black  art,  who  lived  in 
Germany,  early  in  the  16th  century. 
According  to  some  accounts  he  was  born 
in  Suabia,  others  make  him  a native  of 
Anhalt,  others  of  Branndenburg.  In  his 
sixteenth  year  he  went  to  Ingolstadt 
and  studied  theology,  became  in  three 
years  a magister,  but  abandoned  theol- 
ogy, and  ,began  the  study  of  medicine, 
astrology,  and  magic,  in  which  he  like- 
wise instructed  his  familiar  Johann 
Wagner,  the  son  of  a clergyman  at 
Wasserburg.  After  Dr.  Faust  had  spent 
a rich  inheritance,  he,  according  to  tra- 
dition, made  use  of  his  power  to  conjure 
up  spirits,  and  entered  into  a contract 
with  the  devil  for  twenty-four  years. 
A spirit  called  Mephistophles  was  gi-^n 
as  a servant,  with  whom  he  traveled 
about,  enjoying  life  in  all  its  forms,  but 
the  evil  spirit  finally  carried  him  off. 
Even  yet  Dr.  Faustus  and  his  familiar 
Wagner  play  a conmicuous  part  in  the 
puppet-shows  of  Germany,  and  the 
legend  forms  the  subject  of  Goethe’s 
great  drama  Faust,  and  furnishes  the 
fibretto  for  Gounod’s  famous  opera  of, 
^the  same  name.  As  early  as  1590  the 
legend  was  dramatically  treated  in  Eng- 
land by  Christopher  Marlowe. 

FAVART  (fa-var),  Charles  Simon, 
creator  of  the  serio-comic  opera  in 
France,  born  1710,  was  the  son  of  a 
pastry-cook.  His  poetical  reputation 
rests  principally  on  his  numerous  produc- 
tions for  the  opera  aux  Italiens,  and  the 
comic  opera.  He  was  the  director  of  a 
company  of  itinerant  actors  which  fol- 
lowed Marshal  Saxe  into  Flanders.-  His 
wife,  Madame  Favart,  was  a famous 
singer,  comic  actress,  and  dancer,  and 
participated  in  the  cbmposition  of  her 
husband’s  plays.  Favart  died  in  1792. 

FAVRE  (favr),  Jules,  a French  politi- 
cian, born  21st  March,  1809,  at  Lyons. 
He  was  a leader  of  the  party  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  President  Louis  Napoleon; 
and  after  the  coup  d’4tat  (1851)  he  re- 
tired from  political  life  for  six  years,  till 
in  1858  his  defense  of  Orsini  for  the  at- 
tempt on  the  life  of  the  emperor  again 
brought  him  forward.  From  this  time  he 
again  became  an  active  leader  of  the 
republican  opposition  to  the  emperor. 
On  the  fall  of  the  empire  he  became  vice- 
president  of  the  government  of  national 
defense  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
As  such  he  conducted  the  negotiations 
for  peace  with  Prince  Bismarck.  But 
though  he  showed  great  energy  and  was 
very  eloquent,  his  operations  both  in 


the  matter  of  the  armistice  and  the 
peace  showed  a lack  of  skill  and  judg- 
ment. He  died  in  1880. 

FAWKES,  Guy.  See  Gunpowder  Plot. 

FAYAL  ffl-al'),  an  island  belonging  to 
Portugal,  one  of  the  Azores.  It  is  of  a 
circular  form,  about  10  miles  in  diameter 
The  climate  is  good,  and  the  air  always 
mild  and  pure.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
producing  in  abundance  wheat,  maize, 
flax,  and  almost  all  the  fruits  of  Europe. 
It  exports  a great  quantity  of  oranges 
and  lemons.  The  chief  place  is  Villa 
Horta  or  Orta.  Pop.  31,000. 
fayEnce.  See  Faience. 

FAYETTE,  General  La.  See  Lafayette. 

FAYOUM  (fA-yom'),  a province  of 
Middle  Egypt,  a little  to  the  w'est  of  the 
Nile,  surrounded  by  the  Libyan  desert; 
area  about  800  sq.  miles.  On  the  west 
lies  Lake  Birket-el-Kurun.  The  chief 
town,  Medinet-el-Fayoum,  is  connected 
with  Cairo  by  a railway.  Pop.  of  prov- 
ince, 228,709. 

FEASTS.  See  Festivals. 

FEATHER-GRASS,  the  popular  name 
of  a plant,  a native  of  dry  places  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  The  leaves  are  rigid, 
setaceous,  grooved;  the  awns  exceed- 
ingly long,  feathering  to  the  point.  It  is 
a great  ornament  to  gardens  in  summer, 
and  to  rooms  in  winter.  The  rush- 
leaved Feather-grass  is  found  in  the 
prairies  of  the  Western  States. 

FEATHERS,  the  form  which  the  der- 
mal appendages  assume  in  birds,  agree- 
ing in  mode  of  development,  but  differ- 
ing in  form  from  hair  and  scales.  The 
leather  consists  of  a stem,  horny,  round 
strong,  and  hollow  in  the  lower  part, 
called  the  quill,  and  in  the  upper  part, 
called  the  shaft,  filled  with  pith.  On 
each  side  of  the  shaft  is  a web  composed 
of  a series  of  regularly-arranged  fibres 
called  barbs.  The  barbs  and  shaft  con- 
stitute the  vane.  On  the  edges  of  the 
barbs  are  set  the  barbules,  which  inter- 
lock with  those  of  adjacent  barbs,  and 
thus  give  strength  at  the  vane.  Feathers 
are  generally  divided  into  two  kinds, 
quill  feathers  in  the  wing  or  tail,  and 
plumes  or  clothing  feathers  generally 
diffused.  The  feathers  of  birds  are 
periodically  changed,  generally  once, 
but  in  some  species  twice  a year.  This  is 
called  moulting.  When  feathers  have 
reached  their  full  growth  they  become 
dry,  and  only  the  tube,  or  the  vascular 
substance  which  it  contains,  continues 
to  absorb  moisture  or  fat.  When,  there- 
fore, part  of  a feather  is  cut  off,  it  does 
not  grow  out  again;  and  a bird  whose 
wings  have  been  clipped  remains  in  that 
situation  till  the  next  moulting  season, 
when  the  old  stumps  are  shed  and  new 
feathers  grow  out.  If,  however,  the 
stumps»are  pulled  out  sooner  (by  which 
operation  the  bird  suffers  nothing),  the 
feathers  will  be  renewed  in  a few  weeks 
or  even  days.  The  feather  is  a very 
strong  formation,  not  readily  damaged 
the  arch  of  the  shaft  resisting  pressure, 
while  the  web  and  fine  fibers  yield 
without  suffering.  Being  a bad  conduct- 
tor  of  heat  it  preserves  the  high  tem- 
perature of  the  bird,  while  it  is  so  light 
as  to  be  easily  carried  in  flight.  It  is 
rendered  almost  impervious  to  wet  by 
the  oily  fluid  which  most  birds  secrete 
at  the  base  of  the  tail.  Feathers  form  a 


considerable  article  of  commerce,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  ostrich,  heron, 
swan,  peacock,  goose,  etc.,  for  plumes, 
ornaments,  filling  of  beds,  pens,  etc. 

FEATHER-STAR,  a beautiful  crinoid 
star-fish  occurring  on  the  British  coasts, 
consisting  of  a central  body  or  disc,  from 
which  proceed  five  radiating  arms,  each 
dividing  into  two  secondary  branches, 
so  that  ultimately  there  are  ten  slender 
rays.  Each  arm  is  furnished  on  both 
sides  with  lateral  processes  so  as  to  as- 
sume a feather-like  appearance.  It  is 
fixed  when  young  by  a short  stalk,  but  ex- 
ists in  a free  condition  in  its  adult 
state. 

FEB'RIFUGE,  a medicine  employed 
to  drive  off  or  diminish  fever,  such  as 
quinine. 

FEB'RUARY  (from  the  Roman  Feb- 
rua,  a festival  of  expiation  or  purifica- 
tion), the  second  month  in  the  year,  hav- 
ing twenty-eight  days,  except  in  leap- 
year,  when  it  has  twenty-nine.  This 
latter  number  of  days  it  had  originally 
among  the  Romans,  until  the  senate  de- 
creed that  the  seventh  month  should 
bear  the  name  of  Augustus,  when  a day 
was  taken  from  February  and  added  to 
August  to  make  it  equal  to  July  in  num- 
ber of  days. 

FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT,  govern- 
ment by  the  eonfederation  of  several 
united  states,  self-governing  in  local 
matters,  but  subject  in  matters  of  gen- 
eral polity  to  a central  authority,  as,  for 
instance,  the  Swdss  Republic,  the  U. 
States  oL  North  America,  Mexico,  etc. 
The  degree  to  which  such  states  give  up 
their  individual  rights  as  sovereign 
bodies  may  be  very  different. 

FEDERAL  PARTY,  a name  assumed 
by  that  portion  of  the  people  of  the  U. 
States  who  favored  the  adoption  of  the 
federal  constitution,  organized  the  gov- 
ernment and  administered  it  for  twelve 
years.  They  advocated  a government 
having  attributes  of  sovereignty,  oper- 
ating upon  the  people  directly,  and  hav- 
ing all  necessary  powers  for  effective 
action;  their  opponents  favored  a simple 
compact  of  confederation. 

FEE,  or  FIEF,  in  law,  primarily  meant 
a loan  of  land,  an  estate  held  in  trust  on 
condition  of  the  grantee  giving  personal 
or  other  service  to  the  prince  or  lord 
who  granted  it. ' Feudal  esiates,  how- 
ever, soon  caine  to  be  regarded  as  in- 
alienable heritages  held  on  various; 
'tenures;  hence  the  term  fee  came  to  be; 
equivalent  to  an  estate  of  inheritance,, 
that  is  an  interest  in  land  which  passes 
to  heirs  if  the  owner  die  intestate.  The 
amplest  estate  or  interest  in  land  is  that 
of  a fee-simple,  which  is  also  called  an 
absolute  fee,  in  contradistinction  to  a 
fee  limited  or  clogged  with  certain  con- 
ditions. A fee-simple  means  the  entire 
and  absolute  possession  of  land,  with  full 
power  to  alienate  it  by  deed,  gift,  or  will. 
It  is  the  estate  out  of  which  other  lesser 
estates  are  said  to  be  carved;  such  as  fee- 
tail,  which  is  limited  to  particular  heirs, 
and  subject  to  certain  restrictions  of 
use;  and  a base  fee,  which  ceases  with 
the  existence  of  certain  conditions. 

FEEHAN,  Patrick  Augustine,  Ameri- 
can Roman  Catholic  prelate,  born  in 
Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1829.  He  came 
to  the  U.  States  in  1852,  when  he  was 
ordained.  He  was  installed  as  first  Arcli- 


FEEJEE 


FENCING 


bishop  of  Chicago  in  1880.  During  his 
administration  lie  founded  several  new 
parishes,  a college  of  the  Christian 
Brothers  and  other  institutions.  He 
died  in  1902. 

FEEJEE.  See  Fiji. 

FEELING,  is  properly  a synonym  for 
sensation,  or  that  state  of  consciousness 
which  results  from  the  application  of  a 
stimulus  to  the  extremity  of  some  sen- 
sory nerve.  It  is  the  most  universal  of 
the  senses,  existing  wherever  there  are 
nerves;  and  they  are  distributed  over 
all  parts  of  the  body,  though  most  nu- 
merous on  such  parts  as  the  fingertips 
and  the  lines  where  skin  and  mucous 
membrane  pass  into  each  other.  This 
universal  distribution  of  feeling  is  neces- 
sary, otherwise  parts  of  the  body  might 
be  destroyed  without  our  knowledge. 
The  structures  which  thus  apprehend 
the  impressions  of  contact  are  papillte  or 
conical  elevations  of  the  skin  in  which 
the  nerves  end,  and  which  are  richly 
supplied  with  blood-vessels.  The  term 
feeling  is  also  used  for  a general  sense  of 
comfort  or  discomfort  which  cannot  be 
localized,  and  it  is  thus  that  the  dis- 
turbances of  internal  organs  often  mani- 
fest themselves.  In  a figurative  sense  the 
term  is  also  applied  to  a mental  emo- 
tion, or  even  to  a moral  conception ; 
thus  we  may  speak  of  a friendly  feeling, 
a feeling  of  freedom. 

FE'LIDjE,  animals  of  the  cat  kind,  a 
family  of  Carnivora  in  which  the  pre- 
daceous instincts  reach  their  highest  de- 
velopment. They  are  among  the  quad- 


Skull  and  teetti  of  the  tiger,  a.  Canines  or 
tearing  teeth,  b.  Incisors  or  cutting  teeth,  c, 
True  molars  or  grinding  teeth,  d,  Carnassiai 
or  sectorial  teeth. 

rupecls  what  the  Falconidse  are  among 
the  birds.  The  teeth  and  claws  are  the 
principal  instruments  of  the  destructive 
energy  in  these  animals.  The  incisor 
teeth  are  equal;  the  third  tooth  behind 
the  large  canine  in  either  jaw  is  narrow 
and  sharp;  and  these,  the  carnissial  or 
sectorial  teeth,  work  against  each  other 
like  scissors  in  cutting  flesh;  the  claws 
are  sheathed  and  retractile.  They  all 
approach  their  prey  stealthily,  seize  it 
with  a spring,  and  devour  it  fresh.  The 
species  are  numerous  in  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  but  none  are  found 
in  Australia.  The  family  comprehends 
the  lion,  tiger,  leojiard,  lynx,  jaguar, 
panther,  chetah,  ounce,  serval,  ocelot, 
cat,  etc. 

FELLAH,  an  Arabian  word  meaning 
“peasant,”  and  used  for  the  laboring 
class  in  Egypt.  The  fellahs  or  fellaheen 
constitute  about  tlyee-fourths  of  the 
popidation  of  Egypt,  and  are  mostly  the 
direct  descendants  of  the  old  Egyptians, 
although  both  their  language  ana  relig- 


ion are  now  that  of  their  .\rabian  con- 
querors. They  live  in  rude  huts  by  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  and  have  suffered 
much  from  over-taxation  and  oppres- 
sive rule.  See  Egypt. 

FELO  DE  SE  (Latin,  “a  felon  in  re- 
gard to  himself”),  in  law,  a person  that, 
being  of  sound  mind  and  of  the  age  of 
discretion,  deliberately  causes  his  own 
death.  Formerly,  in  England,  the  goods 
of  such  a person  were  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  and  his  body  interred  in  an  igno- 
minious manner;  that  is,  unless  the 
coroner’s  jury  gave  a verdict  of  unsound 
mind;  but  these  penalties  have  been 
abolished. 

FEL'ONY,  in  law,  includes  generally 
all  crimes  below  treason  and  of  greater 
gravity  than  misdemeanors.  Formerly 
it  was  applied  to  those  crimes  which  en- 
tailed forfeiture  of  lands  or  goods  as  part 
of  the  punishment. 

FEL'SPAR  or  FELDSPAR,  a mineral 
widely  distributed,  and  usually  of  a 
foliated  structure,  consisting  of  silica 
and  alumina,  with  potash,  soda,  or  lime. 
It  is  a principal  constituent  in  all  igenous 
and  metamorphic rocks,  as  granite,  gneiss, 
porphyry,  greenstone,  trachyte,  felstone,' 
etc.  When  in  crystals  or  crystalline 
masses  it  is  very  susceptible  of  mechani- 
cal division  at  natural  joints.  Its  hard- 
ness is  a little  inferior  to  that  of  quartz. 
There  are  several  varieties,  as  common 
felspar  or  orthoclase,  the  type  of  an  acid 
group  containing  from  7 to  16  per  cent 
of  potash;  albite  and  oligoclase,  soda 
felspars,  the  quantity  of  soda  exceeding 
that  of  lime;  labradorite  aind  anorthite, 
lime  felspars,  the  quantity  of  lime  in  the 
latter  amounting  to  20  per  cent. 

FELT,  a kind  of  cloth  made  of  wool, 
or  of  wool  and  cotton  united  by  rolling, 
beating  and  pressure.  The  materials  to 
be  felted  are  carded  and  placed  in  a 
machine,  where  they  are  kept  w'et  and 
intimately  mixed  together  by  a process 
of  beating.  Pressure  then  unites  the 
whole  into  a compact  mass.  The  use  of 
felt  as  a material  for  hats,  tents,  cloaks 
etc.,  is  very  ancient.  For  hat-making 
the  fur  of  rabbits,  beavers,  raccoons,  and 
the  wool  of  sheep  is  generally  used.  Felt 
being  a good  non-conductor  of  heat  is 
much  used  for  roofing,  sheathing  boilers, 
hot-water  reservoirs,  etc.  The  felt  for 
such  purposes  is  made  from  the  coarsest 
woolen  refuse  from  paper-mills. 

FELUC'CA,  a long  narrow  vessel,  gen- 
erally undocked,  of  light  draught,  and 


Felucca. 


rigged  with  large  lateen  sails.  They  also 
carry  from  eight  to  twelve  large  oars. 
They  are  common  in  the  Mediterranean. 

FE'MUR,  in  vertebrate  animals,  the 
first  bone  of  the  leg,  situated  next  the 


trunk  of  the  body,  and  in  man  popularly 
called  the  thigh-bone. 

FENCES,  continuous  lines  of  obstacles; 
artificially  interposed  between  one  por-- 
tion  of  the  surface  of  the  land  and  an- 
other for  the  purpose  of  separation  or 
exclusion.  Live  .iences  are  m.ade  of 
hawthorn,  holly,  box,  beech,  etc.;  dead, 
fences  of  stone,  wood,  and  in  recent, 
times  of  iron  or  wire.  In  agriculture 
fences  are  necessary  both  for  restricting 
the  tenant’s  own  animals  to  their  pas- 
ture, and  for  protecting  his  land  from 
straying  animals.  The  general  erection 
of  fences  on  farms  is  one  of  the  improve- 
ments of  modern  agriculture. 

FENCING,  the  art  of  attack  and  de- 
fense with  sword  or  rapier,  no  shield  be- 
ing used.  It  was  in  Italy  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury that  the  skilful  use  of  the  small 
sword  first  became  common.  The  art 
spread  to  Spain  and  then  to  France, 
where,  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of 
duelling,  it  was  brought  to  a high  degree 
of  development.  The  small  sword  or 
rapier  (which  was  adopted  for  duelling) 
has  a point,  but  no  edge,  and  therefore 
demands  the  highest  degree  of  adroitness 
in  its  use.  In  the  fencing  schools  the 
instrument  adopted  for  exercise  is  called 
a foil ; it  has  a guard  of  metal  or  leather 
between  the  handle  and  blade,  which  is 
made  of  pliant  steel  and  has  a button  at 
the  end  in  place  of  a point.  The  parries 
are  made  with  the  weapon  itself  by 
opposing  the  forte  of  the  foil  (i.e.  the 
strong  part  from  the  handle  to  the  cen- 
ter) to  the  feeble  of  the  adversary’s  foil 
(i.e.  to  the  part  from  center  to  point); 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  to  the  right 
is  defended  by  the  parry  called  tierce, 
the  upper  part  to  the  left  by  the  carte, 
and  the  lower  part  by  the  seconde.  In  all 
parrying  care  must  be  taken  that  in 
covering  the  side  attacked  the  other  side 
is  not  too  carelessly  exposed  to  the 
enemy.  After  every  parry  a return 
should  be  made  with  rapidity  and  de- 
cision. The  fencer  should  rely  more 
upon  his  sword  hand  for  protection  than 
upon  his  agility  of  leg;  yet  he  must  be 
active  on  his  legs  so  as  to  advance,  re- 
treat, or  lunge  with  effect.  The  knee 
should  therefore  be  somewhat  bent 
when  the  fencer  is  on  guard,  that  he  may 
be  light  and  elastic  in  his  movements. 
An  attack  may  be  made  by  the  mere 
extension  of  the  arm,  or  accompanied 
by  a lunge,  that  is,  by  advancing  the 
body,  stepping  forward  with  the  right 
foot,  without  moving  the  left.  An  en- 
gagement means  the  crossing  of  the 
blades;  a disengagement,  slipping  your 
foil  under  the  opponent’s  and  then  press- 
ing in  the  opposite  direction;  riposte, 
the  attack  without  pause  by  a fencer 
who  has  parried.  Fencing  with  the 
broadsword  differs  essentially  from  that 
with  the  foil,  as  the  former  has  an  edge 
as  well  as  a point,  and  is  therefore  meant 
to  cut  as  well  as  thrust.  .According  to  the 
instructions  of  drill-masters  there  are 
seven  cuts,  with  corresponding  guards, 
and  three  thrusts.  Cut  one  is  a diagonal, 
downward  cut  at  the  left  cheek  of  the 
adversary;  cut  three  is  delivered  with  an 
upward  slope  at  the  left  leg,  and  cut  five 
horizontally  at  the  right  side;  cuts  two, 
four,  and  six  attack  the  right  cheek, 
right  side,  and  right  leg  respectively; 
and  cut  seven  is  directed  vertically  at 


f’ENELO?^ 


FERDINAND  VII 


,the  head.  Guards  one  and  two  defetid 
the  upper  portion  of  the  body,  the  sword 
sloping  upw^rd^.fil  .an  opposite  direction 
to  the  opponent’s;  gU’ard^, three  and  four 
-TJrotect  the  legs,  the  sword  slobmg-  down- 
ward; guards  five  and  six  defend  thO 
sides,  when  the  sword  is  held  vertically, 
point  downward;  and  guard  seven  pro- 
tects the  head,-  the  blade  meeting  the 
enemy’s  almost  at  a right  angle,  Hinco 
the  introduction  (ft  the’  bayonet,  bayo- 
net exercise  has  become  &ii  important 
department  of  fencing  in  the  army.  In 
handling  the  bayonet  defensively  the 
right  foot  is  thro'vvh  back  and  receives 
most  of  the  weight  of  the  body,  the 
knees  are  bent,  the  bayonet  brought  to 
a horizontal  position  level  with  the 
Waist.  Thi.s  is  tlie  “guard,”  and  accord- 
ing to  the  parry  to  be  made  the  weapon 
is  carried  either  to  the  “high”  position, 
pointing  upward  from,  the  breast,  or  to 
the  “low”  position,  pointing  doAvnWard 
from  the  breast.  In  taking  the  offensive 
the  ri^ht  leg  is  straightened,  and  the  left 
bent  forward,  without  moving  the  feet 
from  their  place.  The  butt  of  the  rifle  is 
pressed  firmly  to  the  shoulder  and  points 
straight  forward.  In  “shortening  arms” 
the  butt  is  carried  back  to  the  full  extent 
ef  the  right  arm,  while  the  barrel  (turned 
downward)  rests  upon  the  left  arm.  The 
body  rests  upon  the  right  leg,  which  is 
slightly  bent,  while  the  left  is  somewhat 
adyanced. 

FENELON  (fan-ion),  Franeoia  de 
Saligiiac  dfe  la  Mothe,  born  in  1651  at  the 
ChfLteau  F6neicffi,  in  P(5rigord,  of  a 
family  illustrious  in  church  and  state. 
He  took  orders  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Work  of  converting  Protestants.  In 
1681  his  uncle  conferred  on  him  the 
priory  of  CarCnnac.  Soon  after  he 
wrote  his  first  Work,  'Traits  de  PEd- 
UCation  des  Filles,  which  -Was  the  basis 
of  his  future  reputation.  In  1689 
Louis  XIV.  intrusted  to  him  the  educa- 
tion of  his  grandsons,  the  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,  Anjou,  and  Berri.  In  1694 
he  was  created  Archbishop  of  Cambray. 
A theological  dispute  with  Bossuet,  the 
virtual  head  of  the  French  Church,  ter- 
minated in  his  condemnation  by  Pope 
innocent  XII.,  and  his  banishment  to 
his  diocese  by  Louis  XIV.  F4nelon  sub- 
mitted without  the  least  hesitation,  and 
thenceforward  lived  contentedly  in  his 
diocese,  sustaining  the  venerable  char- 
acter of  a Christian  philosopher,  and 
scrupulously  performing  his  sacred 
duties.  He  died  in  1715.  He  left  nu- 
merous works  in  philosophy,  theology, 
and  belles-lettres.  The  most  celebrated 
is  Les  Adventures  de  T41emaque,  in 
which  he  endeavored  to  exhibit  a model 
for  the  education  of  a prince.  It  was  com- 
monly taken  for  a satire  on  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.,  though  nothing  probably, 
was  further  from  the  mind  of  F4nelon. 

FE'NIANS,  a name  usually  derived 
from  Fionn  or  Finn,  the  name  given  to  a 
semi-mythical  class  of  Irish  warriors 
famous  for  their  prowess.  The  name  has 
been  assumed  in  recent  years  by  those 
Irish  who  formed  a brotherhood  in  their 
own  country  and  in  America,  with  the 
intention  of  delivering  Ireland  from  the 
sovereignty  of  England,  and  establish- 
ing an  Irish  republic.  About  the  end  of 
1861  The  Fenian  Brotherhood  was 


Tegitlarly  . organized  in  The 

close  ox  thf^  civile  war,  when  large  CtEm’- 
bers  of  Irish  soldi^fs  'Were  released  from 
service,  was  thought  to  b'4  a eonvenient 
tirne  for  taking  decisive  steps.  Two 
ri^ngs  were  planned  in  Ireland,  but  they 
Were'  both  frustrated  by  the  energetic 
measure's'  fd  the  Br)ti.sh  government. 
An  invasion  Of  Canada,  failed  as  miser- 
ably as  the  attempt  in  Ireland,  and  con- 
vinced the  Irish  that  they  coUld  not 
expect  the  aid  from  the  U.  States  on 
which  they  had  hitherto  counted.  At 
last,  on  6th  March,  1867,  the  long- 
prepared  insurrection  broke  out  almost 
simultaneously  In  the  districts  of  Dublin, 
Drogheda,  and  Kerry.  The  number  of 
insufgents  in  the  field,  hoAvever,  did  not 
exceed  .3000,  and  though  they  burned 
some  police  stations,  they  nowhere  faced 
the  troops  sent  after  them.  About  the 
same  time  some  forty  or  fifty  Irish-Amer- 
icaris  landed  in  a steamer  near  Water- 
ford, but  soon  after  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  police.  In  1870  and  1871  two  raids 
were  again  made  on  Canada,  but  both 
were  ridiculous  failures,  the  first  being 
repulsed  by  the  Canadian  Volunteers, 
and  the  second  suppressed  b3’’thc  United 
States  government.  At  present  the 
brotherhood  seems  to  have  suspended 
active  operations. 

FENNEC,  a small  animal  allied  to  the 
dog  and  fox,  and  sometimes  called  the 
Sahara  fox,  being  a native  of  that  region. 


Fennec. 


It  lives  on  birds,  jerboas,  lizards,  dates, 
etc.,  burrows  with  great  facility,  and  is 
easily  tamed.  It  is  fox-like  in  appear- 
ance, and  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
size  of  its  ears. 

FENNEL,  a fragrant  plant,  cultivated 
in  gardens.  It  bears  umbels  of  small 
yellow  flowers,  and  has  finely  divided 
leaves.  The  fruit,  or  in  common  language 
the  seeds,  are  carminative,  and  fre- 
quently employed  in  medicine. 

FER'DINAND,  German  emperors:— 
1.  Ferdinand  I.,  brother  of  Charles  V., 
born  at  Alcala,  in  Spain,  10th  March, 
1503.  On  the  abdication  of  Charles  he 
succeeded  to  the  imperial  title.  He  died 
25th  July,  1564. — 2.  Ferdinand  II.  was 
born  in  1578,  and  succeeded  his  uncle 
Matthias  as  Emperor  of  Germany  in 
1619.  He  was  of  a dark  and  reserved 
character,  and  had  been  brought  up  by 
his  mother  and  the  Jesuits  in  fierce  hate 
of  Protestantism.  The  result  was  a 
quarrel  with  his  Bohemian  subjects, 
who  openly  revolted  and  offered  the 
Bohemian  crown  to  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine, a step  which  led  to  the  outbreak  of 
the  Thirty  Years’  war  (1619).  He  died 
Feb.  1.5,  1637. — 3.  Ferdinand  III.,  son 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1608,  and 


succeeded  his  father  in  1637.  He  had 
served  in  the  Thirty  Years’  war  and  had 
sees  the  miseries  which  it  occasioned 
and  v/as  reluctant  to  continue  it.  There 
were  eleven  years  more  of  it,  however, 
before  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  was  con- 
cluded in  1648.  Ferdinand  died  in  1657. 

FERDINAND  I.  of  Bourbon,  King  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  (previously  Ferdinand 
IV.  of  Naples),  born  January  12,  1751, 
was  the  third  son  of  Charles  III.,  King 
of  Spain,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1759, 
on  the  throne  of  Naples,  on  the  acces- 
sion of  the  latter  to  that  of  Spain.  In 
1768  be  married  Maria  Caroline  Louisa, 
daughter  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa, 
who  soon  acquired  a decided  influence 
over  him.  He  died  in  January,  1825, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  I. 

FERDINAND  II.,  King  of  the  Two 
Sicilies,  born  in  1810,  succeeded  his 
father  Francis  I.  on  the  8th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1830.  The  revolution  of  France  in 
this  year  had  unsettled  the  minds  of  men 
throughout  the  continent,  and  Ferdi- 
nand was  forced  to  make  concessions  to 
his  subjects,  but  soon  recalled  them,  de- 
termining thenceforward  to  make  his 
will  the  only  law.  He  died  in  1859  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II., 
who  lost  his  crown  when  Italy  was 
united  in  1860  under  Victor  Emmanuel. 

FERDINAND  V.,  King  of  Aragon, 
who  received  from  the  pope  the  title  of 
the  Catholic,  on  account  of  the  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  from  Spain,  was  the  son  of 
King  John  II.,  and  was  born  March  10, 
1453.  On  the  18th  of  October,  1469,  he 
married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  thus 
brought  about  that  close  connection  be- 
tween Aragon  and  Castile  which  became 
the  basis  of  a tinited  Spanish  monarchy 
and  raised  Spain  to  preeminence  among 
European  states.  After  a bloody  war  of 
ten  years  they  conquered  Granada  from 
the  Moors  (1491);  but  the  most  brilliant 
event  of  their  reign  was  the  discovery 
of  America,  which  made  them  sovereigns 
of  a new  world.  (See  Columbus.)  This 
politic  prince  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Spanish  ascendency  in  Europe  by  the 
acquisition  of  Naples  (1503),  and  by  the 
conquest  of  Navarre  (1512);  but  his 
policy  was  deceitful  and  despotic.  He 
instituted  the  court  of  the  Inquisition  at 
Seville  in  1480,  and,  to  the  great  injury 
of  Spanish  commerce,  expelled  the  Jews' 
(1492)  and  Moors  (1501).  He  died  in  1516. 

FERDINAND  VII.,  King  of  Spain, 
eldest  son  of  Charles  IV.,  and  of  Maria 
Louisa  of  Parma,  born  in  1784;  ascended 
the  throne  in  March,  1808,  when  a popu- 
lar rising  forced  his  father  to  abdicate 
in  his  favor.  A month  later  he  himself 
abdicated  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  who 
conferred  the  crown  on  his  brother 
Joseph.  Ferdinand  returned  to  Spain  in 
-March,  1814.  His  arbitrary  conduct 
caused  an  insurrection  in  1820,  which 
was  at  first  successful,  but  Louis  XVIII. 
of  France  having  sent  an  army  to  his  aid, 
his  authority  was  once  more  made  abso- 
lute in  Spain.  Having  no  sons  he  abol- 
ished the  act  of  1713  by  which  Philip  V. 
had  excluded  women  from  the  throne 
of  Spain,  and  then  left  his  crown  to  his 
daughter  Isabella  to  the  exclusion  of  his 
brother  Don  Carlos.  It  was  during  the 
reign  of  this  king  that  the  Spanish  colon- 
ies in  America  broke  away  from  the 
mother  country. 


feretory 


FERRET 


FER'ETORY,  a kiiirf  of  box  made  of 
gold  or  other  metal,  or  of  wood  variously 
adorned,  and  usually  in  the  shape  of  a 


Feretory. 

English  medieval  silverwork. 


ridged  chest,  with  a roof -like  top,  for 
containing  the  relics  of  saints.  It  is 
borne  in  processions. 

FERGHANA',  a province  of  Asiatic 
Russia  in  Turkestan,  formed  in  1876  out 
of  the  conquered  khanate  of  Khokand. 
Area,  36,000  sq.  miles.  The  climate  is 
warm,  an-d  the  soil  in  part  fertile,  but  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  country  is 
desert.  Pop.  about  716,000.  Khokand 
is  the  capital. 

FERGUSON,  James,  an  eminent  ex- 
perimental philosopher,  mechanist,  and 
astronomer,  was  born  qf  poor  parents  at 
Keith,  in  Banffshire,  in  1710.  While  a 
boy  tending  sheepdie  acquired  a knowl- 
edge of  the  stars,  and  constructed  a 
celestial  globe.  He  died  in  1776.  His 
principal  works  are:  Astronomy  Ex- 
plained upon  Sir  Isaac  Newton’s  Prin- 
ciples (1756);  Lectures  on  Mechanics, 
Hydrostatics,  etc.  (1760);  Select  Me- 
chanical Exercises  (1773). 

FERMANAGH  (fer-ma'na),  an  inland 
county  in  Ireland,  in  t]ie  province  of 
Ulster;  area,  714  sq.  miles,  or  457,369 
acres.  The  soil  is  variable,  and  not  re- 
markably fertile.  The  manufactures  are 
unimportant.  Politically  it  is  divided 
into  North  Fermanagh  and  South  Fer-; 
managh,  each  sending  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  74,037. 

FERMENTATION,  the  spontaneous 
conversion  of  an  organic  substance  into 
new  compounds  by  the  influence  of  a 
ferment,  these  ferments  being  apparent- 
ly vegetable  organisms  of  extremely 
simple  type,  which  by  their  life,  growth, 
and  increase  set  up  fermentation.  There 
are  several  kinds  of  fermentation:  1st, 
the  vinous  or  alcoholic  fermentation — 
the  most  important  from  an  economic 
and  industrial  point  of  view — in  which 
the  sugar  contained  in  liquids  is  con- 
verted into  alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  and 
glycerin;  2d,  the  acid  fermentation,  in 
which  spirituous  liquors  become  acid, 
•producing  acetic  acid;  3d,  the  putrid 
fermentation,  by  which  organic  sub- 
stances undergo  various  alterations  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  substance, 
and  generally  set  free  poisonous  gases. 
Fermentation  is  also  described  as  lactic, 
butyric,  etc.,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  results.  The  general  course  of  alco- 
holic fermentation,  as  seen  in  brewing 
and  wine  making,  is  as  follows: — After  a 
lapse  of  time,  which  may  vary  much 
according  to  the  temperature  and  other 
conditions,  the  liquid  acquires  a turbid 
appearance,  there  is  a slight  disengage- 
ment of  gas,  which  increases  till  the 
liquid  begins  to  efifervesce,  its  tempera- 
ture rises  to  a higher  point  than  that  of 
the  surrounding  air,  and  its  surface  be- 


comes  covered  with  a frothy  matter 
knoAvn  as  yeast.  The  effervescence  be- 
comes more  and  more  violent  till  a cli- 
max is  reached,  when  its  intensity  grad- 
ually diminishes,  and  the  disengagement 
of  gas  ceases.  The  yeast  then  settles 
down-at  the  bottom  of  the  liquor,  which  is 
now  entirely  deprived  of  its  su^r;  and 
has  the  characteristic  taste  and  effects 
of  “fermented  liquors.”  The  rationale  of 
this  process  has  long  been  the  subject  of 
touch  discussion,  but  there”  can  be  little 
doubt  that  it  is  due  to  microscopic  or- 
ganisms (the  yeast  fungus)  which  live 
and  multiply  in  the  liquid  in  which  they 
cause  fermentation.  And  the  fermenta- 
tion may  be  checked  or  altogether  pre- 
vented by  anything  which  prevents  the 
growth  of  the  fungus,  for  example  by  the 
presence  of  any  antiseptic  substance 
such  as  sulphuric  acid,  carbolic  acid,  etc., 
which  acts  as  a poison  on  the  fungus;  or 
by  the  liquid  being  either  too  hot  or  too 
cold  (below  50°  or  above  86°  Fahr.). 
Fermentation  differs  in  kind  according 
toJthe  nature  of  the  substance  which 
produces  it,  and  each  kind  is  the  special 
production  of  a certain  species  of  organ- 
ism, no  two  of  which  will  ever  pass  into 
each  other.  Lactic  fermentation,  such 
as  occurs  in  milk,  that  has  been  allowed 
to  stand,  is  caused,  according  to  Pasteur, 
by  the  development  in  the  mass  of  a 
microscopic  fungus,  Penicillium  glau- 
cum,  the  sugqj'  of  the  milk  being  con- 
verted into  lactic  acid.  The  acid  or 
acetous  fermentation  occurs  in  liquids 
which  have  already  undergone  vinous 
fermentation.  When  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  such  liquids  become  sour, 
and  vinegar  is  produced.  This  change  is 
probably  due  to  the  growth  of  a fungus, 
Mycoderma  aceti  (the  vinegar  plant). 
Viscous  fermentation  often  accompanies 
vinous  fermentation,  making  the  wine 
thick  and  viscous  so  that  it  runs  out  in 
threads  when  poured.  It  occurs  at  tem- 
peratures ranging  from  68°  to  104°  Fahr. 
Butyric  fermentation  follows  on  lactic 
fermentation  when  the  latter  is  allowed 
to  proceed  after  lactate  of  lime  has  been 
formed.  It  is  believed  that  putrefaction 
is  only  a species  of  fermentation,  deter- 
mined by  ferment  of  the  bacteria  class. 
As  it  is  commonly  maintained  that  fer- 
mentation may  be  set  up  by  the  neces- 
sary germs  entering  the  liquors  from  the 
air  in  which  they  float,  the  theory  of 
fermentation  has  a close  connection  with 
that  of  the  germ  theory  of  disease.  See 
Germ  Theory. 

FERMENT'ED  LIQUORS,  alcoholic 
bevdrages  obtained  by  the  fermentation 
and  clarification  of  saccharine  fluids. 
These  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times.  Among  the  commonest  kinds  are 
wine  made  from  the  juic^  of  the  grape ; 
ale  or  beer  made  from  an  infusion  of 
malt;  cider,  from  apples,'  mead,  from 
honey;  kumiss  made  by  the  Kirghiz 
from  mares’  milk;  chica  from  maize  by 
the  South  American  Indians,  etc.  From 
all  fermented  liquors  a spirit  may  be 
extracted  by  distillation. 

FERNS,  a natural  order  of  cryptoga- 
mous  or  flowerless  plants,  forming  the 
highest  group  of  the  acrogens  or  sum- 
mit-growers. They  are  leafy  plants,  the 
leaves,  or  more  properly  fronds,  arising 
from  a rhizome  or  root-stock,  or  from  a 
hollow  arborescent  trunk,  and  being 


circinate  in  vernation,  a term  descriptive 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  fronds  are 
rolled  up  before  they  are  developed  irt 
spring,  having  then  the  fi.ppearahce  pi  a 
bishop’s  crosier.  Oh,  the  veins  of  the, if 
lotver  surfabe,  hr  .their  margins,  the 
fronds  bear  small  vessels  named  spor- 
angia, containing  spores.  These  spore- 
cases  are  arranged  in  clusters,  named 
sori,  which  are  either  naked  or  covered 
with  a layer  of  the  epidermis,  which 
forms  an  involucre  or  indusium.  When 
the  spores  germinate  they  produce  a 


Male-fern. 


cellular  structure  of  a leafy  description, 
called  the  pro-embryo,  or  prothallus , 
upon  which  are  developed  organs  which 
have  received  the  names  of  antheridia 
and  archegonia.  When  produced  upon 
the  prothallus  these  organs  do  not  im- 
mediately give  origin  to  a germinating 
spore,  but  from  their  mutual  action  pro- 
ceeds a distinct  cellular  body,  destined 
at  a later  period  to  develop  into  a fruit- 
bearing frond.  Ferns  have  a wide  geo- 
graphical range,  but  are  most  abundant 
in  numid,  temperate,  and  tropical  re- 
gions. In  the  tropical  forests  the  tree 
ferns  rival  the  pahns,  rising  sometimes 
to  a height  of  50  or  60  feet.  Ferns  are 
very  abundant  as  fossil  plants.  The 
earliest  known  forms  occur  in  Devonian 
rocks.  Various  systems  of  classification 
for  ferns  have  been  proposed.  At  present 
the  order  is  usually  divided  into  six  or 
eight  sub-orders  or  tribes  distinguished 
by  differences  in  the  structure  of  the 
sporangium.  The  generic  characters  are 
founded  on  the  position  and  direction  of 
the  sori  and  on  the  venation.  A few  of 
the  ferns  are  used  medicinally  mostly  as 
demulcents  and  astringents. 

FERRA'RA,  a city  of  N.  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  same  name,  26  miles 
n.n.e.  Bologna,  in  a fertile  but  unhealthy 
plain.  Pop.  28,814. — The  province  was 
formerly  a duchy  of  Italy  held  by  the 
House  of  Este  as  a papal  fief  from  1471 
till  1597,  when  it  fell  to  the  pope. 
At  the  unification  of  Italy  under 
Victor  Emmanuel  in  1860  it  gave  its 
name  to  a province  bounded  on  the  n. 
by  the  Po,  e.  by  the  Adriatic,  s.  and  w. 
by  Ravenna,  Bologna,  and  Modena; 
area,  1100  sq.  miles;  pop.  247,788. 

FER'RET,  a carnivorous  animal 
closely  allied  to  the  polecat,  about  14 
inches  in  length,  of  a pale-yellow  color, 
with  red  eyes.  It  is  a native  of  Africa. 


FERRIS  WHEEL 


FETISH 


Fertets  are  used,  in  catching  rabbits,  rats; 
etc.,  to  drive  them  out  of  their  holes. 


Ferret. 

FERWS  WHEEL,  The,  exhibited  at 
the  Chicago  World’s  Fair,  was  a re- 
InhrkablC  engineering  featurfei  Its  diamfe- 
ter  was  270  feet;  its  circumference  825 
feet.  Its  highest  point  was  280  feet. 
The  axle  was  a steel  bar,  45  feet  long,  32 
inches  thick.  Fastened  to  ;each  of  the 
twin  wheels  was  a steel  hub  16  feet  in 
diameter.  The  36  cars  oh  the  tvheel  each 
comfortably  seated  40  persons,  wheel 
and  passengers  weighing  1200  tons.  The 
two  towers  at  the  axis  supporting  the 
wheel  were  140  feet  high.  The  motive 
|)0wer  was  a 1000-horse-power-steam- 
etigine  imder  the  tvheeh  By  the  Ferris 
tvheel  the  almost  indefinite  afiplicatlOil 
bf  the  tension  spoke  tb  wheels  of  large 
dimensions  has  beeii  vindicated,  the 
expense  being  far  smaller  than  that  of 
the  stiff  spoke. 

FERROL,  a fortified  seaport  of  North- 
ern Spain,  in  the  province  and  about  12 
miles  n.e.  of  the  town  of  Coruna,  on  a 
fine  island  bay,  connected  with  the  sea 
by  a channel  so  narrow  as  to  admit  only 
one  ship-of-the-line  at  a time.  The  chief 
na^l  arsenal  of  Spain,  established  on  a 
magnificent  scale,  is  here.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  chiefly  of  swords,  cutlery, 
and  military  and  naval  equipments. 
Pop.  23,811. 

FERRY,  a particular  part  of  a river, 
lake,  arm  of  the  sea,  etc.,  where  a boat 
or  other  conveyance  plies  to  carry  pas- 
sengers or  goods  from  one  side  to  the 
other.  The  right  of  establishing  a public 
ferry  is  usually  the  prerogative  of  a gov- 
ernment or  legislature.  The  person  who 
has  a right  of  ferry  is  required  to  keep  a 
boat  or  Doats  suitable  for  the  conveyance 
of  passengers,  to  charge  a reasonable 
fare,  and  to  provide  the  requisite  land- 
ing-places on  either  bank  of  the  river. 
No  one  will  be  allowed  to  establish  a 
rival  ferry  so  near  the  original  one  as  to 
destroy  its  custom.  Common  rowing- 
boats,  sailing-boats,  large  flat-bottomed 
barges  pulled  along  a rope  stretched  from 
bank  to  bank  for  horses  and  carriages, 
and  steam  ferry-boats  are  among  the 
conveyances. 

FERRY,  Jules  Fran9ois  Camille, 
French  statesman  and  writer,  born  at 
St.  Dib  in  the  Vosges,  April  5,  1832.  He 
became  a barrister  at  Paris,  but  de- 
voted himself  almost  entirely  to  jour- 
nalism. In  1869  he  was  returned  as 
deputy  for  the  sixth  arrondissement  of 
Paris  and  took  his  seat  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  “Left.”  After  the  fall  of 
Sedan  he  became  a member  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, of  the  National  Defense,  In 
1872  Thiers  appointed  him  minister  resi- 
dent at  Athens.  In  1879  he  became  minr 
ister  of  public  instruction,  and  as  such  inr 
troduced  an  education  bill,  which  among 


i 

othef  things  fotb&de  untiuthorized  com- 
mtlfaities, , such,  as  Jesuits,  to  teach  in 
s'chbols;  Til  1680;  FSrry,  haying  become 
premier,  entered  upon  S,  VigbrOiiS  and 
somewhat  hazardous  foreign  policy.  His 
seizure  of  Tunis,  in  1881,  was  so  far 
StlccitssfOl,  though  it  led.  to  his  resigna- 
tion; again  premier  iri  t88S  his 
tunate  expedition  to  Tonquin  forcecl 
him  to  retire  from  office.  Feb.  24,  1893, 
e was  elected  president  of  the  senate, 
ut  died  March  17  of  the  same  year. 
FER'ULA,  a genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  whose  species  often  yield  a 
powerful  stimulating  gum  resin,  em- 
ployed in  medicine.  The  species  are 
natives  of  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ahdPcfsia,  and  arecharacterizedlby 
tall-growing  pithy  stems,  find  deebly- 
divided  leaves,  the  segments  of  which 
are  frequently  linear. 

_ FESSE  (fes),  in  heraldry,  a band  or 
girdle  comprising  the  center  third  part  of 
the  shield,  and  formed  by  two  horizontal 
lines  drawn  across  it ; it  is  one  of  the  nine 
honorable  ordinaries.  The  fesse-point 
is  the  exact  center  of  the  escutcheon. 

FESSENDEN,  William  Pitt,  states- 
man, born  at  Boscawen,  N.  H.,  1806.  He 
was  elected  in  1841  tnthe  congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  1853,  he  was  elected 
to  the  tJnited  States  Senate.  In  1864,  on 
the  retirement  6f  Mr.  Chase  from  the 
secretaryship  of  the  treasury,  he  ac- 
cepted that  portfolio,  and  discharged  the 
duties  of  the  office  during  a most  critical 
period  of  the  nation’s  finances  until 
March,  1865,  when  he  resigned  and  re- 
sumed his  seat  in  the  senate,  to  which 
he  had  been  re-elected.  He  died  in  1869. 

FESTIVALS,  or  FEASTS,  certain  days 
or  longer  periods  consecrated  to  par- 
ticular celeorations  either  in  honor  of 
some  god,  or  in  commemoration  of  some 
imfiortant  event.  ■ Such  festivals  have 
prevailed  among  nearly  all  nations,  both 
ancient  and  modern.  Among  the  Jews 
there  are  six  festivals  prescribed  in  the 
Scriptures  (Lev.  xxiii.),  and  thence 
called  sacred  feasts.  These  are  the 
weekly  feasts  of  the  Sabbath;  the  Pas-- 
Bover,  or  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread; 
Pentecost,  or  the  Feast  of  Weeks;  the 
Feast  of  Trumpets,  or  New  Moon;  the 
Feast  of  the  Atonement;  and  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles.  Afterward  the  Feast  of 
Purim  (to  commemorate  the  failure  of 
Haman’s machinations),  and  the  Dedica- 
tion of  the  Temple  (after  its  profanation 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanesh  were  added. 
Amorig  the  ancient  Greeks  were  cele- 
brated the  Dionysia;  the  Eleusiania; 
the  four  great  national  games,  the 
Olympic,  the  Isthmian,  Nemean,  and 
Pythian  games.  But  each  community 
and  city  had  its  own  local  festivals  in 
addition,  such  as  the  Panathenaea,  held 
by  the  tribes  of  Attica,  whose  union  it 
was  intended  to  celebrate.  Among 
Roman  festivals  were  the  Saturnalia, 
Cerealia,  Lupercali,  and  others. 

The  festivals  of  the  Christian  church 
owe  their  origin  partly  to  those  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  such  as  Easter,  which 
corresponds  to, the  Passover  of  the  Jews 
and  Whitsuntide,  which  corresponds  to 
Pentecost ; partl3f  also  to  pagan  festivals, 
which  the  Christian  hierarchy,  finding  it 
impossible  to  abolish  them,  applied  to 
Christian  uses  by  converting  them  in 
festivals  of  the  church.  These  festivals 


are  divided  into  movable  and  immova- 
ble; the  former  those  Which  in  different 
years  fall  on  different  days,  the  latter 
those  which  alw^s  fall  upon  the  same' 
day.  The  chief  of  the  movable  feasts  is 
Easter,  the  one  which  the  position  of 
all  the  others,  excrat  that  of  Adveiif 
Sunday,  depends.  Septuagesithei  Stm-' 
day  fftlls  nine  weeks  before  Easter, 
Sexagesiiiia  Sunday  eight  weeks,  Quin- 
quagesima  Sunday'  Seven  weeks,  the 
first  Sunday  in  Lent  six  weekjj  and 
Palm  Sunday,  one  week  before  KHaiSf/ 
Rogation  Sunday  falls  five  weeks,  Astert- 
sion  day  forty  days,  Whitsunday  seven 
weeks,  and  Trinity  Sunday  eight  weeks 
after  Easter.  Ash  Wednesday  is  the 
Wednesday  before  the  first  Sunday  in 
Lent,  Maundy  Thursday  the  Thursday, 
and  Good  Friday  the  Friday  before 
Easter,  and  Corpus  Christi  is  the  Thurs- 
day after  Trinity  Sunday,  Advent  Sun- 
day is  the  nearest  Sunday  to  the  feast  of 
St.  Andrew,  November  30,  whether  be- 
fore or  after.  The  chief  immovable  feasts 
are  the  feast  of  the  Circumcision  on  the 
1st  of  January,  Epiphany  on  the  6th  of 
January,  the  Annunciation  of  theBlessed 
Virgin  on  the  25th  of  March,  the  Trans- 
figuration of  Christ  on  the  6th  of  August; 
the  feast  of  St.  Michael  (Michaelmas) 
and  All  the  Angels  on  the  29th  of  Sep- 
tember, the  feast  of  All-Saints  on  the  1st 
of  November,  the  festival  of  All -Souls 
on  the  2d  of  November,  and  Christmas 
Day  or  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity  of  our 
Lord  on  the  25th  of  December.  The 
festivals  relating  to  the  Virgin  Mary  io 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  include  J 
the  feast  of  the  Annunciation;  the  Puri- 
fication of  the  Virgin,  or  Candlemas;  the 
feast  of  the  Visitation  of  Our  Lady;  the 
feast,  of  the  Immaculate  Conception; 
the  Nativity  of  the  Virgin;  the  Martyr- 
dom of  the  Virgin  Mary;  the  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin  (Aug. I 6);  and  several 
smaller  ones.  The  worship  of  the  cross 
introduced  two  festivals;  that  of  the 
Invention  of  the  Holy  Cross  (May  3), 
and  that  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross 
(September  1).  The  saints’  days  that  are 
still  held  as  festivals  and  have  religious 
services  connected  with  them  in  the 
Church  of  Englnad,  are  called  red-letter 
days,  because  they  used  to  be  printed 
with  red  letters  in  the  church  calendar; 
while  the  saints’  days  which  were  still 
retained  in  the  calendar  at  the  Reforma- 
tion, but  had  no  services  connected  with, 
them,  are  called  black-letter  days,  be- 
cause they  were  printed  in  black  letters^ 

FESTUS,  Sextus  Pompeius,  a Roman 
grammarian  belonging  to  the  2d  or  3d 
century  of  our  era,  author  of  an  abridg- 
ment of  a work  by  Verrius  Flaccus  called 
De  Verborum  Significations,  a kind  of 
dictionary,  which  is  very  valuable  for 
the  information  it  contains  about  the 
Latin  language.  The  work  of  Festus  was 
still  further  abridged  in  the  8th  century 
by  Paulus  Diaconus.  The  one  MS.  of 
the  original  work  of  Festus  is  now  at 
Naples. 

FETISH,  or  FETICH,  a word  first 
brought  into  use  by  De  Brosses,  in  his 
work  Du  Culte  des  Dieux  Fetiches 
(1760),  and  derived  from  the  Portuguese 
feitico,-  magic,  a word  which  expressed 
the  Portuguese  opinion  of  the  religion  of 
the  natives  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
The  Portuguese  gave  this  name  to  the 


idols  of  the  negroes  of  the  Senegal,  and 
afterward  the  word  received  a more  ex- 
tensive meaning.  A fetish  is  any  object 
which  is  regarded  with  a feeling  of  awe, 
as  having  mysterious  powers  residing 
in  it,  but  without  any  consciousness  in 


Fetishes  ot  Dahomey,  Africa. 

the  exercise  of  them.  The  fetish  may  be 
animate,  as  a cock,  a serpent,  etc.;  or 
inanimate,  as  a river,  a tooth,  a shell. 
Fetish  worship  prevails  in  Guinea  and 
other  parts  of  the  west  coast  of  Afriba. 
In  addition  to  the  common  fetish  Of  the 
tribe  every  individual  may  have  one  of 
his  own.  To  this  he  offers  up  prayers, 
and  if  they  are  not  heard  he  punishes  it, 
or  perhaps  throws  it  away^  or  breaks  it 
in  pieces. 

FETUS,  FCETUS,  the  young  of  vivip- 
arous animals  iia  the  womb,  and  of 
oviparous  animals  in  the  egg,  after  it  is 
perfectly  formed;  before  troich  time  it 
is  Called  embryo. 

FEUDAL  SYSTEM,  that  system  by 
which  land  (a  flfef)  is  held  by  a vassal  on 
condition  of  fidelity,  that  is,  in  consider- 
ation of  services  to  be  rendered  to  his 
superior  or  feudal  lord.  The  nature  of 
the  feudal  system  is  to  be  explained  by 
its  origin  among  the  Germanic  tribes. 
In  the  earliest  times  the  relation  of 
superior  and  vassal  did  not  exist  in  con- 
nection with  the  ownership  of  land. 
Each  freeman  had  his  share  of  the  tribe 
lands,  which  were  held  simply  on  con- 
dition of  his  fulfilling  his  public  duties 
of  attendance  at  the  councils  of  the  mark 
or  township  and  performing  his  share  of 
military  service  in  the  wars  or  musters 
decreed  at  such  councils.  The  noble  had, 
of  course,  more  land  and  more  influence 
than  the  simple  freeman,  but  there  need 
be  no  tie  of  vassalage  between  them. 
This  seems  to  have  been  the  primitive 
social  organization  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  other  German  tribes.  The'  lands 
held  by  all  freemen,  whether  noble  or 
ordinary  freemen,  under  this  system, 
are  said  to  be  allodial  as  distinguished 
from  feudal  lands,  which  imply  service 
to  a superior  lord.  By  the  close  of  the 
10th  century,  however,  this  system  had 
undergone  considerable  modifications. 
The  masses  of  Teutonic  invaders  who 
overran  Gaul  and  England  had  neces- 
sarily to  confer  exceptional  powers  on 
their  leaders;  and  as  they  were  for  long 
very  much  in  the  position  of  military  in 
an  enemy’s  country,  these  powers  were 
naturally  continued.  Thus  it  was  that 
kings,  before  unknown  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  made  their  appearance  im- 1 


mediately  after  their  descent  upon 
Britain.  It  was  common  for  a chief  or 
great  man  to  have  a retinue  or  body- 
guard composed  of  valiant  youths,  who 
were  furnished  by  the  chief  With  arms 
and  provisions,  slid  wliO  lii  fetUfh  de- 
voted themselves  to,  his  service.  These 
companions  origin,ally  received  no  pay 
except  their  arlns,  hOi'SeS,  and  proVisiohS 
and  the  portion  of  the  spoilS;  which  re- 
mained after  the  chieftain  had  taken  his 
Own  share.  But  when  conquered  lands 
canie  to  be  apportioned  and  large  dis- 
tricts feU  into  the  hands  Of  kings  or  dukes 
and  their  subordiiiates,  they  gave  cer- 
tain portions  of  the  .territory  tO  their 
attendants  to  enjoy  for  life.  These  es- 
tates Were  called  beneficia  or  fiefS;  OO- 
cause  they  wOre  Only  lent  to  their  pos- 
sessors-, to  tevert  after  their  death  to  the 
grantor,  who  immediately  gave  them  to 
another  of  his  servants  on  the  same 
terms.  As  the  son  commonly  esteemed 
it  his  duty,  or  Was  forced  by  necessity,  to 
devote  his  arm  to  the  lord  in  whose  serv- 
ice his  father  had  lived,  he  also  received 
his  father's  fief;  or  rather,  he  was  in- 
A’csted  With  it  anew.  By  the  usage  bf 
centuries  this  Custom  became  a right 
and  the,  fifcf  became  hereditary.  A fief 
rehaered  vacant  by  the  death  of  the 
holder  was  at  pnce  taken  possession  of 
by  his  son.  Oh  the  sole  condition  of  pay- 
ing homage  to  the  feudal  superior.  Thus 
a feudal  nobility  and  a feudal  systenr 
arose  and  for  a time  existed  aloilgside  of 
the  old  allodial  system.  But  gradually 
the  greater  security  to  be  got  by  putting 
one’s  self  under  the  protection  of  some 
powerful  ruler  or  leader  gave  the  feudal 
system  the  predominance.  The  free 
proprietor  of  landed  property,  oppressed 
by  powerful  neighbors,  sought  refuge 
in  submitting  to  some  more  powerful 
nobleman,  to  whom  he  surrendered  his 
land,  receiving  it  back  as  a vassal.  Even 
the  inferior  nobility  found  it  to  be  to 
their  adA^antage  to  have  themselves 
recognized  as  feudatories  of  the  nearest 
duke  or  earl;  and  as  the  royal  power 
steadily  advanced,  the  offices  of  duke, 
ealdorman,  gerefa,  etc.,  were  always  be- 
stowed by  the  king.  Thus  the  crown 
became  the  source  of  all  authority  and 
possession  in  the  country.  ■ The  land 
which  had  once  been  “folcland,”  or  the 
land  of  the  people,  became  the  land  of 
the  king,  from  whom  all  titles  to  it  were 
held  to  be  deriA'ed.  Such  at  least  was 
the  development  of  feudalism  in  Eng- 
land, Avhere  its  centralizing  tendencies, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  holding  lands 
from  the  crown,  Avere  strongly  reinforced 
by  the  circumstances  of  the  conquest 
under  William  the  Norman.  Under  him 
and  his  immediate  successors  there  Avas 
a struggle  betAveen  royalty  and  the 
nobility,  which  ended  in  the  poAver  of 
the  latter  sinking  before  that  of  the 
kings.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Germany, 
France,  and  elsewhere  on  the  continent, 
the  disintegrating  tendencies  of  feudal- 
ism as  a system  of  gOA^ernment  had  full 
play.  In  these  countries  the  Aveakening 
of  the  kingly  authority  encouraged  the 
great  feudal  dukes  and  counts  to  set  up 
in  an  almost  absolute  independence, 
which  in  France  was  afterAvards  gradu- 
ally lost  as  the  monarchy  greAV  stronger, 
but  in  Germany  continued  to  diAude 
the  land  down  almost  to  our  own  times 


FEVER 


into  a number  of  petty  principalities. 

Among  the  chief  agencies  that  over- 
threw the  feudal  system  were  the  rise  of 
cities,  the  change  in  modes  of , -Warfare, 
and  the  spread  of  knowledge  aiid  civilizd- 
tloii.  ’Ihe  spirit  of  the  fevidiii.Systemi 
grounded  on  the  prevalence  of  landed 
property,  ,was  pecessarily  foreign  td 
citieS  which  owfed  ilicif  bfigin  fd  mdjisj 
try  and  personal  property,  and  foundeq 
thereon  a new  sort  of  power.  The  groAvth 
of  this  new  class,  with  its  wealth  and 
industtiiil  ImpOttahCe,  has  contributed 
more,  than  anything  else  tO  a social  and 
politicai  development  befote  which  the 
old  feudal  relations  of  society  have  al- 
most totally  disappeared;  Evfen  yet, 
jluWfei'et;,  the  laws  tfeiatihg,.tOjland  still 
Deaf  the  stamp  of  feudalism  in  various 
countries.  In  England,  for  instance,  all 
land-owners  are  theoretically  regarded 
as  tenants  holding  from  some  superior 
or  lord,  though  the  lord  may  be  quite 
unknoAvii.  See  also  Middle  Ages. 

FEUILLANTS  (feu-yan),  a religious 
order  which  arose  as  a refofm  of  th@ 
order  of  Bernafdlns,  find  tOok  brigin  iff 
the  abbey  of  Feuillants,  near  Toulousd, 
established  in  1577.  There  were  also 
convents  of  nuns  AV'ho  followedthe  samb 
fefofm,  called  Febillantines.  Tney  Aveifd 
suppressed  by  the  revolution  of  1780, 
and  their  convent  in  Paris  taken  pos- 
session of  by  a political,  club  named  the 
FculUantg,  of  Afblcn  Mirabeati  was  it 
member; 

FEUILLET  (feii-ya).  Octave,  a French 
novelist  and  dramatist,  born  at  Saint 
L6,  department  of  Mancha,  1812;  came 
into  notice  about  1846  with  his  novels  pf 
Le  Fruit  D6fendu,_  Le  Conte  de  Poll- 
chinelle,.  and  .a,  series  ef  comedies  and 
tales,  in  1857  the  appeafancS  of  Be 
Roman  d’un  Jeune  Homme  Pauvre 
raised  Feuillet  to  the  first  rank  of  the 
novelists  of  the  day.  Among  his  other 
numerous  novels  are  Monsieur  de  Cam- 
ors,  Julia  de  Tr4cceur,  Le  Sphinx,  His- 
toire  d’une  Parisienne,  etc.  His  works 
have  a refined  humor,  and  are  free,  in 
great  part,  from  the  teallstic  coarsetiess 
of  the  later  French  school.  He  died  in 
1890. 

FEUILLETON-{feu-i-ton),  that  part  of 
a French  newspaper  devoted  to  light 
literature  or  criticism,  and  gener^y 
marked  off  from  the  rest  of  the  page  by 
a line.  The  feuilleton  very  commonly 
contains  a tale. 

FEVER,  a diseased  condition  of  the 
body  characterized  by  an  accelerated 
pulse,  with  increase  of  heat,  deranged 
functions,  diminished  strength,  and 
often  with  excessiA'e  thirst.  FcA'ers 
usually  commence  with  chills  or  rigors, 
known  as  the  cold  stage  of  the  disease, 
although  the  temperature  of  the  body  is 
really  increased.  There  are  also  a feeling 
of  lassitude,  pains  in  the  back  and  limbs, 
loss  of  appetite,  and  nausea.  This  soon 
develops  into  the  hot  stage,  in  which  the 
pulse  quickens  and  the  skin  becomes  hot 
and  dry.  These  phenomena  are  accom- 
panied by  thirst,  headache,  a furred 
tongue,  a constipated  state  of  the  bowels 
and  a deficiency  in  the  urinarj'  secretion. 
The  symptoms  are  generally  aggraA'ated 
at  night,  and  may  eA'en  be  accompanied 
by  slight  delirium.  After  a time  the 
crisis  is  reached,  when  the  patient  either 
dies  from  gradual  exhaustion  or  from. 


FEZ 


FIELD-ALLOWANCE 


hyperpyrexia,  or  he  begins  to  recover, 
the  febrile  symptoms  disappearing  some- 
times quite  suddenly,  sometimes  very 
slowly.  The  loss  of  strength  in  fever  due 
to  the  waste  of  tissue  (caused  by  the 
abnormal  temperature)  being  greatly  in 
excess  of  the  nutritive  supply,  together 
with  the  general  disturbance  of  functions 
often  brings  about  fatal  results.  In 
many  cases  fever  is  only  an  accompany- 
ing symptom  of  some  specific  disorder, 
but  in  others  it  is  the  primary  and  pre- 
dominant element,  apparently  due  to 
some  poison  operating  in  the  blood. 
(See  Germ  Theory  of  Disease.)  These 
primary  or  specific  fevers  ma}"^  be  classi- 
fied as  follows: — 

1.  Continued  Fever,  in  which  there  is 
no  intermission  of  the  febrile  symptoms 
till  the  crisis  is  reached.  Simple  fever 
or  febricula,  typhus,  typhoid  (enteric  or 
gastric)  fever  are  examples.  Relapsing 
fever  also  comes  under  this  head;  its 
chief  feature  is  the  recurrence  of  fever, 
about  a week  after  the  subsidence  of  the 
symptoms. 

2.  Intermittent  Fever  or  Ague,  in 
which  there  is  a periodic  cessation  of  the 
symptoms.  The  varieties  are  the  quoti- 
dian, occurring  every  day;  the  tertian, 
recurring  in  48  hours;  quartan,  recurring 
in  72  hours  or  every  three  days. 

3.  Remittent  Fever,  in  which  there  is 
a short  daily  diminution  of  the  symp- 
toms. The  condition  known  as  hectic 
fever  and  yellow  fever  belong  to  this 
class. 

4.  Eruptive  Fevers — (1)  Small-pox. 
(2)  Cow-pox.  (3)  Chicken-pox.  (4) 
Measles.  (5)  Scarlet-fever.  (6)  Erysipelas. 
(77  Plague.  (8)  Dengue  fever.  See  the 
separate  articles. 

FEZ,  one  of  the  two  capitals  of  Moroc- 
co, 100  miles  east  of  the  Atlantic  and  85 
miles  south  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
finely  situated  on  the'  hilly  slopes  of  a 
valley,  on  the  river  Fez,  which  divide 
Old  Fez  from  New  Fez.  There  are  many 
mosques,  one  of  them  the  largest  in  N. 
Africa.  The  sultan’s  palace  is  a large 
but  somewhat  ruinous  structure.  Fez 
was  at  one  time  famous  as  a seat  of 
Arabian  learning.  It  is  considered  a holy 
town  by  the  Western  .Arabs,  and  was 
resorted  to  by  them  as  a place  of  pil- 
grimage when  the  way  to  Mecca  was 
obstructed.  Fez  was  founded  in  793, 
and  was  the  capital  of  an  independent 
state  from  1202  to  1548,  attaining  a 
high  state  of  prosperity.  The  population 
is  variously  estimated  from  50,000  to 
150,000. 

FEZ  (from  Fez,  the  above  town),  a red 
cap  of  fine  cloth,  with  a tassel  of  blue 
silk  or  wool  at  the  crown,  much  worn  in 
Turkey,  on  the  shores  of  the  Levant,  in 
Egypt,  and  North  Africa  generally.  The 
core  or  central  part  of  a turban  usually 
consists  of  a fez. 

FEZZAN',  a state  of  North  Africa,  in 
the  Sahara,  forming  a depression  sur- 
rounded by  mountain  chains  and  con- 
sisting of  a great  number  of  small  oases. 
There  are  no  rivers  or  brooks,  and  few 
natural  springs;  but  water  is  found  in 
abundance  at  various  depths,  generally 
from  10  to  20 feet.  Rain  seldom  falls;  in 
some  districts  it  does  not  rain  for  years 
togfether,  and  but  little  at  a time.  The 
natives  are  a mixed  race  of  Arabs,  Ber- 
bers, negroes,  etc.  Fezzan  is  governed 


by  a lieutenant-governor  under  the  gov- 
ernor of  Tripoli,  and  dependent  therefore 
on  Turkey.  Pop.,  variously  estimated, 
does  not  probably  exceed  50,000. 

FIACRE  (fe-a-kr),  in  France,  a small 
four-wheeled  carriage  or  hackney-coach, 
so  called  from  the  Hotel  St.  Fiacre,  where 
Sauvage,  the  inventor  of  these  carriages, 
established  in  1640  an  office  for  the  hire 
of  them. 

FI'AT  (Lat.  “let  it  be  done”),  in  Eng- 
lish law,  a short  order  or  warrant  from  a 
judge  for  making  out  and  allowing  cer- 
tain processes. 

FIBERS,  these  may  be  of  mineral, 
animal,  or  vegetable  origin.  In  the  min- 
eral kingdom  a fiber  which  may  be  so 
used  has  been  found  in  asbestos.  Among 
animal  fibers  the  silk  obtained  from  the 
cocoons  of  the  silk-worm  and  the  wool 
of  the  sheep  represent  two  great  classes. 
Of  the  latter  the  wool  of  the  sheep  is  by 
far  the  most  important  on  account  of  its 
length,  its  fineness,  and  the  comparative 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  produced  in 
large  quantities  for  the  market.  Among 
other  animals  whose  wool  or  hair  is  also 
used  to  some  extent  are  the  goat,  espe- 
cially of  the  Angora  species,  the  llama  or 
alpaca,  the  vicuna,  the  rabbit,  the  yak, 
the  chinchilla,  etc.  But  the  vegetable 
kingdom  furnishes  by  far  the  greatest 
number  and  variety  of  fibers  for  manu- 
facturing purposes.  These  fibers  are 
obtained  either,  as  in  inexogenous  plants, 
from  the  sheath  of  the  bark  or  bast',  or, 
as  in  endogenous  plants,  from  the  cellu- 
lar tissues  and  pulp  of  their  roots,  stems, 
and  leaves;  or,  in  a few  plants,  from  a 
hairy  covering  which  grows  upon  the 
seeds  w'ithin  the  pod.  Of  the  first  class 
are  flax,  hemp,  and  China  grass.  To  the 
second  class  oelong  New  Zealand  flax, 
Manila  hemp,  coir  of  cocoa-nut  fiber, 
and  Pita-flax.  To  the  third  class  belong 
cotton,  vegetable  silk.  For  details  see 
Cotton,  Flax,  Hemp,  Jute,  Silk,  Wool, 
etc. 

FI'BRIN,  a peculiar  organic  com- 
pound substance  found  in  animals  and 
vegetables.  Animal  fibrin  constitutes 
the  solid  matter  which  deposits  when 
blood  coagulates,  but  it  is  also  furnished 
by  the  chyle,  Ijonph,  saliva,  and  by  pus 
and  other  pathological  fluids.  Fibrin  is 
composed  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  and  is  closely  allied  to 
albumen  and  caseine.  It  is  a very  im- 
portant element  of  nutrition.  In  healthy 
venous  blood  there  is  dbout  2'3  present, 
but  its  percentage  is  slightly  more  in 
arterial  blood.  It  is  best  obtained  by 
switching  newly-drawn  blood  with  a 
glass  rod  or  bundle  of  twigs,  when  the 
fibrin  adheres  to  the  rod  or  twigs  in 
threads,  and  is  purified  from  coloring 
matter  by  prolonged  washing  and  knead- 
ing with  water,  and  then  by  treatment 
with  alcohol  and  ether  to  remove  fat 
and  other  substances. 

FIBROUS  TISSUE,  an  animal  tissue 
with  a shining  silvery  luster  used  to  con- 
nect or  support  other  parts.  It  is  of  two 
kinds,  white,  and  yellow  (elastic).  It 
forms  the  ligaments,  tendons  of  muscles, 
etc. 

FIB'ULA,  in  anat.  the  outer  and 
smaller  bone  of  the  leg  below  the  knee, 
much  smaller  than  the  tibia.  See  Leg. 

FICHTE  (fih'te),  Johann  Gottlieb, 
German  philosopher,  born  in  1762.  After 


studying  at  Jena,  Leipzig,  and  Witten- 
berg he  passed  several  years  as  a private 
tutor  in  Switzerland  and  in  Prussia 
Proper,  and  in  Konigsberg  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  great  Kant,  who 
showed  some  appreciation  of  his  talents. 
His  Versuch  einer  Kritik  aller  Offen- 
barung  (Essay  towards  a Criticism  of  all 
Revelation,  1792)  attracted  general 
attention,  and  procured  him  the  pro- 
fessorship of  philosophy  in  Jena  in  1793. 
In  1800  he  was  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent professors  of  that  university  during 
its  most  brilliant  period.  Here  he  pub- 
lished, under  the  name  of  Wissenschafts- 
lehre  (Theory  of  Science),  a philosophical 
system,  which,  though  founded  on 
Kant’s  system,  gives  the  latter  a 
highly  idealistic  development  which  was 
strongly  repudiated  by  the  Konigsberg 
philosopher.  On  account  of  an  article  he 
had  written  to  the  Philosophical  Journal 
(on  the  grounds  of  our  belief  in  the  di- 
vine government  of  the  world)  he  fell 
under  the  suspicion  of  atheistical  views. 
This  gave  rise  to  an  inquiry,  which  ended 
in  Fichte  losing  his  chair.  He  then 
went  to  Prussia,  where  he  wms  appointed 
in  1805  professor  of  philosophy  at  Er- 
langen. During  the  war  between  Prussia 
and  France  he  went  to  Konigsberg, 
where  he  delivered  lectures  for  a short 
time,  returned  to  Berlin  after  the  Peace 
of  Tilsit,  and  in  1810,  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  university  in  that  city,  was 
appointed  rector  and  professor  of  philos- 
ophy. Fichet’s  philosophy,  though  there 
are  two  distinct  periods  to  be  dis- 
tinguished in  it,  is  a consistent  idealism, 
representing  all  that  the  individual  per- 
ceives as  distinct  from  himself,  the  ego, 
as  a creation  of  this  I or  ego.  This  ego, 
how'ever,  is,not  the  consciousness  of  the 
individual  so  much  as  the  divine  or  uni- 
versal cpnsciousness  of  which  the  other 
is  but  a part.  His  philosophy  thus  came 
to  assume  a strongly  moral  and  religious 
character.  He  died  on  Jan.  27,  1814. 

FICTION.  See  Novel  and  Romance. 

FICTION,  in  law,  is  an  assumption 
made  for  the  purposes  of  justice,  though 
the  same  fact  could  not  be  proved,  and 
may  be  literally  untrue.  Thus  an  heir  is 
held  to  be  the  same  person  as  the  ances- 
tor to  the  effect  of  making  the  heir  liable 
for  the  debts  of  the  ancestor.  The  rules 
by  which  the  existence  of  legal  fictions 
are  limited  have  been  stated  as  follows: 
(1)  The  fiction  must  have  the  semblance 
of  truth  (2)  It  shall  not  be  used  to  work 
a wrong. "(3)  It  shall  only  be  employed 
for  the  end  for  which  it  was  introduced. 

FIDDLE.  See  Violin. 

FIDDLE-FISH.  See  Angel -fish. 

FIDDLE-WOOD,  the  common  name 
of  a genus  of  trees  or  shrubs  with  some 
twenty  species,  natives  of  tropical 
America.  Some  of  the  species  are  orna- 
mental timber  trees;  several  yield  a 
hard  wood  valuable  for  carpenter  work. 

FIEF  (fef).  See  Fee,  Feudalism. 

FIELD,  in  heraldry,  the  whole  surface 
of  the  shield  on  which  the  charges  are 
depicted,  or  of  each  separate  coat  when 
the  sheld  contains  quarterings. 

FIELD-ALLOWANCE,  an  extra  pay- 
ment made  to  officers  of  the  British 
army  on  active  service  in  the  field,  to 
compensate  partly  the  enhanced  price  of 
all  necessaries.  These  allowances  are  not 
made  in  India. 


FIELD-ARTILLERY 


FIELD 


FIELD-ARTILLERY,  light  ordnance 
of  draught,  and  hence  fitted  for 
ramd  movements  in  the  field. 

jjIELD-CRIOKET,  campestris,  one  of 
the  most  noisy  of  all  the  crickets  larger, 
but  rarer  than  the  house-dricket.  It  fre- 
dfuents  hot,  sandy  districts,  in  which  it 
borrows  to  the  depth  of  6 to  12  inches, 
and  sits  at  the  mouth  of  the  hole  watch* 
ing  for  prey,  which  consists  of  insects. 

FIELD,  Cyrtv.s  West,  best  known  as 
projector  and  promoter  of  first  sub- 
marine telegraph  between  Europe  and 
America,  was  born  in  ISIS.  Engaged 
in  business  in  New  York  until  1^3, 
when,  at  age  of  33,  became  interested 
in  submarine  cable  project.  Organized 
the  New  York  and  London  Telegraph 
Company  in  1854;  induced  American 
government  to  make  ocean  survcj^s; 
made  first  attempt  to  lay  cable  in 
1857.  After  several  failures  cables  was 
completed  and  first  message  sent  by 
Queen  Victoria  to  President  Buchanan 
on  August  16,  185S.  This  fir-.t  cables 
broke  almost  immediately,  and  after 
seven  years  of  effort,  Mr.  Field,  with  aid 
of  American  and  British  capital,  laid 
another  cable,  which  was  successfully 
completed  July  27,  1806.  Mr.  Field  also 
originated  the  elevated  railroad  project 
in  New  York  City,  and  was  in  railroad 
business  until  his  death  in  1892. 

FIELD,  David  Dudley,  American 
clergyman  and  historical  writer,  ^yas 
born  in  1781 ; father  of  Cyrus  W.,  David 
Dudley  and  Stephen  Johnson  Field.  He 
died  in  1867. 

FIELD,  David  Dudley,  a distin- 
guished American  lawyer,  who  devoted 
his  life  to  the  reform  of  the  laws.  Was 
born  in  1805.  His  code  of  civil  proce- 
dure was  adopted  by  practically  every 
state  in  the  Union  and  by  Great  Britain. 
Eighteen  states  adopted  his  code  of 
criminal  procedure  and  his  Outlines  of 
International  Law  form  the  basis  of  the 
code  of  nations.  He  died  in  1894. 

FIELD  DOG,  distinct  breed  of  dog 
with  natural  instinct  for  locating  game 
birds  and  retrieving  them  after  they  are 
killed.  Are  of  keen,  alert  intelligence, 
noted  for  docile  disposition,  and  capable 
of  receiving  close  training.  Field  dogs 
are  of  various  species,  the  ' general 
classes  being  pointers,  setters  and  re- 
trievers. Pointers  locate  game  birds  by 
sense  of  smell  and  indicate  their  location 
to  the  hunter  by  stopping  short  and 
“pointing”  with  nose  directed  to  the 
spot.  The  setter  works  in  a similar  man- 
ner, but  crouches  on  its  haunches  when 
it  desires  to  indicate  the  presence  of  the 
game.  The  retriever  is  trained  to  go 
into  cover  or  into  the  water  for  birds 
after  they  have  been  shot  and  bring 
them  to  its  master  without  mangling 
them. 

Field  dogs  must  be  carefully  trained 
from  puppyhood.  The  most  important 
and  therefore  the  first  requisite  is  obedi- 
ence. The  dog  after  being  accustomed 
to  collar  and  leash,  is  taught  to  keep 
close  to  its  master’s  heel  until  it  is  sent 
forward.  The  next  step  in  the  training 
of  a dog  is  to  prevent  him  from  flushing 
the  game.  Then  the  animal  is  taught  to 
range  for  game  and  to  “down”  or  return 
promptly  at  the  proper  signal.  Retrievers 
of  water  birds,  of  course,  receive  special 
training,  as  their  duties  differ  from  the 


setter  or  pointer.  The  setter  and  pointer 
are  easily  taught  to  retrieve  on  land. 
(See  Setter,  Pointer,  Retriever.) 

FIELD,  Eugene,  American  poet,  jour-, 
nalist  and  story  writer,  noted  for  the 
touching  pathos  of  his  poems  on  child- 
hood and  the  eccentricity  of  his  humor, 
was  born  in  1850.  Began  newspaper 


career  on  Kansas  City  Times,  later  on 
the  Denver  Tribune.  At  age  of  33 
began  department  of  “Sharps  and  Flats” 
in  Chicago  Daily  News,  which  he  kept 
up  until  his  death,  twelve  years  later. 
In  those  twelve  years  be  became  recog- 
nized as  one  of  America’s  most  versatile 
humorists.  His  writings  covered  a wide 
gamut,  from  the  quaint  and  whimsical 
to  the  pathetic,  grotesque  and  farcical. 
Best  known  poem  of  childhood,  “Little 
Boy  Blue;”  writings  included  “Echoes 
from  a Sabine  Farm,”  “With  Trumpet 
and  Drum,”  and  “Love  Affairs  of  a Bil- 
lionaire.” He  died  in  1895. 

FIELDFARE,  a song  bird  of  the 
thrush  family,  easily  tamed  and  sing- 
well  in  captivity.  Found  principally  in 


Norway,  but  winters  in  England  and 
along  the  Mediterranean.  General  color 
is  gray,  throat  of  reddish  yellow  streaked 
with  black,  back  and  wings  brown,  tail 
nearly  black. 

FIELD -FORTIFICATION,  Field- 
works, temporary  works,  such  as 
trenches,  rifle-pits,  etc.,  thrown  up  to 
strengthen  the  position  of  an  army 
operating  in  the  field.  See  Fortification. 

FIELD  GAMES,  open  air  athletics  con- 
sisiting  of  running,  hurdle  racing,  broad 
and  high  jump,  pole  vaulting,  throwing 
the  hammer  and  putting  the  shot. 
Marathon  race  (25  miles)  recently  added 
to  interstate  and  international  meets.  I 


FIELD  GLASS,  a binocular  telescope 
of  great  magnifying  power  used  prin- 
cipally by  army  officers  in  followjjng 
, military  maneuvers.  For  use  in  trenches 
from  behind  breastworks  field  glasses 
are  constructed  with  reflecting  pri.sms 
which  enable  one  to  see  without  expos- 
ing any  part  of  his  body.  Technically 
a field  glass  is  a double  telescope  with 
chromatic  eyeglass. 

FIELDING,  Henry,  one  of  the  great- 
est of  English  novelists,  was  born  in 
Somersetshire,  April  22,  1707.  He  wa.<? 
educated  at  Eton,  whence  he  removed 
to  Leyden ; but  the  straitened  circum- 
stances of  his  father  shortened  his 
academical  studies,  and  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  stage.  His  first  dramatic 
piece  was  entitled  Love  in  Several  Masks, 
was  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1728, 
and  met  with  a favorable  reception. 
The  Temple  Beau,  The  Author’s  Farce,, 
The  Modern  Husband,  Don  Quixote  iru 
England,  and  many  others  quickly  fol- 
lowed, a number  of  them  being  little 
more  than  free  translations  from  the 
French.  In  1740  he  was  called  to  the 
bar,  and  went  on  circuit,  but  with  soi 
little  success  that  he  was  compelled  ta 
return  to  literature.  In  1742  the  first 
of  his  great  novels,  Joseph  Andrews,, 
appeared,  which  he  had  at  first  conceivsdl 
as  a burlesque  of  Richardson’s  Pamela.. 
It  was  a great  success,  and  was  followed 
by  A Journey  From  this  World  to  the 
Next,  and  the  History  of  Jonathan  Wild.. 
In  1749  his  masterpiece.  The  History 
of  Tom  Jones,  appeared,  and  was  fol- 
lowed two  years  afterward  by  Amelia., 
At  length,  however,  his  constitution,  ex- 
hausted both  by  hard  work  and  reek- 
leas  living,  gave  way,  and  in  June  of 
1754  he  had  to  seek  the  milder  climate 
of  Lisbon,  where  he  died  8th  October 
of  the  same  year.  The  chief  merits  of 
Fielding  as  a novelist  are  wit,  humor,, 
correct  delineation  of  character,  and 
knowledge  of  the  human  heart.  He 
drew  from  a varied  experience  of  life, 
which  he  reproduced  with  an  artistic 
realism  entitling  him  to  be  considered, 
far  more  than  Richardson,  as  the  creator 
of  the  English  novel. 

FIELD,  Kate,  American  actress,  lec- 
turer and  journalist;  was  born  in  1840; 
stage  success  inconspicuous;  best  known 
as  editor  of  “Kate  Field’s  Washington,” 
weekly  periodical  published  at  National 
Capital.  She  died  in  1896. 

FIELD,  Marshall,  American  merchant 
and  financier;  was  born  in  1835;  clerked 
in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  store  until  1856; 
then  went  to  Chicago.  In  1860  became 
junior  partner  in  wholesale  dry  goods 
establishment.  In  1865  headed  firm  of 
Field,  Palmer  & Leiter;  in  1881  Marshall 
Field  & Co.,  built  up  largest  wholesale 
and  retail  dry  goods  business  in  the 
world,  with  branches  in  England,  France 
and  Germany.  Invested  largely  in  Chi- 
cago real  estate  before  fire  of  1871,  and 
became  millionaire:  largely  identified 
in  banking  and  railroad  investments; 
founded  Field  Columbian  Museum  in 
1894  W’ith  initial  gift  of  81.000,000,  to 
which  his  will  added  88,000.000.  Left 
fortune  variously  estimated  from  8100,- 
000,000  to  8150,000,000  to  two  grand- 
sons, in  trust,  making  them  50  years 
hence  richest  heirs  in  the  world.  He 
died  in  1906. 


f 


FIELD-MARSHAL 


FIJI 


FIELD-MARSHAL,  the  highest  mili- 
tary dignity  in  Britain,  Germany,  and 
other  countries.  In  Britain  the  dignity 
is  conferred  by  selection  and  enjoyed  by 
but  a very  few  officers,  and  chiefly  for 
distinguished  services  or  on  the  ground 
of  royal  descent.  It  was  introduced  into 
Britain  by  George  II.  in  1736. 


Marshall  Field. 


FIELD-MOUSE.  See  Mouse. 

FIELD-OFFICERS,  in  the  army,  those 
competent  to  command  whole  battalions 
— majors,  lieutenant-colonels,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  those  intrusted  with 
company  duties,  as  captains  and  lieu- 
tenants. 

FIELD  OF  THE  CLOTH  OF  GOLD,  a 

spot  in  the  valley  of  Andren,  between 
the  English  castle  of  Guisnes  and  the 
French  castle  of  Ardres,  celebrated  for 
the  meeting  (7th  June,  1520)  between 
Henry  VIII.  of  England  and  Francis  I. 
of  France,  attended  by  the  flower  of 
nobility  of  both  nations.  The  diplomatic 
results  were  little  or  nothing,  and  the 
event  is  now  memorable  only  as  a grand 
historical-parade.  ^ 

FIELD-PIECES,  small  cannons,  from 
three  to  twelve-pounders,  carried  with 
an  army. 

FIELD,  Stephen  Johnson,  was  born 
in  1816;  graduate  of  Williams  college 
1837;  practiced  law  in  New  York;  went 
to  California  as  a 49er;  on  California 
supreme  bench  1857  until  1863.  He  was 
appointed  to  the  United  States  supreme 
court  in  1863.  During  career  as  justice 
of  United  States  supreme  court  he  made 
many  notable  dissenting  opinions,  chief 
being  in  legal  tender  case.  As  member 
of  electoral  commission  of  1876-7,  which 
decided  Hayes-Tilden  controversy,  he 
voted  with  minority  against  seating  of 
Hayes.  He  died  in  1899. 

FIELD-WORKS.  See  Fortification. 

FIFE,  a small  instrument  of  the  flute 
kind,  pierced  with  six  finger-holes,  and 
usually  having  one  key.  Its  ordinary 
icompass  is  two  octaves  from  d on  the 
fourth  line  of  the  treble  staff  upwards. 
A combination  of  fifes  and  drums  is  the 
officially  recognized  music  in  the  British 
army  and  navy. 

FIFE,  or  FJFESHIRE,  a maritime 
county,  Scotland,  forming  the  penin- 
sula between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and 
Tay;  extreme  length,  43  miles;  extreme 
breadth,  17  miles;  area,  316,089  acres. 


Fife  is  the  third  largest  coal-producing 
county  in  Scotland.  Iron,  limestone, 
and  freestone  abound.  There  are  salmon 
and  other  fisheries.  The  principal  towns 
are  Dunfermline,  Kirkcaldy,  St.  An- 
drews, and  Cupar,  the  county  town. 
Pop.  187,320. 

FIFTH,  in  music,  an  interval  consist- 
ing of  three  tones  and  a semitone.  Ex- 
cept the  octave  it  is  the  most  perfect  of 
concords.  Its  ratio  is  3 :2.  It  is  called  the 
fifth  as  it  comes,  by  diatonic  ascent,  in 
the  fifth  place  from  the  fundamental  or 
tonic.  See  Music. 


Stephen  J.  Field. 

FIG,  a deciduous  tree  belonging  to  the 
order  Moracese  (mulberry).  It  is  indig- 
enous to  Asia  Minor,  but  has  been 
naturalized  in  all  the  countries  round  the 
Mediterranean.  It  grows  from  15  to  20 
or  even  30  feet  high.  In  congenial  cli- 
mates irbears  two  crops  in  a season,  one 
in  the  early  summer  from  the  buds  of 
the  last  year;  and  other  (which  is  the 
chief  harvest)  in  the  autumn,  from  those 
on  the  spring  growth.  The  fruit  is  a 


Common  fig. 

hollow  receptacle  produced  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  on  small  round  peduncles, 
and  containing  a great  multitude  of 
minute  flowers,  the  ripe  carpels  of  which 
are  embedded  in  the  pulp.  The  flowers 
are  male  and  female,  the  former  situated 
near  the  orifice  at  the  top,  the  latter  in 
that  part  of  the  concavity  next  the 
stalk.  Figs,  particularly  dried  figs,  form 
an  important  article  of  food  in  the  coun- 


tries of  the  Levant.  The  best  come  from 
Turkey. 

FIG'ARO,  a dramatic  character  first 
introduced  on  the  French  stage  by 
Beaumarchais  in  his  comedies,  the  Bar- 
ber of  Seville  and  the  Marriage  of  Figaro. 
Figaro  is  a barber  remarkable  for  his 
shrewdness  and  dexterity  in  intrigue. 
The  plays  were  adapted  for  Mozart’s 
Marriage  of  Figaro  and  Rossini’s  Barber 
of  Seville.  The  name  is  also  well  known 
as  that  of  satirical  journals  published  in 
Paris  and  London. 

FIGULINE,  a name  given  by  miner- 
ologists  to  potter’s  clay. 

FIG'URAL  (or  Figurate)  NUMBERS, 
numbers  formed  by  the  terms  of  arith- 
metical series  of  all  sorts,  in  which  the 
first  number  is  always  unity.  For  ex- 
ample : 

I.— 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc. 

. II.— 1,  3,  6,  10,  15,  21,  etc. 

III. — 1,  4,  9,  16,  25,  36,  etc. 

IV. — 1,  5,  12,  22,  35,  51,  etc. 

Those  in  the  second  row  are  called 
triangular  numbers,  because  their  units 
may  be  arranged  in  equilateral  triangles  • 
the  members  of  the  third  row  are  called 
square  numbers:  those  of  the  fourth 
pentagonal,  etc. ; and  so  there  are  also 
hexagonal,  heptagonal,  and,  in  general, 
polygonal  numbers. 

FIGURE-HEAD,  the  ornamental  fig- 
ure or  bust  on  the  projecting  part  of  a 


Figure-head. 

ship’s  stem,  over  the  cutwater  and  im- 
mediately under  the  bowsprit. 

FIJI,  FEEJEE,  or  VITI  ISLANDS,  an 
island  group.  South  Pacific  Ocean,  east 
of  the  New  Hebrides,  between  lat.  15° 
30'  and  19°  30' s.;  and  Ion.  177°  e.  hnd 
178°  w.  The  entire  group,  which  was  dis- 
covered by  Tasman  in  1643,  comprises 
altogether  254  islands  and  islets,  eight 
of  which  are  inhabited;  total  area  about 
8000  sq.  miles.  Two  of  the  islands  only 
are  of  large  size,  namely,  Viti  Levu,  90 
miles  long  by  60  wide;  and  Vanua  Levu, 
rather  longer  but  much  narrower  and 
more  irregular.  Next  to  these  come 
Taviuni  and  Kandavu.  The  islands  are 
of  volcanic  origin,  extremely  fertile,  and 
covered  with  a luxuriant  foliage,  espe- 
cially on  the  east  side.  The  Fijians  are 
dark-colored,  frizzly-haired,  bearded 
race  of  Melanesia  extraction  although 
intermixed  with  the  Polynesians  of 
Tonga  and  Samoa.  They  are  cleanly  in 
their  habits,  and  are  generally  regarded 


FILE 


PILTH  DISEASES 


as  superior  to  the  Polynesians  in  intel- 
ligence. Their  early  character,  however, 
was  bad.  Cannibalism  was  reduced  to  a 
system,  and  wives,  children,  and  friends 
were  often  sacrificed  to  the  Lottdness  for 
human  flesh.  Cannibalism  seems  now  to 
be  abolished.  This  result  has  been  due 
to  the  Christian  missions,  mostly  Wes- 
leyan, which  have  been  veiy  successful, 
most  of  the  native  population  having 
become  professed  Christians.  From 
1866  onward  the  influx  of  European 
settlers  from  New  Zealand  and  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies  gradually  brought  the 
trade  of  Fiji  into  importance  and  re- 
peated applications  were  made  to  the 
British  government  both  by  the  settlers 
and  the  king,  Thakombau,  to  annex  the 
islands.  At  length  in  1874  this  was  done, 
and  the  Fiji  Islands  were  made  a crown 
colony,  under  a governor,  assisted  by  an 
executive  council  and  legislative  as- 
sembly, both,  either  offieialsmr  nomi- 
nated by  the  governor.  Native  chiefs 
take  part  in  the  administration,  the  old 
customary  law  being  still  largely  ad- 
hered to.  Since  the  annexation  the 
prosperity  of  the  colony  has  been  re- 
markable. The  population  is  about 

132.000.  The  Europeans  number  about 

2.000.  The  capital  is  Suva,  on  the  south 
coast  of  Viti  Levu.  The  island  of  Rotu- 
mah,  to  the  north,  was  annexed  to  Fiji 
in  1881. 

FILE,  a bar  of  cast-steel  with  small 
sharp-edged  elevations  on  its  surface 
called  teeth,  the  use  of  which  is  to  cut 
into  or  abrade  metals,  wood,  ivory,  horn, 
etc.  Files  are  of  various  shapes,  as  flat, 
half-round,  three-sided,  square,  or  round 
and  are  generally  thickest  in  the  middle, 
while  their  teeth  are  of  various  degrees 
of  fineness  and  of  different  forms.  A file 
whose  teeth  are  in  parallel  ridges  only  is 
called  single-cut  or  float-cut.  Such  are 
mostly  used  for  brass  and  copper.  When 
there  are  two  series  of  ridges  crossing 
each  other  the  file  is  double-cut,  which  is 
the  file  best  suited  for  iron  and  steel. 
Rasps  are  files  which  have  isolated  sharp 
teeth  separated  by  comparatively  wide 
spaces,  and  are  used  chiefly  for  soft 
materials  such  as  wood  and  horn.  Each 
of  these  three  classes  of  files  is  made  in 
six  different  degrees  of  fineness,  the 
coarsest  being  called  rough,  the  next 
middle,  followed  by  bastard,  second-cut, 
smooth,  and  superfine  or  cleadsmooth, 
each  a degree  finer  than  that  which  pre- 
cedes it.  Files  are  usually  made  with  the 
hand,  file-cutting  machines  not  having 
been  as  yet  perfectly  successful  on  ac- 
count of  the  delicacy  of  touch  required 
in  the  work.  The  blanks,  as  the  steel  be- 
fore it  has  teeth  is  called,  are  laid  on  the 
anvil  and  struck  with  the  chisel,  which 
rests  obliquely  on  the  blank,  each  blow 
raising  a ridge  or  tooth.  The  strength  of 
the  blow  depends  on  the  hardness  of  the 
metal,  and  when  one  part  is  harder  than 
another  the  workman  alters  his  blows 
accordingly.  When  one  side  is  covered 
with  single  cuts,  if  the  file  is  to  be  double 
cut  he  adds  in  the  same  manner  a second 
series,  crossing  the  others  at  a certain 
angle.  In  making  fine  files  a good  file- 
cutter  will  cut  upwards  of  two  hundred 
teeth  within  the  space  of  an  inch.  The 
files,  except  those  that  are  used  for  soft 
substances,  are  then  hardened  by  heat- 
ing them  to  a cherry-red  color  and  then 


dipping  them  in  water.  They  are  then 
finished  by  scouring  and  rubbing  over 
with  olive-oil  and  turpentine. 

FILE,  a row  of  soldiers  ranged  one  be- 
hind another  from  front  to  rear.  When  a 
column  is  arranged  two  deep,  a file  is 
thus  two  men. 

FILE-FISH,  a name  given  to  certain 
fishes  from  their  skins  being  granulated 
like  a file;  one  species,  a common  inhabi- 
tant of  the  Mediterranean,  has  the  power 


Pile-fish. 


of  inflating  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  at 
pleasure,  and  grows  to  the  size  of  two 
feet.  Another  species  is  a native  of  the 
Indian  and  American  seas. 

FILTBUSTERS,  a name  given  to  those 
adventurers,  chiefly  from  the  U.  States, 
who  endeavored  to  effect  settlements  on 
the  Spanish  islands  and  colonies  in  Cen- 
tral America.  The  term  is  of  Spanish 
origin,  but  is  ultimately  from  the  Eng- 
lish fly-boat,  referring  to  the  small  fast 
sailing  vessels  used  by  the  buccaneers  in 
the  17th  century.  Among  the  most 
noted  of  the  filibusters  was  William 
Walker  who  made  three  expeditions  to 
Nicaragua  (1855,  1857,  1860). 

FILIGREE',  a kind  of  ornamental 
open  work  in  gold  or  silver,  wrought 
delicately  in  the  manner  of  little  threads 
or  grains,  or  of  both  intermixed.  The  art 
was  practiced  by  the  Etruscans  and  the 
Greeks  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  the 
17th  century  it  was  carried  to  great  per- 
fection in  Italy,  and  silver  filigree  work 
is  still  largely  manufactured  in  the  south 
of  Europe.  Some  of  the'eastern  nations, 
especially  the  Chinese  and  Malays,  show 
great  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  silver 
filigree. 

FILLMORE,  Millard,  the  thirteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  born  at 


Millard  Fillmore. 


Sumner  Hill,  Cayuga  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1800. 
In  1822  he  removed  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1823,  an^j 


sent  to  the  New  York  Assembly  1839- 
32;  was  in  congress  1833-35  and  1837- 
41,  where  he  was  an  active  and  useful 
member,  favoring  J.  Q.  Adams’  views 
upon  slavery,  and  in  other  public  ques- 
tions acting  mainly  with  the  Whigs. 
In  1844  he  was  the  Whig  candidate  for 
governor  of  New  York;  in  1847  was 
chosen  comptroller  of  the  state  and  re- 
signed in  1849;  in  1848  was  chosen  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  on  the 
ticket  with  Gen.  Taylor.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter,  July  9,  1850,  Mr.  Fillmore  be- 
came president.  The  great  events  of  his 
administration  were  the  passage  of  the 
Compromise  acts  of  1850  and  the  Japan 
expedition  of  1852.  He  died  in  1874. 

FILTH  DISEASES,  discoveries  in 
bacteriology  and  the  application  of 
exact  methods  of  research  have  shown 
that  the  importance  of  filth  as  a casual 
factor  in  the  production  of  disease  con- 
sists mainly  in  two  facts — first,_  that  it 
furnishes  a good  medium  for  the' growth 
and  multiplication  of  certain  foi-ms  of 
pathogenic  bacteria  when  these  gain 
access  to  it;  and,  second,  that  sooner  or 
later  such  bacteria  are  very  likely  to 
find  their  way  into  it. 

Of  the  micro-organisms  which  pro- 
duce disease,  some,  such  as  the  bacillus 
of  typhoid,  can  grow  and  multiply  in 
dead  organic  matter  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, and  a few  of  them  may  thus 
in  the  course  of  a few  days  make  all 
parts  of  a foul  solution  dangerous,  while 
others,  such  as  the  bacillus  of  tubercle, 
require  temperatures  near  that  of  the 
living  body  for  development,  and  hence 
under  ordinary  circumstances  do  not 
make  accumulations  of  filth  injections. 
Although  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  diph- 
theria, measles,  and  typhus  may  be 
conveyed  by  foul  clothing  or  bedding, 
yet  their  spread  is  usually  in  no  way 
connected  with  accumulations  of  filth, 
nor  are  they  generated  de  novo  by  such 
accumulations.  Typhoid  fever  is  the 
typical  filth  disease,  in  the  sense  that  it 
is  mainly  transmitted  through  human 
excretia,  yet  there  is  no  evidence  that 
cesspool  or  water-supply  can  become  the 
cause  of  this  disease  in  any  other  way 
than  by  having  the  specific  bacillus  of 
typhoid  added  to  it.  It  is  possible  that 
a common  and  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances harmless  form  of  bacillus  may, 
in  the  course  of  time  and  under  special 
conditions  of  food  and  temperature,  be 
so  changed  in  nature  and  functions  as  to 
be  capable  of  producing  a transmissible 
disease,  but  it  is  very  improbable  that 
such  a change  gives  rise  to  the  ordinary 
forms  of  specific  disease  as^  seen  in 
practice. 

The  idea  that  specific  disease  of  any 
kind  is  produced  by  gases  or  volatile 
products  of  any  kind  given  off  by  decom- 
posing filth  is  now  generally  abandoned, 
and  it  is  known  that  the  micro-organ- 
isms which  cause  such  diseases  do  not 
pass  into  the  air  from  the  surface  of 
fluids  or  fj^om  moist  surfaces  by  simple 
evaporation.  They  are  carried  into  the 
air  by  spray  or  dust,  but  not  otherwise. 
Whether  yellow  fever  is  a filth  disease, 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  is  as  yet 
uncertain,  but  it  is  prudent  to  act  on  the 
supposition  that  its  specific  germ  may 
be  preserved  in,  and  have  its  powers  for 
evil  intensified  by,  accumulations  of  hu- 


FINGAL 


FILTRATION 

man  excreta  and  by  water  polluted  with 
such  excreta. 

The  various  forms  of  septic  disease, 
including  puerperal  fever  and  those  pro- 
duced by  pyogenic  organisms,  are  often 
due  to  want  of  cleanliness  of  the  person, 
of  clothing,  of  instruments,  etc.,  and 
such  want  of  cleanliness  is  apt  to  occur 
in  connection  with  or  to  be  produced  by 
the  presence  of  accumulations  of  fdth, 
and  in  this  sense  they  may  perhaps  be 
called  filth  diseases.  The  name  “finger- 
nail fever,”  which  has  been  applied  to 
puerperal  fever,  is  a very  suggestive  one. 

Filth  diseases  are  to  be  prevented,  by 
preventing  accumulations  of  filth  rather 
than  by  trying  to  disinfect  such  accumu- 
lations, and  one  of  the  most  important 
means  of  doing  this  for  a city  is  a proper 
system  of  sewerage,  which  involves  a 
good  general  water-supply  and  the  regu- 
lation of  the  drainage  systems  in  individ- 
ual houses  to  insure  proper  connections 
and  prompt  disposal  of  liquid  wastes. 

FILTRA'TION,  the  process  of  freeing 
a liquid  from  solid  matter  suspended  in 
it  by  causing  it  to  pass  through  some 
pervious  substance  or  substances  which 
catch  and  retain  the  solid  matter.  The 
materials  of  which  a filter  is  composed 
must  have  pores  or  interstices  suffi- 


Water  filter. 

18  3 4,  The  compartments;  a &,  porous  top  of 
2d  compartment;  cd,  filtering  top  of  3d  com- 
partment ; e,  movable  plug. 

ciently  coarse  to  allow  the  passage  of  the 
liquid,  and  yet  sufficiently  fine  to  pre- 
vent the  passage  of  any  solid  particles. 
On  a small  scale  unsized  paper  is  gen- 
erally used;  but  on  a large  scale  various 
kinds  of  stone,  sand,  gravel,  powdered 
glass,  clay,  porous  sulphur,  preparations 
of  iron,  charcoal,  cloth,  felt,  horse-hair, 
skins,  silicated  carbon,  sponge,  wood, 
wool,  cane,  capillary  threads,  etc.,  are 
all  employed.  In  domestic  filters  the 
simplest  forms  are  those  in  which  the 
water  passes  down  by  its  own  gravita- 
tion through  the  filtering  medium  to  a 
reservoir  below.  Lateral  and  ascending 
filtration  are  not  uncommon.  One  of 
the  most  successful  forms  of  ascending 
filter  is  divided  into  four  compartments, 
as  seen  in  the  figure.  The  uppermost 
part,  containing  the  water  to  be  filtered, 
communicates  with  the  lowest  by  a tube 
having  a loose  sponge  at  its  mouth  to 
stop  some  of  the  impurities.  The  top 
of  the  lowest  compartment  is  composed 
of  a porous  slab,  through  which  the 
water  passes  into  the  third  part,  which  is 
filled  with  charcoal.  The  water  is  lastly 
forced  through  the  charcoal  and  another 
slab  into  the  remaining  compartment, 
which  is  furnished  with  a tap  to  draw 
off  the  filtered  water.  The  filters  at 


/ 


water-works  are  large  tanks  or  beds, 
made  of  good  clay  and  filled  with  layers 
of  large  stones,  pebbles,  and  coarse 
gravel,  fine  gravel,  coarse  sand  and  fine 
sand — the  fine  sand  being  at  the  top. 
Other  materials  are  sometimes  utilized, 
such  as  furnace  cinders  or  clinkers, 
shells  or  shell-sand,  and  so  forth.  The 
water  in  the  reservoir,  collected  from 
springs,  surface  drainage,  and  rain,  is 
allowed  to  deposit  its  suspended  matter 
in  settling-tanks,  and  then  it  is  run  into 
the  filters.  By  percolation  the  rest  of  the 
mineral  matter  is  removed,  and  the 
water  then  flows  into  the  mains  which 
are  to  convey  it  to  the  locality  where  it 
is  to  be  used.  Filtration  can  only  remove 
substances  mechanically  suspended  in 
the  liquid.  In  order  to  remove  dissolved 
substances  distillation  is  necessary. 

FINALE  (fi-na'le),  the  concluding  part 
of  a musical  composition,  for  instance, 
of  a quartette,  of  a symphony,  of  any  act 
of  an  opera,  of  a ballet,  etc.  It  con- 
sists of  compositions  of  various  charac- 
ters. 

FINANCE',  the  system  or  science  of 
public  revenue  and  expenditure.  In 
"the  plural  the  term  is  applied  to  the  in- 
come or  revenue  of  a state,  to  the  funds 
in  the  public  treasury,  and  also  to 
private  incomes  or  resources.  See  such 
articles  as  Exchequer,  National  Debt, 
Taxation,  Bank,  etc. 

FIN-BACK,  or  FINNER,  a name  given 
the  species  of  a genus  of  whales  (Physa- 
lus),  so  called  for  their  possessing  a 
dorsal  hump  qr  fin.  The  name  is  also 
sometimes  given  to  the  members  of 
the  genus  Balsenoptera  or  rorquals. 

FINCH,  one  of  the  Fringillidse,  a 
large  family  of  small  seed-eating  birds, 
inhabiting  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and 
belonging  to  the  order  Insessores,  sec- 
tion Conirostres.  They  are  distinguish- 
ed by  having  a sharply-pointed,  coni- 
cal, and  in  most  cases  a strongly-formed 
bill,  suitable  for  crushing  seeds  and  other 
hard  objects.  The  species  have  been 
divided  among  several  sub-families,  as 
the  haw-finches,  the  true  finches,  the 
buntings,  the  larks,  the  bull-finches,  etc. 

FIN  DE  SIECLE,  a French  phrase 
meaning  end  of  the  century,  and  used 
adjectively  in  the  sense  of  peculiar  to,  or 
characteristic  of,  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury or  of  the  epoch;  of  such  character 
as  might  be  thought  fitting  to  the  end 
of  the  epoch — overwrought,  overesti- 
mated, artificial,  and  sophisticated. 

FINDING.  In  law  this  term  has  the 
same  meaning  as  in  popular  language. 
The  finder  of  lost  property  upon  land 
who  takes  it  into  his  possession  becomes 
invested  with  a special  property  therein, 
which  is  superior  to  the  claims  of  all  per- 
sons except  that  of  the  true  owner.  He  is 
under  no  legal  obligation  to  take  into 
his  custody  any  articles  he  may  thus  dis- 
cover, but  if  he  does,  certain  important 
rights  and  obligations  immediately  at- 
tach to  his  possession.  His  primary 
duty  is  to  preserve  the  property  intact, 
and  in  as  excellent  condition  as  its  nat- 
ural state  at  the  time  of  finding  will  per- 
mit, in  anticipation  of  the  owner’s  ap- 
pearing to  reassert  his  title.  A finder 
thus  becomes  a kind  of  bailee,  and,  like 
other  bailees,  he  may  defend  his  posses- 
sion and  interest  by  bringing  action 
against  any  third  person  who  injures 


the  property,  or  asserts  dominion  over 
it,  or  interferes  with  his  immediate  own- 
ership. If  the  absolute  owner  ever  ap- 
pears, restoration  must  be  made  to  him, 
and  the  finder  will  be  entitled  to  no 
reward  if  none  had  been  previously 
offered,  and  can  only  claim  to  be  re- 
munerated for  the  actual  and  necessary 
expenses  incurred  in  the  proper  care  of 
the  goods.  But  if  a specific  reward  had 
been  promised,  of  which  the  finder  had 
knowledge,  he  would  be  authorized  in 
demanding  it  and  would  have  a lien 
upon  the  property  until  such  charges 
were  satisfied.  If  at  the  time  of  making 
the  discovery  the  finder  knew,  or  had 
means  of  readily  ascertaining  to  whom 
the  property  belonged,  it  would  be  his 
duty  to  seek  out  the  owner  and  return 
whatever  he  had  thus  acquired;  and  if 
he  failed  to  do  this  his  retention  of  the 
goods  would  be  a fraudulent  appropria- 
tion of  them  which  would  constitute 
larceny.  But  in  cases  where  knowledge 
of  ownership  could  not  be  acquired  no 
larceny  could  be  committed.  Retaining 
the  chattels  would  then  not  be  wrongful, 
but  reasonable  and  obligatory.  If  the 
former  owner  can  never  he  discovered  or 
never  asserts  any  claim  to  the  property, 
it  vests  obsolutely  in  the  finder.  The 
place  where  the  finding  occurred  is  im- 
material as  regards  his  rights.  If  an 
article  which  was  lost  in  a store  was 
picked  up  by  any  stranger,  he  would 
have  the  first  claim  to  it,  and  if  the  owner 
never  reappeared  might  enforce  his  title 
even  against  the  storekeeper.  This 
would  not  be  the  case,  however,  if  the 
article  was  only  left  by  accident,  for  it 
would  then  be  regarded  as  confided  to 
the  keeping  of  the  proprietor  of  the 
store,  who  might  demand  it  from  any 
one  by  whom  it  was  discovered. 

FINDLAY,  a city  and  railway  center, 
the  capital  of  Hancock  co.,  Ohio;  90 
miles  n.w.  of  Columbus.  It  is  the  center 
of  a natural  gas-field,  and  since  1885  has 
become  an  important  manufacturing 
center  for  glass-works,  rolling-mills, 
nail-factories,  etc.  Pop.  20,162. 

FINE,  in  English  law,  formerly  signi- 
fied a sum  of  money  paid  at  the  entrance 
of  a tenant  into  his  land  and  on  other 
occasions,  but  now  generally  has  the 
signification  of  a pecuniary  penalty 
exacted  either  in  punishment  of,  or  in 
compensation  for,  an  offense,  whether 
committed  against  an  individual,  in 
contravention  of  the  laws  of  the  com- 
munity, or  against  the  community 
itself. 

FINE  ARTS,  the  arts  whose  object  is 
the  production  of  pleasure  by  their  im- 
mediate impression  on  the  mind,  as 
poetry,  music,  painting,  and  sculpture. 
In  modern  usage  the  term  is  often  re- 
stricted to  the  imitative  arts  which  ap- 
peal to  us  through  the  eye,  namely 
painting,  sculpture,  engraving,  architec- 
ture, and  is  sometimes  even  restricted 
to  the  two  first  as  more  essentially 
imitative  and  imaginative. 

FIN'GAL,  a hero  of  Gaelic  romance, 
celebrated  as  a great  warrior  and  a gen- 
erous man  in  many  old  ballads'  belonging 
alike  to  Ireland  and  Scotland;  but  more 
especially  the  hero  of  an  epic  poem 
attributed  to  Fingal’s  son  Ossian,  first 
ublished  by  James  Macpherson  in  1672. 
ee  Ossian. 


FINGAL’S  CAVE 


FINS 


FINGAL’S  CAVE,  a famous  natural 
cavern  in  the  island  of  Staffa,  one  of  the 
western  islands  of  Scotland.  It  extends 
227  feet  from  its  mouth  inward,  is  com- 
posed of  lofty  basaltic  columns,  beau- 
tifully jointed,  and  of  most  symmetrical, 
though  somewhat  varied  forms.  The 
height  from  the  top  of  the  arched  roof 
to  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  is  66  feet; 
the  breadth  at  the  entrance  42  feet,  at 
the  end  of  the  cave  22  feet. 

FINGER-BOARD,  the  part  of  a 
stringed  instrument,  as  the  neck  of  a 
violin,  guitar,  etc.,  to  which  the  fingers 
(of  the  left  hand)  are  applied  in  plajdng 
to  stop  the  strings.  The  finger-board  of 
a ke}md  instrument  (played  with  both 
hands)  is  commonly  called  a key-board. 

FINGERING,  in  music,  (a)  the  art  of 
dexterously  applying  the  fingers  to  a 
musical  instrument  in  playing,  (b)  The 
marking  of  the  notes  of  a piece  of  music, 
as  for  the  piano,  organ,  harmonium,  con- 
certina, etc.,  so  as  to  guide  the  fingers  in 
playing. 

FINGERS.  See  Hand. 

FINIAL,  in  ai-chitecture,  an  orna- 
mental "bunch  of  foliage  which  termi- 
nates pinnacles,  canopies,  pediments. 


1,  Pinial,  A.D.  1330,  Cathedral  of  Amiens,  France. 

2,  Finial,  15lh  century. 

etc.,  or  anj^  ornament  of  like  kind.  By 
ohler  writers  the  term  is  used  to  denote 
not  only  the  leafy  termination  but  the 
whole  pyramidal  mass. 

FI'NING,  a substance  used  to  clarify 
liquors,  usually  such  as  are  out  of  con- 
dition or  are  of  inferior  quality.  A solu- 
tion of  isinglass  is  generally  used  for 
beer,  and  alum,  carbonate  of  soda,  salt  of 
tartar,  etc.,  for  spirits.  Finings  always 
destroy  some  of  the  real  virtue  of  the 
liquor. 

FINISTERE(fi-nis-tar;  “Land’s  End”), 
a department  of  France,  so  named  from 
occupjung  its  w'esternm.ost  extremity; 
area,  2,595  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is  gen- 
erall3^  fertile  and  well  cultivated;  fish- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on;  and  the 
minerals  are  of  considerable  importance, 
including  iron,  zinc,  bismuth,  and  lead. 
The  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  sail- 
cloth, linen,  soap,  oil,  candles,  ropes, 
le.athcr,  paper,  and  tobacco.  Ship-build- 
ing also  is  carried  on,  and  the  general 
trade  is  extensive.  Quimper  is  the 
ca])ital;  other  towns  are  Brest,  Chdteau- 
lin,  and  Morlaix.  Pop.  707,820. 

FINISTERRE,  Cape,  the  most  w'estern 
ca))e  of  Spain,  on  the  coast  of  Galicia. 

FIN'LAND,  a Russian  grand-duch}'-, 
containing  134,829  sq.  miles,  bounded  n. 
by  Norway,  e.  by  the  governments  of 
Olonetz  and  Archangel  s.  by  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  w.  bj-^  Sweden  and  the  Gulf 


of  Bothnia.  The  capital  is  Helsingfors. 
The  country,  in  some  parts,  is  hilly,  be- 
ing traversed  by  the  continuations  of 
the  Scandinavian  Mountains,  and,  is 
sandy,  marshy,  and  abounding  in  lakes, 
which  furnish  one  of  the  most  charac- 
teristic features  of  the  scenery.  Tillage 
and  cattle-breeding  are  carried  on  to 
some  extent;  but  the  most  valuable 
exports  are  the  products  of  the  forests, 
timber,  pitch,  tar,  and  rosin.  The  forests 
occupy  60  per  cent  of  the  surface.  The 
climate  is  severe,  but  healthy;  the  mean 
yearly  temperature  in  the  north  is  27'5° 
F.,  at  Helsingfors  38'7°.  The  principal 
minerals  are  iron  and  copper;  granite  is 
extensively  quarried.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Finns  (see  Finns)  and  Sw'edes, 
with  a few  Lapps,  Russians,  and  Ger- 
mans. Up  to  the  12th  century  the  Finns 
lived  under  their  own  chiefs  and  were 
pagans.  Their  conversion  to  Christian- 
ity took  place  about  the  middle  of  that 
century  after  their  conquest  by  the 
Sw'edes.  In  1721  the  part  of  Finland 
which  formed  the  province  of  Wiborg 
w'as  secured  to  Peter  the  Great  by 
treaty.  The  remainder  was  conquered 
from  the  Swedes  in  1809.  The  religion, 
laws,  and  liberties  of  the  country  have, 
however,  been  preserved,  and  Finland 
is  perhaps  the  freest  part  of  the  Russian 
empire.  The  established  religion  is 
Lutheran ; but  there  is  complete  religious 
freedom  for  other  bodies.  The  national 
parliament  consists  of  four  estates,  the 
nobles,  the  clergy,  the  burgesses,  and 
the  peasants,  convoked  by  the  grand- 
duke,  the  Emperor  of  Russia.  The 
superior  administrative  power  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  senate,  which  is  nominated 
by  the  crown,  and  sits  at  Helsingfors 
under  the  presidency  of  a governor- 
general  representing  the  emperor.  The 
governor-general  is  usually  a Russian 
and  is  appointed  by  the  emperor.  All 
other  officials,  as  well  as  the  officers  of 
the  army,  must  be  Finnish  subjects.  In 
1899  the  Czar  af  Russia  made  Finland 
an  integral  portion  of  the  em[)ire.  In 
1908  the  Czar  dissolved  the  Finnish 
Diet.  Pop  2 2M',0l;u. 

FINLAND,  Gulf  of,  a groat  arm  of  the 
Baltic,  250  or  260  miles  long  and  from  10 
to  70  miles  wide,  stretching  from  w.  to 
e.  between  Finland  on  the  n.  and  the 
Russian  governments  of  Esthonia  and 
St.  Petersburg  on  the  s.  Its  waters  are 
only  slightly  salt.  It  contains  numerous 
islands,  several  excellent  harbors  and 
strong  fortresses. 

FINNS,  are  a race  of  people  inhabiting 
the  northwest  of  European  Russia  (gov'- 
ernments  of  Archangel  and  Olonetz), 
but  especially  the  grand-duchy  of  Fin- 
land. In  a wider  sense  the  term  Finns, 
with  its  adjective  Finnic,  is  applied  to 
one  of  the  chief  branches  of  the  northern 
or  Uralo-Altaic  division  of  the  Turanian 
family  of  peoples  and  languages.  The 
Uralo-Finnic  family  has  been  divided 
into  four  groups  or  branches:  1,  Ugric, 
to  which  the  Ostiaks,  Voguls,  and  Mag- 
yars belong;  2,  the  Bulgaric  or  Volgaic, 
consisting  of  the  Tcheremisses  and  the 
Mordvins;  3,  the  Permic,  coin.posed  of 
the  Permians,  Sirianes,  and  Votiaks; 
and  4,  the  Chudic  or  Baltic  group.  To 
the  last  belong,  besides  the  Finns  proper, 
the  Esths  of  Esthonia  and  the  Lives  or 
Livonians,  the  Chudes,  in  the  govern- 


ments of  Novgorod  and  Olonetz,  and 
the  Lapps  in  Archangel  and  the  north- 
ern^'arts  of  Finland,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
waju  The  typical  Finns  are  physically 
of  low  stature  but  of  strong  build ; with 
round  head,  forehead  low  and  arched, 
features  fiat  with  prominent  cheek- 
bones, and  oblique  e3'es.  Their  language 
belongs  to  the  northern  divusion  of  the 
Turanian  or  I'ralo-Altaic  family  of  lan- 
guages, and  is  most  nearl3'  allied  to  the 
languages  of  the  Esths,  Lapps,  Mord- 
vins, Voguls,  and  Hungarians.  It  is 
agreeable  to  the  ear,  rich  inA'owels  and 
diphthongs,  copious,  and  uncommonly 
flexible.  The  language  is  remarkably 
rich  in  declensional  forms,  there  being 
as  many  .as  fifteen  different  cases,  ex- 
pressing such  relations  as  are  expressed 
in  English  by  near,  to,  by,  on,  in,  with, 
without,  along,  etc.  There  is  no  dis- 
tinction of  gender  in  nouns.  The  verb 
resembles  the  noun  in  its  capability  for 
expressing  shades  of  meaning  by  corres- 
ponding inflections.  A great  imjmlse 
has  been  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
language  in  modern  times.  It  is  now 
recognized  as  an  official  language  side 
by  side  with  Swedish,  and  is  becoming 
more  and  more  the  vehicle  for  imparting 
instruction.  In  many  of  the  higher  educ- 
cational  institutions  for  both  sexes  in 
Finland  the  Finnish  language  is  used. 
Works  on  science  and  history  as  well  as 
poetry  have  been  written  in  Finnish  in 
recent  years;  a great  Finnish-Sw^ish 
dictionary  has  been  published,  and  there 
are  now  a considerable  number  of  news- 
papers. The  center  of  this  literary  life  is 
Helsingfors. 

FINS,  the  projecting  wing-like  organs 
which  enable  fishes  to  balance  them- 
selves and  assist  in  regulating  their  move- 
ments in  the  water.  The  fin  consists  of 
a thin  elastic  membrane  supported  by 
rays  or  little  bon3'’  or  cartilaginous 


in 


ID,  First  dorsal.  2D,  Second  dorsal.  P,  Pec- 
toral. V,  Ventral.  A,  Anal.  C,  Caudal. 

ossicles.  The  pectoral  or  breast  fins  are 
never  more  than  two;  they  are  placed  j 
immediately  in  the  rear  of  the  gill.  Olden- 
ing on  the  shoulder.  In  a state  of  rest 
these  fins  are  parallel  with  the  body,  and 
have  the  apex  toward  the  tail.  The  j 
ventrals,  or  abdominal  fins,  are  placed  t 
under  the  throat  or  belly,  and  point  1 
downward  and  backward.  They  are  | 
smaller,  in  general,  than  the  pectorals,  j 
and  have  sometimes  long  appendages,  a 
Those  of  the  back,  or  the  dorsal  fins,  g 
point  up'.vard  and  backward,  and  vary 
in  ixumber  from  cn^  to  four,  to  which  i 
sometimes  are  added  sev’eral  finlets  or  a 
pinnula; — small  appendages  which  are.  3 
seen  in  the  mackerel.  The  anal  fins  are  1 
situated  behind  the  vent,  var3'ing  in  | 
number  from  one  to  three,  placed  ver- 
ticalhu  and,  like  the  dorsal,  generally  : 
deeper  on  the  anterior  margin.  The  ^ 
caudal,  or  tail  fin,  terminates  the  body,  ” 
and  both  propel  the  fish  and  serves  as  S 


FINSBURY 


FIREARMS 


the  rudder  by  which  it  steers  itself.  The 
pectoral  and  ventral  are  known  as 
paired  fins,  and  represent  the  fore  and 
hind  limbs  of  other  vertebrates;  the 
dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  are  median, 
vertical,  or  unpaired  fins,  and  are  or- 
gans peculiar  to  fishes. 

FINSBURY,  a parliamenta<>y-  borough 
of  England,  forming  part  of  London, 
bounded  by  the  parliamentary-boroughs 
of  St.  Pancras,  Islington,  Shoreditch,  Lon- 
don City,  and  Westminster.  Pop.  182,109. 

FION,  FIONN  (fe'on),  a name  given 
in  the  Ossianic  poetry  to  a semi-mythi- 
cal class  of  warriors  of  superhuman  size, 
strength,  speed,  and  prowess.  Generally 
they  are  supposed  to  have  been  a sort  of 
Irish  militia,  and  to  have  had  their  name 
from  Fion  MacCumhal  (the  Finn  Mac- 
Coul  of  Dunbar,  and  Fingal  of  Macpher- 
son),  their  most  distinguished  leader; 
but  Mr.  Skene  believes  them  to  have 
been  of  the  race  that  inhabited  Germany 
before  the  Germans,  and  Scotland  and 
Ireland  before  the  Scots. 

FIORD,  a geographical  term  (of 
Scandinavian  origin)  applied  to  long, 
narrow,  and  very  irregularly-shaped  in- 
lets of  the  sea,  such  as  diversify  the 
coast  of  Norway.  Similar  inlets  of  the 
sea  are  presented  in  the  sea-lochs  of  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland,  as  also  in  the 
fiords  on  the  southwest  coast  of  the 
South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  where 
the  scenery  is  singularly  imposing. 
Fiords  often  seem  to  owe  their  origin  to 
the  action  of  glaciers  in  remote  epochs 
of  the  earth’s  history. 

FIR,  a name  sometimes  used  as  co- 
extensive with  the  term  pine,  and  in- 
cluding the  whole  genus  Pinus;  some- 
times restricted  to  trees  of  the  genus 
Abies,  which  differ  from  the  pines  in 
their  leaves  growing  singly,  and  the 
scales  of  the  cones  being  smooth,  round 
and  thin.  The  term  fir,  thus  limited,  is 
applied  to  the  differe^pt  varieties  of  the 
silver  fir  and  the  spruce  fir,  the  common 
silver  fir  being  the  Abies  picea  of  botan- 
ists, while  the  common  or  Norway  spruce 
is  the  Abies  excelsa.  Other  species  are 
the  great  Californian  fir,  the  balm  of 
Gilead  fir,  the  large-bracted  fir,  the  hem- 
lock spruce  fir,  oriental  fir,  white  spruce 
fir,  Douglas  fir,  etc.  The  firs,  even  in  the 
widest  sense  of  the  term,  are  almost  all 
remarkable  for  the  regularity  of  their 
growth,  their  tapering  forms  and  the 
great  altitude  of  their  stems.  Their 
timber  is  often  highly  valuable,  being 
almost  solely  used  in  the  construction  of 
houses,  and  for  the  spars  and  masts  of 
vessels  of  all  kinds.  Some  of  them  are 
planted  mainly  as  ornamental  trees. 
By  some  botanists  the  larch  and  cedar 
are  included  with  the  firs  in  the  genus 
Abies.  See  Spruce,  Silver  Fir,  Hem- 
lock, etc. 

• FIRE,  the  simultaneous  and  vividly 
perceptible  evolution  of  heat  and  light 
during  the  process  of  combustion.  The 
uses  and  dangers  of  fire,  and  to  some 
extent  the  means  of  controlling  it,  have 
been  generally  understood  from  a very 
early  period.  The  symbolic  and  super- 
stitious uses  of  fire  are  numerous,  and 
have  been,  or  are,  common  to  all  races. 
Anciently  fire  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
four  elements  of  which  all  things  are 
composed,  the  othe^;  three  being  air,  earth, 
and  water. 


FIRE-ALARM,  an  apparatus,  me- 
chanical, electric,  and  telegraphic,  used 
for  detecting  fires,  and  for  giving  in- 
stantaneous notice  of  an  outbreak. 
Detectors  are  often  placed  in  the  differ- 
ent apartments  of  a building,  which 
ring  an  alarm  when  the  temperature 
reaches  a certain  height.  In  large  towns 
a series  of  signal-boxes  is  distributed  in 
different  quarters  from  which  an  alarm 
can  be  immediately  telegraphed  to  the 
fire  department. 

FIREARMS,  in  no  other  field  of  the 
mechanical  arts  has  a greater  inventive- 
ness aftd  skill  in  workmanship  been 
shown  th^  in  the  evolution  of  the  fire- 
arm. Ffom  the  old  horse  pistol  to  the 
modern  self-acting  revolver  and  auto- 
matic pistol — from  the  old  muzzle- 
loading, bell-muzzled  fowling  piece  to 


Hammerless. 


the  modern  breech-loading,  double- 
barreled,  hammerless  shotgun — one  may 
trace  the  hall  marks  of  mechanical  per- 
fection as  attained  by  the  artisan  of 
the  age. 

The  old  horse  pistol  was  a cylinder  of 
wrought  steel,  having  a breech  pin,  a 
pistol  stock  and  nipple  for  iTpercussion 
cap  exploding  the  charge  of  black  ^n- 
powder  beneath  it.  The  fowling  piece 
was  of  a far  longer  cylinder  of  steel,  with 


or  six  chambers  of  the  revolver  loading 
from  the  chamber  muzzles  and  backed 
by  the  nipple  and  the  percussion  caps. 
These  chambers,  rotating  within  the 
cylinder,  brought  the  caps  under  the 
striking  hammer,  one  after  the  other. 

When  a Yankee  inventor  evolved  the 
metallic  cartridge,  with  its  fulminating 
substance  held  inside  the  rim  of  the 
copper  shell  and  allowing  the  shell  to  be 
loaded  as  the  cylinder  bore  itself  pre- 
viously had  been  loaded,  the  nipple  for 
the  percussion  cap  was  done  away  with 
and  the  breech-loading  revolver  cylinder 
was  made  standard.  According  to  this 
design  the  revolver  went  on  to  its  pres- 
ent perfection,  the  rim  fire  cartridge 
giving  way  to  the  surer  central  fire  cart- 
ridge and  adapting  itself  to  the  terrible 
energy  of  the  smokeless  powders. 

The  term  “revolver”  comes  from  the 
revolving  cylinder,  though  it  is  often 
misapplied  in  speaking  of  a pistol. 

The  first  hammerless  revolver  was  of 
American  origin  and  of  recent  date.  The 
two  chief  ends  of  this  weapon  were  the 
elimination  of  danger  from  an  explosion 
caused  by  striking  the  hammer,  as  from 
a fall,  and  in  taking  the  projecting 
thumb  piece  away  it  might  not  become 
caught  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  weapon 
from  the  pocket.  A still  later  device  has 
made  it  impossible  to  explode  the  ham- 
merless revdlver  unless  it  shall  be 
clasped  by  the  hand  at  the  moment  the 
trigger  is  pulled  for  firing.  The  mere 
“breaking”  of  one  of  these  modern 


Military  automatic,  Quarter 
actual  size. 


the  same  general  breech  lock,  cap  nipple* 
and  fitted  with  a shoulder  stock  instead 
of  the  pistol  butt.  Along  these  same 
general  lines  the  older  flint-lock  weapons 
had  been  made  and  down  to  the  present 
these  lines  have  been  preserved  to  artis- 
tic and  ultilitarian  perfections  of  the 
modern  firearm. 

To-day  the  American  products  in  de- 
fensive and  hunting  arms  take  an  un- 
questioned lead  in  the  civilized  world. 
The  finish  of  the  watchmaker’s  art  is  on 
them.  Utility  and  beauty  of  workman- 
ship are  balanced  in  them. 

Consider  the  revolver  of  modem  times. 
Samuel  Colt  was  its  inventor  and  ex- 
ploiter before  1840.  In  that  time  black 
powder  and  the  percussion  cap  were  the 
1 explosive  combination,  each  of  the  five 


Featherweight  Ejector. 

weapons,  as  necessary  for  loading,  in- 
sures through  the  shell  injector  the  abso- 
lute safety  that  comes  of  certain  empti- 
ness of  the  cylinder. 

The  first  “automatic”  weapon  for 
pocket  or  holster  use  was  of  German 
origin.  It  was  a heavy,  cumbersome 
mechanism  and  devoid  of  all  artistic 
lines.  Even  at  the  present  time  it  car- 
ries many  imperfections  of  line  and 
balance.  Buf“in  the  smaller  sizes  for 
pocket  use  the  doing  away  with  the 
obtruding  cylinder  has  made  it  compact 
for  the  purpose  of  concealment.  Also 
it  has  added  three  more  cartridges  to 
the  chamber  than  is  possible  for  the 
pocket  size,  five-shot  revolver.  The 
chamber  of  this  automatic  pistol  is  in- 
serted with  its  eight  cartridges  into  the 
lower  end  of  the  butt.  A sliding,  forced 
movement  of  the  barrel  mechanism 
gives  the  user  a full  notice  that  it  is 
loaded.  A safety  catch  makes  it  safe 
until  the  catch  is  released  by  thumb 
pressure.  Thereafter  from  the  first  shot 
it  becomes  the  most  dangerous  weapon 
ever  made. 

Using  the  high  explosive  cartridge, 
the  recoil  from  the  shot  is  taken  up  in 
cocking  the  weapon  automatically, 
ejecting  the  empty  shell  and  forcing  the 
next  cartridge  into  place,  ready  for  the 
next  pull  on  the  trigger.  There  is  np 


FIRE-BALL 


FIRE-ENGINE 


sense  of  recoil  to  the  hand  holding  the 
gun.  A light  revolver  may  “jump” 
three  to  six  inches  from  a shot;  tire 
automatic  pistol  holds  it  quite  level, 
shot  after  shot  until  the  magazine  is 
empty. 

To  the  untutored  or  careless  user  this 
automatic  weapon  is  one  of  the  most 
dangerous  of  arms  to  himself  or  to  the 
bystander,  in  that  unless  a careful  ex- 
amination be  made,  the  user  never 
knows  for  a certainty  if  it  be  empty.  To 
the  weapon-trained  man  this  fact  in  it- 
self makes  always  for  its  safety,  in  that 
its  terrible  muzzle  never  is  pointed  in 
any  other  than  a safe  direction.  Like 
the  hammerless  revolver  it  cannot  be 
fired  save  when  clasped  in  the  hand  and 
the  trigger  pulled. 

The  ,old  Kentucky  squirrel  rifle  was 
the  forerunner  of  the  magazine  rifle.  No 
weapon  within  its  range  ever  exceeded 
this  weapon  in  accuracy.  But  modern 
methods  have  shortened  its  long  barrel, 
while  modern  “rifling”  and  the  gradual 
constriction  toward  the  muzzle  made 
possible  by  breech  loading  has  given 
terrible  energy  to  the  conical,  jacketed 
bullet,  lead  filled  into  its  cone  of  copper 
or  nickel. 

Spencer’s  carbine  of  1860  was  the  first 
American  adaptation  of  the  breech-load- 
ing magazine  rifle,  carrying  a lead  mis- 
sile nearly  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  At 
close  range  this  soft  missile  would  go 
through  an  animal  and  at  the  point  of 
egress  would  leave  a wound  into  which  a 
hand  might  be  thrust.  To-day  the  thin 
cone  of  the  modern  jacketed  steel  bullet 
from  the  modern  rifle  may  pass  through 
the  same  animal  at  3,000  yards  and  the 
wound  scarcely  be  found,  though  a soft- 
nosed  bullet  is  often  used  in  hunting 
large  game.  In  the  civil  war  men  ad- 
vanced against  the  carbine  in  quadruple 
lines  with  success,  where  to-day  against 
the  modern  army  rifle  the  same  move- 
ment would  mean  the  annihilation  of  a 
regiment. 

Thirty  years  ago  the  hunter  using  the 
double-barreled  muzzle-loading  shotgun 
in  a duck  blind  had  no  trust  in  a gun 
that  was  not  at  least  10-gauge  with  bar- 
rels of  thirty-two  to  thirty-six  inches. 
To-day  the  modern  hammerless  shotgun 
of  12-gauge  and  having  twenty-eight- 
inch  barrels  is  all  sufficient,  its  average 
of  seven  pounds,  beautifully  balanced, 
contrasting  with  .the  over-balanced 
twelve  to  fourteen  pounds  of  the  old 
muzzle-loading  “duck”  gun.  -Nitro 
powders,  chilled  shot  and  the  “choke” 
boring  of  the  shorter  barrels  have  effected 
the  revolution  of  the  clumsy  muzzle- 
loader. 

Of  necessity  the  old  muzzle-loading 
shotgun  contained  perfect  cylinders  in 
its  two  bores.  In  the  making  of  such  a 
gun  no  master  of  gun  making  could  tell 
if  the  gun  turned  out  to  the  best  of  his 
art ; one  day  would  throw  a shot  pattern 
half  equal  in  efficiency  to  the  pattern  of 
the  gun  finished  the  day  after.  By  the 
laws  of  choke  boring  to-day,  however, 
the  master  of  choke  boring  virtually 
may  make  this  shot  pattern  to  the  order 
of  tlie  sportsman.  At  forty  yards  he  may 
cause  this  pattern  to  spread  250  pellets 
within  the  rim  of  a Derby  hat,  or  may 
spread  the  250  shot  through  a thirty- 
>nch  circle. 


There  are  several  methods  of  “chok- 
ing” a gun.  The  most  accepted  method, 
however,  is  to  bore  the  cylinder  in  such  a 
way  that  the  barrel’s  least  diameter  is 
from  two  to  three  inches  from  the  muzzle. 
A constriction  of  five  l,000ths  of  an 
inch  in  the  right  hand  barrel  represents 
a “modified”  choke;  thirty  to  forty 
l,000ths  of  an  inch  in  the  left  hand  bar- 
rel is  the  full  choke.  Ordinarily  the  two 
barrels  of  the  gun  are  not  choked  in  the 
same  degree  and  the  right  barrel  is  less 
choked  in  order  that  in  firing  the  right 
barrel  first  by  the  front  trigger,  the 
shooter  gets  from  the  full  choke  of  the 
left  barrel  a second  later  the  same 
relative  chance  at  a moving  bird. 

Once  the  iron  wire  twist  in  a gun  bar- 
rel stood  for  the  strongest  and  most  or- 
nate possibility  for  the  gun  barrel.  Steel 
wire  followed  iron,  until  at  the  present 
time  in  the  alternating  of  iron  and  steel 
and  the  manipulation  of  these  metals  in 
the  welding,  the  “chain,”  “diamond” 
and  other  fanciful  twists  of  the  Damascus 
barrels  are  suggestive  of  the  jeweler’s 
art,  while  of  strength  to  withstand  the 
wedging  charge  of  chilled  shot  in  front 
of  a dynamite  force  of  the  terrible  nitro 
powders. 

Twelve  years  ago  the  magazine  rifle 
suggested  the  magazine,  or  “pump” 
shotgun.  No  sportsman  handling  the 
finest  of  Damascus  double  barrels  casts 
doubt  upon  the  efficiency  of  the  pump 
gun.  At  the  same  time  some  sportsmen 
do  not  take  the  pump  gun  afield  and  on 
many  game  preserves  it  is  a discredited 
arm  which  would  blackball  the  shooter 
from  club  membership.  The  pump  gun 
carries  an  average  of  six  shells  in  its 
magazine.  But  its  rapidity  of  action 
prompts  firing  at  birds  in  flock  until 
after  the  murderous  possibilities  erf  its 
killing  range  are  exhausted,  countless 
cripples  are  made  in  every  killing  season 
to  the  destruction  of  fair  sport. 

This  pump  gun  has  its  successor  in  the 
automatic  hammerless  shot  gun  that  is 
in  a state  of  evolution.  The  magazine 
just  above  the  trigger  is  especially  cum- 
bersome and  heavy,  but  in  use  the  nat- 
ural recoil  is  taken  up  in  the  ejection  of 
the  shell,  and  sliding  a loaded  shell  into 
the  barrel,  and  re-cocking  the  gun.  It 
works  practically  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  automatic  pistol  and  its 
magazine  holds  five  loaded  shells. 

FIRE-BALL,  (1)  a ball  filled  with 
powder  or  other  combustibles,  intended 
to  be  thrown  among  enemies,  and  to  in- 
jure by  explosion,  or  to  set  fire  to  their 
works.  (2)  a popular  name  applied  to  a 
certain  class  of  meteors  which  exhibit 
themselves  as  globular  masses  of  light 
moving  with  great  velocity,  and  not  uh- 
frequently  passing  unbroken  across  the 
sky  until  lost  in  the  horizon.  They  differ 
from  ordinary  meteors,  probably,  more 
in  volume  and  brilliancy  than  in  any 
other  distinctive  characteristic.  They 
are  not  to  be  confounded  with  another 
class  of  meteors  that  explode  in  their 
passage,  and  appear  to  let  fall  a dull  red 
body  (meteorlile)  to  the  earth. 

FIRE-BOX,  the  box  (generally  made 
of  copper)  in  which  the  fire  in  a locomo- 
tive engine  is  placed.  See  Boiler. 

FIRE-CLAY,  a compact  kind  of  clay, 
consisting  chiefly  of  silica  and  alumina, 
, capable  of  sustaining  intense  heat,  and 


used  in  making  fire-bricks,  gas-retorts, 
crucibles,  etc.  The  most  highly  esteemed 
fire-clay  is  that  of  Stourbridge,  which  is 
used  wherever  high  temperatures  have 
to  be  resisted.  Fire-clay  belongs  to  the 
coal  formation,  and  always  forms  a 
stratum  immediately  below  each  seam 
of  coal. 

FIRE-DAMP,  light  carburetted  hy- 
drogen gas  or  marsh-gas.  It  is  some- 
times very  abundantly  evolved  in  coal- 
mines, and  is  productive  of  the  most 
dreadful  results  when  it  explodes,  occa- 
sioning the  death  of  nearly  all  then  at 
work  in  the  mine.  It  appears  to  be 
generated  by  the  decomposition  of 
partially  carbonized  coal,  and  when  it 
constitutes  more  than  of  the  vol- 
ume of  the  atmosphere  of  mines  the 
whole  becomes  highly  explosive  when 
fire  is  brought  in  contact  with  it.  The 
safety-lamp  affords  the  chief  protection 
against  the  fatal  effects  of  this  gas. 

FIRE-ENGINE,  a machine  for  throw- 
ing water  for  the  purpose  of  extinguish- 
ing fire.  Machines  for  the  extinguishing 
of  fires  have  been  used  from  a very  early 
date. 

So  far  as  known,  the  first  steam  fire- 
engine  was  developed  by  Brathwaite  in 
1829  or  1830.  In  1850  A.  B.  Latta,  in 
Cincinnati,  produced  the  first  machine 


Fire-engine. 

which  was  practically  useful.  Cincin- 
nati was  the  first  city  in  the  U.  States 
to  organize  a steam  fire  department',  but 
other  large  cities  and  towns  rapidly 
followed  the  example. 

The  main  parte  of  the  steam  fire- 
engine  are  the  boiler,  engine,  pumps, 
and  the  vehicle  on  which  these  are 
mounted.  Boilers  are  generally  of  the 
vertical  water-tube  type.  The  engines 
and  pumps  are  also  generally  vertical, 
double-acting,  and  in  duplicate.  To 
facilitate  the  preparation  of  fire-engines 
for  service,  heaters  are  maintained  in 
the  engine-house  to  give  a constant 
supply  of  hot  water  to  the  engines. 
When  the  alarm  strikes  the  fire  is 
kindled  beneath  the  boiler,  and  steam 
is  soon  available.  The  rated  capacity  of 
steam  fire-engines  ranges  from  about 
400  to  1300  gallons  per  minute,  and  their 
weights  from  5000  to  9500  pounds. 
The  first,  and  probably  the  only  thorough 
test  of  steam  fire-engines,  was  that  made 
in  1876  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at 
Philadelphia.  A more  recent  series  of 
tests  was  made  at  Boston  in  1893.  The 
engines  tested  were  those  in  regular  ser- 
vice by  the  fire  department,  some  prac- 
tically new  and  others  fifteen  j^ears  old. 
In  all  cases  the  engines  drew  water  from 
a hydrant  under  pressures  of  from  30  to 
40  pounds.  The  largest  average  quan- 
tity of  water  pumped  per  minute  during 
the  whole  of  one  test  was  910  gallons, 
the  pumps  having  been  run  two  hours 
and  twenty-three  minutes  and  throwing 


FIRE-ESCAPES 


FIRELOCK 


a total  of  130,121  gallons  of  water. 
. The  average  steam-pressure  was  101.3 
pounds,  and  the  average  water-pressure 
• at  the  pumps  was  112.8  pounds.  For 
■ shorter  periods  during  this  test  better 
results  were  obtained:  thus,  for  about 
twelve  minutes  there  was  a discharge 
of  1022  gallons  per  minute.  To  enable 
the  engines  to  be  drawn  by  horses  at  a 
high  rate  of  speed,  lightness  is  essential. 
Fire-engines  mounted  on  fire-boats,  like 
those  used  by  New  York,  Chicago,  De- 
troit, and  other  cities,  may  be  designed 
with  less  regard  for  weight  and  with 
more  consideration  for  fuel  economy; 
but  here,  also,  quickness  and  effective- 
ness of  service  ranks  first,  so  the 
chief  advantage  of  such  fire-engines  is 
that  they  may  be  made  practically  as 
capacious  and  powerful  as  is  desired, 
and  may  approach  fires  closely  from  the 
water-front  side,  where  the  ordinary 
steam  fire-engine  cannot  be  driven. 

Chemical  fire-engines  and  extinguish- 
ers range  all  the  way  from  apparatus 
mounted  on  wheels  and  propelled  by 
horses  or  men  to  small  tanks  carried  on  a 
fireman’s  back,  or  small  hand  force- 
pumps.  The  aim  of  all  such  devices  is  to 
smother  the  fire  by  means  of  some  gas, 
such  as  carbonic-acid  gas.  The  larger 
s,nd  more  effective  apparatus  include  a 
generating  tank  or  tanks,  in  which  water 
and  soda  are  placed,  with  an  agitator  to 
aid  in  dissolving  the  soda,  an  acid-feed- 
ing chamber,  and  the  necessary  hose. 
If  the  generating  apparatus  is  in  dupli- 
cate, with  proper  hose  connections,  con- 
tinuous streams  may  be  thrown;  other- 
wise the  stream  will  cease  while  recharg- 
ing is  in  progress.  The  water  serves  as  a 
medium  to  carry  the  gas,  and  the  gas  is 
the  motive  force  for  the  water. 

FIRE-ESCAPES,  a stationary  or  port- 
•able  device  to  escape  from  burning  build- 
ings when  ordinary  means  of  egress  to 
the  ground  are  destroyed  or  cut  off 
by  flames.  The  fire-escape  required  by 
most  city  building  laws,  consists  of 
balconies  attached  to  the  outside  of  the 
building,  connected  by  iron  ladders 
with  each  other,  and  opening  onto  each 
floor  at  a door  or  window.  Portable  fire- 
escapes  may  be  operated  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  building  or  from  the  outside 
according  to  their  character.  Interior 
fire-escapes  of  this  class  vary  in  char- 
acter from  a simple  knotted  rope  placed 
in  each  room,  and  down  which  persons 
seeking  escape  slide,  to  more  elaborate 
devices.  Portable  fire-escapes  operated 
from  the  outside  consist  of  ladders, 
telescopic  tubes  carrying  slings,  cables 
which  may  be  thrown  up  into  open  win- 
dows, etc.  One  of  the  most  effective  of 
all  of  these  devices  is  a simple  ladder  of 
sufficient  length  to  reach  frofn  one  story 
to  the  next,  and  provided  with  large 
hooks  at  one  end  which  may  be  inserted 
over  the  window-sill.  The  first  ladder  is 
placed  from  the  ground,  the  second  from 
the  top  of  the  first,  and  so  on  until  a line 
of  ladders  extends  from  the  ground  to 
the  top  floor,  down  which  the  occupants 
of  the  building  may  descend  alone  or  be 
carried  by  the  firemen. 

FIRE-EXTINGUISHER,  an  appara- 
tus by  which  fire  may  be'  extinguished, 
by  pouring  ’on  it  water  charged  with 
some  gas  that  is  incapable  of  supporting 
combustion,  especially  carbonic  - acid 


gas.  The  Babcock  extinguisher  consists 
of  a cylindrical  vessel  which  may  be 
carried  on  the  back,  filled  with  a solution 
of  sodium  bicarbonate,  over  which  is 
suspended  a vessel  containing  sulphuric 
acid,  which  is  made  to  tilt  over  and  dis- 
charge its  contents  into  the  solution 
when  brought  into  use,  thus  liberating 
the  carbon  dioxide.  Large  cylinders  con- 
taining chemical  salts,  have  been 
mounted  on  -wheels,  known  as  “chemical 
fire-engines,”  and  are  used  in  many  of 
the  larger  cities. 

Hand  grenades,  or  bombs  filled  with 
fire-extinguishing  solutions  of  chlorine 
or  ammonium  chloride,  borax,  carbonic- 
acid  gas  under  preat  pressure,  mixtures 
of  calcium  chloride,  magnesium  sulphate, 
sodium  carbonate,  sodium  chloride,  and 
sodium  silicate  are  in  common  use;  but 
they  are  of  value  only  in  the  first  stages 
of  a fire. 

FIREFLY,  a name  indefinitely  given 
to  any  winged  insect  which  possesses 
much  luminosity.  Except  the  lantern- 
fly,  the  fireflies  are  all  coleopterous,  and 
are  members  of  two  nearly  allied  families 
the  Elateridse  or  skip-jacks,  and  Lampy- 
ridae,  to  which  the  glow-worm  belongs 

FIRE  INSURANCE,  just  when  a 
scientific  system  of  insurance  against  loss 
by  fire  was  first  introduced  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say.  In  the  ordinances  of  the 
guilds  of  the  Middle  Ages,  we  find  regu- 
lations for  the  payment  of  indemnity  to 
any  member  who  suffered  loss  of  prop- 
erty by  fire. 

The  earliest  recorded  proposal  for  the 
establishment  of  a scientific  fire-insut- 
ance  company  in  England  was  made  in 
1635.  The  first  office  was  opened  by  N. 
Barbon,  in  London,  in  1667,  the  year 
after  the  great  fire.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  business  had  already  been  in- 
troduced on  the  continent. 

The  first  fire-insurance  company  in 
the  U.  States  was  opened  at  Philadelphia 
in  1752,  and  incorporated  in  1768.  The 
development  of  the  fire-insurance  busi- 
ness was  slow  at  first,  but  before  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  at  least  thirty 
charters  had  been  granted  to  companies 
for  carrying  on  the  business.  The  most 
trying  time  in  the  history  of  fire  insur- 
ance in  the  U.  States  during  the  last 
fifty  years  came  in  the  early  seventies. 
In  October,  1871,  as  a result  of  the 
Chicago  fire,  insurance  companies  be- 
came liable  for  indemnities  amounting 
to  more  than  $96,500,000.  In  Novem- 
ber of  the  following  year  occurred  the 
great  Boston  fire,  which  brought  a loss 
of  more  than  $52,600,000  upon  the  com- 
panies. These  two  great  losses,  coming 
in  quick  succession,  subjected  all  fire- 
insurance  companies  to  great  strain. 
More  than  a hundred  of  them  ■^ere 
forced  to  suspend  operations,  while 
many  others  found  their  surplus  wiped 
out  and  their  capital  seriously  im- 
paired. 

The  year  1906  tested  the  financial 
strength  of  the  fire  insurance  companies 
to  the  limit.  The  earthquake  in  San 
Francisco  on  April  18  was  followed  by  a 
fire  which  raged  for  three  days  before  it 
was  under  control.  The  estimated  net 
losses  to  the  insurance  companies  was 
$113,441,595,  divided  as  follows:  Amer- 
ican companies,  $63,771,499;  foreign 
companies,  $49,670,096. 


On  Jan.  1,  1907,  there  were  doing 
business  in  the  United  States  374  joint 
stock  fire  insurance  companies,  and  257 
mutual  companies.  Their  combined 
capital  was  .|84,290,590 ; their  combined 
assets,  $554,331,115;  their  combined  net 
surplus,  $176,942,570.  During  the  year 
they  wrote  risks  aggregating  .$30,000,- 
000,000.  The  figures  do  not  include  the 
operation  of  some  500  town  and  county 
mutual  companies,  whose  transactions 
are  purely  local. 

Some  indication  of  the  increase  in  the 
use  of  fire  insurance  by  property-owners 
may  be  gained  from  a comparison  of  the 
total  fire  loss  for  different  periods  with 
the  losses  sustained  by  the  insurance 
companies  during  the  same  periods. 
The  figures  given  in  the  Spectator  year 
book  for  1902  indicate  that  in  the  de- 
cade 1881-1890,  57.4  per  cent  of  the  total 
fire  loss  was  covered  by  insurance,  while 
in  the  decade  1891-1900,  60.9  per  cent 
of  the  total  loss  was  thus  covered.  The 
relation  of  insurance  to  the  amount  of 
fire  loss  demands  careful  consideration. 
Against  the  great  gain  which  the  system 
of  fire  insurance  confers  upon  society 
must  be  set  a direct  loss  due  to  the  in- 
crease in  the  amount  of  property  de- 
stroyed by  fire  as  a result  of  the  insurance 
itself.  A part  of  this  increased  loss  is  due 
to  the  greater  carelessness  of  the  owners 
because  of  the  insurance;  a larger  part  is 
due  to  the  deliberate  destruction  of  in- 
sured property  by  the  owners  for  the 
sake  of  securing  the  insurance.  What 
proportion  of  fires  is  due  to  incendiarism 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  with  ac- 
curacy. Various  estimates,  ranging  from 
20  to  40  per  cent,  have  been  made  by 
different  investigators.  The  value  of  the 
property  deliberately  destroyed  in  order 
to  obtain  insurance  constitutes  one  ele- 
ment in  the  cost  of  insurance.  The  in- 
surance companies  themselves  are  indi- 
rectly responsible  for  a part  of  this  loss. 
It  is  a matter  of  common  knowledge 
that  agents  and  brokers  show  too  great 
laxity  in  granting  insurance  on  property 
up  to,  and  sometimes  far  beyond,  its  full 
value.  Every  instance  of  over-insurance 
is  a standing  invitation  to  incendiarism. 

While  a part  of  the  annual  loss  by  fire 
must  be  charged  against  the  system  of 
insurance,  insurance  companies  must, 
on  the  other  hand,  be  credited  with  a 
large  share  of  the  responsibility  for  the 
discovery  and  application  of  methods 
for  preventing  such  loss.  Not  only  have 
they  always  been  active,  both  in  the 
adoption  of  preventive  measures  and  in 
compelling  or  inducing  the  insured  to 
adopt  such  measures,  but  it  is  also  to 
their  initiative  that  a large  part  of  the 
progress  in  state  and  municipal  activity 
along  the  same  lines  have  been  due. 

FIRE  ISLAND,  or  GREAT  SOUTH 
BEACH,  a low  spit  of  sand,  about  50 
miles  long  but  broken  by  inlets,  almost 
40  miles  southeast  of  New  York  City. 
It  separates  the  Great  South  Bay  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  On  its  western  end 
is  a lighthouse  of  the  first  order;  also  a 
station  from  which  transatlantic  steam- 
ers bound  for  New  York  are  first  sighted. 
The  beach  is  a popular  summer  resort. 

FIRELOCK,  a musket  or  other  gun, 
with  a lock  furnished  with  a flint  and 
steel,  by  means  of  which  fire  is  produced 
in  order  to  discharge  it;  distinguished 


FIRE  OF  LONDON 


FISH-GLUE 


1 


from  the  old  matchlock,  which  was  fired 
with  a match. 

FIRE  OF  LONDON,  The  Great,  broke 
out  in  a house  near  London  Bridge  2d 
Sept.  1666,  and  raged  for  several  days. 
Two-thirds  of  London  was  destroyed — 
eighty-nine  churches  and  more  than 
13,000  dwelling-houses.  The  monument 
erected  by  AVren  at  Fish  Street  Hill  com- 
memorates the  great  fire,  and  at  one 
time  bore  an  inscription  attributing  the 
fire  to  Popish  faction. 

FIRE-PROOFING,  various  plans  have 
been  adopted  for  rendering  houses, 
or  an  apartment  in  a house,  fireproof,  as 
by  constructing  them  entirely  of  brick 
or  stone,  and  employing  iron  doors,  ties, 
and  lintels,  stone  staircafses  and  land- 
ings. In  the  case  of  textile  fabrics,  as 
cotton,  linen,  etc.,  saturation  with  vari- 
ous salts,  as  borax,  which  leaves  fheir 
crystals  in  the  substance  of  the  fabrics, 
is  the  means  adopted  for  rendering  them 
incombustible.  AVood  is  best  protected 
by  silicate  of  soda,  which,  on  the  applica- 
tion of  strong  heat,  fuses  into  a glass, 
and  this,  enveloping  not  only  the  out- 
side but  also  the  internal  fibers  of  the 
wood,  shields  it  from  contact  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  Fireproof  safes  are 
generally  constructed  with  double  walls 
and  stout  iron,  having  a space  between 
the  walls  filled  with  some  substance 
which  is  a very  bad  conductor  of  heat. 

FIRE-SHIPS,  are  generally  old  vessels 
filled  with  combustibles,  and  fitted  with 
grappling-irons,  to  hook  enemies’  ships 
and  set  them  on  fire.  This  ancient  de- 
vice has  been  frequently  tried  in  modern 
warfare,  though  it  can  never  be  of  much 
effect  when  employed  against  modern 
ships. 

FIRE-AAtORSHIP,  the  worship  of  fire, 
the  highest  type  of  which  worship  is  seen 
in  the  adoration  of  the  sun,  not  only  as 
the  most  glorious  visible  object  in  the 
universe,  but  also  as  the  source  of  light 
and  heat.  In  the  East  the  worship  of  the 
element  of  fire  was  practiced  by  the 
ancient  Persians  or  Magians,  and  is 
continued  by  the  modern  Parsees.  The 
•establishment  of  this  species  of  idolatry 
among  the  Persians  is  ascribed  to  Zorao- 
aster,  who  taught  his  disciples  that  in 
the  sun  and  in  tlie  sacred  fires  of  their 
temples  God  more  especially  dwelt,  and 
that  therefore  divine  homage  was  to  be 
paid  to  these. 

FIRKIN,  a British  measure  of  capac- 
ity, being  the  fourth  part  of  a barrel,  or 
equal  to  7^  imperial  gallons,  or  2,538 
cubic  inches.  It  is  now  legally  abol- 
ished. 

FIR'LOT,  a dry  measure  used  in  Scot- 
land, but  now  legally  abolished;  the 
fourth  part  of  a boll. 

FIRM,  a partnership  or  association  of 
two  or  more  persons  for  carrying  on  a 
business;  a commercial  house;  or  the 
name  or  title  under  which  a company 
transact  business. 

FIR'MAMENT,  the  vault  of  heaven. 
The  Hebrew  word  rakia,  which  is  so 
rendered  in  Scripture,  conveys  chiefly 
the  idea  of  expansion,  although  that  of 
solidity  is  also  suggested,  inasmuch  as 
the  root  signification  of  the  word  is  that 
which  is  expanded  by  beating  out.  The 
English  firmament  is  adopted  from  the 
Latin  firmamentum,  w'hich  is  the  equiv- 


alent of  the  Greek  stereoma  (stereos, 
firm,  solid),  by  which  the  writers  of  the 
Septuagint  rendered  rakia. 

FIR'MAN,  a decree,  order,  or  grant  of 
an  Oriental  sovereign,  as  of  Turkey,  is- 
sued for  various  special  purposes,  for 
instance  to  ensure  a traveler  protection 
and  assistance. 

FIROZABAD',  town  and  municipality 
in  Agra  district,  in  the  United  Provinces 
of  India,  pop.  16,023.  Pop.  of  tahsil  or 
revenue  district,  108,521. 

FIROZPUR',  a thriving  commercial 
town,  Punjab,  India,  capital  of  a dis- 
trict of  the  same  name.  Pop.  50,437. 
The  district  forms  the  southwestern  por- 
tion of  the  Jalandhar  division.  Area, 
4,302  sq.  miles;  pop.  886,676. — Firozpur 
is  also  the  name  of  a town  in  Gurgaon 
district,  Punjab.  Pop.  6,878. 

FIRTH,  Frith,  an  estuary,  a term  ap- 
plied in  Scotland  to  arms  of  the  sea, 
such  as  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  of  Tay,  and 
of  Forth,  etc.  It  is  the  same  word  as  the 
Norwegian  fjord. 

FISH.  See  Ichthyology. 

FISH  CULTURE,  the  breeding,  rear- 
ing, transplanting,  and  protection  of 
aquatic  animals.in  order  to  maintain  or 
increase  their  abundance. 

The  maintenance  of  ponds  for  the 
rearing  of  fresh-water  fishes  for  food  or 
ornamental  purposes  is  a very  ancient 
one.  In  recent  years  fish  culture  has  be- 
come almost  s3monymous  with  the  har- 
vesting of  eggs,  their  artificial  fecunda- 
tion, and  the  rearing  of  the  young  up  to 
varying  stages  in  hatcheries  established 
for  that  purpose.  The  U.  States  far  sur- 
passes all  other  countries  in  the  extent 
of  this  work  under  Government  patron- 
age. The  Federal  government  supports 
twenty-eight  hatcheries  at  various  fa- 
vorable places,  and  one  steamer,  the 
Fishhawk,  a sort  of  floating  hatchery, 
exclusively  used  in  the  actual  culture  of 
fishes  or  in  the  investigation  of  problems 
pertaining  thereto.  The  purpose  of  the 
governmental  hatcheries  is  either  to 
stock  new  waters  with  desirable  species 
or  to  maintain  by  planting  the  supply  in 
waters  already  tenanted. 

It  is  now  established  that  waters  thus 
stocked  or  replenished  have  not  only 
been  able  to  maintain  their  supply  of 
fishes,  but  have  greatly  increased  it. 
Pacific  waters  have  been  successfully 
stocked  with  Atlantic  species,  and  al- 
most exhausted  streams  in  various  parts 
of  the  U.  States  have  been  successfully 
restored.  In  some  species  the  eggs  are 
not  handled,  but  the  spawning  fishes  are 
provided  with  favorable  ponds  for 
spawning  purposes,  where  their  eggs  are 
protected  from  enemies,  given  suitable 
temperature,  etc.  This  is  the  case  with 
members  of  the  Centrarchidae,  such  as 
the  black  bass,  which  build  a nest  and 
guard  the  eggs  during  incubation.  The 
young  when  hatched  are  either  taken 
from  the  ponds  and  fed  in  suitable 
troughs  until  better  able  to  shift  for 
themselves,  or  are  supplied  Avith  food  in 
the  ponds  themselves.  In  most  species, 
however,  the  eggs  are  artificially  expelled 
from  the  body  into  suitable  receptacles, 
in  which  they  are  fertilized  by  the  ad- 
dition of  milt  similarly  obtained  from 
the  males.  .After  a feAV  moments  the 
eggs  are  transferred  to  running  W'ater 
where  they  are  kept  and  taken  care  of  i 


until  the  embryos  emerge.  The  exact 
method  employed  in  fertilization,  but 
especially  the  subsequent  handling  of 
the  eggs  during  incubation,  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  character  of  the  eggs 
See  Pisciculture. 

FISHERIES,  a term  which  includes  all 
the  industries  concerned  in  the  capture 
of  the  inhabitants  of  fresh  and  salt  water 
for  food  and  other  economic  purposes. 
It  is  thus  applied  to  the  procuring  not 
only  of  fish  proper,  but  also  of  other 
animals  and  products  found  in  the  sea, 
such  as  sponges,  corals,  pearls,  shell-fish, 
turtles,  Avhales,  seals,  etc.  The  most  im- 
portant of  fresh-water  fisheries  is  that 
of  salmon,  which  is  prosecuted  with 
draw-nets,  stake-nets,  and  by  sports- 
men with  fly-hooks.  Trout,  eel,  pike, 
aird  perch  are  among  the  other  import- 
ant fresh-water  fishes.  Sea-fisheries,  in- 
cluding the  herring,  cod,  haddock,  and 
other  fishes,  are  prosecuted  in  a variety 
of  ways.  Hand-line  and  long-line  fishing 
are  worked  more  or  less.  Of  nets  the  chief 
varieties  are  trawls,  drift-nets,  seines,  bag 
nets,  and  trammel  or  set  nets.  Fisheries 
have  generallj''  been  considered  so  im- 
portant an  object  of  national  wealth 
that  governments  have  been  careful  to 
protect  and  encourage  them  in  various 
ways.  The  right  to  various  fisheries  has 
often  been  a matter  of  international  dis- 
putes, negotiations,  and  treaties.  (See 
Canada.)  Fisheries  belonging  to  par- 
ticular governments,  especially  inland 
fisheries  in  lakes  and  rivers,  are  also 
frequently  protected  by  laws  relating 
to  the  mode  of  capture,  etc.,  which  vary 
with  the  particular  circumstances.  The 
countries  whose  fishing  industries  pro- 
duce the  most  valuable  returns  are 
Great  Britain,  British  North  America, 
and  the  U.  States.  The  banks  of  New- 
foundland are  one  of  the  richest  fishing 
grounds  in  the  world,  and  are  largely 
frequented  by  French  fishermen.  The 
German  Ocean  also  yields  a very  rich 
harvest  to  the  fishermen  of  all  the  sur- 
rounding coasts,  especially  in  herring, 
cod,  haddock,  flat-fish,  etc. 

FISH,  Hamilton,  American  statesman, 
born  in  1805  in  New  York  City;  in  1842 
he  was  elected  to  congress  as  a AA’hig. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  governor  In 
1851  he  Avas  elected  U.  States  senator. 
In  March,  1869,  Fish  AA'as  appointed 
secretary  of  state,  and  served  through 
both  of  Grant’s  administrations,  retir- 
ing in  1877.  In  1871  he  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  Avho  negotiated  andsigned 
the  Treaty  of  AVashington  with  Great 
Britain.  During  the  “Alabama  Claims” 
arbitration  he  was  successful  in  securing 
the  adoption  by  the  tril^nal  of  a pro- 
A'ision  Avhich  relieved  the  U.  States  from 
responsibility  for  indirect  damages  aris- 
ing out  of  the  Fenian  raids  and  Cuban 
filibustering  expeditions.  He  also 
brought  about  the  settlement  of  the 
long-standing  NorthAA’estern  boundary 
dispute  Avith  Great  Britain,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  cession  to  the  U.  States  of 
the  island  of  San  Juan  (see  San  Juan 
boundary),  and  the  satisfactory  settle- 
ment of  the  complications  groAA'ing  out 
of  the  Virginius  affair.  He  died  in 
1895. 

FISHES.  See  Ichthj'ology. 
FISH-GLUE,  a coarse  species  of  isin- 
glass. 


FISH-HAWK 


FITZGERALD 


FISH-HAWK,  a name  given  in  America 
to  the  osprey  or  fishing-eagle.  See 
Osprey. 

FISH-HOOK,  a curved,  barbed,  and 
pointed  steel  wire  used  for  catching  fish. 
Hook-making  machines  are  now  com- 
mon , especially  in  the  U.  States,  where 
the  wire  is  run  into  the  machine,  and  on 
the  other  side  the  hook  drops  out  com- 
leted,  with  the  exception  that  it  must 
e tempered  and  colored. 

FISHING  BIRDS,  the  fishing  birds 
proper  include  the  larger  sea-birds,  such 
as  the  loons,  penguins,  auks,  puffins, 
tropic-birds,  frigate-birds,  cormorants 
and  gannets;  and  certain  fresh-water 
families  of  higher  organization,  such  as 
the  pelicans,  darters,  most  herons,  and 
some  ducks.  All  are  either  powerful 
swimmers  and  divers,  or  else  are  skillful 
in  lying  in  wait  and  snatching  or  piercing 
any  fish  that  comes  efficiently  close  to 
their  motionless  fonns.  The  instrument 
(except  in  the  Raptores,  which  use  their 
talons)  is  the  beak,  which  is  long,  straight, 
sharply  pointed,  and  sharp-edged,  so 
Miat  a firm  grip  may  be  had  of  the  slip- 
ery  bodies  of  their  prey.  Many  of  these 
irds  have  a special  provision  for  bring- 
ing home  a part  of  their  catch  to  their 
young,  either  by  swallowing  it  as  far  as 
the  crop,  whence  it  may  be  disgorged, 
or  by  storing  it  in  a bag  formed  by  the 
distensible  membrane  between  the  lower 
mandibles. 

FISHING-ROD,  a long  slender  rod, 
usually  made  in  jointed  sections,  to 
which  the  line  is  fastened  in  angling. 
See  Angling. 

FISH-JOINT,  a splice  or  joining,  as  in 
railways,  where  two  rails  end  to  end  are 
fastened  together  by  flat  pieces  of  iron 
(fish-plates)  placed  on  each  si^e  of  the 
rails,  and  fastened  by  screw-nuts  and 
bolts  (fish-bolts). 

FISH-LOUSE,  a name  for  several 
crustaceans  of  the  order  Ichthyopthira, 
parasitic  on  fishes.  Some  are  common  on 
many  of  the  British  sea-fishes.  Sickly 
fishes  often  become  the  victims  of  mul- 
tutides  of  these  creatures,  or  the  sick- 
ness is  induced  by  the  number  which 
attacks  them. 

FISH  PLATE,  a flat  plate  or  bar  of 
iron  employed  in  pairs  to  connect  the 
ends  of  adjacent  rails  in  railway  track. 
The  two  plates  are  placed  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  webs  of  the  rails,  and  are 
held  by- bolts  passing  through  the  plates 
and  the  webs  of  the  two  rails.  In  order 
to  increase  the  strength  of  the  joint,  the 
angle  bar  was  devised,  having  a vertical 
web  like  the  fish  plate  and  an  inclined 
flange  extending  over  the  rail-base. 
The  angle-bar  joint  is  now  almost  uni- 
versally employed. 

FISK,  Clinton  Bowen,  American  sol- 
dier and  politician;  was  born  in  1828  at 
Griggsville,  N.  Y.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  civil  war  he  entered  the  Union  Army 
and  in  1865  was  brevetted  major-general. 
Subsequently  he  devoted  his  life  largely 
to  the  interests  of  the  colored  race;  was 
assistant  commissioner  in  the  Freed- 
man’s Bureau,  and  was  instrumental  in 
founding  University.  He  was 

prohibition  candidate  for  governor  of 
New  Jersey  in  1886,  and  for  president 
of  the  U.  States  in  1888.  He  died  in  1890 

FISK,  James,  Jr.  American  stock 
.speculator,  born  in  Bennington,  Vt.,  in 


1834.  In  1870  he  opened  a broker- 
age office  in  New  York  City.  He  picked 
up  a precarious  living  for  some  time, 
until  Daniel  Drew  made  him  one  of  his 
agents  in  his  famous  struggle  with  Cor- 
nelius Vanderbilt  for  the  control  of  the 
Erie  Railway.  The  Vanderbilt  faction 
was  forced  out  of  the  directorate,  in- 
stalling Fisk  and  Jay  Gould  in  their 
stead.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
association  of  Jay  Gould  and  James 
Fisk,  which  terminated  only  with  the 
death  of  Fisk.  Gould  became  president 
of  the  Erie  Railroad,  and  Fisk  the  vice- 
president  and  comptroller.  From  their 
headquarters  a campaign  of  bribery  and 
corruption  was  carried  on  that  brought 
under  the  power  of  these  men  city,  state, 
and  federal  officials,  judges,  and  legis- 
latures, reaching  its  climax  in  the  gold 
conspiracy  in  1869  and  “Black  Friday,” 
when  an  attempt  was  made  to  control 
President  Grant  himself.  A quarrel  with 
one  of  his  partners,  E.  S.  Stokes  in  1872 
culminated  in  his  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  latter. 

FISKE,  John,  American  philosopher 
and  historian, ' was  born  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  in  1842.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1863,  and  in  1869  began  a 
career  of  distinguished  success  as  a lec- 
turer at  Harvard  on  Philosophy  in  its 
Evolutionary  Aspect.  In  1884  he  was 
made  professor  of  American  History  in 
Washington  University,  St.  Louis.  He 
lectured  on  American  History  at  Uiv- 
versity  College,  London,  in  1879,  and 
at  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1880.  He  did  much  to  popularize 
the  philosophy  of  Evolution,  and 
through  outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy 
won  a national  reputation.  His  con- 
tributions in  book  form  to  American 
History  constitute  practically  a con- 
nected history  of  the  U.  States  from  the 
first  discoveries  to  the  establishment  of 
federal  government.  He  edited  with 
Gen.  James  Grant  Wilson  Appleton’s 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography. 
He  died  in  1901. 

FISKE,  Minnie  Maddern,  American 
actress,  born  in  New  Orleans  in  1865. 
Throughout  her  childhood  she  played  at 
times  with  many  well-known  actors  like 
Laura  Keene,  John  McCullough,  Barry 
Sullivan  and  E.  L.  Davenport.  At  six- 
teen she  was  brought  out  as  a star  in 
Fogg’s  Ferry  and  for  several  years  made 
some  success.  She  has  appeared  in 
Ibsen’s  A Doll’s  House,  A Bit  of  Old 
Chelsea,  etc.  She  made  a sensation  in 
Tess  of  the  D’Urbervilles  and  in  Becky 
Sharp. 

FISK  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution 
for  the  education  of  colored  persons, 
founded  in  1866,  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  by 
the  American  Missionary  Association  of 
New  York  and  the  Western  Freedman’s 
Aid  Commission  of  Cincinnati.  The 
university  at  present  comprises  theolog- 
ical, normal,  college,  preparatory,  music, 
and  industrial  departments.  The  attend- 
ance in  all  departments  is  over  500. 

FISSIROSTRES  (-ros'trez),  a tribe  of 
the  Insessores  or  perching  birds,  dis- 
tinguished by  having  a very  wide  gape 
extending  beneath  the  eyes.  It  com- 
prehends the  night-jar  or  goatsuckers, 
whip-poor-will,  swallows,  swifts,  mar- 
tins, etc.  But  in  modern  classification 
this  division  is  oft«n  disregarded. 


FIS'TULA,  in  surg.  a channel  open  at 
both  ends  excavated  between  an  internal 
part  and  the  skin-surface,  showing  no 
tendency  to  heal,  and  generally  arising 
from  abscesses.  It  occurs  more  fre- 
quently at  some  outlet  of  the  body,  as 
the  urinary  passages  and  anus. 


Fissirostres. 

1.  Dlurna.  Head,  foot,  and  bill  of  a swallow. 
2,  Nocturna.  Head,  foot,  and  bill  of  a goat 
sucker. 

FIT,  a sudden  and  violent  attack  of 
disorder,  in  which  the  body  is  often 
convulsed,  and  sometimes  the  person  is 
unconscious;  as,  a fit  of  apoplexy  or 
epilepsy. 

FITCH,  William  Clyde,  an  American 
playwright,  born  in  New  York  in  1865. 
His  first  play.  Beau  Brummel,  was 
brought  out  by  Richard  Mansfield  at  the 
Madison  Square  Theater,  New  York,  in 
1890.  Among  his  plays  are;  Betty’s 
Finish;  Frederic  Lemaitre;  A Modern 
Match;  Pamela’s  Prodigy;  April  Wea- 
ther; Mistress  Betty;  The  Moth  and  the 
Flame;  Nathan  Hale,  which  has  been  his 
greatest  success;  The  Cowboy  and  the 
Lady;  Sapho;  Barbara  Frietchie;  The 
Climbers;  Captain  Jinks,  of  the  Horse 
Marines;  Lovers’  Lane;  The  Way  of  the 
World;  The  Last  of  the  Dandies;  The 
Girl  and  the  Judge;  and  The  Stubborn- 
ness of  Geraldine. 

FITCH'BURG,  a city  (including  the 
villages  of  West  Fitchburg,  South  Fitch- 
burg, Cleghorn,  Crockerville,  Rockville, 
and  Traskville)  and  one  of  the  county- 
seats  of  Worcester  county.  Mass.,  25 
miles  north  of  Worcester  and  50  miles 
northwest  of  Boston;  on  a branch  of  the 
Nashua  river,  and  on  the  Fitchburg 
division  of  the  Boston  and  Maine,  and 
the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hart- 
ford railroads.  Pop.  33,000. 

FITZGERALD,  Edward,  English  poet, 
was  born  near  the  market  town  of  Wood- 
bridge,  in  Suffolk,  in  1809.  In  1853,  the 
first  drama  of  his  famous  translations 
appeared:  Six  Dramas  of  Calderon. 
Fitzgerald’s  intimacy  w’ith  Professor  Co- 
well,  the  orientalist,  culminated  in  their 
study  of  the  Persian  poets,  and  bore 
important  fruit  in  Fitzgerald’s  transla- 
tion of  the  Salaman  and  Absal,  of  Jami, 
in  1856,  and  the  Rubaiyat  three  years 
later.  The  story  of  how  the  now  famous 
quatrains  first  claimed  public  attention 
is  well  known.  Fitzgerald  offered  some 
of  “the  less  wicked”  of  them  to  Frazer’s 
Magazine;  but  as  they  failed  to  appear, 
he  made  a present  of  them,  two  years 
later,  to  his  publisher,  Mr.  Quaritch,who 
issued  them  in  a brown-covered  pamph- 
let, at  five  shillings.  In  course  of  time 
they  found  their  way  to  a penny  box 
outside  the  bookseller’s  door.  It  was 
there  that  Mr.  Whiteley  Stokes  bought 
the  copy  which  he  gave  to  Dante  Gab- 
riel Rosetti,  who  in  turn  passed  it  onto 

Mr.  Swinburne,  and  thus  laid  the  foun- 

• 


FIVE  FORKS 


flamboyant 


dation  of  the  Omar  cult  in  England.  It 
is  only  just  beginning  to  be  recognized 
that  Fitzgerald’s  Rubaiyat  is  held  in 
honor,  not  as  Persian,  but  as  English 
poetry,  and  that  to  the  great  majority 
the  sources  are  as  unimportant  as  the 
sources  of  a play  of  Shakespeare.  He 
died  in  1883. 

FIVE  FORKS,  a locality  in  Dinwiddie 
county,  Virginia;  the  scene  of  an  im- 
portant battle  fought  1st  April,  1865, 
one  week  before  the  close  of  the  civil 
war.  After  heavy  fighting  the  confed- 
erates were  completely  defeated. 

FIXED  ALKALIES,  potash,  soda, 
lithia,  and  oxides  of  the  rare  metals 
rubidium  and  cajsium,  so  named  in  con- 
tradistinction to  ammonia,  which  is 
termed  volatile  alkali. 

FIXED  OILS.  See  Oils. 

FIXED  STARS,  those  stars  which  ap- 
pear to  remain  always  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  each  other  and  in  the  same 
relative  position.  The  name  compre- 
hends, therefore,  all  the  heavenly  bodies, 
with  the  exception  of  the  planets,  with 
tlieir  moons,  and  the  comets.  See  Stars. 

FIXTURES,  in  law,  are  accessories 
annexed  to  houses  or  lands,  which  by 
the  fact  of  their  being  so  annexed  be- 
come a part  of  the  real  property  and  pass 
to  the  freeholder,  not  being  remova- 
ble at  will  by  the  tenant  or  occupier  of 
the  property.  The  general  rule  of  law 
is  that  whatever  has  been  affixed  to  the 
premises  or  put  into  the  land  by  a tenant 
during  his  occupancy  cannot  be  removed 
without  the  landlord’s  consent.  Large 
ex-ceptions  are  made  to  this  rule  in  favor 
of  the  tenant,  covering  generally  fix- 
tures for  trade,  for  agricultural  purposes, 
and  for  ornament  or  convenience;  but 
the  removal  must  not  injure  the  land  or 
buildings  of  the  landlord. 

FLAG,  a piece  of  cloth  on  which  cer- 
tain figures  or  devices  are  painted,  im- 
pressed, or  wrought,  borne  on  a staff  or 
pole,  and  usually  employed  to  distin- 
guish one  company,  party,  or  nation- 
ality from  another.  In  the  army  a flag 
is  a banner  by  which  one  regiment  is 
distinguished  from  another.  Flags  borne 
on  the  masts  of  vessels  not  only  desig- 
nate the  country  to  which  they  belong, 
but  also  are  made  to  denote  the  quality 
of  the  officer  by  whom  a ship  is  com- 
manded. 

FLAG,  a popular  name  for  many  en- 
dogenous plants  with  sword-shaped 
leaves,  mostly  growing  in  moist  situa- 
tions. It  has  sword-shaped  leaves  and 
yellow  flowers,  grows  in  marshy  places 
and  by  the  sides  of  streams  and  lakes. 
The  stout  creeping  root-stock  has  been 
recommended  for  alleviating  the  tooth- 
ache, and  is  used  for  dyeing  black  in  the 
Hebrides.  The  leaves  make  excellent 
thatch,  and  are  also  employed  for  mak- 
ing bottoms  to  chairs. 

FLAGELLANTS,  (flaj 'el-ants),  the 
name  of  a sect  in  tlie  13th  century  v^ho 
maintained  that  flagellation  was  of 
equal  virtue  with  baptism  and  other 
sacraments.  Tliey  walked  in  procession 
with  shoulders  bare,  and  whipped  them- 
selves till  the  blood  ran  down  their 
bodies,  to  obtain  the  mercy  of  God  and 
appease  his  wrath  against  the  vices  of 
the  age.  Rainer,  a hermit  of  Perugia,  is 
said  to  have  been  its  founder  in  1260. 
He  soon  found  followers  in  nearly  all 


parts  of  Italy.  Their  number  soon 
amounted  to  10,000,  who  went  about, 
led  by  priests  bearing  banners  and 
crosses.  They  went  in  thousands  from 
country  to  country,  begging  alms;  and 
for  centuries  they  formed  a sort  of  inter- 
mittent order  of  fanatics,  frequently 
reappearing  here  and  there  in  times  of 
extraordinary  declension  or  distress. 

FLAGEOLET  (flaj'o-let),  a small  wind- 
instrument  of  music,  played  by  means  of 
a mouthpiece.  The  tone  produced  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  piccolo,  but  is 
softer  in  quality,  andd,he  range  is  two 
octaves.  The  double  flageolet  consists 
of  two  instruments  united  by  one  mouth- 
piece, and  producing  double  notes.  The 
name  flageolet  tones  is  given  to  those 
harmonic  tones  on  the  violin,  violoncello 
and  other  stringed  instruments,  pro- 
duced by  the  finger  lightly  touching  the 
string  on  the  exact  part  which  generates 
the  harmony,  and  not  by  pressing  the 
string  down  to  the  finger-board. 

FLAG-OFFICER,  an  officer  in  the  U. 
States  navy  entitled  by  his  rank  to  carry 
at  the  masthead  a flag  instead  of  a 
pennant,  indicative  of  his  command. 
At  present  the  flag-officers  are  admirals, 
who  carry  the  flag  at  the  main,  vice- 
admirals,  who  carry  it  at  the  fore,  and 
rear-admirals,  who  carry  it  at  the  miz- 
zen.  In  case  a ship  has  but  two  masts 
they  are  called  the  fore  and  main;  the 
flag  of  a rear-admiral  is  then  hoisted  at 
the  main.  Previous  to  the  abolition  of 
the  grade  of  commodore  officers  of  this 
rank  were  included  among  the  flag- 
oflficers. 

FLAG  OF  TRUCE,  a white  flag  shown 
by  one  of  two  forces,  indicating  a desire 
to  communicate.  The  necessity  of  com- 
municating with  the  enemy  in  time  of 
war,  and  the  fact  that  this  can  usually  be 
best  done  by  means  of  a flag  of  truce,  has 
given  to  the  latter  a sort  of  sacred  char- 
acter, which  is  recognized  by  all  civilized 
people.  A flag  of  truce,  must  be  sent  by 
the  senior  officer  present,  and  it  can  only 
be  received  at  the  will  of  the  senior  officer 
of  the  other  side.  In  a naval  battle  the 
vessel  bearing  it  should  not  attempt  to 
proceed  beyond  a point  at  which  her 
character  can  be  easily  ascertained; 
should  she  attempt  to  go  farther  she  may 
be  warned  by  a shot  across  her  bow,  and 
if  she  does  not  then  stop  she  will  be  fired 
into.  The  detention  of  a flag  of  truce  be- 
yond the  lines  is  a protection  to  the  re- 
ceiving side  against  espionage,  torpedo 
attack,  etc.  Any  attempt  to  obtain  in- 
formation of  the  enemy’s  position,  con- 
dition, or  force  through  a flag  of  truce 
may  subject  the  bearer  to  trial  as  a spy. 
In  dispatching  a flag  of  truce,  except 
during  an  engagement,  the  flagship  of 
the  senior  officer  should  keep  her  colors 
flying  and  a white  flag  at  the  fore;  and  if 
the  senior  officer  of  the  enemy  receives 
the  flag-bearer  his  ship  should  do  like- 
wise during  the  progress  of  the  confer- 
ence, and  afterward  until  the  flag-of- 
truce  boat  has  reached  its  inner  lines. 
The  boat  carrying  the  flag  should  be  met 
at  the  proper  point  by  one  in  charge  of 
an  oflScer  of  suitable  rank  from  the  other 
senior  officer,  which  should  fly  a white 
flag  while  going  and  returning. 

FLAG-SHIP,  a ship  in  which  an  ad- 
miral, or  the  commander  of  a squadron, 
hoists  his  flag. 


FLAGSTONE,  any  sandstone,  lime-- 
stone,  etc.,  that  is  cut  or  split  readily 
into  thin  layers,  and  may  be  used  for 
pavements,  floors,  etc. 

FLAMBEAU,  a sort  of  torch  or  light 
made  of  some  sort  of  thick  wick  covered 
with  wax  or  other  inflammable  material, 
and  used  at  night  in  illuminations,  pro- 
cessions, etc. 

FLAMBOY'ANT,  a term  designating  a 
style  of  Gothic  architecture  in  use  in 
France  from  the  14th  to  the  16th  century, 
having  prevailed  during  the  whole  of  the 


Flamboyant  tracery,  St.  Ouen,  Rouen. 

15th  century.  It  was  distinguished  by 
the  waving  and  somewhat  flamelike 
tracery  of  the  windows,  panels,  etc., 
(hence  the  name),  and  is  usually  regarded 
as  a decadent  variety  of  the  decorated 
Gothic.  The  moldings  in  this  style  are 
often  ill  combined,  some  of  the  members 
being  disproportionately  large  or  small. 


Flamboyant  tracery,  Rouen  cathedral, 
Normandy. 

The  pillars  are  often  cylindrical,  either 
plain  or  with  a few  of  the  more  prominent 
moldings  of  the  arches  continued  down 
them,  without  any  capital  or  impost  in- 
tervening. This  is  so  common  that  it 
may  be  regarded  as  a characteristic  of 
the  style.  Moldings  also  sometimes 
meet  and  interpenetrate  each  other.  \ 
The  arches  are  usually  two-centered, 
sometimes  semi-circular,  and,  in  later 
examples,  elliptical.  The  foliage  enrich- 
ments are  usually  well  carved,  but  the 
effect  is  often  lost  from  the  minuteness  ' 
and  intricacy  of  the  parts. 


FLAME 


/ 


FLAX 


FLAME,  a blaze  rising  from  a burning 
body,  or  any  inflammable  gas  in  a state 
of  visible  combustion.  Flame  is  attended 
•with  great  heat,  and  sometimes  with  the 
evolution  of  much  light;  but  the  tem- 
perature may  be  intense  when  the  light 
IS  feeble,  as  is  the  case  with  the  flame  of 
burning  hydrogen  gas.  The  flame  of  a 
a candle  may  be  divided  into  three  zones; 
an  inner  zone  containing  chiefly  un- 
burned gas,  another  zone  containing 
partially-burned  gas,  and  an  outer  zone 
where  the  gas  is  completely  consumed  by 
combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
The  luminosity  of  flame  depends  upon 
the  presence  of  extremely  small  particles 
of  solid  matter  (usually  carbon)  or  of 
dense  gaseous  products  of  combustion. 
When  the  pressure  of  the  gas  producing 
the  flame  is  so  great  that  it  is  all  but  flar- 
ing, it  is  found  that  certain  sounds  will 
cause  the  flame  to  alter  its  shape,  thus 
producing  the  phenomenon  of  sensitive 
flames. 

FLAMIN'GO,  a bird  formerly  placed 
in  the  order  of  wading  birds,  but  now 
generally  ranked  among  the  Natatores 
or  swimmers,  and  constituting  a family 
PhoenicopteridjE,  allied  to  the  Anatidse 
or  ducks.  Its  body  is  rather  smaller  than 
that  of  the  stork,  but  owing  to  the  great 
length  of  the  neck  and  legs  it  stands  from 


Red  flamingo. 


5 to  6 feet  high.  The  beak  is  naked, 
i-  lamellate  at  the  edges,  and  bent  as  if 
broken ; the  feet  are  palmated  and  four- 
toed. Thecommon  flamingo  occurs  abun- 
dantly in  various  parts  of  Southern 
Europe,  Northern  Africa,  etc.  It  is  en- 
- tirely  scarlet,  except  the  quill-feathers, 
which  are  jet-black.  The  tongue  is  fleshy, 
and  one  of  the  extravagances  of  the 
Romans  during  the  later  period  of  the 
empire  was  to  have  dishes  composed 
solely  of  flamingoes’  tongues.  The  flam- 
ingoes live  and  migrate  in  large  flocks, 
frequenting  desert  sea-coasts  and  salt- 
marshes.  They  are  extremely  shy  andr 
watchful.  While  feeding  they  keep  to- 
gether, drawn  up  artificially  in  lines, 
Which  at  a distance  resemble  those  of  an 
anny;  and,  like  many  other  gregarious 
birds,  they  employ  some  to  act  as  senti- 
nels, for  the  security  of  the  rest.  Their 
food  appears  to  be  mollusca,  spa'wn, 
crustaceans,  etc.,  which  they  fish  up  by 
means  of  their  long  neck,  turning  their 
head  in  such  a manner  as  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  crook  in  their  beak.  They 
breed  in  companies  in  inundated  marshes, 
raising  the  nest  to  a certain,  height 
by  heaping  up  the  mud  with  their  feet 
into  a small  nillock,  which  is  concave 


at  the  top.  In  this  the  female  lays  her 
eggs,  ana  it  was  formerly  believed  that 
she  sat  on  them  with  her  legs  hanging 
down,  like  those  of  a man  on  horseback. 
But  the  nests  are  not  so  high  as  to  allow 
of  this,  and  the  birds  really  sit  with  their 
legs  doubled  up  under  them. 

FLAMSTEED,  John,  the  first  astrono- 
mer-royal of  England,  was  born  1G46, 
died  1719.  He  was  appointed  by  Charles 
II.  astronomical  observator  to  the  king, 
and  carried  on  his  observations  at  the 
Queen’s  House  at  Greenwich,  until  the 
observatory  was  built  for  him  in  1676. 
Here  he  passed  his  life;  formed  the  first 
trustworthy  catalogue  of  fixed  stars ; and 
supplied  the  lunar  observations  by  means 
of  which  Newton  verified  his  lunar 
theory. 

FLANDERS,  a region  of  Europe,  now 
included  in  Holland,  Belgium,  and 
France,  stretching  along  the  German 
Ocean.  The  erection  of  the  territory  into 
a county  took  place  in  the  9th  century, 
and  was  made  by  Philip  the  Bold,  king  of 
France,  in  favor  of  his  son-in-law,  Bald- 
win. It  afterwards  passed  to  the  united 
houses  of  Spain  and  Austria,  and  ulti- 
mately to  the  latter,  but  underwent  con- 
siderable curtailment  by  the  conquests  of 
the  French  in  the  west,  when  part  of  it 
became  French  Flanders,  and  by  the  con- 
quests of  the  Dutch  in  the  north.  The 
remainder  still  retains  its  ancient  name, 
and  forms  the  modern  provinces  of  East 
and  West  Flanders,  in  Belgium. — The 
Belgian  province  of  East  Flanders 
(French,  Flandre  Orientale)  has  an  area 
of  1157  square  miles.  The  surface  forms 
an  extensive  plain,  sloping  gently  east- 
ward. It  wholly  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Schelde.  Its  soil,  partly  of  a sandy 
and  partly  of  a clayey  nature,  is  so  in- 
dustriously and  skilfully  cultivated  that 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a vast  garden. 
The  principal  crops  are  wheat  and*  flax. 
Linen,  laees,  and  damask  are  among  the 
important  manufactures.  Gand  or  Ghent 
is  the  capital.  Pop.  1,039,138. — West 
Flanders  (French,  Flandre  Occidentale) 
has  an  area  of  1248  square  miles.  The 
surface  in  generally  flat ; the  soil  naturally 
sandy  and  poor,  but  well  cultivated 
and  fertilized,  though  not  so  productive 
as  that  of  East  Flanders.  The  most  im- 
portant branch  of  industry  is  linen. 
Great  quantities  of  lace  also  are  made. 
Bruges  is  the  capital.  Pop.  816,862. 

FLANGE,  a projecting  edge,  rim,  or 
rib  on  any  object,  as  the  rims  by  which 
cast-iron  pipes  are  connected  together, 
or  the  projecting  pieces  on  the  tires  of  the 
wheels  of  railway  cars  to  keep  them  on 
the  rails. 

FLANNEL,  a woolen  fabric  of  loose 
texture  and  various  degrees  of  fineness, 
much  used  as  a clothing  both  in  hot  and 
cold  countries  from  its  properties  of  pro- 
moting insensible  perspiration,  which  is 
absorbed  and  carried  off  by  the  atmos- 
phere. Welsh  flannels  have  attained  a 
high  reputation.  In  flannel  shirtings  the 
wool  is  frequently  mixed  with  silk,  linen, 
and  cotton. 

FLAT,  a character  or  sign  in  music, 
used  to  lower  or  depress,  by  the  degree  of 
a semi-tone,  any  note  in  the  natural 
scale.  It  is  marked  thus  b.  An  accidental 
flat  is  one  which  does  not  occur  in  the 
signature,  and  which  affects  only  the  bar 
' in  which  it  is  placed. 


FLAT-FISH,  a fish  which  has  its  body 
of  a flattened  form,  swims  on  the  side, 
and  has  both  eyes  on  one  side,  as  the 
flounder,  turbot,  halibut,  and  sole.  The 
sense  is  sometimes  extended  to  other 
fishes  which  have  the  body  much  com- 
pressed, as  the  skate  and  other  members 
of  the  ray  family. 

FLATHEAD  INDIANS,  tribes  estab- 
lished on  the  Pacific  coast,  mainly  of  the 
now  nearly  extinct  Chinook  group  of 
fish-eating  Indians  They  flatten  the 
skull  of  the  infant  by  pressure.  The 
same  custom  anciently  prevailed  among 
many  tribes,  but  the  practice  is  now 
nearly  extinct.  The  name  Flathead  is 
improperly  given  to  the  small  civilized 
tribe  of  Selish  Indians,  who  do  not  flatten 
the  heads  of  their  children. 

FLAUBERT(fl6'b&r')  Gustave,  French 
novelist  was  born  in  Rome  in  1821.  He 
devoted  his  life  to  the  production  of  five 
volumes  of  rare  literary  ability — Madame 
Borary,  published  in  1857,  Salammbo  in 
1862,  L’6ducation  Sentimentale  in  1869, 
La  Tentation  de  Saint-Antoine  in  1874, 
and  the  Trois  Contes  in  1877.  He  died  in 
1880. 

FLAX,  the  common  name  of  herbs  or 
small  shrubs,  with  narrow  leaves,  and 
yellow,  blue,  or  even  ■n^hite  fiowers  ar- 
ranged in  variously-formed  cymes.  They 
occur  in  warm  and  temperate  regions 


Flax. 


over  the  world.  The  cultivated  species 
which  is  used  for  making  thread,  and 
cloth  called  linen,  cambric,  lawn,  lace, 
etc.,  consists  of  the  woody  bundles  of  the 
slender  stalks.  The  fine  fibres  may  be  so 
separated  as  to  be  spun  into  threads  as 
fine  as  silk,  f A most  useful  oil  is  expressed 
from  the  seeds,  and  the  residue,  called 
linseed-cake,  is  one  of  the  most  fattening 
kinds  of  food  for  cattle.  When  the  plant 
is  ripe  it  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots,  tied 
together  in  little  bundles,  and  usually 
left  upright  on  the  field  till  it  becomes 
dry,  when  the  seeds  are  separated,  either 
by  beating  on  a cloth  or  by  passing  the 
stems  through  an  iron  comb.  The  pro- 
cess of  removing  the  seeds  is  called  rip- 
pling. The  stalks  are  then  retted  or 
rotted  in  water  to  free  the  flaxen  fiber 
from  the  woody  core  or  boon  of  the  stem. 
Two  operations  are  necessary  to  separate 
the  fibers  from  the  woody  part  of  the 
stem.  The  flax  is  first  broken  by  means 
of  a wmoden  handle  and  grooved  board, 
or  by  revolving  grooved  rollers,  and 
then  the  boon  or  woody  part  is  entirely 
separated  from  the  fiber  by  a broad  flat 
wooden  blade  called  a scutching  blade, 
or  by  a machine  in  which  a number  of 
knives  attached  to  the  arms  of  a vertical 


FLAXMAN 


FLOCK 


wheel  strike  the  flax  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  and  completely  separate  it. 
The  flax  is  next  heckled,  or  combed  with 
a sort  of  ironAiomb,  beginning  with  the 
coarser  and  ending  with  the  finer,  and  is 
now  ready  for  spinning.  See  Linen. 

FLAXMAN,  John,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished English  sculptors,  born  at 
York  1755,  died  in  London  1826.  His 
earliest  notions  of  art  were  derived  from 
casts  in  the  shop  of  his  father,  who  sold 


John  Flaxman. 


plaster  figures,  from  many  of  which 
young  Flaxman  made  models  in  clay.  In 
1770  he  was  admitted  a student  of  the 
Royal  academy,  and  for  some  time 
earned  a living  by  producing  designs  for 
Wedgwood  the  potter.  In  1787  he  went 
to  Italy,  where  he  remained  seven  years, 
and  left  many  memorials  of  his  genius, 
besides  executing  designs  in  outline  to 
illustrate  Homer,  Dante,  and  ^schylus, 
an  extensive  series  for  each. 

FLEA,  a name  for  several  insects  re- 
garded by  entomologists  as  constituting 
a distinct  order  Aphaniptera,  because  the 
wings  are  inconspicuous  scales.  All  the 


Common  flea.  (Line  shows  natural  size') 


species  of  the  genus  are  very  similar  ft) 
the  common  flea  (Pulex  irritans).  It  has 
two  eyes  and  six  feet ; the  feelers  are  like 
threads;  the  oral  appendages  are  modi- 
fied into  piercing  stilets  and  a suctorial 
proboscis.  The  flea  is  remarkable  for  its 
agility,  leaping  to  a surprising  distance, 
and  its  bite  is  very  troublesome. 

FLEA-BEETLE,  the  name'  given  to 
different  species  of  beetles  which  are  de- 
structive to  plants.  The  turnip-flea, 
whose  larv£E  are  sometimes  so  destructive 
to  the  turnip  crops,  furnishes  an  ex- 
ample. 

FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE, the  Flemish  or  Vlsemisch  lan- 
guage is  a form  of  Low  German,  differing 
only  slightly  in  pronunciation  and  orthog- 
raphy from  the  Dutch.  It  is  spoken  by 


a considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Belgium,  especially  in  the  provinces  of 
East  Flanders,  West  Flanders,  Antwerp, 
Limburg,  and  Brabant.  A fragment  of  a 
prose  translation  of  the  Psalms  upward 
of  a thousand  years  old  is  the  oldest  ex- 
tant specimen  of  the  Flemish.  The 
“father  of  Flemish  poetry,”  Jakob  Van 
Maerlant,  wrote  several  romances  deal- 
ing with  Merlin  and  the  Holy  Grail,  The 
Mirror  of  History,  etc.,  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury; and  a version  of  Reynard  the  Fox 
belongs  to  the  same  period.  The  14th 
century  was  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  wandering  poets,  authors  of  knightly 
romances.  The  translation  of  the  Bible, 
which  is  considered  the  standard  for  the 
construction  and  orthography  of  the 
language,  was  finished  in  1618.  The  18th 
century  produced  several  good  writers  on 
philology,  but  was  barren  in  poetic 
genius.  The  French  almost  annihilated 
the  native  literature,  and  it  did  not  re- 
vive till  the  revolution  of  1830,  since 
which  time  it  has  been  very  vigorous. 
The  leaders  in  this  revival  were  Willems, 
Blommaert,  Van  Ryswyck,  Conscience, 
Van  Duyse,  Snellaert,  Snieders,  DeLaet, 
Dedecker,  David,  and  Bormans. 

FLEMISH  SCHOOL,  of  Painting.  See 
Painting. 

FLESH,  a compound  substance  form- 
ing a large  part  of  an  animal,  consisting 
mainly  of  the  muscles,  with  connective 
tissue,  and  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves, 
etc.,  supplying  them.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  fibrin,  with  albumen,  gelatin,  haema- 
tosin,  fat,  phosphate  of  sodium,  phos- 
phate of  potassium,  phosphate  and  car- 
bonate of  calcium,  sulphate  of  potas- 
sium, and  chloride  of  sodium.  The  solid 
part  is,  besides,  permeated  by  an  alka- 
line fluid,  called  flesh-juice.  It  has  a red 
color,  and  contains  dissolved  a number 
both  of  organic  and  inorganic  substances. 
The  organic  matter  consists  of  albumen, 
casein,  creatine  and  creatinine,  inosic 
and  several  other  acids;  the  inorganic,  of 
alkaline  sulphates,  chlorides,  and  phos- 
phates, with  lime,  iron,  and  magnesia. 

FLETCHER,  John.  See  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS  (fleur-de-le')  Fr., 
“flower  of  the  lily”),  in  heraldry  a bear- 
ing as  to  the  origin  of  which  there  is  much 
dispute,  some  authorities  maintaining 


Various  forms  of  the  fleur-de-lis 


that  it  represents  the  lily,  others  that  it 
represents  the  head  of  a lance  or  some 
such  warlike  weapon.  The  fleur-de-lis  has 
long  been  the  distinctive  bearing  of  the 
kingdom  of  France. 

FLEURY,  Andr6  Hercule  de,  cardinal 
and  prime-minister  of  Louis  XV.,  was 
born  in  1653,  died  in  1743.  In  1698  Louis 
XIV.  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Frdjus, 
and  shortly  before  his  death  appointed 
him  instructor  to  Louis  XV.  After  the 


death  of  the  regent  in  1723  he  proposed 
the  Due  de  Bourbon  as  first  minister,  but 
in  1726  he  overturned  the  government 
which' he  had  himself  set  up,  and  from 
that  date  kept  the  direction  of  affairs  in 
his  own  hands.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
made  a cardinal.  The  internal  affairs  of 
France  prospered  under  his  administra- 
tion, but  his  foreign  policy  was  unfor- 
tunate. 

FLIGHT.  See  Flying. 

FLINT,  the  county  seat  of  Genesee  co., 
Mich.,  on  Chi.  and  Gr.  Trunk  and  Flint 
and  P.  Marq.  R.  Rs. ; 61  miles  N.  W.  of 
Detroit.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Michigan 
institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  It 
has  a large  number  of  steam  saw-mills 
(manufacturing  about  60,000,000  feet  of 
lumber  annually).  Pop.  15,672. 

FLINT,  a variety  of  quartz  of  a yellow- 
ish or  bluish-gray  or  grayish-black  color. 
It  is  amorphous,  and  usually  occurs  in 
nodules  or  rounded  lumps.  Its  surface  is 
generally  uneven,  and  covered  with  a 
whitish  rind  or  crust,  the  result  of  weath- 
ering or  of  the  action  of  water  perco- 
lating through  the  rocks.  It  is  very  hard, 
strikes  fire  with  steel,  and  is  an  ingredi- 
ent in  glass  and  in  all  fine  pottery  ware. 
The  fracture  of  flint  is  perfectly  con- 
choidal;  though  very  hard  it  breaks 
easily  in  every  direction,  and  affords 
very  sharp-edged  splintery  fragments, 
formerly  made  into  arrow-heads,  etc. 
(See  Flint  Implements.)  Its  true  native 
place  is  the  upper  bed  of  the  chalk 
formation,  in  which  it  is  formed  as  a 
series  of  concretions,  the  silica  in  sponges 
and  in  other  marine  animals  which  live 
on  the  sea  floor  while  the  chalk  was  being 
deposited  being  attracted  into  nodules. 

FLINT-GLASS,  a species  of  glass,  so 
called  because  pulverized  flints  were 
originally  employed  in  its  manufacture. 
It  is  extensively  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. Its  dispersive  power  in  regard  to 
light  renders  it  invaluable  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  object-glasses  of  telescopes 
and  microscopes,  as  by  combining  a con- 
cave lens  of  flint-glass  with  one  or  two 
■convex  lenses  of  crown-glass,  which 
possesses  a much  less  dispersive  power, 
a compound  lens  is  formed  in  which  the 
prismatic  colors  arising  from  simple  re- 
fraction are  destroyed,  and  the  lens 
rendered  achromatic.  Quartz  and  fine 
sand  are  now  substituted  for  flint  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  glass. 

FLINT  IMPLEMENTS,  implements  of 
flint  used  by  man  while  unacquainted 
with  the  use  of  metals.  For  such  imple- 
ments granite,  jade,  serpentine,  jasper, 
basalt,  and  other  hard  stones  were  also 
used,  but  the  most  numerous  were 
formed  of  flint.  They  consist  of  arrow- 
heads, axe-heads,  lance-heads,  knives, 
wedges,  etc.  (See  Celts.)  Flint  imple- 
ments are  still  used  by  some  savage 
tribes.  ■" 

FLINT-LOCK,'a  musket-lock  in  which 
fire  is  produced  by  a flint  striking  on  the 
steel  pan,  now  superseded  by  locks  on 
the  percussion  principle. 

FLOATING  QUARTZ,  or  FLOAT- 
STONE,  a porous  variety  of  quartz  of  a 
spongy  texture,  whitish-gray  in  color, 
so  light  as  to  float  in  water.  It  frequent- 
ly contains  a nucleus  of  common  flint. 

FLOCK,  the  refuse  of  cotton  and  wool, 
or  the  shearing  of  woolen  goods,  etc., 
used  for  stuffing  mattresses,  furniture, 


FLODDEN 


FLORENCE 


etc.  Flockpaper  is  a kind  of  wall-paper, 
having  raised  figures  resembling  cloth, 
made  of  flock  or  of  cloth  cut  up  very  fine, 
and  attached  to  the  paper  by  size  or 
varnish. 

FLODDEN,  a village  of  England,  in 
Northumberland,  about  5 miles  s.  e.  of 
Coldstream.  Near  it  was  fought  the 
celebrated  battle  in  which  James  IV.  of 
Scotland  was  defeated  by  the  Earl  of 
Surrey  (Sept.  9,  1513).  The  loss  of  the 
Scots  was  from  8,000  to  10,000  mefi,  in- 
cluding the  king,  the  Archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  a large  number  of  the 
nobles;  that  of  the  English  from  6,000  to 
7,000.  At  the  beginning  of  the  battle  the 
armies  mustered  respectively  30,000  and 
32,000  men.  The  English  victory  was  so 
near  a defeat  that  Surrey  was  unable  to 
prosecute  the  war  with  any  vigor. 

FLOQUET,  (flo'ko',)  Charles  Thomas, 
French  statesman  and  journalist,  born 
at  Saint-Jean-de-Luz  in  Basses-Pyr6- 
n^es,  in  1828.  In  the  organization  of  the 
government  of  national  defense  in  1870 
and  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  Floquet 
was  extraordinarily  active,  and  was  later 
chosen  as  representative  to  the  national 
assembly  by  the  department  of  the  Seine. 
In  1876  he  entered  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties, voting  with  the  extreme  left.  He 
was  made  prefect  of  the  Seine  in  1882, 
but  reentered  the  chamber  soon  after, 
and  from  1885  to  1888,  when  lie  became 
prime  minister,  was  president  of  that 
body.  In  February,  1889,  on  the  defeat 
of  his  projected  constitutional  amend- 
ment, he  resigned  the  premiership.  The 
Panama  disclosures  in  1892-93  impli- 
cated Floquet  and  injured  his  political 
standing,  although  he  was  elected  to  the 
senate  in  1894.  He  died  January  18, 
1896. 

FLORA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  flowers 
and  spring,  whose  worship  was  estab- 
lished at  Rome  in  the  earliest  times.  Her 
festival,  the  Floralia,  was  celebrated- 
from  April  28  to  May  1 with  much  licen- 
tiousness. In  botany,  flora  signifies  the 
plants  of  a region  collectively,  as  fauna 
signifies  the  animals. 

FLORENCE,  a celebrated  city  of  Italy, 
capital  of  a province  of  same  name,  143 
miles  northwest  from  Rome,  and  50 
miles  e.  n.  e.  from  Leghorn.  The  city  is 
surrounded  by  hills,  and  is  beautifully 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Arno,  but 
the  greater  part  of  it  lies  on  the  right 
bank.  Six  bridges  connect  the  banks  of 
the  Arno:  the  Ponte  alle  Grazie,  con- 
structed 1235,  restored  1835;  the  Ponte 
Vecchio,  said  to  date  from  the  Roman 
period,  reconstructed  1362,  and  con- 
sisting of  three  arches,  on  which  are  rows 
of  shops,  and  over  which  a covered  way 
is  carried  to  connect  the  Pitti  Palace  and 
the  UfEzi;  the  Ponte  Santa  Trinit^l, 
erected  soon  after  1567,  adorned  with 
statues;  the  Pontealla  Carraja,  1218,  re- 
stored in  1337,  and  again  in  1559.  There 
are,  besides,  two  suspension  bridges.  On 
either  side  of  the  Arno,  is  a spacious 
quay  called  the  Lung’  Arno,  a favorite 
promenade.  The  private  dwellings  are 
mostly  handsome,  and  the  palaces,  of 
which  there  are  many,  are  noble  and  im- 
pressive structures.  The  city  contains 
numerous  piazzas  or  squares,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  the  Piazza  della 
Signoria,  surrounded  by  important 
buildings,  and  adorned  with  a marble 
P.  E.— 31 


fountain,  and  a bronze  statue  of  Cosmo  I. 
by  John  of  Bologna.  In  this  piazza  is 
situated  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  originally 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  re- 
public, and  subsequently  the  residence 
of  Cosmo  I.  The  most  remarkable  build- 
ing in  Florence  is  the  Duomo,  or  cathe- 


dral of  St.  Maria  del  Fiore,  erected  1298- 
1474,  but  its  facade  not  completed  till 
1887,  surmounted  by  the  magnificent 
dome  of  Brunelleschi,  and  situated  in  a 
spacious  square  nearly  in  the  center  of 
the  .city.  Near  the  cathedral  are  the 
camjianile  designed  by  Giotto,  and  the 
small  church  of  St.  John  (San  Giovanni) 
the  Baptistery,  the  three  bronze  gates 
of  which,  with  figures  in  high  relief,  are 
celebrated  as  among  the  most  beautifid 
works  of  the  kind  extant.  One  of  these 
is  by  Andrea  Pisano,  the  two  others  by 
Ghiberti.  The  church  of  S.  Croce  is  the 
burial-place  of  many  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Tuscans,  contains  much  fine  sculp- 
ture and  many  interesting  tombs, 
amongst  others  those  of  Michael  Angelo 
Buonarotti,  Galileo,  Machiavelli,  and 
Alfieri.  In  the  Piazza  S.  Croce  stands 
Dante’s  monument  by  Pazzi,  inaugu- 
rated 1865.  The  chief  art  collection  is 
the  Galleria  degli  Uffizi.  In  this  gallery 
are  contained  specimens  of  painting  and 
statuary  by  the  greatest  masters  in  these 
arts.  In  statuary,  among  numerous  an- 
tiques may  be  specified  the  Venus  de’ 
Medici,  the  Apollino,  the  Knife-grinder, 
the  Dancing  Faun,  the  Wrestlers,  and 
the  Group  of  Niobe  and  Her  Children'; 
and  in  painting  there  are  works  by 
Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  Titian,  Fra 
Angelico,  Fra  Bartolomeo,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Correggio,  Guido,  and  numerous 
others  of  the  first  names  in  various 
schools.  Other  important  art  collections 
are  preserved  in  the  various  churches 
and  palaces,  one  of  the  principal  being 
that  in  Pitti  Palace. 

Florence  was  probably  founded  by 
the  Romans  in  the  1st  century  b.c.,  and 
early  attained  considerable  prosperity. 
During  the  dark  ages  it  was  frequently 
devastated,  but  it  revived  about  the 


beginning  of  the  11th  century,  at  which 
time  the  Florentines  became  extensive 
European  traders.  Their  silk  and  woolen 
fabrics  excelled,  and  their  skill  as  workers 
in  gold  and  jewels  was  unsurpassed. 
About  this  time  Florence  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  feud  which  broke  out 


between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 
the  town  generally  supporting  the 
former  against  the  imperial  party.  In 
1283  a species  of  republic  was  consti- 
tuted; but  about  the  year  1300  the 
party  struggles  again  burst  forth  be- 
tween the  same  rival  families  under  the 
new  names  of  the  Whites  and  the  Blacks, 
in  which  the  Blacks  (the  Guelphs)  'W'ere 
eventually  victorious,  and  the  Whites, 
among  whom  was  the  poet  Dante,  ban- 
ished. In  the  course  of  these  troubles  a 
family  of  merchants  named  the  Medicis 
rose  to  great  influence  in  Florentine 
politics.  One  of  them,  Cosmo,  born  1389, 
was  the  founder  of  the  political  great- 
ness.of  his  house.  His  grandson  Lorenzo, 
surnamed  II  Magnifico,  as  a statesman, 
scholar,  and  patron  of  art  and  literature, 
attained  the  highest  celebrity.  Under 
him  Florence,  which  though  calling  itself 
a republic,  was  in  reality  ruled  by  him, 
rose  to  a great  pitch  of  opulence  and 
power,  and  notwithstanding  the  hostility 
of  the  pope  he  exercised  a great  influence 
throughout  Italy.  On  the  fall  of  the  re- 
public in  the  16th  century  a member  of  a 
lateral  branch  of  the  Medici,  the  line  of 
Cosmo  having  become  extinct,  was 
placed  by  Charles  V.  as  Duke  of  Florence. 
The  ducal  dynasty  of  Medici  continued 
to  rule  till  the  year  1737,  when,  becom- 
ing extinct,  they  were  succeeded  by 
Francis  of  Lorraine,  afterward  emperor 
of  Germany.  From  this  period  the  his- 
tory of  Florence  merges  into  that  of  Tus- 
cany until  its  amalgamation  with  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy.  From  1865  till  1871 
it  held  the  dignity  of  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, the  seat  of  government  being  trans- 
ferred to  it  from  Turin  Among  the 
illustrious  men  it  has  produced  are 
Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  Guicciar- 
dini, Lorenzo  de’  Medici,  Galileo,  Michael 


Florence— Piazza  della  Signoria,  Palazzo  Vecchio,  Loggia  de  Lanzl. 


FLORENCE 


FLORIDA  • 


Angelo,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucci, Macchiavelli,  and  others.  Pop. 
_£including  suburbs)  ,204,950. — The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  about  2262  English 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  beautifully 
diversified  by  mountains,  valleys,  and 
plains.  The  climate  is  generally  mild  and 
healthy,  and  the  soil  very  fertile.  Pop. 
937,786. 

FLORENCE,  William  Jermyn,  Amer- 
ican comedian,  born  in  1831  at  Albany. 
In  1853  he  married  Mrs.  Malvina  Pray 
Littell,  with  whom  he  won  great  ap- 
plause in  The  Irish  Boy  and  Yankee 
Girl,  repeated  in  London  three  years 
later.  Among  his  must  successful  char- 
acters were  Bardwell  Slote  in  the 
Mighty  Dollar;  Bob  Brierley  in  The 
Ticket-of -Leave  Man;  and  Sir  Lucius  O’ 
Trigger  in  The  Rivals.  This  last  he 
played  to  the  Bob  Acres  of  Joseph 
Jefferson.  He  died  in  1891. 

FLORENTINE  WORK,  a kind  of 
mosaic  work,  consisting  of  precious 
stones  and  pieces  of  white  and  colored 
marble,  which  has  long  been  produced 
in  Florence.  It  is  applied  to  jewelry, 
and  used  for  table  tops,  etc. 

FLOR'IDA,  one  of  the  United  States, 
forming  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
the  country,  and  having  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  on  the  south  and  west,  and  the 
Atlantic  on  the  east.  It  consists  partly  of 
a peninsula  stretching  s.  for  about  400 
miles,  partly  of  a long,  narrow  strip  of 
land  running  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to 
a distance-of  350  miles  from  the  Atlantic 
coast-line.  The  peninsula  is  about  90 
miles  in  width,  and  contains  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  total  area,  which  is59,268  sq. 
miles.  The  surface  is  in  general  level, 
rising  little  above  the  sea,  especially  in 
the  southern  parts,  were  itjs  almost  one 
continued  swamp  or  marsh.  The  north- 
ern portion  is  more  broken  and  elevated, 
but  the  whole  coast  is  flat.  The  principal 
river  is  the  St.  John’s,  flowing  northward 
through  peninsular  Florida  to  the  At  - 
lantic.  Its  tributary,  the  Ocklawaha,  has 
its  course  so  flat  that  for  a long  distance 
it  spreads  out  into  the  forest  for  half  a 
mile  or  more  on  either  side,  so  that  noth- 
ing is  seen  but  trees  and  water.  The 
Appalachicola,  Suwanee,  etc.,  flow  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  There  are  many 
lakes  throughout  the  peninsula,  the 
largest  being  Okeechobee  (area  650  sq. 
miles).  Numerous  islands  are  scattered 
along  the  south  and  west  coasts,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  is  a group,  or 
rather  a long  chain,  called  the  Florida 
Keys  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
Florida.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
Key  West,  containing  the  city  and  naval 
station  of  same  name.  The  state  pro- 
duces tropical  plants  and  fruits  in  great 
perfection,  especially  oranges,  lemons, 
limes/.  shaddock,  etc.  The  planting  of 
orange  groves  has  been  carried  on  exten- 
sively in  recent  times,  and  oranges  are 
now  a speciality  of  Florida.  Tobacco, 
cotton,  sugar,  maize,  potatoes,  rice,  oats, 
etc.,  are  among  the  other  productions. 
The  forests  form  an  important  source  of 
wealth.  The  minerals  are  unimportant. 
The  wild  animals  comprise  panthers, 
cougars,  wolves,  bears,  foxes,  raccoons, 
opossums,  deer,  etc.  Birds  are  extremely 
numerous  and  various.  The  coasts, 
rivers,  and  lakes  swarm  with  fish;  tor- 


toises and  turtles  also  abound.  The 
swamps  and  other  inland  waters  are  in- 
fested with  alligators.  Snakes  are  num- 
erous, but  most  of  them  are  harmless. 
The  climate  in  general  is  excellent,  and 
the  state  is  much  frequented  as  a winter 
health  resort  for  invalids,  many  large 
and  elegant  hotels  having  been  built  for 
the  accommodation  of  visitors.  Florida, 
long  in  a backward  condition,  has  re- 
cently made  great  advances  in  prosper- 
ity, being  now  well  supplied  with  means 
of  communication,  and  towns  and 
villages  rapidly  springingup.  Tallahassee 


Seal  of  Florida. 


is  the  capital  and  seat  of  government, 
but  the  largest  town  is  Key  West  (pop. 
18,000);  Jacksonville  and  Pensacola  are 
thriving  ports;  St.  Augustine  is  the 
oldest  town  in  the  United  States.  Pro- 
posals have  been  Tnade  to  construct  a 
ship-canal  through  Florida  as  a short 
route  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Tallahassee  is  the  capital  of  th^State. 
Two  representatives  are  sent  to  the 
lower  house  of  congress. 

Florida  was  discovered  on  Easter 
Sunday,  1512,  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who 
landed  near  the  site  of  the  present  Saint 
Augustine  in  search  of  the  Fountain  of 
Perpetual  Youth.  He  failed  to  find  the 
fountain,  and,  returning  in  1521,  found 
death  instead.  Ayllon  carried  off  large 
numbers  of  Indians  from  Florida  as 
slaves  between  1520  and  1526, ''and  in 
1528  Panfilo  Narvaez  (q.  v.)  invaded  the 
country  with  a force  of  400  men  eager 
for  conquest  and  booty.  Narvaez  pushed 
into  the  wilderness  north  of  the  Gulf, 
and  only  survivors  of  his  band,  among 
them  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  succeeded  in 
reaching  Mexico  after  infinite  hardships. 
In  1539  Hernando  De  Soto  (q.  v.) 
traversed  the  country.  In  1559  a well- 
equipped  expedition  of  1500  men  under 
Don  Tristan  de  Luna  sailed  from  Vera 
Cruz,  and  landed,  August  14,  on  the 
shores  of  Santa  Maria  Bay,  probabl}’’  the 
Bay  of  Pensacola.  The  main  body  pene- 
trated into  the  country  for  a distance  of 
forty  days’  march,  while  a smaller  de- 
tachment explored  the  region  as  far  as 
the  Coosa  River  in  eastern  Alabama.  Dis- 
couraged by  the  hardships  encountered, 
the  expedition  returned  to  Mexico,  after 
passing  more  than  a year  in  the  count  rv. 

Rene  Goulaine  de  Laudonniere,  who 
had  accompanied  Jean  Ribault  in  his 
expedition  to  Port  Royal  (1562),  landed 
first  at  what  is  now  St.  Augustine,  and 
built  Fort  Caroline  in  1564.  The  colo- 


nists. who  were  Huguenots,  were  on  the 
point  of  abandoning  the  settlement 
when  reenforced  by  Ribault.  Soon 
after  Menendez  surprised  and  massa- 
cred the  garrison  of  Fort  Caroline, 
carrying  out  to  the  letter  his  barbarous 
order  to  “gibbet  and  behead  all  Protest- 
ants in  those  regions.” 

On  May  28,1586,  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
entered  an  inlet  and  came  to  the  Fort 
St.  Juan  de  Pinos,  from  which  the  gar- 
rison fled  to  St.  Augustine ; and  on  the 
approach  of  the  English  they  also 
abandoned  this  place.  Drake  pursued 
his  voyage  to  Virginia,  where  the  queen  ^ 
had  commanded  him  to  afford  relief  to 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh’s  newly-planted 
colony. 

The  English  colonists  of  Georgia  and 
Carolina  continued  towage  war  against 
the  Spaniards  in  Florida.  Governor 
Moore  of  South  Carolina  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  on  St.  Augustine  in 
1702;  and  General  Oglethorpe  of 
Georgia  besieged  it  in  1740  with  the 
same  result.  Nearly  a hundred  years 
later,  in  1837,  the  United  States  en- 
gineers found  balls  thrown  by  Ogle- 
thorpe in  the  moat  of  the  old  Spanish 
fortress.  In  1763  Florida  was  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  return  for  Havana, 
captured  by  Albemarle  the  previous 
year.  Vigorous  efforts  were  made  by 
the  British  Government  to  promote 
settlement  by  liberal  grants  of  land  to 
settlers.  In  1781  Don  Bernardo  de  Gal- 
vez, Spanish  governor  of  Louisiana,  hav- 
ing previously  taken  Mobile,  besieged 
and  captured  Pensacola,  thus  complet- 
ing the  conquest  of  West  Florida.  In 
1783  Florida  was  ceded  back  to  Spain. 

In  February,  1819,  a treaty  for  the 
cession  of  Florida  to  the  United  States 
was  concluded  at  Washington,  and  in 
1821  was  ratified  by  the  king  of  Spain. 
Possession  was  taken  in  July  by  Gen- 
eral Jackson,  who  had  been  appointed 
governor  of  the  Floridas  by  the  Gov- 
ernment at  Washington.  Immigra- 
tion flowed  in  rapidly  from  the  south- 
ern states,  the  Baliamas,  and  even  the 
North  Atlantic  States;  but  a 
great  drawback  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  newly-acquired  territory 
was  found  in  the  determined  re- 
sistance of  the  warlike  nation  of.  , 
Seminole  Indians  to  the  encroachments 
of  the  whites  upon  their  hunting- 
grounds.  A resolution  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States  Government  to  re- 
move these  Indians  led  to  the  long  and 
bloody  struggle  known  as  the  Seminole 
War,  in  which  for  seven  years  the 
Indians  successfully  defied  every  effort  .■ 
to  subdue  them,  retreading  into  the  ] 
fastnesses  of  the  everglades  when  close-  ! 
ly  pressed.  Osceola,  chieftain  of  the  i 
Seminoles,  having  been  captured  by  J 
treachery,  the  war  ended  in  1842.  The  { 
remnant  of  the  Indians  were  rempved  .j| 
beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  in  three  f 
years  after  their  expulsion  (1845),  j 
Florida  was  admitted  into  the  Union  1 
as  a state.  ^ 

On  Jan.  10,  186r,  Florida,  by  a con- 
vention assembled  on  the  third,  seced- 
ed from  the  Union.  Fort  Marion  and  i 
the  arsenals  at'  St.  Augustine  and 
Chattahoochee  were  seized  on  the  7th,  ■ 
the  forts  and  dockyards  at  Pensacola 
on  the  12th,  except  Fort  Pickens,  on  ^ 


• FLORIDA,  GULF  OF 


FLUORESCENCE 


Santa  Rosa  Island,  which  was  held  by 
the  Utiited  States  forces.  In  April, 
1865,  President  Johnson,  by  a proclam- 
ation, declared  the  restrictions  on  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  Florida  re- 
moved. A state  ’convention  assem- 
bled in  October  at  Tallahassee,  which 
repealed  the  ordinance  of  secession. 
Civil  government  was  practically  re- 
sumed the  following  year  by  the  elec- 
tion of  state  officers  and  a legislature. 
A subsequent  state  convention  met  at 
Tallahassee,  Jan.  20,  1868,  to  form  a 
new  constitution  which  was  ratified  by 
the  people  in  May.  In  1876  the  elec- 
tion of  Rutherford  B.  Hayes,  Republi- 
can, as  president  of  the  United  States, 
was  determined  by  the  electoral  votes 
of  Florida  and  Louisiana,  which,  by  a 
decision  of  the  extraordinary  commis- 
sion created  by  Congress,  were  counted 
for  the  former.  Since  1876  the  state 
has  consistently  gone  Democratic. 
Population  1909,  683,000. 

FLO'RES,  the  most  westerly  island 
of  the  Azores,  about  30  miles  long  by 
nine  miles  broad,  with  a hilly  surface. 
The  chief  products  are  wheat,  pulse 
and  poultry, and  great  numbers  of  small 
cattle  are  reared.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

FLORID  GOTHIC,  that  highly-en- 
riched variety  of  Gothic  architecture 
which  prevailed  in  England  in  the  15th 
and  at  thebeginningof  the  16th  century ; 
often  called  the  Tudor  style,  as  it  pre- 
vailed chiefly  during  the  Tudor  era. 

FLORIDA,  GULF  OF,  the  narrow  sea 
between  Florida,  Cuba,  and  the  Bahama 
Islands. 

FLORIDA  KEYS.  See  Florida. 

FLOSS-SILK,  the  portions  of  ravelled 
silk  broken  off  in  reeling  the  silk  from 
the  cocoons,  carded  and  spun  into  a soft 
coarse  yarn,  and  used  for  common 
fabrics,  embroidery,  etc. 

FLOTOW  (flo'to),  Friedrich  Adolphus 
von,  German  musical  composer,  born 
1812,  died  1883.  He  studied  music  in 
Paris,  but  his  earlier  operas  did  not  find 
favor  with  the  Parisian  opera-house 
directors,  so  he  had  to  content  himself 
with  performances  in  the  aristocratic 
private  theaters.  He  was  director  of  the 
court  theater  at  Schwerin  from  1855  to 
1863;  the  last  years  of  his  life  were  chiefly 
spent  at  Vienna. 

FLOTSAM,  Jetsam,  and  Ligan,  in  law. 
Flotsam,  or  floatsam,  is  derelict  or  ship- 
wrecked goods  floating  on  the  sea;  jet- 
sam, goods  thrown  overboard  which 
sink  and  remain  under  water;  and  ligan, 
goods  sunk  with  a wreck  or  attached  to 
a buoy,  as  a mark  of  ownership.  When 
found  such  goods  may  be  returned  to  the 
owner  if  he  appear;  if  not,  they  are  the 
property  of  the  state. 

FLOUNDER,  one  of  the  most  common 
of  the  flat-fishes,  is  found  in  the  sea  and 


Four-spotted  flounder. 


near  the  mouths  of  large  rivers.  Floun- 
ders indeed  have  been  successfully 
transferred  to  fresh-water  ponds.  They 


feed  upon  Crustacea,  worms,  and  small 
fishes,  and  are  much  used  as  food. 
The  Argus-flotmder  is  a native  of  the 
American  seas. 

FLOUR,  the  edible  part  of  wheat,  or 
any  other  grain,  reduced  to  powder,  and 
separated  from  the  bran  and  the  other 
coarser  parts  by  sifting.  The  quality  of 
flour  depends  principally  on  the  fineness 
of  the  sieves  through  which  it  is  passed 
and  the  amount  of  bran  which  it  con- 
tains. The  finest  flour  is  obtained  in  the 
first  grinding  of  the  wheat.  The  other 
kinds — biscuit  flour,  middlings,  seconds, 
etc. — consist  of  the  flour  which  remains 
after  the  first  grinding,  ground  and 
passed  through  coarser  sieves. 

FLOWER,  Roswell  Pettibone,  Ameri- 
can capitalist  and  politician;  was  born 
in  1835  in  Jefferson  county,  N.  Y.  His 
ability  as  a financier  was  proved  before 
removing  to  New  York  in  1869,  where  he 
soon  became  a recognized  power  in  Wall 
Street,  and  was  made  director  in  various 
corporations.  In  1881  he  was  elected  by 
the  democratic  party  to  congress,  and 
was  governor  of  the  state  for  the  term  of 
1892-94.  His  many  benevolences  in- 
clude the  building  in  New  York  City  of 
the  Flower  Hospital  and  of  Saint 
Thomas’  Home.  He  died  in  1899. 

FLOWER,  in  popular  language,  the 
blossom  of  a plant,  consisting  chiefly  of 
delicate  and  gaily-colored  leaves  or 
petals;  in  botany,  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction in  a phenogamous  plant.  A com- 


plete flower  consists  of  stamens  and 
pistils  together  with  two  sets  of  leaves 
which  surround  and  protect  them,  the 
calyx  and  corolla.  The  stamens  and 
pistils  are  the  essential  organs  of  the 
flower.  They  occupy Two  circles  or  rows, 
the  one  within  the  other,  the  stamens 
being  in  the  outer  row.  The  stamens 
consist  of  a stalk  or  filament  supporting 
a roundish  body,  the  anther,  which  is 
filled  with  a powdery  substance  called 
the  pollen.  The  pistil  consists  of  a closed 
cell  or  ovary  at  the  base,  containing 
ovules,  and  covered  by  a style  which 
terminates  in  the  stigma.  These  organs 
are  surrounded  by  the  corolla  and  calyx, 
which  together  are  called  the  floral  en- 
velope, or  when  they  both  display  rich 
coloring  the  perianth.  The  leaves  of  the 
corolla  are  called  petals,  and  those  of  the 
calyx  fepals.  Some  flowers  want  the 
floral  envelope,  and  are  called  achlamy- 
deos;  others  have  the  calyx  but  are 
without  the  corolla,  and  are  called 
monochlamydeous.  Flowers  are  gener- 
ally bisexual,  but  some  plants  have  uni- 
sexual flowers ; that  is,  the  pistils  are  in 
one  flower  and  the  stamens  in  another. 
See  also  Botany.  The  fi^re  shows  the 
common  wallflower  :a,  peduncle ; b,  calyx ; 
c,  corolla;  d,  stamens;  e,  pistil. 

FLOWER-DE-LIS.  See  Fleur-de-lis. 

FLOWERS,  Artificial,  imitations  of 
real  flowers,  made  of  various  materials. 


These  are  not  a modern  invention.  The 


Romans  excelled  in  the  art  of  imitating 
flowers  in  wax,  and  in  this  branch  of  the 
art  attained  a high  degree  of  perfection. 
The  Egyptian  artificial  flowers  were 
made  of  thin  plates  of  horn  stained  in 
different  colors,  sometimes  also  of  leaves 
of  copper  gilt  or  silvered  over.  In 
modern  times  the  Italians  were  the  first 
to  acquire  celebrity  for  the  skill  and 
taste  they  displayed  in  this  manufacture 
but  they  are  now  far  surpassed  by  Eng- 
lish and  French  manufacturers,  but  more 
especially  by  the  latter. 

FLOWERS,  Language  of: 


Anemone  — Frailty, 
anticipation. 

Apple-blossom— Pref- 
erence. 

Buttercups— Riches. 

Calla  — Magnificent 
bfeauty. 

Candytuft  — Indiffer- 
ence. 

Cowslip  — Youthful 
beauty. 

Daffodil—  Unrequited 
love. 

Dandelion  — Coquetry 

Forget-me-not  — True 
love. 

Foxglove  — Insincer- 
ity. 

Geranium— Deceit. 

Gentian  — Virgin 
pride. 


Goldenrod  — Encour- 
agement. 

Heliotrope  — D e v o - 
tioB. 

Honeysuckle  — Fidel- 
ity. 

Hyacinth— Sorrow. 

Lilac— F a s.t  i d i o u s- 
ness. 

Marigold—  Contempt- 

Lily  — Majesty,  pur- 
ity. 

Narcissus  — Self-love. 

Pansy — Thoughts. 

Poppy— Oblivion. 

Snow-drop  — Friend 
in  need. 

Sweet-William  — 
Gallantry. 

White  Violet  — Mod- 
esty. 


FLOWERS,  STATE,  the  following  are 
“State  Flowers”  as  adopted  in  most  in- 
stances by  the  vote  of  the  public  school 
scholars  of  the  respective  states: 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Delaware 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New  York 

North  Dakota. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. 
Rhode  Island . 
South  Dakota, 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont. 

Washington. , . 
West  Virginia. 


Golden  Rod 

Apple  Blossom 

Eschscholtzia 

Columbine 

...Peach  Blossom 

Syrlnga 

Rose 

Corn 

Wild  Rose 

Sunflower 

Golden  Rod 

Magnolia 

Golden  Rod 

Apple  Blossom 

Moccasin 

Magnolia 

Golden  Rod 

Bitter  Root 

Golden  Rod 

Rose 

....Wild  Rose 

Scarlet  Carnation 

Oregon  Grape 

Golden  Rod 

Violet 

Basque 

Blue  Bonnet 

— Sego  Lily 

Red  Clover 

Rhododendron 

Rhododendron 


In  England  the  primrose  is  worn  on 
the  birthday  of  Lord  Beaconsfield.  On 
the  anniverasry  \jf  Parnell’s  death  his 
followers  wear  a sprig  of  ivy.  The  Jacob- 
ites wear  white  roses  on  June  10.  In 
France  the  Ofleanists  wear  white  daisies 
and  the  Bonapartists  the  violet.' 

» FLUID,  a body  whose  particles  on  the 
slightest  pressure  move  and  change  their 
relative  position  without  separation;  a 
liquid  or  a gas,  as  fopposed  to  a solid. 
Fluids  are  divided  into  liquids,  such  as 
water  and  bodies  in  the  form  of  water; 
and  gaseous  bodies  or  aeriform  fluids. 
Liquids  have  been  also  termed  non- 
elastic fluids,  for  although  they  are  not 
altogether  void  of  elasticity,  they  possess 
it  only  in  a small  degree.  Air  and  aeri- 
form bodies  have  been  called  elastic 
fluids  on  account  of  their  great  elasticity. 

FLUORES'CENgE,  a name  given  to 
the  phenomena  presented  by  the  invisi- 


FLUORIDi: 


FLYING-LEMUR 


ble  chemical  rays  of  the  blue  end  of  the 
solar  spectrum  when  they  become  lumi- 
nous and  visible  by  being  sent  through 
uranium  glass,  or  solutions  of  quinine, 
horse-chestnut  bark,  or  Datura  Stra- 
monium. In  this  way  green  crystals,  as 
of  fluor-spar,  may  give  out  blue  rays, 
due  not  to  the  color  of  the  surface  of  the 
body,  but  to  its  power  of  modifying  the 
rays  incident  on  it.  The  phenomenon 
appears  to  be  identical  with  phosphor- 
escence. It  is  due  to  the  refrangibility 
of  the  rays  being  lowered  or  degraded 
by  the  action  of  the  substance.  The  term 
fluorescence  is  applied  to  the  phenome- 
non if  it  is  ob-served  while  the  body  is 
actually  exposed  to  the  source  of  light ; 
phosphorescence  to  the  effect  of  the 
same  kind,  but  usually  less  intense,  which 
is  observed  after  the  light  from  the 
source  is  cut  off.  Both  forms  of  the  phe- 
nomenon occur  in  a strongly-markea  de- 
gree in  the  same  bodies. 

FLU'ORIDE,  in  chemistry,  a com- 
pound obtained  by  heating  hydrofluoric 
acid  with  certain  metals,  by  the  action 
of  that  acid  on  metallic  oxides  or  car- 
bonates, by  heating  electro-negative 
metals,  as  antimony,  with  fluoride  of 
lead  or  fluoride  of  mercury,  and  in  other 
ways. 

FLU'ORINE,  a very  widely  dis- 
tributed element,  which  is  known  chiefly 
only  in  combination,  though  it  has  re- 
cently been  isolated  by  De  Moissan  as  a 
colorless  gas,  that  attacks  almost  every 
substance  and  is  the  most  activ^e  element 
known.  Its  most  abundant  compound 
is  calcic  fluoride,  which  not  only  exists 
in  the  mineral  kingdom  as  fluor-spar 
(which  see),  but  forms  an  essential  part 
of  the  bones  and  teeth  of  animals. 
Fluorine  has  also  been  detected  in  the 
blood,  milk,  and  urine;  in  plants;  in 
volcanic  sublimates;  in  rocks;  in  copro- 
lites  and  mineral  phosphates;  and  in  a 
variety  of  minerals.  Combined  with 
hydrogen  it  forms  hydrofluoric  acid. 

FLUOR-SPAR,  DERBYSHIRE  SPAR, 
or  FLUORINE,  fluoride  of  calcium,  a 
common  mineral  found  in  great  beauty 
in  various  localities.  It  generally  occurs 
massive,  but  crystallizes  in  simple  forms 
of  the  monometric  system — viz.  the 
cube,  octahedron,  dodecahedron,  etc., 
and  in  combinations  of  the  cube  and 
octahedron.  Pure  fluor-spar  contains 
48'7  per  cent  fluorine,  51‘3  calcium. 
It  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially 
in  connection  with  metalliferous  beds, 
as  of  silver,  tin,  lead,  and  cobalt  ores. 
It  is  sometimes  colorless  and  trans- 
parent, but  more  frequently  it  exhibits 
tints  of  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  red. 

FLUTE,  a portable  musical  instru- 
ment, consisting  of  a tube  furnished 
with  six  holes  for  the  Angers,  and  from 
one  to  fourteen  keys  which  open  other 
holes.  The  sound,  which  is  soft  and  clear 
in  quality,  is  produced  by  blowing  with 
the  mouth  into  an  oval  aperture  at  the 
side  of  the  thick  end  of  the  instrument. 
Its  useful  compass  is  about  two  and  a 
half  octaves,  including  the  chromatic 
tones.  It  is  usually  made  in  four  pieces, 
and  of  box  or  ebony,  sometimes,  how- 
ever, of  ivory,  silver,  or  even  of  glass. 

FLUTING,  in  architecture,  channels 
or  furrows  cut  perpendicularly  in  the 
shafts  of  columns.  It  is  used  in  the 
Doric,  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite 


orders,  but  never  in  the  Tuscan.  When 
the  flutes  are  partially  filled  up  by  a 
smaller  round  molding  they  are  said  to 
be  cabled. 

FLY,  a winged  insect  of  various 
genera  and  species,  whose  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  are  that  the  wings  are 
transparent  and  have  no  cases  or  covers. 
By  these  marks  flies  are  distinguished 
from  beetles,  butterflies,  grasshoppers, 
etc.  The  true  flies  or  Diptera  have  only 
two  wings,  viz.;  the  anterior  pair.  In 
common  language,  fly  is  the  house-fly,  of 
the  genus  Musca.  The  house-fly  is  found 
wherever  man  is,  and  in  hot  weather 
causes  a good  deal  of  annoyance.  It  is 
furnished  with  a suctorial  proboscis, 
from  which,  when  feeding  on  dry  sub- 
stances, it  exudes  a liquid,  which,  by 
moistening  them,  flts  them  to  be  sucked. 
From  its  feet  being  beset  with  hair,  each 
terminating  in  a disc  which  is  supposed 
to  act  as  a sucker,  it  can  walk  on  smooth 
surfaces,  as  a ceiling,  even  with  its  back 
down.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  in  dung 
or  refuse;  the  larvae  are  small  white 
worms.  They  change  into  pupae  without 
casting  their  skins,  and  in  from  eight  to 
fourteen  days  the  perfect  fly  emerges. 
The  very  small  flies  and  the  very  large 
ones  seen  about  houses  belong  to  other 
species.  See  Blow-fly,  Bot-fly,  Gad-fly. 

FLY-CATCHER,  a name  originally 
given  to  certain  insessorial  birds  with  a 
bill  flattened  at  the  base,  almost  trian- 
gular, notched  at  the  upper  mandible, 
and  beset  with  bristles,  about  the  size  of 


White-collared  fly-catcher. 


a sparrow.  They  perch  on  a branch, 
where  they  remain  immovable  watching 
for  insects,  only  leaving  to  make  a sud- 
den dart  at  a passing  fly,  which  they 
seize  with  a snap  of  the  bill,  and  then 
return.  The  white-collared  fly-catcher  is 
a native  of  southern  Europe.  Numerous 
other  birds  receive  the  name  of  fly- 
catchers, and  some,  as  the  paradise  fly- 
catchers of  the  Old  World,  are  brilliantly 
colored.  In  America  some  of  the  tyrant 
birds  are  named  fly-catchers. 

FLYING,  the  power  of  locomotion 
through  the  air,  possessed  by  various 
animals  in  different  degrees.  Birds, 
bats,  and  many  insects  can  raise  them- 
selves into  the  air  and  sustain  themselves 
there  at  will.  Squirrels,  phalangers, 
some  lizards,  one  of  the  tree-frogs,  and 
flying-fish  can  move  through  the  air  in 
one  direction  for  a short  time,  but  can- 
not, strictly  speaking,  fly.  The  wing  of 
a bird  or  insect  is  an  elastic  flexible  or- 
gan, ^yith  a thick  anterior  and  a thin 
posterior  margin;  hence  the  wing  does 
not  act  like  a solid  board,  but  is  thrown 
into  a succession  of  curves.  When  a 
bird  rises  from  the  ground  it  leaps  up 
with  head  stuck  out  and  expanded  tail, 
so  that  the  body  is  in  the  position  of  a 
boy’s  kite  when  thrown  up.  The  wings 


are  strongly  flapped,  striking  toi^ard 
and  downward,  and  the  bird  clUickly 
ascends.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
wing  describes  a figure  of  8 in  its  action, 
the  margin  being  brought  down  so  that 
the  tip  of  the  wing  gives  thfe  last  blow 
after  the  part  next  the  trunk  has  ceased 
to  strike;  hence,  standing  in  front  of  a 
bird,  the  wing  would  be  divided  into 
two,  the  upper  surface  of  one  half  and 
the  lower  surface  of  the  other  being 
visible  at-the  same  time.  These  portions 
are  reversed  when  the  wing  is  drawn 
back  and  toward  the  body,  before  be- 
'ginning  another  stroke;  but  it  will  be 
observed  that  during  retraction  the 
wing  is  still  sloped,  so  that  the  resem- 
blance to  a kite  is  maintained.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  flight  among  birds; 
of  these  the  most  remarkable  is  the  sail- 
ing motion,  in  which  the  wings  are  but 
slightly  moved.  Probably  the  original 
impetus  is  maintained  by  the  kite-like 
slope  of  the  wing,  and  advantage  may  be 
taken  of  currents  by  a rotation  of  the 
wing  at  the  shoulder,  a movement  in- 
visible at  any  distance. 

FLYING.  Artificial.  See  Aeronautics. 

FLYING-BRIDGE,  a bridge  made  of 
pontoons,  light  boats,  hollow  beams, 
casks,  or  the  like.  They  are  made  as 
occasion  requires,  chiefly  for  the  passage 
of  troops.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a 
kind  of  ferry  in  which  the  force  of  the 
current  of  a river  is  applied  to  propel  a 
boat  guided  by  a cable  fastened  from 
the  one  side  to  the  other. 

FLYING  DUTCHMAN,  a phantom 
ship  said  to  be  seen  in  stormy  weather 
off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thought 
to  forebode  ill  luck.  One  form  of  the 
legend  has  it  that  the  ship  is  doomed 
never  to  enter  a port  on  account  of  a 
horrible  murder  committed  on 'board; 
another,  that  the  captain,  a Dutchman, 
swore  a profane  oath  that  he  would 
weather  the  cape  though  he  should  beat 
there  till  the  last  day.  He  was  taken  at 
his  word,  and  there  he  still  beats,  but 
never  succeeds  in  round  the  point. 

FLYING-FISH,  a name  common  to 
various  fishes  which  have  the  power  of 
sustaining  themselves  for  a time  in  the 
air  by  means  of  their  large  pectoral  fins. 
Generally,  however,  the  name  is  limited 


Common  flylng-flsh. 


to  mackerel-pikes.  The  pectoral  fins, 
which  are  very  large,  are  the  principal 
instruments  in  their  flight,  serving  to 
sustain  the  fish  temporarilj’’  in  the  air 
after  it  has  acquired  an  initial  velocity  in 
its  rush  through  the  water.  It  can  pass 
through  the  air  to  a considerable  dis- 
tance, sometimes  as  much  as  200  jmrds, 
which  it  does  to  escape  from  the  attacks 
of  other  fishes,  especially  the  dolphin. 
It  is  most  common  between  the  tropics. 

FLYING-LEMUR,  a name  given  to  in- 
sectivorous mammals,  natives  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  They  possess  a fly- 
ing membrane,  which  extends  as  a 
broad  expansion  from  the  nape  of  the 
neck  to  the  tail.  By  means  of  this  mem- 


FLYING-SQUIRREL 


FOO-CHOW 


'brane  they  can  take  extended  leaps 
from  tree  to  tree. 

FLYING-SQUIRREL,  a genus  of 
rodent  animals  (squirrels),  to  which  the 
• skin  of  the  flank,  extending  between  the 


European  flying-squirrel. 

fore  and  hind  legs,  imparts  the  faculty 
of  supporting  themselves  for  a moment 
in  the  air,  as  with  a parachute,  and  of 
making  very  great  leaps. 

FLY-WHEEL,  a wheel  with  a heavy 
rim  placed  on  the  revolving  shaft  of  any 
machinery  put  in  motion  by  an  irregu- 
lar or  intermitting  force,  for  the  purpose 
of  rendering  the  motion  equable  and 
regular  by  means  of  its  momentum.  A 
fly-wheel  is  also  used  as  an  accumulator 
of  force;  thus,  when  a small  stream- 
engine  sets  in  motion  a very  large  fly- 
wheel, the  wheel  acts  as  a reservoir  of 
all  the  small  pressures  which  have  been 
communicated  to  it,  and  having  thus 
concentrated  them  can  apply  them  all 
together  and  at  once  when  some  great 
effect  is  to  be  produced. 

FO,  the  Chinese  name  of  Buddha.  See 
Buddha. 

FOCUS,  (1)  in  optics,  a point  in  which 
any  number  of  rays  of  light  meet  after 
being  reflected  or  refracted  by  a mirror 
or  a lens.  (2)  In  geom.  an  important 

Eoint  on  the  principal  axis  of  the  para- 
ola,  ellipse,  and  hyperbola.  The  ellipse 
and  hyperbola  have  each  two  foci,  the 
parabola  one,  though  in  the  latter  case 
we  may  suppose  a setSond  focus  at  an 
infinite  distance.  The  foci  were  so  called 
from  the  fact  that  rays  of  light  proceed- 
ing from  one  focus  and  reflected  from  a 
corresponding  reflecting  surface  pass 
through  the  other  focus. 

F(ETUS.  See  Fetus. 

FOG,  a cloud  at  or  near  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  produced  by  the  condensation 
of  the  invisible  vapor  of  the  atmosphere 
into  minute  watery  particles,  this  con- 
densation being  caused  by  a cold  current 
of  air,  or  the  contiguity  of  a cold  sur- 
face. 

FOGGIA  (foj'a),  a town  of  S.  Italy, 
province  of  Foggia,  79  miles  n.  e.  of  Na- 
ples, with  regular  and  spacious  streets. 
Pop.  53,351. — The  province,  which  is 
partly  botlnded  by  the  Adriatic,  has  an 
area  of  2954  sq.^.  miles.  It  possesses 
rich  pastures,  and  produces  saffron, 
wine,  etc.  Pop.  418,  510. 

FOG-SIGNALS,  signals  given  by  means 
of  sound  to  warn  vessels  during  fogs, 
when  lights  or  other  visible  signals  can- 
not be  perceived.  Various  kinds  of  fog' 
signals  are  used,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  bells,  drums,  gongs,  guns, 
compressed-air  whistles,  steam-whistles, 
and  fog  trumpets  or  horns. 

FOIL,  a thin  leaf  of  ipetal,  as  gold  or 
tin,  used  for  various  purposes. 

FOIL,  in  fencing,  a rod  of  steel,  repre- 
senting a sword,  with  a handle  or  hilt  at 
one  end,  and  a leather  button  at  the 


other  to  prevent  accidents.  Foils 
measure  from  31  to  38  inches  in  length. 

FOKIEN,  a maritime  province  of 
Southeastern  China;  area,  46,320  sq. 
miles.  The  strait  of  Formosa  separates 
it  from  the  island  so  named  The  prin- 
cipal products  are  rice,  wheat,  barley, 
tea,  silk,  sugar,  indigo,  camphor,  and 
tobacco.  The  capital  is  Foo-chow.  Pop. 
25  790  556 

FOLC-lJ^D,  that  is  Folkland,  the 
land  of  the  people,  that  portion  of  An- 
glo-Saxon England  which  was  retained 
on  behalf  of  the  community.  See  Feu- 
dal System. 


Siren  fog-horn. 

FOLK-LORE,  a useful  term  of  recent 
introduction  into  the  English  language, 
signifying  a scientific  study  of  popular 
tales,  traditions,  primitive  beliefs  and 
superstitions,  popular  customs,  usages. 


FONT,  the  vessel  which  contains  the 
water  for  baptism  in  a church.  It  is  fre- 


Font,  Cathedral  of  Langres,  France,  end  ot 
13th  century. 

quently  sculptured  in  stone  or  marble, 
with  richly  decorative  designs. 

FONTAINE,  Jean  de  la.  See  La 
Fontaine. 

FONTAINEBLEAU  (fon-tan-blo),  a 
town  of  France,  dep.  Seine-et-Marne, 
in  the  midst  of  the  forest  of  same 
name,  about  2 miles  from  the  Seine 
and  37  miles  s.s.e.  Paris.  It  owes  its 
origin  chiefly  to  the  palace,  and  is  a 
quiet  place,  with  broad,  clean  streets. 
Pop.  13,340.  The  castle  or  palace  of  Fon 
tainebleau  is  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent in  France.  It  occupies  the  site  of  a 


Palace  of  Fontainebleau. 


festivals,  games,  etc.  Folk-lore,  though 
it  takes  cognizance  of  many  apparently 
trivial  matters,  is  of  great  importance 
in  the  science  of  comparative  mythol- 
ogy, and  helps  to  throw  much  light  on 
the  relationships  between  races,  and  on 
the  origin  and  development  of  religious 
beliefs  and  ceremonies. 

FOMENTATION,  in  med.  the  applica- 
tion of  warm  liquids  to  a part  of  the 
body,  by  means  of  flannels  or  other  cloths 
dipped  in  hot  water  or  medicated  decoc- 
tions, for  the  purpose  of  easing  pain  by 
relaxing  the  skin  or  of  discussing  tumors. 

FOND  DU  LAC,  a city  in  Wisconsin, 
at  the  mouth  of  Fond  du  Lac  River, 
which  opens  on  Lake  Winnebago,  148 
milesn.n.  w.  of  Chicago.  It  is  the  center 
of  several  railways,  and  has  a large  trade. 
The  manufactures  include  iron-founding, 
carriage  and  wagon  making,  tanning, 
saw-milling,  etc.  Pop.  18,210. 


fortified  chateau  founded  by  Louis  VII. 
in  1 162 ; this  was  converted  into  amagnif- 
icent  palace  by  Francis  I.;  much  added 
to  by  Henry  IV.,  Napoleon  I.,  Louis 
Philippe,  and  Napoleon  III.  The  park 
is  laid  out  like  a vast  garden,  and  adorned 
with  statues,  temples,  fountains,  lakes, 
and  waterfalls.  The  forest,  which  is 
about  50  miles  in  circumference,  covers 
an  area  of  42,500  acres,  affords  numerous 
pleasant  walks,  and  abounds  with 
game. 

FONTENOY,  a village  in  Belgium, 
province  of  Hainaut,  celebrated  for  the 
battle  of  May  11,  1745,  in  which  the 
French  under  Marshal  Saxe  defeated  the 
British,  Austrian,  and  Dutch  allied 
forces  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland. 

FOO-CHOW,  a town  of  China,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Fokien,  on  the  Min, 
125  miles  n.  e.  of  Amoy.  Pop.  estimated 
at  630,000. 


FOOD 


FOOD,  PRESERVATION  OP 


FOOD.  See  Aliment  and  Dietetics. 

FOOD,  PRESERVATION  OF,  from 
earliest  times  man’s  thoughts  have  been 
accupied  in  devising  ways  and  means  to 
prevent  articles  of  food  from  deteriora- 
tion or  putrefaction.  In  their  natural 
state  most  foods  are  seasonable  only 
during  limited  periods  of  the  year,  and 
their  consumption  is  restricted  to  cer- 
tain localities.  Their  preservation  in 
such  a manner  as  to  make  them  palat- 
able during  the  entire  year,  in  all  locali- 
ties, has  been  the  subject  of  much  re- 
search. 

Independent  experiments  by  such 
well-known  scientists  as  Cagnaird  de  la 
Tour,  Schwann,  Helmholtz,  Pasteur, 
Schultz,  and  others  established  beyond 
a doubt  that  the  decomposition  of  food 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  a living  organ- 
ism known  as  “ferment.”  It  was  rea- 
soned that  anything  that  would  kill  this 
organism  or  preclude  its  presence  would 
preserve  the  article  treated.  The  known 
processes  that  will  accomplish  this  re- 
sult, and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the 
food,  are  desiccation,  use  of  antiseptics, 
refrigeration,  and  canning.  Desiccation, 
or  drying,  was  undoubtedly  the  first 
method  used,  but  food  preserved  by  this 
means  loses  much  of  its  natural  flavor 
and  becomes  tough  in  texture.  The 
same  objection  arises  in  the  use  of  anti- 
septics. Refrigerated  foods,  unless  great 
care  is  exercised  in  the  thawing,  are  not 
palatable. 

Prior  to  1795,  drying  and  the  use  of 
salt  and  sugar  were  the  only  methods 
used  to  any  extent  in  the  preservation 
of  foods.  At  this  time  Nicholas  Appert, 
a Frenchman,  who  had  spent  most  of 
his  life  in  the  preparation  and  preserva- 
tion of  articles  of  food,  being  stimulated 
in  his  work  by  the  offer  of  a reward  by 
the  French  navy  department  for  a 
method  of  preservation  of  foods  for  sea- 
service,  submitted  to  his  government  an 
exhaustive  treatise  bearing  upon  the 
hermetic  sealing  of  all  kinds  of  food. 
His  method  was  to  inclose  fruit  in  a glass 
jar,  which  was  then  corked,  and  sub- 
jected to  the  action  of  boiling  water  for 
a time,  varying  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  article  treated.  A description  of 
his  process  can  be  best  summed  up  in 
his  own  words,  as  follows:  “It  is  obvious 
that  this  new  method  of  preserving 
animal  and  vegetable  substances  pro- 
ceeds from  the  simple  principle  of  ap- 
plying heat  in  a due  degree  to  the  several 
substances  after  having  deprived  them  a 
as  much  as  possilble  of  all  contact  with 
the  external  air.  It  might,  on  the  first 
view  of  the  subject,  be  thought  that  a 
substance,  either  raw  or  previously 
acted  upon  by  fire,  and  afterward  put 
into  hot  bottles  might,  if  a vacuum 
were  made  in  those  bottles  and  they 
were  completely  corked,  be  preserved 
equally  well  with  the  application  of 
heat  in  the  water  bath.  This  would  be 
an  error,  for  all  trials  I have  made  con- 
vince me  that  the  absolute  privation  of 
the  contact  of  external  air  (the  internal 
air  being  rendered  of  no  effect  by  the 
action  of  heat)  and  the  application  of 
heat  by  means  of  the  water  bath,  are 
both  indispensable  to  the  complete 
preservation  of  alimentary  substances.” 
Time  has  proved  this  method  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory  for  preserving  food  in 


its  natural  state.  France  purchased  his 
process  and  gave  it  to  manufacturing 
firms  in  France  and  England  for  the 
production  of  the  goods.  By  this  means 
the  industry  gradually  spread  over  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  France. 

In  the  year  1810  Peter  Durant  se- 
cured a patent  from  the  English  govern- 
ment for  the  preservation  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  fish  in  hermetically 
sealed  tin  and  glass  cans.  He  did  not 
claim  to  be  the  discoverer  of  the  process, 
but  said  that  it  had  been  communicated 
to  him  by  a “foreigner  residing  abroad.” 
The  secret  of  the  process  was  jealously 
guarded,  but  the  employees  of  the 
different  establishments  became  more 
or  less  familiar  with  its  essentials,  and 
in  this  manner  the  industry  found  its 
way  to  America. 

One  of  the  first  men  to  come  to  America 
with  a knowledge  of  the  process  gained 
in  its  actual  use  was  Ezra  Daggett,  who 
arrived  in  New  York  some  time  between 
the  years  1815  and  1818.  In  the  year 
1819  he  and  his  son-in-law,  Thomas 
Kensett,  were  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hermetically  sealed  goods, 
the  principal  foods  packed  being  salmon, 
lobsters  and  oysters.  In  the  following 
year  the  industry  was  launched  in  Bos- 
ton by  William  Underwood  and  Charles 
Mitchell,  emigrants  from  England,  where 
they  had  been  employed  in  canning 
establishments.  Their  principal  business 
however,  during  the  early  days  of  their 
establishment,  was  the  preparations  of 
pickles,  sauces,  jellies,  jams,  and  mus- 
tard; but  they  also  canned  damsons, 
quinces,  cranberries,  and  currants.  The 
industry  also  owes  much  to  Allen  Tay- 
lor, an  Englishman,  and  M.  Gallagher, 
an  Irishman,  both  of  whom  learned* 
their  trade*  at  Sligo,  Ireland,  the  latter 
having  in  his  possession  a copy  of  Ap- 
pert’s  treatise  on  the  subject  of  canning. 
These  men  came  to  America  at  about 
the  time  as  those  mentioned  above,  and 
were  for  a time  employed  in  New  York. 
Prior  to  1840  the  industry  was  estab- 
lished in  Baltimore,  and  Kensett,  Taylor 
and  Gallagher  did  much  to  place  it  upon 
a permanent  basis. 

Glass  jars  were  gradually  abandoned, 
as  it  was  found  that  they  could  not 
withstand  the  extremes  of  temperature 
and  were  expensive,  bulky,  and  costly 
in  transportation.  In  1825,  Thomas 
Kensett  secured  a patent  on  the  use  of 
tin  cans  in  preserving  food,  and  in  the 
same  year  began  using  the  patented  pro- 
cess in  his  factory.  Tin  has  been  the 
favorite  material  for  the  construction  of 
cans.  Their  early  manufacture  was  by 
hand  and  very  .crude,  the  bodies  being 
cut  with  shears  and  the  side  seam  made 
with  a plumb  joint  (that  is,  meeting,  but 
not  overlapping)  and  then  soldered  to- 
gether Heads  were  made  to  set  into  the 
body,  and  were  soldered  in  place  in  a 
very  crude  manner.  The  construction  of 
the  cans  was  slow  and  costly,  the  mak- 
ing of  100  being  considered  a good  day’s 
work.  In  1847  Allen  Taylor  invented 
the  stamp  can,  which  proved  a decided 
improvement  over  the  plumb-joint  can 
just  described,  and  about  two  years 
later  Henry  Evans,  jr.,  of  New  Jersey, 
invented  the  “pendulum”  press  for 
making  can  tops.  The  latest  importanf 
improvement  in  can  manufacture  was 


the  invention  of  the  key-opening  can, 
which  by  the  genius  of  a Mr.  Zimmer- 
man has  been  so  reduced  in  cost  that  it 
has  come  into  general  use. 

Can  making  is  now  a distinct  indus- 
try, and  not  usually  carried  on,  as  for- 
merly, in  connection  withlhe  actual  can- 
ning of  the  foods.  It  is  estimated,  how- 
ever, that  about  10  per  cent  of  the  cans 
are  still  made  by  the  canning  establish- 
ments. For  the  past  fifteen  years  labor- 
saving  machines  have  been  introduced 
in'  can  manufacture  until  now  all  the 
parts  are  made  and  put  together  by 
mechanical  devices.  The  tki  cans  are 
made  from  Bessemer  steel  plates  cut 
into  sheets  14  by  20  inches  and  weigh- 
ing about  one  pound.  They  are  then 
subjected  to  an  acid  to  remove  all  dirt, 
grease,  scales,  etc.,  and  coated  with  pure 
tin  by  the  acid  process  or  the  palm-oil 
process,  the  latter  being  the  safer  and 
better  of  the  two  methods.  The  objection 
having  been  urged  against  the  use  of  tin 
cans  that  the  natural  acids  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  meats,  and  fish  act  upon  the 
tin  and  solder  in  such  a way  as  to  form 
metallic  salts  or  metallic  compounds 
that  are  injurious  to  the  health;  the 
matter  was  carefully  investigated  by 
expert  chemists,  who  reported  that  the 
objection  is  groundless  if  good  tin  is 
used.  In  the  poorer  grades  of  tin  injuri- 
ous substances  were  found,  but  in  such 
small  quantities  that  they  were  of  no 
consequence. 

By  the  Appert  process  the  goods  were  • 
cooked  in  open  kettles,  the  highest  tem- 
perature obtainable  by  this  method 
being  212°  F.,  or  the  temperature  of 
boiling  .water.  The  process  was  neces- 
sarily slow,  but  gradually  improvements 
were  made  in  the  methods  and  a higher 
degree  of  temperature  was  obtained  by 
the  addition  of  common  salt  to  the  water. 
This  innovation  was  followed  by  the  use 
of  chloride  of  calcium,  which  made  pos- 
sible a temperature  of  240°  F.  The  cans, 
however,  under  this  process  become 
discolored,  involving  considerable  ex- 
pense in  cleaning  them  to  make  the 
goods  merchantable.  In  1874  Mr.  A.  K. 
Shriver,  of  Baltimore,  invented  a closed- 
process  kettle  to  cook  the  goods  by 
superheating  water  with  steam.  About 
the  same  time  Mr.  John  Fisher,  of  the 
same  city,  invented  a patent-process 
kettle  which  secured  the  same  results 
by  the  use  of  dry  steam.  By  these 
methods,  which  are  used  at  the  present 
time,  any  desired  temperature  can  be 
obtained  and  the  heat  regulated  to  meet 
requirements. 

The  use  of  antiseptics  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  food  in  its  simplest  form  is  found 
in  the  employment  of  salt  or  strong 
brine  toiill  the  bacteria  and  this  is  the 
method  employed  from  primitive  times 
in  curing  meat  or  fish.  More  dangerous, 
however,  are  the  other  antiseptics.  The 
U.  States  department- of  agriculture  has 
recently  issued  strong  warnings  against 
the  use  of  formaldehyde,  salicylic  acid, 
sulphites,  borax  and  benzoic  acid. 
Their  use  is,  however,  almost  universal 
although  their  danger  is  recognized  by 
the  national  pure  food  laws  which  pro- 
vide that  preserved  foods  containing 
such  substances  shall  be  labeled  in 
accordance  with  the  preservatives  used. 
The  use  of  salicylic  acid  and  sulphites 


FOOL 


FOOTE 


is  forbidden  by  many  governments  as 
being  generally  regarded  as  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  benzoic  acid  and  borax. 

Cold  storage,  the  most  modern 
method  of  preserving  food  dates  from 
the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century  In 
this  process  the  use  of  other  preserva- 
tives than  cold  is  unnecessary.  The  sub- 
ject is  discussed  in  the  article  on  refriger- 
ation and  its  economic  importance  will 
be  realized  upon  consulting  the  article 
devoted  to  the  Packing  Industry. 

FOOL.  See  Jester. 

FOOLS,  Feast  of,  the  name  given  to 
festivals  regularly  celebrated,  from  the 
5th  to  the  16th  century,  in  several  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  by  the  clergy  and  laity, 
with  the  most  absurd  ceremonies. 

FOOLSCAP,  paper  of  the_  smallest 
regular  size  but  one  (13  by  16  inches); 
so  called  from  its  water-mark  in  early 
times  being  the  outline  of  a fool’s  head 
and  cap. 

FOO-SHAN,  a town,  China,  prov.  of 
Quangtong,  21  miles  s.  w.  of  Canton,  on 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  delta  of  the 
Si-kiang.  Pop.  200,000. 

FOOT,  a measure  of  length,  the  name 
of  which  is  derived  from  the  length  of 
the  human  foot,  containing  12  linear 
inches. — Square  foot  is  a square  whose 
side  is  one  foot  ,and  is  therefore  equal  to 
144  square  inches. — Cubic  foot  is  a cube 
whose  side  is  1 foot,  and  the  cube  con- 
tains 1728  cubic  inches.  The  foot  is  a 
common  measure  in  various  countries, 
but  its  dimensions  vary  considerably. 

FOOT,  in  prosody,  a measure  consist- 
ing of  a variety  of  syllables,  two,  three, 
or  four,  in  combinations  of  long  and 
short,  or  accented  and  unaccented.  In 
Greek  and  Latin  verse  the  feet  depend 
on  the  quantity  or  length  of  the  syllables 
each  foot  having  a distinctive  name- 
trochee,  iamtris,  dactyle,  anapest,  etc. 
The  same  are  applied  to  English  meas- 
ures, an  accented  syllable  in  English 
being  held  to  be  equivalent  to  a long 
syllable  in  Latin  or  Greek,  and  an  unac- 
cented syllable  to  a short. 

FOOT,  in  animals,  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  leg ; the  part  of  the  leg  which  treads 
the  earth  in  standing  or  walking,  and  by 
which  the  animal  is  sustained  and  en- 
ables to  step ; or  that  surface  of  the  body 
by  which  progression  is  effected  among 


Skeleton  of  the  human  foot. 


o to  66,  Tarsus.  6 6 to  cc,  Metatarsus,  ccto 
d,  Phalanges.  1,  Os  calcls,  calcaneum,  or  heel- 
bone.  2,  Astragalus  3.  Scaphoid  bone.  4,  In- 
ner cunold  bone.  5,  Middle  cunoid  bone.  6, 
Outer  cunoid  bone.  7,  Cuboid  bone.  8 to  13, 
Metatarsal  bones.  13,  First  row  of  phalanges. 
14,  Last  row  of  phalanges. 

the  mollusca.  The  foot  of  man  is  com- 
posed of  twenty-six  bones,  seven  of 
which  constitute  the  tarsus  or  ankle, 
which  articulates  with  the  leg  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  carpus  (wrist).  Five 
ybones  form  the  metatarsus,  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  metacarpus,  and  articu- 
lates with  the  tarsus,  behind,  and  with 
the  toes  in  front.  The  foot  is  narrow 
and  thick  in  its  posterior  part,  thinner 
(md  broader  anteriorly;  it  forms  a right 


angle  with  the  leg,  and  rests  upon  the 
ground  at  the  extremities  only.  The 
middle  portion  is  in  the  form  of  an  arch, 
and,  in  consequence,  resists  shocks  and 
supports  pressure  much  better  than  it 
could  if  it  were  fiat  and  touched  the 
ground  throughout  its  whole  length. 

FOOTA,  a territory  of  Senegambia, 
W.  Africa,  on  tne  lower  Senegal,  which 
bounds  it  on  the  northeast.  It  includes 
Foota  Toro,  and  other  districts.  Area, 
about  15,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  estimated 
at  400,000. 

FOOTA-JALLON,  a region  of  "West 
Africa,  intersected  by  lat.  11°  n.  and  Iqn. 
11°  w.  It  is  governed  by  an  elective 
chief  under  the  protection  of  France. 

FOOT-AND-MOUTH  DISEASE,  a 
highly  contagious  eczematous  affection 
which  attacks  the  feet  and  mouths  of 
cattle,  manifesting  itself  by  lameness, 
indisposition  to  eat,  and  general  febrile 
symptoms,  with  ultimately  eruptions  of 
small  vesicles  on  the  parts  affected,  and 
general  indisposition  of  the  animal.  The 
disease  occasionally  spreads  to  the  udder 
of  milch-cattle,  and  it  is  believed  that  it 
may  be  communicated  to  persons  who 
drink  the  milk  of  cows  so  affected. 

FOOTBALL,  an  outdoor  game  of  con- 
siderable antiquity.  In  former  times 
towns  and  villages  were  often  matched 
against  each  other,  the  whole  of  the 
able-bodied  inhabitants  taking  part  in 
the  struggle;  the  goals  being  often  miles 
apart,  and  usually  consisting  of  natural 
objects,  as  a brook  or  river.  The  modern 
form  of  the  game  is  played  by  two  parties 
of  players,  on  a large  level  piece  of 
ground,  generally  oblong  in  shape,  and 
having  in  the  middle  of  either  of  the 
ends  a goal  formed  by  two  upright  posts 
6 to  8 yards  apart,  with  a bar  or  tape 
extended  between  them  at  the  height  of 
8 or  10  feet  from  the  ground.  There  are 
various  styles  of  playing  the  game, 
but  those  recognized  in  important 
matches  are  the  Rugby,  the  Football 
Association  and  the  American  Asso- 
ciation game.  In  both  games  the 
main  object  is  for  either  party  to 
drive  the  ball  (which  is  kicked  off  in  the 
center  of  the  field)  through  the  goal  that' 
their  opponents  are  guarding,  and  thus 
count  a goal  against  them.  In  the  Rugby 
game  the  goal-posts  are  18 J feet  apart, 
and  joined  by  a cross-bar  at  a height  of 
10  feet  from  the  ground;  and  to  score  a 
goal  the  ball  must  be  kicked  over  this 
bar  by  one  of  the  opposite  side.  In  the 
Association  game  the  upright  poles  are 
8 yards  apart,  and  joined  at  8 feet  from 
the  ground  by  a tape,  under  which  the 
ball  must  pass  to  secure  a goal.  The 
Rugby  game  is  much  rougher  and  less 
scientific  than  the  Association  game 
which  discourages  rough  play  and  relies 
mainly  on  the  skilful  manceuvring  of 
the  ball  with  the  feet,  it  being  forbidden 
to  touch  the  ball  with  the  hands;  while 
by  the  Rugby  rules  the  player  may 
catch  the  ball  in  his  hands,  run  with  it, 
and  kick  it  dropping.  A regular  game 
lasts  an  hour  and  a half,  and  at  half- 
time the  teams  change  ends  in  order 
that  inequalities  of  situation  may  be 
neutralized. 

The  American  Game. — The  rules  of 
the  English  Rugby  Union,  as  they  were 
in  1875,  were  adopted  as  the  foundation 
of  the  American  game;  but  in  1876  they 


were  revised,  so  that  in  place  of  the 
former  play  the  man  who  happened  to 
have  the  ball  when  a “down”  was  made 
played  it  to  one  particular  man — the 
“snap-back,”  and  its  destination  then 
becomes  part  of  a preconcerted  and  well- 
rehearsed  play.  He  puts  the  ball  in  play 
behind  him,  and  the  men  in  his  line  act 
in  concert,  in  a general,  prearranged  at- 
tack on  the  enemy’s  line,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  clearing  a path  for  the  man  who 
runs  with  the  ball.  The  work  of  the 
rushers  has  been  specialized,  light  men 
put  where  their  qualifications  are  most 
effective,  and  heavy  men  in  the  same 
way;  end  men  selected  who  could  make 
runs  and  free  catches  off  short  kicks.  In 
the  same  way,  guards  to  protect  the 
quarter-back  when  he  passed  the  ball, 
and  tackles  to  break  up  the  opponents’ 
play,  were  early  specifically  selected  for 
qualifications  and  specialized  for  the 
work.  Every  year  has  brought  new  plays 
to  the  fore,  and  every  rule  has  been  the 
subject  of  infinite  thought  on  the  part 
of  the  players,  mainly  to  design  some 
method  of  meeting  them,  each  play  in 
its  turn  resulting  in  still  new  rules — to 
wit,  the  “block  system”  of  the  early 
eighties  was  met  by  “the  five-yard  rule,” 
designed  to  prevent  one  side  keeping 
possession  of  the  ball  unduly,  without 
material  advance  or  retreat,  by  enacting 
that  if  in  three  “downs,”  or  attempts  to 
advance  the  ball,  the  side  doing  so  has 
not  made  5 yards  toward  the  opponent’s 
goal,  or  retreated  20  yards  toward  their 
own  goal,  they  should  surrender  pos- 
session. 

“Interference”  was  restrained  but  de- 
veloped into  “mass  plays” — the  group- 
ing of  a body  of  men  some  distance  back 
ot,the  line  and  starting  them  before  the 
ball  was  put  in  play.  This  tendency 
called  into  existence  the  rules  committee 
of  the  University  Athletic  Club,  whose, 
annual  revisions  have  aimed,  at  the* 
greater  protection  of  a man  on  a fair 
catch,  and  the  encouragement  of  kick- 
ing and  of  af  more  open  game  generally. 
The  time  of  play  is  two  halves  of  thirty- 
five  minutes  each,  with  ten  minutes  in- 
termission. Any  player  injured  can  be 
removed  from  the  field  and  another 
player  substituted,  in  which  respect  the 
American  game  differs  from  the  British 
play,  where  each  team  has  to  play  the 
game  out  with  the  members  with  which 
which  they  start  the  game,  or  such  of 
them  as  are  capable  of  play.  These 
differing  rules  may  account  for  the 
marked  difference  in  the  casualties  in 
the  field;  a captain  who  has  no  reserves 
takes  more  care  of  his  men  than  he  who 
can  replace  an  injured  player  with  a sub- 
stitute. 

FOOTE,  Andrew  Hull,  a distinguished 
officer  of  the  U.  States  navy;  was  born 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1806.  He  was 
commissioned  lieutenant  on  May  27, 
1830;  from  1837  to  1840  was  executive 
officer  of  the  John  Adams,  of  the  East 
India  Squadron,  during  its  cruise  around 
the  world,  and  from  1841  to  1843  was 
stationed-at  the  Naval  Asylum  in  Phila- 
delphia, of  which  during  the  last 
two  years  he  was  in  full  charge.  In 
1852,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  commander.  On  February  6,  1862, 
he  captured  Fort  Henry,  and  on  the 
14th  he  attacked  Fort  Donelson,  before 


FOOT-GUARDS 


FORENSIC  SIEDICINE 


which  Grant  with  his  army  had  arrived 
two  days  earlier;  but  was  repulsed,  and 
he  himself  was  wounded.  For  several 
months  in  1862-63  he  \Yas  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  equipment  and  recruiting,  and 
on  June  4,  1863,  was  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed Rear-Admiral  Dupont  as  com- 
mander of  the  fleet  off  Charleston,  but 
died  at  New  York,  on  June  26,  1863. 

FOOT-GUARDS.  See  Guards. 

FOOT-LIGHTS,  in  theaters,  the  row  of 
lights  placed  on  the  front  of  the  stage 
and  on  a level  with  it,  to  light  it  up. 

FOOT-POUND,  in  physics,  the  term 
expressing  the  unit  selected  in  measur- 
ing the  work  done  by  a mechanical 
force.  A foot-pound  represents  1 lb. 
weight  raised  through  a height  of  1 foot ; 
and  a force  equal  to  a certain  number  of 
foot-pounds,  fifty  for  example,  is  a force 
capable  of  raising  50  lbs.  through  a 
height  of  1 foot. 

FOOT-ROT,  a disease  in  the  feet  of 
sheep,  the  more  common  form  of  which 
is  an  inordinate  growth  of  hoof,  which  at 
the  toe,  or  round  the  margin,  becomes 
turned  down,  cracked,  or  torn,  through 
affording  lodgment  for  sand  and  dirt. 
In  the  second  form  of  the  disease  the 
foot  becomes  hot,  tender,  and  swollen; 
there  are  ulcerations  between  the  toes, 
followed  by  the  sprouting  of  proud 
flesh. 

FOR'AKER,  Joseph  Benson,  Ameri- 
can politician  and  legislator,  born  at 
Rainsboro,  Ohio,  in  1846.  He  studied 
law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  at  Cin- 
cinnati, where  he  practiced  with  success 
until  1879,  when  he  w'as  elected  a judge 
of  the  superior  court.  He  resigned  from 
the  bench  in  1882,  and  in  1885  was 
elected  governor  of  Ohio  on  the  Repub- 
lican ticket.  He  was  reelected  in  1887, 
and  was  defeated  for  a third  term,  in 
1889,  by  James  E.  Campbell,  although 
all  the  rest  of  the  republican  state  ticket 
was  elected.  From  his  defeat  as  gover- 
nor in  1889  to  1897  he  w'as  engaged  ac- 
tively in  the  practice  of  law  at  Cincinnati 
gaining  a reputation  as  a corporation 
attorney.  In  1897  he  became  United 
States  senator,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1902.  In  the  senate  he  has  taken  an 
active  and  aggressive  part  in  the  de- 
bates, being  one  of  the  most  radical 
advocates  in  that  body  of  the  war  with 
Spain  in  1898. 

FORBES,  James  David,  Scottish  sci- 
entist born  1809,  died  1868.  His  fame 
rests  chiefly  on  his  study  of  glaciers. 

FORBIDDEN  FRUIT,  a name  fanci- 
fully given  to  the  fruits  of  various  trees 
rown  in  tropical  countries,  as  the  shad- 
ock,  a sort  of  thick-skinned  orange, 
and  the  poisonous  fruit  of  a tree  of  Cey- 
lon, traditionally  said  to  be  the  fruit  of 
which  Adam  and  Eve  ate  at  the  time  of 
the  fall  in  Eden. 

FORCE,  that  which  is  the  source  of  all 
active  phenomena  occurring  in  the 
material  world,  and  of  which  motion, 
gravitation,  heat,  light,  electricity  and 
magnetism,  cohesion,  and  chemical 
affinity  are  believed  to  be  exhibitions. 
Mechanical  force  is  the  power  which 
produces  or  modifies  motion  or  tends  to 
do  so.  It  has  its  origin  in  three  causes; 
(1)  gravitation;  (2)  the  unknown  cause 
of  the  phenomena  of  light,  heat,  and 
electricity ; and  (3)  life.  Mechanical  forces 


are  of  two  sorts:  one  of  a body  at  rest, 
being  the  same  as  pressure  or  tension; 
the  other  of  a body  in  motion,  being  the 
same  as  impetus  or  momentum.  When 
two  forces  act  on  a body  in  the  same  line 
of  direction  the  resulting  force,  or  resul- 
tant as  it  is  called,  will  be  the  sum  of 
both  forces.  If  they  act  in  opposite 
directions  the  body  will  remain  at  rest  if 
the  forces  be  equal;  or,  if  the  forces  be 
unequal,  it  will  move  with  a force  equiv- 
alent to  their  difference  in  the  direction 
of  thp  greater.  If  the  lines  of  direction 
make  an  angle  with  each  other  the  re- 
sultant will  be  a mean  force  in  an  inter- 
mediate direction.  The  composition  of 
forces  is  the  combining  of  two  or  more 
into  one  (actually  or  hypothetically), 
which  shall  have  the  same  effect  when 
acting  in  some  given  direction;  the  re- 
solution of  forces  is  the  decomposing  of  a 
single  force  into  two  or  more  forces, 
which,  acting  in  different  directions, 
shall  be  equivalent  to  the  single  force. 
Forces  have  different  denominations 
according  to  their  nature  and  the  rnan- 
ner  in  which  they  act;  thus  we  have 
accelerating  forces,  constant  forces, 
parallel  forces,  uniform  and  variable 
forces,  etc.  The  unit  of  force  is  a single 
force  in  terms  of  which  the  amount  of 
any  other  force  is  ^certained.  See 
Dynamics,  Energy. 

FOR'CEPS,  a general  name  for  a two- 
bladed  instrument  on  the  principle  of 
pincers  or  tongs,  used  for  seizing  and 
holding,  and  for  extracting  objects, 
which  it  would  be  impracticable  thus  to 
treat  with  the  fingers. 

FORCE-PUMP.  See  Pump. 

FORCING,  a method  of  cultivation  by 
which  plants,  flowers,  and  fruits  are 
rajised  at  an  earlier  season  than  the 
natural  one  by  protecting  them  under 
glass,  in  hot  or  cold  frames,  by  using 
stimulatiirg  fertilizers,  and  other  means. 

FORD,  John  Thomson,  American 
theatrical  manager,  was  born  at  Balti- 
more in  1829.  He  was  the  owner  of 
Ford’s  Theater,  the  scene  of  the  assas- 
sination of  President  Lincoln  by  Booth 
on  April  14,  1865,  and  on  suspicion  of 
complicity  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
for  40  days.  H-  was  then  released  as 
absolutely  no  evidence  was  adduced 
against  him.  He  was  long  one  of  the 
board  of  governors  of  the  Maryland 
penitentiary  and  at  one  time  president 
of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railway.  He  died  in  1894. 

FORD,  Paul  Leicester,  American  his- 
torian and  novelist,  was  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  in  1865.  After  traveling  ex- 
tensively in  both  hemispheres  he  de- 
voted himself  to  investigations  in  the 
sources  of  American  history.  He  edited 
the  writings  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  the 
writings  of  Thomas  Dickinson  and  The 
Federalist.  These  studies  led  to  the 
True  George  Washington,  The  Many 
Sided  Franklin,  etc.  His  best  known 
works  of  fiction  are:  Janice  Meredith, 
Wanted:  A Matchmaker,  The  Hon. 
Peter  Sterling.  He  died  in  1902. 

FORD’S  THEATER,  a Washington 
theater,  in  which  President  I.incoln  was 
assassinated  by  Booth,  April  14,  1865. 
The  building  was  purchased  in  1866  by 
the  U.  States  government,  and  was  used 
until  1887  as  the  Army  Medical  Museum, 
and  later  as  the  Pension  and  Records 


Bureau  of  the  War  Department.  It 
collapsed,  with  the  loss  of  many  lives,  on 
June  9,  1893. 

FOR'DUN,  John,  the  father  of  Scot- 
tish history,  born  probably  at  Fordoun 
Kincardineshire,  soon  after  1300;  died 
about  1386. 

FORE-AND-AFT,  in  ships,  a term 
meaning  in  a line  with  the  keel.  Fore- 
ar^d-aft  sails  are  those  that  are  set  on  a 
stay  or  gaff  and  boom,  such  as  jibs,  stay- 
s^ils  ©tc 

FORECASTLE,  a short  deck  in  the 
forepart  of  a ship  of  war,  or  forward  of 
the  foremast,  above  the  upper  deck.  In 
merchant  ships  it  is  the  forepart  of  the 
vessel,  where  the  sailors  live. 

FORECLOSURE,  the  process  where- 
by a mortgagor’s  right,  or  “equity,”  of 
redemption  is  cut  off  and  the  mort- 
gagee’s lien  on  the  mortgaged  lands  or 
goods  enforced.  It  is  available  to  the 
mortgagee  at  any  time  after  default,  and 
is  instituted  by  a bill  of  foreclosure  ask- 
ing that  an  account  may  be  taken  of  the 
principal  and  interest  due  under  the 
mortgage,  and  that  the  mortgagor,  on 
failing  to  pay  by  a specified  date,  may. 
forfeit  his  equity  of  redemption.  If  on 
the  day  fixed  for  payment  the  money 
be  not  forthcoming,  the  mortgagor  will 
be  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  equity 
of  redemption,  and  the  mortgagee  will 
be  allowed  to  retain  the  estate  in  per- 
petuity. 

In  a few  of  the  American  states,  the 
mortgage  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  a 
mere  lien,  and  not  as  a legal  estate  in  the 
mortgagee,  a statutory  process,  knowm 
also  as  a foreclosure,  has  Been  adopted 
in  lieu  of  the  foregoing  process  of 
“strict”  foreclosure.  This  differs  from 
the  older  method  principally  in  the  fact 
that  it  involves  the  satisfaction  of  the 
debt,  not  by  a forfeiture,  but  by  a sale 
of  the  mortgaged  premises.  The  suit, 
which  is  also  in  equity,  is  instituted  by 
the  mortgagee  as  plaintiff,  the  mort- 
gagor and  all  creditors,  subsequent 
lienors, -and  other  parties  in  interest,  be- 
ing made  defendants.  The  demand  is 
for  a judgment  that  the  defendants  be 
foreclosed  and  cut  off  from  all  their  in- 
terest in  the  mortgaged  premises,  and 
that  the  same  be  sold  to  satisfy  the  mort- 
gage debt.  The  sale  is  made  upon  notice 
and  is  at  public  auction,  generally  by 
the  sheriff  or  a referee  appointed  by  the 
court.  After  the  sale  the  money  in  the 
hands  of  the  referee  will  be  applied  to 
the  payinent  of  the  mortgage,  and  any 
surplus  may  be  claimed  b^y  subsequent 
mortgagees;  or,  if  there  is  no  other  claim 
upon  it,  it  will  be  paid  to  the  mortgagor. 

FOREIGN  OFFICE,  that  department 
of  the  British  government  presided  over 
by  the  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs,  and  having  its  locale  in  Downing 
street,  Westminster,  London.  It  was 
established  in  1782,  and  has  charge  of 
British  interests  in  foreign  countries. 
The  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  nego- 
tiates treaties,  appoints  diplomatic  oL 
fic6I*S  ©tc  ^ 

FOREN'SIC  MEDICINE,  the,  branch 
of  medical  education  which  applies  the 

Erinciples  and  practice  of  the  different 
ranches  of  medicine  to  the  elucidation 
of  doubtful  questions  in  a court  of  jus- 
tice; otherwise  called  medical  jurispru- 
dence. 


FORESHORTENING 


FORREST 


FORESHORTENING,  in  drawing  and 
painting,  the  art  of  representing  figures 
in  such  a manner  as  to  convey  to  the 
mind  the  impression  of  the  entire  length 
of  any  object  which  is  pointing  more  or 


Foreshortened  (after  figure  by  Raphael). 

less  directly  toward  the  spectator  stand- 
ing in  front  of  the  picture.  The  project- 
ing object  is  shortened  in  proportion  to 
its  approach  to  the  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  picture,  and  in  consequence 
appears  of  a just  length. 

FOREST,  a term  properly  applied  to 
an  extensive  wood,  or  to  a large  tract  of 
mingled  woodland  and  open  and  uncul- 
tivated land;  but  also  to  a large  tract  of 
hilly  or  mountain  land  wholly  or  chiefly 
devoted  to  the  purposes  of  the  chase. 
Forests  proper  are  of  much  importance 
in  the  general  economy  of  the  globe. 
They  greatly  affect  climate;  and  their 
beneficial  influence  in  a physical,  eco- 
nomical, and  hygienic  aspect  is  now  re- 
ceiving increased  attention.  In  German 
and  various  other  European  countries 
forest  science  constitutes  a separate 
branch  of  education,  but  in  Britain  less 
regard  is  paid  to  it.  Forest  regulations 
did  not  for  a time  seem  as  necessary  in 
the  U.  States,  with  its  great  forest 
wealth,  as  in  Europe.  However,  with 
the  destructive  methods  of  lumbering 
and  the  enormous  waste  by  forest  fires, 
the  supply  has  been  so  encroached  upon 
that  means  have  been  taken  to  repair 
the  damage  and  to  provide  against 
its  continuance.  Various  states  have 
enacted  laws  designed  to  correct  the 
former  abuses  by  granting  bounties  for 
tree-planting  and  remission  of  taxes 
upon  purely  forest  areas.  The  general 
government  has  also  attempted  to  aid 
by  laws  providing  for  the  acquirement 
of  land  upon  the  condition  of  planting  a 

Eortion  to  trees.  Since  the  laws  enacted 
y the  general  government  were  im- 
properly prepared,  interpreted,  and  en- 
forced, and  have  resulted  in  little  good, 
they  have  been  repealed.  .The  greatest 
good  has  probably  come  from  the  reser- 
vation of  extensive  areas  about  the 
watersheds  and  sources  of  some  great 
rivers.  There  are  over  40  forest  reserves 
in  the  U.  States,  embracing  more  than 
46,000,000  acres. 

FORESTERS,  Ancient  order  of,  a 
fraternal  organization  founded  in  1745 
and  introduced  into  the  U.  States  in 
1832.  The  growth  of  the  Order  was  slow 
until  1864.  In  1902  the  courts  numbered 
approximately  9,000,  with  a total  mem- 
bership of  nearly  1,000,000.  The  Order 
is  one  of  the  largest  beneficiary  societies 
in  existence,  with  courts  in  36  countries. 
Funds  are  raised  by  fixed  dues,  and 


more  than  $5,000,000  annually  are  dis- 
tributed in  benefits. 

FORESTERS,  Independent  Order  of, 
a fraternal  and  benevolent  society 
founded  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1874,  and 
reorganized  in  1881.  The  Order  is  general 
throughout  the  U.  States  and  Canada. 
Its  government  is  vested  in  a Supreme 
Court,  with  delegates  from  all  the  coun- 
tries represented.  High  Courts,  corres- 
ponding to  the  grand  lodges  of  other 
societies,  have  supervision  of  the  Order 
in  various  states  and  countries.  The 
local  bodies  are  called  courts.  The  Order 
has  a membership  of  200,000,  has,  paid 
more  than  $13,000,000  in  benefits  since 
its  organization,  and  has  a surplus  fund 
of  nearly  $6,000,000. 

FOREST  MARBLE,  in  geology,  an 
argillaceous  laminated  shelly  limestone, 
altercating  with  clays  and  calcareous 
sandstones,  and  forming  one  of  the 
upper  portions  of  the  Lower  Oolite:  so 
called  from  Whichwood  Forest,  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  finer  bands  are  quarried 
as  marble. 

FOR'FEITURE,  a punishment  an- 
nexed to  some  illegal  act  or  remissness 
of  an  owner  or  tenant  of  property, 
whereby  he  loses  his  interest  therein, 
together  with  his  title,  the  same  going 
to  the  party  injured  by  such  act  or  re- 
missness. 

FORGE,  a workshop  or  other  estab- 
lishment in  which  iron  or  other  metal  is 
hammered  and  shaped  by  the  aid  of 
heat;  also,  the  works  where  iron  is  ren- 
dered malleable  by  puddling  and  shing- 
ling. For  military  purposes  a traveling 
forge  is  used  by  forces  in  the  field. 

FORGERY,  at  common  law,  the  fraud- 
ulent making  or  alteration  of  a writing 
to  the  prejudice  of  another  man’s  rights, 
or  making,  of  any  written  instrument 
for  the  purpose  of  fraud  and  deceit;  the 
word  making,  in  this  last  definition,  be- 
ing considered  as  including  every  altera- 
4;ion  of  or  addition  to  a true  instrument. 

FORGET-ME-NOT,  the  name  of  a 
common  plant  growing  generally  in 
damp  or  wet  places.  Scorpion^grass  is 
also  a name  for  it  and  others  of  its  genus. 
It  is  a very  beautiful  plant,  and  con- 
sidered to  be  the  emblem  of  friendship 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  Its 
flowers  are  bright  blue  with  a yellow  eye. 
The  dark-blue  forget-me-not  of  the 
Azores  is  now  cultivated  in  greenhouses, 
and  is  much  esteemed  for  the  brilliancy 
of  its  flowers. 

FORLI',  a town  of  North  Italy,  capi- 
tal of  a province  of  same  name,  38  miles 
southeast  of  Bologna.  Pop.  279,072. 

FORLORN  HOPE,  a body  of  men, 
usually  volunteers,  selected  from  dif- 
ferent regiments,  to  lead  an  assault,  enter 
a breach,  or  perform  other  service  at- 
tended with  uncommon  peril.  The  term 
is  of  Dutch  origin;  hope  being  from 
Dutch  hoop,  a company. 

FORMATION,  in  geology,  any  series 
of  rocks  referred  to  a common  origin  or 
period,  whether  they  consist  of  the  same 
or  different  materials.  Geological  strata 
are  divided  into  certain  groups  of  one 
era  of  deposition,  sometimes  of  very 
dissimilar  mineralogical  character,  but 
inclosing  the  same  fossil  species;  as,  the 
Carboniferous,  Oolitic,  Cretaceous,  Silur- 
ian, Laurentian,  etc.,  formations.  See 
Geology. 


FORMIC  ACID,  an  acid  obtained  from 
ants,  when  repeated  quantities  of  them 
have  been  infused  in  boiling  water.  It 
is  contained  in  human  sweat  and  urine, 
in  the  common  nettle  and  other  plants, 
and  may  be  prepared  artificially  in 
various  ways.  It  is  a colorless  volatile 
liquid,  with  pungent  odor,  and  produc- 
ing intense  irritation  on  the  skin. 

FORMO'SA,  an  island  in  the  Chinese 
Sea,  separated  from  the  Chinese  prov. 
of  Fokien  by  a strait  about  80  miles 
wide  where  narrowest.  The  island  is 
about  250  miles  in  length  and  70  in 
average  breadth.  It  is  divided  by  a cen- 
tral range  of  mountains  (rising  .to  14,000 
feet)  into  a western  and  eastern  part,  the 
former  of  which  (mostly  a plain)  is 
occupied  by  large  numbers  of  immi- 
grant Chinese,  and  highly  cultivated, 
producing  in  abundance  corn,  rice, 
sugar,  pepper,  camphor,  oranges,  bana- 
nas, etc.  The  eastern  part  is  inhabited 
mainly  by  wild  tribes  of  Malayan  race, 
who  are  gradually  disappearing  before 
the  Chinese.  Northern  Formosa  is 
volcanic,  and  earthquakes  occur.  Several 
ports  have  been  opened  to  European 
commerce,  chiefly  Tai-nan  (the  capital), 
Tam-sui,  Ke-lung,  and  Takow;  and  the 
trade  of  the  island  since  then  has  greatly 
increased.  The  chief  exports  are  coal, 
tea,  camphor,  sugar,  indigo,  timber;  the 
imports  are  cottons,  woolens,  opium, 
etc.  Formosa  now  belongs  to  Japan. 
Pop.  3,000,000. 

FORMULA,  a fixed  form  of  words  or 
symbols.  In  theology  it  is  a formal  state- 
ment of  doctrines;  in  mathematics,  a 
general  theorem,  a rule  or  principle  ex- 
pressed in  algebraic  symbols.  In  chem- 
istry it  is  a mode  of  expressing  the  con- 
stituents of  a compound  by  means  of 
symbols  and  letters.  Thus  water  is  rep- 
resented by  H2O,  in  which  H2  stands  for 
the  two  proportions  of  hydrogen  and  O 
for  the  one  of  oxygen  which  are  com- 
bined to  produce  water. 

FORNICATION,  the  illicit  carnal 
intercourse  by  an  unmarried  person 
with  one  of  the  opposite  sex,  whether 
married  or  unmarried.  In  most  coun- 
tries this  offense  has  been  brought  w’ithin 
the  pale  of  positive  law  at  some  period 
of  their  history,  and  prohibited  by  the 
imposition  of  penalties  more  or  less 
severe;  but  it  is  now  usually  left  to  the 
restraints  which  public  opinion  imposes 
on  it  in  every  community  which  is 
guided  by  the  principles  of  morality  and 
religion.  In  a few  of  the  U.  States  the 
offense  is  made  a misdemeanor  by 
statute,  punishable  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment, but  in  most  of  the  states 
the  common-law  rule  prevails. 

FOR'REST,  Edwin,  American  trage- 
dian; was  born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1806. 
He  made  his  first  regular  appearance  in 
1820  at  the  Walnut  Street  Theater,  in 
Philadelphia,  in  Home’s  Douglas.  In 
Shakespeare  his  best  roles  were  Richard 
III.,  Coriolanus,  Lear  and  Othello,  but 
he  was  even  more  effective  in  Virginius, 
Spartacus  and  characters  of  that  range, 
and  in  1826,  at  the  Park  Theater,  New 
York,  made  a decided  triumph  in  Othello. 
Thenceforward  his  career  was  one  of 
distinction,  both  in  this  country  and 
in  England,  where  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  Drury  Lane  in  The  Gladia- 
tor in  1836.  His  last  professional  ap- 


FORREST 


FORTIFICATION 


pearance  was  in  1871.  He  died  in  De- 
cember 12,  1872. 

FORREST,  Nathan  Bedford,  Ameri- 
can soldier,  was  born  near  the  site  of 
Chapel  Hill,  Tenn.,  in  1821 ; he  removed 
with  his  father  in  1834  to  Tippah 
County,  Miss.  Though  at  first  opposed 
to  a dissolution  of  the  Union,  he  entered 
the  confederate  army  as  a private  in 
June,  1861.  In  1862,  he  was  promoted 
to  be  brigadier-general,  and  thereafter 
served  in  Kentucky  for  some  time  un- 
der General  Bragg.  On  January  24, 
1865,  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
cavalry  in  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and 
east  Louisiana;  on  February  28th  be- 
came a lieutenant-general ; in  March  was 
defeated  at  Selma,  Ala.,  by  Gen.  J.  H. 
Wilson;  and  in  May  surrendered  at 
Gainesville,  his  troops  being  included 
in  the  arrangement  made  by  Gen.  Rich- 
ard Taylor  with  General  Canby.  He 
died  in  1877. 

FORT,  a small  fortified  place  sur- 
rounded with  a ditch,  rampart,  and 
parapet,  for  the  purpose  of  defending  a 
pass,  river,  road,  harbor,  etc.  Forts  are 
made  of  different  forms  and  extent  ac- 
cording to  the  exigencies  of  the  case. 
See  Fortification. 

FORT  DODGE,  the  county  seat  of 
Webster  county,  la.,  situated  on  Des 
Moines  river,  the  Chi.,  R.  I.  and  Pac., 
111.  Cent.,  Mason  City  and  Fort  D.,  and 
Minn,  and  St.  Louis  R.  Rs.;  90  miles 
n.  of  Des  Moines.  It  has  fine  quarries  of 
building-stone,  large  deposits  of  gyp- 
sum, coal,  fire-clay,  potter’s  clay,  and 
water-lime,  and  various  manufactures. 
Pop.  14,519. 

FORT  MADISON,  the  county  seat  of 
Lee  county,  la.,  situated  on  Mississippi 
river,  23  miles  below  Burlington,  and  on 
the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F4,  Burl.  Route, 
and  Ch.,  Fort  Mad.  and  Des  Moines 
R.  Rs.;  237  miles  s.w.  of  Chicago;  con- 
nected with  Illinois  by  one  of  the  finest 
wagon  and  railway  bridges  on  the  river. 
Pop.  11,215. 

FORT  SCOTT,  the  county  seat  of 
Bourbon  county,  Kan.;  situated  on  the 
Marmaton  river;  300  miles  w.  of  St. 
Louis  and  98  miles  s.  of  Kansas  City, 
Mo.  Pop.  11,760. 

FORT  SMITH,  one  of  the  county  seats 
of  Sebastian  county.  Ark.,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  Arkansas  and  Poteau 
rivers;  158  miles  w.  by  n.  of  Little  Rock. 
It  has  sawmills,  planing-mills,  furniture- 
factories,  eptton  compress  and  oil-seed 
mills,  ice-factory,  etc  Pop.  14,320. 

FORTH,  a river  of  Central  Scotland, 
formed  in  Perthshire  by  the  junction  of 
two  streams,  the  Duchray  and  the  Dhu, 
about  1 mile  w.  of  Aberfoyle.  From 
Aberfoyle  the  river  flows  southeast, 
forming  for^  considerable  part  of  its 
course  the  boundary  between  the 
counties  of  Stirling  and  Perth,  winding 
in  its  lower  course  in  a series  of  curves 
known  as  the  Links  of  Forth,  and  ex- 
panding thereafter  into  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  which  forms  tlxe  most  important 
harbor  of  refuge  n.  of  the  Humber.  Its 
chief  ports  are  Leith,  Granton,  Bo’ness 
and  Grangemouth.  The  Forth  is  navi- 
gable for  the  smaller  class  of  vessels  as 
far  up  as  Alloa.  Its  length  is  about  170 
miles.  It  is  a good  salmon  stream.  There 
are  several  isl6,nds  in  the  estuary,  on 
two  of  which,  the  Isle  of  May  and  Inch- 


keith,  lighthouses  are  erected.  The  firth 
is  crossed  at  Queen’s  ferry  by  a bridge. 

FORTH  AND  CLYDE  CANAL,  a canal 
in  Scotland  constructed  in  1768-90,  and 
extending  from  the  Forth  at  Grange- 
mouth to  the  Clyde  at  Bowling,  thus 
giving  communication  by  water  from 
the  east  to  the  west  coast.  It  is  35  miles 
long.  The  Union  Canal,  31^  miles  long, 
joins  it  near  Falkirk  and  connects  it  with 
Edinburgh. 

FORTIFICATION,  the  science  of 
strengthening  positions  in"  such  a way 
that  they  may  be  defended  by  a body 
of  men  much  inferior  in  number  to  those 
by  whom  they  are  attacked;  and  more 
particularly,  the  science  of  strengthen- 
ing positions  so  as  that  they  may  be 
held  against  the  assault  of  troops  sup- 
ported by  artillery.  Fortifications  are 


artillery  on  the  ramparts.  In  the  sec- 
tional cut  a is  toward  the  interior  of  the 
fort,  b toward  the  open  country.  At 
certain  intervals  there  are  often  bas- 
tions or  projecting  works  at  salient 
angles,  commanding  by  their  fire  the 
curtain  or  straight  portion  of  the  forti- 
fied line  between  them.  The  use  of  the 
bastion  has  given  the  name  to  what  is 
called  the  bastionary  system  of  fortifica- 
tion, which  has  in  modern  times  largely 
given  way  to  what  is  known  as  the  poly- 
gonal or  German  system,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  have  various  advantages  in 
relation  to  the  powerful  artillery  of  the 
present  day.  The  polygonal  system  has 
also  been  called  the  caponier  system, 
from  the  use  of  powerful  casemated 
caponiers  constructed  across  the  ditches^ 
and  serving  instead  of  bastions  for  their 


Section  through  line  of  fortifications. 


Rampart.. 


usually  divided  into  permanent  and 
temporary.  Permanent  fortifications 
are  works  required  to  remain  effective 
for  any  length  of  time,  for  the  purpose 
of  defending  important  positions  and 
cities,  dockyards,  arsenals,  etc.  Tem- 
porary fortifications  are  such  as  are  de- 
signed merely  to  throw  temporary  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  the  enemy,  as  field- 
works, etc.  The  former  are  constructed 
on  the  principle  that  each  part  must  be 
its  fire  support  and  be  supported  by 
some  other  part;  that  the  works  must 
protect  the  defenders  from  the  enemy’s 
fire  as  well  as  possible,  wnd  that  the  fire 
of  the  fortress  must  completely  sweep 
all  parts  of  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
fortified  lines.  The  more  important  de- 
tails of  a regular  fortification  may  be 
briefly  described  as  under:  Around  the 
place  to  be  defended  is  raised  a mound  or 
bank  of  earth  called  a rampart,  on  the 
upper  surface  of  which,  the  terre-pleine 

(a) ,  the  troops  and  cannon  are  placed. 
The  terre-pleine  is  protected  from  the 
enemy’s  fire  by  a breastwork  or  parapet 

(b) ,  about  8 feet  high,  sometimes  pierced 
at  certain  intervals  with  embrasures 
through  which  the  guns  are  fired.  Be- 
yond the  rampart  is  the  ditch,  usually 
about  12  feet  in  depth,  but  varying 
greatly  in  width.  The  ditch  is  sometimes 
filled  with  water;  in  other  cases  it  is  dry. 
The  scarp  or  escarp  (c)  is  the  inner  wall 
of  the  ditch,  and  it  is  faced  with  mason- 
work  or  hurdles,  sods,  etc.  (the  revet- 
ment) to  retain  the  earth  of  the  rampart 
in  its  place.  The  counterscarp  (d)  is  the 
opposite  or  outer  wall  of  the  ditch. 
From  the  top  of  the  counterscarp  out- 
wards is  a space  about  30  feet  wide  (the 
covered-way,  (e)  protected  by  a parapet, 
the  long  superior  outward  slope  of  which 
towards  the  open  ground  forms  the 
glacis.  The  use  of  the  covered-way  is  to 
allow  the  troops  to  be  drawn  up  on  it  un- 
seen by  the  besiegers  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a sortie;  it  also  enables  the  de- 
fenders to  keep  up  a closer  fire  on  the 
attacking  forces.  The  slope  of  the  glacis 
is  so  constructed  as  to  bring  the  assail- 
ants in  the  direct  line  of  fire  from  the 


defense.  The  general  plan  of  the  works 
is  polygonal,  with  the  ramparts  placed 
on  the  sides  of  the  polygon.  The  con- 
necting line  of  fortifications  surrounding 
a place  is  called  the  fortified  enciente, 
and  the  works  in  a regular  fortress  form 
a very  complicated  whole,  including 
works  to  which  such  names  as  ravelins, 
demi-lunes,  etc.,  are  given.  The  fortified 
enceinte  immediately  surrounding  a 
place  is  not  n^w  considered  a sufficient 
defense,  on  account  mainly  of  the  long 
range  of  modern  cannon.  Hence  it  is 
usual  to  surround  a fortress  with  a line 
of  detached  forts  at  some  distance  from 
the  enceinte,  or  there  may  be  more  than 
one  such  line  of  advanced  works.  Forti- 
fications intended  to  ward  off  attacks 
by  sea  have  their  sea-faces  now  com- 
monly protected  by  plates  of  iron  or 
steel.  Scientific  fortification  piay  be  said 
to  commence  .with  the  great  French 
engineer  Vauban,  who  served  under 
Louis  XIV.  He  developed  the  bastioned 
system,  which,  as  improved  by  Cor- 
montaigne  and  others,  is  still  the  pre- 
vailing type  of  French  fortification. 

Field  Fortifications  vary  much  ac- 
cording to  the  time  allowed  for  construc- 
tion, and  during  which  they  may  prove 
useful.  Among  works  of  this  nature  are 
the  redan,  which  consists  of  two  parapets 
with  a ditch  in  front,  forming  an  angle 
facing  the  enemy;  the  lunette,  which  is  a 
redan  with  short  flanks;  the  redoubt,  a 
closed  work  with  a ditch  and  parapet 
all  round.  As  none  of  those  works  has  a 
flanking  fire  in  itself,  they  have  to  be 
disposed  so  that  they  flank  each  other 
within  rifle  range.  To  do  this  effectually, 
and  to  strengthen  the  whole  line,  the 
plan  generally  adopted  is  to  form  an  in- 
trenched camp  by  a line  of  square  re- 
doubts, flanking  each  other,  and  also  a 
line  of  simple  redans  in  front  of  the  inter- 
vals of  the  redoubts.  When  the  time  is 
not  sufficient  to  throw  up  such  works, 
simple  forms  of  intrenchment,  such  as 
shelter  trenches,  are  used  to  shelter 
troops  or  oppose  the  enemy’s  advance. 
A very  shallow  trench,  with  the  earth 
thrown  to  the  front,  so  as  to  afford  shel- 


FORTISSIMO 


FOURIER 


ter  to  one  man  lying  in  it,  may  be  made 
in  somewhat  less  than  half  an  hour; 
more  elaborate  forms  in  about  one  hour. 
So  that  by  placing  a man  at  every  4 feet, 
active  troops  can  make  good  shelter  for 
themselves  in  an  hour.  To  impede  the 
enemy’s  advance  an  abattis  of  felled 
trees  may  be  used^  also  wire  entangle- 
ments, chevaux-de-frise,  etc. 

FORTIS'SIMO  (Ital.),  in  music,  a 
direction  to  sing  wjth  the  utmost  strength 
or  loudness. 

FORTU'NA,  the  Roman  goddess  of 
success,  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
Tyche.  She  is  generally  delineated  with 
a rudder,  emblem  of  her  guiding  power; 
or  later,  with  a bandage  over  her  eyes 
and  a scepter  in  her  hand,  and  sitting  or 
standing  on  a wheel  or  globe. 

FORTUNA'TUS,  the  hero  of  an  old 
popular  legend.  He  obtained  a wishing- 
cap  and  inexhaustible  purse  of  gold, 
which  finally  ruined  him  and  his  sons. 
The  first  printed  edition  of  the  story  ap- 
peared in  Germany  in  1509,  but  in  vari- 
ous forms  it  has  appeared  in  most  of  the 
languages  of  Europe. 

FORT  WAYNE,  a flourishing  city  in 
Indiana,  situated  in  a beautiful  and  well- 
cultivated  country  at  the  junction  of  the 
St.  Mary’s  and  St.  Joseph’s  rivers,  which 
here  unite  to  form  the  Maumee.  It  has 
railroad  and  machine  works,  and  derives 
its  name  from  a fort  erected  here-in  1794 
by  General  Wayne.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  episcopal  see.  Pop. 
1909  estimated  65,000. 

FORT  WORTH,  an  important  railway 
center,  the  county  seat  of  Tarrant  co., 
'Tex. ; situated  on  Trinity  river,  32  miles 
w.  of  Dallas  and  210  miles  n.  of  Austin. 
Among  industrial  establishments'  are 
grain  elevators,  flouring-mills,  iron 
foundries,  car-works,  shops  of  the  Fort 
Worth  and  Denver,  the  Texas  and 
Pacific,  and  the  Rio  Grande  Railways, 
large  stock-yards,  and  one  of  the  largest 
packing-houses  in  the  Western  U.  States. 
Pop.  31,490. 

FORUM,  among  the  Romans,  any 
open  place  where  the  markets  and  courts 
of  justice  were  held.  There  were  a num- 
ber of  such  places  in  Rome,  by  far  the 
most  celebrated  being  the  great  Roman 
forum  between  Mount  Palatine  and  the 
Capitoline  Hill.  This  place,  once  adorned 
with  the  most  beautiful  statues  and 
buildings,  had  become  almost  a waste 
known  as  the  Campo  Vaccino,  or  cattle- 
field,  but  of  late  years  the  government 
have  made  clearances  and  excavations, 
and  taken  charge  of  the  valuable  relics 
which  are  still  left. — In  legal  phrase 
forum  signifies  the  court  or  place  where 
an  action  is  instituted. 

FOSS,  or  FOSSE,  in  fortification,  a 
trench  or  ditch,  often  full  of  water,  be- 
low the  rampart  of  a fortified  place,' or  a 
post  that  is  to  be  defended.  See  Fortifi- 
cation. 

FOSSIL,  a term  for  the  petrified  forms 
of  plants  and  animals  which  occur  in  the 
strata  that  compose  the  surface  of  our 
globe.  Most  of  these  fossil  species,  many 
of  the  genera,  and  some  of  the  families, 
are  extinct.  When  these  remains  are 
only  partially  fossilized,  and  occur  in 
superficial  or  recent  deposits,  the  term 
sub-fossil  is  employed.  See  Geology  and 
Palaeontology. 


FOSTER,  Birket,  an  English  artist, 
born  at  North  Shieldsin  1825.  He  learned 
wood-engraving  under  Landells,  and  in 
early  life  became  a draughtsman.  He 
soon  achieved  a high  reputation  as  book 
illustrator,  and  illustrated  the  works  of 
Goldsmith,  Scott,  Longfellow,  Beattie, 
etc.  His  landscape  drawings  on  wood  are 
of  great- excellence.  He  afterwards  de- 
voted himself  to  water-color  painting,  in 
which  his  reproductions  of  rustic  life 
were  very  successful.  He  died  in  1899. 

FOSTER,  Charles,  American  politician 
and  secretary  of  the  treasury.  He  was 
born  in  1828  near  Tiffin,  Ohio.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  actively  aided  in  *the 
recruiting  and  equipment  of  the  Ohio 
troops.  It  was  not  until  1870  that  he 
entered  political  life.  In  that  year  he 
was  nominated  by  the  republicans  of  his 
district  for  congress,  and  was  elected. 
He  was  reelected  in  1872,  1874,  and 
1876.  In  1879  he  was  nominated  for 
governor  of  Ohio,  and  in  1881,  was  re- 
elected, serving  until  January  1,  1884. 
In  1889  Foster  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Harrison  chairman  of  a commission 
to  draw  up  a treaty  with  the  Sioux 
Indians.  In  February,  1891,  he  suc- 
ceeded William  Windom  as  secretary  of 
the  treasury  in  Harrison’s  cabinet.  He 
died  in  1904. 

FOSTER,  John  Watson,  American  dip- 
lomat, born  in  Pike  co.,  Ind.,  in  1836.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  he  entered 
the  Union  service  as^a  major  of  volun- 
teers, and  after  attaining  the  rank  of 
colonel  headed  a brigade  in  General 
Burnside’s  expedition  to  East  Tennessee 
and  was  the  first  to  occupy  Knoxville 
(1863).  During  the  Bering  Sea  contro- 
versy he  acted  as  agent  of  the  United 
States  before  the  arbitration  tribunal. 
He  succeeded  to  the  secretaryship  of 
state  (1892-93).  Later  he  was  legal  ad- 
viser to  the  Chinese  plenipotentiaries  in 
their  peace  negotiations  with  Japan 
(1895);  again  represented  the  United 
States  in  the  Bering  Seai-question  (1897) ; 
and  in  1898  was  a member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  joint  high  commission  to  settle 
the  disputes  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States. 

FOSTER,  Stephen  Collins,  Amer- 
ican song  composer,  born  in  1836 
at  Lawrenceville,  near  Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Many  of  his  songs,  the  first  of  which, 
“Open  Thy  Lattice,  Love,”  was  pub- 
lished in  1842,  have  become  so  popular 
that  they  may  be  regarded  as  veritable 
folk-songs;  “Louisiana  Belle,”  “Old 
Uncle  Ned,”  “My  Old  Kentucky  Home,” 
“Massa’s  in  the  Cold,  Cold  Ground,” 
“Ellen  Boyne,”  “Old  Folks  at  Home” 
(“Down  on  the  Suwanee  River”),  “Come 
Where  My  Love  Lies  Dreaming,”  are 
some  of  the  most  popular  of  Foster’s  175 
published  songs.  He  died  in  New  York 
in  1864. 

FOUCHE  (fo-sha),  Joseph,  Duke  of 
Otranto,  a minister  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
born  in  1763.  On  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
(1794),  Fouch6,  who  had  for  some  time 
tended  towards  the  moderate  party, 
managed  to  make  friends  with  Barras, 
and  was  rewarded  for  his  betrayal  by 
the  ambassadorship  to  Milan.  He  was 
minister  of  police  at  Napoleon’s  final  ab- 
dication and  played  ah  important  part 
in  the  arrangements.  He  remained  in 
office  under  Louis  XVIII.  for  a time,  but 


the  dislike  of  the  royalist  party  at  length 
forced  him  to  resign  (1815).  He  went  as 
ambassador  to  Dresden,  but  afterward 
retired  to  Prague,  and  latterly  to  Trieste, 
where  he  died  Dec.  25,  1820. 

FOUNDATION,  that  part  of  a build- 
ing which  is  under  ground,  or  the  portion 
of  the  ground  on  which  walls,  piers,  etc., 
rest.  Foundations  are  usually  made  by 
providing  a hard  impermeable  base  for 
the  masonry  by  methods  which  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  position  and  soil.  Where 
there  is  rock  below  nothing  more  is 
needed  than  a dressing  for  the  surface. 
Submerged  foundations  such  as  those 
for  breakwaters,  bridges,  etc.,  form 
special  cases  for  engineering. 

FOUNDATION,  a donation  or  legacy, 
in  money  or  lands,  for  the  maintenance 
or  support  of  some  useful  charitable  in- 
stitution, as  an  hospital,  a college,  a 
school,  etc. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS,  institu- 
tions for  receiving  children  abandoned 
by  their  parents  and  found  by  strangers. 
Among  such  institutions  are  that  of 
Paris,  institued  in  1670,  and  that  of 
London  in  1739.  The  latter  was  original- 
ly a hospital  for  all  exposed  children; 
but  the  enormous  increase  in  abandon- 
ments caused  the  hospital  to  be  changed 
in  1760  to  one  for  poor  illegitimate  chil- 
dren whose  mothers  are  known. 

FOUNT,  or  FONT,  among  printers, 
etc.,  a quantity  of  types,  in  proportions 
sorted  for  use,  that  includes  ordinary 
letters,  large  and  small  capitals,  single 
letters,  double  letters,  points,  commas, 
lines',  numerals^'  etc. ; as  a fount  of  Pica, 
Bourgeois,  etc, 

FOUNTAIN,  or  ARTIFICIAL  FOUN- 
TAIN, a contrivance  by  which  water  is 
made  to  spout  from  an  artificial  channel, 
and  often  to  rise  up  to  a gr«i,t  height  in  a 
jet  or  jets.  Rome,  in  particjplar,  is  noted 
for  its  fountains.  At  Paris,  also,  the 
fountains  of  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
the  Tuileries,  and  at  Versailles,  are  splen- 
did structures. 

FOURIER  (fo-ri-a),  Fran9ois  Marie 
Charles,  a French  socialist  and  founder 
of  the  system  named  i4fter  him,  was  born 
in  1772  at  Besancon.  He  died  Oct  10, 
1837.  In  his  social  system  Fourier  holds 
that  the  operations  of  industry  should  be 
carried  on  by  Phalansteries,  or  associa- 
tions of  1800  members  combining  their 
labor  on  a district  of  about  a square 
league  in  extent,  under  the  control  of 
governors  elected  by  each  community. 
In  the  distribution  a certain  minimum 
is  first  assigned  for  the  subsistence  ot 
every  member  of  the  society,  whether 
capable  or  not  of  labor.  The  remainder 
of  the  produce  is  shared  in  certain  pro- 
portions to  be  previously  determined 
among  the  three  elements,  labor,  capital, 
and  talent.  The  capital  of  the  community 
may  be  owned  in  unequal  shares  by 
different  members,  who  would  in  that 
case  receive,  as  in  any  other  joint-stock 
concern,  proportional  dividends.  The 
claim  of  each  person  on  the  share  of  the 
produce  apportioned  to  talent  is  esti- 
mated by  the  grade  which  the  individual 
occupies  in  the  several  groups  of  laborers 
to  which  he  or  she  belongs,  these  grades 
being  in  every  case  conferred  by  the 
voice  of  his  or  her  companions.  The  re- 
muneration received  would  not  of  neces- 
sity be  expended  in  common.  Separate 


t-OURTH 


FOXE 


rooms  or  sets  of  rooms  would  be  set  aside 
for  those  who  applied  for  them,  no  other 
system  of  living  together  being  con- 
templated than  such  as  would  effect  a 
saving  of.  labor  in  building  and  the  pro- 
cesses of  domestic  life,  and  reducing  the 
enormous  portion  of  the  produce  of 
industry  at  present  carried  off  by  middle- 
men and  distributing  traders  to  the  nar- 
rowest possible  margin. 

FOURTH,  in  music,  a distance  com- 
prising three  diatonic  intervals,  or  two 
tones  and  a half.  Three  full  tones  com- 
pose a tritone  or  fourth  redundant.  The 
diminished  fourth  consists  of  a whole 
tone  and  two  semi-tones. 

FOWL,  a word  originally  synonsunous 
with  bird,  now  used  in  a stricter  sense  to 
designate  the  common  domestic  fowl. 
The  general  form  and  characters  of 
the  bill,  etc.,  agree  with  those  of  the 
pheasants,  but  the  crown  of  the  head  is 
generally  naked  and  furnished  with  a 
fleshy  comb,  the  base  of  the  lower  man- 
dibles also  bearing  fleshy  lobes  or  wattles 
— ehai’acters  which  are  most  conspicuous 
in  the  males.  The  legs  of  the  male  are 
furnished  with  spurs  which  are  much 
used  in  conflict,  the  cocks  being  very 
pugnacious  and  unable  to  suffer  the 
presence  of  a rival.  In  the  center  of  the 
cock’s  tall  are  two  long  feathers,  which 
fall  backward  in  a graceful  arch  and 
add  great  beauty  to  the  whole  aspect  of 
the  fowl.  Except  in  the  pure  white  breed 
the  plumage  of  the  cock  is  always  more 
splendid  than  that  of  the  hen.  Among 
well-known  varieties  are  the  Cochin- 
China  Fowl,  the  Game  Fowl,  the  Dark- 
ing,  the  Spanish  Fowl,  and  the  Bantam. 

FOWLER,  Orson  Squire,  American 
phrenologist,  was  born  in  Coshocton,  N.  Y. 
in  1809.  After  graduating  he  settled  in 
New  York,  where  he  began  writing  and 
lecturing  on  phrenology.  In  1836  he 
published  his  first  book.  Phrenology 
Proved,  Illustrated,  and  Applied,  and  in 
1838  founded  the  American  Phrenologi- 
cal Journal.  He  was  the  founder  of  prac- 
tical phrenology  in  the  United  States. 
Among  his  numerous  published  works 
are;  Memory  and  Intellectual  Improve- 
ment; Matrimony,  or  Phrenology  Ap- 
plied to  the  Selection  of  Companions; 
Love  and  Parentage;  The  Self-Instructor 
in  Phrenology  and  Physiology;  Sexual 
Science.  He  died  in  1887. 

FOX,  an  animal  closely  allied  to  the 
dog,  with  a straight  bushy  tail,  elongated 
pupils,  and  erect  ears.  Foxes  are  natives 


Red  fox. 


of  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
and  are  everywhere  among  the  most  saga- 
cious and  wily  of  all  beasts  of  prey,  very 


voracious,  devouring  birds  and  small 
quadrupeds,  and  committing  ravages 
not  only  on  animals,  but  on  fruits, 
honey,  eggs,  etc.  The  common  fox 
of  America  is  well  known.  Among 
other  species  there  are  the  Arctic  fox 
celebrated  for  its  glossy  white  winter 
fur;  the  black  fox,  similar  to  the  common 
fox,  but  distinguishable  by  its  rich,  shin- 
ing black  fur,  a native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Asia  and  America;  the  gkay  fox 
has  a thick  tail  containing  at  its  tip  a 
tuft  of  stiff  hairs,  common  through  the 
northern  parts  of  America;  the  red  fox 
of  America,  generally  of  a pale-yellow 
hue;*the  crossed  fox,  fur  a sort  of  gray, 
muzzle  and  lower  parts  of  body  black,  a 
dark  cross  on  the  shoulders;  the  swift 
fox,  an  inhabitant  of  the  plains  which  lie 
at  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

FOX,  Charles  James,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  January  24,  1749, 
the  second  son  of  Henry,  first  Lord  Hol- 


Charles James  Fox. 


land.  His  father  procured  hirn  a seat  for 
the  borough  of  Midhurst  in  1768,  before 
he  was  of  legal  age,  and  in  1770  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  lords  of  the  ad- 
miralty, which  situation  he  resigned  in 
1772,  and  was  appointed  a commissioner 
of  the  treasury.  After  being  a supporter 
of  the  administration  for  six  years,  a 
quarrel  with  Lord  North  threw  Fox  into 
the  ranks  of  the  whig  opposition,  where 
along  with  Burke  and  others,  he  steadily 
assailed  the  government,  especially  on 
the  score  of  their  American  policy.  In 
1780  he  was  elected  member  for  West- 
minster, and  on  the  defeat  of  the  admin- 
istration of  Lord  North,  and  the  acces- 
sion of  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham, he  obtained  the  office  of  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  (1782).  But 
the  death  of  the  Marquis  of  Rocking- 
ham suddenly  divided  the  party;  and 
when  the  Earl  of  Shelburne  became  first 
lord  of  the  treasury  Fox  retired.  Soon 
after  a union  took  place  between  his 
friends  and  those  of  Lord  North,  known 
as  the  coalition  ministry,  which  was 
overthrown  by  Fox’s  famous  East  India 
Bill  (1783).  He  welcomed  the  breaking 
out  of  the  French  revolution,  and  his 
views  on  this  subject  led  to  a memorable 
break  between  him  and  his  old  friend 
Burke.  Fox  firmly  opposed  the  principle 
on  which  the  war  against  France  was  be- 
gun, and  strenuously  argued  for  peace 
on  every  occasion;  but  eventually,  on 
becoming  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  in 
1806,  acquiesced  in  its  propriety.  His 


health,  which  had  been  impaired  by  his 
loose  manner  of  living,  now  began 
rapidly  to  decline,  and  he  died  the  same 
year  a few  months  after  the  death  of 
Pitt,  his  great  rival,  in  1806. 

FOX,  George,  the  founder  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  was 
born  at  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire,  in 
1624.  He  was  educated  religiously,  and 
at  the  age  of  nineteen  pursuaded  himself 
that  he  had  received  a divine  command 
to  forsake  everything  else  and  devote 
himself  wholly  to  religion.  In  1648  he 
commenced  to  preach  publicly  at  Man- 
chester, gbout  which  time  he  also 
adopted  the  peculiar  language  and  man- 
ners of  Quakerism.  At  Derby  his  fol- 
lowers were  first  denominated  Quakers, 
in  consequence  of  their  trembling  mode 
of  delivery,  and  calls  on  the  magistracy 
to  tremble  before  the  Lord.  In  1655  he 
Was  sent  a prisoner  to  Cromwell,  who, 
having  ascertained  the  pacific  tendency 
of  his  doctrines,  had  him  set  at  liberty. 
In  1666  he  set  about  forming  the  people 
who  had  followed  his  doctrines  into  a 
formal  and  united  society.  In  1669  he 
married  the  widow  of  Judge  Fell,  and 
soon  after  went  to  America,  where  he 
remained  two  years,  which  he  employed 
in  making  proselytes.  On  his  return  he 
was  thrown  into  Worcester  jail,  but  was. 
quickly  released,  and  went  to  Holland.. 
In  1684  he  again  visited  the  continent. 
He  died  in  1691,  the  Society  of  Friends: 
having  by  that  time  acquired  consider- 
able importance.  The  writings  of  Fox 
have  been  collected  into  three  volumes. 

FOX,  George  L.,  American  comedian, 
born  in  Boston  in  1825.  Inspired  by  the 
famous  Ravel  Brothers  to  undertake 
pantomime,  he  created  a distinct  place 
for  that  kind  of  entertainment  in  New 
York  City,  first  at  the  National  Theater 
and  later  at  the  New  Bowery,  of  which 
he  was  for  a time  lessee  and  manager. 
His  principal  role  was  that  of  the  clown 
in  Humpty  Dumpty,  and  no  one  has 
ever  equaled  him  in  this  character, 
which  he  may  be  said  to  have  created. 
He  was  scarcely  less  distinguished  in  his 
burlesques  on  the  famous  tragedians  of 
the  day,  and  his  resemblance  to  Booth 
in  the  character  of  Hamlet  was  remark- 
able. He  died  in  1877. 

FOX-BATS,  or  FLYING-FOXES,  a 
name  given  to  the  fruit-eating  bats  in- 
cluding some  of  the  largest  oif  the  bat 
tribe,  one  species,  or  kalong,  attaining 
a length  of  from  4 to  5 feet  from  the  tip 
of  one  wing  to  the  tip  of  the  other. 
They  inhabit  Australia,  Java,  Sumatra, 
Borneo,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  continents 
of  Asia  and  Africa. 

FOXE,  John,  an  English  church  his- 
torian, born  in  1517.  He  studied  at 
Oxford,  and  was  elected  a fellow  of 
Magdalen  in  1543,  from  which  he  was 
expelled  two  years  later  on  a charge  of 
heresy.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  he 
was  restored  to  his  fellowship,  but  dur- 
ing Mary’s  reign  again  went  abroad,  to 
Basel.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he 
returned  to  his  native  country,  and  was 
received  in  the  most  friendly  manner  by 
his  former  pupil,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
who  settled  a pension  on  him.  Secretary 
Cecil  also  obtained  for  him  a prebend 
in  the  church  of  Salisbury ; and  he  might 
have  received  much  higher  preferment 
if  he  would  have  subscribed  to  the 


FOXGLOVE 


PRANCE 


articles  enforced  by  the  ecclesiastical 
commissioners.  He  died  in  1587.  His 
principal  work  is  the  History  of  the  Acts 
and  Monuments  of  the  Church,  com- 
monly called  Foxe’s  Book  of  Martyrs, 
first  printed  in  1563,  in  one  vol.  folio. 

FOX'GLOVE,  a common  plant  grow- 
ing on  banks,  pastures,  etc.,  in  hilly  and 
especially  subalpine  and  rocky  countries 
in  Europe.  Its  flowers  are  campanulate, 
and  somewhat  resembling  the  finger  of 
a glove.  It  is  one  of  the  most  stately 
and  beautiful  of  the  herbaceous  plants, 
and  one  that  has  great  reputation  as  a 
medicinal  plant,  being  employed  as  a 
sedative,  narcotic,  and  diuretic  in  dis- 
eases of  the  heart  and  in  dropsy.  Its 
medicinal  properties  are  due  to  the 
poisonous  substance  known  as  digitalin. 
A decoction  or  infusion  of  the  leaves  is 
what  is  generally  used. 

FOXHOUND,  a hound  for  chasing 
foxes,  a variety  of  hound  in  which  are 
combined,  in  the  highest  degree  of  ex- 
cellence, fleetness,  strength,  spirit,  fine 
scent,  perseverance,  and  subordination. 
The  foxhound  is  smaller  than  the  stag- 
hound,  its  average  height  being  from 
20  to  22  inches.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
mixed  breed  between  the  staghound  or 
the  bloodhound  and  the  greyhound.  It- 
is  commonly  of  a white  color  with  patches 
of  black  and  tan. 

FOX  INDIANS,  a tribe  of  N.  American 
Indians,  belonging  to  the  Algonquin 
family,  now  few  in  numbers  and  scat- 
tered over  the  Indian  territories,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  ■ 

FOXTAIL-GRASS,  the  common  name 
given  to  certain  grasses  because  of  the 
close  cylindrical  panicle  in  which  the 
spikelets  of  flowers  are  arranged,  having 
somewhat  the  shape  of  a fox’s  tail. 

FOY  (fwa),  Maximilian  Sebastian,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1775.  In  1812, 
after  the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Sala- 
manca, he  succeeded  Marmont  as  com- 
mander-in-chief,  and  showed  much 
talent  in  his  conduct  of  the  operations 
on  the  Douro.  He  was  present  in  all  the 
battles  of  the  Pyrenees,  until  he  was 
dangerously  wounded  at  Orthez  in  1814. 
In  1815  he  commanded  a division  at 
Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded  for 
the  fifteenth  time.  In  1819  he  was  ap- 
pointed division-inspector  of  infantry, 
and  the  same  year  was  elected  deputy 
by  the  department  of  the  Aisne.  He  at 
once  distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the 
leading  orators  of  the  liberal  party  and 
became  very  popular.  He  died  at  Paris, 
Nov.  28,  1825. 

FRA,  an  Italian  prefix,  derived  from 
th?  word  frate,  brother,  and  used  before 
the  names  of  monks;  for  instance.  Fra 
Giovanni,  brother  John. 

FRACTION,  in  arithmetic  and  algebra 
a combination  of  numbers  representing 
one  or  more  parts  of  a unit  or  integer, 
thus,  four-fifths  | is  a fraction  formea 
by  dividing  a unit  into  five  equal  Mrts, 
and  taking  one  part  four  times.  Frac- 
tions are  divided  into  vulgar  and  deci- 
mal. Vulgar  fractions  are  expressed  by 
two  numbers,  one  above  another,  with 
a line  between  them.  T^a^lower,  the 
denominator,  indicates  into  how  many 
equal  parts  the  unit  is  divided;  and  the 
number  above  the  line,  called  the  nu- 
merator, indicates  how  many  of  such 
parts  are  taken.  A proper  fraction  is  one 


whose  nuftierator  is  less  than  its  de- 
nominator. An  improper  fraction  is  one 
whose  numerator  is  not  less  than  its  de- 
nominator, as  f,  |.  A simple  fraction 
expresses  one  or  more  of  the  equal  parts 
into  which  the  unit  is  divided,  without 
reference  to  any  other  fraction.  A com- 
pound fraction  expresses  one  or  more 
of  the  equal  parts  into  which  another 
fraction  or  a mixed  number'is  divided. 
Compound  fractions  have  the  word  of 
interposed  between  the  simple  fractions 
of  which  they  are  composed:  thus,  ^ of 
6 of  1 1 is  a compound  fraction.  A com- 
plex fraction  is  that  which  has  a 
fraction  either  in  its  numerator  or  de- 
nominator, or  in  each  of  them:  thus, 

and  ~ are  complex  fractions.  In 

decimal  fractions  the  denominator  is  10, 
or  some  number  produced  by  the  con- 
tinued multiplication  of  10  as  a factor, 
such  as  100,  1000,  etc.;  hence,  there  is 
no  necessity  for  writing  the  denominator, 
and  the  fraction  is  usually  expressed  by 
putting  a point  (')  before  the  numerator, 
as  ’5  = -nr ; ‘25  = '05  = The  ex- 

pression 542'461  would  thus  be  equiva- 
lent to  542^Vtr-  All  calculations  are 
much  simplified  in  decimal  fractions; 
yet,  simple  as  the  system  is,  it  was  dis- 
covered first  in  the  15th  century  by  the 
German  mathematician  Regiomontanus. 

FRACTURE,  in  mineralogy,  is  the 
manner  in  which  a mineral  breaks,  and 
by  which  its  texture  is  displayed;  thus, 
an  even  fracture  shows  a level  face  or 
plane  of  some  extent;  uneven,  when  the 
surface  is  rough  and  broken ; conchoidal, 
when  one  side  is  convex  and  the  other 
concave,  as  in  a molluscous  shell;  fib- 
rous, when  the  separated  edges  have 
the  appearance  of  torn  filaments ; hackly 
when  there  are  many  fine  sharp  points 
or  inequalities. 

FRACTURE,  in  surgery,  is  the  break- 
ing of  a bone.  It  is  simple  when  the 
bone  is  only  divided;  compound  when 
there  is  also  a wnund  of  the  soft  parts 
leading  down  to  the  fracture.  A fracture 
is  termed  transverse,  longitudinal,  or 
oblique  according  to  its  direction  in  re- 
garmto  the  axis  of  the  bone.  It  is  called 
complicated  if  accompanied  with  dis- 
location, severe  contusions,  wounded 
blood-vessels,  or  aaiy  disease  which  pre- 
vents the  union  of  the  bones  and  causes 
them  to  be  very  easily  broken.  A com- 
minuted fracture  is  one  in  which  the  bone 
is  broken  into  several  small  pieces  at  the 
point  of  rupture.  An  incomplete  frac- 
ture is  one  in  which  only  a portion  of  the 
fibers  is  broken.  A stellate  fracture  is  a 
series  of  fractures  radiating  from  a cen- 
ter. When  a fracture  takes  place  there  is 
a pouring  out  of  fluid — lymph — and 
cells  from  the  blood  contained  in  the 
vessels  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
bone  as  well  as  from  the  vessels  of  the 
soft  parts  which  have  also  suflered  in- 
jury. This  materigtl  surrounds  the 
broken  ends  of  the  bone,  becomes  firm 
and  consolidated,  and  in  about  three 
weeks  is  hard  enough  to  keep  the  broken 
ends  in  position.  A formation  of  bone 
then  takes  place  round  the  seat  of  frac- 
ture. This  is  called  “provisional  callus,” 
because,  when  the  process  of  repair  is 
completed  and  true  none  has  formed  to 
unite  the  break,  it  is  re-absorbed  and 
' gradually  disappears.  Meanwhile  a 


rocess  of  repair  goes  on  between  the 
roken  ends,  uniting  them  by  the  for- 
mation of  true  bone  or  “definite  callus.” 
The  more  quickly  and  accurately  after 
the  break  the  broken  ends  are  brought 
together,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the 
reunion.  The  treatment  of  a simple 
fractured  bone  is  to  bring  the  portions 
into  Hieir  natural  position  and  to  keep 
them 'permanently  thus,  by  splints  of 
some  kind,  pasteboard  splints,  for  in- 
stance, dipped  in  warm  water,  with 
wooden  ones  exterior  to  them;  or  a mass 
of  plaster  of  Paris  may  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 

FRA  DIAV'OLO,  a celebrated  Nea- 
politan brigand,  whose  real  name  was 
Michele  Pezza. 

FRANC,  a modern  French  silver  coin, 
but  the  name  was  given  to  two  ancient 
coins  in  France,  one  of  gold  and  the 
other  of  silver.  The  value  of  the  gold 
franc  was  about  $2.75.  The  silver  franc 
was  in  value  a third  of  the  gold  one. 
The  name  was  given  from  the  device 
Francorum  Rex,  king  of  the  French,  on 
the  coin  when  first  struck  by  King  John 
in  1360.  The  modern  French  franc  is  a 
silver  coin  and  money  of  account  which 
since  1795  has  formed  the  unit  of  the 
French  monetary  system,  and  has  also 
been  adopted  as  the  unit  of  currency  by 
Switzerland  and  Belgium.  It  is  of  the 
value  of  a little  over  19  cents,  and  is 
divided  into  100  centimes. 

FRANCE  (anciently  Gallia),  a mari- 
time country  in  .the  west  of  Europe, 
forming  one  of  its  most  .extensive,  most 
populous,  and  most  influential  states. 
It  is  situated  between  lat.  42°  20'  and 
51°  5'  n. ; and  Ion.  4°  50'  w.  and  7°  40'  e., 
and  is  bounded  n.  by  the  Straits  of 
Dover  and  the  English  Channel;  w.  by 
the  Atlantic  (Bay  of  Biscay) ; s.  bj^  Spain 
and  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  e.  and  n.e. 
by  Italy,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and 
Belgium.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  600  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  547  miles.  The  coast-line  on  the 
whole  is  considerably  diversified  by 
bays,  estuaries,  and  indentations  of 
various  kinds,  and  presents  numerous 
good  harbors  and  roadsteads.  It  is 
studded  by  a number  of  islands,  espe- 
cially in  the  northwest  and  west,  the 
largest  being  Oleron,  Re,  and  Belle  Isle. 
The  total  area  (including  Corsica)  is 
204,092  sq.  miles.  The  capital  is  Paris; 
the  other  large  towns  in  order  of  popula- 
tion are  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Bordeaux, 
Lille,  Toulouse,  Nantes,  St.  Etienne, 
Havre.  The  interior  is  traversed  from 
southwest  to  northeast  by  successive 
chains  of  mountains,  commencing  with 
the  Pyrenees  andincludingthe  Cevenness, 
the  Cote  d’Or,  the  Vosges,  and  others, 
forming  the  water-shed,  on  one  side  of 
which  the  rivers  flow  west  and  north  into 
the  Atlantic  and  the  English  Channel, 
on  the  other  side  east  and  south  into  the 
Mediterranean.  At  fits  northeastern  ex- 
tremity this  system  is  met  by  the  Alps 
and  the  Jura.  A considerable  portion 
of  the  "W^estern  Alps  belongs  to  south- 
eastern France.  Mt.  Blanc  itself  (15,781 
feet)  is  mostly  within  the  French  bound- 
ary-line. 

The  four  great  rivers  of  France  are  the 
Loire,  Seine,  Rhone,  and  Garonne. 
France  has  in  all  more  than  200  naviga- 
ble streams,  with  a total  navigation  of 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


about  6000  miles.  Lakes  are  few,  and 
individually  very  limited  in  extent. 

About  nine-tenths  of  the  soil  of  France 
is  productive,  and  about  one-half  of  the 
whole  is  under  the  plough.  The  cereals 
forming  the  great  bulk  of  the  cultivated 
crops  are  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley. 
The  crops  next  in  importance  to  these 
are  potatoes,  hemp,  rape,  corn,  buck- 
wheat, flax,  and  beet.  Beet  iS  culti- 
vated extensively  in  some  departments, 
especially  in  that  of  Nord,  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  tobacco  is  monopolized  by  the 
government,  and  is  confined  to  certain 
departments.  The  rearing  of  sheep  is 
successfuj,  much  of  the  wool  being 
scarcely  inferior  to  merino  wool.  Excel- 
lent horses  are  bred  in  the  north.  Asses 
and  mules,  generally  of  a superior  de- 
scription, are  much  employed.  The  culti^ 
vation  of  the  vine  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  French  agriculture, 
the  total  quantity  of  land  in  vineyards 
being  nearly  a twenty-fifth  of  the  whole 
surface.  In  everything  relating  to  this 
branch  of  culture  the  French  are  unsur- 
passed, the  various  first-class  wines 
which  they  produce  under  the  names  of 
Champagne,  Burgundy,  Bordeaux,  etc., 
being  universally  known.  It  is  estimated 
that  in  good  years  France  produces 
about  one-half  of  the  whole  wine  pro- 
duction of  the  world.  The  forests  occupy 
about  one-seventh  of  the  whole  territory. 

Coal-fields  are  numerous,  but  only 
two  are  really  of  importance — that  of 
Valenciennes  in  the  northeast,  forming 
the  western  extremity  of  the  great  Bel- 
gian coal-field  and  that  of  St.  Etienne 
in  the  southeast,  to  which  the  manufac- 
tures of  that  town,  Lyons,  and  the  sur- 
rounding districts,  are  indebted  for 
much  of  their  prosperity.  The  annual 
output  falls  so  far  short  of  the  annual 
consumption  that  a large  import  takes 
place  from  England  and  Belgium,  par- 
ticularly the  latter,  and  wood  continues 
to  be  the  common  fuel  throughout 
France,  at  least  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  coal-fields  contain  seams  of  iron, 
which  are  extensively  worked,  and  fur- 
nish ore  to  a great  number  of  blast- 
furnaces; but  of  the  total  amount  of  ore 
smelted  in  the  country  a considerable 
proportion  is  imported.  Other  metals, 
such  as  lead,  zinc,  manganese,  copper, 
etc.,  are  obtained  to  some  extent. 

The  most  important  of  the  textile 
manufactures  is  that  of  silk  goods,  hav- 
ing its  chief  seat  at  Lyons  and  the  sur- 
rounding districts.  It  employs  about 
two  millions  of  persons,  and  furnishes 
about  27  per  cent  in  value  of  the  whole 
of  the  manufactured  products  of  France. 
After  silk  goods,  though  at  a consider- 
able distance,  follow  cotton  stuffs  and 
woolens,  made  largely  at  Rheims, 
Amiens,  and  Beauvais;  carpets  at  Abbe- 
ville; tapestry  at  Paris  and  Beauvais; 
linens,  including  fine  muslin,  gauze,  and 
lace  at  St.  Quentin,  etc.  The  fisheries 
of  France  are  important.  Among  the 
principal  is  that  of  sardines  on  the  coast 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  that  of  herring, 
maclserel,  turbot,  salmon,  etc.,  in  the 
English  Channel  and  the  North  Sea; 
that  of  tunnies  and  anchovies  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Oyster- 
breeding is  largely  engaged  in,  the  most 
extensive  oyster-beds  being  those  of  the 


basin  of  Arcachon  in  the  department  of 
the  Gironde.  Cod-fishing  is  carried  on 
actively  near  the  Newfoundland  banks 
by  French  fishermen,  and  also  near  Ice- 
land. 

The  principal  towns  from  which  the 
internal  commerce  emanates  are  Paris, 
Lyons,  Rouen,  Lille,  St.  Etienne,  Tou- 
louse, Nimes,  Nancy,  Perpignan,  etc. 
The  shipping  of  France  is  much  below 
what  might  be  expected  from  the  de- 
velopment of  its  foreign  commerce, 
considerably  more  than  one-half  of 
which  is  carried  by  foreign  vessels.  The 
chief  seaports  are  Marseilles,  Havre, 
Bordeaux,  Rouen,  Nantes  (including  St. 
Nazaire),  Dunkirk,  Calais,  Boulogne, 
Dieppe. 

France  possesses  about  3000  miles  of 
canals  in  addition  to  about  6000  miles 
of  navigable  rivers,  giving  a total  equal 
to  about  1 mile  of  internal  navigation 
for  every  25  sq.  miles  of  surface.  The 
railways  in  France  partly  belong  to  the 
state,  and  partly  have  been  granted  to 
private  companies  for  a limited  period, 
at  the  end  of  which  they  become  state 
property. 

In  France  the  superintendence  of 
education  in  all  its  branches  is  expressly 
committed  to  a high  functionary,  who 
takes  the  name  of  minister  of  public 
instruction  and  fine  arts  and  is  assisted 
by  an  educational  council.  For  a good 
part  of  last  century  France  had  only  one 
university,  the  University  of  France, 
embracing  a series  of  “faculties”  (fac- 
ult^s),  which  were  a sort  of  university 
colleges,  each  specially  devoted  to  litera- 
ture, law,  medicine,  theology,  etc.  Since 
1896  a number  of  local  universities  have 
been  formed  from  these  institutions,  and 
university  education  is  now  in  a flourish- 
ing state.  Paris  has  again  a university 
of  her  own,  besides  the  College  de  France 
Ecole  Polytechniqne,  Ecole  Normale 
Sup^rieure,  etc.  Secondary  instruction, 
either  classical  or  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial, is  given  by  the  state  in  the 
lyceums,  by  the  communes  in  the  com- 
munal colleges,  or  in  certain  other  sem- 
inaries. There  are  about  90  lyceums, 
enerally  situated  in  the  capitals  of  the 
epartments;  and  over  250  colleges. 
Primary  instruction  is  given  in  the  com- 
munal schools,  being  compulsory  and 
free.  Religion,  in  like  manner,  is  taken 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  state,  and 
falls  within  the  province  of  the  minister 
of  justice  and  religion.  The  state  de- 
clares that  the  Roman  Catholic  is  the 
religion  of  the  majority,  but  does  not 
establish  it ; on  the  contrary,  it  places  all 
forms  of  religion  which  have  more  than 
100,000  adherents,  and  are  not  obviously 
subversive  of  social  order,  on  an  equal 
footing,  and  professes  to  deal  impar- 
tially with  all  by  paying  salaries  t^neir 
ministers.  The  Protestants  are  less  than 
2 Mr  cent  of  the  whole  population. 

By  law  military  service  is  declared  to 
be  obligatory  upon  every  Frenchman 
who  is  not  pronounced  unfit  for  military 
service.  They  have  to  serve  first  in  the 
army  (arm6e  active)  for  three  years,  then 
in  the  reserve  of  the  regular  army  for 
ten  years,  next  in  the  territorial  army 
for  six  years,  and  finally  in  the  reserve 
of  the  territorial  army  for  six  years. 
This  gives  France  on  a peace  footing  an 
army  of  more  than  half  a million,  which 


on  a war  footing  may  be  brought  up  to 
two  and  a half  millions  or  even  more. 
The  French  navy  is  manned  partly  by 
conscription  and  partly  by  voluntary 
enrollment.  In  1906  the  effective  war 
navy  of  France  included  47  heavy  fight- 
ing vessels,  of  which,  however,  some, 
though  launched,  were  not  completed; 
13  more  were  for  coast  service,  besides 
other  iron-clads  still  on  the  stocks. 

France  has  now  a larger  revenue,  ex- 
penditure' and  public  debt  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  The  esti- 
mate gross  revenue  for  1900  was  fully 
$710,000,000,  the  expenditure  being 
estimated  at  somewhat  less.  The  con- 
solidated debts  amount  to  about  $4,400,- 
000,000,  while  the  total  national  debt 
is  at  least  about  $6,000,000,000.  The 
chief  items  of  revenue  are  excise  and 
customs,  registration,  stamps,  posts  and 
telegraphs,  and  other  state  monopolies, 
land  tax,  licenses,  etc. 

France  has  been  a republic  since  the 
overthrow  of  the  second  empire  on  the 
4th  of  September,  1870.  The  details  of 
the  constitution  were  fixed  by  a law 
passed  by  a national  assembly  which 
met  in  1871  (some  revision  having  been 
made  since).  This  law  places  the  legis- 
lative authority  in  the  hands  of  an 
assembly  composed  of  two  chambers, 
the  chamber  of  deputies  and  the  senate. 
The  chamber  of  deputies  is  elected  by 
universal  suffrage,  each  arrondissement 
forming  an  electoral  district  and  a mem- 
ber being  elected  for  every  70,000- in- 
habitants. The  deputies  are  elected  for 
four  years.  The  senate  consists  of  300 
members,  of  whom  75  were  originally 
elected  for  life ; but  in  1884  it  was  enacted 
that  vacancies  among  the  Kfe  senator- 
ships  should  be  filled  up  as  they  arose 
by  the  election  of  ordinary  nine-year 
senators.  Both  senators  and  deputies 
are  paid.  The  head  of  the  government  is 
a president,  elected  for  seven  years  by 
ar  majority  of  votes  of  the  members  of 
the  two  chambers  sitting  as  one.  The 
president  is  assisted  by  a body  of  min- 
isters appointed  by  him.  He  has  the 
appointment  to  all  civil  and  military 
po^ts.  The  total  French  dominions  are 
as  follows: 

Area  in 

Sq.  Miles.  Population. 


France 207,054  39,118,995 

Colonies 4,089,076  53,412,340 


4,296,130  92,531,335 

France  or  Gaul,  at  the  earliest  period 
of  which  anything  is  known  with  regard 
to  it,  was  inhabited  by  a number  of 
independent  tribes,  who  appear  to  have 
been  mainly  Celtic  in  race.  In  the  lal;J;er 
half  of  the  2d  century  b.c.  the  Romans 
conquered  a portion  of  the  southeast, 
and  under  Julius  Caesar  the  conquest  of 
all  Gaul  was  completed  between  58  and 
51  B.c.  In  the  decline  -of  the  Roman 
empire  German  tribes  began  to  make 
settlements  in  Gaul,  and  it  was  from  a 
body  of  these  knovm  as  Franks,  that  the 
name  France  arose.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  5th  century  Clovis,  chief  of  the 
Salian  Franks,  made  himself  master 
not  only  of  almost  all  France,  but  also 
of  a considerable  territory  east  of  the 
Rhine.  The  dynasty  which  he  founded 
was  called  the  Merovingian  from  his 
grandfather  Merovaeus.  Clovis  died  in 
511,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  be  divided 
among  his  four  sons  as  subsequent  rulers 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


often  did.  It  was  reunited  under  Charle- 
magne who  became  sole  ruler,  and  con- 
quered and  organized  an  empire  which 
extended  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  west 
to  the  Elbe,  the  Saale,  and  the  Bohe- 
mian mount  ainsontheeast,andembraced 
also  three-fourths  of  Italy,  and  Spain  as 
far  as  the  Ebro.  By  Pope  Leo  III.  on 
Cliristmas-day  in  the  year  800  he  .was 
crowned  in  the  name  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple as  Emperor  of  the  West.  There  was 
as  yet,  strictly  speaking,  no  kingdom 
of  France,  and  Charlemagne  was  a Ger- 
man, and  his  empire  a German  one. 

To  Charlemagne  succeeded  in  814 
his  youngest  son  Louis  the  Pious.  At 
the  death  of  the  latter  the-empire,  after 
many  disputes,  was  eventually  divided 
by  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  among  his 
sons,  the  portion  nearly  corresponding 
to  modern  France  falling  to  Charles  the 
Bald.  From  this  time  the  separate  his- 
tory of  France  properly  begins,  the  his- 
tory of  the  French  language  being  also 
traced  to  the  same  period,  while  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  old  Frankish  ter- 
ritory remained  German.  The  growth  of 
French  nationality^’  began  when  upon 
the  extinction  of  the  descendants  of 
Charlemagne,  Hugh  Capet,  Duke  of 
France,  who  had  held  the  real  power 
Under  three  weak  kings,  mounted  the 
throne  himself,  and  thus  became  the 
founder  of  the  Capetian  dynasty.  The 
Capets  made  Paris  the  center  of  the  ^n^ew 
monarchy. 

The  first  task  of  the  Capetian  line  was 
to  reconquer  the  royal  prerogatives  from 
the  great  vahsals,  but  for  two  centuries 
Xvithout  much  success  until  the  growth 
cf  the  towns  ultimately  became  the 
allies  of  the  kings,  as  a powerful  check 
on  the  nobles. 

Early  in  the  13th  century  the  stability 
of  the  French  throne  was  endangered 
by  the  influence  acquired  in  France  by 
Henry  II.  of  England,  who  possessed, 
either  by  inheritance  or  by  his  marriage 
with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  the  whole  of 
the  west  of  France  except  Brittany. 
Louis  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Philip 
Augustus  (Philip  II.),  who  did  much  to 
strengthen  the  throne,  depriving  John, 
king  of  England,  of  Normandy,  Maine, 
and  Anjou.  Under  the  wise  rule  of  Louis 
lx.  (St.  Louis),  and  his  successors,  the  . 
influence  of  the  crown  went  on  increas- 
ing until  the  outbreak  of  the  wars  with 
England. 

The  first  branch  of  the  Capetian  line 
of  kings  became  extinct  on  the  death  of 
Charles  IV.,  the  last  of  the  sons  of  Philip 
the  Fair,  the  Salic  law  excluding  the 
female  succession.  The  crown  thus  fell 
to  Philip  of  Valois,  a cousin,  who  be- 
came king  as  Philip  VI.  His  claim  was 
'disputed  by  Edward  III.  of  England, 
and  the  dispute  led  to  a series  of  wars 
wdiich  were  not  terminated  for  more 
than  120  jmars.  During  this  period 
France  was  reduced  to  a state  of  great 
misery.  Edward  compelled  the  surrender 
to  England  of  some  of  the  finest  prov- 
inces of  France  while  the  country  was 
plundered  bj'’  banditti,  and  the  Jac- 
querie, a mass  of  furious  peasants  (about 
1358),  satiated  their  spirit  of  vengeance 
in  the  blood  of  the  nobility.  Charles  (V.) 
the  Wise,  who  succeeded  John  the  Good 
in  1364,  and  his  constable,  Du  Guesclin, 
were  able  to  restore  order  only  for  a 


short  time,  although  during  this  reign 
the  English  were  driven  out  of  most  of 
their  possessions  in  France.  Then  came 
the  loiTg  and  unhappy  reign  of  the  im- 
becile Charles  VI.  (1380-1422),  during 
which  Henry  V.  of  England,  reviving 
the  claim  of  Edward  III.  to  tlie  French 
crown,  invaded  France,  won  the  field 
of  Agincourt,  and  obtained  a treaty 
(Treaty  of  Troye.s),  acknowledged  the 
right  of  succession  to  the  French  crown 
in  himself  and  his  descendants.  Charles 
VI.  died  in  1422,  a few  weeks  after 
Henry  V.,  whose  son,  Henry  VI.,  a 
minor,  was  acknowledged  as  king  by  the 
greater  part  of  France.  But  between 
1429  and  1431  the  peasant  girl  Joan  of 
Arc  animated  the  French  in  the  cause 
of  the  dauphin,  who  was  crowned  as 
Charles  VII.  at  Rheims  in  1429,  and  in 
1451  the  English  had  lost  all  their  pos- 
sessions in  France,  e.xcept  Calais,  which 
remained  English  until  1558.  The 
slircwdness  and  perfidy  of  Louis  XI. 
(1461-83)  completed  the  subjugation 
of  the  great  barons,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  absolute  monarcJiy. 

During  the  next  hundred  years  five 
wars  were  fought  with  Germany  in 
efforts  to  obtain  territory. 

The  foundation  of  the  national  debt, 
the  weight  of  which  broke  down  the 
throne  250  years  later,  was  laid  in  this 
period.  Intrigue  and  corruption  gave  to 
women  a dangerous  infiuenee  at  court 
and  in  public  affairs,  lender  the  admin- 
istration of  Charles  IX.  (conducted  dur- 
ing his  minority  by  the  queen-mother, 
Catherine  de’  Medici)  France  was  inun- 
dated with  the  blood  of  Frenchmen,  shed 
in  the  religious  wars  from  1562.  (See 
Bartholomew’s  Day.)  When  Henry  IV. 
went  over  to  the  Catholic  Church  (1593), 
having  hitherto  been  the  leader  of  the 
Huguenots. 

Henry  IV.  was  the  first  Fi-enclj  sov- 
ereigrTof  the  house  of  Bourbon,  which  in- 
herited its  right  to  the  throne  from  a son 
of  Louis  IX.  He  united  to  the  crown  of 
France  the  Kingdom  of  Navarre,  which 

he  had  inherited  from ^his  mother, 

Jeanne  d’  Albret.  In  his  government  of 
France  Henry  showed  all  the  qualities 
of  a great  prince  and  a great  statesman, 
establishing  religious  toleration  (Edict  of 
Nantes,  1598),  and  laboring  diligently 
for  the  welfare  of  the  state.  He  was  cut 
off  prematurely  by  the  dagger  of  the 
fanatic  Ravaillac  (1610).  During  the 
minority  of  Henry’s  son  Louis  XIII.  the 
French  policy  was  at  first  wavering, 
until  the  prime-minister.  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, gave  it  a steady  direction.  Here- 
stored  the  French  influence  in  Italy  and 
the  Netherlands,  humbled  Austria  and 
Spain,  and  created  that  domestic  gov- 
ernment which  rendered  the  government 
completely  absolute. 

Louis  'XIII.  died  in  1643,  the  year 
after  his  great  minister,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Louis  XIV.,  “le  Grand  Monar- 
que.”  Th«  policy  of  Richelieu  was  carried 
on  by  Mazarin  during  the  regency  of 
Anne  of  Austria,  while  Louis  was  still  a 
minor,  and  also  for  some  years  after 
Louis  was  declared  of  age.  During  his 
ministry  France  obtained  by  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  (1648)  the  German  prov- 
ince of  Alsace,  and  by  the  Peace  of  the 
Pyrenees  (1659)  parts  of  Flanders, 
Hainault,  Luxembourg,  etc.  After  the 


death  of  Mazarin,  in  1661,  Louis  XIV. 
took  the  government  into  his  own  hands, 
and  ruled  with  an  absolute  sway.  The 
period  which  immediately  followed  was 
the  most  brilliant  in  French  history.  His 
ministers,  especially  Colbert,  and  his 
generals,  Tu^enne,  Conde,  Luxembourg, 
and  the  military  engineer  Vauban,  were 
alike  the  greatest  of  their  tim^  the 
writers  of  the  period  were  also  ^nong 
the  greatest  in  French  literature.  But 
Louis  XIV.’s  love  of  costly  display  upon 
which  his  reputation  was  built  involved 
France  in  hopeless  debt.  Louis  XV.,  the 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  succeeded  in 
1715  at  the  age  of  five  years.  During  his 
minority  the  regent,  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
squandered  the  revenues  in  the  most 
reckless  manner,  and  matters  went  from 
bad  to  worse.  In  1723  Louis  was  de- 
clared of  age,  but  he  sank  under  the 
pernicious  influences  of  mistresses  like 
Pompadour  and  DuBarry  into  extrav- 
agance and  license,  entering  into  use- 
less and  costly  wars  and  contracting 
enormous  debts.  During  this  reign  two 
important  acquisitions  were  made  by 
France,  namely,  Lorraine  and  Corsica. 

With  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI.  began 
the  period  of  expiation  for  the  misdeeds 
of  the  French  monarchy  and  aristocracy, 
which  had  culminated  in  the  preceding 
reign.  The  king  himself  was  amiable, 
but  the  whole  administration  was  rotten, 
and  the  court,  the  nobility,  and  the 
clergy  formed  only  one  privileged  class 
united  to  oppress  the  people.  The  good 
intentions  of  Louis  were  neutralized  by 
a total  lack  of  energy  and  firmness.  The 
first  difficulty  of  his  government,  and 
the  rock  on  which  it  split,  was  the  hope- 
less condition  of  the  public  finances,  with 
which  Turgot,  Necker,  Calonne,  Brienne, 
and  again  Necker  tried  in  vain  succes- 
sively to  grapple.  Finding  all  ordinary 
measures  unavailing,  Necker  demanded 
the  ’convocation  of  the  states  general 
which  had  not  met  since  1614.  They 
met  on  5th  May,  1789,  but  as  the  nobles 
and  clergy  refused  to  conduct  business 
so  as  to  give  the  third  estate  its  due 
weight,  the  deputies  of  this  body  as- 
sumed the  title  of  the  national  constit- 
uent assembly,  and  resolved  not  to 
separate  till  they  had  given  a constitu- 
tion to  France.  The  clergy  and  nobles 
then  yielded,  and  the  fusion  of  the 
three  orders  was  effected  on  27th  June. 
Foreign  troops,  however,  were  broright 
to  Paris  to  overawe  the  assembly.  'The 
people  now  demanded  arms,  which  the 
municipality  of  Paris  supplied;  and  on 
14th  July  .the  bastille  was  captured  and 
destroyed.  Lafayette  was  made  eom- 
mander  of  the  newly -established  national 
guard.  On  the  4th  August  a decisive  step 
was  taken  by  the  abolition  of  all  feudal 
rights  and  privileges.  On  5th  October 
Versailles  was  attacked  by  the  mob,  and 
the  royal  family,  virtually  prisoners, 
were  taken  to  Paris  by  Lafayette.  The 
king  tried  to  obtain  the  aid  of  some  of 
the  foreign  powers  again.st  his  subjects, 
and  made  his  escape  from  Paeis  (20th 
June,  1791);  but  he  was  recognizecl,  ar- 
rested at  Varennes,  and  brought  back  to 
Paris.  On  30th  September,  1791,  the  as- 
sembly brought  its  work  to  a finish  by 
producing  a new  constitution,  which  was 
sworn  to  by  the  king  on  14th  September, 
and  he  was  then  reinstated  in  his  func- 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


tions.  This  constitution  deprived  the 
king  of  arbitrary  powers,  provided 
liberty  of  worship  and  freedom  of  the 
press,  of  commerce,  of  industry ; abolished 
the  laws  of  primogeniture  and  entail  as 
Well  as  titles. 

The  constitutionalists  and  monarch- 
ists invoked  the  aid  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  on 
behalf  of  the  king,  and  on  20th 
April  1792,  the  assembly  declared  war 
against  Austria  and  Prussia.  Reverses 
to  the  French  troops  caused  a popular 
rising,  and  the  Tuileries,  after  a sanguin- 
ary combat,  were  taken  and  sacked. 
The  king  took  refuge  with  his  family  in 
the  assembly,  which  was  invaded  and 
compelled  to  submit  to  the  dictation  of 
the  victors  by  assenting  to  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  king  and  the  convocation  of  a 
national  convention  in  place  of  the 
assembly.  The  first  act  of  the  conven- 
tion was  to  proclaim  a republic.  On  3d 
December  the  King  was  cited  to  appear 
before  it.  On  20th  January,  1793,  he  was 
sentenced  to  death  within  twenty-four 
hours,  and  on  the  21st  the  sentence  was 
executed.  This  violent  inauguration  of 
the  republic  shocked  public  opinion 
throughout  Europe,  and  armed  the 
neutral  states  against  France.  England, 
Holland,  and  Spain  joined  the  coalition. 
The  extremists  in  France  only  grew  more 
violent,  a committee  of  public  safety, 
with  sovereign  authority,  was  appointed 
6th  April,  and  the  reign  of  terror  begun. 
Christianity  was  formally  abolished. 
Risings  against  the  government  were 
put  down  with  frightful  bloodshed.  Both 
in  Paris  and  the  provinces  executions 
and  massacres  of  persons  alleged  to  be 
disaffected  to  the  party  in  power  fol- 
lowed each  other  daily.  The  queen  was 
executed  on  16th  October,  1793,  the 
Girondists  on  31st  October,  and  others 
followed,  Robespierre  being  foremost  in 
the  bloody  work.  At  length  the  I'eign  of 
terror  came  to  an  end  by  the  execution 
of  Robespierre  and  his  associates  on 
27th  and  28th  July,  1794.  Danton  and 
Hebert,  Iris  old  allies,  he  had  already 
brought  to  the  scaffold.  Marat,  another 
man  of  blood,  had  perished  by  assassin- 
ation. The  campaigns  of  1793  and  1794 
resulted  favorably  to  the  French  arms, 
which  were  carried  beyond  the  French 
frontier,  Belgium  and  Holland  being 
occupied,  Spain  being  invaded,  and  the 
allies  being  driven  across  the  Rhine. 
These  successes  induced  Prussia  and 
Spain  to  sign  the  treaties  of  Basel  (1795), 
recognizing  the  French  republic.  In 
1795  the  convention  gave  the  republic  a 
new  constitution,  a chamber  of  five 
hundred  to  propose  the  laws,  a cham- 
ber of  ancients  to  approve  them,  an 
executive  of  five  members,  one  elected 
annually,  called  the  directory.  The 
convention  was  dissolved  on  26th 
October. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  now  began  to  be 
the  most  prominent  figure  in  French 
affairs;  ana  after  his  brilliant  successes 
against  the  Austrians  both  north  and 
south  of  the  Alps,  and  his  empty  con- 
quest of  Egypt,  it  was  not  difficult  for 
him  to  overthrow  the  government  of  the 
directory.  This  was  accomplished  in  the 
revolution  18th  and  19th  Brumaire  (9th 
10th  Nov.  1799),  the  directory  being 
succeeded  by  the  consulate,  Bonaparte 


himself  being  appointed  first  consul 
for  ten  years.  The  other  two  consuls, 
were  to  have  consultative  voices  only. 
Under  the  appearance  of  a republic  it 
really  established  a military  monarchy. 
The  history  of  France  for  the  next  six- 
teen years  is  virtually  the  history  of 
Napoleon.  (See  Napoleon  I.)  In  1802  the 
constitution,  was  amended,  Napoleon 
being  made  consul  for  life,  with  the  right 
of  appointing  his  successor.  In  1804  he 
was  proclaimed  emperor,  this  being  con- 
firmed by  a popular  vote  of  3,572,329 
against  2569.  The  emperor  was^  conse- 
crated at  Paris  by  Pius  VII.,  and  in  1805 
he  was  also  crowned  King  of  Italy.  For 
years  the  continental  powers,  whether 
singly  or  in  coalitions,  were  unable  to 
stand  against  him,  though  at  sea  France 
was  powerless  after  the  great  victory  by 
Nelson  over  the  French  and  Spanish 
fleets  at  Trafalgar  (1805).  The  Austrians 
and  Russians  were  decisively  defeated 
at  the  great  battle  of  Austerlitz  (1805); 
the  king  of  Naples  was  dethroned  and 
Napoleon’s  brother  Joseph  put  in  his 
.place  ;,another  brother,  Louis,  was  made 
king  of  Holland;  while  for  a third, 
Jerome,  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia  was 
erected  (1807).  Prussia  was  conquered 
and  compelled  to  accede  to  humiliating 
terms.  Napoleon  was  at  the  height  of 
his  power  in  1810  and  1811,  his  empire 
then  extending  from  Denmark  to 
Naples,  with  capitals  at  Paris,  Rome, 
and  Amsterdam.  By  this  time,  however, 
the  Peninsular  War  (see  that  art.)  had 
broken  out,  which  was  one  immediate 
cause  of  his  downfall,  the  disastrous  Rus- 
sian campaign  of  1812  being  another. 
The  latter  cost  the  French  the  loss  of  at 
least  300,000  men.  A new  coalition  was 
now  formed  against  Napoleon,  and  in 
1813  he  was  disastrously  defeated  by  the 
allies  at  the  great  battle  of  Leipzig.  By 
this  time  the  Peninsular  war  was  drawing 
to  a close  and  Southern  France  w'as 
actually  invaded  by  Wellington.  The 
allies  entered  Paris  on  31st  March,  1814. 
Napoleon  abdicated  and  received  the 
island  of  Elba  as  a sovereign  principality. 
Louis  XVIII.  was  proclaimed  king  of 
France,  and  concluded  the  Peace  of 
Paris  (May  30,  1814).  A congress  of  the 
great  powers  had  assembled  at  Vienna 
to  adjust  European  affairs,  when  it  was 
announced  that  Napoleon  had  left  Elba, 
returned  to  Paris  20th  March,  1 81 5,  and 
been  reinstated  without  resistance  in  his 
former  authority.  The  allied  sovereigns 
proclaimed  him  an  outlaw  and  renewed 
their  alliance  against  him.  Napoleon, 
anticipating  the  attack,  crossed  the 
Sambre  with  130,000  men,  defeated 
Bliicher  in  the  battle  of  Ligny,  and 
marched  against  the  British,  who  had 
taken  position  at  Waterloo.  Here  on  the 
18th  was  fought  the  decisive  battle 
which  resulted  in  his  final  overthrow. 
On  the  7th  July  the  allies  entered  Paris 
for  the  second  time.  Napoleon  surren- 
dered to  the  British  and  was  sent  to  St. 
Helena  as  a prisoner. 

Louis  XVIII.  at  first  governed  with 
the  support  of  a moderate  liberal  party, 
but  the  reactionary  spirit  of  the  aristo- 
crats and  returned  toigres  soon  got  the 
upper  hand;  the  country,  however,  was 
prosperous.  Louisbavingdied  16thSept., 
1824,  his  brother,  Charles  X.,  succeeded. 
On  26th  July,  1830,  the  Polignac  minis- 


try, strongly  reactionary  in  its  tendencies 
published  ordinances  suppressing  the 
liberty  of  the  press  and  creating  a new 
system  of  elections.  The  result  was  an 
insurrection  during  the  three  days  27th- 
29th  July  by  which  Charles  X.  was  over- 
thrown and  Louis  Philippe  of  Orleans 
proclaimed  king  9th  August,  1830.  On 
24th  February,  1848,  another  revolution 
drove  Louis  Philippe  into  exile.  A re- 
public was  proclaimed,  and  on  the  10th 
December,  1848,  Louis  Napoleon, 
nephew  of  the  great  Napoleon  was  elected 
president  for  four  years.  The  president, 
having  gained  the  favor  of  the  army, 
dissolved  the  legislative  assembly  on  2d 
December,  1851,  put  down  all  resistance 
in  blood,  and  by  this  coup  d’etat  estab- 
lished himself  as  president  for  the 
term  of  ten  years.  On  2d  December  the 
president  W'as  declared  emperor  under 
the  title  of  Napoleon  III.  (a  son  of  the 
great  Napoleon  being  counted  as  Na- 
poleon II.).  In  1870  the  uneasiness  of 
Napoleon  and  the  French  at  the  steady 
aggrandizement  of  Prussia  broke  out 
into  flame  at  the  offer  of  the  Spanish 
crown  to  a prince  of  the  house  of  Hohen- 
zollern.  France,  not  satisfied  with  the 
renunciation  of  the  German  prince,  de- 
manded a guarantee  from  the  King  of 
Prussia  that  the  candidature  should 
never  be  resumed.  This  being  refused 
France  declared  war.  (See  Franco-Ger- 
man War.)  One  French  army  was  driven 
back  by  the  Germans  and  cooped  up  in 
Metz,  another  was  pushed  northward  to 
Sedan,  and  so  hemmed  in  that  it  had  to 
surrender  wuth  the  emperor  at  its  head. 
On  the  news  of  this  disaster  reaching 
Paris  the  republic  was  proclaimed. 
After  an  almost  uninterrupted  series  of 
victories  the  Germans  became  masters 
of  the  French  capital  (28th  January, 
1871),  and  the  war  ended  in  France  giv- 
ing up  to  Germany  Alsace  and  a part  of 
Lorraine,  and  paying  a war  indemnity  of 
five  milliards  of  francs  (81,000,000, 000). 
Meanw’hile  civil  w'ar  had  broken  out  in 
Paris,  which  was  suppressed  with  great 
difficulty.  (See  Commune  of  Paris.)  The 
assembly  elected  in  1871  for  the  ratifi- 
cation of  peace  wuth  Germany  found  it 
expedient  to  continue  their  functions, 
Thiers  being  the  head  of  the  adminis- 
tration. In  1873  the  Thiers  administra- 
tion was  overthrown  and  replaced  by  one 
under  Marshal  MacMahon.  In  1875  a 
republican  constitution  was  drawn  up. 
In  1879  MacMahon  resigned  his  presi- 
dentship before  its  legal  expiry,  being 
succeeded  by  Jules  Grevy,  who  has  been 
followed  by  Carnot  (assassinated),  Casi- 
mir-Perier,  Faure,  Loubet,  and  Fallieres. 
In  1881  France bccupiod  Tunis  as  a pro- 
tectorate ; the  same  year  Primary  Ed- 
ucation was  made  compulsory  and  free; 
in  1883-84  France  took  possession  of 
Tonquin,  which  led  to  hostilities 
with  China.  In  18^5  Madagascar  was 
reduced  to  submission.  In  19i'6  .\rmand 
Fallieres  was  elected  president.  In 
1997  the  law  separating  church  and 
state  went  into  effect. 

.A.t  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by 
Julius  Caesar,  the  principal  dialects 
spoken  by  the  inhabitants  w’ere  Celtic. 
After  the  conejuest  of  Gaul  by  the  Ro- 
mans all  these  dialects  were  gradually 
supplanted  by  Latin  except  in  Brittany, 
where  a Celtic  dialect  still  holds  its 


FRANX'E,  L'  l.E  OF 


FRANCIS  I 


ground.  The  popular  Latin  of  Gaul  of 
course  exhibited  considerable  differences 
from  the  written  and  classic  Latin.  It 
was  still  further  modified  by  the  in- 
fluences introduced  with  the  Teutonic 
invasions.  The  half-barbarous  con- 
cjuerors,  incapable  of  mastering  the  in- 
tricacy of  Latin  inflections,  mostly  neg- 
lected them,  using  only  the  simpler 
forms.  They  enlarged  the  vocabulary 
also  by  a number  of  words,  mostly  terms 
of  war,  hunting,  etc.  After  the  Franks 
in  Gaul  had  abandoned  their  native 
language  and  adopted  this  new  Romanic 
or  Romance  tongue  it  became  known  as 
the  Francisca,  later  Franceis,  from 
which  the  modern  term  French  is  de- 
rived. At  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury Francis  I.  prohibited  the  use  of 
Latin  at  court  and  in  the  public  tribunal 
and  formally  recognized  the  French 
as  the  national  language.  As  one  of 
the  Romance  languages  it  is  a sister 
tongue  of  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Por- 
tuguese. 

French  literature  proper  begins  in  the 
11th  century  with  the  epic  or  narrative 
poems  known  as  chansons  de  geste,  and 
produced  by  the  class  of  poets  known  as 
'TrouvSres.  These  poems  belong  to 
northern  France  and  are  very  numerous. 
They  are  usually  divided  into  three 
heads:  poems  relating  to  French  history, 
in  particular  to  the  deeds  of  Charle- 
magne, his  descendants  and  vassals; 
poems  relating  to  Alexander  the  Great 
and  to  ancient  history ; and  poems  of  the 
Arthurian  cycle,  or  relating  to  King 
Arthur.  They  are  generally  written  in 
verses  of  ten  or  twelve  syllables,  and  are 
of  a length  varying  from  1000  to  20,000 
lines.  One  of  the  oldest  and  best  ex- 
amples of  the  first  class  is  the  Chanson 
de  Roland,  or  Song  of  Roland. 

An  abundant  lyric  poetry  flourished 
from  the  11th  century.  This  song  litera- 
ture is  manily  of  a sentimental  charac- 
ter, and  is  usually  divided  into  two 
classes,  romances  and  pastourrelles.  It  is 
in  general  remarkable  for  its  lyric  grace 
and  skilful  melody.  Fran5ois  Villon 
(1431-1500),  the  greatest  of  French 
poets  before  the  renaissance,  wrote  two 
compositions  known  as  the  Great  and  the 
Little  Testament,  interspersed  with 
lyrical  compositions  of  great  poetic 
merit. 

The  revival  of  classical  learning  and 
the  reformation  of  religion  exercised  a 
powerful  influence  on  the  French  litera- 
ture of  the  16th  century.  Rabelais  (1483 
-1553),  a profound  but  often  gross 
humorist,  and  Montaigne  (1533-92),  an 
interesting  and  instructive,  though 
somewhat  sceptical  essayist,  hold  the 
first  rank.  Calvin  (1509-64)  did  much 
by  his  great  theological  work.  Institution 
de  la  Religion  Chr6tienne,  to  mould 
French  prose  in  the  direction  of  strength 
and  gravity.  With  the  renaissance 
translations  of  the  classic  dramas  ap- 
peared, and  a member  of  the  PRiade, 
Jodelle  (1532-1573),  wrote  the  first  regu- 
lar tragedy  (CRopatre)  and  comedy 
(Eugene).  Pierre  Corneille  (1606-84), 
with  his  Cid,  Cinna,  Horace,  and  Poly- 
eucte,  brought  French  tragedy  to  a 
.depree  of  grandeur  which  it  has  not  sur-, 
passed.  Of  seventeenth  century  prose 
writers  Pascal  (1628-62)  is  vigorous  and 
eatjrical  in  his  Lettres  Proyinciales;  pro- 


I found,  if  sometimes  mystical,  in  his 
Pensdes.  Descartes  (1596-1650)  showed 
in  his  Discours  sur  la  Mdthode  that  the 
language  was  mow  equal  to  the  highest 
philosophical  subjects. 

The  age  of  Louis  XIV.  is  known  as 
the  golden  age  of  French  literature.  Be- 
sides Corneille,  Racine  (1639-99)  repre- 
sented the  tragic  drama,  and  Molidre 
(1639-93)  brought  his  great  masterpieces 
of  comedy  on  the  stage.  The  “inimit- 
able” La  Fontaine  (1621-95)  wrought 
his  Contes  and  the  most  charming  col- 
lections of  fables.  For  his  critical  in- 
fluence, if  not  for  his  poetry,  Boileau 
(1636-1711)  holds  a prominent  place.  In 
eloquence  the  sermons  and  funeral  ora- 
tions of  Bossuet,  Bourdaloue,  and  Mas- 
sillon take  the  first  rank.  Bossuet  is  also 
celebrated  as  a controversialist  and  theo- 
logical historian.  Very  important,  too, 
are  the  memoir  and  maxim  writers  of 
this  time.  Among  the  former  are  the 
Cardinal  de  Retz,  Madame  de  Motteville, 
Madame  de  Sdvignd  (1627-96),  and 
others;  among  the  latter  are  La  Roche- 
foucauld (1613-80),  St.  Evremond  (1613 
-1703),  La  Bruydre  (1639-99).  In  fiction 
Le  Sage,  who  also  wrote  comedies, 
produced  his  immortal  Gil  Bias  and 
the  Diable  Boiteux;  and  the  versatile 
Fontenelle  wrote  his  Dialogues  des 
Morts. 

Among  the  writers  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury Voltaire  holds  the  first  place.  He 
claims  notice  as  an  epic,  lyrical,  and 
comic  poet,  as  a tragic  and  comic  drama- 
tist, as  a historian,  novelist,  and  philoso- 
pher, and  he  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
republic  cf  letters  for  more  than  half  a 
century.  Next  to  him  in  immediate  in- 
fluence on  the  age  stands  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  (1712-78),  a writer  of  an  elo- 
quent sentimental  vein,  well  represented 
by  his  Nouvelle  H^loise  and  his. famous 
Confessions.  His  new  theories  of  politics 
and  education  are  embodied  in  his  Con- 
trat  Sociafand  Emile.  Buffon  (1707-88) 
devoted  himself  to  the  production  of 
his  immense  natural  history.  Montes- 
quieu (1689-1755),  commencing  with 
the  Lettres  Persanes,  a satire  on  French 
manners  and  government,  followed  with 
a historical  masterpiece,  Considerations 
sur  la  Grandeur  et  la  Decadence  des 
Remains,  and  finally  with  his  great 
work,  the'Esprit  des  Lois.  Diderot  (1713 
— 83),  a powerful  and  suggestive  writer 
in  many  departments,  and  D’Alembert 
(1717-83),  a great  geometrician,  founded 
the  Encyclopedie,  a vast  review  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  often  hostile  to  social 
order  and  always  to  religion.  Among  the 
writers  of  fiction  Bernardia  de  St.  Pierre 
(1737-1814),  author  of  Paul  et  Virginie, 
and  Prdvost  (1697-1763),  author  of 
Manon  Lescaut,  are  particularly  worthy 
of  mention ; while  dramatic  literature 
was  enriched  by  the  Barbier  de  Seville 
and  the  Mariage  de  Figaro  of  Beau- 
marchais (1732-99). 

Neither  the  revolution  nor  the  first 
empire  was  favorable  to  literature. 
Chateaubriand  (1768-1848)  and  Madame 
de  Stael  (1766-1817)  gave  a new  turn  to 
the  taste  and  sentiment  of  the  time,  the 
former  in  his  G6nie  du  Christianisme  and 
his  Martyres,  clothing  the  history  of 
Christianity  in  the  romantic  hues  of  his 
imagination,  the  latter  in  her  Corinne 
' and  De  I’Allemagne  introducing  the 


idealistic  spirit  and  thought  of  the  Ger- 
mans to  her  countrymen. 

Later  on  in  the  19th  century  the  influ- 
ence of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Shakespeare, 
Scott,  and  Byron  began  to  be  felt,  and  a 
new  school,  called  the  romantic,  as  op- 
posed to  the  old  or  classic,  sprung  up, 
headed  by  Victor  Hugo  (1802-85),  who 
promulgated  the  new  theories  in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  drama  of  Cromwell,  and  carried 
them  into  practice  in  numerous  poems. 
On  the  stage  the  dramas  of  Alexandre 
Dumas,  the  eldw  (1803-74L  though 
melodramatic  and  of  inferior  literary 
value,  served  as  rallying  points  for  the 
new  school.  To  English  readers,  how- 
ever, he  is  best  known  by  his  novels, 
Bdranger  (1780-1857),  the  greatest  of 
French  song-writers  may  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  neither  of  the  two 
schools,  nor  can  the  sparkling  comedies 
and  vaudevilles  of  Eugene  Scribe  be 
claimed  by  any  of  the  rival  parties. 

Among  novelists,  Balzac  (1799-1850), 
by  his  astonishing  series  of  works,  in- 
tended to  Cover  the  whole  ground  of 
human  life,  has  established  his  claim  to 
th^  first  place.  The  novels  of  George 
Sand  (Madame  Dudevant,  1804-76), 
perhaps  equally  famous,  have  gained  her 
the  reputation  of  possessing  the  finest 
style  of  any  contemporary  writer.  Low 
life  in  Paris  was  vividly  depicted  by 
Eugene  Sue  (1804-57)  in  the  Mysteres 
de  Paris,  etc.  Of  a healty  tone  are  the; 
novels  of  Fr^d^ric  Soulie,  Emile  Sou-- 
vestre,  and  Edmond  About  (1828-85), 
and  the  stories  of  the  two  novelists,  con- 
joined in  work  as  in  name,  Erckmann- 
Chatrian.  The  younger  Dumas,  Vic- 
torien  Sardou,  Octave  Feuillet,  Ernest 
Feydeau,  Henri  Murger,  Gustave  Flau- 
bert have  developed  a realistic  st3de  of 
novel  in  which  social  problems  are  treated 
with  more  candor  than  delicacy.  Of  late 
years  a school  of  writers  has  arisen  who 
strive  to  outdo  the  most  realistic  of^their 
predecessors.  The  chiefs  of  this  school 
are  Emile  Zola,  Emile  Gaboriau,  Victor 
Cherbuliez,  Alphonse  Daudet,  etc. 

FRANCE,  Isle  of,  an  ancient  province 
of  France,  so  called  because  it  was  origi- 
nally bounded  by  the  Seine,  Marne, 
Ourcq,  Aisne,  and  Oise,  and  formed  al- 
most an  island. 

FRANCESCA  DA  RIMINI  (fran-ches'’ 
ka  da  re'mi-ne),  an  Italian  lady,  daugh- 
ter of  Guido  da  Polenta,  lord  of  Ravenna 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. She  was  married  to  Lanciotto,  the 
deformed  son  of  the  lord  of  Rimini,  who, 
discovering  an  intimacy  between  her 
and  his  brother  Paolo,  put  them  both 
to  death.  The  story  forms  an  episode  in 
Dante’s  Inferno,  and  is  alluded  to  by 
Petrarch;  it  is  the  subject  of  a poem  by 
Leigh  Hunt  and  a tragedy  by  Silvio 
Pellico. 

FRANCHISE,  in  a general  and  legal 
sense,  a particular  privilege  or  right 
granted  by  a prince,  sovereign,  or  gov- 
ernment to  an  individual,  or  to  a number 
of  persons.  In  politics,  in  regard  to 
which  the  term  is  most  commonly  used, 
it  is  the  right  of  voting  for  representa- 
tives to  a legislative  assembly  or  to  a 
municipal  body. 

FRANCIS  I.,  King  of  France,  was 
born  1494;  died  1547.  He  ascended  the 
throne  in  1515,  having  succeeded  his. 
uncle,  Lqqig  XII. 


FRANCIS  II 


FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR 


FRANCIS  II.,  King  of  France,  son  of 
Henry  II.  and  Catherine  of  Medici,  born 
at  Fontainebleau  in  1544,  ascended  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  1559. 


The  year  previous  he  had  married  Mary 
Stuart,  only  child  of  James  V.,  king  of 
Scotland.  Francis,  died  in  December, 
1560. 

FRANCIS  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
eldest  son  of  Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine 
was  born  in  1708.  In  1736  he  married 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  VI.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
VI.  (1740)  he  was  declared  by  his  wife 
co-regent  of  all  the  hereditary  states  of 
Austria,  but  without  being  permitted 
to  take  any  part  in  the  administration. 
After  the  death  of  Charles  VII.  he  was 
elected  emperor  in  1745.  He  died  in 
1765. 

FRANCIS  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria 
(previously  Francis  II.,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many)," was  born  1768,  died  1835.  He 
was  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II. 
and  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles 
III., ’King  of  Spain.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1792.  France  having  been  de- 
clared an  empire  in  1804,  he  assumed 
the  title  of  hereditary  Emperor  of 
Austria;  and  on  the  establishment  of 
the  confederacy  of  the  Rhine  in  1806, 
he  renounced  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI,  ST.,  founder  of 
the  Franciscans,  was  born  at  Assisi,  in 
Umbria,  in  1182,  where  he  died  in  1226. 
In  youth  Francis  did  not  refrain  from 
the  pleasures  of  the  world;  but  after  a 
serious  illness  he  became  enthusiastically 
devout,  left  the  paternal  roof,  and  in 
1208  gave  himself  to  a life  of  the  most 
rigorous  poverty.  His  followers  were  at 
first  few,  but  when  they  reached  the 
number  of  eleven  he  formed  them  into 
a new  order,  made  a rule  for  them,  and 
got  it  sanctioned,  though  at  first  only 
verbally,  in  1210,  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
In  1212  he  received  from  the  Benedic- 
tines a church  in  the  vicinity  of  Assisi, 
which  now  became  the  home  of  the  order 
of  the  Francisans  or  Minorites.  Francis 
afterward  obtained  a bull  in  confirma- 
tion of  his  order,  from  Pope  Honorius 
III.  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
convert  the  Sultan  Meledin  he  returned 
to  Assisi,  when  the  qrder  of  St.  Clara 
was  founded  under  his  direction,  and  a 
third  order,  called  the  Tertiaries,  de- 
signed for  penitents  of  both  sexes.  He 


was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  in 
1228.  His  festival  is  on  the  4th  of  Octo- 
ber. See  Franciscans. 

FRANCIS  OF  PAULA,  ST.,  was  born 
in  1416  in  the  city  of  Paula,  in  Calabria; 
died  in  France  1507".  To  the  three  usual 
vows  of  a monk  Francis  added  a fourth, 
that  of  keeping  the  Lenten  fast  during 
the  whole  year.  Twelve  years  after  his 
death  he  was  canonized  by  Leo  X.,  and 
the  Catholic  Church  celebrates  his  festi- 
val April  2. 

FRANCIS,  Sir  Philip,  one  of  the  many 
political  writers  to  whom  the  authorship 
of  Junius’  Letters  has  been  ascribed, 
was  born  in  Ireland  in  1740,  died  1818. 
See  Junius. 

FRANCIS'CANS,  are  the  members  of 
the  religious  order  established  by  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  about  1210.  They  are 
also  called  Minorites,  or  Fratres  Minores 
(“lesser  friars”),  which  was  the  name 
given  them  by  their  founder  in  token  of 
humility,  and  sometimes  Gray  Friars, 
from  the  color  of  their  garment.  The 
order  was  distinguished  by  vows  of 
absolute  poverty  and  a renunciation  of 
the  pleasures  of  the  world,  and  was  in- 
tended to  serve  the  church  by  its  care 
of  the  religious  state  of  the  people.  The 
rule  of  the  order  destined  them  to  beg 
and  to  preach.  The  popes  granted  them 
extensive  privileges,  and  they  had  an 
evil  repute  as  spies,  frequenting'  the 
courts  of  princes  and  the  houses  of 
noblemen,  gentry,  etc.  Early  in  the 


Franciscan  or  gray  friar  (conventual), 

15th  century  they  split  up  into  two 
branches,  the  Conventuals  and  the 
Observants  or  Sabotiers.  The  former 
went  barefooted,  wore  a long  gray  cas- 
sock and  cloak  and  hood  of  large  dimen- 
sions, covering  the  breast  and  back,  and 
a knotted  girdle.  The  Observants  wore 
wooden  sandals,  a cassock,  a narrow 
hood,  a short  cloak  with  a wooden  clasp, 
and  a brown  robe.  In  France  the  mem- 
bers of  the  order  not  belonging  to  any 
particular  sect  are  called  Cordeliers, 
from  the  cord  which  they  tie  about 
them.  The  Capuchins,  so  called  from 
the  peculiar  kind  of  hood  or  cowl 
(capuce)  which  they  wear,  originated  in 
a reform  introduced  among  the  Obser- 
vantists  by  Matthew  of  Baschi  in  the 
early  part  of  the  16th  century. 

St.  Francis  himself  collected  nuns  in 
1209.  St.  Clara  was  their  prioress j hence 


they  were  called  the  nuns  of  St.  Clara. 
The  nuns  were  also  divided  into 
branches,  according  to  the  severity  of 
their  rules.  The  Urb^anists  were  a branch 
founded  by  Pope  Urban  IV.;  they 
revered  St.  Isabelle,  daughter  of  Louis 
VIII.  of  France,  as  their  mother.  St. 
Francis  also  founded  in  1221  a third 
order,  of  both  sexes,  for  persons  who 
did  not  wish  to  take  the  monastic  vows, 
and  yet  desired  to  a^pt  a few  of  the 
easier  observances.  They  are  called 
Tertiarians  or  Tertiarise,  and  were  very 
numerous  in  the  13th  century.  From 
them  proceeded  several  heretical  fra- 
ternities, as  the  Fraticelli  and  Beghards. 
The  whole  number  of  Franciscans  and 
Capuchins  in  the  18th  century  amounted 
to  115,000  monks,  in  7000  convents. 
At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  in 
England  there  were  sixty-five  houses  of 
the  Franciscans.  The  order  has  given 
five  popes  and  more  than  fifty  cardinals 
to  the  church. 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I.,  Emperor  of 
Austria  and  King  of  Hungary  and  Bo- 
hemia, born  1830;  succeeded  his  uncle, 
Ferdinand,  who  abdicated  in  1849. 

FRANCIS- JOSEPH  LAND.  See  Franz- 
Joseph  Land. 

FRANCIS  XAVIER,  ST.  See  Xavier. 

FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR  OF  1870-71. 

The  immediate  occasion  of  this  war  was 
an  offer  made  in  June,  1870,  by  General 
Prim,  then  at  the  head  of  affairs  in 
Spain,  of  the  crown  of  that  country  to 
Leopold  of  Hohenzollern,  a prince  be- 
longing to  the  reigning  house  of  Prussia. 
The  government  of  Napoleon  III.  de- 
manded of  the  King  of  Prussia  that  he 
should  forbid  the  candidature  of  the 
prince,  and  when  the  prince  voluntarily 
retired  from  his  candidature,  still  in- 
sisted that  this  renunciation  should  be 
formally  made  by  the  king,  and  a guar- 
antee given  that  the  candidature  would 
not  be  revived.  This  demand  was  re- 
fused, and  a formal  declaration  of  war 
by  France  against  Prussia  was  received 
by  Count  Bismarck,  the  Chancellor  of  the 
North  German  confederation,  on  the 
19th  of  July.  The  French  were  the  first 
in  getting  their  troops  to  the  frontier; 
but  it  soon  became  manifest  that  in- 
stead of  being  in  a complete  state  of 
readiness  for  war,  as  the  minister  of  war 
had  declared,  the  French  army  was  de- 
fective in  almost  everything  essential  to 
the  equipment  of  an  army. 

In  Germany  everything  formed  a 
complete  contrast  to  this  state  of  mat- 
ters. Each  section  of  the  arm^  was  com- 
pletely organized  in  the  head-quarters 
of  the  district  which  it  occujJied  in  time 
of  peace,  and  was  only  sent  to  the  fron- 
tiers after  being  furnished  with  every 
thing  it  required.  In  addition  to  this 
Prussia,  against  which  country  alone 
the  war  had  been  declared,  was  not  only 
joined,  according  do  treaty,  by  all  the 
states  of  the  Nortn  German  confedera- 
tion, but  also  by  those  of  the  south,  upon 
whose  neutrality,  perhaps  even  upon 
whose  alliance,  Napoleon  and  the  French 
had  counted. 

The  German  forces  w’ere'diJ-uded  about 
the  end  of  July  into  three  armies,  one  of 
which,  known  as  the  first  army,  had  its 
headquarters  at  Treves  under  General 
Steinmetz;  another  of  which,  known  as 
the  second  army,  occupied  the  Bavarian 


FRANK 


Palatinate  under  Prince  Frederick 
Charles;  while  the  third  army,  under 
the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia,  was  sta- 
tioned in  Northern  Baden.  The  com- 
mander- in-chief  of  the  whole  forces  was 
King  William  of  Prussia,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  a staff  of  general  officers,  with 
Von  Moltke  at  their  head.  The  French 
army,  under  Napoleon  himself,  had  its 
head-quarters  at  Metz,  and  two  ad- 
vanced divisions  were  stationed  on  the 
borders  of  France  and  Gennany,  the  one 
in  the  north  on  the  Saar,  under  General 
Frossard,  the  other  further  south  at 
Weissenburg,  under  General  Douay. 
The  victories  of  the  third  army,  under 
the  crown-prince,  at  Weissenburg  (Aug. 
4)  and  at  Worth  (Aug.  6),  and  of  the  first 
and  second  armies  at  Forbach  (Aug.  6), 
put  the  French  army  in  retreat  along  its 
whole  line,  the  southern  half  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Nancy,  and  the  northern  of  Metz. 
The  northern  army  under  Bazaine  was 
overtaken  by  those  of  Steinmetz  and 
Frederick  Charles  on  the  14th  of  August, 
when  an  engagement  at  Courcelles  took 
place,  in  which  the  Germans  were  again 
victorious.  This  was  followed  by  the 
battles  of  Vionville,  or  Mars-la-Tour,  and 
Gravelotte,  the  result  being  that  Bazaine 
withdrew  his  army  under  the  protection 
of  the  fortifications  of  Metz,  which  was 
now  surrounded  by  an  army  under 
the  command  of  Prince  Frederick 
Charles. 

Meantime  the  Crown-prince  of  Prussia 
had  advanced  as  far  as  Nancy,  and  was 
there  awaiting  the  result  of  the  battles 
around  Metz.  He  had  still  the  army  of 
MacMahon  to  deal  with,  which  had  now 
reached  ChMons,  where  it  had  been  re- 
organized and  strengthened  to  such  a de- 
gree that  the  army  of  the  Crown-prince 
was  no  longer  able  to  cope  with  it  un- 
aided. Accordingly,  out  of  three  corps 
d’armSe  belonging  to  the  second  army, 
a new  army  was  formed,  which  was 
afterward  called  the  army  of  the  Meuse, 
and  was  placed  under  the  Crown-prince 
of  Saxony.  About  the  20th  of  August 
these  two  armies  set  out  on  parallel 
routes  in  the  direction  of  ChMons  in 
order  to  engage  the  army  of  MacMahon, 
which  it  was  expected  would  now  re- 
treat on  Paris.  Instead  of  this,  however 
Count  Palikao,  minister  of  war  at  Paris, 
issued  an  order  to  Marshal  MacMahon 
to  strike  northward  to  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier that  he  might  thence  make  a de- 
scent upon  Metz  and  relieve  Bazaine. 
On  the  27th  of  August,  at  Buzancy,  an 
advanced  detachment  of  cavalry  belong- 
ing to  the  army  of  the  MeU^e  dispersed 
a body  of  French  chasseurs,  and  on  the 
days  immediately  succeeding  a number 
of  engagements  and  strategic  move- 
ments ensued,  the  result  of  which  was 
that  on  the  1st  of  September  the  army 
of  MacMahon  was  surrounded  at  Sedan 
by  a force  of  overwhelmingly  greater 
numbers,  and  on  the  following  day  both 
army  and  fortress  surrendered  by  capitu- 
lation. On  this  occasion  50  generals, 
5000  other  officers,  and  84,000  private 
soldiers  became  prisoners  of  war.  Among 
these  was  Napoleon  III.,  who  was 
unexpectedly  found  to  have  been 
present  with  the  army  of  MacMahon. 
He  had  a personal  interview  on  the  day 
after  the  battle  with  King  William  of 
Prussia,  who  assigned  to  him  Wilhelms- 


hohe,  near  Cassel,  as  his  place  of  resi- 
dence during  his  captivity. 

One  of  the  first  consequences  of  this 
defeat  was  an  outburst  of  rage  on  the 
part  of  the  Parisians  against  the  Napo- 
leon dynasty,  which  on  the  4th  of  Sep- 
tember was  declared  by  Gambetta  and 
some  members  of  the  corps  legislatif 
belonging  to  the  left  to  be  dethroned. 
The  same  members  then  proclaimed  a 
republic.  A government  of  national  de- 
fense was  formed,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  placed  General  Trochu.  Meantime 
France  had  no  availalble  army  which 
was  strong  enough  to  stand  its  ground 
for  an  instant  before  the  German  armies 
that  were  now  enabled  to  continue  their 
march  upon  Paris.  The  investment  of 
the  city  was  completed  on  the  19th  of 
September.  It  was  not  till  about  the  be- 
ginning of  October  that  the  French  were 
able  to  organize  a new  army  after  the 
loss  of  that  of  MacMahon,  and  by  the 
beginning  of  November  the  war  in  the 
open  field  had  been  resumed  in  different 
centers;  but  the  capitulation  of  Metz 
with  the  army  of  Bazaine  (28th  Oct.), 
and  that  of  Strasburg  (27th  Sept.),  had 
set  free  -for  further  operations  large 
numbers  of  German  troops,  and  the 
utmost  efforts  of  the  French  could  not 
relieve  Paris. 

The  city  had  held  out  for  a much 
longer  period  than  even  the  most  san- 
guine on  the  side  of  the  French  had  at 
first  expected  that  it  would' be  able  to  do. 
Sallies  were  made  at  intervals  by  the 
garrison  (Oct.  12,  Oct.  21,  etc.;  Jan.  13, 
14,  15,  and  19),  but  not  sufficiently  often 
or  in  sufficient  strength  to  have  any 
decisive  effect.  On  the  failure  of  the  last 
sally,  which  took  place  on  the  west  side 
from  Mont  Val4rien  on  the  19th  of  Jan., 
it  was  seen  that  a capitulation  was  in- 
evitable. On  21st  Feo.  M.  Thiers,  head 
of  the  executive,  arrived  at  Versailles 
along  with  a diplomatic  commission, 
and  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed 
at  Versailles  on  the  26th  of  Feb.,  and 
accepted  by  the  assembly  at  Bordeaux 
on  the  1st  of  March.  The  principal  terms 
were  the  following: — 1.  That  France 
should  cede  to  Germany  one-fifth  part  of 
Lorraine,  including  Metz,  together  with 
the  whole  of  Alsace  except  Belfort  and 
the  surrounding  district.  2.  That  France 
should  pay  to  Germany  a war  indemnity 
of  five  milliards  of  francs  ($1,000,000,- 
000).  3.  That  certain  departments  of 
France  should  remain  in  the  occupation 
of  the  Germans,  and  should  not  be  fully 
evacuated  until  after  the  payment  of  the 
whole  indemnity.  The  definitive  treaty 
of  peace,  which  was  signed  at  Frankfort 
on  the  10th  of  May,  and  ratified  on  the 
21st,  confirmed  in  all  essential  particu- 
lars the  preliminaries  of  Versailles.  The 
last  installment  of  the  war  indemnity 
was  pai3  on  the  5th  of  Sept.,  1873,  and 
France  completely  evacuated  by  the 
Germans  on  the  13th  of  the  same  month. 

FRANK,  the  signature;  of  a person 
possessing  the  privilege  of  sending  let- 
ters free  of  postage. 

FRANKFORT,  capital  of  Kentucky 
and  of  Franklin  county,  situated  in  a 
group  of  hills  on  both  sides  of  the  Ken- 
tucky river,  and  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  and  the  Kentucky  Midland 
Railway;  65  miles  by  rail  e.  of  Louis- 
ville. Pop.  11,400. 


FRANKINCENSE 


man,  Frankfurt  am  Main),  a town  of 
Prussia,  in  the  province  of  Hessen- 
Nassau,  20  miles  n.e.  of  Mayence(Mainz) 
It  was  formerly  a free  town  of  the  em- 
pire, and  down  to  1866  one  of  the' free 
towns  of  the  German  confederation  and 
the  seat  of  the  diet.  Frankfort  is  rich  in 
collections  connected  with  literature  and 
art,  and  in  establishments  intended  to 
promote  them.  The  chief  of  these  are 


The  Opera  House,  Frankfort. 

the  Historical  Museum  (in  the  Archive- 
building), the  Stadel  Art  Institute  (in 
Sachsenbausen),  containing  a fine  gallery 
of  pictures  and  other  collections;  the 
Senckenberg  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory; the  town  library,  possessing  over 
150,000  printed  volumes.  There  is  also 
a Zoological  garden  and  the  Palm  gar- 
den, both  favorite  places  of  resort.  The 
manufactures  comprise  chemicals,  orna- 
mental articles  of  metal,  sewing-ma- 
chines, straw  hats,  soap,  perfumery, 
beer,  etc.  Pop.  288,489. 

FRANKFORT  - ON  - THE  - ODER,  a 
town  of  Prussia,  province  of  Branden- 
burg, on  the  Oder,  52  miles  e.s.e.  Berlin. 
Pop.  61,852. 

FRANK'INCENSE,  a name  given  to  the 
oleoresinous  exudations  from  different 
species  of  conifers.  American  frankin- 
cense is  got  as  a soft,  yellow,  resinous 
solid,  with  a characteristic  turpentine 
odor.  Another  kind  is  exuded  by  the 
spruce  fir,  and  forms  a soft  solid,  the 
color  of  which  varies  from  white  to 
violet  red.  From  this  Burgundy  pitch  is 
prepared  by  melting  in  water  and  strain- 
ing through  a cloth.  The  frankincense 


State  Capitol,  Frankfort,  Ky. 

employed  in  religious  ceremonies  (called 
also  incense)  is  a gum-resin  obtained 
from  a tree  somewhat  resembling  the 
sumach  and  inhabiting  the  mountains 
of  India.  It  comes  to  us  in  semi-trans- 
parent yellowish  tears,  or  sometimes  in 
masses,  of  specific  gravity,  1’22,  it  pos- 
sesses a bitter  and  nauseous  taste,  and  is 
capable  of  being  pulverized.  When 
burned  it  exhales  a strong  aromatic 
odor,  on  which  account  it  was  much 
employed  in  the  ancient  temples,  and  still 
continues  to  be  used  in  Catholic 
churches. 


FRANKLIN 


FRANKLIN,  Benjamin,  American 
writer  and  statesman,  born  at  Boston 
Jan.  17,  1706,  died  at  Philadelphia  April 
17,  1790.  He  was  placed  with  his 
brother,  a printer,  to  serve  an  appren- 
ticeship to  that  trade,  and  his  brother 
having  started  the  New  England  Cour- 
ant,  Franklin  secretly  wrote  some  pieces 
for  it,  and  had  the  satisfaction  to  find 
them  well  received.  But,  on  this  coming 
to  the  knowledge  of  his  brother,  he  was 
severely  lectured  for  his  presumption, 
and  treated  with  great  harshness.  Soon 
after  he  quitted  his  brother’s  employ- 
ment, and  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
started  for  Philadelphia,  where  he  ob- 


Benjamin  Franklin. 

tained  employment  as  a compositor. 
Here  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Sir 
William  Keith,  the  governor  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, who  induced  him  to  go  to  Eng- 
land for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  type 
to  establish  himself  in  business..  He  got 
work  in  a printing-office,  and  after  a 
residence  of  eighteen  months  in  London 
returned  to  Philadelphia.  Here  he  re- 
turned to  his  trade,  and  in  a short  time 
formed  an  establishment  in  connection 
with  a person  who  supplied  the  neces- 
sary capital.  They  printed  a newspaper, 
which  was  managed  with  much  ability, 
and  acquired  Franklin  much  reputation. 
By  his  exertions  a public  library,  im- 
proved systems  of  education,  a scheme 
of  insurance,  etc.,  were  established  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1732  he  published  his 
Poor  Richard’s  Almanack,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  issued  till  1757.  Being  in 
Boston  in  1746  he  saw,  for  the  first 
time,  some  experiments  in  electricity, 
which  led  him  to  begin  those  investiga- 
tions which  resulted  in  the  identification 
of  lightning  and  electricity,  and  the  in- 
vention of  the  lightning  conductor.  As 
member  of  the  provincial  assembly  of 
Pennsylvania  he  showed  himself  very 
active,  and  he  was  sent  out  (in  1757)  to 
the  mother  country  as  the  agent  of  the 
rovince.  His  reputation  was  now  such, 
oth  at  home  and  abroad,  that  he  was 
appointed  agent  of  the  provinces  of 
Massachusetts,  Maryland,  and  Georgia. 
Oxford  and  Edinburgh  conferred  on 
him  their  highest  academical  degrees, 
and  the  Royal  Society  elected  him  a 
feilow.  In  1762  he  returned  to  America 


but  was  again  appointed  agent  in  1764, 
and  brought  to  England  a remonstrance 
against  the  project  of  taxing  the  colonies. 
He  opposed  the  stamp-act,  and  in  1774 
presented  to  the  king  the  petition  of  the 
first  American  congress.  On  bis  return 
he  was  elected  member  of  the  congress, 
and  exerted  all  his  influence  in  favor  of 
the  declaration  of  independence.  In 
1776  he  was  sent  to  France  as  commis- 
sioner plenipotentiary,  to  obtain  sup- 
plies from  that  court.  After  the  surren- 
der of  Burgoyne  he  concluded  with 
France  the  first  treaty  of  the  new  states 
with  a foregin  power  (1778),  and  was 
subsequently  named  one  of  the  com- 
missioners for  negotiating  the  peace 
with  the  mother  country.  On  his  return 
to  his  native  country  he  filled  the  office 
of  president  of  Pennsylvania,  and  served 
as  a delegate  in  the  federal  convention 
in  1787,  and  approved  the  constitution 
then  formed.  His  works  include  his  un- 
finished autobiography,  and  a great 
number  of  political,  anti-slavery,  finan- 
cial, economic,  and  scientific  papers. 

FRANKLIN,  Sir  John,  an  English 
Arctic  voyager,  born  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1786,  died  near  Lancaster  Sound  1847. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  a midshipman 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Copenhagen  in  1801. 
He  afterward  accompanied  Captain 
Flinders  on  his  voyage  to  the  coast  of 
Australia  (1801-03).  Shortly  after  his 
return  he  was  appointed  to  the  Bellero- 
phon,  and  had  charge  of  her  signals 
during  the  battle  of  Trafalgar.  His  arc- 
tic work  began  in  1819,  when  he  con- 
ducted an  overland  expedition  for  the 
exploration  of  the  n.  coast  of  America 
from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Coppermine  river.  In  a second 
expedition  he  surveyed  the  coast  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine  west  to 
Point  Beechy,  thus  traversing  in  his 
two  expeditions  about  a third  of  the 
distance  between  The  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  In  1845  he  took  command  of 
the  Erebus  and  Terror  in  what  proved 
his  last  Polar  Expedition.  The  problem 
was  an  arctic  water-way  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific.  The  expedition 
was  seen  in  Melville  Bay  two  months 
later,  but  from  that  time  no  direct 
tidings  were  received  from  it.  Many 
expeditions  were  sent  in  search  of  him 
both  from  Britain  and  America,  but 
with  little  success.  At  last  an  expedition, 
sent  out  under  McClintock  in  1857,  dis- 
covered in  1859,  at  Point  Victory,  in 
King  William’s  Land,  a document 
which  had  been  deposited  in  a cairn 
thirteen  years  before,  and  gave  the 
latest  details  of  the  ill-fated  expedition. 
This  paper  stated  that  Sir  John  died 
11th  June,  1847;  that  the  ships  were 
abandoned  in  April,  1848;  and  that  the 
crews,  105  in  number,  had  started  for 
the  Great  Fish  River.  None  survived, 
but  many  relics  of  the  party  have  been 
recovered. 

FRANKS,  a Germanic  tribe  or  aggre- 
gate of  tribes  which  overthrew  the 
Roman  dominion  in  Gaul,  and  gave 
origin  to  the  name  France.  See  France. 

FRANZ-JOSEPH  LAND,  an  island 
group  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  north 
of  Nova  Zembla,  and  consisting  of  two 
chief  islands,  much  broke  up  by  fiords, 
and  a number  of  smaller  ones. 


FRATERNITIES 

FRASER  RIVER,  the  principal  river  -4 
in  British  Columbia,  rising  in  the  Rocky  '■ 
Mountains.  It  first  flows  northwest  for  . 
about  270  miles,  then  turns  south,  and  1 
after  a total  course  of  about  500  miles 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia.  Gold  is 
found  both  on  the  Fraser  and  its  affluent  , 
and  the  salmon  fisheries  are  important. 

Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Thompson, 
Quesnelle,  and  Stuart  rivers.  New  ’ 
Westminster,  Hope,  Yale,  and  Lyttou 
are  on  its  banks. 

FRATERNAL  ORGANIZATIONS,  Mem- 
bership of,  according  to  the  last  reports 
of  the  supreme  bodies  of  these  organi- 
zations, the  menibership  of  the  principal 
fraternal  organizations  in  the  U.  States  ; 
and  Canada  is  as  follows;  - 


Odd  Fellows 1,521,095  : 

Freemasons 1,229,001  ^ 

Modern  Woodmen  of  America 813,642:  ' 

Knights  of  Pythias 622,469 

Independent  Oi’der  of  Rechabites 488,000i  1 

Woodmen  of  the  World 450,211  ; 

Improved  Order  of  Red  Men 406,774  i 

Knights  of  the  Maccabees 325,000-  1 

Royal  Arcanum 283,011  < 

Ancient  Order  of  United  Workmen 275,603  1 

Independent  Order  of  Foresters 250,000  ■ 

Order  of  Eagles 250,000  -j 

Foresters  of  America 211,110  ; 

Benevolent  and  ProtectiveOrder  of  Elks  215,000  ■ 

Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians 210,000  3 

Knights  of  Columbus 166,494  ] 

Junior  Order  United  Amer.  Mechanics.  163,205  11 

Ladles  of  the  Maccabees. 145,293  i 

Knights  of  the  Modern  Maccabees 125,000  J 

Ladies  Catholic  Benevolent  Association  95,.500  - j 

Tribe  of  Ben  Hur 92,500  9 

Knights  and  Ladles  of  Honor 92,000  | 

Improved  Order  of  Hep tasophs 70,439  ^ 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Eagle 70,431  A 

National  Union 62,444  j 

Brotherhood  of  American  Yeomen 61,671 

Protected  Home  Circle 59,981  T 

Catholic  Mutual  Benefit  Association . , . 57,672  j 

Order  of  Gleaners 56,000  1 

Court  of  Honor 55,392  j 

Brith  Abraham  Order 53,853  -a 

New  England  Order  of  Protection 43,167  j 

Knights  of  Honor 40,126  j 

Ancient  Order  of  Foresters 38,898  l 


United  Order  of  American  Mechanics..  36,554 

Sons  of  Temperance 34,789 

Independent  Order  of  B’nal  B’rith 28,539 

Knights  of  Malta 27,000 

Smaller  organizations. 379,819 

Total 9,6.56,280 


FRATERNITIES,  the  name  given  to  j 
societies  of  students  at  American  col-  ^ 
leges  that  are  usually  secret  in  charac-  ^ 
ter.  They  are  called  also  Greek  letter  '' 
societies  because  the  Greek- alphabet  j 
usually  is  employed  to  designate  them,  ! 
being  known  by  the  letters  which  are  ; 
the  initials  of  their  name.  These  ’ 
societies  usually  are  national  in  charac-  ; 
ter  having  branches  at  various  colleges 
which  branches  are  known  as  chapters.  ; 
The  first  Greek  letter  society.  Phi  Beta  i 
Kappa,  was  organized  at  William  and  - 
Mary  (jollege  in  1776.  This  society  has 
become  an  honorary  scholarship  organi- 
zation somewhat  different  from  the 
more  mysterious  organizations  of  which  '■ 
the  first  was  Kappa  Alpha  established  £ 
at  Union  College  in  1825.  The  mysteries  2 
in  the  fraternity  are  rarely  very  great  * 
and  for  the  most  part  their  only  function  ^ 
is  to  cement  ties  of  friendship  among 
groups  of  students.  Often  the  fraterni-  : 
ties  have  club-houses  known  as  chapter. 
houses.  At  these  initiations  take  place  w 
which  are  more  or  less  formidable.  Until 
recent  years  there  was  some  oppositioa  k 
among  the  college  authorities  to  the  . 
fraternities  but  with  the  abolition  of 
some  abuses  in  initiation  the  attitude  t 
of  the  faculty  has  changed. 


FRATERNITY 


FREDERICK  II 


FRATERTHTY,  an  association  of  men 
who  unite  to  promote  their  common 
interest,  business  or  pleasure.  In  this 
wide  sense  it  includes  all  secret  and 
benevolent  societies,  the  monastic  and 
sacerdotal  congregations,  the  orders  of 
knighthood,  and  also  guilds,  trades- 
unions,  and  the  like.  In  a limited  sense 
it  is  applied  to  religious  societies  for 
pious  practices  and  benevolent  objects. 
They  were  often  formed  during  the  mid- 
dle ages,  from  a desire  of  imitating  the 
holy  orders.  Many  of  these  societies 
which  did  not  obtain  or  did  not  seek  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  church,  had  the 
appearance  of  separatists,  which  sub- 
jected them  to  the  charge  of  heresy. 
The  pious  fraternities  which  were  formed 
under  the  direction  of  the  church,  or 
were  acknowledged  by  it,  were  either 
required  by  their  rules  to  afford  assist- 
ance to  travelers,  to  the  unfortunate, 
the  distressed,  the  sick,  and  the  deserted, 
on  account  of  the  inefficiency  of  the 
police,  and  the  want  of  institutions  for 
the  poor,  or  to  perform  certian  acts  of 
penitence  and  devotion.  Of  this  descrip- 
tion were  the  Fratres  Pontifices,  a 
brotherhood  that  originated  in  Tuscany 
in  the  12th  century,  where  they  main- 
tained establishments  on  the  banks  of 
the  Arno,  to  enable  travelers  to  cross 
the  river,  and  to  succor  them  in  case  of 
distress.  A similar  society  was  after- 
ward formed  in  France,  where  they 
built  bridges  and  hospitals,  maintained 
ferries,  kept  the  roads  in  repair,  and  pro- 
vided for  the  security  of  the  highways. 
Similar  to  these  were  the  Knights  and 
Companions  of  the  Santa  Hermandad 
(or  Holy  Brotherhood)  ih  Spain;  the 
Familiars  and  Cross-bearers  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Spanish  Inquisition;  the 
'Calendar  Brothers  in  Germany  the 
Alexians  in  Germany,  Poland,  and  the 
Netherlands,  etc.  The  professed  object 
of  the  Alexians,  so  called  from  Alexius, 
their  parton  saint,  was  to  visit  the  sick 
and  imprisoned;  to  collect  alms  for  dis- 
tribution; to  console  criminals,  and  ac- 
company them  to  the  place  of  execution ; 
to  bury  the  dead,  and  to  cause  masses 
to  be  said  for  those  who  had  been  exe- 
cuted, or  for  persons  found  dead.  There 
were  also  Gray  Penitents  (an  old  frater- 
nity of  an  order  existing  as  early  as  1264 
in  Rome,  and  introduced  into  France 
under  Henry  HI.),  the  black  fraternities 
■of  Mercy  and  of  Death;  the  Red,  the 
Blue,  the  Green,  and  the  Violet  Peni- 
tents, so  called  from  the  color  of  their 
cowl;  the  divisions  of  each  were  known 
by  the  colors  of  the  girdle  or  mantle. 
The  fraternity  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  was 
founded  at  Rome  in  1548  by  Philip  de’ 
Neri  for  the  relief  of  pilgrims  and  the 
cured  dismissed  from  the  hospitals.  The 
Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Charity  are  an- 
other fraternity  whose  hospitals  are 
found  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  Catho- 
lic Christendom. 

FRAUD,  an  act  or  course  of  deception 
deliberately  practiced  with  the  view  of 
gaining  an  unlawful  or  unfair  advantage 
such  as  the  obtaining  of  goods  under 
false  pretenses,  and  the  like.  All  frauds 
or  attempts  to  defraud,  which  cannot 
be  guarded  against  by  common  prudence 
are  indictable  at  common  law,  and  pun- 
ishable arbitrarily  according  to  the 
heinousness  of  the  offense.  Every  species 


of  fraud  which  the  law  takes  cognizance 
of  renders  voidable  every  transaction 
into  which  it  enters  as  a constituent 
material  element.  Fraud  may  be  by 
false  representation,  concealment  of 
material  circumstances  that  ought  to  be 
revealed,  underhand  dealing,  and  by 
taking  advantage  of  imbecility  or  in- 
toxication. A constructive  fraud  in  law 
is  such  fraud  as  is  involved  in  an  act  or 
contract  which,  though  not  originating 
in  any  actual  evil  or  fraudulent  design, 
yet  has  a tendency  to  deceive  or  mislead 
other  persons,  or  to  violate  public  or 
private  confidence,  or  to  impair  or  injure 
the  public  interests. 

FRAUNHOFER  (froun'ho-fer),  Joseph 
von,  German  optician,  born  1787,  died 
1826.  He  ultimately  became  a partner 
in  a manufactory  of  optical  instruments 
at  Munich.  His  many  improvements  in 
glass-making,  in  optical  instruments, 
and  in  the  polishing  of  lenses,  have  been 
eclipsed  by  his  investigation  of  the  in- 
numerable dark  fixed  lines  in  the  solar 
spectrum,  known  as  Fraunhofer’s  Lines. 
The  importance  of  this  discovery  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  It  led  to  the 
invention  and  use  of  the  spectroscope, 
to  the  science  of  spectroscopy,  and  to  all 
our  present  knowledge  of  solar  and 
stellar  chemistry.  See  Spectrum,  Spec- 
troscope, etc. 

FRAZER,  Persifor,  American  geolo- 
gist, born  in  1844  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
He  was  an  aide  on  the  U.  States  coast 
survey  in  1862-63;  in  1869-70  he  was 
mineralogist  and  metallurgist  on  the  U. 
States  geological  survey;  in  1870-74 
was  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  from  1874 
to  1882  was  assistant  in  connection  with 
the  second  geological  survey  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Among  his  contributions  to 
science  may  be  cited  his  explanation  of 
the  cause  of  the  white  color  of  the  moon 
as  observed  by  day.  He  was  elected  to 
the  American  philosophical  society  in 
1871. 

FRED'ERIC,  Harold,  American  nov- 
elist, was  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  in  1856. 
His  first  important  story,  Seth’s 
Brother’s  Wife,  was  followed  by  The 
Lawton  Girl,  The  Return  of  the 
O’Mahoney;  The  Copperhead,  a story 
of  the  civil  war;  and  Marsena,  a collec- 
tion of  keenly  humorous  character 
stories.  The  Damnation  of  Theron  Ware, 
a brilliant  analysis  of  religious  life  min- 
utely realistic  in  detail,  clever  in  con- 
versation, and  unfailing  in  psychic  in- 
sight, was  immediately  recognized  by 
the  public  as  a human  document.  His 
last  works  are  Gloria3Iundi,  and  In  the 
Marketplace.  He  died  in  1898. 

FREDERICK,  a town  in  Maryland, 
44  miles  n.w.  of  Baltimore.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade,  chiefly  in  live  stock, 
grain,  flour,  tobacco,  wool,  etc.  During 
the  civil  war  it  was  occupied  on  different 
occasions  by  the  opposing  armies.  Pop. 
10,160. 

FREDERICK  I.,  Barbarossa  (or,  as 
the  Germans  call  him,  Rothbart,  both 
surnames  meaning  “Red-beard”),  Ger- 
man emperor,  son  of  Frederick,  duke  of 
Suabia,  was  born  1121,  and  received  the 
imperial  crown  in  1152  on  the  death  of 
his  uncle  the  Emperor  Conrad  III.  His 
principal  efforts  were  directed  to  the 
extension  and  confirmation  of  his  power 


in  Italy.  In  his  first  expedition  to  Italy 
in  1154  he  subdued  the  towns  of  North- 
ern Italy,  and  then  got  himself  Crowned 
at  Pa^■ia  with  the  iron  crown  of  Lom- 
bardy (April  115.5),  and  afterward  at 
Rome  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.  with  the  im- 
perial crown  (June  1155).  In  1188  he 
assumed  the  cross,  and  with  an  army 
of  150,000  men  and  several  thousand 
volunteers  set  out  for  Palestine.  After 
leading  his  army  with  success  into  Syria 
he  was  drowned  in  crossing  the  river 
Kalybadnus  (now  Selef),  1190. 

FREDERICK  II.,  Hohenstaufen, 
grandson  of  the  preceding,  born  1194, 
was  son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  and 
of  the  Norman  Princess  Constance, 
heiress  of  the  two  Sicilies.  He  remained 
under  the  guardianship  of  Innocent  III. 
till  1209,  when  he  took  upon  himself  the 
government  of  Lower  Italy  and  Sicily. 
The  imperial  crown  of  Germany  was  now 
worn  by  a rival,  Otho  IV.,  whose  de- 
feat at  the  battle  of  Bouvines  opened 
the  way  to  Frederick,  who  in  1215,  after 
pledging  himself  to  undertake  a crusade, 
was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  He 
died  in  the  midst  of  his  wars  in  12^0. 
He  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  ac- 
complished of  the  long  line  of  German 
emperors,  and  art,  literature,  commerce, 
and  agriculture  received  every  en- 
couragement at  his  hands.  He  himself 
was  a good  linguist,  was  acquainted 
with  natural  history,  was  a minnesinger, 
and  a writer  on  philosophy. 

FREDERICK  I.,  King  of  Piussia,  son 
of  the  great  elector,  born  1657,  died 
1713.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  in  1688;  became  King 
of  Prussia  in  1700;  and  was  all  his  reign 
bitterly  opposed  to  France. 

FREDERICK  II.,  King  of  Prussia, 
known  as  Frederick  the  Great,  born 
1712,  died  1786.  He  was  the  son  of 
Frederick  William  I.,  and  the  Princess 
Sophia  Dorothea  of  Hanover,  sister  of 
George  II.  of  England.  The  death  of  his 
father  raised  him  to  the  throne  in  1740. 
and  it  was  not  long  before  he  asserted 


the  claims  of  the  house  of  Brandenburg 
to  a part  of  Silesia  then  held  by  Maria 
Theresa.  But  his  proposals  being  re- 
jected, he  occupied  Lower  Silesia  in 
December,  1740,  defeated  the  Austrians 
near  Mollwitz,  and  at  Czaslau  (Chotusitz) 
and  the  first  Silesian  war  was  termi- 
nated by  the  peace  signed  at  Berlin 
July  28,  1742,  leaving  Frederick  in  pos- 
session of  Silesia.  Soon  the  second 
Silesian  war  broke  out,  the  result  of 
which  was  equally  favorable  for  Freder- 
ick. By  the  Peace  of  Dresden  (Decern- 


FREDERICK  III 


FREE  CONGREGATIONS 


ber  15,  1745)  he  retained  Silesia  and 
acknowledged  the  husband  of  Maria 
Theresa,  Francis  I.,  as  emperor.  During 
the  eleven  following  years  of  peace  Fred- 
erick devoted  himself  to  the  domestic 
administration,  to  the  improvement  of 
the  army,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the 
muses.  He  encouraged  agriculture,  the 
arts,  manufactures,  and  commerce,  re- 
formed the  law,  increased  the  revenues 
of  the  state,  and  perfected  the  organiza- 
tion of  his  army,  which  was  increased  to 
160,000  men.  Secret  information  of  an 
alliance  between  Austria,  Russia,  and 
Saxony  gave  him  reason  to  fear  an 
attack  and  the  loss  of  Silesia.  He  has- 
tened to  anticipate  his  enemies  by  the 
invasion  of  Saxony  (1756),  with  which 
the  Seven  Years’  war,  or  third  Silesian 
war,  commenced.  This  was  a far  more 
severe  struggle  than  either  of  the  former. 
In  it  Frederick  had  against  him  Austria, 
Russia,  France,  Sweden,  and  greater  part 
of  Germany,  though  Britain  and  some  of 
the  German  states  were  on  his  side.  He 
gained  victories  at  Prague,  Rossbach, 
Leuthen,  Zorndorf,  Torgau,  Freiberg, 
but  suffered  severe  defeats  in  the  battles 
of  Kollin,  Hochkirch  and  Kunersdorf. 
The  Peace  of  Hubertsburg  (1763)  ter- 
minated this  war,  Frederick  keeping 
Silesia  and  ceding  nothing.  On  the  par- 
tition of  Poland  in  1772  Frederick  re- 
ceived a large  accession  to  his  dominion. 
In  1778-79  he  frustrated  the  designs  of 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II.  on  Bavaria,  ana 
the  war  of  the  Bavarian  Succession  was 
terminated  without  a battle  by  the  Peace 
of  Teschen  (May  13,  1779).  Austria  con- 
sented to  the  union  of  the  principalities 
of  Franconia  with  Prussia,  and  renounced 
the  feudal  claims  of  Bohemia  to  those 
countries.  In  the  evening  of  his  active 
life  Frederick  concluded,  in  connection 
with  Saxony  and  Hanover,  the  confed- 
eration of  the  German  princes,  July  23, 
1785.  An  incurable  dropsy  hastened  the 
death  of  Frederick,  who  left  to  his 
nephew,  Frederick  William  II.,  a king- 
dom increased  by  29,000  square  miles, 
a well-filled  treasury,  an  army  of  200,000 
men,  great  credit  with  all  the  Euro- 
pean powers,  and  a state  distinguished 
for  population,  industry,  wealth  and 
science. 

FREDERICK  III.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, born  1831,  succeeded  William  I. 
March  9,  1888,  died  June  15,  1888.  In 
1858  he  married  the  Princess-Royal 
of  Britain,  eldest  daughter  of  Queen 
Victoria.  He  commanded  the  army  of 
the  Oder  in  the  war  with  Austria  (1866), 
and  in  the  Franco-German  war  he  led 
the  army  which  ultimately  forced  Na- 
poleon HI.  and  his  army  to  surrender 
at  Sedan.  He  also  took  a prominent  part 
in  the  siege  of  Paris.  In  1887  he  was 
attacked  by  a serious  throat  affection, 
which  turned  out  to  be  of  a cancerous 
character,  and  which  after  a series  of 
relapses  proved  fatal.  His  renown  as  a 
military  commander,  his  liberal  views, 
his  patience  and  fortitaide  under  trouble, 
and  his  many  lovable  qualities  made  him 
extremely  popular. 

FREDERICK  AUGUSTUS  II.  and  III., 
electors  of  Saxony  and  kings  of  Poland. 
See  Augustus. 

FREDERICK  CHARLES,  Prince, 
known  as  the  “Red  Prince,”  born  1828, 
died  1885.  He  was  nephew  to  the  Em- 


peror William  I.,  and  gained  fame  for 
his  military  exploits  during  the  wars  of 
1866  and  1870.  Sadowa,  Thionville, 
Gravelotte,  and  St.  Privat  are  among 
his  chief  achievements. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM,  of  Prus^a, 
generally  called  the  Great  Elector,  was 
born  in  1620,  died  1688.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  succeeded  his  father  as  elector 
of  Brandenburg.  He  must  be  considered 
as  the  founder  of  the  Prussian  greatness, 
and  as  the  creator  of  a military  spirit 
among  his  subjects.  His  reign  began 
when  the  unhappy  Thirty  Years’  war  was 
was  still  raging  in  Germany,  and  his  con- 
duct toward  both  parties  was  prudent. 
He  succeeded  in  freeing  Prussia  from 
feudal  subjection  to  Poland;  and  ob- 
tained possession  of  Pomerania  in  1648. 
In  1672  he  concluded  a treaty  with  the 
Dutch  Republic,  when  this  state  was 
threatened  by  Louis  XIV.  In  1673  he 
concluded  a treaty  by  which  France 
promised  to  evacuate  Westphalia,  and 
to  pay  800,000  livres  to  the  elector,  who, 
in  return,  broke  off  his  treaty  with  Hol- 
land, and  promised  not  to  render  any 
aid  to  the  enemies  of  France.  In  1674 
the  German  Empire  declared  war 
against  France.  The  elector  marched 
16,000  men  into  Alsace,  but  a Swedish 
army  having  been  induced  to  invade 
Prussia,  Frederick  turned  back  and 
totally  defeated  them  at  Fehrbellin 
(1675).  Some  years  after  the  Swedes 
again  invaded  his  territories,  but  were 
driven  back.  France,  however,  de- 
manded the  restoration  of  all  the  con- 
quered territories  to  Sweden.  The 
elector,  having  refused  compliance, 
formed  an  alliance  with  Denmark,  and 
waged  a new  war  against  Sweden,  but 
was  at  last  obliged  to  submit.  He  paid 
great  attention  to  the  promotion  of  agri- 
culture and  horticulture,  and,  by  affording 
protection  to  the  French  refugees,  gained 
20,01)0  industrious  manufacturers,  who 
were  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  the 
north  of  Germany.  Berlin  was  much  im- 
proved during  his  reign. . He  left  to  his 
son  a country  much  enlarged  and  im- 
proved, an  army  of  28,000  men,  and  a 
well-supplied  treasury. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM  I.,  King  of 
Prussia,  son  of  Frederick  I.  and  father 
of  Frederick  the  Great  (II.),  was  born 
in  1688,  died  1740.  While  crown-prince 
(1706)  he  married  Sophia  Dorothea, 
daughter  of  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
afterward  George  I.  of  England.  On 
his  accession  to  the  throne,  in  1713,  he 
endeavored  to  increase  the  army  and 
reform  the  finances,  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  exact  discipline  and  reg- 
ularity which  have  since  characterized 
the  Prussian  soldiers.  He  was  very 
miserly,  eccentric,  and  arbitrary.  He 
opposed  Charles  XII.,  and  was  the  pro- 
tector of  the  neighboring  protestant 
states.  His  ridiculous  fondness  for  tall 
men  is  well  known.  He  left  behind  him 
an  abundant  treasury,  and  an  army  of 
about  70,000  men.  His  affairs  were  in 
the  greatest  order  and  regularity,  and  to 
his  energy  Prussia  was  much  indebted 
for  that  prosperity  and  success  which 
distinguished  her  till  she  was  humbled 
by  the  power  of  Napoleon. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM  H.,  King  of 
Prussia,  born  1744,  died  1797.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  uncle  Frederick  the  Great  in 


1786,  and  shared  in  the  second  partition 
of  Poland. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM  III.,  son  of 
Frederick  Williatn  II.,  born  1770,  died 
1840.  During  his  reign  Prussia  suffered 
much  at  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  includ- 
ing defeats  at  Jena,  Eylau,  Friedland, 
etc.,  and  lost  a large  portion  of  territory, 
which,  however,  was  recovered  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon. 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM  IV.,  King  of 
Prussia,  son  of  Frederick  William  III., 
was  born  1795,  died  1861.  He  was  care- 
fully trained  by  the  best  masters  in  all 
the  leading  branches  of  knowledge  and 
art,  civil  and  military.  He  took  part, 
though  without  any  active  command, 
in  the  campaigns  of  1813 — 14.  When 
he  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1840  his  first  proceedings 
were  both  of  a popular  and  praiseworthy 
character.  He  soon,  however,  began  to 
pursue  a retrograde  and  absolutist 
policy.  The  popular  movement  which 
followed  the  French  revolution  of  1848 
was  at  first  met  by  the  king  with  firm- 
ness, but  on  the  demand  of  the  people 
that  the  troops  should  be  withdrawn 
from  the  capital,  backed  by  an  attack  on 
the  arsenal,  the  king  offered  concessions, 
which,  however,  he  retracted  on  his 
power  becoming  more  secure.  Latterly 
Ids  mind  gave  way,  and  he  sank  into-  a 
state  of  hopeless  imbecility,  which  ren- 
dered it  necessary  to  appoint  this 
brother  William  regent  of  the' kingdom 
He  died  without  issue,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  who  ten  years 
later  'became  emperor  of  united  Ger- 
many. • 

FREDERICTON,  the  eapital  of  New 
Brunswick,  Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the 
river  St.  John,  about  84  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  54  miles  n.n.w.  of  the  town 
of  St.  John.  It  is  well  laid  out,  and  has 
handsome  public  buildings,  including 
the  government  house,  the  provincial 
buildings,  court-house,  town-hall,  cathe- 
dral, university,  etc..  The  trade  is  ex- 
tensive and  increasing,  the  river  being 
navigable  for  large  steamers.  Pop. 
8117. 

FREE  CITIES,  cities  having  an  inde- 
pendent government  of  their  own,  and 
virtually  forming  states  by  themselves; 
a name  given  to  certain  cities  of  Ger- 
many which  were  members  of  the  Ger- 
man confederation,  and  exercised  sov- 
ereign jurisdiction  within  their  own 
boundaries.  At  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution  the  free  or  “imperial”  cities 
numbered  no  fewer  than  fifty-one;  but 
with  the  exception  of  Hamburg,  Liibeck, 
and  Bremen  they  have  all  been  deprived 
of  their  privileges  as  the  result  of  vari- 
ous political  changes. 

FREE  COMPANIES,  Free  Lances, 
names  given  to  the  troops  of  private 
adventurers,  who,  in  the  middle  ages, 
organized  themselves  into  bands  of 
mercenary  soldiers,  and  let  out  their 
services  to  the  highest  bidder.  They 
played  their  most  conspicuous  part  in 
Italy,  where  they  were  called  Con- 
dottieri. 

FREE  CONGREGATIONS,  sometimes 
called  “Protestant  Friends,”  a sect  of 
German  rationalists,  who  at  first  pro- 
fessed to  be  Christians,  but  now  reject 
the^^doctrines  of  miraculous  revelation 
and  a personal  deity.  There  are  upward 


PREEDMEN 


FREEZING 


of  120  congregations  of  them  iiK-Ger- 
many,  and  a few  in  the  U.  States. 

FREEDMEN,  was  the  name  applied 
by  the  Romans  to  those  persons  who  had 
been  released  from  a state  of  servitude. 
The  freedman  wore  a cap  or  hat  as  a 
sign  of  freedom  (hence  the  origin  of  the 
cap  of  liberty),  assumed  the  name  of  his 
master,  and  received  from  him  a white 
garment  and  a ring.  With  his  freedom 
he  obtained  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
a Roman  citizen  of  the  plebian  rank,  but 
could  not  be  raised  to  any  office  of  honor. 

FREEDOM  OF  THE  CITY,  distin- 
guished visitors  are  sometimes  the  re- 
cipients of  this  honor  which  is  in  effect 
the  making  of  such  persons  an  honorary 
citizen.  The  custom  of  such  a grant  is  a 
survival  from  medieval  times  when 
cities  were  close  corporations  and  the 
right  of  citizenship  could  not  be  ac- 
quired until  after  a long  term  of  resi- 
dence usually  seven  years  after  enroll- 
ment. In  those  days  when  it  was  de- 
sired to  honor  a man  by  the  abolition 
of  the  apprenticeship  the  magistrates 
would  confer  the  freedom  of  the  city  by 
vote. 

FREEHOLD,  in  law,  an  estate  in  real 
property,  held  either" in  fee-simple  or  fee- 
tail,  in  which  case  it  is  a freehold  of  in- 
heritance, or  for  the  term  of  the  owner’s 
life;  also,  the  tenure  by  which  such  an 
estate  is  held. 

FREE  LANCES.  See  Free  Companies. 

FREE  LIBRARIES.  See  Libraries. 

FREEMAN,  Edward  Augustus,  Eng- 
lish historian  and  archaeologist,  born 
1823,  died  in  1892.  His  works,  which  are 
very  voluminous,  include  History  of 
Architecture,  1849;  History  and  Con- 
quests of  the  "Saracens,  1656;  History  of 
Federal  Government,  1863;  Old  English 
History,  1869;  Growth  of  the  English 
Constitution,  1872;  Historical  Essays, 
1872-79;  History  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, 1867-76;  Historical  Geography  of 
Europe,  1881 ; the  Reign  of  William 
Rufus,  1882;  History  of  Sicily  (unfin- 
ished), 1891-92; etc. 

FREEMASONRY,  a term  applied  to 
the  organization  of  a society  calling 
themselves  free  and  accepted  masons, 
and  all  the  mysteries  therewith  con- 
nected. This  society,  if  we  can  reckon 
as  one  a number  of  societies,  many  of 
which  are  unconnected  with  each  other, 
though  they  have  the  same  origin  and  a 
great  similarity  in  their  constitution, 
extends  over  almost  all  parts  of  the 
globe,  and  is  consequently  of  the  great- 
est service  to  travelers  who  are  members 
of  the  craft.  According  to  its  own  pecu- 
liar language  it  is  founded  on  the  practice 
of  social  and  moral  virtue.  It  claims  the 
character  of  charity  in  the  most  ex- 
tended se^iSfe;  and  brotherly  love,  relief, 
and  truth  are  inculcated  in  it.  Fable 
and  imagination  have  traced  back  the 
origin  of  freemasonry  to  the  Roman 
Empire,  to  the  Pharaohs,  the  temple  of 
Solomon,  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  even 
to  the  building  of  Noah’s  ark.  In  reality 
it  took  its  rise  in  the  middle  ages  along 
with  other  incorporated  crafts.  Skilled 
masons  moved  from  place  to  place  to 
assist  in  building  the  magnificent  sacred 
structures — cathedrals,  abbeys,  etc. — 
which  had  their  origin  in  these  times, 
and  it  was  essential  for  them  to  havfe 
some  signs,  by  which,  on  coming  to  a 


strange  place,  they  could  be  recognized  as 
real  craftsmen  and  not  imposters.  Free- 
masonry in  its  modified  and  more 
modern  form  dates  only  from  the  17th 
century.  The  modern  ritual  is  said  to 
have  been  partly  borrowed  from  the 
Rosicrucians  and  knights  templars,  and 
partly  devised  by  Elias  Ashmole,  the 
founder  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum. 
Freemasonry,  thus  modified,  soon  began 
to  spread  over  the  world.  In  1725  it  was 
introduced  into  France  by  Lord  Der- 
wentwater;  and  in  1733  the  first  Ameri- 
can lodge  was  established.  The  United 
Grand  Lodge  of  England  recognizes  only 
two  species  of  Freemasonry — the  Craft 
and  the  Royal  Arch;  Scotch,  Irish, 
American,  and  Continental  lodges  ac- 
knowledge higher  degrees;  but  these, 
with  the  exception  of  the  mark  degree, 
are  not  universal.  In  ordinary  free- 
masonry there  are  three  grades — those 
of  apprentice,  fellow-craft,  and  master- 
mason — each  of  which  has  its  peculiar 
initiatory  ceremonies;  the  last  of  these 
grades,  however,  is  necessary  to  the 
attainment  of  the  full  rightg/and  privi- 
leges of  brotherhood. 

FREEPORT,  county  seat  of  Stephen- 
son CO.,  111.,  120  miles  w.  by  n.  of  Chi- 
cago; the  seat  of  a Presbyterian  college, 
and  manufactures  machinery,  carpets, 
etc.  Pop.  16,210. 

FREE  SOIL  PARTY,  one  of  the  an- 
cestors of  the  republican  party  with 
which  it  was  merged  in  1856.  During 
its  eight  years  existence  the  free  soil 
party’s  purpose  was  to  prevent  the  ex- 
tension of  slavery-  in  the  territories. 
Displeased  with  the  refusal  of  the  demo- 
cratic and  whig  national  conventions  to 
take  a stand  on  the  question  of  the  free 
soil  advocates  held  a national  conven- 
tion at  Buffalo  in  August,  1848,  and 
nominated  a presidential  ticket  which 
received  291,263  popular  votes  but  no 
electoral  votes.  Among  its  leaders  were 
Chase  and  Sumner. 

FREESTONE.  See  Sandstone. 

FREETHINKERS,  an  epithet  applied 
to  the  English  Deists  of  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  who  argued  for  natural 
as  against  revealed  religion.  Anthony 
Collins  (who  first  made  it  a name  of  a 
party  by  his  Discourse  of  Free-thinking, 
London,  1713),  and  his  friend,  John 
Toland,  are  among  the  chief  of  the  early 
freethinkers.  Another  able  writer  on  the 
same  side  was  Math.  Tindal  fdied  1733), 
whose  Christianity  as  Old  as  the  Creation 
(1730)  caused  a great  sensation.  Lord 
Bolingbroke  and  Hume  take  the  lead 
among  advanced  freethinkers.  In  France 
Voltaire  and  the  encyclopedists  D’ 
Alembert,  Diderot,  and  Helvetius  led 
the  opposition  against  revealed  religion. 
The  same  spirit  became  fashionable  in 
Germany  in  the  reign  of  Frederick  the 
Great.  The  term  is  now  generally  ap- 
plied to  designate  Rationalists  in  general 
who  are  to  be  found  among  Christians 
as  well  as  non-Christians. 

FREE-TRADE,  the  term  applied  to 
national  commerce  when  relieved  from 
such  interference  as  is  intended  to  im- 
prove or  otherwise  influence  it;  that  is, 
unrestricted  by  laws  or  tariffs,  and  not 
unduly  stimulated  by  bounties.  In  all 
countries  it  was  long  held  to  be  of  im- 
portance to  encourage  native  produc- 
tion and  manufactures  by  excluding 


from  their  own  markets,  and  from  the 
colonial  markets  over  which  they  had 
control  the  competing  produce  and 
manufactures  of  other  countries.  On 
this  theory  the  great  body  of  British 
commercial  legislation  was  founded 
until  1846,  when  the  policy  of  free-trade 
was  introduced  in  grain,  and  afterward 
gradually  extended  by  the  repeal  of  the 
naviga^-ion  laws  in  1849  and  other  great 
measures,  until  nearly'  all  British  com- 
mercial legislation  has  been  brought  into 
conformity  with  it.  Free-trade  can 
hardly  yet  be  said  to  have  been  adopted 
as  a principle  of  commercial  policy  by 
any  nation  except  Great  Britain.  As  an 
economical  principle  free-trade  is  the 
direct  opposite  to  the  principle  or  sys- 
tem of  protection,  which  maintains  that 
a state  can  reach  a high  degree  of  ma- 
terial prosperity  only  by  protecting  its 
domestic  industries  from  the  competi- 
tion of  all  similar  foreign  industries. 
To  effect  this  protecting  countries  either 
prohibit  the  importation  of  foreign 
goods  by  direct  legislation,  or  impose 
such  duties  as  shall,  by  enhancing  the 
price,  check  the  introduction  of  foreign 
goods.  The  advocates  of  what  is  called 
fair  trade  in  Britain  profess  a preference 
for  free-trade  were  it  universal  or  even 
common;  but  seeing  that  Britain  is 
almost  the  sole  free-trade  country  in  the 
world,  declare  that  a policy  of  reciproc- 
ity is  required  for  the  protection  of 
British  traders  and  manufacturers. 
The  progress  made  by  Britain  since 
1846  is  adduced  as  a striking  proof  of 
the  wisdom  of  a free-trade  policy,  even 
without  reciprocity. 

FREEZING,  CONGELATION,  or 
SOLIDIFICATION,  the  transformation 
of  a liquid  into  a solid  under  the  in- 
fluence of  cold.  Each  liquid  always 
solidifies  at  the  same  temperature, 
which  is  called  its  freezing-point,  and 
the  solid  also  melts  again  at  the  same 
temperature.  Thus  the  freezing-point 
and  the  melting  point,  or  point  of  fusion, 
are  the  same,  and  the  point  is  always  the 
same  for  the  same  substance.  Conse- 
quently the  freezing-point  of  water,  or 
the  melting-point  of  ice  (32°  Fahr.);  is 
taken  for  one  of  the  fixed  points  in 
thermometry.  The  freezing-point  of 
mercury  is  39°  below  zero,  of  sulphuric 
ether  46°  below  zero,  of  alcohol  203°  be- 
low zero  Fahr.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  increase  of  pressure  upon  water, 
and  upon  all  substances  which  expand 
in  freezing,  will  lower  the  freezing-point; 
and  that  such  substances  as  wax,  sper- 
maceti, sulphur,  and  paraffin,  which  con- 
tract in  freezing,  have  the  freezing-point 
raised  by  pressure.  Artificial  freezing  is 
attained  by  the  liquefaction  of  solids  or 
the  evaporation  of  liquids.  These  pro- 
cesses absorb  heat,  and  by  abstracting  it 
from  the  surrounding  substances  freeze 
the  latter.  Among  freezing-mixtures 
are;  (1)  two  parts  of  pounded  ice  or 
fresh  snow  and  one  part  of  common 
salt,  which  causes  the  thermometer  to 
fall  to  -4°;  (2)  equal  parts  of  water,  of 
powdered  crystallized  nitrate  of  am- 
monia, and  of  powdered  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda,  which  produces  a 
cold  of  -7°;  (3)  three  parts  of  snow  with 
four  parts  of  crystallized  chloride  of 
calcium,  producing  a temperature  of 
-54°;  while  (4)  with  a mixture  of  liquid 


FREEZING 


FRICTION 


nitrous  oxide  and  carbon  disulphide  a 
temperature  of  -220°  is  reached. 

FREEZING,  FUSING,  and  BOILING 
POINTS: 


Substances. 

Reau- 

mur. 

Centi- 

Grade. 

Fahren- 

heit. 

Bromine  freezes  at 

— 17.6° 

~ 22® 

- 7.6° 

Olive  Oil  freezes  at 

8 

10 

50 

Quicksilver  freezes  at. . 

- 31.5 

- 39.4 

- 39 

Water  freezes  at 

0 

0 

32 

Bismuth  metal  fuses  at 

311 

264 

507 

Copper  fuses  at 

963 

1,204 

2,200 

Gold  fuses  at 

1,105 

1.380 

2,518 

Iron  fuses  at 

1,330 

1,538 

2,800 

Lead  fuses  at 

260 

325 

617 

Potassium  fuses  at 

60 

62.5 

144.5 

Silver  fuses  at. 

800 

1,000 

1.832 

Sodium  fuses  at 

76.5 

95.6 

204 

Sulphur  fuses  at 

93 

115 

239 

Tin  fuses  at. 

183 

228 

443 

Zinc  fuses  at 

329.6 

413 

773 

Alcohol  boils  at 

63 

74.4 

167 

Bromine  boils  at 

50 

63 

145 

Ether  bolls  at 

28.4 

35.5 

96 

Iodine  boils  at. 

140 

175 

347 

Water  boils  at 

80 

100 

212 

Authorities  vary  on  some  of  thesQ 
points.  The  best  are  given. 

FRELINGHUYSEN,  Frederick  Theo- 
dore, American  lawyer  and  political 
leader  was  born  in  Millstone,  N.  J.,  in 
1817.  In  1866  he  was  appointed  by  Gov- 
ernor Ward  a U.  Stat^  senator,  to  fill 
the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of 
William  Wright.  In  1871  he  was  elected 
to  the  U.  States  senate.  After  the  dis- 
puted election  of  1876  he  was  one  of  the 
framers  of  the  bill  creating  the  electoral 
commission,  and  after  the  commission 
was  constituted,  in  1877,  served  as  one 
of  its  members.  After  several  years 
spent  in  the  active  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession, he  again  entered  political  life, 
as  the  successor  of  James  G.  Blaine  as 
secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet  of 
President  Arthur.  He  died  in  May, 
1885. 

FREMONT,  county  seat  and  capital 
of  Sandusky  co.,  Ohio.  It  has  a con- 
siderable trade,  lines  of  steamers  run- 
ning from  the  city,  which  stands  at  the 
head  of  steam  navigation  on  the  river 
Sandusky,  to  the  principal  ports  of  Lake 
Erie.  Pop.  11,417. 

FREMONT,  John  Charles,  American 
explorer,  born  at  Savannah,  Georgia, 
1813.  He  conducted  five  separate  and 
adventurous  expeditions  which  explored 
the  passes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
practically  opened  up  the  great  far  west. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  conquest 
of  Upper  California,  and  served  in  the 
civil  war.  Latterly  he  became  a lawyer 
and  an  active  promoter  of  railroads. 
He  died  in  1890. 

FRENCH  BEANS,  or  KIDNEY- 
BEANS,  the  haricots  of  the  French,  are 
the  products  of  a native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  now  commonly  cultivated 
in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  This  plant  is  a 
twining  annual,  bearing  alternative 
leaves,  on  footstalks,  composed  of  three 
oval  pubescent  folioles.  The  flowers  are 
whitish,  somewhat  resembling  those  of 
the  pea.  The  seeds  are  more  or  less 
kidney-shaped. 

FRENCH,  Daniel  Chester,  American 
sculptor,  born  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  1850. 
The  Minute  Man,  and  the  Gallaudet 
Monument  in  Washington  and  his  relief 
Death  and  the  Sculptor  exhibited  at  the 
World’s  Fair  in  Chicago  are  among 


his  best  known  works,  but  his  monu- 
ments are  scattered  throughout  the 
country. 

FRENCH  HONEYSUCKLE,  the  in- 
appropriate name  of  a leguminous  plant, 
a common  perennial  in  gardens,  where 
it  is  grown  for  the  sake  of  its  beautiful 
scarlet  flowers.  In  Sicily  and  Spain  it  is 
largely  cultivated  as  a green  crop,  yield- 
ing an  enormous  quantity  of  herbage. 

FRENCH  POLISH,  a solution  of  shell- 
lac  in  alcohol,  used  for  giving  a smooth 
surface-coating  to  furniture  and  cabinet 
work.  The  most  common  of  the  var- 
nishes known  under  the  name  of  French 
polish  are  prepared  as  follows:  Pale 
shell-lac,  5J  oz.;  finest  wood-naphtha,  1 
pint : dissolve.  Or  pale  shell-lac,  3 lb. ; 
wood-naptha,  1 gallon.  Methylated 
spirit  (68  o.p.)  may  be  substituted  for 
the  naptha  in  the  above  formulae.  These 
varnishes  are  sometimes  colored  to 
modify  the  character  of  the  wood.  A 
reddish  tinge  is  imparted  by  dragon’s- 
blood  or  red  sanders-wood,  and  a yel- 
lowish tinge  by  gamboge  or  turmeric- 
root. 

FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  See  France. 

FRENEAU'  (fre-no'),  Philip,  the  first 
genuine  American  poet  of  marked 
ability.  His  poetry  is  largely  satirical. 
The  beautiful  lyric  “The  Indian  Bury- 
ing Ground,’’  “The  Wild  Honeysuckle,’’ 
and  “Eutaw  Springs’’  have  had  a per- 
manent and  enduring  fame.  He  died  in 
1832 

FRESCO  PAINTING,  a method  of 
mural  painting  in  water  colors  on  fresh 
or  wet  grounds  of  lime  or  gypsum.  Min- 
eral or  earthy  pigments  are  -employed, 
which  resist  the  chemical  action  of  lime. 
In  drying,  the  colors  are  incorporated 
with  the  plaster,  and  are  thereby  ren- 
dered as  permanent  &s  itself.  In  pro- 
ducing fresco  paintings,  a finished  draw- 
ing on  paper,  called  a cartoon,  exactly 
the  size  of  the  intended  picture,  is  first 
made,  to  serve  as  a model.  The  artist 
then  has  a limited  portion  of  the  wall 
covered  over  with  a fine  sort  of  plaster, 
and  upon  this  he  traces  from  his  cartoon 
the  part  of  the  design  suited  for  the 
space.  As  it  is  necessary  to  the  success 
and  permanency  of  his  work  that  the 
colors  should  be  applied  while  the  plas- 
ter is  yet  damp,  no  more  of  the  surface  is 
plastered  at  one  time  than  what  the 
artist  can  finish  in  one  day.  A portion  of 
the  picture  once  commenced,  needs  to 
be  completely  finished  before  leaving  it, 
as  fresco  does  not  admit  of  retouching 
after  the  plaster  has  become  dry.  On 
completing  a day’s  work,  any  unpainted 
part  of  the  plaster  is  removed,  cutting  it 
neatly  along  the  outline  of  a figure  or 
other  definite  form,  so  that  the  joining 
of  the  plaster  for  the  next  day’s  work 
may  be  concealed.  The  art  is  very  an- 
cient, remains  of  it  being  found  in  India, 
Egypt,  Mexico,  etc.  Examples  of  Roman 
frescoes  are  found  in  Pompeii  and  other 
places.  After  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  fresco  painting  became  the 
favorite  process  of  the  greatest  Italian 
masters,  and  many  of  their  noblest 
pictorial  efforts  are  frescoes  on  the  walls 
of  palaces  and  churches.  Some  ancient 
wall-paintings  ai’e  executed  in  what  is 
called  Fresco  Secco,  which  is  distin- 
guished from  true  fresco  by  being  execu- 
cuted  on  dry  plaster,  which  is  moistened 


with  lime  water  before  the  colors  are 
applied. 

FRESNEL  (fra-nel),  Augustin  Jean, 
French  physicist,  born  1788,  died  1827. 
He  did  much  to  establish  the  undulatory 
theory  of  light,  made  several  important 
discoveries  in  the  polarizing  of  light,, 
and  greatly  improved  the  apparatus  for 
lighting  lighthouses. 

FRESNO,  a city  and  county  seat  of 
Fresno  county.  Cal.,  270  miles  southeast 
of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific and  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & Santa 
Fe  railroads.  Pop.  14,514. 

FRETS,  certain  short  wood,  ivory,  or 
metal  cross-bars  on  the  finger-boards  of 
stringed  instruments,  as  the  guitar,  etc., 
which  regulate  the  pitch  of  the  notes. 
By  pressing  the  string  down  to  the  finger 
board  behind  a fret  only  so  much  of  the 
string  can  be  set  in  vibration  as  lies  be- 
tween the  fret  and  the  bridge. 

FREYCINET  (fra-si-na),  Charles  Louis 
de  Saulces  de,  French  statesman,  born 
at  Foix  (Ari^ge)  1828.  He  was  trained 
as  an  engineer,  and  held  several  im- 
portant appointments;  he  was  elected 
to  the  senate  in  1876;  was  minister  of 
public  works  1877;  minister  for  foreign 
affairs  1877-79;  and  president  of  the 
council  and  minister  for  foreign  affairs 
for  longer  or  shorter  periods  in  1879, 
1880,  1882,  1885,  and  1886.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  important  works  on 
engineering. 

FREYTAG  (fri'tah),  Gustav,  German 
poet,  dramatist,  and  novelist,  born  1816. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Leipzig  Grenzboten 
from  1848  to  1870,  and  has  produced 
numerous  successful  plays,  tales,  and 
poems.  Among  his  more  famous  works 
are : Debit  and  Credit ; Pictures  from  the 
German  Past;  The  Lost  Manuscript; 
and  Our  Ancestors,  a series  of  six  ro- 
mances illustrative  of  old  German  life. 
He  died  in  1895. 

FRIAR,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  an  appellation  common  to  the 
members  of  all  religious  orders,  but 
more  especially  to  those  of  the  four 
mendicant  orders,  viz.  (1)  Minors,  Gray 
Friars,  or  Franciscans,  (2)  Augustines; 
(3)  Dominicans  or  Black  Friars;  (4)' 
White  Friars  or  Carmelites. 

FRICASSEE  (fri-kas-se'),  a dish  of 
food  made  by  cutting  chickens,  rabbits, 
or  other  small  animals  into  pieces,  ana 
dressing  them  with  a strong  sauce  in  a 
frying-pan  or  a like  utensil. 

FMCTION,  in  physics,  the  effect  of 
rubbing,  or  the  resistance  which  a mov- 
ing body  meets  with  from  the  surface  on 
which  it  moves.  Friction  arises  from 
the  roughness  of  the  surface  of  the  body 
moved  on  and  that  of  the  moving  body. 
No  such  thing  can  be  found  as  perfect 
smoothness  of_  surface  in  bodies.  In 
every  case  there  is,  to  a less  or  greater 
extent,  a roughness  or  unevenness  of  the 
parts  of  the  surface,  arising  from  pecu- 
liar texture,  porosity,  and  other  causes 
and  therefore  when  two  surfaces  come 
together  the  prominent  parts  of  the  one 
fall  into  the  cavities  of  the  other.  This 
tends  to  prevent  or  retard  moticn,  for  in 
dragging  the  one  body  over  the  other  an 
exertion  must  be  used  to  lift  the  promi- 
nences over  the  parts  which  oppose  them. 
What  is  called  the  coefficient  of  friction 
for  any  two  surfaces  is  the  ratio  that  sub- 
sists between  the  force  necessary  to 


FRICTION-ROLLERS 


FRISIANS 


move  one  of  these  surfaces  hori^^ontally 
over  the  other,  and  the  pressure  be- 
tween the  two  surfaces.  Thus  the  co- 
efficient of  friction  for  oak  and  cast-iron 
is  38:100,  or  '38.  Friction  plays  a most 
important  part  in  nature  and  art;  for 
instance,  but  for  it  threads  could  not 
be  made  nor  textile  fabrics  manufac- 
tured. 

FRICTION-ROLLERS,  a name  com- 
mon to  any  small  rollers  or  cylinders 
employed  to  convert  sliding  motion  into 
rolling  motion.  Such  cylinders  are  often 
placed  under  heavy  bodies  when  they 
are  required  to  be  moved  any  short  dis- 
tance on  the  surface  of  the  ground;  and, 
in  machinery,  the  same  method  is 
occasionally  employed  to  diminish  the 
friction  of  a heavily-loaded' axis.  In  that 
case  a number  of  small  cylinders  are 
inclosed  round  the  axis,  and  partake  of 
its  motion. 

FRICTION-WHEELS,  in  machinery, 
two  simple  wheels  or  cylinders  intended 
to  assist  in  diminishing  the  friction  of  a 
horizontal  axis.  The  wheels  are  simply 
plain  cylinders  a,  a,  carried  on  parallel 


Friction- wheels. 


and  independent  axes  b,  b.  They  are 
disposed  so  as  to  overlap  pair  and  pair 
at  each  end  of  the  main  axis  c,  which 
rests  in  the  angles  thus  formed  by  the 
circumferences.  The  axis,  instead  pf 
sliding  on  a fixed  surface,  as  in  ordinary 
cases,*carries  round  the  circumferences 
of  the  wheels  on  which  it  is  supported 
with  the  same  velocity  as  it  possesses 
itself,  and  in  consequence  of  the  friction 
of  the  system  is  proportionately  les- 
sened. 


FRIDAY,  the^sixth  day  of  the  week, 
from  the  Anglo-Sax.  Frige-daeg,  the  day 
sacred  to  Frigga  or  to  Freya,  the  Saxon 
Venus.  See  Good  Friday. 

FRIEDRICH,  the  German  form  of 
Frederick. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS,  or  TONGA 
ISLANDS,  a cluster  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  between  lat.  18°  and  23°  s.,  and 
Ion.  173°  and  176°  w.  They  consist  of 
three  groups,  which  are  divided  from 
each  other  by  two  narrow  channels,  and 
number  altogether  about  150,  with  a 
collective  area  of  about  400  sq.  miles 
The  islands  are  nearly  all  volcanic,  with 
coral  reefs  and  rocks  about  them ; earth- 
quakes and  volcanic  eruptions  are  fre- 
quent, during  one  of  which,  in  Oct., 
1885,  a new  island  2 miles  in  circum- 
ference suddenly  appeared.  These  islands 
were  discovered  in  1643  by  Tasman,  but 
received  their  collective  name  from 
Cook.  They  are  now  governed  by  a 
native  Christian  prince.  The  trade  is 
considerable,  the  chief  exports  being 
copra,  coffee,  and  wool.  Pop.  estimated 
at  17,500. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETY,  the  name  of 
English  benefit  associations  established 
by  the  workingmen  themselves  for  cer- 
tain forms  of  self-help,  but  now  de- 
'veloped  into  mutual  insurance  societies. 


The  benefits  given  by  friendly  so- 
cieties are  generally  for  sickness  and 
funeral  allowances.  Other  forms  of  bene- 
fit sometimes  found  are ; endowments,  in- 
surance for  shipwrecks,  loss  or  damage 
to  boats,  tools,  or  implements,  medical 
aid  dispensaries,  widows’  and  orphans’ 
funds,  convalescent  homes,  asylums  for 
the  aged,  and  traveling  relief  for  those 
out  of  employment.  The  strongly  cen- 
tralized societies  have  no  social  union, 
but  only  a business  relationship  with 
their  members,  as  the  dues  are  paid 
through  agents  or  the  post-office. 

FRIENDS,  THE  SOCIETY  OF,  the 
denomination  of  Christians  known  as 
Quakers,  dating  from  about  1647.  In 
spite  of  cruel  and  severe  persecutions, 
the  Friends  succeeded  in  establishing 
themselves  in  Europe  and  America.  They 
have  never  been  numerically  powerful, 
having  at  no  time  exceeded,  if  indeed 
they  have  ever  reached,  200,000  mem- 
bers; but  the  purity  of  life  which  has  so 
honorably  distinguished  them  as  a class, 
has  unquestionably  exercised  a salutary 
influence  on  the  public  at  large;  while 
in  respeet  to  certain  great  questions 
affecting  the  interests  of  mankind,  such 
as  war,  slavery,  and  oaths,  they  have, 
beyond  all  doubt,  originated  or  empha- 
sized opinions  and  tendencies  which  are 
no  longer  confined  to  themselves,  but 
have  widely  leavened  the'  mind  of 
Christendom. 

FRIENDS.  See  Quakers. 

FRIESLAND,  the  most  northerly  prov- 
ince of  Holland,  sometimes  called  West 
Friesland  to  distinguish  it  from  East 
Friesland,  now  the  district  of  Aurich  in 
Hanover.  It  is  generally  flat,  and  parts 
of  it  are  below  sea-level.  The  area  is  1281 
sq.  miles,  four-fifths  of  which  are  under 
cultivation.  Leeuwarden  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  333,435.  See  Frisians. 

FRIEZE  (frez),  a kind  of  coarse 
woolen  stuff  or  cloth,  with  a nap  on  one 
side. 

FRIEZE  (frez),  in  architecture,  that 
part  of  the  entablature  of  columns  which 
lies  between  the  architrave  and  cornice. 
It  is  a flat  member  or  face,  usually  en- 
riched with  figures  or  other  ornaments  of 
sculpture.  See  Entablature. 

FRIG'ATE,  in  the  navy,  among  ships 
of  war  of  the  older  class,  a vessel  of  a 
size  larger  than  a sloop  or  brig  and  less 
than  a ship  of  the  line ; usually  carrying 
her  guns  (which  varied  from  about 
thirty  to  fifty  or  sixty  in  number)  on  the 
main  deck  and  on  a raised  quarter-deck 
and  forecastle,  or  having  two  decks. 
Such  ships  were  often  fast  sailers,  and 
were  much  employed  as  cruisers  in  the 
great  wars  of  the  18th  and  early  part  of 
the  19th  centuries.  Since  the  introduc- 
tion of  iron-clad  vessels  the  term  crusier 
has  been  applied  to  ships  taking  the 
place  of  the  frigates  of  former  days. 

FRIGATE-;BIRD,  or  MAN-OF-WAR 
BIRD,  a tropfcal  web-footed  bird  of  the 
family  Pelecanida;.  Including  the  long 
tail  the  male  bird  reaches  3 feet  in  length, 
but  the  body  is  comparatively  small. 
The  bill  is  longer  than  the  head,  strong, 
hooked  at  the  point,  and  sharp.  In  pro- 
portion to  their  size  their  wings  are 
longer  than  in  any  other  bird,  having 
an  extent  of  7 feet  or  more.  Their  flight 
is  powerful  and  graceful;  they  neither 
swim  nor  wade,  but  catch  the  flying- 


fishes  in  the  air,  and  cause  fishing-birds 
to  disgorge  their  prey,  which  they  dex- 
terously seize  as  it  falls. 


FRIGGA,  or  FRIGG,  in  northern 
mythology,  the  wife  of  the  god  Odin, 
the  goddess  after  whom  Friday  is  named. 
She  is  a goddess  in  some  respects  cor- 
responding with  Venus. 

FRILLED  LIZARD,  an  Australian 
lizard,  so  called  from  a curious  mem- 
brane-like ruff  or  tippet  round  its  neck, 
covering-  its  shoulders,  and  which  lies 


Frilled-lizard. 


back  in  plaits  when  the  animal  is  tran- 
quil, but  which  elevates  itself  when  it  is 
irritated  or  frightened.  A full-grown 
specimen  is  about  3 feet  in  length. 

FRINGE-TREE,  a small  tree  belong- 
ing to  the  same  natural  family  with  the 
olive,  and  having  snow-white  flowers 
which  hang  down  like  a fringe,  inhabit- 
ing, America  from  lat.  39°  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in 
gardens  as  an  ornamental  plant.  Four 
other  species  are  known,  two  of  which 
inhabit  the  West  Indies,  the  tliird 
Ceylon,  and  the  fourth  Australia.  ' 

FRISIANS,  a German  tribe  who, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  occupied  the  territory  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Ems. 
They  became  tributaries  of  Rome  under 
Drusus,  and  lived  for  some  time  on 
friendly  terms  with  their  conquerors, 
but  were  driven  to  hostilities  by  oppres- 
sion. In  time  they  extended  as  far  east- 
ward as  Slesvig,  and  even  made  settle- 
ments on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and 
probably  in  other  parts  of  Nortliern 
Britain.  About  the  end  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury the  Frisians  in  the  southwest  were 
subdued  by  the  Franks  under  Pepin 
d’H6ristal,  who  compelled  them  to 
accept  Christianity.  A century  later 
the  eastern  branch  of  the  tribe  was  con- 


FROEBEL 


FUCHSIA 


quered  and  christianized  by  Charle- 
magne. Their  country  was  divided  into 
three  districts,  two  of  which  were  an- 
nexed on  the  division  of  the  Carlovingian 
Empire  to  the  possessions  of  Louis  the 
German,  and  the  other  to  those  of 
Charles  the  Bald.  The  latter  part  was 
called  West, Frisia  (W.  Friesland),  and 
the  two  former  East  Frisia  (E.  Fries- 
land). Their  modern  history  is  chiefly 
connected  with  Holland  and  Hanover. 
The  Frisian  language  holds  in  some  re- 
spects an  intermediate  position  between 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  Norse.  Of  all  the 
Teutonic  dialects  it  is  the  most  nearly 
related  to  English.  Its  ancient  form 
exists  only  in  some  remarkable  collec- 
tions of  laws.  Three  dialects  of  it  are 
now  recognized:  the  West  Frisian, 
spoken  in  the  Dutch  province  of  Fries- 
land, about  Leeuwarden,  Bolsward,  etc., 
and  used  to  some  extent  in  litei'ature; 
the  East,  Frisian,  spoken  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Ems  and  Weser;  and  the 
North  Frisian,  spoken  on  the  west  coast 
of  Schleswig,  and  South  Jutland,  and  on 
the  islands  Sylt,  Fohr,  Amrun,  etc. 

FROEBEL  (freu'bel),  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm August,  German  educationist, 
born  1782,  died  1852.  After  an  unsettled 
and  aimless  youth,  and  with  somewhat 
imperfect  culture,  he  started  teaching, 
and  soon  developed  a system  which  has 
become  famous  under  the  name  of 
Kindergarten.  He  is  the  author  of 
Human  Education,  and  Mutter-und- 
Kose-lieder,  a book  of  poetry  and  pic- 
tures for  children. 

FROG,  the  common  English  name  of  a 
number  of  animals  belonging  to  the  class 
Amphibia,  having  four  legs  with  four 
toes  on  the  fore  feet  and  five  on  the  hind, 
more  or  less  webbed,  a naked  body,  no 
ribs,  and  no  tail.  Owing  to  the  last 
peculiarity  frogs  belong  to  the  order  of 
amphibians  known  as  Anura  or  tailless 
Amphibia.  The  tongue  is  fleshy,  ^nd  is 
attached  in  front  to  the  jaw,  but  is  free 


Frog  and  its  metamorphoses. 

1,  2,  3.  4,  Various  stages  of  tadpole  state;  5. 
fully  formed  animal. 

behind,  so  that  the  hinder  extremity  of 
the  tongue  can  be  protruded.  Frogs  are 
remarkable  for  the  transformation  they 
undergo  before  arriving  at  maturity. 
In  the  spring  the  spawn  is  deposited  in 
ponds  and  other  stagnant  waters  in 
large  masses,  of  gelatinous  matter. 
These  masses,  with  black  globules  scat- 
tered through  them,  soon  manifest 
change,  and  after  a time  the  young 
escapes  as  a tadpole,  as  an  animal  with 
short  body,  circular  suctional  mouth, 
and  long  tail,  compressed  from  side  to 
side.  Gills  project  on  either  side  of  the 
head  from  a cleft  which  answers  in  posi- 
tion to  the  gill  opening  of  fishes.  The 
hind  limbs  first  appear  as  buds,  later  the 
ore  limbs  project,  the  gills  disappear. 


the  lungs  becoming  more  fully  de- 
veloped; the  tail  gradually  shrinks  and 
disappears,  and  the  animal,  which  was 
at  first  fish-like,  then  closely  resembled 
a newt  (or  tailed  Amphibian),  finally 
assumes  the  adult  or  tailless  form.  The 
mature  frog  breathes  by  lungs,  and  can- 
not exist  in  water  without  coming  to  the 
surface  for  air.  The  only  British  species 
is  the  common  frog,  but  the  tribe  is  very 
numerous,  other  varieties  being  the 
edible  frog  of  the  south  of  Europe,  eaten 
in  France  and  south  Germany,  the  hind 
quarters  being  the  part  chiefly  used; 
the  bull-frog  of  America,  8 to  12  inches 
long,  so  named  from  its  voice  resembling 
the  lowing  of  a bull;  the  blacksmith  frog 
of  Janeiro;  the  Argus  frog  of  America, 
etc.  Frogs  swim  with  rapidity,  and 
move  by  long  bounds,  being  able  from 
the  power  of  the  muscles  of  their  hind- 
legs to  leap  many  times  their  own  length. 

FROH'MAN,  Charles,  American  the- 
atrical manager,  was  born  in  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  in  1858.  After  having  become  an 
independent  manager  of  various  com- 
panies “on  the  road,”  he  established  him- 
self in  1893  at  the  Empire  Theater,  New 
York,  and  in  the  season  of  1895-96 
formed  with  several  managerial  firms 
the  “syndicate,”  which  has  gradually 
strengthened  its  position  till  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  it  has  a practical 
monopoly  of  playhouses.  He  has  brought 
out  as  stars  Maude  Adams,  Julia  Mar- 
lowe, John  Drew,  and  other  well-known 
actors. 

FROHMAN,  Daniel,  American  the- 
atrical manager,  born  in  Sandusky,  Ohio, 
in  1853.  He  has  managed  the  Fifth 
Avenue,  Madison  Square,  the  Lyceum 
and  Daly’s  Theaters,  besides  the  Daniel 
Frohman  Stock  Company  and  various 
special  attractions. 

FROISSART  (frwa-sar),  Jean,  a French 
poet  and  historian,  was  born  in  1337 
at  Valenciennes,  died  in  Flanders  be- 
tween 1400  and  1410.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  went  to  England,  where, 
having  already  the  reputation  of  being 
a gay  poet  and  narrator  of  chivalric 
deeds,  he  was  received  with  great  favor, 
Philippa  of  Hainault,  wife  of  Edward 
III.,  declaring  herself  his  patroness. 

FRONDE  (frond),  a French  party  dur- 
ing the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  which 
waged  civil  war  against  the  court  party 
on  account  of  the  heavy  fiscal  imposi- 
tions laid  on  the  people  by  Cardinal 
Mazarin,  whom  the  queen-mother  had 
appointed  prime-minister  after  the  de- 
cease of  Louis  XIII.  (1648U  At  the 
head  of  the  Fronde  stood  the  Cardi- 
nal de  Retz,  and  latterly  the  Prince 
Louis  Cond4.  The  result  of  this 
contest,  which  lasted  from  1648  to  1654, 
served  only  to  strengthen  the  royal 
power.  The  name  is  from  Fr.  Fronde, 
“a  sling,”  a member  of  the  parliament 
having  likened  the  party  to  boys  sling- 
ing stones  in  the  streets,  but  who  dis- 
persed on  the  appearance  of  the  author- 
ities. 

FROST; 'the  name  we  give  to  the 
state  of  the  weather  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  below  the  freezing-point  of  water 
(32°  F.).  The  intensity  of  the  cold  in 
frost  is  conveniently  indicated  by  the 
popular  expression  so  many  degrees  of 
frost,  which  means  that  the  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  is  so  many  degrees 


"below  the  point  at  which  the  freezing  of 
water  commences.  Frost  is  often  very 
destructive  to  vegetation,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  water,  which  is  generally  the 
chief  constituent  of  the  juices  of  plants, 
expands  when  freezing,  and  bursts,  and 
thus  destroys^  the  vesicles  of  the  plant. 
In  the  same  way  rain-water,  freezing  in 
the  crevices  of  rocks,  breaks  up  their 
surfaces,  and  often  detaches  large  frag- 
ments. Hoar-frost  is  frozen  dew.  It 
may  either  freeze  while  it  is.  falling, 
when  it  is  found  loosely  scattered  on  the 
ground ; or  being  deposited  as  dew  in  the 
early  part  of  the  night  it  may  freeze 
during  a subsequent  part  of  it,  owing  to 
radiation.  It  is  generally  seen  most  pro- 
fusely in  spring  and  autumn;  because 
at  those  times,  while  on  clear  nights  the 
cold  is  sufficient  to  freeze  the  dew,  the 
days  are  at  the  same  time  sufficiently 
warm  to  cause  a very  considerable 
quantity  of  moisture  to  evaporate  into 
'the  air. 

FROST-BITE,  a condition  caused  by 
the  action  of  frost  on  the  human 
economy.  It  is  generally  local  and  par- 
tial, varying  from  ordinary  chilblain  to 
complete  death  of  the  part  frozen.  The 
simplest  treatment  consists  in  coaxing 
back  the  vitality  of  the  part  affected  by 
means  of  friction. 

FROSTED-GLASS,  glass  roughened  on 
the  surface,  so  as  to  destroy  its  tran- 
parency,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
surface  has  somewhat  the  appearance 
of  hoar-frost. — The  term  frosted  is  also 
applied  to  the  dead  or  lusterless  appear- 
ance of  gold  and  silver  jewelry  when 
polishing  the  surface  is  omitted. 

FROUDE  (frod),  James  Anthony, - 
historian  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born 
at  Totness,  Devonshire,  1818.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  was  elected^ellow 
of  Exeter  College,  and  received  deacon’s 
orders.  He  resigned  his  fellowship  and 
withdrew  from  orders  on  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Nemesis  of  Faith,  1848. 
Between  the  years  1856  and  1869  ap- 
peared his  great  work  The  History  of 
England  from  the  Fall  oKWolsey  to  the 
Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  which 
was  very  popular,  though  it  received  but 
doubtful  approval  from  historians.  He 
was  made  literary  executor  to  Carlyle, 
and  his  Life  of  Carlyle,  and  Carlyle’s 
Reminiscences,  and  Letters  and  Memor- 
ials of  Jane  Welsh  Carlyle,  as  edited  by 
him,  provoked  an  extraordinary  amount 
of  interest  and  controversy.  Among  his 
other  works  are  Short  Studies  on  Great 
Subjects;  English  in  Ireland  in  the 
Eighteenth  Century;  Julius  Caesar; 
Oceana,  or  England  and  her  Colonies; 
The  English  in  the  West  Indies,  etc.  He  , 
died  in  1894. 

FRUIT,  in  botany,  the  seed  of  a plant, 
or  the  mature  ovary,  composed  essen- 
tially of  two  parts,  the  pericarp  and  the 
seed.  In  a more  general  sense  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  edible  succulent  products 
of  certain  plants,  generally  covering  and 
including  their  seeds. 

FU-CHOW.  SeeFoo-chow. 

FUCHSIA  (fu'shi-a),  a genus  of  beau- 
tiful flowering  shrubs,  natives  of  South 
America,  Mexico,  and  New  Zealand, 
nat.  order  Onagraceae,  characterized  by 
having  a funnel-shaped,  colored,  de- 
ciduous, four-parted  calyx,  sometimes 
with  a verj'  long  tube;  four  petals  set  in 


FUEL 


FULLER 


the  mouth  of  the  calyx -tube  and  alter- 
nating with  its  segments;  eight  exserted 
stamens,  and  a long  style  with  a capitate 
stigma.  This  is  one  of  our  most  common 
decorative  greenhouse  plants,  while  the 
hardy  varieties  out  of  doors  in  the  open 
border  form  an  important  feature -with 
their  drooping  elegant  habit  and  their 
wonderful  profusion  of  flowers. 

FUEL,  carbonaceous  matter,  which 
may  be  in  the  solid,  the  liquid,  or  the 
gaseous  condition,  and  which,  in  com- 
bining with  oxygen,  gives  rise  to  the 
phenomenon  of  neat,  the  heat  being 
made  use  for  domestic,  manufactur- 
ing, or  other  purposes.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  gaseous  fuels  is  common 
coal-gas,  which  is  now  commonly  ap- 
plied for  the  heating  of  rooms  by  means 
of  gas-fires  and  gas-stoves.  For  such 
purposes  the  coal-gas  should  be  mixed 
with  air  just  below  the  point  at  which  it 
is  burned.  It  then  gives  a blue,  hot,  and 
smokeless  flame.  A gas-fire  may  be 
obtained  in  an  ordinary  grate  by  filling 
it  with  asbestos,  which  is  heated  to  in- 
candescence by  gas  properly  applied. 
Gas-stoves  of  various  constructions  are 
also  used  for  heating  apartments,  cook- 
ing, etc.  Another  gaseous  fuel  now 
coming  into  use  for  industrial  purposes  is 
water-gas,  obtained  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  water.  The  principal  liquid  fuels 
are  petroleum,  shale-oil,  creosote,  the 
various  animal  a^id  vegetable  oils,  and 
alcohol.  It  is  only  the  mineral  oils  that 
are  used  to  any  great  extent  for  produc- 
ing heat.  Alcohol  is  only  employed  in 
operations  requiring  the  application  .of 
a ^all  volume  of  heat,  and  in  such  it  is 
as  convenient  and  manageable  a fuel  as 
can  be  desired.  Successful  attempts  have 
been  made  in  recent  times  to  discover 
methods  by  which  liquid  fuel,  and  more 
especially  petroleum,  may  be  applied  to 
the  heating  of  steam-boilers.  In  some 
of  the  systems  it  is  the  combustion  of 
the  oil  itself,  supplied  in  the  form  of 
spray,  that  produces  the  heat ; in  others 
the  oil  is  volatilized  by  means  of  super- 
heated steam,  and  the  gas  is  burned  in 
the  furnace  from  ordinary  pipes  as  in  a 
gas-stove.  The  heating  power  of  petro- 
leum is  considerably  greater  than  that  of 
coal,  and  in  a ship,  for  instance,  it  would 
occupy  less  space,  while  the  laborious 
process  of  stoking  would  be  dispensed 
with.  Creasote  has  been  successfully 
employed  as  fuel  in  the  process  of  armor- 
plate  bending.  Peat  is  used  as  a domes- 
tic fuel  in  many  places,  but,  compared 
with  the  more  solid  fuels,  it  is  unfit  to  be 
employed  for  producing  very  strong 
heats.  An  improvement  in  the  use  of  it 
as  a fuel,  however,  has  been  introduced 
by  employing  a process  of  compression, 
which  gives  it  almost  the  solidity  of 
coal.  It  is  also  sometimes  soaked  in  oil 
or  tar,  and  then  used  in  the  form  of 
bricks.  Wood,  is  in  some  countries 
almost  the  only  sort  of  fuel  to  6e  had. 
In  France,  Germany,  etc.,  it  is  exten- 
sively used  in  metallurgy  as  well  as  for 
domestic  purposes.  Before  it  is  suited 
for  making  satisfactory  fuel,  wood  must 
be  dried  for  a considerable, time  ejther 
in  the  open  air  or  under  cover,  but  the 
latter  method  is  better,  as  little  or  no 
decomposition  of  the  wood  goes  on. 
Woods  that  have  a close  and  compact 
texture,  such  as  the  oak,  beech,  or  elm, 


burn  much  more  slowly  and  with  less 
flame  than  soft  woods  like  the  lime, 
horse-chestnut,  oi  pine;  the  latter  are 
consequently  preferred  as  fuel  for  some 
purposes.  Coal,  as  is  well  known,  is  of 
vegetable  origin,  and  this  is  clearly  seen 
in  that  variety  of  it  known  as  lignite, 
which  still  retains  its  woody  strueture, 
even  to  the  eye.  Wood  charcoal  is  an- 
other kind  of  fuel  which  is  extensively 
used  in  metallurgy,  chemistry,  and  in 
various  industrial  arts.  It  kindles 
quickly,  emits  few  watery  or  other 
vapors  while  burning,  and,  when  con- 
sumed, leaves  few  ashes,  and  those  very 
light.  They  are,  therefore,  easily  blown 
away,  so  that  the  fire  continues  open,  or 
pervious  to  the  eurrent  of  air  which  must 
pass  through  it  to  keep  it  burning.  This 
sort  of  fuel,  too,  is  capable  of  producing 
as  intense  a heat  as  can  be  obtained  by 
any;  but  in  violent  heats  it  is  quickly 
consumed,  and  needs  to  be  frequently 
supplied.  Coke  or  pit-coal  charred  is  a 
fuel  which  possesses  in  many  respects 
the  same  properties  as  charcoal  of  wood. 
It  is  employed  for  producing  intense 
melting  heats.  Various  kinds  of  artificial 
fuel  are  manufactured.  These  are  com- 
posed of  different  ingr.edients,  of  which 
coal  slack  or  dust  is  the  most  important. 
The  coal-dust  is  mixed  with  some  ad- 
hesive substance,  such  as  clay,  lime, 
coal-tar,  etc.,  and  compressed  into 
bricks.  Slack-coal  has  also  been  em- 
ployed as  fuel  in  an  entirely  different 
mode.  It  is  ground  as  fine  as  possible, 
and  blown  into  the  furnace,  where  it 
burns  much  in  the  same  way  as  the  spray 
of  liquid  fuel. 

FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAWS,  the  sur- 
render of  escaped  slaves  and  criminals 
was  authorized  by  a law  passed  in  1793 
under  a elause  in  article  4 of  the  United 
States  constitution.  The  compromise 
of  1850  provided  a new  a^d  more 
stringent  law  under  which  a marshal 
was  liable  to  a fine  for  a refusal  to  exe- 
cute writs  under  the  act,  and  he  was 
made  liable  for  the  value  of  a slave  escap- 
ing from  his  custody.  The  testimony 
of  the  person  claimed  to  be  a slave  was 
not  to  be  considered.  The  commissioner 
was  given  a fee  of  $10  if  the  prisoner 
were  adjudged  a slave  but  only  $5  were 
he  declared  free.  Under  this  law  the 
kidnaping  of  free  negroes  in  the  north 
became  frequent  and  many  cases  of 
cruelty  occurred.  The  law  met  with  little 
support  in  the  north,  many  of  the  states 
enabting  legislation  which  rendered  it 
nugatory  and  the  south  of  course  re- 
garded this  as  a breach  of  faith.  The 
fugitive  slave  laws  were  repealed  in 
1864. 

FUGUE  (fug),  a musical  term  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  fuga  (a  flight),  and 
signifying  a polyphonic  composition 
constructed  on  one  or  more  short  sub- 
jects or  themes,  which  are  harmonized 
according  to  the  laws  of  counterpoint, 
and  introduced  from  time  to  time  with 
various  contrapuntal  devices,  the  in- 
terest in  these  frequently-heard  themes 
being  sustained  by  diminishing  the  in- 
terval of  time  at  which  they  follow  each 
other,  and  monotony  being  avoided  by 
the  occasional  use  of  episodes,  or  pas- 
sages open  to  free  treatment. 

FUJI-YAMA  or  FUSI-YAMA,  a dor- 
mant volcano  of  a symmetrical  cone- 


like shape,  in  the  island  of  Hondo,  Japan, 
the  sacred  mountain  of  the  Japanese. 
It  has  been  quiescent  since  1707;  is 
12,400  feet  in  height,  and  is  visible  in 
clear  weather  for  a distance  of  nearly  a 
hundred  miles. 

FULCRUM,  in  mechanics,  the  sup- 
port or  fixed  point  about  which  a lever 
turns.  See  Lever. 

FUL'GURITE,  any  rocky  substance 
which  has  been  fused  or  vitrified  by 
lightning.  More  strictly  a vitrified  tube 
of  sand  formed  by  the  intense  heat  of 
lightning  penetrating  the  sand,  and  fus- 
ing a portion  of  the  materials  through 
which  it  passes. 

FULHAM  (ful'am),  one  of  the  London 
mun.  and  pari,  boroughs,  bounded  by 
theThames,and  the  boroughs  of  Chelsea, 
Kensington,  and  Hammersmith.  It 
contains  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of 
London,  and  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  of  mun.  bor.  137,289. 

FULLER,  George,  American  figure, 
portrait,  and  landscape  painter,  was 
born  at  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in  1822.  He 
spent  several  years  in  Boston,  portrait 
painting,  then  removed  to  New  York, 
and  continued  his  studies  at  the 
academy.  He  was  elected  associate  of 
the  National  academyan  1857.  He  went 
south  for  three  years,  making  many 
studies  of  negro  life.  In  1860  he  went 
to  Europe.  His  later  works  show  his 
keen  appreciation  of  nature.  -In  1876 
he  exhibited  fourteen  pictures  in  Boston 
which  were  received  with  enthusiasm. 
This  was  followed  by  frequent  exhibi- 
tions at  the  Academy.  In  1879  Mr. 
Fuller  showed  the  Romany  Girl,  and 
She  Was  a Witch.  In  1880,  the  Quad- 
roon, and  in  1881,  the  loveliest  of  all 
his  works — the  “Winifred  Dysart.” 
“Turkey  Pasture  in  Kentucky”  is  one 
of  his  finest  examples.  He  died  in  1884. 

FULLER,  Melville  Weston,  American 
jurist,  a chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  U.  States,  was  born  in  Aug- 
usta, Me.,  in  1833.  In  1856  he  established 
himself  at  Chicago,  111.,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  practice  law  until  1888.  He 
was  a member  of  the  Illinois  state  con- 
stitutional convention  of  1862,  and  in 
1863  sat  in  the  lower  house  of  the 
Illinois  legislature.  In  1888  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Cleveland  chief 
justice  of  the  U.  States  supreme  court, 
to  succeed  M.  R.  Waite,  deceased.  His 
term  witnessed  an  expansion  of  the 
federal  powers  by  means  of  the  decision 
asserting  the  implied  authority  of  the 
executive  to  protect  the  federal  judges 
on  occasions  when  there  is  just  reason 
to  believe  that,  while  in  the  exercise  of 
official  duties,  they  are  exposed  to  per- 
sonal danger.  In  1899  he  was  a member 
of  the  arbitration  commission  convened 
at  Paris  for  the  adjustment  of  the  Anglo- 
Venezuelan  boundary  question. 

FULLER,  Sarah  Margaret  (Ossoli), 
American  critic  and  essayist,  born  at 
Cambridgeport,'^  Mass.,  in  1810.  She 
conducted  the  transcendental  organ. 
The  Dial  (1840-42),  made  translations 
from  the  German,  and  published  in 
1844  her  first  volume.  Summer  on  the 
Lakes,  the  record  of  a season  of  travel 
in  1843.  In  December  (1844)  she  went 
to  New  York  as  literary  critic  of  the 
Tribune,  taking  active  part  in  the  philan- 
thropic, literary  and  artistic  life  of  the 


FULLER’S  EARTH 


FUNERAL  RITES 


city.  In  1846  she  went  to  Europe,  where 
she  was  received  by  social,  political  and 
literary  leaders,  residing  for  some  time 
at  Rome,  where  she  married  (December, 
1847)  Giovanni  Angelo,  Marquis  d’ 
Ossoli,  by  whom  she  had  one  child.  She 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Italian  strug- 
gle for  independence,  and  served  heroi- 
cally in  the  hospitals  during  the  French 
siege  of  Rome.  On  its  capture  (July 
1849)  she  took  refuge  with  her  husband 
first  in  the  mountains  of  Abruzzi,  then 
at  Florence,  and  on  May  17,  1850,  sailed 
for  America.  The  voyage  was  most  dis- 
astrous, The  captain  died  of  smallpox, 
her  son  was  taken  with  the  disease,  and 
she  and  her  husband  and  son  were 
drowned  off  Fire  Island  Beach  just  as 
they  were  approaching  New  York  on 
July  16. 

FULLER’S  EARTH,  a variety  of  clay 
or  marl,  compact  but  friable,  unctuous 
to  the  touch,  and  of  various  colors, 
usually  with  a shade  of  green.  It  is  use- 
ful in  scouring  and  cleansing  cloth,  as  it 
imbibes  the  grease  and  oil  used  in  pre- 
paring wool.  It  consists  of  silica  50  per 
cent,  alumina  20,  water  24,  and  small 
quantities  of  magnesia,  lime,  and  perox- 
ide of  iron.  There  are  very  extensive 
beds  of  this  earth  in  several  counties 
in  England. 

FULLING-MILL,  a mill  for  fulling 
cloth  by  means  of  pestles  or  stampers, 
which  beat  and  press  it  to  a close  or  com- 
pact state,  and  cleanse  it.  The  principal 
parts  of  a fulling-mill  are  the  wheel, 
with  its  trundle,  which  gives  motion  to 
the  tree  or  spindle,  whose  teeth  com- 
municate that  motion  to  the  pestles  or 
stampers,  which  fall  into  troughs, 
wherein  the  cloth  is  put,  with  fuller’s- 
earth,  to  be  scoured  and  thickened  by 
this  process  of  beating. 

FULMAR,  a natatorial  or  swimming 
oceanic  bird  about  the  size  of  a large 
duck.  It  inhabits  the  northern  seas  in 
prodigious  numbers,  breeding  in  Iceland 
Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  the  Shetland 
and  Orkney  Islands,  the  Hebrides,  etc. 
It  feeds  on  fish,  the  blubber  of  whales. 


Fulmar. 

and  any  fat,  putrid,  floating  substance 
that  comes  in  its  way.  It  makes  its  nest 
on  sea-cliffs,  in  which  it  lays  only  one 
egg.  The  natives  of  St.  Kilda  value  the 
eggs  above  those  of  any  other  bird.  The 
fulmar  is  also  valued  for  its  feathers  and 
down,  and  for  the  oil  found  in  its 
stomach,  which  is  one  of  the  principal 
products  of  St.  Kilda.  When  caught  or 
assailed  it  lightens  itself  by  disgorging 
the  oil  fron^  its  stomach.  There  is  an- 
other and  larger  species  found  in  the 

P n r"'! fi p O p p n n 

Culmination,  a term  used  in 
chemistry  to  denote  the  sudden  decom- 
position of  a body  by  heat  or  percussion 
accompanied  by  a flash  of  light  and  a 


loud  report.  Fulminating  compounds, 
or  fulminates,  are  explosive  compounds 
of  fulminic  acid  with  various  bases,  such 
as  gold,  mercury,  platinum,  and  silver. 
The  old  fulminating  powder  is  a mixture 
of  sulphur,  nitre,  ancl  potash.  Fulminate 
of  mercury  forms  the  priming  of  per- 
cussion-caps. 

FULIVJINIC  ACID,  a peculiar  acid 
known  only  in  combination  with  certain 
bases,  and  first  discovered  along  with 
mercury  and  silver,  with  which  it  forms 
powerfully  detonating  compounds. 

FULTON,  Robert,  an  American  en- 
gineer, the  introducer  of  steam  naviga- 
tion on  American  waters,  was  oorn  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1765,  died  1815.  In  his 
twenty-second  year  he  went  to  England 
and  became  acquainted  with  the  Duke  of 
Bridgewater,  Earl  Stanhope,  and  James 


Watt,  and  was  led  to  devote  himself  to 
mechanical  engineering.  In  1794  he  took 
a patent  for  a double  inclined  plane, 
which  was  intended  to  supersede  locks 
on  canals;  and  he  also  patented  a mill 
for  sawing  marble,  machines  for  spin- 
ning flax  and  making  ropes,  a dredging- 
machine,  etc.  In  1797  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  produced  the  first  panorama 
that  was  exhibited  there.  He  also,  after 
some  trials,  was  successful  in  introduc- 
ing a boat  propelled  by  steam  upon  the 
Seine.  During  a visit  to  Scotland  he 
had  seen  and  obtained  drawings  of  the 
Charlotte  Dundas,  a steam-vessel  which 
had  plied  with  success  on  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal.  His  chief  occupation  in 
Paris,  however,  was  the  invention  of 
torpedoes  for  naval  warfare.  He  re- 
turned to  America  in  1806,  and  built  a 
steam-boat  of  considerable  dimensions, 
which  began  to  navigate  the  Hudson 
river  in  1807.  Its  progress  through  the 
water  was  at  the  rate  of  5 miles  an  hour. 
In  1814  he  constructed  the  first  war 
steamship,  and  was  engaged  upon  an 
improvement  of  his  submarine  torpedo 
when  he  died. 

FUNCTION,  in  math,  a quantity  so 
connected  with  another  that  no  change 
can  be  made  in  the  latter  without  pro- 
ducing a corresponding  change  in  the 
former,  in  which  case  the  dependent 
quantity  is  said  to  be  a function  of  the 
other;  thus,  the  circumference  of  a circle 


is  a function  of  the  diameter;  the  area  of 
a triangle  is  a function  of  any  two  of  the 
sides  and  the  angle  they  contain.  In 
order  to  indicate  in  a general  way  that 
one  quantity  y is  a function  of  another 
X the  notation  y = f (x),  or  something 
similar,  is  adopted;  thus,  if  u be  the  area 
of  a triangle,  x and  y two  of  the  sides, 
and  Q the  contained  angle,  we  should 
write  u = 0 (x,y,  ^). 

FUNCTION,  the  specific  office  or 
action  which  any  organ  or  system  of 
organs  is  fitted  to  perform  in  the  animal 
or  vegetable  economy. — Vital  functions,, 
functions  immediately  necessary  to  life, 
as  those  of  the  brain,  heart,  lungs,  etc. — 
Natural  or  vegetative  functions,  func- 
tions less  instantly  necessary  to  life,  as, 
digestion,  absorption,  assimilation,  ex- 
pulsion, etc. — Animal  functions,  those 
which  relate  to  the  external  world,  as  the; 
senses,  voluntary  motions,  etc. 

FUNDAMENTAL  NOTE,  in  music,  the: 
lowest  or  gravest  note  that  a string  or- 
pipe  can  sound. — Fundamental  tones: 
are  the  tones  from  which  harmonies  are; 
generated. 

FUNDS  AND  FUNDING,  money  or- 
other  form  of  wealth  accumulated  and', 
devoted  to,  or  available  for,  some  special;' 
purpose  or  enterprise.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  securities  issued  for  the  national  debt, 
are  known  as  the  public  funds,  or  simply 
as  the  funds.  The  process  of  funding  a- 
debt  consists  in  dividing  it  into  parts  or- 
shares  (bonds)  with  stated  times  of  pay- 
ment of  interest  and  principal,  the 
latter  usually  at  a remote  date.  The; 
substitution  of  bonds  of  lower  rate  for 
those  of  higher  rate  is  often  called  refund- 
ing; provision,  made  by  agreement,  from 
year  to  year,  for  the  pa5anent  of  tin 
principal  is  known  as  a sinking  fund 
Funded  debt  is  opposed  to  floating  debt,, 
which  consists  of  notes  and  overdue  bills 
and  to  current  debt,  which  consists  of 
bills  and  other  adverse  balances  already 
incurred  but  not  yet  overdue. 

FUNDY,  Bay  of,  a large  inlet  of  the: 
Atlantic,  on  the  east  coast  of  North 
America,  separating  Nova  Scotia  from 
New  Brunswick.  It  is  noted  for  its  im- 
petuous tides,  which  cause  a rise  and 
fall  of  from  12  to  70  feet,  and  the  naviga-- 
tion  is  dangerous.  A ship-railway  is  be- 
ing constructed  to  connect  Chignecto 
Bay  with  Northumberland  Strait. 

FU'NEN,  the  largest  of  the  Danish 
islands  except  Seeland,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Great  Belt,  and  from 
Jutland  by  the  Little  Belt;  circuit, 
about  185  miles;  area,  1132  sq.  miles. 
The  chief  towns  are  Odense,  Svendborg, 
and  Nyborg.  The  population  is  279,501. 

FUNERAL  RITES,  the  rites  and  cere- 
monies connected  with  the  disposing  of 
the  dead.  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians 
the  friends  af  the  deceased  put  on  mourn- 
ing habits,  and  abstained  from  gaiety 
and  entertainments  for  from  forty  to 
seventy  days,  during  which  time  the 
body  was  embalmed.  Among  the  an- 
cient Jews  great  regard  was  paid  to  a due 
performance  of  the  rites  of  sepulture- 
and  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  be  deprived  of  the  proper 
rites  was  considered  the  greatest  mis- 
fortune that  could  happen.  The  decorus 
interring  of  the  dead  with  religious  cere- 
monies indicative  of  hopes  of  a resur- 
r*ction  is  characteristic  of  all  Christian 


PUNFKIRCHEN 


FURZE 


aiations.  With  Roman  Catholics  the 
fcody  is  the  object  of  solemn  ceremonial 
j,from  the  moment  of  death  until  inter- 
r.  aeut.  The  Church  of  England  funeral 
s(  mvice  is  too  well  known  to  require  any 
n(  )tice.  Among  other  Protestant  bodies 
th  ere  is  usually  no  formal  service,  but 
pr.  »yer  is  offered  up  or  an  ordinary  reli- 
gio  us  service  held  before  the  interment 
in  Ahe  house  of  the  deceased  or  his  rela- 
tivtis,  or,  in  the  case  of  a public  funeral, 
in  some  public  place.  The  practice  of  de- 
livering funeral  orations  at  the  interment 
of  the  dead  by  laymen  is  common  in 
France,  and  not  unfrequent  in  America. 
The  wake,  or  watching,  is  celebrated  in 
some  parts  of  the  world  particularly  in 
its  remoter  districts. 

FURFKIRCHEN,  a town  of  the  Aus- 
trian Empire,  in  Hungary,  on  the  slope  of 
a hill,  105  miles  s.s.w.  Budapest.  Pop. 
43,982. 

FUNGI  (fun'jl),  a large  natural  order  of 
cryptogamous  or  flowerless  plants,  com- 
prehending not  only  the  various  races 
of  mushrooms,  toad-stools,  and  simi- 
lar plants,  but  a largfe  number  of 
microscopic  plants  growing  upon  other 
plants,  and  substances  which  are  known 
as  moulds,  wildew,  smut,  rust,  brand, 
dry-rot,  etc.  Fungi  agree  with  algae  and 
lichens  in  their  cellular  structure,  which 
is,  with  very  few  exceptions,  void  of 
anything  resembling  vascular  tissue;  but 
differ  from  them  in  deriving  their  nutri- 
ment from  the  body  on  which  they  grow, 
not  from  the  medium  by  which  they  are 
surrounded.  They  are  among  the  lowest 
forms  of  vegetable  life,  and,  from  the 
readiness  with  which  they  spring  up  in 
certain  conditions,  their  germs  are  sup- 
posed to  be  floating  in  the  atmosphere 
in  incalculable  numbers.  Some  diseases 
are  produced  by  fungi.  Fungi  differ  from 
other  plants  in  being  nitrogenous  in 
composition,  and  in  inhaling  oxygen 
and  giving  out  carbonic  acid  gas.  Berke- 
ley divides  fungi  into  two  great  sections, 
the  first  having  the  spores  naked,  and 
comprising  agarics,  boleti,  puff-balls, 
rust,  smut,  and  mildew;  the  second  com- 
prising the  murels,  truffles,  certain 
moulds,  etc.,  in  which  the  spores  are  in 
sacs.  These  are  again  subdivided  into 
six  principal  orders,  all  formed  on  the 
mode  in  which  the  spores  are  borne. 
Fungi  occur  in  every  part  of  the  earth 
where  the  cold  is  not  too  intense  to  de- 
stroy the  spawn,  though  they  abound 
most  in  moist  temperate  regions  where 
the  summer  is  warm.  Several  species 
afford  excellent  and  abundant  food, 
others  are  valuable  in  medicine,  while 
many  are  among  the  greatest  pests  of 
the  cultivator. 

FUNK,  Isaac  Kauffman,  American 
clergyman,  publisher  and  editor,  born 
at  Clifton,  Ohio,  1839.  Pastor  of  St. 
Matthew’s  English  Lutheran  church  in 
Brooklyn  for  seven  years.  Founder  of 
the  Literary  Digest  (1889),  Standard 
Dictionary  (1895),  and  Jewish  Ency- 
clopedia (1901). 

FUNNEL,  the  shaft  or  hollow  channel 
of  a chimney  through  which  smoke 
ascends;  especially  in  steam -ships,  a 
cylindrical  iron  chimney  for  the  boiler- 
furnaces  rising  above  the  deck. 

FUNNY  BONE,  the  ulnar  nerve  is  so 
slightly  protected  in  the  groove  where  it 
passes  behind  the  internal  condyle  of 


the  humerus  that  it  is  often  affected  by 
blows  on  that  part.  A peculiar  electric 
thrill  passes  along  the  arm  to  the  fingers 
whenever  the  nerve  is  struck  or  pressed. 

FUNSTON,  Frederick,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  in  Newcarlisle,  Ohio,  in 
1865.  He  distinguished  himself  as  a 
soldier  in  the  war  for  the  independence 
of  Cuba,  rising  after  many  wounds  in 
the  insurgent  army,  to  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel. At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Spanish  American  war  he  organized  the 
20th  Kansas  volunteers  of  whom  he  be- 
came colonel.  Fighting  in  the  Philip- 
pines his  bravery  at  Calumpit  won  him 
a commission  as  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. March  23,  1901,  he  captured 
Aguinaldo  the  Filipino  insurgent  leader 
and  as  a reward  was  commissioned  brig- 
adier-general U.  S.  A. 

FUR,  is  the  fine  soft  hairy  cover- 
ing of  certain  animals,  especially  the 
winter  covering  of  animals  belonging  to 
northern  latitudes.  The  term  fur  is 
sometimes  distinctively  applied  to  such 
coverings  when  prepared  for  being  made 
into  articles  of  dress,  etc.,  while  the 
name  of  peltry  is  given  to  them  in  an 
unprepared  state  or  when  merely  dried. 
The  animals  chiefly  sought  after  for  the 
sake  of  their  furs  are  the  beaver,  raccoon, 
musk-rat,  squirrel,  hare,  rabbit,  the 
chinchilla,  bear  (black,  gray,  and  brown) 
otter,  sea-otter,  seal,  wolf,  wolverine  or 
glutton,  marten,  ermine,  lynx,  coypou 
(nutria),  polecat  (fitch),  opossum,  fox,- 
etc.  (Seeunder  proper  headings.)  All  the 
preparation  that  skins  require  before 
being  sent  to  the  market  is  to  make  them 
perfectly  dry,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from 
putrefying.  This  is  done  by  exposing 
them  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  or  a fire. 
The  small  skins  are  sometimes  previously 
steeped  in  a solution  of  alum.  When 
stored  in  large  quantities  they  must  be 
carefully  preserved  from  dampness,  as 
well  as  from  moths.  The  fur-dresser,  on 
receiving  the  skins,  first  subjects  them 
to  a softening  process.  He  next  cleans 
them  from  loose  pieces  of  the  integu- 
ment by  scraping  them  with  an  iron 
blade.  Finally,  the  fur  is  cleaned  and 
combed,  after  which  it  is  handed  over  to 
the  cutter,  who  cuts  the  furs  out  into 
the  various  shapes  required  to  make 
different  articles. 

The  principal  North  American  fur- 
bearing animals  are  beaver,  muskrat, 
hare,  and  squirrel ; the  mink,  sable,  fisher, 
ermine,  weasel,  raccoon,  badger,  and 
skunk;  the  lynx,  northern  and  southern 
bears  of  several  kinds;  foxes  of  three  or 
four  varieties;  two  wolves;  and  most 
valuable  of  all,  musk-ox,  seal  and  sea- 
otter.  Of  foreign  fur-bearing  animals 
the  most  highly  prized  are  the  chin- 
chilla, coypu  (nutria),  and  various 
monkeys,  marsupials  (opossum,  kan- 
garoo, etc.),  and  cats. 

FURIES,  Eumenides,  Erinnyes  (among 
the  Romans,  Furiae  and  Dirse),  deities  in 
the  Greek  mythology,  who  were  the 
avengers  of  murder,  perjury,  and  filial 
ingratitude.  Later  mythologists  reckon 
three  of  them,  and  call  them  Alecto, 
Megsera,  and  Tisiphone.  ZEschylus,  in- 
his  celebrated  tragedy  of  the  Eumenides, 
introduced  fifty  furies,  and  with  them 
Fear  and  Horror,  upon  the  stage.  They 
were  regarded  with  great  dread,  and  the 
Athenians  hardly  dared  to  speak  their 


names,  but  called  them  the  A'enerable 
goddesses.  It  was  by  a similar  euphemism 
the  name  Eumenides,  signifying  the 
toothed  or  well-pleased  goddesses,  was 
introduced.  Erinnyes,  tlie  more  ancient 
signifies  the  hunters  or  persecutors  of 
the  criminal,  or  the  angry  goddesses. 

FURLONG,  a measure  of  length,  40 
rods,  roles,  or  perches,  equal  to  220 
yards,  the  eiglith  part  of  a mile. 

FURLOUGH  (fer'16),  a military  term 
signifying  leave  of  absence  given  by  the 
commanding  officer  to  an  officer  or 
soldier  under  his  command. 

FURNACE,  a place  where  a vehement 
fire  and  heat  may  be  made  and  main- 
tained, as  for  melting  ores  or  metals, 
heating  the  boiler  of  a steam-engine, 
warming  a house,  baking  pottery  or 
bread,  and  otlier  such  purposes.  Fur- 
naces are  constructed  in  a great  variety 
of  ways,  according  to  tlie  different  pur- 
poses to  which  they  are  applied.  In 
constructing  furnaces  the  following 
objects  are  kept  in  view:  (1)  To  obtain 
the  greatest  quantity  of  heat  from  a 
given  quantity  of  fuel.  (2)  To  prevent 
the  dissipation  of  the  heat  after  it  is 
produced.  (3)  To  concentrate  the  heat 
and  direct  it  as  much  as  possible  to  the 
substances  to  be  acted  upon.  (4)  To  be 
able  to  regulate  at  pleasure  the  necessary 
degree  of  heat  and  have  it  wholly  under 
the  operator’s  management.  An  air- 
furnace  is  one  in  which  the  flames  are 
urged  only  by  the  natural  draft;  a 
blast-furnace,  one  in  which  the  heat  is 
intensified  by  the  injection  of  a strong- 
current  of  air  by  artificial  means;  a 
reverberatory  furnace,  one  in  which  the 
flames  in  passing  to  the  chimney  are 
thrown  down  by  a low-arched  roof  upon 
the  objects  which  it  is  intended  to  ex- 
pose to  their  action. 

FURNEAUX  ISLANDS  (fer'no),  a 
group  belonging  to  Tasmania,  at  the 
east  end  of  Bass  Strait,  including 
Flinders  Island  with  an  area  of  513,000 
acres;  Cape  Barren  Island,  110,000  acres, 
and  Clarke  Island,  20,000  acres.  The 
inhabitants,  who  number  about  620, 
many  of  them  “half-castes,”  procure  a 
living  by  seal-fishing  and  preserving 
mutton-birds,  a species  of  petrel. 

FUR'NESS,  Horace  Howard,  Ameri- 
can Shakespearean  scholar,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia  in  1833.  His  Variorum 
Shakespeare  issued  in  thirteen  volumes, 
1871-1891  is  everywhere  received  as  a 
monument  of  scholarship.  Associated 
with  him  in  his  work  was  his  wife,  her- 
self author  of  a concordance  to  Shake- 
speare’s poems  and  his  son  Horace 
H-oward  Furness,  Jr. 

FUR-SEAL,  a name  given  to  several 
of  the  Otariidee  or  “eared”  seals  which 
have  a dense  covering  of  fine  under  fur. 
The  best  known  and  most  valuable  is  the 
fur-seal  or  sea-bear  of  some  of  the  islands 
connected  with  Alaska,  especially  St. 
Paul’s  and  St.  George’s,  where  it  breeds. 

FURTH  (furt),  a town  in  Bavaria,  6 
miles  w.n.w.  of  Nurnberg,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Pegnitz  with  the  Rednitz. 
Pop.  54,820. 

FURZE,  the  common  furze  is  a low 
shrubby  plant,  very  hardy,  and  very 
abundant  in  barren,  heathy,  sandy,  and 
gravelly  soils  throughout  the  west  of 
Europe.  The  stem  is  generally  2 or  3 
feet  high,  much  branched  and  most  of 


FUSE 


GABORIAU 


the  leaves  converted  into  spines.  The 
flowers  are  solitary  and  yellow.  It  often 
covers  exclusively  large  tracts  of  coun- 
try, and  makes  a splendid  appearance 
when  in  flower.  It  is  used  as  fuel,  and  | 
soinetimes  the  tops  of  the  branches  are 
used  (especially  the  young  tops)  as  fod- 
der for  horses  and  cattle,  after  having 
been  beaten  or  bruised  to  soften  the 
prickles. 

FUSE,  a tube  filled  with  combustible 
matter,  used  in  blasting,  or  in  discharg- 
ing hollow  projectiles,  etc.  There  are 
many  varieties  in  use,  such  as  the  fuse 
used  in  mining  and  quarrying,  which 
usually  consists  of  a tube  filled  with  a 
slow-burning  composition,  which  grad- 
ually burns  down  to  the  charge;  the  con- 
cussion and  percussion  fuses  for  hollow 
projectiles,  which  explode  the  charge 
when  an  object  is  struck;  the  electric 
fuse,  which  is  ignited  by  the  passage  of 
an  electric  spark  through  it ; and  time  or 
mechanical  fuses,  used  in  some  forms  of 
torpedo,  and  with  such  explosives  as 
dynamite  and  gun-cotton. 

FUSEE',  the  cone  or  conical  part  of  a 
watch  or  clock,  round  which  is  wound 
the  chain  or  cord.  It  is  a mechanical 
contrivance  for  equalizing  the  power  of 
the  mainspring;  for  as  the  action  of  a 
spring  varies  with  its  degree  of  tension. 


Bari'el  and  fusee  of  a watch. 

the  power  derived  from  the  force  of  a 
spring  requires  to  be  modified  according 
to  circumstances  before  it  can  become  a 
proper  substitute  for  a uniform  power 
In  order,  therefore,  to  correct  this  irregu- 
lar action  of  the  mainspring,  the  fusee  on 
which  the  chain  or  catgut  acts  is  made 


G,  the  seventh  letter  in  the  English 
alphabet.  English  g hard  is  a gutteral 
mute,  the  “voiced”  or  soft  or  sonant 
sound  corresponding  to  the  “breathed” 
or  hard  or  surd  sound  k (or  c hard).  This 
sound  of  g is  what  the  letter  always  has 
before  a (except  in  gaol),  o,  u,  and  when 
initial  also  before  e and  i in  all  words  of 
English  origin,  and  when  final.  The  soft 
sound  of  g,  or  that  which  it  more  com- 
monly has  before  e,  i,  and  y,  as  in  gem, 
gin,  gymnastics,  is  a palatal  sound  the 
same  as  that  of  j,  and  did  not  occur  in 
the  oldest  English  or  Anglo-Saxon. 

G,  in  music,  (a)  the  fifth  note,  and  dom- 
inant of  the  normal  scale  of  C,  called 
also  sol;  (b)  the  lowest  note  of  the  grave 
hexachord;  in  the  Guidonian  system 
gamma  ut;  (c)  a name  of  the  treble  clef, 
which  is  seated  on  the  G or  second  line 
of  the  treble  staff,  and  which  formerly 
had  the  form  of  G. 

GA'BION,  a large  wickerwork  basket 
of  cylindrical  form,  but  without  bottom. 
In  a siege,  when  forming  a trench,  a row 
of  gabions  is  placed  on  the  outside 
nearest  the  fortress,  and  filled  with  earth 
as  it  is  thrown  from  the  trench,  so  as  to 


somewhat  conical,  so  that  its  radius  at 
every  point  may  be  adapted  to  the 
strength  of  the  spring. 

FUSEL-OIL,  a heavy  oily  inflamma- 
ble fluid  with  a high  boiling-point,  dis- 
agreeable cutting  odor,  and  pungent 
taste,  which  is  separated  in  the  rectifica- 
tion of  ordinary  spirit  distilled  from 
grain,  malt,  potatoes,  molasses,  beet- 
root, etc.  The  composition  of  this  fluid 
depends  on  the  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  spirit,  but  it  may  be 
said  to  consist  to  a large  extent  of  ethylic 
and  amylic  alcohol.  Fusel-oil  acts  very 
deleteriously  on  the  animal  system,  and 
,this  is  the  reason  why  inferior  spirits  are 
so  injurious  in  their  effects. 

FUSIBLE  METAL,  an  alloy,  usually 
of  lead,  tin,  and  bismuth,  compounded 
in  such  definite  proportions  as  to  melt  at 
a given  low  temperature.  In  steam- 
engines,  a plug  of  fusible  metal  is  place'd 
in  the  skin  oUthe  boiler,  so  as  to  melt 
and  allow  the  steam  to  escape  when  a 
dangerous  heat  is  reached. 

FUSIBLE  PORCELAIN,  a silicate  of 
alumina  and  soda  obtained  from  cryo- 
lite and  sand,  fused  and  worked  as 
glass. 

FUSILIERS,  formerly  soldiers  armed 
with  a fusil  or  light  flint-lock  musket 
closely  resembling  a carbine.  The  name 
is  given  to  nine  or  ten  regiments  in  the 
British  army,  which  differ  from  other 
regiments  of  the  line  chiefly  in  the  busby 
worn  by  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers. 

FUSING-POINT,  the  degree  of  tem- 
perature at  which  a substance  melts  or 
liquefies.  This  point  is  very  different  for 
different  metals.  Thus  potassium  fuses 
at  136°  Fahr.,  bismuth  at  504°,  lead  at 
619°,  zinc  at  680°,  silver  1832°,  gold 
2282°.  Malleable  iron  requires  the 
highest  heat  of  a smith’s  forge  (2912°); 
while  cerium,  platinum,  and  some  other 
metals  are  infusible  in  the  heat  of  a 


smith’s  forge,  but  are  fusible  before  the 
oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe.  See  F reezing, 
Fusing  and  Boiling  Points. 

FUSION,  the  conversion  of  a solid 
body  into  the  liquid  state  by  direct 
heat,  as  distinguished  from  solution,  in 
which  the  effect  is  produced  by  means 
of  a liquid.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to 
draw  a line  between  the  two,  for  the 
main  difference  is  in  the  temperature, 
and  when  a flux  is  employed  all  distinc- 
tion disappears.  The  term  is  specially 
applied  to  the  action  of  heat  on  the 
metals,  but  it  is  extended  to  any  solid 
matter;  thus  the  passage  of  ice  into 
water  at  32°  F.  is  true  fusion.  There  are 
bodies  like  carbon,  lime,  magnesia, 
zirconia,  and  other  metallic  oxides, 
which  are  practically,  if  not  absolutely, 
infusible.  See  Fusing-point. 

FUST,  Johann,  a goldsmith  of  Mainz, 
associated  with  Gutenberg  and  Schoffer 
in  connection  with  the  origin  of  printing. 
He  probably  died  of  the  plague  in  1466. 
See  Printing. 

FUSTIAN,  a cotton  or  mixed  linen  and 
cotton  fabric  "with  a pile  like  that  of 
velvet  but  shorter.  It  includes  corduroy, 
moleskin,  velveteen,  etc. 

FUSTIC,  the  wood  of  a tree  of  the  mul- 
berry order  growing  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  a large  and  handsome  tree,  anti  the 
timber,  though,  like  most  other  dye- 
woods,  brittle,  or  at  least  easily  splin- 
tered, is  hard  and  strong.  It  is  exten- 
sively used  as  an  ingredient  in  the  dye- 
ing of  yellow,  and  is  largely  imported 
for  that  purpose. — Young  Fustic  is  the 
wood  of  the  Venice  sumach,  a south 
European  shrub  with  smooth  leaves  and 
a remarkable  feathery  inflorescence.  It 
yields  a fine  orange  color,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  durable  without  a mor- 
dant. 

FYZABAD,  or  FAIZABAD,  a town  in 
British  India.  Pop.,  including  canton- 
ments, in  1901,  75,085. 


G 


form  a protection  against  the  fire  of  the 
besieged.  Each  gabion  is  about  20 
inches  in  diameter  and  33  inches  in 


Part  of  trench  with  gabions  fascines. 

height,  but  this  height  is  usually  in- 
creased by  placing  a row  of  fascines  on 
the  top  after  the  interior  has  been  filled 
up. 

GABLE,  the  triangular  end  of  a house, 
or  other  building,  from  the  eaves  to  the 
top;  gable  door,  a door  pointed  Tit  top 
like  a gable. 


GABORIAU,  Emile,  a French  novelist, 
born  1834,  died  in  Paris  1873.  After 


Gable  of  the  south  transcept  door  of  Notre 
Paris;  13th  century. 

contributing  to  the  smaller  Parisian 
journals  short  sketches  he  achieved  a 


GABRIEL 


GAGE 


considerable  success  by  his  novel  Dossier 
No  113  (1866).  He  continued  to  work 
this  vein  in  a series  of  clever  stories  deal- 
ing with  crime  and  its  detection ; Le 
I Crime  d’Orcival,  L’ Affaire  Lerouge,  Les 
Esclaves  de  Paris,  La  Vie  Infernale,  La 
Corde  au  Cou,  L’ Argent  des  Autres,  etc. 

GAB'RIEL  (“hero  or  man  of  God”), 
according  to  Biblical  history,  the  angel 
who  announced  to  Zacharias  the  birth 
of  John,  and  to  Mary  the  birth  of  the 
Savior.  In  Jewish  mythology  he  is  one 
of  the  seven  archangels.  The  rabbins 
say  he  is  the  angel  of  death  for  the 
Israelites,  and  according  to  the  Talmud 
he  is  a prince  of  fire,  who  presides  over 
thunder  and  the  ripening  of  fruits.  In 
Mohammedan  theology  he  is  one  of  the 
four  angels  employed  in  writing  the 
divine  decrees,  and  the  angel  of  revela- 
tion, in  which  capacity  he  dictated  the 
Koran  to  Mohammed. 

GAD  (“a  troop”),  one  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  which  took  its  name 
from  Gad,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Zillah. 
At  the  time  of  the  exodus  the  tribe  num- 
bered 45,650  men  of  twenty  years  old 
and  upwards;  and  as  being  a pastoral 
tribe  they  were  assigned  a rich  district  in 
Gilead  between  Reuben  and  Manasseh. 
See  Josh.  xiii.  24-28. 

GADFLY,  a name  commonly  applied 
to  various  insects,  is  about  7 lines  in 
length;  thorax  yellow,  with  a black 
band;  abdomen  white;  terminal  seg- 
ments fulvous;  wings  dusky.  This 


Gadfly,  natural  size. 


species  attacks  the  horse  also,  the  female 
depositing  her  eggs  in  the  skin  of  these 
animals  in  considerable  numbers.  In  a 
short  time  the  eggs  are  matured,  ■ and 
produce  a larva  or  worm,  which  im- 
mediately pierces  the  skin,  raising  large 
lumps  or  tumors  filled  with  pus,  upon 
which  the  larva  feeds.  It  deposits  its  eggs 
upon  such  parts  of  the  skin  of  horses  as 
are  subject  to  be  much  licked  by  the 
.animal,  and  thus  they  are  conveyed  to 
the  stomach,  where  the  heat  speedily 
hatches  the  larvae,  too  well  known  under 
the  name  of  botts.  Another  species  de- 
posits its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep, 
where  the  larva  is  hatched,  and  im- 
mediately ascends  into  the  frontal 
sinuses,  attaching  itself  very  firmly  to 
the  lining  membrance  by  means  of  two 
strong  hooks  situated  at  its  mouth. 
Other  species  infest  the  buffalo,  camel, 
stag,  etc.  Even  rhinoceroses  and  ele- 
phants are  said  not  to  be  altogether 
exempt  from  their  attacks.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  genus  are  two  enor- 
mous eyes,  usually  of  a greenish-yellow 
colored,  rayed  or  spotted  with  purple, 
antennae  scarcely  longer  than  the  head. 


I the  last  joint  with  five  divisions.  These 
insects  suck  the  blood  of  horned  cattle, 
horses,  and  sometimes  even  of  men. 

GAD'OLINITE,  a mineral,  a silicate  of 
yttrium,  with  a considerable  proportion 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  of  the  oxides  of 
iron,  cerium,  lanthanum,  glucinum,  and 
sometimes  of  other  bases  It  is  usually 
found  in  dull,  amorphous  ^masses  dis- 
seminated through  granite;*is  black,  or 
very  dark  green,  with  a resinous  luster. 
It  was  named  after  the  mineralogist 
Gadolin,  professor  at  Abo,  1785-1822. 

GADSDEN,  Christopher,  American 
patriot;  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  in 
1724.  He  was,  in  1765,  elected  a dele- 
gate to  the  Intercolonial  convention 
held  in  New  York  City  to  protest  against 
the  stamp  act.  In  1774  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  first  Continental  congress  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1778  he  was  a member 
of  the  State  Constitutional  convention 
of  South  Carolina.  Elected  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  state,  he  signed  the 
capitulation  of  Charleston  when  that 
city  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  in  May,  1780.  In  1782  he  was 
elected  governor  of  South  Carolina,  but 
refused  to  accept  the  office,  pleading 
that  he  was  too  old.  He  died  in  1805. 

GADSDEN,  James,  American  soldier 
and  diplomatist,  t'Orn  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1788.  He  served  with  marked 
efficiency  in  the  War  of  1812,  was  ap- 
pointed aide-de-camp  to  General  Jack- 
son  in  1818,  participated  in  the  Seminole 
war,  was  appointed  military  inspector 
of  the  southern  division  in  1820,  and 
subsequently  conducted  the  removal  of 
the  Seminole  Indians  to  the  southern 
part  of  Florida.  In  1853  he  was  sent  to 
Mexico  as  U.  States  minister,,  and  in 
December  of  that  year  concluded  the 
treaty  which  provided  for  che  readjusl- 
ment  of  the  boundary  between  the  two 
counties,  and  the  acquisition  by  the 
U.  States  of  the  tract  of  land  subse- 
quently known  as  the  “Gadsden  pur- 
chO/SG 

GADSDEN  PURCHASE,  the,  tract  of 
land  lying  partly  within  the  present 
New  Mexico  and  partly  within  the 
present  Arizona,  purchased  from  Mexico 
by  the  U.  States  in  1874.  It  embraces 
45,535  sq.  miles,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Gila  river,  on  the  east  by  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Colorado 
and  has  an  extreme  breadth  from  north 
to  south  of  120  miles.  For  this  the  U. 
States  gave  the  sum  of  $10,000,000, 
while  Mexico,  besides  making  the  ces- 
sion, agreed  (1)  to  the  abrogation  of  the 
eleventh  article  of  the  treaty  of  Guada- 
lupe Hidalgo  (q.  v.),  and  (2)  to  the 
abandonment  of  all  damage  claims  aris- 
ing from  Indian  incursions  between  1848 
and  1853.  The  land  was  regarded  as  of 
little  use  for  agricultural  purposes,  and 
was  purchased  largely  with  a view  to 
settling  boundary  disputes  in  that  quar- 
ter between,  the  two  governments  and  to 
secure  a desirable  route  for  the  projected 
Southern  pacific  railroad.  The  treaty 
of  sale  was  negotiated  with  Santa  Anna 
by  James  Gadsden  (q.v.),  then  minister 
to  Mexico,  in  December,  1853,  and,  after 
undergoing  modifications  in  the  U. 
States  senate,  was  finally  ratified  and 
proclaimed  on  June  30,  1854,  congress 
passing  the  necessary  legislation  ■ on 
August  5th.  The  «3le  met  with  much ' 


opposition  in  Mexico,  and  caused  the 
banishment  of  Santa  Anna  in  1855. 

GADWALL',  the  common  name  of  a 
species  of  duck  not  so  large  as  the  mal- 
lard, with  long  pointed  wings  and  a vig- 
orous and  rapid  flight.  North  America 
as  far  down  as  South  Carolina  is  its 
favorite  habitat. 

GAEL  (gal),  the  name  of  a branch  of 
the  Celts  inhabiting  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Gadhel  or  Gael  is  the  only  name  by 
which  tho.se  who  speak  ihe  Gaelic  lan- 
guage are  known  to  themselves.  By 
way  of  distinction  the  Highlanders  of 
Scotland  call  themselves  Gael  Albinnich 
(Gaels  of  Albin)  and  the  Celtic  popula- 
tion oi,  Ireland  call  themselves  Gael 
Erinnich  (Gaels  of  Erin). 

Gaelic  is  the  name  now  generally  re- 
stricted to  that  dialect  of  the  Celtic  lan- 
guage which  is  spoken  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotlands,  and  hence  distinguished 
from  Manx  and  Irish,  the  other  two 
kindred  dialects,  which  scholars  of  the 
present  day  include  under  the  name  (or 
rather  spelling)  Gaedhelic.  The  modern 
Gaelic  differs  to  some  extent  from  the 
Irish  in  pronunciation,  in  grammar,  in 
.idioms,  and  in  vocabulary;  The  litera- 
ture of  the  Gaelic  language  is  somewhat 
scanty,  and  is  much  less  ancient  and 
important  than  the  Irish.  The  earliest 
written  specimens  of  Gaelic  are  scraps 
contained  in  the  Book  of  Deer,  a religious 
manual  belonging  to  the  early  part  of 
the  12th  century.  To  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries  a considerable  number  of 
pieces  belong.  A collection  of  the  older 
poetry,  ascribed  to  Ossian  and  others, 
was  made  in  the  first  half  of  the  16th 
century  by  Sir  James  Maegregor,  dean  of 
Lismore — hence  called  “The  Dean  of 
Lismore’s  Book.”  Robert  Calder 
Mackay,  or  Robb  Donn,  and  Duncan 
Ban  Mlintyre,  of  Glenorchy,  are  the  two 
most  noteworthy  poets  among  the 
Scottish  Highlanders  in  imodern  times. 
They  both  belong  to  the  18th  century. 
This  century  also  saw  the  publication  of 
the  Bible  in  Gaelic,  the  Irish  Bible  hav- 
ing been  previously  well  known  in  the 
Highlands.  The  so-called  poems  of 
Ossian  appeared  about  the  same  time, 
but  in  English,  and  it  was  not  till  1818 
that  the  corresponding  Gaelic  text 
appeared.  A series  of  tales  and  legends 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  have  been 
collected  and  published  by  J.  F.  Camp- 
bell. Various  English  -works  have  been 
translated  into  Gaelic,  and  several  col- 
lections of  Gaelic  poetry  were  published 
in  the  19th  century,  as  well  as  Gaelic 
periodicals.  Gaelic  poetry  still  continues 
to  be  written  not  only  in  Scotland  but 
even  in  America. 

GAFF,  a spar  used  in  ships  to  extend 
the  upper  edge  of  fore-and-aft  sail 
which  are  not  set  on  stays.  The  fore-end 
of  the  gaff,  where  it  embraces  the  mast, 
is  termed  the  jaw,  the  outer  end  the 
peak.  The  jaw  forms  a semicircle,  and  is 
secured  in  its  position  by  a jaw-rope  pass- 
ing round  the  mast. 

GAGE,  Lyman  Judson,  American 
financier  was  born  in  De  Ruyter,  Mad- 
ison CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  1836.  In  1868  he  be- 
came assistant  cashier  of  the  First 
national  bank  of  Chicago,  and  in  1891 
became  its  president.  In  1892  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  board  of  directors 


GAGfi 

of  the  World’s  Columbian  exposition. 
In  1897  he  was  appointed  by  President 
McKinley  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
which  office  he  continued  to  hold  in 
McKinley’s  second  administration  and 
in  that  of  President  Roosevelt’s  up  to 
January,  1902,  when  he  resigned. 

GAGE,  Thomas,  Lord,  was  born  in 
England  in  1720.  He  entered  the  army 
at  an  early  age,  was  made  major-general 
and  governor  of  Montreal  in  1761  and 
in  1763  succeeded  to  the  command  of 
the  British  forces  in  America.  In  1774 


General  Gage. 


he  was  appointed  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  in  that  capacity  was  in- 
trusted with  carrying  into  effect  the  Bos- 
ton Port  Act.  The  battle  of  Lexington 
in  which  a detachment  sent  by  him  on 
April  18,  1775,  to  destroy  the  cannon 
and  ammunition  at  Concord  was  de- 
feated, inaugurated  the  American  Rev- 
olutionary War.  Although  Gage  gained 
the  nominal  victory  at  Bunker  Hill  he 
was  unable  to  raise  the  siege  at  Bcfston 
and  he  was  shortly  after  superseded  by 
General  Howe.  He  died  in  1787. 

GAG  RULES,  the  name  given  to 
the  resolutions  passed  by  the  house 
of  representatives  in  1837  against 
the  reading,  referring,  debating  or 
printing  of  any  petition  praying  for 
the  interference  of  the  national  govern- 
ment with  the  institution  of  slavery  in 
any  part  of  the  United  States.  Each 
year  at  the  opening  of  congress  an  effort 
was  made  to  rescind  the  rule  but  not 
not  until  1844  was  it  successful. 

GAHNITE,  a name  given  to  auto- 
molite  after  Gahn.  It  is  a native  alumi- 
nate  of  zinc,  crystallizes  in  octa-  and 
tetra-hedrons,  is  of  dark  green  or  black 
color,  and  is  not  affected  by  the  blow- 
pipe, or  by  acids  or  alkalies. 

GAINSBOROUGH,  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish painter  was  born  at  Sudbury,  in 
Suffolk,  in  1727.  He  was  one  of  the 
original  thirty-six  academicians.  He 
rivaled  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  a por- 
trait-painter, and  showed  no  less  original- 
ity in  landscape.  His  works  are  now 
very  highly  esteemed,' more  so  than  at 
any  previous  time.  His  death  took  place 
in  1788. 

GAIUS,  or  CAIUS,  a Roman  lawyer  of 
the  time  of  Adrian  and  Antoninus  Pius, 
of  whose  life  very  little  is  known.  Of  his 
numerous  works,  his  Institutes  are  par- 
ticularly important; first,  as  having  been 
for  centuries,  down  to  the  time  of  Jus- 
tinian, one  of  the  most  common  manuals 
of  law;  secondly,  as  having  been  the 
foundation  of  the  official  compendium 
of  tI:o  law  which  occupies  an  important 
place  in  the  refonn  of  the  judicial  system 
by  Juetiiiian;  and  thirdly,  as  tlie  only 


tolerably  full,  systematic,  and  well- 
arranged  source  of  the  old  Roman  law. 
The  bulk  of  the  work  in  MSS.  was  dis- 
covered in  1816  by  Niebuhr. 

GALAP'AGOS,  a group  of  thirteen 
islands  of  volcanic  origin  in  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean,  about  600  miles  west  of 
the  coast  of  Ecuador,  to  which  they  be- 
long; area,  2950  sq.  miles.  The  most  im- 
portant are  Albemarle,  60  miles  long  by 
15  broad,  and  rising  4700  feet  above  the 
sea;  Indefatigable,  Chatham,  Charles, 
James,  and  Narborough.  Of  these  some 
are  used  by  the  Republic  of  Ecuador  as 
penal  settlements.  Many  of  the  fauna 
and  flora  of  the  islands  are  peculiar  to 
them,  the  most  remarkable  being  a large 
lizard  and  the^elephant  tortoise. 

GALATE'A,  in  classic  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  who  re- 
jected the  suit  of  the  Cyclops  Poly- 
phemus and  gave  herself  to  the  Sicilian 
shepherd  Acis.  The  monster  having 
surprised  them  crushed  Acis  beneath  a 
rock. 

GALATIA,  the  ancient  name  of  an 
extensive  region  in  Asia  Minor,  so  called 
from  its  Gallic  inhabitartts,  who  in  the 
first  place  formed  part  of  the  invading 
ffiordes  of  Gauls  under  Brennus  in  the  3d 
century  b.c.  These  were  compelled  by 
Attalus,  king  of  Pergamos,  to  settle 
within  well-defined  limits  between  Paph- 
lagonia,  Pontus,  Cappadocia,  Lycaonia, 
Phrygia,  and  Bithynia.  With  the  Gauls 
were  intermingled  a considerable  pro- 
portion of  Greeks;  heUce  the  inhabitants 
were  often  called  Gallogrseci,  as  well  as 
Galatians. 

GALATIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  the 
most  important  epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
written  probably  about  56  a.d.,  soon 
after  his  second  visit  to  Galatia,  recorded 
in  Acts  xviii.  23.  It  was  directed  against 
the  spread  of  Judaistic  practices  in  the 
Galatian  churches  and  especially  against 
the  practice  of  circumcision.  It  has  been 
the  subject  of  numerous  commentaries 
by  Luther,  Winer,  Meyer,  Ellicott, 
Alford,  and  others. 

GALATZ,  or  GALACZ,  a town  and 
port  in  Roumania,  in  Moldavia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Danube,  between  the 
confluence  of  the  Sereth  and  Pruth. 
When  made  a free  port  in  1834  it  had 
only  8000  inhabitants,  but  the  popula- 
tion has  since  grown  to  80,000.  It 
ceased  to  be  a free  port  in  1883. 

GAL'AXY,  in  astronomy,  that  long 
luminous  track  which  is  seen  at  night 
stretching  across  the  heavens  from 
horizon  to  horizon,  and  which,  when 
fully  traced,  is  found  to  encompass  the 
heavenly  sphere  like  a girdle.  This 
luminous  appearance  is  occasioned  by  a 
multitude  of  stars  so  distant  and  blended 
as  to  be  distinguishable  only  by  the 
most  powerful  telescopes.  At  one  part  of 
its  course  it  divides  into  two  great 
branches,  which  remain  apart  for  a dis- 
tance of  150°  and  then  reunite;  there  are 
also  many  other  smaller  branches  that 
it  gives  off.  At  one  point  it  spreads  out 
very  widely,  exhibiting  a fan-like  ex- 
panse of  interlacing  branches  nearly  20° 
broad;  this  terminates  abruptly  and 
leaves  here  a kind  of  gap.  At  seyeral 
points  are  seen  dark  spots  in  the  midst  of 
some  of  the  brightest  portions;  one  of  the 
most  easily  distinguished  of  these  dark 
spots  has  long  been  known  as  the  “coal- 


GALIGIA 

sack.”  , According  to  Herschel’s  hypo- 
thesis, our  sun  and  planetary  system"^ 
form  part  of  the  milky  way. 

GALEN,  properly  Claudius  Galenus,  a 
Greek  physician,  born  .^..o.  130,  at  Perga- 
mus  in  Asia  Minor.  The  most  valuable 
of  his  works  were  those  dealing  with 
anatomy  and  physiology,  and  he  was 
the  first  to  establish  the  consultation  of 
the  pulse  in  diagnosis  and  prognosis. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  his 
authority  in  medicine  was  supreme. 

GALE'NA,  the  sulphide  of  lead,  found 
both  in  masses  and  crystallized  in  cubes, 
but  sometimes  in  truncated  octahedra; 
its  color  is  bluish-gray,-  like  lead,  but 
brighter ; luster  metallic ; texture  foliated, 
fragments  cubical;  soft,  but  brittle; 
specific  gravity,  7'22  to  7'759;  effer- 
vesces with  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids. 
For  the  most  part  it  contains  about  86'6 
per  cent  of  lead  and  13'4  of  sulphur, 
generally  some  silver,  and  also  anti- 
mony, zinc,  iron,  and  bismuth.  Where 
the  proportion  of  silver  is  high  it  is 
known  as  argentiferous  galena,  and 
worked  with  a view  to  the  extraction  of 
this  metal.  Galena  occurs  principally  in, 
the  older  or  primary  rocks,  being  found 
in  England  mainly  in  the  mountain 
limestone  (base  of  the  carboniferous 
formation).  In  the  U.  States  it  is  very 
abundant,  the  dep'osit  of  galena  in  wliich 
the  mines  of  Illinois  are  situated  being 
the  most  extensive  and  important 
hitherto  discovered. 

GALENA,  a city  of  remarkable  growth 
during  the  last  ten  years  in  Cherokee 
CO.,  Kan.,  seven  miles  west  of  Joplin, 
Mo.,  on  the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Fran-  ■ 
cisco  and  the  Kansas  City,  Fort  Scott 
and  Memphis  railroads.  It  is  en- 
gaged chiefly  in  mining,  being  the  center 
of  an  important  lead  and  zinc  region. 
Pop.  12,000. 

GALERIUS,  a Roman  emperor.  See 
Maximianus. 

GALESBURG,  a city  in  Knox  co., 
Illinois.  It  has  railroad  workshops,  iron 
foundries,  manufactures  of  agricultural  - 
implements,  etc.  ICnox  college  and 
Lombard  university  are  situated  here. 
Pop.  20,000. 

. GALICIA,  Kingdom  of,  a province  of 
Austria,  bounded  by  Russia,  Bukowina, 
Hungary,  and  Moravia;  area,  30,312  sq. 
miles;  pop.  (Polish  in  the  west,  Russniak 
in  the  east)  7,295,538.  The  great  physi- 
cal features  of  the  country  are,  in  a 
manner,  determined  by  the  Carpathians, 
which  form  a long  and  irregular  curve 
on  the  south,  and  send  out  branches  into 
Galicia.  Farther  to  the  north  the  hills 
subside  rapidly,  and  finally  merge  into 
vast  plains.  It' has  several  considerable 
rivers,  those  on  the  west  being  affluents 
of  the  Vistula,  those  in  the  east,  of  the  . 
Danube  and  Dniester.  The  climate  is 
severe,  particularly  in  the  south,  where 
more  than  one  of  the  Carpathian  summits 
rise  beyond  the  snow-line.  The  summers 
are  very  warm  but  comparative! 3’’  short. 
The  soil  in  general  is  fertile,  and  3’ields 
abundant  crops  of  cereals,  hemp,  flax, 
tobacco,  etc.  The  domestic  animals  in-  j 
elude  great  numbers  of  horned  cattle 
and  a fine  hardy  breed  of  horses.  Sheep 
are  in  general  neglected;  but  goats, 
swine,  and  poultry  abound,  and  bee- 
keeping is  practiced  on  a large  scale. 
Bears  and  wolves  are  still  found  in  the. 


GALICIA 


t 


GALLEON 


forests;  and  all  the  lesser  kinds  of  game 
are  in  abundance.  The  minerals  include 
marble,  alabaster,  copper,  calamine, 
coal,  iron,  and  rock-salt.  Only  the  last 
two  are  of  much  importance. 

GALICIA,  one  of  the  old  provinces  of 
Spain,  situated  in  the  n.w.,  and  bounded 
n.  and  w.  by  the  Atlantic,  s.  by  Portugal, 
and  e.  by  the  old  provinces  of  Asturias 
and  Leon.  It  is  now  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Coruna,  Lugo,  Orense,  and 
Pontevedra;  area,  11,212  sq.  miles. 
The  peasantry  are  very  poor,  and  many 
leave  for  service  in  other  parts  of  Spain. 
Pop.  1,941,023. 

GALILEE  , in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ, 
the  most  northern  provirfce  of  Palestine, 
bounded  on  the  e.  by  the  river  Jordan, 
on  the  s.  by  Samaria,  on  the  w.  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  Phcenicia,  and 
on  the  n.  by  Syria  and  the  Mountains  of 
Lebanon.  It  was  in  some  sense  the  cradle 
of  Christianity,  Nazareth,  Cana,  Caper- 
naum, Nain,  and  other  places  being  in- 
timately associated  with  the  life  of 
Christ.  The  inhabitants  of  this  country, 
mostly  poor  fishermen,  on  account  of 
theirignorance  and  simplicity  of  manners 
were  despised  by  the  Jews,  who,  by  way 
of  contempt,  called  Christians,  at  first, 
Galileans.  At  present  Galilee  is  included 
in  the  vilayet  of  Syria. 

GALILEE,  Sea  of,  also  called  Sea  of 
Chinnereth  or  Chinneroth,  and  the  Lake 
of  Gennesaret  or  Tiberias,  a pear- 
shaped  fresh-water  lake  in  Central 
Palestine,  12J  miles  long  by  7^  broad. 
It  was  apparently  formed  by  subsidence 
attended  with  volcanic  disturbance; 
and  is  682  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean.  On  the  east  the  coasts 
are  nearly  2000  feet  high,  deeply  fur- 
rowed by  ravines  but  flat  along  the 
summit.  The  whole  basin  is  bleak  and 
monotonous,  and  has  a scathed  volcanic 
look,  the  cliffs  and  rocks  along  the  shore 
being  of  hard  porous  basalt.  At  the 
time  of  Christ  ^here  were  on  its  shores 
nine  flourishing  cities,  of  which  seven 
are  now  uninhabited  ruins,  while  Mag- 
dala  and  Tiberias  are  both  in  a poverty- 
stricken  condition.  The  lake  still 
abounds  in  fish,  but  the  fishery  is  neg- 
l6Ct6Ci. 

GALILEI  (gal-i-la'e),  Galileo,  a most 
distinguished  Italian  physicist,  born 
18th  Feb.,  1564,  as  Pisa.  His  father 
Vincenzo  Galilei,  a nobleman  of  Florence 
procured  him  an  excellent  education  in 
literature  and  the  arts,  and  in  1581  he 
entered  the  University  of  Pisa.  At 
nineteen  the  swinging  of  a lamp  in  Pisa 
cathedral  led  him  to  investigate  the 
laws  of  the  oscillation  of  the  pendulum, 
which  he  subsequently  applied  in  the 
measurement  of  time;  and  in  1586  the 
works  of  Archimedes  suggested  his  in- 
vention of  the  hydrostatic  balance.  He 
now  devoted  his  attention  exclusively 
to  mathematics  and  natural  science, 
and  in  1589  was  made  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  University  of  Pisa^ 
In  1592  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  in  Padua,  where  he  con- 
tinued eighteen  years,  and  his  lectures 
acquired  European  fame.  Here  ho  made 
the  important  discovery  that  the  spaces 
through  which  a body  falls,  in  equal 
the  numbers  1,  b,  5,  V. 
♦V.  invent  he  improved  the 

thermometer,  and  made  some  interest- 

P.  E.— S3 


ing  observations  on  the  magnet.  To  the 
telescope,  which  in  Holland  remained 
not  only  imperfect  but  useless,  be  gave  a 
new  importance.  He  noted  the  irregu- 
larity of  the  moon’s  surface,  and  taught 
his  scholars  to  measure  the  height  of  its 
mountains  by  their  shadow.  A particular 
nebula  he  resolved  into  individual  stars, 
and  conjectured  that  the  milky  way 
might  be  resolved  in  the  same  manner. 
His  most  remarkable  discovery  was  that 
of  Jupiter’s  satellites  (1610),  and  he  ob- 
served, though  imperfectly,  the  ring  of 
Saturn.  He  also  detected  the  sun’s 
spots,  and  inferred,  from  their  regular 
advance  from  east  to  west,  the  rotation 
of  the  sun,  and  the  inclination  of  its 
axis  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  In  1610 
Cosmo  II.,  Grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  ap- 
pointed him  grand-ducal  mathematician 
and  philosopher,  and  with  increased 
leisure  he  lived  sometimes  in  Florence, 
and  sometimes  at  the  country  seat  of  his 
friend  Salviata,  where  he  gained  a de- 
cisive victory  for  the  Copernican  system 
by  the  discovery  of  the  varying  phases 
of  Mercury,  Venus,  and  Mars.  In  1611  he 
visited  Rome  for  the  first  time,  where  he 
was  honorably  received;  but  on  his  re- 
turn to  Florence  he  became  more  and 
more  involved  in  controversy,  which 
gradually  took  a theological  turn.  The 
monks  preached  against  him,  and  in 
1616  he  found  himself  again  obliged 
to  proceed  to  Rome,  where  he  is  doubt- 
fully said  to  have  pledged  himself  to 
abstain  from  promulgating  his  astro- 
nomical views.  In  1623  Galileo  replied 
to  an  attack  upon  him  in  his  Saggiatore, 
a masterpiece  of  eloquence,  which  drew 
upon  him  the  fury  of  the  Jesuits.  In  1632 
with  the  permission  of  the  pope,  he  pub- 
lished a dialogue  expounding  the  Coper- 
nican system  as  against  the  Ptolemaic. 
A congregation  of  cardinals,  monks,  and 
mathematicians,  all  sworn  enemies  of 
Galileo,  examined  his  work,  condemned 
it  as  highly  dangerous,  and  summoned 
him  before  the  tribunal  of  the  inquisi- 
tion. The  veteran  philosopher  was  com- 
pelled to  go  to  Rome  early  in  1633,  and 
was  condemned  to  renounce  upon  his 
knees  the  truths  he  had  maintained.  At 
the  moment  when  he  arose,  he  is  said 
(but  this  is  doubtful)  to  have  exclaimed, 
in  an  undertone,  stamping  his  foot, 
“E  pur  si  muove/’  (and  yet  it  moves). 
Upon  this  he  was  sentenced  to  the  dun- 
geons of  the  inquisition  for  an  indefinite 
time,  and  every  week,  for  tEree  years, 
was  to  repeat  the  seven  penitential 
psalms  of  David.  After  a few  days’  de- 
tention his  sentence  of  imprisonment 
swas  commuted  to  banishment  to  the 
villa  of  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany  at 
Rome,  and  then  to  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  at  Sienna.  He  was  afterward 
allowed  tfi  return  to  his  residence  at 
Arcetri,  near  Florence,  where  he  em- 
ployed his  last  years  principally  in  the 
.study  of  mechanics  and  projectiles.  The 
results  are  found  in  two  important  works 
on  the  laws  of  motion,  the  foundation  of 
the  present  system  of  physics  and  astron- 
omy. At  the  same  time  he  tried  to  make 
use  of  Jupiter’s  satellites  for  the  calcula- 
tion of  longitudes;  and  though  he 
brought  nothing  to  perfection  in  this 
branch,  hj  was  the  first  who  reflected 
systematically  on  such  a method  of 
fixing  geographical  longitudes.  He  was 


at  this  time  afflicted  with  a disease  in  his 
eyes,  one  of  which  was  wholly  blind,  and 
the  other  almost  useless,  when,  in  1637, 
he  discovered  the  libration  of  the  moon. 
Domestic  troubles  and  disease  em- 
bittered the  last  years  of  Galileo’s  life. 
He  died  8th  Jan.,  1642  (the  year  New- 
ton was  born).  His  remains  were  ulti- 
mately deposited  in  the  church  of  Sta. 
Croce,  at  Florence. 

GALL,  in  the  animal  economy.  See 
Gall-bladder,  Bile. 

GALL,  Franz  Joseph,  the  founder  of 
phrenology,  born  in  1758  in  Tiefenbrunn 
in  Baden.  After  a series  of  comparisons 
of  the  skulls  both  of  men  and  animals  he 
was  led  to  assign  the  particular  location 
of  twenty  organs.  Gall’s  discoveries, 
which  met  with  severe  criticism  at  least 
gave  an  impulse  to  the  accurate  anatom- 
ical study  of  the  brain.  Dr.  Gall  died 
in  1828. 

GALL,  St.  (German,  St.  Gallen),  a 
northeastern  frontier  canton  in  Switzer- 
land, abutting  on  Lake  Constance, 
partly  bounded  by  the  Rhine,  and  in- 
closing the  canton  of  Appenzell.  Its 
area  is  780  sq.  miles.  In  the  south  it  is 
one  of  the  loftiest  Alpine  districts  of 
Switzerland,  and  in  other  quarters  is 
more  or  less  mountainous.  It  belongs 
wholly  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine,  in  the 
valley  of  which  the  climate  is  compara- 
tively mild,  in  the  mountainous  districts 
it  is  very  rigorous.  The  constitution  is 
one  of  the  most  democratic  in  Switzer- 
land. German  is  the  language  spoken. 
Pop.  228,174. — St.  Gall,  the  capital  and 
the  see  of  a bishop,  is  situated  on  the 
Steinach,  2,165  feet  above  sea-level. 
Pop.  36,344. 

GALLAIT  (gal-la),  Louis,  Belgian 
historical  painter,  born  1812,  died  1887. 

GALLAND  (gal-an),  Antoine,  a French 
oriental  scholar,  born  in  Picardy  in 
1646,  principally  known  for  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Arabian  Nights  Entertain- 
ments (1704-1717),  the  first  into  any 
European  language.  He  died  in  1715 
while  engaged  in  translating  the  Koran. 

GALLATIN,  Albert,  American  states- 
man and  financier,  was  born  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  in  1761;  came  to  U.  States 
in  1780  and  after  poor  success  in  trade 
became  a teacher  of  French.  After  serv- 
ing in  Pennsylvania  legislature  became  a 
member  of  congress  and  was  a leading 
critic  of  the  poor  state  of  the  national 
finances.  Jefferson  in  1801  made  him 
secretary  of  the  treasury  and  in  the 
eleven  succeeding  years  he  prevented  the 
disorganization  of  the  public  financial 
system  and  laid  the  foundations  of 
business-like  administration.  From 
1816  to  1823  he  was  minister  to  France 
and  afterwards  minister  to  London.  He 
died  in  1849. 

GALL-BLADDER,  a small  membra- 
nous sac,  shaped  like  a pear,  whic  h re- 
ceives the  gall  or  bile  from  the  liver  by  the 
cystic  duct.  It  is  situated  on  the  inferior 
surface  of  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver. 

GALLE  (gal),  a seaport  near  the  south- 
west extremity  of  Ceylon,  on  a low 
rocky  projecting  point  of  land.  Pop. 
37,326. 

GAL'LEON,  formerly  a kind  of  vessel 
of  war,  used  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese, with  f,om  three  to  four  decks. 
In  more  lecent  times  those  vessels  were 
called  galleons  in  which  the  Spaniards 


GALLERY 


GALVANIC  BATTERY 


transported  treasure  from  their  Ameri- 
can colonies. 

GAL'LERY,  in  architecture,  a long, 
narrow  room,  the  length  of  which  is  at 
least  three  times  its  width,  often  built  to 
receive  a collection  of  picture’s.  Among 
the  most  renowned  European  art- 
galleries  are  those  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris, 
that  of  Versailles,  the  National  Gallery 
in  London,  the  Pitti  and  Uffizi  galleries 
at  Florence,  the  Dresden  Gallery,  the 
Real  Museo  of  the  Prado  at  Madrid,  the 
Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg,  the  gallery 
of  Berlin,  the  gallery  of  the  Museo 
Borbonico  at  Naples,  those  at  Venice, 
Antwerp,  Turin,  etfc.  The  term  gallery  is 
also  sometimes  applied  to  what  is  more 
properly  termed  a corridor,  likewise  to 
a platform  projecting  from  the  walls  of 
a building  supported  by  piers,  pillars, 
brackets,  or  consoles,  and  in  churches, 
theaters,  and  similar  buildings,  to  the 
upper  floors  going  round  the  building 
next  the  wall. 

GALLEY,  a low,  flat-built  vessel  with 
one  deck,  and  navigated  with  sails 
and  oars,  once  commonly  used  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  common  galleys 
varied  from  100  to  200  feet  in  length, 
those  of  smaller  sizes  being  known  re- 
spectively as  half-galleys  and  quarter 
galleys.  They  carried  as  many  as  twenty 
oars  on  each  side,  each  oar  worked  by 
one  or  more  men,  and  they  had  com- 
monly two  masts  with  lateen  sails. 
Raised  structures  in  the  stern,  and  even 
in  the  prow,  were  not  uncommon.  These, 
however,  were  more  fully  developed  in 
the  kind  of  galley  known  as  the  galleass, 
which  carried  three  masts,  from  200  to 
300  rowers,  and  sometimes  twenty  guns. 
France  formerly  had  a number  of 
galleys  for  service  in  the  Mediterran- 
ean, in  which  convicts  were  forced  to 
labor.  The  term  galley  is  also  applied  to 
the  ships  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  especially  to  their  war-ships, 
which  were  propelled  chiefly  by  oars. 

GALLEY-SLAVE,  a person  condemned 
to  work  at  the  oar  on  board  a galley, 
being  chained  to  the  deck.  This  mode  of 
punishment  was  common  in  France 
previous  to  1748. 

GALL-FLY,  a name  for  several  insects 
which  form  the  morbid  products  known 
as  galls,  each  species  seeming  to  be  ad- 
dicted to  a particular  plant  and  a par- 
ticular part  of  the  plant.  The  tumor  or 
gall  is  due  to  the  morbid  action  of  an 
irritating  fluid  deposited  with  the  egg  of 
the  insect.  The  large  galls  at  the  base  of 
oak  leaves  are  produced  by  a fly  of  a 
brown  color,  with  black  antennse,  chest- 
nut brown  legs,  and  white  wings.  The 
small  galls  on  the  under  surface  of  oak 
leaves  are  due  to  another  species.  See 
Galls. 

GALLIC  ACID,  an  acid  which  derives 
its  name  from  the  gall-nut,  whence  it 
was  first  procured  by  Scheele  in  1786. 
It  exists  ready  formed  in  the  seeds  of  the 
mango,  has  been  found  besides  in  many 
other  plants,  in  acorns,  colchicum, 
divi-divi,  hellebore  root,  sumach,  tea, 
walnuts,  etc.,  and  is  a product  of  the  de- 
composition of  tannic  acid.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  brilliant  prisms,  generally  of  a 
pale-yellow  color.  It  colors  the  persalts 
of  iron  of  a deep  bluish  black.  It  is  of 
extensive  use  in  the  art  of  dyeing,  as  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  principal  ingredi- 


ents in  all  the  shades  of  black,  and  is  em- 
ployed to  fix  or  improve  several  other 
colors.  It  is  well  known  as  an  ingredient 
in  ink.  See  Ink. 

GAL'LICAN  CHURCH,  a distinctive 
name  applied  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  France.  Latterly,  and  espe- 
cially since  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870 
the  position  of  the  Galilean  Church 
toward  the  popes  has  essentially  changed 
and  the  older  Gallicanism  may  now  be 
said  to  be  represented  by  the  Old  Catho- 
lics of  France. 

GAL'LIOT,  a Dutch  or  Flemish  vessel 
for  cargoes,  with  very  rounded  ribs  and 
flattened  bottom,  with  a mizzen-mast 


Dutch  galliot. 


placed  near  the  stern,  carrying  a square 
main-sail  and  main-top-sail,  a forestay^ 
to  the  main-mast  (there  being  no  fore- 
mast), with  forestay-sail  and  jibs. 

GALLIP'OLI,  a town  in  European 
Turkey,  on  a peninsula  of  the  same  name 
at  the  northeast  end  of  the  Dardanelles, 
128  miles  w.s.w.  of  Constantinople.  Pop. 
about  50,000. 

GAL'LIUM,  a rare  malleable  metal, 
discovered  by  spectrum  analysis  in  1875 
by  De  Boisbaudrai>  in  the  zinc-blende 
of  Pierre-fitte  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  of  a 
grayish-white  color,  has  a brilliant  luster, 
and  is  fused  by  the  mere  warmth  of  the 
hand.  In  its  properties  it  is  related  to 
aluminium. 

GALLON,  a standardmeasureof  capac- 
ity, containing  277.27384  cubic  inches 
being  equal  to  4 quarts  or  8 pints.  In 
England  formerly  three  different  gal- 
lons were  in  use,  the  old  corn-gallon  of 
268.8  cubic  inches,  the  old  wine-gallon 
of  231  cubic  inches,  and  the  old  beer- 
gallon  of  282  cubic  inches.  The  gallon 
of  231  cubic  inches  has  been  adopted  the 
standard  of  the  U.  States. 

GALLS,  gall-nuts  or  nut-galls,  a vege- 
table excrescence  produced  by  the  de- 
posit of  the  egg  of  an  insect  in  the  bark 
or  leaves  of  a plant.  The  galls  of  com- 
merce are  produced  b}'  a species  of 
Cynips  in  the  tender  shoots  of  a species 
of  oak,  abundant  in  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Persia,  etc.  They  are  spherical  and 
tubercular,  and  vary  in  magnitude  from 
the  size  of  a pea  to  that  of  a hazel-nut. 
White,  green,  and  blue  varieties  are 
recognized,  the  latter  kinds  being  the 
best.  They  are  inodorous,  but  are 
strongly  astringent  from  the  tannin'and 
gallic  acid  which  they  contain,  and 
which  are  their  chief  products.  Gall-nuts 
are  extensively  used  in  dyeing  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  ink,  and  they  are  also 
frequently  used  in  medicine.  They  are 


chiefly  imported  from  Aleppo,  Tripoli,* 
and  Smyrna.  The  Chinese  galls,  or  woo-? 
pei-tsze,  differ  from  the  foregoing  in  that' J 
they  are  really  an  unusually  massive^ 


Aleppo  gall  and  gall-fly. 

1,  Gall  split  to  show  the  cell  in  which -the 
larva  exists.  2,  Exterior  of  the  gall,  showing 
the  opening  by  which  the  perfect  insect  es- 
capes. 

kind  of  crust  or  cocoon,  such  as  the 
aphides  form  on  the  surface  of  a plant; 
the  tissues  of  the  plant  are  not  affected. 
Since  the  opening  of  the  Japanese  ports 
these  have  been  imported  in  consider- 
able quantities. 

GALVANI,  Luigi,  Italian  physician 
and  physiologist,  born  at  Bologna  1737, 
died  1798.  He  practiced  medicine  in 
Bologna,  and  was  in  1762  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  the  university. 
He  gained  repute  as  a comparative 
anatomist;  but  his  fame  rests  on  his 
theory  of  animal  electricity,  enunciated 
in  the  treatise  De  Viribus  Electricitatis 
in  Motu  Muscular!  Commentarius,  pub-»- 
lished  in  1791.  Twenty  years  before  the 
publication  of  this  treatise  he  had  been 
making  experiments  on  the  relations  of 
animal  functions  to  electricity.  In  1797 
he  was  deprived  of  his  chair  for  refusing 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
Cisalpine  republic,  but  was  restored  to  I 
it  in  less  than  a year. 

GALVANIC  BATTERY,  a combina-  ! 
tion  of  galvanic  cells.  In  a galvanic  cell  i 
chemical  action  takes  place  between  a I 
liquid  and  a metal — usually  zinc—  < 
which  is  partially  immersed  in  it;  and  : 
there  is  another  metal,  or  solid  conduct- 


Fig. 1.— Simple  galvanic  battery. 

ing  substance  of  some  kind,  also  par- 
tially immersed.  The  zinc  and  the  other 
solid  conductor  are  called  the  two  plates 
of  the  cell.  The  plates  must  not  be  al- 
lowed to  touch  each  other  in  the  liquid; 
but  a current  through  an  external  con- 
ductor can  be  obtained  by  connecting  ite 
ends  with  the  two  plates.  When  this 
connection  is  made  there  is  a complete 
circuit  round  which  the  current  flows, . 
its  course  being  from  the  zinc  plate  i 
through  the  liquid  to  the  other  plate, 
and  from  this  latter  through  the  exter- 
nal conductor  to  the  zinc  plate  again.  \ 
There  is  a continual  circulation  of  posi- , 
tive  electricity  in  this  direction  as  longj 
as  the  chemical  action  continues,  or,  | 
what  is  the  same  thing,  there  is  a con-i 


GALVANIZED  IRON 


GALVANOMETER 

v. 


tinual  circulation  of  negative  electricity 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  second  or 
inactive  plate  is  usually  either  of  copper, 
of  platinum,  or  still  more  frequently  of 
gas  carbon,  that  is,  the  carbon  which  is 
deposited  in  the  retorts  at  gas-works. 
The  liquid  which  acts  on  the  zinc  is  most 
frequently  dilute  sulphuric  acid — 1 part 
of  acid  to  6 or  8 of  winter.  In  some  of  the 
best  kinds  of  cell  there  are  two  liquids — 
one  in  contact  with  the  zinc  and  the 
other  with  the  inactive  plate,  with  a 


— Fig.  2. — Bunsen’s  battery. 

porous  partition  of  unglazed  earthenware 
between  them.  Fig.  1 shows  a battery  of 
four  cells  of  the  simplest  kind,  each  con- 
taining a plate  of  zinc  and  a plate  of 
copper  immersed  (except  their  upper 
portions)  in  dilute  acid  contained  in  a 
glass  vessel.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  copper  (c)  of  each  cell  is  connected 
with  the  zinc  (z)  of  the  next.  The  arrows 
show  the  direction  of  the  current.  Fig.  2 
represents  a very  common  form  of 
battery  called  Bunsen’s.  The  zinc  plate 
consists  of  a slit  cylinder  surrounding 
the  porous  vessel  in  which  the  carbon 
plate  stands,  the  whole  being  contained 
in  a glass  jar.  The  liquid  in  which  the 
zinc  is  immersed  is  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
and  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the  carbon 
is  strong  nitric  acid.  Fig.  3 represents 
a Danieli’s  cell,  which  differs  from  Bun- 
sen’s in  the  contents  of  the  porous  cell. 
The  plate  within  the  porous  cell  is  of 
copper,  and  the  liquid  in  contact  with 
the  copper  is  a saturated  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  crystals  of  which  are 
seen  heaped  up  round  the  top.  These 


Fig.  3.— Daulell’s  celL 


crystals  are  supported  by  a cage  of  cop- 
per wire,  and  are  intended  for  keeping 
the  solution  saturated. 

In  the  simpler  forms  of  galvanic  cell, 
such  as  that  represented  in  Fig.  1,  there 
is  a continual  evolution  of  hydrogen  at 
the  inactive  plate,  while  an  equivalent 
quantity  of  oxygen  enters  into  combina- 
tion with  the  zinc  plate,  and  goes  to 
form  sulphate  of  zinc.  Some  of  the 
evolved  hydrogen  adheres  to  the  copper 
plate  and  produces  a rapid  falling  off  in 
the  eletromotive  force  of  the  cell.  This 


action,  which  is  the  principal  cause  of 
the  rapid  weakening  of  the  current  in 
batteries  composed  of  such  cells,  is 
called  polarization.  The  purpose  of  the 
two-fluid  arrangement  illustrated  in  Figs. 
2 and  3,  is  to  intercept  the  hydrogen 
and  prevent  it  from  being  deposited  on 
the  copper  or  carbon  plate.  In  Daniell’s 
battery,  which  was  the  first  of  the  kind, 
the  hydrogen  is  taken  up  by  the  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  displaces 
copper,  which  is  deposited  on  the  cop- 
per plate.  In  Bunsen’s  it  is  taken  up  by 
the  nitric  acid,  which  is  thus  gradually 
converted  into  nitrous  acid. 

It  is  usual  to  amalgamate  the  zinc 
plates  of  a battery,  by  washing  them 
with  acid,  and  then  rubbing  them  with 
mercury.  The  reason  for  this  operation 
is,  that  when  ordinary  commercial  zinc 
is  used  without  amalgamation,  local 
currents  are  formed  between  different 
portions  of  the  same  plate,  owing  to 
inequalities  or  impurities.  This  local 
action,  as  it  is  called,  eats  away  the 
plates  without  contributing  to  the  cur- 
rent in  the  general  circuit.  Amalgama- 
tion renders  the  surface  uniform  and 
prevents  this  injurious  action. 

The  strength  of  the  current  given  by  a 
battery  depends  partly  on  the  electro- 
motive force  of  the  battery  and  partly 
on  its  resistance.  If  two  batteries  are 
.connected  into  one  circuit  in  such  a way 
that  they  tend  to  drive  currents  round 
it  in  opposite  directions,  the  one  which 
prevails  is  said  to  have  the  greater  elec- 
tromotive force.  The  electromotive  force 
is  proportional  to  the  number  of  cells, 
and  is  independent  of  their  size.  As 
regards  resistance,  the  current  will  be 
strongest  when  the  resistance  is  least, 
that  is  when  the  plates  are  very  large 
and  very  near  together. 

Whenever  chemical  action  takes  place, 
heat  is  produced;  but  in  the  ordinary  use 
of  a galvanic  battery  only  a portion  of 
this  heat  is  produced  in  the  cell  them- 
selves; the  rest  of  it  is  produced  in  the 
external  conductor.  When  we  heat  a 
wire  by  sending  the  current  of  a battery 
through  it,  the  heat  generated  in  the 
wire  is  a portion  of  the  heat  due  to  the 
chemical  action  in  the  cells.  In  cells  of 
high  electromotive  force  the  heat  due  to 
the  chemical  action  is  greater  (for  the 


first  cleansed  by  friction  and  the  action 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
plunged  into  a bath  composed  of  melted 
zinc  and  other  substance^,  as  sal- 
ammoniac,  or  mercury  and  potassium; 
more  properly  the  name  is  given  to 
sheets  of  iron  coated  first  with  tin  by  a 
galvanic  process,  and  then  with  zinc  by 
immersion  in  a bath  containing  fluid 
zinc  covered  with  sal-ammoniac  mixed 
with  earthy  matter.  So  long  as  the  coat- 
ing is  entire,  and  so  long  as  it  is  not  ex- 
posed to  corrosive  substances,  galvan- 
ized iron  is  very  durable. 

GALVANOMETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  an  electric  current  by  the  de- 


Flg. 1.— Astatic  galvanometer. 


flection  of  a magnetic  needle.  The  cur- 
rent flows  through  a wire  coiled  usually 
into  the  form  of  a circle,  which  is  placed 
vertically  in  the  magnetic  meridian  and 
surrounds  the  needle.  When  no  current 
is  passing  the  needle  points  north  and 
south,  and  the  galvanometer  should  be 
so  placed  that  the  needle  when  so  point- 
ing lies  in  the  plane  of  the  coil.  When  a 
current  passes  through  the  coil,  it  exerts 
a force  upon  the  needle  tending  to  set  it 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  coil — • 
that  is,  to  set  it  east  and  west.  The  action 
of  the  earth  on  the  other  hand  tends  to 
set  it  north  and  south,  and  it  will 
actually  take  an  intermediate  position 


same  quantity  of  zinc  dissolved)  than 
in  cells  of  low  electromotive  force.  It 
is  much  higher  for  a Bunsen  than  for  a 
Daniell  cell. 

GALVANIZED  IRON,  a name  loosely 
iven  to  sheets  of  iron  coated  with  zinc 
y a non-galvanic  process,  the  iron  being 


which  varies  with  the  strength  of  the 
current.  This  position  is  read  off  on  a 
graduated  circle  usually  by  means  of  a 
long  light  pointer  which  is  attached  to 
the  needle  at  right  angles.  In  some 
galvanometers,  as  in  that  represented  in 
Figure  2,  the  coil  can  be  turned  till  it 


GALVESTON 


GAME  LAWS 


overtakes  the  needle.  The  lower  grad- 
uated circle  is  for  the  purpose  of  meas- 
urinar  the  amount  of  this  rotation. 

For  iheasuring  very  feeble  currents,  it 
is  more  usual  to  employ  the  astatic 
galvanometer,  represented  in  lig.  1.  it 

has  two  needles,  a b,  a b (Fig.  3),  as 
nearly  equal  as  possible,  fastened  to  one 
upright  stem,  with  their  poles  pointing 
opposite  ways.  The  directive  actions  of 
the  earth  on  the  two  needles  are  opposite, 
and  hence  the  resultant  directive  action 
of  the  earth  on  the  two  combined  is  very 
small.  The  coil  of  the  galvanometer,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  so  placed  that  the 
current  tends  to  deflect  both  needles 


the  same  way.  The  coil,  which  is  shovm 
in  section  in  Fig.  3,  is  approximately 
rectangular,  its  longest  dimension  being 
horizontal.  One  of  the  needles  a b is 
just  above,  and  the  other  a b is  below 
the  upper  part  of  the  coil.  The  current 
in  this  part  of  the  coil  would  urge  them 
opposite  ways  if  their  poles  were  simi- 
larly directed,  but  as  their  poles  are  op- 
positely directed  it  urges  them  the  same 
way.  The  current  in  the  lower  part  and 
ends  of  the  coil  assists  in  deflecting  the 
lower  needle,  and  is  too  distant  froip 
the  upper  needle  to  have -jnuch  effect 
upon  it.  The  coil  is  thus  placed  m a 
position  of  great  advantage  as  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  and  the  deflection 
is  proportionately  large. 

Much  greater  sensitiveness  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  use  of  the  mirror-galvano- 
meter, Fig.  4.  The  round  box  in  the  cen- 
ter  contains  a coil  of  some  hundreds  of 
convolutions,  with  a very  small  needle 
fastened  to  a little  glass  mirror  sus- 
pended in  its  center  by  a silk  fiber,  i he 
mirror,  with  the  needle  fastened  to  its 
back,  is  shown  at  m in  Fig.  5.  Light  from 
a lamp  1 comes  through  the  hole  s and 
falls  upon  the  mirror,  which,  being 
slightly  concave,  reflects  it  to  a focus  on 
the  scale  aa,  where  a bright  image  of  the 
flame  is  accordingly  seen.  The  smallest 
angular  movement  of  the  mirror  caqses 
a very  visible  movement  of  the  bright 
image  on  the  scale.  The  curved  bar  m 
in  Fig.  4 is  a magnet  (called  the  controll- 
ing magnet),  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered,  and  turned  round.  One  use  of 
it  is  to  bring  the  needle  into  the  plane 
of  the  coil  when  the  coil  is  not  standing 
north  and  south.  It  is  better,  however, 
to  keep  the  coil  north  and  south,  and 
then  the  magnet  m can  be  used  to  annul 
the  earth’s  magnetism,  thus  conferring 
the  same  advantage  which  is  obtamei 
by  the  use  of  two  needles  in  the  astatic 
galvanometer. 

For  the  general  principle  which  gov- 
erns  the  deflection  of  a needle  by  a cur- 
rent, see  Electromagnetism. 

GAL'VESTON,  a city  and  seaport  of 
- Texas,  at  the  northeast  extremity  of 
Galveston  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  Gal- 
veston Bay,  about  450  miles  south  ly 
west  from  New  Orleans.  It  is  one  of  tlie 


most  flourishing  ports  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Large  quantities  of  cotton  are 
shipped,  the  export  to  Great  Britain 
alone  being-over  400,000  bales  annually. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  custom 
and  market  houses,  the  town-lmll,  a 
number  of  churches,  including  a Gothic 
Episcopal  Church  and  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
university  of  St.  Mary.  Immense  loss  of 
life  and  damage  to  property  was  caused 
by  a hurricane  in  1900.  Pop.  39,000. 

GAL'WAY,  a seaport  of  Western  Ire- 
land, prov.  of  Connaught,  capital  of 
county  of  same  name,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Corrib,  in  Galway  Bay,  117  nmes 
wes’t  of  Dublin.  Pop.  13,414.  The 
county,  which  is  washed  by  the  Atlantic, 
has  an  area  of  1,502,362  acres,  of  which 
one-eighth  is  under  crops.  In  the  north- 
west, or  district  of_  Connemara,  it  is 
rugged  and  mountainous;  in  the  east, 
level  but  extensively  covered  with  bog; 
and  ip  the  south,  fertile  and  tolerably 
well  cultivated,  producing  wheat,  bar- 
ley, and  oats.  Lough  Corrib,  which  lies 
wholly  within  it,  dividing  the  county 
into  the  e.  and  w.  districts,  is  the  third 
largest  lake  in  Ireland.  The  minerals 
include  lead,  linaestone,  marble,  and 
beautiful  serpentine.  The  fisheries  are 
valuable,  but  much  neglected.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  coarse  wool 
ens  and  linens.  Pop.  192;146. 

GAMA,  Dorn  Vasco  da,  the  first  navi- 
gator who  made  the  voyage  to  the  East 
Indies  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was 
born  in  1450  at  Sines,  Portugal,  of  a 
noble  family.  The  voyage  had  been  pro- 
jected under  John  II.,  and  his  successor, 
Emmanuel  the  Fortunate,  having  fitted 
out  four  vessels,  intrusted  Gama  with 
the  chief  command.  He  sailed  from 
Lisbon  on  July  8th,  1497,  and  doubling 
the  Cape,  visited  Mozambique,  Mom- 
baza,  Melinda,  and  Calicut,  returning  to 
Lisbon  in  1479.  For  this  exploit  he  was 
named  Admiral  of  the  Indies  and  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Dom,  with^  an  annual 
pension  and  extensive  privileges  in 
Indian  commerce.  In  the  year  1502  lie 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  a powerful 
fleet,  with  which  he  provided  for  the 
security  of  future  voyagers  by  founding 
establishments  at  Mozambique  and 
Sofala.  He  also  inflicted  signal  reprisals 
on  the  town  of  Calicut,  where  the  Portu- 
guese residents  had  been  massacred,  and 
established  the  first  Portuguese  factory 
in  the  Indies.  He  re-entered  Lisbon  in 
1503,  and  passed  the  next  twenty  years 
in  obscurity.  In  1524  he  was  appointed 
Viceroy  of  India  by  King  John  III.,  but 
his  administration  lasted  only  three 
months,  his  death  taking  place  at  Goa 
in  December  of  that  year. 

GAMA'LIEL,  the  name  of  two  persons 
mentioned  in  Bible  history,  of  whom  the 
first,  Gamaliel,  the  son  of  Pedahzui 
(Numbers  i.  10;  ii.  20;  vii.  54,  59;  x.  23), 
was  prince  or  head  of  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh.  The  other  and  better  known  Gama- 
liel is  mentioned  twice  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  as  a learned  doctor  of  the  law, 
ofdhe  sect  of  the  Pharisees. 

GAMBET'TA,  L6on  Michel,  a French 
orator  and  statesman,  born  in  1838  at 
Cahors,  of  a family  of  Genoese  extrac- 
tion. On  the  downfall  of  the  empire, 
afior  the  surrender  of  Sedan  in  1870,  a 
ko\  ci'.riiicnt  for  the  national  defense  was 


formed,  in  which  Gambetta  was  nomi- 
nated minister  of  the  interior.  The 
accidental  dischpge  of  a pistol  caused 
his  death  at  Paris  in  December,  1882. 

GAMBIA,  a British  colony  and  pro- 
tectorate in  West  Africa.  Pep.  90,  000 
(14,000  in  colony). 

GAMBIER  ISLANDS,  a group  of  small 
coral  islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  about 
lat.  23°  8'  s.  and  Ion.  134°  55'  w.;  be- 
longing to  France.  Pop.  about  2300. 

GAMBLING,  or  GAMING,  the  practice 
of  indulging  in  games  involving  some 
element  of  chance  or  hazard  with  a view 
to  pecuniary  gain.  In  many  countries 
such  games,  and  the  collateral  practices 
of  betting  on  events,  taking  shares  in 
lotteries,  etc.,  are  legally  prohibited  or 
restricted  as.  frequently  associated  \yith 
fraud  and  as  themselves  demoralizing. 
At  other  times  governments,  tempted 
by  the  prospect  of  gain,  have  openly  en- 
couraged gambling  by  licensing  garning- 
houses,  or  instituting  lotteries  under 
their  own  authority.  (See  Lottery.)  In 
France  public  gaming-tables  were  sup- 
pressed from  1st  January,  1838,  but 
lotteries  are  still  sometimes  carried  on. 
Previous  to  the  formation  of  the  Germp 
Empire  gambling  was  encouraged  in 
both  of  the  ways  referred  to  in  several 
of  the  principalities  of  Germany.  Baden- 
Baden,  in  the  Grand-duchy  of  Baden, 
and  Homburg,  in  Hesse-Homburg,  were 
the  two  most  famous  resorts  in  Europe 
of  the  frequenters  of  gaming-tables. 
After  the  formation  of  the  empire  gam- 
' ing  was  suppressed  in  these  places  (31st 
December,  1872),  and  since  that  time 
the  Italian  principality  of  Monaco  has 
become  the  last  public  resort  of  tl^s 
species  of  gambling. 

In  the  U.  States  one  who  keeps  a 
gambling  house  is  indictable  at  common 
law  for  maintaining  a nuisance,  and  one 
who  wins  another’s  money  with  false 
dice,  or  the  like,  is  punishable  as  a com- 
mon law  cheat. 

GAMBOGE,  a concrete,  vegetable,  in- 
spissated juice  or  sap,  or  gum-resiin 
yielded  by  several  specibs  of  trees,  with 
handsome  laurel  like  foliage  and  small 
yellow  flowers.  As  a drug  it  has  drastic 
purgative  properties,  but  it  is  seldom  ad- 
ministered alone.  In  doses  of  a drachm 
or  even  less  it  produces  death. 

GAME  LAWS,  laws  relating  to  the 
killing  of  certain  wild  animals  pursued 
for  sport,  and  called  game.  Formerly  in 
Britain  certain  qualifications  of  rank 
or  property  were  needed  to  constitute 
the  right  to  kill  game;  but  by  the  Game 
Act  of  Will.  IV.  the  necessity  for  any 
qualification  except  the  possession  of  a 
game  certificate  was  abolished,  and  the 
right  given  to  any  one  to  kill 'game  on 
his  own  land,  or  on  that  of  another  with 
his  permission.  "7  . 

In  the  U.  States  the  chief  restrictions 
are  in  regard  to  killing  wild  animals 
during  the  breeding  season. 

The  following  table  show's  the  close 
season  for  all  game  in  the  U.  States,  v i i 
the  exception  of  mountain  sheep  and 
goat  ancl  a few  unimportant  species. 
Where  no  dates  are  given  kind  of  game 
does  not  exist  or  close  season  at  all  f 
The  first  date  of  the  close  season  and  tne 
first  date  of  the  open  season  are  given 
Open  season  may  be  found  by  reversing 
Uhe  dates. 


GAME  LAWS  OF  THE  SEVERAL  STATES 


1 


GAME  LAWS 


GAME  LAWS 


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GAMES 


GAN.YMEDE 


GAMES,  a name  of  certain  sports  or 
amusements  carried  on  under  regular 
rules  and  methods,  as  with  cards  or  dice, 
billiards,  baseball,  tennis,  etc.  Among 
the  ancients  there  were  public  games  or 
sports,  exhibited  on  solemn  occasions, 
in  which  various  kinds  of  contests  were 
introduced.  The  Grecian  games  were 
national  festivals  attended  by  spectators 
and  competitors  from  all  parts  of  Greece, 
the  chief  being  the  Olympic,  Pjdhian, 
Nemean,  and  Isthmian.  They  consisted 
of  chariot  races,  running,  wrestling,  and 
boxing  matches,  etc.,  and  to  be  victori- 
ous in  one  of  these  contests  was  esteemed 
one  of  the  highest  honors  of  a Greek 
citizen.  The  Roman  games  were  held 
chiefly  at  the  festivals  of  the  gods.  They 
might,  however,  be  exhibited  by  private 
persons  to  please  the  people,  as  the 
combats  of  gladiators,  theatrical  repre- 
sentations, combats  of  wild  beasts  in  the 
amphitheater,  etc. 

GAM'UT,  or  GAMMUT,  in  music,  the 
entire  series  of  musical  tones  in  the 
natural  order  of  ascent  or  descent.  With 
the  musicians  of  the  11th  century  A rep- 
resented the  lowest  note  in  their  instru- 
ments, and  a lower  note  having  been 
introduced,  the  Greek  gamma  (f)  was 
taken  to  represent  it.  From  its  promi- 
nent place  as  first  note  of  the  scale  its 
name  was  taken  to  represent  the  whole. 

GANDO,  a kingdom  of  the  Western 
Soudan,  intersected  by  the  Niger,  and 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Fellatahs,  with  a 
capital  of  some  name.  It  is  most  fertile, 
and  has  a population  of  perhaps  5,000,- 
000  Mohammedanism  is  the  prevalent 
religion.  The  territory  is  now  partly 
British,  partly  French. 

GANESA  (ga-na'sa),  an  Indian  god, 
the  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati,  represented 


Ganesa. 

by  a figure  half  man  half  elephant,  hav- 
ing an  elephant’s  head. 

GANGA.  in  Hindu  mythology,  the 
personified  goddess  of  the  river  Ganges. 

GANGES  (gan'jez),  a river  of  Hindu- 
stan, one  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  Asia, 
rising  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  in 
Garhwal  state,  and  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  two  head  streams,  the  Bliagirathi 
and  the  Alaknanda,  which  unite  at 
Deoprag,  10  miles  below  Srinagar,  1500 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  Bliagirathi,  as 
being  a sacred  stream,  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  source  of  the  Ganges,  rising 
at  the  height  of  13,800  feet,  but  the 


Alaknanada  flows  further  and  brings  a 
larger  volume  of  water  to  the  junction. 
In  the  rainy  season  the  flat  country  of 
Bengal  is  overflowed  to  the  extent  of  100 
miles  imbreadth,  the  water  beginning  to 
recede  after  the  middle  of  August.  The 
Ganges  is  navigable  for  boats  of  a large 
size  nearly  1500  miles  from  its  mouths 
and  it  forms  a great  channel  for  traffic. 
It  is  an  imperative  duty  of  the  Hindus 
to  bathe  in  the  Ganges,  or  at  least  to 
wash  themselves  with  its  waters,  and  to 
distribute  alms,  on  certain  days.  The 
Hindus  believe  that  whoever  dies  on  its 
banks,  and  drinks  of  its  waters  before 
death,  is  exempted  from  the  necessity 
of  returning  into  this  world  and  com- 
mencing a new  life.  The  sick  are  there- 
fore carried  to  the  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
and  its  waters  (s  a considerable  article 
of  commerce  in  the  remoter  parts  of 
India. 

GANGES  CANAL,  Upper,  a lateral 
canal  in  Northern  India  (N.  W.  Prov- 
inces), constructed  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation and  supplementary  navigation, 
extending  on  the  right  of  the  Ganges 
from  Hardwar  to  CaWnpore.  The  trunk 
of  the  canal  measures  445  miles.  The 
Lower  Ganges  Canal  is  a sort  of  con- 
tinuation of  the  Upper,  intended  for 
irrigation  purposes. 

GANG'LION,  in  anat^an  enlargement 
occurring  somewhere  in  the  course  of  a 
nerve,  and  containing  nerve  cells  in 
addition  to  nerve  filaments.  There  are 
two  systems  of  nerves  which  have 
ganglia  upon  them.  First,  those  of  com- 
mon sensation,  whose  ganglia  are  near 
to  the  origin  of  the  nerve  in  the  spinal 
cord.  Secondly,  the  great  sympathetic 
nerve,  which  has  ganglia  on  various 
parts  of  it.  In  the  invertebrates  ganglia 
are  centers  of  nervous  force,  and  are  dis- 
tributed through  the  body  in  pairs,  one 
for  each  ring  of  the  body,  connected  by 
fibers  as  in  the  figure.  The  cerebral 
ganglia  of  vertebrates  are  the  brain  it- 
self, the  masses  of  gray  matter  at  the  base 
of  the  brain,  as  the  optic  thalamus,  etc. 

. GANGPUR',  a native  state  of  Bengal, 
in  Chota  Nagpur,  consisting  mainly  of 
hills,  forest,  and  jungle;  area,  2484  sq. 
miles;  pop.  107,965. 

GANGRENE  (gang'gren),  the  death  of 
some  part  of  a living  body,  wherein  the 
tissues  begin  to  be  in  a state  of  morti- 
fication, there  being  also  complete  in- 
sensibility. A gangrened  part  must  be 
removed  either  by  amputation  or  by 
natural  process,  but  if  a vital  part  is  so 
affected  death  will  ensue. 

GANGWAY,  a narrow  platform  or 
bridge  of  planks  along  the  upper  part 
of  a ship’s  side  for  communication  fore 
and  aft ; also  a sort  of  platform  by  which 
persons  enter  and  leave  a vessel. 

GANJAM,  a decayed  town  of  India, 
in  the  Madras  Presidency,  formerly 
capital  in  the  district  of  same  name, 
near  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
The  district,  one  of  the  five  Circars,  is 
one  of  the  most  productive  under  the 
Madras  Presidency,  yielding  rice,  cotton, 
sugar,  rum,  and  pulse,  etc.  Area,  8313 
sq.  miles;  pop.  1,896,803. 

GANNET,  the  solan  goose,  is  about 
3 feet  in  length,  and  6 in  breadth  of 
wings  from  tip  to  tip;  the  whole  plum- 
age, a dirty  white,  inclining  to  gray;  the 
eyes,  a pale  yellow,  surrounded  with  a 


naked  skin  Of  a fine  blue  color;  the  bill 
straight,  6 inches  long,  and  furnished  be-  ' 
neath  with  a kind  of  pouch.  The  gan-  * 
nets  are  birds  of  passage,  arriving  in  / 
Great  Britain  about  March  and  depart- 
ing in  August  or  September,  their  move- 


Gannet  or  solan  goose. 


ments  being  partially  determined  by 
those  of  the  herring,  on  which  they  feed. 
They  migrate  to  the  southward  in  the 
winter,  and  appear  on  the  coast  of 
Portugal.  In  the  breeding  season  they 
retire  to  high  rocks  on  unfrequented 
islands — the  Hebrides,  Orkneys,  St. 
Kilda,  Ailsa  Craig,  and  the  Bass  Rock. 
The  nests  are  generally  formed  of  sea- 
weed. The  female  lays  only  one  egg, 
though,  if  it  be  removed,  she  will  de- 
posit another.  The  young,  which  are 
much  darker  than  the  old  birds,  remain  ■ 
in  the  nest  until  nearly  their  full  size,  be-  ) 
coming  extremely  fat.  In  St.  Kilda  they' 
form  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants, 
being  taken  by  men  lowered  from  the 
top  of  the  cliffs. 

GANNETT,  Henry,  an  American  geog- 
rapher, was  born  in  Bath,  Maine,  in' 
1846.  In  1882  he  became  chief  topog-- 
rapher  of  the  U.  States  geological., 
survey.  He  cohtributed  much  of  the 
geographical  matter  to  the  present  edi- 
tion of  the  New  International  Encyclo- 
paedia. His  publications  include:  A'  ’ 
Manual  of  Topographic  Methods;  Dic- 
tionary of  Altitudes;  and  Building  of  a 
Nation. 

GAN'OIDS,  the  second  order  of  fishes  i 
according  to  Agassiz.  The  families  of  I 
this  order  are  chiefly  characterized  by  j: 
angular,  rhomboidal,  polygonal,  or  cir-  ('i 
cular  scales  composed  of  horny  or  bony  j' 


Scales  of  ganoid  fishes.  i 

1,  Lepldosteus.  3,  Cheiracanthus.  3,  Palseon-  I 
iscus.  4,  Cephalaspis.  5,  Dipterus.  j 

6,  Acipenser. 

plates  covered  with  a thick  plate  of 
glossy  enamel-like  substance.  The 
ganoids  were  most  numerous  in  Palaeo- 
zoic and  early  Mesozoic  times,  but  are 
now  represented  by  seven  genera. 

GAN'YMEDE  (-med),  in  Grecian  my- 
thology, great-grandson  of  Dardanus, 
the  founder  of  'tioy,  and  son  of  Trds 
and  of  Callirrhoe,  daughter  of  Scaman- 
der.  Zeus  sent  his  eagle  to  carry  him  off 
from  Mount  Ida  to  Olympus,  where  he 
held  the  office  of  cup-bearer  to  the  im- 
mortals in  succession  to  Hebe. 


GAPES 


GARLAND 


GAPES,  a disease  of  fowls  and  other 
Rasorial  birds,  arising  from  the  presence 
in  the  windpipe  of  srpall  parasitic  worms 
which  cause  the  bird  to  continually 
open  its  beak.  They  may  be  dislodged 
with  an  oiled  feather,  or  by  mixing  a 
little  epsom  salts  with  the  food. 


Ganymede  and  the  Eagle— Museo  Nazionale, 
Naples. 

GARCILASO  DE  LA  VEGA,  called  the 
prince  of  Spanish  poets,  born  at  Toledo 
in  1500  or  1503.  His  name  is  associated 
with  that  of  his  contemporary  Boscan  in 
the  impetus  given  to  Spanish  literature 
by  the  imitation  of  the  Italian  poetic 
style  as  exemplified  in  Petrarch,  Aristo 
and  Sannazaro.  His  works,  which  con- 
sist of  eclogues,  epistles,  odes,  songs, 
sonnets,  etc.,  are  graceful  and  musical. 
He  died  in  1536. 

GARD  (gar),  a department  of  southern 
France,  abutting  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyons; 
area,  2256  sq.  miles.  Pop.  417,099. 

GARDE  RATIONALE  (nd-syo-nal),  a 
guard  of  armed  citizens  instituted  at 
Paris,  July  13,  1789,  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  order  and  protecting  liberty. 

GARDENING.  See  Horticulture. 

GARDNER-GUN.  See  Machine-gun. 

GARFIELD,  James  Abram,  the  twen- 
tieth president  of  the  U.  States,  was  born 
in  Ohio,  where  he  worked  on  a farm  till 


James  A.  Garfield. 

his  fourteenth  .year.  He  acquired  a good 
education,  however,  studied  law,  and  in 
1859  was  elected  to  the  Ohio  state  senat^. 
In  1861  he  entered  the  army,  was  ap- 


pointed colonel,  became  chief  of  staff  to 
Rosecranz,  and  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  resigned  his  command  on  his 
election  to  congress  in  1863.  He  sat  in 
nine  congresses  for  the  same  constit- 
uency, serving  on  important  committees 
and  winning  ground  no  less  by  strong 
intelligence  than  uncompromising  hon- 
esty. In  lv880  he  was  elected  to  the 
senate,  and  in  the  same  year  became 
president  of  the  U.  States.  Many  re- 
forms seemed  about  to  be  inaugurated, 
when  he  was  shot  by  a disappointed 
office-seeker  named  Guiteau  in  the  rail  - 
way  station  at  Washington.  He  lin- 
gered eighty  days,  dying  at  Long  Branch, 
Sept.  19,  1881. 

GAR-FISH,  SEA-PIKE,  or  GAR- 
PIKE,  a fish,  known  also  as  the  sea- 
needle,  making  its  appearance  on  the 
American  coasts  in  summer,  a short 
time  before  the  mackerel. 

GAR'GARA,  the  highest  mountain  of 
the  ridge  of  Ida,  in  Asia  Minor,  near  the 
Gulf  of  Adramyti,  on  the  north. 

GARGLE,  a liquid  application  to  the 
throat.  In  using  a gargle  the  head 
should  be  thrown  well  back  so  as  to 
keep  the  liquid  in  contact  with  the 
throat,  and  by  expelling  the  air  from 
the  lungs  through  the  liquid  the  pas- 
sage may  be  thoroughly  washed.  (3are 
should  be  taken  not  to  swallow  the 
gargle. 

GAR'GOYLE,  in  Gothic  architecture, 
a projecting  spout,  for  throwing  the 


Gargoyle,  Stony-Stratford. 


water  from  the  gutter  of  a building, 
usually  of  some  grotesque  form,  such 
as  the  head  or  figure  of  an  animal  or 
monster. 

GAR'HWAL  (gar-hwaP),  or  GUR- 
HWAL,  a district  of  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Tibet,  ea4t  by  Kumaun,  south  by  Bij- 
naur  district,  and  west  by  the  Garhwal 
state;  area,  5500  sq.  miles;  pop.  407,818. 
There  are  good  roads,  and  a considerable 
trade  with  Tibet. 

GARHWAL,  or  TEHRI,  a native  In- 
dian state  under  British  protection, 
west  of  the  district  of  the  same  name 
(see  above);  area,  4164  sq.  miles;  pop. 
241,242.  Chief  town,  Tehri;  chief  river, 
the  Alaknanda  and  other  head-waters 
of  the  Ganges. 

GARIBAL'DI,  Giuseppe,  Italian  pa- 
triot and  hero,  was  born  at  Nice,  1807 
his  father  being  a poor  fisherman.  In 
1834  he  became  a member  of  the  “Young 
Italy”  party,  and  being  condemned  to 
death  for  his  share  in  the  schemes  of 
Mazzini,  escaped  to  Marseilles,  took 
service  in  the  fleet  of  the  Bey  of  Tunis 
and  finally  went  to  South  America.  In 


1848  he  returned  to  Italy,  raised  a band 
of  volunteers,  and  harassed  the  Austrians 
until  the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  re- 
establishment of  Austrian  supremacy  in 
Lombardy.  He  then  retired  to  Switzer- 
land, but  in  the  spring  of  1849  proceeded 
to  Rome  to  support  Mazzini’s  republic. 
He  was  appointed  to  command  the 


Giuseppe  Garibaldi. 


forces,  but  the  odds  were  overwhelming, 
and  after  a desperate  defense  of  thirty 
days  Garibaldi  escaped  from  Rome  with 
4000  of  his  followers.  He  then  purchased 
a part  of  the  small  island  of  Caprera,  on 
the  north  coast  of  Sardinia,  and  made 
this  his  home  for  the  rest  of  his'  life. 
Latterly  the  subscriptions  of  his  ad- 
mirers enabled  him  to  become  owner  of 
the  whole  island.  In  the  war  of  1859,  in 
which  Sardinia  recovered  Lombardy, 
Garibaldi  and  his  chasseurs  of  the  Alps 
did  splendid  service;  and  on  the  revolt 
of  the  Sicilians  in  1860  he  crossed  to  the 
island,  wrested  it  after  a fierce  struggle 
from  the  King  of  Naples,  recrossed  to 
the  mainland  and  occupied  Naples, 
where  he  was  procliamed  dictator  of 
the  Two  Sicilies.  It  was  now  feared  that 
Garibaldi  might  prove  untrue  to  his 
motto — Italy  and  Victor  Emmanuel — 
but  he  really  acquiesced  in  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Italy,  and  de- 
clining all  honors  retired  to  his  island 
farm.  In  1864  he  received  an  enthusiastic 
welcome  in  Britain.  In  1870  he  gave  his 
services  to  the  French  republican  govern- 
ment against  the  Germans,  and  with  his 
20,000  men  rendered  valuable  assistance 
in  the  southeast.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
he  was  elected  a member  of  the  French 
assembly,  but  speedily  resigned  his  seat 
and  returned  to  Caprera.  Rome  now 
became  the  capital  of  the  united  Italy, 
and  here  in  January,  1875,  Garibaldi  took 
his  seat  in  the  Italian  parliament.  The 
latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent  quietly  at 
Caprera.  After  1870  he  wrote  two  or 
three  novels — very  mediocre  produc- 
tions.' He  died  somewhat  suddenly  June 
2,  1882.  His  autobiography  has  been 
published  in  English. 

GAR'LAND,  Augustus  Hill,  American 
politician,  was  born  in  Tipton  county, 
Tenn.,  in  1832,  but  when  less  than  a 
year  old  was  taken  by  his  parents  to 
Arkansas.  He  was  elected  to  the  pro- 
visional congress  of  the  confederate 
states  in  1861;  was  re-elected  to  the 
house  of  the  same  congress  in  1862,  and 
was  afterward  elected  to  the  confeder- 
ate senate,  of  which  he  continued  to  be 
a member  until  the  close  of  the  war.  He 
then  devoted  himself  to  his  profession 


GARLIC 


I 


GARTER 


and  in  1874  was  elected  governor  of 
Arkansas,  under  the  new  constitution. 
He  was  a member  of  the  U.  States 
senate  from  1877  to  1885,  and  from  1885 
to  1889  was  attorney-general  of  the  U. 
States  in  the  cabinet  of  President  Cleve- 
land, after  which,  until  his  death,  in 
1899,  he  practiced  law  in  Washington, 
D.  C. 

GARLIC,  a hardy,  perennial  allied  to 
the  onion,  indigenous  to  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  forming  a favorable  con- 
diment among  several  nations.  The 
leaves  are  grass-like,  and  differ  from 
those  of  the  common  onion  in  not  being 
fistulous;  the  stem  is  about  2 feet  high; 
the  flowers  are  white;  and  the  root  is  a 
compound  bulb,  consisting  of  several 
smaller  bulbs,  commonly  denominated 
cloves,  enveloped  by  a common  mem- 
brane. It  has  a strong,  penetrating 
odor,  and  a pungent  acrid  taste.  Used 
as  a medicine  it  is  stimulent,  tonic,  and 
promotes  digestion;  it  has  also  diuretic 
and  sudorific  r;ualities,  and  is  a good  ex- 
pectorant.— Oil  of  garlic  is^a  sulphide  of 
allyl,  a colorless,  strongly^melling  oil, 
exceedingly  irritant  to  the  palate  and 
the  skin.  It  is  contained  also  in  the 
onion,  leek,  asafoctida,  etc. 

GARNET,  a beautiful  mineral,  or 
group  of  minei’als,  classed  among  the 
gems,  and  occurring  generally  in  mica- 
slate,  hornblende-slate,  gneiss,  and 
granite,  usually  as  more  or  less  regular 
crystals  of  from  twelve  to  sixty  or  even 
eighty-four  sides.  The  prevailing  color 
is  red  of  various  shades,  but  often  brown 
and  sometimes  green,  yellow,  or  black. 
They  vary  considerably  in  composition, 
but  admit  of  classification  into  three 
principal  groups  according  to  their  chief 
sesquioxide  basic  components,  viz. 
alumina,  iron,  and  chrome  garnets. 
Among  the  varieties  are  common  gar- 
net, pyrope,  alamandine,  precious  or 
oriental  garnet,  allochroite,  melanite  or 
black  garnet,  etc.  By  jewelers  garnets 
are  classed  as  Syrian,  Bohemian,  or 
Cinghalese,  rather,  however,  from  their 
relative  value  and  fineness  than  as 
necessarily  implying  that  they  came 
from  these  places.  The  first,  named  after 
Syrian,  in  Pegu,  long  the  chief  mart  for 
garnets,  are  the  most  esteemed,  being  a 
violet-purple  unmixed  with  black  and 
taking  an  orange  tint  by  artificial  light. 
The  Bohemian  garnet  is  usually  a dull 
poppy  red  with  hyacinth  orange  tint 
when  held  between  the  eye  and  the 
light;  the  pyrope  is  a fuU  crimson  form 
of  this  class.  Coarse  garnets  reduced  to 
powder  are  sometimes  used  in  place  of 
emery  for  polishing  metals. 

GARNISHMENT,  a process  by  which 
chattels,  rights,  of  credits  belonging  to 
the  defendant  in  aq  action,  but  which 
are  in  the  possession  of  a third  person 
are  seized  and  applied  to  the  plaintiff’s 
claim.  It  is  not  a common-law  process 
and  is  regulated  by  statute  in  the  states 
where  it  exists.  Such  statutes  are,  as  a 
rule,  strictly  construed,  and  their  re- 
quirements must  be  fully  and  fairly 
complied  with  by  a plaintiff  who  would 
take  advantage  of  them.  It  is  held  that 
only  such  property  in  the  hands  of  the 
third  party — the  garnishee — is  liable  to 
this  process  as  is  not  incumbered  with 
trusts,  and  such  as  may  be  handed  over 
or  paid  by  the  officer  executing  the  proc- 


ess, under  the  order  of  thet;ourt  and  free 
from  incumbrances,  which  can  be  prop- 
erly determined  and  adjusted  only  by 
equity  tribunals.  Garmshment  proceed- 
ings reach  only  such  debts  as  are  owing 
to  the  defendant  at  the  time  the  process 
is  served.  A judgment  obtained  in  a 
fedaral  court  cannot  be  garnisheecLin  an 
action  in  a state  court.  Such  garnish- 
ment would  operate  to  oust  the  federal 
court  of  its  proper  control  over  its  own 
judgments. 

GARONNE',  a river  of  s.w.  France, 
rising  in  the  vale  of  Aran,  in  the  Spanish 
Pyrenees;  length,  about  350  miles. 

GARONNE,  HAUTE,  a department, 
south  of  France,  one  of  the  five  separated 
by  the  Pyrenees  from  Spain.  Capital  of 
department,  Toulouse.  Area,  2,529  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  439,769. 

GARRICK,  David,  actor,  born  at 
Hereford,  Eng.,  Feb.  20,  1717.  He  had  a 
strong  passion  for  acting,  and  in  1741 
joined  Giffard’s  company  at  Ipswich 
under  the  name  of  Lyddal.  At  Giffard’s 
theater  in  Goodman’s-fields  he  achieved 
a great  success  as  Richard  III.,  and  in 
1742  was  not  less  successful  at  Drury 
Lane.  In  1745  he  became  joint  manager 
with  Mr.  Sheridan  of  a theater  in  Dublin, 
and  after  a season  at  Covent  Garden 
(1746)  purchased  Drury  Lane  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Lacy,  opening  it  15th 
September,  1747,  with  the  Merchant  of 
Venice,  to  which  Dr.  Johnson  furnished 
a prologue.  From  this  period  may  be 
dated  a comparative  revival  'of  Shake- 
speare, and  a reform  both  in  the  con- 
duct and  license  of  the  drama.  In  1763 
he  visited  the  Continent  for  a yean  and  a 
half.  He  had  ah-eady  written  his  farces 
of  The  Lying  Valet,  Lethe,  and  Miss  in 
her  Teens;  and  in  1766  he  composed, 
jointly  with  Colman,-the  excellent 
comedy  of  the  Clandestine  Marriage. 
After  the  death  of  Lacy,  in  1773,  the 
sole  management  of  the  theater  de- 
volved upon  Garrick,  until  1776,  when 
he'  sold  his  moiety  of  the  theater  for 
£37,000,  performed  his  last  part,  Don 
Felix  in  The  Wonder,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  theatrical  fund,  and  bade  an  im- 
pressive farewell  to  the  stage.  He  died 
January  20,  1779,  and  was  buried  with 
great  pomp  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

GAR'RISON,  William  Lloyd,  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  founder  of  the  anti- 
slavery movement  in  the  U.  States,  born 
1805.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a shoe- 
maker, but  eventually  became  a com- 
positor on  the  Newburyport  Hera^l.  In 
1827  he  became  editor  of  the  National 
Philanthropist,  the  first  American  tem- 
perance journal,  and  afterward  of  a 
journal  in  support  of  the  election  of  John 
Quincy  Adams.  With  Mr.  Lundy,  a 
Quaker,  he  then  started  the  paper  called 
the  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation 
(1829),  his  denunciations  of  slave-traders 
leading  to  his  imprisonment  for  libel. 
On  his  release  he  commenced  lecturing 
in  Boston,  started  the  Liberator  (1831), 
published  weekly  with  the  aid  of  one 
assistant  and  a negro  boy.  In  1832  ap- 
peared his  Thoughts  on  African  Coloniza- 
tion, and  in  the  same  year  he  established 
the  American  anti-slavery  society.  ,He 
subsequently  visited  England,  where 
he  wa's  welcomed  by  Wilberforce, 
Brougham,  Buxton,  and  others.  In  1835 
he  was  saved  with  diflicultv  from  a 


Boston  mob;  but  his  principles  made 
steady  progress  until  1865,  when  the 
anti-slavery  society  was  dissolved  with 
its  work  accomplished.  He  died  at  New 
York,  1879.  .A  volume  of  sonnets  (1843) 
and  one  of  selections  (1852)  bear  his 
name.  \ 

GARROTE  (gar-ro'ta),  a mode  of  pun- 
ishment in  Spain  by  strangulation,  the 
victim  being  placed -on  a stool  with  a 
post  or  stake  (Spanish,  garrote)  behind, 
to  which  is  affixed  an  iron  collar  with  a 
screw;  this  collar  is  made  to  clasp  the 
neck  of  the  criminal,  and  drawn  tighter 
by  means  of  the  screw  till  life  becomes 
extinct.  This  word,  with  the  French 
spelling  and  pronunciation  garrote,  has 
become  naturalized  in  G^eat  Britain  as  a 
term  for  a species  of  robbery  effected  by 
throttling  the  victim  and  stripping  him 
while  insensible. 

GARTER,  Order  of  the,  the  highest 
and  most  ancient  order  of  knighthood  in 
Great  Britain.  The  origin  of  the  order, 
though  sometimes  assigned  to  Richard 

1.,  is  generally  attributed  to  Edward 

111.,  the  legend  being  that  Countess  of 


Insignia  of  the  garter. 


Salisbury  having  dropped  her  garter 
while  dancing,  the  king  restored  it, 
after  putting  it  round  his  own  leg,  with 
the  words,  which  became  the  motto  of 
the  order,  “Honi  soit  qui  mal  y pense” — 
Shame  be  to  him  who  thinks  evil  of  it. 
The  date'  of  the  foundation  or  restora- 
tion by  Edward  III.  of  the  order,  as 
given  by  Froissart,  is  1344,  while  other 
authorities,  founding  on  the  statutes  of 
the  order,  assign  it  to  1350.  The  statutes 
of  the  order  have  been  repeatedly  re- 
vised, more  particularly  in  the  reigns  of 
Henry  V.,  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI., 
and  George  III. — the  last  in  1805.  Ladies 
are  saicb  to  have  been  admitted  up  till 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  Until  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI.  the  common  title  of  the 
order  was  the  Order  of  St.  George,  and 
it  still  bears  this  title,  as  well  as  that  of 
the  Garter.  The  original  number  of 
knights  was  twenty-six,  including  the 
sovereign, -who  was  its  permanent  head; 
and  this  number  is  still  retained,  except 
that  by  a statute  passed  in  1786  princes 
of  the  blood  acft  admitted  as  supernu- 
merary members.  The  peculiar  emblem 
of  the  order,  the  garter  (5),  a dark-blue 
ribbon  edged  with  gold,  bearing  the 
motto  and  with  a gold  buckle  and  pen- 
dant, is  worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the 
' knee.  The  mantle  is  of  blue  velvet,  lined 


GARTER-SNAKE 


GAS 


with  white  taffeta,  the  surcoat  and  ho^d 
of  crimson  velvet,  the  hat  of  black  velvet 
with  plume  of  white  ostrich  feathers, 
having  it  the  center  a tuft  of  black 
heron’s  feathers.  The  collar  of  gold  (3) 
consists  of  knots  alternating  with  garters 
inclosing  roses,  with  the  badge  of  the 
order,  called  the  George  (4),  pendent 
from  it.  This  consists  of  a figure  of  St. 
George  on  horseback  fighting  the 
dragon.  The  lesser  George  (2)  is  worn  on 
a broad  blue  ribbon  over  the  left  shoul- 
der. The  star  G);  formerly  only  a cross, 
is  of  silver,  and  consists  of  eight  points, 
with  the  cross  of  St.  George  in  the  cenj,er, 
encircled  by  the  garter.  A star  is  worn 
by  the  knights  on  the  left  side  when  not 
in  the  dress  of  the  order. 

.#  GARTER-SNAKE,  an  elastic  name 
given  in  North  America  to  any  of  various 
small  snakes,  but  properly  applied  to 
striped  species,  which  includes  those 
most  often  seen  of  all  our  serpents. 
Several  of  these  are  very  slender,  mainly 
green  with  lighter  stripes,  and  are 
popularly  distinguished  as  ribbon- 
snakes.  One  Oregon  species  is  black, 
and  some  semi-tropical  species  have  the 
stripes  broken  so  as  to  form  series  of 
spots  or  cross-bars.  The  best-known 
species  is  the  ordinary  garter-snake, 
which  is  distributed  over  the  whole  U. 
States,  Southern  Canada,  and  the  low- 
lands of  Mexico  and  Guatemala. 

GARY,  IND.,  founded  in  1906  on 
Lake  Michigan  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Calumet  river  near  Chicago.  The  town 
was  made  to  order  as  the  home  of  a 
$76,000,000  plant  for  the  United  States 
steel  corporation.  Estimated  pop- 
ulation, 40,000. 

GAS,  an  elastic  aeriform  fluid,  a term 
originally  synonymous  Avith  air,  but 
afterward  restricted  to  such  bodies  as 
were  supposed  to  be  incapable  of  being 
reduced  to  a liquid  or  solid  state.  Under 


guished  from  liquids  by  the  name  of 
elastic  fluids;  while  liquids  are  termed 
non-elastic,  because  they  have,  com- 
paratively, no  elasticity.  But  the  most 
prominent  distinction  is  the  following: — 
Liquids  are  compressible  to  a certain  de- 
gree, and  expand  into  their  former  state 
when  the  pressure  is  removed;  and  in  so 
far  they  are  elastic,  but  gases  appear  to 
be  in  a continued  state  of  compression, 
for  when  left  unconfined  they  expand  in 
every  direction  to  an  extent  which  has 
not  hitherto  been  determined.  In  respect 
of  this  indefinite  expansiveness,  all 
gaseous  bodies  obey  more  or  less  strictly 
two  laws,  commonly  called  the  “gaseous 
laws.”  The  first,  known  as  the  law  of 
Boyle  and  Mariotte,  given  first  by 
Robert  Boyle  in  1662,  and  then  by 
Mariotte  in  1676,  is  that; — The  volume 
of  a given  mass  of  gas  varies  inversely 
with  the  pressure  to  which  the  gas  is 
subjected;  or,  in  other  words,  the  density 
of  a given  mass  of  gas  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  pressure  that  the  gas  is 
subjected  to.  The  second  of  the  gaseous 
laws  is  commonly  called  the  law  of  Dal- 
ton and  Gay-Lussac.  It  is,  however, 
properly  called  Charles’  law.  Dalton 
published  it  in  1801 ; but  Gay-Lussac, 
who  stated  it  in  1802,  gives  the  credit 
of  having  discovered  it,  fifteen  years 
previously,  to  Citizen  Charles.  The  law 
may  be  stated  as  follows: — The  volume 
of  a gas  maintained  under  constant  pres- 
sure increases  for  equal  increments  of 
temperature  by  a constant  fraction  of 
its  original  volume;  and  this  fraction  is 
the  same  whatever  js  tlie  nature  of  the 
gas.  A mass  of  gas,  whose  volume  is 
1000  at  0°  C.,  becomes,  at  100°  C., 
1366' 5,  the  pressure  remaining  constant. 
In  virtue  of  these  laws  a gas  may  now 
be  defined  to  be  a substance  possessing 
the  condition  of  perfect  fluid  elasticity, 
and  presenting  under  a constant  pres- 


this  supposition  gas  was  “a  term  applied 
to  all  permanently  elastic  fluids  or  airs 
differing  from  common  air.”  After  the 
liquefaction  of  gases  by  Faraday,  the  old 
distinction  between  gas  and  vapor,  viz. 
that  the  latter  could  be  reduced  to  a 
liquid  or  solid  condition  by  reduction  *of 
temperature  and  increase  of  pressure, 
while  a gas  could  not  be  so  altered,  was 
no  longer  tenable,  so  that  the  term  has 
resumed  nearly  its  original  signification, 
and  designates  any  substance  in  an 
elastic  aeriform  state.  Gases  are  distin- 


sure a uniform  state  of  expansion  for 
equal  increments  of  temperature — a 
property  distinguishing  it  from  vapor. 
There  is,  however,  no  known  gas  that 
obeys  these  two  laws  perfectly:  thus, 
of  the  six  gases  whose  liquefaction  has 
been  attended  with  most  diflBculty 
(oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbonic 
oxide,  nitric  oxide,  and  light  carburetted 
hydrogen) , all  except  hydrogen  are  more 
compressible  than  they  should  be  theo- 
retically, while  hydrogen  deviates  slightly 
in  the  opposite  direction,  being  less  com- 


pressible than  Boyle’s  law  would  in- 
dicate. The  other  gases  exhibit  even 
greater  deviations  from  Boyle’s  law, 
and  the  amount  of  the  deviation  rapidly 
increases  as  the  gas  is  brought  nearer 
and  nearer  to  liquefaction.  The  law  of 
Dalton  Of  Charles  which  gives  for  equal 
elevation  of  temperature  equal  incre- 
ments of  volume  is  also  deviated  from 
by  every  gas,  and  more  and  more  so  as 
the  point  of  liquefaction  is  approached. 

The  liquefaction  of  gases  is  effected  by 
the  application  of  cold  or  pressure,  or 
both  combined.  For  any  given  pressure 
there  is  a particular  temperature  at 
which  the  gas  liquefies.  At  a certain 
point,  however,  called  by  Andrews  the 
critical  point  of  temperature,  the  distinc- 
tion between  liquid  and  gas  appears 
completely  lost.  At  and  above  this  tem- 
perature no  pressure  that  can  be  applied 
will  convert  the  fluid  into  the  form  of  a 
liquid  even  though  the  volume  is  dimin- 
ished by  pressure  so  much  as  to  make 
the  density  of  the  fluid  greater  than  that 
of  the  liquid  obtained  at  lower  tempera- 
tures. By  1878  all  gases  had  been 
liquefied. 

The  power  of  motion  inherent  in  all 
parts  of  aeriform  matter  is  accounted  for 
by  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  according 
to  which  a gas  consists  of  an  enormous 
number  of  molecules  moving  about  with 
very  great  velocity.  Grbat  as  is  their 
number,  however,  the  molecules  are 
sparsely  distributed  through  space,  in 
comparison  with  their  distribution  when 
the  substance  is  in  the  solid  or  liquid 
condition.  A molecule  of  a gas  flying 
g^out  moves  on  in  a stright  line  till  it 
meets  another  molecule,  or  till  it  im- 
pinges on  a side  of  the  containing  vessel. 
Meeting  another  molecule  the  two  turn 
each  other  aside,  just  as  two  billiard 
balls  when  they  come  into  collision  are 
both  deflected  from  their  preAuous  patlis. 
Passing  thence  each  flies  on  in  a straight 
line  till  it  meets  a fresh  molecule,  and 
each  is  again  deflected.  When  the  mole- 
cules impinge  on  the  side  of  the  vessel 
that  contains  the  gas  they  rebound  as  a 
billiard  ball  does  from  the  cushion  of  the 
billiard  table;  and  the  perpetual  shower 
of  molecules  that  strike  and  rebound 
from  the  sides  gives  rise  to  the  phenome- 
non of  gaseous  pressure,  just  as  an 
umbrella  held  out  in  a hail-storm  is 
pressed  downward  owing  to  the  numer- 
ous impulsive  blows  that  act  upon  it. 
When  the  temperature  of  a gas  is  raised 
the  energy  of  the  molecules  is  increased. 
They  strike  with  greater  velocity,  and  the 
number  of  blows  on  thh  side  of  the'Vessel 
is  also  increased.  The  pressure  is  there- 
fore greater;  and  the  law  of  Dalton  or 
Charles  is  easily  shown  to  be  a conse- 
quence of  the  kinetic  theory.  Boyle’s 
law  also  follows  very  simply  from  it; 
for  if  we  diminish  the  volume  of  the  con- 
taining vessel  to  one-half,  one-third,  or 
to  any  other  fraction  of  its  original 
volume,  we  increase  the  number  of  mole- 
cules in  a given  space,  a cubic  inch  for 
instance,  in  the  same  ratio.  Consequently 
the  number  of  impacts  on  a square 
inch  of  the  surface  of  the  containing 
vessel  will  also  be  increased  in  the  same 
ratio,  and  the  pressure  will  thus  be  in- 
creased in  that  ratio  too.  It  is  estimated 
that  in  a cubic  centimeter  of  gas  at 
standard  temperature  and  pressure  there 


GASCONY 


GAS  ENGINE 


are  nineteen  million  million  million 
molecules. 

In  1739  the  Rev.  Mr.  Clayton  pub- 
lished a paper  in  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions, on  the  inflammable  nature  of 
the  gases  obtained  by  the  decomposition 
of  pit-coal  in  heated  close  vessels;  but  no 
practical  application  of  this  discovery 
was  made  before  1792,  when  Mr.  W. 
Murdoch,  a native  of  Ayrshire,  in  the 
employ  of  Messrs.  Watt  and  Boulton, 
lighted  his  own  house  and  offices  at 
Redruth  on  this  principle.  In  1798  he 
erected  a gas  apparatus  on  a large  scale 
at  Soho  Foundry,  Birmingham,  and  in 
1802  M Le  Bon  lighted  his  house  in 
Paris  by  gas,  and  made  a proposal  to 
supply  the  whole  city.  In  1803  Mr. 
Winsor  exhibited  gas  illuminations  at 
London  in  the  Lyceum,  and  afterward 
raised  the  sum  of  $250,000  from  a num- 
ber of  subscribers  who  formed  them- 
selves into  a National  Light  and  Heat 
Company  (1810).  With  this  money  Mr. 
Winsor  lighted  Pall  Mall,  but  was  soon 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Samuel  Gleg,  who  in- 
vented the  hydraulic  main,  the  wet- 
lime  purifier,  and  the  wet  gas-meter. 
From  this  time  coal  gas  became  the 
most  common  illuminating  agent  wher- 
ever it  could  be  prepared  economically. 

Gas  is  obtained  from  coal,  the  best 
sorts  being  bituminous  coals.  The 
coal  is  distilled  in  retorts  of  cast-iron 
(a),  or  now  more  generally  of  fire-clay, 
heated  to  a bright  red  heat.  As  they 
issue  from  the  retort  into  the  hydraulic 
main  (b)  the  products  of  distillation  con- 
tain vapors  of  tar  and  naptha,  together 
with  steam  impregnated  with  carbonate 
of  ammonia  and  hydrosulphate  of  sul- 
phide of  ammonium.  These  vapors  would 
condense  in  the  pipes  in  which  the  gas 
must  be  distributed,  and  would  clog 
them  up;  they  must  therefore  be  so  far 
removed  by  previous  cooling  as  to  cause 
no  inconvenient  condensation  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures.  The  crude  gas  con- 
tains, besides,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
the  combustion  of  which  would  exhale 
an  offensive  odor.  Carbonic  acid  weak- 
ens the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas, 
and  has  also  to  be  removed.  In  the 
hydraulic  main — a large  horizontal  pipe 
at  first  about  half-filled  with  water — 
some  separation  is  effected  between  the 
liquid  products  of  distillation  and  the 
gaseous,  which  bubble  up  through  the 
liquid  into  the  upper  portion  of  the 
main.  At  the  end  of  the  main  the  liquids 
fall  by  their  greater  gravity  into  the 
sunk  reservoir  known  as  the  tar-well, 
while  the  gas  is  conducted  to  the  con- 
denser Or  refrigerator  (c),  a series  of  bent 
iron  tubes  kept  cool  either  by  exposure 
to  currents  of  air  or  by  allowing  water 
to  flow  over  them.  In  these  there  is  a 
further  deposit  of  tar  and  water,  and  the 
gas  passes  on  to  the  washer,  a series  of 
cells  in  which  the  gas  is  forced  through 
water  or  exposed  to  water  spray  for  the 
removal  of  ammonia.  The  scrubber  (d), 
which  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  the 
washer,  is  a large  chamber  filled  with 
coke  kept  constantly  wet  with  sprays  of 
water.  The~gas  in  passing  up  the  scrub- 
ber leaves  its  last  traces  of  ammonia 
and  its  compounds,  and  then  enters  the 
purifiers  (e),  which  are  iron  chambers 
containing  a series  of  perforated  trays  on 
which  are  spread  slaked  lime  (in  the  form 


of  dry  hydrate),  or  a mixture  of  sawdust 
and  oxide  of  iron.  These  remove  car- 
bonic acid  and  the  greater  portion  of  the 
sulphur  compounds,  and  the  gas  is  then 
conveyed  by  means  of  a pipe  (f ) to  the 
gas-holder  (g)  a store-house  or  reservoir, 
in  which  it  is  subjected  to  uniform  pres- 
sure, and  from  which  it  is  discharged  (f) 
into  the  street  or  other  mains  in  the 
constant  stream  necessary  to  produce  a 
steady  flame  from  the  burners  in  the 
houses  of  those  using  it.  The  gas-holder, 
sometimes  called  a gasometer,  is  usually 
a very  large  cylindrical  air-tight  struc- 
ture of  iron  plates,  closed  at  top,  open 
below,  and  having  the  lower  end  im- 
mersed in  a water  reservoir.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  chains  passing  over  pulleys  on 
iron  columns,  the  greater  part  of  the 
weight  of  the  gas-holder  being  counter- 
balanced by  weights  attached  to  the 
chains,  so  that  it  can  exercise  a certain 
regelated  pressure  on  the  gas  contained 
in  it. 

The  quantity  of  gas  used  by  each  con- 
sumer is  measured  by  an  instrument 
called  a meter,  of  which  there  are  two 
classes — the  wet  and  the  dry.  The  wet 
meter  is  composed  of  an  outer  box  about 
three-fifths  filled  with  water.  Within 
this  is  a revolving  four-chambered  drum, 
each  chamber  being  capable  of  contain- 
ing a definite  quantity  of  gas,  which  is 
admitted  through  a pipe  in  the  center  of 
the  meter,  and,  owing  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  partitions  of  the  chambers, 
causes  the  drum  to  maintain  a constant 
revolution.  This  sets  in  motion  a train 
of  wheels  carrying  the  hands  over  the 
dials  which  mark  the  quantity  of  gas 
consumed.  The  dry  meter  consists  of 
two  or  three  chambers,  , each  divided  by 


a flexible  partition  or  diaphragm,  by  the 
motion  of  which  the  capacity  on  one 
side  is  diminished  while  that  on  the 
other  is  increased.  By  means  of  slide- 
valves,  like  those  of  a steam-engine, 
worked  by  the  movement  of  the  dia- 
phragms, the  gas  to  be  measured  passes 
alternately  in  and  out  of  each  space. 
The  contractions  and  expansions  set  in 
motion  in  clockwork  which  marks  the 
rate  of  consumption.  The  diaphragms  in 
all  the  chambers  are  so  connected  that 
they  move  in  concert. 

The  profitable  consumption  of  gas, 
whereby  the  strongest  liqr’*  '^•an  be  had 
at  the  least  expenditure  oi  '^'^ends 
considerably  upon  the  form  ot  the 
burner,  and  the  mode  by  which  tna 
flame  is  fed  with  the  air  necessary  for  its 
combustion.  There  must  be  a sufficient 
supply  of  oxygen  to  convert  the  carbon 
of  the  gas  into  carbonic  acid,  and  the 
hydrogen  into  w'ater.  If  there  is  not  a 
sufficient  supply  of  oxygen,  the  flame 
will  be  smoky  from  excess  of  carbon. 


In  this  case  the  remedy  is  either  to  re-' 
duce  the  supply  of  gas  or  increase  the 
supply  of  air.  This  may  be  effected  by 
modifying  the  form  of  the  burner,  or  in 
the  case  of  the  Argand  burner  by  hav- 
ing a different  shape  of  glass  chimney. 
As  to  the  form  of  the  burner,  it  has  been 
found  that  a plain  jet  J inch  in  diameter 


Form  and  size  of  flames  from  a 5-foot  fish-tail, 
lava-tip  burner. 


at  the  orifice,  will  not  give  a flame  free 
from  smoke  of  a greater  height  than  2J 
inches;  but  the  same  quantity  of  gas 
which  would  give  a smoky  flame  from  a 
plain  jet,  will  produce  a clear  bright 
flame  by  extending  or  dividing  the 
aperture  of  the  jet  so  as  to  expose  a 
larger  surface  of  flame  to  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  not,  however,  necessary  to 
increase  the  superficial  area  of  the  flame; 
it  may  even  be  diminished  with  a more 
intensely  luminous  effect  by  having  in- 
stead of  one  aperture  two  small  ones 
pierced  at  an  angle  to  each  other,  so  that 
the  jets  may  cross  each  other.  This 
forms  the  union  jet.  Another  form  is  the 
slit  or  batwing  burner,  in  which  a clean 
slit  is  cut  across  the  top  of  the  beak. 
In  the  Argand  burner  a circle  of  small 
holes  supplies  the  gas,  and  a current  of 
air  is  admitted  through  the  center  of  the 
flame,  which  is  surrounded  by  a glass 
chimney.  In  the  Welsbach  incandescent 
lamp  the  light' is  produced  by  causing 
the  burning  gas  to  raise  to  white,  heat 
what  is  known  as  the  mantle,  suspended 
over  the  burner.  The  mantle  consists 
essentially  of  cotton  yarn  steeped  in  a 
solutign  of  salts  of  such  metals  as 
thorium,  cerium,  yttrium,  lanthanum, 
magnesium,  etc.,  and  when  the  thread 
has  been  burned  away  there  remains  a 
skeleton  of  the  oxides  of  the  metals  used. 

GAS'CONY,  an  old  division  of  France, 
between  the  Garonne,  the  sea,  and  the 
Pyr4n6es,  It  composes  the  departments 
of  Hautes  Pyr^n^es,  Gers,  and  Landes, 
with  part  of  those  of  Bas  Pyr4n4es, 
Haute  Garonne,  Lot-et-Garonne,  and 
Tarn-et-Garonne.  The  Gascons,  who  are 
of  mixed  Basque  and  Gothic  descent, 
u-^ed  to  have  the  character  of  being 
bra^ ; faithful,  and  peculiarly  tenacious 
of  purpu-  ■ much  given  to  boasting, 
whence  the  wo.  ’ gasconnade. 

GAS  ENGINE,  au  “njrine  in  which  the 
movement  of  the  piston  i.:  -'oused  by  the 
explosive  energy  of  a mi>'»->..''  ^ ia- 


GASKELL 


GAUL 


flammable  gas  with  atmospheric  air. 
After  various  attempts  by  Huyghens, 
Pepin,  and  others  to  utilize  explosive 
agents  like  gunpowder  in  working  ma- 
chines, a French  artisan,  Lebon, patented 
in  1799  an  engine  in  which  energy  was 
obtained  by  exploding  charges  of  coal- 
gas  mixed  with  air  on  each  side  of  the 
piston  alternately,  the  explosion  being 
effected  by  an  electric  spark.  Modifica- 
tions of  this  engine  were  patented  by 
Lenoir  in  1860,  by  Hugon,  and  by  Messrs. 
Siemens.  The  most  satisfactory  are 
probably  those  known  as  Brayton’s 
high-pressure  gas  engine,  and  Otto’s 
gas  engine.  The  latter  consists  of  an 
upright  cylinder  in  which  works  a heavy 
piston,  the  rod  of  which  forms  a rack- 
gearing  with  a cog-wheel  on  the  shaft  of 
the  fly-wheel.  As  the  piston  ascends  the 
cog-wheel  slips  loosely  on  the  shaft ; as  it 
descends  its  energy  is  transferred  to  the 
shaft  through  the  cog-wheel,  the  force 
of  the  down-stroke  being  due  to  the 
rapid  condensation  of  the  gases  after  the 
explosion  aided  by  the  weight  of  the 
piston  itself.  The  mixed  gases — coal- 
gas  and  air — are  introduced  ^ t]ie  base 
of  the  cylinder  and  fired,  as  iiTHugon’s 
patent,  by  communication  with  a gas- 
jet  kept  constantly  burning.  The  great 
objection  to  this  engine — its  noise  in 
working— has  been  overcome  in  the  Otto 
silent  gas  engine,  in  which  the  working 
cylinder  is  horizontal  and  considerably 
shorter  than  in  the  old  form. 

GAS'KELL,  Elizabeth  Cleghorn,  novel- 
ist,' daughter  of  William  Stevenson, 
editor  of  Scott’s  Magazine,  born  at 
Chelsea  in  1810.  In  1857  appeared  her 
admirable  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte,  and 
in  1860  Sylvia’s  Lovers.  Wives  and 
Daughters  appeared  posthumously  in 
1866.  The  work  that  she  is  best  known 
by  is  Cranford,  a delightful  story  of 
village  life,  classed  by  literary  critics  as 
one  of  the  classics. 

GASKETS,  cords  fastened  to  the  sail- 
yards  of  a ship,  and  used  to  furl  or  tie 
up  the  sail  firmly  to  the  yard  by  wrap- 
- ping  round  both. 

GAS'TEROPODS,  a class  of  molluscs, 
consisting  of  animals  inhabiting  a uni- 
valve shell,  although  some  of  the  group 
|_are  wholly  destitute  of  a shell.  The  shell 


A gasteropod. 

Common  garden-snail.  /,  J’oot  extending  the 
whole  length  ot  the  under  side  of  the. body. 

^ is  either  a small  internal  plate,  as  in 
slugs;  or  cone-shaped  and  spiral,  as  in 
the  majority;  or  multivalve,  the  pieces 
following  each  other  along  the  middle 
line,  as  in  the  chitons.  No  known  gas- 
teropod has  a bivalve  shell.  The  distin- 
guishing characteristic  is  the  foot,  which 
IS  broad,  muscular,  and  disc-like,  and 
attached  to  the  ventral  surface.  The 
class  is  divided  into  two  sub-classes,  the 
Branchiata  or  Branchiogasteropoda, 
breathing  water  by  gills,  and  the  Pul- 
rnonata  or  Pulmogasteropoda,  breathing 
aiv  by  a sort  of  lung  apparatus.  The 
former  includes  whelks  and  periwinkles. 


etc. ; the  latter  include  the  ordinary  land- 
snajls,  slugs,  pond-snails,  etc. 

GASTON  DE  FOIX  (fwa),  Duke  of 
Nemours,  French  soldier,  born  1489, 
son  of  John  de  Foix,  count  d’Estampes, 
and  Mary  of  Orleans,  sister  of  Louis 
XII.,  whose  favorite  he  became.  At  the 
age  of  twenty-three  he  routed  a Swiss 
army  rapidly  crossed  four  rivers,  drove 
the  pope  from  Bologna,  and  won  the 
celebrated  battle  of  Ravenna  (1512),  but 
was  killed  while  attempting  to  cut  off 
a body  of  retreating  Spaniards. 

GASTRIC  JUICE,  a clear  colorless 
fluid  with  a saline  taste  and  sour  odor 
secreted  by  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach,  and  chief  agent  in  the  process 
of  digestion.  It  is  acid,  and  contains 
pepsin,  its  essential  nitrogenous  prin- 
ciple. The  activity  of  the  fluid  has  been 
ascribed  to  various  acids  present,  lactic, 
acetic,  and  butyric ; but  it  appears  that 
free  hydrochloric  acid  is  that  which  is 
secreted  by  the  stomach,  the  others  being 
the  products  of  change  of  food  under- 
going digestion.  The  acid  is  necessary 
for  the  pepsin  to  exercise  its  properties, 
which  are  limited  to  the  conversion  of 
nitrogenous  substances  into  peptones, 
fatty  matters  not  being  affected  by  it. 
(See  Pepsin.)  Gastric  juice  also  holds  in 
solution  various  inorganic  salts,  chiefly 
chlorides  and  phosphates,  occasionally 
also  abnormal  substances  such  as  urea, 
ammonia,  salts,  and  biliary  acids.  It 
is  not  possessed  of  any  marked  reactions 
with  ordinary  chemical  reagents,  does 
not  become  turpid  by  boiling,  and  gives 
no  striking  precipitates  with  acids, 
alkalies,  or  mineral  salts.  The  amount 
secreted  daily  in  the  human  adult  is 
estimated  to  be  about  14  pounds,  but  as 
it  is  continually  re-absorbed,  there  is  no 
great  quantity  present  at  any  one  time. 

GASTRIC  SYSTEM,  all  the  parts  of 
the  body  which  contribute  to  digestion. 

GASTRITIS,  or  GASTRO-ENTERI- 
TIS.  See  Enteritis. 

GASTROCNE'MIUS,  the  most  exter- 
nal of  three  superficial  muscles  forming 
the  calf  of  the  leg  and  terminating  above 
the  heel  in  the  tendo  Achillis. 

GATES,  Horatio,  an  American  officer 
during  the  revolutionary  war,  born  in 
England  in  1728.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major  by  merit  alone.  At  the  capture  of 
Martinique  he  was  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Monkton,  and  he  was  with 


General  Gates. 


Braddock  when  the  latter  was  defeated 
in  1755.  On  the  conclusion  of  peace  he 
purchased  an  estate  in  Virginia,  on 
which  he  resided  until  the  revolutionary 
war  in  1775,  when  he  was  appointed 


adjutant-general  by  congress,  with  the 
rank  of  brigadier.  At  the  head  of  the 
American  army  of  the  north  he  com- 
pelled the  British  general  Burgoyne  to 
surrender  his  whole  army  at  Saratoga 
(1777).'  In  1780,  after  the  capture  of 
General  Lincoln,  Gates  received  the 
chief  command  of  the  southern  districts, 
but  was  defeated  two  months  later  by 
Cornwallis  at  Camden.  He  was  then 
superseded  by  General  Greene  and 
brought  to  court-martial,  but  was 
finally  acquitted,  and  reinstated  in  his 
command  in  1782  after  the  capture  of 
Cornwallis.  He  then  retired  to  Virginia,, 
and  in  1790,  having  emancipated  all  his 
slaves,  he  removed  to  New  York,  where, 
he  died  in  1806. 

GATESHEAD,  mun.,  county,  and 
parliamentary  borough,  England,  county 
Durham,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tyne,, 
opposite  Newcastle,  of  which  it  is  prac- 
tically part,  being  connected  with  itby' 
three  bridges.  Pop.  109,887. 

GATH  (Hebrew,  “wine-press”),  one  of 
the  five  royal  cities  of  the  Philistines,, 
which,  from  its  situation  on  the  borders 
of  Judah,  was  of  much  importance  in  the 
wars  of  the  Jews  and  Philistines. 

GATLING-GUN.  See  Machine-gun. 

GAUGE  (or  Gage),  Steam  and  Water, 
the  instruments  fixed  to  engine  boilers 
for  registering  the  force  of  steam  and  the 
level  of  the  water. 

GAUGE,  a standard  of  measurement. 
As  applied  to  railways,  gauge  signifies 
the  distance  between  the  centers  of  each 
pair  of  rails,  which  in  England  and  the 
-United  States  or  narrow  gauge  is  4 feet 
8|  inches.  The  broad  gauge  is  7 feet ; the 
Irish,  Indian,  and  Spanish  gauge  is  5 feet 
6 inches.  Special  narrow  gauges  have 
recently  been  adopted  for  mountain  and 
mineral  lines,  such  as  the  3 feet  6 inch 
gauge  of  the  Norwegian  lines.  Gauge  is 
also  the  name  applied  to  various  contriv- 
ances for  measuring  any  special  di- 
mensions, such  as  the  wire-gauge,  an 
oblong  plate  of  steel,  with  notches  of 
different  widths  cut  on  the  edge  and 
numbered,  the  size  of  the  wire  being 
determined  by  trying  it  in  the  different 
notches  until  one  is  found  which  it 
exactly  fits.  The  thickness  of  sheet- 
metal  is  tried  by  a similar  gauge. 

GAUL,  Gallia,  in  ancient  geography, 
the  country  of  the  Gauls,  the  chief 
branch  of  the  great  original  stock  of 
Celts.  It  extended  at  one  time  from  the 
Pyrenees  to  the  Rhine,  and  included  also 
a part  of  Italy.  Hence  it  was  divided  into 
Gaul  on-  this  side  (the  Roman  side)  of 
the  Alps,  or  Gallia  Cisalpina,  and  Gaul 
beyond  the  Alps,  or  Gallia  Transalpina. 

More  than  a century  after  the  burning 
of  Rome,  the  eastern  Gauls,  in  280-278 
B.C.,  made  three  destructive  irruptions 
into  Macedonia  and  Greece.  Several 
tribes  pursued  their  course  into  Asia 
Minor,  where,  under  the  name  of 
Galatians,  they  long  retained  their 
nat.ional  peculiarities.  After  these  mi- 
grations the  Gauls  along  the  banks  of 
the  Danube  and  in  the  south  of  Ger- 
many disappear.  Tribes  of  German 
origin  occupy  the  whole  country  as  far 
as  the  Rhine,  and  even  beyond  that 
river.  The  Belgse,  who  were  partly  Ger- 
man, occupied  the  northern  part  of 
Gaul,  from  the  Seine  and  Marne  to  the 
British  Channel  and  the  Rhine,  from 


GAUSS 


GELATIN  PROCESS 


whence  colonists  passed  over  into  Brit- 
ain, and  settled  on  the  coast  districts. 
The  Celts  in  Gaul  had  attained  some  de- 
gree of  cultivation  by  intercourse  with 
the  Greeks  and  Carthaginians  before 
they  came  in  contact  with  the  Romans. 
On  the  appointment  of  Julius  Cffisar  to 
the  proconsulsliip  over  the  countries 
bordering  on  Gaul,  he  resolved  to  sub- 
ject all  Gaul,  and  executed  his  purpose 
in  less  than  nine  years  (58-50)  (b.c.),  in 
eight  bloody  campaigns.  The  dominion 
of  the  Romans  in  Gaul  was  confirmed  by 
colonies,  and  "the  liberal  grant  of  the 
Roman  citizenship  to  several  Gallic 
tribes.  The  religion  of  the  Druids,  being 
suppressed  in  Gaul  by  Tiberius  and 
Claudius,  gradually  retreated  into  Brit- 
ain, soon  also  conquered  by  the  Romans. 
After  the  extinction  of  the  Csesars,  the 
Gauls  once  more  attempted  to  recover 
their  liberty  by  aid  of  the  Germans,  but 
after  this  last  effort  became  entirely 
Romanized,  even  their  ancient  language, 
the  Celtic,  being  supplanted  by  a corrupt 
Latin  dialecU  About  the  year  486  the 
Franks  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Gaul, 
and  put  a period  to  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans  in  that  country.  See  France. 

GAUSS  (gous),  Karl  Friedrich,  a Ger- 
man mathematician,  born  1777.  In  1801 
he  published  his  Disquisitiones  Arith- 
meticae,  treating  of  indeterminate  analy- 
sis or  transcendental  arithmetic,  and 
containing,  in  addition  to  many  new 
theroems,a  demonstration  of  the  theroem 
of  Fermat  concerning  triangular  num- 
bers. He  also  calculated,  by  a new 
method,  the  orbit  of  the  planets  Ceres 
and  Pallas.  In  1807  he  became  professor 
of  mathematics  and  director  of  the  ob- 
servatory at  Gottingen,  a position  which 
he  held  till  his  death  in  1855. 

GAUTAMA,  a name  of  Buddha,  the 
founder  of  Buddhism.  See  Buddha. 

GAUTIER  (go-ti-a),  Theophile,  French 
poet  and  critic,  born  1811  at  Tarbes 
(Hautes-Pyrendes).  In  1832  appeared 
his  poem  Albertus;  but  his  first  great 
success  was  the  romance  Mademoiselle 
de  Maupin,  which  led  to  his  engagement 
by  Balzac  as  secretary.  In  1872  he  was 
sent  by  the  republican  government  on  a 
literary  mission  to  Italy,  and  died  in  the 
same  year. 

GAUZEj  a thin  transparent  stuff  of 
silk,  linen,  or  cotton.  It  is  either  plain  or 
figured,  the  latter  being  sometimes 
worked  with  flowers  of  silver  or  gold. 

GA'VIAL,  the  Indian  crocodile,  char- 
acterized by  the  narrow,  almost  cylin- 
drical jaws  which  form  an  exceedingly 
elongated  muzzle.  The  teeth  (about  120 


Head  of  gavial,  or  gangetic  crocodile. 

in  number)  are  of  equal  length,  and  the 
feet  are  completely  webbed.  The  males 
he  distinguished  from  the  females 
♦.he  shape  of  the  muzzle,  which  is 
much  smaller  at  the  extremity.  The 


only  extant  species  occurs  in  South  and 
Eastern  Asia,  especially  in  the  Ganges. 
It  feeds  on  fishes  and  small  prey. 

GAVOTTE',  an  air  for  a dance  with 
two  strains,  each  of  four  or  eight  bars, 
in  f or  i time,  the  starting  notes  occupy- 
ing half  a bar.  Like  the  minuet,  it  has 
been  introduced  for  free  treatment  into 
suites,  sonatas,  etc.  The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  Gavots,  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Gap,  in  France. 

GAY,  John,  English  poet,  born  near 
Barnstaple  in  1688,  and  apprenticed  to  a 
silk  mercer  in  London.  In  1712  he  be- 
came secretary  to  Anne,  Duchess  of 
Monmouth.  In  1713  he  published  his 
Rural  Sports,  which  he  dedicated  to 
Pope,  with  whom  he  formed  a close 
-friendship.  In  1720  he  published  his 
poems  by  subscription,  in  1724  his 
tragedy.  The  Captives,  and  in  1727  his 
well-known  Fables.  His  Beggar’s  Opera, 
the  notion  of  which  seems  to  have  been 
afforded  by  Srvift,  was  first  acted  in 
1728,  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  Fields.  Pie  also 
wrote  the  pastoral  Acis  and  Galatea  and 
the  opera  Achilles.  He  died  in  1732. 

GAYA,  the  chief  town  of  a district  of 
the  same  name  in  Bengal,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Phalgu,  a tributary  of  the 
Ganges,  260  miles  n.w.  of  Calcutta.  Pop. 
71,288.  The  district  has  an  area  of  4712 
sq.  miles,  and  pop.  2,138,331. 

GAY-LUSSAC  (ga-lus-ak),  Louis 
Joseph,  French  chemist  and  physicist;, 
born  at  St.  Leonard  (Haute-Vienne) 
1778,  died  at  Paris  1850.  He  was  educa- 
ted in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  from 
1797  to  1800,  and  afterward  in  the 
Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  but  pre- 
ferring chemistry,  he  entered  Berthollet’s 
Ecole  Laboratory.  In  1802  he  returned 
to  the  Polytechnique  as  demonstrator  of 
chemistry,  and  in  1804  performed  his 
two  balloon  ascents  for  scientific  pur- 
poses, the  first  with  Biot,  the  secpnd  by 
himself,  an  account  of  which  appeared 
in  the  Journal  de  Physique.  In  1806  he 
was  elected  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  was  especially  celebrated  for  his  re- 
searches into  the  chemical  and  physical 
properties  of  gases  and  vapors. 

GAZELLE',  the  type  of  a sub-family 
of  antelopes  (Gazellinse),  which  includes 
some  23  species  of  small,  mostly  desert- 


Gazelles. 

loving  forms.  Its  color  is  a light  fawn 
upon  the  back,  deepening  into  dark- 
brown  in  a wide  band  which  edges  the 
flanks  and  forms  a line  of  demarcation 
between  the  color  of  the  upper  portions 
of  the  body  and  the  pure  white  of  the 
abdomen.  The  eye  of  the  gazelle  is  large, 
soft,  and  lustrous.  Both  sexes  are  pro- 
vided with  horns,  round,  black,  and 
lyrated,  about  13  inches  long.  It  seems 
to  be  confined  to  the  north  side  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains,  Egypt,  Abj^ssinia, 
Sj'ria,  Arabia,  and  South  Persia. 


GAZETTEER',  a geographical  dic- 
tionary; a book  containing  descriptions 
of  natural  and  political  divisions,  coun- 
tries, cities,  towns,  rivers,  mountains, 
etc.,  alphabetically  arranged. 

GAZ'OGENE,  an  apparatus  used  for 
manufacturing  aerated  water  on  a small 
scale  for  domestic  use,  by  the  combina- 
tion of  an  alkali  and  an  acid,  as  car- 
bonate of  soda  and  tartaric  acid,  which 
yield  carbonic  acid  when  mixed  with 
water. 

GEARING,  in  machinery,  the  parts 
collectively  by  which  motion  communi- 
cated to  one  portion  of  a machine  is 
transmitted  to  another,  generally  a train 
of  toothed  wheels.  There  are  two  chief 
sorts  of  wheel  gearing,  viz. ; super-gearing 
and  beveled  gearing.  In  the  former  the 
teeth  are  arranged  round  either  the  con- 
cave or  convex  surface  of  a cylindrical 
wheel  in  the  direction  of  radii  from  the 
center  of  the  wheel,  and  are  of  equal 
depth  throughout.  In  beveled  gearing 
the  teeth  are  placed  upon  a b^eveled 
surface  round  a wheel  which  if  the  slope 
of  the  bevel  were  continued  would  form 
a cone,  the  teeth  sloping  similarly. 

GEBER  (ge'bcr),  Arabian  chemist  or 
alchemist,  often  designated  the  father 
of  chemistry,  flourished  during  the  8th 
century.  He  was  acquainted  with  nearly 
all  the  chemical  processes  in' use  down  to 
the  18th  century.  His  writings  describe 
various  kinds  of  furnaces  and  other  ap- 
paratus, and  cupellation,  distillation, 
and  other  chemical  processes;  the  puri- 
fication, composition,  and  properties 
of  the  metals  then  known — gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  tin,  and  iron,  and  the  func- 
tions of  mercury,  sulphur,  and  arsenic. 
He  is  the  reputed  author  of  an  immense 
number  of  works  as  well  on  meta- 
physics, language,  astronomy,  etc.,  as 
on  chemistry. 

GED  (ged),  William,  inventor  of  stereo- 
typing, born  in  Edinburgh  about"  the, 
begiiming  of  the  18th  century,  died  in 
poor  circumstances  in  1749.  He  first 
practiced  his  great  improvement  in  the 
art  of  printing  in  1725;  and  some  years 
later  he  entered  into  a partnership  in 
London,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
production  of  two  prayer-books  only. 
He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1733,  and 
published  a stereotype  edition  of 
Sallust. 

GEHEN'NA,  a term  used  in  the  New 
Testament  as  equivalent  to  place  of  fire 
or  torment,  and  rendered  in  the  author- 
ized (and  the  revised)  version  by  hell  and 
hell-fire. 

GEIBEL  (gi'bl),  Emanuel,  German 
poet,  born  at  Liibeck  1815,  died  1884. 
He  wrote  Brunhild,  a tragedy;  The 
Loreley,  an  opera  in  rhyme,  and  several 
other  plays,  but  his  fame  rests  on  his 
lyrics,  which  are  immensely  popular. 

GELATIN  PROCESS,  is  used  in  many 
photographic  and  photo-mechanical 
processes  as  a vehicle  for  certain 
chemicals  which  either  alone  or  in  com- 
bination are  sensitive  'to  the  action 
of  light,  and  under  its  influence  ex- 
perience changes  in  their  condition. 
The  substitution  of  the  gelatin  film  of 
the  dry  plate  for  the  collodion  surface 
of  the  wet  plate  was  an  important  de' 
velopmcnt  in  photography,  while  the 
f.act  that  gelatin  mixed  with  bichromate 
I of  potash  becomes  insoluble  when  acted 


1 : 


I 


• ^ 


§ 


i 


GELATINE 


GENERAL  LIEN 


upo:i  by  light  furnishes  the  basis  for 
many  photographic  processes. 

GELATINE  (jel'a-tin),  a concrete 
animal  substance,  transparent,  and 
soluble  slowly  in  cold  water,  but  rapidly 
in  warm  water.  It  is  confmod  to  the 
solid  parts  of  the  body,  such  as  tendons, 
ligaments,  cartilages,  and  bones,  and 
exists  nearly  pure  in  the  skin,  but  it  is 
not  contained  in  any  healthy  animal 
fluid.  Its  leading  character  is  the  forma- 
tion of  a tremulous  jelly  when  its  solution- 
in  boiling  water  cools.  Gelatine  does 
not  exist  as  such  in  the  animal  tissues, 
but  is  formed  by  the  action  of  boiling 
water.  The  coarser  forms  of  gelatine 
from  hoofs,  hides,  etc.,  are  called  glue; 
that  from  skin  and  finer  membranes  is 
called  size;  and  the  purest  gelatine,  from 
the  air-bladders  and  other  membranes  of 
fish,  is  called  isinglass.  With  tannin  a 
yellowish  white  precipitate  is  thrown 
down  from  a solution  of  gelatine,  which 
forms  an  elastic  adhesive  mass,  not  un- 
like vegetable  gluten,  and  is  a compound 
of  tannin  and  gelatine.  It  is  this  action 
of  tannin  on  gelatine  that  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  art  of  tanning  leather. 
Gelatine  when  acted  upon  by  sulphuric 
acid  yields  gelatine  sugar  on  glycocoll. 
When  treated  with  potash  it  is  said  to 
yield  plycocoll  and  leucine.  Gelatine  is 
nearly  related  to  the  proteids.  No  chem- 
ical formula  has  yet  been  deduced  for 
it.  It  is  a nutritious  article  of  food, 
and  as  part  of  the  diet  in  hospitals  pro- 
duces the  best  effects;  but  animals  fed 
exclusively  on  it  die  with  the  symp- 
toms of  starvation,  as  it  cannot  yield 
albumen,  fibrine,  orcaseine.  Its  ultimate 
components  are  47'8  carbon,  7'9  hydro- 
gen, 16’9  nitrogen,  27’4  oxygen. 

GELDERLAND,  GUELDERLAND 
(gel'),  a province  of  the  Netherlands; 
area,  1,963  English  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
566,549. 

GEMINI  (jem'-ini),  the  Twins,  the 
third  sign  of  the  zodiac,  so  named  from 
its  two  brightest  stars.  Castor,  of  the  first 
magnitude,  farthest  to  the  west,  and 
Pollux,  of  the  second,  farthest  to  the 
east.  Its  constituent  stars  form  a binary 
^stem  revolving  in  about  250  years. 
'The  sun  iS^n  Gemini  from  about  the  21st 
May  till  about  the  21st  June,  or  the 
longest  day. 

GEMMATION,  in  zool.  a mode  of  re- 
production among  certain  animals  of 
low  type,  w^hich  consists  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a bud  or  buds,  generally  from 
the  exterior,  but  sometimes  from  the  in- 
terior, of  the  body  of  the  animal, which 
buds  are  developed  into  independent 
beings  that  may  or  may  not  remain 
attached  to  the  parent  organism.  This 
mode  of  reproduction  is  seen  in  the  sea- 
mats,  the  fresh-water  polyp,  etc. 

GEMS,  or  precious  stones,  are  some- 
times found  crystalized  in  regular  shapes 
and  with  a natural  polish,  more  com- 
monly of  irregular  shapes  and  with  a 
rough  coat.  The  term  gem  often  denotes 
more  particularly  a stone  that  is  cut, 
polished,  or  engraved,  and  it  also  in- 
cludes pearls  and  various  artificial  pro- 
ductions. The  first  and  most  valuable 
class  of  gems  includes  diamonds,  emer- 
alds, rubies,  sapphires,  and  a few  others; 
the  second  class  includes  the  amethyst, 
topaz,  garnet,  etc  ; while  agate,  lapis- 
lazuli,  cornelian,  etc.;  though  much 


used  for  ornament,  can  scarcely^  be 
called  gems.  The  various  precious  stones 
are  deseribed  under  their  proper  heads. 
The  fabrication  of  artificial  gems  is  now 
prosecuted  with  skill  and  capital,  and 
has  become  an  important  industrial 
art.  The  base  of  one  class  of  imitations 
is  a peculiar  kind  of  glass  of  considerable 
hardness,  brilliancy  and  refractive  powder 
called  paste  or  strass,  which  is  distin- 
guished from  ordinary  glass  by  the 
presence  of  50  per  cent  of  oxide  of  lead 
among  its  eonstituents.  When  the  strass 
is  obtained  very  pure  it  is  melted  and 
mixed  with  substances  having  a metallic 
base,  generally  oxides,  which  com- 
municate to  the  mass  tlie  most  varied 
colors.  Another  class,  called  semi- 
stones or  doublets,  are  made  by  affixing 
thin  slices  of  real  gem  to  an  under  part 
of  strass  by  means  of  an  invisible  cement. 
In  some  cases  an  imitation  is  made  by 
setting  uncolored  strass  or  cjuartz  in 
jewelry  with  some  colored  “foil”  at  the 
back  of  it.  Attempts  have  within  recent 
years  been  made  with  a fair  measure  of 
success  to  manufacture  true  gems  by 
artificial  processes.  The  French  chem- 
ists Becquercl,  Ebelman,  Gaudin,  Des- 
pretz,  and  others  have  done  much  in 
this  direction.  In  1858  MM.  Deville  and 
Caron  communicated  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  Paris,  a process  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a number  of  gems  of  the 
corundum  class,  as  rubies,  sapphires,  etc. 
The  process  essentially  consisted  in  ex- 
posing the  fluoride  of  aluminium,  to- 
gether with  a little  charcoal  and  boracic 
acid,  in  a plumbago  crucible  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  air,  to  a w'hite 
heat  for  about  an  hour.  Many  experi- 
ments with  a view  to  producing  dia- 
monds artificially  have  also  been  made. 
From  hydrocarbons,  subjected  to  a very 
intense  heat  and  enormous  pressure, 
minute  fragments  of  crystalline  carbon, 
differing  fi-om  natural  diamond  in  no 
respect  save  brilliancy,  have  been  pro- 
duced. In  art  and  archaeology  the  term 
gem  is  usually  applied  to  a precious 
stone,  cut  or  engraved  in  ornamental 
designs,  or  with  inscriptions.  Stones  on 
which  the  design  is  raised  above  the 
general  surface  are  called  cameos;  those 
having  the  design  sunk  below  the  sur- 
face are  called  intaglios.  Early  speci- 
mens of  cut  gems  are  seen  in  the  scajabaei 
or  beetle-shaped  signets  worn  in  rings 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Among  the 
Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans  gem- 
sculpture  held  a high  place,  reaching  its 
liighest  point  under  Augustus.  Modern 
gem-engraving  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  15th  century,  the  chief  seats  of 
the  art  being  Italy  and  Germany.  Rome 
is  now  the  headquarters  of  the  seal- 
engraving art.  The  tools  of  the  en- 
graver consist  of  a lathe,  and  a series 
of  little  rods  with  heads  of  different 
shapes,  all  of  which  can  be  adjusted 
to  the  lathe.  The  axis  of  the  lathe 
is  pierced  at  the  center  with  an  orifice, 
into  ■^lich  the  tools  for  cutting  the 
stone  are  firmly  fixed  by  means  of  a 
screw.  The  engraver  wets  the  extremity 
of  the  mounted  rod  with  diamond  dust 
made  into  a paste  with  olive-oil,  and  as 
the  wheel  is  in  motion  he  applies  the 
stone,  firmly  cemented  to  a piece  of  reed, 
to  the  revolving  tool.  The  cliamond  dust 
enables  the  tool  to  cut  into  the  stone 


with  ease.  As  the  design  is  frequently 
very  elaborate  and  of  the  greatest  deli- 
cacy, the  tools  are  necessarily  multi- 
form. The  stones  used  for  cameo- 
cutting often  exhibit  layers  of  different 
colors,  so  that  the  raised  design  has  a 
tint  distinct  from  the  ground.  Intaglio* 
are  very  often  executed  in  transparent 
stones,  and  the  subjects  treated  in  this 
manner  are  more  limited  in  number. 
They  are  chiefly  such  as  seals,  devices, 
coats  of  arms,  etc. 

GENDARMES  (zhan'darm),  the  name 
originally  given  in  France  to  the  whole 
body  of  armed  men,  but  after  the  in- 
troduction of  standing  armies  to  a body 
of  heavy-armed  cavalrjq  which  com- 
posed the  chief  strength  of  the  forces. 

GENDER,  in  gram,  one  of  those 
classes  or  categor,ies  into  which  words 
are  divided  according  to  the  sex,  natural 
or  metaphorical,  of  the  beings  or  things 
they  denote.  It  may  be  exhibited  by  a 
class  of  words  marked  by  similarity  in 
termination,  the  termination  having 
attached  to  it  a distinction  in  sex,  as  seen 
in  nouns,  adjectives,  participles,  etc. 
There  are  three  genders  in  all : masculine 
feminine,  and  neuter,  but  these  distinc- 
tions only  exist  in  some  languages. 

GENEAL'OGY,  the  systematical  in- 
vestigation and  exhiLition  of  the  origin, 
descent,  and  relations  of  families  (or 
their  pedigree).  Persons  descended 
from  a eommon  father  constitute  a 
family.  Under  the  idea  of  degree  of 
relationship  is  denoted  the  nearness  or 
remoteness  of  relationship  in  which  one 
person  stands  with  respect  to  another. 
A series  of  several  persons,  descended 
from  a common  progenitor,  is  called  a 
line.  A line  is  either  direct  or  collateral. 
The  collateral  lines  comprehend  the 
several  lines  which  unite  in  a common 
progenitor.  For  illustrating  descent 
and  relationship  genealogical  tables 
are  constructed,  tlie  order  of  which  de- 
pends on  the  end  in  view.  The  common 
form  of  genealogical  tables  places  the 
common  stock  at  the  head,  and  shows 
the  degree  of  each  descendant  by  lines. 
Some  tables,  however,  have  been  con- 
structed in  the  form  of  a tree,  in  which 
the  progenitor  (German,  Stammvater) 
is  placed  beneath,  as  if  for  a root. 

GENERAL,  a military  rank  and  title 
denoting  an  officer  holding  a general 
command,  or  a rank  and  grade  equiva- 
lent thereto.  In  modern  armies,  prac- 
tically every  officer  commanding  an 
organization  of  troops  larger  than  a 
regiment  is  a general  officer.  In  the  U. 
States  the  rank  has  the  following 
grades;  brigadier-general,  major-general 
and  one  lieutenant-general  in  supreme 
active  eommand  of  the  army  as  a whole. 
Officers  of  other  ranks  are  sometimes 
given  the  temporary  and  relative  rank 
of  general,  as  inspector-general,  judge 
advocate-general,  quarter-master-gen  - 
eral,  etc.  In  European  armies  the  rank 
of  general  is  a step  higher  than  that  ot 
lieutenant-general,  and  is  the  next  in 
importance  to  field-marshal  in  England, 
and  to  marshal  in  the  armies  of  Con- 
tinental Europe. 

GENERAL  LIEN,  in  law,  the  right  to 
retain  possession  of  a chattel  until  pay- 
ment be  made,  not  only  of  any  debt  due 
in  respect  of  that  particular  chattel,  but 
I of^  any  balance  that  inay  be  due  on 


GENERAL  SERVICE  AND  STAFF  COLLEGE 


GENEVA,  LAKE  OF 


eneral  account  in  the  same  line  of 
usiness.  General  liens  do  not  exist  at 
common  law,  but  depend  entirely  upon 
contract,  express  or  implied  from  the 
special  usage  of  dealing  between  the 
parties. 

GENERAL  SERVICE  AND  STAFF 
COLLEGE,  a military  school  for  the 
further  technical  and  professional 
education  of  military  officers  of  the  U. 
States  Army,  situated  at  Fort  Leaven- 
worth, Kan.  The  staff  of  the  college 
detailed  to  assist  the  commandant,  who 
is  also  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
post  of  Fort  Leavenworth,  consists  of 
n.n  assistant  commandant,  and  the  in- 
structors in  charge  of  departments. 
The  instructors  are  detailed  by  the  war 
department,  and  there  are  four  depart- 
ments— tactics,  engineering,  military 
law,  military  sanitation  and  hygiene. 
The  course  of  instruction  covers  one 
year  of  two  terms,  the  first  term  be- 
ginning on  the  1st  of  September,  unless 
that  date  fall  on  Saturday  or  Sunday, 
in  which  case  the  course  begins  on  the 
following  Monday.  It  ends  on  the  21st 
of  December,  concluding  with  the  semi- 
annual examinations.  The  second  term 
embraces  the  period  from  the  4th  of 
January  to  the  30th  of  June  following, 
concluding  with  the  final  examinations. 
The  students  are  all  graded  in  one  class, 
which  is  divided  into  sections  of  con- 
venient size  and  adaptation.  The  staff 
of  the  college  note  the  names  of  stu- 
dents who  have  shown  marked  pro- 
ficiency in  any  branch,  with  a view  to 
the  student’s  projessional  employment 
in  that  particular  branch. 

GENERAL  STAFF,  an  organization  of 
superior  or  selected  officers,  appointed 
to  the  staff  of  a general  officer  command- 
ing, whose  duties  may  be  generally  de- 
scribed as  converting  the  ideas  of  their 
chief  into  orders,  not  only  by  conveying 
them  to  the  troops,  but  by  working  out 
all  necessary  matters  of  detail.  The 
general  staff  organization  was  originally 
peculiar  to  Germany,  but  is  now  being 
generally  adopted  throughout  Continen- 
tal Europe. 

GENERAL  THEOLOGICAL  SEMI- 
NARY, the  leading  seminary  in  the  U. 
States  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  The  seminary  was  established 
by  order  of  the  general  convention  in 
1817,  and  instruction  was  begun  in  New 
York  City  in  1819.  The  theological 
course  proper  extends  over  three  years, 
and  there  is  also  a post-graduate  course. 
The  degrees  of  D.D.  and  B.D.  are  con- 
ferred; the  former  is  both  a higher  aca- 
demic and  an  honorary  degree,  while 
the  latter  is  usually  conferred  in  course 
on  students  holding  prior  academic 
degrees,  who  have  completed  the  regular 
course  in  high  standing.  The  control 
of  the  seminary  is  vested  in  a board  of 
trustees  composed  of  the  bishops  of  the 
church,  twenty-five  members  elected  by 
the  general  convention,  and  certain 
other  members  elected  by  the  various 
dioceses,  principally  that  of  New  Y’'ork. 
The  student  attendance  is  approxi- 
mately 150.  No  tuition  fee  is  charged, 
and  many  prizes  of  value  are  offered. 
Within  twenty-five  years  the  student 
body  has  largely  increased,  and  exten- 
sive buildings  have  been  elected,  includ- 
ing the  library,  Hoffman  Hall,  the 


Chapel  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  nine 
dormitories. 

GENERATION,  a single  succession  of 
human  beings  (or  animals)  who  are  born, 
grow  up,  and  reproduce  their  kind; 
hence,  an  age  or  period  of  time  between 
one  succession  and  the  next,  as  the  third, 
the  fourth,  or  the  tenth  generation. 
The  length  of  a generation  is  usually 
estimated  at  about  thirty  years. 

GENERATION,  SPONTANEOUS,  or 
ABIO-GENESIS,  the  doctrine  that  living 
matter  may  originate  spontaneously, 
“that  under  certain  circumstances  dead 
matter  may  build  itself  up  into  living- 
matter  without  the  intervention  of 
already  existing  protoplasm.”  In  the 
17th  century  this  was  the  dominant 
view,  sanctioned  alike  by  antiquity  and 
authority,  and  was  first  assailed  by 
Redi,  an  Italian  philosopher.  Buffon 
held  the  doctrine  in  a very  modified  de- 
gree. He  held  that  life  is  the  indefeasi- 
ble property  of  certain  indestructible 
molecules  of  matter  which  exist  in  all 
living  things,  and  have  inherent  acti- 
vities by  which  they  are  distinguished 
from  not-living  matter,  each  individual 
living  organism  being  formed  by  their 
temporary  combination.  Of  course  it  is 
only  animals  or  plants  of  very  low  type 
and  minute  size  that  have  been  sup- 
posed thus  to  be  produced  spontaneously 
from  dead  matter;  and  the  readiness 
with  which  such  appear,  in  circumstances 
in  which  one  might  suppose  no  germs 
of  them  could  be  present,  OTves  some 
countenance  to  the  belief.  Thus  even 
at  the  present  day  authorities  are 
found  who  still  declare  their  adherence 
to  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  genera- 
tion, but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that,  -whatever  may  have  been  the  case 
with  the  first  beginnings  of  life,  living 
matter  is  now  invariably  derived  from 
pre-existent  living  matter. 

GENERIC  NAME,  in  natural  history, 
the  denomination  which  comprehends 
all  the  species  of  a genus;  thus,  Canis  is 
the  generic  name  of  animals  of  the  dog 
kind. 

GENESEE  (jen-e-se'),  a river  which 
rises  in  Pennsylvania, flows  north  through 
New  York,  and  falls  into  Lake  Ontario 
6 miles  below  Rochester,  after  a course 
of  145  miles.  It  is  notable  for  its  varied 
and  romantic  scenery,  and  its  extra- 
ordinary falls.  These  falls  are  five  in 
number;  three  of  them  occur  about  90 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and 
are  respectively  60,  90,  and  110  feet 
high.  The  other  two  are  near  Rochester, 
and  are  both  about  100  feet  high. 

GENESIS,  (Greek,  creation,  birth, 
origin),  the  first  book  of  the  Bible  and 
of  the  Pentateuch,  named  in  the 
Hebrew  canon  B’reshith  (in  the  be- 
ginning), from  the  term  with  which  it 
commences.  From  the  Greek  translators 
it  received  the  name  it  is  now  commonly 
Imown  by.  Genesis  consists  of  two  great 
but  closely-connected  divisions: — (1) 
The  history  of  the  creation,  the  fall  of 
man,  the  flood,  the  dispersion  of  the 
human  race,  chap,  i.-xi.  (2)  The  history 
of  the  fathers  of  the  Jewish  race,  chap, 
xii.-l.  A certain  apparent  difference  of 
style  and  language,  the  occurrence  of 
what  seem  gaps  on  the  one  hand,  and 
repetitions  and  contradictions  on  the 
other,  and  the  different  use  of  the  term 


for  the  divine  name  (Jehovah,  Ever- 
lasting; and  Elohim,  Almighty),  led 
very  early  to  the  question  of  the  integ- 
rity of  the  book,  and  various  critics  have- 
assumed  larger  or  smaller  interpola- 
tions. 


GENEVA,  a town  in  Switzerland,  capi- 
tal  of  the  canton  of  the  same  name  7-' 
situated  at  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  where  the  Rhone  issues, 
here  crossed  by  several  bridges,  and 
dividing  the  town  into  two  portions, 
the  larger  and  more  important  of  which  , 
is  on  the  left  or  south  bank.  The  more  ? 
important  public  buildings  are  the  V 
cathedral  or  church  of  St.  Pierre,  a 
Gothic  structure  of  the  10th,  11th,  and 
12th  centuries,  occupying  the  highest  ■ 
site  in  the  town,  and  by  its  three  towers  ' 
forming  the  most  conspicuous  object  . 
within  it,  somewhat  defaced  externally  ~ 
by  a very  incongruous  Greek  peristyle;  '■ 
the  town-house  in  the  Florentine  style; 
the  Mus^e  Rath,  containing  a collection  • 
of  pictures  and  other  works  of  art;  the  • 
university  building,  nearly  opposite  the  ■ 
botanic  garden,  rebuilt  in  1867-71,  and 
containing  the  public  library,  founded 
by  Bonivard,  the  prisoner  of  Clhillon,  in 
1551,  and  now  numbering  90,000  vols.;  - 
and  the  museum  of  natural  history.  The 
only  important  manufactures  of  Geneva 
are  that  of  watches,  musical-boxes,  and 
jewelry.  Geneva  has  ample  railway  com- 
munication, and  is  one  of  the  principal 
entrances  for  tourists  and  travelers  into 
Switzerland.  Pop.  105,139. — The  canton  ■’ 
is  bounded  by  the  canton  of  Vaud  and 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  by  France. 
Area,  109  sq.  miles.  Manufactures  con-  s 
sist  chiefly  of  clocks  and  watches,  musical 
boxes,  mathematical  instruments,  gold, 
silver,  and  other  metal  wares,  w-^olen 
cloths,  and  silk  cloths  of  various  descrip- 
tions, hats,  leather,  and  articles  in 
leather;  and  there  are  numerous  cotton 
mills,  calico-printing  works,  and  dye-  • 
works.  The  territory  of  Geneva  having,  . 
by  the  arrangements  of  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  obtained  an  accession  of  fifteen 
communes,  detached  from  France  and 
Savoy,  was  admitted  a member  of  the 
Swiss  confederation  in  1814,  and  ranks  r 
as  the  twenty -second  canton.  Its  con- 
stitution of  1848  is  the  most  democratic 
in  the  federation.  All  religious  denomi-  ■' 
nations  are  declared  to  have  perfect 
freedom,  but  two  of  them  are  paid  by  the 
state — the  Roman  Catholics,  amounting  • 
to  rather  more  than  a third  of  the  popu-  ' 
lation,  and  the  Protestant  National  " 
Church.  The  language  spoken  is  French. 
Pop.  131,674. 

GENEVA,  a city  in  Ontario  co.,  N.  Y'., 
on  Seneca  Lake,  the  Seneca  and  Cayuga 
Canal  and  the  Fall  Brook,  the  Lehigh  .. 
Valley,  and  the  N.  Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  rail- 
roads.  It  is  the  seat  of  Hobart  college, 
the  State  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tion.  Pop.  11,543. 

GENEVA,  LAKE  OF,  or  LAKE  7 
LEMAN,  the  largest  of  the  Swiss  lakes,  J- 
extending  in  the  form  of  a orescent,  with 
its  horns  pointing  southward,  between 
France  on  the  south,  and  the  cantons  of 
Geneva,  Vaud,  and  Valais:  length,  7 
measured  on  its  north  shore,  55  miles,  a 
and  on  its  soutlTshore  40  miles;  central  » 
breadth,  about  6 miles;  area,  331  sq- 
miles;  greatest  depth,  900  feet.  It  is  ^ 
1150  feet  above  the  sea. 


GENEVA  BIBLE 


GENRE 


GENEVA  BIBLE,  a copy  of  the  Bible 
in  English,  printed  at  Geneva;  first  in 
1560.  This  version  was  in  common  use 
till  the  version  made  by  order  of  James 
I was  introduced. 

GENEVA  CONVENTION,  an  agree- 
ment concluded  at  an  international  con- 
ference held  in  Geneva  in  1864,  for  the 
succor  of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  time 
of  actual  warfare.  The  neutrality  of 
hospitals,  ambulances,  and  the  persons 
attending  on  them  was  provided  for; 
and  the  use  of  the  red  cross  on  a white 
ground  as  a sign  of  neutrality,  has  re- 
ceived the  adhesion  of  all  civilized 
powers. 

GENEVIEVE,  the  name  of  two  female 
saints. — 1.  St.  Genevieve,  the  patron 
saint  of  Paris;  born  at  Nanterre,  about 
5 miles  from  Paris,  in  the  year  42.3;  died 
ut  Paris  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th 
century.  2.  St.  Genevieve,  by  birth 
Duchess  of  Brabant,  wife  of  Siegfried, 
count  palatine  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
Martel  (about  570). 

GENGHIS  KHAN,  or  JENGHIS  KHAN 
'(jen'gis),  Mongol  conqueror,  born  about 
1160,  died  1227.  His  father  was  chief 
over  thirty  or  forty  clans,  but  paid 
tribute  to  the  T^irtar  Khan.  He  suc- 

' ceeded  his  father  when  only  fourteen 
years  of  age,  and  made  himself  master  of 
the  neighboring  tribes.  A great  number 

■ of  tribes  now  combined  their  forces 

■ against  him.  But  he  found  a powerful 
protector  in  the  great  Khan  of  the  Kara- 
ite Mongols,  Oung,  or  Ung,  who  gave 
him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  After 

);t»uOh  intestine  warfare  with  various 
Tartar  tribes  Genghis  was  proclaimed 
^han  of  the  United  Mongol  and  Tartar 
tribes.  He  now  professed  to  have  a 
divine  call  to  conquer  the  world,  and 
the  idea  so  animated  the  spirit  of  his 
soldiers  that  they  were  easily  led  on  to 
new  wars.  The  country  of  the  Uigurs, 
in  the  center  of  Tartary,  had  long  ex- 
cited his  ambition.  This  nation  was 
easily  subdued,  and  Genghis  Khan  was 
now  master  of  the  greatest  part  of  Tar- 
tary. Soon  after  several  Tartar  tribes 
put  themselves  under  his  dominion,  and 
in  1209  he  passed  the  great  wall  of  China. 
The  conquest  of  China  occupied  the 
Mongols  more  than  six  years.  The  capi- 
tal, then  called  Yenking,  now  Peking, 
was  taken  by  storm  in  1215  and  plun- 
dered. The  murder  of  the  ambassadors 
•whom  Genghis  Khan  had  sent  to  the 
King  of  Kharism  (now  Khiva)  occasioned 
t.he  invasion  of  Turkestan  in  1218  with 
.•an  army  of  700,000  men;  and  the  two 
icities  of  Bokhara  and  Samarcand  were 
istormed,  pillaged,  and  burned.  Seven 
ears  in  succession  was  the  conqueror 
usy  in  the  work  of  destruction,  pillage, 

■ and  subjugation,  and  extended  his 
ravages  to  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper. 
In  1225,  though  more  than  sixty  years 

^•old,  he  marched  in  person  at  the  head  of 
his  whole  army  against  the  King  of 
Tangut  (Southwestern  China),  who  had 
iven  shelter  to  two  of  his  enemies,  and 
ad  refused  to  give  them  up.  A great 
battle  was  fought,  in  which  the  King  of 
Tangut  was  totally  defeated  with  the 
loss  of  300,000  men.  The  victor  re- 
mained some  time  in  his  newly-subdued 
provinces,  from  which  he  also  sent  two 
of  his  sons  to  complete  the  conquest  of 
Northern  China.  At  his  death  his  im- 


mense dominions  were  divided  among 
his  four  sons. 

GENIUS,  a tutelary  deity;  the  ruling 
and  protecting  power  of  men,  places,  or 
things;  a good  or  evil  spirit  supposed  to 
be  attached  to  a person  and  influence 
his  actions.  The  Genii  of  the  Romans 
were  the  same  as  the  Daimones  (Demons) 
of  the  Greeks.  According  to  the  belief 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  common  to 
almost  all  nations,  every  person  had  his 
own  Genius;  that  is,  a spiritual  being 
which  introduced  him  into  life,  accom- 
panied him  during  the  course  of  it,  and 
again  conducted  him  out  of  the  world 
at  the  close  of  his  career.  The  Genii  of 
■women  were  called  Junones.  The  Genii 
were  wholly  distinct  from  the  Manes, 
Lares,  and  Penates,  though  they  were 
allied  in  one  important  feature — the 
protection  of  mortals. 

The  term  genii  (with  the  singular 
genie)  is  also  used  as  equivalent  to  the 
jinn  (singular  jinnee)  of  Arabic  tales. 
These  are  supposed  to  be  a class  of  in- 
termediate beings.  See  Jinn. 

GENLIS  (zhan'les),  Stephanie  F61icit6 
Ducrest  de  St.  Aubin,  Countess  de,  French 
authoress,  born  near  .Vutun  1746,  died 
at  Paris  1830. 

GENOA  (jen'o-a),  a seaport  of  N. 
Italy,  the  chief  commercial  city  of  the 
kingdom,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  75  miles  s.e.  of  Turin.  It 


Strada  Balbi,  Genoa. 


is  beautifully  situated  at  the  foot  and  on 
the  slope  of  the  Ligurian  Alps,  the  lower 
hills  of  w'hich  form  a background  to  the 
city.  In  the  newer  quart^ers  many  of 
them  are  spacious,  and  are  lined  with 
palaces  and  other  noble  edifices.  Some 
of  the  palaces  are  filled  with  works  of 
art  by  the  greatest  masters.  The  prin- 
cipal are — the  Ducal  palace  (now  con- 
taining the  law-courts  and  various  public 
offices),  the  Palazzo  del  Municipio  or 
town-hall,  the  Palazzo  Brignole  or  Rosso 
(with  the  largest  picture-gallery  in 
Genoa),  the  Palazzo  Pallavicini,  the 
Palazzo  Reale,  built  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury for  the  Durazzo  family,  was  pur- 
chased in  1815  by  the  royal  family,  and 
the  palaces  of  Doria,  Serra,  Cambasio, 
Balbi,  and  Duracco.  The  most  remark- 


able of  the  churches  is  the  Duomo,  or 
Cathedral  of  St.  Lorenzo,  founded  in  the 
11th  century,  but  not  completed  till  the 
beginning  of  the  12th;  S.  Maria  in  Carig- 
nano,  built  in  imitation  of  the  original 
plan  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome;  S.  Stefano, 
a Gothic  church,  the  oldest  parts  of 
which  date  from  the  end  of  the  12th 
century;  S.  Ambrogio,  containing  two 
paintings  by  Rubens,  and  the  Assump- 
tion of  Guido  Reni.  The  principal  chari- 
table institution  is  the  Albergo  de’ 
Poveri,  in  which  1600  individuals, 
orphans  and  old  people,  find  shelter. 
Others  are  the  Ospedale  del  Pammatone 
founded  in  1430;  and  a hospital  recently 
built  by  the  Galliera  family.  Among  the 
theaters  of  the  city  may  be  mentioned 
the  Teatro  Carlo  Felice,  an  elegant 
structure,  with  a splendidly  fitted  up 
interior.  Besides  the  university,  founded 
in  1775,  the  chief  educational  institu- 
tions are  the  theological  seminary,  the 
school  of  fine  arts,  the  royal  marine 
school,  and  the  navigation  school.  It 
contains  fine  mortuary  buildings  and 
much  statuary  in  white  marble.  The 
manufactures  of  Genoa  include  cotton 
and  silk  goods,  gold,  silver,  paper  and 
leather  goods,  sugar,  and  preserved 
fruits.  The  principal  articles  of  ex- 
port are  cereals,  oils,  fruit,  cheese, 
rags,  the  products  of  its  manufactures, 
etc.  Many  emigrants  embark  here.  Im- 
ports— cotton,  wool,  W'heat,  sugar,  coffee, 
coal,  hides,  iron,  etc. — Under  the 
Romans  Genoa  was  famous  as  a seaport. 
After  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire  of 
Charlemagne,  it  constitued  itself  a re- 
public, presided  over  by  doges.  From 
1119  it  was  almost  constantly  at  war 
with  Pisa  down  to  1284,  when  Genoa 
inflicted  a crushing  defeat  on  Pisa.  The 
Genoese  obtained  the  supremacy  over 
Corsica,  and  nominally  over  Sardinia, 
possessed  settlements  in  the  Levant,  on 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  on  the 
Spanish  and  Barbary  coasts,  and  had  a 
very  flourishing  commerce.  The  rivalry 
between  Genoa  and  Venice  was. a fruit- 
ful source  of  wars  during  the  12th-14th 
centuries.  Meanwhile  the  city  was 
internally  convulsed  by  civil  discord  and 
party  spirit.  The  hostility  of  the  demo- 
crats and  aristocrats,  and  the  different 
parties  among  the  latter,  occasioned 
continual  disorder.  From  the  contests  of 
noble  rivals,  in  which  the  names  of  Doria, 
Spinola,  Grimaldi,  and  Fieschiare  prom- 
inent, Genoa  was  drawn  into  the  Guelph 
and  Ghibelline  contest.  In  the  absence 
of  internal  tranquility  the  city  some- 
times submitted  to  a foreign  yoke  in 
order  to  get  rid  of  anarchy.  Pop. 
234,800. 

GENOA,  Gulf  of,  a large  indentation  of 
the  Mediterranean,  in  North  Italy,  at  the 
head  of  which  lies  the  city  and  port  of 
Genoa.  No  precise  points  can  be  named 
as  marking  its  entrance;  but  it  may,  per- 
haps, be  generally  said  to  comprise  the 
entire  space  north  of  lat.  43°  40'  n. 

GENRE  (zhan'r’)  PAINTING,  a term 
used  in  art  to  denote  that  class  of  sub- 
jects which  portray  the  intimate  and 
every-day  life  of  any  people  This  class 
of  painting  is  characteristic  of  the  Dutch 
school  by  which  it  was  first  largely  prac- 
ticed. Its  chief  masters  in  that  school 
were  Terburg,  Brower,  Ostade,  Rem- 
I brandt,  the  younger  Teniers,  Metzu, 


GENSERIC 


GEOGRAPHY 


Gerard  Dow,  Frans  Hals,  and  others. 
Their  subjects  were  the  familiar  life  of 
the  family;  street  scenes  and  sports; 
festivals  and  picnics,  tavern  scenes— 
that  goes  to  make  up  the  occupations  of 
a people.  These-might  be  comic,  serious, 
or  pathetic,  but  genre  painting,  strictly, 
speaking,  always  includes  as  a dominent 
note  the  human  element.  Pictures  of 
this  class  are  usually  of  small  dimensions 
but  they  are  always  valuable  and  inter- 
esting records  of  contemporary  life. 
In  British  art  Wilkie  and  Hogarth  are 
prominent  examples  of  genre  painters. 
Hogarth  was  probably  the  greatest 
master  in  English  genre  painting  and 
his  pictures  portraying  the  weaknesses 
and  follies  of  the  life  of  his  time  are 
powerful  parables,  and  full  of  artistic 
strength.  Genre  work  was  done  in  Spain 
by  Velasquez  and  Murillo,  and  in  France 
during  the  18th  century  by  Watteau, 
Greuze,  and  others.  There  was  a general 
revival  of  this  kind  of  subject  during 
the  19th  century,  and  among  the  many 
painters  of  all  nations  who  have  prac- 
ticed it  we  need  only  mention  such 
names  as  Meissonier  in  France,  Fortuny 
in  Spain,  Kraus,  Defregger,  and  Grutz- 
ner  in  Germany. 

GENSERIC  (jen'),  a king  of  the  Van- 
dals, who,  having  obtained  joint  posses- 
sion of  the  throne  of  Spain  with  his 
brother  Gonderic,  crossed  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar  with  50,000  men,  a.d.  429,  on 
the  invitation  of  Bonifacius,  the  Roman 
governor  of  Africa,  to  assist  him  against 
the  Moors.  Two  unsuccessful  attempts 
were  made  by  the  eastern  and  western 
emperors  to  overthrow  his  power,  but 
Genseric  secured  all  his  conquests,  and, 
notwithstanding  all  his  cruelties,  was 
permitted  to  die  in  peace  a.d.  477. 

GENTIAN,  a large  genus  of  bitter 
herbaceous  plants,  having  opposite, 
often  strongly  ribbed,  leaves,  and  blue, 


Yellow  gentian. 


yellow,  or  red,  often  showy  flowers. 
The  root  has  a yellowish  brown  color 
and  a very  bitter  taste,  and  is  exported 
in  considerable  quantities,  and  is  used 
medicinally,  and  also  as  an  ingredient  of 
cattle  foods. 

GENTILE,  in  Scripture,  anyone  be- 
longing to  the  non-Jewish  nations  and 
not  a Christian ; a heathen.  The  Hebrews 
included  in  the  term  goim,  or  nations,  all 
the  tribes,  of  men  who  had  not  received 
the  true  faith,  and  were  not  circumcised. 
The  Christians  translated  goim  by  the  L. 
gentes,  nations,  and  imitated  the  Jews 
in  giving  the  name  gentiles  to  all  nations 
who  were  not  Jews  or  Christians.  In 
civil  affairs  the  denomination  was  given 
to  all  nations  who  were  not  Romans. 

GENUFLEXION,  the  act  of  bending 
the  knees  in  worship.  There  are  fre- 
quent allusions  to  genuflexion  in  the  Old 


and  New  Testaments,  and  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  use  was  continued  among 
the  early  Christians.  Genuflexion  ob- 
tains, both  by  rule  and  prescription,  in 
various  places  in  the  offices  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  at  different  parts 
of  the  services  of  the  Church  of  England. 

GENUS,  in  scientific  classification,  an 
assemblage  of  species  possessing  certain 
characters  in  common,  by  which  they 
are  distinguished  from  all  others.  It  is 
subordinate  to  order,  tribe,  and  family. 
A single  species,  possessing  certain 
pecular  characters  which  belong  to  no 
other  species,  may  also  constitute  a 
genus,  as  the  giraffe. 

GEODESY  (je-od'e-si),  the  science  of 
surveying  extended  to  large  tracts  of 
country;  the  branch  of  applied  mathe- 
matics which  determines  the  general 
figure  and  dimensions  of  the  earth,  the 
variations  of  the  intensity  of  gravity  in 
different  regions,  etc.,  by  means  of  direct 
observation  and  measurement. 

GEOFFROY  ST.  HILAIRE  (zhof-rwS, 
san  te-lar),  Etienne,  French  naturalist, 
born  in  1772,  died  in  1844.  Asamember 
of  the  Egyptian  expedition  in  1798  he 
founded  the  Institute  of  Cairo,  and  re- 
turned about  the  end  of  1801  with  a rich 
collection  of  zoological  specimens.  In 
1807  he  was  made  a member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, and  in  1809  professor  of  zoology 
at  the  Faculty  of  Sciences.  He  devoted 
himself  especially  to  the  philosophy  of 
natural  history.  The  fundamental  idea 
brought  conspicuously  forward  in  all 
his  works  is,  that  in  the  organization  of 
animals  there  is  only  one  general  plan, 
one  original  type,  which  is  modified  in 
particular  points  so  as  to  present  differ- 
ences of  genera.  This  view  met  with 
strong  opposition  from  Cuvier.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  Sur  le  Principe 
de  I’UnitI  de  Composition  Organique; 
Philosophie  Anatomique;  Historic  Na- 
turelle  des  Mammiferes,  written  in  con- 
junction with  Cuvier;  Notions  de  Phil- 
osophie Naturelle  (1838). 

GEOFFROY  ST.  HILAIRE,  Isidore, 
physiologist  and  naturalist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Paris  1805,  died 
1861.  He  devoted  himself  to  natural 
history,  and  in  1824  was  appointed 
assistant  to  his  father  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes.  He  was  the  means  of  founding 
the  Acclimatization  Society  of  Paris. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETIES,  are 
associations  formed  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  and  disseminating  geographi- 
cal knowledge.  In  point  of  seniority  the 
first  of  these  associations  is  the  SociSt6 
de  Geographie  of  Paris,  founded  in  1821. 
The  Prussian  Gesellschaft  fiir  Erdkunde 
held  its  first  sittings  in  Berlin  in  1828. 
The  Royal  Geographical  Society,  estab- 
lished in  London  in  1830,  The  Royal 
Scottish  Geographical  Society,  founded 
in  1884.  The  Russian  Geographical 
Society,  founded  at  St.  Petersburg  in 
1845,  has  greatly  extended  our  knowl- 
edge of  Asia,  and  especially  Asiatic 
Russia.  The  American  Geographical 
Society  was  founded  at  New  Y"ork  in 
1852,  and  the  National  Geographical 
Society  at  Washington  in  1888.  Italy 
has  her  Society  Geografica,  founded  at 
Florence  in  1867. 

GEOGRAPHY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants 
giving  an  account  of  the  earth  as  a whole 


and  of  the  divisions  of  its  surface,  natural 
and  artificial,  describing  the  different 
countries,  states,  provinces,  islands, 
cities,  etc.  It  may  be  regarded  as  em- 
bracing several  departments  or  branches. 
Mathematical  Geography  is  that  branch 
of  the  general  science  which  is  derived 
from  the  application  of  mathematical 
truths  to  the  figure  of  the  earth,  and 
which  determines  the  relative  positions 
of  places,  their  longitudes  and  latitudes, 
the  different  lines  and  circles  imagined 
to  be  drawn  upon  the  earth’s  surface, 
thejj  measurement,  distance,  etc.  Phy- 
sicm  Geography  treats  of  the  physical 
condition  of  the  earth,  its  great  natural 
divisions  of  land  and  water,  the  atmos- 
phere, and  the  movements  o,f  oceanic 
and  aerial  currents;  the  geological  struc- 
ture of  the  earth;  and  the  natural  prod- 
ucts of  the  earth,  vegetable  and  animal. 
It  is  concerned  chiefly  with  general  laws 
and  principles,  as  they  are  manifested 
upon  a grand  scale,  and  in  the  organic 
kingdom  with  the  existence  of  groups  of 
animals  and  plants.  This  branch  aji- 
proaches  at  various  points  the  sciences 
of  geology,  hydrology,  meteorology, 
botany,  zoology,  and  ethnology.  Politi- 
cal Geography  embraces  the  'description 
of  the  political  or  arbitrary  divisions  and 
limits  of  empires,  kingdoms,  and  states; 
and  treats  of  their  government,  laws, 
social  organization,  etc. 

The  earliest  idea  of  the  earth  formed 
by  mankind  seems  to  have  been  that  it 
was  an  immense  disc,  in.  the  center  of 
which  their  own  land  was  situated,  sur- 
rounded by  the  ocean,  and  covered  by 
the  sky  as  with  a canopy.  The  Phoeni- 
cians were  the  first  people  who  made  any 
great  progress  in  extending  the  bounds 
of  geographical  knowledge.  They  seem  to 
have  explored  all  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  at  an  early  period  to  have 
assed  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  (the 
traits  of  Gibraltar),  and  visited  to  some 
extent  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Europe  and 
Africa,  extending  their  voyages  as  far 
north  as  Britain,  and  as  far  south  as  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn.  In  the  Homeric 
poems  (which  may  be  regarded  as  rep- 
resentative of  the  ideas  entertained  by 
the  Greeks  about  the  commencement  of 
the  9th  century  n.c.)  the  earth  is  sup- 
posed to  resemble  a circular  shield  sur- 
rounded by  a belt  of  water  which  was 
the  source  of  all  other  streams.  The 
world  of  Herodotus  (born  484  n.c.)  ex- 
tended from  the  Atlantic  to  the  western 
boundary  of  Persia,  and  from  the  Red 
Sea  or  Indian  Ocean  to  the  amber  lands 
of  the  Baltic.  The  Indian  expedition  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (330  n.c.)  greatly 
enlarged  the  ancient  knowledge  of 
Northern  and  Eastern  Asia.  About  320 
B.c.  Pytheas,  a seaman  of  Massilia 
(ancient  Marseilles),  a Greek  colony, 
sailed  along  the  western  coasts  of  Spain 
and  Gaul,  visited  Britain,  and,  pursuing 
his  voyage,  discovered  an  island,  hence- 
forward famous  as  Ultima  Thule,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  been  Iceland. 
Eratosthenes  (276-196  b.c)  first  used 
parallels  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and 
constructed  maps  on  mathematical 
principles.  He  considered  the  world  to 
be  a sphere  revolving  with  its  surround- 
ing atmosphere  on  one  and  the  same 
axis,  and  having  one  center  The  Geog- 
raphy of  Strabo,  a Greek  of  Pontus, 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


written  about  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  embodies  all  that  was  known  of 
the  science  at  that  period.  The  countries 
Ij'ing  round  the  Mediterranean  were 
known  with  tolerable  accuracy,  but  the 
Atlantic  shores  of  Europe  were  very 
vaguely  comprehended,  w'hile  of  the 
northern  and  eastern  portions  the  mosj; 
erroncous'notions  prevailed.  Pomponius 
Mela,  an  early  Roman  geographer,  wrote 
about  the  time  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 
He  divided  the  world  into  two  hemis- 
pheres, the  Northern  or  known  and  the 
Southern  or  unknown;  the  former  com- 
prising Europe  n.  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  w.  of  the  Tanis  (Don);  Africa  s.  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  w.  of  the  Nile; 
and  Asia.  The  next  famous  geographer  is 
Ptolemy,  who  lived  at  Alexandria  about 
the  middle  of  the  2d  century  a.d. 
In  Europe,  Spain  and  Gaul  were  now 
correctly  delineated,  together  with  the 
southern  shores  of  Britain.  Northern 
Germany  and  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Baltic  were  pretty  well  known,  as  also 
some  portion  of  Russia  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  that  sea,  and  the  southern  part 
of  European  Russia.  In  Asia  it  was  con- 
sidered certain  that  there  were  wide  re- 
gions inhabited  by  nomadic  tribes  called 
Scythians,  while  from  the  far  east  came 
some  vague  reports  of  China.  The  geog- 
raphy of  Ptolemy  remained  the  ac- 
knowledged authority  during  the  whole 
of  the  middle  ages.  From  his  time  up 
till  the  13th  century  no  advance  was 
made  in  geographical  knowledge  until 
Marco  Polo  opened  up  new  fields  of  in- 
quiry. The  account  of  his  travels  first 
made  known  to  Europe  the  existence 
of  Japan  and  of  many  of  the  East  Indian 
islands  and  countries.  Then  followed 
the  discovery  of  America  in  1492,  and 
from  this  time  forward  the  progress  of 
discovery  was  extremely  rapid.  In  1497 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  doubled  by 
Vasco  da  Gama,  four  years  after  its 
discovery  by  Bartholomew  Diaz.  Within 
thirty  years  from  the  date  of  the  first 
voyage  of  Columbus  the  whole  of  the 
east  coast  of  America''from  Greenland 
to  Cape  Horn  had  been  explored.  In  1520 
Magellan  passed  the  straits  which  bear 
his  name,  and  his  vessel,  crossing  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans,  returned  to 
Europe  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  being  the  first  that  had  circum- 
navigated the  globe.  The  west  coast  of 
America  was  explored  as  far  as  the  Bay 
of  San  Francisco  about  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century.  At  the  same  time  dis- 
covery in  the  east  advanced  with  rapid 
strides.  Within  twenty  years  of  Gama’s 
arrival  in  India  the  coasts  of  East  Africa, 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  Hindustan  had  been 
explored,  and  many  of  the  islands  of  the 
great  Archipelago  discovered.  The  ex- 
peditions of  Willoughby  and  Frobisher 
in  1553  and  1576,  of  Davis  in  15S5,  of 
Hudson  in  1607,  and  of  Baffin  in  1616, 
though  they  failed  in  their  object  of 
finding  a n.w.  passage  to  India,  materi- 
ally enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  Arctic 
regions.  By  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury the  Dutch,  under  Tasman  and  Van 
Dicm:in,  made  the  Australian  Islands 
known  to  the  world.  Late  in  the  follow- 
i:'-g  century  Captain  Cook  added  largely 
to  geographical  knowledge  by  his  survey 
of  the  Pacific  and  its  innumerable 
islands.  The  Antarctic  continent  vas 
r.  E.— 34 


discovered  in  1840  by  American,  Eng- 
lish, and  French  expeditions,  and  the 
northwest  passage  round  N.  America 
was  found  by  McClure  in  1S50.  'The 
travels  of  Humboldt,  Spix  and  Martius, 
Lewis  and  Clark,  Fremont,  and  others, 
have  made  us  acquainted  with  the  gen- 
eral features  of  the  American  continent. 
In  Asia  numerous  travelers  have  con- 
tributed much  to  render  our  knowledge 
certain  and  precise* in  respect  to  a great 
part  of  the  continent.  The  interior  of 
Australia  has  been  exploi'od  by  Sturt, 
Eyre,  Leichhardt,  Burke,  Wills,  King, 
McDouall  Stuart,  etc.  The  opening  up 
of  the  African  interior  has  been  materi- 
ally advanced  by  the  explorations  of  a 
host  of  travelers,  including  Bruce,  Park, 
Denham,  Clapperton,  the  Landers, 
Burton,  Speke,  Grant,  Baker,  Barth, 
Livingstone,  Rohlfs,  Schweinfurth,  Cam- 
eron, Stanley,  etc.  The  progress  which 
has  marked  recent  discovery  has  been 
materially  assisted  by  tlie  governments 
of  various  countries,  and  by  the  numer- 
ous geographical  societies  formed  during 
the  19th  century.  The  scientific  study 
and  teaching  of  geography  are  becoming 
more  and  more  recognized  to  be  of  high 
impoi'tance,  and  in  both  at  present  Ger- 
many takes  the  lead.  See  also  Geograph- 
ical Societies,  the  articles  on  the  different 
countries,  and  such  articles  as  Earth 
Climate,  etc. 

GEOLOGY,  is  the  science  which  treats 
of  the  history  of  the  earth,  as  ascer- 
tained by  the  study  of  its  exterior  or 
crust,  investigating  the  successive 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
rock-massescomposing  it, their  relations, 
structure  and  origin,  and  discussing  also 
the  main  features  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  life  of  the  past  as  bearing  on 
the  earth’s  history.  The  present  con- 
dition and  conformation  of  the  earth  is 
the  result  of  vast  changes  in  the  past 
and  of  agencies  working  through  im- 
mense periods  of  time,  and  the  same  or 
similar  agencies  may  still  be  seen  at 
work  producing  similar  changes.  Thus 
rocks,  both  aqueous  and  igneous,  are 
still  being  formed.  The  former  receive 
their  name  from  owing  their  origin  mainly 
to  water,  which  acts  both  chemically 
and  mechanically  on  the  crust  of  the 
earth,  in  wearing  down  rocks  and  soils 
and  carrjdng  the  debris  often  to  con- 
siderable distances.  The  sediments  thus 
carried  to  sea,  or  into  iakes  and  estu- 
aries, are  spread  abroad  in  the  water, 
and  form  stratified  deposits,  which  in 
course  of  time  solidify  into  rock.  With 
sufficient  time  all  land  would  thus  be 
eventually  degraded  beneath  the  sea, 
wei-e  it  not  that  the  loss  is  compensated 
by  disturbance  and  elevation  of  land 
always  slowly  taking  place  over  great 
portions  of  the  continents  and  islands  of 
the  world.  Such  disturbances  have  pro-- 
duced  strange  phenomena  among  the 
stratified  rocks,  which  may  be  con- 
torted, tilted  up,  dislocated,  or  other- 
wise changed  from  their  original  arrange- 
ment. The  strata  resulting  from  aqueous 
deposits  are  consolidated  (petrified) 
t hiefly  by  pressure  and  chemical  decom- 
position and  recomposil  ign.  -^ume forma- 
tions are  many  thoUfaccE  o!  f'ct  in 
thickness.  Coid  r.-ict  iee  o'  th  ■ e'-nst.  -ff 
the  earth  due  :o  rad'.eiou  (,f  tk-  ; ;m' 
i the  earth  kdu  space,  hc''  a!  • ' ’ i:..- 


mense  effects,  the  result  being  that  over 
broad  areas  rocky  masses  have  been 
contorted  and  compressed  to  a great 
degree,  and  mountain  ranges  upheaved. 

Igneous  rocks  also  form  a considerable 
portion  of  the  visible  crust  of  the  earth, 
though  much  smaller  in  amount  than 
those  of  sedimentary  origin.  Some  of 
the  igneous  .rocks  consist  of  beds  of 
volcanic  ashes,  others  of  old  lavas,  others 
of  masses  of  matter  which  were  intruded 
in  a melted  state  from  below  among  the 
strata.  Granite  is  the  most  important 
and  widely-spread  of  the  igneous  rocks, 
and  is  generally  regarded  as  the  funda- 
mental rock  of  the  earth’s  crust.  Rocks 
that  have  been  melted  are  known  to  be 
igneous  by  their  structure,  and  also  by 
the  effects  they  have  produced  on  the 
strata  with  which  they  are  associated. 
Shales,  sandstones,  etc.,  are  often  hard- 
ened, bleached,  and  even  vitrified  at  the 
points  of  junction  with  greenstone, 
basaltic,  and  felspathic  dykes,  or  old 
lava  beds,  and  the  same  kir^d  of  altera- 
tion takes  place  on  a greater  scale  when 
large  masses  of  igneous  rocks  have  been 
intruded  on  the  strata. 

That  the  rocks  which  form  the  crust  of 
the  earth  had  the  same  general  origin 
with  the  igneous  rocks  and  sedimentary 
strata  now  forming  has  been  well  estab- 
lished, and  that  there  is  a regular  succes- 
sion of  strata  from  the  older  to  the  newer 
the  oldest  being  normally  lowermost, 
the  newest  uppermost,  is  also  well  ascer- 
tained. A corresponding  succession  in 
regard  to  the  animal  and  vegtable  life 
of  former  ages  has  also  been  proved  by 
the  fossils  that  accompany  the  succes- 
sive strata.  This  superposition  of  strata 
and  the  succession  of  life  in  time  are  two 
cardinal  doctrines  in  geology.  Obser- 
vation and  experiment  alike  established 
the  doctrine  of  superposition.  Thus  at 
the  edges  of  the  strata  on  which  London 
stands',  the  rocks  known  as  the  Wool- 
wich and  Reading  beds  are  seen  to  lie  on 
the  chalk.  Far  within  these  edges,  well- 
sinkers  are  well  aware  that  often  after 
sinking  several  hundred  feet  through  the 
London  clay  the  chalk  is  reached.  In 
like  manner  proceeding  westward  across 
the  middle  of  England,  it  is  found  that 
the  Chalk  rests  on  the  Green-sands,  the 
Green-sands  on  the  Upper  Oolites,  the 
Lower  Oolites  on  the  Lias,  the  Lias  on 
the  New  Red  marl,  and  so  on  through 
lower  members  of  the  geological  series 
of  English  rocks.  Each  great  group  of 
rocks  consists  of  several  subdivisions 
called  formations,  and  each  group,  and 
even  to  a considerable  extent  each  minor 
subdivision,  is  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  distinct  assemblages  of  organic 
remains.  The  successive  appearance  of 
such  remains,  which  constitutes  the 
succession  of  life  in  time,  was  the  great 
discovery  of  Wm.  Smith,  made  nearly  a 
century  ago. 

Igneous  rocks  also  are  associated  in 
different  localities  with  the  systems 
named  in  the  following  table. 

In  the  small  area  of  Great  Britain  a 
more  complete  series  of  rocks  exists  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  earth’s  surface 
of  eqiuil  dimensions — so  far  as  is  known, 
'flic  f;rea'.  r part  of  the  European  serie.s 
i.s,  in  ■ fd,  noaily  com]ffete  in  England 
■n.d  t\'ale.-;  a.h'ne;  and  since  the  da.ys  of 
' '>\iui.,,:;  Sn.ith,  the  Ui.i;h,li  rocks  have 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


generally  been  the  types  to  which  for- 
mations in  other  parts  of  the  world  have 
been  referred. 

The  main  rock-systems  into  which 
the  earth’s  crust  is  divided,  and  which 
are  based  on  the  characteristics  of  the 
organic  remains  contained  in  them,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table  in  ascend- 
ing order: 

Life  Periods.  Rock  Systems. 

Recent— Alluvium, Peat, etc. 
Pleistocene. 

Pliocene. 

Miocene. 

Oligocene. 

Eocene. 

Cretaceous. 

Jurassic.  ] 

Trlassic. 

Permian. 

Carboniferous. 

Devonian  and  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone. 

Silurian. 

Cambrian. 

Fundamental  Gneiss. 


Archaean,  Pre-Cambrian,  or  Lauren- 
tian  Rocks. — The  Laurentian  are  the 
oldest  known  of  the  sedimentary  rocks. 
They  are  metamorphic  (that  is,  changed 
from  their  original  structure),  and  mostly 
gneissic  in  character,  and  were  for  long 
classed  as  granitic  and  igneous  rocks  till 
their  true  nature  was  shown  by  Sir  Will- 
iam Logan.  They  occupy  vast  tracts  of 
country  in  Labrador  and  Canada.  They 
there  consist  of  two  divisions.  Lower 
and  Upper  Laurentian.  The  gneiss  of 
the  lower  division  is  interstratified  with 
several  thick  bands  of  crystalline  lime- 
stone, in  one  of  which  a remarkable  struc- 
ture believed  by  Dawson,  Carpenter, 
and  others  to  be  a foraminifer  and  called 
Eozoon  jCanadense  was  found.  This  is 
the  oldest  known  fossil,  if  indeed  it  be  a 
true  fossil.  In  the  Outer  Hebrides  and 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  North  High- 
lands, rocks  occur  of  highly  metamor- 
phic gneiss,  which  are  probably  of 
Laurentian  age.  The  term  Pre-Cambrian 
or  Archaean  Is  now  applied  to  these 
rocks  in  the  British  area;  they  crop  out 
also  in  North  and  South  Wales,  in  the 
Malvern  Hills,  and  in  Charnwood  Forest 
in  Leicestershire.  No  fossils  have  yet 
been  observed  in  these  rocks.  The 
Huronian  Rocks  of  N.  .America  are  pos- 
sibly intermediate  in  age  between  the 
Laurentian  and  the  rocks  next  men- 
tioned. 

Cambrian. — These  rocks  come  next  in 
succession  to  the  Laurentian  strata. 
The  term  Cambrian  has  been  used  differ- 
ently by  geologists.  In  most  places  they 
are  unfossiliferous  (or  only  doubtfully 
so),  but  at  St.  David’s,  in  North  Pem- 
brokeshire, numerous  fossils  in  purple 
shales  among  the  lowest  beds  of  the 
series  have  been  found,  including  a small 
bivalve  crustacean  and  two  brachiopods. 
In  a higher  part  of  the  series  two  sponges 
and  varied  trilobites  have  been  found. 
In  Sutherlandshire,  red  Cambrian  con- 
glomerates lie  on  the  Laurentain  strata 
uncomformably.  Cambrian  strata  also 
occur  in  the  hills  of  the  Longmynd  of 
Shropshire,  in  South  Staffordshire,  etc. 

The  Silurian  Rocks,  were  first  worked 
out  in  detail  in  South  Wales  and  the 
bordering  counties  by  Sir  Roderick 
Murchison,  and  an  account  of  them  pub- 
lished in  the  year  1839  in  his  Silurian 


Post-Tertiary  or  | 
Quaternary . . . 1 

Tertiary  or  Kal- 
nozoic 

i 

Secondary  or  J 
Mesozoic ....  ^ 

Primary  or  Pal- 
Eozoic 

Archaean,  Laur- 
entian, or  EO--J 
zoic 


System.  The  Silurian  is  divided  into 
the  Lower  and  Upper  Silurian.  The 
former  comprises  in  ascending  order  the 
Lingula  beds  (so  named  from  a charac- 
teristic fossil  shell),  the  Tremadoc  slate, 
the  Llandeilo  flags,  and  the  Caradoc 
or  Bala  beds.  The  Lingula  flags  (Pots- 
dam sandstone  of  North  America)  rest, 
conformably  on,  and  in  fact  pass  by 
gradations  into  the  Cambrian  rocks. 
They  are  best  developed  in  Wales,  in 
Merionethshire,  Carnarvonshire,  and  at 
St.  David’s,  and  consist  of  black  and 
gray  slaty  rocks  with  beds  of  grit.  Th^ 
mass  of  hills  that  extends  across  the 
south  of  Scotland,  from  Wigtonshire  on 
the  southwest  to  St.  Abb’s  Head  on  the 
eastern  coast,  is  mostly  formed  of  Lower 
Silurinan  strata.  They  chiefly  consist  of 
gray  grits  and  gray  and  black  shales  here 
and  there  containing  fossils.  Further 
south,  in  Cumberland,  Westmoreland, 
and  North  Lancashire,  Lower  Silurian 
strata  form  the  chief  mass  of  the  moun- 
tains known  as  the  Cumbrian  region.  The 
Skiddaw  region  consists  of  black  slates. 
Above  these  there  lies  a great  series  of 
volcanic  rocks,  consisting  of  felspathic 
lavas  and  ashes,  commonly  known  as 
the  green  slates  and  porphyries.  The 
Llandeilo  flags  in  North  Wales  are 
named  from  the  town  of  Llandeilo  in 
Carmarthenshire,  where  they  occur  in  a 
typical  form.  Above  and  passing  into 
these  lie  the  Caradoc  or  Bala  beds. 
(Trenton  limestone  of  N.  America). 
'The  most  characteristic  fossils  of  the 
LowerSilurian  are  thecrustaceansknown 
as  trilobites,  of  which  more  than  200 
species  are  known  to  belong  to  these 
rocks.  Other  fossils  include  hydrozoa, 
corals,  echinodermata,  numerous  mol- 
lusca  (brachiopods  in  particular,  also 
lamellibranchiates,  pteropods,  gastero- 
pods,  cephalopods  or  cuttle-fishes).  No 
fishes  nor  any  other  vertebrate  animals 
have  yet  been  found  in  the  Lo|Wer 
Silurian  rocks.  The  Lower  Silurian 
rocks  in  the  British  and  in  some  other 
areas  were  upheaved,  contorted,  and 
denuded  before  the  deposition  of  the 
Upper  Silurian  strata,  which,  therefore, 
lie  generally  unconformably  upon  them. 
The  chief  groups  forming  the  Upper 
Silurian  are,  in  ascending  order,  the 
Pentamerus  beds  (so  called  from  the 
brachiopod  Pentamerus  oblongus),  the 
Tarannon  shale,  Woolhope  limestone, 
Wenlock  shale,  Wenlock  limestone,  and 
Ludlow  rocks,  in  the  middle  of  which  is 
the  Aymestry  limestone.  In  North 
America  the  Oriskany  and  Niagara  beds 
are  of  this  age.  The  Upper  Silurian 
limestones  are  absent  in  Scotland  and 
over  the  greater  part  of  Wales.  All  of 
these  formations  are  in  general  terms 
fossiliferous.  The  Wenlock  limestone  is 
in  great  part  formed  of  corals,  encrinites, 
shells,  and  trilobites,  corals  predominat- 
ing. Near  the  top  of  the  Upper  Ludlow 
strata  there  are  several  thin  bone-beds 
containing  small  teeth  and  scales  and 
defenses  of  placoid  fish : with  the  excep- 
tion of  a fragment  of  a fish  found  in  the 
Lower  Ludlow  beds  in  Shropshire,  these 
are  the  oldest  known  fishes.  Many 
geologists  now  classify  the  Silurian 
system  very  differently  from  the  above 
method.  They  assign  the  Tremadoc  and 
Lingula  beds  to  the  Cambrian  formation ; 
and  the  Llandeilo  and  Caradoc  beds  are 


put  into  a distinct  formation  called  the 
Ordovician. 

Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Devonian. — 
Old  Red  Sandstone  first  received  that 
name  in  contradistinction  to  the  New 
Red  Sandstone,  the  former  occurring 
below,  and  the  latter  above  the  Carbonif- 
erous strata.  Where  the  uppermost 
Silurian  strata  join  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone there  is  a gradual  passage  between 
them.  A broad  belt  of  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone crosses  Scotland  in  a northeast 
direction  between  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and 
Montrose  and  Stonehaven.  This  broad 
tract  lies  uncomformably  on  Lower 
Silurian  clay-slates,  and  dips  to  the  south- 
east under  the  Carboniferous  or  coal- 
bearing rocks  that  occupy  the  great 
central  depression  through  which  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  chiefly  run.  On  the 
southeast  side  of  this  broad  undulating 
hollow  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  again 
rises  from  beneath  the  Coal-measures 
wdth  a general  northwest  dip,  and  skirt- 
ing the  Lammermuir  Hills,  strikes 
southwest  into  the  sea  south  of  Ayr.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  Lammermuirs  it 
again  appears  on  the  hills  between  Ber- 
wick and  Hawick,  dipping  under  the 
Carboniferous  rocks  that,  without  a 
break,  stretch  from  Berwick  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Derby.  The  first  com- 
pendious account  of  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone of  Scotland  was  given  by  Hugh 
Miller,  those  rocks  and  the  remarkable 
forms  of  fish  (Pterichthys,  Cephalaspis, 
etc.)  they  contain  being  till  his  time 
almost  unknown.  In  North  Wales  and 
Cumberland  narrow  streaks  of  red 
sandstone  here  and  there  show  them- 
selves between  the  Silurian  rocks  and 
Carboniferous  limestone.  South  of 
Coalbrookdale  it  ranges,  in  great  force, 
through  parts  of  Shropshire,  Hereford- 
shire,^ and  Gloucestershire,  into  South 
Wales,  where  it  stretches  westward  to 
the  west  coast  of  Pembrokeshire,  the 
whole  being  about  8000  feet  in  thickness. 
These  English  and  Welsh  rocks  are 
united  by  their  fossils  to  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone  of  Scotland.  The  absence  of 
marine  shells  and  the  nature  of  the  fossil 
fishes  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  indicate 
that  the  formation  was  deposited,  not 
in  the  sea,  but  in  a great  fresh-water 
lake,  or  in  a series  of  lakes,  for  the  near- 
est living  analogues  of  many  of  the  fish 
are  the  Polypterus  of  the  African  rivers, 
the  Ceratodus  of  Australia,  and  in  less 
degree  the  Lepidosteusof  North  America. 
In  Canada,  the  sapdstones  of  Gasp6  are 
of  Devonian  age,  as  is  found  by  their 
containing  Cephalaspis. 

The  name  Devonian  has  been  given  to 
a series  of  rocks  in  Devonshire  bearing 
fossils  intermediate  in  character  between 
those  of  the  Upper  Silurian  and  those  of 
the  Carboniferous  limestone,  and  which 
are  considered  as  the  equivalents  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  west  of  Eng- 
land and  of  Scotland.  The  terms  De- 
vonian and  Old  Red  Sandstone  are  thus 
generally  considered  equivalent  in  point 
of  time.  These  rocks  haAm  been  divided 
into  Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper  Devon- 
ian. The  lower  beds  chiefly  consist  of 
slaty  beds,  and  green  and  purple  sand- 
stones, with  brachiopods.  The  middle 
group,  which  includes  the  Plymouth 
limestone,  contains  numerous  corals. 
The  Upper  Devonian  group  contains 


GEOLOGY 


GEOLOGY 


land  plants  (Stigmaria,  etc.,  and  many 
shells),  some  of  which  arc  identical  with 
those  found  in  the  Lower  Carboniferous 
limestone-shades. 

Carboniferous  Rocks. — In  the  south 
and  middle  of  England,  and  in  Ireland 
the  Carboniferous  Rocks  so  named  on 
account  of  the  masses  of  coal  contained 
in  them,  consist  chiefly  of  limestone  at 
the  base  and  Coal-measures  above. 
Including  the  South  Wales,  the  Forest 
of  Dean,  and  the  Somersetshire  areas, 
a typical  section  of  the  beds  is  as  follows : 

Feet.  Feet. 

Coal-Measures 1,000  to  12,000 

Millstone  grit 500  “ 1,000 

Yoredale  rocks 100  “ 1,000 

Carboniferous  or  Mountain)  c.nn  >.  <>  cm 

limestone f 

Carboniferous  limestone  shale. ..  100  “ 500 

Yellow  Sandstone,  with  plants. ..  100  “ 200 

Generally  resting  on  Old  Ked  Sandstone, 

The  Yellow  Sandstone  beds  form  a 
kind  of  passage  from  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone to  the  Carboniferous  rocks,  and  the 
plants  have  carboniferous  affinities. 
The  overlying  shales  in  Pembrokeshire, 
etc.,  contain  numerous  fish-teeth,  Spiri" 
fers  Productas,  and  a few  Lingulas  (all 
brachiopods) ; and  the  limestone,  which 
is  more  than  2000  feet  thick  in  South 
Wales,  near  Bristol,  and  in  Somerset- 
shire, is  also  so  highly  fossiliferous  that 
it  may  be  stated  that  the  whole  of  this 
limestone  has  once  formed  parts  of  ani- 
mals. The  Yoredale  rocks  of  Yorkshire 
consist  chiefly  of  shales  and  sandstones, 
with  marine  shells  and  occasional  land- 
plants.  The  Millstone  grit  of  South 
Wales  is  comparatively  unfossiliferous, 
but  sometimes  contains  the  remains  of 
plants,  and  more  rarely  marine  shells. 
The  Coal-measures  and  Millstone  grit  of 
Monmouthshire,  Glamorganshire,  and 
Pembrokeshire,  lie  in  a great  oval  basin, 
encircled  by  a rim  of  limestone,  beneath 
which  lies  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The 
Coal-measure  beds  consist  of  alterna- 
tions of  sandstone,  shale,  fire-clay  or 
under-clay  coal,  and  ironstone.  Under- 
neath each  bed  of  coal  is  a bed  of  under- 
clay with  the  roots  known  as  Stig- 
marise,.  forming  the  soil  in  which  the 
plants  were  rooted,  by  the  decay  of 
which,  passing  into  peat,  material  was 
supplied  for  the  production  of  coal.  The 
Gloucestershire  and  Somersetshire  coal- 
field was  originally  joined  to  the  South 
Wales  Carboniferous  rocks.  The  Coal- 
measures  of  the  Bristol  and  Somerset- 
shire coal-field  are  altogether  about  7000 
feet  thick,  and  contain  in  all  about  forty- 
six  beds  of  coal,  with  a total  thickness  of 
about  98  feet.  The  Coalbrookdale  coal- 
field contains  several  bands  of  good 
nodular  ironstone.  There  are  in  places 
twenty-two  beds  of  coal,  about  ten  of 
which  are  workable,  some  of  them  from 
3 to  6 feet  thick.  The  North  Wales  coal- 
field lies  on  a great  thickness  of  Carbon- 
iferous limestone.  The  Denbighshire  part 
contains  at  least  seventeen  beds  of  coal, 
most  of  which  are  worked,  and  the  Flint- 
shire part  at  least  twelve  beds.  The  base- 
ment beds  of  the  South  Staffordshire 
coal-field  rest  directly  upon  Upper 
Silurian  rocks.  This  field,  in  the  northern 
part,  contains  fourteen  beds  of  coal.  In 
the  south  several  of  these  coalesce  to 
form  the  thick  coal,  in  places  40  feet  in 
thickness,  with  two  thin  partings.  The 
Warwickshire  coal-field  contains  six  beds 
of  workable  coal,  besides  ironstone. 


The  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  coal-field  con- 
tains fifteen  beds  of  coal.  The  Coal- 
brookdale, South  Staffordshire,  and 
Warwickshire  coal-fields  present  so 
many  points  of  resemblance,  that  un- 
doubtedly they  were  all  originally 
formed  as  one  coal-field.  North  of  this 
coal-field  the  Carboniferous  rocks  are 
somewhat  modified  in  details.  The  Lan- 
cashire and  Cheshire  and  North  Stafford- 
shire coal-fields,  exclusive  of  the  Mill 
stone  grit,  vary  from  about  3500  to  750 
feet  in  thickness,  including  about  forty- 
six  coal  beds  in  North  Staffordshire, and 
fourteen  in  Lancashire.  There  are  also 
many  beds  of  ironstone.  The  Notting- 
ham, Derbyshire,  and  Yorkshire  coal- 
fields united  give  about  fifteen  beds  of 
workable  coal.  All  these  are  ironstone 
areas,  and  North  Staffordshire  is  also  the 
great  pottery  district  of  England.  The 
Newcastle  coal-field  is  about  1600  feet 
thick,  and  contains  about  sixteen  beds 
of  coal  throughout  the  district.  The 
lower  coal-field  of  Northumberland  is 
of  the  date  of  the  Mountain  limestone. 
A smaller  coal-field  overlies  the  Carbonif- 
erous limestone  northeast  of  White- 
haven in  Cumberland.  The  Whitehaven 
Coal-measures,  which  lie  on  the  Car- 
boniferous limestone,  have  fourteen 
beds  of  coal.  The  great  Scottish  coal- 
fields lie  in  a broad  synclinal  hollow,  in 
which  are  the  valleys  of  the  Clyde  and 
Forth.  ^The  whole  tract  is  about  100 
miles  in  length,  by  40  to  50  in  breadth. 
The  Carboniferous  strata  of  the  Loth- 
ians  cross  the  Firth  of  Forth  beneath  the 
sea,  and  form  great  part  of  Kinross  and 
Fife.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  sur- 
face of  Ireland,  from  the  southern  coast 
to  Lough  Neagh  and  Donegal  Day,  con- 
sists of  the  Carboniferous  limestone 
series,  lying  sometimes  on  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  sometimes  on  Silurian  rocks. 
There  are  a few  small  coal-fields,  but 
these  are  merely  the  relics  of  one  great 
coal-field  that  originally  overspread  the 
Carboniferous  limestone  of  Ireland. 

In  the  Carboniferous  rocks  more  than 
500  species  of  fossil  plants  have  been 
named,  a large  proportion  of  which  are 
ferns,  including  some  tree-ferns.  The 
remaining  chief  plants  are  gigantic  club- 
mosses  known  as  Calamites,  Lepidoden- 
dron,  and  Sigillaria.  Coniferous  trees 
also  occur,  as  do  the  wings  and  wing- 
cases  of  beetles  and  other  insects,  spiders 
etc.,  and  some  reptile  forms.  In  the 
purely  marine  series  of  rocks,  of  which 
the  Carboniferous  limestone  forms  the 
most  important  part,  we  find  corals, 
very  numerous  crinoids,  brachiopods, 
also  exceedingly  numerous,  and  Lamel- 
libranchiate  molluscs.  Many  cuttle- 
fishes and  numerous  fish  also  occur; 
trilobites  are  scarce. 

Coal-fields  occur  in  France,  Belgium, 
European  Turkey,  Hungary,  Russia, 
India,  China,  Borneo,  New  Zealand, 
Australia,  etc.  The  largest  known  coal- 
fields in  the  world  are  in  the  U.  States. 
See  Coal. 

The  Permian  series  succeeds  the  Car- 
boniferous rocks,  and  were  long  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  New  Red  Sand- 
stone. They  were  named  Permian  by 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  from  the  gov- 
ernment of  Perm,  in  European  Russia, 
where  they  largely  occur.  They  consist 
of  sandstone,  red  marl,  etc.,  and  contain 


a bed  of  the  Magnesian  limestone.  Be- 
tween the  north  of  the  Tyne  and  the 
neighborhood  of  Nottingham  the  Per- 
mian rocks  skirt  the  Carboniferous  rocks 
and  lie  on  them  unconformably.  In 
Lancashire  and  Cheshire  they  chiefly 
consist  of  red  marl  and  sandstone.  The 
same  rocks  generally  skirt  the  South 
Staffordshire  coal-field,  and  the  south 
part  of  the  North  Wales  coal-field,  and 
the  east  side  of  Coalbrookdale,  is  also 
bordered  by  Permian  marls  and  sand- 
stones. The  fossils  of  the  Permian  group 
are  generically  and  specifially  few  in 
number,  but  as  a whole  their  affinities  and 
grouping  are  decidedly  Palaeozoic.  All 
the  Permian  fish  have  heterocercal  tails, 
like  the  majority  of  the  Palaeozoic 
genera,  in  which  the  vertebral  column 
is  prolonged  into  the  upper  lobe  of  the 
tail,  whereas  in  the  modern  fishes  the 
vertebral  column  is  not  prolonged  into 
either  lobf.  Excepting  the  Magnesia 
limestone,  all  the  Permian  rocks  are 
red,  and  all,  including  this  limestone, 
seem  to  have  been  deposited,  not  in  the 
sea,  but  in  an  island  salt  lake,  or  in  lakes. 

The  New  Red  Sandstone,  or  Trias, 
succeeds  the  Permian  strata.  It  has  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Trias  from  the  fact 
that  when  fully  developed,  as  in  Ger- 
many, it  consists  of  three  great  divisions 
of  Keuper,  Muschelkalk,  and  Bunter 
Sandstein.  Few  old  genera  and  no 
species  pass  thus  far  upward.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  genera  of  Brachiopoda  dis- 
appear, and  the  whole  grouping  of  the 
fossils  now  ceases  to  be  Paleozoic,  and 
assumes  a character  common  to  the 
Secondary  rocks.  Triassic  rocljs  extend 
from  Devonshire  along  the  Severn, 
round  the  eastern  borders  of  the  Palaeo- 
zoie  rocks  of  Herefordshire  and  North 
Wales.  From  thence  they  stretch  east- 
ward to  thte  Permian  and  Carboniferous 
rocksof  Lancashire,  NorthStaffordshire, 
and  Derbyshire.  They  surround  all  the 
midland  coal-fields  and  Permian  beds  be- 
tween Shrewsbury,  Coventry,  and 
Derby,  and,  everywhere  unconformably 
overlying  the  Permian  rocks,  stretch 
north  in  a long  band  from  Nottingham 
to  the  river  Tees.  In  its  greatest  develop- 
ment in  England,  the  Bunter  series  (of 
soft  red  standsone  and  quartz  conglom- 
erate) is  about  3000  feet  thick.  The 
Muschelkalk  (absent  in  Britain)  may  be 
well  seen,  among  other  places,  near 
Gotha,  and  at  Eisenach  in  Thuringia. 
It  is  a gray  shelly  limestone,  rich  in  fossil 
mollusca.  No  fossils  are  known  in  the 
Bunter  Sandstones  of  England,  though 
a few  are  found  in  equivalent  strata  on 
the  Continent.  In  England,  above  the 
upper  soft  red  sandstone  are  beds  of  red, 
white,  and  brown  Keuper  sandstone, 
and  red  marl,  often  ripple-marked,  and 
containing  bones  and  footprints,  chiefly 
of  Labyrinthodont  reptiles,  together 
with  a few  plants,  and  a peculiar  fish. 
The  rock-salt  of  England  lies  in  the 
Triassic  red  marls  of  the  plains  of  Lanca- 
shire, Cheshire,  and  Worcestershire. 
This  rock-salt  was  deposited  in  super- 
saturated salt  lakes  during  the  Keuper 
period;  and  this  could  only  have  been 
done  by  the  evaporation  due  to  solar 
heat  acting  on  the  waters  of  salt  lakes 
which  had  no  outflow,  like  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  of  Utah,  for  example,  or  the  salt 
lakes  of  Central  Asia.  The  Keuper  red 


GEOLOQY 


/ 


GEOLOGY 


marl  (Upper  Trias)  vai-ies  from  500  to 
2000  feet  in  thickness,  and  contains,  be- 
sides other  fossils,  footprints  and  bones' 
of  reptiles.  In  the  U.  States  the  Triassic 
rocks  of  Virginia  and  N.  Carolina  con- 
tain workable  beds  of  coal.  The  red 
sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley  is  of 
Bunter  age.  .\bove  the  Keuper  strata 
occur  a series  of  beds  called  the  Rhaetic 
beds,  from  similar  strata  in  the  Rhaetic 
Alps.  All  over  England,  wherever  the 
base  of  the  Lower  Lias  is  well  seen,  the 
Rhaetic  beds,  rarely  more  than  50  or  100 
feet  thick,  are  found  to  lie  between  the 
Lias  above  and  the  New  Red  Marl  of  the 
Trias  below.  They  must  be  considered 
as  true  beds  of  passage  between  the  red 
marl  and  the  next  series  of  strata.  At 
the  base  of  the  Rhaetic  beds  have  been 
found  minute  teeth  of  the  earliest  known 
mammal  (Microlestes  rhaeticus),  a small 
insect-eating  marsupial. 

The  Lias  and  Oolite  seri^  succeed  the 
New  Red  and  Rhaetic  beds.  On  the  Con- 
itnent  of  Europe  the  Lias  and  Oolite 
together  are  termed  Jurassic,  because  in 
a typical  form  they  are  largely  developed 
in  the  range  of  the  Jura.  The  Lias  in 
England  consists,  in  descending  order, 
of  the  Upper  Lias  shale,  or  clay;  Marl- 
stone;  Lower  Lias  shale,  or  clay  and  lime- 
stone. The  Lower  Lias  is  about  900  feet 
thick,  and  consists  of  beds  of  blue  clay 
interstratified  with  beds  of  blue  argil- 
laceous limestone,  which  is  largely  quar- 
ried in  Leicestershire,  Warwickshire, 
etc.,  for  hydraulic  lime.  The  Lower  Lias 
is  well  exposed  in  the  coast  section  at 
Lyme-Regis.  From  thence  the  Lower 
Lias  strikes  north  to  the  junction -of  the 
Severn,  and  Avon,  and  again  n.e.  and  n. 
to  the  sea-coast  of  Yorkshire,  e.  of  the 
river  Tees.  The  Lower  Lias  clay  and 
lime,  as  a whole,  is  rich  in  the  remains  of 
life.  These  include  crinoids,  decapod 
crustaceans,  Terebratulte,  and  other 
Brachiopoda,  and  numerous  Lamelli- 
branchiate  molluscs.  Cephalopoda,  such 
as  ammonites  and  belemnites,  are  espe- 
cially numerous,  together  with  species 
of  nautilus.  Fish  are  numerous,  and 
there  appear  in  the  Lower  Lias  a great 
number  of  remarkable  reptiles,  some  of 
gigantic  size,  as  the  Ichthyosaurus,  the 
Plesiosaurus,  and  the  well-known  Ptero- 
dactyle.  The  Marlstone  series,  or  Middle 
Lias,  which  is  generally  a brown,  fer- 
ruginuos,  soft,  sandy  rock,  is  rich  in 
many  forms  of  ammonite-and  belemnite, 
etc.  From  the  Upper  Lias  clay  much 
alum  shale,  as  also  the  well-known 
Whitby  jet,  is  obtained.  It  is  a stiff  un- 
fertile'dark-blue  clay.  In  Yorkshire,  at 
the  top  of  the  "Lower  Lias  and  in  the 
Marlstone,  there  are  the  well-known 
beds  of  ironstone  so  extensively  worked 
at  Middlesborough. 

The  Oolitic  strata  as  a whole  stretch 
across  England  from  southwest  to  north- 
east, or  from  Portland  Bill  to  North 
Yorkshire.  The  Inferior  Oolite,  the 
lowest  member  of  the  Lower  Oolite, 
chiefly  consists  of  beds  of  yellow  lime- 
stone. Much  of  the  limestone  is  oolitic 
that  is  to  say,  it  is  formed  of  small  con- 
cretionary bodies,  like  the  roe  of  a fish 
cemented  together  in  a calcareous 
matrix.  Above  the  Inferior  Oolite  lime- 
stone lies  the  Fuller’s  earth,  so  name 
because  it  contains  in  places  beds  of  that 
substance.  The  formation  consists  of 


stiff  blue  clay,  which  varies  in  thickness 
from  a few  feet  to  200  feet  near  Bath. 
The  Great  or  Bath  Oolite  succeeds,  and 
consists  of  Great  Ooolite,  covered  by 
Forest  Marble,  and  passing  downward 
into  Stonesfleld  Slate,  which  forms  its 
base.  The  Stonesfleld  slate  consists  of 
beds  of  shelly  laminated  and  oolitic 
limestone,  with  numerous  fossils  among 
them  remains  of  mammals,  viz.:  the 
lower  jawbones  of  four  genera  of  small 
insectivorous  marcupials.  The  Bath 
Oolite,  of  which  the  Forest  Marble  forms 
the  upper  part,  is  best  developed  near 
Bath,  , where  it  jdelds  the  celebrated 
stone  of  which  that  city  is  built.  Among 
fossils  of  the  Bath  or  Great  Oolite  are 
reptiles  of  the  genera  Teleosaurus  and 
Megalosaurus,  together  with  the  gigantic 
Ceteosaurus  (or  whale-lizard),  probably 
about  50  feet  in  length.  During  this  part 
of  the  Oolitic  epoch,  while  in  the  south 
of  England  the  strata  were  exclusively 
marine,  in  the  middle  and  north  they 
were  to  a great  extent  estuarine,  fresh- 
water, and  terrestrial. 

The  Middle  Oolite  consists  of  the 
Upper  Calcareous  Grit,  Coral  Rag,  Lower 
Calcareous  Grit,  Oxford  Clay,  and  the 
Kellowgy  Rock.  The  Oxford  Clay  is  a 
dark  blue  clay,  about  GOO  feet  thick 
where  best  developed,  rumjtng  in  a long', 
band  of  varying  width  from  the  coast  of 
Dorsetshire  to  the  Derwent,  in  Y"orkshire. 
The  Kelloway  Rock  is  an  occasional 
thin  band  of  calcareous  sandstone  near 
its  base.  The  Coral,  Rag  is  a rubbly 
limestone,  trending,  with  occasional 
interruptions,  from  Som^sctshire  to 
Y^orkshire.  It  is  associated  in  places  with 
sandy  strata  known  as  the  Calcareous 
Grits,  and  is  often  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  broken  shells  and  sea-urchins. 

The  Upper  Oolite  consists  of  the  Port- 
land Limestone  and  Sand  and  Kim- 
meridge  Clay.  The  Kimmeridge  Clay  is 
well  exposed  in  Kimmeridge  Bay,  on  the 
Dorsetshire  coast,  whence  its  name. 
Occasionally  interrupted,  it  runs  from 
thence  north  into  Yorkshire.  In  places 
it  is  500  or  600  feet  thick,  and  consists  of 
a stiff  blue  and  Sometimes  black  clay  or 
shale.  The  Portland  Limestone  and 
Sand  are  best  seen  in  the  Isle  of  Port- 
land. The  celebrated  Portland  stone  has 
been  used  in  many  public  buildings,  in- 
cluding St.  Paul’s.  Like  those  of  all  the 
other  Oolite  formations  it  is  cream- 
colored,  and  generally  fossiliferous. 

In  Scotland  the  Lias,  Inferior  Oolite, 
Middle  Oolite,  and  Oxford  Clay  occur 
in  the  Islands  of  Skye  and  ]\Iull.  On  the 
east  of  Scotland,  at  ahd  near  Brora,  in 
Sutherland,  the  Liassic  and  Oolitic 
strata  have  been  long  known.  Oolitic 
rocks,  known  by  the  name  of  Juriassic, 
almost  identical  with  those  of  Britain, 
occur  largely. in  France;  and  the  moun- 
tain range  of  the  Jura,  dividing  France 
and  Switzerland,  is  chiefly  formed  of 
Liassic  and-Oolitic  rocks.  From  thence 
they  range  interruptedly  northward 
and  eastward,  covering  a large  part  of 
the  plains  of  European  Russia,  and  ex- 
tending along  the  Himalayas. 

As  regards  the  fossil  remains  of  the 
Lias  and  Oolite,  a remarkable  feature  is 
the  vast  development  of  Cephalopoda, 
especially  of  the  genera  Belemnites, 
Nautilus,  Ammonites,  and  Ancyloceras. 
There  are  also  many  genera  and  species 


of  fishes,  chiefly  in  the  Lias,  and  the 
genera  and  species  of  reptiles  are  so 
numerous  that  this  life-period  has  been 
sometimes  called  “the  age  of  reptiles.” 
The  plants  include  ferns,  horse-tails, 
conifers,  cycads,  etc.  Viewed  as  a whole, 
the  Liassic  and  Oolitic  strata  seem  to 
have  been  deposited  in  warm  seas  round 
groups  of  i.slands  formed  of  the  older 
Palreozoic  rocks  of  Europe,  of  which  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  Cumberland, 
and  Wales  formed  parts,  and  from  which 
rivers  flowed,  at  the  mouths  of  which  the 
estuarine  and  fresh-water  deposits  of  the 
north  of  England  and  Scotland  were 
accumulated. 

Purbeck  and  Wealden  Strata. — These 
form  a series  of  transition  strata  between 
the  Oolite  and  the  Cretaceous  systems. 
They  belong  chiefly  to  the  district  of 
Kent  and  Sussex  known  as  the  Weald, 
and  comprise  the  Weald  clay,  the  Hast- 
ings sands  and  cla3^s,  and  the  Purbeck 
limestones,  marls,  and  clays.  The  Pur- 
beck beds,  which  succeed  the  Portland 
stone,  are  chiefly  fresh-water  strata,  and 
the  Hastings  sand  and  Weald  clay  are 
almost  exclusively  fresh-water  beds. 
Severab  remarkable  reptiles  occur  in  the 
Weald,  including  the  Iguanodon,  Plesio- 
saurus, and  Pterodactjde,  together  with 
a number  of  Crocodiles. 

The  Cretaceous  Formation  is  divided 
into  a lower  and  an  upper  series  of  strata. 
The  chief  member  of  the  former  is  the 
Lower  Green-sand,  forming  a series  of 
strata  overlying  the  Wealden  beds,  and 
occurring  in  magnificent  sections  along 
the  southern  cliffs  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  elsewhere  round  the  Wealden  area. 
The  general  characters  of  the  whole 
formation  are  white,  yellow,  ferruginous, 
and  gray  and  green  sands. 

The  Gault,  which  forms  the  base  of 
the  Upper  Cretaceous  series,  is  a stiff 
blue  clay  about  300  feet  thick  in  its 
thickest  development.  It  appears  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  ranges  round  the  escarp- 
ment of  the  Weald,  and  in  the  center  of 
England,  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Devizes  to  the  Wash  in  Norfolk.  In 
general  lithological  characters,  theLfpper 
Green-sand  in  places  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  Lower  Green-sand.  In  part 
of  the  Wealden  area  it  is  diflfitfult  to 
separate  from  the  Gault,  there  being  a 
passage  from  one  to  the  other.  In  Wilt- 
shire the  LTpper  Green-sand  is  about 
200  feet  thick. 

The  Chalk,  from  its  familiar  characters 
and  uniformity  of  structure,  is  the  most 
easily  recognizable  of  all  the  British 
formations.  From  west  to  east  it 
stretches  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Beaminster,  in  Dorsetshire,  to  Beachy 
Head  and  the  North  Foreland,  and  from 
thence  north  to  Speeton,  in  Y'orkshire. 
Its  area  in  Europe  and  Asia  is  immense. 
It  consists  of  a soft  white  limestone,  and 
on  examination  with  the  microscope, 
much  of  it  is  found  to  consist  of 
shells  of  Foraminifera,  Diatomacea, 
spiculaj  and  other  remains  of  sponges, 
Polyzoa,  and  shells,  highly  comminuted. 
Somewhat  similar  deposits  are  now  form- 
ing in  the  open  Atlantic  at  great  depths, 
chiefly  of  Foraminifera  of  the  genus 
Globingerina.  In  its  thickest  develop- 
ment in  England  the  Chalk  is  about 
1200  feet  thick  (in  Dorsetshire,  Hamp- 
shire, etc.).  The  Lower  Chalk  usually 


GEOMETRY 


GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  AMERK 

contains  no  flints,  and  is  somewhat 
marly  at  the  base,  while  the  Upper 
Chalk  is  interstratified  with  many  beds 
of  interrupted  flints.  As  a whole,  the 
Chalk  dips  gently  from  its  western 
escarpment  to  the  east  and  south,  un- 
derlying the  Tertiary  strata  of  the 
Hampshire  and  London  basins,  and 
reappearing  with  precisely  the  same 
characters  on  the  coast  of  France.  Be- 
yond England  it  stretches  through 
France,  northward  into  Sweden,  and 
eastward  into  Asia.  Plants  are  com- 
paratively few  in  the  Chalk,  but  animal 
remains  are  very  numerous.  More  than 
eighty  species  of  fish  are  known;  various 
great  reptile  forms,  as  the  Mosasaurus, 
Plesiosaurus,  and  Ichthyosaurus,  Ptero- 
dactyles,  etc.  In  England,  and  generally 
in  Europe,  there  is  a marked  discor.d 
ance  between  the  fossils  of  the  Chalk 
and  those  of  the  overlying  Tiertary 
rocks;  no  fossils  (except,  perhaps,  one 
Terebratula)  being  common  to  the  two 
groups.  In  America  the  Cretaceous 
epoch  presents  some  extraordinary 
reptilian  forms  of  immense  size,  also 
various  birds.  The  sands  and  marls  of 
Njew  Jersey,  U.  States,  are  of  this  age, 
and  similar  beds  occupy  extensive 
tracts  in  the  western  regions; but  there  is 
iTo  true  white  chalk  in  America. 

Of  the  Tertiary  strata  the  Eocene 
Rocks  form  the  lowest  division.  In 
England  these  lie  in  two  basins,  those  of 
London  and  Hampshire,  both  sur- 
rounded and  underlaid  by  the  Chalk. 
The  strata  are  divided  into  the  Lower 
Eocene  and  the  Upper  Eocene  or  Oligo- 
cene.  The  Lower  Eocene  rocks  lie  some- 
times on  upper  beds  of  Chalk,  and  some- 
times on  beds  lower  in  the  series.  They 
are  therefore  highly  uneonformable,  and 
in  this  we  have  the  reason  of  the  com- 
plete difference  in  the  species  of  the  Cre- 
taceous and  Eocene  rocks,  for  great  con- 
tinental areas  of  Chalk  were  upheaved 
above  the  sea,  and  remained  as  dry  land 
for  a period  of  time  so  long  that  when 
they  were  again  submerged  the  life  of 
Cretaceous  times  had  died  out,  and  other 
forms  appeared.  To  the  Lower  Eocene 
belong  the  Thanet  Sand,  the  Woolwich 
and  Reading  beds,  the  London  Clay,  and 
the  Bagshot  Sands  and  Clays.  The 
London  Clay  usually  consists  of  brown 
and  bluish-gray  clay,  and  in  the  London 
basin  varies  in  thickness  from  50  to  480 
feet.  Its  fossil  remains  include  various 
palm-nuts  and  other  fruits  and  leaves. 
Remains  ^occur  of  birds  allied  to  the 
vulture  and  kingfisher,  and  a small 
swimming-bird  with  tooth-like  serratures 
on  the  bill;  turtles  and  river  tortoises  are 
numerous.  The  Upper  Eocene  or  Oligo- 
cene  includes  the  Headon  Hill  Sands, 
the  Osborne  Beds,  Bembridge  Beds,  and 
Hempstead  Beds,  groups  of  strata  be 
longing  to  Hampshire  and  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  In  these  beds  various  Ungulate 
rnammalia  are  found,  such  as  the  Ano- 
plotherium,  Palffiotherium,  a kind  of 
river-hog,  tapirs,  etc.  In  France,  in  the 
Paris  basin,  the  Eocene  strata  are  largely 
develop.od.  The  Wahsatch,  Bridger  and 
Uinta  beds  of  N.  America  are  of  Eocene 
age. 

The  Miocene  Rocks  are  not  found  in 
Britain,  but  are  well  represented  by 
strata  (mostly  of  fresh-water  origin  in 
Central  France  (Auvergne,  etc.)  and 


Switzerland.  Over  many  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America  there  are 
other  Miocene  strata,  each  more  or  less 
possessing  peculiarities. 

The  Pliocene  strata  in  Britain  consist 
in  descending  order  of  the  Cromer 
Forest  Bed,  Chillesford  Clay,  Mammalif- 
erous  or  Norwich  Crag,  the  Red  Crag 
and  the  Coralline  or  White  Crag  of 
Suffolk.  The  Coralline  or  White  Crag 
lies  on  the  London  clay  in  Suffolk,  and 
consists  of  a patch  of  about  20  miles  in 
length,  and  generally  of  less  than  100 
feet  in  thickness.  It  is  rich  in  Polyzoa 
(formerly  called  Corallines,  whence  the 
name  Coralline  Crag).  The  general  char- 
acter of  the  climate  seems  to  have  been 
milder  than  at  present.  The  Red  Crag 
often  lies  in  denuded  hollows  on  the 
Coralline  Crag,  and  is  chiefl}^  a ferrugin- 
ous, shelly  sand,  very  irregularly  bedded. 
Many  of  its  shells  now  live  in  British 
seas,  and  there  are  many  reasons  for 
believing  that  during  the  later  part  of  the 
Eocene  and  through  the  Miocene  epoch 
the  area  now  called  Britain  was  joined 
to  the  Continent.  The  Mammaliferous 
or  Norwich  Crag  consists  of  sands, 
gravels,  and  shells,  afi’d  contains  remains 
of  species  of  mastodon,  elephant,  hip- 
popotamus, and  horse,  as  also  of  the 
common  otter,  deer,  etc.  From  the 
nature  of  the  fossils  it  is  believed  to  have- 
accumulated  near  the  mouth  of  a river. 

The  Post-tertiary  or  Quaternary 
Epoch  is  that  immediately  before  the 
period  in  wdiich  we  now  are  (the  recent). 
It  is  characterized  especially  by  various 
glacial  phenomena,  and  in  particular  by 
numerous  evidences  of  a glacial  period, 
whqn  the  northern  hemisphere  was  sub- 
jected to  a climate  of  the  utmost  rigor. 
During  this  period  what  is  now  the 
British  Islands  was  in  great  part  covered 
by  glacier  ice,  probably  as  thick  as  that 
of  the  north  of  Greenland  at  the  present 
day.  When  the  most  extreme  cold  pre- 
vailed, the  mountains  of  Scotland  and 
Wales  were  literally  smothered  in  ice. 
Much  of  the  boulder  clay  which  is  found 
more  or  less  all  over  the  British  Islands 
north  of  the  Thames  valley  is  simply  the 
moraine  matter  of  clay  and  boulders 
that  in  places  lay  below  the  ice,  and  was 
more  or  less  urged  forward  by  the  ad- 
vancing glacier  mass.  (See  Glaciers.) 
It  is  believed  that  subsequently  a slow 
submersion  of  the  land  took  place,  and 
that  then  icebergs  deposited  the  stones, 
earth,  etc.,  carried  by  them  over  part  of 
what  is  now  the  low  lands  of  England 
and  other  regions,  and  of  neighboring 
seas;  hence  the  presence  of  sands,  gravels 
and  clays,  full  of  boulders  and  ice- 
scratched  stones,  intermingled  with 
shells  of  arctic  or  semi-arctic  type  some- 
times lying  at  heights  of  from  800  to 
1200  and  1400  feet  above  the  present 
sea-level.  The  same  kind  of  phenomena 
are  more  or  less  universal  over  great  part 
of  North&rn  Europe  and  North  America. 
On  the  elevation  of  the  country  after 
the  cold  had  passed  away  Britain  was 
reunited  to  the  Continent  and  Ireland 
to  Britain,  by  plains  of  boulder-drift 
across  which  many  mammalia  (includ- 
ing the  mammoth),  migrated  into  the 
countrjq  some  of  them  for  the  second 
time.  Man  also  migrated  into  the  British 
area  along  with  such  mammalia.  Among 
Post -tertiary  plants  there  are  Scotcli 


firs,  pines,  yews,  oaks,  alders.  'ITie 
mammalian  remains  include  those  of 
elephants,  rhinoceroses,  hippopotamus, 
the  common  horse,  bison,  aurochs,  red 
deer,  roe-deer,  Irish  elk,  Machairodus 
Ca  tiger?),  etc.  Many  of  these  .animals 
remains  are  found  in  the  celtebrated  bone 
caves,  several  notable  examj^s  of 
which  have  been  investigated  in  Britain. 
(See  Cave.)  In  these  have  been  found 
not  only  such  remains  as  those  of  the 
cave  bear,  cave  hyena,  fox,  wolf,  cat, 
lion,  reindeer,  Irish  elk,  bison,  rhinoceros 
elephant,  etc.,  but  also  the  works  of 
man,  such  as  flint  implements,  and  on~ 
the  Continent  of  Europe  his  skull  and 
other  bones  associated  with  the  above- 
named  mammalia. 

GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  AMER- 
ICA, an  organization  for  the  promotion 
of  the  science  of  geology  in  North 
America,  formed  in  1888  as  an  out- 
growth of  the  geological  section  of  the 
American  association  for  the  advance- 
ment of  science.  The  society  is  almost 
strictly  professional  with  a membership 
of  about  300.  The  organization  issues 
the  bulletin  of  the  geological  society  of 
America. 

GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY,  U.  States,  a 
bureau  of  the  department  of  the  interior, 
organized  in  1879  as  a consolidation  of 
the  independent  surveys  that  had  been 
active  for  several  years  in  exploring  the 
Western  states  and  territories. 

The  functions  of  the  geological  sur- 
vey, as  originally  outlined  by  law  of 
congress,  with  subsequent  modifications, 
include  the  preparation  of  a topographic 
map  of  the  LT.  States;  the  investigation 
and  mapping  of  the  areal  geology;  the 
examination  of  mineral  deposits;  the 
collection  of  mineral  statistics;  the  study 
of  hydrography  with  reference  to  water- 
power and  the  irrigation  of  arid  regions; 
and  ihe  classification  of  public  lands. 
The  preparation  of  the  topographic 
map,  a necessary  preliminary  to  the 
geologic  and  hydrographic  work,  is 
carried  on  by  the  topographic  branch 
of  the  survey.  When  completed  the 
topographic  map  will  give  an  accurate 
presentation  of  the  surface  features  of 
the  country.  The  geologic  branch  of  the 
survey  investigates  the  maps  of  the  geo- 
logical formations.  The  map.^as  rapidly 
as  completed,  is  issued  in  folios;  it  shows 
the  areal  distribution  of  the  various 
rocks,  their  geological  structure,  and 
the  location  of  mineral  resources  For 
the  purpose  of  conducting  special  in- 
vestigations of  scientific  or  economic 
value,  the  geologic  branch  is  organized 
in  divisions,  each  of  which  covers  a par- 
ticular field. 

GEOMETRICAL  PROGRESSION,  a 

series  of  numbers  which  increase  or  de- 
crease by  ecjual  ratios:  as,  2,  4,  8,  16,  or 
16,  8,  4,  2. 

GEOMETRY,  as  its,  name  implies,  was 
primarily  the  mathematical  science 
which  has  for  its  object  the  measurement 
of  portioiis  of  the  earth’s  surface;  but 
now  geometry  may  be  termed  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  definite  portions  of  space, such 
as  surfaces,  volumes^  angles,  lines.  The 
relation  between  the  parts  of  the  same 
figure  may  be  of  twoTcinds, — of  position 
or  of  magnitude;  for  e.xamplc,  two  points 
in  a"' straight  line,  four  points  on  tho 


GEORGE 


GEORGE  III 


same  circle,  two  straight  lines  perpen- 
dicular to  one  another,  a straight  line 
tangent  to  a circle,  are  relations  of  posi- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  propor- 
tionality of  homologous  lines  of  two 
similar  figures,  the  equality  of  the  square 
constructed  on  the  hypotenuse  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  to  the  sum  of  the 
squares  constructed  on  the  sides  con- 
taining the  right  angle,  that  of  the 
volumes  of  two  pyramids  on  equal  bases 
and  of  the  same  height,  are  relations  of 
dimension.  But  the  relations  of  posi- 
tion govern  the  relations  of  dimension, 
and  vice  versa;  that  is,  the  one  set  of 
relations  depend  upon  the  other.  Thus 
it  is  because  a triangle  is  rectangular 
that  the  square  constructed  on  one  of  its 
sides  is  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  the 
squares  constructed  on  the  other  two, 
ifnd,  vice  versa,  that  relation  between 
the  magnitudes  of  the  squares  on  the 
three  sides  depends  on  the  triangle  being 
right-angled.  The  geometer  may  draw 
indifferently  from  the  study  of  a figure 
either  the  knowledge  of  the  relations  of 
position  or  that  of  the  relations  of  di- 
mension, on  tlie  condition  that  he 
knows  how  to  apply  relations  of  the  one 
kind  to  those  of  the  other;  and  the  prin- 
cipal aim  of  geometry  is  to  examine  into 
the  connection  between  the  relations  of 
magnitude  and  those  of  position. 

Geometry  may  be  conveniently  di- 
vided into  several  principal  sections — 
elementary  geometry,  practical  geome- 
try, analytical  geometry,  infinitesimal 
geometry,  etc.  Elementary  geometry 
comprehends  two  parts — plane  geome- 
try, the  object  of  which  is  the  study 
of  the  simplest  figures  formed  on  a 
plane  by  straight  lines  and  circles; 
and  solid  geometry  or  geometry  of 
three  dimensions,  which  treats  of 
straight  lines  and  planes  considered  in 
any  relative  position  whatever,  of  figures 
terminated  by  planes,  of  the  cylinder, 
of  the  cone,  and  of  the  sphere.  Ana- 
lytical geometry,  either  plane  or  solid, 
makes  use  of  the  method  of  co-ordinates 
introduced  by  Descartes  and  primarily 
applied  to  curves.  In  ancient  times, 
though  curves  were  studied  and  the 
principal  properties  of  conic  sections 
known,  still  no  connection  existed  be- 
tween these  curves,  nor  was  there  any 
means  of  establishing  one,  so  that  the 
study  of  one  was  of  no  value  to  that  of 
another.  The  first  question  in  introduc- 
ing the  analytic  method  was  then  to  fix 
upon  some  means  which  should  serve  to 
construct  every  curve  by  successive 
points  as  numerous  and  as  closely 
brought  together  as  is  necessary  in  order 
to  lay  dowp  the  curve.  Now  the  position 
of  a point  in  a plane  may  be  determined 
by  two  Intersecting  perpendiculars 
drawn  from*  two  fixed  lines — the  co- 
ordinates axes — at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  An  equation  may  then  be  found 
which  states  the  relation  between  the 
co-ordinates  of  any  point,  that  is,  its 
distance  from  the  two  co-oridnate  axes. 
(See  Co-ordinates.)  The  study  of  the 
curves  will  thus  be  simply  the  study  of 
their  equations.  In  this  way  a typical 
equation  for  a curve  in  a certain  system 
may  be  got,  so  that  if  at  another  time 
the  curve  is  represented  under  another 
definition  in  investigating  its  equation 
in  the  same  system  of  co-ordinates, 


particularized  so  as  to  simplify  as  much 
as  possible  the  calculations,  it  will 
suffice  to  compare  the  particular  equa- 
tion with  the  general  one  to  verify  the 
identity  of  the  curve,  to  give  it  its  name, 
and  to  know  all  the  properties  of  it 
which  have  been  studied  previously. 
In  a similar  way  the  analytical  geometry 
of  solid  bodies  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  position  of  any  point  in  space  can 
be  determined  by  reference  to  three  in- 
tersectingplanes.  Infinitesimal  geometry 
is  simply  a continuation  of  the  analytical 
goemetry  of  Descartes,  of  which  it  may 
indeed  be  said  it  forms  a part;  the  dif- 
ference consists  simply  in  the  nature  of 
the  questions  which,  as  they  involve  the 
measurement  of  magnitudes,  the  inces- 
santly variable  elements  of  which  can- 
not be  summed  up  by  finite  parts,  re- 
quire the  use  of  the  infinitesimal  calcu- 
lus. Descriptive  geometry  consists  in 
the  application  of  geometrical  rules  to 
the  representation  of  the  figures  and  the 
various  relations  of  the  forms  of  bodies 
according  to  certain  conventional  meth- 
ods. In  the  descriptive  geometry  the 
situation  of  points  in  space  is  repre- 
sented by  their  orthographical  projec- 
tions, on  two  planes  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  called  the  planes  of  pro^ 
jection. 

GEORGE,  Henry,  American  econo- 
mist, born  in  1839  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
In  1865  he  began  to  write  for  the  press 
and  one  of  his  earliest  productions  urges 
workingmen  to  think  about  political  and 
social  conditions,  to  find  if  it  be  possible 
to  “check  the  tendency  of  society  to  re- 
solve itself  into  classes  that  have  too" 
much  or  too  little.”  At  this  time  he  was 
engaged  as  a reporter  on  the  San  Fran- 
cisco Times,  where  he  was  quickly  pro- 
moted to  the  position  of  chief  of  staff. 
The  great  fortunes  acquired  in  Califor- 
nia through  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
value  of  land  fixed  his  attention  upon 
the  land  problem;  and  in  a pamphlet 
published  in  1871,  entitled  Our  Land 
Policy,  he  advanced  most  of  the  ideas 
that  later  appear  in  Progress  and  Pov- 
erty, his  most  important  work— that  the 
value  of  land  represents  in  the  main  a 
monopoly  power,  and  that  the  entire 
burden  of  taxation  should  be  levied  upon 
it,  thus  freeing  industry  from  taxation, 
and  equalizing  opportunities  by  destroy- 
ing monopoly  advantages. 

In  1886  George  became  a candidate 
for  themayorality  of  New  York  City,  but 
was  defeated  by  Abram  S.  Hewitt.  In 
1896  he  again  ran  for  mayor,  but  died 
before  election  day. 

GEORGE,  St.,. a saint  venerated  both 
in  the  eastern  and  western  churches, 
and  the  patron  saint  'of  England.  He 
was  canonized  in  494  or  496  by  Pope 
Gelasius.  His  origin  is  very  obscure,  one 
of  many  legends  representing  him  as  a 
prince  of  Cappadocia,  martyred  by 
Diocletian.  Gibbon  has  sought  to  iden- 
tify this  legendary  saint  with  the  notori- 
ous and  turbulent  Arian  heretic  George 
of  Cappadocia,  who  was  slain  in  361  in  a 
rising  of  the  populace  who  had  been  in- 
furiated by  his  oppression  and  his 
violence  against  pagans  and  orthodox. 
But  the  most  eminent  scholars,  both 
Roman  Catholic  and  Protestant,  are  of 
opinion  that  the  veneration  of  St.  George 
has  been  traced  up  to  so  early  a period  as 


to  make  it  very  improbable  that  a 
notorious  Arian  could. have  been  foisted 
on  the  Catholic  Church  as  a saint  and 
martyr.  The  killing  of  a dragon  that 
was  about  to  swallow  a maiden  is  a 
legendary  feat  attributed  to  him.  He 
was  adopted  by  the  Genoese  as  their 
patron  saint,  and  in  1222  the  Council  of 
Oxford  ordered  that  his  day  (the  23d  of 
April)  should  be  observed  as  a national 
holiday  in  England;  in  1350  he  was  made 
the  patron  of  the  order  of  the  garter  by 
Edward  III. 

GEORGE  I.,  King  of  Great  Britain, 
and  Elector  of  Hanover,  was  the  son  of 
the  Elector  Ernest  Augustus,  by  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Frederick,  elector  palatine, 
and  grand-daughter  to  James  I.  He 
was  born  May  28,  1660,  and  in  1682  was 
married  to  Sophia  Dorothea  of  Zell, 
whom,  in  1694,  on  account  of  a sus- 
pected intrigue  with  Count  Konigsmark, 
he  caused  to  be  imprisoned  and  kept  in 
confinement  for  the  rest  of  her  life. 
In  1698  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
elector.  He  commanded  the  imperial 
army  in  1707  during  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession;  and  ascended  the 
throne  of  Great  Britain  on  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne  in  1714.  Among  the  nota- 
able  events  of  his  reign  were  the  rising 
of  the  Scottish  Jacobites  (1715-16);  the 
Triple  and  Quadruple  Alliances  against 
Spain  (1717  and  1718);  the  failure  of  the 
South  Sea  Company  (1720).  The  private 
character  of  George  I.  was  bad,  but  he 
showed  much  good  sense  and  prudence 
in  government,  especially  of  his  German 
dominions.  By  Sophia  Dorothea  he  had 
a son,  George,  afterwards  George  II.  of 
England,  and  a daughter,  Sophia,  the 
mother  of  Frederick  the  Great.  He  died 
in  1727. 

GEORGE  I.,  “King  of  the  Hellenes,” 
was  born  at  Copenhagen  Dec.  24,  1845, 
second  son  of  the  King  of  Denmark.  In 
1863  he  was  elected  king  by  the  Greek 
national  assembly.  In  1867  he  married 
the  Princess  Olga,  a niece  of  the  Russian 
czar. 

GEORGE  II.,  King  of  Great  Britain, 
son  of  George  I.,  was  born  Oct.  30,  1683. 
He  married  in  1705  Wilhelmina  Caro- 
lina of  Brandenburg-Anspach.  In  1708, 
then  only  electoral  prince  of  Hanover, 
he  distinguished  himself  at  Oudenarde 
under  Marlborough.  In  1727  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  on  the  English  throne, 
but  inherited -to  the  full  the  predilection 
of  George  I.  for  Hanover.  His  reign  is 
notable  for  the  great  events  with  which 
it  is  filled,  and  for  the  number  of  men 
great  in  art,  letters,  war,  and  diplomacy 
which  then  adorned  England.  The  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession,  in  which 
George  II.  himself  took  part  at  Dettin- 
gen,  the  Jacobite  rebellion  of  1745,  the 
conquest  of  Canada,  and  the  growth  of 
the  British  empire  in  India  are  among 
the  chief  events  of  his  reign.  George 
II.  died  suddenly  Oct.  25,  1760.  He 
was  a prince  of  very  moderate  abilities, 
regardless  of  science  or  literature;  of 
obstinate  temper  and  vicious  habits;  but 
honest  and  open  in  his  disposition. 

GEORGE  III.,  King  of  Great  Britain, 
born  in  1738,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Erederick,  prince  of  Wales,  by  the 
Princess  Augusta  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and 
succeeded  his  grandfather,  George  II., 
in  1760.  In  the  following  year  he  mar- 


GEORGE  IV 


GEORGIA 


ried  the  Princess  Charlotte  Sophia  of 
Mecklenhurg-Strelitz.  Tlie  sixty  year's 
of  his  reign  are  filled  with  great  events, 
among  wliich  are  the  Wilkes’  contro- 
versy, the  American  revolution,  1775- 
83;  the  French  revolution,  1789,  and  the 


Napoleonic  wars  which  followea;  the 
Irish  rebellion,  1798,  etc.  His  private 
life  was  very  exemplary.  In  1810  the 
king’s  mind,  which  had  already  given 
way  several  times,  finally  broke  down, 
and  from  that  time  to  his  death  on  Jan. 
29,  1820,  his  biography  is  a blank. 

GEORGE  IV.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  George  III.  and  the  Princess  Charlotte' 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  born  in  1762, 
died  June  26,  1830.  In  1811  George 
became  regent,  and,  on  the  death  of 
George  III.  in  1820,  king.  The  most  im- 
portant event  after  his  attaining  the 
throne  was  the  passing  of  the  Catholic 
emancipation  act,  by  the  Wellington 
ministry,  in  1829.  George  IV.  left  no 
descendants,  his  only  daughter,  the 
Princess  Charlotte,  wife  of  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  having  died  childless  in 
1817.  He  was  therefore  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  William,  duke  of  Clarence 
CNVilliam  IV.)  See  Britain. 

GEORGETO'WN,  a suburb  of  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  contains  the  Georgetown 
college  (the  oldest  Catholic  college  in  the 
U.  States),  the  Peabody  library,  etc. 
The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  com 

TTiAnppQ  nPrA 

GEORGETOWN,  or  DEMERARA,  the 
capital  of  British  Guiana,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Demerara.  The  chief  exports  are 
sugar,  rum,  and  coffee.  Pop.  53,176, 
about  one-seventh  being  whites. 

GEORGIA,  was  formerly  a kingdom, 
but  is  now  included  in  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment of  Tiflis,  though  the  name  is 
sometimes  loosely  employed  to  desig- 
nate a much  larger  portion  of  the  terri- 
tory possessed  by  Russia  south  of  the 
Caucasus.  In  the  latter  sense  it  has  an 
area  of  say  34,000  sq.  miles,  but  Georgia 
proper  does  not  excepd  about  15,000  sq. 
miles.  The  natives  are  a fine-looking 
race,  the  Georgian  women,  like  the  Cir- 
cassians, being  celebrated  for  their 
beauty.  The  Georgian  language,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  Mingrelains, 
Lazes,  and  other  Caucasian  peoples, 
seems,  according  to  the  latest  researches 
to  form  a perfectly  distinct  linguistic 
family.  It  possesses  a not  unimportant 
literature,  commencing  with  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity,  into  the  coun- 
try. Tho  history  of  the  Georgians  first 
becomes  trustworthy  about  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  to  whom  they  be- 
came subject.  .Aliout  b.c.  324  they 
gained  their  independence  under  Phar- 
navas.  They  l:ecamc  Christianized 
toward  the  end  of  the  41  h century. 


After  yielding  for  a time  to  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Arabian  caliphs  Georgia 
regained  its  independence  toward  the 
end  of  the  10th  century,  which  it  retained 
till  1799,  w'hen  Heraclius,  successor  of 
George  XL,  formally  ceded  his  domin- 
ions to  the  Russian  emperor  Pau. 

GEORGIA,  one  of  the  southern  U. 
States,  bounded  n.  by  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina,  e.  by  South  Carolina  and 
the  Atlantic,  s.  by  Florida,  and  w.  by 
Alabama;  length,  north  to  soxith,  320 
miles;  breadth,  255  miles;  area,  about 
58,000  sq.  miles  (same  as  England  and 
Wales).  The  coast  is  bordered  by  a 
chain  of  islands,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  narrow  lagoons  or  sounds. 
On  them  the  famous  sea-island  cotton  is 
raised.  The  land  is  low  toward  the  coast, 
beginning  as  a salt  marsh,  grown  over 
with  tall  reeds,  continuing  next  as 
swampy  rice  plantations  and  then  as 
“pine  barrens’’  about  60  or  90  miles 
inland,  latWrly  gradually  rising  as  a 
sandy  district,  interspersed  with  fertile 
tracts,  till  it  reaches  the  lower  falls  of 
the  Savannah,  Ogechee,  Oconee,  and 
other  rivers.  Here  the  hilly  and  finally 
mountainous  region  called  the  Upper 
Country  begins,  a fertile  and  salubrious 
region  extending  north  and  west  till  it 
rises  into  the  Appalachian  mountain 
chaiix.  Of  the  rivers  the  Chattahoochee, 
which  flows  under  the  name  of  the 
Appalachicola  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
is  navigable  for  steamers  for  300  miles; 
the  Savannah  is  naA'igable  for  steamers 
part  of  the  year  for  250  miles;  and  the 


Seal  ot  Georgia. 


Altamaha  and  its  affluents  are  navigable 
for  small  vessels  300  miles  upwards.  The 
climate  is  mild,  but  unhealthy  in  the  low 
country  during  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
tember. The  soil  in  many^  parts  is  very 
rich.  Cotton,  rice,  maize,  and  the  sugar- 
cane are  the  staple  productions;  but 
tobacco,  the  sweet  potato,  and  other 
crops  are  cultivated  with  success.  The 
fruits,  which  include  peaches,  apples, 
melons,  oranges,  bananas,  etc.,  are  of 
the  finest.  Copper  and  iron,  also  gold  in 
considerable  quantities,  are  found  in 
the  northern  parts.  Atlanta  is  the  seat 
of  the  legislature  and  the  largest  town; 
the  other  principal  towns  are  Savannah 
(the  chief  .seaport),  .\ugusta,  Macon,  and 
Columbus.  A charter  for  the  foundation 
of  a colony  in  the  territory  now  called 
Georgia  was- obtained  in  1732  by  Gen- 
eral Gglethorpe  from  George  11. , after 
Avhom  the  state  was  named.  Georgia 
.was  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states. 


The  first  English  settlement  in  thd 
state  was  made  in  1733,  by  a band  of 
immigrants  under  the  direction  of  Gen. 
James  Oglethorpe,  who  first  landed  at 
Savannah.  The  relations  between  the 
Indians  (of  wliom  there  were  two  pow- 
erful tribes — the  Cherokees  and  the 
Creeks)  and  the  settlers  at  first  were 
amicable,  and  were  never  disturbed  un- 
til the  French  and  Indian  war,  during 
which  the  Cherokees  plundered  and 
burned  some  of  the  remote  frontier 
hamlets  and  killed  a few'  of  the  settlers. 
The  extent  of  the  territory  comprised 
in  the  original  colony  was  much  greater 
than  the  area  of  the  present  state,  and 
by  treaty  with  France  and  Spain  at 
one  time  it  extended  to  the  Mississippi 
River  on  the  west  and  included  a good- 
ly portion  of  Florida  on  tlie  south. 
When  the  revolutionary  war  began, 
Georgia  was  in  a flourishing  condition, 
having  a population  , including  negroes 
(slavery  having  been  introduced  in 
1750),  estimated  at  over  75,0u0.  The 
state  was  destined  to  become  the  scene 
of  important  military  operations 
during  the  pi’ogress  of  the  Avar, 
and  several  hard-fought  battles  be- 
tween the  British  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  French  and  Americans  on  the 
other,  took  place,  those  of  greatest 
magnitude  being  at  Augusta  and  Sa- 
vannalu  Although  defeated  and  com- 
pelled to  abandon  Augusta  at  first,  the 
British  i-ecaptured  the  toAA  n,  and  held 
Savannah  and  the  entire  state  in  sub- 
jection (with  the  exception  of  minor 
guerrilla AA'arfare) until  General  Greene 
succeeded  in  foi’cing  them  to  retire, 
in  1782,  after  the  surrender  of  Corn- 
wallis, and  before  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  peace  between  England  and 
America.  In  1803  two  nevi'  territories 
were  erected  out  of  her  domains,  and 
these  were  afterward  admitted  to  the 
Union  as  the  States  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama,  which  loss  of  territory  was, 
in  a measure,  compensated  by  posses- 
sion of  the  large  tract  of  country  before 
that  time  occupied  by  the  Creek 
Indians,  who  ceded  it  to  the  state  in 
1804.  From  1815  to  1825  . the  troubles 
between  the  Avhites  and  Indians  were 
of  a nature  so  serious  that  the  general 
government  had  to  interfere  and  re- 
move the  Indians  beyond  the  Mississip- 
pi- 

When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  in 
1861,  Georgia  passed  the  ordinance  of 
secession,  being  the  fifth  state  in  order 
of  priority  to  leave  the  Union.  At- 
lanta fell-  before  the  victorious  arms  of 
Sherman,  in  September,  1864,  and 
thence  that  general  took  up  his  ‘ ‘march 
to  the  sea,”  appearing  before  Savannah, 
December  10,  1804.  After  two  weeks’ 
hard  fighting  he  succeeded  in  capturing 
the  defenses  and  occupied  the  city. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy  Jeffer- 
son Davis  fled  to  Georgia,  and  was  cap- 
tured near  IMacon  by  a detachment  of 
Federal  cavalry,  which  had  previously 
invaded  the  state  and  taken  various 
points  of  importance. 

The  history  of  Georgia,  since  the 
war,  has  been  one  of  steady  progress. 
In  the  fail  of  1865,  the  ordinance  of 
secession  from  the  statute  book  was  re- 
pudiated, ac, quiesced  in  and  ratified  the 
emancipation  proclamation  of  the 


GEORGIA  BARK 


german  silver 


president,  and  voided  all  public  debts  I 
on  account  of  the  war.  In  1868  a con-  ' 
stitution  was  framed  and  the  state 
government  was  organized.  Five  years 
after  the  war  Georgia  was  in  full  posses- 
sion of  all  her  rights  as  a State  of  the 
union,  and  her  reconstruction  was  com- 
plete. With  energy  and  pluck  her 
people-went  to  work  to  retrieve  their 
fallen  fortunes  and  at  present  no  soutli- 
ern  state  has  a brightei  future.  In 
national  elections  the  state  has  invaria- 
bly gone  Democratic.  In  1908,  a law 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages became  effective. 

The  Cotton  Exposition  of  1881,  a.nd  the 
Cotton  States  and  International  Ex- 
position of  1898,  both  lield  at  Atlanta, 
testified  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state. 
The  division  of  races  continued  clean- 
cut;  and  though  there  was  no  disposition 
among  the  better  class  of  whites  to 
hinder  the  negro  in  the  exercise  of  his 
civil  rights,  political  equality  was  be- 
grudged him,  and  social  equality  abso- 
lutely denied.  As  late  as  1891  the  legis- 
lature decreed  that  separate  public  con- 
veyances be  provided  for  whites  and 
negroes,  and  as  late  as  1897  the  ap- 
pointment of  a negro  as  postmaster  was 
made  impossible  by  public  opinion. 
Instances  of  mob  law  and  racial  feud 
w'ere  frequent  after  1894. 

In  national  politics  the  state  was 
democratic  throughout  the  nineteenth 
century,  except  in  1840  and  1848, when 
it  cast  its  electoral  vote  for  the  whig 
candidate.  In  state  politics,  Georgia, 
since  1874,  has  been  immaculately 
democratic,  and  since  1882  the  repub- 
licans have  not  participated  in  the  state 
elections.  From  1890  to  1898,  however 
the  populist  ]3art3^  was  very  powerful. 
The  present  constitution  .ivas  adopted 
in  1877,  when  Atlanta  was  made  the 
capital.  Poj).  19’  9,  2,675,0iiti. 

GEORGIA  BARK,  a small  tree  of  the 
southern  states  closely  resembling  ’ the 
cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark,  and  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Cinchonacese. 
It  has  pretty  large  white  flowers,  with 
longitudinal  stripes  of  rose-color,  dis- 
posed in  beautiful  clusters  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  branches;  each  flower 
is  accompanied  with  a floral  leaf,  bor- 
dered with  rose-color  near  the  upper 
margin;  the  corolla  is  tubular;  the 
stamens  five,  with  a single  style ; and  the 
capsule  contains  two  cells  and  numerous 
seeds.  The  w'ood  is  soft  and  unfit  for  use 
in  the  arts.  The  inner  bark  is  extremely 
bitter,  and  is  employed  with  succe.ss  in 
intermittent  fevers. 

GEORGIA,  GULF  OF,  a large  gulf  of 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the 
continent  of  North  America  and  Van- 
couver’s Island;  about  120  miles  in 
length  from  north  to  south;  the  breadth 
varies  greatly  in  its  difl'erent  jiarts,  from 
6 miles.to  20  . It  communicates  with  the 
ocean  on  the  north  by  Queen  Charlotte’s 
Sound,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca. 

GEORGIA,  University  of,  an  institu- 
tion of  higher  education,  chartered  in 
178.6,  and  formallj'^ opened  at  Athems,  Ga. 
in  1801.  Its  government  is  vested  in  a 
board  of  truste^js  appointed  by  the 
governor.  The  proc.ccils  of  (he  .sales  of 
lands  received  bj'  Georgia  under  the  IT. 
States  land  grant  act  of  1862  were 


ti'ansferred  to  the  university  in  1872, 
and  the  university,  which  in  its  incep- 
tion was  designed  as  a classical  school 
has,  broadened  its  scope,  and  in  1902 
comprised:  Franklin  College;  the  State 
College  of  Agriculture;  the  Graduate 
School;  the  Law  School;  the  North 
Georgia  Agricultural  College,  situated 
at  .Dahlonega;  the  Medical  College,  sit- 
uated at  Augusta;  the  School  of  Tech- 
nology situated  at  Atlanta;  the  Normal 
and  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  situated 
at  Milledgeville ; the  State  Normal Scbool ; 
and  the  Industrial  College  for  colored 
persons,  which  includes  a well-equipped 
trade  department. 

GEORGIAN  BAY,  formerly  called 
Lake  Manitoulin,  the  northeastern  part 
of  Lake  Huron,  partly  separated  from 
the  main  body  of  the  lake  by  the  penin- 
sula of  Cabot’s  Head  and  the  island  of 
Great  Manitoulin.  It  is  about  120  miles 
long  and  50  broad.  * 

GEOT'ROPISM,  in  botany,  a dispo- 
sition or  tendency  to  turn  lor 
incline  towards  the  earth,  'as 
the  characteristic  exhibited  in  a 
young  plant  when  deprived  of  the 
counter-acting  influence  of  light,  of 
directing  its  growth  towards  the  earth. 

GEOTRU'PID.dE,  a family  of  bur- 
rowing lamellicorn  beetles.  They  in- 
habit temperate  climates,  and  are  use- 
ful in  removing  disgusting  substances. 
When  alarmed  they  feign  death.  The 
watchman-beetle  of  Britain,  is  the  tpye 
of  the  family. 

GERANIUM,  popular  name  crane’s- 
bill.  They  have  usually  palmately 
divided  leaves  and  regular  flowers  with 
ten  .stamens  and  five  carpels.  An  Ameri- 
can species,  from  its  astringency  called 
“alum-root,”  is  used  medicinally  as  a 
gargle  qnd  otherwise.  Cultivation  has 
produced  many  varieties,  which  from 
their  beauty  are  great  favorites. 

GERARD  (zha'rar),  Frangois  Pasc.al, 
Baron,  a French  historical  and  portrait- 
painter,  born  at  Rome  in  1770;  went  to 
Paris  (1786),  and  studied  under  David. 
In  1795  he  exhibited  his  first  notable 
painting,  Belisarius.  He  was  much 
patronized  bj' -Napoleon,  for  whom  he 
painted  the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  and  w-as 
made  a baron  by  Louis  XVIII.,  after 
completing  his  large  painting  of  the 
Entrance  of  Henr}'^  IV.  into  Paris. 
Among  his  portraits  the  most  famous 
are  those  of  Tallyrand,  Talma,  Louis 
Philip])e,  Madame  Recamier,  Mdle. 
IMars,  etc.  He  died  in  1837. 

GERBA,  or  JERBA,  an  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  Cabes,  off  the  coast  of  Tunis.  It 
is  about  20  miles  long  and  14  broad.  The 
surface  is  level  and  fertile,  and  occupied 
by  a population  of  30,000,  mostly 
Berbers. 

GERHARD  (ger'hart),  Edmard, 
German  archosologist,  born  1795,  died 
1867.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
the  following; — Antike  Bildwerke  (with 
140  plates) ; Auserlesene  Griechische 
Vasenbilder  (330  plates) ; Etruskische 
und  Campani.sche  Vasenbilder,  Gi-iech- 
ische  Mj'thologie,  etc. 

GERHARDT  (ger'hart),  Karl  Fried- 
rich, German  chemist,  born  1816.  Hd 
was  the  fir.st  to  introduce  the  new  com- 
bining weights,  or  rather  to  subject  more 
completely  combination  by  weight  to 
combination  bj'  volume;  to  originate  the 


theory  of  types,  and  to  furnish  new  ideas 
on  classification,  homologjq  and  similar 
subjects.  The  methods  he  originated 
have  Jhad  a great  influence  on  modern 
chemistry.  He  died  in  1856. 

GERHARDT,  Paul,  the  greatest  of 
German  hymn-writers,  born  in  1607. 
In  1668  he  was  made  archdeacon  in 
Ltibben,  where  he  died  in  1670.  His 
excellent  book  of  hymns  appeared  at 
Berlin  in  1667  (Geistliche  andachten). 
Many  particular  hymns  have  found 
English  translators. 

GERM,  in  physiol,  the  earliest  form 
under  which  any  organism  appears,  that 
is  the  rudimentary  or  embryonic  form 
of  an  organism.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  certain  minute  organisms  which  give 
rise  to  disease.  See  Germ  Theory. 

GERMAIN  (zher-man),  St.,  the  name 
of  a number  of  places  in  France,  among 
which  is  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  a town  in 
the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  about  6 
miles  north  from  Versailles  and  11  miles 
w.n.w.  from  Paris,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine.  The  most  remarkable  build- 
ing is  the  royal  palace,  commenced  by 
Charles  V.  in  1370,  and  embellished  by 
several  of  his  successors,  especially 
Francis  I.  and  Louis  XI V.  It  was  used 
as  a prison  during  the  revolution,  after- 
ward as  a school  for  cavalry  officers, 
and  was  ultimately  restored  in  1862  by 
Napdleon  III.,  who  established  in  it  a 
museum  of  Gallo-Roman  antiquities. 
The  forest  of  St.  Germain  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  France,  extending  over  10,000 
acres.  Pop.  14,280. 

GERMAN'ICUS,  Caesar,  a distin- 
guished Roman,  son  of  Nero  Claudius 
, Drusus  and  the  younger  Antonia,  a 
niece  of  Augustus,  was  born  b.c.  15. 
He  was  adopted  by  Tiberius,  his  pater- 
nal uncle,  and  married  Agrippina,  the 
grand-daughter  of  Augustus.  When 
Augustus  died,  in  a.d.  14,  Germanicus 
was  invited  by  the  rebellious  legions  on 
the  Rhine  to  assume  the  sovereignty, 
but  refused,  and  quelled  the  revolt.  He 
then  crossed  the  Rhine,  surprised  and 
defeated  the  Marsi  with  great  slaughter. 
Next  year  (.\.d.  15)  a campaign  against 
the  Catti  and  the  Germans,  led  by 
Arminius,  resulted  in  a series  of  vic- 
tories. The  following  year  he  again 
made  his  way  into  German  jq  defeated  the 
Cherusci  twice,  and  made  an  incursion 
into  the  country  of  the  Marsi.  Tiberius 
now  became  jealous  of  the  glory,  of 
Germanicus,  called  him  home  under 
pretense  of  granting  him  a triumph, 
then,  to  get  rid  of  him,  sent  him  into 
the  East  to  compose  the  disturbances  in 
Armenia  and  Cappadocia.  This  he. per- 
formed in  A.D.  18,  visited  Egypt  the  fol- 
lowing 5'ear,  and  died  on  his  return  to 
Syria  (a.d.  19)  under  some  suspicion  of 
having  been  poisoned  by  Cn.  Piso,  the 
governor  of  Syria. 

GERMAN  OCEAN.  See  North  Sea. 

GERMAN  SARSAPARILLA,  a name 
given  to  certain  roots  or  rhizomes  from 
their  being  occasional!}'  used  in  Ger- 
many as  a substitute  for  sarsaparilla. 

GERMAN  SILVER,  Nickel  Silver,  or 
Packfong,  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  nickel, 
and  zinc  in  different  proportions,  among 
which  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
Spoons  and  forks  are  made  from  2 parts 
copper,  1 nickel,  1 zinc;  knife  and  fork 
handles  from  5 co.Dner.  2 nickel,  2 zinc. 


GERMAN  TINDER 


GERMANY 


a mixture  closely  resembling  alloyed 
silver;  addition  of  lead  produces  an  alloy 
which  appears  well  fitted  for  casts,  and 
for  making  candlesticks,  etc.;  iron  or 
steel,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  the  alloy 
whiter,  harder,  and  more  brittle.  Ger- 
man silver  is  harder  than  silver,  and 
takes  a high  polish.  It  melts  at  a red 
hea\,  the  zinc  being  volatilized  in  the 
open  air.  It  is  attacked  by  the  strong 
acids,  but  it  is  also  affected  by  common 
organic  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  and  by 
some  saline  solutions.  _ 

GERMAN  TINDER,  or  AMADOU,  is 
prepared  from  a fungus  growing  on  the 
oak,  birch,  willow,  cherry,  plum,  and 
other  trees.  The  fungus  is  removed  with 
a sharp  knife,  washed,  boiled  in  a strong 
solution  of  saltpeter,  beaten  with  a 
mallet,  and  dried.  In  surgery  it  is  some- 
times used  to  stop  local  bleeding. 

GERMANTOWN,  a northern  suburb, 
of  Philadelphia,  pleasantly  situated  on 
high  ground,  and  containing  numerous 
elegant  residences.  Here  the  British,  un- 
der General  How'e,  defeated  the  Amer- 
icans under  Washington,  4th  Oct.,  1777. 

GERMANY,  the  name  given  collect- 
ively to  the  states  in  Central  Europe 
which  constitute  the  German  Empire. 
The  limits  of  Germany  have  varied 
^greatly  at  different  times;  and  at  present 
there  are  large  numbers  of  people  Ger- 
mans in  race  ail'd  language  not  included 
w'ithin  the  boundaries  of  the  empire, 
many  being  .natives  of  Austria  and 
Switzerland.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
political  boundaries  of  Germany  contain 
several  millions  of  Slavs,  Lithuanians, 
Poles,  etc.  As  one  of  the  Teutonic  peo- 
ples the  Germans  are  akin  by  race  to  the 
Dutch,  English,  and  Scandinavian  peo- 
ples. The  capital  of  Germany  is  Berlin; 
other  large  towns  are  Hamburg,  Bres- 
lau, Munich,  Dresden,  Leip'zig,  Cologne. 
As  each  state  is  described  under  its  own 
name,  the  description  given  below  is 
confined  to  leading  features  w'hich  be- 
long to  Germany  as  a w'hole.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  component  parts 
of  the  empire : — 


% 

Area  in 
square 
miles. 

Popula- 

tion. 

Kingdoms. 

1.  Prussia 

134,506 

34,472,509 

2.  Bavaria 

29,283 

6,176,057 

3.  Wiirtemberg 

7,530 

2,169,480 

4.  Saxony 

5,788 

4,202,216 

Territory. 

5.  Alsace-Corraine 

5,600 

1,719,470 

Grand-duchies.  « 

6.  Baden 

5,824 

1,867,944 

7.  Hesse 

2,965 

1,119,893 

8.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  . .. 

5,080 

607,770 

9.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz 

1,130 

102,602 

10.  Oldenburg 

2,479 

399,180 

11.  Saxe-Weiinar 

1,390 

362,873 

Duchies. 

12.  Brunswick 

1,424 

464,333 

13.  Saxe-Meiningen 

953 

250,731 

14.  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha. . . 

755 

229,550 

15.  Sase-Aitenburg. 

511 

194,914 

16.  Anhalt. 

885 

316,085 

Principalities. 

17.  Waldeck 

433 

57,918 

18.  Lippe 

469 

138,952 

19.  Schaumburg-Lippe. 

130 

43,132 

20.  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.. 

362 

93,059 

21.  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 

hausen 

332 

80,89? 

22.  Reuss  (elder  line) 

122 

68,396 

23.  Reuss  (younger  line) 

3U 

139,210 

Free  Towns. 

24.  Bremen 

98 

224,882 

25.  Hamburg 

160 

768,349 

28.  Liibeck. 

115 

96,775 

208,626 

56,367,178 

Germany,  as  regards  its  surface,  may 
be  divided  into  three  different  regions. 
Farthest  south  is  the  Alpine  region 
along  the  southern  frontier,  comprising 
parts  of  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  and 
Baden  lying  next  to  Austria  and  Switzer- 
land. North  of  this  the  Suabian-Bava- 
rian  plateau  extends  to  the  mountain 
region  of  Central  Germany,  where  the 
chain  known  as  the  Fichtelgebirge  is 
continued  east  by  the  Erzgebirge  and 
the  Riesengebirge  forming  the  boundary 
next  Austria;  west  by  the  Thtiringer- 
wald,  Rhongebirge,  and  Spessart;  far- 
ther north  lie  the  Harz  Mountains.  The 
great  plain  in  the  north  extends  without 
interruption  to  the  German  Ocean  and 
the  Baltic.  Germany  is  remarkably  well 
Watered.  Its  central  mountain  region 
and  plateau  forms  part  of  the  great 
water-shed  of  Europe.  The  Danube 
.proceeds  across  it  in  an  eastern  direc- 
tion,-and  the  Rhine,  though  it  neither 
rises  nor  terminates  within  Germany 
flows  within  it  for  the  greater  part  of  its 
course.  "^After  these  come  the  Elbe, 
Oder,  'Vistula,  Weser,  Main,  Neckar, 
Mosel,  Ems,  and  Eider — all  of  them 
navigable.  Germany  possesses  much  and 
varied  mineral  riches,  the  most  impor- 
tant minerals  being  common  coal  and 
brown  coal,  iron,  zinc,  lead,  and  salt. 
Germany  is  likewise  extremely  rich  in 
mineral  waters,  especially  in  the  south- 
ern parts.  Though  the  country  extends 
over  8i°  of  latitude,  its  mean  annual 
temperature  is  remarkably  uniform. 
This  is  owing  mainly  to  the  different 
elevations  of  the  surface,  the  low’ plains 
of  the  north  having  a higher,  while  the 
hills  and  plateaux  of  the  south  have  a 
lower  temperature  than  their  latitudes 
might  seem  to  indicate.  The  mildest 
climate  is  enjoyed  by  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Main. 

Agricultural  products  are  varied  and 
numerous.  With  exception  of  the  loftier 
mountain  districts,  where  the  surface  is 
fit  only  for  pasture,  the  growth  of  all  the 
ordinary  cereals  is  universal.  Potatoes, 
hemp,  and  flax  also  ftwpi  most  important 
crops,  and  in  many  parts  sugar-beet, 
tobacco,  and  hops  are  cultivated  on  an 
extensive  scale.  Wine  is  produced  in 
many  districts.  The  cultivation  of  the 
vine  diminishes  in  importance  from 
southwest  to  northeast,  but  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent  even  in  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and 
Posen.  The  forests  are  of  great  extent 
and  value,  particularly  in  the  mountain 
districts.  ' 

Linens  are  made  in  every  part  of 
Germany,  but  more  especially  in  West- 
phalia, Silesia,  Bohemia,  and  Saxony; 
woolens  in  the  Prussian  provinces  of  the 
Rhine,  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  Sjle- 
sia,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  and  in 
Alsace;  the  cotton  manufacture  con- 
stitutes the  chief  manufacturing  indus- 
try in  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  kingdoms  of 
Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg,  and  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden,  and  flourishes  in 
Bavaria,  Prussia,  and  other  parts,  the 
silk  manufacture  flourishes  in  the  Rhine 
provinces  and  in  Baden;  iron  manufac- 
tures are  carried  on  in  most  of  the  states, 
but  principally  in  Prussia,  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony;  steel 
is  largely  manufactured  in  the  Rhine 
provinces.  The  manufactures  of  be»*- 


sugar,  of  leather,  of  metals,  porcelain, 
glass,  fancy  flowers,  hats,  musical  in- 
struments, watches,  clocks,  wooden 
wares,  including  toys,  etc.,  are  likewise 
important ; and  breweries  and  distilleries 
are  to  be  met  with  everywhere. 

The  commerce  is  very  extensive,  and 
is  administered  and  guided  by  special 
laws  of  a union  called  the  zollverein  or 
customs  union,  which  embraces  the 
whole  of  Germany  and  also  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Luxemburg.  The  exports  and 
imports  comprise  a great  variety  of 
manufactured  goods  and  raw  products. 
The  manufactures  of  Germany  are  now 
sent  to  all  parts  of--the  world.  By  far 
the  principal  seaport  is  Hamburg;  others 
are  Bremen  and  Bremerhaven,  Stettin, 
Konigsberg,  Danzig,  Liibeck,  etc.  The 
total  length  of^raihvays  is  about  28,000 
English  miles,  live-sixths  of  which  are 
state  railways.  By  the  law  of  Dec.  4, 
1871,  a uniform  gold  standard  was  in- 
troduced for  the  monetary  system  of  the 
whole  German  empire.  The  denomi- 
national unit  is  the  mark,  nearly  equal 
to  25  cents  and  divided  into  a hundred 
pfennige.  Since  1872  the  French  metri- 
cal system  of  weights  and  measures  has 
been  in  force  throughout  the  German 
empire.  / 

The  revenue  is  derived  principally 
from  the  customs  duties  collected 
throughout  the  zollverein  from  excise 
duties  on  beet-sugar,  salt,  tobacco,  and 
malt,  and  from  the  contributions  made 
by  each  state  in  proportion  to  its  popu- 
lation. The  debt  of  the  empire  is  about 
$600,000,000. 

The  constitution  of  the  German 
empire  is  based  upon  the  decree  of  the 
16th  of  April,  1871,  which  took  effect  on 
the  4th  of  May  following.  The  presi- 
dency of  the  empire  belongs  to  the  crown 
of  Prussia,  to  which  is  now  attadwd  the 
title  of  German  Emperor  (Deutscher 
Kaiser).  The  prerogatives  of  the  em- 
peror are  to  represent  the  empire  in  its 
relation  to  other  sta<!^s,  to  declare  war 
if  defensive,  and  conclude  peace ' in 
name  of  the  empire,  to  contract  alliances 
etc.  The  emperor  has  also  the  supreme 
command  of  the  army  and  the  navy, 
appoints  and  dismisses  officials  of  the 
empire,  appoints  consuls,  and  super- 
intends the  entire  consulate  of  the  em- 
pire. The  legislative  authority  is  vested 
in  the  bundesrath  (federal  council)  and 
the  reichlstag  (imperial  diet)  tlie  former 
consisting  of  58  representatives  of  the 
different  states  of  the  empire,  namely, 
17  from  Prussia,  6 from  Bavaria,  4 each 
from  Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg,  3 each 
from  Baden  and  Hesse,  1 each  from 
Saxe-Weimer  and  others.  The  reiche- 
tag  consists  of  397  deputies  elected  by 
ballot  and  universal  suffrage  in  all  the 
states  of  the  empire.  On  the  average  one 
member  is  returned  to  the  reichstag  for 
every  124,500  of  the  inhabitants. 

Service  in  the  army  or  navy  is  obliga- 
tory on  every  man  in  Germany  who  is  not 
morally  or  physically  unfit,  and  no  sub- 
stitution is  allowed.  Liability  to  serve 
begins  from  the  completion  of  the  seven- 
teenth year,  but  as  a rule,  the  six  years’ 
service  required  in  the  standing  army 
(seven  in  the  cavalry  and  field  artillery) 
is  from  the  twentieth  to  the  twenty- 
seventh  year.  Two  of  the  six  years  (or 
three  as  the  case  may  be)  must  be  spent 


/ 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


in  active  service,  and  the  remaining  four 
in  the  reserve.  After  quitting  the  army 
of  reserve  the  next  five  years  are  passed 
in  the  first-class  of  the  landwehr,  and 
seven  in  the  second.  All  able-bodied 
men,  from  seventeen  to  forty-five,  who 
are  not  in  the  line,  the  reserve,  or  the 
landwehr,  must  belong  to  the  land- 
sturm,  which  is  called  out  only  in  case 
of  invasion  of  the  territory  of  the  em- 
pire. Educated  young  men  above 
seventeen  years  of  age  who  volunteer 
for  active  service,  and  equip  and  main- 
tain themselves  during  their  service, 
are  admitted  into  the  reserve  after  one 
year’s  continuous  service.  The  peace 
strength  of  the  army  is  about  584,  000 
men,  and  the  total  war  strength  of 
drained  soldiers  3,000,000.  The  German 
navy  has  been  greatly  strengthened  in 
recent  years,  and  this  is  still  going  on 
the  chief  naval  bases  being  Kiel  and 
Wilhelm  shaven. 

Education  is  compulsory  throughout 
Germany.  Every  commune  or  parish 
must  support  at  its  own  cost  a pri- 
mary school.  Every  town  in  addition 
must  maintain  one  or  more  middle 
schools,  which  supply  a higher  education 
than  the  elementary  schools.  Above 
these  are  real  schools  (realschulen) 
giving  a still  higher  education,  nearly 
corresponding  to  the  American  high 
school;  institutions  of  similar  standing 
called  gymnasiums,  giving  an  education 
in  which  the  ancient  languages  form  a 
more  important  element;  and,  above  all, 
the  universities,  of  which  there  are  21 
in  the  country,  the  chief  being  those  of 
Berlin,  Leipzig,  and  Munich.  The  Ger- 
mans as  a whole  are  perhaps  the  best- 
educated  people  in  the  world. 

The  date  of  the  first  arrival  of  the 
Germanic  or  Teutonic  races  in  Europe 
is  unknown.  At  the  close  of  the  2nd 
century  b.c.  Germanic  tribes  called 
Cimbri  and  Teutones  left  their  homes  in 
the  Danish  peninsula,  and  descending 
upon  Italy  were  defeated  by  Marius  at 
Aquce  Sextiae  (Aix  in  Provence)  and 
Vercellae  in  Northern  Italy.  The  Romans 
did  not  come  again  in  contact  with  the 
Germans  till  Caesar’s  invasion  of  Gaul 
brought  on  a contest  with  the  Suevian 
prince  Ariovistus  (58  b.c.)  At  that  time 
several  German  tribes  had  crossed  the 
Rhine  and  settled  in  the  district  between 
that  river  and  the  Vosges  Mountains, 
while  others  had  pushed  their  way 
through  what  is  now  Belgium.  The 
Germans  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine 
were  soon  subjugated,  and  two  expedi- 
tions were  made  by  Caesar  across  the 
Rhine.  Under  Augustus  a systematic 
attempt  was  made  to  subjugate  the  vast 
and  little-known  region  Germania,  ex- 
tending between  the  Rhine  and  the 
Vistula,  and  from  the  Danube  to  the 
North  Sea.  Tiberius  reduced  all  the 
tribes  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe, 
but  a few  years  later  there  was  a revolt, 
in  which  three  Roman  legions  under 
Varus  were  annihilated  by  Arminius, 
leader  of  the  Cherusci,  about  9 a.d.  The 
attempt  to  subjugate  the  Germans  was 
given  up  by  Augustus-  and  Germanicus, 
although  he  avenged  the  defeat  of  Varus 
by  a siiccession  of  campaigns,  failed  to 
recover  the  Roman  ascendency.  About 
this  time  each  tribe  or  nation  among 
the  Germans  is  described  as  having  been 


divided  into  four  classes : — 1 . The  nobles, 
from  whom  the  kings  and  chiefs  of  the 
districts  were  chosen.  2.  The  freemen, 
who,  with  the  nobles,  had  the  right  to 
choose  their  residence  and  hold  heritable 
property,  who  formed  the  chief  strength 
of  the  armies  and  voted  in  the  popular 
assemblies.  3.  The  freedmen,  a middle 
class  between  freemen  and  slaves,  had 
no  landed  property,  but  farmed  the 
land;  they  were  not  admitted  to  the 
popular  assemblies.  4.  The  slaves,  who 
were  entirely  in  the  power  of  their 
masters.  In  religion  the  Germans  were 
polytheists.  Among  their  great  gods 
were  Woden  (or  Odin),  Donar  (Thor), 
Thiu  (Tyr),  Ffigga,  etc.  They  erected 
no  temples  and  had  no  idols,  but  be- 
lieved in  a future  life  and  in  eternal 
justice. 

As  the  aggressive  force  of  the  Roman 
empire  abated,  it  continued  to  be  more 
and  more  subject  to  the  incursions  of  the 
Germans,  who  by  the  end  of  the  5th 
century  had  overrun  Gaul,  Italy,  Spain, 
and  part  of  Africa.  After  this  Germany 
itself  continued  in  a divided  state  till  it 
came  under  the  single  rule  of  Charle- 
magne. (See  France.)  The  history  of 
the  German  empire  properly  commences 
with  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  (843  a.d.), 
which  separated  the  land  of  the  Eastern 
Franks  under  Ludwig  the  German  from 
that  of  the  Western  and  Central  Franks. 
Out  of  Ludwig’s  kingdom  was  developed 
the  German  nationality.  Charles  the 
Fat  became  emperor  in  881,  and  three 
years  later  was  also  elected  king  of  the 
West  Franks,  thus  again  uniting  under 
one  scepter  the  monarchy  of  Charle- 
magne. After  his  deposition  in  887  the 
two  territories  of  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Franks  were  again  separated. 

Under  Henry  III.,  whose  reign  began 
in  1039,  the  imperial  power  was  at  its 
highest  point,  and  he  exercised  more 
despotic  authority  in  Germany  than 
any  of  his  predecessors.  The  fruits  of 
his  policy  were  lost  by  his  son  Henry 
IV.  (1056-1106),  who  was  passionate  and 
weak.  In  his  reign  occurred  the  famous 
quarrel  with  the  pope  regarding  in- 
vestitures, which  ended  in  Henry  having 
to  humble  himself  before  the  pope  at 
Canossa. 

Succeeding  monarchs  were  less  and 
less  powerful,  the  internal  divisions  of 
Germany  deprived  the  office  of  all 
authority,  and  until  1273  the  German 
Empire  had  no  real  head. 

Rudolph,  count  of  Hapsburg  and 
Cyburg,  the  most  powerful  prince  in 
Helvetia,  was  chosen  emperor  (1272). 
He  enriched  his  own  family  by  his 
victories  over  the  King  of  Bohemia, 
and  acquired  Austria,  Styria,  and  Car- 
inthia  as  imperial  fiefs  for  his  sons 
Albert  and  Rudolph.  Frederick  HI., 
(1439-93)  was  the  last  emperor  who  was 
crovTied  in  Rome.  Henceforth  the  Ger- 
man emperors  were  always  of  the  house 
of  Austria. 

Since  its  rise  the  empire  had  under- 
gone many  changes.  At  the  extinction 
of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  Germany 
was  divided  into  five  nations  or  duke- 
doms— Franconia,  Suabia,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  and  Lorraine.  Henry  the 
Fowler  and  the  Ottos  added  the  marches 
of  Austria  and  Misnia;  Henry  the  Lion 
and  Albert  of  Brandenburg,  Mecklen- 


burg and  Pomerania.  The  house  of 
Austria  added  Styria,  Carinthia,  Car- 
niola,  and  the  Tyrol.  But  Switzerland 
had  been  lost,  and  the  old  Burgundian 
territories  of  the  empire,  Tranche  Comt6 
the  Lyonnais,  and  Provence,  had  gone 
to  consolidate  the  French  monarchy 
under  Louis  XI.  Bohemia  and  Hungary, 
and  many  of  the  Italian  cities,  especially 
in  the  north,  were  also  connected  with 
the  empire,  but  the  connection  was  more 
formal  than  real,  and  ten  circles  estab- 
lished by  the  Diet  of  Cologne  (1512) 
represented  at  that  time  the  estates  of 
the  empire,  viz.;  1.  Austria,  2.  Bavaria, 
3.  Suabia,  4.  Franconia,  5.  the  Upper 
Rhine  (Lorraine,  Hesse,  etc.),  6.  the 
Lower  Rhine,  or  the  Electorates  (Mainz, 
Trier,  Cologne),  7.  Burgundy  (Nether- 
lands), 8.  Westphalia,  9.  Lov^er  Saxony 
(BruTiswick,  Liineburg,  Lauenburg,  Hol- 
stein, etc.),  10.  Upper  Saxony  (Saxony, 
Brandenburg,  Pomerania,  etc.). 

The  chief  political  machinery  of  the 
empire  was  connected  with  the  diet. 
The  exact  constitution  of  the  early 
German  diets  is  not  known.  In  the  12th 
century  the  counts  of  the  empire  became 
distinguished  from  the  princes,  and  lost 
the  right  of  voting  in  the  diets.  The 
election  of  an  emperor  was  at  first  under- 
taken by  the  whole  diet.  In  the  13th 
century  the  number  of  .electors  was 
restricted  to  seven,  to  which  two 
more  were  afterward  added.  The 
diets  were  called  by  the  emperor  at 
his  own  pleasure,  but  as  they  had  the 
power  of  granting  supplies  their  meet- 
ings were  frequent ; and  as  their  author- 
ity over  the  different  states  was  partial, 
and  their  policy  could  only  be  carried 
jout  by  the  executive  force  of  the  em- 
peror, they  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  an 
independent  power  in  the  state.  Neither 
the  time  nor  the  place  of  meeting  of  the 
diets  was  at  first  fixed.  From  an  early 
period  the  cities  of  Germany  were  rep- 
resented in  the  diet.  In  early  times  they 
generally  supported  the  authority  of  the 
emperor,  as  their  interest  was  common 
with  his  in  diminishing  the  power  of  the 
greater  vassals.  Municipalities  were  at 
first  established  about^the  reign  of 
Frederick  I.,  and  soon  began  to  assert 
their  independence.  The  predatory 
habits  of  the  nobles,  besides  the  claims 
of  superiority  over  entire  cities  or  par- 
ticular citizens  asserted  by  the  princes 
involved  the  cities  in  continual  warfare 
with  the  feudal  nobility,  and  often  also 
with  their  ecclesiastical  superiors.  The 
necessity  of  defending  their  privileges 
compelled  them  to  enter  into  leagues 
among  themselves.  Among  the  earliest 
of  these  combinations  was  the  Hanseatic 
league,  formed  to  resist  both  the  op- 
pression of  rulers  and  the  depredations 
of  land  and  sea  robbers.  A league  was 
formed  in  1255  by  more  than  sixty  cities 
in  the  Rhine,  headed  by  the  three  ecclesi- 
astical electors,  to  resist  the  depreda- 
tions of  the  lesser  nobles.  The  Suabian 
League,  formed  in  1376,  was  of  similar 
origin.  These  leagues  were  met  by 
counter  associations  of  nobles  and 
princes. 

The  reign  of  Charles,  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  German  annals  and  the 
most  brilliant  in  the  16th  century,  was 
divided  among  three  great  conflicts — the 
continued  struggle  between  France  and 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


Germany,  the  conflict  with  the  encroach- 
ing Ottoman  empire,  and  that  with  the 
Reformation.  Germany  was  devastated 
for  thirty  years  by  a religious  war,  hence 
called  the  Thirty  Years’  war. 

The  invasion  of  Germany  by  Christian 
IV.  of  Denmark  in  162.5,  the  peace  of 
Liibeck  (1629),  the  invasion  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  (1630),  the  battles  of  Leipzig 
in  1631,  of  the  Lech  and  Liltzen  in  1632, 
of  Nordlingen  in  1634,  the  war  with 
France  in  1635,  belong  to  the  history  of 
the  Thirty  Years’  war  (which  see).  As 
its  outcome  greater  power  was  given  to 
the  Protestants;  and  the  right  of  the 
princes  ai>d  states  to  make  war  and 
alliances  among  themselves  or  'with 
foreigners  was  recognized. 

The  league  of  Augsburg,  in  which  the 
emperor,  Leopold  I.,  joined,  led  to  a pro- 
tracted war  with  France,  which  was  con- 
cluded by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  In 
1692  the  emperor  erected  Hanover  into 
an  electorate,  and  in  1700  he  permitted 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick 
III.,  to  take  the  title  of  King  of  Prussia. 
The  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  in 
which  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  the 
empire  were  leagued  against  France, 
was  begun  in  1702.  To  it  belong  the 
victories  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
(Blenheim,  Oudenarde,  Malplaquet). 
'The  alliance  against  France  was  dis- 
solved by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713, 
to  which  the  emperor  refused  to  accede, 
and  was  left  alone  against  France.  After 
a brief  campaign  between  Prince  Eugene 
and  Villars  he  acceded  to  the  Treaty  of 
Rastadt,  negotiate(^  between  these  com- 
manders, 7th  March,  1714.  The  Spanish 
Netherlands,  and  Naples,  Milan,  Sar- 
dinia, and  other  Italian  conquests  were 
left  to  the  emperor.  Having  no  male 
heirs  Charles  had  promulgated  in  1713 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  regulating  the 
succession  to  his  hereditary  dominions 
in  favor  of  his  daughters  in  preference 
to  those  of  his  brother,  Joseph  I.  He 
died  in  1740.  Charles  Albert,  elector  of 
Bavaria,  son-in-law  of  Leopold  I.,  got 
himself  chosen  emperor  (as  Charles 
VII).  in  1742.  He  laid  claim  to  the 
hereditary  possessions  of  the  House  of 
Austria,  and  entered  into  an  alliance 
w’ith  France,  Spain,  Prussia,  etc.,  against 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Charles  VI. 
But  he  died  in  1745,  and  Francis  I., 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  the  husband  of 
Maria  Theresa,  was  elected  emperor; 
thus  the  house  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine, 
which  had  succeeded  to  the  hereditary 
possessions  of  Austria,  was  recognized 
as  the  head  of  the  empire.  After  a brief 
interval  took  place  the  Seven  Years’ 
war  (1756-63),  in  which  Austria,  Russia, 
France,  and  Saxony  combined  against 
Prussia,  then  ruled  by  Frederick  the 
Great.  The  peace  of  Hubertsburg 
(1.5th  Feb.,  1763)  concluded  the  war, 
Prussia  retaining  her  acquisitions.  In 
1804  Francis  II.  took  the  title  of  heredi- 
tary Emperor  of  Austria,  renouncing 
two  years  later  that  of  head  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  which,  indeed,  had  ceased 
to  exist,  owing  to  the  conquests  of 
Napoleon. 

The  States  of  Germany  were  again 
united  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna  (1815),' 
in  a confederation  called  the  German 
confederation  (der  Deutsche  Bund).  In 
1818  a general  commercial  league,  called 


the  zollverein,  was  projected  by  Prussia, 
and  was  gradually  joined  by  most  of 
the  German  states,  exclusively  of 
Austria.  Revolutionary  outbreaks 
caused  great  disturbances  in  various 
German  states  in  1830  and  1848,  par- 
ticularly the  latter.  The  German  diet  was 
restored  in  1851  by  the  efforts  of  Prussia 
and  Austria,  who  were  latterly  rivals  for 
the  supremacy  in  the  confederation.  In 
1866  the  majority  of  the  diet  supported 
Austria  in  her  dispute  with  Prussia  re- 
specting the  dispo.sal  of  the  duchies  of 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  whereupon 
Prussia  withdrew  from  the  confedera- 
tion and  declared  it  dissolved.  The 
Seven  Weeks’  war  between  Austria  and 
Prussia  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  former 
the  loss  of  her  Italian  possessions,  and 
her  exclusion  from  the  German  con- 
federation, which  was  re-formed  by 
Prussia  under  the  title  of  the  North 
German  confederation.  After  the 
Franco-German  war  (which  see),  in 
which  the  South  German  States,  as  well 
as  the  North  German  confederation, 
supported  Prussia,  the  King  of  Prussia 
was  proclaimed  German  Emperor  at 
Versailles  on  18th  January,  1871.  The 
parliament  of  the  new  German  Empire 
met  at  Berlin  on  21st  March,  and 
adopted  the  new  constitution.  Since  the 
unity  of  the  empire  was  attained  en- 
deavors have  been  made  to  establish  a 
colonial  empire,  principally  in  Africa. 
In  Polynesia  Germany  has  acquired  a 
portion  of  New  Guinea,  the  chief  Samoan 
islands,  and  other  groups.  In  recent 
years  the  manufacturing  industries  and 
foreign  trade  of  the  empire  have  de- 
veloped greatly,  and  the  present  em- 
peror (William  II.)  is  bent  on  making 
Germany  a great  naval  power. 

German  is  one  of  the  Teutonic  family 
of  languages,  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  stock,  and  hence  is  a sister 
tongue  with  Gothic,  Anglo-Saxon  and 
English,  Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  and 
Icelandic.  The  German  dialects  spoken 
in  the  lower  and  more  northern  localities 
have  long  exhibited  considerable  dif- 
ferences from  those  spoken  in  the  higher 
and  more  inland,  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
distinction  between  High  German  and 
Low  German.  What  is  ordinarily  called 
German  (called  Deutsch  by  the  Germans) 
is  High  German.  Low  German  includes 
Dutch,  Frisian,  etc. 

German  literature  received  its  first 
impulse  from  the  fondness  of  the  early 
Germanic  races  for  celebrating  the  deeds 
of  their  gods  and  heroes.  According  to 
Tacitus  the  warriors  would  advance  to 
attack  chanting  wild  war-songs,  with 
their  shields  held  close  to  their  mouths, 
which  added  to  the  discordant  effect  of 
the  unknown  and  uncouth  tongue.  Of 
these  early  songs  nothing  even  in  a 
translated  form  has  been  handed  down 
to  us.  The  legends  immediately  con- 
nected with  the  Gothic,  Frankish,  and 
Burgundian  warriors  of  the  period  of 
national  migration — Dietrich  (Theo- 
doric),  Siegfried,  Hildebrand,  etc. — 
have  for  the  most  part  some  historical 
foundations,  and  many  of  them  were 
evenlually  incorporated  in  the  Nibelun- 
genlied,  the  most  celebrated  in  produc- 
tion of  German  mediaeval  poetry. 

In  the  13th  century  under  the  cultured 
emperors  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen, 


' the  first  bloom  of  German  literature 
came.  Many  of  the  poets  of  this  period 
were  nobles  by  birth,  some  of  then  even 
princes.  Heinrich  von  Weldeke  was  the 
first  to  introduce  into  his  heroic  poem 
Eneit  that  spirit  of  devotion  to  women, 
called  by  the  old  Germans  Minne  (Love, 
hence  the  name  Minnesinger,  Love- 
Minstrel).  A still  greater  name  is  that  of 
Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  the  author 
of  Parsival,  a poem  embodying  the 
legends  of  King  Arthur,  the  Knights  of 
the  Round  Table,  and  the  San  Graal 
(Holy  Grail).  These  traditions,  together 
with  the  exploits  of  Charlemagne,  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  Trojan 
heroes,  inspired  also  the  lays  of  Gottfried 
of  Strasburg,  Hartman  von  der  Aue,  and 
others.  These  subjects  were  all  taken 
from  the  romances  of  the  French  trou- 
veres,  and  treated  in  a style  closely  re- 
sembling theirs.  But  we  have  besides 
real  national  epics  in  the  Nibelungenlied 
and  Gudrun.  The  lyrics  or  minnesohgs 
of  this  period  are  not  less  remarkable 
than  its  romances  and  epics.  Perhaps  the 
most  gifted  lyrist  is  the  celebrated 
Walther  von  der  Vogelweide.  Several 
hundreds  of  these  poets  were  engaged  in 
traveling  from  palace  to  palace  and  from 
castle  to  castle.  During  the  troublous 
times  of  the  interregnum  (1256-73) 
poetry  passed  to  the  homes  of  the  pri- 
vate citizen  and  the  workshops.  These 
plebeian  songsters  formed  them  .selves 
into  guilds  in  the  imperial  cities — Niirn- 
berg,  Frankfort,  Strasburg,  Mainz,  etc., 
and  were  called  Meistersiinger,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  knightly  Minne- 
sanger. 

The  invention  of  printing  caused  an 
increasing  literary  activity,  and  the 
works  printed  in  Germany  between  1470 
and  1500  amounted  to  several  thousand 
editions. 

In  the  16th  century  a new  era  opens  in 
literature  with  Luther’s  translation  of 
the  Bible.  The  writings  of  Luther, 
Zwingli  (1484-1531),  Sebastian  Frank 
(1500-45?),  Melanchthon  (1497-1560), 
Ulrich  von  Hutton  (1488-1523),  one  of 
the  chief  writers  of  the  Epistolae  Ob- 
scurorum  Virorum,  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal theologic  literature  of  the  Refor- 
mation. History  was  now  written  in  a 
superior  style,  and  with  greater  com- 
prehensiveness, by  Frank  in  the  Zeit- 
buch  and  Weltbuch,  and  by  Sebastian 
Munster  (1489-1552)  in  his  ' Kosmo- 
graphie;  also  by  Tschudi  (1505-72)  in 
Chronicles  of  Switzerland,  and  by 
Aventinus  (14777-1534),  the  Bavarian 
chronicler. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
literature  was  on  the  decline.  This  cen- 
tury is  known  in  German  literature  as 
the  period  of  imitation.  Most  of  the 
poets  were  graduates  of  universities; 
and  learned  societies  were  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  improving  the  language 
and  literature. 

In  the  18th  century  poetry  revived 
with  Haller  (1708-77),  remarkable  as  a 
descriptive  poet,  and  Hagedorn  (1706- 
54),  a lyrist  of  considerable  merit,  'rhe 
Saxon  school  headed  by  Gottsched 
(1700-66)  aimed  at  a reformation  of 
German  poetry  in  the  direction  of 
French  clearness  and  correctness,  model- 
ing the  drama  as  far  as  possible  on  the 
works  of  Corneille  and  Racine. 


GERMINAL  VESICLE 


GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE 


Gotthold  Ephriam  Lessing  (1729-81) 
gave  a new  direction  to  German  litera- 
ture. He  established  a new  school  of 
criticism  and  dealt  the  fatal  blow  at 
French^  influence.  His  tragedy,  Emilia 
Galotti,  his  comedy  of  Minna  von  Rarn- 
helm,  and  his  philosophic  drama  Nathan 
der  Weise,  were  the  best  models  of  dra- 
matic composition  which  German  litera- 
ture had  yet  produced,  and  his  direction 
of  the  German  mind  toward  Shakespeare 
and  the  English  drama  was  not  the  least 
of  the  many  inapulses  he  contributed  to 
the  literary  growth  of  his  countrymen. 
Herder  (1744-1803),  with  his  universal 
knowledge  and  many-sided  activity, 
followed  Lessing  as  another  great  in- 
fluence in  the  literary  world.  The  re- 
searches of  Winckelmann  (1717-68)  in 
ancient  sculpture  led  to  a new  under- 
standing of  art,  as  those  of  Heyne  in 
ancient  literature  mark  the  development 
of  modern  German  scholarship. 

This  period  was  followed  by  a time  of 
transition  and  excitement  known  in 
Germany  as  the  sturm-und-drang  pe- 
riode  (storm  and  stress  period),  which 
found  its  fullest  expression  in  an  early 
work  of  Goethe’s  (1749-1832),  the 
Sorrows  of  Werther.  The  literary  ex- 
citement was  raised  to  the  highest  pitch 
by  the  Rauber  (Robbers)  of  Schiller 
(1759-1805),  afterward  the  friend  and 
coadjutor  of  Goethe.  By  the  joint  exer- 
tions of  these  two  great  men  German 
IffSrature  was  brought  to  that  classical 
erfection,  which,  fi-om  a purely  local, 
as  since  given  it  a universal  influence. 
Of  a highly  individual  character  are  the 
works  of  Jean  Paul  Richter  (1763- 
1825),  a writer  of  profound  humor  and 
pathos. 

Partly  produced  by  the  influence  of 
the  sturm-und-drang  period,  and  partly 
trained  in  the  laws  of  art  laid  down  and 
worked  out  by  Goethe  and  Schiller,  the 
so-called  romantic  school,  distinguished 
by  its  enthusiasm  for  mediaeval  sub- 
jects and  its  love  of  what  is  mysterious 
and  transcendental  in  life  or  thought, 
gradually  succeeded  in  gaining  public 
attention  about  this  epoch. 

The  war  of  liberation  against  Napol- 
eon I.  introduced  a strong  manly  en- 
thusiasm for  a time  into  the  hitherto 
gloomy  and  melancholy  productions  of 
the  romanticists.  Among  the  patriotic 
poets  of  the  time  Ernst  Moritz  Arndt 
(1769-1860)  and  Theodor  Korner  (1791- 
1813)  hftld  the  first  place.  The  ballads 
and  metrical  romances  of  Ludwig 
Uhland  (1787-1872)  have  brought  him  a 
world-wide  fame.  During  the  excite- 
ment produced  by  the  July  Revolution 
in  France  (1830)  a school  of  writers  arose 
in  whose  works  the  social  and  political 
ideas  of  the  time  were  strongly  reflected. 
The  most  prominent  names  among  this 
party  .are  Ludwig  Borne  (1786-1837) 
and  Heinrich  Heine  (1799-1856),  whose 
writings  combine  the  keenest  satire  and 
the  finest  pathos.  As  in  England  and 
France  of  late,  the  novel,  especially  the 
novel,  of  a social  or  political  character, 
has  taken  a prominent  place  in  litera- 
ture. Most  distinguished  are  Freytag, 
Spielhagen,  Heyse,  Auerbach,  Fanny 
Lewald,  Hacklander,  Reuter,  Jensen, 
Storm,  Rosegger,  etc.  Of  late,  however, 
science  and  learning  rather  than  litera- 
ture and  the  arts  have  produced  th» 


names  of  most  eminence.  Alexander 
von  Humboldt  (1769-1859)  gave  a great 
impulse  to  almost  all  branches  of  knowl- 
edge by  his  Cosmos,  his  Travels,  and  his 
Views  of  Nature,  and  by  the  general 
suggestiveness  of  his  labors.  In  history, 
Niebuhr  and  Theod.  Mommsen,  the  his- 
torians of  Rome;  Leopold  Ranke,  the 
historian  of  the  Popes;  Dalilmann, 
Giesobrecht,  Julian  Schmidt,  H.  Kurz, 
and  others  may  be  mentioned.  German 
modern  theology  and  biblical  criticism 
had  lately  much  influence  in  the  religious 
world.  Gaur,  Bleek,  and  Ewald,  are 
among  the  widely-known  names.  His- 
tories of  art  have  been  written  by 
Kugler,  Burckhardt,  Liibke,  and  others. 
The  brothers  Grimm — Jakob  (1785- 
1863),  Wilhelm  (1786-1859),  were  the 
founders  of  a new  branch  of  philo- 
logical and  poetic  investigation  in 
ancient  German  literature.  Eminent 
names  in  general  philological  science  are 
those  of  Bopp,  Pott,  Schleicher,  Stein- 
thal,  and  Karl  Brugmann.  In  natural 
sciences  Oken,  Burmeister,  Cams,  Cotta, 
Liebig,  Helmholtz,  Virchow,  Schleiden, 
Grisebach,  Vogt,  Bessel,  Brehm,  Hackel, 
Bastian,  etc.,  are  the  eminent  names; 
in  philosophy,  Schopenhauer,  Feuerbach, 
Rosenkranz,  Kuno  Fischer,  von  Hart- 
mann, Lotze,  etc.  Among  recent  poets 
Anastasius  Griin  (pen-name  of  Count 
von  Auersperg)  and  Nikolas  Lenau 
among  Austrian,  and  Meissner  and  Hart- 
mann, natives  of  Bohemia,  have  a con- 
siderable reputation.  Hervegh,  Hoff- 
mann, von  Fallerslebgn,  Freiligrath, 
and  Franz  Dingelstedt  infuse  strong 
political  sentiments  into  their  poetry. 
Emmanuel  Geibel,  Von  Scheffel,  Boden- 
stedt,  and  others  represent  a poetry 
more  comprehensive  in  its  aims  and 
tendencies. 

GERMINAL  VESICLE,  (a)  in  animal 
physiol,  the  nucleus  of  the  ovum  or  egg 
of  animals.  It  contains  within  it  a nu- 
cleolus called  also  the  germinal  spot. 
The  germinal  vesicle  undergoes  imp'ort- 
ant  changes  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
development  of  the  egg  into  the  embryo, 
(b)  In  bot.  a cell  contained  in  the  embryo 
sac,  from  which  the  embryo  is  developed. 

GERMINATION,  the  first  act  _ of 
growth  by  an  embryo  plant.  The  im- 
mediate causes  of  germination  are  the 
presence  of  moisture  and  atmospheric 


Seeds  germinating.  (In  centre  a plant  ■which 
has  newly  appeared  above  ground.) 

air  and  a certain  elevation  of  tempera- 
ture. Moisture  softens  the  integuments 
of  the  seed  and  relaxes  the  tissue  of  the 
embryo;  atmospheric  air  supplies  oxygen 
and  nitrogen;  and  a temperature  which 
must  be  at  least  as  high  as  32°  Fahr.,  by 
exciting  the  vitality  of  the  embryo, 
enables  it  to  take  advantage  of  the 


agents  with  which  it  is  in  contact.  Dur- 
ing germination  various  changes  take 
place  in  the  chemical  constituents  of  the 
seed,  and  are  usually  accompanied  with 
increase  of  temperature,  as  is  seen  in  the 
process  x)f  malting.  Along  with  these 
other  changes  commonly  take  place; 
a root  is  produced,  which  strikes  per- 
pendicularly downward'  ! and,  fixing 
itself  in  the  soil,  begins  to  absorb  food; 
a growth  upward  then  commences  and 
ends  in  the  protrusion  of  a stem  and 
leaves. 

GERM  THEORY  OF  DISEASE,  the 

theory  that  certain  diseases  are  com- 
municated from  an  infected  person  to  an 
uninfected  one  by  living  organisms 
which  gain  access  to  the  body  of  the 
afflicted  person  by  the  air  or  food,  or 
drink,  and  which,  growing  and  multiply- 
ing in  the  body  they  invade,  produce  the 
ch&nges  characteristic  of  the  particular 
disease.  The  period  during  which  the 
living  particles  of  contagious  matter 
retain  their  vitality,  like  the  rate  of 
their  growth  and  multiplication,  varies 
in  different  eases,  but  is  limited  in 
all.  Few,  if  any,  resist  the  destruc- 
tive influence  of  a temperature  of 
300°  Fahr.,  while  most  succumb  at  the 
temperature  of  200°  or  even  less, 
particularly  if  ^exposed  for  sometime. 
Animal  poisons  generally  are  de- 
stroyed by  boiling,  and  clothes,  sheets, 
etc.,  infected,  may  be  rendered  pure  by 
being  exposed  to  a temperature  of  300° 
Fahr.  These  living  organisms  are 
grouped  together  as  microbes  or  micro- 
organisms, and  are  di-\^ided  into  different 
classes.  The  micrococcus  is  a round  form 
about  the  32,000th  of  an  inch  in  size, 
and  multiplies  by  fission.  The  bacterium 
is  rod-shaped,  about  the  10,000th  of  an 
inch  long,  with  rounded  ends;  it  also 
multiplies  by  fission.  The  bacillus  is  a 
third  form  also  rod-shaped,  and  some- 
what larger  than  the  bacterium.  They 
often  fornf  long  chains  or  threads,  and 
increase  by  division  and  by  spore  forma- 
tion. Vibrio  and  spirillum  are  somewhat 
similar  forms;  and,  like  the  others,  in- 
crease wdth  a rapidity  beyond  concep- 
tion. The  connection  between  these 
micro-organisms  and  the  various  forms 
of  zymotic  disease  has  been  thoroughly 
established.  The  only  method  of  in- 
vestigation that  yields  reliable  results 
is  to  separate  the  organism  supposed  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  disease,  and  cultivate 
it  outside  of  the  body.  Thus  a drop  of 
blood  from  a person  suffering  from  a 
special  disease,  which  contains  the 
bacteria,  or  bacilli,  etc.,  believed  to  be 
the  producers  of  the  disease  , is  placed  in 
a flask  containing  a nourishing  material, 
care  having  been  taken  to  destroy  all 
other  organisms  in  the  flask.  The  special 
microbe  flourishes  there,  let  us  suppose. 
It  is  then  cultivated  in  one  flask  after 
another  through  successive  generations, 
only  a single  minute  drop  of  the  material 
in  one  flask  being  used  to  inoculate  a 
succeeding  one.  In  this  way  a purs 
cultivation  is  obtained,  a cultivation, 
that  is,  containing  the  particular  microbe 
and  none  other.  If  this  is  the  true  cause 
of  the  disease,  then  a drop  of  the  solu- 
tion containing  it  introduced  into  the. 
body  of  an  animal,  capable  of  the  disease 
ought  to  produce  it,  and  the  particular 
organism  introduced  should  be  found 


GEROME 


I 


GETTYSBURG 


multiplying  in  the  blood  and  tissues  of 
the  inflected  animal.  Such  a demonstra- 
tion has  been  given  of  the  cause  of  a 
few  diseases.  Dr.  Koch,  of  Berlin,  pub- 
lished in  1876  a paper  giving  a full  ac- 
count of  the  life  history  of  the  bacillus 
organism  which  had  been  observed  in 
animals  dead  of  splenic  fever;  and  in 
1877  the  great  French  chemist,  Pasteur, 
proceeded  to  investigate  the  subject,  and 
his  investigations  conclusively  support 
the  germ  theory  of  disease.  In  1882  Dr. 
Koch,  of  Berlin,  announced  the  discovery 
of  a micro-organism  in  tuberculosis,  a 
disease  believed  to  be  the  chief,  if  not 
the  only,  cause  of  consumption  of  the 
lungs.  These  microbes  are  found  not 
only  in  the  lungs  of  persons  who  have 
died  of  tubercle,  but  also  in  the  spit  of 
tubercular  and  consumptive  patients, 
and  multiply  also  by  spores.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  spit  of  a consumptive  patient, 
even  after  it  has  dried  up,  may  be  capa- 
bly of  imparting  the  disease,  owing  to 
spores  being  scattered  in  the  air.  After 
tne  epidemic  of  cholera  in  Egypt  in  1 883 
which  spread  to  France  and  Italy, 
investigations  were  undertaken  by 
French,  German,  and  British  commis- 
sioners;^ Dr.  Koch  detected  a peculiar 
bacillus,  shaped  like  a comma  (,h  in  the 
intestines  of  persons  who  had  died  of 
cholera,  in  the  discharges  from  cholera 

Eatients,  etc.  He  believed  that  this 
acillus  was  the- active  agent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  disease;  but  other  authori- 
ties were  unable  to  accept  Dr.  Koch’s 
view  that  the  comma-bacillus  was  the 
cause  of  the  disorder.  All  investigation, 
however,  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that 
every  infectious  or  contagious  disease  is 
due  to  some  form  of  micro-organism, 
and  that  there  is  one  particular  organ- 
ism for  each  particular  disease.  Each 
organism  produces  its  own  disease  and 
none  other;  and  the  special  disease  can- 
not arise  unless  its  germ  has  gained  en- 
trance to  the  body.  The  channels 
through  which  these  germs  obtain  en- 
trance are  innumerable,  but  they  have 
one  origin  and  one  only,  and  that  is  a 
preceding  case  of  disease.  The  “germ” 
^theory  affords  the  hope  and  suggestion 
of  a method  of  diminishing,  if  not  of 
getting  rid  of,  such  diseases  altogether, 
and  to  some  extent  also  indicates  the 
direction  which  in  their  cure  is  to  be 
sought.  If  the  particular  microbe  of 
each  contagious  disease  were  known, 
the  condition  of  its  life  and  activity 
understood,  there  is  great  probability 
that  its  multiplication  in  the  living 
body  could  be  arrested,  and  the  disease 
thus  cured.  Even  without  such  knowl- 
edge, however,  the  germ  theory  indi- 
cates that  the  means  for  arresting  th©- 
spread  of  contagioui^  diseases  and  di- 
minishing their  occurrence  consist  in 
preventing  the  spread  of  the  germs  from 
an  existing  case  of  disease.  See  Disin- 
fectant. 

GEROME  (zha-r5m),  Jean  L4on,  a 
French  painter,  born  in  1824  at  Vesoul. 
Among  the  chief  works  of  G4r6me  are: 
Louis  XIV.  and  Moli4re,  Death  of  Csesar, 
The  Plague  at  Marseilles,  Rex  Tibicen, 
L’Eminence  Grise,  and  various  scenes 
from  Oriental  life.  M.  G4r6me  received 
the  Prussian  order  of  the  Red  Eagle  and 
was  a commander  of  the  legion  of  honor. 
He  died  in  1904. 


GERONA  (ha-ro'nS,),  a fortified  town 
of  n.e.  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Gerona,  in  Catalonia,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Ofia  and  the  Ter,  52  miles  north- 
east of  Barcelona.  Pop.  16,081. — The 
Province,  area  2270  sq.  miles,  abuts  on 
the  Mediterranean,  is  mountainous  and 
mostly  rugged,  but  with  many  fertile 
valleys.  Pop.  299,287. 


Jean  L4on  G6r6me. , 

GERRY  (gSr'rl),  Elbridge,  American 
statesman,  Was  born  at  Marblehead, 
Mass.,  in  1744.  In  May^  1772,  he  entered 
upon  his  long  political  career  as  a mem- 
ber of  the  general  court  of  Massachusetts 
and  here  immediately  identified  him- 
self with  the  partiot  party.  «He  was 
re-elected  in  1773;  was  soon  afterward 
appointed  by  the  legislature,  with 
Hancock  and  Orne,  a member  of  the 
committee  of  correspondence.  In  1776 
Gerry  was  elected  to  the  continental 
congress,  and  was  conspicuous  as  a 
vigorous  advocate  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  which  he  signed.  In  1787 
was  sent  as  one  of  the  Massachusetts 
delegates  to  the  constitutional  conven- 
tion at  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  prom- 
inent as  an  opponent  of  the  constitution 
as  finally  adopted,  refusing,  along  with 
Randolph  and  Mason7to  affix  his  signa- 
ture. He  was  several  times  defeated  for 
governor  of  ^Massachusetts,  but  was 
successful  in  1810,  and  in  1811  was  re- 
elected. His  administration  was  fiercely 
criticised  by  the  federalists  on  the  ground 
of  its  alleged  partisanship,  and  color 
was  given  to  the  charge  by  the  enact- 
ment by  the  republican  legislature  of  a 
law,  which  Gerry  signed,  but  of  which 
he  seems  to  have  disapproved,  for  re- 
districting the  state  in  such  a manner  as 
to  annihilate  the  federalist  majorities 
in  several  counties.  (See  Gerrymander.) 
From  1813  until  his  death,  on  Novem- 
ber 23,  1814,  he  was  vice-president  of 
the  United  States. 

GERRY,  Elbridge  Thomas,  American 
lawyer  and  philanthropast,  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1837.  He  became  promi- 
nently connected  with  numerous  re- 
formatory and  benevolent  organizations, 
and  in  1874  founded  the  society  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  children.  In 
1886  he  was  chairman  of  the  commission 
which  advocated  the  abolition  of  the 
gallows  and  the  substitution  of  elec- 
tricity for  capital  punishment  in  New 
York. 

GERRYMANDER.  (gSr'rl-man'der),  a 
word  belonging  to  the  political  vocabu- 
lary of  the  U.  States,  and  used  to  denote 
an  unfair  division  of  the  electoral  dis- 
tricts in  a state,  made  in  the  interest  of 
one  of  the  political  parties.  The  word 


was  coined  in  1812,  though  the  practice 
probably  originated  earlier.  At  that 
time  the  federalist  and  republican 
parties  in  Massachusetts  were  nearly 
evenly  balanced  in  numerical  strength, 
but  the  republicans  took  advantage  of  a 
temporary  majority  in  the  legislature  to 
divide  the  state  into  new  senatorial  dis- 
tricts in  such  a manner  that  those  sec- 
tions which  gave  a large  number  of 
federalist  votes  might  be  brought  into 
one  district.  Previously  each  county 
had  constituted  a senatorial  district, 
and  the  power  of  rearranging  old  dis- 
tricts or  creating  new  ones,  bestowed  on 
the  legislature  by  the  state  constitution, 
had  never  been  exercised.  Elbridge 
Gerry  was  at  that  time  governor,  and 
through  his  signature,  though  he  seems 
not  to  have  wholly  approved  the  meas- 
ure, the  work  of  the  legislature  became  a 
law.  The  form  of  one  of  the  districts 
into  which  Essex  County  was  divided 
was  somewhat  like  that  of  a monstrous 
animal,  and  when  some  one  suggested 
that  it  looked  like  a salamander,  the 
name  “gerrymander”  was  given  to  it, 
instead.  The  passage  of  the  law  caused 
a great  outcry  from  the  federalists,  and 
early  in  1813,  this  party  having  again 
secured  a majority  and  elected  a gover- 
nor to  succeed  Gerry,  the  law  was  re- 

Eealed.  The  device,  however,  has  since 
een  repeatedly  used  in  various  states. 
GERS  (zhar),  a department  in  the  s.w. 
of  France,  separated  from  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  by  the  department  of  Landes; 
area,  2425  sq.  miles.  The  southern  part 
is  covered  with  ramifications  of  the 
Pyrenees  separated  by  valleys,  each  of 
which  is  watered  by  its  own  stream. 
The  chief  of  these  are  the  Gers,  Losse, 
Save,  etc.  Auch  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
238,448. 

GESNER  (ges'n4r),  Konrad  von,  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  at  Zurich  in  1516, 
studied  at  Strasburg,  Bourges,  and  Paris 
and  became  schoolmaster  in  his  native 
town.  His  Historia  Animalium  must  be 
regarded  as  the  foundation  of  zoology; 
and  in  botany  he  was  the  inventor  of 
the  method  of  classifying  the  vegetable 
kingdom  according  to  the  characters  of 
the  seeds  and  flowers.  He  died  of  the 
plague  at  Zurich,  1565. 

GESSLER.  See  Tell. 

GESTATION,  in  physiology,  the  name 
given  to  the  interval  which  elapses  be- 
tween the  impregnation  of  any  of  the 
mammalia  and  the  period  of  birth.  This 
period  varies  from  25  days,  in  the  case 
of  the  mouse,  to  620,  in  that  of  the  ele- 
phant. 

GETHSEMANE,  an  olive-  garden  or 
orchard  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusa- 
lem, memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  last 
sufferings  of  Christ.  The  traditionary 
site  of  this  garden  places  it  on  the  east 
side  of  the  city,  a very  little  beyond  the 
Kedron,  near  the  base  of  Mt.  Olivet.  It 
contains  some  very  old  olive-trees, 
piously  regarded  as  having  stood  there 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord. 

GETTYSBURG,  the  capital  of  Adams 
CO.,  Pennsylvania.  Here  are  the  Penn- 
sylvanian college  (Lutheran),  founded 
in  1832;  the  national  cemetery  for  Union 
soldiers,  and  a national  homestead  for 
the  orphans  of  Union  soldiers.  At  Gettys- 
burg a battle  was  fought  (July  1,  2,  and 
3,  1863,)  between  the  Union  forces  under 


geysers 


GHOSTS 


General  Meade  and  the  _ confederate 
forces  under  General  Lee,  in  which  the 
letter  suffered  a disastrous  defeat. 

GEYSERS,  a slight  alteration  of  the 
Icelandic  name  geysir,  from  geysa,  to 
gush  or  rush  forth,  and  applied  to 
natural  springs  of  hot  water  of  the  kind 
that  were  first  observed  in  Iceland.  The 
geysers  of  Iceland,  about  a hundred  in 
number,  lie  about  30  miles  n.w.  of  Mount 
Hecla,  in  a plain  covered  by  hot-springs 
and  steaming  apertures.  The  two  most 
remarkable  are  the  Great  Geyser  and 
the  New  Geyser  or  Strokkur  (churn), 
the  former  of  which  throws  up  at  times 
a column  of  hot  water  to  the  height  of 
from  SO  to  200''feet.  The  basin  of  the 
Great  Geyser  is  about  70  feet  across  at 
its  greatest  diameter.  The  New  Geyser 
which  is  only  100  yards  distant,  is  much 
inferior  in  size.  The  springs  are  sup- 
posed to  be  connected  with  Mount  Hecla 
and  the  phenomenon  of  eruption  has 
been  explained  by  Tyndall  as  due  to  the 
heating  of  the  walls  of  a fissure,  whereby 
the  water  is  slowly  raised  to  the  boiling 
point  under  pressure,  and  explodes  into 
steam,  an  interval  being  required  for  the 
process  to  be  repeated.  The  geysers  of 
Iceland,  however,  have  been  surpassed 
by  those  discovered  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  the  Yellowstone  Region 
of  Wyoming  Territory,  the  largest  of 
which  throw  up  jets  of  water  from  90  to 
250  feet  high.  (See  Yellowstone.)  The 
hot-lake  district  of  Auckland,  New  Zea- 
land, is  also  famous  in  possessing  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  geyser  scenery 


Giant  geyser,  Yellowstone  national  park. 

in  the  world.  These  phenomena  are  of 
three  kinds:  the  puias  (fire-springs), 
geysers  continually  or  intermittently 
active;  ngawhas  or  inactive  puias,  which 
emit  steam,  but  do  not  throw  up  columns 
of  water;  and  waiariki  or  hot-water  cis- 
terns. This  region  is  remarkable  for  the 
number  of  natural  terraces  containing 
hot-water  pools  or  cisterns,  and  its 
lakes  all  filled  at  intervals  by  the  boiling 
geysers  and  thermal  springs,  but  the 
configuration  of  the  country  was  con- 
siderably altered  by  the  disastrous 
volcanic  outbreak  of  1886.  Ngahapu 
or  Ohopia,  a circular  rocky  basin,  40 
feet  in  diameter,  in  which  a violent 
geyser  is  constantly  boiling  up  to  the 
Eeight  of  10  or  12  feet,  emitting  dense 


clouds  of  steam,  Is  one  of  the  natural 
wonders  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 

GHATS  (gats),  or  GHALTS,  a Hindu 
term  employed  to  designate  landing- 
stairs  on  a river,  especially  when  larg» 
and  substantially  constructed.  These 


Ghoosla  ghat,  Benares. 


ghats  are  very  numerous  on  the  Ganges, 
and  are  great  places  of  resort  by  the 
people  of  the  towns  where  they  are 
situated.  Some  of  them  are  noteworthy 
from  an  architectural  point  of  view, 
having  temples,  bathing-houses,  etc., 
at  the  top. 

GHATS,  or  GHAUTS,  Eastern  and 
Western,  two  ranges  of  mountains  in  the 
peninsular  portion  of  Hindustan,  the 
former  running  down  the  east  side  of 
India,  but  leaving  broad  tracts  between 
their  base  and  the  coast;  the  latter 
running  down  the  west  side,  but  leaving 
only  a narrow  strip  between  them  and 
the  shore.  ’ Both  meet  near  Cape  Co- 
morin. The  general  elevation  of  the 
Western  Ghats  varies  from  4000  to  7000 
feet.  The  Eastern  Gh5ts  are  of  consider- 
ably less  elevation,  on  the  average  about 
1500  feet,  and  have  none  of  the  beauty 
of  the  western  range.  They  are,  how- 
ever, rich  in  metals. 

GHAZIPUR,  a town  in  Hindustan, 
headquarters  of  the  Ghazipur  District, 
in  the  United  Provinces,  about  44  miles 
northeast  of  the  town  of  Benares.  Pop. 
39,429. 

GHEE  (ge),  or  GHI,  a peculiar  kind  of 
butter  in  use  among  the  Hindus.  It  is 
made  from  the  milk  of  the  buffalo  or  the 
cow.  The  milk  is  boiled  for  an  hour  or  so, 
and  cooled,  after  which  a little  curdled 
milk  is  added.  Next  morning  the  curdled 
mass  is  churned  for  half  an  hour;  some 
hot  water  is  then  added,  and  the  churn- 
ing continued  for  another  half-hour, 
when  the  butter  forms.  When,  after  a 
few  days,  it  becomes  rancid,  it  is  boiled 
till  all  the  water  is  expelled,  and  a little 
more  curdled  milk  added  with  some  salt 
or  betel-leaves,  after  which  it  is  put  into 
pots.  In  this  state  it  will  keep  for  a long 
time.  It  is  too  strong  for  European 
taste,  but  is  a favorite  article  of  con- 
sumption among  rich  Hindus. 

GHENT,  a town  in  Belgium,  capital  of 
the  province  of  East  Flanders,  in  a fer- 
tile plain  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lys 
with  the  Scheldt.  It  is  upwards  of  6 
miles  in  circumference,  and  is  divided 
by  canals  into  a number  of  islands  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  bridges.  In 
some  of  the  older  parts  it  is  well  built, 
and  has  a number  of  fine  promenades 
and  many  notable  buildings.  Among 
the  latter  are  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Bavon,  a vast  and  richly-decorated 


structure,  dating  Irom  the  13th  cen- 
tury; the  ‘church  of  St.  Nicholas,  the 
oldest  in  Ghent;  the  church  of  St. 
Michael,  with  a celebrated  Crucifixion 
by  Vandyk;  the  university,  a handsome 
modern  structure,  with  a library  of  about  ■ 
200,000  volumes  and  2500  MSS.;  the 
hotel-de-ville;  the  belfry,  a lofty  square 
tower  surmounted  by  a gilded  dragon, 
and  containing  a fine  set  of  chimes 
consisting  of  forty-four  bells,  one  of 
which  is  the  famous  “Roland  of  Ghent;” 
the  new  palais-de-justice;  the  march6 
du  vendredi,  an  extensive  square,  in- 
teresting as  the  scene  of  many  impor- 
tant historical  events;  and  les  beguin- 
ages,  extensive  nunneries  founded  in 
the  13th  century,  the  principal  occu- 
pation of  whose  members  is  lace-mak- 
ing. Ghent  has  long  been  celebrated 
as  a manufacturing  town,  especially 
for  its  cotton  and  linen  goods  and  lace. 
Pop.  160,848. 

GHENT,  Treaty  of,  a treaty  between 
the  U.  States  and  Great  Britain  which 
ended  the  war  between  the  two  countries 
known  as  the  “War  of  1812.”  The 
American  negotiators  were  John  Quincy 
Adams,  James  A.  Bayard,  Henry  Clay, 
Jonathan  Russell,  and  Albert  Gallatin, 
The  British  representatives  were  Lord 
Gambler,  Henry  Goulburn,  and  William 
Adams.  The  treaty  was  signed  on  De- 
cember 24,  1814,  was  ratified  by  the  U. 
States  senate  on  February  17,  1815, 
and  was  formally  proclaimed  by  Presi- 
dent Madison  on  the  following  day. 

GHETTO  (get 'to),  a name  used  in  dif- 
ferent towns  of  Italy,  -Germany,  and 
other  countries  to  indicate  the  quarter 
set  apart  for  the  residence  of  Jews. 

GHIBERTI  (ge-ber'te),  Lorenzo,  Ital- 
ian statuary,  borfi  about  1378  at  Flor- 
ence. HeVas  engaged  in  painting  fres- 
coes at  Rimini,  in  the  palace  of  Pandolfo 
Malatesta,  when  the  priori  of  the  society 
of  merchants  at  Florence  invited  artists 
to  propose  models  for  one  of  the  bronze 
doors  of  the  baptistery  of  San  Giovanni. 
The  judges  selected  the  works  of  Dona- 
tello and  Ghiberti  as  the  best  ( according 
to  Vasari,  also  that  of  Brunelleschi,  who 
is  not  mentioned  by  Ghiberti  himself  as 
one  of  the  competitors) ; but  the  former 
voluntarily  withdrew  his  claims,  giving 
the  preference  to  Ghiberti.  After  twenty 
one  years’  labor  Ghiberti  completed  the 
door,  and,  at  the  request  of  the  priori, 
executed  a second,  after  almost  as  long 
a period.  Michael  Angelo  said  of  these, 
that  they  were  worthy  of  adorning  the 
entrance  to  paradise.  During  these  ’ 
forty  years  Ghiberti  also  completed 
other  works,  bas-reliefs,  statues,  and 
some  excellent  paintings  on  glass,  most 
of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  cathedral 
and  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele  at 
Florence.  He  died  about  1455. 

GHILAN  (gi-lan'),  a province  of  Persia 
on  the  soutliwest  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea;  area,  about  4250  sq.  miles.  The 
province  is  rich  in  metals  and  very 
fertile.  The  capital  is  Resht.  Pop.  about 
150,000. 

GHOST,  HOLY.  See  Holy  Ghost. 

GHOSTS,  the  belief  in  ghosts  is  one 
of  the  earliest  of  all  religious  phenomena. 
It  is  found  in  one  form  or  another  at 
all  ages  and  among  all  peoples.  To  such 
an  extent  does  belief  in  ghosts  prevail, 
that  one  school  of  comparative  religion 


GIANT  POWDEH 


GIBBON 


of  whom  Herbert  Spencer  and  Julius 
Lippert  are  the  chief  representatives, 
has  sought  to  find  the  origin  of  all  reli- 
gion in  ghost-cults.  The  importance 
of  ghost-worship  as  a religious  factor 
cannot  be  denied,  and  it  is  certainly  one 
of  the  main  sources  of  religious  belief. 
Its  chief  development  is  found  in  the 
widespread  existence  of  ancestor-wor- 
ship. 

The  ghost  idea  in  its  most  primitive 
form  seems  to  be  as  follows:  The 
phenomenon  of  dreams  is  one  of  the 
starting-points.  According  to  the  reason- 
ing of  the  primitive  mind,  the  self,  while 
the  body  is  unconscious  and  inert,  wan- 
ders to  places  familiar  or  even  unknown, 
experiences  pleasure  and  pain,  converses 
with  friends  perhaps  dead,  and  per- 
forms other  things  which  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  body.  From  sleep  and 
dreams  the  savage  proceeds  by  analogy 
to  death.  To  him  the  distinction  between 
slumber  and  death  is  one  of  degree 
rather  than  of  kind,  and  it  is  well  known 
how  universal  is  the  belief  that  sleep 
and  death  are  near  akin.  As  in  slumber 
the  soul  left  the  body  for  a time,  but 
returned  to  it,  so  in  the  long  sleep,  as  the 
primitive  mind  regards  it,  of  death,  the 
soul  is  supposed  to  remain  near  the  body. 
As  it  is  obviously  impossible  To  keep  a 
corpse  from  dissolution,  and  as  the 
progress  of  decay  renders  the  body  more 
and  more  uninhabitable  for  the  spirit 
which  has  left  it,  the  soul,  or  the  ghost 
as  it  may  now  be  called,,  becomes  a 
source  of  much  anxiety  to  the  kinsman 
and  other  friends  of  the  dead.  In  primi- 
tive religion  the  element  of  terror  is  one 
of  the  most  important  factors,  and  at 
first  exercises  a far  greater  influence 
than  hope.  The  ghost  is,  then,  more 
terrible  than  was  the  man  whose  body 
it  had  animated.  It  is  no  longer  limited 
by  bodily  restrictions,  it  can  traverse 
space  with  infinite  speed,  and  may  be 
invisible.  Fortunately,  and  somewhat 
curiously,  the  ghost,  like  demons  gen- 
erally, is  rather  stupid,  and  is  adso  bound 
by  certain  limitations.  Upon  such  an 
apparently  flimsy  foundation,  which  is, 
however,  logical  to  the  primitive  man, 
is  built  a complicated  system  of  mor- 
tuary custofhs,  and  the  idea  of  immor- 
tality. The  ghost,  which,  as  has  been 
said,  delights  to  hover  around  its  earthly 
home,  is  not  a cheerful  companion  to  the 
living,  and  must  therefore  be  kept  away. 
This  is  accomplished  by  various  methods 
as  by  building  a new  hut  for  the  sur- 
vivors, or,  more  easily,  by  carrying  the 
corpse  out  by  a hole  broken  in  the  side 
of  the  dwelling,  which  is  subsequently 
walled  up.  The  ghost  is  then  unable 
to  find  its  way  back,  and  the  house  is 
safe  from  its  invasion.  The  superstition 
here  noted  still  survives.  The  so-called 
haunted  houses  and  haunted  rooms  are 
cases  in  point,  and  it  is  important  to 
note  that  it  is  the  malignant  ghosts, 
chiefly  those  who  have  been  involved  in 
murder  or  other  evil  acts,  which  espe- 
cially linger  around  the  scene  of  their 
earthly  activities.  To  avert  the  influence 
of  maleficent  ghosts,  various  forms  of 
sacrifice  and  magic  are  employed.  These 
ceremonies  have  as  their  primary  ob- 
ject the  satisfaction  of  the  ghost’s  wants. 
Thus  the  bow  and  arrows  are  laid  with 
the  warrior,  a woman’s  jewelry  is  buried 


with  her,  and  a child’s  toys  rest  beside  its 
body.  It  was  also  common  in  many 
places,  notably  in  Dahomey  and  Poly- 
nesia, to  sacrifice  slaves  to  attend  their 
master  in  the  spirit  world,  while  among 
the  ancient  Germans  horses  and  even 
wives  (as  in  the  Indian  suttee)  were  often, 
slain  at  the  funeral  pyre.  It  is  also 
probable  that  to  wish  to  appease  ghosts 
many  of  the  elaborate  mourning  customs 
of  primitive  peoples  may  be  traced. 
Under  this  category  come  such  acts  as 
shaving  the  hair,  cutting  the  flesh, 
fasting,  neglect  of  the  toilet,  use  of  un- 
becoming clothing,  and  the  like.  It  is, 
of  course,  true  that  at  a comparatively 
early  time  the  development  of  civiliza- 
tion rendered  mourning  for  the  dead  an 
act  of  affection  and  not  of  fear;  but  it  is 
hard  to  believe  that  the  savage  who  put 
to  death  the  aged  members  of  his  tribe 
was  moved  by  any  high  ideals  in  the 
beginning  of  mortuary  customs.  In 
line  with  mourning  are  the  offerings  of 
food,  drink,  clothing,  and,  as  in  China, 
of  money  to  the  deceased. 

GIANT  POWDER,  a name  for  dyna- 
mite. 

GIANTS,  people  of  extraordinary 
stature.  History,  both  sacred  and  pro- 
fane, makes  mention  of  giants,  and  even 
of  races  of  giants,  but  this  in  general 
occurs  only  at  an  early  stage  of  civiliza- 
tion when  the  national  mind  is  apt  to 
exaggerate  anything  unusual.  The  first 
mention  of  giants  in  the  Bible  is  in  Gen. 
vi.  4,  where  the  Hebrew  word  used  is 
nephilim,  a word  which  occurs  in  only 
one  other  passage,  where  it  is  applied 
to  the  sons  of  Anak,  who  dwelt  about 
Hebron,  and  who  were  described  by  the 
terrified  spies  as  of  such  size  that  com- 
pared with  them  they  appeared  in  their 
own  sight  as  grasshoppers.  A race  of 
giants  called  the  Rephaim  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  in  Gen. 
xiv.  and  xv.  appear  as  a distinct  tribe, 
of  whom  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  is  said  to 
have  been  the  last.  Other  races  of  giants 
are  mentioned,  such  as  the  Emim,  the 
Zuzim,  and  the  Zamzummim.  The 
giants  of  old  Greek  or  of  Norse  mythol- 
ogy have,  of  course,  merely  a symbolic 
existence,  representing  benignant  or 
adverse  forces  of  nature  on  which  man 
might  count  in  his  struggle  to  reduce 
the  world  around  him  into  some  kind 
of  order.  The  tales  of  old  writers  re- 
garding gigantic  human  skeletons  have 
now  no  importance,  it  being  most  cer- 
tainly that  these  bones  do  not  belong  to 
giants,  but  to  animals  of  the  primitive 
world  which,  from  ignorance  of  anatomy 
were  taken  for  human  bones.  The 
ordinary  height  of  men  is  between  5 and 
G feet ; among  the  Patagonians  of  South 
America,  however,  the  average  seems 
to  be  considerably  higher,  though  not  so 
high  as  to  entitle  them  to  be  considered 
a race  of  giants.  Notable  deviations 
from  this  medium  height  are  not  at  all 
uncommon,  especially  among  the  Teu- 
tonic peoples.  As  a rule  giants  are  com- 
paratively feeble  in  body  and  mind,  and 
are  short-lived.  Gigantic  stature  is 
ggnerally  accompanied  by  a want  of 
proportion  in  parts,  some  parts  growing 
too  quickly  for  others,  or  continuing  to 
grow  after  the  others  have  ceased.  The 
relation  between  the  upper  and  lower 
half  of  the  body  is  not  disturbed^  but 


the  skull,  brain,  and  forehead  are  rela- 
tively small,  the  jaws  very  large,  the 
shoulders,  breast,  and  haunches  very 
broad,  and  the  muscular  system  com- 
paratively weak. 

GIANT’S  CAUSEWAY,  an  extensive 
and  extraordinary  assemblage  of  poly- 
gonal and  basaltic  columns  on  the  north 
coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of  Antrim 
between  Bengore  Head  and  Port  Rush. 
The  name  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
whole  range  of  basalt  cliffs  along  the 
coast,  some  of  which  reach  the  height  of 
400  or  500  feet;  but  it  is  more  properly 
restricted  to  a small  portion  of  it  where 
a platform  of  closely  arranged  basalt 
columns  from  15  to  36  feet  in  height 
runs  down  into  the  sea  in  three  divisions, 
known  as  the  Little,  the  Middle,  and  the 
Grand  Causeway.  The  last  is  from  20 
to  30  feet  wide,  and  stretches  some  900 
feet  into  the  sea.  The  Giant’s  Causeway 
derives  its  name  from  the  legend  that  it 
was  built  by  giants  as  a road  which  was 
to  stretch  across  the  sea  to  Scotland. 
There  are  similar  formations  on  the  west 
coast  of  Scotland,  on  the  islands  of 
Staffa. 

GIBBON,  a name  common  to  the  apes 
which  inhabit  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  It  is  distinguished  from 
other  quadrumanous  animals  by  the 


Gibbon. 


slenderness  of  its  form,  but  more  par- 
ticularly by  the  extraordinary  length  of 
its  arms,  which,  when  the  animal  is 
standing,  reaches  nearly  to  the  ankles, 
and  which  enables  it  to  swing  itself  from 
tree  to  tree  with  wonderful  agility.  Its 
color  is  black,  but  its  face  is  commonly 
surrounded  with  a white  or  gray  beard. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish historian,  was  born  at  Putney  in 
Surrey,  April  27,  1737.  In  1770  he  pub- 
lished a pamphlet  entitled  Critical  Ob- 
servations on  the  Sixth  Book  of  the 
^neid.  In  1776  the  first  quarto  volume 
of  his  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  was  published,  and  at  once  made 
a public  reputation  for  its  author.  In 
1778  he  drew  up  on  behalf  of  the  Eng- 
lish government  a Memoire  Justification 
in  answer  to  the  manifesto  of  the  French 
court,  and  for  this  service  he  was  made 
one  of  the  lords  of  trade.  On  the  retire- 
ment of  North  he  lost  his  appointment, 
and  soon  after  withdrew  to  Lausanne 
(1783),  where,  in  the  course  of  four  years, 
he  completed  the  three  remaining 
volumes  of  his  history,  which  were  pub- 
lished together  in  1788.  In  1793  he  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  died  16th 


GINGER-ALE 


GIRGENTI 


cunfections,  infusions,  pills,  etc.  The 
special  preparations  are  the  tincture 
and  the  essence  of  ginger;  syrup,  pre- 
pared by  mixing  twenty-five  parts  of 


Ginger  plant. 


syrup  with  one  of  the  strong  tincture. 
Infusion  of  ginger  is  a preparation  useful 
for  flatulence. 

GINGER-ALE,  an  aerated  water  made 
in  the  same  way  as  lemonade,  but 
flavored  with  ginger  instead  of  lemon. 

GINGER-BEER,  a pleasant,  non- 
alcoholic, effervescing  beverage,  made 
by  mixing  together  ginger,  cf-eam  of 
tartar,  sugar,  yeast,  and  water  and 
allowing  the  whole  to  ferment  for  a time, 
then  bottling.  Ginger-beer  may  also  be 
prepared  thus;  Add  to  each  gallon  of 
water  1 lb.  of  refined  sugar,  and  ^ oz.  of 
ground  ginger.  Boil  for  an  hour,  add 
the  white  of  two  eggs,  remove  the  scum. 
Strain  into  a vessel  to  cool,  cask  it  up 
with  the  juice  and  peel  of  a lemon.  Add 
a very  small  amount  of  brewer’s  yeast, 
and  bung  up  tightly  for  a fortnight. 

GINGER-BREAD,  a well-known  cake 
made  in  many  ways,  the  chief  ingredi- 
ents being  flour  and  treacle,  with  ginger 
butter,  eggs,  etc. 

GINGER-CORDIAL,  or  GINGER-, 
WINE,  a beverage  made  from  raisins, 
lemon  rind,  ginger,  sugar,  and  water, 
with  some  whisky  or  brandy. 

GINGHAM  (ging'am),  a cotton  fabric 
distinguished  from  calico  by  having  the 
colors  woven  with  the  fabric,  not  printed 
on  it.  The  patterns  are  various;  some- 
times fancy  designs,  sometimes  checkered 
and  sometimes  striped.  Umbrella  ging- 
hams are  all  of  one  color. 

GINSENG  (jin'seng),  a plant  of  North- 
ern Asia,  herbaceous,  and  about  1 foot 
high.  Its  root  is  regarded  as  a sort  of 


Ginseng. 


panacea  among  the  Chinese,  and  is 
largely  imported,  but  it  appears  to  be 
really  of  very  little  efficacy  • the  taste  is 
sweet  and  mucilaginous,  and  also  accom- 
panied with  some  bitterness,  and  also 
slightly  aromatic.  Another  species  of 
ginseng  inhabits  Canada  and  the  north- 


eastern pa^ts  of  the  U.  States.  Quan- 
tities of  its  root  are  sent  to  China. 

GIPSY.  See  Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE,  a ruminant  animal  in- 
habiting Africa,  and  constituting  the 
only  species  of  its  genus  and  family. 
It  is  the  tallest  of  all  animals,  a full- 
grown  male  reaching  the  height  of  18  or 
20  feet.  This  great  stature  is  mainly  due 
to  the  extrabrdinary  length  of  the  neck, 
in  which,  however,  there  are  but  seven 
vertebrae,  though  these  are  extremely 
elongated.  It  has  two  body  excrescences 
on  its  head  resembling  horns.  Its  great 
height  is  admirably  suited  with  its 
habit  of  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  trees, 
and  in  this  the  animal  is  further  aided  by 
its  tongue,  which  is  both  prehensile  and 
capable  of  being  remarkably  elongated 
or  contracted  at  will.  When  it  browses 
the  herbage  on  the  ground  it  stretches 


Giraffe. 


out  its  fore-legs  as  wide  as  possible  till  it 
can  reach  the  ground  by  means  of  its 
long  neck.  Its  color  is  usually  light  fawn, 
marked  with  darker  spots.  It  is  a mild 
and  in'offensive  animal,  and  in  captivity 
is  very  gentle  and  playful.  The  giraffe 
is  a native  of  a great  part  of  Africa,  from 
Abyssinia  and  Sennaar  to  Senegal  and 
the  regions  adjacent  to  the  Cape  Col- 
ony. 

GIRARD  COLLEGE,  an  institution  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  founded  by  the  be- 
quest of  about  $8,000,000,  left  by 
Stephen  Girard,  for  the  benefit  of  poor 
white  male  orphans,  who  are  admitted 
between  the  a^es  of  six  and  ten,  and, 
according  to  the  wilt  of  the  founder,  are 
to  be  apprenticed  to  some  industrial 
occupation  when  between  the  ages  of 
fourteen  and  eighteen.  The  buildings 
are  situated  2 miles  n.  w.  of  the  old 
State-house,  in  a fine  enclosure  of  41 
acres.  The  principal  building  (169  feet 
long.  111  feet  wide,  and  97  feet  high, 
with  fine  Corinthian  columns,  each  55 
feet  high)  is  by  far  the  best  specimen  of 
Greek  architecture  in  the  U.  States.  It 
is  built  mainly  of  white  marble,  with  no 
inflammable  material,  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  accordance  with  the  minute 
directions  left  by  Mr.  Girard,  according 
to  whose  will  no  minister  or  ecclesiastic 
of  any  sect  or  church  is  allowed  to  visit 
the  premises  on  any  pretext  or  to  have 
any  connection  with  the  institution. 
The  construction  of  the  buildings  was 
begun  in  1833,  and  finished  in  1848. 


In  1900  the  value  of  the  residuary  fund 
was  $15,958,293  and  the  building  ac- 
commodated about  2,000  boys. 

GIRARD,  Stephen,  philanthropist, 
born  near  Bordeaux,  France,  May  24, 
1750;  became  a saUor,  and  before  the 
revolution  in  North  America  engaged  as 
the  master  of  vessels  in  the  American 
coasting  and  West  India  trade;  and 
during  the  revolution  was  a grocer, 
sutler,  and  liquor-seller  in  and  near 
Philadelphia  In  1812  he  became  a 
private  banker,  and  was  later  a director 
of  the  second  U.  States  bank.  He  was 
for  years  by  far  the  wealthiest  man  in 
the  U.  States.  He  was  very  eccentfic  in 
his  habits,  a freethinker,  ungracious  in 
manner,  ill-tempered,  and  lived  and 
died  without  a friend;  but  was  always  a 
liberal  benefactor  of  the  public  charities 
and  even  of  churches,  which  he  despised. 
During  several  yellow  fever  seasons  in 
Philadelphia  he  was  active  in  relieving 
distress  by  free  expenditure  of  money 
and  personal  care  of  the  sick;  and  at 
•his  death  nearly  all  his  estate  was  be- 
queathed to  various  charitable  and 
municipal  institutions  of  Philadelphia 
and  New  Orleans,  and  to  the  founding 
of  the  Girard  college  for  orphan  boys. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  26,  1831. 

GIRDER,  a main  roam,  either  of  wood 
or  iron,  resting  upon  a wall  or  pier  at 
each  end,  employed  for  supporting  a 
superstructure,  or  a superincumbent 
weight,  as  a floor,  the  upper  wall  of  a 
house  when  the  lower  part  is  sustained 
by  pillars,  the  roadway  of  a bridge,  and 
the  like.  Wooden  girders  are  sometimes 
cut  in  two  longitudinally  and  an  iron 
plate  inserted  between  the  pieces,  and  , 
the  whole  bolted  together.  This  species  ; 
of  girder  is  called  a sandwich-girder.  For'  . 
bridges  cast-iron  girders  are  sometimes  ! 
cast  in  lengths  of  40  feet  and  upward,  ‘ 
but  when  the  span  to  be  crossed  is  much 
greater  than  40  feet,  recourse  is  had  to 
wrought-iron,  or  to  trussed,  lattice,  or 
box  girders,  and  cast-iron  is  now  little 
used.  A trussed-girder  is  a wooden 
girder  strengthened  with  iron.  A lattice- 
girder  is  a girder  consisting  of  two  hori- 
zontal beams  united  by  diagonal  crossing 
bars,  somewhat  resembling  wooden  lat- 
tice-work. A box-girder  is  a kind  of 
girder  resembling  a large  box,  such  as 
those  employed  in  tubular  bridges.  ] 
There  are  also  bowstring-girders,  which  i 
are  varieties  of  the  lattice-girder,  and 
consist  of  an  arched  beam,  a horizontal  ' 
tie  resisting  tension  and  holding  to-  ' 
gether  the  ends  of  the  arched  rib,  a j 
series  of  vertical  suspending  bars  by  i 
which  the  platform  is  hung  from  the  I 
arched  rib,  and  a series  of  diagonal  j 
braces  between  the  suspending  bars.  I 

GIRDLE  OF  VENUS,  an  animal  be- 
longing to  the  Ctenophora,  found  in  the  i 
Mediterranean.  In  shape  it  resembles  I 
a ribbon,  and  it  is  apparently  propelled  | 
by  the  cilia  which  fringe  its  e^e.  The  | 
mouth  is  situated  on  the  inferior  edge,  j 
It  is  iridescent  by  day,  and  brilliantly 
phosphorescent  at  night. 

GIRGEH  (jir'je),  town,  formerly  capi- 
tal, of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile.  It  possesses  a Roman  Catholic 
convent,  the  oldest  in  Egypt.  Pop.  ■ 
10,000. 

GIRGENTI  (jir-jen'te),  a town  in  the 
southwest  of  Sicily,  capital  of  the  prov-  ■ 


GIRONDE 


/ 


GLACIER  TABLES 


ince  of  same  name.  The  province  has 
an  area  of  1490  sq.  miles,  and  is  rather 
mountainous  in  character.  Pop.  371,471. 

GIRONDE  (zhe-rond),  a department 
of  France,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  named 
from  the  Gironde  estuary;  area,  3610 
sq.  miles.  Bordeaux  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
820  781  ^ 

GIRONDE,  River.  See  Garonne. 

GIRONDISTS  (Girondins),  one  of  the 
great  political  parties  of  the  first  French 
revolution.  The  Girondists  were  repub- 
licans, but  were  more  distinguished  for 
visionary  idetjils  than  for  a well-defined 
policy;  hence  they  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
the  party  of  the  Mountain.  Their 
leaders  were  three  of  the  deputies  of  the 
Gironde — Verginaud,  Guadet,  and  Gen- 
Bonn6,  hence  the  name.  Louis  XVI.  was 
obliged,  in  1792,  to  select  a ministry 
from  among  the  Girondists,  but  it  was 
short-lived.  In  the  convention  their 
strug^fes  with  the  MontagAards  forced 
them  into  extreme  measures  which  they 
would  otherwise  have  avoided.  They 
wished  to  save  the  king,  but  many  of 
them,  from  a mistaken  policy,  voted  for 
his  death.  Their  fall  dates  from  their 
unsuccessful  impeachment  of  Marat 
(1793),  soon  after  which  a large  number 
of  them  were  proscribed,  and  twenty- 
one  of  them  were  condemned  and 
executed. 

GIRTY  (ger'ti)  Simon,  renegade  leader 
of  the  Indians,  was  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  1741,  was  captured  by  the 
Indians,  along  with  the  rest  of  his 
family  at  Fort  Granville,  in  1756;  was 
released  in  1759,  and  acted  as  an  inter- 
preter for  some  time  after  the  conspiracy 
of  Pontiac.  In  Lord  Dunmore’s  war  he 
served  against  the  Indians,  and  for  a 
short  time  thereafter  was  a second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Virginia  militia.  In  1776 
he  was  appointed  an  Indian  interpreter 
for  the  U.  States.,  but  was  soon  dis- 
charged, after  which  he  enlisted  troops 
in  the  vicinity  of  Fort  Pitt  for  service 
against  the  English.  He  went  over  to 
■ the  English  in  April,  1776,  was  attainted 
of  high  treason  by  the  Pennsylvania 
legislature  in  July,  and  became  an  in- 
terpreter in  the  employ  of  the  British 
Indian  department.  He  commanded 
the  Indians  who  attacked  Dunlap’s 
Station,  on  the  Great  Miami,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1791;  led  the  Wyandots  at  the 
defeat  of  Saint  Clair;  commanded  the 
Indians  who  attacked  Fort  Jefferson,  on 
the  Mississippi,  in  June,  1791;  and  in 
1794  participated  in  the  battle  of 
FaiMen  Timbers.  He  died  in  1818. 

GIULIO  ROMANO  (joTe-o  ro-ma'no), 
or  GULIIO  PIPPIjNitalian  painter,  archi- 
tect, and  engineer,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  Raphael’s  scholars,  born  at 
Rome  near  the  end  of  the  15th  century. 
After  the  death  of  Raphael  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  his  own-  imagination,  and 
astonished  all  by  the  boldness  of  his 
style,  by  the  grandeur  of  his  designs,  by 
the  fire  of  his  composition,  by  the  lofti- 
ness of  his  poetical  ideas,  and  his  power- 
ful expression. 

GIZZARD,  a strong  muscular  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal  of  birds,  which 
enables  them  to  grind  their  food.  A 
gizzard  occurs  also  in  many  gasteropoda, 
and  in  certain  cephalopoda  and  crusta- 
ceans. In  birds  it  is  lined  by  a thick 
muscular  coat,  and  usually  contains 


pieces  of  gravel,  etc.,  to  facilitate  the 
grinding  process. 

GLACIAL  PERIOD,  or  ICE  AGE,  in 

geology,  denotes  that  portion  of  the 
posf-tertiary  period,  in  which  Britain, 
Europe,  and,  in  short,  all  parts  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  World  north  of  latitude 
50°-40°  were  subjected  to  intense  cold, 
and  covered  with  ice  and  glaciers.  This 
phenomenon  has  been  demonstrated 
from  a study  of  the  actual  effects  of 
glaciers  in  the  Alps,  etc.  The  traces  of 
ancient  glacial  action  are  abundantly 
discoverable  in  the  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, in  England,  in  the  Scandinavian 
range,  the  Jura,  the  Black  Forest,  etc. 
In  Asia  they  are  perceptible  in  the 
Himalaya,  while  North  America  abounds 
with  them.  See  Geology. 

GLACIERS,  icy  masses  of  great  bulk, 
harder  than  snow,  yet  not  exactly  like 
common  ice,  which  cover  the  summits 
and  sides  of  mountains  above  tht<  snow- 
line, They  are  found  in  Switzerland, 
Scandinavia,  the  Andes,  etc.  They 
extend  down  into  the  valleys  often  far 


Glacier  of  Zermatt,  S-vvitzerland. 

below  the  snow-line,  and  bear  a con- 
siderable resemblance  to  a frozen  tor- 
rent. They  take  their  origin  in  the  higher 
valleys,  where  they  are  formed  by  the 
congelation  and  compression  of  masses 
of  snow  in  that  condition  called  by 
French  writers  n4v4,  by  German  authors 
firn.  The  ice  of  glaciers  differs  from 
that  produced  by  the  freezing  of  still 
water,  and  is  composed  of  thin  layers 
filled  -with  air-bubbles.  It  is  likewise 
more  brittle  and  less  transparent.  The 
glaciers  are  continually  moving  down- 
ward, and  not  unfrequently  reach  the 
borders  of  cultivation.  The  rate  at 
which  a glacier  moves  generally  varies 
from  .18  to  24  inches  in  twenty-four 
hours.  At  its  lower  end  it  is  generally 
very  steep  and  inaccessible.  In  its 
middle  course  it  resembles  a frozen 
stream  with  an  undulating  surface, 
broken  up  by  fissures  or  crevasses.  As 
it  descends  it  experiences  a gradual 
diminution  from  the  action  of  the  sun 
and  rain,  and  from  the  heat  of  the  earth. 
Hence  a phenomenon  universally  at- 
tendant on  glaciers — the  issue  of  a stream 
of  ice-cold  turbid  water  from  their  lower 
extremity.  The  descent  of  glaciers  is 
shown  by  changes  in  the  position  of 
masses  of  rock  at  their  sides  and  on  their 
surface.  A remarkable  glacier  phenome- 
non is  that  of  moraines,  as  they  are 
called,  consisting  of  accumulations  of 
stones  and  detritus  piled  up  on  the  sides 
of  the  glacier,  or  scattered  along  the 


surface.  They  are  composed  of  fragments 
of  rocks  detached  by  the  action  of  frost 
and  other  causes.  The  fissures  or 
crevasses  by  which  glaciers  are  traversed 
are  sometimes  more  than  100  feet  in 
depth,  and  from  being  often  covered 
with  snow  are  exceedingly  dangerous 
to  travelers.  One  of  the  most  famous 
glaciers  of  the  Alps  is  the  Mfer  de  Glace, 
belonging  to  Mont  Blanc,  in  the  valley 
of  Chamouni,  about  5700  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  is  more  especially, 
however,  in  the  chain  of  Monte  Rosa 
that  the  phenomena  of  glaciers  are  ex- 
hibited in  their  greatest  sublimity,  as 
also  in  their  most  interesting  phases 
from  a scientific  point'of  view.  Glaciers 
exist  in  all  zones  in  which  mountains  rise 
above  the  snow-line.  Those  of  Norway 
are  well  known,  and  they  abound  in 
Iceland  and  Spitzbergen.  Hooker  and 
other  travelers  have  given  accounts  of 
those  of  the  Himalaya.  They  are  con- 
spicuous on  the  Andes,  while  the  South- 
ern Alps  of  New  Zealand  rival  in  this 
respect  the  Alpine  regions  of  Switzer- 
land. 

The  problem  of  the  descent  of  the 
glaciers  is  of  extraordinary  interest,  and 
various  theories  have  been  put  forward 
to  account  for  it.  It  was  shown  by  Pro- 
fessor J.  D.  Forbes,  of  Edinburgh,  that  a 
glacier  moves  very  much  like  a river; 
the  middle  and  upper  parts  faster  than 
the  sides  and  the  bottom ; and  he  showed 
that  glacier  motion  was  analogous  to  the 
way  in  which  a mass  of  thick  mortar  or  a 
quantity  of  pitch  flows  down  in  an  in- 
clined trough.  His  theory  is  known  as  the 
viscious  theory  of  glaciers,  which  pre- 
supposes that  ice  is  a plastic  body,  and 
this  plasticity  has  been  satisfactorily 
explained  by  Professor  James  Thomson 
of  Glasgow  by  the  phenomenon  of  the 
melting  and  refreezing  of  ice.  Water,  he 
discovered,  when  subjected  to  pressure, 
freezes  at  -a  lower  temperature  than 
when  the  pressure  is  removed.  Conse- 
quently when  ice  is  subjected  to  pressure 
it  melts;  if  it  is  relieved  of  pressure  the 
water  again  solidifies. —Therefore  if  t-wo 
pieces  of  ice  are  pressed  together,  they 
tend  to  relieve  themselves  by  melting 
at  their  points  of  contact,  and  the  water 
thus  produced  immediately  solidifies  on 
its  escape.  If  ice  is  strained  in  any  way 
it  similarly  relieves  itself  at  the  strained 
parts,  and  a similar  regelation  follows. 
This,  when  applied  to  the  glaciers,  gives 
a complete  explanation  of  their  plas- 
ticity. Pressed  downward  by  the  vast 
superincumbent  mass,  the  ice  gradually 
yields.  Melting  and  refreezing  takes  place 
at  some  parts,  at  others  the  gradual 
yielding  at  strained  points  goes  on.  In 
the  latter  process  there  is  no  visible  melt- 
ing but  there  is  the  gradual  yielding 
from  point  to  point  to  the  pressure  above 
and  there  is  the  transference  relatively 
to  each  other  of  the  molecules  that  con- 
stitute the,  at  first  sight,  solid  mass.  If 
however,  at  certain  points  the  strain  is 
intense,  the  ice  becomes  extremely 
brittle.  The  latter  fact  disposes  of 
Tyndall’s  objection  to  Forbes’  theory, 
which  was  based  on  the  fact  that  cre- 
vasses proved  the  brittleness,  and  not 
the  viscosity  of  ice. 

GLACIER  TABLES,  large  stones  found 
on  glaciers  supported  on  pedestals  of  ice. 
The  stones  attain  this  peculiar  position 


GLADBACH 


GLASGOW 


by  the  melting  away  of  the  ice  around 
them,  and  the  depression  of  its  general 
surface  by  the  action  of  the  sun  and  rain. 
The  block,  like  an  umbrella,  protects  the 
ice  below  it  from  both;  and  accordingly 
its  elevation  measures  the  level  of  the 
glacier  at  a former  period.  By  and  by 
the  stone  table  becomes  too  heavy 
for  the  column  of  ice  on  which  it  rests, 
or  its  equilibrium  becomes  unstable, 
whereupon  it  topples  over,  and  falling 
on  the  surface  of  the  glacier  defends  a 
new  space  of  ice,  and  begins  to  mount 
afresh. 

GLADBACH  (Monchen-),  a town  of 
Prussia,  province  of  Rheinland,  16  miles 
west  of  Diisseldorf,  with  extensive 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  mixed 
cotton  goods,  etc.  Pop.  58,023. 

GLADIATORS,  combatants  who 
fought  at  the  public  games  in  Rome  for 
the  entertainment  of  the  spectators. 
The  first  instance  known  of  gladiators 
being  exhibited  was  in  b.c.  264,  by 
Marcus  and  Decimus  Brutus  at  the 
funeral  of  their  father.  They  were  at 
first  prisoners,  slaves,  or  condemned 
criminals;  but  afterward  freemen 
fought  in  the  arena,  either  for  hire  or 
from  choice;  and  latterly  men  of  sena- 
torial rank,  and  even  women,  fought. 
The  regular  gladiators  w'ere  instructed 
in  schools  (ludi),  and  the  overseer 
(lanista)  purchased  the  gladiators  and 
maintained  them.  Men  of  position  some- 
times kept  gladiatorial  schools  and 
lanistae  of  their  own.  The  gladiators 
fought  in  the  schools  with  wooden 
swords.  In  the  public  exhibitions,  if  a 
vanquished  gladiator  was  not  killed  in 
the  combat,  his  fate  was  decided  by  the 
people.  If  they  wished  his  death,  per- 
haps because  he  had  not  shown  sufficient 
skill  or  bravery,  they  held  up  their 
thumbs;  the  opposite  motion  was  the 
signal  to  save  him.  The  victor  received 
a branch  of  palm  or  a garland.  The 
gladiators  were  classified  according  to 
their  arms  and  mode  of  fighting;  thus 
there  were  retiarii  who  carried  a trident 
and  a net  (L.  rete)  in  which  they  tried  to 
entangle  their  opponent;  Thracians, 
who  were  armed  with  the  round  Thrac- 
ian buckler  and  a short  sword ; secutores, 
who  were  pitted  against  the  retiarii;  etc. 

GLADSTONE,  Right  Hon.  WUliam 
Ewart,  a great  British  statesman,  was 
born  at  Liverpool  in  1809,  and  died  at 
Hawarden  in  1898.  In  1832  the  first 
reform  act  was  passed,  and  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s public  career  commenced  by  his 
being  returned  for  Newark,  and  when 
Peel  assumed  office  in  1834  he  accepted 
the  post  of  junior  lord  of  the  treasury. 
He  took  part  with  Peel  in  the  repeal  of 
the  corn-laws,  a course  which  cost  him 
his  seat  for  Newark.  In  1847  he  was  re- 
turned for  Oxford  university,  and  he 
then  supported  the  bill  for  the  removal 
of  Jewish  disabilities,  the  repeal  of  the 
navigation  laws,  etc.  He  now  began  to 
develop  remarkable  ability  as  a financier 
and  fiercely  attacked  Mr.  Disraeli’s 
budget  of  1852.  The  same  year  he  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  exchequer  under 
the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  a post  which  he 
also  held  for  a short  time  in  1855  under 
Lord  Palmerston.  In  1858  he  became 
high  commissioner  extraordinary  to 
the  Ionian  Islands,  and  his  Studies  on 
Homer  appeared  about  the  same  time. 


In  1859  h«  again  took  office  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  under  Lord  Pal- 
merston. At  the  general  election  of  1865 
Mr.  Gladstone  was  returned  for  South 
Lancashire,  and  on  the  decease  of  Lord 
Palmerston  he  became  the  liberal  leader 
in  the  commons  in  the  Russell  adminis- 
tration, still  continuing  to  hold  the 
chancellorship  of  the  exchequer.  The 
government,  being  defeated  on  the  re- 
form question,  went  out  in  1866,  and 
Lord  Derby  came  into  power.  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved  in  1874,  and  the 
conservatives  ousted  Mr.  Gladstone 
from  office,  as  they  had  secured  a good 
majority.  During  Lord  Beaconsfield’s 


Right  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone. 


tenure  of  office  Mr.  Gladstone  denounced 
the  Bulgarian  atrocities,  the  Anglo- 
Turkish  treaty,  and  the  Afghan  war, 
and  his  speeches  during  his  candidature 
for  Midlothian  greatly  helped  to  render 
the  government  unpopular.  In  1880  the 
general  election  reinstated  Mr.  Glad- 
stone firmly  into  power  (Midlothian  be- 
ing now  _ his  constituency),  and  his 
second  Irish  land  bill  became  law  in 
the  following  year.  In  1882  a prevention 
of  crimes  and  an  arrears  act  for  Ire- 
land were  passed,  and  in  1883  measures 
relating  to  bankruptcy,  etc.,  were  also 
carried.  In  1884  the  bill  extending 
household  suffrage  to  the  counties  was 
carried,  and  the  Gladstone  ministry  fell 
the  next  year.  Lord  Salisbury,  who  had 
formed  an  administration,  got  the  re- 
distribution of  seats  bill  passed,  and 
under  it  took  place  the  general  election 
of  1885,  Mr.  Gladstone  still  continuing 
to  represent  Midlothian.  Next  year 
Lord  Salisbury  resigned  after  an  ad- 
verse vote  in  the  commons,  and  Mr. 
Gladstone  again  came  into  power.  He 
now  introduced  a home  rule  bill  for 
Ireland  (April  8, 1886).  It  failed  to  pass 
the  commons,  and  the  result  of  the 
general  election  which  followed  was 
emphatically  adverse  to  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
proposals.  He  had  to  make  way  for 
Lord  Salisbury,  but  in  1892  he  again 
became  premier.  After  passing  a home 
rule  bill  through  the  commons  he  re- 
signed office  in  1894,  and  next  year 
retired  from  political  life.  His  works  in- 
clude The  State  in  its  Relations  with  the 
Church  (1838);  Studies  on  Homer  and 
the  Homeric  Age;  Juventus  Mundi; 
Homeric  Synchronism;  Landmarks  of 
Homeric  Study;  The  Impregnable  Rock 
of  Holy  Scripture,  etc. 


GLAMOR'GAN,  or  GLAMORGAN- 
SHIRE, a colinty  in  South  Wales;  area, 
547,070  acres.  The  north  and  northeast 
parts  of  the  county  are  extremely  moun- 
tainous, and  often  exhibit  scenes  of  the 
most  romantic  beauty.  The  southern 
portion  is  comparatively  level  and  very 
fertile,  particularly  the  vale  of  Gla- 
morgan. Towns:  Cardiff,  the  capital; 
Merthyr-Tydfil,  Swansea,  and  Neath. 
Pop.  860,022. 

GLANDERS,  one  of  the  most  formi- 
dable diseases  to  which  horses  are  sub- 
ject, indicated  -by  a discharge  of  puru- 
lent matter  from  one  or  both  nostrils, 
with  a hard  enlargement  of  the  sub- 
niaxilliary  glands.  In  acute  glanders  the 
discharge,  by  its  copiousness,  impedes 
respiration  and  ultimately  produces 
suffocation.  The  disease  is  highly  in- 
fectious, and  may  even  be  communicated 
to  man  by  the  purulent  matter  coming 
in  contact  with  any  part  where  the  skin 
is  broken.  The  disease  is  rarely  if  ever 
cured. 

GLANDS,  a certain  class  of  structures 
in  animals,  some  of  them  forming  organs 
which  are  the  seat  of  an  excretion,  and 
provided  with  an  excretory  canal.  In 
man  there  are  two  lachrymal  glands, 
situated  at  the  external  angle  of  the  eyes 
tinder  the  upper  eyelid;  six  salivary,  of 
v/hich  three  are  on  each  side,  behind 
and  under  the  lower  jaw;  two  parotid, 
two  submaxillary,  two  sublingual,  two 
mammary,  'confined  to  the  female  (the 
breasts  in  women);  the  liver,  the  pan- 
creas, the  two  kidneys,  etc.  The 
lymphatic  glands, -^which  take  up  and 
elaborate  the  lymph,  are  somewhat 
different  from  these  in  character;  and 
still  more  different  are  certain  other 
bodies  so  denominated,  as  the  spleen, 
thymus,  pineal,  etc.  Botanists  have 
given  the  name  of  glands  to  small  bodies 
observed  upon  the  surfaces  of  plants, 
and  many  of  which  seem  to  secrete  cer- 
tain fluids. 

GLAS'GOW,  the  largest  city  in  Scot- 
land, and  the  second  largest  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  is  situated  mainly  in 
the  county  of  Lanark  (but  is  now  a 


The  Trongate,  Glasgow. 

county  of  itself),  on  both  banks  of  the 
Clyde,  the  largest  and  more  important 
{iart  of  it  on  the  right  or  north  bank. 
The  southern  portion  is  mainly  built 


GLASGOW  UNIVERSITY 


GLASS  PAPER 


on  low-lying  level  ground,  the  northern 
portion  to  a great  extent  on  a series  of 
elevations  of  varying  heights.  The  river 
is  crossed  by  ten  bridges  (including  rail- 
way bridges),  as  also  by  ferries;  and 
there  are  also  tunnels  under  it.  Glasgow 
has  several  large  and  attractive  public 
parks.  There  are  also  botanic  gardens 
with  extensive  hot-houses.  There  is  a 
public  museum,  and  a collection  of 
pictures  belonging  to  the  city,  contain- 
ing a number  of  very  valuable  works 
_especially  of  the  Venetian  school.  The 
principal  libraries  are  the  University 
Library,  the  Mitchell  Free  Library,  the 
libraries  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  and 
of  the  Faculty  of  Procurators,  and  the 
combined  Glasgow  and  Stirling’s  Li- 
braries. Among  educational  institutions 
after  the  university  are  Anderson’s 
College  Medical  School,  St.  Mungo’s 
College,  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scot- 
land Technical  College,  the  U.  F.  Church 
College,  Queen  Margaret  College  for 
Women,  the  normal  institutions  of  the 
Established  and  United  Free  Churches, 
the  Glasgow  School  of  Art,  the  Veterin- 
ary College,  the  High  School,  under  the 
management  of  the  school  board,  and 
the  Glasgow  Academy.  The  industries 
are  unequaled  for  variety  by  any  town 
in  the  kingdom,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  London.  They  embrace 
cotton,  linen,  woolen,  silk  and  jute,  in  all 
the  processes  of  manufacture;  calico- 
printing,  dyeing,  and  bleaching;  pig  and 
malleable  iron  and  steel,  and  machinery 
and  metal  goods  of  all  descriptions; 
shipbuilding,  which  might  almost  be 
called  a staple,  over  400,000  tons  of 
shipping  having  been  launched  in  some 
years  on  the  Clyde;  extensive  chemical 
works,  potteries,  glass-works,  brick- 
works, breweries,  distilleries,  tanneries, 
tobacco-works,  sugar-refining  works,  etc. 
The  commerce  is  commensurate  in  ex- 
tent with  the  manufactures.  The  river 
itself,  the  chief  highway  of  this  com- 
merce, has  been  made  navigable  for 
large  vessels  up  to  the  heart  of  the  city, 
and  the  harbor  accommodations  is  still 
being  extended  by  the  construction  of 
docks,  quays,  etc.  In  a sanitary  point 
of  view  Glasgow  has  greatly  improved 
in  recent  times,  but  it  still  remains  less 
healthy  than  it  might  be;  and  its  at- 
mosphere is  polluted  with  smoke,  soot, 
and  vapors  from  the  public  works,  and 
its  river  with  sewage.  There  is,  however, 
a great  difference  between  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  different  districts.  The  city 
is  excellently  supplied  with  water  from 
Loch  Katrine,  a distance  of  about  30 
miles.  The  works  are  capable  of  supply- 
ing 60,000,000  gallons  daily.  Pop.  in 
1901,  761,709. 

GLASGOW  UNIVERSITY,  was  founded 
by  a bull  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  1450-51, 
which  conferred  not  only  the  power  of 
creating  masters  and  doctors,  but  privi- 
leges and  immunities  identical  with 
those  of  the  University  of  Bologna.  In 
1577  James  VI.  prescribed  rules  for  the 
government  of  the  university,  giving  it 
a new  charter.  It  has  been  reconstituted 
by  the  Scottish  universities  acts  of 
1858  and  1889,  and  its  constitution  is 
sirnilar  to  that  of  the  others.  The  old 
university  buildings  and  ground  were 
sold  to  the  Glasgow  Union  railway  co. 
in  1864  for  $500,000,  a sum  which,  sup- 


plemented by  university  funds,  govern- 
ment grant,  public  subscriptions  and 
donations,  has  enabled  upward  of 
13,000,000  to  be  e.xpended  on  fine  new 
buildings  in  the  west  end  of  Glasgow. 
The  university  comprises  five  faculties, 
viz.,  art,  science,  divinity,  law,  and 
medicine,  each  of  which  embraces  a 
suitable  equipment  of  chairs  and  pro- 
fessors, the  latter  numbering  31  in  all, 
besides  a number  of  lecturers.  With  it  is 
incorporated  Queen  Margaret  College 
for  women.  The  university  library  num- 
bers about  175,000  volumes. 

GLASS,  an  artificial  substance,  hard, 
brittle,  and  in  its  finest  qualities  quite 
transparent,  formed  by  the  fusion  of 
silicious  matters  with  an  alkali.  Of  the 
origin  of  its  manufacture  nothing  is 
known,  but  the  ancient  Egyptians  car- 
ried the  art  to  great  perfection,  and  are 
known  to  have  practiced  it  as  early  as 
2000  B.C.,  if  not  earlier.  The  Assyrians, 
the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks  and  Etrus- 
cans were  all  acquainted  with  the  manu- 
facture. The  Romans  attained  peculiar 
excellence  in  glass-making,  and  among 
them  it  was  applied  to  a great  variety 
of  purposes.  Among  the  most  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  their  art  are  the  vases 
adorned  with  engraved  figures  in  relief ; 
they  were  sometimes  transparent,  some- 
times of  different  colors  on  a dark  ground 
and  very  delicately  executed.  The  Port- 
land or  Barberini  vase  is  almost  the  only 
surviving  specimen  of  this  kind.  The 
mode  of  preparing  glass  was  known  long 
before  it  was  thought  of  making  windows 
of  it.  The  first  mention  of  this  mode  of 
using  glass  is  to  be  found  in  Lactantius, 
in  the  3rd  century  after  Christ.  St. 
Jerome  also  speaks  of  it  being  so  used 
(422  A.D.).  Benedict  Biscop  introduced 
glass  windows  into  Britain  in  a.d.  674. 
In  church  windows  it  was  used  from  the 
3d  century.  The  Venetians  were  long 
celebrated  for  their  glass  manufacture, 
which  was  established  before  700  a.d. 
Britain  did  not  become  distinguished  for 
glass  until  about  the  commencement  of 
the  16th  century.  Glass  is  largely  made 
in  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
the  United  States.  For  colored  glass 
Bohemia  has  long  had  a high  reputa- 
tion. 

Glass  is  formed  by  the  fusion  of 
silicious  matter,  such  as  powdered  flint 
or  fine  sand,  together  with  some  alkali, 
alkaline  earth,  salt,  or  metallic  oxide. 
The  nature  of  the  glass  will  depend  upon 
the  quality  and  proportion  of  the  in- 
gredients of  which  it  is  formed;  and  thus 
an  infinite  variety  of  kinds  of  glass  may 
be  made,  but  in  commerce  five  kinds  are 
usually  recognized  ; 1.  Bottle  or  coarse 
green  glass.  2.  Broad,  spread,  or  sheet 
window-glass.  3.  Crown-glass,  or  the 
best  window-glass.  4.  Plate-glass,  or 
glass  of  pure  soda.  5.  Flint-glass,  or 
glass  of  lead.  Colored  glass  may  be 
mentioned  as  a sixth  kind.  The  physical 
properties  of  glass  are  of  the  highest 
importance.  Perhaps  the  chief  of  these 
is  its  transparency,  and  next  to  that 
its  resistance  to  acids  (except  hydro- 
fluoric). It  preserves  its  transparency 
in  a considerable  heat,  and  its  expansi- 
bility is  less  than  that  of  any  other 
known  solid.  Its  great  ductility,  When 
heated.'is  also  a remarkable  property. 
It  can,  in  this  state,  be  drawn  into  all 


shapes,  and  even  be  spun  into  the  finest 
threads.  It  is  a bad  conductor  of  heat, 
and  is  very  brittle.  It  is  usually  cut  by 
the  diamond. 

The  works  in  which  glass  is  made  are 
called  glass-houses.  They  are  commonly 
constructed  of  brick,  and  made  of  coni- 
cal form.  A large  vault  is  made  in  the 
interior  of  the  cone,  extending  from  side 
to  side,  and  of  . sufficient  height  to  allow 
workmen  to  wheel  in  and  out  rubbish 
from  beneath  the  furnace,  which  is 
placed  over  the  vault,  and  separated 
from  it  by  an  iron  grating.  The  materials 
used  for  the  formation  of  the  glass  are 
sometimes  calcined  in  a calcar  or  fritting 
furnace,  and  a chemical  union  between 
the  ingredients  commenced,  forming  a 
frit.  But  this  process  is  not  essential,and 
the  materials,  after  being  ground  and 
thoroughly  mixed  up  together,  are  now 
usually  placed  at  once  in  melting  pots  or 
crucibles  made  of  Stourbridge  fire-clajq 
or  other  similar  material,  the  melting- 
pots  being  then  placed  in  the  melting 
furnace  or  oven.  This  is  a kind  of  rever- 
beratory furnace,  is  often  circular  in 
form,  arched  or  domed  above,  and 
capable  of  keeping  up  an  intense  heat. 
The  crucibles  are  placed  in  the  furnace  at 
equal  distances  from  each  other  round 
the  circumference,  each  pot  being  op- 
posite to  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  the 
furnace  in  order  that  the  crucible  may 
be  charged  or  discharged  by  the  work- 
man from  without.  In  recent  times  a 
furnace  called  a tank  furnace  has  come 
into  use  and  enables  melting  pots  to  be 
dispensed  with,  as  the  material  can  be — 
melted  in  and  worked  from  the  furnace 
directly.  The  use  of  the  annealing  fur- 
nace, is  also  essential  in  glass-making, 
the  process  of  allowing  the  glass  to  cool 
there  being  called  annealing.  Unless 
this  process  be  carefully  managed,  the 
articles  formed  in  the  glass-house  can  be 
of  no  use,  from  their  liability  to  break 
by  the  slightest  scratch  or  change  of 
temperature. 

GLASS-PAINTING,  the  art  of  produc- 
ing pictures  upon  glass  with  colors  that 
are  burned  in,  or  by  the  use  of  pieces  of 
colored  glass,  in  which  the  color  forms 
part  of  the  composition  of  the  glass  itself. 
Originally  there  was  but  one  method  of 
making  ornamental  glass  windows, 
which  was  by  the  latter  process:  the 
pieces  of  stained  or  colored  glass  were 
cut  to  the  desired  shape,  and  let  into  the 
grooves  of  finely-made  leaden  frames 
which  formed  the  pattern  in  outline,  so 
that  the  pictures  resembled  mosaic 
work.  In  the  16th  century,  the  enamel 
colors  having  been  discovered,  a new 
process  came  into  vogue,  the  designs 
being  now  painted  on  the  glass  and 
burned  in.  At  the  present  day  the  two 
methods,  or  a combination  of  the  two, 
are  chiefly  employed,  the  mosaic-enamel 
method  being  the  most  common,  and 
consisting  of  a combination  of  these 
two.  The  chief  seats  of  the  art  in  Britain 
are  Birmingham  and  Edinburgh;  in 
France,  Paris  and  Sevres;  and  in  Ger- 
many, Munich  and  Niirnberg. 

GLASS  PAPER,  or  CLOTH,  is  made  by 
strewing  finely  pounded  glass  on  a sheet 
of  paper  or  cloth  which  has  been  be- 
smeared with  a coat  of  thin  glue,  the 
glue  being  still  wet.  It  is  much  used  for 
polishing  metal  and  wood-work. 


GLAUBER 


GLOW-WORM 


GLAUBER,  John  Rudolph,  a German 
chemist,  born  in  1603  or  1604.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  his  discovery  of 
sulphate  of  soda  or  Glauber’s  Salt, 
which  he  termed  sal  mirable,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  great  faith  in  its  medicinal 
qualities. 

GLAUBER’S  SALT,  sulphate  of  so- 
dium, so  called  because^  of  the  impor- 
tance attached  to  its  chemical  and  medi- 
cinal properties  by  Glauber.  It  forms 
large  colorless  monoclinic  prisms,  which 
effloresce  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is 
soluble  in  water,  and  when  heated  melts 
in  its  water  of  crystallization.  It  is 
found  in  many  localities,  both  dissolved 
in  the  water  of  mineral-springs  and  of 
salt  lakes,  round  which  it  effloresces. 

GLAUCO'MA,  in  med.  an  almost  in- 
curable disease  of  the  eye,  in  which  the 
■eyeball  becomes  of  stony  hardness  by 
the  accumulation  of  fluid  within,  and 
the  consequent  increase  of  pressure 
causes  disorganization  of  all  the  tissues. 
Loss  of  sight  is  sometimes  very  rapid. 
Called  also  Glaucosis. 

GLAZING,  is  the  covering  of  earthen- 
ware vess€)k-with  a vitreous  coating  in 
order  to  prevent  their  being  penetrated 
by  fluids.  The  materials  of  common 
glass  would  afford  the  most  perfect  glaz-' 
ing  were  it  not  that  a glazing  of  this  sort 
is  liable  to  cracks  when  exposed  to 
changes  of  temperature.  A mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  oxide  of  lead  and  ground 
flint  is  found  to  be  a durable  glaze  for  the 
common  cream-colored  ware,  and  is 
generally  used  for  that  purpose.  See 
Pottery.  — 

'glee,  in  music,  a composition  in 
three  or  more  parts,  generally  consisting 
of  more  than  one  movement,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  may  vary  greatly,  from 
grave  to  gay,  etc.  Instrumental  accom- 
paniment is  illegitimate. 

GLEIWITZ  (glT'vits),  a town,  Prussia, 
province  of  Silesia,  on  the  Klodnitz.  It 
has  an  extensive  government  iron-works, 
foundries,  machine-works,  glass-works. 
Worsted  and  other  mills,  etc.  Pop. 
52,362. 

GLENS  FALLS,  The,  Warren  co.,  N. 
Y.,  on  the  Hudson  river,  between  Sara- 
toga Springs  and  Lake  George,  and  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  canal  .com- 
pany’s railroad:  50  miles  n.  of  Albany. 
Pop.  15,109. 

GLOBE,  a sphere,  a round  solid  body, 
which  may  be  conceived  to  be  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  a semicircle  about 
its  diameter.  An  artificial  globe,  in 
geography  and  astronomy,  is  a globe  of 
metal,  plaster,  paper,  pasteboard,  etc., 
on  the  surface  of  which  is  drawn  a map, 
or  representation  of  either  the  earth  or 
the  heavens,  with  the  several  circles 
which  are  conceived  upon  them,  the 
former  being  called  the  terrestrial  globe 
and  the  latter  the  celestial  globe.  In  the 
terrestrial  globe  the  wire  on  which  it 
turns  represents  th.e  earth’s  axis,  the 
extremities  of  it  representing  the  poles. 
The  brazen  meridian  is  a ■i>'ertical  circle 
in  'v^iich  the  artificial  globe  turns, 
divided  into  360  degrees,  each  degree 
being  divided  into  minutes  and  seconds. 
The  brass  meridian  receives  the  ends  of 
the  axis  on  which  the  globe  revolves. 
At  right  angles  to  this,  and  consequently 
horizontal,  is  a broad  ring  of  wood  or 
brass  representing  the  horizon;  that  is. 


✓ 


the  true  horizon  of  the  earth  which  lies 
in  a plane  containing  the  earth’s  center. 
The  horizon  and  brass  meridian  are  con- 
nected with  the  stand  on  which  the 
whole  is  supported.  On  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  as  on  other  maps,  are  marked 


The  globe. 


parallels  of  latitude,  meridians,  etc.  On 
a globe  of  some  size  the  meridians  are 
drawn  through  every  15°  of  the  equator, 
each  answering  to  an  hour’s  difference 
of  time  between  two  places.  Hence  they 
are  called  the  hour  circles.  A number  of 
problems  or  questions,  many  of  them 
more  curious  than  useful,  may  be  solved 
by  means  of  a terrestrial  globe.  Among 
the  most  important  are  such  as  to  find 
the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a place, 
the  difference  of  time  between  two 
places,  the  time  of  the  sun’s  rising  and 
setting  for  a given  day  at  a given  place, 
etc. 

GLOBE-FISH,  the  name  given  to 
several  fishes  remarkable  for  possessing 
the  power  of^uddenly  assuming  a glob- 


Pennant’s  globe-fish. 


ular  form  by  swallowing  air  or  water, 
which,  passing  into  a ventral  sac,  in- 
flates the  whole  animal  like  a balloon. 

GLOB'ULIN,  a substance  forming  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  blood 
globules,  and  also  occurring,  mixed  with 
albumen,  in  the  cells  of  the  crystalline 
lens  of  the  eye.  It  resembles  albumen. 

GLORIA  IN  EXCELSIS  DEO,  “glory 
to  God  in  the  highest,”  the  initial  words 
(sung  by  the  angels  when  the  birth  of 
Christ  was  announced  to  the  shepherds) 
of  a short  Latin  hymn  known  as  the 
greater  doxology,  and  used  in  the  service 
of  many  Christian  churches. 

GLORIA  PATRI,  “glory  be  to  the 
Father,”  the  initial  words  of  a short 
formula  or  h3nmn  of  praise  to  the  Trinity 
known  as  the  lesser  doxology. 

GLORIO'SA,  a genus  of  tuberous- 
rooted  climbing  herbs  of  the  nat.  order 
Liliaceae,  so  named  from  the  splendid 
appearance  of  its  flowers.  They  have 
branched  stems  and  flowers  mostly  of  a 


beautiful  red  and  yellow  color,  with  si.x 
long  lanceolate  undulated  segments, 
which  are  entirely  reflexed. 

GLOS'SARY,  a limited  or  partial  dic- 
tionary, a vocabulary  of  words  used  by 
any  author,  especially  in  an  old  author, 
or  one  writing  in  a provincial  dialect  or 
of  words  occurring  in  a special  class  of 
works,  of  the  technical  terms  of  any  art 
or  science,  of  a dialect,  and  the  like. 

GLOTTIS,  the  opening  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  and  be- 
tween the  vocal  chords,  which,  by  its 
dilatation  and  contraction,  contributes 
to  the  modification  of  the  voice. 

GLOUCESTER  (glos'ter),  a city, 
county  of  itself,  parliamentary  borough, 
and  river  port,  England,  capital  of  the 
county  of  same  name,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Severn,  here  divided  into  two 
channels  inclosing  the  Isle  of  Alney  and 
crossed  by  two  fine  bridges,  33  miles 
north  by  east  of  Bristol,  and  95  miles 
west  by  north  of  London.  It  carries  on  a 
considerable  shipping  trade,  the  Glouces- 
ter and  Berkeley  canal  giving  access  to 
the  docks.  Pop.  47,943.  The  count^Ts 
bounded  by  the  Severn,  Monmouth, 
Hereford,  Worcester,  Warwick,  Oxford, 
Berks,  Wilts,  and  Somerset;  area, 
804,977  acres,  of  which  five-sixths  are 
under  crops  and  pasture.  Pop.  634,666. 

GLOUCESTER,  a town  and  port  of 
Essex  CO.,  Mass.,  near  the  extremity  of 
Cape  Ann,  28  miles  n.n.e.  of  Boston.  It 
is  a popular  summer  resort ; and  fisheries 
and  granite  quarrying  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. About  two  miles  distant  is 
Norman’s  Woe,  the  scene  of  the  wreck 
of  the  “Hesperus”  celebrated  by  Long- 
fellow. Pop.  31,430. 

G,LOVERSVILLE,  a /town  in  Fulton 
CO.,  New  York,  44  miles  n.w.  of  Albany. 
Glove-making  is  the  principal  business, 
hence  the  name  of  the  place.  Pop.  21,615 

GLOVES,  coverings  for  the  hand,  or 
for  the  hand  and  wrist,  with  a sepa- 
rate sheath  for  each  finger.  They  are 
made  of  leather,  fur,  cloth,  silk,  linen, 
thread,  cotton,  worsted,  etc.  iThe  chief 
leathers  used  in  glove  manufacture  are 
doe,  buck,  and  calf -skins;  sheep-skin  for 
military  gloves;  lamb-skin  for  much  of 
the  so-called  kid  gloves;  true  kid  for 
the  best  and  finest  gloves;  dog,  rat,  and 
kangaroo  skins,  etc.  The  leather  in  all 
cases  undergoes  a much  lighter  dressing 
than  when  used  for  boots  and  shoes. 
Leather  gloves  are  usually  cut  out  by 
means  of  dies,  and  sewed  by  a machine 
of  peculiar  construction.  The  best 
woolen,  thread,  and  silk  gloves  are  made 
by  cutting  and  sewing,  but  commoner 
gloves  are  made  by  knitting  and  weav- 
ing. Gloves  are  a very  ancient  article  of 
dress,  and  many  curious  customs  and 
usages  are  connected  with  them.  Throw- 
ing the  glove  down  before  a person 
amounted  to  a challenge  to  single  com- 
bat. The  judges  in  England  used  to  be 
prohibited  wearing  gloves  on  the  bench; 
and  it  was  only  in  case  of  a maiden  assize 
that  the  sheriffs  were  allowed  to  present 
a judge  with  a pair  of  gloves. 

GLOW-WORM,  an  insect,  the  name 
being  strictly  applicable  only  to  the 
female,  which  is  without  wings,  some- 
what resembles  a caterpillar,  and  emits 
a shining  green  light  from  the  extremity 
of  the  abdomen.  The  male  is  winged,  and 
flies  about  in  the  evening,  when  it  is 


f 

.1 

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1 


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i 


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i 

1 


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GLOXINIA 


GNEISS 


attracted  by  the  light  of  the  female,  out 
gives  out  no  light  itself.  It  would  seem 
that  the  glow-worm  possesses  the  power 
of  moderating  or  increasing  the  light  at 
will.  Decapitated  specimens  retain  their 


Glow-worm. 


1,  Male.  2,  Female,  upper  side.  3,  Female, 
under  side,  showing  the  three  posterior  seg- 
ments (a)  from  which  the  light  proceeds. 

power  of  giving  out  light  for  a consider- 
able time.  In  pure  oxygen,  warm  water, 
or  when  crushed,  the  light  of  the  lumin- 
ous organs  is  increased  in  intensity.  The 
larvte  are  very  .voracious,  living  on 
snails,  which  they  attack  and  kill. 

GLOXIN'IA,  a genus  of  plants,  distin- 
guished by  the  corolla  approaching  to 
bell-shaped,  the  upper  lip  shortest  and 


Gloxinias. 


two-lobed,  the^ower  three-lobed,  with 
the  middle  lobe  largest,  and  also  by  the 
summit  of  the  style  being  rounded  and 
hollowed.  The  species  are  natives  of 
tropical  America,. 

GLUCK  (gluk),  Christoph  Wilibald, 
Ritter  von,  German  musical  composer, 
born  in  Bavaria  in  1714;  died  at  Vienna 
1787.  In  1740  he  was  employed  to  com- 
pose an  opera  for  the  court  theater  of 
Milan.  The  text  chosen  for  him  was  the 
Artaxerxes  of  Metastasio,  and  the  opera 
was  a triumph,  in  spite  of  the  innova- 
tions of  style  which  the  author  intro- 
duced. In  1742  he  wrote  Demofoonte  for 
Milan;  Demetrio  and  Ipermnestra  for 
Venice;  in  1743  Artamene  for  Cremona, 
and  Siface  for  Milan;  in  1744  Fedra  for 
the  same  theater;  and  in  1745  Allessan- 
dro  neir  Indie  for  Turin,  all  founded  on 
classical  subjects.  Invited  to  London,  he 
produced  La  Caduta  de  Giganti  (Fall  of 
the  Giants),  which  was  not  a success. 
In  London  Gluck  became  deeply  im- 
pressed with  the  majestic  character  of 
Handel’s  airs  and  choruses.  The  Trionfo 
di  Clelia  (1762)  was  the  last  of  his  operas 
in  his  first  style.  The  composer  found  a 
poet  in  the  person  of  Raniero  Calzabigi, 
who  sympathized  with  him  in  his  ideas, 
and  the  result  of  their  co-operation  was 
the  Orfeo  ed  Euridice,  performed  pub- 
licly for  the  first  time  in  1762.  This 
opera  marked  a new  era.  The  fame  it 
acquired  at  once  it  never  lost.  Various 
works  of  lighter  character  filled  up  the 
interval  between  this  year  and  1766, 
when  his  second  great  opera  of  Alceste 
was  produced,  which  raised  public  feel- 
ing to  the  point  of  enthusiam.  A French- 


man of  culture  and  genius,  Bailly  du 
Rollet,  adapted  Racine’s  Iphigenie  en 
Aulide  for  musical  treatment,  and  after 
a considerable  amount  of  opposRion 
from  the  musical  critics  of  the  old  Italian 
and- French  school,  at  that  time  rep- 
resented in  Paris  by  Paccini,  the  piece 
was  brought  out  in  1774.  The  intensest 
excitement  prevailed;  all  Paris  took 
sides,  and  for  a long  time  the  Gluckists 
and  Piccinists  contended  with  much 
bitterness,  but  ultimately  the  victory 
remained  with  the  Gluckists.  Shortly 
after  the  production  of  the  Iphigenie,  the 
Orfeo  was  adapted  for  ancf  put  on  the 
French  stage,  and  was  followed  by  the 
Armide  in  1777,  by  the  Iphig6nie  en 
Tauride  in  1779,  Gluck’s  last  important 
work,  and  by  many  considered  his 
greatest.  It  ends  the  series  of  works 
which  gave  a direction  to  the  operatic 
genius  of  M4hul  and  Cherubini  in  Francte, 
and  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven  in  Ger- 
many. 

GLU'COSE,  a variety  of  sugar,  less 
sweet  than  cane-sugar,  existing  in 
grapes,  and  produced  from  cane-sugar, 
starch,  dextrin,  cellylose,  etc.,  by  the 
action  of  acids,  certain  ferments,  and 
other  reagents.  There  are  two  varieties 
of  it,  distinguished  by  their  action  on 
polarized  light,  viz.  dextro-glucose 
.which  turns  the  plane  of  polarization  to 
the  right  and  laevo-glucose,  which  turns 
it  to  the  left.  When  heated  up  to  400° 
it  becomes  caramel,  and  is  used  by  cooks 
and  confectioners  as  a coloring  matter. 
It  is  called  also  grape-sugar  and  starch- 
sugar,  and  is  produced  both  in  the  solid 
and  in  the  liquid  form,  its  manufacture 
being  now  of  considerable  importance. 
In  the  United  States  the  liquid  sugar,  as 
prepared  from  Indian  corn  starch,  is  what 
is  generally  known  as  glucose,  and  it  is 
used  for  various  purposes,  as  for  con- 
fectionery, canning  fruits,  rhaking  artifi- 
cial Roney,  for  table  syrup,  in  brewing, 

GLU'COSIDES,  a large  class  of  sub- 
stances occurring  in  animal  or  vegetable 
products,  possessing  the  common  prop- 
erty of  yielding  glucose  and  other  prod- 
ucts when  they  are  boiled  with  dilute 
acids,  or  are  acted  on  by  certain  fer- 
ments. 

GLUE,  a gelatinous  substance  ob- 
tained from  different  tissues  of  animals, 
and  used  as  a cement  for  uniting  pieces 
of  wood  or  other  material.  The  best 
quality  is  obtained  from  fresh  bones, 
freed  from  fat  by  previous  boiling,  the 
clippings  and  parings  of  ox-hides,  the 
older  skins  being  preferred;  but  large 
quantities  are  also  got  from  the  skins  of 
sheep,  calves,  cows,  hares,  dogs,  cats, 
etc.,  from  the  refuse  of  tanneries  and 
tawing  works,  from  old  gloves,  from 
.sinews,  tendons,  and  other  offal  of  ani- 
mal origin.  By  a process  of  cleaning 
and  boiling  the  albuminoid  elements  of 
the  animal  matter  are  changed  into 
gelatine.  This  in  a soft  jelly-like  state 
constitutes  size;  dried  into  hard,  brittle, 
glassy  cakes,  which  before  use  must  be 
melted  in  hot  water,  it  forms  the  well- 
known  glue  of  the  joiner,  etc.  When  a 
solution  is  mixed  with  acetic  or  nitric 
acid  it  remains  liquid,  but  still  retains 
its  power  of  cementing;  in  this  state  it  is 
called  liquid  glue.  Marine  glue  is  a 
cement  made  by  dissolving  india-rubber 


in  oil  of  turpentine  or  coal-naptha,  to 
which  an  equal  quantity  of  shellac  is 
added. 

GLUTEN,  a tough  elastic  substance  of 
a grayish  color,  which  becomes  brown 
and  brittle  by  drying,  found  in  the  flour 
of  wheat  and  other  grain.  It  contributes 
much  to  the  nutritive  quality  of  flour,  and 
gives  tenacity  to  its  paste.  A 'similar 
substance,  is  found  in  the  juices  of  cer- 
tain plants. 

GLUTTON,  a carnivorous  quadruped, 
about  the  size  of  a large  badger,  and 
intermediate  between  the  bear  family 
and  the  weasels,  resembling  the  former 
family  in  general  structure  and  the 
latter  in  dentition.  It  inhabits  Northern 
Europe  and  America,  and  is  known  also 
by  the  name  of  wolverene  or  wolverine. 

GLYCERINE,  a transparent  colorless 
liquid,  obtained  from  the  by-products 
of  candle  and  soap  factories  by  saponi- 
fication with  alkalies  or  by  the  action  of 
superheated  steam.  It  sometimes  solid- 
ifies at  a low  temperature  to  a crystal- 
line mass.  It  absorbs  moisture  from 
the  air,  and  dissolves  in  or  mixes  with 
water  and  alcohol  in  all  proportions, 
but  is  insoluble  in  ether.  It  is  the  start- 
ing-point of  certain  valuable  chemical 
products,  one  of  the  chief  of  which  is 
nitro-glycerine. 

GLY'CON,  an  Athenian  sculptor 
known  by  his  colossal  marble  statue  of 
Hercules,  commonly  called  the  “Farnese 
Hercules,”  now  in  the  museum  at  Naples. 
He  probably  lived  in  the  1st  century 

B.C. 

GLYP'TODON,  a gigantic  fossil  eden- 
tate animal,  closely  allied  to  the  arma- 
dilloes,  found  in  the  upper  tertiary 


Glyptodon. 


strata  of  South  America.  It  was  of  the 
size  of  an  ox,  and  was  protected  by  a 
coat  of  mail  formed  of  polygonal  osseous 
plates  united  by  sutures. 

GNAT,  the  name  applied  to  several 
species  of  insects.  The  common  gnat  is  of 
wide  geographical  distribution,  and  is 
noted  for  its  power  of  inflicting  irritating 
wounds.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs 
on  the  surface  of  stagnant  water  in  a 
long  mass.  After  having  remained  in  the 
larva  state  for  about  twenty  days,  they 
are  transformed  into  chrysalids,  in 
which  all  the  limbs  of  the  perfect  insect 
are  distinguishable,  through  the  dia- 
phanous robe  with  which  they  are  then 
shrouded.  After  remaining  three  or  four 
days  wrapped  up  in  this  manner,  they 
become  perfect  insects.  The  trouble- 
some mosquito  belongs  to  the  same 
genus. 

GNEISS  (nis),  a species  of  rock,  com- 
posed of  quartz,  felspar,  and  mica,  ar- 
ranged in  layers.  The  layers,  whether 
straight  or  curved,  are  frequently  thick, 
but  often  vary  considerably  in  the  same 
specimen.  Gneiss  passes  on  one  side 
into  granite,  from  which  it  differs  in  its 
foliated  structure,  and  on  the  other  into 
mica  slate.  It  is  rich  in  metallic  ores, 


GNOME 


GOD 


gold,  silver,  cobalt,  antimony,  copper, 
iron, etc.,  occurringin  this  rock,  but  it  con- 
tains no  fossil  remains.  In  the  United 
States  gneiss  is  a common  rock,  espe- 
cially in  New  England  and  the  eastern 
and  southern  parts  of  New  York. 

GNOME  (nom),  a short,  pithy  saying, 
often  expressed  in  figurative  language, 
containing  a reflection,  a practical  ob- 
servation, or  a moral  maxim.  Amongthe 
Greeks  Theognis,  Phocylides,  and  others 
are  called  the  gnomic  poets,  from  their 
sententious  manner  of  writing. 

GNOME  (nom),  in  the  cabalistic  and 
mediaeval  mythology,  the  name  given 
to  the  spirits  which  dwell  in  the  interior 
of  the  earth,  where  they  watch  over 
mines,  quarries,  and  hidden  treasures. 
They  assume  a variety  of  forms,  but  are 
generally  grotesque  dwarfs,  ugliness  be- 
ing their  appropriate  quality,  though  the 
females,  gnomides,  are  originally  beau- 
tiful. 

GNOSTICS  (nos'tiks),  a general  name 
applied  to  early  schools  of  speculators, 
which  combined  the  fantastic  notions 
of  the  oriental  systems  of  religion  with 
the  ideas  of  the  Greek  philosophers  and 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  They 
nearly  all  agreed  on  the  points  that  God 
is  incomprehensible;  that  matter  is 
eternal  and  antagonistic  to  God;  that 
creation  is  the  work  of  the  Demiurge,  an 
emanation  from  the  Supreme  lleity, 
subordinate  or  opposed  to  God;  and  that 
the  human  nature  of  Christ  was  a mere 
deceptive  appearance.  Certain  forms  of 
Gnosticism  are  mere  adaptations  of  the 
Persian  dualism  to  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  good  and  evil;  while  the 
pantheism  of  India  seems  to  have  been  a 
pervading  influence  in  others.  Simon 
the  magician  (Simon  Magus),  of  whom 
Luke  speaks  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
is  generally  looked  on  as  the  first  of  the 
Gnostics.  There  have  been  no  Gnostic 
sects  since  the  5th  century ; but  many  of 
the  principles  of  their  system  of  emana- 
tions reappear  in  later  philosophical  sys- 
tems, drawn  from  the  same  sources  as 
theirs. 

GNU,  the  wildebeeste  of  the  colonists, 
the  name  given  to  two  species  of  South 
African  antelope.  The  former  species  is 
now  rarely  found  south  of  the  Vaal;  its 
form  partakes  of  that  of  the  antelope, 
ox,  or  horse.  Both  sexes  have  horns 


Common  or  white-tailed  gnu. 


projecting  slightly  outward  and  down- 
ward, then  forming  an  abrupt  upward 
bend.  They  have  bristly  black  hair 
about  the  face  and  muzzle,  a white  stiff 
mane,  and  horse-like  tail.  They  attain  a 
length  of  about  nine  feet,  and  stand 
about  four  feet  high  at  the  shoulder. 
They  live  in  herds;  are  said  to  be  fierce 


when  attacked,  but  when  taken  young 
have  been  found  to  be  eaffable  of  domes- 
tication. The  brindled  gnu  is  larger  than 
the  common  gnu,  has  black  stripes  on 
the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  a black  tail. 
Both  species  wheel  in  a circle  once  or 
twice  before  setting  off  when  alarmed. 

GOA,  a city  in  Hindustan,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  capital  of  the  Portuguese 
territory  of  the  same  name.  The  name 
is  applied  to  two  distinct  places,  namely. 
Old  Goa,  and  New  Goa  or  Panjim.  The 
former  was  once  the  chief  emporium  of 
commerce  between  the  East  and  West, 
and  had  a population  of  200,000,  but  it 
is  now  nearly  deserted,  though  some 
pains  are  taken  to  keep  the  ancient 
churches  and  convents  in  repair.  New 
Gog,  or  Panjim  was  chosen  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Portuguese  viceroy  in 
1759;  and  in  1843  it  was  made  the  capi- 
tal of  Portuguese  India.  The  trade  of 
Goa,  at  one  time  the  most  extensive  of 
any  place  in  India,  is  now  inconsidera- 
ble. Pop.  844-0.  The  territory  around 
Goa  belonging  to  the  Portuguese  has  an 
area  of  1062  sq.  miles.  It  is  well  watered 
and  fertile.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
total  population,  numbering  494,836, 
are  the  descendants  of  Hindus  converted 
to  Christianity  on  the  subjugation  of 
the  country  by  the  Portuguese. 

GOALPA'RA,  a district  of  British 
India,  prov.  of  Assam;  area  3897  sq. 
miles:  pop.  452,304. 

GOAT,  a well-known  horned  ruminant 
quadruped.  The  horns  are  hollow,  erect, 
turned  backward^  annular  on  the  sur- 
face, and  scabrous.  The  male  is  generally 


bearded  under  the  chin.  Goats  are 
nearly  of  the  size  of  sheep,  but  stronger, 
less  timid,  and  more  agile.  They  fre- 
quent rocks  and  mountains,  and  subsist 
on  scanty  coarse  food.  Their  milk  is 
sweet,  nourishing,  and  medicinal,  and 
their  flesh  furnishes  food.  Goats  are  of 
almost  interminable  variety,  and  it  is 
not  certainly  known  from  which  the 
dohiestic  goat  is  descended,  though 
opinion  favors  the  wild  goat  of  Western 
Asia.  Goats  are  generally  subdivided 
into  ibexes  and  goats  proper.  They  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  many 
varieties  are  valued  for  their  hair  or 
wool.  The  skin  is  prepared  for  a variety 
of  purposes,  and  yields  the  leather  well 
known  under  the  name  of  morocco.  The 
cashmere  goat,  as  its  name  indicates,  is 
a native  of  Cashmere;  it  is  smaller  than 
the  common  domestic  goat,  and  has  long 
silky,  fine  hair.  The  angora  goat  is  also 
furnished  with  soft  silky  hair  of  a silver 
white  color,  hanging  down  in  curling 
locks  8 or  9 inches  long.  Its  horns  are  in 
a spiral  form,  and  extand  laterally. 


GOATSUCKER,  a name  common  to 
certain  birds,  as  also  to  all  belonging  to 
the  same  family  from  the  erroneous 
opinion  that  they  suck  goats.  The  Euro- 
pean goatsucker  feeds  upon  nocturnal 
insects,  as  moths,  gnats,  beetles,  etc., 
which  it  catches  on  the  wing,  flying  with 
its  mouth  open.  Its  mouth  is  compara- 


Goatsucker. 


tively  large,  and  lined  on  the  inside  with 
a glutinous  substance  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  those  insects  which  fly  into  it. 
It  has  a light,  soft  plumage,  minutely 
mottled  with  gray  and  brown,  and  is 
about  10  inches  in  length.  The  Ameri- 
can chuckwill’s  widow,  whip-poor-will, 
and  night-hawk  belong  to  the  same 
family. 

GOBELINS  (gob-lan),  MANUFAC- 
TORY, a tapestry  manufactory  at  Paris, 
established  by  Colbert  in  1667,  on  the 
site  of  a previously  existing  manufac- 
tory which  had  been  set  up  by  Gilles 
Gobelin,  a celebrated  dyer  in  the  reign 
of  Francis  I.  Colbert  collected  into  it 
the  ablest  workmen  in  the  divers  arts 
and  manufactures  connected  with  house 
decoration  and  upholstery.  The  Gobe- 
lins has  since  then  continued  to  be  the 
first  manufactory  of  the  kind  in  the 
world,  Many  celebrated  paintings  of  the 
old  Italitan,  French,  and  Spanish  schools 
have,  in  the  most  ingenious  manner, 
been  transferred  to  tapestry. 

GOBI,  Desert  of,  the  Shamo  or  “sand- 
sea”  of  the  Chinese,  an  immense  tract 
of  desert  country,  occupying  nearly  the 
center  of  the  high  table-land  of  Eastern 
Asia,  between  lat.  37°  and  48°  n.,  and 
long.  95°  and  118°e.,  and  extending  over 
a large  portion  of  the  Chinese  territory 
of  Mongolia.  Its  length  is  probably 
about  1000  miles;  mean  breadth,  be- 
tween 350  and  400  miles;  area,  360,000 
sq.  miles.  Its  general  elevation  is  over 
4000  feet  above  sea-level. 

GOD,  the  self-existent,  eternal,  and 
Supreme  Being,  the  creator  and  up- 
holder of  the  universe,  worshiped  by 
most  civilized  nations.  The  Christian 
God  is  an  infinite  and  absolute  being;  a 
perfect  personal  spirit;  eternal;  immut- 
able; omniscient;  omnipotent;  and  per- 
fectly good,  true,  and  righteous.  The 
arguments  for  the  existence  of  God  have 
been  divided  into  the  ontological,  the 
cosmological,  the  psychological,  the 
physico-teleological,  and  the  moral.  The 
ontological  argument  starts  from  the 
idea  of  God  itself,  and  professes  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  God  as  a 
necessary  consequence  from  that  idea. 
This  form  of  argument  is,  in  some  shape 
or  other,  a very  old  one^  but  was  first 


GODAVARI 


GOETHE 


fully  developed  and  applied  by  Anselm 
in  the  11th  century.  The  manner  in 
which  it  was  stated  by  Anselm  is  this: 
“God  must  be  thought  of  as  that  being 
than  whom  none  can  be  thought  greater; 
but  this  being  the  highest  and  most  per- 
fect that  we  can  conceive,  may  be  thought 
as  existing  in  actuality  as  well  as  in 
thought — that  is  to  say,  may  be  thought 
as  something  still  greater;  therefore, 
God,  or  what  is  thought  as  greatest,  must 
exist  not  only  in  thought  but  in  fact.” 
This  argument  has  been  presented  in 
other  forms.  Descartes,  while  refuting 
Anselm’s  form  of  the  ontological  argu- 
ment, revived  it  himself  in  another  form. 
Applying  the  test  of  truth  which  he 
derived  from  his  celebrated  formula — 
“I  think,  therefore  I am,”  that  whatever 
we  clearly  and  distinctly  perceive  to  be- 
long to  the  true  and  unalterable  nature 
of  a thing  may  be  predicated  of  it,  he 
found  on  investigating  God  that  exist- 
ence belongs  to  his  true  and  unalterable 
nature,  and  therefore  may  legitimately 
be  predicated  of  him.  Another  argument 
was  adduced  by  Descartes  to  prove  the 
existence  of  God,  which,  although  not 
the  same  with  the  ontological  argument, 
appears  to  resemble  it.  It  is  called  the 
psychological  argument.  Like  the  onta- 
logical  argument,  it  starts  from  the  idea 
of  a supreme  and  perfect  being,  but  it 
does  not  assert  the  objective  existence 
of  that  being  as  implied  in  its  idea,  but 
infers  such  objective  existence  on  the 
ground  that  we  could  have  acquired  the 
idea  only  from  the  being  which  corres- 
ponds to  it.  The  cosmological  argument 
starts  not  from  an  idea,  but  from  a con- 
tingent existence,  and  infers  from  it  an 
absolutely  necessary  being  as  its  cause. 
Stated  syllogistically  the  argument  is: 
Every  new  thing  and  every  change  in  a 
previously  existing  thing  must  have  a 
cause  sufficient  and  pre-existing.  The 
universe  consists,  of  a system  of  changes. 
Therefore  the  universe  must  have  a 
cause  exterior  and  anterior  to  itself. 
The  argument  called  the  physico- 
teleological  is  that  which  is  commonly 
known  as  the  argument  from  design, 
M'hich  has  been  so  fully  illustrated  by 
Paley  in  his  Natural  Theology.  It  is 
simply  this,  that  in  nature  there  are 
unmistakable  evidences  of  the  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  ends,  which  lead  us 
inevitably  to  the  idea  of  one  that  planned 
this  adaptation,  that  is,  of  God.  The 
moral  argument  is  derived  from  the 
constitution  and  history  of  man  and  his 
relations  to  the  universe,  being  based  on 
such  considerations  as  our  recognition  of 
good  and  evil,  right  and  wrong,  the 
monitions  of  conscience,  and  the  fact 
that  a moral  government  of  the  world 
may  be  observed.  Another  argument 
is  based  on  the  (alleged)  fact  that  a be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  a Supreme  Being 
is  everywhere  found  to  be  implanted  in 
the  breast  of  man.  This  argument  is 
used  among  others  by  Cicero,  and  many 
thinkers  are  inclined  to  give  a good  deal 
of  weight  to  it;  still  it  is  pronounced  by 
others  to  be  at  best  only  a probable 
argument,  if  it  may  be  accepted  as  valid 
to  prove  anything  at  all.  Others  argue 
the  existence  of  God  from  the  manifesta- 
tions which  he  has  made  of  himself  to 
.men,  hut  these,  as  well  as  miracles,  it  is 
admitted  even  by  Christians  theists. 


can  only  be  accepted  as  real  by  such  as 
previously  believed  in  the  divine  exist- 
ence. 

GODA'VARI,  a large  river  of  Central 
India,  which  rises  about  50  miles  from 
the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  flows 
across  the  Deccan  from  the  Western  to 
the  Eastern  Ghats  in  a general  south- 
easterly direction,  and  being  joined  by 
several  affluents,  falls  by  three  principal 
mouths  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  after  a 
course  of  900  miles.  Before  the  river 
divides  there  are  three  great  obstacles 
to  navigation,  caused  by  three  rocky 
barriers. — Godavari  is  also  the  name  of 
a British  district  of  the  Madras  Presi- 
dency; area,  7857  sq.  miles;  pop.  2,078,- 
782.  Coringa  and  Coconada  are  its  chief 
ports. 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON,  leader  of 
the  first  crusade,  son  of  Eustace  II., 
count  of  Boulogne,  born  near  Nivelles, 
1061;  died  at  Jerusalem,  1100.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  while  fighting  for  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.  in  Germany  and 
Italy,  and  was  made  Duke  of  Bouillon.  In 
order  to  expiate  his  sin  of  fighting  against 
the  jmpe,  he  took  the  cross  for  the 
Holy  Land  in  1095,  and  led  80,000  men 
to  the  East  by  way  of  Constantinople. 
The  defeat  of  the  Egyptians  at  Ascalon 
placed  him  in  possession  of  all  the  Holy 
Land,  excepting  two  or  three  places. 
Godfrey  now  turned  his  attention  to 
the  organization  of  his  newly-estab- 
lished government,  and  promulgated  a 
code  of  feudal  laws  called  the  Assize  of 
Jerusalem.  Godfrey  was  a favorite  sub- 
ject of  mediaeval  poetry,  and  is  the 
central  figure  of  Tasso’s  “Jerusalem 
Delivered.” 

GODI'VA,  the  wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of 
Mercia  and  lord  of  Coventry  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  heroine 
of  a celebrated  tradition.  In  1040  cer- 
tain exactions  imposed  on  the  inhabi- 
tants bore  heavily  on  them,  and  Godiva 
interceded  for  their  relief.  Leofric,  how- 
ever, only  laughed  at  her,  and  when  she 
persisted  in  her  entreaties  at  last  said 
to  her,  half  jocularly,  that  he  would 
grant  her  request  if  she  would  ride 
naked  through  the  town  of  Coventry. 
Godiva  took  her  husband  at  his  word, 
proclaimed  that  on  a certain  day  no 
one  should  leave  his  house  before  noon, 
that  all  windows  and  other  apertures 
in  the  houses  should  be  closed,  and  that 
no  one  should  even  look  out  until  noon 
was  past.  She  then  mounted  naked  on 
her  palfrey,  rode  through  the  town,  and 
returned;  and  Leofric,  in  fulfillment  of 
his  promise,  freed  the  inhabitants  from 
the  burdens  he.  had  imposed  on  them. 
Only  one  person,  “Peeping  Tom,”  the 
story  says,  attempted  to  look  out,  and 
he  was  immediately  struck  blind.  A 
yearly  pageant,  in  which  a young  woman 
enacted  the  part  of  Godiva,  was  long 
kept  up  at  Coventry,  and  still  occasion- 
ally takes  place.  'Tennyson’s  poem  on 
Godiva  is  well  known. 

GOD'KIN,  Edward  Lawrence,  Ameri- 
can editor,  was  born  in  Moyne,  County 
Wicklow,  Ireland,  in  1831.  In  185.6  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  where  he  read 
law  under  David  D.  Field,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1859.  In  1865  he  estab- 
lished and  became  the  editor  of  the  Na- 
tion. In  1881  the  Nation wasmerged with 
the  Evening  Post,  of  which  it  became 


the  weekly  edition,  and  was  thereaftei 
editor  and  proprietor  of  the  combined 
publications.  His  editorials  in  the 
Nation  from  the  first  influenced  in 
manifold  ways  the  best  thought  of  the 
time,  and  he  made  the  Evening  Post, 
of  which  he  became  editor-in-chief  in 
1883,  the  leading  independent  American 
daily.  He  died  in  1902. 

GODWIN,  Earl  of  Wessex,  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  noble,  born  about  990;  died  1052. 
In  1018  he  was  created  an  earl  by 
Canute,  and  married  the  king’s  niece 
Gytha.  During  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  who  married  Godwin’s  daugh- 
ter, a quarrel  arose  between  Godwiri  and 
the  king,  occasioned  by  the  partiality 
of  Edward  for  Norman  favorites,  and 
Godwin  was  compelled  to  quit  the  king- 
dom. In  1052,  however,  he  returned 
with  an  army,  forced  Edward  to  enter 
into  negotiations  with  him,  re-estab- 
lished himself  triumphantly  in  his  old 
supremacy,  and  caused  the  expulsion 
from  the  kingdom  of  most  of  the  Nor- 
man intruders.  He  was  the  father  of 
Harold,  the  last  Anglo-Saxon  king. 

GOE'THE  (geu'te),  Johann  Wolfgang 
von,  the  greatest  figure  in  German 
literature,  was  born  August  28,  1749, 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  died  at  Wei- 
mar, March  22,  1832.  He  was  sent  to 
the  University  of  Leipzig  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  legal  profession,  but  he 
did  not  follow  any  regular  course  of 
studies.  Goethe  began  at  this  period 
what  he  practiced  throixghout  his  life, 
to  embody  in  a poem,  or  in  a poetical 
form,  whatever  occupied  his  mind  in- 
tensely; and  no  one,  perhaps,  was  ever 
more  in  need  of  such  an  exercise,  as  his 
nature  continually  hurried  him  from 
one  extreme  to  another.  In  1768  he 
left  Leipzig,  and  after  an  illness  of  some 
length  went  in  1770  to  the  University 
of  Strasburg,  to  pursue  the  study  of 
law,  according  to  the  wish  of  his  father. 
In  1771  he  took  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  jurisprudence,  and  wrote  a disserta- 
tion on  a legal  subject.  He  then  went 
to  Wetzlar  to  practice  law,  where  he 
found,  in  his  OAvn  love  for  a betrothed 
lady,  and  in  the  fate  of  a young  man 
named  Jerusalem,  the  subjects  for  his 
striking  work.  The  Sorrows  of  Werther, 
which  formed  an  epoch  in  German 
literature.  The  attention  of  the  public 
had  already  been  attracted  to  him, 
however,  by  his  drama  Gotz  von  Ber- 
lichingen  (published  1773L  Werther 
appeared  in  1774.  Not  long  after  the 
publication  of  Werther,  Charles  Augus- 
tus, the  hereditary  duke  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Goethe  on  a jjurney,  and  when  in  1775 
he  took  the  government  into  his  own 
hands,  he  invited  Goethe  to  his  court. 
Goethe  accepted  the  invitation,  and  on 
the  7th  of  November,  1775,  arrived  at 
Weimar..  In  1776  he  was  made  privy- 
councillor  of  legation,  with  a seat  and 
vote  in  the  privy-council.  In  1782  he 
was  made  president  of  the  chamber,  and 
ennobled.  In  1786  he  made  a journey 
to  Italy,  where  he  remained  two  years, 
visited  Sicily,  and  remained  a long  time 
in  Rome.  This  residence  in  Italy  had 
the  effect  of  still  further  developing  his 
artistic  powers.  Here  his  Iphigenia  was 
matured,  Egmont  finished,  and  Tasso 
projected.  The  first  of  these  was  pub- 


GOG  AND  MAGOG 


GOLDEN  AGE 


lished  in  1787,  the  second  in  1788,  and 
the  third  in  1790.  In  the  same  jmar  with 
Tasso  was  published  the  earliest  form 
of  the  first  part  of  Faust,  with  the  title 
Dr.  Faust,  ein  Trauerspiel  (Dr.  Faust, 
a Tragedy),  a poem  in  a dramatic  form, 
which  belongs  rather  to  Goethe’s  whole 
life  than  to  any  particular  period  of  it. 
In  1794-96  Goethe  published  Wilhelm 
Meister’s  Lehrjahre  (Wilhelm  Meister’s 
Apprenticeship),  a novel  which  has  be- 
come well  known  to  English  readers 
through  the  translation  of  Carlyle,  and 
which  had  as  a continuation  Wilhelm 
Meister’s  Wanderjahre  (that  is,  his 
travels  as  a journeyman;  1821).  His  next 
work  of  importance  was  Hermann  und 
Dorothea  (1797),  a narrative  poem,  in 
hexameter  verse,  the  characters  of 
which  are  taken  from  humble  life.  In 
1806  Goethe  married- Christiane  Vul- 
pius,  with  whom  he  had  lived  since  1788, 
and  of  whom  he  always  spoke  with 
warmth  and  gratitude  for  tb^  degree 
in  which  sue  had  contributed  to  his 
domestic  happiness.  In  1808  he  pub- 
lished another  edition  of  Faust  in  a 
considerably  altered  form.  In  1809  was 
published  Elective  Affinities.  In  1811-14 
appeared  Goethe’s  autobiography,  in 
1819  the  Westostlicher  Divan,  a remark- 
able collection  of  oriental  songs  and 
poems.  Goethe’s  last  work  was  the 
second  part  of  Faust,  which  was  com- 
pleted on  the  evening  before  the  last 
anniversary  of  his  birthday  which  he 
lived  to  see.  ' 

' GOG  AND  MAGOG,  Ezekiel  predicts 
the  destruction  of  Gog  and  Magog  (ch. 
xxxviii  and  xxxix,)  by  the  Jews,  and 
mention  is  also  made  of  them  in  Revela- 
tion (ch.  XX.).  Interpreters  generally 
understand  them  to  be  symbolical  ex- 
pressions for  the  heathen  nations  of 
Asia.  Magog  is  mentioned  as  the  second 
son  of  Japheth  in  Genesis  (ch.  x,  2). 
Gog  and  Magog  are  also  the  names  given 
to  two  reputed  giants  of  early  British 
history,  whose  statues  are  erected  in  the 
Guildhall  in  London.  These  statues  are 
supposed  to  have  been  originally  made 
for  carrying  about  in  pageants.  The 
present  figures  of  Gog  and  Magog,  which 
are  14  feet  high,  were  erected  in  1708. 

GOGAL,  Nikolai  Vassiljevich,  Russian 
author,  born  in  the  province  of  Poltava 
1809,  died  in  1852.  Among  his  most 
notable  works  are — Evenings  at  the 
Farm  (1832);  Mirgorod,  a collection  of 
Tales  (1834);  the  Dead  Souls  (1842),  a 
satirical  novel,  depicting  the  public 
abuses  and  barbarism  of  manners  prev- 
alent in  the  provinces  and  Revisor,  a 
comedy.  His  later  years  were  tinged 
with  religious  mysticisnj,  and  he  wrote 
some  curious  Confessions. 

GOITRE  (goi'ter),orBRONCHOCELE, 
a disease  endemioin  Derbyshire, Switzer- 
land, some  parts  of  France  and  South 
America,  and  in  many  other  parts  of 
the  world  , chiefly  in  valleys  and  elevated 
plains  in  mountainous  districts.  It  is  a 
morbid  enlargement  of  the  thyroid 
gland,  forming  a soft  and  more  or  less 
mobile  tumor  or  swelling,  without  any 
sign  of  inflammation,  on  the  anterior 
part  of  the  neck.  It  sometimes  grows  to 
such  a size  as  to  hang  down  over  the 
breast,  and  respiration  and  swallowing 
may  be  impeded  by  it,  though  often  it 
causes  little  inconvenience.  It  is  re- 


{ 

garded  as  the  result  of  a combination  of 
causes,  among  which  malarial  influences 
probably  concur  with  those  of  the  drink- 
ing water  in  developing  the  disease. 


A female  affected  with  goitre. 

GOLD,  a precious  metal  of  a bright 
yellow  color,  and  the  most  ductile  and 
malleable  of  all  the  metals;  symbol  Au 
(Lat.  aurum);  atomic  weight,  196.  It  is 
one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  metals,  and 
■not  being  liable  to  be  injured  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  is  well  fitted  for  coin 
and  jewerly.  Its  ductility  and  malle- 
ability are  very  remarkable.  It  may  be 
beaten  into  leaves  so  exceedingly  thin 
that  1 grain  in  weight  will  cover  56 
square  inches,  such  leaves  having  the 
thickness  of  only  ^^VfFTfth  part  of  an 
inch.  It  is  also  extremely  ductile;  a 
single  grain  may  be  drawn  into  a wire 
500  feet  long,  and  ah  ounce  of  gold 
covering  a silver  wire  is  capable  of  be- 
ing extended  upward  of  1300  miles. 
It  may  also  be  melted  and  remelted  with 
scarcely  any  diminution  of  its  quantity. 
It  is  soluble  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  or 
aquatzegia,  and  in  a solution  of  chlorine. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  19'3,  or  it  is  about 
nineteen  times  heavier  than  water.  The 
fineness  of  gold  is  estimated  by  carats, 
pure  gold  being  24  carats  fine.  Jeweler’s 
gold  is  usually  a mixture  of  gold  and 
copper  in  the  proportions  of  three- 
fourths  of  pure  gold  with  one-fourth  of 
copper.  Gold  is  seldom  used  for  any 
purpose  in  a state  of  perfect  purity  on 
account  of  its  softness,  but  is  combined 
with  softie  other  metal  to  render  it 
harder.  Articles  of  jewelry  in  gold  are 
made  of  every  degree  of  fineness  up  to 
18  carats,  i.  e.  18  parts  of  gold  to  6 of 
alloy.  The  alloy  of  gold  and  silver  is 
found  already  formed  in  nature,  and 
is  that  most  generally  known.  It  is  dis- 
tinguishable from  that  of  copper  by 
possessing  a paler  yellow  than  pure 
gold,  while  the  copper  alloy  has  a color 
bordering  upon  reddish  yellow.  Palla- 
dium, rhodium  and  tellurium  are  also 
met  with  as  alloys  of  gold. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  smaller  or 
larger  quantities  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  world.  It  is  commonly  found  in 
rfeefs  or  veins  among  quartz,  and  in 
alluvial  deposits.  It  is  separated,  in  the 
former  case,  by  quarrying,  crushing, 
washing,  and  treatment  with  mercury. 
The  rock  is  crushed  by  machinery,  and 
then  treated  with  mercury,  which  dis- 
solves the  gold,  forming  a liquid  amal- 
gam, after  which  the  mercury  is  volatil- 
ized and  the  gold  left  behind.  Other 
processes  are  also  in  use.  In  alluvial 
deposits  it  is  extracted  by  washing,  in 
dust,  grains,  laminae,  or  nuggets.  Previ- 
ous To  the  use  of  water,  crushing  may 
have  to  be  employed.  In  modern  times 
large  supplies  of  gold  were  obtained  after 
the  discovery  of  America  from  Peru, 


Bolivia,  and  other  parts  of  the  New 
World.-  A chief  source  of  the  supply  has 
long  been  the  Ural  Mountains,  whence 
gold  is  still  obtained.  An  immense  in- 
crease in  the  world’s  production  was 
caused  by  the  disco\'ery  of  gold  in  Cali- 
fornia in  1848,  and  Australia  in  1851. 
Goldmines  are  also  extensively  worked 
in  New  Zealand,  and  considerable  quan- 
tities of  the  precious  metal  have  been 
obtained  in  British  Columbia,  and  else- 
where in  Canada.  In  the  United  States, 
apart  from  California,  gold  in  consider- 
able quantities  is  found  in  several  states 
and  territories  (especially  Colorado). 
The  production  of  both  Australia  ^nd 
America  has  shown  much  fluctuation  in 
recent  years,  and  lattejtly  a very  rich 
source  of  supply  has  been  discovered  in 
South  Africa  (the  Transvaal).  It  is  only 
since  1886  that  the  Transvaal  has  risen 
into  importance  as  a gold-producing 
country,  the  chief  locality  .where  the 
metal  is  mined  being  the  Witwatersrand. 
There  are  also  gold-mines  in  India  that 
are  worked  with  great  success.  In 
Western  Australia  also  many  mines 
have  recently  been  opened  (Coolgardie 
being  the  chief  center),  and  the  Yukon 
district  of  Canada  (Klondike)  is  now 
a recognized  gold-field.  British  Guiana 
also  begins  to  promise  well  as  a gold- 
yielding  country.  Gold  has  been  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
as  in  Sutherlandshire,  the  Wicklow 
hills,  and  many  places  in  Wales.  The 
total  value  of  the  gold  produced  through- 
out the  world,  from  1493  to  1850,  is 
estimated  at  $3,314,500,000  and  from 
1851  to  1885,  at  $4,452,500,000.  In 
1887  the  world’s  productiocr'was  esti-  ' 
mated  at  $110,000,000;  in  1898  at  about 
300,000,000;  in  1906,  $400,245,300. 

Enormous  quantities  of  gold  are  con- 
sumed in  the  arts  and  are  lost  by  wear 
of  coin  and  jewelry. 

GOLD-BEATING,  the  art  or  process  of 
producing  the  extremely  thin  leaves  of 
gold  used  in  gilding,  etc.  The  gold  is  cast 
into  ingots  weighing  about  2 oz.  each, 
and  measuring  about  J of  an  inch  broad. 
These  ingots  are  passed  between  steel 
rollers  till  they  form  long  ribbons  of 
such  thinness  that  a square  inch  will 
weigh  6|  grains.  Each  one  of  these  is 
now  cut  into  150  pieces,  each  of  which  is 
beaten  on  an  anvil  till  it  is  about  an 
inch  square.  These  150  plates  are  inter- 
laid with  pieces  of  fine  vellum  about  4 
inches  square,  and  beaten  till  the  gold 
is  extended  nearly  to  the  size  of  the 
vellum  leaves.  Each  leaf  is  then  divided 
into  four,  interlaid  with  gold-beater’s 
skin,  and  beaten  out  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  skin.  Another  similar  division 
and  beating  finishes  the  operation,  after 
which  the  eaves  are  placed  in  paper 
books  ready  for  use. 

GOLD  COAST,  a British  crown-colony 
in  West  Africa,  on  the  Guinea  coast,., 
extending  from  3°  30'  w.  to  1°  30'  e. . 
Ion.,  between  Germany  Togoland  and 
the  French  Ivory  Coast,  and  stretching 
inland  so  as  to  include  the  Ashantee 
country;  estimated  area,  75,000  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  1,486,000. 

GOLDEN  AGE,  that  early  mythologi- 
cal period  in  the  history  of  almost  all 
races,  fabled  to  have  been  one  of  prime- 
val innocence  and  enjo3Tnent,  in  which 
the  earth  was  common  property,  and 


GOLDEN  BEETLE 


/ 


GONDOLA 


brought  forth  spontaneously  all  things 
necessary  for  happy  existence,  while 
beasts  of  prey  lived  at  peace  with  other 
animals.  The  Romans  referred  this  time 
to  the  reign  of  Saturn.  The  so-called 
“golden  age”  of  Roman  literature  is 
reckoned  from  the  time  of  Livius  An- 
dronicus,  250  n.c.,  to  the  death  of 
Augustus  Ctesar,  a.d.  14. 

GOLDEN-BEETLE,  the  popular  name 
of  several  beetles.  There  are  some 
British  species,  most  are  tropical.  Their 
most  obvious  characteristic  is  the  great 
brilliancy  of  their  color.  There  are  none 
of  large  size.. 

GOLDEN-CRESTED  WREN,  Golden- 
crested  Regulus,  or  Kinglet,  a beautiful 
bird  distinguished  by  an  orange  crest. 
It  is  the  smallest  of  Ilritish  birds,  being 
only  about  indies  in  length,  is  very 
agile,  and  almost  continually  in  motion. 
The  eggs  are  nine  or  ten  in  number. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  in  classical  myth, 
the'  fleece  of  gold  in  quest  of  which 
Jason  undept<iok  the  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition to  Coldiis.  The  fleece  was  sus- 
pended in  an  oak  tree  in  the  grove  of 
Ares  (Mars),  and  was  guarded  by  a 
dragon.  When  the  Argonauts  came  to 
Colchis  for  the  fleece,  Medea  put  the 
dragon  to  sleep  and  Jason  carried  the 
fleece  away. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  Order  of  the,  the 
Toison  d’or,  a military  order  instituted 
by  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
in  1429,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  the  Portuguese  princess,  Isabella. 
The  order  now  belongs  to  both  Austria 
and  Spain.  The  knights  carry  suspended 
from  their  collars  the  figure  of  a sheep 
or  fleece  in  gold. 

GOLDEN  HORN,  the  harbor  of  Con- 
stantinople, an  inlet  of  the  Bosphorus,  so 
called  from  its  shape  and  beauty. 

GOLDEN-ROD,  is  a genus  of  plants, 
chiefly  natives  of  North  America.  Most 
of  the  species  have  erect,  rod-like, 
scarcely-branched  stems,  with  alternate 
serrated  leaves,  and  terminal  spikes  or 
racemes  of  small  yellow  flowers. 

GOLDFINCH,  a bird  belonging  to  the 
Finch  family.  It  is  about  five  inches  in 
entire  length,  black,  scarlet,  yellow  and 
white  being  beautifully  mingled  in  its 


The  common  goldfinch. 

plumage.  The  colors  of  the  female  are 
duller  than  those  of  the  male.  Its  bril- 
liant plumage,  soft  and  pleasant  song 
and  docility  make  it  a favorite  cage- 
bird.  Gold-finches  feed  on  various  kinds 
of  seeds,  particularly  those  of  the  thistle, 
dandelion,  and  groundsel. 

GOLDFISH,  the  name  of  a beautiful 
species  of  carp,  found  in  the  fresh  waters 
of  China.  It  is  greenish  in  color  in  the 
natural  state,  the  golden  yellow  color 
being  found  only  in  domesticated  speci- 
mens, and  retained  by  artificial  selec- 

l  ■ 


tion.  These  fishes  are  reared  by  the 
Chinese  in  small  ponds,  in  basins,  or 
porcelain  vessels,  and  kept  for  ornament. 
By  careful  selection,  many  strange 
varieties  and  monstrosities  have  been 
propagated.  They  are  now  distributed 
over  nearly  all  the  civilized  parts  of  the 
world,  but  in  large  ponds  they  readily 
revert  to  the  color  of  the  original  stock. 

GOLD  LACE,  a fabric  woven  of  silken 
threads  which  are  either  themselves  gilt 
or  are  covered  with  fine  gilt  silver  wire. 
In  the  former  tlie  gold-leaf  is  fixed 
directly  on  the  threads  by  means  of  gum'. 
In  the  latter  and  finer  kind  the  fine  gilt 
silver  wire  is  twisted  compactly  round 
the  silk  threads,  which  are  then  ready 
for  being  manufactured  into  lace. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,MADAME.  See  Lind, 
Jenny. 

GOLDSMITH,  Oliver,  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous writer,  born  Nov.  10,1728,  at 
Pallas  county  Longford,  Ireland,  died  in 
London  April  4,  1774.  In  1701  he  was 
introduced  to  Dr.  Johnson.  In  1704  he 
appeared  as  a poet  by  the  publication  of 


Oliver  Goldsmith,  from  the  statue  by  Foley. 

his  Traveler.  In  1700  appeared  his 
Vicar  of  Wakefield,  which  at  once  se- 
cured merited  applause.  His  poetical 
fame  was  greatly  enhanced  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Deserted  Village  in  1770. 
In  1773  he  produced  his  comedy  of  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer,  which  was  com- 
pletely successful.  He  also  compiled* 
histories  of  England,  Greece,  and  Rome; 
and  a History  of  the  Earth  and  Ani- 
mated Nature,  a pleasing  work,  but  one 
of  no  scientific  value.  The  manners  of 
Goldsmith  were  eccentric,  even  to 
absurdity.  As  a poet,  his  Traveler  and 
Deserted  Village  have  given  him  a de- 
served reputation;  and  his  Vicar  of 
Wakefield  is  one  of  the  best  known  and 
most  delightful  of  English  novels. 

GOLF,  a game  played  with  clubs  and 
balls,  generally  over  large  commons, 
downs,  or  links,  where  a series  of  small 
round  holes  are  cut  in  the  turf  at  dis- 
tances of  from  100  to  500  yards  from 
each  other,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  so  as  to  form  a circuit  or 
round.  The  clubs  are  of  different  uses, 
and  have  different  names,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  respec- 
tively designed;  as  the  driver,  putter, 
brassey,  mashie,  cleek,  iron,  niblick,  etc. 
The  rival  players  are  one  on  each  side, 
or  two  against  two,  in  which  case  the 
two  partners  strike  the  ball  on  their  side 
alternately.  The  object  of  the  game  is, 
starting  from  the  first  hole,  to  drive  the 
ball  into  the  next  hole  with  as  few 


strokes  as  possible,  and  so  on  with  all 
the  holes  in  succession,  the  sid^  which 
“holes”  its  ball  on  any  occasion  with 
the  fewest  strokes  being  said  to-gain  the 
hole.  The  match  is  usually  decided  by 
the  greatest  number  of  holes  gained  in 
one  or  more  rounds,  or  the  aggregate 
nurfiber  of  strokes  taken  to  hole  one  or 
more  rounds.  In  medal  play  the  score 
is  always  reckoned  by  strokes. 

GOL'GOTHA.  See  Calvary. 

GOLI'ATH,  a giant  of  Gath  slain  by 
David  (1  Sam.  xvii.).  His  height  was 
“six  cubits  and  a span,”  which,  taking 
the  cubit  at  21  inches,  would  make  him 
a little  over  11  feet.  The  Septuagint  and 
Josephus  read,  “four  cubits  and  a span.” 

GOLOSH'ES,  a word  introduced  into 
our  language  from  the  French  galoche, 
but  originally  derived  from  the  Spanish 
galocha,  meaning  a wooden  shoe  or  clog. 
It  was  formerly  applied  by  the  English 
to  a kind  of  wooden  clog.  The  name  is 
now  restricted  to  overshoes,  now  gen- 
erally made  of  vulcanized  india-rubber. 

GOMEZ  Y BAEZ,  Maximo,  Cuban, 
general,  born  in  1826  at  Bani,  Santo 
Domingo.  He  served  in  the  Spanish 
army  in  Santo  Domingo  and  in  Cuba. 
He  left  the  Spanish  army,  settled  down 
as  a planter,  and  in  the  insurrection  of 
1868-78  joined  the  insurgents,  and  was 
made  colonel  by  the  Cuban  president 
Cespedes.  He  became  general-in-chief 
of  the  forces  of  the  Republic  of  Cuba  in 
1895,  when  the  second  revolution  broke 
out,  and  was  especially  active  in  Cama- 
guey,  where  his  perfect  familiarity  with 
the  country  stood  him  in  good  stead. 
He  did  little  open  fighting,  but  accom- 
plished much  by  harassing  the  Spaniards 
and  destroying  their  supplies.  He  put 
his  small  force  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Americans  as  soon  as  they  landed  in 
Cuba,  and  was  markedly  friendly  to  this 
country.  In  March,  1899,  he  was  de- 
posed from  his  supreme  command  by 
the  Cuban  assembly  for  traitorously 
receiving  for  his  army  the  three  million 
of  dollars  voted  by  the  United  States 
government.  He  died  in  1906. 

GOMOR'RAH.  See  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah. 

GOM'PERS,  Samuel,  American  labor 
leader,  born  in  London,  England,  in 
1850.  He  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1863,  and  in  1864  became  the  first 
registered  member  of  the  Cigar-makers’ 
international  union,  of  which  he  was 
secretary  and  president,  and  which  he 
made  one  of  the  most  successful  of 
American  trades  unions.  He  was  elected 
vice-president  of  the  Federation  of 
labor  in  1881,  and  from  1882,  with  the 
exception  of  the  year  1894,  when  he  was 
defeated  by  John  McBride,  representing 
the  coal-miners,  was  its  president. 
Among  the  state  and  federal  laws  passed 
at  his  instance  are  the  eight-hour  law  for 
government  work,  the  ten-hour  law  for 
the  employees  of  street  railways,  and 
that  making  the  first  Monday  of  Sep- 
tember a legal  holiday  with  the  title 
“Labor  Day.”  His  writing$  include 
pamphlets  on  labor  matters. 

GON'DOLA,  a sort  of  barge,  curiously 
ornamented,  and  navigated  on  the 
canals  of  Venice.  The  middle-sized 
gondolas  are  upwards  of  30  feet  long 
and  4 broad;  they  always  terminate  at 
each  end  in  a very  sharp  point,  which  is 


gonfalon 


GOPHER 


raised  perpendicularly  to  the  height  of 
a man.  Toward  the  center  there  is  a 
curtained  chamber  for  passengers. 


Gondola. 

GON'FALON,  an  ensign  or  standard; 
especially  an  ensign  having  two  or  three 
streamers  or  tails,  fixed  on  a frame  made 
to  turn  like  a ship’s  vane,  or,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Papal  gonfalon,  suspended 


Gonlalon. 


from  a pole  similarly  to  a sail  from  a 
mast.  The  person  intrusted  with  the 
gonfalon  in  many  of  the  mediaeval  re- 
publican cities  of  Italy  was  often  the 
chief  personage  in  the  state. 

GONG,  a Chinese  musical  instrument 
made  of  an  alloy  of  copper  (about 
seventy-eight  parts)  and  tin  (about 
twenty-two  parts),  in  form  like  a round 
flat  dish  with  a rim  2 to  3 inches  in 
depth.  It  is  struck  by  a kind  of  drum- 
stick, the  head  of  which  is  covered  with 
leather,  and  is  used  for  the  purpose  of 
making  loud  sonorous  signals,  of  mark- 
ing time,  and  of  adding  to  the  clangor 
of  martial  instruments. 

GONORRHOEA  (gon-o-re'a),  a specific 
contagious  inflammation  of  the  male 
urethra  or  the  female  vagina,  attended, 
from  its  early  stages,  with  a profuse 
secretion  of  much  mucus  intermingled 
with  matter.  This  secretion  contains 
the  contagion  of  the  disease.  Though 
termed  a venereal  disease,  it  is  totally 
distinct  from  syphilis.  It  is  a painful 
disease,  and  may  result  in  the  chronic 
catarrh  called  gleet,  or  may  lead  to 
stricture  and  other  serious  evils. 

GONSAL'VO,  Hernandez  y Aguilar, 
de  Cordova,  Spanish  soldier,  called  the 
great  captain,  was  born  at  Montilla, 
near  Cordova,  in  1453,  died  at  Granada 
1515.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Portuguese  war  which  began  in  1475, 
and  in  the  great  war  with  the  Moors, 
which  ended  with  the  conquest  of 
Granada  in  1492.  In  1495  he  was  sent 
to  assist  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  Naples, 
against  the  French,  who  occupied  the 
whole  of  that  kingdom.  In  less  than  a 
year  Gonsalvo  drove  the  French  over 
the  Neapolitan  frontiers,  and  returned 
to  Spain,  where  he  was  engaged  in  sub- 
jecting the  Moors  in  the  Alpujarras, 


when  Louis  XII.  of  France  renewed  the 
war  against  Naples.  Gonsalvo  again 
took  the  field,  and  by  the  victory  near 
Seminara  in  1502  obtained  possession 
of  both  Calabrias.  In  1503  he  gained  a 
still  more  important  victory  near 
Cerignola,  in  consequence  of  which 
Abruzzo  and  Apulia  submitted,  and 
Gonsalvo  marched  into  Naples.  He  then 
sat  down  before  Gaeta.  As  the  siege  was 
protracted,  he  gave  up  the  command  to 
Don  Pedro  Navarro,  and  advanced  to 
meet  the  enemy.  He  defeated  the  Mar- 
quis of  Mantua;  and  on  the  Garigliano, 
with  8000  men,  obtained  a complete 
victory  over  30,000  French,  the  con- 
sequence of  which  was  the  fall  of  Gaeta. 
The  possession  of  Naples  was  now 
secured.  He-^'as  viceroy  in  Italy  until 
1507,  when,  through  the  jealousy  of  the 
king  and  the  calumnies  of  the  courtiers, 
he  was  deprived  of  his  office^  and  retired 
to  Granada,  where  he  died. 

GONZAGA  FAMILY,  a famous  Italian 
family  who  ruled  over  Mantua  for  over 
three  centuries  Many  illustrious  soldiers, 
statesmen,  churchmen,  and  promoters 
and  cultivators  of  arts,  science,  and 
literature  sprang  from  this  stock.  They 
became  extinct  in  1708. 

GOOD-FRIDAY,  a fast  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  memory  of  our  Savior’s 
crucifixion,  kept  on  the  Friday  of 
Passion-week,  that  is  the  Friday  before 
Easter.  It  has  been  celebrated  from  a 
very  early  period.  In  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  the  celebration  of  this  fast 
includes  prayers  for  all  classes  of  people, 
including  heretics,  schisftlatics,  pagans, 
and  Jews,  and  the  “Adoration  of  the 
Cross,’’  but  no  mass  is  celebrated.  In 
Protestant  churches,  with  but  a few 
exceptions,  the  day  is  observed  with 
more  or  less  solemnity.  The  practice  of 
eating  “cross-buns”  on  this  day  has 
now  no  religious  significance. 

GOOD  HOPE,  Cape  of.  See  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

GOODRICH,  Samuel  Griswold,  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Ridgefield,  Con- 
necticut, 1793;  died  1860.  He  is  best 
known  as  “Peter  Parley,”  a pseudonym 
which  he  assumed  in  writing,  editing, 
and  compiling  upwards  of  100  children’s 
books.  In  1851  he  acted  as  American 
consul  at  Paris,  and  published  there  in 
French  a treatise  on  American  Geog- 
raphy and  History.  He  also  wrote 
Recollections  of  a Lifetime;  Sketches 
from  a Student’s  Window;  A History  of 
•all  Nations;  The  Outcast  and  other 
Poems;  and  a general  Natural  History. 

GOODS  AND  CHATTELS,  a legal  as 
well  as  popular  phrase,  in  common  use, 
to  signify  personal  property.  It  is  not 
unfrequently  used  in  wills,  but  seldom 
in  any  other  legal  instrument ; and  when 
used  in  wills,  it  generally  includes  all  the 
personal  property  of  the  testator.  The 
two  words  are  not  identical  in  meaning, 
however,  the  term  chattels  being  the 
more  extensive  in  signification  and  in- 
cluding the  other.  The  term  goods  cor- 
responds closely  in  meaning  to  the  bona 
of  the  common  law,  and  to  movables 
of  the  civil  law,  whereas,  chattels  in- 
cludes as  well  certain  rights  in  land. 

GOOD  TEMPLARS,  a temperance 
brotherhood  which  combines  the  prin- 
ciples of  teetotalism  with  certain  mystic 
rites,  imitated  more  or  less  from  free 


masonry,  having  secret  signs,  passwords, 
and  insignia  peculiar  to  itself.  It  origin- 
nated  in  New  York  in  1851,  and  ex- 
tended to  Britain  in  1868.  The  organiza- 
tion consists  of  local  “subordinate” 
lodges,  county  “district”  lodges,  national 
“grand”  lodges,  and  an  international 
“right  worthy”  grand  lodge.  A “juvenile 
order”  is  also  attached. 

GOOD-WILL,  the  benefit  derived  from 
a business  beyond  the  mere  value  of  the 
capital,  stock,  funds,  or  property  em- 
ployed in  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
general  public  patronage  and  encourage- 
ment which  it  receives  from  constant 
and  habitual  customers.  It  is  legally 
considered  a subject  of  sale  along  with 
the  stock,  premises,  fixtures,  trade 
debts,  etc. 

GOOSE,  the  common  name  of  a well- 
known  family  of  natatorial  birds.  The 
domestic  goose  lives  chiefly  on  land  and 
feeds  on  grass ; there  are  many  varieties, 
but  they  do  not  differ  widely  from  each 
other.  It  is  valued  for  the  table,  and 
on  account  of  its  quills  and  fine  soft 
feathers.  The  common  wild  goose,  or 
grey-lag,  which  is  imgratory,  is  believed 
to  be  the  original  of  the  domestic  goose. 
The  Snow-goose  of  North  America  is 
2 feet  8 inches  in  length,  and  its  wings 
are  5 feet  in  extent.  The  bill  of  this 
bird  is  very  curious,  the  edges  having 
each  twenty-three  indentations  or  strong 
teeth  on  each  side.  The  inside  or  con- 
cavity of  the  upper  mandible  has  also 
seven  rows  of  strong,  projecting  teeth, 
and  the  tongue,  which  is  horny  at  the 
extremity,  is  armed  on  each  side  with 
thirteen  long  and  sharp  bony  teeth. 
The  flesh  of  this  species  is  excellent. 
The  I.aughing  or  White-fronted  Goose 
inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  both 
continents,  and  migrates  to  the  more 
temperate  climates  during  the  winter. 
The  Bean-goose  is  also  common  to  both 
continents.  The  Canada-goose  is  the 
common  wild  goose  of  the  United 
States,  and  is  known  in  every  part  of 
North  America.  It  is  also  found  in 
Europe,  and  even  breeds  in  Britain. 

GOOSEBERRY,  a low,  branching 
shrub,  growing  wild  in  Siberia 'and  the 
north  of  Europe,  other  species  being 
found  in  N.  America.  The  branches  are 
armed  with  numerous  prickles,  and 
bear  three  to  five  lobed  leaves  and 
inconspicuous  flowers.  The  fruit  is  a 
succulent  berry,  very  wholesome  and 
agreeable,  of  various  colors — whitish, 
yellow,  green,  and  red.  Gooseberries 
are  popular  fruits  for  preserving,  and 
are  extensively  cultivated,  being  of 
very  easy  culture.  They  may  be  raised 
from  slips,  which  is  the  usual  mode  of 
perpetuating  varieties;  new  varieties 
are  raised  from  seed.  The  plant  of 
four  years  old  produces  the  largest  and 
finest  fruit;  afterward  the  fruit  be- 
comes smaller  but  increases  in  quantity.  ^ 
An  American  species  has  fine  white 
fiowers,  and  is  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental shrub. 

GOPHER,  the  name  of  various  bur- 
, rowing  animals,  natives  of  N.  America. 
The  pouched  rat  has  large  cheek-pouches" 
extending  from  the  mouth  to  the 
shoulders,  incisors  protruding  beyond 
the  lips,  and  broad,  mole-like  fore-feet. 
Several  .American  burrowing  squirrels 
also  get  this  name,  as  also  a species  of 


GOPHER-WOOD 


GORTSCHAKOFF 


burrowing  land-tortoise  of  the  Southern 
States,  whose  eggs  are  valued  for  the 
table. 

GOPHER-WOOD,  the  wood  of  which 
Noah’s  ark  was  built,  but  whether  it 
was  cypress,  pine,  or  other  wood  is  an 
unsettled  point. 

GORAKHPUR,  a town  of  Hindustan, 
lUnited  Provinces,  and  division  of 
Benares,  capital  of  the  district  of  same 
name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rapti. 
■It  has  a considerable  trade  in  grain  and 
■timber,  sent  down  the  Rapti  to  the 
'Gogra  and  the  Ganges.  Pop.  64,148. — 
The  district  has  an  area  of  4598  square 
miles.  It  is  generally  flat,  and  traversed 
by  numerous  streams  of  which  the  prin- 
■cipal  are  the  Rapti  and  larger  Gandak. 
Pop.  2,994,057. 

GORDIAN  KNOT,  See  Gordius. 

GORDIUS,  in  Greek  legend,  a Phry- 
gian peasant,  father  of  Midas,  who  was 
raised  to  the  Phrygian  throne  in 
accordance  with  an  oracle  which 
declared  to  its  Phrygian  consulters  that 
their  seditions  would  cease  if  they 
elected  as  king  the  first  man  they  met, 
mounted  on  a chariot,  going  to  the 
temple  of  Zeus.  This  was  Gordius, 
who,  to  evince  his  gratitude,  conse- 
crated his  chariot  to  Zeus,  and  fastened 
the  pole  with  so  ingenious  a knot  that 
the  oracle  promised  the  dominion  of  the 
world  to  him  who  should  untie  it. 
Alexander  the  Great  cut  it  with  hLs 
sword,  and  to  “cut  the  Gordian  knot’’ 
became  a proverb. 

GORDON,  Charles  George,  British 
soldier,  known  also  as  “Chinese  Gordon’’ 
and  Gordon  Pasha,  was  born  at  Wool- 
wich 1833,  killed  at  Khartoum  1885. 
He  entered  the  Royal  Engineers  in 
1852,  and  served  in  the  Crimea  (1854- 
56).  During  the  Taeping  rebellion  in 
, China,  Gordon  succeeded  in  completely 
crushing  the  revolt  by  means  of  a 
specially-trained  corps  of  Chinese,  ex- 
hibiting marvelous  feats  of  skilful 
soldiership.  On  his  return  to  England 
with  the  rank  of  colonel  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  engineer  officer  at  Graves- 
end, where  his  military  talents  and 
philanthropy  were  conspicuously  dis- 
played. From  1874  to  1879  he  was 
governor  of  the  Soudan  under  the 
Khedive.  For  a few  months  in  1882 
he  held  an  appointment  at  the  Cape, 
and  he  had  just  accepted  a mission  to 
the  Congo  from  the  king  of  the  Belgians, 
when  he  was  sent  to  withdraw  the 
garrisons  shut  up  in  the  Soudan  by 
the  insurgent  ^ahdi.  He  was  shut  up 
in 'Khartoum  by  the  rebels,  and  gal- 
y lantly  held  that  town  for  a whole  year. 

^ A British  expeditionary  force  under 

Lord  Wolseley  was  despatched  for  his 
, relief;  an  advance  corps  of  which 

sighted  Khartoum  on  24th  January, 
1885,  to  find  that  the  town  bad  been 
' treacherously  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Mahdi  two  days  before,  and 
- Gordon  murdered.  Gordon’s  char- 

*•  acter  was  marked  by  strong  religious 

feelings,  which  latterly  became  so 
intensified  as  to  make  him  somewhat 
^ of  a religious  enthusiast  and  fatalist. 

GORDON,  John  Brown,  American 
soldier  and  politician,  was  born  in 
Upson  CO.,  Ga.,  in  1832.  In  1861  he 
' entered  the  confederate  army  as  cap- 
tain  of  infantry,  and  rose  to  the  grade  of 


lieutenant-general.  At  the  time  of 
General  Lee’s  surrender  at  Appomattox, 
General  Gordon  commanded  one  wing 
of  the- army.  From  1873  to  1880,  and 
from  1891  to  1897,  he  was  a member  of 
the  United  States  senate,  where  he  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  democratic 
party,  and  was  known  as  an  eloquent 
speaker^.  From  1887  to  1890  he  was 
governor  of  Georgia.  He  died  in  1904. 

GORGET,  a piece  of  body  armor, 
either  scale  work  or  plate,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  throat.  The  camail,  or 
throat  covering  of  chain  mail,  which 
is  sometimes  called  the  gorget  of  mail, 
belonged  more  to  the  helmet  than  to 
the  body  armor. 

GORGONS,  in  Greek  mythology,  three 
frightful  goddesses  whose  names  were 
Stheno,  Euryale,  and  Medusa.  They 
were  all  immortal,  except  Medusa.  Their 
hair  was  said  to  be  entwined  with  ser- 
pents, their  hands  were  of  brass,  their 
body  was  covered  with  impenetrable 
scales,  their  brazen  teeth  were  as  long 
as  the  tusks  of  a wild  boar,  and  they 
turned  to  stones  all  those  who  looked 
upon  them. 

GORIL'LA,  the  largest  animal  of  the 
ape  kind.  It  attains  a height  of  about 
5i  feet  or  more,  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
woody  equatorial  regions  of  Western 
Africa,  is  po.ssessed  of  great  strength  and 
fierceness,  is  a great  frequenter  of  trees. 


Gorilla. 


and  feeds  chiefly  on  vegetable  sub- 
stances, as  roots  and  fruits.  The  erect 
position  is  more  readily  assumed  by  the 
gorilla  than  by  most  of  the  other 
anthropoid  apes,  owing  to  the  shape  of 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  which  is  not  inverted 
and  is  shorter  and  broader;  but  the 
ordinary  gait  is  on  all  fours.  It  has  a 
ferocious  and  brutal  cast  of  features, 
due  to  the  prognathism  of  the  jaws, 
the  extremely  prominent  supra-orbital 
ridges,  and  retreating  forehead.  Gorillas 
make  a sleeping-place  somewhat  like  a 
hammock,  connecting  the  branches 
of  a tree  by  means  of  the  long,  tough, 
slender  stems  of  climbing  plants,  and 
lining  it  with  dried  fronds  of  palms  or 
long  grass.  This  abode  is  constructed  at 
different  heights  from  the  ground,  but 
there  is  never  more  than  one  such  nest 
in  a tree.  The  gorilla,  like  the  chimpan- 
I zee,  has  thirteen  ribs,  whereas  man  and 


the  orang  have  twelve.  The  gorilla 
and  chimpanzee  also  have  eight  bones 
in  the  carpus  or  wrist,  while  the  others 
have  nine.  The  bones  of  the  arm  are 
much  longer  than  in  man,  and  the  upper 
arm  is  longer  than  the  forearm;  the  leg 
bones  are  shorter  than  in  man.  In  the 
proportion  of  its  molar  teeth  to  the 
incisors  and  in  the  form  of  its  pelvis  it 
approaches  somewhat  closely  the  human 
form.  It  is  less  intelligent  and  docile 
than  several  other  apes.  The  Phoenician 
navigator  Hanno  found  the  name  in 
use  in  the  5th  century  b.c.  in  W.  .\frica. 

GOR'KY,  Maxim,  a Russian  author, 
was  born  at  Nizhni-Novgorod  in  1868. 
His  story  “Maker  Chudra’’  appeared  in 
the  Tiflis  Kavkaz  in  1892,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a rapid  series  of  works,  of 
which  Foma  Gordy^eff,  an  international 
success,  was  the  most  noteworthy. 
Gorky’s  collected  works  appeared  at 
Saint  Petersburg  in  1901.  In  1906  he 
paid  a short  visit  to  the  United  States. 

GORLITZ  (geur'lits),  a town  in  the 
Prussian  government  of  Liegnitz,  prov- 
ince of  Silesia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neisse.  It  is  well-built,  having  generally 
substantial  houses,  several  large  squares 
and  spacious  streets.  Its  industries' in- 
clude weolens,  linens,  and  cottons, 
machinery,  iron-founding,  glass,  porce- 
lain, leather,  soap,  etc.  The  town  was 
an  important  place  for  three  centuries 
before  the  reformation;  it  afterward 
declined,  but  has  rapidly  increased  in 
prosperity  since  the  laying  down  of  the 
railways;  the  population,  which  in  1831 
was  only  8000,  was  in  1906,  84,931. 

GORMAN,  Arthur  Pue,  American 
senator,  was  born  in  Howard  co.,  Mary- 
land, in  1839.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
collector  of  interna!  revenue  in  the 
fifth  district  of  Marjdand.  In  1869  he 
was  made  general  superintendent  of  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  canal  company, 
and  in  1872  its  president.  He  was 
elected  to  the  house  of  delegates  in 
Maryland  in  1870,  and  by  re-election  he 
held  the  office  until  1875,  during  the  last 
part  of  his  term  serving  as  the  speaker. 
From  1875  to  1881  he  was  state  senator. 
He  was  then  elected  United  States  sen- 
ator and  continued  in  that  office  until 
1899.  After  three  years  of  private  life, 
he  was  again  elected  to  the  senate  in 
1902.  He  led  the  opposition  to  the  force 
bill  in  1889,  and  was  one  of  the  demo- 
cratic senators  who  remodeled  the  Wil- 
son tariff  bill  in  1894.  He  died  in  1906. 

GORTSCHAKOFF,  Alexander  Michael- 
ovitch,  Russian  diplomatist,  was  born 
1798,  died  1883.  He  entered  the  diplo- 
matic service  in  1824,  as  secretary  to  the 
Russian  embassy  in  London.  His  expe- 
rience in  diplomacy  was  extended  in 
Vienna,  Florence,  Stuttgart,  etc  , and  he 
showed  considerable  dexterity  in  secur- 
ing the  neutrality  of  Austria  during  the 
Crimean  war.  In  1856  he  became  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs,  and  in  1862  chan- 
cellor of  the  empire.  He  was  a promi- 
nent member  of  the  Berlin  Congress, 
1878. 

GORTSCHAKOFF,  Prince  Michael, 
Russian  general,  born  in  1792,  died 
1861.  He  took  part  as  an  artillery 
officer  in  the  battle  of  Borodino  in 
1812,  and  served  in  the  subsequent 
campaigns  of  the  allies  against  the 
French.  He  took  a prominent  part  in. 


GOSCHEN 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE 


fche  Turkish  war  (1828-29);  the  Polish 
war  (1831);  the  invasion  of  Hungary 
{1849);  and  in  the  war  with  Turkey 
and  the  western  powers  (1853-55). 
In  the  Crimea  he  held  the  command  in 
Sebastopol  during  the  siege.  After  the 
war  he  was  made  governor  of  Poland 

GOSCHEN  (go'shen),  George  Joachim, 
politician  and  financier,  born  in  London 
1831,  educated  at  Rugby  and  Oxford. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1863.  In  1865 
he  was  sworn  of  the  privy-council  on  be- 
coming a member  of  the  Russell  min- 
istry. In  1868  he  became  president  of 
the  poor  law  board,  and  subsequently 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1886  he 
succeeded  Lord  R.  Churchill  as  chan- 
cellor of  the  exchequer  underJLord  Salis- 
bury, and  in  1895  he  again  took  office 
under  the  same  leader  as  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty.  In  1900  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Viscount  Goshen. 

GOSHAWK,  a raptorial  bird  of  the 
hawk  kind.  The  general  color  of  the 
plumage  is  a deep  brown,  the  breast  and 
belly  white.  A full-grown  female  is  23 
or  24  inches  in  length,  the  male  a good 
deal  smaller.  It  was  formerly  much  used 
in  falconry.  This  bird  flies  low,  and  pur- 
sues its  prey  in  a line  after  it,  or  in  the 
manner  called  “raking”  by  falconers. 
The  female  was  generally  flown  by 
falconers  at  rabbits,  hares,  etc.,  and  the 
larger-winged  game,  while  the  male  was 
usually  flown  at  the  smaller  birds,  and 
principally  at  partridges. 

GOSHEN,  in  ancient  geography,  a dis- 
trict of  Egypt,  which  Joseph  procured 
for  his  father  and  brethren.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  land  of  Goshen  lay  be- 
tween the  eastern  part  of  the  ancient 
Delta  and  the  western  border  of  Pales- 
tine. 

GOSPEL,  Gospels.  The  Greek  word 
for  which  gospel  has  been  used  as  the 
equivalent  is  evangelion,  or  rather 
euaggelion,  a good  or  joyful  message. 
In  the  New  Testament  it  denotes  pri- 
marily the  glad  tidings  respecting  the 
Messiah  and  his  kingdom — this  was 
emphatically  the  gospel  (Anglo-Saxon, 
god-spell,  good  tidings).  It  was  quite 
naturally  employed  as  a common  title 
for  the  historical  accounts  which  record 
the  facts  that  constitute  the  basis  of 
Christianity.  It  may  bb  fairly  saidtihat 
the  genuineness  of  the  four  narratives 
written  by  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke  and 
John  rests  upon  better  evidence  than 
that  of  any  other  ancient  writings. 
They  were  all  composed  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  first  century;  those  of 
Matthew  and  Mark  some  years  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem;  that  of 
Luke  about  the  year  64;  and  that  of  St. 
John  about  the  close  of  the  century. 
Before  the  end  of  the  2d  century  we  have 
abundant  evidence  that  the  four  gospels 
as  one  collection,  were  generally  used 
and  accepted.  While  the  early  existence 
of  these  gospels  has  been  admitted, 
much  discussion  has  taken  place  regard- 
ing their  origin,  and  their  relation  one  to 
another.  They  seem  to  have  been  viewed 
as  so  many  original  and  independent 
sources,  each  one  as  much  so  as  the 
others.  Phe  critical  spirit  of  modern 
times  has  refused  to  halt  at  this  point; 
it  has  sought  to  get  at,  so  to  speak,  the 
genealogy  of  the  several  gospels  with 
their  different  degrees  of  relationship. 


( Each  of  the  four  gospels  has  in  turn 
been  assumed  by  different  critics  to  be 
the  first  out  of  which  the  others  arose; 
and  the  theory  has  been  more  than  once 
propounded  of  some  prior,  more  strictly 
original  document,  no  longer  extant, 
which  formed  the  common  basis  of  them 
all.  The  supposition  of  an  original  docu- 
ment from  which  the  three  synoptical 
Gospels  (those  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and 
Luke)  were  drawn,  each  with  more  or 
less  modification,  would  naturally  occur 
to  those  who  rejected  the  notion  that  the 
evangelists  copied  from  each  other.  The 
fourth  Gospel,  as  the  narrative  coincides 
with  that  of  the  other  three  in  a few 
passages  only,  is  not  drawn  in  to  the 
discussion,  and  the  received  explanation 
is  the  only  satisfactory  one  with  respect 
to  it,  namely,  that  John,  writing  last, 
had  seen  the  other  gospels,  and  pur- 
posely abstained  from  writing  anew 
what  had  been  sufficiently  recorded. 
Another  conjecture  is  that  the  gospels 
sprang  out  of  a common  oral  tradition. 
According  to  this  view  of  the  origin  of 
the  gospels,  that  of  Mark,  if  not  the 
oldest  in  composition,  is  yet  probably 
the  most  direct  and  primitive  in  form; 
it  is  the  testimony  delivered  by  Peter, 
possibly  with  little  alteration.  The 
Gospels  of. Matthew  and  Luke,  again, 
“represent  the  two  great  types  of  re- 
cension to  which  it  may  be  supposed 
that  the  simple  narrative  was  subjected. 
Luke  represents  the  Hellenic,  and  Mat- 
thew the  later  Hebraic  form  of  the  tra- 
dition, and  in  its  present  sha^  the  latter 
seems  to  give  the  last  authentic  record 
of  the  primitive  Gospel.”  A comparison 
of  the  three  synoptical  Gospels  yields 
some  interesting  results.  If  we  suppose 
the  history  they  contain  to  be  divided 
into  sections,  in  forty-two  of  these  all 
the  three  narratives  coincide;  twelve 
more  are  given  by  Matthew  and  Mark 
only,  five  by  Mark  and  Luke  only,  and 
fourteen  by  Matthew  and  Luke.  To 
these  must  be  added  five  peculiar  to 
Matthew,  two  to  Mark,  and  nine  to  Luke. 
But  this  applies  only  to  general  coin- 
cidence as  to  the  facts  narrated;  the 
number  of  passages  either  verbally  the 
same,  or  coinciding  in  the  use  of  many 
of  the  same  wprds,  is  much  smaller. 
Bri^y  stated  the  critical  result  is  as 
follows:  There  is  a singular  coincidence 
in  substance  in  the  three  synoptical 
gospels.  The  verbal  and  material  agi;ee- 
ment  is  such  as  does  not  occur  in 
other  authors  who  have  written  in- 
dependently of  one  another.  The  agree- 
ment would  be  no  difficulty  without  the 
differences;  it  would  only  mark  the  one 
divine  source  from  which  they  were  all 
derived.  The  difference  of  form  and 
style,  without  the  agreement,  would 
offer  no  difficulty,  since  there  may  be  a 
substantial  harmony  between  accounts 
that  differ  greatly  in  mode  of  expression 
and  the  very  difference  might  be  a 
guarantee  of  independence.  Several 
biographies  of  Jesus  and  the  holy  family 
written  by  unknown  authors  of  the  2d, 
3d  and  later  centuries  are  known  as 
Apocryphal  Gospels.  They  have  no 
historical  nor  doctrinal  value  whatever. 
The  titles  of  the  best  known  of  these  are : 
The  Gospel  of  James,  The  Gospel  of 
Joseph  the  Carpenter;  The  Gospel  of 
Thomas,  The  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  The 


Acts  of  Pilate,  and  his  Letter  to  Tiber- 
ias, etc. 

GOS'SAMER,  is  the  name  of  a fine 
filmy  substance,  like  cobweb,  which  is 
seen  to  float  in  the  air  in  clear  days  in 
autumn,  and  is  most  observable  in 
stubble-fields,  and  upon  furze  and  other 
low  bushes.  This  is  formed  by  several 
kinds  of  small  spiders,  and  only,  accord- 
ing to  some,  when  they  are  young. 

GOTHARD,  St.,  a mountain  group, 
Switzerland,  on  the  confines  of  the 
cantons  Tessin  and  Uri,  belonging  to  the 
Lepontine  or  Helvetian  Alps,  which  it 
connects  with  the  Bernese  Alps.  It 
forms  a kind  of  central  nucleus  in  the 
great  watershed  of  Europe.  Its  cul- 
minating point  has  a height  of  10,600 
feet.  The  Col  of  St.  Gothard,  at  its 
summit  level,  where  the  Hospice  stands, 
is  6808  feet  high.  Over  it  an  excellent 
carriage  road  was  completed  in  1832.  A 
railway  tunnel  has  been  pierced  through 
this  mountain  group  between  Goschenen 
on  the  north  and  Airolo  on  the  south, 
thus  directly  connecting  the  railway 
system  of  North  Italy  with  those  of 
Switzerland  and  Western  and  Central 
Germany.  This  tunnel  is  the  longest  in 
the  world,  being  of  the  total  length  of 
16,295  yards,  or  rather  more  than  9J 
miles.  Its  construction,  begun  in  1872, 
was  completed  in  1881,  and  it  was  opened 
for  traffic  early  in  1882. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE,  a term 
applied  to  the  various  styles  of  pointed 
architecture  prevalent  in  Western 
Europe  from  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury to  the  revival  of  classic  architecture 


Gothic  architecture— Salisbury  cathedral. 

in  the  16th.  The  chief  characteristics 
of  Gothic  architecture  are;  The  pre- 
dominence  of  the  pointed  arch  and  the 
subserviency  and  subordination  of  all 
the  other  parts  to  this  chief  feature; 
the  tendency  through  the  whole  compo- 
sition to  the  predominance  and  pro- 
longation of  vertical  lines;  the  absence 
of  the  column  and  entablature  of  classic 
architecture,  of  square  edges  and  rec- 
tangular surfaces,  and  the  substitution 
of  clustered  shafts,  contrasted  surfaces, 
and  members  multiplied  in  rich  variety. 
This  style  orginated  in  France  and 


GOTHS 


GOUNOD 


spread  very  rapidly  to  England,  Ger- 
rnany,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  Scandina- 
vian countries.  In  England  it  Was  in- 
troduced by  William  of  Sens,  who  built 
Canterbury  Cathedral  in  11‘74,  and  h§re 
followed  an  independent  course  of  de- 
velopment. The  Gothic  architecture  of 
Britain  has  been  divided  into  four  prin- 
cipal epochs — the  Early  English,  or 


quered  the  Gothic  kingdom.  After  the 
fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  by 
the  Invasion  of  Odoacer  in  476,  the 
Eastern  emperor,  Zeno,  persuaded 
Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  to 
invad^Italy  in  489.  The  Goth  became 
king  of  Italy,  in  493,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  a new  Ostrogothic  kingdom, 
which,  together  with  Italy,  comprised 


abode  f y 

Gothic  Architecture. 

Eaiiy  English  windows,  c,  Transition,  rf,  Geometrical.  «,  Perfect  decorated. 
frj,  Perpendicular. 


general  style  of  the  13th  century;  the 
Decorated,  or  style  of  the  14th  century; 
the  Perpendicular,  practiced  during  the 
15th  and  early  part  of  the  16th  century 
(Flamboyant  being  the  contemporary 
style  in  France) ; and  the  Tudor,  or 
general  style  of  the  16th  century. 

GOTHS,  an  ancient  Teutonic  tribe 
occupying  when  first  known  to  history 
the  region  adjacent  to  the  Black  Sea 
north  of  the  lo.wer  Danube.  A people 
of  similar  name  is  mentioned  by  Tacitus 
as  dwelling  south  of  the  Baltic,  and 
Geats  or  Gauts  are  known  to  us  from  the 
the  Anglo-Saxon  poem  Beowulf  as  in- 
habitants of  southern  Sweden ; but  there 
is  no  necessary  connection  between  these 
and  the  Goths  proper.  About  the  middle 
of  the  3d  century  these  began  to  en- 
croach on  the  Roman  Empire.  Having 
seized  the  Roman  province  of  Dacia, 
they  were  assailed  by  Decius,  whom 
they  twice  defeated.  In  253  they  cap- 
tured Trebizond,  where  a large  fleet  of 
ships  fell  into  their  hands.  Wfth  this 
force  they  sailed  down  the  ^gean  and 
plundered  the  coasts  of  Greece  and  Illy- 
ria. They  now  began  to  threaten  Italy, 
but  in  269  they  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  by  the  Emperor  Claudius.  ^His 
successor  Aurelian  was,  notwithstand- 
ing, compelled  to  cede  to  them  the  large 
province  of  Dacia,  after  which  there 
was  comparative  peace  between  them 
for  many  years.  In  the  4th  century  the 
great  Gothic  kingdom  extended  from 
the  Don  to  the  Theiss,  and  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Vistula  and  the  Baltic. 
About  the  year  369  internal  commotions 
produced  the  division  of  the  Gothic 
kingdom  into  the  kingdom  of  the 
Ostrogoths  (eastern  Goths)  and  the 
kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  (western 
Goths).  In  396  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visi- 
goths, made  an  irruption  into  Greece, 
laid  waste  the  Peloponnesus,  and  be- 
came prefect  of  Illyria.  "He  invaded 
Italy  and  sacked  Rome  in  409,  and  a 
second  time  in  410.  After  his  death  (in 
410)  the  Visigoths  succeeded  in  estab- 
'lishing  a new  kingdom  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Gaul  and  Spain,  of  which, 
toward  the  end  of  the  5th  century, 
Provence,  Languedoc,  and  Catalonia 
were  the  principal  provinces,  and  Tou- 
louse the  seat  of  government.  The  last 
king,  Roderick,  died  in  711  in  battle 
against  the  Moors,  who  had  crossed 
from  Africa,  and  subsequently  con- 


Rhcetia  (a  part  of  Switzerland  and  the 
Tyrol),  Vindelicia  (part  of  Bavaria  and 
Swabia),  Noricum  (Saltzburg,  Stiria, 
Carinthia,  Austria),  Dalmatia,  Pannonia 
(Further  Hungary,  Slavonia),  and  Dacia 
beyond  the  Danube  (Transylvania, 
Walachia).  This  kingdom  came  to  an 
end  in  554.  Subsequently  the  Goths 
both  here  and  in  Spain  entirely  dis- 
appeared as  a distinct  people. 

GOTTENBURG,  or  GOTHENBURG,  a 
seaport  town  in  Sweden,  the  second  in 
respect  of  population  and  trade,  capital 
of  the  Ian  of  the  same  name,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gota,  in  the  Kattegat, 


255  miles  w.s.w.  Stockholm,  intersected 
by  canals.  It  is  one  of  the  best  built 
towns  in  Sweden,  and  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric.  It  has  manufactures  of  sail- 
cloth, cotton,  and  other  goods,  and  pos- 
sesses ship-building  yards,  tobacco  fac- 
tories, breweries,  sugar  refineries,  etc. 
Pop.  130,619.  , 

GOTTINGEN  \geut'ing-en),  a town  of 
Prussia,  province  of  Hanover,  on  the 
Leine,  59  miles  s.s.e.  Hanover.  Its  chief 
attraction  is  the  university,  founded  in 
1734  by  George  II.  of  England  and 
elector  of  Hanover,  opened  in  1737  and 
which  has  a European  reputation.  It 
has  an  average  attendance  of  over  1000 
students.  Connected  with  the  university 
are  a museum,  an  observatory,  an  ana- 
tomical theater,  botanical  gapien,  and  a 
library  possessed  of  500,000  printed 
volumes  and  5000  MSS.  The  manufac- 
y 


tures  comprise  woolens,  chemicals, 
scientific  instruments,  etc.  Pop  30,234. 

GOTTLAND,  or  GOTHLAND,  an  is- 
land of  the  Baltic,  belonging  to  and  55 
miles  east  of  the  coast  of  Sweden.  Pop. 
52,570 

GOULD,  Benjamin  Apthorp,  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  was  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1824.  In  1852  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  longitude  determinations 
nf  the  coast  survey,  and  in  1867,  after 
having  organized  and  greatly  developed 
this  service,  retired.  From  1855  to  1859 
he  was  director  of  the  Dudley  obser- 
vatory, at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1866 
he  established  by  means  of  the  Atlantic 
cable,  the  relations  in  longitude  between 
America  and  European  stations.  In 
1870  he  established  at  Cordoba,  Argen- 
tina, the  National  observatory,  where 
he  accumulated  the  material  for  his 
Uranometria  Argentina  and  Catalogo  de 
Zonas  Estelares,  both  classic  in  the 
literature  of  astronomy.  In  1872  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Argentine  government, 
he  further  established  a system  of 
meteorological  stations  extending  south- 
ward to  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  eastward 
to  the  Atlantic.  He  died  in  1896. 

GOULD,  Helen  Miller,  American 
philanthropist,  was  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1868.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  Spanish-American  war  she  pre- 
sented $100,000  to  the  United  States 
government,  and  during  the  war,  as  a 
member  of  the  women’s  national  war  re- 
lief association,  was  prominently  active. 
She  gave  $50,000  for  necessary  supplies 
for  the  care  of  soldiers  in  hospitals,  and 
at  Camp  Wyckoff,  near  Montauk  point. 
Long  Island,  did  personal  work  in  that 
connection.  Her  benefactions  to  New 
York  university  have  also  been  notable, 
and  include  the  library  building  of  the 
university,  with  its  well-known  “Hall  of 
Fame.” 

GOULD,  Jay,  an  American  capitalist, 
born  in  1836  in  Roxbury,  Delaware  co., 
N.  Y.  In  the  great  financial  depression 
following  the  panic  of  1857  he  bought  a 
controlling  interest  in  the  Rutland  and 
Washington  railroad  running  from 
Troy,  N-.  Y.,  to  Rutland,  Vt.,  for  10 
cents  on  the  dollar.  Of  this  company 
he  became  president,  treasurer,  and 
general  manager,  and  subsequently 
brought  about  a consolidation  of  his 
road  and  the  Rensselaer  and  Saratoga 
Railroad.  In  1859  he  sold  out  his  stock 
in  the  consolidated  roads  at  120,  and 
removed  to  New  York,  where  he  em- 
barked in  the  brokerage  business.  By 
methods  new  in  railway  speculation 
Gould  secured  control  of  the  Erie  rail- 
road, and  in  1868  was  elected  its  presi- 
dent. The  manipulation  of  the  Erie  was 
the  first  of  a long  series  of  speculations 
by  which  Gould  obtained  the  mastery 
of  some  of  the  greatest  railway  corpora- 
tions in  the  country.  In  1880  he  con- 
trolled fully  10,000  miles  of  road,  more 
than  one-ninth  of  the  mileage  of  the 
country.  Gould  also  consolidated  com- 
peting telegraph  lines  into  the  Western 
Union  system  in  1881,  and  obtained 
control  of  the  Manhattan  elevated 
railroad  in  the  same  year.  He  died  in 
1892. 

GOUNOD  (go-no),  Charles  Frangois, 
French  operatic  composer,  born  at  Paris, 
1817;  his  first  important  work  was 


GOURD 


GRACCHUS 


Faust  (1859),  which  raised  him  to  a high 
rank  among  composers.  Other  operas 
followed,  among  which  are  Mireille 
(1864),  Romeo  et  Juliette,  Cinq  Mars 
(1877),  and  Polyeucte  (1878).  He  wrote 
also  a Messe  Solenhelle,  a motet  Gallia, 
and  other  choral  works  and  songs; 
oratorios,  Redemption  (1882),  Mors  et 
Vita  (1885),  and  a Mass  for  the  Jeanne 
D’Arc  festival  (1887).  He  died  in 
1893. 

GOURD  (gord),  the  popular  name  of  a 
genus  of  plants.  The  same  name  is  given 
to  the  different  kinds  of  fruit  produced 
by  the  various  plants  of  this  genus 
These  are  held  in  high  estimation  in  hot 
countries;  they  attain  a very  large  size 


Flower  and  fruit  of  squash. 


and  most  of  them  abound  in  wholesome 
nutritious  matter.  The  pumpkin,  ac- 
quires sometimes  a diameter  of  2 feet 
Ihe  squph  is  cultivated  in  America  as 
an  article  of  food.  The  water  melon 
serves  the  Egyptians  for  meat,  drink 
and  physic.  The  orange-fruited  gourd 
IS  cultivated  only  as  a curiosity,  and  is  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies.  l\e  bottle 
^urd,  a native  both  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  is  edible,  and  is  often  G feet 
mng  and  18  inches  in  circumference, 
ine  outer  coat  or  rind  serves  for  bottles 
and  Water-cups. 

^ arthritis,  a constitu- 

tional  disorder  giving  rise  to  parox- 
ysms  of  acute  pain  with  a specific  form 
ot  inflammation,  appearing  after  puberty 

returning 

after  intervals.  It  is  often  preceded  bv 
or  alternates  with,  disorder  of  the  diael’ 
tive  or  other  internal  organs,  and  is 
generally  characterized  by  affection  of 
the  first  joint  of  the  great  toe,  by 
nocturnal  exacerbations  and  morning 
vascular  plethora; 
°^Sans,  or  parts  bocom- 
mg  affected  after  repeated  attacks  with- 
out passing  into  suppuration.  It  may 
be  acquired  or  hereditary.  In  the  former 
case  It  rarely  apears  before  the  agTof ' 
thirty-five;  in  the  latter,  it  is  frequently 

that  the 

disease  is  due  to  an  excess  of  uric  acid 

in  either  being  formed 

m the  body  in  too  large  quantity,  or  not 
being  removed  from  the  blood  by  the 
udneys  m the  urine  as  it  ought  to  be 
Indolence,  inactivity,  and  too  free  use  of 
tartareous  wines,  fermented  liquors  and 
very  high-seasoned  and  nitro-renous 

falfed? lccordiig1r,he 

affect.  Podagra  (in  the  feet  1 

J^^^ri?e%^o^  pefi?nr^AS  Tr^ 

chiefly  composed  of  urate  of  soda 

-treltmeSoS 


GOV 'Ait  j ii  town  of  Scotland,  county 
of  Latiark,  dn  the  left  bank  of  the  Clyde, 
to  the  west  of  Glasgow,  of  which  it  forms 

M !•  extensive 

ship-building  yards,  engineering  works, 
dye-works,  etc.  Pop.  of  toivn  S2,l?4. 

GOVERNMENT,  19  a ivord  used  in 
cominon  speech  in  Various  significations. 
It  denotes  the  ttet  of  governing,  the 
persons  who  govern,  and  the  mode  or 
system  according  to  which  the  Sovereign 
powers  of  a nation,  the  le^isiatiVg,  exec- 
'^divc,  and  judicial  powers  are  vested 
and  exercised.  See  Aristocracy,  Democ- 
racy, Monarchy,  Oligarchy,  Republic, 
Local  Government,  etc-. 

GOVERNlVtENt  MnS,  nil  Idhd  Wlthih 
■ '1  .Ubited  Stlites  the  title  to  which  is 
hot  ill  a state  or  an  individual.  This  in- 
cludes all  land  bCcjipied  fdt  guVernmen- 
tal  purposes,  as  for  military  or  naval 
pOsts  and  stations^  p’^hlic  buildings,  etc., 
but  the  term  is  popularly  used  as  being 
synonymous  with  “public  lands.”  In  this 
sense,  only  such  land,  owned  by  the  gov- 
ernment, as  is  uneurveyed  and  open  to 
sale  or  occiipatioh  Under  the  “home- 
stead laws,”  is  irt'eiuded,  ibdhd  ilihy  h§ 
government  for  public 
use  Under  the  pow'er  of  eminent  domain 
and  property  thus  acquired  would  be 
government  land”  in  the  broadest 
sense,  but  not  as  the  term  is  commonly 
used,  as  such  lands  would  not  be  open  to 
public  occupation  and  pre-emption 
GOVERNOR,  the  chief  ^executive 
officer  in  the  states  of  the  American 


hand,  when  the  engine  goes  too  slow,  the 
balls  fall  down  toward  the  spindle  and 
elevate  the  valve,  thus  increasing  the 
quantity  of  steam  admitted  into  the  cyl- 
itider.  By  this  Ingenious  contrivance, 
therefore,  the  quantity  of  steam  admit* 
t0d  tfi  tlig  cylinder  Is  exactly  pfopur^ 
tioned  to  the  resistance  of  the  engine,  and 
the  velocity  kept  constantly  the  same.  A 
similar  contrivance  is  employed  in  mills 
tu  equaling  tli&Mdtlort  df  the  machinery. 
When  any  paid  of  the  machinery  is 
suddenly  stopped,  or  suddenly  Set 
agoing,  and  the  moving  power  remains 
the  same,  an  alteration  in  the  velocity 
df  will  take  place,  and  it  will 

move  faster  Qf  slower.  The  governor  is 

numerous  small  globular  transparent 
follicles  found  in  the  ovaries  of  mam- 
mals. Each  follicle  contains  one  ovum, 
whifch  is  expelled  when  it  reaches 
maturity.  Small  at  first,  and  deeply 
imbedded  in  the  ovary,  they  gradually 
approach  the  surface,  and  finally  burst 
ahd  discharge  the  dvUill. 

O^CeSvS,  a .family,  of  tlie' 

Sernproman  gens,  seveflil  memher.s^bf 
which  have  beedme  historical.  TiberiuJ 
Semprpiuu§  Gi-acchus,  a general  of  the^ 
Second  Punic  war.  Was  consul  215  b.c.,  ‘ 
defeated  Hanrib  214  b^c.,  and  was  killed 
212  B.c. — Another  Tiberius  Sempromus 
Gracchus  became  consul  178  b.c.,  and 
again  163  b.c.  He  married  Cbinelia,  a 


union.  Heiselecmd VA^^eopre'of thel Scipio  Africanus,  ahd  Whs 
state,  and  his  rights  and  dutie^  are  in  oA/chi^  T’K^  the  two  most  celebrated 
general,  those  usually  associated  with  t A 


' — vAuoico  are,  in 

general,  those  usually  associated  with 
the  head  of  the  executive  department 
in  a republican  form  of  government 
namely,  the  appointment  of  certain 
classes  of  officials,  the  exercise  of  the 
pardoning  power  and  the  right  of  veto 
and  the  command  of  the  state  militia. 
I he  term  of  office  and  the  specific  limita- 
tions of  the  governor’s  powers  vary 
naturally,  from  state  to  state,  and  will 
be  found  under  the  heading  Constitu- 
tion, in  the  articles  on  the  different 

GOVERNOR,  a contrivance  in  mills 
and  machinery  for  maintaining  a uni- 
form velocity  with  a varying  resistance. 
A common  form  of  steam-engine  gov- 


Governor  of  a steam-engine. 


ernor  consists  of  a pair  of  balls  A B sus- 
pended from  a vertical  shaft  kept  in 
motion  by  the  engine.  When  the  engine 
goes  too  fast  the  balls  fly  farther  asunder 
and  depress  the  end  of  a lever  N P 
which  partly  shuts  a throttle-valve,  p 


thn  u ana  uaius, 

the  former  born  about  169  b.c.,  killed 

191  A’  killed 

brothers  having  lost  their 

from  their  mother 
Cornelia  a careful  education.  At  a more 
advanced  age  their  minds  were  formed 
and  ennobled  by  the  Greek  philosophy 
Tiberius  early  made  himself  conspk^us 

the  com- 
mand of  his  brother-in-law,  the  younger 

Wtlil  A®  served  at  the  siege  of  Carthage. 
While  he  was  yet  a mere  youth  he 
received  into  the  College  6f  Augurs  a ® 
honor  usually  conferred  only  upon  d ♦* 
tinguished  statesmen.  He  was  s>- 
quently  quaestor  to  the  Consul  Mar 
and  was  employed  in  the  Nu'  .*©{au9, 

I be  greatly  dis^'  ^Ahiitian 

nimself  by  the  conclusion  of  ytRguishfed 
which  he  saved  the  lives  r a treaty  by 
t who  were  entirely  at  thr  20,000  mea 
Numantines.  In  133  , mercy  of  the 

candidat  b.c.,  he  offered 

office  r for  the  tribune* 

whh  if  ^ ® .endered  his  person 

wth  it,  and  place  as  he  was  invested 
advance  his  gre  ,d  him  in  a situation  to 
the  ce  plans  for  the  improve* 
Aa  i,  ^ Jhdition  of  the  people  in  a 

uie  anstoc  le  was  violently  opposed  by 
Octavius  cacy  and  the  tribune^  MarcuV  . 
A^f  f-  - ^hose  Yotq  retarded  the  pas* 
mam’'  ’f'^b^ius,  however,  by 

prerogative  Of  hjs  Office) 
ir  bis  bill,  gnd  three  coni* 

to®’ Av®^®  appointed  to  carrv  it 

Tiberius  hin>~ 

1^’  A bis  father-in  . 

^i^^tidius.  He  was  accused 


j j f u • ^ He  was  accused 

«i..r  Ip/ 


grace 


GRALLATORES 


FMes.  Ten  years  after  the 
ath-ofifigb'r'otl ‘ 


death'  6? Ws  b'rotliet'  Tiberius,  the  younger 
Gfacch.Us  obtained  


w . , , '-d  (hftf  — tribuneship. 

beVerai  popuhr  measures  gained  him 
great  favhi'  irjth  the  people,  but  the  in 
triffues  of  thft  nr>hTtf,>  iiU?rr. 


trigues  of  the  nobles  nUnnately  caused 
his  fall.  A — (..'..t.  .1-..  . 


i -.--r -•  --  tumult,  in  -ivliieh  tt  Hetoy  of 
upimius  ■was  killed,  gave  the  scn&te 
a pretense  for  empowering  the  consuls  to' 
take  strong  fneaSUres.  Opimius  made  an 
attack  upon  the  supporters  Of  Gracchus 
with  a band  of  discipliiicd  Soldiers, 
Nearly  3000  were  slain,  and  GracOhns 
escaped  to  the  grove  of  the  Furies,  where 
he  was  slam  at  liis  own  request  by  a 
slave,  v/ho  then  killed  himself, 

GRACE,  Days  0/,  Ifi  commerce,  a cer- 
tain number  of  days  I’mhlddiately  fol- 
lowing  the  day,  specified  on  the  face  of 
which  it  becomes  due. 
lid  the  expiry  of  these  days  payment  is 
h^ot  Accessary.  Iii  Britain  and  America 
the  days  of  grace;  _ are  three,  Austria 
(three  days)  and  Riissfa  (ten  days)  are 
the  oniy  Other  coufltfiVs  trhieb  allo’W 
days  of  gracd.  " - 
1 ^^reek,  Charities,  trafitP 

Jated  by  the  Rmuaws  Gratise),  the  god- 
desses of  grace,  from  whom,  according  to 
PmHay-.  coxhes  everything'  beautiful 


T Bindar,  

L find  agreeable;  Accordlug  to  iHOsrpoets 
^ and  fnythologists  they  were  three  m 
- htimber,  the  daughtefsf  of  Zeus  and 
iiurynbm^,  Aha  Hesiod  gives  them  the 
■f  hames  of  Aglaiai- (brilliancy),  Thalia  (the 
blooming),  and  Etmhroiy:}®  (mirth).! 
F Homer  mentions  them  Ih  , as  | 

V handmaids  Of  Hera  (Juno);  but  in 
f Odyssey  as  those  of  Aphrodite  (Venu^,' 
^ who  is  attended  by  them  in  the  bath, 
etc.  He  coriceived  them  as  forming'  a 
numerous  troup  of  goddesses,  whose 
I office  it  was  to  render  happy  the  days 
^ of  the  immortals.  The  three  graces  are 
■,  Usually  represented  slightly  draped  or 
I _ entirely  nude,  locked  in  each  other’s 
enibJ2,ces,  Or  hand  in  hand. 

. GRA'DIENT,  In  rbads  and  railways, 
a term  used  to  signify  the  departure  of 
^ the  track  from  a perfect  level,  Usually 
expressed  as  a fraction  of  the' length: 

^ thus  1 in  250  signifies  a rise  or  fall  of  1 
; tool  in  250  feet  measured  along  the 
line. 

GRADUATION,  the  art  of  dividing 
' into  the  necessary  spaces  the  scales  of 
mathematical,  astronomical,  and  other 
' philosophical  instruments.  Common 
graduation  is  simply  effected  by  copying 
from  a scale  prepared  by  a higher  pro- 
. ' cess;  original  graduation  is  chiefly  per- 
formed either  by  stepping  or  bisection. 
Stepping  consists  in  ascertaining  by 
^ repeated  trial  with  finely-pointed  spring 
dividers-^which  are  made,  as  it  were, 
to  proceed  by  successive  steps — the  S:lze 
of  the  divisions  required,  their  number 
being  known,  and  then  finally  marking 
them.  In  bisection  the  .beam  compasses 
are  used,  an  arc  'with  a radius  of  nearly 
half  the  line  being  described  from  either 
end  of  the  line,  and  the  short  distance 
between  the  arcs  bisected  with  the  aid 
of  a magnifier  and  a fine  pointer.  The 
process  is  repeated,  for  each  of  the  two 
halves  thus  obtained,  until  by  sub- 
division the  required  graduation  is  ob- 
tained. Ordinary  instruments  are  grad- 
uated by  machines,  most  of  which  are 
b^ed  upon  the  principle  of  that  in- 
■yented  by  Ramsdeh  in  1766, 

. P.  K— ^ 


’ GRADY^  Henry  Woodfen,  American 
journalist,  was  born  at  Athens,  Ga.,  in 
1851.  In  1880  he  purchased  an  interest 
in  and  became  editor  of  the  Atlanta 
Constitution.  In  1886  he  defivered  a 
speech  in  New  York  on  ‘"'The'  New 
South,”  which  attracted  considerable 
notice,  Mr.  Grady  was  one  of  the  first 
prou^ent  representatives  of  the  New 
South  to'  express  the  willingness  o’?  that 
generation  find  section  to  throw  in  their 
lot  with  the  pOsi  of  the  nation.  He 
I in  h889. 

GRAFTING,  art  operation  by  which  a 
bud  or  scion  of  art  mdlvidual  plant  is 
mserted  upprt  another  individual,  so  as 
to  become  organically  united  with  the 
^ock_  on  which  it  has  beert  placed. 
Grafting  can  only  take  plaee  h^ween 
plants  which  have  a certam  aMnfty, 
individuals  of  the  same  species',  gerttxS, 


v»1)a  le,  in 


end  is  inserted  into  the  cleft  r 
®apnle-grafting,  the  end  of  the 


st  .c&  k is  cut  into  the  form  of  a wedge. 


Spiles* 

grafting’, 


Saddle* 

grafting. 


Cleft* 

grafting. 


The  e 
with  ti 


rfift  does  not  become 

e stO(!h  to  which  it  is 

united,  .but  fetains  its  own  peculiarities 
of  variety  pif  speciof.  The  parts  between 
which  graftirig  is  effected  must  be  active- 
ly vegetatihjg.  The  advantages  derived 
from  grafting  are  the  pTOgCnmtion  of 
remarkable  varieties,  whitth  could  not 
be  reproduced  from  seAdj  the  more 
rapid  multiplication  of  particul^ar  Species 
and  the  anticipation  of  the  period  of 
fructification,  which  may  thus  Sd" 
vanced  by  several  years.  The  princi^M- 
methods  of  grafting  are — 1.  By  api-' 
proach.—This  process  is  intended  to 
unite  at  one  or  more  points  two  plants 

trowing  from  separate  roots.  Plates  of 
ark  of  equal  size  are  removed,  the 
wounds  are  kept  together  and  protected 
from  air.  Stems,  branches,  or  roots  may 
be  united  in  this  way.  2.  By  scions. — 
Under  this  head  there  are  a variety  of 
methods,  such  as  whip,  splice,  cleft, 
saddle,  crown  grafting,  etc.  In  whip- 
grafting  or  tongue-grafting  the  stock  is 
cut  obliquely  across  and  a slit  or  very 
narrow  angular  incision  is  made  in  its 
center  downward  across  the  cut  sur- 
face, a similar  deep  incision  is  made  in 
the  scion  upward,  at  a corresponding 
angle,  and,  a projecting  tongue  left, 
which  being  inserted  in  the  incision  in 
the  stock.,  they  are  fastened  closely 
together.  Splioe-grafting  is  performed 
by  cutting  the  ends  of  the  scion  and 
stock  completely  across  in  an  oblique 
direction,  in  such  a way  that  the  sec- 
tions are  of  the  same  shape,  then  laying 
the  oblique  surfaces  together  eo  that  the 
one  exactly  fits  the  other,  and  securing 
them  by  tying  or  otherwise.  In  cleft- 
grafting, the  stock  is  cleft  down,  and 
the  graft;  cut  jn  the  shape  of  a wedge  at 


aji  ■fi\  he  base  of  the  scion,  slit  up  or  cleft 
for  e purpose,  is  affixed.  Crown- 
graftK  vor  rmd-grafting  is  performed 
by  ctittfi  ng  the  lower  end  of  the  scion  in 
a sl(^p}itk  ' direction,  while  the  head  of 
the  stoBlk  IS  cut  over  horizontally  and 
.a  sfA  is  ft  ade  through  the  inner  bark 
their  A-  piece  ctlf  wood,  bone,  ivory,  or  other 
die4  j such  subsitft  ace,  resembling  the  thinned 
i end'  of  the;  .ft  'ion,  is  inserted  in  the  top 
of  the  slit  iU  tween  the  alburnum  and 
in.rt'sr  bark  aaift  pushed  dovm  in  order  to 
raisvV  the  bar^  so  that  the  thin  end  of 
the  siaj<Mi  may  be  introduced  without 
being  b.nrised.  1 he  edges  of  the  bark  on 
each  side  tha  a brought  close  to  the 
scion,  and  .the  who  le  is  bound  with  mat- 
, ting  and  a «•  day  put  round  it. 

1 3,  By  buds.—  -ThiM  consists  in  trans- 
I htfing  to  anothL^'r  *tt  ’ck  a plate  or  bark, 
t(7  Which  one  or’  ^'^ds  adhere. 

Bud-^&ifting  is  ti.'*?  most  commonly 
practice^?/  especially'  multiplying 

fruit-trees  ^fml  roses,’  owing  to  the 
facility  with  wf/reh  it  mW  performed. 

GRAIL,  the  IrtgendarSV  ^dy  vessel, 
supposed  to  have  bedmdff^  'erald,  from 
which  Ghrist  dispensed  dne  at  the 

last  supper.  It  was; said  teP  . 
brought  to  England  by  Josephi  ■ *^rima- 
thea,  but  to  have  been  talc^  back  to 
heaven  until  the  appearance-^  tPt  heroes 
worthy  to  be  its  guari3ians.  3^  'lurel, 
a descendant  of  the  Asiatic-’  ift. 
Perillus,  whose  descendant^'  bad^G^  '®d 
themselves  with  the  family  of  a ^ 

sovereign,  was  chosen  as  itsf’'  keepfep. 

He  erected  for  it  a temple  on  th^modsjft 
of  that  at  Jerusalem,  and  organised -aa 
band  of  guardians.  It  was  visible  -mly/ 
to  the  baptizeci  and  pure  of  heart.  W"Uh-i 
this  legend  that  of  King  Arthur  W-  - 
came  connected.  Three  of  his  knights,  • 
Galahadf  Percival,  and  Bors,  had  sight  ■ 
of  it,  and  on  the  death  of  Percival,  its  • 
last  guardian,  it  was  again  taken  to 
heaven. 

GRAIN,  includes  all  those  kinefesf  grass 
Whitph  a^e  cultivated  on  account  (ssf  their 
fer  t he  production  of  meal  orfloxsar. 

Ali‘  kind^  of  grain  contain  in  varyiiiig 
quantititeff'  the  following  element^; 
gluten,  f^ul'rt  starch,  a sweet  muciP- 
age,  a digestihS#  aromatic  substance; 
contained  in  the  hulls,  and  moisture, , 
which  is  predominant  even  in  the  driesti 
grain,  and  serves-,  after  planting,  tbi 
stimulate  the  first  motions  of  the  germ.. 
GRAIN  elevator.  See  Elevator. 
GRAIN-LEATHER,  dressed  horse- 
hides,  goat-skins,  seal-skins,  etc.,  blackedi 
on  the  grain  side,  that  is  the  hair  sidfe:;, 
for  shoes,  boots,  etc. 

GRAIN-MOTH,  a minute  moth  whose; 
larv®  or  grubs  devour  grain_in  granaries.. 

The  moths  have  narrow,  fringedU  wings, , 
of  a satiny  luster. 

GRAINS  OF  PARADISE,  CSlinea', 
grains  or  Malaguetta  pepper,  a plant  of  ’ 
tropical  'Western  Africa.  They  are: 
chiefly  used  in  cattle  medicines  and  lo* 
give  a fiery  pungency  to  cordials.  The^ 
“Grain  Coast”  of  Africa  takes  its  name: 
from  the  production  of  these  seeds  in 
that  region. 

GRALLATO'RES,  an  order  of  birds 
which  formerly  included  the  heron,  ibis, 
stork;  but  these  are  now  put  into  an- 


GRAMMAR 


GRAND  RAPIDS 


other  order,  and  the  Grallatores,  prop- 
erly so  called,  consist  of  the  following 
families,  namely,  those  of  the  snipe, 
stint,  and  ruff;  the  red-shanks,  green- 
shanks,  and  sand-pipers;  the  curlews, 
phalaropes,  stilts,  and  avocets;  the 
plovers,  oyster'catchers,  turnstones,  lap- 


Grallatores— Head  and  toot  of  crane. 

wings,  coursers;  the  jacanas,  the  bus- 
tards; the  rails  and  coots;  and  the 
cranes.  They  are  generally  known  as 
wading-birds,  as  they  frequent  shores 
and  banks  of  streams,,  marshes,  etc., 
and  their  legs  and  beak  are  commonly 
rather  long. 

GRAMMAR,  in  reference  to  any  lan- 
guage, is  the  system  of  rules,  principles, 
and  facts  which  must  be  known  in  order 
to  speak  and  write  the  language  cor- 
rectly. Comparative  grammar  treats  of 
the  laws,  customs,  and  forms  which  are 
shown  by  comparison  to  be  common  to 
various  languages;  general  or  universal 
grammar,  of  those  laws  which,  by  logical 
deduction,  are  demonstrated  to  be  com- 
mon to  all.  The  divisions  of  grammar 
vary  with  the  class  and  also  with  the 
method  of  treatment.  In  common 
English  grammars  the  division  is  gen- 
erally fourfold:  Orthography,  which 
treats  of  the  proper  spelling  of  words, 
and  includes  orthoepy,  treating  of  the 
proper  pronunciation ; et3miology,  which 
treats  of  their  derivations  and  inflec- 
tions; syntax,  of  the  laws  and  forms  of 
construction  common  to  compositions 
in  prose  and  verse;  prosody,  of  the  laws 
peculiar  to  verse.  Although  the  sys- 
tematization of  grammar  had  begun  in 
some  sort  in  Plato’s  time  it  was  chiefly 
to  the  Alexandrian  writers  tfiat  it  owed 
its  development.  The  first  Greek  gram- 
mar for  Roman  students  was  that  of 
Dionysius  Thrax,  in  use  about  80  b.c. 
Comparative  grammar  can  only  be  said 
to  have  existed  from  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century,  when  the  critical  study 
of  Sanskrit  established  the  affinities  of 
the  languages  of  the  Indo-European 
group.  The  names  of  Bopp,  Grimm, 
Pott,  Schleicher,  Muller,  etc.,  are  espe- 
cially associated  with  its  development. 

GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS,  an  old  name 
of  a class  of  schools  at  which  a secondary 
education  is  given,  as  a preparation  for 
a university  course.  The  term  seems  to 
have  arisen  from  the  once  almost  exclu- 
sive occupation  of  these  schools  in  the 
teaching  of  the  elements  or  grammar  of 
the  Latin  and  Greek  languages.  In 
England  the  character  of  the  teaching  in 
secondary  schools,  where  not  restricted 
by  endowments,  is  necessarily  influ- 
enced by  the  course  of  instruction  in  the 
universities,  in  which  the  classical 
element  still  preponderates. 

The  term  Grammar  School  is  now  used 
in  the  United  States  to  designate  the 
upper  grades,  ordinarily  the  fourth  to 
the  eighth,  inclusive,  of  the  common 


school,  in  which  not  only  grammar,  but 
also  arithmetic,  geography,  history, 
elements  of  natural  science,  usually 
drawing,  some  form  of  manual  training, 
and  sometimes  elementary  algebra  or 
geometry,  with  a foreign  language,  enter 
into  the  curriculum. 

GRAMME,  the  unit  of  weight  in 
France  = 15.4323  grains.  A deca- 
gramme or  ten  grammes  5.644  drams; 
a hectogramme  (100  grammes)  = 3.527 
oz.;  a kilogramme  (1000  grammes)  = 
2.205  lbs.;  a myriagramme  (10,000 
grammes)  = 22.046  lbs. 

GRAMPUS,  a name  for  several  marine 
cetaceous  mammals  allied  to  the  dol- 
phins, especially  those  of  the  Atlantic  and 
North  Sea,  which  grow  to  the  length  of 
25  feet,  and  is  remarkably  thick  in  pro- 
portion to  its  length.  The  spout-hole  is 
on  the  top  of  the'neck.  The  color  of  the 
back  is  black;  the  belly  is  of  a snowy 
whiteness,  and  on  each  shoulder  is  a 
large  'white  spot.  The  grampus  is 
carnivorous  and  remarkably  voracious, 
even  attacking  the  whale. 

GRANADA  (gra-na'da),  a city  in  the 
south  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Granada.  The  streets  rise  pic- 
turesquely above  each  other,  with  a 
number  of  turrets  and  gilded  cupolas, 
the  whole  being  crowned  by  the  Al- 
hambra, or  palace  of  the  ancient  Moorish 
kings.  In  the  background  lies  the  Sierra 
de  Nevada,  covered  with  snow.  Its 
university  was  founded  about  1530,  and 
is  attended  by  some  1000  students. 
The  city  was  founded  by  the  Moors  be- 
fore 800,  and  from  1036  to  1234  was 
included  in  the  Kingdom  of  Cordova. 
In  1235  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
Moorish  kingdom  of  Granada,  and 
attained  almost  matchless  splendor. 
In  1491  it  remained  the  last  stronghold 
of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  but  was  taken 
by  the  Spaniards  under  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  in  1492,  along  with  the  kingdom 
having  a population  of  perhaps  500,000. 
Its  prosperity  continued  almost  without 
diminution  till  1610,  when  the  decree 
expelling  the  Moors  from  all  parts  of 
/Spain  told  severely  upon  it,  and  it  has 
never  recovered.  Pop.  75,054. — The 
province,  which  is  partly  bounded  by 
the  Mediterranean,  has  an  area  of  5610 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  478,846. 

GRANADA,  formerly  a Moorish  king- 
dom in  Spain,  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, now  represented  by  the  three 
provinces,  Granada,  Almeria,  and  Mal- 
aga; area,  11,000  sq.  miles.  In  1492  it 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
Spaniards. 

GRAN  CHACO,  El,  a territory  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  lying  mainly  be- 
tween the  Vermejo,  Parana,  and  Salado. 
It  is  inhabited  by  various  Indian  tribes, 
the  total  Indian  population  being  esti- 
mated at  from  20,000  to  40,000. 

GRAND  ARMY  OF  THE  REPUBLIC, 
shortly  after  the  close  of  the  civil  war. 
Dr.  B.  F.  Stephenson,  who  had  been  a 
surgeon  in  a volunteer  regiment  sug- 
gested the  organization  of  Union  vet- 
erans into  a national  association  for 
mutual  assistance.  The  first  post  was 
formed  at  Decatur,  111.,  April  6,  1866. 
The  objects  of  the  orderwere“to  main- 
tain and  strengthen  the  fraternal  feel- 
ings which  bind  together  the  soldiers, 
sailors  and  marines  who  united  to  sup- 


press the  Rebellion;  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  those  who  have  died  and  to 
lend  assistance  to  the  needy  veterans 
and  their  widows  and  orphans.”  The 
“post”  is  the  local  organization,  the 
“department”  is  the  state  or  territorial 
organization.  National  annual  meetings 
called  encampments  are  held.  On  these 
occasions  and  in  its  parades  the  mem- 
bers wear  a dark  blue  uniform  and 
black  slouch  hat.  The  official  badge 
consists  of  a miniature  strap  and  ribbon 
showing  the  national  flag  from  which  is 
hung  the  brass  star  of  the  membership 
badge.  Although  in  1869  The  Grand 
Army  declared  against  participation  in 
partisan  politics,  yet  its  close  organiza- 
tion and  the  preponderance  of  repub- 
licans in  its  ranks  made  it  a strong  factor 
in  politics  and  every  republican  presi- 
dent from  Grant  to  McKinley  was  a 
veteran  of  the  civil  war  and  polled 
practically  the  entire  Grand  Army  vote. 
The  organization  also  has  influenced 

Eension  legislation.  Its  membership  has 
een  dwindling  rapidly  through  deaths 
and  it  is  now  less  than  200,000. 

GRAND-DUKE,  the  title  of  the  sover- 
eign of  several  of  the  states  of  Germany, 
who  are  considered  to  be  of  a rank  be- 
tween duke  and  king;  also  applied  to 
members  of  the  imperial  family  of 
Russia. 

GRANDEE',  In  Spain  a noble  of  the 
first  rank,  which  consisted  partly  of  the 
relatives  of  the  royal  house,  and  partly 
of  ’such  members  of  the  high  feudal 
nobility  distinguished  for  their  wealth 
as  had,  by  the  grant  of  a banner  received 
from  the  king,  the  right  to  enlist  soldiers 
under  their  own  colors. 

GRAND  JURY.  See  Jury. 

GRAND  jfURY,  the  institution  of  the 
grand  jjiry  dates  from  the  times  of  the 
Saxons  when  it  had  much  the  same 
function  as  now  being  present  at  the 
opening  of  each  term  of  court  for  the 
purpose  of  inquiring  into  the  charges 
of  offenses  and  returning  to  the  court 
its  opinion  thereof.  Today  in  America 
and  in  England  its  functions  are  prac- 
tically as  in  the  olden  days.  The 
charges*  against  the  accused  are  laid 
before  the  grand  jury  and  the  duties  of 
the  members  is  to  inquire  whether  there 
is  sufficient  prima  facie  evidence  to  re- 
quire a trial.  For  this  purpose  it  may 
summon  witnesses  which  are  usually  for 
the  prosecution,  the  witnesses  for  the  de- 
fense not  appearing  until  the  prisoner 
is  brought  to  trial,  before  the  petit  jury. 
If  the  prima  facie  evidence  is  sufficient 
a bill  of  indictment  is  returned.  The 
grand  jury  also  is  supposed  to  inquire 
into  all  matters  affecting  the  general 
conditions  of  the  public  weal  and  often 
makes  investigations  of  public  abuses 
with  recommendations  for  their  reform. 

GRAND  PRE,  a beautiful  village  on 
the  basin  of  Minas,  King’s  county. 
Nova  Scotia;  the  scene  of  Longfellow’s 
Evangeline.  The  French  settlers  there 
M’ere  expelled  by  Virginian  colonists  in 
1613.  Pop.  1600. 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  county  seat  of  Kent 
CO.,  Michigan,  situated  on  the  rapids  of 
the  Grand  river,  40  miles  from  its  mouth. 
It  is  handsomely  built,  and  has  a pleas- 
ant and  healthy  situation.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  railway  system  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  is  an 


GRANGE 


GRANULATION 


important  center  for  the  distribution  of 

f)ine  and  hard-wood  lumber.  It  has 
arge  manufactures  of  furniture,  wooden 
ware,  agricultural  implements,  brushes, 
machinery,  etc.  Pop.  114,000. 

GRANGE,  in  the  United  States,  a com- 
bination, society,  or  lodge  of  farmers  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  the  interests 
of  agriculture,  more  espe_ci&lly  for 
abolishing  the  restraints  and  burdens 
imposed  on  it  by  the  commercial  classes, 
the  railroad  and  canal  companies,  etc., 
and  for  doing  away  with  middlemen. 
Granges  originated  in  the  great  agri- 
cultural regions  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
still  prevail  most  generally  ther^. 

GRANGERS,  the  local  lodges  of  the 
patrons  of  husbandry  organized  in  1867 
at  Washington  were  called  granges  and 
hence  the  nickname  of  {he  secret  society. 
Its  object  was  to  aid  the  farmers  by 
enabling  them  to  co-operate  and  pur- 
chase their  supplies  at  first  hand  and  by 
offering  opportunities  for  social  and  in- 
tellectual improvement.  Lack  of  business 
training  caused  financial  reverses  in 
many  of  the  enterprises  which  were 
undertaken.  Entering  politics  the  asso- 
ciation in  the  middle  west  threw  its  sup- 
port to  candidates  representing  their 
theories  and  in  1873  and  1874  carried 
the  legislatures  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin 
which  passed  stringent  law's  directed 
against  “extortion  and  unjust  discrimi- 
nation in  the  rates  charged  for  the  trans- 
portation of  passengers  and  freights.” 
The  acts  were  subsequently  repealed 
when  the  grangers  lost  their  influence. 

GRANTLITE,  indeterminate  granite; 
granite  that  contains  more  than  three 
constituent  parts. 

GRANIL'LA,  the  dust  or  small  grains 
of  the  cochineal  insect. 

GRANITE,  an  unstratified  rock,  com- 
posed generally  of  the  minerals  quartz, 
felspar,  and  mica,  mixed  up  without 
regular  arrangement  of  the  crystals.  The 
grains  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a pin’s 
head  to  a mass  of  2 or  3 feet,  but  they 
seldom  exceed  the  size  of  a large  gaming 
die.  When  they  are  of  this  size  or, larger, 
the  granite  is  said  to  be  “coarse-grained.” 
Granite  is  an  igneous  or  fire-formed  rock 
which  has  been  exposed  to  great  heat 
and  pressure  deep  down  in  the  earth. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  of  the 
igneous  rocks  seen  at  or  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  and  was  formerly  con- 
sidered as  the  foundation  rock  of  the 
globe,  or  that  upon  wiiich  all  sedimen- 
tary rocks  repose;  but  it  is  now  known  to 
belong  to  the  various  ages  from  the  Pre- 
Cambrian  to  the  Tertiary,  the  Alps  of 
Europe  containing  granite  of  the  later 
age.  In  Alpine  situations  it  presents  the 
appearance  of  having  broken  through 
the  more  superficial  strata;  the  beds  of 
other  rocks  in  the  vicinity  rising  toward 
it  at  increasing  angles  of  elevation  as 
they  approach  it.  It  forms  some  of  the 
most  lofty  of  the  mountain  chains  of  the 
eastern  continent,  and  the  central  parts 
of  the  principal  mountain  ranges  of 
'Scandinavia,  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
the  Carpathian  Mountains  are  of  this 
rock.  Granite  supplies  the  most  durable 
materials  for  building,  as  many  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  monuments  testify. 
It  varies  much  in  hardness  as  well  as  in 
color,  in  accordance  with  the  nature 
and  proportion  of  its  constituent  parts. 


so  that  there  is  much  room  for  care  and 
taste  in  its  selection.  Granite  in  which 
felspar  predominates  is  not  well  adapted 
for  buildings,  as  it  cracks  and  crumbles 
down  in  a few  years.  The  Aberdeen 
bluish-gray  granite  is  celebrated  for  its 
great  durability,  and  also  for  its  beauty. 
The  Peterhead  red  granite,  the  hue  of 
which  is  due  to  its  felspar  being  the 
flesh-colored  potash  variety  called  or- 
thoclase,  is  highly  esteemed  for  polished 
work,  as  columns,  pillars,  graveyard 
monuments,  etc.  Granite,  in  which 
mica  is  replaced  by  hornblende  is  called 
syenite;  when  both  mica  and  hornblende 
are  present  it  is  called  syenitic  granite ; 
when  talc ‘supplants  mica  it  is  called 
protogene,  talcose,  or  chloritic  granite; 
a mixture  of  quartz  and  hypersthene, 
with  scattered  flakes  of  mica,  is  called 
hypersthenic  granite;  and  the  name  of 
graphic  granite,  or  gepmatite,  is  given 
to  a variety  composed  of  felspar  and 
quartz,  with  a little  white  mica,  so 
arranged  as  to  produce  an  irregular, 
laminar  structure.  When  a section 
of  this  latter  mineral  is  made  at 
right  angles  to  the  alternations  of 
the  constituent  materials,  broken 
lines  resembling  Hebrew  characters 
present  themselves;  hence  the  name. 
Granite  abounds  in  crystallized  earthy 
minerals;  and  these  occur  for  the  most 
part  in  veins  traversing  the  mass  of  the 
rock.  Of  these  minerals  beryl,  garnet, 
and  tourmaline  are  the  most  abundant. 
It  is  not  rich  in  metallic  ores.  The 
oriental  basalt,  found  in  rolled  masses 
in  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  and  of  which  the 
Egyptians  made  tneir  statues,  is  a true 
granite,  its  black  color  being  caused  by 
the  presence  of  hornblende  and  the 
black  shade  of  the  mica.  The  oriental 
red  ganite  chiefly  found  in  Egypt,  and 
of  which  I Pompey’s  Pillar  and  Cleo- 
patra’s Needles  were  constructed,  is 
composed  of  large  grains  or  imperfectly 
formed  crystals  of  flesh-colored  felspar, 
of  transparent  quartz,  and  of  black 
hornblende. 

^lANT,  in  law,  a gift  in  writing  of 
suCn  a thing  as  cannot  be  passed  or  con- 
veyed by  word  only ; thus,  a graUt  is  the 
regular  method  by  the  common  law  of 
transferring  the  property  of  incorporeal 
hereditaments,  or  such  things  whereof 
no  actual  delivery  of  possession  can  be 
had. 

GRANT,  Ulysses  S.,  general  and  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  born  in  1822 
at  Point  Pleasant,  in  Clermont  co., 
Ohio.  His  real  name  was  Hiram  Ulysses 
Grant,  the  name  afterwards  used  by 
him  having  arisen  out  of  an  error  in 
the  registration  of  his  c^adetship.  After 
having  studied  in  the  military  academy 
at  West  Point,  he  served  during  the 
Mexican  war,  taking  part  in  every  battle 
except  Buena  Vista,  and  being  brevetted 
captain  for  gallantry.  In  1854  he  re- 
signed his  commission  and  engaged  first 
in  farming  near  St.  Louis,  and  thgn  in 
the  leather  trade  with  his  father  at 
Galena,  Illinois.  On  the  declaration  of 
war  in  1861  he  was  chosen  captain  of  a 
company  of  volunteers,  and  was  rapidly 
promoted  to  a brigadier-generalship  of 
volunteers.  He  seized  Paducah,  com- 
manding the  Tennessee  and  Ohio  navi- 
gation, checked  the  departure  of  rein- 
forcements from  Belmont,  captured 


Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  and 
won  the  two  days’  battle  of  Shiloh.  He 
then  gained  a new  victory  at  Juka,  and 
after  repulsing  the  confederates  before 
Corinth  commenced  operations  against 
Vicksburg.  After  a siege  of  some  montlis 
in  the  course  of  which  he  took  the  town 
of  Jackson,  and  scattered  an  army  under 
Johnston,  the  town  surrendered.  For 
this  Grant  was  made  major-general  in 
the  regular  army,  and  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Mississippi  division.  The 
battles  of  Chickamauga  and  Chatta- 
nooga, which  followed,  opened  the  way 
into  Georgia  for  the  federal  troops.  In 
Feb.  1864,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general,  and  assumed  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States.  In  a suc- 
cession of  hotly-contested  battles  at  the 
Wilderness,  Spottsylvania,  North  Anna, 
and  Cold  Harbor,  he  steadily  advanced 


Ulysses  S.  Grant. 


on  Petersburg  and  Richmond.  These 
speedily  fell,  and  Lee,  defeated  at  Five 
Forks  and  completely  surrounded,  sur- 
rendered to  Grant,  April  9,  1865.  Grant 
returned  to  Washington,  and  in  1866 
was  made  general  of  the  armies  of  the 
United  States.  After  exercising  an  im- 
portant influence  during  the  presidency 
of  Johnson,  Lincoln’s  successor,  he  was 
himself  elected  president  in  1868.  His 
administration  allayed  the  soreness 
which  still  survived  from  the  great 
struggle  between  the  states,  and  was 
also  noteworthy  for  the  reduction  of  the 
national  debt  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Alabama  dispute  V'ith  England.  He 
was  re-elected  in  1872.  On  his  retirement 
he  spent  some  time  in  travel.  Latterly 
he  became  involved  in  a bubble  com- 
pany which  exploited  his  name  and  left 
him  heavily  in  debt.  He  manfully  en- 
deavored to  repair  his  fortune  by  writ- 
ing and  publishing  his  Memoirs,  and  in 
this  he  was  successful,  though  suffering 
greatly  from  the  cancerous  disease  of 
which  de  died  in  1885. 

GRANULATION,  the  subdivision  of  a 
metal  into  small  pieces  or  thin  Aims, 
effected  either  by  pouring  the  metal  in  a 
fine  stream  or  through  a sieve  into^ 
water.  It  is  employed  in  chemistry  to* 


GRANULATION 


GRATTAN 


increase  the  surface,  so  as  to  render  the 
metal  more  susceptible  to  the  action  of 
reagents,  and  in  metallurgy  for  the  sub- 
division of  a tough  metal  like  eopper. 
Small  shot  is  made  by  a species  of  granu- 
lation. 

g:^nulation,  in  surgery,  the  for- 
mation of  little  grain-like  fleshy  bodies 
on  the  surfaces  of  ulcers  and  suppurating 
"Wounds,  serving  both  for  filling  up  the 
•cavities  and  bringing  nearer  together 
■and  uniting  their  sides.  The  color  of 
healthy  granulations  is  a deep  florid  red. 
When  livid  they  are  unhealthy,  and  have 
only  a languid  circulation. 

GRAWVELLA,  or  GRANVELLE,  An- 
toine Perrenot,  Cardinal  de,  minister  of 
state  to  Charles  V.  and  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1517  near  Besangon. 
He  studied  at  Padua  and  at  Louvain,  in 
Ihis  twenty-third  year  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Arras,  and  was  present  at  the 
(diets  at  Worms  and  Ratisbon.  In  1545 
Ihe  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
lon  the  death  of  his  father  in  1550  was 
appointed  by  Charles  V.  to  succeed  him 
in  the  office  of  chancellor.  In  1552  he 
negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Passau,  and  in 
1553  arranged  the  marriage  of  Don 
Philip  with  Mary  Queen  of  England. 
Under  Philip  II.  he  remained  chief 
minister,  and  in  1559  negotiated  the 
peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis.  In  1570 
Philip  sent  him  to  Rome  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  the  pope  and  the  Venetians 
against  the  Turks,  and  afterward  to 
Naples  as  viceroy.  In  1575  he  was  re- 
called to  Spain,  and  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  government  with  the  title  of 
president  of  the  supreme  council  of 
Italy  and  Castile.  In  1584  he  was  created 
Archbishop  of  Besangon,  and  died  at 
Madrid  in  1586. 

GRANVILLE,  Granville  George  Leve- 
.'son-Gower,  2d  Earl,  K.  G.,  English 
statesman,  was  born  in  London  in  1815; 
■educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford:  entered  parliament  in  1836  for 
Morpeth,  afterward  for  Lichfield,  both 
in  the  liberal  interest.  In  1868  he  was 
• colonial  secretary  under  Gladstone,  and 
on  the  death  of  Clarendon  in  1870  suc- 
ceeded to  the  secretaryship  of  foreign 
affairs,  which  he  held  until  1874.  During 
this  period  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of 
1870,  guaranteeing  the  independence  of 
Belgium,  and  “protested”  against  the 
Russian  repudiation  of  the  Black  Sea 
clause  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  On  the 
return  of  Gladstone  to  office  in  1880  Lord 
Granville  again  became  foregin  secretary 
until  Lord  Salisbury  came  into  power  in 
1885.  He  died  in  1891. 

GRAPE.  See  Vine. 

GRAPE-SHOT,  a kin  d of  shot  gen- 
erally consisting  of  three  tiers  of  cast 
iron  balls  arranged,  three  in  a tier,  be- 
tween four  parallel  iron  discs  connected 
together  by  a central  wrought-iron  pin. 
Case-shot  is  now  more  used  than  grape- 
shot. 

GRAPH'ITE,  one  of  the  forms  under 
which  carbon  occurs  in  nature,  also 
known  under  the  names  of  Plumbago, 
Black-lead,  and  Wad.  It  occurs  not  un- 
frequently  as  a mineral  produetion,  and 
is  found  in  great  purity  at  Borrowdale  In 
Cumberland,  and  in  large  quantities  in 
Canada,  Ceylon,  and  Bohemia.  Graphite 
may  be  heated  to  any  extent  in  close 
vessels  without  change ; it  is  exceedingly 


unchangeable  in  the  air;  it  has  an  iron-: 
gray  color,  metallic  luster,  and  granular 
texture,  and  is  soft  and  unctuous  to 
the  touch.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manu- 1 
facture  of  pencils,  crucibles,  and  portable  j 
furnaces,  in  burnishing  iron  to  protect 
it  from  rust,  for  giving  a smooth  surface 
to  casting  moulds,  for  coating  wax  or 
other  impressions  of  objects  designed  to 
be  electrotyped,  and  for  counteracting 
friction  between  the  rubbing  surfaces 
of  M^ood  or  metal  in  machinery. 

GRAPNEL,  or  GRAPLING,  a sort  of 
small  anchor,  fitted  with  four  or  five 
flukes  or  claws,  and  commonly  used  to 
fasten  boats  or  other  small  vessels.  The 
name  was  also  given  to  the  grappling- 
iron  formerly  used  in  naval  engagements 
to  hold  one  ship  to  another. 

GRASS-CLOTH,  the  name  of  certain 
beautiful  light  fabrics  made  in  the  East 
from  China  grass.  None  of  the  plants 
yielding  the  fiber  are  grasses. 

GRASSES,  a very  extensive  and  im- 
portant order  of  endogenous  plants, 
comprising  about  250  genera  and  4500 
species,  including  many  of  the  most 
valuable  pasture-plants,  all  those  which 
yield  corn,  the  sugar-cane,  the  tall  and 
graceful  bamboo,  etc.  The  nutritious 
herbage  and  farinaceous  seed  furnished 
by  many  of  them  render  them  of  in- 
calculable importance,  while  the  stems 
and  leaves  are  useful  for  various  textile 
and  other  purposes.  The  roots  are 
fibrous;  the  stem  or  culm  is  usually 
cylindrical  and  jointed,  varying  in  length 
from  a few  inches  to  80  or  90  feet,  as  in 
the  bamboo(in  the  sugar-eane  the  stem 
is  solid,  but  porous),  and  coated  with 
silex;  leaves,  one  to  each  node  or  joint, 
with  a sheathing  petiole;  spikelets 
terminal,  panicled,  racemose,  or  spiked; 
flowers  hermaphrodite  or  polygamous, 
destitute  of  true  calyx  or  corolla,  sur- 
rounded by  a double  set  of  bracts,  the 
outer  constituting  the  glumes,  the  inner 
thq  palese;  stamens  hypogynous,  three 
or  six ; filaments  long  and  flaccid ; anthers 
versatile;  ovary  solitary,  simple,  with 
two  (rarely  three)  styles,  one-celled, 
with  a single  ovule;  fruit  kno"wn  as  a 
caryopsis,  the  seed  and  the  pericarp 
being  inseparable  from  each  other.  The 
more  important  divisions  of  the  natural 
order  of  grasses  are;  the  millet,  fundi, 
Guinea^rass,  the  sugar-cane,  dhurra, 
lemon-grass,  gama-grass,  etc.,  (maize. 
Job’s  tears,  canary-grass,  foxtail- 
grass,  soft-grass,  Timothy  grass,  rice, 
feather-grass,  (esparto) ; bent-grass, 
oats,  vernal  grass;  fescue,  meadow- 
grass,  manna-grass,  teff,  cock’s-foot 
grass,  tussac  grass,  dog’s-tail  grass; 
bamboo;  wheat,  barley,  rye,  spelt,  rye- 
grass, l}mie-grass.  In  its  popular  use 
the  term  grasses  is  ehiefly  applied  to  the 
pasture  grasses  as  distinct  from  the 
eereals,  etc.;  but  it  is  also  applied  to 
some  herbs,  which  are  not  in  any  strict 
sense  grasses  at  all,  e.g.  rib-grass,  scurvy 
and  whitlow  grass.  After  the  culture  of 
herbage  and  forage  plants  became  an 
important  branch  of  husbandry,  it  be- 
came customary  to  call  the  clovers, 
trefoils,  sainfoin,  and  other  flowering 
plants  growns  as  fodder,  artificial  grasses 
by  way  of  distinction  from  the  grasses 
proper,  which  were  termed  natural 
grasses.  Of  the  pasture  grasses,  some 
thrive  in  meadows,  others  in  marshes,  on 


upland  fields,  or  on  bleak  hills,  and  they  S 
by  no  means  grow  indiscriminately.  * 
GRASS'HOPPER,  the  name  of  various^, 
leaping  insects  nearly  akin  to  the  locusts.  T 
They  are  characterized  by  very  long  and  ^ 
slender  legs,  the  thighs  of  the  hinder  legs 
being  large  and  adapted  for  leaping,  by 
large  and  delicate  wings,  and  by  the 
wing-covers  extending  far  beyond  the  * 
extremity  of  the  abdomen.  Grass- 
hoppers  form  an  extensive  group  of 
insects,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  4 
power  which  they  possess  of  leaping  to  a k 
considerable  distance,  and  by  the  stridu-  5 
lous  chirping  noise  the  males  produce  by  4 
rubbing  their  wing-covers  together. 
They  are  generally  of  a greenish  color.  f ’ 
GRASS-OIL,  Oil  of  Geranium,  or  Oil 
of  Spikenard,  a fragrant  volatile  oil,  ^ 
used  chiefly  ift  perfumery,  and  obtained  * 
from  Indian  grasses. 

GRASS-TREE,  the  popular  name  of  a .j 
genus  of  Australian  plants,  having  c 
stubby  stems  -with  tufts  of  long  grass-  < 
like  wiry  foliage,  from  the  center  of  K 
which  arise  the  tall  flower-stalks,  which 


sometimes  reach  the  height  of  15  or  20 
feet,  and  bear  dense  cylindrical  spikes  or  % 
blossoms  at  their  summit.  The  base  of  ^ 
the  leaves  forms,  when  roasted,  an  Js 
agreeable  article  of  diet,' and  the  leaves 
themselves  are  used  as  fodder  for  all 
kinds  of  cattle.  A resin,  known  in  com-  X 
merce  as  akaroid  resin,  is  obtained  from 
all  the  species,  which  are  also  popularly  j* 
known  as  black-boys.  S 

GRATTAN,  Henry,  Irish  orator  and  « 
statesman,  born  at  Dublin,  in  1746; « 
called  to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772,  and  in  M 


Henry  Grattan. 


1775  elected  member  for  Charlton  in] 
the  parliament  of  Ireland.  In  1780  he] 
moved  resolutions  asserting  the  crown! 
to  be  the  only  link  between  Britain  anw 
Ireland,  and  in  1782  led  the  volunteeq 
movement,  which  w'as  instrumental  ini 
securing  the  concession  of  independency 


GRATZ 


^to  Ireland.  In  1800  he  came  forward 
as  member  for  Wicklow  to  oppose  the 
union,  and  on  the  passage  of  Pitt’s 
measure  was  returned  to  the  imperial 
parliament  in  1805  for  Malton  in  York- 
shire, and  in  1806  for  Dublin.  He  sup- 
ported the  war  policy  of  the  administra- 
tion, but  was  latterly  chiefly  occupied 
in  promoting  catholic  emancipation. 
He  died  in  1820,  and  was  interred  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

GRATZ,  or  GRAZ,  a town  of  Austria, 
capital  of  Styria,  pieturesquely  situated 
on  the  Mur,  90  miles  south-west  of 
Vienna.  ' The  older  town  on  the  left 
bank,  is  connected  with  the  suburbs 
Lend  and  Gries,  on  the  right  by  several 
bridges,  besides  a railway  bridge.  The 
Schlossberg  rises  400  feet  above  the 
river,  but  the  fortifications  of  the  town 
have  given  place  to  avenues  and  pleas- 
ure grounds.  The  manufactures  consist 
of  woolens,  cotton,  and  silk  tissues,  ma- 
chinery, steel,  rails,  wagons,  soap, 
leather,  ironware,  etc.  Pop.  138,370. 

GRAVEL,  in  pathology,  small  concre- 
tions or  calculi  in  the  kidneys  or  blad- 
der. 

GRAVING,  the  act  of  cleaning  and 
repairing  a ship’s  bottom.  At  seaports 
this  is  usually  done  in  a dry-dock  called 
a graving-dock.  See  Docks. 

GRAVITATION,  the  force  by  reason  of 
which  all  the  bodies  and  particles  of 
matter  in  the  universe  tend  toward  one 
another.  According  to  the  law  of  gravi- 
tation discovered  by  Newton,  every 
portion  of  matter  attracts  every  other 
portion  with  a force  directly  proportional 
to  the  product  of  the  two  masses,  and 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of 
the  distance  between  them.  Kepler  had 
given  the  laws,  deduced  from  observa- 
tion, according  to  which  the  planets  de- 
scribe their  orbits.  From  these  Newton 
deduced  the  laws  of  the  force  in  the  case 
of  planets;  and  subsequently  he  general- 
ized the  statement  of  them,  by  showing 
the  identity  of  the  nature  of  the  force 
that  retains  the  moon  in  her  orbit,  with 
that  which  attracts  matter  near  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  application  of 
, the  grand  law  that  he  had  discovered 
subsequently  occupied  a large  part  of 
the  mathematical  labors  of  Newton. 
Attacking  the  problem  of  lunar  in- 
equalities, he  accounted  for  them  by 
- considering  the  perturbations  due  to  the 
attraction  of  various  bodies  of  the  solar 
system;  and  by  accounting  for  all  the 
observed  perturbations  by  means  of  his 
newly-discovered  law  he  confirmed  the 
truth  of  the  law  itself  in  such  a way  as  to 
put  it  beyond  all  question.  The  com- 
putation of  these  various  attractions  has 
, reached  such  a degree  of  accuracy  in  the 
hands  of  mathematicians  since  Newton, 
that  the  most  complicated  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  can  be  predicted. 
The  law  has  also  been  applied  success- 
fully in  weighing  the  planets,  explaining 
the  paths  of  comets,  the  motions  of  the 
tidal  wav&,  etc.  It  has  also  been  demon- 
strated to  hold  good  in  the  case  of  com- 
paratively small  bodies.  Thus  Maskelyn 
determined  the  attraction  of  a particular 
mountain,  and  Cavendish  and  Bailly 
measured  the  attractions  of  a ball  of 
lead  on  light  finely-balanced  bodies, 
■ and  thus  determined  the  mean  density 
of  the  earth. 


GRAVITY,  the  term  applied  to  the 
force  with  which  the  earth  attracts  every 
particle  of  matter.  The  force  of  gravity 
is  least  at  the  equator,  and  gradually 
increases  as  we  recede  toward  the  poles. 
Thus  a given  mass,  if  tested  by  means  of 
a spring-balance  of  sufficient  delicacy, 
would  appear  to  weigh  least  at  the 
equator,  and  would  seem  to  get  heavier 
and  heavier  as  the  latitude  increases. 
This  is  due  to  two  causes : first,  the  centrif- 
ugal force  at  the  equator  is  greater  than 
that  in  high  latitudes  because  of  the 
greater  radius  of  the  circle  described  at 
that  place;  and,  second,  the  attraction  is 
diminished  by  the  greater  distance  of 
objects  on  the  surface  from  the  earth’s 
center.  From  both  causes  combined  a 
body  which  weighs  194  lbs.  at  the  equator 
would  weigh  195  lbs.  at  either  pole. 
Experiments  to  determine  the  force  of 
gravity  from  point  to  point  are  made  by 
determining  the  length  of  a pendulum 
that  beats  seconds  at  each  place.  By 
experiments  made  by  Captain  Kater  at 
Leith  Fort  it  was  found  that  the  force  of 
gravity  at  that  place  is  such  that  a body, 
unresisted  by  air  or  otherwise,  would 
acquire  in  one  second,  under  its  in- 
fluence, a velocity  of  32.207  feet  per 
second.  At  Greenwich  the  acceleration 
is  32.1912  feet. 

GRAVITY,  Specific.  See  Specific 
Gravity. 

GRAY,  Asa,  American  botanist,  born 
1810.  He  was  appointed  Fisher  profes- 
sor of  natural  history  in  Harvard  uni- 
versity in  1842,  and  held  'the  chair  till 
1873,  when  he  retired  from  its  more 
active  duties.  His  death  took  place  in 
1888.  His  works  include  Elements  of 
Botany  (1836),  A Manual  of  Botany 
(1848),  and  other  botanical  text-books; 
also  portions  of  works  on  the  flora  of 
North  America  and  the  Genera  Boreali- 
Americana,  a Free  Examination  of  Dar- 
win’s Treatise  (1861),  a volume  entitled 
Darwiniana  (1876),  etc. 

GRAY,  Elisha,  American  inventor, 
born  in  1835  at  Barnesville,  in  Ohio. 
In  1867  he  obtained  his  first  patent, 
which  was  for  telegraphic  apparatus. 
Subsequently,  he  received  nearly  fifty 
patents,  relating  principally  to  the 
telephone  and  other  electrical  apparatus. 
Claims  were  advanced  in  behalf  of  Gray 
as  one  of  the  inventors  of  the  speaking 
telephone,  for  which  he  filed  specifica- 
tions, February  14,  1876;  but  the  patent 
was  awarded  to  Alexander  Graham  Bell, 
whose  rights  were  sustained  by  the 
supreme  court.-  Among  his  other  in- 
ventions wete  a system  of  multiplex 
telegraphy,  a type-printing  telegraph, 
the  telautograph,  and  numerous  tele- 
graphic and  telephonic  appliances  and 
adjuncts.  He  was  for  a number  of  years 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  tele- 
graphic apparatus  in  Chicago  and  Cleve- 
land. He  died  in  1901. 

GRAY,  Thomas,  English  poet,  born  in 
London  in  1716;  educated  at  Eton  with 
Horace  Walpole,  and  at  Cambridge. 
In  1747  his  Ode  on  a Distant  Prospect  of 
Eton  College  appeared,  and  in  1751  his 
Elegy  Written  in  a Country  Churchyard, 
which  went  through  four  editions)  in  two 
months.  In  1757  he  declined  the 
laureateship,  and  the  same  year  pub- 
lished his  odes.  On  the  Progress  of 
Poesy,  and  The  Bard.  He  died  in  1771, 


GREAT  FALL.'?. 

and  was  buried  at  Stoke  Pogis,  Bucking-- 
ham  shire. 

GRAY-LAG,  a popular  name  for  the 


Gray-lag. 


common  wild  goose.  See  Goose. 

GRAYLING,  a genus  of  fishes.  The? 
common  grayling  is  found  in  many 
English  streams,  and  also  in  some  in; 


Gi-ayling. 


Scotland.  It  is  scattered  over  Europe 
from  Lapland  to  North  Italy,  and  aDo 
over  part  of  Asia. 

GREAT  BAHAMA.  See  Bahama. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.  See  the  articles 
Britain,  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 

GREAT  CIRCLE  SAILING,  or  TAN- 
GENT SAILING,  a method  of  navigating 
a vessel  according  to  which  her  course  is 
always  kept  as  nearly  as  possible  on  a 
great  circle  of  the  sphere,  that  is  a 
circle  which  has  for  its  center  the 
center  of  the  sphere.  An  arc  o'?  such  a 
circle  joining  two  places  gives  the  shortest 
distance  between  them,  consequently 
the  course  of  a vessel  sailing  on  this  arc 
will  be  the  shortest  possible.  A simple 
instrument  called  a spherograph  is 
employed  for  finding  the^  great  circle 
course  between  places,  and  this  is  ac- 
companied by  tables  compiled  for  the 
same  purpose. 

GREAT  EASTERN,  an  iron  steam- 
ship, the  largest  vessel  of  her  time,  built 
(1854-58)  at  Millwall,  on  the  Thames; 
length,  feet;  breadth,  82J,  or,  in- 
cluding paddle-boxes,  118  feet;  height, 
58  feet  (70  to  top  -of  bulwarks).  She 
had  six  masts,  five  of  iron  and  one  of 
wood,  and  could  spread  7000  yards  of 
sail,  besides  having  eight  engines,, 
divided  between  her  screws  and  paddles,, 
and  capable  of  working  at  11,000  horse- 
power. From  the  first  her  career  was 
unfortunate,  the  launching  process 
alone  lasting  three  months  and  costing 
$300,000.  After  several  unremunerative 
trips  to  New  York  she  was  employed 
first  as  a troopship,  and  then  as  a cable- 
laying ship  for  which  her  size  and  steadi- 
ness specially  qualified  her.  Various 
attempts  were  afterward  made  to  utilize 
her,  but  she  at  last  came  to  be  a mere 
holiday  spectacle,  and  was  broken  up  in 
1 888 

GREAT  FALLS,  a city  and  port  of 
-entry;  county  seat  of  Cascade  co., 
Mont.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Sun  and 
Missouri  rivers,  near  the  falls  of  Missouri, 
I and  on  the  G.  F.  and  Canada,  the  Gt. 


GREAT  LAKES 


GREECE 


Northern,  and  several  branch  railways. 
It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  near 
by  are  rich  mines  of  gold,  copper,  silver, 
lead,  ore,  and  coal,  and  quarries  of 
sandstone.  Fop.  17,430. 

GREAT  LAKES,  comprising  lakes 
Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Saint  Clair, 
Erie,  -and  Ontario.  They  lie  on  the 
frontier  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
and  are  drained  by  the  Saint  Lawren'ce 
river  into  the  Atlantic.  Their  aggregate 
area  is  over  90,000  sq.  miles,  exceed- 
ing that  of  any  other  series  of  fresh- 
water lakes  in  the  world.  Lake  Superior, 
the  largest,  has  an  area  of  about  31,000 
sq.  miles.  The  Great  Lakes  occupy 
depressions  that  are  only  slightly  de- 
fined from  the  drainage  system  of  the 
Mississippi  and  from  the  depression  of 
Hudson  Bay.  Their  elevation  ranges 
from  about  600  feet  in  Lake  Superior 
to  250  feet  in  Lake  Ontario,  but  from 
Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Erie  the  fall  is 
less  than  30  feet,  so  that  almost  the 
entire  descent  is  accomplished  in  the 
Niagara  and  Saint  Lawrence  rivers. 
The  Great  Lakes  exercise  a very  bene- 
ficial influence  upon  the  climate  of  the 
country,  particularly  by  moderating  the 
temperature.  This  explains  the  exten- 
' sive  development  of  fruit  culture  in  part 
of  the  Great  Lake  region,  notably  in  the 
vicinity  of  Lake  Erie. 

The  magnitude  and  importance  of 
transportation  upon  the  Great  Lakes 
are  not  generally  realized.  More  than 
one-half  of  the  number  of  vessels  regis- 
tered in  the  United  States  are  found 
upon  the  Great  Lakes.  A greater  ton- 
nage annually  passes  through  the  Detroit 
river  than  that  which  enters  and  clears 
in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coast  ports.  No  other  arti- 
ficial channel  equals  the  canal  at  Saint 
Mary’s  Falls  intheamountof  trafficwhich 
annually  goes  through  it,  the  tonnage 
even  exceeding  that  of  the  Suez  Canal 
With  respect  to  rapidity,  economy,  and 
efficiency,  the  lake  traffic  excels  that  of 
the  ocean.  The  greatest  significance  of 
the  lakes  is  due  to  their  relation  to  the 
mining  of  iron  ore  and  the  manufacture 
of  iron  products.  Viewed  in  this  light, 
lake  transportation  is  found  to  be  the 
key  to  the  modern  industrial  progress 
and  supremacy  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  generally  admittedjjiat  but  for  the 
cheapness  of  the  lake  transportation  the 
iron  ore  resources  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region  would  have  been  scarcely  ex- 
ploited. Without  the  supply  of  iron  ore 
many  vast  industries  could  not  have 
thrived. 

There  are  numerous  harbors  along 
the  coast  line  of  the  lakes.  Many  of  these 
havens  are  shallow,  and  constant  dredg- 
ing is  required  to  keep  them  accessible. 
The  national  government  has  expended 
large  sums  on  harbor  improvements.  In 
late  years  there  has  been  a serious  lower- 
ing in  the  level  of  the  lakes’  surface,  to 
the  great  detriment  of  the  harbors. 
Different  plans  have  been  projected  for 
preventing  further  harm  in  this  respect. 
Dams  have  been  constructed  across  the 
exit  channels  of  the  lakes.  One  of  the 
most  serious  advantages  with  which  the 
lake  commerce  has  to  contend  is  the 
winter  ice,  which  stops  all  traffic.  The 
cessation  of  general  lake  traffic  begins 
about  the  first  of  December  and  con- 


tinues four  or  five  months,  about  222 
days  being  the  average  annual  time 
during  which  the  canals  are  open.  Much 
has  recently  been  done  to  continue  the 
period  of  traffic  by  the  construction  of 
boats  -with  special  provisions  for  ice 
crushing.  A railroad  ferryboat  has  also 
been  constructed  which  is  able  to  crush 
its  way  through  three  feet  of  ice. 

The  Great  Lakes  are  valuable  for  their 
fisheries.  Nearly  $4,500,000  of  fish  is 
taken  from  them  annually,  considerably 
over  half  by  American  fishermen. 

GREAT  SALT  LAKE,  a lake  in  the 
state  of  Utah,  4000  feet  above  sea-level,  70 
miles  in  length  north  to  south  and  48 
miles  east  to  west.  Five  gallons  of  its 
water  yield,  by  evaporation,  14  pints  of 
salt.  It  has  several  islands,  which,  with 
its  shores,  are  whitened  by  the  salt ; 
and  it  receives  the  Bear,  the  Utah,  and 
several  other  streams.  It  contains  no 
fish,  but  has  several  species  of  insects 
and  a crustacean,  and  is  frequented  by 
immense  flocks  of  gulls,  ducks,  geese, 
and  swans. 

GREBE,  the  common  name  of  the 
birds  characterized  by  a straight  coni- 
cal bill,  no  tail,  tarsus  short,  toes 
flattened,  separate,  but  broadly  fringed 
at  their  edges  by  a firm  membrane,  and 


Horned  grebe. 


legs  set  so  far  back  that  on  land  the 
grebe  assumes  the  upright  position  of 
the  penguin.  The  geographical  distri- 
bution is  very  wide,  these  birds  haunt- 
ing seas  as  well  as  ponds  and  rivers. 
They  are  excellent  swimmers  and  divers; 
feed  on  small  fishes,  frogs,  crustaceans, 
and  insects;  and  their  nests,  formed  of  a 
large  quantity  of  grass,  etc.,  are  generally 
placed  among  reeds  and  sedges,  and  rise 
and  fall  with  the  water. 

GREECE,  a country,  now  a kingdom, 
of  Southeastern  Europe,  the  earliest 
portion  of  this  continent  to  attain  a high 
degree  of  civilization,  and  to  produce 
works  of  art  and  literature  as  yet  unsur- 
passed. It  forms  the  southern  ex- 
tremity- of  what  is  called  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  and  itself  partly  consists  of  a 
well-marked  peninsula,  the  Morea  or 
Peloponnesus,  united  to  Northern 
Greece  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  The 
name  Greece  (Latin,  Graecia)  is  of  Roman 
origin,  the  native  name  for  the  country 
being  Hellas,  and  the  people  calling 
themselves  Hellenes.  Anciently  Hellas 
was  used  in  a wider  sense,  so  as  to  in- 
clude both  Greece  itself  and  all  countries 
that  had  become  Greek  by  colonization. 
Modern  Greece  is  separated  from  Turkey 
on  the  north  by  a winding,  mostly 
artificial,  boundary  extending  from  the 
Gulf  of  Arta  on  the  west  to  the  Gulf  of 
Salonica  on  the  east,  and  comprising 
rather  less  than  ancient  Greece,  which 
also  took  in  part  of  what  is  now  Albania. 
Ancient  Greece  was  divided  into  a num- 
ber of  independent  states  or  territories, 
namely,  in  Northern  Greece,  Thessaly, 
Epirus  (not  in  the  modern  kingdom), 
Locris,  Phocis,  Boeotia,  (Etolia,  Acar- 


nania,  Attica,  Megaris;  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, Corinth,  Argolis,  Achaia,  Elis, 
Messenia,  Laconia  (Sparta),  and  Arcadia 
the  last  entirely  inland  These  names 
are  still  kept  up,  but  the  country  is  now 
divided  into  nomes,  or  nomarchies, 
some  of  which  are  formed  of  the  Greek 
islands,  namely,  Eubjea,  Corfu,  Ceph- 
alonia,  Zante,  and  the  Cyclades.  The 
total  area  is  25,014  sq.  miles;  the  pop. 
2,433,806. 

Greece  proper  is  remarkable  for  the 
extent  of  its  coast-line,  formed  by 
numerous  gulfs  which  penetrate  into  it 
in  all  directions.  The  largest,  the  Cor- 
inthian Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  on  the 
east,  and  the  Saronic  Gulf,  or  Gulf  of 
.iEgina,  on  the  west,  which  nearly  meet 
at  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  separate 
Northern  Greece  from  the  Morea.*  An- 
other striking  feature  is  the  mountain- 
ous character  of  the  interior.  The  rock 
most  largely  developed  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Greece  is  limestone,  which  often 
assumes  the  form  of  the  finest  marble. 
Granite  occurs  in  patches. 

The  climate  is  generally  mild,  in  the 
parts  exposed  to  the  sea  equable  and 
genial,  but  in  the  mountainous  regions 
of  the  interior  ^metimes  very  cold.  In 
ancient  times,  when  the  country  was 
more  thickly  peopled  and  better  culti- 
vated, the  climate  seems  to  have  been 
better.  ■* 

Greece  is  mainly  an  agricultural 
country,  though  agriculture  is  in  a some- 
what backward  state.  The  land  is 
largely  held  by  peasant  proprietors.  The 
principal  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  and 
corn.  The  cultivated  land  produces  all 
the  fruits  of  the  latitude — figs,  alnronds, 
dates,  oranges,  citrons,  melons,  etc.  The 
vine  also  grows  vigorously,  as  it  did  in 
ancient  Greece.  But  a much  more  im- 
portant produce  of  Greece,  especially 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and 
in  the  islands  of  Cephalonia,  Zante, 
Ithaca,  and  Santa  Maura,  is  the  Corinth- 
ian grape  or  currant.  The  olive  is  also 
largely  grown  as  in  ancient  times.  The 
domestic  animals  are  neither  numerous 
nor  of  good  breeds.  Asses  are  almost 
the  only  beasts  of  burden  employed; 
and  dairy  produce  is  obtained  from  the 
sheep  and  the  goat. 

The  manufactures  are  extremely 
limited,  but  with  all  other  branches  of 
industry  in  Greece  are  increasing.  They 
include  cottons,  woolens,  earthenware, 
leather,  etc.;  and  ship-building  is  carried 
on  largely  at  various  points  of  the  coast, 
and  at  the  Piraeus.  The  greatest  hin- 
drance to  the  development  of  Greece  at 
the  present  time  is  the  want  of  good 
roads,  but  this  is  being  gradually  re- 
remedied. The  money  unit  of  Greece  is 
the  drachma  of  100  lepta,  which  is 
nominally  1 franc. 

According  to  the  present  constitution 
the  throne  is  hereditary  in  the  family  of 
King  George  (second  son  of  the  King  of 
Denmark).  The  legislative  authority 
is  vested  in  a single  chamber,  called  the 
Boule,  the  members  of  which  (propor- 
tioned in  number  to  the  amount  of  the 
population)  are  elected  for  four  years, 
ballot  by  manhood  suffrage.  The  execu- 
tive power  rests  with  the  king  and  min- 
istry. The  Greek  Church  alone  is  estab- 
lished, but  all  forms  of  religion  enjoy 
toleration.  Justice  is  administered,  on 


GREECE 


GREECE 


the  basis  of  the  Erench  civil  code. 
Greece  has  a large  public  debt,  an  esti- 
mated total  being  1115,000,000.  All 
able-bodied  males  are  liable  to  military 
service  from  the  age  of  21,  the  periods 
being  two  years  in  the  active  army,  ten 
in  the  reserve,  eight  in  the  national 
guard,  and  ten  in  the  national  guard 
reserve.  In  1900  the  total  nominal 
strength  of  the  army  was  25,333.  The 
navy  consisted  of  five  ironclads  (three  of 
them  of  some  fighting  power),  and  a 
number  of  other  vessels.  Several  vessels 
are  being  added. 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  an  Aryan 
race,  pj?obably  most  closely  akin  to  the 
Italian  peoples.  They  were  noted  for 
physical  beauty  and  intellectual  gifts. 
The  present'population  contains  a con- 
siderable intermixture  of  foreign  stocks, 
among  which  the  Albanese,  or  Arnauts, 
are  the  most  numerous;  but  the  great 
majority,  though  not  without  some 
taint  in  their  blood,  ar9  of  Greek  extrac- 
tion. While  the  population  of  Greece 
proper  is  not  more  than  2,400,000,  the 
whole  Greek  nationality  reaches  nearly 
8,000,000,  of  whom  3,500,000  are  found 
in  European  Turkey  and  2,000,000._in 
Asia  Minor.  Education  in  Greece  is  free 
and  compulsory  in  theory  (from  the 
age  of  five  to  twelve),  but  a large  propor- 
tion of  the  people  can  neither  read  nor 
write.  The  national  dress  of  the  Greeks 
resembles  the  .Albanian  costume.  In 
the  men  it  consists  of  a tight  jacket, 
generally  scarlet,  wide  trousers  descend- 
ing as  far  as  the  knee,-and  embroidered 
gaiters;  in  the  women  it  consists  of  a 
vest  fitting  close  to  the  shape,  and  a 
gown  flowing  loosely  behind. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece 
were  the  Pelasgians,  of  whom  little  or 
nothing  is  knov/n  with  certainty.  The 
Pelasgians  were  sueceeded  by  the 
Hellenes,  or  Greeks  proper,  who  may 
have  been  simply  one  of  the  Pelasgian 
tribes  or  races.  To  the  early  period  of  the 
Hellenic  occupation  of  Greece  belong 
the  legends  of  the  Trojan  War,  of 
Theseus,  of  Jason  and  the  Argonauts, 
etc.  The  Hellenes  were  divided  into  four 
chief  tribes — the  .^olians,  occupying 
the  northern  parts  of  Greece  (Thessaly, 
Bseotia,  etc.);  the  Dorians,  occupying 
originally  a small  region  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Mount  CEta;'the  Achaeans, 
occupying  the  greater  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus; and  the  Ionians,''bccupying 
the  northern  strip  of  the  Peloponnesus 
and  Attica.  Of  the  four  principal  tribes 
the  lonians  were  most  Influential  in  the 
development  of  Greece.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  Hellenic  tribes  was  greatly 
altered  by  the  Dorian  migration,  some- 
times called  “the  return  of  the  Herac- 
leidae”  (descendants  of  Hercules),  placed 
by  Thucydides  about  eighty  years 
after  the  fall  of  Troy  or  about  B.c. 
1104,  according  to  the  ordinary  chron- 
ology. 

In  course  of  time  many  Greek  settle- 
ments were  made  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Hellespont,  the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Mar- 
mora), and  the  Black  Sea,  the  most  im- 
portant being  Byzantium  (Constanti- 
noi)le),  Sinope,  Cerasus,  and  Trapezus 
(Trebizonde).  There  were  also  flourish- 
ing Greek  colonies  on  the  coasts  of 
Thrace  and  Macedonia;  for  example, 
Abdera,  Amphipolis,  Olyntlius,  Po- 


tidsca,  etc.;  and  the  Greek  colonies  in 
Lower  Italy  were  so  numerous  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  interior  spoke  Greek, 
and  the  whole  region  received  the  name 
of  Greater  Greece  (Magna  Graecia). 

Although  ancient  Greece  never  formed 
a single  state,  the  various  Greek  tribes 
always  looked  upon  themselves  as  one 
people,  and  classed  all  other  nations  as 
barbaroi  (foreigners).  There  were  four 
chief  bonds  of  union  between  the  Greek 
tribes.  First  and  chiefly  they  had  a 
common  language,  which,  despite  its 
dialectic  peculiarities,  was  understood 
throughout  all  Hellas  or  the  Greek 
world.  Secondly,,  they  had  common 
religious  ideas  and  institutions,  and 
especially,  in  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  a 
common  religious  sanctuary.  Thirdly, 
there  was  a general  assembly,  of  the 
Greeks,  the  amphictyonic  league,  in 
which  the  whole  people  was  represented 
by  tribes  (not  by  states),  and  the  chief 
functions  of  which  were  to  guard  the 
interests  of  the  sanctuary  of  Delphi,  and 
to  see  that  the  wars  between  the  sepa- 
rate states  of  Greece  were  not  too  merci- 
less. The  fourth  bond  consisted  in  the 
four  groat  national  festivals  or  games, 
the  (jlympian.  Isthmian,  Nemean,  and 
Pythian,  on  the  first  of  which  the  whole 
of  Greece  based  its  calendar. 

The  various  separate  states  of  Greece 
may  be  divided,  according  to  the  form 
of  their  constitution,  into  the  two  great 
classes  of  aristocratic  and  democratic. 
Sparta  or  Lacedtemon,  the  chief  town  of 
Laconia  and  of  the  Doric  tribe,  was  the 
leading  aristocratic  state;  and  Athens, 
the  capital  of  Attica  and  the  chief  town 
of  the  Ionic  tribe,  was  the  leading 
democratic  state;  and  as  a rule  all  the 
Doric  states,  and  subsequently  all  those 
under  the  influence  of  Sparta,  re- 
sembled that  city  in  their  constitution; 
and  all  the  Ionic  states,  and  those  under 
the  influence  of  Athens,  resembled  it. 
These  two  tribes  or  races  are  the  only 
ones  that  come  into  prominence  during 
the  earlier  part  of  Greek  history  sub- 
sequent to  the  Doric  migration.  Sparta 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  all  its  institutions,  in  the 
9th  century  b.c.,  from  Lycurgus,  whose 
regulations  developed  a hardy  and  wab- 
like  spirit  among  the  people,  the  results 
of  which  were  seen  in  their  conquests 
over  surrounding  states,  especially  over 
the  Messenians  in  the  8th  and  7th  cen- 
turies n.c. 

The  constitution  of  Athens  appears 
from  the  legends  of  Theseus  and  Codrus 
to  have  been  at  first  monarchical,  and 
afterward  aristocratic,  and  to  have 
first  received  a more  or  less  democratic 
character  from  Solon  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century  B.c.  This  was  fol- 
lowed about  fifty  years  later  by  a 
monarchical  usurpation  under  Pisistra- 
tus,  and  his  sons  Hippias  and  Hippar- 
chus, the  last  survivor  of  whom,  Hippias 
reigned  in  Athens  till  510  b.c.  After 
the  expulsion  of  Hippias  the  republic 
was  restored,  under  the  leadership  of 
Cleisthenes,  in  a more  purely  demo- 
cratic form  than  at  first.  A brief  struggle 
with  the  Spartans,  whose  aid  was  in- 
voked by  some  of  the  nobles,  now  took 
place,  and  Athens  emerged  from  it  well 
prepared  for  the  new  danger  which 
threatened  Greece. 


The  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  and 
the  adjacent  islands,  after  being  con-- 
quered  by  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  fell 
with  the  fall  of  Crcesus  into  the  power  of 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia.  In  b.c.  500,  how^ 
ever,  the  lonians  revolted  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Athenians  and  Ere-' 
trians,  and  pillaged  and  burned  Sardis, 
The  rebellion  was  soon  crushed  by 
Darius,  who  destroyed  Miletus,  and 
prepared  to  invade  Greece.  In  492  he 
sent  an  expedition  against  the  Greeks 
under  his  son-in-law  Mardonius,  but 
the  fleet  which  carried  his  army  was 
destroyed  in  a storm  off  Mount  Athos. 
A second  army,  under  the  command  of 
Datis  and  Artaphernes,  landed  on 
Eubcea,  and  after  destroying  Eretria, 
crossed  the  Euripus  into  Attica;  but  it 
was  totally  defeated  in  b.c.  490  on  the 
plain  of  Marathon  by  10,000  Athenians 
and  1000  Platjeans,  under  Miltiades. 
In  the  midst  of  preparations  for  a third 
expedition  Darius  died,  leaving  his  plans 
to  be  carried  out  by  his  son  Xerxes,  who, 
with  an  army  of  1,700,000  men,  crossed 
the  Hellespont  in  481  by  means  of  two 
bridges  of  boats,  and  marched  through 
Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly,  while 
his  fleet  followed  the  line  of  coast.  In 
the  pass  of  Thermopylce  he  was  held  in 
check  by  Leonidas  with  300  Spartans 
and  700  Thespians;  but  the  small  band_ 
was  betrayed  and  annihilated  (480  b.c.)  ; 
and  the  way  through  Phocis  and  Bceotia 
being  now  open  he  advanced  into  Attica, 
and  laid  Athens  in  ruins.  The  deliver- 
ance of  Greece  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
genius  and  courage  of  Themistocles. 
The  united  fleet  of  the  Greeks  had 
already  contended  with  success  against 
that  of  the  Persians  off  Artemisium, 
and  had  then  sailed  into  the  Saronic 
Gulf,  followed  by  the  enemy.  Themisto- 
clcs  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Persians 
to  attack  in  the  narrow  strait  between 
Attica  and  Salamis,  and  totally  defeated 
them. 

The  brilliant  part  taken  by  the 
Athenians  under  Themistocles  in  re- 
pelling this  invasion  of  Athens  greatly 
increased  her  influence  throughout 
Greece.  From  this  date  begins  the 
period  of  the  leadership  or  hegemony 
of  Athens  in  Greece,  which  continued 
to  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
404  n.c.  The  first  thing  which  Athens 
exerted  her  influence  to  effect  was  the 
forjjaation  of  a confederacy,  including 
the  Greek  islands  and  maritime  towns, 
to  supply  means  for  the  continuance  of 
the  war  by  payments  into  a common 
treasury  established  on  the  island  of 
Delos,  arid  by  furnishing  ships.  In  this 
way  Athens  gradually  increased  her 
power  so  much  that  she  was  able  to 
render  tributary  several  of  the  islands 
and  smaller  maritime  states.  In  469 
b.c.  the  series  of  victories  won  by  the 
Athenians  over  the  Persians  was  crowned 
by  the  double  victory  of  Cimon  over  the 
Persian  fleet  and  army  on  the  Euryme- 
don,  in  Asia  Minor,  followed  by  the 
Peace  of  Cimon,  which  secured  the  in- 
dependence of  all  Greek  towns  and 
islands.  Shortly  after  followed  the  bril- 
liant administration  of  Pericles,  during 
which  Athens  reached  the  height  of  her 
grandeur. 

The  position  of  Athens,  however,  and 
the  arrogance  and  severity  with  which 


GREECE 


GREECE 


ete  ireate^  it’lie  states  that  came  under 
her  power  made  her  many  enemies. 
In  the  course  of  time  two  hostile  con- 
federacies were  formed  in  Greece,  one 
consisting  of  Athens  and  the  democratic 
states  of  Greece ; the  other  of  Sparta  and 
the  aristocratic  states.  At  last,  in  431, 
it  was  declared  by  Sparta  on  the  com- 
plaint of  Corinth  that  Athens  had  fur- 
nished assistance  to  Corcyra  in  its  war 
against  the  mother  city;  and  on  that  of 
Megara,  that  the  Megarean  ships  and 
merchandise  were  excluded  from  all  the 
ports  and  markets  of  Attica;  and  thus 
began  the  Peloponnesian  war  which 
for  twenty-seven  years  devastated 
Greece. 

The  period  which  follows  the  fall  of 
Athens  is  that  of  Sparta’s  leadership  or 
hegemony  in  Greece,  which  lasted  till 
the  battle  of  Leuctra,  in  371  b.c.  The 
Spartan  rule  was  not  more  liked  than 
that  of  Athens,  and  the  character  of  the 
Spartan  state  itself,  with  its  increase  of 
wealth  and  power,  underwent  great 
change. 

Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the 
' Great,  became  king  of  Macedonia,  and 
after  the  Locrian  war  (339-338)  ac- 
quired a firm  hold  in  Greece.  He  then 
collected  an  army  for  the  invasion  and 
. conquest  of  the  rotten  empire  of  Persia, 
and  got  himself  declared  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  amphictyonic  league  at 
Corinth  in  337  b.c.;  but  before  he  was 
able  to  start  he  was  assassinated,  b.c. 
336. 

The  design  of  Philip  was  taken  up 
and  carried  out  by  his  son  Alexander 
the  Great,  during  whose  absence  Anti- 
pater was  left  behind  as  governor  of 
Macedonia  and  Greece.  Soon  after  the 
departure  of  Alexander,  Agis  III.  of 
Sparta  headed  a rising  against  Antipater 
but  was  defeated  at  Megalopolis  in  330 
B.c.,  and  no  other  attempt  was  made  by 
•the  Greeks  to  recover  their  liberty  for 
:nearly  a hundred  years.  At  the  close 
of  the  wars  which  followed  the  death  of 
Alexander,  and  which  resulted  in  the 
(division  of  his  empire,  Greece  remained 
with  Macedonia. 

In  the  course  of  the  first  half  of  the 
third  century  b.c.  several  of  the  Achaean 
towns  expelled  the  Macedonians,  and 
revived  an  ancient  confederacy,  which 
was  now  known  as  the  Archaean  League. 
'The  league  was  at  first  -worsted,  and 
nvas  onlj  finally  successful  when  Aratus 
, -sacrificed  the  ultimate  end  of  the  league 
iby  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  Macedonians. 

About  this  time  the  Romans,  who  had 
■just  come  out  victorious  from  a second 
Tvar  with  Carthage,  found  occasion  to 
interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Greece.  Philip 
Y.  of  Macedon  having  allied  himself 
-with  Hannibal,  the  Romans  sent  over 
Elamininus  to  punish  him,  and  in  this 
war  with  Philip  the  Romans  were  joined 
Iby  the  Achrean  League.  Philip  was  de- 
feated at  Cynoscephalae  in  197  b.c.,  and 
was  obliged  to  recognize  the  independ- 
'ence  of  Greece.  Tlie  Achaean  League 
thus  became  supreme  in  Greece,  having 
been  jpined  by  all  the  states  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. But  the  league  itself  was  in 
reality  subject  to  Rome,  which  found 
■constant  ground  for  interference  until 
147  B.C.,  when  the  league  openly  re- 
■sisted  the  demand  of  the  senate,  that 
Sparta,  Corinth,  Argos,  and  other  pities. 


should  be  separated  from  it.  In  the 
war  which  ensued,  which  was  concluded 
in  146  B.c.  by  the  capture  of  Corinth  by 
the  Reman  consul  Mummius,  Greece 
completely  lost  its  independence,  and 
was  subsequently  formed  into  a Roman 
province. 

On  the  division  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire Greece  fell  of  course  to  the  eastern 
or  Byzantine  half.  From  1204  to  1261 
it  formed  a part  of  the  Latin  Empire  of 
the  East,  and  was  divided  into  a num- 
ber of  feudal  principalities.  In  the  latter 
year  it  was  reannexed  to  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  with  which  it  remained  till  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks  between 
1460  and  1473.  In  1699  the  Morea  was 
ceded  to  the  'Venetians,  but  was  recovered 
by  the  Turks  in  1715.  From  1715  till 
1821  the  Greeks  were  without  inter- 
mission subject  to  the  domination  of 
the  Turks.  The  rising  of  the  Greeks  took 
place  on  the  6th  of  Slarch,  under  Alex- 
ander Ypsilanti,  and  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1822,  they  published  a declara- 
tion of  independence.  In  the  same  year 
Ali  was  assassinated  by  the  Turks,  but 
the  Greeks,  encouraged  by  most  of  the 
European  nations,  continued  the  strug- 
gle under  various  leaders,  of  whom  the 
chief  were  Marco  Bozzaris,  Capo  d’ 
Istria,  Constantine  Kanaris,  Kolocot- 
roni,  etc.  On  the  3d  of  February,  1830, 

protocol  of  the  allied  powers  declared 
the  independence  of  Greece,  which  was 
recognized  by  the  Porte  on  the  25th 
April  of  this  year.  The  crown  was  offered 
to  Leopold,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and 
when  he  refused  it,  to  Otho,  a young 
prince  of  Bavaria,  who  was  proclaimed 
king  of  the  Hellenes  at  Nauplia  in  1832 
But  his  arbitrary  measures,  and  the  pre- 
ponderance which  he  gave  to  Germans 
in  the  government,  made  him  unpopular 
and  although  after  a rebellion  in  1843 
a constitution  was  drawn  up,  he  was 
compelled  by  another  rebellion  in  1862 
to  abdicate.  A provisional  government 
was  then  set  up  at  Athens,  and  the 
national  assembly  offered  the  vacant 
throne  in  succession  to  Prince  Alfred 
of  England  and  Prince  'William  George 
of  Denmark.  The  latter  accepted  it,  and 
on  Mai'ch  30,  1863,  was  proclaimed  as 
King  George  I.  In  1864  the  Ionian 
Islands,  which  had  hitherto  formed  an 
independent  republic  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Britain,  were  annexed  to  Greece. 

In  1897  an  insurrection  in  Crete  led  to 
the  interference  of  the  Greeks  and  to 
war  with  Turkey,  the  result  being  the 
speedy  defeat  of  Greece,  entailing  the 
payment  of  a heavy  war  indemnity 
with  some  loss  of  territory  on  the  Tessa- 
lian  frontier. 

The-  religion  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
was  polytheism,  there  being  a great 
number  of  divinities,  many  of  whom 
must  be  regarded  as  personifications 
of  natural  powers,  or  of  phenomena  of 
the  external  world,  personified  senti- 
ments, etc.  Thus  there  were  gods  cor- 
responding to  Earth  and  Heaven,  the 
Ocean,  Night,  etc.  The  Romans,  when 
they  became  acquainted  with  the  litera- 
ture and  religion  of  the  Greeks,  identified 
the  Greek  deities  with  those  of  their 
own  pantheon.  In  this  way  the  Greek 
and  Roman  deities  came  to  be  con- 
founded together,  and  the  names  of  the 
latter  even  camp  to  supersede  those  of 


the  former.  The  supreme  ruler  among 
the  gods  was  Zeus  (Roman  Jupiter  or 
Juppiter),  the  son  of  Krones  (Roman 
Saturn),  who  after  the  subjugation  of 
the  Titans  and  Giants  ruled  in  Olympus, 
while  his  brother  Pluto  reigned  over 
the  lower  ■w'orld  (Hades,  Tartarus),  and 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  ruled  in  the  sea. 
Like  reverence  was  paid  to  Hera  (Juno), 
the  sister  and  wife  of  Zeus,  and  the 
queen  of  Heaven;  to  the  virgin  Pallas 
Athene  (Minerva) ; to  the  two  children  of 
(Letona),  namely,  Apollo,  the  leader  of 
the  Muses,  and  his  sister  the  huntress 
Artemis  (Diana),  the  goddess  of  the 
moon;  to  the  beautiful  daughter  of  Zeus, 
Aphrodite  (Venus),  the  goddess  of  love; 
to  Ares  (Mars),  the  god  of  -n-ar,  Hermes 
(Mercury),  the  herald  of  the  gods,  and 
others  besides.  In  addition  to  these 
there  was  an  innumerable  host  of  in- 
ferior deities  (N^pnphs,  Nereids,  Tritons, 
Sirens,  Dryads  and  Hamadryads,  etc.) 
who  presided  over  woods  and  moun- 
tains, fields  and  meadows,  rivers  and 
lakes,  the  seasons,  etc.  There  was  also 
a race  of  heroes  or  demigods  (such  as 
Heracles  or  Hercules,  Perseus  etc.) 
tracing  their  origin  from  Zeus,  and 
forming  a connecting  link  between  gods 
and  men,  while  on  the  other  hand  the 
Satyrs  formed  a connecting  link  be- 
tween the  race  of  men  and  the  lower 
animals. 

The  true  teachers  of  the  Greek  religion 
were  the  poets  and  other  writers,  and  it 
is  to  the  hj'mns,  epics,  dramas,  and 
histories  of  the  Greeks  that  we  must 
turn  in  order  to  learn  how  they  regarded 
the'gods.  No  degree  of  consistency  is  to 
be  found  in  then>,  however,  the  person- 
ality and  local  origin  of  the  writers 
largely  moulding  their  views.  In  their 
general  attitude  toward  men  the  gods 
appears  as  inspired  by  a feeling  of  envy 
or  jealousy.  Hence  they  had  constantly 
to  be  appeased,  and  their  favor  won  by 
sacrifices  and  offerings.  The  Greeks 
appear  to  have  had  at  all  times  some 
belief  in  a future  existence,  but  in  the 
earliest  times  this  belief  was  far  from 
being  clearly  defined. 

The  Greek  language  belongs  to  the 
Indo-European  group,  and  is  thus  a 
sister  of  the  Sanskrit,  Latin,  Teutonic 
and  Celtic  tongues.  It  is  customary 
to  distinguish  three  leading  dialects 
according  to  the  three  leading  branches 
of  the  Greeks,  the  ^olic,  the  Doric,  and 
the  Ionic,  to  which  was  afterward  added 
the  mixed  Attic  dialect;  besides  these 
there  are  several  secondary  dialects. 
Akin  to  the  lonic’is  the  co-called  Epic 
dialect,  that  in  which  the  poems  of 
Homer  and  Hesiod  are  written,  and 
which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  other 
Epic  writers.  The  Doric  was  hard  and 
harsh;  the  Ionic  was  the  softest.  In 
each  of  these  dialects  there  are  cele- 
brated-authors. The  Ionian  dialect  is 
found  pure  in  Herodotus  and  Hippo- 
crates. The  Doric  is  used  in  the  poem 
of  Pindar,  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Mos- 
chus.  In  .(Eolic  we  have  fragments  of 
AIcjeus  and  Sappho.  After  Athens  had 
obtained  the  supremaej’’  of  Greece,  and 
rendered  itself  the  center  of  all  literary 
cultivation,  the  master-pieces  of  Hlschy- 
lus,  Sophocles,  Euripides,  Aristophanes, 
Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  - etc., 


GREECE 


GREECE 


made  the  Attic  the  common  dialect  of 
literature. 

At  what  time  this  language  first  be- 
gan to  be  expressed  in  writing  has  long 
been  a subject  of  doubt.  According  to 
the  usual  account  of  Cadmus  the  Phoeni- 
cians introduced  the  alphabet  into 
Greece;  and  it  is  an  undoubted  fact  that 
the  most  of  the  Greek  letters  are  derived 
from  the  Phoenician  ones.  The  Greek 
alphabet  possesses  the  following  twenty- 
four  letters : 

— A,  a (alpha),  a;  B,  0 
(beta),  b;  T,  y (gamma),  A,  ^ (delta),  d ; 
E,  e (e'p.silon),  Z,  f (zeta),  z;  H,  (eta),'e; 
0,  6,  (theta),  <7i;  i (iota),  t;  K,  k (kappa), 
k-,  A,  X (lambda),  1-,  M,  /a  (mu),  to;  N,  v 
(nu),  n;  S,  ^ (xi),  x\  0,  o (omicron,  i.c.  small 
o),  5;  rr,  TT  (pi),  p-,  P,  p (rho),  r;  S,  <r,  s 
(sigma),  s\  T,  t (tau),  <;  T,  o (imsilon),  v, 
commonly  transliterated  by  y\  v,  <p  (phi), 
ph;  X,  X (chi),  ch  guttural  (as  in  Scotch 
loch);  Sk,  \f/  (psi),  Q,  u (omega,  or  great 
o),  6.  The  alphabet  originally  introduced 
into  Greece  is  said  to  have  consisted  of  but 
sixteen  letters;  0S4>XZH'^fi  being 
of  later  introduction. , 

Modern  Greek,  as  spoken  by  the  un- 
educated classes,  is  called  Romaic,  from 
the  fact  that  those  who  speak ' it  con- 
sidered themselves  before  the  descent 
of  the  Turks  upon  Europe  as  belonging 
to  the  Roman  Empire,  and  hence  called 
themselves  Romaioi,  or  Romans.  The 
Greek  of  the  educated  classes,  that  used 
in  the  newspapers  and  other  literature 
of  the  present  day,  is  distinguished  from 
it  by  a greater  resemblance  to  the  Greek 
of  antiquity,  which  renders  it  easy  for 
any  one  who  has  a satisfactory  acquaint- 
ance with  ancient  Greek  to  read  the 
modern  literary  Greek. 

The  commencement  of  extant  Greek 
literature  is  to  be  found  in  the  two  epic 
poems  attributed  to  Homer,  the  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey,  which  it  is  commonly 
believed  took  shape  on  the  Ionian  coast 
or  its  islands  somewhere  between  950 
and  850  b.c.,  and  came  thence  to  Greece 
proper  (but  see  Homer).  The  former 
deals  directly  with  the  Trojan  war,  the 
latter  describes  the  wanderings  of 
Ulysses  in  returning  from  it.  In  Euro- 
pean Greece  there  appeared  about  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century,  at  Ascra  in 
Bceotia,  the  poet  Hesiod,  who  stood  at 
the  head-of  another  epic  school.  Of  the 
sixteen  works  attributed  to  him  there 
have  come  down  to  us  the  Theogony  or 
Origin  of  the  Gods,  the  Shield  of  Herac- 


Altars— 1,  Assyrian,  2,  Grecian.  3,  Roman. 

cles  (a  fragment  of  a larger  poem  of  late 
authorship),  and,  most  important  of  all, 
the  Works  and  Days,  a didactic  work 
on  agriculture.  The  works  of  Homer 


and  Hesiod  constituted  in  a certain  de- 
gree the  foundation  of  youthful  edu- 
cation among  the  Greeks.  Two  principal 
schools  may  be  distinguished,  the 
dEoliaii  and  the  Dorian.  To  the  former 
belong  Alcaeus  (611-580),  Sappho  (610), 
and  Anacreon  (530),  though  the  works 
which  now  bear  Anacreon’s  name  are 
spurious.  In  the  Dorian  school  the  chief 
was  undoubtedly  Pindar  (522-443). 
About  this  time  began  a new  literary 
development,  that  of  the  drama.  The 
performance  at  first,  however,  was 
merely  a sort  of  oratorio  or  choral  enter- 
tainment, until  .iEschylus  (525-456) 
introduced  a second  actor,  and  subor- 
dinated choral  song  to  dialogue.  A 
third  and  even  a fourth  actor  was  added 
by  Sophocles  (495-405  b.c.),  who  sup- 
plemented the  heroic  tragedy  of  ^Eschy- 
lus  with  the  tragedy  of  human  character 
and  the  fundamental  passions.  Euripides 
(480-406)  brought  new  qualities  of 
picturesqueness,  homeliness,  and  pathos 
with  a less  rigid  artistic  method,  and 
formed  a fitting  third  in  the  great  tragic 
triad.  With  this  rapid  growth  of  tragedy 
there  was  a corresponding  development 
of  comedy  which  assumed  an  artistic 
form  about  470  B.c.  The  names  of 
Cratinus  (448)  and  Eupolis  (430)  are 
overshadowed  by  that  of  Aristophanes 
(448-385),  who  for  nearly  forty  years  was 
the  burlesque  commentator  upon  the 
life  of  the  period. 

Thucydides  (471-400?)  was  the 
founder  of  philosophic  history,  and 
Xenophon  (431-354),  who  has  left  ex- 


Temple of  Zeus  at  Olympia— Doric  order. 


cellent  historic  narratives,  was  also  the 
earliest  Greek  essayist.  The  oldest  piece 
of  Attic  prose  is  the  essay  on  Athenian 
polity  wrongly  assigned  to  Xenophon. 
The  study  which  oratory  and  rhetoric 
received  in  Athens  was  an  important 
factor  in  shaping  Attic  prose,  the  chief 
orators  being  Demosthenes  (384-322) 
with  his  contemporaries  JEschines, 
Lycurgus,  and  others,,  and  Demetrius 
of  Phalerum  (318)  who  ushered  in  the 
decline  of  oratory.  Philosophy  shared 
the  development  of  history  and  oratory, 
reaching  a rare  elevation  in  Plato  (429- 
347),  a rare  comprehensiveness  in  Aris- 
totle (384-322),  the  founders  of  the 
academic  and  peripatetic  schools. 

From  about  the  year  300  b.c.  the 
literary  decadence  may  be  held  to  date. 
During  this  period  philosophy  is  in  the 
main  divided  between  Stoicism  and 
Neoplatonism,  the  former  represented 
by  Epictetus  (90  a.d.)  and  Marcus 
Aurelius  (170),  the  latter  by  Plotinus 
(240),  Porphyry,  and  lamblichus, 


On  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453 
the  cultivated  classes  who  still  retained 
the  pure  Greek  either  perished  or  took 
to  flight,  or  adopted  the  language  of  the 
conquerors.  The  popular  Greek,  how- 
ever, survived,  and  despite  its  vulgariza- 
tion and  the  modification  of  its  gram- 
matical forms  and  syntax,  it  cannot  be 
said  that  Greek  has  been  a dead  lan- 
guage at  any  period  since  Homer. 

As  in  literature  so  in  art  the  Greeks 
attained  the  highest  pitch  of  excellence, 
and  in  architecture  and  sculpture  fur- 
nished models  for  the  rest  of  the  world. 


Greek  architecture— The  Parthenon  at  Athens, 
from  the  northwest. 

In  no  other  race  has  the  artistic  spirit 
been  so  generally  diffused  throughout 
the  people,  expressing  itself  in  the  minor 
arts  of  life,/  in  the  practical  application 
of  ornament  in  the  forms  of  domestic 
furniture,  pottery,  metal  work,  mosaics, 
and  the  like,  not  less  perfectly  than  in 
the  master-works  of  architecture  and 
sculpture. 

Throughout  the  history  of  the  art  it  is 
the  public  buildings,  more  particularly 
the  temples,  in  which  the  genius  of  the 
Greeks  displayed  itself.-  The  private 
houses  remained  simple  and  even  rude 
in  appearance,  rarely  rising  above  a 
single  story,  and  having  no  external 
decoration.  The  temples  were  for  the 
most  part  rectangular,  though  the  circu- 
lar form  sometimes  occurs  in  the  later 
periods  of  Greek  art.  Three  orders  are 
distinguished  in  Greek  architecture  ac- 
cording to  the  treatment  of  the  pillars 
and  of  the  entablature — the  Doric,  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  (which  see).  The  beauty 
of  the  (Ireek  buildings  was  heightened  in 
respect  of  form  by  a deviation  from 
ordinary  rectilinear  construction,  in  the 
systematic  substitution  of  delicately- 
curved  lines  for  straight  lines  in  the 
columns  and  steps  of  their  temples,  and 
wherever  the  illusion  attending  the  sight 
of  straight  lines  in  perspective  was 
likely  to  prove  an  element  of  weakness. 
The  colonnades  and  porticoes,  which 
were  usually  built  round  market-places 
and  along  quays  in  seaport  towns,  were 
similar  in  style  to  the  temples.  See  also 
Architecture. 

Greek  sculpture  has  been  divided  into 
five  principal  periods,  namely,  1.  The 
Daedalian  or  Early  (-580  b.c.).  2.  The 
/Eginetan  or  Archaic  (580-480  b.c.). 

3.  The  Phidian  or  Grand  (480-400  b.c.). 

4.  The  Praxitelean  or  Beautiful  (400^ 

250  B.C.).  5.  The  Decline  (250  b.c. 

onwards).  The  age  of  Daedalus  marks  an 
advance  from  an  earlier  primitive 


GREEK  CHURCH 


GREELEY 


sculpture  in  which  blocks  of  wood  and 
stone  were  rudely  fashioned  into  the 
semblance  of  life,  the  imperfections  of 
the  art  being  concealed  by  real  hair  and 
adventitious  draperies.  To  Phidias,  be- 
sides his  statues  of  Athena  and  Zeus, 
were  due  the  designs  for  the  sculptures 
of  the  Parthenon,  the  actual  work  of 
these,  however,  being  probably  done  by 
his  pupils  Alcamenes,  Agoracritus,  and 
other  artists  of  his  time.  To  this  age 
belonged  the  sculptor  and  architect 
Polycletus  (about  452-412  b.c.),  whose 
statue  of  a youth  holding  a spear  ob- 
tained the  name  of  The  Canon,  as  being 
a standard  of  form.  About  the  same 
time  the  Boeotian  sculptor  Myron 
flourished,  the  famous  Discobolus  being 
a reproduction  in  marble  of  one  of  his 
bronzes.  The  Praxitelean  period  is 
characterized  by  greater  grace  and 
elegance  in  choice  of  subject  and  treat- 
ment, together  with  more  of  the  sensual 
element  making  for  ultimate  decline. 
Praxiteles  excelled  in  female  figures,  his 
Aphrodite  at  Cnidus  in  Caria  being  his 
most  famous  work.  His  rival,  Scopas  of 
Paros,  was  employed  on  the  bas-reliefs 
of  the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus,  and 
was  the  sculptor  of  the  famous  group 
representing  the  destruction  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Niobe.  In  Lysippus  of  Sicyon,  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the 
Praxitelean  school  found  its  last  great 
figure  prior  to  the  decline  of  the  art. 

Painting  in  Greece  is  said  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  Sicyon,  apd  to  have  existed, 
as  mere  outline  and  monochrome  until 
Cimon  of  Cleonse  introduced  variety  in 
coloring,  foreshortening,  and  a less  rigid 
art.  The  Greek  artists  worked  in  wax  or 
resin  or  in  water-color,  brought  to  the 
required  consistency  by  mixing  with 
gum,  glue  or  white  of  egg;  and  they 
painted  upon  wood,  clay,  plaster,  stone, 
parchment,  and  canvas.  Until  a late 
period,  however,  they  rarely  painted 
upon  walls,  usually  painting  upon  panels 
or  tablets  to  be  encased  in  walls.  The 
earlier  masters  appear  to  have  used  only 
four  colors — red,  yellow,  white,  and 
black,  but  by  the  time  of  Apelles  and 
Protogenes  many  other  pigments  were 
in  use. 

GREEK  CHURCH,  or  Holy  Oriental 
Orthodox  Apostolic  Church,  that  sec- 
tion of  the  Christian  Church  dominant  in 
Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia, 
especially  in  Turkey,  Greece,  Russia,  and 
some  parts  of  Austria.  In  the  first  ages 
of  Christianity  numerous  churches  were 
founded  by  the  apostles  and  their  suc- 
cessors in  Greek-speaking  countries;  in 
Greece  itself,  in  Syria,  Egypt,  Mesopota- 
mia, Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  Mace- 
donia. These  were  subsequently  called 
Greek,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
churches,  in  which  the  Latin  tongue 
prevailed.  The  removal  of  the  seat  of 
empire  by  Constantine  to  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  subsequent  separation  of 
the  eastern  and  western  empires  afforded 
the  opportunity  for  diversities  of  lan- 
guage, modes  of  thinking,  and  customs 
to  manifest  themselves,  and  added 
political  causes  to  the  grounds  of  sepa- 
ration. During  the  earliest  period  the 
chief  seats  of  influence  in  the  Eastern 
Church  were  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  "and 
Alexandria,  the  seat  of  that  mystical 
philosophy,  by  which  the  oriental  church 


was  distinguished.  In  588  the  phrase 
“Filioque”  (“and  the  Son”)  was  added 
by  the  Latins  to  the  Nicene  creed  (which 
now  read  “proceeding  from  the  father 
and  the  soh”),  an  addition  to  which  the 
Greek  Church  was  opposed. 

The  Greek  Church  is  the  only  church 
which  holds  that  the  Holy  Ghost  pro- 
ceeds from  the  Father  only;  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Churches  de- 
riving the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  Like  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  it  has  seven  sacraments — bap- 
tism, chrism,  penance,  preceded  by  con- 
fession; the  eucharist;  ordination;  mar- 
riage; and  unction.  But  it  is  peculiar — 1, 
in  believing  in  baptism  by  tnreefold 
immersion,  the  chrism  (confirmation) 
following  immediately  after  it ; 2,  in 
adopting,  as  to  the  eucharist,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  real  presence  and  transub- 
stantiation;  but  in  ordering  the  bread 
to  be  leavened,  the  wine  to  be*  mixed 
with  water,  and  both  elements  to  be 
distributed  to  every  one,  even  to  chil- 
dren; 3,  the  parochial  clergy  are  re- 
quired to  be  married,  but  only  once  and 
to  a virgin,  and  marriage  must  take 
place  before  ordination;  widowed  clergy 
are  not  permitted  to  retain  their  livings, 
but  go  into  a cloister,  where  they  are 
called  hieromonachi.  Rarely  is  a widowed 
bishop  allowed  to  preserve  his  diocese. 
The  Greek  Church  grants  divorce  in 
case  of  proved  adultery,  but  it  does  not 
allow  even  the  laity  a fourth  marriage. 
It  differs  also  from  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  anointing  with  the  holy  oil, 
not  the  dying  but  the  sick,  for  the  re- 
storation of  health,  forgiveness,  and 
sanctification.  It  rejects  the  doctrine  of 
purgatory,  works  of  supererogation, 
indulgences,  and  dispensations,  but 
admits  prayers  for  the  dead,  whose  con- 
dition appears  to  be  considered  undeter- 
mined until  the  final  judgment.  It 
recognizes  no  visible  vicar  of  Christ  on 
earth,  but  the  spiritual  authority  of  a 
patriarch  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
pope.  It  allows  no  carved,  sculptured,  or 
molten  image  of  holy  persons  or  sub- 
jects; but  the  representations  of  Christ 
(except  in  the  crucifix),  of  Mary,  and 
the  saints,  must  b§.  merely  painted,  and 
at  most  inlaid  with  precious  stones. 
In  the  Russian  churches,  however, 
works  oj  sculpture*  are  found.  In  the 
invocation  of  the  saints,  and  especially 
of  the  Virgin, -the  Greeks  resemble  the 
Latins.  They  also  hold  relics,  graves, 
and  crosses  sacred;  and  crossing  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  they  consider  as  having  a 
wonderful  and  blessed  influence.  Among 
the  means  of  penance,  fasts  are  par- 
ticularly numerous  with  them.  They  fast 
Wednesday  and  Friday  of  every  week, 
and  besides  observe  four  great  annual 
fasts,  namely,  forty  days  before  Easter; 
from  Whitsuntide  to  the  days  of  ^ Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul;  the  fast  of  the  virgin 
Mary,  from  the  1st  to  the  15th  of  .\ugust 
and  the  apostle  Philip’s  fast,  from  the 
15th  to  the  26th  of  November;  besides 
the  day  of  the  beheading  of  John  tlie 
Baptist,  and  of  the  elevation  of  the  cross. 
The  calendar  of  the  Greek  Church  is  in 
the  old  style,  their  new  year’s  day  fall- 
ing on  Jan.  13th. 

The  services  of  the  Greek  Church 
consist  almost  entirely  in  outward  forms. 
Preaching  and  catechizing  constitute 


the  least  part  of  it.  Instrumental  music 
is  excluded  altogether.  The  mass  is  con- 
sidered of  the  first  importance.  The 
convents  conform  for  the  most  part,  to 
the  strict  rule  of  St.  Basil.  The  Greek 
abbot  is  termed  higumenos,  the  abbess 
higumene.  The  abbot  of  a Greek  con- 
vent which  has  several  others  under  its 
inspection  is  termed  archimandrite,  and 
ranks  next  a bishop.  The  lower  clergy 
in  the  Greek  Church  consist  of  readers, 
singers,  deacons,  etc.,  and  of  priests  or 
popes  and  protopopes  or  archpriests, 
who  are  the  first  clergy  in  the  cathedrals 
and,  metropolitan  churches.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  clergy  can  rise  no 
higher  than  protopopes,  for  the  bishops 
are  chosen  from  among  the  monks,  and 
from  the  bishops  are  selected  the  arch- 
bishops, metropolitans,  and  patriarchs. 
In  Russia  there  are  twenty-four  dioceses. 
With  which  of  them  the  archiepiscopal 
dignity  shall  be  united  depends  on  the 
will  of  the  emperor.  The  seats  of  the  four 
metropolitans  of  the  Russian  Empire 
are  St.  Petersburg,  Kiev,  Kason,  and 
Tobolsk.  In  the  Turkish  dominions  the 
dignities  of  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem 
still  subsist.  The  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople still  possesses  the  ancient 
authority  of  his  see;  the  other  three 
patriarchs  exercise  a very  limited  juris- 
diction, and  live  for  the  most  part  on  the 
aid  afforded  them  by  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople. 

GREEK  FIRE,  an  imflammable  and 
destructive  compound  used  in  mediaeval 
warfare,  especially  by  the  Byzantine 
Greeks.  It  was  poured  from  cauldrons 
and  ladles,  vomited  through  long  copper 
tubes,  or  flung  in  pots,  phials,  and  bar- 
rels. The  art  of  compounding  it  was 
concealed  at  Constantinople  with  the 
greatest  care,  but  it  appears  that  naph- 
tha, sulphur,  and  niter  entered  into  its 
composition. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE,  LITERATURE, 
ETC.,  See  under  Greece. 

GREELEY,  Horace,  American  jour- 
nalist and  politician,  born  at  Amherst, 
N.  H.,  in  1811;  in  1831  he  went  to  New 
York,  where,  after  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  start  the  Morning  Post,  the 


Horace  Greeley. 


first  penny  paper,  he  commenced  in  1834 
to  issu'e-the  Weekly  New  Yorker,  which 
ran  for  seven  years.  The  Log  Cabin, 
another  weekly,  established  by  him  in 
1840,  reached  a circulation  of  80,000, 
and  gave  him  a reputation  which  ensured 


GREELY 


GREENLAND 


the  success  of  his  Daily  Tribune, 
founded  ir  1841,  and  edited  by  him  till 
his  death.  In  1848  he  was  elected  to 
congress,  but  failed  to  impress  his  con- 
stituents with  the  necessity  of  returning 
him  a second  time.  In  1851  jfhe  visited 
Europe,  and  was  one  of  the  jilrors  in  the 
Great  E.xhibition.  He  opposed  the  civil 
war,  but  was  a firm  supporter  of  the 
Union  and  of  President  Lincoln,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  war  advocated  a 
general  amnesty  and  universal  suffrage. 
In  1872  he  was  nominated  for  the  presi- 
dency in  opposition  to  General  Grant, 
but  was  defeated..  ^ The  strain  of  elec- 
tioneering and  the  death  of  his  wife 
brought  on  an  illness,  of  which  he  died 
a few  weeks  later.  Chief  among  his 
miscellaneous  works  are  his  Hints 
toward  Reforms  (1850),  Glances  at 
Europe  (1851),  History  of  the  Struggle 
for  Slavery  Extension  (1856),  The 
American  Conflict  (1864)  Recollections 
of  a Busy  Life  (1869).  He  died  in  1872. 

GREE'LY,  Adolphus  Washington, 
American  Arctic  explorer  and  meteor- 
ologist, was  born  in  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  in  1844.  In  July,  1861,  he  en- 
listed as  a private  in  the  Ninteenth 
Massachusetts  volunteer  infantry,  in 
which  he  served  throughout  the  war. 
In  ,1867  he  was  appointed  a second 
lieutenant  in  the  regular  army.  In 
1881  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  government  expedition  planned  in 
pursuance  of  the  recommendations  of 
the  International  geographical  congress 
at  Hamburg,  in  1879,  that  thirteen 
circumpolar  stations  be  established  in 
the  Arctic  regions.  The  party  wintered 
two  years  at  Discovery  Harbor,  Grinnell 
Land,  whence  expeditions  were  sent 
both  into  the  interior  of  Grinnell  Land, 
and  across  the  straits  into  Greenland, 
one  of  the  exploring  parties  under  Lock- 
wood  and  Brainard  reaching,  in  May, 
1882,  latitude  83°  24',  the  farthest 
north  attained  up  to  that  time.  He  was 
awarded  the  Founder’s  medal  of  the 
Royal  geographical  society,  and  the 
Roquette  medal  by  the  Soci4t6  de  g4og- 
raphie,  Paris,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  captain  in  the  United  States 
army.  In  1887  he  was  appointed  by 
President  Cleveland  to  succeed  Gen. 
W.  B.  Hazen  as  chief  signal  officer,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general. 

GREEN,  John  Richard,  historian, 
born  in  1837.  For  some  time  he  wrote 
constantly  for  the  Saturday  Review; 
but  he  was  comparatively  little  known 
until  the  publication  in  1874  of  his 
Short  History  of  the  English  People, 
which  secured  him  immediate  fame. 
It  was  followed  by  a larger  edition  of 
the  same  work  entitled  A History  of  the 
English  People  (1877-80),  a volume  of 
Stray  Studies  from  England  and  Italy, 
and  the  Making  of  England  (1882). 
Latterly  his  work  was  carried  on  in  dis- 
tressing conflict  with  lung  disease,  and 
he  died  in  1883.  The  Conquest  of  Eng- 
land, his  last  work,  was  publishoii 
posthumously  by  his  wife,  being  almost 
complete  at  his  death. 

GREEN,  Seth,  American  piscicul- 
turist, was  born  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in 
1817.  He  devoted  his  life  to  the  artificial 
propagation  of  fish  and  the  breeding 
of  the  better  kinds  for  stocking  lakes 
and  streams.  He  stocked  the  Connecti- 


cut, the  Hudson,  the  Potomac,  and 
many  other  streams  with  enormous 
numbers  of  shad,  trout,  and  other 
species.  He  also  introduced  shad  into 
Pacific  Coast  waters.  He. died  in  1888. 

GREENBACK  PARTY,  greenbacks  is 
the  popular  name  given  to  non-interest 
bearing  notes  unsecured  by  gold  or 
deposits  of  bonds,  large  numbers  of 
which  notes  wpre  issued  during  the  civil 
war.  Their  issue  resulted  in  an  inflation 
of  the  currency  which  naturally  was 
followed  by  an  increase  in  prices  espe- 
cially of  agricultural  products.  With  the 
contraction  of  the  currency  which  fol- 
lowed the  limiting  of  unsecured  paper 
money  there  was  a fall  of  prices.  This 
being  coincident  with  a period  of  agri- 
cultural and  business  depression  a de- 
mand for  the  retention  of  the  green- 
backs arose  and  the  supporters  of  the 
idea  held  a convention  in  1874  at  which 
the  government  was  asked  to  withdraw 
all  bank  currency  and  issue  only  national 
currency  and  to  pay  the  national  debt 
in  the  “greenbacks.”  Many  democrats 
favored  the  idea  but  as  the  party  as  a 
whole  refused  to  indorse  these  views  the 
Greenback  Party  was  organized  in  1876 
with  Peter  Cooper,  the  New  York 
philanthropist  as  its  candidate  for  the 
presidency.  The  party  polled  80,000 
votes  mainly  in  the  middle  west.  Labor 
troubles  in  1878  led  to  the  fusion  with 
local  workingmen’s  parties  under  the 
name  Greenback-Labor  Party  and  in 
that  year  they  polled  1,000,000  votes 
at  the  congressional  elections  electing  14 
congressmen.  James  B.  Weaver,  the 
presidential  candidate  in  1880  received 
300,000  votes  and  eight  congressmen 
were  elected.  The  last  candidate  of  the 
-party  was  General  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
who  in  1884  received  150,000  votes. 

GREENBACKS,  the  popular  name 
given  to  the  paper  currency  first  issued 
by  the  United  States  government  in 
186,2  during  the  civil  war.  It  is  some- 
times used  also  to  include  United  States 
bank-notes. 

GREEN  BAY,  a city  in  Wisconsin,  on 
Fox  river,  near  the  head  of  Green  Bay. 
It  has  a great  trade  in  lumber  and 
various  flourishing  industries.  Pop. 
21,526. 

GREENE,  Nathaniel,  a general  of  the 
American  revolutionary  army,  was 
born  at  Potowhommet,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1742.  In  1770  he  was  elected  to  rep- 
resent Coventry  in  the  general  assembly 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  was  soon  after  ex- 
communicated by  the  Quakers  for  tak- 
ing arms  on  the  prospect  of  war  with 
Britain.  In  1774  he  joined  the  Kentish 
Guards  as  a private,  and  in  May,  1775 
he  was  appointed  brigadier-general 
and  commander  of  the  Rhode  Island 
contingent  in  the  army  before  Boston. 
He  gained  at  once  the  confidence  of 
Washington,  was  made  major-general 
and  appointed  to  The  command  in  New 
Jersey.  At  Trenton  (1776)  and  Prince- 
ton (1777)  he  led  a division,  and  in  the 
subsequent  fighting  he  held  important 
commands,  and  repeatedly  distinguished 
himself.  In  1778  he  was  quarter-master- 
general,  and  in  1780  presided  at  the  trial 
of  Major  Andr4.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
southern  army,  and  succeeded,  after 
repeated  defeats,  in  wresting  Georgia 


and  the  Carolinas  from  the  British.  He 
died  in  1786. 


GREEN  EARTH,  an  opaque,  dull, 
olive-green,  soft,  earthy  mass,  generally 
met  with  in  cavities  in  amygdaloidal 
rocks.  It  consists  of  silicate  of  iron  and 
aluminium,  with  potassium  and  sodium 
in  water. 

GREEN-EBONY,  an  olive-green  wood 
obtained  from  a South  American  tree, 
used  for  round  rulers,  turnery,  marquetry 
work,  etc.,  and  also  much  used  for  dye- 
ing, yielding  olive-green,  brown,  and 
yellow  colors. 

GREENFINCH,  GREEN-LINNET,  or 
GREEN  GROSBEAK,  a bird  of  the  finch 
family,  and  one  of  the  most  common  of 
British  and  European  birds.  It  fre- 
quents hedges,  gardens,  and  small 
plantations,  and  feeds  on  grain,  seeds, 
or  insects.  Its  song  is  not  melodious,  but 
it  easily  becomes  tame.  It  builds  in 
he,dges,  bushes,  and  low  trees,  the  nest 
being  of  green  moss  and  coarse  fibrous 
roots,  lined  with  finer  roots,  horse-hair, 
and  feathers.  The  eggs  (four  to  six)  are 
bluish  white,  spotted  at  the  larger  end 
with  purplish  gray  and  dark  brown. 
The  general  colors  of  the  male  are  green 
and  yellow,  those  of  the  female  inclining 
to  brown. 

GREEN  GAGE,  a variety  of  the  plum, 
the  reine  claude  of  the  French,  intro- 
duced into  Britain  by  a person  named 
Gage.  It  is  large,  of  a green  or  yellow- 
ish color,  and  has  a juicy,  greenish  pulp' 
of  exquisite  flavor. 

GREENLAND,  an  extensive  island  be- 
longing to  Denmark,  situated  on  the 
northeast  of  the  continent  of  North 
America,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
Davis’s  Straits,  Baffin’s  Bay,  and  Smith’s 
Sound.  A small  part  of  its  northern  and 
precipitous  eastern  coast  is  yet  unknown 
but  it  does  not  extend  further  north  than 
about  lat.  83°.  Like  the  northern  parts 
of  N.  America  generally,  Greenland  is 
colder  than  the  corresponding  latitudes 
on  the  east  side  of  tW  Atlantic.  In 
June  and  July  the  sun  is  constantly 
above  the  horizon,  the  ice  on  the  coast  is 
broken  up  and  floats  southward,  and  a 
few  small  lakes  are  opened;  but  the 
short  summer  is  followed  by  a'  long  and 
dreary  winter.  The  interior,  which  is 
lofty  and  has  the  appearance  of  one  vast 
glacier  is  uninhabitable,  and  all  the 


GREEN  MOUNTAINS 


GREGORY 


villages  are  confined  to  the  coasts,  which 
are  lined  with  numerous  islands,  and 
deeply  penetrated  by  fiords.  The 
Danish  colony  extends  north,  on  the 
W'estern  coast,  to  the  Bay  of  Disco,  in 
lat.  69°  n.  The  inhabitants  are  largely 
dependent  upon  huntitig  and  fishing. 
Whale  blubber  and  seal  oil  are  used  as 
fuel.  Despite  the  proximity  of  America 
the  flora  and  fauna  are  rather  of  an 
European  character.  The  land  animals 
are  the  Esquimaux  dog,  the  reindeer, 
the  polar  bear,  the  Arctic  fox  (blue  and 
white),  the  ermine,  the  Arctic  hare,  and 
the  musk  ox.  Among  the  amphibia  the 
walrus  and  several  species  of  seal  are 
common.  The-seas  abound  in  fish,  the 
whale  and  cod  fisheries  being  of  special 
importance.  Sea-fowl  are  abundant  in 
summer,  and  largely  killed.  The  chief 
mineral  product  is  cryolite,  but  graphite 
and  miocene  lignitic  coal  are  also  found. 
Oil,  eider  down,  furs,  and  cryolite  are 
exported.  The  population,  which  is 
chiefly  Esquimaux,  numbers  about 
10,000. 

GREEN  MOUNTAINS,  a mountain 
range,  commencing  near  New  Haven, 
Connecticut,  and  extending  north 
through  Massachusetts  and  Vermont, 
between  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Con- 
necticut river.  The  highest  summits  are 
Mansfield  Mountain  (4279  feet)  and 
Camel’s  Hump  (4188)  feet,  both  in 
Vermont. 

GREENOCK,  a parliamentary  burgh 
and  seaport  town  of  -Scotland,  county 
Renfrew,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Clyde,  here  between  3 and 
4 miles  wide,  about  20  miles  w-est  by 
north  of  Glasgow.  Pop.  68,142. 

GREEN  PAINTS,  are  for  the  most  part 
compounds  of  copper  and  of  chromium. 
The  best  known  greens  are  the  following : 
Bremen  green,  or  verditer,  consisting 
mainly  of  a basic  carbonate  of  copper. 
Brunswick  green,  a hydrated  oxy- 
chloride of  copper;  but  the  name  is 
sometimes  given  to  a hydrated  basic 
carbonate,  also  known  as  mountain 
green.  Chrome  and  emerald  green  are 
oxide  of  chromium.  Emerald  green 
(which  see)  is  also  used  as  synonymous 
with  Schweinfurt  green.  English  green 
is  a mixture  of  Scheele’s  green  - with 
gypsum.  Guignet’s  green  is  oxide  of 
chromium  prepared  in  a peculiar  way. 
Hungary  green  is  a kind  of  malachite 
found  in  Hungary.  Rinman’s  green  is 
got  by  heating  zinc  oxide  with  a cobalt 
compound.  Saxony  green  is  an  indigo 
color  used  in  printing.  Scheele’s  green  is 
arsenite  of  copper,  and  Schweinfurt 
green,  Veronese  green,  and  Vienna 
green,  are  also  compounds  of  arsenic 
and  copper.  Verdigris  is  a hydrated 
basic  carbonate  of  copper,  often  seen  in 
copper  saucepans.  Besides  there  are 
green  colors  derived  from  plants.  Of 
these  may  be  mentioned  chlorophyll, 
the  green  color  of  leaves;  sap  green,  the 
juice  of  Rhamnus  catharticus  or  buck- 
thorn, made  into  a green  lake  with 
alumina;  Chinese  indigo-green,  etc. 

GREEN  RIVER,  a river  in  Kentucky, 
flows  generally  west  and  north-Avest,  and 
enters  the  Ohio  200  miles  below  Louis- 
ville. It  is  navigable  for  boats  for  about 
200  miles. 

GREENSBORO,  the  county  seat  of 
Guilford  co.,  N.  C.,  on  the  Richmond  ] 


and  Danville  and-  the  Cape  Fear  and 
Yad.  Valley  railways;  48  miles  s.s.w. 
of  Danville,  81  miles  w.n.w.  of  Raleigh. 
It  is  in  a tobacco,  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and 
fruit  region,  with  gold,  copper,  and  iron 
mines.  Pop.  12,160. 

GREENSHANK,  a well-known  species 
of  sand-piper  often  called  the  whistling 
snipe  from  the  shrill  note  it  utters  when 
first  flushed.  The  bird  is  about  12  inches 
long,  rather  prettily  marked,  and  has  the 
legs  and  toes  olive-green. 

GREEN-SICKNESS.  See  Chlorosis. 

GREEN-TEA,  a tea  of  a greenish  color. 
The  green  color  should  be  due  to  the 
mode  in  which  the  leaves  of  the  tea 
are  treated  in  the  process  of  drying. 

GREENVILLE,  the  county  seat  of 
Greenville  co.,  S.  C.,  on  the  Car.,  Knox, 
and  W.,  the  Port  Royal  and  W.  Car., 
and  the  Richmond  and  Danville  Rail- 
ways; 141  miles  n.  w.  of  Columbia,  158 
miles  e.n.e.  of  Atlanta,  Ga.  Pop.  14,170. 

GREEN-VITRIOL,  a name  formerly 
given  to  sulphate  of  iron. 

GREENWICH  (gren'ichj,  a mun.  and 
pari.  bor.  in  the  county  of  London,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  about 
5 miles  s.e.  of  London  bridge.  There  are 
extensive  iron  foundries  and  engineering 
W'orks,  barge  and  boat-building  yards, 
boiler  works,  mast,  block,  and  sail 
works,  telegraph  cable  works,  roperies, 
chemical  factories,  etc.  The  object  of 
greatest  interest  is  the  magnificent 
hospital,  the  oldest  portion  of  which 
was . originally  a palace  of  Charles  II. 
In  1865,  it  ceased  to  be  an  asylum  for 
seamen,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  the  Royal 
naval  college  for  the  education  of  naval 
officers.  It  also  contains  a naval  museum 
and  picture  gallery.  Adjoining  it  are  the 
Royal  naval  school  for  boys,  and  an 
infirmary  for  sick  and  disabled  seamen. 
The  celebrated  observatory  of  Green- 
wich, erected  by  Charles  II.  for  Flam- 
steed, stands  upon  an  eminence  in  the 
park.  The  longitude  of  all  British  maps 
and  charts,  also  of  those  issued  by  the 
government  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  as  well  as  many  of  those  pub- 
lished in  other  countries,  is  computed 
from  this  observatory,  which  is  2°  2Q'23" 
w.  from  the  observatory  of  Paris,  and 
18°  e.  from  the  meridian  of  Ferro.  Pop. 
95,757. 

GREG,  William  Rathbone,  English 
writer,  born  in  1809.  Besides  his  mis- 
cellaneous essays  and  pamphlets  (col- 
lected in  1881  and  1882)  he  was  the 
author  of  Sketches  in  Greece  and  Tur- 
key (1833),  The  German  Schism  and  the 
Irish  Priests  (1845),  The  Creed  of  Chris- 
tendom (1851),  Essays  in  Political  and 
Social  Science  (1853),  Enigmas  of  Life 
(1872),  Rocks  Ahead  (1874),  and  Liter- 
ary and  Social  Judgments  (1877).  He 
died  in  1881. 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR,  the  cal- 
endar as  reformed  by  Pope  Gregory 
XIII.  in  1582. 

GREGORY,  the  name  of  thirteen 
popes,  of  whom  we  need  notice  only  the 
following;  Gregory  I.,  called  also  the 
Great,  born  at  Rofne,  of  noble  family, 
about  540.  He  became  a member  of  the 
senate,  and  was  made  a prefect  of  Rome 
in  573.  He  expended  his  inheritance  in 
the  foundation  of  monasteries  and  chari- 
table institutions,  and  then  took  monas- 
tic vows  himself.  Pope  Pelagius  II.  sent 


him  on  an  embassy  to  Constantinople, 
and  afterward  made  him  papal  secre- 
tary. On  the  death  of  Pelagius  in  590 
he  was  chosen  his  successor.  He  dis- 
played great  zeal  for  the  conversion  of 
heretics,  sending  missionaries  to  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Lombardy,  England,  etc.,  as 
well  as  for  the  advancement  of  mon- 
achism,  and  the  enforcement  of  clerical 
celibacy.  He  died  in  604.  The  work 
ascribed  to  him  are  very  numerous;  his 
genuine  writings  consist  of  a treatise  on 
the  Pastoral  Duty,  Letters,  Scripture 
Commentaries,  etc.  Gregory  VII.  (Hil- 
debrand), born  about  1020  at  Soana,  in 
Tuscany;  passed  part  of  his  early  life  in 
Rome,  became  a monk  at  Cluny,  and 
then  returned  to  Rome  with  Druno  on 
the  election  of  the  latter  to  the  papal 
chair.  He  exercised  great  influence  over 
Leo  TX.  (Pruno)  and  his  successors, 
Victor  II.,  Nicholas  II.,  and  Alexander 
11. ; and  under  Nicholas  II.  he  succeeded 
in  depriving  the  clergy  and  people  of 
Rome  of  a voice  in  the  election  to  the 
pontificate  by  giving  the  power  of 
nomination  to  the  cardinals  alone.  On 
the  death  of  Alexander  II.  (1073)  he 
was  raised  to  the  papal  chair.  His  chief 
aim  was  to  found  a theocracy  in  which 
the  pope  should  be  the  sovereign  ruler, 
in  political  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
matters.  He  therefore  prohibited 
simony  and  the  marriage  of  priests 
(1074),  and  abolished  lay  investiture 
(1075),  the  only  remaining  source  of  the 
authority  of  princes  over  the  clergy  of 
their  dominions.  The  Emperor  Henry 
IV.  refused  to  obey  this  decree,  and 
Gregory,  after  deposing  several  German 
bishops  who  had  bought  their  offices  of 
the  emperor,  and  excommunicating  five 
imperial  councillors  concerned  in  his 
transaction,  summoned  the  emperor 
before  a council  at  Rome  to  defend  him- 
self against  the  charges  brought  against 
hina.  Henry  then  caused  a sentence  of 
deposition  to  be  passed  against  the  pope 
by  a council  assembled  at  Worms.  The 
pope,  in  return,  excommunicated  the 
emperor,  and  Henry,  finding  himself  in 
difficulties,  went  to  Italy  and  submitted 
at  Canossa  (1077)  to  a humiliating 
penance,  and  received  absolution.  After 
defeating  Rudolph  of  Suabia,  however, 
Henry  caused  the  pope  to  be  deposed  by 
the  council  of  Birxen,  and  an  anti-pope,  ' 
Clement  III.,  to  be  elected  in  1080,  after 
which  he  hastened  to  Rome  and  placed 
the  new  pope  on  the  throne.  Gregory  ' 
passed  three  years  as  a prisoner  in  the 
castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and  though  finally 
liberated  by  Robert  Guiscard,  he  was  j 
obliged  to  retire  under  the  protection  of  I 
Guiscard  to  Salerno,  where  he  died  in  | 
1085.  Gregory  XIII.  (Ugo  Buoncom-  j 
pagno),  born  at  Bologna  in  1502; 
created  cardinal  in  1565;  chosen  sue-  ; 
cessor  of  Pius  V.  in  the  popedom  in  1572.  ) 

He  permitted  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  ) 
to  make  a public  thanksgiving  for  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  encour- 
aged plots  against  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
incited  Philip  II.  to  attack  her.  His 
foreign  policy  cost  him  much  money  for 
subsidies  to  excite  enemies  to  the  Turks 
and  heretics,  and  his  financial  expedi- 
ents to  fill  his  exchequer  ruined  the 
trade  and  disturbed  the  peace  of  his  own 
dominions.  He  did  much  to  encourage 
education,  his  expenditure  for  this  pur- 


GREGORY 


GREY 


pose  exceeding  two  million  Roman 
crowns,,  out  of  which  many  colleges  at 
Rome  were  endowed.  He  reformed  the 
Julian  calendar  (see  Calendar).  He  died 
10th  April,  1585. 

GREGORY,  James,  mathematician 
and  inventor  of  the  reflecting  telescope, 
was  born  at  Drumoak,  in  Aberdeen- 
shire, about  1638.  In  1663  he  published 
Optica  Promota,  explaining  the  idea  of 
the  telescope  which. bears  his  name.  He 
spent  some  years  in  Italy,  and  published 
at  Padua  in  1667  a treatise  on  the  Quad- 
rature of  the  Circle  and  Hyperbola.  He 
died  suddenly  in  1675. 

GRENA'DA,  one  of  the  British  West 
Indian  Islands;  about  85  miles  north- 
west of  Trinidad;  oblong  in  form,  24J 
miles  long,  n.  and  s.,  and  10  miles  broad; 
area  133  sq.  miles.  Pop.  64,288  (about 
900  whites). 

GRENADE,  a small  hollow  bullet  or 
ball  of  iron  or  other  metal,  or  annealed 
glass,  about  2J  inches  in  diameter,  filled 
with  gunpowder,  and  fired  by  a fuse,  so 
as  to  cause  it  to  burst  when  thrown 
among  the  enemy.  The  term  was  first 
used  by  Du  Billey,  in  reference  to  the 
siege  of  Arles  (1536).  Until  about  the 
end  of  the  17th  century,  when  musketry 
became  common,  soldiers  of  the  line 
were  trained  to  throw  grenades  by  the 
hand,  hence  the  name  grenadier.  See 
the  following  article. 

GRENADIER,  originally  a soldier 
destined  to  throw  the  hand-grenades. 
Soldiers  of  long  service  and  acknowl- 
edged bravery  were  selected  for  this 
service,  so  that  they  soon  formed  a kind 
of  41ite.  There  were  at  first  only  a few 
grenadiers  in  each  regiment.  Companies 
of  grenadiers  were  formed  in  France  in 

■ 1670,  in  England  a few  years  later.  With 
the  development  of  the  musket  the 

: name  soon  became  only  a souvenir  of 
: the  ancient  practice ; the  troops  so  called 

generally  formed  one  battalion  of  a 
regiment,  distinguished  by  the  height  of 
I the  men  and  a particular  dress,  as,  for 

■ instance,  the  high  bear-skin  cap.  With 
the  British  and  French  the  grenadier 

'i  company  was  the  first  of  each  battalion, 
f The  name  in  the  British  army  remains 
• only  in  the  regiment  of  Grenadier  Guards . 
f GREN'ADINE,  a thin  gauzy  silk  or 
F woolen  fabric,  plain,  colored,  or  em- 
l broidered,  used  for  ladies’  dresses, 
I shawls,  etc. 

I GREN'ADINES,  a chain  of  small 
v islands  and  rocks.  West  Indies,  between 
L the  islands  of  Grenada  and  St.  Vincent; 
5 principal  island,  Carriacou.  They  pro- 
duce coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  and  sugar. 

, Pop.  about  7000. 

; GRENO'BLE,  a fortified  town  of 

V.  southern  France,  capital  of  dep.  IsSre, 
finely  and  strongly  placed  on  the  Is^re, 
60  miles  s.e.  Lyons.  It  has  a cathedral, 
and  a noteworthy  church  (Saint-Andr6), 
with  th6  tomb  of  Bayard;  a public 
library  of  170,000  volumes  and  7500 
JdSS.;  a college,  museum,  bishop’s 
palace,  court-house,  arsenal,  and  ex- 
tensive public  gardens.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  of  gloves,  linen  goods, 
liqueurs,  leather,  etc.  Pop.  68,052. 

GRENVILLE,  George,  a British  minis- 
ter, younger  brother  of  Earl  Temple,  and 
father  of  William  Wyndham  the  first 
Lord  Grenville;  born  in  1712;  died  in 
1770.  He  became  treasurer  of  the  navy 


m 1754;  secretary  of  state  and  sub- 
sequently Irish  lord  of  the  admiralty  in 
1762;  first  lord  of  the  treasury  and 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1763.  In 
1763  he  introduced  a scheme  of  colonial 


George  Grenville. 


taxation,  and  in  1764  proposed  a stamp 
tax  to  be  levied  in  the  American  colonies 
which  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
American  war  of  independence.  In  1765 
he  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Lord 
Rockingham. 

GRENVILLE,  Sir  Richard,  one  of 
England’s  naval  heroes,  a cousin  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  born  about  1541.  Sir 
Richard  died  in  1591.  Tennyson’s  grand 
ballad  of  The  Revenge  is  well  known. 

GRENVILLE,  William  Wyndham, 
Lord,  third  son  of  George  Grenville,  was 
born  1759.  In  1783  he  was  appointed 
paymaster-general  of  the  army;  in  1789 
became  speaker,  and  in  the  same  year 
became  secretary  of  state  for  the  home 
department.  In  1790  he  was  created 
Baron  Grenville,  and  from  1791  till 
Pitt’s  resignation  in  1801  held  the  post 
of  foreign  secretary.  On  the  return  of 
Pitt  to  office  in  1804  he  declined  to  join 
him,  and  continued  in  opposition  till 
Pitt’s  death,  when  he  became  the  head 
of  a coalition  ministry,  including  Fox 
and' Grey,  1806.  This  ministry  resigned 
in  1807,  after  having  passed  an  act  for 
the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade.  He 
id  jiot  again  take  office.  He  died  in 
1834. 

GRESHAM,  Walter  Quinton,  Ameri- 
can jurist  and  politician,  was  born  near 
Lanesville,  Harrison  co«,  Ind.;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1853,  aifd  in  1860 
was  elected  as  a republican  to  the  state 
legislature. ' In  1861  he  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  Thirty-eighth  volunteers. 
For  bravery  at  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  he 
was  promoted  to  be  brigadier-general. 
He  was  appointed  in  1869  by  President 
Grant  United  States  district  judge  for 
Indiana,  and  in  1882  resigned  his  seat 
on  the  bench  in  order  to  accept  President 
Arthur’s  tender  of  the  office  of  post- 
master-general. In  1884  he  was  made 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  a position 
which  he  held  for  a few  months,  when 
he  was  appointed  United  States  circuit 
judge  for  the  seventh  judicial  circuit. 
He  was  a candidate  for  the  republican 
nomination  for  president  in  1884  and 
1888.  He  was  appointed  secretary  of 
state  by  Cleveland  in  1892.  Died  1905. 

GRETNA  GREEN,  a village  of  Scot- 
land, in  Dumfriesshire,  on  the  Solway 
Firth,  8 miles  north  of  Carlisle,  for  nearly 


a century  notorious  for  the  celebratiorl 
of  the  marriages  of  fugitive  lovers  from 
England.  To  conclude  a lawful  (though 
i.>'regular)  marriage  in  Scotland,  it  is 
only  necessary  for  an  unmarried  couple 
to  go  and  declare  themselves  man  and 
wife  before  witnesses,  and  it  was  in  this 
way  that  these  runaway  couples  were 
married  : but  such  marriages  were  put  an 
end  to  in  1856,  by  an  act  declaring  that 
no  irregular  marriage  in  Scotland  shall 
be  valid  unless  one  of  the  parties  has 
resided  in  Scotland  for  tw'enty-one  days 
next  preceding  such  marriage. 

GREY,  Charles,  Earl,  English  states- 
man, eldest  .son  of  Charles,  first  Earl 
Grey;  born  in  1764;  died  in  1845.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King’s 
college,  Cambridge.  In  1786  he  'W’as  re- 
turned to  parliament  as  member  for 
Netherlands.  On  the  accession  of  the 
Grenville  ministry  in  1806,  Grey,  now 
Lord  Howick,  was  made  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  on  the  death  of  Fox 
succeeded  him  as  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  death  of  his  father  in  1807 
raised  him  to  the  House  of  Peers,  and 


Earl  Grey. 


from  this  period  up  to  1830  he  headed 
the  opposition  in  the  lords,  and  espe- 
cially opposed  the  proceedings  against 
Queen  Caroline.  On  the  accession  of 
William  IV.  and  the  retirement  of  the 
Wellington  ministry,  Earl  Grey  was 
summoned  to  office.  The  great  event 
which  marks  his  administration  is  the 
passing  in  1832  of  the  first  reform  bill. 
In  1834  Earl  Grey  resigned,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Lord  Melbourne.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  chiefly  spent  in 
retirement. 

GREY,  Lady  Jane,  an  interesting 
figure  in  English  history,  the  daughter 
of  Henry  Grey,  marquis  of  Dorset,  after- 
ward duke  of  Suffolk,  by  Frances, 
daughter  of  Charles  Brandon,  duke  of 
Suffolk,  and  Mary,  younger  sister  of 
Henry  VIII.,  in  whose  reign  Lady  Jane 
was  born,  in  1537.  She  displayed  much 
precocity  of  talent ; and  under  the  tuition 
of  Aylmer,  afterward  bishop  of  London, 
she  acquired  a knowledge  of  the  learned 
languages,  as  w'ell  as  French  and  Italian. 
She  wa,s  married  to  Lord  Guildford  Dud- 


GREY  FRIARS'^ 


Grosbeak 


ley,  fourth  son  of  the  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, in  1553.  Edward  VI.,  who 
died  in  1553,  was  induced  on  his  death- 
bed to  settle  on  her  the  succession 
to  the  crown.  The  council  endeavored 
to  keep  his  death  secret,  with  a view  to 
secure  the  persons  of  the  princesses, 
Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and  when  Mary  dis- 
covered the  design  the  council  pro- 
claimed Lady  Jane  queen.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  Mary,  however,  the  council 
deserted  Lady  Jane,  and  Mary  was  pro- 
claimed queen.  She  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill,  February  12,  1554,  her  hus- 
band having  previously  suffered  the 
same  day. 

GREY  FRIARS.  See  Franciscans. 

GREYHOUND,  a variety  of  dog,  dis- 
tinguished by  a greater  length  of  muzzle 
than  any  other;  very  low  forehead,  short 
lips,  thin  and  long  legs,  small  muscles, 
contracted  belly,  and  semipendent  ears. 
There  are  several  varieties,  as  the  Irish 
greyhound,  the  Scottish,  the  Russian, 
the  Italian,  and  the  Turkish.  The  com- 
mon greyhound  is  of  an  elegant  make  of 
body,  and  is  universally  known  as  the 
fleetest  of  dogs.  A good  hound  has  a fine, 
soft,  flexible  skin,  with  thin,  silky  hair,  a 
great  length  of  nose,  contracting  grad- 
ually from  the  eye  to  the  nostril,  a full, 
clear,  and  penetrating  eye,  small  ears, 
erect  head,  long  neck,  chest  capacious, 
deep,  but  not  wide,  shoulders  deep  and 
placed  obliquely,  ribs  well  arched,  con- 
tracted belly  and  flank,  a great  depth 
from  the  hips  to  the  hocks  of  the  hind- 
legs, fore-legs,  straight  ^nd  shorter  than 
the  hinder.  The  name  appears  to  Imve 
no  reference  to  the  color,  but  is  derived 
from  the  Icelandic  grey,  a dog.  They 
are  chiefly  used  in  the  sport  of  coursing, 
a work  for  which  their  peculiar  shape, 
strength,  keenness  of  sight  and  speed 
make  them  e.xceedingly  well  fitted.  This 
sport  is  preferred  by  many  to  horse- 
racing and  large  kennels  of  greyhounds 
are  kept  by  several  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry,  who  also  further  the  sport  by 
preserving  hares,  and  providing  suitable 
coursing  grounds.  The  chief  breeds  are 
the  Newmarket,  the  Lancashire,  and 
the  Scotch. 

GRIFFIN,  or  GRYPHON,  a fabulous 
monster  of  antiquity,  also  common  in 
heraldry,  commonly  represented  with 
the  body,  the  feet,  and  claws  of  a lion. 


Medieval  grirtSn.— Porch  of  the  Duomo, 
Verona,  Italy. 

and  the  head  and  wings  of  an  eagle. 
India,  or  Scythia,  was  anciently  as- 
signed as  the  native  country  of  the 
griffins;  and  it  w.as  allegeil  that  they 
guarded  tlie  gold  in  tlie  mountains. 

GRIMAL'DI  FAMILY,  one  of  the  four 
families  of  the  high  nobility  in  Genoa. 


The  lordship  of  Monaco  belonged,  for 
more  than  600  years  (beginning  with 
980),  to  the  Grimaldi,  and  the  ruler  is 
still  a Grimaldi.  With  the  Fieschi  they 
always  played  an  important  part  in  the 
history  of  Genoa,  especially  in  the  dis- 
putes between  the  Ghibellines  and  the 
Guclfs,  to  which  latter  party  both 
families  belonged. 

GRIMTALDI'S  FRINGES,  a term  in 
optics  given  to  the  colored  bands  ob- 
served when  a beam  of  light  passing 
through  a narrow  slit  falls  on  a screen. 

GRINDING,  a mechanical  process  in 
which  certain  effects  are  produced-  by 
attrition.  This  process  prevails  in  vari- 
ous mechanical  arts,  as  in  grinding  corn, 
etc.,  the  object  of  which  is  to  reduce  the 
materials  to  a fine  powder;  or  in  grind- 
ing metals  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them 
a certain  figure,  polisli,  or  edge.  In  the 
first  case  the  grinding  or  crushing  is 
effected  by  rough  stones,  or,  as  in  crush- 
ing ores,  between  heavy  metal  cylinders, 
by  or  a heavy  stone  or  iron  cylinder 
revolving  upon  a smooth  plate.  . (See 
Mill.)  The  grinding  of  cutlery  is  effected 
by  means  of  the  grindstone  (see  below) ; 
emery  powder  grinds  glass  lenses  and 
specula.  Ornamental  glass  is  ground 
into  facets  by  stones  and  lap-wheels. 
Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones  are 
ground  with  diamond  dust.  What  is 
called  dry  grinding  is  the  grinding  of 
steel  with  dry  grindstones.  The  points  of 
needles  are  produced  by  this  means,  also 
the  finishing  of  steel  pens.  Sand-jet 
grinding  is  a process  in  which  abrasion  is 
effected  by  the  percussion  of  small  hard 
particles  on  a plain  surface,  sharp 
siliceous  sand  being  impelled  by  a blast 
artificially  produced  of  steam  or  of  air. 
By  the  use  of  flexible  jointed  connecting 
tubes  the  jet  can  be  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion. 

GRINDSTONE,  a cylindrical  stone,  on 
which  sharpening,  cutting,  and  abrasion 
are  effected  by  the  convex  surface  while 
the  stone  is  revolving  on  its  axis.  They 
are  made  of  sandstone,  or  sandstone 
grit  of  various  degrees  of  fineness.  Arti- 
ficial grindstones  have  been  snceessfully 
tried. 

GRIQUALAND  EAST,  a district  of 
South  Africa,  lying  south  of  Natal  be- 
tween Pondoland  and  Basutoland ; fertile 
and  suited  for  stock-raising.  It  was  in- 
corporated with  Cape  Colony  in  1874. 
Area,  7480  sq.  njiles.  Pop.  aboutl53,000. 

GRIQIMLAND  WEST,  a district  of 
South  Africa  north  of  the  Orange  river, 
and  west  of  the  Orange  River  colony; 
180  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  120 
from  north  to  south;  area,  about  17,800 
sq.  miles.  The  prevailing  character  of 
the  surface  is  that  of  undulating  grassy 
plains  suitable  for  grazing.  In  1870 
large  finds  of  diamonds  in' that  district 
began  to  attract  wide  notice,  and  in  1871 
Waterboer,  the  Griqua  chief,  ceded  all 
his  rights  to  the  British  government, 
and  the  territory  was  incorporated  with 
Cape  Colony.  The  chief  center  of  the 
diamond-mining  industry,  and  the  seat 
of  government,  is  Kimberley.  Pop. 
estimated  at  84,000. 

GRISONS  (gre-son),  the  largest  and 
most  easterly  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bordering  on  Austria  and  Italy;  area, 
2773  sq.  miles.  The  climate  varies 
greatly,  ranging  from  the  perpetual 


winter  of  tfie  mountains  to  the  almost 
Italian  air  of  some  of  the  valleys.  The 
canton  is  in  general  pastoral,  feeding 
large  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The 
mountain  forests  supply  much -timber. 
A considerable  transit  trade  is  carried  on 
between  Italy  and  Germany.  The  can- 
ton was  admitted  into  the  confederation 
so  late  as  1803.  Both  the  protestant  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  are  estab- 
lished. The  language  of  the  public  acts  is 
German,  and  the  people  speak  German, 
Romanish,  or  Italian.  Pop.  104,510. 

GRISWOLD,  Rufus  Wilmot,  D.  D., 
American  writer,  born  in  Vermont,  1815. 
After  having  traveled  extensively  both 
in  his  own  country  and  in  Europe,  he 
became  successively  a printer,  a bap- 
tist preacher,  and  a journalist.  He  was 
the  author  of  The  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
America,  etc.'  He  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  Edgar  A.  Poe’s  works.  He  died  in  1 857. 

GRIT,  is  a sandstone,  coarse-grained, 
with  particles  more  or  less  angular,  con- 
nected by  a cement  of  a hard  siliceous 
nature. 

GROATS,  the  seeds  of  oats  prepared 
as  an  article  of  food  by  being  deprived 
of  their  hulls.  They  are  much  used  in 
the  preparation  of  gruel  for  invalids. 

GRODNO,  a town,  Russian  Poland, 
capital  of  the  government  of  same  name, 
on  the  Niemen,  160  miles,  northeast  of 
Warsaw,  Pop.  49,788. — The  govern- 
ment has  an  area  of  14,931  sq.  miles, 
largely  occupied  by  pine  forests  and 
swamps.  Pop.  1,321,157. 

GROIN,  the  angular  curve  made  by 
the  intersection  of  two  semi-cylinders  or 
arches.  It  is  either  regular  or  irregular: 
— regular,  as  when  the  intersecting 


a a,  Groin.s. 


arches  are  of  the  same  diameters , and 
heights;  and  irregular,  when  one  of  the 
arches  is  semi-circular,  and  the  other 
semi-elliptical.  In  Gothic  architecture 
groins  are  always  ribbed. 

GRONINGEN  (gro'ning-en),  a town  of 
Holland,  capital  of  a province  of  same 
name,  situated  on  the  river  Huns,  here 
converted  into  a canal,  92  miles  north- 
east of  Amsterdam.  Pop.  67,563. — The 
province  forms  the  north-eastern  por- 
tion of  Holland;  area,  790  sq.  miles.  It  is 
protected  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  sea  by'  dykes,  is  very  level,  and  is 
intersected  by  innumerable  canals.  The 
inhabitants,  302,681,  nearly  all  belong 
to  the  Calvinistic  Church. 

GROSBEAK,  a general  popular  name 
for  birds  of  at  least  three  groups  belong- 
ing to  the  conirostral  division  of  the 
Insessores.  The  first  comprises  the  cross- 
bills ; in  the  second  group  is . the  East 
Indian  representative  genus,  with  the 
beak  large  and  parrot-like,  but  not  cross- 
ing; the  third  group  includes  the  pine 
grosbeak  and  the  bullfinch.  The  term 


GROTE 


GUADELOUPE 


rosbeak  was  given  to  birds  which  had 
eaks  proportionally  larger  than  in  the 
most  familiar  forms. 

GROTE,  George,  English  historian 
and  politician,  was  born  in  1794,  died  in 
1871.  In  1846  appeared  the  first  two 
volumes  of  his  History  of  Greece.  The 
remaining  ten  volumes  followed  in  rapid 
succession,  the  final  volume  being  pub- 
lished in  1856.  The  work  terminates 
with  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  as  a whole  is  a monument  of  erudi- 
tion. In  1865  he  published  Plato  and 
the  Other  Companions  of  Socrates,  and 
was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death  on 
an  elaborate  treatise  on  Aristotle  and 
the  Peripatetics.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  was  concerned  in  the  management 
of  University  college,  the  London  uni- 
versity,'and  the  British  museum. 

GROTESQUE,  in  art,  a capricious 
variety  of  arabesque  ornamentation, 
whicn^  as  a whole,  has  no  type  in  nature, 
the  parts  of  animals,  plants,  and  other 
incongruous  elements  being  combined 
together;  used  by  the  Romans  in  decora- 
tive painting  and  revived  by  the  artists 
of  the  renaissance. 

GROUCHY  (gro'she),  Emmanuel, 
Marquis,  de,  a noted  French  general, 
born  at  Paris,  1766.  He  entered  the 
Royal  life  guards  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, saw  much  service,  and  highly  dis- 
tinguished himself.  In  the  war  with 
Prussia  in  1806,  and  Russia  (1807),  and 
at  Wagram,  he  acquired  increased  re- 
nown. In  1815  he  defeated  Blucher  at 
Ligny.  Having  been  ordered  to  follow 
the  Prussian  retreat,  he  was  unable  to 
aid  Napoleon  at  Waterloo.  He  was  ban- 
ished under  the  second  restoration,  and 
lived  for  a few  years  at  Philadelphia.  He 
returned  to  France  in  1821,  and  died  in 
1847. 

GROUND  DOVE,  a name  of  various 
species  of  pigeons,  which  resemble  the 


Dwarf  ground-dove. 


gallinaceous  birds  in  living  mainly  on 
the  ground,  their  feet  being  better  suited 
for  walking  than  perching. 

GROUND-HOG.  Same  as  Aard-vark. 

GROUND  IVY,  a common  British 
plant  with  a creeping  stem  and  purple 
flowers.  Tea  made  from  it  is  used  by  the 
poor  for  pectoral  complaints.  It  ^ 
formerly  employed  to  flavor  ale. 

GROUND-NUT,  a term  which  d ./lotes 
the  seeds  or  pods  of  certain  umbellifers 
(earth-nuts)’  The  nut  or  pod  is  situated 
at  the  end  of  a stalk  of  some  length  and 
is  ripened  under  ground,  this  stalk  hav- 
ing the  peculiarity  after  flowering  of 
bending  down  and  pushing  the  fruit  into 
the  earth.  The  plant  is  extensively  culti- 
vated in  tropical  countries.  The  nuts 
have  a flavor  similar  to  almonds,  and 
yield  an  oil  that  may  be  used  for  olive- 
Oil.  See  Peanut. 


GROUND-PINE,  a herbaceous  labiate 
plant,  so  called  from  its  resinous  smell. 
Also  a name  given  to  some  lycopods  or 
club-mosses. 

GROUND-RENT,  in  English  law,  is 
the  rent  paid  to  a landowner  by  a person 
for  the  use  of  ground  on  which  buildings 
are  erected.  The  usual  arrangement  is 


for  a specified  time,  generally  ninety- 
nine  years.  On  the  expiration  of  this 
period  the  whole  of  the  buildings  be- 
come the  prp*perty  of  the  ground-land- 
lord. 

GROUND  SQUIRREL,  the  name  of 
squirrels  somewhat  resembling  the  mar- 
mot. They  differ  from  the  common 
squirrel  in  possessing  cheek-pouches, 
and  in  retreating  into  burrows.  They 
are  well  known  in  America,  but  species 
are  also  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

GROUSE,  the  general  name  of  gallina- 
ceous birds,  whose  distinguishing  mark 
is  a naked  band,  often  of  a red  color,  in 
place  of  an  eyebrow.  They  are  wild,  shy, 
and  almost  untamable.  They  live  in 


Red  grouse. 


families,  in  forests  and  barren  regions, 
and  feed  on  berries,  buds,  and  leaves. 
They  are  polygamous,  the  male  aban- 
doning the  female,  and  leaving  to  her 
the  whole  care  of  the  progeny.  The  eggs 
number  eight  to  fourteen.  To  this  genus 
belong  several  species  peculiar  to  North 
America,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
is  the  pinnated  grouse  or  prairie  hen, 
which  inhabits  open  desert  plains  in 
particular  districts  of  the  Union.  The 
male  is  furnished  with  wing-like  ap- 
pendages to  his  neck,  covering  two  loose, 
orange  sacs,  capable  of  being  inflated. 
Another  species  is  the  cock  of  the  plains 
(which  see).  See  also  Hazel  Grouse, 
Ruffed  Grouse,  Sand  Grouse.^ 

GROVES,  among  various  ancient  na- 
tions groves  have  been,  probably  on 


account  of  the  mental  impressions  their 
stillness  is  calculated  to  make,  considered 
as  suitable  localities  for  religious  rites. 
The  Hebrew  word  asherah,  translated 
“grove”  in  the  authorized  version  of 
the  Old  Testament,  seems  to  signify 
some  idol  or  idolatrous  symbol.  See 
Asherah. 

GROW,  Galusha  Aaron,  American 
politician,  was  born  at  Ashford,  Conn., 
in  1823.  In  1851  he  was  elected  to  con- 
gress from  Pennsylvania  and  continued 
to  be  a member  of  that  body  until  1863. 
He  was  speaker  of  the  -house  of  repre- 
sentatives from  1861-1863.  He  declined 
the  Russian  mission  in  1879.  From  1894 
until  his  death  in  1906  he  was  congress- 
man at  large  from  his  state. 

GRUB,  the  term  applied  to  the  soft, 
wormlike  larvae  of  coleopterous  and 
other  insects.  Some  species  do  much  in- 
jury to  the  roots  of  plants,  growing  corn, 
etc. 

GRUBBER,  an  agricultural  imple- 
ment for  tearing  and  loosening  soil,  and 
for  eradicating  roots,  etc.  It  consists  of 
an  iron  framework  with  handles  and 
wheels,  and  provided  with  curved  tines 
or  teeth.  In  the  most  ajjproved  kinds 
the  wheels  are  arranged  three  in  front, 
and  two  behind.  The  depth  to  which  the 
teeth  may  penetrate  is  regulated  by 
su  it  able  mechanism . 

GRUGRU,  the  larva  of  the  palm 
weevil,  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
America.  It  is  of  the  length  and  thick- 
ness of  a man’s  thumb,  burrows  in  cab- 
bage-palms, and  canes,  and  is,  when 
cooked,  considered  a great  delicacy. 

GRUNT,  Grunter,  an  American  fish, 
also  termed  pig-fish  and  red-mouth. 
The  first  of  these  names  relates  to  the 
sound  it  emits  when  taken  out  of  the 
water,  the  last  to  blood-red  marks  on 
the  gums  or  lips.  The  Growler,  found  in 
America,  also  emits  a grunting  sound. 

GRUS,  the  genus  to  which  the  crane 
belongs. 

GRYSBOK,  a species  of  antelope 
found  in  Southern  Africa.  It  attains 
about  3 feet  in  length,  is  feet  high  at 
the  shoulder,  and  its  color  is  reddish- 
gray.  It  is  hunted  for  the  sake  of  its 
flesh. 

GUACHARO,  a bird  of  the  goat- 
sucker family,  of  nocturnal  habits,  a 
native  of  South  America,  and  found  in 
great  numbers  in  certain  caves  of  Vene- 
zuela, Trinidad,  and  elsewhere.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a common  fowl,  with 
a curved  and  toothed  bill,  wings  long 
and  pointed.  It  is  called  also  Oil-bird. 

GUADALAJARA  (gw&-da-la-ha'r4),  a 
town  in  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of 
same  name,  on  the  Henares,  44  miles 
northeast  of  Madrid.  Pop.  8503. — The 
province,  area  7012  sq.  miles,  is  moun- 
tainous, or  forms  part  of  an  elevated 
plateau.  Pop.  205,495. 

GUADALAJABtA,  a city  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  the  state  of  Jalisco,  in  the 
fruitful  valley  of  Atemajac,  on  the  Rio 
de  Santiago;  a large  and  handsome  city, 
with  a fine  cathedral  and  other  good 
buildings;  a university,  a mint,  convents, 
etc.  Various  manufactures  are  carried 
on,  as  those  of  silversmiths’  ^ind  gold- 
smiths’ wares,  paper,  leather,  hats, 
pottery,  cloth,  etc.  Pop.  95,000. 

GUADELOUPE  (ga-de-lop),  one  of  the 
French  West  Indies,  composed  of  two 


GUAIACUM 


GUATEMALA 


portions,  separated  by  a narrow  arm  of 
the  sea  called  Riviere  Sal6e  (Salt  River). 
The  western  and  larger  portion  is  Basse- 
terre, or  Guadeloupe  Proper,  27  miles 
long  by  about  15  miles  broad.  The 
eastern  portion,  called  Grande  terre,  is 
nearly  30  miles  long  by  10  to  12  miles 
broad.  Guadeloupe  Proper  is  of  volcanic 
formation,  the  culminating  point  being 
La  Soufriere,  5018  feet.  Grande-terre, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  generally  flat,  and 
of  coral  formation.  Guadeloupe  is 
watered  by  a number  of  small  streams 
which  become  dry  in  summer.  Grande- 
terre  has  only  a few  springs  of  brackish 
undrinkable  water.  The  climate  is  hot 
and  unhealthy,  with  a remarkably  humid 
atmosphere,  and  hurricanes  are  fre- 
quent and  destructive.  The  soil  is  fertile. 
The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  dye 
and  cabinet  woods,  pepper,  manioc, 
tobacco,  etc.  The  chief  town  is  Bas- 
terre. Pop.  172,097,  or  with  depen- 
dencies (Marie  Galante,  Desirade,  etc.), 
200,000. 

GUAIACUM  (gwi'a-kum),  a genus  of 
plants,  containing  four  or  five  arbores- 
cent species,  natives  of  the  West  Indies 
and  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 
Among  other  uses  it  is. employed  in  the 


Gualacum  plant. 


construction  of  ornamental  articles  of 
furniture,  being  susceptible  of  a fine 
polish.  This  tree  yields  the  resin  known 
as  guaiacum,  which  either  flows  spon- 
taneously from  the  tree,  or  from  incis- 
ions or  perforations  in  the  stem,  oris  got 
by  extraction  by  means  of  spirit  from 
the  wood.  It  is  greenish-brown,  has  a 
balsamic  odor,  taste  somewhat  bitter 
and  pungent,  and  it  dissolves  freely  in 
spirit,  but  it  insoluble  in  water.  Its  chief 
use  is  in  medicine,  the  resin  (as  well  as  a 
decoction  of  the  bark  and  wood)  acting 
as  a stimulant  in  chronic  rheumatism, 
and  being  used  also  in  gout,  scrofula, 
syphilis,  etc. 

GUAIRA.  See  Guayra. 

GUAM  (gwiim),  the  largest  of  the 
Ladrone  Islands,  lying  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  belonging  to  the  United 
States.  It  is  about  1500  miles  east  of 
Manila,  and  nearly  the  same  distance 
southeast  of  Yokohama.  It  is  31  miles 
long  and  from  5 to  7 miles  wide,  and  has 
an  area  of  about  195  sq.  miles.  The 
climate  is  humid,  with  rain  at  all  seasons 
but  not  unhealthful.  The  cocoanut-palm 
and  the  bread-fruit  tree,  rice,  sugar,  and 
indigo  are  cultivated,  and  the  farms  are 
well  stocked  with  domestic  animals. 
The  island  is  of  little  importance  to  the 
United  States  except  as  a naval  station 
and  port  of  transit  between  America  and 
Asia,  to  which  end  the  barhor  of  Apra  is 
being  extensively  improved.  The  popu- 


lation is  about  9000,  of  whom  more  than 
half  live  in  the  capital,  Agana.  Guam 
was  captured  by  the  United  States 
cruiser  Charleston  on  June  21,  1898,  and 
by  the  treaty  of  Paris  was  ceded  by 
Spain  to  the  United  States. 

GU'AN,  a gallinaceous  bird.  The 
sides  of  the  head  and  front  of  the  throat 
are  naked  and  wattled,  the  wattles 
capable  of  inflation.  The  name  Guan 
is  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
largest  bird  of  the  genus,  measuring 
about  30  inches.  The  guans  perch  on 
trees,  descending  in  search  of  grain  and 
fruits,  and  are  natives  of  Brazil  and 
Guiana. 

GUANACO  (gwan-a'ko),  a South 
American  ruminant,  closely  akin  to  the 
llama,  alpaca,  etc.  It  abounds  most  in 
Chili  and  Patagonia. 

GUANAXUATO  (gw4-na-hwa't6),  a 
city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of  the 
same  name,  160  miles  northwest  of 
Mexico.  Pop.  56,000. — ^The  state  is 
situated  in  the  center  of  Mexico;  area, 
11,411  sq.  miles;  population,  968,113. 
Its  mines,  once  the  richest  in  the  world, 
still  yield  a large  amount  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver. The  surface  is  traversed  by  the 
cordillera  of  Anahuac,  9711  feet  in 
height. 

GUAN'O  (Peruvian  huano,  dung),  a 
valuable  manure,  consisting  of  the 
partially  decomposed  and  dry  excre- 
ment of  the  fish-eating  seabirds,  which 
has  in  some  places  accumulated  in  great 
masses.  The  name  has  been  also  ex- 
tended to  accumulations  of  a similar 
kind  from  land  birds,  and  even  from 
bats  in  caverns.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
rain  washes  such  deposits  away,  great 
accumulations  of  guano  exist  principally 
in  hot  and  dry  tropical  regions.  The 
most  important  of  all  were  the  deposits 
on  the  Chincha  Islands  off  the  coast  of 
Peru,  which  yielded  a considerable 
revenue  to  the  country,  but  are  now 
quite  exhausted.  From  1853  to  1872 
about  8,000,000  tons  were  got  from  these 
islands.  Other  deposits  of  less  extent 
have  from  time  to  time  been  found,  and 
Peru  still  remains  the  chief  source  of 
supply,  its  deposits  being  now,  however, 
worked  under  the  Chilian  governinent. 
Guano  varies  extremely  in  composition, 
but  it  may  be  roughly_  divided  into 
nitrogenous  and  phosphatic.  The  first  of 
these  contains  about  21  per  cent  of 
ammonia.  This  is  the  case  with  the 
Peruvian  variety,  which  contains  almost 
all  the  inorganic  matter  required  by  a 
plant,  and  that  in  a highly  available 
form,  so  that  it  is  looked  upon  as  one  of 
the  best  of  all  fertilizing  agents  for 
different  crops.  Its  use  as  a manure  was 
was  known  to  the  native  Peruvians  cen- 
turies ago,  but  nq,attention  was  paid  to 
the  accounts  by  modern  travelers  of  its 
wonderful  efficacy  until  A.  von  Hurn- 
boldt  brought  some  to  Europe  and  had  it 
analyzed.  It  began  to  be  brought  to 
Europe  about  1846.  It  is  used  raw  or  in 
its  natural  state,  but  most  of  the  phos- 
phatic guanos  (some  of  which  hardly  de- 
serve the  name  'of  guano)  require  to  be 
dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid  before  using. 
There  are  also  manures  known  as  fish 
guano,  prepared  from  fish  or  fish  refuse, 
flesh  guano,  blood  guano,  etc.  Large 
quantities  of  fish  guano  are  made  in  the 


United  States  from  the  menhaden,  the 
oil  being  first  extracted. 

GUAl^IAN,  in  law,  the  custodian  of 
persons  incapable  of  directing  them- 
selves and  especially  of  infants,  that  is 
persons  under  21  years  of  age.  They 
may  be  said  to  be  of  five  kinds:  1st,  tes- 
tamentary, or  appointed  by  will;  2d, 
customary,  by  local  usage ; 3d,  ad  litem, 
or  appointed  by  a court  in  order  to  con- 
duct legal  proceedings-  4th,  by  appoint- 
ment of  chancery;  5th,  in  tort,  or  by 
intrusion.  Guardianship  lasts  in  the 
case  of  the  young  until  they  have  at- 
tained the  age  of  twenty-one. 

GUAJRDIAJI  ANGEL,  the  angelic 
guardian  who,  by  some,  is  supposed  to 
watch  over  every  human  being  with  a 
view  of  preserving  him  or  her  from  moral 
evil.  The  notion  is  based  on  Gen.  xlviii; 
16,  Matt,  xviii:  10,  and  Heb.  i:  14. 

GUATEMALA  (gwa-te-ma'la),  a re- 
public of  Central  America;  area  esti- 
mated at  46,800  sq.  miles;  pop.  (1900), 
1,574,340.  It  is  in  general  exceedingly 
picturesque,  and  distinguished  by  a 
luxuriant  and  varied  vegetation.  It  is 
wholly  mountainous  or  elevated,  the 
main  chain  of  the  Central  American 
system  traversing  it  southeast  to  north- 
west, and  sending  off  numerous  branches. 
Along  the  main  chain  are  a considerable 
numb^er  of  volcanoes,  several  of  which 
are  said  to  be  active — as  Fuego  and 
Agua  (14,890  feet  high),  which  sends 
forth  torrents  of  water.  The  state  is  well 
watered  by  numerous  streams,  none  of 
much  importance.  On  the  table-land,  of 
which  a considerable  portion  of  the  state 
is  formed,  the  climate  is  mild;  but  in 
more  elevated  situations  the  cold  is  in- 
tense. There  is  much  valuable  timber. 
The  soil  generally  is  of  great  fertility, 
producing  according  to  altitude,  soil, 
etc.,  corn,  wheat,  rice,  coffee,  cotton, 
tobacco,  sugar,  cochineal,  cacao,  indigo, 
vegetables,  and  tropical  fruits  in  great 
variety.  Fiber  plants  are  numerous,  iii- 
cluding  ramie,  henequen,  and  others. 
The  most  important  product  is  coffee, 
and  the  other  chief  exports  are  skins, 
'caoutchouc,  cochineal,  wool,  etc.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  carried  on  wHh  Britain, 
the  United  States,  Germany,  and  France. 
In  the  altos  or  mountainous  parts  of  the 
northwest  considerable  flocks  of  sheep 
are  raised,  the  wool  of  which  is  manu- 
factured into  coarse  fabrics.  Great  at- 
tention is  now  being  paid  to  education, 
the  children,  even  Indians,  in  small  and 
remote  villages  being  compelled  to 
attend  school.  The  capital  is  Guatemala 
la  Nueva  (New  Guatemala).  The  chief 
port  is  San  Jos6  on  the  Pacific;  Cham- 
perico  on  the  Pacific,  and  Livingston  in 
the  Bay  of  Honduras  are  the  other  ports. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
national  assembly  elected  for  six  years 
by  universal  suffrage.  The  executive  is 
vested  in  a president,  elected  for  four 
years. — New  Guatemala,  or  Santiago  de 
Guatemala,  the  capital,  is  situated  about 
5000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  80  miles 
distant  from  the  Pacific.  Pop.  85,000. — 
Old  Guatemala,  the  former  capital,  is  10 
miles  southwest  of  New  Guatemala.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Spanish  in  1542,  and 
continued  to  be  the  capital  till  1774, 
when  it  was  destroyed  by  a volcanic  out- 
break. It  has  been  rebuilt,  however,  and 
the  population  is  now  about  20,000. 


GUAVIARE 


GUILDHALL 


GUAVIARE  (gwa-vi-ii'ra),  a river  of 
Colombia,  South  America,  an  affluent  of 
the  Orinoco;  length,  900  miles. 

GUAYAQUIL  (gwi-a-kel'),  a city  and 
seaport  in  Ecuador.  It  is  the  chief  port 
of  Ecuador,  and  one  of  the  best  of  the 
west  coast  of  South  America.  Its  prin- 
cipal exports  are  cacao,  coffee,  and  ivory 
nuts.  Pop.  estimated  at  40,000. 

GUDGEON,  a fresh-water  fish,  be- 
longing to  the  carp  family.  It  has  short 
dorsal  and  anal  fins,  without  spines;  on 
each  side  of  the  mouth  there  is  a small 
barbel;  neither  jaw  is  furnished  with 
teeth,  but,  at  the  entrance  of  the  throat, 
there  are  two  triangular  bones  that  per- 
form the  office  of  grinders.  These  fish 
are  taken  in  gentle  streams,  and  measure 
only  about  6 inches. 

GUELFS  or  GUELPHS,  the  name  of  a 
distinguished  princely  family  which 
originated  in  Germany,  but  was  also  at 
one  time  connected  with  Italy,  and 
which  still  flourishes  in  the  two  lines  of 
the  house  of  Brunswick,  the  royal  (to 
which  the  reigning  family  in  Britain  be- 
longs) and  the  ducal.  The  first  who  bore 
the  name  is  said  to  have  been  Welf,  the 
son  of  Isenbrand,  whose  grandfather 
was  a vassal  of  Charlemagne.  See  Bruns- 
wick (Family  of)  and  Guelfs  and 
Ghibellines. 

GUERNSEY,  (gern'zi),  the  second 
largest  and  most  western  of  the  Channel 
Islands,  lying  off  the  north  coast  of 
France,  46  miles  from  Cherbourg,'  and 
about  68  miles  from  Start  Point  in 
Devonshire.  The  principal  exports  are 
cattle  (the  dairy  cows  being  renowned), 
fruits,  vegetables  in  the  early  spring; 
granite  for  paving,  etc.  Steamers  ply 
regularly  between  Guernsey  and  Lon- 
don, Southampton,  Pl5Tnouth,  and 
Weymouth.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
has  a well-organized  militia.  Pop. 
35,339.  See  Channel  Islands. 

GUERRERO  (ger-ra'ro),  a state  of 
Mexico;  area,  24,227  sq.  miles.  Its  sur- 
face is  finely  diversified  by  mountain 
and  valley,  and  partly  covered  by  native 
forests;  and  it  is  rich  in  minerals,  includ- 
ing gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron.  The 
principal  port  is  Acapulco.  Pop.  474,- 
594,  mostly  Indians. 

GUERRILLAS  (ge-ril'az),  a name  first 
given  in  Spain  to  light,  irregular  troops, 
consisting  chiefly  of  peasants  who  fought 
against  the  invading  French  in  the  early 

art  of  the  present  century.  The  name 

as  now  become  quite  a general  term  for 
such  irregular  troops,  and  has  traveled 
far  beyond  Spain. 

GUIANA  (gl-an'a),  British,  a colony  in 
the  north  of  South  America,  about  560 
miles  long,  and  about  200  miles  broad, 
having  e.  Dutch  Guiana,  w.  Venezuela 
and  Brazil,  n.  and  n.e.  the  Atlantic,  and 
s.  Brazil;  estimated  area,  109,000  sq. 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  three  settle- 
ments— Berbice,  Demerara,  and  Esse- 
quibo.  The  coast  tract  forms  a dreary 
belt,  10  to  40  miles  broad,  of  mud- 
banks  and  shallows,  and  when  drained 
the  surface  sinks  1 foot  below  the  sea- 
level,  hence  strict  attention  must  be  paid 
to  dams  and  sluices.  This  alluvial  deposit 
is  succeeded  by  a range  of  low  hills  not 
exceeding  200  feet  in  height.  Gold  occurs 
in  various  places,  and  is  now  mined  with 
success.  Rock  crystals  and  red  agate  are 
met  with;  and  very  white  clay  is  found 
P.  E.— 37 


in  the  Essequibo.  The  extensive  flats 
along  the  shore  are  composed  of  alluvial 
soil  and  clays,  resting  upon  granite.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Essequibo,  Demerara 
Berbice,  and  Corentyn.  The  climate, 
though  moist  and  warm,  is  not  on  the 
whole  unhealthy.  Among  the  animals 
are  the  jaguar,  tapir,  armadillo,  sloth, 
vampire  bat,  alligator,  etc.,  and  many 
species  of  birds,  such  as  humming-birds, 
parrots,  etc.  Snakes,  some  of  them 


Indians  of  Guiana. 


venomous,  and  troublesome  insects  are 
numerous.  Guiana  has  two  dry  and  two 
wet  seasons,  each  continuing  for  three 
months:  The  mean  annual  temperature 
is  nearly  81°  2'.  Sugar,  rum,  and  mo- 
lasses are  the  principal  exports.  Pop. 
(1901),  300,748,  of  which  a great  pro- 
portion are  of  African  race  or  coolies 
from  India. 

GUIANA  BARK,  the  bark  of  Cin- 
chona, considered  to  possess  great  value 
as  a febrifuge. 

GUIANA,  DUTCH,  or  SURINAM,  a 

Dutch  colony  in  South  America,  situated 
between  English  and  French  Guiana; 
area,  about  60,000  sq.  miles.  Only  a 
small  part  of  the  colony  is  under  cultiva- 
vation.  On  the  Surinam  river,  about  10 
miles  from  its  mouth,  is  situated  the 
capital,  Paramaribo.  The  principal  ex- 
ports are  sugar,  coffee,  molasses,  and 
rum.  The  government  is  vested  in  a gov- 
ernor-general and  council.  Pop.  72,533. 

■ GUIANA,  FRENCH,  a French  colony 
in  South  America,  between  Dutch 
Guiana  and  Brazil;  area,  about  35,000 
sq.  miles.  The  colony  comprises  the 
the  island  of  Cayenne,  celebrated  for  the 
pepper  bearing  that  name.  Gold  has 
also  been  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. The  French  are  said  to  have  first 
settled  in  Cayenne  in  1604.  Pop.  30,000. 

GUIDON  (gi'don),  the  little  flag  or 
standard  of  a troop  of  cavalry. 

GUIGNET’S  GREEN  (ge-nya),  a pig- 
ment prepared  by  heating  in  a rever- 
beratory furnace  a mixture  of  three  parts 
boracic  acid  and  one  of  bichromate  of 
potassium,  made  into  a thick  paste  with 
water.  This  color  is  quite  fixed — it  does 
not  alter  by  light  or  reagents,  and  it  is 
quite  harmless,  so  that  it  forms  an  ex- 
cellent substitute  for  the  greens  which 
contain  arsenic  and  copper. 

GUILD,  a society  or  association  for 
carrying  on  commerce,  a handicraft,  or 
some  other  undertaking.  Such  associa- 
tions are  known  from  very  early  times 
in  various  countries.  The  societies  of 


tradesmen  exclusively  authorized  to 
practice  their  art,  and  governed  by  laws 
of  their  own,  played  a very  important 
part  in  the  middle  ages.  They  often 
formed  a bulwark  against  the  oppression 
of  the  nobility,  and  were  thus  extremely 
conducive  to  the  growth  of  municipal 
and  civil  liberty.  Traces  of  these  trade 
societies  are  found  in  the' 10th  century. 
In  Milan  we  find  the  mechanics  united 
under  the  name  credentia.  At  Florence 
the  trades  were  federated  into  twenty- 
one  guilds  or  arti.  These  originated  in 
1282,  on  the  overthrow  of  the  nobility, 
and  every  candidate  for  citizenship  was 
obliged  to  enter  some  particular  guild. 
With  the  view  of  destroying  the  political 
influence  which  they  had  acquired  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.  abolished  them 
by  a decree  issued  in  1240;  but  the  de- 
cree remained  without  effect,  as  did  also 
the  clauses  inserted  with  a similar  view 
into  the  Golden  Bull  in  1356,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  present  century  that  un- 
restricted freedom  to  practice  any  trade 
was  established  in  the  German  states. 
In  Austria  this  was  done  in  1860,  and  in 
1868  it  was  done  for  all  the  states  of  the 
North  German  confederation.  In  Britain 
trade  guilds  long  possessed  an  import- 
ance which  was  mainly  political.  As  the 
right  of  voting  was  involved  in  the  mem- 
bership of  a guild,  many  persons,  not 
mechanics,  acquired  the  rights  of  “free- 
men” by  connecting  themselves  with 
some  body  of  this  kind.  These  guilds,  in 
England,  had  no  legal  right  to  prevent 
any  man  from  exercising  what  trade  he 
pleased.  The  only  restriction  on  the 
exercise  of  trades  was  the  statute  of 
Elizabeth,  requiring  seven  years’  ap- 
prenticeship. This  the  courts  held  to 
extend  to  such  trades  only  as  were  in 
being  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of  that 
statute.;  but  by  an  act  passed  in  1835, 
every  kind  of  restriction  on  artisans, 
trades,  etc.,  was  abolished.  The  guilds 
or  companies  qf  the  city  of  London 
(among  the  oldest  of  which  are  the 
weavers,  founded  in  1164;  the  parish 
clerks,  in  1232;  the  saddlers,  in  1280, 
the  fishmongers,  in  1284)  are  still  very 
important  corporations,  which  give 
relief  to  poor  and  decayed  members, 
and  also  manage  vast  funds  bequeathed 
for  benevolent  purposes.  Besides  the 
secular  guilds  there  were  from  a very 
early  period,  in  Britain,  religious  guilds. 
The  property  of  the  religious  guilds  was 
sequestrated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
In  France  guild-privileges  were  sold  by 
the  state  from  the  10th  century  till  the 
revolution  of  1789,  but  at  that  date 
guilds  were  entirely  abolished.  This 
was  done  also  at  a later  period  in  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Italy,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark. Many  of  the  trades-unions  have 
now  somewhat  of  the  character  of  the 
ancient  guilds. 

GUILDHALL,  the  city  hall  of  London, 
Cheapside,  first  built  in  1411,  all  but 
consumed  in  the  great  fire  of  1666;  and 
in  1669  rebuilt.  The  front  was  not 
erected  until  1789.  The  most  remarkable 
room  is  the  hall,  153  feet  long,  48  broad, 
and  55  high,  used  for  city  feasts,  etc.  It 
contains  the  curious  wooden  statues  of 
Gog  and  Magog.  In  the  common-council 
room  is  a collection  of  pictures,  some  of 
them  very  valuable.  There  is  also  a 
library  in  the  Guildhall. 


GUILLEMOT 


GUISE 


GUILLEMOT  (gil'e-mot),  a name  for 
several  web-footed  birds  belonging  to 
the  family  of  auks.  The  guillemots  have 
a straight,  compressed,  and  pointed  bill, 
covered  with  feathers  as  far  as  the  nos- 


Black  guillemot. 


trils,  and  have  no  hallux  or  hind-toe. 
The  wings  are  pointed  and  very  short, 
the  legs  also  short,  and  placed  far  back. 
They  live  on  fish,  and  build  on  precipi- 
tous rocks  adjoining  the  sea. 

GUILLOTINE,  (gil-lo-ten'),  an  engine 
for  beheading  persons  at  one  stroke — an 
invention  of  the  middle  ages — adopted 
with  improvements  by  the  national 
assembly  of  France  during  the  first 
revolution  on  the  proposal  of  a Dr. 
Guillotin,  after  whom  it  is  named.  In 
this  apparatus  decapitation  is  effected 
by  means  of  a steel  blade  loaded  v/ith  a 
a mass  of  lead,  and  sliding  between  two 
upright  posts,  grooved  on  their  inner 
sides,  the  person’s  neck  being  con- 
fined in  a circular  opening  between  two 
planks,  the  upper  one  of  which  also 


Guillotine  as  used  in  Paris. 

slides  up  or  down.  The  condemned 
is  strapped  to  a board,  which  in  the  cut 
is  shown  resting  horizontally  on  the 
table  in  front  of  the  upright  posts,  but 
which  is  easily  drawn  forward  and  set 
upright  when  necessary,  and  again 
canted  over  upon  the  table  and  rapidly 
moved  up  so  as  to  place  the  neck  of  the 
condemned  within  the  semicircle  of  the 
lower  plank,  the  other  being  raised  for 
the  purpose.  On  the  right  of  the  table  is 
a large  basket  or  trough  of  wicker-work 
for  the  reception  of  the  body.  Under  the 
place  where  the  head  rests  is  an  oblong 
trough  for  its  reception.  The  knife  is 
fixed  to  the  cap  or  lintel  on  the  top  of  the 
posts  by  a claw  in  the  form  of  an  8,  the 


lower  part  of  which  opens  as  the  upper 
closes.  This  claw  is  act  ed  upon  by  a lever 
to  which  a cord  is  attached.  When  the 
head  of  the  condemned  is  in  position  the 
cord  is  pulled,  and  by  the  action  of  the 
lever  the  knife  is  set  at  lib  erty , descending 
by  the  grooves  in  the  upright  posts  and 
falling  upon  the  neck  of  the  condemned 
just  behind  the  planks  which  keep  the 
head  in  position.  The  scaffold,  which  is 
surrounded  by  an  open  railing,  is  raised 
6 or  7 feet  from  the  ground.  The  same 
name  is  given  to  a machine  which  cuts 
by  a knife  descending  between  grooved 
posts,  much  used  for  cutting  paper, 
straw,  etc. 

GUINEA  (gin'e),  a geographical  divi- 
sion of  Western  Africa,  including  the 
Atlantic  coast-line  and  an  indefinite  area 
of  the  interior  between  the  frontiers  of 
Senegambia  and  Cape  Negro,  or  Cape 
Frio  (where  German  territory  now  be- 
gins). It  is  divided  into  two  districts, 
lying  north  and  south  of  Cape  Lopez: 
the  former,  called  Upper  Guinea,  in- 
cludes Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  the  Grain, 
Ivory,  Gold,  and  Slave  coasts,  parts  of 
Nigeria,  German  Cameroon  territory, 
etc. ; the  latter,  called  Lower  Guinea,  in- 
cludes part  of  French  Congo,  Angola,  etc. 
See  Africa,  and  the  separate  articles. 

GUINEA,  Gulf  of,  that  portion  of  the 
Atlantic  which  washes  the  shores  of 
Upper  Guinea,  between  Cape  Palmas 
and  Cape  Lopez,  and  including  the 
bights  of  Benin  and  Biafra.  The  islands 
of  Fernando  Po,  Prince’s,  and  St. 
Thomas,  are  within  this  gulf. 

GUINEA,  New.  See  New  Guinea. 

GUINEA-CORN,  a name  given  to 
durra,  one  of  the  grains  also  called  millet. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  cultivated 
under  the  name  of  broom-corn. 

GUINEA-FOWL,  or  PINTADO,  a genus 
of  pheasants,  originally  all  natives  of 
Africa.  The  common  guinea-fowl,  now 
well  known  as  a domestic  fowl,  has  a 


Guinea-fowl. 


slate-colored  plumage  varied  with  round 
white  spots.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
common  fowl,  and  is  of  a noisy  and 
quarrelsome  disposition.  Its  eggs  are 
esteemed. 

GUINEA-GRASS,  a very  tall  species  of 
grass,  a native  of  Africa,  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  millet,  often  6 and  some- 
times even  10  feet  in  height.  It  has  been 
naturalized  in  South  America  and  the 
West  Indies,  and  largely  cultivated  for 
fodder.  It  does  not  perish  even  in  Brit- 
ain, but  there  it  is  not  so  productive  as 
in  warmer  climates. 

GUINEA  PEPPER,  a lofty  tree  of  the 
same  family  with  the  custard  apple.  Its 
fruit,  consisting  of  dry  carpels,  is  used 
as  pepper,  “negro  pepper.”  The  term 
Guinea  Pepper  is  often  used  as  an  equiv- 
alent for  Grains  of  Paradise,  or  Mala- 
guetta.  See  Caspsicum. 


GUINEA-PIG,  a well-known  rodent 
mammal.  It  is  a native  of  South  America 
and  resembles  the  pig  only  in  its  grunt- 
ing voice.  It  is  a timid  little  animal,  ex- 
tremely prolific,  and  it  feeds  on  vege- 
tables, especially  parsley,  bread,  grain, 
etc.  It  is  very  destitute  of  intelligence. 

GUINEA-PLUM,  the  fruit  of  a West 
African  tree,  growing  to  the  height  of  60 
feet. 

GUINEA- WORM,  a parasitic  of  the 
thickness  of  pack-thread,  somewhat 
attenuated  at  the  hook-shaped  posterior 
extremity.  It  varies  in  length  from  6 
inches  to  several  feet,  and  it  is  found  in 
the  intertropical  regions  of  the  Old 
World. 

GUIPUZCOA  (ge-puth'ko-a),  one  of 
the  three  Basque  provinces,  in  the  n.  e. 
of  Spain,  bounded  n.  by  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay; n.  e.  by  France;  area,  728  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  195,850. 

GUISCARD  (gis-kar),  Robert,  Duke  of 
Apulia  and  Calabria,  a son  of  Tancred  de 
Hauteville,  born  in  1015.  His  brothers, 
having  acquired  large  possessions  in 
Italy,  Robert  followed  them  about  1053 
and  in  the  same  year  captured  Pope 
Leo  IX.  at  Civitella.  On  the  death  of  his 
brother  Humphrey  he  was  proclaimed 
count  of  Apulia  in  1057.  He  then  con- 
quered Calabria,  and  Pope  Nicholas  II. 
made  him  gonfalonier  of  the  Church. 
In  1074  he  was  excommunicated  by 
Gregory  VII.  for  refusing  to  become  his 
vassal,  but  the  ban  was  removed  in 
1080.  As  his  daughter  Helen  was  be- 
trothed to  the  son  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
peror, Michael  VII.,  Guiscard,  on  the 
latter’s  deposition,  took  up  arms  in  his 
favor,  and  defeated  Alexis  Comnenus 
at  Durazzo  (1082).  He  was  upon  the 
point  of  advancing  against  Constanti- 
nople, when  he  died  in  the  island  of 
Cephalonia  in  1085. 

GUISE  (gwez),  a distinguished  ducal 
family  of  France,  a branch  of  the  house 
of  Lorraine.  The  founder  was  Claude,  a 
son  of  Ren6  II.,  duke  of  Lorraine,  who  in 
1506  became  naturalized  in  France.  In 
his  favor  the  county  of  Guise  was  erected 
in  1528  by  Francis  I.  into  a duchy.  He 
died  in  1550,  leaving  behind  him  five 
daughters  eldest  of  whom,  Marie, 
married  James  V.  of  Scotland,  and  was 
the  mother  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots)  and 
six  sons — Francois,  who  succeeded  him, 
Charles  (Cardinal  of  Lorraine),  Louis 
(Cardinal  of  Guise),  Claude,  Frangois, 
and  Ren6.  The  family  acquired  great 
political  importance  on  the  accession  of 
Francis  II.,  who  was  married  to  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots.  The  direct  line  became 
extinct  in  1675.  In  1704  the  title  was 
revived  for  the  house  of  Cond6. — Two  of 
the  dukes  require  particular  mention. — 
Frangois  de  Lorraine,  the  second  duke, 
born  in  1519,  early  distinguished  him- 
self in  war,  especially  at  IMetz,  which  he 
defended  with  success  against  Charles 
V.,  and  at  the  battle  of  Renti,  1544.  In 
his  Italian  expedition  (1556-57)  he  failed 
to  conquer  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  But  ' 
he  was  successful  in  that  which  resulted  | 
in  the  final  annexation  of  Calais  to 
France.  Under  Henry  II.  and  Francis 
II.  he  was  the  virtual  ruler  of  France. 
On  the  death  of  Francis  II.  the  factions 
of  Cond4  and  Guise  arose,  the  Protestant 
(Huguenots)  being  on  the  side  of  the 
former,  the  Catholics  on  that  of  the 


GUITAR 


GUM 


latter.  When  civil  war  broke  out  the 
Duke  of  Guise  took  Rouen  and  Bourges, 
and  won  the  battle  of  Dreux  in  1562.  He 
was  prepai-ing  for  the  siege  of  Orleans, 
the  central  point  of  the  protestant  party, 
when  he  was  assassinated  by  a Hu- 
guenot nobleman,  Feb.  1563.  He  left 
memoirs  written  by  himself. — Henry, 
third  duke,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  1550.  He  was  a bitter  op- 
ponent of  the  Huguenots,  and  fought 
against  them  at  Jarnac  and  Moncontour, 
and  advised  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew (1572).  From  revenge  he  per- 
sonally conducted  the  assassins  to  the 
house  of  Coligny.  In  1576  was  formed 
the  catholic  league,  first  projected  by 
his  uncle,  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine.  A 
period  of  civil  war  followed,  the  party  of 
Guise  proved  too  strong  for  his  oppo- 
nents, and  having  brought  about  a rising 
of  the  catholics  in  Paris  (May,  1588),  he 
entered  the  city  in  triumph.  He  might 
now  have  made  himself  master  of  the 
throne,  but  negotiations  were  set  on 
foot,  and  the  duke’s  displays  of  im- 
prudent ambition  led  to  his  assassination 
in  the  king’s  cabinet,  Dec.  23,  1588,  at 
Blois,  whither  the  states  had  been  sum- 
moned in  order  finally  to  ratify  the 
treaty  that  had  been  arranged. 

GUITAR  (gi-tar'),  a stringed  instru- 
ment with  a hollow  body,  and  a neck 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a violin, 
used  especially  to  accompany  the  voice. 
The  modern  or  Spanish  guitar  has  six 


1,  French  guitar  of  17th  century. 

2,  Modern  guitar. 

strings,  the  three  highest  of  gut,  the 
three  lowest  of  silk  covered  with  fine 
wire,  tuned  respectively  to  the  E in  the 
second  space  of  the  bass  staff,  A its 
fourth,  and  the  treble  D,  C,  B,  and  E. 
The  intermediate  intervals  are  produced 
by  bringing  the  stirngs,  by  the  pressure 
of  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  into  con- 
tact with  the  frets  fixed  on  the  key- 
board, while  those  of  the  right  pluck  or 
twitch  the  strings.  It  is  extremely  popu- 
lar in  Spain.  The  Spaniards  derived  it 
from  the  Moors,  who  brought  it  from 
the  east. 

GUIZOT  (ge-z6),  Fran9ois  Pierre  Guil- 
laume, French  historian  and  statesman, 
born  at  Nim6s,  1787,  died  1874.  In  1812 
he  married  Mdlle.  de  Meulan,  editor  of  the 
Publiciste,  and  became  professor  of 
history  at  the  Sorbonne.  In  1816  he 
published  Du  Gouvernement  Repr6sen- 
tatif  et  de  I’Etat  Actuel  de  la  France,  and 
Essai  sur  I’Instruction  Publique.  In 
1820  the  Due  de  Berry  was  assassinated, 
and  Guizot’s  party  fell  before  an  ultra- 
royalist  reaction.  In  1825  he  was  de- 
prived of  his  chair  on  account  of  the 
political  character  of  his  lectures,  but  it 


was  restored  to  him  in  1828.  In  1829  he 
again  became  councillor  of  state,  and  in 
1830  was  elected  deputy  for  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Lisieux.  After  the  July 
revolution  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  interior,  but  resigned  in  1831.  After 
the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe,  Guizot  escaped 
and  fled  to  England.  Henceforth  he 
practically  retired  from  public  life. 
Among  his  numerous  works  may  be 
mentioned  Histoire  de  la  Civilisation  en 
France,  Histoire  G4n6rale  de  la  Civilisa- 
tion en  Europe;  Histoire  de  la  Revolu- 
tion d’Angleterre;  Was'  Ington;  Discours 
Sur  la  Revolution  d’  * ‘gleterre;  Medita- 
tions et  Etudes  Morales;  Guillaume  le 
Conquerant;  Memoires  pour  Servir  k 
I’Histoire  de  Mon  Temps  (1858-68); 
Meditations  sur  I’Etat  Actuel  de  la  Re- 
ligion Chretienne;  Melanges  Biograph- 
iques  et  Litteraire;  Histoire  de  France, 
Racontee  ^ Mes  Petits  Enfants,  etc. 

GUJERAT,  GUJARAT,  or  GUZERAT, 
a maritime  province  in  Western  Hin- 
dustan, presidency  of  Bombay;  total 
area,  70,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  11,000,000. 
Gujerat  comprises  a number  of  native 
states  within  its  area,  the  chief  being 
the  scattered  territories  of  the  Gaek- 
war  or  Guicowar  of  Baroda.  The  pop- 
ulation presents  an  extraordinary  as- 
semblage of  sects  and  castes.  It  gives 
name  to  the  vernacular  language  of 
Northern  Bombay — Gujarati.  The  area 
of  the  British  portiop,  comprising  the 
districts  of  Surat,  Broach,  Kaira,  Panch 
Mahals,  and  Ahmedabad  is  10,158  sq. 
miles,  and  the  pop.  3,098,197. 

GUJRANWALA,  a town  of  India,  in 
the  Punjab,  administrative  headquar- 
ters of  district  of  same  name.  It  has  in- 
considerable manufactures  of  country 
wares,  such  as  brass  vessels,  etc.  Pop. 
29,224. — Area  of  district,  3017  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  690,169. 

GUJRAT,  a district  of  India  in  the 
lieutenant-governorship  of  the  Punjab, 
in  the  Rawal  Pindi  division  between  the 
Jehlam  and  the  Chenab.  Pop.  760,875. 
— Gujrat,  the  capital,  5 miles  from  the 
Chenab,  is  a commercial  center.  Its 
manufactures  are  principally  of  cotton 
and  of  Gujrat  ware,  that  is  inlaid  work 
in  gold  and  iron.  Pop.  18,743. 

GULF  STREAM,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  oceanic  currents,  so  called 
because  it  issues  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
It  owes  its  origin  to  the  fact  that  the 
westward-moving  waters  of  the  tropical 
portion  of  the  Atlantic,  encountering 
the  eastward  projection  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, become  divided  into  two  currents, 
one  setting  southAvard  along  the  Brazil- 
ian coast,  and  the  other  northward  past 
the  mouths  of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco, 
into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  then  enters 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  thence  emerges 
through  the  Channel  of  Florida  as  the 
Gulf  Stream.  Its  course  is  next  to  the 
north  and  eastward,  in  a direction 
parallel  to  the  coast  of  the  United  States, 
past  Cape  Hatteras  (lat.  35°  13'),  along 
the  southern  edge  of  the  “great  banks’’ 
of  Nantucket  and  Newfoundland  (be- 
tween the  meridians  of  48°  and  60° 
west),  after  which  its  course  as  a distinct 
current  cannot  be  traced.  In  the  earlier 
part  of  its  course,  especially  when  round- 
ing the  extremity  of  Florida,  the  Gulf 
Stream  forms  a well-defined  current, 
distinguished  by  its  high  temperature 


and  its  deep  blue  or  indiga  .color.  On 
account  of  the  descent  of  the  polar  op 
Baffin  Bay  current  along  the  coast  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  Gulf 
Stream,  the  water  on  its  inland  side  ia 
colder  than  that  to  the  eastward  of  it. 
The  difference  of  temperature  between 
the  Gulf  Stream  and  this  cold  current 
sometimes  amounts  to  20°  (or  even  30°) 
Fahr.  The  velocity  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
varies  with  its  course.  Within  the 
Florida  Channel  it  attains  a mean  of  65 
miles  per  day,  this  sinks  to  56  miles  off 
Charleston,  becomes  36  miles  to  46  off 
Nantucket,  and  28  miles  to  the  south  of 
the  Newfoundland  banks;  300  miles  to 
the  eastward  of  NeAvfoundland  its  move- 
ment is  hardly  perceptible.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  Flordia  Channel  the  ob- 
served temperature  is  34°,  that  of  the 
surface  from  80°  to  84°.  Geographers 
have  greatly  exaggerated  the  influence 
of  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  temperature 
of  Europe.  If  it  possesses  any  direct  in- 
fluence such  must  be  extremely  small, 
as  the  current  is  both  too  narrow  and  too 
shallow,  and  its  slight  amount  of  su- 
perior heat  probably  vanishes  after  it  ha« 
passed  Cape  Hatteras.  The  relatively 
high  temperature  of  western  and  north- 
western Europe  must  rather  be  referred 
to  the  general  set  of  the  tropical  waters 
to  the  northeast,  and  to  the  warm  winds 
blowing  in  the  same  direction,  and  not 
to  the  Gulf  Stream  exclusively. 

GULF-WEED,  a genus  of  sea-weeds 
which  grows  on  tropical  coasts,  and 
accumulates  in  great  floating  beds,  but 
does  not  propagate  when  detached. 

GULL,  the  general  name  of  a family  of 
birds  distinguished  by  their  straight 
bill,  bending  downward  toward  the 
point,  and  marked  below  the  under 
mandible  by  a triangular  prominence, 


Lesser  black-backed  gull. 

by  their  large  wings,  slender  legs,  pal- 
mated  feet,  and  small  hind  toe.  Gen- 
erally seen  in  large  flocks,  the  larger 
species  frequent  the  sea,  the  smaller, 
lakes  or  rivers.  They  swim  well,  but  are 
incapable  of  diving.  Their  flight  is  rapid 
and  long  sustained.  They  are  extremely 
voracious,  and  feed  on  every  kind  of 
animal  food,  putrid  or  fresh.  Their  prin- 
cipal food  is  fish,  which  they  catch  with 
great  agility,  darting  down  like  an  arrow. 
They  breed  only  once  a year,  laying  two 
to  four  eggs.  The  species  are  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  resemble  each  other 
greatly.  Among  the  principal  are  the 
common  gull  which  breeds  on  the  coast, 
or  inland  in  moory  districts;  the  lesser 
black-backed  gull,  the  black-headed 
ull,  the  ivory  gull,  the  Iceland  gull, 
istinguished  by  its  v\rhite  quill  feathers 
from  the  herring  gull,  the  great  black- 
backed  gull;  the  burgomaster;  the  little 
gull ; sabine’s  gull ; the  kittiwake,  etc. 

GUM,  a substance  of  various  proper- 
ties which  exudes  spontaneously  from 


GUM-ARABIC 


i UNNERY 


the  bark  of  certain  trees,  such  as  the 
plum,  the  peach,  etc.;  or  from  incisions 
made  in  the  bark  to  facilitate  the  flow. 
Gums  form  non-crystalline  rounded 
drops  Or  tears,  the  purest  varieties  be- 
ing transparent  or  translucent,  of  a pale 
yellow  but  sometimes  of  a dark  color. 
When  dissolved  in  water  gum  forms  a 
thick,  smooth  fluid,  with  considerable 
viscosity.  Some  gums,  such  as  gum- 
arabic,  dissolve  in  water;  others,  like 
tragacanth,  are  only  partially  soluble; 
they  are  insoluble  in  alcohol.  By  being 
insoluble  in  alcohol  gums  are  distin- 
guished from  resins.  They  have  no  odor, 
and  only  a very  faint  taste.  The  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  gums  receive  their  names 
from  the  countries  from  which  they  are 
imported — such  as  gum-arabic,  gum- 
senegal,  Earbary  gum.  East  India  gum, 
etc.,  and  from  individual  features,  as 
cherry-tree  gum,  tragacanth,  etc.  Gum- 
resins  require  water  and  alcohol  to  dis- 
solve them.  See  Gum-resins. 

GUM-ARABIC,  is  the  purest  form  of 
gum,  and  may  be  regarded  as  typical. 
It  comes  from  various  species  of  Acacia. 
The  gum  exudes  spontaneously,  and  its 
appearance  is  an  indication  of  the  tree 
being  in  an  unhealthy  condition ; but  in 
order  to  get  it  in  sufficient  quantity  in- 
cisions are  made  in  the  bark.  Gum- 
arabic  is  very  largely  employed  in  the 
finishing  and  dressing  of  fabrics;  for 
thickening  the  colors  in  calico-printing; 
in  pharmacy;  as  a cement;  in  ink-mak- 
ing; for  making  crayons  and  water- 
color  cakes,  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses. The  purest  gum-arabic  is  in 
round  tears,  transparent,  and  almost 
colorless,  faintly  odorous,  completely 
soluble  in  water,  the  solution  being 
feebly  acid. 

GUM-BOIL,  an  abscess  in  the  gum 
generally  the  result  of  toothache  or  of 
the  presence  of  decayed  teeth  or  stumps. 
The  carious  tooth  or  stump,  if  the  in- 
flammation proceeds  from  this  cause, 
should  be  removed.  The  purulent  mat- 
ter should  be  evacuated  by  a free  in- 
cision, and  the  mouth  frequently  washed 
with  tincture  of  myrrh  and  water. 

GUM-ELASTIC,  caoutchouc  or  india- 
rubber. 

GUM-JUNIPER,  the  resin  of  a conif- 
erous tree  of  Barberry,  used  in  varnish 
etc. 

GUMMING,  a disease  of  certain  fruit- 
trees,  as  cherries,  plums,  apricots, 
peaches,  etc.,  consisting  in  a morbid 
exudition  of  gum,  and  generally  result- 
ing in  the  death  of  the  tree. 

GUM-RESINS,  solidified  juices  ob- 
tained from  plants.  They  contain  a gum, 
which  is  soluble  in  water,  and  a resin, 
which  dissolves  in  spirit,  so  that  the 
body  usually  is  nearly  quite  soluble  in 
dilute  alcohol;  but  there  are  usually 
present  in  addition  essential  oil,  and  a 
variety  of  impurities.  The  gum-resins 
have  frequently  a strong  and  character- 
istic taste  and  smell.  They  are  solid, 
opaque,  and  brittle.  The  common  gum- 
resins  are  aloes,  ammoniacum,  asafoet- 
ida,  bdellium,  galbanum,  gamboge, 
myrrh,  olibanum,  opoponax,  sagape- 
num,  and  scammony. 

GUN,  a missile  weapon,  causing  de- 
struction by  the  discharge  of  a ball, 
bullet,  or  other  substance,  through  a 
cylindrical  tube,  along  which  it  is  pro- 


pelled by  the  action  of  gunpowder  or 
other  explosive  substance.  One  of  the 
famous  guns  of  history  is  the  great 
“Mons  Meg,''  which  was  made  at  Mons, 
Brittany,  in  1486,  and  which  was  burst 
in  1682  w’hile  firing  a salute.  It  was 
made  of  iron  bars,  hooped  together. 
Another  is  the  “Tsar  Cannon,”  or 
“King  of  Cannons,”  preserved  in  the 
Kremlin  at  Moscow.  Other  noted  guns 
are  the  Turkish  pieces  guarding  the 
Dardanelles,  the  gun  at  Dover,  an 
inscription  on  which  says: 

“Load  me  well  and  keep  me  clean 
And  I’ll  land  a ball  at  Calais  green.” 

In  recent  times  progress  has  been 
made  by  the  improvement  of  the 
breech-loading  method,  in  the  method 
of  rifling,  and  in  the  size  of  ordnance, 
particularly  the  monster  guns  made  by 
the  Krupp  company  at  Essen,  Ger- 
many. Machine  guns  of  the  Gatling 
type  were  introduced  half  a century 
ago,  and  the  first  automatic  gun  was 
devised  by  Maxim,  on  the  principle  of 
using  the  recoil  to  reload  and  fire.  See 
Cannon,  Rifle,  Machine-gun,  etc. 

GUN-BOAT,  a term  applied  to  small 
war-vessels  mounting  often  only  a 
single  heavy  gun,  and  employed  in 
coast  defense  or  in  attacking  large  and 
heavy-armored  vessels.  Some  gun- 
boats have  their  one  gun  on  the  deck 
mounted  so  as  to  be  turned  in  any 
direction  by  means  of  a pivot.  In 
others  the  single  gun  is  placed  on  a 
platform,  which  can  be  raised  to  the 
deck  or  lowered  to  the  hold.  The  gun 
in  this  case  does  not  turn  on  a pivot,  the 
manoeuvring  being  effected  entirely  by 
the  turning  of  the  vessel.  Some  of  the 
gun-boats  of  the  present  day  are  armed 
with  several  powerful  breech-loading 
guns  besides  quick-firing  and  machine 
guns;  and  they  may  also  be  fitted  for 
discharging  torpedoes.  Many  of  them 
are  very  swift. 

GUN-CARRIAGE,  the  structure  on 
which  a cannon  is  mounted,  and  on 
which  it  is  fired.  Gun-carriages  are  of 
very  various  constructions.  In  the  case 
of  a field  or  siege  piece  the  carriage  is 
united,  for  traveling,  with  a two- 
wheeled fore-part,  termed  a limber,  to 
which  the  horses  are  attached,  so  as  to 
form  a single  four-wheeled  carriage.  In 
action  the  gun  is  unlimbered,  and  then 
rests  on  its  pair  of  wheels,  and  on  a 
strong  support  termed  the  trail.  A gun 
in  a fortress  has  its  carriage  commonly 
mounted  on  what  is  termed  a traversing 
platform,  that  is,  a strong  framework 
supported  on  metal  trucks  or  small 
wheels.  In  mortars  a cast-iron  bed 
takes  the  place  of  a carriage. 

GUN-COTTON,  or  Pyroxyline,  is  an 
explosive  substance  formed  by  the 
action  of  nitric  acid  on  cotton.  In  the 
process  of  manufacture  sulphuric  acid 
is  mixed  with  the  nitric,  its  function 
being  to  absorb  the  water  formed  by 
the  weakening  of  the  nitric  acid  as  it 
gradually  combines  with  the  cotton. 
The  product  of  this  process  is  a chemical 
compound  of  four  or  five  times  the  ex- 
plosive power  of  gunpowder.  The  cot- 
ton is  generally  reduced  to  a finely 
divided  condition,  and  the  gun-cotton 
moulded  into  disks  of  suitable  sizes. 


Wlien  ignited  in  a free  state  it  burns 
with  a strong  flame;  it  is  only  when  fired 
by  a detonat'  ng  fuse  or  when  heated  in 
confinement  ;hat  it  explodes.  The  pres- 
ence of  water  and  other  substances  does 
not  interfere  with  this  kind  of  explosion. 
From  this  follows  the  important  fact 
that  it  can  be  kept  wet  with  safety 
while  in  a condition  in  which  it  may  be 
exploded  by  means  of  a detonator.  In 
short,  when  wet  it  is  quite  safe  and  yet 
quite  ready  for  work  at  a moments  no- 
tice ; for,  while  it  refuses  to  burn  even 
in  the  heat  of  a powerful  flame,  the  ap- 
plication of  a large  or  of  a small  detona- 
tor inserted  in  one  dry  disk  of  gun-cotton 
causes  the  wet  mass  to  explode  with  its 
full  violence.  Bursters  of  gun-cotton  and 
water  have  been  used  in  shells  for  cer- 
tain purposes.  When  exploded  it  pro- 
duces little  smoke  and  a very  small 
amount  of  residual  matter.  There  are 
also  preparations  allied  to  gun-cotton 
with  wood-fiber  as  a basis,  such  as 
Schulze’s  powder,  sawdust  powder,  etc. 
An  imperfect  chemical  form  of  gun- 
cotton termed  collodion,  soluble  in  a 
mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol,  is  used  in 
photography. 

GUNNERY,  the  science  of  conducting 
the  fire  of  artillery.  Gunnery  may  be 
divided  into  the  theoretical  and  practi- 
cal branches.  The  former  consists 
chiefly  in  the  application  of  mathe- 


Gatling  gun. 

matics  to  the  solution  of  the  problems 
in  dynamics  involved  in  the  consider- 
ation of  the  motion  of  shot  through  the 
air,  and  is  essential  to  the  design  of 
good  systems  of  rifling  and  well-pro- 
portioned projectiles.  Practical  gun- 
nery, which  deals  with  the  actual  firing, 
has  reference  rather  to  the  use  of 
individual  guns  than  to  the  handling 
of  artillery  on  a large  scale.  Theoreti- 
cal gunnery  would  be  simple  were  the 
projectiles  fired  in  vacuo,  as  gravity 
alone  would,  in  such  a case,  require  to 
be  taken  into  account,  and  the  path  of 
projectiles  would  simply  describe  a 
parabola.  The  line  taken  by  a pro- 
jectile (or  its  trajectory  as  it  is  called)  is, 
however,  subject  to  modifications  caused 
by  the  resistance  of  the  air,  the  form  of 
the  shot,  etc.  Among  things  to  be  con- 
sidered in  gunnery  are  the  velocity  of  the 
projectile,  initial  and  subsequent,  the 
angle  of  elevation  of  the  piece,  the  range 
or  distance  to  which  the  projectile  is 
carried,  etc.  With  cast-iron  spherical 
shot  the  chief  complication  arises  from 
the  centre  of  gravity  never  falling 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  figure. 
Rifled  guns,  however,  fire  projectiles 
with  a certain  known  rotation,  and  in  the 


GUNNY-BAGS 


GUSTAVUS  II 


case  of  elongated  shot,  these  are  more 
accurately  centerd  in  the  bore  by  the 
action  of  the  grooves,  and  possess  the 
faculty  of  traveling  point  first,  and  of 
thus  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the 
air.  One  mechanical  disadvantage  be- 
longs to  rifled  shot — namely,  the  wild 
irregularity  of  their  ricochet — a dis- 
advantage which,  however,  does  not 
apply  to  shells  burst  on  the  instant  of 
graze  by  percussion  fuzes,  or  before  con- 
tact by  time  fuzes.  All  the  British  serv- 
ice projectiles  have  their  centres  of 
gravity  nearly  half  way  along  their  axes. 


Krupp’s  15.6  breech- loading  gun. 
Breech  open. 


and  in  flight  they  carry  toward  the 
right  hand  of  the  person  laying  the  gun 
— a species  of  deviation  to  which  the 
name  of  drift  or  deflexion  is  given.  In 
determining  the  velocity  of  projectiles 
various  instruments  are  used.  Among 
these  are  Wheatstone’s  electromagnetic 
chronoscope,  the  Bashforth  chrono- 
graph, the  Noble  chronoscope,  etc.  In 
ordinary  artillery  fire  the  charge  is  a 
fixed  one,  and  the  elevation  is  varied 
according  to  the  range.  Horizontal  fire 
against  the  front  of  a column  or  line  of 
works  is  termed  direct  fire;  that  which 
sweeps  along  a line  of  men  or  earth- 
works, enfilade  fire;  vertical  fire  is  when 
the  piece  is  fired  at  a high  angle  of  eleva- 
tion. 

GUNNY-BAGS,  are  bags  made  of  a 
coarse  cloth  or  sacking  manufactured  in 
India  of  some  native  fiber,  chiefly  j'ute. 
They  are  extensively  used  in  India  in 
packing  rice,  sago,  spices,  etc.,  for  ex- 
port, and  in  America  for  bales  of  cotton. 

GUNPOWDER,  is  a mixture  of  salt- 
peter, sulphur,  and  charcoal.  We  hear 
of  gunpowder  from  a very  early  period. 
It  appears  to  have  been  used  in  China 
at,  if  not  before,  the  Christian  era. 
Marcus  Graecus,  who  lived  about  the 
9th  century,  describes  its  composition, 
which  was  also  known  to  Roger  Bacon, 
who  refers  to  it  in  1267.  It  was  also 
apparently  known  to  the  Arabs  at  an 
early  period.  In  1342  the  Moors  em- 
ployed it  in  the  siege  of  Algesiras. 
According  to  the  common  story  the 
discovery  of  its  propulsive  power  was 
due  to  the  German  monk  Barthold 
Schwartz  between  1290  and  1320.  Guns 
are  said  to  have  been  employed  by 
Edward  III.  in  1327,  on  his  invasion  of 
Scotland.  It  is  also  asserted  that  gun- 
powder was  employed  in  1346  by  the 
English  at  Cr4cy.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  16th  century  that  its  use  in 
warfare  became  general.  The  propor- 
tion of  the  ingredients  in  the  composition 
of  gunpowder  is  different  in  different 
countries.  In  Britain  the  proportions 
for  different  kinds,  such  as  sporting  and 


mining  powdeio,  differ  slightly.  The 
gunpowder  of  the  mills  at  Waltham 
Abbey  contains  75  saltpeter,  15  char- 
coal, and  10  sulphur.  The  crude  salt- 
etre  is  dissolved  in  an  equal  weight  of 
oiling  water  in  a copper  boiler,  filtered, 
and  allowed  to  cool  and  crystalize  in  a 
trough  in  order  to  purify  it  from  nitrates 
of  soda  and  lime,  chlorides  of  potassium 
and  sodium,  etc.,  the  liquid  being  con- 
tinually agitated,  so  that  the  crystals 
may  be  formed  small  and  pure.  They 
are  then  washed  and  allowed  to  drain. 
The  sulphur  is  purified  and  ground.  The 
charcoal  is  obtained  from  alder  or  willow 
wood,  or  from  dogwood  for  the  finest 
powder.  These  ingredients  are  first 
roughly  mixed,  then  sprinkled  with 
water  and  incorporated  under  rollers  in 
a mill,  and  formed  into  a cake  termed 
“mill  cake.”  This  is  broken  up  under 
grooved  rollers,  and  brought  by  pressure 
into  “press  cake.”  After  this  it  is  gran- 
ulated, by  being  passed  between  toothed 
rollers,  and  separated  into  classes  by 
sieves  of  different  sizes  of  mesh.  Latterly 
a very  large  grain  has  been  adopted  for 
the  heaviest  charges;  this  is  termed 
pellet  or  pebble  powder.  “Pellet” 
powder  is  made  by  filling  the  cylindrical 
holes  in  a thick  gun-metal  plate  with 
mealed  powder,  and  by  means  of  pistons 
under  a hydraulic  press,  forming  them 
into  short  cylinders  or  “pellets,”  with  a 
small  cavity  at  one  end  to  catch  a flame 
the  more  readily.  “Pebble”  Dowder  is 
made  by  cutting  or  pressing  edges  which 
divide  the  press  cake  into  small  cubes; 
these,  like  pebbles,  have  their  corners 
rubbed  off  and  rounded  by  friction. 
The  largest  pebble  powder  consists  of 
cubes  of  IJ  inches.  There  is  also  a gun- 
powder known  as  “prismatic,”  the 
grains  forming  large  hexagonal  prisms 
with  a hole  through  tho  center.  “Cocoa” 
powders  are  made  with  other  kinds  of 
carbon  than  wood  charcoal.  Smokeless 
powder  has  been  introduced  (“cordite” 
may  here  be  named),  but  has  not  yet 
been  properly  tested  in  war.  Gun-cotton 
is  the  base  or  an  important  ingredient  of 
all  the  well-known  smokeless  powders. 
As  it  is  necessary  that  the  flame  must 
traverse  the  interstices  between  the 
grains  of  powder,  the  grains  must  be 
suited  to  the  size  of  the  charge  of  the 
gun.  The  greatest  precautions  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  fire  or  water  from  com- 
ing into  contact  with  gunpowder.  Hence 
it  is  usually  kept  in  magazines  which  are 
of  great  strength  in  defensive  works, 
although  lighter  and  well-ventilated 
buildings  suffice  under  other  conditions. 
In  the  transportation  of  gunpowder,  the 
casks  should  be  dust-proof,  and  the 
carriages  and  vessels  containing  it 
should  be  water-tight.  As  iron  vessels 
are  dangerous,  gunpowder  is  usually 
packed  in  copper-hooped  barrels  made 
with  copper  nails.  The  explosive  powder 
of  gunpowder  is  very  great.  It  is,  how- 
ever, necessary  to  place  it  within  a con- 
fined space,  as,  when  it  is  heaped  up  in 
the  open  air,  it  explodes  without  report 
or  much  effect.  As  the  result  of  experi- 
ments it  appears  that  the  weight  of  the 
gases  produced  by  inflaming  gunpowder 
is  about  xuths  of  that  of  the  powder, 
and  their  volume  288  times  its  bulk, 
when  they  have  attained  an  elasticity 
equal  to  that  of  the  air.  If  the  effect  of 


heat  evolved  during  the  combusiton  be 
added,  the  elastic  fbrce  is  increased  to 
1000  atmospheres  in  round  numbers,  i.e. 
a pressure  of  about  6J  tons  to  the  sq. 
inch. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT,  a conspiracy 
formed  in  England  in  1604,  the  second 
year  of  the  reign  of  James  I.,  by  some 
Roman  Catholics,  to  blow  up  the  king 
and  parliament  in  order  to  be  revenged 
on  the  government  for  its  severities 
against  their  religion.  The  time  ulti- 
mately fixed  for  the  exegution  of  the 
plot  was  the  5th  of  November,  1605, 
when  parliament  was  to  be  opened  by 
the  king  in  person.  The  plot  originated 
with  Robert  Catesby,  Thomas  Winter, 
and  John  Wright,  and  was  at  once  made 
known  to  Guido  Fawkes,  a zealous 
Catholic,  who  had  served  in  the  Spanish 
army  in  Flanders,  and  to  Thomas  Percy, 
a relation  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland. 
The  plot  was  subsequently  communi- 
cated to  Sir  Everard  Digby,  Ambrose 
Rookwood.  Francis  Tresham,  Thomas 
Keyes,  and  to  some  Jesuit  fathers  and 
others..  Fawkes,  Rookwood,  Winter, 
and  others  were  tried  at  Westminster 
on  27th  of  Jan.,  1906,  and  executed  on 
the  30th  and  31st. 

GUNTER’S  CHAIN,  the  chain  in  com- 
mon use  for  measuring  land;  so  called 
from  its  inventor,  Edmund  Gunter.  Its 
length  is  66  feet,  or  22  yards,  or  4 poles 
of  5i  yards  each;  and  it  is  divided  into 
100  links  of  7.92  inches  each.  100,000 
square  links  make  1 acre. 

GUNTER’S  SCALE,  a scale  having 
various  lines  upon  it,  of  great  use  in 
working  problems  in  navigation.  This 
scale  is  usually  2 feet  long  and  about  1^ 
inches  broad.  On  the  one  side  are  the 
natural  lines,  and  on  the  other  the  artifi- 
cial or  logarithmic  ones, 

GUR'NARD,  or  GURNET,  the  popular 
name  of  acanthopterous  fishes.  The 
head  is  angular,  and  wholly  covered 
with  bony  plates.  The  body  is  elongated, 
nearly  round  and  tapering;  there  are  two 
dorsal  fins;  the  pectoral  fins  are  large; 
the  teeth  are  small  and  numerous. 

GUSTAF  V.  GUSTAF,  Adolf,  King 
of  Sweden,  son  of  Oscar  II.,  was  born  in 
1857.  He  was  trained  for  the  army  and 
has  been  inspector  general  of  the  mili- 
tary schools  of  Sweden.  In  1881^  he 
married  Princess  Victoria  of  Baden, 
a cousin  of  Emperor  William  of  Ger- 
many. He  became  king  in  1907,  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  Oscar  II. 

GUSTA'VUS  I.,  commonly  called 
Gustavus  Vasa,  was  born  in  1490,  or, 
according  to  others,  in  1496.  He  roused 
the  peasants  to  resist  Danish  oppression, 
defeated  the  Danes,  took  Upsala  and 
other  towns,  and  in  1523  was  elected 
king.  In  1529  he  procured  the  abolition 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  in 
Sweden,  and  established  Protestantism. 
He  died  in  1560. 

GUSTAVUS  II.,  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
King  of  Sweden,  a grandson  of  Gustavus 
Vasa,  was  born  in  1594.  He  was  trained 
to  war  under  experienced  generals,  took 
his  place  in  the  state  councils  at  the  age 
of  sixteen,  and  was  in  command  of  the 
army  in  his  seventeenth  year  during  the 
war  with  Denmark,  which  was  concluded 
in  1613,  and  by  which  Sweden  recovered 
important  possessions  on  the  Baltic.  He 


GUSTAVUS  III 


. GWALIOR 


then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Rus- 
sians, drove  them  from  Ingria,  Karelia, 
and  a part  of  Livonia,  which  were 
secured  to  him  by  the  peace  of  Stolbova 
in  1617.  After  taking  many  fortified 
towns,  repeatedly  defeating  the  im- 

Eerial  generals,  at  Leipzig  (1631),  Wurz- 
urg  (1631),  Passage  of  the  Lech  (1632), 
and  conquering  a great  part  of  Germany, 
he  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Lutzen, 
against  Wallenstein,  16th  November, 
1632.  (See  Thirty  Years’  War.) 

GUSTAVUS  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  born 
in  1746,  succeeded  his  father,  Adolphus 
Frederick,  in  1771.  In  1788  he  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  against  Russia  and 
Denmark,  and  stormed  the  defenses  of 
Frederickshall,  destroying  a great  num- 
ber of  vessels.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  revolution  he  made  strenuous 
exertions  to  form  a coalition  between 
Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Spain, 
but  while  preparations  were  making  a 
conspiracy  of  the  nobles  was  formed 
against  him,  and  he  was  shot  at  a mas- 
querade by  Ankarstroem,  a disbanded 
oflScer,  on  16th  March,  1792.  He  died 
on  29th  March. 

GUSTAVUS  IV.,  (Adolphus),  King  of 
Sweden,  was  born  on  1st  November, 
1778,  and  succeeded  his  father,  29th 
March,  1792.  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit 
he  exposed  himself  to  a war  with  Russia 
while  he  was  at  war  with  France,  by 


Gustavus  Adolphus,  King  of  Sweden. 


refusing  to  join  the  continental  blockade 
and  opening  his  ports  to  England;  and 
in  1808  he  quarreled  with  England,  his 
only  ally.  Finland  was  lost  to  Sweden, 
and  in  1809  a revolution  took  place. 
Gustavus  was  dethroned,  and  his  uncle, 
the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  proclaimed 
king  under  the  title  of  Charles  XIII. 
Gustavus  died  February  7th,  1837. 

GUTENBERG,  Johan,  the  reputed 
inventor  of  printing  with  movable  types, 
was  born  at  Mayence  or  Mainz,  about 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  In  1850  he 
formed  a copartnership  with  Johann 
Fust,  and  established  mainly  with  the 
money  of  the  latter,  a press,  in  which  the 
Mazarin  Bible,  the  Letters  of  Indulgence 
and  the  Appeal  against  the  Turks  were 
printed.  After  five  years  this  connection 
was  dissolved,  and  Fust  sued  Gutenberg 
for  large  advances  which  he  could  not 
pay,  and  by  a judgment  at  law  obtained 
possession  of  most  of  the  printing  ma- 
terials, with  which,  in  company  with  his 


son-in-law  Schoffer,  he  continued  to 
print  books.  After  this,  according  to 
some,  Gutenberg  carried  on  a separate 
printing  establishment;  but  this  is 
doubtful,  and  there  is  no  book  or  printed 
matter  which  can  certainly  be  ascribed 
to  Gutenberg  after  the  date  1454.  Guten- 
berg seems  to  have  died  at  Mainz  in 
1468. 

GUTHRIE,  the  county  seat  of  Okla- 
homa Territory  and  of  Logan  co.,  on 
the  Cottonwood  river  and  on  the  Atch., 
Topeka  and  S.  F4,  Eastern  Oklahoma, 
and  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 
railroads.  Pop.  12,160. 

GUTTA-PERCHA,  (per'cha;  Malay 
name,  meaning  “gum-tree”),  a substance 
resembling  caoutchouc  in  many  of  its 
properties,  but  stronger,  more  soluble, 
and  less  elastic.  It  is  the  inspissated 
milky  juice  of  trees  of  the  nat.  order 


Sapotacese.  It  chiefly  comes  from  Mal- 
acca, Borneo,  and  other  islands  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago.  When  pure,  gutta- 
percha is  of  a brownish-red  color.  Be- 
low the  temperature  of  50°  it  is  as 
hard  as  wood  and  excessively  tough.  By 
an  increase  of  heat  it  becomes  more 
flexible,  until  at  a temperature  of  115° 
F.  it  becomes  pasty,  and  between  this 
and  140°  or  150°  it  may  be  moulded  into 
all  varieties  of  forms  with  the  greatest 
ease,  retaining  precisely  the  same  form  as 


in  oil  of  turpentine  and  naphtha.  It  is 
not  attacked  by  solutions  of  alkalies  nor 
by  hydrofluoric  acid,  but  it  is  acted  on 
by  sulphuric,  nitric,  and  hydrochloric 
acids.  Gutta-percha  has  been  applied  to 
a variety  of  purposes : as  a substitute  for 
leather,  especially  in  the  soles  of  shoes, 
etc.,  as  an  insulating  coating  for  the 
copper  wires  of  submarine  telegraph 
cables,  as  an  ingredent  in  mastics  and 
cements,  for  the  manufacture  of  flexible 
hose-tubes,  bottles,  etc. 

GUY  OF  WARWICK,  an  old  English 
metrical  romance,  whose  hero  is  an 
Anglo-Danish  knight  said  to  have  been 
the  son  of  Siward,  baron  of  Walling- 
ford, to  have  become  Earl  of  Warwick, 
and  to  have  slain  in  single  combat  the 
Danish  giant  Colbrand,  the  Dun-Cow  of 
Dunsmore,  and  the  dragon  of  Northum- 
berland, and  many  other  wonderful 
feats.  He  is  said  ultimately  to  have  be- 
come a hermit  in  Warwick. 

GUYOT  (ge-yo),  Arnold,  geographer 
and  physicist,  born  in  Switzerland  in 
1807,  died  in  the  United  States  in  1884. 
He  studied  theology  at  Berlin,  then  took 
up  natural  science,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  physical  geography 
in  the  Academy  of  Neufchatel.  He 
shared  in  Agassiz’s  investigations  of 
glacier  phenomena  of  the  Alps.  In  1848 
he  emigrated  to  the  United  States  and 
delivered  lectures  in  Boston,  which 
afterward  appeared  under  the  title 
Earth  and  Man.  He  rendered  much  ser- 
vice to  meteorological  science  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
and  traveled  extensively  in  the  United 
States.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  geology  and  physical  geography 
in  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton. 

GWAL'IOR,  a city  and  fortress  of 
Hindustan,  capital  of  the  state  of  Gwal- 
ior, situated  65  miles  south  from  Agra. 
The  fortress  is  the  largest,  the  strongest, 
and  the  most  magnificent  in  India.  It 
stands  on  an  isolated  rock  about  350  feet 
high  and  nearly  perpendicular  in  the 
upper  part.  The  fortress  contains  wells 
and  reservoirs  of  water,  and  is  inaccessi- 


The  Fortress  of  Gwalior.— From  an  original  sketch. 

it  cools  and  hardens  to  its  previous  state  I ble  except  by  steps  up  the  side  of  the 
of  rigidity.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  rock.  Old  Gwalior,  the  town  at  the 
soluble  with  difficulty  in  ether  and  other  northern  angle  of  the  base  of  the  rock,  is 
caoutchouc  solvents,  but  very  readily  I built  of  stone,  and  has  some  remarkable 


GWYNN 


GYROSCOPE 


ruins  of  temples  and  an  interesting  ex- 
ample of  old  Hindu  palace  architecture. 
Pop.  about  25,000.  The  new  town, 
known  as  New  Gwalior  or  Lashkar  (the 
camp),  the  residenceof  the  ruler.  Mahara- 
jah Sindhia,  has  sprung  up  recently  on 
the  southeastern  skirt  of  the  rock,  but 
is  already  a flourishing  city  with  a popu- 
lation of  89,154,  of  whom  the  majority 
are  Hindus. — The  state  of  Gwalior,  in 
political  relationship  with  the  govern- 
ment of  India,  consists  of  several  por- 
tions of  territory,  otherwise  known  as 
Sindhia’s  Dominions,  the  largest  and 
most  compact  portion,  usually  known  as 
Gwalior,  being  the  one  containing  the 
above  town  and  fortress.  The  total  area 
of  Gwalior  is  29,067  sq.  miles.  Gwalior 
is  not  as  a whole  very  fertile;  one  of  its 
most  notable  products  is  opium.  The 
drainage  is  chiefly  taken  by  the  Cham- 
bal.  Pop.  3,525,233. 

GWYNN,  Eleanor,  better  known  by 
the  name  of  Nell,  a celebrated  mistress 
of  King  Charles  II.,  was  at  first  an 
orange  girl,  and  also  gained  her  bread  by 
singing  from  tavern  to  tavern.  About 
1667  she  became  the  mistress  of  Lord 
Buckhurst,  who  surrendered  her  about 
1670  to  the  king.  As  mistress  of  the  king 
she  had  an  establishment,  and  was  made 
lady  of  the  privy  chamber  to  Queen 
Catherine.  She  was  merry  and  open- 
hearted,  is  said  to  have  been  faithful  to 
Charles,  mindful  of  old  friends,  and  a 
liberal  patroness  of  the  poets  Dryden, 
Lee,  Otway,  and  Butler.  From  her  are 
sprung  the  dukes  of  St.  Albans.  She 
died,  according  to  some  accounts,  in 
1687,  according  to  others  in  1691. 

GT^NA'SIUM  (jim-),  the  name  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  public  building 
where  the  young  men,  quite  without 
clothes  (hence  the  name,  from  gymnos, 
naked),  exercised  themselves  in  leaping, 
running,  throwing  the  discus  and  spear, 
wrestling,  and  pugilism.  Its  objects, 
however,  were  extended  also  to  the 
exercise  of  the  mind;  for  here  philoso- 
phers, rhetoricians,  and  teachers  of 
other  branches  of  knowledge  delivered 
their  lectures.  Gymnasia  were  at  first 
only  open  level  places,  surrounded  by  a 
wall,  and  partitioned  off  for  the  dif- 
ferent games.  Latterly  they  were  com- 
posed of  a number  of  connected  build- 
ings, spacious  enough  to  admit  many 
thousands.  See  Gymnastics. 

GYMNASIUM,  a term  applied  in  Ger- 
many to  a class  of  schools  corresponding 
pretty  nearly  to  the  American  small 
college. 

GYMNASTICS,  (for  derivation,  see 
Gymnasium)  is  the  technical  term  used 
to  designate  any  system  of  exercises 
specially  designed  to  promote  the  de- 
velopment of  physical,  and  especially  of 
muscular  powers.  An  excellent  gymnas- 
tic training  is  given  by  baseball,  cricket, 
football,  rowing,  and  similar  amuse- 
ments, but  the  special  value  of  formal 


gymnastic  exercises  is  that  they  are 
capable  of  being  scientifically  arranged 
so  as  to  secure  not  only  a general  de- 
velopment of  muscular  power,  but  also 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  uses  of 
the  various  muscles,  and  further  that 
they  are  capable  of  being  applied  to  each 
individual  case,  so  as  to  meet,  allow  for, 
and  as  far  as  possible  overcome  defects 
in  physical  organization.  For  these  pur- 
poses an  elementary  course  of  gymnas- 
tics is  of  great  value  to  all,  especially  to 
the  sedentary  student.  In  regard  to 
gjfmnastic  exercises  two  general  rules 
may  be  laid  down,  which  will  form  an 
efficient  guide  in  self-imposed  exercises. 
The  first  is  the  universal  rule  in  me- 
chanics that  the  strength  of  any  ma- 
chine is  the  strength  of  its  weakest  part ; 
the  second  is  the  fundamental  law  of 
muscular  exercise,  that  it  is  exercise 
within  the  extreme  power  of  the  muscle 
which  develops  and  improves,  while 
straining  weakens  and  injures,  and  ex- 
cessive exercise  develops  particular 
muscles  abnormally  at  the  expense  of 
the  general  health.  It  is  quite  possible, 
indeed,  to  carry  physical  exercises  as  a 
whole  too  far,  and  to  develop  muscular 
power  at  the  expense  of  vital  strength. 
Till  the  age  of  twelve  the  ordinary 
games  and  pastimes  of  childhood  are 
generally  quite  sufficient  exercise;  after 
that  some  very  light  system  of  gym- 
nastics may  be  adopted  to  aid  the  de- 
velopment of  the  system.  After  the  age 
of  thirty-five  unusual  muscular  efforts 
are  apt  to  leave  persistent  strains,  and 
moderate  exercise  becomes  the  safest 
means  of  developing  and  giving  tone  to 
the  muscular  system. 

GYPSIES,  (from  Egyptians,  the  name 
by  which  they  were  called  in  the  Eng- 
lish statutes),  a wandering  nation,  whose 
physical  characteristics,  language,  and 
customs  differ  much  from  those  of 
European  nations.  They  call  them- 
selves Rommany,  from  rom  (man).  This 
race  is  slowly  melting  away.  Its  present 
total  number  hardly  reaches  500,000;  of 
whom  there  are  about  120,000  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey;  140,000  in  Hungary; 

60.000  in  Transylvania;  40,000  in  Spain; 

40.000  spread  over  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy;  18,000  in  Britain,  of  whom, 
however,  only  a small  number  are  tent- 
gypsies,  preserving  the  language  and 
traditions  of  their  race;  and  the  re- 
mainder scattered  over  other  countries. 
The  gypsies  are  now  considered  to  have 
come  from  India,  the  main  body  of  their 
language,  though  mixed  with  a great 
numberof  borrowed  words,  having  a close 
affinity  with  some  of  the  Indian  lan- 
guages. Gypsies  are  remarkable  for  the 
yellow  brown,  or  rather  olive  color,  of 
their  skin ; the  jet-black  of  their  hair  and 
eyes,  the  extreme  whiteness  of  their 
teeth,  and  generally  for  the  S5mimetry 
of  their  limbs.  The  typical  gypsies 
rarely  settle  permanently  anywhere. 


but  live  in  tents,  wandering  about  work- 
ing in  wood  and  iron,  making  domestic 
utensils,  telling  fortunes,  practicing 
tricks,  etc.  Their  talent  for  music  is  re- 
markable, and  some  of  their  melodies 
have  become  the  much-valued  property 
of  other  nations,  or  are  incorporated  in 
some  of  our  favorite  operas.  They  have 
no  peculiar  religion.  Among  the  Turks 
they  are  Mohammedans;  and  in  Spain 
at  least,  as  well  as  in  Transylvania,  they 
follow  the  forms  of  the  Christian  religion, 
without,  however,  caring  for  instruction, 
or  having  any  real  interest  in  religion. 
The  marriage  ceremony  is  of  the  simplest 
kind.  If  the  husband  becomes  tired  of 
his  wife,  he  will  turn  her  off  without 
ceremony.  There  is  no  idea  of  education 
among  them.  The  children  grow  up  in 
idleness  and  the  habits  of  stealing  and 
cheating. 

GYPSUM  (jip'sum),  a monoclinic  min- 
eral, chemically  a hydrated  calcic  sul- 
phate. It  is  found  in  a compact  state 
as  alabaster,  or  crystallized  as  selenite, 
or  in  the  form  of  a soft  chalky  stone, 
which  in  a very  moderate  heat  gives  out 
its  water  of  crystallization,  and  becomes 
a very  fine  white  powder,  extensively 
used  under  the  name  of  plaster  of  Paris 
(which  see). 

GYPSY-WORT,  a labiate  plant  found 
in  Britain  in  ditches  and  on  river  banks. 
It  yields  a dye  said  to  be  used  by  the 
gypsies  to  render  their  skin  darker. 

GYROSCOPE,  an  apparatus,  consist- 
ing of  a rotating  disc  mounted  by  very 
accurately  fitted  pivots  in  a ring  or 
rings  (forming  a sort  of  gimbals),  for 
illustrating  the,  properties  of  rotation 
generally.  The  fundamental  principle  of 


the  whole  is  the  resistance  which  a disc 
in  rapid  motion  presents  to  any  change 
of  direction  in  the  axis  of  rotation.  Some 
curious  phenomena  may  be  exhibited 
by  it  difficult  to  explain  without  resort- 
ing to  mathematical  formulae.  The  fig- 
ure shows  a simple  gyroscope.  If  the 
disc  A which  revolves  on  an  axis  within 
the  ring  b is  set  very  rapidly  in  motion 
by  the  unwinding  of  a string  round  the 
axis,  and  if  the  part  c is  then  rested  on 
a pivot  at  the  top  of  the  upright  support 
D,  the  apparatus  instead  of  falling  will 
go  slowly  round  in  the  direction  shown 
by  the  arrows. 


H,  the  eighth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  often  called  the  aspirate,  as 
being  a mere  aspiration  or  breathing, 
though  not  the  only  aspirated  letter  in 


H 

English.  The  sound  that  distinctly  be- 
longs to  it  is  that  which  it  has  at  the 
beginning  of  a syllable  before  a vowel, 
as  in  hard,  heavy.  It  is  very  commonly 


joined  to  other  consonants  to  represent 
sounds  for  which  there  are  no  special 
letters  in  the  alphabet,  as  in  the  di- 
graphs ch,  sh,  th  (child,  ship,  thin,  this), 


HAARLEM 


HAG 


or  in  other  consonantal  combinations  of 
various  origins  and  values,  as  in  the 
words  enough  (gh  =■  f),  plough  (eh  silent), 
philosophy  (ph  =•  f),  rhetoric  (n  silent), 
etc.  Ch  is  common  in  words  taken  from 
the  Greek,  but  in  this  case  it  generally 
has  the  k sound,  as  in  chemistry,  chyle, 
logomachy,  etc. 

HAARLEM  (har'lem),  a town  of  Hol- 
land, province  N.  Holland,  10  miles  w. 
Amsterdam,  intersected  by  the  Spaarne, 
which  is  joined  by  canals  from  Leyden 
and  Amsterdam,  and  along  which  a con- 
siderable trafBc  is  maintained.  Pop. 
64,836. 

HABEAS  CORPUS,  in  law,  a writ  ad- 
dressed to  one  who  has  a person  in  cus- 
tody, commanding  him  to  produce  the 
body  of  the  person  named  at  a certain 
place  and  time. 

HABITANTS,  or  HABITANS,  a name 
applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  Canada, 
especially  in  Quebec  province,  who  are 
of  French  extraction,  still  speak  the 
French  language  and  preserve  French 
costumes.  See  Canada. 

HACKBERRY,  the  popular  name  of 
the  North  American  varieties  of  the  net- 
tle-tree, belonging  to  the  nettle  family 
TJrticS'CCSB 

HACKENSACK,  the  capital  of  Bergen 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Hackensack  river,  and 
the  N.  J.  and  N.  Y.,  the  N.  Y.,  Susq. 
and  W.,  and  the  W.  Shore  railways;  8 
miles  s.e.  of  Paterson,  13  miles  n.  of 
New  York.  Pop.  11,741. 

HACKNEY,  a municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  London,  3 miles 
n.n.e.  of  St.  Paul’s.  Pop.  253,215. 

HACKNEY  COACH,  a coach  let  out 
for  hire.  Hackney  coaches  began  first  to 
ply  under  this  name  in  London  in  1625, 
when  they  were  twenty  in  number. 
Hackney  coachmen  are  generally  put 
under  police  regulations,  and  a tariff  of 
fares  imposed  upon  them.  Cabs  are  now 
the  common  kind  of  hackney  coaches. 

HADDOCK,  a well-known  fish  of  the 
cod  family.  It  is  smaller  than  the  cod, 
which  it  much  resembles,  but  it  has  a 
dark  spot  on  each  side  of  the  body  just 
behind  the  head.  This  fish  commonly 
^ V 


weighs  from  2 to  6 lbs.,  though  some- 
times as  high  as  10  lbs.  It  breeds  in  im- 
mense numbers  in  the  northern  seas  in 
February  and  March,  and  constitutes 
a considerable  article  of  food. 

HADES  (ha'dez),  originally  the  Greek 
name  of  the  lord  of  the  lower  or  invisible 
world,  afterward  called  Pluto;  but  in 
later  times,  as  in  the  Greek  Scriptures, 
it  is  applied  to  the  region  itself.  With 
the  ancients  Hades  was  the  common  re- 
ceptacle of  departed  spirits,  of  good  as 
well  as  bad. 

HADJ,  the  Mohammedan  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  which  every  Mohammedan 
ought  to  perform  once  in  his  life,  and 
after  which  he  is  entitled  to  prcfi.x  Hadji 


to  his  name.  The  pilgrimage  has  been 
made  in  disguise  by  Burckhardt  in  1814, 
by  Burton  in  1853,  and  by  T.  F.  Keane 
in  1878,  each  of  whom  has  published 
accounts  of  his  journey. 

HADLEY,  Arthur  Twining,  American 
educator,  was  born  at  New  Haven, Conn., 
in  1856.  In  1879-83  he  was  tutor  in 
Yale  college.  He  was  university  lecturer 
on  railroad  transportation  from  1883  to 
1886;  commissioner  of  labor  statistics 
for  Connecticut  from  1885  to  1887;  pro- 
fessor of  political  science  at  Yale  un- 
iversity, 1886-98;  and  in  1899  was  made 
p^resident.  In  1885  he  published  Railroad 
Transportation:  Its  History  and  Its 
Laws,  which  at  once  gained  him  the 
position  of  an  authority  on  the  subject; 
It  was  translated  into  Russian  in  1886, 
and  into  French  in  1887.  He  also  pub- 
lished: Report  on  the  Labor  Question; 
Report  on  the  System  of  Weekly  Pay- 
ments; Economics;  Education  of  the 
American  Citizen.  President  Hadley’s 
writings  place  him  in  the  first  rank  among 
American  economists. 

HADLEY,  John,  English  astronomer, 
born  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
He  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  the  quad- 
rant that  goes  by  his  name,  though  the 
honor  is  also  claimed  for  Newton,  from 
whom  Hadley  got  a description  of  the 
instrument  in  1727,  and  for  Thomas 
Godfrey  of  Philadelphia,  who  produced 
his  instrument  about  the  same  time  as 
Hadley  in  1731.  The  Royal  Society  de- 
cided that  Godfrey  and  Hadley  were 
both  entitled  to  the  honor  of  the  inven- 
tion. Hadley  also  invented  the  sextant. 
He  died  in  1744. 

HA'DRIAN,  in  full,  Publius  .iElius 
Hadrianus,  the  fourteenth  in  the  series 
of  Roman  emperors,  born  at  Rome, 
24th  Jan.,  76  a.d.  His  father,  who  was 
cousin  to  the  emperor  Trajan,  died  when 
he  was  ten  years  old,  and  left  him  under 


Coin  of  Hadrian. 


the  charge  of  his  illustrations  kinsman. 
He  married  Sabina,  Trajan’sgrand-niece, 
accompanied  the  emperor  on  his  ex- 
peditions, filled  the  highest  offices  of 
state,  and,  on  the  death  of  Trajan, 
assumed  the  government  as  his  adopted 
son  (117).  Hadrian’s  policy  was  a peace- 
ful one,  because  he  saw  that  the  further 
extension  of  the  empire  only  weakened 
it.  Although  avoiding  war  as  much  as 
he  could,  he  kept  the  armies  in  excellent 
condition,  fortified  the  frontiers  in  Ger- 
many, and,  crossing  over  into  Britain, 
constructed  the  wall  known  as  Hadrian’s 
Wall  (or  that  of  Severus),  which  pro- 
tected the  Roman  province  from  the 
barbarous  tribes  of  the  norh.  In  131  he 
promulgated  the  Edictum  Perpetuum, 
a fixed  code  of  laws,  which  forms  an  im- 
portant epoch  in  the  development  of 
lloman  law.  Hadrian  died  at  Baise  in 

1 r*s' 

loo. 


HADROSAURUS,  a genus  of  large  ex- 
tinct reptiles,  whos^  remains  have  been 
found  in  the  newer  cretaceous  strata  of 
the  United  States.  It  appears  to  have 


Skeleton  of  hadrosaurus. 


resembled  the  gigantic  iguanodon  of 
Europe  in  its  enormous  dimensions,  her- 
bivorous habits,  and  anatomical  struc- 
ture. 

H.£CKEL  (hek'l),  Ernst,  a German 
naturalist,  born  at  Potsdam  in  1834, 
studied  medicine  and  science  at  Berlin, 
Wurzburg,  and  Vienna;  traveled  in  Nor- 
way and  Italy,  became  professor  of 
zoology  at  Jena  in  1865.  He  is  the  most 
prominent  exponent  of  the  Darwinian 
theories  in  Germany.  Among  his  works 
we  may  mention  The  Radiolarite  (1862), 
The  History  of  Creation  (1868),  Anthro- 
pology (1874),  History  of  the  Evolution 
of  Man  (1875),  Collected  Popular  Dis- 
courses on  the  Development  Theory 
(1878-79),  Origin  and  Development  of 
Animal  Tissues  (1884),  etc. 

HiE'MATIN,  HEMATINE,  the  red  col- 
oring matter  of  the  blood  occurring  in 
solution  in  the  interior  of  the  blood 
corpuscles  or  cells.  It  is  the  only  struc- 
ture of  the  body,  except  hair,  which  con- 
tains iron. 

HjE'MATITE,  Red  and  Brown.  See 
Hematite  and  Iron. 

H®MOG'LOBIN,H.EMOGLOB'ULIN, 
the  semi-fluid  or  quite  fluid  matter  of  a 
red  color  contained  in  the  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blood.  It  can  be  resolved  into  an 
albuminous  substance  called  globulin 
and  the  coloring  matter  hsematin. 

H.ffiMOP'TYSIS,  the  coughing  up  of 
blood,  sometimes  produced  by  fulness 
of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  lungs  or 
throat,  or  by  the  rupture  of  blood- 
vessels as  a consequence  of  ulceration. 
It  is  distinguished  from  blood  coming 
from  the  stomach  by  the  comparative 
smallness  of  its  quantity,  and  by  its 
usually  florid  color.  It  occurs  in  heart 
disease,  in  pneumonia,  and  tubercular 
disease.  It  is  sometimes  a case  of  vicari- 
ous menstruation. 

HEMORRHAGE.  See  Hemorrhage. 

HEMORRHOIDS.  See  Hemorrhoids. 

HAG,  the  name  of  fishes,  which,  with 
the  allied  lampreys,  constitute  the  order 
of  Marsipobranchii.  They  are  of  worm- 
like form,  and  have  no  eyes  or  scales, 
the  mouth  is  formed  for  suction,  is  with- 
out lips,  and  furnished  w'itli  fleshy  fila- 
ments or  barbels.  There  is  a single  fang 
upon  the  palate  and  other  horny  teeth 
by  which  the  hag  eats  its  Avay  into  the 
interior  of  other  fishes,  such  as  the  cod, 
ling,  or  haddock. 


I 


HAGEN 


HAIL 


HAGEN  (hii'gen),  a thriving  manufac- 
turing town  of  Prussia,  in  Westphalia, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Volme  and 
Ennene.  It  has  iron  and  steel  works, 
manufactures  of  metal  goods,  textiles, 
etc.  Pop.  50,012. 

HAGERSTOWN,  a town  in  Maryland, 
6 miles  north  of  the  Potomac  river. 
Pop.  14,785. 

HAGGARD,  Henry  Rider,  English  nov- 
elist, born  in  1850;  held  several  civil 
appointments  in  South  Africa,  and  has 
made  Africa  the  scene  of  some  of  his 
novels.  He  became  widely  known  by 
King  Solomon’s  Mines  (1880),  and  still 
more  by  his  romantic  She  (1887),  which 
have  been  followed  by  Allan  Quater- 
main,  Jess,  Maiwa’s  Revenge,  Cleopatra, 
Eric  Bright-eyes,  Montezuma’s  Daugh- 
ter, Joan  Haste,  etc.  His  tales  are  strong 
in  incident  and  adventure,  but  weak  in 
character-drawing. 

HAGUE,  THE,  practically,  though 
not  formally,  the  capital  of  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  province  of  South  Holland, 
33  miles  southwest  from  Amsterdam, 
and  within  3 miles  of  the  sea.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  king  and  of  the  foreign 


the  Czar  of  Russia  principal  states 

of  the  civilized  world,  an  international 
conference  of  delegates  which  assembled 
at  The  Hague  on  May  18,  1899,  with  a 
view  to  concerted  action  for  the  main- 
tenance of  a general  peace  and  the 
amelioration  of  the  hardships  of  war, 
and  with  a view  to  the  possible  reduc- 
tion of  the  military  and  naval  arma- 
ments of  the  world.  One  hundred  dele- 
gates representing  the  United  States, 
Mexico,  China,  Japan,  Persia,  Siam, 
and  twenty-one  European  powers  were 
present.  No  delegates  from  the  Central 
or  South  American  republics  attended. 
The  conference  was  in  session  from  May 
18  to  July  29,  and  was  presided  over  by 
Baron  de  Staal  of  the  Russian  delegation. 

President  Roosevelt  in  his  annual 
message  to  congress,  December  5,  1905, 
made  the  following  statement  of  the 
status  of  The  Hague  Peace  Conference 
question: 

The  first  conference  of  nations  held 
at  The  Hague  in  1899,  being  unable  to 
dispose  of  all  the  business  before  it, 
recommended  the  consideration  and 
settlement  of  a number  of  important 


The  Hague— The  Blnnenhof  on  the  Vijver  or  Pond. 


ambassadors,  and  the  seat  of  the  states- 
L general  of  the  Netherlands.  It  is  pleas- 

^ antly  situated,  and  is  distinguished  for 

\ — width  and  straightness  of  streets,  and 
general  elegance  of  public  buildings. 
Among  the  most  important  structures 
’ are  the  royal  palace,  the  palace  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  the  Binnenhof,  a large 
irregular  building,  founded  in  1249,  and 
containing  the  hall  of  assembly  of  the 
states-general,  and  various  government 
offices;  also  the  provincial  government- 
house,  a large  roomy  edifice,  the  town 
hall,  royal  library  (200,000  vols.);  the 
Groote  Kerk,  or  Church  of  St.  James, 
with  hexagonal  tower  and  finely  vaulted 
interior;  the  Mauritshuis,  built  by  Prince 
Jolm  Maurice  of  Nassau,  now  converted 
into  a museum  containing  some  of  the 
finest  works  of  the  Dutch  masters.  The 
Hague  arose  as  a hunting-seat  of  the 
Counts  of  Holland  in  1250,  and  became 
the  political  capital  of  the  states  in  the 
16th  century.  Pop.  205,328. 

HAGUE  PEACE  CONFERENCE,  In 
response  to  an  invitation  addressed  by 


questions  by  another  conference  to  be 
called  subsequently  and  at  an  early  date. 
These  questions  were  the  following: 

(1)  The  rights  and  duties  of  neutrals; 

(2)  the  limitations  of  the  armed  forces 
on  land  and  sea,  and  of  military  budg- 
ets; (3)  the  use  of  new  types  and  calibers 
of  military  and  naval  guns;  (4)  the  in- 
violability of  private  property  at  sea  in 
times  of  war;  (5)  the  bombardment  of 
ports,  cities  and  villages  by  naval  forces. 
In  October,  1904,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Interparliamentary  Union,  which  at  a 
conference  held  in  the  United  States  and 
attended  by  the  lawmakers  of  15  dif- 
ferent nations,  had  reiterated  the  de- 
mand for  a second  conference  of  nations, 
I issued  invitations  to  all  the  powers 
signatory  to  The  Hague  Convention  to 
send  delegates  to  such  a conference,  and 
suggested  that  it  be  again  held  at  The 
Hague.  In  its  note  of  December  16, 
1904,  the  United  States  government 
communicated  to  the  representatives  of 
foreign  governments  its  belief  that  the 
conference  could  be  best  arranged  under 


the  provisions  of  the  present  Hague 
treaty. 

From  all  the  powers  acceptance  was 
received,  coupled  in  some  cases  with  the 
condition  that  we  should  wait  pntil  the 
end  of  the  war  then  waging  between 
Russia  and  Japan.  The  emperor  of  Rus- 
sia, immediately  after  the  treaty  of 
peace  which  so  happily  terminated  this 
war,  in  a note  presented  to  the  president 
on  September  13,  through  Ambassador 
Rosen,  took  the  initiative  in  recom- 
mending that  the  conference  be  now 
called.  The  United  States  government  in 
response  expressed  its  cordial  acquies- 
cence and  stated  that  it  would,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  take  part  in  the  new 
conference  and  endeavor  to  further  its 
aims.  We  assume  that  all  civilized 
governments  will  support  the  movement 
and  that  the  conference  is  now  an 
assured  fact.  This  government  will  do 
everything  in  its  power  to  secure  the 
success  of  the  conference  to  the  end  that 
substantial  progress  may  be  made  in 
the  case  of  international  peace,  justice, 
and  good  will. 

HAHNEMANN  (hii'ne-man),  Samuel 
Christian  Friedrich,  the  founder  of  the 
homoeopathic  system,  born  at  Meissen 
in  1755.  After  practicing  in  various 
places,  he  published  in  1810  his  Organon 
der  Rationellen  Heilkunde,  which  fully 
explained  his  new  system  of  curing 
any  disorder  by  employing  a medicine 
which  produces  a similar  disorder.  (See 
Homoeopathy.)  Hahnemann  was  driven 
from  Saxony  by  the  government  pro- 
hibiting him  from  dispensing  medicines, 
but  found  an  asylum  ultimately  in  Paris, 
where  his  system  was  authorized  by  the 
government  and  acquired  a certain  pop- 
ularity. He  died  at  Paris  in  1843.  Among 
his  works  notice  is  due  to  his  Dictionary 
of  Materia  Medica,  his  Essays  on  Poison- 
ing by  Arsenic,  and  on  the  Effects  of 
Coffee,  and  his  Treatise  on  Chronic  Affec- 
tions. 

^IDUCKS,  or  HAIDUKS,  a term 
originally  applied  to  the  herdsmen  of 
Hungary,  and  afterwards  to  the  bands 
of  Magyar  foot  soldiers,  who  placed 
themselves  at  the  service  of  any  poten- 
tate who  was  willing  and  able  to  pay 
them. 

HAIL,  small  masses  of  ice  or  frozen 
rain  falling  from  the  clouds  in  showers 


Forms  of  Hailstones. 

Fig.  1.  o,  Hailstone  which  fell  at  Bonn  in 
1822;  diameter  IH  inch,  weight  300  grains.  6 c. 
Sections  of  differently  shaped  hailstones  which 
fell  on  the  same  occasion.  Fig  2.  a.  Section 
of  hailstone  with  minute  pyramids  on  its  sur- 
face. bade,  Fragments  of  do.  when  burst 
asunder. 

or  storms,  varying  in  their  form,  being 
either  angular,  pyramidal,  or  stellated, 
as  well  as  in  their  consistency,  being 


HAINAN 


HALBERD 


sometimes  as  hard  as  ice  and  sometimes 
as  soft  as  snow.  At  the  center  there  is 
generally  an  opaque  spongy  mass,  re- 
sembling sleet  in  its  composition,  and 
round  this  a semi-transparent  congealed 
mass,  consisting  of  a succession  of  layers 
or  strata,  is  formed.  Properly  there  are 
two  kinds  of  hail — the  small  grains 
which  generally  fall  in  winter  and  usually 
before  snow;  and  the  large  hail  which 
occurs  chiefly  in  spring  and  summer,  and 
is  most  severe  in  very  hot  climates.  The 
small-grained  hail  is  probably  formed 
by  the  freezing  of  rain-drops  as  they  pass 
in  falling  through  colder  air  than  that 
from  which  they  started.  The  large  or 
common  hail  is  probably  due  to  the 
meeting  of  two  currents  of  air,  of  very 
unequal  temperature  and  electric  ten- 
sion. The  usual  size  of  hailstones  is 
about  i inch  in  diameter,  but  they  are 
frequently  of  much  larger  dimensions, 
sometimes  even  3 or  4 inches  in  diameter. 
In  hot  climates  they  are  very  destruc- 
tive to  crops. 

HAINAN,  an  island  of  China,  belong- 
ing to  the  province  of  Quang-Tung,  be- 
tween the  China  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of 
Tonquin,  and  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  a channel  of  15  miles,  encum- 
bered with  shoals  and  coral  reefs.  It  is 
almost  oval  in  shape,  and  has  an  area  of 
over  16,000  sq.  miles.  The  fertile  low- 
lands on  the  northern  and  western 
coasts  are  occupied  by  immigrant 
Chinese,  to  the  number  of  about  1,500,- 
000,  who  cultivate  rice,  sugar,  tobacco, 
etc.  The  fisheries  are  also  productve. 
The  interior,  which  is  mountainous  and 
covered  with  forests,  is  inhabited  by  a 
distinct  race  still  in  a very  primitive 
stage.  The  capital  is  Kiang-chow,  on 
the  northern  coast,  a large  seaport. 

HAINAUT,  or  HAINAULT,  province 
of  Belgium,  bounded  on  the  south  and 
west  by  France;  area,  1406  sq.  miles. 
About  three-fourths  of  the  whole  sur- 
face is  arable,  and  scarcely  a hundredth 
part  is  waste.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile 
and  there  are  extensive  coal-fields,  coal, 
together  with  flax,  linen,  hemp,  to- 
bacco, and  porcelain  being  the  chief 
articles  of  export.  Manufactures,  chiefly 
cutlery,  woolen  and  linen  goods,  etc., 
are  carried  on  to  a great  extent.  The 
capital  is  Mons.  Pop.  1,029,885. 

HAIR,  the  fine,  threadlike,  more  or 
less  elastic  substance,  of  various  form 
and  color,  which  constitutes  the  cover- 
ing of  the  skin  in  the  class  of  mammalia. 
It  has  the  same  use  as  feathers  in  birds, 
and  scales  in  fishes  and  reptiles.  No 
species  of  mammalia  is  without  hair  in 
an  adult  state,  not  even  the  whales. 
In  quadrupeds  it  is  of  the  most  various 
conformation,  from  the  finest  wool  to  the 
quills  of  a porcupine  or  the  bristles  of 
the  hog.  The  human  body  is  naturally 
covered  with  long  hair  only  on  a few 
parts;  yet  the  parts  which  we  should 
generally  describe  as  destitute  of  it  pro- 
duce a fine,  short,  colorless,  sometimes 
hardly  perceptible  hair.  The  only  places 
entirely  free  from  it  are  the  palms  of  the 
hands  and  the  soles  of  the  feet;  but  the 
body  of  the  male  often  produces  hair, 
like  that  of  the  head  on  the  breast, 
shoulders,  arms,  etc.  Each  hair  con- 
sists of  a shaft  and  a root.  The  color  of 
the  hair  is  a race  character;  and  the 
shape  of  the  shaft  has  likewise  been  used 


in  this  way,  transverse  sections  showing 
circular,  oval,  flat,  or  reniform  outlines. 
The  human  hair  varies  according  to  age, 
sex,  country,  and  circumstances.  At 
birth  an  infant  generally  has  light  hair 
It  always  grows  darker  and  stiffer  with 
age.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  eye- 
lashes and  eyebrows.  At  the  age  of 


Hairs  of  various  animals  magnified. 

A,  Indian  bat.  b,  Mouse,  c,  Sable,  d,  Human. 

puberty  the  hair  grows  in  the  aijmpits, 
etc.,  of  both  sexes,  and  on  the  chin  of  the 
male.  The  hair  of  men  is  stronger  and 
stiffer;  that  of  females  longer  (even  in  a 
state  of  nature),  thicker,  and  not  so 
liable  to  be  shed.  Connected  with  the 
hairs  are  small  glands  which  secrete  an 
oily  substance,  serving  as  a lubricant  to 
the  skin  as  well  as  the  hair.  These  are 
called  sebaceous  glands.  If  the  root  is 
destroyed  there  is  no  means  of  repro- 
ducing the  hair;  but  if  it  falls  out  with- 
out the  root  being  destroyed,  as  is  often 
the  case  after  nervous  fevers,  the  hair 
grows  out  again  of  itself.  Each  hair, 
indeed,  lasts  only  a certain  time,  after 
which  it  falls  out  and  is  replaced  by 
another  as  long  as  the  papilla  is  not 
weakened.  Grayness  of  hair  is  caused 
by  a deficient  amount  of  pigment  gran- 
ules in  the  hair  cells.  The  deficiency 
arises  at  the  hair  bulb  where  the  cells  are 
produced.  Any  influences  that  affect  the 
nutrition  of  the  bulb  may  thus  affect  the 
color  as  well  as  the  growth  of  the  hair. 
Baldness  is  caused  by  atrophy  of  the 
papilla,  generally  due  to  lessened  circu- 
lation of  the  blood  in  the  scalp.  For 
some  diseases  which  have  a close  con- 
nection with  the  hair,  see  Plica  Polonica, 
Ringworm,  Sycosis.  Under  ordinary 
circumstances  hair  is  a very  stable  sub- 
stance. It  is  the  last  thing  which  decays, 
and  it  often  grows  after  death  and  lasts 
for  centuries.  Hair  is  not  acted  on  by 
water,  but  heated  in  it  under  pressure  it 
decomposes,  evolves  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, and  dissolves;  it  is  also  dissolved 
by  alkalies  and  acids.  When  burned  it 
emits  a disagreeable  odor  as  of  burning 
horn. 

Hair  for  manufacture  is  furnished 
chiefly  from  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  hog, 
the  goat,  especially  the  Angora  or  Mo- 
hair goat,  the  camel,  and  the  alpaca. 
That  of  the  first  three  is  most  used  for 
upholstery  purposes,  the  short  hair  be- 
ing manufactured  into  curled  hair  for 
stuffing,  and  the  long  straight  hairmanu- 
factofed  into  hair-cloth  for  seating.  The 
long  hair  is  also  reserved  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fishing-lines,  brushes,  etc. 
White  hair  is  of  the  most  value,  being 
most  adapted  for  dyeing  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  fancy  articles.  The 
horse-hair  used  for  weaving  comes 
chiefly  from  Russia,  Germany,  Belgium, 
South  America,  and  Australia.  Russia 
chiefly  furnislies  the  bristles,  so  largely 
used  for  brushes.  The  sable,  the  minni- 


ver,  the  martin,  the  badger  supply  the 
finer  brushes  on  hair-pencils  of  painters. 
The  hair  of  the  goat,  the  camel,  and  the 
alpaca  is  chiefly  used  in  combination 
with  or  subordinated  to  wool  and  other 
fibers  for  spinning  and  weaving  into 
dress  fabrics.  Human  hair  is  used 
chiefly  for  the  manufacture  of  wigs, 
curls,  beards,  chignons,  etc.  Most  of  the 
supply  comes  from  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy,  where  the  peasant  girls  sell 
their  hair  to  itinerant  dealers.  In  every 
case,  and  for  any  purpose,  hair  is  always 
best  taken  from  the  living  subject,  dead 
hair  being  much  inferior. 

HAIR-DYES,  substances  for  giving 
hair  some  particular  color  desired.  The 
numerous  preparations  sold  for  this 
purpose  have  generally  a basis  of  lead 
or  nitrate  of  silver.  Bismuth,  pyrogallic 
acid,  sulphur,  the  juice  of  green  walnut 
shells  and  other  astringent  vegetable 
juices,  are  also  employed. 

HAIR-GRASS,  a genus  of  grasses  be- 
longing to  that  division  of  the  order  in 
which  the  spikelets  have  two  or  more 
florets,  .and  the  inflorescence  is  a loose 
panicle.  It  is  of  little  use  for  cattle, 
which  dislike  it,  but  may  serve  where 
covert  is  wanted  for  game. 

HAIR-POWDER,  a preparation  of 
pulverized  starch  and  some  perfume, 
formerly  much  used  to  whiten  the  head. 
Sometimes  the  powder  was  colored. 
The  custom  of  wearing  it  was  introduced 
from  France  into  England  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  To  make  the  powder  hold, 
the  hair  was  usually  greased  with  po- 
made. It  is  now  scarcely  to  be  seen 
except  on  the  heads  of  footmen  in  at- 
tendance on  people  of  rank  or  wealth. 

HAIR-SPRING,  in  watches,  the  fine 
hair-like  spring  made  of  steel,  which  is 
attached  to  the  axle  of  the  balance  wheel 
and  serves  by  its  resisting  power  to 
equalize  the  vibrations  of  the  escape- 
ment wheel. 

HAKE,  a species  of  North  American 
fishes  belonging  to  that  division  of  the 
cod  family  or  Gadidae,  which  has  the 


Hake. 


head  much  flattened,  and  two  dorsal 
and  one  long  anal  fin.  The  European 
hake  is  known  in  some  places  as  king  of 
the  herrings,  on  which  it  preys. 

HAKODATE,  a city  of  Japan,  near 
the  south  end  of  the  island  of  Yesso,  at 
the  foot  of  a hill  on  the  shore  of  a beau- 
tiful and  spacious  bay,  which  forms  one 
of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world.  Hako- 
date is  one  of  the  ports  opened  to  British 
commerce  through  Lord  Elgin’s  treaty 
with  the  Japanese  government  in  1858. 
Pop.  78,040. 

HALBERD,  or  HALBERT,  an  offen- 
sive weapon  consisting  of  a pole  or  shaft 
about  6 feet  long,  having  its  head  armed 
with  a steel  point  edged  on  both  sides. 
Near  the  head  was  a cross  piece  of  steel 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  an  axe,  with  a 
spike  or  hook  at  the  back.  It  was  much 
used  in  the  English  army  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  gave  its  name  to  troops  called 
halberdiers,  to  whom  was  confided  the 
defense  of  the  colors,  and  other  special 


HALCYON 


HALFTONE  ENGRAVING 


duties.  It  is  now  used  only  on  ceremonial 
occasions. 

HAL'CYON,  an  old  or  poetical  name 
of  the  kingfisher.  It  was  fabled  to  lay  its 
eggs  in  nests  that  floated  on  the  sea, 
about  the  winter  solstice,  and  to  have 
the  power  of  charming  the  winds  and 
waves  during  the  period  of  incubation, 
so  that  the  weather  was  then  calm; 
whence  the  term,  halcyon  days. 


HALE,  Edward  Everett,  American 
author  and  clergyman,  was  born  in  1823. 
He  was  a Unitarian  pastor  at  Worcester 
from  184G  to  1850.  He  contributed 
voluminously  to  magazines  and  news- 
papers, and  edited  several  of  them.  He 
also  took  great  interest  in  history,  and 
edited  Lingard’s  England,  wrote  a 
Chautauquan  History  of  the  United 
States;  a Life  of  Washington,  and  other 
works.  He  is  best  known  for  his  short 
story,  the  famous  and  effective  Man 
Without  a Country.  But  his  most  in- 
fluential book  is  his  Ten  Times  One  is 
Ten  (1870),  which  led  to  the  formation 
of  many  charitable  organizations.  His 
Memories  of  a Hundred  Years  appeared 
in  1902. 

HALE,  Eugene,  American  legislator, 
was  born  in  Maine  in  1836.  He  was 
elected  to  the  forty-first  congress  in  1868 
and  was  four  times  re-elected.  He  de- 
clined the  post-oflice  folio  in  Grant’s 
second  cabinet  and  the  post  of  secretary 
of  the  navy  offered  to  him  by  President 
Hayes.  He  was  elected  to  the  senate  in 
1881  and  has  served  continuously  until 
the  present  time,  his  term  ending  in  1911. 

HALE,  John  P.,  a statesman  and 
Free-soil  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
was  born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1806. 
Elected  to  congress  in  1842,  he  became 
prominent  in  his  opposition  to  slavery. 
In  1846  he  was  chosen  United  States 
senator.  In  1847  he  was  nominated  for 
the  presidency  by  the  national  liberty 
party,  and  in  1852  by  the  free-soil  party. 
His  speeches  were  replete  with  humor 
and  pathos.  His  sixteen  years  in  the 
senate  were  devoted  to  the  agitation  of 
the  slavery  question.  He  was  appointed 
by  President  Lincoln  minister  to  Spain, 
where  he  served  four  years.  He  died  in 
1873. 

HALE,  Nathan,  soldier  and  hero,  was 
bom  in  Coventry,  Conn.,  in  1755.  He 
tnlisted  as  a volunteer  in  the  revolution- 
ary war,  and  became  lieutenant  in 


Colonel  Webb’s  regiment.  On  Washing- 
ton’s call  for  a volunteer  to  enter  the 
British  line  and  procure  intelligence,  he 
responded.  Disguised  as  a schoolmaster, 
he  visited  all  the  enemy’s  camps  in  New 
York  and  Long  Island.  He  obtained  the 
information  required  and  was  about  to 
return  when  he  was  arrested  as  a spy, 
tried,  and  condemned  to  be  hanged.  The 
execution  took  place  in  New  York  City. 
His  last  words  were:  “I  only  regret  that 
I have  but  one  life  to  lose  for  my 
country.”  He  died  in  1776. 

HALEVY  (a-la-ve),  Jacques  Franyois 
Fromental  Elie,  a French  musical  com- 
poser, born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Paris, 
1799.  The  first  of  his  pieces  performed 
was  a little  comic  opera,  L’Artisan, 
given  at  the  The&tre  Feydau  in  Paris,  in 
1827.  His  chefd’ceuvre.  La  Juive,  ap- 
peared in  1835,  and  rapidly  obtained  a 
European  celebrity.  Among  his  other 
works  are  L’Eclaire,  Guido  et  Ginevra, 
La  Reine  de  Chypre,  Le  Val  d’Andorre, 
La  F6e  aux  Roses.  He  died  at  Nice  in 
1862. 

HALF-BLOOD,  in  law,  relationship  by 
being  born  of  the  same  father,  but  not 
of  the  same  mother  (consanguinean  re- 
lationship) ; or  born  of  the  same  mother, 
but  not  of  the  same  father  (uterine  re- 
lationship). In  the  succession  to  real  or 
landed  property  in  England,  the  half- 
blood  relations  by  the  fathers’  side  suc- 
ceed after  the  full-blood  relations;  and 
next,  the  half-blood  relations  by  the 
mother’s  side. 

HALF-BREEDS,  a nickname  given  in 
1881  to  members  of  a faction  in  the 
republican  party  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  which  favored  the  administration 
in  the  controversy  between  President 
Garfield  and  Senators  Platt  and  Conk- 
ling,  and  opposed  the  regular  republican 
candidate  for  the  governorship  of  the 
state,  Folger,  thus  bringing  about  the 
election  of  the  democratic  candidate, 
Grover  Cleveland.  The  name  was  given 
in  derision,  as  denoting  those  who  were 
but  half  republican,  by  the  members  of 
the  opposite  faction  denominated  “stal- 
warts”. 

HALFTONE  ENGRAVING,  a process 
of  engraving  plates  in  relief.  These 
plates  have  a surface  broken  into  num- 
erous fine  square  or  round  dots.  These 
dots  are  small  and  separated  from  each 
other  by  wider  spaces  in  the  high  lights 
of  the  picture,  are  larger  and  tend  to 
merge  into  each  other  in  the  middle 
tones,  and  run  together  into  solid  sur- 
faces in  the  deepest  shadows,  only 
broken  by  very  small  white  points,  or 
even  quite  devoid  of  them  and  in  places 
yielding  solid  blacks  when  printed. 
When  viewed  at  ordinary  distances  the 
print  from  such  a plate  appears  to  pass 
by  insensible  gradations  from  white  into 
black,  the  same  as  a photograph  or 
photogravure,  but  closer  examination 
shows  the  fine  texture  of  dots,  usually 
square,  running  all  over  the  plate.  The 
method  of  making  these  plates  is  simple 
in  theory  but  complicated  in  practice, 
and  involves  the  use  of  many  of  the 
most  recent  discoveries  of  science.  The 
process  of  negative  making  is  usually  the 
“wet”  or  collodion  method  of  the  early 
days  of  photography,  as  negatives  made 
in  this  way  are  more  plastic,  easier  modi- 
fied, intensified,  or  reduced.  Essential 


to  the  process  is  the  presence  in  the 
camera  of  a grating  or  “screen”  made 
by  ruling  very  fine  lines  upon  a plate  of 
glass.  In  practice  two  plates  are  ruled 
with  these  lines  diagonally  from  corner 
to  corner,  and  are  then  cemented  to  each 
other  with  the  two  sets  of  ruled  lines 
crossing  at  right  angles.  The  number  of 
lines  to  the  inch  is  determined  by  the 
fineness  of  engraving  desired.  The  range 
of  screens  is  from  75  to  200  lines  to  the 
inch.  This  screen  is  placed  in  the  camera 
quite  close  in  front  of  the  sensitive  plate, 
so  that  the  image  thrown  thereon  by  the 
lens  passes  through  the  openings  of  the 
crossed  lines.  Each  of  these  microscopic 
openings  acts  as  a separate  lens  pro- 
jecting upon  the  sensitive  plate  its  sepa- 
rate image  of  the  stop  opening  in  the 
large  lens  in  front.  The  effect  of  diffrac- 
tion causes  those  openings  opposite  the 
most  brilliant  parts  of  the  image  to  cast 
larger  as  well  as  more  brilliant  micro- 
images or  dots  upon  the  plate,  while  the 
lesser  amount  of  light  passing  through 
the  openings  opposite  the  dark  parts  of 
the  picture  produces  correspondingly 
smaller  and  weaker  dots,  or  even  has 
no  perceptible  effect.  Consequently 
when  the  negative  is  developed  it  is 
found  to  consist  of  a great  number  of 
small  dots  of  sizes  graduated  in  propor- 
tion to  the  light  and  shade  of  the  picture. 
The  process  of  reversing  the  negative 
to  printing  upon  metal  is  the  same  as  in 
zinc  etching.  The  negative  is,  when  dry 
coated  first  with  a solution  of  rubber  to 
make  it  insoluble  in  the  succeeding 
treatment,  and  when  this  is  set  is  again 
coated  with  a thick  pellicle  of  plain 
collodion  to  give  it  body  and  strength 
It  is  then,  when  dry,  cut  around  the 
edges  and  laid  in  a tray  of  acidulated 
water.  After  a few  moments  the  film 
loosens  from  the  glass  and  by  cautious 
handling  is  peeled  from  its  support  and 
laid  face  downward  upon  another  plate 
of  glass.  It  is  thus  reversed  to  bring  the 
print  upon  metal  in  the  proper  position 
to  give  direct  impression  when  printed. 
If  this  were  not  done,  the  picture  would 
face  the  wrong  way  when  completed. 
In  some  cases  a reversed  negative  is 
made  in  the  first  instance  by  using  a 
reflecting  prism  or  a mirror  in  front  of  or 
behind  the  lens.  The  metal  used  for 
halftone  plates  is  usually  copper,  but 
zinc  and  brass  are  sometimes  employed. 
It  is  finely  polished,  placed  upon  a whirl- 
ing machine  and  coated  with  a solution 
of  fish  glue,  albumen,  water,  and 
bichromate  of  ammonia,  and  dried  by 
gentle  heat.  It  is  then  locked  down  upon 
the  negative  in  a strong  printing  frame 
and  printed  from  five  to  twenty-five 
minutes  by  electric  light.  The  develop- 
ment varies  with  different  operators  but 
consists  essentially  in  soaking  in  running 
water  until  the  soluble  parts  of  the  coat- 
ing are  washed  away,  leaving  a faintly 
visible  image  formed  of  dots  of  insoluble 
glue  upon  the  plate.  This  is  burned  in 
over  a gas  furnace  until  the  metal  passes 
into  a silvery  hue  and  the  image  shows 
brilliantly  in  a clear,  deep  maroon  color. 
The  etching  is  rapidly  done  by  the  use  of 
various  acid  solutions,  the  one  most 
used  being  the  acid  perchloride  of  iron 
When  fully  etched,  the  plate  is  proved 
and  if  satisfactory  given  to  the  finisher 
to  receive  any  needed  hand  engraving  or 


HALIAETUS 


HALLELUIA 


corrections,  after  which  the  edges  are 
beveled  upon  a beveling  machine,  it  is 
nailed  upon  a block  of  wood,  the  edges 
of  the  black  trimmed  square,  the  back 
shaved  off  to  type  height,  and  it  is  then 
ready  for  the  press.  The  most  recent  and 
most  rapid  of  modern  engraving  methods 
it  is  also  one  requiring  the  highest  skill 
and  technical  as  well  as  artistic  knowl- 
edge to  produce  satisfactory  results. 

HALIAETUS  (hal-i-a'e-tus),  the  genus 
of  birds  to  which  belong  the  white- 
tailed sea-eagle  of  Britain,  and  the  white- 
headed  or  bald  eagle  of  America,  the 
chosen  symbol  of  the  United  States. 
See  Eagle. 

HAL'IBURTON,  Thomas  Chandler, 
Anglo-American  humorous  writer,  born 
at  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1796.  He 
practiced  as  a barrister  in  Halifax, 
wrote  a Historical  and  Statistical  Ac- 
count of  Nova  Scotia,  in  1829,  and  con- 
tributed a series  of  humorous  letters  to 
Halifax  newspapersunder  the  pseudonym 
of  “Sam  Slick.”  These  were  published 
in  book  form  and  were  augmented  by 
others,  forming  The  Clockmaker,  or 
Sayings  and  Doings  of  Samuel  Slick. 
He  died  in  1865. 

HALTBUT,  or  HOLTBUT,  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  Pleuronectidae  or  flat-fish 
family,  sometimes  weighing  more  than 
300  lbs.  The  fish  has  a compressed  body. 


Halibut. 


one  side  resembling  the  back  and  an- 
other the  belly,  and  both  eyes  on  the 
same  side  of  the  head.  It  is  caught  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  and  is  much 
prized  for  the  table. 

HALICARNAS'SUS,  in  ancient  geog- 
raphy, the  capital  of  Caria,  in  Asia 
Minor,  once  an  important  city.  Halicar- 
nassus was  the  native  place  of  Herodo- 
tus. 

HAL'IFAX,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  York  (West  Riding),  on  the 
Hebble,  36  miles  w.s.w.  York.  Halifax 
commands  abundant  supplies  of  coal 
and  water,  and  an  extensive  inland 
navigation  connecting  it  with  Hull  and 
Liverpool.  It  is  one  of  the  centers  of  the 
woolen  and  worsted  manufactures  in 
Yorkshire,  a great  variety  of  goods  be- 
ing produced.  There  are  also  iron, 
chemical,  and  machine-making  works. 
Pop.  104,933. 

HALIFAX,  a city,  and  the  capital  of 
Nova  Scotia,  situated  on  the  slope  of  a 
commanding  hill,  on  the  western  side  of 
Halifax  harbor.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the 
best  and  most  spacious  in  America.  It 
is  easy  of  access  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
16  miles,  and  it  terminates  in  a beautiful 
sheet  of  water  called  Bedford  Basin, 
within  which  are  10  square  miles  of  good 
anchorage.  The  harbor  is  well  fortified, 
and  has  an  extensive  government  dock- 
yard. It  is  the  principal  naval  station  of 
British  America,  has  an  extensive  foreign 
and  coasting  trade,  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  fish,  lumber,  and  coals. 
There  are  also  considerable  manufac- 


tures embracing  iron  castings,  machinery, 
nails,  soap,  leather,  tobacco,  paper,  etc. 
Pop.  40,832. 

HALIFAX,  Charles  Montague,  Earl 
of,  an  English  poet  and  statesman,  born 
1661.  He  became  first  lord  of  the  treas- 
ury in  1714,  and  died  in  1715.  His 
character  was  a mixture  of  meanness 
and  arrogance,  but  his  taste  in  literature 
and  the  arts  was  good,  and  he  had  a 
great  talent  for  finance. 


HALL,  Asaph,  an  American  astrono- 
mer, was  born  in  1829  at  Goshen,  Conn. 
He  studied  under  Driinnow  at  Ann 
Arbor,  where  he  made  his  first  acquaint- 
ance with  astronomy,  and  in  1857  went 
to  Cambridge  as  assistant  to  Professor 
Bond.  In  1862  he  took  a civil-service 
examination  and  became  an  aid,  and  a 
year  afterward  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  United  States  naval 
observatory.  His  greatest  fame  came 
from  his  discovery  in  1877  of  the  two 
satellites  of  Mars,  which  he  called  Deimos 
and  Phobos.  In  recognition  of  this  dis- 
covery he  received  a gold  medal  from 
the  Royal  astronomical  society,  and 
the  award  of  the  Lalande  prize  from  the 
Paris  academy.  In  1902  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  American  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science. 

HALL,  Charles  Francis,  an  Arctic  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Rochester,  New  Hamp- 
shire, United  States,  in  1821.  He  began 
life  as  a blacksmith,  became  a journalist 
in  Cincinnati;  in  1860  organized  an  Arc- 
tic expedition  in  search  of  Franklin,  an 
remained  among  the  Esquimos  two 
years,  acquiring  their  language  and 
habits.  In  1864  he  undertook  a second 
expedition  to  the  same  regions,  where 
he  remained  till  1869.  In  1871,  at  the 
instigation  of  Hall,  the  United  States 
government  fitted  out  the  Polaris  for  an 
expedition  to  the  North  Pole,  and  placed 
Captain  Hail  in  command.  The  Polaris 
sailed  from  New  York  June  29,  1871, 
and  on  30th  Aug.  reached  lat.  82°  16'  n., 
and  then  turned  back  to  winter  in  a 
sheltered  bay,  lat.  81°  38',  where  Hall 
died  on  Nov.  8.  The  Polaris  was  ulti- 
mately abandoned  by  her  crew,  who 
reached  home  only  after  experiencing 
many  privations  and  adventures.  An 
account  of  his  first  expedition  was  given 
by  Capt.  Hall  in  his  Arctic  Researches 
and  Life  among  the  Esquimos. 

HALL,  Edward,  an  English  chronicler, 
born  in  London  about  1495.  He  was  a 
lawyer  by  profession,  and  attained  the 
rank  of  a sergeant,  and  the  office  of  a 
judge  in  the  sheriff’s  court.  He  had  a 
seat  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was 


a zealous  Catholic.  His  death  took 
place  in  1547.  Hall’s  Chronicle  was 
published  in  1548,  and  is  a curious 
picture  of  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  age. 

HALLAM,  Henry,  English  historian, 
a son  of  the  dean  of  Bristol,  born  at 
Windsor  in  1777.  His  contributions  to 
the  Edinburgh  Review  brought  him 
into  notice,  and  his  View  of  the  State  of 
"Europe,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  which 
appeared  in  1818,  at  once  established 
his  reputation.  His  next  work,  the  Con- 
stitutional History  of  England,  pub- 
lished in  1827,  showed  like  the  first  the 
solid  learning,  patient  research,  ac- 
curacy and  impartiality  of  statement, 
which  are  the  characteristics  of  Jlr. 
Hallam’s  work.  In  1837-39  appeared 
his  last  great  work,  the  introduction  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe,  He  died  in 
1859. 

HALLE  (hal'le),  usually  called  Halle 
an  der  Saale  (Halle  on  the  Saale),  to  dij- 
tinguish  it  from  other  places  of  the  same 
name,  an  important  German  town  in  ti.e 
Prussian  province  of  Saxony,  about  20 
miles  northwest  of  Leipzig,  on  the  river 
Saale.  The  older  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked,  but  the  appearance  of  the  town 
has  of  late  been  much  improved.  Halle 
is  mentioned  as  early  as  806.  It  was 
long  a powerful  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League.  Pop.  156,611. 

HALLECK,  Fitz  Greene,  an  American 
poet,  born  in  1790.  He  became  a clerk 
in  a New  York  banking-house,  and  for 
years  was  in  the  employment  of  John 
Jacob  Astor.  In  1809  poems  by  him 
and  a friend  (J.  R.  Drake)  appeared  in 
the  New  York  Evening  Post  under  the 
signature  of  Croaker  & Co.,  and  at- 
tracted some  attention.  In  1820  he  pub- 
lished Fanny,  his  longest  poem,  a satire 
on  the  follies  and  fashions  of  the  day. 
In  1822  he  visited  Europe.  Among  his 
best  poems  are  Marco  Bozzaris,  To  the 
Memory  of  Burns,  Alnwick  Castle,  and 
Red  Jacket.  He  died  in  1867. 

HALLECK,  Henry  Wager,  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  at  Utica,  near  New 
York,  in  1815,  was  educated  for  the 
army  at  West  Point,  and  entered  the 
engineers  in  1839.  In  1846  he  published 
Elements  of  Military  Art  and  Science, 
and  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  captain 
for  his  services  in  the  Mexican  war. 
In  1854  he  left  the  army  and  settled  in 
San  Francisco  as  a lawyer  and  director 
of  a mining  company.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  in  1861  he  was  created 
major-general  in  the  United  States  army. 
After  the  victories  at  Paducah,  Fort 
Henry,  Fort  Donelson,  and  the  capture 
of  Corinth,  be  became  in  1862  com- 
mander-in-chief till  superseded  by  Gen- 
eral Grant  in  1864.  Ultimately  he  re- 
ceived the  command  of  the  South  Di- 
vision at  Louisville,  where  he  died  in 
1872.  Among  his  writings  are  two  works 
on  International  Law. 

HALLELUIA,  or  HALLELUJAH,  or 
ALLELUIA  (praise  ye  the  Lord),  a 
Hebrew  formula  of  praise  often  occur- 
ring in  the  Psalms,  and  which  is  retained 
in  the  translations  of  the  various  Chris- 
tian churches,  probably  on  account  of 
its  full  and  fine  sound,  so  proper  for 
public  religious  services.  The  Great 
Halleluja  is  the  name  given  by  the  Jews 
to  Psalms  cxiii. — cxvii.,  which  are  sung 


HALLER 


HAMBURG 


on  the  feasts  of  the  Passover  and  Taber- 
nacles. 

HALLEY,  Edmund,  an  English  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  in  1656. 
In  1682  he  discovered  the  comet  which 
bears  his  name,  and  his  prediction  of 
its  return  in  1759  was  the  first  of  its  kind 
that  proved  correct.  In  1713  he  was 
made  secretary  of  the  Royal  society,  and 
astronomer-royal  in  1719.  He  died  in 
1742. 

HALLEY’S  COMET,  discovered  in 
1682  by  Edmund  Halley.  Halley’s  dem- 
onstration that  this  comet  was  the 
same  with  the  comet  of  1456,  1531,  and 
1607  first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets.  It 
performs  its  revolution  in  about  75 
years.  Its  last  appearance  was  in  1835. 

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS,  James  Or- 
chard, originally  J.  O.  Halliwell,  Shake- 
spearean scholar,  born  1820,  d’ed  1889. 
His  chief  Shakespearean  publications  are 
a Life  of  Shakespeare  (1848),  the  Works 
of  Shakespeare  in  16  folio  volumes,  only 
150  copies  printed,  and  a great  number 
of  pamphlets  on  Shakespeare.  He  also 
published  a valuable  Dictionary  of 
Archaic  and  Provincial  words. 


HALL  OF  FAME,  AMERICAN.  “The 
Hall  of  Fame  for  Great  Americans”  .‘s 
the  name  of  a building  on  University 
Heights  in  New  York  city,  in  which  are 
inscribed  on  bronze  tablets  the  names  of 
famous  American  men  and  women. 
Nominations  for  the  honor  are  made  by 
the  public  and  are  submitted  to  a com- 
mittee of  100  eminent  citizens.  In  the 


case  of  men  fifty-one  votes  are  required, 
and  in  the  case  of  women  forty-seven. 
The  first  balloting  took  place  in  Octo- 
ber, 1900.  The  following  have  been 
chosen : 


George  Washington. 
Abraham  Lincoln. 
Daniel  Webster. 
Benjamin  Franklin. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant. 
John  Marshall. 
Thomas  Jefferson. 
Ralph  W.  Emerson. 
H.  W.  Longfellow. 
Robert  Fulton. 
Washington  Irving. 
Jonathan  Edwards. 
Samuel  F.  B.  Morse. 
David  G.  Farragut. 
Henry  Clay. 

Nath.  Hawthorne. 
George  Peabody. 
Robert  E.  Lee. 

Peter  Cooper, 

Ell  Whitney. 

John  J.  Audubon. 


Horace  Mann. 

Henry  W.  Beecher. 
James  Kent. 

Joseph  Story. 

John  Adams. 

Wm.  E.  Channlng. 
Gilbert  Stuart. 

Asa  Gray. 

Chosen  In  1905: 
John  Quincy  Adams. 
Jas.  Russell  Lowell. 
Wm.  T.  Sherman. 
James  Madison. 

John  Quincy  Adams. 
John  G.  Whittier. 
Alex.  Hamilton. 
Louis  Agassiz. 

John  Paul  Jones. 
Mary  Lyon. 

Emma  Willard. 
Maria  Mitchell. 


HALLOW-EVEN,  or  HALLOWE’EN, 

the  evening  of  the  31st  of  October,  so 
called  as  being  the  eve  or  vigil  of  All 
Hallows,  or  All  Saints,  which  falls  on 
the  1st  of  November.  It  is  associated  in 
the  popular  imagination  with  the  prev- 
alence of  supernatural  influences,  and 
in  Scotland  is  frequently  celebrated  by 
meetings  of  young  people,  with  the  per- 
formance of  various  mystical  ceremonies 
humorously  described  by  Burns  in  his 
poem  Hallowe’en. 

HALLUCINATIONS,  according  to  Es- 
quirol,  are  morbid  conditions  of  mind  in 
which  the  patient  is  conscious  of  a per- 
ception without  any  impression  having 
been  made  on  the  external  organs  of 
sense.  Hallucinations  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  delusions,  for  in  these 
there  are  real  sensations,  though  they 
are  erroneously  interpreted.  Pinel  was 
the  first  who  connected  hallucinations 
with  a disturbance  of  the  phenomena 


of  sensation,  and  the  investigation  has 
been  pursued  further  by  Esquirol, 
Maury,  BriSre  de  Boismont,  and  others. 
All  the  senses  are  not  equally  subject' 
to  hallucinations;  the  most  frequent  are 
those  of  hearing;  next,  according  to 
many,  come  those  of  sight,  smell,  touch, 
and  taste;  and  hallucinations  of  several 
senses  may  exist  simultaneously  in  the 
same  individual,  and  also  be  complicated 
with  certain  delusions.  The  simplest 
form  of  hallucinations  of  hearing  is  the 
tingling  of  the  ears;  but  the  striking  of 
clocks,  the  sounds  of  musical  instru- 
ments and  of  the  human  voice  are  often 
heard,  and  in  these  instances,  as  in  those 
of  the  perturbations  of  the  other  senses, 
there  must  be  a diseased  sensorium, 
though  there  should  be  no  structural 
derangement  of  the  nerves.  Hallucina- 
tions are  not  confined  to  those  whose 
mental  faculties  have  been  alienated,  but 
occasionally  assail  and  torment  even 
the  sane.  Occasionally  hallucinations 
supervene  where  the  system  is  healthy, 
and  the  individual  fully  conscious  of  the 
unreality  of  the  objects  that  address  his 
senses,  and  this  disorder  is  often  asso- 
ciated with  much  ability  and  wisdom 
in  the  conduct  of  life. 

HA'LO,  the  name  given  to  colored 
circles  of  light  sometimes  seen  round  the 
sun  or  moon,  and  to  other  connected 
luminous  appearances.  These  phe- 
nomena are  classified  as:  (1)  halos  proper 
consisting  of  complicated  arrangements 
of  arcs  and  circles  of  light  surrounding 
the  sun  or  moon,  accompanied  by  others 
tangent  to  or  intersecting  them;  (2) 
coronas,  simple  rings,  generally  some- 
what colored;  (3)  aureolas,  the  name 
given  to  the  kind  of  halo  surrounding  a 
shadow  projected  upon  a cloud  or  fog- 
bank,  or  to  the  colored  rings  observed  by 
aeronauts  on  the  upper  surface  of  clouds. 
All  these  appearances  are  the  result  of 


HALSTEAD,  MURAT,  journalist; 
born  in  Butler  Co.,  O.,  1829.  Began 
newspaper  work  on  a literary  weekly ; 
joined  staff  of  Cincinnati  Commercial, 
later  consolidated  with  Gazette  as 
Commercial  Gazette,  of  which  he  be- 
came editor-in-chief.  Author:  The 
Story  of  Cuba ; Life  of  William  Mc- 
Kinley; The  Story  of  the  Philippines; 
The  War  [ between  Russia  and  Japan, 
1906.  He  died  in  1908. 

HALYARDS,  HALLIARDS,  or  HAUL- 
YARDS,  the  ropes  or  tackles  usually  em- 
ployed to  hoist  or  lower  any  sail  upon  its 
respective  yard,  gaff,  or  stay. 

HAM,  one  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah. 
He  had  four  sons — Cush,  Mizraim,  Phut, 
and  Canaan — from  the  first  three  of 
whom  sprang  the  tribes  that  peopled 
the  African  continent,  as  Canaan  be- 
came the  father  of  the  tribes  that  prin- 
cipally occupied  the  territory  of  Phoenicia 
and  Palestine. 

HAM,  the  inner  angle  of  the  joint 
which  unites  the  thigh  and  the  leg  of  an 
animal,  but  more  generally  understood 
to  mean  the  cured  and  smoked  thigh  of 
the  ox,  sheep,  or  hog,  especially  the  last. 
Usually  the  meat  is  first  well  rubbed 
with  salt,  and  a few  days  after  it  is 
rubbed  again  with  a mixture  of  salt, 
saltpeter,  and  sugar,  though  sometimes 
the  saltpeter  is  omitted.  After  lying  for 
eight  or  ten  days  it  is  ready  for  drying. 
The  smoking  of  hams  consists  in  sub- 
jecting them  to  the  smoke  of  a fire,  wood 
being  used  in  preference  to  coal  in  the 
process  of  smoking.  A good  ham  should 
have  the  recently-cut  fat  hard  and 
white,  the  lean  fine-grained  and  of  a 
lively  red. 

HAM'ADRYAD,  in  Greek  mythology, 
a kind  of  wood-nj^ph  conceived  to  in- 
habit each  a particular  tree,  with  which 
they  were  born  and  with  which  they 
perished. 


view  In  Hamburg  lower  harbor. 


certain  modifications  which  light  under- 
goes by  reflection,  refraction,  dispersion, 
diffraction,  and  interference  when  it  falls 
upon  the  crystals  of  ice,  the  raindrops, 
or  the  minute  particles  that  constitute 
clouds. 


HAMBURG,  one  of  the  free  cities  of 
Germany,  a member  of  the  Germanic 
Empire,  and  the  greatest  commercial 
port  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  is 
situated  about  80  miles  from  the  North 
Sea,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Elbe, 


HAMILCAR 


HAMMER-BEAM 


which  is  navigable  for  large  vessels.  The 
town  of  Altona  adjoins  it  on  the  west 
From  the  Elbe  proceed  canals  which 
intersect  the  eastern  and  lower  part  of 
the  city  in  all  directions,  and  it  is  also 
intersected  by  the  Alster,  which  here 
forms  two  fine  lakes,  the  Binnenalster 
and  Aussenalster.  The  quays  and 
harbors  accommodation  are  very  ex- 
tensive. After  the  destructive  fire  of 
1842  whole  streets  were  rebuilt  in  a 
magnificent  and  expensive  style.  Ham- 
burg is  not,  however,  very  rich  in  notable 
buddings.  Among  the  most  important 
are  the  church  of  St.  Nicholas,  a noble 
Gothic  structure  with  a lofty  tower  and 
mire.,  built  between  1845  and  1874;  St. 
Peter's,  another  lofty  Gothic  edifice;  St 
Michael’s,  the  largest  of  the  churches;  St. 
Catharine’s,  an  ancient  edifice;  St. 
James’,  erected  in  1354,  but  surmounted 
by  a modern  tower;  an  elegant  Jewish 
temple;  an  exchange,  a noble  edifice, 
consisting  chiefly  of  a magnificent  hall, 
surrounded  by  a fine  colonnade.  There 
are  also  the  Johanneum  institution,  con- 
taining an  ancient  college,  museums, 
and  the  city  library,  with  about  300,000 
volumes;  several  well -endowed hospitals, 
zoological  and  botanic  gardens;  the 
Kunsthalle,  a large  collection  of  pictures 
and  sculpture;  theaters,  etc.  Hamburg 
is  of  most  importance  on  account  of  its 
great  shipping  trade  and  the  business  of 
banking,  exchange,  marine  insurance, 
etc.,  carried  on  in  connection  with  that 
Its  manufactures,  though  large,  are  less 
important,  including  ship-building,  to- 
bacco and  cigar  making,  iron-founding, 
brewing,  etc.  A great  many  emigrants 
embark  here.  The  state  of  Hamburg 
embraces  a territory  of  160  sq.  mdes, 
and  consists  of  two  divisions,  viz: — City 
of  Hamburg,  with  a population  of  705,- 
738;  outlying  towns  and  bailiwicks 
(Cuxhaven,  Ritzebiittel,  etc.),  pop 
62,611.  The  legislative  power  belongs 
in  common  to  the  senate  and  the  house 
of  burgesses,  but  the  executive  power  is 
vested  chiefly  in  the  senate,  which  is 
composed  of  eighteen  members,  of 
whom  nine  must  have  studied  law  or 
finance,  and  of  the  other  nine  seven 
must  belong  to  the  commercial  class. 
The  members  are  elected  for  life.  The 
house  of  burgesses  consists  of  160  mem- 
bers, half  of  whom  are  elected  every 
three  years  by  the  votes  of  all  tax-paying 
citizens,  while  the  other  half  are  chosen 
partly  by  a much-restricted  franchise, 
and  {partly  deputed  by  guilds  and  cor- 
porations. In  1815  it  joined  the  Ger- 
manic confederation  as  a free  city.  In 
1888  the  city  was  included  in  the  Zoll- 
verein  or  German  customs  union. 

HAMIL'CAR,  the  name  of  several 
Carthaginian  generals,  of  whom  the 
most  celebrated  was  Hamilcar,  sur- 
named  Garca  (the  lightning),  the  father 
of  the  great  Hannibal.  While  quite  a 
young  man  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in 
Sicily,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  the  first 
Punic  war,  n.c.  247,  when  the  Romans 
were  masters  of  almost  the  whole  island. 
For  two  years  he  defied  all  the  efforts 
of  the  Romans  to  dislodge  him ; but  the 
Carthaginian  admiral,  Hanno,  having 
been  totally  defeated  off  the  iEgates, 
B.c.  241,  he  reluctantly  consented  to 
evacuate  Sicily.  A revolt  of  the  re- 


turned troops,  joined  by  the  native 
Africans,  was  successfully  repressed  by 
Hamilcar.  He  then  entered  on  a series 
of  campaigns  in  Spain,  where  he  founded 
a new  empire  for  Carthage.  Here  he 
passed  nine  years,  and  had  brought  the 
whole  southern  and  eastern  part  of  the 
country  under  Carthaginian  rule  when 
he  was  slain  in  battle  against  the  Vet- 
tones,  B.c.  229.  His  great  design  of  mak- 
ing Spain  a point  of  attack  against  Rome 
was  ablj"^  carried  out  by  his  son  Hannibal. 

HAMILTON,  a thriving  town  of 
Canada,  in  the  province  of  Ontario, 
county  of  Wentworth,  on  the  south  side 
of  Burlington  Bay,  Lake  Ontario,  the 
principal  part  being  built  about  1 mile 
from  the  bay.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  active 
and  increasing  trade,  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  paper,  soap,  iron  goods,  glass, 
carriages,  etc.  Pop.  52,634. 

HAMILTON,  a town  in  Ohio,  county 
seat  of  Butler  county,  on  the  Miami 
river,  25  miles  n.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  a 
prosperous  manufacturing  place,  has 
woolen  and  cotton  factories,  paper  and 
saw  mills,  and  iron-foundries.  Pop. 
28,564. 

HAMILTON,  Alexander,  a distin- 
guished American  officer  and  legislator 
during  the  contest  for  independence, 
was  born  in  1757  in  the  island  of  Nevis, 
West  Indies.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  be- 


came a student  of  Columbia  College, 
New  York.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
he  received  (1776)  a commission  as  cap- 
tain of  artillery,  and  soon  attracted  the 
attention  of  Washington,  who  appointed 
him  his  aide-de-camp  and  employed  him 
in  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  affairs. 
In  1781  he  left  the  service,  studied  law, 
became  a delegate  from  the  state  of  New 
York  in  1782,  and  in  1787  was  one  of  the 
delegates  who  revi.sed  the  articles  of 
confederation.  He  was  a strong  sup- 
porter of  the  federal  party,  and  by  the 
letters  which  he  wrote  to  the  Daily 
Advertiser  of  New  York,  afterward 
published  under  the  title  of  'The  Federal- 
ist, contributed  greatly  to  the  success  of 
the  party.  On  the  organization  of  the 
federal  government  in  1789,  with  Wash- 
ington at  its  head,  Hamilton  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  treasury.  This 
office  he  held  till  1795,  when  he  resigned 
and  retired  into  private  life.  In  1798  he 
was  appointed  second  in  command  of  the 
provisional  army  raised  under  the  ap- 
prehension of  a French  invasion,  and 
on  the  death  of  Washington,  in  1799, 


he  became  commander-in-chief.  In  1804 
he  became  involved  in  a political  dispute 
with  Mr.  Aaron  Burr,  then  candidate 
for  the  governorship  of  New  York, 
accepted  a challenge  from  that  gentleman 
man,  and  was  shot  by  him  July  11,  1804. 

HAMILTON,  Family  of,  a family  long 
connected  with  Scotland,  though  prob- 
ably of  English  origin,  the  name  being 
evidently  territorial.  The  first  person  of 
the  name  in  Scotland  of  whom  we  have 
information  was  Walter  Fitz-Gilbert  of 
Hamilton,  who,  in  1296,  swore  fealty  to 
Edward  I.  of  England  for  lands  in 
Lanarkshire,  and  held  Bothwell  Castle  for 
the  English  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn.  For  his  early  surrender 
of  this  fortress  King  Robert  Bruce  gave 
him  important  grants  of  land.  He  con- 
tinued faithful  to  King  David  Bruce, 
and  had  a command  at  Halidon  Hill 
under  the  Stewart  of  Scotland.  In  1445 
the  family  was  ennobled  in  the  person  of 
Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Cadyow,  who  was 
created  Lord  Hamilton  of  Cadyow. 

HAMILTON,  GAIL.  See  Dodge,  Mary 
Abigail. 

HAMILTON,  Sir  William,  a meta- 
physician, the  most  acute  logician  and 
most  learned  philosopher  of  the  Scottish 
school,  was  born  in  1788  at  Glasgow, 
where  his  father  and  grandfather  held  in 
succession  the  chairs  of  anatomy  and 
botany.  In  1846  he  published  an  anno- 
tated edition  of  the  works  of  Thomas 
Reid,  and  in  1854  the  first  volume  of  a 
similar  edition  of  the  works  of  Dugald 
Stewart.  He  died  suddenly  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1856.  His  lectures  on  logic  and 
metaphysics  were  collected  and  edited 
by  Dean  Mansel  and  Professor  Veitch. 

HAMITES  (descendants  of  Ham),  the 
name  given  to  a number  of  races  in 
North  Africa,  who  are  regarded  as  of 
kindred  origin  and  speak  allied  tongues. 
They  include  the  ancient  Egyptians  and 
their  modern  descendants,  the  Copets, 
the  Berbers,  Tuaregs,  Kabyles,  the 
Gallas,  Falashas,  Somali,  Dankali,  etc. 

HAMLET,  Prince  of  Denmark,  the 
hero  of  Shakespeare’s  famous  tragedy. 
The  story  is  founded  on  an  old  tradition, 
related,  among  others,  by  Saxo-Gram- 
maticus,  of  a Danish  prince,  Harnlet, 
who  lived  about  500  b.c.,  but  essentially 
altered  in  details  and  conclusion. 

HAMLIN,  Hannibal,  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  Maine  in  1809.  He 
served  in,  and  was  speaker  of  the  lower 
house  of  the  Maine  legislature,  and  in 
1843  was  elected  to  congress.  From  1848 
to  1857  he  was  United  States  senator, 
for  a short  time  governor  of  Maine 
(1857),  and  again  senator.  He  was 
elected  vice-president  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  Lincoln  m 
1860;  in  1865  became  collector  of  cus- 
toms at  Boston,  and  1869-81  served 
again  in  the  senate.  Later  he  became 
minister  to  Spain.  He  died  in  1891. 

HAMMER,  a well-known  tool  used  by 
mechanics,  of  which  there  are  various 
sorts,  but  they  all  consist  of  an  iron  or 
steel  head  fixed  crosswise  to  a handle  of 
wood.  See  Steam-hammer. 

HAMMER-BEAM,  a short  beam  at- 
tached to  the  foot  of  a principal  rafter 
in  a roof,  in  the  place  of  the  tie-beam. 
Hammer-beams  are  used  in  pairs,  and 
project  from  the  wall,  extending  less 
than  half-way  across  the  apartments. 


HAMMER-CLOTH 


HAND 


The  hammer-beam  is  generally  sup- 
ported by  a rib  rising  up  from  a corbel 
below;  and  in  its  turn  forms  the  sup- 
port of  another  rib,  constituting  with 


that  springing  from  the  opposite  ham- 
mer-beam an  arch. 

HAMMER-CLOTH,  a cloth  sometimes 
used  to  cover  the  box-seat  of  a private 
carriage.  It  usually  bears  the  coat  of 
arms  of  the  owner  of  the  carriage. 

HAMMERSMITH,  a municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  London,  about 
6 miles  w.s.w.  of  the  general  post-office. 
The  Thames  is  here  crossed  by  a fine 
suspension  bridge.  Pop.  112,245. 

HAMMOCK,  a rectangular  piece  of 
cloth  or  netting  about  6 feet  long  and  4 
feet  wide,  gathered  together  at  the  two 
ends  and  slung  horizontally,  forming  a 
sort  of  bed  or  place  in  which  one  may 
recline  for  pleasure.  Hammocks  are  in 
common  use  on  board  ships  of  war.  The 
word  is  said  to  be  of  Caribbean  origin, 
and  the  Caribs  certainly  make  use  of 
similar  hanging  beds. 

HAMMOND,  a city  in  Lake  co.,  Ind., 
21  miles  south  by  east  of  Chicago,  111. 
The  industries  include  extensive  steel- 
spring and  chemical  works,  nail-mills, 
a slaughtering  and  meat-packing  plant, 
flour-mills,  carriage-works,  a distillery, 
starch-works,  a glue-factory,  brick- 
yards, etc.  Pop.  14,670. 

HAMMOND,  John  Hays,  an  American 
mining  engineer,  born  in  1855  at  San 
Francisco.  In  1893  he  was  appointed 
consulting  engineer  to  various  mining 
companies  operated  by  a London  firm 
in  South  Africa,  and  later  to  the  British 
South  Africa  company,  known  as  the 
Chartered  company,  to  the  Consolidated 
Gold  Fields  company,  and  other  organi- 
zations of  promoters  acting  in  that 
region.  While  in  South  Africa  he  was 
connected  with  the  Jameson  raid,  was 
tried  for  complicity  in  the  revolt  against 
the  South  African  republic,  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  death.  This  sentence  was  com- 
muted to  fifteen  years’  imprisonment. 
Hammond  was  later  released  by  the 
Boer  authorities  upon  the  payment  of 
a fine  of  $125,000.  Afterward  he  estab- 
lished himself  in  London,  whence  he 
directed  mining  interests  in  Mexico  and 
the  United  States. 

HAMPDEN,  John,  celebrated  for  his 
patriotic  opposition  to  taxation  by  pre- 
rogative, was  born  in  London  in  1594, 
being  cousin-german  by  the  mother’s 
side  to  Oliver  Cromwell.  Although  for 
some  years  a uniform  opposer  of  the 
arbitrary  practices  in  church  and  state, 
it  was  not  till  1636  that  his  resistance  to 
Charles’  demand  for  ship-money  made 


him  the  argument  of  all  tongues.  Al- 
though the  decision  in  the  court  of  ex- 
chequer was  given  against  him  by 
seven  voices  to  five,  the  victory,  as  far 
as  regarded  public  opinion,  was  his. 
In  the  following  year  (1637)  he  was  one 
of  those  who  meditated  emigration  to 
America,  which  they  were  prevented 
from  carrying  out  by  an  order  in 
council  detaining  them.  Henceforward 
he  took  a prominent  part  in  the  great 
contest  between  the  crown  and  the  par- 
liament, and  was  one  of  the  five  mem- 
bers whom  the  king,  in  1642,  so  impru- 
dently attempted,  in  person,  to  seize 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  When  the 
appeal  was  made  to  the  sword,  Hampden 
accepted  the  command  of  a regiment  in 
the  parliamentary  army  under  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  and  was  fatally  wounded  on 
Chalgrove  Field,  24th  June,  1643. 

HAMPSHIRE,  Hants,  or  Southamp- 
tonshire,  a maritime  county,  including 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land ; area,  1 ,037,764  acres.  Pop.  798,756. 

HAMPSTEAD,  a municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  London.  Hamp- 
stead Heath  crowns  the  summit  of  the 
hill,  and  is  now  sprinkled  over  with 
handsome  villas.  Pop.  82,329. 

HAMPTON,  Wade,  American  soldier 
and  politician,  was  born  at  Columbia, 
S.  C.,  in  1818.  With  the  secession  of  his 
state  from  the  union,  he  entered  en- 
thusiastically into  the  movement  for 
the  establishment  of  the  confederacy, 
and  raised  and  equipped  from  his  private 
means  the  command  which,  under  the 
name  of  “Hampton’s  Legion,”  did  good 
service  for  the  confederate  cause  through- 
out the  war.  He  was  engaged  in  oppos- 
ing the  advance  of  Sheridan  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley  in  1864,  where  he 
showed  such  high  qualities  as  a cavalry 
commander  that  he  was  in  August  of 
that  year  commissioned  lieutenant- 
general  and  placed  in  command  of  all 
Lee’s  cavalry.  Later  he  commanded 
the  cavalry  in  Johnson’s  army,  which 
opposed  Sherman’s  advance  from  Savan- 
nah in  1865.  In  1876  he  was  elected 
governor,  and  served  until  1878,  when 
he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  sen- 


ate. There  he  served  by  reelection  until 
1891.  From  1893  to  1897  he  was  United 
States  commissioner  of  railroads,  to 
which  office  he  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland.  He  died  in  1902. 


HANCOCK,  John,  American  patriot 
of  the  revolutionary  period,  was  born  at 
Quincy,  Mass.,  in  1737.  In  1774  Han- 
cock was  president  of  the  provincial 
congress,  and  from  1775  to  1777  of  the 
general  congress  at  Philadelphia,  where 
he  was  the  first  to  sign  the  declaration 
of  independence.  Returning  to  Massa- 
chusetts, he  assisted  in  framing  its  con- 
stitution, and  in  1780  was  chosen  first 
governor.  He  was  annually  elected  to 
this  dignity  till  1785,  and  again  from  1787 
to  1793,  sitting  as  an  ordinary  member 
of  the  legislature  in  the  interval.  He 
died  in  1793. 

HANCOCK,  Winfield  Scott,  distin- 
guished American  soldier,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  1824,  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1844,  and  served  as  lieu- 
tenant in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was 


appointed  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  1861,  fought  at  Antietam  and 
Fredericksburg,  and  commanded  a 
corps  at  Gettysburg,  where  he  was 
severely  wounded.  At  Spotsylvania, 
May  12,  1864,  he  captured  4,000  pris- 
oners and  many  cannon.  After  the  war 
he  rose  to  be  major-general  (1866),  and 
held  several  department  commands,  the 
last  being  that  of  the  department  of  the 
east,  with  headquarters  at  New  York. 
In  1880  he  was  made  the  democratic 
nominee  for  the  presidency,  but  was  de- 
feated by  General  Garfield.  He  died 
Feb.  9,  1886. 

HAND,  the  part  of  the  body  which 
terminates  the  arm,  consisting  of  the 
palm  and  fingers,  connected  with  the 
arm  at  the  wrist;  the  principal  organ  of 
touch  and  prehension.  The  human  hand 
is  composed  of  twenty-seven  bones, 
namely  eight  bones  of  the  carpus  or 
wrist  arranged  in  two  rows  of  four  each, 
the  row  next  the  fore-arm  containing 
the  scaphoid,  the  semilunar,  the  cunei- 
form, and  the  pisiform,  and  that  next 
the  metacarpus,  the  trapezium,  th« 
trapezoid,  the  os  magnum,  and  the 
unciform.  The  metacarpus  consists  of 
the  five  bones  which  form  the  palm,  the 
first  being  that  of  the  thumb,  the  others 
that  of  the  fingers  in  succession.  Lastly, 
the  fingers  proper  contain  fourteen 
bones  called  phalanges,  of  which  the 
thumb  has  but  two,  all  the  other  digits 
having  three  each.  These  bones  are 
jointed  so  as  to  admit  of  a variety  of 
movements,  the  more  peculiar  being 
those  by  which  the  hand  is  flexed  back- 
ward, forward,  and  sideway,  and  by 
which  the  thumb  and  fingers  are  moved 
in  different  ways.  The  chief  muscles 
which  determine  these  movements  are 
the  flexors,  which  pass  down  the  fore- 


HANDBALL 


HANKOW 


arm,  are  attached  by  tendons  to  the 
phalanges  of  the  fingers,  and  serve  to 
flex  or  bend  the  fingers;  and  the  exten- 
sors for  extending  the  fingers.  There  are 
two  muscles  which  flex  all  the  fingers 
except  the  thumb.  The  thumb  has  a 
separate  long  and  short  flexor.  There  is 
a common  extensor  for  the  Angers  which 
passes  down  the  back  of  the  fore-arm 
and  divides  at  the  wrist  into  four  ten- 


Skeleton  of  Human  Hand  and  Wrist. 


1.  Scaphoid  bone.  2,  Semilunar  hone.  3,  Cu- 
neiform bone.  4,  Pisiform  bone.  5,  Os  trape- 
zium. 6,  Os  trapezoides.  7,  Os  magnum.  8, 
Unciform  bone.  9,  Metacarpal  bones  of  thumb 
and  Angers.  10,  First  row  of  phalanges  of 
thumb  and  fingers.  11,  Second  row  of  pha- 
langes of  fingers.  13,  Third  I’ow  of  phalanges 
of  thumb  and  fingers, 

dons,  one  for  each  finger,  each  being 
attached  to  all  three  phalanges.  The 
forefinger  and  little  finger  have,  in  ad- 
dition, each  an  extensor  of  its  own,  and 
the  thumb  has  both  a short  and  a long 
extensor.  The  tendons  of  the  muscles 
of  the  hand  are  interlaced  and  bound 
together  by  bands  and  aponeurotic 
fibers,  and  from  this  results  a more  or 
less  complete  unity  of  action.  It  is  some- 
times difficult  to  make  a movement  with 
a single  finger  without  the  others  taking 
part  in  it,  as  in  executing  instrumental 
music,  for  instance;  but  practice  gives 
to  these  movements  perfect  independ- 
ence. Of  all  the  movements  of  the  hand 
the  opposition  of  the  thumb  to  the 
other  fingers,  alone  or  united,  especially 
characterizes  the  human  hand.  This 
action  of  the  thumb  results  from  its 
length,  from  the  first  metacarpal  bone 
not  being  placed  on  the  same  plane  as 
the  other  four,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
monkey,  and  from  the  action  of  a muscle 
— the  long  flexor  of  the  thumb — peculiar 
to  the  human  hand.  This  muscle  com- 
pletes the  action  of  the  other  motor  of 
the  thumb,  and  permits  man  to  hold  a 
pen,  a graver,  or  a needle;  it  gives  to  his 
hand  the  dexterity  necessary  in  the 
execution  of  the  most  delicate  work. 
Properly  speaking  then,  the  hand,  with 
its  highly  specialized  muscles,  belong  to 
man  alone.  It  cannot  be  considered,  as 
in  the  ape,  as  a normal  organ  of  locomo- 
tion. It  is  essentially  the  organs  of  touch 
and  prehension.  It  moulds  itself  to  a 
body  to  ascertain  its  form ; it  comes  to 
the  aid  of  the  eye  in  completing  or 
rectifying  its  impressions.  The  functions 
of  touch  devolve  principally  upon  its 
anterior  or  palmar  face,  the  nervous 
papillae  abounding  specially  at  the  ends 
of  the  fingers.  A layer  of  adipose  tissue, 
very  close  in  texture,  protects,  without 
lessening  its  power  or  its  delicacy,  the 
network  of  muscles,  vessels,  and  nerves, 
w'ith  which  this  remarkable  organ  is 
equipped. 

HANDBALL,  a variety  of  “Fives” 
practiced  in  the  United  States  chiefly 
on  account  of  its  physical  benefits  in 
training  for  contests  of  endurance,  though 


it  is  also  one  of  the  sports  under  the 
regulations  of  the  Amateur  Athletic 
union.  In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of 
scoring  the  ball  against  a single  back 
wall,  with  a lined-out  space  in  front ; but 
in  its  home,  Ireland,  the  court  or  “alley” 
on  which  it  is  played  has  also  side  walls 
extending  the  length  of  the  court  (60 
feet).  The  floor  is  60  x 28  feet,  and  about 
the  center  of  it,  parallel  with  the  end 
wall,  a line  is  drawn  called  the  “short 
line.”  Sixty  feet  from  the  end  wall  an- 
other line  is  drawn,  called  the  “over 
line,”  and  every  service  coming  off  the 
wall  must  fall  between  these  two  lines 
to  be  in  play.  The  game  is  started  by 
one  player  “tossing”  out  the  ball  on  to 
the  ground  and  hitting  it  on  the  re- 
bound, with  his  hand,  against  the  end 
wall.  It  it  falls  inside  the  short  line, 
and  the  other  player  fails  to  return  it,  it 
counts  an  “ace”  to  the  server.  Should 
it  be  returned  and  the  original  server 
fail  to  return  it,  it  is  a “hand  out.”  Then 
the  service  changes,  and  the  game  goes 
on  alternately.  The  game  is  won  by  the 
player  who  first  gets  15  or  20  aces,  as 
agreed. 

HANDCUFFS,  an  instrument  formed 
of  two  iron  rings  connected  by  a short 
chain  or  fixed  on  a hinge  on  the  ends  of 
a very  short  iron  bar,  which,  being 
locked  over  the  wrists  of  a malefactor, 
prevents  his  using  his  hands. 

HANDEL  (properly  Haendel),  George 
Frederick,  a great  German  composer 
born  at  Halle  on  the  Saale,  February  23, 
1685.  In  1696  he  was  sent  to  Berlin, 
where  he  heard  the  music  of  Bononcini 
and  Ariosti,  then  at  the  head  of  the 


George  Frederick  HandeL 


Berlin  Opera  House.  He  returned  to 
Halle,  but  soon  felt  to  visit  Hanover  and 
Hamburg.  At  Hamburg  he  played 
second  violin  in  the  orchestra,  and 
brought  out  in  1704  his  first  work,  an 
oratorio  on  the  Passion,  and  his  first 
opera,  Almira,  followed  in  February  by 
his  Nero,  and  subsequently  by  his 
Florinda  and  Daphne.  In  1706  he  went 
to  Italy,  visiting  Florence,  Venice, 
Naples,  and  Rome.  On  his  return  to 
Germany  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Elector  of  Hanover,  afterward  George 
I.  of  England,  as  musical  director.  He 
visited  England  twice,  and  ultimately 
having  received  a pension  from  Queen 
Anne,  settled  down  there.  Among  the 
operas  which  he  had  composed  up  to 
this  date  (1735)  are : Dadamisto,  Ottone, 


Giulio  Cesare,  Flavio,  Tamerlano,  Scipio, 
Ricardo  I.,  Orlando,  Ariadne,  etc.  His 
last  opera  was  performed  in  1740.  By 
this  time  he  had  begun  to  devote  him- 
self chiefly  to  music  of  a serious  nature, 
especially  the  oratorio.  The  approval 
which  his  first  works  of  this  kind  (Esther 
1731 ; Deborah,  1732;  Athalia,  1733)  had 
met  with  encouraged  him  to  new  efforts; 
and  he  produced  in  succession  Israel 
in  Egypt,  L’ Allegro  and  II  Penseroso, 
Saul,  and  The  Messiah.  The  last-men- 
tioned, which  is  his  chief  work,  W'as 
brought  out  in  1741,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Foundling  hospital.  In  1742  the  Sam- 
son appeared,  in  1746  the  Judas  Macca- 
bseus,  in  1748  the  Solomon,  and  in  1752 
the  Jephthah.  In  1752  he  became  blind, 
but  did  not  lose  his  spirits,  continuing 
to  perform  in  public  and  even  to  com- 
pose. He  died  at  London,  13th  April, 
1759. 

HANDICAPPING,  in  horse-racing  and 
various  other  games  and  sports,  a sys- 
tem of  equalizing  the  chances  of  victory 
in  favor  of  each  of  the  competitors  by 
allowing  certain  advantages  to  an  inferior 
competitor,  as,  in  horse-racing,  the 
making  of  the  best  horses  carry  heavier 
weights  proportionably  to  the  racing 
qualities,  or,  in  chess-playing,  the 
stronger  player  giving  up  one  or  more 
of  his  men  at  the  beginning  of  the  game. 

HANDS,  Laying  on  of.  This  rite,  as  a 
token  of  blessing,  or  the  communication 
of  spiritual  gifts,  or  of  something  else 
which  could  not  be  literally  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  another,  has  been  in 
use  from  the  earliest  times.  It  occurs  in 
Scripture  as  a patriarchal  usage,  ap- 
propriate and  becoming  perhaps  rather 
than  strictly  religious,  but  later  assumes 
more  of  the  character  of  a formal  rite, 
as  in  the  ritual  of  animal  sacrifice  among 
the  Jews,  when  the  officer  was  required 
to  lay  his  hands  on  the  victim  while  still 
alive,  except  in  the  case  of  the  paschal 
lamb.  In  the  early  church  this  rite  was 
used  in  benediction,  absolution,  the 
unction  of  the  sick,  and  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  penitents  as  well  as  in  ordination 
and  confirmation.  The  rite  is  still  re- 
tained by  most  western  churches  in  the 
ceremony  of  ordination,  and  in  the 
Roman  Catholic,  Anglican,  and  Luth- 
eran churches  both  in  confirmation  and 
ordination. 

HANG-CHOW,  or  HANG-CHOO,  a 

Chinese  treaty  port,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Chekiang,  on  the  estuary  of 
the  Tsien-tang-kiang.  It  is  one  of  the 
handsomest  cities  of  China,  with  many 
magnificent  temples,  monuments,  and 
triumphal  arches.  It  has  extensive  man- 
ufactures in  silks,  furs,  gold  and  silver 
ornaments,  tapestries,  lacquered  w'are, 
fans,  etc.,  and  a large  trade.  The  larger 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  live  without 
the  walls  in  the  beautiful  suburbs  and 
in  boats  on  the  river.  It  is  also  a great 
center  of  literary  and  ecclesiastical  life. 
Pop.  estimated  at  800,000. 

HANGING-BUTTRESS,  in  arch.,  a 
buttress  not  standing  solid  on  a founda- 
tion, but  supported  on  a corbel.  It  is 
applied  chiefly  as  a decoration. 

HANKOW'  (“Mouth  of  the  Han”),  a 
town  and  river  port  in  China,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hupeh,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Han  with  the  Yang-tse-kiang;  Hanyang 
being  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Han, 


HANLEY 


HANOVER 


and  Wuchang  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Yang-tse.  The  port  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  1862,  and  has  become  the  chief 
emporium  for  the  great  tea  districts  in 
the  central  provinces,  which  formerly 
sent  their  produce  for  export  to  Canton. 
Large  steamers  ascend  to  the  town.  In 


Hanging-buttress. 


1857  Hankow  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Taiping  rebels,  and  was  almost  com- 
pletely demolished  by  them.  Pop. 
750,000. 

HAN'LEY,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  of  North  Staffordshire, 
England,  pleasantly  situated  on  rising 
round  near  the  Trent,  18  miles  north 
y west  of  the  county  town  of  Stafford. 
Pop.  of  CO.  bor.,  61,524;  pari.,  bor. 
100,290. 

HAN'NA,  Marcus  Alonzo,  American 
manufacturer  and  politician,  born  in 
1837  at  Lisbon,  Columbiana  co.,  Ohio. 
In  1896  he  suddenly  acquired  national 
prominence  by  the  part  he  took  in 
securing  the  nomination  of  William 
McKinley  for  the  presidency  at  the  re- 
publican national  convention  at  Saint 
Louis.  Immediately  after  the  conven- 
tion he  became  chairman  of  the  repub- 
lican national  committee.  In  March, 
1897,  he  was  appointed  United  States 
senator  from  Ohio.  In  the  senate  he  did 
not  take  a prominent  part  either  as  a 
debater  or  a legislator;  but  up  to  the 
death  of  President  McKinley  he  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  most  influential 
advisers  of  the  administration.  He  died 
in  1906. 

HAN'NIBAL,  or  AN'NIBAL,  one  of  the 
greatest  generals  of  antiquity,  born  b.c. 
247,  was  the  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  also 
a general  and  leader  of  the  popular  party 
among  the  Carthaginians.  He  was  but 
nine  years  of  age  when  his  father  made 
him  swear  at  the  altar  eternal  hatred  to 
the  Romans.  He  grew  up  in  his  father’s 
camp  in  Spain  (see  Hamilcar),  but  re- 
turned to  Carthage  when  his  father  fell 
in  battle,  in  229  b.c.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-two  he  returned  to  the  army  in 
Spain,  then  commanded  by  his  brother- 
in-law  Hasdrubal,  and  three  years  after, 
on  the  murder  of  Hasdrubal,  received 
the  chief  command  by  acclamation. 
Hannibal  now  prepared  to  carry  out  his 
great  designs  against  Rome.  His  siege 
and  capture  of  Saguntum,  a city  in 
P.  E.— 38 


alliance  with  Rome,  led  to  a declaration 
of  war  from  the  Romans,  who  made  prep- 
arations to  carry  on  the  war  in  Spain. 
But  Hannibal,  judging  that  Rome  could 
be  overthrown  only  in  Italy,  undertook 
his  great  march  on  Rome  across  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Alps. 
He  set  out  with  90,000  foot-soldiers,  40 
elephants,  and  12,000  horsemen.  When 
he  reached  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Alps  he  had  still  50,000  foot-soldiers, 
9000  horse,  and  37  elephants.  When  he 
arrived  at  the  southern  foot,  after  15 
days  of  incredible  toils,  his  force  had 
diminished  to  20,000  foot-soldiers  and 
6000  horse.  The  point  at  which  he 
crossed  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
the  Little  St.  Bernard.  On  the  banks 
of  the  Ticino  he  first  encountered  a 
Roman  army  under  Publius  Scipio,  and 
defeated  it  mainly  by  the  superiority 
of  his  Numidian  cavalry,  218  b.c. 

Shortly  after  another  Roman  army, 
under  Sempronius,  was  totally  routed 
on  the  Trebia.  After  wintering  in  Cisal- 
pine Gaul,  Hannibal  opened  next  year’s 
campaign  (217)  by  defeating  the  Roman 
general  Flaminius,  whom  he  enticed  into 
an  ambush  at  Lake  Thrasymenus.  In 
this  battle  half  the  Roman  army  per- 
ished, and  the  rest  were  taken  prisoners. 
Hannibal  now  marched  into  Apulia, 
spreading  terror  wherever  he  approached. 
Rome,  in  consternation,  proclaimed 
Fabius  Maximus  dictator,  who  saga- 
ciously resolved  to  hazard  no  more  open 
battles,  but  exhaust  the  strength  of  the 
Carthaginians  by  delay.  But  for  some- 
time the  wisdom  of  this  policy  was  not 
understood  by  his  countrymen,  who, 
dissatisfied  with  his  inactivity,  ap- 
pointed Minutius  Felix  his  colleague. 
The  result  was  that  the  latter  was  drawn 
into  a battle  by  Hannibal,  and  would 
have  perished  but  for  the  aid  of  Fabius. 
After  this  the  Roman  generals  avoided 
engagements,  and  Hannibal  at  this 


critical  period  saw  his  army  wasting 
away  in  inactivity.  Next  year  (216), 
however,  the  rashness  of  the  new  consul 
Terentius  Varro  gave  Hannibal  the  last 
of  his  great  victories.  The  battle  was 
fought  at  Cannae,  the  Romans  under  L. 
.^Imilius  Paulus  and  Varro  numbering 
more  than  80,000  men,  the  Carthagin- 
ians about  50,000,  and  ended  in  a total 
defeat  of  the  Romans,  40,000  or  50,000 
of  whom  were  slain  and  the  rest  scat- 
tered. Instead  of  marching  on  Rome, 
Hannibal  now  sought  quarters  in  Capua, 
where  luxurious  living  undermined  the 
discipline  and  health  of  his  troops.  The 
campaigns  of  215,  214,  and  213  were 
comparatively  unimportant.  While 


Hannibal  was  seizing  Tarentum  (21^, 
Capua  was  invested  by  two  Roman 
armies.  To  relieve  Capua  Hannibal 
marched  on  Rome,  and.  actually  ap- 
peared before  its  gates  (211),  but  the 
diversion  remained  fruitless,  and  Capua 
fell.  In  207  a reinforcement  tardily  sent 
by  the  Carthaginians  to  Hannibal,  un- 
der command  of  his  brother  Hasdrubal, 
was  intercepted  by  the  Romans  and  de- 
stroyed at  the  Metaurus.  Hannibal  now 
retired  to  Bruttium  (the  toe  of  Italy), 
where  he  still  maintained  the  contest 
against  overwhelming  odds,  till,  in  203, 
he  was  recalled  to  defend  his  country, 
invaded  by  Scipio.  In  Africa  he  was  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  at  Zama  (202 
B.c.),  and  the  second  Punic  war  ended, 
after  a bloody  contest  of  eighteen  years, 
in  Carthage  having  to  accept  the  most 
humiliating  conditions  of  peace.  Han- 
nibal now  devoted  himself  as  civil 
magistrate  to  restoring  the  resources  of 
Carthage,  and  was  working  at  reforms 
of  administration  and  finance  when  the 
jealous  Romans  sent  ambassadors  to 
demand  his  surrender.  He  fled  to  the 
court  of  Antiochus  of  Syria,  and  offered 
his  services  for  the  war  then  commencing 
against  the  Romans.  They  were  ac- 
cepted, but  Hannibal’s  advice  for  the 
conduct  of  the  war  was  not  followed, 
and  he  himself  as  commander  of  the 
Syrian  fleet  failed  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Rhodians.  In  190  b.c. 
.'Vntiochus  was  forced  to  conclude  a dis- 
graceful peace  with  the  Romans,  one  of 
the  terms  of  which  was  that  Hannibal 
should  be  delivered  up.  Hannibal, 
again  obliged  to  flee,  took  refuge  with 
Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia,  and  is  said  to 
have  gained  several  victories  for  Prusias 
against  Eumenes,  king  of  Pergamus,  ar 
ally  of  the  Romans.  But  the  Roman 
senate  once  more  sent  to  demand  the 
surrender  of  their  inveterate  enemy, 
and  Hannibal,  finding  that  Prusias  could 
not  protect  him,  took  poison  rather  than 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  He 
died  in  b.c.  183. 

HANNIBAL,  a town  in  Marion  co., 
Mo.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
150  miles  above  St.  Louis.  It  has  to- 
bacco factories,  machine-shops,  foun- 
dries, pork-packing  establishments,  saw 
and  flour  mills,  and  an  extensive  trade 
in  lumber.  Pop.  15,267. 

HANOI',  or  KESH'O,  capital  of  Ton- 
quin,  on  the  river  Song-ka,  in  a fruitful 
plain.  Gold  and  silver  filagree,  lac- 
quered wares,  silks,  mat  and  basket 
weaving  are  its  principal  industries. 
Although  the  river  is  navigable  only  for 
small  vessels  to  the  trade  of  Hanoi  is 
considerable,  chiefly  with  the  southern 
provinces  of  China.  Pop.  variously  esti- 
mated from  80,000  to  150,  000. 

HAN'OVER,  formerly  a kingdom  in 
the  north-west  of  Germany,  now  a prov- 
ince of  Prussia.  The  total  area  is 
14,857  sq.  miles.  For  administrative 
purposes  it  is  divided  into  six  districts — 
Hanover,  Hildesheim,  Liineburg,  Stade, 
Osnabruck,  Aurich.  The  surface  in  the 
south  is  covered  by  the  Hartz  moun- 
tains, but  the  rest  of  the  country  is  a 
low,  monotonous  flat,  with  a gentle  slope 
to  the  North  Sea. 

HANOVER,  capital  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hanover,  situated  in  an  ex- 
tensive plain  on  the  Leine,  which  here 


HANSOM-CAB 


HARE 


receives  the  Ihme  and  becomes  navi- 
gable. There  are  fine  promenades,  and 
a large  wood  with  beautiful  walks,  the 
Eilenriede,  lies  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
city.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  Market  Church,  the  old  town-house, 
the  theater,  one  of  the  finest  in  Ger- 
many, the  royal  palace,  the  museum  of 
art  and  science,  the  royal  library,  con- 
taining 175,000  volumes,  the  central 
railway  station,  the  Waterloo  monu- 
ment, etc  About  a mile  to  the  n.w.  is 
Schloss  Herrenhausen,  the  favorite  res'- 
dences  of  George  I.,  George  II.,  and 
George  V.  Nearer  the  town  is  the  colossal 
Gelfenschloss,  or  palace  of  the  Guelphs, 
now  fitted  up  as  a polytechnic  school. 
Hanover  is  a manufacturing  town  of 
some  importance,  has  cotton-spinning 
machine-works,  iron-foundries,  chemical 
works,  tobacco  and  cigar  factories,  etc. 
Hanover  is  first  mentioned  in  1163.  It 
joined  the  Hanseatic  league  in  1481.  It 
became  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Brunswick-Liineburg,  and  capital  of  the 
principality  in  1636.  Pop.  235,666. 

HANSOM-CAB,  a two-wheeled  hack- 
ney-carriage or  cabriolet  and  named  after 
the  inventor.  It  holds  two  persons  be- 
sides the  driver,  who  sits  on  an  elevated 
seat  behind  the  body  of  the  carriage, 
the  reins  being  brought  over  the  top. 

HAR'AKIRI,  or  SEP'PUKU,  a mode 
of  inflicting  death  upon  themselves 
allowed  in  Japan  to  criminals  of  the 
Samurai  or  two-sworded  class  as  more 
honorable  than  public  execution.  It 
consists  in  cutting  open  the  body  so  as 
to  disembowel  it  ■ by  means  of  a wound 
made  with  one  sword  perpendicularly 
down  the  front  and  another  with  the 
other  sword  horizontally.  It  is  (or  was) 
frequently  resorted  to  to  save  dishonor 
or  exposure. 

HARAR,  a town  of  Northeastern 
Africa,  included  in  the  Abyssinian  ter- 
ritories, about  150  miles  from  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  now  reached  by  a 
railway  from  the  French  port  of  Jibouti. 
The  inhabitants  are  strict  Mohamme- 
dans. Pop.  estimated  at  from  35,000  to 
40,000. 

HARBOR,  a general  name  given  to 
any  bay,  creek,  or  inlet  of  the  sea  afford- 
ing accommodation  for  ships  and  pro- 
tection against  the  wind  and  sea.  The 
great  requisites  of  a good  harbor  are 
accessibility,  adequate  depth  of  water, 
and  shelter  from  violence  of  wind  and 
water.  Harbors  are  either  natural  or 
artificial,  the  latter  being  made  wholly 
or  partly  by  the  construction  of  moles 
or  breakwaters.  In  connection  with  the 
more  important  harbors  there  are 
usually  docks,  in  which  the  water  is  kept 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  same  level, 
thus  giving  facility  in  loading  and  un- 
loading. See  Breakwater  and  Docks. 

HARCOURT,  Sir  William  George 
Granville  Venables  Vernon,  lawyer  and 
politician,  was  born  in  1827.  Was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1854,  became  queen’s 
counsel  in  1866;  was  returned  for  Ox- 
ford city  in  1869  in  the  liberal  in- 
terest; distinguished  Ipmself  by  his 
powers  of  satire  and  ridicule  in  debate; 
was  made  solicitor-general  in  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s ministry,  Nov.  1873;  home  secre- 
tary in  1880,  when  he  lost  his  scat  for 
Oxford  but  was  returned  for  Derby. 
In  Feb.,  1886,  be  became  chancellor  of 


the  exchequer  under  Mr.  Gladstone,  and 
he  held  the  same  office  under  the  same 
leader  and  subsequently  under  Lord 
Rosebery  in  1892-95,  when  a change  of 
government  took  place.  He  died  in  1904. 

HARDICANUTE,  or  HARTHCANUT, 
King  of  England  and  Denmark,  was  the 
only  legitimate  son  of  Canute.  At  the 
time  of  his  father’s  death,  in  1036,  he 
was  in  Denmark,  where  he  was  immedi- 
ately recognized  as  king.  His  half-brother 
Harold,  however,  who  happened  to  be 
in  England  at  the  time,  laid  claim  to  the 
throne  of  that  part  of  their  father’s 
dominions,  and  succeeded  in  getting 
possession  of  Mercia,  Northumbria,  and 
Wessex,  but  died  in  1040,  when  Hardi- 
canute  peacefully  succeeded  him.  He 
reigned  till  1042,  leaving  the  govern- 
ment almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  his 
mother  and  the  powerful  Earl  Godwin, 
while  he  gave  himself  up  to  feasts  and 

Q T’lVl  1 G0 1 C 

HARDINGE  (har'ding),  Henry,  Vis- 
count, English  commander,  was  born  in 
1785.  He  was  gazetted  ensign  in  1798, 
and  was  present  at  all  the  great  battles 
and  sieges  in  the  Peninsula.  He  lost  his 


Viscount  Hardinge. 


left  hand  at  the  battle  of  Ligny.  He  be- 
came M.  P.  for  Durham  in  1820,  was 
made  secretary-at-war,  secretary  for 
Ireland,  and  in  1844  succeeded  Lord 
Ellenborough  as  governor-general  of 
India.  Being  forced  into  war  by  an 
invasion  of  Sikhs  he  took  a command 
under  Lord  Gough,  and  after  the  great 
battles  of  Mudki,  Ferozeshah,  and 
Bobraon  dictated  a peace  in  the  Sikh 
capital  of  Lahore.  In  reward  of  his  ser- 
vices he  was  created  Viscount  Hardinge. 
In  1852,  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  he  succeeded  to  the  post  of 
commander-in-chief.  In  1855  be  was 
made  a field-marshal,  and  he  died  in 
1856. 

HARD  LABOR,  a form  of  criminal 
punishment  that  is  comparatively  mod- 
ern. It  was  introduced  in  England  as  an 
alternative  to  transportation  and  penal 
servitude.  It  is  the  creation  of  statute 
law  both  in  Great  Britain  and  in  this 
country.  A court  has  no  right  to  sen- 
tence a convicted  criminal  to  hard  labor, 
in  addition  to  other  punishment,  unless 
a statute  gives  authority  therefor.  Hard 
labor  is  generally  authorized  by  federal 
as  well  as  state  legislation,  however,  in 
most  cases  where  the  convicted  criminal 
is  subject  to  imprisonment  in  a state 
prison  or  penitentiary.  The  kind  and 
amount  of  labor  required  of  the  sen 


tenced  criminal  are  regulated  by  statute 
or  by  prison  rules. 

HARDNESS,  the  quality  of  bodies 
which  enables  them  to  resist  abrasion  of 
their  surfaces.  In  mineralogy  a scale  is 
used  in  which  a set  of  standard  bodies 
are  arranged  and  numbered,  and  other 
bodies  are  referred  to  this  scale  with 
respect  to  hardness.  The  following  is  the 
scale  given  by  F.  Mohs: — talc.  1,  rock- 
salt  2,  calc  spar  3,  fluor  spar  4,  apatite  5, 
felspar  6,  quartz  or  rock-crystal  7,  topaz 
8,  corundum  9,  diamond  10.  Materials, 
according  to  this  arrangement,  which 
are  scratched  by  rock-crystal  and  are 
not  scratched  by  felspar  are  said  to  have 
a hardness  between  6 and  7. 

HARDPAN,  the  hard  stratum  of 
earth  beneath  the  layer  of  surface  soil, 
especially  noticeable  in  alkali  soils. 
Sometimes  this  is  produced  in  arable 
lands  by  the  pressing  of  the  plow  and 
the  trampling  of  the  team ; but  it  may  be 
prevented  or  destroyed  when  formed, 
by  plowing  at  varying  depths. 

HARD’WARE,  the  name  usually  given 
to  the  commoner  articles  made  of  iron, 
brass,  and  copper. 

HARDWOODED  TREES,  are  usually 
trees  of  slow  growth,  such  as  the  oak, 
beach,  witch-elm,  ash,  service-tree,  waL 
nut,  chestnut,  acacia,  etc.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished from  soft-wooded  trees  such 
as  the  willow,  poplar,  etc.,  and  resinous 
trees  such  as  the  pine,  fir,  cedar,  larch, 
etc. 

HARDY,  Thomas,  novelist,  born  in 
Dorsetshire,  England,  1840.  He  served 
an  apprenticeship  as  an  ecclesiastical 
architect;  published  his  first  novel. 
Desperate  Remedies,  in  1872,  and  has 
since  continued  a series  of  favorite 
fictions.  Among  his  best-known  works 
are  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd,  The 
Hand  of  Ethelberta,  'The  Trumpet 
Major,  The  Woodlanders,  The  Return  of 
the  Native,  The  Mayor  of  Casterbridge, 
Tess  of  the  D’Urbervilles,  Jude  the 
Obscure,  etc. 

HARE,  the  common  name  of  the 
rodent  quadrupeds  with  long  ears,  long 
hind  limbs,  a short  tail,  soft  hair,  and  a 
divided  upper  lip;  its  dental  formula  is; 
incisors  4,  canines  g,  molars  4 — | = 28; 
the  two  fore-feet  have  five  and  the 
hinder  four  toes.  They  run  by  a kind  of 
leaping  pace.  The  females  produce 
litters  of  three  to  six  about  four  times  a 


American  varying  hare. 


ear.  The  young  leverets  have  their  eyes 
ipen  at  birth.  The  common  hare  is 
ound  throughout  Europe  and  some 
)arts  of  Asia.  It  is  tawny  red  on  the 
)ack  and  white  on  the  belly,  and  is  about 
! feet  long  The  mountain  hare  or  varj" 
ng  hare  confined  to  Northern  Europe 
ind  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
iouth,  is  smaller  than  the  common  hare, 


HAREBELL 


HARMONICS 


and  becomes  white  in  winter.  The  Amer- 
ican hare  is  not  much  larger  than  a rab- 
bit, is  found  in  most  parts  of  North 
America.  In  North  America  there  are 
also  the  polar  hare,  a variety  of  the 
varying  hare,  but  of  superior  size  and 
purer  color;  and  the  prairie  hare,  one  of 
the  species  known  as  jackass  hares  or 
Jack-rabbits,  from  their  size  and  length 
of  limb.  The  hare,  which  has  no  courage 
and  little  cunning,  is  protected  from  its 
enemies  mainly  by  the  acuteness  of  its 
sight  and  hearing  and  its  extraordinary 
swiftness  of  foot.  Its  voice  is  never 
heard  except  when  seized  or  wounded 
when  it  utters  a sharp  loud  cry,  not  very 
unlike  that  of  a child.  Its  flesh  is  rather 
dry,  but  is  much  prized  for  its  peculiar 
flavor. 

HAREBELL,  the  Scotch  Bluebell,  a 
plant  common  on  dry  and  hilly  pastures, 
etc.,  with  a bell-shaped  blue  (some- 
times white)  flower.  The  radical  leaves 
are  cordate  or  reniform,  the  stem-leaves 
partly  ovate  or  lanceolate,  partly  linear. 
Its  slender  steam  is  from  4 to  6 inches 
high,  and  bears  sometimes  a single 
flower,  but  more  commonly  more  than 
one,  in  a panicle. 

HARE-LIP,  a malformation  consist- 
ing in  a fissure  or  vertical  division  of  the 
upper  lip,  sometimes  extending  also  to 
the  palate.  Children  are  frequently  born 
with  this  malformation,  and  the  cleft  is 
occasionally  double  The  name  is  given 
from  the  imagined  resemblance  which 
the  part  has  to  the  upper  lip  of  a hare. 
The  cure  of  hare-lip  is  performed  by 
cutting  off  quite  smoothly  the  opposite 
edges  of  the  fissure,  and  then  bringing 
them  together  and  maintaining  them 
in  accurate  apposition  till  they  have 
firmly  united. 

HA'REM,  Hareem',  is  used  by  Mus- 
selmans  to  signify  the  women’s  apart- 
ments in  a household  establishment,  for- 
bidden to  every  man  except  the  hus- 
band and  near  relations.  The  women  of 
the  harem  may  consist  simply  of  a wife 
and  her  attendants,  or  there  may  be 
several  wives  and  an  indefinite  number 
of  concubines  or  female  slaves,  with 
black  eunuchs,  etc.  The  greatest  harem 
is  that  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  The 
women  of  the  imperial  harem  are  all 
slaves,  generally  Circassians  or  Geor- 
gians Their  life  is  spent  in  bathing, 
dressing,  walking  in  the  gardens,  wit- 
nessing the  voluptuous  dances  per- 
formed by  their  slaves,  etc.  The  women 
of  other  Turks  enjoy  the  society  of  their 
friends  at  the  baths  or  in  each  other’s 
houses,  and  appear  in  public  accompanied 
by  slaves  and  eunuchs;  but  the  women 
of  the  sultan’s  harem  have  none  of  these 
privileges.  It  is  of  course  only  the  richer 
Moslems  who  can  maintain  harems;  the 
poorer  classes  have  generally  but  one 
wife. 

HARGREAVES  (har'grevz),  James, 
English  inventor,  author  of  two  im- 
portant improvements  in  the  art  of 
cotton-spinning,  was  born  near  Black- 
burn about  1720,  died  1778  In  1760  he 
invented  a machine  for  carding,  and 
some  years  after  the  spinning-jenny, 
by  which  he  was  able  to  spin  with 
several  spindles  at  once.  Suspecting 
that  he  employed  machinery,  his  neigh- 
bors broke  into  his  dwelling  and  de- 
stroyed his  machine;  and  on  the  repeti- 


tion of  this  kind  of  persecution  Har- 
greaves removed  in  1768  to  Notting- 
ham. In  1770  he  obtained  a patent  for 
his  invention,  but  it  was  after  all  de- 
clared invalid  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
sold  several  of  the  machines  before 
taking  out  the  patent.  For  the  rest  of 
his  life  he  carried  on  business  as  a manu- 
facturer. 

HAR'ICOT,  a general  term  for  various 
species  of  kidney-bean.  They  constitute 
a palatable  and  nutritious  article  of 
diet. 

HARLAN,  John  Marshall,  American 
jurist,  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1833. 
He  served  in  the  federal  army  from  1861 
to  1863  as  colonel  in  the  10th  Kentucky 
infantry.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  an 
associate  justice  of  the  United  States 
supreme  court,  which  position  he  still 
holds.  He  was  one  of  the  American 
arbitrators  on  the  Bering  Sea  tribunal 
which  met  in  Paris  in  1893. 

HARLEQUIN,  a character  of  the  Ital- 
ian comedy  introduced  on  the  stage  of 
other  countries.  On  the  Italian  stage  he 
is  a comic  character,  full  of  drolleries, 
tricks  and  knaveries,  and  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  English  clown.  The  har- 
lequin of  British  pantomimes  is  quite 
different.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  lover 
of  the  columbine,  and  possesses  a won- 
der-working wand,  with  which  he  pro- 
tects his  mistress  against  the  clown  and 
pantaloon,  who  pursue  and  endeavor  to 
capture  her,  until  the  pursuit  is  brought 
to  a termination  by  a good  fairy.  The 
harlequin  wears  a tight  dress  of  bright 
colors,  and  glittering  with  spangles. 

HARLEQUIN  DUCK,  a species  of 
duck,  so  called  on  account  of  its  parti- 
colored plumage  of  white,  gray,  and 


Harlequin  duck. 


black.  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  on  rare  occasions  it  visits  the  British 
Islands  in  winter.  In  length  it  is  about 
17  inches. 

HARLEY,  Robert,  Earl  of  Oxford, 
English  minister,  born  1661,  died  1724. 
After  the  accession  of  Anne  he  and  his 
colleague  St.  John,  afterward  Lord 
Bolingbroke,  became  leaders  of  the 
Tories.  Harley  was  chosen  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1702  under  Roch- 
ester, and  in  1704  was  appointed  chief 
secretary  of  state,  but  resigned  in  1708. 
After  the  fall  of  Marlborough  Harley 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in 
1710,  and  next  year  was  created  Earl 
of  Oxford  He  and  Bolingbroke  secured 
the  Tre;»ty  of  Utrecht  (171.3).  lie  made 
a valuable  collection  of  books  and  MSS. 
which  latter  are  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  where  they  form  the  Biblio- 
theca Harleiana.  Those  which  have  been 


printed  constitute  the  Harleian  Mis- 
cellany. 


Robert  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford. 


HARMON'ICA,  Franklin’s  name  for 
a musical  instrument  constructed  with 
glasses  of  different  sizes,  revolving  by 
means  of  mechanism  worked  by  the 
foot,  and  played  upon  by  touching  the 


rim  of  the  glasses  with  the  moistened 
finger.  It  constituted  the  “musical 
glasses”  of  Goldsmith’s  era.  The  name 
is  now  usually  applied  to  an  instrument 
consisting  of  a series  of  glass  keys  played 
by  two  small  hammers. 

HARMON'ICS,  the  accessory  sounds 
accompanying  the  predominant  and 
apparently  simple  tone  of  any  string, 
pipe,  or  other  sonorous  body.  No 
purely  simple  sound,  i.e.  no  sound 
whose  vibrations  are  all  in  the  same 
period,  is  producible  in  nature.  When 
a sound  is  produced  by  the  vibration 
of  an  open  string,  the  whole  string 
vibrates  as  a unity,  giving  rise  to  a tone 
called  the  fundamental.  The  string, 
however,  further  divides  into  various 
sections,  which  vibrate  separately  and 
more  rapidly,  and  produce  sounds  dif- 
fering from  the  fundamental,  but  bear- 
ing certain  fixed  proportions  to  it.  The 
first  harmonic  of  the  fundamental  note 
of  any  string  is  that  produced  by  half 
the  string,  and  is  the  octave  of  the  first ; 
the  second  harmonic  is  given  by  the 
third  of  the  string,  and  is  the  fifth  or 
dominant  of  the  fundamental  note, 
and  so  on,  the  complete  series  of  har- 
monics containing  all  the  notes  of  the 
musical  scale.  But,  while  harmonics 
enter  into  the  composition  of  any 
musical  sound  from  any  vibrating 
body  whatsoever,  the  different  structure 
of  different  instruments  suppresses  now 
some,  now  others,  of  the  succession  of 
harmonics,  and  a different  body  of 
tone  is  thus  produced,  distinguishing 
a note  in  one  instrument  from  the  same 
note  in  another.  These  differences  are 
called  in  English  quality,  in  French 
timbre,  in  German  klangfarbe. 


HARMONISTS 


HARPOON 


HAR'MONISTS,  a religious  sect  found- 
ed at  Wurtemberg  about  the  year  1788 
by  two  brothers  called  George  and 
Frederick  Rapp.  George  Rapp  died 
in  1847,  but  the  community  still  exists. 

HARMO'NIUM,  a musical  instru- 
ment of  modern  invention,  producing 
sounds  somewhat  resembling  those  of 
the  organ,  resulting  from  the  pressure 
of  wind  on  a series  of  vibrating  metallic 
reeds.  By  the  action  of  bellows,  to 
which  the  feet  communicate  a more 
or  less  rapid  movement,  the  air  is  made 
to  impinge  against  tliin  tongues  of 
metal  (here  termed  reeds),  and  to  set 
them  vibrating.  These  metal  tongues 
are  fitted  into  a slit  in  the  top  of  a small 
box  or  sonorous  cavity,  called  a wind- 
box,  and  are  enabled  to  vibrate  by 
being  fixed  only  at  one  end.  The  dis- 
covery that  the  form  of  the  wind-boxes 
determines  the  quality  of  the  sound 
produced  by  the  vibration  of  these 
metallic  tongues  contributed  very  much 
to  the  development  of  the  harmonium, 
as  it  enabled  the  player  to  imitate  the 
sound  of  the  oboe,  flute,  etc.  The 
instrument  has  a keyboard  like  that 
of  a piano,  and  when  one  of  the  keys  is 
pressed  down  a valve  is  opened,  which 
allows  the  wind  from  the  bellows  to 
rush  through  one  of  the  wind-boxes  and 
act  on  the  vibrator.  There  are  several 
stops,  by  means  of  which  the  performer 
can  direct  the  stream  of  wind  into  the 
wind-boxes  which  produce  a flute, 
clarionet,  or  any  other  sound.  There  is 
also  a knee  action,  which  either  serves 
as  an  expression  stop,  or  brings  all  the 
stops  of  the  instrument  into  play  at 
once,  and  what  is  called  the  percussion 
action,  which  consists  in  the  appli- 
cation of  a small  hammer,  which  strikes 
the  vibrator  as  soon  as  the  key  is  pressed 
down,  and  thus  aids  the  action  of  the 
wind.  The  better  class  of  harmoniums 
have  now  usually  two  or  more  extra 
rows  of  vibrators,  which,  acted  upon  by 
separate  stops,  add  so  many  octaves  to 
the  compass. 

HARNESS,  the  various  articles  which 
are  requited  to  yoke  a horse  or  another 
animal  to  any  vehicle,  or  to  control 
and  suit  them  for  any  kind  of  work. 
See  Bit,  Bridle,  Collar,  Saddle,  etc. 

HAROLD  (or  Harald)  I.,  King  of 
Norway,  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs 
of  that  country,  succeeded  his  father  in 
863.  He  brought  all  the  Norwegian 
]arls  under  his  power,  and  completely 
subjected  the  country,  allowing  his  hair 
to  remain  uncut  for  twenty  years  until 
he  attained  this  object  (885).  He  fixed 
his  residence  at  Trondhjem,  and  died 
there  in  933. 

HAROLD  HI.,  King  of  Norway,  the 
son  of  Sigurd,  a descendant  of  Harold 
Haarfager.  In  his  youth  he  went  to 
Constantinople,  joined  the  Varangian 
Guard,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition 
to  Italy  and  Sicily  against  the  African 
pirates.  About  1042  he  returned  to 
Norway,  after  having,  on  his  way 
through  Russia,  married  the  daughter 
of  the  Grand-duke  Jaroslav.  In  1047 
he  succeeded  his  nephew,  Magnus  the 
Good,  as  sole  king  of  Norway.  In  1066 
he  joined  Tostig,  the  brother  of  Harold 
II.  of  England,  in  an  invasion  of  that 
country,  but  was  defeated  and  slain 
at  the  battle  of  Stamford  Bridge. 


HAROLD  I.,  surnamed  Harefoot, 
Danish  king  of  England,  succeeded  his 
father  Canute  in  1035  as  Idng  of  the 
provinces  north  of  the  Thames,  and 
became  king  of  all  England  in  1037. 
After  a reign  of  four  years  Harold  died, 
in  1040. 

HAROLD  II.,  King  of  England,  born 
about  1022,  was  the  second  son  of  God- 
win, earl  of  Kent.  On  the  death  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  Jan.  5,  1066,  he 
stepped  without  opposition  into  the 
vacant  throne,  without  attending  to  the 
claim  of  Edgar  Atheling,  or  the  asserted 
bequest  of  Edward  in  favor  of  the  Duke 
of  Normandy.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
Oct.  14, 1066,  and  the  crown  of  England 
passed  to  William. 

HARP,  a stringed  instrument  of  great 
antiquity,  found  among  the  Assyrians, 
Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  Irish, 
Welsh,  and  other  nations.  Its  variety  of 
form  and  construction  was  only  equalled 
by  its  universality.  The  modern  instru- 
ment is  well  known:  its  form  is  nearly 


Ancient  Harps. 

1,  2,  Egyptian.  3,  Assyrian.  4,  Anglo-Saxon. 

triangular,  and  the  strings  distended 
from  the  upper  part  to  one  of  the  sides. 
It  stands  erect,  and  is  played  with  both 
hands,  the  strings  being  struck  or 
pulled  with  both  fingers  and  thumbs. 
The  instrument  in  its  ancient  forms 
was  very  defective.  Egyptian  harps 
are  represented  with  four,  seven,  ten, 
twenty,  or  more  strings,  but  we  have 
little  idea  of  the  scale  to  which  they 
were  tuned.  The  frames  are  depicted 
as  being  curved  in  various  forms, 
and  the  front  pillars  are  wanting. 
The  harps  of  the  Hebrews  were  prob- 
ably similar  to  the  Egyptian  instru- 
ments. It  is  probable  that  the  various 
Celtic  harps  were  derived  from  some 
oriental  pattern.  Among  the  Anglo- 
S.axons  the  harp  was  a favorite  instru- 
ment. The  modern  harp  was  by  no 
means  an  efiicient  instrument,  until 
pedals  were  invented,  an  invention 
finally  perfected  by  Sebastian  Erard, 
whose  patent  was  taken  out  in  1795.  In 
1810  he  patented  a double-action  harp 
with  seven  pedals,  each  effecting  two 
changes  in  the  pitch  of  the  strings.  The 
harp  thus  constructed  contains  forty- 
three  strings  tuned  according  to  the 


diatonic  scale,  every  eighth  string  being 
a replicate  in  another  octave  of  the  one 
counted  from. 

HARPER,  William  Rainey,  American 
educator,  was  born  in  New  Concord, 
Ohio,  in  1856.  He  graduated  at  Muskin- 
gum college  in  1870,  and  in  1875  re- 
ceived the  doctor’s  degree  from  Yale. 
In  1879  he  became  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  the  Baptist  Union  theological  semi- 
nary in  Chicago.  While  here  he  perfected 
a system  of  teaching  Hebrew  by  corres- 
pondence. In  1886  he  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  Semitic  languages  in  the  grad- 
uate faculty  of  Yale,  and  in  1889  also 
professor  of  biblical  literature.  In  1891 
he  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of  the 
newly  founded  University  of  Chicago, 
which  he  held  until  his  death  in  1906. 
His  published  works  include : Elements  of 
Hebrew;  Hebrew  Vocabularies;  Hebrew 
Method  and  Manual;  Elements  of  He- 
brew Syntax.  Died,  1906. 

HARPER’S  FERRY,  a village.  United 
States,  West  Virginia,  on  the  Potomac, 
at  its  junction  with  the  Shenandoah, 
and  formerly  a United  States  depot  of 
military  stores.  It  is  famous  as  the 
scene  of  the  unsuccessful  rising  headed 
by  John  Brown  with  a view  to  destroy 
slavery  (Oct.  16,  1859).  The  rising  was 
suppressed,  and  Brown  was  executed. 
Harper’s  Ferry  is  the  seat  of  Stover 
college  for  colored  students.  Pop.  764. 

HARPIES,  the  ancient  Greek  goddesses 
of  storms.  Their  parentage,  ages,  ap- 
pearance, names,  and  number  are  very 
differently  given  by  the  poets.  In  the 
Homeric  poems  they  are  merely  storm- 
winds.  Hesiod  represents  them  as  two 


Harpy,  from  an  antique  gem. 


young  virgins  of  great  beauty  called 
Aello  and  Ocypete.  The  later  poets  and 
artists  vied  with  each  other  in  depicting 
them  under  the  most  hideous  forms, 
covered  with  filth  and  polluting  every 
thing  in  contact  with  them.  They  are 
often  represented  as  having  female  faces. 

HARPOON,  a hunting  weapon  univer- 
sally used  to  catch  whales  or  large  fish. 
The  harpoon  is  generally  thrown  by 
hand,  but  often  it  is  fired  from  a gun. 
The  modern  harpoon  is  a development 
from  an  ancient  form  such  as  is  now 
used  by  savages,  and  was  common  not 
long  ago  among  the  North  American 
Indians.  Explosive  harpoons  are  some- 
times used  by  modern  whalers,  and 
with  this  weapon  the  animal  is 
killed.  The  non-explosive  weapon  is  a 
triangular,  arrow-shaped  instrument 
with  strong  barbs  and  a shank  about 
three  feet  long.  This  is  thrown  by 
means  of  a long  rope  and  the  whale 
thus  snared  is  played  until  exhausted, 
when  it  is  easily  dranm  up  to  the  boat 
and  lanced  to  death.  In  recent  times 
a modified  form  of  weapon  with  only 
one  barb  is  used.  The  harpoon  outfit  of 


HARPSICHORD 


HARRISON 


a whaling  boat  consists  of  six  w.eapons, 
in  the  use  of  which  whalers  become 


Harpoon  of  Makah  Indians,  Washington. 

exceedingly  expert.  The  modern  ex- 
plosive harpoon,  which  has  a bomb 


in  its  head  and  kills  the  animal,  is 
not  a harpoon  in  the  real  meaning  of 
the  word. 

HARP'SICHORD,  a keyed,  stringed 
instrument  formerly  in  use,  in  appear- 
ance and  construction  similar  to  a grand 
pianoforte.  In  the  front  the  keys  were 
disposed,  the  long  ones  being  the 
naturals,  and  the  short  ones  the  sharps 
and  flats.  These  keys  being  pressed  by 
the  fingers,  their  inclosed  extremities 
raised  little,  upright,  oblong  slips  of 
wood  called  jacks,  hirnished  with  crow- 
quill  plectrums  which  struck  the  wires, 
instead  of  the  hammers  o^the  modern 
pianoforte. 

HARPY-EAGLE,  a rapacious  bird 
which  inhabits  tropical  America  from 
Southern  Mexico  to  Southern  Brazil.  It 
is  an  extremely  powerful  bird,  and  in 

'f 


total  length  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
golden  eagle.  It  has,  however,  a some- 
what shorter  expanse  of  wing.  Its 
shoulder  muscles  possess  enormous 
strength.  Its  bill  is  powerful  and 


Harpy-eagle. 


crooked,  and  its  claws  are  extremely 
strong  and  sharp.  The  harpy-eagle  feeds 
on  birds,  sloths,  fawns,  raccoons,  etc., 
as  well  as  on  fish,  water-snakes,  and  the 
eggs  of  the  tortoise. 

HARRIS,  Joel  Chandler,  American 
journalist  and  author,  was  born  at 
Eatonton,  Ga.,  in  184^  In  1876  he 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Atlanta  Constitu- 
tion and  became  its  editor  in  1890.  His 
successful  contributions  to  this  paper 
collected  and  issued  in  1880  under  the 


title  of  Uncle  Remus,  His  Songs  and  His 
Sayings  have  become  classic.  Among 
his  other  well  known  books  are  Nights 
with  Uncle  Remus,  Mingo,  and  other 
sketches,  etc.  He  died  in  1908. 

HARRISBURG,  the  capital  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 110  miles  north  of  Washing- 
ton, on  the  Susquehanna,  over  which 
there  are  three  railway  bridges  besides 


a bridge  for  ordinary  traffic.  It  occupies 
an  elevated  and  commanding  site,  and 
has  important  industries  connected  with 
iron  and  steel  and  goods  manufactured 
from  them,  various  other  industries,  and 
an  active  trade.  Pop.  1909.  SO.ooo. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  American  rev- 
olutionary patriot,  one  of  the  signers  of 
the  declaration  of  independence,  was 
born  at  Berkeley,  Va.,  in  1740.  From 
1774  to  1777  he  was  one  of  Virg-nia’s 
representatives  in  the  continental  con- 
gress. From  1782  to  1785  he  was  gov- 
ernor of  the  state.  In  1788  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  convention  which 
ratified  the  federal  constitution.  He 
died  in  1791. 

HARRISON,  Benjamin,  the  twenty- 
third  president  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  North  Bend,  Ohio,  in  1833. 
He  entered  the  Union  army  as  lieu- 


tenant, was  promoted  to  colonel  and 
organized  the  Seventeenth  Indiana 
volunteers.  He  fought  in  the  Atlanta 
campaign  and  at  the  close  of  the  war 
held  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In 
1876  he  was  nominated  by  the  republi- 
can party  for  governor  of  Indiana,  but 
was  defeated  at  the  polls.  He  was  elected 
United  States  senator  in  1881,  serving 
six  years.  He  was  nominated  for  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  in  1888  by  the 
republican  national  convention  at  Chi- 
cago, and  was  elected,  receiving  233 
electoral  votes  to  168  for  Grover  Cleve- 
land. Some  of  the  important  meas- 
ures adopted  during  his  presidency 
were  the  McKinley  tariff  bill,  the  sus- 
pension of  the  Louisiana  lottery,  the 
establishment  of  the  reciprocity  policy, 
the  extension  of  the  navy,  the  settle- 
ment of  troubles  in  Chile,  and  the 
Bering  Sea  fisheries  arbitration.  Mr. 
Harrison  was  nominated  for  a second 
term  in  1892  by  the  republicans  but 
was  defeated  by  Cleveland.  He  re- 
turned to  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  re- 
sumed the  practice  of  law.  He  was  one 
of  the  counselors  for  Venezuela  in  the 
boundary  dispute  with  Great  Britain  in 
1899  He  died  March  13,  1901. 

HARRISON,  Carter  Henry,  American 
politician,  was  born  near  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1825,  and,  was  a descendant 
of  the  Virginia  Harrisons.  In  1855  he 
removed  to  Chicago.  In  1871  he  was 
elected  county  commissioner  of  Cook 
CO.,  and  from  1874  to  1878  was  a demo- 
cratic member  of  congress.  In  1879  he 
was  chosen  mayor  of  Chicago,  and  was 
reelected  for  biennial  terms  in  1881, 
1883,  and  1885.  In  1884  he  was  the 
democratic  candidate  for  governor  of 
Illinois,  but  was  defeated  by  Governor 
Oglesby.  In  1893  the  year  of  the  World’s 
Fair  when  an  able,  high-minded  admin- 


HARRISON 


HARVARD 


istration  was  deemed  necessary,  he  was 
again  elected  mayor.  He  was  assas- 
sinated on  October  29th  following,  one 
of  the  closing  days  of  the  great  exposi- 
tion. 

His  son.  Carter  Henry,  was  born  in 
Chicago  in  1860.  He  was  elected  mayor 
of  Chicago  in  1897,  1899,  1901,  and  1903. 

HARMSON,  William  Henry,  ninth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Charles  City  co.,  Va.,  in  1773.  His 
father,  Benjamin  Harrison,  was  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  declaration  of  inde- 


pendence. He  showed  great  gallantry  at 
the  battle  on  the  Miami  (1794).  He 
represented  the  northwest  territory  as 
a delegate  in  congress  in  1799-1800. 
When  Indiana  territory  was  formed 
(1800),  including  the  present  states  of 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wiscon- 
sin, besides  parts  of  Minnesota  and  Ohio, 
he  was  appointed  its  governor.  He  en- 
deavored to  avert  war  with  the  Indians, 
but  was  compelled  to  quell  Tecumseh’s 
outbreak,  and  beat  off  a fierce  and 
treacherous  attack,  ending  in  an  im- 
portant battle  at  Tippecanoe  (Nov.  7, 
1811).  In  the  war  of  1812-14  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chief  command  in  the 
northwest,  repulsed  the  British  force 
under  Proctor,  and  by  the  victory  of 
Perry  on  Lake  Erie  was  enabled  to  pur- 
sue the  invaders  into  Canada  where,  on 
Oct.  5,  1813,  he  totally  routed  them  in 
the  battle  of  the  Thames.  In  1816  he 
was  elected  to  congress,  and  in  1824  be- 
came a United  States  senator.  In  1828 
he  went  as  minister  to  Colombia,  but 
was  recalled  in  1829,  and  for  twelve 
years  was  clerk  of  a county  court  in 
Ohio.  He  received  73  electoral  votes  for 
the  presidency  of  the  United  States  in 
1836  against  Van  Buren’s  170;  but  four 
years  later  the  Whig  party  having 
united,  they  defeated  Van  Buren,  obtain- 
ing 234  electoral  votes  to  the  latter’s  60. 
Harrison  died  a month  after  his  inaugu- 
ration in  1841. 

HARRISON,  a city  in  Hudson  co., 
N.  J.,  on  the  Passaic  river  and  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Lackawana  and  the 
Erie  railroads.  It  is  a suburb  of  New 
York  and  is  the  seat  of  the  State  soldier’s 
home.  Pop.  12,460. 

HARROW,  an  agricultural  imple- 
ment, employed  for  smoothing  land 
which  has  been  plowed.  It  consists  of  a 
frame  of  woodwork,  or  of  iron,  in  which 
are  fixed  rows  of  iron  teeth.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  this  implement, 


such  as  the  "brake”  for  breaking  down 
rough  land;  the  “drill  harrow”  for  pul- 


Set  of  iron  harrows. 


verizing  between  furrows  of  green  crops, 
the  “grubber”  for  pulverizing  land  be- 
fore the  deposition  of  seed. 

HARTE,  Francis  Bret,  American  nov- 
elist and  poet,  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
1839.  He  went  to  California  in  1854,  and 
figured  as  a coal-dealer,  a teacher,  and  a 
type-setter  on  the  Golden  Era,  in  which 
appeared  some  of  his  earliest  literary 
efforts.  He  next  became  editor  of  the 
Californian,  and  in  1864  secretary  to  the 
United  States  Mint  at  San  Francisco. 
In  1868  he  became  editor  of  the  Over- 
land Monthly,  in  which  appeared,  in 
1869,  the  humorous  poem  of  The 
Heathen  [Chinee.  In  1878  he  became 


United  States  consul  at  Crefeld,  whence 
he  was  transferred  to  Glasgow  in  1880, 
and  remained  there  until  1885.  Among 
his  best-known  works  are  The  Luck  of 
Roaring  Camp;  The  Outcasts  of  Poker 
Flat;  The  Argonauts  of  ’49;  Two  Men  of 
Sandy  Bar;  Gabriel  Conroy ; Mrs.  Skagg’s 
Husbands;  In  the  Carquinez  Woods; 
Maruja;  Crusade  of  the  Excelsior;  A 
Waif  of  the  Plains;  Clarence;  etc.  He 
died  in  1902. 

HARTFORD,  the  capital  of  Connecti- 
cut, on  the  Connecticut  river,  50  miles 
above  its  mouth.  It  is  pleasantly  situ- 
uated,  is  built  with  great  regularity,  and 
has  among  its  edifices  the  state-house 
(built  at  a cost  of  24  million  dollars), 
city-hall,  deaf  and  dumb  and  lunatic 
asylums.  Trinity  College  (Episcopal), 
R.  C.  Cathedral,  the  Wadsworth  Athen- 
£Eum,  etc.  Both  manufactures  and  trade 
are  of  large  extent,  the  former  embrac- 
ing carpets,  linen,  silk,  edge-tools,  etc.. 


and  it  is  the  seat  of  the  Colt  Firearms 
co.  It  is  a great  center  of  the  insurance 
business.  The  American  asylum  for  the 
education  and  instruction  of  the  deaf 


New  state  capitol, Hartford,  Conn. 


and  dumb  at  Hartford  was  started  in 
1817.  Hartford  was  settled  in  1635  by 
colonists  from  Massachusetts.  Pop. 
1909,  estimated  at  105,000. 

HARTINGTON,  Right  Hon.  Spencer 
Compton  Cavendish,  Marquis  of,  born 
1833,  eldest  surviving  son  of  the  seventh 
Duke  of  Devonshire.  He  strenuously 
opposed  Mr.  Gladstone’s  Home  Rule 
scheme  of  1886,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  liberal-unionist  party.  In  1891  he 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom.  In  1895  he 
joined  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Salisbury  as 
president  of  the  council 

HARTLEY,  David,  an  English  phy- 
sician, principally  celebrated  as  a writer 
on  metaphysics  and  morals,  born  1705, 
died  1757.  He  became  a fellow  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  and  finally  prac- 
ticed medicine  at  Newark,  Bury  St. 
Edmund’s,  and  in  London,  and  ended 
his  days  at  Bath.  In  his  Observations  on 
Man  (1749,  two  vols.)  he  formulates  his 
hypothesis  of  nervous  vibration  and  of 
the  association  of  ideas. 

HARTSHORN,  in  pharmacy,  the  horn 
of  the  common  stag,  from  which  sub- 
stances deemed  of  high  medicinal  value 
were  formerly  prepared  by  distillation, 
such  as  spirits  of  hartshorn,  oil  of  harts- 
horn, and  salt  of  hartshorn  The  active 
ingredient  of  these  was  ammonia,  which 
is  now  obtained  from  gas-liquor  and  other 
sources. 


HARUN  AL  RASHID  (ha,  ron'  al-ra- 
shed),  a celebrated  caliph  of  the  Sara- 
cens, 786-809.  The  popular  fame  of  this 
caliph  is  evinced  by  the  Arabian  Nights’ 
Entertainments,  in  which  Harun,  his 
wife  Zobeide,  his  vizier  Giaffer,  and  his 
chief  eunuch  Mesrur  are  conspicuous 

n pf  PT*Q 

HAR'VARD,  John,  English  clergy- 
man in  New  England^  the  principal 
founder  of  Harvard  College,  was  born 
in  Southwark,  London,  in  1607.  In  1637 
he  removed  to  New  England  and  settled 
at  Charlestown,  on  Massachusetts  Bay. 
His  health  soon  gave  way,  however,  and 
he  died  of  consumption  on  September 
18,  1638,  after  a residence  in  the  Colony 
of  little  more  than  a year.  By  his  will  he 
left  his  library  of  260  volumes  and  a sum 
of  about  $2000  to  the  college  at  “New 
Towne,”  later  Cambridge.  A year  after 
the  young  clergyman’s  death,  in  com- 
memorat  on  of  his  benefaction,  the 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


HAT 


name  of  Harvard  was  conferred  upon 
the  institution. 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  the  oldest 
university  in  the  United  States,  situated 
in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  The  prin- 
cipal college  buildings  number  twenty- 
five,  and  include  several  halls,  such  as 
University  Hall,  Harvard  Hall,  etc.  The 
libraries  contain  about  450,000  volumes. 
There  are  about  80  professors,  exclusive 
of  assistants,  and  the  number  of  stu- 
dents is  over  3000.  An  entrance  exami- 
nation is  required  in  one  of  two  sets  of 
subjects,  of  which  classics  predominate 
in  the  one,  mathematics  and  science  in 
the  other.  After  the  first  year’s  course, 
which  embraces  a prescribed  series  of 
studies,  the  student  has  a large  number 
of  different  courses  to  select  from  in 
order  to  qualify  for  the  degree  of  Bache- 
lor of  Arts,  the  course  of  study  extend- 
ing to  four  years.  Among  the  depart- 
ments connected  with  the  university  are ; 
1.  The  Law  School;  2.  The  Lawrence 
Scientific  School;  3.  The  Divinity  School; 
4.  The  Medical  School;  5.  The  Dental 
School;  6 The  Bussey  Institution  of 
Agriculture;  7.  The  Veterinary  School. 
We  was  also  mention  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  (the  Agassiz  Mu- 
seum), the  Botanical  Garden,  the  Pea- 
body Museum  of  American  Archaeology 
and  Ethnology,  and  the  Radcliffe  Col- 
lege for  women. 

HARVEST-MOON,  a name  which  de- 
notes a peculiarity  in  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  full  moon,  by  which  in 
high  latitudes  generally  it  rises  about 
the  same  time  in  the  harvest  season  (or 
about  the  autumnal  equinox  in  Sep- 
tember) for  several  successive  evenings. 
In  southern  latitudes  this  phenomenon 
occurs  in  March.  It  is  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  moon  is  then  traveling  in  that 
part  of  her  orbit  at  which  it  makes  the 
least  possible  angle  with  the  ecliptic. 

HARVEST-MOUSE,  the  smallest  Brit- 
ish quadruped,  first  made  known  to 
science  by  White  of  Selborne.  It  builds 
a globular  nest  usually  suspended  among 
stalks  of  wheat,  etc. 

HARVEST  SPIDER,  a British  spider 
abounding  in  autumn,  and  possessing 
legs  of  unusual  length.  When  irritated 
it  has  the  peculiar  property  of  throwing 
off  one  or  more  of  its  legs. 

HARVEY,  William,  an  English  phy- 
sician, the  discoverer  of  the  true  theory 


William  Harvey. 


of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  was  born 
at  Folkestone  1573,  died  1657.  He 
entered  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1593,  and  about  1599  proceeded  to 


Padua,  then  the  most  celebrated  school 
of  medicine  in  Europe,  and  attended 
lectures  on  anatomy,  surgery,  and  other 
branches  of  medical  science.  He  took  the 
degree  of  M.D.,  and  returned  to  England 
in  1602.  He  settled  in  London,  was  ad- 
mitted Fellow  of  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, elected  physician  of  St.  Bartho- 
lomew’s Hospital,  and  in  1615  was 
chosen  Lumleian  lecturer.  His  views  on 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  were  for- 
mally given  to  the  world  in  his  Exer- 
citatio  Anatomica  de  Motu  Cordis  et 
Sanguinis  in  Animalibus  (On  the  Move- 
ment of  the  Heart  and  Blood  in  Animals) 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1628,  in 
which  he  claims  to  have  expounded  and 
demonstrated  them  for  upward  of  nine 
years.  Harvey’s  theory  was  attacked  by 
several  foreign  physicians;  but  from  the 
commencement  his  views  were  widely 
received.  In  1623  he  was  appointed  phy- 
sician extraordinary  to  James  I.  and  in 
1632  he  became  physician  in  ordinary  to 
Charles  I.  He  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Edgehill,  and  afterward  accompanied 
Charles  to  Oxford.  Here  he  received  the 
degree  of  M.D.,  and  was  elected  Master 
of  Merton  College,  an  office  which  he 
lost  on  the  surrender  of  Oxford  to  the 
parliament.  He  returned  to  London  in 
1646,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  retirement.  Of  Harvey’s  works,  the 
next  in  importance  to  the  De  Motu  is 
his  Exercitationes  de  Generatione  Ani- 
malium  (On  the  Generation  of  Animals; 
1651). 

HARZ,  or  HARTZ  (harts),  the  Hercy- 
nia  Silva  of  the  Romans,  the  most  north- 
erthly  mountain  chain  of  Germany, 
from  which  an  extensive  plain  stretches 
to  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic.  It 
extends  from  southeast  to  northwest, 
and  comprises  an  extent  of  about  60 
miles  in  length  and  nearly  20  in  breadth, 
embracing  the  towns  of  Klausthal, 
Goslar,  Blankenburg,  Wernigerode,  etc. 
The  Brocken,  its  highest  summit,  is  3742 
feet  high.  That  part  of  the  Harz  which 
includes  the  Brocken,  with  the  neigh- 
boring high  summits,  is  called  the  Upper 
Harz,  and  consists  entirely  of  granite. 
The  southeast  portion  is  called  the 
Lower  Harz.  The  Harz  abounds  in 
woods  and  fine  pastures;  and  is  rich  in 
minerals,  including  silver,  iron,  lead, 
copper,  zinc,  arsenic,  manganese,  granite, 
porphyry,  slate,  marble,  alabaster,  etc. 

HASHISH,  an  intoxicating  prepara- 
tion made  in  eastern  countries  from 
common  hemp  or  rather  from  the  Indian 
variety  of  it ; also  a name  for  this  plant 
itself  or  for  its  tender  shoots.  The  juice 
of  the  plant  has  powerful  narcotic  prop- 
erties, and  is  variously  made  use  of.  A 
resin  which  the  plant  gives  out  is  often 
gathered  and  kneaded  and  formed  into 
small  balls  called  churrus,  and  from  this 
a narcotic  is  prepared.  It  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a tenacious  ointment  of  a 
greenish-yellow  color,  with  an  acrid 
savor  and  a nauseous  smell.  Hashish 
produces  a kind  of  intoxication,  accom- 
panied with  ecstasies  and  hallucinations. 
When  dried  and  smoked  as  tobacco  the 
plant  is  called  bhang;  or  this  name  is 
given  to  a drink  prepared  from  the 
leaves  and  shoots.  Ganja  or  Gunja  is  the 
dried  shoots  of  the  female  plant  with  the 
resin  on  them.  Hashish  in  several  forms 
is  employed  in  medicine. 


HASTINGS  (has'tingz),  a pari.,  co., 
and  mun.  bor.,  and  market  town  of  Eng- 
land, county  of  Sussex,  one  of  the  Cin- 
que Ports,  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
sea-coast,  and  including  the  suburb  of 
St.  Leonards-on-Sea.  Pop.  of  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough  re- 
spectively, in  1901,  62,913  and  65,528. 

HASTINGS,  Warren,  first  governor- 
general  of  India,  was  born  at  Daylesford 
in  Worcestershire  1732,  and  died  there 
1818.  He  was  grandson  of  the  rector  of 
Daylesford.  He  was  educated  at  West- 
minster school,  and  in  1750  he  set  out  for 


Warren  Hastings. 


Bengal  in  the  capacity  of  a writer  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  company. 
When  stationed  at  Cossimbazar  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  Surajah  Dowlah  on 
the  capture  of  the  place  (1756).  Having 
made  his  escape,  he  served  as  a volunteer 
under  Clive  in  1757.  He  was  represen- 
tative of  the  company  at  Moorshedabad 
from  1758  to  1761.  In  the  latter  year  he 
removed  to  Calcutta,  having  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  Bengal  council,  but  returned 
to  England  in  1764.  He  left  India  in 

1785,  and  was  impeached  by  Burke  in 

1786,  being  charged  with  acts  of  injus- 
tice and  oppression,  with  maladminis- 
tration, receiving  of  bribes,  etc.  This 
celebrated  trial,  in  which  Burke,  Fox, 
and  Sheridan  thundered  against  him, 
began  in  1788,  and  terminated  in  1795 
with  his  acquittal,  but  cost  him  his  for- 
tune. 

HAT,  an  outdoor  covering  for  the  head 
of  various  shapes  and  materials  (as  felt, 
silk,  wool,  straw),  but  having  a brim  as 
its  most  distinctive  and  general  feature. 
Hats  are  of  ancient  origin.  Among  the 
Greeks,  for  instance,  the  petasos  was 
worn,  which  had  a brim,  and  was  similar 
to  The  round  felt  now  worn.  The  shape 
of  the  hat  has  varied  extremely  in 
Europe  at  different  periods.  The  dress 
hat  or  silk  hat  with  a smooth  nap  out- 
side is  the  most  important  form  of  this 
article  at  present,  though  felt  hats  are 
perhaps  in  more  general  wear.  (See 
Felt).  The  silk  hat  was  invented  at 
Florence  about  1760  The  manufacture, 
however,  did  not  make  much  progress 
till  1828.  Up  to  and  ever  after  this  time 
beaver  fur  was  the  chief  material  for 
hats.  A silk  hat  is  composed  of  a skele- 
ton, to  which  the  silk  plush  is  glued. 
The  skeleton,  consisting  of  three  parts, 
the  cylindrical  part  or  body,  the  crown, 
and  the  brim,  is  usually  made  of  linen, 
covered  with  gum-lac,  and  to  the 
cylindrical  part  of  the  crown  is  gummed 


HATCHWAY 


HAWFINCH 


The  cylindrical  part  is  made  by  gum- 
ming together  the  edges  of  a piece  of 
cloth  shaped  on  a cylinder.  The  brim  is 
composed  of  superposed  layers  of  stifler 
cloth,  and  made  with  a flat  projecting 
surface  round  its  inner  edge,  which  is 
gummed  to  the  skeleton.  For  covering 
the  hat  a sort  of  hood  of  silk  plush  is 
made,  cut  across  in  an  oblique  line.  This 


Forms  of  hats  in  16th,  I7th,  and  18th  centuries. 

1,  2,  Time  of  Henry  VIII.  3,  Time  of  Mary, 
4,  Time  of  Elizabeth.  5,  6,  Time  of  James  and 
Charles  1.  7,  8,  Time  of  commonwealth.  9,10, 
Time  of  William  III.  11-16,  Eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

cover  is  drawn  over  the  skeleton  on  the 
block,  and  fitted  exactly  to  it  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a hot  iron.  The  heat  of  the 
iron  melts  the  gum-lac,  which  on  cooling 
cements  the  covering  to  the  skeleton. 
The  edges  of  the  oblique  cut  are  also 
coated  with  gum-lac.  The  hat  is  finally 
shaped  on  the  block  or  form,  and  the 
plush  damped  and  polished,  while  the 
hat  revolves  on  a turning-lathe.  In  the 
manufacture  of  straw  hats  the  straw 
commonly  used  is  that  of  wheat  or  bar- 
ley. The  best  comes  from  Italy,  and  par- 
ticularly from  Tuscany,  but  straw  hats 
are  largely  made  in  England.  Palm-leaf 
hats  are  imported  from  China  and 
Manila,  and  are  also  machine-made  in 
the  United  States. 

HATCHWAY,  a square  or  oblong 
opening  in  the  deck  of  a ship,  affording  a 
passage  from  one  deck  to  another,  or 
into  the  hold.  The  after-hatchway  is 
placed  near  the  stern,  the  fore-hatchway 
toward  the  bows,  the  main-hatchway  is 
placed  near  the  mainmast. 

HAUBERK,  a kind  of  coat  of  mail, 
comprising  the  small  and  the  large 
hauberk,  the  former  consisting  of  a 
jacket  in  scales  descending  to  the  hips, 
with  loose  sleeves  not  reaching  to  the 
elbow;  the  latter  with  a camail  or  hood, 
reached  to  the  knee,  the  sleeves  extend- 
ing a little  below  the  elbow. 

HAVAN'A,  an  important  maritime 
city,  capital  of  Cuba,  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  island,  with  an  extensive  and 
excellent  natural  harbor.  Havana  is  the 
see  of  a bishop,  and  the  seat  of  the 
governor.  The  cathedral  long  contained 


the  ashes  _ of  Columbus,  which  were 
brought  hither  from  San  Domingo  in 
1796.  Among  the  other  buildings  are  the 
governor’s  house,  the  admiralty,  the  uni- 
versity, the  exchange,  the  opera-house, 
etc.  The  staple  manufacture  is  that  of 
its  celebrated  cigars.  The  other  manu- 
factures, consisting  chiefly  of  chocolate, 
straw-hats,  and  woolen  fabrics,  are  not 
of  much  consequence.  The  trade  is  ex- 
tensive, the  most  important  articles 


of  export  being  sugar  and  tobacco,  un- 
manufactured Or  in  the  form  of  cigars 
and  cigarettes ; other  exports  aremolasses 
coffee,  wax,  honey,  rum.  The  United 
States  have  the  principal  share  of  the 
trade,  and  Spain  and  England  rank  next. 
Several  railways  start  from  Havana. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1511,  but  was 
only  fairly  begun  in  1519.  For  a long 
time  Spain  derived  the  chief  part  of  her 
fleet  from  the  building-yards  of  Havana. 
Pop.  235,981. 

HAVELOCK  (havTok),  Sir  Henry, 
K.  C.  B.,  major-general  in  the  British 
army,  was  born  at  Bishop-Wearmouth, 
near  Sunderland,  on  5th  April,  1795. 


Sir  Henry  Havelock. 


Having  entered  the  army,  he  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Burmese  war  (1824 — 
26).  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian 
mutiny  he  was  despatched  to  Allahabad 
in  order  to  support  Sir  H.  Lawrence  at 
Lucknow  and  Sir  H.  Wheeler  at  Cawn- 
pore.  On  his  march  to  Cawnpore  he  de- 
feated the  rebels  at  Fattihpur,  Aong, 
Pandunadi,  and  Maharajpur.  He  died  of 
dysentery  at  Dilkusha  on  Nov.  24,  1857. 
He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
eral, made  a K.  C.  B.,  and  (before  his 
death  was  known)  created  a baronet. 

HAV'ERHILL,  a town  in  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  Merrimac,  with  extensive 
manufactures  of  boots  and  shoes.  Pop. 
estimated  in  1909  at  42,000. 

HAV'ERSACK,  a bag  of  strong  cloth 
with  a strap  fitting  over  the  shoulder, 


worn  by  soldiers  in  marching  order,  for 
carrying  their  provisions. 

HAVRE  (a-vr),  Le,  a seaport  of 
Northern  France,  dep.  Seine-Inferieure, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Seine,  108  miles  northwest  of  Paris, 
built  of  brick  or  stone  in  straight,  wide 
streets.  The  importance  of  Havre  dates 
from  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century. 
Pop.  129,014. 

HAWAII,  or  the  SANDWICH  IS- 
LANDS, a cluster  of  islands,  thirteen  in 
number,  situated  in  the  North  Pacific,; 
total  area,  6677  square  miles,  annexed 
to  the  United  States  in  1898.  Five  of 
them  are  mere  islets ; all  the  other  eight 
are  inhabited,  but  only  four  are  of  con- 
siderable size.  They  are  generally  of 
volcanic  origin,  and  mountainous,  with 
many  lofty  summits  of  which  Mauna-Kea 
on  Hawaii  is  13,953  feet  high.  Mauna- 
Loa  (13,760  feet),  another  peak  on  the 
same  island,  is  a volcano  still  active;  the 
last  eruption  took  place  in  1881.  The 
surface  of  the  islands  is  generally  rugged, 
but  there  are  many  fertile  valleys.  The 
coasts  are  for  the  most  part  precipitous 
and  lofty,  and  have  few  good  harbors. 
Hawaii,  the  largest  island,  has  an  area  of 
4372  square  miles,  with  46,843  inhabi- 
tants. The  second  largest  is  Maui,  con- 
sisting of  two  peninsulas  connected  by  a 
low  isthmus ; area,  488  square  miles ; pop . 
25,416.  The  chief  island  is  Oahu,  area, 
647  square  miles,  pop.  58,504.  Honolulu, 
the  capital  and  chief  port  of  the  islands, 
is  situated  on  Oahu.  The  remaining  large 
islands  are  Kauai  and  Niihau,  with  an 
area  of  657  square  miles,  and  20,734  in- 
habitants. The  island  of  Molokai  is  a 
leper  colony.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
group  belong  to  the  light-colored  Oceanic 
stock,  and  have  been  civilized  and  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  The  islands 
were  officially  designated  as  the  “King- 
dom of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.”  A 
new  constitution  was  proclaimed  by 
King  Kalakaua  I.  July  6th,  1887.  There 
are  several  high-class  and  numerous  ele- 
mentary schools.  All  religions  are  tol- 
erated; Protestantism  predominating. 
Railways  have  been  built  on  Hawaii, 
Oahu,  and  Maui.  Honolulu,  the  capital, 
has  become  an  important  entrepot,  and 
in  it  almost  the  whole  trade  of  the  islands 
is  centered.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar, 
rice,  coffee, bananas,  tallow,  and  hides- 
the  imports  are  chiefly  manufactured 
goods,  provisions,  grain,  and  timber.  The 
currency  is  mostly  that  of  the  United 
States.  The  islands  were  discovered  by 
Cook  in  1778,  who  afterward  lost  his  life 
on  Hawaii.  Population,  154,001.  King 
Kalakaua  died  in  1891.  Jan.  14,  1893, 
Queen  Liliuokalani  was  deposed  and  a 
provisional  government  formed.  Over- 
tures for  annexation  were  made  to  the 
United  States.  On  July  4,  1894,  the 
Hawaiian  Republic  was  proclaimed  and 
the  provisional  government  went  out  of 
existence.  President  Sanford  B.  Dole  be- 
coming president  of  the  new  republic. 
July,  1898,  by  a resolution  of  congress 
and  the  concurrence  of  the  president, 
Hawaii  was  annexed  to  the  United 
States  and  the  Philadelphia  dispatched 
to  take  formal  possession.  United  States 
domestic  postal  rates  are  in  force. 

HAWFINCH,  a species  of  grossbeak, 
so  called  from  the  belief  that  it  subsisted 
principally  on  the  fruit  of  the  hawthorn. 


HAWK 


HAY 


It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  finches.  It 
resembles  the  chaffinch  in  color,  but  is 
distinguished  from  it  by  its  enormous 


Hawfinch. 


beak,  larger  size,  and  bill-hook  forma- 
tion of  some  of  its  wing-feathers.  It  feeds 
on  all  kinds  of  berries. 

HAWK,  a name  often  applied  to  all 
birds  of  prey  except  the  eagles,  vultures, 
and  owls.  It  thus  includes  the  falcons  as 
well  as  the  hawks  proper,  the  latter  being 
distinguished  from  the  former  chiefly 
by  their  shorter  wings,  which  do  not 
reach  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and  have 
the  fourth  quill  longest  and  the  first 
short;  their  beaks  also  are  less  robust, 
and  want  the  tooth-like  notch  of  the 
former. 

HAWK-MOTH,  one  of  the  sphinx 
moths,  so  called  from  its  hovering  mo- 


Hawk-moth. 


tion,  which  resembles  that  of  a hawk 
looking  for  its  prey. 

HAWLEY,  Joseph  Roswell,  American 
politician  and  legislator  was  born  in 
Stewartsville,  N.  C.,  in  1826,  and  in  1837 
removed  with  his  father  to  Connecticut. 
In  1861  he  recruited  the  first  company  of 
volunteers  raised  in  the  state.  In  1864  he 
was  made  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
and  was  in  1866  mustered  out  of  service, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Connecticut,  He  was  elected  to  fill  a 
vacancy  in  congress  in  1872  and  re- 
elected for  the  full  term  of  the  43rd  con- 
gress in  1873.  He  was  again  elected  to 
congress  in  1878  and  at  the  expiration  of 
his  term  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate  to  which  he  was  re-elected  in  1887, 
1893,  and  1899.  In  1884  he  was  a candi- 
date for  the  presidential  nomination  be- 
fore the  republican  national  convention. 
He  died  in  1905. 

HAWSE,  that  part  of  a vessel’s  bow 
where  holes  called  the  hawse-holes  are 
cut  for  the  cables  going  through;  also, 
the  hole  cut  in  the  vessel’s  bow. 

HAWSER,  in  ships,  a small  cable  or  a 
large  rope,  in  size  between  a cable  and  a 
tow-line,  used  in  warping,  etc. 

HAWTHORN,  or  WHITEHORN,  a 
small  spiny  tree,  rising  sometimes  to  the 
height  of  20  to  25  feet.  The  leaves  are 
alternate,  obovate,  3 to  5 lobed;  the 
flowers  are  white,  sometimes  with  a red- 
dish tinge,  disposed  in  corymbs,  and  pos- 
sess an  agreeable  perfume j the  fruit  is  a 
drupe  of  a red  color,  and  is  edible.  The 
species  are  about  fifty  in  number,  all 


shrubs  or  small  trees.  When  young  the 
hawthorn  springs  up  rapidly,  and  if 
pruned  grows  into  a tnick  hedge.  When 
it  arrives  at  the  height  of  a tree,  however 
it  makes  wood  very  slowly.  The  timber 
is  hard  and  durable,  and  fit  for  many 
purposes  of  utility.  The  double-flower 
kind  is  one  of  the  most  ornamental  for 
shrubberies. 

HAWTHORNE,  Nathaniel,  American 
author  of  remarkable  originality,  born  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  1804,  died  1864. 
In  1837  appeared  his  Twicetold  Tales,  a 
collection  of  stories  which  he  had  contrib- 


Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 


uted  to  various  American  periodicals. 
In  1838  he  was  appointed  a weigher  in 
the  Boston  custom-house,  a post  which 
he  held  for  a few  years.  In  1846  he  pub- 
lished his  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse;  in 
1850  The  Scarlet  Letter;  in  1851  The 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables;  and  in  1852 
The  Life  of  President  Pierce,  and  the 
Blithedale  Romance.  In  1853  he  became 
American  consul  at  Liverpool,  a post 
which  he  held  until  1857.  He  died  at  Ply- 
mouth, New  Hampshire.  Other  works 
are  his  Transformation  (I860),  Our  Old 
Home  (1863),  etc. — Julian,  son  of  the 
above,  born  1846,  also  a novelist.  In 
addition  to  a biography  of  his  father,  he 
has  written  the  novels  of  Bressant,  Idola- 
try, Fortune’s  Fool,  etc. 

HAY,  the  stems  and  leaves  of  grasses 
and  other  plants  cut  for  fodder,  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  stored  usually  in  stacks. 
The  time  most  suitable  for  mowing  grass 
intended  for  hay  is  that  in  which  the  sac- 
charine matter  is  most  abundant  in  the 
plants,  viz.,  when  the  grass  is  in  full  flow- 


Hay-tedder. 


er.  For  the  operation  of  mowing,  dry 
weather,  and,  if  possible,  that  in  which 
sunshine  prevails,  is  chosen.  The  making 
of  the  grass  into  hay  generally  takes 
three  or  four  days  to  get  it  ready  for 
stacking.  This  period  is  principally  oc- 
cupied in  alternately  tedding  (i.  e.  shak- 
ing out  the  grass  loosely)  and  gathering 
it  up  into  cocks  or  small  heaps,  previous 
to  stacking.  Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 


haymaking  either  under  a scorching  sun 
or  during  the  prevalence  of  rain,  and  the 
cocks  should  never  be  opened  in  the 
morning  until  the  disappearance  of  the 
dew.  In  stacking  the  great  object  is  to 
preserve  the  freshness  of  the  herbage, 
and  to  induce  a slight  degree  of  fermenta- 
tion. If  the  weather  has  been  wet  a few 
layers  of  straw  may  be  inserted  at  inter- 
vals. Salting  is  also  recommended.  On 
large  farms  the  tedding  is  performed  by 
a tedding  or  haymaking  machine  drawn 
by  a horse. 

HAY,  John,  distinguished  American 
statesman  and  author  was  born  in 
Salem,  Ind.,  in  1838.  He  studied  law  in 
Springfield,  111.,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Abraham  Lincoln  and 
was  taken  into  his  office.  He  accom- 
panied Lincoln  to  Washington  and 
served  as  his  private  secretary  until  his 
assassination.  He  served  as  secretary  of 
legation  at  Paris  from  1865  to  1867  and 
was  then  charg6  d'affaires  at  Vienna  and 
at  Madrid.  From  1879  to  1881  he  was 
first  assistant  secretary  of  state  under 
President  Hayes  and  in  1897  was  ap- 
pointed ambassador  to  Great  Britain  By 
President  McKinley.  In  1898  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state,  and  on  the 
death  of  McKinley  was  reappointed  by 
President  Roosevelt,  and  reappointed  by 


Roosevelt  in  1904.  Among  his  diplo- 
matic triumphs  was  the  maintenance  of 
the  “open  door”  policy  in  China,  the 
settlement  of  the  Samoan  dispute  by 
which  the  United  States  secured  Tutuila 
with  an  excellent  harbor  in  the  Pacific; 
the  settlement  of  the  Alaskan  boundary 
dispute,  the  negotiation  of  recipocity 
treaties  with  Argentina,  France,  Ger- 
many, Cuba,  and  the  British  West 
Indies  and  the  negotiation  of  a treaty 
with  Great  Britain  relative  to  the  con- 
struction of  an  outer  oceanic  canal  (See 
Hay  Paunceforte  Treaty)  new  treaties 
with  Spain  and  one  with  Denmark  for 
the  cession  of  the  Danish  West  Indies. 
His  Pike  County  Ballads  brought  him 
literary  disinction.  With  John  G.  Hay, 


HAYDN 


HAZELINE 


lie  wrote  an  authoritative  life  of  Lincoln. 
The  anonymous  novel,  The  Bread  Win- 
ners, is  generally  attributed  to  him.  He 
died  in  1905. 

HAYDN  (hi'dn)  Joseph,  a celebrated 
German  musical  composer,  born  at  Roh- 
rau,  on  the  borders  of  Hungary  and  Aus- 
tria, 1732,  died  1809.  Haydn’s  principal 
merit  consists  in  his  opening  up  a new  de- 
velopment of  instrumental  composition, 
of  which  his  125  orchestral  symphonies 
furnish  abundant  proof.  In  1798  he 
published  his  oratorio  of  the  Creation, 
and  in  1800  that  of  the  Seasons.  He  may 
be  said  to  be  the  originator  of  the  sym- 
phony and  of  the  stringed  quartette. 

HAYES,  Isaac  Israel,  American  Arctic 
explorer,  born  1832,  died  1881.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  expedition  of  1853-55 
under  Dr.  Kane,  and  himself  commanded 
an  expedition  in  1860-61.  He  served  as 
an  army  doctor  during  the  war,  and  in 
1869  he  visited  Greenland.  He  wrote 
The  Open  Polar  Sea,  and  The  Land  of 
Desolation. 

HAYES,  Rutherford  B.,  nineteenth 
president  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
in  Delaware,  Ohio,  in  1822.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war,  he  was  made  a 


Rutherford  B.  Hayes. 


major  of  volunteers.  His  conduct  on  the 
field  was  marked  by  conspicuous  gal- 
lantry, and  he  attained  the  rank  of  brevet- 
major-general.  In  1865  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  congress,  where  he  won  the 
reputation  of  a working  member.  In 
1867,  1869,  and  1875  he  was  elected 
governor  of  Ohio.  In  1876  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency.  An  electoral 
commission,  appointed  by  congress,  was 
required  to  decide  the  result  of  the  elec- 
tion, which  declared  in  favor  of  Mr. 
Hayes.  His  administration  was  concilia- 
tory toward  the  South,  and  earnest  in  its 
efforts  for  the  reform  of  the  civil  service. 
After  his  retirement  from  the  presidency 
his  life  was  spent  in  the  cause  of  temper- 
ance and  prison  reform.  He  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Peabody  education  board  for 
the  instruction  of  freedmen.  He  died  in 
1893. 

HAY-FEVER,  or  HAY-ASTHMA,  a 

complaint  caused  by  the  odors  of  flower- 
ing grasses,  of  a stable,  or  of  certain  drugs 
such  as  ipecacuanha.  The  disease  varies 
from  the  symptons  of  a severe  cold  up  to 
those  of  spasmodic  asthma.  The  patient 
is  tormented  with  headaches,  his  eyes 
are  suffused,  he  sneezes  violently,  and 
there  is  an  acrid  discharge  from  the  nose, 
with  harassing  cough.  Removal  from  the 
cause  of  the  disease  is  beneficial,  so  are 


the  smoking  of  tobacco,  the  inhalation 
of  vapor  of  creosote,  etc.  Helmholtz 
has  discovered  vibriones  in  the  mucus  of 
patients  afflicted  with  hay-fever. 

HAYNE,  Paul  Hamilton,  American 
poet,  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
1831.  He  published  several  volumes  of 
poems  which  won  for  him  a genuine 
reputation  as  a poet.  Among  his  later 
productions  are  Legends  and  Lyrics 
and  The  Mountain  Lovers.  He  died  in 
1886. 

HAYNE,  Robert  Young,  American 
political  leader,  was  born  in  South  Caro- 
lina in  1791.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  was 
captain  of  the  Third  South  Carolina 
regiment.  In  1823  he  was  elected  as  a 
states  rights  democrat  to  the  United 
States  senate.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
great  debate  with  Daniel  Webster  cover- 
ing the  question  of  the  relation  of  the 
states  to  the  federal  government.  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  of  21  that  re- 
ported the  ordinance  of  nullification. 
In  1832  he  was  elected  governor  of 
South  Carolina.  He  died  in  1839. 

HAY-PAUNCEFOTE  TREATY,  the 
treaty  negotiated  in  1901  by  John  Hay 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
Lord  Pauncefote  on  the  part  of  Great 
Britain,  which  superseded  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  and  declared  the  policy 
which  would  control  the  United  States 
in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
an  isthmian  canal  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans.  The  treaty  trans- 
mitted to  the  United  States  senate  by 
President  McKinley  provided:  (1)  For 
the  construction  of  the  canal  by  or  under 
the  auspices  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment ; (2)  for  its  neutralization  on  the 
same  basis  as  the  Suez  canal ; and  (3)  for 
an  invitation  to  other  powers  to  join  in 
guaranteeing  such  neutrality.  The 
treaty  was  ratified  by  the  senate  with 
three  amendments,  the  first  of  which 
provided  that  the  restrictions  con- 
tained in  the  second  article,  based  on 
the  Suez  convention,  should  not  apply 
to  such  measures  as  the  United  States 
might  find  it  necessary  to  take  for  their 
own  defense  and  the  maintenance  of 
public  order;  the  second  explicitly  stated 
that  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  was 
thereby  suspended;  and  the  third  struck 
out  the  provision  in  regard  to  the  guar- 
antee to  be  asked  of  other  non-construct- 
ing powers.  In  its  amended  shape  Great 
Britain  refused  to  ratify  the  convention, 
and  it  expired  by  limitation  on  March  5, 
1901.  A new  treaty  was  transmitted  to 
the  senate  by  President  Roosevelt  and 
ratified  by  that  body.  The  principal 
differences  between  the  first  and  final 
treaties  were  three  in  number:  (1)  No 
guarantees  of  the  canal’s  neutrality 
were  to  be  asked  either  of  Great  Britain 
or  any  other  power;  (2)  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  was  specifically  abro- 
gated, although  the  general  principle  of 
neutrality  contained  therein  was  re- 
tained; (3)  certain  undefined  rights  of 
control  were  to  be  allowed  to  the  United 
States  in  time  of  war,  the  exact  nature 
and  extent  of  which  was  not  spec’fied, 
but  there  was  no  requirement  that  the 
canal  should  be  kept  'open  and  free  in 
time  of  war  as  in  time  of  peace,  nor 
was  there  a prohibition  of  the  erection 
of  fortifications  commanding  the  canal 
or  its  adjacent  waters, 


f 

HAYTI,  HAITI,  or  SAN  DOMINGO,  ( 

(originally  Espanola ; Latin,  Hispaniola),  ; “ 
one  of  the  West  Indies,  after  Cuba  the 
largest  and  one  of  the  most  fertile  of 
these  islands.  It  lies  southeast  from 
Cuba,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  the  i 
Windward  passage,  50  miles  broad.  Its 
length  is  400,  and  breadth  150  miles; 
area,  about  28,000  sq.  miles,  or  nearly  ^ 
as  large  as  Scotland.  • 

Hayti  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  7 
1492.  It  was  then  inhabited  by  perhaps  ! ’ 
2,000,000  natives,  but  so  ruthlessly  did  v 
the  Spaniards  deal  with  the  aborigines 
that  within  a century  they  practically  : 
exterminated  them,  having  introduced  ^ 
negro  slaves  in  their  place.  In  1630  the  -i, 
French  settled  in  the  western  part  of  the 
island,  and  in  1697  the  western  portion 
was  ceded  to  them,  while  the  eastern 
remained  Spanish.  It  now  comprises  the  ’• 
Republic  of  Hayti  on  the  west  side  of  the  ^ 
island,  and  the  Dominican  Republic  on  - 
the  east.  Port-au-Prince  is  the  capital  of  'I 
Hayti,  and  the  population  of  the  repub-  V 
lie  is  roughly  estimated  at  960,000,  con-  • 
sisting  of  negroes  and  mulattoes.  San 
Domingo  is  the  capital  of  the  Dominican  j 
Republic,  and  the  population  of  the 
latter  state  is  estimated  at  500,000,  con- 
sisting  also  of  negroes  and  mulattoes,  \ 
with  a considerable  admixture  of  whites.  , 
In  Hayti  French  is  the  prevailing  dia- 
lect;  in  the  Dominican  Republic,  Span-  + 
ish.  The  area  of  the  former  comprises 
10,204  sq.  miles;  that  of  the  latter,  ■ 
18,045  sq.  miles.  The  state  of  society  ,• 
in  Hayti  is  represented  as  deplorable, 
cannibalism  being  said  to  be  common.  ■* 

HAZ'ARD,  a game  at  dice  played  for  ^ 
money.  The  player  is  called  the  caster,  ^ 
and  his  opponent,  who  bets  with  him,  is 
called  the  setter.  The  former  calls  a ^ 
main,  i.  e.  any  number  from  5 to  9 inclu-  . 
sive.  He  then  throws  with  two  dice,  v 
and  wins  if  he  “nicks.”  Five  is  a nick  to  ^ 
5;  6 and  12  are  nicks  to  6;  7 and  11  to  A 
7,  etc.  The  caster  loses  or  “throws  out”  J 
if  he  throws  aces,  or  deuce  ace  (called  4; 
crabs).  Hazard  is  a game  involving  ^ 
nice  calculations.  A 

HAZEL,  a genus  of  shrubs  or  small  3 
trees  indigenous  to  Europe,  North  Africa,  S 
Asia  and  North  America.  The  leaves  are  S 
roundish-cordate,  alternate,  and  shortly  V 
petiolate.  The  European  hazel  produces  A 
the  nuts  called  filberts,  and  grows  best  S 
in  a tolerably  dry  soil.  It  bears  male  and 
female  flowers,  the  former  composing  3 
cylindrical  catkins.  The  hazel-nut  oil  is  '1 
little  inferior  in  flavor  to  that  of  almonds.  S 
Hazel  branches  form  excellent  walking-  3 
sticks,  fishing-rods,  etc.,  and  the  wood  ¥ 
produces  good  charcoal,  often  employed  S 
by  painters.  The  American  hazel  very  3 
much  resembles  the  European.  The  roots  j 
are  used  by  cabinet-makers  for  veneer-  .h 
ing;  and  in  Italy  the  chips  are  some-  5 
times  put  into  turbid  wine  for  the  pur-  M 
pose  of  fining  it. 

HA'ZELINE,  an  alcoholic  liquid  dis-  i' 
tilled  from  the  fresh  leaves  of  the  witch  ® 
hazel,  native  of  the  United  States.  It  is  tp 
exceedingly  useful  as  an  application  to  r 
wounds,  staunching  the  bleeding  and 
promoting  healing.  It  is  equally  useful  ' 
for  bruises,  inflammatory  swellings, 
sprains,  and  the  like.  It  is  applied  on  a ■ 
pledget  of  lint  to  bleeding  piles.  In  inter- 
nal bleeding,  whether  from  the  lungs, 
stomach,  or  bowels,  it  gives  very  satis- 


HAZELTON 


HEART 


factory  results.  There  are  several  offi- 
cinal preparations  of  the  witch-hazel, 
a fluid  extract  and  a tincture,  the  dose  of 
the  former  being  15  to  60  drops,  and  of 
the  latter  2 to  5.  Hazeline  is  the  name 
ivegn  to  a clear  colorless  liquid  prepared 
by  certain  chemists,  but  not  officinal, 
of  which  a tea-spoonful  may  be  given. 
The  American  patent  medicine.  Pond’s 
Extract,  is  the  same  as  is  also  Witch 
Hazel,  used  for  its  cooling  and  sooth- 
ing effect. 

HAZELTON  (ha'z’l-tun),  a city  in 
Luzerne  co..  Pa.,  on  the  Penn,  and  the 
Lehigh  Val.  Railways;  80  miles  n.n.w.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  has  valuable  anthracite 
coal-mining  interests,  is  principally  en- 
gaged in  mining  and  hatting.  Pop. 
17,140. 

HEAD,  the  term  applied  to  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  body  of  an  animal  when 
marked  off  by  a difference  in  size,  or  by 
a constriction  (neck).  A gradual  in- 
crease of  complexity  in  the  structure  of 
the  head  is  observable  as  we  ascend  from 
the  lowest  to  the  highest  forms  of  life. 
In  the  Protozoa,  Infusoria,  and  Coelen- 
terates  nothing  that  can  be  regarded  as 
a head  is  found,  and  it  is  not  until  we 
ascend  to  the  worms  proper,  the  articu- 
lated animals  (crustaceans,  myriapods, 
spiders,  and  insects),  the  land  and  fresh- 
water gasteropods  (snails  and  whelks), 
and  the  cuttle-fishes,  that  a head  proper 
is  found.  The  cuttle-fishes  have  a re- 
markable cartilaginous  box,  which,  like 
a skull,  protects  their  anterior  nervous 
ganglia  and  gives  support  to  the  muscles. 
The  head  of  the  vertebrated  animals 
presents  a regular  series  of  increasing 
complexity  from  the  lancelet  upward, 
and  as  the  anterior  nervous  mass  en- 
larges, and  its  ganglia  increase  in  com- 
plexity, so  do  the  anterior  vertebrae 
change  their  character;  as  the  brain  be- 
comes specialized,  so  does  the  brain-case 
or  skull,  attaining  its  highest  develop- 
ment in  man.  In  man,  and  in  the  higher 
vertebrates,  the  head  consists  of  an 
upper  chamber,  lodging  the  brain,  the 
eyes,  and  other  sense  organs,  and  a 
lower,  lodging  the  first  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  In  proportion  as  the 
vertebrates  become  developed,  the 
brain  increases  in  size,  and  its  position 
advances  anteriorly,  until,  in  man,  it 
comes  to  overhang  the  face.  The  head, 
is  the  seat  of  intelligence  and  of  con- 
sciousness, as  it  contains  the  brain  and 
the  organs  of  sense,  touch  being  the 
only  sense  not  limited  to  it. 

HEADACHE,  arises  from  a variety  of 
causes.  The  principal  forms  it  assumes 
are:  (1)  Congestive  Headache,  arising 
from  over-fulness  of  blood.  It  may  be 
cured  by  purgatives,  while  reduction  of 
the  diet  and  saline  medicines  are  bene- 
ficial. (2)  Anaemic  Headache,  which 
arises  from  a deficiency  of  blood,  and 
occurs  in  persons  badly  fed  or  in  weak 
girls.  Good  food  and  iron  tonic,  with 
application  of  cold  to  the  head,  are  often 
of  service  in  such  cases.  (3)  Nervous 
Headache,  which  often  attacks  the 
studious,  and  which  is  relieved  by  nerve 
tonics,  and  especially  by  phosphorus 
pills.  (4)  Neuralgic  Headache,  which  is 
often  due  to  exposure  to  cold.  What  is 
called  Hemicrania  or  Megrim,  which  is 
the  limitation  of  the  headache  to  one- 
half  or  less  of  the  head,  is  often  treated 


with  bromide  of  potassium.  In  cases  in 
which  headache  arises  from  disease  of 
the  liver,  nausea  results,  and  this  char- 
acterizes bilious  headache.  Impurity  of 
blood  and  gouty  affections,  as  well  as 
disease  of  the  kidneys,  are  frequent 
sources  of  headache. 

HEALTH,  is  that  condition  of  the 
living  body  in  which  all  the  bodily 
functions  are  performed  easily  and  per- 
fectly, and  unattended  with  pam.  The 
most  perfect  state  of  health  is  generally 
connected  with  a certain  condition  of 
the  bodily  organs,  and  well  marked  by 
certain  external  signs.  See  Sanitary 

HEARSE.  See  Herse. 

HEART,  a hollow  muscular  organ,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  maintain  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  the  organs  of  cir- 
culation being  the  heart,  the  arteries,  the 
veins,  and  the  capillary  vessels.  The 
heart  in  men,  quadrupeds,  birds,  and 
some  reptiles  is  composed  of  four  cavities, 
two  auricles  and  two  ventricles.  It  is  en- 
veloped in  a membrane  called  the  peri- 
cardium, and  is  situated  toward  the  left 
of  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  between  the 
lungs.  With  each  beat  the  apex  of  the 
heart  strikes  against  the  wall  of  the  chest 


Human  Heart. 

Pig.  1,  Exterior.  A,  Right  auricle,  b,  Left 
auricle,  c.  Right  ventricle,  n,  Left  ventricle. 
B,  Vena  cava  superior.  F,  Aorta,  g,  Pulmon- 
ary artery.  H,  Brachiocephalic  trunk,  i.  Left 
primitive  carotid  artery,  k,  Left  subclavian 
artery,  l,  Left  coronary  artery. 

Pig.  2,  Section,  right  side,  c,  d,  b,  f,  g as  in 
Pig.  1.  a,  Cavity  of  right  auricle,  b.  Interior 
vena  cava,  c.  Coronary  valve,  d.  Entrance  of 
the  auriculo-ventricular  opening,  e.  Valve  of 
the  pulmonary  artery.  /,  Possa  ovalis. 

in  the  space  between  the  5th  and  6th 
ribs,  a little  below  and  to  the  right  of  the 
left  nipple.  The  right  auricle  communi- 
cates with  the  right  ventricle,  besides 
which  there  are  in  it  three  openings,  that 
of  the  vena  cava  inferior,  that  of  the  vena 
cava  superior,  and  that  of  the  coronary 
vein.  The  communication  between  this 
auricle  and  ventricle  is  closed  by  a 
valve  when  the  ventricle  contracts. 
The  right  ventricje  communicates  with 
the  pulmonary  artery,  the  opening 
into  the  artery  being  guarded  by  a 
valve  formed  of  three  flaps.  When 
these  are  brought  together  they  in- 
terrupt the  communication  between 
the  ventricle,  and  the  artery.  The  left 
auricle  communicates  through  a valved 
opening  with  the  left  ventricle,  and  con- 
tains the  orifices  of  the  four  pulmonary 
veins.  The  left  ventricle,  besides  the 
communication  with  the  left  auricle, 
contains  the  orifice  of  the  aorta,  also  pro- 
vided with  a valve  similar  to  that  of  the 
pulmonary  artery.  The  auricles  and  ven- 
tricle of  one  side  are  separated  from 
those  of  the  other  by  a complete  muscu- 
lar partition,  the  septum  cordis.  The 
valves  at  the  openings  of  the  arteries  are 
called  semilunar,  that  at  the  orifice  of 


the  right  auricle  tricuspid,  that  at  the 
orifice  of  the  left  auricle  mitral,  and  that 
at  the  orifice  of  the  vena  cava  inferior 
the  Eustachian  valve.  The  heart  is 
formed  of  a firm  thick  muscular  tissue, 
composed  of  fibers  interlacing  so  as  to 
form  a figure  of  eight.  It  also  contains 
nerves  and  vessels.  The  arteries  carry 
the  blood  from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of 
the  body.  They  terminate  in  the  capil- 
lary vessels,  a series  of  extremely  minute 
tubes  which  pass  over  into  the  veins. 
The  veins  are  the  channels  by  which  the 
blood  passes  back  from  the  body  to  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart.  The  blood 
which  is  returned  from  the  veins  is  pur- 
plish red,  from  excess  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  and  deficiency  in  oxygen,  and  is 
callefd  venous;  that  which  leaves  the 
heart  is  bright  red,  being  oxygenated, 
and  is  called  arterial.  The  venous  blood 
parts  with  its  excess  of  carbonic  acid  and 
receives  new'  supplies  of  oxygen  in  the 
capillary  system  of  the  lungs,  flows  into 
the  pulmonary  veins,  thence  into  the  left 
cavities  of  the  heart,  thence  it  passes  into 
the  aorta,  and  is  transmitted  to  all  parts 
of  the  body,  returning  to  the  veins  by 
the  capillary  system.  It  is  now  become 
venous,  passes  through  the  veins  from 
the  extrimities  toward  the  heart,  re- 
ceiving the  chyle  and  the  Ijmiph,  and  is 
emptied  into  the  right  cavities  of  that 
organ,  which  returns  it  through  the  pul- 
monary artery  to  the  capillary  vessels  of 
the  lungs,  wffiere  it  is  subjected  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  air,  resumes  the  qualities 
of  red  or  arterial  blood,  and  is  ready  for 
a new  course. 

The  mechanism  of  the  circulation  is  as 
follows: — The  blood  contained  in  the 
two  venae  cavae  is  poured  into  the 
right  auricle,  which  contracts,  and  thus 
forces  the  fluid  to  escape;  but  the 
venae  cavae  oppose  to  its  backward 
passage  the  column  of  blood  which 
they  contain,  and  it  must  therefore 
pass  into  the  right  ventricle.  The  ven- 
tricle then  contracts,  and  the  tricus- 
pid valve  closing  the  passage  through 
which  the  liquid  entered,  it  is  forced 
into  the  pulmonary  artery,  along  which 
it  must  flow  (return  to  the  ventr'cle 
being  prevented  by  the  semilunar 
valve)  into  the  capillary  system  of  the 
lungs,  whence  it  passes  mtfi  the  pul- 
monary veins,  which  pour  it  imo  the  left 
auricle  by  four ‘orifices.  The  contraction 
of  the  auricle  impels  it  into  the  left  ven- 
tricle, by  which  it  is  driven  forward  into 
the  aorta  (the  mitral  valve  preventing 
its  return  into  the  auricle),  and  thence 
into  the  general  circulation.  The  two 
auricles  contract  and  relax  simultane- 
ously with  each  other,  as  do  also  the  two 
ventricles.  The  relaxation  is  called  dia- 
stole; the  contractian  systole.  The 
quantity  of  blood  projected  at  each 
systole  is  generally  estimated  at  six 
ounces.  The  causes  of  the  alternate  con- 
traction and  relaxation  are  entirely  in- 
voluntary and  dependent  on  the  nervous 
system  to  a large  extent.  The  systole  of 
the  ventricles  is  the  cause  of  the  motion 
of  the  blood  in  the  arteries,  which  dilate 
with  each  wave  driven  into  them. 

The  heart  is  the  seat  of  various  and 
generally  dangerous  diseases.  One  of 
these  is  pericarditis  or  inflammation  of 
the  pericardium,  the  double  lining  mem- 
brane or  bag  enveloping  the  heart.  The 


HEAT 


HEAT 


cause  of  this  disease  may  be  exposure  to 
cold,  or  an  injury,  or  it  may  be  compli- 
cated with  other  diseases.  Inflammation 
of  the  inner  lining  is  termed  endocarditis. 
Valvular  disease  is  a common  affection, 
of  the  heart,  the  valves  becoming  thick- 
ened, contracted,  rigid,  or  otherwise  af- 
fected, so  that  they  cannot  properly  per- 
form their  duty.  The  mitral  valve,  for 
instance,  may  become  too  narrow  and 
contracted,  and  the  result  is  that  all  the 
blood  does  not  pass  into  the  aorta.  In 
other  cases  of  valvular  disease,  the  same 
result  follows,  viz.,  imperfect  depletion  of 
the  ventricles  and  auricles,  the  return  of 
blood  being  termed  regurgitation.  The 
heart  consequentlv  becomes  weak- 
ened, while  the  entire  system  suffers. 
Overgrowth  or  hypertrophy  and  dila- 
tion are  frequent  results  of  valvular  dis- 
ease. In  such  cases  the  avoidance  of  vio- 
lent exercises  and  emotions  is  necessary. 
The  use  of  digitalis  is  often  successful  in 
strengthening  and  Soothing  the  heart. 
Certain  diseases  produce  atrophy,  in 
which  the  heart  becomes  feeble  in  action, 
while  fatty  degeneration  occurs,  when 
the  muscular  fibers  are  replaced  by 
oleaginous  particles.  This  renders  the 
heart  peculiarly  liable  to  rupture  under 
any  strain  or  violent  emotion,  hence  such 
should  be  carefully  avoided  by  patients. 
Among  other  organic  diseases  of  the 
heart  are  angina  pectoris  (the  cause  of 
which  is  uncertain),  distinguished  by  a 
sense  of  strangling  or  suffocation  in  the 
breast.  Neuralgia  of  the  heart  is  similar 
in  symptons  to  angina.  A very  common 
heart  ailment  is  palpitation,  often 
caused  by  indigestion,  and  the  excessive 
use  of  tea  and  tobacco.  Syncope  or  faint- 
ing results  from  the  sudden  cessation  of 
the  heart’s  action,  and  may  be  caused  by 
excitement,  emotion  or  shock  of  some 
kind.  Some  of  the  above  forms  of  heart 
disease  can  be  discovered  only  by  auscul- 
tation or  percussion ; others  are  very  evi- 
dent to  non-professional  observers. 

HEAT,  the  name  given  to  a peculiar 
sensation,  and  also  to  die  agent  which 
produces  it,  this  being  now  believed  to  be 
a certain  motion  in  the  minute  molecules 
of  which  all  bodies  are  composed. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  effects  of  heat 
is  to  alter  the  temperature  of  bodies.  In 
almost  |il  cases  when  heat  is  supplied  to 
a bodyy  the  temperature  of  the  body 
rises,  and  when  heat  is  removed  the 
temperature  of  the  body  falls.  If  the 
increase  of  temperature  is  evident,  and 
such  as  may  be  noted  by  the  thermom- 
eter, the  heat  is  then  termed  sensible; 
if  not,  as  in  the  case  of  ice  immediately 
melted,  it  is  termed  latent.  Temperature 
is,  in  fact,  the  tendency  that  a body  has 
to  impart  heat  to  other  bodies.  If  two 
bodies  impart  no  heat  to  each  other 
when  in  contact,  they  are  said  to  have 
the  same  temperature.  When  the  one 
possesses  more  heat  than  the  other  there 
is  an  impartation  of  heat  from  the  former 
until  the  temperature  is  equalized.  Dif- 
ferent bodies  require  very  different 
amounts  of  heat  in  order  to  raise  their 
temperature  through  the  same  number 
of  degrees.  Thus  it  requires  about  thirty 
times  as  much  heat  to  raise  the  tempera- 
ture of  1 lb.  of  water  1°  as  to  raise  the 
temperature  of  1 lb.  of  mercury  by  the 
same  amount.  The  terms  capacity  for 
heat  and  specific  heat  are  used  in  relation 


to  this  property  of  bodies.  The  capacity 
for  heat  of  a body  is  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  its  temperature  1°  from 
some  fixed  point,  as  from  0°  C.,  or  from 
32°  Fah.  The  specific  heat  of  a substance 
is  the  ratio  between  the  quantity  of  heat 
required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
substance  1°  from  some  fixed  point  and 
the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  an  equal  mass  of 
distilled  water  1°  from  0°  C. 

Heat  changesthe  dimensions  of  bodies. 
Increase  of  volume  is  the  normal  effect, 
although  the  reverse  is  observed  in  water 
between  0°  C.  and  4°  C.,  and  in  iron  and 
bismuth.  Between  moderate  limits 
bodies  expand  nearly  regularly  with  the 
temperature,  but  this  does  not  hold  good 
of  the  more  extreme  limits.  (See  Expan- 
sion.) Addition  of  heat  liquefies  solid 
bodies,  and  converts  liquids  into  gases. 
During  the  conversion  of  a solid  into  a 
liquid,  or  a liquid  into  a gas,  a consider- 
able quantity  of  heat  is  absorbed,  and  in 
the  reverse  process  heat  is  given  out ; but 
this  is  one  of  the  cases  in  which,  though 
heat  is  taken  in  or  given  out,  the  tem- 
perature is  not  altered.  Hence  the  heat 
is  said  to  be  made  latent.  Heat  also  alters 
the  power  of  bodies  for  conducting  elec- 
tricity. In  solids  the  conductivity  is 
diminished  to  a great  extent  by  an  in- 
crease of  a few  degrees  in  the  tempera- 
ture. In  liquids,  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
crease of  temperature  increases  the  con- 
ductivity. The  magnetic  properties  of 
bodies  are  also  changed  by  heat.  For 
example,  an  iron  bar  that  has  been  mag- 
netized suddenly  loses  the  whole  of  its 
magnetism  at  a particular  temperature. 
Heat  possesses  the  power  of  altering  the 
chemical  properties  of  bodies.  In  some 
cases  it  breaks  up  chemical  compounds, 
but  in  general  it  favors  chemical  com- 
bination. 

In  measuring  quantities  of  heat  vari- 
ous units  may  be  adopted,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  quantity  necessary  to  melt  a 
pound  of  ice.  But  the  unit  quantity  of 
heat  now  generally  fixed  on  (the  Centi- 
grade thermometer  and  metrical  system 
being  employed)  is  the  quantity  of  heat 
which  will  raise  the  temperature  of  1 
gramme  of  distilled  water  frqm  0°  C.  to 
1°  C.;  or  1 lb.  of  water  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  1 gramme,  and  one  degree 
Fahrenheit  instead  of  one  degree  Centi- 
grade. Calorimetry  is  the  technical 
name  given  to  the  part  of  the  subject 
that  deals  with  the  practical  measure- 
ment of  quantities  of  heat. 

When  heat  is  applied  to  one  end  of  a 
bar  of  iron  it  is  propagated  through  the 
substance  of  the  bar,  producing  a rise  of 
temperature  which  is  first  perceptible  at 
near,  and  afterward  at  remote  portions. 
This  transmission  of  heat  is  called  con- 
ductivity. The  best  conductors  are 
metals,  but  all  bodies  conduct  more  or 
less.  The  best  conductor  is  silver,  next 
follow  in  order  of  their  conductivity 
copper,  gold,  brass,  zinc,  tin,  steel,  iron, 
lead.  With  the  exception  of  mercury  and 
other  melted  metals,  liquids  are  exceed- 
ingly bad  conductors  of  heat.  This  can 
be  shown  by  heating  the  upper  part  of  a 
column  of  liquid  and  observing  the  varia- 
fions  of  temperature  below.  These  will 
be  found  to  be  scarcely  perceptible  and 
to  be  very  slowly  produced.  If  the  heat 
were  applied  below  we  should  have  the 


process  called  the  convection  of  heat; 
the  lower  layers  of  liquid  would  rise  to 
the  surface,  and  be  replaced  by  others 
which  would  rise  in  their  turn,  thus  pro- 
ducing a circulation  and  a general  heat- 
ing of  the  liquid.  When  the  heat  is  ap- 
plied above  the  expanded  layers  remain 
in  their  place,  and  the  rest  of  the  liquid 
can  be  heated  by  conduction  and  radia- 
tion only. 

Radiation  of  heat  consists  in  the  pro-  - 
pagation  of  heat  from  a hotter  body  to  a 
colder  one  through  an  intervening 
medium  which  is  not  heated  during  the 
process.  The  heat  is  transmitted  by  the 
same  medium  that  transmits  light  from 
a luminous  body.  Radiant  heat  and 
light  are,  in  fact,  the  same  thing,  namely 
vibrations  of  an  elastic  medium,  the 
luminiferous  ether,  supposed  to  fill  all 
space,  and  they  obey  the  same  laws  of 
reflection,  refraction,  interference,  and 
polarization.  They  also  obey  the  general 
laws  of  wave-motion.  A luminous  body 
excites  in  the  ether  waves  or  undulations 
of  a great  many  different  wave-lengths, 
some  of  them  -capable  of  affecting  the 
eye  as  light,  and  others  not.  Heat  rays 
need  not  be  at  all  luminous;  they  may 
have  no  light-giving  power,  but  may  be 
what  are  known  as  rays  of  dark  heat, 
capable  of  being  detected  by  the  ther- 
mometer, but  not  perceptible  to  the  eye. 
Other  rays  are  purely  chemical  in  their 
effect  (as  in  photography),  and  are  called 
actinic  rays.  The  general  effect  of  radia- 
tion is  to  equalize  the  temperature  of 
any  system  of  bodies  so  placed  as  to  be 
capable  of  radiating  one  to  the  other. 
Every  body  of  the  system  is  constantly 
sending  forth  heat-rays  in  all  directions, 
and  receiving  the  heat  radiated  from  the 
other  bodies.  But  the  hotter  bodies  emit 
more  than  they  receive,  while  the  colder 
bodies  receive  more  than  they  emit,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  system  is  thus  ■ 
gradually  equalized.  The  rapidity  or 
otherwise  of  radiation  differs  much  in 
different  bodies.  The  radiation  depends 
on  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  body, 
and  the  power  of  a body  to  radiate  heat 
is  intimately  connected  with  its  power 
of  absorbing  heat  radiated  to  it,  and  with 
its  power  of  reflecting  heat.  Surfaces  that 
are  good  radiators  are  good  absorbers, 
and  surfaces  that  absorb  heat  readily  re- 
flect it  badly.  Thus,  a kettle  covered 
with  soot  loses,  when  filled  with  hot 
water,  heat  more  rapidly  than  one  with  a 
brightly  polished  surface.  The  best  ab- 
sorber of  all  is  a surface  covered  with  a 
thin  coating  of  lamp-black.  Brightly 
polished  metals  are  the  worst  absorbers 
among  bodies  that  are  not  transparent 
to  radiant  heat. 

The  transmission  of  radiant  heat  ' 
through  various  substances  is  a subject 
of  great  importance.  In  this  connection 
the  terms  diathermanous  and  ather- 
manous  correspond  to  tran.sparent  and 
opaque  in  the  case  of  light.  One  of  the 
chief  diathermanous  bodies  is  rock-salt. 
Common  white  glass  transmits  rays  of 
high  refrangibility,  stopping  those  of  low 
refrangibility.  Hence  its  use  as  a fire- 
screen. ■ For  the  greater  part  of  the  heat  y 
of  a common  fire  is  of  the  dark  kind, 
and  is  nearly  all  stopped  by  the  glass; 
but  glass  does  not  screen  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  a great  part  of  which  con-  ■- 
sists  of  heat  of  high  refrangibility.  On 


HEAT  SPECTRUM 


HEBRIDES 


the  other  hand,  smoked  rock-salt  trans- 
mits very  little  of  the  heat  of  high  re- 
frangibility,  though  it  is  almost  perfectly 
diathermanous  to  dark  heat. 

The  nature  of  heat  was  long  a subject 
of  active  controversy.  The  common 
theory.during  the  18th  century,  andin  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  was  the  material- 
istic, or  that  by  which  heat  was  regarded 
as  an  imponderable  fluid  (caloric),  which 
could  permeate  all  matter,  and  which, 
uniting  with  the  particles  of  bodies,  pro- 
duced the  phenomena  associated  with 
heat.  The  materialistic  theory  was  held 
by  Black  and  Lavoisier,  but  it  was  ex- 
ploded by  the  experiments  of  Rumford 
and  Davy.  Among  the  contributions 
of  Davy  to  the  science  was  his  cele- 
brated experiment  of  rubbing  together 
two  pieces  of  ice,  while  surrounded  by 
an  ice-cold  atmosphere,  until  they 
melted  away  completely.  He  concluded 
that  “the  immediate  cause  of  the  phe- 
nomenon of  heat  is  motion,  and  the 
laws  of  its  communication  are  pre- 
cisely the  same  as  the  laws  of  the  com- 
munication of  motion.”  Between  1840 
and  1843  Joule  conclusively  established 
the  truth  of  this  theory — the  dynamical 
theory  of  heat — by  measuring  the 
amount  of  energy  required  to  produce  a 
definite  heating  effect,  and  by  showing 
that  the  quantity  of  heat  obtained  by 
expending  a definite  amount  of  energy 
in  friction  is  the  same  whatever  is  the 
nature  of  the  body  in  which  the  friction 
takes  place.  The  conclusions  arrived  at 
by  him  are  thus  given: — ■ 

1st.  The  quantity  of  heat  produced 
by  the  friction  of  bodies,  whether  solid 
or  liquid,  is  always  proportional  to  the 
quantity  of  work  expended.  i 

2d.  The  quantity  of  heat  capable  of 
increasing  the  temperature  of  1 lb.  of 
water  by  1°  Fah.  requires  for  its  evolution 
the  expenditure  of  mechanical  energy 
represented  by  the  fall  of  772  lbs. 
through  1 foot.  This  amount  of  energy 
or  work,  equal  to  772  foot-pounds,  is 
called  the  dynamical  equivalent  of  heat. 

HEAT  SPECTRUM,  the  part  of  the 
spectrum  from  an  incandescent  body 
that  contains  invisible  heat  rays.  To 
produce  to  the  heat  spectrum  properly 
lenses  and  prisms  of  rock-salt  must  be 
employed.  When  the  spectrum  from  the 
sun  is  examined  it  is  found  that  the 
maximum  heat  intensity  is  in  the  dark- 
heat  spectrum  at  a considerable  distance 
from  the  place  where  light  ceases  to  be 
perceptible. 

HEAVEN  (probably  signifying  that 
which  is  heaved  up  or  elevated),  in  a 
physical  sense,  the  azure  vault  which 
spreads  above  us  like  a hollow  hemi- 
sphere, and  appears  to  rest  on  the 
earth  at  the  horizon.  It  is  in  reality 
merely  the  appearance  presented  to  us 
by  the  immeasurable  space  in  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  move.  According  to 
some  its  azure  color  is  due  to  the  light  of 
the  celestial  bodies  reflected  from  the 
earth  to  the  air,  and  thence  back  again. 
According  to  others  the  reflection  is  not 
from  the  air,  but  from  its  contained 
vapors.  A theory  recently  broached  as- 
signs the  azure  color  to  the  presence  of 
particles  of  dust  in  the  air.  In  theology, 
this  word  denotes  a region  of  the  universe 
where  God’s  presence  is  especially  mani- 
fested, in  contrast  with  the  earth.  Ac- 


cording to  the  Hebrew  scriptures  heaven 
consisted  of  three  regions; — (1)  That  of 
the  clouds,  or  air;  (2)  that  of  the  stars; 
and  (3)  the  abode  of  God.  They  also 
divide  it  into  two  parts,  “The  Heaven”, 
and  the  “ Heaven  of  Heavens.”  Among 
the  Greeks  the  gods  were  supposed 
to  reside  on  Olympus,  and  the  classic 
poets  placed  the  abode  of  the  just 
in  the  Elysian  fields.  The  heaven  of 
Islam  is  a scene  of  sensuous  enjoyment, 
while  that  of  the  Buddhist  consists  in 
Nirvana,  regarded  by  some  as  meaning 
the  absorption  of  individual  existence  in 
the  great  ocean  of  being.  The  ancient 
German  had  his  Walhalla,  and  the 
American  Indian  has- his  happy  hunting 
grounds.  Among  Christians  the  general 
opinion  is  that  heaven  is  the  residence  of 
the  Most  High,  the  holy  angels,  and  the 
spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect,  that 
this  abode  is  eternal,  and  its  joys  intense- 
ly spiritual. 

HEAVES,  or  BROKEN  WIND,  a dis- 
ease or  unsoundness  of  the  respiratory 
organs  of  the  horse. 

A broken-winded  horse  is  lean,  and 
has  a dependent  belly,  the  muscles  of 
which  are  usually  active  as  expiratory 
muscles.  The  symptoms  are  best  ob- 
served when  the  horse  is  exercised.  The 
breathing  becomes  labored,  the  nostrils 
dilated,  the  eyes  bloodshot.  On  watch- 
ing the  chest  and  flank,  the  ribs  are 
observed  very  actively  moved,  and  after 
collapsing,  when  the  air  is  expelled  from 
the  lungs,  are  further  depressed  by  a 
spasmodic  jerk  brought  about  by  the 
abdominal  muscles.  It  has  a hollow 
cough  and  when  the  animal  is  oppressed 
by  fast  work,  or  by  dragging  a load  up  a 
hill,  the  pulse  is  excessively  rapid,  a 
symptom  regarded  by  some  as  indicat- 
ing disease  of  the  heart,  and  by  others 
an  affected  diaphragm.  It  is  a dietetic 
disease,  due  to  the  irritation  in  the 
stomach  caused  by  indigestible  food. 
On  post-mortem  examination  the  stom- 
ach is  found  to  be  much  distended  with 
food  of  a dry  nature,  and  to  have  thinner 
walls  than  is  normal.  The  lungs  are 
lighter  in  color,  and  float  much  more 
buoyantly  than  in  health;  little  or  no 
blood  is  seen  in  them,  but  they  contain  a 
large  quantity  of  air,  which  makes  them 
crackle  when  pressed. 

The  treatment  of  heaves  is  very  un- 
satisfactory, and  a palliation  of  the 
symptoms  by  keeping  the  alimentary 
canal  in  proper  order,  administering 
occasional  purgatives,  and  feeding  on  a 
proper  quantity  of  the  best  oats,  which 
should  always  be  bruised,  are  all  that 
can  be  recommended  as  remedies;  but 
turning  out  to  pasture,  or  feeding  on 
cornstalks  or  other  laxative  food,  some- 
times produced  a cure  in  mild  cases. 
Only  the  best  quality  of  hay  should  be 
fed,  and  that  in  small  quantities. 

HEBE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god- 
dess of  youth,  and  the  cupbearer  to  the 
gods,  until  replaced  by  Ganymede;  a 
daughter  of  Zeus  and  Hera,  who  gave 
her  as  a wife  to  Heracles.  In  the  arts 
she  is  represented  with  the  cup  in  which 
she  presents  the  nectar,  under  the  figure 
of  a charming  young  girl,  her  dress 
adorned  with  roses,  and  wearing  a 
wreath  of  flowers. 

HEBER,  Reginald,  D.D.,  an  English 
' poet  and  bishop,  was  born  1783,  died 


1826.  In  addition  to  his  hymns,  his  best 
known  productions  are  Palestine;  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Jeremy  Taylor 
(with  Life);  Poems  and  Translations. 


Hebe,  statue  by  Canova. 

HEBERT  (a-bar),  Jacques  Ren6, 
notorious  during  the  French  revolution, 
was  born  at  Alencon  in  1757,  executed 
1794.  Having  denounced  Danton,  the 
latter,  in  conjunction  with  Robespierre, 
secured  his  destruction  by  the  guillotine 
in  1794. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE  AND  LITER- 
ATURE, the  language  and  literature  of 
the  Jews,  Israelites,  or  Hebrews,  espe- 
cially at  that  period  when  they  formed 
a compact  nation  inhabiting  Canaan  or 
Palestine.  (For  a sketch  of  the  history 
of  the  people  see  Jews.)  The  Hebrew 
language  forms  a branch  of  the  Semitic 
family  of  languages,  being  akin  to  the 
Aramaic  (Chaldee  and  Syriac),  Arabic, 
Ethiopic,  and  Assyrian.  In  the  antiquity 
of  its  extant  literary  remains  Hebrew 
far  surpasses  the  other  Semitic  idioms, 
and  in  richness  and  development  is  only 
inferior  to  the  Arabic.  The  language  is 
deficient  in  grammatical  technicalities, 
specially  in  moods  and  tenses  of  the 
verb,  in  the  absence  of  the  neuter  gen- 
der, etc.  Its  roots  are  triliteral  (con- 
sisting of  three  consonants),  and  words 
are  derived  from  them  by  the  reduplica- 
tion of  the  letters  of  the  root,  and  by  the 
addition  of  formative  elements  before 
and  after  the  roots.  The  alphabet  is 
composed  of  twenty-two  consonants,  the 
vowels  being  expressed  by  marks  above 
or  below  these  letters.  The  accents  and 
marks  of  punctuation  amount  to  about 
forty.  The  writing  is  from  right  to  left. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet now  in  use — the  square  or  Assyrian 
(properly  called  the  Babylonian),  the 
most  common ; the  rabbinical,  or  mediae- 
val ; and  the  cursive,  or  alphabet  used  in 
ordinary  writing. 

HEBREWS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
canonicity  and  authorship  of  which 
have  been  much  discussed.  The  im- 
mediate successors  of  the  apostles 
(Clement  of  Rome,  Justin  Martyr,  etc.) 
seem  to  have  considered  it  as  of  canoni- 
cal authority.  Its  canonicity  was  also 
maintained  by  St.  Jerome,  by  the 
almost  universal  consent  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  churches,  and  by  Ambrose  of 
Milan;  while  in  416  a decretal  of  Inno- 
cent III.  was  issued  in  favor  of  this  view. 
As  to  the  authorship,  the  early  Roman 
church  denied  its  Pauline  origin. 

HEB'RIDES,  or  WESTERN  ISLANDS 
(the  Heboudai  of  Ptolemy,  and  Hebudes 
of  Pliny,  the  r being  an  erroneous  inser- 


HECATOMB 


HEIGHTS 


tlon),  a series  of  islands  and  islets  off  the 
west  coast  of  Scotland,  usually  divided 
into  the  Outer  Hebrides  (popularly 
called  the  Long  Island),  of  which  the 
principal  are  Lewis  and  Harris,  North 
Uist,  Bengecula,  South  List,  and  Barra; 
and  the  Inner  Hebrides — Skye,  Mull, 
Islay,  Jura,  Coll,  Rum,  Tiree,  Colonsay, 
etc.  The  islands  within  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  (Arran,  Bute,  the  Cumbraes,  etc.) 
are  not  now  considered  as  part  of  the 
Hebrides.  They  number  upward  of 
400  in  all,  but  only  about  90  are  in- 
habited; area,  about  2800  sq.  miles;  pop. 
79,159. 

HEC'ATOMB,  an  ancient  Greek  wor- 
ship literally  a sacrifice  of  a hundred 
oxen,  but  applied  generally  to  the  sacri- 
fice of  any  large  number.  It  was  neces- 
sary that  the  victims  should  be  without 
blemish.  Only  parts  such  as  the  thighs, 
legs^  or  hide  were  burned,  the  rest  fur- 
nishing the  festive  meal  at  the  close  of 
the  sacrifice. 

HECLA,  or  HEKLA,  a volcano  of  Ice- 
land, about  20  miles  from  its  southwest 
coast,  about  5000  feet  in  height,  and 
having  several  craters.  It  is  composed 
chiefly  of  basalt  and  lava,  and  is  always 
covered  with  snow.  Many  eruptions  are 
on  record.  One  of  the  most  tremendous 
occurred  in  1783,  after  which  the  volcano 
remained  quiescent  till  September,  1845, 
when  it  again  became  active,  and  con- 
tinued with  little  intermission  till  No- 
vember, 1846,  to  discharge  ashes,  some 
masses  of  pumice-stone,  and  a torrent 
of  lava.  The  last  outbreak  was  in  1878. 

HECTOR,  the  son  of  Priam  and  Hec- 
uba, the  bravest  of  the  Trojans,  whose 
forces  he  commanded.  His  wife  was 
Andromache.  His  exploits  are  cele- 
brated in  the  Iliad.  Having  slain  Patro- 
clus,  the  friend  of  Achilles,  the  latter 
sought  revenge,  and  Hector  was  slain  by 
him.  The  body  of  Hector  was  dragged 
at  the  chariot  wheels  of  the  conqueror; 
but  afterward  it  was  delivered  to  Priam 
for  a ransom,  who  gave  it  a solemn 
burial.  Hector  is  the  most  attractive 
warrior  in  Homer’s  Iliad,  in  which  one 
of  the  finest  episodes  is  his  parting  from 
Andromache  before  his  last  combat. 

HEC'UBA,  of  Phrygia,  in  Greek  legend 
the  second  wife  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy, 
to  whom  she  bore  Hector,  Paris,  Cas- 
sandra, Troilus,  and  other  children. 
After  the  fall  of  Troy  she  was  given  as  a 
slave  to  Odysseus,  and,  according  to  one 
form  of  the  legend,  in  despair  leaped  into 
the  Hellespont. 

HEDGEHOG,  an  insectivorous  ani- 
mal, covered  with  spines  in  lieu  of  hair. 


Hedgehog. 


By  means  of  a special  muscle  it  is  able 
to  roll  itself  into  a ball,  and  in  this  form 
can  defy  most  of  its  enemies.  It  has  a 


rudimentary  tall,  elongated  nose,  short 
ears,  with  a cranium  comparatively 
broad.  The  hind  feet  have  five  toes,  and 
strong  coarse  hair  covers  some  parts  of 
the  body.  The  teeth  are  numerous.  In- 
cluding the  tail,  it  attains  a length  of  1 1 
inches.  It  usually  resides  in  small 
thickets,  and  feeds  on  fruits,  roots,  and 
insects.  It  is  fond  of  raw  or  roasted 
flesh,  and  devours  cockroaches  in  large 
numbers  when  kept  in  houses.  It  hiber- 
nates in  winter.  The  female  bears  four 
to  eight  young  at  a birth,  the  young  soon 
becoming  covered  with  prickles. 

HEDGE- WARBLER,  or  HEDGE- 
SPARROW,  a bird  common  in  the  Brit- 
ish' Islands  and  all  the  temperate  parts 
of  Europe.  The  song  of  the  male  is  short 
and  plaintive.  The  length  of  the  bird  is 
about  5}4  inches. 

HEGEL  (ha'gl),  Georg  Wilhelm  Fried- 
rich, a celebrated  German  metaphysi- 
cian, born  at  Stuttgart  1770,  died  1831. 
Among  his  works  the  most  important 
are  his  Phanomenologie  des  Geistes 
(1807),  Wissenschaft  der  Logik  (1812- 
16),  Encyclopadie  der  Philosophischen 
Wissenschaften  (1817),  and  Grundlinien 
der  Philosophie  des  Rechts  oder  Na- 
turrecht  und  Staatswissenschaft  (1821). 

HEIDELBERG  (hl'dl-berg),  a town  of 
Baden,  beautifully  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Neckar,  here  crossed  by  two 
bridges,  in  one  of  the  loveliest  districts 


of  Germany.  The  principal  buildings 
are:  the  church  of  St.  Peter;  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Ghost ; the  castle,  anciently 
the  residence  of  the  Electors  Palatine; 
the  university  founded  in  1386,  and  now 
possessed  of  a library  of  500,000  vol- 
umes and  attended  by  about  1000  stu- 
dents; the  towm-house,  etc.  The  castle, 
begun  in  the  end  of  the  13th  century, 
and  exhibiting  elaborate  examples  of 
early  and  late  renaissance  architecture, 
is  the  most  remarkable  edifice  in  Heidel- 
berg. It  is  now  an  ivy-clad  ruin,  but  is 
carefully  preserved  from  further  decay. 
The  principal  industry  is  brewing.  One 
of  the  greatest  curiosities  of  the  place  is 
the  Heidelberg  tun,  kept  in  a cellar 
under  the  castle.  It  is  36  feet  in  length, 
26  in  diameter,  and  capable  of  holding 
800  hogsheads.  Pop.  40,121. 


HEIGHTS,  Measurement  of,  or  Hyp- 
sometry,  is  that  department  of  geodesy 
which  treats  of  the  measurements  of  the 
absolute  or  relative  heights  of  various 
points  on  the  earth’s  surface.  In  all 
cases  in  which  great  accuracy  is  essen- 
tial, trigonometrical  methods  must  be 
employed,  but  in  other  cases  sufficiently 
accurate  results  may  be  obtained  by 
levelling,  by  the  use  of  the  barometer,  or 
by  the  boiling-point  of  water  as  given 
by  the  thermometer.  The  trigonometri- 
cal method  is  often  the  only  one  avail- 
able, as  the  height  to  be  measured  may 
be  quite  inaccessible.  The  barometric 
method  is  based  on  the  fact  that  as  the 
mercurial  column  is  supported  by  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  it  must  fall  when 
conveyed  from  a lower  to  a higher  level, 
as  in  the  latter  case  the  pressure  is  di- 
minished. Were  the  atmosphere  uniform 
in  density  throughout,  nothing  could  be 
simpler  than  the  measurement  of  heights 
by  the  barometer,  but  gases  being  very 
compressible,  the  lower  strata  of  the 
atmosphere  are  denser  than  the  upper 
strata,  being  exposed  to  greater  pres- 
sure. Thus  a column  of  air  100  feet  high, 
has  far  greater  weight  at  the  sea-level 
than  a similar  column  at  the  top  of  a 
mountain  4000  feet  high;  and  the  effect 
on  the  barometric  column  of  rising  100 
feet  from  sea-level  is  corresponding 
greater  than  the  effect  of  rising  100  feet 


from  a height  of  4000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Moreover,  increase  of  tem- 
perature affects  the  density  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  barometer,  and  also  that  of 
the  air,  and  further  complicates  the 
problem.  Hence  for  the  greatest  ac- 
curacy in  determining  the  difference  of 
levels  two  mercurial  barometers  and 
four  thermometers  are  required.  Two 
of  the  thermometers  are  used  for  deter- 
mining the  temperature  of  the  air  at 
the  stations,  and  two  are  attached  to 
the  barometers  for  determining  the 
temperature  of  the  mercury.  The  ob- 
servations are  made  simultaneously. 
The  aneroid  barometer  is  in  some  re- 
spects more  suitable  than  the  mercurial, 
being  much  more  portable,  and  requir- 
ing two  thermometers  only.  After  the 
necessary  observations  are  made  the 


Castle  and  town  of  Heidelberg. 


HEINE 


HELIOS 


required  height  may  be  calculated  by 
the  use  of  certain  logarithmic  formula?, 
or  by  the  rough  method  stated  under 
Barometer.  Tables  obviating  the  use  of 
logarithms  are  often  supplied  by  in- 
strument makers  along  with  aneroid 
barometers.  The  method  in  which  use  is 
made  of  the  principle  that  water  boils 
at  the  temperature  of  212°  under  the 
full  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  but  at  a 
lower  temperature  with  a smaller  at- 
mospheric pressure,  such  as  is  given 
by  an  elevated  position,  is  simple  and 
sufficiently  accurate  for  many  purposes. 
It  has  been  found  that  if  water  at  the 
sea-level  boils  at  212°  on  rising  510  feet 
it  will  boil  at  211°,  and  so  on. 

HEINE  (hi'ne),  Heinrich,  a German 
poet  and  author,  was  born  of  Jewish 
parents  at  Diisseldorf,  1.3th  December, 
1799,  and  died  at  Paris  17th  Feb.,  1856. 
Of  the  numerous  literary  works  of  Heine 
may  be  mentioned  in  particillar  Gedichte 
(Poems);  Reisebilder  (Pictures  of 
Travel);  Buch  der  Lieder  (Book  of 
Songs) ; Deutschland  Ein  Wintermarchen 
(Germany,  a Winter  Tale) ; Shakespeare’s 
Madchen  und  Frauen  (Maidens  and 
Wives) ; Die  Romantische  Schule;  Letzte 
Gedichte  und  Gedanken  (Last  Poems 
and  Thoughts);  Atta  Troll;  Romanzero, 
etc. 

HEIR-APPARENT,  the  person  who 
necessarily  succeeds  to  the  ancestor  if 
he  survives  him,  because  no  other  person 
can  ever  gain  precedence  over  him,  as  an 
eldest  son.  Compare  Heir-presumptive. 

HEIR-PRESUMPTIVE,  is  one  who,  if 
the  ancestor  should  die  immediately, 
would,  under  existing  circumstances,  be 
his  heir,  but  whose  right  of  inheritance 
may  be  defeated  by  some  nearer  heir 
being  born,  as  an  only  daughter,  who  is 
displaced  by  the  birth  of  a son.  Com- 
pare Heir-apparent. 

HEJRA,  HEJIRA,  or  HEGIRA,  an 
Arabic  word  signifying  emigration.  The 
Mohammedans  designate  by  it  the  flight 
of  Mohammed  their  prophet  from  Mecca 
to  Medina.  From  this  flight,  which  hap- 
pened on  the  13th  of  September,  622 
A.D.,  but  which  they  fix  on  the  16th  of 
July,  of  the  same  year,  they  begin  their 
computation  of  time. 

HELEN,  or  HEL'ENA,  in  ancient 
Greek  legend,  the  most  beautiful  woman 
of  her  age,  daughter  of  Zeus  by  Leda. 
By  advice  of  Ulysses  her  numerous 
suitors  were  bound  by  oath  to  respect 
her  choice  of  a husband,  and  to  main- 
tain it  even  by  arms.  She  chose  Mene- 
laus,  but  was  afterward  carried  off  to 
Troy  by  Paris,  the  Trojan  war  arising 
from  the  claim  made  by  Menelaus  for  the 
fulfilment  of  the  oath.  After  the  death 
of  Paris  she  married  his  brother  Deip- 
hobus.  On  the  fall  of  Troy  she  returned 
to  Sparta  with  Menelaus,  but  at  his 
death  was  driven  from  the  country,  and 
was  murdered  at  Rhodes  by  the  queen 
of  the  island. 

HEL'ENA,  the  name  of  several  saints, 
of  whom  the  chief  was  the  mother  of  the 
Emperor  Constantine  the  Great,  a 
woman  of  humble  origin,  and  a native 
either  of  Bithynia  or  of  Britain. 

HELENA,  the  capital  of  Montana,  on 
the  w.  side  of  the  valley  of  Prickly  Pear, 
and  Ten  Mile  creeks,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  15  miles  w.  of  Mis- 
souri river,  and  110  miles  n.  of  Virginia 


City.  It  is  chiefly  supported  by  the  rich 
quartz  and  placer  gold  mines  in  the 


state  capitol,  Helena,  Mont. 

vicinity.  In  the  vicinity  are  hot  medi- 
cinal springs.  Pop.  16,464. 

HELE'NA,  St.,  an  island  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  belonging  to  Britain,  about 
850  miles  southeast  of  the  island  of 
Ascension,  1150  miles  west  from  the 
west  coast  of  South  Africa,  and  2000 
miles  from  the  east  coast  of  Brazil; 
greatest  length,  10^  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  7 miles;  area,  about  47  sq. 
miles.  Its  position,  in  the  ocean  thorough- 
fare from  Europe  to  the  East,  has  made 
it  a place  of  call  for  vessels,  while  it  has 
acquired  special  celebrity  as  the  place  of 


The  island  of  St.  Helena. 


Napoleon’s  banishment,  and  where  he 
resided  from  1816  till  his  death  in  1821. 
It  has  precipitous  and  almost  inaccessi- 
ble coasts,  particularly  on  the  north, 
where  almost  perpendicular  cliffs  rise  to 
from  600  to  1200  feet.  The  only  town  on 
the  island  is  James’  Town,  which  has  a 
fine  natural  harbor,  and  affords  ex- 
cellent anchorage  in  12  fathoms.  Pop. 
5195. 

HEL'ICON,  a mountain  range  of 
Greece,  in  the  west  of  Boeotia,  in  some 
sense  a continuation  of  the  range  of 
Parnassus.  It  was  the  favorite  seaT  of 
the  Muses,  who,  with  Apollo,  had  tem- 
ples here.  In  it  also  were  the  fountains 
of  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene.  The 
highest  summit,  now  called  Paleovuni, 
is  barely  5000  feet  high. 

HELIGOLAND,  an  island  belonging  to 
Germany,  in  the  North  Sea,  about  40 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe;  IJ 
mile  long  and  J mile  broad;  highest 
point,  200  feet.  Pop.  2307. 

HELIODO'RUS,  a Greek  romance 
writer,  born  at  Emesa,  in  Syria,  in  the 
4th  century. 

HE'LIOGRAPH,  or  HELIOSTAT,  a 

name  given  to  various  contrivances  for 
reflecting  the  sun’s  light  either  tempo- 
rarily or  continuously  to  an  observer  at 
a distance.  The  simplest  heliostat  is  a 


mirror  hung  up  at  a distant  station  so  as 
to  reflect  a flash  to  the  observer  whose 
station  may  be  many  miles  from  it. 
This  mirror  is  generally  so  adjusted  that 
the  flash  occurs  exactly  at  some  pre- 
arranged hour,  and  by  being  in  readi- 
ness the  observer  can  get  an  observation 
with  precision  as  regards  time.  Some 


Heliostat.  M,  mirror. 


heliostats  are  visible  for  80  miles.  By 
being  fitted  with  an  adjustment  of  clock- 
work, the  mirror  can  be  made  to  revolve 
with  the  sun,  and  so  to  reflect  a beam  of 
sunlight  steadily  in  one  direction,  being 
then  called  also  heliotrope.  The  heliostat 
has  been  used  for  signalling  in  war. 

HELIOGRAVURE,  or  PHOTOGRA- 
VURE, is  a photo-mechanical  printing 
process.  A photograph  of  any  object,  as 
a painting,  etc.,  is  taken,  and  from  the 
negative  so  obtained  a positive  print  is 
made  on  gelatinized  paper.  This  print 
is  transferred  upon  a highly  polished 
copper  plate,  and  a solution  of  ter- 
chloride  of  iron  is  poured  upon  it,  which 
penetrates  through  the  gelatine  and 
etches  the  picture  upon  the  copper.  The 
final  result  is  the  production,  of  a photo- 
etched  copper-plate,  from  which  a large 
number  of  impressions  can  be  taken. 

HELIOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  small  distances  on  the  sky, 
particularly  the  apparent  diameters  of 
the  sun  and  of  the  moon.  It  was  in- 
vented by  Bouguer  in  1747,  and  im- 
proved by  Dollond  and  Fraunhofer. 

HELIOP'OLIS,  the  On,  Rameses,  or 
Beth-shemesh  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures; now  called  Matarieh;  situated 
a little  north  of  Memphis,  and  one  of  the 
most  ancient  and  extensive  cities  of 
Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs.  It  had  a 
magnificent  temple  dedicated  to  Re; 
and  communicated  with  the  Nile  by 
lakes  and  canals.  During  the  flourishing 
ages  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  the 
priests  taught  within  the  precincts  of  its 
temples,  and  both  Eudoxus  and  Plato 
visited  its  famous  schools.  Here  Joseph 
and  Mary  are  said  to  have  rested  with 
the  infant  Christ.  Near  the  village 
stands  the  Pillar  of  On,  supposed  to  be 
the  oldest  Egyptian  obelisk,  67)^  feet 
high,  and  6 feet  broad  at  base.  The 
Turks  were  defeated  here  by  the  French 
in  1800. 

HE'LIOS,  the  god  of  the  sun  (Latin, 
Sol)  in  the  Greek  mythology;  son  of 
Hyperion  and  Theia,  and  brother  of  Eos 
(.Aurora,  the  dawn)  and  Selene  (Luna, 
the  moon).  He  dwells  wdth  Eos  in  the 
ocean  behind  Colchis,  from  which  he 


Helioscope 


HELMONT 


issues  in  the  morning,  and  to  wliicL  te 
returns  at  night.  His  worship  was  ex- 
tensively diffused,  and  he  had  temples  in 
Corinth,  Argos,  Troezene,  Elis,  but  par- 
ticularly in  Rhodes,  the  Colossus  of 
which  was  representation  of  Helios. 

HE'LIOSCOPE,  a telescope  fitted  for 
viewing  the  sun  without  distressing  the 
eyes,  as  when  the  image  of  the  sun  is  re- 
ceived upon  mirrors  formed  simply  of 
surfaces  of  transparent  glass  which  re- 
flect only  a small  portion  of  the  light. 

HE'LIOSTAT.  See  Heliograph. 

HE'LIOTROPE,  a genus  of  plants, 
natural  order  Boraiginaceae.  The  species 
are  herbs  or  undershrubs,  mostly  natives 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  and 


Heliotrope. 


have  alternate  leaves  and  small  flower 
usually  disposed  in  scorpioid  cymes. 
The  common  heliotrope,  is  indigenous  in 
the  south  and  west  of  Europe,  and  has 
small  white  or  pale  red  flowers  with  a 
fruit  of  four  drupes  under  a thin  fleshy 
covering. 

HELIOTROPE,  the  bloodstone,  a 
variety  of  quartz,  partaking  of  the  char- 
acter of  jasper  or  of  chalcedony.  It  is  of 
a deep  green  color,  and  covered  with  red 
spots.  It  is  hard,  and  is  used  for  bur- 
nishers; the  more  finely-marked  stones 
are  prized  for  seals,  signet -rings,  etc. 
It  is  found  in  Tartary,  Persia,  Siberia;  in 
the  island  of  Rum,  Scotland,  and  else- 
where. It  received  the  name  heliotrope, 
or  elitropia,  because  it  was  said  that  if 
the  mineral  were  put  into  water  in  a 
basin  rubbed  with  the  juice  of  the  plant 
heliotrope,  and  were  exposed  to  the  sun, 
the  water  would  appear  red  and  the  sun 
blood-like,  as  if  it  were  eclipsed.  The 
stone  rubbed  with  the  juice  of  the  plant 
was  said  to  render  its  wearer  invisible. 

HE'LIOTYPE,  a photographic  proc-' 
ess  by  which  pictures  can  be  printed  in 
the  same  manner  as  lithographs,  de- 
pending on  the  fact  that  a dried  film  of 
gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash, 
when  exposed  to  light,  is  afterward  in- 
soluble in  water,  while  the  portion  not  so 
exposed  swells  when  steeped.  A mixture 
of  gelatine,  bichromate  of  potash, 
chrome  alum,  and  water  is  poured  on  a 
plate  of  glass,  where  it  shortly  settles 
into  a film.  When  dried  the  film  con- 
tracts and  separates  from  the  glass.  A 
picture  is  then  printed  on  it  from  a 
negative,  after  which  it  is  attached  to  a 
plate  of  zinc,  and  copies  are  taken  from 
it  by  inking  it  with  lithographic  ink 
exactly  as  in  the  ordinary  lithographic 
process.  The  films  are  technically  called 
“skins.”  Sometimes  a gutta-percha 
mould  is  prepared  from  the  film,  and 
copper  deposited  on  it  by  the  electro- 
type process,  the  plate  thus  produced 
being  printed  from  in  the  ordinary  way. 


Helix,  (l)  a spiral  line  as  of  wire  in  a 
coil,  or  such  a curve  as  is  described  by 
every  point  of  a screw  that  is  turned 
round  in  a fixed  nut . (2)  In  arch,  a small 


Helices  ol  corinthian  capital. 


volute  or  twist  under  the  abacus  of  the 
Corinthian  capital,  of  which  in  every 
perfect  capital  there  are  sixteen,  two  at 
each  angle,  and  two  meeting  under  the 
middle  of  each  face  of  the  abacus. 

HELL,  signifies  originally  the  covered 
or  invisible  place.  In  the  English  Bible 
the  word  is  used  to  translate  the  Hebrew 
Sheol  (g  ’,ve  or  pit)  and  Gehenna  (proper- 
ly the  valley  of  Hinnom),  as  well  as  the 
Greek  Hades  (the  unseen).  In  the  Re- 
vised Version  of  the  New  Testament, 
however,  hell  is  used  only  to  translate 
Gehenna,  Hades  being  left  where  it 
stands  in  the  Greek.  In  common  usage 
hell  signfies  the  place  of  punishment  of 
the  wicked  after  death,  its  earlier  mean- 
ing being  lost.  The  distinctive  Scripture 
term  for  the  place  of  future  punishment 
of  the  wicked  is  Gehenna,  which,  unlike 
Sheol  and  Hades,  never  has  an  intermedi- 
ate signification ; and  Christ  adopting  on 
this  point  the  current  language  of  the 
time  gave  the  sanction  of  his  authority 
to  the  leading  ideas  involved  in  it. 
Gehenna,  or  hell,  is  with  him  the  place 
of  final  torment.  The  Eastern  and  West- 
ern churches  are  as  one  as  to  the  punish- 
ment of  hell beingpartly  ‘ ‘a  pain  of  loss,” 
that  is,  the  consciousness  of  being  de- 
barred the  presence  of  God,  and  partly  a 
“pain  of  sense,”  that  is,  real  physical  suf- 
fering. The  prevailing  idea  among 
modern  theologians  is  that  the  “fire”  and 
the  “worm”  are  significant  emblems  to 
give  us  the  most  correct  and  living  con- 
ceptions of  the  reality  that  we  can  pos- 
sibly attain  in  our  present  circumstances. 

HEL'LEBORE,  a genus  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  perennial  low-growing  plants 
with  palmate  or  pedate  leathery  leaves, 


Black  hellebore  or  Christmas-rose. 

yellowish,  greenish,  or  white  flowers, 
h;  iving  five  conspicuous  persistent  sepals, 
eight  to  ten  small  tubular  petals,  and 
sdveral  many-seeded  carpels. 

HELL  GATE,  a formerly  dangerous 
f )ass  in  East  river,  the  strait  which  con- 
nects New  York  bay  with  Long  Island 
s ound.  Rocks  here  used  to  form  an  ob- 
s^^ction  much  dreaded  by  mariners, 


but  by  extensive  submarine  mining 
operations  and  the  use  of  the  most 
powerful  explosives,  the  passage  has 
been  practically  cleared. 

HELM,  the  contrivance  by  which  a 
vessel  is  steered,  usually  composed  of 
three  parts,  viz.,  the  rudder,  the  tiller, 
and  the  wheel,  except  in  small  vessels, 
where  the  wheel  is  unnecessary.  See 
Steering. 

HELMET,  an  article  of  armor  for  the 
protection  of  the  head,  composed  of 
leather  or  of  metals.  Some  of  Homer’s 
heroes  are  represented  as  wearing  brazen 
helmets,  with  towering  crests.  Among 
the  Romans  the  cassis  was  a metallic  hel- 
met; the  galea,  a leathern  one.  The 
earlier  Greek  and  Roman  helmets  did 
not  protect  the  face.  During  the  middle 
ages  helmets  were  made  of  steel,  fre- 
quently inlaid  with  gold,  and  provided 
with  bars  and  flaps  to  cover  the  face  in 
battle  and  to  allow  of  being  opened  at 
other  times.  The  full-barred  helmet  en- 
tirely covered  the  head,  face,  and  neck, 
having  in  front  perforations  for  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  and  slits  through  which 
the  wearer  might  see  the  objects  around 
him.  The  open  helmet  covered  only  the 
head,  ears,  and  neck,  leaving  the  face 
unguarded.  Some  open  helmetshadabar 
or  bars  from  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  to 


Full-barred  helmet,  Open  helmet. 

guard  against  the  transverse  cut  of  a 
broadsword.  The  modern  military  hel- 
mets afford  no  protection  for  the  face. 
Firemen  wear  a heavy  headpiece  of 
leather  and  brass,  or  other  materials,  to 
protect  them  as  far  as  possible  from  fall- 
ing ruins  at  conflagrations.  Helmets  of 
white  felt,  with  folds  of  linen  wrapped 
round  them,  are  worn  in  India  and  other 
hot  climates  as  a protection  against  the 
sun.  The  name  helmet  is  also  given  to  a 
kind  of  hat  worn  by  policemen.  In 
heraldry  the  helmet  is  borne  over  a coat 
of  arms,  and  the  form  and  position  of  it 
vary  according  to  the  quality  or  dignity 
of  the  bearer.  See  Heraldry. 

HELMHOLTZ,  Hermann-Ludwig  Fer- 
dinand, German  physiologist  and  physi- 
cist, born  1821  at  Potsdam,  and  edu- 
cated at  Berlin.  His  work  has  been 
chiefly  in  those  departments  of  physics 
which  are  in  closest  relation  with  phy- 
siology, notably  in  acoustics  and  optics. 
Of  his  many  publications  the  best 
known  are:  The  Conservation  of  Force 
(1847),  Manual  of  Optics  (1856-^06), 
Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific  Subjects 
(London,  1873  and  1881).  and  Sensations 
of  Tone  as  a Physiological  Basis  for  the 
Theory  of  Music  (1862,  London  1875). 
He  was  ennobled  by  the  German  em- 
peror in  1883,  He  died  in  1894. 

HELMONT,  John  Baptist  Van,  born 
in  1577  at  Brussels;  in  his  seventeenth 
year  gave  public  lectures  on  surgery  at 
Louvain.  He  was  probably  the  first  to 
introduce  the  term  gas  into  science,  and 
was  also  first  to  observe  the  acid  re- 


HELOISE 


HEME 


action  of  the  gastric  juice.  He  died  in 
1864. 

HELOISE,  Eloisc  (el-o-ez),  celebrated 
for  her  beauty  and  wit,  but  still  more  on 
account  of  her  lo ve  f or  Abelard ; was  born 
in  Paris  in  1101.  After  the  mutilation  of 
her  lover  she  was  persuaded  by  him  to 
take  the  veil  at  Argenteuil,  and  ulimate- 
ly  became  prioress  of  the  convent  there 
until  1129,  when  she  entered,  with  some 
of  her  nuns,  the  oratory  of  the  Paraclete, 
built  by  Abelard  at  Nogent-on-the- 
Seine,  where  she  lived  in  exemplary 
piety.  She  died  in  1164.  Contemporary 
writers  speak  in  high  terms  of  her  genius. 
She  understood  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
was  familiar  with  the  ancients,  and  well 
read  in  philosophy  and  theology. 

HE'LOTS,  slaves  in  ancient  Sparta. 
They  were  the  property  of  the  state, 
which  alone  had  the  disposal  of  their  life 
and  freedom,  and  which  assigned  them 
to  certain  citizens,  by  whom  they  were 
employed  in  private  labors.  They 
several  times  rose  against  their  masters, 
but  were  always  and  finally  reduced. 

HELSINGFORS,  a seaport  of  Russia, 
capital  of  Finland,  on  a peninsula^  in  the 
gulf  of  that  name,  180  miles  w.  n.  w.  St. 
Petersburg.  Pop.  88,711. 

HELVETIUS,  Claude  Adrien,  French 
philosophical  writer,  born  in  1715.  In 
1758  he  published  his  one  important 
book,  De  I’Esprit  (On  the  Mind),  the 
materialism  of  which  drew  upon  him 
many  attacks.  It  was  condemned  by  the 
Sorbonne,  and  publicly  burned  by  de- 
cree of  the  parliament  of  Paris.  He  died 
in  1771  in  Paris.  He  also  wrote  a work, 
De  I’Homme,  and  an  allegorical  poem, 
Le  Bonheur. 

HE'MANS,  Felicia  Dorothea,  English 
poetess,  born  at  Liverpool  in  1793; 
maiden  name  Brown.  Her  death  took 
place  in  1835.  Her  poetry  is  essentially 
lyrical  and  descriptive,  and  is  always 
sweet,  natural,  and  pleasing.  In  her 
earlier  pieces  she  was  imitative,  but  she 
ultimately  asserted  her  independence, 
and  produced  many  short  poems  of 
great  beauty  and  pathos,  and  evidently 
destined  to  live. 

HEM'ATINE,  or  H^MATINE,  the  red 
coloring  matter  of  the  blood  occurring  in 
solution  in  the  interior  of  the  blood  cor- 
puscles or  cells.  It  is  the  only  structure 
of  the  body,  except  hair,  which  contains 
iron. 

HEM'ATITE,  a name  applied  to  two 
ores  of  iron,  red  hematite  and  brown 
hematite.  They  are  both  of  a fibrous 
structure,  and  the  fibers,  though  some- 
times nearly  parallel,  usually  diverge  or 
even  radiate  from  a center.  They  rarely 
occur  amorphous,  but  almost  always  in 
concretions,  reniform,  globular,  bot- 
ryoidal,  stalactitic,  etc.  The  red  hema- 
tite is  a variety  of  the  red  oxide,  and  is 
one  of  the  most  important  iron-ores. 
The  brown  hematite  is  a variety  of  the 
brown  oxide  or  hydrate;  its  streak  and 

Eowder  are  always  of  a brownish  yellow, 
ee  Iron. 

HEM'ISPHERE,  half  a sphere,  es- 
pecially one  of  the  halves  into  which  the 
earth  may  be  supposed  to  be  divided. 
It  is_  common  to  speak  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere  and  the  western  hemisphere, 
the  former,  also  called  the  Old  World, 
comprising  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, etc.;  the  latter.  North  and  South 

P.  E— 39 


America,  etc.  The  boundary  between 
the  two  is  quite  arbitrary,  and  a more 
natural  division  of  the  earth  is  into  the 
northern  and  the  southern  hemisphere, 
the  equator  forming  the  dividing  line. 

HEMLOCK,  a poisonous  plant,  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  the  plant 
koneion  of  the  Greeks.  It  is  a tall,  erect, 
branching  biennial,  with  a smooth,  shin- 
ing, hollow  stem,  usually  marked  with 
purplish  spots,  elegant,  much-divided 
leaves,  which  when  bruised  emit  a nause- 
ous odor,  and  white  flowers  in  com- 


pound umbels  of  ten  or  more  rays,  sur- 
rounded by  a general  involucre  of  three 
to  seven  leaflets.  It  is  found  in  Britain 
and  throughout  Europe  and  temperate 
Asia  in  waste  places,  banks,  and  under 
walls.  It  is  said  to  be  fatal  to  cows  when 
they  eat  it,  but  that  horses,  goats,  and 
sheep  may  feed  upon  it  without  danger. 
In  the  human  subject  it  causes  paralysis, 
convulsions,  and  death.  The  poison  ad- 
ministered to  Socrates  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a decoction  of  it,  though 
others  are  of  opinion  that  the  potion  was 
obtained  from  water-hemlock  (Cicuta 
virosa).  Hemlock  is  a powerful  sedative, 
and  is  used  medicinally.  The  extract  is 
considered  the  best  preparation.  It  is 
often  serviceable  as  a substitute  for,  or 
an  accompaniment  to  opium.  It  has 
been  found  very  useful  in  chronic  rheu- 
matism and  in  whooping-cough,  allaying 
the  pain  of  irritable  sores  and  eancerous 
ulcers.  The  virtues  of  hemlock  reside  in 
an  alkaline  principle  termed  conia  or 
coniine. 

HEMLOCK,  or  HEMLOCK  SPRUCE, 
a name  given  to  an  American  fir  from  its 
branches  resembling  in  tenuity  and 
position  the  common  hemlock. 

HEM'ORRHAGE,  a flux  of  blood 
from  the  vessels  containing  it  whether 
from  a rupture  or  any  other  cause.  A 
hemorrhage  from  the  lungs  is  called 
hemoptysis;  from  the  urinary  organs, 
hematuria;  from  the  stomach,  hema- 
temesis;  from  the  nose,  epistaxis;  the 
treatment  of  course  varying  with  the 
cause  and  seat  of  the  mischief. 

HEM'ORRHOIDS,  signifying  an  af- 
fection of  the  rectum,  otherwise  called 
piles.  In  general,  hemorrhoids  manifest 
themselves  between  the  period  of  puberty 
and  old  age,  although  infants  and  aged 
people  are  not  entirely  exempt  from  at- 
tacks. In  some  cases  they  appear  to  be 
the  effect  of  a certain  hereditary  dis- 
position, but  any  circumstance  which 
produces  a tendency  or  stagnation  of  the 
blood  at  the  extremity  of  the  rectum  is 
to  be  reckoned  among  the  local  causes. 
The  accumulation  of  fecal  matter  in  the 
intestines,  efforts  to  expel  urine,  the  ob- 


struetion  of  any  of  the  viscera,  especially 
of  the  liver,  the  frequent  use  of  hot  bath- 
ing, of  drastic  purges,  long  continuance 
in  a sitting  posture,  riding  on  horseback, 
pregnancy — such  are  some  of  the  ordi- 
nary causes  of  hemorrhoids.  They  are 
distinguished  into  several  sorts,  as  ex- 
ternal, when  apparent  at  the  anus;  in- 
ternal, when  concealed  within  the  orifice; 
blind  or  open,  regular  or  irregular,  active 
or  passive,  periodical  or  anomalous,  etc. 
The  best  mode  of  treatment  is  to  recur 
to  hygienic  rather  than  medicinal  in- 
fluences. The  subject  should  avoid  vio- 
lent exercise;  the  food  should  not  be  too 
stimulating  or  nutritious.  Traveling,  or 
an  aetive  life,  should  succeed  to  seden- 
tary habits.  Constipation  should  be 
remedied  by  laxatives  or  gentle  purga- 
tives. Any  thing  which  may  be  produc- 
tive of  a local  heat  should  be  avoided;  as 
warm  seats,  soft  beds,  too  mueh  sleep. 
If  the  pain  is  considerable  recourse 
should  be  had  to  sedatives,  gentle  bleed- 
ing, leeches.  The  use  of  suppositories 
containnig  drugs,  such  as  tannic  acid  or 
extract  of  witch-hazel  (hazeline),  will  be 
found  very  useful;  in  mild  cases  iodo- 
form suppositories  may  be  curative.  If 
the  disease  appears  under  a more  severe 
form  a surgical  operation  may  become 
necessary. 

HEMP,  an  annual  herbaceous  plant. 
The  hemp  fiber  is  tough  and  strong,  and 
peculiarly  adapted  for  w’eaving  into 
coarse  fabrics  such  as  sail-cloth,  and  for 
twisting  into  ropes  and  cables.  Immense 
quantities  are  exported  from  Russia. 
The  finer  sorts  are  used  for  shirtings, 
sheetings,  etc.,  which,  though  coarser 


Hemp. 


than  that  made  from  flax,  are  very  much 
stronger  and  equally  susceptible  of  being 
bleached.  The  hemp  of  England  is  very 
superior,  but  the  plant  does  not  pay  the 
farmer,  and  very  little  of  it  is  grown.  In 
some  of  the  United  States  it  is  a crop  of 
considerable  importance.  The  seed  must 
be  sown  thin,  not  more  than  1 to  2 
bushels  to  an  acre.  Small  paths  are  often 
left  open  along  the  field  lengthwise,  at 
about  7 feet  distant  from  eacn  other,  to 
allow  the  plucking  of  the  male  plants 
first,  as  the  female  require  to  remain 
standing  a month  longer  to  admit  of  the 
seed  becoming  ripe.  But  in  some  parts 
the  whole  crop  is  cut  at  once,  plants  for 
seed  being  separately  cultivated.  The 
plant  being  stripped  of  its  leaves,  and 
dried  in  the  open  air,  may  be  stored,  but 
when  steeped  green  it  turns  out  of  a 
better  color.  The  steeping  takes  from 
four  to  eleven  days,  and  the  operation  is 
known  to  be  completed  by  the  inner  reed 
or  woody  fiber  separating  easily  from  the 
fibers  of  the  outer  bark.  When  thoroughl 


HENBANE 


HENRY  IV 


steeped  it  is  taken  out  of  the  water  and 
spread  out  in  rows  on  the  grass  to  bleach. 
This  takes  three  weeks  or  more,  during 
which  period  it  requires  constant  turning 
with  a light,  long  pole.  After  drying  it  is 
scutched  or  broken  by  breaks  and 
scutching-stocks,  resembling  those  em- 
ployed for  flax.  Beating  is  the  next 
operation,  which  separates  the  “boon” 
from  the  flber.  The  hemp  is  now  ready 
for  being  heckled,  after  which  it  may  be 
spun.  Hemp-seed  is  much  used  as  food 
for  cage-birds,  and  also  yields  an  oil. 
Sisal  hemp  or  “henequen”  and  Manila 
hemp  are  not  true  hemps. 

HENBANE,  a plant  of  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia.  It  is  a coarse  erect  bien- 
nial herb,  found  in  waste  ground  and 
loose  dry  soil,  having  soft,  clammy,  hairy 
foliage  of  disagreeable  odor,  pale  yellow- 
ish-brown flowers  streaked  with  purple 


veins,  and  a five-toothed  cal3:x.  The  ex- 
pressed juice  of  the  leaves  and  seeds  is 
often  used  as  a sedative,  antispasmodic, 
and  narcotic,  having  in  many  cases  the 
great  advantage  over  laudanum  of  not 
producing  constipation.  When  taken  in 
considerable  quantity  it  proves  quickly 
fatal  to  man  and  most  animals,  particu- 
larly to  domestic  fowls,  whence  the 
name.  Called  also  Stinking  Nightshade. 

HENDERSON,  the  county  seat  of 
Henderson  co.,  Ky.,  on  the  Ohio  river, 
and  the  Lv.  and  N.,  the  Lv.,  St.  L.  and 
Tex.,  and  the  Ohio  Val.  railways;  143 
miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Louisville.  It  has  large 
tobacco-stemming  interests,  a cotton- 
mill,  woolen-mill,  whisky  distilleries, 
foundry,  carriage  and  wagon  factories. 
Pop.  12,120. 

HENDERSON,  David  Bremner,  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  at  Old  Deer,  Aber- 
deenshire, Scotland,  in  1840.  He  went  to 
Illinois  in  1846,  to  Iowa  in  1849,  gradu- 
ated at  Upper  Iowa  university,  studied 
law  in  an  office  at  Dubuque,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1865.  In  1861 
he  enlisted  as  a private  in  the  Twelfth 
Regiment  Iowa  volunteer  infantry,  w’as 
elected  and  commissioned  first  lieu- 
tenant of  Company  C,  and  served  until 
discharged,  February  26,  1863,  owing  to 
the  loss  of  a leg  at  the  battle  of  Corinth. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Federal  house  of 
representatives  in  1882,  as  a republican 
from  the  Third  Iowa  district,  was  chair- 
man of  the  committee  on  judiciary,  and 
a member  of  committee  on  rules  in  the 
fifty-fourth  and  fifty-fifth  congresses, 
and  in  1899,  at  the  organization  of  the 
fifty-sixth  congress,  was  elected  speaker 
of  the  house.  He  was  also  chairman  of 
the  Iowa  delegation  at  three  national  re- 
publican conventions.  Died  1906.  ' 


HEN'DRICKS,  Thomas  Andrews, 
American  politician,  was  born  near 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  in  1819,  was  a member 
of  the  Indiana  legislature  and  the  state 
constitutional  convention  of  1851;  was  a 
member  of  congress  from  1851  to  1855. 
United  States  senator  from  1863  to  1869, 
and  in  1868  was  a candidate  for  the 
democratic  nomination  for  president. 
He  was  governor  of  Indiana  from  1873 
to  1877.  He  ran  for  vice-president  of  the 
United  States  on  the  ticket  with  Samuel 
J.  Tilden  in  1876,  and  was  elected  vice- 
president  in  1884  on  the  ticket  with 
Grover  Cleveland.  He  died  in  1885. 

HEN-HAWK,  the  species  commonly 
called  hen-hawks  include  two  birds,  the 
red-tailed  and  the  red-shouldered  hawk. 
The  redtail  is  one  of  the  largest,  most  nu- 
merous, and  most  widely  distributed  of 
North  American  buzzard-hawks.  It  is 
from  19  to  25  inches  long,  and  its  spread 
of  wings  is  from  49  to  58  inches.  In 
maturity  the  upper  surface  is  blackish- 
brown,  variegated  with  whitish  and  dull 
rust-color,  the  last  tint  growing  brighter 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail,  which 
has  a blackish  cross-band  near  the  end. 
The  under  surface  of  the  body  is  buffy 
white,  the  belly  marked  with  dark 
streaks.  The  majority  of  them  leave  the 
northern  states  in  winter,  and  migrate 
in  large  flocks.  They  build  their  nests  in 
tall  trees.  Their  food  includes  all  the 
mammals  from  size  of  a squirrel  down- 
ward, and  all  sorts  of  birds  from  grouse 
and  rails  to  sparrows;  but  this  larger 
game  is  far  outnumbered  by  the  smaller 
gophers,  mice,  frogs,  insects,  and  carrion 
upon  which  they  principally  subsist. 

The  red-shouldered  hawk,  is  a species 
rather  less  in  size  than  the  redtail,  and 
generally  more  reddish  in  plumage,  es- 
pecially bright  on  the  shoulders,  while 
the  lower  parts  (whitish  in  the  young) 
are  everywhere  rust  yin  color,  transverse- 
ly barred  with  a darker  tint.  The  tail  is 
black,  covered  by  about  six  bands  of 
white.  It  is  a rather  heavy,  sluggish  bird, 
and  lives  throughout  the  year  south  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  frequenting  lowlands 
and  marshes,  except  in  the  spring,  when 
it  retires  to  the  woods  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. It  preys  principally  on  mice,  and 
never  attacks  poultry,  so  that  its  repu- 
tation as  a hen-hawk  is.  undeserved. 

HENNA,  a shrub,  bearing  opposite  en- 


tire leaves  and  numerous  small  white 
fragrant  flowers  disposed  in  terminal 


panicles.  It  grows  in  moist  situations 
throughout  North  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia 
and  the  East  Indies,  and  has  acquired 
celebrity  from  being  used  by  the  in- 
habitants of  those  countries  to  dye 
yellow  the  nails  of  their  fingers  and  the 
manes,  hoofs,  etc.,  of  their  horses.  It  is 
cultivated  extensively  in  Egypt  and  the 
powdered  leaves  form  a large  article  of 
export  to  Persia  and  the  Turkish  pos- 
sessions. It  may  be  used  for  dyeing 
woolens,  not  only  yellow,  but  brown, 
when  alum  and  sulphate  of  iron  are  em- 
ployed. 

HENRIETTAMARIA, queen  of  Charles 
I.  of  England;  youngest  child  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  by  his  second  wife,  Maria 


Henrietta  Maria. 


de’  Medici;  born  is  Paris  1609.  Her 
bigotry,  and  despotic  ideas  as  to  divine 
right  did  much  to  bring  Charles  I.  to 
the  block.  She  died  in  1669. 

HENRY  I.,  of  Germany,  was  born  in 
876;  the  son  of  Otho  the  Illustrious,  duke 
of  Saxony.  Henry,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  became  Duke  of  Saxony  and 
Thuringia.  He  was  elected  emperor  of 
Germany  in  919,  and  was  the  true  found- 
er of  the  empire.  By  his  prudence  and 
activity  Suabia  and  Bavaria  were  forced 
to  tender  allegiance,  and  Lorraine  was 
reunited  to  the  German  Empire  in  925. 
Besides  his  military  reforms  he  dimin- 
ished the  feudal  privileges,  and  granted 
to  the  cities  of  the  empire  their  first 
municipal  charters.  He  died  in  936. 

HENRY  II.,  the  saint,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, born  972,  was  a son  of  Henry  the 
Quarreler  of  Bavaria,  and  great-grand- 
son of  the  Emperor  Henry  I.  He  in- 
herited Bavaria  in  995,  and  on  the  death 
of  Otho  III.  in  1002  laid  claim  and  was 
elected  to  the  empire.  He  died  in  1024. 

HENRY  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
the  second  belonging  to  the  house  of  the 
Salian  Franks,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Conrad  II. ; born  in  1017 ; chosen  king  in 
1026;  succeeded  his  father  in  the  im- 
perial dignity  1039.  He  died  in  1055. 
His  first  wife  was  a daughter  of  Canute 
the  Great  of  England. 

HENRY  IV.,  German  emperor,  son  of 
Henry  III.,  was  born  in  1050,  and  at  the 
death  of  his  father  was  only  five  years 
old.  His  whole  life  was  a series  of 
troubles,  partly  of  his  own  causing.  His 
severe  treatment  of  the  Saxons  led  to  a 
rising  which  was  cruelly  punished.  His 
treatment  of  the  conquered  people  was 
such  that  they  complained  to  the  pope, 
and  Gregory  VH.  (Hildebrand),  accord- 
ingly summoned  Henry,  in  1076,  to  ap- 


HENRY  V 


Henry  vi 


pear  before  him  at  Rome  and  answer  the 
charges,  at  the  same  time  forbidding  the 
sale  of  ecclesiastical  dignities.  Henry  not 
only  disregarded  the  threat,  but  insti- 
gated the  bishops,  assembled  by  his 
order  at  Worms,  to  renounce  their  obedi- 
ence to  the  pope.  Gregory,  however,  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  excommunication 
against  him,  and  Henry,  finding  himself 
deserted,  was  obliged  to  go  to  Italy  and 
make  his  submission  to  the  pope  (1077). 
Henry  IV.  ended  his  life  and  his  sorrows 
in  neglect  at  Liege  in  1106. 

HENRY  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Henry  IV.  (see 
above),  was  born  in  1081.  On  his  ascen- 
sion the  question  of  investiture  dis- 
tracted the  empire  anew.  Pope  Pascal 
would  only  confer  the  imperial  crown 
upon  condition  that  the  rights  claimed 
by  Gregory  should  be  formally  conceded. 
Henry  therefore  seized  the  pope  at  the 
altar  and  imprisoned  him  until  he 
yielded  two  months  later,  and  crowned 
Henry  in  April,  1811.  He  died  at  Ut- 
recht in  1125  and  was  the  last  of  the 
yalic  or  Frankish  family  of  emperors, 
which  was  succeeded  by  the  Suabian 
house.  He  married  Matilda,  a daughter 
of  Henry  I.  of  England. 

HENRY  VI.,  German  emperor,  son  of 
Frederick  I.  and  Beatrice  of  Burgundy, 
the  third  emperor  of  the  house  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  born  in  1165,  crowned  king  in 
1169,  succeeded  his  father  as  emperor  in 
1190.  He  kept  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  in 
prison,  and  obtained  a large  ransom  for 
him.  He  died  in  1197. 

HENRY  VII.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
born  in  1262,  was  chosen  emperor  in 
1308.  Among  the  first  acts  of  his  reign 
were  recognition  of  the  independence 
of  the  Swiss  cantons  of  Schwyz,  Uri, 
and  Unterwalden,  and  the  granting  of 
the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  to  his  son  John. 
He  compelled  the  Milanese  to  give  him 
the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  suppressed 
by  force  the  revolt  which  then  broke 
out  in  Upper  Italy,  captured  part  of 
Rome,  which  was  in  the  hands  of  Nea- 
p^olitan  troops,  and  was  crowned  Roman 
Emperor  by  two  cardinals.  He  died 
suddenly  in  1313. 

HENRY  II.,  King  of  France,  born  in 
1519,  succeeded  his  father,  Francis  I., 
in  1547.  Throughout  his  reign  his  mis- 
tress, Diana  of  Poitiers,  exercised  an  im- 
portant influence  over  king  ,and  court. 
Henry  was  mortally  wounded  by  a 
splinter  from  the  lance  of  Lord  Mont- 
gomery, captain  of  the  Scottish  guard. 
He  was  succeeded  in  1559  by  his  eldest 
son,  Francis  II. 

HENRY  III.,  King  of  France,  third 
son  of  Henry  II.  and  Catherine  de 
Medici,  born  in  1551;  succeeded  his 
brother,  Charles  IX.,  in  1574.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  branch  of  Orl6ans- 
Angouleme  of  the  stock  of  the  Valois, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Henry  of  Navarre, 
the  first  of  the  housfe  of  Bourbon. 

HENRY  rV.,  King  of  France  was  son  of 
Anthonj)-  of  Bourbon,  duke  of  Vendome, 
and  of  Jeanne  d’Albret,  daughter  of 
Henry,  king  of  Navarre,  and  herself 
afterward  queen  of  Navarre.  In  1572 
he  married  Margaret  of  Valois,  sister  of 
Charles  IX.,  and  after  the  massacre  of 
St.  _ Bartholomew,  which  took  place 
during  the  marriage  festivities,  was 
forced  to  adopt  the  Catholic  creed.  In 


1576  he  escaped  from  Paris,  retracted  at 
Tours  his  enforced  abjuration  of  Calvan- 
ism,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Huguenots,  and  took  a leading  part  in 
all  the  subsequent  religious  wars.  He 
was  obliged,  however,  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Paris;  and  convinced  that  a peacefid 
occupation  of  the  throne  was  impossible 
without  his  professing  the  Catholic 
faith,  he  became  nominally  a Catholic  in 
1593.  After  his  formal  coronation  in 
1594  only  three  provinces  held  out 
against  him — Burgundy,  reduced  by  the 
victory  of  Fontaine-Fran^aise  in  1595; 
Picardy,  reduced  by  the  capture  of 
Amiens  in  1596;  and  Brittany,  which 
came  into  his  hands  by  the  submission 
of  the  Duke  of  Mercceur  in  the  spring  of 
1598.  The  war  against  Spain  was  con- 
cluded in  1598  by  the  Peace  of  Vervins 
to  the  advantage  of  France.  The  same 
year  was  signalized  by  the  granting  of 
the  edict  of  Nantss,  which  secured  to  the 
Protestants  entire-  religious  liberty.  He 
made  use  of  the  tranquility  which  fol- 
lowed to  restore  the  internal  prosperity 
of  his  kingdom,  and  particularly  the 
wasted  finances,  in  which  he  was  success- 
ful with  the  aid  of  his  prime-minister 
Sully.  At  the  instance  of  Sully  Henry 
divorced  Margaret  of  Valois,  and  in 
1600  married  Maria  de’  Medici,  niece  of 
the  Grank-duke  of  Tuscany,  mother  of 
Louis  XIII.  She  was  crowned  at  St. 
Denis  in  1610,  but  on  the  following  day 
Henry  was  stabbed  by  a fanatic  named 
Ravaillac,  while  examining  the  prepa- 
rations for  the  queen’s  entry  into  Paris. 
The  great  benefits  which  Henry  IV. 
bestowed  upon  France  entitle  him  to  the 
designation  which  he  himself  assumed 
at  an  assembly  of  the  Notables  at  Rouen 
in  1596,  the  Regenator  of  France 
(Restaurateur  de  la  France). 

HENRY  I.,  King  of  England,  sur- 
named  Beauclerc  (“fine  scholar’’)  young- 
est son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  was 
born  at  Selby  in  Yorkshire,  in  1068. 
He  was  hunting  with  William  Rufus 
when  that  prince  was  killed,  in  1100, 
and  instantly  riding  to  London,  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  king,  to  the 
prejudice  of  his  elder  brother  Robert, 
then  absent  as  a crusader.  Henry  died 
at  Rouen  in  1135,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Stephen. 

HENRY  n.,  King  of  England,  first  of 
the  Plantagenet  line,  born  in  Normandy 
in  1133,  was  son  of  Geoffrey,  count  of 
Anjou,  and  Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry 
I.  He  was  invested  with  the  Duchy  of 
Normandy,  by  the  consent  of  his  mother, 
in  1150;  in  1151  he  succeeded  to  Anjou 
and  Maine,  and  by  a marriage  with 
Eleanor  of  Guienne  gained  Guienne  and 
Poitou.  In  1152  he  invaded  England, 
but  a compromise  was  effected,  by 
which  Stephen  was  to  retain  the  crown, 
and  Henry  to  succeed  at  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1154.  He  died  at  Chinon 
in  1189.  He  ranks  among  the  greatest 
English  kings  both  in  soldiership  and 
siatescraft.  He  partitioned  England 
into  four  Judiciary  districts,  an  l ap- 
pointed itinerant  justices  to  make 
regular  excursions  through  them;  re- 
vived trial  by  jury,  discouraged  that  by 
combat,  and  demolished  all  the  newly 
elected  castles  as  “dens  of  thieves.” 

HENRY  III.,  King  of  England,  son  of 
John  by  Isabel  of  Angouleme;  born  at 


Winchester  in  1207 ; succeeded  his  father 
in  1216.  He  died  in  1272.  His  son  Ed- 
ward I.  succeeded  him. 


Henry  II.,  King  of  England.  From  his  tomb. 

HENRY  IV.,  King  of  England,  first 
king  of  the  house  of  Lancaster;  born  in 
1366;  was  eldest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
duke  of  Lancaster,  third  son  of  Henry 
III.  by  the  heiress  of  Edmund,  earl  of 
Lancaster,  second  son  of  Henry  III.  In 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.  he  was  made 
earl  of  Derby  and  Duke  of  Hereford, 
but  having  in  1398  preferred  a charge  of 
treason  against  Mowbray,  duke  of  Nor- 
folk, he  was  banished  with  his  adver- 
sary. On  the  death  of  John  of  Gaunt  in 
1399  Richard  withheld  Henry’s  inheri- 
tance, and  Henry,  landing  in  England, 
gained  possession  of  Richard’s  person. 
The  deposition  of  Richard  by  parlia- 
ment, and  the  election  of  Henry,  was 
followed  by  the  murder  of  the  late  king. 
Henry  died  in  1413,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Henry  V. 

HENRY  V.,  King  of  England,  born  at 
Monmouth  in  1388.  On  succeeding  his 
father,  Henry  IV.,  in  1413,  he  showed  a 
wisdom  in  marked  contrast  to  a some- 
what reckless  youth.  He  restored  their 
estates  to  the  Percies,  and  liberated  the 
earl  of  March,  but  in  other  respects 
based  his  internal  administration  upon 
that  of  his  father.  The  persecution  of  the 
Lollards  is  the  chief  blot  upon  the  early 
part  of  his  reign.  The  struggle  in  France 
between  the  factions  of  the  dukes  of 
Orleans  and  Burgundy  afforded  Henry  a 
teinpting  opportunity  for  reviving  the 
claims  of  his  predecessors  to  the  French 
crown.  He  returned  in  triumph  to  Eng- 
land, but  on  the  defeat  of  his  brother, 
the  duke  of  Clarence,  in  Normandy  by 
the  earl  of  Buchan,  he  again  set  out  for 
France,  drove  back  the  army  of  the 
dauphin,  and  entered  Paris.  A son  was 
at  this  time  born  to  him,  and  all  his 
great  projects  seemed  about  to  be  real- 
ized, when  he  died  of  fever  at  Vincennes 
in  August,  1422,  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
four,  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  VI. 

HENRY  VI.,  King  of  England,  born 
' at  Windsor,  in  1421,  was  crowned  at 


Henry  vil 


HENSON 


Westminster  in  1429,  at  Paris  in  1430. 
As  he  was  an  infant  not  nine  months  old 
at  the  death  of  his  father  Henry  V.,  his 
uncle  John,  duke  of  Bedford,  was  ap- 
p>ointed  regent  of  France;  and  his  uncle 
Humphrey,  duke  of  Gloucester,  made 
protector  of  the  realm  of  England.  He 
was  a gentle,  pious,  well-intentioned, 
hopelessly  incompetent  king,  whose 
best  reputation  is  that  of  founder  of 
Eton  college  and  King’s  college,  Cam- 
bridge. 

HENRY  Vn.,  King  of  England,  first 
sovereign  of  the  race  of  Tudor,  born  in 
1456.  He  was  the  son  of  Edmund,  earl 
of  Richmond,  son  of  Owen  Tudor  and 
Catherine  of  France,  widow  of  Henry  V. 
In  1486  he  rnarried  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  Edward  IV.  and  heiress  of  the  house 
of  York,  and  thus  united  the  claims 
of  the  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter. The  reign  of  Henry  VII.  was 
troubled  by  repeated  insurrections,  of 
which  the  chief  were  that  headed  by 
Lord  Lovel  and  the  Staffords  (1486), 
and  the  impostures  of  Lambert  Simnel 
(1487)  and  Perkin  Warbeck  (1496-99). 
Henry  died  at  Richmond  in  1509. 

HENRY  VIII.,  King  of  England,  son 
of  the  preceding,  born  in  1491,  succeeded 
his  father  in  1509.  From  1515  until  1529 
the  government  was  practically  in  the 
hands  of  W’olsey,  no  parliament  being 
summoned  in  that  period  until  1523. 
After  the  election  of  Charles  V.  to  the 
German  Empire,  both  Charles  and  the 
French  king,  Francis  I.,  sought  the  al- 
liance of  England.  A friendly  meeting 
took  place  between  Henry  and  Francis 
at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  (1520), 
but  the  interest  of  Charles  prepon- 
derated, and  Henry  declared  war  against 
France,  though  with  no  important  re- 
sults. Now  came  the  determination  of 
the  king  to  divorce  his  wife  Catherine. 
Wolsey,  for  his  own  ends,  had  at  first 
been  active  in  promoting  the  divorce, 
but  drew  back  and  procrastinated  when 
it  became  apparent  that  Anne  Boleyn 
would  be  Catherine’s  successor.  This  de- 
lay cost  Wolsey  his  power  and  the 
papacy  its  authority  in  England.  Henry 
in  disgust  eagerly  caught  at  the  advice 
of  Thomas  Cranmer,  afterward  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  to  refer  the  case 
to  the  universities,  from  which  he  soon 
got  the  decision  that  he  desired.  In  1533 
his  marriage  with  Catherine  was  de- 
clared null  and  an  anticipatory  private 
marriage  wiJi  Anne  Boleyn  declared 
lawful;  and  as  these  decisions  were  not 
recognized  by  the  pope,  two  acts  of  par- 
liament were  obtained,  one  in  1534  set- 
ting aside  the  authority  of  the  chief 
pontiff  in  England,  the  other  in  1535 
declaring  Henry  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church.  Finding  that  the  monks  and 
friars  in  England  were  the  most  direct 
advocates  of  the  papal  authority,  and  a 
constant  source  of  disaffection,  he  sup- 
pressed the  monasteries  by  act  of  par- 
liament, and  therebj’’  inflic;  ed  an  in- 
curable wound  upon  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion in  England.  The  fall  of  Anr.e 
Boleyn  was,  liowever,  unfavorable  for  a 
time  to  the  reformers.  Henry  then 
married  Jane  Seymour,  and  the  birth  of 
Prince  Edward  in  1537  fulfilled  his  wish 
for  a male  heir  The  death  of  the  queen 
was  followed  in  1540  by  Henry’s  mar- 
riage with  Aune  of  Cleves,  the  negotia- 


tions of  which  were  conducted  by  Crom- 
well. The  king’s  dislike  to  his  wife, 
which  resulted  in  another  divorce,  be- 
came extended  to  the  minister  who  had 
proposed  the  union,  and  Cromwell’s  dis- 
grace and  death  soon  followed.  A mar- 
riage with  Catherine  Howard  in  1541 
proved  no  happier,  and  in  1542  she  was 
executed  on  a charge  of  infidelity.  In 
1543  he  married  his  sixth  wife,  Catherine 
Parr,  a lady  secretly  inclined  to  the  Re- 
formation, who  survived  the  king.  In  the 
meantime  Scotland  and  France  had  re- 
newed their  alliance,  and  England  be- 
came again  involved  in  war.  James  V. 
ravaged  the  borders,  but  was  defeated 
at  Solway  Moss  in  1542,  and  in  1544 
Boulogne  was  captured,  Henry  having 
again  allied  himself  with  Charles  V. 
Charles,  however,  soon  withdrew,  and 
Henry  maintained  the  war  alone  until 
1546.  Disease  now  so  much  aggravated 
the  natural  violence  of  Henry  that  his 
oldest  friends  fell  victims  to  his  tyranny. 
The  duke  of  Norfolk  was  committed  to 
the  Tower,  and  his  son  the  earl  of  Sur- 
rey was  executed.  Henry  died  on  Jan. 
28,  1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Edward  VI. 

HEKRY,  Joseph,  American  physicist, 
was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1799.  He 
was  a great  experimenter  and  did  much 
toward  the  development  of  the  science  of 
electricity.  In  1831  he  sent  a current 
through  a mile  of  copper  wire  and  caused 
the  armature  of  the  electro  magnet  to  be 
attracted  and  strike  a bell  which  was  the 
first  electro-magnet  telegraph  and  he  is 
to  be,  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the 
principle  now  applied  in  modern  prac- 
tice. In  1846  he  was  chosen  secretary  of 
the  Smithsonian  Institution,  a position 
that  he  held  until  his  death  in  1878. 

HENRY,  Patrick,  American  orator 
and  patriot,  was  born  in  Hanover  co., 
Va.,  in  1736.  In  1764  having  been  em- 
ployed to  plead  the  cause  of  the  people 
against  an  unpopular  tax,  his  great 
eloquence  seemed  suddenly  to  develop 


itself  and  he  was  at  once  placed  in  the 
front  rank  of  American  orators,  and  his 
later  speeches  advanced  him  to  their 
head.  From  amid  the  sullen  mur- 


murs and  remonstrances  that  the  paS* 
sage  of  the  stamp  act  evoked,  his  voice 
it  was  that  first  rose  in  a clear,  bold  call 
to  resistance.  A storm  of  opposition  fol- 
lowed his  resolutions,  setting  forth  that 
the  governor  had  the  exclusive  right  to 
lay  taxes  and  imports  upon  the  people 
of  the  colony.  In  the  debate  he  startled 
all  by  his  historic  outburst  “Caesar  had 
his  Brutus,  Charles  the  First  his  Crom- 
well, and  Cieorge  the  Third — ’’  (here  hf 
was  interrupted  with  cries  of  treason! 
treason!)  “may  profit  by  their  example,’’ 
calmly  said  the  orator,  completing  the 
sentence,  adding,  “If  this  be  treason 
make  the  most  of  it.’’  Th.vaghout  the 
war  of  independence  he  was  a zealous 
patriot.  He  was  a delegate  to  the  first 
Continental  congress,  which  met  at 
Philadelphia  in  1774,  and  delivered  the 
first  speech  in  that  assembly — a speech 
that  for  fiery  eloquence  and  lofty  tone 
was  worthy  of  so  momentous  a meeting. 
In  1776  he  carried  the  vote  of  the  Vir- 
ginia convention  for  independence;  and 
in  the  same  year  he  became  governor  of 
the  new  state.  He  was  afterward  four 
times  re-elected.  In  1791  he  retired  from 
public  life,  and  returned  to  his  practice; 
in  1795  he  declined  the  secretaryship  of 
state  offered  him  by  Washington.  Henry 
was  an  able  administrator,  a wise  and 
far-seeing  legislator;  but  it  is  as  their 
greatest  orator  that  his  memory  lives 
in  the  minds  of  Americans.  He  died  in 
1799. 

HENRY  THE  LION,  Duke  of  Saxony, 
the  most  remarkable  prince  of  Germany 
in  the  12th  century,  was  born  in  1129. 
He  succeeded  his  father,  Henry  the 
Proud,  in  1139,  assuming  the  govern- 
ment of  Saxony  himself  in  1146.  At  the 
diet  of  princes  in  Frankfort  (1147)  he 
demanded  restitution  of  Bavaria,  taken 
from  his  father  by  Conrad  VIL; but  was 
worsted  in  the  war  which  followed.  It 
was  restored  to  him,  however,  in  1154, 
after  the  death  of  Conrad,  by  the  Em- 
peror Frederick,  Henry’s  cousin.  His 
possessions  then  extended  from  the 
Baltic  and  the  North  Sea  to  the  Adriatic, 
and  he  was  successful  in  opposing  the 
league  formed  against  him  at  Merseburg 
in  1166.  Henry  died  at  Brunswick 
1195.  He  was  much,  in  advance  of  his 
age  in  fostering  industry,  science,  com- 
merce, and  the  arts. 

HENRY  THE  NAVIGATOR,  fourth 
son  of  King  John  I.  of  Portugal,  born  in 
1394.  From  time  to  time  he  sent  vessels 
on  voyages  to  the  coasts  of  Barbary  and 
Guinea;  resulting  in  the  discovery  of  the 
islands  of  Puerto  Santo  and  Madeira, 
and  some  years  later  of  the  Azores.  In 
1433  Gilianez,  one  of  his  navigators, 
safely  doubled  Cape  Bojador,  and  other 
adventurers,  pushing  still  further  south, 
discovered  Cape  Blanco  in  1441  and 
Cape  Verd  in  1445.  A profitable  com- 
merce with  the  natives  of  West  Africa 
was  soon  developed,  and  the  Senegal 
and  Gambia  partially  explored.  After 
acting  as  general  against  the  Moors  in 
1458  Henry  died  at  Sagres  on  the  13th 
of  November,  1458.  His  efforts  not  only 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  commerce 
and  colonial  possessions  of  Portugal, 
but  gave  a new  direction  to  navigation 
and  commerical  enterprise. 

HEN'SON,  Josiah,  American  clergy- 
man and  lecturer,  born  a slave  in  Port 


HEPH^STUS 


HERALDRY 


Tobacco,  Md.,  in  1787.  His  early  career 
is  remarkable  for  the  hardships  he  was 
forced  to  endure.  He  escaped  into 
Canada  in  1828,  and  became  a Methodist 
preacher  at  Dresden.  Mrs.  Harriet 
Beecher  Stowe  met  him,  and  drew  from 
the  story  of  his  life  her  character  of 
Uncle  Tom.  Henson  lectured  throughout 
the  United  States,  and  made  three  trips 
to  England  during  the  last  years  of  his 
life.  While  upon  his  final  tour  in  1876  he 
was  entertained  at  Windsor  Castle  by 
Queen  Victoria.  He  died  in  1883. 

HEPH.®S'TUS,  a god  of  the  ancient 
Greeks,  identified  by  the  Romans  with 
their  Vulcanus.  He  presided  over  fire, 
and  was  the  patron  of  all  artists  who 
worked  in  iron  and  metals. 

HEPTATEUCH,  a name  sometimes 
given  to  the  five  books  of  Moses  or 
Pentateuch,  together  with  the  books  of 
Joshua  and  Judges. 

HERA,  an  ancient  Greek  goddess, 
identified  by  the  Romans  with  their 
Juno,  the  sister  and  wife  of  Zeus  (Jupi- 
ter), and  daughter  of  Kronos  (Saturn, 
and  Rhea.  The  poets  represent  Zeus  as 
an  unfaithful  husband,  and  Hera  as  an 


Hera.— Antique  statue. 

obstinate  and  jealous  wife,  the  result  of 
which  is  frequent  strife  between  them. 
She  was  worshiped  in  all  Greece,  but 
her  principal  seats  were  at  Argos  and  at 
Samos.  The  Companions  af  Hera  were 
the  Nymphs,  Graces,  and  Hours.  Iris 
was  her  particular  servant. 

HER'ACLES,  called  by  the  Romans 
Hercules,  the  most  celebrated  hero  or 
semi-divine  personage  of  Greek  myth- 
ology, was  the  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  by 
Alcmena,  the  wife  of  Amphitryon.  He 
was  brought  up  at  Thebes,  and  before 
he  had  completed  his  eighth  month 
strangled  two  snakes  sent  by  the  jealous 
Hera  (Juno)  to  devour  him.  In  youth 
he  had  several  distinguished  instructors, 
among  them  the  Centaur  Cherion.  Early 
in  life  he  had,  at  the  command  of  Zeus, 
to  subject  himself  for  twelve  years  to  the 
will  of  Eurystheus,  on  the  understand- 
ing that  after  he  had  acquitted  himself 
of  this  duty  he  should  be  reckoned  in 
the  number  of  the  gods.  He  became  the 
husband  of  Dejanira,  who  unwittingly 
brought  about  his  death  by  giving  him  a 
tunic  poisoned  with  the  blood  of  the 
Centaur  Nessus,  which  she  innocently 
believed  would  retain  for  her  Heracles 


love.  The  poison  took  effect  whenever 
the  garment  was  put  on,  and  as  the  dis- 
temper was  incurable,  Hercales  placed 
himself  on  a burning  pile  on  the  top  of 
Mount  CEta,  was  received  up  into  heaven, 
and  being  there  reconciled  to  Hera,  re- 
ceived her  daughter  Hebe  in  marriage. 
In  ancient  works  of  art  Hercales  is  gen- 
erally represented  naked,  with  strong 
and  well  proportioned  limbs ; he  is  some- 
times covered  with  the  skin  of  the 
Nemjean  lion,  and  holds  a knotted  club 
in  his  hand,  on  which  he  often  leans. 
The  principal  ancient  statue  of  him 
which  remains  is  the  Farnese  Hercules 
at  Rome,  a work  of  the  Athenian  Glycon. 
The  myth  of  Hercules  is  believed  by 
many  writers  to  represent  the  course  of 
the  sun  through  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  His  marriage  with  Hebe  was 
explained  even  by  the  ancients  as 
symbolic  of  the  renewing  of  the  sun’s 
course  after  its  completion. 

HERACLI'US,  Roman  emperor  of  the 
East,  born  in  Cappadocia  about  575 
A.D.;  the  son  of  Heraclius,  exarch  of 
Africa.  He  died  in  641,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Constantine  III. 

HER'ALD,  an  officer  whose  functions 
originally  were  to  carry  messages  of 
courtesy  or  defiance  between  soverei^s 
or  persons  of  knightly  rank,  to  superin- 
tend and  register  the  results  of  trial  by 
battle,  tournaments,  and  other  chivalric 
exercises,  to  record  the  valiant  deeds  of 
combatants,  proclaim  war  or  peace, 
marshal  processions  and  public  cere- 
monials, and  especially,  in  later  times, 
to  regulate  and  determine  all  matters 
connected  with  the  use  of  armorial 
bearings.  Heralds  began  to  appear 
about  the  12th  century,  and  assumed 
the  functions  which  ultimately  belonged 
to  their  office  gradually. 

HER'ALDRY,  the  whole  science  of  a 
herald’s  duties,  or  more  commonly  the 
knowledge  of  the  forms,  terms,  and  laws 
which  pertain  to  the  use  of  armorial 
bearings  or  coats  of  arms.  Badges  and 
emblems  on  shields,  helms,  banners,  etc., 
naturally  occurred  in  the  earliest  times, 
and  the  s3nnbols  were  sometimes  heredi- 
tary. The  origin  of  heraldic  arms, 
properly  so  called,  is,  however,  to  be 
attributed  to  the  necessity  which  arose 
during  the  crusades  of  distinguishing 
the  leaders  of  the  numerous  and  motly 
bands  of  warriors  which  constituted  the 
Christian  armies.  One  of  the  oldest 
specimens  of  heraldic  bearings  extant  is 
the  shield  at  Mans  of  Geoffrey  Plantage- 
net,  who  died  in  1150.  Rolls  of  arms  in 
England  are  extant  from  the  reigns  of 
Henry  III.,  Edward  I.,  and  Edward  II. 
The  use  of  arms  on  the  Great  Seal  of 
England  was  introduced  by  Richard  I. 
The  bearing  of  coat-armor  by  private 
persons  was  prohibited  by  proclamation 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  The  chief  courts 
of  jurisdiction  in  questions  of  heraldry 
are  the  Herald’s  college  in  England,  and 
the  Lyon  court  in  Scotland.  (See 
Herald.)  The  rules  of  heraldry  now 
practiced  at  the  Heralds’  college  are 
comparatively  modern,  and  differ  in 
some  respects  from  those  of  other  Euro- 
pean courts.  A coat  of  arms  consists  of 
the  figure  of  a shield  marked  and  colored 
in  a vast  variety  of  ways,  so  as  to  be  dis- 
tinctive of  an  individual,  a family,  or  a 
community.  The  shield  or  escutcheon 


represents  the  original  shield  used  in 
war,  and  on  which  arms  were  anciently 
borne.  The  surface  of  the  escutcheon  is 
termed  the  field,  and  the  several  parts 
or  points  of  it  have  particular  names, 
so  that  the  figures  which  the  field  con- 
tains may  be  precisely  located.  In  the 
accompanying  illustration  a B c marks 
the  part  of  the  shield  called  the  chief, 
which  is  the  highest  and  most  honorable 
part  of  the  shield,  a is  the  dexter  chief 
or  upper  right-hand  side  of  the  shield; 
B,  the  middle  chief;  and  c,  the  sinister 
chief,  or  upper  left-hand  side  of  the 
shield;  e,  the  center  or  fesse  point;  G h i, 
the  base,  that  is,  g,  the  dexter  or  right- 
hand  base;  h,  the  middle  base;  and  i, 
the  sinister  of  left-hand  base.  Color  is 
given  in  the  coat  of  arms  by  means  of 
tinctures,  two  of  which  are  metals — or 
and  argent,  that  is,  gold  and  silver — the 
rest  colors  proper.  These  colors  are,  in 
heraldic  terminology:  azure,  blue;  gules, 
red;  sable,  black;  vert,  green;  purpure, 
purple ; tenney,  orange;  sanguine,  blood- 
color.  The  two  last  are  comparatively 
uncommon.  An  object  represented  in  its 
natural  colors  is  said  to  be  proper.  When 
not  given  in  colors  or  by  actual  gilding 
the  tinctures  are  represented  by  points 
and  lines  in  black  and  white.  Or  is  dis- 
tinguished by  small  dots  covering  the 
part;  argent  is  represented  by  leaving 
the  space  blank;  azure  is  shown  by 
horizontal  lines;  gules,  by  perpendicular 
lines;  sable,  by  perpendicular  and  hori- 
zontal lines  crossing  each  other;  vert, 
by  diagonal  lines  running  from  the 
dexter  chief  to  the  sinister  base ; purpure 
by  diagonal  lines  running  from  the 
sinister  chief  to  the  dexter  base.  An- 
other class  of  tinctures  are  the  furs,  of 
which  the  two  principal  are  ermine  and 
vair,  and  which  have  also  their  special 
method  of  representation.  The  figures 
borne  on  the  shield  may  be  either  purely 
artificial  and  conventional,  or  may 
represent  real  objects,  animals,  plants, 
etc.  Of  the  former  the  most  common  are 
known  as  ordinaries,  and  have  the  fol- 
fowing  names:  Chief,  Pale,  Bend,  Fesse, 
Bar,  Chevron,  Cross,  and  Saltire.  The 
chief  is  a portion  of  the  shield  at  the  top 
marked  off  by  a horizontal  line,  and 
covers  the  upper  third  part  of  the  field. 
The  pale  occupies  the  middle  third  part 
of  the  field  perpendicularly.  The  bend  is 
drawn  diagonally  from  the  dexter  chief 
to  the  sinister  base  in  the  form  of  a belt, 
and  also  occupies  the  third  of  the  field. 
A dimunutive  of  the  bend  is  the  bendlet. 
The  fesse  occupies  the  middle  third  of 
the  field  horizontally.  The  bar  is  formed 
after  the  manner  of  a fesse,  but  occupies 
only  a fifth  of  the  field,  and  is  not  con- 
fined to  any  particular  part  of  it,  except 
when  there  is  only  one  bar,  when  it  is 
put  in  the  place  of  a fesse.  Bars  are 
mostly  two  in  a field,  sometimes  three  or 
more.  A diminutive  is  the  barrulet. 
The  chevron  may  be  regarded  as  made 
of  a bend  dexter  and  sinister  issuing 
from  the  right  and  left  base  points  of  the 
escutcheon  and  meeting  like  two  rafters. 
The  cross  is  the  ordinary  cross  of  St. 
George.  The  saltire  is  the  equally  well- 
known  cross  of  St.  Andrew.  The  shield 
is  often  divided  by  lines  running  similar- 
ly to  the  ordinaries;  hence  when  divided 
by  a perpendicular  line  it  is  said  to  be 
party  per  pale,  when  by  a horizontal 


HERAT 


HERCULANEUM 


line  party  per  fesse,  when  by  a diagonal 
line  party  per  bend.  Similarly,  when  it 
seems  to  bear  several  pales  or  bends  or 
bars,  it  is  said  to  be  paly,  bendy,  or 
barry  of  so  many  pieces,  “paly  of  six 
argent  and  gules”  for  instance,  as  in 
illustration.  Charges  are  the  figures  of 
natural  and  artificial  things,  and  include 
animals  and  plants,  implements  and 
objects  of  all  sorts,  and  various  imagin- 
ary monsters,  being  drawn  either  on  the 
field  or  on  one  of  the  ordinaries.  It  is  a 


rule  in  heraldry  that  metal  must  not  be 
put  on  metal  nor  color  on  color;  hence, 
if  the  field  say  is  argent,  it  cannot  have 
a charge  or  an  ordinary  tinctured  or 
directly  upon  it.  Various  technical 
terms  describe  the  position  of  animals; 
thus,  a lion  is  rampant  when  he  is  erect 
standing  on  one  of  his  hind  legs;  sejant, 
when  sitting;  couchant,  when  lying  at 
rest,  with  tlie  liead  erect;  passant,  in  a 
walking  position;  gardant,  looking  full- 
faced;  rampant  gardant,  erect  and  full- 


faced;  salient,  in  a leaping  posture.  So 
trippant  is  said  of  thestagwhen  trotting; 
lodged,  of  the  stag  when  at  rest  on  the 
ground;  volant,  of  birds  in  general  in  a 
flying  posture;  rising,  of  a bird  that  is 
preparing  to  fly;  displayed,  of  birds  seen 
frontwise  with  outspread  wings;  naiant, 
of  fishes  when  swimming;  and  so  on. 
The  teeth  and  claws  of  lions  and  other 
ravenous  beasts  are  called  their  arms; 
and  when  these  have  a special  tincture 
the  animal  is  said  to  be  armed  of  such  a 


tincture;  similarly  if  their  tongue  be  of  a 
special  tincture,  they  are  said  to  be 
be  languaged  of  this  tincture.  Often  two 
or  more  coats  of  arms  are  united  to- 
gether on  one  shield,  so  that  the  whole 
may  be  a very  complicated  affair.  The 
art  of  arranging  arms  in  this  way  is 
known  as  marshalling,  and  when  the 
shield  is  divided  up  into  squares  for  the 
reception  of  different  coats,  it  is  said  to 
be  quartered.  There  are  also  certain 
exterior  ornaments  of  the  shield  or 


escutcheon,  namely,  the  helmet,  mant- 
ling, crest,  wreath,  motto,  and  sup- 
porters. The  helmet,  which  is  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  escutcheon,  varies  both  in 
form  and  materials.  Those  of  sovereign 
princes  are  of  gold,  those  of  the  nobility 
of  silver,  and  those  of  gentlemen  of 
polished  steel.  The  full-faced  helmet, 
with  six  bars,  is  for  the  king  and  princes 
of  the  blood ; the  side-long  helmet,  with 
five  bars,  is  for  dukes  and  marquises, 
etc.;  the  full-faced  helmet  of  steel,  with 
its  beaver  or  visor  open,  is  for  knights; 
and  the  sidelong  helmet,  with  the  visor 
shut,  for  the  esquire.  The  mantling  or 
mantle  was  anciently  fixed  to  the  helmet 
to  which  it  served  as  a covering.  Mant- 
lings  are  now  used  like  cloaks,  to  cover 
the  whole  achievement.  The  crest  is 
placed  above  the  helmet,  with  the 
wreath  serving  as  a kind  of  support ; the 
latter  is  composed  of  two  colors  wreath- 
ed or  twisted  together.  The  motto  con- 
sists of  the  word  or  phrase  carried  in  a 
scroll  under  or  above  the  arms.  Sup- 
porters were  originally  only  ancient 
devices  or  badges,  which  by  custom 
came  to  embellish  armorial  ensigns. 
They  are  called  supporters  because  they 
hold  the  shield,  as  the  lion  and  the  uni- 
corn in  the  well-known  royal  arms  of 
England.  The  present  royal  arms  of 
Britain  exhibit  the  arms  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  in  the  four  quar- 
ters of  the  shiefd;  that  is:  Quarterly, 
1 and  4,  England;  2,  Scotland;  3,  Ire- 
land. The  arms  of  England  are:  Gules, 
three  lions  passant  gardant  in  pale  or; 
Scotland,  Or,  a lion  rampant  within  a 
double  tressure  flory  counter-flory  gules; 
Ireland,  Azure,  a harp  or,  stringed  ar- 
gent. 

HERAT',  a city  in  the  northwest  of 
Afghanistan,  about  370  miles  west  of 
Cabul.  The  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  carpets,  sword-blades,  shoes, 
cloaks,  and  sheepskin  caps.  Herat  was 
long  the  capital  of  the  empire  founded 
by  Tamerlane.  Pop.  about  45,000. 

HERAULT  (a-ro),  a department  of 
France,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast; 
area,  2393  sq.  miles.  In  the  northwest 
it  is  covered  by  the  Cevennes,  but  it 
descends  rapidly  towards  the  coast, 
which  is  lined  by  lagoons.  Capital  Mont- 
pellier. Pop.  441,527. 

HERCULA'NEUM,  an  ancient  city 
about  5 miles  s.e.  from  Naples,  com- 
pletely buried  with  Pompeii,  Stabiae, 
etc.,  by  lava  and  ashes  during  an  erup- 
tion of  Vesuvius  in  the  reign  of  Titus, 
A.D.  79.  The  site  had  been  long  sought  in 
vain,  when  in  1713  three  statues  were 
found  in  digging  a well  at  the  village  of 
Portici.  In  1738  the  well  was  dug  deeper, 
and  traces  of  buildings  were  found.  The 
theater  was  then  discovered,  but  though 
the  excavations  were  continued  for 
many  years  it  is  now  the  only  building 
to  be  seen  underground,  as  the  successive 
excavations  were  immediately  filled  up 
with  rubbish  from  a new  digging.  A 
number  of  public  buildings  and  private 
dwellings  were  laid  bare,  and  many 
objects  of  great  value  discovered,  such 
as  statues,  busts,  beautiful  mosaics, 
wall  paintings,  charred  pap3^rus  manu- 
scripts, etc.  One  of  the  houses  dis- 
covered contained  a quantity  of  pro- 
visions, consisting  of  fruits,  corn,  oil, 
pease,  lentils,  pies,  and  hams.  Few 


' A B C 

' '' 

7 \ 

f 1 

r 

C 

[g  H Ij 

Poista  of  the  Shield.  Or. 


Argent. 


Gules. 


W 


Sable. 


Vert. 


.y.y. 


Ermioe. 


duel 


7 ^ 


7 N 


7 V 


Pale. 


Bend. 


Bar. 


Rampant  Trippant. 


Volant- 


Naiant.  Displayed. 


Noble. 


Knight. 


HERCULES 


HERNIA 


skeletons  have  been  found  either  in 
Pompeii  or  Herculaneum,  so  that  it  is 
probable  most  of  the  inhabitants  had 
time  to  save  themselves  by  flight. 
Among  the  most  interesting  objects  dis- 
covered here  were  the  papyri,  over  1750 
of  which  are  now  in  the  Naples  Museum 
but  hardly  a third  have  yet  been  un- 
rolled, the  process  presenting  great 
difficulties  from  the  tendency  of  the 
MSS.  to  crumble.  The  knowledge  of 
ancient  art  has,  however,  gained  more 
by  the  discoveries  made  here  than  litera- 
ture. 

HERCULES.  See  Heracles. 

HERCULES,  one  of  Ptolemy’s  north- 
ern constellations,  including  113  stars. 
The  point  to  which  the  sun,  with  its 


Hercules  slaying  the  hydra.— From  sculpture 
at  Florence. 

accompanying  system  of  planets,  is 
traveling  at  present  is  situated  in  this 
constellation,  which  includes  some  re- 
markable star  groups  and  nebulie. 

HERCULES,  Pillars*  of,  the  ancient 
name  of  the  two  promontories,  Calpe 
(Gibralter)  and.Abyla  (Ceuta),  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean. 

HERDER,  Johann  Gottfried  von, 
German  author,  born  in  poor  circum- 
stances in  1744.  His  greatest  work  is  his 
Ideen  zur  Philosophie  der  Geschichte 
der  Menschheit  (Ideas  on  the  Philosophy 
of  the  History  of  Man;  1785  et  seq.). 
He  is  the  author  of  some  pleasing  songs, 
and  of  an  epic  entitled  The  Cid.  He  died 
in  1803. 

HEREDITARY  DISEASES.  See  Dis- 
eases. 

HERED'ITY,  the  transmission  from 
parent  to  offspring  of  physical  and  in- 
tellectual characters.  This  has  been  at  all 
times  believed  in,  but  it  is  only  in  recent 
times  that  the  conviction  has,  in  the 
hands  of  Darwin,  Herbert  Spencer,  and 
Wallace,  been  methodized  so  as  to  em- 
body an  important  zoological  doctrine. 
The  modern  view  of  evolution  in  biology 
rests  upon  the  belief  that  acquired 
peculiarities,  or  differences  which  may 
arise  between  parent  and  offspring,  can 
be  transmitted  with  some  probability 
of  permanence,  especially  if  the  varia- 
tion presented  by  the  young  is  deter- 
mined by  external  conditions,  or  if  it  is 
such  as  to  adapt  the  possessor  more 
thoroughly  to  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  placed.  On  the  other  hand, 
while  variations  may  be  thus  perma- 
nently transmitted  by  heredity,  yet  this 
very  tendency  of  the  young  to  repeat 
the  characters  of  the  parent  is  also  a 
check  on  variability,  or  the  tendency  of 
structure  and  attributes  to  change  with 
the  environment.  It  may  be  noted  that 


while  the  strong  tendency  to  hereditary 
transmission  works  in  the  majority  of 
cases  so  as  to  perpetuate  those  most 
fitted  to  survive,  it  secures  the  same 
result  in  other  cases  by  a converse  ac- 
tion. The  descent  of  disease  in  families 
tends  ultimately  to  purify  the  race  by 
accumulating  incapacities  which  end  in 
the  extinction  of  the  enfeebled  strain. 

HEREFORD  (he're-ford),  a city  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  England, 
capital  of  county  of  same  name,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Wye.  Pop.  21,382. — 
The  county,  which  is  entirely  inland, 
and  borders  on  Wales,  has  an  area  of 
532,898  acres,  of  which  about  500,000 
are  arable,  meadow,  and  pasture. 
Wheat  is  the  principal  crop,  but  barley, 
oats,  beans,  pease,  hops,  and  turnips  are 
also  extensively  cultivated.  Orchards 
are  numerous,  and  a large  quantity  of 
excellent  cider  is  made.  Pop.  114,401. 

HERETIC  , one  who  embraces  a heresy, 
that  is,  one  who  holds  some  theological 
doctrine  which  conflicts  with  the  be- 
liefs of  the  Catholic  or  universal  church, 
but  who,  at  the  same  time,  calls  himself 
a Christian.  As  early  as  385  Priscillian 
was  condemned  to  death  as  a heretic  by 
the  Spanish  bishops  at  the  council  of 
Treves;  but  the  persecutions  of  heretics, 
properly  so  called,  began  in  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Gregory  VII.,  in  the  11th  century. 
Spain,  Italy,  and  France,  from  the  13th 
century,  suffered  much  from  these  perse- 
cutions, but  the  states  of  Germany 
showed  greater  moderation.  In  Eng- 
land the  burning  of  heretics  was  prac- 
ticed before  1200,  and  long  continued. 
Heresy  is  now  left  entirely  to  the  cogni- 
zance of  the  ecclesiastical  courts. 

HERMAPH'RODITE,  an  animal  in 
which  the  characteristics  of  both  sexea 
are  either  really  or  apparently  com- 
bined, especially  an  animal  having  the 
parts  of  generation  both  of  male  and 
female,  so  that  reproduction  can  take 
place  without  the  union  of  two  individ- 
uals. Hermaphrodites  are  divided  into 
true  and  spurious,  the  first  exhibiting  a 
real  combination  of  the  characteristic 
of  the  two  sexes ; while  in  the  second  the 
combination  is  only  apparent.  The 
animals  in  which  the  organs  of  the  two 
sexes  are  normally  combined  in  the  same 
individual  are  confined  to  the  inverte- 
brate division  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
as  for  example  certain  groups  of  the 
inferior  worms,  molluscs,  barnacles,  etc. 
There  are  no  real  hermaphrodites  in  the 
human  species. 

HERMES,  called  by  the  Romans 
Mercurius,  in  Greek  mythology  the  son 
of  Zeus  and  Maia,  the  daughter  of  Atlas. 
He  was  born  in  Arcadia,  and  soon  after 
his  birth  left  his  cradle  and  invented 
the  lyre  by  stringing  the  shell  of  a tor- 
toise with  three  or  seven  strings.  The 
lyre,  however,  he  resigned  to  Apollo, 
with  whom  it  was  ever  after  identified. 
Hermes  also  invented  the  Pandean  pipe. 
The  ancients  represent  Hermes  as  the 
herald  and  messengers  of  the  gods.  He 
conducted  the  souls  of  the  departed  to 
the  lower  world.  He  was  the  ideal  em- 
bodiment of  grace,  dignity,  and  per- 
suasiveness, but  also  of  prudence,  cun- 
ning, fraud,  perjury,  theft,  and  robbery. 
His  cunning  was  frequently  of  service 
both  to  the  gods  and  the  heroes,  and 
even  to  Zeus  himself.  Later  writers 


ascribe  to  him  the  invention  of  dice, 
music,  geometry,  letters,  etc.  He  was 
worshiped  in  all  the  cities  of  Greece, 
but  Arcadia  was  the  chief  place  of  his 
worship,  his  festivals  being  called 
Hermsea.  In  the  monuments  he  is  rep- 


Hermes.— Wall  painting,  Pompeii. 

resented  as  in  the  flower  of  youth,  or  in 
the  full  power  of  early  manhood.  He 
often  appears  with  small  wings  attached 
to  his  head  and  to  his  ankles.  Among 
his  symbols  are  the  cock,  the  tortoise,  a 
purse,  etc.,  and  especially  his  winged 
rod,  the  caduceus. 

HERMES  TRISMEGIS'TUS,  a mythi- 
cal personage,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
great  variety  of  works,  probably  written 
by  Egyptian  Neo-Platonists,  who  as- 
cribed the  authorship  of  the  highest 
attainments  of  the  human  mind  to 
Thoth,  the  Egyptian  Hermes;  regarding 
him  as  the  source  of  all  knowledge  and 
inventions,  the  Logos  incarnate,  thrice 
greatest  (Gr.  tris  megistos). 

HERMETIC  SEALING,  the  term  used 
to  denote  a very  old  process  in  which  a 
glass  vessel,  such  as  a tube  or  flask,  has 
its  neck  so  fused  together  that  no  part  of 
the  contained  matter  can  escape,  and 
nothing  foreign  can  get  in. 

HERMIT-CRAB,  a name  common  to  a 
family  of  well-knowm  decapod  crusta- 
ceans. These  crabs  take  possession  of 
and  occupy  the  cast-off  univalve  shells 
of  various  molluscs,  carrying  this  habi- 
tation about  with  them,  and  changing  it 
for  a larger  one  as  they  increase  in  size. 

HERMON,  a mountain  of  Syria,  be- 
longing to  tlie  Anti-Lebanon,  about 
9400  feet  high. 

HERNANDIA,  a genus  of  large  East 
Indian  trees.  They  have  alternate 
entire  leaves  and  flowers  arranged  in 
axillary  or  terminal  spikes  or  corymbs. 
H.  Sonora,  or  Jack-in-the-box,  is  so 
called  from  the  noise  made  by  the  wind 
whistling  through  its  persistent  in- 
volucels.  The  fibrous  roots  chewed  and 
applied  to  wounds  caused  by  the  Macas- 
sar poison  form  an  effectual  cure,  and 
the  juice  of  the  leaves  is  a powerful 
depilatory. 

HERNIA,  in  surgery,  a tumor  formed 
by  the  displacement  of  a soft  part,  which 
protrudes  by  a natural  or  accidental 
opening  from  the  cavity  in  which  it  is 
contained.  The  brain,  the  heart,  the 
lung3,  and  most  of  the  abdominal  viscera 
may  become  totally  or  partially  dis- 
placed, and  thus  give  rise  to  the  forma- 
tion of  hernial  tumors.  But  the  term  is 
ordinarily  applied  to  abdominal  hernia. 


HERO 


HERRING 


Every  part  of  the  abdomen  may  become 
the  seat  of  hernia,  but  it  most  commonly 
appears  in  the  anterior  and  inferior 
region,  which,  being  destitute  in  a great 
measure  of  muscular  fibers,  and  con- 
taining the  natural  openings,  offers  less 
resistance  to  the  displacement  of  the 
viscera.  Most  of  the  viscera,  when  dis- 
placed, push  the  peritoneum  forward 


Ilernaadia  Sonora  (Jack-ln-tbe-box). 

before  them:  (his  membrane  thus  formed 
an  envelope  of  the  hernia,  which  is  called 
the  hernial  sac.  The  hernia  itself  is 
usually  a loop  of  the  small  bowel,  and 
though  it  has  been  pushed  through  the 
wall  of  the  abdomen,  forming  a tumor 
under  the  skin,  the  faeces  still  pass  along 
it.  If  the  hernia  can  be  returned  to  the 
abdomen,  it  is  said  to  be  reducible;  if, 
from  its  size  or  other  cause,  it  cannot  be 
replaced,  it  is  irreducible.  A hernia  is 
said  to  be  strangulated  when  it  is  not 
only  irreducible,  but  also  subjected  to  a 
continual  constriction,  which  interferes 
with  the  circulation  through  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  part  and  the  passage  of  the 
faeces.  It  may  be  rapidly  fatal.  Con- 
striction may  be  produced  by  different 
causes,  but  generally  occurs  at  the 
margins  of  the  opening  through  which 
the  hernia  protrudes.  As  soon  as  a pa- 
tient perceives  that  he  is  affected  with  a 
hernia  he  should  have  recoursetomedical 
advice,  for  the  disease  is  then  in  its  most 
favorable  state  for  treatment.  The 
hernia  when  it  is  reduced  must  be”pre- 
vented  from  recurring  by  the  constant 
pressure  of  a pad  or  truss.  An  irreducible 
hernia  must  be  supported  with  great 
care.  All  violent  exercises,  and  excess  in 
diet,  must  be  avoided.  The  strangulated 
hernia  requires  prompt  relief,  and  may 
necessitate  an  operation. 

HERO,  a Greek  priestess  of  Aphrodite 
at  Sestos,  on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  for 
love  of  whom  Leander,  a youth  of  Aby- 
dos,  swam  every  night  across  the  Helles- 
pont, guided  by  a torch  from  her  tower. 
He  was  at  length  drowned  in  the 
attempt  and  his  body  washed  ashore, 
when  Hero,  overcome  with  anguish, 
threw  herself  from  the  tower  on  the 
corpse  of  her  lover,  and  perished.  There 
is  a Greek  poem  by  Musajus  on  this  sub- 
ject. 

HER'OD,  called  the  Great,  King  of 
the  Jews,  was  a native  of  Ascalon,  in 
Judea,  where  he  was  born  about  74  b.c. 
The  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  is  said  to  have 
taken  place  in  the  last  year  of  the  reign 
of  Herod,  viz.  b.c.  4,  the  year  also  sig- 
nalized by  the  massacre  of  the  children 
of  Bethlehem.  Herod’s  policy  and  in- 
fluence gave  a great  temporary  splendor 
to  the  Jewish  nation,  but  he  was  also  the 
first  to  shake  the  foundation  of  the 
Jewish  government,  by  dissolving  the 
national  council,  and  appointing  the 


high-priests  and  removing  them  at  pleas- 
ure, without  regard  to  the  laws  of  sue- 
CGssion 

HEROD  AGRIPPA  I.,  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus  by  Bernice,  daughter  of  Herod 
the  Great.  From  his  attachment  to 
Caligula  he  was  imprisoned  by  Tiberius, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Caligula  (a.d.  37) 
he  received  the  government  of  part  of 
Palestine,  and  latterly  all  the  dominions 
of  Herod  the  Great.  To  please  the  Jews, 
with  whom  his  rule  was  very  pbpular,  he 
caused  St.  James  to  be  put  to  death, 
and  imprisoned  St.  Peter.  He  died  in 
the  circumstances  related  in  Acts  xii., 
in  A.D.  44. 

HEROD  AGRIPPA  II.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, and  last  of  the  Herodian  line. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  died  in  Rome, 
A.D.  94. 

HEROD  AN'TIPAS,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  by  his  fifth  wife,  Cleopatra,  was 
appointed  tetrarch  of  Galilee  on  his 
death  (b.c.  4).  This  was  the  Herod  who 
put  to  death  St.  John  the  Baptist,  in 
compliment  to  his  wife  Herodias  in  re- 
venge for  his  reproaches  of  their  incestu- 
ous union.  Having  visited  Rome  he  was 
accused  of  having  been  concerned  in  the 
conspiracy  of  Sejanus,  and  was  stripped 
of  his  dominions,  and  sent  (a.d.  39)  with 
his  wife  into  exile  at  Lugdunum  (Lyons), 
or,  as  some  say,  to  Spain,  where  he  died. 

HEROD'OTUS,  the  oldest  Greek  his- 
torian whose  works  have  come  down  to 
us,  the  “father  of  history,”  born  at 
Halicarnassus  in  Asia  Minor  about  B.c. 
484.  Before  writing  his  history  he 
traveled  extensively,  visiting  the  shores 
of  the  Hellespont  and  the  Euxine, 
Scythia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Babylon  and 
Ecbatana,  Egypt  as  far  as  Elephantine 
and  other  parts  of  northern  Africa, 
everywhere  investigating  the  manners,' 
customs,  and  religion  of  the  people,  the 
historyof  the  country,  productions  of  the 
soil,  etc.  On  returning  home  he  found 
that  Lygdamis  had  usurped  the  supreme 
authority  in  Halicarnassus,  and  put  to 
death  the  noblest  citizens,  among  others 
his  uncle,  the  epic  poet  Panyasis,  and 
Herodotus  was  forced  to  seek  an  asylum 
in  the  island  of  Samos.  Having  formed 
a conspiracy  with  several  exiles  he 
returned  to  Halicarnassiie  and  drove 
out  the  usurper,  but  the  nobles  who  had 
acted  with  him  immediately  formed  an 
aristocracy  more  oppressive  than  the 
government  of  the  banished  tyrant,  and 
Herodotus  withdrew  to  the  recently 
founded  colony  of  Thurii,  in  Italy,  where 
he  seems  to  have  spent  most  of  his  re- 
maining life.  Here,  at  an  advanced  age, 
we  are  told  by  Pliny,  he  wrote  his  im- 
mortal work,  a statement  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  events  are  noticed  in  the 
body  of  the  book  which  occurred  so  late 
as  409  B.C.,  while  its  abrupt  ending 
proves  almost  beyond  question  that  he 
was  prevented  by  death  from  complet- 
ing it.  The  history  is  divided  into  nine 
books,  each  bearing  the  name  of  a muse, 
and  is  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect. 

HEROES,  a name  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  mythical  personages  who 
formed  an  intermediate  link  between 
men  and  gods.  There  were  six  great 
heroic  races,  descended  respectively 
from  Prometheusand  Deucalion,  Inachus, 
Agenor,  Danaus,  Pelops  or  Tantalus, 
and  Cecrops.  Individual  families  as. 


for  instance,  the  ^acidae,  Atridae,  Hera- 
clidae,  belong  to  one  or  another  of  these 
races. 

HERON,  the  name  common  of  birds 
constituting  with  the  bitterns  type  of 
what  is  now  commonly  regarded  as  a 
separate  order  of  birds,  the  Herodiones. 
The  herons  are  very  numerous,  and  al- 


Common heron. 


most  universally  spread  over  the  globe.* 
They  are  distinguished  by  having  a long 
bill  cleft  beneath  the  eyes,  a compressed 
body,  long  slender  legs  naked  above  the 
tarsal  joint,  three  toes  in  front,  the  two 
outer  united  by  a membrane,  and  by 
moderate  wings.  The  tail  is  short, 
rounded,  and  composed  of  ten  or  twelve 
feathers.  The  common  heron  is  about 
3 feet  in  length  from  the  point  of  the  bill 
to  the  end  of  the  tail,  builds  its  nest  in 
high  trees,  many  being  sometimes  on 
one  tree. 

HERRICK,  Robert,  an  English  poet, 
born  in  London,  1591,  died  in  Oct., 
1674.  His  compositions  were  published 
in  1648,  under  the  title  of  Hesperides, 
or  the  Works,  both  Humane  and  Divine, 
of  Robert  Herrick.  It  is  a delightful 
collection  of  love  lyrics,  epigrams, 
sketches  of  rural  scenery,  etc. 

HERRING,  the  general  name  of  the 
common  herring.  It  is  of  wide  distribu- 
tion in  the  North  Atlantic,  45°  n.  lat. 
being  about  the  southern  limit.  It 
measures  from  10  to  12  inches  in  length, 
with  blue-green  back  and  brilliant  sil- 
very white  under  parts.  It  has  small 
teeth  in  both  jaws,  and  is  of  an  elegant 
shape,  the  body  being  much  compressed. 
It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  her- 
rings migrated  in  two  great  shoals  every 
summer  from  the  Polar  Seas  to  the 
coasts  of  Britain  and  France,  returning 
in  the  winter,  but  the  migration  is 
probably  only  from  a deeper  part  of  the 
ocean  to  a shallower.  The  feeding  ground 
of  the  herring  is  probably  the  mud 
deposits  found  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the 
sea,  and  it  seems  to  be  a fact  that  during 
their  visits  to  the  shallower  waters  of 
the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  spawning 
they  do  not  feed,  or  feed  very  little.  In 
summer  the  herring  leaves  the  deep 
water  where  it  has  passed  the  winter  and 
spring  months,  and  seeks  the  coast 
where  it  may  deposit  its  ova,  and  where 
they  may  be  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
oxygen,  heat,  and  sun-light,  which  are 
essential  to  their  development.  They 
are  generally  followed  by  multitudes  of 
hakes,  dog-fishes,  etc.,  and  gulls  and 
other  sea-birds  hover  over  the  shoals. 
They  swim  near  the  surface,  and  are 
therefore  easily  taken  by  net.  So  great 
is  their  fecundity  that  the  enormous 
number  taken  appears  to  produce  no 


HERSCHEL 


HEWITT 


diminution  of  their  abundance,  as  many 
as  68,000  eggs  having  been  counted  in 
the  roe  of  one  female. 

HERSCHEL,  Sir  John  Frederick  Will- 
iam, only  son  of  Sir  William  Herschel, 
was  born  in  1792  at  Slough,  near  Wind- 
sor, died  in  1871.  In  1834  he  established 
at  his  own  expense,  an  observatory  at 
Feldhuysen,  near  Cape  Town,  his  object 
being  to  discover  whether  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  stars  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere correspond  with  the  results  of  his 
father’s  labors  in  the  north.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1838,  and  in  1847 
was  published  Results  of  Astronomical 
Observations  made  during  1834-38  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  being  the 
Completion  of  a Telescopic  Survey  of 
the  Whole  Surface  of  the  Visible 
Heavens. 

HERSCHEL,  Sir  William,  astronomer, 
son  of  a musician  of  Hanover,  born 
1738,  died  1822.  He  came  to  England  in 
1757,  and  was  employed  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a military  band,  and  in  conduct- 


sir  William  Herschel. 


ii.g,  while  organist  at  Bath,  several  con- 
certs, oratorios,  etc.  Although  enthusi- 
astically fond  of  music,  he  had  for  some 
time  devoted  his  leisure  hours  to  the 
study  of  mathematics  and  astronomy; 
and  being  dissatisfied  with  the  only  tele- 
scopes within  his  reach,  he  set  about  con- 
structing instruments  for  himself.  Late 
in  1779  he  began  a regular  survey  of  the 
heavens,  star  by  star,  with  a 7-foot  re- 
flector, and  discovered,  March  13,  1781, 
a new  primary  planet,  named  by  him  the 
Georgium  Sidus,  but  now  known  as 
Uranus.  This  discovery  extended  his 
fame  throughout  the  world,  and  brought 
him  a pension  of  $2,000  a year,  with  the 
title  of  private  astronomer  to  the  king. 
Assiduously  continuing  his  observa- 
tions, he  measured  the  rotation  of 
Saturn,  discovered  two  of  his  satellites, 
and  observed  the  phenomena  of  its 
rings.  He  also  discovered  the  satellites 
of  Uranus,  and  observed  the  volcanic 
structure  of  the  lunar  mountains.  At 
Slough,  near  Windsor,  he  erected  a 
telescope  of  40  feet  length,  and  com- 
pleted it  in  1787.  Herschel  received 
much  assistance  in  making  and  record- 
ing observations  from  his  sister  Caroline ; 
and  latterly  his  brother,  a skilful  optical 
instrument  maker,  lent  him  valuable  aid. 
In  1802  he  laid  before  the  Royal  Society 
a catalogue  of  5000  nebulae  and  clusters 
of  stars  which  he  had  discovered.  He 
,was  made  D.C.L.  by  the  University  of 
.Oxford,  and  in  1816  was  knighted.  ' 


HERSE,  Hearse,  a framework  where- 
on lighted  candles  were  placed  at  the 
obsequies  of  distinguished  persons.  The 
funeral  herse  of  the  middle  ages  was  a 
temporary  canopy  covered  with  wax- 


lights,  and  set  up  in  the  church;  the 
coffin  was  placed  under  the  herse  dur- 
ing the  funeral  ceremonies.  Sometimes 
it  was  a very  elaborate  structure.  The 
name  has  been  transferred  to  the  modern 
carriage  for  bearing  a dead  body  to  the 
grave. 

HERTFORD,  town  and  former  pari, 
borough  of  England,  capital  of  the 
county  of  same  name,  on  the  Lea,  19 
miles  north  of  London.  Pop.  9322. — 
The  county  of  Hertford  is  bounded  by 
Cambridgeshire,  Essex,  Middlesex,  Buck- 
ingham, and  Bedford;  area,  405,141 
acres,  of  which  about  five-sixths  are 
arable,  meadow,  and  pasture.  The 
general  aspect  of  the  county  is  pleasing, 
being  diversified  by  hill  and  valley, 
pasture  lands,  arable  farms,  and  pic- 
turesque parks  and  woods.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Lea  and  Colne,  both 
of  which  have  numerous  tributaries. 
Agriculture  employs  a large  number  of 
the  inhabitants.  Pop.  250,350. 

HERZEGOVINA  (hert-se-go-ve'na),  a 
province  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  now 
under  the  Austrian  sway,  bounded  on 
the  n.  by  Croatia  and  Bosnia,  on  the  e. 
by  Novibazar,  on  the  s.e.  by  Montene- 
gro, and  on  the  s.  and  w.  by  Dalmatia; 
area,  700  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally mountainous,  but  contains  many 
fertile  valleys.  Pop.  about  220,000. 

HESPER'IDES  (-dez),  in  Greek  myth- 
ology, certain  nymphs  who  lived  in  gar- 
dens, of  rather  uncertain  locality,  as 
guardians  of  the  golden  apples  that  grew 
there,  being  assisted  in  the  charge  by  a 
dragon. 

HES'PERUS,  among  the  ancient 
Greeks,  a name  of  the  evening  star  (the 
planet  Venus). 

HESSE,  or  HESSEN,  Grand-duchy  of, 
formerly  known  as  Hessen-Darmstadt, 
an  independent  state  of  South  Germany, 
consisting  of  sundry  distinct  portions. 
Area  of  whole  grand-duchy,  2964  sq. 
miles.  About  two-thirds  of  the  inhab- 
itants are  protestants.  Pop.  1,119,893. 

HESSE-NASSAU,orHESSEN-NASSAU, 
a province  of  Prussia,  formed  out  of  the 
former  Principality  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the 
Duchy  of  Nassau,  the  Landgraviate  of 
Hesse-Homburg,  the  territory  and  town 
of  Frankfort,  etc.  It  borders  on  the 
' Prussian  provinces  of  Westphalia,  Han- 


over, Saxony,  and  the  Rhineland,  the 
Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  etc.,  and  incloses 
Upper  Hesse.  The  boundary  is  partly 
formed  by  the  Rhine,  Main,  Weser,  and 
Werra.  Other  rivers  are  the  Lahn  and 
Eulda.  The  greater  part  of  .this  prov- 
ince belongs  to  the  central  German  pla- 
teau, and  has  a rugged  surface,  partly 
covered  by  branches  of  the  Harz.  Still, 
about  40  per  cent  of  the  whole  is  arable, 
while  about  the  same  is  under  wood. 
The  chief  mineral  is  iron.  Mineral 
springs  are  numerous.  The  manufac- 
tures consist  chiefly  of  woolens,  cottons, 
and  linen.  The  principal  towns  are 
Cassell,  the  capital,  Wiesbaden,  and 
Frankfort.  Pop.  1,897,981. 

HESSIAN  FLY,  a fly,  the  larva  of 
which  is  very  destructive  to  wheat, 
barley,  and  rye  crops  (it  does  not  attack 
oats).  It  is  so  named  from  the  un- 
founded belief,  prevalent  in  America, 
where  it  is  specially  destructive,  that  it 
was  brought  over  to  that  country  in  the 
baggage  of  the  Hessian  mercenaries  em- 
ployed against  the  Americans  in  the  war 
of  independence.  The  female  fly  is 
about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  length, 


Hessian-fly. 

a,  Male  (natural  size).  6,  Male  (magnified) 
c.  Pup®  fixed  on  the  joint  of  the  wheat-stalk. 

with  a wing  expanse  of  about  a quarter 
of  an  inch.  Its  body  is  brown,  with  the 
upper  parts,  the  thorax,  and  the  head  of 
a darker  shade,  approaching  to  black. 
The  wings  are  of  a dusky  gray,  and  are 
surrounded  with  fringes.  The  male  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  female  and 
has  longer  antennae.  The  female  flies 
usually  lay  their  eggs  on  the  young 
plants  twice  in  the  year,  in  May  and 
September,  out  of  which  eggs  the  mag- 
gots hatch  in  from  four  to  fourteen  days. 
These  work  themselves  in  between  the 
leaf-sheath  and  the  steam,  and  fix  them- 
selves near  the  lowest  joints,  often  near 
the  root,  and  suck  the  juices  of  the  stem, 
so  that  the  ear  falls  down  at  a sharp 
angle.  These  maggots  turn  to  pupoe, 
from  which  the  flies  develop  in  about 
ten  days. 

HETMAN,  or  ATAMAN,  the  title  of 
the  head  (general)  of  the  Cossacks.  This 
dignity  was  abolished  among  the  Cos- 
sacks of  the  Ukraine  by  Catharine  the 
Great,  and  although  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Don  still  retain  their  hetman,  the  former 
freedom  of  election  is  gone,  and  the  title 
of  chief  hetman  is  now  held  by  the  Rus- 
sian heir-apparent  to  the  crown. 

HEWITT  (ha'It),  Abram  Stevens, 
American  manufacturer  and  politic’an, 
was  born  in  I 'j22  at  Haverstraw,  N.  Y. 
lie  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844.  He  served  in  congress  in 
1871-79  and  1881-86,  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  national  democratic  com- 


HEXAMETER 


HIEROGLA'PHICS 


mittee  which  directed  the  Tilden  cam- 
paign in  1876.  In  1886  he  was  elected 
mayor  of  New  York  City,  defeating 
Henry  George  and  Theodore  Roosevelt. 
He  was  chosen  chairman  of  the  trustees 
of  the  Carnegie  institution  at  its  organ- 
ization in  1901.  He  died  in  1903. 

HEXAM'ETER,  a verse  of  six  feet,  the 
heroic  or  epic  measure  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  sixth  foot  is  always  a 
spondee  (two  long  syllables)  or  a trochee 
(a  long  and  a short).  The  five  first  may 
be  all  dactyls  (two  short  syllables  and  one 
long),  or  all  spondees,  or  a mixture  of 
both.  The  scheme  of  this  verse  then  is — 


with  all  the  varieties  which  the  mingling 
of  the  two  kinds  of  feet  affords.  In 
modern  poetry  the  hexameters  has  been 
frequently  used.  In  English  hexameters 
accent  is  almost  entirely  substituted  for 
length,  and  trochees  generally  take  the 
place  of  spondees.  Longfellow  in  his 
Evangeline,  Kingsley  in  his  Andromeda, 
and  Clough  in  his  Bothie  have  adopted 
this  form  of  verse.  The  following  lines 
are  specimens  of  Clough’s  English  hex- 
ameters : 

O let  us  I try,  he  | answered,  the  | waters  them  | 
selves  will  sup  | port  us,  | 

Yea  very  | ripples  and  | waves  will  I form  to  a | 
boat  under  | neath  us. 

HEX'ASTYLE,  in  architecture,  a term 


Hexastyle  front  of  the  ancient  Roman  temple 
called  the  Malson  Carree,  at  Nimes,  France. 

applied  to  a portico  or  temple  which  has 
six  columns  in  front. 

HEYSE  (hi'ze),  Paul  Johann  Ludwig, 
German  novelist  and  dramatist,  born  at 
Berlin  1830,  settled  at  Munich  in  1854. 
He  has  written  many  plays,  and  short 
stories  for  newspapers  and  magazines, 
but  his  fame  rests  on  his  great  novels. 
Die  Kinder  der  Welt  (The  Children  of 
the  World),  1872;  and  Im  Paradiese 
(The  Paradise  Club),  1875;  generally 
recognised  as  among  the  most  powerful 
and  artistic  works  of  modern  German 
fiction. 

HEZEKI'AH,  the  twelfth,  and  one  of 
the  best  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  He  suc- 
ceeded Ahaz  about  717  b.c.,  and  died 
about  698  b.c. 

HIBERNATION.  See  Dormant  State. 

HIBER'NIA,  the  ancient  name  of  Ire- 
land, applied  to  it  first  by  Julius  Caesar. 
Aristotle  mentions  this  island  by  the 
name  of  lerne;  Pomponius  Mela  calls  it 
Iverna;  Ptolemy,  luvernia. 

HIBERNIANS,  Ancient  Order  of,  a 
society  instituted  originally  for  the 
protection  of  the  Catholic  priesthood 
and  religion  in  Ireland,  but  it  has  now 
as  its  main  object  “the  advancement  of 
the  principles  of  Irish  nationality.” 
According  to  some  authorities  the  order 
was  first  instituted  in  1642,  following 


the  great  uprising  in  the  north ; accord- 
ing to  others,  in  1651,  when  Ciromwell 
had  proclaimed  nearly  the  whole  native 
population  outlawed,  and  had  put  a 
price  upon  the  head  of  every  priest  and 
made  it  death  to  attend  a Catholic  ser- 
vice. The  founder  was  Rory  Og  O’Moo, 
and  the  society  was  at  first  known  as 
The  Defenders.  On  the  establishment  of 
Catholic  emancipation,  in  1829,  the 
society  was  reorganized  under  its  present 
name  as  a beneficial  and  nationalist 
organization.  It  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  in  1836.  Its  membership 
is  restricted  to  persons  of  Irish  birth  or 
descent  and  of  Catholic  faith.  Military 
drill  is  a prominent  feature  in  some  of 
the  branches.  The  order  is  an  active 
supporter  of  the  present  Gaelic  move- 
ment, having  endowed  a Celtic  chair  at 
the  Catholic  University  of  America,  and 
contributed  generously  toward  the  sup- 
port of  Gaelic  organizers  in  Ireland. 

HIBIS'CUS,  an  extensive  genus  of 
plants,  chiefly  natives  of  tropical  cli- 
mates. They  have  large  showy  flowers, 
borne  singly  upon  stalks  toward  the 
ends  of  the  branches,  these  flowers  hav- 


Hibiscus. 

a.  Flower  cut  longitudinally.  6,  Stamen,  c. 
Fruit,  d.  Embryo. 

ing  an  outer  calyx  of  numerous  leaves 
in  addition  to  the  true  five-lobed  persist- 
ent calyx.  They  are  chiefly  shrubs,  one 
or  two  being  herbs,  and  a few  attaining 
the  dimensions  of  trees.  The  species  are 
remarkable  for  abounding  in  mucilage 
and  for  the  tenacity  of  the  fiber  of  their 
bark,  whence  several  are  employed  for 
many  economical  purposes  in  the  dif- 
ferent countries  where  they  are  in- 
digenous. 

HICCUP,  or  HICCOUGH,  is  a convul- 
sive catch  of  the  respiratory  muscles, 
with  sonorous  inspiration,  repeated  at 
short  intervals.  Though  generally  a 
trivial  and  transient  inconvenience,  its 
occurrence  in  the  last  stages  of  acute 
disease  is  a grave,  and  often  a fatal 
symptom.  The  frequent  swallowing  of 
small  pieces  of  ice,  or  small  doses  of 
anti-spasmodic  medicines,  usually  re- 
lieves a severe  fit. 

HICK'ORY,  the  name  given  to  several 
species  of  timber-trees.  They  are  natives 
of  North  America,  and  are  remarkable 
for  stateliness  and  general  beauty.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  strong,  and  tenacious, 
and  is  used  for  making  carriage-shafts, 
screws,  whip-handles,  cogged  wheels. 


etc.  The  shag-bark  yields  the  hickory- 
nut  of  commerce,  and  its  wood  is  very 
valuable. 


Flowering  branch  and  fruit  of  hickory. 
a,  Male  flower,  6,  Female  flower. 

HIDALGO,  a Spanish  nobleman  of  the 
lower  class.  There  were  hidalgos  de 
naturaleza,  of  noble  birth,  and  hidalgos 
de  privilegio,  that  is,  those  on  whom  the 
king  had  conferred  nobility,  and  those 
who  purchased  nobility.  The  title  is  now 
obsolete. 

HIDES,  the  skins  of  animals,  either 
raw  or  dressed;  but  the  name  is  more 
commonly  given  to  the  undressed  skins 
of  the  larger  domestic  animals,  as  oxen, 
horses,  etc.,  the  smaller  being  called 
skins.  The  hide  trade  is  now  an  im- 
portant one. 

HI'ERARCHY,  sacred  government, 
sometimes  the  church,  sometimes  the 
rule  which  the  ecclesiastical  governing 
body  exercised  as  at  once  priests  and 
civil  magistrates.  In  the  former  sense 
the  hierarchy  arose  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Christian  church  as  an  in- 
dependent society.  In  the  middle  ages 
the  papal  hierarchy  gathered  great 
strength,  and  the  pope  became  a spirit- 
ual monarch,  ruling  western  Christen- 
dom with  power  but  feebly  limited  by 
princes  and  councils.  A reactionary 
movement  began  in  the  14th  century, 
and  the  general  tendency  of  subsequent 
events  has  always  been  to  make  the  civil 
and  hierarchical  power  more  and  more 
independent  of  each  other.  The  term 
hierarchy  as  used  to  denote  the  govern- 
ing and  ministering  body  in  the  church, 
according  to  its  several  gradations,  can 
strictly  be  applied  only  to  those  churches 
which  are  ruled  by  bishops,  such  as  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  Angli- 
can Church,  which  also  holds  the  theory 
of  a hierarchical  gradation  of  rank  and 
authority.  Both  these  churches  com- 
prise the  three  orders  of  bishops,  priests, 

HIEROGLYPHICS,  a term  originally 
applied  to  the  inscriptions  sculptured  on 
buildings  in  Egypt,  in  the  belief  that  the 
writing  was  confined  to  sacred  subjects, 
and  legible  only  to  the  priests.  The  term 
has  also  been  applied  to  picture-writing 
in  general,  such  as  that  of  the  Mexicans 
and  the  still  ruder  pictures  of  the  North 
American  Indians.  Three  different 
modes  of  writing  were  used  by  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  the  Hieroglyphic,  the 
Hieratic,  and  the  Demotic.  Pure  hiero- 
glyphic writing  is  the  earliest,  and  con- 


HIGGINS 


HIGH -PRIEST 


sists  of  figures  of  material  objects  from 
every  sphere  of  nature  and  art,  with  cer- 
tain mathematical  and  arbitrary  sym- 
bols. Next  was  developed  the  hieratic  or 
p^riestly  writing,  the  form  in  which  most 
Egyptian  literature  is  written,  and  in 
which  the  symbols  almost  cease  to  be 
recognizable  as  figures  of  objects.  Hier- 
atic writings  of  the  third  millennium 
B.c.  are  extant.  In  the  demotic  or  en- 
chorial writing,  derived  directly  from 
the  hieratic,  the  symbols  are  still  more 
obscured.  The  demotic  was  first  used  in 
the  9th  century  b.c.,  and  was  chiefly 
employed  in  social  and  commercial  in- 
tercourse. Down  to  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  scholars  failed  to  find  a clue  to 
the  hieroglyphic  writings.  In  1799,  how- 


Cartoucheof  Cleopatra. 

ever,  M.  Bouchard,  a French  captain  of 
engineers,  discovered  at  Rosetta  the 
celebrated  stone  which  afforded  Euro- 
pean scholars  a key  to  the  language  and 
writing  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  It 
contained  a trilingual  inscription  in 
hieroglyphics,  demotic  characters,  and 
Greek,  which  turned  out  to  be  a decree 
of  the  priests  in  honor  of  Ptolemy  V., 
issued  in  195  b.c.  The  last  paragraph 
of  the  Greek  inscription  stated  that  two 
translations,  one  in  the  sacred  and  the 
other  in  the  popular  Egyptian  language, 
would  be  found  adjacent  to  it.  The  dis- 
covery of  an  alphabet  was  the  first  task. 
The  demotic  part  of  the  inscription  was 
first  examined  by  De  Sacy  and  Akerblad, 
and  the  signification  of  a number  of  the 
symbols  ascertained.  The  hieroglyphic 
part  was  next  carefully  examined  and 
compared  with  the  demotic  and  Greek. 
At  last  after  much  study  Champollion 
and  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  independently 
of  each  other,  discovered  the  method  of 
reading  the  characters  (1822),  and  thus 
provided  a clue  to  the  decipherment  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  writing. 

Hieroglyphic  characters  are  either 
ideographic,  i.e.  using  well-known  ob- 
jects as  symbols  of  conceptions,  or 
phonetic,  i.  e.  representing  words  by 
symbols  standing  for  their  sounds.  The 
phonetic  signs  are  again  divided  into 
alphabetical  signs  and  syllabic  signs. 
Many  of  the  ideographic  characters  are 
simple  enough;  thus  the  figure  of  a man, 
a woman,  a calf,  indicate  simply  those 
objects.  Others,  however,  are  less  sim- 
ple, and  convey  their  meaning  figura- 
tively or  symbolically.  Water  was  ex- 
pressed by  three  zigzag  lines,  one  above 
the  other,  to  represent  waves  or  ripples 
of  running  water,  milk  by  a milk-jar,  oil 
by  an  oil-jar,  fishing  by  a pelican  seizing 
a fish;  i.e.  fishing  - seeing  and  sight  by  an 
eye;  and  so  on.  The  nature  of  the  pho- 
netic hieroglyphs,  which  represent  sim- 


ply sounds,  will  be  understood  from  an 
explanation  of  the  accompanying  cuts. 

l.«The  first  hieroglyph  in  the  name 
of  Kleopatra  is  a knee,  which  is  kne  or 
kle  in  Coptic,  and  represents  the  K of 
Kleopatra.  K does  not  occur  in  the 
name  Ptolemaios.  2.  The  second  hiero- 
glyph in  Kleopatra  is  a lion  couchant, 
which  is  laboi  in  Coptic,  and  labu  in  the 
old  Egyptian,  and  represents  the  L of 
both  names.  In  Kleopatra  it  occupies  [ 
the  second  place,  and  in  Ptolemaios  the 
fourth.  3.  The  third  hieroglyph  in 
Kleopatra  is  a reed,  which  is  ak4  in 
Coptic  and  aak  in  the  old  Egyptian,  and 
represents  the  E of  Kleopatra.  The  reed 
is  doubled  in  Ptolemaios  and  occupies 
the  sixth  and  seventh  places,  where  it 
represents  the  diphthong  ai  of  Ptolemaios. 
4.  The  fourth  hieroglyph  in  Kleopatra  is 
a noose,  which  represents  the  O of  both 
names,  and  occurs  in  the  third  place  of 
Ptolemaios.  5.  The  fifth  hieroglyph  in 
Kleopatra  is  a mat,  which  represents  the 
P of  both  names,  and  is  the  initial  of 
Ptolemaios.  6.  The  sixth  hieroglyph  in 
Kleopatra  is  an  eagle,  which  is  akhoom 
in  Coptic,  and  represents  the  A,  which 
is  found  twice  in  the  name  Kleopatra, 
but  does  not  occur  in  the  name  Ptole- 
maios, although  the  diphthong  ai  occurs 
as  described  above.  No.  3.  7.  The 

seventh  hieroglyph  in  Kleopatra  is  a 
hand,  which  is  toot  in  Coptic,  and  rep- 
resents the  T of  Kleopatra,  but  does  not 
occur  in  Ptolemaios,  where  it  might  be 
expected  to  occupy  the  second  place. 
The  second  place  of  Ptolemaios  is 
occupied  by  a semicircle,  which  is  found 
at  the  end  of  feminine  proper  names,  and 
is  the  Coptic  feminine  article  T.  The 
researches  of  Champollion  satisfied  him 


Cartouche  ot  Ptolemy. 


of  the  existence  of  homophones,  or 
characters  having  the  same  phonetic 
value  and  which  might  be  interchanged 
in  writing  proper  names.  8.  The  eighth 
hieroglyph  in  Kleopatra  is  a mouth, 
which  is  ro  in  Coptic,  and  represents  the 
R of  Kleopatra.  9.  The  ninth  hiero- 
glyphic in  Kleopatra  is  the  eagle,  which 
is  explained  in  No.  6 above.  10.  The 
semicircle  is  the  T of  Ptolemaios,  which 
with  11,  the  egg  found  at  the  end  of  proper 
names  of  women,  is  a feminine  affix. 
In  the  name  of  Ptolemaios  there  is  still 
the  M and  the  S to  account  for.  The 
fifth  hieroglyph  in  the  cartouche  of 
Ptolemaios  is  a geometrical  figure,  con- 
sisting of  three  sides  of  (probably?)  a 
parallelogram,  but  now  called  a hole, 
because  the  Coptic  mu  has  that  signifi- 
cation, and  represents  the  M.  The  hook 
represents  the  S of  the  word  Ptolemaios. 
Vowels  were  only  regarded  by  the 
Egyptians  as  they  were  needed  to  avoid 
ambiguous  writing. 

There  are  groups  of  hieroglyphs  of 
which  one  element  is  an  ideographicl 
sign,  to  which  a phonetic  complement  is 
added  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  of 
the  ideographic  sign.  The  words  of  a 
text  could  be  written  in  hieroglyphs  in 
three  ways — 1.  By  phonetic  hieroglyphs;; 


2.  By  ideographic  hieroglyphs;  and  3. 
By  a combination  of  both.  According  to 
Ebers,  in  the  perfected  system  of  hiero- 
glyphics the  s3mibols  for  sounds  and 
syllables  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  foun- 
dation of  the  writing,  while  symbols 
for  ideas  are  interspersed  with  them, 
partly  to  render  the  meaning  more  in- 
intelligible,  and  partly  for  ornamental 
purposes,  or  with  a view  to  keep  up  the 
mystic  character  of  the  hieroglyphics. 

HIGGINS,  CHARLES;  editor;  born 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1860;  began  his 
career  as  editor  in  Toronto,  Canada; 
removed  to  Chicago  in  1878,  managing 
editor  of  Americanized  Encyclopaedia; 
editor  World’s  History  and  its  Makers. 

HIGH  CHURCH,  a term  applied  to  a 
party  in  the  Church  of  England.  It  was 
applied  first  to  a party  among  the 
younger  clergy  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  who  asserted  that 
Calvanism  was  inconsistent  with  the 
ancient  doctrine  and  constitution  of  the 
primitive  church,  and  who  claimed  a 
divine  right  for  episcopacy.  Bishop 
Andrewes  was  the  chief  writer  of  this 
party,  and  Laud  became  its  most  active 
leader.  The  term  now  generally  refers 
to  those  who  exalt  the  authority  and 
jurisdiction  of  the  church,  and  attach 
great  value  to  ecclesiastical  dignities 

HIGH  GERMAN,  originally  the  Teu- 
tonic dialect  spoken  in  the  southern  and 
elevated  parts  of  Germany,  as  distin- 
guished from  Platt  Deutsch  or  Low 
German,  spoken  in  the  northern  and  more 
lowland  portions  of  Germany.  See 
Germany. 

HIGHLANDS  OF  SCOTLAND,  a some- 
what vague  and  indefinite  geographical 
division  of  Scotland,  n.  and  w.  of  a line 
running  n.e.  from  Dumbarton  on  the 
Clyde  through  the  counties  of  Dum- 
barton, Stirling,  Perth,  Forfar,  Kincar- 
dine; then  n.w.  through  Aberdeen,  Banff, 
Moray,  and  Nairn  to  the  shores  of  the 
Moray  Firth.  The  Highlands  are  gen- 
erally subdivided  into  two  parts,  the 
West  Highlands  and  the  North  High- 
lands ; the  former  of  which  contains  the 
shires  of  Argyll  and  Bute,  the  Southern 
Hebrides,  and  part  of  Perth  and  Dum- 
barton . 

HIGH  PLACES,  in  scripture,  emi- 
nences or  mounds  on  which  sacrifices 
were  offered.  Altars  and  places  of  wor- 
ship were  erected  from  early  times  on 
high  places,  for  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 
Latterly  such  a practice,  as  leading  to 
idolatrous  observances,  was  strictly  for- 
bidden among  the  Jews.  High  places 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  conjunction 
with  groves. 

HIGH-PRIEST,  the  head  of  the  Jewish 
priesthood.  In  the  books  of  Moses  the 
holder  of  this  dignity  is  simply  desig- 
nated the  priest ; the  epithet  high  occurs 
on  one  or  two  occasions,  but  as  a dis- 
tinctive epithet  it  appears  to  have  been 
added  subsequently.  The  formal  con- 
secration of  Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses, 
together  with  his  sons,  to  a hereditary 
priesthood,  is  recorded  in  Exod.  xxviii. 
The  high-priesthood  continued  in  the 
tine  of  Aaron,  sometimes  in  one,  and 
sometimes  in  another  branch  of  it,  until 
the  coming  of  Christ.  From  b.c.  153 
till  the  time  of  Herod  the  Great  the  regal 
and  priestly  authority  were  united  in 
members  of  the  Asmonaean  family  (the 


HIGH-SEAS 


HIMALAYA 


Maccabees).  After  the  subjugation  of 
the  Jews  the  high-priesthood  was  often 
arbitrarily  conferred  by  the  foreign 
masters.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour  it 
appears  to  have  been  held  by  several 
priests  alternately. 

HIGH-SEAS,  the  open  sea  or  ocean. 
The  claims  of  various  nations  to  exclu- 
sive rights  and  superiority  over  exten- 
sive tracts  of  the  ocean-highway  have 
been  settled  after  much  controversy  by 
a general  international  law.  The  prin- 
ciple now  accepted  is  that  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  maritime  states  extends  only  for 
3 miles,  or  within  cannon  range  of  their 
own  coasts;  the  remainder  of  the  seas 
being  high-seas,  accessible  on  equal 
terms  to  all  nations.  Inland  seas  and 
estuaries,  of  course,  are  excepted. 

HIL'DRETH,  Richard,  American  his- 
torian, was  born  at  Deerfield,  Mass., 
in  1807.  He  graduated  at  Harvard 
college  in  1826,  studied  law,  and  began 
to  practice  in  Iloston  in  1830.  In  1832, 
however,  he  abandoned  his  profession 
to  become  editor  of  the  Boston  Atlas. 
In  1840  appeared  his  Despotism  in 
America,  a work  on  the  political,  eco- 
nomical, and  social  aspects  of  slavery. 
The  work  however,  for  which  he  is  most 
remembered  is  his  History  of  the  United 
States,  in  six  volumes  (1849-56),  in 
which  he  presents  the  founders  of  the 
republic  in  their  true  character,  without 
trying  to  heighten  their  virtues  or  dis- 
guise their  mistakes  and  faults.  In  1855 
Hildreth  published  Japan  as  It  Was  and 
Is,  and  in  1856  Atrocious  Judges,  based 
on  Campbell’s  Lives.  For  several  years, 
ending  with  the  inauguration  of  Lincoln 
as  president,  he  was  engaged  on  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  He  went 
abroad  in  the  summer  of  1861  as  United 
States  consul  at  Triest,  and  died  in 
Florence  in  1865. 

HILL,  Ambrose  Powell,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Culpepper  co.,  Va., 
in  1825.  He  graduated  at  the  United 
States  military  academy  in  1847,  en- 
tered the  first  artillery,  and  was  made 
second  lieutenant.  He  served  in  the 
Mexican  war  and  afterward  on  the 
frontier  and  in  Florida.  Later  he  was 
promoted  to  captain.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  he  entered  the  confed- 
erate service,  was  appointed  colonel  of 
the  thirteenth  regiment  Virginia  vol- 
unteers, and  ordered  to  Harper’s  Ferry. 
He  fought  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
and  at  Chancellorville  it  was  his  troops 
who,  on  being  moved  to  the  front,  mis- 
took Jackson’s  escort  for  federals  and 
fired  the  fatal  volley  that  caused  Jack- 
son’s death.  On  the  reorganization  of 
his  army  in  1863  Lee  gave  one  corps  to 
Hill  and  at  the  same  time  made  him 
lieutenant-general.  He  was  killed  in 
1865  at  Petersburg  while  reconnoitering. 

HILL,  Daniel  Harvey,  American  sol- 
dier and  educator,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1821.  He  served  in  the  Mexi- 
can war  and  was  bre vetted  major.  In 
1861  He  entered  the  confederate  service 
and  commanded  at  the  battle  of  Big 
Bethel,  and  was  soon  afterward  pro- 
moted to  brigadier-general.  He  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general  in  1863  and 
was  placed  in  command  of  a corps  in 
General  Bragg’s  army.  From  1877  until 
1884  he  was  president  of  the  Arkansas 
industrial  university,  and  from  1885 


until  his  death  of  the  Middle  Georgia 
military  and  agricultural  college.  He 
died  in  1889. 

HILL,  David  Bennett,  American 
politician,  was  born  in  Havana,  N.  Y., 
in  1843.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1864,  and  in  1870-71  served  in  the  state 
legislature.  In  1882  he  was  elected 
mayor  of  Elmira;  in  November  of  the 
same  year,  lieutenant-governor  of  New 
York  state,  and  in  1884,  when  Grover 
Cleveland  resigned  the  position  of  gov- 
ernor, Mr.  Hill  took  his  place.  In  1885 
he  was  elected  governor  for  the  term 
expiring  in  1888,  and  was  re-elected  in 
that  year.  He  was  a prominent  can- 
didate for  the  presidency  on  the  demo- 
cratic ticket  in  1892.  He  became  United 
States  senator  for  New  York  state,  but 
failed  of  re-election  because  the  state 
legislature  elected  in  1896  was  republi- 
can. 

HILL,  James  J.,  American  railway 
promoter,  was  born  near  Guelph,  Ont., 
in  1838.  In  1870  he  formed  the  Red 
River  transportation  company,  which 
was  the  first  to  open  communication 
between  Saint  Paul  and  Winnipeg. 
Eight  years  afterward  he  helped  to 
form  the  syndicate  which,  under  an- 
other name,  ultimately  built  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  railway.  From  1883  to  1893 
he  interested  himself  in  the  building  of 
the  Great  Northern  railway,  extending 
from  Lake  Superior  to  Puget  Sound, 
with  northern  and  southern  branches 
and  a direct  steamship  connection  with 
China  and  Japan, 

HILL,  Sir  Rowland,  K.C.B.,  English 
postal  reformer,  born  at  Kidderminster 
1795,  died  1879.  In  1837  he  published  a 
pamphlet  recommending  the  adoption 
of  a low  and  uniform  rate  of  postage 
throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
scheme  was  approved  by  a committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  ex- 
amined its  details  in  1838,  and  early  in 
1840  the  penny  postage  system  was 
carried  into  effect  with  the  assistance  of 
Mr.  Hill,  who,  for  this  purpose,  received 
an  appointment  in  the  treasury.  In 
1846  he  received  a public  testimonial 
of  the  value  of  upward  of  $65,000.  In 
1846,  he  was  made  secretary  to  the  post- 
master-general, and  in  1854  chief  secre- 
tary to  the  post  office.  In  1860  he  be- 
came K.C.B.  He  retired  from  the  post 
office  four  years  later  with  a pension  of 
$10,000,  besides  a grant  of  $100,000 
voted  by  parliament. 

HILL,  Rowland  (Viscount  Hill),  Brit- 
ish general,  born  1772,  died  1842.  He 
entered  the  army  in  his  sixteenth  year, 
obtained  the  rank  of  captain  in  1793, 
and  became  colonel  of  the  90th  Regi- 
ment in  1800.  He  took  part  in  the 
Egyptian  campaign,  and  in  1806  was 
made  major-general.  In  1809  he  became 
lieutenant-general;  in  1812  he  was  made 
a K.B.;  and  in  1814,  a peer  by  the  title 
of  Baron  of  Almarez,  and  of  Hawkstone. 
At  Waterloo  he  comnianded  the  right 
wing  of  the  British,  md  he  was  per- 
sonally thanked  by  Wellington  for  his 
services.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
general  commanding-in-chief  of  the 
British  army,  a post  which  he  held  till 
1842,  when  he  retired  and  was  made  a 
viscount. 

HILLEL,  Jewish  rabbi,  born  at  Baby- 
lon about  B.c.  112.  He  came  to  Jerusa 


lem,  it  is  said,  at  about  forty  years  of 
age,  became  president  of  the  Sanhedrim 
and  founder  of  the  school  of  Hillel. 
Shammai,  another  member  of  the  San- 
hedrim, became  the  head  of  a rival  and 
hostile  school.  Hillel’s  party  was  the 
more  liberal  of  the  two,  and  became  the 
dominant  one. 


Viscount  Hill. 


HIMALAYA,  a chain  of  snowy  moun- 
tains in  Asia,  the  most  elevated  on  the 
earth,  which  separates  the  Indian  Penin- 
sula from  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  between 
the  72d  and  96th  degrees  of  e.  Ion.,  or 
between  the  Indus  on  the  west  and  the 
Brahmaputra  on  the  east ; length  about 
1500  miles,  average  breadth  about  180 
miles.  The  great  plains  of  India,  south 
of  the  Himalaya,  has  a general  elevation 
of  1000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  general 
height  of  the  Himalayas  is  double  that 
of  the  Alps;  the  passes  over  the  former 
ordinarily  exceed,  often  by  half  a mile, 
the  elevation  of  Mont  Blanc.  The  Ibi- 
Gamin  pass  in  Garhwal,  the  highest  of 
all,  is  20,457  feet,  the  Mustagh  19,019 
feet,  the  Parangla  18,500  feet,  the  Kron- 
brung  18,313  feet,  and  the  Dura  Ghat 
17,750  feet  high.  There  are  several 
summits  in  the  Himalaya  which  ap- 
proach closely  to  double  the  absolute 
elevation  of  the  highest  of  the  Alps, 
and  120  of  them  are  stated  to  be  above 

20.000  feet.  The  rivers  of  the  Punjab 
(“Five  Waters’’)  spring  from  a portion 
of  the  great  chain  which  may  be  con- 
sidered a distinct  group  under  the  title 
of  the  northwestern  Himalaya.  Some  of 
the  peaks  here  rise  to  a height  of  24,000 
to  25,000  feet;  or  to  28,278  feet  if  the 
Karakorum  is  regarded  as  part  of  the 
Himalayas.  In  the  Central  or  Middle 
Himalaya  rise  the  sources  of  the  Ganges 
and  Jumna,  in  a region  regarded  by  the 
Hindus  as  holy  ground.  Farther  east- 
ward, in  Nepal,  is  the  highest  part  of  the 
Himalya,  as  far  as  it  is  known  and 
measured.  Dhawalagiri  has  an  eleva- 
tion of  26,826  feet,  the  Gaurisankar  or 
Mount  Everest,  the  highest  known 
mountain  in  the  world,  is  29,002  feet; 
the  Yassa  group  rises  to  the  height  of 
26,680  feet,  the  Ibjibia  group  to  26,306. 
Going  farther  east,  in  Sikkim,  or  on  its 
borders,  we  find  Kanchinjinga,  the 
western  peak  of  which  is  28,156  feet 
high,  the  eastern,  27,815  feet,  while  the 
Kabru  ridge  rises  to  24,015  feet.  Sikkim 
forms  a comparative!)'  narrow  but  in- 
teresting territory,  walled  in  on  three 
sides  by  stupendous  mountains  from 

17.000  to  28,000  feet  high.  Here  ter- 


HINDUS 


HIPPOPOTAMUS 


minates  the  region  of  the  Middle  Hima- 
laya, most  of  the  streams  from  which 
unite  in  the  Ganges.  The  eastern  Hima- 
laya, which  extends  from  Sikkim  east 
to  the  Brahmaputra  and  completes  the 
chain,  sends  all  its  waters  to  the  last- 
named  river,  and  is  all  comprised  in 
Bhutan.  A little  to  the  east  of  Sikkim, 
Chamalari  attains  the  height  of  23,944 
feet.  About  250  miles  further  east  a con- 


HIP- JOINT,  the  joint  of  the  hip,  a 
ball-and-socket  joint  formed  by  the 
reception  of  the  globular  head  of  the 
femur  or  thigh-bone  into  the  socket  or 
acetabulum  of  the  os  innominatum. 
For  flexion,  extension,  rotation,  and 
strength  combined  it  is  the  most  perfect 
joint  in  the  body. 

HIPPAR'CHUS,  ancient  Greek  as- 
tronomer, was  born  at  Nicsea  in  Bithy- 


The  snowy  range  of  Himalayas,  from  Marma. 


spicuous  group  has  been  observed  with 
two  peaks,  named  the  Gemini  or  Twins, 
21,500  feet  high.  Thence  toward  the 
east  the  mountains  sink  rapidly,  but 
the  range  may  be  traced  beyond  the 
right  bank  of  the  Brahmaputra.  This 
stream,  as  well  as  the  Indus,  rises  on  the 
little-known  north  side  of  the  Himalaya, 
their  sources  not  being  far  apart.  The 
snowy  ridge  of  the  Himalayas,  as  far  as 
examined,  consists  everywhere  of  gran- 
ite, with  which  are  immediately  asso- 
ciated gneiss  and  mica-slate,  followed, 
in  descending,  by  metamorphic  and 
secondary  rocks  till  we  arrive  at  the 
more  recent  alluvial  deposits.  Earth- 
quakes are  still  frequent  within  this 
region;  and  hot  springs  gush  forth  in 
abundance,  even  from  beneath  the 
snow.  The  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the 
middle  division  (Ion.  78°  e.)  is  stated  to 
be  about  15,500  feet  on  the  south  side 
and  18,500  feet  on  the  northern.  In 
Sikkim  the  snow-line  descends  on  the 
south  side  to  14,500  feet,  while  on  the 
north  it  rises  to  a level  of  19,600  feet. 
Immense  glaciers  exist  at  various  parts. 
The  vegetation  of  the  Himalayas  is  very 
rich,  there  being  forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
silver-fir,  and  deodar  cedar  at  suitable 
elevations,  with  rhododendrons  in  pro- 
fusion. Among  the  more  characteristic 
animals  are  the  yak,  musk-deer,  wild 
shcGp  ©tc 

HINDUS,  or  HINDOOS.  See  India. 

HINDUSTAN',  the  name  commonly 
given  to  the  whole  Indian  empire,  but 
which  properly  applies  only  to  the  Pun- 
jab and  the  valley  of  the  Ganges.  See 
India. 

HINDUSTA'NI,  one  of  the  chief  lan- 
guages of  India,  having  various  forms 
or  dialects.  When  written  in  the  Persian 
character,  and  containing  many  Persian 
words  and  phrases,  it  is  known  as  Urdu; 
another  form  of  it  is  Hindi. 


nia,  and  lived  about  B.c.  160-125.  He 
resided  for  some  time  at  Rhodes,  but 
afterward  went  to  Alexandria,  then 
the  great  school  of  science.  A commen- 
tary on  Aratus  is  the  only  work  of  his 
extant.  He  first  ascertained  the  true 
length  of  the  year,  discovered  the  preces- 
sion of  the  equinoxes,  determined  the 
revolutions  and  mean  motions  of  the 
planets,  prepared  a catalogue  of  the 
fixed  stars,  etc. 

HIP'PIAS,  ruler  of  Athens,  son  of 
Pisistratus,  after  whose  death  (b.c.  527) 
he  assumed  the  government,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother  Hipparchus.  His 
tyranny  became  at  last  unbearable,  and 
he  was  expelled  from  the  city  b.c.  510. 

HIPPOCAM'PUS,  a genus  of  fishes, 
closely  allied  to  the  pipe-fishes,  of  sin- 
gular construction  and  peculiar  habits; 
the  upper  parts  have  some  resemblance 


Hippocampus. 


to  the  head  and  neck  of  a horse  in  mina- 
ture,  which  has  suggested  the  name. 
When  swimming  they  maintain  a ver- 
tical position;  their  general  length  is 
from  6 to  10  inches,  and  they  occur  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic. 

HIPPOC'RATES,  the  most  famous 
among  the  Greek  physicians,  the  father 
of  medicine,  born  in  the  island  of  Cos 
B.c.  460.  Besides  practicing  and  teach- 
ing his  profession  at  home  he  traveled  on 
the  continent  of  Greece,  and  died  at  an 


advanced  age  b.c.  357,  at  Larissa,  in 
Thessaly. 


Hippocrates.  —Antique  bust. 


HIP'PODROME,  the  Greek  name  for 
the  public  place  where  the  horse  and 
chariot  races  were  held.  In  Byzantine 
times  the  hippodrome  at  Constantinople 
acquired  great  renown,  and  factions 
originating  in  the  hippodrome  caused 
perpetual  confusion  in  all  departments 
of  the  public  service.  The  name  is  some- 
times applied  to  a modern  circus. 

HIPPOGRIFF,  a fabulous  animal  or 
monster,  half-horse,  and  half-griffin. 

HIPPOL'YTUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
son  of  Theseus,  whose  stepmother, 
Phsedra,  fell  in  love  with  him,  and  ac- 
cused him  to  his  father  in  order  to 
avenge  herself  for  his  indifference.  He 
was  put  to  death,  but  his  innocence 
being  afterward  established,  Phsedra 
destroyed  herself.  See  Phaedra. 

HIPPOPOT'AMUS,  the  typical  genus 
of  a family  of  Ungulates,  of  which  two 
living  species  are  known.  One  species  is 
of  large  size,  and  is  common  throughout 


Hippopotamus. 


the  greater  part  of  Africa;  the  other, 
is  not  only  smaller,  but  has  other  im- 
portant differences,  and  is  found  only  in 
the  African  west  coast  rivers,  and  those 
flowing  into  Lake  Tchad.  The  former 
species  has  a thick  and  square  head,  a 
very  large  muzzle,  small  eyes  and  ears, 
thick  and  heavy  body,  short  legs  ter- 
minated by  four  toes,  a short  tail,  two 
ventral  teats,  skin  about  2 inches  thick 
on  the  back  and  sides,  and  without  hair, 
except  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail.  The 
incisors  and  canines  of  the  lower  jaw 
are  of  great  strength  and  size,  the 
canines  or  tusks  being  long  and  curved 
forward.  These  tusks  sometimes  reach 
the  length  of  2 feet  and  more,  and  weigh 
upward  of  6 lbs.  The.animal  is  killed 
by  the  natives  partly  as  food,  but  also 
on  account  of  the  tusks  and  teeth,  their 
hardness  being  superior  to  that  of  ivory, 
and  less  liable  to  turn  yellow.  The 
hippopotamus  has  been  found  of  the 
length  of  17  feet,  and  stands  about  5 
feet  high.  It  delights  in  water,  living 


HIP-ROOF 


HOCHE 


in  lakes,  rivers,  and  estuaries,  and  feed- 
ing on  water-plants  or  on  the  herbage 
growing  near  the  water.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent swimmer  and  diver,  and  can  remain 
under  water  a considerable  time.  The 
behemoth  of  Job  is  considered  by  com- 
mentators to  be  the  hippopotamus,  as 
the  description  of  his  size,  manners, 
food,  and  haunts  it  not  unlike  those  of 
the  latter  animal.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  it  was  revered  as  a divinity, 
as  it  is  among  the  negroes  in  some 
localities.  Several  extinct  species  are 
found  in  old-world  tertiary  and  diluvial 
formations. 

HIP-ROOF,  a roof,  the  ends  of  which 
slope  so  as  to  have  the  same  inclination 


to  the  horizon  as  its  other  two  sides, 
being  thus  of  a triangular  form. 

HISPANIA.  See  Spain. 

HISPANIO'LA.  See  Hayti. 

HISSAR',  a town  of  Hindustan,  in  the 
Punjab,  administrative  headquarters  of 
district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  western 
Jumma  canal,  102  miles  w.  of  Delhi. 
Pop.  17,000.  The  district  has  an  area  of 
5163  sq.  miles.  Pop.  776,006. 

HISTOL'OGY,  the  study  of  the  tissues 
which  enter  into  the  formation  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  and  their  various 
organs,  by  means  of  the  microscope  and 
chemical  and  physical  reagents.  It  may 
be  described  as  a kind  of  minute  anat- 
omy. It  comprehends  the  structure  and 
mode  of  development  of  the  various 
tissues,  and  is  divided  into  animal 
histology  and  vegetable  histology. 

HISTORY,  is  used  by  Herodotus  in 
the  sense  which  it  has  since  retained,  of 
a narrative  of  events  and  circumstances 
relating  to  man  in  his  social  or  civic 
condition.  A record  of  bare  facts  by 
themselves  does  not  constitute  history. 
Such  a record  (forming  a chronicle  or 
annals)  is  chronologically  valuable;  but 
to  attain  the  dignity  of  history  we  must 
have  social  events  and  evolution  de- 
tailed with  considerable  fulness,  and  the 
growth  and  movements  of  society,  from 
one  phase  to  another,  distinctly  traced 
and  recorded.  The  modern  school  of 
historians  devote  much  attention  to  the 
social  life  of  the  people;  their  method 
being  further  characterized  by  the  ut- 
most accuracy,  of  research  the  extreme 
importance  assigned  to  contemporary 
documentary  evidence,  and  careful 
weighing  of  data. 

HITCHCOCK,  Edward,  American 
geologist,  born  1793,  died  1864.  He  was 
connected  with  the  state  survey  of 
Massachusetts,  Vermont,  and  part  of 
New  York,  valuable  reports  on  which 
he  published.  He  was  author  of  various 
other  works,  some  geological  and  some 
of  miscellaneous  character.  These  in- 
clude Geology  of  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
a highly  popular  work  on  Elementary 
Geology,  Illustrations  of  Surface  Geol- 
ogy, Religion  of  Geology  and  its  Con- 
nected Sciences,  and  Reminiscences, 
published  shortly  before  his  death. 


HITCHCOCK,  Roswell  Dwight,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  American  theologian,  born  1817, 
died  1887.  He  entered  Andover  theo- 
logical seminary  in  1838,  and  was  succes- 
sively professor  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion  in  Bowdoin,  of  church  history  at 
New  York,  president  of  the  American 
Palestine  exploration  society,  and  presi- 
dent of  Union  theological  seminary. 

HITTITES,  a Canaanitish  nation  first 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Abraham, 
who  bought  the  field  and  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah  from  them.  There  are  notices  of 
them  in  Palestine  during  and  after  the 
captivity.  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions seem  to  indicate  that  the 
nation  consisted  of  a confederacy  ruled 
by  a number  of  chiefs,  and  at  one  time 
there  was  a Hittite  empire  extending 
over  a large  area  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Syria.  Their  chief  territory  was  in  the 
Orontes  Valley. 

HOANG-HO,  or  YELLOW  RIVER,  a 

large  river  in  China,  the  sources  of  which 
are  in  mountains  in  the  Koko-Nor 
territory,  north  from  Tibet.  After  a 
winding  course  of  several  hundred  miles, 
it  proceeds  nearly  due  north  to  about 
lat.  41°;  then  east  for  nearly  200  miles, 
when  it  suddenly  bends  round,  and  flows 
directly  southforaboutanother200miles; 
then  turns  abruptly  east,  and  flows  in 
that  direction  till  it  reaches  Lung-men- 
kau,  when  it  diverges  to  the  north-east, 
and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Peche-le  about 
lat.  37°  30',  and  Ion.  118°  30'.  From  the 
13th  century  till  1853  the  Hoang-Ho 
entered  the  sea  in  lat.  34°,  south  of  the 
peninsula  of  Shan-tung,  but  at  the  latter 
date  it  took  its  present  course.  Since 
then  vast  sums  have  been  spent  in 
watching  and  strengthening  the  banks  of 
the  river,  which  is  constantly  over- 
flowing at  some  point.  In  the  autumn 
of  1887  the  whole  body  of  the  river 
burst  its  banks  about  300  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  flooded  about  one-sixth  of 
the  province  of  Ho-nan,  destroying 
towns  and  villages  and  causing  a loss  of 
life,  the  lowest  estimate  of  which  is  one 
million.  Its  length  is  estimated  at  about 
2600  miles.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
vast  quantities  of  yellow  earth  held  in  a 
state  of  solution  by  its  waters. 

HOAR,  George  Frisbie,  American 
legislator,  was  born  at  Concord,  Mass., 
in  1826.  He  was  elected  to  congress  in 
1869  and  was  a member  until  1877, 
when  he  was  chosen  senator  and  con- 
tinuously re-elected  until  his  death  in 
1904.  'Though  he  supported  President 
McKinley  for  re-election,  he  strongly 
opposed  his  policy  in  the  Philippines, 
which  he  considered  subversive  of 
American  ideals. 

HOARSENESS,  an  affection  of  the 
throat  causing  harshnesss  and  roughness 
of  voice,  due  to  irregular  and  imperfect 
bringing  together  of  the  vocal  chords, 
most  frequently  from  swelling  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  chords,  and 
excessive  secretion  of  mucus  in  their 
neighborhood.  It  arises  from  a variety 
of  causes,  the  most  common  of  which 
is  catarrh  or  cold.  Simple  hoarseness  is 
treated  with  soothing  remedies,  the 
inhalation  of  the  steam  of  boiling  water,  ' 
warm  poultices  to  the  neck,  etc. 

HOBART,  Garret  Augustus,  American 
lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  at  Long 
Branch,  N.  J.,  in  1844.  He  was  a mem- 


ber of  the  state  assembly  from  1873  to 
1878  and  of  the  state  senate  from  1879 
to  1885.  He  was* successively  delegate 
at  large  for  five  times  to  the  republican 
national  convention.  He  was  nominated 
at  St.  Louis  in  1896  for  vice-president  on 
with  McKinley  and  was  elected  to  that 
office.  He  died  in  1899. 

HOBBES,  Thomas,  English  moral  and 
political  philosopher,  born  1588  at 
Malmesbury,  died  1679.  The  most  re- 
markable of  his  works  is  his  Leviathan, 
or  the  Matter,  Form,  and  Power  of  a 
Commonwealth  (1651).  Other  works  are 
De  Give  (1642),  De  Corpore  Politico 
(1650),  De  Libertate,  Necessitate  et 
Casu  (1654),  and  Behemoth,  a history  of 
the  civil  war,  published  after  his  death. 
He  also  published  a metrical  version  of 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 

HO'BOKEN,  a city  in  New  Jersey,  on 
the  Hudson  river,  and  close  to  Jersey 
City,  which  stretches  immediately  to  the 
south.  It  lies  opposite  New  York,  ^rith 
which  it  is  connected  by  steam  ferries. 
It  has  various  manufactories,  and 
among  the  public  institutions  is  the 
Steven’s  institute  of  technology,  with 
library  and  valuable  scientific  appara- 
tus. Pop.  1909,  about  75,000. 

HOBSON,  Richard  Pearson,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  constructor,  was  born  in  1870 
in  Greensboro,  Ala.  He  entered  the 
Southern  university  in  1882,  but  three 
years  afterward  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment to  the  United  States  naval  acad- 
emy, where  he  graduated  in  1889. 
During  the  war  with  Spain  he  was 
present  at  the  bombardment  of  Matan- 
zas,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition 
against  San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico;  but 
his  great  achievement  was  the  sinking 
of  tha  collier  Merrimac  across  the  en- 
trance to  Santiago  harbor  before  day- 
light, on  June  3,  1898,  in  order  to 
“bottle  up”  Cervera’s  fleet.  After  the 
war  he  raised  and  refitted  several  of  the 
Spanish  warships  which  had  been  sunk. 
He  resigned  from  the  navy  in  1903. 
Among  his  publications  are  'The  Disap- 
pearing Gun  Afloat,  and  the  Sinking  of 
the  Merrimac.  In  19i'6  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Congress. 

HOCHE,  (osh),  Lazare,  general  in  the 
French  revolutionary  war,  born  1768. 
He  took  service  in  the  French  guards 
when  sixteen  years  old,  and  at  the 
revolution  joined  the  popular  party. 
He  greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Thionville  and  the  defense  of 
Dunkirk,  and  shortly  aftert\'ard,  when 
scarcely  twenty-five  years  of  age,  re- 
ceived the  command  of  the  army  on  the 
Moselle.  In  1793  he  drove  the  Austrians 
out  of  Alsace,  and  soon  after  was 
arrested  by  the  Jacobins  and  imprisoned 
at  Paris.  In  1794  he  was  released,  and 
appointed  commander  of  the  army 
destined  to  quell  the  rising  in  the  west, 
and  afterward  to  that  in  La  Vendee. 
In  1796  he  conceived  the  plan  of  attack- 
ing Britain,  by  making  a descent  on 
Ireland.  He  accordingly  set  sail  in  De- 
cember from  Brest,  but  the  expedition 
utterly  failed,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
return  without  having  even  effected  a 
landing.  After  his  return  he  received 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
and  Meuse.  He  opened  the  campaign 
of  1797  by  a bold  passage  over  the 
Rhine,  and  had  defeated  the  Austrians 


HOCK 


HOLLAND 


is  several  engagements,  when  he  was 
stopped  in  the  path  of  victory  by  the 
news  of  the  armistice  concluded  in 
Italy.  He  died  suddenly  in  September 
same  year  (1797). 

HOCK,  the  name  given  to  the  Ger- 
man wines  grown  in  the  Hochheim  dis- 
trict (see  Hochheim).  It  is  a white  still 
wine,  but  is  sometimes  rendered  spark- 
ling. The  name  is  also  loosely  applied  to 
all  the  Rhenish  wines. 

HOCKEY,  a game  at  ball  known  as 
shinty  in  Scotland,  and  hurling  in  Ire- 
land. It  is  played  with  a club  curved 
at  the  lower  end,  by  a number  of  per- 
sons divided  into  two  parties  or  sides; 
and  the  object  of  each  side  is  to  drive 
the  ball  into  that  part  of  the  field  marked 
off  as  their  opponents’  goal. 

HOE,  an  instrument  for  cutting  up 
weeds  and  loosening  the  earth  in  fields 
and  gardens,  in  shape  something  like  an 
adze,  being  a plate  of  iron,  with  ^n  eye 
for  a handle,  which  is  set  at  a convenient 


Horse-hoe. 

• 

angle  with  the  plate.  The  Dutch  hoe 
differs  from  the  common  hand  hoe  in 
having  the  cutting  blade  set  like  the 
blade  of  a spade.  A horse-hoe  is  a frame 
wheel-mounted,  and  furnished  with 
ranges  of  shares  spaced  so  as  to  work 
in  the  intervals  between  the  rows  of 
turnips,  potatoes,  etc.  It  is  used  on 
farms  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  hand 
hoe,  and  worked  by  horse-power. 

HOG,  a general  name  for  the  ungulate 
or  hoofed  animals,  or  swine.  The  head 
is  prolonged  into  a pointed  or  trun- 
cated snout;  the  feet  have  four  toes,  two 
of  which  reach  the  ground;  and  the  skin 
is  very  thick,  and  mostly  covered  with 
stiff  bristles.  The  common  hog  in  a tame 
state,  is  almost  universal,  except  in  very 
high  latitudes.  The  prevailing  color  of 
the  domestic  animal  is  a dull  yellowish 
white,  sometimes  marked  irregularly 
with  black,  and  sometimes  totally  black. 
It  is  omnivorous  in  its  habits,  devouring 
almost  any  vegetable  or  animal  sub- 
stance. It  is  also  very  prolific,  has 
usually  two  litters  in  a year,  a litter  con- 
sisting of  from  ten  to  even  twenty.  The 
wild-boar,  from  which  most  of  our 
domesticated  varieties  are  derived,  is 
found  in  most  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
In  size  the  wild  animal  considerably 
exceeds  the  domesticated  hog,  the  legs 
are  longer  and  more  muscular,  and  the 
back  therefore  much  higher.  Hunting 
this  animal  has  always  been  a favorite 
amusement,  and  can  still  be  practiced 
in  various  parts  of  Europfe. 

HO'GARTH,  William,  painter  and 
satirical  artist,  born  in  London,  1697, 
died  1764.  In  1729  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  James  Thornhill,  the 
painter,  against  her  father’s  wishes,  who 
is  said,  however,  to  have  been  mollified 
when  Hogarth  produced  his  celebrated 
series  of  pictures  ealled  the  Harlot’s 
Progress,  a work  which  brought  his 


great  powers  fairly  before  the  public. 
The  engravings  of  these,  which  became 
exceedingly  popular,  were  published  in 
1734.  This  was  followed  by  the  Rake’s 
Progress  and  Marriage  4 la  Mode,  two 
similarseries  of  paintings andengravings. 
Industry  and  Idleness,  Beer  Street  and 


William  Hogarth. 


Gin  Lane,  The  Election,  The  Enraged 
Musician,  The  Country-Inn  Yard,  The 
March  to  Finchley,  Strolling  Actresses 
Dressing  in  a Barn,  Four  Stages  of 
Cruelty,  and  a host  of  other  engravings, 
which  all  evinced  his  extraordinary 
powers  of  satire,  wit,  and  imagination. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  pub- 
is hed  by  Boydell  (London,  1790),  the 
plates  of  which,  retouched  by  Heath 
and  others,  have  been  repeatedly  pub- 
lished sinee. 

HOGSHEAD,  an  obsolete  measure  of 
capacity  containing  63  old  wine  gallons, 
or  52J  imperial  gallons.  For  beer  it  was 
54  gallons,  for  rum  45  to  50  gallons,  for 
brandy  45  to  60  gallons.  In  the  United 
States  the  measure  is  still  in  use,  being 
equivalent  to  63  American  gallons  or- 
52.485  imperial  gallons;  for  tobacco  it 
varies  from  750  lbs.  in  some  states  to 
1200  lbs.  in  others. 

HOHENZOLLERN  (ho-en-tsol'ern),  a 
small  territory  of  Germany,  since  1852 
administrative  division  of  Prussia.  It 
consists  of  a long,  narrow,  irregular  strip 
of  country,  entirely  surrounded  by 
Wiirtemberg  and  Baden.  Area,  450  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  66,720.  The  princely  family 
of  Hohenzollern  dates  from  Thassilo, 
Count  of  Zollern,  who  died  about  800 
A.D.  There  have  been  several  lines  and 
branches,  the  main  one  being  repre- 
sented by  the  present  imperial  family  of 
Germany. 

HOLBACH  (hol'bah),  Paul  Heinrich 
Dietrich,  Baron  von,  philosopher,  born 
at  Heidelsheim,  in  the  Palatinate,  in 
1723.  He  was  educated  in  Paris,  where 
he  passed  the  greater  part  of  his  life, 
and  died  in  1789.  He  contributed  many 
papers  on  natural  history,  politics  and 
philosophy  to  the  Encyclop4die.  His 
principal  work  was  the  System  of  Na- 
ture. According  to  Holbach  matter  is 
one  form  of  existence  and  everything  is 
the  effect  of  a blind  necessTy. 

HOLBEIN  (hol'bln),  Hans,  an  eminent 
German  painter,  born  at  Augsburg  in 
1497.  He  studied  under  his  father,  Hans 
Holbein  the  elder,  a painter  of  con- 
siderable merit  (1450-1526),  and  at  an 
early  age  settled  at  Basel,  where  he 


exercised  his  art  till  about  1526.  He 
then  came  to  England,  where  letters 
from  his  friend  Arasmus,  whose  Panegy- 
ric on  Folly  he  had  illustrated  by  a series 
of  drawings,  procured  him  the  patronage 
of  the  chancellor  Sir  Thomas  More.  He 
was  appointed  court  painter  by  Henry 
VIII.;  and  in  the  Windsor  collection  has 
left  portraits  of  all  the  eminent  English- 
men of  the  time.  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  pictures  are  the  Madonna  at  Darm- 
stadt (better  known  through  the  replica 
at  Dresden),  representing  the  Burgo- 
master Meyer  and  his  wives  kneeling  to 
the  Virgin;  and  the  Solothurn  Madonna. 
His  famous  Dance  of  Death  has  only 
been  preserved  in  the  engraving  of 
Liitzelburger.  There  are  a considerable 
number  of  engravings  on  wood  and 
copper  from  Holbein’s  designs.  He  died 
at  Whitehall  of  the  plague  in  1543. 

HOLBERG,  Ludwig,  Baron,  the  father 
of  modern  Danish  literature,  was  born 
at  Bergen,  in  Norway,  then  part  of  the 
Danish  dominions,  in  1684;  died  at 
Copenhagen  January  27,  1754.  His 
works  may  be  divided  into  four  classes — 
poems,  stage  pieces,  philosophical  treat- 
ises, and  historical  works.  His  poems  are 


Hans  Holbein,  the  younger. 


chiefly  of  a satirical  nature.  The  most 
celebrated  is  Peder  Paars,  a comic  heroic 
poem  in  fourteen  cantos,  which  is  still 
regarded  throughout  the  Scandinavian 
countries  as  a masterpiece.  Almost 
equally  famous  is  his  Nicolas  Klimm’s 
Subterraneous  Travels,  a satirical  ro- 
mance in  prose. 

HOLD,  the  whole  interior  cavity  or 
belly  of  a ship,  or  all  that  part  of  her 
inside  which  is  comprehended  between 
the  floor  and  the  lower  deck  throughout 
her  length. 

HOLIBUT.  See  Halibut. 

HOLIDAY,  any  day  set  apart  as  a 
religious  or  national  festival ; in  a general 
sense  a day  or  a number  of  days  during 
which  a person  is  released  from  his  every 
day  labors. 

HOLLAND,  a fine  and  close  kind  of 
linen,  so  called  from  its  being  first  manu- 
factured in  Holland;  also  a coarser  linen 
fabric,  unbleached  or  dyed  brown,  used 
for  covering  furniture,  books,  carpets, 
etc.,  or  for  making  window-blinds  or 
the  like. 

HOLLAND,  North,  and  Holland, 
South,  two  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands. The  greater  part  of  the  former 
consists  of  a peninsula,  bounded  by  the 
North  Sea  on  the  w.  and  the  Zuider-Zee 
on  the  e.  Area,  1051  sq.  miles.  It  lies 


HOLLY 


HOLY  PLACES  OF  JERUSALEM 


very  low,  some  portions  of  it  being  at 
least  partially  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  it  is  generally  fertile.  A broad 
margin  of  downs  or  sand-hills  protects  it 
from  the  sea  on  the  west.  Besides  rivers 
(Vecht,  Amstel,  Zaan,  etc.),  it  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Great  North  Holland  canal. 
The  chief  towns  are  Amsterdam,  Alk- 
maar,  Haarlem,  Helder,  and  Zaandam. 
Pop.  96S.105. — South  Holland,  the 
most  populous  province  of  the  Nether- 
lands, is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
North  Holland,  on  the  west  by  the  Ger- 
man Ocean.  The  southern  part  of  the 
province  is  broken  up  into  several  is- 
lands. Area,  1155  sq.  miles.  Like  North 
Holland,  it  is  a flat  and  depressed  tract, 
and  it  also  is  protected  from  the  sea  on 
the  v/est  by  a margin  of  downs  or  sand- 
hills. The  chief  river  is  the  Rhine,  with 
its  numerous  branches.  The  lakes  were 
formerly  numerous,  but  most  of  them 
are  now  drained.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
well  cultivated.  The  principal  towns  are 
Delft,  Dort,  Gorkum,  Gouda,  Leyden, 
Rotterdam,  Schiedam,  ’s  Gravenhage 
(the  Hague).  Pop.  1,114,401. 

HOLLY,  a genus  of  plants  embracing 
a number  of  evergreen  trees  or  shi-ubs. 
The  common  holly  is  common  in  Britain 
and  the  Continent  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
handsome,  conical  evergreen  tree,  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet.  Its 
leaves  are  dark-green,  shining,  and 
leathery,  abdndantly  armed  with  prickles 
on  the  lower  branches,  but  free  from 


them  on  the  upper,  or  on  very  old  trees. 
The  flowers  are  white,  appearing  in 
May;  the  fruit  is  red,  ripening  in  Sep- 
tember, and  remaining  on  the  tree  al- 
the  winter.  A good  many  varieties  are 
known  , distinguished  by  the  shape  and 
color  of  the  leaves,  which  are  sometimes 
spotted  or  edged  with  yellow,  etc.  It  is 
excellently  adapted  for  hedges  and 
fences,  as  it  bears  clipping.  The  wood  is 
hard  and  wdiite,  and  is  employed  for 
turnery  work,  knife  handles,  etc.  The 
bark  yields  a mucilaginous  substance, 
from  which  birdlime  is  made.  Among 
the  Romans  it  was  customary  to  send 
boughs  of  holly  to  friends,  with  new- 
year’s  gifts,  as  emblematical  of  good 
wishes;  and  it  is  used  to  decorate  houses 
at  Christmas.  The  American  holly  is 
widely  diffused  throughout  the  United 
States.  It  sometimes  attains  the  height 
of  80  feet,  with  a trunk  4 feet  in  diameter. 

HOLLYHOCK,  a biennial  plant,  a 
native  of  China,  and  is  a frequent  orna- 
ment of  gardens.  There  are  many  vari- 
eties, with  single  and  double  flowers, 
characterized  by  the  tints  of  yellow, 


red,  purple,  and  dark  purple  approach- 
ing to  black. 

HOLME3,  Mary  Jane,  American  nov- 
elist, was  born  in  Brookfield,  Mass.,  1839. 
Her  first  novel.  Tempest  and  Sunshine 
(1854),  was  followed  by  a book  almost 
every  year,  and  the  circulation  of  her 
books  has  exceeded  two  millions.  Died 
1907. 

HOLMES  (homz),  Oliver  Wendell, 
M.D.,  LL.D.,  American  writer  born  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  1809,  and  educated 
at  Harvard  university.  He  began  the 
study  of  law,  but  in  a short  time  relin- 
quished it  for  that  of  medicine.  In  1839 


he  became  professor  of  anatomy  and 
physiology  in  Dartmouth  college,  N. 
H.,  but  resigned  after  two  years’  serv- 
ice in  order  to  devote  himself  to  prac- 
tice in  Boston.  In  1847  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  anatomy  at  Harvard,  a 
position  which  he  filled  till  1882.  He 
was  a voluminous  writer  both  in  prose 
and  verse,  and  shone  as  a prominent 
figure  in  the  famous  group  associated 
with  the  Atlantic  Monthly.  His  chief 
works,  besides  several  volun  es  of  poems, 
and  treatises  on  medicine,  are  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,  The 
Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table,  and 
The  Poet  at  The  Breakfast  Table;  Elsie 
Venner,  The  Guardian  Angel,  A Mortal 
Antipathy,  and  Memoirs  of  Motley  and 
Emerson.  A visit  to  Europe  in  1886  pro- 
duced a charming  record:  A Hundred 
Days  in  Europe.  He  died  in  1894. 

HOLY  ALLIANCE,  a league  con- 
cluded at  Paris,  Sept.  26,  1815,  between 
Alexander  I., emperor  of  Russia,  Francis, 
of  Austria,  and  Frederick  William  III. 
of  Prussia,  and  signed  with  their  own 
hands,  and  without  the  countersign  of  a 
minister.  It  consisted  of  a declaration, 
that,  in  accordance  with  the  precepts  of 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  principles 
of  justice,  charity,  and  peace  should 
be  the  basis  of  their  internal  admin- 
istration, and  of  their  international 
relations,  and  that  the  happiness  and 
religious  welfare  of  their  subjects  should 
be  their  great  object.  Its  real  aim,  how- 
ever, was  to  maintain  the  power  and  in- 
fluence of  the  existing  dynasties.  It 
was  offered  for  signature  to  all  the 
European  powers  except  the  pope  and 
the  sultan  of  Turkey,  and  accepted  by 
all  except  Britain.  The  events  of  1848 
broke  up  the  Holy  Alliance. 


HOLY  COAT  OF  TREVES,  a relic  pre- 
served in  the  cathedral  of  Treves,  and 
said  to  be  the  identical  seamless  coat  worn 
by  our  Saviour  at  his  crucifixion,  and 
for  which  the  soldiers  cast  lots.  It  was 
the  gift  of  the  Empress  Helena,  by  whom 
it  was  discovered  in  her  visit  to  Palestine 
in  the  4th  century.  It  has  been  exhibited 
to  vast  numbers  of  pilgrims  at  irregular 
intervals.  The  same  claim  is  made  for 
several  coats  kept  in  other  places. 

HOLY  FAMILY,  in  art,  representa- 
tions of  the  infant  Saviour  and  his 
mother,  accompanied  by  one  or  more 
members  of  his  family. 

HOLY  GHOST,  according  to  Trini- 
tarians, the  third  person  in  the  Holy 
Trinity;  according  to  the  Socinians,  a 
Biblical  metaphor,  to  designate  the 
divine  influence.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Athanasian  creed  adopted  by  Roman 
Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists 
alike^is  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeded 
from  both  Son  and  Father,  and  is  co- 
eternal and  equal  with  both.  The  East- 
ern Church,  however,  following  the 
Council  of  Alexandria  held  in  362,  as- 
serts that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from 
the  Father  alone. 

HOLY  GHOST,  Order  of,  an  order  of 
male  and  female  hospitallers,  founded  by 
Guy,  son  of  William,  Count  of  Mont- 
pellier, toward  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  infirm 
and  foundlings. 

HOLYHEAD,  an  island  and  seaport 
town  of  North  Wales,  in  the  county  of 
Anglesey.  The  island  is  about  7 miles 
long  and  5 miles  broad  at  the  widest  part, 


is  situated  off  the  west  side  of  Anglesey, 
and  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
causeway.  The  town  is  on  the  northeast 
side  of  the  island,  and  owes  its  pros- 
perity to  the  railway  and  steamboat 
traffic  between  England  and  Dublin, 
The  harbor  of  refuge  (Victoria  harbor), 
opened  in  1873,  is  formed  by  a break- 
water which  is  7860  feet  in  length,  the 
whole  cost,  including  some  minor  works, 
being  $7,500,000.  Pop.  11,414. 

HOLY  LAND.  See  Palestine. 

HOLYOKE,  a city  in  Hampden  co.. 
Mass.,  on  the  w.  bank  of  the  Connecticut 
river.  It  has  manufactures  of  paper, 
cotton,  wool,  wire,  machine  works,  etc. 
Pop.  1909,  about  54.000. 

HOLY  PLACES  OF  JERUSALEM,  a 
term  meant  to  apply  more  particularly 
to  that  group  of  localities  of  which  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  is  the 

. .....  . 


HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE 


HOMICIDAL  MANIA 


center,  some  of  the  other  more  cele- 
brated objects  being  the  Garden  of 
Gethsemane,  the  Church  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, the  Tomb  of  the  Virgin,  etc.,  all 
connected  with  the  life  and  passion  of 
our  Saviour.  The  guardiansliip  of  the 
holy  places  has  been  a cause  of  much 
contention  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches.  They  were  formerly  under  the 
control  of  the  latter,  but  since  1757  they 
have  been  committed  to  the  care  of  the 
Greek  Church  by  imperial  ordinance  of 
the  Porte.  Demands  made  respecting 
the  holy  places  and  the  protection  of 
Greek  Christians  in  Turkey,  led  to  the 
Crimean  war  of  1854-76. 

HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE,  a title  which 
the  German  Empire  received  in  962  when 
Otho  I.  was  crowned  at  Rome  by  Pope 
John  XII.  It  came  to  an  end  when 
Francis  II.  becime  hereditary  emperor 
of  Austria  in  1804. 

HOLYROOD,  Palace  and  Abbey  of, 
in  Edinburgh,  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  old  town.  The  abbey  church, 
founded  in  1128  by  David  I.,  containing 
the  royal  vault,  with  the  ashes  of  nu- 
merous members  of  the  Scottish  royal 
race,  is  now  mostly  in  ruin. 

HOLY  SEPULCHER,  Knights  of  the, 
an  order  of  knighthood  founded  by  God- 
frey of  Bouillon,  1099,  for  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  at  Jerusalem, 
and  for  the  protection  of  pilgrims.  It 
was  revived  by  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
1496,  and  reorganized  in  1847  and  1868. 

HOLY  WATER,  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  salted  water 
which  has  been  consecrated  by  prayers, 
exorcism,  and  other  ceremonies,  to 
sprinkle  the  faithful  and  things  used  for 
the  church.  It  is  placed  at  the  door 
of  churches,  so  that  worshipers  may 
sprinkle  themselves  with  it  as  they  enter, 
and  it  is  used  in  nearly  every  blessing 
w'hich  the  church  gives.  Sprinkling  the 
people  with  holy  water  seems  to  date 
from  the  9th  century,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered efficacious  not  from  any  virtue 
of  its  own,  but  from  the  effect  of  the 
church’s  prayers  at  the  time  of  using. 

HOLY  WEEK,  or  PASSION  WEEK,  is 
that  which  immediately  precedes  Easter, 
and  is  devoted  especially  to  commem- 
orate the  passion  of  our  Lord.  The  days 
more  especially  solemnized  during  it  are 
Spy  Wednesday,  Maundy  Thursday, 
Good  Friday,  and  Holy  Saturday.  It  is 
an  institution  of  very  early  origin,  and  is 
known  as  Great  Week,  Silent  Week, 
Penitent  Week,  etc.  Spy  Wednesday 
was  a name  given  in  allusion  to  the  be- 
trayal of  Christ  by  Judas  Iscariot. 
Maundy  or  Holy  Thursday  specially 
commemorates  the  institution  of  the 
Eucharist. 

HOMAGE,  in  feudal  law,  a formal  ac- 
knowledgment made  by  a feudal  tenant 
to  and  in  presence  of  his  lord  on  receiv- 
ing the  investiture  of  a fief  or  coming  to 
it  by  succession,  that  he  was  his  vassal. 
The  tenant,  being  ungirt  and  uncovered, 
kneeled  and  held  up  both  his  hands  be- 
tween those  of  the  Lord,  who  sat  before 
him,  and  there  professed  that  “he  did 
become  his  man,  from  that  day  forth, 
of  life  and  limb,  and  earthly  honor,”  and 
then  received  a kiss  from  his  lord. 

HOMER,  an  ancient  Greek  epic  poet, 
of  whom  nothing  is  known  with  cer- 
tainty, some  even  doubting  whether  he 

P.  E,— 40 


ever  existed.  The  most  probable  opinion 
is  that  he  was  a native  of  some  locality 
on  the  sea-board  of  Asia  Minor,  and  that 
he  flourished  between  950  and  850  n.c. 
The  earliest  mention  of  the  name  of 
Homer  is  found  in  Xenophanes  (6th 
century  n.c.).  The  common  statement 
that  he  was  blind  may  safely  be  dis- 
carded. The  poems  that  have  been  gen- 


erally attributed  to  Homer  are  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey.  The  Batrachomyomachia, 
of  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,  and  cer- 
tain hymns  to  the  gods  also  passed  un- 
der his  name,  though  belonging  to  a 
later  period.  The  Iliad  in  its  present 
form  consists  of  twenty-four  books,  and 
tells  the  story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  from 
the  quarrel  of  Achilles  with  Agamemnon 
to  the  burial  of  Hector,  with  subordinate 
episodes.  The  Odyssey  is  also  in  twenty- 
four  books,  and  records  the  adventures 
of  Odysseus  (Ulysses)  on  his  return 
voyage  to  his  home  in  Ithaca  after  the 
fall  of  Troy.  Even  as  early  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era,  certain 
Greek  critics  (the  Separatists)  main- 
tained that  the  two  poems  were  the 
work  of  different  poets,  but  the  general 
belief  continued  to  be  that  there  was  one 
author  for  both.  The  entire  system  of 
Homeric  criticism,  however,  was  revolu- 
tionized in  1795  by  F.  A.  Wolf  in  his 
Prolegomena  to  Homer.  He  asserted 
that  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were  not 
originally  committed  to  writing,  and 
were  not  two  complete  and  independent 
poems,  but  originally  a series  of  songs  of 
different  poets  (Homer  and  others),  cele- 
brating single  exploits  of  heroes  and 
first  connected  as  wholes  by  Pisistratus, 
about  540  b.c.  Some  of  Wolf’s  argu- 
ments have  been  proved  erroneous,  but 
since  his  time  the  old  views  in  regard  to 
the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  have  been  held 
by  comparatively  few  of  the  ablest 
scholars,  though  what  theory  is  now  the 
most  common  is  difficult  to  say.  Among 
the  most  conservative  theories  is  that 
which  assigns  to  Homer  a central  or 
basal  portion  of  both  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
to  which  additions  by  other  poets  were 
gradually  united;  but  generally  the 
Odyssey  is  regarded  as  of  somewhat 
later  date  than  the  Iliad,  and  not  by  the 
poet  who  produced  the  Iliad  in  its  origi- 
nal form. 

HOME  RULE,  in  British  politics,  a 
measure  which  has  been  more  especially 
advocated  in  regard  to  Ireland.  The 
leading  feature  of  the  Irish  home  rule 
party  seems  to  be  the  establishment  of  a 
native  parliament  in  Ireland  to  conduct 
all  local  and  internal  legislation,  leaving 


the  general  political  government  of  the 
empire  to  an  imperial  parliament.  The 
movement  originated  in  the  formation 
of  the  Home  Government  association 
at  Dublin,  in  1870,  under  the  presidency 
of  Mr.  Isaac  Butt.  At  the  general  elec- 
tion of  1874  the  party  succeeded  in  send- 
ing 60  home  rule  members  to  parliament 
for  Irish  constituencies.  The  elections  of 
1885  and  1886  still  further  strengthened 
the  party,  86  members  following  the 
lead  of  Mr.  Parnell  (which  see).  The 
Original  scheme  has  been  materially 
modified  since  Butt’s  time,  and  there  are 
not  wanting  Irishmen  who  declare  open- 
ly for  absolute  independence,  which 
many  believe  to  be  the  ultimate  aim  of 
the  whole  party.  The  conversion  of  Mr. 
Gladstone  and  many  members  of  the 
liberal  party  to  home  rule  principles  has 
added  immense  strength  to  the  move- 
ment. Similar  schemes  for  Scotland  and 
Wales  have  been  agitated. 

HOME-SICKNESS,  in  medicine.  Nos- 
talgia, a disease  arising  from  an  intense 
and  uncontrolled  feeling  of  grief  at  a 
separation  from  one’s  home  or  native 
land.  It  is  most  frequent  among  persons 
who  leave  mountainous  and  go  to  flat 
eountries,  as  the  Seotch  Highlanders  and 
Swiss,  or  among  those  who  change 
from  the  country  to  the  town.  It  com- 
mences by  a deep  melancholy,  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  low,  nervous, 
hectie  fever,  or  occasionally  changes 
into  phthisis,  and  may  terminate  fatally. 

HOMESTEAD,  a city  in  Allegheny 
CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Monongahela  river,  and 
the  Penn,  and  the  Pitts,  and  Lake  Erie 
railways;  8 miles  s.e.  of  Pittsburg.  It 
contains  one  of  the  largest  steel-manu- 
facturing plants  in  the  United  States.  It 
also  has  manufacturers  of  glass  and  fire- 
brick. Pop.  14,974. 

HOMESTEAD  LAWS,  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  give  to  every  citizen  who 
is  the  head  of  a family,  or  who  has  ar- 
rived at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  the 
right  to  a homestead  of  160  acres,  to  be 
selected  at  will  from  any  of  the  surveyed 
and  otherwise  unappropriated  public 
lands,  without  cost,  except  entry  fees. 
The  tract  thus  taken  as  a homestead 
must  be  located  in  a compact  body,  upon 
land  which  is  agricultural  in  character, 
and  must  conform  to  the  legal  subdivi- 
sions established  by  the  official  survey. 
To  obtain  a homestead  the  applicant 
must  make  an  affidavit  that  he  is  over 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  or  the  head 
of  a family;  that  he  is  a citizen  of  the 
United  States,  or  has  declared  his  inten- 
tion to  become  such;  and  that  the  entry 
is  made  for  his  exclusive  use  and  benefit, 
and  for  actual  settlement  and  cultiva- 
tion. Where  homestead  entries  are  made 
by  soldiers  and  sailors  who  served  ninety 
days  or  more  in  the  United  States  army 
or  navy  during  the  war  of  the  rebellion, 
the  period  of  their  service,  or,  if  they 
were  discharged  on  account  of  wounds 
or  disability  incurred  in  the  line  of  duty, 
the  entire  term  of  enlistment,  not  to  ex- 
ceed four  years,  is  deducted  from  the 
five  years’  residence  required  by  law. 
But  no  one  can  receive  a title  to  his 
homestead  under  any  circumstances 
without  having  lived  upon  it  at  least  one 
year. 

HOMICI'DAL  MANIA,  a species  of 
mania  in  which  a sudden  irresistible  im* 


HOMICIDE 


HONG-KONG 


pulse  to  destroy  life  seizes  the  patient. 
It  is  independent  of  hatred  toward  the 
victim,  or  of  any  appreciable  motive, 
and  its  causes  are  obscure. 

HOMICIDE,  the  killing  of  one  man  or 
human  being  by  another.  In  law,  homi- 
cide is  of  three  kinds — justifiable,  excus- 
able, and  felonious;  justifiable,  when  it 
proceeds  from  unavoidable  necessity,  as 
where  the  proper  officer  inflicts  capital 
punishment,  where  an  officer  of  justice 
kills  an  offender  who  assaults  or  resists 
him  and  who  cannot  otherwise  be  cap- 
tured, or  where  persons  are  killed  in  the 
dispersion  of  rebellious  or  riotous  as- 
semblies; excusable,  when  it  happens 
from  misadventure,  as  where  a man  in 
doing  a lawful  act  by  accident  kills  an- 
other, or  in  self-defense,  as  where  a man 
kills  another  in  defense  of  the  life  of  him- 
self, his  wife,  children,  parent,  servant, 
etc.;  felonious,  when  it  proceeds  from 
malice,  or  is  done  in  the  prosecution  of 
some  unlawful  act,  or  in  a sudden  pas- 
sion. Self-murder  also  is  felonious  homi- 
cide. Felonious  homicide  comprehends 
murder  and  manslaughter. 

HOMILET'ICS,  the  art  of  preaching; 
that  branch  of  practical  theology  which 
teaches  the  principles  of  adapting  the 
discourses  of  the  pulpit  to  the  spiritual 
benefit  of  the  hearers,  and  the  best 
methods  which  ministers  of  the  gospel 
should  pursue  for  instructing  their 
hearers  by  their  doctrines  and  example. 

HOMILY,  a discourse  or  sermon  read 
or  pronounced  to  an  audience  on  some 
subject  of  religion;  a discourse  pro- 
nounced in  the  church  by  the  minister 
to  the  congregation.  The  ancient  homily 
was  sometimes  simply  a conversation, 
the  prelate  talking  to  the  people  and  in- 
terrogating them,  "and  they  in  turn  talk- 
ing to  and  interrogating  him. 

HOMCEOP'ATHY,  the  name  of  a sys- 
tem of  medicine  introduced  by  Samuel 
Hahnemann  of  Leipzic  (died  1843).  It  is 
a system  founded  upon  the  belief  that 
drugs  have  the  power  of  curing  morbid 
conditions  similar  to  those  they  have 
the  power  to  excite,  an  old  belief  long 
ago  expressed  in  the  Latin  phrase 
“similia  similibus  curantur”  (like  is 
cured  by  like).  In  contradistinction  to 
this  system  the  more  common  method  of 
treating  diseases  has  been  termed  heter- 
opathy  or  allopathy.  In  practice  homoe- 
opathy is  associated  with  the  system  of 
administering  infinitesimal  doses. 

HONAN',  a once  populous  city  of 
China,  in  the  province  of  same  name,  on 
an  affluent  of  the  Hoang-ho.  The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  65,104  square  miles. 
It  is  generally  level,  and  is  watered  by 
the  Hoang-ho  and  its  affluents.  The  soil 
is  fertile  and  carefully  cultivated;  the 
forests  in  the  west  supply  timber;  and 
mines  yield  tutenag  or  Chinese  copper, 
cinnabar,  mica,  etc.  Honan  suffered 
severely  from  the  inundation  of  the 
Hoang-ho  in  1887;  capital,  Kai-fung. 
Pop.  22,117,036. 

HONDO,  the  name  given  by  the 
Japanese  to  the  chief  island  in  their 
empire.  In  many  geographical  works 
Nippon  or  Niphon  is  the  distinctive  ap- 
pellation of  this  island,  but  by  the  Japa- 
nese themselves  that  name  is  applied  to 
the  whole  country.  The  area  of  the  is- 
land is  87,425  sq.  miles,  and  the  pop. 
33,327,935.  See  Japan. 


HONDU'RAS,  a republican  state  of 
Central  America;  area,  39,600  sq.  miles. 
Its  surface  is  hilly  with  numerous  fertile 
valleys.  Its  mineral  wealth  is  very  con- 
siderable, and  includes  gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  copper.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Chamelicon,  Ulua,  and  Aguan,  flowing 
to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  Choluteca, 
an  affluent  of  the  Pacific.  There  are  ex- 
tensive forests  abounding  in  fine  tim- 
ber. The  principal  cultivated  produc- 
tions are  corn,  beans,  some  wheat,  rice, 
plantains,  and  tobacco.  Since  1880  the 
capital  has  been  Tegucigalpa,  the  prin- 
cipal ports  are  Truxillo  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  Port  San  Lorenzo,  in  the  Pacific. 
The  constitution  of  the  state  gives  the 
legislature  power  to  a congress  of  depu- 
ties composed  of  thirty-seven  members. 
The  executive  authority  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  president.  The  resources  of  the 
country  are  undeveloped,  and  the  finan- 
ces are  in  a very  disordered  state.  Pop. 
590,000. 

HONDURAS,  BRITISH,  or  BELIZE,  a 

British  colony  of  Central  America,  hav- 
ing north  and  west,  Yucatan;  west  and 
south,  Guatemala;  and  east,  the  Bay  of 
Honduras.  Area,  7562  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
32,899  including  about  400  whites. 

HONE,  the  name  given  to  several 
varieties  of  slaty  stones  employed  in 
whetting  knives,  razors,  or  other  edge- 
tools.  They  are  usually  pieces  of  hard 
close-grained  clay-slate,  containing  mi- 
nute particles  of  quartz,  with  a uniform 
consistence.  The  best-known  varieties 
are  the  Ayr  stone,  so  called  from  being 
found  in  the  river  Ayr,  in  Scotland;  the 
Charnley  Forest  stone,  found  in  Charn- 
wood  Forest,  Leicestershire;  the  German 
hone,  the  Canada  oil-stone,  Turkey  oil- 
stone, etc. 

HONEY,  a vegetable  product,  with 
saccharine  properties,  collected  by  bees 
from  the  blossoms  of  flowers,  and  de- 
posited in  the  cells  of  their  combs.  The 
best  is  clear  and  transparent,  and  solidi- 
fies when  kept  for  some  time  into  a 
granular,  white  mass.  Some  varieties  of 
it  are  dark  yellow  or  brownish  in  color. 
Spring  honey  is  more  esteemed  than 
summer  honey;  and  the  latter  more  than 
that  of  autumn.  Virgin  honey  is  taken 
from  hives  in  which  the  bees  have  never 
swarmed,  and  it  is  of  a white  color. 
Yellow  honey  is  extracted  from  all  sorts 
of  combs.  The  flavor  of  honey  largely 
depends  on  the  plants  from  which  it  is 
collected.  Honey  is  obtained  in  large 
quantities  in  many  countries,  partly 
from  wild  bees,  but  chiefly  from  those 
kept  in  hives.  In  addition  to  its  ordi- 
nary domestic  uses,  it  is  employed 
medicinally  as  a promoter  of  expectora- 
tion, to  sweeten  certain  medicines,  to 
make  a gargle  with  vinegar,  etc.  It  is 
also  used  in  making  mead.  The  ancients 
used  it  as  we  do  sugar,  and  made  of  it 
and  wine  a mixture  very  much  liked. 

HONEY-ANT,  inhabiting  Mexico,  and 
living  in  communities  in  subterranean 
galleries.  In  summer  a certain  number 
of  these  insects  secrete  a kind  of  honey 
in  their  abdomens  which  become  so  dis- 
tended as  to  appear  like  small  pellucid 
grapes.  Later  in  the  season  when  food 
is  scarce  these  ants  are  devoured  by 
the  others,  and  they  are  also  dug  up 
and  eaten  by  ,the  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 


HONEY-COMB,  a waxen  cellular  struc- 
ture framed  by  the  bees  to  deposit  their 
honey  and  eggs  in.  The  wax  is  secreted 
by  the  insect  in  the  form  of  small  and 
thin  oval  scales  in  the  folds  of  the  abdo- 
men. The  comb  is  composed  of  a num- 
ber of  cells,  most  of  them  exactly  hex- 
agonal ahd  arranged  in  two  layers  placed 
end  to  end,  the  openings  of  the  layers 
being  in  opposite  directions.  The  comb 
is  placed  vertically,  the  cells  being  there- 
fore horizontal.  The  sides  of  the  cells  are 
very  thin,  and  yet  the  whole  structure  is 
of  considerable  strength.  Some  cells  are 
destined  for  the  exclusive  reception  of 
honey;  others  for  the  reception  of  larvae. 

HONEY-DEW,  a sweet  saccharine 
substance  found  on  the  leaves  of  trees 
and  other  plants  in  small  drops  like  dew. 
There  are  two  kinds;  one  secreted  from 
the  plants,  and  the  other  deposited  by 
aphides.  Different  kinds  of  manna  are 
the  dried  honey-dew  or  saccharine  ex- 
udations of  certain  plants. 

HONEY-EATER,  the  name  given  to  a 
nurnber  of  insessorial  birds  forming  the 
family  Meliphagidae,  of  the  tribe  Tenuir- 
ostres.  They  form  a numerous  group, 
feeding  principally  on  honey  and  the 


Wattled  honey-eater. 


nectar  of  flowers.  They  are  natives  of 
Australia  and  the  adjacent  islands.  They 
have  long  curved  sharp  bills,  with  ton- 
gues terminating  in  a pencil  of  delicate 
filaments,  to  enable  them  the  better  to 
extract  the  juice  of  flowers. 

HONEY-LOCUST,  SWEET  LOCUST, 
or  BLACK  LOCUST,  a forest  tree  be- 
longing to  the  United  States.  The  leaves 
are  pinnated,  divided  into  numerous 
small  leaflets  and  the  foliage  has  a light 
and  elegant  appearance;  the  flowers  are 
greenish,  and  are  succeeded  by  long, 
often  twisted  pods,  containing  large 
brown  seeds,  enveloped  in  a sweet  pulp. 
This  tree  is  especially  remarkable  for  its 
formidable  thorns,  on  which  account  it 
has  been  recommended  for  hedges. 

HONEYSUCKLE,  or  WOODBINE,  the 
common  honeysuckle  of  Britain,  a twin- 
ing shrub,  wi.h  distinct  leaves  and  red 
berries,  is  indigenous  in  Great  Britain; 
but  two  others  have  been  naturalized. 
The  honeysuckle  family  is  represented 
in  North  America  by  nine  different 
species. 

HONG-KONG,  an  island  off  the  s.e. 
coast  of  China,  belonging  to  the  British, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  that  leads  to 
Canton,  from  which  it  is  distant  75  miles. 
It  is  about  10  miles  in  extreme  length, 
and  7jj  miles  in  extreme  breadth,  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  by  a narrow 
strait,  and  with  Cowloon  on  the  main- 
land forms  a crown  colony,  area  32  sq. 


HONOLULU 


HOOSAC  TUNNEL 


miles.  Hong-Kong  is  a great  entrepot 
for  the  foreign  commerce  of  China,  and 
is  a free  port  without  customs’  dues.  It 
is  also  a station  of  the  British  fleet.  The 
revenue  of  the  government  is  derived 
from  the  land  rents,  licenses  to  sell 
opium,  spirits,  etc.,  taxes,  postages, 
fines,  fees  of  office,  etc.  Hong-Kong  was 
ceded  to  Britain  in  1842;  some  200  sq. 
miles  additional  were  leased  in  1898. 
Pop.  about  246,000;  more  than  nine- 
tenths  being  Chinese,  and  11,000  whites. 

HONOLU'LU,  the  capital  of  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  south  side  of  the  island  of 
Oahu.  Its  most  notable  edifices  are  the 
royal  palace,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, the  treasury,  the  parliament  house, 
etc.  There  is  a fine  natural  harbor.  Hono- 
lulu is  a rapidly  improving  place.  Pop. 
45,670. 

HONOR,  Knights  and  Ladies  of,  a 
fraternal  benevolent  society  organized 
in  Kentucky  in  1877  for  social  and  bene- 
ficial purposes.  The  central  authority  is 
the  supreme  lodge,  and  the  chief  officer 
has  the  title  of  supreme  protector.  The 
order  has  sixteen  grand  lodges  and  1160 
subordinate  lodges,  representing  a total 
membership  of  63,000. 

HONOR,  Maids  of,  ladies  in  the  serv- 
ice of  European  queens,  w'ho  attend 
their  mistress  when  she  appears  in  pub- 
lic. In  England  they  are  eight  in  number. 

HONOl^BLE,  Right  Honorable  and 
Most  Honorable,  titles  given  in  the 
United  Kingdom  to  peers,  their  families, 
and  certain  public  functionaries.  (See 
Address,  Forms  of.)  In  America  the 
governors  of  states,  judges,  members  of 
congress,  and  others  holding  offices  of 
dignity  and  trust,  are  styled  honorable. 

HONORS,  Military,  compliments  or 
salutes  paid  by  troops  to  royalty,  officers 
of  rank,  etc.,  or  given  at  funerals  to  all 
grades  of  the  army. 

HOOBLY,  or  Hubli,  a town  of  India 
in  Dhirwir  district,  Bombay  Presidency, 
a great  centre  of  the  cotton  trade.  Pop. 
60,214. 

HOOD,  John  Bell,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Owingsville,  Ky.,  in  1831. 
In  1861  he  entered  the  confederate  army 
and  during  the  first  years  of  the  war 
took  part  in  the';Virginia  campaigns.  He 
lost  a leg  at  Chicamauga  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring  he  again  took  the  field  and 
was  made  lieutenant-general.  After  be- 
ing repeatedly  defeated  and  repulsed  by 
both  Sherman  and  Thomas,  and  after 
his  army  had  been  driven  in  utter  rout 
by  Thomas,  Hood  was  relieved  of  his 
command  at  his  own  request.  He  died 
in  1879. 

HOOD,  Robin,  a celebrated  outlaw, 
who,  according  to  the  popular  account, 
with  his  followers,  inhabited  Sherwood 
Forest,  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  also  the 
woodlands  of  Barnsdale  in  the  adjoining 
West  Riding.  What  basis  of  fact  there  is 
for  the  story  of  Robin  Hood  is  doubtful. 
Grimm  maintained  that  he  was  one  with 
the  Teutonic  god  Woden.  Other  theories 
suppose  him  to  have  been  a rebel  yeo- 
man in  Lancaster’s  rebellion  under  Ed- 
ward II.;  a Saxon  chief  who  defied  the 
Normans;  and  a fugutive  follower  of  Sir 
Simon  de  Montfort  after  the  battle  of 
Evesham. 

HOOD,  Samuel,  Viscount,  a British 
admiral,  born  1724,  died  1816.  He  joined 
the  navy  as  a midshipman  in  1740,  and 


attained  the  rank  of  post-captain  in 
1759.  Having  become  rear-admiral,  he 
preserved  the  island  of  St.  Christopher’s 
from  being  taken  by  De  Grasse,  assisted 
in  the  defeat  of  De  Grasse  by  Rodney  in 
1782,  and  was  rewarded  with  the  title  of 
Baron  Hood  of  Catherington  in  the  Irish 
peerage.  In  1793  he  commanded  against 
the  French  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
captured  Toulon  and  Corsica.  In  1796 
he  was  made  an  English  peer,  with  the 
title  of  Viscount  Hood. 

HOOD,  Thomas,  an  English  poet  and 
humorist,  of  Scotch  extraction,  born  at 
London,  1799,  died  1845.  It  was  during 
his  last  illness  that  he  contributed  to 
Punch  The  Song  of  a Shirt,  The  Bridge  of 
Sighs,  and  The  Lay  of  a Laborer.  Hood 
is  unrivaled  as  a punster,  and  he  pos- 
sesses a singular  power  of  combining  the 
humorous  with  the  pathetic.  He  had  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  the  pension 
of  $500  conferred  upon  him  on  his  last 
illness  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  to  be 
transferred  to  his  wife. 

HOOD,  MOUNT,  a peak  of  the  Cascade 
range  on  the  western  border  of  Wasco 
CO.,  Ore.  It  is  50  miles  east  by  south  of 
Portland.  It  has  an  altitude  of  11,934 
feet  and  there  are  no  formidable  ob- 
stacles to  its  ascent.  The  summit  com- 
mands an  extensive  and  magnificent 
view. 

HOODED  SEAL,  a species  of  seal,  the 
male  of  which  possesses  a movable,  in- 
flatable muscular  bag,  stretching  from 
the  muzzle  to  about  five  inches  behind 
the  eyes.  The  prevailing  color  is  bluish 
black — the  head  and  limbs  being  uni- 
formly black.  Its  usual  range  extends 
in  America  southward  to  Newfound- 
land, and  in  Europe  to  Southern  Nor- 
way. 

HOODED  SNAKE.  See  Cobra  de 
Capello. 

HOOFS,  the  horny  tissues  which  con- 
stitute the  external  part  of  the  feet  of 
certain  animals,  mostly  herbivorous. 
They  may  be  regarded  as  homologues  of 
the  toe-nails  of  other  animals.  They  are 
composed  of  epithelium  cells,  aggluti- 
nated and  dried,  and  of  intercellular  sub- 
stance and  cell  contents.  Chemically 
they  consist  of  keratin. 

HOOKER,  Joseph,  American  soldier, 
was  born  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  in  1814.  He 
served  against  the  Seminoles  and  in  the 
Mexican  war.  He  accompanied  the  army 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  City  and  was 
brevetted  major.  At  Chapultepec  he 
was  brevetted  lieutenant-colonel.  He 
was  engaged  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown, 
and  on  the  day  after  its  evacuation  was 
appointed  a major-general  of  volunteers. 
Later  he  became  division  commander 
in  the  army  of  Gen.  Pope,  Virginia.  On 
the  failure  of  Gen.  Pope  to  advance 
against  the  enemy,  the  army  of  the 
Potomac  was  again  led  by  Gen.  McClel- 
lan, and  Gen.  Hooker  took  command 
of  the  first  corps.  He  was  shot  through 
the  foot,  and  soon  afterward  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army.  He  was  placed  on  the  retired 
list  in  1868,  with  the  full  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  died  in  1879. 

HOOKER,  MOUNT,  one  of  the  loftiest 
peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  has 
estimated  elevation  of  15,700  feet. 

HOOPER,  John,  an  English  reformer, 
1 born  1495,  burnt  1555.  His  works  con- 


sist chiefly  of  a Godly  Confession  and 
Protestation  of  the  Christian  Faith,  Lec- 
tures on  the  Creed,  Sermons  on  the  Book 
of  Jonah,  Annotations  on  the  Thirteenth 
Chapter  of  the  Romans,  and  expositions 
of  several  psalms. 

HOOPING-COUGH,  or  WHOOPING- 
COUGH,  a disease  known  by  a rapid 
series  of  coughs  ending  in  a long-drawn 
breath,  during  which  a shrill  whistling 
sound,  the  hoop,  is  produced.  Two  or 
three  such  fits  of  coughing  follow  one 
another,  until  some  phlegm  is  expelled, 
and  vomiting  maj^  occur.  During  a severe 
spasm  the  face  becomes  swollen  and 
purplish,  as  if  suffocation  were  threaten- 
ed. It  is  evidently  due  to  a poison  acting 
as  an  irritant  on  the  pneumogastric 
nerve.  It  is  contagious,  and  most  com- 
monly attacks  children,  and  generally 
only  once  in  their  lives.  The  whooping- 
cough  usually  comes  on  with  a difficulty 
of  breathing,  and  other  slight  febrile 
symptoms,  which  are  succeeded  by  a 
hoarseness,  cough,  and  difficulty  of  ex- 
pectoration. After  a fortnight  or  more 
the  cough  becomes  convulsive,  and  is 
attended  by  the  hoop.  After  four  or  five 
weeks  the  expectoration  becomes  loose, 
and  the  fits  of  coughing  gradually  dimin- 
ish ia  frequency  and  duration.  Hooping- 
cough  is  seldom  fatal  to  adults,  but  is  the 
most  fatal  disease  in  the  first  year  of 
childhood.  Bronchitis  and  pneumonia 
are  the  most  serious  complications. 

HOOPOE,  a bird  forming  the  type  of  a 
family  generally  classed  with  the  bee- 
eaters  or  the  honey-eaters,  but  also  with 
with  hornbills.  The  European  hoopoe 
(U.  epops)  is  about  12  inches  Kng;  it  has 


Hoopoe. 


a fine  crest  of  pale  cinnamon-red  feathers 
tipped  wiuh  black;  upper  surface  on  the 
whole  ashy-brown;  wings  black,  the 
coverts  having  white  bars;  throat  and 
breast  pale  fawn;  abdomen  white,  with 
black  streaks  and  dashes.  It  has  a very 
wide  range,  from  Burmah  to  the  British 
Islands  and  Africa.  It  is  a ground-feeder, 
preying  chiefly  on  insects,  and  seems  to 
delight  in  filth;  it  nests  in  cavities  of 
trees  or  walls,  and  its  eggs  vary  from  four 
to  seven.  The  hoopoe  utters  a loud 
double  or  treble  hoop,  whence  its  name. 

HOOSAC  TUNNEL,  the  longest  rail- 
way tunnel  in  America,  in  the  western 
part  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  railway 
from  Boston  to  Troy,  N.  Y.  It  pierces 
the  Hoosac  Mountain,  the  summit  range 
extending  southward  through  Massa- 
chusetts from  the  Green  Mountains  of 
Vermont.  It  is  4J  miles  long,  and  has  a 
double  line  of  rails. 


HOP 


HORN 


HOP,  a plant  of  Europe,  and  of  the 
United  States,  where  it  occurs  wild.  The 
root  is  perennial,  giving  out  several 
herbaceous,  rough,  twining  stems,  with 
large  lobed  leaves;  the  fertile  flowers  are 
green;  the  fruit  is  a catkin,  and  the  plant 
is  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  catkins, 
which  are  employed  to  communicate  to 
beer  its  aromatic  bitter.  The  young 
shoots  are  sometimes  boiled  and  eaten 


Hop. 


like  asparagus;  the  fibers  of  the  old 
stems  make  good  cords.  The  cultivation 
of  the  hop  is  more  carefully  attended  to 
in  England  than  in  any  other  country, 
Kent  being  the  chief  county  in  which  it 
is  grown;  but  the  plant  is  also  exten- 
sively reared  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  as 
also  in  North  America,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  etc.  The  use  of  the  hop  catkins 
dep)ends  upon  a peculiar  bitter  sub- 
stance which  they  contain,  called  lupulin 
which  is  a yellow  powder,  containing  a 
bitter  principle  and  a volatile  oil.  The 
lupulin  constitutes  from  10  to  12  per 
cent  by  weight  of  the  catkin,  and  the 
bitter  principle  forms  from  8 to  12  per 
cent  of  the  lupulin.  Having  tonic, 
stomachic,  and  narcotic  properties  hops 
are  often  used  medicinally.  Pillows 
stuffed  with  hops  are  used  to  induce 
sleep. 

HOP-FLY,  a species  of  plant-louse 
very  destructive  to  the  hop.  The  winged 
female  is  green  with  a black  head  and 
bands  and  spots  of  black  on  the  body; 
the  legs  and  wings  are  long.  A few 
winged  females  make  their  first  ap- 
pearance about  the  middle  of  May,  and 
wingless  myriads  by  the  middle  of  June. 
The  insects  suck  the  under  side  of  the 
upper  leaflets,  and  there  deposit  their 
young  on  the  most  suculent  part  of  the 
lant.  Myriads  perish  by  means  of  lady- 
irds  and  other  insects,  as  well  as  by 
their  extreme  susceptibility  to  atmos- 
pheric changes. 

HOPKINS,  Johns,  American  financier 
and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  Anne 
Arundel  co.,  Md.,  in  1795.  In  addition 
to  minor  gifts  to  individuals  and  chari- 
ties, he  founded  and  endowed  two  great 
institutions  which  perpetuate  his  name 
— the  Johns  Hopkins  university  and 
Johns  Hopkins  hospital,  whose  activi- 
ties are  united  in  the  Johns  Hopkins 
medical  school.  He  died  in  1873. 

HORACE.  See  Horatius  Flaccus. 

HORiE,  in  classical  mythology,  the 
goddesses  of  the  seasons  and  the  order  of 
nature.  Their  number  was  indefinite;  in 
Athens  two  only  were  worshipped.  They 
are  represented  as  blooming  maidens 
carrying  the  different  products  of  the 
seasons. 

HORATII,  three  Roman  brothers, 
who,  according  to  tradition,  in  the  reign  * 


of  Tullus  Hostilius  engaged  three  Alban 
brothers  (the  Curiatii),  in  order  to  decide 
the  supremacy  between  Rome  and  Alba. 
Victory  went  to  Rome,  and  the  sole  sur- 
viving Horatius  was  triumphantly  con- 
ducted back  to  the  city.  But  his  sister 
had  been  bethrothed  to  one  of  the  Cur- 
iatii, and  her  demonstrative  grief  so  en- 
raged Horatius  that  he  stabbed  her.  For 
this  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  his 
father  and  the  people  begged  him  off. 

HORATIUS  COCLES,  a hero  of  an- 
cient Rome.  The  Tarquins  having,  after 
their  banishment,  sought  refuge  with 
the  Etrurian  king  Porsenna,  the  latter 
advanced  against  Rome  (b.c.  507)  to 
restore  them.  According  to  tradition 
Hqratius  Codes,  along  with  two  com- 
panions, held  the  Sublician  bridge 
against  the  enemy,  while  the  Romans 
broke  it  down  behind  them.  When  this 
was  nearly  finished  he  sent  back  his  two 
companions,  and  as  the  bridge  fell  he 
plunged  into  the  Tiber  with  his  armor 
and  safely  reached  the  opposite  bank. 

HORATIUS  FLACCUS,  Quintus,  com- 
monly known  as  Horace,  the  greatest  of 
Latin  lyric  poets,  was  born  nearVenusia, 
in  southern  Italy,  b.c.  65.  His  father 
was  a freedman,  a collector  of  taxes,  and 
had  purchased  the  farm  at  which  his 
son  was  born.  His  poems  procured 
him  the  friendship  of  Virgil  and  Varius, 
and  to  them  he  was  indebted  for  his  first 
acquaintance  with  Mcecenas,  who  was 
the  friend  and  confident  of  Augustus 
Ctesar,  and  who  expended  his  wealth  for 
the  encouragement  of  literature  and  the 
arts.  His  works  consist  of  four  books  of 
odes;  a book  of  epodes  or  short  poems; 
two  books  of  satires;  and  two  books  of 
epistles,  one  of  which  is  often  cited  as  a 
separate  work,  under  the  title  of  Ars 
Poetica. 

HOREHOUND,  a labiate  plant,  with 
whitish,  downy  leaves  and  stem ; flowers 
small,  nearly  white,  in  crowded  whorls, 
possessing  an  aromatic  smell  and  bitter 


Horehound. 


flavor.  It  is  a popular  remedy  for  coughs 
and  colds,  usually  as  an  infusion.  Black 
horehound,  also  a labiate  plant,  is  a 
malodorous  and  unattractive  weed. 

HORI'ZON,  in  ordinary  speech  the 
line  where  earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet, 
or  the  circle  which  bounds  that  part  of 
the  earth’s  surface  visible  to  a spectator 
from  a given  point.  This  is  termed  the 
sensible,  visible,  or  apparent  horizon,  as 
distinguished  from  the  rational  or  celes- 
tial horizon,  an  imaginary  great  circle 
parallel  to  the  sensible  horizon,  whose 
plane  passes  through  the  earth’s  center, 
whose  poles  are  the  zenith  and  the  nadir, 
and  which  divides  the  sphere  into  two 
equal  hemispheres.  In  observations 
with  the  sextant  at  sea,  when  the  real 
horizon  is  invisible  a small  basin  con- 
taining mercury  may  serve  as  an  artifi- 
cial horizon.  The  observation  that  isthen 


made  is  the  angle  between  the  sun  or 
star  and  the  image  of  the  sun  or  star  in 
the  basin  of  mercury,  and  it  is  easily 
seen  that  half  this  angle  is  the  altitude  of 
the  object  above  the  real  horizon.  In 
geology,  the  term  is  applied  to  any  well- 
marked  formation  which  suffices  as  a 
starting  point  from  which  to  study  the 
rest. 

HORN,  a general  term  applied  to  all 
hard  and  pointed  appendages  of  the 
head,  as  in  deer,  cattle,  etc.,  but  as  a 
a term  denoting  a particular  kind  of 
s\ibstance  nothing  should  be  called  horn 
which  is  not  derived  from  the  epidermis 
or  outer,  layer  of  the  integument, 
whether  on  the  trunk,  hoofs,  or  head. 
Horn  is  a tough,  flexible,  semi-trans- 
parent substance,  most  liberally  de- 
veloped in  the  horns  of  bovine  animals, 
but  also  found  in  connection  with  the 
“shell”  of  the  tortoise,  the  nails,  claws, 
and  hoofs  of  animals,  the  beak  of  bird 
and  turtle,  etc.  Horn  is  softened  very 
completely  by  heat,  so  as  to  become 
readily  flexible,  and  to  adhere  to  other 
pieces  similarly  softened.  True  horn 
consists  principally  of  an  albuminoid 
principle,  keratin,  with  a small  portion 
of  gelatine  and  a little  phosphate  of 
lime.  In  some  species  of  animals  the 
males  only  have  horns,  as  for  instance 
the  stag.  In  cattle  both  male  and  female 
have  horns,  though  there  are  also  horn- 
less cattle.  Horns  differ  widely  in  the 
case  of  different  animals.  Thus  the  horns 
of  deer  consist  of  bone,  and  are  decidu- 
ous; those  of  the  giraffe  are  independent 
bones,  with  a covering  of  hairy  skin; 
those  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  antelopes  con- 
sist of  a hony  core  covered  by  a horny 
sheath.  The  horns  of  /he  rhinoceros 
alone  consist  exclusively  of  horny  mat- 
ter. The  horns  of  oxen,  sheep,  goats, 
antelopes  are  never  shod,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  prong-horned  antelope.  The 
number  never  normally  exceeds  four, 
and  in  th'e  case  of  deer  the  horns  are 
branchedf 

The  A'arious  kinds  of  horns  are  em- 
ployed for  many  purposes.  The  princi- 
pal used  in  the  arts  are  those  of  the  ox, 
buffalo,  sheep,  and  goat.  Deer  horns  are 
almost  exclusively  employed  for  the 
handles  of  knives  and  of  sticks  and 
umbrellas.  Those  which  furnish  true 
horn  can  be  softened  by  heat  (usually  in 
boiling  water),  cut  into  sheets  of  various 
thickness,  which  sheets  may  be  soldered 
or  welded  together  at  the  edges  so  as  to 
form  plates  of  large  dimensions,  and 
polished  and  dyed  so  as  to  imitate  the 
much  more  expensive  tortoise-shell. 
The  clippings  of  horn  may  be  welded  to- 
gether in  the  same  manner,  and  made 
into  snuff-boxes,  powder  horns,  handles 
for  umbrellas,  knives,  forks,  etc.  As 
horn  has  the  valuable  property  of  taking 
on  and  retaining  a sharp  impression 
from  a die,  many  highly  ornamental  ar- 
ticles may  be  turned  out.  Combs  for  the 
hair  are  made  from  the  flattened  sheets, 
and  out  of  the  solid  parts  of  buffalo 
horns  beautiful  carvings  are  made. 

HORN,  a musical  instrument,  origin- 
ally formed,  as  the  name  denotes,  from 
the  horn  of  an  animal.  The  name  in- 
cludes a large  family  of  wind-instru- 
ments, manj'  of  which  have  fallen  into 
disuse.  The  French  horn,  or  simply  the 
horfi,  consists  of  a metalic  tube  of  about 


HORNBILLS 


HORSE 


10  feet  in  length,  very  narrow  at  top, 
bent  into  rings,  and  gradually  widening 
toward  the  end  whence  the  sound  issues, 
called  the  bell.  It  is  l)lown  through  a 
cup-shaped  mouthpiece  of  brass  or  silver 
and  the  sounds  arc  regulated  by  the 
player’s  lips,  the  pressure  of  his  breath, 
and  by  the  insertion  of  the  hand  in  the 


1,  Coaching-horn.  2,  French  or  orchestral 
horn.  3,  PUigelhorn,  or  keyed  bugle.  4,  Post- 
horn.  5,  Hunting-horn. 

bell  of  the  instrument.  As  a simple  tube, 
unprovided  with  holes,  the  horn  yields 
only  the  generating  note,  and  of  course 
would  be  confined  to  one  key;  but  by 
means  of  crooks  the  tube  can  be  length- 
ened, and  transposed  into  any  key. 
By  inserting  the  hand  into  the  bell, 
which  flattens  a note,  the  sounds  awant- 
ing  are  produced.  The  compass  of  the 
instrument  is  three  octaves.  Music  for 
the  horn  is  always  written  in  the  key  of 
C,  an  octave  higher  than  it  is  played, 
with  the  key  of  composition  marked  at 
the  beginning  of  each  movement;  thus 
“corni  (or  horns)  in  D”  directs  the  per- 
former which  crook  he  must  use  to  play 
the  notes  in  the  key  indicated.  The  bugle, 
cornet-a-piston,  and  sax-horn  are  allied 
instruments. 

HORNBILLS,  a remarkable  group  of 
birds  confined  to  Southern  Asia  and 
Africa,  akin  to  the  kingfishers  and  the 


Rhinoceros  hornblll. 


toucans,  remarkable  for  the  very  large 
size  of  the  bill,  and  for  an  extraordinary 
horny  protuberance  by  which  it  is  sur- 
mounted, nearly  as  large  as  the  bill 
itself,  and  of  cellular  structure  within. 
The  rhinoceros  hornbill  is  almost  the 


size  of  a turkey,  of  a black  color,  ex- 
cept on  the  lower  part  of  the  bellj 
and  tip  of  the  tail,  which  are  white 
It  has  a sharp-pointed,  slightly-curved 


bill,  about  10  inches  long  and  fur- 
nished at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandi- 
ble with  an  immense  appendage  in  the 
form  of  an  inverted  horn.  The  skele- 
ton though  bulky  is  very  light,  being 
permeated  with  air  to  an  unusual 
degree.  During  incubation  the  female  is 
plastered  up  in  the  hollow  of  a tree  and 
fed  by  the  male  through  a small  aper- 
ture left  for  the  purpose.  The  hornbill’s 
are  of  arboreal  habit,  and  feed  on  fruits; 
but  in  captivity  they  take  small  rep- 
tiles, and  the  Abyssinian  species  even 
attack  snakes. 

HORNBLENDE  (-blend),  or  Amphi- 
bole,  one  of  the  most  abundant  and 
widely  diffused  of  minerals,  remarkable 
on  account  of  the  various  forms  and 
compositions  of  its  crystals  and  crystal- 
line particles,  and  of  its  exceedingly 
diversified  colors,  thus  giving  rise  to 
almost  numberless  varieties,  many  of 
which  have  obtained  distinct  appella- 
tions. It  is  sometimes  in  regular  dis- 
tinct crystals,  more  generally  the  result 
of  confused  crystallization,  appearing  in 
masses  composed  of  laminte,  acicular 
crystals,  or  fibers,  variously  aggregated. 
It  enters  largely  into  the  composition 
and  forms  a constituent  part  of  several 
of  the  trap-rocks,  and  is  an  important 
constituent  of  several  species  of  meta- 
morphic  rocks,  as  gneiss  and  granite.  In 
color  hornblende  exhibits  various  shades 
of  green,  often  inclining  to  brown,  white, 
and  black,  with  every  intermediate 
shade;  it  is  nearly  transparent  in  some 
varieties,  in  others  opaque;  hardness 
about  the  same  with  felspar;  specific 
gravity,  3.00.  Its  chief  constituents  are 
silica,  magnesia,  and  alumina.  The  prin- 
cipal varieties  are  hornblende  proper, 
divided  into  three  sub-varities,  basaltic 
hornblende,  common  hornblende,  and 
hornblende  slate;  tremolite,  actinolite, 
nephrite,  pargasite,  and  asbestos. 

HORNBOOK,  in  former  times  the 
first  book  of  children,  or  that  in  which 
they  learned  their  letters:  so  called  from 


Hornbook. 

the  transparent  horn  covering  placed 
over  the  single  page  of  which  it  usually 
consisted,  the  whole  being  fixed  to  a 
wooden  frame  with  a handle.  It  gen- 
erally contained  the  alphabet  in  Roman 
and  small  letters,  several  rows  of  mono- 
syllables, and  the  Lord’s  Prayer.  The 
alphabet  was  usually  prefaced  with  a 
cross,  or  was  printed  in  the  form  of.  a 
cross;  hence  the  term  Christ-cross  row, 
corrupted  into  criss-cross  row,  applied 
to  the  alphabet,  and  by  extension  to 
the  hornbook. 

HORNED-TOAD,  a name  given  to  a 
genus  of  lizards  of  toad-like  appearance, 
found  in  America,  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
There  are  nine  different  species,  all  more 
or  less  covered  with  spine-like  scales. 

HORNELLSVILLE,  a city  in  Steuben 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Canisteo  river  and  the 
Cent.  N.  Y.  and  W.  and  the  N.  Y.,  L.  E, 


and  W.  railways;  58  miles  s.  of  Roches- 
ter. The  N.  Y.,  L.  E.  and  W.  railway 
has  extensive  shops  here.  Pop.  13,218. 

HORNET,  an  insect  much  larger  and 
stronger  than  the  ordinary  wasp.  It  is 
very  voracious,  feeding  on  fruit,  honey, 
etc.,  and  preying  on  other  insects.  They 
form  their  nest  of  a kind  of  paper-work 
in  hollow  trees  and  walls,  and  are  able 
with  their  sting  to  inflict  a painful 
wound,  usually  accompanied  with  con- 
siderable swelling. 

HOROL'OGY,  the  construction  of 
clocks  and  watches,  or  branch  of  knowl- 
edge dealing  with  such. 

HO'ROSCOPE,  in  astrology,  a scheme 
or  figure  of  the  twelve  houses,  or  twelve 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  in  which  is  marked 
the  disposition  of  the  heavens  at  a given 
time  and  place,  and  by  v/hich  astrolo- 
gers formerly  told  the  fortunes  of  per- 
sons, according  to  the  position  of  the 
stars  at  the  time  of  their  birth.  To  each 
of  the  houses  was  assigned  a particular 
virtue  or  influence.  The  ascendant  was 
that  part  of  the  heavens  which  was 
rising  in  the  east  at  the  moment ; this  was 
the  first  and  most  important  house,  or 
house  of  life,  and  contained  the  five  de- 
grees above  the  horizon  and  the  twenty- 
five  beneath  it.  Other  houses  were  those 
of  riches,  marriage,  death,  etc. 

HORR,  Roswell  G.,  American  politi- 
cian, was  born  in  Vermont  in  1830.  He 
was  elected  in  1872  from  Michigan  to 
the  United  States  congress  and  was 
re-elected  in  1880  and  1882.  He  was  one 
of  the  best  known  campaign  speakers  in 
the  republican  party  and  in  the  presi- 
dential campaigns  of  1884,  1888,  1892, 
and  1896,  toured  the  country  from 
Maine  to  California.  He  died  in  1896. 


HORSE,  a well-known  quadruped  be- 
longing to  the  family  Equidse,  order 
Ungalata  (hoofed  animals);  character- 


Horse — Terms  applied  to  different  parts. 


o,  Muzzle.  6,  Gullet,  c,  Crest,  d.  Withers. 
e.  Chest.  /,  Loins,  gg.  Girth,  h.  Hip  or 
ilium,  i.  Croup,  k.  Haunch  or  quarters.  I, 
Thigh,  m,  Hock,  n,  Shank  or  cannon,  o,  Pet- 
lock.  p,  Pastern,  q.  Shoulder-bone  or  scap- 
ula. r.  Elbow.  «,  Pore  thigh  or  arm.  t.  Knee. 
M.  Coronet,  v.  Hoof,  w.  Point  of  hock,  x. 
Hamstring,  zz,  Height. 

ized  by  an  undivided  hoof  formed  by 
the  third  toe  and  its  enlarged  horny 
nail,  a simple  stomach,  a mane  on  the 
neck,  and  by  six  incisor  teeth  in  each 
jaw,  seven  molars  on  either  side  of  both 
jaws,  and  by  two  small  canine  teeth  in 
the  upper  jaw  of  the  male,  rarely  in  the 
female.  'The  family  includes  also  the 
asses  and  zebras,  and  original  types  ap- 
pear to  have  been  at  one  time  common 
in  both  the  Old  World  and  the  American 
continent.  No  horses  existed  in  America 


HORSE-CHESTNUT 


HORSE-RACING 


when  it  was  discovered  by  Columbus, 
those  now  found  in  a wild  state  there, 
being  descendants  of  those  introduced 
by  the  Spaniards.  But  a number  of 
fossil  species  have  been  described  from 
America — one  of  them  standing  only 
two  and  a half  feet  in  height.  The  de- 
scent of  the  present  horse  can  be  traced 
through  several  fossil  forms  back  to  an 
animal  only  about  the  size  of  a fox,  and 
having  four  separate  digits  or  toes  on 
the  feet.  Subsequent  forms  show  how 
the  third  toe  developed  at  the  expense 
of  the  others  till  latterly  a form  identical 
with  the  common  horse  appeared.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  horse  is  now  any- 
where to  be  found  in  its  native  state,  the 
wild  horses  of  the  steppes  of  Tartary 
and  other  regions  of  the  Old  World  be- 
ing possibly  descendants  of  animals 
escaped  from  domestication.  The  horse 
was  probably  first  domesticated  in  Asia, 
and  it  varies  much  in  form,  size,  and 
character  with  the  climate  and  nature 
of  the  district  it  inhabits.  Arabia  pro- 
duces perhaps  the  most  beautiful  breed, 
which  is  also  swift,  courageous,  endur- 
ant,  and  persevering.  As  bred  in  America 
the  horse  has  attained  high  perfection. 
Two  breeds — namely,  the  large,  power- 
ful, black  breed  of  Flanders,  and  the 
Arabian — have  contributed  more  than 
all  others  to  develop  the  present  varie- 
ties from  the  original,  comparatively 
light-limbed,  wiry  race.  The  former  laid 
the  foundation  of  size,  strength,  and 
vigor  for  draught-horses  and  for  those 
anciently  used  in  war,  while  the  latter 
conferred  speed  and  endurance.  The 
ladies’  palfrey  is  largely  derived  from 
the  Spanish  genet,  a small,  beautiful, 
fleet  variety  of  the  Moorish  barb.  The 
hunter,  characterized  by  speed,  strength, 
and  endurance,  represents  the  old  Eng- 
lish, Flanders,  and  Arabian  breeds.  The 
race-horse  has  less  of  Flemish  and  more 
of  Arabian  blood.  Carriage,  riding,  and 
other  horses  combine  the  above  breeds 
in  varying  degrees,  as  speed,  strength, 
size,  etc.,  are  required.  Horses  are  said 
to  have  “blood”  or  “breeding”  in  pro- 
portion as  they  have  a greater  or  less 
strain  of  Arab  blood.  At  the  age  of  two 
years  the  horse  is  in  a condition  to 
propogate.  The  mare  carries  her  young 
eleven  months  and  some  days,  con- 
tinues to  breed  till  the  age  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  years,  and  lives  on  an  average 
between  twenty  and  thirty  years.  The 
various  species  of  the  horse  family  have 
been  artificially  crossed  by  man,  and 
are  found  to  be  fertile  with  each  other; 
the  offspring,  however,  are  generally 
sterile.  The  horse  is,  strictly  speaking, 
an  herbivorous  animal,  and  is  more 
scrupulous  in  the  choice  of  his  food  than 
most  other  domestic  quadrupeds.  The 
staple  diet  on  which  horses  are  kept  is 
oats  and  hay,  with  beans  added  for 
horses  subjected  to  heavy  work.  As  a 
substitute  for,  or  an  addition  to  the 
regular  food,  bran,  linseed,  and  carrots 
are  used.  The  age  of  a horse  can  be  told 
by  the  marks  on  its  teeth,  which  change 
a little  yearly  until  the  animal  is  about 
nine  years  old,  after  which  period  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  the  age  by 
mark.  In  some  countries  the  flesh  of 
the  horse  is  used  as  food;  the  hide  is 
made  into  leather;  and  the  hair  of 
the  mane  and  tail  is  used  for  making 


haircloth,  for  upholsterers*  stuffing, 

HORSE-CHESTNUT,  a handsome 
genus  of  trees  or  shrubs  having  large 
opposite  digitate  leaves,  and  terminal 
panicles  of  showy  white,  yellow,  or  red 
flowers.  The  common  horse-chestnut 
is  familiar  to  every  one.  The  seeds  are 
large  and  farinaceous,  and  have  been 
us(m  as  food  for  animals;  they  are  bitter, 
and  the  bark  also  is  bitter,  astringent, 
and  febrifugal.  The  tree  is  said  to  nave 
been  brought  from  Constantinople  to 
England  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century,  and  is  supposed  to  be  a native 
of  Northern  Asia.  Three  other  species 
are  found  in  North  America,  where  they 
are  popularly  known  under  the  name  of 
Buck-eye. 

HORSE-POWER,  the  power  of  a 
horse  or  its  equivalent;  the  force  with 
which  a horse  acts  when  drawing.  The 
mode  of  ascertaining  a horse’s  power  is 
to  find  what  weight  he  can  raise  and  to 
what  height  in  a given  time,  the  horse 
being  supposed  to  pull  horizontally. 
From  a variety  of  experiments  of  this 
sort  it  is  found  that  a horse,  at  an  aver- 
age, can  raise  160  lbs.  weight  at  the 
velocity  of  2i  miles  per  hour.  The  power 
of  a horse  exerted  in  this  way  is  made 
the  standard  for  estimating  the  power 
of  a steam-engine.  Thus  we  speak  of  an 
engine  of  60  or  80  horse-power,  each 
horse-power  being  estimated  as  equiva- 
lent to  33,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  high 
per  minute.  Engineers  differ  widely  in 
their  estimate  of  the  work  a horse  is  able 
to  execute.  That  given  above  is  the 
estimate  of  Boulton  and  Watt  based  on 
the  work  of  London  dray-horses,  but  it 
is  considered  much  too  high,  17,400 
foot-pounds  per  minute  being  generally 
considered  nearer  the  truth.  As  it  mat- 
ters little,  however,  what  standard  be 
assumed,  provided  it  be  uniformly  used, 
that  of  Watt  has  been  generally  adopted. 
The  general  rule  for  estimating  the  power 
of  a steam-engine  in  terms  of  this  unit 
is  to  multiply  together  the  pressure  in 
pounds  on  a square  inch  of  the  piston, 
the  area  of  the  piston  in  inches,  the 
length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the 
number  of  strokes  per  minute,  the  result 
divided  by  33,000  will  give  the  horse- 
power, deducting  one-tenth  for  friction. 
As  a horse  can  exert  its  full  force  only 
for  about  six  hours  a day,  one  horse- 
power of  machinery  is  equal  to  that  of 
4.4  horses.  Nominal  or  calculated  horse- 
power is  a term  still  used,  but  of  little 
real  value,  from  its  being  calculated  on 
steam  at  a pressure  much  below  the  real 
power  exerted.  Sometimes  the  real, 
actual,  or  indicated  horse-power  ex- 
ceeds the  nominal  by  as  much  as  three 
to  one. 

HORSE-RACING,  a sport  of  ancient 
origin,  having  been  practiced  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  institution 
of  horse-races  in  England  belongs  to  a 
very  remote  period.  The  first  regular 
horse-races,  however,  did  not  take  place 
till  the  reign  of  James  I.  The  prize  then 
consisted  of  a gold  or  silver  bell,  whence 
we  have  the  expression  “to  bear  away 
the  bell.”  The  successors  of  James  I. 
down  to  Queen  Anne  were  all  more  or 
less  attached  to  the  sport.  Under  George 
I.  horse-racing  became  more  and  more 
flourishing,  and  the  sport  continued  to 


grow  in  importance  during  the  remainder 
of  the  century.  The  two  most  celebrated 
horses  of  that  period  were  Flying 
Childers  (foaled  in  1715)  and  Eclipse 
(foaled  in  1764),  which  long  had  the 
reputation  of  being  the  fleetest  horses 
that  ever  ran.  The  former  ran  four  miles 
in  6 min.  48  sec.,  carrying  9 st.  2 lbs. 
The  latter  was  never  beaten.  None  of 
the  English  sovereigns  was  more  de- 
voted to  horse-racing  than  George  IV. 
Between  1784  and  1792,  while  yet 
Prince  of  Wales,  he  gained  185  prizes, 
including  the  Derby  of  1788.  Horse- 
racing was  introduced  into  France  from 
England,  and  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  and  still  more  during  that  of 
Louis  XV.,  was  pursued  with  the  otmost 
enthusiasm.  The  revolution  put  an  end 
to  it  for  a time,  but  the  sport  was  re- 
vived by  Napoleon.  Horse-races,  mostly 
upon  the  English  model,  have  also  been 
introduced  into  various  other  countries. 
The  principal  varieties  of  horse-racing 
are  flat-racing,  or  racing  on  level  ground ; 
steeple-chasing,  or  racing  over  ground 
not  specially  prepared  for  the  purpose; 
hurdle-racing,  in  which  the  horses  have 
to  leap  over  obstacles  purposely  placed 
in  the  way;  and  match  trotting.  This 
last  kind  of  race  is  a very  favorite  one 
in  America,  where  the  best  trotting 
horses  are  to  be  found,  but  in  England 
it  is  not  much  practiced.  Steeple-chases 
and  hurdle-races  take  place  in  the  win- 
ter months,  the  chief  English  event  of  the 
season  being  the  Grand  National  steeple 
chase,  run  over  a course  of  4 miles  1000 
yards  at  Aintree,  near  Liverpool.  For- 
merly all  races  were  what  is  called 
weight-for-age  races,  that  is,  a specified 
difference  in  weight  was  conceded  by  the 
older  horses.  But  it  was  found  that 
when  races  were  conducted  on  this  plan 
the  best  horses  came  to  be  known,  and 
the  inferior  ones  withdrew,  not  ventur- 
ing to  compete  with  them,  so  that  the 
race  resulted  in  a walk-over.  Hence 
arose  the  practice  of  handicapping,  that 
is,  of  adjusting  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
weight  to  be  carried  to  the  previously 
ascertained  powers  of  the  horse,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  chances  of  all  the  horses 
entered  to  an  exact  equality.  Since  the 
introduction  of  this  practice  handicap 
races  have  become  a very  favorite  sport. 
The  breeding  of  thoroughbred  horses  is 
often  a very  profitable  business.  The 
pedigrees  of  all  thoroughbred  horses  are 
registered  in  the  stud-book,  so  that  if 
any  particular  animal  is  omitted  in  that 
register  the  inference  is  that  its  pedigree 
is  not  without  some  blemish  more  or  less 
remote. 

In  the  United  States  horse-racing  is 
now  a national  sport.  Morris  Park,  in 
Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  and  Brighton 
Beach  fairgrounds  at  Coney  Island  fur- 
nish good  race-courses.  The  trotting- 
horse  of  America  is  really  a distinct 
variety  of  the  equine  race.  The  best 
American  trotters  are  descended  from 
an  imported  English  horse.  Messenger. 
Remarkable  running  time,  one  mile  in 
one  minute  35J  seconds,  was  made  by 
“Salvator,”  Monmouth  Park,  in  1890; 
in  heat  racing  one  mile  was  made  by 
“Guido.”  in  one  minute  41J  seconds, 
Washington  Park,  Chicago,  in  1891;  at 
Memphis  in  1905  “Lou  Dillon”  trotted  a 
mile  in  one  minute  and  58J  seconds;  the 


HORSE-KADISH 


HOSPITAL 


best  pacing  time  for  one  mile  at  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  by  “Dan  Patch”  in  one  minute 
and  55  seconds. 

HORSE-RADISH,  a plant  inhabiting 
the  temperate  parts  of  America  in  moist 
situations.  The  root  is  cylindrical,  whit- 
ish in  color,  and  forms  a well-known 
condiment,  possessing  a pungent  taste 
and  odor.  It  is  also  employed  medicin- 
ally, as  a stomachic,  diaphoretic,  and 
diuretic,  and  externally  as  a rubefacient. 

HORSE-SHOE,  a shoe  for  horses,  con- 
sisting commonly  of  a narrow  plate  of 
iron  bent  into  a form  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  letter  U,  so  as  to  accom- 
modate itself  to  the  shape  of  the  horse’s 
foot.  Horse-shoes  do  not  appear  to  have 
been  known  to  the  ancients.  Xenophon, 
Vegetius,  and  others  mention  various 
processes  for  hardening  the  hoofs  so  as 
to  make  them  stronger,  but  say  nothing 
of  any  protection  like  the  horse-shoe. 
Iron  horse-shoes  are  mentioned  as  being 
in  use  in  Europe  in  the  9th  century  of 
our  era.  They  seem  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  England  by  the  Normans. 

HORSE-TAIL,  among  the  Turks  and 
other  Eastern  nations,  the  tail  of  a horse 
mounted  on  a lance,  and  used  as  a 
standard  of  rank  and  honor.  The  three 


Horse-tail  standard  of  Pasha. 


grades  of  pashas  are  distinguished  by 
the  number  of  tails  borne  on  their 
standards,  three  being  allotted  to  the 
highest  dignitaries  or  viziers,  two  to  the 
governors  of  the  more  important  prov- 
inces, and  one  to  those  of  less  important 
dist)ric^s 

HORTENSE,  Eugenie  de  Beauharnais. 
See  under  Beauharnais. 

HORTENSIUS,  Quintus,  Roman  ora- 
tor, born  of  an  equestrian  family,  b.c. 
114,  died  b.c.  50.  His  speeches  are  all 
lost. 

HORTICULTURE,  or  GARDENING, 

includes,  in  its  most  extensive  significa- 
tion, the  cultivation  of  esculent  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  ornamental  plants. 
In  large  gardens  there  are  genera  ly 
separate  departments  for  flowers,  fruits, 
and  vegetables;  but  in  small  gardens 
they  are  usually  more  or  less  combined. 
A garden  should  be  either  on  a level, 
but  admitting  of  effectual  drainage,  or 
on  a gentle  slope,  preferably  on  the 
lower  portion  of  a slope  facing  the  sun. 
It  should  be  wel.  sheltered,  either 
naturally  from  situation,  or  artistically 
by  means  of  plantations,  walls,  etc. 
The  character  of  the  soil  is  of  much  im- 
portance. good  loam,  or  a sandy  loam 


mixed  with  humus,  is  the  best.  The 
former  is  better  fitted  for  fruit-trees, 
but  for  early  crops  the  sandy  loam  is  de- 
sirable. While  the  greater  part  of  a 
garden  should  consist  of  such  soil,  either 
naturally  or  artificially  formed,  it  is  use- 
ful to  have  a portion  stronger  and  an- 
other much  lighter  in  order  to  suit  the 
requirements  of  different  plants.  The 
nature  of  the  subsoil  is  also  important. 
The  best  is  a dry  bed  of  clay  overlying 
sandstone.  Digging,  plowing,  and  pul- 
verizing the  soil,  and  exposing  the 
surface  to  the  action  of  the  summer  sun 
and  the  winter’s  frost  are  highly  useful 
operations,  by  which  the  tenacity  of  stiff 
soils  is  overcome,  weeds  and  insects  are 
destroyed,  and  a quantity  of  air  is  ad- 
mitted into  the  ground.  Nutritive  mat- 
ter is  frequently  supplied  to  plants  in  the 
form  of  manure,  either  organic  or  in- 
organic. After  the  soil  is  properly  dry 
and  pulverized,  the  seeds  are  deposited, 
and  this  should  always  be  done  in  dry 
weather,  for  a dry  soil  is  especially  re- 
quisite for  covering  in  the  seeds.  Water- 
ing is  often  necessary  as  a means  of 
nourishment  to  growing  plants,  espe- 
cially as  a support  to  newly  transplanted 
vegetables,  and  for  cleaning  the  leaves 
and  destroying  insects.  The  methods  of 
propogating  plants  are  various.  For  an 
account  of  the  processes  of  budding  and 
grafting  see  these  articles.  Another 
mode  of  propagation  is  that  by  means  of 
cuttings,  or  shoots  cut  off  and  planted 
in  the  soil,  where  they  take  root.  This 
process  is  exceedingly  simple  and  easy 
in  the  case  of  many  trees,  as  the  willows 
and  poplars;  but  requires  some  man- 
agement in  the  heaths,  myrtles,  and 
other  shrubs.  In  growing  ornamental 
plants  and  flowers  and  exotic  fruits, 
plant-houses  of  various  kinds  are  neces- 
sary. These  comprise  the  numerous 
forms  of  conservatory,  plant-stove, 
green-house,  pits,  and  frames.  Horti- 
cultural tools,  instruments,  implements, 
and  machinery  are  very  various. 

HORUS,  the  Latinized  form  of  Har, 
the  day,  or  the  sun’s  path,  an  Egyptian 
divinity.  Two  gods  were  latterly  recog- 
nized under  the  name.  The  elder  Horus 
was  the  son  of  Seb  (identified  by  the 
Greeks  with  Kronos)  and  Nu  (Rhea) 
and  brother  of  Osiris.  The  other  Horus 
was  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  come  into  the  world 
soon  after  the  birth  of  his  parents.  On 
the  death  of  Osiris  he  was  his  avenger, 
defeating  the  serpent  Typho,  and  ena- 
bling Isis  to  thwart  his  wicked  designs. 
Both  the  elder  and  younger  Horus  were 
regarded  as  symbols  of  the  sun. 

HO'SEA,  the  first  in  order  among  the 
minor  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament, 
but  probably  the  third  in  order  of  time, 
flourishing  about  750  b.c.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  life,  except  that  he  was  the 
son  of  Beeri,  and  that  his  ministry  be- 
longed to  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham, 
Ahaz  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah.  The 
nation  generally  and  the  ten  tribes  in 
particular  are  reproved,  exhorted,  and 
threatened  in  his  prophecy.  He  predicts 
the  approaching  exile  of  his  countrymen, 
and  the  consoling  promise  of  the  final 
return  of  an  improved  people 

HOSHANGABAD,  chief  town  and 
headquarters  of  district  of  the  same 
name.  Central  Provinces  of  India,  on 


the  Nerbudda.  It  is  a chief  seat  of  the 
British  piece-goods  trade,  and  does 
business  in  cotton,  grain,  etc  Pop. 
13,500.  The  district  has  an  area  of  4437 
sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  529,945. 

H03HIARPUR,  chief  town  and  seat 
of  administration  of  district  of  same 
name,  Punjab,  India.  Pop.  21,552.  The 
district  has  an  area  of  2244  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  1,011,659. 

HOSIERY,  a general  term  for  all  kinds 
of  knitted  articles,  including  drawers, 
petticoats,  night-dresses,  etc.,  and  fancy 
articles  such  as  head-dresses,  hoods, 
shawls,  neckerchiefs,  watch-guards, 
cravats,  etc.  The  materials  used  for  the 
purpose  are  cotton,  linen,  and  wool,  the 
last  of  which  is  sometimes  mixed  with 
cotton  or  silk.  Silk  is  also  frequently 
used  alone.  Nearly  all  articles  of  hosiery, 
except  some  fancy  articles,  are  now 
made  by  a knitting-frame  of  some  kind 
or  other. 

HOSPICE,  signifies  either  a little  con- 
vent belonging  to  a religious  order,  oc- 
cupied by  a few  monks,  and  destined  to 
receive  and  entertain  traveling  monks; 
or  houses  of  refuge  and  entertainment 
for  travelers  on  some  difficult  road  or 
pass,  as  the  Hospice  of  the  Great  St. 
Bernard. 

HOSPITAL,  any  building  appro- 
priated for  the  reception  of  any  class  of 
persons  who  are  unable  to  supply  their 
own  wants,  and  are  more  or  less  de- 
pendent upon  public  help  to  have  those 
wants  supplied.  Hence  hospitals  are  of 
various  kinds,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  wants  they  supply  and  the  class  of 
persons  for  whom  they  are  intended.  A 
large  number  of  hospitals  are  medical; 
others  are  for  the  reception  of  incurables; 
others  for  the  aged  and  infirm;  others 
for  the  education  of  children  of  people 
in  reduced  circumstances;  others  for 
the  reception  of  the  wounded  in  battle; 
and  so  on.  The  first  establishments  of 
this  nature  are  believed  to  belong  to  the 
4th  century  after  Christ.  Their  primary 
object  was  to  afford  a shelter  to  stran- 
gers and  travelers,  and  it  was  only 
occasionally  that  the  sick  and  infirm 
were  admitted.  One  of  the  earliest  hos- 
pitals of  which  we  have  any  satisfactory 
information  was  that  established  by  the 
emperor  Valens  at  Cssarea  about  the 
end  of  the  4th  century,  and  which  was 
conducted  on  a very  large  scale.  The 
Arabs  in  Spain,  at  an  early  period  of 
their  occupation  of  that  country,  founded 
a magnificent  hospital  at  Cordova, 
where  physicians  were  trained,  who  did 
a vast  deal  to  advance  the  study  of  med- 
icine. The  Arabs  have  also  the  credit  of 
having  founded  the  first  lunatic  asylum 
in  Europe,  which  was  erected  in  the  city 
of  Granada.  The  majority  of  hospitals 
everywhere  are  medical,  often  called  in- 
firmaries. These  may  be  divided  into 
general  and  special  hospitals,  the  former 
class  admitting  cases  of  all  kinds;  the 
latter  class  admitting  only  patients  suf- 
fering from  some  special  trouble.  Thus 
there  are  lying-in  hosiptals,  cancer,  con- 
sumption, ophthalmic,  lock  (for  venereal 
diseases),  fever,  and  small-pox  hospi- 
tals. There  are  also  hospitals  for  chil- 
dren, and  for  persons  suffering  from 
incurable  diseases.  Such  institutions 
serve  a double  purpose,  inasmuch  as 
they  not  only  afford  the  best  medical 


HOSPITAL  FEVER 


HOUSE-FLY 


advice  and  treatment  to  the  poor,  who 
would  otherwise  be  unable  to  obtain  it, 
but  also  supply  the  best  means  of  giving 
instruction  in  medicine  and  surgery,  as 
in  them  students  have  the  opportunity 
of  witnessing  cases  of  nearly  every 
variety  of  disease,  and  observing  how 
they  are  treated  by  the  most  skilled 
physicians  and  surgeons.  For  this  rea- 
son a good  infirmary  or  medical  hospital 
is  an  indispensable  adjunct  to  every 
school  of  medicine  and  surgery.  Hospi- 
tals for  the  sick  and  hurt  are  usually 
divided  into  wards,  each  containing  a 
larger  or  smaller  number  of  beds.  Med- 
ical and  surgical  wards  are  usually  kept 
separate,  and  all  contagious  diseases  are 
treated  by  themselves  in  distinct  build- 
ings. Each  hospital  has  a matron,  house 
surgeon,  and  apothecary  resident  within 
its  walls.  The  duties  of  the  matron  con- 
sist in  regulating  the  night  and  day 
nurses,  and  the  washing  and  laundry 
department,  as  well  as  the  purchase  of 
the  necessary  supplies  of  provisions, 
and  keeping  a general  superintendence 
over  the  kitchen  and  messes  of  the  sick. 
The  house  surgeon  takes  care  of  all 
casualties  and  accidents  in  the  absence 
of  the  principal  surgeons.  The  apothe- 
cary takes  care  of  the  pharmacy  and 
prepares  all  the  medicines  prescribed 
from  time  to  time  by  the  surgeons  and 
physicians.  There  is  a well-lighted  room 
set  apart  for  the  performance  of  opera- 
tions, and  a mortuary  for  the  reception 
of  corpses  previous  to  interment.  The 
nurses  relieve  each  other  day  and  night 
in  a regular  manner.  Particular  wards 
are  set  aside  for  the  reception  of  persons 
laboring  under  various  and  peculiar 
denominations  of  disease. 

Military  and  Naval  Hospitals,  or  es- 
tablishments for  the  reception  and  care 
of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  and  sea- 
men, have  been  in  existence  in  all  civil- 
ized countries  for  a long  period.  Military 
hospitals  are  either  permanent  or  tem- 
porary establishments. 

HOSPITAL  FEVER,  a malignant  form 
of  typhus  fever,  so  called  from  its  being 
most  frequently  met  with  in  military 
and  other  large  hospitals.  See  Typhus 
Fever. 

HOSPITALLERS,  charitable  brother- 
hoods who  devote  themselves  to  tend 
the  sick  in  hospitals.  The  name  is  spe- 
cially applied  to  an  order  of  knights,  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  See  John,  Knights 
of  St. 

HOST,  a term  used  for  the  bread  (or 
wafer)  and  wine  in  the  eucharist,  as  con- 
taining the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
As  the  wafer  alone  is  givefi  to  laymen 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  as  con- 
taining both  the  body  and  blood  of  the 
Redeemer,  the  term  host  is  usually 
applied  to  the  consecrated  wafer.  See 
Elevation,  Mass. 

HOSTAGF  a person  left  as  a pledge  or 
surety  for  the  performance  of  the  articles 
or  conditions  of  a treaty.  The  taking  or 
giving  of  hostages  is  now  scarcely  known 
in  the  relations  of  modern  communities, 
but  was  formerly  almost  universal,  and, 
many  questions  in  the  law  of  nations 
arose  out  of  the  practice.  If  the  stipu- 
lated terms  were  observed  the  hostages 
were  returned  on  each  side,  but  if  the 
terms  were  violated  or  evaded  the  hos- 
tages might  be  put  to  death. 


HOT-BED,  in  gardening,  a bed  of 
earth  heated  by  fermenting  substances, 
such  as  fresh  stable  dung,  tanners’  bark, 
leaves  of  trees,  etc.,  and  covered  with 
glass  to  defend  it  from  the  cold  air,  in- 
tended for  raising  early  plants,  or  for 
nourishing  exotic  plants  of  warm  cli- 
mates, which  will  not  thrive  in  cool  or 
temperate  air. 

HOTCH'KISS,  Benjamin  Berkely, 
American  inventor,  born  in  Watertown, 
Conn.,  in  1826.  During  the  civil  war  he 
was  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
ordnance  in  New  York,  and  later  in- 
vented the  Hotchkiss  magazine  gun, 
used  by  the  United  States  troops  in  the 
west  and  the  United  States  marine 
corps.  This  was  followed  in  1882  by  the 
Hotchkiss  machine  gun,  for  use  in  the 
fighting  tops  of  war-vessels.  He  was  also 
the  inventor  of  several  important  im- 
provements in  projectiles  and  heavy 
ordnance.  His  guns  were  in  general  use 
throughout  the  armies  and  navies  of  the 
world  until  displaced  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced nations  by  later  inventions.  He 
died  in  1885. 

HOTHOUSE,  a building  for  the  culti- 
vation of  plants  too  delicate  to  grow  in 
the  open  air.  It  is  built  chiefly  of  glass, 
and  resembles  a greenhouse  in  its  struc- 
ture, and  arrangements  except  that 
artificial  heat  is  kept  up  all  the  year 
round.  Some  are  heated  by  steam,  others 
by  hot  water  in  tubes,  and  others  by  the 
introduction  of  hot  air. 

HOT  SPRINGS,  the  county-seat  of 
Garland  co..  Ark.,  SO  miles  west  by 
south  of  Little  Rock.  It  is  widely  noted 
for  the  hot  waters  that  flow  from  72 
springs,  including  a space  of  10  acres  on 
the  west  side  of  Hot  Springs  Mountain. 
The  waters  of  these  springs  range  in 
temperature  from  76°  to  157°  Fahr.,  and 
are  beneficial  in  a multitude  of  diseases. 
In  1832  four  sections  of  land,  the  ther- 
mal springs  being  in  the  center  of  the 
district,  were  set  off  by  congress  as  a 
government  reservation.  Since  then  the 
government  has  established  on  the 
mountain  the  Army  and  Navy  general 
hospital,  and  expended  large  sums  in 
improving  and  developing  the  reserva- 
tion. It  has  over  100,000  visitors  an- 
nually. Pop.  11,800. 

HOT'TENTOTS,  peculiar  African  race, 
supposed  to  be  the  aboriginal  occupants 
of  the  south  end  of  that  continent,  at 
and  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Their 
limits  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  river 
Orange  on  the  north  and  northeast,  and 
the  Kei  on  the  east.  When  young  they 
are  of  remarkable  symmetry;  but  their 
faces  are  ugly,  and  this  ugliness  increases 
with  age.  The  complexion  is  a pale  olive, 
the  cheek-bones  project,  the  chin  is  nar- 
row and  pointed,  arid  the  face  conse- 
quently is  triangular.  The  lips  are  thick, 
the  nose  flat,  the  nostrils  wide,  the  hair 
woolly,  and  the  beard  scanty.  When  the 
Dutch  first  settled  at  the  Cape  in  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  the  Hotten- 
tots were  a numerous  nation,  of  pastoral 
and  partially  nomadic  habits,  and 
occupied  a territory  of  100,000  square 
njiles.  At  the  present  day  this  race  is 
nearly  extinct  within  the  wide  territory 
which  formerly  belonged  to  it,  having 
been  entirely  hunted  out  and  dispersed 
by  the  Boers. 


HOUND,  a name  given  generally  to 
hunting  dogs;  but  restricted  by  scientific 
writers  to  such  as  hunt  by  scent,  a def- 
inition which  excludes  the  greyhound. 
Among  the  varieties  are  the  bloodhound, 


Deer-hound. 


deerhound,  foxhound,  harrier,  and  bea- 
gle. Hounds  are  distinguished  not  only 
by  their  fineness  of  scent,  but  by  docility 
and  sagacity.  Of  the  rough-haired  and 
smooth-haired  varieties  the  former  mani- 
fest the  greatest  affection  for  man. 

HOU-PE.  HU-PEH,  or  HOO-PE, 
(North  of  the  Lakes),  a central  province 
of  China.  It  is  intersected  by  tne  Han- 
kiang  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  and  is 
considered  one  of  the  most  fertile  parts 
of  the  empire.  Pop.  33,365,005. 

HOUR,  the  twenty-fourth  part  of  a 
day.  In  most  countries  the  hours  are 
counted  from  midnight  to  mid-day,  and 
twelve  hours  are  twice  reckoned.  But 
in  some  parts  of  Italy  twenty-four  hours 
are  counted,  beginning  with  sunset,  so 
that  noon  and  midnight  are  every  day  at 
different  hours.  Each  hour  is  divided 
into  sixty  minutes,  and  each  minute 
into  sixty  seconds. 

HOUR-GLASS,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  time,  consisting  usually  of 
two  hollow  bulbs  placed  one  above  the 
other,  and  having  a narrow  neck  of  com- 
munication through  which  a certain 
quantity  of  dry  sand,  water  or  mercury 
is  allowed  to  run  from  the  upper  to  the 
lower  bulb,  the  quantity  of  sand  being 
adjusted  so  as  to  occupy  an  hour  in 
passing  from  one  bulb  to  the  other.  The 
hour-glass  was  commonly  used  in 
churches  during  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies to  regulate  the  length  of  the  ser- 
mon. 

HOURIS  (hou'riz  or  ho'riz),  the 
“black-eyed”  nymphs  of  Paradise,  whose 
company,  according  to  the  Koran,  is  to 
be  one  of  the  rewards  of  the  faithful. 
They  are  described  as  most  beautiful 
virgins,  endowed  with  perpetual  youth, 
and  subject  to  no  impurity.  They  dwell 
in  beautiful  gardens,  by  flowing  streams, 
and  the  very  meanest  of  the  faithful  will 
have  at  least  seventy-two  of  them. 

HOUSE,  in  point  of  law  the  common 
expression,  “an  Englislunan’s  house  is 
his  castle,”  is  in  most  instances  true. 
Except  where  there  has  been  a criminal 
offense,  an  Englishman  can  hold  his 
house  against  all  comers.  No  bailiff  can 
break  open  his  door  to  arrest  him,  or 
seize  his  goods  for  debt,  nor  can  any 
court  give  him  this  power;  but  if  a bailiff 
is  once  permitted  to  enter  he  cannot  be 
expelled.  The  same  conditions  govern 
in  the  United  States. 

HOUSE-BREAKING.  See  Burglary. 

HOUSE-FLY.  See  Fly. 


HOUSEHOLD  GODS 


HOWE 


HOUSEHOLD  GODS,  among  the 
Romans,  deities  known  as  the  Lares 
and  Penates,  and  presiding  over  the  for- 
tunes of  the  house  or  family. 

HOUSEMAID’S  KNEE,  an  acute  in- 
flammation of  the  bursa  or  sac  between 
the  kneepan  and  the  skin,  so  called  be- 
cause it  is  common  among  housemaids 
from  their  kneeling  on  hard  damp  stones. 
It  is  treated  like  other  local  inflamma- 
tions by  fomentations,  and  if  necessary 
leeches.  Mild  purgatives  are  also  useful, 
and  the  limb  ought  to  h^ve  complete 

HOUSE  OF  COMMONS.  See  Britain— 
section  Parliament. 

HOUSE  OF  CORRECTION,  a prison 
for  idle  and  disorderly  persons,  and  cer- 
tain classes  of  criminals,  such  as  prison- 
ers convicted  of  felony  or  misdemeanor, 
vagrancy,  etc.,  or  committed  on  charge 
of  such.  Originally  vagrants,  trespassers, 
and  convicted  persons  were  detained  in 
these  houses  that  they  might  be  com- 
pelled to  work.  They  are  sometimes 
called  bridewells. 

HOUSE  OF  LORDS.  See  Britain;  also 
Parliament. 

HOUSTON,  a town  in  Texas,  capital 
of  Harris  co.,  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation  on  Buffalo  bayou,  48  miles 
northwest  of  the  important  seaport  of 


Galveston,  and  the  great  railway  center 
of  the  state.  It  stands  in  an  excellent 
grazing  district,  and  contains  iron- 
foundries,  cotton-presses,  machine-shops 
and  other  industrial  establishments.  It 
is  a great  shipping  port  for  cotton.  Pop. 
1909,  estimated  at  about  90,000. 

HOUSTON,  Samuel,  American  gen- 
eral and  president  of  the  Republic  of 
Texas,  was  born  in  Lexington,  Va.,  in 
1793.  When  quite  young  he  moved  to 
Tennessee.  A part  of  his  youth  was 
spent  among  the  Cherokee  Indians,  by 
whom  he  was  named  “Colonel.”  In  1813 
he  enlisted  in  the  United  States  army, 
and  while  serving  under  General  Jack- 
son,  was  wounded  in  an  engagement 
with  the  Creek  Indians.  He  studied  law 
in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  served  his  state 
in  congress  from  1823-1827,  when  he 
became  governor  of  the  state.  His  mar- 
riage in  1829  was  unfortunate;  he  sepa- 
rated from  his  wife,  and  went  to  live 
among  the  Arkansas  Indians,  and  was 
sent  to  Washington  to  represent  their 
interests.  He  visited  Texas  in  1832,  and 
accepted  the  invitation  to  take  up  his 
residence  there,  and  to  become  leader  of 
the  colonists  in  the  struggle  for  their 


rights.  The  Texans  sought  union  with 
the  United  States,  but  were  denied. 
Santa  Anna  demanded  that  they  sur- 
render their  arms,  which  they  refused 
to  do.  Houston  became  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  organized  to  oppose 
the  demand  of  Mexico.  Santa  Anna  was 
captured  in  the  battle  of  San  Jacinto, 
April,  1836,  and  the  independence  of 
Texas  secured.  General  Houston  was 
the  first  president  of  the  Republic  of 
Texas.  On  the  admission  of  Texas  to 
the  union,  Houston  represented  the 
state  as  senator  for  twelve  years.  When 
the  civil  war  broke  out,  he  opposed 
secession  and  was  compelled  to  leave 
Texas.  He  was  of  fine  presence  and  a 
natural  orator.  He  died  in  1863. 

HOWARD,  Oliver  Otis,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  in  Leeds,  Maine  in  1830. 
In  1861  he  became  colonel  of  the  Third 
Maine  volunteers,  and  commanded  a 
brigade  in  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
He  took  a prominent  part  in  the  battle 
of  Antietam ; was  promoted  to  be  major- 
general  of  volunteers  in  November;  and 
was  engaged  in  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg. In  April,  1863,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Eleventh  army  corps, 
and  as  such  took  a conspicuous  part  in 
the  battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Get- 
tysburg. In  December,  1864,  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  in  the  regu- 
lar army,  and  in  March,  1865,  was 
brevetted  major-general  for  services 
at  Ezra  Church  and  during  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  In  1874  Howard  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  Department  of  the 
Columbia,  and  in  this  capacity  con- 
ducted the  operations  against  the  Nez 
Perc6s  Indians  in  1877,  and  against  the 
Bannocks  in  1878.  In  1886  he  was  ap- 
pointed major-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  in  November,  1894,  retired 
from  the  service. 

HOWE,  Elias,  an  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Spencer,  Massachusetts,  in 
1819,  died  at  Brooklyn  in  1867.  He  con- 
structed a sewing-machine  in  1846,  and 
was  for  several  years  involved  in  expen- 
sive and  harassing  lawsuits  to  establish 
his  right  to  reap  the  benefits  of  his  own 
ingenuity.  Immense  numbers  of  the 
Howe  sewing-machine  are  now  manu- 
factured and  sold  in  America,  Great 
Britain,  and  elsewhere. 

HOWE,  Julia  Ward,  American  poet 
and  sociological  writer,  was  born  in  New 
York  in  1819.  She  edited  with  her  hus- 
band, Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  the  Boston  Com- 
monwealth, an  anti-slavery  journal. 
After  the  war  she  became  a noted  ad- 
vocate of  female  suffrage.  She  is  best 
known  by  her  immensely  popular  Battle 
Hymn  of  the  Republic,  which  was  writ- 
ten in  1861. 

HOWE,  Richard,  Earl  Howe,  English 
admiral,  was  the  second  son  of  Emanuel 
Scrope,  second  Viscount  Howe,  and  was 
born  in  1725,  died  1799.  In  1783  he 
accepted  the  post  of  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  which,  with  a partial  inter- 
mission, he  continued  to  hold  until  1793, 
when,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  war 
with  France,  he  took  the  command  of 
the  British  fleet,  and  bringing  the  enemy 
to  an  action  on  June  1,  1794,  he  obtained 
over  them  a decisive  victory,  for  which 
he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament 
and  other  honors.  In  1797  Lord  Howe 
exerted  himself  with  great  success  to 


quell  the  mutiny  among  the  seamen  at 
Portsmouth. 


Lord  Howe. 


HOWE,  Samuel  Gridley,  American 
philanthropist,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1801.  He  served  with  the  Greeks  in 
their  struggle  for  freedom  and  took  part 
in  the  July  revolution  in  Paris.  He  then 
became  interested  in  the  education  of 
the  blind,  the  subject  which  his  name 
will  be  longest  connected,  and  the 
Perkins  institute  in  Boston  became  the 
greatest  school  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  many  improve- 
ments in  method  as  well  as  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  printing  books  in  raised  types. 
At  the  Perkins  institute  his  most  re- 
markable achievement  was  in  the 
education  of  Laura  Bridgman.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  one  of  the  directors 
of  the  sanitary  commission.  He  was 
the  originator  of  the  state  board  of 
charities  of  Massachusetts  in  1863,  the 
first  board  of  the  sort  in  America.  He 
died  in  1876. 

HOWE,  S’r  William,  British  soldier, 
was  born  in  1729.  He  was  a younger 
brother  of  Richard,  Earl  Howe,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  fifth  Viscount  Howe  in 
1799.  In  1757,  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Fifty-eighth  Foot,  and  sent 
with  it  to  America,  where  he  took  part 
in  the  siege  and  capture  of  Louisburg 
and  accompan-'ed  Wolfe  on  his  expedi- 
tion to  Quebec.  He  commanded  the 
reenforcements  sent  to  General  Gage  at 
Boston  in  March,  1775.  He  commanded 
the  British  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill, 


General  Sir  William  Howe. 

on  June  17th  following.  He  succeeded 
Gage  in  command  of  all  the  troops  in 
America  outside  of  Canada,  with  the 
local  rank  of  general.  Besieged  in  Bos- 
ton by  Washington  during  the  winter 
of  1775-76,  and,  being  compelled  to 
abandon  the  city,  he  withdrew  his  troops 
to  Halifax,  and  afterward  transferred 
his  command  to  Staten  Island,  whence 
he  moved  on  New  York,  winning  the 
battle  of  Long  Island  on  August  27, 
1776,  and  occupying  the  city  on  Sep- 
tember 15th.  On  October  28th  he  de- 
feated Washington  at  White  Plains,  and 


HOWELLS 


HUELVA 


afterward  captured  Forts  Washington 
and  Lee.  He  defeated  Washington  at 
the  Brandywine  on  September  11th,  and 
on  September  27th  occupied  Philadel- 
phia. Howe  sent  in  his  resignation 
shortly  after  taking  Philadelphia,  and 
Sir  Henry  Clinton  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  In  1782  he  became  lieu- 
tenant-general of  ordnance,  and  at- 
tained the  rank  of  full  general  in  the 
following  year.  He  died  in  1814. 

HOWELLS,  William  Dean,  an  Ameri- 
can novelist,  born  at  Martinsville,  Ohio, 
in  1837.  He  learned  the  printer’s  trade 
with  his  father;  was  afterward  assistant 
editor  on  the  Ohio  State  Journal;  pub- 
lished a life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  a 


volume  of  poems;  was  appointed  in  1861 
United  States  consul  at  Venice.  On  his 
return  to  America  in  1865  he  joined  the 
staff  of  the  Nation,  became  afterward 
editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly  (1871- 
81),  but  made  himself  known  chiefly  as 
a writer  of  novels.  Among  his  works  are 
Venetian  Life,  Italian  Journeys,  A 
Chance  Acquaintance,  A Foregone  Con- 
clusion, The  Lady  of  the  Aroostook,  Dr. 
Breen’s  Practice,  A Modern  Instance, 
The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham,  Indian  Sum- 
mer, The  Flight  of  Pony  Baker,  The 
Kentons,  ets. 

HOWITZER,  a short  piece  of  ord- 
nance, usually  having  a chamber  for  the 
powder  narrower  than  the  bore,  specially 
designed  for  the  horizontal  firing  of 


Brass  howitzer  (24  pounder). 

shells  with  small  charges,  combining  in 
some  degree  the  accuracy  of  the  cannon 
with  the  caliber  of  the  mortar,  but  much 
lighter  than  any  gun  of  the  same  capac- 
ity. The  rifled  gun,  throwing  a shell  of 
the  same  capacity  from  a smaller  bore, 


and  with  much  greater  power,  has  super- 
seded the  howitzer  for  general  purposes. 

HOWLER  MONKEY,  a genus  of  South 
American  monkeys,  characterized  by  a 
remarkable  loudness  of  voice,  which  is 


Howler. 


due  to  the  presence  of  a large  chamber 
within  the  hyoid  bone  and  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  ventricles  of  the  larynx.  In 
the  tropical  forests  of  America  their 
hideous  howls,  probably  a kind  of 
amorous  concert,  may  be  heard  during 
the  night  more  than  a mile  away.  They 
are  prehensile-tailed,  large,  and  heavy 
of  body,  with  a high  pyramidal  head 
flattened  on  the  summit. 

HOWRAH,  a town  of  India,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hugli,  opposite  Calcutta , 
of  which  it  is  practically  a suburb,  and 
with  which  it  communicates  by  a float- 
ing bridge.  It  has  large  dockyards,  jute 
and  saw  mills,  and  various  manufac- 
tories. Pop.  157,594. 

HUCKLEBERRY,  an  American  name 
for  the  whortleberry,  which  see. 

HUDDERSFIELD,  a flourishing  man- 
ufacturing town,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  16J  miles  south- 
west of  Leeds,  The  plan  of  the  town  is 
very  regular,  and  the  houses  are  well 
though  somewhat  uniformly  built.  Some 
of  the  public  buildings  are  elegant  struc- 
tures. Among  its  institutions  are  two 
colleges  for  higher  education,  a techni- 
cal school,  etc.  The  town  is  the  chief 
center  of  the  fancy  woolen  trade.  Broad- 
cloths, doeskins,  trouserings  are  also 
manufactured,  and  there  are  manu- 
factories of  steam-engines,  machinery, 
etc.  Pop.  95,056. 

HUDSON,  a town  and  port, ' in  the 
state  of  and  116  miles  north  of  New 
York,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hudson. 
It  is  regularly  built,  and  has  large  iron- 
smelting works,  foundries,  breweries, 
etc.  Pop.  13,374. 

HUDSON,  Henry,  English  navigator 
date  of  birth  unknown.  He  sailed  from 
London  in  the  year  1607  in  a small  vessel 
with  only  ten  men  and  a boy,  to  dis- 
cover the  Northeast  Passage,  and  pro- 
ceeded beyond  the  80th  degree  of  lati- 
tude. In  a second  voyage  he  landed  at 
Nova  Zembla,  but  could  get  no  further 
eastward.  In  1609  he  sailed  for  North 
America,  and  discovered  the  Hudson 
river,  which  he  ascended  about  50 
leagues.  In  1610  he  sailed  in  an  English 
ship  named  the  Discovery,  and  dis- 
covered Hudson  Strait  and  Hudson’s 
Bay,  where  he  wintered;  but  his  crew, 
after  suffering  many  hardships,  mutinied 


and  set  him  adrift  in  a boat  along  with 
his  son  John  and  seven  of  the  most  in- 
firm of  the  crew,  none  of  whom  were 
ever  again  heard  of.  Hudson  published 
Divers  Voyages  and  Northern  Discover- 
ies (1607),  and  a Second  Voyage  (1608). 

HUDSON  BAY,  or  HUDSON’S  BAY, 
an  extensive  bay,  or  rather  an  inlanci 
sea.  Dominion  of  Canada,  extending  be- 
tween lat.  51°  and  64°  n.,  and  Ion.  77° 
and  95°  w. ; length,  north  to  south,  about 
800  miles;  greatest  breadth,  about  600 
miles.  Hudson  bay  is  navigable  for  4J 
months  in  summer  (from  middle  of  June 
to  end  of  October),  being  obstructed  by 
drift-ice  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 
There  are  many  islands,  reefs,  and  sand- 
banks. The  shores  on  the  east  are  high 
and  bold;  but  those  on  the  west,  espe- 
cially toward  the  south,  are  low  and 
level,  and  much  of  the  land  here  is  favor-' 
able  for  stock  and  dairy  farming.  The 
white  whale  is  found  in  its  waters,  and 
there  is  a considerable  summer  fishery. 

HUDSON  RIVER,  a river  in  the  United 
States.  It  rises,  by  two  branches,  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
in  the  Adirondack  mountains,  about  lat. 
44°  n.  Two  small  streams  unite  to  form 
the  river,  which  is  afterward  joined  by 
the  Schroon  and  Sacondaga.  At  Glen’s 
Falls  it  has  a fall  of  50  feet,  after  which 
it  runs  almost  due  south  to  its  mouth  in 
New  York  bay.  Its  whole  course  is  over 
300  miles;  it  is  navigable  as  far  as  Hud- 
son, 118  miles,  for  the  largest  vessels. 
The  banks  of  the  Upper  Hudson  are 
high  and  rocky;  and  the  scenery  very 
picturesque. 

HUDSON’S  BAY  COMPANY,  an  Eng- 
lish trading  company,  chartered  May 
2,1670.  It  had  long  a monopoly  of  the 
trade  throughout  the  whole  territory  of 
North  America  whose  streams  flow  into 
Hudson’s  Bay,  and  at  one  time  as  far 
westward  as  the  Pacific,  with  rights  of 
governing  and  making  war.  In  1870  its 
authority  was  transferred  by  act  of 
paliament  to  the  crown,  and  its  terri- 
tories incorporated  in  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  Its  trade  in  furs  is  still  very 
large. 

HUE  AND  CRY,  in  English  law,  the 
pursuit  of  a felon  or  offender,  with  loud 
outcries  or  clamor  to  give  an  alarm. 
This  procedure  is  taken  by  a person 
robbed,  or  otherwise  injured,  to  pursue 
and  get  possession  of  the  culprit’s  per- 
son. At  common  law,  a private  person 
who  has  been  robbed,  or  who  knows  that 
a felony  is  committed,  is  bound  to  raise 
a hue  and  cry  under  pain  of  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. This  is  generally  done  by 
informing  the  nearest  constable;  and 
this  process  is  still  recognized  by  the 
law  of  England  as  a means  of  arresting 
felons  without  the  warrant  of  a justice 
of  the  peace.  The  same  name  is  also 
applied  to  a paper  circulated  by  the 
secretary  of  state  for  the  home  depart- 
ment announcing  the  perpetration  of 
offenses. 

HUELVA,  a seaport  town  of  South- 
western Spain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  same  name  in  Andalusia.  It  has  wide 
and  well-built  streets.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  matting,  ropes,  sails,  etc.,  a 
large  trade  in  the  exportation  of  copper 
ore;  also  in  fruits  and  wine.  The  fisher- 
ies, mainly  sardine  and  tunny,  are  of  con- 
siderable value.  Pop.  19,686. — The 


HUESCA 


HUGUENOTS 


province  of  Huelva  is  mountainous  and 
well  wooded  in  the  north,  and  contains 
celebrated  copper  mines.  In  the  south 


it  is  comparatively  level,  and  has  a rich 
alluvial  soil.  Pop.  253,970. 

HUG'GINS,  Sir  William,  English 
astronomer,  was  born  in  London  in  1824. 
In  1856  he  built  an  observatory  in  which 
he  mounted  a telescope  of  eight-inch 
aperture,  and  made  careful  drawings  |of 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  His  atten- 
tion was  engaged  in  observations  of 
spectrum  analysis.  His  first  discovery 
in  this  line  was  presented  to  the  Royal 
society  in  a paper  on  the  Lines  of  Some 
of  the  Fixed  Stars. 

He  introduced  photography  into 
astronomy,  which,  enabled  the  astrono- 
mer by  long  exposure  to  obtain  good 
pictures  of  celestial  objects,  too  faint  to 
be  seen  even  with  the  most  powerful 
telescope.  Huggins  also  invented  a 
spectroscopic  method  for  studying  the 
red  prominences  of  the  sun,  and  proved, 
through  a laboratory  experiment,  the 
existence  of  calcium  in  the  solar  promi- 
nences and  chromosphere.  He  was 
president  of  the  Royal  astronomical  so- 
ciety from  1876  to  1878,  of  the  British 
association  for  the  advancement  of 
science  in  1891.  He  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  royal  society  in  1900,  and 
has  at  different  times  received  the  Royal, 
the  Copley  and  Rumford  medals. 

HUGHES,CHARLES  EVANS,  born 
Apr, 11,  1862,  Glen  Falls,  N.  Y.,  where 
his  father  was  Baptist  pastor.  He  grad- 
uated from  Brown  Univ.  and  Columbia 
Law  School;  was  prof,  of  law  Cornell 
Univ.  1891-3,  lecturer  1893-95.  and  of  N. 
Y.  Law  School  from  1893;  was  counsel 
on  the  legislative  investigations  of  life- 
insurance  companies  1905,  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  New  York  State  1906. 

HUGHES,  Thomas,  an  English  bar- 
rister, author,  and  philanthropist,  born, 
at  Uffington,  Berkshire,  in  1823.  He  is 
widely  known  by  his  novel,  Tom  Brown’s 
School-days,  a picture  of  school  life  at 
Rugby,  published  in  1856.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford  (1861), 
A Layman’s  Faith  (1868),  Alfred  the 
Great  (1869),  The  Manliness  of  Christ, 
and  other  writings.  He  was  one  w'ho 
devoted  much  time  to  the  social  eleva- 
tion of  the  working-class,  encouraging 
in  particular  the  co-operative  system. 
In  1865-68  he  was  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Lambeth,  and  in  1868-74  for 


Frome.  He  was  latterly  a county-court 
judge_  In  1880  he  took  a prominent 
part  in  the  socialistic  settlement  at 
Rugby,  Tenn.  He  died  in  1896. 

HUGLI,  or  HOOGHLY  (hogTi),  a river 
of  Hindustan,  in  Bengal,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Bhagirathi  and  the 
Jalangi  at  Nadi j a,  about  55  miles  a'oove 
Calcutta.  Ships  drawing  26  feet  ascend 
as  far  as  Calcutta. 

HUGO  (ii-go),  Victor  Marie,  a French 
poet  and  novelist,  born  February  26, 
1802,  at  Besangon,  where  his  father, 
then  Major  Hugo,  was  stationed  in  com- 
mand of  a brigade.  At  the  age  of  twelve 
he  was  already  writing  verses,  and  in  1823 
his  first  novel,  Han  d’Islande,  appeared, 
followed  in  1825  by  Bug  Jargal.  In  1828 
a complete  edition  of  his  Odes  et  Bal- 
lades appeared.  After  the  coup  d’etat, 
December  2,  1851,  he  was  one  of  those 
who  kept  up  the  struggle  in  the  streets 
against  Napoleon  to  the  last.  He  then 
fled  to  Brussels,  where  he  published  the 
first  of  his  bitter  satires  on  the  founder 
of  the  second  empire,  Napoleon  le 
Petit.  In  the  following  year  ^853)  the 
second,  the  famous  volume  of  Les 
ChS,timents,  a wonderful  mixture  of 
satirical  invective,  lyrical  passion  and 
pathos  appeared.  Hugo  now  went  to  live 
in  Jersey,  was  expelled  along  with  the 


Victor  Hugo. 


other  French  exiles  in  1855  by  the  Eng- 
lish government,  and  finally  settled  in 
Guernsey.  It  was  in  the  comparative 
solitude  and  quietness  of  the  Channel 
islands  that  he  wrote  most  of  the  great 
works  of  his  later  years,  Les  Contempla- 
tions (1856),  La  Legende  des  Slides, 
1st  series  (1859),  Chansons  des  Rues  et 
des  Bois  (1865),  and  his  celebrated 
series  of  social  novels,  Les  Mis4rables 
(1862)  Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer 
(1866),  L’Homme  qui  Rit  (1869).  In 
1870,  after  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
Victor  Hugo  returned  to  Paris,  where 
he  spent  the  remaining  years  of  a re- 
markably vigorous  old  age  in  occasional 
attendances  at  the  senate,  and  in  adding 
to  the  already  long  list  of  his  literary 
works.  Among  these  latest  productions 
we  may  mention  Quatre-vingt-treize 
(1872),  L’Art  d’Etre  Grand-pere  (1877), 
L’Histoire  d’un  Crime  (1877),  Le  Pape 
(1878),  La  Pitie  Supreme  (1879),  Re- 
ligions et  Religion  (1880),  Les  Quatre 
Vents  de  I’Esprit  (1881),  La  Legende 
des  SiScles  (last  series  1883),  Torque- 
mada  (1882).  He  died  on  May  2,  1885. 


HUGUENOT  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA, 

The,  an  hereditary  patriotic  society, 
organized  in  New  York  City  on  April  12, 
1883,  and  incorporated  on  June  12, 
1885.  Its  objects  are  to  perpetuate  the 
memory  and  to  foster  and  promote  the 
principles  and  virtues  of  the  Huguenots; 
to  publicly  commemorate  at  stated  times 
the  principal  events  in  the  history  of 
the  Huguenots;  and  to  collect  and  pre- 
serve all  existing  documents,  monuments 
etc.,  relating  to  the  genealogy  or  history 
of  the  Huguenots  of  America.  Member- 
ship is  extended  to  descendants  of 
Huguenot  families  which  emigrated  to 
America  or  to  other  countries  prior  to 
the  promulgation  of  the  Edict  of  Tolera- 
tion, November  28,  1787,  as  well  as  to 
writers  who  have  made  the  history  of  the 
Huguenots  a special  subject  of  study. 

HUGUENOTS  (hu'ge-nots),  a term  of 
unknown  origin,  applied  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  to  the  Protestants  of  France 
during  the  religious  struggles  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  16th  century  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin,  notwithstanding  the  oppo- 
sition of  Francis  I.,  spread  widely  in 
France.  Under  his  successor  Henry  II., 
1547-59,  the  Protestant  party  grew 
strong,  and  under  Francis  II.  became 
a political  force  headed  by  the  Bourbon 
family,  especially  the  King  of  Navarre 
and  the  Prince  of  Cond6.  At  the  head  of 
the  Catholic  party  stood  the  Guises,  and 
through  their  influence  with  the  weak, 
young  king,  a fanatical  persecution  of 
the  Huguenots  commenced.  The  result 
was  that  a Huguenot  conspiracy,  headed 
by  Prince  Louis  of  Conde,  was  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the  king 
to  dismiss  the  Guises  and  accept  the 
Prince  of  Cond6  as  regent  of  the  realm. 
But  the  plot  was  betrayed  and  many 
of  the  Huguenots  were  executed  or 
imprisoned.  In  1560  Francis  died,  and 
during  the  minority  of  the  next  king, 
Charles  IX.,  it  was  the  policy  of  the 
queen  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici, 
to  encourage  the  Protestants  in  the 
free  exercise  of  their  religion  in  order 
to  curb  the  Guises.  But  in  1562  an 
attack  on  a Protestant  meeting  made 
by  the  followers  of  the  Duke  of  Guise 
commenced  a series  of  religious  wars 
which  desolated  France  almost  to  the 
end  of  the  century.  Catherine,  however, 
began  to  fear  that  Protestantism  might 
become  a permanent  power  in  the  coun- 
try, and  suddenly  making  au  alliance 
with  the  Guises  between  them  they  pro- 
jected and  carried  out  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew’s  (August  25,  1572). 
The  Protestants  fled  to  their  fortified 
towns  and  carried  on  a war  with  varying 
success.  On  the  death  of  Charles  IX., 
Henry  III.,  a feeble  sovereign,  found 
himself  compelled  to  unite  with  the 
King  of  Navarre,  head  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon  and  heir-apparent  of  the 
French  crown,  against  the  ambitious 
Guises,  who  openly  aimed  at  the  throne, 
and  had  excited  the  people  against  him 
to  such  a degree  that  he  was  on  the  point 
of  losing  the  crown.  After  the  assassina- 
tion of  Henry  III.  the  King  of  Navarre 
was  obliged  to  maintain  a severe  strug- 
gle for  the  vacant  throne;  and  not  until 
he  had,  by  the  advice  of  Sully,  embraced 
the  Catholic  religion  (1593),  did  he  en- 
joy quiet  possession  of  the  kingdom  as 


HULK 


HUNGARY 


Henry  IV.  Five  years  afterward  he 
secured  to  the  Huguenots  their  civil 
rights  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  which 
confirmed  to  them  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion,  and  gave  them  equal 
claims  with  the  Catholics  to  all  offices 
and  diginities.  The  Edict  of  Nantes  was 
revoked  in  1685,  and  by  this  act  more 
than  500,000  Protestant  subjects  were 
driven  out  to  carry  their  industryj 
wealth,  and  skill  to  other  countries. 
In  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  a new  edict 
was  issued  repressive  of  Protestantism, 
but  so  many  voices  were  raised  in  favor 
of  toleration  that  it  had  to  be  revoked. 
The  revolution  first  put  the  Protestants 
on  an  equality  with  their  Catholic 
neighbors. 

HULK,  the  name  applied  to  old  ships 
laid  by  as  unfit  for  further  sea-going 
service,  and  used  as  depots  for  coals, 
sailors,  etc.  The  hulks  formerly  often 
heard  of  in  England  consisted  of  old 
ships  to  which  convicts  were  sent  pre- 
viously to  their  transportation. 

HULL,  Isaac,  American  marine  officer, 
was  born  at  Derby,  Conn.,  in  1773. 
While  on  his  way  from  Annapolis  to 
New  York,  by  masterly  seamanship  he 
escaped  from  a squadron  of  five  British 
men  of  war  that  pursued  him  for  several 
days.  His  celebrated  victory  over  the 
Guerriere,  a slightly  weaker  British 
frigate,  which  was  forced  to  surrender, 
was  the  first  victory  obtained  by  the 
Americans  over  the  British  in  the  war 
and  aroused  great  enthusiasm.  He  is 
regarded  as  the  ablest  single  ship  com- 
mander on  either  side  during  the  war  of 
1812.  He  died  in  1843. 

HULL,  or  KINGSTON-ON-HULL,  a 
river  port,  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  and  a county  of 
itself,  locally  situated  in  the  East  Riding 
of  York  at  the  influx  of  the  Hull  into 
the  estuary  of  the  Humber.  Pop. 
240,618. 

HUMANE  ASSOCIATION,  American 
federation  of  societies  of  the  United 
States  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to 
animals  and  children,  was  formed  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1877.  It  investigated 
the  abuses  which  prevailed  on  lines  of 
railways  transporting  cattle,  and  offered 
a prize  of  $5000  for  the  best  model  of  a 
cattle-car  that  would  make  possible  the 
feeding,  watering,  and  resting  of  cattle 
in  transit,  the  result  of  which  was  that 
many  improved  cars  were  brought  into 
use. 

HUMANITA'RIANS,  a term  some- 
times applied  to  the  various  classes  of 
anti-trinitarians,  who  regard  Christ  as  a 
mere  man.  Their  opinions  must  not  be 
confounded  with  Arianism,  which  ad- 
mits the  pre-existence  of  Christ,  and  his 
pre-eminence  among  God’s  creatures. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  followers 
of  St.  Simon,  who  maintained  the  per- 
fectibility of  human  nature  without  the 
aid  of  supernatural  grace. 

HUMANITIES,  a term  for  humane  or 
polite  literature,  including  the  study  of 
the  ancient  classics,  in  opposition  to 
philosophy  and  science.  In  the  Scotch 
universities  humanity  is  applied  to  the 
study  of  the  Latin  language  and  litera- 
ture alone. 

HUMBER,  a large  river,  or  rather 
estuary,  on  tne  east  side  of  England,  be- 
tween the  counties  of  York  and  Lincoln, 


HUMBERT  I.,  Umberto,  King  of 
Italy,  born  March  14,  1844,  eldest  son  of 
Victor  Emmanuel.  In  the  War  of  1866, 
in  which  Italy  joined  Prussia  against 
Austria,  he  took  the  field  in  command  of 
a division,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  bravery  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Custozza.  In  1868  he  married  his  cousin, 
Margherita,  daughter  of  Duke  Ferdi- 
nand of  Genoa.  He  succeeded  his  father 
on  January  9,  1878,  and  was  assas- 
sinated in  July,  1900. 

HUMBOLDT  (hum'bolt),  Friedrich 
Heinrich  Alexander,  Baron  von,  a Ger- 
man traveler  and  naturalist,  was  born 
September  14,  1769,  at  Berlin.  In  1797 
he  resolved  to  make  a scientific  journey 
in  the  tropical  zones  along  with  a friend, 
Aim4  Bonpland.  They  landed  at  Cu- 
mana,  in  South  America,  in  July,  1799, 
and  spent  five  years  in  exploring  scien- 
tifically the  region  of  the  Orinoco  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  Rio  Negro,  the 
district  between  Quito  and  Lima,  the 
city  of  Mexico,  and  the  surrounding 
country,  and  the  island  of  Cuba.  In 
1829,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Czar 
Nicholas,  he  made  an  expedition  to 
Siberia  and  Central  Asia,  which  resulted 
in  some  valuable  discoveries,  published 
in  his  Asie  Centrale.  Humboldt  died  m 
1859. 

HUME,  David,  an  eminent  historian 
and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Edinburgh 
on  the  26th  April,  1711.  We  was  des- 
tined for  the  law,  but  was  drawn  away 


David  Hume. 


by  his  love  of  literature  and  philosophy; 
and  retired  to  France,  where  during  three 
years  of  quiet  and  studious  life  he  com- 
posed his  Treatise  upon  Human  Nature. 
The  work  was  published  at  London  in 
1738,  but,  in  his  own  words,  “fell  dead- 
born  from  the  press.”  His  next  work. 
Essays,  Moral,  Political,  and  Literary 
(Edinburgh,  1742),  met  with  a better 
reception.  In  1745  he  became  com- 
panion to  the  insane  Marquis  of  Annan- 
dale;  and  he  accompanied  General  Sin- 
clair in  1746  and  1747  in  his  expedition 
against  France  and  in  a military  em- 
bassy to  Vienna  and  Turin.  He  now 
published  a recasting  of  his  Treatise 
upon  Human  Nature,  under  the  title  of 
an  Inquiry  Concerning  the  Human  Un- 
derstanding (1747).  In  1752  he  pub- 
lished his  Political  Discourses,  which 
were  well  received,  and  his  Inquiry  Con- 
cerning the  Principles  of  Morals.  The 
same  year  he  obtained  the  appointment 
of  librarian  of  the  Advocates’  library 
at  Edinburgh,  and  began  to  write  his 


History  of  England,  of  which  the  first 
volume  appeared  in  1754.  In  1767  he 
was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state, 
a post  which  he  held  till  1769,  when  he 
retired  to  Edinburgh.  Here  he  lived  till 
his  death  on  August  25,  1776. 

HUMMING-BIRDS,  the  name  given  to 
a family  of  minute  and  beautiful  birds, 
so  called  from  the  sound  of  their  wings 
in  flight.  The  beak  is  slender,  generally 
long,  sometimes  straight  and  sometimes 


Tufted-necked  kumming-bird. 

curved;  the  tongue  is  long,  filiform, 
bified  at  the  point,  and  capable  of  being 
protruded  to  a considerable  distance. 
In  size  humming-birds  vary  from  that  of 
a wren  to  that  of  a bumble-bee.  They 
never  light  to  take  food,  but  feed  while 
on  the  wing,  hovering  before  a flower, 
supported  by  a rapid  vibratory  move- 
ment of  the  wings  which  produces  the 
humming  noise.  Insects  form  a great 
proportion  of  their  food.  These  b^eau- 
tiful  birds  are  peculiar  to  America,  and 
almost  exclusively  tropical.  One  species 
the  ruby-throated  humming-bird,  is 
pretty  common  in  the  northeast  of  the 
United  States.  The  only  note  of  the 
humming-bird  is  a single  chirp,  not 
louder  than  that  of  a cricket.  It  is  very 
fearless  and  irascible,  two  males  scarcely 
ever  meeting  without  a contest.  Among 
the  more  remarkable  of  these  birds  is 
the  tufted-necked  humming-bird  of 
Guiana  and  Northern  Brazil.  In  this 
species  the  crest,  outer  tail-feathers,  and 
neck-plumes  are  reddish  chestnut,  the 
latter  tipped  with  green,  the  throat  and 
upper  part  of  the  breast  are  emerald 
green,  the  back  bronze  green.  Perhaps 
four  hundred  species  of  humming-birds 
are  now  known. 

HUNGARY  (Hungarian  name,  Mag- 
yar-Orszag,  Land  of  the  Magyars),  a 
kingdom  in  the  southeast  of  Europe, 
forming,  together  with  Austria,  the 
Austro-Hungarian  monarchy.  It  in- 
cludes Hungary  Proper,  with  Tran- 
sylvania, Slavonia,  Croatia,  the  Croato- 
Slavonian  Military  Frontiers,  etc.;  total 
area,  124,400  sq.  miles,  with  a pop.  of 
19,203,531.  Hungary  Proper  (including 
Transylvania),  with  an  area  of  108,000 
sq.  miles  and  a pop.  of  16,653,332,  may 
be  considered  as  a large  basin  surrounded 
by  mountains  on  every  side  except  the 
south.  Of  these  the  principal  are  the 
Carpathians,  which  cover  the  northern 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  country  with 
their  ramifications.  The  Danube  and 
the  Theiss,  with  their  affluents,  are  the 
chief  rivers.  Hungary  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  countries  in  Europe,  and  gen- 
erally has  a fertile  soil.  All  kinds  of 
grain,  especially  wheat,  wines,  fruits, 


HUNGARY 


HUNGER 


tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  saffron,  woacl, 
madder,  sumach,  coitoii,  are  among  the 
products  of  Hungary.  Horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  hogs,  game  (In  the  north  bears), 
poultry,  fish  (especially  the  sturgeon 
and  salmon),  bees,  and  silk-worms  are 
among  the  productions  of  the  animal 
kingdom.  Among  tho  minerals  are  gold, 
silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  cobalt, 
antimony,  sulphur,  arsenic,  salt,  etc., 
with  coals  and  peat.  The  situation  of 
Hungary,  which  occupies  an  area  where 
the  various  races  of  Europe  meet  and 
interlace,  accounts  for  the  variety  of 
nationalities  it  contains.  These  com- 
prise, besides  the  Hungarians  or  Mag- 
yars (over  7,000,000  in  number),  Rou- 
manians, Slavocks,  Germans,  Servians, 
Ruthenians,  etc.  The  Magyars,  who  are 
the  dominant  race,  are  located  for  the 
most  part  compactly  in  the  center  of 
the  kingdom.  They  are  brave,  high- 
spirited,  and  sincere,  in  many  respects 
resembling  their  kinsmen  the  Turks.  A 
decided  majority  are  Roman  Catholics, 
the  rest  Protestants,  chiefly  Calvinists, 
with  a few  Greek  Catholics.  The  Ger- 
mans have  settled  ad  over  the  country, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a town  of  Hun 
gary  which  is  not  at  least  partly 
inhabited  by  Germans,  while  some  are 
essentially  German.  Science,  litera- 
ture, the  press,  trade  and  industry, 
are  for  the  greater  part  in  their 
hands.  The  Hungarian  has  a natural  in- 
clination to  agriculture  and  the  breeding 
of  cattle,  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
making  up  for  some  deficiencies  in 
methods  has  made  Hungary  one  of  the 
chief  corn-growing  countries  of  Europe. 
It  is  also  celebrated  for  its  wines,  the 
finest  variety  of  which  is  the  Tokay. 
There  are  few  extensive  manufactures 
in  Hungary.  Iron  and  steel  works,  pot- 
teries, glass  manufactories,  sugar-re- 
fineries, soap  and  tallow  works,  are 
amongst  the  principal.  The  production 
of  coal  and  iron  is  increasing  and  the  an- 
nual value  of  the  mining  products  is 
about  $12,500,000.  With  regard  to  popu- 
lar education  Hungary  is  behind  the 
Austrian  part  of  the  empire,  but  educa- 
tion was  made  compulsory  in  1868.  There 
are  universities  at  Budapest,  Klausen- 
burg,  and  Agram.  The  Hungarian  lan- 
guage is  nearly  allied  to  the  Turkish  and 
Finnish,  but  not  to  any  other  tongue 
spoken  in  Europe.  It  has  latterly  been 
carefully  cultivated,  and  Hungarians 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  all 
branches  of  literature.  Among  modern 
names  we  can  only  mention  those  of 
Andrew  Horvath,  Eotvos,  A.  and  C. 
Kisfaludy,  Garay,  Vorosmarty,  Petofi, 
Ker4ny,  Arany,  Josika,  and  Jokay.  Be- 
side its  representation  in  the  controlling 
body  of  delegations  (see  Austria)  Hun- 
gary since  1867  has  an  independent  diet, 
consisting  of  an  upper  and  lower  house 
the  first  composed  of  hereditary  and  life 
peers,  church  dignitaries  and  state  digni- 
taries', the  second  of  representatives 
elected  by  vote.  The  Austrian  emperor 
is  only_  king  of  Hungary  Croatia  and 
Slavonia  have  a common  diet  of  their 
ovm  for  the  management  of  internal  af- 
fairs. 

The  Magyars,  an  Asiatic  people  of 
Turanian  race,  allied  to  the  Finns  and 
the  Turks,  dwelt  in  what  is  now  South- 
ern Russia  before  they  descended  under 


Arpad  into  the  plain  of  the  Danube, 
toward  the  end  of  the  9th  century,  and 
conquered  the  whole  of  Hungary  and 
Transylvania.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  10th  century  their  invasions  and  in- 
cursions spread  terror  throughout  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy;  but  at  length 
their  total  defeat  by  Otho  I.  of  Germany 
put  an  end  to  their  maraudings,  and 
under  their  native  dynasty  of  Arpads 
they  settled  down  to  learn  agriculture 
and  the  arts  of  peace.  Stephen  I.  (997- 
1030)  was  the  first  who  was  successful 
in  extending  Christianity  generally 
among  the  Hungarians,  and  was  re- 
warded by  a crown  from  Pope  Sylvester 
II.  and  with  the  title  of  apostolic  king 
(1000).  In  1089  King  Ladislaus  ex- 
tended the  boundaries  of  Hungary  by 
the  conquest  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia, 
and  King  Coloman  by  that  of  Dalmatia 
in  1102.  About  the  middle  of  the  13th 
century  King  Bela  induced  many  Ger- 
mans to  settle  in  the  country  which  had 
been  depopulated  by  the  Mongol  in- 
vasions. With  Andrew  III.  (,1290-1301) 
the  male  line  of  the  Arpad  dynasty  be- 
came extinct,  and  the  royal  dignity  now 
became  purely  elective.  Charles  Robert 
of  Anjou  was  the  first  elected  (1309). 
Louis  I.  (1342-82)  added  Poland,  Red 
Russia,  Moldavia,  and  a part  of  Servia, 
to  his  kindgom.  The  reign  of  Sigismund 
(1387-1437h  who  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany,  is  interesting  from  the  in- 
vasion of  Hungary  by  the  Turks  (1391), 
and  the  war  with  the  Hussites.  Mat- 
thias Corvinus  (1458-90),  combining  the 
talents  of  a diplomatist  and  general,  is 
even  yet  remembered  by  the  popular 
mind  as  the  ideal  of  a just  and  firm 
ruler.  During  the  reigns  of  Ladislaus 
II.  (1490-1516)  and  Louis  II.  (1516-26) 
the  rapacity  of  the  magnates  and  do- 
mestic troubles  brought  the  power  of 
Hungary  low,  and  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526)  made  a great  part  of  the  country 
a Turkish  province  for  160  years.  The 
rest  was  left  in  dispute  between  Fer- 
dinand of  Austria  and  John  Zapolya; 
but  eventually  by  the  help  of  the  Prot- 
estants passed  to  the  former,  and  has 
since  remained  under  the  scepter  of  the 
Hapsburgs.  In  1686  Leopold  I.  took 
Buda  and  recovered  most  of  Hungary 
and  Transylvania.  In  1724  Charles  VI. 
secured  by  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  the 
Hungarian  crown  to  the  female  de- 
scendants of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
and  the  loyalty  of  the  Hungarians  to  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  saved  the 
dynasty  from  ruin.  Maria  Theresa  did 
much  for  the  improvement  of  Hungary 
by  the  promulgation  of  the  rural  code 
called  Urbarium,  and  by  the  formation 
of  village  schools.  On  the  advent  of  the 
French  revolution,  and  during  the  wars 
which  ensued,  the  Hungarians  once 
more  played  a prominent  part  in  sup- 
port of  the  Hapsburg  crown.  Napoleon 
fell,  but  the  revolution  had  given  an 
impetus  to  ideas  of  national  and  popular 
rights  which  the  Hungarians,  long  stifled 
under  the  Germanic  traditions  and  ten- 
dencies of  their  rulers,  were  among  the 
first  to  feel.  For  a time  Francis  I.  and 
Metternich  stood  stiffly  out  against  all 
concessions,  and  tried  to  govern  by  pure 
absolutism,  but  ended  by  summoning  in 
1825  a new  diet.  The  diet  distinguished 
itself  by  adopting  the  ^l^g3’^ar  language 


in  its  debates  instead  of  the  Latin  to 
which  it  had  been  accustomed.  Suc- 
ceeding diets  in  1830  and  1832  made 
new  demands  in  the  direction  of  religious 
equality,  a popular  suffrage,  and  abro- 
gation of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles. 
The  Austrian  government  attempted  to 
repress  the  Hungarian  national  move- 
ment by  imprisoning  Deak,  Kossuth, 
and  others  of  the  leaders.  The  struggle 
continued  till  1848,  when  the  French 
revolution  of  that  year  gave  the  im- 
pulse for  a similar  rising  in  Vienna. 
Prince  Metternich  fled  to  London,  and 
the  Viennese  court  made  a formal  con- 
cession of  all  important  demands;  but 
these  had  no  sooner  been  granted  than 
the  government  began  secretly  to  work 
against  their  being  put  in  operation. 
The  dependencies  of  the  Hungarian 
crown,  the  Croats  and  the  Wallachians 
of  Transylvania  were  privately  en- 
couraged to  revolt,  and  in  December  of 
the  same  year  an  Austrian  army  took 
the  field  with  the  avowed  object  of  an- 
nihilating the  independence  of  Hungary; 
but  a series  of  pitched  battles  resulted  on 
the  whole  so  much  in  favor  of  the  Hun- 
garians that  Austria  was  obliged  to  call 
in  the  aid  of  Russia,  which  was  at  once 
granted.  After  a heroic  struggle  the 
Hungarians  had  to  succumb.  The  na- 
tion was  reduced  to  the  position  of  a 
province,  and  some  of  the  greatest 
statesmen  and  soldiers  of  Hungary 
perished  on  the  scaffold.  But  the  strug- 
gle was  continued  by  the  Hungarians 
in  the  form  of  a constitutional  agitation, 
and  at  last,  when  the  battle  of  Sadowa 
in  1866  separated  Austria  from  Ger- 
many, Austria,  left  face  to  face  with  a 
nation  almost  as  powerful  and  niunerous 
as  itself,  felt  compelled  to  submit.  In 
1867  a separate  constitution  and  ad- 
ministration for  Hungary  was  decreed, 
and  on  8th  June  the  emperor  and  em- 
press were  crowned  king  and  queen  of 
Hungary  with  the  utmost  pomp,  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  ceremonies  of  a Hun- 
garian coronation.  The  dualism  of  the 
Austrian  empire  was  thus  finally  con- 
stituted. It  was  indeed  but  the  partial 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  empire 
was  a heterogeneous  assemblage  of  com- 
munities differing  widely  in  race,  lan- 
guage, social  habits  and  customs,  and 
bound  together  only  by  the  accident  of 
having  fallen  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 

HUNGER,  a craving  for  food.  It  is  a 
sensation  partly  arising  in  the  stomach, 
since  it  may  be  relieved  temporarily  by 
the  introduction  into  the  stomach  of 
material  which  is  incapable  of  yielding 
any  nutriment  to  the  body.  It  may  be 
due  to  a condition  of  fulness  of  the 
vessels  of  the  stomach,  relieved  by  any 
stimulus  which,  acting  on  the  lining 
membrane,  induces  a flow  of  fluid  from 
the  glands.  But  it  also  arises  from  a 
condition  of  the  system  since  the  intro- 
duction of  nutriment  into  the  blood, 
apart  altogether  from  the  stomach,  will 
relieve  it.  This  is  also  evident  from  the 
fact  that  hunger  may  be  experienced 
even  when  the  stomach  is  full  of  food, 
and  when  food  is  supplied  in  abundance, 
if  some  disease  prevents  the  absorption 
of  the  nourishment,  or  quiekly  drains  it 
from  the  blood.  Hunger  may  be  par- 
tially allayed  by  sleep  or  by  the  use  of 
narcotics,  tobacco,  and  alcohol,  all  of 


HUNS 


HURON 


which  tend  to  diminish  the  disintegra- 
tion of  tissue. 

HUNS,  a nomadic  and  warlike  people 
of  Asia,  of  Mongolian  race,  part  of 
whom  entered  Europe,  probably  in  the 
4th  century  after  Christ,  conquered  the 
Alans,  and  drove  the  Goths  out  of  Dacia. 
They  continued  to  extend  their  domin- 
ion along  the  Danube  till  the  time  of 
Attila  (434  a.d.),  who,  uniting  the  whole 
Hunnish  power  in  one  hand  became  the 
most  powerful  prince  of  his  time.  His 
defeat  near  Chalons  was  the  commence- 
ment of  the  decline  of  the  power  of  the 
Huns,  and  within  a generation  after  his 
death  in  453,  the  great  Hunnish  empire 
had  completely  disappeared,  and  the 
race  been  absorbed  among  other  bar- 
barous peoples.  The  term  Huns  was 
used  by  ancient  and  mediaeval  writers 
in  a very  vague  way  to  indicate  barbar- 
ous hordes  invading  Europe  from  the 
northeast.  The  Huns  are  described  as  a 
race  of  dark  complexion  with  small  black 
eyes,  flat  noses,  and  broad  shoulders. 

HUNT,  James  Henry  Leigh,  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  essayist,  born  in  1784. 
Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned,  A 
Legend  of  Florence,  a play  represented 
with  some  success  at  Covent  Garden  in 
1840;  Stories  from  the  Italian  Poets 
(two  vols.  1846);  Men,  Women,  and 
Books  (1847);  A Jar  of  Honey  from 
Mount  Hybla  (1847);  the  Town,  its 
Memorable  Characters  and  Events 
(1848) ; Autobiography  (three  vols. 1850) ; 
Table  Talk  (1850).  In  1842  Mrs.  Shelley 
settled  an  annuity  of  $600  upon  Leigh 
Hunt,  and  in  1847  a government  pen- 
sion of  $1,000  a year  was  bestowed  on 
him.  He  died  in  1859. 

HUNT,  Richard  Morris,  American 
architect,  was  born  at  Brattleboro,  Vt., 
in  1828.  He  was  the  architect  of  the 
capitol  extension  at  Washington,  the 
Lenox  library,  the  Tribune  building. 
New  York,  the  United  States  naval 
observatory  at  Washington,  the  Divinity 
college  building  at  Yale,  the  administra- 
tion building  for  the  World’s  Fair,  Chi- 
cago, and  the  Yorktown  monument. 
Among  private  houses  by  him  are:  W. 
K.  Vanderbilt’s,  New  York;  the  country 
house  of  George  Vanderbilt,  Biltmore, 
N.  C.;  and  several  beautiful  summer 
houses  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  including  the 
“Marble  House”  and  the  “Breakers.” 
He  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  in  1888 
became  president  of,  the  Institute  of 
Architects.  He  was  a knight  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  a foreign  associ- 
ate of  the  Institute  of  France.  He  died 
in  1895. 

HUNT,  William  Holman,  an  English 
painter,  born  in  1827  at  London.  In 
1853  his  Claudio  and  Isabella  first 
attracted  public  attention,  followed 
next  year  by  the  Light  of  the  World 
(Christ  teaching  in  the  temple).  Outside 
of  Biblical  subjects  Mr.  Hunt  has 
painted  some  notable  pictures:  Isabella 
and  the  Pot  of  Basil,  The  After-Glow, 
The  Festival  of  St.  Swithin,  etc. 

HUNTER,  John,  surgeon  and  physi- 
ologist, was  born  at  Long  Calderwood, 
Lanarkshire,  in  1728.  He  died  in  1793. 
Hunter  contributed  greatly  to  the  high 
development  of  English  surgery,  as  well 
as  to  the  advance  of  anatomy. 

HUNTER,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro, 
American  politician,  born  in  Essex  co., 


Va.,  in  1809.  He  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature  in  1833  and  to  congress 
in  1837,  and  was  re-elected  with  the 
exception  of  the  twenty-eighth  con- 
gress (1843-45)  until  1847,  when  he  took 
his  seat  in  the  senate.  He  was  expelled 
from  the  senate  in  1861  after  the  seces- 
sion of  Virginia.  From  July,  1861,  to 
February,  1862,  he  was  secretary  of 
state  in  Jefferson  Davis’  cabinet.  He 
also  represented  Virginia  in  the  Rich- 
mond senate  1862-65.  He  died  in  1887. 


W.  Holman  Hunt. 


HUNTING  DOG,  this  animal  which  in- 
habits all  the  more  open  parts  of  Africa 
south  of  the  Sahara  and  Abyssinia,  is  an 
aberrant  species  of  dog,  distinguished 
from  the  typical  Canis  by  having  four 
toes  on  each  foot,  and  other  structural 
peculiarities.  It  is  about  as  tall  as  a 
grayhound,  its  legs  being  relatively  long 
and  slender,  and  adapted  to  the  swift 
and  enduring  speed  upon  which  it  must 
depend  for  a livelihood.  The  head  is 
broad  and  flat,  with  a short  muzzle 
armed  with  massive  teeth,  rather  large 
upstanding  furry  ears,  and  a suggestion 
of  the  hyena  in  the  physiognomy;  hence 
it  is  sometimes  called  “hyena-dog,” 
though  the  likeness  is  wholly  superficial. 
The  fur  is  short,  thick,  and  smooth,  and 
grows  more  shaggy  about  the  cheeks 
and  throat ; and  the  tail  is  long  and  wolf- 
like. In  general  color  this  dog  is  yellowish 
gray,  but  it  is  marked  most  irregularly 
with  a variety  of  colors,  such  as  a com- 
bination of  red,  white,  yellow,  and  black 
spots,  so  that  the  hyena-dog  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  most  parti-colored  of  all 
mammalia. 

HUNTINGDON  (contracted  Hunts),  a 
small  inland  county  of  England,  sur- 
rounded by  the  counties  of  Northamp- 
ton, Cambridge  and  Bedford;  area, 
229,515  acres.  Pop.  57,772. 

HUNTINGTON,  the  county  seat  of 
Huntington  co.,  Ind.,  on  the  Little 
river,  the  Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  and 
the  Wabash  and  the  Erie  railroads;  24 
miles  s.w.  of  Fort  Wayne,  118  s.w.  of 
Toledo.  It  is  the  commercial  center  of 
the  Upper  Wabash  valley,  and  the  place 
of  manufacture  of  the  famous  Hunting- 
ton  white  lime.  The  shops  and  division 
headquarters  of  the  Erie  railway  are 
here.  Pop.  11,291. 

HUNTINGTON,  village;  Suffolk  co., 
N.  Y.,  on  Huntington  Bay,  which  opens 
into  Long  Island  Sound,  and  on  the 
Long  Island  railroad;  38  miles  e.  of  New 
York.  The  town  of  the  same  name  in- 


clude., Lloyd’s  Neck  and  several  villages. 
Pop.  11,260. 

HUNTINGTON,  the  county  seat  of 
Cabell  CO.,  West  Va.,  on  the  Ohio  river, 
and  the  Ches.  and  0.,  the  Newport  News 
and  Miss.  Val.,  and  the  Ohio  river  rails 
ways;  52  miles  w.  of  Charleston,  the 
state  capital.  Pop.  14,323. 

HURA,  a genus  of  tropical  American 
plants,  the  sand-box  tree,  is  remarkable 
for  the  loud  report  with  which  its  seed- 


Sand-box  tree. 


vessel  bursts.  It  is  a large  branching 
tree  with  glossy  poplar-like  leaves,  in- 
conspicuous dioecious  flowers,  and  large, 
furrowed,  roundish  fruits  of  the  size  of 
an  orange. 

HURDLES,  frames  formed  of  perpen- 
dicular stakes  with  horizontal  bars,  and 
braced  with  diagonal  pieces  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  temporary  fences.  In 
fortification  the  name  is  given  to  a col- 
lection of  twigs  or  sticks  closely  inter- 
woven and  sustained  by  long  stakes, 
and  serving  to  render  works  firm,  or  to 
cover  traverses  and  lodgments  for  the 
defense  of  workmen  against  fireworks 
or  stones. 

HURDY-GURDY,  a stringed  instru- 
ment, played  by  turning  a handle.  Its 
tones  are  produced  by  the  friction  of  a 
wheel  acting  the  part  of  a bow  against 


Hurdy-gurdy. 


four  strings,  two  of  which  are  pressed  by 
the  fingers  or  by  keys.  The  other  two 
strings  are  tuned  a fifth  apart  to  produce 
a drone  bass,  and  are  not  stopped  by 
the  fingers  or  keys. 

HURON,  Lake,  one  of  the  five  great 
lakes  on  the  frontiers  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  is  the  third  in 
size,  being  218  miles  long  north  and 
south,  and  (including  Georgian  Bay) 
180  miles  broad  at  its  widest  part,  with 
an  area  of  about  21,000  miles.  It  lies  578 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  lake  contains 
several  thousand  islands,  varying  in  size 
from  a few  square  feet  to  huge  islands 
like  the  Great  Manitoulin,  which  is  about 


HURONIAN-ROCKS 


HYBRID 


107  miles  long  and  from  4 to  25  miles 
wide,  and  is  the  only  one  inhabited. 
The  waters  are  very  clear  and  pure, 
abound  in  fish,  and  have  a depth  averag- 
ing from  800  to  1000  feet. 

HURONIAN-ROCKS,  in  geology,  a 
term  applied  to  certain  rocks  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Huron,  consisting  of 
quartzite,  with  masses  of  chloritic  schist. 
They  occupy  the  same  relative  position 
as  the  upper  parts  of  the  Archaean  rocks 
of  Britain. 

HUSBAND  AND  WIFE,  recent  legisla- 
tion in  most  countries  has  been  in  the 
direction  of  putting  husband  and  wife 
on  an  equality,  whereas  formerly  the 
wife  to  a great  extent  lost  her  separate 
status  on  marriage.  Thus,  for  instance, 
by  the  English  common  law  her  per- 
sonal property  passed  at  once  to  her 
husband  on  marriage,  though  this 
might  be  obviated  by  special  settle- 
ments, etc.  But  the  law  no  longer  stands 
so,  especially  since  the  act  of  1882.  By 
this  statute  a married  woman  can  ac- 
quire, hold,  and  dispose  by  will  or  other- 
wise, of  property  as  if  she  were  an  un- 
married woman,  and  may  enter  into 
any  contract,  and  sue  or  be  sued  without 
the  participation  of  her  husband.  A 
woman  carrying  on  a business  separately 
from  her  husband  is  subject  to  the 
bankruptcy  laws  as  if  she  were  un- 
married. Every  married  woman  has, 
even  against  her  husband,  the  same  civil 
remedies,  and  also  the  same  remedies 
by  way  of  criminal  proceedings  for  the 
protection  and  security  of  her  own 
property  as  if  she  were  unmarried;  but 
she  cannot  take  criminal  proceedings 
against  her  husband  while  they  are  liv- 
ing together.  Generally  a husband  is  not 
bound  by  the  contracts  of  his  wife  unless 
they  are  made  by  his  express  or  implied 
authority.  See  also  Marriage,  Divorce, 
Adultery,  etc. 

HUSS,  or  HUS,  John,  Bohemian 
religious  reformer,  born  about  1373.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Prague, 
took  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  in 
1396,  and  in  1398  began  to  lecture  on 
theology  and  philosophy.  In  1401  he 
was  made  dean  of  the  faculty  of  philoso- 
phy, became  the  leader  of  the  Bohemian 
in  opposition  to  the  German  professors 
and  academicians,  and  after  the  with- 
drawal of  the'  latter  to  Leipzig,  was 
made  rector  of  the  university  (1409). 
Since  1391  he  had  been  acquainted  with 
the  writings  of  Wickliff  e,  and  his  denunci- 
ation of  the  papal  indulgences,  of  masses 
for  the  dead,  of  auricular  confession, 
etc.,  alarmed  Archbishop  Sbynko  of 
Prague,  who  had  200  volumes  of  Wick- 
liffe’s  writings  burned  (1410)  in  the 
archiepiscopal  palace,  and  the  preaching 
in  Bohemian  prohibited.  He  was  sen- 
tenced to  death  on  July  6,  1415,  and 
burned  alive  the  same  day,  and  his 
ashes  thrown  into  the  Rhine. 

HUSSARS',  originally  the  name  of  the 
Hungarian  cavalry,  raised  by  Matthias 
I.  in  1458.  Every  twenty  houses  were 
obliged  to  furnish  a man,  and  thus  from 
the  Hungarian  word  husz  (twenty)  was 
formed  the  name  Huszar,  Hussar,  after- 
wards applied  generally  to  light  cavalry, 
similarly  dressed  and  armed,  of  other 
Eu*opean  armies. 

HUSSITES,  the  followers  of  John 
Huss.  After  the  death  of  Huss,  his  ad- 


herents took  up  arms  for  the  defense  of 
their  principles,  and  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Johann  Ziska,  captured  Prague, 
fortified  Mount  Tabor,  and  repeatedly 
defeated  the  troops  sent  against  them  by 
the  Emperor  Sigismund,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown  of  Bohemia.  Ziska 
died  in  1424,  and  was  succeeded  by  Pro- 
copius, who  also  distinguished  himself 
by  many  victories. 

HUSTINGS,  (1)  a name  given  to  a 
court  formerly  held  in  many  cities  of 
England,  as  York,  Winchester,  Lincoln, 
but  especially  applied  to  the  county 
court  of  the  city  of  London  held  before 
the  lord-mayor,  recorder,  and  sheriffs. 
(2)  The  platform  from  which  candidates 
for  political  preferment  address  their 
constituents. 

HUTCHINSON,  the  county  seat  of 
Reno  CO.,  Kan.,  on  the  Arkansas  river, 
here  spanned  by  four  bridges,  and  the 
Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F4,  the  Chi.,  R.  Is. 
and  Pac.,  the  Hutch.  S.,  and  the  Mo. 
Pac.  railways;  168  miles  w.  by  s.  of 
Topeka.  It  contains  the  largest  and 
purest  deposit  of  rock  salt  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  state  re- 
formatory. Pop.  11,189. 

HUTTON,  James,  Scottish  geologist, 
born  at  Edinburgh  in  1726.  Among  his 
numerous  works  are  an  Investigation  of 
the  Principles  of  Knowledge,  Theory  of 
Rain,  Theory  of  the  Earth,  with  Proofs 
and  Illustrations  (1795).  He  died  in 
1797. 

HUXLEY,  Thomas  Henry,  English 
naturalist,  born  May  4,  1825.  He 
graduated  M.  B.  at  the  University  of 
London  in  1845,  and  entered  the  royal 
navy  as  assistant-surgeon  in  1846.  He 


Vll  ' 

Thomas  Henry  Huxley. 


sailed  with  H.M.S.  Rattlesnake  on  a 
surveying  expedition  to  Australasia,  dur- 
ing which  he  sent  a number  of  valuable 
papers  to  the  Royal  Society.  After  being 
professor  of  natural  history  in  the  School 
of  Mines,  Fullerian  professor  of  physi- 
ology to  the  Royal  Institution,  Hun- 
terian professor  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  president  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation meeting  held  at  Liverpool  in 
1870,  lord-rector  of  Aberdeen  University 
in  1872,  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society, 
substitute  professor  of  natural  history 
for  Professor  Wyville  Thompson  at 
Edinburgh  in  1875  and  1876,  a member 
of  various  royal  commissions  on  fisheries 
vivisection,  universities,  etc.,  and  in- 
spector of  salmon  fisheries,  he  resigned 
this  and  almost  all  his  other  offices  in 
1885  on  account  of  ill  health.  Among 
his  works  are  The  Oceanic  Hydrozoa 


(1857),  On  the  Theory  of  the  Vertebrate 
Skull,  Man’s  Place  in  Nature  (1863),  On 
Our  Knov/ledge  of  the  Causes  of  the 
Phenomena  of  Organic  Nature,  a series 
of  lectures  to  working-men  delivered  in 
1862,  Elements  of  Comparative  Anato- 
my (1864),  Elementary  Physiology 
(1866),  Intpduction  to  the  Classifica- 
tion of  Animals  (1869),  Lay  Sermons, 
Addresses,  and  Reviews (1870),  Critiques 
and  Addresses  (1873),  American  Ad- 
dresses (1877),  Physiography  (1877), 
Anatomy  of  Invertebrate  Animals 
(1877),  The  Crayfish  (1879),  Science  and 
Culture  (1882),  etc.  He  died  at  East- 
bourne, June  29, .1894. 

HUYGENS  (hoi'gens),  Christian, Dutch 
mathematician  and  physicist,  born 
in  1629.  He  died  at  the  Hague  in 
1695.  Among  his  most  important  con- 
tributions to  science  are  his  investiga- 
tions on  the  oscillations  of  the  pendulum 
and  his  System  of  Saturn,  in  which  he 
first  proved  that  the  ring  completely 
surrounds  the  planet,  and  determined 
the  inclination  of  its  plane  to  that  of  the 
ecliptic.  In  1690  he  published  important 
treatises  on  light  and  on  weight.  His 
Trait6  de  la  Lumidre  was  founded  on 
the  undulation  theory,  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  prevalence  of  the  New- 
tonian theory  it  was  long  neglected  till 
later  researches  established  its  credit. 

HY'ACINTH,  a genus  of  liliaceous 
bulbous  plants,  including  about  thirty 
species,  among  which  the  garden  hya- 
cinth is  celebrated  for  the  immense 
varieties  which  culture  has  .produced 
from  it.  It  is  a native  of  the  Levant, 
and  was  first  cultivated  as  a garden 
flower  by  the  Dutch  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  16th  century. 

HY'ACINTH,  or  JACINTH,  a variety 
of  the  mineral  zircon,  whose  crystals, 
when  distinct,  have  the  form  of  a four- 
sided prism,  terminated  by  four  rhombic 
planes,  which  stand  on  the  lateral  edges. 
Its  prevailing  color  is  a red,  more  or  less 
tinged  with  yellow  or  brovm.  The  name 
hyacinth  is  also  given  to  varieties  of  the 
garnet  or  cinnamon  stone,  the  sapphire, 
and  topaz. 

HY'ADES,  a cluster  of  five  stars  in  the 
constellation  Taurus,  supposed  by  the 
ancients  to  indicate  the  approach  of 
rainy  weather  when  they  rose  with  the 
sun. 

HYBRID,  the  produce  of  a female 
animal  or  plant  which  has  been  impreg- 
nated by  a male  of  a different  but  nearly 
allied  species  or  genus.  Much  uncer- 
tainty prevails  respecting  the  produc- 
tive crossing  of  species,  but  it  seems  to 
be  established  that  while  the  crossing 
of  different  genera  may  result  in  off- 
spring, that  of  different  orders  will  not. 
Hybrids  are  obtained  among  fishes  from 
different  species  of  carp;  among  birds, 
from  the  goldfinch  and  canary,  the 
swan  and  the  goose,  etc.;  among  mam- 
mals, from  the  horse  and  the  zebra,  the 
horse  and  the  ass,  the  produce  of  the 
last  two  being  the  mule  proper;  from 
the  lion  and  tiger,  the  dog  and  wolf,  the 
dog  and  fox,  the  goat  and  ibex.  In- 
stances  of  hybrids  between  animals  of 
different  genera  have  been  furnished  by 
the  union  of  the  goat  and  the  antelope, 
and  of  the  stag  and  the  cow.  It  used 
formerly  to  be  considered  that  the 
propagative  power  of  hybrids  was  eithet 


HYCSOS 


hyduochloric  acid 


j,bsolutely  null,  or  that  they  propagated 
only  with  an  individual  of  the  pure 
breed;  but  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Dar- 
win and  other  recent  researches  have 
shown  that  although  infertility  to  some 
degree  generally  attends  sexual  inter- 
course between  different  species,  yet  in 
such  intercourse  every  degree  of  differ- 
ence from  absolute  sterility  up  to  com- 
plete fertility  is  found.  The  results 
hitherto  obtained  may  be  summarized  as 
follows:  The  crossing  of  species  of 

different  families  is  in  almost  every  case 
infertile;  allied  species  are  capable  of 
producing  offspring,  and  this  capability 
is  in  indefinite  ratio  to  the  degree  of  their 
likeness;  hybrids  are  frequently  fertile 
with  their  parents,  but  more  rarely 
among  themselves;  there  is  no  fixed 
relation  between  the  degree  of  fertility 
manifested  by  the  parent  species  when 
crossed  and  that  which  is  manifested  by 
their  hybrid  progeny.  In  many  cases 
two  pure  species  can  be  crossed  with 
unusual  facility,  while  the  resulting 
hybrids  are  remarkably  sterile';  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are  species  which 
can  only  be  crossed  with  extreme  diffi- 
culty, though  the  hybrids  when  pro- 
duced are  very  fertile. 

HYCSOS,  or  HYKSHOS,  or  Shepherd 
Kings,  wandering  tribes  of  Semitic  de- 
scent, who  conquered  the  whole  of 
Egypt  about  2100  b.c.,  and  were  driven 
out  some  five  hundred  years  afterward. 
The  only  detailed  account  of  them  in 
any  ancient  writer  is  a passage  of  a lost 
work  of  Manetho,  cited  by  Josephus. 
Their  epoch  covers  the  13th  to  the  17th 
dynasties. 

HYDERABAD,  or  HAIDARABAD,  a 

state  of  Hindustan,  which  comprehends 
the  greater  part  of  that  central  plateau 
of  Southern  India  known  as  the  Deccan, 
and  is  in  possession  of  a Mohammedan 
prince,  the  Nizam;  area,  80,000  sq. 
miles,  exclusive  of  the  Berar  or  Hydera- 
bad Assigned  Districts  under  British 
administration.  The  chief  products  are 
rice,  wheat,  maize,  sugar-cane,  tobacco, 
cotton,  indigo,  fruits,  and  timber  Pop. 
11,357,040.  The  ruler  of  Hyderabad  be- 
longs to  a dynasty  founded  by  Asaf  Jah, 
a distinguished  soldier,  whom  the  Em- 
peror Aurungzeb  made  rank  the  first 
Mohammedan  ruler  in  India,  with  a 
regular  army  of  about  15,000,  besides 
numerous  irregulars. — Hyderabad,  the 
capital  is  situated  on  the  river  Musi,  at 
an  elevation  of  1672  feet  above  the  sea. 
There  are  manufactures  of  silks,  trink- 
ets, and  turbans.  Pop.  of  city  and  sub- 
urbs, 448,466. 

HYDERABAD,  or  HAIDARABAD,  a 

town  of  Hindustan,  capital  of  Hydera- 
bad, District  Sind.  It  is  situated  on  a 
rocky  eminence  about  3 miles  from  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Indus.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  arms,  silks, 
cottons,  and  lacquered  ware.  Pop. 
69,378. — The  district  has  an  area  of  9030 
sq.  miles;  the  pop.  is  918,646. 

HYDER  ALI,  a distinguished  Indian 
prince,  born  in  1728,  son  of  a general  in 
the  service  of  the  Rajah  of  Mysore.  By 
his  military  talents  he  became  the  actual 
ruler  of  Mysore,  and  in  1762  deposed 
Kandih  Rao,  and  had  himself  chosen 
Rajah.  In  1780  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Mahrattas  against  the  English, 
look  Arcot,  but  was  defeated  by  Sir 


Eyre  Coote,  June  1,  1781.  The  Mah- 
rattas now  joining  in  a league  against 
him,  he  carried  on  a disadvantageous 


Hyder  All. 


war,  during  the  continuance  of  which 
he  died,  in  1782.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Tippoo  Saib. 

HYDRA,  in  Greek  mythology,  a eele- 
brated  monster,  which  infested  the 
neighborhood  of  Lake  Lerna  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  Some  accounts  give  it  a 
hundred  heads,  others  fifty,  others  nine. 
As  soon  as  one  of  these  heads  was  cut  off 
two  immediately  grew  up  if  the  wound 
was  not  stopped  by  fire.  It  was  one  of 
the  labors  of  Heracles  to  destroy  this 
monster,  and  this  he  effected  with  the 
assistance  of  lolaus,  who  applied  a burn- 
ing iron  to  the  wounds  as  soon  as  one 
head  was  cut  off. 

HYDRANGEA  (hi-dran'je-a),  a genus 
of  shrubs  containing  about  thirty-three 
species,  natives  of  Asia  and  America. 
The  garden  hydrangea  is  a native  of 
China.  It  is  a favorite  for  the  beauty 
and  size  of  its  flowers. 

HYDRAULIC  CRANE,  a crane  wrought 
by  the  pressure  of  water  applied  on 
the  principle  of  the  hydraulic  or  hydro- 
static press.  The  mechanism  consists  of 
one  or  more  such  presses,  with  sheaves 
or  pulleys  and  chains  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  an  extended  motion  in  the 
chain  from  a comparatively  short  stroke 
of  the  piston.  The  power  is  applied  not 
only  for  lifting  the  load,  but  also  for 
swinging  the  jib,  which  latter  object  is 
effected  by  means  of  a rack  or  chain 
operating  on  the  base  of  the  movable 
part  of  the  crane,  and  connected  either 
with  a cylinder  and  piston  having  alter- 
nate motion,  like  that  of  a steam-engine, 
or  with  two  presses  applied  to  produce 
the  same  effect  by  alternate  action. 

HYDRAULIC  PRESS,  known  also  as 
Hydrostatic  Press  or  Bramah’s  Press. 
See  Hydrostatic  Press. 

HYDRAULTC  RAM,  a machine  for 
raising  water,  and  depending  for  its 
action  on  the  impulse  of  flowing  water. 
The  water  falling  from  a reservoir  passes 
into  a pipe  or  chamber  (b),  at  the  end  of 
which  there  is  a ball  valve  (c).  The  rush 
of  supply  water  at  first  'closes  this,  and 
the  water  finding  no  exit  there  acquires 
pressure  enough  to  open  another  valve 
(d)  and  pass  into  an  air-vessel  placed 
over  it  (f).  The  cessation  of  pressure  at 
valve  c allows  it  to  fall  again ; an  outrush 
of  water  takes  place  there,  relieving 


valve  d,  which  again  closes.  The  pres- 
sure of  the  flowing  water  upon  valve  c 
once  more  closes  this  valve,  and  valve 
d again  opens,  and  an  additional  quan- 
tity of  water  is  forced  into  the  air-vessel 


-t 


Hydraulic  ram. 


and  so  on  by  a series  of  pulsations  which 
send  the  water  along  the  service  pipe, 
and,  in  properly  arranged  machines, 
raises  it  to  a very  considerable  height, 
although  the  impulse  is  derived  only 
from  the  fall  of  a few  feet. 

HYDRAUL'ICS,  that  part  of  mechani- 
cal science  which  has  to  do  with  con- 
ducting, raising,  and  confining  water,  or 
of  applying  it  as  a motive  power.  It  thus 
has  to  do  with  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes 
or  channels,  and  with  the  various  ma- 
chines in  which  water  is  utilized,  such  as 
water-wheels,  pumps,  turbines,  the 
archimedean  screw,  the  Barker’s  mill, 
the  hydraulic  ram,  the  hydraulic  crane, 
the  hydraulic  or  hydrostatic  press,  etc. 

HYDROCARBONS,  in  chem.,  a series 
of  compounds  which  consist  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  only.  They  are  produced 
chiefly  by  the  decomposition  of  organic 
substances,  either  slowly  by  natural 
causes,  or  by  artificial  means,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  destructive  distillation  of 
coal  for  the  purpose  of  making  gas. 
Certain  of  the  hydrocarbons  are  also 
found  in  the  gums  which  exude  from 
trees.  Among  the  best  known  are  paraffin 
benzine,  turpentine. 

HYDROCELE,  a collection  of  serous  • 
fluid  in  some  of  the  coverings  ol  the 
testiclS  or  spermatic  cord,  or  in  the 
areolar  texture  of  the  scrotum.  It  is 
generally  the  result  of  a strain  or  an 
inflammation  of  the  testes.  A large 
tumor  is  formed,  filled  with  fluid,  which 
has  often  to  be  drawn  off  three  or  four 
times  a year.  A radical  cure  may  be 
effected  by  setting  up  an  inflammation 
which  brings  the  opposite  surfaces  of  the 
sac  into  adhesion,  and  thus  obliterates 
the  cavity. 

HYDROCEPH'ALUS,  an  accumula- 
tion of  fluid  within  the  cavity  of  the 
cranium;  dropsy  of  the  brain. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  or  MURI- 
ATIC ACID,  a gaseous  compound  of 
equal  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  chlorine. 

It  is'  evolved  during  volcanic  eruptions, 
and  is  found  in  the  water  which  collects 
in  the  crevices  of  mountains,  as  well  as 
in  rivers  which  take  their  rise  in  volcanic 


hydrocyanic  acid 


HYDROPHOBIA 


formations,  especially  in  South  America. 
It  may  be  produced  by  decomposing 
common  salt  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  by 
bringing  equal  volumes  of  chlorine  and 
hydrogen  together  and  exposing  the 
mixture  to  diffused  daylight  without 
condensation.  It  explodes  in  direct  sun- 
light. Hydrochloric  acid  is  colorless, 
has  a pungent  odor,  and  an  acid  taste. 
It  is  quite  irrespirable,  extinguishes 
flame,  and  dissolves  very  readily  in 
water.  The  chief  use  of  hydrochloric 
acid  in  the  arts  is  to  supply  chlorine  to 
the  bleaching-powder  manufacturer.  It 
is  also  used  in  the  preparation  of  glue, 
phosphorus,  carbonic  acid,  artificial 
waters,  etc.  In  medicine  it  is  used  diluted 
as  a tonic  and  astringent.  In  a concen- 
trated form  it  is  a powerful  caustic. 

HYDROCYANIC  ACID.  Same  as  Prus- 
sic Acid. 

HYDRODYNAMICS,  a branch  of  the 
general  science  of  dynamics,  treating 
specially  of  the  laws  of  force  as  applied 
to  fluids.  It  is  divided  into  hydro- 
statics, which  is  concerned  with  forces 
applied  to  fluids  at  rest,  and  hydro- 
kinetics, which  treats  of  the  application 
of  forces  so  as  to  produce  motion  in 
fluids.  The  term  liydrodynamics  is, 
however,  very  often  used  in  the  latter 
sense,  being  thus  opposed  to  hydro- 
statics. The  name  Hydraulics  is  given 
to  the  subject  when  considered  with 
respect  to  its  practical  bearing  on 
engineering  science. 

HYDRO-ELECTRIC  MACHINE,  a 
machine  in  which  electricity  is  generated 
by  the  friction  of  steam  against  the 
sides  of  orifices  through  which  it  is 
allowed  to  escape  under  high  pressure. 

HYDROFLUORTC  ACID,  or  FLUO- 
HYDRIC  ACID,  an  acid  which  may  be 
obtained  either  in  the  liquid  form  or  in 
the  anhydrous  form,  as  a colorless  gas. 
Both  the  dry  and  the  liquid  form  act 
upon  the  skin  with  great  virulence. 
Hydrofluoric  acid  is  used  chiefly  for 
etching  upon  glass.  The  glass  is  covered 
with  a thin  coating  of  etching  wax,  and 
the  design  is  traced  through  the  wax 
down  to  the  glass  with  a fine-pointed 
instrument.  The  plate  is  then  treated 
either  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  the 
acid  or  is  exposed  to  the  gas  itself. 
After  a sufficient  length  of  time  the  wax 
is  dissolved  away  and  the  design  be- 
comes visible.  In  chemistry  hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  used  to  decompose  and 
dissolve  silicates  in  mineral  analysis. 

HY'DROGEN,  an  important  elemen- 
tary substance,  one  of  the  elements  of 
water  and  a component  of  all  vegetable 
and  animal  products.  It  may  be  ob- 
tained by  passing  the  vapor  of  water 
over  red-hot  iron  filings,  or  by  sub- 
mitting water  to  the  action  of  an  electric 
current,  whereby  it  is  decomposed  into 
its  elements  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  Pure 
hydrogen  is  a colorless,  tasteless,  in- 
odorous gas:  it  is  very  inflammable, 
burning  with  a pale,  very  slightly 
luminous,  but  intensely  hot  flame;  it  is 
a powerful  refractor  of  light;  the  least 
dense  and  the  most  rapidly  diffusible  of 
all  the  gases  and  the  lightest  body  in 
nature,  being  about  14J  tim6s  lighter 
than  atmospheric  air,  with  a specific 
gravity  of  .0603.  In  consequence  of  its 
extreme  lightness  it  is  the  recognized 
standard  of  unity  in  referring  to  the 

P.  E.— 41 


atomic  weight  of  bodies,  and  it  has  also 
been  assumed  as  the  unit  in  speaking  of 
the  specific  gravity  of  gases,  although 
common  air  is  the  more  generally  re- 
ceived standard.  Hydrogen  cannot  sup- 
port respiration,  but  is  not  directly 
poisonous,  death  ensuing  from  mere 
absense  of  oxygen.  Two  volumes  of 
hydrogen  with  six  of  air  form  an  ex- 
plosive mixture.  The  most  intense  heat 
that  can  be  produced  is  caused  by  the 
burning  of  hydrogen  in  oxygen  gas,  and 
this  principle  has  been  applied  to  in- 
crease the  temperature  of  blast-furnaces 
in  iron-works  by  making  the  gases  pass 
separately  through  heated  tubes  to  the 
furnace.  Hydrogen  is  only  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  nor  is  there  any  other 
liquid  which  is  capable  of  dissolving  it 
in  great  quantity.  Hydrogen  gas  can  be 
liquefied  by  exposure  to  650  atmospheres 
pressure,  and  140°  c.,  but  remains  liquid 
at  320  atmospheres  pressure,  the  tem- 
perature remaining  the  same.  It  unites 
with  all  other  elementary  gaseous  bodies, 
and  forms  with  them  compounds,  not 
only  of  great  curiosity,  but  of  vast  im- 
portance and  utility:  with  nitrogen  it 
forms  ammonia;  with  chlorine,  hydro- 
chloric acid;  with  fluorine,  hydrofluoric 
3'Cld  0tc 

HYDROG'RAPHY,  that  branch  of 
geographical  science  which  has  for  its 
object  the  description  and  natural 
phenomena  of  the  water  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  whether  in  seas,  lakes,  or 
rivers.  It  may  deal  with  the  rivers, 
watersheds,  lakes,  etc.,  of  a particular 
country;  and  it  also  embraces  the  de- 
termination of  winds,  currents,  and 
other  departments  of  marine-surveying. 
In  Britain,  France,  the  United  States, 
etc.,  there  are  hydrographic  depart- 
ments kept  up  by  government,  which 
publish  accurate  charts  of  coasts,  issue 
sailing  directions,  etc. 

HYDROKINETTCS,  that  branch  of 
hydrodynamics  which  treats  of  the  ap- 
plication of  forces  producing  motion  in 
fluids,  having  thus  to  do  with  the  flow 
of  liquids  in  pipes,  its  issue  from  orifices 
under  certain  pressures,  etc. 

HYDROM'ETER,  an  instrument  pri- 
marily for  determining  the  specific 
gravity  of  fluids,  though  some  of  thefti 
can  also  determine  the  specific  gravity 
of  solids.  The  hydrostatic  principle  on 


Hydrometer. 

which  the  use  of  the  hydrometer  de- 
pends is  the  well-known  one  that  when  a 
solid  body  floats  in  a liquid,  and  thus 
displaces  a quantity  of  the  liquid,  the 
weight  of  the  solid  body  is  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  liquid  that  it  displaces. 
The  density  of  the  liquid  is  determined 
either  by  observing  the  depths  to  which 
the  hydrometer  sinks  in  the  liquid  (the 
hydrometer  of  variable  immersion)  or 
the  weights  required  to  make  it  sink  to  a 


given  depth  (the  hydrometer  of  con- 
stant immersion).  Of  the  second  kind 
of  hydrometer  Nicholson’s  is  a good 
example.  It  consists  of  a hollow  cylinder 
of  metal,  surmounted  with  a very  fine 
metallic  stem,  to  the  top  of  which  there 
is  attached  a plate  or  pan  for  weights. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  metallic  cylinder 
hangs  a kind  of  cup  or  basket.  The 
whole  instrument  is  weighted  so  as  to 
float  upright.  On  the  fine  metallic  stem 
there  is  a marked  point:  and  by  putting 
weights  on  the  upper  pan  the  hydrom- 
eter is  always  made  to  sink  precisely 
to  this  point.  Thus  the  volume  immersed 
is  always  the  same.  From  what  was 
said  above,  it  is  seen  at  once  that  differ- 
ent weights  are  required  to  sink  it  to  the 
marked  point  in  different  liquids,  the 
denser  the  liquid  the  greater  being  the 
weight  required : and  if  the  weight  of  the 
instrument  itself  is  known,  and  also  the 
standard  weight,  or  w'eight  required  to 
sink  it  to  the  marked  point  in  distilled 
water,  the  calculation  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  any  liquid  from  an  observa- 
tion with  the  instrument  is  very  easy.  But 
the  specific  gravity  of  solids  can  also  be 
found  by  means  of  Nicholson’s  hydrom- 
eter, for  which  purpose  the  instrument 
is  placed  in  distilled  water  and  the  solid 
body  is  put  on  the  upper  pan.  Weights 
are  then  added  till  the  hydrometer  sinks 
to  the  marked  point.  But  the  standard 
weight  of  the  instrument  being  known, 
it  is  plain  that  the  difference  between  it 
and  the  weights  that  must  be  added  on 
the  upper  pan  to  the  weight  of  the  body 
whose  specific  gravity  is  to  be  deter- 
mined must  be  the  weight  in  air  of  that 
body.  The  body  is  now  transferred  to 
the  basket  below  the  instrument,  and 
the  additional  weights  which  must  now 
be  placed  in  the  dish  represent  the 
weight  of  water  displaced  by  the  solid; 
and  the  weight  of  the  solid  itself  divided 
by  this  weight  is  the  specific  gravity  re- 
quired. Hydrometers  of  variable  immer- 
sion are  usually  made  of  glass.  Each  of 
them  has  a large  hollow  bulb,  below 
which  there  is  a smaller  bulb  weighted 
with  mercury  to  make  the  instrument 
float  upright.  The  stem  is  cylindrical 
and  is  graduated,  the  divisions  being 
frequently  marked  on  a piece  of  paper 
inclosed  within  the  stem.  The  depth  to 
which  the  hydrometer  sinks  in  the 
liquid  gives  the  density. 

HYDROP'ATHY,  a method  of  treat- 
ing diseases  by  the  use  of  pure  water 
both  internally  and  externally.  The 
system  was  originated  by  Vincent 
Priessnitz,  a Silesian  peasant,  who  in 
1829  established  at  his  native  village  of 
Grafenberg  an  institution  for  the  hydro- 
pathic treatment  of  diseases,  and  in- 
vented a variety  of  forms  in  which  the 
water  cure  might  be  applied,  such  as 
the  wet-sheet  pack,  the  dry  blanket  or 
sweating  pack,  the  sitz,  douche,  plunge, 
wave,  etc.,  baths. 

HYDROPHO'BIA,  a specific  disease 
arising  from  the  bite  of  a rabid  animal. 
The  animals  most  liable  to  be  afflicted 
with  madness  are  dogs;  but  cats,  wolves, 
foxes,  etc.,  are  also  subject  to  it.  The 
early  sjunptoms  of  rabies  in  the  dog  are 
such  as  restlessness  and  general  uneasi- 
ness, irritability,  sullenness,  an  inclina- 
tion for  indigestible  and  unnatural  food, 
and  often  a propensity  to  lap  its  own 


Hydrostatic  frrsS 


HYENA 


urine.  As  the  disease  proceeds  the  eyes 
become  red,  briglit,  and  fierce,  with 
some  degree  of  strabismus  or  squinting; 
twitchings  occur  round  the  eye,  and 
gradually  spread  over  the  whole  face. 
After  the  second  day  the  dog  usually 
begins  to  lose  perfect  control  over  the 
voluntary  muscles.  He  catches  at  his 
food,  and  either  bolts  it  almost  un- 
chewed, or,  in  the  attempt  to  chew  it, 
suffers  it  to  drop  from  his  mouth.  This 
want  of  power  over  the  muscles  of  the 
jaw,  tongue,  and  throat  increases  until 
the  lower  jaw  becomes  dependent,  the 
tongue  protrudes  from  the  mouth,  and 
is  of  a dark,  and  almost  black  color.  A 
peculiar  kind  of  delirium  also  comes  on, 
and  the  animal  snaps  at  imaginary  ob- 
jects. His  thirst  is  excessive,  although 
there  is  occasionally  a want  of  power  to 
lap.  His  desire  to  do  mischief  depends 
much  on  his  previous  disposition  and 
habits.  He  utters  also  a peculiar  howl, 
and  his  bark  is  altogether  dissimilar 
Horn  his  usual  tone.  In  the  latter  stages 
of  the  disease  a viscid  saliva  flows  from 
his  mouth,  and  his  breathing  is  attended 
with  a harsh,  grating  sound.  The  loss  of 
power  over  the  voluntary  muscles  ex- 
tends after  the  third  day,  throughout 
his  whole  frame,  he  staggers  in  his  gait, 
and  frequently  falls.  On  the  fourth  or 
fifth  day  of  the  disease  the  dog  dies, 
sometimes  in  convulsions,  but  more  fre- 
quently without  a struggle.  In  regard 
to  man  the  rabid  virus  seems  to  be  more 
violent  when  it  proceeds  from  wolves 
than  from  dogs.  It  appears  to  be  con- 
tained solely  in  the  saliva  of  the  animal, 
and  does  not  produce  any  effect  on  the 
healthy  skin.  But  if  the  skin  is  deprived 
of  the  epidermis,  or  if  the  virus  is  applied 
to  a wound,  the  innoculation  will  take 
effect.  The  development  of  the  rabid 
symptoms  is  rarely  immediate;  it  sel- 
dom takes  place  before  the  fortieth  or 
after  the  sixtieth  day,  but  in  some  cases 
has  occurred  after  six  months  or  even 
longer.  It  begins  with  a slight  pain  in 
the  scar  of  the  bite,  sometimes  attended 
with  a chill;  the  pain  extends  and 
reaches  the  base  of  the  breast,  if  the  bite 
was  on  the  lower  limbs,  or  the  throat, 
if  on  the  upper  extremities.  The  patient 
becomes  dejected,  morose,  and  taci- 
turn; He  prefers  solitude,  and  avoids 
bright  light;  frightful  dreams  disturb 
his  sleep;  the  eyes  become  brilliant; 
pains  in  the  neck  and  throat  ensue. 
These  symptoms  precede  the  rabid 
symptoms  two  or  three  days.  They  are 
followed  by  a general  shuddering  at  the 
approach  of  any  liquid  or  smooth  body, 
attended  with  a sensation  of  oppression, 
deep  sighs  and  convulsive  starts,  in 
which  the  muscular  strength  is  much 
increased.  A foamy,  viscid  slaver  is  dis- 
charged from  the  mouth;  the  deglutition 
of  solid  matters  is  difficult ; the  respira- 
tion hard;  the  skin  warm,  burning,  and 
afterward  covered  with  sweat ; the 
pulse  strong;  the  fit  is  often  followed  by 
a syncope;  the  fits  return  at  first  every 
few  hours,  then  at  shorter  intervals,  and 
death  takes  place  generally  on  the  sec- 
ond or  third  day.  No  means  have  yet 
been  found  of  arresting  the  progress  of 
the  poisonous  virus  after  it  has  once  de- 
veloped in  the  S3’’stem.  The  treatment, 
therefore,  consists  in  preventing  its  de- 
velopment, which  may  be  effected  by 


applying  a ligature,  where  possible,  to 
impede  the  circulation  from  the  wound, 
by  sucking  it,  and  thoroughly  cauteriz- 
ing it  either  with  nitrate  of  silver  or  with 
iron  heated  to  a white  heat,  the  pain  of 
cautery  being  less  as  the  temperature  is 
greater.  If  these  means  are  not  available 
any  burning  substance  and  most  acids 
may  be  used.  Within  a quite  recent 
period  M.  Pasteur  put  forward  a method 
of  preventing  the  development  of  the 
disease  by  a system  of  successive  inocu- 
lations with  rabid  virus  of  greater  and 
greater  intensity;  the  inoculation  being 
made  the  first  day  with  marrow  which 
has  been  extracted  from  the  rabid  ani- 
mal, 12,  10,  and  8 days;  then  the  second 
day  with  marrow  extracted  6,  4,  and  2 
days;  the  third  day  with  one  day’s 
marrow,  etc.  M.  Pasteur’s  method  has 
been  favorably  reported  on  by  an 
English  commission  but  there  is  per- 
haps some  room  for  doubts  regarding 
the  number  of  cures  really  performed. 
As  a sharp  critic  of  the  Rasteur  system 
has  remarked,  every  one  who  is  bitten 
and  inoculated  is  counted  in  the  list 
of  cures,  though  there  is  nothing  to 
prove  that  he  ever  contracted  the 
r£tbi©s 

HYDROSTATTC  PRESS,  or  BRA- 
MAH’S PRESS,  a hydrostatic  apparatus 
which  in  its  practical  application  was 
invented  by  Bramah  in  1796.  It  will  be 
understood  from  the  accompanying 
figure.  By  means  of  a suction  and  force 
pump  a a,  worked  by  the  lever  or  handle 
1 turning  about  the  point  o,  water  is 


drawn  from  the  reservoir  b'  b'  and  forced 
along  the  tube  c c into  the  cistern  v 
through  the  top  of  which  a heavy  metal 
plunger  a a works.  On  the  upper  end  of 
the  plunger  is  a large  plate  b b upon 
which  the  goods  to  be  pressed  are  placed. 
When  water  is  pumped  from  the  reser- 
voir b b into  the  cistern  v,  the  pressure 
exerted  by  the  plunger  of  the  pump  is 
transmitted  according  to  the  well- 
known  hydrostatic  principle  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  plunger  a,  which  accordingly 
rises  and  carries  the  objects  placed  on 
plate  b'  b'  up  against  the  top  of  a fixed 
frame  d d.  It  was  the  invention  by 
Bramah  of  a water-tight  leather  collar 
surrounding  the  piston  that  made  the 
use  of  the  press  practicable;  before  his 
invention  not  much  power  could  be  de- 
veloped from  the  escape  of  the  water 
round  the  piston.  The  collar  consists 
of  a leather  ring  bent  so  as  to  have  a 
semi-circular  section,  so  that  the  water 
passing  between  the  piston  and  cylinder 
fills  the  concavity  of  the  collar,  and  by 
pressure  produces  a packing  which  fits 
the  tighter  as  the  pressure  on  the  piston 
increases.  The  hydrostatic  press  may  be 
constructed  to  give  pressures  of  two  or 
three  hundred  tons,  and  is  extensively 


employed  where  very  great  force  is  re- 
quired, as  in  testing  anchors  or  raising 
very  heavy  weights. 

HYDROSTATICS',  is  that  part  of  the 
general  science  of  hydrodynamics  that 
treats  of  the  application  of  forces  to 
fluids  at  rest.  Among  the  chief  princi- 


Pascal’s  principle. 

pies  of  hydrostatics  may  be  mentioned 
the  following:  (1)  The  intensity  of  pres- 
sure at  any  point  of  a fluid  is  the  same  in 
all  directions;  it  is  the  same  whether  the 
surface  that  receives  the  pressure  faces 
upward,  downward,  horizontally  or 
obliquely.  (2)  When  a fluid  is  confined, 
if  the  intensity  of  pressure  in  one  part  be 
increased,  as  by  forcing  in  a piston  or  by 
any  other  means,  an  equal  increase  will 
be  produced  in  the  intensity  of  pressure 
at  all  other  parts:  in  other  words,  pres- 
sure applied  to  any  one  part  is  trans- 
mitted without  any  change  in  its  inten- 
sity to  all  other  parts.  The  diagram  will 
aid  in  the  understanding  of  this.  If 
pressure  is  applied  to  p it  will  be  trans- 
mitted in  all  directions  through  the 
liquid.  If  other  openings  are  made,  and 
if  they  are  fitted  with  pistons,  the  pres- 
sure that  must  be  applied  to  any  piston 
equal  in  area  to  the  area  of  p is  equal  to 
the  pressure  on  p ; and  if  the  area  of  one 
of  the  other  pistons  is  greater  or  less  than 
the  area  of  p,  the  pressure  required  to 
keep  it  in  its  place  is  proportionately 
greater  than  or  less  than  the  pressure 
that  is  applied  to  p.  This  principle, 
which  is  known  as  Pascal’s  principle 
from  being  distinctly  formulated  by 
him,  is  the  most  important  in  hydro- 
statics, and  finds  a practical  application 
in  the  Hydrostatic,  or  Bramah’s  Press 
(see  above).  (3)  Not  only  is  pressure 
transmitted  out  to  the  surface  or  en- 
velope of  the  liquid,  but  within  the 
fluid  itself  the  particles  are  all  pressed 
together.  When  a solid  is  immersed  in 
the  liquid  it  is  pressed  at  every  point  of 
its  surface  in  the  direction  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  surface  at  that  point. 

HYDROSULPHU'RIC  ACID,  or  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  or  hydrothionic 
acid  is  a colorless  imflammable  gas  pro- 
duced by  the  putrefaction  of  sulphurous 
organic  matters.  Many  mineral  waters 
contain  it  naturally.  It  may  be  artifi- 
cially produced  by  burning  sulphur 
vapor  in  hydrogen,  or  by  passing  hydro- 
gen through  sulphur.  It  has  a sweet 
taste  but  a very  nauseous  odor  as  of 
rotten  eggs.  It  has  poisonous  effects  j 
when  breathed,  and  experiments  have  ' 
shown  that  birds  perished  in  air  which 
contained  part  of  the  gas. 

HYE'NA,  a genus  of  digitigrade  car- 
nivorous quadrupeds,  constituting  a 
family  which  unites  the  skull  characters 
of  the  Felidae  (cats)  with  the  skeleton 


ttYGIElA 


ftYPERBOLE 


and  gregarious  habits  of  the  Canidae 
(dogs).  The  characters  of  this  genus  are 
five  molars  above,  and  five  or  four  be- 
low, on  each  side,  the  three  anterior 
molars  being  conical,  smooth,  and  re- 
markably large,  adapted  for  breaking 
the  bones  of  their  prey;  the  tongue  is 
rough;  the  legs  are  each  terminated  by 


Striped  hyena. 


four  claws;  the  forelegs  are  longer  than 
than  the  hind  legs;  the  eyes  large  and 
prominent;  the  ears  long  and  acute;  the 
jaws  are  remarkable  for  the  strength  of 
their  muscles,  and  can  crush  the  hardest 
and  most  massive  bones  with  ease. 
The  genus  is  confined  to  Africa  and 
Asia.  There  are  three  species  known — 
the  striped,  the  spotted,  and  the  brown 
hyena.  They  are  nocturnal  animals,  ex- 
tremely voracious,  feeding  chiefly  on 
carrion,  and  thus  being  of  great  utility 
in  the  countires  where  they  live;  to 
obtain  dead  bodies  they  will  even  dig  up 
graves. 

HYGIEIA  (hl-ji-e'  ya),  the  Greek  god- 
dess of  health,  daughter  of  Asclepius,  or 
iEsculapius.  Her  temple  was  placed 
near  that  of  ^Esculapius,  and  her  statues 


Hygleia,  from  antique  statue. 

were  even  erected  in  it.  She  is  repre- 
sented as  a blooming  maid  with  a bowl 
in  her  hand,  from  which  she  is  feeding 
a snake,  the  symbol  of  health. 

HYGIENE  (hi' ji-en),  the  department  of 
medicine  which  treats  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  health,  and  the  duration  of  life 
prolonged  by  a due  attention  to  physio- 
logical or  natural  laws.  It  is  usually  di- 
vided into  public  and  private  hygiene, 
the  former  having  to  do  with  measures 
for  excluding  causes  of  disease,  methods 
of  securing  cleanliness  in  the  streets  and 
dwellings,  methods  of  maintaining  the 
purity  of  the  supply  of  food  and  drink; 
the  latter  may  "be  considered  to  embrace 
such  subjects  as  alimentation,  clothing, 
exercise  and  muscular  development,  etc. 

HYGROM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  degree  of  moisture  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  chief  classes  of  hy- 
grometers depend  either  upon  absorp- 
tion or  upon  condensation.  Of  the 
former  kind  is  the  hygrometer  of  Saus- 


sure,  in  which  a hair,  that  expands  and 
contracts  in  length  according  as  the  air 
is  more  or  less  moist,  is  made  to  move  an 
i.idex.  Of  the  latter  sort  is  Daniell’s 
hygrometer.  This  instrument  consists  of 
a bent  glass  tube,  terminating  in  two 
bulbs,  the  bulb  a being  two-thirds  filled 
with  sulphuric  ether,  and  the  bulb  b be- 
ing at  the  commencement  of  an  experi- 
ment, empty.  The  latter  is  covered  with 
muslin.  In  process  of  construction  the 
tube  is  exhausted  of  air,  and  is  thus  filled 
with  vapor  of  ether  through  its  entire 
length.  A thermometer  (t)  whose  bulb 
is  immersed  in  the  ether  of  the  lower 
arm,  is  inserted  in  the  tube  to  register 
variation  of  temperature,  and  a second 
thermometer  (t')  is  attached  to  the  stand 
of  the  instrument,  to  show  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  outer  air.  If  sulphuric  ether 
be  dropped  on  the  bulb  b,  as  it  evaporates 
the  bulb  is  cooled,  and  the  vapor  of 


Daniell's  hygrometer. 

ether  is  condensed  within  it  from  the 
bulb  a;  while  owing  to  the  evaporation 
from  a into  b the  temperature  of  the 
former  gradually  falls.  The  operation  is 
carried  on  till  the  temperature  of  a is  so 
far  reduced  that  dew  from  the  surround- 
ing air  just  begins  to  condense  upon  it. 
By  means  of  the  thermometer  contained 
in  a the  temperature  is  read  off  at  the 
instant  at  which  vapor  begins  to  con- 
dense, and  the  dew-point  is  thus  ob- 
tained. The  hygrometric  condition, 
that  is,  the  ratio  between  the  quantity  of 
moisture  that  the  air  actually  contains 
and  the  quantity  which  it  is  capable  of 
containing  at  the  existing  temperature, 
is  then  easily  deduced.  Regnault’s  hy- 
grometer is  a modification  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  Daniell’s  instrument,  the  ether 
beingevaporatedbyforcingairthroughit. 

HYKSHOS.  See  Hycsos. 

HY'MEN,  Hymenffius,  the  god  of 
marriage  in  Grecian  mythology.  No 
marriage  took  place  without  his  being 
invoked  to  sanction  it.  He  is  described 
as  having  around  his  brows  the  flowers 
of  majoram,  in  his  left  hand  the  flame- 
colored  nuptial  veil,  in  his  right  the 
nuptial  torch,  and  on  his  feet  golden 
sandals.  He  is  a taller  and  more  serious 
Eros,  and  is  accompanied  by  song  and 
dance. 

HYMENOP'TERA,  an  extensive  order 
of  insects,  comprising  bees,  wasps,  ants, 
ichneumon-flies,  gall-flies,  saw-flies  and 
allied  insects.  They  are  character- 
ized by  four  membranous  naked  wings 
which  have  comparatively  few  veins. 
The  second  pair  of  wings  is  always 
smaller  than  the  first.  The  mouth  parts 
are  provided  with  biting  jaws  and  a 
suctorial  organ.  The  head  is  freely  mov- 
able, and  besides  the  lateral  compound 
eyes,  there  are  usually  three  ocelli  on 


the  top  of  the  head.  The  Hymenoptera 
undergo  complete  metamorphosis.  Fe- 
males have  the  extremity  of  the  ab- 
domen furnished  either  with  an  ovi- 
positor, forming  a boring  organ,  or  a 


Hymenoptera.  o,  Ovipositor  of  female. 

sting.  Hence  the  two  sub-orders  into 
■ which  Hymenoptera  are  divided  are 
that  comprising  the  saw-flies,  gall-flies, 
ichneumon-flies,  etc.,  and  that  which 
include  the  bees,  wasps,  ants,  hornets, 
etc. 

HYMN,  originally  a song  of  praise 
sung  in  honor  of  gods  and  heroes  on 
festivals,  with  the  accompaniments  of 
music  and  dancing.  Among  the  Hindus 
the  hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda,  among  the 
Hebrews  the  psalms,  and  among  the 
Greeks  the  so-called  Orphic  and  Homeric 
hymns  are  good  examples.  The  early 
Christian  hymns  are  full  of  devotional 
feeling.  Their  use  dates  from  the  first 
days  of  the  church.  The  use  of  hymns 
was  sanctioned  by  the  fourth  council, 
at  Toledo,  in  633.  Several  of  them  have 
names  derived  from  the  words  with 
which  they  begin,  as  the  Te  Deum, 
Adeste  Fideles,  etc 

HYPA'TIA,  a (Ireek  female  philoso- 
pher of  the  eclectic  school,  the  daughter 
of  Theon,  a celebrated  astronomer  and 
mathematician  of  Alexandria  toward 
the  close  of  the  4th  century  after  Christ, 
at  which  period  she  was  born.  The  Rev. 
C.  Kingsley  has  chosen  the  story  of 
Hypatia  as  the  subject  of  a romance. 

HYPER'BOLA,  in  geometry,  a curve 
formed  by  cutting  a cone  in  a direction 
parallel  to  its  axis,  or  so  that  the  cutting 


Hyperbola— D B E,  gah,  are  opposite  hyper- 
bolas; F,/,  foci;  c,  center;  a b,  transverse  axis; 
a b,  conjugate  axis ; n c p,  diameter. 

plane  makes  a greater  angle  with  the 
base  than  the  sides  of  the  cone  makes 
and  when  produced  cuts  also  the  oppo- 
site cone,  or  the  cone  which  is  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  former,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  vortex,  thus  producing  an- 
other hyperbola,  which  is  called  the  op- 
posite hyperbola  to  the  former. 

HYPER'BOLE  (-bo-le),  a rhetorical 
figure,  in  which  an  idea  is  expressed 
with  a fanciful  exaggeration  of  phrase 
which  is  not  to  be  taken  too  literally, 
but  only  as  representing  a certain 
warmth  of  admiration  or  emphasis. 


HYPER  IDES 


IBIS 


“Plis  fame  reaches  to  the  stars”  is  an 
example  of  hyperbole. 

HYPERI'DES,  an  Athenian  orator, 
the  pupil  of  Plato  and  Isocrates,  born 
about  400  B.c.  We  was  murdered  at 
.(Egina  by  the  emissaries  of  Antipater 
in  322  B.c.  Of  his  orations  one  has 
reached  us  nearly  entire;  the  others  only 
in  fragments.  * 

HYPERION  (hl-per-I'on  or  hi-pe'ri- 
on),  in  the  most  ancient  mythology  of 
Greece,  the  god  of  the  sun,  afterward 
identified  with  Apollo;  also  one  of  the 
Titans. 

HYPOCHOND'RIA,  a disorder  arising 
from  a disturbance  of  the  functions  of 
the  nervous  system.  It  is  a form  of 
melancholia.  The  sufferer  lives  under 
the  generally  groundless  apprehensions 
of  different  diseases.  Uninterruptedly 
occupied  with  the  state  of  his  body  he 
takes  notice  of  every  feeling,  and  wishes 
to  have  every  trifling  pain  explained, 
considering  every  one  as  a sjuuptom  of  a 
serious  disease.  For  everything  he  wants 
physic.  Hypochondria  is,  physically 
considered,  not  a dangerous  disease,  al- 
though it  makes  the  life  of  the  sufferer 
a torment  to  himself  and  his  friends.  It 
is  occasioned  mainly  by  too  great  mental 
exertion,  by  too  sedentary  a life,  by 
sexual  indulgence  or  excess  in  exciting 
liquors;  and  also  by  want  of  exercise  of 
the  physical  and  mental  powers  produc- 
ing ennui.  It  can  be  cured,  but  slowly, 
by  the  avoidance  of  the  habits  likely  to 
occasion  it,  by  the  adoption  of  a steady 
and  regular  life,  with  moderate  exercise 
for  the  mind  and  body,  and  the  help  of 
cheerful  society. 

HYPODER'MIC  INJECTIONS,  injec- 
tions of  some  substance  beneath  the 
skin;  a method  adopted  in  medicine 
when  the  condition  of  the  stomach  or 
other  organs  renders  the  use  of  drugs 
by  the  mouth  objectionable,  or  when 
rapidity  of  action  is  desired.  The  medi- 
cine is  introduced  by  a small  glass 
syringe  fitted  with  a long,  hollow,  needle 
shaped  point  of  steel. 

HYPOPHOS'PHITES,  salts  of  hypo- 
phosphorous  acid,  especially  certain 
medicinal  salts,  chiefly  the  hypophos- 
phites  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  cal- 


cium. They  have  been  used  with  con- 
siderable aavantage  in  disorders  of  the 
blood  and  the  digestive  organs,  and  have 
also  been  found  of  benefit  in  consump- 
tion, although  failing  to  effect  a cure. 

HYPOSUL'PHITES,  salts  of  hypo- 
sulphurous  acid.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  hyposulphites  of  sodium 
and  calcium,  the  former  of  which  is  used 
in  medicine  as  an  external  remedy  in 
paracitic  skin  disorders  and  an  internal 
one  in  checking  fermentation  in  zymotic 
diseases.  It  is  variously  used  in  bleach- 
ing, photography,  and  other  arts  as  an 
antichlore,  a dissolvent  of  bromide  and 
iodide  of  silver,  etc. 

HYPOT'ENUSE,  in  geometry,  the 
longest  side  in  a right-angled  triangle, 
namely  that  one  which  subtends  or  is 
opposite  to  the  right  angle.  One  of  the 
most  important  propositions  of  Euclid’s 


a 


Elements  is  the  forty-seventh  of  the  first 
book,  discovered  by  Pythagoras,  which 
proves  that  the  square  described  on  the 
hypotenuse  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
squares  described  on  the  other  two  sides. 

HYPOTHECATION,  the  act  of  assign- 
ing something  in  security  without  giving 
up  the  possession  of  it. 

HYPOTH'ESIS,  etymologically  a sup- 
position, is  popularly  used  to  denote 
something  not  proved,  but  assumed  for 
the  sake  of  argument.  In  scientific  and 
philosophical  usage  it  denotes  either  a 
probable  theory  of  phenomena  not  yet 
fully  explained,  or  a strictly  scientific 
theory  which  accounts  for  all  the  known 
facts  of  the  case,  and  which  only  needs 
the  verification  of  subsequent  observa- 
tions and  deductions  to  become  a cer- 
tainty. Thus  the  conjecture  of  Newton 
that  the  force  of  gravity,  as  exemplified 
on  the  earth,  might  extend  to  the  moon, 
was  in  its  first  stage  a probable  hypoth- 


esis; but  when  it  was  found  to  account 
for  all  the  facts,  it  became  a scientific 
hypothesis  or  theory. 

HYSSOP,  a perennial  shrubby  plant 
rising  to  the  height  of  2 feet,  a native  of 
Siberia  and  the  mountainous  parts  of 
Austria.  It  flowers  from  June  to  Sep- 


Hyssop. 


tember.  The  leaves  have  an  agreeable 
aromatic  odor,  and  a slightly  bitter  and 
somewhat  warm  taste.  Its  was  once 
esteemed  as  a medicine,  but  has  now 
fallen  into  disuse. 

HYSTE'RIA,  a nervous  affection  to 
which  women  are  subject,  generally 
occurring  in  paroxysms,  characterized  by 
alternate  fits  of  laughing  and  crying, 
convulsive  struggling  alternately  re- 
mitting and  exacerbating,  sense  of  suffo- 
cation, palpitation  of  the  heart,  the  sen- 
sation of  a ball  ascending  from  the  pit 
of  the  stomach,  occasioning  a^feeling  of 
strangulation  (globus  hystericus),  etc. 
Women  of  a delicate  habit,  and  whose 
nervous  system  is  extremely  sensitive 
are  the  most  subject  to  hysterical  affec- 
tions; and  the  habit  which  predisposes 
to  these  attacks  is  acquired  by  inactivity 
and  a sedentary  life,  grief,  anxiety,  and 
various  physical  disorders.  They  are 
readily  excited,  in  those  who  are  sub- 
ject to  them,  by  strong  emotions,  espe- 
cially if  sudden.  Hysterical  complaints 
are  best  prevented  by  a judicious  care 
of  the  moral  and  physical  education  of 
girls.  Men  are  sometimes,  but  rarely, 
subject  to  disorders  not  essentially 
different. 


I,  the  ninth  letter  and  the  third  vov^el 
of  the  English  alphabet,  in  which  it  rep- 
resents not  only  several  vowel  sounds 
but  also  the  consonantal  sound  of  y. 
The  two  principal  sounds  represented  by 
it  in  English  are  the  short  sound  as  in 
pit,  pin,  fin,  and  the  long  as  in  pine, 
fine,  wine,  the  latter  being  really  a 
diphthongal  sound.  It  has  also  three 
other  sounds,  viz.,  that  heard  in  first, 
dirk  (e,  the  neutral  vowel) ; that  heard  in 
machine,  intrigue  (which,  however,  can 
scarcely  be  considered  a modern  Eng- 
lish sound);  and  the  consonant  sound 
heard  in  many  words  when  it  precedes  a 
vowel,  as  in  million,  opinion,  trunnion. 
I and  J were  formerly  regarded  as  one 
character. 

lAM'BUS,  in  prosody,  a foot  of  two 
syllables,  a short  and  a long  one  (■-^ — ), 
or  an  unaccented  syllable  followed  by 


I 

an  accented  one.  The  iambic  meter  is 
the  fundamental  rhythm  of  many  Eng- 


Ibex. 


lish  verses.  The  verse  of  five  iambic  feet 
is  a favorite  meter,  being  the  heroic 


verse  of  English,  German,  and  Italian 
poetry. 

IB'ADAN,  a town  of  Western  Africa, 
in  the  colony  of  Lagos,  122  miles  from 
Lagos  by  railway.  Pop.  100,000. 

I'BEX,  a name  of  two  or  three  species 
of  goats.  The  horns  of  the  male  are 
flattened,  have  two  longitudinal  ridges 
at  the  sides,  and  are  crossed  by  numer- 
ous transverse  knots.  The  horns  of  the 
female  are  short,  more  erect,  with  three 
or  four  knots  in  front.  The  best-known 
varieties  are  of  the  Alps  and  Apennines, 
the  steinbock  of  the  Alps,  and  the 
Pyrenean  steinbock.  Another  species 
inhabits  the  lofty  rocky  peaks  of  Mount 
Caucasus. 

I'BIS,  a genus  of  birds  allied  to  the 
storks,  the  most  remarkable  species  be- 
ing the  sacred  ibis.  This  is  found 
throughout  .\frica.  It  is  about  the  size 


IBSEN 


ICHNEUMON 


of  a common  fowl,  with  head  and  neck 
bare,  and  white  plumage,  the  primaries 
of  the  wings  being  tipped  with  black  and 
the  secondaries  being  bright  black, 
glossed  with  green  and  violet.  It  was 
reared  in  the  temples  of  ancient  Egypt 


Sacred  ibis  of  Egypt. 


with  a degree  of  respect  bordering  on 
adoration,  and  after  death  was  pre- 
served in  a mummified  condition  The 
cause  of  its  being  deemed  sacred  was  no 
doubt  because  it  appeared  in  Egypt 
with  the  rise  of  the  Nile;  but  it  is  now 
rare  in  that  country,  living  farther  south. 

IB'SEN,  Henrik,  Norwegian  dramatist 
and  lyric  poet,  born  in  1828.  His  first 
play,  Catilina,  was  produced  in  Chris- 
tiania in  1850.  He  was  successively 
director  of  the  theater  at  Bergen  and  of 
the  Norske  theater  at  Christiania, 
which  he  managed  in  1857-62.  In  1864 
he  left  his  native  country  and  up  till 
1892  he  resided  chiefly  abroad.  On  his 
seventieth  birthday  Ibsen  received  gifts 
and  greetings  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  His  dramas  are  partly  in  prose, 
partly  in  verse,  and  include  historical 
plays  and  satirical  comedies  of  modern 
life.  His  works  include  The  Pretender, 
Peer  Gynt,  The  Pillars  of  Society,  A 
Doll's  House,  Hedda  Gabler,  When  We 
Dead  Awaken,  etc.  He  died  in  1906. 

ICE,  v/ater  frozen  into  a solid  mass. 
Water  freezes  when  its  temperature  is 
reduced  below  a certain  point,  which  is 
by  universal  consent  made  a fixed  point 
on  thermometers.  That  point  is  called 
zero  on  the  Centigrade  and  R4aumur 
scales,  and  .32°  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 
Water  near  the  freezing-point  presents 
the  curious  anomaly  of  expanding  in- 
stead of  contracting  as  the  cooling  pro- 
cess goes  on.  At  4°.l  Centigrade  (39°. 
Fahr.)  water  has  its  maximum  density- 
point.  At  temperatures  below  4°.l  the 
volume  of  the  water  increases  as  the 
temperature  falls,  and  decreases  as  the 
temperature  rises;  and  at  the  moment 
of  solidifying  the  volume  of  the  mass 
suddenly  increases  to  a very  consider- 
able extent,  so  that  ice  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  freezing  is  one-ninth  greater  in 
volume  than  the  water  from  which  it  is 
formed  is  at  4°.l.  It  is  on  this  account 
that  water  freezes  at  the  top  first,  and 
that  ice  when  frozen  floats  at  the  top  of 
the  water.  The  temperature  at  w’hich 
pure  water  becomes  ice  is  very  nearly 
constant  under  ordinary  circumstances; 
and  it  is  this  fact,  along  with  the  ease  of 
procuring  water  at  the  freezing  tern- 1 


perature,  or  rather  ice  at  the  point  of 
liquefaction,  that  has  caused  this  tem- 
perature to  be  adopted  as  one  of  the 
fixed  points  in  thermometers.  The 
freezing-point  is,  however,  slightly  in- 
fluenced by  pressure.  Increase  of  pres- 
sure lowers  it,  and  the  removal  of  pres- 
sure raises  it.  Salt  water  requires  a 
lower  temperature  to  freeze  it  than 
fresh  water,  and  in  the  process  a large 
part  of  the  salt  is  rejectee!.  Hence  water 
obtained  from  the  melting  of  sea-ice 
is  nearly  fresh.  If  water  is  kept  per- 
fectly at  rest  it  may  be"  reduced  in  tem- 
perature far  below  the  freezing-point 
without  turning  into  ice;  but  particles  of 
solid  matter  such  as  dust  must  also  be 
kept  from  falling  into  it.  The  expansion 
of  water  on  its  conversion  into  ice  often 
gives  rise  to  the  exhibition  of  very  great 
force,  and  produces  very  remarkable 
effects  in  nature.  Much  of  the  disinte- 
gration observed  in  rocks  and  stones 
during  or  immediately  after  frost  is  due 
to  it,  water  having  entered  into  their 
pores  and  cavities  and  burst  off  particles 
by  its  expansion.  Ice,  though  it  is  very 
brittle,  possesses  the  property  of  plas- 
ticity to  a very  remarkable  degree,  and 
can  be  moulded  into  any  form  by  the 
application  of  pressure. 

ICEBERGS,  large  masses  of  ice  which 
have  become  detached  from  the  shores 
of  the  arctic  regions,  and  float  about  in 
the  ocean  at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and 
currents.  They  are  in  fact  pieces  of 
glaciers  detached  from  the  parent  mass 
by  the  action  of  the  sea  and  by  their 
own  accumulating  weight.  They  present 
the  strangest  and  most  picturesque 
forms,  are  sometimes  miles  in  length, 
and  rise  to  a height  of  perhaps  250  or 
300  feet  above  the  sea,  the  portion  abov 
water  being  calculated  at  about  an 
eighth  of  the  whole. 

ICELAND,  an  island  belonging  t o 
Denmark,  situated  between  the  North 
Atlantic  and  the  Arctic  Oceans,  250 
miles  from  Greenland  and  about  600 
miles  west  of  Norway;  greatest  length, 
east  to  west,  300  miles;  central  breadth, 
about  200  miles;  area  with  adjacent 
isles,  40,000  sq.  miles.  The  interior  has 
generally  a very  wild  and  desolate  ap- 
pearance, being  covered  by  Jofty  moun- 
tain masses  of  volcanic  origin,  many  of 
them  crowned  with  perpetual  snow  and 
ice,  which,  stretching  down  their  sides 
into  the  intervening  valleys,  form  im- 
mense glaciers.  Among  the  volcanoes 
the  most  celebrated  is  Mount  Hecla,  in 
the  south,  about  5000  feet  high.  Nu- 
merous hot  springs  or  geysers  are  scat- 
tered throughout  the  island,  but  are 
found  more  especially  in  the  southwest, 
to  the  northeast  of  Reikjavik.  The 
most  valuable  mineral  product  is  sul- 
phur, of  which  the  supply  appears  to  be 
inexhaustible;  the  other  minerals  de- 
serving of  notice  are  chalcedonies,  rock 
crystals,  and  the  well-known  double- 
refracting  spar,  for  which  the  island  has 
long  been  famous.  In  the  southern  parts 
the  longest  day  is  twenty  hours,  and  the 
shortest  four,  but  in  the  most  northern 
extremity  the  sun  at  midsummer  con- 
tinues above  the  horizon  a whole  week, 
and  of  course  during  a corresponding 
period  in  winter  never  rises.  There  are 
various  flowering  plants,  among  which 
saxifrages,  sedums,  thrift  or  sea-pink, 


etc.,  are  common.  Heath  and  bilberry 
cover  large  stretches.  Among  mosses  or 
lichens  are  the  edible  Iceland-moss. 
Cole,  potatoes,  turnips,  radishes,  and 
similar  roots  thrive  tolerab,y  well.  But 
by  far  the  most  valuable  crop  is  grass, 
on  which  considerable  numbers  of  live 
stock  (sheep,  cattle,  ponies)  are  fed.  The 
reindeer,  though  not  introduced  before 
1770,  has  multiplied  greatly  and  forms 
large  herds  in  the  interior;  but  they  are 
of  little  importance  economically.  Wild- 
fowl, including  the  eider-duck  whose 
down  forms  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce, are  abundant;  the  streams  are 
well  supplied  with  salmon,  and  on  the 
coasts  valuable  fisheries  of  cod  and 
herrings  are  carried  on.  Manufactures 
are  entirely  domestic,  and  consist  chiefly 
of  coarse  woolens,  mittens,  stockings, 
etc.  The  exports  are  wool,  oil,  fish, 
horses,  feathers,  worsted  stockings  and 
mittens,  sulphur,  and  Iceland-moss. 

The  inhabitants  are  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  and  speak  a Scandinavian  dialect, 
which  still  represents  the  old  Norse  or 
Norwegian  in  great  purity.  They  are  of 
the  protestant  religion.  Iceland  has  a 
constitution  and  administration  of  its 
own  dating  from  1874.  There  is  an 
althing  or  parliament,  which  meets 
twice  a year  at  Reikjavik,  the  capital, 
and  consists  of  36  members,  of  w'hom 
30  are  chosen  by  popular  suffrage,  and  6 
nominated  by  the  king.  A minister  for 
Iceland,  nominated  by  the  king,  is  at 
the  head  of  the  administration,  but  the 
highest  local  authority  is  vested  in  the 
governor.  Pop.  78,470. 

ICELAND-MOSS,  a species  of  lichen 
found  in  the  arctic  regions,  and  on  the 
upper  parts  of  lofty  mountains,  as  for 
instance  in  Scotland.  It  is  used  in 


Iceland-moss. 


medicine  as  a mucilaginous  bitter,  and 
in  Iceland  is  collected  as  a nutritious 
article  of  diet.  When  boiled  with  milk 
or  water  it  forms  a jelly.  Its  bitterness 
may  be  removed  by  steeping. 

ICELAND-SPAR,  the  transparent  va- 
riety of  calc-spar,  a mineral  noted  for 
its  property  of  exhibiting  in  a remark- 
abledegree  thedouble  refraction  of  light. 

ICE-PLANT,  a plant  which  has  re- 
ceived the  above  appellation  from  the 
transparent  vesicles  which  cover  its 
whole  surface,  and  have  the  appearance 
of  granules  of  ice.  It  is  a native  of  South 
Africa  and  the  Canaries,  and  is  also 
found  in  Greece. 

ICH  DIEN  (eh  den;  German,  “I 
serve”),  motto  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 
assumed  from  that  of  the  King  of 
Bohemia,  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cressy, 
in  which  he  served  as  a volunteer  in  the 
French  army. 

ICHNEU'MON,  a genus  of  digitigrade 
carnivorous  animals  belonging  to  the 
civet  family.  They  have  a long  slender 
body,  a sharp  and  pointed  muzzle,  and 


ICHNEUMON-FLIES 


ICHTHYORNIS 


short  legs.  The  most  celebrated  species 
inhabits  Egypt,  where  it  is  called  Pha- 
raoh’s rat.  It  was  adored  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians  on  account  of  its  antipathy 
to  crocodiles,  whose  eggs  it  digs  out  of 
the  sand  and  sucks.  It  is  expert  in  seiz- 


Egytlan  iclmeumon. 


ing  serpents  by  the  neck  so  as  to  avoid 
any  injury  to  itself.  It  is  domesticated 
in  Egj^t,  and  more  useful  than  a cat  in 
destroying  rats  and  mice.  Their  dis- 
advantage, as  domestic  animals,  is  their 
predilection  for  poultry.  The  mungoos, 
or  Indian  ichneumon,  is  another  species, 
not  so  large  as  the  Egyptian,  which  it 
resembles  in  habits,  being  kept  in  many 
families  as  a useful  domestic  animal. 

ICHNEUMON-FLIES,  a large  family  of 
hymenopterous  insects,  which  all  agree 
in  one  particular,  that  they  deposit  their 


eggs  either  in  or  on  the  bodies,  eggs,  or 
larvae  of  other  insects.  These  apparently 
insignificant  creatures  confer  inestimable 
benefits  on  man,  as  they  destroy  hosts 
of  insects  injurious  to  crops. 

ICHTHYOL'OGY,  that  branch  of 
zoology  which  treats  of  fishes.  Fishes 
form  the  lowest  of  the  five  classes  into 
which  the  great  sub-kingdom  Verta- 
brata  is  divided.  They  may  be  shortly 
described  as  vertebrate  animals  living  in 
water  and  respiring  the  air  therein  con- 
tained by  means  of ‘gills  or  branchiae, 
having  cold  red  blood,  and  a heart  con- 
sisting of  one  auricle  and  one  ventricle 
and  having  those  organs  W’hich  take  the 
form  of  limbs  in  the  higher  vertebrata 
represented  by  fins.  Their  bodies  are 
generally  covered  with  scales  overlap- 
ping each  other,  and  their  usual  form 
(though  with  much  diversity)  is  length- 
ened, compressed  laterally,  and  tapering 
toward  both  extremities.  The  scales  of 
fishes  assume  various  forms,  which  have 
been  classed  under  the  four  types  of 
cycloid,  ctenoid,  ganoid,  and  placoid. 
Cycloid  scales  are  of  a rounded  form, 
and  are  those  met  with  in  the  most 
familiar  fishes.  Ctenoid  scales,  like 
those  of  the  perch,  have  spinous  pro- 


— \ 

jections  from  their  posterior  margin. 
Ganoid  scales  are  in  the  form  of  thick 
bony  plates  covered  with  a superficial 
layer  of  enamel.  Placoid  scales  form 
detached  masses  of  various  shapes  often 
provided  with  spines.  The  skeleton 
presents  great  variations,  from  the 
amphioxus,  in  which  vertebrae  are  only 
foreshadowed,  to  the  well-ossified  skele- 
ton of  teleostean  fishes.  The  vertebrae 
are  biconcave  or  “amphicoelous,”  the 
opposed  surfaces  forming  cups,  and  they 
vary  in  number«from  seventeen  to  more 
than  200.  The  spinal  column  is  pro- 
longed into  the  tail,  which  is  two-lobed, 
the  lobes  either  being  equal  (a  homo- 
cercaltail)  or  unequal  (heterocercal).  The 
skull  varies  greatly;  it  may  be  ossified 
throughout  as  in  the  cod-fish,  or  the 
cartilaginous  cranium  may  persist,  as  in 
the  lamprey,  sharks,  and  rays.  The  skull 
is  small  compared  to  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mals themselves.  The  limbs,  when 
present,  are  four  in  number.  The  anterior 
or  first  part  are  called  the  pectoral  fins. 
The  ventral  fins,  or  second  pair  of  limbs, 
are  variable  in  position,  and  not  always 
present;  they  may  be  beneath  the  pec- 
torals, when  they  are  jugular ; behind  the 
pectorals,  when  they  are  thoracic;  or 
farther  back,  abdominal.  The  pelvis  is 
represented  by  two  triangular  bones, 
which  have  no  relation  to  the  spinal 
column,  and  to  which  the  fin-rays  are 
directly  attached.  The  median  or  ver- 
tical fins,  that  is,  those  situated  on  the 
back,  are  characteristic  of  fishes,  and 
they  may  extend  nearly  from  the  head 
continuously  to  the  anal  aperture,  as  in 
eels;  they  may  be  broken  up  into  several 
dorsals,  caudal,  and  one  or  more  anals, 
as  in  the  cod;  or  the  number  of  dorsals 
may  be  increased  greatly,  as  in  the 
mackerel.  The  fins  may  be  wholly  soft 
and  flexible,  or  they  may  be  in  part 
rigid  spines;  or  a series  of  soft  fin-rays 
may  be  preceded  by  rigid  and  often 
formidable  spines,  which  sometimes 
have  a beautiful  mechanism  for  eleva- 
tion and  depression.  The  teeth  of  fishes 
are  generally  very  numerous,  and  may 
be  placed  on  any  part  of  the  interior  of 
the  mouth,  sometimes  on  the  tongue. 
They  are  quite  different  in  character 
from  the  mammalian  teeth.  The  muscu- 
lar pharynx  and  oesophagus  lead  into  a 
stomach  usually  well  defined,  but  some- 
times only  slightly  differing  in  caliber 
from  the  intestine.  The  liver  is  propor- 
tionally large,  and  has  usually  a gall- 
bladder. The  heart  consists  of  a single 
auricle  and  ventricle,  which  is  continued 
forward  by  a dilated  vessel  called  the 
arterial  bulb  (bulbus  arteriosus).  From 
this  vessel  the  blood  is  sent  right  and 
left  along  the  gills,  which  are  the  organs 
of  respiration,  and  from  the  gills  the 
aerated  blood  goes  to  the  body.  The 
gills  or  branchi®  are  either  free  on  one 
margin,  as  in  ordinary  fishes,  or  attached 
at  both  extremities.  In  the  lepidosiren 
another  structure  appears,  namely, 
lungs,  which  stretch  through  great  part 
of  the  body  and  open  on  the  posterior 
wall  of  the  pharynx.  A peculiar  feature 
of  fishes  is  the  air-sac  or  swim-bladder, 
called  also  the  sound.  Anatomicallj'  its 
origin  is  identical  with  that  of  a lung; 
but  it  does  not  perform  the  functions  of 
a lung.  Its  function  is  probably  to  serve 
as  an  aid  in  rising  and  sinking;  but  in 


some  fishes  it  is  prolonged  so  as  to  ap- 
proach or  even  come  in  contact  with  the 
internal  organs  of  hearing,  perhaps  as  an 
organ  of  resonance.  Reproduction  is 
by  ova  or  eggs,  which  in  a few  cases  are 
re'tained  in  the  body  of  the  female  till 
hatched.  But  the  ova  are  usually  fer- 
tilized outside  the  body,  and  the  hatching 
process  is  usually  left  to  take  place  with- 
out aid.  The  eggs  are,  in  fhost  cases,  in 
enormous  numbers,  as  in  the  roe  of  the 
herring  and  salmon.  Among  the  sharks 
the  number  is  much  less,  and  each  ovum 
acquires,  before  exclusion,  a horny 
sheath  of  various  shape,  but  usually  pro- 
vided with  cirri,  by  which  it  moors  itself 
to  some  fixed  object.  In  the  pipe-fishes 
the  male  has  a marsupium  or  pouch 
formed  by  folds  of  the  abdominal  in- 
tegument, and  in  this  pouch  the  eggs, 
transferred  thither  on  exclusion,  are 
hatched.  The  nervous  system  of  fishes 
presents  considerable  variety.  The 
amphioxus  has  no  enlargement  of  the 
nervous  trunk  comparable  to  a brain; 
but  in  all  the  others  the  division  into 
fore,  mid,  and  hind  brain  is  clearly 
marked.  The  olfactory  organs  are,  in 
most  cases,  pits  or  sacs,  on  whose  walls 
the  olfactory  filaments  are  spread  out. 
The  sense  of  taste  seems  less  provided 
for,  the  tongue  and  palate  being  mostly 
firm,  and  often  set  with  teeth.  There 
is  no  external  ear,  and  the  internal  ap- 
paratus is  not  wholly  inclosed  in  bone, 
as  in  the  higher  vertebrates,  but  is 
partly  free  in  the  cavity  of  the  skull. 
The  eye  is,  in  most  cases,  relatively  large 
and  flattened  externally,  the  sight  being 
keen.  Special  organs  of  touch  are  want- 
ing for  the  most  part,  though  the  labial 
filaments,  seen  in  the  cod,  whiting, 
mullet,  and  sturgeon,  are  of  this  nature. 
Among  the  most  curious  appliances 
with  which  fishes  are  provided,  are  the 
electrical  apparatus  that  appear  in  some 
species,  as  in  the  torpedo  or  electric  ray 
and  the  electric  eel,  both  of  which  posses 
batteries  capable  of  giving  a shock  of 
considerable  power.  Some  fishes  in- 
habit exclusively  either  fresh  or  salt 
water;  others,  as  the  salmon,  migrate 
periodically  from  the  one  to  the  other. 

ICHTHYOR'NIS,  a fossil  genus  of 
carnivorous  and  probably  aquatic  birds, 
one  of  the  earliest  known  American 


Fig.  1,  Ichthyornis  dispar,  restored.  Pig.’ 8, 
Right  jaw,  inner  view ; half  natural  size. 

forms.  It  is  so  named  from  the  character 
of  the  vertebr®,  which,  even  in  the 
cervical  region,  have  their  articular 
faces  biconcave  as  in  fishes.  It  is  also 
characterized  by  having  teeth  set  in 
distinct  sockets.  Its  wings  were  well  de- 
veloped, and  the  scapular  arch  and 
bones  of  the  legs  conformed  closely  to 
the  true  bird  type. 


ICONOCLASTS 


IDOLATRY 


ICON'OCLASTS,  image-breakers,  the 
party  in  the  early  Christian  Church  that 
would  not  tolerate  images,  much  less 
the  adoration  of  them.  At  first  images 
of  martyrs  and  bishops  were  placed  in 
the  churches  merely  to  keep  their  mem^ 
ory  fresh,  but  latterly  (in  the  6th  cen- 
tury) they  began  to  be  worshiped, 
lights  being  burned  before  them  and 
incense  offered  in  their  honor.  The 
eastern  emperor  Leo  III.  issued  an  edict 
in  726  ordering  the  people  to  abstain 
from  the  worship  of  such  images,  and 
soon  after  he  decreed  their  destruction. 
This  caused  great  commotion,  and  there 
arose  two  parties  in  the  church,  the 
image-worshipers  and  the  iconoclasts 
or  image-breakers,  who  each  in  turn 
persecuted  the  other.  In  754  a council 
at  Constantinople  condemned  image- 
worship;  in  787  the  second  council  of 
Nice  (Nicaea)  asserted  and  defined  the 
doctrine.  The  controversy  lasted  over  a 
century,  coming  to  an  end  when,  under 
the  Empress  Theodora,  a council  held  at 
Constantinople  (842)  declared  in  favor 
of  the  worship  of  images  among  the 
Greeks,  a decision  which  was  confirmed 
by  a second  council,  held  869-870,  in 
the  same  place.  In  the  western  empire 
also  images  were  at  first  retained  only  to 
preserve  the  memory  of  pious  men,  but 
the  decision  of  the  pope,  which  allowed 
the  worship  of  images,  finally  prevailed 
in  the  western  church. 

I'DAHO,  one  of  the  United  States  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, having  Montana  and  Wyoming  on 
the  east,  and  Washington  and  Oregon 
on  the  west,  Utah  and  Nevada  on  the 
south,  and  British  Columbia  on  the 
north;  area,  84,800  sq.  miles.  Idaho 
owes  its  rise  and  importance  to  its  rich 
gold-fields,  previous  to  the  discovery  of 
which,  in  1860  and  subsequently,  it  was 
inhabited  only  by  Indians.  The  surface 
is  largely  mountainous,  the  highest  sum- 
mits rising  to  12,000  and  13,000  feet. 
In  the  center  of  the  state  are  the  Salmon 
River  mountains,  to  which  belongs  the 
picturesque  and  lofty  Saw-tooth  range. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Lewis  or  Snake 
river  and  the  Salmon  river,  the  latter 
a tributary  of  the  former,  which  again 
joins  the  Columbia.  Along  the  course  of 
the  Snake  river  in  the  s.e.  and  s.  is  a 
desert  tract  400  miles  long  by  40  to  60 
broad.  The  climate  is  severe  in  the 
more  elevated  parts.  The  rainfall  in  the 
south  is  light  but  it  increases  toward  the 
north  and  east  where  the  elevated  ranges 
arrest  the  moist  winds.  Agriculture  is 
limited  to  the  mountain  valleys  and  to 
the  basins  of  the  large  rivers.  The  min- 
ing industry  has  created  a market  for 
farm  produce  sufficient  to  justify  irriga- 
tion and  extensive  farming.  The  soil 
being  very  fertile  when  sufficiently 
watered  the  yield  of  all  crops  is  very 
large.  Hay  and  forage  is  the  most  valu- 
able crop,  while  that  of  alfalfa  is  very 
large.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  flaxseed 
are  the  most  important  cereals.  Apples 
and  prunes  are  the  chief  varieties  of 
orchard  fruit.  There  are  7,000,000  acres 
of  timber  land  situated  almost  wholly  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state;  the 
Alpine  fir,  yellow  pine  and  the  red  fir  are 
the  principal  varieties.  There  are 
25,000,000  acres  of  pasture  land  in  the 
state  and  therefore  grazing  has  been 


more  extensively  utilized  than  farming. 
Sheep,  cattle,  horses,  and  swine  are 
raised.  The  Union  Pacific  passes  through 
the  southern  part  of  the  state  and  the 
Great  Northern  and  Northern  Pacific 
through  the  northern  portion. 

There  are  valuable  forests,  but  they 
extend  only  over  a small  area.  The 
scenery  along  the  Salmon  river  in  some 
places  is  grand,  the  stream  flowing  be- 
tween perpendicular  walls  of  rock  from 
500  to  2000  feet  high.  Gold  has  been 
found  in  many  places,  and  there  are  also 
valuable  silver  mines.  Coal,  copper,  iron, 
and  salt  are  likewise  found  in  many 
localities.  The  wild  animals  include  the 
grizzly  bear.  The  first  white  explorers  of 
Idaho  were  Lewis  and  Clark.  Early  in  the 
19th  century,  a mission  was  established 
in  1842  at  Coeur  d’Alene.  In  1863 
Idaho  was  organized  as  a territory  with 
an  area  three  times  as  large  as  at  present 
including  Montana  and  nearly  all  of 
Wyoming.  In  1882  gold  was  discovered 
at  Coeur  d’  Alene  which  was  followed  by 
a large  immigration.  In  1889  a new  con- 
stitution was  adopted  and  in  1890  Idaho 
was  admitted  into  the  Union.  At  the 
head  of  the  institutions  of  highei  educa- 
tion is  the  University  of  Idaho  at  Mos- 
cow, the  normal  schools  at  Albion,  and 
Lewiston  and  the  agricultural  and 
mechanical  college  at  Idaho  falls.  In 
national  elections  Idaho  has  been  carried 
by  the  democrats  or  the  democrats  and 
populists  in  fusion.  In  19c4  and  1908  it 
was  carried  by  the  Republicans.  The 
mineral  and  other  resources  of  the  state 
has  induced  a rapid  growth  in  popula- 
tion. Boise  is  the  capital.  Pop.  350,000. 

IDAHO,  University  of,  at  Moscow, 
was  founded  in  1889,  and  opened  for  the 
reception  of  students  in  1892.  It 
offers  free  instruction  to  students  of 
both  sexes.  It  comprises  a course  of 
letters  and  science,  schools  of  agricul- 
ture and  applied  science,  and  a prepara- 
tory school.  It  maintains  an  agricultural 
experiment  station.  Military  drill  is 
required  of  preparatory  Istudents,  and  of 
freshmen  and  sophomores  in  the  uni- 
versity. The  degrees  of  B.A.,  B.S., 
B.M.,  B.E.M.,  B.E.E.,  and  B.C.E.  are 
conferred. 

IDEA,  as  a term  in  mental  philosophy, 
has  been  used  in  various  senses.  Plato 
regarded  ideas  as  the  archetypes  or 
original  models  of  things,  as  existing 
from  eternity  and  constituting  the  pat- 
terns according  to  which  the  deity 
fashioned  the  various  things  of  which 
we  become  cognizant  by  our  senses. 
According  to  Plato,  ideas  were  inde- 
pendent of  matter,  and  it  was  they  that 
were  the  only  objects  of  true  knowledge. 
Aristotle  opposed  Plato’s  doctrine  of 
independent  ideas,  but  held  the  doc- 
trine of  ideas  being  types  or  patterns 
accompanying  material  things.  By 
Descartes  and  many  modern  philoso- 
phers the  word  is  employed  to  signify 
all  our  mental  representations,  all  the 
notions  which  the  mind  frames  of  things. 
See  also  Idealism. 

IDE'ALISM,  the  philosophical  term 
which,  in  contradistinction  to  realism, 
expresses  the  view  that  subjective  or 
ideal  existence  is  not  only  the  original 
but  the  only  true  being,  and  according 
to  which  there  is  allowed  to  sensible 
objects  merely  a phenomenal  existence 


dependent  upon  the  mind  of  a thinking 
subject.  In  modern  times  idealism  has 
been  maintained  by  Descartes,  Berkeley, 
Kant,  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel. 

IDEN'TITY,  a person  in  point  of  law 
must  often  be  proved  in  legal  proceed- 
ings, as  in  proving  a thief,  etc.  The 
usual  proof  is  the  oath  of  one  who  was 
cognizant  of  the  facts  at  the  time  re- 
ferred to.  A common  defense  of  persons 
accused  of  crime  is  that  it  is  a case  of 
mistaken  identity,  in  which  case  the 
prisoner  must  usually  prove  an  alibi — 
i.e.  that  he  was  in  some  other  place  at 
the  time  specified. 

IDES,  Latin  Idus,  with  the  Romans, 
the  15th  day  of  March,  May,  July,  and 
October.  In  the  other  months  the  13th 
was  the  ides.  The  ides  of  March,  on 
account  of  Caesar’s  assassination  having 
taken  place  on  that  day,  was  an  ater 
dies  or  black  day,  and  the  senate  was 
not  allowed  to  sit.  See  Calendar. 

IDIOM,  a term  used  to  denote  a phrase 
or  form  of  words  approved  by  the  gen- 
eral usage  of  a language,  while  in  many 
cases  it  will  admit  of  neither  grammati- 
cal nor  logical  analysis.  In  a broader 
sense,  it  denotes  the  genius  or  peculiar 
cast  of  a language;  hence  it  is  often  ap- 
plied to  a peculiar  form  or  variation  of 
a language,  a dialect. 

IDIOSYN'CRASY,  a distinctive  pe- 
culiarity of  the  mental  or  bodily  con- 
stitution of  any  person, -or  that  constitu- 
tion or  temperament  which  is  peculiar 
to  any  person. 

IDTOT,  a person  who,  from  original 
defect,  is  almost  destitute  of  intelligence, 
or  in  whom  the  intellect  seems  to  be 
almost  wholly  wanting.  In  some  cases 
the  intellectual  development  is  so  low 
that  there  appears  to  be  little  more  than 
a vegetative  life.  Others  not  quite  so 
low  in  the  intellectual  scale  recognize 
the  persons  with  whom  they  live,  are 
capable  of  being  affected  by  certain 
emotions,  understand  a few  questions, 
articulate  a few  words,  and  are  able  to 
take  their  own  food,  but  are  quite  unable 
to  do  any  kind  of  work.  Those  endowed 
with  a little  more  intelligence  may  some- 
times be  employed  in  some  kinds  of 
labor  which  present  no  complicity  or 
difficulty,  but  they  are  incapable  of  per- 
forming any  intricate  calculation  or 
going  through  any  long  train  of  reason- 
ing. The  brain  of  idiots  is  sometimes 
sufficiently  regular  in  its  conformation, 
although  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
there  is  something  abnormal.  The  fore- 
head is  often  depressed,  receding,  and 
flattened;  sometimes  the  back  parts  of 
the  head  disproportionately  large.  The 
majority  of  idiots  are  of  small  stature 
and  of  weak  constitution,  rarely  living 
beyond  forty  years.  The  causes  of  idiocy 
are  not  well  known.  It  may  be  heredi- 
tary. 

IDOL'ATRY,  the  worship  of  an  image, 
object,  or  symbol  as  having  in  itself 
some  divine  or  supernatural  power,  and 
being  able  in  some  way  to  respond  to 
the  worship  paid  to  it,  such  images  or 
objects  being  called  idols;  or  the  adora- 
tion of  something  merely  natural  as 
something  supernatural  and  divine. 
Many  have  regarded  idolatry  as  a de- 
clension from  the  one  true  God,  and  have 
seen  in  the  various  forms  of  heathen 
worship  only  more  or  less  complete  de- 


IGNATIEFF 


ILLINOIS 


gradations  of  an  original  revelation. 
Others  see  in  idolatry  an  innate  search- 
ing after  God,  and  regard  it  as  the  first 
stage  of  human  development,  the  neces- 
sary beginning  of  a knowledge  of  God. 
Idolatry  may  assume  various  forms; 
it  may  consist  in  a worship  of  the  powers 
of  nature,  or  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or 
in  animal  worship,  or  in  the  worship  of 
images  representing  mere  fanciful  and 
imaginary  deities,  or  in  the  still  lower 
fetichism. 

IGNATIEFF,  Nicholas  Paulovitch, 
Russian  soldier  and  diplomatist,  born 
in  St.  Petersburg  1828.  He  served  in  the 
Crimean  war,  and  was  made  a colonel 
1856.  In  1858  he  was  sent  on  a special 
mission  to  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  and 
afterward  as  ambassador  to  Peking  1860. 
He  was  appointed  minister  at  Constan- 
tinople 1864,  and  was  envoy  extraordi- 
nary 1867-78.  He  represented  the  party 
in  favor  of  war,  in  opposition  to  Prince 
Gortschakoff.  He  was  subsequently 
made  governor-general  of  Irkutsk. 

IGNEOUS  ROCKS,  in  geology,  rocks 
which  are  seen  to  owe  their  special  char- 
acter or  structure  to  their  materials  hav- 
ing been  once  in  a state  of  fusion,  as  lava, 
basalt,  granite,  etc.  Such  rocks  are  not 
stratified,  and  may  occur  in  connection 
with  sedimentary  rocks  of  any  age,  hav- 
ing usually  been  forced  up  from  below. 

IGNIS  FAT'UUS,  a luminous  appear- 
ance seen  floating  over  marshy  places  at 
night,  and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  in 
churchyards.  It  is  probably  due  to 
some  gaseous  mixture  capable  of  ignit- 
ing spontaneously,  but  it  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  explained.  Other  names 
are  Will-o’-the-wisp  and  Jack-a-lantern. 

IGUAN'A,  a genus  of  lizards,  the  type 
of  the  family  Iguanidse,  a native  of 
Brazil,  Guiana,  and  neighboring  locali- 
ties. It  has  an  average  length  of  about 


Common  iguana. 


4 feet.  Its  food  consists  almost  entirely 
of  fruits,  fungi,  and  other  vegetable  sub- 
stances. Its  head  is  large,  the  mouth 
wide  Along  the  whole  length  of  the 
back  to  the  tip  of  the  tail  there  is  a crest 
of  elevated,  compressed,  pointed  scales; 
the  lower  part  of  the  head  and  neck  is 
furnished  with  a dew-lap  or  throat- 
pouch.  The  toes  are  furnished  wth 
sharp  claws,  which  enable  it  to  climb 
trees  with  ease,  while  a rapid  serpentine 
movement  of  its  tail  propels  it  swiftly 
through  the  water.  Its  usual  color  is 
dark  olive-green.  Its  flesh  is  considered 
a delicacy,  being  tender  and  delicately- 
flavored,  resembling  that  of  a chicken. 
The  eggs,  of  which  the  female  lays  from 
four  to  six  dozen,  are  also  eaten,  having 
an  excellent  flavor.  They  are  about  the 
size  of  those  of  a pigeon,  are  laid  in  the 
sand,  and  hatchedf  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

IGUANTD^E,  a family  of  lizards  of 
which  the  iguana  is  the  type.  They  have 
the  body  rounded,  sometimes  laterally 
compressed  and  furnished  with  a ridge 
or  serrated  crest  along  the  middle  line 


of  the  back  from  snout  to  tip  of  tail, 
sometimes  a throat-pouch  or  dew-lap 
present. 

ILLE-ET-VILAINE,  a maritime  de- 
partment in  the  n.w.  of  France,  lying 
between  the  English  channel  and  the 
department  of  Loire-Inf^rieure.  Rennes 
is  the  capital;  St.  Malo  the  chief  seaport. 
Pop.  615,480. 

ILLEGITIMACY,  according  to  the 
civil  and  statute  law  as  found  in  many 
states  the  status  of  children  born  out  of 
wedlock.  In  New  York  the  children  of  a 
man  and  woman  cohabiting  professedly 
as  husband  and  wife  have  been  held  as 
legitimate.  In  most  of  the  states  upon 
complaint  of  the  mother  an  inquiry  may 
be  had  as  to  the  identity  of  the  putative 
father,  and  upon  sufficient  proof  an  order 
of  affiliation  made  whereby  the  father  is 
adjudged  to  pay  for  the  support  of  the 
child.  Under  common  law,  an  illegiti- 
mate child  cannot  inherit  or  transmit 
property.  The  legitimation  of  children 
born  out  of  wedlock  follows  upon  the 
intermarriage  of  the  parents  and  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  ehildren  in  most 
of  the  states. 

IL'LINOIS  (il'i-noi  or  -nois),  one  of 
the  United  States,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Wisconsin,  east  by  Lake  Michigan 
and  Indiana,  southeast  by  Kentucky, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Ohio, 
and  west  by  the  Mississippi,  separating 
it  from  Missouri  and  Iowa;  greatest 
length,  370  miles;  greatest  breadth,  160; 
area,  56,650  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is 
somewhat  hilly  near  the  Ohio,  and  un- 
dulating toward  the  west;  and  a range 
of  bluffs  runs  for  a considerable  distance 
along  the  margin  of  the  Mississippi;  but 
with  these  exceptions  the  state  is  one 
continuous  plain,  with  a gentle  inclina- 
tion toward  the  southwest,  and  with 
the  exception  of  Louisiana  and  Dela- 
ware is  the  most  level  state  of  the 
Union.  It  has  a greater  proportion  of 
arable  land  than  any  other  state.  The 
only  part  of  the  state  thickly  wooded 
is  the  extreme  south  portion.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Illinois,  which  traverses 
the  state  diagonally  northeast  to  south- 
west, Rock,  Kaskaskia,  and  Wabash. 
Indian  corn  and  wheat  are  the  chief 
objects  of  cultivation,  but  rye,  oats 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  turnips,  cotton, 
hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  castor-beans,  etc., 
are  also  produced,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  vine  is  making  considerable  progress. 
The  common  domestic  animals  are 
abundant,  and  immense  numbers  of 
swine  are  reared  on  the  mast  of  the 
forests.  Lead  is  found  in  vast  quantities, 
and  the  ore  (argentiferous  galena)  con- 
tains a considerable  percentage  of  silver; 
the  metal  is  found  chiefly  near  the  Wis- 
consin frontier,  Galena  being  the  center 
of  the  mining  district.  Bituminous  coal 
abounds,  and  is  raised  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  several  valuable  salt 
springs  are  found  in  the  east  and  south. 
The  rocks  mostly  are  limestone,  gypsum, 
and  sandstone.  The  climate,  although 
somewhat  humid,  is  generally  healthy; 
the  winters  being  severe  owing  to  the 
northerly  winds  which  have  an  un- 
obstructed sweep  over  the  prairies. 
Illinois  is  the  most  important  manufac- 
turing state  west  of  the  Alleghany  moun- 
tains and  is  surpassed  by  only  two  states 
in  the  Union;  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 


vania. It  is  the  collecting  and  distribut- 
ing center  for  the  west  and  northwest. 
Chicago  produces  70  per  cent  of  the  total 
manufactured  product  of  the  state.  It  is 
the  most  important  stock  market  and 


Seal  of  Illinois. 


is  the  greatest  slaughtering  and  meat 
packing  center  of  the  world.  Only  two 
states  exceed  Illinois  in  the  manufacture 
of  steel  and  iron  and  the  value  of  its 
agricultural  implements  is  more  than 
three  times  that  of  any  other  state. 
Pennsylvania  alone  exceeds  Illinois  in 
the  manufacture  of  cars  and  other  rail- 
road supplies.  The  railroads  are  more 
numerous  and  have  a greater  extent  of 
track  than  any  other  state.  The  state 
has  water  communication  with  the  Mis- 
sissippi valley  and  a southern  outlet  to 
the  Atlantic.  Lake  Michigan,  which  * 
touches  the  state  at  the  northeast  corner 
gives  water  communication  with  Canada 
and  an  eastern  outlet  to  the  Atlantic. 
The  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  con- 
nects Lake  Michigan  at  Chicago  with  the 
Illinois  at  LaSalle  (distance  96  miles), 
and  enables  vessels  of  some  size  to  pass 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence. There  is  a well-organized  school 
system.  At  the  head  of  the  institutions  of 
higher  education  are  the  University  of  Ch  i- 
cago,  which  has  attracted  attention  by 
its  original  features  and  the  eminence  of 
the  scholars  who  have  been  called  to  fill 
its  chairs:  the  University  of  Illinois  at 
Urbana,  the  Northwestern  university, 
the  Armour  school  of  technology.  Rush 
medical  college,  all  situated  at  Chicago, 
Knox  college  at  Galesburg,  Illinois  and 
Wesleyan  university  at  Bloomington. 
Father  Marquette  in  1673  ascended  the 
Illinois  river  and  LaSalle  entered  the 
river  in  1679  and  named  it  from  the  tribe 
of  Indians  inhabiting  the  region.  French 
traders  established  themselves  at  Kas- 
kaskia, Cahokia,  and  other  Indian  vil- 
lages between  1683  and  1690.  There 
were  six  important  settlements  by  1751. 

In  1778-79  a force  of  Virginians,  under 
George  Rogers  Clark,  captured  Kaskas- 
kia and  subdued  the  province.  Virginia 
ceded  its  claims  to  the  southern  part  of 
the  region  in  1784,  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut  in  the  following  year,  and 
in  1787  the  region  became  part  of  the 
northwest  territory.  In  1800  Ohio,  in 
1802,  Indiana  and  in  1805  Michigan  were 
set  apart  and  the  remainder  was  organ- 
ized in  1809  as  the  Illinois  territory. 

In  1812  the  garrison  at  Fort  Dearborn 
(Chicago)  was  massacred.  In  1818  the 
first  constitution  was  adopted  and  Illi- 
nois was  admitted  to  the  Union.  The 


ILLINOIS 


IMMORTALITY 


Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  was  begun 
in  1834  and  was  built  with  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  public  lands.  In  1850  con- 
gress made  an  extensive  cession  of  pub- 
lic lands  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  the 
Illinois  Central  railroad,  an  enterprise 
which  added  greatly  to  the  development 
of  the  state.  In  1858  the  great  contest 
for  the  United  States  senatorship  took 
place  between  Stephen  A.  Douglas  and 
Abraham  Lincoln.  The  state  furnished 

260.000  men  as  its  quota  of  troops  during 
the  civil  war.  In  1871  a large  part  of 
Chicago  was  laid  waste  by  fire  and  over 

100.000  people  were  made  homeless. 
The  loss  was  estimated  at  $300,000,000. 
In  1885-6  owing  to  a general  feeling  of 
unrest  bitter  and  bloody  strikes  took 
place;  in  Chicago  an  anarchist  crowd 
attacked  the  police  with  dynamite,  kill- 
ing and  wounding  a large  number.  In 
1892  the  Chicago  drainage  canal  for  the 
removal  of  Chicago’s  sewage  was  started. 
In  1893  the  Columbian  World’s  Fair 
was  held  in  Chicago.  In  1894  a strike  of 
the  Pullman  palace  car  company  par- 
ticipated a general  strike  of  railway  em- 
ployees. Interference  with  the  United 
States  mails  led  to  the  intervention  of 
the  Federal  government.  In  national 
politics  Illinois  was  democratic  before 
1860  and  since  that  year  with  the  excep- 
tion of  1892,  when  it  voted  for  Grover 
Cleveland,  it  has  been  consistently 
republican.  Springfield  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  5,39!.3  :0. 

IL'LINOIS,  a river  in  the  United 
States,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Kan- 
kakee and  Desplaines,  in  the  n.e.  part 
of  the  state  of  Illinois.  It  flows  thence 
S.W.,  and  falls  into  the  Mississippi  about 
20  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Mis- 
souri. It  is  500  miles  long,  half  of  it  be- 
ing navigable.  A canal  connects  the 
river  with  Chicago.  See  above  article. 

ILLINOIS,  University  of,  the  State 
University  of  Illinois,  between  the  cities 
of  Urbana  and  Champaign,  was  char- 
tered in  1867  as  the  Illinois  industrial 
university,  and  assumed  its  present 
name  in  1885.  The  university  is  divided 
into  six  colleges:  literature  and  arts, 
science,  engineering,  agriculture,  law 
and  medicine,  including  schools  of 
library  and  science,  art  and  design, 
music,  military  science,  and  pedagogy, 
and  preparatory  and  graduate  depart- 
ments. The  state  laboratory  of  natural 
history  and  the  United  States  agricul- 
tural experiment  station  for  Illinois  are 
departments  of  the  university,  but  have 
separate  financial  support.  The  schools 
dT  pharmacy,  medicine,  and  dentistry 
are  situated  in  Chicago. 

ILLITERACY,  the  condition  of  one 
who  cannot  read  and  write  his  own  lan- 
guage. As  used  in  the  United  States 
census,  the  term  includes  all  those  who 
can  read  but  not  write. 

The  report  of  the  United  States  com- 
missioner of  education  for  1900  con- 
tains the  following  table  for  the  different 


countries: 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Germany..  . 

..  0.11 

Hungary. . 

Switzerland. 

..  0.30 

Greece 

30.00 

Scotland 

..  3. ,57 

Italy 

38.30 

Holland 

..  4.00 

Russia  . . . 

61  70 

Prance 

..  4.90 

Spain 

68.10 

England. 

Portugal... 

United  States.. 

..10. 70 

Servia 

86.00 

Belgium. 

Rumania  . 

89.00 

Ireland 

..17.00 

Austria . . . . 

23,80 

ILLYR'IA,  Illyr'icum,  a name  for- 
merly rather  loosely  applied  to  a large 
tract  of  country  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Adriatic,  the  ancient  Illyrians  being  the 
ancestors  of  the  modern  Albanians. 

ILOCOS  NORTE  (e-lo'kos  nor'ta),  a 
Philippine  province  occupying  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  island  of  Luzon. 
Its  area  is  1873  sq.  miles.  The  principal 
river  being  the  Pagsan  or  Laoag,  and  the 
valleys  are  very  fertile,  producing  grains 
and  fruits,  a fine  quality  of  rice,  good 
cotton  and  tobacco,  and  sugar.  Iron  ore 
is  abundant.  Pop.  156,700. 

ILOCOS  SUR,  (soor),  a Philippine 
province,  situated  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  the  island  of  Luzon.  It  is  crossed 
by  the  large  river  Agra,  and  a number  of 
smaller  streams;  the  soil  is  very  fertile, 
producing  indigo,  sugar,  and  cocoanuts. 
Pop.  172,836.  The  capital  is  Bigan. 

ILOILO  (e'l6-e'l6),  a province  com- 
prising the  southern  half  of  the  island  of 
Panay  in  the  Philippines  and  about 
thirty,  mostly  small,  outlying  islands, 
one  of  which,  however,  Guimaras,  is  30 
miles  long  by  10  miles  wide.  The  area  of 
the  province  is  2600  sq.  miles,  and  its 
population  472,798.  The  level  lands, 
which  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the 
area  of  the  province,  are  very  productive 
all  kinds  of  tropical  fruits  flourishing; 
but  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  given  to 
the  cultivation  of  sugar  and  tobacco. 

ILOILO,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Iloilo,  situated  on  the  southeastern 
shore  of  the  island  of  Panay,  on  the 
strait  separating  Guimaras  island  from 
the  mainland.  It  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  is,  next  to  Manila,  the  chief  com- 
mercial center  of  the  Philippines.  Its 
chief  exports  are  sugar,  tobacco,  rice, 
coffee,  and  dyewoods.  Pop.  10,400. 

ILO'RIN,  a town  in  West  Africa, 
Nigeria,  about  150  miles  n.e.  of  the 
Bight  of  Benin  in  Nupe,  a great  center 
of  trade;  pop.  150,000,  mostly  Moham- 
medans. 

IMAGE,  in  optics,  the  spectrum  or 
appearance  of  an  object  made  by  reflec- 
tion or  refraction.  It  is  by  means  of 
optical  images  that  vision  is  effected,  or 
that  the  telescope  and  microscope  are  of 
use.  See  the  articles  Optics,  Eye,  etc. 

IMAGINATION,  literally  that  faculty 
of  the  mind  by  which  we  can  form  mental 
images  of  things.  Besides  the  power  of 
preserving  and  recalling  such  concep- 
tions, the  imagination  has  the  power  to 
combine  different  conceptions,  and  thus 
create  new  images  or  mental  pictures. 
It  is  this  faculty  which  is  more  strictly 
termed  imagination.  In  the  creation  of 
new  images,  or  more  properly  in  the 
combining  of  images  which  have  pre- 
viously been  derived  from  objects  of 
perception,  the  imagination  operates 
according  to  the  laws  of  the  association 
of  ideas.  Its  operations  are  nevertheless 
not  wholly  independent  of  the  will,  for 
by  directing  the  attention  to  some  lead- 
ing thought,  the  will  can  determine  the 
limits  within  which  the  laws  of  associa- 
tion are  to  act.  Such  free  and  yet  regu- 
lated action  of  the  imagination  alone 
can  give  birth  to  the  productions  of  the 
fine  arts. 

IMBECILITY,  weakness  of  mind,  such 
as  puts  a person  considerably  below  the 
general  run  of  mankind,  but  is  not  so 
great  as  to  be  called  actual  lunacy  or 


idiocy,  nor  so  well  marked  perhaps  as 
to  be  classed  under  any  one  of  the  forms 
of  insanity.  Imbeciles  sometimes  dis- 
play a considerable  amount  of  intelli- 
genoe  in  certain  directions,  and  are  often 
very  cunning.  They  may  be  interesting, 
amusing,  and  even  useful  members  of  a 
community.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  no  special  legal  provisions  in  regard 
to  imbeciles.  As  a general  rule  the  court 
is  ready  to  support  the  obligation  of  any 
contract  that  a person  of  weak  mind  has 
entered  into,  unless  it  is  of  such  a nature 
that  a person  of  sound  mind  would  not 
have  agreed  to  it,  or  unless  there  is  sus- 
picion of  fraud.  An  imbecile  person  may 
be  summoned  as  a witness,  but  the 
degree  of  credulity  attaching  to  his 
evidence  naturally  depends  very  much 
on  the  amount  of  intelligence  he  dis- 
plays, and  on  the  nature  of  the  circum- 
stances regarding  which  his  evidence  i ^ 
offered. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION.  See 

Conception  (Immaculate). 

IMMERSION,  in  astronomy,  the  di.s- 
appearance  of  one  heavenly  body  behind 
another  or  into  its  shadow.  Immersion 
occurs  at  the  beginning,  and  emergence 
at  the  end  of  an  occultation  or  an 
©clipSG 

IMMORTALITY,  exemption  from 
death;  the  state  of  everlasting  life.  The 
dogma  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is 
very  ancient.  It  is  connected  with  almost 
all  religions,  though  under  an  infinite 
variety  of  conceptions.  By  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  we  understand  the 
endless  continuation  of  our  personality, 
our  consciousness,  and  will.  There  are  so 
many  reasons  to  render  immortality 
probable,  that  wdth  most  nations  the 
belief  is  as  clear  and  firm  as  the  belief 
in  a god;  in  fact  the  two  dogmas  are  in- 
timately connected  in  the  minds  of  most 
men.  The  hope  of  immortality  must  be 
considered  a religious  conviction.  Rea- 
son and  religion  command  man  to  strive 
for  continued  perfection.  This  duty 
man  cannot  relinquish  without  aban- 
doning at  the  same  time  his  whole 
dignity  as  a reasonable  being  and  a free 
agent.  He  must,  therefore,  expect  that 
a continuation  of  his  better  part,  as  the 
necessary  condition  of  his  progress  in 
perfection,  will  not  be  denied  to  him. 
Hence  the  belief  in  immortality  becomes 
intimately  connected  with  our  belief  in 
the  existence  and  goodness  of  God. 
Among  rude  peoples  the  life  after  death 
is  usually  regarded  as  a state  of  being 
not  essentially  different  from  the  present 
— one  in  which  the  hunter  shall  renew 
his  chase,  and  his  corporeal  senses  shall 
have  their  accustomed  gratifications. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  believed  to 
live  in  the  other  world  as  a sort  of  shad- 
ows, and  the  life  after  death  was  also 
considered  as  a shadow  of  the  present. 
Among  some  peoples  the  imagination 
attributes  changes  of  condition  to  the 
future  life,  and  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration, or  the  progress  of  the  mind 
or  soul  in  different  stages,  is  developed. 
Connected  with  the  belief  in  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  is  the  belief  in  a 
state  where  souls  are  purified  after 
death,  as  existing  among  the  Egyptians 
and  many  Christians.  See  Purgatory, 
Soul. 


IMMORTELLES 


INCEST 


IMMORTELLES,  a name  for  flowers, 
also  known  as  everlasting  flowers,  and 
often  made  into  wreaths  for  adorning 
graves. 

IMPALEMENT,  the  putting  to  death 
by  thrusting  a stake  through  the  body. 
This  manner  of  inflicting  death  was 
known  to  the  Romans,  though  not  prac- 
ticed by  them.  It  is  still  practiced  in 
some  half-civilized  countries. 

IMPAN'EL,  to  form  a jury  by  enter- 
ing the  names  on  the  roll  or  impanel. 
See  Jury. 

IMPEACHMENT,  an  accusation  and 
prosecution  for  a crime  or  misdemeanor, 
in  which  the  House  of  Commons  are  the 
prosecutors  and  the  House  of  Lords  the 
judges.  The  necessity  of  some  tribunal 
distinct  from  the  ordinary  courts,  for  the 
trial  of  certain  offenses,  or  for  any  high 
misdemeanor  in  certain  officers,  is  ap- 
parent, since  the  judges  of  the  highest 
courts  cannot  in  all  cases  safely  be  in- 
trusted with  the  trial  of  each  other. 
Impeachment  is,  however,  seldom  used, 
the  last  instance  being  that  of  Lord 
Melville  in  1805.  After  sentence,  the 
crown  may  pardon  the  offender.  The 
question  of  guilty  or  not  guilty  is  decided 
by  a majority  of  votes. — In  the  United 
States  the  procedure  is  similar  to  that  of 
England,  the  house  of  representatives 
being  the  accusers  and  the  votes  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  senate  being  necessary  for 
a conviction. 

IMPENETRABILITY,  in  physics,  that 

Eroperty  of  matter  which  prevents  two 
odies  from  occupying  the  same  space 
at  the  same  time;  or  that  property  of 
matter  by  which  it  excludes  all  other 
matter  from  the  space  it  occupies. 

IMPERA'TOR,  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  a term  originally  applied  to  a 
military  commander,  one  who  held  the 
imperium,  or  military  power.  In  later 
times  no  one  received  this  title  who  had 
not  defeated  a hostile  force  of  at  least 
10,000  men.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
republic  imperator  became  the  highest 
title  of  the  supreme  ruler,  and  acquired 
the  signification  which  we  attach  to  the 
word  emperor.  It  was  still  given,  how- 
ever, to  triumphant  generals,  and,  in 
this  case,  has  its  old  signification.  The 
emperors  appear  to  have  used  it  because 
they  were  considered  as  superior  to  all 
the  generals.  See  Emperor. 

IMPERIAL,  pertaining  to  an  emperor 
or  empire;  thus,  the  imperial  parlia- 
ment is  that  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
A size  of  paper  30  in.  by  22,  is  called 
imperial. 

IMPERIALISM,  a term  given  to  that 
form  of  government  known  as  an  em- 
pire and  connoting  absolute  power  in 
the  hands  of  a single  ruler.  The  term 
lately  has  been  used  to  describe  the 
policy  of  various  nations  of  estab- 
lishing world  powers  through  the  ex- 
tension of  their  rule  over  other  and 
especially  inferior  races.  In  the  United 
States  at  the  close  of  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
can war  a group  of  citizens  who  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  acquistion  of  the 
Philippines  and  Porto  Rico  became 
known  as  anti-imperialists. 

IMPEY  PHEASANT,  a bird  of  the 
pheasant  family  remarkable  for  its 
splendid  plumage.  It  is  found  in  the 
higher  regions  of  the  Himalayas,  and 
ie  of  the  size  of  a small  turkey.  Lady 


Impey  attempted  (unsuccessfully)  to 
introduce  the  bird  into  Europe,  hence 
the  name. 

IMPLU'yiUM,  in  ancient  architecture 
a term  which  denoted,  in  the  houses  of 
the  ancient  Romans,  a basin  in  the 


Roman  atrium. 

A,  Impluvlum;  b,  Compluvlum. 


middle  of  the  atrium  or  entrance-hall, 
below  the  compluvium  or  open  space 
in  the  roof,  to  receive  the  rain.  See 
Atrium. 

IM'POST,  (1)  a tax,  tribute,  or  duty, 
particularly  a duty  or  tax  laid  by  gov- 
ernment on  goods  imported.  (2)  In 
architecture,  the  point  of  junction  be- 
tween an  arch  and  the  column,  pier,  or 
wall  on  which  it  rests.  It  is  often  marked 
by  horizontal  mouldings,  though  these 
may  be  absent.  Imposts  have  received 
various  names,  according  to  their 


1 2 ■ 3 

tmpoetD. 

CoDtinbous.  Discootinuoas.  3*  Shafted. 


character.  - Thus,  a continuous  impost 
is  where  the  mouldings  are  carried 
down  a pier;  a discontinuous  impost 
where  there  are  no  mouldings,  but  the 
pier  is  of  a different  section  from  the 
arch ; shafted  imposts  are  where  the  arch 
mouldings  spring  from  a capital  and 
differ  from  those  of  the  pier. 

IMPOUNDING  CATTLE.  See  Pound. 

IMPRESSMENT  OF  SEAMEN,  the  act 
of  compelling  persons,  especially  sea- 
faring men,  to  serve  in  the  English  navy. 
The  power  of  impressing  seamen,  though 
still  existing,  has  fallen  into  abeyance 
since  the  conclusion  of  the  general  war 
of  1815.  Impressment  was  of  ancient 
date,  and  uniformly  practiced  through- 
out a long  series  of  years.  It  is  also 
recognized  in  many  statutes,  such,  for 
instance,  as  exempted  certain  persons 
from  impressment,  though  the  power  of 
impressing  is  not  expressly  granted  in 
any  acts  of  parliament. 

IMPRIMATUR  (Latin,  “let  it  be 
printed”),  the  word  by  which  the 
licenser  allows  a book  to  be  printed  in 
countries  where  the  censorship  of  books 
is  exercised  in  its  rigor 


IMPRISONMENT,  the  restraint  of  a 
person’s  liberty,  whether  in  a prison, 
the  stocks,  or  by  merely  keeping  in 
custody.  It  is  usually  inflicted  by  way 
of  punishment,  the  power  of  sentencing 
to  imprisonment  being  conferred  on 
certain  courts  or  magistrates,  and 
stricty  limited  by  law.  A person  may 
be  imprisoned,  however,  who  is  merely 
accused  of  a crime,  in  which  case  he  can 
demand  to  be  released  on  bail.  Im- 
prisonment for  ordinary  debt  is  now 
practically  abolished. 

IMPUTATION,  as  a term  in  Christian 
theology,  is  used  to  signify,  on  the  one 
hand,  the  reckoning  of  the  sins  of  man 
to  Christ,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
reckoning  of  the  righteousness  of  Christ 
to  believers. 

INCA,  or  YNCA,  a word  signifying 
“chief,”  which  the  natives  of  Peru  gave 
to  their  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood 
before  the  Spanish  conquest.  See  Peru. 

INCANTATION,  a certain  formula  of 
words,  supposed  to  have  some  magical 
effect,  especially  if  uttered  with  the  ac- 
companiment of  certain  ceremonies. 
Incantations  are  still  common  as  a part 
of  popular  medicine  among  the  negroes 
and  Indians  of  this  country  and  also 
among  the  uneducated  of  all  countries 
and  among  barbarous  peoples  gener- 
ally. 

INCARNATION,  a word  used  to  ex- 
press the  manifestation  of  the  deity  in 
the  flesh  under  the  human  form;  thus 
we  speak  of  the  incarnation  of  (jhrist. 
The  Hindus  believe  in  innumerable  in- 
carnations of  their  deities.  The  most 
celebrated  are  the  nine  incarnations  of 
Vishnu. 

IN'CENSE,  aromatic  substances 
burned  in  religious  rites  on  account  of 
the  sweet  odor  they  emit.  The  custom 
of  burning  incense  is  ancient  and  widely 
spread.  Among  the  Jews  the  practice 
was  enjoined  as  part  of  the  worship  of 
the  sanctuary  (Ex.  xxx.  27),  the  in- 
gredients of  the  incense  also  being  laid 
down,  and  it  was  to  be  burned  on  a 
special  altar  called  the  altar  of  incense. 
This  altar  was  made  of  acacia  (shittim) 
wood,  and  was  overlaid  with  gold,  hence 
it  was  also  called  the  golden  altar,  as 
distinguished  from  the  altar  of  burnt- 
offering,  which  was  made  of  brass.  The 
incense  was  burned  daily — morning 
and  evening.  In  ancient  Egypt,  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  India,  Greece,  and  Rome 
incense-burning  was  part  of  the  worship 
of  the  gods,  and  it  is  still  employed  as 
part  of  the  Buddhist  ceremonial.  Both 
the  Greek  and  the  Latin  churches  use 
incense  in  worship,  but  the  practice 
cannot  be  shown  to  have  existed  among 
Christians  till  after  the  first  four  cen- 
turies. Among  Catholics  it  is  used  at 
every  high  mass,  at  consecrations  of 
churches,  in  processions,  funerals,  etc. 
In  the  English  Church  it  is  only  em- 
ployed by  the  high  ritualistic  section, 
but  its  use  has  never  been  prohibited. 

IN'CEST,  sexual  intercourse  within 
the  prohibited  degrees  founded  on  the 
Levitical  code,  and  include  degrees  both 
of  consanguinity  and  of  affinity.  (See 
Leviticus,  chap,  xviii.)  In  England 
incest  is  an  ecclesiastical  offense,  and  is 
left  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  spiritual 
courts.  In  Scotland  and  some  of  the 
United  States  it  is  a criminal  offense. 


INCLINATION 


INDIA 


INCLINATION,  Magnetic,  or  Mag- 
netic Dip.  See  Dipping  Needle. 

INCLINATION  COMPASS,  same  as 
Dipping  Needle. 

INCLINED  PLANE,  a plane  forming 
with  the  horizontal  plane  any  angle 
whatever  excepting  a right  angle.  It  is 
one  of  the  mechanical  powers  by  which 
a small  force  under  certain  conditions  is 
used  to  overcome  a greater  force.  When 
a body  lies  on  an  inclined  plane  part  of 
its  weight  is  supported,  so  that  if  a cord 
be  fastened  to  it  and  pulled,  a force  less 
than  the  weight  of  the  body  acting  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  plane  will  pre- 
vent it  from  sliding,  or  will  move  it  up 
the  plane.  Thus  a heavy  wagon  is  raised 
on  an  inclined  road  by  a horse  which 
would  be  quite  unable  to  exert  a pull 
equal  to  a quarter  of  the  weight  of  the 
wagon.  Neglecting  friction,  the  force 
parallel  to  the  plane  necessary  to  raise 
the  body  is  equal  to  the  weight  of 
the  body  multiplied  by  the  vertical 
height  through  which  it  is  lifted,  di- 
vided by  the  distance  it  is  moved  along 
the  plane. 

INCOMBUSTIBLE  CLOTH,  cloth  ren- 
dered uninflammable  by  artificial  means. 
This  may  be  done  by  steeping  the  fabric 
in  borax,  phosphate  of  soda  or  ammonia, 
alum  or  sal-ammoniac;  but  these  salts 
are  not  suitable  for  fine  fabrics,  and  that 
which  has  been  found  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose most  effectually  is  tungstate  of 
soda.  A solution  containing  20  per  cent 
of  this  salt,  along  with  3 per  cent  of 
phosphate  of  soda,  renders  a fabric  per- 
fectly non-inflammable,  and  does  not 
interfere  with  the  ironing. 

INCOME  TAX,  a tax  levied  directly 
from  income  of  every  description, 
whether  derived  from  land,  capital,  or 
industry. 

INCOMMEN'SURABLE,  in  mathe- 
matics, a term  applied  to  two  magni- 
tudes when  they  cannot  both  be  meas- 
ured by  the  same  quantity,  that  is,  when 
they  do  not  contain  it  one  or  more  times 
exactly.  The  diagonal  and  side  of  a 
square  are  an  example. 

INCUBATION  (pathology),  the  period 
between  the  introduction  of  the  morbific 
principle  and  the  outbreak  of  the  dis- 
ease. It  is  then  gathering  head  in  the 
system,  and  indicated  only  by  such 
general  symptoms  as  loss  of  appetite  or 
sleep,  etc.  In  epidemic  and  contagious 
diseases  the  period  of  incubation  is  well 
defined. 

INCUBATION,  the  mode  in  which 
birds  commonly  bring  forth  their  young, 
that  of  sitting  on  the  eggs  till  they  are 
hatched  by  the  natural  heat  of  the  body. 
In  general  it  is  the  female  which  under- 
goes the  labor  of  incubation,  but  among 
some  species,  chiefly  of  monogamous 
birds,  the  male  relieves  the  female  while 
she  seeks  her  nourishment ; in  others  the 
male  feeds  her.  Some  birds,  like  the 
cuckoo,  abandon  their  eggs  to  be  hatched 
by  others.  In  a state  of  nature  birds 
generally  commence  to  sit  in  spring. 
The  time  of  incubation  varies  with  dif- 
ferent species,  but  is  always  the  same 
with  the  same  species.  In  the  humming- 
birds it  is  12  to  14  days;  in  the  swallow 
and  lark  15;  the  canary,  from  15  to  18; 
crow,  20;  common  hen,  21;  pheasant, 
partridge,  etc.,  22;  peacock  and  turkey, 
30j  swan,  40-45;  cassowary,  62. 


INDEM'NITY,  a term  frequently  em- 
ployed in  politics  and  jurisprudence.  It 
is  used  in  various  significations,  but  is 
usually  applied  to  an  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture passed  for  the  purpose  of  relieving 
individuals,  especially  in  an  official 
position,  from  the  penalties  to  which  they 
may  have  rendered  themselves  liable 
by  some  violation  of  the  law  whether 
by  act  or  omission  or  in  case  of  members 
of  government  in  consequence  of  exceed- 
ing the  limits  of  their  strict  constitutional 
powers. 

INDEPENDENCE,  Declaration  of.  See 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

INDEPENDENCE  DAY,  fourth  day  of 
July,  the  United  States  national  holiday. 

INDEPENDENCE  HALL,  a brick 
building  in  Philadelphia,  built  in  1729- 
34.  In  it  the  continental  congress  met, 
Washington  was  made  commander-in- 
chief of  the  American  army  in  1775, 
and  the  declaration  of  independence 
was  adopted  on  July  4,  1776,  and  read 
to  the  people  assembled  in  the  street. 
It  is  now  a museum  of  revolut’onary  and 
historical  relics. 

INDETERMINATE,  in  mathematics, 
having  an  indefinite  number  of  values 
or  solutions.  Indeterminate  analysis  is  a 
branch  of  algebra  in  which  there  are 
always  given  a greater  number  of  un- 
known quantities  than  there  are  inde- 
pendent equations,  by  which  means  the 
number  of  solutions  is  indefinite. 

INDEX  LIBRORUM  PROHIBI- 
TORUM  (“list  of  prohibited  books”), 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a title 
used  to  designate  the  catalogue  or  list 
of  books  pn^ibitgd  by  ecclesiastical 
authority,  J^^count  of  the  heretical 
opinions  suj^Bpd  to  be  contained  in 
them,  or  maintained  by  the  authors  or 
editors  of  them : when  the  list  or  cato- 
logue  is  of  books  allowed  to  be  read  after 
correction  or  alteration,  agreeably  to  the 
orders  of  the  papal  authorities,  it  is 
termed  Index  Expurgatorius.  Such  pro- 
hibitory catalogues  have  been  in  use 
from  a very  early  period  in  the  history 
of  the  church,  commencing  with  a list 
of  prohibited  books  drawn  up  by  a 
council  held  at  Rome  in  494,  or  even 
earlier  with  the  proscription  of  the 
writings  of  Arius.  These  prohibitions, 
in  fact,  were  often  issued  by  other  than 
the  papal  authorities.  In  1408  a synod 
at  London  prohibited  the  reading  of  the 
books  of  Wickliffe.  The  most  important 
editions  are  those  of  Alexander  VII.  in 
1664,  and  of  Benedict  XIV.  in  1758. 
The  latest  edition  appeared  in  1881, 
with  a supplement  in  1884. 

INDIA,  a name  properly  applicable  to 
the  whole  of  the  British  Indian  Empire, 
which  includes  Burmah,  but  popularly 
restricted  to  the  great  central  peninsula 
of  Southern  Asia.  Its  length  north  and 
south,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  east  and 
west,  are  both  about  1900  miles.  Within 
these  borders  is  an  area  of  about 
1,300,000  sq.  miles,  with  a population 
of  about  295,000,000.  India  may  be  re- 
garded as  consisting  of  three  separate 
regions,  well  defined  by  differences  of 
soil,  climate,  productions,  and  popula- 
tion. The  first  is  the  region  of  the  Hima- 
layas. Immediately  south  of  the  Hima- 
layas lies  the  vast  North  Indian  plain, 
containing  the  most  fertile  and  densely- 
populated  portions  of  the  empire.  South 


of  the  northern  plain  rises  the  third 
region  of  India,  the  triangular  plateau  of 
the  Deccan,  which  has  a general  eleva- 
tion of  from  2000  to  3000  feet.  Its 
northern  scarp  is  formed  by  a number  of 
hilt  ranges  known  as  the  Vindhya  moun- 
tains. The  other  two  sides  of  the  Deccan 
are  formed  by  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Gh&ts,  which  stretch  southward  along 
the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  India, 
the  latter  rising  in  the  Nilghiris  or 
Neitgherries  to  the  height  of  8760  feet. 
The  vast  North  Indian  plain  is  watered 
by  three  distinct  river  systems,  which 
collect  the  drainage  of  both  the  northern 
and  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas. 
The  Ganges  for  thousands  of  years  has 
occupied  a prominent  place  in  Indian 
civilization,  and  was  the  sole  channel  of 
traffic  between  Upper  India  and  the 
seaboard  until  the  opening  of  the  railway 
system  in  1855.  The  Indian  rivers  in 
the  lower  portions  of  their  courses  afford 
a natural  system  of  irrigation,  but  in  the 
higher  parts  an  extensive  system  of 
canal  irrigation  is  required.  The  Ganges 
and  Jumna  canals  alone  irrigate  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  three  million 
acres.  The  coasts  of  India  have  very  few 
indentations,  and  consequently  few 
good  natural  harbors.  There  are  no 
lakes  of  any  extent,  Chilka  and  Kolair 
on  the  east  coast  being  the  largest. 

In  Southern  India  the  climate,  of 
course,  is  tropical,  and  generally  the 
heat  is  very  great.  Among  the  highest 
elevations  of  the  Himalayas  an  Alpine 
climate  prevails.  The  Indian  plains  are, 
especially  in  summer,  sultry,  unhealthy, 
and  partly  barren.  The  Deccan  and  the 
slopes  of  the  Himalayas  enjoy  a tem- 
perate climate.  The  climate  of  the 
Nilghiris  is  healthy  and  pleasant,  and 
several  sanatoria  for  Europeans  have 
been  established  there,  as  well  as  on  the 
Himalayas.  Throughout  the  entire 
country  there  are  only  two  annual  sea- 
sons, the  dry  season  and  the  rainy  sea- 
son. The  rainfall  depends  upon  the 
monsoons.  On  the  western  coast  the 
rainy  season  begins  with  the  southwest 
monsoon,  and  lasts  from  May  till  No- 
vember; on  the  east  coast  the  rainy 
season,  following  the  southeast  mon- 
soon, lasts  from  November  till  March. 
The  rainfall,  however,  is  distributed 
with  great  irregularity. 

The  flora  of  India  offers  nothing  very 
distinctive.  Many  plants  of  temperate 
climates,  such  as  wheat,  barley,  Euro- 
pean vegetables,  etc.,  are  grown  in  the 
northwestern  and  other  parts,  while 
various  products  of  warmer  regions  are 
also  cultivated,  such  as  cotton,  rice, 
indigo,  oil-seeds,  jute,  tobacco,  sugar- 
cane, cocoanut,  date,  and  other  palms, 
spices,  etc.  Coffee,  tea,  and  cinchona 
are  now  extensively  cultivated,  the  first 
particularly  on  the  slopes  of  the  western 
Gh^its  and  in  the  Nilghiris.  The  tea- 
plant  is  also  grown  in  the  south,  but 
especially  in  Assam  and  along  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Himalayas.  European 
fruits  abound,  and  among  cultivated 
fruits  may  be  mentioned  the  mango, 
plantain,  pomegranate,  citron,  orange, 
lime,  melon,  fig,  almond,  pineapple, 
guava,  jack,  and  tamarind.  Among 
trees  the  teak  forests  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  government  are  of  most 
economic  value.  The  bamboo,  the 


INDIA 


INDIA 


banyan,  the  sappan,  the  saul,  etc.,  are 
all  characteristic  of  Indian  forest 
scenery.  Opium  is  cultivated  in  Bahar, 
Benares,  and  Malwa.  The  vast  forests 
of  India  are  tenanted  by  great  numbers 
of  wild  animals,  birds,  and  reptiles. 
Large  herds  of  elephants  are  still  met 
with  in  Nepaul,  Eastei-n  Bengal,  and  the 
Nilghiris;  the  bear,  the  wild  boar,  and 
rhinoceros  chiefly  in  the  woods  of  the 
Eastern  Himalayas;  the  tiger  is  found 
in  every  part  of  the  country;  the  lion  is 
now  almost  extinct.  Other  carnivorous 
mammals  are  the  leopard  or  panther, 
cheetah,  wolf,  fox,  jackal,  and  hyena. 
Several  antelopes  and  deer,  wild  sheep 
and  goats,  the  wild  ass,  the  great  gaur 
ox  or  “bison,”  the  wild  buffalo,  are 
among  the  fauna.  Snakes  and  reptiles 
in  all  varieties  are  very  numerous,  and 
the  cobra  and  other  snakes  cause 
numerous  deaths.  Among  domestic 
animals  are  oxen,  camels,  horses,  mules, 
sheep,  and  goats.  Of  birds,  eagles,  vul- 
tures, the  peacock,  parrakeets,  the  ad- 
jutant-bird, etc.,  are  characteristic 
species.  Fish  are  plentiful  and  in  great 
variety. 

India  is  richly  endowed  with  min- 
erals; hardly  a single  metal  seems  to  be 
wanting;  but  they  are  not  worked  to 
any  extent.  Coal,  iron,  gold,  and  salt 
receive  most  attention. 

In  1858  the  administration  of  the 
British  possessions  in  India  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  East  India  company  to 
the  crown,  and  in  1877  the  British  queen 
assumed  the  title  of  Empress  of  India. 
The  country  has  long  been  divided  into 
the  three  presidencies  of  Bengal,  Madras, 
and  Bombay;  but  the  first  of  these  was 
latterly  subdivided  into  several  prov- 
inces, and  its  name  has  now  little  or  no 
administrative  significance.  The  lieu- 
tenant-governors, chief -commissioners, 
and  other  officers  at  the  head  of  the 
various  divisions  are  subordinate  to  the 
governor-general  or  viceroy,  represent- 
ing and  appointed  by  the  crown,  but 
each  has  a large  measure  of  independ- 
ence. The  governor-general  in  council 
has  power  to  make  laws  for  all  persons 
within  the  Indian  territories  under 
British  rule,  and  for  all  subjects  of  the 
crown  within  the  allied  native  states. 
He  acts  under  the  orders  of  the  secretary 
of  state  for  India,  who  is  assisted  by  a 
council  of  fifteen  and  is  always  a mem- 
ber of  the  British  cabinet.  In  India  the 
supreme  executive  and  legislative  author- 
ity is  vested  in  the  governor-general, 
the  capital  being  Calcutta.  There  are 
also  a number  of  native  or  feudatory 
states,  the  relations  of  which  to  British 
rule  are  somewhat  varied.  Their  area  is 
679,393  sq.  miles,  and  their  population 
62,461,549.  Among  the  most  important 
of  such  native  states  are  Haidarabad, 
Cashmere,  Mysore,  Travancore,  Baroda, 
Gwalior,  Indor,  Jeypore,  and  Jodhpore. 

The  total  European  and  native  army 
numbers  220,000,  the  native  army 
(146,000)  being  officered  by  Europeans. 
The  armies  of  the  feudatory  or  inde- 
pendent states  of  India  number  350,000 
men. 

The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the 
land-tax,  which  yields  from  $90,000,000 
to  $100,000,000  annually.  About  70  per 
cent  of  the  population  are  engaged  in 
cultivating  the  soil,  while  onlv  about  3 


per  cent  reside  in  towns  of  over  50,000 
inhabitants.  Opium,  which  forms  a gov- 
ernment monopoly,  and  salt,  on  which 
a considerable  duty  is  levied,  are  the 
other  two  important  sources  of  revenue. 
The  chief  money  denomination  is  the 
rupee,  which  is  divided  into  16  annas, 
the  anna  again  being  equivalent  to  4 
pice.  The  primary  standard  of  weight, 
called  the  ser,  is  equal  to  the  French 
kilogramme,  or  2.205  lbs.  A weight  in 
common  use  is  the  maund,  in  Bengal 
82  lbs.,  in  Bombay  28  lbs.,  in  Madras 
25  lbs.  By  an  act  passed  in  1889  the 
imperial  yard  is  made  the  standard 
measure  of  length. 

Some  of  the  irrigation  canals  as  well 
as  the  rivers  supply  means  of  internal 
navigation,  but  the  construction  of  rail- 
ways has  been  the  most  important  step 
taken  to  render  the  internal  communica- 
tions of  India  permanently  efficient. 
The  total  railway  mileage  open  for 
traffic  in  1900  was  nearly  23,000  miles. 
There  is  an  extensive  system  of  posts 
and  telegraphs,  the  length  of  telegraph 
lines  being  45,000  miles. 

The  early  history  of  India  is  obscurely 
written  in  the  myths  of  Sanskrit  litera- 
ture, but  the  first  fact  of  any  certainty 
is  that  about  the  year  2000  B.C.,  or  even 
earlier,  an  Aryan  people  of  compara- 
tively high  civilization  descended  from 
the  mountain  regions  of  the  northwest 
into  the  plains  of  India  and  subdued  the 
original  inhabitants  there.  The  expedi- 
tion of  Alexander  the  Great  to  the  Indus 
in  B.c.  326  gives  us  a momentary  glimpse 
of  that  part  of  India;  but  between  his 
invasion  and  the  Mohja^edan  con- 
quest there  is  little  auJ^^ic  political 
history  of  India.  In  3rd  century 
B.c.  Buddhism  was  established  through- 
out India,  but  it  afterward  entirely 
gave  way  to  Brahmanism.  The  first  six 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era  were 
occupied  by  struggles  between  the 
native  dynasties  and  invaders  from  the 
northwest.  In  the  8th  century  the  tide 
of  Mohammedan  conquest  began  with 
Kasim’s  advance  into  Sind  (711  a.d.). 
But  the  Mohammedans  were  again 
driven  out  in  828,  and  for  more  than  150 
years  afterward  the  strong  feudal  and 
tribal  organizations  of  the  northern 
Hindu  kingdoms  were  a barrier  to  the 
Musselman  advance.  At  length  in  the 
year  1001  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  reduced 
the  Punjab  to  a province  of  Ghazni, 
and  the  Mohammedan  power  was 
gradually  extended  into  Soutliern  India. 
In  1398  Timur  or  Tamerlane  led  a great 
Mogul  (or  Mongol)  invasion  of  India,  and 
after  sacking  Delhi  retired  into  Central 
Asia.  In  1526  Sultan  Baber,  a descend- 
ant of  Tamerlane,  founded  the  Mogul 
Empire  in  India.  His  grandson  Akbar 
reigned  from  1556  to  1607,  and  extended 
his  power  over  most  of  the  peninsula, 
being  distinguished  by  his  justiee  and 
his  tolerance  in  matters  of  religion.  His 
son  Jehanghir  reeeived  an  ambassador 
from  James  I.  in  1615.  During  the  reign 
of  his  successor,  Shah  Jehan,  famous  for 
his  architectural  magnificence,  the  Mah- 
rattas  began  to  be  formidable  in  South- 
ern India.  Shah  Jehan  was  deposed  in 
1658  by  his  youngest  son  Aurengzebe, 
who  made  war  successfully  with  the 
Afghans,  the  Rajputana  tribes,  and 
the  rising  power  of  the  Mahrattas.  The 


Sikhs,  a Hindu  sect,  formed  a religious 
and  military  commonwealth  in  the 
Punjab  in  1675.  On  the  death  of  Aureng- 
zebe in  1707  the  Mogul  empire  began  to 
decline. 

The  English  early  came  into  collision 
with  the  French  in  India,  whose  first 
settlements  were  founded  in  1604.  The 
first  conflict  with  the  French  took  place 
in  1746,  when  the  English  lost  Madras, 
which  was,  however,  restored  by  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In  1751  Du- 
pleix,  the  French  governor  at  Pondi- 
cherry, was  powerful  enough  to  place 
creatures  of  his  own  on  the  thrones  of 
the  Deccan  and  the  Carnatic.  The  Eng- 
lish supported  rival  candidates,  and  the 
result  was  a second  war,  which  left  Eng- 
lish influence  predominant  in  the  Car- 
natic, though  the  French  still  controlled 
the  Deccan.  The  most  memorable  in- 
cident in  this  war  was  Clive’s  capture  of 
Arcot.  About  this  time  important  events 
took  place  in  Bengal,  then  a subordinate 
presidency  to  that  of  Madras.  The 
Nawab  of  Bengal,  Siraj-ud-Daula  (Sura- 
jah  Dowlah),  attacked  the  English 
settlement  at  Calcutta  with  a large  army, 
forced  it  to  capitulate,  and  thrust  the 
prisoners,  to  the  number  of  146,  into  the 
Black  Hole  or  common  prison  of  the 
garrison,  a room  18  feet  square,  with 
two  small  windows.  After  a night  of 
unparalleled  suffering  only  twenty- 
three  were  found  alive  in  the  morning. 
Clive  was  at  once  sent  vuth  an  armament 
from  Madras,  recovered  Calcutta,  at- 
tacked and  took  the  French  settlement 
at  Chandernagore,  routed  the  Nawab’s 
army  at  the  battle  of  Plassey  (23d  June, 
1757),  and  placed  Mir  Jaffier  on  the  vice- 
regal throne,  with  consent  of  the  Mogul 
court.  In  the  south  the  English  were 
equally  victorious.  A force  despatched 
by  Clive  took  Masulipatam,  and  the 
victory  gained  by  Coote  at  Wandawash 
on  22d  January,  1760,  completed  the 
destruction  of  the  French  power  in 
India. 

The  system  of  double  government 
established  by  Clive  was  abolished  in 
1772  by  Warren  Hastings,  who  ap- 
pointed English  officers  to  collect  the 
revenues  and  preside  in  the  courts,  and 
thus  laid  the  foundations  of  the  present 
system  of  British  administration  in 
India.  In  1774  Hastings  was  made 
governor-general  of  India.  In  1786  Lord 
(jornwallis  succeeded  Hastings  as  gover- 
nor. His  rule  is  memorable  chiefly  for 
the  war  with  Tippoo  Sultan  of  Mysore, 
which  terminated  in  the  sultan  having 
to  surrender  one-half  of  his  dominions  to 
the  British  and  their  allies.  Sir  John 
Shore  succeeded  as  governor-general  in 
1793.  He  was  followed  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley,  who  arrived  in  1798,  and 
whose  policy  eventually  made  the 
British  power  paramount  from  the 
Himalayas  to  Cape  Comorin.  Under 
him  Tippoo  of  Mysore  was  completely 
overthrown  (1799)  and  the  second 
Mahratta  war  successfully  concluded. 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (latterly  Duke  of 
Wellington)  having  won  the  victory  of 
Assaye  (23d  Sept.  1803),  and  General 
Lake  that  of  Laswarce  (Ist  Nov.  1803). 
In  1838  the  Afghan  war  broke  out,  and 
terminated  in  the  disastrous  British 
retreat.  (See  Afghanistan.)  In  1849,  the 
Punjab  was  annexed  to  the  British 


INDIA 


INDIANA 


dominions.  This  was  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  the  Burmese  war,  ending  in 
the  annexation  of  Pegu,  20th  June,  1853. 
The  Indian  states  of  Sattara,  Jhansi,  and 
Nagpur  were,  on  the  failure  of  the  native 
succession,  annexed  to  the  British  pos- 
sessions, 1852-56,  and  Oudh  also  brought 
directly  under  British  rule. 

The  administration  of  Viscount  Can- 
ning (1856-61)  was  distinguished  by  a 
short  war  with  Persia,  and  especially  by 
the  great  Sepoy  mutiny.  Several  out- 
breaks among  the  native  soldiers  took 
place  during  March,  1857.  The  first 
formidable  revolt,  however,  was  at 
Meerut  on  10th  May,  where  the  Sepoys 
of  the  3d  light  cavalry,  assisted  by  the 
11th  and  20th  regiments  of  infantry, 
rose  and  massacred  the  Europeans.  At 
Cawnpore  the  revolted  Sepoys  were 
headed  by  Nana  Sahib,  the  heir  of  the 
last  Peshwa  of  the  Mahrattas.  After 
a heroic  but  fruitless  attempt  to  defend 
themselves,  the  Europeans  capitulated 
on  the  sworn  promise  of  Nana  Sahib  to 
allow  them  to  retire  to  Allahabad.  On 
the  27th  the  survivors,  about  450  in 
number,  were  embarking  when  they 
were  attacked  by  the  Nana’s  troops, 
and  the  men  indiscriminately  massacred. 
The  women  and  children,  125  in  number, 
were  carried  back  to  Cawnpore  and  kept 
till  the  15th  of  July,  when  they  wnre  all 
cut  to  pieces  on  the  approach  of  Have- 
lock’s army.  Cawnpore  was  stormed 
the  day  following. 

In  1858  the  direct  sovereignty  of 
India,  and  the  powers  of  government 
hitherto  vested  in  the  East  Indian  com- 
pany, were  vested  in  the  British  crown. 
In  1877  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed 
Empress  of  India  at  Delhi.  In  1877-78 
another  disastrous  famine  occurred,  and 
despite  the  most  strenuous  efforts  of 
the  government  over  five  million  per- 
sons are  said  to  have  perished.  In  1878 
the  intrigues  of  Shir  Ali,  amir  of  Af- 
ghanistan, with  Russia,  led  to  a declar- 
ation of  war  on  the  part  of  the  British. 
After  two  campaigns  Abdurrahman 
Khan  was  established  on  the  Afghan 
throne  by  British  arms.  In  1880  Lord 
Ripon  succeeded  as  viceroy;  being  fol- 
lowed in  1884  by  Lord  Dufferin,  under 
whose  rule  took  place  the  annexation  of 


Insignia  ol  the  Order  of  the  Star  of  India. 

Upper  Burmah  on  January  1,  1866.  He 
was  followed  by  the  Marquis  of  Lans- 
downe,  the  Earl  of  Elgin,  the  Viscount 
Curzon,  and  the  Earl  of  Minto. 

INDIA,  Orders  of  Elnighthood  in,  con- 
sist of  The  Most  Exalted  Order  of  the 
Star  of  India,  instituted  in  1861,  and 


comprising  the  Viceroy  of  India  as 
Grand  Master,  and  a number  of  Knights 
Grand  Commanders  (G.C.S.I.),  Knights 
Commanders  (K.C.S.I.),  and  Compan- 
ions (C.  S.  I.) ; The  Most  Eminent  Order 
of  the  Indian  Empire,  instituted  1st 
Jan.  1878,  and  comprising  the  Viceroy 
of  India  as  Grand  Master,  a.  number  of 
Knights  Grand  Commanders  (G.C.I.E.), 
Knights  Commanders  (K.C.I.E.),  and 
Companions  (C.I.E.);  and  The  Imperial 
Order  of  the  Crown  of  India,  instituted 
1st  Jan.,  1878,  and  comprising  the 
Princess  of  Wales  and  the  princesses  of 
the  royal-blood,  and  other  British  and 
Indian  ladies. 

INDIANA,  one  of  the  United  States,  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  state  of 
Ohio,  on  the  south  by  the  Ohio  river; 
on  the  west  by  Illinois;  on  the  north  by 
the  state  of  Michigan  and  Lake  Michigan. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  state  is  276 


Seal  of  Indiana. 


miles,  with  an  average  breadth  of  145 
miles;  and  the  area  is  33,809  sq.  miles. 

Indiana  occupies  a table-land,  gently 
undulating,  except  along  the  Ohio.  There 
are  no  mountains  or  mountain  ranges. 
With  the  exception  of  a small  portion, 
the  whole  state  inclines  toward  the 
southwest.  The  mean  altitude  of  the 
state  is  estimated  at  735  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  is  well  watered.  The 
Wabash  is  the  largest  river,  and,  with  its 
branches,  it  drains  three-fourths  of 
the  surface.  The  country  south  of  the 
Wabash  was  originally  covered  with 
heavy  forests  of  oak,  beech,  maple, 
walnut,  ash  and  other  hard  woods ; north 
of  that  river  was  principally  prairie,  in- 
terspersed with  small  lakes. 

The  coal-measures  occupy  over  7000 
sq.  miles  in  the  western  and  south- 
western parts,  furnishing  workable 
seams,  at  a depth  of  50  to  220  feet;  the 
seams  vary  in  thickness  from  two  and  a 
half  to  eleven  feet;  an  area  of  600  sq. 
miles  in  this  field  yields  a superior 
“block”  or  splint  coal.  This  is  used  in 
blast  furnaces  without  coking,  and  is 
well  adapted  for  the  preparation  of 
Bessemer  steel.  Natural  gas  has  been  dis- 
covered and  utilized  as  a fuel  and  illumi- 
nating agent  in  various  portions  of  the 
state  and  the  supply  is  apparently  very 
great. 

Inexhaustible  beds  of  fireclay,  potter’s 
clay,  kaolin,  lime  and  paving  and  build- 
ing stone  are  found  in  tne  southern  parts 
of  the  state.  The  climate  is  equable 
and  healthy.  The  mean  height  of  the 
barometer  is  30.010  inches.  The  pre- 


vailing winds  are  from  the  south  and 
west  in  summer,  veering  round  to  the 
north  in  winter.  The  temperature  has 
not  as  great  a range  as  some  of  the 
neighboring  states,  averaging  20°  in 
winter  and  95°  in  summer.  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  tobacco,  and  pota- 
toes are  the  chief  agricultural  products. 
Molasses,  cider,  wine,  honey,  cheese, 
milk,  are  also  plentifully  produced. 
Immense  herds  of  cattle  and  swine  are 
reared.  Woolens,  cottons,  lumber,  ag- 
ricultural implements,  manufactures  of 
iron,  paper,  and  leather,  are  leading  in- 
dustries. The  Ohio,  White  river,  Wa- 
bash, and  the  Miami  are  the  principal 
rivers.  A canal  467  miles  in  len^h,  from 
Evansvide  to  Toledo,  unites  the  Ohio, 
the  Wabash,  and  Lake  Erie. 

So  completely  does  the  railway  system 
cover  the  state  that  one  can  go  from 
the  capital  to  almost  any  county  and 
return  the  same  day.  The  geographical 
position  of  the  state  is  such  that  all  the 
main  railroad  through-lines  between 
the  east  and  west  have  to  cross  Indiana. 

At  the  head  of  the  institutions  of 
higher  education  is  the  state  university 
at  Bloomington.  Perdue  university,  at 
Lafayette,  is  the  state  agricultural  col- 
lege. There  are  a number  of  colleges, 
mainly  under  the  control  of  religious 
societies,  chief  among  which  are  Asbury 
university  (Methodist)  at  Greencastle, 
Wabash  college  (Presbyterian)  at  Craw- 
fordsville,  Butler  university  (Christian) 
at  Irvington  (near  Indianapolis),  Notre 
Dame  (Catholic)  at  South  Bend,  and 
Earlham  college  (Friends)  at  Richmond. 

Indiana  originally  constituted  a part 
of  New  France.  It  was  visited  by  the 
Jesuits  as  early  as  1672.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century  the  French 
opened  a line  of  communication  between 
the  lakes  and  the  Mississippi  by  way  of 
the  Maumee,  Wabash,  and  Ohio  rivers. 
Trading  posts  for  barter  with  the 
natives  were  established  at  the  head  of 
the  Maumee,  where  is  now  the  city  of 
Fort  Wayne;  at  Ouantenon,  on  the  Wea 
Prairie,  near  the  city  of  Lafayette;  and 
at  Vincennes  on  the  Wabash.  Mission- 
ary stations  were  also  established  by 
the  Jesuit  fathers,  in  their  endeavor  to 
convert  the  Indians.  At  the  close  of  the 
French  war  in  1763-4,  the  territory  east 
of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Ohio 
passed  under  British  dominion.  Pend- 
ing the  war  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  American  colonies.  Col.  George 
Rogers  Clark  of  Virginia,  with  an  armed 
force,  took  possession  of  the  territory, 
raising  the  American  flag  at  Vincennes  in 
1778.  By  the  treaty  of  1783  between 
England  and  the  United  States  this  ter- 
ritory was  recognized  as  belonging  to  the 
latter;  inasmuch  as  Virginia  had  fitted 
out  Clark’s  expedition,  she  was  entitled 
by  the  law  of  conquest  to  claim  this  vast 
dominion.  During  the  colonial  war 
congress  recommended  the  several  states 
to  cede  their  claims  to  unappropriated 
lands  in  the  western  country  to  the 
general  government  for  the  common 
benefit  of  the  Union.  Virginia,  in  pur- 
suance of  this  request,  yielded  up  her 
claims  to  the  territory  northwest  of  the 
Ohio.  The  deed  of  cession,  executed  on 
March  1,  1784,  was  signed  by  Thomas 
Jefferson,  James  Monroe,  Arthur  Lee, 
and  Samuel  Hardy.  In  1787  congress 


INDIANAPOLIS 


INDIANS 


passed  an  ordinance  for  the  government 
of  the  northwest  territory,  which  pro- 
vided, among  other  things,  that  not 
more  than  five  states  should  ever  be 
formed  therefrom,  prohibiting  slavery, 
and  declaring  that  “religion,  morality, 
and  knowledge  being  necessary  to  good 
government  and  the  happiness  of  man- 
kind, schools  and  the  means  of  educa- 
tion shall  forever  be  encouraged.”  This 
territory  was  subsequently  divided  into 
the  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  The  capital 
was  moved  from  Vincennes  to  Corydon 
in  1813,  and  to  Indianapolis  in  1825 
In  1811  Gen.  William  H.  Harrison 
crushed  the  Indian  tribes  under  Te- 
cumseh  at  the  battle  of  Tippecanoe. 
Indiana  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as 
a state  by  congress  on  April  19,  1816, 
being  the  sixth  state  received  after  the 
formation  of  the  government  by  the 
thirteen  original  states  and  the  adoption 
in  1787  of  the  present  constitution.  Its 

f)rosperity  since  the  civil  war  has  been 
argely  due  to  the  discovery  of  exten- 
sive coal,  iron  and  gas  fields  and  valu- 


able deposits  of  building  stone  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  state,  and  to  the 
construction  of  the  Wabash  and  Erie 
canals. 

In  national  elections  the  state  was 
democratic  up  to  1860  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  years  1836  and  1840,  when 
it  cast  its  vote  for  the  whig  candidate, 
William  H.  Harrison.  It  was  republican 
from  1860  to  1872,  democratic  in  1876- 
1884  and  1892  and  republican  again  in 
1880-1888  1896-190(1-1904  and  1908.  The 
principal  towns  are  Indianapolis  (the 
capital),  Evansville,  Fort  Wayne,  Terre 
Haute,  New  Albany,  Lafayette,  South 
Bend,  Madison,  etc.  I’op.  2,775,000. 

INDIANAPOLIS,  the  largest  city  in 
and  the  capital  of  Indiana,  the  county 
seat  of  Marion  county  on  the  White 
river  near  the  center  of  the  state,  mostly 
situated  on  a plain.  It  is  111  miles  north- 
west of  Cincinnati  and  183  miles  south- 
east of  Chicago.  It  is  the  center  of 
numerous  railroads  and  is  surrounded 
by  rich  agricultural  and  mineral  regions. 
It  is  a place  of  great  trade  and  its  manu- 


facturing interests  are  large.  It  is  also 
an  important  market  for  grain,  live 
stock,  timber,  etc.,  and  carries  on  pork 
packing,  the  production  of  iron  goods  of 
various  kinds,  agricultural  implements, 
woolens,  flour,  etc.  The  city  is  noted 
for  the  beauty  of  its  streets  which  range 
from  40  to  120  feet  wide.  In  the  heart  of 
the  city  is  a circular  plaza  known  as 
Monument  place  from  which  radiate 
four  avenues  to  the  four  corners  of  the 
city.  The  most  notable  structure  in  the 
city  is  the  soldiers  and  sailors  monu- 
ment. The  notable  buildings  are  the 
capitol  492  by  185  feet,  built  of  Indiana 
limestone,  manual  training  high  school, 
the  Claypole  hotel,  and  the  public 
library.  The  park  system  comprises 
1250  acres  and  includes  Riverside,  Gar- 
field, Brookside,  Saint  Clair  and  Uni- 
versity parks.  Educational  and  benevo- 
lent institutions  are  numerous,  the 
former  including  the  University  of 
Indiana.  Pop.  1909,  213.000. 

INDIANA  UNIVERSITY,  a co-educa- 
tional  institution  of  learning,  situated 
at  Bloomington,  Ind.  The  university  is 


part  of  the  state  public  school  system 
and  admits  pupils  from  high  schools 
without  examination.  It  maintains  a 
professional  school  of  law,  and  confers 
the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts,  bachelor 
of  laws,  master  of  arts,  and  doctor  of 
philosophy.  The  summer  school,  for- 
merly privately  conducted,  is  now  a 
part  of  the  university. 

INDIAN  CORN.  See  Maize. 

INDIAN  INK,  a practically  indelible 
Writing  ink  of  which  there  are  two  prin- 
cipal kinds — one  prepared  in  Italy, 
Turkey,  and  Asia  from  certain  cuttle- 
fishes, the  other  in  China  by  mixing  fine 
lamp-black  with  glue  or  size  and  a little 
camphor.  The  former  when  submitted 
to  the  action  of  an  alkali  becomes  brown 
sepia. 

INDIAN  MUTINY.  See  India  (His- 
tory). 

INDIAN  OCEAN,  that  great  body  of 
water  which  has  Asia  on  the  north,  the 
Sunda  isles  and  Australia  on  the  east, 
.Africa  on  the  west,  and  the  Antarctic 
ocean  on  the  south.  The  Cape  of  Good 


Hope  and  the  southern  extremity  of 
Tasmania  may  be  considered  its  ex- 
treme southern  limits  on  the  west  and 
east.  Its  length  from  north  to  south 
somewhat  exceeds  6500  miles,  its  breadth 
varies  from  6000  to  4000  miles.  It  is 
traversed  by  the  equatorial  current 
flowing  east  to  west,  and  its  navigation 
by  sailing  vessels  is  more  or  less  modified 
by  the  periodic  trade-winds  and  mon- 
soons. Its  greatest  known  depth  is  3393 
fathoms.  Its  chief  arms  are  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  on  the  east  of  India,  and  the 
Arabian  sea  on  the  west,  extensions  of 
the  latter  being  the  Persian  gulf  and 
Red  sea.  Madagascar,  Ceylon,  Mauritius 
etc.,  are  among  the  islands. 

INDIANS,  American,  the  collective 
name  given  ,to  the  tribes  inhabiting  the 
continent  at  the  time  of  the  discovery 
by  Columbus,  and  to  such  of  their  de- 
scendants as  still  survive.  The  name 
of  Indians  was  first  given  to  these  races 
from  the  notion  that  the  newly-dis- 
covered continent  formed  part  of  India 
The  Esquimos  or  Innuit,  the  most 
northerly  of  the  American  tribes,  are  not 
usually  classed  among  the  Indians.  Next 
below  them  are  the  allied  Kenai  and 
Athabascan  groups,  the  former  repre- 
sented chiefly  by  the  YelloW  Knife  or 
Atna  tribe  on  the  Yukon  river.  The 
Athabascans  are  chiefly  found  between 
Hudson’s  bay  and  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, but  includes  besides  the  Chippe- 
ways,  Coppermine,  Dogrib,  and  Beaver 
Indians;  the  Tlatskanai,  Unkwa,  and 
Hoopah  Indians  of  the  Oregon  coast; 
the  Navaho  tribe  of  the  Highlands  of 
New  Mexico;  the  Apache^ ranging  from 
the  western  Colorado  to  Chihuahua  and 
Coahuila;  and  the  Lipani,  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte. 
Canada  and  the  United  States  east  of 
the  Misissippi  were  formerly  inhabited 
by  the  Algonquin-Lenappe  and  the 
Iroquois,  generally  at  war  with  each 
other.  The  extreme  west  of  the  Algon- 
quin region  was  occupied  by  the  Black- 
feet  Indians;  the  Ojibeways  held  the 
shores  of  Lake  Superior;  south  and  west 
of  Hudson’s  bay  were  the  Crees.  The 
Leni-Lenappe  section  of  the  Algonquin- 
Lenappe  group  comprised  the  five 
nations  of  the  Delawares,  including  the 
Mohicans.  The  Iroquois  included  the 
Senecas,  Cayugas,  Onondagas,  Oneidas, 
and  Mohawks,  who  formed  a league  of 
five  nations,  afterward  joined  by  the 
Tuscaroras.  The  Hurons  were  of  the 
Iroquois  group.  The  Dacotah  or  Sioux 
group  occupied  the  plains  between  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  the  Mississippi  as 
far  south  as  Arkansas,  and  included  the 
Assiniboins,  Winnepegs,  lowas,  Omahas, 
Osages,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Menitarees, 
Crows,  and  Mandans.  West  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi also  were  the  Pawnees  and  Ric- 
caras  about  the  Nebraska  or  Platte 
river,  and  to  the  southeast  were  the 
Choctaws  and  Chickasaws.  In  the 
Rocky  mountain  regions  were  the 
Shoshone  or  Snake  Indians,  including 
the  Comanches  and  others.  The  Chero- 
kee tribes,  which  inhabited  South  and 
North  Carolina,  formed  a detached 
group,  and  the  Texas  Indians  were  com- 
prised in  many  small  and  diverse  tribes. 
Below  these,  in  New  Mexico,  a more  ad- 
vanced and  distinct  family  is  found 
called  Moquis  or  Pueblo  Indians.  Of  the 


State  capitol,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 


INDIAN,  AMERICAN,  THE 


INDIAN  TERRITORY 


numerous  families  occupying  Mexico 
the  Nahuatls  or  Aztecs  were  the  most 
powerful  and  civilized.  The  Otomis, 
speaking  a peculiar  language,  were  also  a 
numerous  people  in  Mexico.  In  Central 
America  the  predominating  family  was 
the  Maya,  including  the  Quiches,  Kachi- 
quels,  etc.  Portions  of  the  Aztec  tribes 
were  also  found  in  Central  America.  In 
South  America  the  leading  and  more 
advanced  families  were  those  that  made 
up  the  Peruvian  Empire,  among  which 
the  Inca  race  and  the  Aymaras  were  the 
chief.  The  Araucanians,  to  the  south  of 
these,  in  Chili,  had  a considerable  re- 
semblance to  the  Algonquins  and  Iro- 
quois of  North  America.  The  remaining 
portions  of  the  eontinent,  including  the 
great  alluvial  tracts  of  the  Atlantic 
slope,  were  prineipally  occupied  by  the 
Guaranis;  but  along  its  northern  coast 
were  found  the  Caribs,  who  spread  also 
over  the  Antilles  and  most  of  the  West 
Indian  Islands.  In  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  the  continent  live  the  tall  Pata- 
gonians or  Tehuelches,  and  squalid 
families  in  some  respects  resembling  the 
more  debasedAustralians. 

By  some  ethnologists  the  American 
Indians  are  considered  an  aboriginal  and 
single  stock;  by  others  a mixture  of 
Mongolian,  Polynesian,  and  Caucasian 
types;  and  by  others  as  derived  from 
the  grafting  of  Old  World  races  on  a true 
American  race.  They  are  generally 
characterized  as  having  long,  black,  and 
straight  hair,  scanty  beard,  heavy  brows 
receding  forehead,  dull  and  sleepy  eyes, 
a salient  and  dilated  nose,  full  and  com- 
pressed lips,  and  the  face  broad  across 
the  cheeks,  which  are  prominent,  but  less 
angular  than  in  the  Mongolian.  The 
facial  angle  is  about  75°  (about  5°  less 
than  the  European  average)  ; the  hands 
and  feet  are  small  and  well  proportioned. 
The  complexion  varies  from  dark-brown 
to  almost  white ; a somewhat  reddish  tint 
is  common.  The  North  American  Indian 
is  described  as  of  haughty  demeanor, 
taciturn  and  stoical;  cunning,  brave, 
and  often  ferocious  in. war;  his  tempera- 
ment poetic  and  imaginative,  and  his 
simple  eloquence  of  great  dignity  and 
beauty.  The  Mexico-Peruvians  wor- 
shiped the  sun  with  human  sacrifices 
and  the  grossest  rites.  Those  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  believe  in  the 
two  antagonistic  principles  of  good  and 
evil,  and  have  a general  belief  in  mani- 
tous,  or  spiritual  beings,  one  of  them 
being  spoken  of  as  the  Gitche  Manitou, 
or  Great  Spirit.  They  believe  in  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul  into  other 
men  and  into  animals,  and  in  demons, 
witchcraft,  and  magic.  They  believe  in 
life  after  death,  where  the  spirit  is  sur- 
rounded with  the  pleasures  of  the 
“happy  hunting  grounds,”  though  they 
have  no  idea  that  the  acts  of  their  present 
life  can  have  any  connection  with  their 
future  happiness.  They  adopt  a totem 
or  symbol  of  the  name  of  the  progenitor 
of  the  family;  this  is  generally  some 
animal  (the  turtle,  bear,  and  wolf  being 
favorites),  which  is  the  mark  of  families 
even  when  expanded  into  tribes.  No 
marriage  rite  is  necessary  beyond  the 
consent  of  the  parties  and  their  parents; 
but  the  wife  may  be  dismissed  for  trifling 
causes,  and  polygamy  is  allowed.  In 
ancient  times  the  body  was  covered  with 


furs  and  skins  according  to  the  seasons, 
but  now  the  white  man’s  clothes  and 
blanket  have  generally  superseded  the 
native  dress ; though  the  moccasin  of  deer 
or  moose  hide,  and  in  the  wilder  tribes 
the  ornamental  leggings  and  head- 
dresses, are  largely  retained.  Their 
dwellings  are  made  of  bark,  skins,  and 
mattings  of  their  own  making,  stretched 
on  poles  fixed  in  the  ground.  Their  arms 
consist  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  the  spear, 
tomahawk,  and  club,  to  which  have 
been  added  the  gun  and  knife  of  the 
whites.  Canoes  are  made  of  logs  hol- 
lowed out,  or  of  birch  bark  stretched 
over  a light  frame,  skilfully  fastened 
with  deers’  sinews,  and  rendered  water- 
tight by  pitch.  The  antiquities  found  in 
Mexico  and  Peru,  and  the  ruins  of 
elaborate  buildings  in  Central  America, 
prove  that  the  semi-civilized  races  there 
existing  had  made  considerable  progress 
in  sculpture  and  architecture. 

INDIAN,  AMERICAN,  THE.  The 
annual  reports  of  the  agents  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Indian  Affairs 
in  1905  show  that  the  Indian  population 
was  284,079,  distributed  in  the  several 
states  as  follows: 


Arizona 38,725 

California 16,519 

Colorado 887 

Florida 358 

Idaho 3,560 

Indian  Ter 93,333 

Iowa. 342 

Kansas 1,182 

Michigan 6,333 

Minnesota 9,164 

Montana 10,324 

Nebraska 3,639 

Nevada 5,437 

New  Mexico ....  18,129 

New  York 5,290 

North  Carolina 1 ,455 

North  Dakota 7,741 

Oklahoma 13„562 

Oregon 5,913 

South  Dakota 19,601 

Utah 1,953 

Washington 9,798 

Wisconsin 10,9.57 

Wyoming 1,691 

Miscellaneous 1,183 

Total 284,079 


Of  the  274,706  Indian  population  in 
1907,  116,333  wore  citizens’  dress  and 
43,602  wore  a mixture  of  Indian  and 
civilized  clothing.  Those  who  could  read 
numbered  63,147  and  69,209  could  carry 
on  an  ordinary  converastion  in  English. 

The  total  Indian  population  of  the 
United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska, 
numbered  284,079  in  1907.  The  ex- 
penditures of  the  United  States  on 
account  of  the  Indians  in  tlie  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  )9i,6,  were  $14,236,- 
078,71;  in  the  fiscal  vearended  June  30, 
1907,  they  were  $12,746,859.  The  ex- 
penditures from  1789  to  1907,  inclusive, 
have  been  $450, 282, 361. 

The  appropriation  made  by  congress 
for  Indian  schools  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30, 1907,  was  $9,405,199,98. 
The  government  supports  115  boarding 
schools,  and  146  day  schools.  Indians 
incidentally  under  the  Indian  office  and 
self-supporting: 

The  five  civilized  tribes,  Indians  and  col- 
ored— Cherokees,  36,782;  Chlckasaws, 
10,767;  Choctaws,  25,116;  Creeks,  1.5,923; 
Semlnoles,  3,049.  Total  Indians,  71,018; 


total  colored,  20.619;  grand  total 91,637 

Pueblos  of  New  Mexico 8,874 

Six  Nations,  Saint  Regis,  and  other  In- 
dians of  New  York 5,295 

Eastern  Cherokees  of  North  Carolina 1,465 

Indians  under  control  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment, prisoners  of  war  (Apaches  at  Ft. 

Sill.  Okla.) 298 


INDIAN  SUMMER,  the  name  given  to 
a period  of  mild  summer  weather  tvhich 
generally  occurs  toward  the  end  of 
autumn  in  North  America. 

INDIAN  TERRITORY,  a tract  of 
country  allotted  for  the  residence  of  cer- 
tain of  the  Indian  tribes  who  were  partly 
removed  from  the  southeast  states  of 
the  Union.  It  is  bounded  mainly  by 
Kansas,  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and  Arkan- 
sas, the  southern  boundary  being 
formed  by  the  Red  river;  area,  31,400 
sq.  miles.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Arkan- 
sas and  its  tributaries  (Canadian  river 
Neosho,  etc.)  and  the  Red  river  and  its 
tributaries.  The  greater  portion  is  fertile 
and  suited  for  stock-rearing.  The  Indian 
tribes  or  “nations”  among  which  this 
territory  has  been  apportioned  are  the 
Cherokees,  Creeks,  Seminoles,  Choctaws, 
and  Chickasaws,  all  of  whom  have  made 
considerable  advances  in  civilization, 
having  schools,  churches,  newspapers, 
etc.  The  white  inhabitants  are  increasing 
since  the  opening  of  coal-mines  and  the 
construction  of  railways.  The  territory 
possesses  a coal-field  of  20,000  sq.  miles. 
Cultivation  is  now  rapidly  extending. 
The  Indian  Territory  was  formerly  more 
than  double  its  present  size,  but  was 
reduced  in  1889  and  subsequently,  by 
the  loss  of  Oklahoma.  The  Indians  of 
the  territory,  though  not  full  citizens 
of  the  republic,  are  subject  to  the 
revenue  laws  and  pay  taxes.  The  Indian 
territory  was  part  of  the  French  posses- 
sions which  the  United  States  procured 
by  the  Louisiana  purchase  in  1803.  The 
first  Indians  to  settle  here  were  the 
Creeks,  Cherokees,  Chickasaws,  and 
Choctaws  in  1834.  The  various  tribes 
hold  their  reservations  in  common  and 
govern  themselves  in  accordance  with 
their  established  customs,  each  nation 
having  its  own  governor,  legislature, 
judicial  system,  etc.  With  the  great 
increase  of  the  number  of  whites  who 
have  come  into  the  territory,  this  plan 
of  government  has  become  inadequate, 
and  gradually  the  tribal  governments 
are  being  displaced  by  a general  govern- 
ment. In  1893  a commission,  known  as 
the  “Dawes  Commission,”  to  the  five 
civilized  tribes  was  appointed  and  has 
accomplished  the  following  ’ general 
results:  The  partial  abolition  of  the 
Indian  tribes  and  local  governments 
(this  is  to  be  extended  to  total  abolition), 
a survey  of  the  lands ; the  enrollment  of 
all  Indians  with  a view  to  making  an 
allotment  of  land  to  each  one  who  is 
entitled  ^to  it ; the  establishment  of  a 
judicial  system  for  the  whole  territory; 
the ' founding  of  a system  of  public 
schools,  etc.  In  1898  a bill  “for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  people  of  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory,” known  as  the  Curtis  bill  was 
passed  by  congress.  This  act  provides 
that  the  control  of  tribal  funds  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  United  States  officers 
and  also  that  white  residents  of  the  ter- 
ritory may  incorporate  t05vns  within  the 
Indian  nations.  As  soon  as  the  survey 
and  enrollment  are  finished  lands  will 
be  allotted  and  citizenship  granted  to 
each  Indian  in  the  territory  and  a gen- 
eral territorial  government  will  be 
formed.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1898, 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States 
courts  was  established  in  the  territory 
over  the  five  civilized  tribes.  This  had 


INDIA-RUBBER 


INDUCTION 


the  effect  practically  of  abolishing  the 
tribal  court  and  in  reality  the  substance 
of  their  individual  governments. 

Differences  of  conditions  have  pre- 
vented a uniform  application  of  the 
policy.  An  agreement  with  the  Semi- 
noles  permits  the  continuance  of  the 
Seminole  government  in  a limited  way 
and  an  agreement  with  the  Choctaws  and 
Chickasaws,  until  March  4,  1906.  Pop. 
450,000,  With  Oklahoma,  Indian  Ter- 
ritory was  incorporated  into  the  State 
of  Oklahoma  in  1907.  See  Oklahoma. 

INDIA-RUBBER,  a peculiar  elastic 
substance  composed  of  carbon  and  hy- 
drogen, found  in  suspension  in  the  milky 
juice  of  many  different  families  of  plants. 
The  crude  rubber  is  usually  prepared 
where  the  juice  is  collected,  by  drying 
the  juice  over  a fire  or  in  the  sun  on 
moulds  of  clay,  paddles,  or  lasts;  by 
evaporating  the  juice  in  the  sun  and 
removing  the  successive  pellicles  formed 
on  the  surface;  or  by  coagulating  the 
juice,  as  in  Nicaragua,  by  an  application 
of  the  juice  of  the  bejuca  vine,  and 
kneading  and  rolling  the  coagulated 
mass.  Most  of  the  rubber  of  commerce 
is  derived  from  South  America,  from 
Para,  Central  America,  Mexico,  Cartha- 
gena,  etc. ; smaller  quantities  from  Java, 
Penang,  Singapore,  Assam,  and  South 
Africa.  The  purest  comes  from  Para  in 
large  bottles  and  thick  plates.  When 
combined  with  a small  quantity  of  sul- 
phur, etc.,  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  overshoes,  boots,  gloves,  life-pre- 
servers, gas-bags,  steam  and  water  pack- 
ing, belting,  fire-hose,  tubing,  springs, 
tires,  artificial  sponges,  etc.  With  a 
larger  proportion  of  sulphur,  and  cured 
or  vulcanized  by  exposure  to  a high  tem- 
perature, it  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  combs,  pen  and  pencil  holders,  rulers, 
inkstands,  buttons,  canes,  syringes, 
jewelry,  and,  when  colored  with  ver- 
milion, for  mountings  for  artificial 
teeth,  etc.  In  combination  with  asphalts, 
oils,  and  sulphur,  etc.,  and  vulcanized 
(kerite)  it  is  used  for  covering  telegraph 
wires. 

INDIC'ATIVE,  that  mood  of  the  verb 
in  which  something  is  said  positively; 
hence  it  has  also  been  called  the  positive 
mood,  as  distinguished  from  the  sub- 
junctive and  potential. 

IN'DICATOR,  (1)  an  instrument  for 
ascertaining  and  recording  the  pressure 
of  steam  in  the  cylinder  of  a steam- 
engine,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
steam-gauge,  which  shows  the  pressure 
of  the  steam  in  the  boiler.  (2)  An  ap- 
paratus or  appliance  in  a telegraph  for 
giving  signals  or  on  which  messages  are 
recorded,  as  the  dial  and  index  hand  of 
the  alphabetic  telegraph.  (3)  A genus 
of  African  birds,  the  honey-guides  or 
honey-guide  cuckoos. 

INDICTMENT  (in-dit'ment),  in  law, 
a written  accusation  of  one  or  more  per- 
sons for  a crime  or  misdemeanor,  pre- 
ferred to  and  presented  upon  oath  by  a 
grand-jury  to  a court. 

INDIGESTION.  See  Dyspepsia, 

IN'DIGO,  a blue  vegetable  dye,  ex- 
tensively employed  in  dyeing  and  calico- 
printing;  an  important  commercial  prod- 
uct in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Mex- 
ico, Brazil,  Egpyt,  etc.  It  is  chiefly  ob- 
tained from  various  leguminous  plants, 
herbaceous  or  shrubby  plants,  with 


pinnate  leaves,  and  small,  blue,  purple, 
or  white  pea-shaped  flowers  disposed  in 
axillary  racemes.  They  are  very  numer- 
ous in  the  equatorial  regions  of  the 
globe.  The  greater  part  of  the  indigo 
used  at  the  present  day  comes  from 
India,  especially  from  the  provinces  of 


Ind  go-plant. 


Bengal,  Oude  and  Madras.  The  color 
varies  from  light-blue  to  blackish-blue; 
when  rubbed  with  the  nail  a copper- 
colored  streak  is  formed  on  the  surface 
of  the  mass.  Indigo  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  cer- 
tain deoxidizing  agents  it  becomes 
soluble  in  alkaline  solutions,  losing  its 
blue  color  and  forming  a green  solution 
from  which  it  is  precipitated  by  acids 
white,  but  it  instantly  becomes  blue  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  Commercial  indigo 
contains  about  50  to  60  per  cent  of  pure 
indigo  blue,  the  remainder  consisting 
of  substances  called  indigo  gluten, 
indigo  yellow,  indigo  red,  etc. 

IN'DIUM,  a-  metal  discovered  by 
Reich  and  Richter  in  1863  by  means  of 
spectroscopic  analysis  in  the  zinc-blende 
of  Freiburg.  It  has  been  isolated  in 
small  quantities,  and  is  of  a silver-white 
color,  soft,  and  marks  paper  like  lead; 
specific  gravity,  7.421  at  16°. 8.  The 
metal  is  related  to  cadmium  and  zinc, 
and  its  spectrum  exhibits  two  character- 
istic lines,  one  violet  and  another  blue. 

INDO-CHINA,  a name  sometimes 
given  to  the  southeastern  peninsula  of 
Asia,  comprising  Burmah,  Siam,  Cam- 
bodia, Cochin-China,  Tonquin,  Anam, 

INDO-EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES,  also 
called  Aryan  or  Indo-Germanic,  the 
most  important  of  the  great  families  into 
which  human  speech  has  been  divided, 
spoken  by  various  peoples  in  Asia  and 
Europe.  The  chief  branches  of  this 
family  are  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic, 
including  English,  German,  Dutch, 
Danish,  Swedish,  Icelandic,  and  the  ex- 
tinct Gothic;  the  Slavonic  (Polish,  Rus- 
sian, Bohemian);  the  Lithuanian;  the 
Celtic  (Welsh,  Irish,  Gaelic,  Breton);  the 
Latin  or  Italic,  and  the  Romance  tongues 
descended  from  it  (French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Portuguese);  the  Greek,  the 
Armenian,  the  Persian,  and  the  Sans- 
krit. All  these  tongues  are  regarded  as 
being  descended  from  a common  ances- 
tral tongue  or  parent  speech,  spoken  at 
some  remote  period  in  Central  Asia, 
whence  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
peoples  speaking  these  tongues  spread 
into  India,  Western  Asia,  and  Europe. 
See_  Philology. 

INDORE,  or  INDOR,  a protected 
native  state  of  Hindustan,  connected 
with  Central  India,  and  consisting  of 
several  detached  portions,  the  largest 
being  bisected  by  the  Narbada;  total 
area,  8400  sq.  miles.  Pop.  86,686. 

INDORSEMENT,  or  ENDORSEMENT, 
See  Bill. 


INDRA,  a Hindu  deity,  originally  rep- 
resenting the  sky  or  heavens,  and  wor- 
shiped in  the  Verdic  period  as  the 
supreme  god,  though  he  afterward 
assumed  a subordinate  place  in  the 
Pantheon.  He  is  commonly  represented 


Indra— Coleman’s  Hindu  mythology. 

with  four  arms  and  hands  riding  on  an 
elephant.  When  painted  he  is  covered 
with  eyes.  He  is  at  once  beneficent 
as  giving  rain  and  shade,  and  awful  and 
powerful  in  the  storm  as  wielding  the 
thunderbolt.  In  one  aspect  he  is  lord  of 
Swarga,  the  beautiful  paradise  where 
the  inferior  gods  and  pious  men  dwell 
in  full  and  uninterrupted  sensuous 
felicity. 

INDRE  (andr),  a department  of  Cen- 
tral France;  area,  2622  sq.  miles.  Chfl- 
teauroux  is  the  capital.  Pop.  288,788. 

INDRE-ET- LOIRE  (andr-e-lwar),  a 
department  of  Central  France;  area, 
2362  sq.  miles.  Tours  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  335,541. 

INDUCED  CURRENT,  the  current  of 
electricity  which  is  produced  or  excited 
in  a conductor  when  the  magnetic  field 
in  which  it  is  placed  is  altered  in  any 
way;  that  is,  1st,  when  the  strength  of 
the  current  in  a neighboring  conductor 
is  altered;  or  2d,  when  a neighboring 
conductor  in  which  a current  flows  is 
altered  in  position;  or  3d,  when  a 
neighboring  magnet  is  moved;  or  4th, 
when  the  magnetization  of  a neighbor- 
ing magnet  is  altered.  Thus  if  there  is  a 
closed  circuit,  say  a coil  of  wire  with  its 
ends  joined,  through  which  no  current 
is  passing,  the  motion  of  a magnet  in  its 
neighborhood  will  induce  a current  in  it, 
the  direction  of  this  current  being  al- 
ways such  as  to  oppose  the  motion. 

INDUCTION,  in  logic,  is  that  process 
of  reasoning  by  which  we  rise  from  the 
particular  to  the  general,  and  is  the 
counter-process  to  deduction.  In  in- 
duction particulars  are  not  only  raised 
into  generals,  but  these  into  still  higher 
generalities.  In  following  this  method 
we  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, and  obtain  a conclusion  much 
wider  than  the  premises.  Thus  a person 
who  has  had  any  experience  easily 
arrives  by  induction  at  the  conclusion 
that  fire  burns  wood,  and  when  any 
piece  of  wood  whatever  is  presented  to 
him  he  will  have  no’  hesitation  in  saying 
that  fire  will  burn  it.  As  it  is  impossible 
that  all  particulars  can  be  observed, 
there  is  always  a certain  risk  of  error, 
and  the  inductive  method  must  be 
worked  with  extreme  caution;  but 
science  properly  so  called  would  be  im- 
possible if  we  did  not  presuppose  a 
faculty  of  arriving  from  experience  at 
the  knowledge  of  truths  not  contained 
in  that  experience.  Hence  the  ground 


INDUCTION 


INFECTION 


of  induction  is  the  established  fact  that 
nature  is  uniform. 

INDUCTION,  Electromagnetic,  the 
action  by  which  a current  of  electricity 
is  produced  in  a conductor  when  the 
magnetic  field  in  which  it  is  placed  is 
altered  inany  way.  See  Induced  Current. 

INDUCTION,  Electrostatic,  the  action 
by  which  the  distribution  of  a charge  of 
electricity  on  a conductor  is  altered  by 
the  approach  of  an  electrified  body. 
When  a body  charged  with  one  kind  of 
electricity  is  approached  toward  an  in- 
sulated conductor  which  originally  had 
no  charge,  a charge  similar  to  that  of  the 
influencing  body  is  produced  on  the  re- 
mote side,  and  an  equal  charge  of  the  op- 

fiosite  kind  on  the  near  side  of  the  insu- 
ated  conductor.  It  is  to  the  mutual  in- 
duction between  the  two  coatings,  one 
charged  positively  and  the  other  nega- 
tively, that  the  Leyden-jar  is  indebted 
for  its  large  electrical  capacity. 

INDUCTION,  Magnetic,  the  action  by 
which  iron  and  other  substances  become 
magnetic  when  in  a magnetic  field,  that 
is,  when  in  the  neighborhood  of  magnets 
or  currents  of  electricity.  See  Electro- 
magnetism, Magnetism. 

INDUCTION-COIL,  an  instrument  in- 
vented by  Ruhmkorff,  in  which  rapid 
breaking  and  making  of  the  current  of 
electricity  in  a primary  short  coil  of  wire 
gives  rise  to  a succession  of  induced  cur- 


Inductlon-coil. 


rents  (see  Induced  Current)  of  very  great 
electromotive  force  in  a long  secondary 
coil.  In  the  figure  the  secondary  coil  is 
the  one  shown  wound  up  in  a cylindrical 
form.  Such  a coil  often  consists  of  a 
copper  wire  many  miles  in  length,  and  a 
succession  of  powerful  sparks  passes  be- 
tween its  terminals  when  the  primary 
current  is  rapidly  made  and  broken. 

INDULGENCE,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
system,  is  the  remission  granted  by  the 
church  to  a repentant  sinner  of  the  tem- 
poral punishment  due  to  his  sin,  whether 
this  punishment  be  the  pains  of  purga- 
tory, or  penance  which  the  church  has 
the  right  to  impose  according  to  the 
gravity  of  the  sin.  It  must  be  understood 
that  the  indulgence  is  never  to  be  con- 
sidered as  constituting  a remission  of  the 
sin  itself.  The  principle  of  indulgences 
rests  on  that  of  good  works.  Many  saints 
and  pious  men  have  done  more  good 
wmrks  and  suffered  more  than  was  re- 
quired for  the  remission  of  their  sins; 
these  are  known  as  works  of  supereroga- 
tion, and  the  sum  of  this  surplus  consti- 
tutes a treasure  for  the  church,  of  which 
the  pope  has  the  keys,  and  is  authorized 
to  distribute  as  much  or  little  as  he 
pleases  in  exchange  for  pious  works  or 
guts.  Indulgences  are  of  two  kinds; 
pl^aiy,  when  considered  an  equivalent 
substitute  for  all  penance;  and  partial, 
when  only  a portion  of  penitential  works 
^®l^xed.  Local  indulgences  are  at- 
tached to  particular  places,  real  indul- 
gences to  crucifixes,  medals,  etc,  The 

P.  E.— 42 


historical  origin  of  indulgences  is  traced 
to  the  public  penances  and  the  canonical 
punishments  which  the  early  Christian 
church  imposed  on  offenders,  especially 
on  those  who  were  guilty  of  any  grievous 
crime,  such  as  apostasy,  murder,  and 
adultery.  When  ecclesiastical  discipline 
became  milder  it  was  allowed  to  com- 
mute these  punishments  into  fines  for  the 
benefit  of  the  church.  The  abuse  of  the 
system  of  granting  indulgences  inflamed 
the  zeal  of  Luther,  and  the  Protestant 
theologians  have  always  found  indul- 
gences one  of  the  most  vulnerable  points 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  system. 

INDUS,  the  chief  river  of  the  north- 
west of  Hindustan,  It  has  a length  of 
about  1800  miles,  drains  an  area  of  about 
370,000  sq.  miles,  and  rises  in  Tibet  on 
the  north  of  the  Himalaya  mountains. 

INDUSTRIAL  EXHIBITION.  See  Ex- 
hibition. 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS,  a class  of 
schools,  of  a philanthropic,  reformatory, 
or  experimental  nature,  in  which  indus- 
trial work  is  taught  to  boys  and  girls. 
The  primary  purpose  of  the  industrial 
instruction  varies  from  the  mere  desire 
to  keep  boys  off  the  streets  to  the  serious 
effort  to  teach  a trade.  Broom  and  brush 
making,  chair-seating,  or  basketry,  are 
prominent  in  such  schools. 

INEBRJ'ETY,  habitual  or  chronic 
drunkenness.  See  Drunkenness,  Delirium 
Tremens,  Intoxication,  Dipsomania. 

INERTIA,  the  passiveness  of  matter, 
or  its  indifference  to  rest  or  motion. 
Newton’s  first  law  treats  of  this  property 
in  virtue  of  which  a body  at  rest  will  re- 
main at  rest,  and  a body  in  motion  will 
continue  to  move  in  a straight  line  and 
with  a uniform  velocity  unless  some  force 
acts  upon  it. 

INFALLIBILITY,  exemption  from  the 
possibility  of  error  in  regard  to  matters 
of  religion  and  morals — a claim  made  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  both  on  its 
own  behalf  and  on  that  of  the  pope  when 
speaking  ex  cathedra,  or  in  his  official 
capacity.  The  infallibility  of  the  church 
is  of  two  kinds,  active,  and  passive;  the 
former  signifying  the  function  of  the 
church  of  permanently  teaching  the 
truths  of  God,  and  of  authoritatively 
settling  doctrinal  disputes ; and  the  latter 
that  property  Inherent  in  the  church  in 
virtue  of  which  she  can  never  receive  or 
embrace  erroneous  doctrine.  The  infalli- 
bility of  the  pope,  long  taught,  was  only 
settled  as  an  article  of  faith  in  the  Vati- 
can Council  of  1870. 

INFANT,  a term  in  the  English  and 
American  law  for  persons  who  have  not 
attained  their  majority,  that  is,  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years,  and  are  under 
guardianship.  In  general,  contracts 
made  by  infants  are  not  binding,  ex- 
cept for  necessaries  suited  to  their  station 
in  life.  Being  an  infant  is  no  bar  to  crimi- 
nal proceedings;  but  young  persons  are 
not  punished  for  offenses  if  they  have 
not  knowledge  and  discretion  to  distin- 
guish them  to  be  such.  Infants  require 
the  consent  of  parents  or  guardians  to 
marry.  The  jurisdiction  in  respect  to  in- 
fants is  generally  vested  in  either  pro- 
bate or  orphans’  courts.  These  courts  ap- 
point guardians  to  take  charge  of  the 
property  of  infants,  and,  in  case  of  the 
decease  of  the  father,  to  take  charge  of 
their  persons;  but  during  the  life  of  the 


father  he  has  the  guardianship  and  con- 
trol of  the  persons  of  his  children  until 
they  are  twenty-one  years  of  age. 

INFANTE  (in-fan-ta)  or  infant,  the 
title  given  in  Spain  and  Portugal  to  the 
princes  of  the  royal  house.  The  prin- 
cesses are  called  infanta. 

INFAN'TICIDE,  the  murder  of  an  in- 
fant, a crime  that  is  especially  common 
in  the  case  of  illegitimate  children,  the 
main  cause  being  shame;  but  infanticide 
is  sometimes  the  result  of  puerperal  in- 
sanity. In  trial  for  infanticide  it  must  be 
proved  that  the  child  was  fully  born 
alive.  Infanticide  was  prevalent  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  In  modern  times 
many  barbarous  nations  are  guilty  of 
wholesale  child-murder.  Among  the 
South  Sea  Islanders  and  aboriginal  Aus- 
tralians the  destruction  of  infant  life  is 
systematized.  The  Hindus  destroy 
female  children  -without  compunction, 
and  abortion  is  common  among  the 
Mohammedans.  In  China,  also,  infanti- 
cide is  supposed  to  be  frightfully  com- 
mon. 

IN'FANTRY,  foot-soldiers  collectively. 
Except  among  semi-barbarous  nations, 
and  during  the  prevalence  of  the  institu- 
tions of  chivalry,  infantry  has  always 
been  considered  the  most  important 
military  arm,  and  this  has  been  peculiar- 
ly the  case  since  the  formation  of  stand- 
ing armies,  and  since  war  has  become 
a science.  Infantry  may  be  divided  into 
various  classes,  and  most  commonly  into 
light  infantry  and  infantry  of  the  line,  to 
which  should  also  be  added  mounted  in- 
fantry, a force  which  from  its  mobility 
has  proved  itself  of  immense  value  in 
special  circumstances.  Under  equal  con- 
ditions well-trained  infantry  is  almost 
universally  successful  against  any  other 
kind  of  troops. 

INFANT  SCHOOLS,  schools,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  is  to  amuse,  interest,  and 
instruct  children  from  their  third  to  their 
sixth  year.  Jean  Frederic  Oberlin,  Pro- 
testant pastor  of  Waldbach,  in  Alsace,  is 
regarded  as  their  founder.  In  1812 
Robert  Owen  established  one  at  New 
Lanark,  in  Scotland,  the  first  attempt  of 
the  kind  in  Great  Britain.  A second  was 
set  on  foot  in  Westminster  in  1819,  of 
which  Samuel  Wilderspin  (1792-1866) 
was  one  of  the  first  teachers.  In  England 
infant  schools  are  more  popular,  and  pro- 
portionally more  numerous,  than  in  Scot- 
land. In  Germany  there  are  numerous 
Kleinkinderschulen,  or  Kindergarten; 
in  France,  under  the  name  of  “Asylums,” 
they  are  wide-spread;  and  the  kinder- 
garten system  (founded  about  1840)  is 
acquiring  high  credit  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  the  United  States.  In 
dealing  with  infants  of  tender  years  a 
frequent  mistake  of  teachers  is  to  at- 
tempt too  much.  Physical  more  than 
intellectual  development  should  be  aimed 
at ; the  moral  faculties  should  be  trained 
by  an  enlightened,  judicious,  and  sym- 
pathetic teacher.  The  school  should  be  a 
playground,  and  elementary  instruction 
should  be  simple,  pleasing,  and  as  much 
as  possible  imparted  by  means  of  models, 
pictures,  and  simultaneous  singing. 

INFECTION,  a terra  sometimes  used 
to  signify  the  communication  of  disease 
through  the  atmosphere,  as  contrasted 
with  contagion  (con,  and  tango,  to 
touch),  communication  of  disease  through 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


INFUSORIA 


the  medium  of  touch.  In  many  cases  In- 
fection and  Contagion  are  used  assynoni- 
mous. 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES.  See  Con- 
tagion. 

INFERIOR  PLANET,  a planet  whose 
orbit  lies  within  that  of  the  earth.  Mer- 
cury and  Venus  are  the  inferior  planets. 

INFINITES'IMAL,  in  mathematics,  an 
infinitely  small  quantity,  or  one  which 
is  so  small  as  to  be  incomparable  with 
any  finite  quantity  whatever,  or  which 
is  less  than  any  assignable  quantity.  The 
infinitesimal  calculus  is  a department  of 
the  higher  mathematics  which  embraces 
both  the  differential  and  the  integral 
calculus. 

INFINTTIVE,  the  indefinite  mood  of  a 
verb,  or  that  in  which  the  verb  is  repre- 
sented without  a subject;  the  mere  name 
form  of  the  verb.  As  the  verb  expresses 
an  action,  or  a state,  it  generally  belongs 
to  a subject  whose  action  or  state  is  ex- 
pressed; but  if  we  wish  to  express  the 
mere  idea  of  this  action  or  state  we  use 
the  infinitive,  which,  therefore,  in  many 
languages  is  employed  without  further 
change  as  a substantive — for  instance, 
the  Greek  and  German — only  preceded  by 
the  neuter  article.  The  infinitive  may  be 
regarded  as  the  point  of  transition  from 
a verb  to  a substantive,  and  is  often  used 
as  the  subject  of  a proposition. 

INFIRMARY.  See  Hospital. 

INFLAMMA'TION,  a vague  term  for  a 
morbid  process,  of  which  the  most  ob- 
vious phenomena  are  pain,  swelling  of 
the  affected  part,  perceptible  increase  of 
heat  to  the  patient,  and  redness  beyond 
the  natural  degree,  often  followed  by 
febrile  symptoms.  Inflammations  may 
arise  from  external  injuries,  or  may  be 
brought  on  by  morbid  or  poisonous 
matters  in  the  system,  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  etc.  The  three  common- 
ly described  terminations  of  inflamma- 
tion are  resolution,  suppuration,  and 
mortification  or  sloughing.  Resolution 
is  that  recovery  from  the  disorder  which 
is  effected  without  the  intervention  of 
any  disorganizing  process  and  when  the 
vessels  return  to  their  normal  condition 
on  the  exciting  cause  of  the  disorder  be- 
ing withdrawn,  and  this  is  the  most 
favorable  mode  of  termination.  If  in- 
flammation cannot  be  resolved  it  must 
go  on  to  suppuration,  when  the  skin  is 
either  divided  by  the  knife  or  breaks  of 
itself,  and  there  is  an  escape  of  a yellow 
cream-like  fluid,  after  which  the  symp- 
toms rapidly  abate.  The  tendency  to 
suppuration  is  marked  by  the  pain  be- 
coming full  and  throbbing,  while  the 
pulse  becomes  more  full  without  being 
less  frequent.  Mortification  is  accom- 
panied by  the  sudden  cessation  of  pain, 
and  there  is  the  actual  death  of  the  part 
affected.  When  the  circumstances  are 
favorable  this  dead  part  sloughs  off  by  a 
vital  process  known  as  ulcerations,  and 
the  cavity  gradually  fills  up  and  heals. 
In  many  cases  inflammation  may  rather 
be  considered  as  a salutary  process  than  as 
a disease,  for  it  frequently  prevents  evils 
which  would  occasion  either  serious  or 
fatal  consequences.  The  most  important 
remedy  in  cases  of  severe  inflammation 
is  hot  fomentations,  blisters,  blood- 
letting, the  warm  bath,  combined  with 
low  diet  and  perfect  quietude.  As  to  in- 
flammation of  the  intestines,  see  En- 


teritis; of  the  eye,  see  Iritis;  of  the  bowels 
see  Peritonitis;  of  the  brain,  see  Men- 
ingitis; of  the  lungs,  see  Pneumonia. 

INFLORES'CENCE,  in  botany,  the 
mode  of  flowering  of  any  species  of  plant, 
that  is,  the  manner  in  which  its  blossoms 


4,  Panicle.  5,  Whorl.  6,  Umbel— a,  simple, 
6,  compound.  7,  Cyme.  8,  Corymb.  9,  Thyr- 
sus. 10,  Head  or  capitulum.  11.  Fasciculus  or 
fascicle.  12,  Spadix.  13,  Anthodium. 


are  grouped  together,  and  in  some  cases 
in  which  they  successively  open.  The 
principal  forms  of  inflorescence  are  the 
amentum,  corymb,  C3rme,  head  or  capi- 
tulum, fascicle,  raceme,  panicle,  thyrsus, 
spike,  whorl  (see  those  terms) ; centrifu- 
gal and  centripetal  are  also  terms  ap- 
plied to  two  kinds  of  inflorescence. 

INFLUEN'ZA  (Italian  influence),  a 
term  used  to  denote  an  epidemic  catarrh 
of  a rather  severe  character,  the  symp- 
toms of  which  are  those  of  what  is  usual- 
ly called  a cold,  with  others  such  as  lassi- 
tude and  general  depression,  loss  of 
sleep,  feverishness,  nausea,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, sometimes  vomiting,  often  an  in- 
flammatory state  of  the  throat  and 
pharynx,  bronchitis,  or  other  complica- 
tions. It  is  not  usually  fatal,  the  patient 
generally  recovering  in  a week  or  ten 
days,  but  it  sometimes  leaves  behind 
chronic  bronchitis  or  consumption.  It 
has  at  various  times  spread  more  rapidly 
and  extensively  than  any  other  disorder. 

INFRINGEMENT,  any  violation  of  a 
law  or  invasion  of  a legal  right  which 
gives  rise  to  a cause  of  action,  in  law  or 
equity,  in  favor  of  the  person  injured 
thereby.  The  term  is  commonly  em- 
ployed in  a technical  sense  to  describe 
an^unlawful  appropriation  of  ideas,  prin- 
ciples, or  rights  when  protected  by  copy- 
rights, patents  or  trademarks.  The  remedy 
for  an  invasion  of  these  statutory  rights 
is  an  action  at  law  for  the  damages  sus- 
tained; or  a court  of  equity  will,  upon 
application,  enjoin  the  infringement, 
thus  securing  an  absolute  enjojunent  or 
monopoly  of  the  principles  or  ideas  em- 
braced in  the  work  or  device  so  pro- 
tected. 

The  manufacture,  use,  or  sale  of  a 
thing,  the  subject  matter  of  which  is  the 
principle  or  novelty  of  a patented  in- 
vention, constitutes  an  infringement  of 
the  latter.  To  prove  that  an  alleged 
new  device  incorporates  the  substance 
of  an  invention  so  protected,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  establish  that  the  same  result  is 


accomplished,  the  same  functions  per- 
formed, and  that  the  mode  of  operation 
is  substantially  the  same.  If  these 
characteristics  are  present  a mere  change 
in  the  form  or  in  the  location  of  the  parts 
of  a patented  article  will  not  save  the 
device  thus  constructed  from  being  an 
infringement  of  the  patentee’s  rights. 

The  unlawful  use  of  a mark  or  device 
which  another  has  registered  to  provide 
a means  of  identification  of  his  goods 
for  the  general  public  is  an  infringement 
of  a trademark.  Any  device  which  is  so 
similar  to  a registered  trademark  as  to 
deceive  or  mislead  the  public  constitutes 
an  infringement  thereof,  even  though  it 
would  not  be  difficult  to  distinguish  the 
two  when  placed  together.  The  remedy 
for  such  infringement  is  by  injunction. 

INFUSION,  a solution  of  some  vege- 
table substance  in  hot  or  cold  water, 
such  as  are  often  used  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. The  water  employed  may  be  at 
boiling  heat,  but  if  the  substance  is  itself 
boiled  the  result  is  a decoction.  In  pre- 
paring certain  infusions  cold  water  is. 
preferable,  a sbringing  out  the  constit- 
uent desired.  The  process  of  making  an 
infusion  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
making  tea. 

INFUSORIA,  a class  of  minute,  mostly 
microscopic,  animals,  so  named  from 
being  frequently  developed  in  organic 
infusions,  provisionally  regarded  as  the 
highest  class  of  the  Protozoa.  They  are 
provided  with  a mouth,  are  destitute  of 
pseudopodia,  but  are  furnished  with 
vibratile  cilia.  Most  are  free-swimming 
but  some  form  colonies  by  budding,  and 
are  fixed  to  a solid  object  in  their  adult 
condition.  The  body  consists  of  an  outer 


Magnified  drop  of  water,  showing  infusoria,  etc. 

1,  Volvox  glohator  (a  plant,  a low  form  of 
Algse).  2,  Stentor  polymorphus.  S,  Urceolaris 
scyphina.  4,  Stylonychia  mytilus.  5,  Zoos- 
permos  ferussacl.  6,  Trichoda  carinum.  7, 
Monas  termo.  8,  Pandorina  morum.  9,  Bur- 
saria  truncatella.  10,  Vaglnlcola  crystallina. 
11,  Cercarla  glbba.  12,  Zoospermos  decumanus. 
13,  Amphileptus  fasciola.  14,  Vorticella  con- 
vallarla.  15,  Euptotes  truncatus.  16,  Trach- 
elocerca  olor. 

transparent  cuticle,  a layer  of  firm  sar* 
code  called  the  cortical  layer,  and  a cen- 
tral mass  of  semiliquid  sarcode  which 
acts  as  a stomach.  A nucleus,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  an  ovarjq  having  attached 
to  its  outside  a spherical  particle  called 
the  nucleolus,  and  supposed  to  be  a sper- 
matic gland,  is  imbedded  in  the  cortical 
layer.  Contractions  of  the  body  are  ef- 
fected by  sarcode  fibers.  The  cilia,  with 
which  most  are  furnished,  are  not  only 
organs  of  locomotion,  but  form  currents 
by  which  food  is  carried  into  the  mouth. 
Reproduction  takes  place  variously. 
They  are  divided  into  three  orders, 
Ciliata,  Suctoria,  and  Flagellata,  in  ac- 
cordance lYith  the  character  of  their 


INGALLS 


INK 


cilia  or  contractile  filaments.  Many  of 
the  organisms  included  by  the  older  zo- 
ologists among  infusoria  are  now  general- 
ly regarded  as  vegetable. 

INGALLS,  (In'galz),  John  James,  Amer- 
ican politician,  born  at  Middletown, 
Conn.,  in  1833.  In  1858  he  removed  to 
Atchison,  Kansas,  and  began  the  prac- 
tiee  of  law.  After  the  admission  of 
Kansas  to  the  Union  in  1861  he  became 
secretary  of  the  new  state  senate,  and  in 
1862  was  a member  of  the  senate.  In 
1873  be  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  and  was  re-elected  in  1879  and 
1885.  He  died  in  1900. 

INGELOW.  (in'je-lo),  Jean,  English 
poetess,  was  born  in  1820.  In  1863  she 
published  a volume  of  poems,  which  ran 
through  fourteen  editions  in  five  years, 
and  her  popularity  has  since  increased 
both  through  her  prose  writings  and  her 
poetry.  In  prose  she  has  written  novels 
and  tales  for  children,  including  Mopsa 
the  Fairy,  Studies  for  Stories,  Off  the 
Skelligs,  Sarah  de  Berenger,  Don  John, 
etc.  She  died  in  1897. 

INGERSOLL,  Robert  Green,  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  lecturer,  was  born  at 
Dresden,  N.  Y.,  in  1833.  He  removed 
with  his  family  to  Illinois  in  1845.  In 
1862  he  went  to  the  war  as  colonel  of 
the  Eleventh  Illinois  cavalry.  In  1868 
he  was  appointed  attorney-general  of 
Illinois.  In  1876  a speech  in  favor  of  the 
candidacy  of  James  G.  Blaine  at  the 
republican  presidential  convention  won 
for  him  a national  reputation  and  from 
this  time  he  was  recognized  as  one  of  the 
foremost  orators  of  the  day.  He  soon 
after  entered  the  lecture  field,  adopting 
religious  topics  as  his  subjects,  attacked 
the  Bible,  the  personal  nature  of  the 
deity  and  the  existence  of  hell.  He  died 
in  1899. 

INGOT  (ing'got),  a small  bar  of  metal 
made  of  a certain  form  and  size  by  cast- 
ing it  in  moulds.  The  term  is  chiefly 
applied  to  the  small  masses  or  bars  of 
gold  and  silver  intended  either  for  coin- 
ing or  exportation  to  foreign  countries. 

INHALER,  an  apparatus  for  inhaling 
vapors,  and  volatile  substances,  as  steam 
of  hot  water,  vapor  of  chloroform, 
iodine,  etc.  The  cut  shows  an  inhaler  of 


improved  t3^e.  It  consists  of  a tin  can 
containing  a small  spirit-lamp,  and 
above  this  a small  kettle  for  hot  water, 
the  steam  of  which  is  driven  out  with 
some  force  when  the  apparatus  is  used. 
Attached  to  the  can  is  a receptacle  for 
receiving  a small  phial  containing  the 
substance  whose  vapor  is  to  be  inhaled, 
this  being  drawn  off  and  forced  through 
the  funnel  by  the  steam. 

INHERITANCE.  See  Descent. 

INHERITANCE  TAX  LAWS,  a law 
taxing  the  right  to  inherit  personal  prop- 
erty by  will  or  interstate  law  was  passed 
by  congress  July  6,  1797.  The  rate  was 
25  cents  on  amounts  from  $50  to  $100, 


50  cents  on  amounts  from  $100  to  $500, 
“and  for  every  further  sum  of  $500,  the 
additional  smn  of  one  dollar.”  This  act 
continued  in  force  until  June  30,  1802, 
when  it  was  repealed.  A national  legacy 
tax  law  was  again  enacted  July  1,  1862, 
amended  in  1864,  and  again  in  1866, 
and  repealed  in  1870,  five  years  after 
the  close  of  the  civil  war. 

Again,  June  13, 1898,  congress  enacted 
a legacy  tax  law  which  was  amended  in 
1901  and  continued  in  force  until  re- 
pealed July  1,  1902.  Under  the  acts  of 
1898  and  1901,  the  sum  of  $21,603,- 
699.02  was  collected  and  paid  into  the 
national  treasury  up  to  Jume  30,  1904. 

Pennsylvania  enacted  a legacy  tax 
law  April  6, 1826,  which  law  as  amended 
from  time  to  time,  is  still  in  force. 
Legacy  tax  laws  were  enacted  in  Mary- 
land in  1844,  and  Delaware  in  1869. 
They  were  enacted  in  North  Carolina  in 
1846,  and  repealed  in  1883.  They  were 
enacted  in  Virginia  in  1844,  repealed 
in  1855,  re-enacted  in  1863,  and  again 
repealed  in  1874.  Since  • 1885  legacy 
tax  laws  have  been  enacted  in  twenty- 
nine  different  states,  namely : Arkansas, 
California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  Louisiana,  Kentucky  (1906), 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Min- 
nesota, Missouri,  Montana,  Nebraska, 
New  Hampshire  (1905),  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio  (repealed 
1906).  Oregon,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Ver- 
mont, Virginia,  Washington,  West  Vir- 
ginia, Wisconsin  and  Wyoming. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount 
of  legacy  tax  collected  from  the  estates 
of  some  of  the  prominent  and  wealthy 
decedents,  some  of  whom  were  of  na- 
tional reputation : 


*George  Smith,  resident  of  England 

(paid  in  New  York) $1,934,753.07 

Coins  P.  Huntington,  New  York . . . 665,000.00 

Jay  Gould,  New  York 600,000.00 

Cornelius  V anderbilt.  New  York. . . 450,052.90 

Cornelia  M.  Stewart,  New  York....  300,410.32 
Winfield  S.  Stratton,  Denver,  Colo.  300,000.00 

Wilson  G.  Hunt,  New  York 285,000.00 

Joshua  Jones,  New  York 284,937.56 

Emma  A.  Schley,  New  York 261,490.67 

Henrietta  A.  Lenox,  New  York 234,635.70 

Wliliam  Whitewright,  New  York.  223,141.52 

Robert  G.  Dun,  New  York 178,730.68 

Catherine  L.  Wolfe,  New  York 159,599.38 

Daniel  B.  Fayerweather,  New  York  158,296.19 

George  M.  Pullman,  Illinois 158,282.04 

John  Knower,  New  York 152,319.72 

Daniel  Edgar  Crouse,  Syracuse, 

New  York 150,882.48 

Timothy  B.  Blackstone,  New  York 

and  Illinois 150,661.01 

Henry  B.  Plant,  New  York 140,000.00 

Ezra  G.  Benedict,  Albany,  N.  Y. . . . 131,122.99 

Mary  J.  Walker,  New  York 119,223.83 

Joseph  C.  Hoagland,  New  York....  119,211.80 

Gustav  W.  Swift,  Illinois 1 13,885.27 

Jonathan  Scoville,  New  York 112,758.08 

Mary  J.  Winthrop,  New  York 1 10.169.55 

Leonard  Lewlsohn,  New  York 107,634,36 

William  Astor,  New  York 106,536.97 

William  H.  Vanderbilt,  New  York.  103,612.59 

Mary  Eichler,  New  York 102,866.94 

W.  W.  Kimball,  Illinois 86,700.24 

A.  M.  Billings,  Illinois 85,724.75 

Potter  Palmer,  New  York  and  Illi- 
nois  78,063.99 

Ernest  J.  Lehman,  Illinois 71,097.16 

Silas  B.  Cobb,  Illinois 63,298.32 

Levi  Z.  Leiter,  Illinois 48,29.5.83 

Sidney  Kent,  Illinois 38,070.09 

Peter  Pahrney,  Illinois 37,982.88 

Jacob  Rosenberg,  Illinois 37,667.32 

Charles  W.  Fullerton,  Illinois 36,461.02 

Catherine  M.  White,  Illinois 25,236.38 

Columbus  R.  Cummings,  Illinois..  21,864.40 

Joseph  Medill,  Illinois 16,048.46 

Phillip  D.  Armour,  Illinois 15,786.91 

Lucius  B.  Otis,  Illinois 15,699.41 


*The  transfer  of  all  property,  real, 
personal,  or  mixed,  within  the  jurisdic- 


tion of  the  state  at  date  of  death  is  sub- 
ject to  the  tax,  whether  the  decedent 
was  a resident  or  non-resident.  The  tax 
is  not  a tax  on  property,  but  the  right 
which  the  state  grants  to  the  legatee  to 
inherit  property. 

INTA,  a genus  of  Cetacea  belonging  to 
the  dolphin  family,  containing  only  one 
known  species,  remarkable  for  the  dis- 
tance at  which  it  is  found  from  the  sea, 


Inia  boliviensis. 


frequenting  the  remote  tributaries  of  the 
river  Amazon,  and  even  some  of  the 
elevated  lakes  of  Peru.  It  has  bristly 
hairs  on  its  snout,  and  is  from  7 to  12 
or  14  feet  long. 

INJECTIONS,  in  surgery,  fluids,  dif- 
ferent, according  to  the  different  effects 
desired  to  be  produced,  thrown  by 
means  of  a small  syringe  into  the  natural 
cavities  of  the  body,  or  those  occasioned 
by  disease.  Wounds  and  sores  are 
usually  cleansed  in  this  way  when  they 
extend  far  below  the  skin.  In  diseases 
of  the  nose,  the  ears,  the  bladder,  and 
urethra,  the  uterus,  etc.,  injections  are 
often  used.  Pure  warm  water  is  injected 
with  the  highest  success  for  the  removal 
of  pus,  blood,  or  even  foreign  bodies. 
Sometimes  astringent  medicines,  to  re- 
strain excessive  evacuations,  sometimes 
stimulating  ones,  sometimes  soothing 
medicaments,  to  mitigate  pain,  etc.,  are 
added  to  the  water. 

INJECTOR,  an  apparatus  for  supply- 
ing the  boilers  of  steam-engines,  espe- 
cially locomotive-engines,  with  water. 
It  works  equally  well  whether  the  engine 
is  running  or  at  rest. 

INJUNCTION,  in  law,  a prohibitory 
writ,  restraining  a person  from  doing 
some  act  which  appears  to  be  against 
equity,  and  the  commission  of  which  is 
not  punishable  by  criminal  law.  It  is 
either  provisional,  until  the  coming  in 
of  the  defendant’s  answer,  or  perpetual, 
that  is,  perpetually  restraining  the  de- 
fendant from  the  commission  of  an  act 
contrary  to  equity.  Disobedience  to  an 
injunction  constitutes  contempt  of 
court,  and  is  punishable  accordingly. 

INK,  a liquid  or  pigment  used  for 
writing  or  printing.  All  ordinary  writing 
inks  owe  their  properties  to  the  presence 
of  gallate  or  tannate  of  iron  held  in  sus- 
pension by  means  of  §um.  Gall-nuts  con- 
tain gallotannic  acid,  which  gives  a 
black  precipitate  with  persalts  of  iron; 
they  also  contain  pectose,  which  con- 
verts gallotannic  acid,  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  into  gallic  acid.  This  latter  acid 
colors  ferric  salts  a much  deeper  black 
than  the  former  acid.  The  essential 
points  in  the  preparation  of  a good 
writing  ink  are  therefore  the  presence  of 
an  iron  salt,  an  infusion  of  gall-nuts  and 
gum,  and  the  allowing  the  mixture  to 
remain  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  air. 
All  other  substances  which  are  added  to 
ordinary  ink  as  coloring  matters  in  the 
place  of  gall-nuts  only  impair  its  quality. 
As  ink  is  liable  to  become  moldy  it  is 
customary  to  add  a small  quantity  of 
such  substances  as  essential  oils,  carbolic 


INLAND  REVENUE 


INQUEST 


acid,  crushed  cloves,  or  sometimes  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  in  order  to  prevent 
this  result.  For  copying  ink  a little  sugar 
is  added,  which  prevents  its  drying 
rapidly  and  perfectly.  Colored  writing- 
inks,  as  red,  blue,  etc.,  are  simply  solu- 
tions of  some  coloring  materials,  cochi- 
neal and  Brazil-wood  being  used  for  red, 
Prussian  blue  for  blue,  etc.  Gold  and 
silver  inks  consist  of  a fine  powder  of 
the  metals  suspended  in  a solution  of 
gum-arabic. — Marking  ink  usually  con- 
sists of  a solution  of  silver  nitrate 
thickened  with  gum  and  sometimes 
colored  by  means  of  sap-green. — Print- 
ing-ink may  be  made  by  boiling  linseed- 
oil  and  burning  it  about  a minute,  and 
mixing  it  with  lamp  black,  with  an 
addition  of  soap  and  resin.  If  ft  be 
wished  to  obtain  colored  printing  inks, 
this  may  be  done  by  adding  the  neces- 
sary pigments  to  the  oil  while  it  is  being 
heated.  Vermilion  is  used  to  give  a red 
color,  ultra-marine  for  blues,  and  lead 
chromate  for  yellows. — Lithographic  ink 
used  in  printing  from  the  stone,  is 
usually  composed  of  virgin  wax,  dry 
whfte  soap,  tallow  or  lard,  shellac, 
mastic,  and  lamp  or  Paris  black. — 
Sympathetic  inks  have  been  sometimes 
used  in  secret  correspondence.  They  are 
of  various  kinds.  For  instance,  charac- 
ters written  in  solutions  of  cobalt, 
lemon  juice,  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
make  no  appearance  on  the  paper,  but 
become  visible  when  treated  with  some 
other  solution  or  exposed  to  the  action 
of  heat.  See  also  Indian  Ink. 

INLAND  REVENUE,  that  depart- 
oiefit  of  the  revenue  which  includes 
the  branches  of  excise,  taxes,  and 
Stamps. 

INLAYING  is  the  art  of  ornamenting 
flat  surfaces  of  one  substance  by  insert- 
ing into  cavities  cut  in  them  pieces  of 
some  other  substance.  Various  kinds  of 
metal  or  wood,  or  pearl,  ivory,  etc.,  are 
employed  in  this  process. 

INN,  a house  where  travelers  are  fur- 
nished for  the  profit  of  the  provider,  with 
everything  they  have  occasion  for 
while  on  their  journey.  They  may  be 
set  up  without  license  by  any  person, 
provided  he  refrains  from  selling  ex- 
cisable liquors,  which  of  course  require 
a license.  Public-houses,  taverns,  vic- 
tualling-houses, and  coffee-houses  are 
all  inns  when  the  keepers  of  them  make 
it  their  business  to  furnish  travelers  with 
food  and  lodging;  otherwise  they  are  not. 
Innkeepers  are  bound  to  take  in  all 
travelers  and  wayfaring  persons,  and  to 
entertain  them  if  they  have  accommo- 
dations for  them  (and  they  are  only 
bound  to  give  such  accommodation  as 
they  have),  at  reasonable  charges,  pro- 
vided they  behave  themselves  prop- 
erly. 

INNATE  IDEAS,  certain  primary 
notions  or  impressions,  supposed  by 
some  philosophers  to  be  given  to  the 
mind  of  man  when  it  first  receives  its 
being,  and  to  be  brought  into  the  world 
with  it.  Descartes  distinguished  ideas 
into  innate,  adventitious,  and  factitious. 
An  innate  idea  he  described  as  not  one 
that  presents  itself  always  to  our 
thought,  for  there  could  be  no  such  idea; 
but  one  that  we  have  within  ourselves 
the  faculty  of  producing.  He  did  not 
enumerate  such  ideas,  however.  What 


the  followers  of  Descartes  designate 
innate  ideas,  those  of  Cousin  term  uni- 
versal, necessary,  and  absolute. 

INNESS  (in  es),  George,  American 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  New- 
burgh, N.  Y.,  in  1825.  Innes  is  con- 
sidered the  greatest  of  American  land- 
scape painters.  His  subjects  included 
sunrise,  high  noon,  sunset,  and  evening. 
A notable  exhibition  of  his  paintings 
numbering  two  hundred  and  forty  was 
held  in  New  York  in  1894.  Among  his 
most  important  works  are:  Under  the 
Greenwood,  Close  of  a Stormy  Day,  An 
Autumn  Morning,  Moonrise,  Winter 
Morning.  He  died  in  1894. 

INNOCENT,  the  name  of  thirteen 
popes,  of  whom  only  the  following  need 
be  particularly  dealt  with: — Innocent  I. 
succeeded  Anastasius  I.  as  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  402.  He  supported  St.  Chrysos- 
tom, and  renounced  the  communion 
with  the  Eastern  churches  on  account  of 
their  ti-eatment  of  that  eminent  man. 
In  409  he  was  sent  to  obtain  terms  of 
peace  from  Alaric,  but  without  success. 
He  died  in  417,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  saints,  his  day  being  July 
28. — Innocent  II.,  a Roman  of  noble 
birth,  elected  pope  in  1130  by  a part  of 
the  cardinals,  while  the  others  elected 
Peter  of  Leon,  who  took  the  name  of 
Anacletus.  Innocent  fled  to  France, 
where  he  was  acknowledged  by  Louis 
VI.  and  by  Henry  II.  of  England;  also 
by  the  Emperor  Lothaire,  who  con- 
ducted him  in  1133  to  Rome,  where 
Anacletus  also  maintained  his  claims 
as  pope.  Innocent  was  obliged  to  retire, 
and  though  reinstated  in  1137  Anacletus 
maintained  himself  until  his  death  in 
1138.  Innocent  in  1139  held  the  second 
Oecumenical  Council  in  the  Lateran, 
which  condemned  the  opinions  of 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  declared  the  de- 
crees of  Anacletus  null.  Innocent  died  in 
1143. — Innocent  III.,  Lothario,  Count 
of  Segni,  born  in  1161,  was  unanimously 
elected  pope  at  the  age  of  thirty-seven. 
He  displayed  great  energy,  and  much 
enhanced  the  papal  power.  He  ex- 
communicated Philip  Augustus,  king  of 
France,  and  laid  his  kingdom  under  an 
interdict  in  1200  because  Philip  had 
repudiated  his  wife,  and  obliged  the  king 
to  submit.  He  extorted  a similar  sub- 
mission from  John,  king  of  England, 
who  refused  to  confirm  the  election  of 
Langton  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
by  laying  the  kingdom  under  an  inter- 
dict, and  in  1212  formally  deposing  him. 
Almost  all  Christendom  was  now  subject 
to  the  pope,  two  crusades  were  under- 
taken at  his  order,  and  his  influence  ex- 
tended even  to  Constantinople.  The 
cruel  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  and 
the  establishment  in  1198  of  the  in- 
quisitorial tribunals,  from  which  the 
inquisition  itself  originated,  were  note- 
worthy events  of  his  pontificate.  In  1215 
he  held  a council  by  which  transubstan- 
tiation  and  auricular  confession  were 
established  as  do^as,  and  the  Fran- 
ciscan and  Dominican  orders  were  con- 
firmed. Innocent  died  in  1216.  He  left 
various  works  on  legal  and  theological 
subjects;  and  the  Stabat  Mater^  Veni 
Sancte  Spiritus,  and  other  sacred  hjrons, 
are  said  to  have  been  written  by  him. — 
Innocent  XI.,  Benedetto  Odescalchi, 
born  in  1611,  served  in  his  youth  as  a 


soldier,  took  orders  at  a later  period, 
and  rose  through  many  important  posts, 
until  he  was  elected  pope  in  1676,  on  the 
death  of  Clement  X.  He  was  eminent 
for  probity  and  austerity.  Though 
hostile  to  the  Jesuits,  whose  opinions  he 
attacked  in  the  decree  Super  quibusdam 
axiomatis  moralibus,  yet  he  was  obliged 
to  condemn  Molinus  and  the  Quietists. 
Being  involved  in  a dispute  with  Louis 
XIV.,  the  authority  of  the  pope  in 
France  and  elsewhere  received  a severe 
blow  in  the  IV.  Propositiones  Cleri  Gal- 
licani  (Four  propositions  of  the  Galli- 
can  clergy,  1682).  These  disputes  were 
highly  favorable  to  the  English  revolu- 
tion, as  it  induced  the  pope  in  1689  to 
unite  with  the  allies  against  James  II., 
in  order  to  lower  the  influence  of  Louis 
XIV.  He  died  in  1689,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Alexander  VIII. 

INNS  OF  COURT,  four  very  ancient 
societies  in  London  exclusively  invested 
with  the  right  to  call  to  the  English  bar; 
also  the  buildings  belonging  to  these 
societies,  in  which  the  members  dine 
and  barristers  have  chambers.  The 
gentlemen  belonging  to  these  societies 
may  be  divided  into  benchers,  outer 
barristers,  inner  barristers,  and  students. 
The  benchers  are  the  highest  in  rank, 
being  usually  queen’s  counsel;  and  it  is 
they  who  have  the  right  of  granting  or 
refusing  a call  to  the  bar,  or  of  disbarring 
persons  unfit  to  practice.  The  four  inns 
of  court  are  the  Inner  temple  and 
Middle  temple  (formerly  the  dwelling  of 
the  knights  templars,  and  purchased  by 
some  professors  of  law  more  than  three 
centuries  since);  Lincoln’s  inn  and 
Gray’s  inn  (anciently  belonging  to  the 
earls  of  Lincoln  and  Gray). 

INOCULATION,  in  medicine,  the  in- 
troduction, by  a surgical  operation,  of  a 
minute  portion  of  infective  matter  into 
contact  with  the  true  skin,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exciting  artificially  a milder 
form  of  some  contagious  disease,  and 
thereby  protecting  the  human  system 
against  similar  attacks  in  future;  keep- 
ing in  mind,  however,  that  such  a pro- 
cess can  be  only  of  efficacy  in  regard  to 
diseases  which  attack  us  only  once  in 
the  course  of  our  lives,  such,  for  instance, 
as  small-pox.  The  term  is  chiefly  used 
in  connection  with  small-pox.  The 
practice  of  inoculation  with  the  matter 
of  small-pox,  although  long  followed  in 
some  parts  of  Wales,  seems  to  have  been 
scarcely  known  throughout  England 
till  the  early  18th  century,  and  its  adop- 
tion was  chiefly  due  to  the  exertions  of 
Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  who  be- 
came acquainted  with  it  in  Tuf-key.  For 
many  years  the  practice  met  with  the 
greatest  opposition,  both  from  the  medi- 
cal profession  and  the  clergy;  but  latter- 
ly it  came  extensively  into  vogue,  the 
small-pox  thus  induced  being  of  a milder 
and  much  less  often  fatal  type  than  ordi- 
nary small-pox.  The  great  objection  to 
it  was  that  it  tended  to  spread  this 
serious  disease,  inoculated  small-pox  be- 
ing equally  infectious  with  the  other 
kind.  After  the  discovery  of  vaccina- 
tion by  Jenner  in  1798  inoculation  was 
gradually  superseded,  and  the  British 
legislature  even  prohibited  the  latter, 
while  vaccination  is  compulsory.  See 
Small-pox  and  Vaccination. 

INQUEST.  See  Coroner. 


INQUlSITlOxN 


INSESxSORES 


INQUISITION,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  I 
Church,  a court  or  tribunal  established 
for  the  examination  and  punishment  of 
heretics.  The  institution  was  founded  in 
the  12th  century  by  Father  Dominic, 
who  was  charged  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
with  orders  to  incite  Catholic  princes 
and  people  to  extirpate  heretics.  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  in  1233  completed  the  de- 
sign of  his  predecessors,  and  the  inquisi- 
tion was  successively  introduced  into 
several  parts  of  Italy,  and,  with  certain 
limitations,  into  some  provinces  of 
France.  The  tribunals  of  faith  were  ad- 
mitted into  Spain  in  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century;  it  became  firmly  estab- 
lished toward  the  end  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
who  used  it  as  a weapon  to  break  the 
strength  of  the  nobles,  and  to  render  the 
royal  authority  absolute.  In  the  as- 
sembly of  the  states  held  at  Toledo,  1480, 
the  erection  of  the  new  tribunal  was 
urged  by  the  cardinal,  and  after  some 
opposition  established  under  the  name 
of  the  general  or  supreme  inquisition. 
The  new  court  was  opened  in  Seville  in 
1481.  Torquemada,  prior  of  the  Domini- 
can convent  at  Segovia,  and  father-con- 
fessor to  the  Cardinal  Mendoza,  had 
already  been  appointed  by  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  the  first  grand  inquisitor  in 
1478.  The  Dominican  monastery  at 
Seville  soon  became  insufficient  to  con- 
tain the  numerous  prisoners,  and  more 
than  2000  persons  are  said  to  have  been 
burned  alive  in  the  first  year  or  two. 
The  pope,  however,  opposed  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Spanish  inquisition  as 
the  conversion  of  an  ecclesiastical  into 
a secular  tribunal,  and  repeatedly  sum- 
moned the  inquisitor-general  to  Rome. 
Torquemada,  instead  of  obeying,  sent  a 
friend  to  defend  his  cause,  and  in  1483 
Sixtus  IV.  was  obliged  to  yield  and  ac- 
knowledge Torquemada  as  inquisitor- 
general  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  a later 
bull  subjected  Aragon,  Valencia,  and 
Sicily  to  the  inquisitor-general  of  Castile. 
It  is  computed  that  there  were  in  Spain 
above  20,000  officers  of  the  inquisition, 
called  familiars,  who  served  as  spies  and 
informers.  These  posts  were  sought  even 
by  persons  of  rank,  on  account  of  the 
great  privileges  connected  with  them. 
The  supreme  tribunal,  under  the  in- 
quisitor-general, sat  at  Madrid.  He  was 
assisted  by  a council  of  six  or  seven,  and 
there  were  various  officials  belonging  to 
the  court,  the  one  specially  appointed  to 
carry  on  prosecutions  being  called  the 
fiscal.  As  soon  as  an  accuser  appeared, 
and  the  fiscal  had  called  upon  the  court 
to  exercise  their  authority,  an  order 
was  issued  to  seize  the  accused.  If  he 
did  not  appear  at  the  third  summons  he 
was  excommunicated.  From  the  mo- 
ment that  the  prisoner  was  in  the  power 
of  the  court  he  was  cut  off  from  the 
world.  The  advocate  who  was  appointed 
to  defend  him  could  not  speak  to  him 
except  in  the  presence  of  the  inquisitors. 
The  accused  was  not  confronted  with 
the  accuser  nor  the  witnesses  before  the 
court,  neither  were  they  made  known  to 
him ; and  he  was  often  subjected  to  the 
torture  to  extort  a confession,  or  to 
explain  circumstances  which  had  not 
been  fully  explained  by  the  witnesses. 
Imprisonment,  often  for  life,  scourging, 
and  the  loss  of  property,  were  the  pun- 


ishments to  which  the  penitent  was 
subjected.  When  sentence  of  death  was 
pronounced  against  the  accused  the 
auto  da  fe,  or  ceremony  of  burning  the 
heretic  in  public,  was  ordered.  This 
usually  took  place  on  Sunday,  between 
Trinity  Sunday  and  Advent  As  “the 
church  never  pollutes  herself  with 
blood,”  a servant  of  the  inquisition,  at 
the  close  of  the  procession  and  ecclesias- 
tical ceremonial  preceding  the  execution 
of  the  sentence,  gave  each  of  those  who 
had  been  sentenced  a blow  with  the 
hand,  to  signify  that  the  inquisition  had 
no  longer  any  power  Over  them,  and  that 
the  victims  were  abandoned  (relaxados) 
to  the  secular  arm.  A civil  officer,  “who 
was  affectionately  charged  to  treat  them 
kindly  and  mercifully,”  now  received 
the  condemned,  bound  them  with 
chains,  and  led  them  to  the  place  of 
execution.  They  were  then  asked  in 
what  faith  they  would  die.  Those  who 
answered  the  Catholic  werefirst  strangled; 
the  rest  were  burned  alive.  The  powers 
of  the  inquisition  latterly  became  more 
limited,  however,  by  various  restrictions 
and  at  last,  under  Joseph  Bonaparte, 
it  was  abolished  altogether  in  1808.  It 
was  re-established  in  1814  by  Ferdinand 
VII.,  but  on  the  adoption  of  the  consti- 
tution of  the  Cortes  in  1820  it  was  again 
abolished.  According  to  the  estimate  of 
its  historian,  Llorente,  the  number  of 
victims  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition  from 
1481  to  1808  amounted  to  341,021.  Of 
these  nearly  32,000  were  burned. 

INSANITY,  a general  term  comprising 
every  form  of  intellectual  disorder, 
whether  consisting  in  a total  want  or 
alienation  of  understanding,  as  in  idiocy, 
or  in  the  diseased  state  of  one  or  several 
of  the  faculties.  Medical  writers  have 
adopted  different  systems  of  classifica- 
tion in  their  treatment  of  this  subject; 
but  perhaps  the  most  convenient  is  that 
which  comprises  all  mental  diseases  un- 
der the  four  heads  of  mania,  melancholy, 
dementia  or  fatuity,  and  idiocy.  Idiocy 
is  either  a congenital  or  an  acquired  de- 
fect of  the  intellectual  faculties.  Con- 
genital idiocy  may  originate  from  a 
malformation  of  the  cranium,  or  of  the 
brain  itself.  Acquired  idiocy  proceeds 
from  mechanical  injury  of  the  cranium, 
or  from  injury  or  disease  of  the  brain 
from  excess  in  sexual  indulgences,  etc. 
(See  Idiot.)  Dementia  is  marked  con- 
fusion of  thoughts,  loss  of  memory, 
childishness,  a diminution  or  loss  of  the 
powers  of  volition,  and  general  weak- 
mindedness;  it  differs  from  idiocy  in 
being  curable.  Cretinism,  sometimes 
given  as  a separate  category,  is  a form 
of  idiocy  associated  with  a characteristic 
malformation  of  the  body.  Mania  is  a 
species  of  mental  derangement  charac- 
terized by  the  disorder  of  one  or  several 
of  the  faculties,  or  by  a blind  impulse  to 
acts  of  fury.  Adults  are  the  principal 
subjects.  Females  are  more  exposed  to 
it  than  males.  Violent  emotions,  a dis- 
sipated life;  excess  in  any  indulgence, 
sometimes  produce  it.  It  is  sometimes 
cured,  but  sometimes  remains  station- 
ary, and  sometimes  is  converted  into 
dementia.  Melancholy  is  a species  of 
mental  disorder  consisting  in  a depres- 
sion of  spirits.  Some  dark  or  mournful 
idea  occupies  the  mind  exclusively,  so 
that  by  degrees  it  becomes  unable  to 


judge  rightly  of  existing  circumstances, 
and  the  faculties  are  disturbed  in  their 
functions.  Several  kinds  of  melancholy 
are  distinguished;  the  distinctions  are 
founded,  however,  mostly  on  the  causes 
of  the  disease,  among  the  more  import- 
ant of  which  are  love,  religious  views, 
repeated  failures  to  reach  an  earnestly 
desired  end,  a sudden  nervous  shock, 
and  the  like.  The  course  of  the  disease 
is  various;  sometimes  it  lasts  a series  of 
years;  sometimes  it  ceases  of  itself,  or  is 
cured  by  medical  aid.  Very  frequently 
melancholic  patients  commit  suicide, 
a tendency  that  is  not  to  be  overlooked. 
In  it  also  bodily  health  is  likely  to  be 
neglected,  thus  leading  to  certain  other 
diseases.  See  Lunatic  Asylum,  Lunacy, 
Non  compos  mentis,  etc. 

INSECTIV'ORA,  an  order  of  mam- 
mals living  to  a great  extent  on  insects. 
They  are  plantigrade,  and  have  a well- 
developed  cavicle,  a discoidal  placenta, 
incisor  teeth  larger  than  the  canine,  and 
molar  teeth  set  with  sharp  conical  cusps. 
They  are  usually  of  small  size,  and  many 
of  them  live  underground,  hibernating 
for  some  months.  They  are  found 
throughout  the  world,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Australia  and  South  America. 
The  chief  insectivorous  families  are  the 
Talidae  ormoles,  the  Soricidm  or  shrew- 
mice  and  the  Erinaceidae  or  hedgehogs. 

INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS,  plants 
which  derive  nourishment  directly  from 
the  bodies  of  insects  entrapped  by  them 
in  various  ways.  See  Dionsea,  Sun-dew, 
Pitcher-plant. 

INSECT  POWDER,  a brownish  yellow 
powder  obtained  by  grinding  the  dried 
flower  head’s  of  two  species  of  chrysan- 
themum. The  volatile  oil  then  obtained 
acts  upon  the  insects  by  asphy:xiation; 
upon  man  and  other  animals  it  has  no 
serious  effect. 

INSECTS.  See  Entomology. 

INSESSO'RES,  in  ornitliology,  the 
perchers  or  passerine  birds,  an  exten- 
sive order  of  birds  comprehending  all 
those  which  live  habitually  among  trees, 
with  the  exception  of  the  birds  of  prey 
and  the  climbing  birds.  The  toes,  which 
are  three  before  and  one  behind,  are 
specially  adapted  for  perching  and  nest- 
building. These  birds  live  in  pairs,  build 
in  trees,  and  generally  display  great  art 
in  the  construction  of  their  nests.  In 
them  the  organ  of  the  voice  attains  its 
utmost  complexity,  and  all  our  singing 
birds  belong  to  the  order.  The  form  of 
the  beak  varies  widely,  and  this  hassled 
to  the  establislunent  of  four  important 
subordinate  groups.  (1)  The  Conirostres, 
or  “conical  beaked”  Insessores;  (2)  The 
Dentirostresor  “tooth-beaked”  perchers; 
(3)  The  Tenuirostres,  or  slender-beaked 
perchers;  (4)  The  Fissirostres  or  cleft- 
beaks  (swallows,  swifts,  goat-suckers, 
etc.).  In  modern  classification  the  Fis- 
sirostres are  generally  excluded  from  the 
order,  which  is  also  divided  otherwise. 
Two  main  divisions,  the  Acromyodi  or 
singing-birds  and  the  Mesomyodi  or 
songless  birds,  are  now  generally  recog- 
nized, the  distinctive  characters  being 
based  on  the  structure  of  the  larynx. 
The  former,  again,  are  divided  into  the 
Turdiformes,  or  thrush-like  birds;  the 
Fringilliformes,  or  finch-like  birds;  and 
the  Sturniformes,  or  starling-like  birds. 
See  also  Ornithology. 


INSOMNIA 


INSURANCE 


INSOMNIA,  or  SLEEPLESSNESS, 

caused  by  mental  or  physical  exhaus- 
tion, toxic  conditions  (as  from  alcohol  or 
from  disordered  digestion),  grief,  etc.  It 
is  best  treated  by  attacking  and  remov- 
ing the  cause,  if  this  can  be  ascertained. 
Hygienic  measures,  as  hot  baths,  mas- 
sage, ingesting  hot  food,  applying  heat 
to  the  extremities,  ventilating  he  sleep- 
ing apartment,  etc.,  should  be  tried  be- 
fore resorting  to  drugs,  to  overcome  the 
condition. 

INSPIRATION,  in  theology,  is  the  in- 
fusion of  ideas  into  the  human  mind  by 
the  Holy  Spirit.  By  the  inspiration  of 
the  scriptures  is  meant  the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  exercised  on  the  under- 
standings, imaginations,  memories,  and 
other  mental  faculties  of  the  writers,  by 
means  of  which  they  were  qualified  for 
communicating  to  the  world  divine  reve- 
lation, or  the  knowledge  of  the  will  of 
God. 

INSTINCT,  the  power  by  which,  inde- 
pendently of  all  instruction  or  experi- 
ence, and  without  deliberation,  animals 
are  directed  to  do  spontaneously  what- 
ever is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
the  individual,  or  the  continuation  of  the 
kind.  Three  main  theories  have  been 
held  with  regard  to  instinctive  actions; 
— (1)  That  these  various  impulses  and 
faculties  were  bestowed  by  the  Creator 
upon  each  species  as  its  necessary  and 
characteristic  outfit.  (2)  That  instinct 
is  the  accumulated  results  of  individual 
experience,  fixed  by  repetition,  and 
transmitted  as  an  inheritance  to  suc- 
ceeding races.  In  this  view  instinct  is 
intelligent  in  its  origin,  an  organized  ex- 
perience, a “lapsed  intelligence.”  (3) 
That  the  greater  number  of  complex  in- 
stincts arise  through  the  natural  selec- 
tion of  variations  of  simpler  instinctive 
actions — variations  arising  from  un- 
known causes  The  last  theory  is  that  of 
Darwin. 

INSTITUTE  OF  FRANCE,  the  prin- 
cipal philosophical  and  literary  society  of 
France,  organized  after  the  first  storm  of 
the  French  Revolution  in  1795,  to  re- 
place the  Academie  Fran5aise,the'Acad6- 
mie  des  Sciences,  and  the  Academie  des 
Belles  Lettres  et  Inscriptions,  its  object 
being  the  advancement  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  The  Institute  now  embraces 
five  distinct  divisions  or  academies,  each 
having  a separate  field  of  knowledge  or 
thought  (1)  The  Academie  Frangaise, 
originally  established  early  in  the  17th 
century.  Its  department  is  the  French 
language  and  literature,  and  its  ordinary 
members  number  40.  (2)  The  Academie 
des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres;  ordi- 
nary members,  40.  (3)  The  Acad4mie  des 
Sciences;  ordinary  members,  65.  (4) 

The  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts;  ordinary 
members,  40.  (5)  The  Academie  des 
Sciences,  Morales,  et  Politiques;  ordinary 
members,  40.  Each  academy  has  an  in- 
dependent organization  and  a free  dis- 
position of  the  funds  committed  to  it. 
Members  are  elected  for  life  by  ballot, 
and  have  an  annual  salary  of  1500  francs. 
To  each  academy  are  attached  a certain 
number  of  honorary  members  and 
foreign  associates.  Admission  into  the 
Academie  Frangaise  is  a great  object  of 
ambition  with  most  French  literary  men. 
The  name  of  this  distinguished  body 
was  changed  in  1848  to  Institut  de  France 


having  previously  been  called  National, 
Imperial,  and  Royal  at  different  times. 

INSTRUMENT,  in  music,  any  mechan- 
ical contrivance  for  the  production  of 
musical  sound.  Musical  instruments  are 
divided  into  three  kinds — wind-instru- 
ments, stringed  instruments,  and  instru- 
ments of  percussion.  The  chief  modern 
stringed  instruments  are  the  violin,  viola, 
violoncello,  and  double  bass,  the  harp, 
mandolin,  guitar,  and  piano:  the  chief 
wind-instruments,  the.  flute,  oboe,  bas- 
soon, clarinet, basset-horn,  serpent  horn, 
trumpet,  trombone,  ophicleide,  and 
organ;  the  chief  percussion  instruments, 
the  drum,  tambourine,  cymbals,  and 
triangle. 

INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC,  music  pro- 
duced ))y  instruments,  as  contradistin- 
guished from  vocal  music.  Instrumenta- 
tion is  quite  a modern  art,  and  may  be, 
said  to  have  been  first  cultivated  to  any 
purpose  among  the  Italians,  who  up  till 
the  middle  of  last  century,  however, 
used  only  instruments  of  the  viol  kind, 
and  who  even  yet  are  sparing  in  their 
use  of  wind-instruments.  In  Italy,  Leo, 
Durante,  Jomelli,  and  Majo;  in  France, 
Rameau;  in  Germany,  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  deserve  the  credit  of  carrying 
the  art  to  a perfection  up  to  their  time 
undreamed  of.  Further  developments  of 
an  important  character  are  due  to  Berlioz 
and  Wagner. 

IN'SULATOR,  a body  used  to  separate 
an  electrified  conductor  from  other 
bodies,  and  which  offers  very  great  re- 
sistance to  the  passage  of  electricity. 


Icsulatop 


Glass,  shellac,  resins,  sulphur,  ebonite, 
gutta-percha,  silk,  and  baked  wood  are 
notable  insulating  materials.  The  cut 
shows  the  usual  forms  of  insulators  in 
telegraph  lines  to  support  the  wires  on 
the  posts.  They  are  usually  made  of  por- 
celain or  glass. 

INSU'RAlNCE,  a contract  by  which  an 
association,  copartnership,  or  corpora- 
tion engages  for  the  payment  of  so  much 
money,  to  insure  the  loser  against  loss  of 
property  by  disaster  at  sea,  earthquake, 
fire,  or  flood,  against  accident,  or  against 
ill-health.  Life  insurance  is  a contract 
under  which  the  party  insured  receives 
either  an  annuity  or  a specified  sum  of 
money  after  the  payment  of  annual  pre- 
miums for  a certain  specified  term  of 
years;  or  under  which  his  estate  or 
any  person  he  may  name  as  his  bene- 
ficiary will  receive  a specified  sum  after 
his  death. 

Insurance  in  the  modern  meaning  of 
the  word  is  divided  into  several  classes, 
viz.:  Marine,  fire,  accident,  health,  and 
life.  Each  of  these  subdivisions  has  been 
built  up  along  certain  generally  recog- 
nized financial  laws. 

Life  Insurance  has  been  a recognized 
factor  in  social  economy  for  more  than 
300  years.  The  first  life  insurance  policy 
of  which  there  is  any  record  was  issued 
in  London  in  1583,  insuring  the  life  of 
one  William  Gybbons  for  a period  of 


twelves  months,  at  the  rate  of  $80  per 
$1,000.  This  policy  was  underwritten  by 
thirteen  persons  acting  individually.  It 
was  not  until  1699,  however,  that  a life 
insurance  company  was  formed.  In  that 
year  the  members  of  the  Mercers  com- 
pany, of  London,  formed  a mutual  asso- 
ciation for  the  payment  of  benefits  to 
widows  and  orphans  of  the  members  of 
the  company.  In  1706  the  Amicable 
Society  for  a perpetual  insurance  was 
founded  in  London,  and  this  company 
continued  in  existence  until  1867,  a 
period  of  161  years.  The  London  assur- 
ance corporation  and  the  Royal  ex- 
changeassurance  corporation  began  busi- 
ness in  London  in  1721  and  still  survives. 

The  first  life  insurance  company  to  be 
established  in  the  United  States  was 
founded  in  Philadelphia  in  1759.  It  was 
called  the  Presbyterian  Annuity  & Life 
Insurance  company,  and  under  the  name 
of  the  Presbyterian  Ministers’  Fund 
Life  Insurance  company  it  still  exists. 
Other  ministerial  companies  were  es- 

1907  1900 


1880  1890 


I — I PAYwcwTa  r^mcottt 

Income  and  payments  to  policy  holders. 

tablished  in  1769,  and  in  1784.  The  first 
general  life  insurance  company,  the 
Pennsylvania  company  for  insurance 
upon  lives  and  granting  annuities, 
v^as  chartered  in  Philadelphia  in  1812. 
The  Massachusetts  Hospital  Life  Insur- 
ance company  was  chartered  at  Boston 
in  1818.  Beginning  with  the  year  1840 
some  of  the  now  existing  life  insurance 
companies  were  chartered,  including; 
Mutual  Life  of  New  York,  1842;  State 
Mutual  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  1844;  Nau- 
tilus insurance  company  (now  the  New 
York  Life),  1845;  Connecticut  Mutual  of 
Hartford,  1846;  Pennsylvania  Mutual  of 
Philadelphia,  1847. 

From  these  beginnings  the  business  of 
life  insurance  has  made  such  enormous 
strides  in  the  United  States  that  already 
it  overshadows  all  other  financial  inter- 
ests. There  are  eighty  life  insurance 
companies  in  the  United  States.  On 
Dec.  31,  19(i6,  they  had  outstanding 
policies  representing  813,706,797,784:. 
Their  aggregate  annual  premium  re- 
ceipts were  86'  2.446,618. 

Life  insurance,  from  a crude  beginning 
has  been  developed  into  one  of  the  most 
exacting  sciences  known  in  the  realm  of 
finance.  In  fact,  it  is  a science  in  itself. 
It  is  a science  based  on  natural  laws  gov- 


INSURANCE,  EIRE 


INSURANCE  SCANDALS 


erning  the  mortality  of  the  human  race, 
by  which  may  be  computed  the  average 
lifetime,  and  the  premium  to  be  paid  on 
the  policy.  Included  in  the  science  of 
life  insurance  are  mortality  tables,  the 
calculation  of  premiums,  the  loading  of 
premiums,  the  medical  examination, 
termination  of  policies,  lapses  and  sur- 
renders, surplus,  reserve,  nonforfeiture 
laws,  tontines  and  surrender  privileges. 

Mortality  Tables — As  a result  of  a 
systematic  study  of  mortality  records, 
life  insurance  companies  have  incor- 
porated the  results  of  their  computations 
into  what  are  called  mortality  tables. 


or  20  years,  if  living,  or  his  estate  re- 
ceives it  upon  his  death  at  any  time  pre- 
vious to  the  specified  term. 

(c)  Endowment,  another  name  for  ten, 
fifteen,  or  twenty  payment  policies. 

The  Premium  is  the  amount  of  money 
the  insured  pays  to  the  company  annu- 
ally. It  is  computed  by  means  of  the 
mortality  tables  and  is  fixed  at  an 
amount  designed  to  cover  the  mortality 
losses  of  the  company,  the  expenses,  etc. 
The  premium  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
viz.,  the  net  premium,  and  the  loading, 
both  constituting  what  is  known  techni- 
cally as  the  gross  premium.  The  net  pre- 


AMEEICAN EXPERIENCE  TABLE  OF  MORTALITT. 


Com- 

pleted 

Age. 

Number 
Surviring  at 
Each  Age. 

Deaths 
in  Each 
Tear. 

Number  of 
Years  Ex- 
pectation. 

Number 
Dying  An- 
nually Out  of 
Each  1,000. 

Com- 

pleted 

Age. 

Number 
Surriving  at 
Each  Age. 

Deaths 
in  Each 
Tear. 

Number  of 
Years  Ex- 
pectation* 

Number 
Dying  An- 
nually Out  of 
Bach  1,000. 

10 

100.000 

749 

48.7 

7.49 

55 

64,563 

1,199 

17.4 

18.67 

11 

99,251 

746 

48.1 

7.52 

56 

63.364 

1,26(1 

16.7 

19.89 

12 

98.505 

743 

47.4 

7.54 

67 

62,104 

1,325 

16.1 

21.34 

13 

97.762 

740 

46.8 

7.57 

68 

60,779 

1,394 

15.4 

22.94 

14 

97.022 

737 

46.2 

7.60 

59 

69,385 

1,468 

14.7 

24.72 

10 

96,285 

735 

45.5 

7.03 

60 

67.917 

1,646 

14.1 

26.69 

16 

95.550 

732 

44.9 

7.06 

61 

66.371 

1,628 

13.3 

28.88 

17 

94,818 

728 

44.2 

7.09 

62 

64,743 

1.713 

12.9 

31.29 

18 

94,089 

727 

43  5 

7.73 

63 

53.030 

1.800 

12.3 

33.94 

19 

93,362 

725 

42.9 

7.7T 

G4 

61.230 

1,889 

11.7 

36.87 

20 

92,637 

723 

42.2 

7.81 

65 

49.341 

1,980 

11.1 

40.13 

21 

91.914 

722 

41.5 

7.86 

66 

47..361 

2,070 

10.5 

43.71 

22 

91,192 

721 

40.9 

7.91 

67 

45,291 

2,158 

lO.O 

47.65 

23 

90,471 

720 

40,2 

7.96 

68 

43,1.33 

2,243 

9.5 

52.00 

24 

89.751 

719 

39.5 

8.01 

69 

40,890 

2,321 

9.0 

66.76 

25 

89.032 

718 

38.8 

8.07 

70 

38,669 

2,391 

8.6 

61.99 

28 

88,314 

718 

38.1 

8.13 

71 

36.178 

2.448 

8.0 

67.67 

27 

87,596 

718 

37.4 

8.20 

72 

33.730 

2,487 

7.6 

73.73 

28 

86,878 

718 

36.7 

8.26 

73 

31,243 

2.505 

7.1 

80.18 

20 

86.160 

719 

30.0 

8.35 

74 

28.738 

2,501 

6.7 

87.03 

30 

85.441 

720 

35.3 

8.43 

75 

26.237 

2,478 

6.3 

04,37 

SI 

84,721 

721 

34.6 

8.51 

76 

23,761 

2,431 

6.9 

102.31 

32 

84.000 

723 

33.9 

8.61 

77 

21.330 

2,369 

5.5 

111.06 

83 

83.277 

726 

33.2 

8.72 

78 

18,981 

2,291 

6.1 

120.83 

34 

62.651 

729 

82.5 

8.83 

79 

16,670 

2,196 

4.8 

131.73 

35 

81,822 

732 

31.8 

8.95 

80 

14.474 

2,091 

4.4 

144.47 

36 

81,090 

737 

31.1 

9.09 

81 

12,383 

1.964 

4.1 

158.61 

37 

80.353 

747 

30.4 

9.23 

82 

10,419 

1,816 

3.7 

174.30 

88 

79,611 

749 

29.6 

9.41 

83 

8.603 

1,648 

3.4 

191.58 

89 

78,862 

756 

28.9 

9.59 

84 

6,955 

1.470 

3.1 

211.36 

40 

78,106 

765 

28.2 

9.79 

85 

5,485 

1.292 

2.8 

236.55 

41 

77,341 

774 

27.5 

10.01 

86 

4,193 

1,114 

2.6 

265.68 

42 

76,507 

785 

26.7 

10.25 

87 

3.079 

933 

2.2 

303.02 

43 

75.782 

797 

26.0 

10.52 

88 

2.146 

744 

1.9 

346.69 

44 

74.985 

812 

25.3 

10.83 

89 

1,402 

555 

l.T 

395.86 

46 

74.173 

828 

24.5 

11.16 

90 

847 

385 

1.4 

454.55 

46 

73,345 

848 

23.8 

11.56 

91 

462 

246 

1.2 

632.47 

47 

72,497 

870 

23.1 

12.00 

92 

216 

137 

1.0 

634.26 

48 

71,627 

896 

22.4 

12.51 

93 

79 

58 

.8 

734.18 

49 

70.731 

927 

21.6 

13.11 

94 

21 

18 

.6 

857.14 

50 

60.804 

9G2 

20.9 

13.78 

95 

3 

3 

.5 

I.OOO.OO 

51 

68,842 

1.001 

20.2 

14.54 

52 

67.841 

1,044 

19.5 

15.39 

63 

66.797 

1.091 

18.8 

16.33 

64 

65.706 

1.143 

18.1 

17.40 

These  tables  reveal  at  a glance  the  inex- 
orable wordings  of  natural  laws  govern- 
ing the  length  of  human  life.  They  show 
how  many  in  any  large  number  of  persons 
born  will  live  to  reach  the  age  of  30,  how 
many  to  36,  to  40,  to  60,  in  fact,  to  any 
reasonable  age.  They  also  show  the 
number  that  will  die  at  each  age,  and  the 
average  lifetime  remaining  to  those  who 
live. 

By  means  of  these  mortuary  tables  all 
the  other  problems  pertaining  to  life  in- 
surance are  worked  out.  The  mortuary 
tables,  therefore,  form  the  foundations 
of  the  life  insurance  business.  The  mor- 
tality table  commonly  in  use  in  the 
United  States  is  known  as  the  American 
Experience  Table  of  Mortality.  TheEng- 
lish  companies  use  what  is  known  as  the 
Actuaries,  or  Combined,  Experience 
Tables. 

The  Policy — There  are  many  forms 
and  varieties  of  policies,  many  com- 
panies having  policies  containing  special 
features.  The  principal  forms  of  policies 
in  general  use,  however,  may  be  desig- 
nated as  follows: 

(a)  Straight  life,  or  limited  life,  in 
which  the  amount  is  paid  to  the  estate 
of  the  insured  at  his  death. 

(b)  Ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty  payment 
in  which  the  insured  receives  the  full 
amount  of  his  policy  at  the  end  of  10,  15, 


mium  is  the  amount  which  is  mathemat- 
ically necessary  for  the  creation  of  a fund 
large  enough  to  enable  the  company  to 
pay  the  policy  in  full  at  maturity.  The 
loading  is  the  amount  added  to  the  net 
premium  to  provide  not  only  for  the 
easily  ascertained  expenses,  such  as 
salaries  for  officers  and  commissions 
for  agents,  but  to  provide  for  all  contin- 
gencies, such  as  a mortality  in  excess  of 
the  tabular  rate,  depreciation  in  the 
value  of  securities,  and  loss  of  invested 
funds. 

The  Reserve  in  life  insurance  is  simply 
the  insurance  or  mortality  fund  of  the 
company  from  which  all  losses  are  paid. 
It  is  made  up  of  the  net  annual  premium 
and  the  money  these  premiums  will  earn 
at  per  cent  compound  interest.  The 
reserve  can  be  used  for  no  other  purpose 
than  the  payment  of  death  claims.  The 
legal  reserve  is  the  amount  the  law  re- 
quires the  company  to  hold  in  order  ot 
be  solvent. 

Medical  Examination — Life  insur- 
ance companies  depend  largely  upon 
medical  examinations  to  protect  the  mor- 
tality tables  from  deviation  which  might 
be  caused  by  the  admission  of  applicants 
whose  average  expectation  of  life  might 
be  lessened  by  unfavorable  physical  con- 
ditions. Among  the  facts  elicited  by 
medical  examination  are:  Occupation, 


hereditary  influence,  existence  of  pul- 
monary tuberculosis  or  insanity,  and 
evident  tendency  to  disease. 

Lapses  and  Surrenders — A policy  is 
said  to  lapse  when  the  insured  fails  to 
pay  a premium  when  it  becomes  due.  A 
policy  is  surrendered  when  the  insured 
gives  formal  notice  of  his  desire  to  termi- 
nate the  policy  and  receive  its  surrender 
value.  Down  to  1860  a policy  holder  who 
permitted  his  policy  to  lapse  lost  both 
surplus  and  reserve.  Since  1861  legisla- 
tion and  competition  protects  the  policy 
against  such  loss.  Most,  if  not  all,  com- 
panies guarantee  the  policy  holder  his 
share  of  the  reserve  or  the  surrender 
value  of  his  policy  after  three  premiums 
have  been  paid. 

INSURANCE,  FIRE.  See  Fire  Insur- 
ance. 

INSURANCE  SCANDALS,  the  revela- 
tions of  extravagance  and  mismanage- 
ment in  the  conduct  of  the  big  life  in- 
surance companies  of  the  United  States 
during  the  years  1905-6  led  to  drastic 
reorganization,  and  changes  in  methods. 
The  disclosures  began  in  February,  1905, 
in  a struggle  between  two  factions  for  the 
control  of  the  Equitable  life  assurance 
society,  of  New  York  James  W.  Alex- 
ander, president  of  the  company,  led  the 
faction  of  the  stock  and  policy  holders 
which  demanded  that  the  company  be 
mutualized  so  that  the  policy  holders 
could  be  represented  on  the  board  of 
directors.  This  demand  was  resisted  by 
a faction  led  by  James  Hazen  Hyde, 
vice-president  of  the  company,  and  son 
of  its  founder. 

The  struggle  brought  to  public  light  a 
scandalous  state  of  affairs,  showing  that 
funds  had  been  used  to  further  stock 
jobbing  schemes  in  Wall  street  and  for 
other  questionable  transactions.  As  a 
result,  Alexander  and  Hyde  both  were 
forced  out  of  the  company.  Hyde,  who 
owned  a majority  of  the  stock,  sold  it  to 
Thomas  F.  Ryan,  a New  York  capitalist, 
who  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  three 
trustees,  Grover  Cleveland,  Morgan  T. 
O’Brien,  and  George  Westinghouse. 
Paul  Morton  was  elected  president  of 
the  company  on  July  26.  He  reorganized 
its  methods  and  instituted  many  re- 
forms. 

On  Sept.  6,  1905,  a New  York  legis- 
lative committee,  toown  as  the  Arm- 
strong committee,  with  Charles  E. 
Hughes,  a New  York  attorney,  as  chief 
counsel,  began  a general  investigation  of 
all  the  big  life  insurance  companies  char- 
tered by  the  state  of  New  York. 

The  principal  companies  subjected  to 
a searching  investigation  were  the 
Equitable,  the  Mutual  and  the  New 
York  Life.  The  disclosures  startled  the 
whole  country.  It  was  shown  that  the 
New  York  Life  had  contributed  $150,- 
000  to  political  campaign  funds;  that  it 
had  permitted  one  Andrew  Hamilton  to 
expend  $1,347,382  for  work  in  “in- 
fluencing” legislation.  The  revelations 
involved  John  H.  McCall,  president  of 
the  company.  He  sold  everything  he  had 
in  the  world,  repaid  $235,000  and  died  a 
broken-hearted,  penniless  man. 

It  was  shown  that  President  Richard 
A.  McCurdy,  of  the  Mutual  was  drawing 
a salary  of  $150,000  per  annum  and  that 
the  funds  of  the  company  were  being 
used  by  banks  and  trust  companies  con- 


INTAGLIO 


INTERNATIONAL  LAW 


trolled  by  McCurdy.  His  son  Robert  and 
his  son-in-law,  L.  A.  Thebaud,  had  been 
paid  millions  in  “commissions.”  As  a 
result  the  McCurdy  family  was  ousted 
from  the  Mutual.  Charles  A.  Peabody 
was  elected  president. 

The  Armstrong  committee  made  an 
exhaustive  report  and  recommended 
the  passage  of  nine  laws  to  prevent  a 
recurrence  of  the  scandals.  The  laws  are 
now  on  the  New  York  statute  books. 

INTAGLIO  (in-tal'yo),  a stone  or  gem 
on  which  a figure  is  hollowed  out  so  that 
the  impression  from  it  may  be  in  relief; 
the  opposite  of  cameo. 

IN'TEGRAL  CALCULUS.  See  Cal- 
culus. 

INTELLECT,  the  name  for  the  think- 
ing portion  of  our  mental  constitution. 
Mind  contains  three  elementary  con- 
stituents,— emotion  or  feeling,  volition 
or  the  will,  and  intelligence  or  thought. 
The  intellectual  powers  are  explained  in 
part  by  their  contrast  with  feeling  and 
will.  When  we  enjoy  pleasure  or  suffer 
pain,  we  are  said  to  feel;  when  we  act  to 
procure  one  or  avoid  the  other,  we  put 
forth  voluntary  energy;  when  we  re- 
member, compare,  reason,  our  intelli- 
gence is  exerted.  The  powers  of  the  in- 
tellect have  been  variously  classified. 
Among  the  commonly  recognized  desig- 
nations for  them,  me  may  mention 
memory,  reason,  and  imagination,  which 
imply  three  very  distinct  applications  of 
our  mental  forces.  Reid  classified  them 
as  follows:  Perception  by  the  senses, 
memory,  conception,  abstraction,  judg- 
ment, reasoning.  Stewart  added  con- 
sciousness, to  denote  the  power  of  recog- 
nizing our  mental  states,  as  sensation 
and  perception  make  us  cognizant  of  the 
outer  world;  likewise  attention  (a  purely 
voluntary  function,  although  exerted  in 
the  domain  of  intelligence),  imagination, 
and  the  association  of  ideas. 

INTEMPERANCE,  See  Temperance. 

INTERCESSION,  DOCTRINE  OF.— 
Scripture,  in  many  places,  represents 
Christ,  after  having  finished  his  redemp- 
tive work  on  earth,  and  ascended  into 
his  state  of  glory  and  exaltation,  as  ever 
pleading  with  God  on  behalf  of  those 
whom  he  has  redeemed  by  the  shedding 
of  his  blood  (Rom.  viii,  34;  Heb.  vii,  25; 
I.  John  ii,  1).  Theologians  say,  however, 
that  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  God 
needs  to  be  interceded  with,  as  if  he  were 
still  reluctant  to  forgive  men,  or  that 
Christ’s  intercession  makes  him  more 
merciful  than  before.  They  tell  us,  that 
since  it  is  evident  from  the  whole  tenor 
of  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  from  a 
multitude  of  special  passages,  that  the 
penal  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  Calvary  re- 
conciled God  to  man,  we  must  regard  the 
intercessory  work  of  Christ  rather  as 
serving  to  illustrate  the  eternal  holiness 
of  God  and  the  changeless  love  of  the 
Savior,  and  as  intended  to  keep  con- 
tinually in  view  the  sacrifice  of  atone- 
ment on  which  it  is  founded.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  intercession  of  Christ  is  held 
both  by  Protestants  and  Roman  Catho- 
lics; but  the  latter,  in  addition,  believe 
in  the  efficacy  of  the  intercession  of  the 
Virgin  and  the  saints,  who,  however,  do 
not  directly  intercede  for  men  with  God, 
but  with  the  Savior,  the  sinless  One,  who 
alone  has  the  ear  of  the  King  of  the  uni- 
verse. 


IN'TERDICT,  an  ecclesiastical  censure 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  effect 
of  which,  taken  in  its  most  extended 
sense,  is,  that  no  kind  of  divine  service 
is  celebrated  in  the  place  or  country  un- 
der the  sentence;  the  sacraments  are  not 
administered,  the  dead  not  buried  with 
the  rites  of  the  church.  This  interdict  is 
called  real  or  local,  whilst  the  personal 
interdict  regards  only  one  or  more  per- 
sons. Gregory  VII.,  though  not  the 
inventor  of  this  engine  of  ecclesiastical 
power,  used  it  oftener  and  more  tyranni- 
cally than  any  of  his  predecessors.  The 
11th  century  was  pre-eminently  the 
century  of  interdicts,  but  they  gradually 
lost  power;  and  when  Paul  V.  laid  Venice 
under  an  interdict  in  1606  the  churches 
were  not  closed  nor  divine  service  inter- 
rupted, and  only  a minority  of  the  bish- 
ops acknowledged  it.  The  interdict 
must  be  announced,  like  the  excom- 
munication, in  writing,  with  the  causes, 
and  is  not  to  be  imposed  until  after  three 
admonitions.  The  penalty  of  disobedi- 
ence to  an  interdict  is  excommunication. 
Writers  of  the  Gallican  Church  say  that 
the  pope  has  no  right  to  lay  France 
under  an  interdict,  and  the  parliaments 
refused  to  register  them.  Interdicts  are 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  simple 
cessatio  a divinis,  or  the  disuse  of  religi- 
ous ceremonies,  which  takes  place  when 
a church  has  been  polluted,  for  example, 
by  a murder  committed  in  it. 

INTEREST,  is  the  allowance  made  for 
the  loan  or  retention  of  a sum  of  money 
which  is  lent  for,  or  becomes  due  at,  a 
certain  time;  this  allowance  being  gen- 
erally estimated  at  so  much  per  cent  per 
annum.  The  money  lent  is  called  the 
principal;  the  sum  paid  for  the  use  of  it, 
the  interest.  The  interest  of  $100  for  one 
year  is  called  the  rate  per  cent,  and  the 
sum  of  any  principal  and  its  interest 
together,  the  amount.  Interest  is  either 
simple  or  compound.  Simple  interest  is 
that  which  is  allowed  upon  the  principal 
only,  for  the  whole  time  of  the  loan. 
Compound  interest  is  that  which  arises 
fromi  any  sum  or  principal  in  a given 
time  by  increasing  the  principal,  at  fixed 
eriods,  by  the  interest  then  due,  and 
ence  obtaining  interest  upon  both  in- 
terest and  principal.  The  rate  of  interest 
supposing  the  security  for  the  principal 
to  be  equal,  depends  obviously  upon 
what  may  be  made  by  the  employment 
of  money  in  various  industrious  under- 
takings, or  on  the  rate  of  profit.  Where 
profits  are  high,  interest  is  high,  and 
vice  versa;  in  fact,  the  rate  of  interest  is 
simply  the  net  profit  on  capital.  Besides 
this,  however,  the  interest  on  each  par- 
ticular loan  must  further  vary  according 
to  the  supposed  risk  of  the  lender,  the 
supposed  solvency  of  the  borrower,  etc. 

INTERFE'RENCE,  in  physics,  the 
mutual  action  of  waves  of  any  kind 
(whether  those  in  water,  or  sound,  heat, 
or  light  waves)  upon  each  other,  by 
which,  in  certain  circumstances,  the 
vibrations  and  their  effects  are  increased, 
diminished,  or  neutralized.  When  two 
minute  pencils  of  light,  radiating  from 
two  different  luminous  points,  and  mak- 
ing a small  angle  with  each  other,  fall 
upon  the  same  spot  of  a screen  or  a piece 
of  paper,  it  is  found  that  in  some  cases 
they  illuminate  the  paper  or  screen  more 
strongly  than  either  would  have  done 


singly,  and  sometimes  they  destroy  each 
other’s  effects  and  produce  a black  spot 
or  fringe.  Such  phenomena  have  been 
explained  in  accordance  with  the  un- 
dulatory  theory  of  light,  and  furnish  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  that  theory. 
The  interference  of  waves  of  sound  is  a 
phenomenon  which  may  be  frequently 
observed  in  the  beat  of  the  tone  of  the 
heavier  organ  pipes.  Again,  to  a person 
situated  in  the  middle  of  a bell  the  sound 
waves  from  the  vibrating  segments  of 
the  bell  interfere  and  produce  only  a 
moderate  loudness,  whereas  to  a person 
at  a short  distance  outside  the  edge  the 
loudness  is  intolerable. 

INTERIOR,  Department  of  the,  one 
of  the  ten  executive  departments  of  the 
United  States  government,  whose  chiefs 
constitute  the  president’s  cabinet.  It 
was  organized  in  1849.  It  has  super- 
vision of  Indian  affairs;  of  the  public 
lands,  including  mines;  of  pensions;  of 
patents;  of  the  census,  when  directed  by 
law;  of  the  geological  survey;  of  educa- 
tion; of  the  custody  and  distribution  of 
public  docmnents;  of  railroads  which 
have  received  subsidies  from  the  United 
States;  of  the  territories;  of  national 
parks  and  reservations;  of  some  charita- 
ble and  penal  institutions  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia;  of  the  returns  office  in 
which  are  filed  returns  of  contracts  made 
by  the  secretary  of  war,  the  secretary  of 
the  navy,  and  the  secretary  of  the  in- 
terior, and  of  some  other  miscellaneous 
business. 

INTERMARRIAGE,  the  intermarriage 
of  near  relations  has  been  universally 
believed  to  result  in  degeneration  upon 
the  offspring.  The  gradual  deterioration 
of  the  slave  population  of  America  have 
been  attributed  to  consanguineous  al- 
liances. The  same  is  true  of  deaf- 
mutism  or  idiocy;  of  235  deaf  and  dumb 
children  whose  parentage  could  be 
traced  30  per  cent  were  the  offspring  of 
the  intermarriage  of  blood-relations. 
Insanity  follows  consanguineous  mar- 
riages where  the  contracting  parties  in- 
herit the  same  tendencies  of  a neurotic 
nature. 

INTER'MENT.  See  Burial. 

INTERMITTENT  FEVER.  See  Ague. 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  the  law  of 

nations;  those  rules  or  maxims  which  in- 
dependent political  societies  or  states 
observe,  or  ought  to  observe,  in  their 
conduct  toward  one  another.  Inter- 
national law  is  divisible  into  two  heads, 
the  one  which  regulates  the  rights,  in- 
tercourse, and  obligations  of  nations,  as 
such,  with  each  other;  the  other, 
which  regulates  the  rights  and  obliga- 
tions more  immediately  belonging  to 
their  respective  subjects.  Thus  the 
rights  and  duties  of  ambassadors  belong 
to  that  head  which  respects  the  nation  in 
its  sovereign  capacity;  and  the  rights 
of  the  subjects  of  one  nation  to  property 
situated  within  the  territory  of  another 
nation,  belong  to  the  latter  head.  Some 
of  the  maxims  regarding  the  rights  and 
duties  of  nations  during  a state  of  peace 
are : — (1)  Everynationisboundto abstain 
from  all  interference  with  the  domains 
of  other  nations.  (2)  All  nations  have 
equal  and  common  rights  on  the  high 
seas,  and  they  are  not  bound  to  admit 
any  superiority  there.  The  sea  which 
washes  the  coast  of  a nation,  to  the 


INTERNATIONAL  PEACE  CONFERENCE 


INTESTINE 


extent  of  three  miles,  is  now  deemed  to 
be  a part  of  the  territory  of  the  nation, 
over  which  it  may  exercise  an  exclusive 
jurisdiction.  And,  in  respect  to  persons 
subjected  to  its  laws,  every  nation  now 
claims  a right  to  exercise  jurisdiction  on 
the  high  seas,  for  the  purpose  of  enforc- 
ing both  international  law  and  its  own 
municipal  regulations.  (3)  No  nation 
has  a right  to  persue  any  criminal  or 
fugitive  from  justice  in  a foreign  coun- 
try; its  claim,  if  any,  is  a mere  right  to 
demand  him  from  the  nation  in  which 
he  has  taken  refuge.  (4)  Every  nation 
has  a right  to  regulate  its  own  inter- 
course and  commerce  with  other  nations. 
(5)  Foreigners  are  bound  to  obey  the 
laws  of  a country  as  long  as  they  reside 
within  it,  and  under  its  protection;  and 
the  property  held  by  foreigners  within 
a country  ought  to  be  protected  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  natives.  (6) 
Every  nation  has  a right  to  send  and  to 
receive  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers;  and  this  right  of  embassy  has 
always  been  deemed  peculiarly  sacred. 
Their  persons  are  held  sacred  and  in- 
violable. Their  property  and  servants, 
and  retinue  enjoy  a like  privilege.  (See 
Ambassador.)  (7)  It  is  through  the 
medium  of  ambassadors  and  other  pub- 
lic ministers  that  treaties,  conventions, 
and  other  compacts  between  nations  are 
usually  negotiated,  thus  forming  a 
positive  code  for  the  regulation  of  their 
mutual  rights,  duties,  and  interests.  In 
the  modern  practice  of  nations  such 
treaties  and  compacts  are  not  generally 
deemed  final  ana  conclusive  until  they 
have  been  ratified  by  the  respective  gov- 
ernments to  which  the  negotiators  be- 
long. 

War  introduces  an  entirely  new  order 
of  rules.  The  right  of  declaring  war  re- 
sults from  the  right  of  a nation  to  pre- 
serve its  own  existence,  its  own  liberties, 
and  its  own  essential  interests.  In  a 
state  of  nature  men  have  a right  to  em- 
ploy force  in  self-defense;  and  when  they 
enter  into  society  this  right  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  government,  and  is  an  in- 
cident to  sovereignty.  What  are  just 
causes  for  entering  into  a war  is  a ques- 
tion which  has  been  much  discussed  by 
publicists.  Defensive  wars  are  neces- 
sarily justifiable  from  the  fact  that  they 
involve  the  existence  or  safety  of  the 
nation  and  its  interests.  But  offensive 
wars  are  of  a very  different  character, 
and  can  be  justified  only  in  case  of 
aggravated  wrongs  or  vital  injuries. 
The  first  effect  of  a declaration  of  war 
is  to  put  all  the  subjects  of  each  of  the 
nations  in  a state  of  hostility  to  each 
other.  All  the  property  belonging  to 
each  is  deemed  hostile.  If  it  be  personal 
property  it  may  be  captured  as  prize; 
if  lands,  k may  be  seized  and  confiscatea 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  sovereign;  if  it  be 
merely  in  debts  or  stock  it  may,  in  the 
extreme  exercise  of  the  laws  of  war,  be 
equally  liable  to  confiscation.  As  soon  as 
a battle  is  over  the  conquerors  are  bound 
to  treat  the  wounded  with  kindness, 
and  the  prisoners  with  a decent  human- 
ity. And  there  are  some  things  which 
seem  positively  prohibited  from  their 
cruelty  and  brutal  barbarity;  such  are  the 
violation  of  female  captives,  the  tortur- 
ing of  prisoners,  the  poisoning  of  wells, 
the  use  of  inhuman  instruments  of  war. 


In  time  of  war  there  is  occasionally  an 
intercourse  between  the  belligerents 
which  should  always  be  held  sacred. 
Thus  the  interchange  of  prisoners  by 
cartels;  the  temporary  suspension  of 
hostilities  by  truces;  the  passage  of  flags 
of  truce;  the  engaging  in  treaties  of 
capitulation.  When  any  conquest  of 
territory  is  made  the  inhabitants  pass 
under  the  dominion  of  the  conqueror, 
and  are  subject  to  such  laws  as  he 
chooses  to  impose  upon  them.  There 
are  also  certain  rights  which  war  confers 
on  the  belligerents  in  respect  to  neu- 
trals. Thus  they  have  a right  to  blockade 
the  ports  or  besiege  the  cities  of  their 
enemies,  and  to  interdict  all  trade  by 
neutrals  with  them.  But  no  blockade  is 
to  be  recognized  unless  “the  besieging 
force  can  apply  its  power  to  every  point 
in  thp  blockaded  state.”  They  have  a 
right  also  to  insist  that  neutrals  shall  con- 
duct themselves  with  good  faith , and 
abstain  from  all  interference  in  the  con-^ 
test  by  supplying  their  enemy  with 
things  contraband  of  war.  And  hence 
arises  the  incidental  right  of  search  of 
ships  on  the  high  seas  for  the  detection 
of  contraband  goods.  A neutral  nation 
is  bound  to  observe  entire  impartiality 
between  the  belligerents.  Neutral 
nations  are,  strictly  speaking,  bound  to 
compel  their  subjects  to  abstain  from 
every  interference  in  the  war,  as  by 
carrying  contraband  goods,  serving  in 
the  hostile  army,  furnishing  supplies, 
etc.  Subject  to  the  exceptions  above 
referred  to,  a neutral  has  a right  to  insist 
upon  carrying  on  its  ordinary  commerce 
with  each  of  the  belligerents  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  times  of  peace.  See  Neu- 
trality. 

INTERNATIONAL  PEACE  CONFER- 
ENCE, a conference  of  one  hundred  and 
one  delegates  representing  twenty-six 
countries  of  the  world,  held  at  The 
Hague  from  May  18  to  July  29,  1899, 
in  response  of  an  invitation  by  the 
Czar  of  Russia  to  the  governments  of 
the  principal  states  of  the  world  for  the 
purpose  of  concerted  action  with  regard 
to  international  questions  of  peace  and 
war,  and  to  secure,  if  possible,  a gradual 
reduction  of  the  military  and  naval 
armaments  of  the  states  represented. 
See  Hague  Conference. 

INTERNATIONAL  PRISON  CON- 
GRESS, the  first  prison  conference  held 
in  1845  at  Frankfort,  the  second  in 
1857.  In  1870  the  first  American  prison 
congress  was  held,  and  President  Grant 
appointed  Dr.  Wines  commissioner  to 
arrange  an  international  conference. 
The  congress  met  in  London  in  1872. 
Meetings  are  now  held  at  intervals  of 
five  years.  The  programmes  are  ar- 
ranged by  a permanent  committee,  the 
International  penitentiary  commission. 
Papers  by  experts  are  printed  in  ad- 
vance, and  form  the  bases  of  the  dis- 
cussions. The  congresses  have  been  held 
in  various  capitals,  and  have  been  pro- 
ductive of  great  good. 

INTES'TACY,  in  law,  the  condition  of 
a person  who  dies  without  having  left 
any  will  at  all,  or  having  left  one  not 
legally  valid,  or  such  a will  that  nobody 
becomes  heir  under  it.  The  general  prin- 
ciple in  Britain  and  the  United  States  is 
that  the  law  provides  an  heir  or  next  of 
kin  if  the  owner  himself  has  not  done  so. 


In  the  case  of  a person  dying  partially 
intestate,  the  property  not  included  in 
the  settlement  goes  to  the  heir-at-law  or 
next  of  kin  according  as  it  is  real  or  per- 
sonal estate. 

INTES'TINE,  the  name  given  to  the 
convoluted  membranous  tube  which 
extends  from  the  right  or  pyloric  orifice 
of  the  stomach  to  the  anus,  and  which 
receives  the  ingested  food  from  the 
stomach,  retains  it  for  a longer  or 


Human  stomach  and  Intestinal  tube, 
a,  Stomach.— 6 to  d,  Small  Intestine.  6,  Duo- 
denum. c,  Jejunum  with  convolutions,  d, 
Ileum,  with  do.  — e toff.  Large  Intestine.  «, 
Coecum,  //,  Colon,  y,  Rectum. 

shorter  period,  mixes  it  with  the  bile, 
pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  secre- 
tions, gives  origin  to  the  lacteal  or 
absorbent  vessels  which  take  up  the 
chyle  and  convey  it  into  the  current  of 
the  blood,  and  which,  lastly,  conveys 
the  faecal  or  indigestible  products  from 
the  system.  In  man  it  is  usually  divided 
into  the  small  intestine,  which  compre- 
hends the  duodenum,  jejunum,  and 
ileum;  and  the  large  intestine,  compre- 
hending the  coecum,  colon,  and  rectum. 
Three  distinct  coats  are  to  be  distin- 
guished in  the  structure  of  the  small 
intestine;  these,  named  from  without 
inward,  are  known  as  the  serous,  mus- 
cular, and  mucous  coats.  The  innermost 
or  mucous  coat  presents  several  inter- 
esting structures.  Among  these  are  the 
valvulae  conniventes,  or  closely  folded 
transverse  plaits  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, the  functions  of  which  would 
appear  to  be  those  of  serving  materially 
to  increase  the  digestive  surface  or  area 
of  the  intestine,  and  thoroughly  mingle 
the  ingesta  with  the  secretions.  The 
surface  of  the  membrane  is  covered  with 
innumerable  fine  projections  termed 
villi,  which  give  to  it  almost  a velvety 
texture. 

Each  villus  is  found  under  the  micro- 
scope to  be  an  outstanding  process  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  containing  inter- 
nally an  artery  giving  off  minute  rami- 
fications, a vein  by  which  the  venous 
blood  is  returned,  and,  lastly,  the  lacteal 
or  absorbent  vessel.  The  function  of  the 
villi,  which  are  most  numerous  in  the 
duodenum,  is  pre-eminently  that  of  the 
absorption  of  the  chyle  or  fluid  product 
of  digestion,  as  a preliminary  to  its 
transmission  to  the  current  of  the  blood 
or  circulation.  Four  varieties  of  glands 
are  also  connected  with  the  small  in- 
testine, the  first  three  being  named  after 
their  respective  discoverers,  Lieberktihn, 
Peyer,  and  Brunner,  and  the  other 
variety  occurring  singly — the  “solitary” 


INTOXICATION 


IODINE 


glands — and  in  groups — Peyer’s  patches. 
The  exact  functions  of  these  bodies  are 
not  well  known.  The  duodenum  lies  in 
the  epigastric  region,  and  makes  three 
turnings,  receiving  by  a common  open- 
ing between  its  first  and  second  flexure 
the  bile-duct  and  the  pancreatic-duct. 
The  conversion  of  the  chyme  from  the 
stomach  into  chyle  is  thus  accomplished 
in  the  duodenum.  The  jejunum,  com- 
mencing at  the  left  side  of  the  second 
lumbar  vertebra,  becomes  insensibly 
and  gradually  continuouswith  the  ileum, 
which,  terminating  the  small  intertine, 
becomes  continuous  with  the  large  in- 
testine in  the  right  iliac  fossa,  and  opens 
into  the  colon,  or  first  portion  of  the 
large  intestine,  which  is  divided  from 
the  large  intestines  by  the  ileo-coecal 
valve.  Below  the  point  at  which  the 
ileum  opens  into  the  colon  we  find  a 
short  blind  sac  continuous  with  the 
colon,  and  known  as  the  coecum;  and 
attached  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the 
ccecum,  and  communicating  with  the 
coecal  cavity,  we  find  a little  closed  tube, 
to  which  the  name  of  appendix  vermi- 
formis  is  applied.  We  next  find  the 
colon  to  ascend  in  the  right  lumbar 
region,  in  front  of  the  kidney.  This 
portion  is  known  as  the  ascending  colon. 
It  then  crosses  the  abdominal  cavity 
to  the  left  side,  and  becomes  the  trans- 
verse colon;  and  finally  descends  as  the 
descending  colon,  in  front  of  the  left 
kidney  into  the  left  groin,  where,  after 
making  a curve  like  the  letter  S — sig- 
moid flexure  of  the  colon — it  terminates 
in  the  last  portion  of  the  intestinal  tract. 
This  last  portion,  known  as  the  rectum, 
finally  terminates  in  the  anus.  The 
large  intestine  measures  from  5 to  6 
feet  in  length ; the  small  intestine  meas- 
ures from  16  to  about  24  or  26  feet  in 
length;  so  that  the  entire  intestinal 
tract  may  be  regarded  as  being  about 
five  or  six  times  the  length  of  the  body 
itself.  The  three  coats  of  the  small  in- 
testine are  repeated  in  the  large  intestine. 
The  mucous  or  inner  coat  is  not  elevated 
to  form  villi  in  the  large,  as  in  the  small 
intestine,  and  only  two  kinds  of  glands, 
the  glands  of  Lieberkuhn,  and  the  soli- 
tary glands,  are  to  be  distinguished  in 
the  large  intestine.  The  function  of  the 
large  intestine  is  chiefly  excretory,  but 
a certain  power  of  absorption  is  also 
exercised  by  its  vessels.  The  food  is  pro- 
pelled along  the  entire  intestinal  tract  by 
the  alternate  contraction  of  the  longi- 
tudinal muscular  fibers,  by  which  means 
it  is  gradually  pushed  along  the  tube  with 
a vermicular  or  peristaltic  movement. 
The  ileo-coecal  valve  serves  to  prevent 
regurgitation  of  matters  into  the  small 
intestine,  after  they  have  passed  into 
the  colon.  The  mesentery  is  the  term 
given  to  the  fold  of  peritoneum  by 
means  of  which  the  small  intertines  are 
attached  to  the  spine.  The  blood-vessels 
supplying  the  intestinal  tube  are  the 
superior  and  inferior  mesenteric  arteries 
and  their  branches,  derived  from  the 
abdominal  aorta.  The  veins  of  the  in- 
testines empty  their  contents  into  the 
vena  portse,  which  distributes  itself 
through  the  liver,  and  from  the  blood  of 
which  the  bile  is  secreted  by  the  hepatic 
or  liver  cells.  The  nerves  of  the  intes- 
tines are  derived  from  the  sympathetic 
or  ganglionic  system  of  nerves,  and 


also  have  a connection  with  the  eighth 
cranial  nerve— the  pneumogastric  nerve 
of  the  right  side. 

INTOXICATION,  the  state  produced 
by  the  excessive  use  of  alcoholic  liquids. 
In  the  first  stage  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  becomes  somewhat  more  rapid, 
and  all  the  functions  of  the  body  and 
mind  are  exercised  with  more  freedom. 
In  the  second  stage  the  effect  on  the 
brain  is  more  decided.  The  peculiarities 
of  character,  the  faults  of  temperament, 
manifest  themselves  without  reserve; 
the  secret  thoughts  are  disclosed,  and 
the  sense  of  propriety  is  lost.  In  the 
next  degree  consciousness  is  still  more 
weakened;  the  ideas  lose  their  connec- 
tion; vertigo,  double  vision  and  other 
discomforts  supervene;  until  finally  the 
excitement  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
delirium,  and  is  followed  by  a more  or 
less  prolonged  stupor,  often  by  dangerous 
coma.  In  cases  of  extreme  intoxication 
the  stomach-pump  should  be  employed, 
if  ordinary  emetics  fail  to  overcome  the 
torpor  of  the  stomach.  Among  the  best 
antidotes  are  preparations  of  ammonia 
and  strong  infusions  of  coffee  and  green 
tea.  The  body  should  be  kept  warm. 

INTRENCHMENT,  any  work  that 
fortifies  a post  against  the  attack  of  an 
enemy.  The  word  is  generally  used  to 
denote  a ditch  or  trench  with  a parapet. 

INTUI'TION,  in  philosophy,  the  act  by 
which  the  mind  perceives  the  agreement 
or  disagreement  of  two  ideas,  or  the 
truth  of  propositions,  immediately,  or 
the  moment  they  are  presented,  without 
the  intervention  of  other  ideas,  or  with- 
out reasoning  and  deduction. 

INV ABIDES  (an-va-led),  Hotel  des,  a 
splendid  hospital  for  disabled  soldiers 
at  Paris,  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Germain, 
erected  by  Louis  XIV.  between  1670 
and  1673.  A soldier  must  have  served 
ten  years  to  be  received  into  this  hospi- 
tal on  account  of  poverty  or  infirmity. 
In  vaults  under  the  dome  lie  the  remains 
of  Turenne  and  several  othfer  great 
French  commanders,  including  those  of 
Napoleon  I.,  deposited  here  December 
15,  1840. 

INVENTION  OF  THE  CROSS.  See 

Cross. 


IN'VENTORY,  a list  containing  a 
short  description,  together  with  the 
values,  of  goods  and  chattels,  made  on 
various  occasions,  as  on  the  sale  of 
goods,  transfer  of  movables  for  pecun- 
iary considerations,  decease  of  a per- 
son, etc. 

INVERNESS',  a royal,  parliamentary, 
and  municipal  burgh  in  Scotland,  capi- 
tal of  the  county  of  the  same  name,  and 
chief  town  in  the  Highlands.  Pop. 
21,193. — The  county  is  the  largest  in 
Scotland.  Area,  4255  sq.  miles,  or  2,723,- 
000  acres,  of  which  only  about  100,000 
are  under  tillage.  Pop.  90,182. 

INVERTEBRA'TA,  a collective  term 
for  the  five  great  lower  divisions  or  sub- 
kingdoms of  the  animal  series,  which 
agree  in  not  having  a vertebral  column 
or  back-bone,  used  in  contradistinction 
to  the  highest  group  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, to  which  the  name  Vertebrata  or 
Vertebrate  animals  is  given,  all  of  which 
possess  a vertebral  column.  In  inverte- 
brates no  structure  analogous  to  the 
vertebrate  spine  is  found.  Where  hard 
parts  exist  in  them  they  are  generally 


placed  on  the  outside  of  the  body,  and 
thus  constitute  an  exo-skeleton,  or  outer 
skeleton — as  opposed  to  the  endo- 
skeleton,  or  internal  skeleton  of  the 
vertebrata.  The  shell  of  the  crab  or 
lobster  is  a familiar  example.  The  limbs 
or  vertebrates  are  never  more  than  four 
in  number,  while  those  of  the  inverte- 
brata  may  be  very  numerous.  Among 
vertebrates  also  reproducton  is  purely 
and  solely  sexual;  but  in  invertebrata 
asexual  reproduction  is  common,  many 
of  them  reproducing  their  species  by 
gemmation  or  budding,  and  by  fission. 

IN'VOICE,  an  account  in  writing  of 
the  particulars  of  merchandise  trans- 
mitted to  a purchaser,  giving  price  and 
quantity,  note  of  charges,  and  any  other 
needful  details.  By  sending  an  invoice 
along  with  goods  a merchant  gives  offi- 
cial advice  to  his  correspondent  of  the 
understood  terms  of  a contract.  If  the 
goods  are  received  and  the  invoice  re- 
tained this  will  be  held  valid  evidence  in 
law  of  the  contract. 

INVOLU'CRE,  in  botany,  a collection 
of  bracts  round  a circle  of  flowers.  In 
umbelliferous  plants  it  consists  of  sepa- 
rate narrow  bracts  placed  in  a single 


Hemlock  plant— a.  Involucre,  id,  Involucels. 

whorl;  in  many  composite  plants  these 
organs  are  imbricated  in  several  rows. 
The  same  name  is  also  given  to  the 
covering  of  the  sori  of  ferns. 

I'ODINE,  a peculiar  non-metallic  ele- 
mentary solid  substance.  It  exists  in  the 
water  of  the  ocean  and  mineral  springs, 
in  marine  molluscous  animals,  and  in 
sea-weeds,  from  the  ashes  of  which  it  is 
chiefly  procured  (see  Kelp).  It  exists 
also  in  certain  land-plants  and  in  cod- 
liver  oil.  It  is  found  in  certain  minerals, 
the  water  of  certain  rivers,  and  the  rain- 
water of  several  towns.  At  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  it  is  a 
solid  crystalline  body.  It  unites  readily 
with  chlorine,  potassium,  etc.,  with 
the  emission  of  light  and  great  heat. 
It  is  a non-conductor  of  electricity,  and, 
like  oxygen  and  chlorine,  is  a negative 
electric.  Like  chlorine,  it  destroys  vege- 
table colors,  but  with  less  energy.  Its 
color  is  bluish  black  or  grayish  black,  of 
a metallic  lustre.  It  is  often  in  scales,  re- 
sembling those  of  micaceous  iron  ore; 
sometimes  in  brilliant  rhomboidal  plates 
or  in  elongated  octahedrons.  Its  vapor 
is  an  exceedingly  rich  violet  color,  a 
character  to  which  it  owes  its  name. 
This  vapor  is  remarkably  dense.  Iodine 
has  a very  acrid  taste,  and  its  odor  re- 
sembles that  of  chlorine.  It  is  an  irritant 
poison;  but  in  small  doses  has  been  of 
great  service  in  certain  forms  of  glandu- 
lar disease.  It  is  largely  used  in  photog- 
raphy, in  the  preparation  of  aniline 
colors,  and  in  other  ways.  It  is  very 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  dissolves 
copiously  in  alcohol  and  in  ether,  form- 
ing dark  brown  liquids.  It  possesses 


IODOFORM 


IOWA 


Btrong  powers  of  combination,  and  forms, 
with  the  pure  metals,  and  most  of  the 
simple  non-metallic  substances,  com- 
pounds which  are  termed  iodides.  With 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  it  forme  iodic  acid; 
combined  with  hydrogen  it  forms  hydri- 
odic  acid.  This  is  a colorless  gas,  which 
strongly  reddens  litmus,  and  decomposes 
many  chlorides.  Starch  is  a characteris- 
tic test  of  iodine,  forming  with  it  a com- 
pound of  a deep  blue  color.  This  test  is  so 
delicate  that  a solution  of  starch  dropped 
into  water  containing  less  than  a mil- 
lionth part  of  iodine  is  tinged  blue  by  it. 
The  great  consumption  of  iodine  is  in 
medicine;  it  is  employed  in  its  pure  state, 
but  much  more  frequently  in  the  form  of 
iodide  of  potassium,  which  has  been 
found  of  great  benefit  in  goitre,  scrofula,, 
disease  of  the  liver  and  spleen,  in  syphil- 
itic affections,  rheumatism,  etc.,  as  well 
as  in  lead-poisoning.  Iodide  of  iron  is 
another  useful  medicine,  being  employed 
in  chlorosis,  anaemia,  scrofula,  and 
glandular  affections. 

lOD'OFORM,  a substance  analogous 
to  chloroform  in  composition,  but  in 
w’hich  iodine  replaces  chlorine.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  small,  solid  yellow  crystals, 
and  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  alcohol 
and  other  bodies  on  iodine  and  potash. 
It  is  nearly'  insoluble  in  water,  but  dis- 
solves in  ether  oils  and  alcohol.  It  is  used 
in  medicine  as  an  antiseptic,  and  acts 
slightly  as  an  anodyne;  it  is  successfully 
applied  to  ulcers  and  sores  of  various 
* kinds,  and  is  used  as  a snuff  for  cold  in 
the  head.  It  may  be  prepared  as  an 
ointment. 

IONIA,  that  part  of.  the  seaboard  of 
Asia  Minor  which  was  inhabited  by 
Ionian  Greeks,  a beautiful  and  fertile 
country  opposite  the  islands  of  Samos 
and  Chios,  which  also  belonged  to  it. 
According  to  tradition  the  Greek  colon- 
ists came  over  from  Attica  about  the 
middle  of  the  11th  century  b.  c.,  and 
founded  twelve  to'vvns,  which,  though 
mutually  independent,  formed  a con- 
federacy for  common  purposes.  These 
included  Phocaea,  Ephesus,  Miletus,  etc., 
and  latterly  Smyrna.  Commerce,  navi- 
gation, and  agriculture  early  rendered 
them  wealthy  and  flourishing,  but  the 
country  was  made  tributary  by  Croesus, 
king  of  Lydia,  and  later  by  Cyrus,  king 
of  Persia  (557  b.  c.).  With  an  interval  of 
independence  they  remained  under  Persia 
until  this  empire  was  overthrown  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  334-331  b.  c., 
when  they  became  a part  of  the  Mace- 
donian Empire.  Ionia,  at  a later  period, 
.became  part  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia.  It  was  afterward  totally  devas- 
tated by  the  Saracens,  so  that  few  ves- 
tiges of  its  ancient  civilization  remain. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS,  a number  of  Greek 
islands  in  the  Ionian  sea,  extending  along 
the  western  and  southern  shores  of 
Greece,  of  which  the  largest  are  Corfu, 
Cephalonia,  Zante,  and  Cerigo,  others 
being  Ithaca  or  Thiaki,  Paxos,  and 
Santa  Maura;  area,  1097  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
252,000. 

IONIC  ORDER,  one  of  the  orders  of 
Classic  architecture,  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  of  which  is  the  volutes  of 
its  capital.  In  the  Grecian  Ionic  (1)  the 
stylobate  consists  of  three  receding  equal 
steps  the  combined  height  of  which  is 
from  four-fifths  to  a whole  diameter; 


(2)  the  column,  which  includes  band, 
shaft,  and  capital,  is  rather  more  than 
nine  diameters  in  height,  the  shaft  being 
fluted  with  twenty-four  flutes  and  alter- 
nating fillets;  while  (3)  the  entablature 


Ionic  order— Grecian. 

is  rather  more  than  two  diameters  in 
height.  The  volutes  are  connected  on 
the  flanks  by  a peculiar  roll-moulding, 
called  the  baluster  or  bolster.  In  the 
Roman  Ionic,  a modification  of  the  latter 
style,  the  stylobate  is  lofty  and  not 
graduated;  the  shaft  diminishes  one- 


The  Erechtheum  at  Athens— Ionic  order. 

tenth  of  a diameter  and  has  twenty 
fillets  and  flutes;  the  capital,  which  is 
two-fifths  of  a diameter,  has  its  volutes 
a little  lower  than  the  other,  and  a square 
abacus  with  moulded  edges  covers  the 
whole.  The  chief  examples  of  the 
Grecian  Ionic  are  those  of  the  Athenian 


Ionic  architecture— Temple  of  Wingless  Vic- 
tory, on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens. 


Acropolis;  while  those  of  the  Roman 
Ionic  are  found  in  the  temple  of  Fortuna 
Virilis  and  the  Coliseum  at  Rome. 

lOU,  a written  acknowledgment  of 
debt,  usually  made  in  this  form : — “To 


Mr.  A,  B.  10  U Ten  dollars. — C.  D.  May 
12th,  1898.”  An  acknowledginent  of 
debt  made  in  this  form  requires  no 
stamp.  It  is  not  negotiable.  The  letters 
lOU  are  of  course  used  instead  of  the 
words  “I  owe  you.” 

rOWA,  one  of  the  central  United 
States,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Min- 
nesota; east  by  Wisconsin  and  Illinois, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Missis- 
sippi; south  by  Missouri;  and  west  by 
Nebraska  and  Dakota,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  river  Missouri;  area, 
56,025  sq.  miles.  It  is  well  watered,  its 
streams  being  all  affluents  of  the  large 
rivers  which  bound  it  on  the  west  and 
east.  To  the  Mississippi  flow  the  Wap- 
sipincon,  Iowa,  Cedar,  Skunk,  and  Des 
Moines  ,with  a general  s.  e.  course  To 
the  Missouri  flow  the  Big  and  Little 
Sioux  and  other  streams.  The  surface  is 
undulating,  nearly  four-fifths  consisting 
of  prairies  covered  with  a rich  coat  of 
coarse  grass,  forming  excellent  pasturage. 
The  climate  is  very  healthy,  and  winter 
continues  from  December  to  March;  the 
summer  heat  is  tempered  by  frequent 
showers.  The  soil  is  in  general  very 
good,  consisting  of  a deep  black  mould, 
intermingled  in  the  prairies  with  sand, 
red  clay,  and  gravel.  The  eastern  por- 
tion is  rich  in  minerals. 

lowa’smost  valuable  mineral  resources 
are  the  bituminous  coal  beds  in  the  south- 


Seal  of  Iowa. 


eastern  quarter  of  the  state,  the  lead  and 
zinc  ores  in  the  Galena  limestone  of  the 
lower  Silurian  formation  of  the  north- 
east. Extensive  deposits  of  gypsum  are 
also  found,  and  various  other  minerals. 
The  limestones  of  the  Devonian  and 
upper  Silurian  formations  furnish  an  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  building-stone  of 
the  finest  quality.  Clays  suitable  for 
brick  manufacture  are  abundant  and  are 
extensively  ulitized.  Small  quantities  of 
zinc  and  gypsum  are  mined. 

The  area  occupied  by  forests  and 
woodland  is  about  5,000,000  acres. 

Iowa  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural 
state.  Of  its  total  land  area,  97.4  percent 
is  included  in  farms,  and  of  this,  86.5 
per  cent  is  improved.  The  soil  is  well 
drained,  producing  abundantly  without 
the  aid  of  artificial  fertilizers.  The  state 
is  noted  especially  for  its  corn  crops,  the 
acreage  for  which  amounts  to  over  one- 
fourth  of  its  total  area,  and  contributes 
about  one-half  of  the  total  value  for  all 
crops.  Oats  rank  next  in  importance, 
with  about  one-half  the  acreage  and  one- 
third  the  value  of  corn.  The  stateusually 
takes  first  place  in  the  production  of  this 
cereal.  Wheat  is  raised  most  extensively 


IOWA 


IRELAND 


in  the  northern  and  northwestern  count- 
ies. The  state  ranks  second  in  the  pro- 
duction of  barley,  this  crop  also  being 
most  extensively  grown  in  the  northern 
part.  Less  important  cereals  are  rye  and 
buckwheat.  The  soil  is  well  adapted  to 
vegetables,  and  the  state  ranks  second 
in  the  production  of  Irish  potatoes.  The 
fruit  industry  is  rapidly  developing. 
Over  71  per  cent  of  the  total  are  apple- 
trees.  Grapes  and  small  fruits  are  suc- 
cessfully grown. 

Stock-raising  holds  a higher  rank  than 
the  raising  of  crops.  Texas  alone  rivals 
Iowa  in  the  value  of  live  stock,  and  is 
the  only  state  which  exceeds  it  in  the 
number  of  cattle.  Iowa  is  far  in  ad- 
vance of  all  others  in  the  number  of 
swine,  and  leads  also  in  the  number  of 
horses.  Other  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  farm  implements,  flour- 
milling, pork-packing,  machinery,  smelt- 
ing-works, etc.  The  length  of  railways 
open  for  traffic  is  over  10,000  miles.  It 
possesses  exceptional  advantages  for 
river  trade,  and  the  smaller  streams 
supply  abundant  water-power.  Educa- 
tion is  well  attended  to.  There  is  a 
state  university  (at  Iowa  City)  and  a 
flourishing  state  agricultural  college. 

Marquette  and  Joliet,  in  1673,  and 
Hennepin,  in  1680,  touched  on  the 
boarders  of  the'state.  In  1803  the  region 
passed  to  the  United  States  as  a part  of 
the  Louisiana  cession,  and  Indian  titles 
to  the  land  were  extinguished  by  treaties 
in  the  years  1804,  1832,  and  subsequent- 
ly. It  formed,  in  turn,  a part  of  the 
territories  of  - Louisiana  (organized  in 
1804),  Missouri,  Michigan,  and  Wiscon- 
sin. On  June  12,  1838,  it  was  organized 
as  the  Iowa  territory.  In  1839  the  gov- 
ernment was  removed  to  Iowa  City,  and 
in  1844  a state  constitution  was  framed 
and  admission  to  the  Union  sought  for. 
The  state  was  admitted  to  the  Union  on 
December  28, 1846.  In  1857  the  original 
constitution  of  1846  was  revised  and 
Des  Moines  was  made  the  capital.  In 
the  civil  war,  Iowa,  whose  fundamental 
law  prohibited  slavery,  took  a zealous 
part.  The  two  most  important  questions 
of  public  moment  since  1870  have  been 
railway  legislation  and  prohibition.  The 
development  of  the  state  was  greatly 
accelerated  by  the  building  of  railroads, 
of  which  there  were,  in  1900,  nearly 
10,000  miles,  but  with  the  rise  of  powerful 
railway  corporations,  there  ensued  a 
continuous  conflict  between  the  legis- 
lature and  the  companies  in  regard  to 
the  taxation  of  railway  property  and  the 
regulation  of  rates.  In  1872  an  act  tax- 
ing railway  property  was  passed,  and  in 
1873  a powerful  agitation  stirred  up  by 
the  patrons  of  husbandry  against  the 
extortionate  rates  imposed  by  the  com- 
panies led  to  the  creation  of  a board  of 
railroad  comissioners  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  a maximum  rate  and  pre- 
venting discrimination.  Radical  action 
on  the  part  of  the  commissioners  caused 
repeated  appeals  to  the  courts,  and 
though  many  concessions  were  wrung 
from  the  companies,  the  advantage  in 
general  remained  with  them.  A prohi- 
bition amendment  adopted  in  1882  was 
promptly  declared  unconstitutional  by 
the  courts.  A new  law  went  into  effect 
in  1884,  and  for  some  years  proved  fairly 
adequate.  A very  large  part  of  the  popu- 


lation, however,  was  opposed  to  sumptu- 
ary legislation,  and  in  1890,  under  the 
protection  of  the  interstate  commerce 
laws,  a successful  attempt  was  made  to 
evade  the  anti-liquor  regulations  by  the 
importation  of  alcoholic  products  from 
other  states.  In  1894  the  courts  declared 
the  prohibitory  laws  unconstitutional. 
From  1846  to  1854  the  state  was  Demo- 
cratic both  in  national  and  state  politics. 
Since  1854  its  vote  in  national  elections 
has  always  been  cast  for  the  republican 
candidate.  The  capital  is  Des  Moines; 
the  principal  towns  being  Dubuque, 
Davenport,  Burlington,  Council  Bluffs, 
Sioux  City,  Cedar  Rapids,  and  Keokuk, 
Pop.  1909  2.232,000. 

IOWA,  a river  in  the  state  of  Iowa, 
rising  in  Hancock  co.,  near  the  Min- 
nesota line,  and  flowing  southeast  into 
the  Mississippi,  35  miles  north  of  Bur- 
lington. It  is  100  miles  long  and 
navigable  to  Iowa  City,  800  miles  from 
its  mouth. 

IOWA,  State  University  of,  an 
educational  institution  for  both  sexes 
in  Iowa  City,  Iowa.  The  institution 
was  opened  in  1855  and  re-organized  in 
1860.  The  work  of  the  university  is 
organized  in  a college  of  liberal  arts, 
colleges  of  lajv,  medicine,  homeopathic 
medicine,  dentistry  and  pharmacy,  a 
graduate  department,  the  Iowa  school 
of  political  and  social  science,  and  two 
hospitals.  The  college  of  liberal  arts 
confers  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  B.Ph.,  and 
B.S.  The  graduate  college  confers  the 
degrees  of  M.A.,  M.S.,  Ph.D.,  civil  en- 
gineer, and  electrical  engineer.  The 
college  of  liberal  arts  maintains  a sum- 
mer session  for  teachers  and  a summer 
school  for  library  training.  The  univer- 
sity provides  public  lectures  and  exten- 
sion courses,  and  is  in  close  touch  with 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  state 
through  its  system  of  accredited  high 
schools. 

IOWA  CITY,  a city,  the  capital  of 
Johnson  co.,  Iowa,  on  the  river  Iowa, 
at  the  head  of  navigation.  It  contains 
the  state  university,  and  was  once  the 
state  capital.  Pop.  10,000. 

IOWA  COLLEGE,  the  oldest  collegiate 
institution  in  the  state  of  Iowa,  founded 
in  1846  by  an  association  of  congrega- 
tionalists  and  presbyterians  at  Daven- 
port, and  incorporated  in  the  following 
year.  The  college  was  opened  in  1848, 
and  in  1859  it  was  removed  to  its  present 
situation  in  Grinnell.  The  institution 
includes  three  departments,  the  college, 
the  academy,  and  the  school  of  music, 
since  1857  open  to  both  sexes.  In  1895 
the  collegiate  courses  were  arranged  on 
the  group  system,  and  lead  to  the  de- 
grees of  B.A.  and  B.Ph. 

IOWA  STATE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE AND  MECHANIC  ARTS,  a 
cd-educational  institution  at  Ames,  Iowa, 
established  in  1858.  In  1862  a grant  of 
public  lands  was  bestowed  on  the  college 
by  a general  act  of  congress  for  the  pur- 
pose of  fostering  agricultural  and  me- 
chanic education.  It  is  a college  of  ad- 
vanced technology,  and  organized  in 
divisions  of  agriculture,  engineering, 
veterinary  medicine  and  science  A 
well  stockedfarm  providespractical  work 
and  the  Iowa  experiment  station  gives 
opportunity  for  original  investigations 


of  agricultural  problems.  Tuition  is  free 
to  residents  of  Iowa,  those  from  other 
states  paying  an  annual  fee  of  $24  00 
IPECACUAN'HA,  a substance  used  in 
medicine,  of  a nauseous  odor  and  re- 
pulsive bitterish  taste,  the  dried  root  of 
several  plants  growing  in  South  America. 
All  the  kinds  have  nearly  the  same  in- 


Ipecacuanha plant. 


gredients,  but  differ  in  the  amount  of 
the  active  principle  which  they  contain. 
The  best  is  the  annulated,  yielded  by 
a small  shrubby  plant,  a native  of  Brazil, 
Colombia,  and  other  parts  of  South 
America.  When  given  in  very  small 
doses  ipecacuanha  improves  the  appe- 
tite and  digestive  powers ; in  a somewhat 
larger  dose  it  may  be  given  to  increase 
the  secretion  from  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  air-passages;  and  in  a still 
larger,  from  15  to  20  grains,  it  occasions 
vomiting.  It  is  also  capable,  by  being 
combined  with  other  substances,  of  pro- 
ducing increased  perspiration,  as  in  the 
well-known  Dover’s  powder. 

IPHIGENIA  (if-i-je-ni'a),  in  Greek 
legend  and  poetry,  daughter  of  Aga- 
memnon and  Clytemnestra.  To  avert  the 
wrath  of  ArtSmis,  whom  Agamemnon 
had  enraged  by  killing  a consecrated 
hind,  and  who  detained  the  Greek  fleet 
at  Aulis  that  had  been  prepared  for  the 
Trojan  war,  Iphigenia  was  to  be  sac- 
rificed on  the  altar;  but  a hart  was 
miraculously  substituted  for  her,  and 
she  was  conveyed  in  a cloud  to  Tauris. 
She  became  priestess  here  to  ArtSmis, 
and  saved  her  brother  Orestes  when  on 
the  point  of  being  sacrificed. 

IPSWICH  (ip'sich),  a pari.,  county, 
and  municipal  borough  and  river-port 
in  England,  capital  of  Suffolk,  on  the 
Orwell.  Pop.  66,622. 

IQUIQUE  (i-ke'ka),  a seaport  of  Chile, 
province  of  Tarapaca,  a considerable 
town  with  an  important  trade,  its  rise 
being  due  to  the  extensive  deposits  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  borax,  and  the  silver- 
mines,  etc.,  in  its  neighborhood.  It  has 
suffered  much  from  earthquakes,  and  in 
1879  was  blockaded,  bombarded,  and 
finally  captured  by  Chile. 

IRADE  (i-ra'de) , a decree  or  command 
of  the  sultan  of  Turkey,  directed  to  the 
grand  vizier,  whose  duty  it  is  to  pro- 
mulgate it  to  the  public. 

IRAK  AJ'EMI,  an  interior  province  of 
Persia,  separated  from  the  Caspian  sea 
by  Ghilan  and  Mazanderan;  area,  about 
138,000  sq.  miles,  a large  part  of  which  in 
the  east  is  occupied  by  salt  deserts,  the 
rest  being  largely  mountainous,  with 
some  valleys  and  rich  plains.  The  chief 
towns  are  the  capital,  Teheran,  and 
Ispahan. 

IRELAND  (in  Irish,  Erin;  in  Latin, 
Hibernia),  the  more  western  and  smaller 
of  the  two  principal  islands  of  which  the 
United  Kingdom  is  composed,  is  sepa- 
rated from  Great  Britain  on  the  east  by 
the  Irish  sea,  and  surrounded  on  all 


IRELAND 


IRELAND 


other  sides  by  the  North  Atlantic  ocean. 
The  area  is  32,551  sq.  miles.  Ireland  is 
divided  into  the  four  provinces  of 
Leinster,  Ulster,  Munster,  and  Con- 
naught, and  into  32  counties. 

The  population  in  1841  was  8,175,124; 
in  1851,  6,552,385,  the  decrease  being 
partly  owing  to  the  famine  resulting 
from  the  potato  disease  in  1846-47,  and 
partly  to  emigration.  Since  1851  over 
3,800,000  emigrants  have  left  the  coun- 
try. Pop.  in  1891,  4,704,750;  in  1901, 
4,458,775.  The  capital  is  Dublin;  the 
other  chief  towns  are  Belfast,  Cork, 
Limerick,  and  Londonderry. 

The  coast,  forming  a line  of  nearly 
3000  miles,  is,  in  general,  bold  and 
rugged,  and  is  diversified  by  numerous 
indentations,  some  of  which  run  far  into 
the  land  and  form  excellent  natural 
harbors.  There  are  a considerable  num- 
ber of  islands,  chiefly  on  the  west  coast, 
the  largest  being  Achill.  The  moun- 
tains, generally  speaking,  rise  in  isolated 
masses  at  a short  distance  from  the 
coast,  the  interior  having  the  form  of  a 
vast  plain,  in  which  are  extensive  tracts 
of  bog.  Rivers  are  not  only  numerous 
but  are  very  equally  distributed  over 
the  surface.  The  Shannon,  in  the  west, 
the  largest  river  of  Ireland  if  not  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  is  navigable  to  its 
source  in  Lough  Allen,  forming  a water- 
way of  240  miles.  The  other  rivers  of 
most  importance  are  the  Bandon,  Lee, 
Blackwater,  Suir,  and  Barrow,  which 
enter  the  sea  on  the  south,  the  last  two 
by  the  union  of  their  streams  forming 
the  broad  estuary  of  Waterford  har- 
bor; the  Slaney,  in  the  southeast  angle, 
which  expands  into  Wexford  Haven;  the 
Liffey  and  the  Boyne,  entering  the  sea 
on  the  east,  the  former  having  the  capi- 
tal at  its  mouth,  the  latter  being  the 
largest  river  which  discharges  itself  into 
the  Irish  sea  on  the  east  coast;  and  the 
Bann  and  the  Foyle,  which  have  their 
mouths  at  no  great  distance  from  each 
other  on  tlie  north  coast.  Ireland  pos- 
sesses a vast,  number  of  lakes,  among 
which  the  lakes  of  Killarney,  in  the 
southwest,  are  pre-eminent  for  beauty, 
and  attract  numerous  visitors. 

Granite,  coal,  iron,  lead  ore,  slate, 
alum,  salt,  etc.,  are  found. 

The  climate  is  on  the  whole  moist, 
mild,  and  equable.  It  is  highly  favor- 
able to  vegetation  and  allows  plants  to 
winter  in  the  open  air;  some  species  of 
plants  also  being  peculiar  in  Ireland 
alone  of  the  British  isles,  as  for  instance 
the  strawberry-tree  or  arbutus,  found 
in  the  southwest. 

As  regards  agriculture  Ireland  has 
great  advantages,  for  though  there  is  a 
great  extent  of  moorland,  there  is  also 
a vast  area  of  arable  surface,  covered 
with  a deep  friable  loam  of  remarkable 
richness.  The  rearing  of  live  stock  and 
dairy-farming  are  largely  carried  on. 
By  far  the  largest  grain  crop  is  oats; 
the  chief  green  crop  is  potatoes.  An- 
other staple  crop,  especially  in  the  north, 
is  flax. 

Of  industrial  employments  the  linen 
manufacture  is  the  chief.  It  has  increased 
in  a remarkable  manner,  and  Belfast,  its 
center,  has  become  the  second  city 
of  Ireland.  The  brewing  of  porter  and 
distillation  of  whisky  form  important 
industries.  The  fisheries  employ  a con- 


siderable number  of  persons,  but  far 
fewer  than  they  should.  The  salmon 
fisheries  are  valuable,  and  are  increasing 
in  value.  The  trade  is  only  of  a moderate 
bulk.  The  railway  system  has  attained 
a total  length  of  3044  miles. 

The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic.  The  reformation  never  made 
much  progress,  and  though  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  was  estab- 
lished by  law  it  was  only  the  church  of  a 
small  minority.  In  1869  an  act  was 
assed  for  its  disestablishment.  At  the 
ead  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  are 
four  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bish- 
ops. The  whole  of  the  Irish  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  are  supported  solely 
by  voluntary  contributions.  The  num- 
ber of  priests  is  3200,  more  than  half 
being  curates.  There  are  numerous 
monasteries  and  convents.  The  Presby- 
terian Church  is  chiefly  confined  to 
Ulster,  where  it  may  be  said,  especially 
in  the  counties  of  Down  and  Antriui,  to 
be  the  leading  religious  denomination. 
Its  ministers  are  supported  by  voluntary 
contributions,  seat-rents,  and  church 
funds.  According  to  the  census  of  1901 
there  were  in  Ireland  3,308,661  Roman 
Catholics,  581,089  Episcopalians,  443,- 
276  Presbyterians,  62,006  Methodists, 
and  63,743  members  of  other  per- 
suasions. 

The  principal  educational  institutions 
are  Dublin  university  and  the  three 
Queen’s  colleges  of  Belfast,  Cork  and 
Galway.  The  Royal  college  of  science, 
established  in  1867,  supplies  a complete 
course  of  instruction  in  science  applica- 
ble to  the  industrial  arts.  The  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland,  established  in 
1854,  consists  of  University  college, 
Dublin,  St.  Patrick’s  college,  Maynooth, 
and  several  other  colleges.  The  semina- 
ries for  the  education  of  the  Catholic 
priesthood  are  numerous,  the  most 
prominent  being  the  College  of  May- 
nooth, founded  in  1795.  The  General 
Assembly’s  theological  college,  Belfast, 
and  the  Magee  college,  Londonderry, 
are  Presbyterian  colleges.  The  chief 
elementary  schools  are  those  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  commissioners 
of  national  education,  the  majority  of 
them  now  being  free. 

Ireland,  by  the  act  of  union,  became 
in  1801  an  integral  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  shares  in  its  legislation 
by  means  of  twenty-eight  representa- 
tive peers  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  103 
representatives  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  representative  peers  are  elected  for 
life  by  the  whole  body  of  Irish  peers. 
The  lord-lieutenant,  who  represents  the 
sovereign,  is  the  head  of  the  executive, 
and  holds  his  court  in  Dublin  castle. 
He  is  assisted  by  a privy-council  and  a 
chief-secretary,  who  takes  the  most 
active  part  in  the  administration  of 
affairs. 

The  beginning  of  the  history  of  Ire- 
land is  enveloped  in  fable.  As  in  west- 
ern Europe  generally,  the  earliest  in- 
habitants are  believed  to  have  been  of 
Iberian  race,  and,  therefore,  akin  to  the 
modern  Basques.  They  were  followed 
by  the  Celts,  different  tribes  of  whom 
probably  arrived  at  different  times, 
giving  rise  to  such  names  as  Firbolgs, 
Milesians,  etc.  Among  these  the  Scots 
were  the  latest,  and  latterly  got  the 


upper  hand,  so  that  their  name  became 
generally  applied  to  all  the  inhabitants. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Irish  had 
the  use  of  letters  before  the  middle  of 
the  5th  century,  wheruChristianity  and 
Christian  literature  wS-e  introduced  by 
St.  Patrick.  Subsequently  Ireland  be- 
came the  seat  of  western  learning;  and 
its  monasteries  were  the  schools  whence 
missionaries  proceeded  throughout  con- 
tinental Europe.  Its  internal  condition, 
however,  was  far  from  satisfactory. 
Divided  among  a number  of  hostile 
kings  or  chiefs,  it  had  been  long  torn  by 
internal  wars,  and  for  nearly  two  cen- 
turies ravaged  by  the  Danes,  numbers 
of  whom  settled  in  the  country,  when, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  11th  century, 
Brian  Boroimh6  united  the  greater  part 
of  the  island  under  his  scepter,  restored 
tranquility,  and  subdued  the  northern 
invaders. 

After  the  death  of  Brian  at  the  close 
of  the  battle  of  Clontarf,  1014,  gained 
against  the  Danes  and  their  Irish  allies, 
the  island  relapsed  into  its  former  state 
of  division  and  anarchy.  In  this  state  of 
matters  Henry  II.  of  England  obtained 
a papal  bull  giving  him  the  right  to  sub- 
due it.  In  1172  Henry  entered  Ireland 
himself,  and  the  clergy  and  the  great 
princes  acknowledged  his  supremacy. 
In  1315  Edward  Bruce,  brother  of  the 
Scotch  king,  landed  at  the  head  of  a 
large  force,  and  was  crowned  king,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  English  in  1317 
near  Dundalk.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century  the  greater  part  of  the 
island  still  remained  unconquered  by  the 
English.  The  native  Irish  lived  accord- 
ing to  their  old  customs  under  their 
own  chiefs,  and  in  manners  and  mode  of 
life  still  totally  uncivilized. 

In  1641  there  began  an  attempt  to 
shake  off  the  English  yoke,  in  which 
great  atrocities  were  perpetrated  on 
both  sides.  In  1649  Cromwell  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant,  and  energetically, 
but  cruelly,  reduced  the  whole  country 
within  nine  months.  The  next  struggle 
was  that  which  followed  the  revolution, 
when  James  II.  landed  in  1689,  and 
hoped  to  regain  his  crown  by  French 
and  Irish  aid.  In  the  following  year 
Q690)  William  III.  arrived,  and  on  the 
1st  of  July  gained  a decisive  victory  over 
the  forces  of  James  09  the  Boyne,  near 
Drogheda.  In  1691  another  victory  was 
gained  over  the  Irish  at  Aughrim  in  Gal- 
way, and  in  October  Limerick,  the  last 
place  that  held  out  for  James,  capitu- 
lated. 

The  French  revolution  had  a great 
effect  on  the  minds  of  the  Irish  people, 
and  it  was  partly  through  this  influence 
that  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen  was 
. formed,  and  that  rebellion  broke  out  in 
1798.  Great  atrocities  were  perpetrated, 
but  the  rising  was  speedily  crushed 

The  British  government  now  resolved 
to  unite  the  Irish  and  English  parlia- 
ments, and  an  act  providing  for  the 
legislative  union  of  the  two  countries 
passed  the  Irish  parliament  in  May, 
1800,  and  the  British  parliament  in 
July  of  the  same  year,  in  virtue  of  which 
the  union  was  effected  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1801.  In  1829,  mainly  through 
the  efforts  of  O’Connell,  the  Catholic 
emancipation  act  was  passed  under 
which  Catholics  could  take  a seat  in 


Ireland 


IRON 


parliament,  and  were  admitted  to  most 
public  offices.  (See  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion.) The  Irish  national  party  now 
tried  to  repeal  the  union,  for  which  pur- 
pose O’Connell  founded  the  repeal 
association.  Thi^novement  collapsed 
in  1843,  and  afterward  the  potato 
famine  in  1845,  and  again  in  1846,  cast 
all  other  interests  into  the  background. 
To  mitigate  this  calamity  parliament 
granted  enormous  sums  of  money,  yet 
thousands  died  from  starvation,  and 
hundreds  of  thousands  emigrated  to 
America. 

The  year  1865  witnessed  a new  con- 
spiracy designed  to  separate  England 
and  Ireland.  This  originated  in  the 
United  States,  when  the  numerous  Irish 
during  the  civil  war  in  that  country 
hoped  for  a rupture  between  it  and 
England,  of  which  they  might  take 
advantage.  This  conspiracy,  the  mem- 
bers of  which  called  themselves  Fenians 
(see  Fenians),  soon  spread  to  Ireland; 
but  before  they  could  take  any  overt 
action  in  that  island  their  design  was 
stifled  by  the  British  government  (1865- 
66).  The  ministry  resolved  to  render 
the  Irish  people  loyal  and  contented; 
and  accordingly  the  Irish  Episcopal 
Church  was  disestablished  in  1869,  and 
another  act  was  passed  to  improve  the 
tenure  of  land,  in  1870. 

Since  1871  an  agitation  for  what  is 
called  home  rule  has  made  itself  promi- 
nent. Its  chief  supporters,  designated 
“nationalists,”  profess  not  to  desire  the 
severance  of  Ireland  from  Britain ; what 
they  mainly  want,  is  to  have  an  Irish 
parliament  for  matters  exclusively  Irish. 
In  1880  Ireland  became  the  scene  of  an 
agitation  carried  on  mainly  by  a body 
known  as  the  land  league.  The  move- 
ment was  so  lawless  that  two  special 
acts,  a “coercion”  act  and  a peace  pres- 
ervation act,  were  passed.  Still  further 
to  redress  Irish  grievances  a land  act 
was  also  passed  in  1881,  the  chief  pro- 
visions of  which  have  already  been  men- 
tioned. The  land  league  was  sup- 
pressed, but  a body  called  the  national 
league  was  soon  organized  in  its  place. 
In  1885,  86  nationalist  members  (under 
the  leadership  of  Mr.  Parnell)  were  re- 
turned to  parliament,  and  their  pressure 
on  the  government  led  to  Mr.  Glad- 
stone’s scheme  in  1886  by  which  Ire- 
land was  to  receive  a parliament  of  her 
own  and  the  Irish  members  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  imperial  parliament. 
This  and  the  accompanying  scheme 
for  the  buying  out  of  Irish  landlords 
were  rejected  by  parliament  and 
the  majority  of  the  constituencies, 
thus  bringing  a conservative  govern- 
ment under  Lord  Salisbury  into  power. 
A permanent  act  for  the  repression  of 
crime  was  passed  in  1887,  and  an  act 
(Lord  Ashbourne’s)  for  the  benefit  of 
Irish  tenants.  A home  rule  bill  passed 
the  Commons  but  not  the  Lords  in  1893. 
The  local  government  act  of''’1898 
established  local  councils  similar  to 
those  in  Great  Britain.  The  land  pur- 
chase act  of  1903  is  intended  to  put  an 
end  to  dual  ownership,  by  enabling 
tenants  to  buy  their  farms. 

The  Irish  language  belongs  to  the 
Gaelic  or  Gaedhelic  branch  of  the  Celtic 
stem  of  languages,  being  closely  akin  to 
the  Gaelic  of  Scotland  and  the  Manx, 


and  more  remotely  allied  to  the  British 
dialects  (Welsh,  Cornish,  and  Armoric). 
The  modern  dialects  or  varieties  of 
Irish,  which  differ  very  much  from  the 
ancient,  are  spoken  by  the  rural  classes 
in  Connaught  and  Munster,  and  parts 
of  Ulster.  Gaehc  is  a comparatively 
modern  form  of  Irish,  which,  both 
linguistically  and  from  the  extent  and 
antiquity  of  its  literature,  is  far  more 
important  than  Gaelic. 

Irish  literature  is  rather  varied  and  ex- 
tensive, including  history,  legendary 
and  actual,  in  prose  and  verse,  annals, 
genealogies,  and  pedigrees,  mytho- 
logical and  imaginative  tales,  lyric 
poetry,  satire,  fives  of  saints,  treatises 
on  law,  science,  grammar,  etc.  Some 
of  these  may  be  as  old  as  the  5th  century 
of  our  era. 

IRELAND,  John,  an  American  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  archbishop  of  St.  Paul. 
He  is  a native  of  County  Kilkenny, 
Irela);id,  and  was  born  Sept.  11,  1838. 
At  eleven  years  of  age  he  settled  at 


St.  Paul  with  his  parents,  was  edu- 
cated in  France,  and  entered  the  priest- 
hood in  1861.  Having  served  as  chap- 
lain during  the  civil  war  Dr.  Ireland 
became  coadjutor  of  St.  Paul  in  1875, 
was  made  bishop  in  1884  and  arch- 
bishop in  1888.  He  has  been  prominent 
as  a liberal  Roman  Catholic,  has  inter- 
ested himself  in  national  politics  as  a 
republican  and  has  been  several  times 
mentioned  as  a candidate  for  cardinal. 

IRETON,  Henry,  a parliamentary 
general,  was  born  in  Nottinghamshire 
in  1610.  When  the  civil  contest  com- 
menced he  joined  the  parliamentary 
army,  and  by  the  interest  of  Cromwell, 
whose  daughter  Bridget  he  married 
in  164^  he  became  commissary-gen- 
eral. lie  commanded  the  left  wing  at 
Naseby,  which  was  defeated.  He  was 
an  implacable  enemy  of  the  king,  had 
a principal  hand  in  framing  the  or- 
dinance for  his  trial,  and  sat  himself 
as  one  of  the  judges.  Ireton  accom- 
panied Cromwell  to  Ireland  in  1649, 
and  was  left  by  him  as  lord-deputy. 
He  deduced  the  natives  to  obedience 
with  great  vigor,  but  cruelly.  He  died 


of  the  plague  before  the  walls  of  Lim- 
erick, 1651,  and  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey  1652. 

IRIDIUM,  a metal  of  a whitish  color, 
not  malleable,  discovered  in  the  black 
scales  which  remain  when  native 
platinum  is  dissolved  in  aqua  regia; 
specific  gravity  about  22.4,  symbol  Ir. 
It  takes  its  name  from  the  variety  of 
colors  it  exhibits  while  dissolving  in 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  the  most  in- 
fusible of  metals.  It  forms  a number  of 
alloys,  one  of  which,  iridosmine,  occurs 
native.  The  alloy  with  gold  is  malleable 
and  much  resembles  gold  hi  appearance, 
that  with  copper  is  very  hard,  pale  red 
in  cqlor,  and  ductile. 

I'RIS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  fleet, 
golden-winged  messenger  of  the  Olym- 
pian gods.  Iris  was  originally  the  per- 
sonification of  the  rainbow,  though  she 
does  not  appear  as  such  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  She  is  represented  with  wings 
attached  to  her  shoulders  and  a herald’s 
staff  in  her  left  hand,  representative  of 
her  office  of  messenger. 

IRIS,  the  muscular  curtain  stretched 
vertically  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  eye, 
perforated  by  and  forming  the  colored 
circle  around  the  pupil. 

IRIS,  a plant  that  gives  name  to  the 
natural  order  Iridacese,  and  is  also 
called  flag  and  fleur-de-fis.  The  plants 
of  the  genus  Iris,  some  of  which  are 
medicinal  and  others  merely  orna- 
mental, are  found  in  many  localities  over 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  They 
usually  grow  in  wet  places,  bearing 
flowers  of  various  colors,  but  the  pre- 
vailing tint  is  blue.  Orris-root  consists 
of  the  root-stock  of  some  species,  as 
I.  florentina;  and  the  root-stock  of  this 
and  other  species  are  cathartic  or 
emetic. 

IRISH  SEA,  the  sea  between  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  north  of  St, 
George’s  channel  and  south  of  the 
North  channel,  130  miles  long  and 
about  60  miles  wide.  It  contains  the 
islands  of  Anglesey  and  Man. 

IRI'TIS,  inflammation  of  the  iris  of 
the  eye.  The  symptoms  of  iritis  are  a 
zone  of  a pale  pink  color  round  the 
cornea,  formed  by  vessels  traversing 
the  sclerotic ; and  the  iris  itself  under- 
goes a remarkable  change  of  color.  The 
patient  experiences  pain  in  the  orbit 
of  the  eye,  in  the  forehead,  and  side  of 
the  head,  which  frequently  grows  more 
intense  at  night.  Iritis  may  arise  from 
wounds  in  the  iris,  from  tod  prolonged 
continuous  use  of  the  eye,  or  from 
constitutional  predisposition  induced 
by  syphilis,  scrofula,  etc.  It  may  be 
treated  according  to  circumstances  by 
blood-letting,  belladonna,  and  mer- 
cury. 

IRKUTSK',  a town  in  Southern 
Siberia,  capital  of  government  of  same 
name,  at  the  junction  of  the  Irkut  with 
the  Angara,  about  40  miles  from  Lake 
Baikal.  Pop.  51,434. — The  govern- 
ment has  an  area  of  309,190  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  540,535. 

IRON,  the  most  universally  distrib- 
uted and  . the  most  generally  applied 
of  all  the  metals.  It  is  the  most  tena- 
cious of  the  metals,  having  a breaking 
strain  of  106,000  lbs.  per  sq.  inch  of 
section;  and  two  pieces  can  be  per- 
fectly welded  together  when  raised  to  a , 


iron-bark 


IRON  Mask 


white  heat.  It  is  so  ductile  that  it  can 
be  drawn  into  wire  as  fine  as  the  human 
hair.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  the  earth’s 
crust  in  combination  with  oxygen,  but 
it  is  also  found  in  combination  with 
several  other  elements,  and  sometimes, 
although  rarely,  native  or  in  the  metallic 
state. 

It  is  from  one  or  other  of  its  ores  that 
the  iron  of  commerce  is  obtained.  The 
ores  of  iron  are  very  numerous,  but  the 
oxides,  carbonates,  and  sulphides  are 
the  most  important. 

Before  the  ores  pass  into  the  smelter’s 
hands  they  are  subjected  to  the  prelim- 
inary process  of  calcination  or  roasting. 
The  object  of  this  operation  is  to  sepa- 
rate water,  carbonic  acid,  sulphur,  and 
other  volatilizable  substances  from  the 
ore,  and  at  the  same  time  to  render  the 
ore  more  porous.  This  is  now  generally 
effected  by  placing  the  ironstone  over 
a coal-fire  at  the  bottom  of  a kiln ; when 
the  ore  is  red-hot  a fresh  layer,  8 or  9 
inches  in  depth  and  mixed  with  coal, 
is  added,  and  so  on  until  the  kiln  is 
filled.  When  the  bottom  layer  is  cold 
it  can  be  withdrawn,  and  the  process 
thus  becomes  continuous. 

The  smelting  of  the  iron  is  the  next 
process,  that  is,  the  production  of  the 
metallic  iron  from  the  ore.  Until  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  char- 
coal was  exclusively  used  for  iron- 
smelting, but  coal  and  coke  have  now 
taken  its  place,  except  in  those  countries 
where  forests  still  abound  and  charcoal 
can  be  procured  readily  and  cheaply. 
Chief  among  iron-smelting  appliances 
is  the  blast-furnace,  and  the  great  prog- 
ress made  in  the  production  of  pig-iron 
is  largely  due  to  better  constructed  fur- 
naces. 

To  obtain  malleable  or  wrought  iron, 
it  is  necessary  to  free  the  pig-iron  from 
the  sulphur,  phosphorus,  silicon,  and 
excess  of  carbon  it  contains,  as  these 
substances  lessen  the  tenacity  of  the 
iron,  and  render  it  unfit  for  rolling  into 
bars  or  plates.  But  a small  quantity  of 
carbon  (under  1 per  cent)  is  essential  to 
the  formation  of  good  malleable  iron; 
perfectly  pure  iron  would  be  too  soft. 

By  the  Siemens  regenerative  and 
other  similarly  constructed  furnaces, 
'malleable  iron  and  steel  are  now  pre- 
pared directly  from  the  ore.  In  recent 
years  “malleable  castings”  have  been 
introduced. 

If  iron  is  heated  frequently  or  care- 
lessly, it  ceases  to  be  fibrous  and  loses 
its  tenacity;  it  is  then  said  to  be  burnt. 
To  restore  it  to  its  original  condition,  a 
fresh  and  very  careful  forging  is  gener- 
ally needed.  This  may  also  be  done  by 
heating  the  piece  of  iron  to  bright  red- 
ness, and  plunging  it  into  a boiling 
saturated  solution  of  sea-salt  until  it 
is  of  the  same  temperature,  about 
230°  Fahr.  After  this  operation  the 
metal  can  be  easily  doubled  in  the 
cold. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  the  line 
between  iron  and  steel,  and  many 
varieties  of  metal  come  into  the  market 
under  the  name  of  steel  which  in  reality 
are  alloys  of  iron  with  other  metals, 
such  as  wolfram,  manganese,  chrome, 
etc.  It  is  admitted  by  all  metallurgists 
that  one  of  the  characteristics  of  true 
steel  is  that  it  hardens  when  heated 


'{ 

and  then  suddenly  cooled  in  water; 
but  wolfram  steel,  for  instance,  exhibits 
the  very  opposite  property.  Expe- 
rienced workmen  can  distinguish  iron 
from  steel  by  the  musical  note  emitted 
on  striking.  A more  certain  method 
consists  in  treating  the  metal  with 
diluted  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid.  If  the 
surface  remains  unaltered,  or  nearly  so, 
when  touched  with  a drop  of  either  acid, 
the  metal  is  iron;  in  the  case  of  steel  a 
black  mark  will  be  left,  owing  to  the 
liberation  of  carbon. 

Pure  iron  is  a silver  white  metal, 
with  a strong  lustre,  very  tenacious, 
capable  of  receiving  a high  polish,  and 
so  soft  as  to  be  easily  cut  with  a knife. 
It  may  be  obtained  by  heating  nitride  of 
iron  in  a stream  of  hydrogen,  or  by 
electrolytic  precipitation;  but,  accord- 
ing to  Matthiessen,  however  metallic 
iron  is  obtained  it  always  contains  a 
trace  of  sulphur.  In  its  chemical  anal- 
ogies iron  is  closely  related  to  the 
metals  cobalt,  nickel,  and  chromium; 
it  belongs  to  the  hexad  group  of  metals, 
and  forms  a large  series  of  salts.  The 
atomic  weight  of  iron  is  55.9  or  56.  Iron 
dissolves  slowly  in  dilute  nitric  acid; 
if  not  diluted,  this  acid  rapidly  oxidizes 
it.  Dilute  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  this 
metal  easily,  but  if  concentrated,  it 
has  no  action  in  the  cold,  whereas,  on 
heating  to  ebullition,  the  iron  is  dis- 
solved with  evolution  of  sulphurous 
acid  gas.  Iron  is  also  dissolved  in 
hydrochloric  acid  and  in  aqua  regia, 

IRON-BARK,  an  Australian  tree 
growing  to  the  height  of  100-150  feet, 
with  heavy,  strong,  and  durable  timber, 
difficult  to  work  and  apt  to  be  “shaky.” 

IRON-CLADS,  see  Navy. 

IRON-CLAD  VESSELS,  or  ARMOR- 
CLAD-VESSELS,  a term  applied  in 
England  to  all  vessels  protected  from 
the  fire  of  heavy  guns  by  thick  plates  of 
iron  orsteel,usuallybackedby wood.  The 
iron-elad  is  comparatively  a modern  in- 
vention, and  it  was  not  until  1859  that 
Britain  began  to  introduce  such  vessels 


A,  Iron  plating,  b.  Teak  backing, 
c,  Ship’s  side. 

into  her  navy;  but  since  that  time  greater 
changes  have  taken  place  in  the  con- 
struction of  war-ships  than  in  all  pre- 
vious ages.  Before  the  19th  century  we 
have  no  record  of  vessels  being  fortified 
with  iron  plates,  and  the  idea  was  first 
practicallv  applied  to  some  floating 
batteries  by  the  French  in  the  Crimean 
war.  The  improved  shells  played  such 
havoc  in  the  crowded  ’tween  decks  of 
the  line-of-battle  ships  then  in  use,  that 
some  extra  protection  became  absolutely 
necessary.  The  first  iron-clad.  La  Gloire, 
was  constructed  by  the  French  in  1858, 
a wooden  ship  sheathed  from  end  to 
end  in  4j-in.  iron  plates,  an  armor  then 


considered  invulnerable.  It  was  evident 
that  Britain  must  not  only  take  up  the 
idea  of  the  French,  but  also  improve 
upon  it,  and  this  led  to  a period  of  un- 
exampled activity  in  the  naval  yards  of 
both  countries.  No  sooner  had  France 
launched  an  - iron-clad  than  Britain  re- 
plied with  another,  although  the  former 
managed  to  keep  the  lead  for  some 
years.  The  first  British  iron-clad,  the 
Warrior,  was  launched  in  the  Thames  in 
December,  1860,  an  iron  frigate  with 
air-tight  compartments,  4i-in.  iron 
armor  and  18-in.  wood  backing,  the  two 
ends  of  the  vessel  unprotected.  The 
French  continued  to  build  their  vessels 
of  wood  for  some  years,  while  the  British 
started  at  once  with  iron,  which  gave 
the  advantage  of  extra  lightness  for  the 
same  strength  Iron-el  ads  may  be 
divided  into  the  three  chief  classes  of 
broadside,  turret,  and  barbette  vessels. 
La  Gloire  and  the  Warrior  carried  their 
guns  on  the  broadside  like  old  wooden 
frigates,  but  as  the  number  of  guns  car- 
ried was  reduced  as  ordnance  grew 
heavier,  and  all-round  firing  was  found 
expedient,  it  was  deemed  necessary  to 
limit  the  masses  of  armor  by  applying  it 
to  the  most  vulnerable  parts  only,  and 
adopting  various  methods  for  attaining 
all-round  firing.  This  brought  about  an 
entire  new  departure  in  ship-building— 
the  construction  of  turret  ships,  or  ships 
having  a revolving  covered  turret  or 
turrets  rising  above  the  deck  and  con- 
taining the  chief  guns,  the  turrets  being 
of  great  strength,  and  having  openings 
for  the  muzzles  of  the  guns.  The  turret- 
ship  is  the  invention  of  Ericsson  in 
1861-64  for  the  United  States  navy,  and 
the  advantages  of  his  system  were  fully 
demonstrated  in  the  successful  conflict 
of  the  turret-ship  Monitor  wdth  the 
broadside-ship  Merrimac,  in  the  Ameri- 
can civil  war.  Ships  on  the  barbette 
system  have  open  towers  or  turrets 
rising  above  the  deck,  containing  heavy 
guns  which  fire  over  the  edge  of  the 
turrets  (thus  giving  an  extensive  range). 
The  manner  in  which  the  armor  is  dis- 
tributed varies  greatly  in  different  ships. 
Battleships  are  of  the  first,  second,  or 
third  class,  according  to  their  value  as 
fighting-ships,  which  is  gauged  by  the 
extent  and  resisting  powers  of  their 
armor,  the  number,  range,  and  penetrat- 
ing power  of  their  guns,  their  maximum 
speed  and  radius  of  action.  It  generally 
follows  that  the  size  of  the  ship  is  great- 
est in  the  first  class  and  least  in  the  third 

IRON  MASK,  The  man  with  the, 
unknown  personage  kept  in  various 
French  prisons,  who  for  a long  time  ex- 
cited much  curiosity.  All  that  is  known 
of  him  is  that  he  was  above  middle 
height,  of  a fine  and  noble  figure,  and 
delicate  brownish  skin;  that  he  had  a 
pleasant  voice  was  well  educated,  and 
fond  of  reading  and  guitar  playing,  and 
that  he  died  in  the  Bastile  1703.  The 
mask  he  w'ore  seems  to  have  been  of 
black  velvet,  not  iron  Conjecture  has 
given  him  many  names.  He  was  stated 
to  be  in  turn  the  Count  of  'Vermandois 
(a  natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  de  la 
ValliSre),  the  Duke  of  Beaufort,  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  the  son  of  Anne  of 
Austria  (mother  of  Louis  XIV.)  by  some 
favorite,  and  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV. 


IRON  mountain 


IRVING 


but  all  these  assertions  have  been  un- 
able to  stand  the  test  of  thorough  in- 
vestigation. What  seems  most  probable 
is  that  he  was  Count  Birolamo  Matthioli, 
first  minister  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua, 
who  had  betrayed  the  interests  of  Louis 
XIV.  by  failing  to  secure  for  him,  as  he 
had  pledged  himself  to  do,  in  considera- 
tion of  a large  bribe,  possession  of  the 
fortress  of  Cassale,  which  gave  access  to 
the  whole  of  Lombardy.  For  this  offense 
the  court  of  Versailles  lured  him  to  the 
French  frontier,  secretly  arrested  and 
imprisoned  him  in  the  fortress  of  Pig- 
nerolo.  The  secret  was  preserved  so  care- 
fully, on  the  supposition  that  Matthioli 
was  the  ill-fated  prisoner,  because  his 
seizure  and  detention  were  flagrant 
violations  of  international  law. 

IRON  MOUNTAIN,  capital  of  Dickin- 
son CO.,  Mich.,  on  the  Menoninee  river 
and  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi., 
Mil.  and  St.  P.  railways;  208  miles 
n.  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.  It  has  large 
iron-mining  interests;  pop.  11,140. 

IRON  MOUNTAIN,  or  IRON  MOUNT, 
a famous  iron  mountain  in  St.  Francois 
CO.,  Mo.;  81  miles  s.w  of  St.  Louis.  It 
is  228  feet  high,  covers  500  acres,  is  of 
mammillary  shape,  and  consists  chiefly 
of  an  iron  ore  which  yields  55  or  60  per 
cent  of  excellent  iron.  The  amount  of 
ore  in  Iron  Mountain  seems  to  be  im- 
mense, the  main  body  having  a thick- 
ness of  50  feet,  and  continuing  indef- 
initely in  depth. 

IRONTON,  capital  of  Lawrence  co., 
Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  the  Cin., 
Day.  and  Iron.,  the  Iron,  and  the  Nor- 
folk and  West,  railways;  50  miles  s.w. 
of  Pomeroy;  145  miles  s.  by  e.  of  Cin- 
cinnati. It  is  in  an  iron  and  bituminous 
coal  region.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  machinery,  boilers,  foundry 
products,  rolled  iron,  nails,  stoves,  fire- 
brick, and  furniture  Pop.  13,255. 

IRONWOOD,  a city  in  Gogebic  co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Mil.,  Lake  S.  and  W.  and 
the  Wis.  Cent,  railways;  39  miles  e.  by  s. 
of  Ashland,  Wis.,  150  miles  w.  of  Mar- 
quette. It  is  in  the  celebrated  Gogebic 
iron-mining  region,  and  has  four  news- 
papers Pop.  11,750. 

IRON- WOOD,  a name  given  to  vari- 
ous trees  from  the  quality  of  their  tim- 
ber The  iron-wood  or  hop-hornbeam 
Qf  America,  is  a tree  with  a trunk  not 


exceeding  6 in.  in  diameter,  with  very 
hard  wood,  so  heavy  that  it  sinks  in 
water,  and  foliage  resembling  that  of 
birch. 

I'RONY,  a form  of  speech  in  which  the 
meaning  intended  to  be  conveyed  is 
contrary  to  the  natural  meaning  of  the 


words.  Irony,  as  a rhetorical  device, 
becomes  a most  effective  weapon  for 
ridiculing  an  antagonist. 

IROQUOIS  (i'ro-kwa),  the  joint  name 
given  by  the  French  to  a once  power- 
ful confederacy  of  six  North  American 
Indian  tribes  (Mohawks,  Oneidas,  Sen- 
ecas, etc.).  They  formerly  resided  on 
the  Mohawk  river,  and  extended  their 
conquests  to  the  Mississippi,  and  be- 
yond the  St.  Lawrence.  It  is  prob- 
able that  but  for  the  settlement  of  the 
whites  they  would  have  secured  do- 
minion from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Some  of  the  tribes  are  now 
extinct;  some  have  made  considerable 
advances  in  civilization,  while  others 
have  fallen  into  a state  of  squalid  misery. 
Part  of  the  Canadian  Indians  are 
Iroquois. 

IRRADIATION,  that  effect  on  the  eye 
through  which  brilliantly  illuminated 
white  surfaces  and  self-luminous  bodies, 
when  emitting  white  light,  appear  to 
the  eye  much  larger  than  they  really  are. 

IRRAWAD'DY,  Irawadi,  a large  river 
traversing  Lower  and  Upper  Burmah 
from  north  to  south,  falling  into  the 
Indian  ocean  by  various  mouths  and 
forming  a great  delta. 

IRRIGATION,  the  art  of  increasing 
the  productiveness  of  soils  by  the  arti- 
ficial supply  of  water  to  them.  This  is 
as  old  as  agriculture,  and  references  to  it 
exist  in  very  early  records,  especially  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  China.  In  countries 
with  very  small  rainfall,  and  subject  to 
droughts,  agriculture  without  irrigation 
would  be  uncertain  and  unprofitable. 
For  this  reason  the  British  government 
has  promoted  extensive  irrigation  works 
in  India,  and, although  financially  a loss, 
they  are  a great  boon  to  the  agricultural 
population,  and  do  much  to  mitigate 
those  famines  which  have  been  so  com- 
mon among  them.  In  Sind  80  per  cent 
of  the  cultivated  area  is  irrigated,  in 
the  United  (n.w.)  provinces  32  per  cent. 
The  greatest  irrigation-work  is  the 
Ganges  canal,  445  miles  long.  In  the 
south  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Italy 
and  Spain,  irrigation  works  of  a high 
order  have  existed  from  ancient  times, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  the  Romans  in- 
troduced similar  works  into  Britain, 
where  it  is  extensively  practiced  in  some 
parts  especially  for  the  growing  of 
grass.  In  California  and  elsewhere  in  the 
western  states  and  territories  of  America 
it  is  largely  employed  for  crops  also,  of 
various  kinds.  The  water  not  only  sup- 
plies the  moisture  so  necessary  to  vege- 
tation, but  it  fertilizes  the  soil  by  fur- 
nishing such  mineral  constituents  as 
salts  of  potash  and  soda,  sulphates  of 
lime,  soluble  silica,  etc.,  all  of  which  act 
on  the  soil,  especially  if  the  water  be 
rich  in  them,  like  a dressing  of  bone- 
manure.  Sewage  water  is  more  valuable 
than  pure  water,  from  the  large  amount 
of  putrified  animal  and  vegetable  matter 
it  carries,  and  the  drainage  of  many 
towns  finds  thus  profitable  application. 
There  are  various  systems  of  distribut- 
ing the  water  in  irrigation  to  suit  the 
special  requirements  of  different  sur- 
faces, positions,  and  uses  of  land. 

IRVING,  Sir  Henry  (originally  John 
Henry  Brodribb),  a celebrated  English 
actor,  born  in  1838.  After  playing  for 
nearly  three  years  in  Edinburgh  he  ap- 


peared at  the  Princess’  theater,  Lon- 
don, in  1859.  After  a short  stay  here, 
and  a few  months  in  Glasgow,  he  went 
to  Manchester,  where  he  remained  for 
five  or  six  years.  Having  returned  to 
London  in  1866  he  took  part  in  the 
Belle’s  Stratagem,  Hunted  Down,  Uncle 
Dick’s  Darling,  etc. ; but  his  first  marked 
success  was  as  Digby  Grant  in  Albery’s 
Two  Roses  (in  1870),  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  powerful  impersonation  of 
Mathias  in  The  Bells  (founded  on  Erck- 
mann-Chatrian’s  Polish  Jew).  His  next 
noteworthy  parts  were  Charles  I., 
Eugene  Aram,  and  Richelieu,  in  the 
plays  so  named.  In  1874,  at  the  Lyceum 
theater,  he  sustained  the  part  of  Ham- 
let so  successfully  as  to  raise  himself  to 
the  first  place  among  English  actors. 
His  chief  Shakespearean  parts  subse- 
quently played  are  Macbeth,  Othello, 
and  Richard  III.  In  1878  he  leased  the 
Lyceum  theater  for  himself,  and  has 
since  put  on  the  stage  in  excellent  style 
Othello,  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Much 
Ado  About  Nothing,  Romeo  and  Juliet, 
Twelfth  Night,  Faust,  Macbeth,  etc., 
playing  in  them  the  principal  ch^acter 
along  with  Miss  Ellen  Terry.  His  re- 
eated  visits  to  the  United  States  have 
een  very  successful.  Hehascontributed 
a few  papers  to  the  magazines  on  sub- 
jects connected  with  his  art,  and  has  de- 
livered addresses  at  Oxford  and  Har- 
vard universities.  He  was  knighted  in 
1895.  He  died  in  1905. 

IRVING,  Washington,  one  of  the  best 
American  writers,  born  in  New  York  3d 
April,  1783;  died  28th  November,  1859, 
at  Sunnyside,  on  the  Hudson.  In  1802 
his  Letters  of  Jonathan  Oldstyle  ap- 
peared in  the  New  York  Morning  Chroni- 
cle. Shortly  afterward,  he  sailed  for 
Europe,  visited  most  continental  coun- 


tries, and  did  not  return  to  .America  until 
March,  1806.  His  sketches  of  Dutch 
character,  in  his  Knickerbocker’s  His- 
tory of  New  York,  which  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  December,  1809,  proved  him 
possessed  of  quaint  and  genial  humor 
to  a high  degree.  In  1815  he  visited 
England  to  follow  literature  as  a pro- 
fession, and  settled  in  London.  A 
seriesof  papersentitledThe  Sketch  Book, 
first  published  at  New  York,  1818,  met 
with  such  success  that  an  enlarged  edi- 
tion was  published  in  London  two  years 
later.  For  seventeen  years  until  1832 


IRWIN 


ISLAND 


Irving  resided  in  Europe,  principally  in 
England,  France,  and  Spain.  This  was 
a period  of  great  literary  activity,  and 
brought  forth  some  of  his  most  famous 
works,  such  as  Bracebridge  Hall,  The 
Tales  of  a Traveler,  and  The  Life  of 
Columbus,  for  which  5,000,  7,500,  and 
15,000  dollars  respectively  were  paid 
him  by  the  publishers.  He  also  acted  for 
a time  as  secretary  to  the  American 
embassy  in  London,  and  the  University 
of  Oxford  honored  him  in  1831  with  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  Having  returned  to 
New  York  in  the  spring  of  1832  he  ac- 
companied the  expedition  for  the  re- 
moval of  the  Indian  tribes  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  and  collected  the  material 
for  his  Tour  on  the  Prairies,  published  in 
1835.  From  1842  to  1846  he  acted  as 
United  States  ambassador  at  Madrid, 
and  on  his  return  in  that  year  he  retired 
to  his  country-seat  at  Sunnyside.  His 
biography  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,  Mahom- 
med  and  his  Successors,  and  the  Life  of 
Washington  (1855-56)  occupied  his  last 
years.  Other  works  of  his  are:  The  Con- 
quest of  Granada,  Tales  of  the  Alham- 
bra, Legends  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain, 
Voyages  of  the  Companions  of  Columbus, 
Adventures  of  Captain  Bonneville,  and 
Astoria.  His  famous  story  of  Rip  van 
Winkle  belongs  to  the  Sketch  Book. 

IRWIN,  May,  American  actress,  born 
at  Whitby,  Ont.,  in  1862.  As  a star 
she  appeared  in  The  Widow  Jones,  The 
Belle  of  Bridgeport,  Madge  Smith, 
Attorney,  and  other  light  pieces. 

ISAAC  (Heb.  “he  will  laugh”),  one  of 
the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  the  son  of 
Abraham  by  Sarah,  so  called  to  denote 
the  laughter  and  gladness  occasioned  by 
his  birth.  He  is  remarkable  as  the  off- 
spring of  very  old  age,  Sarah  being 
ninety  and  Abraham  a hundred  years 
old  at  the  time  of  his  birth;  for  his 
miraculous  escape  from  death  as  a 
burnt-offering;  and  for  the  fraud  per- 
petrated upon  him,  at  his  wife  Rebecca’s 
instigation,  by  his  son  Jacob,  to  the  in- 
jury of  Esau.  He  died  at  Hebron  180 
years  old,  and  was  buried  in  the  cavern 
of  Machpelah,  the  resting-place  of  Sarah 
and  Abraham,  and  of  Rebecca. 

ISABELLA  OF  CASTILE,  daughter  of 
King  John  II.  of  Castile  and  Leon,  con- 
sort of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  was  born 
1451,  married  1469,  and  died  1504.  She 
was  a woman  of  great  charms,  courage, 
and  sagacity,  and  contributed  no  small 
share  to  the  many  remarkable  events  of 
the  reign  of  Ferdinand  V.,  including  the 
introduction  of  the  inquisition,  1480, 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus, 
1492,  and  the  final  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  after  the  conquest  of  Granada. 

ISABELLA  n.,  ex-queen  of  Spain, 
daughter  of  Ferdinand  III.,  was  born  in 
1830,  and  succeeded  her  father  three 
years  after,  her  mother  being  appointed 
queen-regent.  The  early  years  of  her 
reign  were  disturbed  by  a rising  in 
favor  of  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos,  who,  if 
the  Salic  law  had  not  been  set  aside, 
would  have  ascended  the  throne  instead 
of  her;  but  this  was  finally  quelled  in 
1839.  She  was  declared  of  age  in  1843, 
and  in  1846  was  married  to  her  cousin, 
Don  Francisco  d’ Assisi.  Her  reign  was 
so  despotic  that  a revolution  took  place 
in  1868,  which  drove  her  from  the  coun- 
try. She  resigned  her  claims  to  the 

P.  E.-43 


crown  in  favor  of  her  son  Alfonso,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1875.  She  lives 
sometimes  in  Spain,  sometimes  in  Paris. 

ISAIAH,  the  first  of  the  great  Hebrew 
prophets.  He  began  his  predictions  in 
the  last  -years  of  Uzziah’s  reign.  Of  his 
father,  Amoz,  w'e  know  nothing,  and  of 
the  circumstances  of  his  life  but  little. 
We  know,  however,  that  he  had  great 
influence  over  the  kings  and  people  of 
Judah,  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  died 
at  a good  old  age  at  Jerusalem,  at  the 
beginning  of  Manasseh’s  reign.  The  first 
portion  of  the  writings  that  pass  under 
his  name  consists  chiefly  of  declarations 
of  sins  and  threatenings  of  judgments, 
while  the  last  27  chapters,  together  with 
some  previous  ones,  hold  out  promises 
of  a glorious  future  for  Israel.  The 
style  throughout  is  clear  and  simple,  yet 
dignified  and  sublime  in  the  highest  de- 
gree. His  authorship  of  the  last  27 
chapters  is  denied  by  some  eminent 
critics,  who  unite  in  ascribing  them  to  a 
later  prophet,  perhaps  alsocalled  Isaiah, 
while  others  believe  that  the  name 
Isaiah  stands  for  a school  of  prophets ; 
but  the  integrity  of  the  book  has  still 
many  able  defenders. 

ISERE,  a department  of  southeastern 
France;  area,  3815  sq.  miles.  Grenoble 
is  the  capital.  Pop.  568,693. 

ISHMAEL,  the  son  of  Abraham  by 
Hagar.  He  married  an  Egyptian  wife, 
and  had  twelve  sons  and  X)ne  daughter, 
who  became  the  wife  of  Bsau.  He  died 
when  137  years  old.  It  was  predicted 
that  he  was  to  become  “a  great  nation,” 
and  the  Arabs,  especially  the  Bedouins, 
are  often  regarded  as  descendants  of 
Ishmael. 

ISHMAELITES,  ISMAELITES,  or  IS- 
MAELIENS,  a Mohammedan  sect  origi- 
nating in  the  1st  century  of  the  Hegira, 
and  deriving  its  name  from  Ishmael  or 
Ismael,  one  of  All’s  descendants.  From 
the  8th  to  the  12th  century  they  were 
powerful  in  the  east,  made  many  con- 
quests, and  under  various  chiefs  and 
names  distributed  themselves  over  Irak, 
Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt.  A small 
remnant  of  them  still  dwell  in  Syria. 
The  Assassins  (which  see)  were  a branch 
of  this  sect. 

ISH'PEMING,  a city  in  Marquette  co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Chi.  and  N.  W.,  and  the 
Duluth,  S.  Shore  and  Atlantic  railways, 
15  miles  w.s.w.  of  Marquette.  It  is  the 
center  of  the  great  Lake  Superior  iron- 
ore  region,  and  is  on  the  Marquette 
range,  the  most  productive  of  the  four 
iron  ranges.  Pop.  15,460. 

ISINGLASS,  a gelatinous  substance, 
of  which  the  best  kind  is  prepared  from 
the  swimming-bladder  or  sound  of  the 
sturgeon,  dried  and  cut  into  fine  shreds, 
while  the  American  article  is  obtained 
from  the  same  part  in  the  cod,  hake,  etc. 
It  is  the  basis  of  the  Russian  glue,  which 
is  preferredtoall  other  kinds  for  strength. 
A test  solution  is  also  prepared  from  it, 
by  means  of  which  tannic  acid  may  be 
distinguished  and  separated  from  gallic 
acid,  the  former  giving  it  a yellowish- 
white  precipitate.  Isinglass  boiled  in 
milk  forms  a nutritious  jelly,  and  a 
solution  in  water,  with  a very  small  pro- 
portion of  some  balsam,  spread  on  black 
silk,  is  the  court  plaster  of  the  shops. 
It  is  also  used  in  fining  sherries  and  other 
white  wines,  and  in  making  mock-pearls, 


stiffening  linens,  silks,  gauzes,  etc.  With 
brandy  ft  forms  a cement  for  porcelain 
and  glass. 

I'SIS,  the  principal  goddess  of  the 
Egyptians,  the  sister  and  wife  of  Osiris, 
representing  the  moon,  as  Osiris  did  the 
sun.  The  Egyptians  believed  that  Isis 
first  taught  them  agriculture,  and  as  the 
Greeks  offered  the  first  ears  gathered  to 
Ceres,  so  did  the  Egyptians  to  Isis.  She 
is  represented  under  various  forms.  In 


Isis. 


one  representation  she  has  the  form  of  a 
woman,  with  the  horns  of  a cow,  as  the 
cow  was  sacred  to  her.  She  is  also  known 
by  the  attributes  of  the  lotus  on  her 
head,  and  the  sistrum  in  her  hand,  a 
musical  instrument  which  the  Egypt- 
ians used  in  the  worship  of  the  gods. 
She  is  often  accompanied  by  her  infant 
son  Horus.  In  one  celebrated  Egyptian 
statue  she  was  shown  with  her  face 
veiled.  She  was  particularly  worshiped 
in  Memphis,  but  at  a later  period 
throughout  all  Egypt.  From  Egypt  her 
worship  passed  over  to  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  the  abuses  which  it  occas- 
ioned at  Rome  caused  its  frequent  pro- 
hibition there.  It  was,  however,  re- 
peatedly revived.  The  Romans  never 
considered  the  worship,  which  was  in- 
trodmeed  among  them  by  Sulla  (b.c.  86), 
altogether  reputable,  and  its  attendant 
immorality  was  vigorously  lashed  in  the 
satire  of  Juvenal. 

ISLAM  (is-lam),  that  is  complete  resig- 
nation and  submission  to  the  will  of  God, 
is  the  name  given  in  Arabic  to  the  religion 
originated  by  Mohammed.  The  funda- 
mental doctrine  of  Islamism,  and  the 
only  one  it  is  necessary  to  profess  to  be 
a Moslem,  is  expressed  in  the  common 
formula  of  faith:  “There  is  no  God  but 
Allah,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet,” 
to  which  the  Shiahs  or  Shiites,  that  is 
the  majority  of  Persian  and  Indian 
Moslems,  add  “and  Ali  is  the  vicar  of 
God.”  See  Mohammedanism. 

ISLAND,  a portion  of  land  entirely 
surrounded  by  water,  and  smaller  in  size 
than  the  great  masses  of  land  known 
as  continents.  Islands  are  of  all  sizes, 
from  mere  dots  of  land  or  rock  in  the 
sea  to  a great  mass  like  Australia,  which 
is  often  spoken  of  as  a continent.  Is- 
lands are  divided  into  two  distinct 
classes:  continental  islands,  lying  in 
proximity  to  continents,  and  pelagic  or 
oceanic,  from  their  position  in  the 
oceans.  Continental  islands  occur  along 
the  margin  of  the  continents,  and  are 
generally  of  the  same  geological  struc- 
ture. Pelagic  islands  are  mostly  of 
volcanic  or  coral  formation.  A cluster 


ISLE  OF  MAM 

of  islands,  such  as  the  West  Indies,  the 
Canaries,  the  Hebrides,  etc.,  are  called 
an  archipelago. 

ISLE  OF  MAN.  See  Man. 

ISLE  OF  PINES,  an  island  lying  south 
of  the  western  portion  of  Cuba,  to  which 
it  belongs,  40  miles  by  34,  with  good 
pastures  and  valuable  timber. 

ISLE  OF  WIGHT.  See  Wight. 

IS'LINGTON,  a mun.  and  pari, 
borough  in  the  north  of  London.  Pop. 
334,928. 

ISMAELITES,  a Mohammedan  sect. 
See  Ishmaelites. 

ISOBARTC  LINES,  lines  drawn  on  a 
map  or  globe  through  all  places  where 
the  barometer  is  at  the  same  height  at  a 
certain  time.  Telegraphic  communica- 
tion enables  these  lines  to  be  drawn 
with  some  accuracy. 

ISOCHEIMAL  LINES.  See  Isother- 
mal Lines. 

ISOCH'RONISM,  the  property  by 
which  a pendulum,  or  a balance-wheel, 
or  an  oscillating  particle  (as  of  air)  con- 
veying sound  vibrates  through  longer 
or  shorter  arcs  in  the  same  time  (or 
nearly  so).  Given  a certain  length  of 
spring,  all  the  vibrations,  large  or  small, 
are  isochronous.  If  the  spring  is  short- 
ened the  large  vibrations  take  place 
quicker  than  the  short  ones;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  the  spring  is  lengthened,  the 
small  arcs  are  performed  quicker  than 
the  large  ones.  For  small  oscillations  a 
endulum  is  almost  exactly  isochronous, 
ut  it  is  only  with  the  cycloidal  pendu- 
liun  that  perfect  isochronism  is  ob- 
tained. 

ISOCLINIC  LINES.  See  Isogonic  Lines. 

ISOGONTC  LINES,  lines  drawn  on  a 
map  through  all  places  where  the  de- 
clination of  the  magnetic  needle  is  the 
same.  Isoclinic  lines  are  drawn  through 
places  where  the  inclination  or  dip  of 
magnetic  needle  is  the  same;  the  zero 
isoclinic  line  drawn  through  places 
where  there  is  no  dip)  is  called  the 
magnetic  equator. 

ISOTHER'MAL  LINES,  lines  drawn  on 
a map  or  globe  through  places  which 
have  the  same  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture. (See  Climate.)  Isotheral  lines  are 
drawn  through  places  having  the  same 
mean  temperature  during  the  hottest 
month  of  the  year.  Isocheimenal  or 
isocheimal  lines  are  drawn  through 
places  having  the  same  mean  tempera- 
ture during  the  coldest  month  in  the 
year. 

ISPAHAN  (is-pa-hanO,  or  ISFAHAN, 
a very  ancient  city  of  Persia,  and  for 
centuries  its  capital,  in  the  province  of 
Irak-Ajemi,  on  the  river  Zendarud,  210 
miles  south  of  Teheran,  the  present 
Per  ian  capital.  It  was  once  one  of  the 
most  important  and  magnificent  cities 
in  the  east,  but  little  is  now  left  of  its 
former  splendor,  the  largest  part  of  the 
city  being  in  ruins.  Much  opium  is  grown 
in  the  neighborhood,  as  also  tobacco, 
madder,  etc.,  forming  important  articles 
of  trade.  Ispahan  is  the  emporium  of 
the  inland  commerce  of  Persia.  Pop. 
90,000. 

ISRAEL  and  Israelites.  See  Jews. 

ISSUE,  in  law,  the  point  or  matter 
depending  in  a suit  on  which  two  parties 
join  and  put  their  cause  to  trial.  It  is  a 
single,  definite,  and  material  point  issu- 
ing out  of  the  allegations  of  the  parties. 


and  consisting  regularly  of  an  affirmative 
and  negative.  It  is  either  an  issue  in 
law  to  be  determined  by  the  court,  or  in 
fact  to  be  ascertained  by  a jury. 
ISTAMBOL.  See  Constantinople 
ISTAR,  the  ancient  Babylonian  god- 
dess of  war  and  love. 


Mosque  of  Sultan  Hussein,  Ispahan. 


ISTHMUS,  in  geography,  a neck  of 
land  by  which  two  continents  are  con- 
nected, or  a peninsula  is  united  to  the 
mainland.  Such  as  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  connecting  North  and  South 
America 

IS'TRIA,  a peninsula  of  triangular 
form,  projecting  into  the  northeast  cor- 
ner of  the  Adriatic  sea,  part  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  dominions,  area  1900 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  344,173. 

ITALY,  a kingdom  in  Southern  Europe 
consisting  in  the  main  of  a large  penin- 
sula, having  a singular  resemblance  to 
a boot  in  shape,  stretching  southward 
into  the  Mediterranean,  but  also  includ- 
ing a considerable  portion  of  the  main- 
land and  the  islands  of  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
Elba,  Ischia,  Lipari  Islands,  etc.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  and  northwest  by 
the  Alps,  which  separate  it  from  Austria, 
Switzerland,  and  France,  and  on  the 
northeast  by  Austria;  elsewhere  it  is 
washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  or  the 
Adriatic,  an  arm  of  the  latter.  The  area 
is  about  114,000  sq.  miles.  For  adminis- 
trative purposes  it  is  divided  into  sixty- 
nine  provinces,  which  are  grouped  under 
sixteen  departments,  some  of  them  con- 
sisting of  only  a single  province. 

From  1861,  when  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  was  constituted  until  1865,  Turin 
was  the  capital,  Florence  was  then 
selected,  and  in  1871  Rome.  The  largest 
town  is  Naples;  next  in  order  are  Rome, 
Milan,  Turin,  Palermo,  Genoa,  Florence, 
Venice  Italy  now  possesses  Massowah 
and  other  territory  on  the  east  or  Red 
Sea  coast  of  Africa.  Pop.  32,475,263. 

Among  the  principal  physical  fea- 
tures of  Italy  are  the  Alps  on  its  northern 
frontiers,  and  the  chain  of  the  Apennines 
which  run  down  the  middle  of  the  penin- 
sulathrough  itswholelengthto  theStraits 
of  Messina,  while  numerous  branches  are 
thrown  off  laterally,  and  form  an  endless 
succession  of  wooded  hills,  olive-clad 
slopes,  and  fertile  valleys.  In  the  north. 


ITALY 

inclosed  between  the  ranges  of  the  Alps 
and  Apennines,  is  a vast  and  fertile  plain 
intersected  by  the  Po  and  its  tributaries. 
Two  active  volcanoes  belong  to  the  king- 
dom, Vesuvius  in  South  ItalyandEtnain 
Sicily.  The  only  river  of  any  magnitude 
is  the  Po,  which  has  a length  of  about  45 
miles  before  it  enters  the  Adriatic.  In 
the  peninsular  part  of  Italy  are  the  Arno, 
Tiber,  Garigliano,  Volturno,  etc.  There 
are  a number  of  lakes,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  Lake  Maggiore,  Lugano, 
Como,  and  Garda  in  the  Alpine  region; 
Lakes  Trasimeno,  Bolsena,  and  Albano 
in  the  Apennine  region.  Italy  is  rich  in 
useful  minerals,  but  the.  scarcity  of  coal 
prevents  the  full  development  of  mining 
industry.  Sulphur,  salt,  iron,  and  marble 
are  the  chief,  though  small  quantities  of 
lead,  copper,  zinc,  silver,  and  borax  are 
also  obtained. 

In  the  south  of  Italy  the  climate  re- 
sembles that  of  Africa,  being  dry  and 
burning  and  subject,  to  the  sirocco.  In 
the  northern  regions,  the  neighborhood 
of  the  Alps,  and  the  abundance  of  water- 
courses, serve  to  maintain  a pleasant 
temperature.  The  Riviera  or  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa  is  a favorite  winter  resort 
from  more  northern  regions. 

The  natural  productions  of  the  soil  of 
Italy  are  various.  In  the  Alpine  regions 
all  plants  belonging  to  temperate  climate 
flourish,  while  the  southern  regions  pos- 
sess almost  a tropical  flora.  Agriculture 
forms  thechief  support  of  the  population, 
and  the  land,  where  not  mountainous, 
is  generally  productive,  although  the  sys- 
tem of  culture  adopted  is  in  most  parts, 
defective,  and  large  areas  remain  untilled.. 
The  best  cultivation,  aided  by  an  excellent 
system  of  irrigation,  is  found  in  Lom- 
bardy, Venetia,  Piedmont,  Tuscany,, 
and  the  parts  of  Emilia  adjoining  the  Po. 
Most  kinds  of  cereals,  including  wheat,, 
rice  and  corn,  are  cultivated.  Hemp, 
madder,  flax,  tobacco,  hops,  saffron,  and 
in  the  extreme  south,  cotton  and  sugar- 
cane are  cultivated.  Fruitsarethe  object 
of  attention  everywhere ; and  in  the  culti- 
vation of  the  olive  in  particular  Italy 
surpasses  all  other  European  states.  The 
fruits  include  oranges  and  lemons  in  the 
warm  regions  of  the  south,  besides  fig,, 
peaches,  apricots,  almonds,  etc.  There  is 
a very  large  production  of  wine,  but  only 
a few  of  the  wines  have  any  reputation 
in  other  countries.  The  rearing  of  live- 
stock is  an  important  industry.  The 
cheese  of  Italy  is  famous,  especially  the 
Gorgonzola  and  the  Parmesan. 

Since  the  consolidation  of  the  Italian 
kingdom,  the  manufactures  of  the  coun- 
try have  made  considerable  advances. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  the  silk 
manufactures,  Italy  as  regards  the  pro- 
duction of  raw  silk  being  in  advance  of 
all  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  Lom- 
bardy, Piedmont,  and  Venetia  are  the 
great  centers  for  its  preparation.  The 
cotton  manufactures  are  centered  in 
Upper  Italy,  chiefly  in  Lombardy. 
Woolen  manufactures  are  chiefly  carried 
on  in  Upper  Italy.  In  the  iron  industry 
the  department  of  Lombardy  stands  at 
thehead;  more  particularly  the  provinces 
of  Brescia,  Como,  and  Milan.  Tanning, 
the  manufacture  of  linen,  of  paper,  gold 
and  silver  wares,  articles  in  bronze, 
musical  instruments,  the  making  of 
gloves,  boots  and  shoes,  felt  and  silk  hats 


ITALV 


ITALY 


iire  also  considerable  industries.  The 
manufacture  of  tobacco  is  a state  monop- 
oly. Of  special  repute  are  the  cameos  and 
mosaics  of  Rome,  Naples,  and  Florence; 
the  filigree  and  coral  work  of  Genoa ; the 
plaited  straw  and  the  earthenware  manu- 
factures of  Italy  generally. 

The  foreign  trade  is  mainly  with 
France  and  Algeria,  Great  Britain, 
Austria,  and  Germany.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  wheat,  raw  cotton,  and  cotton 
manufactures,  coal,  iron, and  machinery, 
wool,  sugar,  coffee;  the  chief  exports, 
raw  silk,  olive-oil,  wine,  fruits,  eggs, 
coral,  hemp,  marble,  rice,  sulphur.  The 
principal  ports  are  Genoa,  Leghorn, 
Messina,  Naples,  Palermo,  Venice,  Brin- 
disi, and  Catania.  The  total  length  of 
railways  opened  for  traffic  in  1903,  was 
9960  miles;  of  telegraph-lines,  24,346 
miles,  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole 
belonging  to  the  government. 

The  constitution  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy  is  a limited  monarchy,  based  upon 
the  fundamental  statute  granted  by 
King  Charles  Albert  to  his  Sardinian 
subjects  March  4, 1848.  The  king,  who  is 
hereditary,  exercises  the  power  of  legis- 
lation only  in  conjunction  with  a na- 
tional parliament,  consisting  of  two 
chambers.  The  first  chamber  is  called 
the  senate,  and  is  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  an  indefinite 
number  of  members  appointed  for  life 
by  the  king.  The  second  chamber  is 
called  the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  con- 
sists of  508  members,  who  are  elected  by 
a majority  of  all  the  citizens  above 
twenty-one  years  of  age  who  are  in  the 
enjoyment  of  civil  and  political  rights. 
Each  province  has  the  right  of  inde- 
pendent administration,  and  the  execu- 
tive power  is  intrusted  to  a provincial 
council.  In  each  province  the  power  of 
the  state  is  represented  by  a prefect, 
who  is  supported  by  a council.  The 
executive  power  of  the  state  is  exer- 
cised by  the  king  through  responsible 
ministers. 

All  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  are 
under  obligation  of  military  service 
from  their  twenty-first  to  the  end  of 
their  thirty-ninth  year.  The  strength  of 
the  standing  army  on  a war  footing  is  in 
all  793,113.  The  mobile  militia  number 
307,696,  and  the  territorial  militia 
2,222,637,  giving  a grand  total  for  the 
whole  military  service  of  3,323,446  men. 
Including  vessels  afloat  or  building,  the 
navy  numbered  14  battle-ships,  several 
of  the  newest  being  among  the  fastest 
and  most  powerful  yet  constructed  any- 
where. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  state 
religion,  but  all  other  creeds  are  tolerated 
and  adherents  of  all  religions  have  equal 
municipal  and  political  rights.  The 
pope  has  his  seat  at  Rome,  and  his 
palaces  of  the  Vatican  and  the  Lateran, 
and  his  villa  of  Castel  Gandolfo,  are  not 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  state.  In 
1861  the  law  annihilating  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  and  the  privileges  of  the 
clergy  was  extended  to  the  whole  of  the 
kingdom,  and  in  1866  a bill  was  passed 
for  the  suppression  (with  certain  ex- 
ceptions) of  religious  houses  throughout 
the  kingdom.  Elementary  education  is 
nominally  compulsory,  and  is  entirely 
supported  from  the  municipal  rates ; 
but  the  number  who  can  neither  read 


nor  write  still  remains  very  large.  For 
secondary  instruction  there  are  a large 
number  of  gymnasia  and  technical 
schools,  and  for  the  higher  education 
there  are  no  less  than  twenty-one  uni- 
versities, many  of  them  of  ancient  foun- 
dation, and  at  one  time  of  considerable 
renown. 

The  ancient  history  of  Italy  will  be 
found  under  Rome.  The  modern  history 
begins  with  476  a.d.,  when  Odoacer, 
chief  of  the  Herulians,  a German  tribe 
who  had  invaded  the  country,  was  pro- 
claimed king  of  Italy.  After  a reign  of 
twelve  years  he  and  his  followers  were 
overpowered  by  the  Ostrogoths  under 
Theodoric  the  Great.  The  Ostrogoths 
were  in  turn  subdued  by  Byzantine 
troops,  and  Italy  came  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  eastern  emperors,  who 
ruled  through  an  exarch  residing  at 
Ravenna.  In  568  the  Lombards  (Lan- 
gobardi),  a German  people  originally 
from  the  Elbe,  led  by  their  king,  Alboin, 
conquered  the  Po  basin,  and  founded  a 
kingdom  which  had  its  capital  at  Pavia. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  included 
Upper  Italy,  Tuscany,  and  Umbria, 
with  some  outlying  districts.  But  on 
the  northeast  coast  the  inhabitants  of 
the  lagoons  still  retained  their  independ- 
ence, and  in  697  elected  their  first  doge, 
and  founded  the  republic  of  Venice. 
(See  Venice.)  Ravenna,  the  seat  of  the 
exarch,  with  Romagna,  Rimini,  Ancona, 
and  other  maritime  cities  on  the  Adriatic 
and  almost  all  the  coasts  of  Lower  Italy, 
remained  unconquered,  together  with 
Sicily  and  Rome.  The  slight  dependence 
of  this  part  of  Italy  on  the  court  of 
Byzantium  disappeared  almost  entirely 
in  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century.  The 
power  of  the  pope,  though  at  first  recog- 
nized only  as  a kind  of  paternal  author- 
ity of  the  bishop,  grew  steadily  in  these 
troubled  times,  especially  in  the  struggle 
against  the  Lombard  kings.  In  con- 
sideration of  the  aid  expected  against 
King  Astolphus,  Pope  Stephen  III. 
(754)  not  only  anointed  the  king  of  the 
Franks,  Pepin,  but  appointed  him 
patrician  or  governor  of  Rome.  In  re- 
turn Pepin  presented  the  exarchate  of 
Ravenna,  with  the  five  maritime  cities, 
to  the  pope,  thus  laying  the  foundation 
of  the  temporal  power  of  the  holy  see. 
At  the  invitation  of  Pope  Hadrian  I. 
Charlemagne  made  war  upon  Desiderius, 
the  king  of  the  Lombards,  took  him 
prisoner  in  his  capital,  Pavia  (774),  and 
united  his  empire  with  the  Frankisk 
monarchy.  Italy,  was  the  exception  of 
the  Duchy  of  Benevento  and  the  re- 
publics of  Lower  Italy,  thus  became  a 
constituent  of  part  the  Frankish  mon- 
archy, and  the  imperial  crown  of  the 
west  was  bestowed  on  Charlemagne 
(800).  On  the  breaking  up  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  empire  Italy  became  a separate 
kingdom,  and  the  scene  of  strife  between 
Teutonic  invaders.  At  length  Otto  the 
Great  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome 
(961),  and  the  year  after  became  em- 
peror of  what  was  henceforth  known  as 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

During  the  following  centuries  the 
towns  and  districts  of  North  and  Middle 
Italy  gradually  made  themselves  inde- 
pendent of  the  empire,  and  either  formed 
themselves  into  separate  republics  or 
fell  under  the  power  of  princes  bearing 


various  titles,  A large  part  of  Middle' 
Italy  at  the  same  time  was  under  the 
dominion  of  the  popes,  including  the' 
territory  granted  by  Pepin,  which  was^ 
afterward  enlarged  on  several  occasions^ 
In  South  Italy  there  were  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne  several  independent  states. 
In  the  9th  century  this  part  of  the  penin- 
sula, as  well  as  Sicily,  was  overrun  by 
Saracens,  and  in  the  11th  century  by 
Normans,  who  ultimately  founded  a 
kingdom  which  embraced  both  Lower 
Italy  and  Sicily,  and  which,  though  it 
more  than  once  changed  masters,  con- 
tinued to  exist  as  an  undivided  king- 
dom till  1282.  In  that  year  Sicily  freed 
herself  from  the  oppression  of  the  then 
rulers,  the  French,  by  the  aid  of  Pedro  of 
Aragon  (see  Sicilian  Vespers),  and  re- 
mained separate  till  1435.  It  was  again 
separate  from  1458  to  1504,  when  both 
divisions  were  united  with  the  cro'wn  of 
Spain.  With  Spain  the  kingdom  re- 
mained till  1713,  when  Naples  and  Sicily 
were  divided  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
the  former  being  given  to  Austria,  the 
latter  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  In  1720 
they  were  again  united  under  Austria, 
but  in  1734  were  conquered  from  Austria 
and  passed  under  the  dominion  of  a 
separate  dynasty  belonging  to  the 
Spanish  house  of  Bourbon.  See  Sicilies, 
Kingdom  of  the  Two. 

The  history  of  mediaeval  Italy  is  much 
taken  up  with  the  party  quarrels  of  the 
Guelfs  and  Ghibellines,  and  the  quarrels 
and  rivalries  of  the  free  republics  of 
Middle  and  Upper  Italy.  In  Tuscany 
the  party  of  the  Guelfs  formed  them- 
selves into  a league  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  national  freedom  under  the 
leadership  of  Florence:  only  Pisa  and 
Arezzo  remained  attached  to  the  Ghibel- 
line  cause.  In  Lombardy  it  was  different. 
Milan,  Novara,  Lodi,  Vercelli,  Asti,  and 
Cremona  formed  a Guelf  confederacy, 
while  the  Ghibelline  league  comprised 
Verona,  Mantua,  Treviso,  Parma,  Pia- 
cenza, Reggio,  Modena,  and  Brescia. 
Commercial  rivalry  impelled  the  mari- 
time republicstomutual  wars.  AtMeloria 
the  Genoese  annihilated  (1284)  the  navy 
of  the  Pisans,  and  completed  their  do- 
minion of  the  sea  by  a, victory  over  the  : 
Venetians  at  Curzola.  (1298).  See  Popes,, 
Genoa,  Florence,  etc. 

Up  till  the  time  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  Italy  remained  subject  to  foreign 
domination,  or  split  up  into  separate 
republics  and  principalities.  The  dif- 
ferent states  were  bandied  to  and  fro  by 
the  chances  and  intrigues  of  war  and 
diplomacy  between  Austria,  Spain,  and 
the  House  of  Savoy.  During  the  career 
of  Napoleon  numerous  changes  took 
place  in  the  map  of  Italy,  and  according 
to  an  act  of  the  congress  of  Vienna  in 
1815  the  country  was  parceled  out 
among  the  following  states: — (1)  The 
Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  consisting  of  the 
island  of  Sardinia,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont, 
to  which  the  Genoese  territory  was  now 
added.  (2)  Austria,  which  received  the 
provinces  of  Lombardy  and  Venetia, 
these  having  already  been  acquired  by 
her  either  before  or  during  the  time  of 
Napoleon.  (3)  The  Duchy  of  Modena. 
(4)  The  Duchy  of  Parma.  (5)  The 
Grand-duchy  of  Tuscany.  (6)  The 
Duchy  of  Lucca.  (7)  The  States  of  the 
Church.  (8)  The  Kingdom  of  the  Two 


ITCH 


ITO 


Sicilies.  (9)  The  Republic  of  San  Marino 
(10)  The  Principality  of  Monaco.  The 
desire  for  unic.n  and  independence  had 
long  existed  in  the  hearts  of  the  Italian 
people,  and  the  governments  at  Naples, 
Rome,  Lombardy,  and  other  centers  of 
tyranny  were  in  continual  conflict  with 
secret  political  societies.  The  leading 
spirit  in  these  agitations  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  19th  centurywas  Giuseppe 
Mazzini,  who  in  the  end  contributed 
much  to  the  liberation  of  his  country. 
The  French  revolution  of  1848  brought 
a crisis.  The  population  of  Lombardy, 
Venetia,  Parma,  and  Modena  took  up 
arms  and  drove  the  Austrian  troops  in 
retreat  to  Verona.  Charles  Albert,  King 
of  Sardinia,  then  declared  war  against 
Austria,  and  was  at  first  successful,  but 
his  forces  were  severely  defeated  at 
Novara  (March,  1849),  when  Charles 
Albert  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  so.i 
Victor  Emmanuel.  Meanwliile  the  pope 
had  been  driven  from  Rome,  and  a 
Roman  republic  had  been  established 
under  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi,  the  leader 
of  the  volunteer  bands  of  Italian  pa- 
triots. Rome  was,  however,  captured  by 
the  French,  who  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
pope  (July,  1849),  who  resumed  his 
power  in  .4.pril,  1850,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  French,  and  the  old  absolut- 
ism was  restored.  Similar  attempts  at 
revolution  in  Sicily  and  Naples  were 
also  crushed,  but  the  secret  societies  of 
the  patriots  contin^ied  their  operations. 
In  1859,  after  the  war  of  the  French  and 
Sardinians  against  Austria,  the  latter 
power  was  compelled  to  cede  Lombardy 
to  Sardinia,  and  in  the  same  year 
Romagna,  Modena,  Parma,  and  Pia- 
cenza were  annexed  to  that  kingdom, 
which  was,  however,  obliged  to  cede  the 
provinces  of  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 
In  the  south  the  Sicilians  revolted,  and 
supported  by  a thousand  volunteers, 
with  whom  Garibaldi  sailed  from  Genoa 
to  their  aid,  overthrew  the  Bourbon 
government  in  Sicily.  Garibaldi  was 
proclaimed  dictator  in  the  name  of 
Victor  Emmanuel.  In  August  Garibaldi 
crossed  to  Naples,  defeated  the  royal 
army  there,  drove  Francis  II.  to  Gaeta, 
and  entered  the  capital  on  the  7th  Sep- 
tember. Sardinia  intervened  and  com- 
pleted the  revolution,  when  Garibaldi, 
handing  over  his  conquests  to  the  royal 
troops,  retired  to  Caprera.  A plebiscite 
confirmed  the  union  with  Piedmont, 
and  Victor  Emmanuel  was  proclaimed 
king  of  Italy,  thus  suddenly  united 
almost  in  Mazzini’s  phrase,  “from  the 
Alps  to  the  sea.”  Only  the  province  of 
Venice  and  the  Roman  territory  still 
remained  outside.  The  former  was  won 
by  Italy’s  alliance  with  Prussia  in  1866 
ag.ainst  Austria.  The  temporal  power 
of  the  pope  was  still  secured  by  French 
troops  at  Rome,  till  the  French  garrison 
was  withdrawn  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Franco-German  war  in  1S70,  when 
Italian  troops  took  ])o.5.se  'sion  of  tlm  city 
in  name  of  King  Victor  Em’nanuel.  On 
30th  June,  1871,  the  sea;  .T  government 
was  formally  removed  from  Florence  to 
Rome.  In  1878  Victor  Emmanuel  died, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Humbert 
I.  In  1900  Humbert  was  assassinated, 
and  his  son  Victor  Emmanuel  HI. 
ascended  the  throne.  For  some  years 
Italy  has  been  in  league  with  Austria 


and  Germany,  an  alliance  Intended  to 
preserve  the  peace  of  Europe. 

The  Italian  language  is  one  of  the 
Romance  tongues,  or  tongues  derived 
from  the  Latin,  and  is  therefore  a 
sister  of  French,  Spanish,  and  Portu- 
guese. The  oldest  monuments  of  Italian 
literature  go  little  further  back  than  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century.  The 
great  luminary  of  this  period,  and  by 
far  the  greatest  poetic  genius  which 
Italy  has  produced,  was  Dante  (1265- 
1321).  (See  Dante.)  Francesco  Petrarca 
(Petrarch;  1304-74),  another  of  the 
great  lights  of  Italian  literature,  ex- 
hibits in  his  sonnets  and  canzoni  a vein 
less  profound  and  transcendental  than 
Dante’s,  but  more  humanly  tender  and 
passionate.  Boccaccio  (1313-75),  a writer 
of  great  erudi'.ion  and  fertility,  who  pro- 
duced classical  translations,  biographies, 
poems,  etc.,  is  Italy’s  first  great  story- 
teller. His  great  work  is  the  Decamer- 
one,  a collection  of  a hundred  tales. 

During  the  15th  century  the  intel- 
lectual energy  of  Italy  was  almost  en- 
tirely absorbed  in  the  study  of  the 
ancient  classics.  This  period  is  known  as 
the  renaissance,  or  the  revival  of  arts 
and  letters. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury the  renaissance  movement  per- 
fected itself  in  every  kind  of  art.  In  his- 
tory the  most  noted  names  are  Machia- 
celli,  (1469-1527),  and  Francesco  Guic- 
viardini  (1482-1540).  Among  the  great 
poets  of  the  period  are  Lodovico  Ariosto 
(1474-1533),  author  of  Orlando  Furioso, 
a romantic  epic,  written  in  continuation 
of  the  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Boiardo, 
and  Torejuato  Tasso  (1544-9.5),  whose 
Gerusalemme  Liberata  is  Italy’s  chief 
heroic  poem.  Among  the  lyrists  of  this 
century  we  may  mention  Guidiccioni  of 
Lucca,  Pietro  Bembo,  Michelangelo 
Buonarroti,  and  Vittoria  Colonna,  Ben- 
venuto Cellini  (1500-70)  the  famous 
artist  in  metal,  whose  autobiography  is 
one  of  the  most  instructive  lights  on  the 
^irit  and  manners  of  the  age,  and 
Giordano  Bruno  (1550-1600),  a bold 
speculator  and  undaunted  champion  of 
lioerty  of  thought.  Of  exceptional  power 
was  Alessandro  Tassoni  (1565-1635), 
who  wrote  the  Secchia  Rapita,  a bur- 
lesque epic,  and  unquestionably  the 
most  important  poetical  production  in 
Italian  of  the  17th  century.  The  most 
eminent  names  of  this  period  are  those 
of  scientific  and  philos^hic  writers. 
Among  the  former  are  Galileo  Galilei 
(1564-1642),  Torricelli  (1698-1647), 
Viviani  (1622-1703);  among  the  latter 
are  Tommaso  Campanella  (1568-1639), 
and  Gia.mbassista  Vico  (1668-1744). 
.A.mcng  historians  the  names  of  Sarpi, 
Davila,  Bentivoglio,  and  Pietro  Gian- 
none  deserve  mention. 

About  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
a complete  revolution  took  place  in 
Iialian  literature,  which  was  preceded 
and  accompanied  by  a general  elevation 
of  public  life.  The  influence  of  English 
and  German  literature  began  to  com- 
municate a more  healthy  tone  to  the 
n;-‘!unal  literature.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  centurj'  the  writings  of  the  publicists 
Gaetano  Filangieri  and  Cesare  Beccaria 
indicate  the  growth  of  a social  science 
under  the  cover  of  treatises  on  legislation 
and  penal  laws. 


Prom  the  intellectual  and  political 
ferment  which  arose  about  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century  Italy  in  particular 
recevied  a much-needed  stimulus.  Ales- 
sandro Manzoni  (1784-1883)  has  given 
Italy  a few  lyrics  of  the  first  rank,  but  the 
work  which  has  most  contributed  to 
give  him  the  high  place  he  holds  in 
literature  is  his  novel,  I Promessi  Sposi. 
An  equally  high,  if  not  a higher  place,  is 
due  to  the  poetry  of  Leopardi.  His 
prose  is  among  the  best  that  Italy  has 
produced.  The  historico-political  writ- 
ings of  Vincenzo  Gioberti  (1801-52)  and 
Giuseppe  Mazzini  (1805-72)  contributed 
powerfully  to  stimulate  the  national 
feeling  and  to  shape  the  coTirse  of  events. 
In  history  proper  Amari  (I  Vespri  Sicili- 
ani),  Gino  Capponi  (Republica  di 
Firenze),  Ricotti,  Zamboni,  and  others 
are  the  best  known  names.  Among  later 
and  contemporary  authors  we  may 
notice  the  poet,  critic,  and  essajdst 
Giosue  Caraucci;  and  Francesco  de 
Sanctis  (1818-86),  the  Sainte-Beuve  and 
Matthew  Arnold  of  Italy.  Ruggero 
Bonghi,  a biographer  and  essayist  of 
superior  rank  and  a frequent  contributor 
to  the  periodicals;  Edmondo  de  Amicis, 
a descriptive  writer  of  considerable 
power;  Angelo  de  Gubernatis,  a writer  of 
literary  biographies,  etc.,  are  among  the 
best  known  writers  of  the  day. 

ITCH,  a contagious  cutaneous  disease, 
appearing  in  small  watery  pustules  on 
the  skin,  accompanied  with  uneasiness 
or  irritation  that  inclines  the  patient  to 
rub  or  scratch.  It  is  occasioned  by  a 
small  insect,  which  burrows  within  the 
epidermis;  and  is  cured  by  sulphur, 
which  should  be  applied  externally  in 
the  form  of  ointment,. 

ITCH-MITE,  a microscopic  insect  of 
the  class  Arachnida,  which  produces  itch 
in  man.  The  female  burrows  in  the  skin, 
in  which  she  deposits  her  eggs,  which  are 
hatched  in  about  ten  days,  giving  rise  to 
this  troublesome  affection. 

ITHACA,  a city  and  county-seat  of 
Tompkins  co.,  N.  Y.,  60  miles  southwest 
of  Syracuse,  at  the  head  of  Ca3ruga  lake, 
and  on  the  Lackawanna,  the  Lehigh 
Valley,  and  other  railroads.  Cornell 
university  is  situated  on  Cornell  heights 
about  400  feet  above  the  cit3''.  Ithaca  is 
in  a productive  farming  region.  Its  coal 
trade  is  extensive,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  castings,  machinery,  agricul- 
tural implements,  guns,  calendar  clocks, 
salt,  glass,  wall-paper,  etc.  Pop.  16,460. 

ITO  (e'to),  Hirobumi,  Marquis  Japan- 
ese statesman,  born  in  the  province  of 
Choshin  in  1840.  He  eluded  the  vigilance 
of  the  Yedo  spies  and  spent  two  years  in 
England.  He  returned  to  Japan  to  dis- 
suade the  Choshin  officers  from  war  with 
the  combined  fleet  of  British,  United 
States,  French,  and  Dutch  men-of-war 
at  Shimonoseki.  In  1871  he  studied  the 
coinage  system  of  the  United  States  and 
his  report  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  a 
decimal  system  of  money  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  mint  at  Osaka.  As  one 
of  the  Nice  ambassadors  he  accompanied 
Iwakena  round  the  world  in  1872,  in  an 
effort  to  obtain  from  the  powers  some 
modification  of  the  treaties.  In  1886  the 
cabinet  was  reconstructed  according  to 
modern  ideas.  Ito  became  minister- 
president  of  state.  For  many  years  he 
superintended  the  reconstruction  of  law 


IVAN 


JACKAL 


and  the  formation  of  codes  no  longer 
based  on  Chinese  models,  but  in  harmony 
with  those  in  Christendom.  He  per- 
suaded the  court  to  adopt  foreign  dress. 
Ito  introduced  a new  constitution  more 
liberal  in  its  provisions,  than  some  Euro- 
pean governments  allow.  Called  to  the 
premiership  again  in  1892,  he  carried  the 
nation  through  the  Chino-Japanese  war 
of  1894-95.  He  was  again  summoned  by 
the  emperor  to  the  premiership,  and 
under  his  direction  Japan  joined  the 
allies  in  the  rescue  of  the  legations  in 
Peking.  He  visited  the  United  States  on 
his  way  to  Europe  in  1901,  received  the 
degree  of  LL  D.  from  Yale  university, 
and  was  everywhere  welcomed  and 
recognized  as  one  of  the  profoundest 
constructive  statesmen  of  modern  times. 
Again  called  to  the  premiership  he 
guided  the  nation  through  the  Russian- 
Japanese  war  of  1904-5.  In  1904  he 
was  the  emperor’s  special  envoy  in  Ko- 
rea to  consummate  the  alliance  of  the 
two  countries.  He  died  in  1906. 

I'VAN,  or  IWAN,  the  name  of  several 
rulers  distinguished  in  Russian  history. 
— Ivan  III.  (or  I.),  grand-prince  of  Mos- 
cow, was  born  1440,  ascended  the  throne 
1462,  died  1505.  He  greatly  enlarged 
his  hereditary  possessions,  and  married 
Sophia,  niece  of  the  last  Byzantine  em- 
peror, thus  introducing  the  double- 


' J,  the  tenth  letter  in  the  English  alpha- 
bet, and  the  seventh  consonant.  The 
sound  of  this  letter  coincides  exactly 
with  that  of  g in  genius.  It  is  therefore 
classed  as  a palatal,  and  is  the  voiced 
sound  corresponding  to  the  breathed 
sound  ch  (as  in  church) . The  sound  does 
not  occur  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and  was  in- 
troduced through  the  French.  As  a 
character  it  was  formerly  used  inter- 
changeably with  i,  and  the  separation  of 
these  two  letters  in  English  dictionaries 
is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 


American  Jabiru. 

JABALPUR  (ja-bal-p6r),  Jubbulpore, 
a town  of  Hindustan,  capital  of  Jabal- 
pur district.  Central  Provinces.  Pop. 
90,316.  The  district  has  an  area  of 
3918  sq.  miles,  a pop.  of  748,146.  A 
division  or  commissionership  of  the 
Central  Provinces  has  also  the  same 


headed  Byzantine  eagle  into  the  Russian 
coat  of  arms.  He  was  the  first  that  bore 
the  title  of  Czar  of  Great  Russia,  and  pro- 
claimed the  unity  and  the  indivisibility 
of  the  Russian  dominions. — Ivan  IV. 
(or  II.),  grandson  of  the  former,  was  born 
1530,  succeeded  in  1534,  was  crowned  in 
1547,  died  1584.  His  atrocities  gained 
him  the  name  of  The  Terrible.  Yet  he 
did  much  to  civilize  and  improve  his 
people,  introduced  learned  men,  artists, 
and  mechanics  into  Russia,  and  con- 
cluded a commercial  treaty  with  Eng- 
land. He  killed  his  eldest  son  in  a fit  of 
rage. 

IVORY,  the  osseous  matter  of  the 
tusks  of  the  elephant,  and  Of  the  teeth  or 
tusks  of  the  hippopotamus,  walrus,  and 
narwhal.  Ivory  is  esteemed  for  its  beau- 
tiful white  or  cream  color,  its  hardness, 
the  fineness  of  its  grain,  and  its  suscepti- 
bility of  a high  polish.  That  of  the  Afri- 
can elephant  is  most  esteemed  by  the 
manufacturer  for  its  density  and  white- 
ness. The  medium  weight  of  an  ele- 
phant’s tusk  is  60  lbs.,  but  some  are 
found  weighing  170. 

IVORY,  Vegetable.  See  Ivory-palm. 

IVORY-BLACK,  a fine  kind  of  soft 
black  pigment,  prepared  from  ivory 
dust  by  calcination,  in  the  same  way  as 
bone-black. 

IVORY  COAST,  part  of  the  coast  of 


J 

name.  It  has  an  area  of  19,040  sq. 
miles,  a pop.  of  2,375,642. 

JAB'IRU,  a name  of  wading  birds  of 
the  crane  kind,  resembling  the  stork, 
and  inhabiting  South  America,  Africa, 
and  Australia. 

JACAMAR',  a genus  of  brilliant  birds 
nearly  allied  to  theking  fishers,  differing, 
however, by  the  form  of  their  beaks  and 


Jacamar. 


feet.  They  live  in  damp  woods,  and  feed 
on  insects.  Most  if  not  all  are  natives  of 
tropical  America. 

JAC'ANA,  the  common  name  of  gral- 
latorial  orwading  birds,  having  long  toes 
with  very  long  nails,  so  that  they  can 
stand  and  walk  on  the  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants  when  in  search  of  their  food, 
which  consists  of  worms,  small  fishes, 
and  insects.  They  inhabit  marshes  in 
hot  climates,  and  somewhat  resemble 
the  moorhen,  to  which  they  are  very 
closely  allied. 

JAC'KAL,  an  animal  of  the  dog  genus 
reseinbling  a dog  and  a fox,  a native  of 


West  Africa,  now  giving  name  to  a 
French  colony  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea. 

IVORY-NUTS.  See  Ivory-palm. 

IVORY-PALM,  a low-growing,  palm- 
like plant,  order  Pandanacese,  native  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  South  America.  It 
has  a creeping  caudex  or  trunk,  terminal 
pinnatifid  leaves  of  immense  size,  male 
and  female  flowers  on  different  plants,  and 
fruit  in  the  form  of  a cluster  of  drupes, 
weighing  about  25  lbs.  when  ripe.  Each 
drupe  contains  6 to  9 seeds,  as  large  as  a 
hen’s  egg,  the  albumen  of  which  when 
ripe  is  close-grained  and  very  hard,  re- 
sembling the  finest  ivory  in  texture  and 
color.  It  is  therefore  often  wrought  into 
buttons,  knobs  for  doors  or  drawers, 
umbrella  handles,  and  other  articles,  and 
is  called  vegetable  ivory.  The  seeds  are 
also  known  as  Corozo-nuts,  and  are  ex- 
ported in  considerable  qualities 

IVY,  a climbing  plant.  The  leaves  are 
smooth  and  shining,  varying  much  in 
form  from  oval  entire  to  three  and  five 
lobed;  and  their  perpetual  verdure  gives 
the  plant  a beautiful  appearance.  The 
flowers  are  greenish  and  inconspicuous, 
disposed  in  globose  umbels,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  deep  green  or  almost  blackish 
berries.  The  ivy  attains  a great  age,  and 
ultimately  becomes  several  inches  th'ck 
and  capable  of  supporting  its  own  stem. 


Asia  and  Africa.  The  general  color  is  a 
dirty  yellow.  The  jackal  is  gregarious. 


Mexican  jacana. 


hunting  in  packs,  rarely  attacking  the 
larger  quadrupeds.  They  feed  chiefly  on 


Black-backed  jackal. 


carrion,  and  are  nocturnal  in  habits. 
The  jackal  interbreeds  with  the  common 
dog,  and  may  be  domesticated. 


JACK-A-LANTERN 


JACOBINS 


JACK-A-LANTERN.  See  Ignis  Fatuus. 

JACKASS,  Laughing.  See  Laughing 
Jackass. 

JACKDAW,  a common  bird  of  the  crow 
family,  smaller  than  the  rook,  having  a 
comparatively  short  bill  and  whitish 
eyes ; hinder  part  of  the  head  and  neck  of 
a grayish  color,  back  and  wings  glossy 


Jackdaw. 


black.  The  average  Ifength  is  about  12 
inches.  The  nests  are  built  in  towers, 
spires,  and  like  elevated  situations,  and 
often  in  towns.  The  eggs,  from  five  to 
six,  are  of  a greenish  color.  Its  food  con- 
sists of  worms,  insects,  and  larvae.  Like 
their  neighbors  the  rooks,  they  are  gre- 
garious. They  are  readily  domesti- 
cated, and  may  be  taught  to  pronounce 
words  distinctly.  Like  the  magpies, 
they  have  attained  a notoriety  for  thiev- 
ing. 

JACKSON,  a flourishing  town  in 
Michigan,  76  miles  west  of  Detroit,  an 
important  railway  center,  with  coal- 
mines, foundries,  engine-works,  various 
manufactures,  and  the  state  prison. 
Pop.  28,000. 

JACKSON,  a town  in  Tennessee,  with 
a baptist  university  and  trade  in  cotton. 
Pop.  16,400. 

JACKSON,  the  capital  of  Mississippi, 
on  the  Pearl  river,  45  miles  east  of 
Vicksburg,  with  a handsome  state  house. 
Pop.  9,100. 

JACKSON,  Andrew,  president  of  the 
United  States  from  1829  to  1837,  was 
born  in  South  Carolina  in  1767,  his 
father,  by  origin  a Scotchman,  having 


died  before  his  birth.  In  his  fourteenth 
year,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  American 
revolution,  he  joined  a regiment  of 
volunteers  to  fight  in  the  cause  of  in- 
dependence. After  losing  two  brothers 
jn  the  struggle,  he  retired  from  military 


service  and  devoted  himself  to  law.  He 
became  a judge  of  the  supreme  court, 
representative  of  Tennessee  in  congress, 
and  senator.  When,  in  1812,  war  was 
declared  against  England,  he  was  made 
major-general  of  the  Tennessee  militia. 
In  1813  he  defeated  the  Creek  Indians, 
who  were  wasting  the  country  with  fire 
and  sword,  and  made  himself  master 
of  Pensacola.  While  engaged  in  the  de- 
fense of  New  Orleans,  he  established  his 
military  reputation  by  his  repulse  of  the 
British  there  in  1815.  From  1817-18 
he  was  employed  against  the  Seminole 
Indians.  In  1828  and  again  in  1832 
he  was  elected  president,  and  the 
eight  years  during  which  he  held  his 
office  were  marked  by  the  rapid  exten- 
sion of  democratic  tendencies.  In 
1837  he  retired  to  his  estate  in  Tennessee, 
and  there  he  died  in  1845. 

JACKSON,  Charles  Thomas,  Ameri- 
can scientist,  born  at  Plymouth,  Mass., 
in  1805.  He  spent  three  years  studying 
in  Paris,  varied  by  occasional  trips  to 
Germany  and  Italy.  He  was  state 
geologist  of  Maine  in  1836,  of  Rhode 
Island  in  1839,  and  of  New  Hampshire 
in  1840.  He  claimed  to  be  the  discoverer 
of  the  anjEsthetic  properties  of  ether, 
which  involved  him  in  a dispute  with 
Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton.  His  claim  was 
supported  by  many  Boston  physicians, 
and  a committee  appointed  by  the 
French  academy  of  sciences  to  investi- 
gate the  matter  decided  that  both  men 
were  entitled  to  recognition.  He  died 
in  1880. 

JACKSON,  Helen  Fiske  Hunt,  Ameri- 
can poet  and  novelist,  known  by  the 
pen-name  of  “H.  H.”  was  born  at  Am- 
herst, Mass.,  in  1831.  In  1870  she  pub- 
lished a voliune  of  “Verses  by  H.  H.,” 
which  was  widely  read.  From  this 
time  her  pen  was  constantly  employed. 
The  most  important  of  her  works  are 
the  novels  Mercy  Philbrick’s  Choice, 
Hetty’s  Strange  History  and  Ramona. 
She  also  wrote  books  for  children.  Sev- 
eral posthumous  volumes  were  brought 
out  shortly  after  her  death  among  them 
Sonnets  and  Lyrics.  She  died  in  1885. 

JACKSON,  Thomas  Jonathan,  better 
known  as  Stonewall  Jackson,  an  Ameri- 
can general,  born  in  1824  in  Virginia. 
In  1842  he  entered  the  military  academy 
at  West  Point  as  cadet.  Four  years  later 
he  received  a second-lieutenant’s  com- 
mission, and  was  engaged  in  the  Mexi- 
can war,  and  for  his  gallantry  was  made 
a captain,  and  afterward  raised  to  the 
rank  of  major.  In  1852  he  resigned  his 
commission  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  artHlery 
tactics  in  the  military  institute  at  Lex- 
ington, Virginia.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  civil  war  in  1861  he  entered  the 
southern  army  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. He  commanded  the  re- 
serve at  Bull’s  Run,  and  acquired  his 
cognomen  of  “Stonewall”  by  the  firm- 
ness of  his  troops  and  his  own  coolness  in 
the  heat  of  the  action.  By  the  end  of  the 
year  he  was  made  major-general.  In 
June,  1862,  he  was  defeated  by  General 
Banks  at  Cross  Keys,  but  made  a mas- 
terly retreat.  In  August  he  gained  the 
second  battle  of  Bull’s  Run,  and  cap- 
tured Harper’s  Ferry  in  September. 
In  the  same  month  he  supported  Lee  at 
Antietam,  and  again  at  Fredericksburg 


in  December.  In  1863  he  took  a promi- 
nent part  in  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville.  On  the  evening  of  the  battle  he 
died  of  wounds  inadvertently  received 
from  his  own  men,  9th  May,  1863.  He 


• ‘Stonewall"  Jackson. 


was  a man  of  indomitable  energy  and 
deep  religious  feeling. 

JACKSONVILLE,  a town  in  Illinois,  on 
a fertile  prairie,  near  a small  affluent  of 
Illinois  river.  It  has  some  elegant  public 
buildings,  and  various  educational  and 
charitable  institutions,  including  the 
Illinois  college,  and  state  asylums  for 
the  blind,  insane,  and  deaf  and  dumb. 
Pop.  18,400. 

JACKSONVILLE,  a tovm  in  Florida, 
the  principal  port  on  the  river  St.  John, 
25  miles  from  its  mouth,  with  an  active 
steamboat  traffic  and  a large  trade  in 
lumber,  cotton,  etc.  Pop.  1909,  62,000. 

JACOB,  the  son  of  Isaac,  and  the 
grandson  of  Abraham,  the  last  of  the 
Jewish  patriarchs,  and  the  true  ancestor 
of  the  Jews.  Having  craftily  obtained 
from  the  blind  and  infirm  Isaac  the 
blessing  of  the  first-born  in  place  of  his 
brother  Esau,  he  was  obliged  to  flee 
from  the  anger  of  his  brother,  and  took 
up  his  abode  with  his  uncle  Laban.  Here 
he  served  twenty  years,  and  obtained 
Leah  and  Rachel  as  his  wives.  On  his 
return  to  Canaan  he  was  met  by  an 
angel,  with  whom  he  wrestled  all  night, 
and  having  gained  the  victory  was 
thereafter  named  Israel,  that  is,  the 
hero,  of  God.  Hence  the  Hebrews  from 
him  are  called  Israelites.  A severe  blow 
to  him  in  his  old  age  was  the  loss  of  his 
favorite  son  Joseph,  whose  brothers  had 
sold  him  to  Ishmaelite  merchants,  and 
led  Joseph  to  believe  that  he  had  been 
devoured  by  wild  beasts.  Joseph  subse- 
quently became  the  highest  officer  at 
the  court  of  Pharaoh  in  Egypt,  and  thus 
was  the  means  of  bringing  the  whole 
house  of  his  father  to  that  country. 
Jacob  died,  aged  147  years,  approxi- 
mately about  1860  b.c.,  and  according 
to  his  wish  was  buried  in  the  tomb  of 
Abraham,  before  Mamre  in  Canaan. 

JACO'BEAN  ARCHITECTURE,  a 
term  applied  to  the  later  style  of  Eliza- 
bethan architecture  from  its  prevailing 
in  the  time  of  James  I.  (L.  Jacobus, 
James).  It  differed  from  the  pure 
Elizabethan  chiefly  in  having  a greater 
admixture  of  debased  Italian  forms. 

JAC'OBINS,  the  most  famous  of  the 
clubs  of  the  first  French  revolution. 
When  the  states-general  assembled  at 
Versailles  in  1789,  it  was  formed  and 
called  the  Club  Breton.  On  the  removal 
of  the  court  and  national  assembl}'  to 
Paris  it  acquired  importance  and  rapidly 
increased.  It  adopted  the  name  of 
Soci6t6  des  .\mis  de  la  Constitution,  but 


••'Tf 


; JACOBITES 


JAMAICA 


as  it  met  in  a hall  of  the  former  Jacobin 
convent  in  Paris,  it  was  called  the 
Jacobin  Club.  It  gradually  became  the 
controlling  power  of  the  revolution,  and 
spread  its  influence  over  France,  1200 
branch  societies  being  established  before 
1791,  and  obeying  orders  from  the  head- 


Jacobean  archltecture-Waterstonhall, Dorset. 


quarters  in  Paris.  In  1791  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Journal  de  la  Soci6t6  des 
Amis  de  la  Constitution  increased  the 
zeal  and  number  of  the  societies.  The 
Jacobins  were  foremost  in  the  insur- 
rectionary movements  of  June  20  and 
August  10,  1792;  they  originated  the 
formidable  commune  de  Paris,  and 
changed  their  former  name  to  Les  Amis 
de  la  Liberty  et  de  l’Egalit6.  For  a 
while  they  ruled  supreme,  and  the  con- 
vention itself  was  but  their  tool.  Robes- 

Eierre  was  their  most  influential  mem- 
er;  they  ruled  through  him  during  the 
reign  of  terror,  and  were  overthrown 
f after  his  downfall  in  1794.  In  that  year 
' the  convention  forbade  the  affiliation  of 
f societies;  the  Jacobin  club  was  sus- 
^ pended  and  its  hall  was  closed.  The 
r term  Jacobin  is  now  often  used  to  desig- 
[ nate  anyone  holding  extreme  views  in 
- politics. 

JAC'OBITES,  Monophysite  Christians 
in  the  east,  who  were  united  by  a 
Syrian  monk,  Jacobus  Bardai  (578), 
_ during  the  reign  of  Justinian,  into  a 
- distinct  religious  sect.  The  Jacobites,  so 
styled  from  their  founder,  consist  of 
about  30,000  or  40,000  families,  and  are 
governed  by  two  patriarchs,  appointed 
by  the  Turkish  governors,  one  of  whom, 
with  the  title  of  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch 
has  his  seat  at  Diarbekir;  the  other  re- 
sides in  a monastery  near  Mardin,  under 
the  style  of  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem. 
Circumcision  before  baptism  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  single  nature  of  Christ 
(hence  their  name  monophysites)  are 
common  to  them  with  the  Copts  and 
Abyssinians;  but  in  other  respects  they 
deviate  less  than  the  other  monophy- 
sites from  the  discipline  ana  liturgy  of 
the  orthodox  Greek  Church. 

JACQUARD  (zhak-ar),  Joseph  Marie, 
the  inventor  of  the  famous  machine  for 
figured  weaving  named  after  him,  was 
■ born  at  Lyons  in  1752.  The  subsequent 
prosperity  of  Lyons  is  largely  attribut- 


able to  his  invention,  and  a more  en- 
lightened generation  erected  a statue  to 
him  on  the  very  spot  where  his  loom  was 
publicly  destroyed.  He  died  in  1834. 

JACQUARD  LOOM,  a form  of  loom, 
the  characteristic  of  which  is  a contriv- 
ance appended  to  it  for  weaving  figured 
goods  in  various  colors.  See  Weaving. 

JAFFA  (anciently  Joppa),  a maritime 
town  in  Palestine,  31  miles  northwest  of 
Jerusalem,  picturesquely  situated  upon 
an  eminence  the  port  of  Nablus  and 
Jerusalem,  with  which  latter  it  is  now 
connected  by  railway.  Pop.  about 
30,000. 

JAGANNATHA  (jag-an-nat'ha),  often 
written  Juggernaut,  the  name  given 
to  the  Indian  god  Krishna,  the  eighth 
incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  to  a very 
celebrated  idol  of  this  deity  in  a temple 
specially  dedicated  to  Jagann5,tha  at 
Purwa  town  in  Orissa,  on  the  Bay  of 
Ben^l.  Great  numbers  of  pilgrims, 
sometimes  a hundred  thousand,  at  the 
time  of  the  festivals  of  Jagannfitha,  as- 
semble from  all  quarters  of  India  to 
pay  their  devotions  at  his  shrine.  On 
these  occasions  the  idol  is  mounted  on 
a huge  car  resting  on  sixteen  wheels, 
which  is  drawn  by  the  pilgrims;  and 
formerly,  it  is  said,  people  were  wont 
to  throw  themselves  under  the  wheels, 
to  be  crushed  to  death,  believing  that 
they  would  thus  immediately  enter 
heaven.  This  practice,  however,  is  now 
of  rare  occurrence;  and  indeed  com- 
petent authorities  maintain  that  such 
deaths  were  always  accidental. 

JAGUAR  (ja-gwar'),  the  American 
tiger,  a carnivorous  animal  of  South  a,nd 
Central  America,  sometimes  equalling 
a tiger  in  size,  of  a yellowish  or  fawn 
color,  marked  with  large  dark  spots  and 


Jaguar. 


rings,  the  latter  with  a dark  spot  in  the 
center  of  each.  It  rarely  attacks  man 
unless  hard  pressed  by  hunger  or  driven 
to  bay.  The  skin  is  valuable,  and  the 
animal  is  hunted  by  the  South  American 
in  various  ways. 

JAIPUR  (jl-p6r'),  or  Jeypore,  a state 
in  Rajputana,  Hindustan,  governed  by 
a maharajah,  under  the  political  super- 
intendence of  the  Jeypore  Residency; 
area  about  15,350  sq.  miles.  The  capital 
Jaipur  is  one  of  the  finest  of  modern 
Hindu  cities.  Pop.  160,167. 

JAISALMER  (ji-sal-mar'),  or  Jeysul- 
meer,  a state  of  India  in  Rajputana, 
under  the  political  superintendence  of 
the  western  states  agency;  area,  16,447 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  115,701.  Jaisalmer,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  a rocky  ridge. 

JALANDHAR  (jal-an-dhar'),  a town 
of  Hindustan,  headquarters  of  district 
of  same  name,  in  the  Punjab;  pop. 
67,735.  The  district,  a fertile  tract  be- 
tween the  Sutlej  and  the  Beas,  has  an 
area  of  1433  sq.  miles,  a pop.  of  907,583. 


A division  or  commissionership  has  also 
this  name;  area,  19,006  sq  miles;  pop. 
4,217,670. 

JAL'AP,  the  name  given  to  the  tuber- 
ous roots  of  a twining  herbaceous  plant, 
with  sharply  auricled  leaves,  and  ele- 
gant salver-shaped  deep  pink  flowers, 
growing  naturally  on  the  eastern  de- 
clivities of  the  Mexican  Andes,  at  an 
elevation  of  from  5000  to  8000  feet.  The 
jalap  of  commerce  consists  of  irregular 


Jalap  plant. 


ovoid  dark-brown  roots,  varying  from 
the  size  of  an  egg  to  that  of  a hazel-nut, 
but  occasionally  as  large  as  a man’s  fist. 
The  drug  jalap  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon purgatives,  but  is  apt  to  gripe  and 
nauseate.  It  has  little  smell  or  taste,  but 
produces  a slight  degree  of  pungency  in 
the  mouth. 

JALA'UN,  a town  in  a district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  United  Provinces  of 
India,  110  miles  s.e.  of  Agra,  in  a 
swampy  and  unhealthy  locality.  Pop. 
10,057. — The  district  consists  of  a plain 
west  of  the  Jumna;  area,  1469;  sq.  miles; 
pop.  418,142. 

JALISCO  (ha-lis'ko),  or  GUADALA- 
ARA,  a state  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico, 
ounded  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific.  It 
is  chiefly  mountainous,  but  well  watered 
and  wooded,  and  the  climate  is  healthy. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  wheat  and  barley 
are  abundantly  produced.  The  capital 
is  Guadalajara.  Pop.  1,153,891. 

JALPAIGURI  (jal-pl-gu-re'),  a town 
of  Hindustan,  headquarters  of  district 
of  same  name,  in  Bengal,  on  the  Teesta,; 
pop.  9700. — The  district  lies  south  of 
Bhutan  and  north  of  Kuch  Behar;  area, 
2882  sq.  miles;  pop.  681,352. 

JAMAICA,  one  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  80  or  90  miles  s.  of  Cuba,  the 
third  in  extent,  and  the  most  valuable 
of  those  belonging  to  the  British;  146 
miles  in  length  east  to  west,  and  49 
miles  broad  at  the  widest  part;  area, 
4256  sq.  miles.  Among  the  indigenous 
forest  trees  are  mahogany,  lignum-vitee, 
iron-wood,  logwood,  braziletto,  etc. 
The  native  fruits  are  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  delicious;  they  include 
the  plantain,  guava,  custard-apple 
pine-apple,  sour-sop,  sweet-sop,  papaw, 
cashew-apple,  etc.  The  orange,  lime, 
lemon,  mango,  grape,  bread-fruit  tree, 
and  cinnamon-tree  have  all  been  natur- 
alized in  the  island.  The  chief  cultivated 
vegetable  products  are  sugar,  coffee 
corn,  pimento,  bananas  and  other 
fruits,  ginger,  arrow-root.  Sweet-po- 
tatoes, plantains,  and  bananas  form  the 
chief  food  of  the  blacks.  The  cinchona- 
tree  has  been  introduced  and  is  spreading. 
Of  wild  animals  only  the  agouti  and 
monkey  are  numerous.  Domestic  fowls 
thrive  well,  and  cattle-raising  has  be- 
come profitable.  Fish  abound  in  the 


JAMES 


JAMES 


sea  and  rivers.  The  government  is  vested 
in  the  governor,  assisted  by  a privy- 
council,  and  a legislative  council  com- 
posed of  fifteen  members,  nine  elected, 
and  other  nominated  or  ex  officio. 
Education  is  rapidly  extending;  but  the 
general  state  of  morality  seems  to  be 
low,  judging  from  the  fact  that  the 
illegitimate  births  are  between  50  and  60 
per  cent.  Population,  755,730. 

Jamaica  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1494,  in  his  second  expedition  to  the 
New  World.  In  half  a century  the  cruelty 
of  the  Spanish  conquerors  exterminated 
the  natives.  It  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in 
1655,  and  ceded  to  England  by  the 
treaty  of  Madrid  in  1670.  Since  the 
abolition  of  slavery  the  prosperity  of 
Jamaica  has  greatly  decreased.  Of  late 
many  Chinese  and,  coolies  have  been 
employed  in  agriculture.  In  1865  a 
serious  revolt  broke  out  among  the 
blacks  at  Morant  bay,  and  was  put 
down  with  considerable  severity,  by 
Governor  Eyre.  Since  that  time  signs 
of  disaffection  have  disappeared,  and  a 
greater  state  of  comfort  is  said  to  pre- 
vail among  the  inhabitants  generally. 
Politically  dependent  on  Jamaica  are  the 
Cayman  islands,  and  the  Turks  and 
Caicos  islands. 

JAMES,  St.,  called  the  Greater,  the 
son  of  Zebedee  and  the  brother  of  John 
the  evangelist.  Christ  gave  the  brothers 
the  name  of  Boanerges,  or  sons  of 
thunder.  They  witnessed  the  trans- 
figuration, the  restoration  to  life  of 
Jairus’  daughter,  the  agony  in  the  gar- 
den of  Gethsemane,  and  the  ascension. 
St.  James  was  the  first  of  the  apostles 
who  suffered  martyrdom,  having  been 
slain  by  Herod  Agrippa  a.d.  44.  There  is 
a tradition  that  he  went  to  Spain,  of 
which  country  he  is  the  tutelary  saint. 

JAMES,  St.,  called  the  Less,  the 
brother  or  cousin  of  our  Lord,  who 
appeared  to  him  in  particular  after  His 
resurrection.  He  is  called  in  scripture 
the  Just,  and  is  probably  the  apostle 
described  as  the  son  of  Alphseus.  He  was 
the  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the 
first  apostolic  council  spoke  against 
those  wishing  to  make  the  law  of  Moses 
binding  upon  Christians.  The  progress 
of  Christianity  under  him  alarmed  the 
Jews,  and  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Ananias,  the  high-priest,  about  a.d.  62. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  epistle  which 
bears  his  name. 

JAMES  I.,  of  Scotland,  one  of  the 
Stuart  kings,  born  in  1394,  was  the  son 
of  Robert  III.  by  Annabella  Drummond. 
In  1405  he  was  taken  by  an  English 
squadron,  and  the  prince  was  carried 
prisoner  to  London.  Here  he  received 
an  excellent  education  from  Henry  IV. 
Robert  III.  died  in  1406,  but  James  was 
not  allowed  to  return  to  his  kingdom  till 
1424.  On  his  return  to  Scotland  he 
caused  the  Duke  of  Albany  and  his  son 
Murdoch  to  be  executed  as  traitors,  and 
proceeded  to  carry  on  vigorous  reforms, 
and,  above  all,  to  improve  his  revenue 
and  curb  the  ambition  and  lawlessness 
of  the  nobles.  The  nobility,  exasperated 
by  the  decline  of  their  authority,  formed 
a plot  against  his  life,  and  assassinated 
him  at  Perth  in  1437. 

JAMES  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of 
James  I.,  when  his  father  was  assassi- 
nated in  1437  was  only  seven  years  of 


age.  James  allied  himself  with  the 
Douglases,  but  being  deprived  of  all  real 
power,  he  resolved  to  free  himself  from 
the  galling  yoke.  This  he  did  in  1452 
by  inducing  the  Earl  of  Douglas  to  come 
to  Stirling  Castle,  where  he  stabbed  him 
with  his  own  hand.  He  then  quelled  a 
powerful  insurrection  headed  by  the 
next  earl,  whose  lands  were  confiscated. 
In  1460  he  infringed  a truce  with  Eng- 
land by  besieging  the  castle  of  Roxburgh 
and  was  killed  by  the  bursting  of  a 
cannon  in  the  29th  year  of  his  age. 

JAMES  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  son  of 
James  II.,  was  born  in  1453.  A plot  was 
formed  to  dethrone  the  king,  and  though 
many  peers  remained  loyal  to  him  the 
royal  army  wa  defeated  at  Sauchie,  near 
Stirling,  in  1488,  the  king’s  son  being  on 
the  side  of  the  victorious  nobles.  James 
escaped  from  the  field,  but  was  mur- 
dered during  his  flight.  Q 

JAMES  IV.,  King  of  Scotland,  born 
1472,  son  of  James  III.  Henry  VII., 
then  king  of  England,  tried  to  obtain  a 
union  with  Scotland  by  politic  measures, 
and  in  1503  James  married  his  daughter, 
Margaret.  A period  of  peace  and  pros- 
perity followed.  French  influence,  how- 
ever, and  the  hostility  of  the  border 
chieftains  led  to  angry  negotiations, 
which  ended  in  war.  James  invaded 
England  with  a large  force,  and  himself 
andf  many  of  his  nobles  perished  at 
Flodden  Field  in  1513. 

JAMES  :v.,  of  Scotland,  born  in  1512, 
succeeded  in  1513,  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  James  IV.,  though  only  eighteen 
months  old.  His  mother,  Margaret  of 
England,  governed  during  his  childhood, 
Henry  VIII.,  having  broken  with  Rome, 
and  eager  to  gain  over  his  nephew  to  his 
views,  proposed  an  interview  at  York; 
but  James  never  came,  and  this  neglect 
enraged  Henry.  A rupture  took  place 
between  the  two  kingdoms,  but  James 
was  ill  supported  by  his  people,  and  the 
disgraceful  rout  of  his  troops  at  Solway 
Moss  broke  his  heart.  He  died  in  1542, 
seven  days  after  the  birth  of  his  unfor- 
tunate daughter  Mary. 

JAMES  I.,  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scot- 
land, the  only  son  of  Mary,  queen  of 
Scotland,  by  her  cousin  Henry,  Lord 
Darnley,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  castle 
in  1566.  In  1567  his  mother  being  forced 


James  I.  of  England. 


to  resign  the  crown  he  was  crowned  at 
Stirling.  When  his  mother’s  life  was  in 
danger  be  exerted  himself  in  her  behalf 
(1587)f  but  her  execution  took  place, 
and  he  did  not  venture  upon  war.  In 


1589  he  married  Princess  Anne  of  Den- 
mark. In  1603  he  succeeded  to  the 
crown  of  England,  on  the  death  of 
Elizabeth,  and  proceeded  to  London. 
One  of  the  early  events  of  his  reign  was 
the  Gunpowder  plot.  In  1606  he  estab- 
lished episcopacy  in  Scotland.  In  1613 
his  daughter  Elizabeth  was  married  to 
the  elector  palatine,  an  alliance  which 
ultimately  brought  the  present  royal 
family  to  the  throne.  He  wished  to 
marry  his  son  Charles,  prince  of  Wales, 
to  a Spanish  princess,  out  this  project 
failed,  and  war  was  declared  against 
Spain.  The  king,  however,  died  soon 
after  in  1625.  His  name  is  sullied  by  the 
part  he  played  in  bringing  Raleigh  to  the 
block,  in  his  reign  the  authorized  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  was  executed. 

JAMES  II.,  of  England,  second  son  of 
Charles  I.  and  of  Henrietta  Maria  of 
France,  was  born  in  1633,  and  immedi- 
ately declared  Duke  of  York.  At  the 
restoration  in  1660  he  got  the  command 
of  the  fleet  as  lord  high-admiral.  He  had 
previously  married  Anne,  daughter  of 
Chancellor  Hyde,  afterward  Lord  Clar- 
endon. In  1671  she  died,  leaving  two 
daughters,  who  became  successively 
queens  of  England.  He  succeeded  his 
brother  as  king  in  1685,  and  at  once  set 
himself  to  attain  absolute  power  He 
accepted  a pension  from  Louis  XIV.  that 
he  might  more  readily  effect  his  purposes 
especially  that  of  restoring  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion.  The  result  of  this 
action  was  the  revolution  of  1688,  and 
the  arrival  of  William,  prince  of  Orange. 
Soon  James  found  himself  completely 
deserted,  and  he  repaired  to  France, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  kind- 
ness and  hospitality  by  Louis  XIV. 
Assisted  by  Louis  he  was  enabled  in 
1689  to  attempt  the  recovery  of  Ireland; 
but  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  fou^t  in 
1690,  compelled  him  to  return  to  France.  ' 
All  succeeding  projects  for  his  restora-  - 
tion  proved  equally  abortive,  and  he  _• 
spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  in  acts  of 
ascetic  devotion.  He  died  at  St.  Ger-  '? 
main’s  in  1701.  - 


JAMES  in.,  the  Pretender.  See 
Stuart  (James  Edward  Francis). 

JAMES,  George  Payne  Rainsford, 
English  novelist,  born  in  London  in 
1801.  While  still  very  young  he  mani- 
fested a considerable  turn  for  literary 
composition,  and  produced,  in  1822,  a 
Life  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince.  Some 
years  afterward  he  composed  his  first 
novel,  Richelieu,  which  was  shown  in 
manuscript  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and 
published  in  1829.  Its  success  deter- 
mined him  toward  fiction,  and  a series  of 
novels,  above  sixty  in  number,  followed 
from  his  pen  in  rapid  succession,  besides 
several  historical  and  other  works 
Latterly  he  accepted  the  office  of  British 
consul,  first  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  and 
afterwards  at  Venice,  where  he  died 
in  1860. 

JAMES,  Henry,  American  novelist 
and  essayist,  born  in  New  York  in  1843^ 
He  has  lived  much  on  the  European  con- 
tinent and  in  England.  His  novels  and 
tales  which  depend  for  their  interest  on 
the  portrayal  of  character  rather  than  on^ 
incident,  are  numerous.  Among  them^ 
are:  Daisy  Miller,  A Passionate  Pilgrim,' 
Roderick  Hudson,  The  Portrait  of 
Lady,  Tales  of  Three  Cities,  The  Boe-1 


JAMES 


JAPAN 


tonians,  Princess  Casamassima.  He  has 
also  written  the  life  of  Hawthorne  in  the 
English  Men  of  Letters  series,  French 
Poets  and  Novelists,  etc. 

JAMES,  Jesse  W.,  American  outlaw, 
born  in  Clay  co..  Mo.,  in  1847.  During 
the  civil  war  he  joined  Quantrills  guer- 
rillas and  won  a reputation  for  reckless 
daring.  In  1866  he  was  outlawed  and 
was  constantly  pursued  by  officers  of 
the  law.  He  earned  a world-wide  notor- 
iety by  the  crimes  he  committed,  his 
romantic  adventures  and  his  almost  in- 
variable success.  Governor  Crittenden 
offered  a reward  of  $10,000  for  his 
capture,  dead  or  alive,  and  two  members 
of  his  own  band  tempted  by  the  bribe, 
killed  him  in  his  home  at  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  in  1882. 

JAMES  RIVER,  a river  in  Virginia, 
which  passes  the  towns  of  Lynchburg 
and  Richmond,  and  communicates, 
through  Hampton  roads  and  the  mouth 
of  theChesapeake  bay,  with  the  Atlantic. 
Its  general  course  is  south  of  east,  and 
its  length  is  450  miles.  The  first  English 
settlement  in  America  was  formed  at 
Jamestown,  32  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
this  river,  in  1607. 

JAMES’  BAY,  the  southern  extension 
of  Hudson’s  bay,  called  from  Captain 
James,  who  wintered  here  in  1631-32 
while  trying  to  find  the  n.w.  passage. 
It  has  numerous  rocks  and  islands,  and 
its  navigation  is  dangerous. 

JAMESTOWN,  a city  in  Chautauqua 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  outlet  of  Chautauqua 
Lake,  which  supplies  water-power,  and 
is  employed  in  several  mills.  It  has 
manufactories  of  woolens,  alpaca,  etc. 
Pop.  26,890. 

JAMESTOWN  EXPOSITION,  which 
opened  April  26,  1907,  was  held  to  com- 
memorate the  tercentennary  of  the  first 
permanent  English  colony  in  America 
which  was  made  by  105  persons  in  1607. 
The  importance  of  this  date  in  American 
colonial  history  made  the  exposition  one 
in  which  historical  significance  was  the 
most  prominent  feature  and  the  ex- 
hibit of  the  national  government  was 
largely  designed  for  that  purpose, 
$1,500,000  being  appropriated  for  that 
end.  The  buildings  erected  by  the  states 
were  also  for  the  most  part  replicas  of 
historic  structures,  that  of  Pennsylvania 
being  a duplicate  of  Independence  hall 
and  Kentucky  of  the  home  of 
Daniel  Boone  and  so  on  throughout. 
One  of  the  chief  attractions  was 
a naval  display  in  which  not  only  vessels 
of  the  American  navy  but  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  Japan,  Por- 
tugal, and  Italy  took  part.  The  total 
cost  of  the  exposition  is  estimated  at 
$10,000,000. 

JANESVILLE,  a city  in  Wisconsin,  on 
both  sides  of  Rock  river,  with  active 
trade  and  manufactures.  Pop.  15,460. 

JANTZARIES  (Turkish,  Jeni-tcheri, 
new  soldiers),  an  Ottoman  infantry  force 
somewhat  analogous  to  the  Roman 
praetorians,  part  of  them  forming  the 
guard  of  the  sultan.  They  were  origin- 
ally organized  about  1330,  and  subse- 
quently obtained  special  privileges, 
which  in  time  became  dangerously  great. 
The  regular  janizaries  once  amounted  to 
60,000,  but  their  numbers  were  after- 
ward reduced  to  25,000.  The  irregular 
troops  amounted  to  300,000  or  400,000. 


Their  power  became  so  dangerous  and 
their  insurrections  so  frequent  that 
several  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made 
to  reform  or  disband  them.  At  various 
times  sultans  had  been  deposed,  insulted 
and  murdered  by  the  insurgent  janiza- 
ries. At  last,  in  June,  1826,  they  rebelled 
on  account  of  a proposal  to  form  a new 
militia,  when  the  sultan,  Mahmoud  II., 
having  displayed  the  flag  of  the  prophet, 
and  being  supported  by  their  aga  or 
commander-in-chief,  defeated  the  rebels 
and  burned  their  barracks,  when  8000 
of  them  perished  in  the  flames.  The 
corps  was  abolished,  and  a curse  laid 
upon  the  name.  As  many  as  15,000  were 
executed,  and  fully  20,000  were  ban- 
ished. 

JAN'UARY,  the  first  month  of  the 
year,  consisting  of  31  days.  It  was  by 
the  Romans  held  sacred  to  Janus,  from 
whom  the  name  was  derived.  The 
Roman  year  originally  began  with 
March,  and  consisted  of  only  ten  months. 
Numa  is  said  to  have  added  January 
and  February.  See  Calendar. 

JANUS,  an  ancient  Latin  divinity, 
after  whom  the  first  month  of  the  year 
was  named.  He  was  held  in  great 
reverence  by  the  Romans,  and  was  rep- 
resented with  two  faces,  one  looking  for- 
ward, the  other  backward.  All  doors, 
passages,  and  beginnings  were  under  his 
care.  His  principal  festival  was  New 
Year’s  Day,  when  people  gave  each 
other  presents.  The  temple  of  Janus, 
which  was  open  in  time  of  war  and  closed 
in  time  of  peace,  was  shut  only  three 
times  in  the  long  space  of  700  years — 
once  in  the  reign  of  Numa,  again  after 
the  first  Punic  war,  and  the  third  time 
under  the  reign  of  Augustus  a.u.c.  744. 
Vespasian  also  closed  it  in  a.d.  71. 

JAPAN',  ,an  island  empire  in  the 
North  Pacific  ocean,  lying  off  the  east 
coast  of  Asia.  It  comprises  four  large 
mountainous  and  volcanic  islands ; viz. : 
Hondo,  Kiushiu,  Shikoku,  and  Yesso, 
besides  many  other  islands  and  islets, 
and  in  particular  the  Loo-choo  and  the 
Kurile  groups,  and  latterly  also  Formosa. 
The  largest  island,  Hondo  or  Niphon,  is 
800  miles  long,  and  from  50  to  100  miles 
broad.  By  the  Japanese  Niphon  or 
Nipon  is  employed  to  describe  the  whole 
empire.  The  name  “Jipun,”  altered  by 
Europeans  to  Japan,  is  the  Chinese 
designation.  The  area  of  the  Japanese 
islands  (excluding  Formosa)  is  147,600 
sq.  miles  (a  fifth  more  than  Britain), 
with  a pop.  of  43,760,754. 

The  Japanese;  islands  form  part  of  the 
line  of  volcanic  action  commencing  with 
the  Aleutian  isles  and  terminating  in 
the  islands  of  southeastern  Asia.  The 
coasts  of  the  larger  islands  are  extremely 
irregular,  being  deeply  indented  with 
gulfs,  bays,  and  inlets,  which  form  mag- 
nificent harbors.  The  surface  also  is 
generally  uneven,  and  in  .many  instances 
rises  into  mountains  of  great  elevation. 
The  island  of  Hondo  is  traversed 
throughout  its  whole  length  by  a chain 
of  mountains,  the  highest  peak  being 
Fusi-yama  (12,230  feet),  a dormant 
volcano  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
The  volcanic  vents  are  numerous  in 
Yesso,  Hondo,  and  Kiushiu,  and  earth- 
quakes are  frequent.  The  minerals  com- 
prise copper,  lead,  iron,  antimony,  and 
sulphur;  gold  and  silver  are  found. 


though  not  to  a great  extent.  Coal  is 
mined  in  various  parte.  The  rivers  are  of 
no  great  length ; Tonegawa,  the  longest, 
is  only  about  172  miles.  Biwa,  in  the 
south  of  Hondo  is  the  principal  lake, 
being  some  50  miles  in  length,  with  an 
extreme  breadth  of  20  miles.  The  har- 
bors most  frequented  by  foreign  vessels 
are  the  ports  of  Yokohama,  Hiogo  (or 
Kob6),  Nagasaki,  Hakodate,  Niigata, 
and  Osaka. 

The  climate  ranges  from  an  almost 
Arctic  cold  in  the  north  to  a nearly 
tropical  heat  in  the  south.  In  the 
island  of  Yesso  winter  begins  about 
October  and  continues  to  April,  its 
course  being  marked  by  severe  frosts  and 
snowstorms;  while  in  Yokohama,  again, 
the  winter  is  genial,  with  a bright  sky, 
and  a temperature  much  like  England. 
From  July  to  September  the  thermom- 
eter often  ranges  as  high  as  95°  in  the 
shade. 

The  vegetation'of  Japan  is  very  varied 
in  consequence  of  its  wide  range  of  tem- 
perature. Rice  of  excellent  quality,  as 
also  wheat,  barley,  sugar-cane,  and 
millet  are  largely  grown;  while  ginger, 
pepper,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  culti- 
vated in  considerable  quantities.  Tea 
has  been  extensively  planted  lately. 
The  Japanese  are  skilful  gardeners,  and 
the  fruits  raised  include  strawberries, 
melons,  plums,  persimmons,  figs,  lo- 
quats,  and  oranges.  Of  flowers  and 
flowering  shrubs  the  camellia,  azelea, 
hydrangea,  lilies,  peonies,  the  chrysan- 
themum, daphne,  and  wistaria  are  in- 
digenous. The  forests  are  extensive;  in 
the  south  the  palm,  banana,  and  bam- 
boo flourish;  while  in  the  north,  cedar, 
pine,  maple,  camphor,  and  the  kadsi  or 
paper-tree  are  abundant.  The  chief  do- 
mestic animals  are  the  horse,  which  is 
small  and  hardy;  the  ox,  which  is  used 
as  a beast  of  burden;  the  dog,  which  is 
held  sacred;  and  the  cat,  which  is  of  a 
short-tailed  species.  Rabbits  and 
guinea-pigs  are  household  pets.  Bantam 
fowls,  chickens,  ducks,  and  pigeons  are 
reared  for  food.  Of  the  wild  animals, 
deer  are  numerous  in  the  north,  bears 
are  to  be  found  in  Yesso,  while  boars, 
wolves,  badgers,  foxes,  monkeys,  and 
hares  are  not  uncommon.  Birds  are 
plentiful;  falcons,  pheasants,  ducks, 
geese,  teal,  storks,  pigeons,  ravens,  larks, 
pelicans,  cranes,  herons,  etc.  Fish  is 
one  of  the  chief  foods,  the  principal 
varieties  being  salmon,  cod,  herring, 
sole  and  mullet.  There  are  also  tortoises, 
lizards,  scorpions,  and  centipedes;  and 
of  the  insect  tribes  there  are  white-ants, 
winged  grasshoppers,  and  several  beau- 
tiful varieties  of  moths.  A considerable 
number  of  the  Japanese  animals  are  the 
same  as  those  of  Britain,  or  little  different. 

The  Japanese  may  be  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  great  Mongolian  family, 
though  ethnologists  recognize  more  than 
one  element  in  the  population.  They  are 
generally  distinguished  by  broad  skulls 
and  high  cheek-bones;  small  black  eyes, 
obliquely  set;  long  black  hair,  and  a 
yellow  or  light-olive  complexion;  some 
are  good-looking,  and  many  are  well- 
made,  active,  and  nimble.  They  are  a 
frugal,  skilful,  persevering,  courageous 
race,  who  combine  these  characteristics 
with  much  frankness,  good  humor,  and 
courtesy.  A Japanese  gentleman’s  dress 


JAPAN 


JASMINE 


18  a loose  garment  made  of  silk,  gathered 
in  at  the  waist  by  a girdle,  and  extending 
from  neck  to  ankle;  while  over  this  is 
thrown  a wide-sleeved  jacket.  In  the 
country  a short  cotton  gown  is  worn, 
while  the  lower  classes  generally  wear 
but  scant  clothing.  The  hair  is  shaved 
off  the  front  part  of  the  head,  while  on 
the  back  and  sides  it  is  gathered  up  into 
a knot  and  fastened  with  long  pins.  As 
regards  both  clothing  and  hair-dressing 
the  women  very  much  resemble  the  men. 
They  also  paint  and  powder  themselves 
to  excess.  Polygamy  is  not  practiced, 
but  a husband  can  have  as  many  con- 
cubines as  he  can  afford.  The  Japanese 
are  a holiday-loving  people,  and  delight 
in  the  theater.  Their  two  principle  re- 
ligions are  Buddhism  and  Shintoism. 
The  chief  observances  of  Shintoism  are 
ancestral  worship  and  sacrifice  to  de- 
parted heroes.  Buddhism  is  the  popular 
religion.  The  Japanese  language  is  dual 
in  its  nature.  Originally  a polysyllabic 
Mongolian  tongue,  it  has  been  greatly 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  many  Chi- 
nese words,  the  latter  being  much  used 
by  the  literary  and  governmental  classes. 
The  literature  of  Japan  is  extensive,  and 
includes  all  departments — historical 
scientific,  biographical,  but  is  especially 
copious  in  poetry  and  romance.  Contact 
with  Europe  has  affected  literary  pro- 
ductions; European  and  not  native 
writings  are  now  mostly  read. 

In  native  and  imitative  manufactures 
the  Japanese  are  exceedingly  ingenious. 
Their  artistic  treatment  of  copper,  iron, 
bronze,  silver,  and  gold  is  of  the  finest; 
while  in  stone  carvings,  mosaics,  wicker, 
tortoise-shell,  crystal,  leather,  and  espe- 
cially in  wood  lacquer-work,  they  are 
skilful  in  the  highest  degree.  Of  textile 
fabrics  they  excel  in  cotton-goods, 
crapes,  camlet,  brocades,  but  chiefly  in 


Japanese  work-people. 


figured  silk.  Paper  is  largely  made,  and 
its  uses — from  a house  to  a handker- 
chief— aremanifold.  Japanese  decorative 
art  is  remarkable  for  patient  but  facile 
treatment  of  bird,  beast,  and  flower;  the 
absence  of  perspective  and  chiaro-oscuro 
seems  even  to  add  to  its  effect.  The 
modern  art  productions,  however,  have 
been  debased  by  imitations  of  bad 
European  work.  The  chief  export  is  silk, 
tea  coming  next,  while  the  imports  are 
mostly  textile  fabrics,  sugar,  raw  cotton, 
etc.  The  standard  money  unit  is  the  yen 
or  dollar,  of  the  value  of  49  cents,  divided 
into  100  sens.  The  coinage  consists  of 


gold,silver  nickel, and  copper  pleces,from 
the  value  of  20  yens  to  ^>5  sen.  There  is 
also  a paper  currency.  The  principal 
weight  is  the  picul  =133  lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois. 

The  government  of  Japan  till  recently 
was  an  absolute  monarchy,  but  a new 
constitution  was  proclaimed  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1889,  providing  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a House  of  Peers,  partly  heridi- 
tary,  partly  elective,  partly  nominated 
by  the  emperor  or  Mikado  (as  the  ruler 
is  called),  and  of  a House  of  Commons  of 
300  members,  elected  by  all  men  25  years 
of  age  and  paying  taxes  to  the  amount 
of  25  dollars  annually.  There  is  also  a 
cabinet  which  includes  the  prime- 
minister  and  the  statesmen  at  the  head 
respectively  of  the  foreign  office,  the 
treasury,  war,  navy,  education,  public 
works,  religion,  justice,  and  the  imperial 
household.  There  are  resident  ministers 
in  most  European  countries  and  in  the 
United  States.  Railways  have  a length 
of  more  than  1900  miles,  with  nearly 
10,000  miles  of  telegraph-line,  while  the 
postal  system  is  excellent.  Education  is 
compulsory,  the  school  age  being  from 
6th  to  14th  year.  There  is  a university 
at  Tokyo,  with  affiliated  colleges.  Con- 
scription is  the  rule,  and  the  army  num- 
bers 65,000  men  in  peace,  with  a war 
establishment  of  265,000.  The  navy 
ranks  fifth  in  effective  fighting  strength 
among  the  navies  of  the  world. 

The  Japanese  profess  to  have  an 
accurate  chronology  from  660  b.c.,  but 
little  confidence  can  be  placed  in  their 
annals  previous  to  the  10th  century 
after  Christ.  A long  line  of  emperors  or 
Mikados  reigned  over  Japan,  but  for 
some  three  hundred  years  all  real  power 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Shogun  or  chief 
minister.  Japan  was  first  made  known 
to  Europe  by  Marco  Polo.  In  1542  it 
was  visited  by  Mendez  Pinto,  represent- 
ing the  Portuguese;  and  in  1549  the 
Jesuit  missionary,  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
arrived  and  converted  many  of  the 
natives.  From  the  overbearing  charac- 
ter of  the  Portuguese  traders  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  jealousy  of  the  Japanese 
priests,  an  edict  was  issued  excluding 
missionaries  from  the  country,  and  in 
1640  the  Portuguese  were  finally  ex- 
pelled. The  Dutch  established  com- 
mercial relations  in  1600.  In  1854  the 
first  modern  treaty  was  made  with  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  same  year  an- 
other was  concluded  on  behalf  of  Great 
Britain.  A more  important  treaty  with 
Britain  was  secured  by  Lord  Elgin  in 
1858,  whereby  five  ports  were  fully 
opened  to  trade.  In  1868  a revolution 
overthrew  the  power  and  office  of  the 
Shogun,  and  the  Mikado  was  restored  to 
his  ancient  position.  All  former  treaties 
with  European  powers  were  ratified, 
while  the  Japanese  rapidly  became  con- 
verted to  western  ideas.  The  first  line 
of  railways  was  opened  from  Tokyo  to 
Yokohama  in  1872,  and  the  telegraph 
and  telephone  have  come  into  common 
use.  Industries  of  the  Eurpean  type 
have  been  successfully  started.  In  1894 
war  broke  out  with  China  in  connection 
with  Corea.  The  Chinese  were  driven 
out  of  Corea  and  their  country  invaded 
by  the  Japanese,  and  when  the  war 
ended  in  1895,  China  had  to  cede  For- 
mosa and  pay  a large  war  indemnity  to 


Japan.  The  virtual  annexation  of  Man- 
churia by  Russia,  and  her  threatened 
absorption  of  Corea,  led  to  war  between 
Japan  and  Russia  in  February,  1904. 
The  Japanese  soon  gained  command  of 
the  sea,  and  after  a striking  victory  on 
the  Yalu  river  isolated  and  invested 
Port  Arthur,  and  inflicted  a series  of 
defeats  on  the  Russians  in  Manchuria, 
altogether  showing  remarkable  military 
and  naval  skill.  (See  Russia-Japanese 
War.) 

Peace  was  re-established  Sept.  5, 
1905,  Japan  strengthening  her  position 
with  a new  treaty  with  Great  Britain. 
In  August,  1907,  Japan,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  other  powers  assumed  a 
protectorate  over  Corea. 

JAPAN  CLOVER,  a perennial  plant 
with  trifoliate  leaves,  indigenous  to 
China  and  Japan.  Introduced  into  the 
United  States  about  1850,  it  now  forms 
a valuable  forage  plant  there. 

JAPAN  CURRENT.  See  Kuro  Siwo. 

JAPANNING,  is  the  act  of  applying 
varnish  to  such  articles  as  wood,  metal, 
leather  and  papier-mach4,  in  imitation 
of  the  lacquered  work  of  Japan  and 
China.  The  article  to  be  japanned,  being 
made  thoroughly  dry,  is  first  brushed 
ovef  with  two  or  three  coats  of  seed-lac 
varnish  to  form  the  priming.  The  next 
coat  of  varnish  is  mixed  with  the  ground 
tint,  desired  and  where  a design  is  in- 
tended it  is  now  painted  with  colors. 
The  whole  is  then  covered  with  addi- 
tional coats  of  varnish,  which  are  dried 
and  polished  as  applied.  Shell-lac  var- 
nish or  mastic  varnish  is  employed, 
unless  where  the  fineness  or  durability 
of  the  work  requires  the  use  of  copal 
dissolved  in  alcohol.  See  Lacquering, 

JA'PHETH,  the  second  son  of  Noah 
(Gen.  ix.  24).  His  descendants,  accord- 
ing to  Gen.  X.  5,  peopled  the  isles  of  the 
Gentiles,  and  thus  Japheth  is  often 
considered  the  ancestor  of  most  Euro- 
pean races. 

JARDINIERE  (zhar-den-yar),  an  or- 
namental stand  for  growing  plants,  used 
in  decoration  of  an  apartment. 

JAROSLAV,  a town  in  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  same  name,  on  the 
Volga,  162  miles  northeast  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  70,610. — The  government  has  an 
area  of  13,000  sq.  miles  and  a population 
of  1,095,636. 

JAS'MINE,  Jas'min,  the  popular  name 
of  plants  of  the  genus  Jasminum.  They 


are  elegant,  branched,  erect  or  climbing 
shrubs,  with  imparipinnate,  trifoliolate, 


JASON 


JEFFERSON 


or  simple  leaves,  and  (usually  cymose) 
white  or  yellow  flowers,  from  some  of 
which  delicious  perfumes  are  extracted. 
Also  written  Jessamine. 

JASON,  in  Greek  legend,  king  of 
lolcos  in  Thessaly,  celebrated  for  his 
share  in  the  Argonautic  expedition.  On 
his  return  to  lolcos  with  Medea  as  his 
wife,  he  avenged  the  murder  of  his 
parents  and  his  brother  by  putting 
Pelias  to  death.  Unable  to  retain  pos- 
session of  his  throne,  however,  he  fled 
to  Corinth,  where,  after  some  time,  he 
married  Glauce  (or  Creusa),  daughter  of 
the  king,  and  put  away  Medea  and  her 
children.  (See  Medea.)  Different  ac- 
counts are  given  of  his  death.  See 
Argonauts. 

JASPER,  an  impure  opaque  colored 
quartz,  less  hard  than  flint  or  even  than 
common  quartz,  but  which  gives  fire 
with  steel.  It  is  entirely  opaque,  or 
sometimes  feebly  translucent  at  the 
edges,  and  presents  almost  every  variety 
of  color.  It  is  found  in  metamorphic 
rocks,  and  often  occurs  in  very  large 
masses.  It  admits  of  an  elegant  polish, 
and  is  used  for  vases,  seals,  snuff-boxes, 
etc.  There  are  several  varieties,  as  red, 
brown,  blackish,  bluish,  Egpytian. — 
Agate  jasper  is  jasper  in  layers  with 
chalcedony. — Porcelain  jasper  is  only 
baked  clay. 

JASSY  (yish'shi),  a town  of  Rou- 
mania,  in  Moldavia,  on  the  Bachlui,  sev- 
eral miles  from  the  Pruth.  Pop.  90,000, 
55,000  being  Jews. 

JAUNDICE,  is  not  specifically  a dis- 
ease, but  is  rather  the  indication  of  bile- 
coloring matter  in  the  blood,  shown  by 
a greenish-yellow  color  of  the  skin.  This 
is  caused  either  by  disease  of  the  liver, 
which  prevents  that  organ  from  separat- 
ing bile  pigments  from  the  blood,  or  is 
due  to  some  obstruction  in  the  bile  ducts 
leading  to  the  intestines.  The  accom- 
panying symptoms  are  constipation, 
colic  pains,  nausea,  headache,  languor, 
and  itching  of  the  skin.  The  yellow 
color  first  appears  on  the  whiter  parts 
of  the  body,  as  the  eye,  the  neck,  the 
chest,  etc.  From  being  a mere  tinge  of 
yellow  it  deepens  to  a dark  orange,  and 
sometimes  greenish  hue.  Whether  these 
symptoms  are  trifling  or  serious  depends 
entirely  on  the  cause;  due  attention  to 
diet,  with  mild  laxative  medicines,  will 
often  prove  beneficial.  Besides  the 
milder,  there  is  also  a malignant  form  of 
jaundice  which  usually  ends  fatally. 

JAUNPUR  (joun-por'),  a town  of  In- 
dia, United  Provinces,  on  the  river 
Gumti,  over  which  there  is  a fine  bridge. 
Pop  42,771. — The  district  has  an  area 
of  1554  sq.  miles;  pop  1,209,663. 

JAUNTING-CAR,  a light  car  used  in 
Ireland  in  which  the  passengers  ride  back 
to  back  on  folding-down  seats  placed  at 
right  angles  to  the  axle,  the  occupants 
having  their  feet  near  the  ground.  There 
is  generally  a “well”  between  the  seats 
for  receiving  luggage,  and  a seat  in  front 
for  the  driver. 

JAVA,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, the  chief  of  the  Dutch  colonial 
possessions;  capital,  Batavia.  Area, 
48,830  sq.  miles.  Pop.  28,745,698.  Rice 
is  the  chief  cereal,  but  coffee  and  sugar 
are  the  staple  products;  spices  are  also 
grown,  and  some  cotton  is  raised.  Other 
products  are  cochineal,  pepper,  tobacco. 


tea.  The  famed  poison-tree,  or  upas,  is  a 
noted  Javanese  plant.  The  forests  con- 
sist mainly  of  teak.  There  are  about  100 
kinds  of  mammalia  inhabiting  Java. 
These  include  the  one-horned  rhinoceros, 
tiger,  panther,  tiger-cat,  wild  hog, 
several  kinds  of  deer,  several  monkeys 
(but  not  the  orang-utan),  and  enormous 
bats.  The  ox,  the  buffalo,  the  goat,  are 
among  the  domestic  animals.  Birds  are 
numerous.  Serpents  of  a venomous  kind 
are  frequent,  as  also  are  crocodiles, 
lizards,  and  the  land  tortoise  The  native 
population  belong  to  the  Malay  race, 
and  are  brownish-yellow  in  complexion 
with  long  thick  black  hair.  They  are 
sober,  patient,  and  industrious,  but 
quick  to  avenge  affront.  In  religion  they 
are  nominally  Mohamm-edan.  The  great 
mass  are  devoted  to  agriculture,  living 
in  villages  each  governed  by  a native 
chief.  A governor-general  rules  Java 
and  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 
The  history  of  Java  is  unknown  previous 
to  the  11th  century,  when  the  Windus 
founded  a dynasty  and  converted  the 
natives  to  Brahmanism.  This  was  over- 
thrown by  an  invasion  of  the  Moham- 
medans in  1478.  Islamism  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Portuguese,  who  arrived 
in  1511.  They  were  followed  by  the 
Dutch  in  1595,  who  wrested  from  them 
the  supremacy. 

JAV'ELIN,  a short  spear  thrown  from 
the  hand,  and  in  ancient  warfare  used 
by  both  horse  and  foot  soldiers.  The 
Roman  javelin  had  a barbed  iron  head 
and  a wooden  shaft,  the  whole  length 
being  nearly  7 feet. 

JAY,  a genus  and  sub-family  of  birds 
belonging  to  the  family  of  the  crows. 
The  jays  have  the  upper  mandible  or  bill 
notched  or  indented  near  Its  tip,  and  the 
feathers  on  the  top  of  the  head  are 
erectile,  and  can  be  elevated  at  will,  to 
form  a kind  of  crest.  These  birds  are 
readily  domesticated,  possess  a harsh 
grating  note,  and  are  admirable  mimics. 
They  feed  on  fruits,  seeds,  worms,  in- 
sects, and  the  eggs  and  young  of  other 


The  European  jay. 


birds,  etc.  The  common  jay  is  the  size 
of  an  ordinary  pigeon,  the  general  color 
is  a light  brown  inclining  to  red,  whilst 
the  larger  or  primary  wing-feathers  are 
of  a brilliant  blue,  marked  out  by  bands 
of  black.  The  blue  color  reaches  its 
highest  brilliancy  in  the  North  American 
blue  jay  which  otherwise  closely  imitates 
its  European  representative  both  in  size 
and  habits.  The  blue  jay  is  exceedingly 


well  known  in  the  United  States.  An- 
other American  jay  is  the  Canada  jay  or 
“whisky  jack,”  a bird  of  rather  somber 
coloring,  but  of  the  bold,  noisy,  and 
active  habits  of  others  of  the  jays. 

JAY,  John,  American  jurist  and 
statesman,  born  in  1745,  died  in  1829. 
In  1768  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
in  1774  was  chosen  a delegate  to  the 
first  American  congress,  which  met  at 
Philadelphia.  In  1776  he  was  chosen 
president  of  congress,  and  in  1779  he  was 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
Spain.  In  1782  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  commissioners  to  negotiate  a peace 
with  Britain,  and,  along  with  Adams 


and  Franklin,  concluded  a treaty  with 
the  British.  Returning  to  the  United 
States  he  was  appointed  head  of  foreign 
affairs,  and  afterward  chief-justice. 
In  1794  he  was  sent  as  envoy  extraor- 
dinary to  Great  Britain,  and  concluded 
a treaty  which  has  been  called  after  his 
name,  and  by  which  $1,000,000  was  given 
to  Americans  as  compensation  on  ac- 
count of  the  illegal  captures  by  British 
vessels,  the  eastern  boundary  of  Maine 
was  fixed,  etc. 

JEDDO.  See  Yeddo. 

JEFFERSON,  Joseph,  American  come- 
dian, was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1829. 
He  appeared  as  Cora’s  child  in  Pizarro 
when  only  three  years  old.  In  1856  he 
made  his  first  trip  to  Europe.  In  1857 
he  became  a member  of  Laura  Keene’s 
company,  playing  Dr.  Pangloss  in  The 
Heir  at  Law.  In  1858  he  played  with 
E.  A.  Sothern  in  Our  American  Cousin, 
creating  the  part  of  Asa  Trenchard.  He 
played  Rip  Van  Winkle  for  the  first 
time  in  London  in  1865,  and  it  became 
his  most  famous  role.  Since  then  Dr. 
Pangloss,  Bob  Acres  in  the  Rivals,  and 
Rip  Van  Winkle  have  been  the  principal 
ones  in  his  repertory.  He  died  in  1905. 

JEFFERSON,  Thomas,  the  third  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  of  America, 
was  born  April  2,  1743,  at  Shadwell,  in 
Albemarle  co.,  Virginia.  He  studied  for 
two  years  at  the  college  of  William  and 
Mary,  Williamsburg,  and  then  com- 
menced the  study  of  law.  In  1760  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  provincial  legis- 
lature, and  in  1775  he  took  his  seat  for 


JEFFERSON  CITY 


JEREMIAH 


the  first  time  in  congress.  It  was  he  who 
drew  up  the  draft  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  which  (in  a slightly  modi- 
fied form)  was  signed  on  July  4,  1776. 
In  1779-81  he  was  governor  of  Virginia. 
In  May,  1784,  congress  elected  him  min- 
ister plenipotentiary  to  France,  in  ad- 
dition to  Adams  and  Franklin;  next 
year  he  was  appointed  sole  minister, 
and  his  residence  in  Europe  lasted  about 
five  years.  On  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  by  Washing- 
ton, an  office  which  he  continued  to  fill 
until  the  end  of  1793,  when  he  resigned. 
In  1797  he  was  elected  vice-president  of 
the  United  States;  but  he  was  seldom 
consulted  by  the  president,  and  he  was 
out  of  harmony  with  the  government. 


In  1800  he  was  elected  president.  One 
of  the  public  acts  of  his  administration 
was  the  purchase  of  Louisiana  from 
France,  thus  greatly  extending  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  States.  In  1809 
he  retired  to  private  life  at  his  residence 
of  Monticello,  in  Virginia,  where  he  died 
on  the  4th  of  July,  1826,  the  fiftieth  an- 
niversary of  the  declaration  of  indepen- 
dence, almost  at  the  same  hour  as  John 
Adams,  the  second  president.  Jefferson 
was  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
republican  party  from  the  period  of  its 
organization.  He  published  Notes  on 
Virginia,  and  various  essays  on  political 
and  philosophical  subjects,  and  a 
Manual  of  Parliamentary  Practice,  for 
the  use  of  the  senate  of  the  United 
States. 

JEFFERSON  CITY,  the  capital  of 
Missouri  and  county-seat  of  Cole  co., 
near  the  geograpical  center  of  the  state 
and  125  miles  west  of  St.  Louis;  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Missouri  river;  on 
the  Missouri  Pacific,  and  reached  by  the 
Chicago  and  Alton  and  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  and  Texas  railroads.  Pop. 
11,122. 

JEF'FERSONVILLE,  the  county  seat 
of  Clark  co.,  Ind  , on  the  Ohio  river, 
opposite  Louisville,  Ky.,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  two  railroad  bridges, 
and  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Southwestern,  the  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and 
other  railroads.  Pop.  13,124. 

JEHOSH'APHAT,  son  of  Asa,  and 


fourth  king  of  Judah,  915-890  b.c.  He 
was  noteworthy  in  his  strenuous  en- 
deavors to  abolish  the  use  of  idols. 
Jehoshaphat  denotes  “Jehovah’s  judg- 
ment.” 

JEHO'VAH  (Heb.  Yahveh),  the  popu- 
lar pronunciation  of  the  sacred  name  of 
God  among  the  Hebrews,  represented  in 
the  text  of  the  Old  Testament  by  the 
four  consonants  J (or  Y),  H,  V,  H.  The 
Hebrews  cherished  the  most  profound 
awe  for  this  name,  and  this  sentiment 
led  them  to  avoid  pronouncing  it,  and 
to  substitute  the  word  Adonai,  which 
signifies  the  Lord,  which  custom  still 
prevails  among  the  Jews.  In  some  por- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch  Jehovah  is  the 
name  regularly  applied  to  God,  in  others 
Elohim : this  has  led  to  a theory  of  two 
authors  respectively  for  these  portions. 
See  Elohim. 

JELLY,  a name  for  such  substances  as 
are  liquid  when  warm,  but  which  coagu- 
late into  a gelatinous  mass  when  cold. 
Animal  jelly  is  prepared  from  the  soft 
parts  of  animals,  and  even  from  bones 
when  sufficiently  crushed.  It  is  a color- 
less, elastic,  transparent  substance  with- 
out taste  or  smell,  and  which  is  soluble 
in  warm  water.  Analysis  shows  that  its 
constituents  are  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  with  a possibility  of  sulphur. 
Vegetable  jelly  is  prepared  from  the 
juice  of  unripe  fruit  heated  in  a solution 
of  water  to  40°  C.  This  extract  when 
boiled  with  sugar  forms  a pleasant  and 
wholesome  substance.  Doctors  now 
incline  to  the  opinion  that  animal  jelly 
is  less  nourishing  than  ordinary  animal 
food. 

JELLY-FISHES,  the  popular  name  of 
certain  animals,  found  in  the  sea,  and 
often  familiarly  called  sea-blubbers  and 
sea-nettles,  from  their  appearance  and 
stinging  property.  When  in  the  water 
they  present  a singularly  beautiful  ap- 
pearance, one  of  the  most  common  re- 
sembling a clear  crystalline  bell,  which 
swims  gracefully  through  the  water  by 
alternately  expanding  and  contracting 
its  body.  They  are  very  voracious,  and 
move  upon  their  prey  (minute  animals) 
with  great  rapidity,  seizing  it  with  their 
long  stinging  tentacles.  The  phosphores- 
cence of  the  sea  is  to  some  extent  ex- 
plained by  the  pale  light  which  they 
diffuse  in  the  darkness. 

JENA  (ya'ni),  a town  of  Germany,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar,  12 
miles  east  of  Weimar,  on  the  Saale,  a 
place  of  little  Importance  except  for  its 
university,  which  was  opened  in  1558.  It 
has  about  60  professors  or  lecturers,  an 
anatomical  theater,  botanical  garden, 
zoological  museum  and  other  scientific 
collections,  observatory,  library  of  200,- 
000  volumes,  and  about  600  students. 
On  14th  Oct.  1806,  the  Prussians  (70,- 
000  men)  under  Prince  Hohenlohe  were 
defeated  here  by  the  French  under 
Napoleon  (90,000  men).  Pop.  20,686. 

JENNER,  Edward,  an  English  phy- 
sician, celebrated  for  having  introduced 
the  practice  of  vaccination  as  a preven- 
tive of  the  small-pox.  He  was  born  at 
Berkeley  in  Gloucestershire  in  1749; 
studied  at  London  under  the  celebrated 
anatomist  John  Hunter,  and  afterward 
settled  in  Gloucestershire  as  a medical 
practitioner.  About  1776  the  belief 
common  among  the  peasants  that  casual 


cow-pox  acquired  in  milking  cows  was  a 
preventive  of  small-pox,  caused  him  to 
direct  his  inquiries  to  the  subject,  and 
led  to  the  introduction  of  the  process  of 
vaccination  in  1796.  His  method  at  first 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the 
medical  profession,  but  was  ultimately 
universally  accepted  both  by  his  own 
and  foreign  nations.  He  died  at  Berkeley 
in  1823.  Hepublishedan  Inquiryintothe 
Causes  and  Effects  of  Cow-pox  (1798); 
Further  Observations  on  Variolae  Vac- 
cinae  or  Cow-pox  (1799) ; and  a celebrated 
paper  on  the  Cuckoo  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions.  See  Vaccination. 

TEPHTHAH,  one  of  the  Hebrew 
judges,  who  defeated  the  Ammonites, 
out  having  rashly  made  a vow  that  if  he 
was  victorious  he  would  sacrifice  to  God 
as  a burnt-offering  whatever  should  first 
come  to  meet  him  from  his  house,  he  was 
met  on  his  return  by  his  daughter,  his 
only  child,  whom  he  sacrificed,  in  con- 
sequence, to  the  Lord  (Judges  xi.  29, 
40),  Some  commentators  have  main- 
tained that  this  meant  devoting  her  to 
perpetual  virginity  in  the  tabernacle. 
Jephthah  ruled  six  years  as  a judge  and 
general  (Judges  xi.,  xii.).  The  sacrifice 
of  Jephthah’s  daughter  is  the  subject 
of  Handel’s  last  oratorio,  and  of  a Latin 
drama  oy  George  Buchanan. 

JER'BOA,  a genus  of  small  animals 
belonging  to  the  order  Rodentia  or 
Gnawers,  having  extremely  long  hind 
limbs,  which  gives  them  an  extraordi- 
nary power  of  leaping,  so  that  their 
movements  seem  more  like  flying  than 
running.  The  fore  limbs  are  armed  with 
short  powerful  claws,  with  which  they 


Jerboas. 


excavate  their  burrows  and  extract  the 
roots  on  which  they  chiefly  live.  They 
are  gregarious  and  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  and  hibernate  during  the  colder 
seasons.  The  jerboas  are  found  chiefly 
in  Asia  and  Northern  Africa.  The 
typical  species  is  the  Egyptian  form. 

JEREMI'AH,  the  second  of  the  great 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament,  flour- 
ished during  the  darkest  period  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Judah,  under  Josiah, 
Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim,  Jeconiah,  and 
Zedekiah.  He  was  called  to  theprophetic 
office  about  629  b.c.,  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  and  lived  to  see  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in  586 
B.C.,  who  offered  him  a home  at  Babylon 
but  he  preferred  to  stay  among  the 
wretched  remnant  of  the  people  left  in 
Judah.  He  is  said  to  have  been  stoned 
to  death  in  Egypt  by  some  of  his  coun- 
trymen, who  were  irritated  by  his  re- 


JER-FALCON 


JERUSALEM 


bukes.  He  wrote  two  Old  Testament 
books,  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  and 
the  Lamentations.  The  text  of  the 
prophecies  is  in  a somewhat  confused 
state,  there  being  no  chronological  order. 
Jeremiah  wants  the  dignity  and  splendor 
of  Isaiah,  but  exhibits  great  tenderness 
and  elegiac  beauty  of  sentiment.  Some 
critics  also  attribute  to  him  the  book  of 
Deuteronomy  and  several  of  the  Psalms. 
See  also  Jews. 

JER-FALCON.  See  Falcon. 

JERICHO  (j  er'-i-ko),  a considerable 
town  of  ancient  Judea,  on  a plain  about 
18  miles  n.e.  of  Jerusalem,  noted,  espe- 
cially in  Solomon’s  time,  for  its  balsam- 
gardens  and  its  thickets  of  palm-trees 
and  roses,  and  carrying  on  a flourishing 
trade  in  balsam  and  spices.  It  was  the 
key  of  Palestine,  and  was  therefore  in- 
vested by  the  Israelites  who  had  passed 
the  Jordan  under  Joshua  to  conquer  this 
country.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  the 
small  village  of  Riha. 

JERKED  BEEF,  from  the  Chilian 
word  charqui,  beef  cut  into  strips  of 
about  an  inch  thick,  and  dried  in  the  sun 
to  preserve  it.  It  is  used  in  Chile  and 
other  parts  of  South  America,  and  has 
been  tried  in  Australia.  When  well  pre- 
pared it  will  keep  for  a great  length  of 
time. 

JERKIN-HEAD,  in  architecture,  the 
end  of  a roof  when  it  is  formed  into  a 
shape  intermediate  between  a gable  and 


Jerkin-head  roof. 


a hip,  the  gable  rising  about  halfway  to 
the  ridge,  so  as  to  have  a truncated 
shape,  and  the  roof  being  hipped  or 
inclined  backward  from  this  level. 

JEROBO'AM,  the  name  of  two  kings 
of  Israel. — Jeroboam  I.,  the  son  of 
Nebat,  on  Solomon’s  death  (973  b.c.) 
was  made  king  of  the  ten  tribes  who 
separated  from  Judah  and  Benjamin. 
He  made  Shechem  his  capital,  forbade 
his  subjects  to  resort  to  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  and  set  up  golden  calves  at 
the  shrines  of  Dan  and  Bethel.  He  died 
in  the  22d  year  of  his  reign. — Jeroboam 
II.,  the  most  prosperous  of  the  kings  of 
Israel,  reigned 823-782  b.c.  He  repelled 
the  Syrians,  took  their  cities  of  Damas- 
cus and  Hamath,  and  reconquered 
Ammon  and  Moab.  But  licentiousness 
and  idolatry  were  prevalent  during  his 
reign.  The  authorities  for  the  history  of 
his  time  are  2 Kings,  1 Chron.,  Amos, 
and  Hosea. 

JER'OME,  St.,  full  name  Eusebius 
Hieronymus  Sopbronius,  one  of  the  most 
learned  fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,  was 
born  sometime  between  331  and  345  in 
Dalmatia,  of  wealthy  parents.  Died 
about  420.  His  Latin  version  of  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  original  lan- 
guage was  the  foundation  of  thevulgate. 


He  took  an  active  part  in  many  con- 
troversies, notably  those  regarding  the 
doctrines  of  Origen  and  Pelagius. 

JER'ROLD,  Douglas,  English  humor- 
ist and  play-writer,  born  in  1803.  His 
first  play.  More  Frightened  than  Hurt 
(1818),  was  not  at  first  successful,  but 
his  Black-eyed  Susan  (1822)  ran  for  300 
successive  nights  at  the  Surrey  theater. 
Jerrold’s  subsequent  dramas  were  the 
Rent-day,  Nell  Gwynne,  the  House- 
keeper, the  Prisoner  of  War,  Bubbles  of 
a Day,  Time  Works  Wonders,  St.  Cupid, 
the  Catspaw,  the  Heart  of  Gold,  and 
several  others.  He  contributed  exten- 
sively to  periodical  literature.  To  Punch 
he  contributed  his  inimitable  Mrs. 
Caudle’s  Curtain  Lectures,  Punch’s 
Letters  to  his  Son,  etc.  Though  a terrible 
master  of  satire  and  repartee  his  sayings 
had  no  personal  malevolence.  He  died 
in  1857. 

JER'SEY,  the  largest  and  most  valu- 
able of  the  Channel  islands,  about  15 
miles  off  the  northwest  coast  of  France; 
greatest  length,  east  and  west,  about  12 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  7 miles;  area. 


comprise  glass  works,  boiler  works, 
foundries,  steel  works,  breweries,  sugar 
refineries,  chemical  works,  watch  works, 
tobacco  works,  potteries,  etc.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  largely  made  up  of  the  over- 
flow of  New  York.  Pop.  1909,  251,000. 

JERSEY,  NEW.  See  New  Jersey. 

JERUSALEM  , one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  interesting  cities  in  the  world,  in 
Palestine,  in  the  Turkish  province  of 
Syria.  It  stands  on  an  elevated  site 
(about  2500  feet  above  the  sea)  within 
the  fork  of  two  ravines,  the  Valley  of 
Jehoshaphat  on  the  east,  and  the  Valley 
of  Hinnom  on  the  south  and  west,  while 
a third  ravine  or  valley — the  Tyropoeon 
— partially  traverses  it  from  south  to 
north.  On  the  east  side  of  this  valley  is 
Mount  Moriah,  now  the  Mohammedan 
quarter  of  the  city,  where  anciently 
stood  the  palace  ancl  temple  of  Solomon. 
Immediately  south  of  this  stood  the 
mountain  fortress  of  Zion,  known  as  the 
City  of  David,  and  later  as  the  Akra  ol 
Lower  City.  This  part  of  the  city  is  now 
waste.  According  to  another  view,  how- 
ever, the  “City  of  David”  is  the  Upper 


Jerusalem  in  her  decay. 


28,717  acres  or  44. 87sq.  miles.  The  island 
is  fertile,  abundantly  wooded,  and  well 
cultivated.  The  climate  is  peculiarly 
mild  and  agreeable.  Wheat  is  the  prin- 
cipal cereal  raised,  and  large  quantities 
of  grapes,  peaches,  melons,  pears,  and 
other  fruits  are  exported,  as  also  vege- 
tables, and  especially  early  potatoes  for 
the  London  market.  Cows  of  the  famous 
Jersey  or  Alderney  breed  are  reared  and 
exported  in  great  numbers.  The  lower 
classes  speak  a sort  of  old  Norman- 
French  dialect,  while  French  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  upper  classes  and  the  law 
courts.  Jersey  has  its  own  legislature, 
known  as  the  “States.”  Appeals  lie  to 
the  queen  in  council.  The  island  is 
attached  to  the  diocese  of  Winchester. 
Principal  town,  St.  Helier.  Pop.  52,796. 
See  Channel  Islands. 

JERSEY  CITY,  the  capital  of  Hudson 
CO.,  New  Jersey,  on  the  Hudson,  oppo- 
site New  York,  from  which  it  is  about  a 
mile  distant  and  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  ferries.  The  manufacturing 
establishments  are  very  numerous,  and 


City  on  theopposite’or  western  side  of  the 
Tyropoeon  Valley,  and  to  this  the  name 
of  Zion  is  given  by  current  tradition. 
This  part  is  where  the  quarter  of  the 
Armenians,  the  citadel,  and  the  pro- 
testant  church  now  are.  Of  the  three 
walls  which  Jerusalem  latterly  possessed 
the  first  wall,  that  of  David,  was  for  the 
defense  of  this  Upper  City  (the  tradi- 
tional but  probably  not  the  ancient 
Zion).  The  second  wall  took  in  a con- 
siderable area  on  the  east  and  northeast, 
while  a new  town  or  suburb,  Bezetha, 
which  grew  up  on  the  north  of  this,  was 
enclosed  by  a third  wall,  built  by 
Agrippa  I.  The  present  limits  are  much 
the  same  as  those  indicated  by  the  third 
wall,  only  that  the  old  Lower  City  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  old  Upper  City 
are  unpopulated  places  outside  the 
modern  walls.  Of  the  seven  gates  only 
five  are  now  used.  The  interior  of  the 
city  is  much  occupied  by  mosques, 
churches,  and  convents.  The  houses  are 
substantially  built  of  stone,  and  present 
in  most  cases  no  windows  to  the  streets. 


JESTER 


JESUS  CHRIST 


which  accordingly — generally  narrow, 
illpaved,  and  sloping  to  the  center — are 
merely  long  lanes  with  dead  walls  on 
each  side  of  them.  In  the  northwest 
quarter  is  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher, so  called  because  alleged  to  contain 
under  its  roof  the  very  grave  in  which 
the  Savior  lay.  This  church,  which  was 
built  by  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constan- 
tine the  Great,  is  remarkable  for  the 
richness  of  its  decorations  and  the  num- 
ber of  pilgrims  by  whom  it  is  visited. 
A large  area  in  the  east  of  the  city  is 
occupied  by  the  inclosure  known  as  El 
Haram-Esh-Sherif  (The  Noble  Sanc- 
tuary), which  is  in  the  form  of  a regular 
parallelogram  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
a lofty  wall.  The  mostconspicuousbuild- 
ing  within  is  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  called 
also  Kubbet-es-Sakhrah  (Dome  of  the 
Rock),  a splendid  structure  of  octagonal 
form  which  occupies  the  site  of  the 
Jewish  temple.  Among  the  notable 
convents  are  the  Latin  convent,  and  the 
still  more  extensive  Armenian  convent 
capable  of  accommodating  1000  pil- 
grims. The  population  is  41,500,  of 
whom  10,000  are  Christians,  25,000 
Jews,  and  6000  Mohammedans. 

Jerusalem  is  not  mentioned  by  name 
till  B.c.  1500,  when  it  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Jebusites.  The  lower  part  was 
wrested  from  them  by  Joshua,  but  the 
upper  part  continued  in  their  possession 
till  the  time  of  David,  who  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  stronghold  of  Zion,  and 
made  Jerusalem  the  capital  of  his  king- 
dom. It  reached  the  height  of  its  glory 
under  Solomon,  after  whose  time  it  de- 
clined. In  586  Nebuchadnezzar  took 
and  destroyed  the  city  after  a long  siege, 
and  carried  off  those  of  the  inhabitants 
whom  the  sword  had  spared  as  captives  to 
Babylon.  On  the  return  from  the  cap- 
tivity the  temple  was  rebuilt,  b.c.  515. 
The  walls  were  not  rebuilt  till  the  time 
of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  455  b.c.  The 
city  had  regained  a considerable  degree 
of  prosperity,  when  it  was  sacked  and  its 
walls  levelled  by  Antiochus  of  Syria  in 
168.  Under  the  Maccabees,  Jerusalem,  in 
common  with  Judea,  became  once  more 
independent,  165  b.c.  It  next  became 
tributary  to  Rome,  and  had  been  greatly 
beautified  and  enriched  with  a fine  new 
temple  by  Herod  when  the  Saviour  ap- 
eared.  In  a.d.  66  Jerusalem  was  taken 
y a party  of  Jews  who  had  revolted 
against  Rome.  Titus,  the  son  of  the  em- 
peror Vespasian,  regained  it  in  the  year 
70,  after  a terrible  siege;  the  temple  was 
burned,  and  the  city  razed  to  the  ground. 
In  131  Hadrian  ordered  the  city  to  be 
rebuilt,  but  it  continued  depressed  till 
the  beginning  of  the  4th  century,  when, 
Rome  having  become  Christian,  Jerusa- 
lem shared  in  the  benefit,  and  assumed 
the  appearance  of  a distinguished  Chris- 
tian city,  under  the  fostering  care  of 
Helena,  mother  of  Constantine  the 
Great.  This  period  of  prosperity,  pro- 
longed by  a succession  of  Christian  em- 
perors, was  suddenly  terminated  in  636, 
by  the  conquest  of  the  Mohammedans, 
under  the  Arabian  Caliph  Omar.  In 
1099  the  Crusaders  took  Jerusalem  by 
storm,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  a Chris- 
tian monarchy,  which  with  difficulty 
maintained  its  existence  till  1187,  when 
it  was  finally  overthrown  by  Saladin. 
In  1517  Jerusalem  fell  into  the  hands  of 


the  Turks,  and  has  remained  to  this  day 
a part  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

JESTER,  or  COURTFOOL,  a buffoon 
or  person  maintained  by  the  noble  and 
wealthy  to  make  sport  by  jests  and 
merry  conceits  for  them  and  their 


friends.  In  Britain  the  last  jester  regu- 
larly attached  to  the  royal  household 
seems  to  have  been  Archie  Armstrong, 
the  jester  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 

JES'UITS,  or  SOCIETY  OF  JESUS, 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  Roman 
Catholic  religious  orders,  founded  in  the 
16th  century  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  and 
established  by  a papal  bull  in  1540,  the 
founder  being  the  first  general  of  the 
order.  The  members,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  im- 
plicit obedience  to  their  superiors,  were 
bound  by  a fourth,  viz.  to  go  whitherso- 
ever the  pope  should  send  them,  as  mis- 
sionaries for  the  conversion  of  infidels 
and  heretics,  or  for  the  service  of  the 
church  in  any  other  way.  The  popes 
Paul  III.  and  Julius  III.,  seeing  what  a 
support  they  might  have  in  the  Jesuits 
against  the  reformation,  granted  to 
them  privileges  such  as  no  body  of  men, 
in  church  or  state,  had  ever  before 
obtained.  They  were  permitted  to  enjoy 
all  the  rights  of  the  medicant  and  secular 
orders;  to  be  exempt  from  all  episcopal 
and  civil  jurisdiction  and  taxes,  so  that 
they  acknowledge  no  authority  but  that 
of  the  pope  and  the  superiors  of  their 
order;  to  exercise  every  priestly  func- 
tion, parochial  rights  notwithstanding, 
among  all  classes  of  men,  even  during 
an  interdict;  and  they  could  absolve 
from  all  sins  and  ecclesiastical  penalties 
dispense  themselves  from  the  observance 
of  fasts  and  prohibition  of  meats,  and 
even  from  the  use  of  the  breviary.  Their 
general  was  invested  with  unlimited 
power  over  the  members,  the  dispersion 
of  whom  throughout  society,  with  the 
most  entire  union  and  subordination, 
was  made  the  basis  of  the  ordei.  The 
constitution  of  the  body  was  drawn  up 
in  great  part  by  Loyola  himself,  but  the 
second  general,  Laynez,  had  much  to  do 
in  directing  its  early  movements. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  founder  of  the 
Christian  religion;  born  in  Bethlehem 
according  to  the  received  chronology  in 
the  year  of  Rome  754,  but  in  reality 
some  four  years  earlier,  that  is,  in  4 b.c. 
He  was  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  of  the 


tribe  of  Judah,  who  was  betrothed  to 
Joseph,  by  occupation  a carpenter.  Two 
genealogies  of  Joseph  differing  very 
much  after  the  time  of  David  are  given, 
one  by  Matthew,  chap,  i.;  the  other  by 
Luke,  chap.  iv.  Our  information  con- 
cerning him  is  derived  almost  entirely 
from  the  accounts  of  his  life  written  by 
the  four  evangelists  Matthew,  Mark, 
Luke  and  John,  and  incidental  notices 
in  other  parts  of  the  New  Testament. 
Before  the  birth  of  the  Holy  Child, 
Joseph  and  Mary,  then  residing  in 
Nazareth,  went  to  Bethlehem  to  be 
taxed,  and  it  was  there,  in  a manger, 
the  inm  being  full,  that  Jesus  was  born. 

On  the  night  of  his  birth  an  angel  an- 
nounced the  coming  of  a Saviour  to 
shepherds  tending  their  flocks  by  night 
in  the  field.  On  the  eighth  day  he  was 
circumcised  according  to  the  law  of 
Moses.  Soon  after  his  birth  he  was  hailed 
by  the  adoration  of  the  Magi  or  wise 
men  of  the  East,  who  were  miraculously 
directed  to  the  house  where  the  young 
child  was,  and  presented  royal  gifts. 
Herod,  alarmed  at  hearing  of  the  birth 
of  one  who  was  to  be  King  of  the  Jews, 
determined  to  destroy  all  the  male  chil- 
dren of  Bethlehem  and  its  vicinity  of  the 
age  of  less  than  two  years,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effecting  the  death  of  Jesus.  But 
Joseph,  being  miraculously  warned  of 
the  danger,  fled  to  Egypt  with  the  virgin 
and  her  child,  and  on  his  return,  after 
the  death  of  Herod,  went  to  reside  at 
Nazareth  in  Galilee,  whence  Jesus  was 
often  called  a Nazarene.  We  have  no 
further  accounts  of  Jesus  till  his  twelfth 
year,  when  his  parents  took  him  with 
them  to  Jerusalem.  Here  after  being 
lost  for  three  days  he  was  found  in  the 
temple  sitting  among  the  doctors  hear- 
ing them  and  asking  them  questions. 
Regarding  the  following  eighteen  years 
of  his  life  the  evangelists  are  silent.  He 
probably  during  this  period  followed  his 
occupation  as  a carpenter.  At  the  age  of 
about  thirty  he  appeared  as  a public 
preacher,  having  been  baptized  in  the 
Jordan  by  John,  who  recognized  him  as 
the  Messiah.  He  then  retired  to  the 
wilderness,  where  he  passed  forty  days 
in  fasting,  meditation,  and  prayer  previ- 
ous to  being  tempted  of  the  devil  as  de- 
scribed by  the  evangelists.  He  then 
began  to  select  his  disciples,  to  teach 
publicly,  and  perform  miracles.  Among 
the  notable  Incidents  of  his  public  career 
are,  the  changing  water  into  wine  at  the 
marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee  (his  first 
miracle) ; the  driving  of  the  traders  out 
of  the  temple  during  the  feast  of  the 
passover ; the  curing  by  a word  a noble- 
man’s son  lying  ill  at  Capernaum;  his 
scornful  reception  as  a preacher  in  the 
city  of  Nazareth  on  account  of  hishumble 
parentage;  the  calling  of  the  twelve 
apostles ; the  sermon  on  the  mount ; the 
healing  of  the  centurion’s  servant  and 
the  restoration  of  the  widow’s  son  at 
Nain  to  life ; the  healing  of  the  man  at  the 
pool  of  Bethesda;  the  miraculous  feed- 
ing of  5000  persons  with  five  loaves  and 
two  fishes;  the  calming  of  the  tempest 
on  the  lake  of  Gennesaret;  his  healing  '■ 
the  Syrophenician  woman’s  daughter  of 
an  unclean  spirit ; the  transfiguration  on 
the  mountain;  the  raising  of  Lazarus  at  , 
Bethany;  the  cure  of  blind  Eartimaeus  ^ 
at  Jericho;  the  entry  with  triumph  into 


JET 


JEWS 


Jerusalem ; the  fourth  feast  of  tne  pass- 
over  with  his  disciples,  known  as  the 
Last  Supper;  the  agony  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane;  the  betrayal  and  the  con- 
demnation before  the  sanhedrim;  the 
trial  before  Pilate,  and  the  crucifixion  on 
Golgotha  or  Mount  Calvary.  The  body 
of  Jesus  was  taken  down  from  the  cross 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  placed  in  a 
tomb  about  which  the  Jewish  priests  set 
a guard.  But  on  the  third  day,  i.e.,  on 
the  day  thence  called  the  Lord’s  day 
and  made  first  day  of  the  week,  he  rose 
from  the  dead,  appeared  to  his  disciples 
and  others,  and  on  the  fortieth  day  after 
his  resurrection,  while  with  his  dis- 
ciples on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  was 
visibly  taken  up  into  heaven.  These 
events  of  his  public  life  are  generally 
considered  to  have  occupied  three  years. 

JET,  a solid,  dry,  black,  inflammable 
fossil  substance,  harder  than  asphalt, 
susceptible  of  a good  polish,  and  glossy 
in  its  fracture,  which  is  conchoidal  or 
undulating.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  found 
chiefly  at  Whitby  in  beds  of  the  Upper 
Lias  shale.  It  is  the  altered  fossilized 
wood  of  coniferous  trees.  It  is  wrought 
into  buttons  and  personal  ornaments 
of  various  kinds. 

JET'SAM,  or  JETTISON,  goods  thrown 
overboard  from  a ship  in  danger.  See 
Flotsam. 

JETTY,  a kind  of  pier  or  artificial 
projection  of  stone,  brick,  wood,  or  other 
material,  affording  a convenient  place 
for  landing  from  and  discharging  vessels 
or  boats,  or  serving  as  a protection  from 
the  violence  of  the  waves ; or  a jetty  may 
be  built  out  from  the  bank  of  a stream 
obliquely  to  its  course,  and  employed 
either  to  direct  a current  on  an  obstruc- 
tion to  be  removed,  as  a bed  of  sand  or 
gravel,  or  to  deflect  it  from  the  bank 
which  it  tends  to  undermine  or  other- 
wise injure.  In  this  last  sense  jetties 
have  been  successfully  used  to  deepen 
river  mouths  or  retard  the  advance  of  a 
bar,  as  at  the  mouths  of  the  Mississippi, 
the  Maas,  the  Danube,  the  Vistula,  and 
other  rivers.  Many  harbors,  such  as 
Calais,  Ostend,  etc.,  depend  on  jetties 
for  their  existence. 

JEW,  The  Wandering,  a legendary 
personage  regarding  whom  there  are 
several  traditions.  One  of  the  most  com- 
mon is  that  he  was  a cobbler  in  Jerusa- 
lem by  name  Ahasuerus,  at  whose  house 
Jesus,  overcome  with  the  weight  of  the 
cross,  stopped  to  rest,  but  who  drove 
him  away  with  curses.  Jesus  is  said  to 
have  replied,  “Truly,  I go  away  and  that 
quickly;  but  tarry  thou  till  I come.” 
Since  then,  driven  by  fear  and  remorse, 
the  Jew  has  wandered,  according  to  the 
command  of  the  Lord,  from  place  to 
place,  and  has  never  yet  been  able  to 
find  a grave.  The  legend  has  been  made 
use  of  by  Shelley,  Lewis,  Croly,  and  Mrs. 
Norton  in  England,  Schubart  and 
Schlegel  in  Germany,  and  Sue  in  France. 

JEWS,  a Semitic  race  of  people  also 
known  as  Hebrews,  and  Israelites,  and 
whose  early  history  is  identified  with 
that  of  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land.  The 
main  authority  for  the  early  history  of 
this  people  is  the  Old  Testament.  But 
the  chronology  is  obscure  and  difficult 
to  harmonize.  Jewish  history  may  be 
considered  as  beginning  with  the  emigra- 
tion of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  ances- 


tor of  the  race,  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
probably  about  2000  b.c.  Abraham  re- 
moved to  the  southeast  of  Palestine, 
where  we  find  his  descendants  flourish- 
ing when  they  were  led  to  emigrate  to 
Goshen,  in  Egypt.  The  interval  is  filled 
up  with  the  history  of  the  patriarchs, 
Abraham,  Isaac, and  Jacob.  Joseph, ason 
of  Jacob  had  become  viceroy  of  Egypt, 
an  d his  father  and  brotherswere  received 
with  high  favor  by  the  Pharaoh  who  then 
ruled  in  this  country.  But  in  course  of 
time  the  condition  of  the  Israelites, 
under  the  rule  of  the  Pharaohs,  changed 
for  the  worse.  They  were  treated  as 
bondmen,  and  forced  labor  exacted  of 
them  in  an  unreasonable  degree.  Accord- 
ing to  some  authorities  the  Pharaoh  who 
began  to  oppress  the  Israelites  was 
Rameses  II.,  and  their  deliverance  took 
place  under  his  son.  It  was  perhaps 
about  1320  b.c.,  others  say  1491,  b.c., 
that  a deliverer  in  the  person  of  Moses 
led  the  Israelites  out  of  the  land  of 
bondage,  where  they  resided  for  some 
400  years.  By  this  time  they  formed  a 
community  of  several  millions,  divided 
into  twelve  tribes,  named  respe’ctively 
after  Reuben,  Simeon,  Judah,  Issachar, 
Zebulun,  Benjamin,  Dan,  Naphtali,  Gad 
and  Asher,  sons  of  Jacob,  and  Manasseh 
and  Ephriam,  sons  of  Joseph.  Under  his 
leadership  they  went  forth  into  the  wil- 
derness; through  him  they  received  the 
law  of  the  ten  commandments  on 
Mount  Sinai,  and  the  whole  polity  by 
which  they  were  to  be  governed  as  a 
people.  A ceremonial  of  sacrifice  was 
instituted,  and  Aaron,  the  elder  brother 
of  Moses,  and  his  sons  consecrated  as  a 
hereditary  priesthood,  the  priestly  func- 
tions thus  falling  to  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
The  nation  was  established  as  a theoc- 
racy, and  this  principle,  however  often 
forgotten  in  times  of  repose,  continued 
henceforward  to  be  the  inspiring  idea  of 
national  unity  throughout  the  frequent 
crises  of  Jewish  history.  The  emigrants 
first  settled  at  Kadesh  on  the  southern 
borders  of  Palestine,  where  they  re- 
mained for  many  years,  this  being  the 
period  spoken  of  in  the  scriptures  as 
the  forty  years’  wandering  in  the  wilder- 
ness. They  now  marched  northward  to 
find  new  settlements  in  Palestine,  which 
they  had  to  wrest  by  force  from  the 
Canaanites.  Moses  died  before  entering 
the  promised  land,  and  was  succeeded  as 
leader  by  Joshua,  under  whom  the 
Israelites  advanced  to  the  conquest  of 
the  territories  of  the  Canaanites  west  of 
Jordan.  The  former  inhabitants,  how- 
ever, were  not  entirely  subjugated,  but 
retained  possession  of  a number  of 
cities,  and  the  twelve  tribes  settled  in 
districts  which  were  more  or  less  cut  off 
from  one  another,  and  which  formed  an 
exceedingly  loose  union  of  small  states 
under  tribal  chiefs,  at  times  hard  pressed 
by  neighboring  peoples.  It  was  only 
long  after,  and  by  a gradual  process  of 
absorption,  that  the  Canaanite  terri- 
tories and  their  inhabitants  became 
amalgamated  with  the  Israelites. 

After  the  death  of  Joshua,  about  1220, 
or  according  to  another  chronology  1427 
B.C.,  a succession  of  judges  or  military 
leaders  arose.  Among  the  more  remark- 
able of  these  judges  were  Barak,  Debor- 
rah  the  prophetess,  Gideon,  Jephthah, 
Samson,  and  Samuel.  About  1070  the 


Philistines,  who  inhabited  the  coast  and 
the  low-lying  plains  west  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  had  defeated  the  Israel- 
ites and  subjugated  part  of  the  country 
when  Samuel,  the  “last  judge  in  Israel,” 
was  inspired  to  declare  to  Saul,  a Ben- 
jamite,  his  destiny  to  become  king,  and 
anointed  him  as  such.  Saul  soon  proved 
his  fitness  for  the  post  by  his  successful 
leadership  of  the  Israelites,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  organize  the  forces  of  Israel, 
and  to  fight  with  varying  success  against 
their  enemies  till  his  disastrous  defeat 
and  death  at  Mount  Gilboa,  after  which 
the  power  of  the  Philistines  again  pre- 
dominated on  the  west  side  of  Joruan. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  river  the  mili- 
tary skill  of  Abner  still  preserved  a king- 
dom for  Saul’s  son,  Ishbosheth,  and 
gradually  reasserted  with  some  success 
his  authority  in  Ephraim  and  Benjamin. 
But  in  Judah,  David,  a native  of  Bethle- 
hem, a warrior  whom  Saul’s  jealousy  had 
driven  into  exile  and  alliance  with 'the 
Philistines,  and  who  had  previously  been 
anointed  king  in  place  of  Saul,  estab- 
lished a separate  principality,  the  capi- 
tal of  which  was  at  Hebron.  For  several 
years  a hot  war  was  waged  between  the 
two  Hebrew  states,  and  ended  only  with 
the  murder  of  Abner  and  Ishbosheth, 
when  all  the  tribes  acknowledged  David 
as  king.  David  now  transferred  his  resi- 
dence from  Hebron  to  Jebus,  a fortified 
city  which  he  wrested  from  the  Canaan- 
ites, and  called  the  city  of  David,  after- 
ward Jerusalem.  He  assailed  and  sub- 
dued the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Edom- 
ites, Ammonities,  and  other  surround- 
ing nations,  till  all  the  country  from  the 
n.e.  end  of  the  Red  Sea  to  Damascus 
acknowledged  his  authority.  To  this 
prosperous  kingdom  succeeded  his  son 
Solomon  (b.c.  993,  or  by  the  long  chro- 
nology 1015).  His  reign,  owing  to  the 
warlike  reputation  which  the  nation  had 
acquired  under  David,  was  entirely 
peaceful.  He  had  no  military  tenden- 
cies, but  he  took  great  pains  to  arrange, 
the  administration  of  the  kingdom  in  an 
orderly  way,  and  his  wisdom  as  a ruler 
and  judge  became  proverbial.  His 
alliances  with  Tyre  and  Egypt  enabled 
him  to  carry  on  an  extensive  and  lucra- 
tive commerce.  He  built  the  celebrated 
temple  in  Jerusalem,  and  extended  and 
improved  the  city.  His  harem  contained 
700  wives  that  were  princesses,  besides 
300  concubines.  But  with  these,  and 
with  the  extended  commerce  of  the 
kingdom,  it  was  inevitable  that  foreign 
elements  should  be  introduced  into  the 
Jewish  national  life.  Thus  Solomon 
erected  altars  for  the  deities  and  the 
worship  of  the  Moabites,  the  Ammonites 
the  Sidonians,  and  other  nations;  and 
the  severe  simplicity  of  old  Hebrew 
manners  gave  place  to  luxury  and  craft. 

The  splendor  of  Solomon’s  reign  had 
entailed  heavy  exactions  upon  his  peo- 
ple. When  Rehoboam,  Solomon’s  son, 
succeeded,  they  came  with  Jeroboam 
at  their  head  and  demanded  that  he 
should  make  their  yoke  lighter.  Reho- 
boam answered  scornfully,  whereupon 
ten  tribes  revolted  and  set  up  Jeroboam 
as  king  of  a separate  kingdom  of  Israel, 
with  its  capital  first  at  Sichem,  later  at 
Samaria.  Judah,  along  with  a part  of 
Benjamin  and  the  tribe  of  the  Levites, 
remained  loyal  to  the  dynasty  of  David. 


JEWS 


JEWS 


After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recon- 
quer the  kingdom  of  Isreal,  Rehoboam 
was  forced  by  an  invasion  of  Shishak  of 
Egypt  to  give  up  the  hope  of  uniting  the 
two  kingdoms.  In  the  next  generation 
things  had  changed  so  much  that  Asa, 
king  of  Judah,  was  obliged  to  seek  the 
help  of  Benhadad  of  Syria  against  King 
Baasha  of  Israel.  Baasha  was  succeeded 
by  Elah,  Elah  by  Zimri,  and  Zimri  by 
Omri,  under  whom  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
seems  to  have  grown  powerful.  Omri 
established  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
at  Samaria  (about  906  b.c.),  and  sub- 
jugated the  Moabites.  The  son  of  Omri, 
Ahab,  married  Jezebel,  princess  of  Tyre, 
an  event  which  led  to  the  extension  of 
Phoenician  idolatry  in  Israel.  As  Solo- 
mon had  done  before,  Ahab  built  a tem- 
ple for  the  Syrian  Baal  in  his  capital. 
In  his  reign  and  subsequently  the  great 
prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha  played  an 
important  part.  Ahab  was  slain  at 
Ramoth-Gilead  'in  battle  against  the 
Syrians.  He  was  succeeded  by  Ahaziah 
(853-851),  and  Joram  (851-843).  The 
latter  was  slain  by  Jehu,  a captain  of  the 
army,  who  had  been  anointed  king  by 
command  of  Elisha.  Jehu  (843-815) 
now  made  a clearance  in  Samaria  of 
Syrian  idolatries,  destroying  the  temple 
of  Baal  and  putting  the  priests  to  death. 
Under  Jeroboam  II.,  fourth  in  the  line 
of  Jehu,  the  kingdom  reached  a high 
point  of  prosperity  (790-749).  After 
Jeroboam’s  death  there  was  a quick 
succession  of  kings,  Zachariah,  Shallum, 
Menahem,  Pekaniah,  Pekah;  none  of 
any  significance.  Under  Pekah  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  became  tributary  to 
the  Assyrians.  (See  Assyria).  Hosea, 
Pekah’s  successor,  made  an  ineffectual 
attempt  to  free  the  country  from  the 
Assyrian  yoke;  but  finally,  in  722, 
Samaria  was  captured  by  the  Assyrian 
king,  Sargon,  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
virtually  destroyed,  and  the  chief  in- 
habitants carried  away  and  settled  in 
Assyria  and  Media. 

Generally  while  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
had  been  flourishing,  that  of  Judah  had 
stood  in  the  background.  Rehoboam  was 
succeeded  by  Abijam,  Asa,  Jehoshaphat, 
the  last  a powerful  and  fortunate  king. 
In  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  the  war 
with  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Jehoshaphat 
married  his  son  Jehoram  (848-844)  to 
Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab  of  Israel. 
After  the  murder  of  her  son  Ahaziah  by 
Jehu,  Athaliah  seized  the  supreme  power 
in  Jerusalem,  and  put  to  death  her  own 
grandchildren  in  order  to  destroy  the 
line  of  David,  Joash  alone  being  miracu- 
lously rescued.  Athaliah  was  over- 
thrown and  put  to  death  and  the  young 
Joash  raised  to  the  throne  (837-797). 
His  successors  were;  Amaziah  (797- 
792),  Uzziah  (792-740),  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
and  Hezekiah  (727-699).  Under  Ahaz 
and  Hezekiah  Isaiah  delivered  his  sub- 
lime prophecies  Hezekiah  was  one  of 
the  greatest  reforming  kings;  his  in- 
fluence extended  widely  over  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  now  in  extreme  decline. 
He  was  miraculously  delivered  from  an 
invasion  of  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria, 
by  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  army. 
(See  Assyria.)  Josiah  (641-610)  was  tJiB 
last  of  the  pious  kings  of  Judali.  H^* 
was  killed  in  battle  against  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt.  After  him  there  was  an  un- 


interrupted succession  of  weak  and  in- 
capable monarchs,  till  under  Zedekiah 
(599-588)  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  b.c.  588,  put  an  end 
to  the  monarchy,  Jerusalem  being  de- 
stroyed and  many  of  the  people  being 
carried  captive  to  Babylon.  The  prophet 
Jeremiah  flourished  from  the  reign  of 
Josiah  to  the  captivity. 

In  538  Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus 
king  of  Persia,  who  restored  the  Jews 
and  appointed  Zerubbabel,  governor  of 
Judsea,  as  a Persian  province.  The  great 
majority  of  the  Jews  remained  in  Persia, 
however,  only  about  42,000  returned,  and 
settled  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  Jerusa- 
lem. About  458  a second  return  of  exiles 
was  led  from  Persia  by  Ezra.  Along  with 
Nehemiah,  who  had  been  appointed 
Persian  governor  ©f  Judaea,  Ezra  pro- 
mulgated the  new  law-book,  practically 
identical  with  the  Pentateuch.  From 
the  time  of  Nehemiah  to  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  empire  the  Jews  continued  to 
live  in  peace  as  Persian  subjects,  but  en- 
joying their  own  institutions.  When 
Alexander  the  Great  overthrew  the 
Persian  empire  the  Jews  readily  sub- 
mitted on  being  promised  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  (b.c.  332).  After  the 
division  of  Alexander’s  empire  Palestine 
was  long  a possession  of  the  Ptolemies  of 
Egypt,  under  whom  it  enjoyed  a period 
of  tranquility.  It  was  under  the  patron- 
age of  Ptolemy  (II.)  Philadelphus 
(reigned  b.c.  285-247),  according  to  tra- 
dition, that  the  Septaugint  or  Greek 
version  of  the  Old  Testament  scriptures 
was  made.  After  the  death  of  Ptolemy 
Philopator  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria 
became  master  of  Palestine  (b.c.  198). 
An  Egyptian  and  a Syrian  party  now 
arose  among  the  Jews,  and  gave  occa- 
sion to  civil  dissentions,  which  led 
Antiochus  IV.  (Epiphanes)  to  invade 
Judtea  (b.c.  170),  when  he  took  Jerusa- 
lem by  storm  and  slaughtered  the  in- 
habitants without  distinction  of  age 
or  sex,  and  endeavored  to  compel  the 
Jews  to  give  up  their  religion.  At  length 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Maccabees  or 
Asmonaean  family  resistance  arose,  and 
after  a struggle  of  nearly  fourteen  years 
was  successful.  In  135  b.c.  John 
Hyracnus,  ‘son  of  Simon,  a brother  of 
Judas  Maccabaeus,  completed  the  in- 
dependence of  Judaea,  and  extended  his 
dominion  over  the  ancient  limits  of  the 
Hold  Land.  During  his  reign  the  rival 
sects  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  be- 
came established.  Aristobulus  I.,  the  son 
of  Hyrcanus,  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
which  was  held  by  his  successors.  In 
b.c.  63  Pompey,  called  in  to  help  the 
Pharisees,  took  Jerusalem,  and  made 
the  Jews  tributary  to  the  Romans. 
Latterly  Herod  the  Great,  who  entirely 
threw  off  Jewish  manners  and  cultivated 
the  favor  of  the  Romans,  was  recognized 
as  King  of  Judsea  by  the  Roman  senate. 
It  was  in  b.c.  4,  the  last  year  of  his 
reign,  that  the  birth  of  Christ  took  place 
at  Bethlehem.  In  6 a.d.  Judcea  and 
Samaria  became  a Roman  province 
under  a procurator,  who  had  his  seat  at 
Ctesarea,  and  was  subordinate  to  the  pre- 
fect of  Syria.  Pontius  Pilate,  under 
wliorn  our  Lord’s  public  ministry  and 
crucifixion  occurred,  was  made  pro- 
curator A.D.  26.  For  a time  tlie  country 
was  again  ruled  by  a king,  Herod 


Agrippa,  a.d.  41-44.  He  persecuted  the 
Christians  and  put  the  Apostle  James  to 
death.  In  a.d.  65  a party  of  the  Jews 
revolted  from  the  Roman  yoke  and 
roused  the  whole  of  Palestine  to  insur- 
rection. Vespasian  was  sent  by  Nero  to 
suppress  it,  but  before  the  war  was  fin- 
ished was  called  to  the  empire  and  left 
his  son  Titus  to  conclude  it.  The  result 
■ was  the  capture  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  a.d.  70,  an  event  that  de- 
prived the  Jews  of  the  center  of  unity  to 
which  their  national  life  had  hitherto 
clung.  After  an  insurrection  headed  by 
Bar-Cochba,  132-135,  Hadrian  razed 
the  remains  of  Jerusalem  left  by  Titus  to 
the  ground,  and  erected  in  their  place  a 
Gentile  city,  with  the  title  .Elia  Capi- 
tolina. Jews  were  forbidden  to  enter 
this  city  on  pain  of  death,  and  the  name 
of  Jerusalem  was  not  revived  till  the 
time  of  Constantine. 

Henceforth  the  Jews  became  more 
and  more  a scattered  people,  without  a 
country  they  could  call  their  own. 
Under  the  Roman  emperors  their  treat- 
ment varied.  Under  the  Emperor  Julian 
they  ventured  to  make  preparations  for 
a new  temple  in  Jerusalem.  Although 
this  attempt  failed,  they  derived  great 
advantages  from  their  sanhedrim,  re- 
vived at  Tiberias,  and  their  patriarch- 
ates (presidencies  of  the  sanhedrim), 
which  were  established — one  at  Tiberias 
for  the  western  Jews  (429) ; the  other  for 
the  Jews  beyond  the  Euphrates,  latterly 
at  Bagdad.  These  two  patriarchates  be- 
came points  of  union,  and  flourishing 
Jewish  academies  arose  in  the  east  to 
serve  as  seminaries  for  their  learned 
rabbins.  One  of  the  works  of  these 
scholars  was  the  collection  of  the  tra- 
ditionary expositions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  additions  to  it,  which  was 
completed  a.d.  500,  and  received,  under 
the  name  of  the  Talmud,  as  a rule  of 
faith  by  the  scattered  communities  of 
Jews.  In  time  the  scattered  Jews  made 
themselves  masters  of  the  commerce  of 
of  the  Old  World,  and,  as  money- 
lenders and  brokers,  were  often  of  great 
importance  to  princes  and  nobles.  Even 
during  the  dreadful  persecutions  which 
they  underwent  from  the  cruelty  of  the 
Christians  they  still  continued  pros- 
perous in  Christian  countries.  They 
lived  more  happily,  however,  among 
the  Mohammedans,  although  they  were 
distinguished  by  dishonorable  badges 
and  oppressed  by  heavy  taxes;  and  dur- 
ing the  Moorish  supremacy  in  Spain 
their  prosperity  was  great  and  their 
learning  flourishing.  In  the  cities  of 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  after  the 
11th  century,  particular  streets  and  in- 
closed places  were  assigned  to  them  as  a 
sort  of  outcast,  in  consequence  of 
which,  in  the  persecutions  during  the 
crusades,  thousands  often  fell  victims  at 
once  to  the  popular  fury.  They  were 
generally  pronounced  incapable  of  civil 
rights  and  public  offices.  In  Spain  arid 
Portugal  during  the  15th  century  they 
yielded  to  force,  and  multitudes  suf- 
fered themselves  to  be  baptized,  many 
were  put  to  death  by  the  inquisition, 
and  at  last  they  were  banished  from  the 
peninsula.  It  was  only  in  the  end  of  the 
18th  century  that  the  Jews  began  to  be 
put  on  a level  with  other  citizens, 
France  leading  the  way  after  the  revolu- 


JEWETT 


JOB 


tion,  and  Prussia  following  (1811).  After 
repeated  unsuccessful  attempts  to  pro- 
cure their  admission  into  the  British 
parliament,  the  object  was  at  last  effected 
in  1858.  The  most  remarkable  circum- 
stances connected  with  the  modern 
Jews  is  the  tenacity  with  which  they 
cling  to  their  ancient  religion,  and  the 
purity  in  which  on  the  whole  they  have 
retained  their  racial  characteristics  in 
the  midst  of  alien  peoples.  In  modern 
times  they  have  produced  some  of  the 
greatest  names  in  letters  and  arts,  as 
Spinoza,  Moses  Mendelssohn,  Heinrich 
Heine,  Meyerbeer,  etc.  The  total  number 
of  Jews  throughout  the  world  is  esti- 
mated at  8,000,000,  the  greater  number 
being  in  Russia  and  Austria-Hungary. 

JEWETT,  Charles  Coffin,  American 
librarian,  was  born  in  Lebanon,  Me.,  in 
1816.  He  became  librarian  at  Brown 
university  in  1841  and  from  1843  to 
1848  was  professor  of  modern  languages. 
He  then  became  librarian  of  the  Smith- 
sonian institution  and  from  1855  to 
1868  was  superintendent  of  the  Boston 
public  library.  He  was  the  first  of  the 
modern  school  of  librarians.  At  Boston 
he  prepared  the  card  catalogue,  one  of 
the  first  instances  of  the  use  of  the  card 
catalogue  in  public  libraries.  He  died 
in  1868. 

JEWETT,  Sarah  Orme,  American 
author;  was  born  in  South  Berwick, 
Me.,  in  1849.  Her  best  known  works  are 
Country  By-ways,  A Country  Doctor, 
Deep  Haven,  The  King  of  Folly  Island, 
and  Other  People.  Most  of  her  works 
consists  of  short  stories  noted  for  their 
sympathetic  portrayal  of  New  England 
life. 

JEWS’-HARP,  a toy  musical  instru- 
ment held  between  the  teeth,  which 


Jews’-harp. 


gives  a sound  by  the  motion  of  a tongue 
of  steel,  which,  being  struck  by  the  hand, 
plays  against  the  breath. 

JHALAWAR,  Indian  native  state  in 
Rajputana;  area,  3043  sq.  miles;  pop 
343,601.  Capital,  Jhalra  Patan,  or 
Patan;pop.  12,000. 

JHANG,  town  of  Hindustan,  in  the 
Punjab,  about  3 miles  from  the  Chenab. 
Pop.  (with  adjoining  Maghiana),  24,382. 
— Jhang  district  has  an  area  of  5871  sq. 
miles;  pop.  436,841. 

JHANSI  (jhan'se),  a fortified  town  in 
Hindustan,  in  Gwalior  state.  Central 
India.  Pop.  55,724. 

JIB,  a triangular  fore-and-aft  sail  ex- 
tended on  a stay  stretching  from  a bow- 
sprit or  jib  boom  to  a mast, the  jib  boom 
being  a continuation  of  the  bowsprit  by 
a spar  run  out  from  the  extremity  of  it. 

JIG,  a light  quick  tune  or  air  in  f , |,  |, 
I.  I)  I.  or  ¥ time,  to  be  found  in  the 
sonatas  of  suites  of  Corelli,  Handel,  and 
other  composers  till  toward  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century.  The  Irish  jig, 
played  to  a dance  also  called  a jig,  is  a 
lively  tune  of  two  or  three  sections 
written  in  f time. 

P.  E.— 44 


JINGOISM,  during  the  winter  of  1877- 
78,  when  England  was  undecided  to  in- 
terfere forcibly  in  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Turkey  the  excitement  in 
London  became  intense,  and  the  fighting 
spirit  found  vent  in  a doggerel: 

“We  don’t  want  to  fight,  but  by  Jingo,  If  we  do, 
We’ve  got  the  ships,  we’ve  got  the  men,  we’ve 
got  the  money  too.” 

The  term,  corresponding  to  “spread- 
eagleism”  in  America,  has  ever  since 
been  applied  to  the  warlike  advocates 
of  British  imperial  sway,  and  has  been 
taken  up  with  the  same  meaning  in  the 
United  States. 

JINN,  Jinnee  being  the  singular,  in 
Mohammedan  mythology,  a race  of 
genii,  angels,  or  demons,  fabled  to  have 
been  created  several  thousand  years  be- 
fore Adam.  They  are  not  immortal; 
they  are  to  survive  mankind,  but  to  die 
before  the  general  resurrection.  Some 
are  good  and  obedient  to  the  will  of  God; 
others  are  disobedient  and  malignant. 
They  can  assume  the  shape  of  the  lower 
animals,  and  are  visible  or  invisible  as 
they  please.  Their  chief  residence  is  the 
mountain  K3,f  in  Arabia. 

JIT'OMIR,  a town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  Volbynia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Teterew,  80  miles  w.  of 
Kiev.  Pop.  55,875. 

JOACHIM  (yo'i-kem),  Joseph,  Hun- 
garian violinist,  was  born  at  Kittsu,  near 
Pressburg,  Hungary,  in  1831.  When 
only  seven  years  old  he  made  his  first 
public  appearance  at  Budapest.  In  1844 
he  visited  England  and  was  enthusias- 
tically received.  He  was  appointed  con- 
cert meister  in  1849  of  the  orchestra  at 
Weimar.  In  1854  he  accepted  the  post 
of  concert  conductor  and  solo  violinist 
at  the  court  of  Hanover.  In  1868  he  was 
appointed  head  of  the  hoch  schule  fiir 
ausiibende  tonkunst.  His  most  im- 
portant work  is  the  Hungarian  concerto 
in  D minor.  He  is  best  known  as  the 
greatest  master  of  style,  repose  and  tone 
of  his  day  and  generation.  He  died  in 
1907. 

JOAN,  the  female  pope,  according  to  a 
story  long  believed,  but  now  acknowl- 
edged to  be  a fiction,  was  said  to  have 
been  a native  of  Mainz,  who,  falling  in 
love  with  an  Englishman  at  Fulda, 
traveled  with  him  in  man’s  attire, studied 
at  Athens,  and  visited  Rome.  Under  the 
name  of  Johannes  Anglicus,  she  rose  by 
her  talents  from  the  station  of  a notary 
till  she  was  elected  to  the  papal  chair 
under  the  name  of  John  VIII.  (854  to 
856,  between  Leo  IV.  and  Benedict 
III.).  She  governed  well,  but  having 
become  pregnant  she  was  delivered  in  a 
solemn  procession,  and  died  on  the  spot. 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  a 
heroine  in  French  and  English  history, 
was  born  in  the  village  of  Domr4my, 
Basse  Lorraine,  now  department  of  the 
Vosges,  in  1409  (some  say  1412).  While 
she  was  still  a girl  she  began  to  be  deeply 
affected  by  the  woes  of  her  country, 
much  of  which  was  conquered  by  the 
English,  leaving  only  a small  portion  to 
the  French  king,  Charles  VII.  In  1427 
Orleans  was  being  besieged  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  its  fall  would  have  ruined  the 
cause  of  Charles.  At  this  time  Joan,  who 
had  been  noted  for  her  solitary  medita- 
tions and  pious  enthusiasm,  began,  as 


she  declared,  to  see  visions  and  hear 
angelic  voices,  which  ultimately  called 
upon  her  to  take  up  arms  for  Charles; 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans,  and  conduct 
Charles  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned.  At 
first  she  was  regarded  as  insane,  but 
eventually  she  found  her  way  to  the 
king  and  his  councillors,  and  having 
persuaded  them  of  her  sincerity,  re- 
ceived permission  to  hasten  with  Dunois 
to  the  deliverance  of  Orleans.  In  a male 
dress,  fully  armed,  she  bore  the  sword 
and  the  sacred  banner,  as  the  signal  of 
victory,  at  the  head  of  the  army.  The 
first  enterprise  was  successful.  With 
10,000  men  she  marched  from  Blois,  and 
on  the  29th  April,  1429,  entered  Orleans 
with  supplies.  By  bold  sallies,  to  which 
she  animated  the  besieged,  the  English 
were  forced  from  their  entrenchments, 
and  Suffolk  abandoned  the  siege  (May 
8,  1429).  Other  successes  followed- 
Charles  entered  Rheims  in  triumph;  and 
at  the  anointing  and  coronation  of  the 
king,  July  17,  Joan  stood  at  his  side. 

She  was  wounded  in  the  attack  on 
Paris,  where  Bedford  repulsed  the 
French  troops,  but  continued  to  take 
part  in  the  war  till  May  25,  1430,  when 
she  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Burgun- 
dians, and  sold  to  the  English.  She  was 
taken  to  Rouen,  and  after  a long  trial, 
accompanied  with  many  shameful  cir- 
cumstances, condemned  to  death  by  the 
church  as  a sorceress.  On  submitting  to 
the  church,  however,  and  declaring  her 
revelations  to  be  the  work  of  Satan,  her 
punishment  was  commuted  to  perpetual 
imprisonment.  But  pretexts  were  soon 
found  to  treat  her  as  a relapsed  criminal, 
and  as  such  she  was  burned  at  Rouen, 
May  30, 1431,  and  her  ashes  were  thrown 
into  the  Seine.  She  died  with  undaunted 
fortitude.  Five  years  after,  a court 
specially  constituted  by  Pope  Calixtua 
III.  to  examine  the  charges  against  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  pronounced  her  inno- 
cent. Voltaire,  in  a notorious  burlesque, 
Southey,  Schiller,  and  others  have  made 
her  the  subject  of  their  verse.  Schiller’s 
drama  still  remains  the  worthiest  monu- 
ment of  her  fame. 

JOB,  the  hero  of  an  ancient  Hebrew 
poem,  which  forms  one  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Job,  an  upright 
man,  with  a family  of  seven  sons  and 
three  daughters,  with  large  herds  and 
numerous  servants,  is  suddenly,  with 
the  permission  of  Jehovah  and  by  the 
agency  of  Satan,  deprived  of  his  pos- 
sessions and  his  children,  and  smitten 
with  a sore  disease,  yet  submits  patiently 
to  the  divine  will.  Three  friends  come  to 
console  him,  and  a large  part  of  the 
oem  is  occupied  with  the  speeches  of 
is  f riends,  who  attribute  his  misfortunes 
to  wickedness  and  hypocrisy,  and  his 
replies  to  them,  until  near  the  close, 
when  God  himself  is  introduced  answer- 
ing Job  out  of  a whirlwind.  In  the 
sequel  Job  is  delivered  from  his  calami- 
ties, lives  140  years,  becomes  richer  than 
he  had  been  before,  and  begets  seven 
sons  and  three  daughters.  The  design  of 
the  book  seems  to  be  to  enlarge  men’s 
views  of  the  providence  of  God.  It  was 
probably  written  between  the  7th  and 
the  5th  centuries  b.c.,  and  is  certainly 
not  earlier  than  the  time  of  David.  The 
basis  of  the  story  was  probably  tra- 
ditional. 


JODHPUR 


JOHN 


JODHPUR  (jod-por'),  a town  of  Hin- 
dustan, capital  of  the  state  of  Jodhpur. 
Pop.  60,437. — The  state  of  Jodhpur  or 
Marwar  is  the  largest  in  Rajputana,  hav- 
ing an  area  of  37^,445  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
2,521,727. 

JOE  MILLER,  the  name  attached  to  a 
well-known  collection  of  jests,  first  pub- 
lished in  1739.  The  name  belonged  to  a 
comic  actor,  who  had  then  a great  repu- 
tation at  a wit  and  humorist.  The  real 
compiler,  however,  was  a John  Mottley, 
an  obscure  author  who  died  in  1750. 

JOHAN'NESBURG,  a town  in  the 
Transvaal,  recognized  as  the  central 
point  of  the  goldfields  of  the  district 
stretching  southwest  from  Pretoria  to 
Potchefstrom,  and  known  as  the  Wit- 
watersrand.  The  South  African  war 
temporarily  almost  ruined  the  place. 
Estimated  pop.  over  70,000. 

JOHN,  one  of  the  apostles,  often  dis- 
tinguished as  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
the  reputed  author  of  the  fourth  gospel, 
three  epistles,  and  the  Revelation,  was 
the  son  of  Zebedee  and  Salome,  and  the 
brother  of  James.  Previous  to  his  call 
by  Jesus  he  was  a fisherman  on  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  together  with  his  father,  his 
brother,  and  Simon  Peter  and  Andrew, 
who  were  his  partners.  John,  together 
with  Peter  and  James,  was  admitted  to  a 
more  confidential  intercourse  with  Jesus 
than  the  other  apostles,  and  he  is  re- 
peatedly spoken  of  as  “the  disciple 
whom  Jesus  loved.”  His  gospel  was 
written  later  than  any  of  the  others — 
according  to  some  critics  to  refute  par- 
ticular heresies,  and  contains  fuller  de- 
tails of  our  Lord’s  conversations  and  dis- 
courses than  the  other  gospels,  and  is 
also  more  doctrinal  in  character.  Of  the 
three  epistles  the  first  had  much  resem- 
blance to  the  gospel ; but  the  other  two 
were  considerred  doubtful  even  by  the 
early  fathers.  After  the  death  of  Jesus, 
John  continued  at  Jerusalem,  and  we 
afterward  find  him  at  Samaria  (Acts 
iii.  1425).  Tradition  handed  down  by 
the  fathers  make  him  die  at  Ephesus, 
and  if  he  wrote  the  Revelation  he  must 
have  been  banished  to  Patmos.  The 
time  of  his  death  is  unknown, 

JOHN,  called  the  Baptist,  the  fore- 
runner of  Christ,  was  born  six  months 
before  Jesus  (their  mothers  were  cous- 
ins), of  a Levitical  family  in  Judaea.  He 
lived  an  austere  life,  given  up  to  solitary 
meditations,  till  a.d.  26,  when  he  began 
to  preach  in  the  deserts  of  Judaea,  an- 
nouncing that  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
was  at  hand,  and  proclaiming  himself 
the  harbinger  of  the  Messiah.  He  bap- 
tized many  converts,  and  testified  to  the 
higher  mission  of  Jesus  at  the  time  of  his 
baptism  in  the  Jordan.  To  gratify  a 
vindictive  woman  Herod  Antipas,  te- 
trarch  of  Galilee,  caused  him  to  be  be- 
headed in  prison. 

JOHN,  the  name  of  twenty  three 
opes,  among  whom  are  the  following; — 
ohn  I.  (St.  Johii),  pope  in  523-526. 
Theodoric  sent  him  to  Constantinople, 
to  induce  the  Emperor  Justin  to  adopt 
milder  measures  toward  the  Arians,  and 
on  his  returning  without  success  Theo- 
doric threw  him  into  prison,  where  he 
died. — John  XII.  succeeded  Pope  Agape- 
tus  II.  in  956,  when  only  eighteen  years 
old.  He  w^is  the  first  pope  who  changed 
hie  name  on  his  accession  to  the  papal 


dignity.  His  life  was  so  licentious  and 
disorderly  that  the  Emperor  Otho  had 
him  deposed  by  a council  in  963,  and 
Leo  VIII.  elected  in  his  stead.  But  on 
Otho’s  departure  John  returned  to  the 
city  with  a strong  body  of  followers  and 
drove  out  Leo.  He  died  in  964. — John 
XXII.,  a native  of  Cahors,  was  elected 
pope  at  Lyons  in  1316,  after  the  death  of 
Clement  V.  He  resided  at  Avignon,  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  disputes  of  the 
emperors  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick 
of  Austria.  He  died  in  1334. — John 
XXIII.  (Balthasar  Cossa),  born  in 
Naples,  was  a pirate  in  bis  youth,  after- 
ward studied  at  Bologna,  and  was 
elected  pope  in  1410,  by  the  council 
of  Pisa,  after  the  death  of  Alexander 
V.,  on  condition  that,  if  Gregory  XII. 
and  Benedict  XIII.  would  resign,  he 
would  also  retire  to  end  the  schism. 
He  summoned  the  council  of  Constance, 
demanded  by  the  Emperor  Sigismund, 
in  1415,  and  was  deposed  by  this  council 
as  guilty  of  a long  list  of  heinous  crimes. 
For  some  years  he  remained  in  custody, 
but  was  ultimately  pardoned  by  Pope 
Martin  V.,  and  made  a cardinal.  He 
died  in  1419. 

JOHN,  King  of  England,  born  in  1166, 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.,  by 
Eleanor  of  Guienne.  He  obtained  the 
crown  on  the  death  of  Richard  in  1199, 
although  the  French  provinces  of  Anjou, 
Touraine,  and  Maine  declared  for’ his 
nephew,  Arthur  of  Brittany,  who  was 
lineally  the  rightful  heir,  then  with  the 
King  of  France.  In  1205  his  great  quarrel 
with  the  pope  began  regarding  the  elec- 
tion to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  to  which 
the  pope  had  nominated  Stephen  Lahg- 
ton.  The  result  was  that  Innocent  III. 
laid  the  whole  kingdom  under  an  inter- 
dict, and  in  1211  issued  a bull  deposing 
John.  Philip  of  France  was  commis- 
sioned to  execute  the  decree,  and  was 
already  preparing  an  expedition  when 
John  made  abject  submission  to  the 
pope,  even  agreeing  to  hold  his  kingdom 
as  a vassal  of  the  pope  (1213).  John’s 
arbitrary  proceedings  led  to  a rising  of 
his  nobles,  and  he  was  compelled  to  sign 
the  Magna  Charta  or  Great  Charter, 
June  15,  1215.  But  John  did  not  mean 
to  keep  the  agreement,  and  obtaining 
a bull  from  the  pope  annulling  the  char- 
ter, he  raised  an  army  of  mercenaries,  and 
commenced  war.  The  barons,  in  despair, 
offered  the  crown  of  England  to  the 
dauphin  Louis,  who  accordingly  landed 
at  Sandwich,  30th  May,  1216,  and  was 
received  as  lawful  sovereign.  The  issue 
was  still  doubtful  when  John  was  taken 
ill  and  died  at  Newark,  October,  1216,  in 
the  forty-ninth  year  of  his  age. 

JOHN  II.,  King  of  France  (1319-64). 
In  1356  he  was  defeated  and  taken 

Crisoner  by  the  Black  Prince  at  the 
attle  of  Poitiers,  and  was  detained  at 
Bordeaux  and  at  London,  where  he  died 
in  1364. 

JOHN  III.  (Sobieski),  King  of  Poland, 
was  born  at  Olesko,  in  Galicia,  in  1624, 
served  in  the  French  army,  returned  to 
Poland  to  repel  the  Russians  in  1648, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
several  campaigns  against  Cossacks, 
Tartars,  and  Turks,  especially  by  his 
defeat  of  the  last  in  the  great  battle  of 
Choczim,  in  1673  The  year  after,  on  the 
death  of  Michael  Corybut,  he  was  chosen 


king.  His  most  celebrated  achievement 
was  the  relief  of  Vienna,  besieged  by  a 
great  army  of  Turks,  whom  he  decisively 
defeated  12th  Sept.  1683.  He  died  17th 
June,  1696. 

JOHN  BROWN’S  BODY,  one  of  the 
marching  songs  of  the  war.  The  melody 
was  heard  in  a southern  colored  church 
and  fitted  to  the  words  of  Say,  Brothers, 
Will  you  Meet  Us? 

JOHN  BULL,  a name  first  used  by  Dr. 
Arnuthnot,  and  since  popularized  as  a 
typical  name  suggesting  a humorous 
or  burlesque  representation  of  the  Eng- 
lish character.  He  is  represented  as  a 
bluff,  jolly,  bull-headed  farmer. 

JOHN,  Knights  of  St.,  or  Knights 
Hospitallers  of  St.  John,  afterward  called 
Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  finally  Kiiights 
of  Malta,  were  a celebrated  military 
religious  order,  originating  in  a monas- 
tery founded  at  Jerusalem  in  1048  by 
some  merchants  from  Amalfi.  The 
monastery  was  dedicated  to  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  and  the  monks,  who  were 
called  Brothers  of  St.  John  or  Hospi- 
tallers, had  the  duty  of  caring  for  the 
poor  and  sick,  and  in  general  of  assisting 
pilgrims.  In  1118  the  order  was  regu- 
larly instituted  as  a military  order,  with 
the  duty,  in  addition  to  their  vows  of 


Knight  of  St.  John. 


chastity,  obedience,  and  poverty,  of  de- 
fending the  church  against  infidels. 
The  brethren  were  divided  into  three 
classes,  knights,  chaplains,  and  serving 
brothers,  these  last  having  specially  the 
duties  of  looking  after  the  sick,  and 
accompanying  pilgrims.  In  1291  the 
order  was  driven  from  Palestine  by  the 
conquests  of  the  Saracens,  and  after 
holding  Cyprus  for  a time  they  occupied 
Rhodes  in  1309,  from  which  they  were 
ultimately  driven  by  Sultan  Soliman  II 
in  1522.  After  that  the  knights  retired 
to  Candia  and  other  places,  but  finally 
to  Malta,  which  Charles  V.  granted  them 
in  1530.  In  peace  they  wore  a long  black 
mantle  and  a gold  cross  of  eight  points, 
enameled  white ; in  war  they  wore  a red 
jacket  or  tabard,  charged  with  a white 
cross.  In  1798  Malta  was  unexpectedly 
attacked  and  taken  by  Bonaparte,  and 
about  the  same  time  the  extensive  prop- 
erties belonging  to  the  order  in  various 
countries  were  confiscated.  This  may  be 
considered  the  end  of  the  order  as  a 
vital  institution,  although  shortly  after 
the  capture  of  Malta,  Paul  I.,  who  had 
been  chosen  grand-master,  took  the 
order  under  his  protection,  and  it  still 
exists  nominally  at  least.  After  the 


JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA 


JOHNSTON 


death  of  Paul  the  nomination  of  the  head 
of  the  order,  was  vested  in  the  pope. 

JOHN  OF  AUSTRIA,  commonly  called 
Don  John  of  Austria,  the  natural  son  of 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  was  born  at 
Ratisbon  in  1545.  In  1570  he  conducted 
a campaign  against  the  recalcitrant 
Moors  of  Granada  with  great  vigor  and 
relentlessness,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  commanded  the  allied  fleet  which 
won  the  great  naval  battle  of  Lepanto 
over  the  Turks  (7th  Oct.,  1571).  In  1576 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  had  just  won  along 
with  the  Prince  of  Parma  the  victory 
of  Gemblours  (1578)  over  William  the 
Silent,  when  he  died,  not  without  sus- 
picion of  having  been  poisoned  by  his 
jealous  half-brother,  Philip  II. 

JOHN  OF  GAUNT,  a corruption  of 
Ghent,  where  he  was  born  in  1340,  was 
fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  and  his  queen 
Philippa,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Hain- 
aut.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
in  1362;  served  in  the  French  wars,  and 
became  governor  of  Guienne.  He 
assumed  in  right  of  his  wife  the  title  of 
King  of  Castile,  invaded  the  kingdom 
to  assert  his  claims,  but  subsequently 
relinquished  them  in  favor  of  Prince 
Henry  of  Castile,  who  had  become  his 
son-in-law.  His  eldest  son  Bolingbroke 
became  king  of  England  as  Henry  IV. 
He  died  3d  February,  1399. 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY,  one 
of  the  foremost  universities  of  the 
United  States,  in  Baltimore,  Maryland, 
endowed  by  Johns  Hopkins,  a merchant 
of  Baltimore,  with  more  than  $3,000,000 
and  opened  in  1876.  Besides  the  library 
there  are  well-equipped  laboratories 
for  chemistry,  biology,  etc.  There  is  an 
extensive  teaching  staff,  and  instruc- 
tion is  given  to  two  grades  of  stu- 
dents, graduates  and  undergraduates. 
The  former  are  such  as  have  taken  a de- 
gree here  (that  of  B.A.)  or  elsewhere, 
and  wish  to  carry  their  studies  further. 
This  university  gives  special  attention  to 
advanced  studies  of  various  kinds,  as 
well  as  to  original  research.  A number 
of  periodicals  are  issued  in  connection 
with  the  university.  There  are,  besides 
numerous  scholarships,  about  twenty 
fellowships,  each  of  the  value  of  $500 
annually.  A hospital,  also  endowed  by 
Johns  Hopkins,  is  connected  with  this 
institution. 

JOHNSON,  Andrew,  17th  president  of 
the  United  States,  born  in  North  Caro- 
lina, 1808,  died  1875.  He  was  self- 


Andrew  Johnson. 

educated;  entered  congress  as  a demo- 
crat in  1843,  and  the  senate  in  1857. 
On  Lincoln’s  election  he  became  vice- 
president,  and  thus  became  president 
upon  the  assassination  of  Lincoln  in 


April,  1865.  Duimg  his  term  of  office 
he  was  in  constant  conflict  with  the 
senate,  and  was  impeached  by  the  house 
of  representatives  of  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors  (Feb  1868),  the  trial  end- 
ing in  a techincal  acquittal.  A general 
amnesty  to  the  rebels  was  his  last  pres- 
idential act. 

JOHNSON,  Reverdy,  American  jurist, 
born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1796.  In  1817 
he  removed  to  Baltimore,  and  was  suc- 
cessively deputy  attorney-general  of 
Maryland  and  for  four  years  a state 
senator.  He  represented  his  native 
state  in  the  United  States  senate  from 
1845  to  1849,  when  he  resigned  his  seat 
to  enter  President  Taylor’s  cabinet  as 
attorney-general.  In  1863  he  was  again 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate,  but 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term  was 
appointed  minister  to  England  in  1868. 
He  died  in  1876. 

JOHNSON,  Richard  Mentor,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1781; 
he  entered  the  state  legislature  in  1804, 
and  three  years  later  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a republican.  He  sat  in  con- 
gress for  twelve  years,  but  during  the 
war  with  Great  Britain  left  his  legis- 
lative duties  to  assist  in  the  campaign. 
He  took  part  in  the  engagement  at 
Chatham,  Ontario,  and  at  the  battle  of 
the  Thames,  October  5,  1814,  killed  an 
Indian  chief,  and  was  himself  severely 
wounded.  From  1819  to  1829  Mr.  John- 
son served  in  the  United  States  senate, 
and  from  1829  to  1837  again  in  the  lower 
house  of  congress.  He  was  a candidate 
for  vice-president  on  the  ticket  with  Van 
Buren  in  1836,  failed  to  obtain  a major- 
ity of  the  electoral  votes,  but  was  chosen 
by  congress.  He  was  a member  of  the 
legislature  of  Kentucky  at  the  time  of 
his  death  in  1850. 

JOHNSON, Rossiter,  American  author, 
was  born  in  Rochester,  in  1840;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Roches- 
ter in  1863.  From  1864  until  1868  he  was 
co-editor  of  the  Rochester  Democrat,  a 
republican  newspaper,  and  from  1869 
until  1872  edited  the  Concord  (N,  H.) 
Statesman.  From  1873  until  1877  he 
was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  American 
Cyclopaedia,  and  in  1879-80  assisted 
Mr.  Sidney  H.  Gay  in  preparing  the  last 
two  volumes  of  the  so-called  Bryant’s 
History  of  the  United  States.  In  1883- 
1890  he  was  editor  of  the  Annual 
Cyclopaedia.  His  original  publications 
include  Idler  and  Poet,  A History  of  the 
French  War,  A History  of  the  War  Be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  and  a History  of  the  United 
States. 

JOHNSON,  Dr.  Samuel,  eminent  Eng- 
lish author,  was  born  at  Lichfield  1709, 
died  at  London,  1784.  Rasselas  (1759), 
written  in  a week  to  pay  for  his  mother’s 
funeral,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  characteristic  of  his  works.  For 
eighty  years  from  1747  Johnson’s  atten- 
tion was  chiefly  engaged  by  his  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Language,  a work 
which  appeared  in  1755,  and  is  highly 
honorable  to  the  author  in  the  circum- 
stances in  which  it  was  produced,  but  is 
of  little  real  philological  value.  In 
1765  appeared  his  long-promised  edition 
of  Shakespeare.  In  1773  Johnson  made 
a tour  to  the  Hebrides  in  company  with 
his  friend  Boswell,  of  which  he  gives  a 


highly  instructive  account  in  his  Jour- 
ney to  the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland. 
In  1775  he  received  the  diploma  of 
D.C.L.  from  the  University  of  Oxford, 
and  soon  after  visited  France  in  com- 
pany with  the  Thrales.  His  last  literary 


Samuel  Johnson. 


undertaking  was  his  Lives  of  the  Poets, 
which  was  completed  in  1781.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Bos- 
well’s Life  may  be  said  to  convey  a more 
favorable  impression  of  Johnson’s  real 
strength,  both  in  thought  and  language, 
than  anything  in  the  works  which  he 
wrote  and  published. 

JOHNSTON,  Albert  Sidney,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Kentucky  in  1803. 
After  graduating  at  West  Point  in  1826 
he  served  for  eight  years  in  the  United 
States  army,  emigrated  to  Texas  in 
1834,  and  entered  the  Texan  service  as 
private  in  1836.  His  promotion  was  so 
rapid  that  in  1838  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief,  and  till  1840  acted 
as  secretary  of  war.  From  1840  till  1846 
he  lived  in  retirement  on  his  farm  in 
Texas;  but  in  the  latter  year  he  accepted 
the  colonelcy  of  a regiment  of  Texan 
volunteers  to  serve  against  Mexico.  As 
a staff-officer  he  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Monterey  in  September,  1846.  Texas 
joined  the  Union  in  1846;  and  in  1849 


A.  S.  Johnston. 


Johnston  received  a major’s  commission 
in  the  United  States  army.  After  various 
services  he  won  the  rank  of  brevet 
brigadier-general  by  his  skilful  conduct 
of  the  expedition  sent  to  Utah  in  1857 
to  bring  the  Mormons  to  order.  In 
January,  1861,  he  was  transferred  from 
the  command  of  the  Texas  department 
to  that  of  the  Pacific  department;  but 
in  April  he  was  superseded,  probably 
on  account  of  his  secessionist  sympa- 
thies. He  resigned  his  national  com- 
mission in  May,  1861,  and  accepted  a 
command  in  the  confederate  army. 
While  acting  as  commandei-in-chief  at 
the  battle  of  Shiloh,  he  was  killed,  April 
6,  1862. 

JOHNSTON,  Joseph  Eccleston,  Ameri- 
can soldier,  was  born  in  Prince  Edward 
CO.,  Va.,  in  1807.  He  graduated  at  the 


JOHNSTOWN 


JONES 


military  academy  at  West  Point  in 
1829,  and  served  in  various  military 
capacities,  chiefly  in  the  topographical 
engineers,  until  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war,  at  which  time  he  was  made  quar- 
termaster-general, with  the  rank  of 
brigadier-general.  He  resigned  his  com- 
mission April  22,  1861,  and  entered  the 
confederate  service  as  major-general. 
During  the  earlier  part  of  the  campaign 
of  1862  he  was  in  command  of  all  the 
confederate  forces  in  Virginia,  and  was 
severely  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Fair 
Oaks,  near  Richmond,  May  31st.  In 
November,  having  been  made  lieuten- 
ant-general, he  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  military  department  of 
Tennessee,  and  in  the  following  spring 
made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  relieve 
Vicksburg,  on  the  Mississippi,  which 
was  then  besieged  by  General  Grant. 


J.  E.  Johnston. 


After  the  defeat  of  General  Bragg,  at 
Chattanooga,  November  25,  1863,  John- 
ston was  assigned  to  the  command  of  all 
the  confederate  forces  in  the  southwest, 
with  the  rank  of  general.  In  1864  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  forces  which 
opposed  Sherman  in  his  famous  “march 
to  the  sea.”  Having  learned  that  Lee 
had  surrendered  the  army  of  Virginia  to 
Grant,  Johnston  capitulated  to  Sherman 
at  Burham’s  station,  N.  C.  In  March, 
1885,  he  was  appointed  commissioner 
of  railroads  by  President  Cleveland. 
He  published  a narrative  of  military 
operations  conducted  by  him  during  the 
war  between  the  states.  He  died  March 
21  1891 

JOHNSTOWN,  a town  in  Cambria 
CO.,  Pennsylvania,  situated  on  the  Cone- 
maugh  river  about  89  miles  s.e.  of  Pitts- 
burg. It  is  the  center  of  a flourishing 
manufacturing  district,  and  the  town 
and  neighborhood  in  great  part  belong 
to  the  Cambria  Iron  co.,  who  are  said, 
to  employ  some  5000  people  in  their 
iron-mills.  In  1889  Johnstown  and  dis- 
trict was  laid  waste  by  the  bursting  of 
Conemaugh  lake  and  reservoir,  situ- 
ated about  10  miles  above  the  town. 
Houses,  churches,  and  factories  were 
driven  by  the  flood  into  a mass  of  ruin, 
which  was  finally  piled  up  against  the 
railway  bridge  at  Johnstown,  and  its 
destruction  completed  by  the  outbreak 
of  fire.  About  9000  people  perished. 
Pop.  40,125. 

JOHORE,  a native  state  under  British 
protection  at  the  s.  extremity  of  the 
Malay  peninsula;  area,  9000  sq.  miles; 
pop.  200,000. 

JOISTS,  in  carpentry,  are  the  beams 
of  timber  to  which  the  flooring  of  rooms 
and  the  laths  of  a ceiling  are  nailed,  and 
which  rest  on  the  walls  or  girders,  and 
sometimes  on  both.  They  are  laid  hori- 


zontally, and  in  parallel  equi-distant 
rows. 

JOKAI  (y5'ka-i),  Mor,  Hungarian 
novelist,  born  at  Komorn  1825.  His  first 
novel.  Working  Days,  was  published  in 
1845,  and  since  then  he  has  produced 
about  200  volumes  of  romances  and 
novels,  dramatic  poems,  humorous  es- 
says, etc.  Died  in  1904. 

JO'LIET,  capital  of  Will  co.,  Illinois, 
37  miles  s.w.  of  Chicago.  It  has  an  im- 
portant state  prison,  large  limestone 
quarries,  and  steel  and  iron  works,  etc. 
Pop.  32,650. 

JOLIET,  Louis,  an  explorer  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  was  born  in  Quebec 
in  1645.  In  1672  Governor  Frontenac 
and  Talon  made  an  effort  to  trace  the 
course  of  the  Mississippi  river,  which 
was  then  supposed  to  discharge  itself 
into  the  Sea  of  California.  Joliet  was 
intrusted  with  this  enterprise.  He  de- 
scended the  AVisconsin  and  Illinois 
rivers,  and  on  June  17,  1673,  entered  the 
Mississippi.  After  visiting  several  Indian 
villages  on  its  banks,  he  became  assured 
that  the  river  emptied  its  waters  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  began  his 
return  journey.  He  reached  Lake 
Winnipeg  at  the  end  of  September, 
where  he  spent  the  winter  at  the  mission 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  in  1674  re- 
turned to  Quebec.  On  the  way  Joliet 
lost  his  map  and  papers  by  the  upsetting 
of  his  canoe  in  the  Lachine  rapids  of 
the  Niagara  river.  He  was  thereafter 
made  governor  of  the  colony,  and  was 
married.  About  1680  he  was  granted 
Anticosti  Island,  where  he  built  a fort, 
which  was  destroyed  by  the  British, 
and  his  wife  taken  prisoner.  Later 
Joliet  explored  Labrador,  and  on  April 
30,  1697,  was  granted  the  seigniory  of 
Joliet,  near  Quebec.  He  died  in  1700. 

JOLLY-BOAT,  one  of  the  smaller 
boats  carried  by  a vessel,  and  used 
especially  for  communicating  with  the 
shore.  See  Boat. 

JONAH,  one  of  the  minor  prophets, 
son  of  Amittai,  and  according  to  2 
Kings  xiv.  25,  a conten^orary  of  Jero- 
boam II.,  was  born  at  Gath-Hepher,  in 
Galilee.  The  book  which  bears  his  name 
is  historical  rather  than  prophetical,  and 
the  miraculous  event  of  Jonah  remaining 
three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  belly 
of  a fish  has  been  regarded  by  some  as 
an  allegory.  Orthodox  theologians,  how- 
ever, are  generally  of  opinion  that  the 
mention  of  it  by  Christ  (Mat.  xii.  39), 
obliges  us  to  regard  the  event  as  really 
historical.  Jonah’s  grave  is  shown  at 
Mosul,  the  ancient  Nineveh,  and  also  at 
Gath. 

JONES,  John  Paul,  a commander  in 
the  American  naval  service,  was  born 
in  Kirkcudbrightshire,  Scotland,  in 
1747.  His  father,  whose  name  was  John 
Paul,  was  gardener  to  the  Earl  of  Selkirk. 
He  entered  the  merchant  service,  was 
engaged  in  the  American  and  West 
Indian  trade,  and  is  said  to  have  realized 
a handsome  fortune.  On  the  outbreak 
of  war  between  the  colonies  and  mother 
country  he  offered  his  services  to  the 
former,  and  in  1778,  being  then  in  com- 
mand of  the  Ranger,  he  made  a descent 
on  AVhitehavcn,  set  fire  to  the  shipping, 
and  plundered  the  Earl  of  Selkirk’s 
mansion.  Next  j'ear,  in  command  of  the 
Bon  Homme  Richard  (42  guns)  and  a 


small  squadron,  he  threatened  Leith, 
and  captured  the  British  sloop  of  war 
Serapis  after  a bloody  engagement  off 
Flambqrough  Head.  Jones,  upon  his 
arrival  in  Paris  was  presented  by  Louis 
XIV.  with  a gold  mounted  sword  and 
was  decorated  with  the  Cross  of  the 
Order  of  Military  Merit.  Congress 
voted  him  a gold  metal,  passed  a reso- 
lution commending  his  “zeal,”  prud- 
ence, and  intrepidity,”  assigned  him  to 


the  command  of  a new  ship  of  the  line 
then  building,  and  proposed  to  create 
for  him  the  rank  of  rear-admiral.  He 
also  received  a complimentary  letter 
from  General  Washington.  In  1788 
entered  the  Russian  service  with  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral,  but  owing  to 
the  jealousy  of  Russian  commanders 
soon  retired  from  this  service.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1792. 
He  was  given  a public  funeral  by  the 
National  Assembly.  In  1906  his  _ re- 
mains were  brought  to  the  United 
States  in  an  American  warship  and 
buried  with  imposing  ceremonies. 

JONES,  John  Percival,  American 
legislator  and  politician,  born  in  Here- 
fordshire, England,  in  1830.  He  was 
brought  to  the  United  States  in  1831  by 
his  parents,  who  settled  in  northern 
Ohio.  From  1863  to  1867  he  was  a 
member  of  the  California  state  senate. 
In  1867  he  removed  to  Nevada,  and 
became  superintendent  and  part  owner 
of  the  famous  “Crown  Point”  silver- 
mine,  the  subsequent  development  of 
which  brought  him  a large  fortune. 
In  1873  he  was  elected  by  the  Nevada 
legislature  to  succeed  James  Nye  in  the 
United  States  senate,  and  was  reelected 
as  a republican  in  1879,  1885,  and  1891, 
and  as  a “Silverite”  in  1897.  He  favored 
the  free  coinage  of  silver  without  regard 
to  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  on  that 
issue  left  the  republican  party  and  sup- 
ported Bryan  in  1896.  During  the  cam- 
paign of  1900  he  returned  to  the  repub- 
lican party,  though  without  giving  up 
his  free-silver  theories. 

JONES,  Samuel  Porter,  commonly 
known  as  “Sam  Jones,”  an  evangelist  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South. 
AAvas  born  in  Chambers  co.,  Ala.,  in 
1847.  He  was  converted  in  1872  an«* 


JONSON 


JOSHUA 


Ordained  the  same  year  and  at  once 
began  preaching.  His  success  was  re- 
markable and  he  became  widely  known. 
Many  of  his  sermons  have  been  pub- 
lished in  his  works,  Sermons  and  Sayings 
by  Sam  Jones,  Quit  Your  Meanness, 
Sam  Jones’  Own  Book.  He  died  in  1906. 

JONSON,  Ben  or  Benjamin,  a cele- 
brated English  poet,  the  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Shakespeare.  We  was  born 
June  11,  1574,  at  Westminster.  In  1599 
he  brought  out  his  comedy  of  Every 
Man  out  of  his  Humor,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  Cynthia’s  Revels  (1600);  the 
Poetaster  (1602);  Sejanus,  a tragedy 
(1603).  In  1605  his  comedy  of  Volpone 
or  the  Fox  appeared;  in  1609  Eipccene 
or  The  Silent  Woman;  in  1610  the  Alche- 
mist; in  1611  Catiline,  a tragedy;  and  in 
1614  Bartholomew  Fair,  a complete  pic- 
ture of  Elizabethan  low  life.  In  1619 
he  received  the  honorary  degree  of  A.M. 


Ben  Jonson. 


from  Oxford  University,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  poet  laureate  was  appointed 
his  successor,  and  the  salary  raised  to 
the  sum  of  $500  by  Charles  I.  His  latter 
days  were  Spent,  not  perhaps  in  much 
pecuniary  prosperity,  but  certainly  in 
fame  and  honor,  as  the  acknowledged 
chief  of  English  literature.  He  died 
Aug.  6,  1637.  He  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  where  a monument  was 
erected  to  his  memory  with  the  inscrip- 
tion, “O  rare  Ben  Jonson.”  Jonson’s 
best  dramas  are  excellent  in  plot  and 
development,  have  strongly  conceived 
characters  and  excellent  traits  of  humor. 

JOPPA,  See  Jaffa. 

JOPLIN,  a city  in  Jasper  co..  Mo.,  on 
the  Mo.,  St.  L.  and  S.  Fran.,  the  K.  C., 
Ft.  S.  and  Mem.,  the  K.  C.,  Pitt,  and 
Gulf,  and  the  Mo.  Pac.  railways;  168 
miles  s.  of  Kansas  City.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  Southwest  Missouri  lead  and  zinc 
district.  Pop.  31,400. 

JORDAN,  David  Starr,  American 
educator,  born  at  Gainesville,  New  York, 
in  1851.  In  1872  he  became  an  assistant 
to  the  United  States  Fish  Commission, 
and  began  the  study  of  fishes.  He  is  one 
of  the  foremost  ichthyologists  in  the 
world.  From  1875  to  1879  he  was'pro- 
fessor  of  biology  at  Butler  University, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  in  the  latter 
year  was  elected  to  the  chair  of  zoology 
at  the  University  of  Indiana  at  Bloom- 
ington, of  which  he  became  president  in 
1885.  In  1891,  on  the  founding  of 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  he 
became  its  first  president,  and  under  his 
able  superv^ision  the  institution  was 
successfully  organized.  In  1897  he  was 
a special  United  Stajtes  commissioner 


to  Investigate  the  fur-seal  fisheries  in 

Alaska. 

JORDAN,  the  largest  river  in  Palestine 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rivers  in 
the  world.  It  rises  from  several  sources, 
uniting  in  Bahr  el-Huleh,  or  the  Waters 
of  Merom.  From  this  point  it  flows  with 
a rapid  current  in  a narrow  rocky  bed 
and  falls  after  a southerly  course  of 
about  10  miles  into  Lake  Tiberias. 
Shortly  after  leaving  the  south  end  of 
this  lake  it  enters  a broad  valley  or  ghor, 
called  in  the  Bible  “the  plain;”  and  con- 
tinuing a southerly  but  singularly 
crooked  course  of  about  70  miles  direct 
distance,  or  200  including  windings, 
falls  into  the  north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
having  received  the  Zerka  or  Jabbok, 
also  on  the  left,  and  numerous  smaller 
affluents.  The  upper  part  of  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan  is  hilly,  arid,  and  barren, 
but  it  becomes  more  level  and  fertile  as 
it  approaches  the  Zerka.  The  valley  of 
the  Jordan  forms  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable depressions  iii  the  world,  the 
Dead  Sea  being  1312  feet  below  sea- 
level,  and  the  total  fall  of  the  river  being 
about  2300  feet. 

JOSEF'FY,  Rafael,  Hungarian-Ameri- 
can  pianist,  composer,  and  teacher,  born 
at  Miskolcz,  Hungary,  in  1853.  He 
established  himself  in  New  York  in  1880 
and  afterward  came  to  be  recognized  as 
one  of  the  leading  teachers  and  concert 
virtuosos.  He  published  upward  of  a 
score  of  piano  compositions. 

JOSEPH,  one  of  the  two  sons  of  the 
patriarch  Jacob  by  his  favorite  wife 
Rachel.  His  father’s  preference  for  him 
drew  down  the  enmity  of  his  elder 
brothers,  who  sold  him  to  some  Ish- 
maelitish  slave-dealers,  by  whom  he 
was  sold  to  Potiphar,  a distinguished 
officer  in  Egypt.  The  story  of  his  eleva- 
1 ion  to  the  position  of  vice-regent  of 
Egypt  and  the  settlement  of  his  father 
and  brothers  there  is  well  known  (Gen. 
xxxvii.-l.).  Authorities  still  differ  as  to 
the  period  in  Egyptian  history  to  which 
Joseph’s  life  belongs,  some  placing  it 
before,  others  under,  and  others  after 
the  time  of  the  Hyksos  or  shepherd 
kings. 

JOSEPH,  the  husband  of  Mary  the 
mother  of  Jesus,  was  a descendant  of  the 
house  of  David  though  resident  at 
Nazareth,  where  he  followed  the  trade 
of  a carpenter.  Early  tradition  repre- 
sents him  as  an  old  man  at  the  time  of 
his  marriage,  and  he  seems  to  have  died 
before  the  commencement  of  the  public 
ministry  of  Jesus.  His  day  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  calendar  is  the  19th  March. 

JOSEPH  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany, 
eldest  son  of  Leopold  I.,  born  1678;  be- 
came emperor  in  1705.  He  was  a zealous 
member  of  the  alliance  against  France  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  in 
which  the  victories  of  Marlborough  and 
Eugene  won  glory  for  the  imperial  arms. 
He  died  in  1711. 

JOSEPH  II.,  German  emperor,  son  of 
Francis  I.  and  Maria  Theresa,  was  born 
March  13,  1741.  He  was  elected  king  of 
the  Romans  in  1764,  and  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  1765,  German  emperor,  suc- 
ceeding his  mother,  however,  in  the 
hereditary  estates  of  the  House  of 
Austria  only  in  1780.  He  at  once  com- 
menced an  extensive  scheme  of  reforms, 
but  the  country  was  not  prepared  for 


such  sudden  changes,  and  he  was  com- 
pelled to  give  up  most  of  his  plans.  In 
1788  he  visited  Catherine  II.  at  Cherson, 
and  in  league  with  her  made  war  against 
Turkey.  He  died  in  1790. 

JOSEPHINE  (zho-sa-fen).  Empress  of 
the  French,  was  born  in  Martinique 
June  24,  1763,  being  the  daughter  of 
Lieutenant  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie.  She 
married  in  1779  Vicomte  Alexandre 
Beauharnais,  by  whom  she  had  two 
children,  Eugene  and  Hortense.  In  1794 
her  husband,  who  had  been  commander 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  was  executed 
by  order  of  the  convention.  She  herself 
had  a narrow  escape,  having  been  in- 
cluded in  the  list  of  proscription.  After 
the  fall  of  Robespierre  she  paid  a visit 
to  Napoleon  to  thank  him  for  restoring 
the  sword  of  her  husband,  and  so  pleased 
him  that  he  soon  after  married  her 
(1796).  She  became  a beneficial  element 
in  his  life,  and  her  amiable  manners  won 
the  hearts  of  everybody  and  helped  to 
secure  her  husband’s  position.  When 
Napoleon  ascended  the  throne  in  1804 
she  was  crowned  along  with  him.  But 
the  fact  that  the  union  was  childless 
stood  in  the  way  of  Napoleon’s  ambition 
to  become  the  founder  of  a dynasty,  and 
in  1809  Josephine  was  divorced,  retiring 
to  her  beautiful  seat  of  Malmaison,  with 
the  title  of  empress-queen-dowager 
and  an  annual  grant  of  two  million 
francs.  She  died  May  29,  1814. 

JOSE'PHUS,  Flavius,  the  historian  of 
the  Jews,  was  born  at  Jerusalem  37  a.d., 
and  was  carefully  educated.  In  64  a.d. 
he  made  a journey  to  Rome,  and  was 
introduced  to  Poppsea,  the  wife  of  Nero. 
On  his  return  he  found  his  countrymen 
preparing  to  throw  off  the  Roman  yoke, 
and  having  tried  in  vain  to  persuade 
them  of  the  hopelessness  of  such  a strug- 
gle, he  accepted  the  post  of  defending 
the  province  of  Galilee,  and  actually  held 
the  fortified  town  of  Jotapata  against 
the  whole  Roman  army  for  forty-seven 
days.  He  was  captured  at  the  fall  of  the 
city,  was  afterward  present  in  the 
Roman  army  at  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  (a.d.  70),  and  went  with 
Titus  to  Rome,  where,  assuming  the 
family  name  of  his  patron,  Flavius,  he 
lived  in  learned  leisure.  Here  he  wrote 
(in  Greek)  The  History  of  the  Jewish 
War ; The  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  giving 
a history  of  the  Jews  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  reign  of  Nero;  an  Auto- 
biography, mostly  relating,  however,  to 
the  time  of  his  military  activity;  a work 
on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Jewish  People, 
directed  against  Apion,  an  Alexandrian 
grammarian.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
uncertain.  He  certainly  saw  the  end  of 
the  century. 

JOSH'UA,  the  successor  of  Moses  in 
the  command  of  the  Israelites,  was  the 
son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephriam. 
His  name  was  at  first  Hoshea  (help),  but 
was  changed  by  Moses  into  Joshua 
(Jehovah’s  help),  of  which  Jesus  is  the 
Greek  form.  He  was  the  only  one,  with 
the  exception  of  Caleb,  who  brought 
back  an  encouraging  report  from  the 
land  of  Canaan.  He  was  nominated  by 
Moses  to  succeed  him  in  the  command  of 
the  army  of  Israel,  led  the  Isrealites  over 
the  Jordan,  and  in  the  course  of  seven 
years  conquered  the  greater  part  of 
Palestine,  and  divided  the  country 


JOSUH 


JUDGMEXT 


among  the  tribes.  He  died  at  Timnath- 
Serah  in  Mount  Ephraim  at  the  age  of 
110.  His  history  is  contained  in  the 
canonical  book  which  bears  his  name, 
and  of  which  he  has  been  usually  re- 
garded as  the  author ; but  modern  critics 
have  shown  that  it  is  a composite  nar- 
rative, and  contains  references  to  many 
events  which  took  place  after  Joshua’s 
death. 

JOSI'AH,  King  of  Judah,  succeeded 
his  father  Amon  at  the  age  of  eight 
years  (639  b.c.).  He  is  characterized  in 
the  Scriptures  as  doing  “that  which  was 
right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.”  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  reform  of  public 
worship,  and  commenced  the  restoration 
of  the  temple,  during  the  progress  of 
which  the  high-priest  Hilkiah  discovered 
the  book  of  the  law,  thought  by  some 
to  be  substantially  the  same  as  the  book 
of  Deuteronomy.  The  prescriptions  it 
contained  gave  a decided  direction  to 
the  reform  movement  which  the  king 
conducted  with  great  vigor.  In  his 
thirty-first  year,  prompted  probably  by 
friendship  to  the  King  of  Assyria,  he 
marched  out  against  Pharaoh  Necho, 
who  was  on  his  way  to  attack  that  king- 
dom. The  two  armies  met  at  Megiddo, 
where  Josiah  was  slain. 

JOSS-STICK,  in  China,  a small  reed 
covered  with  the  dust  of  odoriferous 
woods,  and  burned  before  an  idol. 

JOUGS  (jugz),  an  instrument  of  pun- 
bmnent  formerly  used  in  Scotland,  con- 


Jougs. 


sisting  of  an  iron  collar  which  surrounded 
the  neck  of  the  criminal,  and  was  fas- 
tened to  a wall  or  tree  by  an  iron  chain. 

JOULE  (jol),  James  Prescott,  English 
physicist,  born  in  1818.  His  most  im- 
portant achievement  has  been  that  of 
settling  the  mechanical  equivalent  of 
heat,  which  established  that  the  quan- 
tity of  heat  capable  of  increasing  the 
temperature  of  1 lb.  of  water  by  one 
degree  Fahrenheit,  requires  for  its  evolu- 
tion the  expenditure  of  mechanical 
energy  represented  by  the  fall  of  772 
lbs.  through  the  space  of  one  foot.  He 
died  in  1889.  See  Heat. 

JOURDAN  (zhor-dan),  Jean  Baptiste, 
Count,  marshal  and  peer  of  France, 
born  1762,  died  1833.  He  distinguished 
himself  under  Dumouriez,  was  made  a 
general  of  division  in  1793,  defeated 
the  Austrians  at  Wattignies  and  at 
Fleurus.  In  1803  he  became  a mem- 
ber of  the  senate,  and  in  1804,  on 
the  establishment  of  the  empire,  ob- 
tained the  rank  of  marshal,  the  title  of 
count,  and  a seat  in  the  council  of  state. 
After  the  restoration  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage. 

JOURNALISM.  See  Newspapers. 


JUAN  RERNAN^EZ,  so  called  from 
the  name  of  its  discoverer,  also  some- 
times Mas-a-Tierra,  an  island  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  about  400  miles 
off  the  coast  of  Chile,  to  which  it  belongs. 
It  is  12J  miles  long  and  5 miles  broad  at 
the  broadest  part,  mountainous,  and  of 
rugged  aspect.  De  Foe  is  said  to  have 
founded  his  Robinson  Crusoe  on  the 
history  of  the  solitary  residence  here 
for  over  four  years  (1704-9)  of  a Scotch 
sailor,  Alexander  Selkirk. 

JUAREZ  (hu-a-reth'),  Benito  Pablo, 

resident  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  was 

orn  of  pure  Indian  parentage  in  1806, 
and  was  elected  president  in  1861.  He 
declared  the  suspension  of  public  pay- 
ments for  two  years  to  Europeans,  a 
step  which  occasioned  the  interference 
of  Britain,  Spain,  and  France.  Troops 
were  landed  in  Mexico,  in  1862,  but 
Britain  and  Spain  soon  retired,  leaving 
Napoleon  III.  to  carry  out  his  views 
alone.  Maximilian  of  Austria  came  on 
Napoleon’s  invitation  to  assume  the 
throne,  but  Juarez,  in  spite  Of  defeats 
and  losses,  continued  to  head  a resist- 
ance, and  when  Napoleon  under  pres- 
sure from  the  American  government 
withdrew  his  troops  in  1866,  the  repub- 
licans carried  all  before  them.  Maxi- 
milian was  captured  and  shot  after  a 
mock  trial,  and  Juarez  was  re-elected  to 
the  presidency  (1867),  which  he  held 
till  he  died  (1872). 

JUD.$'A,  a term  applied  after  the  re- 
turn of  the  Jews  from  exile  to  that  part 
of  Palestine  bounded  east  by  the  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea,  north  by  Samaria, 
west  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  south  by 
Arabia  Petraea.  See  Palestine. 

JUDAH.  the  fourth  son  of  the  patri- 
arch Jacob  by  his  wife  Leah,  the  pro- 
genitor of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes.  See 
Jews. 

JUDAS,  surnamed  Iscariot,  meaning, 
perhaps,  the  man  of  Kerioth,  a village  of 
Judaea,  was  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  of 
Jesus,  and  betrayed  his  Master  into  the 
hands  of  the  Jewish  priests  for  thirty 
pieces  of  silver.  Remorse  for  his  crime 
led  him  to  suicide.  The  vCainites,  Cerin- 
thians,  and  some  other  heretics  held  him 
in  great  veneration,  believing  that  he 
alone  saw  the  necessity  for  bringing 
about  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  and  the 
atonement  for  humanity.  Others  have 
thought  that  his  object  was  to  oblige  his 
Master  to  use  his  miraculous  power  to 
defeat  his  enemies  and  establish  the  new 
earthly  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  in 
which  Judas  expected  to  have  a high 
place. 

JUDAS,  or  JUDE,  brother  of  James, 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  Matthew 
and  Mark  called  him  Thaddaeus  sur- 
named Lebbseus.  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  life.  By  many  he  is  considered  the 
author  of  the  epistle  of  Jude.  See  Jude, 
Epistle  of. 

JUDAS  MACCAB.®US.  See  Maccabees. 

JUDAS-TREE,  natural  order  Legu- 
minosae,  is  a native  of  the  Levant,  Spain, 
south  of  France,  Italy,  etc.  It  grows 
to  a height  of  about  20  feet  with  pale 
green  leaves  and  beautiful  purple  flow- 
ers. Another,  though  smaller,  species 
grows  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

JUDE,  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  books  of 
the  New  Testament.  Its  canonicity  was 
questioned  by  the  primitive  church,  and 


often  since.  The  Asiatic  churches  did 
not  make  use  of  it  till  the  4th  century, 
nor  was  it  known  in  the  west  till  toward 
the  close  of  the  second.  Its  quotation 
from  the  apocryphal  book  of  Enoch 
raised  a prejudice  against  it,  but  it  was 
eventually  allowed  to  take  its  place  as  a 
portion  of  the  sacred  canon.  It  is  a pas- 
sionate denunciation  of  heretics  and 
false  teachers,  and  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  be  written  by  Judas,  the  brother 
of  the  Savior,  and  not  by  Judas  the 
brother  of  James  (see  above). 

JUDGE,  a person  duly  invested  with 
authority  to  determine  causes  or  ques- 
tions between  parties  according  to  law. 
The  term  is  quite  a general  one,  being 
applicable  to  any  one  appointed  to  sit 
in  a court  of  law  and  try  causes;  but 
certain  judges  are  designated  by  some 
particular  title,  as  justice,  lord-justice, 
etc.  The  judge  at  common  law  decides 
points  of  law,  and  enables  the  jury 
rightly  to  decide  questions  of  fact,  while 
in  equity  he  decides  both  classes  of 
questions.  A judge  cannot  be  prosecuted 
for  the  consequences  of  his  decisions, 
except  in  the  case  where  he  may  have 
acted  without  jurisdiction,  nor  can  he 
officiate  in  a case  where  he  has  a personal 
interest,  unless  it  be  merely  his  common 
interest  as  a citizen,  ratepayer,  etc. 

JUDGE  ADVOCATE,  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  preside  at  the  proceedings  of 
court-martial,  his  duties  being  to  sum- 
mon witnesses,  administer  oaths,  take 
a minute  of  the  proceedings,  advise  the 
court  on  points  of  law,  etc.  In  Britain 
(as  also  in  the  United  States)  there  is  an 
official  called  the  judge  advocate-general 
to  whom  the  proceedings  of  courts- 
martial  are  transmitted.  He  has  also  to 
advise  the  commander-in-chief  and  sec- 
retary of  state  for  war  in  legal  matters. 
The  judge  advocate-general  must  be  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  and 
of  the  ministry.  Under  him  is  a deputy 
whose  office  is  permanent. 

JUDGES,  in  Hebrew  history.  See 
Jews. 

JUDGES,  Book  of,  a canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament,  so  called  because 
the  greater  part  of  the  narrative  is 
occupied  with  the  history  of  the  judges 
who  were  raised  up  to  deliver  their 
countrymen  from  the  oppressions  of  the 
neighbors.  The  first  chapter,  although 
formally  connected  with  the  book  of 
Joshua  by  the  opening  sentence,  evi- 
dently contains  a separate  portion  of  the 
history  of  the  Israelitish  invasion  of 
Canaan,  the  first  settlement,  indeed, 
west  of  the  Jordan,  in  which  the  tribes  of 
Judah  and  Simeon  play  a distinct  part  in 
the  conquest.  The  6th  verse  of  the  2d 
chapter  again  connects  the  work  with 
the  concluding  part  of  the  book  of  Joshua 
and  in  the  chapters  which  follow  the 
history  of  the  nation  is  written  from  an 
ideal  and  poetic  point  of  view,  which 
gives  it  unity,  the  judges  being  repre- 
sented as  successive  rulers,  although  in 
most  cases  their  history  and  influence 
were  merely  local.  The  third  part  of  the 
book  begins  at  chap,  xvii.,  and  has  no 
formal  or  chronological  connection  with 
what  has  gone  before,  and  has  some- 
times been  called  an  appendix. 

JUDGMENT,  in  law,  the  judicial  de- 
termination and  decision  of  a court  in  an 
action.  It  is  either  interlocutory  or  final. 


JUDGMENT-DEBT 


JUNIUS 


In  the  former  case  it  is  given  only  on 
some  particular  point  or  proceeding,  and 
does  not  complete  the  action  in  the  same 
way  as  the  final  judgment,  upon  which, 
unless  it  be  appealed  against,  suspended, 
or  recalled,  execution  may  follow. 

JUDGMENT-DEBT,  in  law,  a debt 
secured  to  the  creditor  by  a judge’s  or- 
der, and  in  respect  of  which  he  can  at 
any  time  attach  the  debtor’s  goods  and 
chattels.  Such  debts  have  the  prefer- 
ence of  being  paid  in  full,  as  compared 
with  simple  contract  debts. 

JUDITH,  widow  of  Manasses,  a Jew- 
ish heroine  of  great  beauty,  virtue,  cour- 
age, and  piety,  whose  history  is  given  in 
the  apocryphal  book  which  bears  her 
name,  the  author  and  age  of  which  are 
unknown.  Judith  is  represented  as  going 
out  to  the  tent  of  Holofernes,  an  Assyrian 
general  who  was  besieging  Bethulia,  the 
city  in  which  she  lived,  charming  him 
with  her  beauty,  and  taking  advantage 
of  thejadinission  to  his  tent,  thus  afforded 
to  her,  to  cut  off  his  head  with  his  own 
sword,  while  he  slept. 

JUDSON,  Adoniram,  pioneer  Ameri- 
can missionary,  was  born  at  Malden, 
Mass,  in  1788.  In  1812  he  was  ordained 
a missionary  to  Burmah  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Congregational  board  of 
Foreign  Missions.  Having  after  his 
arrival  in  India  adopted  Baptist  views, 
he  was  appointed  to  labor  in  Burmah  by 
the  American  Baptist  missionary  union 
in  1814.  His  translations  of  the  Bible 
into  Burmese  appeared  in  1835,  and  his 
Burmese  and  English  dictionary  in 
1852.  He  died  April  12,  1850.  Both  in 
his  literary  and  his  missionary  labor 
he  was  greatly  assisted  by  the  three 
ladies  whom  he  successively  married,  of 
whom,  as  well  as  of  Judson,  biographers 
have  been  published. 

JUDY.  See  Punch  and  Judy. 

JUGGERNAUT.  See  Jagann^tha. 

JUGGLING.  See  Legerdemain. 

JU'GULAR  VEIN,  one  of  the  large 
trunks  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
blood  that  has  circulated  in  the  head, 
face,  and  neck  is  returned  to  the  heart. 
There  are  two  on  each  side,  an  external 
or  superficial,  and  an  internal  or  deeper. 

JU'JUBE,  the  popular  name  of  a 
genus  of  spiny  and  deciduous  shrubs  or 
small  trees.  The  species  are  numerous 
and  of  several  the  fruit,  which  is  blood- 
red  or  saffron-colored  with  a sweet 
granular  pulp,  is  wholesome  and  pleas- 


Jujube. 


ant  to  eat.  The  common  jujube  is  a 
native  of  Syria.  The  fruit  is  dried,  and 
forms  an  article  of  commerce.  The  name 
jujube  is  also  given  to  a confection  made 
of  gum-arabic  or  gelatin,  sweetened  and 


Savored  so  as  to  resemble  the  jujube 
fruit. 

JUJUY  (hu-ho'i),  a town  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic.  Pop.  5000. — ^The 
province  has  an  area  of  27,000  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  90,000. 

JULEP,  a sweet  drink;  specifically,  in 
medicine,  a solution  of  sugar  in  aromatic 
water,  but  not  so  concentrated  as  syrup. 
In  the  United  States  the  name  is  given  to 
a drink  composed  of  spirituous  liquor 
as  brandy  or  whisky,  sugar,  pounded  ice, 
and  ..  seasoning  of  mint.  It  is  also  called 
mint-julep. 

JULIAN  CALENDAR.  See  Calendar 
and  Epoch. 

JULIUS,  the  name  of  three  popes. — 
Julius  I.,  born  in  Rome,  chosen  pope  in 
337 ; died  in  352.  He  summoned  a coun- 
cil which  approved  his  conduct  in  sus- 
taining Athanasius  in  his  contest  against 
the  Arians  in  342. — Julius  II.  (Giuliano 
della  Rovere),  was  elevated  by  his  uncle 
Sixtus  IV.  to  the  rank  of  a bishop  and 
cardinal,  was  appointed  papal  legate  to 
France,  in  1503  was  elevated  pope,  and 
died  1513.  Immediately  on  his  elevation 
to  the  pontificate  he  planned  the  com- 
plete re-establishment  of  the  papal  sov- 
ereignty in  its  ancient  territory,  and  the 
extinction  of  foreign  domination  and  in- 
fluence in  Italy.  Refusing  to  attend  the 
Council  of  Pisa  convened  by  the  King  of 
France,  he  in  1511  formed  the  “Holy 
League,’’  to  which  Spain,  England,  and 
Switzerland  were  parties.  In  1512  he 
made  open  war  against  Louis  XII.  The 
French  defeated  the  papal  army  near 
Ravenna,  but  were  soon  after  driven  out 
of  Italy.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  immoral  of  the  popes,  but  was  a 
far-sighted  and  patriotic  sovereign,  and 
a liberal  and  judicious  patron  of  art  and 
literature.  To  procure  means  for  build- 
ing St.  Peter’s  he  ordered  the  sale  of  in- 
dulgences, which  was  one  of  the  imme- 
diate causes  of  the  reformation. — Julius 
III.  (Giovanni  Maria  Giocchi),  a Roman 
of  low  birth,  was  made  cardinal  by  Paul 
III.  in  1536,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
council  of  Trent  as  papal  legate,  was 
elected  pope  in  1550,  and  in  the  following 
year  reopened  the  council  of  Trent, 
which  had  been  suspended  for  upward 
of  two  years.  He  endeavored  to  effect  a 
union  with  the  Nestorians,  and  com- 
missioned Cardinal  Pole  to  organize,  in 
conjunction  with  Mary,  the  reunion  of 
England  with  Rome.  He  died  in  1555. 

JULIUS  C^SAR.  See  Csesar. 

JULY',  the  seventh  month  in  our 
calendar,  having  31  days.  In  the  Roman 
year  it  bore  the  name  of  Quintllis,  as 
originally  the  fifth  month.  Its  change  of 
name  to  Julius  was  in  honor  of  Julius 
Caesar,  who  was  born  on  the  12th  of  the 
month. 

JUMPING-DEER,  the  black-tailed 
deer  found  in  the  United  States  to  the 
west  of  the  Mississippi. 

JUMPING-HARE,  a species  of  jerboa 
found  in  Southern  Africa,  and  so  named 
from  its  general  resemblance  to  a hare, 
while  its  jumping  mode  of  progression, 
necessitated  by  the  elongated  nature  of 
the  hind  legs,  have  procured  for  it  its 
generic  and  popular  distinction. 

JUMPING-MOUSE,  is  found  in  Lab- 
rador and  North  America  generally,  but 
is  especially  an  inhabitant  of  the  fur  ter- 
ritories. Like  the  jumping-hare,  it  is 


classified  by  some  along  with  the  jerboaa 
and  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  these  forms. 

JUNA'GARH,  a native  state  of  India, 
in  Gujarat,  Bombay  presidency;  area 
3283  sq.  miles.  Pop.  387,499. — The  capi- 
tal, Junagarh,  is  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque cities  in  India,  pop.  34,251. 

JUNE, 'the  sixth  month  in  our  calendar. 
It  consisted  originally  of  twenty-six 
days,  to  which  it  is  said  Romulus 
added  four,  and  Niuna  took  away  one. 
Julius  Caesar  again  lengthened  it  to 
thirty  days,  and  it  has  ever  since  re- 
mained unaltered. 

JUNGF^U  (yqng'frou;  “Maiden”), 
a mountain  of  Switzerland.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  of  the  Swiss  moun- 
tains, height  13,670  feet.  It  was  first 
ascended  in  1804;  the  ascent  may  now 
be  made  by  railway. 

JUNGLE  (jung'gl),  properly  an  Indian 
term  applied  to  a desert  and  unculti- 
vated region  whether  covered  with  wood 
and  dense  vegetation  or  not,  but  in 
English  it  is  applied  to  land  covered  with 
forest  trees,  thick  impenetrable  brush- 
wood, or  any  coarse  rank  vegetation. 

JUNGLE-FEVER,  a disease  prevalent 
in  the  East  Indies  and  other  tropical 
regions,  a severe  variety  of  remittent 
fever.  It  is  characterized  by  the  recur- 
rence of  paroxysms  and  of  cold  and  hot 
stages.  The  remissions  occur  usually  in 
the  morning  and  last  from  eight  to 
twelve  hours,  the  fever  being  mostly 
typically  developed  at  night. 

JUNIN  (ho-nen'),  a department  of 
Peru,  embracing  the  wildest  parts  of  the 
Cordilleras ; area  about  28,000  sq.  milesj 
pop.  395,000. 

JU'NIPER,  the  name  of  hardy  exogen- 
ous evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  chiefly 
natives  of  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world.  About  twenty  species  are  known. 
The  berries  require  two  years  to  come  to 


Juniper. 


maturity,  when  they  assume  a bluish- 
black  color.  They  are  used  extensively 
in  Holland  in  the  preparation  of  gin, 
which  owes  its  characteristic  flavor  to 
them.  They  yield  an  essential  oil,  which 
is  a powerful  diuretic. 

JU'NIUS,  a signature  attached  to  cer- 
tain letters  on  public  affairs  which  first 
appeared  in  The  Public  Advertiser,  a 
London  paper  published  by  Woodfall, 
from  which  they  were  copied  into  most 
of  the  other  journals  of  the  time.  The 
earliest  bears  date  January  21,  1769; 
the  last,  January  21,  1772.  After  they 
were  completed  they  were  collected  and 
published  by  Woodfall,  with  a dedica- 
tion to  the  English  nation  and  a preface 
by  the  author.  Other  letters  bearing  the 
same  characteristics,  but  having  differ- 
ent signatures,  appeared  between  April 
28,  1767,  and  May  12,  1772,  and  are 
given  in  the  younger  Woodfall’s  edition 


JUNK 


JURY  AND  JURY  TRIALS 


as  the  Miscellaneous  Letters.  This  edi- 
tion was  published  in  1812  in  three  vols., 
and  included  Junius’  private  letters  to 
Mr.  H.  S.  Woodfall,  and  a preliminary 
essay  by  Dr.  J.  Mason  Good.  Although 
fully  a century  has  elapsed  since  the  pub- 
lication of  these  papers,  their  authorship 
seems  as  far  from  being  settled  as  ever. 

JUNK,  a flat-bottomed  ship  used  in 
the  waters  of  China  and  Japan,  some- 
times reaching  1000  tons.  It  has  a high 
forecastle  and  poop,  and  ordinarily  three 


Chinese  Junks. 


masts  of  considerable  height,  each  mast 
being  in  one  piece,  with  a lug-sail,  gen- 
erally of  bamboo  splits.  The  bow  is  bluff 
the  stern  full,  ancl  there  is  a very  large 
rudder. 

JUNO,  the  most  exalted  divinity  of 
the  Latin  races  in  Italy  next  to  Jupiter, 
of  whom  she  was  the  sister  and  wife.  She 
was  the  queen  of  heaven,  and  under  the 
name  of  Regina  (queen)  was  worshipped 
in  Italy  at  an  early  period.  She  bore  the 


Juno  of  Lanuvlum. — Colossal  statue  in 
the  Vatican  Museum,  Rome. 

same  relation  to  woman  that  Jupiter  did 
to  men.  She  was  regarded  as  the  special 
protectress  of  whatever  was  connected 
with  marriage,  and  females  from  birth 
to  death  had  her  as  a tutelary  genius. 
She  was  also  the  guardian  of  the  national 
finances,  and  a temple,  which  contained 


the  mint,  was  erected  to  her  under  the 
name  of  Juno  Moneta  on  the  Capitoline. 

JUNOT  (zhil-no),  Andoche,  Duke  of 
Abrantes,  French  marshal,  was  born  in 
1771  and  died  1813.  At  the  siege  of 
Toulon,  in  1793,  he  became  secretary  to 
Napoleon,  who  afterward  took  him 
with  him  into  Italy  and  Egypt  in  the 
capacity  of  aide-de-camp.  In  1807  he 
was  sent  with  an  army  into  Portugal, 
and  made  his  entry  without  opposition 
into  Lisbon,  his  success  being  rewarded 
with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Abrantes.  On 
the  arrival  of  the  British  he  first  allowed 
himself  to  be  defeated  at  Vimeira.  Al- 
though he  subsequently  took  part  in  the 
campaigns  (1809)  against  Austria,  (1810) 
against  Spain,  and  (1812)  against  Rus- 
sia, he  failed  to  retrieve  his  reputation. 
In  1813  he  became  insane,  and  lost  his 
life  by  leaping  from  a window. 

JUNTA  (Spanish,  an  assembly),  in 
Spain,  a high  council  of  state.  It  was 
originally  applied  to  an  Irregularly  sum- 
moned assembly  of  the  states,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Cortes  or  parliament 
regularly  called  together  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  king. 

JU'PITER,  or  JUPPITER,  the  su- 
preme deity  of  the  Latin  races  in  ancient 
Italy,  the  same  as  the  Greek  Zeus,  and 
the  Sanskrit  dyaus  (which  means  the 
sky) ; the  second  part  being  the  same  as 
the  Latin  pater,  father.  As  the  supreme 
deity  Jupiter  received  from  the  Romans 
the  title  of  optimus  maximus  (best 
greatest),  and  as  the  deity  presiding  over 
the  sky  he  was  considered  as  the  origi- 
nator of  all  the  changes  that  took  place 
in  the  sky.  From  him  accordingly  pro- 
ceeded rain,  hail,  and  the  thunderbolt, 
and  he  it  was  that  restored  serenity  to 
the  sky  after  it  had  been  obscured  by 
clouds.  Hence  the  epithets  of  Pluvius 
(rainy),  Tonans  (thundering),  etc.,  were 
applied  to  him.  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  temples  was  that  on  the  Capitoline 
Hill  dedicated  to  him  as  Jupiter  Opti- 
mus Maximus,  jointly  with  Juno  and 
Minerva.  He  was  represented  with  a 
scepter  as  symbolical  of  his  supreme 
authority.  He  maintained  the  sanctity 
of  oaths ; he  was  the  guardian  of  all  prop- 
erty; and  every  Roman  was  believed  to 
be  under  his  protection,  and  that  of  his 
consort  Juno,  the  queen  of  heaven. 
White  animals  were  offered  up  to  him  in 
sacrifice,  his  priests  wore  white  caps, 
and  his  chariot  was  represented  as  drawn 
by  four  white  horses. 

JUPITER,  is  the  largest  planet  of  the 
solar  system,  and  the  fifth  (excluding 
the  asteroids)  in  order  of  distance  from 
the  sun.  His  mean  diameter  is  about 

85.000  miles;  his  polar  diameter  about 
82,200;  his  mean  distance  from  the  sun 

475.692.000  miles;  his  period  of  revolu- 
tion round  the  sun  11  years  lOJ  months; 
his  orbit  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  the 
angle  1°  18'  40". 3.  The  inclination  of  his 
axis  is  very  small  (3°  5'  30"),  so  that 
changes  in  the  seasons  must  be  almost 
unknown  ; his  volume  is  1233  times  that 
of  the  earth,  but  his  mass  is  only  300.857 
times.  His  surface  shows  belts  of  dark 
and  light  shade,  which  are  usually,  but 
not  always  parallel  to  each  other,  under- 
go quick  changes,  and  seem  as  though 
they  merged  into  one  another.  To 
account  for  these  rapid  changes  in  his 
atmosphere  it  seems  reasonable  to  be- 


lieve that  his  interior  mass  is  intensely 
heated  similarly  to  that  of  the  sun,  hence 
the  intense  light  proceeding  from  this 
planet.  Jupiter  has  four  moons,  lo, 
Europa,  Ganymede,  and  Callisto;  they 
were  discovered  by  Galileo  in  1610  ; they 
are  at  average  distances  of  from  267,380 
to  1,192,820  miles  from  the  planet  ; they 
appear,  like  our  moon,  to  make  one  revo- 
lution on  their  axis  while  passing  once 
round  the  planet,  the  time  of  one  revolu- 
tion being  from  1 day  18  hours  27  min- 
utes to  16  days  16  hours  32  minutes. 
Europa,  the  smallest,  has  a diameter  of 
2099  miles;  Ganymede,  the  largest,  has 


Jupiter. 


a diameter  of  3436  miles.  The  moons 
appear  from  the  earth  to  move  in  nearly 
straight  lines  from  one  side  of  the  planet 
to  the  other,  so  that  the  planes  of  their 
orbits  are  nearly  the  same  as  the  ecliptic 
and  the  orbit  of  Jupiter;  they  are 
eclipsed  in  the  shadow  of  the  planet, 
and  their  own  shadows  may  be  seen 
passing  over  the  planet’s  surface.  From 
observation  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s 
satellites  Romer  discovered  that  the 
propagation  of  light  is  not  instantane- 
ous, and  thus  calculated  its  velocity. 

JURA  (zhil-ra),  a department  in  the 
east  of  France,  bordering  on  Switzer- 
land; area,  1938  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
261,288. 

JURA,  a chain  of  mountains  in  Cen- 
tral Europe,  partly  belonging  to  France, 
partly  to  Switzerland,  between  which 
they  form  a sort  of  natural  barrier,  ex- 
.■tending  from  southwest  to  northwest, 
and  exhibiting  a number  of  parallel 
ridges. 

JURISPRUDENCE,  the  science  of 
law. — Medical  jurisprudence,  forensic 
medicine  (which  see). 

JURY  AND  JURY  TRIALS,  the  origin 
of  trial  by  jury  is  not  traceable  to  any 
single  legislator  or  any  particular  period. 
It  seems  to  have  had  its  beginning  in  cer- 
tain primitive  customs  of  the  northern 
European  races,  and  received  special  de- 
velopments from  different  nations.  By 
the  Anglo-Saxons  a person  who  was 
accused  of  crime  was  permitted  to  sum- 
mon twelve  of  his  neighbors,  called 
compurgators,  who  swore  to  his  inno- 
cence. This  was  the  origin  of  an  institu- 
tion which  took  settled  and  vigorous 
form  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  grad- 
ually developing  into  its  present  form. 

In  criminal  trials  two  juries  act,  the 
grand  jury  and  the  petit  jury.  The 


JUSTICE 


JUTE 


grand  jury  mitj  consist  of  any  number 
more  than  eleve»  and  less  than  twenty- 
four  men,  who  hs.v^e  been  summoned  by 
amandate  from  ths  sheriff  of  the  county. 
Their  names  are  returned  on  a piece  of 
parchment  which  is  called  a panel.  The 
oath  having  been  administered,  they 
are  usually  instructed  by  the  presiding 
judge  in  the  nature  and  number  of  the 
offenses  about  to  be  brought  beforethem. 
They  then  proceed  to  consider  in  private 
the  statement  or  indictment  which  is 
brought  against  the  accused  by  the  pros- 
ecution. Should  they  agree  to  the  num- 
ber of  twelve,  that  the  accusation  has  a 
basis  of  truth,  they  bring  into  court  what 
is  called  “a  true  bill.”  If,  on  the  con- 
trary,they  find  that  there  is  not  sufficient 
foundation  for  the  accusation,  they 
ignore  the  bill,  and  require  the  dismissal 
of  the  accused.  When  a true  bill  is  found 
by  the  grand  jury  it  usually  forms  the 
basis  of  the  subsequent  prosecution. 

Petty  or  petit  juries  consist  of  twelve 
persons,  and  no  more,  for  the  trial  of  all 
criminal  offenses,  and  of  all  issues  of 
fact  in  civil  cases  at  the  common  law. 
If  all  the  jurors  do  not  appear,  or  any  of 
them  are  justly  objected  to  and  set 
aside,  in  virtue  of  the  right  of  challenge 
exercised  by  the  parties  to  a suit,  the 
deficiency  may  be  supplied  from  among 
the  bystanders  having  suitable  qualifi- 
cations. The  jury  being  then  sworn  is 
placed  in  the  jurybox,  and  the  evidence 
given.  No  juror  is  at  liberty  to  leave 
the  box  without  permission  of  the  court. 
Unless  the  case  be  a criminal  one  in 
which  the  prisoner  is  charged  with  a 
misdemeanor,  the  jury  are  allowed  to 
go  home  on  engaging  not  to  allow  them- 
selves to  be  spoken  to  on  any  subject  con- 
nected with  the  trial.  When  the  prisoner 
is  charged  with  treason  or  felony  the 
jury  are  usually  allowed  to  retire  only 
in  custody  of  the  sheriff  and  his  officers, 
who  are  sworn  to  keep  them  together, 
and  not  to  speak  to  them  with  reference 
to  the  trial.  When  the  evidence  has  been 
led  it  is  usual  for  the  presiding  judge 
to  instruct  the  jury  in  the  points  of  law 
which  apply  to  it.  It  is  thus  that  their 
duties  are  divided — the  jury  dealing 
with  the  facts,  and  the  judge  with  the 
law  of  the  case.  The  jury  usually  form 
an  independent  judgment  upon  the  facts 
and  their  finding  is  considered  final.  To 
consider  their  verdict  they  usually  with- 
draw to  a private  room,  where  no  inter- 
course with  other  persons  is  permitted, 
and  where,  when  the  session  is  pro- 
tracted, food  and  other  necessaries  are 
supplied.  Upon  returning  into  court  they 
publicly  assent  to  such  verdict  as  they 
have  agreed  upon.  If  they  fail  to  agree 
among  themselves  the  jursmien  are  dis- 
charged by  the  judge,  and  the  cause,  if 
it  is  civil,  can  be  tried  anew.  When  it  is 
a criminal  case  no  new  trial  is  possible. 

Another  kind  of  jury  is  the  coroner’s 
jury,  summoned  to  inquire  into  cases  of 
sudden  or  violent  deatb.  The  inquiry  is 
made  in  presence  of  the  body,  and  at  the 
place  where  the  death  happened.  The 
jury  may  consist  of  any  number  above 
eleven,  and  usually  numbers  twenty- 
three;  twelve  must  concur  in  the  find- 
ing. The  persons  found  guilty  are  re- 
served for  trial  by  a petty  jury. 

In  the  United  States,  in  Canada,  and 
the  other  British  colonies,  jury  trials  are 


essentially  the  same  as  in  England.  In 
France  they  are  only  applicable  to 
criminal  cases,  and  the  verdict  is  re- 
turned by  a majority.  Trial  by  jury  is  in 
force  in  Italy,  and  in  the  German  empire. 

JUSTICE,  a common  term  for  a judge 
or  legal  official  appointed  to  hold  court 
and  administer  justice,  especially  given 
to  judges  of  superior  courts.  Thus  in 
England  the  judges  in  the  common  law 
and  chancery  divisions  of  the  high  court 
of  justice  are  so  called,  the  head  of  the 
common  law  division  being  the  lord 
chief-justice  of  England.  The  term  is 
similarly  used  in  the  United  States. 

JUSTICE,  High  Court  of.  See  Su- 
preme Court. 

JUSTICE,  Lord  Chief.  See  Chief- 
justice. 

JUSTICE,  Department  of,  one  of  the 
ten  executive  departments  of  the  United 
States,  the  head  of  which  is  the  attorney- 
general,  appointed  by  the  president  for 
a term  of  four  years.  The  attorney- 
general  is  the  chief  law  officer  of  the 
government,  and,  as  a member  of  the 
cabinet,  ranks  fourth  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  presidency.  It  is  his  duty 
to  advise  the  president  on  any  questions 
of  law  that  may  arise  in  the  course  of 
the  administration,  and  also  to  give  his 
opinion  when  requested  by  any  of  the 
heads  of  departments  upon  legal  ques- 
tions concerning  matters  affecting  their 
departments.  The  opinions  rendered  by 
the  attorney-general  are  from  time  to 
time  published  by  the  government,  and 
next  to  the  decisions  of  the  courts  they 
are  regarded  as  authority  on  the  points 
covered.  The  attorney-general  is  the 
legal  representative  of  the  government 
in  all  cases  at  law  to  which  the  United 
States  is  a party,  and  may  appear  in 
court  in  person  or  direct  which  one  of  the 
assistant  attorney-generals  shall  appear, 
and  may  employ  special  counsel  to  aid 
in  the  conduct  of  the  cases  in  which  the 
government  is  interested. 

JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEACE,  a judicial 
magistrate  intrusted  with  the  conserva- 
tion of  the  peace.  The  first  judicial  pro- 
ceedings are  held  before  him  in  regard 
to  arresting  persons  accused  of  grave 
offenses;  and  his  jurisdiction  extends  to 
trial  and  adjudication  for  small  offenses. 
In  case  of  the  commission  of  a crime  or  a 
breach  of  the  peace  a complaint  is  made 
to  one  of  these  magistrates.  If  he  is 
satisfied  with  the  evidence  of  a commis- 
sion of  some  offense,  he  issues  a warrant 
directed  to  a constable,  tries  the  party, 
if  the  offense  be  within  his  jurisdiction, 
and  acquits  him  or  awards  punishment. 
In  the  United  States  the  office  is  held 
only  by  special  appointment,  and  the 
tenure  is  different  in  different  states; 
but  the, commission  is  usually  for  three 
or  four  years,  or  some  other  specific 
limited  period.  Their  position  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  justices  in  Britain.  In 
some  of  the  states  they  have  a right  to 
celebrate  marriages. 

JUSTIFIABLE  HOMICIDE.  See 
Homicide. 

JUSTIN,  Justi'nus,  the  name  of  two 
emperors  of  the  east. — Justin  I.,  born 
450,  died  523  a.d.,  a peasant  of  Dacia, 
rose  from  a common  soldier  to  be  com- 
mander of  the  imperial  guard,  and  on 
the  death  of  Anastasius  in  518  became 
emperor.  He  relegated  the  civil  admin- 


istration to  the  quaestor  Proclus,  and  be- 
tween them  the  empire  was  governed 
with  a fair  amount  of  success. — Justin 
II.  ascended  the  throne  on  the  death  of 
his  uncle  Justinian  I.  in  565.  Beset  with 
enemies  outside  the  empire  and  harassed 
with  internal  discord,  he  in  574  solved 
his  difficulties  by  abdicating  in  favor 
of  Tiberius,  captain  of  the  guard.  He 
died  in  578. 

JUSTIN'IAN  I.,  Flavius  Anicius  Jus- 
tinianus,  surnamed  the  Great,  nephew 
of  Justin  I.,  emperor  of  the  east,  cele- 
brated as  a lawgiver,  was  born  of  an 
obscure  family  in  483  a.d.,  and  died  in 
563.  Patronized  by  his  uncle,  who,  from 
a Thracian  peasant,  had  become  em- 
peror, he  so  flattered  the  senate  and 
dazzled  the  people  that  he  was  made 
consul,  and  took  the  title  of  Nobilissi- 
mus.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle,  with 
whom  he  had  latterly  shared  the  im- 
perial power,  he  was  proclaimed  em- 
peror and  married  an  actress  named 
Theodora.  Aided  by  his  generals,  he  was 
able  subsequently  to  restore  to  the 
Roman  empire  a part  of  its  former  pos- 
sessions, as  when  Belisarius  in  523  and 
529  defeated  the  Persians,  and  achieved 
victories  in  Africa,  and  when  Narses, 
another  of  his  generals,  put  an  end  to  the 
Ostrogoth  rule  in  Italy.  Turning  his 
attention  to  the  laws,  Justinian  com- 
missioned ten  learned  civilians  to  draw 
up  a new  code,  and  the  result  was  the 
Corpus  Juris  Civllis,  or  body  of  civil  law. 
His  reign  of  thirty-eight  years  was  a 
great  period  in  the  empire’s  history,  but 
the  emperor  himself  was  by  no  means 
great. 

JUSTIN  MARTYR,  an  early  Christian 
writer,  born  in  Palestine  about  100  a.d., 
suffered  for  his  faith  about  165.  Born  a 
heathen  but  converted  to  Christianity, 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  wrote  an 
Apology  for  Christianity,  with  a sup- 
plementary or  second  Apology,  a Dia- 
logue with  Trj’’pho  the  Jew,  all  still  ex- 
tant, besides  other  works.  He  is  of  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  Christian 
dogma. 

JUTE,  a textile  fabric  obtained  from 
Corchorus  capsularis,  a plant  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Tiliacese  (lime  or 


linden).  The  jute  plant  is  a native  of  th^ 
warmer  parts  of  India,  where  its  culti- 
vation is  caried  on,  especially  in  Bengal, 
on  an  extensive  scale.  It  is  an  annual 
plant,  growing  to  a height  of  12  or  14 
feet.  The  fiber  forms  the  inner  bark  of 
the  plant,  and  possesses  in  an  eminent 
degree  the  tenacity  common  to  the  bark 


JUTLAND 


KALMUCKS 


-of  the  plants  of  this  order.  The  fiber  is 
fine,  and  has  a shining  surface;  it  is  in- 
jured by  exposure  to  water,  and  hence 
is  not  well  adapted  for  cordage  and  can- 
vas, but  it  is  in  extensive  use  for  making 
bags,  and  it  serves  many  other  useful 


purposes,  being  often  mixed  with  hemp 
for  cordage,  and  even  with  silk  in  the 
manufacture  of  cheap  satins,  although 
its  principal  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
coarse  cloth  for  bagging,andinmakingthe 
foundation  of  inferior  carpets,  mats,  etc. 


JUTLAND,  the  peninsular  and  most 
important  portion  of  Denmark,  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  the  sea — the 
Skagerrack,  the  Kattegat,  and  the  North 
Sea,  on  the  south  by  Schleswig;  area, 
9755  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,063,792. 


K 


K,>  the  eleventh  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  representing  a gutteral  articu- 
lation, the  surd  consonant  correspond- 
ing to  the  sonant  g.  In  Anglo-Saxon 
this  letter  was  only  used  occasionally, 
c being  regularly  used  instead.  So  also  in 
Latin,  k,  borrowed  from  the  Greeks,  was 
little  used,  its  place  being  supplied  by  c. 
The  Italians,  Spaniards,  and  Portuguese 
have  banished  the  letter  entirely  from 
their  alphabet.  The  French  use  it  only 
in  a few  words  derived  from  the  Greek, 
foreign  proper  names,  etc.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  a word  or  syllable  k is  not 
pronounced  when  followed  by  n,  as 
knife,  knee,  know. 

KABUL.  See  Cabul 

KAFFA,  a mountainous  territory  to 
the  south  of  Abyssinia,  inhabited  by 
one  of  the  Galla  tribes.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  the  home  of  the  coffee-plant,  which 
grows  wild  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kaffa 
hills.  The  chief  town  is  Bonga. 

KAFFIR  OX,  the  Cape  buffalo.  See 
Buffalo. 

KAFFIRS,  the  principal  race  inhabit- 
ing Southeastern  Africa,  a branch  of  the 
great  Bantu  family.  The  name  is  now 
chiefly  restricted  to  the  tribes  occupying 
the  coast  districts  between  Cape  Colony 
and  Delagoa  Bay.  They  differ  from  the 
negroes  in  the  shape  of  the  head,  it  be- 
ing more  like  that  of  Europeans;  in  the 
high  nose,  frizzled  hair,  and  brown  com- 


Kaffir  chief  of  the  Zulu  tribe. 

plexion,  which  becomes  lighter  in  shade 
in  the  tribes  of  the  more  southern  dis- 
tricts. They  are  a tall,  muscular  race, 
the  average  height  being  from  5 feet  9 
inches  to  5 feet  11  inches,  and  frugal  and 
simple  in  their  habits.  Their  chief 
occupation  is  raising  and  tending  cattle, 
and  hunting;  garden  and  field  work  is 

1 Where  the  reader  may  fail  to  find  articles 
under  K,  he  is  referred  to  C. 


mainly  performed  by  women.  They  are 
of  a peaceful  disposition,  but  in  times  of 
war  they  display  considerable  bravery, 
tactical  skill,  and  dexterity  in  the  hand- 
ling of  their  assagais  or  spears,  shields 
and  clubs,  as  has  been  shown  in  their 
engagements  with  the  British  forces. 
Frequent  hostilities  have  taken  place 
between  the  British  and  one  or  other  of 
the  Kaffir  tribes,  beginning  almost  with 
the  first  acquisition  by  Britain  of  the 
Cape  Colony.  The  first  Kaffir  war  was 
in  1811-12,  the  next  in  1818-19.  In 


The  kahau,  or  long-nosed  monkey. 


1834-35  a serious  Kaffir  war  was  carried 
on,  resulting  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
Kaffirs  beyond  the  Great  Kei,  but  they 
were  soon  allowed  to  return.  Another 
war  (the  fourth)  broke  out  in  1846,  and 
lasted  nearly  two  years,  with  much 
suffering  to  both  colonists  and  Kaffirs. 
Its  result  was  an  extension  of  territory 
in  the  north  and  east,  a portion  between 
the  Cape  Colony  and  the  Kei  being  re- 
served for  the  natives,  and  called  British 
Kaffraria.  In  1850  a Kaffir  outbreak 
took  place,  and  a bloody  war  followed 
ending  in  1853,  soon  after  which  British 
Kaffraria  was  made  a crown  colony.  A 
sixth  war  occurred  in  1877-78,  owing 
jits  origin  to  disputes  between  the  two 
I tribes  of  the  Fingoes  and  Gcalekas.  For 
a subsequent  war  see  Zululand. 

KA'HAU,  or  BLANDA,  the  native 
name  for  a large,  odd-looking  monkey 
peculiar  to  Borneo,  better  known  as  the 
proboscis  monkey  from  its  long,  pend- 
ent nose,  which  in  old  animals  reaches  a 
length  of  3 or  4 inches.  The  face  is 
cinnamon  brown,  the  body  reddish  with 
conspicuous  markings  of  white.  It  asso- 
ciates in  small  troops,  is  usually  found 
over  or  near  the  water,  and  is  very  shy. 

KAISER  ((ki'zer),  the  German  word 
for  emperor,  fyom  L.  Caesar. 

KAISERSLAUTERN  (ki'zerz-lou-tern) , 
a town  in  the  Bavarian  Palatinate, 
on  the  Lauter.  Pop.  48,310. 

KAISER-WILHELM  CANAL.  See 
Norfh  Sea  and  Baltic  Canal. 


KAISER-WILHELMS-LAND.  See 

New  Guinea. 

KALAMAZOO',  a town,  county,  and 
river  of  Michigan.  The  city  is  144  miles 
e.n.e.  of  Chicago,  situated  in  a fertile 
agricultural  district,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  which  supplies  some  of  its 
numerous  factories  with  water  power; 
chief  manufactures:  paper, flour,  furni- 
ture, and  agricultural  implements.  Pop. 
19(19,  estimated  at  about  45,000. 

KALE.  See  Cabbage. 

KALEIDOSCOPE  (ka-li'-),  a well- 
known  optical  toy  invented  by  Sir 
David  Brewster,  by  which  an  infinite 
variety  of  symmetrical,  and  often  beau- 
tiful, colored  designs  is  obtained.  The 
ordinary  kaleidoscope  consists  of  a tube 
containing  two  glass  plates  acting  as 
mirrors,  which  extend  along  its  -ymole 
length  and  make  an  angle  of  60°  with 
one  another.  One  end  of  the  tube  is 
closed  by  a metal  plate  with  a small  hole 
at  its  center,  to  which  the  eye  is  applied ; 
at  the  other  end  there  are  two  plates,  one 
of  ground  the  other  of  clear  glass  (the 
latter  being  next  the  eye),  with  a num- 
ber of  pieces  of  colored  glass  or  beads 
lying  loosely  between  them.  When  the 
eye  is  applied  to  the  aperture  the  mirrors 
produce  a beautiful  symmetrical  figure, 
and  when  the  tube  is  turned  about  or 
shaken,  new  images,  always  symmetrical 
are  formed.  This  arrangement  may  be 
modified  in  various  ways.  The  instru- 
ment has  been  used  by  designers  of 
patterns  for  printed  calicoes,  etc. 

KALENDAR.  See  Calendar. 

KALIF.  See  Caliph. 

KALISCH  (kii'lish),  or  Kalisz,  a town 
and  government  in  Russian  Poland, 
near  the  Prussian  frontier.  Area  of  gov- 
ernment 4392  sq.  miles,  pop.  846,719. 
The  town  is  an  important  trade  center, 
and  the  capital  of  the  province.  Pop. 
21,680. 

KAL 'MUCKS,  a nomadic  and  warlike 
Mongol  race,  originally  natives  of  the 


Kalmuck. 


territory  of  Central  Asia  between  the 
Koko-Nor  and  Tibet,  but  now'  inhabiting 
not  only  parts  of  the  Chinese  empire, 
but  also  occupying  districts  of  Siberia 


KALUGA 


KANSAS 


and  European  Russia.  They  are  in- 
trepid soldiers,  splendid  horsemen,  and 
troops  of  them  are  attached  to  almost 
every  Cossack  regiment.  Physically  the 
Kalmucks  are  small  of  stature,  broad- 
shouldered,  with  small  round  heads, 
and  the  narrow  oblique  eyes  character- 
istic of  the  Mongolian  race.  They  num- 
ber altogether  perhaps  700,000,  of  whom 
more  than  half  are  under  Chinese  rule. 

KALU'GA,  a town  and  government  of 
European  Russia.  Pop.  40,252. 

KAMA,  the  largest  tributary  of  the 
Volga,  rises  in  the  Russian  government 
Viatka,  and  after  a course  of  1150  miles 
flows  into  the  Volga,  40  miles  south  of 
Kasan.  Part  of  it  is  navigable  for 
steamers,  and  ordinary  barges  can  pro- 
ceed as  far  as  Perm. 

KAMA  (ka'ma),  the  Hindu  god  of  love 
corresponding,  generally  speaking,  to 
the  Greek  Eros  and  Roman  Cupid.  He 
appears  as  a beautiful  youth  riding  on  a 
parrot,  generally  carrying  a bow  with  a 
string  formed  of  bees,  and  having  five 


Kama  or  Kamadeva. 


arrows,  each  tipped  with  a flower  that  is 
supposed  to  have  some  amorous  in- 
fluence. Dancing  girls  or  nymphs  bear 
him  company,  and  one  carries  his  ban- 
ner, the  emblem  on  which  is  a fish  or 
marine  monster  on  a red  ground. 

KAM'ALA,  a drug  long  known,  under 
various  names,  to  Indian  and  Arab 
physicians,  as  a specific  against  the  tape- 
worm, introduced  in  the  British  Phar- 
macopoeia in  1864  as  a vermifuge,  in 
doses  of  30  grains  to  a quarter  of  an 
ounce  in  syrup  or  gruel.  It  occurs  as  a 
brick-red  powder,  adherent  to  the  fruit 
of  the  Rottl6ra  tinctoria,  formed  by 
minute  roundish,  semi-transparent  gran- 
ules mixed  with  stellate  hairs,  and  is 
largely  collected  in  the  forests  of  Mad- 
ras, where  it  forms  an  important  source 
of  revenue.  The  active  principle  of  the 
powder  lies  in  the  80  per  cent  of  resin 
it  contains,  which  also  supply  the  color- 
ing matter,  called  rottlerin,  used  as  a 
silk  dye. 

KAMRUP  (kam-rop'),  a district  of 
Assam,  in  the  Brahmaputra  valley; 
area,  3857  sq.  miles.  Pop.  634,249. 

KAMTCHAT'KA,  a large  peninsula  in 
the  northeast  of  Asia.  On  the  east  it  has 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the 
west  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk;  it  is  upward 
of  800  miles  in  length  and  190  in  average 
breadth;  sq.  miles,  85,000.  The  entire 
population  is  about  11,500.  The  capital, 
Petropaulovsk,  has  a pop.  of  about 
1000. 

KANAZA'WA,  a town  of  Japan,  near 


the  northwest  coast  of  the  island  of 
Hondo  (Niphon),  with  manufactures  of 
silks,  porcelain,  etc.  Pop.  91,531 

KANDAHAR',  or  CANDAHAR,  a town 
of  considerable  commercial  and.strategi- 
cal  importance  in  the  south  of  Afghani- 
stan, on  the  direct  route  to  India.  The 
town  lies  3484  feet  above  the  sea,  has  a 
large  transit  trade,  and  a pop.  of  60,000. 

KANE,  Elisha  Kent,  a surgeon,  trav- 
eler, and  Arctic  explorer,  born  at  Phila- 
delphia 1820,  died  at  Havana  1857.  In 
1846  he  rendered  important  service  as  a 
volunteer  in  the  United  States  army  in 
Mexico,  in  1850  by  his  survey  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  in  the  same  year  joined 
the  Grinell  expedition,  as  medical  and 
scientific  member,  in  the  unsuccessful 
search  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  His  ob- 
servations led  him  to  the  belief  that  there 
was  a large  open  sea  near  the  pole,  and 
with  a view  to  penetrate  it  he  organized 
and  commanded  a second  expedition, 
which  left  New  York  in  the  Advance  in 
May,  1853.  He  succeeded  in  getting  as 
far  as  78°  43'  n.  lat.,  where  he  was  frozen 
up  for  twenty-one  months,  and  being 
harassed  by  scurvy  and  want  of  pro- 
visions was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
vessel.  A perilous  journey  of  1300  miles 
in  boats  and  sledges  brought  him  back 
to  Greenland,  and  he  again  reached  New 
York  in  November,  1855.  Much  broken 
in  health,  he  sailed  for  Cuba  to  recruit, 
but  died  there.  The  accounts  of  his  two 
expeditions  added  much  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  Arctic  regions. 

KANGAROO,  the  common  name  of  a 
number  of  animals  belonging  to  the 
marsupial  order  of  mammals,  indigen- 
ous to  Australia,  and  first  made  known 
to  Europe  by  Captain  Cook.  The  most 
noticeable  feature  about  the  kangaroo 


is  the  disproportion  between  the  upper 
and  lower  I»rts  of  the  body.  The  head  is 
small,  deer-Tike  in  shape,  with  large  ears; 
the  forelegs  small  and  five-toed;  the 
hindlegs  very  large  and  powerful,  with 
four  toes  only  on  the  feet.  The  tail  is 
long,  thick  at  the  base,  and  helps  to 
support  the  animal  when  sitting  erect, 
the  usual  posture  when  not  feeding;  it 
also  assists  the  hindlegs  in  their  long 
leaps  (from  10  to  15  feet).  The  young 
are  born  very  immature,  and  protected 
and  nourished  for  about  eight  months  in 
the  marsupium,  or  pouch,  into  which  the 
nipples  of  the  mammary  glands  open. 
Kangaroos  are  herbivorous,  and,  where 


still  plentiful, a serious  pest  to  squatters, 
whose  rifles  have,  however,  consider- 
ably reduced  their  number.  The  hind- 
quarters of  the  large  species  supply  a 
tolerable  substitute  for  venison,  while 
their  tails  make  excellent  soup,  and 
their  skins  good  rugs  and  leather.  The 
kangaroo  includes  many  species,  varying 
in  size  from  a hare  to  a large  sheep,  and 
remains  of  still  larger  and  extinct  species 
have  been  found  in  the  pleistocene  de- 
posits of  Australia. 

KANKAKEE,  the  county-seat  of 
Kankakee  co..  111.,  56  miles  south  of 
Chicago;  on  the  Kankakee  river,  and  on 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and 
St.  Louis,  the  Illinois  Central,  the 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  and  other 
railroads.  The  river,  broad  and  deep  at 
this  point,  furnishes  water-power,  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  as  well  as  for 
generating  electricity  for  city  lighting 
and  the  operation  of  street  railways. 
The  most  important  manufactures  are 
plows,  buggies,  starch,  and  iron  beds. 
Pop.  16,400. 

KANGRA,  a large  district  of  Hindu- 
stan, in  the  Punjab,  belonging  mainly  to 
the  Himalayan  chain;  area,  9069  sq. 
miles.  About  a ninth  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  large  tracts  are  covered  with 
forests.  The  inhabitants  are  a good- 
looking,  fair-complexioned  race,  mild 
and  peaceable,  and  much  attached  to 
their  country.  Pop.  763,030. 

KAN'SAS,'  one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  n.  by  Nebraska,  e.  by  Missouri, 
s.  by  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory, 
w.  by  Colorado;  area,  82,080,  sq.  miles. 
It  ranks  tenth  in  size  among  the 
states  of  the  Union.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  undulating  plains,  well 
watered  by  the  Kansas  and  Arkan- 


sas and  other  rivers,  the  Missouri  form- 
ing the  boundary  on  the  northeast. 
Kansas  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural 
state,  the  total  farm  land  being  over 
80  per  cent  of  its  surface,  of  which  over 
60  per  cent  is  improved.  It  has  risen 
with  great  rapidity  to  the  front  ranks  of 
the  agricultural  states.  In  1900  only 
one  state,  Iowa,  had  a larger  acreage  of 
crops.  In  the  last  census  year  the  rank 
in  acreage  of  corn  was  third,  wheat 
fourth,  and  hay  third.  Potatoes  and 
other  vegetables  are  also  raised  in  large 
uantities.  It  also  raises  a great  abun- 
ance  of  orchard  fruits.  The  bright 
climate  and  pure  atmosphere  are  ad- 


Kangaroo. 


KANSAS  CITY 


KANT 


mirably  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
apple,  pear,  peach,  plum,  grape  and  cher- 
ry. Creameries  are  numerous.  Kansas 
ranks  second  in  the  production  of  broom- 
corn  and  is  important  in  the  production 
of  castor-beans.  The  raising  of  enormous 
crops  of  corn  and  other  stock  feed  has 
resulted  in  the  development  of  a large 
stock  raising  industry,  extensive  areas  of 
prairie  land  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state  being  used  for  grazing  grounds. 
Timber  is  abundant  along  the  streams 
in  the  eastern  section  of  the  state  but 
is  less  plentiful  in  the  central  portion 
and  very  scarce  in  some  parts  of  the 
west.  The  varieties  of  timber  embrace 
oak,  elm,  black  walnut,  cottonwood, 
mulberry,  box  elder,  willow,  hickory, 
sycamore,  white  ash  and  other  hard 
and  soft  woods. 

The  climate  of  Kansas  is  in  general 
very  pleasant;  the  air  is  clear  and  dry, 
and  sunny  days  by  far  predominate. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  ranges 
from  52°  in  the  north  to  58°  in  the  south. 
The  mean  rainfall  for  the  whole  state  is 
26.42  inches,  but  it  ranges  from  40 
inches  in  the  east  to  15  in  the  west. 


Seal  of  Kansas. 


With  irrigation  of  the  western  lands 
there  is  very  little  soil  in  Kansas  unfit 
for  agriculture.  The  rich  bottom-lands 
of  the  numerous  rivers  occupy  a large 
area,  and  beyond  these  the  prairies  are 
everywhere  extremely  fertile,  especially 
in  the  eastern  half  of  the  state,  where  it 
is  rich  and  black,  gradually  becoming 
lighter  and  browner  toward  the  west. 

Deposits  of  bituminous  coal  probably 
underlie  more  than  half  of  the  state. 
Natural  gas  occurs  in  the  south- 
eastern part.  Lead  and  zinc  ores  occur 
in  association  in  the  limestone  of  the 
lower  carboniferous  in  the  southeast. 
The  ores  are  chiefly  galena  and  blende. 
Running  north  and  south  through  the 
center  of  the  state  are  extensive  de- 
posits of  rock  salt  and  gypsum.  Large 
deposits  of  chalk  and  clay  are  found. 
Equally  inexhaustible  are  the  building- 
stones. 

In  1541  a small  force  of  Spaniards  and 
Indians  under  Coronado  traversed  the 
region  from  southwest  to  northeast; 
but  no  results  followed  this  expedition. 
The  country  remained  unexplored  till 
1719  when  it  was  visited  by  French- 
men from  Louisiana.  In  1803  the 
greater  portion  of  what  is  now  Kansas 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  United 
States  as  a part  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase; the  southwestern  section  of  the 


state  was  ceded  by  Texas  to  the  Federal 
Government  in  1850.  The  region  was 
explored  by  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1804, 
Lieutenant  Pike  in  1806-07,  and  Lieu- 
tenant Long  in  1819. 

In  the  civil  war  Kansas  sent  into  the 
field  a larger  number  of  soldiers,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  population,  than  any  other 
state.  The  eastern  part  of  the  state  lay 
exposed  to  the  incursions  of  confederates 
from  Missouri.  On  August  23,  1863, 
Quantrell’s  guerrillas  raided  the  town  of 
Lawrence  and  killed  a large  number  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  cessation  of  war 
was  followed  immediately  by  a great 
influx  of  immigrants,  who  swept  steadily 
westward,  unchecked  by  the  repeated 
assaults  of  the  hostile  Indian  tribes. 
Railway  development  began  in  1868, 
and  by  1872  there  were  more  than  2000 
miles  of  railway  track  in  operation. 
Prohibition  became  an  important  ques- 
tion in  politics  after  1880;  the  movement 
encountered  great  opposition  in  the  be- 
ginning, but  by  1890  the  principle  was 
well  established  in  the  state,  though  in 
the  large  cities  the  anti-liquor  laws  were 
not  zealously  enforced.  Education  is 
well  provided  for,  and  there  is  a state 
university,  an  agricultural  college,  and 
other  colleges  and  normal  schools.  It 
has  over  5000  miles  of  railroad.  The  chief 
towns  are  Leavenworth,  Lawrence, Tope- 
ka, and  Atchison ; Topeka  being  the  state 
capital.  In  politics  Kansas  belongs  to 
the  republicans.  They  have  carried  the 
state  with  only  three  exceptions  since 
the  civil  war;  in  1882,  1892,  and  1896. 
Pop.  1909,  1 ,700,000. 

KANSAS  CITY,  the  largest  and  most 
important  city  of  Kansas,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Wyandotte  co.,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Kansas  river  at  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Missouri,  opposite  and 
joining  Kansas  City,  Mo.  It  is  an  im- 
portant railroad  center,  the  Missouri 
Pacific,  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  and  Santa  F6,  the  Mexico  and 
Orient  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific  entering  the  city.  Several 
bridges  across  the  Kansas  river  unite 
the  east  and  west  sections  of  the  city, 
which  is  closely  connected  also  with 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  by  elevated,  electric 
and  cable  roads.  It  is  noted  for  its  im- 
portant live  stock  slaughtering  and 
meat  packing  interests  in  all  of  which  it 
is  allied  with  the  adjacent  city — the 
stock  yards  and  packing  house  plants 
on  both  sides  of  the  Kansas-Missouri 
boundary  forming  the  second  largest 
live  stock  center  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  also  an  important  grain  and  flour 
market.  Pop.  60,000. 

KANSAS  CITY,  the  second  city  of 
Missouri,  and  an  important  railroad  and 
commercial  center,  in  Jackson  co.,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Kansas  and  Missouri 
rivers ; on  the  Kansas-Missouri  boundary 
line,  adjoining  Kansas  City,  Kan.,  and 
235  miles  west  by  north  of  St.  Louis. 
Many  of  the  most  prominent  railroads 
of  the  country  pass  through  or  have  a 
terminus  in  the  city.  Three  great  bridges 
have  been  constructed  across  the  Mis- 
souri river,  and  a terminal  circular  rail- 
way, 30  miles  in  length,  furnishes  inter- 
communication among  the  several  roads. 
Most  of  the  roads  use  in  common  a large 
union  depot. 

Kansas  City  is  highly  important  as  a 


commercial  center.  As  the  distributing 
point  for  a vast  agricultural  region  to 
the  west  and  south  it  controls  laige 
wholesale  interests,  its  jobbing  trade  in 
farming  implements  ranking  among  the 
most  extensive  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  grain,  live-stock,  and  meat-packing 
business,  Kansas  City  is  closely  allied 
with  Kansas  City,  Kan.,  the  two  munici- 
palities forming  practically  one  indus- 
trial and  commercial  community.  The 
elevators  have  a storage  capacity  of 
over  6,200,000  bushels,  and  a handling 
capacity  of  1,425,000  bushels.  The 
Kansas  City  stock  yards  handle  an- 
nually 125,000  cars  of  live  stock  valued 
at  over  $130,000,000,  including  2,000,- 

000  head  of  cattle  and  3,700,000  hogs, 
besides  large  numbers  of  sheep,  calves, 
horses  and  mules.  The  mills  have  a total 
output  of  over  1,825,000  barrels  of  flour 
(1,430,000  barrels),  oatmeal,,  and  corn- 
meal. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  at 
Kansas  City  was  made  in  1821  by  a small 
company  of  French  fur  traders,  headed 
by  Frangois  Chomteau.  In  1838  a town 
was  laid  out,  and  in  1853  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a city.  It  was  the  starting- 
point  of  the  first  railroad  across  the 
plains,  and  received  its  first  commercial 
impetus  in  1865,  when  the  Missouri 
Pacific  railroad  reached  it.  After  this 
date  its  growth  was  exceedingly  rapid. 
Pop.  1909,  estimated  at  300,000. 

KANSAS  STATE  AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE,  a coeducational  institution 
of  learning  at  Manhattan,  Kan.  The 
college  owns  323  acres  of  land,  valued  at 
$39,700,  and  leases  221  acres  in  addition, 
the  greater  part  of  these  grounds  being 
used  for  experimental  work.  The  courses 
embrace  English,  general  and  domestic 
science,  mechanical  and  electrical  en- 
gineering, and  agriculture,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science,  a pre- 
paratory department,  a musical  de- 
partment, and  apprentice  courses,  de- 
signed for  those  who  wish  to  learn  a 

KANSAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a coedu- 
cational state  institution  at  Lawrence, 
Kan.,  established  by  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  1864  and  opened  in  1866.  The 
university  comprises  a graduate  school; 
school  of  arts,  law,  medicine,  pharmacy, 
engineering  and  fine  arts;  and  the 
university  geological  survey  It  confers 
the  bachelor’s  degree  in  arts,  science,  law, 
medicine,  music  and  painting;  the  mas- 
ter’s degree  in  arts  and  science,  the 
doctor’s  degree  in  philosophy;  and  the 
degree  of  civil  and  electrical  engineer 
Tuition  is  free  to  residents  of  Kansas. 

KANSAS  RIVER,  a river  of  Kansas, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Solomon 
and  Smoky  Hill  (the  latter  rising  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains),  traverses  the  state 
in  an  easterly  direction,  and  falls  into 
the  Missouri  near  Kansas  City. 

KANSOO',  or  KANSU,  an  inland  prov- 
ince in  the  north  of  China;  area,  86,608 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  5,411,188. 

KANT,  Immanuel,  a celebrated  Ger-  .. 
man  philosopher,  the  founder  of  the  # 
“critical”  or  Kantian  philosophy,  born 
at  Konigsberg,  Prussia,  1724,  died  at 
the  same  place  1804.  It  is  impossible 
within  our  space  to  give  anything  like  ..v 
an  exposition  of  the  philosophy  of  Kant,  ? 

1 which  has  profoundly  influenced  all  eub*  - 


KAOLIN 


KAULBACH 


sequent  philosophical  speculations.  Dis- 
satisfied with  the  dogmatisms  of  Wolff 
and  the  scepticism  of  Hume,  he  set  him- 
self to  investigate  thefieldof  metaphysics 
for  himself,  and  in  the  first  place  pro- 
ceeded to  the  examination  of  the  origin, 
extent,  and  limits  of  human  knowledge. 
According  to  him,  part  of  our  knowledge 
is  knowledge  a priori,  or  original,  trans- 
cendental, and  independent  of  experi- 
ence; part  of  it  is  a posteriori,  or  based 
on  experience.  What  he  calls  the  “pure 
reason”  has  to  do  with  the  former.  His 
great  work  named  the  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason  (first  edition,  Riga,  1781),  con- 
tains the  foundation  for  his  whole  sys- 
tem of  philosophy.  In  the  preface  to  a 
later  work,  the  Criticiue  of  the  Power  of 
Judgment  (Berlin,  1790),  he  defines 
“pure  reason”  thus:  Pure  reason  is  the 
faculty  to  understand  by  a priori  princi- 
ples; and  the  discussion  of  the  possibility 
of  these  principles,  and  the  delimitation 
of  this  faculty,  constitutes  the  critique 
of  pure  reason.  In  the  first  rank  of  such 
ideas  as  we  do  not  derive  from  ex- 
perience are  space  and  time.  Kant  shows 
that  all  our  perceptions  are  submitted 
to  these  two  forms,  hence  he  concludes 
that  they  are  within  us,  and  not  in  the 
objects;  they  are  necessary  and  pure 
intuitions  of  the  internal  sense.  The 
three  original  faculties,  through  the 
medium  of  which  we  acquire  knowledge, 
are  sense,  understanding,  reason.  Sense, 


Immanuel  Kant. 


a passive  and  receptive  faculty,  has,  as 
already  stated,  for  its  forms  or  condi- 
tions space  and  time.  Understanding  is 
an  active  or  spontaneous  faculty,  and 
consists  in  the  power  of  forming  con- 
ceptions according  to  such  categories 
as  unity,  plurality,  casuality,  etc.,  which 
categories  are  applied  to  objects  of 
experience  through  the  medium  of  the 
two  forms  of  perception,  space  and 
time.  Reason  is  the  third  or  highest  de- 
gree of  mental  spontaneity,  and  consists 
in  the  power  of  forming  ideas.  As  it  is 
the  province  of  the  understanding  to 
form  the  intuitions  of  sense  into  con- 
ceptions, so  it  is  the  business  of  reason  to 
form  conceptions  into  ideas.  Far  from 
rejecting  experience,  Kant  considers 
the  work  of  all  our  life  but  the  action  of 
our  innate  faculties  on  the  conceptions 
which  come  to  us  from  without.  He 
proceeds  in  a similar  way  with  morality; 
the  idea  of  good  and  bad  is  a necessary 
coiidition,  an  original  basis  of  morals, 
which  is  supposed  in  every  one  of  our 
moral  reflections,  and  not  obtained  by 
experience.  He  treats  this  part  of  his 
philosophy  in  his  Critique  of  Practical 
Reason  (1788). 

KA'OLIN,  a name  first  given  by  the 
Chinese  to  a pure  white  clay  used  by 


them  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain. 
Kaolin  is  the  result  of  the  decomposition 
of  granitic  rock,  containing  felspar,  mica, 
and  quartz.  Similar  clays,  differing 
slightly  in  color  and  in  the  percentage  of 
constituents,  are  found  at  Schneeberg  in 
Saxony,  furnishing  the  material  of 
Dresden  china;  at  Limoges,  in  France, 
employed  for  Ifimoges  ware;  and  at  St. 
Austell,  in  Cornwall,  the  source  of  supply 
for  the  British  potteries.  It  is  also  found 
in  Nebraska  and  some  of  the  eastern 
states.  In  its  natural  state  kaolin  some- 
what resembles  mortar;  by  sorting  and 
repeated  filtration  it  is  freed  from  all 
coarse  ingredients,  then  dried  in  pans 
and  sheds,  and  sent  into  the  market  cut 
into  blocks. 

KAPURTHALA  (ka-p6rt'ha-la),  na- 
tive state  of  India,  province  Punjab; 
area  598  sq.  miles;  pop.  299,690.  The 
capital,  Kapurthala.  Pop.  17,000. 

KARAM'SIN,  Nicolai  Michailovitch, 
imperial  Russian  historiographer,  born 
in  a village  of  the  government  of  Oren- 
burg in  1765,  died  at  St.  Petersburg 
1826.  His  title  to  fame  rests  on  his 
History  of  the  Russian  Empire  (12  vols., 
St.  Petersburg,  1816-24),  a work  written 
in  fine  style,  with  impartiality  and  pene- 
tration, and  translated  into  several  other 
languages,  including  an  English  edition. 

KARAULI',  a town  of  India.  Pop. 
23,124. — The  state,  which  is  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Bhurtpore  and 
Karauli  agency,  has  an  area  of  1208  sq. 
miles,  and  a population  of  148,670. 

KARLSBAD.  See  Carlsbad. 

KARNAK.  See  Thebes. 

KARNAL  (kar-naP),  an  Indian  town 
and  district,  in  the  Punjab;  area  of  dis- 
trict, 2396  sq.  miles;  pop.  683,718. 
Karnal,  the  headquarters  of  the  district, 
trades  largely  with  Delhi  and  Umballa. 
Pop.  23,559. 

KARNUL',  or  KARNOOL',  a town  in 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
situated  in  the  fork  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Hundri  with  the  Tungab- 
hadra,  with  a dismantled  fort.  Pop. 
25,376. — The  district  has  an  area  of  7514 
sq.  miles;  a pop.  of  817,811. 

KARS,  a town  on  the  Russo-Turkish 
frontier  in  Asia.  Captured  and  annexed 
by  the  Russians  in  November,  1878,  it 
has  become  the  capital  of  a Russian 
province  of  the  same  name;  area,  7175 
sq.  miles,  pop.  292,498.  It  has  since  been 
connected  with  Batoum  and  Tiflis  by 
military  roads,  and  the  fortifications 
have  been  much  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened. Pop.  20,891. 

KASHGAR',  a Chinese  town  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  in  Eastern  Turkestan  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  with  consider- 
able manufactures  of  cotton,  linen,  gold 
and  silver  cloths,  carpets,  etc.,  and  an 
extensive  trade,  its  position  at  the  junc- 
tion of  several  great  routes  making  it 
the  emporium  of  much  of  the  commerce 
of  Central  Asia.  Pop.  estimated  at  from 
40,000  to  80,000. 

KAS'SON,  John  Adam,  an  American 
diplomat,  born  in  1822  at  Charlotte,  Vt., 
of  Irish  ancestry.  In  1857  he  removed  to 
Iowa,  where  he  entered  politics,  and  in 
1860,  as  chairman  of  the  republican 
state  committee,  managed  the  Lincoln 
campaign,  and  was  appointed  first  as- 
sistant postmaster-general.  In  1863  he 
was  sent  as  United  States  commissioner 


to  the  first  international  postal  congress 
at  Paris.  From  1863  to  1867  he  was  a 
republican  member  of  congress  from 
Iowa.  From  1873  to  1877  again  sat  in 
congress.  In  1877  appointed  minister  to 
Austria-Hungary  by  President  Hayes. 
He  returned  to  America  in  1881,  was 
again  sent  to  congress,  was  reelected  in 
1883.  President  Arthur,  in  1884,  ap- 
pointed him  minister  to  Germany, 
where  he  served  also  as  the  United  States 
representative  at  the  international  Congo 
conference  at  Berlin.  In  1887  he  was 
president  of  the  international  constitu- 
tional centennial  commission  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1889  was  chairman  of  the 
United  States  commission  to  the  inter- 
national Samoan  conference  at  Berlin. 
In  1897  he  was  appointed  commissioner 
plenipotentiary  to  negotiate  reciprocity 
treaties  with  foreign  powers  under  the 
provisions  of  the  Dingley  act.  In  1898 
he  was  a member  of  the  American- 
Canadian  joint  high  commission. 

KA'TYDID,  a species  of  grasshopper 
of  a pale  green  color,  body  about  an  inch 
long,  found  in  some  parts  of  North 
America,  and  so  named  from  the  sound 
of  its  note.  This  is  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  taborets  in  the  triangular 
overlapping  portion  of  each  wing-cover 
against  the  other,  and  is  strengthened  by 
the  escape  of  air  from  the  sacs  of  the 
body,  so  as  to  be  heard  on  a quiet  night 
at  a quarter  of  a mile  distance.  The 
females  are  noiseless. 

KAULBACH  (koul'bah),  Wilhelm  von, 
one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  German 
painters,  born  at  Arolsen,  Waldeck,  in 
1805;  died  at  Munich  of  cholera  in  1874. 
The  desire  of  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  to 
make  Munich  the  center  of  German  art 
afforded  free  scope  for  his  genius,  and  he 
was  long  engaged  in  the  decoration  of 


W.  von  Kaulbach. 


theHofgarten,  the  Odeon,  the  palaces  of 
Maximilian  and  Ludwig,  and  the  new 
Pinacothek,  for  which  he  did  the  series 
of  designs  of  contemporary  groups  of 
artists,  architects,  etc.,  executed  in 
fresco  on  the  exterior.  His  most  am- 
bitious pictures,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Madhouse  (1828),  are  to  be  found  in 
a series  (utilized  in  the  decoration  of  the 
Berlin  Museum)  seeking  to  depict  the 
progress  of  the  human  race  in  typical 
scenes  from  the  great  historic  periods 
and  comprising  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
Age  of  Homer,  Destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, Battle  of  the  Huns  and  Romans, 
the  Crusades,  and  the  Reformation 
(1834-63).  Besides  these,  however,  he 
left  a large  number  of  portraits,  designs, 


KAZAN 


KELLY 


aucl  illustrations  of  books,  including  the 
Reineke  Fuchs,  the  Gospels,  and  the 
works  of  Shakespeare,  Goethe,  and 
Schiller. 

KAZAN',  a city  of  European  Russia, 
capital  of  the  gov.  of  same  name,  sit- 
uated on  the  Kasanka,  about  4 miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Volga.  Pop. 
140,726. — The  gov.  is  surrounded  by 
the  governments  of  Viatka,  Orenburg, 
Nijni-Novgorod,  and  Simbirsk;  area, 
24,601,  pop.  1,992,985. 

KEAN,  Charles  John,  actor,  son  of  the 
celebrated  Edmund  Kean,  born  at 
Waterford  1811,  died  at  London  1868. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton,  but  being 
thrown  on  his  own  resources  in  1827  he 
took  to  the  stage,  and  made  his  debut  at 
Drury  Lane  as  Young  Norval.  He 
married  the  accomplished  actress  Ellen 
Tree  in  1842,  and  in  1851  became  sole 
lessee  of  the  Princess’  Theater,  London, 
where  he  put  some  of  Shakespeare’s  plays 
on  the  stage  with  a splendor  never  be- 
fore attempted.  He  inherited  little  of 
his  father’s  genius,  and  his  success  was 
largely  due  to  effective  staging. 

KEAN,  Edmund,  the  most  brilliant 
tragic  actor  of  his  age,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1787,  died  at  Richmond  1833. 
His  parents  were  poor  and  connected  in 
a low  capacity  with  the  theatrical  pro- 
fession. At  two  years  of  age  he  was 
placed  in  a pantomime,  at  seven  he  went 
to  school,  but  ran  away,  and  for  a short 
time  he  was  a cabin-boy  in  a vessel. 
Returning  to  the  boards  he  ultimately 
obtained  an  engagement  at  one  of  the 
minor  London  theaters.  When  not  yet 
thirteen  years  of  age  he  managed  to 
please  his  country  audiences  as  Hamlet, 
Cato,  etc.,  and  in  Windsor  he  gained  the 
applause  of  the  royal  family  in  Richard 
III.  He  married  Miss  Chambers,  an 
actress  in  his  company,  in  1808.  In  1814 
he  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  first  as  Shy- 
lock  and  then  as  Richard  III.  Hissuccess 
was  sudden  and  unexampled,  and  was 
equally  great  in  other  parts,  including 
Othello,  Hamlet,  Macbeth,  lago,  Lear, 
etc.  Visits  to  the  provinces,  to  Paris,  and 
the  United  States  brought  him  fresh 
fame  and  profit. 

KEARNEY,  Denis,  American  labor 
agitator,  was  born  in  Oakmont,  Ireland, 
in  1847.  In  1877  he  began  to  incite  the 
laboring  men  of  San  Francisco  against 
the  wealthier  classes;  gi'eat  meetings 
were  held  on  the  “Sand  Lots’’  near  the 
city,  where  Kearney  ruled  supreme,  and 
soon  attracted  attention  by  his  savage 
attacks  upon  capital,  Chinese  labor,  and 
various  other  alleged  grievances.  His 
influence  rapidly  increased,  until  his 
adherents  were  strong  enough  to  pack 
a constitutional  convention  and  force 
the  adoption  of  a new  state  constitution 
which  was  largely  in  their  own  interest 
and  was  most  detrimental  to  capital 
and  vested  interests  generally.  His 
followers,  however,  gradually  drew 
away  from  him  and  he  himself  soon 
relapsed  into  insignificance.  He  died  in 
1907. 

KEARNY,  (kar'ni),  a town  in  Hudson 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Possaic  river,  opposite 
Newark,  and  on  the  Erie  and  other  rail- 
roads. It  is  a residential  suburb  of 
Newark  and  New  York.  Pop.  12,302. 

KEARNY,  Phillip,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  New  York  City  in  1815. 


In  1837  lie  entered  the  United  States 
army  as  lieutenant  in  the  first  dragoons, 
and  two  years  later  was  one  of  three 
officers  sent  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment to  study  the  French  cavalry 
service.  In  1840  he  was  then  successively 
aide-de-camp  to  General  Macomb,  gen- 
eral in  chief  of  the  United  States  army 
from  1840  to  1841  and  to  General  Scott 
from  1841  to  1844.  In  1859  he  entered 
the  French  army  as  a volunteer  in  the 
Italian  war  and  for  his  conspicuous 
bravery  throughout  the  campaign  he 
received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  in  1862  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Potomac. 
He  was  in  the  battles  of  Williams- 
burg and  Seven  Pines,  and  in  1862  was 
commissioned  major-general  of  volun- 
teers. He  subsequently  participated  in 
the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  on 
September  1,  1862,  was  killed  at  Chan- 
tilly while  reconnoitering. 

KEATS,  John,  English  poet,  was  born 
in  London  31st  October,  1795;  died  at 
Rome  24th  February,  1821.  His  first 
volume  of  poems  came  out  in  1817. 
Endymion,  a Poetic  Romance,  ap- 
peared in  1818;  his  last  volume  of  poetry 
containing  Lamia,  Isabella,  The  Eve  of 
St.  Agnes,  Hyperion,  and  other  poems 


John  Keats. 


in  1820.  Keats  charms  by  his  love  of 
nature,  his  keen  sensuous  perception, 
and  his  sweet  harmony ; but  his  beautiful 
thoughts  are  often  hidden  by  wild 
fancies,  while  errors  of  taste  and  faults 
of  diction  abound  in  his  poetry.  But  his 
later  works  are  free  of  many  of  the  faults 
of  the  earlier  productions,  and  place  him 
in  the  front  rank  of  the  poets  of  his  age. 

KE'BLE,  John,  an  English  divine  and 
poet,  born  1792,  died  1866.  His  reputfC- 
tion  is  chiefly  due  to  his  well-known 
volume  of  hymns.  The  Christian  Year. 
He  also  wrote  Lyra  Innocentium,  a 
series  of  poems  on  children.  Sermons,  etc. 
Keble  College,  Oxford,  was  established 
in  honor  of  his  memory. 

KE'BLE  COLLEGE,  one  of  the  col- 
leges of  Oxford  University,  built  by  sub- 
scription as  a memorial  of  the  Rev. 
John  Keble,  and  incorporated  in  1870 
by  royal  charter. 

KECSKEMET  (kech'ke-met),  one  of 
the  largest  market  towns  of  Hungary, 
50  miles  southeast  of  Budapest.  Pop, 
56,951. 

KEDGE,  a small  anchor  used  to  keep 
a ship  steady  and  clear  from  her  bower 
anchor,  while  she  rides  in  a harbor  or 


river,  also  in  removing  her  from  ond 
part  of  a harbor  to  another.  See  Anchor. 

KEEL,  the  bottom  timber  in  a wooden 
vessel  which  forms  the  main  support  and 
connection  of  the  whole  fabric.  It  is 
generally  composed  of  several  thick 
pieces  of  timber  placed  lengthways, 
scarfed  and  bolted  together.  A piece 
bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  keel  is  called 
the  false  keel,  and  an  internal  piece, 
also  bolted  to  the  keel,  is  called  the 
keelson.  In  iron  vessels  the  arrangement 
of  parts  is  altogether  different. 

KEELEY,  Leslie,  American  physician 
born  in  St.  Lawrence  co.,  N.  Y.,  in 
1836.  In  1880  he  opened  a sanitarium 
at  Dwight,  111.,  for  persons  addicted  to 
the  immoderate  use  of  liquor  and 
opium.  His  success  was  so  great  that  he 
opened  similar  institutions  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  His  cure  consists 
of  a secret  preparation  containing  bi- 
chloride of  gold,  and  he  claimed  that 
95  per  cent  of  the  patients  treated  were 
permanently  cured.  He  died  in  1900. 

KEELEY  MOTOR,  a machine  claim- 
ing to  furnish  power  at  a minimum  ex- 
penditure of  energy.  Its  inventor,  John 
W.  Keeley,  who  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1837,  and  died  there  in  1898, 
made  startling  claims  for  the  success  of 
his  motors.  Various  exhibitions  were 
given  with  remarkable  features  but  the 
promised  developments  never  appeared 
and  after  the  inventor’s  death  the  fraud 
was  thoroughly  exposed,  it  being  shown 
that  the  force  was  supplied  by  a hidden 
compressed  air  apparatus. 

KEENE,  the  county  seat  of  Cheshire 
co.,  N.  H.,  43  miles  southwest  of  Con- 
cord; on  the  Ashuelot  river,  and  on  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad.  Pop.  10,425. 

KEENE,  Laura,  the  stage  name  of 
Miss  Mary  Moss,  an  actress,  born  in  1820 
in  England.  Her  greatest  success  before 
coming  to  this  country  was  as  Pauline  in 
The  Lady  of  Lyons.  Her  most  celebrated 
production  was  Our  American  Cousin, 
which  she  brought  out  in  1858,  with 
Joseph  Jefferson  as  Asa  Trenchard  and 
E.  A.  Sothern  as  Lord  Dundreary.  She 
afterwards  toured  with  it,  and  it  was 
during  one  of  her  presentations  of  this 
play  in  1865  that  President  Lincoln  was 
assassinated.  She  died  in  1873. 

KEEWAT'IN.  See  Kewatin. 

KELLER,  Helen  Adams,  an  American 
girl  remarkable  for  her  intellectual  ac- 
complishments acquired  in  spite  of  be- 
ing deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  was  born  in 
1880  in  Tuscumbia,  Ala.  When  nineteen 
months  old  she  was  attacked  by  scarlet 
fever,  which  left  her  without  the  senses 
of  sight  and  hearing.  When  eight  years 
old  she  was  placed  under  the  care  of 
Miss  Anna  Sullivan,  and  from  that  time 
her  progress  was  remarkable.  When  she 
had  learned  to  read  and  write  and  to  use 
the  finger  alphabet,  she  determined  that 
she  would  learn  to  speak,  and  so  rapid 
was  her  progress  that  in  less  than  a 
month  she  was  able  to  talk  intelligibly. 
After  studying  for  some  years  she 
entered  Radcliffe  College  in  1900  and 
graduated  in  1904.  She  contributes  to 
a number  of  magazines  and  is  the  au- 
thor of  The  Story  of  My  Life. 

KELLY,  John,  American  politician, 
was  born  in  New  York  City  in  1821. 
He  became  a member  of  the  Tammany 
General  Committee  in  1849;  and  in  1854 


KELP 


KENTUCKY 


waselected  alderman  from  the  fourteenth 
ward.  He  served  in  congress  from  1855 
to  1858.  From  1872  to  1884  he  was 
dictator  of  the  Tammany  organization. 
He  was  appointed  comptroller  by  Mayor 
Wickham,  but  was  subsequently  re- 
moved by  Mayor  Cooper.  In  1884  made 
a stubborn  but  unsuccessful  effort  to 
prevent  the  nomination  of  Grover  Cleve- 
land for  the  presidency.  He  died  in  1886. 

KELP,  in  commerce,  the  crude  alka- 
line substance  obtained  by  burning  sea- 
weeds. The  sea-weed  is  gathered  dur- 
ing the  summer,  dried  on  the  shore,  then 
stacked  under  shelter  for  some  weeks 
until  it  becomes  covered  with  a white 
saline  efflorescence,  when  it  is  ready  for 
burning,  which  is  effected  in  a round 


Kelp,  or  devil’s  apron. 

brick-lined  pit,  or  oblong  kiln.  As  the 
weed  softens,  it  is  well  stirred  with  a 
heated  iron  until  it  becomes  a semi- 
fluid mass;  it  is  then  cooled  and  broken 
into  pieces  ready  for  the  market.  Kelp 
is  now  chiefly  used  for  the  production  of 
iodine  and  chloride  of  potassium ; a ton 
of  kelp  yields  about  8 lbs.  of  iodine. 

KELTS.  See  Celts. 

KELUNG',  a town  and  seaport  now 
belonging  to  Japan,  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  island  of  Formosa.  Pop.  70,000. 

KELVIN,  Lord.  See  Thomson,  Sir 
William. 

KEMBLE,  Charles,  English  actor, 
born  1775,  died  1854,  a younger  brother 
of  John  Phillip  Kemble.  He  married  the 
favorite  actress  Miss  de  Camp  in  1806, 
by  whom  he  was  the  father  of  John 
Mitchell  Kei^ible,  Frances  Anne  Kemble, 
and  Adelaide  Kemble. 

KEMBLE,  Frances  Anne,  popularly 
known  as  Fanny  Kemble,  writer  and 
actress,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles  Kem- 
ble, and  niece  of  Mrs.  Siddons,  was  born 
at  London  1809.  Her  father  being  in 
financial  difficulties  she  was  induced  to 
appear  on  the  stage,  which  she  did  in 
1829  at  Covent  Garden  as  Juliet,  and 
her  success  was  so  great  that  in  the 
course  of  three  years  she  managed  to 
relieve  the  fallen  fortunes  of  the  family. 
Her  trip  to  America  in  company  with 
her  father  was  also  a splendid  triumph. 
She  returned  to  London  in  1847,  and 
from  that  time  resided  alternately  in 
America,  England,  and  the  Continent, 
appearing  at  intervals  as  a public  reader. 
She  died  in  1893.  As  an  actress  she  ex- 
celled in  the  characters  of  Portia,  Bea- 
trice, Lady  Macbeth,  Lady  Teazle,  and  of 
Julia  in  the  Hunchback. 

KEMBLE,  John  Phillip,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  tragedians  of  the  British 
stage,  born  at  Preston  1757,  died  at 
Lausanne  1823.  He  selected  the  stage 
as  a profession,  made  his  first  appear- 
ance at  Drury  Lane  in  1783,  and  became 
at  once  popular.  He  was  afterward 
manager  of  this  theater  in  1788-1802. 


From  1801  to  1803  he  made  a most 
successful  tour  in  France  and  Spain,  and 
on  his  return  to  London  purchased  a 
share  in  the  Covent  Garden  theater,  and 
made  himself  a splendid  reputation  in 
the  characters  of  Julius  Csesar,  Hamlet, 
Macbeth,  Coriolanus,  etc.  His  statue 
was  placed  in  Westminster  Abbey  in 
1833.  His  acting  was  distinguished  for 
dignity,  precision,  and  studious  prepara- 
tion, but  was  wanting  in  fire  and  pathos. 
His  sister,  Sarah,  was  the  celebrated 
Mrs.  Siddons. 

KEMPIS,  Thomas  A.  See  Thomas  k 
Kempis. 

KENTLWORTH,  a town  of  England, 
in  Warwickshire.  Kenilworth  Castle, 
now  a magnificent  ivy-covered  ruin, 
was  founded  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
The  gorgeous  entertainment  given  here 
in  1575  to  Queen  Elizabeth  by  the  Earl 
of  Leicester  is  familiar  to  all  from  Scott’s 
romance  of  Kenilworth.  Pop.  4544. 

KEN'NAN,  George,  American  jour- 
nalist and  traveler,  was  born  at  Nor- 
walk, Ohio,  in  1845.  In  December  of 
1864  he  began  his  travels  by  a journey 
to  Kamtchatka.  In  1870  he  explored 
the  eastern  Caucasus,  Daghestan,  Chech- 
nia,  and  the  course  of  the  Volga  to  the 
Caspian;  again  in  1885-86  he  made  a 
journey  of  15,000  miles  through  North- 
ern Russia  and  Siberia,  investigating  the 
convict,  prison,  and  exile  system,  and 
exploring  the  Russian  Altai.  He  was 
expelled  from  the  Russian  Empire  while 
carrying  on  further  social  and  political 
studies  there  in  1901.  In  1902  he  went 
as  correspondent  for  a New  York  news- 
paper to  the  island  of  Martinique,  after 
the  devastating  eruptions  of  Mont 
Pel4e,  and  climbed  the  still  active 
volcano,  which  he  describes  in  his  book 
The  Tragedy  of  Pel4e.  In  1904  he  went 
to  Japan  to  describe  the  Russian-Jap- 
anese  war. 

KENNEBEC,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  Maine,  rises  in  Moosehead  Lake, 
and  after  a course  of  150  miles,  mostly 
e.s.e.,  empties  itself  into  the  Atlantic  12 
miles  below  Bath.  It  is  navigable  for 
ships  as  far  as  Bath,  for  steamers  to 
Hallowell,  40  miles. 

KENOSHA,  capital  of  Kenosha  co., 
Wis.,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Chi. 
and  N.  W.  railway;  34  miles  s.  of  Mil- 
waukee, 52  miles  n.  of  Chicago.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor.  It  is  in  a dairy  and 
agricultural  region,  and  manufactures 
carriages,  wagons,  furniture,  and  other 
wooden  goods.  Pop.  13,960. 

KENT,  a maritime  county  of  England, 
forming  the  southeast  extremity  of  the 
kingdom;  area,  995,392  acres,  of  which 
nearly  the  whole  is  arable,  meadow,  or 
pasture.  Pop.  1,351,849. 

KENT,  James,  an  eminent  American 
jurist,  born  1763,  died  1847.  He  was 
educated  at  Yale  College,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  an  attorney  in  1785. 
After  practicing  at  Poughkeepsie  he 
settled  in  New  York,  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  Columbia  College  (1794- 
98).  He  was  successively  appointed 
master  in  chancery,  recorder,  judge  of 
the  supreme  court,  chief  justice  (1804- 
14),  and  latterly  chancellor  of  New 
York  (1814-23).  He  again  accepted  the 
law  professorship  at  Columbia  College  in 
1824-25.  His  Commentaries  on  Ameri- 
can Law  (1826-30)  at  once  became  a 


standard  work,  while  his  aecisions  were 
quoted  in  the  courts  as  of  the  highest 
authority. 

KENTON,  Simon,  American  pioneer, 
was  born  in  Fauquier  co.,  Va.,  in  1755. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  came  in  con- 
tact with  Simon  Girty  and  other  traders, 
hunters,  and  backwoodsmen,  and  even- 
tually he  joined  Daniel  Boone  as  a hunter 
and  explorer.  Later,  he  was  employed 
by  the  colonial  governor,  Dunmore,  as  a 
spy,  and  among  other  daring  exploits 
saved  the  life  of  Boone.  In  1778  he 
joined  Gen.  George  R.  Clark  at  the  falls 
of  the  Ohio,  and  was  with  him  at  the 
surprise  of  Kaskaskia.  He  was  captured 
by  the  Indians  during  that  year  and 
taken  prisoner  to  the  British  commander 
at  Detroit,  from  whom  he  escaped.  In 
1782  he  visited  his  native  place,  and  in 
1784  went  back  with  his  parents  to  Ken- 
tucky, settling  near  Maysville.  There- 
after he  was  actively  engaged  in  con- 
flicts with  the  Indians  until  peace  was 
established  in  1793.  Previously  Kenton 
had  been  promoted  major.  In  1805  he 
became  brigadier-general  of  Ohio  militia 
and  in  1813  fought  at  the  battle  of  the 
Thames.  In  1824  he  appeared  in  Frank- 
fort, Ky.,  before  the  legislature,  in 
tattered  garments,  petitioning  for  relief, 
which  was  granted,  and  an  annual  pen- 
sion of  $240  procured  for  him  from  con- 
gress. He  died  in  1836. 

KENTUCK'Y,  one  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  n.  by  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
n.w.  by  Illinois,  w.  by  Missouri,  s.  by 
Tennessee,  and  e.  by  Virginia  and  West 
Virginia;  area,  40,400  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  of  the  state  is  gently  undulating, 
excepting  the  southeast,  which  is  some- 
what mountainous.  Few  states  are  better 
provided  with  water  communication. 
The  Ohio  forms  the  boundary  on  the 
north,  and  receives  from  within  the 
state  numerous  tributaries,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  the  Cumberland, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee;  the  Missis- 
sippi, after  receiving  the  Ohio,  forms 
the  boundary  on  the  west.  The  climate 
is  salubrious,  the  soil  fertile,  the  prin- 
cipal crops  being  wheat,  Indian  corn, 


Seal  of  Kentucky. 


but  oats,  barley,  hemp,  and  fruit  are 
extensively  raised. 

Kentucky  is  densely  wooded,  except 
in  those  places  that  are  under  cultiva- 
tion; at  present  about  two-thirds  of 
the  state  is  covered  with  virgin  forest. 
Among  the  prevailing  ^epecies  of  trees 
are  the  blue  ash,  black  walnut,  various 
kinds  of  oak,  the  pine,  maple,  tulip 


KENTUCKY  RlVEK 


KEPLER 


tree,  and  sweet  g:um.  Some  cotton  is 
raised  west  of  the  Tennessee  River. 
Potatoes  and  hay  are  important  crops. 
Kentucky  is  the  principal  tobacco-pro- 
ducing state  in  the  Union. 

It  has  always  been  a center  for  rear- 
ing domestic  animals,  and  for  breeding 
the  finest  grades  of  stock.  A large 
percentage  of  the  successful  race  horses 
of  the  United  States  have  been  bred  in 
Kentucky.  The  peculiar  advantages 
for  stock  raising  are  due  in  part  to  the 
excellent  quality  of  the  grass,  and  in 
part  to  the  mild,  salubrious  climate, 
which  permits  the  cattle  to  remain  un- 
housed in  the  pastures  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  winter. 

Kentucky  is  rich  in  coal,  iron  ore,  and 
fire  clay.  The  coal  measures  cover  an 
area  of  m.ore  than  10,400  sq.  mi.  with 
elevation  ranging  from  650  to  1,400 
feet,  and  are  the  result  of  several  alter- 
nate exposures  and  submersions.  They 
average  at  least  ten  good  beds  of  coal. 
The  eastern  coal  field  is  a prolongation 
of  the  Appalachian  deposits.  The 
western  belongs  to  the  Illinois  tract. 
The  coal  is  bituminous,  and  some  ex- 
cellent cannel  occurs.  Next  in  import- 
ance to  coal  are  the  iron  ores,  which 
are  of  excellent  quality,  and  are  found 
throughout  a district  of  20,000  sq.  mi. 
in  extent.  Galena  is  found  in  some 
sections;  valuable  building  stone  occurs 
almost  everywhere;  and  salt  is  obtained 
by  boring  in  the  coal  and  oil  regions. 

The  state  has  a good  school  system 
and  many  colleges  and  institutions  for 
higher  education.  Kentucky  Univer- 
sity, located  at  Lexington,  was  founded 
in  1798.  There  are  separate  schools 
for  colored  pupils. 

The  chief  manufacturing  industries 
comprise  tobacco,  cotton  -and  woolen 
factories,  iron-works,  and  tanneries. 
The  central  position  of  the  state,  and 
the  abundant  water  and  railway  com- 
munication, have  secured  it  a rapid 
commercial  development. 

Kentucky  was  originally  n portion  of 
Virginia.  In  1769  Daniel  Boone  and  five 
companions  from  the  Yadkin  settle- 
ments came  to  eastern  Kentucky,  but  it 
was  not  until  1774  that  the  first  effort 
to  plant  a colony  was  undertaken.  It 
was  located  in  what  is  now  I.Iercer  Co., 
and  was  given  the  name  of  Harrodsburg. 
In  1775  Daniel  Boone  planted  a settle- 
ment to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Boonesborough.  In  1774  a Virginian 
force  administered  a crushing  defeat  to 
the  Northwestern  Indians  at  Point 
Pleasant,  and  forced  them  to  retire  be- 
yond the  Ohio.  In  1776  by  act  of  the 
legislature,  the  country  was  organized 
under  the  name  of  Kentucky  co.,  v/ith 
Harrodsburg  as  the  county  seat,  and 
with  separate  representatives  in  the 
Virginia  legislature.  In  1782  a desperate 
battle  with  the  Indians  was  fought  at 
the  Blue  Lick  Springs,  resulting  in  the 
defeat  of  the  whites  and  the  death  of  over 
sixty  of  their  men,  about  one-tenth  of  the 
fighting  population.  By  this  time  agita- 
tion for  separation  from  Virginia  and 
independent  state  government  was  well 
under  way.  In  1784  and  1785  conven- 
tions were  held  at  Danville  to  discuss 
the  question  but  it  was  not  until  1792 
that  Kentucky  was  admitted  to  the 
union. 


In  April,  1792,  a convention  met  at 
Danville  and  adopted  a constitution  of 
government;  Isaac  Shelby  was  chosen 
as  the  first  governor ; and,  after  a spirited 
struggle,  Frankfort  was  chosen  as  the 
capital.  In  J\ily,  1799,  a new  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  which  made  the  gover- 
nor and  other  state  officers  elective  by 
the  people  instead  of  by  electors.  In 
the  war  of  1812  Kentucky  took  a dis- 
tinguished part.  Seven  thousand  vol- 
unteers, far  more  than  Kentucky’s 
quota,  offered  their  services,  and  her 
troops  fought  gallantly  in  most  of  the 
battles  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada,  and  about  one- 
fourth  of  Jackson’s  army  at  New  Orleans 
consisted  of  Kentucky  riflemen.  In  the 
Mexican  war,  as  in  the  war  of  1812, 
Kentucky  took  an  honorable  part. 
Although  her  quota  was  but  2400,  more 
than  10,000  volunteered  and  Kentucky 
troops  participated  in  most  of  the  battles 
fought  on  Mexican  soil.  In  1850  a new 
constitution  was  adopted  which  made 
all  judges  and  county  officers  elective. 

Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
Kentucky  attempted  to  maintain  a 
position  of  neutrality,  but  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  state  rendered 
the  scheme  impossible.  The  governor' 
rejected  President  Lincoln’s  call  for 
troops,  and  when  the  confederate  and 
union  armies  began  to  pour  into  the 
state  from  opposite  directions  formal 
demands  were  made  for  their  with- 
drawal. The  union  armies  soon  took 
possession,  and  by  1862  the  confederate 
forces  had  evacuated  the  state.  Ken- 
tucky furnished  more  than  90,000  troops 
to  the  union  army,  and  40,000  to  the 
confederacy.  Kentucky  escaped  from 
the  carpetbag  and  military  regimes,  the 
civil  authority  having  been  reestab- 
lished in  October,  1865.  In  national 
elections  Kentucky  was  a democratic 
state  from  the  date  of  its  admission  till 
the  formation  of  parties  about  1828.  It 
voted  for  Clay  in  1824  and  for  Jackson 
in  1828,  but  from  this  time  till  1852  it 
was  one  of  the  strongest  whig  states. 
It  cast  its  vote  for  Buchanan  in  1856 
and  for  Bell  in  1860.  Since  that  time  it 
has  been  democratic  with  the  exception 
of  the  year  1896,  when  it  cast  12  of  its 
electoral  votes  for  Mr.  McKinley  and  one 
for  Mr.  Bryan.  The  seat  of  government 
is  Frankfort,  a comparatively  small 
place;  the  oldest  town  is  Lexington;  but 
the  largest  and  most  important  is 
Louisville. 

At  the  head  of  the  higher  institutions 
of  learning  are  the  Kentucky  University 
at  Georgetown,  the  Kentucky  State 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  at 
Lexington,  and  a number  of  denomina- 
tional colleges  and  universities.  Pop. 
1909,  2.2,50,000. 

KENTUCKY  ^ER,  a river  of  the 
United  States,  rises  in  the  Cumberland 
Mountains,  traverses  the  state  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  after  a course  of  260  miles 
flows  into  the  Ohio  at  Carrollton.  By  a 
series  of  improvements  the  lower  portion 
has  been  rendered  continuously  navig- 
able for  steamers. 

KENTUCKY  STATE  AGRICUL- 
TURAL AND  MECHANICAL  COLLEGE, 

a non-sectarian,  coeducational  institution 
at  Lexington,  Ky.,  established  in  1865, 

I and  reorganized  in  1880  under  its  present 


title.  It  offers  preparatory,  collegiate, 
engineering,  scientific  and  agricultural 
courses  leading  to  the  bachelor’s  degree. 
Connected  with  the  college  is  an  agri- 
cultural experimental  station,  with  a 
farm  of  48  acres. 

KENTUCKY  UNIVERSITY,  an  insti- 
tution of  higher  learning  chartered  in 
1837  as  Bacon  College  at  Georgetown, 
Ky.  It  was  removed  to  Harrodsburg  in 
1839,  and  in  1858  was  reorganized  as 
Kentucky  University  under  an  amended 
charter.  It  was  consolidated  with 
Transylvania  University  founded  in 
1783  and  took  possession  of  that  institu- 
tion’s property  at  Lexington.  The  uni- 
versity comprises  four  colleges;  The 
College  of  Liberal  Arts,  the  College  of 
the  Bible,  and  the  Commercial  College, 
at  Lexington;  and  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment at  Louisville.  Of  these  the  Com- 
mercial and  Liberal  Arts  departments 
are  open  to  women.  The  Kentucky 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 
was  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  university 
from  1865  until  1878,  when  it  began  an 
independent  existence.  The  university 
is  under  the  control  of  the  Disciples  of 
Christ. 

KE'OKUK,  a town  in  Iowa,  at  the 
foot  of  the  lower  rapids  of  the  Mississippi 
2 miles  above  the  confluence  of  the  Des 
Moines.  It  is  an  important  business 
center,  and  has  numerous  flour  and  saw 
mills,  foundries,  pork-packing  establish- 
ments, etc.  Pop.  17,345. 

KEPLER,  Johann,  a great  German 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  born 
1571,  near  Weil  (Wiirtemberg),  died  at 
Ratisbon  1630.  He  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen,  and  in  1593  he  was 
appointed  a teacher  of  mathematics  at 
Gratz  (Styria).  Here  he  devoted  himself 
with  much  ardor  to  the  study  of  as- 
tronomy; but  in  1599  the  religious  per- 
secutions commenced  in  Styria,  and 
Kepler,  being  a Protestant,  gladly 
accepted  Tycho  Brahe’s  invitation  to 
Prague,  to  assist  in  the  preparation  of 
the  new  astronomical  tables,  called  the 


Johann  Kepler. 


Rodolphine  Tables.  Tycho  died  in  1601, 
and  Kepler  continued  the  work  alone, 
being  appointed  imperial  mathematician 
and  astronomer.  After  twenty-five 
years’  incessant  tabor  the  tables  were 
published  in  1627  at  Ulm.  Kepler  had 


become  the  happy  possessor  of  all 


Tycho’s  papers,  and  the  mass  of  obser 
vations  made  by  that  astronomer  during 
twenty  years,  with  a precision  till  then 
unsurpassed,  enabled  Kepler  to  estab- 
lish his  three  laws  which  have  proved  so 
fruitful  in  the  development  of  astronomi- 
cal science.  He  wrote  much,  but  the 


A 


KEPLER’S  LAWS 


KEYBOARD 


Vork  that  has  rendered  him  immortal 
is  his  New  Astronomy,  or  Celestial 
Physics  delivered  in  Commentaries  on 
the  Motions  of  Mars;  Prague,  1609,  folio. 

KEPLER’S  LAWS,  in  astronomy, 
three  laws  discovered  by  Kepler  on 
which  were  founded  Newton’s  discover- 
ies, as  well  as  the  whole  modern  theory 
of  the  planets; — 1.  Every  planet  de- 
scribes an  ellipse,  the  sun  occupying  its 
focus.  2.  The  radius  vector  (line  joining 
the  center  of  the  sun  with  the  center  of 
the  planet)  of  each  planet  sweeps  over 
equal  areas  in  equaltimes.  3.  Thesquares 
of  the  periodic  times  (the  periods  of 
complete  revolution  round  the  sun)  of 
two  planets  are  proportional  to  the  cubes 
of  their  mean  distance^  from  the  sun. 
These  laws  enabled  Newton  to  deter- 
mine the  laws  of  the  attraction  of  gravi- 
tation. , 

KEPP'LER,  Joseph,  American  car- 
toonist, was  born  in  Vienna  in  1838. 
In  1868  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  went  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  estab- 
lished the  German  Puck,  the  failure  of 
which  caused  him  to  move  to  New  York, 
where  he  was  employed  as  caricaturist 
for  Frank  Leslie’s  Illustrated  Newspaper 
from  1872  to  1877.  In  1875  he  started 
another  German  Puck,  in  partnership 
with  Adolph  Schwartzman.  The  colored 
political  cartoons  of  this  paper  became 
famous,  and  in  1877  the  English  edition 
appeared.  He  was  the  first  artist  in- 
troduce colored  cartoons.  Died,  1894. 

KERGUELEN’S  LAND,  Kerguelen 
Island  (kerg'len),  an  uninhabited  moun- 
tainous island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  about 
midway  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  Australia,  discovered  by  the  French 
navigator  Kerguelen  in  1772,  annexed 
by  France  in  1893.  It  is  of  irregular 
shape,  being  much  cut  up  by  fjords  and 
inlets  and  surrounded  by  islets ; greatest 
length  about  100  miles,  highest  summit 
6166  feet.  The  scenery  is  picturesque 
and  often  magnificent;  glaciers  and 
snow-fields  occupy  a considerable  area. 
The  climate  is  wet  and  stormy,  the  tem- 
perature never  very  high  nor  very  low. 
The  island  is  only  occasionally  visited 
by  whalers  and  sealers.  Cook  visited  it 
in  1777,  Ross  in  1840,  the  Challenger 
Expedition  in  1874,  and  in  1874-75 
parlies  from  Britain,  Germany,  and  the 
United  States  were  stationed  here  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus. 

KERMAN',  KIRMAN',  or  SIRGAN,  a 
town  in  Persia,  capital  of  a province  of 
the  same  name.  Pop.  estimated  at  40,- 
000.  The  province  of  Kerman,  in  the 
southeast  of  Persia,  has  an  area  of  50,000 
sq.  miles  and  a iiopulation  of  600,000. 

KERN,  JOHN  WORTH,  born  at 
Alto,  Ind.,  Dec.  20,  1849;  elected  Su- 
preme Court  Recorder  in  1885;  elected 
state  senator  in  1892;  Democratic  can- 
didate for  governor  in  1900  and  1904, 
but  defeated ; nominated  for  vice  pres- 
ident of  the  United  States  by  Dem- 
ocratic National  Convention  at  Denver 
in  1908. 

KER'OSENE,  an  illuminating  oil  ob- 
tained by  refining  crude  petroleum. 
The  bulk  of  kerosene  is  supplied  by  the 
United  States  and  Russia.  America  con- 
trolled the  kerosene  market  for  many 
years,  but  Baku,  on  the  Caspian,  has 
now  become  a formidable  rival,  not  only 
driving  American  kerosene  out  of  the 

P.  E.— 45 


Russian  market,  but  also  ' supplanting 
it  in  other  countries.  See  Petroleum. 

KER'RY,  a martime  county  of  Ire- 
land, on  the  southwest  coast,  in  the 
province  of  Munster;  area,  1,185,918 
acres,  of  which  about  one-tenth  is  under 
tillage.  The  coast  is  much  indented  by 
bays  and  inlets  (Dingle  Bay,  Kenmare 
river,  etc.);  the  interior  presents  much 
fine  scenery,  including  the  picturesque 
lakes  of  Killarney.  Iron  ore,  copper,  and 
lead  exist,  and  a superior  kind  of  slate 
and  flagstone  are  obtained  in  great 
quantities  in  the  island  of  Valentia.  Pop. 
165,331. 

KER'SEYMERE,  or  CASSIMERE 

(from  the  town  Cashmere),  the  name 
given  to  a light  fabric  woven  from  the 
finest  wools,  principally  in  the  west  of 
England,  and  at  Elbeuf,  France.  It  is 
chiefly  used  for  ladies’  jackets  and  gen- 
tlemen’s gaiters. 

KESTREL,  or  WINDHOVER,  a species 
of  the  falcon  tribe,  widely  distributed 
in  Europe.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  habit 
of  remaining  suspended  in  the  air  by 
means  of  rapid  wing  motion,  being  at 
this  time  on  the  look-out  for  mice,  which 


Kestrel. 


are  its  chief  food.  At  times  it  will  also 
eat  small  birds,  and  insects  frequently. 
It  varies  from  12  to  15  inches  in  length; 
it  nests  in  trees,  also  in  old  towers  and 
buildings,  and  often  utilizes  an  old 
crow’s  nest.  In  winter  it  migrates  to 
North  Africa  and  India. 

KETCHUP,  or  CATSUP,  a pungent 
sauce  employed  as  a seasoning  for 
gravies,  meat  and  fish.  It  was  formerly 
prepared  from  mushrooms  only,  but 
numerous  other  products  are  now  used 
for  the  same  purpose.  The  best  ketchup 
is  obtained  from  mushrooms,  walnuts, 
and  tomatotes. 

KETTLE-DRUM,  a metallic  kettle 
made  of  copper  with  a head  of  vellum 
lapped  over  an  iron  ring,  and  fitted  out- 
side of  the  kettle.  By  means  of  screws 
the  head  may  be  tightened  or  loosened. 
The  drams  are  played  by  means  of  a 


Kettle-drums. 


mallet  covered  with  felt  or  leather.  By 
means  of  the  screws  the  instruments  can 
be  tuned.  In  modern  orchestras  there 
are  generally  three  kettle-drums,  tuned 
in  the  tonic,  dominant,  and  subdomi- 
nant. The  larger  of  the  two  drams  is  tuned 


in  F,  the  smaller  in  Bb.  By  means  of  a 
pedal  any  interval  within  a perfect  fifth 
can  be  obtained ; so  that  the  larger  drum 
can  produce  all  tones  between  F and  c, 
and  the  smaller  all  tones  between  Bb  and 
f,  giving  the  performer  the  possibility 
of  producing  any  chromatic  interval 
between  F and  f.  The  chief  use  of  the 
kettledrum  is  to  emphasize  rhythmic 
figures. 

KEWANEE  (ke-wa'ne),  a city  in 
Henry  co.,'  111.,  50  miles  north  by  west 
of  Peoria;  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy  railroad.  Pop.  10,145. 

KEWATIN  (ke-wat'in),  or  KEEWAT- 

IN,  a large  Canadian  territory  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Manitoba,  and  stretching 
from  Manitoba  and  Ontario  to  Hudson’s 
Bay.  The  country  is  not  much  opened 
as  yet;  it  is  mostly  densely  wooded,  and 
in  many  parts  swampy,  but  rich  in 
minerals,  and  game  abounds.  With  a 
view  to  open  up  a new  route  via  Hud- 
son’s Bay  a railway  through  the  territory 
has  been  begun. 

KEW-KIANG,  or  KIU-KIANG,  a town 
and  seaport  of  China,  province  Kiangsi, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Yang-tse- 
kiang.  The  port  was  opened  to  foreign 
trade  in  1862,  when  the  population  was 

IO, 000;  it  is  now  over  50,000. 

KEY,  or  KEY-NOTE,  in  music,  the 
principal  or  fundamental  note  or  tone,  to 
which  the  whole  of  a movement  has  a 
certain  relation,  to  which  all  its  modula- 
tions are  referred  and  accommodated, 
and  in  which  it  generally  both  begins 
and  ends.  See  Music. 

KEY,  Francis  Scott,  American  lawyer, 
was  born  in  Frederick  co.,  Md  , 1780. 
During  the  attack  of  the  British  on  Bal- 
timore in  1814,  he  watched  the  progress 
of  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Henry,  the 
defense  of  Baltimore  from  the  British 
ship,  to  which  he  had  been  sent  on  an 
errand  under  a flag  of  truce,  during  the 
night,  and  in  the  morning,  seeing  the 
Stars  and  Stripes  still  waving  trium- 
phantly, composed  his  famous  song. 
The  Star  Spangled  Banner.  This  was 
at  once  printed  and  became  almost  in- 
stantly popular,  and  is  to-day  perhaps 
the  favorite  heroic  song  of  America.  He 
died  in  1843. 

KEYBOARD,  a frame  containing  a set 
of  keys,  placed  in  the  front  part  of  the 
pianoforte  or  organ.  The  natural  keys 
are  of  wood  covered  with  white  ivory 
and  the  raised  keys,  touched  to  produce 
sharps  and  flats,  are  blocks  of  ebony  or 
other  hard  black  wood.  The  earliest 
keyboard  of  which  we  have  record  was 
that  of  the  hydraulic  or  water  organ,  a 
Greek  invention  of  the  second  century. 
In  this  the  keys,  eighteen  in  number, 
were  all  level.  Strange  to  say,  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  balanced  key,  which  had  to 
be  rediscovered  in  the  17th  century,  was 
then  well  known.  Our  modern  chromatic 
keyboard  was  in  use  as  early  as  1361, 
though  the  keys  were  so  large  that  they 
had  to  be  struck  with  the  fist.  Their 
width  was,  however,  gradually  lessened, 
and  in  the  spinet  made  by  Pasi,  of 
Modena,  in  1490,  and  in  the  organ  of 
Saint  Blaise  at  Brunswick  (1499),  the 
compass  was  approximately  that  of  our 
present  keyboard.  In  most  of  the  early 
instruments  the  natural  notes  are  black 
and  the  sharps  and  flats  white.  The 
principal  objection  to  all  rearrangement 


KEY-STONE 


KIDNEYS 


is  the  fact  that  there  is  a mass  of  beau- 
tiful music,  written  for  the  modern 
pianoforte,  which  could  not  be  adapted 
to  an  improved  instrument. 

KEY-STONE,  in  architecture,  the  last 
put  in  stone  of  an  arch  or  vault,  which 
locks  or  keys  the  whole  together,  whence 
the  name.  See  Arch. 

KEY  WEST,  a small,  low-lying  coral 
island  south  of  Flordia,  60  miles  s.w.  of 
Cape  Sable,  and  comm.anding  the  en- 
trance to  the  Florida  Passage  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

KEY  WEST  CITY,  a port  of  entry 
and  militarystation  of  the  United  States, 
has  a safe  and  accessible  harbor  de- 
fended by  a fort.  Pop.  20,406. 

KHAN,  a title  given  by  Tartars,  Per- 
sians, and  other  eastern  nations  to 
princes,  chieftains,  commanders,  and 
governors,  but  now  generally  reserved 
for  governors  of  cities  and  provinces, 
these  provinces  being  called  khanates. 
Khan  is  also  another  term  for  caravan- 
sary, of  which  there  are  two  kinds;  one 
for  pilgrims  and  travelers,  with  gratui- 
tous entry,  another,  more  commodious 
and  with  locked  apartments,  for  traders, 
subject  to  a nominal  charge. 

KHANDESH  (khan-dash'),  a district 
of  British  India,  Bombay  presidency; 
area,  10,907  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,460,851. 

KHARKOFF  (har-kof'),  or  CHAR- 
KOV,  a government  of  the  south  of 
Russia;  area,  21,041  sq.miles;  pop.  2,- 
243,643.  The  capital,  Kharkoff,  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  cattle,  grain,  etc. 
and  manufactures  beet-sugar,  soap, 
candles,  and  leather.  A bed  of  coal  of 
immense  extent  in  its  vicinity  is  doing 
much  to  foster  industries.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Kharkoff  is  an  important  educa- 
tional center.  Pop.  195,000. 

KHARTOUM  (har-tom),  a town  in  the 
eastern  Soudan,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  near  its  junction  with  the 
White  Nile.  Having  sprung  up  since 
1830,  it  became  the  capital  and  largest 
town  in  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  and  a 
great  emporium  of  trade.  It  was  the 
scene  of  Gordon’s  heroic  defense  and 
death  in  fight  against  the  Mahdists  in 
1885.  Latterly  the  adjacent  Omdurman 
supplanted  it,  but  it  is  again  reviving, 
and  has  become  the  seat  of  the  Gordon 
College,  for  the  Soudanese. 

KHASI  AND  JAINTIA  HILLS,  an  ad- 
ministrative district  of  Assam;  area, 
6157  sq.  miles;  pop.  197,904. 

KHAT.  See  Catha. 

KHATMANDU  (khat-man-do'),  capi- 
tal of  the  Kingdom  of  Nepdl,  in  Northern 
India.  Pop.  about  50,000. 

KHEDIVE  (ke-dev'),  a word  signify- 
ing lord,  the  title  of  the  rulers  of  Egypt, 
originally  granted  by  a firman  from 
the  sultan  in  1866  to  Ismail  Pasha,  then 
Vali  or  viceroy  of  Egypt. 

KHERSON  (her'son),  or  CHERSON,  a 
maritime  government  of  Southern  Rus- 
sia; area,  27,523 sq.miles; pop.  2,732,832. 

KHIVA  (he'va),  or  CHIVA,  semi- 
independent khanate  of  Central  Asia, 
forming  part  of  Turkestan.  The  total 
population  is  about  500,000. — The  capi- 
tal, Khiva,  lies  on  an  alluvial  flat  at  the 
junction  of  two  canals,  50  miles  west  of 
the  west  bank  of  the  Amu.  Pop.  about 
20,000. 

KHOKAND,  or  KOKAND,  formerly 
indej)endent  khanate  of  Central  Asia, 


but  since  1876  forming  the  province  of 
Fergh3,na  in  Russian  Turkestan.  Its 
present  area  is  29,650  sq.  miles.  The 
capital,  Khokand,  is  situated  on  both 
sides  of  the  Sir.  Pop.  82,054. 

KHORASAN  (ho-ra-san'),  a province 
of  Persia,  bordering  on  Afghanistan; 
area,  140,000  sq.  miles;  pop.  860,000. 

KHUZISTAN  (hu-zis-tan'),  or  ARAB- 
ISTAN,  a province  of  Persia;  area,  38,600 
sq.  miles,  pop.  500,000. 

KHYBER  (khi'ber),  a famous  moun- 
tain pass  between  Indiaand  Afghanistan, 
the  chief  gate  to  the  latter  country  from 
Peshawur,  by  means  of  which  India  has 
been  invaded  from  time  to  time,  and  the 
scene  of  severe  conflicts  in  the  recent 
Afghan  war.  Its  position  renders  it  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  British  India, 
and  it  is  now  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  lieut .-governor  of  the  Punjab.  It  is 
3373  feet  above  sea-level,  about  50  miles 
long,  and  inclosed  on  each  side  by  preci- 
pices from  600  to  1200  feet  high. 

KIANG-SI,  one  of  the  central  prov- 
inces of  China;  area,  72,176  sq.  miles; 
pop.  24,534,118. 

KIANG-SU,  the  richest  of  the  central 
provs.  of  China;  area,  44,500  sq.  miles; 
pop.  20,905,171.  The  chief  port  is 
Nanking. 

KIBIT'KA,  a tent  of  the  nomad  tribes 
of  the  Kirghiz  Tartars.  The  frame  con- 
sists of  twelve  stakes,  each  5^  feet  high, 
set  up  in  a circle  12  feet  in  diameter,  on 
which  is  laid  a wheel-shaped  roof-frame, 
consisting  also  of  twelve  stakes,  united 
at  one  extremity  but  free  at  the  other, 
so  that  the  stakes  radiate  like  spokes. 


Kibitka  or  Kirghiz  tent. 

The  whole  is  covered  with  thick  cloth, 
made  of  sheep’s  wool,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  an  aperture  in  the  center  for  the 
escape  of  smoke.  The  door  is  formed 
by  the  removal  of  a stake. — The  name 
is  also  given  to  a carriage  generally  with- 
out springs,  used  by  all  classes  in  Russia, 
and  which  is  covered  by  some  kind  of 
cover  to  afford  protection  from  the 
weather. 

KIDD,  William,  a celebrated  pirate, 
known  as  Captain  Kidd,  born  about  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century,  and  origi- 
nally a shipmaster  of  New  York.  In  1696 
he  was  appointed  captain  of  the  ship 
Adventure  Galley  of  thirty  guns  by 
William  III.,  for  the  suppression  of 
piracy.  In  America  he  collected  some 
150  recruits,  sailed  for  the  East  Indies; 
took  to  pirating  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  returned  with  his  booty  to  New 
York  in  1698.  He  was  arrested  and 
arraigned  in  England  for  piracy;  but  the 
charge  could  not  be  brought  home  to 
him ; he  was  then  tried  for  the  murder  of 
one  of  his  crew,  sentenced  and  hanged. 


in  1701.  The  story  that  he  buried  im- 
mense treasure  on  the  shores  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  or  the  banks  of  the  Hud- 
son river,  gave  rise  to  one  of  Edgar 
Allen  Poe’s  tales. 

KIDNAPPING,  the  act  of  getting 
forcible  and  illegal  possession  of  the 
person,  an  offense  of  varied  degree,  but 
always  punishable  by  fine  or  imprison- 
ment. 

KIDNEY-BEANS.  See  French  Beans. 

KIDNEYS,  two  of  the  abdominal 
viscera,  in  the  form  of  two  glands,  the 
function  of  which  is  to  secrete  the  urine 
from  the  blood.  They  are  situated  one 
on  each  side  of  the  vertebral  column  at 


e 


SECTION  OF  HUMAN  KIDNEY. 

a,  Supra-renal  capsule,  resting  above  the 
kidney,  b.  Cortex  or  cortical  portion  of  kid- 
ney. cc.  Medullary  portion,  consisting  of 
cones,  d d.  Apices  of  the  pyramids,  promoting 
into  their  corresponding  calyces  eee.  /.Pelvis. 
g.  Ureter: 

the  back  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity 
on  a level  with  the  last  dorsal  and  two 
upper  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  right 
kidney  lies  at  a slightly  lower  level  than 
the  left.  They  are  of  the  well-known 
“kidney-bean”  shape.  The  concave 
side  of  each  kidney  is  turned  inward 
and  toward  the  spine.  The  depression 
on  the  inner  side  is  termed  the  hilum, 
and  from  this  notch  the  excretory  duct 
or  ureter  proceeds,  while  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  kidney  enter  and  leave 
the  gland  at  this  point.  The  weight  of 
each  male  kidney  is  about  5 oz.;  those 
of  the  female  weigh  each  somewhat  less. 
Each  gland  is  covered  by  a thin  sheath 
of  fibrous  tissue,  which  has  no  extension 
into  the  substance  of  the  organ.  The 
internal  substance  is  divided  into  an 
outer  deeper-colored  cortical  portion  or 
cortex,  and  an  inner  hghter-colored  or 
medullary  portion.  Both  portions  con- 
sist of  tubes  (tubuli  uriniferi),  which  run 
a very  tortuous  course  in  the  cortex, 
but  continue  as  straight  tubes  in  the 
medulla.  The  latter  is  formed  into  a 
series  of  conical  fleshy  masses,  about 
twelve  in  number,  called  pyramids  of 
Malpighi.  These  project  into  a cavity 
formed  at  the  hilum  by  the  expansion 
of  the  excretory  duct,  and  called  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidney.  Prolongations  of 
the  expanded  ureter,  called  the  calyces, 
invest  the  apices  of  the  pyramids  and , 
dip  in  between  them  like  funnel-shaped  { 
tubes.  Now  in  the  cortex  the  end  of  a ' 
tubule  is  dilated  into  a sac  or  capsule; 
into  this  a small  branch  of  the  renal 
artery  enters,  and  then  breaks  up  into 
a tuft  of  capillary  blood  vessels.  This 
tuft  is  called  the  glomerulus,  and  it  and 
its  capsule  form  a Malpighian  corpuscle 


KIEL 


KINETOSCOPE 


about  lioth  of  an  inch  in  aiameter.  So 
that  a tubule,  beginning  at  its  dilated 
end,  runs  a tortuous  course  in  the  cor- 
tex, reaching  the  medulla  becomes 
straight,  and  finally  opens  into  the 

Eelvis  on  the  apex  of  a pyramid.  The 
lood  vessels  of  the  kidney  consist  of 
the  renal  artery,  derived  from  the  aorta, 
and  the  renal  vein.  The  branches  of  the 
artery  enter  the  gland  at  the  hilum,  and 

Cass  into  the  substance  of  the  gland 
etween  the  papillae.  Finally  they 
reach  the  cortical  portion,  and  therein 
subdivide  into  minute  vessels,  which 
form  the  glomeruli  of  the  Malpighian 
bodies.  The  renal  veins  leave  the  kid- 
ney also  at  the  hilum,  and  pour  their 
contents  into  the  great  main  vein  of  the 
lower  parts  of  the  body  (vena  cava  in- 
ferior). The  nervous  supply  of  the  kid- 
ney is  derived  from  the  renal  plexus, 
and  from  the  solar  plexus  or  large  sym- 
pathetic mass  of  the  abdomen.  The 
separation  from  the  blood  of  the  con- 
stituents of  the  urine  is  accomplished 
in  the  glomeruli,  and  by  the  uriniferous 
tubules,  the  former  straining  off  the 
watery  parts  of  the  blood,  while  the 
latter  remove  the  more  solid  matters. 
Gradually,  the  secreted  urine  passes 
through  the  tubules,  into  the  pelvis  of 
the  kidney,  thence  into  the  ureters, 
which  in  turn  open  into  the  bladder  be- 
hind its  orifice  or  neck.  The  urine  is 
constantly  entering  the  bladder,  drop 
by  drop. 

Inflammation  of  the  kidneys  is 
known  as  nephritis.  Occasionally  con- 
cretions of  mineral  substances  accumu- 
late in  the  kidney,  and  cause,  in  their 
passage  from  the  gland  and  through  the 
ureter,  most  excruciating  pain. 

KIEL  (kel),  a town  of  Prussia,  in 
Schleswig-Holstein,  beautifully  situated 


on  a deep  bay  of  the  Baltic,  54  miles 
north  by  east  from  Hamburg.  The  most 
notable  buildings  are  the  university, 
and  the  royal  palace  (containing  the 
university  library).  As  a fortified  naval 
port  of  Germany,  with  an  imperial 
dockyard,  and  as  the  station  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  imperial  fleet,  Kiel 
is  rapidly  rising  in  importance.  Besides 
ship  building,  it  has  iron  foundries, 
engineering  works,  oil  mills,  tan  works, 
tobacco  works',  etc.  By  the  great  ship- 


canal  it  is  now  connected  with  the  Elbe. 
Pop.  121,790. 

KIELCE  (ki-eltse),  a government 
and  town  in  Russian  Poland ; area  of  the 
former,  3897  sq.  miles;  pop.  763,746. 
The  capital,  Kielce,  is  an  ancient  town 
about  50  miles  northeast  of  Crocow. 
Pop.  23,189. 

KIEV  (ki-ev'),  or  Kieff  (ki-ef'),  a gov- 
ernment of  s.w.  Russia;  area,  19,691  sq. 
miles;  pop.  3,576,125.  Kieff,  the  cap- 
ital, is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  which  is  here 
navigable,  and  crossed  by  a suspension 
bridge  half  a mile  in  length,  one  of  the 
finest  in  Europe.  Its  university  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  the  empire. 
The  connection  by  rail  with  Odessa  and 
Kursk  has  done  much  to  stimulate  the 
trade  of  the  town.  Pop.  249,830. 

KILAUEA,  an  active  volcano  in 
Hawaii,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
It  has  an  oval  crater,  9 miles  in  circum- 
ference, with  a lake  of  red  and  boiling 
lava  at  the  bottom,  over  1000  feet  below 
the  crater’s  mouth. 

KILDARE',  an  inland  county  of  Ire- 
land, in  the  province  of  Leinster; 
length,  40  miles;  breadth,  27  miles; 
area,  418,496  acres.  Pop.  63,469.  The 
town  of  Kildare  stands  on  an  eminence 
30  miles  s.w.  from  Dublin. 

KIL'IMA-NJARO  (the  Great  Moun- 
tain), a double-peaked,  snow-clad  moun- 
tain of  Africa,  in  the  territory  of  the 
German  East  African  Company,  about 
100  miles  inland  from  the  port  of  Mom- 
basa, on  the  Suaheli  coast.  The  highest 
peak,  estimated  at  19,270  feet,  is  the 
highest  known  in  the  African  continent. 

KILKEN'NY,  a city,  parliamentary 
borough,  and  county  of  itself,  in  Ireland, 
locally  in  Kilkenny  county,  of  which  it 
is  the  capital,  73  miles  s.w.  from  Dublin, 
delightfully  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Nore.  Pop.  13,242.  The  county,  which 
is  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  has  an  area 
of  796  sq.  miles.  Pop.  79,159. 

KILLAR'NEY,  a market  town  of  Ire- 
land, in  the  county  of  Kerry,  in  the 
midst  of  beautiful  scenery,  within  a 
mile  of  the  celebrated  lakes  to  which  it 
gives  its  name.  These  lakes  are  three 
in  number,  the  lower  4^  miles  long  by  2 
broad,  the  middle  IJ  miles  long  and  i 
broad,  the  upper  3 miles  long.  They 
are  interspersed  with  wooded  islands, 
and  the  lofty  banks  are  also  richly 
wooded.  In  summer  Killarney  is 
thronged  with  visitors.  Pop.  5656. 

KILMAR'NOCK,  a parliamentary  and 
municipal  burgh  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Ayr,  19  miles  s.w.  from  Glas- 
gow. Pop.  34,165. 

KILN,  a structure  of  brick  or  stone 
used  for  drying,  baking,  burning,  an- 
nealing and  calcining  various  sub- 
stances and  articles,  such  as  corn,  hops, 
malt,  cement,  limestone,  iron  ore,  glass, 
bricks,  pottery,  etc.  The  construction 
of  kilns  naturally  varies  with  the  special 
object  for  which  they  are  designed,  but 
the  same  principle  is  involved  in  all, 
that  is,  the  generation  of  ample  and 
regular  heat  with  the  least  expenditure 
of  fuel. 

KILOGRAMME,  a French  weight  con- 
taining 1000  grammes  — 2.2  lbs.  Simi- 
larly kilometer  — 1000  meters  or  0.621 
miles.  See  Metrical  Sytsem. 

KILOGRAMMETER,  a unit  employed 


in  the  measurement  of  mechanical  work; 
it  is  the  mechanical  work  expended  in 
raising  a body  whose  weight  is  1 kilo- 
gramme (2.2046  lbs.)  through  the  verti- 
cal height  of  1 meter  (3.2809  feet),  and 
is  equal  to  7.233  foot-pounds.  See  Foot- 
pound. 

KIM'BERLEY,  the  capital  of  Griqua- 
land  West,  Cape  Colony,  and  the  center 
of  the  South  African  diamond  fields. 
It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Port  Eliza- 
beth and  Cape  Town.  There  are  four 
chief  mines — -Kimberley,  Dutoitspan, 
De  Beer’s  and  Bultfontein.  It  success- 
fully withstood  a four  months’  siege  by 
the  Boers  in  1899-1900.  Pop.  28,643. 

KIN.  See  Descent. 
KINCAR'DINESHIRE,  a maritime 
county  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland; 
area,  248,284  acres.  Pop.  40,918. 

KIN'DERGARTEN,  a German  word 
signifying  “children’s  garden,’’  and  the 
name  given  to  a system  of  infant  educa- 
tion introduced  by  Friedrich  Froebel, 
who  was  largely  assisted  in  its  propaga- 
tion by  the  Baroness  Marenholz-Biilow. 
The  system  is  intended  to  bring  out  the 
moral  and  intellectual  capabilities  of 
very  young  children  chiefly  by  observa- 
tion; pictures,  toys,  tools,  etc.,  suitable 
for  the  purpose,  being  introduced,  so  as 
to  convert  schooling  into  play,  which 
according  to  Froebel  is  the  child’s  most 
serious  business.  The  first  kindergarten 
was  opened  in  1840  at  Blankenburg 
(Prussia),  and  like  most  other  innova- 
tions met  at  first  with  little  encourage- 
ment, and  even  with  opposition,  but  it 
gradually  gained  a footing  in  the  best 
educated  countries,  and  the  progress  in 
recent  years  has  been  great  and  rapid. 
Froebel  Societies  for  the  training  of 
teachers  exist  now  in  various  countries. 
The  system  is  most  widely  spread  in  the 
United  States  and  Belgium,  while 
Switzerland,  France,  and  Austria  are 
grafting  it  on  their  elementary  schools. 

KINEMAT'ICS,  a branch  of  mathe- 
matics which  treats  of  the  motions  of 
bodies  Independently  of  the  forces  which 
produce  them. 

KINET'ICS,  that  branch  of  the  science 
of  dynamics  which  treats  of  forces  caus- 
ing motion  in  bodies.  See  Dynamics. 

KINETOSCOPE,  a device  for  repro- 
ducing movable  pictures  from  photo- 
graphs, invented  by  Thomas  A.  Edison, 
in  1894.  In  shape  it  is  a cabinet  form, 
and  the  pictures  are  viewed  from  above 
through  suitable  lenses.  The  pictures 
come  within  the  field  of  vision  on  a 
transparent  film  beneath  which  is  an 
electric  incandescent  light.  The  result 
is  an  optical  illusion,  in  that  a series  of 
pictures  pass  before  the  eye  so  rapidly 
that  the  effect  is  that  of  continuous 
motion.  Thus  a kinetoscopic  view  of  a 
boxing  match  shows  theboxers  as  though 
the  observer  were  really  looking  at  the 
originals  through  the  small  end  of  an 
opera  glass. 

The  original  protograph  is  taken  by 
means  of  a specially  arranged  camera. 
In  this  camera  the  shutter  is  a slotted 
disk  which  is  revolved  by  mechanism  so 
as  to  open  and  shut  42  times  a second. 
Back  of  the  shutter  is  a continuous  nar- 
row film  about  two  inches  in  width. 
This  is  arranged  to  run  from  one  roller  to 
another,  so  that  one  roller  is  giving  off 
the  film  while  the  other  is  winding  it  up. 


KING 


1 


KINGFISHER 


The  roller  is  such  that  a new  sensitive 
area  is  exposed  at  every  opening  of  the 
slotted  shutter.  In  other  words,  42  fields 
are  exposed  to  the  light  and  receive  the 
image.  This  film  is  developed,  and  from 
that  negative  a continuous  positive  is 
printed  by  the  usual  photographic  proc- 
ess with  the  modifications  necessary  to 
enable  the  photographer  to  handle  the 
long,  ribbonlike  film.  In  the  kinetoscope 
proper,  this  film  passes  before  the  object- 
glass  at  such  a speed  that  lifelike  motions 
are  faithfully  reproduced.  The  modifi- 
cations of  the  kinetoscope  for  use  in 
stereopticon  exhibits  are  the  cinemato- 
graph, veriscope,  and  vitascope.  In 
these  devices  the  ribbonlike  film  is  made 
to  pass  before  a calcium  or  electric  arc- 
liglit.  A series  of  photographs  are  en- 
larged by  means  of  the  ordinary  stere- 
opticon  lenses,  and  thrown  upon  a sheet 
in  a theater  or  hall,  giving  lifesize,  life- 
like continuous  pictures.  Such  scenes 
as  the  charge  of  a cavalry  squadron, 
prize  fights,  stage  dancing,  boxing, 
horses  running,  fast  express  trains,  etc., 
have  been  reproduced  by  the  kineto- 
scope. 

KING,  a person  invested  with  supreme 
power  over  a state,  nation,  or  people, 
whether  tins  power  be  acquired  by  in- 
heritance, election,  or  otherwise.  It  is 
dilHcult  to  define  what  essentially  con- 
si  itutes  a king,  or  to  say  in  what  he 
differs  from  an  emperor. 

KING,  Charles,  American  soldier  and 
novelist,  W'as  born  at  .Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1S44.  He  served  in  the  artillery  and 
cavalry;  was  retired  as  captain  for 
wounds  received  in  action  (1879);  was 
inspector  and  instructor  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin National  Guard  (1882-89),  colonel 
(1890),  adjutant-general  (1895),  and 
brigadier-general,  U.  S.  V.  (1898).  He 
afterward  served  in  the  Philippines. 
Among  his  best  known  books  are 
Famous  and  Decisive  Battles,  Cam- 
paigning with  Crook,  Between  the  Lines, 
The  Colonel’s  Daughter,  A War-Time 
Wooing,  Kitty’s  Conquest,  A Tame 
Surrender, Foes  in  Ambush,  Fort  Wayne, 
An  Apache  Princess,  Medal  of  Honor. 

KING,  Clarence,  American  geologist, 
was  born  in  1842.  In  1863  he  started  on 
a trip  across  the  continent.  He  arrived 
in  California  and  became  attached  as 
assistant  to  the  Geological  Survey. 
His  investigations  included  the  deter- 
mination of  the  age  of  the  gold-bearing 
rocks,  surveys  of  Mount-Whitney  and 
the  Yosemite  Valley,  and  the  collection 
of  evidence  in  support  of  the  glaciation 
of  the  Sierras.  In  1879,  he  was  appointed 
the  first  director  of  the  United  States 
geological  survey.  The  most  important 
of  Ids  publications  are  the  following. 
Mountaineering  in  the  Sierras,  On  the 
Discovery  of  Actual  Glaciers  on  the 
Mountains  of  the  Pacific  Slope,  Syste- 
matic Geology,  and  The  Age  of  the 
Earth.  He  died  in  1901. 

KING,  Rufus,  American  political 
leader,  born  in  1755,  at  Scarborough, 
Maine.  In  1783  he  took  his  seat  in  the 
general  court  of  Massachusetts.  He  be- 
came a member  of  the  Continental 
congress  in  December,  1784,  being  re- 
elected in  1785  and  1786.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
convention  of  1787  which  framed  the 
federal  constitution,  and  in  the  Massa- 


chusetts convention  called  to  decide 
upon  the  adoption  or  rejection  of  that 
instrument  he  was  instrumental  in 
securing  ratification.  In  1786  he  re- 
moved to  New  York  City,  where  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  assembly  in  1789 
and  in  the  same  year  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate,  where  he  at  once 


took  a high  place  as  a leader  of  the 
federalists.  King  was  re-elected  in  1795 
and  in  1796  ha  accepted  from  President 
Washington  the  responsible  post  of 
Minister  to  England.  He  distinguished 
himself  highly  iu  the  diplomatic  service, 
in  which  he  continued  until  1803.  As  the 
federal  candidate  for  vice-president  he 
received  fourteen  votes.  Again  in  1808 
he  was  the  federalist  candidate  for  the 
same  office,  receiving  47  votes.  In  1813 
and  in  1819  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate.  In  1825-26  he  was  again 
minister  to  England.  He  died  in  1827. 

KING,  William  Rufus,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Sampson  co., 
N.  C.,  in  1786.  In  1806  he  was  elected  to 
the  state  legislature,  serving  until  his 
election,  as  a democrat,  to  the  United 
States  congress  ‘n  1810.  In  1818,  he 
settled  as  a cotton  planter  in  Dallas 
CO.,  Ala.,  was  a member  of  the  conven- 
tion which  drew  up  the  constitution  for 
the  proposed  state  in  that  year,  and 
after  its  admission  in  1819  took  his  seat 
in  the  United  States  senate  as  one  of  the 
first  senators  from  Alabama.  He  re- 
mained in  the  senate  by  re-election  until 
1844,  serving  after  1838  as  president  pro 
tempore.  In  1844  he  accepted  from 
President  Tyler  an  appointment  as 
minister  to  France.  In  1846  he  was  re- 
turned to  the  senate  to  fill  an  unexpired 
term,  was  re-elected  for  a full  term,  and 
served  until  1853,  presiding  over  the 
body  in  the  last  three  years  as  president 
pro  tempore.  In  1852  King,  who  had 
been  a candidate  for  the  democratic 
nomination  for  the  vice-presidency  ever 
si^ce  1840,  was  finally  named  for  that 
officelonthe  Piercetick8t,and  was  elected. 
Before  the  inauguration,  however,  his 
health  began  to  fail  rapidly,  and  he  went 
to  Havana,  Cuba,  where  by  special  act 
of  congress  he  was  allowed  to  take  the 


oath  of  office  on  March  4,  1853.  He 
never  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his 
office,  however,  but  died  shortly  after 
his  return  to  Alabama  in  the  April 
following. 

KING-CRAB,  a peculiar  genus  of  crabs 
included  in  the  order  Xiphosura  (sword- 
tailed),  of  the  class  Crustacea.  They  are 
found  on  the  coasts  of  northern  and 
tropical  America  and  the  Antilles,  in  the 
eastern  Archipelago  and  Japan.  The 
head  resembles  a broad  horse-shoe 
shaped  shield,  with  two  pairs  of  eyes 
upon  the  upper  surface,  the  second  pair 
being  the  larger  and  forming  the  true 


King-crab. 


visual  organs.  The  mouth  opens  on  the 
lower  surface,  and  around  it  are  six 
pairs  of  limbs  with  spinous  joints  at- 
tached. A second  shield  somewhat 
hexagonal  in  shape  covers  the  abdominal 
part,  and  beneath  it  are  tlie  gills,  or 
branchiae,  borne  upon  five  pairs  of  ap- 
pendages which  represent  the  .abdominal 
feet  of  the  crab.  The  average  length  is 
about  2 feet.  These  crabs  are  destitute  of 
swimming  powers,  and  if  placed  on  their 
backs  they  appear,  like  turtles,  unable  to 
recover  their  natural  position.  The 
commonest  species  is  the  Limulus 
polyphemus,  found  chiefly  on  the  North 
American  coasts.  The  upper  surface  of 
the  tail,  as  in  other  species,  bears  numer- 
ous spines.  The  Limulus  moluccanus,  of 
the  Moluccas,  possesses  a strongly 
serrated  tail.  This  latter  species  is 
largely  eaten. 

KINGFISHER,  the  name  of  a family 
of  insessorial  birds  distinguished  by  the 
elongated  stoutly  formed,  tetragonal 
bill,  broad  at  the  base,  and  terminating 
in  a finely  acute  point;  tarsi  short,  feet 
strong,  toes  somewhat  elongated.  The 
common  kingfisher  has  the  upper  part 


The  European  kingfisher. 

of  the  head,  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and 
the  coverts  of  the  wings  green,  spotted 
with  blue.  The  back  is  dark  green  in 
color,  the  lower  back  and  rump  being 
of  a bright  blue.  The  throat  is  white, 


KINGLAKE 


KISSINGEN 


and  the  under  surface  of  the  body  a pale- 
brown  color.  It  frequents  the  banks  of 
rivers,  and,  perched  on  the  bough  of  a 
tree,  watches  for  fish.  When  the  prey  is 
perceived  it  dives  into  the  water,  secures 
the  fish  with  its  feet,  and  carries  it  to 
land,  where  it  kills  the  prey  and  swal- 
lows it  entire.  It  is  about  7 inches  in 
length.  This  bird  has  been  greatly  cele- 
brated in  ancient  poetic  and  legendary 
lore,  and  is  the  subject  of  many  super- 
stitions. The  American  kingfisher  is  of  a 
bluish-slate  color,  with  an  iron-colored 
band  on  the  breast,  while  the  head 
bears  a crest  of  feathers.  The  spotted 
kingfisher  is  a native  of  the  Himalayas, 
where  it  is  called  the  fish-tiger.  A large 
Australian  species  is  known  as  the  laugh- 
ing-jackass (which  see). 

KINGLAKE,  Alexander  William,  an 
English  historian,  born  1811,  and  edu- 
cated at  Eton  and  Cambridge.  The  first 
volume  of  his  Invasion  of  the  Crimea 
appeared  in  1863,  and  at  once  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  a brilliant  his- 
torian; seven  volumes  followed  at  in- 
tervals, the  eighth  and  completing  vol- 
ume in  1887,  and  they  form  together  a 
magnificent  record  of  this  war.  He  died 
in  1891. 

KING  OF  (or  at)  ARMS,  in  England, 
an  officer  whose  business  is  to  direct  the 
heralds,  preside  at  their  chapters,  and 
have  the  jurisdiction  of  arms.  There  are 
three  kings  of  arms  in  England — Garter, 
Clarencieux,  Norroy,  and  an  officer 
styled  Bath  King  of  Arms,  attached  to 
the  order  of  the  Bath.  There  are  also 
Lion  King  at  Arms  for  Scotland,  and 
Ulster  King  of  Arms  for  Ireland. 

KINGS,  Books  of,  form  two  books  in 
the  English  and  one  book  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  Besides 
their  own  unity  the  books  of  Kings  are 
closely  connected  with  first  and  second 
of  Samuel,  and,  following  these,  form 
the  third  and  fourth  in  what  is  known 
as  the  four  books  of  the  kingdom.  From 
internal  evidence  it  would  seem  that 
these  were  written  by  a series  of  con- 
temporaries, with  additions  and  glosses 
made  by  a later  writer.  The  history, 
as  related  in  the  books  of  Kings,  begins 
with  the  close  of  David’s  reign,  and 
carries  the  events  onward  to  the  cap- 
ture of  Jerusalem  and  the  destruction  of 
the  temple.  This  embraces,  according 
to  the  received  chronology,  a period  of 
upward  of  400  years  (b.c.  ipi5-588), 
and  includes  the  history  of  both  the 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  This 
chronology,  however,  is  unsatisfactory, 
and  has  been  much  disputed.  In  com- 
paring these  books  with  the  Chronicles 
i't  is  found  that  while  the  former  de- 
scribes the  divided  kingdom  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  the  latter  is  occupied  almost 
exclusively  with  Judah ; and  further,  that 
the  books  of  Kings  seem  to  have  been 
compiled  under  prophetic,  and  the 
Chronicles  under  priestly  influence. 

KING’S  COUNTY,  an  inland  county, 
Ireland,  province  of  Leinster;  area, 
493,985  acres,  of  which  351,495  are 
arable.  Pop.  60,129. 

KINGSLEY,  Rev.  Charles,  English 
clergyman,  novelist  and  poet,  born  in 
1819,  died  1875.  In  1853  was  published 
Hypatia,  and  in  1855  Westward  Ho, 
both  brilliant  historical  novels,  the 
former  dealing  with  the  early  Christian 


church,  the  later  with  the  South  Ameri- 
can adventurers  of  the  Elizabethan  era. 
Among  his  other  well-known  works  are 
Two  Years  Ago,  Hereward  the  Last  of 
the  English,  Glaucus,  and  The  Water 
Babies. 

KINGSTON,  a city  of  Ontario,  Canada. 
The  trade  is  very  considerable,  and  the 
harbor  is  accessible  to  ships  of  large  size. 
Kingston  was  founded  in  1783,  on  the 
ground  formerly  occupied  by  Fort 
Frontenac.  It  was  incorporated  in  1838. 
The  government  penitentiary  is  situated 
here.  Pop.  19,043. 

KINGSTON,  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Jamaica,  on  the  south  coast,  with 
straight  and  regular  streets  and  houses 
generally  of  brick.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  old  parish  church,  town-hall, 
Jamaica  Institute,  hospital,  court-house. 


theater,  penitentiary,  barracks,  and  jail. 
The  harbor,  which  is  6 miles  long  by  2 
miles  wide,  is  separated  from  the  sea  by 
a narrow  slip  of  low  land,  and  forms  an 
excellent  anchorage  for  vessels  of  any 
size.  It  is  defended  by  several  forts. 
Pop.  48,504.  See  the  map. 

Kingston,  a city  in  New  York  state, 
90  miles  north  of  New  York,  on  the 
Hudson,  by  which  and  by  railroad  and 
canal  it  carries  on  a large  trade.  It 
has  carriage  factories,  iron-foundries 
and  machine  shops,  cement  manufac- 
tory, etc.  Pop.  27,175. 

KING-VULTURE,  the  Sarcorhampus 
Papa  of  the  intertropical  regions  of 
America.  It  is  about  2J  feet  in  length, 
and  upwards  of  5 feet  across  the  ex- 
panded wings.  The  other  vultures  are 
said  to  stand  quietly  by  until  this,  their 
monarch,  has  finished  his  repast. 

KING-WOOD,  a Brazilian  wood  from 
a leguminous  tree.  It  is  beautifully 
streaked  with  violet  tints  or  West  Indian 
ebony,  and  is  used  in  turning  and  small 
cabinet-work.  Called  also  Violet-wood. 


Kinkajou. 


KINK'AJOU,  a plantigrade  carnivor- 
ous mammal  of  northern  South  America, 


allied  to  the  bear  family.  In  habits  it  is 
omnivorous,  nocturnal,  and  docile  when 
captured.  In  shape  it  resembles  the 
lemur,  the  legs  are  short,  fur  close  and 
woolly,  tail  long  and  prehensile.  Being 
fond  of  honey  they  make  frequent  forays 
upon  the  nests  of  bees. 

KIOSK',  a Turkish  word  signifying  a 
kind  of  open  pavilion  or  summer-house, 
supported  by  pillars.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced from  the  east  into  the  gardens, 
parks,  etc.,  of  Western  Europe. 

KIO'TO,  a large  city  of  Japan,  in  the 
island  of  Hondo,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  Mikado,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
capital  of  Japan.  It  is  the  center  of 
learning  and  of  artistic  manufactures. 
Pop.  317,270. 

KIPLING,  Rudyard,  English  writer, 
born  in  Bombay,  1865;  After  an  educa- 
tion in  England  he  returned  to  India, 
became  connected  with  the  press,  and 
soon  became  known  by  short  stories  con- 
tributed to  Indian  periodicals.  In  1890 
some  of  these  were  brought  prominently 
before  the  British  public,  and  his  reputa- 
tion was  at  once  secured.  Indian  and 
Anglo-Indian  life,  and  especially  the  life 
of  the  European  soldier  in  India,  are 
depicted  by  him  with  much  graphic 
power  and  originality.  Among  his  writ- 
ings are  Soldiers  Three,  Plain  Tales 
from  the  Hills,  The  Light  that  Failed, 
Many  Inventions,  The  Jungle  Book, 
Second  Jungle  Book,  Kim,  The  Days’ 
Work,  Stalky  & Co.,  etc.  He  has  written 
a good  deal  of  verse,  including  Depart- 
mental Ditties,  and  Barrack-room  Bal- 
lads. 

KIRCHHOFF  (kirh'hof),  Robert,  Ger- 
man physicist,  born  1824,  died  1887. 
He  devoted  his  attention  to  the  sub- 
jects of  heat,  elasticity,  and  magnetism. 
Conjointly  with  Bunsen  he  discovered 
the  spectroscope. 

KIRGHIZ, Kirghis(kir'gez),  a nomadic 
Mongol-Tartar  race,  numbering  in  its 
various  branches  about  3,000,000,  and 
inhabiting  the  steppes  that  extend  from 
the  lower  Volga  and  the  Caspian  Sea  in 
the  west  to  the  Altai  and  Thian-Shan 
Mountains  in  the  east,  and  from  the  Sea 
of  Aral  and  the  Syr  Daria  in  the  south  to 
tlie  Tobol  and  Irtish  on  the  north. 

KIRIN,  a division  or  province  and 
town  of  the  Chinese  territory  Manchuria. 
The  town,  also  called  Kirinoola  or  Girin, 
has  a pop.  of  120,000. 

KIRKCALDY  (kir-ka'di) , known  as  the 
“Lang  Toun,”  a royal  and  parliamentary 
burgh  and  seaport,  Scotland,  county  of 
Fife,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  Pop.  of  royal  burgh,  34,063] 
pari,  burgh,  22,346. 

KIRKCUDBRIGHT  (kir-k6ffiri),'Stew- 
artry  of,  a maritime  county,  in  the 
south  of  Scotland;  bounded  north  by 
county  Ayr,  west  by  Wigtown,  north 
and  east  by  Dumfries,  and  south  by  the 
Solway  Firth  and  Wigtown  Bay;  area, 
582,982,  acres.  Pop.  39,407. — The  county 
town  is  a royal  burgh.  Pop.  2386. 

KISH'INEV,  or  KISHENAU,  a town 
of  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of 
Bessarabia,  on  the  Byk,  a tributary  of 
the  Dniester.  Pop.  about  130,000. 

KISSINGEN  (kis'ing-en) , a watering- 
place  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Saale,  30  miles 
north  of  Wurzburg.  The  springs,  which 
are  cold,  and  all  saline,  contain  a large 
quantity  of  [carbonic  acid  gas,  and 


KITCHENER 


KNEIPP 


are  used  both  internally  and  as 
baths. 

KITCHENER,  Sir  Horatio  Herbert, 
Viscount  Kitchener  or  Khartum,  British 
general,  born  1850;  educated  at  the 
Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich; 
entered  the  Royal  Engineers  1871;  en- 
gaged in  survey  of  Palestine  1874-78; 
surveyed  Cyprus  1880-82;  commanded 
the  Egyptian  cavalry  in  1882-84,  and 
served  in  the  Soudan  campaign  of  1883- 
85;  was  adjutant-general  and  second  in 
command  of  the  Egyptian  army  1888- 
92;  and  in  1892  succeeded  Sir  Francis 
Grenfell  as  Sirdar.  As  such  he  recovered 
Dongola  (1896),  and  by  the  victories  of 
the  Atbara  and  Omdurman  (1898)  re- 
gained for  Egypt  the  lost  southern  prov- 
inces. For  these  services  he  was  created 
a baron,  and  in  1899  he  became  gover- 
nor-general of  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  In 
January,  1900,  he  arrived  in  South 
Africa  as  chief  of  the  staff  to  Lord 
Roberts  in  the  Boer  war,  and  inDecember 
be  became  commander-in-chief  there. 
He  ended  the  war  by  the  treaty  of 
Vereeniging  on  May  31,  1902,  and  for 
his  services  he  was  created  a viscount, 
and  presented  with  $250,000  by  a vote 
of  the  House  of  Commons. 

KITCHEN-MIDDENS,  the  name  given 
to  certain  mounds,  from  3 to  10  feet  in 
height  and  100  to  1000  feet  in  length, 
found  in  Denmark,  the  north  of  Scot- 
land, etc.,  consisting  chiefly  of  the  shells 
of  oysters,  cockles,  and  other  edible 
shell-fish.  They  are  the  refuse  heaps  of 
a pre-historic  people  unacquainted  with 
the  use  of  metals,  all  the  .implements 
found  in  them  being  of  stone,  bone,  horn, 
or  wood.  Fragments  of  rude  pottery 
occur.  The  bones  are  all  those  of  wild 
animals,  with  the  exception  of  those  of 
the  dog.  Similar  shell  deposits  occur  on 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  United  States, 
formed  by  the  Red  Indians. 

KITE,  a raptorial  bird  of  the  falcon 
family,  differing  from  the  true  falcons  in 
having  a somewhat  long  forked  tail, 
long  wings,  short  legs,  and  weak  bill  and 
talons.  This  last  peculiarity  renders  it 


Kite. 


the  least  formidable  of  the  birds  of  prey. 
The  common  kite,  glead,  or  glede  preys 
chiefly  on  the  smaller  quadrupeds,  birds, 
young  chickens,  etc.  It  usually  builds 
' in  the  fork  of  a tree  in  a thick  wood. 

KITE,  a light  framework  covered  with 
paper  or  other  light  material  and  held 
by  a string  in  such  a way  that  the  wind 


raises  it  to  a greater  or  less  height  above 
the  ground.  Kites  have  been  used  for 
centuries  by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese 
as  a toy  made  in  the  form  of  birds,  bats, 
dragons,  and  other  creatures,  the  frame- 
work being  covered  with  silk  or  paper 
having  ornamental  designs.  Kites  have 
recently  come  into  quite  extended  use 
in  meteorological  observations  and  for 
other  useful  purposes,  also  to  hold  sus- 
pended in  mid  air  banners  for  adver- 
tising purposes  and  for  taking  photo- 
graphs. 

KITTIWAKE,  a species  of  gull  found 
in  great  abundance  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world  wherever  the  coast  is 
high  and  rocky. 

KLEPTOMA'NIA,  a supposed  species 
of  insanity  manifesting  itself  in  a desire 
to  pilfer.  In  admitting  the  plea  of  klep- 
tomania great  caution  is  needed.  The 
best  way  to  arrive  at  a judgment  is  to 
consider  the  previous  character  and  per- 
sonal Interests  of  the  person  charged ; to 
determine  the  value  and  usefulness  of 
the  article  appropriated ; the  methods  of 
the  appropriation  and  its  probable 
motive. 

KLONDIKE,  a tributary  of  the  Yukon 
river.  The  Klondike  placer  mines  are 
located  in  the  beds  and  along  the  banks 
of  the  Bonanza,  El  Dorado,  and  other 
tributary  streams  and  creeks  of  the 
Klondike  river.  This  district  is  in  the 
northwest  territories  of  British  America 
just  east  of  the  Alaskan  border-line, 
2200miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon 
river.  Gold  was  discovered  in  this  dis- 
trict by  George  Carmack,  a native  of 
Illinois,  in  August,  1886.  The  gold  lies 
all  the  way  through  a frozen  bed  of 
muck,  fine  and  coarse  gravel  from  23  to 
26  feet  deep.  The  gold  is  free  in  large 
grains  and  nuggets.  The  precious  de- 
posit is  extremely  rich,  and  miners  have 
panned  out  over  $300  worth  of  gold  per 
pan.  The  world  at  large  learned  of  the 
rich  Klondike  mines  in  July,  1897,  and 
before  the  middle  of  August  6,000  men 
were  on  their  way  to  the  Klondike  dis- 
trict, and  by  the  summer  of  1898  there 
were  over  40,000  people  in  the  Klondike 
region.  The  richest  deposits  are  found  on 
the  Bonanza,  ElDorado,  Gold  Bottom, 
Adams,  Bear,  Hunker,  and  Too  Much 
Gold  creeks.  Dawson  City,  N.  W.  T.,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Klondike  and  Yukon 
rivers,  is  the  chief  trading  post  of  that 
district.  The  total  production  of  the 
Klondike  region  is  over  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  millions.  Mining  operations 
are  seriously  embarrassed  by  the  short 
summer  period;  three  months  is  the 
limit  of  outdoor  work.  Miners  excavate 
pay-dirt  during  the  winter  months  and 
wash  the  dirt  during  summer.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  at  Cape  Nome  drew  many 
miners  from  the  Klondike  in  1899  and 
1900.  A large  number  of  the  small 
streams  that  drain  the  southern  side  of 
the  peninsula  have  been  worked,  includ- 
ing Anvil,  Cripple,  Eldorado,  Ophir, 
Solomon  and  Kugruk  creeks,  each  of 
which  gives  its  name  to  a local  district. 
The  coastal  plain  in  the  vicinity  of 
N ome  is  covered  with  a hea\’y  growth  of 
moss,  and  beneath  this  there  are  layers 
of  gravel  from  40  to  80  feet  thick  which 
carry  gold.  The  methods  employed  in 
mining  these  deposits  are  similar  to 
those  used  lo  working  the  creek  gravels. 


Most  of  the  excavation  is  done  with  the 
aid  of  steam  for  thawing  the  frozen 
ravels.  The  production  of  the  Nome 
istrict  from  its  discovery  is  over 
$40,000,000. 

KLOPSTOCK,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  a 
celebrated  German  poet,  born  in  1724, 
died  in  1803;  famous  as  the  author  of 
the  scared  epic.  The  Messiah.  He  also 
wrote  a number  of  odes,  etc.  His  repu- 
tation was  greater  in  his  own  day  than 
has  since  been  the  case,  but  he  is  ad- 
mitted to  have  done  great  service  to 
German  literature  in  assisting  to  free  it 
from  foreign,  especially  French  influence. 

KNAPSACK,  a bag  of  leather  or  strong 
cloth  for  carrying  a soldier’s  necessaries, 
and  closely  strapped  to  the  back  be- 
tween the  shoulders. 

KNEE,  or  KNEE-JOINT,  that  joint  in 
the  lower  limbs  of  man  which  corre- 
sponds to  the  elbow  in  the  upper,  and  is 
formed  by  the  articulation  of  the  femur 
or  thigh-bone  with  the  tibia,  or  large 
bone  of  the  leg.  The  lower  end  of  the 
femur  terminates  in  two  oblong  rounded 
masses,  called  the  condyles  of  the  femur, 
which  rest  in  two  cavities  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  tibia;  interposed  between  the 


Human  knee-joint. 

1,  Right  knee-joint  laid  open  from  the  front, 
to  show  the  internal  ligaments,  a.  Cartilagin- 
ous surface  of  lower  extremity  of  the  femur, 
with  its  two  condyles,  b,  Anterior  crucial 
ligament,  c,  Posterior  do.  d.  Internal  semi- 
lunar fibro-cartilage.  e.  External  fihro-carti- 
lage.  f.  Part  of  the  ligament  of  the  patella 
turned  down,  g,  Bursa  or  sac  containing  syn- 
ovial fluid  laid  open. 

2,  Longitudinal  section  of  the  left  knee-joint. 

а,  Cancellus  structure  of  lower  part  of  femur. 

б,  Tendon  of  extensor  muscles  of  leg.  c.  Pa- 
tella. i Ligament  of  the  patella,  e.  Cancellous 
structure  of  head  of  tibia.  /,  Anterior  crucial 
ligament,  g.  Posterior  ligament,  h.  Mass  of 
fat  projecting  into  the  cavity  of  the  joint  below 
the  patella,  i,  Bursa. 

two  bones  are  the  semilunar  cartilages, 
which  diminish  the  pressure  of  the 
femur  on  the  tibia,  and  prevent  the  dis- 
placement of  the  former.  In  front  of  the 
knee-joint  is  the  patella  or  knee-pan. 
The  joint  is  capable  of  flexion  and  ex- 
tension, and  of  a very  slight  rotary 
movement.  The  accompanying  fibres 
and  explanations  will  enable  the  joint 
and  its  chief  features  to  be  thoroughly 
understood.  See  also  Leg. 

KNEIPP  (knip),  Sebastian,  a German 
priest,  the  inventor  of  a special  kind  of 
“water-cure,”  was  born  in  1821  in 
Stefansried,  Bavaria,  Germany.  A 
trifling  accident  led  to  systematic  ex- 
periments in  his  water-cure  treatment, 
of  which  one  feature  is  that  patients  are 
compelled  to  walk  barefooted  in  the 
snow  in  winter  and  on  the  wet  grass  in 
summer.  Sunshine,  fresh  air,  water,  and 
a definite  object  at  stated  hours,  are  the 
chief  factors  in  the  Kneipp  treatment. 
Societies  bearing  his  name  exist  in 
different  parts  of  the  M'orld,  He  died 
in  1897. 


KNIGHT 


KOBE 


KNIGHT,  in  feudal  times,  a man  ad- 
mitted to  a certain  military  rank,  with 
special  ceremonies.  See  Chivalry.  In 
British  usage  one  who  holds  from  the 
sovereign  a certain  dignity  entitling  him 
10  have  the  title  Sir  prefixed  to  his 
Christian  name,  but  not  hereditary  like 
a baronetcy  called  a knight  bachelor 
if  not  a member  of  any  order.  Wives  of 
knights  have  the  legal  designation  Dame 
for  which  Lady  is  usually  substituted. 
See  Knighthood,  orders  of. 

KNIGHT,  Charles,  English  editor  and 
publisher,  born  1791,  died  1873.  He  did 
a great  deal  of  valuable  work,  superin- 
tending and  publishing  the  Library  of 
Entertaining  Knowledge;  the  Penny 
Magazine  and  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia, 
afterward  remodelled  as  the  English 
Cyclopaedia,  etc.  Other  publications  of 
his  were  the  Pictorial  Bible,  the  Pictorial 
Prayer-book,  the  Thousand  and  One 
Nights,  Shakespeare,  and  many  others. 
The  Shakespeare  was  edited  by  Mr. 
Knight  himself,  and  has,  both  for  its 
text  and  notes,  taken  a high  place  among 
the  numerous  editions  of  the  great 
dramatist.  The  most  important  of  his 
own  writings,  the  Popular  History  of 
England,  occupied  him  seven  years, 
1854-61.  An  autobiography.  Passages 
of  a Working  Life  During  Half  a Cen- 
tury, appeared  in  1863-65. 

KNIGHTHOOD,  Orders  of,  the  name 
given  to  organized  and  duly  constituted 
bodies  of  knights.  The  orders  of  knight- 
hood are  of  two  classes — either  they  are 
associations  or  fraternities,  possessing 
property  and  rights  of  their  own  as  in- 
dependent bodies,  or  they  are  merely 
honorary  associations  established  by 
sovereigns  within  their  respective  do- 
minions. To  the  former  class  belong  the 
three  celebrated  religious  orders  founded 
during  the  Crusades — Templars,  Hos- 
pitallers, and  Teutonic  Knights.  The 
other  class,  consisting  of  orders  merely 
titular,  embraces  most  of  the  existing 
European  orders,  such  as  the  order  of 
the  Golden  Fleece,  the  order  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  order  of  St.  Michael.  The 
British  orders  are  the  Garter,  the  Thistle, 
St.  Patrick,  the  Bath,  St.  Michael  and 
St.  George,  the  Star  of  India,  the  Indian 
Empire,  and  the  Royal  Victorian  Order. 
The  various  orders  have  each  their  ap- 
propriate insignia,  which  generally  in- 
clude a badge  or  jewel,  a collar,  a ribbon 
of  a certain  color,  and  a star. 

KNIGHTS  OF  LABOR,  a labor  organ- 
ization founded  at  Philadelphia  in  1869. 
Its  operations  are  secret,  but  its  pro- 
fessed object  is  the  amelioration  and 
protection  of  the  laboring  classes.  This 
body  comprehends  the  intelligences  of 
the  wage  workers  of  the  United  States. 
Of  late  years  the  membership  has  largely 
decreased,  through  internal  dissentions 
and  ill-advised  strikes. 

KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  JOHN.  See  John 
(Knights  of  St.) 

KNIGHTS  TEMPLARS.  See  Temp- 
lars. 

KNITTING,  an  industrial  and  orna- 
mental art  allied  to  weaving,  but  of 
much  later  origin.  It  consists  in  forming 
a series  of  loops  with  a single  thread, 
through  which  another  row  of  loops  is 
passed,  and  so  on  consecutively;  differ- 
ing from  crochet  in  so  far  as  the  series 
pf  loops  are  not  thrown  pff  and  finished 


successively.  In  hand-knitting  steel 
wires  are  used  to  form  the  loops  on.  For 
manufacturing  purposes  hand-knitting 
has  been  entirely  superseded  by  machin- 
ery. 

KNOT,  a complication  of  a thread,  cord 
or  rope,  or  of  two  or  more  threads,  cords, 
or  ropes  by  tying,  knitting,  or  entang- 
ling. Knots  expressly  made  as  means 
Of  fastening  differ  as  to  form,  size,  and 
name  according  to  their  uses,  as  over- 
hand-knot, reef-knot,  half-hitch,  close- 
hitch,  timber-hitch,  fisherman’s-bend, 
carrick-bend,  sheet-bend,  single-wall 
knot,  double-wall  knot,  etc.  The  term 
knot  is  also  applied  on  shipboard  to  a 
division  of  the  log-line  which  is  the  same 
fraction  of  a mile  as  half  a minute  is  of 
an  hour,  that  is,  it  is  the  hundred  and 
twentieth  part  of  a nautical  mile;  hence, 
the  number  of  knots  run  off  the  reel  in 
half  a minute  shows  the  vessel’s  speed 
per  hour  in  miles,  so  that  when  a ship 
goes  8 miles  an  hour,  she  is  said  to  go 
8 knots.  Hence,  the  word  has  come  to 
mean  also  a nautical  mile  or  6086.7  feet. 

KNOUT,  a kind  of  whip  or  scourge 
serving  as  an  instrument  of  punishment 
in  Russia.  It  was  formerly  in  use  in  the 
army,  but  a few  strokes  only  are  now 
inflicted,  as  a disgrace,  in  case  of  dis- 
missal. It  is  still  sometimes  used  for 
criminals.  The  nobles  were  exempted 
from  the  knout,  but  the  exemption  was 
not  always  observed. 

KNOW  NOTHINGS,  the  popular  name 
for  the  Native  American  party,  which 
was  formed  in  1852.  It  aimed  through 
naturalization  laws  to  make  politically 
powerless  the  large  number  of  immi- 
grants then  settling  in  the  country.  It 
had  entirely  disappeared  by  1860. 

KNOX,  John,  the  chief  promoter  of 
the  reformation  in  Scotland,  was  born 
at  Gifford,  in  East  Lothian,  in  1505; 
died  at  Edinburgh  in  1572.  He  became 
an  avowed  advocate  of  the  reformed 
faith  about  1542.  In  1546-47  he 
preached  to  the  beleaguered  protestants 
in  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  French  Knox  was 
sent  to  France  with  the  other  prisoners, 
and  put  to  the  galleys,  from  which  he 
was  released  in  1549.  He  passed  over 
to  England,  and,  arriving  in  London, 
was  licensed  either  by  Cranmer  or  the 
Protector  Somerset,  and  appointed 
preacher,  first  at  Berwick,  and  after- 
ward at  Newcastle.  In  1551  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.,  and 
preached  before  the  king  at  West- 
minster, who  recommended  Cranmer  to 
give  him  the  living  of  Allhallows,  in 
London,  which  Knox  dechned,  not 
choosing  to  conform  to  the  English 
liturgy.  It  is  said  that  he  also  refused 
a bishopric.  On  the  accession  of  Mary, 
in  1554,  he  quitted  England,  and  sought 
refuge  at  Geneva.  He  ventured,  in 
1555,  to  pay  a short  visit  to  his  native 
country.  He  again  retired  to  Geneva, 
where  he  wrote  the  First  Blast  of  the 
Trumpet  against  the  Monstrous  Regi- 
men of  Women,  chiefly  aimed  at  the 
cruel  government  of  Queen  Mary  of 
England,  and  at  the  attempt  of  the 
queen  regent  of  Scotland  to  rule  without 
a parliament.  A Second  Blast  was  to 
have  followed;  but  the  accession  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, who  was  expected  to  be  friendly 


to  the  Protestant  cause,  prevented  it. 
In  May,  1559,  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
and  immediatelyjoined  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation.  Being  appointed  min- 
ister of  Edinburgh,  he  took  a prominent 
part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Protestant 
leaders  from  this  time  onward,  and  had 
the  principal  share  of  the  work  in  draw- 
ing up  the  Confession  of  Faith,  which 
was  accepted  in  1 560  by  the  parliament. 
In  1561  the  unfortunate  Mary  arrived 
in  Scotland.  She  immediately  began 
the  regular  celebration  of  mass  in  the 
royal  chapel,  which,  being  much  fre- 
quented, excited  the  zeal  of  Knox,  who 
openly  declared  from  the  pulpit,  “that 
one  mass  was  more  frightful  to  him 
than  10,000  armed  enemies  landed  in 
any  part  of  the  realm.”  He  preached 
with  equal  openness  against  the  mar- 
riage of  Mary  and  Darnley,  giving  so 
much  offense  that  he  was  called  before 
the  council  and  inhibited  from  preach- 
ing. After  the  death  of  Murray,  in 
1569,  Knox  retired  for  a time  to  St. 
Andrews.  In  1572  his  constitution  was 
quite  broken,  and  he  received  an  addi- 
tional shock  by  the  news  of  the  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew.  He  had,  however, 
strength  enough  to  preach  against  it, 
but  soon  after  took  to  his  bed,  and  died. 
He  was  twice  married,  first  to  Marjory 
Bowes  in  1555,  and  secondly,  in  1564, 
to  Margaret  Stewart,  daughter  of  Lord 
^)ch  litre© 

KNOXVILLE,  a town  of  the  United 
States,  capital  of  Knox  co.,  Tennessee, 
an  important  commercial  and  manu- 
facturing center  at  the  head  of  steamboat 
navigation  on  the  Holston  river,  165 
miles  east  of  Nashville.  It  contains  the 
East  Tennessee  university,  the  Knox- 
ville university,  the  State  agricultural 
college,  and  other  educational  and  liter- 
ary institutions.  Pop.  32,637. 

KOA'LA,  a curious  arboreal  marsupial 
of  Australia.  It  is  about  2 feet  in 
length,  tailless,  stoutly  built,  and  clothed 
with  thick,  ash-gray,  woolly  hair.  In 
the  fore  feet  the  first  and  second  digits 


Koala. 


are  opposable  to  the  remaining  three;  in 
the  hind  feet  the  great  toe  is  opposable. 
The  animal  is  nocturnal  in  habit,  and 
brings  forth  a single  cub,  which  is  car- 
ried for  some  time  in  the  pouch  and 
afterward  on  the  mother’s  back. 

KOBE,  a seaport  of  Japan,  adjoining 
Hiogo  so  closely  as  to  form  one  town 
with  it.  It  is  of  more  recent  origin  than 
Hiogo,  and  is  strictly  the  port  opened 
by  treaty  to  foreign  commerce.  Com- 
bined pop,  215,780, 


KOCH 


KORAN 


KOCH,  Robert,  a German  bacteri- 
ologist, and  founder  of  the  germ  theory 
of  disease.  He  was  born  at  Clansthal, 
Hanover,  in  1843,  and  was  educated  at 
Gottingen.  He  began  his  researches 
in  1872,  and  ten  years  later  succeeded 
in  isolating  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis. 
His  chief  services  in  bacteriology  are  the 
methods  he  invented  for  demonstrating 


Dr.  Robert  Koch. 


the  presence  of  germs,  particularly  his 
methods  of  staining  bacteria  so  as  to 
make  them  visible.  In  1890,  while 
Koch  was  experimenting  his  lymph- 
cure  for  tuberculosis  a student  prema- 
turely reported  it  and  Koch  was  placed 
in  a false  position  as  having  made 
claims  of  which  he  had  no  knowledge. 
The  value  of  the  lymph  is  problematical. 
In  1885  Koch  was  made  professor  at 
Berlin. 

KOCK,  Charles-Paul  de,  French  nov- 
elist, born  1794,  died  1871.  He  wrote 
an  immense  number  of  novels  which  had 
a great  popularity,  and  have  yet  a cer- 
tain value  as  pictures  of  low  and  middle- 
class  Parisian  life  during  the  first  half  of 
the  19th  century.  Besides  his  novels, 
he  wrote  some  dramas,  chiefly  taken 
from  them. 

KOHAT',  a town  of  India,  head- 
quarters of  district  of  the  same  name  in 
the  new  Northwest  Frontier  Province. 
Pop.,  including  suburbs  and  canton- 
ments, 30,762.  The  district  has  an  area 
of  2771  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  203,175. 

KOH-I-NOOR.  See  Diamond. 


Kohl-rabi. 

KOHL-RABI,  a cultivated  variety  of 
the  cabbage,  distinguished  by  a swelling 


at  the  neck  of  the  root,  which  is  eaten, 
and  in  its  qualities  much  resembles 
Swedish  turnip.  It  is  valuable  as  a 
cattle  food. 

KO'KOMO,  the  county-seat  of  Howard 
CO.,  Ind.,  54  miles  north  of  Indianapolis; 
on  the  Wildcat  river,  and  on  the  Pitts- 
burg, Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis, 
the  Toledo,  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City, 
and  the  Lake  Erie  and  Western  railroads. 
Pop.  12,195. 

KOLA,  Cola,  a genus  of  plants,  a 
native  of  Western  Tropical  Africa.  The 
Kola  produces  a fruit  which  consists  of 
two,  sometimes  more,  separate  pods 
containing  several  seeds  about  the  size 
of  horse-chestnuts.  The  seeds  have 
been  found  to  contain  caffeine,  the 
active  principle  of  coffee,  as  also  the 
same  active  principle  as  cocoa  with  less 
fatty  matter.  A drink  prepared  from- 
them  is  largely  used  and  is  said  to  have 
digestive,  refreshing,  and  invigorating 
properties.  The  tree  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil. 

KOLA'BA,  a British  Indian  district 
in  the  southern  division  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency;  area,  1872  sq.  miles;  pop. 
509,584. 

KOLAPOOR'.  See  Kolhapur. 

KOLAR',  a district  of  the  native  state 
of  Mysore,  Southern  India;  area,  3059 
sq.  miles;  pop.  591,030.  The  chief  town 
is  called  Kolar.  Pop.  11,172. 

KOLHAPUR  (kol-ha-por'),  a native 
Indian  state,  Bombay  Presidency;  area, 
2816  miles;  pop.  913,131.  Kolhapur  is 
the  chief  town.  Pop.  54,373. 

KONIGSBERG  (keu'nihs-berg),  a for- 
tified seaport  town  of  Prussia,  capital 
of  the  province  of  East  Prussia.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  cathe- 
dral, a Gothic  structure,  begun  in  1333, 
restored  in  1856,  situated  on  the  Kneip- 
hof;  the  Schloss,  or  palace,  begun  in 
1255,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
grand-masters  of  the  Teutonic  order, 
and  now  containing  apartments  for  the 
royal  family,  government  offices,  etc.; 
the  Schlosskirche,  or  palace  church, 
occupying  a wing  of  the  palace;  the  new 
university,  completed  in  1862;  the  old 
university;  the  exchange,  a fine  modern 
building;  the  city  museum,  theater,  etc. 
The  university,  founded  in  1544  by  the 
Margrave  Albert,  and  has  connected 
with  it  a library  of  220,000  vols.,  a 
zoological  museum,  and  other  valuable 
collections.  The  manufactures  of 
Konigsberg  are  various.  The  chief 
trade  is  in  grain,  flax  and  hemp,  timber, 
tea,  etc.  Pop.  187,897. 

KONIGSHUTTE  (keu'nihs-hut-6),  a 
town  of  Prussia,  province  of  Silesia,  49 
miles  e.s.e.  of  Oppeln.  Pop.  57,919. 

KONRAD.  See  Conrad. 

KOODOO  (native  name),  the  striped 
antelope,  a native  of  South  Africa,  the 
male  of  which  is  distinguished  by  its 
fine  horns,  which  are  nearly  4 feet  long, 
and  beautifully  twisted  in  a wide  spiral. 
The  koodoo  is  of  a grayish-brown  color, 
with  a narrow  white  stripe  along  the 
back,  and  eight  or  ten  similar  stripes 
proceeding  from  it  down  either  side. 
It  is  about  4 feet  in  height,  and  fully 
8 in  length. 

KOORIA  MOORIA  ISLANDS,  a group 
of  five  islands  on  the  southeastern  co.ast 
of  Arabia,  belonging  to  Britain.  There 
was  a considerable  deposit  of  guano  on 


the  largest  island ; but  it  was  not  of  very 
good  quality,  and  is  now  exhausted. 

KOPEK.  See  Copeck. 

KO'RAN  (Al-Koran,  that  is  the 
Koran,  which  means  originally  “the 
reading,  or  that  which  is  to  be  read”), 
the  book  containing  the  religious  and 
moral  code  of  the  Mohammedans,  and 
by  which,  indeed,  all  their  transactions, 
civil,  legal,  military,  etc.,  are  regulated. 
According  to  the  Mohammedan  belief 
it  was  written  from  the  beginning  in 
golden  rays  on  a gigantic  tablet  in  the 
highest  heavens,  and  portions  were  com- 
municated by  the  angel  Gabriel  to 
Mohammed  at  intervals  during  twenty- 
three  years.  These  were  dictated  by 
Mohammed  to  a scribe  and  kept  for  the 
use  of  his  followers.  After  Mohammed’s 
death  they  were  collected  into  a volume, 
at  the  command  of  Mohammed’s  father- 
in-law  and  successor  Abu  Bekr.  This 
form  of  the  Koran,  however,  was  con- 
sidered to  contain  erroneous  readings, 
and  in  order  to  remove  these  Caliph 
Othman  caused  a new  copy  to  be  made 
from  the  original  fragments  in  the 
thirtieth  year  of  the  Hejra  (652  A.D.), 
and  then  ordered  all  the  old  copies  to  be 


Koodoo,  or  striped  antelope. 


destroyed.  The  leading  doctrine  of  the 
Koran  is  the  Oneness  of  God,  clearly 
laid  down  in  the  symbol  of  the  Moslem — 
“God  is  God,  and  Mohammed  is  his 
prophet.”  To  Christ  it  assigns  a place 
in  the  seventh  or  highest  heaven,  in  the 
immediate  presence  of  God,  but  he  is 
simply  regarded  as  one  of  the  prophets 
— Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus 
and  Mohammed.  The  doctrines  of  good 
and  bad  angels,  and  of  the  resurrection 
and  final  judgment,  are  fully  set  forth, 
as  is  also  God’s  mercy,  which  secures 
entrance  into  heaven  and  not  the  merits 
or  good  works  of  a man.  The  joys  of 
heaven  range  from  music  and  women  to 
the  supreme  joy  of  beholding  God’s  face, 
while  the  pains  of  hell  are  depicted  in 
vivid  colors.  Idolatry  and  the  deifica- 
tion of  created  beings  are  severely  con- 
demned. Another  dogma  is  set  forth  in 
the  Koran,  yet  not  explicitly,  that  of  the 
unchangeable  decrees  of  God.  Moham- 
med used  the  doctrine  of  predestination 
with  great  success  to  infuse  into  his  ad- 
herents undaunted  courage,  which  ele- 
vated them  above  all  perils.  The  Koran 
prescribes  prayer,  fasting,  alms,  and  the 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and  Mount  Arafat. 


KORDOFAN 


KROPOTKINE 


The  great  fast  is  that  of  Ramadan 
(which  see).  He  prescribed  prayer  five 
times  a day  with  the  face  turned  toward 
Mecca.  Purification  must  precede  prayer 
and  where  water  is  unattainable  dry 
dust  or  sand  may  be  used.  To  give  alms 
was  always  a particular  trait  of  the 
Arabians,  but  Mohammed  made  it 
obligatory.  The  pilgrimage  or  something 
similar  had  existed  with  most  sects  be- 
fore him.  In  respect  to  the  civil  laws 
relating  to  polygamy,  divorce,  inheri- 
tance, etc.,  Mohammed  followed  step 
for  step  the  laws  of  Moses  and  the  de- 
cisions of  the  rabbis,  only  adapting  them 
to  the  customs  and  prejudices  of  his 
countrymen.  The  Koran  is  written  in 
prose,  but  the  different  parts  of  a sen- 
tence end  in  ryhmes.  In  size  it  is  about 
equal  to  the  New  Testament;  it  is 
divided  into  114  surahs  or  chapters  of 
unequal  length,  each  of  which  begins 
with  the  phrase,  “In  the  name  of  God.” 
As  the  work  was  written  at  different 
times,  in  different  moods,  and  on  differ- 
ent occasions,  there  is  naturally  great 
diversity  in  the  style  of  different  pas- 
sages. The  language  is  considered  the 
purest  Arabic.  It  is,  however,  very 
different  from  the  spoken  Arabic  of 
modern  times.  Commentaries  on  the 
Koran  are  exceedingly  numerous. 

KORDOFAN',  a country  of  Africa, 
in  the  Eastern  Soudan  between  Darfur 
and  the  Nile.  Pop.  estimated  at  400,000. 
The  chief  town  is  El  Obeid. 

KOREA.  See  Corea. 

KORNER  (keur'ner),  Karl  Theodor, 
German  poet,  born  at  Dresden  1791, 
killed  1813.  He  owes  his  fame  to  his 
celebrated  patriotic  lyrics,  which  are  all 
national  in  Germany.  In  1813,  when 
Germany  took  up  arms  against  Napo- 
leon, Kbrner  joined  the  famous  Liitzow 
corps  of  black  huzzars,  and  was  fatally 
wounded  in  a skirmish  fought  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Gadebusch,  in  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin.  The  collection  of 
songs  published  soon  after  his  death  as 
Leyer  und  Schwert  (Lyre  and  Sword) 
contains  some  of  the  finest  war-songs 
in  any  language. 

KOSCIUSKO  (kos-si-us'ko,  or  kosh- 
tsyush'ko),  Thaddeus,  Polish  patriot, 
was  born  in  Lithuania  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  family  in  1746,  and  died  at  Soleure 
(Solothurn)  1817.  He  was  educated  in 
the  military  school  at  Warsaw,  and  was 
afterward  sent  at  the  expense  of  the 
state  in  the  capacity  of  sub-lieutenant  to 
complete  his  studies  in  France.  On  his 
return  to  Poland  he  became  tutor  to  the 
daughter  of  Gosnovski,  marshal  of 
Lithuania,  but  having  conceived  a pas- 
sion for  his  pupil,  and  being  disap- 
pointed in  his  suit,  he  quitted  his  native 
country  and  betook  himself  to  America 
(1777),  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of 
Washington,  was  appointed  by  him  en- 
gineer, with  the  rank  of  colonel,  and 
afterward  general  of  brigade.  He  did 
not  return  to  Europe  till  three  years 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  1783. 
For  some  years  after  his  return  he  lived 
in  retirement,  but  after  serving  in  his 
own  country  under  Poniatovski,  he  was 
appointed  in  1794  generalissimo  of  the 
insurgent  forces.  He  defeated  the  Rus- 
sians at  Raclavice,  near  Cracow,  but  at 
the  battle  of  Maciejovice  his  army  was 
defeated  and  he  himself  wounded  and 


taken  prisoner.  He  remained  in  eap- 
tivity  for  two  years,  but  was  liberated 
on  the  accession  of  Paul  I.  of  Russia  in 
1796.  After  visiting  England  and 
America,  he  ultimately  settled  at  Soleure 
in  Switzerland,  where  he  continued  to 
live  in  quiet  retirement.  In  1817  he 
issued  from  here  a letter  of  emancipa- 
tion to  the  serfs  on  his  estate  in  Poland. 
In  1818  his  body  was  removed  at  the 
expense  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  of 
Russia  to  Cracow,  where  it  was  buried 
in  the  cathedral,  and  where  a monu- 
ment was  erected  to  him.  A mound  150 
feet  in  height,  formed  of  earth  from  all 
the  principal  battle-fields  of  Poland, 
was  also  raised  to  his  memory  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cracow. 

KOSSUTH  (kosh'shut),  Lajos  (Louis), 
Hungarian  patriot,  born  at  Monok  in  the 
county  of  Zemplin,  Hungary,  1802. 
He  studied  law,  and  in  1832  entered  the 
Presburg  parliament.  For  persisting  in 
publishing  the  debates  of  the  diet,  he 
was  condemned  to  four  years’  imprison- 
ment. In  1841  he  became  editor  of  the 
Pesth  Journal,  and  in  1844  he  founded 
a national  league  in  opposition  to  the 
Viennese  government.  In  1847  he  was 
elected  to  the  diet  by  the  national  party, 
and  secured  the  appointment  of  a re- 
sponsible Hungarian  ministry,  in  which 
he  became  minister  of  finance.  During 
the  Hungarian  war  for  liberty  he  was 
chosen  governor  or  dictator,  but  the 
intervention  of  Russia  rendered  all  the 
efforts  of  the  Hungarians  unavailing. 
Kossuth  resigned,  was  succeeded  by 
Gorgey  whom  he  accused  of  treachery, 
and  was  interned  in  Turkey.  He  was 
released  through  the  intervention  of 
Britain  and  the  United  States;  visited 
these  countries  and  met  with  an  en- 
thusiastic reception.  He  was  long  re- 
garded as  the  leader  of  the  irreconcilable 
party,  but  in  1884  he  became  reconciled 
to  the  Llapsburg  rule.  His  chief  resi- 
dence in  his  latter  years  was  at  Turin, 
where  he  died  in  1894. 

KOSTROMA',  an  inland  government 
of  Russia,  area  30,811  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
1,429,228. — Kostroma,  the  capital  is  an 
ancient  place,  and  has  a fine  old  cathe- 
dral situated  in  the  Kreml  or  former 
citadel.  Pop.  41,268. 

KOTAH,  an  Indian  native  state  in 
Rajputdna.  Area,  3797  sq.  miles,  pop. 
526,267. — Kotah,  the  chief  town,  is 
situated  on  the  river  Chambal,  and  has 
a pop.  of  33,657. 

KOUMISS,  or  KUMISS,  a preparation 
of  milk,  whether  cow’s,  mare’s  ass’s, 
goat’s,  which  is  said  to  possess  wonder- 
ful nutritive  and  assimilable  properties. 
It  consists  essentially  of  milk  in  which 
alcoholic  fermentation  has  been  de- 
veloped. On  the  A!3iatic  steppes,  where 
it  has  been  long  used  as  a beverage,  it  is 
made  of  mare’s  milk;  but  koumiss  of 
mare’s  milk  or  goat’s  milk  has  a some- 
what unpleasant  smell. 

KOVNO,  a town  in  Russian  Poland. 
The  population,  a great  part  of  which 
consists  of  Jews,  is  73,543. — The  gov- 
ernment has  an  area  of  15,602  sq.  miles, 
and  its  population  is  1,549,444. 

KRAAL,  a South  African  native  vil- 
lage or  town,  usually  a collection  of  huts 
surrounded  by  a palisade.  Sometimes 
the  term  is  applied  to  a single  hut. 

KRAKATO'A,  a small  uninhabited 


volcanic  island  situated  in  the  Sunda 
straits,  about  equally  distant  from  Java 
and  Sumatra.  In  May  of  1883  intima- 
tions of  volcanic  activity  were  observed, 
and  on  August  27th  a gigantic  explosion 
took  place  which  actually  blew  away  a 
large  part  of  Krakotoa,  and  entirely 
altered  the  physical  features  of  the  is- 
land and  the  neighboring  coasts.  An 
immense  wave  swept  over  the  shores  of 
the  neighboring  islands  occasioning  a 
loss  of  life  variously  estimated  at  from 
15,000  to  50,000.  To  the  north  two  new 
islands  appeared  where  the  morning 
previous  there  had  been  from  30  to  40 
fathoms  of  water. 

KREASOTE.  See  Creasote. 

KREFELD  (kra'felt),  a town  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  in  the  government  of 
Diisseldorf  and  12  miles  northwest  of 
the  town  of  Diisseldorf.  Pop.  109,119. 

KREMENTCHUG,  a town  in  Russia, 
government  of  Poltava.  Pop.  58,648. 

KREMLIN,  a fortress,  in  Russia  the 
citadel  of  a town  or  city  specifically 
applied  to  the  ancient  citadel  of  Mos- 
cow. See  Moscow. 

KREUTZER,  KREUZER  (kroit'ser) 
an  old  South  German  copper  coin,  equal 
to  the  sixtieth  part  of  the  gulden  or 
florin,  or  about  two-thirds  of  a cent.  The 
Austrian  current  coin  bearing  this  name 
is  the  hundredth  part  of  a florin,  or 
equivalent  to  nearly  one-half  of  a cent. 

KRISHNA,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the 
eighth  avatar  of  Vishnu  and  the  most 
popular  deity  in  the  Hindu  pantheon. 
He  was  ostensibly  the  son  of  Vasudeva 
and  Devaki  of  the  royal  family  of  the 
Bhoja  reigning  at  Mathura.  The  reign- 
ing prince  at  the  time  of  his  birth  was 
Kansa,  who,  to  prevent  the  fulfilment  of 
a prophecy,  sought  to  destroy  the  young 
child,  but  his  parents,  assisted  by  divine 


Krishna. 


power,  succeeded  in  baffling  all  his 
efforts.  Every  year  of  his  life  furnishes 
the  subject  of  some  legend,  his  story 
showing  a remarkable  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  Greek  Heracles  and  Apollo. 
After  a series  of  amorous  and  heroic 
exploits,  detailed  at  length  in  the  Pur- 
anas,  he  slew  Kahsa,  mounted  the 
throne,  and  was  at  last  killed  by  the 
arrow  of  a hunter,  shooting  unawares 
in  a thicket. 

KROPOT'KINE,  Prince  Peter  Alex- 
eievitch,  Russian  anarchist,  born  at 


KRUGER 


KYRIE  ELEISON 


Moscow,  1842.  He  entered  the  corps  of 
pages  and  then  the  army,  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  Siberia  and  Manchuria, 
studied  some  years  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  wrote  several  esteemed  books.  In 
1872  he  joined  the  International  Society, 
and  began  pushing  his  revolutionary 
ideas  in  Russia.  He  was  arrested  and 
imprisoned,  but  made  his  escape  and 
took  up  residence  in  Switzerland.  Ex- 
pelled from  Switzerland  he  took  refuge 
in  France,  and  was,  in  1883,  condemned 
to  five  years’  imprisonment  for  com- 
plicity in  outrages  at  Lyons,  but  was 
pardoned  in  1886,  when  he  went  to 
England.  He  is  an  eloquent  speaker 
and  writer,  and  has  made  valuable  con- 
tributions to  several  branches  of  knowl- 
edge. 

KRUGER  (kro'ger),  Stephen  John 
Paul,  president  of  the  South  African 
Republic  (Transvaal),  was  born  in  Cape 
Colony  in  1825,  migrated  in  the  “great 
trek”  of  the  Boers  in  1837,  and  latterly 
settled  in  the  Transvaal,  where  he  soon 
became  prominent  in  military  and  civil 
affairs.  He  was  president  from  1883  till 
the  annexation  in  1900,  and  died  in 
Holland  in  1904. 

KRUPP  (krup),  Alfred,  German  en- 
gineer and  iron  manufacturer,  born  at 
Essen  1812,  died  1887.  He  succeeded  his 
father  as  proprietor  of  a small  metal 
foundry  at  Essen,  which  he  gradually 
developed  to  an  enormous  extent.  He 
discovered  a new  method  of  casting 
steel  in  large  masses,  which  he  exhibited 
in  1851.  This  led  him  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  heavy  steel  ordnance,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  construction  of  heavy 


Alfred  Krupp. 


breech-loading  guns  of  a type  invented 
by  himself,  the  first  of  these  being 
produced  in  1864,  but  great  improve- 
ments being  subsequently  effected,  and 
the  size  being  immensely  increased. 
Though  his  name  is  popularly  associated 
with  the  manufacture  of  these  large  guns 
the  extensive  works  at  Essen  turn  out 
also  immense  quantitiesjof  gun-carriages, 
shot,  boiler-plates,  axles,  wheels,  rails, 
screw-shafts  for  steamers,  etc. 

KUBAN,  a Russian  territory  in  the 
Caucasus.  Area,  36,251  sq.  miles;  pop. 
1,922,773. 

KUBLAI  (ko'bla)  KHAN  (more  prop- 
erly Khilbilai  Khan),  Mongol  emperor 
founder  of  the  20th  Chinese  dynasty. 


that  of  the  Mongols  or  Yuen;  born  1214, 
died  1294.  In  1259  he  succeeded  his 
brother  as  Grand  Khan  of  the  Mongols, 
and  in  1260  he  conquered  the  whole  of 
Northern  China,  driving  out  the  Tartar 
or  Kin  dynasty.  He  then  ruled  over  the 
conquered  territory  himself,  and  nine- 
teen years  later  added  to  it  Southern 
China,  driving  out  the  Tartars  from 
the  north.  Kfiblia  thus  became  sole 
ruler  of  an  empire  extending  over  a large 
part  of  Asia,  as  well  as  over  those  parts 
of  Europe  that  had  belonged  to  the  do- 
minions of  Genghis  Khan.  Marco  Polo, 
who  lived  at  the  court  of  this  prince, 
describes  the  splendor  of  his  court  and 
entertainments,  his  palaces  and  hunting 
expeditions,  his  revenues,  his  extra7 
ordinary  paper  currency,  his  elaborate 
system  of  posts,  etc.  Khblai  Khan  is  the 
subject  of  a poetical  fragment  by  Cole- 
ridge. 

KUKU,  or  KUKAWA,  a town  in 
Western  Africa,  Pop.  (estimate), 
60,000. 

KU-KLUX-KLAN,  a secret  society  of 
a socio-political  nature,  bitterly  op- 
posed to  the  reconstruction  measures 
which  the  government  of  the  United 
States  passed  with  reference  to  the  rebel 
states  of  the  south  which  had  been  sub- 
dued in  the  war  of  1861-64.  They  num- 
bered at  one  time  about  550,000  mem- 
bers, spread  over  nearly  all  the  states 
of  the  south,  but  especially  South  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  The  mem- 
bers did  not  hesitate  to  commit  any  act 
of  violence,  even  murder  and  arson. 
Strong  measures  were  taken  for  the 
suppression  of  the  society  in  1871,  and 
it  soon  after  died  away. 

KUMA'ON,  or  KUMA'UN,  a British 
district  of  Northern  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  belonging  to  the  Himalayas. 
Area,  7151  sq.  miles;  pop.  563,181.  It 
forms  with  the  districts  of  Garhwal  and 
Tarai  the  division  or  commissionership 
of  Kumaon,  which  has  an  area  of  13,743 
sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  1,181,567. 

KURDISTAN  (kur-dl-stan';  “Land  of 
the  Kurds”),  an  extensive  territory  of 
Western  Asia.  As  it  does  not  form  a 
separate  political  division,  its  exact 
limits  are  not  ascertained.  The  Kurds, 
to  whom  the  territory  owes  its  name,  are 
not  confined  within  its  limits,  but  are 
found  in  considerable  numbers  eastward 
in  Khorasan  and  over  the  hilly  region  of 
Mesopotamia,  as  far  west  as  Aleppo 
and  the  Taurus.  They  are  a stout,  dark 
race,  well  formed,  with  dark  hair,  small 
eyes,  wide  mouth,  and  a fierce  look. 
On  their  own  mountains  they  live  as 
shepherds,  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and 
bandits.  Their  language  is  a dialect  of 
Persian,  now  much  mixed  with  Arabic 
and  Syriac;  their  religion  Sunnite  Mo- 
hammedanism. The  Kurds  owe  but 
slight  allegiance  to  either  Turkey  or 
Persia,  living  in  tribes  under  their  own 
chiefs,  who  commonly  exact  duties  on 
the  merchandise  which  passes  over  their 
territory.  Their  numbers  have  been 
estimated  at  1,800,000. 

KURO  SIVO,  or  JAPAN  CURRENT, 
the  gulf-stream  of  the  Pacific,  is  the 
offspring  of  the  great  equatorial  current, 
flows  past  Formosa,  Japan,  the  Kuriles, 


the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  thence  bends 
southward  to  California.  It  is  much 
inferior  to  the  gulf-stream  both  in  vol- 
ume and  high  temperature. 

KURRACHEE  (ka-ra'she),  or  Karachi 
an  important  seaport  of  India,  on 
the  coast  of  Sind,  Bombay  presidency, 
at  the  northern  (or  western)  angle  of  the 
Indus  delta,  situated  on  a large,  and 
commodious  creek  or  inlet,  forming  a 
good  haven,  perfectly  safe  in  all  winds, 
and  out  of  the  track  of  cyclones.  The 
harbor  is  formed  by  a long  narrow  strip 


of  sand  on  the  west,  ending  with  a rocky 
promontory  called  Manora  Head,  on 
which  is  a lighthouse;  and  by  the  Island 
of  Kiamari  on  the  east.  The  town  was 
taken  possession  of  by  the  British  in 
1842,  and  its  extensive  commerce,  fine 
harbor  works,  and  numerous  flourishing 
institutions  have  all  sprung  up  since 
that  time.  Pop.  115,407. 

KURSK  (kursk),  a government  of 
southern  Russia,  area  18,901  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  52,896. 

KUSTENLAND  (kiis'ten-lant),  an  ad- 
ministrative division  of  the  Austrian 
Empire;  area,  3084  sq.  miles.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Slavonic 
origin,  but  there  is  also  a large  propor- 
tion of  Italians  and  a considerable  num- 
ber of  Germans.  Pop.  755,183. 

KUTAIS  (ku-ta'is),  a Russian  town. 
Pop.  32,492. — The  government  has  an 
area  of  8039  sq.  miles,  and  pop.  of 
1,075,861. 

KUTA'YA,  a town  in  Asiatic  Turkey, 
180  miles  northeast  of  Smyrna,  on  the 
route  between  Constantinople  and  Konia. 
Estimated  pop.  60,000. 

KWANGSI,  a province  of  China.  Rice 
is  largely  grown,  and  gold,  silver,  and 
mercury  are  mined.  Area,  78,250  sq. 
miles;  pop.  5,151,327. 

KWANGTUNG,  the  most  southerly 
province  of  China.  The  capital  is  Can- 
ton ; other  ports  are  Swatow  and  Pakhoi. 
Area,  79,456  sq.  miles;  pop.  29,706,249. 

KWEICHOW,  a province  of  s.w. 
China.  It  produces  rice,  tobacco  and 
timber,  and  has  mines  of  copper,  iron, 
lead,  and  mercury.  Area,  64,554  sq. 
miles;  pop.  7,669,181. 

KYRIE  ELEISON  (ki'ri-e  e-li'son; 
from  the  Greek  Kyrie  eleeson,  “Lord, 
have  mercy”),  a kind  of  invocation  used 
in  parts  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
service.  It  is  almost  the  only  part  of  the 
liturgy  in  which  the  Latin  Church  has 
retained  the  use  of  Greek  words. 


L 


LABYRINTH 


L,  the  twelfth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  is  usually  denominated  a semi- 
vowel or  a liquid.  L has  only  one  sound 
in  English.  The  nearest  ally  of  1 is  r, 
the  pronunciation  of  which  differs  from 
that  of  1 only  in  being  accompanied  by  a 
vibration  of  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  There 
is  no  letter,  accordingly,  with  which  1 is 
more  frequently  interchanged.  Instances 
of  the  change  of  1 into  r and  of  r into  1 
being  both  very  common  in  various 
languages.  In  fact  in  the  history  of  the 
Indo-European  alphabet  1 is  considered 
to  be  a later  modification  of  r. 

LA,  in  music,  the  sixth  of  the  seven 
syllables — ut  or  do,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si — 
representing  the  seven  sounds  in  the 
diatonic  scale. 

LAAGER  (lii'ger),  in  South  Africa,  an 
encampment  more  or  less  fortified.  The 
original  Boer  laager  is  an  inclosure  made 
of  the  wagons  of  a traveling  party  for 
defense  against  enemies. 

LAALAND  (lol'lan),  or  LOLLAND,  an 
island  in  Denmark.  Pop.  70,596. 

LA'BIALS,  letters  or  characters  rep- 
resenting a sound  or  articulation  formed 
or  uttered  chiefly  by  the  lips,  as  b,  f, 
m,  p,  V. 

LABIA'TjE,  the  mint  tribe,  a very 
important  and  extensive  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  with  a gamopetal- 
ous  corolla  presenting  a prominent  upper 
and  lower  lip,  and  a four-lobed  ovary, 
changing  to  four  seed-like  monosperm- 
ous  fruits.  This  order  contains  about 
2600  species,  mostly  herbs,  under-shrubs 
or  shrubs  with  opposite  or  whorled 
leaves,  usually  square  stems,  and  a 
thyrsoid  or  whorled  inflorescence.  They 
are  spread  throughout  the  world,  and 
abound  in  all  temperate  latitudes.  Many 
are  valued  for  their  fragrance,  as  laven- 
der and  thyme;  others  for  their  stimu- 
lating qualities,  as  mint  and  pepper- 
mint; others  as  aromatics,  as  savory, 
basil,  and  marjoram;  several  are  used 
as  febrifuges.  Betony,  ground  ivy, 
horehound,  and  others  possess  bitter 
tonic  qualities. 

LAB'ORATORY,  a building  or  work- 
shop designed  for  investigation  and 
experiment  in  chemistry,  physics,  etc. 
It  may  be  for  special  research  and 
analyses,  or  for  quite  general  work.  To 
the  former  class  belong  the  laboratories 
which  are  attached  to  dyeworks,  color 
works,  chemical,  and  similar  works. 
Laboratories  are  also  attached  to  mining 
and  metallurgical  schools,  to  mints,  to 
arsenals,  etc.  A general  laboratory,  such 
as  might  be  attached  to  a school  or  uni- 
versity, has  to  include  a variety  of 
specialties,  partly  because  the  whole 
science  and  its  applications  have  to  be 
taken  into  account  and  exhibited,  partly 
because  students  with  very  different 
aims  frequent  such  places. 

LABOUCHERE  (lab'u-shar),  Henry, 
English  politician  and  writer,  was  born 
1831.  He  was  in  the  diplomatic  service 
from  1854  to  1864;  became  member  of 
parliament  in  the  radical  interest  for 
Windsor  (1865-66),  Middlesex  (1867- 
68),  and  Northampton  since  1880.  He 
contributed  Letters  of  a Besieged  Presi- 
dent in  Paris  to  the  Daily  News — of 
which  he  was  part  proprietor — during 


the  Franco-German  war.  In  1877  he 
started  Truth,  a weekly  society  paper. 

LABOULAYE  (la-bo-la),  Edouard 
Ren4  Lefebvre,  French  publicist,  born 
1811,  died  1883.  He  attained  a high 
position  as  a writer  of  historical,  social, 
and  playfully  satirical  works.  Among 
his  best-known  writings  are  History  of 
Landed  Property  in  Europe;  History  of 
the  United  States;  Germany,  and  the 
Slavic  States;  Paris  in  America;  The 
New  Bluebeard;  The  Poodle  Prince; 
Prince  Caniche,  etc.,  etc. 

LABOR.  See  Birth. 

LABOR,  American  Federation  of,  a 
confederation  of  trades  unions  for  the 
improvement  in  the  conditions  and 
wages  of  labor;  the  establishment  of 
self-governing  unions  in  every  trade; 
the  formation  of  public  opinion  by 
platform,  press,  and  legislation  and  the 
furtherance  of  a civilization  based  upon 
industrial  progress  by  securing  a reduc- 
tion in  the  hours  of  labor.  Among  the 
affiliated  unions  are  the  Brotherhood  of 
Carpenters  and  Joiners,  the  Interna- 
tional Typographical  Union  of  North 
America,  the  Cigar  Makers’  Interna- 
tional Union,  and  the  Granite  Cutters’ 
National  Union  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  The  largest  affiliated  union  is 
the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America. 
The  American  Federation  of  Labor  is 
growing  very  rapidly,  and  has  a mem- 
bership of  nearly  1,500,000.  It  has 
practically  taken  the  place  of  its  old 
rival,  the  Knights  of  Labor. 

LABOR  AND  COMMERCE,  Depart- 
ment of,  one  of  the  nine  executive  de- 
partments of  the  federal  government 
created  by  act  of  congress  February  11, 
1903.  It  is  presided  over  by  a secretary, 
who  is  also  a member  of  the  cabinet. 
The  act  of  congress  creating  the  new 
department  charges  it  with  the  duty  of 
fostering,  promoting,  and  developing 
the  foreign  and  domestic  commerce  of 
the  United  States,  mining,  manufac- 
turing, and  fishery  industries,  the  inter- 
ests of  labor.  Improvement  of  transporta- 
tion facilities,  and  the  supervision  of  the 
business  of  insurance.  The  organization 
of  the  department  consists  of  a bureau  of 
corporations,  a bureau  of  manufactures, 
the  bureau  of  labor,  the  lighthouse 
board,  the  lighthouse  establishment, 
the  steamboat-inspection  service,  the 
bureau  of  navigation,  the  bureau  of 
standards,  the  coast  and  Goedetic  sur- 
vey, the  immigration  service,  including 
the  enforcement  of  the  Chinese  exclusion 
acts,  the  bureau  of  statistics  of  the 
treasury  department,  the  shipping  com- 
missioner, the  bureau  of  foreign  com- 
merce (formerly  in  the  department  of 
state),  the  census  bureau,  and  the  fish 
commission,  including  control  of  the 
fur-seal,  salmon,  and  other  fisheries  of 
Alaska.  An  entirely  new  feature  is  the 
bureau  of  corporations  which  is  given 
partial  jurisdiction  of  the  control  of 
trusts  and  trade  combinations. 

LABOR,  Bureau  of,  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  was  organ- 
ized in  1885  as  one  of  the  bureaus  of  the 
department  of  the  interior.  After  it  had 
been  in  existence  three  years  it  was 
changed  to  the  department  of  labor  with 


independent  functions.  Since  1895  a 
bi-monthly  bulletin  has  been  published. 
Thirty-one  states  have  bureaus  of  labor, 
several  of  them  conducting  free  employ- 
ment agencies  and  the  inspection  of 
factories  and  mines  is  an  important 
function  of  many  of  them. 

LABOR  DAY,  a day  set  apart  as  a 
legal  holiday  in  nearly  all  of  the  states 
and  territories  of  the  United  States. 
In  1884,  on  the  resolution  of  George  R. 
Lloyd,  one  of  the  Knights  of  Labor,  it 
was  decided  that  all  future  parades 
should  be  held  on  the  first  day  of  Sep- 
tember, and  that  the  day  should  be 
known  as  Labor  Day.  Workingmen’s 
organizations  all  over  the  country  then 
began  an  agitation  to  induce  the  state 
legislatures  to  declare  the  day  a legal 
holiday,  and  on  March  15,  1887,  Colo- 
rado led  the  way,  to  be  quickly  followed 
by  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Massa- 
chusetts. The  great  majority  of  the 
states  have  selected  the  first  Monday  in 
September  as  Labor  Day.  In  1903  the 
only  states  in  which  Labor  Day  was  not 
a legal  holiday  were  Mississippi,  Nevada, 
North  Dakota  and  Louisiana. 

LAB'RADOR,  a tract  of  land  on  the 
east  coast  of  British  North  America, 
between  Canada  and  the  Atlantic,  under 
the  government  of  Newfoundland.  The 
interior  consists  mostly  of  a table-land 
2000  or  more  feet  high.  There  are  a 
number  of  lakes  drained  partly  by 
rivers  flowing  toward  Hudson’s  Strait, 
partly  by  others  (such  as  Grand  river), 
reaching  the  Atlantic  in  the  southeast. 
The  wild  animals  include  the  caribou  or 
reindeer,  bears,  wolves,  foxes,  martens, 
and  other  fur-bearing  animals.  The 
climate  is  rigorous,  there  being  about 
nine  months  of  winter.  No  ordinary 
cereal  can  ripen  in  the  climate, though 
barley  cut  green  is  used  as  fodder,  and 
potatoes  and  some  culinary  vegetables 
can  be  grown.  The  population  (about 
8000  in  all)  consists  of  Indians,  Eski- 
mos, and  half-breeds,  with  a few  whites 
on  the  coast.  In  summer  it  is  increased 
by  some  30,000  persons,  chiefly  from 
Newfoundland  and  connected  with  the 
fisheries.  The  Moravians  have  a number 
of  missions  along  the  coast,  the  Church 
of  England  one  or  two.  The  Hudson’s 
Bay  company  has  several  posts.  Labra- 
dor is  also  the  name  given  to  the  whole 
peninsula  between  the  Atlantic,  Hud- 
son Strait  and  Hudson  Bay  and  the  St. 
Lawrence.  See  Canada,  Northeast  Ter- 
ritory, Quebec. 

LAB'YRINTH,  a structure  having 
numerous  intricate  winding  passages, 
which  render  it  difficult  to  find  the  way 
through  it.  The  legendary  labyrinth  of 
Crete,  out  of  which  no  one  could  find  his 
way,  but  became  the  prey  of  the  Mino- 
taur, was  said  to  have  been  constructed 
by  Daedalus.  The  hint  of  this  legend  was 
probably  given  by  the  fact  that  the 
rocks  of  Crete  are  full  of  winding  caves. 
The  Egyptian  labyrinth  was  a building 
situated  in  Central  Egypt,  above  Lake 
Moeris,  not  far  from  Crocodilopolis 
(Arsinoe),  in  the  district  now  called  the 
Fayoum.  The  building,  half  above  and 
half  below  the  ground,  contained  3000 
rooms.  It  was  probably  a place  of  burial. 


LAfe\TllNTHODON 


LAFAYETTE 


The  labyrinth  at  Clusium,  in  Italy,  was 
elected  by  the  Etruscans,  according  to 
Varro,  for  the  sepulcher  of  King  Por- 
senna. 

LABYRINTH'ODON,  a genus  of  fossil 
amphibians,  whose  remains  are  found 
in  the  carboniferous,  permian,  and  trias 
formations,  those  of  the  trias  being 
found  in  England,  India,  and  Africa. 
They  were  allied  to  the  crocodile  and  to 


Labjrrinthodon  Salamandroides  (restored). 

the  frog,  and  were  10  to  12  feet  long. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  labyrinth- 
ine structure  of  a section  of  the  tooth, 
when  seen  under  the  microscope.  The 
hypothetical  cheirotherium  has  been 
identified  with  the  Labyrinthodon. 

LAC,  or  LAK,  from  the  Sanskrit 
laksh^  or  laksha,  that  is,  100,000.  In 
the  East  Indies  it  is  applied  to  the  com- 
putation of  money.  Thus,  a lac  of  rupees 
is  100,000. 

LACE,  a delicate  kind  of  net-work, 
formed  of  silk,  flax,  or  cotton  thread, 
and  used  for  the  ornamenting  of  female 
dresses.  It  is  made  either  by  hand  or 
machine,  the  former  being  produced  by 
the  needle,  or  made  on  the  pillow. 
Needle  laces  are  called  point,  those  made 
on  the  pillow,  cushion,  boblain,  or  bone 
laces.  A prominent  feature  in  all  laces 
is  the  pattern  or  ornament;  this  may  be 
workea  with  or  without  a groundwork. 
Pillow  lace  consists  of  hexagonal  meshes, 
four  of  the  sides  of  each  mesh  being 
formed  by  twisting  two  threads  round 
each  other,  and  the  other  two  sides  by 
the  simple  crossing  of  two  threads  over 
each  other.  The  pattern  on  parchment 
or  vellum  is  attached  to  the  pillow,  and 
pins  are  stuck  in  the  lines  of  the  pattern, 
round  which  the  threads  are  plaited  and 
twisted  so  as  to  form  the  required  de- 
sign. Among  the  laces  of  this  class  are 
Honiton,  Buckingham,  Mechlin,  Val- 
enciennes, etc.  Point  laces,  made  en- 
tirely by  the  needle  and  single  thread 
are  known  as  Brussels,  Alen5on,  Mal- 
tese, etc.  Guipure  lace  consists  of  a net- 
work ground  on  which  patterns  are 
wrought  in  various  stitches  with  silk, 
etc.  It  was  originally  a lace  made  in  silk, 
thread,  etc.,  on  little  strips  of  parch- 
ment or  vellum.  At  Nottingham  and 
elsewhere  imitations  of  lace  are  produced 
by  machines,  called  point  net  and  warp 
net,  from  the  names  of  the  machines  in 
which  they  are  made.  They  are  both  a 
species  of  chain  work,  and  the  machines 
are  varieties  of  the  stocking-frame.  The 
manufacture  of  lace  appears  to  have 
existed  from  a considerably  remote 
antiquity,  as  in  the  representations  of 
Grecian  female  costume  which  have 
come  down  to  us  the  dresses  are  fre- 
quently ornamented  with  lace  of  beau- 
tiful patterns.  In  modern  times  point 
lace  originated  in  Italy,  from  whicn  the 
manufacture  spread  to  Spain  and 


Flanders.  Pillow  lace  was  first  made  in 
the  low  countries. 

LACHRYMAL  ORGANS.  See  Eye. 

LACQUER  (lak'er),  a varnish  usually 
consisting  of  a solution  of  shellac  (some- 
times sandarach,  mastic,  etc.,)  in  alcohol 
colored  by  arnotto,  gamboge,  saffron, 
and  other  coloring  matters,  for  coating 
brass  and  some  other  metals,  to  give 
them  a golden  color,  to  preserve  their 
luster,  and  to  secure  them  against  rust. 
Lacquered  brass  appears  as  if  gilt,  and 
tin  is  made  yellow.  Lacquering  is  also 
applied  to  the  coating  with  varnish  of 
goods  in  wood  and  papier-mfLch4.  The 
Japanese  and  Chinese  excel  in  works  of 
this  kind. 

LA  CROSSE,  a city  in  Wisconsin,  on 
the  Mississippi  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Black  river  and  La  Crosse,  a great  seat 
of  the  lumber  trade.  Pop.  32,460. 

LA  CROSSE,  a game  at  ball,  originat- 
ing with  the  Indians  of  Canada,  played 
somewhat  on  the  principle  of  football, 
except  that  the  ball  is  carried  on  an  im- 
plement called  the  crosse,  the  player 


Crosse. 


in  possession  running  with  it  toward  the 
enemy’s  goal,  and  when  on  the  point  of 
being  caught,  passing  it  by  tossing  to 
one  of  his  own  side,  or  throwing  it  over 
his  head  as  far  in  the  direction  of  the 
goal  as  possible. 

LAC'TEALS,  numerous  minute  tubes 
which  absorb  or  take  up  the  chyle  or 
milk-fluid  from  the  alimentary  canal, 
and  convey  it  to  the  thoracic  duct. 

LACTIC  ACID,  an  acid  found  in 
several  animal  liquids,  and  particularly 
in  human  urine.  It  is  not  only  formed 
in  milk  when  it  becomes  sour,  but  also 
in  the  fermentation  of  several  vegetable 
juices,  and  in  the  putrefaction  of  some 
animal  matters.  It  is  a colorless,  inodor- 
ous, very  sour  liquid,  of  a syrupy  con- 
sistence. It  coagulates  milk. 

LATCINE,  Lactose,  sugar  of  milk,  a 
substance  obtained  by  evaporating 
whey,  filtering  through  animal  charcoal, 
and  crystallizing.  It  forms  hard,  white, 
semi-transparent  trimetric  crystals, 
which  have  a slightly  sweet  taste,  and 
grate  between  the  teeth.  It  is  convert- 
ible like  starch  into  glucose  by  boiling 
with  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

LACTOM'ETER,  or  GALACTOME- 
TER,  an  instrument  for  ascertaining  the 
different  qualities  of  milk.  Several  in- 
struments of  this  sort  have  been  in- 
vented. One  eonsists  of  a glass  tube  1 
foot  long,  graduated  into  100  parts. 
New  milk  is  filled  into  it  and  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  cream  has  fully  separated 
when  its  relative  quantity^is  shown  by 


the  number  of  parts  in  the  100  wliicli  It 
occupies. 

LAd RONES  (la-dronz',  or  la-dro^nes), 
or  Marianne  Islands,  a group  of  sixteen 
islands  in  the  North  Pacific  ocean,  east 
of  the  Philippines  and  the  Caroline 
islands.  Guam  is  the  southernmost  and 
largest;  next  in  importance  is  Rota.  The 
islands  are  mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  and 
are  very  rugged,  but  their  general  aspect 
is  picturesque,  being  densely  wooded 
and  covered  with  a perpetual  verdure; 
the  soil  also  is  extremely  fertile.  The 
climate  is  humid  but  moderately  warm 
and  not  unhealthful.  The  cocoanut  and 
breadfruit  trees  are  indigenous  but  sugar, 
corn,  coffee,  tobacco  and  indigo  are 
cultivated.  The  islands  were  discovered 
by  Magelhaens  in  1521,  and  long  be- 
longed to  Spain,  but  Guam  is  now 
American,  and  others  German.  Pop. 
8000. 

LADY-BIRD,  the  name  of  a number  of 
small  coleopterous  insects,  or  beetles, 
common  on  trees  and  plants  in  gardens. 
More  than  fifty  species  are  known.  They 
are  of  great  service  to  cultivators  on 
account  of  the  number  of  aphides  or 
plant-lice  which  they  destroy. 

LADYSMITH,  a town  of  Natal,  about 
80  miles  n.n.w.  Maritsburg,  on  a slope 
near  Klip  river,  and  on  the  railway  to 
Johannesburg,  where  joined  by  that  to 
Harrismith.  It  is  famous  for  the  long 
siege  which  it  stood  in  the  South  African 
war  of  1899-1901.  Pop.  4500. 

LAFAYETTE,  Marie  Paul  Jean  Roch 
Yves  Gilbert  Motier,  Marquis  de,  was 
born  in  Auvergne  1757,  died  1834.  He 
commenced  his  career  at  the  court  of 
Louis  XV.,  at  the  period  when  hostilities 
were  commencing  between  Britain  and 
her  American  colonies.  In  1777  he  left 
France  for  America,  having  fitted  out  a 
vessel  for  himself,  and  was  received  by 
Washington  and  his  army  with  accla- 
mation. He  joined  their  ranks  as  a 
volunteer,  was  wounded  near  Phila- 
delphia, and  commanded  the  vanguard 
of  the  American  army  at  the  capture  of 
New  York.  He  returned  to  France  on 


Marquis  de  Lafayette. 


the  close  of  the  campaign;  was  called  to 
the  Assembly  of  the  Notables  in  1787, 
and  was  elected  a member  of  the  States- 
General,  which  took  the  name  of  Na- 
tional Assembly  (1789)  Two  days  after 
the  attack  on  the  Bastille  he  was  ap- 
pointed (July  15)  commander-in-chief  of 
the  national  guards  of  Paris.  It  was 
through  his  means  that  the  lives  of  the 
king  and  queen  were  saved  from  the 
mob  that  had  taken  possession  of  the 
palace  at  Versailles.  In  1792  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  three  majors-generals 
in  the  command  of  the  French  armies. 
He  declined  the  dignity  of  senator 


LA  FAYETTE 


LAMAISM 


offered  him  by  Bonaparte,  and  gave  his 
vote  against  the  consulate  for  life 
In  1818  he  was  chosen  member  of  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  and  was  a con- 
stant advocate  of  liberal  measures.  In 
1824  he  visited  the  United  States,  and 
was  received  with  great  enthusiasm. 
Congress  voted  him  200,000  dollars  and 
a township  of  land.  During  the  revolu- 
tion of  July,  1830,  he  was  appointed 
general  of  the  National  Guards  of  Paris, 
and  it  was  chiefly  to  Lafayette  that 
Louis  Philippe  owed  his  elevation  to  the 
throne. 

LA  FAYETTE,  a city  in  Indiana,  on 
the  Wabash  river  and  Wabash  and  Erie 
Canal,  and  at  the  intersection  of  several 
railways,  63  miles  northwest  of  Indian- 
apolis. It  is  the  seat  of  the  state  agri- 
cultural college,  and  has  a number  of  mis- 
cellaneous manufactures.  Pop.  21,670. 

LAFAYETTE  COLLEGE,  a flourishing 
institution  at  Easton,  Pennsylvania, 
chartered  in  1826.  It  has  six  degree 
courses  of  four  years  each — three  general 
and  scientific,  and  three  technical. 

LA  FOLLETTE  (la-f61-16t'),  Robert 
Marion,  American  politician,  born  at 
Primrose,  Wis.,  in  1855.  In  1880  he  was 
nominated  by  the  republicans  and 
elected  district  attorney  of  Dane  county, 
of  which  Madison  is  the  county-seat. 
This  position  he  held  until  1884,  after 
which  he  practiced  law  privately  until 
1887,  when  he  became  a member  of  con- 
gress. In  1900  he  was  nominated  and 
elected  governor.  His  administration 
was  marked  by  his  determined  effort  to 
secure  reforms  for  which  he  had  become 
the  champion,  namely  a primary  elec- 
tion law,  a reform  of  taxes  on  corpora- 
tions and  the  regulation  of  the  railroads. 
In  1902  he  was  re-elected  governor  and 
in  1905  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate. 

LAFONTAINE  (la-f on-tan),  Jean  de, 
French  writer,  born  at  Ch^teau-Thierry 
in  1621,  died  1695.  The  first  volume  of 
his  Contes  or  Tales  appeared  in  1664, 
a second  in  1671.  They  are  full  of  fine 
touches  of  genius,  but  are  grossly  in- 
decent. Of  his  Fables  (in  which  animals 
are  represented  speaking  and  acting) 
innumerable  editions  have  been  printed, 
and  it  is  through  them  that  he  is  uni- 
versally known. 

LAGER  (la'ger)  BEER,  a light  beer, 
not  so  intoxicating  as  the  English  pale 
ales,  largely  brewed  in  Germany  and 
Austria.  A similar  beer  is  now  made  by 
British  brewers,  and  it  has  for  long  been 
largely  produced  in  the  United  States. 

LAGOON,  a name  given  particularly 
to  shallow  lakes  connected  with  the  sea, 
which  are  found  along  some  low-lying 
coasts,  as  on  that  of  the  Adriatic  near 
Venice. 

LAGRANGE  (la-granzh),  Joseph  Louis, 
a celebrated  mathematician,  was  born  at 
Turin  1736,  and  died  at  Paris  1813. 
When  scarcely  nineteen  years  of  age 
Lagrange  was  made  mathematical  pro- 
fessor in  the  artillery  school  at  Turin. 
In  1764  he  obtained  the  j^ize  of  the 
Acamedy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  for  a 
treatise  on  the  libration  of  the  moon, 
and  in  1776  for  another  on  the  theory  of 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter.  About  this 
time  he  made  a visit  to  Paris,  where  he 
became  personally  acquainted  with 
D’Alembert,  Clairaut,  Condorcet,  and 


other  savants.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
received  an  invitation  from  Frederick  the 
Great,  to  whom  he  had  been  recom- 
mended by  D’Alembert,  to  go  to  Berlin, 
with  the  title  of  Director  of  the  Academy 
Here  he  lived  for  twenty  years,  and 
wrote  his  great  work  La  M4canique 
Analytique.  After  Frederick’s  death 
(1786)  the  persuasion  of  Mirabeau  and 
the  offer  of  a pension  induced  him  to 
settle  in  Paris.  He  was  the  first  professor 
of  geometry  in  the  Polytechnic  school, 
and  was  the  first  insci’ibed  member  of 
the  Institute.  In  1794  he  was  appointed 
professor  in  the  newly-established  Nor- 
mal School  (Ecole  Normale  Sup6rieure) 
at  Paris  (1794),  as  well  as  in  the  Ecole 
Polytechnique.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  are  his  Mecanique  Analytique 
(1788);  Theorie  des  Fonctions  Analyti- 
ques  (1797);  Resolutions  des  Equations 
Numeriques  (1798) ; Legons  sur  le  Calcul 
des  Fonctions;  and  Essai  d’Arithm6tique 
Politique. 

LAHORE',  a city  of  Hindustan,  capi- 
tal of  the  ifunjab,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ravi,  265  miles  northwest  of  Delhi.  The 
city  proper  covers  an  area  of  640  acres, 
and  is  surrounded  by  a brick  wall  16 
feet  high,  flanked  by  bastions.  Pop. 
202,964. — Lahore  division  (commission- 
ership)  has  an  area  of  24,872  sq.  miles, 
and  pop.  4,579,794.  The  Lahore  district 
has  an  area  of  3648  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,075, 
379. 

LAISSER-FAIRE  (la-sa-far),  in  eco- 
nomics, a term  applied  to  the  theory  that 
a public  authority  should  interfere  in 
the  concerns  of  a community  as  little  as 
possible;  that  wealth  tends  to  be  pro- 
duced most  amply  and  economically 
where  a government  leaves  individuals 
free  to  produce  and  transfer  on  mutually 
arranged  terms,  confining  itself  to  the 
protection  of  property  and  person  and 
the  enforcement  of  contracts.  This  rule 
in  practice  is  limited  by  various  excep- 
tions, as  in  •government  interference  in 
the  matters  of  education  and  the  em- 
ployment of  children;  in  the  promotion 
of  health  or  morality;  and  in  the  private 
economic  interests  of  certain  industrial 
classes. 

LAKE,  a large  sheet  or  body  of  water, 
wholly  surrounded  by  land,  and  having 
no  direct  or  immediate  communication 
with  the  ocean,  or  with  any  seas,  or 
having  so  only  by  means  of  rivers.  It 
differs  from  a pond  in  being  larger.  Lakes 
are  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  Those 
which  have  no  outlet,  and  receive  no 
running  water,  usually  very  small.  (2) 
Those  which  have  an  outlet,  but  receive 
no  superficial  running  waters  and  are 
consequently  fed  by  springs.  (3)  Those 
which  receive  and  discharge  streams  of 
water  (by  far  the  most  numerous  class). 
(4)  Those  which  receive  streams,  and 
which  have  no  visible  outlet,  being  gen- 
erally salt,  as  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Lake 
Aral.  Lakes  are  also  divided  into  moun- 
tain lakes  and  plain  or  plateau  lakes. 

LAKE-DWELLINGS,  the  name  given 
to  habitations  built  on  small  artificial  or 
partly  artificial  islands  in  lakes,  or  on 
platforms  supported  by  piles  near  the 
shores  of  lakes.  The  use  of  habitations 
of  this  nature  is  a subject  which  has 
engaged  the  attention  of  archaeologists 
and  others  very  largely  since  the  dis- 
. covery  of  the  remains  of  a lake-dwelling 


in  Ireland  in  1839,  of  similar  ones  in 
Switzerland  in  1854,  and  subsequently  of 
numbers  of  others  elsewhere.  The 
archaeological  interest  thus  attaching  to 
these  lacustrine  remains  has  drawn 
attention  to  the  fact  of  similar  dwellings 
being  still  used  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  in  Russia,  the  Malay  Archipelago 
(Borneo  and  New  Guinea),  the  Caroline 
Islands,  Lake  Maracaybo  in  Venezuela, 
New  Zealand,  and  in  a modified  form  in 
some  parts  of  Central  Africa.  The  first 
who  is  known  to  have  described  lake- 
dwellings  is  Herodotus,  who  mentions 
certain  dwellings  of  this  kind  on  Lake 
Prasias  in  Thrace  as  being  approached 


Lake-dwellings  (restored). 


by  a narrow  bridge,  each  habitation 
having  a trap-door  in  the  floor,  giving 
access  to  the  water  beneath,  through 
which  fish  were  caught.  A great  number 
of  these  pile  structures  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  Swiss  lakes,  some  be- 
longing to  the  iron  age,  some  few  even  to 
Roman  times;  but  the  greatest  number 
appear  to  be  divided  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions between  the  stone  and  bronze 
ages.  The  relics  found  in  these  historic 
buildings  have  thrown  much  light  on 
prehistoric  man,  large  populations  hav- 
ing occupied  these  pile-buildings  during 
extended  periods  of  time. 

LAKES,  pigments  consisting  of  a 
coloring  matter  combined  with  a metal- 
lic oxide.  They  are  obtained  by  mixing 
with  a solution  of  the  coloring  matter  a 
solution  of  alum  or  of  a salt  of  tin,  tung- 
sten, zinc,  lead  or  other  metal  and  then 
adding  an  alkali  or  alkaline  carbonate. 
Among  the  pigments  prepared  in  this 
way  may  be  mentioned  blue  lake,  con- 
sisting of  cobalt,  blue,  indigo,  or  ultra 
marine  and  alumina;  madder  lake,  of 
madder  and  alumina;  orange  lake,  of 
turmeric  and  alumina;  carmine  lake,  of 
cochineal  and  alumina;  purple  lake,  of 
log  wood  and  alumina;  and  so  on.  Lake 
pigments  are  used  in  painting,  calico- 
printing,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  wall- 
paper. 

LAKHIMPUR  (lak-him-por') , a Brit- 
ish district  of  India,  occupying  the  ex- 
treme eastern  portion  of  Assam ; area, 
3724  sq.  miles.  Pop.  254,053. 

LAMA,  in  zoology.  See  Llama. 

LA'MAISM,  a variety  of  Buddhism, 
dating  from  the  7th  century  after  Christ, 
and  chiefly  prevailing  in  Tibet  and  Mon- 
golia; so  called  from  the  lamas  or  priests 
belonging  to  it.  The  highest  object  of 
worship  is  Buddha,  who  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  religion,  and  the  first 
in  rank  among  the  saints.  The  other 
saints  comprise  all  those  recognized  in 
Buddhism,  besides  hosts  of  religious 
teachers  and  pious  men  canonized  after 
their  death.  The  clergy  are  the  repre- 
sentatives or  re-incarnations  of  these 
saints  on  earth,  and  receive  the  homage 


f 


LAMAR 


LAMP 


due  to  them.  Besides  these  saints  a 
number  of  inferior  gods  or  spirits  are 
recognized  by  Lamaism,  and  receive  a 
certain  worship.  The  Lamaists  have  a 
hierarchy  in  some  respects  resembling 
that  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
they  have  also  monasteries  and  nun- 
neries, auricular  confession,  litanies, etc., 
and  believe  in  the  intercession  of  the 
saints  and  in  the  saying  of  masses  for  the 
dead.  In  the  hierarchy  there  are  two 
supreme  heads,  the  Dalai-lama  and  the 
Tesho-lama  in  whom  Buddha  is  supposed 
to  be  incarnate.  Next  in  rank  to  these 
two  grand-lamas  are  the  incarnations  of 
saints,  after  which  follow  those  of 
patrons  or  founders  of  lamaseries,  or 
Buddhistic  monasteries,  and  then  the 
lower  ranks,  distinguished  merely  by 
talents  or  learning.  The  Dalai-lama  and 


Lama  of  Tibet. 

Tesho-lama  are  nominally  co-equal  in 
rank  and  authority;  but  the  former  from 
possessing  a much  larger  territory  is  in 
reality  much  the  more  powerful.  The 
former,  whose  residence  is  at  Potala 
near  Lassa,  is  the  acknowledged  head  of 
the  Buddhists  not  only  in  Tibet,  but 
throughout  Mongolia  and  China.  When 
either  of  the  two  lamas  dies,  his  place 
may  be  filled  according  to  directions 
given  by  himself  before  his  death,  stating 
into  what  family  he  purposed  trans- 
migrating. If  such  directions  have  not 
been  given,  the  other  procures  the  names 
of  male  children  born  at  the  time  of  the 
death  in  order  to  discover  where  the  de- 
ceased has  incarnated  himself.  The 
(juestion  is  decided  by  lot  in  presence  of 
the  surviving  grand-lama,  and  the 
Chinese  political  resident  and  the  child 
whose  name  is  drawn  becomes  the 
grand-lama. 

LAMAR,  Lucius  Q.  C.,  American 
jurist,  was  born  in  Putnam  co.,  Ga.,  in 
1825.  Was  educated  at  Emery  college. 
He  moved  to  Mississippi,  and  was  elected 
representative  in  1856.  In  1861  he  re- 
signed and  joined  the  confederate  army 
as  colonel.  He  was  professor  of  law  in 
the  University  of  Mississippi, (1867-1872), 
when  he  was  again  sent  to  congress.  In 
1876  he  was  elected  senator  and  was  re- 
elected in  1882.  In  1885  he  became  sec- 
retary of  the  interior  in  President  Cleve- 
land’s cabinet,  and  in  1887  was  appointed 
associate  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
the  United  States.  He  (.lied  in  1893. 

LAMARCK,  .lean  Baptiste  Pierre  An- 
toine de  Monet,  Chevalier  de,  French 


naturalist,  born  in  Picardy  1744,  died  at 
Paris  1829.  He  became  botanist  of  the 
Jardin  du  Roi  in  1788,  and  professor  of 
zoology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory in  1793.  Other  chief  works  are 
Philosophie  Zoologique,  in  which  he 
promulgated  a theory  foreshadowing 
what  is  now  known  as  the  law  of  evolu- 
tion; Histoire  Naturelle  des  Animaux 
sans  Vertebres,  Tableau  Encyclopedique 
de  la  Botanique,  etc.  He  held  the  doc- 
trine of  spontaneous  generation,  and  his 
religious  beliefs  have  been  described  as  a 
curious  mixture  of  pantheism  and  deism. 

LAMARTINE  (la-mar-ten),  Alphonse 
Marie  Louis  Prat  de,  French  poet  and 
statesman,  born  at  Macon  1790;  died  at 
Passy,  near  Paris,  in  1869.  By  his 
first  production.  Meditations  Poetiques 
(1820),  he  at  once  obtained  a high  place 
among  the  poets  of  the  day.  In  1820 
he  was  attached  to  the  legation  at 
Naples,  and  married  a rich  English  lady, 
Eliza  Marianna  Birch.  The  Nouvelles 
Meditations  Po(''tiques  (1823),  and  the 
Harmonies  Po6tiques  et  Religieuses 
(1828),  established  his  poetic  fame,  and 
obtained  for  him  admission  into  the 
French  Academy.  (1830).  After  the 
revolution  of  July  he  traveled  in  the  east 
and  on  his  return  published  Voyage  en 
Orient,  Souvenirs,  Impressions,  Pens^es 
et  Paysages  (Paris,  four  vols.  183,5). 
During  his  absence  he  had  been  elected 
a member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
and  thenceforward  Id's  career  was  as 
much  political  as  literary.  In  1847  he 
published  his  Histoire  des  Girondins 
(Paris,  eight  vols.),  in  which  he  mani- 
fested strong  republican  leanings. 

LAMB,  Charles,  English  essayist  and 
humorist,  born  in  London  1775,  died  at 
Edmonton  1834.  His  first  appearance 
as  an  author  was  in  1798,  when  he  pub- 
lished a volume  of  poems  in  conjunction 
with  his  friends  Coleridge  and  Lloyd. 
His  love  for  17th  century  literature  bore 
fruit  in  theTalesfromShakespeare(1807) 
and  Specimens  of  English  Dramatic 
Poets  who  lived  about  the  time  of  Shake- 
speare (1808).  He  made  two  attempts  at 
the  drama:  John  Woodvil,  written  in 
imitation  of  the  early  English  drama- 
tists; and  a farce  entitled  Mr.  H.  which 
was  performed  at  Drury  Lane  in  1806, 
and  proved  a failure.  On  the  other  hand, 
his  tale  of  Rosamund  Gray  (Lond.  1798) 
was  well  received  when  it  appeared,  and 
is  still  a favorite.  He  owes  his  literary 
distinction  to  his  delightful  Essays  of 
Elia,  chiefly  contributed  to  the  London 
Magazine.  They  have  been  frequently 
republished  in  a collected  form.  Here, 
in  a style  ever  happy  and  original,  he 
has  carried  the  short  humorous  essay  to 
a point  of  excellence  perhaps  never  be- 
fore attained. — His  sister  Mary  Anne 
(born  1765,  died  1847)  was  joint  author 
with  her  brother  of  Tales  from  Shake- 
speare, and  Poetry  for  Children. 

LAMBAYEQUE  (lam-ba-ya'ka),  a 
town  in  Peru,  capital  of  the  department 
of  the  same  name.  Pop.  6248. — Area  of 
department,  17,939  sq.  miles;  pop. 
85,984. 

LAMBERT,  Daniel,  noted  for  his 
extraordinary  size,  was  born  in  Leices- 
ter 1770,  died  1809.  He  was  exhibited  in 
London  and  the  principal  towns  of 
England,  and  at  flu;  time  of  his  death 
was  5 feet  11  inches  in  height,  weighed 


739  lbs.  (over  52 J stones),  and  measured 
9 feet  4 inches  round  the  body,  and  3 
feet  1 inch  round  the  leg. 

LAMBERT’S  PINE,  a North  American 
pine  growing  in  California,  and  some- 
times reaching  the  height  of  300  feet. 
It  yields  when  burned  a sugary  sub- 
stance known  as  California  manna.  The 
leaves  are  in  fives;  the  cones  are  14  to  18 
inches  long,  and  contain  edible  seeds. 

LAM'BETH,  a mun.  and  pari,  borough 
of  South  London,  opposite  to  Westmin- 
ster, with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
bridge  1040  feet  long.  Lambeth  Palace, 
the  official  residence  of  the  archbishops 
of  Canterbury,  contains  a library  with 
30,000  volumes  and  upward  of  14,000 
manuscripts.  St.  Thomas’s  hospital  is 
situated  on  the  Albert  embankment,  op- 
posite the  houses  of  parliament.  Pop. 
301  873 

LAMENTATIONS,  the  name  given  in 
the  authorized  version  of  the  Scriptures 
to  a pathetic  poem  made  up  of  five  dis- 
tinct elegies.  They  appear  in  the  Hebrew 
canon  with  no  name  attached,  but  an- 
cient tradition,  internal  evidence,  and  a 
prefatory  verse  which  appears  in  the 
Septuagint  point  to  the  authorship  of 
Jeremiah.  The  first  four  of  the  dirges 
are  alphabetical  acrostics,  successive 
verses,  or  in  chap.  iii.  successive  sets  of 
three  verses,  beginning  alphabetically. 
Chap.  V.  is  not  in  acrostic  form.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  Jerome,  and  also 
some  modern  critics  these  poems  were 
written  on  the  death  of  King  Josiah 
(see  2 Chron.  xxxv.  25),  but  the  con- 
tents of  the  book  itself  plainly  show  that 
a national  calamity — the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
Judean  state  by  the  Chaldeans — is 
referred  to. 

LAMMERGEIER  (lem'er-gl-er ; Ger- 
man, “lamb  vulture’’),  the  bearded  vul- 
ture, a bird  of  prey  of  the  genus 
Gypaetos,  family  Vulturidae,  forming 
a link  between  the  vultures  and  the 
eagles.  It  inhabits  the  Swiss  and  Ger- 
man Alps,  as  well  as  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  is  the 
largest  European  bird  of  prejq  measur- 
ing upward  of  4 feet  from  beak  to  tail, 
and  9 or  10  m the  expanse  of  its  wings. 
Besides  eating  carrion,  it  preys  on  living 
chamois,  lambs,  kids,  hares,  and  such 
like  animals,  but  it  does  not  disdain 
when  pressed  rats,  mice,  and  other  small 
quadrupeds. 

LAMONT  (la-mont'),  Daniel  Scott, 
American  politician  and  cabinet  officer, 
was  born  at  Cortlandville,  N.  Y.,  in 
1851.  In  1883  he  became  private  secre- 
tary to  Grover  Cleveland,  then  governor 
of  New  A'ork.  When  Cleveland  became 
president  in  1885,  Lament  accompanied 
him  to  Washington,  where  he  remained 
until  Harrison’s  inauguration.  From 
1889  to  1893  he  engaged  in  various  busi- 
ness enterprises  in  New  A'ork  City,  and 
in  the  latter  year  became  secretary  of 
war  in  President  Cleveland’s  second 
cabinet.  In  1897  he  became  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 
He  died  in  1905. 

LAMP,  a eontrivance  for  producing 
artificial  light,  whether  by  means  of  an 
imflammable  liquid,  or  of  gas,  or  elec- 
tricity; but  usually  the  term  applied  to  a 
vessel  for  containing  oil  or  other  liquid 
inflammable  substance,  to  be  bumecl  by 


AMPBLACK 


LAND 


1 means  of  a wick.  Baked  cartli  was 

f probably  the  substance  of  which  the 

: earliest  lamps  were  composed,  but  sub- 

sequently we  find  them  of  various 
I metals — of  bronze  more  particularly. 

Modern  lamps  vary  in  form  and  princi- 
ple widely,  and  of  late  have  been  con- 
structed in  a variety  of  materials.  The 
requisite  properties  of  a perfect  lamp 
' are  these: — 1st,  It  must  be  supplied 
with  carbonaceous  matter  and  with 
oxygen;  2d,  It  must  convert  the  former 
into  a gaseous  state;  and  3d,  It  must 
bring  the  gas  so  produced  in  contact  with 
oxygen  at  such  a temperature  that  the 
carbon  will  combine  with  the  oxygen  in 
the  fullest  degree  to  produce  the  greatest 
qiiantity  of  flame  without  any  smoke. 
Until  1784  all  the  lamps  in  use  were  far 
from  meeting  all  these  requirements. 
In  that  year  an  improved  scientific 
lamp  was  constructed  by  Aim4  Argand 
of  Geneva,  and  called  after  him  the 
Argand  lamp.  In  this  lamp  defective 
consumption  is  remedied  by  using  a cir- 
cular wick,  the  flame  of  which  is  nour- 
ished by  an  internal  as  well  as  an  exter- 
nal current  of  air,  and  by  placing  a glass 
chimney  above  the  flame  so  as  to  in- 
crease the  draught.  A special  arrange- 
ment ensures  a unifomi  supply  of  oil. 
In  the  improved  lamps  that  have  suc- 
ceeded that  of  Argand,  the  Argand 
burner  has  generally  been  retained,  and 
the  alterations  have  chiefly  been  made 
in  the  mode  of  keeping  up  a uniform 
' supply  of  oil.  For  petroleum,  paraffin, 
and  other  mineral  oils,  which  have  of 
late  years  come  into  very  extensive  use 
for  illuminating  purposes,  a very  simple 
kind  of  lamp  is  used.  The  oil-vessel  is 
placed  below  the  burner,  which  usually 
consists  of  a simple  slit,  down  which  a 
broad  wick  passes  into  the  oil.  The 
wick  may  be  raised  or  depressed  by  a 
screw,  and  when  the  lamp  is  burning  is 
, kept  a short  distance  below  the  opening 
of  the  slit.  The  oil  is  sucked  up  by  the 
wick  by  the  action  of  capillarity.  A 
chimney  is  fitted  on  to  the  lamp,  and 
creates  so  powerful  a draft  that  the  flame 
is  kept  perfectly  steady,  and  the  gas 
proceeding  from  the  heating  of  the  oil  is 
’ - completely  consumed.  There  is  an  end- 
, less  vai'iety  of  lamps  of  this  kind,  the 
special  features  aimed  at  being  increase 
of  light  by  improved  burners  and  im- 
— munityfrom  explosion.  Safety-lamps  are 
r used  for  mines  (see  Safety-lamp).  Hydro 
; carbon  lamps  are  used  for  magic- 
lanterns,  etc.  The  magnesium  lamp, 
“ chiefly  used  by  photographers  is  one 
constructed  for  the  combustion  of  mag- 
nesium wire.  A lantern  is  a form  of  lamp, 
> generally  a case  inclosing  a light  and 
protecting  it  from  wind  and  rain,  some- 
times portable  and  sometimes  fixed. 

^ LAMPBLACK,  a fine  soot  formed  by 
the  condensation  of  the  smoke  of  burn- 
„ ing  oil,  pitch,  or  resinous  substances  in  a 
R,  chimney  terminating  in  a cone  of  cloth. 

It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pig- 
^ ments,  blacking,  and  printing  inks.  See 
B Carbon. 

■*  LAM'PREY,  the  name  of  several  ell- 
like,  scaleless  fishes  which  inhabit  both 
^ fresh  and  salt  water.  The  lampreys  have 
seven  spiracles  or  apertiires  on  each  side 
& of  the  neck,  and  a fistula  or  aperture  on 
Jr  the  top  of  the  head;  they  have  no  pec- 
iSf.,,  total  or  ventral  fins.  The  mouth  is  in 


the  form  of  a sucker,  lined  with  strong 
teeth  and  cutting  plates,  and  the  river 
lampreys  are  often  seen  clinging  to 
stones  by  it.  The  marine  or  sea  lam- 
prey is  sometimes  found  so  large  as  to 
weigh  4 or  5 lbs.  It  is  of  a dusky  brown, 
marbled  with  yellowish  patches.  It 
ascends  rivers  in  the  spring  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spawning,  and  was  formerly 


Sea  Lamprey. 


much  valued  as  an  article  of  food.  The 
river  lamprey  or  lampern  is  a smaller 
species,  and  abounds  in  the  fresh-water 
lakes  and  rivers  of  northern  countries. 
It  is  colored  black  on  its  upper,  and  of  a 
silvery  hue  on  its  under  surface.  Lam- 
preys attach  themselves  to  other  fishes 
and  stick  their  blood;  they  also  eat  soft 
animal  matter  of  any  kind. 

LAN'ARK,  Lanarkshire,  or  Clydes- 
dale, a southwestern  county  of  Scotland, 
and  the  most  populous  in  the  country. 
It  is  bounded  by  the  counties  of  Dum- 
barton, Stirling,  Linlithgow,  Edinburgh, 
Peebles,  Dumfries,  Ayr,  and  Renfrew; 
area,  504,284  acres,  of  which  about  one- 
third  is  under  cultivation.  Pop.  1,339,- 
327. — Lanark,  the  town,  is  a royal  and 
parliamentary  burgh.  Pop.  6440. 

LAN'CASHIRE,  or  the  county  pala- 
tine of  Lancaster,  a maritime  county  in 
the  n.w.  of  England,  bounded  by  West- 
moreland, Cumberland,  A^orkshire,  Ches- 
hire, and  the  Irish  Sea,  a part  of  it  in  the 
north,  called  Furness,  being  cut  off  from 
the  rest  by  Morecambe  Bay;  area, 
1,207,926  acres,  of  which  over  800,000 
acres  are  in  cultivation.  Lancashire  is 
the  grand  seat  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
ture, not  only  of  England,  but  also  of  the 
world,  Manchester  being  the  principal 
center.  Woolen  goods  are  also  largely 
produced,  as  are  also  machinery  of  ail 
descriptions,  and  a vast  vai-iety  of  other 
articles.  Liverpool  is  the  great  ship- 
ping port  of  the  county  and  of  England. 
Lancaster  is  the  county  town,  but  there 
are  a great  many  others  far  larger,  such 
as  Liverpool,  Manchester  and  Salford, 
Oldham,  Bolton,  Blackburn,  Preston, 
etc.  Pop.  4,406,787. 

LAN'CASTER,  a municipal  borough 
and  river-port,  England,  the  county 
town  of  Lancashire,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Lune,  45  miles  north  by  east  of 
Liverpool.  Pop.  40,329.  m 

LANCASTER,  a city  in  Pennsylvania, 
capital  of  Pennsylvania  county,  68  miles 
west  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  a pleasant 
residential  city  ;hasvery  extensive  manu- 
facturing interests,  and  is  a chief  to- 
bacco-leaf market.  It  is  also  the  center 
of  a rich  wheat  district,  and  carries  on 
an  extensive  lumber  trade.  Pop.  50,000. 

LANCASTER,  the  capital  of  Fairfield 
CO.,  Ohio,  on  the  Hocking  river,  about 
32  miles  s.e.  of  Columbus.  It  has  iron- 
foundries,  flouring-mills,  and  manufac- 
tures of  machines  and  agricultural  im- 
plements. Pop.  10,760. 

LANCASTER,  House  of,  the  name 
given  in  English  history  to  designate  the 
line  of  kings — Henry  IV.,  V.  and  VI,, 
immediately  descended  from  John  of 


Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  Ed- 
mund, second  son  of  Henry  III.,  was 
created  Earl  of  Lancaster  and  Leicester. 
His  son  Thomas  added  Derby  and  Lin- 
coln to  his  titles,  became  leader  of  the 
baronial  opposition  to  Edward  II.,  and 
was  beheaded  for  treason.  His  grandson 
was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a duke, 
and  dying  without  male  issue,  the  in- 
heritance fell  to  his  daughter  Blanche, 
who  became  the  W'ife  of  John  of  Gaunt. 

LANCASTER,  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of.  See  John  of  Gaunt. 

LANCASTER  SOUND,  a passage  lead- 
ing from  the  northwe.st  of  Baffin’s  Bay 
west  to  Barrow’s  Strait.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Baffin  in  KilO,  is  about  250 
miles  long,  with  a central  breadth  of 
about  65  miles. 

LANCE,  a weapon  consisting  of  a long 
shaft  with  a sharp  point,  much  used  be- 
fore the  invention  of  firearms,  and  still  in 
use.  It  was  common  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  The  Macedonian  phalanx 
was  armed  with  it,  and  it  was  the  chief 
weapon  of  the  Roman  infantry.  The 
javelin,  or  pilum,  was  but  secondary. 
The  lance  was  the  chief  weapon  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  was  especially  the  arm 
of  knighthood.  The  introduction  of  fire- 
arms gradually  led  to  the  disuse  of  the 
lance  in  the  West  of  Europe,  though  it 
continued  among  the  Turks,  Albanians, 
Tartars,  Cossacks,  Poles,  and  Russians' 
and  other  Slavonic  tribes.  Napoleon 
organized  several  regiments  of  Polish 
lancers  for  service  in  his  army,  and  now 
most  of  the  armies  of  Europe  have  regi- 
ments of  LHilans  or  lancers. 

LANCERS.  See  Lance. 

LAND  forms  an  important  kind  of 
natural  wealth  susceptible  of  appropria- 
tion, and  forming  at  the  same  time  the 
principal  deposit  of  the  accumulated 
capital  derived  from  the  labor  of  pre- 
ceding generations.  In  Britain,  from 
various  causes,  among  others  the  enor- 
mous cost  of  transfer,  the  land  is  in  the 
hands  of  comparatively  a few  owners, 
and  the  properties  are  generally  large. 
One-half  of  the  land  of  the  United  King- 
dom is  in  the  hands  of  7400  individuals; 
the  other  half  being  owned  by  312,500 
individuals.  Barely  one  in  a hundred  of 
the  population  owns  more  than  an  acre 
of  soil.  The  cultivable  land  is  usually 
let  out  to  tenant-farmers,  who  cultivate 
it  at  their  OAvn  expense.  These  number 
upwards  of  1,160,000  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  more  than  three-fourths  of 
whom  occupy  farms  of  less  than  15  acres. 
In  the  British  colonies  small  properties 
rather  than  large  is  the  rule.  In  France 
there  are  about  3,000,000  properties 
under  25  acres,  and  only  150,000  above 
100  acres;  1,750,000  of  the  population 
cultivate  their  own  land.  Small  holdings 
cultivated  by  the  owners  are  common 
in  Germany,  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  other 
parts  of  Europe.  In  the  United  States 
the  land  is  chiefly  cultivated  by  small 
owners.  There  are  still  aboxit  1,000,- 
000,000  acres  undisposed  of  notwith- 
standing that  over  700,000,000  acres 
have  been  withdrawn  by  the  govern- 
ment from  the  public  domain. 

LAND/J  'enure  of.  The  various  species 
of  tenures  and  customs  relating  to  prop- 
erty in  land  are  noticed  under  the  par- 
ticular heads.  See  Allodium  Feudnl 


LAND-CRABS 


BANNER 


System,  Freehold,  Copyhold,  Entail, 
etc. 

LAND-CRABS,  crabs  so  called  from 
their  semi-terrestrial  mode  of  life;  their 
habits  leading  them  to  live  on  land,  and 
away  from  the  sea,  even  for  considerable 
periods  of  time.  The  true  land-crabs 
occur  in  Asia,  particularly  in  the  Eastern 
Archipelago;  in  America,  and  specially 
in  the  West  Indian  Islands;  and  in  Aus- 
tralia also.  The  best-known  species  is 
found  in  the  higher  parts  of  Jamaica, 
which  often  proves  very  destructive  to 
the  sugar  plantations.  The  crabs  of  the 
genus  represented  by  the  common 
species  and  inhabiting  the  West  Indian 
mangrove  swamps  and  marshes,  ap- 
pears to  feed  upon  both  vegetable  and 
animal  diet. 

LANDES,  a maritime  department  of 
France,  bounded  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
and  by  the  departments  of  Gironde, 
Lot-et-Garonne,  Gers,  and  Basses- 
Pyr6nees.  It  has  an  area  of  3599  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  291,586. 

LANDGRAVE,  in  Germany,  originally 
about  the  12th  century,  the  title  of  dis- 
trict or  provincial  governors  deputed  by 
the  emperor  and  given  them  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  inferior  counts 
under  their' jurisdiction. 

LAND  LEAGUE,  an  organization  pro- 
jected by  Mr.  Parnell,  the  leader  of  the 
Irish  national  movement,  in  1879,  the 
ostensible  object  of  which  was  to  pur- 
chase the  land  of  Ireland  for  the  people 
of  Ireland.  Funds  were  largely  sub- 
scribed, especially  in  America,  but  the 
stringent  rules  against  landlords  and 
tenants  holding  aloof  from  it,  and  the 
alleged  complicity  of  its  members  with 
many  terrible  outrages,  caused  it  to  be 
suppressed  in  1881. 

LANDLORD  AND  TENANT,  the  land- 
lord in  relation  to  a tenant  is  the  person 
from  whom  lands  or  tenements  are 
taken  on  lease  or  by  some  other  contract 
or  agreement.  The  tenant  is  the  person 
who  holds  lands  or  tenements  of  another 
by  any  kind  of  contract  or  agreement, 
usually  for  a periodical  rent.  In  the 
absence  of  express  agreement  a tenant 
may  sublet  the  property,  but  he  is  still 
liable  to  the  landlord  for  the  rent,  unless 
the  landlord  relieves  him  by  accepting 
the  sub-tenant  as  a tenant-in-chief. 
Rent  may  be  recovered  by  action  at  law, 
by  ejectment,  or  by  distress  on  the 
premises.  The  landlord  is  responsible 
for  maintaining  a house  in  a fit  state  of 
repair,  and  if  he  neglects  to  do  so  the 
tenant  may  withhold  the  rent  or  deduct 
the  expense  of  repairs.  The  landlord  has 
a hypothec  over  the  furniture  for  rent 
occurring  before  the  term  of  payment 
has  arrived,  and  may  prevent  its  re- 
moval but  he  has  no  lien  over  the  goods 
of  a sub-tenant  who  has  paid  his  rent  to 
his  immediate  landlord. 

LANDOR,  Walter  Savage,  an  English 
poet  and  prose  writer,  born  at  Ipsley 
Court,  Warwickshire,  1775;  died  1864. 
His  fame  chiefly  rests  on  his  Imaginary 
Conversations,  between  celebrated  per- 
sons of  ancient  and  modern  times,  which 
is  a model  of  a pure,  vigorous  finished 
English  style. 

LANDSCAPE,  a term  applied  to  a por- 
tion of  land  or  territory  which  the  eye 
can  comprehend  in  a single  view,  and  to 
a painting  of  such.  See  Painting. 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING,  is  the  art 

of  laying  out  grounds,  arranging  trees, 
shrubbery,  etc.,  so  as  to  bring  into  har- 
monious combination  all  the  varied 
characteristics  and  surroundings.  It 
disposes  flowering  plants,  shrubs,  and 
trees  over  varying  levels  in  such  a man- 
ner as  to  produce  the  most  pleasing 
effects,  it  shuts  out  undesirable  views  by 
means  of  judicious  planting,  and  intro- 
duces rock-work,  water,  and  other 
artistic  eknbellishments  where  the  local 
peculiarities  of  the  ground  permit. 

LANDSEER,  Sir  Edwin,  painter,  born 
in  London  1802,  died  1873.  He  began 
to  draw  animals  when  a mere  child;  at 
thirteen  he  exhibited  at  the  Academy, 
and  the  year  following  became  a student. 
Henceforward  he  exhibited  regularly  at 
the  Academy  and  the  British  Institu- 
tion. In  1826  he  was  elected  A.R.A.; 
in  1830  R.A.;  in  1850  he  was  knighted, 
and  in  1865  he  declined  the  presidency 
of  the  Academy.  He  takes  the  very 
highest  rank  among  animal  painters; 
and  though  he  has  been  blamed  for  in- 
troducing too  human  a sentiment  and 
expression  into  some  of  his  animals,  the 
humor  and  pathos  of  animal  nature  has 
had  no  finer  exponent. 

LANDSLIP,  the  slipping  or  sliding  of  a 
considerable  tract  of  land  or  earth  from 
a higher  to  a lower  level.  Landslips  are 
due  to  a variety  of  causes,  chiefly  the  de- 
cay of  supporting  strata,  or  excessive 
saturation  of  the  soil  by  rain.  Among 
the  more  disastrous  occurrences  of  this 
kind  are  the  slip  of  the  Rossberg  Moun- 
tain behind  the  Rigi  in  Switzerland  in 
1806,  burying  villages  and  hamlets  with 
over  800  inhabitants;  and  that  at  Naini 
Tal,  a sanitary  hill-station  in  the  Hima- 
layas, in  1880,  when  230  lives  were  lost. 

LAND-SURVEYING,  See  Surveying. 

LAND-TAX,  a tax  levied  on  land. 
What  is  known  as  the  land-tax  in  Brit- 
ain was  imposed  in  the  reign  of  William 
III.  as  a substitute  for  escuage,  talliage, 
fifteenths,  and  other  contributions.  It 
was  imposed  annually  from  1693  to  1798 
at  a varying  rate,  oftenest  $1.00  per  lb. 
In  the  latter  year  it  produced  about 
$10,000,000,  when  it  was  replaced  by  a 
perpetual  rent  charge  on  land,  with 
power  of  redemption,  and  a tax  annu- 
ally imposed  on  personal  property,  the 
latter  tax  abolished  in  1833.  The  land- 
tax  now  produces  rather  more  than 
$5,000,000  annually.  In  the  United 
States  land  bears  a large  share  of  local 
taxation  either  under  the  general  prop- 
ei;ty  tax  or  under  a tax  upon  real  estate. 
In  the  general  property  tax  no  distinc- 
tion is  made  between  landed  property 
and  other  possessions. 

LAND  TORTOISE,  the  land  tortoises 
are  easily  recognized  by  their  feet,  in 
which  the  toes  are  short,  without  webs, 
and  the  hinder  ones  “clubbed,”  while 
the  front  of  the  fore  limbs  is  protected  by 
strong  horny  scales,  or  frequently  by 
dermal  ossifications.  The  carapace  of 
the  shell  is  usually  heavy  and  highly 
arched,  and  the  plastron  is  firmly 
united  to  it  at  the  sides  of  the  body.  The 
top  of  the  strong  shell  is  covered  with 
shields,  the  tail  is  short. 

LANDWEHR  (lint'var),  that  portion 
of  the  military  force  of  Germany  and 
other  European  nations  which  in  time 
of  peace  follow  their  ordinary  occupa- 


tions, excepting  when  called  out  for 
occasional  training.  The  landwehr  in 
some  respects  resembles  a militia,  with 
this  important  difference,  that  all  the 
soldiers  of  the  landwehr  have  served  in 
the  regular  army.  This  system  has  re- 
ceived its  fullest  development  in  Ger- 
many, in  which  country  it  adds  enor- 
mously, and  at  comparatively  little  cost, 
to  the  military  power  of  the  state. 

LANGLEY,  Samuel  Pierpont,  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  born  at  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  in  1834.  In  1867  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy  at  the  Western 
University  of  Pennsylvania  and  secre- 
tary of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in 
1887.  His  solar  observations,  made  at 
Pike’s  Peak  in  1878,  at  IVlount  Etna  in 
1878-79,  and  at  Mount  Whitney,  Cal., 
in  1881,  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  phenomena  of  solar  heat.  He 
invented  the  bolometer,  a very  delicate 
instrument  for  the  measurement  of 
radiant  heat.  In  1886  he  became  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  and  in  1894 
received  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  Ox- 
ford University.  He  is  also  a member 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  and 
many  other  foreign  societies.  He  has 
been  awarded  the  Janssen  medal  of  the 
Institute  of  France  and  the  Rumford 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
He  died  in  1906. 

LANGTRY,  Mrs.  Lillie,  English  actress 
born  at  Le  Breton  in  1852.  She  was 
noted  for  her  beauty  as  the  Jersey  Lily. 
She  made  her  debut  in  1881  at  the  Hay- 
market  theater,  London,  in  She  Stoops 
to  Conquer.  In  1882  she  made  her  first 
appearance  in  America  with  a popular 
success  which  has  been  repeated  on 
subsequent  occasions. 

LANIER,  Sidney,  American  poet,  was 
born  in  Macon,  Ga.,  in  1842.  He  served 
in  the  confederate  army  during  the  war. 
In  1876  he  prepared  an  ode  for  the  cen- 
tennial exhibition  at  Philadelphia,  and 
in  October,  1877,  settled  in  Baltimore, 
where  he  delivered  lectures  on  English 
literature.  In  1879  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  on  English  literature  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  His  two  notable 
books  are  his  Science  of  English  Verse, 
and  his  Poems.  He  died  in  1881. 


LANGUAGE.  See  Philology. 


Lanner. 


LANNER,  the  Falco  laniarius,  a 
species  of  hawk,  especially  the  female  of 


LANSDOWNE 


LARCENY 


the  species,  the  male  being  called  a 
lanneret.  It  is  a native  of  Southern 
Europe, . North  Africa,  and  Southwest 
Asia,  and  was  much  valued  in  falconry. 

LANSDOWNE,  Henry  Charles  Keith 
Fitz-Maurice,  Marquis  of,  was  born  1845, 
ana  succeeded  to  the  marquisate  in 
1866.  He  has  been  a lord  of  the  treasury 
and  under-secretary  for  war  and  for 
India.  Governor-general  of  Canada  in 
1883-88,  of  India,  in  1888-93,  secretary 
for  war  in  1895-1900,  he  became  foreign 
secretary  in  1900. 

LANSING,  the  capital  of  Michigan,  on 
Grand  river,  85  miles  n.w.  of  Detroit. 
It  contains  a large  and  handsome  state- 


state  capltol,  Lansing,  Mleh. 

house,  an  agricultural  college,  etc.,  and 
is  an  important  manufacturing  center. 
Pop.  19,645. 

LANSINGBURGH,  a town,  in  New 
York,  Rennselaer  co.,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Hudson,  nearly  opposite  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Mohawk.  Pop.  14,040. 

LANTERN.  See  Lamp. 

LANTERN-FLIES,  insects  forming  a 
family  remarkable  for  the  prolongation 
of  their  forehead  into  an  empty  vesicu- 
lar expansion.  The  lantern -fly  proper  is 
a native  of  South  America.  It  is  more 
than  3 inches  in  length,  and  5 across  the 
wings.  It  has  been  asserted  that  it  emits 
a strong  light  from  the  inflated  expan- 
sion of  the  forehead,  but  the  evidence  of 
this  luminosity  is  more  than  doubtful. 
They  are  in  fact  reported  to  fly  only  dur- 
ing sunlight  and  not  to  appear  abroad 
during  dark. 

LAOCOON  (la-ok'o-on),  in  ancient 
Greek  legend,  a priest  of  Poseidon  (Nep- 
tune), among  the  Trojans,  who,  along 
with  his  two  sons,  was  killed  by  two 
enormous  serpents  sent  by  Apollo.  The 
story  has  frequently  furnished  a sub- 
ject to  the  poets,  but  it  is  chiefly  in- 
teresting as  having  served  as  the  sub- 
ject of  one  of  the  most  beautiful  groups 
of  sculpture  in  the  whole  history  of  an- 
cient art.  It  was  discovered  at  Rome 
among  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of  Titus 
in  1506,  and  is  now  placed  in  the  Vati- 
can. It  is  supposed  to  be  the  group  de- 
scribed by  Pliny  as  the  work  of  three 
sculptors  of  Rhodes,  a father  and  two 
sons,  Agesander,  Polydorus,  and  Ath- 
enodorus,  but  doubts  exist  as  to  its 
date. 

LA  PAZ,  or  LA  PAZ  DE  AYACUCHO, 

a town  of  Bolivia,  capital  of  a depart- 
ment of  the  same  name.  Pop.  60,000. — 
The  department  has  an  area  of  45,000 
sq.  miles  and  a population  estimated  at 
365,000 


LAPLACE  (la-plas),  Pierre  Simon, 
Marquis  de,  a celebrated  French  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  1749 
died  1827.  At  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
four  was  admitted  into  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  Besides  his  mathematical 
work  he  was  associated  with  Lavoisier 
in  chemical  research.  In  1816  he  was 
named  a member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. Almost  any  one  of  Laplace’s 
original  researches  is  alone  sufficient  to 
stamp  him  as  one  of  the  greatest  of 
mathematicians.  The  discovery  of  the 
invariability  of  the  major  axes  of  the 
planetary  orbits,  the  explanation  of  the 
great  inequality  in  the  motions  of  Jupi- 
ter and  Saturn,  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  the  acceleration  of  the  mean 
motion  of  the  moon,  the  theory  of  Jupi- 
ter’s satellites,  and  other  important 
laws  are  due  to  Laplace.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  works  are  the  M6canique 
Celeste;  Syst4me  du  Monde,  a resmn6 
of  all  modern  astronomy;  Th4orie 
analytique  des  Probability;  Essai  sur 
les  Probability. 

LAP'LAND,the  land  of  the  Lapps,  an 
extensive  territory  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  stretching  between  lat.  64°  and 
71°  n.,  and  from  the  shores  of  Norway 
east  to  those  of  the  White  Sea;  area 
about  130,000  sq.  miles,  of  which  more 
than  a half  belongs  to  Russia,  and  the 
remainder  is  shared,  in  nearly  equal 
proportions,  between  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way. The  climate  for  nine  months  of  a 
dark  winter  is  excessively  cold;  spring 


Republic,  situated  on  the  shores  of  a fine 
natural  harbor  called  Ensenada,  in  the 
La  Plata  estuary,  40  miles  below  the 
city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  connected  with 
it  by  rail.  Although  recently  founded  as 
the  capital  of  Buenos  Ayres  province, 
it  has  already  become  an  important 
commercial  center,  having  a palace  for 
the  legislative  assembly,  a cathedral, 
law  courts,  theater,  public  park,  etc. 
Pop.  estimated  at  45,410. 

LAPORTE,  the  capital  of  Laporte  co., 
Indiana,  60  miles  southeast  of  Chicago. 
The  neighborhood  has  become  a favorite 
resort  of  summer  visitors  on  account  of 
its  beautiful  lakes.  Pop.  10,000. 

LAPWING,  a bird  belonging  to  the 
family  of  plovers.  The  common  lapwing 


Lapwing. 

is  about  the  size  of  a pigeon ; it  is  often 
called  the  peewit  from  its  particular  cry. 
In  the  breeding  season  these  birds  dis- 
perse themselves  over  the  interior  of  the 
country,  where  they  lay  their  eggs  in  a 
small  depression  of  the  ground,  in  cul- 


Laplanders. 


and  autumn  are  short ; and  the  summer 
of  two  months,  when  the  sun  never  sets, 
is  extremely  hot.  Vegetation  is  scanty 
except  in  the  form  of  birch,  pine,  fir, 
and  the  abundant  mosses  which  supply 
food  for  the  herds  of  reindeer.  The 
Lapps  belong  to  the  Finnic  branch  of 
the  Turanian  family.  They  are  a small, 
muscular,  large-headed  race,  with  high 
cheek-bones,  wide  mouth,  flat  nose,  and 
scanty  beard.  Many  of  them  are  no- 
madic, owing  their  subsistence  to  their 
herds  of  reindeer;  others  support  them- 
selves by  fishing.  They  are  generally 
imorant,  simple-hearted,  and  hospitable. 
The  Norwegian  Lapps  belong  to  the 
Lutheran,  and  the  Russian  Lapps  to  the 
Greek  Church,  Their  numbers  do  not 
exceed  27,000. 

LA  PLATA.  See  Argentine  Republic. 

LA  PLATA,  a city  of  the  Argentine 


tivated  fields,  moors,  etc.  In  winter 
they  retire  to  the  sea-coast.  Their  eggs 
are  esteemed  a great  luxury. 

LAR'AMIE,  a town  of  Wyoming,  in 
the  southeast  of  the  state  in  an  elevated 
region,  at  the  height  of  7100  feet.  Here 
are  the  Laramie  plains,  river,  and  moun- 
tains. Pop.  11,200. 

LARBOARD,  the  left  side  of  a ship 
looking  toward  the  stem,  now  called  the 
port  side. 

LAR'CENY,  is  the  fraudulent  appro- 
priation of  the  personal  property  of 
another  person  without  that  person’s 
consent.  To  constitute  this  crime  the 
removal  of  the  goods  to  any  distance  is 
not  necessary,  but  it  requires  to  be 
shown  that  the  article  has  completely 
passed,  for  however  short  a time,  into 
possession  of  the  criminal.  Concerning 
the  kinds  of  things  the  appropriation  of 


P.  E,— 48 


LARCH 


LA  SALLE 


which  is  larceny,  the  common  law  re- 
stricted them  to  personal  property  as 
distinguished  from  real  estate,  but  this 
distinction  has  been  largely  abolished  by 
recent  statues.  Larceny  was  formerly 
divided  into  two  kinds,  grand  and  petty, 
or  the  difference  between  articles  above 
and  below  the  value  of  a shilling,  but 
this  distinction  has  now  been  abolished. 
At  one  time  the  punishment  for  grand 
larceny  was  death  p later  it  was  re- 
stricted to  transportation ; now  the  pun- 
ishment for  larceny  is  imprisonment  or 
penal  servitude,  and  depends  on  the 
previous  character  of  the  prisoner. 

LARCH,  the  common  name  of  trees 
having  deciduous  leaves,  small  erect  oval 
blunt-pointed  cones,  and  irregularly 
margined  scales.  This  genus  is  now 
usually  xinited  to  Abies. 

LAR'COM,  Lucy,  American  poetess, 
born  at  Beverly,  Mass.,  in  1826.  She 
contributed  to  the  Lowell  Offering,  a 
periodical  which  existed  about  1840-45 
as  a literary  journal  for  the  mill  opera- 
tives. Her  work  attracted  the  notice 
of  Whittier,  with  whom  she  afterward 
compiled  Child-Life  and  Songs  of  Three 
Centuries.  In  1865  she  became  assistant 
editor  (and  from  1866  to  1874  editor)  of 
Our  Young  Folks,  since  merged  in  the 
Saint  Nicholas.  She  died  1893. 

LARD,  is  obtained  from  the  fat  of 
swine  when  it  is  heated  to  boiling  point 
and  then  strained.  It-  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  oleine  and  stearine,  and  is  now 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  soap,  pomades,  etc.  The  best 
quality  is  found  in  the  fat  which  sur- 
rounds the  kidneys,  and  this  is  em- 
ployed in  pharmacy  for  the  preparation 
of  unguents.  When  subjected  to  pressure 
the  oleine  is  liberated,  forming  lard-oil, 
which  is  much  used  as  a lubricant  for 
machinery. 

LAREDO  (la-ra'do),  the  county-seat 
of  Webb  CO.,  Texas,  153  miles  south- 
west of  San  Antonio;  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
opposite  Nuevo  Laredo,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  bridges,  and  on  the  Inter- 
national and  Great  Northern,  the  Mexi- 
can National,  and  other  railroads.  Pop. 
15,560. 

LARE'DO,  the  capital  of  Webb  co., 
Tex.,  on  the  Rio  Grande  river,  and  the 
Int.  and  Gt.  N.,  the  Mex.  Nat.  and  the 
Rio  G.  and  Eagle  Pass  railways;  op- 
posite Nuevo  Laredo,  Mexico,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  two  steel 
bridges;  153  miles  w.  of  San  Antonio.  It 
is  in  the  Rio  Grande  coal  region.  Pop. 
14,675. 

LARK,  the  common  name  of  birds 
characterized  by  a short,  strong  bill- 
nostrils  covered  with  feathers;  forked 
tongue;  long,  straight  hind-claw;  and 
the  power  to  raise  the  feathers  on  the 
back  part  of  the  head  in  the  form  of  a 
crest.  Their  distribution  throughout  the 
Old  World  is  general,  but  the  only  species 
found  in  America  is  the  Shore-lark.' They 
are  terrestrial  in  their  habits,  feed  upon 
worms,  larvae,  etc.,  nest  upon  the  ground 
and  bring  forth  a brood  twice  in  the  year. 
The  best  known  is  the  sky-lark,  which  is 
celebrated  for  the  prolonged  beauty  of 
its  song.  The  wood-lark  is  less  common 
than  the  sky-lark,  and  is  known  by  its 
smaller  size  and  less  distinct  colors.  It 
perches  upon  trees,  and  is  found  chiefly 
in  fields  near  the  borders  of  woods.  It 


sings  during  the  night,  and  on  this  ac- 
count has  been  mistaken  for  the  night- 
ingale. 

LARKSPUR,  sometimes  called  Lark’s- 
heel,  a genus  of  plants  distinguished  by 
its  petaloid  calyx,  the  superior  sepal  of 
which  terminates  in  a long  spur.  The 
Upright  Larkspur  and  the  Branching 
Larkspur  are  well-known  garden  flowers. 

LA  ROCHEFOUCAULD  (rosh-fo-ko), 
Francois,  due  de.  Prince  de  Marsillac,  a 
distinguished  courtier  and  man  of  let- 
ters under  Louis  XIV.,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1613,  died  1680.  His  Memoires,  pub- 
lished in  1662,  and  his  Reflexions  ou 
Sentences  et  Maximes  Morales,  pub- 
lished anonymously  in  1665,  were  the 
fruits  of  his  literary  activity.  For  its 
brilliancy  of  style,  it  is  still  considered  a 
French  classic. 

LA  ROCHELLE.  See  Rochelle. 

LARVA,  the  term  applied  in  natural 
history  to  the  first  stage  in  the  meta- 
morphosis of  insects,  and  certain  other 
of  the  lower  invertebrates.  In  insects 
it  is  equivalent  to  the  grub  or  caterpillar 
stage.  Many  of  the  Crustacea,  as  crabs 
and  barnacles,  and  even  vertebrata,  as 
in  frogs  and  newts,  pass  through  larval 
forms.  The  larval  crab  was  for  long  de- 
scribed as  a distinct  crustacean  with  the 
name  of  Zoea.  See  Metamorphosis. 

LARYNGI'TIS,  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  lining  the  larynx. 
It  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  The  first 
usually  arises  from  a cold. 

LARYN'GOSCOPE,  a contrivance  for 
examining  the  larynx  and  commence- 
ment of  the  trachea.  It  consists  of  a 
plane  mirror  introduced  into  the  mouth, 
and  placed  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
light  thrown  on  it  from  a concave  re- 
flector, in  the  center  of  which  is  an 
aperture,  is  made  to  illuminate  the 
larynx,  the  image  of  which  is  again 
reflected  through  the  aperture  in  the 
reflector  to  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

LARYNX,  the  organ  by  which  the 
voice  is  produced,  situated  at  the  upper 
part  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe.  The 
larynx  is  formed  mainly  of  two  pieces  of 
cartilage,  called  the  thyroid  and  the 
cricoid,  one  placed  above  the  other. 
The  thyroid  is  formed  of  two  extended 
wings  meeting  at  the  middle  line  in  front 
in  a ridge ; above  and  from  the  sides  two 
horns  project  upward,  which  are  con- 
nected by  bands  to  the  hyoid  bone, 
from  which  the  larynx  is  suspended. 
The  thyroid  cartilage  rests  and  is  mov- 
able upon  the  cricoid,  moving  back- 
ward or  forward,  but  not  from  side  to 
side.  The  cricoid  cartilage  is  shaped  like 
a signet-ring,  the  narrow  part  of  the  ring 
being  in  front.  The  cricoid  carries, 
perched  on  its  upper  edge  behind,  the 
arytenoid  cartilages,  which  are  of  great 
importance  in  the  production  of  the 
voice.  These  various  cartilages  form  a 
framework  upon  which  muscles  and 
mucous  membranes  are  disposed.  The 
mucous  membrane  which  lines  the 
larynx  is  thrown  into  various  folds. 
These  folds  are  called  the  true  vocal 
cords,  and  by  their  movements  the  voice 
is  produced.  They  are  called  true,  as 
distinct  from  the  false  vocal  chords  which 
are  above  them,  but  take  no  part  in  pro- 
ducing the  voice.  The  true  vocal  cords 
projecting  toward  the  middle  form  a 
chink,  which  is  called  the  glottis.  By 


the  contraction  of  various  muscles  this 
chink  can  be  so  brought  together  that 
the  air  forced  through  it  throws  the 
edges  of  the  membrane  into  vibration 
and  so  produce  sounds.  Variations  in 
the  form  of  the  chink  will  affect  changes 
in  the  sound.  Thus  the  production  of 
voice  is  the  same  as  in  musical  instru- 
meiRs,  the  arrangements  in  the  larynx 
being  such  as  to  produce  (1)  the  vibra- 
tory sounds,  (2)  to  regulate  the  sound, 
(3)  to  vary  the  pitch,  and  (4)  to  deter- 
mine the  quality  of  the  sound.  The 
rapid,  delicate,  muscular  movements 
involved  are  produced  by  nervous 
stimuli  reaching  the  muscles  from  the 
brain.  Thus  the  voice  is  produced  in  the 


Larynx  internally  (1)  and  externally  (2). 

larynx,  and  is  modified  by  the  rest  of  the 
respiratory  passages.  (See  Voice.)  In 
the  act  of  swallowing,  the  glottis  is 
covered  by  a cartilaginous  plate  called 
the  epiglottis. — In  the  accompanying 
cut,  fig.  1 shows  c the  larynx  internally, 
B being  the  epiglottis  situated  above  the 
glottis  or  entrance  to  the  larynx,  aa  the 
trachea,  and  d the  oesophagus  or  gullet. 
In  fig.  2 j is  the  trachea,  B the  hyoid 
bone,  NN  the  thyreo  hyoid  membrane, 
o the  thyreo-hyoid  ligament,  g the 
thyreoid  cartilage,  h the  cricoid  cartil- 
age, p the  crico-thyreoid  ligament. 

LA  SALLE,  a thriving  city,  the  capital 
of  La  Salle  co.,  Illinois,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Illinois  river,  100  miles 
southwest  of  Chicago.  It  has  zinc  smelt- 
ing works  and  rolling-mills.  There  is  a 
good  supply  of  bituminous  coal  in  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  12,446. 

LA  SALLE,  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de, 
a French  explorer  in  North  America, 
was  born  at  Rouen  in  1643.  He  became 
a settler  in  Carrada,  and  about  1669  he 


La  Salle. 


sought  to  reach  China  by  way  of  the 
Ohio,  supposing,  from  the  reports  of 
Indians,  this  river  to  flow  into  the  Pacific. 
He  made  explorations  of  the  country 
between  the  Ohio  and  the  lakes,  but, 
when  Joliet  and  Marquette  made  it  evi- 
dent that  the  main  river  Mississippi 


LASCAR 


LATHS  AND  LATHWOOD 


emptied  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  he  con- 
ceived a vast  project  for  extending  the 
French  power  in  the  lower  Mississippi 
valley.  Toward  the  close  of  1681  La 
Salle  reached  the  head  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, at  the  present  site  of  Chicago,  and, 
making  the  long  portage  to  the  Illinois, 
descended  it  to  the  Mississippi,  which 
he  followed  to  its  mouth,  where  he  set 
up  a cross  and  the  arms  of  France,  April 
9,  1682.  La  Salle  fell  sick  on  his  voyage 
up  the  river,  and  sent  on  intelligence  of 
his  success,  which  was  carried  to  France 
by  Father  Membr6,  and  was  published 
in  Hennepin’s  work  in  1683.  When  La 
Salle  reached  France,  projects  were 
taken  up  by  the  government  for  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  rich  mining  country 
of  northern  Mexico.  Plans  were  sub- 
mitted by  La  Salle  and  by  Penalosa,  a 
renegade  Spaniard,  who,  while  governor 
of  New  Mexico  in  1662,  had  penetrated 
apparently  to  the  Mississippi.  La  Salle 
was  accordingly  sent  out  in  July,  1684, 
with  four  vessels  and  a small  body  of 
soldiers,  ostensibly  to  found  an  estab- 
lishment at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
but  really  to  push  on  and  secure  a favor- 
able base  of  operations,  and  gain  the  aid 
of  the  Indians  against  the  Spaniards, 
while  awaiting  a more  powerful  force 
under  Penalosa.  The  design  was  so  well 
masked,  and  subsequently  misrepre- 
sented, that  he  is  generally  said  to  have 
been  carried  beyond  the  Mississippi  by 
the  treachery  of  Beaujeau,  a naval  officer 
commanding  one  of  the  vessels.  After 
running  along  the  coast.  La  Salle  re- 
turned to  Espiritu  Santo  Bay,  Texas. 
There  he  landed  his  soldiers,  but  lost  one 
vessel  with  valuable  stores.  He  refused 
Beaujeau’s  offer  to  obtain  aid  for  him 
from  the  West  Indies,  and  when  that 
officer,  according  to  his  orders,  sailed 
back.  La  Salle  put  up  a rude  fort.  Then 
for  two  years,  from  January,  1685,  to 
January,  1687,  he  wasted  the  time  in 
aimless  excursions  by  land,  never  getting 
beyond  the  present  limits  of  Texas,  and 
making  no  attempt  to  explore  the  coast 
or  reach  the  Mississippi  with  his  remain- 
ing vessel.  His  colonists  and  soldiery 
dwindled  away;  no  reenforcements  or 
expedition  under  Penalosa  arrived;  and 
in  January,  1687,  leaving  part  of  his 
force  at  Fort  St.  Louis,  he  set  out  with 
the  rest  to  reach  Canada  by  way  of  the 
Mississippi  to  obtain  relief.  His  harsh- 
ness and  arbitrary  manner  had  pro- 
voked a bitter  feeling  among  his  fol- 
lowers, and  he  was  assassinated  on 
March  19th,  near  the  Trinity  river. 
Some  of  the  survivors  reached  Tonty’s 
post  on  the  Arkansas,  and  returned  to 
France  by  way  of  Canada  The  party 
left  at  the  fort  were  nearly  all  cut  off  by 
the  Indians,  a few  survivors  having  been 
rescued  by  a Spanish  force  sent  to  root 
out  the  French. 

LASCAR,  the  name  applied  by  Euro- 
peans to  native  East  Indian  sailors, 
many  of  whom  are  now  employed  in  the 
mercantile  marine. 

LAS  CASAS,  Bartolom6  de,  a Spanish 
prelate,  known  as  the  Apostle  of  the 
Indians,  born  1474,  died  1556.  He 
accompanied  Columbus  to  Hispaniola  in 
1498,  and  on  the  conquest  of  Cuba  re- 
ceived charge  as  priest  there,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  his  humane  treat- 
ment of  the  natives.  In  his  zeal  for  the 


Indians  he  returned  to  Spain  several 
times  and  obtained  decrees  in  their 
favor,  which,  however,  were  of  little 
avail.  In  the  cause  of  religion  h.e  visited 
various  parts  of  the  New  World,  includ- 
ing Mexico,  Guatemala,  Peru,  etc.  In 
1542  he  wrote  his  famous  Brevissima 
Relacion  de  la  Destruccion  de  las  Indias. 
He  died  at  Madrid. 

LAS  CASES  (las  ciis),  Emmanuel  Au- 
guste Dieudonn6  Marin  Joseph,  Comte 
de,  French  writer,  born  in  1766,  died  in 
1842.  After  Waterloo  he  shared  Napo- 
leon’s imprisonment  in  St.  Helena,  where 
the  emperor  dictated  part  of  his  Memoirs 
to  Las  Cases,  and  took  lessons  from  him 
in  English.  Removed  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  from  St.  Helena  for  sending 
out  a secret  letter,  he  was  permitted  to 
return  to  France  after  Napoleon’s 
death,  where  he  published  the  M6morial 
de  St.  Helene  in  his  Atlas  Historique. 

LASSA,  or  LHASSA,  the  capital  of 
Tibet,  situated  on  the  Kitchu,  a tribu- 
tary of  the  Brahmaputra.  Pop.  of  city 
and  suburbs  estimated  at  50,000. 

LASSALLE  (la'sal-le),  Ferdinand,  a no- 
table German  socialist,  born  at  Breslau 
1825,  of  Jewish  parents;  studied  at  Berlin 
university;  first  made  himself  known  as 
a leader  during  the  democratic  troubles 
of  1848,  and  was  imprisoned  for  a year. 
In  1861  he  published  his  System  of  Ac- 
quired Rights.  Thereafter  he  pro- 
ceeded to  organize  the  working-classes, 
which  caused  the  government  to  accuse 
him  of  sedition,  and  he  was  imprisoned 
for  four  months.  In  May,  1863,  he 
founded  a Labor  Union,  and  began  that 
socialist  propaganda  which  has  since 
become  so  wide-spread  in  Germany. 
In  the  summer  of  1864  he  sought  rest  in 
Switzerland,  and  was  there  killed  in  a 
duel  occasioned  by  a love  affair. 

LASSO,  a contrivance  used  in  Spanish 
America,  consisting  of  a long  rope  of 
plaited  rawhide,  at  one  end  of  which  is 
a small  metal  ring.  By  means  of  this 
ring  a noose  is  readily  formed,  and  the 
lasso,  or  lariat,  is  then  used  for  catching 
wild  cattle,  the  rope  being  east  over  the 
animal’s  head  or  leg  while  the  hunter  is 
in  full  gallop. 

LAS  VEGAS  (las-va'gas),  the  county- 
seat  of  San  Miguel  co.,  N.  M.,  83  miles 
(40  in  a direct  line)  east  of  Santa  Fe;  on 
the  Gallinas,  a branch  of  the  Pecos  river, 
and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe  railroad.  It  includes  two  parts  solidly 
built  together — an  unorganized  section, 
the  old  Mexican  town,  which  is  the 
county-seat;  and,  lying  to  the  east,  the 
modern  quarter,  incorporated  in  1888 
under  the  name  East  Las  Vegas,  this 
town  in  1896  becoming  the  city  of  Las 
Vegas.  Las  Vegas  is  an  important  wool 
market,  and  the  commercial  center  for 
the  adjacent  country,  which  is  interested 
principally  in  farming  and  stock-raising. 
The  famous  Las  Vegas  Hot  Springs,  a 
popular  health  resort  6765  feet  above 
sea  level,  is  six  miles  distant.  Pop. 
10,121. 

LATEEN'  SAIL,  is  a triangular  sail 
used  in  xebecs,  feluccas,  etc.,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  in  the  dahabeahs  of 
the  Nile.  It  is  extended  by  a lateen 
yard,  which  is  slung  across  a mast  so  as 
to  make  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees 
with  it,  the  lower  portion  of  the  yard 
being  about  a third  of  the  whole. 


LATENT  HEAT,  that  portion  of  heat 
which  exists  in  any  body  without  pro- 
ducing any  effect  upon  another  or  upon 
the  thermometer;  termed  also  insensible 
as  distinct  from  sensible  heat.  It  be- 
comes sensible  during  the  conversion  of 
vapors  into  liquids,  and  of  liquids  into 
solids;  and  on  the  other  hand  a portion 
of  sensible  heat  disappears  or  becomes 
latent  when  a body  changes  its  form 
from  the  solid  to  the  liquid,  or  from  the 
liquid  to  the  gaseous  state. 

LATHE,  a machine  for  turning  and 
polishing  flat,  round,  cylindrical,  oval, 
and  every  intermediate  form  of  body  in 
wood,  ivory,  metals,  etc.,  the  object 
worked  on  receiving  a rotary  motion ; it 
is  also  used  in  glass-cutting  and  earthen- 
ware manufacture.  It  may  be  turned  by 


Lateen  sail. 

the  hand,  the  foot,  steam-power,  water, 
etc.  A duplex  lathe  is  one  which  works 
on  two  turning  tools  at  once;  Blanch- 
ard’s lathe  is  one  for  turning  objects  of 
an  irregular  form,  as  lasts,  gun-stocks, 
etc.  A throw-lathe  is  one  in  which  the 
mechanic  drives  the  lathe  with  one 
hand,  holding  the  cutting  tool  with  the 
other. — The  term  is  also  applied  to  the 
batten  or  lay  of  a loom  in  which  the  reed 
is  fixed,  and  by  the  movements  of  which 
the  weft-threads  are  laid  parallel  to  each 
other,  shot  after  shot,  in  the  process  of 
weaving. 

LA'THROP,  George  Parsons,  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  poet,  born  at  Oahu, 
Sandwich  Islands  in, 1851.  He  was  from 
1875  to  1877  assistant  editor  of  the 
Atlantic  Monthly;  then  till  1879  editor 
of  the  Boston  Courier.  He  published: 
Rose  and  Roof  Tree,  poems;  Study  of 
Hawthorne;  Afterglow,  a novel;  A 
Masque  of  Poets;  an  edition  of  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne’s  Works,  with  a biography; 
Spanish  Vistas;  Gold  of  Pleasure; 
Dreams  and  Days.  He  died  in  1898. 

LATHROP,  Rose  Hawthorne,  Ameri- 
can poet  and  philanthropist,  was  born 
at  Lenox,  Mass.,  in  1851.  She  married 
George  Parsons  Lathrop  in  1871.  She 
wrote  many  stories  and  sketches;  a 
volume  of  poems.  Along  the  Shore  and 
Memories  of  Hawthorne,  with  her  hus- 
band. In  1896  she  established  in  New 
York  City  Saint  Rose’s  Free  Home  for 
Cancer;  and  soon  after,  with  the  title  of 
Mother  Mary  Alphonsa,  she  became 
head  of  a Dominican  community  of  the 
Third  Order  and  director  of  a charitable 
home  in  that  city. 

LATHS  AND  LATHWOOD.  Small 
strips  of  wood,  thin  and  narrow.  They 
are  of  various  lengths,  rarely  more  than 
four  feet,  and  are  made  either  by  split- 
ting lathwood,  which  is  the  Norway 


LATIMER 


LAUREATE 


spruce  fir,  or  else  they  are  sawn  from  the 
small  portions  of  the  lumber.  Laths 
are  used  for  nailing  to  the  uprights  of 
partition  walls,  and  to  the  rafters  of 
ceilings;  they  are  placed  slightly  apart 
to  receive  the  plaster,  which,  by  being 
pressed  into  the  intervals  between  the 
laths,  is  retained,  and  when  dry  is  held 
securely  on  the  wall. 

LAT'IMER,  Hugh,  D.D  an  English 
prelate,  reformer,  and  martyr,  born 
about  1490.  He  was  made  chaplain  to 
Henry  VIII.  in  1530,  and  during  the 
ascendency  of  Anne  Boleyn  in  1535  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Worcester. 
In  1538  he  resigned  his  bishopric,  not 
being  able  to  accept  the  Six  Articles, 
and  was  put  in  prison,  but  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VI.  he  was  released  and 
became  highly  popular  at  court.  This 
continued  until  Mary  ascended  the 
throne,  when  Latimer  was  cited  to  ap- 
pear, along  with  Cranmer  and  Ridley, 
before  a council  at  Oxford,  and  con- 
demned. After  much  delay  and  a second 
trial,  Latimer  and  Ridley  were  burned  at 
the  stake,  Oct.  16,  1555.  His  preaching 
was  popular  in  his  own  time  for  its  pith, 
simplicity,  and  quaintness. 

LATIN  CHURCH,  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

LATIN  EMPIRE.  See  Byzantine  Em- 
pire. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE. See  Rome. 

LATITUDE,  in  geography,  the  dis- 
tance of  any  place  on  the  globe  north  or 
south  of  the  equator  measured  on  its 


meridian.  It  is  called  north  or  south 
according  as  the  place  is  on  the  north  or 
south  of  the  equator.  The  highest  or 
greatest  latitude  is  90°,  that  is,  at  the 
poles;  the  lowest  or  smallest  0°,  at  the 
equator,  between  which  and  the  poles 
any  number  of  parallel  circles  called 
arallels  of  latitude  may  be  supposed  to 
e drawn.  One  method  of  finding  the 
latitude  of  a place  is  by  measuring  the 
altitude  of  the  pole-star.  When  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  a place  are 
given  its  position  on  a map  is  easily 
found.  See  Longitude. 

LATTICE-GIRDER,  a girder  of  which 
the  web  consists  of  d.iagonal  pieces  ar- 
ranged like  lattice-work.  Lattice-bridge 
is  the  name  given  when  the  cross-fram- 
ing is  made  to  resemble  lattice-work. 

LATTICE-LEAF,  Lattice-plant,  a very 
remarkable  aquatic  plant  of  Madagascar 
noteworthy  for  the  structure  of  its 
leaves.  The  blade  resembles  lattice- 
work  or  open  needle-work,  the  longi- 
tunidal  ribs  being  crossed  by  tendrils, 
and  the  interstices  between  them  open. 

LAUD,  William,  Archbishop  of  Can- 


terbury in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  was 
born  at  Reading  in  Berkshire,  1573. 
After  the  accession  of  Charles  I.  Laud 
was  translated  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  and  in  1628  to  that  of  London, 
while  his  influence  seemed  to  increase. 
In  1630  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  which  he  en- 
riched with  a valuable  collection  of 
manuscripts,  establishing  also  a pro- 
fessorship of  Arabic.  In  1633  he  was 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  In 


Lattice  plant. 

1634  he  instituted  rigorous  proceedings 
against  all  who  would  not  conform  to 
the  Church  of  England.  By  means  of 
spies  he  hunted  out  the  Puritans,  and 
sought  to  extinguish  all  forms  of  dissent 
by  means  of  fines,  imprisonment,  and 
exile.  He  prosecuted  Prynne,  Burton, 
and  Bastwick  for  libel,  and  to  him  is 
attributed  the  severe  sentences  which 
they  received.  When  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment met  (1640)  the  archbishop  was 
impeached  for  high  treason  at  the  bar 
of  the  House  of  Lords  by  enzil  Holies 
and  committed  to  the  Tower.  After  three 
years  he  was  brought  to  trial,  but  the 
lords  deferred  giving  judgment.  The 
House  of  Commons,  however,  passed  a 
bill  of  attainder  (January,  1644),  de- 
clared him  guilty  of  high  treason,  and 
condemned  him  to  death.  Accordingly 
he  met  his  end  on  the  scaffold  at  Tower 
Hill  with  great  firmness.  An  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  by  Parker 
(Oxford,  1857-60). 

LAU'DANUM,  tincture  of  opium. 
See  Opium. 

LAUGHING-GAS,  nitrous  ovide,  or 
nitrogen  monoxide,  or  protoxide  of 
nitrogen;  so  called  because,  when  in- 
haled, it  usually  produces  exhilaration. 
See  Nitrogen. 

LAUGHING  JACKASS,  or  GIANT 
KINGFISHER,  a bird  allied  to  the  king- 


Laughing  Jackass. 


fisher,  deriving  its  former  title  from  the 
singularly  strange  character  of  its  cry. 
It  is  an  inhabitant  of  Australia,  being 
found  chiefly  in  the  southeastern  por- 
tion of  that  country.  It  makes  no  nest 


but  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  decayed  hol- 
low of  a gum-tree.  In  length  about  18 
inches,  it  has  a dark-brown  crest,  its 
back  and  upper  surface  is  olive-brown, 
wings  brown-black,  and  the  breast  and 
under  portions  white,  crossed  by  faint 
bars  of  pale  brown.  The  tail  is  longish, 
with  a rounded  extremity,  tipped  with 
white;  its  color  is  a rich  chestnut,  with 
deep  black  bars. 

LAUGHTER,  the  outward  expression 
of  a certain  emotion  or  excited  condition 
of  the  nervous  system,  manifested 
chiefly  in  certain  convulsive  and  partly 
involuntary  actions  of  the  muscles  of 
respiration,  by  means  of  which  the  air, 
being  expelled  from  the  chest  in  a series 
of  jerks,  produces  a succession  of  short 
abrupt  sounds;  certain  movements  of 
the  muscles  of  the  face,  and  often  of 
other  parts  of  the  body  also  taking  place. 
Laughter  is  generally  excited  by  things 
which  are  of  a ridiculous  or  ludicrous 
nature,  the  ultimate  cause  being  usually 
attributed  to  the  perception  of  some 
incongruity,  though  mere  incongruity 
is  not  always  sufficient.  It  may  also  be 
caused,  especially  in  the  young,  by 
tickling;  it  also  accompanies  hysteria 
and  sometimes  extreme  grief. 

LAUNCH,  the  largest  boat  carried 
by  a man  of  war;  both  steam  and  sail. 
Launches  from  40  to  60  feet  are  carried 
and  used  for  picket  boats  to  guard 
against  surprise  by  torpedo  boats,  by 
battle  ships  and  large  armored  cruisers. 

LAUNCHING,  the  process  of  remov- 
ing a ship  from  the  land  to  the  water. 
The  keel  is  laid  upon  a number  of  wooden 
blocks  placed  6 or  7 feet  apart  and  built 
up  3 or  4 feet  from  the  ground,  the  tops 
of  which  slope  downward  to  the  water. 
When  the  ship  is  ready  for  launching, 
“ways”  of  timber  and  planking  are  laid 
down  parallel  to  the  keel,  and  at  some 
little  distance  on  each  side  of  it,  under 
the  bilges  of  the  ship;  they  extend  into 
the  water  a considerable  distance  below 
high-water  mark.  A “cradle”  is  then 
built  under  the  ship,  of  which  the  bot- 
tom is  formed  of  smooth  timbers  resting 
upon  the  ways.  Before  launching,  the 
under  sides  of  these  timbers  and  the 
upper  sides  of  the  ways  are  well  greased, 
and  the  weight  of  the  ship  is  transferred 
from  the  keel-blocks  to  the  cradle  and 
ways.  Timbers,  called  “dog-shores,” 
are  placed  so  as  to  resist  the  tendency 
of  the  ship  to  slide  down  until  the  right 
moment,  when  the  dog-shores  are 
knocked  away.  Many  large  battle  ships 
and  some  other  vessels  have  been  built 
in  dry  docks  and  floated  out  when  ready, 
instead  of  being  launched.  This  system 
is  economical,  if  the  dry  docks  are  not 
needed  for  other  purposes.  On  the  Great 
Lakes  the  practice  of  launching  ships 
sidewise  is  very  common. 

LAU'REATE,  Poet,  a designation  first 
applied  to  poets  who  were  honored  by 
the  gift  of  a laurel  wreath.  It  is  now  the 
name  of  an  official  connected  with  the 
royal  household  of  Great  Britain,  the 
patent  for  which  appears  to  have  been 
granted  by  Charles  I.  1630,  although 
Ben  Jonson  and  others  are  said  to  have 
held  the  title  previously.  It  was  the 
chief  duty  of  the  laureate  to  furnish  an 
ode  on  the  birthday  of  the  king  or  upon 
the  occasion  of  a national  victory,  the 
emolument  attached  to  the  office  beinjt 


LAUREL 


LAWRENCE 


$500  a year  with  a tierce  of  caQary. 
Since  the  reign  of  George  III.  there  ha,ve 
been  no  special  duties  connected  with 
the  office.  From  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
the  following  poets  have  in  succession 
held  the  office  of  laureate: — John  Dry- 
den,  Nahum  Tate,  Nicholas  Rowe, 
Lawrence  Eusden,  Colley  Cibber,  Wil- 
liam Whitehead,  Thomas  Warton,  Henry 
James  Pye,  Robert  Southey,  William 
Wordsworth,  Lord  Tennyson,  and  Alfred 
Austin. 

LAUREL,  a plant  belonging  to  the 
genus  Laurus,  nat.  order  Lauraceee,  to 
which  it  gives  the  name.  The  sweet-bay 
or  laurel  is  a native  of  the  north  of 
Africa  and  south  of  Europe,  and  is  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  not  only  on  account 
of  its  elegant  appearance,  but  also  for 
the  aromatic  fragrance  of  its  evergreen 
leaves.  The  fruit,  which  is  of  a purple 
color,  and  also  the  leaves,  have  long 
been  used  in  medicine  as  stimulants  and 
carminatives.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
other  plants,  as  in  America  to  the 
Rhododendron  maximum.  In  ancinet 
times  heroes  and  scholars  were  crowned 
with  wreaths  of  bay  leaves,  whence  the 
terms  laurels  in  sense  of  honors  and 
laureate.  From  the  fruit  of  the  sweet- 
bay  or  laurel  several  oily  substances 
have  been  extracted.  Thus  there  is  the 
oil  of  laurel,  a yellowish  oil  with  an  odor 
of  laurel  and  a strong  bitter  taste;  laurel 
fat,  a yellowish-green  buttery  substance, 
used  for  embrocations  in  rheumatism, 
paralysis,  deafness,  etc.  The  cherry- 
laurel  also  yields  a volatile  poisonous 
oil  when  its  leaves  are  distilled  in  water. 
Notwithstanding  this  cherry-laurel 
leaves  are  often  employed  in  cookery  for 
their  flavoring  qualities.  But  caution 
requires  to  be  exercised  in  their  use, 
as  death  has  resulted  from  an  over- 
supply in  custards,  puddings,  etc.,  and 
it  is  better  to  use  bay  leaves  instead. 
From  the  cherry-laurel  laurel-water  is 
produced  from  the  leaves  by  distillation. 
See  Laurel-water. 

LAUREL-WATER,  a fluid  obtained 
by  maceration  and  distillation  from  the 
leaves  of  the  cherry-laurel,  being  a 
watery  solution  of  the  volatile  oil  con- 
tained in  the  plant.  It  contains  prussic 
acid  and  is  therefore  poisonous,  but  is 
used  medicinally.  See  above  article. 

LAURENTIAN,  in  geology,  a term 
applied  to  a vast  series  of  stratified  and 
crystalline  rocks  of  gneiss,  mica-schist, 
quartzite,  serpentine,  and  limestone, 
about  40,000  feet  in  thickness,  lying 
northward  of  the  St.  Lawrence  in 
Canada.  The  Laurentian  is  the  lowest 
fossiliferous  system  of  rocks,  if  its  char- 
acteristic and  only  fossil,  the  Eozoon 
canadense,  can  be  ranked  as  a fossil. 
(See  Eozoon.)  The  terms  Archsean  and 
Pre-Cambrian  are  used  in  Britain  for 
rocks  occupying  a similar  position  to  the 
Laurentain.  See  Geology. 

LAURENTAIN  MOUNTAINS,  a range 
in  Canada  extending  for  over  3000  miles 
from  Labrador  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
forming  the  watershed  between  Hud- 
son’s Bay,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the 
great  lakes,  and  dividing  the  same  bay 
from  the  sources  of  the  Mackenzie  river. 
The  average  elevation  is  about  1500  feet, 
while  some  of  the  peaks  attain  a height 
of  4000  feet. 

LAVA,  the  general  term  for  all  rock- 


matter  that  flows,  or  has  flowed,  in  a 
molten  state  from  valcanoes,  and  which 
when  cooled  down  forms  varieties  of 
tufa,  trachyte,  trachytic  greenstone, 
and  basalt,  according  to  tire  varying 
proportions  of  felspar,  hornblende, 
augite,  etc.,  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  mass,  and  according  to 
the  slowness  or  rapidity  with  which  it 
has  cooled.  The  more  rapidly  this  proc- 
ess of  cooling  goes  on  the  more  compact 
is  the  rock. — Lava  beds  are  of  two  kinds, 
namely,  contemporaneous  and  intrusive. 
A contemporaneous  lava  bed  is  one 
which  has  been  poured  out  over  the  sur- 
face of  one  deposit,  and  covered  by  sub- 
sequent deposits.  Such  a bed  is  in  its 
natural  position,  and  usually  alters  only 
the  bed  beneath  it.  Intrusive  beds  are 
those  which  have  been  forced  up  in  a 
molten  state  through  or  between  strata, 
altering  those  on  both  sides. 

LA  VALLIERE  (val-yar),  Louise 
Fran9oise  de  la  Baume  le  Blanc  de,  was 
born  in  Touraine  in  1644,  died  1710. 
The  descendant  of  an  ancient  family, 
she  was  brought  to  court  by  her  mother, 
became  mistress  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  bore 
him  four  children.  The  king  raised  the 
estate  of  Vaujour  into  a duchy  and  a 
peerage  in  favor  of  her  and  her  children. 
Superseded  at  court  by  Madame  de 
Montespan  she  retired  to  a Carmelite 
convent  in  1674,  where  she  died. 

LAV'ENDER,  a delightfully  fragrant 
shrub  3-4  feet  high,  a native  of  the  south 
of  Europe.  Under  favorable  conditions 
it  contains  one-fourth  of  its  own  weight 
in  camphor.  It  also  produces  a volatile 
oil,  which  is  much  in  demand  as  an  ex- 
cellent perfume.  This  oil  is  got  by  dis- 
tilling the  flowers.  It  has  a pale-yellow 
color,  aromatic  odor,  and  a hot  taste. 
Besides  being  employed  as  a perfume, 
it  is  used  in  medicine  as  a stimulant  in 
hysteria,  colic,  and  other  affections. 
Spirit  of  Lavender  is  prepared  by  digest- 
ing the  fresh  flowers  in  rectified  spirits 
and  distilling.  Lavender-water  is  a 
solution  of  oil  of  lavender  in  spirit  along 
with  otto  of  roses,  bergamot,  musk, 
cloves,  rosemary,  etc.  This  preparation 
after  standing  for  some  time  is  strained 
and  mixed  with  a certain  proportion  of 
distilled  water.  Enough  oil  is  produced 
annually  in  England  to  make  30,000 
gallons  of  lavender-water. 

LAVOISIER  (la-vwa-si-a) , Antoine 
Laurent,  a celebrated  French  chemist, 
was  born  at  Paris  1743.  Conspicuous 
in  all  respects,  when  to  be  conspicuous 
was  a crime,  Lavoisier  was  accused 
before  the  convention  as  an  ex-farmer- 
general  and  guillotined,  8th  May,  l’794. 
He  was  the  first  to  organize  the  methods 
of  chemistry  and  establish  its  terminol- 
ogy. His  most  important  discoveries 
are  to  be  found  in  his  Trait6  de 
Chimie  and  Memoires  de  Physique  et 
de  Chimie. 

LAW.  See  Commercial  Law,  Canon 
Law,  Civil  Law,  Common  Law,  Inter- 
national Law,  etc. 

LAW,  John,  of  Lauriston,  a celebrated 
financial  projector,  son  of  a goldsmith  of 
Edinburgh,  born  1671,  died  1729.  He 
was  bred  to  no  profession,  but  being 
skilled  in  accounts  he  made  various  pro- 
posals to  the  Scottish  parliament  to 
remedy  the  currency,  which  were  re- 
jected. Subsequently  he  fled  from  his 


country  in  consequence  of  a duel ; vi.sited 
Genoa  and  Venice,  where  he  accumulated 
a fortune  by  gambling;  settled  in  France, 
where  he  received  royal  patronage  and 
started  a private  bank,  and  floated  his 
celebrated  Mississippi  company.  His 
immediate  success  was  so  great  that  he 
was  made  a councillor  of  state  and  comp- 
troller-general, but  the  large  amount  of 
paper-money  issued  depreciated  the 
shares,  and  led  to  the  collapse  of  his 
schemes.  Having  had  to  flee  from 
France,  he  wandered  about  Europe  as  a 
gambler,  and  died  at  Venice  in  poverty. 
A volume  entitled  (Euvres  de  J.  Law 
was  published  at  Paris  in  1790,  8vo. 

LAWN  TENNIS  is  a modified  develop- 
ment of  an  old  English  game,  and  is 
played  with  rackets  and  india-rubber 
balls.  The  players  number  two,  four, 
or  more,  forming  even  sides.  The  ground 
on  which  the  game  is  played  is  usually 
78  feet  long  by  30  feet  broad.  Thir  jace 
is  divided  by  a net  24  feet  wide,  feet 
high  at  the  ends,  and  4 feet  in  the  center! 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  area  are  called 
the  base  lines.  The  space  on  either  side 
of  the  net  thus  marked  off  is  called 
a court.  This  court  has  two  lines 
running  through  it:  one  of  which  is 
called  the  central  line,  and  runs 
lengthwise;  the  other  is  known  as  the 
service  line,  and  runs  parallel  to, 
and  30  feet  distant  from,  the  central  net. 
The  ground  thus  divided  is  called  the 
right  and  left  courts.  The  mode  of  play- 
ing with  two  is,  that  one  is  called  the 
server  or  “hand-in,”  while  the  other  is 
“hand-out.”  When  the  ball  is  served 
by  “hand-in”  the  server  must  stand 
with  one  foot  outside  the  base  line  of  the 
court,  beginning  on  the  right  side,  and 
his  aim  is  to  pitch  the  ball  across  the 
net  and  into  the  court  diagonally  op- 
posed. If  the  server  fails  to  do  this  it  is 
called  “a  fault,”  and  he  must  serve 
again.  When  the  ball  is  properly  served 
it  is  the  opponent’s  duty  to  return  it 
across  the  net  before  it  touches  the 
ground  a second  time.  Should  the  ball 
not  be  returned,  “hand-in”  scores  a 
point;  on  the  contrary,  should  the  ball 
not  be  properly  served,  “hand-out” 
scores.  The  player  who  first  scores 
fifteen  wins  the  game,  but  if  both 
players  are  equal  at  fourteen  the  score 
is  called  “deuce.”  It  is  here  that  “van- 
tage” is  introduced,  and  in  order  to 
score  game  the  player  must  win  two 
successive  points,  otherwise  the  score 
returns  to  “deuce.” 

LAW  OF  NATIONS.  See  International 
Law. 

LAWRENCE,  a town  in  Essex  co., 
Massachusetts,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Merrimac  river,  26  miles  north  from 
Boston.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  courthouse,  state  university,  opera 
house,  etc.  It  is  principally  supported  by 
its  extensive  cotton  and  woolen  factories, 
paper-mills,  and  manufactures  of  steam- 
engines,  etc.  Pop.  1909,  about  76,000. 

LAWRENCE,  the  capital  of  Douglas 
CO.,  Kan.;  on  both  sides  of  the  Kansas 
river,  and  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F6, 
the  Kan.  City,  Wyo.  and  N.  W.,  and  the 
Union  Pac.  railways;  38  miles  w.  of 
Kansas  City.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
University  and  of  Haskell  Institute 
which,  next  to  that  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  ia 


LAWRENCE,  ST. 


LEAD 


the  largest  Indian  training-school  in  the 
United  States.  Pop.  12,100. 

LAWRENCE,  ST.,  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  in  the  world,  which  rises  under  the 
name  of  the  St.  Louis,  and  drains  the 
great  chain  of  North  American  lakes.  In 
different  parts  of  its  course  it  is  known 
by  different  names.  From  the  sea  to 
Lake  Ontario  it  is  called  St.  Lawrence; 
between  Lakes  Ontario  and  Ei-ie  it  is 
called  Niagara  river;  between  Lakes 
Erie  and  St.  Clair,  Detroit  river;  be- 
tween Lakes  St.  Clair  and  Huron,  St. 
Clair’s  river;  between  Lakes  Huron  and 
Superior,  St.  Mary’s  river  or  the  Nar- 
rows, forming  thus  an  uninterrupted 
waterway  of  upward  of  2000  miles. 
It  receives  the  Ottawa,  its  principal 
auxiliary,  at  Montreal,  as  also  the  St. 
Maurice,  the  Saguenay,  and  numerous 
other  large  rivers  from  the  north.  The 
river  is  navigable  for  Atlantic  steamers 
to  the  city  of  Montreal,  600  miles  up, 
and  from  Montreal  upward  by  river  and 
lake  steamers.  The  rapids  between 
Montreal  and  Lake  Ontario  are  passed 
by  means  of  canals,  and  Niagara  Falls 
by  the  Welland  Canal.  The  river’s 
breadth  between  Montreal  and  Quebec 
is  from  J to  4 miles;  the  average  breadth, 
about 2 miles.  Below  Quebec  it  gradually 
widens  till  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  From  the  beginning  of  De- 
cember to  the  middle  of  April  the  navi- 
gation is  totally  suspended  by  ice.  In 
part  of  its  course  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

LAWRENCE,  ST.,  Gulf  of,  a large 
inlet  of  the  North  Atlantic  in  British 
North  America,  forming  the  continua- 
tion of  the  estuary  of  the  river  St. 
Lawrence,  and  separated  from  the 
Atlantic  chiefly  by  the  island  of  New- 
foundland, Cape  Breton,  and  Nova 
Scotia.  It  communicates  with  the  ocean 
by  the  opening  betwixt  Newfoundland 
and  Cape  Breton,  about  65  miles  wide, 
by  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  and  the  Gut 
of  Canso.  It  contains  numerous  islands, 
the  principal  of  which  are  Anticosti, 
Prince  Edward’s,  and  the  Magdalens. 

LAWRENCE,  JAMES,  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Burlington,  Vt., 
in  1781.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  war  with  Tripoli.  In  1808  he  served 
as  first  lieutenant  on  the  Constitution 
and  then  commanded  successively  the 


Argus,  the  Vixen  and  the  Wasp.  In 
1811  he  was  made  captain  of  the 
Hornet,  and  in  1813  defeated  the  Brit- 
ish brig-of-war  Peacock  Congress  gave 
him  a gold  medal  as  a reward  for  this 
victory,  and  he  was  also  given  command 
of  the  Chesapeake.  On  June  1,  1813, 
he  attacked  the  British  frigate  Shannon 


and  a bloody  engagement  took  place, 
the  Chesapeake  was  captured  and 
Lawrence  mortally  wounded.  While 
being  carried  below  he  uttered  the 
words,  “Don’t  give  up  the  ship,”  which 
soon  became  a motto  in  the  navy. 

LAWRENCE,  John  Laird  Mair,  Lord, 
Governor-general  of  India,  born  in  York- 
shire 1811,  died  in  London  1879.  Edu- 
cated at  the  college  of  Haileybury,  he 
went  to  India,  in  1829  where  his  rare 
administrative  ability  attracted  atten- 
tion, and  caused  him  to  receive  the 
appointment  of  chief-commissioner  of 
the  Punjab  in  1853,  after  he  had  served 
in  minor  posts.  The  entire  wisdom  of 
this  appointment  was  demonstrated 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny  of  1857.  By 


John,  Jjord  Lawrence. 


the  influence  which  he  had  gained  over 
the  Sikhs,  Lawrence  was  able  not  only 
to  keep  the  Punjab  quiet,  but  to  collect 
native  forces  and  send  them  to  assist 
in  the  early  capture  of  Delhi.  He  was 
known  as  the  savior  of  India,  and  his 
services  were  rewarded  by  his  being  made 
governor-general  in  1863.  On  his  return 
to  England  in  1868  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  under  the'  title  of  Baron  Law- 
rence of  the  Punjab  and  of  Grately. 

LAWSON’S  CYPRESS,  a species  of 
cypress  found  in  the  valleys  of  Northern 
California,  where  it  grows  to  the  height 
of  100  feet.  The  branches  are  numerous 
and  are  drooping,  slender,  and  regularly 
disposed,  forming  a symmetrical  colum- 
nar mass  of  rich  green  spray. 

LAWTON,  Henry  Ware,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Lucas  co.,  Ohio,  in 
1843.  He  served  in  the  civil  war  and 
rose  to  the  rank  of  brevet-colonel.  His 
operations  against  the  Indians,  against 
Geronimo  especially,  were  successful. 
In  the  war  with  Spain  he  was  commis- 
sioned brigadier-general;  he  was  in 
command  of  the  second  division  of  the 
fifth  corps  in  the  operations  against 
Santiago.  After  the  fall  of  Santiago  he 
was  made  major-general  and  given  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  Santiago. 
In  1898  he  was  sent  to  the  Philippines 
as  second  in  command  under  General 
Otis.  He  fell  in  battle  at  San  Mateo, 
Luzon  in  1899. 

LAY'ARD,  Sir  Austin  Henry,  G.C.B., 
English  traveler,  archaeologist,  and  dip- 
lomatist, was  born  in  1817.  He  was 
appointed  attache  to  the  British  em- 
bassy at  Constantinople  in  1849.  In 
1852  lie  entered  parliament  in  the  liberal 
interest;  became  under-secretary  for 
foreign  affairs  in  1860,  commissioner  of 


works  in  1869,  and  ambassador  to  the 
Porte  in  1877  under  Lord  Beaconsfield’s 
government,  when  he  accomplished  the 
annexation  of  Cyprus.  He  wrote  Nine- 
veh and  its  Remains,  Discoveries  in  the 
Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  and  / 
Early  Adventures  in  Persia,  etc.  He 
died  in  1894. 

LAY  BROTHERS  are  an  inferior  class 
of  monksemployed  asservants  in  monas- 
teries. Though  not  in  holy  orders  they 
are  bound  by  the  three  monastic  vows 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
They  wear  a dress  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  the  other  monks.  In  nun- 
neries a similar  distinction  prevails  be- 
tween the  nuns  proper  and  the  lay  sisters. 

LAYERING,  in  gardening,  the  propa- 
gation of  plants  by  bending  the  shoot  of 
a living  stem  into  the  soil,  the  shoot 
striking  root  while  being  fed  by  the 
parent  plant.  ’ The  figure  shows  the 


branch  to  be  layered  bent  down  and 
kept  in  the  ground  by  a hooked  peg,  the 
young  rootlets,  and  a stick  supporting 
the  extremity  of  the  shoot  in  an  up- 
right position. 

LAY-FIGURE,  a jointed  human  figure 
used  by  painters,  made  of  wood  or  cork, 
which  can  be  placed  in  any  attitude, 
and  serves  when  clothed  as  a model  for 
draperies,  etc. 

LEAD,  a metal  of  a bluish-gray 
color;  when  recently  cut  it  has  a strong 
metallic  luster,  but  soon  tarnishes  by 
exposure  to  the  air  owing  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a coating  of  carbonate  of  lead. 

It  is  soft,  flexible,  and  inelastic.  It  is 
both  malleable  and  ductile,  possessing 
the  former  quality  to  a considerable 
extent,  but  in  tenacity  it  is  inferior  to 
all  ductile  metals.  It  fuses  at  about  612°, 
and  when  slowly  cooled  forms  octohedral 
crystals.  It  is  an  abundant  and  widely  . 
distributed  metal.  It  is  a constituent  of  j 
a very  large  number  of  minerals,  all  of 
which  could  be  used  as  sources  of  it  if  ! 
they  could  be  obtained  in  sufficient  . 
quantity.  In  practice  the  metal  is  got 
from  only  a few  of  these  minerals,  espe-  1 
daily  from  the  sulphide,  carbonate,  and  1 
one  or  two  others.  The  most  important  1 
of  all  the  ores  of  lead  is  the  sulphide  or  f 
lead  glance,  which  has  been  described  j 
under  the  term  Galena.  The  carbonate,  > 
also  called  cerusite,  or  leadspar,  like  all  | 
all  the  salts  of  lead,  is  perfectly  un-,  j 
metallic  in  its  appearance,  and  is  not.  • 
unfrequently  rejected  from  among  com- 
mon lead  ore  as  an  earthy  mineral.  It 
occurs  in  veins  in  primitive  and  sec-  ' 
ondary  rocks,  accompanying  galena,  and  ; 
other  ores  of  lead.  It  is  abundant  in 
European  countries,  in  Britain,  in  Ire- 
land, and  it  has  been  found  at  different 
localities  in  the  United  Sates.  The  sul- 
phate of  lead,  anglesite,  or  lead  vitrol, 
was  found  originally  at  Anglesey.  Chro- 
mate of  lead,  crocoisite,  or  crocoite  was 
originally  found  in  Siberia;  it  has  since 
been  met  with  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 


LEAD 


LEATHER 


in  Brazil,  and  in  Hungary.  It  was  in  this 
mineral  that  chromium  was  first  dis- 
covered. Phosphate  of  lead  is  found 
accompanying  the  common  ores  of  lead, 
though  rarely  in  any  considerable  quan- 
tity. Finely  crystallized  varieties  are 
found  at  Leadhills  in  Scotland,  and  in 
Cornwall.  In  the  ores  of  lead  silver  is  a 
very  common  constituent.  Of  the  salts 
formed  by  the  action  of  acids  on  lead  or 
on  the  protoxide,  the  carbonate  or  white- 
lead  and  the  acetate  or  sugar  of  lead  are 
the  most  important.  The  protoxide  is 
also  employed  for  glazing  earthenware 
and  porcelain.  Carbonate  of  lead  is  the 
basis  of  white  oil-paint  and  a number  of 
other  colors.  The  salts  of  lead  are 
poisonous,  but  the  carbonate  is  by  far 
the  most  virulent  poison.  Lead  is  one 
of  the  most  easily  reducible  metals,  and 
from  the  native  carbonate  can  be  got  by 
simply  heating  with  coal  or  charcoal. 
The  sulphide,  however,  which  is  the 
most  abundant  of  its  ores,  is  not  so 
readily  acted  on  by  coal,  and  a rever- 
beratory furnace,  or  a special  variety  of 
blast-furnace,  is  employed.  Lead  ob- 
tained in  this  way  is  usually  too  hard 
for  use,  and  it  has  to  be  subjected  to  a 
process  of  purification.  This  is  effected 
by  roasting  the  lead,  sometimes  for 
several  weeks,  in  a reverberatory  fur- 
nace. By  this  process  the  antimony, 
which  is  the  chief  impurity,  is  burned 
off,  and  the  dross,  which  consists  of  the 
oxide,  of  that  metal  with  oxide  of  lead, 
is  afterward  reduced  and  utilized  as  a 
source  of  antimony.  The  lead,  when 
judged  sufficiently  pure,  is  then  cast  into 
ingots  or  pigs  of  lead.  Prepared  in  this 
way  the  lead  retains  all  the  silver  present 
in  the  original  ore,  and  as  that  is  always 
of  value  it  used  to  be  extracted  when- 
ever the  quantity  of  silver  present 
amounted  to  above  10  oz.  per  ton.  1 
part  of  tin  and  2 of  lead  form  an  alloy 
fusible  at  3^0°  Fahr.,  which  is  used  by 
tinmen  under  the  name  of  soft  solder. 
Lead  also  forms  an  imperfect  alloy  with 
copper.  With  antimony  lead  forms  the 
important  alloy  called  type-metal.  Pew- 
ter is  a hard  alloy  of  four  parts  of  tin 
and  1 of  lead.  In  these  proportions  the 
lead  is  not  attacked  by  organic  acids 
such  as  the  acetic.  For  the  poisonous 
effects  of  lead  see  Lead-poisoning. 

LEAD,  an  instrument  used  on  ship- 
board for  discovering  the  depth  of  water. 
It  is  composed  of  a large  piece  of  lead 
shaped  like  an  elongated  clock-weight, 
from  7 to  11  lbs.  in  weight,  and  is 
attachedto  a line,  generally  of  20  fathoms 
length,  called  the  lead-line,  which  is 
marked  at  certain  distances  to  ascertain 
the  depth  in  fathoms.  When  the  depth 
is  great  the  deep-sea  lead,  weighing  from 
25  to  30  lbs.,  is  used.  The  line,  which  is 
much  longer  than  the  former,  and  called 
the  deep-sea  line,  is  marked  by  knots 
every  10  fathoms,  and  by  a smaller 
knot  every  5. 

LEAD-POISONING,  a disease  caused 
by  the  presence  of  lead  in  some  quan- 
tity in  the  system.  It  may  be  due  to  lead 
which  has  been  taken  up  by  water  or 
other  beverage  from  lead  pipes  or  vessels 
in  which  it  has  been  contained.  The 
use  of  lead  in  the  arts  is  also  a frequent 
cause  of  painful,  and  sometimes  of  fatal 
effects,  from  the  metal  finding  its  way 
into  the  system.  The  glazing  of  culinary 


vessels  with  lead;  the  coloring  of  con- 
fectionary with  the  chromate,  chlo- 
ride, or  carbonate  of  lead;  the  sweeten- 
ing of  sour  wine  by  litharge  or  oxide  of 
lead,  may  all  produce  lead-poisoning 
more  or  less  serious.  But  the  most  fre- 
quent and  virulent  cases  occur  among 
painters  and  persons  engaged  in  white- 
lead  factories;  and  four  forms  of  disease, 
either  simple  or  complicated,  are  apt  to 
manifest  themselves — 1,  Lead  or  paint- 
ers’ colic,  or  dry  belly-ache;  2,  Lead 
rheumatism  or  arthralgia;  3,  Lead 
palsy  or  paralysis,  more  particularly  of 
the  muscles  of  the  fore-arm;  and  4, 
Disease  of  the  brain,  manifested  by 
delirium,  coma,  or  convulsions — a form, 
however,  of  rare  occurrence.  Opium  and 
cathartics  are  the  chief  medicines  ad- 
ministered. 

LEADVILLE,  the  capital  of  Lake  co., 
Colorado,  130  miles  w.s.w.  of  Denver, 
situated  on  a plateau  over  10,000  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  city  owes  its  origin 
to  the  rich  argentiferous  lead  and  silver 
mines  in  the  neighborhood.  The  mineral 
output  of  Leadville  exceeds  $200,000,- 
000.  Pop.  13,700. 

LEADWORT,  a name  for  the  plants 
typical  of  the  order  Plumbaginacese. 

LEAF,  the  green  deciduous  part  of  a 
plant,  usually  shooting  from  the  sides 
of  the  stem  and  branches,  but  some- 
times from  the  root,  by  which  the  sap  is 
supposed  to  be  elaborated  or  fitted  for 
the  nourishment  of  the  plant  by  being 
exposed  to  air  and  light  on  its  extensive 
surface.  When  fully  developed  the  leaf 
generally  consists  of  two  parts,  an  ex- 
panded part,  called  the  blade  or  limb, 
and  a stalk  supporting  that  part,  called 
the  petiole  or  leaf -stalk.  Frequently, 
however,  the  petiole  is  wanting,  in 
which  case  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  sessile. 
Leaves  are  produced  by  an  expansion  of 
the  bark  at  a node  of  the  stem,  and 
generally  consist  of  vascular  tissue  in  the 
veins  or  ribs,  with  cellular  tissue  or 
parenchyma  filling  up  the  interstices, 
and  an  epidermis  over  all.  Some  leaves, 
however,  as  those  of  the  mosses,  are 
entirely  cellular.  See  Botany. 

LEAGUE,  a measure  of  length  vary- 
ing in  different  countries.  The  English 
land  league  is  3 statute  miles,  and  the 
nautical  league  3 equatorial  miles,  or 
3.457875  statute  miles.  The  French 
metric  league  is  reckoned  as  equal  to  4 
kilom4tres  or  4374  yards. 

LEANING  TOWER,  a tower  which 
overhangs  its  base  on  one  side.  The 
most  celebrated  example  is  the  Cam- 
panile of  Pisa,  which  has  an  obliquity 
of  13  feet  in  a height  of  179.  It  is  built 
in  the  Romanesque  style,  to  correspond 
with  the  cathedral,  and  is  surrounded  by 
open  arcades  of  columns.  Other  well- 
known  examples  are  in  Bologna,  the 
Torre  Asonelli,  and  the  Torre  Garisenda, 
both  built  of  brick,  the  latter  well  known 
through  a passage  in  Dante’s  Inferno. 
It  is  a disputed  question  as  to  whether 
the  slant  of  these  towers  is  accidental. 
That  of  Pisa  shows  an  increased  height 
in  each  successive  story  on  the  leaning 
side  which  has  been  attributed  by  some 
to  attempts  of  the  architects  to  rectify  a 
sinking  while  the  tower  was  being  built. 
Others  have  advanced  arguments  to 
show  that  the  slant  here  and  elsewhere 


was  intentional.  The  latter  is  the  pre- 
vailing opinion. 

LEAP-YEAR,  one  of  the  years  which 
contain  366  days,  being  every  fourth 
year,  which  leaps  over  a day  more  than 
a common  year.  Thus  in  common  years, 
if  the  first  day  of  March  is  on  Monday 
the  present  year,  it  will  the  next  year  fall 
on  Tuesday,  but  in  leap-year  it  will  leap 
to  Wednesday,  for  leap-year  contains  a 
day  more  than  a common  year,  a day 
being  added  to  the  month  of  February, 
Every  year  is  a leap-year  which  is 
divisible  by  4 without  remainder,  ex- 
cept the  concluding  years  of  centuries, 
every  fourth  only  of  which  is  a leap- 
year;  thus  the  years  1800  and  1900  are 
not  leap-years,  but  2000  and  2400  are. 

LEAR,  Edward,  English  artist  and 
poet,  born  at  Holloway,  in  London,  in 
1812.  Among  his  best  known  and  popu- 
lar works  are:  Book  of  Nonsense,  Non- 
sense Songs,  More  Nonsense  Songs, 
Laughing  Lyrics.  He  died  in  1888. 

LEANDER.  See  Hero. 

LEA'OTONG,  or  SHING-KING,  a 
Chinese  prov.  in  Manchuria  (but  now 
reckoned  as  part  of  China  proper), 
stretching  into  the  Yellow  Sea  between 
the  gulfs  of  Leaotong  and  Corea.  It  has 
an  area  of  37,000  sq.  miles,  a pleasant 
climate,  and  is  generally  fertile.  Pop. 
6,000,000. 

LEASE,  a permission  to  occupy  lands 
or  tenements  for  life  or  a certain  num- 
ber of  years,  or  during  the  pleasure  of 
the  parties  making  the  contract.  The 
party  letting  the  lands  or  tenements  is 
called  the  lessor,  the  party  to  whom  they 
are  let  the  lessee,  and  the  compensation 
or  consideration  for  the  lease  the  rent. 
A lease  for  a period  not  exceeding  three 
years  may  be  by  verbal  contract.  If, 
however,  the  term  be  longer  than  three 
years,  the  lease  must  be  by  deed.  A 
breach  of  any  of  the  covenants  con- 
tained in  a lease  was  formerly  sufficient 
to  render  it  void,  but  now  any  breach 
may  be  compensated  by  a money  pay- 
ment. The  power  to  lease  necessarily 
depends  upon  the  extent  of  the  lessor’s 
estate  in  the  land  or  tenement  to  be 
leased.  A proprietor  who  has  only  a life- 
estate  can  of  course  lease  his  property 
only  during  his  life. 

LEATHER,  the  skins  of  animals 
dressed  and  prepared  for  use  by  tanning, 
tawing,  or  other  processes,  which  pre- 
serve them  from  putrefaction  and  render 
them  pliable  and  tough.  The  skins  em- 
ployed are  chiefly  those  of  cattle,  though 
the  skins  of  horses,  asses,  sheep,  pigs, 
and  goats  are  also  converted  into  leather. 
Before  subjection  to  the  process  of 
tanning,  the  cured  hides  require  to  be 
brought  back  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
condition  of  fresh  hides  by  soaking  and 
softening  in  water,  to  which  sometimes 
salt  or  carbolic  acid  or  sulphide  of  sod- 
ium is  added.  The  softening  is  now 
generally  assisted  by  machines,  which 
subject  the  skins  to  a kneading  process. 
They  are  then  unhaired  by  the  agency  of 
lime,  the  customary  method  of  liming 
being  to  spread  out  the  hides  flat  in  milk 
of  lime  in  large  pits,  the  hides  being 
“hauled”  or  drawn  out  once  or  twice  a 
day,  and  the  liquor  stirred  up;  but  there 
are  several  variations  upon  this  method 
of  liming.  In  America  and  on  the  Euro- 
pean continent  the  hair  is  loosened  by 


LEATHER 


LEE 


‘‘sweating/’  which  induces  a partial 
putrefaction,  attacking  the  root-sheaths 
without  injuring  the  hide  substance 
proper.  In  the  old  method  of  warm 
sweating,  the  hides  were  simply  laid  in  a 
pile  and  covered,  if  necessary,  with  fer- 
menting tan ; the  preferable  cold  method 
consists  in  hanging  the  hides  in  a moist 
chamber  at  a uniform  temperature  of 
60°  or  70°  F.  When  the  hair  is  sufficiently 
loosened  the  hides  are  usually  thrown 
into  the  “stocks,”  where  the  slime  and 
most  of  the  hair  is  worked  out  of  them. 
Other  unhairing  processes  consist  in 
treatment  with  alkaline  sulphides,  espe- 
cially sulphide  of  sodium  or  sulphide  of 
arsenic.  To  remove  the  loosened  hair, 
the  hide  is  generally  thrown  over  a 
beam  and  scraped  with  a blunt  two- 
handled  knife,  but  several  unhairing 
machines  have  been  invented.  After 
unhairing,  the  loose  flesh  and  fat  are 
scraped,  brushed,  or  pared  from  the 
inner  side,  and  the  hides  intended  for 
sole  leather  are  rounded  or  separated 
into  “butts”  and  “offal” — the  latter  the 
thinner  parts,  including  the  cheeks, 
shanks,  and  belly  pieces.  The  butts  are 
then  suspended  for  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  in  soft  fresh-water, 
and  frequently  shaken  in  it  to  remove 
lime  or  dirt  prior  to  undergoing  the  proc- 
ess of  tanning  (see  Tanning)  and  currying 
(see  Currying).  The  brilliant  smooth 
surface  of  patent,  enameled,  lacquered, 
varnished,  or  japanned  leather  is  due  to 
the  mode  of  finishing  by  stretching  the 
tanned  hides  on  wooden  frames  and 
applying  successive  coats  of  varnish, 
each  coat  being  dried  and  rubbed  smooth 
with  pumice-stone.  Other  special  kinds 
of  leather  are  seal  leather,  Russia  and 
Morocco  leathers  (which  see).  Tawed 
leathers  (see  Tawing)  consist  chiefly  of 
the  skins  of  sheep,  lambs,  kids,  and 
goats  treated  with  alum,  or  some  of  the 
simple  aluminous  salts,  the  principal 
tawing  industries  being  the  manufacture 
of  calf-kid  for  boots  and  glove-kid. 
Shamoy,  or  oil-leather,  is  prepared  by 
impregnating  hides  and  skins  with  oil 
(see  Shamoy).  The  chief  markets  for 
leather  in  Britain  aie  at  London,  Leeds, 
and  Bristol.  Important  European  centers 
are  Antwerp,  Havre,  Paris,  Marseilles, 
Vienna,  and  Berlin ; while  in  the  United 
States,  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston, 
and  Philadelphia  are  the  chief  centers. 

LEATHER,  Artificial,  the  general 
name  of  certain  fabrics  possessing  some 
of  the  qualities,  and  often  the  appear- 
ance of  leather.  One  of  the  earliest 
methods  of  fabrication  consisted  in  ap- 
plying oily  pigments  to  cloth  which  was 
subsequently  rolled  and  coated  with  a 
sort  of  enamel  paint.  An  article  of  this 
sort,  known  under  the  name  of  leather- 
cloth,  was  first  produced  in  America 
about  1849.  Another  kind  consists  of 
leather  parings  and  shavings  reduced 
to  a pulp, and  thenmouldedinto  buckets, 
machinery-bands,  picture-frames,  and 
other  useful  and  ornamental  objects. 
A so-called  vegetable  leather  consists 
of  caoutchouc  dissolved  in  naphtha, 
spread  upon  a backing  of  linen.  It  is  of 
considerable  strength  and  durability, 
and  is  used  for  table-covers,  carriage- 
aprons,  soldiers’  belts,  harness,  book- 
binding, etc.  Various  other  substitutes 
for  leather  have  been  recently  intro- 


duced, one  consisting  of  cloth ‘with  a 
thin  facing  of  leather  ;but  the  commonest 
material  is  still  obtained  by  varnishing 
textiles  with  coatings  of  some  resinous 
substance,  and  then  painting  or  em- 
bossing them. 

LEAVEN,  dough  in  which  fermenta- 
tion has  commenced,  employed  to  fer- 
ment and  render  light  the  fresh  dough 
with  which  it  is  mingled.  Its  use  dates 
from  remotest  antiquity;  the  addition 
of  yeast  or  barm  being  of  modern  date. 

LEAVENWORTH  (Ifiv'en-wurth),  the 
county-seat  of  Leavenworth  co.,  Kan., 
26  miles  northwest  of  Kansas  City. 
There  are  coal-mining  interests  and  ex- 
tensive manufactures,  including  vitri- 
fied and  building  brick,  stoves,  furniture, 
machinery,  flour,  wagons,  etc.  In  the 
suburbs  are  the  United  States  and  state 
penitentiaries,  a home  for  disabled  vol- 
unteers and  Fort  Leavenworth,  one  of 
the  most  important  military  posts  of 
the  West.  Pop.  22,135. 

LEB'ANON,  a town  in  Lebanon  co., 
Pennsylvania.  It  is  a seat  of  iron  and 
other  industries.  Pop.  19,160. 

LEB'ANON,  Mountains  of,  two  nearly 
parallel  mountain  ranges  in  the  north  of 
Palestine,  stretching  from  southwest  to 
northeast,  and  inclosing  between  them  a 
valley  about  70  miles  long  by  15  miles 
wide.  In  the  south  part  of  the  chain  the 
Upper  Jordan  has  its  source.  The 
habitable  districts  are  occupied  toward 
the  north  by  the  Maronite  Christians, 
and  toward  the  south  by  the  Druses. 
The  forests  of  cedar  for  which  Lebanon 
was  famed  have  to  a large  extent  dis- 
appeared. 

LECKY,  Will.  Ed.  Hartpole,  English 
historical  writer,  born  in  Dublin  1838. 
He  has  written  The  Leaders  of  Public 
Opinion  in  Ireland;  History  of  the  Rise 
and  Influence  of  the  Spirit  of  Rational- 
ism in  Europe;  History  of  European 
Morals  from  Agustus  to  Charlemagne; 
History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  He  died  in  1903. 

LEE,  in  nautical  language,  refers  to 
the  side  toward  which  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing, leeward  and  windward  being  op- 
posite terms.  A lee  shore  is  one  to  lee- 
ward of  a vessel. — A vessel’s  leeway  is 
the  amount  that  she  drifts  from  her 
proper  course. 

LEE,  Ann,  founder  of  the  Shaker 
sect;  was  born  in  Manchester,  England, 
in  1736.  In  1758  she  joined  the  Manches- 
ter Society  of  Friends,  and  preached 
against  lustful  gratification.  In  1770 
she  was  imprisoned  for  creating  religious 
disturbance  among  the  lower  orders, 
after  her  release  was  deemed  by  many 
their  spiritual  mother  in  Christ.  She 
then  claimed  to  have  had  direct  revela- 
tion from  Christ,  declared  the  wrath  of 
the  Almighty  against  marriage,  and  was 
eventually  incarcerated  in  a mad-house. 
Thereafter  she  declared  she  had  a special 
revelation  to  go  to  the  United  States, 
and,  with  a number  of  her  followers, 
arrived  in  New  York  City  in  May,  1774. 
After  some  vicissitudes  she  founded  a 
settlement  at  Watervliet,  near  Albany, 
N.  Y.  Here  she  was  accused  of  witch- 
craft, and  later,  on  a charge  of  high 
treason,  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
in  Albany  during  the  summer  of  1776. 
In  1780  her  society  began  to  increase, 
and  during  a religious  rivival  at  New 


Lebanon  many  persons  united  with  he* 
followers.  In  1781,  in  company  with 
several  of  her  elders,  she  visited  the 
New  England  states,  preaching  at  many 
places,  and  founded  a new  society  at 
Harvard,  Mass.  She  died  in  1784. 

LEE,  Arthur,  one  of  the  American 
representatives  in  Europe  during  the 
revolutionary  war.  He  was  born  in 
Stratford,  Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  in 
1740.  Upon  Franklin’s  return  to  America 
early  in  1775,  Lee  succeeded  him  as  the 
agent  of  Massachusetts,  and  he  wae 
appointed  by  the  committee  of  secret 
correspondence  of  the  continental  con- 
gress as  its  secret  agent  in  London. 
He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
treaties  concluded  with  France  in 
February,  1778.  In  1781  Prince  William 
County  sent  him  to  the  Virginia  legis- 
lature, by  which  body,  at  the  close  of 
the  year,  he  was  sent  to  the  continental 
congress,  where  he  remained  until  1785. 
On  the  establishment  of  the  new  national 
government  he  retired  finally  to  private 
life,  and  died  after  a brief  illness  Decem- 
ber 12,  1792. 

LEE,  Charles,  soldier,  was  bom  in 
Dernhall,  England,  in  1731.  In  1754 
his  regiment  was  ordered  to  America 
to  take  part  in  Braddock’s  western  ex- 
pedition. Lee  served  in  later  campaigns 
as  captain  of  grenadiers,  and  was  present 
at  several  conferences  of  Sir  William 
Johnson  with  the  Indians.  His  relations 
with  the  Mohawks  became  so  friendly 
that  he  was  adopted  as  one  of  their  tribe. 
In  1775  congress  appointed  him  second 
major-general  in  the  continental  army. 
In  July,  1775,  Lee  joined  the  army  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  left  wing.  On  October  14th  Lee 
arrived  in  New  York  City  and  took  com- 
mand of  the  right  wing  of  Washington’s 
army,  on  Harlem  Heights.  While 
separated  from  his  forces,  on  December 
13th,  General  Lee  was  surprised  and 
captured  by  a party  of  dragoons.  In 
May,  1778,  he  was  exchanged  for  Gen- 
eral Prescott,  and  joined  the  American 
army  at  Valley  Forge.  On  June  28th 
Lee  overtook  the  enemy,  who  were  re- 
treating from  Philadelphia  to  New  York, 
at  Monmouth,  N.  J.  When  Washington 
arrived  for  his  support,  he  was  aston- 
ished to  find  his  division  in  disorderly 
retreat,  pursued  by  the  British.  It  was 
then  the  commander-in-chief  lost  his 
temper,  and  in  round  terms  swore  at  Lee 
in  the  hearing  of  his  soldiers.  Rallying 
his  forces,  he  soon  repelled  the  enemy 
and  sent  Lee  to  the  rear.  Afterward  Lee 
was  tried  for  insubordination,  and 
ordered  to  be  suspended  from  command 
for  a year.  For  his  disrespect  to  Wash- 
ington, he  was  challenged  by  Col.  John 
Laurens,  Washington’s  aide-de-camp, 
and  in  the  subsequent  duel  was  shot  in 
the  arm.  Thereafter  he  wrote  an  offen- 
sive letter  to  congress,  for  which  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  anny.  He  retired  to 
his  estate  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley. 
He  died  in  1782. 

LEE,  Fitzhugh,  American  soldier, 
nephew  of  Robert  E.  Lee.  He  was  born 
in  Clermont,  Va.,  in  1835.  He  entered 
the  confederate  army,  and  was  adiutant- 
general  in  General  Ewell’s  brigade.  He 
served  as  colonel  of  a cavalry  regiment 
in  nearly  all  the  important  operations 
of  the  army  of  northern  Virginia;  was 


LEE 


LEECH 


appointed  brigadier-general  in  1862,  and  I 
major-general  in  1863;  was  severely 
wounded  at  Winchester,  Va.,  1864;  and 
from  March,  1865,  until  his  surrender  to 
General  Meade  at  Farmville,  was  in 
command  of  all  the  cavalry  of  the  army 
of  northern  Virginia.  From  1886  to  1890 
he  was  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  collector  of  internal  revenue 
for  the  western  district  of  Virginia  in 
1895,  and  in  1896  was  sent  to  Cuba  by 
President  Cleveland  as  consul-general 
at  Havana.  In  1898  he  was  appointed 
major-general  of  volunteers  and  placed 
in  command  of  the  seventh  army  corps. 
In  January,  1899,  he  became  military 
governor  of  Havana,  and  subseq^uently 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri.  He  died  in  1905. 

LEE,  Francis  Lightfoot,  was  born  in 
Westmoreland  co.,  Va.,  in  1734.  After 
serving  in  the  Virginia  house  of  burgesses 
from  London  and  Richmond  counties, 
he  was,  in  August,  1775,  elected  to  the 
continental  congress,  in  which  he  served 
until  1779.  He  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  and  assisted  in  drawing 
up  the  articles  of  confederation.  He 
died  in  1797. 

LEE,  George  W.  C.,  eldest  son  of 
General  Robert  E.  Lee,  was  born  at 
Arlington,  Va.,  in  1832.  He  rose  to  a 
major-general’s  commission,  and  com- 
manded a division  of  the  army  of  north- 
ern Virginia.  In  February,  1871,  he 
succeeded  his  father  as  president  of 
Washington  College,  Va.,  (now  Wash- 
ington and  Lee  University). 

LEE,  Henry,  an  American  revolu- 
tionary general,  born  in  Westmoreland 
co.,  Virginia,  1756;  educated  at  Prince- 
ton College,  and  in  1776  appointed  cap- 
tain of  a company  of  cavalry  in  Colonel 
Bland’s  Virginia  regiment.  In  the 
memorable  retreat  of  Greene  before  Lord 
Cornwallis,  Lee’s  legion  acquired  fame 
as  the  rear-guard  of  the  American  army, 
the  post  of  the  greatest  danger.  At  the 
battles  of  Guildford  courthouse  and 
Eutaw,  and  in  other  affairs,  Lee  spe- 
cially distinguished  himself.  On  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  he  was  sent  to 
congress  as  a delegate  from  Virginia, 
and  in  1792  was  chosen  governor  of  that 
state.  In  1801  he  retired  from  public 
life.  He  died  in  1816. 

LEE,  John  Doyle,  Mormon  official, 
born  at  Kaskaskia,  111.,  in  1812.  In  1837 
he  came  under  Mormon  influence  and 
moved  to  Davies  co..  Mo.,  where  he 
joined  the  church.  He  was  accused  of 
having  incited  the  massacre  of  the 
Arkansas  emigrants  at  Mountain  Mead- 
ows in  1857.  On  his  first  trial  before 
the  United  States  court  in  1875  the  jury 
disagreed,  but  on  the  second  trial  in 
1876  he  was  found  guilty.  He  w’as  shot 
on  the  scene  of  the  outrage,  March  23, 
1877.  After  his  second  trial  he  declared 
that  he  had  acted  under  instructions 
from  Brigham  Young  and  other  high 
Mormon  officials,  who  had  made  him  the 
scape-goat. 

LEE,  Richard  Henry,  a distinguished 
American,  born  1732  at  Stratford,  West- 
moreland CO.,  Virginia.  He  received 
part  of  his  education  in  England,  and 
after  his  return  to  his  native  country 
was  chosen  a delegate  to  the  house  of 
Burgesses  from  Westmoreland  county. 
In  the  opposition  to  unjust  British 


claims  he  played  throughout  a most 
important  part,  and  on  being  sent  as 
delegate  from  Virginia  to  the  first 
American  congress  at  Philadelphia 
(1774)  was  at  once  recognized  as  a leader 
in  that  assembly.  He  drew  up  most  of 
those  addresses  to  the  king  and  the 
English  people  which  were  admitted 
by  his  political  opponents  to  be  unsur- 
passed by  any  of  the  state  papers  of  the 
time.  When  war  became  inevitable 
Lee  was  placed  on  the  various  com- 
mittees appointed  to  organize  resistance. 
On  the  7th  of  June,  1776,  he  introduced 
the  motion  finally  breaking  political 
connection  with  Britain.  In  1784  he 
was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the 
congress,  and  when  the  federal  con- 
stitution was  established  he  entered  the 
senate  for  his  native  state.  In  1792  he 
retired  into  private  life,  and  died  in 
Virginia  in  1794. 

LEE,  Robert  Edmund,  American  gen- 
eral, commander-in-chief  of  the  confed- 
erate anny,  and  one  of  the  most  skilful 
tacticians  who  took  part  in  the  great 
civil  war,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1808. 
In  1829  he  left  the  military  academy  of 
West  Point  with  the  rank  of  secondlieu- 
tenant  of  engineers.  After  making  a 
tour  in  Europe  he  obtained  a captaincy 
in  1838,  and  in  1847  was  appointed 


Kobert  E.  Lee. 

engineer-in-chief  of  the  army  for  the 
Mexican  campaign,  in  which  his  bril- 
liant services  at  Cerro-Gordo,  Contreras, 
Cherubusco,  and  Chapultepec  (where 
he  was  wounded)  speedily  gained  for 
him  the  rank  of  colonel.  From  1852  to 
1855  he  was  superintendent  of  military 
studies  at  West  Point.  In  1861  he  be- 
came colonel  of  his  regiment,  but  on  the 
secession  of  Virginia  from  the  union  he 
threw  up  his  commission,  was  intrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  Virginia  army, 
and  subsequently  was  selected  by 
President  Davis  as  commander-in-chief. 
In  June,  1862,  he  defeated  the  federal 
army  under  McClellan,  and,  aided  by 
Stonewall  Jackson,  defeated  Pope  in  a 
series  of  engagements  commencing  20th 
August,  and  ending  with  the  victory 
of  Manassas  Junction  on  the  30th.  Lee 
now  crossed  the  Potomac  into  Mary- 
land to  threaten  Washington  itself, 
but  a series  of  checks  obliged  him  to 


withdraw  behind  the  Rappahannock. 
On  the  13th  December  he  routed  the 
federalists  under  Burnside  at  Fredericks- 
burg, and  on  the  2d  and  3d  May,  1863, 
gained  the  splendid  victory  of  Chan- 
cellbrsville  over  Hooker.  After  this  Lee 
resolved  to  push  on  to  Washington,  but 
was  beaten  by  Meade  at  Gettysburg, 
July  1st  and  3d,  and  forced  to  retreat 
into  Virginia.  In  the  autumn  of  that 
year  he  collected  all  his  forces,  defeated 
Meade  on  Nov.  7,  and  in  May,  1864, 
advanced  upon  Fredericksburg,  while 
Grant  at  the  head  of  a large  army  en- 
tered Virginia.  A series  of  sanguinary 
engagements  took  place  at  Spottsyl- 
vania  (5th  to  10th  May),  in  which  Lee 
was  worsted,  but  on  June  3d  he  defeated 
Grant  at  Chickahominy.  The  federals, 
however,  with  their  great  superiority  of 
men  and  material,  gradually  hemmed 
in  the  confederate  forces,  and  on  April 
9th  Lee  and  his  army  surrendered  to 
Grant  at  Burkesville.  General  Lee  then 
retired  into  private  life,  was  elected 
president  of  Washington  College,  Lex- 
ington, Virginia,  in  1865,  where  he  died 
on  the  12th  October,  1870. 

LEE,  William  Henry  Fitzhugh,  second 
son  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  was  born  at  Ar- 
lington, Va.,  in  1837.  He  was  appointed 
lieutenant  in  1857  and  served  in  the 
Utah  campaign.  In  1861  he  joined  the 
confederate  forces,  became  a briga- 
dier-general in  October,  1862,  was  cap- 
tured and  exchanged,  and  in  April,  1864, 
was  promoted  major-general  of  cavalry 
and  led  his  division  from  the  Rapidan 
to  Appomattox.  In  1886  he  was  elected 
to  congress  and  re-elected  in  1888  as  a 
democrat.  He  died  in  1906. 

LEECH,  a name  for  those  worms,  the 
distinctive  feature  of  which  consists  in 
the  presence  of  one  or  two  sucking-discs. 
The  rings  of  the  body  are  very  numer- 
ous and  closely  set.  Usually  leeches 
breathe  either  by  the  general  surface 
of  the  body  or  by  little  sac-like  pouches 
known  as  the  respiratory  sacculi.  They 
chiefly  inhabit  fresh-water  ponds,  though 
some  live  among  moist  grass,  and  some 
are  marine.  The  familiar  horse-leeches 
of  fresh-water  ponds  and  ditches  are  in- 
cluded in  this  group.  The  land-leeches 
of  Ceylon  are  terrestrial  in  habits,  living 
among  damp  foliage,  and  in  like  situa- 
tions. They  fasten  on  man  and  beast, 
and  are  a serious  pest  to  travelers.  The 
species  generally  employed  for  medical 
purposes  belong  to  the  genus  Sanguisuga 
and  are  usually  either  the  Hungarian 
or  green  leech,  used  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  or  the  brown-speckled  or  Eng- 
lish leech,  used  in  the  north  of  Europe. 
The  latter  variety,  however,  is  now  rare 
in  England,  owing  to  the  drainage  of 
bogs  and  ponds.  The  mouth,  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  anterior  sucker,  is 
provided  with  three  small  white  teeth, 
serrated  along  the  edges,  and  capable 
of  inflicting  a peculiar  Y-shaped  wound, 
which,  like  that  produced  by  the  sol- 
dier’s bayonet,  is  difficult  to  close,  and 
ermits  a large  and  continuous  flow  of 
lood.  From  4 drachms  to  1 oz.  may 
be  stated  to  be  the  average  quantity  of  i 
blood  that  can  be  drawn  by  a leech. 
After  detaching  themselves,  leeches  are 
made  to  disgorge  the  blood  they  have 
drawn  by  being  placed  in  a weak  solu- 
tion of  salt,  or  by  having  a little  salt 


LEECH 


LEIBNITZ 


sprinkled  over  them.  Leeches  appear  to 
hybernate  in  winter,  burying  themselves 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  pools, 
and  coming  forth  in  the  spring. 

LEECH,  the  border  or  edge  of  a sail 
which  is  sloping  or  perpendicular. 

LEEDS,  a municipal,  parliamentary, 
and  county  borough  and  manufacturing 
town  of  England,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  river  Aire,  which  here 
becomes  navigable,  and  is  crossed  by 
eight  bridges;  185|  miles  by  railway 
n.n.w.  from  London.  The  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  Canal  communicates  with  the 
Aire,  which  again  gives  water  com- 
munication with  Hull,  etc.  The  town 
extends  for  about  7^  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  about  7 from  north  to  south. 
Leeds  has  been  for  generations  the  chief 
seat  of  the  woolen  manufacture  of  York- 
shire. The  other  chief  industries  are; 
boot  and  shoe  factories,  the  leather 
trade,  color-printing  works,  tobacco 
manufactories,  ch%mical  and  glass  works, 
works  for  making  drainage  pipes,  fire- 
bricks, terra-cotta,  pottery,  etc.  Nearly 
a hundred  collieries  are  worked  in  the 
district.  Pop.  428,953. 

LEEK,  a mild  kind  of  onion  much 
cultivated  for  culinary  purposes.  The 
stem  is  rather  tall,  and  the  flowers  are 
disposed  in  large  compact  balls,  sup- 
ported on  purple  peduncles. 

LEEUWENHOECK  (la'u-ven-hok), 
Antony  van,  Dutch  microscopist,  born 
1632,  died  1723.  He  completed  Harvey’s 
discovery  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
by  showing  that  it  passes  from  the 
arteries  to  the  veins  through  the  capil- 
laries. He  also  discovered  the  red  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood,  the  spermatozoa, 
the  infusorial  animalcules,  etc.  He  con- 
tributed papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society, 
London. 

LEEWARD,  in  nautical  phraseology, 
a term  that  refers  to  the  quarter  toward 
which  the  wind  blows.  See  Lee. 

LEEWARD  ISLANDS.  See  West 
Indies. 

LEG,  any  limb  of  an  animal  that  is 
used  in  supporting  the  body,  and  in 


Bones  of  the  human  leg. 

A,  femur:  l,  Head;  2,  Neck;  3,  Shaft;  4,  Ex- 
ternal condyle;  5 Internal  do.  B,  Patella:  1, 
Apex  of  the  bone;  2,  Surface  of  articulation 
with  external  condyle  of  the  femur;  3,  Do, 
with  internal  condyle.  C,  Fibula:  6,  Shaft;  9, 
Lower  extremity,  the  external  malleolus;  10, 
Upper  extremity.  D,  Tibia:  1,  Spinous  proc- 
ess: 2,  Inner  tuberosity;  3,  Outer  do;  4, 
Tubercle;  5,  Shaft;  7,  Internal  surface  of  shaft; 
the  sharp  border  between  5 and  7 the  crest  of 
tibia;  8,  Internal  malleolus. 

walking  and  running;  in  a narrower 
sense  that  part  of  the  buman  limb  from 
the  knee  to  the  foot.  The  human  leg  has 
two  bones,  the  inner  called  the  tibia  or 
shin-bone,  the  outer  called  the  fibula  or 
clasp-bone.  The  tibia  is  much  the  larger 


of  the  two,  and  above  is  connected  with 
the  thigh-bone  to  form  the  knee-joint, 
the  fibula  being  attached  to  the  outer 
side  of  its  head.  In  front  of  the  knee- 
joint,  situated  within  a tendon,  is  the 
knee-cap  or  patella.  (See  Knee.)  The 
lower-end  of  the  tibia  and  of  the  fibula 
enter  into  the  ankle-joint,  the  weigh! 
being  conducted  to  the  foot  by  the  tibia. 
(See  Foot.)  In  the  foreleg  are  muscles 
which  extend  the  foot,  and  on  the  back 
of  the  leg  are  two  large  muscles  which 
form  the  bulk  of  the  calf  of  the  leg,  and 
which  unite  in  a thick  tendon,  the  tendo 
Achillis.  These  muscles  are  used  in  walk- 
ing, jumping,  etc. 

LeG'ACY,  a gift  of  personal  property 
by  will.  It  is  a general  rule  that  if  a 
legatee  die  in  the  lifetime  of  the  testator, 
the  legacy  lapses  and  falls  into  the 
residue  of  the  estate,  unless  when  the 
legatee  has  been  a child  of  the  testator, 
and  has  left  children.  All  legacies  are 
postponed  to  the  claims  of  creditors. 

LE'GATES,  persons  sent  by  the  pope 
as  ambassadors  to  foreign  courts.  Legate 
a latere,  the  highest  in  rank,  were  sent 
on  particularly  important  missions,  and 
were  taken  from  the  college  of  cardinals 
only. 

LEGATION,  the  body  of  official  per- 
sons attached  to  an  embassy.  Formerly 
in  Italy  legation  signified  a division  of 
the  states  of  the  church. 

LeGA'TO,  in  music,  a word  used  in 
opposition  to  staccato,  and  implying 
that  the  notes  of  the  movement,  or  pas- 
sage to  which  it  is  affixed,  are  to  be  per- 
formed in  a close,  smooth,  and  gliding 
manner,  each  note  being  held  till  the 
next  note  is  struck. 

LE'GEND,  originally  the  title  of  a 
book  containing  the  lessons  that  were  to 
be  read  daily  in  the  service  of  the  early 
church.  The  term  legend  was  afterward 
applied  to  collections  of  biographies  of 
saints  and  martyrs,  or  of  remarkable 
stories  relating  to  them,  because  they 
were  read  at  matins  and  in  the  refectories 
of  cloisters,  and  were  earnestly  recom- 
mended to  the  perusal  of  the  laity. 
The  Roman  breviaries  contain  histories 
of  the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs,  which 
were  read  on  the  days  of  the  saints  whom 
they  commemorated.  They  originated 
in  the  12th  or  13th  century,  and  they 
contributed  much  to  the  extinction  of 
the  old  German  (heathen)  heroic  tra- 
ditions. The  tenn  is  used  in  a general 
sense  for  any  remarkable  story  handed 
down  from  early  times,  and  is  also  ap-1 
plied  to  the  motto  or  words  engraved  in 
a circular  manner  round  the  head  or 
other  figure  upon  a medal  or  coin. 

LEGERDEMAIN  (lej-er-de-mto'),  or 
CONJURING,  a popular  amusement  or 
exhibition,  consisting  of  tricks  per- 
formed with  such  art  and  adroitness  that 
the  manner  or  art  eludes  observation. 
All  the  phenomena  of  legerdemain  are 
referrible  to  sleight  of  hand,  mechanical 
contrivances,  confederacy,  or  some  com- 
bination of  these.  In  the  more  elaborate 
phases  of  the  art  the  aid  of  optical, 
chemical,  and  other  sciences  is  utilized. 

LEGHORN,  a seaport  of  Northern 
Italy,  in  the  province  of  Leghorn  or 
Livorno,  on  the  Mediterranean,  12  miles 
s.s.w.  of  Pisa  and  50  miles  w.s.w.  of 
Florence.  Pop.  96,937. 

LEGHORN,  a kind  of  plait  for  bonnets 


and  hats  made  from  the  straw  of  bearded 
wheat  cut  green  and  bleached ; so  named 
from  being  imported  from  Leghorn. 

LEGION,  in  ancient  Roman  armies  a 
body  of  infantry  consisting  of  different 
numbers  of  men  at  different  periods, 
from  3000  to  above  6000,  often  with  a 
complement  of  cavalry.  Each  legion  wag 
divided  into  ten  cohorts,  each  cohort" 
into  three  maniples,  and  each  maniple 
into  two  centuries.  Every  legion  had 
sixty  centurions,  and  the  same  number 
of  optiones  or  lieutenants  and  standard- 
bearers.  The  standard  of  the  legion  was 
an  eagle. 

LEGION  OF  HONOR,  a French  order 
for  the  recognition  of  military  and  civil 
merit,  instituted  by  Napoleon  while 
consul.  May  19,  1802,  and  inaugurated 
14th  July,  1804.  The  decoration  origin- 
ally consisted  of  a star  containing  the 
portrait  of  Napoleon  surrounded  by  a 
wreath  of  oak  and  laurel,  with  the 
legend,  “Napoleon  empereur  des  Fran- 
5ais;’’  on  the  reverse  was  the  French 
eagle  with  a thunderbolt  in  his  talons, 
and  the  legend,  “Honneur  et  patrie.” 
The  order  has  been  remodeled  several 
times,  the  last  occasion  being  subse- 
quent to  the  downfall  of  the  second 
empire.  There  are  now  five  ranks  or 
classes;  ordinary  chevaliers  or  knights, 
officers,  commanders,  grand  - officers, 
grand-crosses.  The  profuse  granting  of 
the  decoration  of  the  order  latterly 
brought  the  institution  into  discredit, 
and  the  number  of  chevaliers  is  now 
restricted  to  25,000,  the  officers  to  4000, 
the  commanders  to  1000,  the  grand- 
officers  to  200,  and  the  grand-crosses  to 
70.  The  star  now  bears  a figure  em- 
blematic of  the  republic,  with  the  in- 
scription “R^publique  Frangaise,  1870,” 
on  the  reverse  two  flags,  with  the  in- 
scription “Honneur  et  Patrie.” 

LEGUMINO'S.®,  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  important  natural  orders  of 
plants,  including  about  seven  thousand 
species,  which  are  dispersed  throughout 
the  world.  They  are  trees,  shrubs,  or 
herbs,  differing  widely  in  habit,  with 
stipulate,  alternate  (rarely  opposite), 
pinnate,  digitately  compound  or  simple 
leaves,  and  axillary  or  terminal  one  or 
many  flowered  peduncles  of  often  showy 
flowers,  which  are  succeeded  by  a legu- 
minous fruit.  Four  sub-orders  are  recog- 
nized; Papilionacere,  Swartziese,  Caesal- 
piniese,  and  Mimosese.  It  contains  a 
great  variety  of  useful  and  beautiful 
species,  as  peas,  beans,  lentils,  clover, 
lucern,  sainfoin,  vetches,  indigo,  log- 
wood, and  many  other  dyeing  plants, 
acacias,  senna,  tamarinds,  etc. 

LEHIgH  river,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  in  Pennsylvania,  rising  in  Pike 
county  and  joining  the  Delaware  at 
Easton  after  a course  of  100  miles,  of 
which  70  are  navigable. 

LEHIGH  UNIVERSITY,  an  institution 
of  the  LTnited  States,  at  South  Bethle- 
hem, Pa.,  founded  and  liberally  en- 
dowed by  Asa  Packer  for  the  instruction 
(without  charge)  of  young  men  from 
any  part  of  the  country  or  of  the  world. 
It  has  fine  buildings,  a library  of  over 
50,000  vols.,  etc.  It  gives  instruction  in 
the  various  branches  of  general  litera- 
ture and  technology. 

LEIBNITZ  (lib'nits),  Gottfried  "Wil- 
helm, Baron  von,  German  scholar  and 


LEIDY 


LEITRIM 


philosopher,  born  in  1646  at  Leipzig. 
He  studied  law,  mathematics,  and  phil- 
osophy at  the  university  of  his  native 
town,  where  he  published  a philosophical 
dissertation,  De  Principio  Individui,  as 
early  as  1663.  This  was  followed  by 
several  legal  treatises,  for  example  De 
Conditionibus  (1665),  and  by  a remark- 
able philosophico-mathematical  trea- 
tise, De  Arte  Combinatoria  (1666). 
After  holding  political  appointments  un- 
der the  elector  of  Mainz  he  went  to 
Paris  in  1672,  and  there  applied  himself 
particularly  to  mathematics.  He  also 


Leguminosae. 

1,  Paplllonacese : a,  Flower  of  the  pea; 
Standard;  w.  Wings;  k.  Keel;  6,  Stamina,  nine 
connected,  one  free;  c.  Legume,  seeds  fixed  to 
the  upper  suture  in  one  row.  2,  Swartziese:  a. 
Flower  of  Swartzia  grandiflbra,  with  its  single 
petal  and  hypogynous  stamens;  b.  Calyx;  c, 
Legume.  3,  Caesalpinle®:  a.  Flower  of  Poin 
ciana  pulcherrima  showing  its  difform  Interior 
upper  petal;  6,  Calyx;  c.  Legume.  4,  Mlmoseae; 
a.  One  flower  of  common  sensitive  plant 
{Mimosa  pudica)  showing  its  regular  coralla; 
0.  Stamina,  hypogynous;  c.  Legume  exterior; 
d.  Legume  interior;  «,  Legume  of  Acacia 
arablca.  a.  Curved  radicle,  as  in  Papilonaceae. 
B,  Straight  radicle,  as  in  Swartzieae  and  Cae- 
salpinieae. 

went  to  England,  where  he  was  elected 
a member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Boyle  and 
Newton.  About  this  time  he  made  his 
discovery  of  the  differential  calculus. 

: Having  assisted  the  elector  of  Branden- 
' burg  (afterward  Frederick  I.  of  Prus- 
; sia)  to  establish  the  Royal  Academy  of 
1 Sciences  at  Berlin,  he  was  made  presi- 
i dent  for  life  (1700).  He  was  also  made  a 
' privy-councillor  by  the  Czar  Peter  the 
Great.  In  1710  he  published  his  cele- 
brated Essai  de  Th4odic6e,  on  the  good- 
ness of  God,  human  liberty,  and  the 
origin  of  evil,  in  which  he  maintained 
the  doctrines  of  pre-established  har- 
mony and  optimism,  and  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  Nouveaux  Essais  sur 
I’Entendement  Humain.  A sketch  of 
. his  philosophy  was  given  by  him  in  his 
■ Monadologie,  1714.  His  controversy 
with  Newton  concerning  the  discovery 
of  the  differential  calculus,  and  the  pains 
of  the  gout,  embittered  the  close  of  his 
active  life.  He  died  in  1716.  The  prin- 
cipal metaphysical  speculations  of  Lieb- 
nitz  are  contained  in  his  Th6odic4e, 
Nouveaux  Essais,  Syst^me  nouveau  de 


la  Nature,  De  Ipsa  Natura  Monadologie, 
and  in  portions  of  his  correspondence. 
He  controverted  Locke’s  rejection  of 
innate  ideas,  holding  that  there  are 
necessary  truths  which  cannot  be 
learned  from  experience,  but  are  innate 
in  the  soul,  not,  indeed,  actually  form- 
ing objects  of  knowledge,  but  capable 
of  being  called  forth  by  circumstances. 
Authorities  seem  generally  agreed  that 
Liebnitz  discovered  the  differential  cal- 
culus independently  of  any  knowledge 
of  Newton’s  method  of  fluxions,  so  that 
each  of  these  great  men  in  reality  at- 
tained the  same  result  for  himself. 

LEIDY,  Joseph,  American  naturalist, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1823.  He 
held  chairs  of  anatomy  in  several  Penn- 
sylvania colleges;  was  an  army  surgeon 
during  the  civil  war,  and,  in  1871,  be- 
came professor  of  natural  histoy  in 
Swarthmore  College.  He  was  a member 
of  numerous  scientific  societies,  includ- 
ing the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
and  was  president  of  the  Philadelphia 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences.  Harvard 
made  him  LL.D.  in  1886.  He  has 
written  many  hundred  papers  on  biology 
and  kindred  subjects.  He  died  in  1891 

LEICESTER,  (les'ter)  a municipal, 
pari.,  and  county  borough  of  England, 
county  town  and  near  the  center  of 
Leicestershire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Soar.  The  staple  manufactures  are  cot- 
ton and  worsted  hosiery,  elastic  webs 
ironware,  boots  and  shoes,  shawls,  lace, 
thread,  etc.  Pop.  211,574. — Leicester- 
shire is  bounded  by  Notts,  Derby, 
Warwick,  Northampton,  Rutland,  and 
Lincoln;  area,  511,907  acres,  almost 
all  arable  land,  meadow,  and  pasture. 
Dairy  farms  are  numerous,  and  the 
cheese  known  as  Stilton  is  chiefly  made 
in  Leicestershire.  Pop.  433,994. 

LEICESTER,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of, 
fifth  son  of  John  Dudley,  Duke  of  North- 
umberland, born  1532,  died  1588.  In 
1549  he  was  married  to  Amy  Robsart, 
daughter  of  a Devonshire  gentleman,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  accessory  to  her 
murder  in  1560.  Elizabeth  created  him 
Earl  of  Leicester  and  privy-councillor, 
and  bestowed  titles  and  estates  on  him 
lavishly.  Her  fondn,ess  for  him  caused 
his  marriage  with  her  to  be  regarded  as 
certain.  He,  however,  excited  the 
violent  anger  of  the  queen  by  his  mar- 
riage with  the  Countess  of  Essex  in  1578. 
He  successfully  commanded  an  army  in 
the  Low  Countries,  and  when  England 
was  threatened  by  the  Spanish  Armada, 
in  1588,  he  was  appointed  lieutenant- 
general.  He  is  characterized  as  an  am- 
bitious and  unscrupulous  courtier,  com- 
bining in  himself  the  worst  qualities  of 
both  sexes. 

LEIGHTON  (la'ton),  Frederick,  Lord 
Leighton,  painter,  president  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  born  at  Scarborough 
in  1830,  died  in  1896.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  1869  an  Academician. 
In  1878  he  succeeded  Sir  Francis  Grant 
as  president  of  the  Academy;  was 
knighted,  and  was  named  an  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  In  1886  he  was 
made  a baronet,  and  on  January  1,  1896, 
he  was  made  a peer.  From  the  long  list 
of  his  works  special  mention  may  be 
made  of  his  Hercules  Wrestling  with 
Death  (1871),  the  Daphnephoria  (1876), 


the  Music  Lesson  (1877),  Sister’s  Kiss 
(1880),  Phryne  (1882),  Cymon  and  Iphi- 
genia  (1884),  Captive  Andromache 
(1888),  and  Ball  Players  (1889);  and 
the  large  frescoes  at  the  South  Kensing- 
ton Museum,  representing  the  Industrial 
Arts  applied  to  War,  and  the  Arts  of 
Peace.  In  addition  to  his  pictures  he  has 
achieved  a high  place  as  a sculptor  by 
his  Athlete  Strangling  a Python  (1876), 
and  his  Sluggard  (1886).  The  special 


Lord  Leighton. 

merit  of  his  work  lies  in  the  perfection 
of  his  draughtsmanship  and  design,  his 
coloring,  though  possessing  unfailing 
charm  of  harmonious  arrangement,  be- 
ing only  thoroughly  satisfactory  from 
the  decorative  point  of  view.  A fine 
poetic  quality,  conjoined  with  elegance 
in  drawing  and  great  refinement  in 
execution,  marks  his  whole  work. 

LEINSTER  (lin'.ster),  a province  of 
Ireland,  divided  into  twelve  counties — • 
Wexford,  Kilkenny,  Carlow,  Wicklow, 
Dublin,  Kildare,  Queen’s  County,  King’s 
County,  Westmeath,  Longford,  Meath, 
and  Louth;  area,  7620  sq.  miles.  Lein- 
ster is  the  most  favored  of  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Ireland  in  the  extent  of  its 
tillage  and  pasture  lands,  and  its  wealth 
in  minerals.  Pop.  1,152,829. 

LEIPZIG  (lip'zih),  or  LEIPSIC,  the 
second  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
and  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  commerce 
in  Germany,  64  miles  w.n.w.  from 
Dresden.  The  university,  founded  in 
1409,  is  the  second  in  importance  in 
Germany  (that  of  Berlin  being  first), 
and  has  over  3000  students,  and  a library 
of  350,000  vols.  Schools  are  numerous 
and  good,  the  conservatory  of  music 
being  of  some  celebrity.  Besides  being 
the  center  of  the  book  and  publishing 
trade  of  Germany,  Leipzig  possesses 
considerable  manufactures,  and  has  im- 
portant general  commerce,  carried  on 
especially  through  its  three  noted  fairs 
at  the  New-year,  Easter,  and  Michael- 
mas. Pop.  455,089. 

LEITH  (leth),  a seaport  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  in  the  county  of  Mid- 
lothian, Scotland,  about  1^  mile  from 
the  center  of  Edinburgh.  Pop.  77,439. 

LEITRIM  (le'trim),  a county  of  Ire- 
land, bounded  by  Donegal  Bay  and  the 
counties  of  Donegal,  Fermanagh,  Cavan, 
Longford,  Roscommon,  and  Sligo,  about 
51  miles  long  by  21  broad;  area, 
392,363  acres.  'The  surface  in  the  north  is 
somewhat  rugged  and  mountainous,  but 
elsewhere  generally  flat  and  in  part 


LELAND 


LENORMANT 


1 


moorish.  In  the  valleys  the  soil,  resting 
generally  on  limestone,  is  fertile.  The 
principal  crops  are  oats  and  potatoes. 
The  minerals  include  iron,  lead,  and 
copper,  all  at  one  time  worked,  and  coal, 
still  raised  to  some  extent.  It  sends  two 
members  to  parliament.  Pop.  69,201. 

LELAND,  Charles  Godfrey,  American 
humorist,  was  born  at  Philadelphia  in 
1824.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1851,  but  soon  relinquished  law  for 
literature,  and  contributed  largely  to 
periodicals.  His  works,  many  of  which 
are  of  a humorous  or  burlesque  char- 
acter, include:  The  Poetry  and  Mystery 
of  Dreams,  Pictures  of  Travels,  a trans- 
lation of  Heine’s  Reisebilder,  Sunshine 
in  Thought,  Legends  of  Birds,  Hans 
Breitmann’s  Ballads,  The  English  Gip- 
sies andTheir  Language,  Fu-Sang;  or,the 
Discovery  of  America  by  Chinese 
Buddhist  Priests  in  the  Fifth  Century, 
English  Gipsy  Songs,  Johnnykin  and 
the  Goblins,  Pidgin-English  Sing-Song, 
Abraham  Lincoln.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  Hans  Breitmann’s  Ballads.  He  died 
in  1903. 


LELAND  STANFORD  JUNIOR  UNI- 
VERSITY, Was  founded  by  Leland  Stan- 
ford and  his  wife,  Jane  Lathrop  Stan- 
ford, in  memory  of  their  only  son  Leland 
Stanford,  Jr.,  who  died  in  1884.  It  is 
33  miles  southeast  of  San  Francisco. 

The  university  maintains  departments 
of  Greek,  Latin,  Germanic  languages, 
Romance  languages,  English,  philosophy 
psychology,  education,  history,  eco- 
nomics and  social  science,  law,  drawing, 
mathematics,  phyisics,  chemistry,  bot- 
any, physiology  and  hygiene,  zoology, 
geology  and  mining,  and  civil,  mechani- 
cal, and  electrical  engineering.  The 
Hopkins  Laboratory  of  Natural  History 
at  Pacific  Grove,  on  the  Bay  of  Monterey 
is  a branch  of  the  biological  work  of  the 
university.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of  Laws, 
Master  of  Arts,  Engineer,  and  Doctor 
of  Philosophy.  No  honorary  degrees  are 
given.  The  ordinary  class  divisions  are 
not  recognized  by  the  university,  and 
degrees  are  conferred  without  regard 
to  the  time  spent,  whenever  the  re- 
quirements are  met.  Each  student 
selects  as  his  major  subject  the  work  of 
some  one  department,  to  which,  to- 
gether with  the  necessary  minor  sub- 
jects, he  is  required  to  devote  about  a 
third  of  his  under-graduate  course. 
All  the  rest  of  the  undergraduate  work 
is  elective,  but  the  professor  in  charge 
of  the  major  subject  acts  as  the  stu- 
dent’s educational  advisor.  These  sub- 
jects include,  besides  those  usually  re- 
quired for  entrance  examinations,  Span- 
ish, the  natural  sciences,  physiography, 
mechanical  and  free-hand  drawing, 
wood-working,  forge  work,  foundry 
work,  and  machine-shop  work.  The 
university  has  a philological  and  a 
science  association,  and  offers  frequent 
public  lectures  on  subjects  of  general 
interest.  The  building  up  and  develop- 
ment of  the  university  is  due  largely  to 
the  work  of  David  Starr  Jordan,  who 
has  been  its  only  president. 

LE'LY,  Sir  Peter,  painter,  born  at 
Soest,  in  Westphalia,  in  1617  or  1618. 
Lely  or  Le  Lys  was  properly  a nickname 
borne  by  his  father,  whose  family  name 
y?as  Van  der  Taes,  Tic  w.as  fir.st  in- 


structed by  Peter  Grebber  at  Haarlem 
but  came  to  England  in  1641,  and  com- 
menced portrait-painting.  He  finished 
portraits  both  of  Charles  I.  and  of  Crom- 
well ; but  it  was  not  until  the  Restoration 
that  he  rose  to  the  height  of  his  fame. 
He  fell  in  with  the  voluptuous  taste  of 
the  new  court,  and  was  in  great  favor 
with  Charles  II.,  who  knighted  him. 
He  died  in  1680.  The  Hampton  Court 
collection  of  portraits  of  the  ladies  of  the 
court  of  Charles  II.  contains  some  of  his 
best  work;  the  finest  of  his  few  historical 
works  being  the  Susannah  and  the. 
Elders,  at  Burleigh  House. 

LEMBERG,  a city  of  Austria,  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  Galicia,  on  the  Peltew, 
365  miles  e.n.e.  from  Vienna.  Pop. 
159,618. 


Norway  lemming. 

LEMMING,  a rodent  mammal  very 
nearly  allied  to  the  mouse  and  rat.  There 
are  several  species,  found  in  Norway, 
Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  northern  parts 
of  America.  The  most  noted  species  is 
the  common  or  European  lemming. 

LEM'ON,  the  fruit  of  the  lemon-tree, 
originally  brought  from  the  tropical 
parts  of  Asia,  but  now  cultivated  ex- 
tensively in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States,  especially  in 
California.  It  is  of  the  same  genus 
as  the  orange  and  citron,  and  dif- 
fers little  from  the  lime.  It  is  a knotty- 
wooded  tree  of  rather  irregular  growth, 
about  8 feet  high;  the  leaves  are  oval, 
and  contain  scattered  glands  which  are 
filled  with  a volatile  oil.  The  shape  of 
the  fruit  is  oblong,  and  its  internal  struc- 
ture is  similar  to  that  of  the  orange. 
The  juice  is  acid  and  agreeable;  and  in 
addition  to  its  use  in  beverages  is  em- 
ployed by  calico-printers  to  discharge 
colors.  As  expressed  from  the  ripe  fruit 
it  has  a specific  gravity  of  1.04,  and  con- 
tains about  1.5  per  cent  of  citric  acid.  It 
also  contains  sugar,  albuminous  and 
vegetable  matters,  and  some  mineral 
matter,  nearly  half  of  which  consists  of 
potash.  The  oil  of  lemon  is  a volatile  oil 
of  yellow  or  greenish  color  got  from  the 
fresh  rind  of  the  lemon.  It  is  used  in 
perfumery,  and  in  medicine  as  a stimu- 
lant and  rubefacient;  it  also  forms  an 
ingredient  of  syrup  of  lemon  and  tinc- 
ture of  lemon. 

LEMONADE,  a drink  made  of  water, 
sugar,  and  the  juice  of  lemons  A good 
recipe  is;  two  sliced  lemons,  oz.  of 
sugar,  boiling  water,  I J pint;  mix,  cover 
up  the  vessel,  let  it  stand,  with  occasional 
stirring,  till  cold,  then  strain  off  the 
liquid.  Aerated  bottled  lemonade  may 
be  prepared  by  putting  lemon  syrup 
into  a bottle,  and  filling  up  with  aerated 
water  at  a bottling  machine. 

LEMON-KALI,  a name  sometimes 


given  to  the  effervescing  beverage  formed 
by  mixing  lemon-juice  with  dissolved 
bicarbonate  of  potash. 

LE'MUR,  a name  popularly  given  to 
a sub-order  of  monkeys.  Their  zoologi- 
cal position  has  been  a matter  of  con- 
siderable debate,  as  they  possess  char- 
acteristics which  distinguish  them  from 
the  monkeys,  and  ally  them  with  the 
insectivores  and  rodents.  The  simplest 
classification  places  them,  however, 
with  the  lower  Quadrumana.  The  Lemu- 
ridre  or  True  Lemurs  are  specially  dis- 
tinguished by  the  habitually  four-footed 
or  quadrupedal  mode  of  progression. 
The  tail  (except  in  the  short-tailed 
Indris)  is  elongated  and  furry,  but  is 
never  prehensile.  The  hind  limbs  are 
longer  than  the  fore  limbs;  the  second 
toe  in  the  hind  foot  being  long  and  claw- 
like, and  the  nails  of  all  the  other  toes 
being  flat.  The  fourth  digit  of  the  hand 
and  especially  of  the  foot,  is  longer  than 
the  others.  The  thumb  can  always  be 
opposed  to  the  other  fingers,  and  has  a 
broad,  flattened  nail.  The  ears  are  small 
and  the  eyes  large.  The  incisor  teeth 
are  generally  four,  the  canines,  two,  and 
the  molars  twelve  in  each  jaw.  The  true 
lemurs  are  exclusively  confined  to  Mada- 
gascar and  neighboring  islands,  but 
other  members  of  the  family  are  found 
in  Africa  and  as  far  east  as  the  Philip- 
pines. They  are  all  arboreal  in  their 
habits,  and  subsist  chiefly  upon  a vege- 
table diet,  but  also  eat  insects,  and  the 
smaller  birds  and  their  eggs. 


Varied  lemur.  ^ 

LENA,  a river  of  Siberia,  one  of  the*^ 
largest  in  the  world,  rising  on  the  north-  , 
western  side  of  the  mountains  which  y 
skirt  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Baikal,*? 
about  70  miles  e.n.e.  of  Irkutsk.  Itjrt 
flows  in  a winding  course,  and  discharges  w 
itself  through  several  branches  into  the||7 
Arctic  Ocean  in  lat.  73°  n.,  and  lon.-j, 
about  128°  e.  Its  course,  windings  in-V 
eluded,  is  about  2770  miles.  4., 

LENNI-LENAPE,  the  name  by  which” 
the  Delaware  Indians  call  themselves.^ 
See  Delaware. 

LENORMANT,  Frangois,  French  arch- 
aeologist, born  1837.  After  traveling  in 
the  east  he  became,  in  1874,  professor  of 
archeology  at  the  Bibliotheque  Nation- 
ale.  He  died  in  1883.  He  was  an  author-* 
ity  on  the  Cuneiform  inscriptions  ^dV 
the  Accadian  language. 


LENS 


LEOPARi) 


LEWS,  a transparent  substance,  Us- 
ually glass,  so  formed  that  rays  of 
liglit  passing  through  it  are  made  to 
change  their  direction,  and  to  magnify 
or  diminish  objects  at  a certain  distance. 
Lenses  are  double  convex,  or  convex  on 
both  sides;  double-concave,  or  concave 
on  both  sides;  plano-convex,  or  plano- 
concave, that  is,  with  one  side  plane 
and  the  other  convex  or  concave,  or 
convex  on  one  side  and  concave  on  the 
other.  If  the  convexity  be  greater  than 
the  concavity,  or  if  the  two  surfaces 
would  meet  if  produced,  the  lens  is  called 
a meniscus;  and  if  the  concavity  be 
greater  than  the  convexity,  the  lens  is 
termed  concavo-c-onvex.  See  Ojitics, 
Microscope,  Telescope. 

LENT,  the  forty  days’  fast  in  spring, 
beginning  with  Ash  Wednesday  and 
ending  with  Easter  Sunday.  In  the 
Lai  in  Church  Lent  formerly  lasted  but 
thirty-six  days;  in  the  5th  century  four 
days  were  added,  in  imitation  of  the 
forty  days’  fast  of  the  Savior,  and  this 
usage  'became  general  in  the  western 
church.  The  close  of  Lent  is  celebrated 
in  Eoman  Caiholic  countries  with  great 
rejoicings,  and  the  carnival  is  held  just 
before  it  beginfe.  The  English  Church 
has  retained  Lent  and  many  other  fasts, 
but  gives  no  directions  respecting  ab- 
stinence from  food. 

LENTIL,  a plant  cultivated  in  South- 
ern and  Central  Europe.  It  is  an  annual, 
rising  with  weak  stalks  about  18  inches, 
and  with  whitislr  flowers  hanging  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves.  I'wo  varieties 
are  cultivated — the  -htrge  garden  lentil 


Lentil. 


and  the  common  field  lentil — the  former 
distinguished  by  its  size  and  the  greater 
quantity  of  mealy  substance  which  it 
will  afford.  The  straw  of  lentils  makes 
good  fodder.  As  food  for  man  the  seeds 
are  very  nutritious,  and  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
etc.,  are  a chief  article  of  diet. 

LEO,  the  Lion,  the  fifth  sign  of  the 
zodiac,  between  Cancer  and  Virgo.  The 
sun  enters  it  about  July  22,  and  leaves 
it  about  August  23.  The  constellation 
contains  95  stars,  and  is  noteworthy  for 
its  remarkable  nebulae.  There  is  also  a 
constellation  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
known  as  Leo  Minor,  and  containing 
53  stars. 

LEO  I.,  St.  Leo,  called  the  Great,  pope 
^ born  about  390.  The  Popes  Celestine  I. 
; and  Sixtus  III.  employed  him  in  im- 
* 


portant  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  on  the 
death  of  Sixtus  III.  in  440  he  was  ele- 
vated to  the  papal  chair.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  Valentinian  to  intercede  for 
peace  with  Attila,  who,  at  his  request, 
evacuated  Italy.  His  death  took  place 
in  461.  He  is  the  first  pope  whose  writ- 
ings— sermons,  letters,  etc. — have  been 
preserved.  In  his  main  ambition  to 
estal)li.sh  the  supremacy  of  the  Apostolic 
chair  over  the  whole  Christian  Church  he 
was  defeated  at  the  council  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  which  affirmed  the  independence 
of  the  see  of  Constantinople. 

LEO  III.,  a Roman  by  birth,  elected 
pope  on  the  death  of  Adrian  I.  in  795. 
He  commenced  his  rule  by  making  sub- 
mission to  Charlemagne,  so  that  when 
driven  from  Rome  in  799  by  his  rival 
Paschal,  Charlemagne  re-established 
him  on  his  throne,  receiving  from  him 
in  800  the  imperial  crown.  Leo  died  in 
816. 

LEO  X.,  Giovanni  de’  Medici,  second 
son  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  born  at 
Florence  in  1475,  received  the  tonsure 
in  his  seventh  year,  and  was  loaded  with 
benefices.  In  1488,  when  only  thirteen 
years  old,  he  was  made  a cardinal,  and 
in  1492  took  his  seat  as  a member  of  the 
Holy  College  at  Rome.  Pope  Julius  II. 
made  him  governor  of  Perugia,  and  in 
1511  placed  him,  with  the  title  of  Legate 
of  Bologna,  at  the  head  of  his  forces  in 
the  holy  league  against  France.  After 
contributing  to  the  re-establishment  of 
the  Medici  he  remained  at  Florence  until 
the  death  of  Julius  II.  recalled  him  to 
Rome.  Although  only  a deacon,  he  was 
chosen  to  succeed  Julius  in  1513.  In 
1515  he  had  an  interview  with  Francis  I. 
at  Bologna,  and  formed  with  him  a con- 
cordat, which  remained  in  force  nearly 
three  hundred  years,  and  gave  to  the 
king  the  right  to  nominate  bishops  in 
his  own  dominions.  To  procure  money, 
particularly  for  the  completion  of  St. 
Peter’s,  he  encouraged  the  sale  of  indul- 
gences, an  abuse  which  incidentally  pro- 
moted the  Reformation,  in  calling  forth 
the  attacks  of  Luther.  Leo  died  suddenly 
in  1521. 

LEO  XIII.,  Pope,  the  258  Roman 
Pontiff  and  257  successor  of  Peter,  was 
born  at  Carpineto  in  1810.  He  was 
created  and  proclaimed  a cardinal  by 
Pius  IX.  in  the  consistory  of  December 
19,  1853.  He  was  a member  of  several  of 
the  congregations  of  cardinals — among 
them  those  of  the  Council  of  Rites  and 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  In  September, 
1877,  he  was  selected  by  Pope  Pius  IX. 
to  fill  the  important  office  of  cardinal 
camerlengo  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church, 
which  post  had  become  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Cardinal  De  Angelis.  In  that 
capacity,  after  the  death  of  Pius  IX. 
(February  7,  1878),  he  acted  as  head  of 
the  church  in  temporal  matters,  made 
the  arrangements  for  the  last  solemn 
obsequies  of  the  pontiff,  received  the 
Catholic  ambassadors,  and  superin- 
tended the  preparations  for  the  con- 
clave. Sixty-two  cardinals  attended  the 
conclave,  which  was  closed  in  the  Vati- 
can on  Monday,  February  18,  1878,  and 
the  cardinal  camerlengo  was  made  Pope 
by  the  acclamation  of  all  on  Wednesday, 
February  20,  1878,  and  his  Holiness 
assumed  the  name  of  Leo  XIII.  Leo 
XIII.  had  throughout  behaved  with 


perfect  consistency.  He  had  nevef 
quitted  the  Vatican,  but  had  religiously 
kept  up  the  fiction  of  his  being  held  there 
a prisoner.  He  refused  the  income  voted 
to  him,  as  to  his  predecessor,  by  the 
Italian  parliament,  and  has  never  recog- 
nized the  Law  of  Guarantees.  He  has 
protested  from  time  to  time  against 
“godless”  schools,  and  against  tolerated 
heresy  in  Rome.  But  in  his  relations 
with  foreign  powers  he  has  always  been 
moderate  and  dexterous.  He  died  in 
1903. 

LEON,  a town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  and  ancient  kingdom  of  the 
same  name,  176  miles  northwest  of 
Madrid.  Pop.  15,300. — The  province 
has  the  Asturias  as  its  northern  bound- 
ary, a branch  of  which  mountains  divides 
it  into  two  portions.  The  western  por- 
tion is  adapted  rather  for  pasture  than 
tillage,  but  the  eastern  has  wide  and 
undulating  plains,  on  which  the  vine 
and  various  grain  crops  are  successfully 
cultivated.  Area,  6166  sq.  miles.  Pop. 

370.000. 

LEON,  a town  of  Central  America, 
capital  of  the  department  of  Leon,  state 
of  Nicaragua,  on  a large  and  fertile  plain 
near  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  regularly 
built,  and  the  public  buildings  which 
are  considered  among  the  finest  in  Cen- 
tral .America,  include  a massive  cathe- 
dral, an  old  episcopal  palace,  a new 
episcopal  palace,  and  several  churches. 
A railway  connects  it  with  the  coast 
at  Corinto.  The  town  has  suffered  a 
good  deal  from  the  civil  wars.  Pop. 

45.000. 

LEON,  a town  of  Mexico,  state  of 
Guanajuato,  on  a fertile  plain  more  than 
6000  feet  above  sea-level,  a well-built 
place,  with  flourishing  industries  of 
various  kinds,  which  its  railway  con- 
nections are  helping  to  develop.  Pop. 

80.000. 

LEONTDAS,  in  Greek  history,  a king 
of  Sparta,  who  ascended  the  throne  491 
B.c.  When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  the 
Greek  congress  assigned  to  Leonidas  the 
command  of  the  force  destined  to  defend 
the  pass  of  Thermopylae.  His  force, 
according  to  Herodotus,  amounted  to 
over  5000  men,  of  whom  300  were 
Spartans.  After  the  Persians  had  made 
several  vain  attempts  to  force  the  pass, 
a Greek  named  Ephialtes  betrayed  to 
them  a mountain  path  by  which  Leonidas 
was  assailed  from  the  rear,  and  he  and 
his  followers  fell  after  a desperate  re- 
sistance (b.c.  480). 


LEOPARD,  a carnivorous  mammal 


Leopard. 


inhabiting  Africa,  Persia,  India,  China, 
etc.,  by  some  regarded  as  identical  with 


LEOPOLD 


LESLIE 


the  panther.  The  ground  or  general 
body-color  of  both  is  a yellowish  fawn, 
which  is  slightly  paler  on  the  sides,  and 
becomes  white  under  the  body.  Both 
are  also  marked  with  black  spots  of 
various  sizes,  irregularly  dispersed,  a 
number  of  them  being  ring-shaped.  The 
African  animal  seems  to  have  these  ring- 
spots  chiefly  on  the  back,  and  to  this 
form  some  would  specially  assign  the 
name  of  leopard.  It  preys  upon  ante- 
lopes, monkeys,  and  the  smaller  quad- 
rupeds, rarely  attacking  man  unless  it- 
self attacked.  It  can  ascend  trees  with 
great  ease,  often  using  them  both  for 
refuge  and  ambush.  It  is  not  infre- 
quently trapped  by  means  of  pitfalls. 
Besides  the  common  leopard  there  is 
also  a useful  and  docile  Asiatic  species, 
chetah  or  hunting  leopard.  See  Chetah. 

LE'OPOLD  I.,  King  of  the  Belgians, 
son  of  a Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  was  born 
in  1790.  In  1816  he  married  the  Princess 
Charlotte,  heir-apparent  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, who  died  in  1817.  In  1831  he  ac- 
cepted the  crown  of  Belgium.  He  mar- 
ried a daughter  of  King  Louis  Philippe 
of  France,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Leopold  II.,  the  present  Bel- 
gium sovereign.  After  a prosperous  and 
uneventful  reign  he  died  in  1865. 

LEOPOLD,  II.,  Louis  Philippe  Marie 
Victor,  King  of  the  Belgians,  was  born 
in  1835.  He  ascended  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1865.  In 
1876  he  effected  at  Brussels  the  organi- 
zation of  the  African  International  As- 
sociation with  a view  of  making  use  of 
the  recent  discoveries  in  Africa.  He 
promoted  this  work  with  great  energy, 
supplying  largely  from  his  own  re- 
sources the  means  for  Stanley’s  explo- 
ration of  the  Congo.  The  Congo  Free 
State  was  established  and  the  sover- 
eignty of  it  was  given  to  IjCopold  by 
the  Berlin  Congress  in  1885. 

Leper.  See  Leprosy. 

LEPER-HOUSES,  houses  for  the 
treatment  of  leprosy;  once  very  numer- 
ous in  England,  nearly  every  important 
town  having  one  or  more  of  these  houses. 
The  house  of  Burton  Lazars  in  Leices- 
tershire, built  by  a general  subscription 
raised  over  England  in  the  time  of  King 
Stephen,  was  the  'head  of  all  lazar- 
houses  in  England.  It  was  dependent  on 
the  leper-house  at  Jerusalem.  From  the 
Crusades  until  the  reformation  these 
houses  flourished  and  multiplied.  Gradu- 
ally, however,  as  better  habits  and 
treatment  began  to  diminish  diseases  of 
the  class  for  which  they  were  used,  these 
houses  declined,  and  were  abondoned 
or  appropriated  to  other  objects. 

LEPIDOP'TERA,  the  scientific  name 
of  the  order  of  insects  which  includes 
the  butterflies  and  moths  (which  see), 
and  which  is  so  named  from  the  pres- 
ence of  innumerable  small  membranous 
scales,  which  come  off  like  fine  dust  or 
powder  when  the  wings  (four  in  number) 
are  touched  by  the  finger.  The  scales 
are  merely  modifications  of  the  hairs 
with  which  the  wings  of  most  other 
insects  are  covered;  and  from  the  pres- 
ence of  these  scales  the  beautiful  tints 
and  colors  of  the  lepid’opterous  insects 
are  derived.  The  butterflies  form  the 
diurnal;  while  the  moths,  flying  about 
chiefly  at  twilight  or  during  the  night, 
arc  termed  nocturnal  Lepidoptera. 


Lepidoptera. 

1,  Butterfly— marbled  white  butterfly.  2, 
Hawk-moth  or  sphinx— humming-bird  hawk- 
moth.  3,  Moth— magpie  moth.  4,  Palpi  and 
spiral  mouth  of  butterfly.  5,  Antenn®— a, 
Butterfly's;  b.  Sphinx’s;  c.  Moth’s.  6.  Portion 
of  wing  of  cabbage-butterfly,  with  part  of  the 
scales  removed.  7,  Scales  of  do,  magnified. 

LEP'ROSY,  a name  applied  at  one 
time  to  several  different  skin  diseases 
characterized  by  roughness  or  scaliness. 
True  leprosy  is  the  elephantiasis  of  the 
Greeks,  the  lepra  of  the  Arabs,  whose 
old  Engli.sh  name  was  the  myckle  ail  or 
great  disease.  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  elephantiasis  of  the  Arabs, 
which  is  a local  overgrowth  of  skin  and 
subcutaneous  tissue,  chiefly  of  the  ex- 
tremities and  genital  organs,  and  is  non- 
contagious.  Of  true  leprosy  there  are 
several  well-marked  types.  The  first  is 
characterized  by  the  formation  of 
nodules  or  tubercles  in  the  skin,  common 
about  the  eyebrows,  where  they  destroy 
the  hair,  and  produce  a frowning  or 
leonine  aspect.  After  a time  the  nodules 
break  down,  forming  ulcers,  which  dis- 
charge for  a time,  and  may  cause  exten- 
sive destruction  and  deformity.  The 
tubercles  may  form  in  the  nostrils,  in 
the  throat  altering  the  voice,  on  the 
eyelids  extending  into  and  destroying 
the  eyeball.  In  the  second  type  the  chief 
features  are  insensibility  and  numbness 
of  parts  of  the  skin,  accompanied  by 
deep-.seated  pains,  causing  sleeplessness 
and  restlessness.  In  a third  variety 
much  mutilation  occurs  owing  to  the 
loss  of  bones,  chiefly  of  the  limbs,  a 
portion  of  a limb  being  frequently 
lopped  off  painlessly  at  a joint.  All  these 
varieties  begin  with  the  appearance  on 
the  skin  of  blotches  of  a dull  coppery  or 
purplish  tint,  the  affected  part  being 
thickened,  puffy,  and  coarse-looking. 
When  the  redness  disappears  a stain  is 
left,  or  a white  blotch.  Leprosy  is  now 
believed  to  be  caused  by  a minute 
organism — a bacillus  (see  Germ  Theory 
of  Disease),  and  to  be  contagious. 
Though  the  disease  is  not  so  widespread 
as  at  one  time  it  was,  it  still  prevails  in 
Norway  and  Iceland,  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea  and  Mediterranean,  in  Mada- 
gascar, Mauritius,  Madeira,  the  Greek 
Archipelago,  East  and  West  Indies, 
Palestine,  the  Pacific  Islands,  etc. 

LERTDA,  a town  of  Spain,  province 
of  Lerida,  Catalonia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Segre,  here  crossed  by  a hand- 
some bridge  of  seven  arches,  84  miles 
w.n.w.  of  Barcelona.  As  the  key  of 
Aragon  and  Catalonia  it  was  early  for- 
tified, and  still  continues  to  be  one  of  the 
most  important  military  points  in  Spain. 
Pop.  21,337. — ^I'he  province,  bounded 
north  by  France,  has  an  area  of  4774 


S()l.  hmles,  traversed  by  ramifications  ol 
the  Pyrenees.  Pop.  291,624. 

LE  SAGE,  or  LESAGE  (le-sazh), 
Alain Ren6,  French  novelist  anddramatic 
writer,  born  in  1668  at  Sarzeau,  in 
Brittany.  He  translated  Avellaneda’s 
continuation  of  the  Adventures  of  Don 
Quixote,  and  a comedy  of  Calderon ; but 
his  first  success  was  with  his  Crispin 
Ri-^al  de  son  Maitre  (1707).  In  1715  he 
published  the  first  two  volumes  of  Gil 
Bias,  one  of  the  best  romances  in  the 
French  language,  the  third  volume  ap- 
pearing in  1724,  the  fourth  in  1735. 

In  1732  he  published  Les  Adventures  de 
Guzman  d’Alfarache  (based  on  Aleman’s 
work) ; and  the  following  year  Les  Ad- 
ventures de  Robert,  dit  le  Chevalier  de 
Beauchesne,  containing  the  real  history 
of  a freebooter,  from  papers  furn^hed 
by  his  widow.  In  1734  appeared  L’ 
Histoire  d’Estevanille  Gonzales.  The 
last  of  his  novels  was  Le  Bachelier  de 
Salamanque  (1738).  He  died  in  1747. 

He  wrote  also  many  theatrical  pieces, 
etc.  t 

LESBOS,  a Greek  Island  situated  off 
the  northwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  now 
called  Mitylene,  from  the  capital.  In 
shape  it  is  nearly  triangular;  has  an 
area  of  276  sq.  miles,  and  a population 
of  about  40,000,  and  now  belongs  to 
Turkey.  The  island  formerly  contained 
nine  cities,  the  chief  being  Mitylene.  ' 

LESGHIANS,  a Tartar  people  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion,  inhabiting  the 
eastern  Caucasus,  and  forming  the  chief 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Daghestan. 
They  were  among  the  most  stubborn  of 
the  Caucasian  peoples  in  their  resistance 
to  the  Russians. 

LESLIE,  Frank,  the  name  assumed 
by  Henry  Carter,  an  American  pub- 
lisher and  journalist,  born  in  Ipswich, 
England,  in  1821.  He  showed  a natural 
bent  for  art,  and  contributed  sketches! 
to  the  Illustrated  London  News,  signing 
them  Frank  Leslie.  In  1848  he  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  in  1854  began 
publishing  the  first  of  his  many  illus- 
trated journalistic  ventures.  The  Gazette  i 
of  Fashion.  The  New  York  Journal  soon 
followed  with  Frank  Leslie’s  Illustrated 
Newspaper  (1855),  The  Boy’s  and  Girl’s  j 
Weekly,  The  Budget  of  Fun,  and  many 
others.  He  was  commissioner  to  the  | 
Paris  exposition  of  1867,  and  was  given  , 
a prize  there  for  his  artistic  services.  , 
He  died  in  1880,  and  his  'wife  took,  by  ! 
legislative  act,  the  name"  Frank  Leslie,”  j 
and  for  some  years  conducted  the  busi- 
ness with  conspicuous  success.  I 

LESLIE,  Sir  John,  Scottish  physicist 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Largo, 
Fife,  in  1766.  He  invented  the  differ- 
ential thermometer  about  the  year  1800, 
and  four  years  later  published  his  Essay 
on  the  Nature  and  Propagation  of  Heat. 
Through  one  of  his  contrivances,  his 
hygrometer,  he  arrived  in  1810  at  the 
discovery  of  a process  of  artificial  con- 
gelation, which  enabled  him  to  freeze 
mercury.  In  1809  he  published  his 
Elements  of  Geometry;  in  1813  an 
Account  of  Experiments  and  Instru- 
ments depending  on  the  relation  of  Air 
to  Heat  and  Moisture;  in  1817  his  Philo- 
sophy of  Aritlmietic ; in  1821  his  Geomet- 
rical Analysis  and  Geometry  of  Curved  | 
Lines;  in  1822  a volume  of  Elements  of  j 
' Natural  Philosophy;  and  in  1828  ms  i 


LESSEPft 


LEVELLINd 


Rudiments  of  Geometry.  He  died  in 
1832,  having  been  knighted  not  long 
before. 

LE33EP3,  Ferdinand,  Vicomte  de, 
French  diplomatist  and  engineer,  born 
in  1805.  After  holding  several  consular 
and  diplomatic  posts  he  retired  from 
the  government  service,  and  in  1854 
went  to  Egypt,  and  proposed  to  the 
viceroy  the  cutting  of  a canal  across  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez.  This  great  work  was 
successfully  completed  in  1859-09,  un- 
der his  supervision,  and  brought  him 
high  honors  of  various  kinds.  He  sub- 
sequently proposed  several  other  grand 
schemes;  but  the  only  one  really  taken 
in  hand  was  the  Panama  Canal  (which 
see).  He  died  in  1894. 

LESSING,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  Ger- 
man critic,  dramatist,  and  scholar,  born 
1729  at  Kamentz,  in  Upper  Lusatia. 
In  1755  appeared  Miss  Sara.  Sampson,  a 
tragedy  dealing  with  English  life.  In 
1765  he  published  the  Laocoon,  or  on 
the  Limits  of  Painting  and  Poetry,  and 
his  comedy  Minna  von  Barnhelm.  About 
1767  he  became  director  of  the  National 
theater  at  Hamburg.  While  here  he 
wrote  his  Dramaturgie.  Besides  those 
mentioned,  he  wrote  another  drama, 
Emilia  Galotti  (1772).  He  died  at 
Brunswick  in  1781. 

LESTRANGE,  Sir  Roger,  political 
controversialist,  journalist,  and  trans- 
lator, born  at  Hunstanton  Hall,  Nor- 
folk, in  1616.  He  died  in  1704.  He  was 
the  author  of  a great  number  of  coarse 
and  virulent  political  tracts,  and  trans- 
lated Josephus,  Cicero’s  Offices,  Sene- 
ca’s Morals,  Quevedo’s  Visions,  etc. 

LETH'ARGY,  an  unnatural  tendency 
to  sleep,  closely  connected  with  languor 
and  debility,  and  much  resembling 
apoplexy  in  character.  It  may  rise  from 
a plethoric  habit,  from  deficient  circu- 
lation in  the  brain,  from  nervous  ex- 
haustion of  that  organ,  from  a poisoned 
state  of  the  blood,  or  from  a suppression 
of  urine.  When  it  is  the  consequence 
of  alcoholic  intoxication,  or  of  the  action 
of  narcotics,  it  should  be  treated  as 
apoplexy. 

LETHE,  the  River  of  Oblivion,  one 
of  the  streams  of  the  lower  regions  cele- 
brated in  ancient  mythology,  whose 
water  had  the  power  of  making  those 
who  drank  of  it  forget  the  whole  of  their 
former  existence.  Souls  before  passing 
into  Elysium  drank  to  forget  their 
earthly  sorrows;  souls  rethrning  to  the 
upper  world  drank  to  forget  the  pleasure 
of  Elysium. 

LETTER  OF  CREDIT.  See  Credit. 

LETTER  OF  MARQUE.  See  Marque. 

LETTERS.  See  Alphabet,  Consonant, 
Vowel,  Writings,  etc. 

LETTERS-PATENT,  letters  of  the 
British  sovereign  sealed  below  with  the 
great  seal,  conferring  on  a person  or  a 
public  company  some  special  or  peculiar 
privilege.  Letters-patent  are  issued  to 
protect  new  inventions,  and  from  the 
latter  procedure  is  derived  what  is  called 
patent-right.  See  Patent. 

LETTRES  DE  CACHET  are  really 
lettres  closes,  that  is,  letters  sealed  in 
such  a way  that  they  cannot  be  opened 
without  breaking  the  seal,  and  which 
were  originally  always  addressed  to  in- 
dividuals in  contradistinction  to  lettres 
patentes,  or  letters  patent,  beginning 


“know  all  m6n  by  these  presents.” 
Lettres  closes  interfering  with  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice  or  the  liberty  of 
the  subject  were  forbidden  by  numerous 
edicts  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  cen- 
turies, and  the  term  lettres  de  cachet,  as 
synonymous  with  lettres  closes,  is  first 
found  in  the  ordinance  of  Orleans  in 
1560.  The  convenience  of  such  .i  means 
to  consign  one’s  enemies  to  prison  was 
seen  by  Richelieu  and  Mazarin,  who  fol- 
lowed the  Guise  Government  in  using 
them  frequently,  despite  numerous  prot- 
estations on  the  part  of  the  parlements, 
of  which  the  most  notable  was  when,  in 
1648,  an  ordinance  was  registered  that 
no  man  should  be  kept  in  prison  three 
days  without  interrogation.  When  once 
Louis  XIV.  had  begun  to  rule,  he  made 
frequent  use  of  lettres  de  cachet  both 
for  state  purposes  and  to  control  and 
disorganize  his  nobility,  and  he  boldly 
justified  their  use  in  an  edict  of  1705. 
But  the  most  marked  jutisfication  is  to 
be  found  in  the  circular  letter  addressed 
to  the  parlements  of  France  in  reply  to 
protests  against  arbitrary  imprisonment 
in  1759,  in  which  the  king  says  that  “he 
reserves  arbitrary  orders — in  other 
words,  lettres  de  cachet — for  occasions 
wherein  they  may  be  necessary  for  the 
public  good  and  the  interests  of  fam- 
ilies.” It  was  the  custom  for  the  king  to 
sign  a number  of  blank  lettres  de  cachet 
which  his  ministers  gave  away  to  whom- 
ever they  pleased.  Thus  they  often  fell 
into  hands  of  people  who  used  them  to 
gratify  private  hate;  fathers  obtained 
them  and  inserted  the  names  of  their 
sons,  wives  inserted  the  names  of  their 
husbands,  opera  dancers  those  of  lovers 
who  had  spurned  them.  The  evil  grew 
to  such  a height  that  Turgot  and  Lam- 
oignon  de  Malesherbes  refused  to  enter 
the  ministry  of  Louis  XVI.  unless  they 
might  see  the  contents  of  the  orders 
they  countersigned,  and  know  the 
causes  for  which  men  were  to  be  im- 
prisoned. It  is  needless  to  say  that  when 
the  cahiers  of  the  primary  assemblies 
were  prepared,  to  instruct  the  deputies 
to  the  states-general  in  the  wishes  of 
their  constituents,  abolition  of  lettres  de 
cachet  were  demanded  in  almost  all  the 
cahiers  of  the  noblese  and  tiers  4tat. 
The  subject  was  mentioned  in  the  early 
debates  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
but  lettres  de  cachet  were  not  formally 
abolished  till  January  15,  1790,  and  on 
March  13th  of  the  same  year  all  im- 
prisoned under  them  were  ordered  to  be 
set  at  liberty 

LETTUCE,  a smooth,  herbaceous, 
annual  plant,  containing  a milky  juice, 
and  in  general  use  as  a salad.  The  stem 
grows  to  the  height  of  about  2 feet,  and 
bears  small  pale-yellow  flowers;  the  in- 
ferior leaves  are  sessile,  and  undulate 
on  the  margin.  The  young  plant  only  is 
eaten,  as  the  lettuce  is  narcotic  and 
poisonous  when  in  flower.  A number  of 
species  are  known  from  various  parts  of 
the  globe.  Lactucarium,  or  lettuce 
opium,  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  let- 
tuce, is  used  medicinally  as  an  ano- 
dyne. 

LEUCO'MA,  a white  opacity  of  the 
cornea  of  the  eye,  the  result  of  acute 
inflammation. 

LEUCORRHCE'A,  in  medicine,  a mor- 
bid discharge  of  a white,  yellowish,  or 


greenish  mucus  from  the  female  genital 
organs. 

LEVANT',  a term  applied  in  the  widest 
sense  to  all  the  regions  eastward  from 
Italy  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Nile,  and  in  a more  contracted  sense  to 
the  Asiatic  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  adjacent  countries  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Alexandria  in  Egypt. 

LEV'EE,  a morning  reception  held  by 
a prince  or  great  personage.  The  term  is 
chiefly  applied  in  Britain  to  the  stated 
public  occasions  on  which  the  sovereign 
receives  visits  from  such  persons  as  are 
entitled  by  rank  or  fortune  to  the  honor. 
It  is  distinguished  from  a drawing-room 
in  this  respect,  that  while  at  the  former 
gentlemen  alone  appear  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  chief  ladies  of  the  court), 
both  ladies  and  gentlemen  are  admitted 
to  the  latter. 

LEVEE,  in  America,  an  embankment 
on  the  margin  of  a river,  to  confine  it 
within  its  natural  channel,  such  as  may 
be  seen  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi. 

LEVEL,  an  instrument  by  which  to 
And  or  draw  a straight  line  parallel  to 
the  plane  of  the  horizon,  and  by  this 
means  to  determine  the  true  level  or  the 
difference  of  ascent  or  descent  between 
several  places,  for  various  purposes  in 
architecture,  agriculture,  engineering, 
hydraulics,  surveying,  etc.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  instruments  for  this  pur- 
pose, differently  constructed  and  of 
different  materials,  according  to  the  par- 
ticular purposes  to  which  they  are  ap- 
plied, as  the  carpenter’s  level,  mason’s 
level,  gunner’s  level,  balance  level,  water 
level,  mercurial  level,  spirit  level,  sur- 
veying level,  etc.  All  such  instruments, 
however,  may  be  reduced  to  three 
classes:  (L)  Those  in  which  the  vertical 
line  is  determined  by  a suspended  plumb 
line  or  balance  weight,  and  the  horizon- 
tal indicated  by  a line  perpendicular  to 
it.  Such  are  the  carpenter’s  and  mason’s 
levels.  (2)  Those  which  determine  a hori- 
zontal line  by  the  surface  of  a fluid  at 
rest,  as  water  and  mercurial  levels.  (3) 
Those  which  point  out  the  direction  of  a 
horizontal  line  by  a bubble  of  air  float- 
ing in  a fluid  contained  in  a glass  tube. 
Such  are  spirit-levels,  which  are  by  far 
the  most  convenient  and  accurate.  All 
levels  depend  on  the  same  principle, 
namely,  the  action  of  terrestrial  gravity. 

LEVELLING,  the  art  or  operation  of 
ascertaining  the  different  elevations  of 
objects  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  of 
flnding  how  much  any  assigned  point 
included  in  a survey  is  higher  or  lower 
than  another  assigned  point.  It  is  a 
branch  of  surveying  of  great  importance 
in  making  roads,  determining  the  proper 
lines  for  railways,  conducting  water, 
draining  low  grounds,  rendering  rivers 
navigable,  forming  canals,  and  the  like. 
In  ordinary  cases  of  leveling  (for  ex- 
ample, for  canals,  railways,  etc.)  the 
instruments  commonly  employed  are  a 
spirit-level  with  a telescope  attached  to 
it,  and  a stand  for  mounting  them  on, 
and  a pair  of  leveling  staves.  A leveling 
staff  is  an  instrument  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  a spirit-level  and  telescope. 
It  is  variously  constructed,  but  con- 
sists essentially  of  a graduated  pole  with 
a vane  sliding  upon  it  so  as  to  mark  the 
height  at  any  particular  distance  above 


LEVER 


LEWIS  AND  CLARK  EXPEDITION 


the  ground.  In  leveling  two  of  them  are 
used  together,  and  being  set  up  at  any- 
required  distance  the  surveyor,  by 
means  of  a telescope  placed  between 
them  perfectly  horizontallj^,  is  enabled 
to  compare  the  relative  heights  of  the 
two  places. 

LEVER,  a bar  of  metal,  wood,  or  other 
substance  turning  on  a support  called 
the  fulcrum  or  prop,  and  used  to  over- 
come a certain  resistance  (called  the 
weight)  encountered  at  one  part  of  the 
bar  by  means  of  a force  (called  the  power) 
applied  at  another  part.  It  is  one  of  the 
mechanical  powers,  and  is  of  three 
kinds,  viz.:  (1)  When  the  fulcrum  is  be- 
tween the  weight  and  the  power,  as  in 
the  hand-spike,  crow-bar,  etc.  In  this 
case  the  parts  of  the  lever  on  each  side 
of  the  fulcrum  are  called  the  arms,  and 
these  arms  may  either  be  equal  as  in  the 
balance,  or  unequal  as  in  the  steelyard. 

(2)  When  the  weight  is  between  the 
ower  and  the  fulcrum,  as  in  rowing  a 
oat.  where  the  fulcrum  is  the  water. 

(3)  When  the  power  isbetween  theweight 
and  the  fulcrum,  as  in  raising  a ladder 
from  the  ground  by  applying  the  hand 
to  one  of  the  lower  rounds,  the  fulcrum 
in  this  case  being  the  foot  of  the  ladder. 
The  law  which  holds  in  the  lever  is: 
the  power  multiplied  by  its  arm  is  equal 
to  the  weight  multiplied  by  its  arm.  It 
is  evident  that  when  the  power  has  a 
very  large  arm,  and  the  weight  a very 
small  one,  a very  small  power  will 
overcome  a great  resistance.  In  the 
lever,  as  in  all  machines  when  a small 
force  overcomes  a great  one,  the  small 
force  acts  through  a much  greater  dis- 
tance than  that  through  which  the 
great  force  is  overcome,  or  as  is  some- 
times said,  “What  is  gained  in  power  is 
lost  in  time.” 

LE'VER,  Charles  James,  an  Irish 
novelist,  born  at  Dublin  in  1806.  Harry 
Lorrequer  appeared  in  1837.  His 
Charles  O’Malley,  Tom  Burke,  Jack  Hin- 
ton, etc.,  constituted  a literature  en- 
tirely of  its  own  kind,  unique.  His 
later  novels  were  more  thoughtful  and 
artistic.  He  obtained  a diplomatic  post 
at  Florence  about  184.5,  was  appointed 
vice-consul  at  Spezzia  in  1858,  and  in 
1867  at  Trieste,  where  he  died  in  1872. 

LEVERRIER,  Urbain  Jean  Joseph, 
French  astronomer,  born  at  Saint-L6 
(Manche)  1811,  died  at  Paris  1S77.  His 
observations  on  the  transit  of  Mercury 
in  1845  procured  him  admission  into  the 
Academy  of  Sciences.  His  great  work 
was  his  investigation  of  the  irregularities 
in  the  movements  of  the  planet  Uranus, 
carried  on  simultaneously  but  independ- 
ently with  those  in  the  same  line  by 
John  Couch  Adams,  which  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune.  He 
entered  political  life  in  1849,  and  was 
made  a senator  by  Napoleon  III.  He 
succeeded  Arago  as  director  of  the  ob- 
servatory. His  tables  of  suns  and  planet 
are  in  general  use  among  astronomers. 

LEVI,  the  third  son  of  Jacob  and 
Leah.  The  chief  incident  recorded  of 
him,  as  apart  from  his  brethren,  is  the 
part  which  he  played  in  the  massacre 
of  the  Shechemites.  Three  sons  went 
down  with  him  to  _ Egypt — Gershon, 
Kohath,  and  Merari  (Gen.  xlvi.  2). 
Moses  and  Aaron  were  of  this  tribe. 

LEVI'ATHAN,  a form  of  the  Hebrew 


word  livyathan,  meaning  a long-jointed 
monster,  applied  in  Job  xli.  and  else- 
where in  Scripture  to  an  aquatic  animal 
variously  held  to  be  the  crocodile,  the 
whale,  or  some  species  of  serpent. 

LEV'IRATE,  the  custom  among  the 
Jews  of  a man’s  marrying  the  widow  of 
a brother  who  died  without  issue.  The 
same  custom  or  law  prevails  in  some 
parts  of  India. 

LE'VITES,  the  name  generally  em- 
ployed to  designate  not  the  whole  Jewish 
tribe  that  traced  its  descent  from  Levi, 
but  a division  within  the  tribe  itself,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  priests,  who  are 
otherwise  called  the  “sons  of  Aaron.” 
They  were  the  ministers  of  worship, 
specially  singled  out  for  the  service  of 
the  sanctuary.  Together  with  the  priests 
they  formed  the  sacerdotal  tribe.  A 
permanent  organization  was  made  for 
their  maintenance.  In  placp  of  territor- 
ial possessions  they  were  to  receive 
tithes  of  the  produce  of  the  land,  and  in 
their  turn  to  offer  a tithe  to  the  priests. 
After  the  settlement  in  Caanan,  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi  were  assigned  forty-eight 
cities,  six  of  which  were  cities  of  refuge, 
thirteen  of  the  total  number  being  set 
apart  for  the  priests.  To  the  Levites 
was  to  belong  the  office  of  preserving, 
transcribing,  and  interpreting  the  law, 
and  they  were  to  read  it  every  seventh 
year  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  Their 
position  was  much  changed  by  the 
revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  they  are 
seldom  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
where  they  appear  as  the  types  of  for- 
mal, heartless  worship. 

LEVITTCUS,  the  name  of  the  third 
book  of  the  Pentateuch,  as  called  from 
the  first  word  of  its  contents.  By  the 
later  Jews  it  was  called  the  “Law  of  the 
Priests,”  and  sometimes  the  “Law  of 
Offerings.”  It  consists  of  seven  prin- 
cipal sections,  but  it  may  be  generally  de- 
scribed as  containing  the  laws  and  ordi- 
nances relating  to  Levites,  priests,  and 
sacrifices.  The  integrity  of  the  book  is 
very  generally  admitted,  the  Elohist,  or 
author  of  the  original  document  (see 
Elohim),  being  credited  with  having 
written  nearly  the  whole  of  it,  and  the 
rest  being  considered  originally  Elohistic. 

LEVY,  the  seizure  and  taking  posses- 
sion of  the  property  of  a person,  by  a 
proper  officer,  under  a writ  or  other  proc- 
ess of  law.  To  constitute  a valid  levy 
the  officer  must  take  actual  possession 
of  the  property.  In  case  of  personal 
property  he  should  retain  actual  custody 
of  it,  either  by  locking  it  up  or  putting 
a deputy  in  charge  of  it ; in  case  of  real 
property  he  should  enter  and  show  by 
open  and  unequivocal  acts  that  he  has 
taken  legal  possession  under  his  process, 
but  in  most  states  the  judgment  debtor 
is  not  ejected  from  the  property,  as  his 
possession  is  subject  to  the  levy  and 
subsequent  sale. 

The  term  levy  is  also  applied  to  the 
seizure  of  property  under  a writ  of  at- 
tachment. The  rules  as  to  taking  pos- 
session of  the  property  of  the  person 
named  prevailing  under  this  writ  are 
similar  to  those  under  an  execution 
against  property. 

LEWES  (jo'es),  George  Henry,  philo- 
sophical writer  and  contributor  to  most 
departments  of  literature,  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1817.  His  first  important  work 


was  his  Biographical  History  of  Philos- 
ophy from  Thales  to  Comte,  originally 
published  in  1845,  and  subsequently 
much  extended  and  altered — a work 
written  more  or  less  from  a Positivist 
point  of  view,  and  sufficiently  proving 
his  ability  as  a thinker  and  writer.  His 
Life  of  Goethe,  which  won  him  a Euro- 
pean reputation,  was  published  in  1855. 
In  1864  he  published  a study  on  Aris- 
totle, and  in  1865  founded  the  Fort- 
nightly Review.  The  chief  work  of  his 
life,  aiming  at  the  systematic  develop- 
ment of  his  philosophical  views,  is 
entitled  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind 
(1873-77).  He  died  in  1878.  Besides  the 
works  already  mentioned  he  wrote  The 
Spanish  drama;  Lope  de  Vega  and 
Calderon  (1846) ; two  novels,  Ranthorpe 
(1847)  and  Rose,  Blanche,  and  Violet 
(1847).  His  relations  with  George  Eliot 
are  well  known.  See  Eliot,  George. 

LEWIS  (lo'is),  the  largest  of  the  Heb- 
rides, separated  from  the  mainland  of 
Scotland  by  a sea  30  to  35  miles  wide, 
called  the  Minch.  The  south  portion  of 
the  island,  called  Harris,  is  in  Inverness- 
shire,  the  northern  and  largest  portion 
being  in  Ross-shire.  The  entire  length  of 
the  island,  southwest  to  northeast,  is  52 
miles;  breadth,  varying  from  30  miles 
to  5 and  10  miles;  area,  nearly  700,000 
acres.  The  principal  town  is  Stornoway. 
Pop.  of  entire  island,  32,160. 

LEWIS,  Meriwether,  American  ex- 
plorer, born  near  Charlottesville,  Va., 
in  1774.  In  1801  he  became  President 
Jefferson’s  private  secretary.  When  in 
1803  it  was  decided  to  send  an  exploring 
expedition  into  the  Louisiana  country, 
for  which  the  United  States  was  then 
negotiating  with  France,  the  president 
accepted  the  promptly  offered  services 
of  the  secretary.  Lewis  chose  as  his  com- 
panion Capt.  William  Clark,  an  old  army 
friend.  The  party  left  the  Mississippi  in 
May,  1804,  and  proceeded  up  the  Mis- 
souri to  its  headwaters,  crossed  the 
Great  Divide,  and,  landing  on  one  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Columbia,  followed 
it  and  then  the  Columbia  to  the  Pacific. 
After  a dreary  winter  on  the  coast  they 
returned  to  the  United  States  by  much 
the  same  route,  and  reached  St.  Louis  in 
September,  1806.  (See  Lewis  and  Clark 
Expedition.)  He  died  in  1809. 

LEWIS  AND  CLARK  EXPEDITION, 
an  expedition  under  the  command  of 
Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark, 
which  in  1804-06  penetrated  from  the 
Mississippi  river,  through  territory  now 
forming  parts  of  Missouri,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, South  Dakota,  North  Dakota, 
Montana,  Idaho,  Washington,  and  Ore- 
gon, to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  members 
of  the  party  were  the  first  white  men  to 
cross  the  continent  between  the  Spanish 
possessions  to  the  south  and  the  British 
possession  to  the  north.  The  expedition 
was  sent  out  by  President  Jefferson  for 
the  purpose  of  exploring  the  Louisiana 
territory,  immediately  after  its  pur- 
chase from  France.  At  times  the  ex- 
plorers suffered  terrible  hardships,  and 
were  shut  off  from  all  communication 
from  the  world.  Lewis  and  Clark  col- 
lected a mass  of  valuable  information 
concerning  the  physical  characteristics, 
the  fauna  and  flora,  the  climate,  and  the 
various  Indian  tribes  of  the  territory 
traversed. 


LEWIS  RIVER 


LIBERTY 


LEWIS  RIVER,  or  SNAKE  RIVER,  a 

river  of  North  America,  which  rises  in 
the  Rocky  mountains,  and  runs  north- 
west into  the  Columbia,  413  miles  from 
its  mouth;  length,  about  900  miles.  Its 
eourse  lies  partly  in  Idaho,  partly  be- 
tween Idaho  and  Oregon,  and  partly  in 
Washington. 

LEWISTON,  a city  of  Maine,  on  the 
Androscoggin  river,  which  here  has  a 
fall  of  50  feet,  the  water  power  being 
utilized  by  several  manufactories  (chiefly 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods)  and  ex- 
tensive saw-mills.  Pop.  25,170. 

LEXICON.  See  Dictionary. 

LEXINGTON,  a city  in  Kentucky,  23 
miles  e.s.e.  of  Frankfort.  It  is  the  oldest 
town  in  the  state  (having  been  founded 
in  1775),  and  was  once  the  capital.  It  is 
more  a place  of  fashionable  residence 
than  of  trade.  There  is  here  the  Ken- 
tucky State  university.  Pop.  28,000. 

LEXINGTON,  a small  town  in  Massa- 
chusetts, where  the  first  British  blood 
was  shed  in  armed  resistance  to  the 
mother  country.  On  April  18,  1775,  the 
advance  of  a detachment  of  British 
troops,  sent  from  Boston  to  seize  some 
provincial  stores  at  Concord,  was  op- 
posed by  the  Lexington  militia  (70  men) 
who  were  dispersed  with  a loss  of  seven 
killed  and  three  wounded.  Pop.  3197. 

LEYDEN,  a town  in  Holland,  22 
miles  southwest  of  Amsterdam,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Old  Rhine.  The  most  im- 
portant educational  institution  is  the 
university,  formerly  one  of  the  most 
famed  in  Europe.  It  is  attended  on  the 
average  by  about  700  students,  nearly 
one-half  studying  law.  Leyden  has 
cloth  and  other  manufactures.  The  pop- 
ulation, about  100,000  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury, is  now  54,421. 

LEYDEN,  Jan,  or  John  of.  See  article 
Anabaptists. 

LEYDEN-JAR,  an  early  form  of  elec- 
tric accumulator,  introduced  to  the 
scientific  world  by  Muschenbroek  of 
Leyden  in  1746,  hence  its  name.  It  con- 
sists of  a glass  phial  or  jar  coated  inside 
and  outside,  usually  with  tin-foil,  to 
within  a third  of  the  top.  A metallic  rod, 
having  a knob  at  the  top,  is  fixed  into 
the  mouth  of  the  jar,  and  is  ifiade  to 
communicate  with  the  inside  coating, 
and  when  the  jar  is  to  be  charged  the 
knob  of  this  rod  is  applied  to  the  prime 


conductor  of  an  electric  machine.  As 
the  electric  fluid  passes  to  the  inside  of 
the  jar  an  equal  quantity  passes  from 
the  outside,  so  that  the  two  coatings  are 
brought  into  opposite  states,  the  inside 
being  positive  and  the  outside  negative. 
The  jar  is  discharged  by  establishing  a 
communication  between  the  outside 
coating  and  the  knob.  When  a number 
of  jars  are  placed  in  a box  lined  with  tin- 
foil  connected  with  the  earth,  their 
knobs  being  joined  together,  they  form 
a battery;  a quantity  of  electricity  equal 

P.  E.— 47 


to  the  sum  of  the  charges  which  would  be 
received  by  each  jar  can  be  collected  in 
such  a battery,  capable  of  melting  fine 
metallic  wires,  puncturing  plates  of 
glass  or  card-board,  killing  animals, 
rupturing  bad  conductors,  etc. 

LEZE  MAJESTY,  any  crime  against 
the  sovereign  authority  of  a state ; 
treason. 

LHASSA.  See  Lassa. 

LI,  LE,  or  CASH,  the  only  copper  coin 
of  China,  with  a square  hole  in  the 
middle,  and  an  inscription  on  one  side. 
Ten  lis  make  one  candareen,  100  a mace, 
1000  a Hang  or  tael,  the  only  Chinese 
silver  cn=n,  average  value  about  .‘51.25. 
Li  is  also  a Chinese  measure  of  length 
equal  to  about  J of  an  English  mile. 

LIABILITY,  any  obligatibn  enforce- 
able at  law  or  in  equity,  including  legal 
obligations  to  perform  acts  other  than 
the  payment  of  money.  The  term  is 
generally  used,  however,  in  a narrower 
sense  as  meaning  a legal  obligation  to 
pay  money : either  a sum  certain  due  and 
owing,  as  in  the  case  of  a debt,  or  an  un- 
liquidated sum,  as  in  case  of  damages 
due  upon  tort  or  upon  breach  of  contract. 

LIAS,  in  geology,  the  name  given  to 
that  series  of  strata,  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  thin  layers  of  limestone  im- 
bedded in  thick  masses  of  blue  argillace- 
ous clay,  lying  at  the  base  of  the  Oolitic 
or  Jurassic  series,  and  above  the  Triassic 
or  New  Red  Sandstone.  The  formation 
is  highly  fossiliferous,  ammonites  being 
found  in  such  quantities  and  varieties 
as  to  be  called  into  use  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  different  beds.  Gryphites  and 
belemnites  are  also  very  common  mol- 
luscs. Fish  remains  are  frequent;  but  of 
all  its  fossil  remains  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant are  those  of  the  great  reptiles, 
of  which  the  ichthyosaurus,  plesiosaurus, 
and  enaliosaurus  are  representatives. 
Numerous  remains  of  plants  occur  in 
the  lias.  See  Geology. 

LIBAU  (le'bou),  an  important  seaport 
of  Russia,  government  of  Courland,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Baltic.  Its  trade  in  corn,  flax, 
hemp,  etc.,  is  considerable.  Pop.  64,505. 

LIBEL,  in  law,  the  act  of  publishing 
malicious  statements  with  intent  to  ex- 
pose persons  or  institutions  to  public 
hatred,  contempt,  or  ridicule,  and 
thereby  provoking  them  to  anger,  caus- 
ing a breach  of  the  peace,  injury  to 
reputation,  business,  etc.  The  difference 
between  libel  and  slander  is,  that  in  the 
former  case  the  defamation  must  have 
been  effected  in  writing,  printing,  or 
some  other  visible  manner,  while  in  the 
latter  the  offense  is  committed  verbally. 
Publication  is  held  to  have  taken  place 
if  the  libel  is  seen  but  by  one  person 
other  than  the  person  libeled.  The  law 
distinguishes  defamatory,  seditious,  and 
obscene  libel.  A defamatory  libel  may 
result  in  civil  and  criminal  proceedings 
against  both  the  publisher  and  the 
writer,  but  to  come  under  this  category 
it  is  essential  that  the  libel  be  false, 
malicious  (the  law  presuming  malice  in 
every  injury  done  intentionally  and 
without  justification),  have  a tendency 
to  provoke  hatred  or  contempt,  and  that 
it  be  non-privileged.  In  criminal  law  it 
is  a misdemeanor  to  publish  or  threaten 
to  publish  a libel;  or  as  a means  of  ex- 
tortion, to  offer  to  abstain  from  or  to 


prevent  others  from  publishing  a libel. 
A seditious  libel  is  one  directed  against 
the  head  of  the  state,  the  legislature, 
the  courts  of  justice,  etc.,  and  its  pub- 
lication constitutes  also  a misdemeanor. 
The  term  obscene  libel  comprises  any 
obscene  publication,  and  the  publisher 
thereof  is  liable  to  imprisonment  with 
hard  labor.  If  the  charges  contained  in 
the  libel  are  true  a civil  action  cannot 
be  maintained,  but  the  truth  of  the 
libelous  matter  is  no  defense  at  common 
law;  at  the  same  time  it  generally  secures 
the  defendant  the  merciful  considera- 
tion of  the  court.  In  a civil  action  the 
plaintiff  recovers  damages,  the  amount 
of  which  is  settled  by  the  jury;  upon  an 
indictment,  the  jury  has  merely  to  acquit 
the  defendant  or  to  find  him  guilty, 
after  which  the  court  passes  judgment, 
and  awards  punishment,  generally  fine 
or  imprisonment,  or  both.  Recent  legis- 
lation and  decisions  in  this  branch  of 
law  in  Breat  Britain  and  the  United 
States  (the  American  laws  differ  but 
little  from  those  of  Great  Britain)  have 
a tendency  to  limit  liability  for  action 
to  purely  false,  scandalous,  and  mali- 
ciouslibels.  Truth, if  published  withgood 
motives  and  for  justifiable  ends,  is  now 
admitted  as  a good  defense,  and  even 
motive  alone,  though  the  statements 
may  prove  untrue. 

LIBERAL  ARTS.  See  Arts. 

LIBE'RIA,  a negro  republic  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  founded  in  1820  by 
liberated  American  slaves  under  the 
auspices  of  the  American  Colonization 
Society,  and  recognized  as  an  independ- 
ent state  in  1847.  It  lies  between  the 
rivers  San  Pedro  and  Manna,  has  500 
miles  of  seaboard,  and  extends  some  100 
miles  inland;  area  14,000  to  15,  000  sq. 
miles.  The  soil  is  fertile,  well  watered, 
and  highly  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of 
all  tropical  products.  The  chief  crop  is 
coffee,  increasing  quantities  of  which  are 
grown  from  year  to  year  and  exported, 
other  exports  being  palm-oil,  ground- 
nuts, caoutchouc,  and  ivory.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  unhealthy  for  Europeans 
British  weights,  measures,  and  money 
are  mostly  in  use.  The  English  language 
predominates  among  the  governing 
class,  Protestant  churches  and  schools 
are  amply  provided,  and  civilization  is 
making  rapid  strides  among  the  natives. 
The  population  consists  of  some  20,000 
immigrants  from  the  United  States  and 
their  descendants,  and  about  1,000,000 
natives;  Monrovia  is  the  capital.  The 
government  of  the  republic  is  on  the 
model  of  the  United  States. 

“LIBERTY,”  Bartholdi’s  statue,  pre- 
sented to  the  United  States  by  the 
French  people  in  1885,  is  the  largest 
statue  ever  built.  Its  conception  is  due 
to  the  great  French  sculptor  whose  name 
it  bears.  It  is  said  to  be  a likeness  of  his 
mother.  Eight  years  of  time  were  con- 
sumed in  the  construction  of  this  gigan- 
tic brazen  image.  Its  weight  is  440,000 
pounds,  of  which  146,000  pounds  are 
copper,  the  remainder  iron  and  steel. 
The  major  part  of  the  iron  and  steel  are 
used  in  constructing  the  skeleton  frame 
work  for  the  inside.  The  mammoth 
electric  light  held  in  the  hands  of  the 
giantess  is  305  feet  above  tide-water. 
The  height  of  the  figure  is  1521  feet;  the 
pedestal  91  feet,  and  the  foundation  52 


LIBERTY  BELL 


LICENSE 


feet  and  10  inches.  Forty  persons  can 
find  standing-room  within  the  mighty 
head,  which  is  14J  feet  in  diameter. 
A six-foot  man  standing  on  the  lower 
lip  could  hardly  reach  the  e3^es.  The 
index  finger  is  eight  feet  in  length  and 
the  nose  31  feet.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes 
was  a pigmy  compared  with  this  latter- 
day  wonder. 

LIBERTY  BELL,  the  bell  which  first 
rang  to  celebrate  the  adoption  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4, 
1776.  It  was  brought  to  Philadelphia 
from  England  in  1752,  and  was  recast 
in  April  and  again  in  June,  1753,  when 
the  words  “Proclaim  liberty  throughout 
all  the  land,  unto  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof”  (Lev.  xxv.  10),  were  inscribed 
on  it.  For  many  jmars  it  was  rung 
annuall}’'  on  the  Fourth  of  Jul3%  but  on 
July  8,  1835,  while  being  tolle(l  in  mem- 
ory of  Chief  Justice  Marshall,  it  was 
broken.  It  now  hangs  in  the  hallway 
of  the  old  state  house  in  Philadelphia. 

LIBERTY,  CAP  OF,  a cap  used  as  a 
symbol  of  liberty.  In  ancient  times 
Roman  manumitted  slaves  put  on  what 
was  termed  the  Phrygian  cap,  in  token 
of  their  freedom.  In  modern  times  the 
name  cap  of  liberty  was  given  to  a red 
cap  worn  b3’'  French  and  other  revolu- 
tionaries. 

LIBERTY  OF  THE  PRESS.  See  Press. 

LI'BRA,  the  seventh  sign  of  the 
zodiac.  At  its  first  point  the  ecliptic 
crosses  the  equator  to  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere and  we  have  then  the  autumnal 
equinox. 

LIBRARY,  the  name  given  to  a collec- 
tion of  books,  and  to  the  building  in 
which  it  is  located.  Libraries  existed  in 
ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria,  and  Pisis- 
tratus  is  credited  with  the  honor  of  in- 
troducing a public  library  at  Athens 
about  B.c.  337.  Cicero  and  various 
wealthy  Romans  made  collections  of 
books,  and  several  Roman  emperors 
established  libraries,  partly  with  books 
obtained  as  spoils  of  war.  By  far  the 
most  celebrated  library  of  antiquity  was 
the  Alexandrian.  In  the  West  libraries 
of  any  note  were  founded  in  the  second 
half  of  the  8th  century  by  the  encourage- 
ment of  Charlemagne.  In  France  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  was  that  in  the 
abbey  St.  Germain  des  Pres,  near  Paris. 
In  Germany  the  libraries  of  Fulda,  Cor- 
vey,  and  in  the  11th  century  that  of 
Hirschau,  were  valuable.  In  Spain,  in 
the  12th  century,  the  Moors  had  seventy 
public  libraries,  of  which  that  of  Cor- 
dova contained  250.000  volumes.  In 
Britain  and  Italy  libraries  were  also 
founded  with  great  zeal,  particularly  in 
the  former  country,  by  Richard  Aunger- 
ville;  in  the  latter  by  Petrarch,  Boccac- 
cio, and  others.  After  tlie  invention  of 
the  art  of  printing  this  was  done  more 
easily  and  at  less  expen.se.  The  principal 
libraries  of  modern  times  are  the  Na- 
tional Library  at  Paris,  with  fully 

2.500.000  of  books  and  100,000  MSS., 
and  the  British  Museum  library,  Lon- 
don, with  over  2,000,000  books  and 

100.000  MSS.  The  central  court  library 
at  Munich,  the  imperial  library  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  the  royal  library  at 
Berlin  have  each  over  a million  volumes 
and  thousands  of  MSS.  Other  large  and 
valuable  libraries  are  the  imperial  li- 
brary .at.  Vienna;  the  royal  libraries  at 


Stuttgart,  Dresden,  and  Copenhagen; 
the  university  libraries  of  Genoa,  Prague 
Gottingen,  Upsal,  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
and  Dublin ; also  the  libraries  of  Moscow, 
Venice,  Florence,  Milan,  Bologna,  Naples 
and  the  Advocates’,  Edinburgh.  The 
Vatican  library,  Rome,  and  the  Bod- 
leian, O-xford,  are  particularly  valuable 
in  rare  books  and  MSS.  The  spread  of 
education,  and  the  consequent  growing 
taste  for  knowledge,  has  called  into 
existence  innumerable  smaller  libraries, 
ready  of  access,  and  providing  such 
literature  as  the  special  class  of  reader 
demand.  This  public  library  system  has 
naturally  been  ipost  developed  in  highly 
educated  countries  such  as  Germany, 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States.  The  French  government  has 
established  over  25,000  popular  libraries 
in  connection  with  primary  schools. 
The  Bureau  of  Education  of  the  United 
States  records  nearly  4000  libraries  with 
over  20  million  volumes.  The  Con- 
gressional Library,  Washington,  has  over 
a million  volumes,  and  the  public  library 
of  Bpston  over  half  a million  books, 
while  the  libraries  of  Harvard  university, 
Cambridge,  Yale  university,  Newhaven, 
the  .\stor  library,  and  the  Mercantile 
Library  Association,  New  York,  possess 
each  .several  hundred  thousand  volumes. 

LIBRARIES,  statistics  of  tw'enty 
leading  libraries  in  the  United  States 
show  that,  of  over  1500,000  spent,  a little 
more  than  1170,000  was  devoted  to 
books,  while  other  expenses  consumed 
S358,000.  In  the  Mercantile  liibrary  of 
New  York  City  it  costs  14  cents  to  cir- 
culate a volume;  in  the  .\stor,  144  cents 
are  spent  on  each  volume,  or  27"  cents 
on  each  reader;  in  Columbia  College 
Library,  21J  cents  per  reader;  in  the 
Library  Company  of  Philadelphia,  26 
cents  per  volume,  or  10  cents  per  head. 
The  largest  librai-y  in  the  world  is  the 
National  Library  of  France,  founded  by 
Louis  XIV.,  which  now  contains  1,400,- 
000  books,  30,000  pamphlets,  175,000 
manuscripts,  300.000  maps  and  charts, 

150,000  coins  and  medals,  1,300,000  en- 
gravings, and  100,000  portraits.  The 
Library  of  Congress  is  the  largest  in  this 
country,  containing  over  one  million 
volumes.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  about  6,000  libraries. 

LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS,  The  (the 
National  Library  of  the  United  States), 
established  in  1800,  destroyed  in  1814 
by  the  burning  of  the  capitol,  after- 
ward replenished  by  the  purchase  by 
congress  of  the  library  of  ex-President 
Jefferson,  suffered  again  by  a fire  in 
1851,  which  reduced  it  to  20,000  vol- 
umes. The  collection-  has  now  come  to 
be  the  largest  in  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere and  one  of  the  half-dozen  largest 
in  the  world,  containing  over  one  million 
printed  books  and  phamphlets,  over  one 
hundred  thousand  manuscripts,  65,000 
maps  and  charts,  35.000  pieces  of  music 
ami  135,000  prints.  It  is  rich  in  histor3q 
political  and  social  science,  public  docu- 
ments, and  in  Americana,  including 
important  files  of  American  newspapers 
and  original  manuscripts.  From  1800 
to  1897  it  remained  at  the  capitol;  in 
1897  it  was  removed  to  the  building 
erected  for  it  under  acts  of  congress.  It  is 
the  largest  and  most  magnificent  library 
building  in  the  world.  It  has  a floor 


space  of  nearly  eight  acres;  book-stacks 
which  contain  about  forty-five  miles  of 
shelving  and  space  for  2,200,000  octavo 
volumes,  able  to  be  so  extended  as  to 
accommodate  over  4,000,000  volumes; 
and  provision  for  nearly  a thousand 
readers  at  a time.  The  library  is  open 
from  9 a.m.  to  10  p.m.  on  every  week- 
day, and  from  2 p.m.  until  10  p.m.  on 
Sundays  and  most  holidays.  For  refer- 
ence it  is  freely  accessible  without  for- 
mality; but  the  privilege  of  drawing 
books  for  home  use  is  at  present  in 
general  limited  to  members  of  Congress 
and  certain  other  classes. 

LIBRATION,  in  astronomy,  an  ap- 
parent oscillatory  motion  of  the  moon, 
arising  from  the  fact  that  it  does  not 
move  round  the  earth  with  a uniform 
angular  velocity  exactly  equal  to  its 
angular  velocity  of  rotation  on  its  axis, 
and  that  its  axis  is  not  at  right  angles  to 
the  plane  of  its  orbit,  but  is  inclined  1° 

32'  9".  In  this  way  instead  of  seeing 
exactly  one-half  of  the  moon’s  surface 
we  see  about  -^ths,  parts  at  the  edge  of 
the  disc  and  also  at  the  poles  being 
sometimes  visible  and  sometimes  out  of 
sight. 

LIB'YA,  an  ancient  name  for  all 
Africa  west  of  Egypt,  or  used  as  equiva- 
lent to  Africa,  the  real  shape  and  dimen- 
sions of  which  were  unknown. 

LICE,  wingless  insects  which  occur 
as  parasites  upon  the  bodies  of  birds 
and  mammals.  Two  distinct  groups  are 
recognized  among  the  forms  united 
under  the  common  name  lice:  the  one, 
the  bird-lice,  forming  a distinct  order, 
the  others  which  occur  upon  mammals 
being  included  as  a group.  The  bird- 
lice  havetheirjawsfitted  for  biting.  'They 
live  almost  exclusively  upon  birds,  each 
species  of  which  has  its  peculiar  parasite. 
They  feed  upon  the  feathers  and  dead 
skin,  and  it  is  to  rid  themselves  of  these 
pests  that  hens,  etc.,  roll  themselves  in 
the  dust.  In  a few  cases,  as  the  goat  and 
sheep,  they  feed  upon  the  wool  or  hair. 

The  true  lice  hav’e  the  mouth-parts,  like 
those  of  the  true  bugs,  fitted  for  piercing 
the  skin  and  sucking  the  blood  of  their 
host.  In  some  eases  they  manage  to 
burrow  entirely  under  the  skin.  Their 
feet  are  shaped  something  like  pipe- 
tongs,  enabling  them  to  hold  firmly  to 
the  hairs  among  which  they  move. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  firm  capsules 
attached  to  the  hairs,  and  the  3mung 
pass  through  various  changes.  Man  is 
subject  to  thfe  attacks  of  three  different 
species  of  lice:  the  head-louse,  the  body- 
louse,  and  the  crab-louse.  Other  mam- 
mals have  their  own  parasites.  The  best 
remedy  for  these  pests  is  cleanliness. 

LICENSE,  in  law,  the  grant  of  per- 
mission to  do  some  lawful  act,  also  the 
document  conferring  such  authority. 

All  civilized  countries  require  that  per- 
sons should  not  carry  on  certain  trades 
or  professions,  or  do  certain  acts,  with- 
out previous  grant  of  license,  and  such 
licenses  may  be  imposed  for  the  sake  of  t 
regulating  traffic  or  raising  revenue.  ( ‘ 

Most  numerous  are  licenses  issued  to  em-  '■  • 

power  persons  to  sell  certain  articles.  ' 
The  articles  not  to  be  dealt  in  without  j 
a license  include:  beer,  cider,  wines  and  ^ 
spirits,  tobacco  and  snuff,  patent  medi-  ^ 
cines,  gold  and  silver,  game,,  sweets;  ir 
besides  these  there  are  licenses  for  G 


LICHEN 


LIEUTENANT-GENERAL 


9 


► 

i 


i 

‘ 

: 

' 


f 


I 

I 

t- 

i 

t* 


auctioneers,  appraisers,  armorial  bear- 
ings, carriages,  dogs,  guns,  hawkers 
and  pedlars,  male  servants,  pawnbrokers 
ete. 

LICHEN  (li'ken  or  lich'en),  in  medi- 
cine, a skin  disease  affecting  adults. 
It  consists  of  a number  of  pimples,  red 
or  white  in  color,  either  clustered  or  dis- 
seminated over  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
with  or  without  fever,  or  derangement 
of  the  digestive  organs,  usually  ter- 
minating in  slight  desquamation,  and 
very  liable  to  recur,  though  not  con- 
tagious. There  are  several  varieties  of 
this  eruption,  but  in  the  milder  forms 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  avoid  excess, 
especially  in  rich  food  and  the  use  of 
stimulants,  and  to  take  a light  diet,  with 
diluent  drinks,  and  a gentle  laxative 
occasionally.  Strong  external  applica- 
tions should  not  be  employed,  but  lo- 
tions of  lime-water,  or  weak  solutions 
of  the  bicarbonate  of  ammonia,  afford 
relief.  The  prickly  heat  so  well  known  to 
dwellers  in  tropical  climates,  is  a species 
of  lichen. 

LICHENS,  a very  extensive  order  of 
flowerless  plants.  According  to  a 
modern  theory  lichens  are  not  simple 
plants,  but  are  fungi  parasitic  on  algiE, 
the  two  being  mutually  dependent. 
They  have  neither  stem  nor  leaves,  but 
consist  mainly  of  a thallus  deriving  its 
nourishment  from  the  air.  They  are 
reproduced  by  spores  contained  in  fruits 
called  apothecia,  which  are  regarded  as 
the  fungi  of  the  particular  lichen.  They 
are  common  everywhere,  commonly  in 
the  form  of  flat  crusts,  sometimes  of 
foliaceous  expansions,  adhering  to  rocks, 
the  trunks  of  trees,  barren  soil, etc.  They 
are  found  flourishing  to  the  very  edge 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  one  species,  the 
reindeer-moss,  grows  in  the  greatest  pro- 
fusion in  the  Arctic  regions,  where  it 
forms  the  reindeer’s  chief  sustenance. 
The  Iceland-moss  is  also  abundant  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  and  often  affords 
aliment  to  the  inhabitants.  Several 
other  lichens  afford  dyes  of  various 
colors,  these  being  chiefly  obtained  from 
rocks  in  the  Azores  and  Canaries.  Lit- 
mus is  also  obtained  from  a lichen. 

LICK,  James,  American  philanthrop- 
ist, born  in  Fredericksburg,  Lebanon 
CO.,  Pa.,  in  1796.  In  1847  he  settled  in 
California,  where  he  invested  in  real 
estate  and  became  very  wealthy.  He 
gave  $700,000  to  the  Llniversity  of  Cali- 
fornia for  the  erection  of  an  observa- 
tory, and  procuring  therefor  a telescope 
superior  to  and  more  powerful  than  any 
ever  before  constructed,  and  made  other 
worthy  bequests.  He  died  in  1876. 

LICK  OBSERVATORY,  an  American 
observatory  on  Mount  Hamilton  (4200 
feet),  60  miles  s.e.  of  San  Francisco,  Cali- 
fornia, founded  by  James  Lick,  a piano 
manufacturer  (1796-1876),  and  for- 
mally handed  over  to  the  University  of 
California  in  1888.  It  is  supplied  with 
instruments  of  the  most  perfect  kind, 
and  in  particular  possesses  a refracting 
telescope  with  an  object-glass  36  inches 
in  diameter,  being  the  next  largest  lens 
in  existence. 

LICTORS,  in  Rome,  were  the  public 
servants  who  attended  upon  the  chief 
magistrates,  consuls,  praetors,  etc.,  to 
clear  the  way  for  them,  and  cause  due 
respect  to  be  paid  to  them.  They  carried  ' 


axes  tied  up  in  bundles  of  rods,  called 
fasces,  as  ensigns  of  office,  and  were 
selected  from  the  lower  class  of  free 
men.  The  number  of  lictors  preceding 
the  state  dignitaries  depended  upon  the 
rank  of  the  latter. 

LIEBER,  Francis,  a German -Ameri- 
can writer,  born  at  Berlin  1800,  died  at 
New  York  1872.  In  1827  he  ed- 
ited the  Cyclopedia  Americana,  based 


on  the  German  Conversations-Lexikon. 
The  South  Carolina  College,  Columbia, 
elected  him  in  1835  professor  of  history 
and  political  economy,  a post  he  held 
until  1856,  when  he  accepted  a similar 
appointment  in  Columbia  College,  New 
York.  He  has  written  many  books  and 
pamphlets  on  morals,  education,  and 
political  economy,  and  some  of  them 
have  been  translated  into  French  and 
German. 

LIEBIG  (le'bih),  Justus,  Baron  von, 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern 
chemists,  born  at  Darmstadt  1803,  died 
at  Munich  1873.  He  first  secured  the 
attention  of  the  chemical  world  in  1824 
by  reading  a paper  before  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  on  fulminic  acid 
and  the  fulminates,  the  true  composition 
of  which  were  until  then  unknown.  This 
also  gained  him  the  favor  of  Humboldt, 
and  through  the  latter’s  influence  he 
was  appointed  extraordinary,  and  in 
1825  ordinary  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  University  of  Giessen,  a chair  he 
held  for  25  years.  In  1850  he  replaced 
Professor  Gmelin  at  Heidelberg,  and  in 
1852  he  accepted  the  chemistry  chair  at 
Munich,  with  charge  of  the  laboratory. 
The  Munich  Academy  of  Sciences 
elected  him  president  in  1860.  Liebig  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  organic 
chemistry,  owing  to  the  many  discoveries 
he  made  in  this  department.  He  did 
much  to  improve  the  methods  of  analy- 
sis; his  Chemistry  of  Food  has  brought 
about  a more  rational  mode  of  cooking 
and  use  of  food;  w'hile  agriculture  owes 
much  to  his  application  of  chemistry  to 
soils  and  manures. 

LIEGE  (li-azh),  a town  of  Belgium, 
capital  of  the  province  of  same  name,  54 
niiles  east  by  south  of  Brussels.  Liege 
is  the  principal  manufacturing  town  of 
Belgium,  its  foundries,  firearms,  metal, 


and  tool  manufactures  being  very  ex- 
tensive; besides  these  there  are  import- 
ant woolen-mills,  tanneries,  and  print- 
ing-offices. It  has  many  fine  examples 
of  Gothic  architecture,  including  its 
cathedrals,  the  church  of  St.  Jacques, 
and  others,  and  its  public  buildings  are 
mostly  elegant  structures.  The  town 
is  rich  in  collections  of  various  kinds, 
and  has  a university  with  a large  library. 
Pop.  157,760. — The  province  has  an 
area  of  1117  sq.  miles,  with  a population 
of  835,800.  Until  1795  it  was  an  inde- 
pendent state,  governed  by  prince- 
bishops  of  the  German  empire;  in  that 
year  France  included  it  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Ourthe,  but  it  was  restored 
to  Belgium  in  1815,  excepting  certain 
portions  annexed  to  Prussia. 

LIEGNITZ  (leh'-nits),  a town  of  Prus- 
sia, in  the  province  of  Selisia,  40  miles 
w.n.w.  of  Breslau.  Pop.  54,839. 

LI'EN,  in  law,  in  its  most  usual 
acceptation,  signifies  “the  right  which 
one  person,  in  certain  cases,  possesses  of 
detaining  property  placed  in  his  posses- 
sion belonging  to  another,  until  some 
demand  which  the  former  has  is  satis- 
fied. Liens  are  of  two  kinds:  1,  partic- 
ular liens,  that  is,  where  the  person  in 
possession  of  goods  may  detain  them 
until  a claim,  which  accrues  to  him  from 
those  identical  goods,  is  satisfied;  2, 
general  liens,  that  is,  where  the  person 
in  possession  may  detain  the  goods,  not 
only  for  his  claim  accruing  from  them, 
but  also  for  the  general  balance  of  his 
account  with  the  owners.  See  Mechanics 
Lien. 

LIEUTENANT,  in  military  language, 
the  officer  next  below  a captain.  The 
distinction  between  first  and  second 
lieutenants  exists  in  the  British  army 
and  in  that  of  the  United  States.  A 
lieutenant  in  the  navy  is  the  officer  next 
in  command  to  the  captain  of  the  ship. 
He  takes  rank  both  in  the  British  and 
United  States’  services  with  a captain 
in  the  army. 

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL,  the  inter- 
mediate rank  between  major  and  colonel. 
In  the  United  States  army  his  duties  are 
to  assist  the  colonel  in  command  of  the 
regiment. 

LIEUTENANT-COMMANDER,  an  offi- 
cer of  the  United  States  navy  above 
the  rank  of  lieutenant  and  below  that  of 
commander.  The  grade  was  established 
upon  the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in 
1862.  Lieutenant-commanders  rank 
with  majors  in  the  army  and  have  the 
same  pay  when  at  sea,  but  on  shore  duty 
their  pay  is  15  per  cent  less. 

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1864,  an  act  of  congress  was 
passed  directing  that  the  grade  of  lieu- 
tenant-general be  again  revived  (Gen- 
eral Scott  having  retired  in  1861).  On 
March  2,  1864,  Major-Gen.  U.  S.  Grant 
received  the  appointment,  followed  on 
July  25,  1866,  by  Major-Gen.  W.  T. 
Sherman,  the  grade  of  general  having 
been  revived  for  Lieutenant-General 
Grant.  When  the  latter  was  elected 
president  of  the  United  States,  Lieu- 
tenant-general Sherman  was  made  gen- 
eral, Major-Gen.  P.  H.  Sheridan  becom- 
ing lieutenant-general.  An  act  of  con- 
gress, 1870,  abolished  the  office  of  lieu- 
tenant-general and  general  as  soon  as 
vacated.  Major-Gen.  J.  M.  Schofield 


LIFE 


LIGHT 


was  promoted  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant- 
general  by  act  of  congress  on  February 
5,  1895,  retiring  from  active  service  as 
such  on  September  29,  1895.  Major- 
Gen.  N.  A.  Miles  succeeded  as  command- 
ing general  of  the  army,  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-general  being  again  revived 
and  conferred  on  him  in  1900. 

LIFE,  to  give  an  unobjectionable 
definition  of  life  is  impossible,  as  what- 
ever the  definition  may  be  it  will  prob- 
ably err  either  from  redundancy  or 
defect.  Life  has  been  defined  as:  “the 
sum  total  of  the  forces  that  resist 
death,”  “the  constant  uniformity  of 
phenomena  with  diversity  of  external 
influences,”  “the  special  activity  of 
organized  bodies,”  “organization  in 
action,”  “a  collection  of  phenomena  that 
succeed  each  other  during  a limited 
time  in  an  organized  body,”  “the  two- 
fold internal  movement  of  composition 
and  decomposition,  at  once  general  and 
continuous.”  Herbert  Spencer’s  con- 
ception of  life  is:  “The  definite  combina- 
tion of  heterogeneous  changes,  both 
simultaneous  and  successive  in  corre- 
spondence with  external  coexistences  and 
sequences.”  Mr.  G.  H.  Lewes  suggests 
the  definition : “Life  is  a series  of  definite 
and  successive  changes,  both  of  structure 
and  composition,  which  take  place 
within  an  individual  without  destroying 
its  identity.” 

LIFE-ASSURANCE.  See  Insurance. 

LIFE-BOAT,  a boat  for  saving  persons 
from  shipwreck.  The  first  life-boat  was 
patented  in  Great  Britain  by  Lukin  in 
1785,  but  Henry  Greathead  introduced 
an  improved  form  in  1789  which  proved 
very  successful,  and  till  1851  was  almost 
the  only  one  in  use.  A boat  approved  by 
the  Royal  National  Life-boat  Institu- 
tion of  Britain  is  now  the  recognized 
English  model,  and  possesses  in  the 
highest  degree  all  the  qualities  which  it 
is  desirable  that  a life-boat  should  pos- 


DecU  plan  of  life-boat. 


A,  Deck;  B,  Relieving  tubes;  C,  Side  air-cases; 
D,  End  air-chambers:  E,  Ballast;  F,  Air- 
scuttles:  G,  Scuttle  for  air  and  pump. 


Midship  section. 

A,  Side  air-cases:  B,  Relieving  tubes;  C, .Spaces 
packed  with  cork;  d,  Ventilation 
scuttle. 

sess: — 1.  Great  lateral  stability,  or  re- 
sistance to  upsetting.  2.  Speed  against  a 
heavy  sea.  3.  Facility  for  launching  and 
taking  the  shore.  4.  Immediate  self- 
discharge of  any  water  breaking  into 
her.  5.  The  important  advantage  of  self- 
righting  if  upset.  6.  Strength.  7.  Stow- 
ag&-room  f6r  a large  number  of  passen- 


gers. The  life-boat  transporting  carriage 
is  an  important  auxiliary  to  the  boat. 
The  life-boat  is  kept  on  this  carriage  in 
the  boat-house  ready  for  immediate 
transportation  to  the  spot  most  favor- 
able for  launching  to  the  wreck.  In  this 
way  a greater  extent  of  coast  can  secure 
the  benefits  of  the  life-boat  than  could 
otherwise  be  the  case;  besides,  a boat 
can  be  readily  launched  from  a carriage 
through  a high  surf,  when  without  a 
carriage  she  could  not  be  got  off  the 
beach.  The  machine  is  admirably  con- 
trived, and  the  boat  may  be  launched 
from  it  in  an  upright  position  with  her 
crew  on  board.  The  life-saving  service  of 
the  United  States  is  chief  among  the 
life-boat  societies  of  the  world.  It  is 
supported  by  government  funds,  and 
the  Atlantic  and  some  of  the  lake  coasts 
are  now  studded  with  life-saving  sta- 
tions, provided  with  suitable  boats,  ap- 
pliances, and  houses  of  refuge  for  the 
saved. 

LIFE-BUOYS,  LIFE-RAFTS,  ETC. 

Various  kinds  of  buoys  or  other  appara- 
tus for  the  preservation  of  human  life  in 


Seaman  with  life-belt  (of  cork) . 

cases  of  shipwreck  or  danger  from  drown- 
ing in  other  circumstances  have  been  in- 
troduced from  time  to  time,  constructed 
in  all  sorts  of  shapes  and  materials.  In- 
dia-rubber has  been  largely  used  in  the 
construction  of  life-buoys,  generally  in 
the  form  of  belts  which  can  be  easily 
inflated  by  the  wearer  in  the  course  of 
a few  seconds..  They  are  very  buoyant 
and  portable,  but  easily  punctured  or 
torn,  and  soon  decay  if  put  aside  while 
damp.  Hence  the  interior  has  come  to 
be  divided  into  cells,  so  that  the  rupture 
of  one  affects  only  a partial  damage. 
Another  sort  is  in  the  form  of  a waist- 
coat; and  inflated  pillows  and  mat- 
tresses made  on  the  same  principle  have 
been  found  very  effective.  Naval  officers 
have  also  strongly  recommended  mat- 
tresses stuffed  with  cork.  The  life-buoy 
most  favored  by  seamen  of  late  years 
is  composed  of  slices  of  cork  so  neatly 
arranged  that  they  form  a buoyant  zone 
about  32  inches  in  diameter,  6 inches 
wide,  and  4 inches  thick.  It  contains 
about  12  lbs.  of  cork,  is  compactly 
covered  with  painted  canvas  to  protect 
it  from  being  injured  by  the  water,  and 
furnished  with  looped  life-lines,  that 
several,  if  necessary,  may  at  once  have 
a convenient  hold.  The  belts  in  use  by 
the  llojml  Life-boat  Institution  are 
made  of  cork  fastened  in  canvas,  secur- 
ing great  buojmncy  with  strength,  while 
they  afford  at  the  same  time  a certain 
amount  of  protection  in  cases  of  contact 
with  rock  or  wreck,  and  some  degree  of 


warmth.  Various  new  life-saving  suits 
have  been  shown  at  recent  exhibitions. 

LIFE-INSURANCE.  See  Insurance. 

LIFE-ROCKETS,  projectiles  by  means 
of  which  a rope  is  thrown  either  from 
a ship  in  distress  to  the  shore  or 
from  the  shore  to  the  ship,  generally  the 
latter.  The  most  reliable  missiles  are 
those  that  are  discharged  from  a mortar 
or  gun  by  gunpowder,  having  a line 
attached  to  them.  The  life-mortar  of 
Captain  Manby,  invented  in  1807,  is 
practically  still  that  in  use,  though 
variations  in  details  have  been  made  on 
it  from  time  to  time.  His  missile  was  a 
shot  with  curved  barbs,  resembling  the 
flukes  of  an  anchor,  to  grapple  the  rig- 
ging or  the  bulwarks  of  a ship.  An  in- 
genious rocket-apparatus  now  in  use  is 
Rogers’  life-anchor.  It  consists  of  a 
three-fluked  anchor,  12  lbs.  in  weight, 
having  the  flukes  so  hinged  that  they 
pack  closely  together.  When  the  anchor 
has  been  shot  out  from  a mortar  100  or 
200  yards,  the  flukes  open  and  fasten 
to  the  beach  or  to  a ship,  and  thus  estab- 
lish a communication  between  the  two 
for  dragging  boats  or  men  ashore.  The 
best  lines  are  those  made  of  loosely- 
spun  Italian  hemp.  There  are  several 
ways  of  arranging  or  faking  the  line  so 
that  it  may  run  out  quickly  without 
Kinking  or  entangling.  The  sling  life- 
buoy is  employed  in  conjunction  with 
the  rocket  apparatus,  after  communica- 
tion has  been  established  by  a rope  from 
the  shore  to  the  vessel.  It  consists  of  a 
circular  cork  life-buoy,  having  a pair  of 
canvas  breeches  attached  to  it.  The 
legs  of  the  occupant  protrude  below  the 
breeches,  while  his  armpits  rest  on  the 
buoy.  The  shipwrecked  are  by  this 
means  brought  to  the  shore  one  by  one, 
the  buoy  being  drawn  backward  and 
forward  by  means  of  a traveling  block. 
Or  the  life-car,  a sort  of  covered  boat, 
may  be  used  to  convey  the  men  ashore. 

LIFTS,  Hydraulic,  etc.,'  contrivances 
now  in  common  use  for  raising  goods  or 
persons  from  one  story  of  a building  to 
another.  They  consist  usually  of  a cage 
or  platform  suspended  by  a rope  or 
chain,  and  rising  vertically  in  a shaft 
within  the  building,  the  motive  power 
being  the  pressure  of  water  on  the 
plunger  of  a hydraulic  press.  Ships  also 
are  lifted  for  repair  by  means  of  con- 
trivances called  lifts,  which  are  either 
screws,  hydraulic-presses,  or  balance- 
pontoons.  Many  lifts  are  worked  entirely 
by  steam-power,  and  have  no  water- 
ram.  The  lifts  in  mills,  grain  and  wool 
stores,  etc.,  are  now  generally  called 
elevators;  and  in  the  United  States  this 
term  is  applied  to  almost  every  descrip- 
tion of  lift. 

LIGAMENT,  in  anatomy,  the  strong, 
tendinous,  inelastic  white  bodies  which 
surround  the  joints, and  connect  bones, 
or  strengthen  the  attachments  of  vari- 
ous organs,  or  keep  them  together. 
Every  joint  is  surrounded  by  a capsular 
ligament;  the  tendons  at  the  wrist  and 
ankle  are  bound  down  by  what  are  called 
the  annular  ligaments.  In  dislocations 
of  joints  the  capsular  ligament  is  often 
broken. 

LIGHT,  the  agent  which  enables  us 
through  the  organ  of  sight  to  take  cog- 
nizance of  objects;  it  has  a heating  and 
chemical  action  which  is  all-important  to 


LIGH-T 


LIGHT 


animals  and  plants;  without  it  there 
would  probably  be  neither  animal  nor 
plant  life.  The  sun,  the  fixed  stars, 
nebula,  certain  meteors,  and  terrestrial 
bodies  in  a state  of  incandescence  or 
phosphorescence  are  self-luminous.  The 
origin  of  light  has  been  explained  by  two 
main  theories,  the  emission  or  corpuscu- 
lar theory  adapted  and  developed  by 
Newton,  and  the  undulatory  or  wave 
theory,  the  fundamental  principles  of 
which  were  laid  down  by  Huygens  and 
Euler.  Newton  held  that  the  sun  and 
other  light-giving  bodies  threw  oft',  with 
immenie  velocity,  vast  numbers  of  in- 
finitely minute  particles  of  matter, 
which  passed  into  space,  and  by  their 
mechanical  action  upon  the  eye  brought 
about  the  sensation  of  light.  Numbers 
of  distinguished  men  accepted  this 
theory,  and  many  of  the  phenomena  of 
light  were  plausibly  explained  by  it. 
Huygens  suggested  that  light  was  due 
to  some  sort  of  wave  motion  trans- 
mitted through  a medium.  His  theory, 
offered  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, made  little  progress  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  century,  when  its 
truth  was  amply  established  by  the 
labors  of  Young,  Fresnel,  and  others; 
and  it  is  now  universally  accepted. 
Though  we  are  warranted  in  recognizing 
the  existence  of  the  transmitting  med- 
ium called  ether,  of  its  nature  we  know 
as  yet  next  to  nothing.  Rays  of  light 
proceed  in  straight  lines,  and  when  a 
screen  is  removed  to  twice  or  three  times 
its  distance  from  a luminous  point  it 
receives  only  one-fourth  or  one-ninth  of 
the  light  per  unit  of  area  which  it  re- 
ceived formerly.  This  is  the  law  of  in- 
verse squares,  or, — the  intensity  of  the 
light  received  from  a luminous  point  is 
inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of 
the  distance  from  the  point.  Advantage 
is  taken  of  this  fact  in  determining  the 
relative  illuminating  powers  of  two 
sources  of  light  by  means  of  the  photo- 
meter. In  1676  Roemer  discovered  that 
light  is  not  instantaneously  propagated 
from  luminous  bodies  to  the  eye;  and  he 
calculated  its  velocity.  Bradley,  Fou- 
cault, Fizeau,  Cornu,  etc.,  made  similar 
measurements,  and  it  has  been  deter- 
mined that  light  travels  at  the  rate  of 
about  186,000  miles  per  second. 

When  light  falls  upon  the  surface  of  a 
body  part  of  it  is  reflected.  When  the 
surface  is  smooth  and  regular  an  eye 
placed  to  receive  the  reflected  rays 
generally  observes  an  image  of  the 
source  of  light,  and  the  surface  may  be 
called  a mirror.  When  it  is  not  smooth 
the  light  which  falls  upon  it  is  scattered 
in  all  directions,  so  that  the  surface  itself 
becomes  visible;  planets  and  nearly  all 
terrestrial  objects  become  visible  in  this 
way  by  means  of  reflected  solar  light. 
While  part  of  the  light  which  falls  upon 
the  surface  of  a body  is  reflected  part 
enters  into  the  body,  which  absorbs  or 
destroys  a certain  amount  of  it  and  may 
allow  the  rest  to  pass  through.  When 
light  falls  nearly  vertically  on  a glass 
surface  very  little  of  it  is  reflected,  but 
as  the  incidence  becomes  more  and  more 
oblique  a greater  and  greater  proportion 
of  the  light  is  reflected.  Polished  metals, 
particularly  silver,  are  good  reflectors  of 
light  at  all  incidences,  and  hence  metallic 
surfaces  are  most  commonly  used  as  mir- 


rors. The  law  of  reflection  was  known 
to  Archimedes;  it  is — the  incident  and 
reflected  rays  make  equal  angles  with  a 
perpendicular  to  the  surface,  and  lie  in 
the  same  plane  with  it.  When  a ray  has 
passed  obliquely  from  air  into  water, 
although  in  the  water  as  in  the  air  it  is  a 
straight  line,  this  is  not  a mere  continua- 
tion of  its  old  path;  it  is  bent  to  some 
extent  at  the  point  where  it  enters  the 
new  medium,  the  bending  of  the  ray 
being  called  refraction.  This  bending  of 
a ray  when  it  passes  from  one  medium, 
such  as  air,  into  another  homogeneous 
medium,  such  as  glass  or  water,  or  from 
air  into  denser  air,  is  subject  to  a par- 
ticular law.  The  law  of  refraction  was 
discovered  in  the  17th  century;  it  is — 
whatever  be  the  obliquity  of  a ray  pass- 
ing from  one  medium  to  another,  the 
sines  of  the  angles  made  by  the  incident 
and  refracted  rays  with  the  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  refracting  surface  are  in  a con- 
stant ratio,  which  has  been  called  the 
index  of  refraction.  When  a ray  of  light 
passes  through  a medium,  such  as  the 
atmosphere,  which  continuously  varies 
in  density  from  place  to  place,  its  direc- 
tion continuously  changes,  so  that  it  is  a 
curved  line,  a fact  to  which  the  phenoni- 
enon  of  the  mirage  is  due.  The  appli- 
cation of  mathematics  to  the  two  laws 
of  reflection  and  refraction  is  called 
optics;  this  science  includes  the  forma- 
tion of  images  by  mirrors  and  lenses,  the 
eye,  microscopes,  telescopes,  etc.  See 
Optics. 

Newton  found  that  red  light  is  not  so 
much  refracted  as  blue  light  when  it 
passes  from  one  medium  to  another. 
When  a ray  of  solar  light  is  refracted  in 
passing  through  a glass  prism  he  found 
that  a great  number  of  rays  of  different 
colors  left  the  prism,  the  blue  ray  being 
most  bent  from  its  former  path  and  the 
red  ray  least.  (See  Prism,  Rainbow.) 
Letting  these  rays  fall  upon  a screen  he 
obtained  a band  of  colors  which  he 
called  a spectrum.  Thus  he  had  decom- 
posed solar  light  and  found  it  to  consist 
of  a mixture  of  lights  of  every  gradation 
of  refrangibility.  On  permitting  all  the 
colored  rays  to  pass  through  a lens  before 
falling  on  the  screen  they  combined  and 
became  white  light  again.  Newton  failed 
to  observe  one  peculiar  feature  of  the 
spectrum  which  has  since  been  studied, 
and  has  led  to  important  results — 
namely,  that  it  was  not  really  continu- 
ous, but  was  crossed  by  a number  of 
dark  lines.  From  this  has  arisen  the  in- 
strument called  the  spectroscope  and 
the  branch  of  physics  called  spectrum 
analysis.  See  these  arts. 

In  Newton’s  experiment  with  solar 
light  and  the  prism  we  find  that  the  blue 
and  green  rays  very  slightly  affect  a 
thermometer,  the  yellow  rays  affect  it 
slightly,  and  the  extreme  red  rays  possess 
great  heating  properties;  moreover, 
when  the  thermometer  is  passed  beyond 
the  red  into  a space  in  which  there  are 
no'  luminous  rays  a maximum  heating 
effect  is  produced.  Again,  the  red  and 
yellow  rays  are  all  but  incapable  of 
blackening  photographic  paper,  whereas 
the  blue  and  violet  rays  exert  a rapid 
chemical  action,  and  this  is  even  ex- 
ceeded by  the  invisible  rays  beyond  the 
violet.  It  is  evident  then  that  (1)  some 
of  the  solar  rays  which  pass  through  the 


prism  do  not  affect  the  retina;  these  rays 
are  either  less  refrangible  than  red  light, 
or  are  more  refrangible  than  violet;  (2) 
the  least  refrangible  solar  rays  possess 
most  heating  power;  (3)  the  most  re- 
frangible rays  are  capable  of  exerting  the 
most  powerful  chemical  action.  As  glass 
prisms  absorb  many  of  the  heat  rays  it  is 
convenient  to  use  prisms  of  rock-salt 
in  examining  the  heat  (red)  end  of  the 
spectrum. 

Young  showed  that  two  rays  of  light 
may  destroy  each  other’s  effects  and 
produce  darkness.  He  applied  this  dis- 
covery to  the  explanation  of  many 
natural  phenomena,  such  as  the  colors 
in  mother-of-pearl,  on  soap-bubbles, 
etc.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  rays  of 
light  may  bend  round  obstacles.  'When 
a ray  of  light  enters  Iceland-spar  it 
divides  into  two  rays  which  travel  in 
different  directions;  these  two  rays 
possess  peculiar  properties  which  are  not 
exhibited  by  ordinary  rays  of  light,  and 
are  said  to  be  polarized.  These  polarized 
rays  cannot  be  made  to  interfere  or  de- 
stroy each  other’s  effects,  but  either  of 
them  may  be  divided  into  two  inter- 
fering rays.  These  and  other  allied 
phenomena  are  accepted  by  physicists 
as  proofs  that  (1)  there  exists  through- 
out all  space  a very  elastic  medium  of 
small  density,  known  as  the  ether;  (2) 
the  particles  of  all  bodies  are  in  a state 
of  vibration;  a rise  in  temperature  of  a 
body  indicates  an  increase  in  the 
rapidity  of  vibration  of  its  particles; 
(3)  radiation  of  heat  consists  in  the 
communication  of  these  vibrations  from 
the  particles  of  a body  by  the  ether  to 
all  parts  of  space;  (4)  when  these  vibra- 
tions communicated  by  the  ether  be- 
come rapid  enough  they  are  able  to  affect 
the  retina  of  the  eye  and  are  then  called 
light;  (5)  lights  differ  in  color  when  their 
vibrations  are  not  executed  in  equal 
times;  (6)  the  vibrations  of  particles  of 
the  ether  are  all  executed  at  right  angles 
to  the  direction  of  propagation  of  the 
light;  (7)  in  a ray  of  polarized  light  the 
vibrations  are  all  executed  at  right 
angles  to  a certain  plane  called  the  plane 
of  polarization ; (8)  the  planes  of  polariza- 
tion of  the  two  rays  in  Iceland-spar  men- 
tioned above  are  at  right  angles  to  one 
another. 

LIGHT.  See  Aberration. 

LIGHT,  Artificial,  any  kind  of  illu- 
minant  for  supplementing  the  light  of 
the  sun.  Some  form  of  artificial  light 
must  have  been  in  use  for  domestic 
purposes  from  the  very  earliest  times, 
but,  though  large  cities  and  a high  state 
of  civilization  existed  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  and  Romans,  the  sys- 
tematic lighting  of  streets  was  unknown 
to  them.  From  the  writings  of  Libanius, 
however,  who  lived  in  the  beginning  of 
the  4th  century  after  Christ,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  streets  of  his  native 
city,  Antioch,  were  lighted  by  lamps, 
and  Edessa,  in  Syria,  was  similarly 
illuminated  about  a.d.  500.  Of  modern 
cities  Paris  was  the  first  to  light  its 
streets.  In  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  it  was  much  infested  with 
robbers  and  incendiaries,  so  that  the 
inhabitants  were  ordered,  in  1524,  to 
keep  lights  burning  after  nine  in  the 
evening,  before  all  houses  fronting  a 
street.  In  1558  falots  (a  large  vase 


LIGHT 


LIGHTNING 


filled  with  pitch,  rosin,  and  other 
combustibles)  were  erected  at  the 
corners  of  the  streets.  In  London  the 
inhabitants  were  instructed  to  hang 
out  candles  in  1668.  A more  definite 
order  was  issued  in  1690.  Every  house- 
keeper was  required  to  hang  a light  or 
lamp,  every  night  as  soon  as  it  was 
dark,  between  Michaelmas  and  Lady- 
day,  and  to  keep  it  burning  till  the  hour 
of  twelve  at  night.  Successive  acts  of 
parliament  and  orders  of  the  common 
council  provided  from  time  to  time 
for  the  better  lighting  of  London. 
The  Hague  commenced  street  lighting 
in  1552,  Hamburg  in  1675,  Berhn  in 
1679,  Copenhagen  in  1681,  Vienna  in 
1684,  Hanover  in  1696,  Leipzig  in  1702, 
and  Dresden  in  1705.  The  application 
of  coal  gas  to  economical  purposes  by 
Murdoch  in  1805  opened  a new  era  in 
artificial  lighting.  See  Electric  Light, 
Gas,  Paraffin,  Petroleum. 

LIGHT,  Electric.  See  Electric  Light. 

LIGHT  CAVALRY,  or  Horse.  See 
Cavalry. 

LIGHTER,  a large,  open,  flat-bot- 
tomed vessel,  employed  to  carry  goods 
to  or  from  a ship. 

LIGHTHOUSE,  a tower  or  other  lofty 
structure  with  a powerful  light  at  top, 
erected  at  the  entrance  of  a port  or  on 
some  rock  or  headland,  and  serving  as  a 
guide  or  warning  of  danger  to  navigators 
at  night.  The  Pharos  of  Alexandria, 
founded  about  300  b.c.,  is  the  earliest 
building  erected  expressly  as  a light- 
house of  which  we  have  any  authentic 
record.  It  is  stated  to  have  been  550 
feet  high.  Lighthouses  are  supposed 
to  have  been  erected  by  the  Romans  at 
Flamborough  Head,  Dover,  and  Bou- 
logne. In  modern  times  the  first  im- 
portant lighthouse  erected  was  the 
Tour  de  Cordouan,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Garonne  in  France,  founded  in  1584 
and  completed  in  1610,  altered  and 
improved  in  1727.  It  is  197  feet  in 
height,  and  in  architecture  surpasses 
all  other  lighthouses  in  the  world.  In 
the  United  States  the  lighthouses  are 
under  the  Lighthouse  Board,  which 
has  charge  of  all  buoys,  beacons,  etc., 
on  the  coasts  and  waters  of  the  States. 
The  earlier  lights  were  simply  of  wood, 
and  later  fires  of  coal  exposed  in  open 
chauffers  upon  the  top  of  a tower.  When 
oil  was  first  introduced  as  an  illuminant 
is  not  known.  An  immense  improve- 
ment in  lighting  was  made  a few  years 
previous  to  the  French  revolution  by 
the  introduction  of  parabolic  reflectors, 
which  concentrate  and  throw  forward 
in  a horizontal  direction  the  rays  of 
light  proceeding  from  lamps  placed  in 
their  foci.  At  the  same  time  the  re- 
volving frame  carrying  the  lamps  and 
reflectors  was  introduced,  which  has 
proved  of  the  greatest  utility  in  estab- 
lishing a distinction  between  lights. 
The  reflectors  are  composed  of  sheet- 
copper  plated  with  silver,  and  formed 
into  a parabolic  curve  by  a laborious 
and  delicate  process. 

To  enable  seamen  to  distinguish  one 
lighthouse  from  another,  lights  in 
proximity  are  arranged  to  exhibit 
different  characters.  The  characters  in 
common  use  are:  fixed  light;  flashing 
light,  showing  one  flash  at  intervals  of 

few  seconds;  group-flashing  lights, 


showing  two  or  more  flashes  in  quick 
succession  followed  by  a longer  period 
of  darkness;  occulting  lights,  which 
show  a fixed  light  and  are  eclipsed  for 
a few  seconds  at  regular  intervals. 
A system  of  alternate  flashes  and 
eclipses  (on  the  Morse  alphabet  prin- 
ciple) has  been  in  some  cases  adopted 
to  mark  particular  lights.  Colored 
lights,  red  and  green,  are  also  used 
with  any  of  the  foregoing  characters  to 
produce  further  distinctions,  but  in 
general  only  to  mark  danger  arcs,  or 
in  conjunction  with  a white  flash,  as 
the  tinted-glass  shades  required  serious- 
ly impair  the  power  of  the  light,  the 
color  of  which,  moreover,  is  not  easily 
distinguishable  in  foggy  weather.  The 
use  of  flashing  and  occulting  lights  is 
becoming  more  and  more  common,  few 
fixed  lights  being  now  set  up,  and  many 


months;  a luminous  paint  has  also 
recently  been  applied  with  advantage  to 
buoys.  The  electric  light  has  been 
adopted  for  a number  of  lighthouses, 
and  recent  experiments  prove  it  to  be 
the  most  powerful  and  penetrative  of  all 
lights. 

LIGHTNING,  a sudden  illumination 
of  the  sky  caused  by  a discharge  of 
electricity  from  one  cloud  to  another, 
from  a cloud  to  the  earth,  or  from  the 
earth  to  the  cloud.  The  last-mentioned 
discharge  is  called  the  “backstroke.” 
Lightning  comes  and  goes  so  quickly 
that  even  while  we  see  the  stroke  it  is 
no  longer  there.  What  we  see  is  the 
image  that  has  been  produced  on  the 
retina.  Lightning  never  travels  back- 
ward. The  zigzag  pictures  one  often 
sees,  in  which  the  streak  returns  on 
itself,  is  the  pure  imagination  of  the 


Revolving  trioptric  LIGHTHOUSE, 

apparatus. 


Fixed  catadioptric 
apparatus. 


having  been  converted.  To  produce 
the  various  characters  requires  the 
use  of  a revolving  apparatus  bearing 
the  lenses. 

Oil,  particularly  mineral  oil,  is  com- 
monly employed  at  present,  and  it  is 
likely  to  remain  in  use  in  isolated  light- 
houses. Gas  has  been  substituted  for 
oil  in  some  lighthouses.  With  gas  an 
eclipse  can  be  simply  produced  by  a 
partial  stoppage  in  the  supply  pipes, 
and  there  is  no  such  waste  of  light  as 
when  oil  is  employed.  Gas  has  been 
successfully  employed  in  illuminating 
buoys  for  the  guidance  of  vessels.  The 
buoys  (which,  of  course,  are  gas  and 
water  tight)  are  charged  to  a pi-essurc 
of  perhaps  ten  atmospheres,  giving 
a continuous  light  for  three  or  four 


artist.  The  speed  at  which  the  current 
travels  is  186,000  miles  a second — about 
the  same  speed  of  light  itself.  For  a long 
time  it  was  believed  that  the  thunder 
which  accompanies  lightning  was  caused 
by  the  collapse  of  the  air,  as  in  an  ordi- 
nary explosion.  This  is  a wrong  notion. 
To  understand  why  this  is  so,  we  must 
first  understand  what  lightning  really  is. 
The  flash  'we  see  is  not  electricity  at  all. 
Electric  currents  are  ■wholly  invisible. 
The  flash  is  caused  by  the  air  being 
heated  so  highly  by  the  discharge  that  it 
becomes  brilliant  along  the  line  of  the 
discharge.  A lightning  flash,  therefore, 
is  nothing  but  a gigantic  electric  spark, 
precisely  the  same  as  the  spark  one 
j draws  with  his  finger  when  he  touches 
I a live  wire.  It  is  the  air  which  is  heated. 


LIGHTNING-ROD 


LIME 


The  iishlniuK  stroke  is  made  by  the 
heating  of  a large  quantity  of  air,  the 
spark  by  the  lieating  a small  quantity. 
And  the  crack  which  accompanies  the 
spark  is  produced  by  the  same  cause 
which  produces  the  thunder  clap.  Both 
are  precisel}^  the  same  in  nature. 

Now  the  difference  between  the  thun- 
der peal  and  the  noise  made  by  a cannon, 
or  other  explosion  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  explosion  will  shatter  glass  and 
even  throw  down  buildings,  while  a 
thunder  peal,  even  when  much  louder, 
does  not  break  glass  at  all.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  ligiitning  stroke 
there  is  no  collapse  of  air  worth  mention, 
but  only  a molecular  agitation  which 
produces  sound  waves. 

The  different  kinds  of  lightinng  such 
as  “fork,”  “sheet,”  and  “chain”  light- 
ning are  due  to  the  degree  in  which  the 
clouds  reflect  the  stroke. 

LIGHTNING-ROD.  See  Conductor. 

LIGHT-SHIP,  or  LIGHT-BOAT,  a 
vessel,  usually  single-masted,  serving  as 
a lighthouse  in  positions  where  a fixed 
structure  is  impracticable.  Octagonal 
lanterns,  fitted  with  Argand  lamps 
placed  in  the  foci  of  parabolic  reflectors, 
are  usually  hoisted  on  the  mast;  but 
they  are  less  efficient  and  more  expen- 
sive in  maintenance  than  land  lights. 

LI  HUNG  CHANG  (le  hung  chang), 
Chinese  statesman,  born  in  Lu-chow- 
Ngan-hwei  Province  in  1823  (or  1819). 
In  1861  he  became  governor  of  the 
Kiang  Provinces,  in  which  capacity  he 
was  intrusted  with  the  task  of  put- 
ting down  the  Taiping  rebels  Avho 
had  continued  to  hold  their  own.  Li 
Hung  Chang  was  successful  in  sup- 
pressing the  rebellion.  Li  now  became 
successively  commander  of  the  Chi- 
nese Imperial  forces,  an  earl,  head  of 
the  naval  administration,  and  viceroy 
of  the  capital  province  of  Chi-li.  This 
last  appointment  placed  him  practically 
next  the  throne,  and  he  held  it  for  the 
exceptional  period  of  twentj^-four  years, 
from  1870  to  1895.  The  war  with  Japan 
found  him  in  a position  of  great  respon- 
sibility. He  had  been  instrumental  in 
bringing  on  the  war,  and  he  had  to  bear 
the  brunt  of  the  defeat  which  followed. 
In  1896  he  represented  China  at  the 
coronation  of  Emperor  Nicholas  II.  of 
Russia,  and  then  made  a tour  of  the 
world,  passing  through  Germany, 
France,  England,  and  the  United  States, 
received  everywhere  with  high  honors. 
Upon  his  return  to  China  he  became  the 
virtual  head  of  the  Tsung-li-A"amen  or 
foreign  office.  He  returned  to  the  gov- 
ernorship of  the  Kiang  Provinces  in 

1900,  but  was  soon  recalled  to  the  gov- 
ernorship of  Chi-li  and  his  former  exten- 
sive power,  because  he  was  the  only  man 
who  could  be  relied  upon  to  meet  the 
emergency  in  the  foreign  relations  of  the 
empire  produced  by  the  Boxer  out- 
break. His  last  public  task  was  the 
settlement  with  the  European  powers  and 
the  United  States  of  the  issues  raised  by 
that  trouble.  He  died  November  7, 

1901. 

LIGUORI  (lig-u-6're),  Alphonso  Maria 
de,  an  Italian  prelate,  born  1696,  died 
1787,  the  founder  of  the  sect  called 
Redemptorists,  or  Ligorists.  In  1732  he 
founded  a monastery  at  Villa  Scala 
(Principato  Citra)  with  the  approbation 


of  the  pope,  the  membei-s  of  which, 
forming  the  Order  of  the  most  Holy  Ite- 
deerner,  were  to  be  emplo5'ed  in  the  in- 
struction of  tlie  people.  In  1762  he  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Santa  Agata  de’ 
Gotici  (in  the  Principato  Ultra)  by  Cle- 
ment XIII.,  which  office  he  held  until 
his  retirement  in  1775  to  Nocera  de' 
Pagani,  the  chief  seat  of  his  order. 
Since  1816  his  name  has  been  enrolled 
among  Roman  Catholic  saints. 

LIGU'RIA,  one  of  the  larger  divisions 
(compartimenti)  of  Italy;  area,  2055  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,077,473.  It  includes  the 
towns  of  Genoa,  Spezzia,  and  St.  Remo, 
and  is  the  most  important  maritime 
division. 

LIGUS'TRUM.  See  Privet. 

LILAC,  a familiar  fragrant-flowered 
shrub,  8-10  feet  high.  There  are  several 
varieties,  the  most  common  color  of  the 
flowers  being  lilac,  but  some  are  white. 

LILITH,  according  to  Rabbinical 
legends  Adam’s  first  wife,  mother  of 
giants  and  demons. 

LILIUOK ALANI  (le'le-oo'e-ka-lii'ne) , 
Lydia  Kamekeha,  Queen  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  sister  of  King  Kalakaua,  whom 
she  succeeded  in  1891,  was  born  in  1838. 
She  secured  the  passage  of  bills  authoriz- 
ing the  importation  of  opium  and  the 
establishment  of  the  Louisiana  lottery, 
and  endeavored  to  substitute  a reaction- 
ary constitution  for  the  liberal  one  of 
1887.  This  last  measure  aroused  the 
white  population  of  the  islands,  who 
would  have  been  disfranchised  under 
the  proposed  constitution,  and  on 
January  30,  1893,  they  deposed  her  and 
set  up  a provisional  government  which 
soon  became  a republic,  with  Sanford  B. 
Dole  at  its  head.  The  new  government 
immediately  sought  to  secure  the  an- 
nexation of  the  islands  to  the  LTnited 
States,  but  President  Cleveland  opposed 
this  policy,  and  on  the  ground  that 
United  States  forces  had  been  used  to 
dethrone  the  queen,  demanded  that  the 
republican  government  restore  her  to 
power.  This  Dole  and  his  advisors  re- 
fused to  do,  and  after  a show  of  force. 
President  Cleveland  was  compelled  to 
acquiesce.  The  ex-queen  visited  the 
United  States  in  order  to  plead  her 
c.ause,  and  then  retired  to  her  private 
estate  in  Honolulu. 

LILLE  (lei),  a town  of  France,  capital 
of  the  department  Nord,  and  chief  fort- 
ress of  the  northeast  of  France,  near  the 
Belgian  frontier.  Pop.  232,568. 

LILY,  a genus  of  plaftts,  natural  order 
Lilacece.  The  root  is  a scaly  bulb;  the 
leaves  simple,  scattered,  or  verticillate ; 
the  stem  herbaceous,  simple,  and  bear- 
ing at  the  summit  very  large  and  ele- 
gantly-formed flowers.  The  flower  con- 
sists of  six  petaloid  sepals,  the  calyx  and 
corolla  being  alike  in  form  and  color. 
There  are  many  species,  the  white, 
orange,  and  scarlet  lilies,  the  tiger  lily, 
etc.  The  common  white  lily  is  a native 
of  Syria,  Persia,  and  other  eastern  coun- 
tries. The  finest  American  species  grow 
in  marshes  to  the  height  of  6 or  8 feet, 
bearing  reflexed  orange  flowers  spotted 
with  black.  A well  known  Japanese  lily 
is  one  of  the  noblest  flowering  plants  in 
existence,  and  high.ly  fragrant.  It  grows 
to  the  height  of  12  feet.  In  the  middle 
ages  and  in  modern  times  the  white  lily 
has  been  the  emblem  of  chastity,  hence 


the  Virgin  Mary  is  often  represented 
with  a lily  in  her  hand  or  by  her  side. 

LILY-OF-THE-V ALLEY,  a plant,  dis- 
tinguished for  its  beautiful  bell-shape 
flowers.  It  is  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
North  America.  The  flowers,  generally 
white,  form  a terminal  unilateral  raceme 
on  a curved  stalk;  and  their  odor  is 
agreeable. 

LIMA,  the  capital  of  Peru,  is  situated 
at  the  foot  of  granitic  hills,  7 miles  from 
Callao,  its  port  on  the  Pacific,  on  the 
small  river  Riman;  Tlie  climate  is  very 
agreeable,  but  the  locality  is  subject  to 
earthfiuakes,  the  most  destructive  being 
that  of  1746.  Lima  was  founded  in  1535 
by  Pizzaro,  and  called  Ciudad  de  los 
Reyes  (City  of  the  Kings).  In  January, 
1881,  Lima  capitulatecl  to  the  Chilians, 
who  occupied  it  for  upward  of  two 
years.  Pop.  estimated  at  100,000. 

LIMA,  the  capital  of  Allen  co.,  Ohio, 
on  the  Ottawa  river,  and  the  Cin.,  Ham. 
and  Dayton,  the  Erie,  the  Lake  E.  and 
W.,  and  the  Penn,  railways;  130  miles 
n.  by  e.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  the  center  of 
the  great  Ohio  peti-oleum  and  natural- 
gas  fields,  and  since  1885,  when  petrol- 
eum was  first  discovered  in  the  city,  it 
has  become  one  of  the  largest  petroleum 
shipping-points  in  the  country.  Pop. 
26,260. 

LIMBOURG,  or  LIMBURG,  a province 
of  Belgium,  separated  by  the  Maas  from 
Dutch  Limburg;  area,  931  sq.  miles; 
pop.  220,658.  Hasselt  is  the  capital. 

LIMBURG,  a province  of  Holland, 
partly  intersected  by  the  Maas;  area, 
850  sq.  miles;  pop.  254,846. 

LIME,  the  oxide  of  the  metal  calcium. 
This  oxide,  which  in  a state  of  combina- 
tion is  one  of  the  most  abundant  bodies 
in  nature,  has  been  known  and  used  from 
the  remotest  antiquity.  The  forms  in 
which  it  occurs  native  are  very  numer- 
ous, but  it  does  not  exist  in  a pure  state 
in  nature,  its  affinity  for  carbonic  acid 
being  such,  that  it  absorbs  it  from  the 
atmosphere,  when  it  becomes  converted 
into  carbonate  of  lime.  Combined  with 
carbonic,  sulphuric,  phosphoric  and 
other  acids  it  constitutes  large  rock 
masses,  and  even  mountains;  it  is  present 
in  sea  and  other  waters;  it  is  a constituent 
of  most  soils  and  of  a great  number  of 
minerals;  and  is  essential  to  plants  and 
animals. 

Ordinary  lime  is  obtained  with  most 
facility  from  the  carbonate  (see  Lime- 
stone), from  which  by  a strong  heat  the 
carbonic  acid  may  be  expelled.  This 
process  is  coJiducted  on  a large  scale 
with  the  different  varieties  of  limestone, 
which  are  calcined  or  burned  in  order  to 
obtain  the  caustic  earth,  or  quicklime, 
as  it  is  called.  The  lime  thus  obtained, 
however,  is  rarely  pure  enough  for 
chemical  purposes.  Pure  lime  is  a soft, 
white  substance,  of  the  specific  gravity 
of  2.3.  It  is  quite  infusible,  but  when 
heated  in  the  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe  it 
emits  one  of  the  intensest  of  artificial 
lights,  and  it  has  accordingly  been  em- 
ployed for  a signal  light  and  for  facilitat- 
ing the  observation  of  distant  stations 
in  geodetical  operations.  It  is  soluble  in 
about  700  parts  of  cold  water.  The 
solubility  is  diminished  by  heat.  If  a 
little  water  be  sprinkled  on  new  burned 
lime  it  is  rapidly  absorbed,  with  the 
evolution  of  much  heat  and  vapor.  This 


LIME 


LINCOLN 


constitutes  the  phenomenon  of  slacking. 
The  heat  proceeds  from  the  combina- 
tion of  the  water  with  the  lime,  forming 
a hydrate,  as  the  slacked  lime  is  called. 
This  is  a compound  of  56  parts  of  lime 
with  18  of  W'ater,  or  rather  more  than  3 
tol.  The  water  may  be  expelled  by  a red 
heat.  Lime-water  is  astringent  and 
somewhat  acrid  to  the  taste.  It  renders 
vegetable  blues  green,  and  yellows 
brown ; and  restores  to  reddened  litmus 
its  usual  purple  color.  Lime,  submitted 
to  the  action  of  galvanism  in  high  in- 
tensity, afforded  Sir  H.  Davy  satisfac- 
tory evidence  that,  in  common  with  the 
other  earths,  it  consists  of  a metal, 
W'hich  he  denominated  calicum,  and 
oxygen,  the  proportions  being  72  of 
calcium  and  28  of  oxygen.  (See  Calcium.) 
Chlorine  combines  directly  with  lime, 
forming  the  very  important  substance 
used  in  bleaching,  called  chloride  of  lime 
or  bleaching-powder.  It  is  formed  by 
passing  chlorine  gas  over  slacked  lime. 
Chloride  of  lime  is  also  used  as  a dis- 
infectant. 

The  uses  of  lime  are  almost  too  numer- 
ous to  mention,  for  there  is  hardly  any 
operation  in  the  arts  for  which  lime  is 
not  at  some  part  indispensable.  In  the 
manufacture  of  basic  Bessemer  steel 
(see  Steel)  it  forms  about  one-half  of 
what  is  called  “Thomas  slag,”  which, 
when  ground, makes  a cheap  and  efficient 
fertilizer;  it  is  employed  in  the  early 
stages  of  leather  dressing  to  remove  hair, 
fat,  etc.,  from  the  hides;  it  is  used  in 
metallurgy  as  a flux;  in  soap-boiling  to 
causticize  the  alkaline  liquors;  in  the 
manufacture  of  washing  soda;  for  neu- 
tralizing acids;  for  making  mortars  and 
cements;  in  agriculture  to  destroy  inert 
or  noxious  vegetable  matter,  and  to  de- 
compose heavy  clay  soils;  and  in  the 
materia  medica,  chiefly  as  an  antacid. 

LIME,  or  LINDEN,  a large  tree,  with 
alternate,  simple,  and  cordate  leaves, 
and  sweet-scented  flowers,  disposed  on  a 
common  peduncle.  The  common  linden 
is  a well-known  tree.  The  inner  bark  of 
all  the  species  is  very  tenacious;  it  is 
called  bast,  and  mats  are  made  of  it  in 
Russia  in  large  quantities.  The  wood  is 
rather  soft,  close-grained,  and  much 
used  by  turners.  The  American  lime, 
or  bass-w'ood  is  a large  and  beautiful 
tree,  resembling  the  European  species. 

LIME,  a small  globular  shaped  lemon, 
the  fruit  of  a shrub  about  8 feet  high. 
It  is  a native  of  India  and  China,  but  was 
introduced  into  Europe  long  before  the 
orange,  and  is  now  extensively  culti- 
vated. in  the  south  of  Europe,  the  West 
Indies,  and  some  parts  of  Southern 
America.  The  fruit  is  agreeably  acid, 
and  its  juice  is  employed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  citric  acid,  in  beverages,  etc. 

LIME  LIGHT.  See  Oxyhydrogen 
Light. 

LIM'ERICK,  a city  of  Ireland,  capi- 
tal of  Limerick  county,  and  a county  of 
itself,  is  situated  at  the  interior  ex- 
tremity of  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon. 
The  industries  include  the  curing  of 
bacon,  the  preparation  of  butterine, 
flax  spinning  and  w'eaving,  and  lace- 
making. Pop.  38,085. — The  county  be- 
longs to  the  province  of  Munster,  area, 
680,842  acres,  of  which  one-fourth  is 
under  tillage.  Pop.  146,018. 

LIMESTONE,  a species  of  mineral 


comprising  numerous  varieties  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  differing  considerably 
in  external  appearance,  structure,  and 
composition.  It  is,  if  pure,  essentially 
composed  of  57  parts  of  lime  and  43  of 
carbonic  acid;  but  in  some  rocks  the 
limestone  is  intermixed  with  magnesia, 
alumina,  silica,  iron,  etc.  All  limestones 
give  readily  to  the  knife.  They  are  in- 
fusible ; but  when  impure,  by  an  admix- 
ture with  a portion  of  other  earths,  they 
vitrify  in  burning.  All  limestones  effer- 
vesce when  a drop  of  strong  acid  is  ap- 
plied on  the  surface,  and  they  dissolve 
entirely  in  nitric  or  hydrochloric  acid. 
Limestone  is  found  both  in  primary  and 
in  secondary  rocks,  but  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  last.  It  is  also  not  uncom- 
mon in  alluvial  deposits,  when  it  is 
called  calcareous  tufa.  Limestone  has 
frequently  a granular  structure;  and  the 
size  of  the  grains  is  variable,  in  some 
degree  corresponding  with  the  relative 
age  of  the  mineral.  Thus  limestone  which 
occurs  in  beds  in  gneiss,  has  usually  a 
coarse  texture,  and  large  granular  con- 
cretions; but  when  its  beds  exist  in  mica 
slate,  or  argillite,  its  texture  becomes 
more  finely  grained,  and  its  color  less 
uniform.  Silurian  and  Devonian  lime- 
stones have  a texture  more  or  less  com- 
pact; the  colors  are  often  variegated; 
and  they  often  contain  fossils.  Sec- 
ondary limestone  has  a compact  tex- 
ture, a dull  fracture,  and  usually  con- 
tains shells,  and  sometimes  other  organic 
remains.  It  is  always  stratified.  Com- 
pact limestone  passes  into  chalk  when 
the  particles  are  somewhat  loosely  con- 
nected with  each  other,  so  that  the 
whole  assumes  an  earthy  character.  A 
variety  of  very  fine-grained  compact 
limestone  is  used  in  lithography  the  best 
being  that  obtained  near  Pappenheim 
and  Solenhofen  in  Bavaria. 

LIMITATION,  in  English  law,  a cer- 
tain time,  assigned  by  statute,  within 
which  an  action  must  be  brought,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  subject  of  action. 
This  matter  is  regulated  by  certain  acts 
of  parliament,  called  Statutes  of  Limita- 
tions. According  to  those  now  in  force, 
actions  are  limited  as  follows: — Actions 
for  the  recovery  of  land,  rent-charge,  or 
redemption  of  mortgages,  to  12  years 
after  right  accrued;  of  debt  or  covenant, 
if  founded  on  a deed,  to  20  years,  on  less 
formal  agreement,  to  6 years  after 
breach;  bills,  promissory  notes,  trade 
accounts,  arrears  of  rent  or  dower,  to  6 
years.  In  the  case  of  persons  under  dis- 
abilities, as  infancy,  coverture,  idiocy, 
lunacy,  or  absence  beyond  seas,  the 
action  may  be  brought  within  12  years 
of  its  accruing,  or  within  6 years  of  the 
disability  ending  or  the  disabled  person 
dying,  but  in  no  case  does  the  limit 
allowed  exceed  30  years.  Actions  for 
slander  are  barred  after  2 years;  actions 
on  penal  statutes,  if  brought  by  the 
party  injured  after  2 years,  if  brought 
by  a common  informer  after  1 year. 
Actions  by  the  crown  are  limited  to  60 
years.  An  -action  for  assault,  battery, 
etc.,  must  be  brought  within  4 years, 
an  action  for  death  by  accident  within  1 
year.  In  a charge  of  murder  the  injured 
person  must  have  died  within  a year 
and  a day  of  the  time  when  the  injury 
was  inflicted.  These  limitations  do  not 
apply  to  prosecutions  for  crime,  or  foi 


breach  of  trust  on  the  part  of  trustees, 
these  may  be  instituted  at  any  time. 
The  American  law  is  mainly  based  on 
the  English  statutes. 

LIMOGES  (li-mozh),  a town  of  Western 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Haute-Vienne,  and  former  capital  of 
Limousin.  The  principal  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  artistic  porcelain,  known 
as  Limoges  ware,  and  employing  over 
6000  hands.  Pop.  83,569. 

LI'MONITE,  a very  important  ore  of 
iron,  varieties  of  which  are  bog  iron  ore 
and  brown  haematite.  It  is  a hydrated 
oxide  of  a brownish  color,  occurring  in 
mammillated  or  botryoidal  masses,  and 
found  in  various  parts  of  England,  and 
abundantly  on  the  Continent  and  in 
America. 

LINA'CE.®,  the  flax  family,  a small 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
scattered  more  or  less  over  most  parts 
of  the  globe,  those  in  temperate  and 
southern  regions  being  herbs,  while  the 
tropical  representatives  are  trees  or 
shrubs.  They  are  principally  character- 
ized by  their  regular  flowers,  with  im- 
bricate glandular  sepals  having  a disc 
of  five  glands  outside  the  staminal  tube; 
the  ovary  is  three  to  five  celled,  with 
two  ovules  in  each  cell;  the  albumen  is 
fleshy;  the  leaves  are  simple,  usually 
stipulate,  rarely  opposite.  The  tenacity 
of  the  fibre  and  the  mucilage  of  the 
diuretic  seeds  of  certain  species  of  the 
common  flax  are  well  known. 

LINCOLN  (ling'kon),  a city  of  England 
and  a county  in  itself,  capital  of  Lincoln- 
shire, 120  miles  north  of  London,  situ- 
ated on  the  Witham,  and  at  the  junc- 
tion of  several  railways.  Pop.  48,783. — 
Lincolnshire  is  a large  maritime  county 
on  the  east  coast,  bounded  by  the 
Humber,  the  German  Ocean,  and  the 
Wash,  and  by  the  counties  of  Cam- 
bridge, Northampton,  Rutland,  Leices- 
ter, Nottingham,  and  York;  area,  1,767,- 
879  acres.  Pop.  498,781. 

LINCOLN,  capital  of  Nebraska,  on  the 
right  bank  of  Salt  Creek,  a tributary  of 
the  river  Platte.  The  public  buildings 
include  the  United  States  revenue  offices. 


State  Capitol,  Lincoln,  Neb. 


court-house,  and  post-office,  in  one 
building;  state-house,  university,  schools 
and  churches.  It  has  a large  trade  in  all 
kinds  of  merchandise,  grain,  live-stock, 
and  lumber.  Pop.  48,169. 

LINCOLN,  Abraham,  the  sixteenth 
president  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri- 
ca, born  in  Kentucky  1809.  He  removed 


LING 


LINCOLN’S  INN 

f with  his  family  in  1816  to  Spencer  co., 
Indiana,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  was 
engaged  in  laborious  work  of  various 

' kinds,  having  only  about  a year’s  school- 
ing at  intervals.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Black  Hawk  war  in  1832  he  joined 
a volunteer  company,  and  as  captain  he 
served  three  months  in  the  campaign. 
He  next  opened  a country  store,  was 
appointed  postmaster  of  New  Salem, 
Illinois,  began  to  study  law,  and  at  the 
same  time  turned  amateur  land-sur- 
veyor. In  1834  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Illinois  legislature,  to 
which  he  was  again  returned  at  the  three 
following  biennial  elections,  and  in  1836 
he  was  licensed  to  practice  law.  In  1846 
he  was  elected  a representative  in  con- 
gress for  the  central  district  of  Illinois, 
and  voted  steadily  in  congress  with  the 
anti-slavery  party.  In  1849  and  again  in 
1858  he  was  unsuccessful  in  attempts  to 
enter  the  senate.  In  the  republican 
national  convention  held  at  Chicago  in 
May,  1860,  he  was  nominated  as  a can- 
didate for  the  presidency,  and  after 
several  votes  he  gained  a majority,  and 
was  eventually  chosen  unanimously. 
The  Southern  states,  exasperated  at  this 
defeat,  and  alarmed  at  the  aggressive 
anti-slavery  policy  which  many  of  the 


I Abraham  Lincoln. 

leading  republicans  had  proclaimed 
■ their  determination  to  follow,  refused 
to  acquiesce  in  Lincoln’s  election,  and 
; began  one  after  another  to  announce 
their  secession,  and  to  organize  the 
“ means  of  resisting  the  enforcement  of 
the  claims  of  the  central  government. 

. The  election  of  Lincoln  took  place  in 
November,  1860,  and  he  assumed  office 
- on  the  4th  of  March,  1861.  It  was  the 
s intention  of  Lincoln  to  use  every  means 

1’  of  conciliation  consistent  with  the  policy 
he  deemed  it  essential  to  the  national 
interest  to  pursue.  On  one  point,  how- 
ever, his  resolution  was  steadfast,  to 
admit  no  secession,  and  before  his  as- 
1 sumption  of  office  secession  was  as 
resolutely  determined  on  on  the  other 
: side.  On  the  4th  of  February  the  south- 
ern  confederacy  had  been  constituted, 
' and  on  the  14th  45f  April  the  first  blow 
in  the  civil  war  was  struck  by  the  cap- 
. ture  of  Fort  Sumter  by  the  confederates, 
dj.  The  events  of  the  civil  war  during  the 
next  four  years  in  Lincoln’s  career  be- 

tlong  to  the  history  of  the  United  States. 
, Lincoln’s  persistence  in  raising  and 


pouring  in  fresh  troops  after  every  dis- 
aster finally  enabled  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  subdue  the  secession.  The 
toleration  of  slavery  was  always,  in 
Lincoln’s  opinion,  an  unhappy  necessity; 
and  when  the  southern  states  had  by 
their  rebellion  forfeited  all  claim  to  the 
protection  of  their  peculiar  institution, 
it  was  an  easy  transition  from  this  view 
to  its  withdrawal.  The  successive  stages 
by  which  this  was  effected — the  emanci- 
pation of  the  staves  of  rebels,  and  the 
offer  of  compensation  for  voluntary 
emancipation,  followed  by  the  constitu- 
tional amendment  and  unconditional 
emancipation  without  compensation — 
were  only  the  natural  steps  by  which  a 
change  involving  consequences  of  such 
vast  extent  was  reached.  The  determi- 
nation of  the  northern  states  to  pursue 
the  war  to  its  conclusion  on  the  original 
issue  led  to  the  re-election  of  Lincoln  as 
president  in  1864.  The  decisive  victory 
of  Grant  over  Lee  on  2d  April,  1865, 
speedily  followed  by  the  surrender  of  the 
latter,  had  just  afforded  the  pi  aspect  of 
an  immediate  termination  of  this  long 
struggle,  when,  on  the  14th  of  the  same 
month.  President  Lincoln  was  shot  in 
Ford’s  Theater,  Washington,  by  an 
assassin  named  John  Wilkes  Booth,  and 
expired  on  the  following  day.  In  the 
affections  of  the  Americans  Lincoln 
holds  a place  second  only  to  Washing- 
ton. 

LINCOLN’S  INN.  See  Inns  of  Court. 

LINCOLN,  Robert  Todd,  American 
politician,  son  of  Abraham  Lincoln, 
born  at  Springfield,  111.,  in  1843.  At  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  he  settled  in  Chi- 
cago, and  practiced  law  until  1881,  when 
he  entered  Garfield’s  cabinet  as  secretary 
of  war.  He  was  retained  in  this  position 
by  President  Arthur,  and  in  1884  was 
mentioned  for  the  presidential  can- 
didacy, but  refused  to  oppose  Arthur 
in  the  convention.  From  1889  to  1893 
he  was  minister  of  the  United  States  to 
Great  Britain.  He  was  counsel  for  the 
Pullman  Palace  Car  Company,  and  after 
the  death  of  George  M.  Pullman  became 
its  president. 

LINCRUS'TA-WAL'TON,  an  em- 
bossed wall-covering,  designed  as  a sub- 
stitute for  wall-papers,  natural  woods, 
or  plaster  modeling.  The  material  con- 
sists of  linseed  oil  with  which  is  mixed 
wood-fibre,  cork,  cellulose,  paper,  or 
other  thickening  substance.  The  mix- 
ture after  being  treated  chemically  is 
made  into  sheets,  which  are  then  backed 
with  light  canvas  and  stamped  in  an 
ornamental  pattern.  It  is  waterproof, 
warm,  and  washable.  The  original  color 
is  light  brown  or  gray,  but  when  mounted 
on  the  wall  it  may  be  painted,  bronzed, 
or  gilt.  The  figures  may  be  stamped  in 
high  relief  with  striking  effect.  Lin- 
crusta  is  really  a variety  of  linoleum. 

LIND,  Jenny  (Madame  Otto  Gold- 
schmid),  singer,  born  in  Stockholm  1820, 
died  1887.  She  received  part  of  her 
musical  training  under  Garcia  at  Paris; 
achieved  her  first  success  in  Berlin  in 
1845,  and  subsequently  was  received 
with  a great  ovation  in  her  native  city  of 
Stockholm.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance in  London  at  Covent  Garden  in 
1847  before  an  enthusiastic  audience; 
went  to  the  United  States,  where  she 
married  Herr  Goldschmid  in  1852;  re- 


turned to  Europe  and  made  an  exten- 
sive tour,  finally  settling  in  England.  In 
recent  years  she  seldom  came  before  the 
public,  but  as  professor  in  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  as  trainer  of  the 
female  voices  in  the  Bach  choir  con- 
ducted by  her  husband,  her  talents  were 
not  lost. 

LINDEN,  a handsome  forest  tree.  See 
Lime. 

LINEN,  cloth  made  of  flax,  has  had  a 
very  ancient  and  extensive  use.  On  the 
early  monuments  of  Egypt  artistic 
representations  of  the  various  processes 
of  linen  manufacture  have  been  found, 
and  the  fine  linen  fabric  in  which  the 
Egyptians  wrapped  their  embalmed 
dead  still  gives  evidence  of  the  skill 
which  they  possessed.  The  Jews  took 
with  them  into  Canaan  a knowledge  of 
the  manufacture;  Tyre,  Sidon,  and 
Carthage  seem  also  to  have  acquired  the 
industry;  while  at  an  early  period  the 
manufacture  of  linen  appears  to  have 
been  common  in  Greece  and  Rome.  In 
the  middle  ages  linen  and  woolen  were 
the  chief  articles  of  dress  in  all  European 
countries,  and  among  the  Flemings  in 
particular  the  flax  manufacture  rose  to 
great  importance.  The  linen  manufac- 
ture has  been  known  in  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Scotland  for  a long  period. 
As  early  as  the  7th  century  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  women  were  skilled  in  the  weav- 
ing of  this  fabric,  and  fine  linen  was  made 
in  Wilts  and  Sussex  in  the  13th  century. 
Since  the  extensive  introduction  of 
cotton,  however,  the  linen  industry  has 
decreased  in  relative  importance,  this 
result  having  come  about  mainly  within 
the  present  century.  The  chief  center 
of  the  manufacture  in  England  is  Leeds 
and  neighborhood.  In  Ireland  the  manu- 
facture of  linen  was  well  established  in 
the  17th  century;  subsequently  it  de- 
clined; but  lately  it  has  again  obtained 
a flourishing  position,  Belfast  being  the 
center  of  the  manufacture.  Dundee  is 
the  chief  center  in  Scotland  for  linen 
(especially  coarse  fabrics)  as  well  as  the 
allied  jute  manufacture.  Dunfermline  is 
celebrated  for  its  table  linens.  The 
machinery  used  both  in  spinning  and 
weaving  linen  is  in  general,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  special  adaptations,  the 
same  as  that  used  for  cotton.  (See  Cot- 
ton Spinning  and  Weaving,  also  Flax.) 
The  chief  varieties  of  linen  now  manu- 
factured are;  lawn,  which  is  of  fine 
quality  and  mostly  produced  in  Ireland; 
plain  cloths  for  shirtings,  bedding,  etc.; 
damasks,  table-cloths,  and  other  orna- 
mental fabrics;  and  cambric,  which  is 
the  finest  of  all  linen  fabrics. 

LING,  a species  of  sea-fish  allied  to  the 
cod  family,  and  measuring  from  3 to  4 
feet  in  length.  It  abounds  around  the 
British  coasts,  and  is  caught  with  hook 


Ling. 


and  line,  and  preserved  in  immense 
quantities  in  a dried  state.  From  the 
beginning  of  February  to  May  the  ling  is 
in  highest  perfection ; the  spawning  sea- 
son commencing  in  June. 


LINGARD 


LIQUEUR 


LINGARD,  John,  an  English  historian, 
born  at  Winchester  1771;  died  at 
Hornby  1851.  His  Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church  appeared  in  1858, 
and  his  great  work  on  The  History  of 
England  from  the  Invasion  of  the 
Romans  to  the  year  1688  was  first 
printed  in  1819-25,  and  reached  a fifth 
edition  in  1850.  Lingard’s  History  is 
considered  a standard  work  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  stand-point. 

LIN'IMENT,  in  medicine,  a species  of 
soft  ointment  of  a consistence  somewhat 
thinner  than  an  unguent,  but  thicker 
than  oil.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
spirituous  and  other  stimulating  appli- 
cations for  external  use. 

LINK,  in  land-measuring,  a division  of 
Gunter’s  chain,  having  a length  of  7.92 
inches.  The  chain  is  divided  into  100 
links,  and  is  66  feet  in  length.  100,000 
square  links  make  an  imperial  acre. 

LINLITH'GOW,  a royal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
Linlithgowshire,  17  miles  west  of  Edin- 
burgh. Pop.  4279. — The  county  of  Lin- 
lithgow, or  West  Lothian,  is  bounded  by 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  Edinburghshire, 
Stirling,  and  Lanark ; area,  76,806  acres. 
This  county  is  one  of  the  richest  in  Scot- 
land in  minerals,  including  coal,  shales, 
ironstone,  freestone,  limestone.  Pop. 
65,699. 

LINN.®'A,  a genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caprifoliacese  (honey- 
suckles). It  contains  but  one  species,  a 
creeping  evergreen  plant  found  in  woods 
and  in  mountainous  places  in  Scotland 
and  other  northern  countries,  including 
North  America  as  far  south  as  Mary- 
land, bearing  two  beautiful  drooping 
fragrant  bell-shaped  pink  flowers  on  each 

fl  /^TirQT»_e^"  o 1 IT 

LINNiEAN  SOCIETY,  a society  in 
London,  instituted  in  1788  by  Dr.  (after- 
ward Sir)  J.  E.  Smith,  and  incorporated 
in  1802,  for  the  promotion  of  the  study 
of  all  departments  of  botany  and  zoology. 
It  has  an  excellent  library,  a museum, 
and  herbarium,  the  nucleus  of  which  were 
formed  by  the  collection  of  Linnaeus 
himself.  Fellows  take  the  initials  F.L.S. 

LINN.®'US.  See  next  article. 

LINNE'  (lin'na),  Karl  von,  commonly 
called  Linnaeus,  the  greatest  botanist  of 
his  age,  was  born  at  Rashult,  Sweden, 
1707,  and  died  at  Upsala  in  1778.  Aided 
by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Upsala 
Linn6  made  a journey  through  Lapland, 
the  result  of  which  was  shown  in  his 
Flora  Lapponica,  published  1735.  In 
this  year  he  went  to  the  University  of 
Harderwyk  in  Holland  and  took  an 
M.D.  degree;  afterward  visited  Leyden, 
where  he  published  the  first  sketch  of  his 
Systema  Naturae  and  Fundamenta  Bo- 
tanica.  In  1736  he  visited  England,  went 
to  Paris  in  1738,  and  afterward  settled 
in  Stockholm  as  a physician.  He  be- 
came professor  of  medicine  at  Upsala  in 
1741,  and  then  of  botany  and  natural 
history;  was  made  a knight  of  the  Polar 
Star  with  the  rank  of  nobility;  and  died 
on  his  estate  near  Upsala  from  apoplexy. 
The  great  merit  of  Linn6  as  a botanist 
was  that  he  arranged  plants  on  a simple 
system  of  sexual  relationship  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  more  natural  and 
satisfactory  classification  which  has 
superseded  the  Linnsean  system. 

LINNET,  a small  singing  bird  of  the 


finch  family.  Its  general  plumage  is 
brownish,  the  top  of  the  head  and  breast 
being  reddish  in  the  breeding  season. 


Linnet. 


They  are  cheerful  and  lively  birds,  and 
very  sweet  and  pleasing  songsters. 

LINO'LEUM,  a preparation  of  linseed- 
oil  with  chloride  of  sulphur,  by  which  it 
is  rendered  solid  and  useful  in  many 
ways.  When  rolled  into  sheets  it  is  used 
as  a substitute  for  india-rubber  or  gutta- 
percha; dissolved  it  is  used  as  a varnish 
for  waterproof  textile  fabrics,  table- 
covers,  felt  carpets,  and  the  like;  as  a 
paint  it  is  useful  both  for  iron  and  wood, 
and  for  ships’  bottoms;  as  a cement  it 
possesses  some  of  the  qualities  of  glue; 
vulcanized  or  rendered  hard  by  heat  it 
may  be  carved  and  polished  like  wood 
for  mouldings,  knife-handles,  etc.';  and 
mixed  with  ground  cork  and  pressed 
upon  canvas  it  forms  floor-cloth. 

LrNOTYPE,  a recently-invented  print- 
ing-machine, in  which  types  are  dis- 
carded, and  matrices  used  instead,  these 
being  brought  to  the  ^proper  places 
by  touching  corresponding  keys,  the 
rows  of  matrices  being  then  automatic- 
ally filled  with  molten  metal  so  as  to 
produce  solid  bars  or  lines  of  type,  and 
then  automatically  returned  to  their 
places.  The  linotype  is  used  almost 
exclusively  in  newspaper  and  magazine 
work  and  for  the  cheaper  grades  of 
book  work. 

LINSEED-OIL,  the  oil  got  from  the 
seeds  of  flax  either  by  pressure  in  the 
cold  or  by  heating  to  about  200°  Fahr. 
It  is  of  a pale  to  dark  yellow  color;  may 
or  may  not  have  a smell,  and  remains 
liquid  even  at  zero  Fahr.  Linseed-oil 
is  largely  used  in  the  arts,  for  painting, 
for  printer’s-ink,  etc.;  and  in  medicine, 
especially  for  burns.  Linseed-cake  is  the 
solid  mass  or  cake  which  remains  when 
oil  is  expressed  from  flax-seed.  It  is 
much  used  as  food  for  cattle  and  sheep, 
and  is  called  also  oil-cake. 

LINT,  in  surgery,  is  the  scrapings  of 
fine  linen,  used  by  surgeons  in  dressing 
wounds.  Lint  made  up  in  an  oval  or 
orbicular  form  is  called  a pledget ; if  in  a 
cylindrical  form,  or  in  shape  of  a date  or 
olive  stone,  it  is  called  a dossil. 

LION,  a quadruped  of  the  cat  genus, 
the  most  majestic  of  all  carnivorous 
animals,  distinguished  by  its  tawny  or 
yellow  color,  a full  flowing  mane  in  the 
male,  and  a tufted  tail  with  a sort  of 
sharp  nail  at  the  end  of  it.  The  largest 
lions  are  from  8 to  9 feet  in  length.  The 
period  of  gestation  is  five  months ; one 
brood  is  produced  annually,  with  from 


two  to  four  at  a birth,  and  the  mother 
nourishes  the  whelps  for  about  a year. 
The  mane  of  the  male  lion  begins  to 
grow  when  it  is  three  years  old ; the  adult 
age  is  reached  about  six  or  seven;  and  the 
extreme  age  is  about  twenty-two,  al- 
though authorities  differ  from  this  esti- 
mate. The  lion  is  a native  of  Africa  and 
parts  of  Western  and  Central  Asia.  He 
preys  chiefly  in  the  night  and  on  live 
animals,  avoiding  carrion,  unless  im- 
pelled by  intense  hunger.  He  ap- 
proaches his  prey  with  a stealthy  pace, 
crouching  when  at  a proper  distance, 
when  he  springs  upon  it  with  fearful 
velocity  and  force.  The  whole  frame  is 
extremely  muscular,  the  foreparts  being 

Earticularly  so,  giving  with  the  large 
ead,  flashing  eye,  and  copious  mane,  a 
noble  appearance  to  the  animal,  which 
has  led  to  his  being  called  the  “king  of 
beasts,”  and  to  fancies  of  its  noble  and 
generous  nature  which  have  no  real 


Head  of  maneless  lion. 

foundation.  Of  the  African  lion  there 
are  several  varieites,  as  the  Barbary 
lion,  Gambian  lion.  Cape  lion.  The 
Asiatic  varieties  are  generally  smaller 
and  may  want  the  mane,  as  the  maneless 


— , 

Head  of  Gambian  lion. 

lion  of  Gujerat.  The  American  lion  is  ^ 
the  puma.  i 

LIPPE  (lip'pe),or  incorrectly  Lippe-  Ij 
Detmold,  a principality  of  north  Ger-  i 
many,  bounded  chiefly  by  Rhenish  Prus-  ' 
sia  and  Wanover ; area,  438  sq.  miles.  I 
Pop.  139,238.  i 

LIQUATION,  or  ELIQUATION,  the 
process  of  separating  by  a regulated  heat  .'"J 
an  easily  fusible  metal  from  an  alloy  in 
which  is  a metal  difficult  to  fusion.  A! 
Thus  in  the  refining  of  tin  to  remove  » 
slag,  iron,  copper,  and  other  metals,  the  * 
ingots  are  heated  in  a reverberatory  S 
furnace  to  a temperature  just  sufficient  M. 
to  melt  the  tin,  which  is  allowed  to  run  X 
into  a basin,  while  the  impurities  are  left  * 
behind  on  the  hearth.  # 

LIQUEUR  (li-keuri ; the  French  name),  K 
a palatable  spirituous  drink  com-  S 
posed  of  water,  alcohol,  sugar,  and  an  9 
aromatic  infusion,  extracted  from  fruits, 
seeds,  etc.  The  best-known  liqueurs  jH 
are  absinthe,  anisette,  chartreuse,  cur-  « 
a9oa,  maraschino  kiimmel,  and  noyau. 


LIQUID 

LIQUID.  See  Gas,  Hydraulics,  Hy- 
drostatics, etc. 

LIQ'UORICE,  a name  for  herbs  grow- 
ing in  S.  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  One 
species  is  a perennial  plant  with  herba- 
ceous stalks  and  bluish  papilionaceous 
flowers.  The  well-known  liquorice  juice, 
used  as  a demulcent  and  expectorant,  is 
extracted  from  the  root  as  well  as  from 
that  of  others.  , 

LISBON,  the  capital  and  principal 
seaport  of  Portugal,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tagus,  about  9 miles  above  its 
mouth.  The  western  quarter  of  the  city, 
called  Buenos  Ayres,  is  airy  and  pleasant 
and  chiefly  occupiea  by  foreigners.  The 
town  of  Belem,  still  farther  to  the  west, 
forms  a sort  of  suburb  to  Lisbon.  Above 
it  stands  the  royal  palace  of  Ajuda, 
a conspicuous  edifice  of  white  marble. 
Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  castle 
of  St.  George  or  citadel,  the  cathedral, 
the  church  do  Cora5oa  de  Jesus,  the 
custom-house  and  other  government 
buildings  on  the  Pra?a  do  Commercio, 
the  town-hall,  etc.  But  the  most  re- 
markable specimen  of  architecture  of 


which  Lisbon  can  boast  is  the  aqueduct 
which  conveys  water  to  the  city  from 
springs  about  lOJ  miles  distant.  The 
scientific  and  literary  institutions  com- 
prise the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
Polytechnic  School,  National  Museum 
and  Picture  gallery.  National  Library, 
containing  about  200,000  vols.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  the  quays  extend  between  2 and  3 
miles  along  the  bank  of  the  river.  In 
1755  it  was  visited  by  an  earthquake, 
which  threw  down  a considerable  portion 
of  the  city,  and  destroyed  above  30,000 
of  its  inhabitants.  Pop.  357,000. 

LISTER,  Sir  Joseph,  Baron,  English 
surgeon,  was  born  at  Upton,  Essex,  in 
1827.  His  name  is  more  especially  con- 
nected with  the  successful  application  of 
the  antiseptic  treatment  in  surgery, 
which  inaugurated  a new  era  in  this 
branch  of  medical  science.  He  received 
the  prize  of  the  Academy  of  Paris;  the 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society;  was  made 
an  LL.D.  of  Glasgow  University  and  of 
Cambridge;  D.C.L.  of  Oxford.  Made  a 
baronet  in  1883,  he  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1897.  He  died  in  1902. 

LISZT,  Abb4  Franz,  distinguished 
pianist  and  composer,  was  born  in  Hun- 
gary in  1811,  and  died  in  1886.  He  made 
his  first  public  appearance  in  his  ninth 
year;  studied  in  Vienna  and  Paris;  pro- 
duced an  opera  in  1825,  and  became 
director  of  the  Court  Theater  at  Weimar 
in  1849.  This  gave  him  the  opportunity 
to  introduce  the  music  of  Wagner,  Ber- 
lioz, Schuman,  and  the  writers  of  what 


LITHUANIA 


is  known  as  “the  music  of  the  future.” 
In  1861  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
Rome,  where  he  joined  the  priesthood. 
In  1870  he  became  director  of  the  Con- 
servatory of  Music  at  Pest.  His  chief 
works  are  the  Faust  and  Dante  sym- 
phonies, and  the  oratorios  St.  Eliza- 
beth and  Christus. 

LIT'ANY,  a term  generally  applied  to 
a series  of  snort  prayers  or  supplications 
together  forming  one  whole.  The  best- 
known  litany  at  the  present  day  is  that 
of  the  Angelican  Church.  It  is  chanted 
in  the  morning  service,  the  priest  utter- 
ing one  prayer,  and  the  people  respond- 
ing with  another  alternately. 

LITH'ARGE,  the  yellow  or  reddish 
protoxide  of  lead  partially  fused.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  of  enamels,  of  artificial  gems,  of 
lead  plaster  and  lead  soap,  of  sugar  of 
lead,  white  and  red  lead,  and  other 
compounds.  See  Lead. 

LITH'IA,  the  only  known  oxide  of 
the  metal  lithium,  which  was  at  first 
found  in  a mineral  called  petalite.  It  is 
of  a white  color,  very  soluble  in  water, 
acrid,  caustic,  and  acts  on  colors  like 
other  alkalies. 

LITHIC  ACID.  See  Uric  Acid. 

LITHOG'RAPHY,  the  art  of  drawing 
upon  and  printing  from  stone.  The 
facility  with  which  this  is  accomplished 
arises  from  the  antagonistic  qualities 
of  grease  and  water.  The  processes  of  the 
art  depend  on  the  adhesion  to  a grained 
or  polished  stone  of  a certain  greasy 
composition  which  forms  the  lines  of  the 
drawing,  etc.;  on  the  power  acquired  by 
those  parts  penetrated  by  the  greasy 
composition  of  attracting  and  becoming 
covered  with  a specially  prepared  ink; 
on  the  interposition  of  water,  which 
prevents  the  ink  adhering  to  the  parts 
not  impregnated  with  the  grease ; and  on 
pressure,  which  transfers  to  paper  the 
greasy  tracings  or  drawings. 

The  lithographic  stone  most  suitable 
for  the  purposes  of  lithography  is  found 
in  the  district  of  Kellheim,  Bavaria,  is  a 
species  of  slaty  lime-stone;  its  color  in 
the  best  quality  is  pale  yellowish  drab, 
and  for  printing  purposes  its  thickness 
must  be  from  IJ  to  4 inches.  In  pre- 
paring stones  for  the  printer  they  are 
squared,  leveled,  ground,  and  polished. 

Lithographic  ink  is  made  of  wax, 
white  soap,  tal  ow,  shellac,  mastic,  and 
lamp-black.  What  are  called  chalks  are 
made  from  much  the  same  materials; 
these  ingredients  being  subjected  to 
heat  until  they  are  fused,  poured  out  on 
a slab  to  cool,  and  then  cut  into  the 
required  sizes. 

There  are  various  styles  in  which 
drawings  on  the  stone  are  executed. 
Drawing  on  the  smooth  stone  is  exe- 
cuted with  steel  pens  and  sable-hair 
brushes.  The  design,  etc.,  is  drawn  on 
the  stone  in  reverse,  after  which  it  is 
slightly  etched  with  dilute  acid.  In  chalk 
drawing  the  surface  of  the  stone  is 
roughed  or  grained,  after  which  the 
drawing  is  traced  upon  the  stone.  The 
tinting  or  shading  follows.  When  com- 
pleted the  drawing  is  etched,  after 
which  it  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the 
printer  for  printing.  In  engraving  on 
stone  the  stone  is  first  prepared  with  a 
solution  of  acid  and  gum.  It  is  then 
washed  with  water,  and  a dry  red  or 


black  powder  rubbed  over  it.  The 
drawing  is  produced  by  lines  scratched 
through  this  ground  into  the  stone. 
These  lines  are  then  spread  with  linseed- 
oil,  and  afterward  charged  with  print- 
ing ink,  from  which  impressions  are 
taken.  Etching  on  stone  is  in  most 
respects  similar  to  etching  on  copper. 
The  stone  is  prepared  in  the  same  man- 
ner, the  biting-in  is  effected  with  dilute 
acetic  acid,  and  the  lines  filled  in  with 
printing-ink.  The  method  of  drawing 
directly  on  the  stone  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  use  of  prepared  paper, 
both  grained  and  smooth,  on  which  the 
drawing  is  executed,  and  afterward 
transferred  to  the  stone  Tinting  and 
chromo-lithography  is  much  practised 
in  the  reproduction  of  works  of  an  artis- 
tic character.  See  Color-printing  and 
also  Photo-Lithography,  under  Photog- 
raphy. 

In  the  year  1850  steam-power  began 
to  supersede  manual  labor  in  driving  the 
lithographic  press,  and  afterward  a 
cylinder  machine  was  introduced,  which 
from  time  to  time  has  been  greatly  im- 
proved. This  machine,  running  at  500 
revolutions  in  the  hour,  can  produce 
good  work,  but  for  printing  fine  chalk 
drawings  of  large  size  the  hand-press  is 
still  preferred.  The  number  of  good  im- 
pressions that  can  be  taken  from  one 
drawing  or  transfer  ranges  from  500  to 
5000;  chalk  drawings  producing  few  and 
ink  drawings  many  copies.  The  drawing 
or  writing  can  also  be  preserved  good  on 
the  stone  for  any  length  of  time  by 
rolling  it  with  a special  kind  of  ink  and 
covering  it  with  gum  mixed  with  sugar- 
candy.  For  similar  purposes  zinc  has 
been  treated  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  stone.  See  Zincography. 

LITHOT'OMY,  in  surgery,  the  tech- 
nical name  for  the  operation  popularly 
called  cutting  for  the  stone.  As  usually 
performed  it  consists  in  cutting  through 
the  perineum  in  front  and  to  the  left  of 
the  anus,  so  as  to  reach  and  divide  the 
urethra  and  neck  of  the  bladder  where  it 
is  surrounded  by  the  prostate  gland.  A 
grooved  and  curved  staff  is  introduced 
into  the  bladder  first,  and  then  the  in- 
cision is  made  in  the  perineum  to  reach 
the  bladder,  the  groove  in  the  staff  serv- 
ing as  a guide  to  the  knife.  When  thus 
performed,  the  operation  requires  sel- 
dom more  than  three  minutes,  and  in 
favorable  cases  the  wound  heals  in  the 
course  of  a month. 

LITHOT'RITY,  in  surgery,  the  opera- 
tion of  crushing  a stone  in  the  bladder 
into  fragments  of  such  a size  that  they 
may  be  expelled  by  the  urethra.  The 
instrument  by  which  the  stone  is  broken 
up  is  introduced  in  the  same  manner  as 
a catheter  or  sound  into  the  bladder, 
and  after  catching  the  stone  either 
crushes,  bores,  or  hammers  it  to  pieces. 
The  instrument,  which  is  called  a litho- 
trite,  has  two  movable  blades  at  the 
extremity,  which  are  brought  together 
to  crush  the  stone  by  means  of  a power- 
ful screw. 

LITHUA'NIA,  a region  in  eastern 
Europe  which  formed  a grand-duchy  in 
the  llth  century;  became  united  to 
Poland  in  the  14th  century;  and  at  the 
dismemberment  of  that  kingdom,  in 
1773-95,  was  nearly  all  appropriated  by 
Russia,  now  forming  the  governments 


LITRE 


LIVERPOOL 


of  Mohilev,  Vitepsk,  Minsk,  Vilna,  and 
Grodno;  area  about  100,000  sq.  miles, 
of  which  6700  are  in  Prussia.  The 
Lithuanians  are  a race  of  people  closely 
akin  to  the  Letts.  They  are  fair-haired, 
blue-eyed,  and  light-skinned;  of  mild 
disposition,  and  chiefly  occupied  in 
agriculture.  Their  language  is  akin  to 
the  Lettic  and  Old  Prussian,  and  forms 
with  these  the  Lithuanian  or  Lettic 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  tongues. 
Their  literature  consists  chiefly  of  popu- 
lar songs  and  hymns,  religious  works, 
tales,  etc. 

LITRE,  the  French  standard  measure 
of  capacity  in  the  decimal  system.  The 
litre  is  a cubic  decimetre;  that  is,  a cube, 
each  of  the  sides  of  which  is  3.937  Eng- 
lish inches;  it  contains  60,028  English 
cubic  inches;  the  English  imperial  gallon 
is  equal  to  fully  4^  litres,  or  more  exactly 
4.54345797  litres. 

LITTLE  FALLS,  a city  in  Herkimer 
CO.,  N.  Y.,  21  miles  east  by  south  of 
Utica,  on  the  Mohawk  river,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  New  York  Central  and 
Hudson  rivers  and  the  West  Shore  rail- 
roads. Pop.  12,160. 

LITTLE  ROCK,  the  largest  city  in  and 
capital  of  Arkansas,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Arkansas,  here  navigable,  250  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  stands  on  a rocky 
bluff,  rising  about  50  feet  above  the  river. 
It  has  the  usual  variety  of  churches, 
a state-house,  court-house,  jail,  theater, 
military  college,  etc.  Pop.  1909,  60,000. 

LIT'URGY,  a special  series  of  prayers, 
hymns,  pieces  of  Scripture,  or  other  de- 
votional matter,  arranged  and  pre- 
scribed for  use  in  worship ; or  in  a nar- 
rower sense  a prescribed  service  for  the 
celebration  of  the  eucharist;  hence  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  equivalent 
to  the  mass  or  service  contained  in  the 
Missal.  There  are  a number  of  ancient 
liturgies  connected  with  various  places 
or  names  of  various  persons,  but  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  written  liturgy 
earlier  than  the  5th  century.  The  chief 
liturgical  books  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  are  the  Missal  and  the  Breviary, 
both  in  Latin.  The  English  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  dates  from  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  (See  Common  Prayer.)  It 
was  based  on  the  Roman  Breviary.  In 
the  portions  of  Scripture  contained  in 
the  prayer  book  the  authorized  version 
was  latterly  adopted,  except  in  the 
Psalms,  which  are  according  to  Cover- 
dale’s  Bible.  The  liturgy  of  the  Episco- 
pal Church  in  Scotland  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Church  of  England,  except 
that  there  is  a different  communion 
office,  which,  however,  is  used  only  in 
some  of  the  Scotch  churches.  The  Kirk 
of  Scotland,  or  the  Scotch  Presbyterian 
Church,  has  no  liturgy,  the  Directory 
for  the  Public  Worship  of  God  being  only 
certain  general  rules  for  the  conduct  of 
public  worship.  The  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  was  adopted 
in  1789  with  some  minor  deviations 
from  the  English. 

LIUTPRAND,  or  LUITPRAND,  his- 
torian, prelate,  and  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Pavia  about  920,  and  died  at 
Cremona  about  972.  Besides  an  interest- 
ing narrative  of  a mission  to  Constanti- 
nople, he  has  left  us  a History  of  Otto; 
and  his  Antapodosis,  a history  of  Europe 


in  six  books,  from  886  to  950.  These 
works  are  the  chief  historical  authority 
for  that  period. 

LIVER,  the  glandular  structure,  which 
secretes  the  bile.  This  gland  is  not 
confined  to  the  Vertebrate  animals, 
all  of  which — save  the  Amphioxus  or 
lancelet — possess  a well-developed  liver, 
but  is  found  in  many  Invertebrata.  In 
man  the  liver  is  part  of  the  alimentary 
apparatus,  and  is  situated  just  below 
the  diaphragm  on  the  right  side,  ex- 
tending across  the  middle  line  of  the 
body  toward  the  left  side.  Its  front 
border  reaches  just  below  the  border 
of  the  chest  when  the  posture  is  sitting 
or  standing;  but  when  the  person  lies 
down  the  liver  passes  slightly  up  so  as  to 
be  completely  under  cover  of  the  ribs, 
except  a small  portion  which  extends 
beyond  the  lower  end  of  the  breast-bone. 
From  its  position  it  is  extremely  liable 
to  compression  and  injury.  It  is  the 
largest  gland  in  the  body,  and  weighs 
from  50  to  60  ounces  avoirdupois.  In 
its  general  form  the  liver  is  flat,  broad, 
and  thick  toward  the  right  side,  be- 
coming narrow  and  thin  toward  the  left 
side.  Its  upper  surface  is  convex  or 
arched  and  fits  into  the  concave  surface 
of  the  diaphragm,  while  its  lower  sur- 
face is  irregularly  divided  into  certain 
“lobes,”  five  in  number,  and  separated 
by  clefts  or  fissures.  These  lobes  are 
known  as  the  right,  left,  spegelian, 
caudatus  and  quadrate  lobes. 

When  microscopically  examined  the 
entire  mass  of  the  liver  is  found  to  con- 
sist mainly  of  large  many-sided  cells 
containing  granular  protoplasm.  They 
are  arranged  in  groups  or  masses,  each 
little  mass  being  called  a lobule,  and 
each  lobule  slightly  mapped  off  by  con- 
nective tissue  and  containing  a mesh- 
work  of  blood-vessels  and  ducts.  These 
blood-vessels  are  branches  of  the  portal 
vein.  This  vein  receives  the  blood  which 
has  circulated  in  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines and  carries  it  throughout  the 
entire  liver  by  a net-work  of  finely  sub- 
divided veins.  It  is  from  this  supply  of 
blood  that  the  bile  is  secreted.  The 
blood  passes  off  from  the  liver  by  the 
hepatic  vein,  formed  by  the  union  of 
small  vessels  which  begin  in  the  center 
of  the  lobules.  The  connective  tissue  of 
the  liver  is  supplied  with  arterial  blood 
by  the  hepatic  artery.  This  blood,  like 
that  which  has  entered  through  the 
portal  vein,  is  drained  off  into  the 
hepatic  vein.  There  is,  however,  another 
set  of  vessels  which  ramify  through  the 
liver,  namely  the  bile  ducts,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  carry  off  the  bile  produced 
in  the  gland.  These  ducts  intersect  and 
unite  until  in  the  end  two  channels  are 
formed,  one  from  the  right  and  the  other 
from  the  left  of  the  liver,  which  ultimate- 
ly form  one  common  exit  into  the  small 
intestine  called  the  common  bile  duct. 
Thus,  when  the  bile  has  been  secreted 
by  the  liver-cells,  it  is  transferred  by 
way  of  this  hepatic  duct  into  the  small 
intestine,  where  it  mingles  with  the  food. 
When  this  flow  of  bile  ceases,  as  it  does 
when  intestinal  digestion  is  interrupted, 
the  supply  which  still  continues  is  stored 
in  the  gall-bladder,  which  forms  a kind 
of  reservoir  situated  under  the  liver. 

The  functions  of  the  liver  would  seem 
to  be,  at  least,  threefold.  It  serves  (1) 


to  secrete  from  the  blood  received  from 
the  stomach  and  intestines  that  amount 
of  bile  which  is  necessary  for  the  pur- 
poses of  digestion.  The  bile,  however, 
contains  waste  matter,  which  has  been 
separated  from  the  blood.  The  liver 
therefore  (2)  has  a direct  function  in 
separating  and  casting  forth  the  waste 
impurities  of  the  blood.  Further,  it 
appears  from  recent  investigation  that 
(3)  the  liver  secretes  a substance  which 
is  called  glycogen  or  animal  starch.  The 
use  of  this  substance,  which  is  readily 
converted  into  sugar,  would  seem  to  be 
to  supply  the  tissues  with  material  for 
their  energy  and  heat.  The  functions  of 
the  liver,  however,  still  form  the  sub- 
ject of  dispute  and  investigation  among 
physiologists.  See  Bile  and  Gall-bladder. 

There  are  many  diseases  connected 
with  this  important  gland.  There  is 
congestion  of  the  liver,  which  indicates 
that  the  structure  is  surcharged  and 
choked  with  blood.  This  arises  from 
various  causes;  heart  disease,  disease  of 
the  lungs,  or  even  excess  in  food  or 
drink  will  produce  congestion.  The 
symptoms  are  excessive  weight,  fulness, 
and  a tenderness  in  the  organ  which 
may  be  proved  by  a slight  push  in  the 
region  beyond  the  breast-bone.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  liver  is  frequent  in  hot 
countries;  is  closely  connected  with 
dysentery,  and  its  symptoms  are  similar 
to  those  connected  with  congestion. 
Cirrhosis  of  the  liver  or  drunkard’s  liver 
is  frequently  caused  by  excessive  spirit- 
drinking — but  not  necessarily  so,  as  it 
has  been  known  to  occur  in  children. 
The  symptoms  are  many  and  not  easily 
recognized;  and  the  disease  may  remain 
for  years  before  a fatal  issue.  Fatty 
degeneration  of  the  liver  occurs  when 
the  cells  become  crowded  with  globules 
of  oil,  and  it  becomes  large  and  pale. 
This  result  usually  arises  from  over- 
feeding or  drinking  and  want  of  exercise. 
See  Jaundice. 

LIVERPOOL,  an  episcopal  city,  pari., 
county,  and  municipal  borough,  and 
seaport  of  England,  county  of  Lan- 
caster, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mersey, 
about  4 miles  from  its  confluence  with 
the  Irish  Sea,  185  miles  northwest  from 
London.  The  chief  public  buildings  are 
the  town  hall,  municipal  offices,  revenue 
buildings,  St.  George’s  hall,  exchange, 
public  library  and  museum,  art  gallery, 
Picton  reading-room,  the  Wellington 
rooms,  government  offices,  and  law 
courts.  The  free  public  library  and 
museum  accommodate  a central  techni- 
cal school,  while  one  portion  is  occupied 
by  the  reference  library  of  120,000 
volumes,  and  another  section  by  the 
museum.  Near  the  library  is  a gallery  of 
art  for  the  unrestricted  use  of  the  people. 
There  are  altogether  upward  of  300 
places  of  worship  in  Liverpool,  and 
many  of  the  churches  and  chapels  are 
very  handsome  buildings.  When  Liver- 
pool was  constituted  a bishop’s  see  in 
1880,  the  parish  church  of  St.  Peter  was 
made  the  cathedral.  The  charitable  and 
benevolent  institutions,  such  as  hospi- 
tals, and  infirmaries,  etc.,  are  numerous. 
The  educational  institutions  include 
University  College  (affiliated  to  the 
Victoria  University,  Manchester),  Liver- 
pool College,  the  Royal  Institution,  the 
Liverpool  Institute,  School  of  Art  and 


LIVINGSTONE 


LIVINGSTON 


Gallery  of  Art,  etc.  Next  to  London  it 
is  the  chief  seaport  in  the  United  King- 
dom, or  indeed  in  the  world.  Among 
the  imports  cotton  holds  the  chief  place, 
followed  by  provisions  and  live-stock, 
cereals,  fruits,  hides,  palm  and  olive-oil, 
wine  and  spirits,  tobacco,  etc.  Cotton 
goods  form  by  far  the  principal  export; 
other  exports  are  machinery,  woolens. 


etc.  Manufacturing  industries  are  varied, 
and  include  engineering,  iron-  and  brass- 
founding, chemicals,  sugar-refining, 
brewing,  rope-making,  etc.  Liverpool  is 
the  chief  port  in  Britain  for  the  depart- 
ure of  emigrants.  There  are  five  ap- 
proaches to  the  town  by  railway,  and  by 
the  opening  of  the  tunnel  under  the 
Mersey  the  railway  facilities  have  been 


materially  increased.  Liverpool  is,  next 
to  London,  the  largest  town  in  England. 
Pop.  685,276. 

LIVINGSTONE,  David,  missionary 
and  African  traveler,  was  born  at 
Blantyre,  Lanarkshire,  1813,  and  died 
near  Lake  Bangweolo,  Africa,  1st  May, 
1873.  His  parents  had  settled  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  cotton  mills  near 


Blantyre,  where  David  became  a 
“piecer”  at  the  age  of  ten.  While  at 
work  in  the  mill  he  learned  Latin  and 
read  extensively,  and  having  attended 
the  medical  and  Greek  classes  at  Glas- 
gow University  during  the  winter 
months,  he  finally  became  a licentiate 
of  the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons of  Glasgow.  Under  the  auspices 


of  the  London  Missionary  Society  he 
proceeded  in  1840  to  South  Africa, 
where  he  joined  Robert  Moffat  in  the 
missionary  field.  His  first  station  was 
in  the  Bechuana  territory,  and  here  his 
labors  for  nine  years  were  associated 
with  Mr.  Moffat,  whose’  daughter  he 
married.  Having  heard  from  the  natives 
that  there  was  a large  lake  north  of  the 


Kalahari  desert,  he  proceeded  to  explore 
that  region,  and  discovered  the  valley  of 
the  Zouga  and  Lake  Ngami.  After  mak- 
ing various  journeys  and  exploring  the 
Lake  Nyassa  and  Zambesi  region, 
Livingstone  set  forth  in  1865  to  set  at 
rest  the  question  of  the  sources  of  the 
Nile.  From  this  time  till  his  death  he 
was  engaged  hi  laborious  explorations 


in  the  lake  region  of  South  Africa,  espe- 
cially to  the  w’estward  of  Nyassa  and 
Tanganyika,  where  he  discovered  Lakes 
Bangweolo  and  Moero,  the  Upper  Congo, 
etc.  For  about  three  years  no  communi- 
cation had  come  from  him,  and  the 
doubts  regarding  the  traveler’s  safety 
were  only  set  at  rest  when  it  was  known 
that  H/  M.  Stanley,  the  special  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Herald,  had 
seen  and  assisted  Livingstone  at  Ujiji, 
on  Lake  Tanganyika.  They  parted  in 
March,  1872,  Livingstone  going  to  ex- 
plore the  southern  end  of  Tanganyika, 
and  Stanley  proceeding  to  Zanzibar. 
After  another  year’s  wanderings  he  was 
attacked  with  dysentery  near  Lake 
Bangweolo,  and  there  he  died.  His  body 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
having  been  conveyed  to  the  coast, 
rudely  preserved  in  salt,  by  his  faithful 
followers. 

LIVINGSTON,  Edward,  American 
jurist  and  statesman,  was  born  in  1764, 
at  Clermont,  Columbia  co.,  N.  Y.  From 
1795  to  1801  he  was  a member  of  con- 
gress. In  1801  he  was  appointed  United 
States  attorney  for  the  district  of  New 
York,  and  during  the  same  year  was 
elected  mayor  of  the  city  of  New  York. 
In  December,  1803,  he-  sailed  for  New 
Orleans,  and  early  in  1804  became  a 
member  of  the  bar  there.  During  the 
second  war  with  Great  Britain  he  served 
for  a time  as  secretary  and  confidential 
adviser  to  General  Jackson.  In  1820  he 
was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of  the 
Louisiana  legislature,  and  with  two 
other  members  was  commissioned  to 
prepare  a civil  code  for  the  state. 
In  1822  he  was  elected  to  congress.  He 
was  twice  reelected,  serving  until  1829,. 
when  he  was  transferred  to  the  United 
States  senate,  where  he  took  high  rank. 
In  1831  President  Jackson  appointed 
him  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1833  sent 
him  as  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
France  to  demand  the  payment  by  the 
French  government  of  an  indemnity  of 
a million  Stirling  on  account  of  depreda- 
tions upon  American  commerce.  He 
was  entirely  successful.  He  died  in  1836. 

LIVINGSTON,  Robert  R.,  American 


St.  George's  Hall  and  Lime  street  station,  Liverpool. 


LIVIUS 


LOBLOLLY-PINE 


continental  congress,  and  served  on  the 
committee  which  was  appointed  to  draw 
up  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
He  was  a member  of  the  committee 
which  drafted  the  constitution  for  the 
State  of  New  York  in  1777,  and  upon  its 
adoption  became  the  first  chancellor  of 
the  state.  It  was  in  this  capacity  that 
he  administered  the  oath  of  office  to 
Washington,  on  the  occasion  of  his  first 
inauguration  to  the  presidency,  in  New 
York  City.  In  1794  President  Washing- 
ton tendered  him  the  post  of  Minister 
to  France,  which  he  declined;  but  in 
1801,  upon  receiving  a second  tender 
of  the  same  office,  he  accepted,  and 
began  the  negotiations  for  the  purchase 
of  Louisiana,  which,  after  the  arrival  of 
Monroe  was  carried  to  a successful  con- 
clusion. He  died  in  1813. 

LIV'IUS,  Titus,  Patavinus,  often 
called  Livy,  a celebrated  Roman  his- 
torian, born  at  Patavium  (Padua)  in  the 
year  59  b.c.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  life 
except  that  he  came  to  Rome,  secured 
the  favor  of  Augustus,  and  became  a 
person  of  some  consequence  at  court, 
that  he  was  married,  and  had  at  least  two 
children,  and  that  he  died  in  his  native 
town,  according  to  some  authorities, 

A. D.  11,  and  to  others,  a.d.  16  or  17. 

His  Roman  history  begins  at  the  land- 
ing of  AHneas  in  Italy,  and  comes  down 
to  the  year  of  the  city  744  (n.c.  9).  His 
whole  work  consisted  of  140  or  142 
books,  of  which  we  have  remaining 
only  the  first  ten,  and  those  from  the 
twenty-first  to  the  forty-fifth,  or  the 
first,  third,  and  fourth  decades,  and  half 
of  the  fifth.  Of  all  the  books,  however, 
except  two,  we  possess  short  epitomes 
or  tables  of  contents.  In  the  first  ten 
books  the  history  extends  from  the 
foundation  of  Rome  b.c.  753  to  the  year 
294  B.C.;  the  portion  between  the 

twenty-first  and  forty-fifth  books  con- 
tains the  account  of  the  second  Punic 
war  and  the  history  of  the  city  between 

B. c.  219  and  201.  The  fourth  and  the 
half  of  the  fifth  decade  bring  down  the 
history  to  the  year  b.c.  167.  Livy  makes 
no  pretensions  to  the  character  of  a 
critical  historian ; his  grand  purpose  was 
to  glorify  his  country,  and  he  adopted 
all  the  legends  of  the  early  history 
without  troubling  his  mind  about  their 
authenticity. 

LIVO'NIA,  or  RIGA,  a government  of 
Russia,  including  the  island  of  Oesel, 
bounded  west  by  the  Baltic;  area, 
17,609  sq.  miles.  The  inhabitants  are 
almost  all  Protestants.  The  capital  is 
Riga.  Pop.  1,207,887. 

LIVRA  (le-vr),  an  old  French  money 
of  account,  not  now  in  use,  having  been 
superseded  by  the  franc. 

LIVY.  See  Livius. 

LIZARD  is  the  popular  name  of 
numerous  reptiles  having  usually  two 
pair  of  limbs  and  an  elongated  body 
terminating  in  a tail.  The  lizards  num- 
ber more  than  a thousand  species,  ac- 
commodating themselves  to  all  con- 
ditions except  cold,  and  increasing  in 
size  and  number  in  tropical  regions. 
In  some  the  tongue  is  thick  and  fleshy 
and  in  others  it  is  divided,  while  in  most 
cases  it  is  protrusible.  Some  lizards  are 
vegetable  feeders,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  are  carnivorous  and  live  upon 
small  birds,  insects,  etc.  The  eggs  are 


deposited  and  left  to  be  hatched  without 
care  from  the  parents. 


Nimble  lizard. 


LLAMA  (la'ma  or  lya'ma),  an  un- 
gulate ruminating  quadruped  found  in 
South  America,  closely  allied  to  the 
camel,  and  included  in  the  family  Tylo- 
poda.  They  differ  from  the  camel  in 
having  no  hump  upon  the  back,  in 
having  a deeper  cleft  between  the  toes, 
the  callous  pad  of  the  foot  is  less  de- 
veloped, and  the  interval  between  the 
canine  and  the  back  teeth  is  greater. 
The  tail  being  short  and  the  hair  long 
and  thick,  the  llama  has  the  general 
appearance  of  a long-necked  sheep. 


Llama. 


standing  about  3 feet  at  the  shoulder. 
Of  the  four  known  species  the  guanaco 
and  the  vicuna  are  found  in  a wild  con- 
dition, while  the  llama  and  the  alpaca 
have  long  been  domesticated.  The  llama 
is  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Chile  and 
Peru  to  carry  burdens  after  the  manner 
of  a camel.  When  loaded  with  about  a 
hundredweight  it  can  travel  some  14 
miles  a day  across  the  mountain  passes. 
They  are  gentle  and  docile  creatures. 

LLANOS  (lya'nos),  the  Spanish  name 
given  to  the  vast  plains  situated  in  the 
north  part  of  South  America,  particu- 
larly in  Colombia  and  the  basin  of  the 
Orinoco.  During  the  dry  season  the 
vegetation  is  burned  up  by  the  sun, 
while  in  the  rainy  period  they  are  flooded 
with  water.  Between  these  two  seasons 
the  llanos  are  covered  with  thick  grass 
and  ranged  by  vast  herds  of  cattle  and 
horses.  Farther  south  such  plains  are 
called  pampas,  and  in  North  America 
savannahs. 

LLANQUIHUE  (lyan-ke'wa),  a south- 
ern province  of  Chile,  situated  between 
the  Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
area  of  nearly  8000  sq.  miles  is  extremely 
fertile,  yielding  abundant  harvests  to  its 
inhabitants,  who  are  mostly  Germans; 
capital,  Puerto  Montt.  Pop.  91,000. 


LLOYD,  Henry  Demarest,  American 
author,  born  in  New  York  City  in  1847. 
From  1872  to  1885  he  was  connected 
with  the  Tribune  of  Chicago.  He  also 
held  the  secretaryship  of  the  American 
Free  Trade  League.  The  first  of  his 
publications  was  A Strike  of  Millionaires 
Against  Miner.  His  Wealth  Against 
Commonwealth  is  an  examination  of 
the  methods  of  the  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany. His  other  works  are;  Labor  Co- 
partnership, Notes  of  a Visit  to  Cooper- 
ative Workshops,  Factories  and  Farms 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (1898); 
Newest  England;  Notes  of  a Democratic 
Traveller  in  New  Zealand;  and  A Coun- 
try Without  Strikes;  A Visit  to  the 
Compulsory  Arbitration  Court  of  New 
Zealand.  He  died  in  1903. 

LLOYD’S,  an  incorporated  society  of 
persons  engaged  in  marine  insurance  in 
London,  or  otherwise  connected  with 
shipping,  having  rooms  in  the  London 
Royal  Exchange.  Members  are  admitted 
by  subscription,  and  the  affairs  of  the 
institution  are  conducted  by  a com- 
mittee. Reports  are  received  daily  from 
all  foreign  ports,  and  this  information  is 
posted  in  the  common  or  merchants’ 
room.  Besides  this,  there  are  other 
rooms  for  the  use  of  the  underwriters  and 
for  ship-auctions,  a library,  restaurant, 
etc.,  Lloyd’s  List,  containing  shipping 
reports,  is  published  daily,  and  Lloyd’s 
Register  of  shipping  is  issued  annually. 
Originally  the  London  underwriters 
met  at  Lloyd’s  Coffee-house,  hence,  the 
name.  See  Insurance.  , 

LOADSTONE,  an  ore  of  iron,  con- 
sisting of  the  protoxide  and  peroxide  in 
a state  of  combination  and  frequently 
called  the  magnetic  oxide  of  iron.  It  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  they  were 
acquainted  with  the  singular  property 
which  it  has  of  attracting  iron.  See  Iron, 
magnet. 

LOAM,  a soil  compounded  of  various 
earths,  of  which  the  chief  are  sand,  clay, 
and  carbonate  of  lime  or  chalk,  the  clay 
predominating.  Decayed  vegetable  and 
animal  matter,  in  the  form  of  humus,  is 
often  found  in  loams  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  the  soil  is  fertile  in  pro- 
portion. 

LOAN,  anything  lent  or  given  to  an- 
other on  condition  of  return  or  payment. 
In  law  loans  are  considere'd  to  be  of  two 
kinds — mutuum  and  commodate;  the 
former  term  being  applied  to  the  loan  of 
such  articles  as  are  consumed  in  the  use, 
as  provisions,  or  money ; the  latter  to  the 
loan  of  such  articles  as  must  be  indi- 
vidually returned  to  the  lender.  The 
acknowledgment  of  a loan  of  money 
may  be  made  by  giving  a bond,  a prom- 
issory note,  or  an  1.  O.  U., 

LOBE'LIA,  a very  extensive  genus  of 
beautiful  herbs,  natives  of  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  One  species 
is  the  Indian  tobacco,  which  is  culti- 
vated in  North  America,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  medicine. 

LOBLOLLY-BAY,  the  popular  name 
of  an  elegant  ornamental  evergreen  tree 
of  the  maritime  parts  of  the  southern 
LTnited  States,  having  large  and  showy 
white  flowers.  It  grows  to  the  height 
of  50  or  60  feet. 

LOBLOLLY-PINE,  an  American  pine, 
ne-xt  to  the  white  pine  the  loftiest  in 


LOBSTER 


LODGE 


North  America.  Its  leaves  are  6 inches 
long,  united  by  threes  or  fours.  Its 
timber  is  of  little  value. 

LOBSTER,  the  common  name  of 
long-tailed,  ten-footed,  stalk-eyed  crus- 
taceans. The  first  pair  of  ambulatory 
limbs  bear  the  well-known  and  for- 
midable lobster-claws.  The  abdomen 
has  rudimentary  limbs  on  its  under  side, 
among  which  are  lodged  the  newly 
excluded  spawn.  The  tail  consists  of 
several  flat  shelly  plates  capable  of 
being  spread  like  a fan,  and  used  as  a 
swimming  organ.  They  inhabit  the 
clearest  water,  living  in  the  crevices  of  a 
rocky  bottom.  Lobsters  are  esteemed 
a very  rich  and  nourishing  aliment, 
but  dangerous  unless  fresh  and  in  good 
condition.  They  are  generally  in  their 
best  season  from  the  middle  of  October 
till  the  beginning  of  May.  The  fresh- 
water lobster  is  the  crawfish  or  crayfish. 

LOCAL  OPTION,  a term  applied  to  the 
principle  by  which  a certain  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  or  ratepayers  of  a 
certain  locality  may  decide  as  to  whether 
any,  or  how  many,  shops  for  the  sale  of 
intoxicating  liquors  shall  exist  in  the 
locality. 

LOCK,  an  inclosure  in  a canal,  with 
gates  at  each  end,  used  in  raising  or 
lowering  boats  as  they  pass  from  one 
level  to  another.  When  a vessel  is  de- 
scending, water  is  let  into  the  lock  till 
it  is  on  a level  with  the  higher  water,  and 
thus  permits  the  vessel  to  enter;  the 
upper  gates  of  the  lock  are  then  closed, 
and  by  the  lower  gates  being  gradually 
opened,  the  water  in  the  lock  falls  to 
the  level  of  the  lower  water,  and  the 
vessel  passes  out.  In  ascending  the 
operation  is  reversed,  that  is,  the  vessel 
enters  the  lock,  the  lower  gates  are 
closed,  and  water  is  admitted  by  the 
upper  gates,  which,  as  it  fills  the  lock, 
raises  the  vessel  to  the  height  of  the 
■higher  water. 

LOCKOUT.  See  Strikes- and  Lockouts. 

LOCKE,  John,  eminent  English  phil- 
osopher, was  born  at  Wrington,  in 
Somersetshire,  1632,  and  died  1704  at 
Oates  in  Essex.  So  early  as  1670  Locke 
had  formed  the  plan  of  his  famous  Essay 
on  the  Human  Understanding,  a plan 
which  he  had  carefully  elaborated,  and 
which  he  published  in  its  completed 


John  Locke. 


form  in  1690.  It  was  received  with  much 
opposition,  notably  by  the  University  of 
Oxford,  who  resolved  to  discourage  it; 
but  despite  this  it  acquired  a great  repu- 
tation throughout  Europe,  and  was 
translated  into  French  and  Latin. 
Briefly,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  chief 
purpose  of  Locke’s  celebrated  Essay 


was  to  find  the  original  sources  and  the 
scope  of  human  knowledge.  The  con- 
clusions he  arrived  at  were  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  an  “innate  idea;” 
that  the  human  mind  is  a sheet  of  white 
paper  prepared  to  be  written  upon  ; that 
the  knowledge  thereon  written  is  sup- 
plied by  experience;  and  that  “sensa- 
tion” and  “reflection”  are  the  two 
sources  of  all  our  ideas. 

LOCKPORT,  a flourishing  manufac- 
turing town  in  New  York,  near  a series 
of  locks  on  the  Erie  Canal,  25  miles  from 
Buffalo.  Pop.  18,120. 

LOCK'WOOD,  Belva  Ann  (Bennett), 
American  lawyer  and  refonner,  was 
born  at  Royalton,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  In 
1879,  under  a law  admitting  women, 
which  she  had  been  instrumental  in  get- 
ting passed,  she  was  admitted  to  prac- 
tice before  the  supreme  court.  She  lect- 
ured frequently  and  became  prominent 
in  peace,  woman  suffrage,  and  temper- 
ance movements.  In  1884  and  in  1888 
she  was  nominated  for  president  by  the 
equal  rights  party,  and  in  1896  repre- 
sented the  United  States  under  a com- 
mission from  the  secretary  of  state  at 
the  congress  of  charities  and  corrections 
held  at  Geneva,  Switzerland. 

LOCKWOOD,  James  Booth,  Ameri- 
can Arctic  explorer,  was  born  at  Annap- 
olis, Md.,  in  1852.  In  1881  he  accom- 
panied Adolphus  W.  Greely  on  his  ex- 
pedition to  Lady  Franklin  Bay.  His 
magnetic  observations  were  among  the 
most  important  results  achieved  by  the 
expedition.  On  April  3,  1882,  he  started 
on  his  trip  to  the  North  Greenland 
coast,  reaching  on  May  13th,  the  land 
called  in  his  honor  Lockwood  Island,  in 
latitude  83°  24',  the  nearest  point  to  the 
pole  which  had  been  reached  up  to  that 
time,  and  added  125  miles  of  coast-line 
to  the  map  of  Greenland.  He  died  in 
1884. 

LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINE.  See  Steam 
Engine. 

LOCOMOTOR  ATAXIA,  is  a peculiar 
disease  of  the  nervous  system,  deriving 
its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  sufferer 
from  it  cannot  order  the  movements  of 
his  limbs  for  definite  purposes.  The 
patient  requires  to  guide  his  feet  and 
legs  by  means  of  his  sight,  and  even  then 
the  feet  are  jerked  out  and  brought 
down  in  a violent  way.  This  difficulty  of 
movement  is  called  “want  of  co-ordina- 
tion of  movement.”  The  causes  of  the 
disease  are  obscure,  its  progress  usually 
extends  over  a number  of  years,  and 
recovery  is  rare. 

LOCUST,  the  name  of  several  insects 
allied  to  the  grasshoppers  and  crickets. 
Their  hind-legs  are  large  and  powerful, 
which  leaves  them  a great  power  of 
leaping.  Their  mandibles  and  maxillae 
are  strong,  sharp,  and  jagged,  and  their 
food  consists  of  the  leaves  and  green 
stalks  of  plants.  They  fly  well,  but  are 
often  conveyed  by  winds  where  their 
own  powers  of  flight  could  not  have 
carried  them.  The  most  celebrated 
species  is  the  migratory  locust.  It  is 
about  2^  inches  in  length,  greenish,  with 
brown  wing-covers  marked  with  black. 
Migratory  locusts  are  most  usually 
found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  where  they 
frequently  swarm  in  countless  numbers 
darkening  the  air  in  their  excursions, 
and  devouring  every  blade  of  the  vegeta- 


tion of  the  land  they  light  on.  They  are 
destructive  both  in  the  larval,  nymph, 
and  perfect  conditions.  The  Arabs  and 
others  use  them  as  food.  When  dried  in 
the  sun  they  are  pounded  up  and  baked 
into  bread,  or  fried  in  oil  as  a delicacy. 
In  America  locusts  are  usually  known  as 


Locust. 


“grasshoppers.”  There  are  two  spe- 
cially destructive  species,  one  of  which 
is  found  in  Northern  New  England  and 
Canada;  and  the  other  breeds  abund- 
antly west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  the 
summer  months  this  latter  species  com- 
mits widespread  ravages  in  Texas, 
Kansas,  and  Colorado. 

LOCUST-TREE  is  found  in  the  East- 
ern states,  but  grows  to  its  best  in  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee.  There  it  acquires 
a girth  of  4 feet  and  a height  of  80  feet. 
The  leaves  are  pinnate,  smooth,  prickly 
at  the  base;  the  flowers  grow  in  pendul- 
ous racemes,  white,  fragrant,  and  pro- 
ducing smooth  pods.  The  wood  of  the 
locust-tree  is  highly  valued  for  certain 
purposes,  being  close-grained,  tough, 
light,  and  elastic  in  the  best  variety;  it 
is  reddish-tinted. 

LODGE,  Henry  Cabot,  American 
politician  and  man  of  letters,  was  born 
in  Boston  in  1850.  From  1873  to  1786  he 
edited  the  North  American  Review,  and 
the  following  three  years  was  lecturer 
on  American  history  at  Harvard.  He 
then  (1879)  became  editor  of  the  Inter- 
national Review,  which  post  he  held  till 
1881.  He  was  elected  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts legislature,  1880-81,  and  was  a 


Henry  Cabot  Lodge. 

delegate  to  the  republican  national  con- 
ventions of  1880  and  1884.  In  1886  he 
was  elected  to  the  national  house  of 
representatives.  He  was  reelected  in 
1888,  and  in  1893  succeeded  Mr.  Dawes 
as  United  States  senator  from  Massa- 
chusetts. He  was  reelected  in  1899,  and 
in  1905.  He  has  written  a Short  His- 
tory of  the  English  Colonies  in  America; 
The  Story  of  the  American  Revolution; 
and  The  War  with  Spain.  The  “.\meri- 


LODI 


LOGARITHMS 


can  Statesmen  Series”  owes  to  him  the 
lives  of  Hamilton,  Webster,  and  Wash- 
ington. 

LODI,  a town  in  North  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Milan,  in  a fertile  plain  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Adda,  18  miles 
southeast  of  Milan.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  a Gothic  struc- 
ture of  the  12th  century,  and  the  Church 
of  the  Incoronata.  The  manufactures 
consist  of  majolica,  silk,  linen,  and  the 
great  article  of  trade  is  Parmesan  cheese. 
Here  Napoleon  effected  the  famous 
passage  of  the  Bridge  of  Lodi  against 
the  Austrians,  on  the  10th  of  May, 
1796.  Pop.  27,811. 

LODZ,  a town  in  Russian  Poland,  in 
the  government  of  Piotrokow,  76  miles 
southwest  of  Warsaw.  Pop.  315,209. 

LOEB  (leb),  Jacques,  German-Ameri- 
can  physiologist  and  experimental  biolo- 
gist, was  born  in  1859.  He  was  ap- 
pointed state  examiner  at  Strassburg  in 
1885,  was  assistant  in  physiology  at  the 
University  of  Wurzburg  in  1886-88, 
and  held  a similar  position  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Strassburg  in  1888-90.  He 
made  researches  in  animal  physiology  at 
the  Naples  Zoological  station  in  1889- 
91.  In  1902  he  was  elected  professor  of 
physiology  in  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. Professor  Loeb  is  the  pioneer  in 
the  study  of  the  physiology  of  cells  and 
tissues,  including  the  effects  of  salt 
solutions  on  the  muscles  of  the  heart  in 
different  animals.  He  has  made  ex- 
periments on  the  mechanism  of  the 
reflex  activities  of  the  lower  animals, 
with  especial  relation  to  the  different 
kinds  of  tropisms  and  the  mode  of 
orientation  of  organisms.  Although  the 
true  basis  of  instinctive  acts  as  inherited 
reflexes  was  first  pointed  out  by  Her- 
bert Spencer,  Loeb  has  done  much  by 
his  experiments  to  show  the  slight  line 
of  demarcation  existing  between  the 
lower  instincts  and  reflex  actions.  He 
has  also  m.ade  notable  contributions  to 
other  problems  in  physiological  psychol- 
ogy. His  essays  have  appeared  in 
Pifluger’s  Archiv,  and  in  The  American 
Journal  of  Physiology.  In  his  book 
Comparative  Physiology  of  the  Brain 
and  Comparative  Psychology  (1902) 
will  be  found  the  titles  of  other  papers. 

LOG,  a contrivance  used  to  measure 
the  rate  of  a ship’s  velocity  through  the 
water.  For  this  purpose  there  are 
several  inventions,  but  the  one  most 
generally  used  is  the  following,  called 
the  common  log.  It  is  a piece  of  thin 


Ship’s  log. 


board,  forming  the  quadrant  of  a circle 
of  about  6 indies  radius,  and  balanced 
by  a small  plate  of  lead  nailed  on  the 
circular  part,  so  as  to  swim  perpendicu- 
larly in  the  water,  with  the  greater  part 
immersed.  One  end  of  a line,  called  the 
jog-line,  is  fastened  to  the  log,  while  the 


other  is  wound  round  a reel.  When  the 
log  is  thrown  out  of  the  ship  while  sailing, 
as  soon  as  it  touches  the  water  it  ceases 
to  partake  of  the  ship’s  motion,  so  that 
the  ship  goes  on  and  leaves  it  behind, 
while  the  line  is  unwound  from  the  reel, 
so  that  the  length  of  line  unwound  in  a 
given  time  gives  the  rate  of  the  ship’s 
sailing.  This  is  calculated  by  knots 
made  on  the  line  at  certain  distances, 
while  the  time  is  measured  by  a sand- 
glass running  a certain  number  of  sec- 
onds. The  length  between  the  knots  is  so 
proportioned  to  the  time  of  the  glass 
that  the  number  of  knots  unwound 
while  the  glass  runs  down  shows  the 
number  of  nautical  miles  the  ship  is  sail- 
ing per  hour.  Thus,  if  the  glass  be  a 
half-minute  one,  it  will  run  down  120 
times  in  an  hour.  Now,  since  a nautical 
mile  contains  about  6076  feet,  the  120th 
part  of  this  is  about  50§  feet;  so  that  if 
the  spaces  between  the  knots  be  50f 
feet,  the  number  of  knots  and  parts  of  a 
knot  unwound  from  the  reel  in  half  a 
minute  is  the  number  of  miles  and  parts 
of  a mile  the  ship  runs  in  one  hour. 

LOG.  See  Log-book. 

LOGAN,  John.  A famous  Indian 
chief,  the  son  of  Shikellamy,  a Cayuga 
chief  noted  for  his  friendship  with  the 
whites.  In  April,  1774,  several  whites, 
headed  by  a man  named  Greathouse, 
the  keeper  of  a whisky  shop,  murdered 
nearly  the  whole  of  Logan’s  family  in 
cold  blood  at  Yellow  Creek.  Logan, 
frenzied  by  this  blow,  incited  the  already 
restive  Indians  forthwith  to  attack  the 
whites,  and  in  the  brief  war  which  en- 
sued was  himself  conspicuous  for  ferocity 
and  cruelty,  taking  with  his  own  hands 
as  many  as  thirty  scalps.  He  disdained 
to  sue  for  peace  along  with  the  other 
chiefs,  after  the  battle  of  Point  Pleasant, 
and  instead  sent  to  Lord  Dunmore,  by  a 
trader  named  John  Gibson,  a message 
which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  Indian  eloquence,  though  its 
authenticity  has  been  called  into  ques- 
tion. Jefferson  in  his  Notes  on  Virginia 
quoted  it,  and  first  directed  general  at- 
tention to  it. 

LOGAN,  John  Alexander,  American 
soldier  and  political  leader,  was  born  in 
Jackson  co..  111.,  in  1826.  At  the  out- 
break of  th'3  war  with  Mexico  he  en- 
listed as  a private,  and  became  quarter- 
master of  his  regiment,  with  the  rank  of 
first  lieute’aant.  He  was  a member  of 
the  Illinois  legislature  in  1852-53  and  in 
1856-57,  was  prosecuting  attorney  from 
1853  to  1857,  and  was  elected  to  con- 
gress in  1858  as  a Douglas  democrat. 
He  was  reelected  in  1860,  but  resigned 
his  seat  in  1861  to  enter  the  army.  He 
was  made  colonel  of  the  Thirty-first 
Illinois  volunteers,  and  led  the  regiment 
at  Belmont,  Fort  Henry,  and  Fort 
Donelson;  was  wounded  in  the  latter 
engagement  and  in  1862  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  and  a few  months 
later  major-general  of  volunteers.  In 
1863  he  was  put  in  command  of  the 
fifteenth  corps  which  he  led  until  the 
death  of  McPherson,  when  he  took 
for  a time  the  command  of  the  army 
of  the  Tennessee.  After  the  war  he 
was  twice  elected  to  congress  and  in 
1871  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  senate.  He  was  a candidate  for 
the  presidential  nomination  at  Chicago 


in  1884  but  after  the  unanimous  nomi- 
nation of  James  G.  Blaine  was  an- 
nounced he  was  nominated  by  acclama- 
tion for  vice-president.  He  died  in  1886. 

LOGAN,  MOUNT,  the  second  highest 
peak  of  North  America.  It  is  situated 
in  the  southwestern  corner  of  Yukon 
territory,  Canada,  close  to  the  Alaskan 
boundary.  Its  height  is  19,500  feet. 

LOGANSPORT,  the  capital  of  Cass 
CO.,  Ind.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Wabash 
and  Eel  rivers;  on  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi. 
and  St.  L.,  the  Vandalia,  and  the  Wa- 
bash railways;  70  miles  n.  of  Indian- 
apolis. The  principal  manufactures  are 
galvanized  iron,  linseed  oil,  wind- 
pumps,  paper,  hubs  and  spokes,  flour, 
and  plow-handles.  Pop.  19,140. 

LOG'ARITHMS,  the  common  logar- 
ithm of  a number  is  the  index  of  the 
power  to  which  10  must  be  raised  to  be 
equal  to  the  number.  Thus  10®  = 1000, 
so  that  the  logarithm  of  1000  (usually 
written  log.  1000)  is  3.  Now  10^  = 10, 
102  =.  100,  10®  = 1000,  10®=  1,000,000, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  10®  = 1,  10-* 
= O’l,  102-  = O'Ol,  etc.,  thus — 


Log.  0-001  = —3 
Log.  0-01  = —3 
Log.  0-1  = —1 

Log.  1 = —0 


Log.  10  = 1 
Log.  100  = 3 
Log.  1000  = 3 
Log.  10,000  = 4 


It  is  evident  that  the  logarithm  of  any 
number  greater  than  1 and  less  than  10 
is  fractional ; the  logarithm  of  any  num- 
ber greater  than  10  and  less  than  100  is 
greater  than  1 and  less  than  2.  Again, 
the  logarithm  of  any  number  less  than  1 
is  negative.  Suppose  we  wish  to  know 
the  logarithm  of  the  number  18.1.  In  a 
book  of  tables  we  only  find  the  fractional 
part  of  the  logarithm,  it  is  ’257679. 
Now  1 8’  1 is  greater  than  1 0 and  less  than 
100,  so  that  its  logarithm  is  greater  than 
1 and  less  than  2;  hence  log.  18’ 1 = 
1’257679.  The  integral  part  of  a log- 
arithm is  called  its  characteristic,  the 
fractional  part  its  mantissa.  Logarithms 
make  arithmetical  computation  more 
easy,  for  by  means  of  a table  of  them 
the  operations  of  multiplication,  di- 
vision, involution  or  the  finding  of 
powers,  and  evolution  or  the  finding  of 
roots,  are  changed  to  those  of  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division 
respectively.  For  instance,  if  x and  y 
are  the  logarithms  of  any  two  numbers, 
the  numbers  are  10*  and  10”  now  the 
product  of  these  numbers  is  10*  + y,  so 
that  the  logarithm  of  the  product  of  two 
numbers  is  the  sum  of  the  logaritluns  of 
the  numbers.  Again,  the  quotient  of  the 
numbers  is  10* — y ; so  that  the  logarithm 
of  the  quotient  of  two  numbers  is  the 
difference  of  the  logarithms  of  the  num- 
bers. Again,  10*  raised  to  the  nth  power 
is  lO"**;  so  that  the  logarithm  of  the  nth 
power  of  a number  is  n times  the  log- 
arithm of  the  number.  Logaritluns  of 
this  kind  are  common  logarithms,  and 
were  invented  by  Briggs;  their  base,  as  it 
is  called,  is  10.  Logarithms  were  first  used 
by  Napier  of  Merchiston  (see  Napier, 
John)  and  he  employed  a base  which  is 
smaller  than  10,  namely,  the  number 
2’7182818 or  the  sum  of  the  in- 

finite series  2 + 4 + ^ 4-  J .5  + etc.  This 
base  is  denoted  by  e in  mathematical 
treatises,  and  the  Napierian  logarithm 
of  any  number,  say  7,  is  loge  7,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  log.  7,  which  is  the 
common  logaritlun,  whose  base  is  10. 


LOG  BOOK 


LOLLARDS 


The  common  logarithm  of  a number  is 
found  from  the  Napierian  by  multiply- 
ing by  0'43429448.  Napierian  logarithms 
are  of  great  importance  in  the  higher 
mathemat  ics. 

LOG-BOOK,  a book  kept  in  ships  and 
into  which  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
course  of  the  ship,  state  of  the  weather 
at  all  hours  of  the  day,  are  daily  trans- 
cribed at  noon,  together  with  every  cir- 
cumstance deserving  notice  that  may 
happen  to  the  ship  or  within  her  cog- 
nizance, either  at  sea  or  in  a harbor,  etc. 

LOGGIA  (loj'a),  a word  used  in 
Italian  architecture  with  several  signifi- 
cations. First,  it  is  applied  to  a hall 
open  on  two  or  more  sides,  where  there 
are  pillars  to  support  the  roof,  such  as 
the  Loggia  de’  Lanzi  in  Florence.  It  is 
also  applied  to  an  open  colonnade  or 
arcade  surrounding  a court,  or  to  an 


Mill  1 . i. 

MfhtM  U 1 L-L 

u 

W 

:i 

nn 

Loggia,  palace  at  Montepulciano. 

open  gallery  at  the  height  of  one  or 
more  stories  in  a building,  as  seen  in  the 
figure.  The  name  loggia  is  also  given  to 
the  large  ornamental  window,  consisting 
of  several  parts,  which  is  often  seen  in 
old  Venetian  palaces;  and  lastly,  it  is 
used  to  designate  a small  airy  hall, 
usually  open  on  all  sides,  constructed  on 
the  roof  of  an  edifice. 

LOGIC,  a department  or  division  of 
mental  science  which  has  been  differently 
defined  by  authorities.  The  older  school 
of  logicians  agreed  on  the  whole  in  con- 
sidering it  as  mainly  treating  of  reason- 
ing and  the  operations  of  mind  subsidary 
to  reasoning;  and  this  definition  suf- 
ficiently indicates  the  view  of  the  science 
held  by  such  logicians  as  Whately  and 
Hamilton.  According  to  them  logic 
dealt  only  with  the  form  of  thought, 
that  is,  with  what  is  common  to  all 
reasonings,  judgments,  and  concepts 
respectively,  and  had  nothing  to  do  with 
the  matter,  that  is,  the  subject  or  con- 
tent of  reasonings,  judgments,  etc.  In 
this  view  the  science  of  logic  was  merely 
deductive,  and  the  .syllogistic  process,  or 
the  intellectual  act  performed  in  deduc- 
ing particular  truths  from  general  truths 
already  given,  was  the  main  subject  of 
the  science.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
in  practical  research  there  is  another 
movement  or  process  of  the  mind  of  at 
least  equal  importance — viz.,  the  process 
by  which  the  mind  reaches  general 
truths  from  the  observation  of  particu- 
lars. This  latter  is  the  inductive  proc- 
ess, and  on  it,  regarded  as  the  more  im- 
portant element  in  inference  and  the 
ascertainment  of  truth,  John  Stuart 
Mill  founded  his  new  system  of  inductive 
logic.  The  nature  of  scientific  evidence, 
the  methods  and  principles  involved  in 
scientific  research,  are  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  study  in  this  system  of  logic. 

E.— 48 


Very  different  from  both  of  these  are 
the  conceptions  of  logic  given  by  the 
chief  German  philosophers.  Kant,  in  de- 
claring that  only  the  matter  (not  the 
form)  of  experience  was  given  to  the 
mind,  had  recognized  thought  as  the 
essential  factor  of  cognition,  and  had 
initiated  a new  co-called  transcendental 
logic,  which  was  an  analysis  of  the  gen- 
eral conditions  under  which  the  objective 
world  became  cognizable.  Thus  the 
foundation  was  laid  for  a view  of  reality 
as  in  its  very  nature  constituted  by 
thought.  Thought  or  the  ego  is  itself 
the  real,  and  there  being  no  separate 
reality  logic  becomes  the  system  of  the 
forms  in  and  through  which  thought  or 
intelligence  is  realized.  Logic  thus 
appears,  as  in  Hegel,  a complete  theory 
of  knowledge  and  a metaphysic.  The 
earliest  work  on  logic  is  the  Organon  of 
Aristotle,  who  practically  gave  the 
science  the  shape  it  possesses.  See  De- 
duction, Induction,  Fallacy,  Syllogism, 
etc. 

LOGOMA'NIA,  a disease  of  the  faculty 
of  language  generally  associated  with 
organic  disease  of  the  nervous  structure, 
as  in  paralysis.  In  this  disease,  while 
conceptions  and  ideas  remain  clear,  the 
power  of  associating  these  with  the  word 
by  which  they  are  expressed  is  lost,  and 
the  patient  can  either  not  give  any 
names  to  his  conceptions  at  all  or  ex- 
presses them  erroneously.  Sometimes 
one  class  of  words  is  lost  and  others  re- 
tained. Thus  a patient  may  forget  his 
own  name,  or  nouns  only,  and  remember 
all  other  words.  Sometimes  he  forgets 
only  parts  of  the  word,  as  terminations 
and  not  unfrequently  in  another  form 
of  the  disease  he  inverts  his  phrases. 

LOGRONO  (lo-gron'yo),  a town  in 
Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  same 
name.  Area,1944sq. miles;  pop. 186, 223. 

LOGWOOD,  a popular  name  for  a 
tree,  which  grows  in  moist  and  swampy 
places  in  Central  America,  and  particu- 
larly round  the  Bay  of  Campeachy;  but 
is  now  naturalized  in  Jamaica  and  many 
of  the  West  Indian  islands.  The  tree  is 
usually  from  40  to  50  feet  high,  with  pin- 
nate leaves  and  small  yellowish  flowers. 
The  wood  is  red  in  color,  tinged  with 
orange  and  black,  so  heavy  as  to  sink  in 
water,  and  susceptible  of  receiving  a 


good  polish.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a dye- 
wood,  the  trees  being  cut  down,  the  bark 
and  alburnum  removed,  and  the  hard 
center  parts  cut  into  3-foot-long  logs.  To 
obtain  the  coloring  matter  it  is  hewn 
into  much  smaller  pieces,  and  ground  or 
rasped  to  small  chips,  or  to  a coarse  pow- 
der. The  equeous  extract  is  muddy  and 


of  a reddish-brown  color.  B}'  acids  the 
red  color  is  made  paler;  by  alkalies  i.  is 
converted  to  purple.  By  mordanting  the 
fabric  with  iron,  black  is  produced;  with 
alumina,  violet  and  lilac;  with  copper, 
blue;  and  with  chromium,  a black  or 
green.  The  coloring  power  of  logwood 
depends  chiefly  on  a crystalline  ingre- 
dient called  haematoxylin.  It  is  employed 
in  calico-printing  to  give  a black  or 
brown  color,  and  also  in  the  preparation 
of  sorqe  lakes.  An  extract  of  logwood  is 
used  in  medicine  as  an  astringent. 

LOH'ENGRIN,  the  hero  of  a German 
poem  of  the  end  of  the  13th  century 
represented  as  the  son  of  Parcival  and  one 
of  the  guardians  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Sent 
by  King  Arthur  to  help  the  Princess 
Elsa  of  Brabant,  he  arrives  in  a vehicle 
drawn  by  a swan,  delivers  the  princess 
from  captivity,  and  marries  her;  accom- 
panies the  emperor  in  a campaign  against 
the  Hungarians,  and  fights  against  the 
Saracens.  He  then  returns  to  his  bride  at 
Cologne,  but  being  pressed  by  her  to 
state  his  origin  he  is  prevailed  upon  to 
tell  it,  after  which  he  must,  in  terms  of 
his  vow,  return  home  to  the  Grail.  The 
legend  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a 
well-known  opera  by  Wagner. 

LOIRE  (Iwar),  the  largest  river  of 
France,  which  it  divides  into  two  nearly 
equal  portions.  It  rises  on  the  western 
slope  of  the  Cevennes,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Ardeche,  and  flows  generally 
n.  n.  w.  and  w.  till  it  falls  into  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  below  Nantes.  Its  whole 
course  is  about  645  miles,  of  which 
about  450  miles  are  navigable. 

LOIRE,  a central  department  of 
France;  area,  1837  sq.  miles.  The  de- 
partment occupies  the  upper  part  of  the 
Loire  basin,  and  consists  of  the  fertile 
plains  which  extend  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  forming  its  valley,  and  long  ridges 
of  the  Cevennes,  which  hem  the  valley  in 
on  every  side.  The  capital  and  great 
center  of  industry  is  St.  Etienne;  other 
towns  are  Roanne  and  Montbrison. 
Pop.  647,633. 

LOIRE,  Haute  (ot-lwar;  Upper  Loire), 
a department  of  Southeastern  France; 
area  1915  sq.  miles.  Le  Puy  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  314,058. 

LOIRE-INFERIEURE  (Iwar-an-fa-ri- 
eur;  Lower  Loire),  a western  maritime 
department  of  France,  intersected  by 
the  lower  Loire  and  its  estuary;  area, 
2653  sq.  miles.  Nantes  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  664,971. 

LOIRET  (Iwa-ra),  a central  depart- 
ment of  France;  area,  2614  sq.  miles. 
Orleans  is  the  chief  town.  Pop.  366,660. 

LOIR-ET-CHER  (Iwar-e-shar),  a cen- 
tral department  of  France;  area  2451 
sq.  miles.  The  capital  is  Blois.  Pop. 
275,538. 

LOK,  or  LOKI,  in  Scandinavian  my- 
thology, the  evil  deity,  father  of  Hel  or 
Hela,  goddess  of  the  infernal  regions. 
He  is  a personification  of  the  principle  of 
evil,  described  as  of  handsome  appear- 
ance,but  perpetually  engaged  in  works  of 
wickedness  partly  directed  against  the 
other  gods. 

LOLLARDS,  a name  which  arose  in 
the  Netherlands  about  the  beginning  of 
the  14th  century,  and  was  applied  as  a 
term  of  contempt  to  various  sects  or 
fraternities  deemed  heretical, being  prob- 
ably derived  from  the  Low  German 


LOMBARD 


LONDON 


ways  has  a pleasing  effect,  and  is  very 
often  highly  artistic  and  beautiful.”  As 
examples  of  Lombard  architecture  may 
be  mentioned  the  church  of  St.  Michael, 
Pavia;  San  Zenoni,  Verona;  and  the 
atrium  of  San  Ambrogio,  Milan. 

LOM'BARDS,  LONGOBARDI,or  LAN- 
GOBARDI,  a Germanic  of  Teutonic  peo- 
ple who  at  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  were  dwellingon  the  Lower  Elbe. 
They  make  little  appearance  in  history 
till  the  6th  century,  when,  under  their 
king  Alboin,  they  entered  Italy  in  April 
568,  and,  with  the  help  of  Saxons  and 
others,  conquered  the  northern  portion, 
which  hence  received  the  name  of  Lom- 
bardy. Alboin  was  assassinated  in  573 
(see  Alboin),  and  after  some  years  of 
great  confusion  Autharis  was  recognized 
in  585  as  king.  He  was  a warlike  and 
politic  ruler,  who  gained  the  good-will  of 
the  subject  Roman  population,  and  in- 


eight provinces  (Bergamo,  Brescia, 
Como,  Cremona,  Mantua,  Milan,  Pavia, 
and  Sondrio),  containing  an  area  of  9086 
sq.  miles  and  a population  of  4,282,728. 

LOMBOK,  an  island,  belonging  to  the 
Dutch,  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  The 
capital  is  Mataram  on  the  west  coast. 
Pop.  650,000. 

LOMBROSO,  CESARE  (cha'za-re  16m- 
bro'zo),  Italian  Scientist,  was  born  in 
Verona  in  1836.  In  1862  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  psychiatry  at  Paris  and  later 
of  medical  jurisprudence  and  psychiatry 
at  Turin.  He  became  widely  known 
through  his  investigations  of  the  abnor- 
mal human  being  and  through  his 
theories  deduced  therefrom;  theories 
which  encountered  great  opposition  and 
are  not  yet  entirely  accepted  but  which 
formed  in  part  the  basis  for  the  present 
criminal  anthropology.  His  published 
works  are:  The  Criminal,  The  Man  of 


London.— (1)  The  Thames  embankment, 
minster  bridges,  the  houses  of  parliament, 
embankment,  Waterloo  bridge,  St.  Paul’s,  etc.. 
Savoy  hotel. 

stituted  a better  system  of  government 
than  had  heitherto  existed.  He  married 
Theodelinde,  a Frankish  princess,  who 
began  the  process  of  converting  the 
Lombards  from  Arianism  to  the  ortho- 
dox faith.  The  only  king  of  note  among 
the  successors  of  her  family  was  Rothari, 
who  in  643  promulgated  a system  of 
laws,  which,  with  subsequent  additions, 
became  among  German  jurists  the  basis 
of  the  study  of  law  during  the  middle 
ages.  From  713  to  744  the  Lombards  had 
a powerful  king  in  the  person  of  Liut- 
prant,  who  extended  his  sway,  at  least 
temporarily,  over  the  whole  of  Italy. 
From  that  time  the  power  of  the  Lom- 
bards gradually  declined,  and  finally 
Charlemagne  captured  Pavia  after  a six 
months’  siege,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Lombard  Kingdom  (773  or  774),  the  last 
monarch  being  Desiderius. 

LOM'BARDY,  the  part  of  Upper  Italy 
which  took  its  name  from  the  Lombards 
and  which  at  first  extended  from  the 
Adriatic  to  the  Savoyan  Alps.  Lom- 
bardy is  now  the  name  of  an  Italian  de- 
partment (compartimento),  embracing 


Cleopatra’s  needle.  Charing  Cross  and  West- 
etc.,  looking  up  the  river.  (2)  The  Thames 
, looking  down  the  river.  Both  views  from  the 


Genius,  The  Anarchist,  The  Cause  of  and 
Contest  Against  Crime.  He  died  in  1907. 

LOMZA,  a town  of  Russian  Poland, 
capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name.  Pop.  18,000.  The  government  of 
Lomza  covers  an  area  of  4760  sq.  miles, 
mostly  flat  and  of  a fertile  soil.  Pop. 
608,000. 

London,  the  capital  of  the  British 
Empire  and  the  largest  city  in  the  world, 
is  situated  in  the  southeast  of  England  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Thames,  which 
winds  through  it  from  west  to  east.  The 
1‘iver  is  crossed  by  numerous  bridges,  and 
is  deep  enough  to  allow  large  vessels  to 
come  up  to  London  Bridge,  the  lowest  of 
these  (except  themovable  Tower  Bridge), 
where  it  is  266  yards  wide.  London  may 
be  said  to  stretch  from  east  to  west  about 
14  miles,  from  north  to  south  about  10. 
Its  area  may  be  stated  at  74,672  acres, 
this  being  the  area  to  which  the  registrar 
general’s  tables  of  mortality  refer.  The 
population  within  this  area  was  4,228,- 
317  in  1891,  and  4,536,063  in  1901.  This 
is  also  the  area  of  the  administrative 
county,  and  of  the  school  board  district 


lollen,  to  sing  in  a low  tone.  The  name 
became  well  known  in  England  about 
the  end  of  the  14th  century,  when  it  was 
applied  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  and 
to  others  more  or  less  influenced  by  his 
teaching.  The  Wat  Tyler  revolt  of  1381 
was  directly  connected  with  Lollardism, 
and  latterly  the  Lollards  drew  upon 
themselves  the  enmity  of  civil  powers, 
and  numbers  of  them  were  put  to  death 
especially  during  the  reign  of  Henry  V., 
when  apparently  another  revolt  was  in- 
tended. 

LOMBARD,  Peter,  or  Petrus  Lombar- 
dus,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
schoolmen,  born  near  Novara,  in  Lom- 
bardy, about  the  year  1100.  He  was  a 
scholar  of  Abelard  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  became  a teacher  of  theology, 
and  at  last,  in  1159,  bishop  of  Paris, 
where  he  seems  to  have  died  in  1164. 
His  work  Sententiarum  Libri  Quatuor 
is  a classified  collection  of  the  opinions 
of  the  fathers  on  points  of  doctrine,  with 
a statement  of  the  objections  made  to 
them,  and  the  answers  given  by  church 
authorities.  Hence  he  is  known  as  the 
Master  of  Sentences. 

LOMBARD  ARCHITECTURE,  the 
form  which  the  Romanesque  style  of 
architecture  assumed  under  the  hands  of 
the  Gothic  invaders  and  colonists  of  the 
north  of  Italy,  comprising  the  buildings 
erected  from  about  the  beginning  of  the 
9th  to  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century. 
It  forms  a connecting  link  between  the 
romanized  architecture  of  Italy  and  the 
Gothic  of  more  northern  countries.  The 
most  characteristic  feature  of  the 
churches  built  in  this  style  is  the 
general  introduction  and  artistic  de- 
velopment of  the  vault,  that  feature 
which  afterward  became  the  for- 
mative principle  of  the  whole  Gothic 
style.  In  the  Lombard  architecture 
also  pillars  consisting  of  several 
shafts  arranged  round  a central  mass, 
and  buttresses  of  small  projection,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  first  employed.  The 
tendency  to  the  prevalence  of  vertical 
lines  throughout  the  design,  instead  of 
the  horizontal  lines  of  the  classic  archi- 


Lombard  architecture.  Transept,  apse,  and 
dome  of  St.  Michael,  Pavla. 

tecture,  is  also  characteristic,  as  well  as 
the  use  of  the  dome  to  surmount  the  in- 
tersection of  the  choir,  nave,  and  tran- 
septs. Mr.  Fergusson  remarks:  “General- 
ly speaking  the  most  beautiful  part  of  a 
Lombard  church  is  its  eastern  end.  The 
apse  with  its  gallery,  the  transepts,  and, 
above  all,  the  dome  that  almost  invari- 
ably surmounts  their  intersection  with 
the  choir,  constitute  a group  which  al- 


1 


LONDON 


LONDON 


of  London.  The  area  embraced  by  the 
Metropolitan  and  City  police  districts, 
including  all  parishes  within  15  miles  of 
Charing  Cross,  is  spoken  of  as  Greater 
London  ; it  covers 443, 252  acres;  pop.  in 
1891,5,633,806;  in  1907,  7,000.009.  As 
regards  population  London  is  thus  on  a 
level  with  Scotland,  Holland,  Portugal, 
or  Sweden. 

The  greater  portion  of  London  lies  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Thames,  in  the 
counties  of  Middlesex  and  Essex,  mainly 
the  former,  on  a site  gradually  rising 
from  the  river,  and  marked  by  several 
inequalities  of  no  great  height,  except  in 
the  northern  suburbs,  where  the  eleva- 
tion of  430feet  is  reached;  on  the  opposite 
bank,  in  the  county  of  Surrey  and  partly 
in  Kent,  the  more  densely  built  parts 
cover  an  extensive  and  nearly  uniform 
flat,  in  some  places  below  the  level  of  the 
highest  tides,  while  the  outskirts  are 
mostly  elevated.  The  nucleus  of  London 
was  formed  by  what  is  still  distinctively 
the  City  of  London,  situated  in  the  heart 
of  the  metropolis  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Thames.  The  city  is  a separate  mu- 
nicipality, having  a civic  corporation  of 
its  own,  at  its  head  being  the  Lord- 
mayor  of  London.  The  city  occupies 
only  671  acres,  and  has  a resident  popu- 
lation of  only  27,000.  Westminster, 
another  portion|of  old  London,  associated 
with  the  sovereigns,  the  parliaments, 
and  the  supreme  courts  of  justice  of  Eng- 
land for  over  800  years,  borders  with  the 
city  on  the  west;  while  across  the  river 
from  the  city  lies  the  ancient  quarter  of 
Southwark,  or  “The  Borough  ” 

As  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire 
London  is  from  time  to  time  the  resi- 
dence of  the  sovereign  and  court.  It 
contains  the  buildings  for  the  accom- 
modation of  parliament  and  all  the 
great  government  departments.  It  is  the 
chief  intellectual  center  of  Britain,  if 
not  of  the  world,  and  is  equally  great  as 
a center  of  commerce,  banking,  and 
finance  generally. 

Although  in  the  different  districts  of 
London,  with  the  exception  of  the  parts 
most  recently  built,  there  are  numerous 
narrow  and  crooked  streets,  yet  the 
whole  extent  of  the  metropolis  is  well 
united  by  trunk  lines  of  streets  in  the 
principal  directions,  which  render  it 
comparatively  easy  for  a stranger  to 
find  his  way  from  one  district  to  another 
Piccadilly  and  Pall  Mall ; the  Strand  and 
its  continuation.  Fleet  street;  Oxford 
street  and  its  continuations,  Holborn, 
Holborn  Viaduct,  and  Cheapside,  are 
among  noteworthy  streets  running  east 
and  west;  while  of  those  running  north 
and  south.  Regent  street,  perhaps  the 
handsomest  street  in  London,  and  the 
location  of  fashionable  shops,  is  the 
chief.  The  Thames  embankment  on  the 
north  or  Middlesex  side,  known  as  the 
Victoria  embankment,  also  forms  a 
magnificent  thoroughfare,  adorned  by 
important  buildings,  and  at  different 
points  with  ornamental  grounds  and 
statues.  A number  of  magnificent 
bridges  cross  the  Thames.  A consider- 
able traffic  passes  under  the  river  by 
means  of  tunnels  or  underground  pas- 
sages, some  of  them  for  electric  railways. 
The  old  Thames  Tunnel,  2 miles  below 
London  Bridge,  opened  in  1843,  is  now 
traversed  by  a railway. 


The  chief  parks  are  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  metropolis,  the  largest 
being  Hyde  Park  and  Regent’s  Park, 
which,  together  with  St.  James’s  Park 
and  the  Green  Park,  are  royal  parks 
The  most  fashionable  is  Hyde  Park, 
containing  about  400  acres.  Regent’s 
Park,  in  the  northwest  of  London,  north 
of  Hyde  Park,  containing  the  gardens  of 
the  Zoological  Society  and  those  of  the 
Royal  Botanic  Society,  covers  an  area  of 
470  acres.  The  Zoological  Gardens  con- 
tain the  largest  collection  in  the  world. 
Of  the  squares  the  most  central  and 
noteworthy  is  Trafalgar  Square,  with 
Charing  Cross  adjoining.  Among  the 
public  monuments  are  “The  Monument” 
on  Fish  Street  Hill,  London  Bridge, 
a fluted  Doric  column  202  feet  high, 
erected  in  1677  in  commemoration  of 
the  great  fire  of  London;  the  York 
Column,  in  Waterloo  Place,  124  feet 
high;  the  Guard’s  Memorial  (those  who 
fell  in  the  Crimea),  same  place;  the  Nel- 
son Column,  in  Trafalgar  Square,  176^ 


Ludgate  Hill  and  St.  Paul’s,  London. 


feet  high,  with  four  colossal  Hons  by  Sir 
E.  Landseer  at  its  base;  the  national 
memorial  to  Prince  Albert  in  Hyde 
Park,  probably  one  of  the  finest  monu- 
ments in  Europe,  being  a Gothic  struc- 
ture 176  feet  high,  with  a colossal  statue 
of  the  prince  seated  under  a lofty  can- 
opy; Cleopatra’s  Needle  on  the  Thames 
Embankment ; a handsome  modern 
“cross”  at  Charing  Cross;  numerous 
statues  of  public  men,  etc. 

Among  the  royal  palaces  are  St. 
James’s,  erected  by  Henry  VIII.; 
Buckingham  Palace,  the  King’s  London 
residence,  built  by  George  IV.;  Marl- 
borough House,  the  residence  of  the 
Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales;  Kensing- 
ton Palace,  the  birthplace  of  Queen 
Victoria.  These  are  all  in  the  west  of 
London.  Lambeth  Palace,  the  residence 
of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  is 
situated  on  the  Surrey  side  of  the  river. 
On  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames  stand 
the  houses  of  parliament,  a magnificent 
structure  in  the  Tudor  Gothic  style, 
with  two  lofty  towers.  The  buildings 


cover  about  8 acres,  and  cost  115,000,000 
Westminster  Hall,  adjacent  to  the 
houses  of  parliament,  was  formerly  the 
place  in  which  the  supreme  courts  of 
justice  sat,  but  is  now  merely  a prome- 
nade for  members  of  parliament.  In  and 
near  Whitehall  in  the  same  quarter  are 
the  government  offices,  comprising  the 
foreign,  home,  colonial,  and  India  offices, 
the  horse  guards  and  admiralty.  Somer- 
set House,  which  contains  some  of  the 
public  offices,  is  in  the  Strand.  The  post- 
office  in  the  city  occupies  two  spacious 
and  handsome  buildings.  Adjoining 
the  city  on  the  east  is  the  Tower,  the 
ancient  citadel  of  London,  which 
occupies  an  area  of  12  acres  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames.  The  most  ancient  part 
is  the  White  Tower,  erected  about  1078 
for  William  the  Conqueror.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  recent  public  build- 
ings is  the  new  Law  Courts,  a Gothic 
building  at  the  junction  of  the  Strand 
and  Fleet  street.  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  Bank  of  England;  the 
Royal  Exchange;  the  Mansion  House, 
the  official  residence  of  the  lord-mayor; 
the  Guildhall,  the  seat  of  municipal 
government  of  the  city ; the  four  Inns  of 
Court  (Inner  and  Middle  Temple,  Lin- 
coln’s Inn,  Gray’s  Inn) ; etc. 

Among  the  churches  the  chief  is  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral,  completed  in  1710  by 
Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Westminster 
Abbey  dates  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  and  Edward  I.  It  adjoins  the 
houses  of  parliament.  Here  the  kings 
and  queens  of  England  have  been 
crowned,  from  Edward  the  Confessor  to 
Edward  VII.  In  the  south  transept  are 
the  tombs  and  monuments  of  great 
poets  from  Chaucer  downward,  whence 
it  is  called  “Poet  Corner;”  arid  in  other 
parts  are  numerous  sculptured  monu- 
ments to  sovereigns,  statesmen,  war- 
riors, philosophers,  divines,  patriots,  and 
eminent  individuals  generally,  many  of 
whom  are  interred  within  its  walls. 

Among  the  museums  and  galleries  the 
principal  is  the  British  Museum,  the 
great  national  collection.  It  contains  an 
immense  collection  of  books,  manu- 
scripts, engravings,  drawings,  sculptures 
coins,  etc.  The  South  Kensington 
Museum  is  a capacious  series  of  build- 
ings containing  valuable  collections  in 
science  and  the  fine  and  decorative  arts, 
and  there  is  a branch  museum  from  it  in 
Bethnal  Green,  in  the  East  End.  The 
chief  picture-galleries  are  the  National 
Gallery,  in  Trafalgar  Square,  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  of  British  Art,  the  collec- 
tion in  South  Kensington  Museum,  and 
the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

London  is  one  of  the  healthiest  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  world,  the  annual 
death-rate  per  lOOO  being  in  recent 
years  about  18  or  19.  The  sewerage 
system  is  necessarily  gigantic,  there  be- 
ing altogether  about  250  miles  of  sewers. 
There  is  no  single  system  of  water  sup- 
ply, the  water  being  furnished  by  several 
companies  from  the  Thames,  the  Lea, 
and  other  sources. 

The  city  of  London  proper  is  gov- 
erned by  a lord-mayor,  chosen  annually, 
and  by  twenty-five  aldermen,  four 
sheriffs,  and  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  common  councilmen.  The  lord- 
mayor  is  elected  by  the  members  of  the 
city  guilds  or  companies,  known  as  the 


LONDON 


LONGFELLOW 


liverymen,  and  numbering  about  7000. 
A body  known  as  the  Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works,  created  in  1855,  took 
charge  of  all  general  improvements, 
and  had  the  management  of  all  public 
works  in  which  the  ratepayers  of  the 
metropolis  had  a common  interest  up  to 
1889,  when  it  was  superseded  by  the 
London  County  Council  under  the  Local 
Government  Act  of  1888.  The  adminis- 
trative county  of  London  comprehends 
the  whole  of  the  metropolitan  parlia- 
mentary boroughs,  which  elect  118 
oouncillors;  there  being  also  19  aider- 
men  (or  a number  not  to  exceed  one- 
sixth  of  the  councillors).  The  city  of 
London  is  unaffected  by  this  change, 
except  that  its  sheriffs  are  no  longer 
sheriffs  of  Middlesex,  and  the  right  of 
appointing  certain  judicial  officers  is 
transferred  from  the  corporation  to  the 
crown.  By  the  London  government  Act 
of  1899  the  county  was  divided  into 
separate  boroughs,  each  under  its  own 
mayor,  aldermen,  and  council.  The 
metropolitan  police  forcenumbersnearly 
16,000,  the  city  police  over  1000. 

LONDON,  a town  of  Canada,  the  capi- 
tal of  Middlesex  co.,  Ontario,  on  the 
Thames  and  the  Great  Western  Rail- 
way, 121  miles  west  of  Toronto.  There 
are  extensive  oil-refining  works,  iron- 
foundries,  chemical  works,  and  other 
manufacturing  establishments.  It  is 
the  center  of  a fine  agricultural  region, 
and  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  wheat 
and  agricultural  produce.  Pop.  37,981. 

LONDON,  University  of,  was  origin- 
ally established  as  a joint-stock  under- 
taking in  1825.  In  1836  two  charters 
were  granted,  one  to  London  University, 
with  power  merely  to  examine  and  grant 
degrees,  another  to  a teaching  body, 
which  took  the  name  of  University 
College.  Supplementary  charters  were 
granted  in  1858,  1863,  and  1878,  the  last 
admitting  women  to  all  degrees  and 
prizes.  The  university  itself  still  con- 
tinued to  confer  degrees  simply,  but  by 
an  act  passed  in  1898  provision  was 
made  for  its  reconstruction,  whereby  it 
should  become  both  a teaching  and  an 
examining  body ; and  in  accordance  with 
regulations,  coming  in  force  in  1900,  the 
university  embraces  a number  of  insti- 
tutions, in  which  students  receive  instruc- 
tion in  all  branches  of  knowledge.  These 
include  University  College,  King’s  Col- 
lege, and  a number  of  metropolitan  in- 
stitutions, medical,  theological, scientific, 
etc. ; the  faculties  of  the  university  being 
eight  in  number.  The  university  still 
continues  to  confer  degrees  on  all  comers 
after  examination,  admitting  as  a can- 
didate any  person  who  is  above  sixteen 
years  of  age.  Provincial  examinations 
are  carried  on  simultaneously  with  the 
London  ones. 

LONDONDERRY,  a city  and  seaport 
in  the  north  of  Ireland,  capital  of  the 
county  of  the  same  name,  on  the  river 
Foyle,  which  is  here  crossed  by  an  iron 
bridge  1200  feet  long.  The  harbor  is 
commodious,  and  vessels  of  large  ton- 
nage can  discharge  at  the  town.  Pop. 
39,892. — The  county  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Lough  Foyle  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  elsewhere  by  Tyrone,  Lough 
Neagh,  and  Antrim ; area,  522,315  acres. 
Pop.  144,404. 

LONDONDERRY,  Robert  Stewart, 


Second  Marquis  of,  British  statesman, 
born  in  county  Down,  1769.  In  1796  he 
became  Lord  Castlereagh,  and,  being  a 
member  of  the  Irish  parliament,  next 
year  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  privy- 
seal  for  that  kingdom,  and  the  year  after 
chief  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant. 
In  1812  he  became  foreign  secretary 
and  he  was  a member  of  the  congress  of 
Vienna  in  1814.  He  became  very  un- 
popular through  his  conduct  on  this 
occasion  and  his  support  of  the  Floly 
Alliance;  and  the  responsibilities  which 
he  had  to  assume  as  virtual  prime- 
minister  in  connection  with  repressive 
measures  for  the  protection  of  order,  and 
the  fatigues  of  an  arduous  session,  seem 
to  have  unhinged  his  mind,  leading  him 
to  commit  suicide  in  1822.  He  had  suc- 
ceeded his  father  the  year  before  as 
Marquis  of  Londonderry. 

LONG,  Crawford  W.,  American  sur- 
geon, probably  the  first  to  use  ether 
antesthesia  in  surgery,  was  born  in 
Danielsville,  Ga.,  in  1815.  Having 
learned  of  the  insensibility  produced  by 
inhaling  ether  vapor.  Long  experi- 
mented upon  himself,  and  in  March, 
1842,  administered  ether  and  during  the 
patient’s  unconsciousness  excised  a 
tumor  from  his  neck.  In  1902  the  Geor- 
gia Medical  Association  began  to  collect 
funds  with  which  to  erect  a statue  of 
Long  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  as 
“the  discoverer  of  anaesthesia.”  He 
died  in  1878. 

LONG,  Edwin,  an  English  artist,  born 
in  1839,  died  1891,  gained  a high  reputa- 
tion as  a painter  of  historical  scenes  from 
Eastern  history.  Among  his  more  im- 
portant works  we  may  mention,  Baby- 
lonian Marriage  Market  (1875),  An 
Egyptian  Feast  (1877),  Gods  and  Their 
Makers  (1878),  Esther  and  Vashti  (1879), 
Why  Tarry  the  Wheels  of  his  Chariots 
(1882),  Judith,  Thisbe,  Anno  Domini 
(1884),  Callista  the  Image  Maker  (1887). 
Mr.  Long  has  also  achieved  considerable 
success  in  portraiture.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1882. 

LONG,  George,  English  scholar,  born 
1800,  died  1879.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Georgaphical 
Society,  and  did  much  work  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge,  including  the  editing 
of  the  Penny  Cyclopedia. 

LONG,  Stephen  Harriman,  American 
engineer  and  explorer,  born  at  Hopkin- 
ton,  N.  H.,  in  1784.  In  1814  he  was  ap- 
pointed second  lieutenant,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
the  Corps  of  Engineers,  from  1814  to 
1816  was  assistant  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy.  In  1816  he  made  under  great 
'difficulties  a survey  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  branches,  and  soon  after  led  an  ex- 
pedition from  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  one  of  the  noblest 
peaks  of  which  bears  his  name.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  chief  of  topographical 
engineers  with  rank  of  colonel,  and  in 
1863  retired  from  the  army.  He  died  in 
1864. 

LONG-BOAT,  a large  ship’s  boat, 
carvel  built,  from  32  to  40  feet  long, 
having  a beam  from  .29  to  .25  of  its 
length. 

LONG-BOW.  See  Bow. 

LONG  BRANCH,  a fashionable  water- 
ing-place in  New  Jersey,  30  miles 


south  of  New  York  City.  It  has  wide 
avenues  with  numerous  hotels,  board- 
ing-houses, and  cottages.  The  perma- 
nent population  is  about  9000,  but  during 
summer  is  sometimes  increased  by 
50,000. 

LONGEVITY,  a term  which  is  used 
both  for  average  or  probable  duration  of 
life  in  a community,  or  for  great  length 
of  life  reached  by  particular  individuals. 
When  the  sexes  are  considered  sepa- 
rately the  average  duration  of  life  is 
somewhat  higher  in  women  than  in  men. 
The  question  of  the  extreme  limit  to 
which  human  life  may  possibly  attain  is 
also  of  great  interest.  Ordinary  observa- 
tion leads  to  the  conclusion  that  a com- 
parativelysmall  number  of  men  reach  the 
age  of  70,  a very  much  diminished  num- 
ber attain  ito  80,  while  90  is  rare.  There 
are,  however,  well-authenticated  cases 
of  persons  who  have  reached  100  years 
and  even  a few  years  more;  but  such 
cases  as  that  of  Thomas  Parr,  said  to 
have  been  152  years  old,  and  Henry 
Jenkins,  said  to  have  been  169,  rest  on 
merely  unreliable  assertion.  See  Mor- 
tality-table in  Insurance  Life. 

LONGFELLOW,  Henry  Wadsworth, 
American  poet,  was  born  at  Portland, 
Maine,  1807;  died  1882.  In  1833  he  pub- 
lished a volume  of  translations  from 
Coplas  de  Manrique,  with  an  essay  on 
the  Moral  and  Devotional  Poetry  of 
Spain;  in  1835  appeared  Outre  Mer,  a 
volume  of  prose  sketches,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  to  the  chair  of 
modern  languages  and  literature  in  Har- 
vard University.  In  1839  he  published 


Hyperion,  a Romance,  and  Voices  of  the 
Night,  a series  of  poems.  Ballads  and 
other  Poems  and  a small  volume  of 
Poems  on  Slavery  appeared  in  1842;  the 
Spanish  Student,  a drama  in  three  acts, 
in  1843;  the  Belfry  of  Bruges  in  1846; 
Evangeline  in  1847.  In  1849  he  pub- 
lished Kavanagh,  a tale  in  idyllic  prose; 
in  1850  the  Seaside  and  the  Fireside;  in 
1851  The  Golden  Legend;  in  1855 
Hiawatha;  in  1858  the  Courtship  of 
Miles  Staudish;  in  1863  Tales  of  a Way- 


LONGFORD 


LORAIN 


side  Inn;  in  1866  Flower  de  Luce;  in 
1867-70  an  excellent  poetical  transla- 
tion of  Dante;  in  1869  New  England 
Tragedies;  in  1871  the  Divine  Tragedy; 
in  1872  Three  Books  of  Song;  in  1874 
the  Hanging  of  the  Crane;  in  1875 
Morituri  Salutamus  and  the.  Masque  of 
Pandora;  and  in  1878  Keramos.  He 
resigned  his  chair  at  Harvard  in  1854. 
In  1868-69  he  again  traveled  in  Europe, 
and  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  and 
D.C.L.  from  the  Universities  of  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford  respectively.  His 
poems  are  equally  popular  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic. 

LONGFORD,  an  inland  county  of 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Leinster 
bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Shannon 
and  Lough  Ree;  area,  269,409.  acres. 
Pop.  46,581. 

LONGICORN  BEETLES,  a family  of 
Coleoptera,  including  a vast  number  of 
large  and  beautiful  beetles,  all  remark- 
able for  the  length  of  their  antennije, 
which,  in  the  males  of  some  of  the 


Longii’oru  beetle. 

species,  are  several  times  longer  than 
their  bodies.  The  females  deposit  their 
eggs  beneath  the  bark  of  trees  by  means 
of  a long,  tubular,  horny  ovipositor,  and 
the  larvae  are  very  destructive  to  wood. 

LONG  ISLAND,  an  island  belonging 
to  the  state  of  New  York,  extending  118 
miles  in  length,  and  varying  fi-om  12  to 
23  miles  in  breadth;  area,  1682  sq.  miles. 
It  is  connected  with  New  York  City  by 
two  great  suspension  bridges  carrietl 
across  East  river,  and  is  separated  from 
Connecticut  by  Long  Island  Sound. 
There  are  considerable  tracts  covered 
with  timber;  the  most  fertile  portions 
are  carefully  cultivated,  and  much  pro- 
duce is  sent  to  New  York  and  Brooklyn. 
Railways  are  numerous.  The  chief  city 
is  Brooklyn,  but  there  are  many  popular 
seaside  resorts  along  the  coast.  Pop. 
1,600,000. 

LONG  ISLAND  CITY,  a town  on  the 
west  coast  of  Long  Island,  and  separated 
from  Brooklyn  by  Newtown  Creek.  The 
city  contains  extensive  warehouses, 
oil-refineries,  timber-yards,  machine- 
shops,  manufactures  of  carpets,  etc. 
Since  1898  it  has  been  part  of  Greater 
New  York.  Pop.  48,272. 

LONG  ISLAND  SOUND,  an  arm  of  the 
sea  between  Long  Island  and  the  state  of 
Connecticut,  about  115  miles  long  and 
generally  about  20  miles  wide.  It  is 
connected  with  New  York  Bay  by  the 
strait  called  East  river.  See  East  River, 
Hell  Gate. 

LONGITUDE,  in  geography,  the  dis- 
tance of  a place  due  east  or  west  from  a 
meridian  taken  as  a starting-point,  this 
distance  being  measured  along  the 
equator  or  a parallel  of  latitude ; in  other 
words,  it  is  the  angle  between  the  merid- 


ian plane  of  one  place  and  some  fixed 
meridian  plane.  Longitudes  are  generally 
reckoned  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich; the  meridians  of  Paris,  Ferro,  and 


Washington  are  or  have  been  also  em- 
ployed. (See  Meridian.)  Since  the 
parallels  of  latitude  get  smaller  toward 
the  poles,  at  which  all  the  meridians 
converge,  it  is  evident  that  degrees  of 
longitude  which  are  69i  statute  miles 
long  at  the  equator  get  shorter  toward 
the  poles,  at  which  they  finally  become  0, 
as  will  be  understood  from  the  accom- 
panying cut.  As  the  earth  makes  one 
revolution  on  its  axis,  that  is  turns 
through  360°  of  longitude  from  west  to 
east,  in  twenty-four  hours,  if  the  sun  or 
a star  is  on  the  meridian  of  any  place  at 
a particular  time  it  will  be  on  the  merid- 
ian of  another  place  15°  west  of  the  first 
in  one  hour.  Thus  15°  of  longitude 
represent  one  hour  of  difference  in  time, 
and  hence  longitude  may  be  easily  de- 
termined by  the  use  of  the  chronometer 
set  to  Greenwich  time,  which  is  the 
method  commonly  employed  at  sea. 
Longitude  is  reckoned  to  180°  eastward 
or  westward  of  the  fixed  meridian.  The 
latitude  and  longitude  of  a place  are 
what  enables  us  to  fix  its  exact  position 
on  a map  or  globe.  Celestial  longitude  is 
quite  analogous  to  terrestrial. 

LONGSTREET,  General  James,  Ameri- 
can soldier,  born  in  South  Carolina  1821. 
He  graduated  at  the  Military  Academy 
in  1842;  saw  much  service  on  the  Mexi- 
can frontier,  and  took  a prominent  part 
on  the  confederate  side  during  the  civil 
war.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  he  has 
occupied  several  important  offices,  in- 
cluding that  of  ambassador  to  Constanti- 
nople. He  died  in  1904. 

LONG'WORTH,  Nicholas,  American 
horticulturist,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
1783.  He  is  especially  noted  for  his 
efforts  to  establish  grape-growing  in  the 
Ohio  valley.  So  successful  was  he  that 
he  has  been  called  “ The  Father  of 
American  Grape  Culture.”  Not  only 
was  he  a pioneer  and  leading  horti- 
cultural expert  in  his  section,  but  was 
recognized  as  an  authority  in  national 
horticultural  matters.  He  died  in  1863. 

LOO-CHOO,  LEW-CHEW,  LIU-KIU 
(Japanese,  Riu-Kiu),  a chain  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific  between  Japan  and  For- 
mosa, and  between  lat.  24°  10'  and  28° 
40'  n.;  but  the  name  is  sometimes  ex- 
tended also  to  the  group  further  north, 
properly  known  as  the  Linschoten 
Islands.  The  largest  island  is  Okinaw, 
or  Great  Loo-Choo  (area  about  500  sq. 


miles).  Oshima  the  island  next  in  size, 
has  an  area  of  300  sq.  miles.  Since  1874 
the  archipelago  has  belonged  to  the 
Japanese  empire.  Confucianism  is  the 
prevailing  religion,  but  Buddhism  has  a 
considerable  number  of  adherents.  Pop. 
460,000. 

LOOM.  See  Weaving. 

LOON,  or  GREAT  NORTHERN 
DIVER,  popular  name  of  a swimming 
bird  of  the  family  Urinatoridse,  found  in 
both  hemispheres.  It  is  a large,  solitary 
bird,  32  inches  long,  very  difficult  to 
shoot.  It  is  a fine  diver,  perfectly  at 
home  in  air  or  water,  but  by  no  means 
so  on  the  land,  its  feet  being  set  so  far 
back  that  it  can  not  walk  at  all,  but 


Great  northern  diver. 


scrambles  along  scraping  its  breast  on 
the  ground. 

LOPE  DE  VEGA.  See  Vega. 

LOPEZ,  Francisco  Solano,  President 
of  Paraguay,  born  at  Asuncion  in  1827, 
son  of  Don  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez,  then 
president.  He  filled  some  of  the  principal 
offices  of  state,  and  was  sent  to  Europe 
in  1853,  accredited  to  the  chief  courts 
there.  In  1855  he  returned  to  Paraguay, 
became  minister  of  war,  and  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  1862,  president 
for  ten  years.  He  had  long  been  aiming 
at  the  foundation  of  a great  inland 
empire,  and  as  his  military  preparations 
were  now  complete,  and  his  army  super- 
ior to  that  of  any  of  the  South  American 
states,  he  took  opportunity  in  1864  to 
commence  hostilities  against  Brazil. 
The  Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay 
allied  themselves  with  Brazil,  and  after 
five  years’  conflict  Lopez  was  reduced  to 
extremities,  and  was  finally  surprised 
on  the  banks  of  the  Aquidaban  by  a 
troop  of  Brazilian  cavalry  and  slain, 
1st  March,  1870. 

LOPHOBRANCHII,  the  sub-order  of 
Teleostean  fishes,  including  the  peculiar 
“Sea-horses”  and  the  “Pipe-fishes.”  See 
Pipe-fishes  and  Sea-horses. 

LOQUAT,  a Japan  fruit-tree.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a large  goose- 
berry, of  a fine  yellow  color.  The  tree 
is  a beautiful  evergreen,  whose  white 
flowers  have  a fragrance  like  that  of 
hawthorn  blossom.  It  attains  a height 
of  from  20  to  30  feet,  but  when  culti- 
vated it  is  not  allowed  to  exceed  12  feet. 

LORAIN  a town  in  Lorain  co.,  Ohio, 
on  Lake  Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Black 
river,  and  on  the  N.  Y.,  Chi.  and  St.  L 
and  the  Cleve.,  Lorain  and  Wheel, 
railways;  26  miles,  w.  of  Cleveland.  Pop. 
19,356. 


LORCA 


LORIS-MELIKOFF 


LORCA,  a town  of  Southern  Spain, 
in  the  province  and  42  miles  southwest 
of  Murcia,  consists  of  an  old  Moorish 
town  on  a slope  crowned  by  a castle, 
and  a lower  modern  town.  There  are 
manufactures  of  coarse  woolens,  linens, 
leather,  soap,  and  earthenware,  and  an 
important  annual  fair  which  lasts  four- 
teen days.  In  the  vicinity  are  lead- 
mines.  Pop.  69,836. 

LORCHA,  a light  Chinese  sailing  ves- 
sel, carrying  guns,  and  built  after  the 


Loi'cha. 


European  model,  but  rigged  like  a 
Chinese  junk. 

LORD  (Anglo-Saxon  hldford,  for 
hlafweard,  that  is  bread -keeper)  ,•  a title 
of  honor  or  dignity,  used  in  different 
senses.  In  the  feudal  times  a lord  was 
the  grantor  or  proprietor  of  land,  who 
retained  the  dominium  or  ultimate  prop- 
erty of  the  land  or  fee,  the  use  only  being 
granted  to  the  tenant.  A person  who  has 
had  the  fee  of  a manor,  and  consequently 
the  homage  of  his  tenants,  is  called  the 
lord  of  the  manor.  Loosely  all  who  are 
noble  by  birth  or  creation,  as  the  peers 
of  Britain,  may  be  called  lords.  The 
lords  temporal,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  lords  spiritual,  are  the  peers  who  sit 
together  in  the  house  of  lords,  as  op- 
posed to  the  bishops  who  have  seats  in 
the  house.  Lord  is  sometimes  only  an 
official  title,  as  lord  advocate,  lord 
mayor,  etc.  It  is  also  applied,  but  only 
by  courtesy,  to  the  sbns  of  dukes  and 
marquises,  and  to  the  eldest  sons  of 
earls. 

LORD  MAYOR,  the  title  given  to  the 
chief  magistrates  of  London,  Dublin, 
York,  etc.,  during  the  year  for  which 
they  hold  office. 

LORD-MAYOR’S-DAY,  the  9th  of 

November,  on  which  a great  procession 
accompanying  the  newly-elected  Lord 
Mayor  of  London,  from  Westminster 
to  Guildhall,  takes  place.  The  proces- 
sion, formerly  famous  for  its  historical 
and  allegorical  devices,  has  now  much 
dwindled. 

LORDS,  House  of.  See  Parliament; 
also  Britain,  Peerage. 

LORD’S  PRAYER,  a formula  of  prayer 
enunciated  by  Christ  on  two  different 
occasions,  for  which  see  Matt.  vi.  5-13, 
Luke  _xi.  1-4.  Among  the  earliest 
Christians  it  was  accepted  as  the  stand- 
ard form  of  prayer,  and  its  use  in  the 
liturgy  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
early  fathers.  The  concluding  clause  of 
the  prayer,  known  as  the  doxology, 
“For  Thine  is  the  kingdom,”  etc.,  is  not 
found  in  St.  Luke’s  gospel,  and  even  in 
that  of  St.  Matthew  it  is  only  found  in 
some  of  the  later  manuscripts,  in  which 


it  is  generally  held  to  be  an  interpola- 
tion. It  is  generally  retained  by  Prot- 
estants, but  is  discarded  by  Roman 
Catholics. 

LORD’S  SUPPER,  one  of  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  Christian  religion : so  named 
because  it  was  instituted  by  our  Saviour 
when  he  took  his  last  meal  with  his  dis- 
ciples, on  the  occasion  of  celebrating  the 
Passover.  It  has  also  the  names  of 
eucharist  and  communion,  and  among 
the  Catholics  that  of  the  mass  or  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass.  It  has  undoubtedly 
been  celebrated,  with  certain  differences, 
ever  since  its  institution,  and  still  is 
celebrated  by  all  sects  of  Christians  ex- 
cept the  Quakers,  however  much  their 
views  may  differ  as  to  its  nature  and 
virtue.  The  chief  controversies  regard- 
ing the  nature  of  the  rite  have  been 
chiefly  on  the  question  of  the  “real 
presence”  of  Christ’s  body  and  blood  and 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  The 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  first 
started  by  Paschasius  Radbertus  in  the 
9th  century,  was  soon  generally  received 
and  at  last  v'as  officially  approved  by 
the  Council  of  R ome  in  1079,  and  solemn- 
ly confirmed  in  1215  by  the  fourth 
Lateran  Council.  According  to  this  doc- 
trine the  whole  substance  of  the  bread 
and  wine  in  changed  into  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  only  the  appearance  of 
bread  and  wine  remaining;  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  further  main- 
tains that  Christ  is  given  wholly  and  en- 
tirely both  under  the  form  of  the  bread 
and  under  that  of  the  wine.  From  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  sprang 
the  adoration  of  the  host  (or  sacred 
bread),  as  well  as  the  custom  of  refusing 
the  cup  in  the  communion  to  the  laity 
and  non-officiating  priests,  a practice 
first  authoritatively  sanctioned  at  the 
Council  of  Constance,  1415.  At  the  Ref- 
ormation both  the  German  and  Swiss 
reformers  agreed  in  rejecting  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation  and  the 
mass,  and  maintaining  that  the 
Lord’s  supper  ought  to  be  cele- 
brated before  the  whole  congregation, 
and  with  the  administration  of  both 
bread  and  wine.  In  explaining  the  words 
by  which  the  supper  was  instituted 
Luther  and  Zuinglius  differed,  and  their 
different  opinions  on  this  subject  formed 
the  principal  subject  of  dissension  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic 
churches.  Luther  took  the  words,  “This 
is  my  body,”  etc.,  in  their  literal  sense, 
and  thought  that  the  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ  are  united,  in  a mysterious 
way,  with  the  bread  and  wine,  which, 
however,  remain  unchanged,  so  that  the 
communicant  receives, in, with  and  under 
the  bread  and  wine,  the  real  body  and 
blood  of  the  Redeemer.  Zuinglius,  on 
the  other  side,  understood  the  words  in 
a figurative  sense  and  maintained  that 
the  Lord’s  supper  was  a mere  commemo- 
ration of  the  death  of  Christ,  and  a pro- 
fession of  belonging  to  his  church.  This 
view  is  in  substance  adopted  by  the 
Socinians,  Arminians,  and  some  others. 
The  opinion  advanced  by  Calvin,  by 
which  a spiritual  presence  of  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  is  supposed  in  the 
communion,  by  partaking  of  which  the 
faithful  receiver  is  brought  into  union 
with  Christ,  through  the  medium  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  though  it  came  nearer  to 


the  Lutheran  doctrine  than  that  of 
Zuinglius  did,  yet  was  essentially  dif- 
ferent. The  Greek  Church  has  not  adopt- 
ed the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in 
its  whole  extent ; yet  her  doctrine,  which 
was  defined  and  sanctioned  by  the  Synod 
of  Jerusalem  in  1672,  comes  nearer  to 
this  dogma  than  to  that  of  the  Reformed 
church.  The  Anglican  Confessions  in- 
cline more  to  the  view  of  Zuinglius,  The 
28th  Article  of  the  Church  of  England  de- 
clares that  “the  body  of  Christ  is  given, 
taken,  and  eaten  in  the  supper  only  after 
an  heavenly  and  spiritual  manner.”  The 
doctrine  adopted  by  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Scotland  in  the  main  agrees 
with  that  propounded  by  Calvin. 

LORELEI  (1  I6're-li),  a precipitous  cliff 
on  the  Rhine,  about  450  feet  high,  half 
a mile  above  St.  Goar.  Legend  gives  it 
as  the  abode  of  a siren,  who  by  her 
singing  enticed  boatmen  thither  to 
their  destruction. 

LORENZ  (lo'rfints),  Adolf,  Austrian 
orthopaedic  surgeon  was  born  in  1854. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Vienna  in  1880.  The  operatoin  which 
made  him  famous — the  so-called  “blood- 
less” reduction  of  congenital  dislocation 
of  the  hip-joint — was  developed  only 
after  years  of  experiment.  Beginning 
with  the  “open”  method  of  Haifa,  he 
modified  it  by  stretching  and  parting, 
instead  of  cutting  the  muscles — the 
Haffa-Lorenz  operation — and  finally  in 
1892  conceived  the  idea  of  reducing  the 
hip  by  manipulation  alone.  In  1895  he 
demonstrated  the  method  before  the 
medical  congress  at  Berlin,  and  it  found 
general  acceptance.  In  1902  he  visited 
the  United  States  and  England;  he 
demonstrated  his  methods  in  both  coun- 
tries. He  devised  several  other  ortho- 
paedic operations  besides  that  for  the 
reduction  of  hip  dislocations,  notably 
one  for  the  straightening  of  club-foot, 
and  has  invented  several  instruments. 

LORIS,  a genus  of  quadrumanous 
mammals  allied  to  the  lemurs.  Two 
species  only  are  known,  the  short-limbed 
lorls  and  the  slender  loris,  both  natives  of 


Slender  loris. 


the  East  Indies.  They  are  not  muck 
larger  than  rats,  and  are  nocturnal  and 
arboreal  in  their  habits. 

LORIS-MELIKOFF,  Michael  Tarielo- 
vitch  Tainoff,  Count,  Russian  general, 
born  1826  at  Tiflis,  died  1888.  Was  made 
lieutenant-general  in  1863;  commander 
of  the  army  in  Armenia  in  1876.  In  1878 


ri 

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LORNE 


LOUIS  IX 


he  was  made  a count;  in  1879  governor- 
general  of  Charkow,  in  which  post  he 
suppressed  the  Nihilistic  conspiracies 
with  much  vigor.  In  1880  he  was 'ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  interior,  in  which 
post  he  showed  a tendency  towards 
measures  of  a wide  remedial  kind,  and 
had  persuaded  the  czar,  Alexander  II., 
to  call  a kind  of  national  representative 
assembly,  when  the  assassination  of  the 
latter  occurred,  March,  1881.  On  the 
accession  of  Alexander  III.  Loris- 
Melikoff’s  position  became  untenable, 
and  he  resigned  in  1881. 

LORNE,  Right  Hon.  John  George 
Douglas  Sutherland  Campbell,  Marquis 
of,  born  in  1845,  married  the  Princess 
Louise  in  1871,  and  was  governor-gen- 
eral of  Canada  from  1878  to  1883.  He 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom  on  his  father’s 
death  in  1900. 

LORRAINE,  a territory  now  divided 
between  Germany  and  France,  was 
originally  so  named  as  being  the  king- 
dom of  Lothaire  II.  It  was  afterward 
divided  into  two  parts.  Upper  and  Lower 
Lorraine.  The  latter,  between  the  Rhine 
Meuse,  and  Scheldt,  became  the  duchy, 
of  Brabant,  and  ultimately  a part  of 
Belgium.  Upper  Lorraine,  between  the 
Rhine,  Saone,  and  Meuse,  was  for  long 
an  independent  duchy,  but  was  ceded  to 
France  in  1736.  The  inhabitants,  though 
of  German  origin,  speak  the  French 
language,  except  those  of  the  district  be- 
tween Metz  and  the  Vosges,  which  was 
on  that  account  called  German  Lorraine. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  between  France 
and  Germany  in  1870-71  a considerable 
portion  of  Lorraine,  including  the  for- 
tresses of  Metz  and  Thionville,  was  an- 
nexed to  Germany,  and  now  forms  part 
of  the  imperial  territory  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  (which  see). 

LORRAINE,  Claude.  See  Claude 
Lorraine. 

LORY,  a group  of  scansorial  birds, 
having  broad  tails,  and  dense  soft  plum- 
age, the  colors  of  which  are  extremely 
brilliant.  They  are  found  mostly  in  the 


Purple-capped  lory. 

Eastern  Archipelago,  but  also  in  New 
Guinea,  Borneo,  and  the  South  Sea 
Islands. 

LOS  ANGELES  (16s  an'je-les),  the 
capital  of  Los  Angeles  county,  California 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  about  1 5 
miles  from  the  Pacific  coast.  It  has  ex- 
tensive vineyards,  orange  and  olive 
plantations,  corn-mills,  paper-mills,  dis- 
tilleries, iron-foundries,  and  an  active 
commerce.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
zinc  are  found  in  the  neighboring  moun- 
tains. Pop.  1909,  about  300,000. 

LOT  (16),  a department  in  the  south  of 
France;  area,  2020  sq.  miles.  The  capital 
is  Cahors.  Pop.  271,514. 


LOT-ET-GARONNE  (lo-e-ga-ron),  a 
department  in  the  southwest  of  France ; 
area,  2050  sq.  miles.  Capital  Agen. 
Pop.  278,740. 

LOTI  (16'te'),  Pierre,  name  assumed 
by  Louis  Marie  Julien  Viaud.  A French 
novelist  and  naval  officer,  was  born  at 
Rochefort,  in  1850.  He  entered  the 
marine  service  in  1867  and  traveled  ex- 
tensively, resigning  his  naval  office  in 
1898  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  His 
novels  include;  AziyadS,  Rarahu  (or 
Le  Mariagede  Loti,  Le  roman  d’un  spahi, 
Mon  fr6re  Yves,  Lepecheur  d’Islande,  Le 
Kasbah,  Madame  ChrysanthSme,  Ra- 
muntcho,  Au  Maroc,  Le  D6sert,  Galil4e. 
He  was  elected  a member  of  the  French 
Academy  in  1897. 

LOTIONS,  liquid  remedies,  consisting 
principally  of  distilled  or  filtered  soft 
water  holding  in  solution  various  medi- 
cal substances,  and  applied  externally. 
Lotions  are  either  cooling,  stimulating, 
astringent,  soothing,  or  sedative. 

LOT'TERY,  a scheme  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  prizes  by  chance,  the  plan  being 
generally  to  have  a certain  number  of 
prizes  and  a much  greater  number  of 
tickets,  the  prizes  being  allotted  accord- 
ing as  the  drawing  of  numbered  tickets 
from  a suitable  receptacle  shall  decide. 
Lotteries  on  the  large  scale  originated  in 
Italy,  from  which  they  passed  into 
France.  In  England  the  first  public 
lottery  occurred  in  1569,  the  proceeds 
being  devoted  to  public  works.  In  1612 
a lottery  was  granted  in  behalf  of  the 
Virginia  Company.  In  1709  the  rage  for 
private,  and,  in  many  instances,  most 
fraudulent  lotteries,  was  at  its  height  in 
England,  and  toward  the  close  of  the 
year  an  existing  act  of  parliament  was 
put  in  force  for  the  suppression  of  such 
lotteries  as  public  nuisances.  Govern- 
ment lotteries  still  continued,  however, 
and  large  sums  of  money  were  raised  by 
them ; but  in  1826  lotteries  were  entirely 
abolished  in  Britain,  except  in  the  case 
of  art-unions,  which  are  permitted  from 
their  supposed  good  effects  inencouraging 
art.  In  France  the  demoralizing  influence 
of  lotteries  caused  their  suppression  in 
1836,  with  the  effect  of  largely  increasing 
in  the  following  year  the  deposits  in  the 
savings-bank.  They  are  still  exception- 
ally permitted.  Lotteries  for  merchan- 
dise of  all  kinds,  from  estates  to  pictures, 
are  common  in  Germany;  and  in  Italy 
and  Austria  the  governments  draw  an 
important  part  of  the  revenue  from  their 
management  of  money  lotteries.  In  most 
of  the  United  States  lotteries  formerly 
very  commonly  resorted  to  as  means  of 
assisting  colleges  or  benevolent  institu- 
tions, have  been  abolished,  or  at  least 
require  a special  authorization  from  the 
legislature. 

LOTUS,  a name  applied  to  a number 
of  different  plants,  from  the  lotus  fam- 
ous in  Greek  legend.  One  of  these  is  a 
native  of  Northern  Africa  and  Southern 
Europe.  It  is  a shrub  2 or  3 feet  high, 
bearing  a fruit,  the  jujube,  which  is  a 
drupe  of  the  size  of  a wild  plum.  The 
name  lotus  was  also  given  to  several 
species  of  water-lily,  as  the  blue  water- 
lily,  the  Egyptian  water-lily,  and  to  the 
nelumbo,  which  grow  in  stagnant  or 
slow  running  waters.  Lotus  are  often 
found  figured  on  Egyptian  buildings, 
columns,  etc.,  and  the  nelumbo,  or 


Hindu  and  Chinese  lotus,  bears  a promi- 
nent part  in  the  mythology  of  these 
countries.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
genus  of  plants  consisting  of  creeping 
herbs  and  undershrubs,  chiefly  natives 
of  temperate  regions  throughout  the 
world. 

LOUBET  (Idb'ba'),  Emile,  a French 
statesman,  seventh  president  of  the 
French  republic,  was  born  at  Marsanne, 
in  the  department  of  Drome,  Southern 
France,  in  1838.  In  1876  he  was  elected 
to  the  chamber  of  deputies.  Here  he 
joined  the  group  known  as  the  Republi- 
can Left.  He  was  reelected  to  the  lower 
house  in  1877  and  1881,  and  in  1885  was 
chosen  senator.  In  December,  1887,  he 
entered  the  cabinet  of  M.  Tirard  as 
minister  of  public  works,  but  retired 
with  his  colleagues  in  April  following. 
On  February  29,  1892,  he  became 
premier  by  appointment  of  President 
Carnot,  who  was  his  personal  friend, 
succeeding  M.  de  Freycinet.  He  him- 
self took  the  portfolio  of  the  interior. 
Reelected  to  the  senate,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  that  body  in  1896  and  again 
in  1898.  On  February  16,  1899,  occurred 
the  sudden  death  of  President  F6lix 
Faure,  and  two  days  later  the  national 
assembly,  comprising  both  houses  of 
parliament,  met  in  joint  session  and  on 
the  first  ballot  chose  M.  Loubet  as 
president  of  the  republic.  His  presidency 
strengthened  the  republic,  and  became 
marked  by  an  almost  total  disappear- 
ance of  the  Monarchists  as  a party. 

LOUIS  I.,  or  as  a German  name  Lud- 
wig, surnamed  Le  Debonnaire,  or  the 
Pious,  the  son  of  Charlemagne,  born  in 
778,  succeeded  his  father  in  814  as  king 
of  the  Franks  and  emperor  of  the  West. 
He  died  in  840.  He  was  succeeded  as 
emperor  by  his  son  Lothaire  I.;  and  by 
the  treaty  of  Verdun  in  843  his  son 
Charles  the  Bald  obtained  the  territories 
from  which  France  as  a separate  nation- 
ality developed;  while  another  son, 
Louis  the  German,  obtained  territories 
from  which  the  distinctive  German 
nationality  developed. 

LOUIS  VII.  of  France  (counting  from 
the  above  Louis  I.),  born  in  1120,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Louis  VI.  in  1137. 
He  joined  the  second  crusade  to  Pales- 
tine in  1147,  but  returned  two  years 
afterward,  having  suffered  many  dis- 
asters and  lost  most  of  his  men.  He 
died  in  1180,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Philip  Augustus. 

LOUIS  IX.  (St.  Louis),  King  of  France, 
eldest  son  of  Louis  VIII.,  born  in  1215, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1226,  In  the 
year  1244,  when  sick  of  a dangerous  dis- 
order, he  made  a vow  to  undertake  a 
crusade  to  Palestine;  and  in  August, 
1248,  sailed  with  his  wife,  his  brothers, 
and  80,000  men  to  Cyprus,  and  in  the 
following  year  proceeded  to  Egypt. 
Landing  at  Damietta,  in  1249,  he  took 
this  city,  and  afterward  twice  defeated 
the  Sultan  of  Egypt,  to  whom  Palestine 
was  subject.  But  famine  and  contagious 
disorders  soon  compelled  him  to  retreat  • 
his  army  was  almost  entirely  destroyed 
by  the  Saracens,  and  himself  and  his 
followers  carried  into  captivity.  In  1270 
he  determined  to  undertake  another 
crusade.  He  sailed  to  Africa,  besieged 
Tunis,  and  took  its  citadel.  But  a con- 
tagious disorder  broke  out,  to  which  he 


LOUIS  XI 


LOUISIANA 


himself  (1270),  together  with  a great 
part  of  his  army,  fell  a sacrifice.  In  1297 
he  was  canonized  by  Boniface  VIII. 

LOUIS  XI.,  King  of  France,  eldest  son 
of  Charles  VII.,  was  born  in  1423,  and  on 
his  father’s  death  in  1461  he  assumed 
the  crown.  In  1481  Louis,  who  had  been 
twice  affected  by  apoplexy,  haunted  by 
the  fear  of  death,  shut  himself  up  in  his 
castle  of  Plessisles-Tours,  and  gave  him- 
self over  to  superstitious  and  ascetic 
practices.  He  died  in  1482.  The  great 
object  of  Louis  was  the  consolidation  of 
France,  the  establishment  of  the  royal 
power,  and  the  overthrow  of  that  of  the 
great  vassals,  and  in  achieving  this  end 
he  was  very  successful,  although  by 
most  unscrupulous  means.  He  encour- 
aged manufactures  and  trade,  and  did 
much  for  the  good  of  his  kingdom,  but 
was  cold-hearted,  cruel,  and  suspicious. 
Louis  XI.  was  the  first  French  monarch 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Most  Christian 
King,  given  him  by  the  pope  1469. 

LOUIS  XII.,  King  of  France  from  1498 
to  1515,  was  born  in  1462.  He  was  the 
son  of  Charles,  duke  of  Orleans,  grand- 
son of  Charles  V.  He  divorced  his  first 
wife  Jeanne,  daughter  of  Louis  XI.,  and 
married  the  widow  of  Charles  VIII., 
thus  uniting  the  Duchy  of  Brittany  with 
the  crown.  At  the  age  of  fifty-three  he 
married  a second  wife,  Mary,  the  sister 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  died 
about  three  months  afterwards  (1515) 
without  male  issue.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Francis  I. 

LOUIS  XIII.,  King  of  France,  sur- 
named  the  Just,  the  son  of  Henry  IV., 
born  1601.  He  ascended  the  throne 
(1610)  after  the  murder  of  his  father,  his 
mother  (Maria  de’  Medici)  being  made 
guardian  of  her  son  and  regent  of  the 
kingdom.  In  1614  Louis  was  declared 
of  age,  and  married  the  year  following 
Anne,  daughter  of  Philip  HI.  of  Spain. 
Louis  gave  himself  up  to  the  guidance 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  died  in  1643. 

LOUIS  XIV.,  King  of  France,  known 
as  Louis  the  Great,  son  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  Anne  of  Austria,  was  born  at  St. 
Germain-en-La5^e  1638,  and  succeeded 
his  father  in  1643.  In  1659  peace  was 


Louis  XIV. 


concluded  with  Spain,  and  Louis  married 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip  IV. 
of  Spain.  On  the  death  of  Mazariii  in 
1661  Louis  resolved  to  rule  without  a 
minister.  He  reformed  the  administra- 
tion and  the  taxes,  and  made  the  fam- 
ous Colbert  superintendent,  who  ac- 


complished a series  of  financial  reforms, 
created  the  Company  of  the  Indies, 
made  roads,  canals,  and  founded  manu- 
factures. In  1672  he  declared  war  with 
Holland,  and  in  a few  weeks  he  had  con- 
quered three  provinces;  but  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Grande  Alliance  between  the 
Emperor,  William  of  Orange,  Spain, 
Denmark,  etc.,  checked  his  ambition. 
Still  the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen  (1678)  left 
Louis  in  possession  of  Franche-Comt6 
and  a part  of  Flanders.  Maria  Theresa 
having  died  in  1683,  he  secretly  married 
Madame  de  Maintenon  about  1684  or 
1685.  The  League  of  Augsburg  was  now 
formed  against  Louis  by  Spain,  Holland, 
England,  Sweden,  etc.  A general  war 
continued  with  frequent  and  severe  losses 
to  the  French  till  the  Peace  of  Ryswick 
(1697),  by  which  Louis  was  to  restore  all 
his  recent  conquests  and  most  of  the 
acquisitions  made  since  the  Peace  of 
Nimeguen.  The  question  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  once  more  brought  Louis 
into  conflict  with  a united  Europe.  The 
principal  episodes  of  the  war  were  the 
victories  of  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  and 
Malplaquet,  gained  by  Marlborough 
and  Prince  Eugene.  Hostilities  were 
terminated  by  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  in 
1713,  without  altering  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  the  combatants.  Louis  died  on 
the  1st  of  September,  1715,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  great-grandson  Louis 
XV. 

LOUIS  XV.,  the  great-grandson  of 
Louis  XIV.,  was  born  1710;  commenced 
his  reign  in  1715,  but  did  not  actually 
assume  the  government  himself  till 
1723.  In  1726  Louis  placed  his  tutor 
Cardinal  Fleury  at  the  head  of  the  ad- 
ministration. In  1725  he  had  married 
Maria,  daughter  of  Stanislaus  Leezynski, 
the  dethroned  king  of  Poland.  After 
1748  Louis  began  to  sink  into  the 
grossest  indolence  and  sensuality,  aban- 
doning the  management  of  state  affairs 
to  Madame  de  Pompadour, who  reckless- 
ly squandered  the  public  money.  From 

1769  he  was  governed  by  Madame  du 
Barry,  who  is  said  to  have  cost  the  royal 
treasury  in  five  years  180,000,000  livres. 
The  Seven  Years’  war  (1756-63),  in 
which  France  was  involved,  brought 
severe  losses  and  humiliations  on  the 
country,  and  transferred  to  Great 
Britain  Canada,  Cape  Breton,  and  other 
territories.  Louis  died  in  1774  of  small- 
pox, leaving  a debt  of  $800,000,000  and 
a demoralized  kingdom. 

LOUIS  XVI.,  King  of  France,  grand- 
son of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  1754,  and  in 

1770  married  Marie  Antoinette  of 
Austria.  He  ascended  the  throne  in 
1774.  His  weakness  and  want  of  decision 
made  him  unfit  to  rule  a great  country  at 
a critical  period.  In  1789,  all  the  griev- 
ances and  discontents  v/hich  had  been 
gathering  during  a long  period  of  misrule 
found  vent;  the  populace  attacked  and 
destroyed  the  Bastille;  and  the  revolu- 
tion was  accomplished.  On  January  16, 
1793,  he  was  declared  guilty  of  a con- 
spiracy against  the  freedom  of  the 
nation,  by  a vote  of  690  out  of  719;  on 
the  17th  he  was  condemned  to  death,  by 
a majority  of  only  five  in  721,  and  on  the 
21st  he  was  guillotined. 

LOUIS  XVII.,  King  of  France,  second 
son  of  Louis  XVI.,  was  born  in  1785. 
On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1789 


he  became  dauphin,  was  proclaimed 
king  by  the  royalists  on  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  He  died  in  1795. 

LOUIS  XVIII.,  King  of  France,  third 
son  of  the  dauphin,  the  son  of  Louis  XV., 
was  born  in  1755,  and  died  1824.  At  the 
accession  of  his  brother  Louis  XVI.  in 
1774  he  received  the  title  of  Monsieur. 
After  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Monsieur 
proclaimed  his  nephew  King  of  France 
as  Louis  XVII.,  and  in  1795  he  was  him- 
self proclaimed  by  the  emigrants  King 
of  France  and  of  Navarre.  For  many 
years  he  led  a wandering  life,  supported 
by  foreign  courts  and  by  some  friends  of 
the  house  of  Bourbon.  He  at  last  took 
refuge  in  England  in  1807,  and  lived 
there  till  the  fall  of  Napoleon  opened  the 
way  for  him  to  the  French  throne.  He 
entered  Paris  in  May,  1814;  had  to  fly 
on  Napoleon’s  escape  from  Elba,  but 
was  replaced  on  the  throne  by  the 
Allies  after  Waterloo. 

LOUIS,  St.,  a city  of  the  United  States 
See  St.  Louis. 

LOUIS  D’OR  (l6-e-dor),  or  simply 
Louis,  a gold  coin  of  France,  first 
struck  in  1640,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIII.,  and  continuing  to  be  coined  till 
1795.  In  1810  the  louis  d’or  was  re- 
placed by  the  napoleon  of  20  francs, 
and  when  the  coin  was  again  struck 
under  the  restoration  the  same  value 
(20  francs)  was  retained. 

LOUISIANA  (l6-iz-i-an'a),  one  of  the 
southern  United  States  of  America, 
bounded  north  by  Arkansas,  northeast 
and  east  by  Mississippi,  from  which  it  is 
partly  separated  by  the  river  of  that 
name,  southeast  and  south  by  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  west  by  Texas,  from  which 
it  is  separated  chiefly  by  the  Sabine. 
It  has  an  area  of  48,720  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  generally  flat  and  low ; the 
delta  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  land 
along  that  river,  having  to  be  protected 
from  inundation  by  levies  or  artificial 
embankments.  The  coast  is  a low  swampy 


Seal  of  Louisiana. 


region  producing  large  quantities  of  rice 
and  sugar-cane;  toward  the  north  and 
northwest,  where  the  highest  elevation  is 
reached,  the  land  is  less  productive,  but 
bears  valuable  timber.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Mississippi,  which  runs  for  about 
OOOmiles  along  the  border  of  and  through 
the  state;  the  Red  river,  which  crosses 
the  state  diagonally  and  forms  an  im- 
portant avenue  of  inland  commerce; 
the  Washita,  Sabine,  Pearl,  etc.,  all 
navigable.  There  are  also  numerous 
“bayous”  or  secondary  outlets  of  the 


LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


LOUISVILLE 


rivers  of  much  importance  for  both  navi- 
gation and  drainage  purposes,  the  chief 
o^f  which  are  the  Atchafalaya  with  its 
series  of  lakes,  the  bayou  Teche,  bayou 
de  Large,  bayou  La  Fourche,  and  bayou 
Boeuf.  Numerous  lakes  and  lagoons  are 
scattered  over  the  state,  mostly  land- 
locked bays  and  expansions  of  rivers. 
The  climate  is  semi-tropical,  and  the 
rain-fall  heavy  along  the  coast.  Coal, 
iron,  sulphur,  and  rock-salt  are  found; 
the  chief  agricultural  products  are 
cotton,  sugar,  rice,  corn,  and  tobacco. 
Louisiana  ranks  second  among  the  gulf 
states  in  the  total  value  of  its  fisheries. 
The  Louisiana  forests  are  exceeded  in 
area  and  value  by  those  of  but  few 
states.  The  most  valuable  variety  is  the 
long  leaf  pine.  There  are  also  very 
extensive  areas  of  short  leaf  pine,  inter- 
mixed with  deciduous  varieties.  The 
dense  and  heavy  cypress  forests  in  the 
deltaic  regions  as  yet  have  been  scarce- 
ly touched.  The  port  of  New  Orleans 
is  the  most  important  one  on  the  South- 
ern coast  of  the  United  States  and 
is  exceeded  only  by  New  York  and 
Boston  in  the  amount  of  its  foreign 
trade. 

Free  education  is  established,  and  the 
University  of  Louisiana,  at  Baton 
Rouge,  and  other  institutions  are  de- 
voted to  the  higher  education.  There 
are  about  3000  miles  of  railway.  The 
capital  is  Baton  Rouge,  but  New 
Orleans  is  much  the  largest  town. 
Louisiana  became  a state  in  1812,  the 
territory  now  included  within  its  limits 
having  previously  belonged  to  France 
and  Spain,  and  having  been  acquired 
by  purchase  from  Napoleon  I.  The 
earliest  historical  record  of  explorations 
by  white  men,  is  1541,  when  De  Soto, 
the  Spanish  explorer,  landing  on  the 
Florida  coast,  made  his  way  through 
trackless  forests  and  swamps  to  the 
Mississippi.  Marquette  and  Joliet  in 
1673  descended  the  Mississippi  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas,  and  in  1682 
Robert  Cavelier  de  La  Salle  navigated 
the  great  river  from  the  Illinois  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  early  settlements 
proved  unsuccessful,  and  it  was  not 
until  1700  that  the  French,  under  the 
leadership  of  Iberville,  founded  a per- 
manent colony.  Under  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  the  territory  of  Louisiana, 
which  nominally  extended  over  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
westward  to  the  Pacific,  or  at  least  to 
the  Rocky  mountains,  passed  into  the 
hands  of  France.  New  Orleans  was 
founded  in  1718,  and  the  territory,  at 
first  governed  by  a French  appointee, 
came  into  the  jurisdiction  of  John 
Law,  the  originator  of  the  great  Missis- 
sippi scheme.  In  1762,  Spain  acquired 
the  province  by  a secret  treaty  with 
France,  but  did  not  take  full  possession 
until  1769i  In  1763  all  of  Louisiana  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  from  its  source  to  the 
river  Iberville,  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain  and  counted  with  Florida.  By 
the  treaty  of  1783,  which  closed  the  war 
with  Great  Britain,  the  newly  consti- 
tuted United  States  came  into  posses- 
sion of  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi 
south  as  far  as  the  thirty-first  parallel, 
while  Spain  held  the  other  bank,  and 
claimed  complete  possession  of  the  river 
WUth  of  the  thirty-first  parallel.  Spain 


ceded  this  territory  back  to  France  in 
1800,  and  three  years  later  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  being  unable  to  hold  the 
country  himself,  and  desirous  of  damag- 
ing Great  Britain,  sold  the  whole  coun- 
try to  the  United  States  for  $12,000,000. 
The  arrangement  was  made  by  Thomas 
Jefferson,  and  he  was  denounced  on  all 
hands  for  his  alleged  unconstitutional 
action  in  making  the  bargain. 

In  1804  a territory  known  as  Orleans 
was  formed,  including  most  of  what  now 
is  called  Louisiana,  and  in  1812  the 
state  was  admitted  to  the  union  with  its 
present  boundaries.  On  January  8, 
1815,  was  fought  the  great  battle  of 
New  Orleans,  when  General  Jackson  at 
the  head  of  some  raw  levies  of  Tennessee 
and  Mississippi  militia  defeated  General 
Pakenham  and  his  peninsular  regulars. 
Louisiana  advanced  rapidly  in  material 
prosperity  during  the  forty-five  years 
from  this  time  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war,  and  New  Orleans  became  the 
most  important  port  of  the  south,  and 
the  center  of  the  cotton-shipping  trade. 
The  state  went  with  the  south  and  se- 
ceded from  the  union  in  December,  1860. 
It  became  the  theater  of  war  by  land  and 
river,  and  in  April,  1862,  Admiral  Farra- 
gut  passed  the  forts  and  compelled  the 
surrender  of  the  city.  From  this  time 
on  the  federal  forces  practically  con- 
trolled Louisiana.  The  state  passed 
through  a stormy  time  in  the  days  of 
reconstruction,  and  it  was  not  until  1877 
that  its  administration  was  rescued 
from  the  hands  of  the  carpet  bag  ele- 
ment. By  the  so-called  grandfather 
clause  in  the  constitution  of  1898  which 
laid  down  the  qualification  for  suffrage, 
the  vast  majority  of  the  negroes  were 
disfranchised.  In  1900  out  of  150,000 
registered  votes  it  was  estimated  only 
7000  were  colored,  though  the  negro 
population  almost  equals  the  white. 

In  national  politics  Louisiana  has 
been  democratic,  republican,  and  demo- 
cratic except  in  1840  and  1848,  when  it 
voted  for  the  whig  candidates  and  1876 
when  its  electoral  vote  was  given  by  the 
electoral  commission  to  Hayes.  Since 
then  it  has  invariably  been  Democratic. 
Pop.  1909,  1,700,000,  about  a half  being 
colored. 

LOUISIANA  PURCHASE,  the  pur- 
chase by  the  United  States  from  France 
in  1803  of  the  “Province  of  Louisiana.” 
In  1802  news  reached  the  United  States 
that  Spain  had  retroceded  Louisiana  to 
France.  President  Jefferson  declared 
that  the  day  she  took  possession  the 
ancient  friendship  between  the  United 
States  and  France  would  be  at  an  end, 
and  the  United  States  must  henceforth 
ally  itself  with  the  British  nation.  The 
war  between  France  and  England  had 
]ust  been  renewed,  and  Napoleon 
doubled  the  ability  of  France  to  hold 
Louisiana  and  therefore,  proposed  to 
sell  the  entire  Province  of  Louisiana, 
and  asked  for  an  offer.  The  price  finally 
agreed  upon  was  80,000,000  francs,  in- 
cluding 20  000,000  for  the  debts  which 
the  Unitea  States  was  to  assume.  The 
total  cost  of  Louisiana,  principal,  inter- 
est, and  debts  assumed,  was  $27,267,621. 
The  area  purchased  exceeded  1,000,000 
square  miles.  The  population  did  not 
exceed  90,000,  including  about  40,000 
slaves.  The  rest  of  the  population  con- 


sisted of  French,  Spanish  creoles,  Ameri- 
cans, English,  and  Germans. 

LOUISIANA  STATE  UNIVERSITY 
AND  AGRICULTURAL  AND  ME- 
CHANICAL COLLEGE,  a State  institu- 
tion at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  chartered  in 
1877.  The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,  opened  at  New  Orleans  in  1874, 
was  merged  with  the  University  in 
1877.  In  1886  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment gave  the  use  of  the  buildings 
and  grounds  of  the  military  garrison  at 
Baton  Rouge,  and  in  1902  the  full  title 
to  the  property  was  vested  in  the  in- 
stitution. The  courses  offered  are 
literature,  Latin-scientific,  general 
science,  commerce,  agriculture  and 
sugar-raising,  mechanical  and  civil  en- 
gineering. The  degrees  conferred  are 
B.  A.,  B.S.,  M.S.,  C.E.,  M.E.,  and 
M.A.  The  university  has,  three  ex- 
periment stations,  at  New  Orleans, 
Baton  Rouge  and  Calhoun.  The  discip- 
line is  military. 

LOUIS  NAPOLEON.  See  Napoleon 
III. 

LOUIS  PHILIPPE,  King  of  the 
French,  born  at  Paris  1773;  died  at 
Claremont,  England,  1850.  He  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Duke  Louis  Philippe  Joseph 
of  Orleans,  surnamed  Egalit6  (see 
Orleans),  and  during  his  father’s  life- 
time he  was  known  as  Duke  of  Chartres. 
He  entered  the  army  in  1791,  and  favor- 
ing the  popular  cause  in  the  revolution 
he  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Valmy  and 
Jemappes;  was  present  at  the  bombard- 
ment of  Venloo  and  Maestricht,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Neerwinden. 
Dumouriez  had  formed  a scheme  for 
placing  him  on  the  throne  as  a constitu- 
tional monarch,  and  being  included  in 
the  order  of  arrest  directed  against 
Dumouriez,  in  1793,  he  took  refuge 
within  the  Austrian  territory.  For 
twenty-one  years  he  remained  exiled 
from  France,  living  in  various  European 
countries,  and  in  America.  He  had  be- 
come Duke  of  Orleans  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1793,  and  in  1809  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  IV.  of 
Naples.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  I. 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  rein- 
stated in  his  rank  and  property.  At  the 
revolution  of  July,  1830,  he  was  made 
“lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,” 
and  in  August  became  king  of  the 
French.  He.  reigned  for  eighteen  years, 
when  the  revolution  of  1848  drove 
him  from  the  throne  to  England  where 
he  remained  till  his  death. 

LOUISVILLE  (I6'i-vil  or  lo'is-vil),  the 
commercial  capital  of  Kentucky  and 
county  seat  of  Jefferson  county,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Ohio,  immediately 
above  the  falls.  It  has  a river  frontage  of 
8 miles,  and  is  connected  with  the  towns 
of  New  Albany  and  Jeffersonville  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river,  in  the  state 
of  Indiana,  by  a bridge  5^8  feet  long. 
A canal  2J  miles  long  carries  the  river 
traffic  round  the  falls  or  rapids.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  river  traffic  an  enormous 
trade  is  carried  on  by  railway,  tobacco, 
whisky,  pork,  and  flour  being  among  the 
chief  articles.  The  manufactures  are 
important  and  varied.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  a fine  court-house 
the  city-hall,  the  public  library,  the  jail, 
a custom-house,  and  four  spacious 
market-houses,  besides  churches,  asy- 


LOUSE 


LOWELL 


lums,  and  literary  and  scientific  institu-l 
tions.  There  are  four  medical  colleges. ! 
An  artesian  well  2066  feet  deep,  having  I 
a daily  flow  of  330,000  gallons,  forms  1 
part  of  the  city  water-works.  Pop. 
1009,  estimated  at  275,000. 

LOUSE,  the  common  name  of  insect 
parasitic  on  man  and  other  animals.  The 
common  louse  is  furnished  with  a simple 
eye  or  ocellus,  on  each  side  of  a dis- 
tinctly differentiated  head,  the  under 
surface  of  which  bears  a suctorial  mouth. 
There  is  little  distinction  between  the 
thorax  and  abdomen,  but  the  segments 
of  the  former  carry  three  pairs  of  legs 
The  legs  are  short,  with  short  claws  or 
with  two  opposing  hooks,  affording  a 
very  firm  hold.  The  body  is  flattened 
and  nearly  transparent,  composed  of 
eleven  or  twelve  distinct  segments.  The 


Fig.  1.  Hen-louse. 


young  pass  through  no  metamorphosis, 
and  their  multiplication  is  extremely 
rapid.  Most,  if  not  all,  mammals  are 
infested  by  lice,  each  having  generally 
its  own  peculiar  species,  and  sometimes 
having  two  or  three.  Three  species  are 


Fig.  2.  Body-louse. 


said  to  belong  to  man,  viz.:  body-louse, 
head-louse,  and  crab-louse. 

LOUTH,  the  smallest  county  in  Ire- 
land, in  the  province  of  Leinster,  com- 
prising 204,123  acres.  Pop.  65,741. 

LOUVOIS  (l6-vwa),  Francois  Michel 
Letellier,  Marquis  de,  minister  of  war  to 
Louis  XIV.,  born  at  Paris  1641,  died 
1691.  He  effected  quite  a revolution 
in  the  art  of  disciplining,  distributing, 
equipping,  and  provisioning  armies,  and 
his  administration  was  brilliant.  It  was 
partly  by  his  advice  that  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  was  revoked  in  1685,  and  the 
Palatinate  was  devastated  in  1689. 
Louvois’s  organization  of  the  army 
lasted  till  the  Empire;  but  he  also  undid 
the  work  of  Colbert,  and  destroyed  the 
commerce  of  France. 

LOUVRE  (lo'ver),  a dome-turret  ris- 
ing from  the' roof  of  a hall  or  other  apart- 
ment, formerly  open  at  the  sides,  but 
now  generally  glazed.  Louvres  were 


originally  intended  to  allow  the  smoke 
to  escape  when  the  fire  was  kindled  in 
the  middle  of  the  room.  Louvre  window 
is  the  name  given  to  a window  in  a 


Louvre. 


church  tower,  partially  closed  by  slabs 
or  sloping  boards  or  bars  called  louvre 
boards  (corrupted  into  luffer  or  lever 
boards),  which  are  placed  across  to  ex- 
clude the  rain,  while  allowing  the  sound 
of  the  bell  to  pass. 

LOUVRE,  the  old  royal  palace  at. 
Paris,  said  to  have  been  a royal  resi- 
dence in  the  reign  of  Dagobert,  628. 
Francis  I.  erected  that  part  of  the  palace 
which  is  now  called  the  old  Louvre,  and 
the  buildings  have  been  enlarged  and 
adorned  by  successive  kings,  particularly 
Louis  XIV.  The  new  Louvre  begun  by 
Napoleon  I.  was  completed  by  Napoleon 
III.  in  1857.  The  whole  group  of  build- 
ings is  distinguished  by  its  great  extent, 
and  by  its  elegant  and  sumptuous  archi- 
tecture. It  contains  museums  of  paint- 
ings, drawings,  engravings,  bronze  an- 
tiques, sculptures,  ancient  and  modern, 
together  with  special  collections  of  an- 
tiquities, and  an  ethnographical  collec- 
tion. It  was  greatly  injured  by  the  Com- 
munists in  May,  1871,  the  Richelieu 
pavilion,  containing  the  imperial  library 
of  90,000  volumes  and  man3’-  precious 
MSS.,  having  been  entirely  destroyed. 

LOVE-BIRD,  a name  given  to  a genus 
of  the  parrot  family.  They  are  a beauti- 
ful group  consisting  of  very  diminutive 


Love-bird. 


species,  found  in  America,  Africa,  and 
Australia.  They  receive  their  name 
from  the  great  attachment  shown  to 
each  other  by  the  male  and  female  birds. 

LOVEJOY,  Elijah  Parish,  was  born 
in  Maine  in  1802.  He  became  a Presbj'- 
terian  minister,  and  edited  the  St.  Louis 
Observer  and  other  abolitionist  papers. 


Arousea  by  burning  of  a negro  murderer 
he  wrote  an  editorial  that  excited  the  ! 

wrath  of  the  pro-slavery  element.  He  : 

removed  his  press  to  Alton,  111.,  where 
It  was  siezed  by  a mob  and  thrown  into  • 
the  river.  Several  other  presses  which 
he  secured  were  destroyed.  A mob  again 
attacked  his  office  at  midnight  on  No- 
veinber  7,  1837,  and  an  attempt  being 
made  to  set  fire  to  the  building,  Lovejoy 
stepped  out  and  was  shot. 

LOVEJOY,  Owen,  brother  of  the  fore- 
going, was  born  in  Albion,  Me.,  in  1811. 

He  was  pastor  of  a Congregational 
church  in  Illinois;  was  present  when  his 
brother  was  murdered,  and  was  often 
fined  for  holding  anti-slavery  meetings. 

He  served  in  the  Illinois  legislature,  and 
from  1856  until  his  death  sat  in  congress 
as  a republican.  He  died  in  1864. 

LOW,  Seth,  American  educator  and 
administrator,  was  born  in  Brooklyn  in 
1850.  In  1882  he  was  elected  mayor  of 
Brooklyn  on  an  independent  ticket.  ' 
His  administration  was  characterized 
by  his  application  of  the  civil-service 
system  to  city  offices  and  the  impartial  ■' 
maintenance  of  efficient  service  among 
appointees.  In  1884  he  was  elected  to  a 
second  term.  In  1890  he  was  elected  to 
the  presidency  of  Columbia  College.  He  ' 
jnade  to  the  university  a gift  of  $1,000,- 
000,  to  be  used  for  the  erection  of  a * 
library  building  In  1897  he  received  7 
150,000  votes  as  independent  candidate 
for  mayor  of  New  York  City.  He  was  ' 
a member  of  the  .\meriean  delegation  to  -t 
the  Czar’s  Peace  Conference  at  The  ; 
Hague  in  1899,  and  at  various  times  held  S 
other  posts  of  public  trust.  In  1901  he  t 
was  elected  mayor  of  New  York  City.  *' 
He  was  a founder  and  th6  first  president  y 
of  the  Bureau  of  Charities  of  Brooklyn,  - 
and  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences  and  ‘.j 
president  of  the  American  Archseo-  .■ 
logical  Institute.  His  academic  dignities  , ; 
include,  among  others,  the  degree  of 
LL.D.,  conferred  by  the  University  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  Harvard,  and 
Princeton. 

LOVER,  Samuel,  novelist,  poet,  and  1 
musical  composer,  was  born  in  Dublin, 
in  1797,  and  died  in  1868.  Among  his  4 
works  are  Legends  and  Stories  of  Ire-  9 
land  (1832-34);  Rory  O’More,  a novel 
(1837) ; Songs  and  Ballads  (1839) ; Handj"  I 
Andy,  a novel  (1842);  Treasure  Trove,  a f 
novel  (1844).  The  Angels  Whisper,  3 
Molly  Bawn,  and  the  Low-backed  Car  3 
are  among  his  most  popular  songs.  ■» 

LOW  CHURCH,  a name  given  to  a 4 
section  of  the  Church  of  England  whose  1 
opinions  are  opposed  to  those  of  the  a 
High  Church  party,  and  are  especially  f 
hostile  to  ritualism  and  sacerdotalism.  * 
See  High  Church.  j| 

LOW  COUNTRIES.  See  Netherlands.  ■ 

LOWE  (l6).  Sir  Hudson,  lieutenant- ■ 
general  in  the  British  armj’^;  born  atB 
Galway  1769,  died  1844.  On  the  fallfl 
of  Napoleon  he  was  appointed  governor® 
of  St.  Helena,  and  intrusted  with  the® 
care  of  the  ex-emperor.  ® 

LOW'ELL,  a city  in  Massachusetts,  on  « 
the  right  bank  of  the  Merrimac,  25® 
miles  n.n.w.  from  Boston,  neatly  andH 
substantially  built  of  brick,  and  chiefly® 
remarkable  for  being  a leading  seat  of® 
the  cotton  manufacture.  There  are  also® 
extensive  bleacheries,  , large  machine^B 


LOWELL 


LUCKNOW 


shops,  paper  and  chemical  works,  etc. 
Its  machinery  is  largely  driven  by  water- 

Eower  supplied  by  the  Merrimac,  which 
ere  falls  33  feet.  Seven  railways  center 
in  the  place.  Pop.  1909,  about  100,000. 

LOWELL,  James  Russell,  American 
author,  born  in  1819  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts.  In  1855  succeeded  Long- 
fellow as  professor  of  modern  languages 
and  belles-lettres  at  Harvard.  From 
1857  to  1862  he  wrote  many  essays  for 
the  Atlantic  Monthly,  founded  by 
Holmes,  Longfellow,  Emerson,  and  him- 
self, and  of  which  he  was  the  first  editor. 
He  was  joint-editor  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review  from  1863  to  1872.  In  1877 
he  was  appointed  American  minister  at 
Madrid,  and  in  1880  he  was  transferred  to 
London,  whence  he  was  recalled  in  1885. 
He  was  very  popular  in  Britain,  was 
made  D.  C.  L.  of  Oxford,  LL.D.  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  rector  of  St.  Andrews  Uni- 
versity. He  died  in  1891.  Besides  his 
poems,  of  which  numerous  editions  have 
been  published,  and  the  Biglow  Papers, 
his  chief  works  are;  Conversations  on 
some  of  the  Old  Poets ; Among  my  Books ; 


My  Study  Windows;  Democracy,  and 
other  Addresses,  etc.  His  first  wife, 
Maria  White  Lowtll  (1821-1853),  was  a 
poet  of  considerable  merit;  a volume  of 
her  poems  was  privately  printed  after 
her  death. 

LOYO'LA,  Ignatius,  original  name 
Inigo  Lopez  de  Recalde,  the  founder  of 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  at  the 
castle  of  Loyola,  Guipuscoa,  in  1491, 
died  1556.  When  still  a young  man  he 
entered  the  army,  and  during  the  de- 
fense of  Pampeluma  in  1521  against  the 
French  he  was  severely  wounded,  and  a 
long  and  tedious  confinement  was  the 
result.  The  only  books  he  found  to  re- 
lieve its  tedium  were  books  of  devotion 
and  the  lives  of  saints.  This  course  of 
reading  induced  a fit  of  mystical  devo- 
tion in  which  he  renounced  the  world, 
made  a formal  visit  to  the  shrine  of  the 
Virgin  at  Montserrat,  and  vowed  him- 
self her  knight  (1522).  After  his  dedica- 
tion he  made  a pilgrimage  to  Rome  and 
Jersualem,  and  from  1524  to  1527  at- 


tended the  schools  and  universities  of 
Barcelona,  Alcala,  and  Salamanca.  In 
1528  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  went 
through  a seven  years’  course  of  general 
and  theological  training.  Here  in  1534 


Ignatius  Loyola. 


he  formed  the  first  nucleus  of  the  society 
which  afterward  became  so  famous, 
Francois  Xavier,  professor  of  philosophy 
Lainez,  and  others  having  in  conjunction 
with  Loyola  bound  themselves  together 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  the 
church  and  the  conversion  of  infidels. 
Rome  ultimately  became  their  head- 
quarters, when  Loyola  submitted  the 
plans  of  his  new  order  to  Paul  III.,  who 
under  certain  limitations,  confirmed  it 
in  1540.  (See  Jesuits.)  Loyola  continued 
to  reside  in  Rome  and  govern  the  society 
he  had  constituted  till  his  death.  He  was 
beatified  in  1607  by  Paul  V.,  and  can- 
onized in  1622  by  Gregory  XV. 

LOZERE  (lo-zar),  a department  of 
Southern  France,  bounded  by  Haute- 
Loire,  Cantal,  Ard^che,  Gard,  and  Avey- 
ron;  area,  1996  sq.  miles.  The  capital  is 
Mende.  Pop.  128,866. 

LUBECK  (lii'bek),  one  of  the  free 
towns  of  Germany,  and  a constituent  of 
the  German  empire,  stands  on  a low 
ridge  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wackenitz 
with  the  Trave,  38  miles  northeast  of 
Hamburg,  and  12  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Ltibeck,  a bay  of  the  Baltic.  Pop.  of  the 
town,  82,098;  of  the  territory,  96,775. 

LUBLIN,  a town  of  Russian  Poland, 
capital  of  the  government  of  Lublin,  60 
miles  southeast  of  Warsaw.  Pop.  53,137. 
— The  government  has  an  area  of  6499 
sq.  miles;  pop.  931,597. 

LUBRICANT,  any  substance  applied 
to  surfaces  that  work  against  each  other, 
to  diminish  friction.  Lubricants  may  be 
either  solid,  semi-liquid,  or  liquid.  Plum- 
bago, grease,  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  oils,  simple  or  variously  com- 
pounded, are  the  substances  used. 

LUCAN,  George  Charles  Bingham, 
Earl  of,  born  1800,  died  1888.  His  name 
is  conspicuously  associated  with  the 
Balaklava  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 
He  was  lieutenant-general  in  1858;  gen- 
eral in  1865;  and  field-marshal  in  1887. 

LUCCA,  a town  of  Italy,  capital  of  a 
province  of  same  name,  stands  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Serchio,  37  miles  n.n.w. 
Florence.  Pop.  72,971.  The  province  of 
Lucca  is  bound  n.  by  Massa  e Carrara 
and  Modena,  e.  by  Firenze,  s.  by  Pisa,  w. 


by  the  Mediterranean;  area,  577  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  318,610. 

LUCE,  Stephen  Bleecker,  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  1827  in  Alban j', 
N.  Y.  He  entered  the  United  States 
Navy  in  1841,  was  commissioned  lieu- 
tenant in  1855,  and  in  1862  as  lieutenant 
commander  aided  in  the  blockade  of 
South  Carolina  ports,  participating  in 
the  battles  of  Hatteras  Inlet  and  Port 
Royal.  In  1872  he  became  captain,  in 
1881  commodore,  and  in  1885  rear- 
admiral.  From  1884  to  1886  he  was 
president  of  the  United  States  Naval 
War  College,  of  which  he  was  a founder, 
and  in  1889  he  was  retired.  In  1892  he 
represented  the  United  States  as  com- 
missioner-general at  the  Columbian  cele- 
bration held  at  Madrid  to  commemorate 
the  four  hundredth  anni’/ersary  of  the 
discovery  of  America.  He  died  in  1905. 

LUCERNE,  Luzern  (l6-sern,'  lo'tsern), 
a city  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  a canton 
of  the  same  name,  beautifully  situated 
on  the  margin  of  Lake  Lucerne  and  on 
the  Reuss.  The  “Lion  of  Lucerne,”  a 
monument  by  Thorwaldsen  to  the  Swiss 
guards  who  fell  in  Paris  in  1792  while  de- 
fending the  Tuileries,  and  the  glacier- 
garden,  containing  relics  of  the  ice  period 
are  objects  of  interest.  Pop.  29,633. — 
The  canton  is  bounded  by  the  cantons 
of  Aargau,  Zug,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden, 
and  Bern ; area,  587  square  miles.  Pop. 
146,474. 

LUCERNE,  Lake  of,  a Swiss  lake 
bounded  by  the  cantons  of  Uri,  Schw3’z, 
Unterwalden,  and  Lucerne,  and  noted 
for  its  magnificent  scenery  and  histori- 
cal associations. 

LUCIA,  St.,  one  of  the  British  West 
India  Islands,  about  80  miles  northwest 
of  Barbadoes;  area  about  240  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  49,895,  of  whom  about  1000  are 
white. 

LUCIFER,  a name  anciently  given  to 
the  planet  Venus  as  the  morning  star. 
The  term  is  used  figuratively  by  Isaiah 
(xiv.  12)  and  applied  to  the  Babylonian 
king,  but  it  was  mistaken  by  the  com- 
mentators for  a reference  to  Satan. 

LUCIFER-MATCH.  See  Matches. 

LUCKNOW',  a city  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  Oude,  610  miles  w.  n.  w.  of 
Calcutta,  on  both  banks  of  the  Gumti, 
here  crossed  by  four  bridges,  two  *of 
which  were  built  by  native  rulers,  and 
two  by  the  British  since  1856.  Lucknow 
was  one  of  the  chief  scenes  of  the  Sepoy 
mutiny.  At  the  beginning  of  the  mutiny 
the  Residency  was  fortified  by  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence,  and  aft  er  his  death  (4th  July, 
1857)  it  was  closely  besieged  by  the 
rebels  till  relief  was  brought  by  Havelock 
and  Outram.  The  relieving  force  was 
only  a small  one,  however,  and  the 
British  were  again  besieged,  partly  in  the 
Residency,  partly  in  a walled  garden 
called  the  Alambagh.  In  the  middle  of 
October  Sir  Colin  Campbell  gainedposses- 
sion  of  the  place  after  severe  fightings 
but  as  it  seemed  impossible  to  hold  it 
with  the  troops  at  his  disposal  he  left  Sir 
James  Outram  to  defend  the  Alambagh. 
and  removed  the  civilians,  women  and 
children  to  Cawnpore.  At  last,  in  March 
1858,  Sir  Colin  returned  with  a sufficient 
force,  completely  defeated  the  rebels, 
and  permanently  recovered  the  tow 
Population,  264,049. 


LUCRETIA 


LUNGS 


LUCRE'TIA,  in  Roman  legendary  1 
history,  a lady  of  distinguished  virtue 
who  was  outraged  by  Sextus,  son  of 
Tarquinius  Superbus,  king  of  Rome. 
She  stabbed  herself,  and  her  death  was 
the  signal  for  a revolution,  by  which  the 
Tarquins  were  expelled  from  Rome  and 
a republic  formed. 

LUCRETIUS,  Carus,  Titus,  Roman 
philosophic  poet,  born  about  98  b.c., 
died  55  b.c.  He  is  said  to  have  died  by 
his  own  hand,  but  about  his  life  almost 
nothing  is  known.  He  is  admitted  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  of  Roman  poets  for 
descriptive  beauty  and  elevated  senti- 
ment. We  possess  of  his  composition  a 
didactic  poem,  in  six  books,  De  Rerum 
Natura  (On  the  Nature  of  Things),  in 
which  he  exhibits  the  cosmical  princi- 
ples of  the  Epicurean  philosophy. 

LUDLOW,  William,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  at  Islip,  Long  Island,  N. 
Y.,  in  1843.  He  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1864,  and  served  under  General 
Hooker  in  the  Atlanta  campaign  as 
chief  engineer  of  the  Twentieth  Army 
Corps,  Army  of  the  Cumberland.  He 
was  assistant  engineer  to  General  Sher- 
man’s army  during  the  famous  “march 
to  the  sea.”  In  May,  1898,  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Spanish-American  war,  he 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. In  December,  1898,  he  was 
appointed  military  governor  of  Havana, 
On  May  1,  1900,  he  was  relieved,  having 
previously,  however  (in  January),  been 
promoted  to  be  brigadier-general  in  the 
regular  army,  the  first  engineer  since 
the  civil  war  to  receive  a line  brigadier- 
generalship.  He  died  in  1901. 

LUDWIGSHAFEN  (lud'vihs-hii-vn),  a 
town  of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine.  Pop.  61,905. 

LUGGER,  a vessel  having  either  two 
or  three  masts  and  a running  bowsprit, 


Lugger. 

the  masts  carrying  each  one  or  two  lug- 
sails.  There  are  also  two  or  three  jibs. 

LUGO,  a town  of  Northern  Spain, 
capital  of  province  of  same  name.  Pop. 
25,568. — The  province  has  an  area  of 
3788  sq.  miles;  pop.  465,386. 

LUKE,  ST.,  the  evangelist,  author  of 
the  Gospel  which  bears  his  name  and  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  He  was  prob- 
ably born  at  Antioch  in  Syria;  was 
taught  the  science  of  medicine,  but  the 
tradition  that  he  was  also  a painter  is 
doubtful.  The  date  of  his  conversion  is 
uncertain;  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and  also 
one  of  the  two  who  journeyed  to 
Emmaus  with  the  risen  Savior.  He  was 
for  several  years  a companion  of  the 


' 1 

apostle  Paul  in  his  travels,  so  that  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  he  relates  what  he 
himself  had  seen  and  participated  in. 
(See  Acts  of  the  Apostles.)  Luke  is 
apparently  mentioned  three  times  in  the 
New  Testament:  Col.  iv.  14;  2 Tim.  iv. 

1 1 ; Philem.  24.  He  lived  to  an  advanced 
age,  but  whether  he  suffered  martyrdom 
or  died  a natural  death  it  is  impossible 
to  determine.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke 
was  written  probably  about  58-60.  It 
is  addressed  to  a certain  Theophilus, 
and  records  various  facts  connected  with 
the  early  life  of  Jesus  which  were  prob- 
ably furnished  to  the  writer  by  Mary 
herself.  It  is  first  quoted  by  the  church 
writers  Justin  Martyr  and  the  author 
of  the  Clementine  Homilies,  and  at  the 
time  of  Irenaeus  and  Tertullian  the  gos- 
pel in  its  present  form  was  fully  accepted. 
See  Gospel. 

LULLY,  Jean  Baptiste,  musical  com- 
poser, born  at  Florence  1633,  died  at 
Paris,  1687.  In  1672  he  had  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
from  which  time  dates  the  foundation 
of  the  grand  opera.  His  fame  now 
chiefly  rests  on  his  overtures,  a species 
of  composition  of  which  he  is  said  to 
have  been  the  inventor. 

LUMBA'GO,  rheumatism  or  rheu- 
matic pains  affecting  the  lumbar  region, 
and  often  disabling  a person.  See  Rheu- 
matism. 

LUMBER,  the  common  term  in  North 
America  for  timber  sawn  up  for  market, 
including  laths,  deals,  planks,  shingles. 

LUMINIFEROUS  ETHER,  a hypo- 
thetical medium  of  extreme  tenuity  and 
elasticity,  supposed  to  be  diffused 
throughout  all  space,  as  well  as  among 
the  molecules  of  which  solid  bodies  are 
composed,  and  to  be  the  medium  of  the 
transmission  of  light,  heat,  and  other 
forms  of  energy.  From  the  extreme 
facility  with  which  bodies  move  about 
in  this  medium  it  might  be  called  a 
fluid;  but  the  undulations  which  it 
serves  to  propagate  are  not  such  as  can 
be  propagated  by  fluids.  Its  elastic 
properties  are  rather  those  of  a solid; 
and  its  waves  are  analogous  to  the  pulses 
which  travel  along  the  wires  of  a piano 
rather  than  to  the  waves  of  extension 
and  compression  by  which  sound  is 
propagated  through  air.  See  Undulatory 
Theory. 

LUMINOSITY.  See  Flame  and  Phos- 
phorescence. 

LUNA,  the  Latin  name  for  the  moon, 
among  the  Greeks  Selene.  Her  worship 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced  among 
the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Romulus. 

LUNACY.  See  Insanity. 

LUNACY,  in  law.  Lunatics  are  not 
legally  responsible  for  their  acts,  but 
before  the  law,  all  persons  are  con- 
sidered sane  until  the  contrary  is  proved. 
When  the  plea  of  lunacy  is  sustained  the 
person  accused  is  acquitted  of  guilt  and 
kept  in  custody. 

LUNAR  CAUSTIC,  nitrate  of  silver. 
See  Silver. 

LUNAR  THEORY,  the  mathematical 
treatment  of  perturbations  in  the 
moon’s  motion  due  to  the  attraction  of 
the  sun,  the  earth,  and  the  planets. 

LUNAR  YEAR.  See  Year. 

LUNATIC  ASYLUMS,  houses  estab- 
lished for  the  treatment  of  insane  per- 


sons. Some  are  established  bylaw,  others 
by  the  endowments  of  charitable  donors, 
while  others  are  private  establishments. 
Until  near  the  close  of  the  18th  century 
many  lunatics  were  allowed  to  wander 
at  large,  exposed  to  all  the  arbitrary 
cruelty  to  which  their  defenseless  con- 
dition made  them  liable,  while  those 
who  were  confined  in  asylums  were  in  a 
still  worse  case.  Chains,  whipping,  and 
confinement  in  dark  dungeons  were 
among  the  ordinary  discipline  of  these 
establishments.  The  reformation  of  this 
unnatural  system  was  begun  in  France 
by  Philippe  Pinel,  a benevolent  physi- 
cian; and  in  England  a parliamentary 
inquiry  in  1815  into  the  barbarities 
hitherto  practiced  in  lunatic  asylums 
led  to  a slow  but  gradual  improvement. 
Lunatic  asylums,  whether  public  or 
private,  are  now  under  the  control  of 
officers  appointed  under  special  statues, 
and  lunatics  must  be  visited  at  least  once 
a year  by  medical  and  legal  advisers. 
The  general  conduct  of  lunatic  asylums 
is  now  brought  more  into  harmony  with 
humanity  and  common  sense.  Violence 
and  undue  coercion  have  been  generally 
abandoned,  and  persuasion  and  address 
are  relied  on  for  the  control  of  the 
patients.  Religious  services  are  pro- 
vided, and  recreations  of  various  kinds 
are  also  commonly  and  sometimes  freely 
provided. 

LUNGS,  the  sole  breathing  organs  of 
reptiles,  birds,  mammals,  and  in  part  of 
amphibians  (frogs,  newts,  etc.),  the 
latter  forms  breathing  in  early  life  by 
branchiae  or  gills,  and  afterward  partly 
or  entirely  by  lungs.  The  essential  idea 
of  a lung  is  that  of  a sac  communicating 
with  the  atmosphere  by  means  of  a 
tube,  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  through 
which  air  is  admitted  to  the  organ,  and 


Human  lungs,  heart  and  great  vessels. 

A,  Lungs  with  the  anterior  edges  turned 
back  to  show  the  heart  and  bronchi,  b.  Heart, 
c,  Aorta.  D,  Pulmonary  artery,  e.  Ascending  • 
vena  cava.  F,  Trachea,  g g,  Bronchi,  h h, 
Carotid  arteries.  1 1,  Jugular  veins,  jj,  Sub- 
clavian arteries.  K k.  Subclavian  veins.  P p. 
Costal  cartilages.  Q,  Anterior  cardiac  artery.  V 
B,  Right  auricle.  Z 

through  structural  peculiarities  to  its  ® 
intimate  parts,  the  air  serving  to  supply 
oxygen  to  the  blood  and  to  remove  car- 
bonic  acid.  In  the  Mammalia,  including  3 
man,  the  lungs  are  confined  to  and 
freely  suspended  in  the  cavity  of  the  ^ 
thorax  or  chest,  which  is  completely  g 
separated  from  the  abdominal  cavity  by  S 
the  muscular  diaphragm  or  “midriff.”  aH 
In  man  the  lungs  are  made  up  of  honey-  M 
comb-like  cells  which  receive  their  .sup-  ^ 
ply  of  air  through  the  bronchial  tubes. 


LUPULIN 


LUZON 


If  a bronchial  tube  is  traced  it  is  found 
to  lead  into  a passage  which  divides  and 
subdivides,  leading  off  into  air-cells. 
The  walls  of  these  air-cells  consist  of 
thin,  elastic,  connective  tissue,  through 
which  run  small  blood-vessels  in  connec- 
tion with  the  pulmonary  artery  and 
veins.  By  this  ai’rangement  the  blood 
is  brought  into  contact  with,  and  be- 
comes purified  by  means  of  the  air. 
The  impure  blood  enters  at  the  root  of 
the  lung  through  the  pulmonary  artery 
at  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  passes 
out  purified  through  the  pulmonary 
veins  toward  the  left  side  of  the  heart. 
Both  lungs  are  inclosed  in  a delicate 
membrane  called  the  pleura,  which 
forms  a kind  of  double  sac  that  on  one 
side  lines  the  ribs  and  part  of  the  breast- 
bone, and  on  the  other  side  surrounds 
the  lung.  Pleurisy  arises  from  inflam- 
mation of  this  membrane.  The  lungs 
are  situated  one  on  each  side  of  the 
heart,  the  upper  part  of  each  fits  into 
the  upper  corner  of  the  chest,  about  an 
inch  above  the  collar-bone,  while  the 
base  of  each  rests  upon  the  diaphragm. 
The  right  lung  is  shorter  and  broader 
than  the  left,  which  extends  downward 
further  by  the  breadth  of  a rib.  Each 
lung  exhibits  a broad  division  into  an 
upper  and  lower  portion  or  lobe,  the 
division  being  marked  by  a deep  cleft 
which  runs  downward  obliquely  to  the 
front  of  the  organ ; and  in  the  case  of  the 
right  lung  there  is  a further  division  at 
right  angles  to  the  main  .cleft.  Thus  the 
left  lung  has  two,  while  the  right  lung 
has  three  lobes.  These  again  are  divided 
into  lobules  which  measure  from  i to 
inch  in  diameter,  and  consist  of  air-cells, 
blood-vessels,  nerves,  lymphatic  vessels, 
and  the  tissue  by  which  the  lobules 
themselves  are  bound  together.  The 
elasticity  of  the  lungs  by  which  they  ex- 
pand and  expel  the  air  is  due  to  the 
contractile  tissues  found  in  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  air-cells,  this  elasticity  being 
aided  by  a delicate,  elastic,  surface- 
tissue.  (See  Respiration.)  The  lungs  are 
popularly  termed  “lights,”  because  they 
are  the  lightest  organs  in  the  body,  and 
float  when  placed  in  water,  except  when 
they  are  diseased;  a characteristic  this 
which  is  applied  in  medical  jurispru- 
dence as  a test  whether  an  infant  has 
respired  or  not.  Among  the  diseases 
which  affect  this  organ  are  pleurisy, 
pneumonia,  pleuro  - pneumonia,  con- 
sumption, etc.  See  those  terms. 

LU'PULIN,  the  fine  yellow  powder  of 
hops,  which  contains  the  bitter  principle. 
It  consists  of  little  round  glands,  which 
are  found  upon  the  stipules  and  fruit, 
and  is  obtained  by  drying,  heating,  and 
then  sifting  the  hops.  It  is  largely  used 
in  medicine. 

LUPUS,  in  medicine,  a slow  non- 
contagious  tubercular  affection,  occur- 
ing  especially  about  the  face,  and  com- 
monly ending  in  ragged  ulcerations  of 
the  nose,  cheeks,  forehead,  eyelids,  and 
lips. 

LURAY  CAVERN,  a remarkable  cav- 
ern in  the  state  of  Virginia,  near  the 
village  Luray.  It  eontains  many  cham- 
bers, and  is  exceedingly  rich  in  stalactite 
formations. 

LUTE,  a stringed  musical  instrument 
of  the  guitar  kind,  formerly  very  popu- 
lar in  Europe.  It  consists  of  four  parts, 


viz.:  the  table  or  belly  with  a large 
sound-hole  in  the  middle;  the  body, 
ribbed  like  a melon,  having  nine  or  ten 
ribs  or  divisions;  the  neck,  which  has 
nine  or  ten  stops  or  frets  which  divide 
the  strings  into  semitones;  and  the  head 
or  cross,  in  which  are  fitted  the  pegs  or 
screws  for  tuning  the  strings,  of  which 
there  are  five  or  six  pairs,  each  pair 
tuned  in  octaves  or  unisons.  The  strings 
are  struck  by  the  fingers  of  the  right 
hand  and  stopped  on  the  frets  by  those 
of  the  left. 

LUTHER  (lo'ther),  Martin,  the  great 
religious  reformer  of  Germany,  was  born 
at  Eisleben,  November  10, 1483,and  died 
there  on  the  18th  Feb.,  1546.  In  1501 
he  entered  the  University  of  Erfurt ; 
and  in  1505  received  the  degree  of 
ma.ster.  About  this  time  he  discovered 
in  the  library  of  the  university  a Latin 
Bible  and  found,  to  his  no  small  delight, 
that  it  contained  more  than  the  excerpts 
in  common  use.  Contrary  to  the  wishes 
of  his  father  he  entered  the  monastery 
of  the  Augustines  at  Erfurt  in  1505. 
In  1507  he  was  consecrated  priest,  and 
in  1508,  by  the  influence  of  his  patron, 
Staupitz,  who  was  provincial  of  the 
order,  he  was  made  professor  of  phil- 
osophy in  the  new  University  of  Witten- 
berg. In  1510  he  visited  the  court  of 
Pope  Leo  X.  at  Rome  on  business  con- 
nected with  the  order.  Returning  to 
Wittenberg  he  was  made  a Doctor  of 


Theology  in  1512,  and  here  his  profound 
learning  and  powerful  eloquence  drew 
large  audiences.  At  that  time  he  had  no 
controversy  with  the  pope  or  the  church, 
but  the  arrival  in  1517  of  John  Tetzel  in 
Wittenberg  selling  indulgences  for  sins 
roused  the  fiery  energy  of  Luther,  and 
caused  him  to  draw  up  his  famous  pro- 
test in  ninety-five  propositions, which  he 
nailed  to  the  church-door  in  Witten- 
berg. The  result  was  that  the  sale  of 
indulgences  ceased,  Tetzel  fled,  and  a 
great  religious  commotion  spread  rapidly 
through  Germany.  Luther  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  to  explain  his  heretical 
proceedings,  but  refused  to  go;  nor  were 
the  efforts  of  Cardinal  Cajetan  able  to 
effect  a reconciliation  between  him  and 
the  pope.  His  dispute  with  Dr.  Eck  at 
Leipzig  in  1519,  in  which  he  denounced 
indulgences,  and  questioned  the  author- 
ity of  the  pope,  was  followed  in  1520  by 
a bull  of  anathema — a document  which 
Luther  straightway  burned  publicly  in 
Wittenberg.  This  open  defiance  of 
Rome  required  him  to  vindicate  his  con- 
duct, which  he  did  in  a pamphlet  ad- 
dressed to  the  Christian  Nobles  of  Ger- 
many, with  the  result  that  many  of  the 
worthiest  rallied  to  his  aid.  When  sum- 


moned to  appear  before  the  German 
emperor,  Charles  V.,  at  the  Diet  of 
Worms  (1521),  Luther  appeared,  ac- 
knowledged his  writings,  made  an 
eloquent  defense,  but  refused  to  recant. 
When  he  retired  in  triumph  from  Worms 
he  was  met  by  a friendly  troop  of  sol- 
diers belonging  to  Frederick  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  who  conveyed  him  to  the 
castle  of  Wart  burg,  where  he  lay  in  con- 
eealment  for  nearly  a year.  Here  he 
employed  his  time  in  translating  the 
New  Testament  into  German,  but  when 
he  heard  that  disturbances  had  been 
excited  in  Wittenberg  on  the  question 
of  images,  he  could  no  longer  bear  the 
restraint  of  inaction.  Returning  sud- 
denly, and  at  great  danger  to  himself, 
Luther  succeeded  in  quieting  the  people 
by  means  of  a wise  and  patient  modera- 
tion. In  1524  he  laid  aside  his  cowl  as  a 
priest  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  in 
1525  married  Catharina  von  Bora,  one 
of  nine  nuns  who  had  renounced  their 
religious  vows  under  his  teaching.  The 
wisdom  of  this  marriage  was  doubted  by 
his  friends,  but  his  home-life  and  the 
birth  of  six  children,  contributed  greatly 
to  the  happiness  of  the  reformer.  From 
the  year  1521  Luther  had  been  busy 
translating  the  Bible  into  German  with 
the  aid  of  Melanchthon  and  others,  and 
the  great  task  was  completed  in  1534. 
This  important  work,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Protestant  Confession 
made  at  Augsburg  in  1530,  served  to 
establish  the  reformer’s  doctrines  in 
Germany,  and  closed  the  important 
part  of  his  public  life.  The  massive 
character  of  the  German  reformer  lay 
along  simple  lines,  and  found  its  full 
and  direct  expression  in  his  work.  A 
vivid  practice  insight  enabled  him  to 
mark  the  abuses  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  his  fervid  energy  urged  him  to  re- 
form them. 

LUTHERANS, theadherentsof  Luther, 
a term  now  applied  to  one  of  the  great 
sections  into  which  the  Protestant 
Church  is  divided,  the  other  being  known 
as  the  Reformed  or  Calvanists.  The 
doctrinial  system  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
is  contained  in  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
and  other  documents,  including  the  two 
catechisms  of  Luther.  The  fundamental 
doctrine  is  that  we  are  justified  before 
God,  not  through  any  merits  of  our 
own,  but  through  faith  in  His  Son.  In 
the  eucharist  the  belief  of  the  Lutherans 
isknownasconsubstantiation.  Lutheran- 
ism extended  in  the  time  of  its  founder 
over  the  greater  part  of  Germany,  and 
became  also  the  established  religion  of 
Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  The 
membership  of  the  Lutherans  is  esti- 
mated at  45,000,000.  In  America  they 
have  a membership  of  about  1,230,000. 

LUTRA,  a genus  of  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, comprising  the  otters. 

LUXEMBURG,  Grand-duchy  of,  a 
small  independent  state  of  Western 
Europe,  bounded  north  and  east  by 
Rhenish  Prussia,  south  by  France,  and 
west  by  Belgium ; greatest  length,  north 
to  south,  55  miles;  greatest  breadth,  34 
miles;  area,  998  sq.  miles.  Pop.  236,543. 

LUXEMBURG,  the  capital  of  the 
above  grand-duchy,  117  miles  southeast 
of  Brussels.  Pop.  20,928. 

LUZON',  the  largest  of  the  Philippine 
group  of  islands.  Its  greatest  length  is 


LYCEUM 


LYON 


about  540  miles;  its  greatest  breadth 
about  125  miles;  area  estimated  at 
57,500  sq.  miles.  Two  great  mountain 
chains,  the  Sierra  Madre  and  Cordillera 
de  Caravallos,  run  north  and  south, 
and  rise  to  a height  in  some  cases  of  more 
than  7000  feet.  They  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  many  disastrous  eruptions 
have  taken  place.  Rivers  and  lakes  are 
numerous.  Vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and 
the  vast  forests  contain  ebony,  cedar, 
and  other  valuable  trees.  Luzon  also 
produces  abundant  crops  of  rice,  Manila 
hemp,  tobacco,  coffee,  ginger,  and 
pepper.  There  are  few  wild  animals 
except  the  buffalo,  which  is  also  domes- 
ticated; but  oxen,  sheep,  and  swine  are 
reared.  The  population  consists  of  the 
aboriginal  Negritos,  and  of  Malays, 
Chinese,  Spaniards,  etc.,  and  the  whole 
is  estimated  at  about  3,400,000.  The 
capital  is  Manila. 

LYCE'UM,  an,  academy  at  Athens  in 
which  Aristotle  explainedhis  philosophy. 
In  modern  times  the  name  of  lyceum 
has  been  given  to  the  schools  intended  to 
prepare  young  men  for  the  universities. 

LY'COPODS,  the  club-moss  tribe, 
chiefly  inhabiting  boggy  heaths,  moors, 
and  woods.  They  are  intermediate  in 
their  general  appearance  between  the 
mosses  and  the  ferns,  and  are  in  some 
respects  allied  to  the  Coniferae.  The 
lycopods  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
but  grow  most  luxuriantly  in  tropical  or 
mild  climates.  In  the  carboniferous  era 
they  attained  a very  large  size,  rivalling 
trees  in  their  height  and  the  thickness 
of  their  stems. 


Lycopodium  Selago.  a.  Leaf;  6,  Sporangium 

in  the  axii  of  bract;  c,  Spores— magnified. 

LYCUR'GUS,  the  great  legislator  of 
the  Lacedaemonians,  was  the  son  of 
Eunomus,  king  of  Sparta.  His  history 
commences  with  the  year  898  b.c.,  when 
he  might  have  usurped  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  his  brother,  but  preferring 
to  guard  the  kingdom  for  the  unborn 
child  of  the  latter,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  legislation.  On  his 
nephew  becoming  of  age,  Lycurgus 
traveled  into  Crete,  Egypt,  and  Asia, 
and  thus  prepared  himself  to  give 
Sparta  the  laws  which  have  rendered 
his  name  immortal.  His  object  was  to 
regulate  the  manners  as  well  as  the 
government,  and  to  form  a warrior 
nation,  in  which  no  private  interest 
should  prevail  over  the  public  good. 
It  is  said  that  Lycurgus  persuaded  tlie 
Spartans  to  swear  that  they  would 
observe  these  laws  till  his  return  from 
another,  journey,  and  that  he  then  de- 
parted, and  they  never  heard  of  him 
more.  One  account  states  that  he 
starved  himself  to  death,  but  it  is  more 
probable  that  he  retired  to  private  life, 
and  died  naturally,  as  Lucian  records, 
at  the  age  of  eighty-five. 

LYDDITE,  a high  explosive,  receiving 


its  name  from  Lydd  in  Wales,  the  place 
of  its  first  manufacture.  It  is  used  as  a 
bursting  charge  for  shells,  its  reputed 
destructive  power  being  due  to  the 
shock  of  air-concussion,  rather  than  to 
the  fragments  produced  by  the  rupture 
of  the  shell.  It  is  supposed  to  kill  by 
shock,  or  suffocate  by  its  fumes,  every 
living  thing  witRin  a radius  of  twenty- 
five  yards  of  the  bursting-point.  It  is  a 
very  stable  compound  under  changes  of 
temperature,  and  is  said  to  be  fully  as 
effective  against  masonry  as  black 
powder,  and  twice  as  effective  against 
sand  or  earth.  It  was  extensively  used 
against  the  Boers  in  the  war  of  1899- 
1902,  but,  owing  to  the  character  and 
conformation  of  the.  positions  usually 
selected  by  the  Boers,  it  did  not  prove 
very  destructive. 

LYE,  water  impregnated  with  alka- 
line salt  imbibed  from  the  ashes  of  wood, 
or  any  solution  of  an  alkali  used  for 
cleaning  purposes,  as  for  types  after 
printing,  ink-rollers,  etc. 


sir  Charles  Lyell. 


LY'ELL,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  geologist, 
born  at  Kinnordy,  Forfarshire,  1797, 
died  in  London  1875.  His  first  important 
work  was  the  Principles  of  Geology 
(1830-33),  and  a portion  of  this  book 
afterward  formed  the  basis  of  the 
Elements  of  Geology.  Another  import- 
ant work  was  the  Antiquity  of  Man 
(1863),  in  which  he  summarized  the 
evidence  in  favor  of  the  theory  that 
the  race  of  man  was  much  older  than 
was  currently  believed.  Lyell  was 
knighted  in  1848,  and  made  a baronet 
in  1864.  His  Life  and  Letters  were  pub- 
lished in  1881. 

LYMPH,  in  physiology,  the  fluid 
resulting  primarily  from  the  assimilation 
of  food,  and  also  obtained  from  the 
blood  and  tissues,  and  which  is  con- 
tained within  a system  of  vessels  called 
lymphatics  and  lacteals.  The  clearest 
and  simplest  view  of  the  lymphatic 
system  is  to  consider  these  vessels  as  the 
media  through  which  matters  are 
absorbed  from  the  alimentary  canal  on 
the  one  hand,  and  from  the  blood  and 
tissues  on  the  other.  The  matters  so 
absorbed  are  elaborated  and  converted 
in  the  lymphatic  glands  into  lymph,  a 
fluid  which  presents  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  more  highly  elaborated 
blood,  and  which  is  ultimately  poured 
into  the  blood  mainly  through  the 
thoracic  duct.  Through  this  system  the 
continual  loss  which  the  blood  and  body 
suffer  is  made  good.  The  lymph  as  it 


exists  in  the  lymphatic  vessels  is  a color- 
less, transparent  fluid,  destitute  of 
smell.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  highly 
important  structures,  for  it  is  only  after 
passing  through  them  that  the  lymph 
is  fully  elaborated  and  ready  to  enter 
the  blood.  Their  average  size  is  that  of 
a small  almond,  and  they  are  generally 
arranged  in  groups.  As  distinguished 
from  the  lymphatics  the  lacteals  are  the 
vessels  by  which  the  chyle  is  absorbed 
from  the  small  intestine  and  elaborated 
in  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the  mesentery 
to  be  afterward  poured  into  the  thoracic 
duct.  This  duct  pours  its  contents  into 
a large  vein  at  the  root  of  the  neck. 
Lymphatic  vessels  and  glands  are  num- 
erous throughout  the  body. 

LYNCHBURG,  a town  in  Campbell 
CO.,  Virginia,  on  James’  river,  120  miles 
west  by  south  of  Richmond.  It  contains 
iron  and  brass  foundries,  a large  cotton 
factory,  several  flour  mills,  and  exten- 
sive tobacco  manufactories.  Pop.  22,160 

LYNCH-LAW,  the  practice  of  pun- 
ishing men  for  crimes  or  offenses  by 
private  unauthorized  persons  without  a 
legal  trial.  The  origin  of  the  phrase, 
used  chiefly  in  the  United  States  has 
been  variously  accounted  for,  but  it  is 
evidently  derived  from  some  person 
named  Lynch,  who  adopted  a rough  and 
ready  mode  of  punishing  offenders. 

LYNN,  a town  in  Essex  co.,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  north  side  of  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  about  10  miles  northeast 
from  Boston.  The  town  has  some  fine 
public  buildings,  including  the  city-hall, 
music-hall.  Oddfellows’  hall,  etc.  Its 
chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes,  of  which  upward  of 
15,000,000  pairs  are  stated  to  be  an- 
nually made.  Pop.  1909,  about  88,000. 

LYNX,  the  popular  name  of  several 
species  of  feline  carnivora,  resembling 
the  common  cat,  but  with  ears  longer 
and  tufted  with  a pencil  of  hair,  and  tail 
shorter.  The  lynxes  have  been  long 


Lynx. 


famed  for  their  sharp  sight,  which 
character  they  probably  owe  to  their 
habit  of  prowling  about  at  night  and 
their  brilliant  eyes. 

LYON,  Mary,  American  Educator 
through  whose  influence  the  movement 
for  the  higher  education  of  women  was 
begun,  was  born  in  Buckland,  Mass., 
February,  in  1797.  From  1824  until 
1834  she  taught  successively  at  London- 
derry and  Ipswich,  Mass.  In  November, 
1837,  she  founded  Mount  Holyoke  Fe- 
male Seminary,  at  South  Hadley,  Mass., 
and  from  that  time  until  her  death  was 
its  principal.  Miss  Lyon  taught  more 
than  3,000  pupils,  many  of  whom  be- 
came missionaries.  In  1840  she  pub- 
lished a pamphlet  entitled  Tendencies 
of  the  Principles  embraced  and  the  Sys- 
tems adopted  in  the  Mount  Holyoke 


LVON 


LYTTON 


Seminar}’,  and  also  The  Missionary  Offer- 
ing. She  died  in  ISlfl. 

LYON,  Nathaniel,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Ashford,  Conn.,  in  1818. 
In  the  Mexican  war  he  was  present  at 
the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  brevetted 
captain ; at  the  assault  on  the  Mexican 
capital  he  was  wounded.  At  the  close  of 
that  war  he  was  ordered  to  California, 
where  in  1851  he  was  promoted  captain. 
Returning  to  the  east  in  1853,  he  sym- 
pathized with  the  Free  State  party,  lie 
was  on  duty  in  Kansas  in  1859,  and  with 
Gen.  William  S.  Harney  in  December, 

1860,  when  the  governor  sent  a brigade 
of  militia  to  cooperate  with  the  national 
troops  in  arresting  .lames  Montgomery, 
the  Free  State  leader.  In  February  he 
was  ordered  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.  There  he 
began  to  drill  and  organize  the  home- 
guards,  and  had  charge  of  the  arsenal, 
where  his  ability  and  vigilance  did  mucli 
for  the  Union  cause.  The  home-guards 
were  nearly  all  German  recruits,  as  the 
native  population  and  the  Irishmen 
were  mostly  secessionists.  On  June  10, 

1861,  at  the  head  of  a body  of  these 


is  built  partly  on  a peninsula  between  the 
Saone  and  the  Rhone,  and  partly  on  the 
opposite  banks  of  the  rivers  on  either 
side.  The  rivers  are  crossed  by  about  a 
score  of  bridges,  and  the  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  a number  of  detached 
forts. 

Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  ca- 
thedral, mostly  of  the  13th  century;  the 
cfeurch  of  St.  Martin  d’.Ainay,  with  a 
cupola  supported  by  ancient  Roman 
columns  and  a crypt  believed  to  be  of  the 
9th  century;  the  church  of  St.  Nizier,  a 
fine  example  of  flamboyant  Gothic;  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  Palais  de  Justice,  etc.  In 
the  archiepiscopal  palace,  situated  near 
tlie  cathedral,  1000  Protestants  were 
butchered  in  1572  as  a sequel  to  St. 
Bartholomew.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  finest  edifices  of  the 
kind  in  France.  The  public  library 
has  180,000  volumes.  Lyons  carries  on 
various  industries,  but  its  chief  glory  is 
that  of  being  the  greatest  center  of  the 
silk  manufacture  in  the  world,  giving 
employment  in  the  town  or  surrounding 
neighborhood  to  240,000  people.  During 


General  view  of  Lyoii.s. 


German  troops,  he  took  possession  of  j 
Camp  Jackson,  a secessionist  rendez- 
vous. A weekTater  he  was  promoted  to 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  and  I 
soon  afterward  was  placed  in  com- ! 
mand  of  the  department.  He  next  ] 
dispersed  the  Confederate  force  at  j 
Polosi,  and  on  June  17th  defeated  aj 
body  of  Governor  Jackson’s  State  militia. 
On  August  2d  he  defeated  General  | 
McCulloch  at  Dry  Springs,  and  eight 
days  later  attacked  a formidable  force  ! 
under  Generals  McCulloch  and  Price  at 
Wilson’s  Creek,  when  he  was  defeated.  | 
Here,  in  the  ardor  of  action,  he  was  twice  | 
wounde'l;  nevertheless,  keeping  his 
saddle,  ne  led  his  men  to  renewed  at- 
tacks, until  his  hor.se  was  killed  and  him- 
self shot  in  the  breast  by  a rninie  rifle- 
oall.  His  death  was  deeply  lamented  j 
throughout  the  Union.  I 

LY'ONS,  the  second  city  in  France,  i 
'apiial  of  the  department  of  the  Rhone,  [ 
240  miles  .■s.s.e.  of  Paris,  and  170  miles 
north  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  town  I 


the  revolut  ion  the  city  suffered  severely 
by  the  paralysis  of  its  industry,  and  by 
the  murderous  excesses  of  the  emissaries 
of  the  Paris  convention,  whom  the  citi- 
zens had  defied,  the  chief  buildings  being 
destroyed  and  many  of  the  inhabitants 
butchered.  Pop.  453.155. 

LYRE, one  of  the  most  ancient  stringed 
instruments  of  music,  consisting  of  a 
body  with  two  horn-like  pieces  rising 
from  it,  and  a cross  piece  between  the 
horns,  from  which  to  the  lower  part  the 
strings  were  stretched.  It  was  used  by 
the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Greeks. 
It  is  said  to  have  had  originally  only 
three  strings,  but  the  number  was  after- 
ward increased  to  seven,  then  to  eleven, 
and  finally  to  sixteen.  It  was  played 
with  the  plectrum  or  lyre-stick  of  ivory 
or  polished  wood,  also  with  the  fingers, 
and  was  used  chiefly  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  the  voice.  The  body  of  the  lyre 
was  hollow,  to  increase  the  sound.  A 
musical  instrument  of  similar  construc- 
tion is  still  to  be  met  with  in  the  hands  of 


the  shepherds  of  Greece  and  among  cer- 
tain tribes  of  Africa. 


Various  forms  of  Egyptian,  Assyrian  and 
Greek  lyres. 

LYRE-BIRD,  an  insessorial  bird  of 
New  South  Wales,  somewhat  smaller 
than  a pheasant.  The  tail  of  the  male  is 
remarkable  for  the  three  sorts  of  feathers 
that  compose  it,  which  by  their  shape 
and  arrangement  resemble  the  form  of 
an  ancient  Greek  lyre.  It  has  a pleasing 
song,  and  is  said  to  be  capable  of  imita- 
ting the  voices  of  other  birds. 

Lyric  poetry,  originally,  poetry 
sung  to  or  suited  for  the  lyre;  in  modern 
usage,  that  class  of  poetry  in  which  are 
expressed  the  poet’s  own  thoughts  and 
feelings,  or  the  emotions  attributed  to 
another,  as  opposed  to  epic  or  dramatic 
poetry,  to  which  action  is  essential. 

LYSAN'DER,  an  ancient  Greek  gen- 
eral who  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Spartan  fleet  off  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor  in  407  b.c.,  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war.  In  405  b.  c.  he  defeated  and 
captured  the  Athenian  fleet  off  HUgospo- 
tamos,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  war. 
He  was  killed  in  abattlewiththeThebans 
305  B.  c. 

LYTLE  (lit’l),  William  Haines,  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  poet,  was  born  in  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  in  1826.  He  volunteered 
for  the  Mexican  War,  was  chosen  cap- 
tain of  the  Second  Ohio  Regiment,  and 
soon  after  the  war  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature.  Before  the  civil  war  he 
had  become  major-general  in  the  state 
militia,  and  in  1861  was  commissioned 
colonel  of  the  tenth  Ohio.  He  was  killed 
leading  a charge  of  his  brigade  at  Chicka- 
mauga,  Ga.,  in  1863.  Lytle  is  also  well 
remembered  as  a poet  through  his 
effective  Address  of  Antony  to  Cleo- 
patra, beginning  “I  am  dying,  Egypt, 
dying.” 

LYTTON,  Edward  George  Earle  Lyt- 
ton  Bulwer-Lytton,  Baron,  was  born  in 
1805,  died  1873.  He  published  poetry 
at  an  early  age,  but  first  gained  reputa- 
tion by  the  novels  Pelham  and  the  Dis- 
owned (1828),  Devereux  (1829),  and 
Paul  Clifford  (1830).  These  were  followed 
up  with  the  popular  romances  of  Eugene 
.\ram,  the  Pilgrims  of  the  Rhine,  The 
Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Rienzi,  and 
Ernest  Mall  ravers  with  its  seciuel  Alice. 
In  connection  with  Macready’s  manage- 
ment at  Covent  Garden  Bulwer-Lytton 
produced  his  Duchess  de  la  Valliere, 
which  proved  a failure,  but  this  was  re- 
trieved by  the  instant  success  of  the 
Lady  of  Lyons,  Richelieu,  and  Money. 
When  he  had  thus  shown  his  quick 
adaptability  of  talent  he  returned  to 


LYl'ToN 


Macbeth 


novel-writing,  and  published  in  steady 
succession — -Night  and  Morning,  Zanoni, 
The  Last  of  the  Barons,  Lucretia,  Harold, 
The  Caxtons,  My  Novel,  and  What  will 
He  Do  with  It?  He  entered  parliament 
for  St.  Ives  in  1831,  and  supported  the 
reform  bill  as  a Wig;  he  changed  his 
opinions  and  latterly  supported  the  con- 
servatives. Under  Lord  Derby’s  minis- 
try he  was  colonial  secretary,  and  in  1866 
entered  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron 
Lytton.  He  was  elected  rector  of  Glas- 
gow University  in  1856.  His  later 
literary  works  were  The  Coming  Race, 
published  anonymouly  (1871),  The  Pari- 


sians (187‘2),  and  Keneim  Chillingly 
(1873).  Among  his  poetic  works  were 
the  epic  King  Arthur;  the  Lost  Tales  of 
Miletus;  Brutus,  a drama,  etc. 

LYTTON,  The  Right  Hon.  Edward 
Robert  Bulwer-Lytton,  Earl  of,  G.  C.  B., 
son  of  the  novelist  and  politician,  was 
born  in  1831 ; educated  at  Harrow  and 
Bonn;  entered  the  diplomatic  service  in 
1849  as  attach^  at  Washington,  and  suc- 
cessively served  in  the  embassies  of 
Florence,  Paris,  the  Hague,  Copenhagen, 
Athens,  Madrid,  Vienna,  Paris,  and 
Lisbon.  He  was  appointed  Viceroy  of 


India  by  Lord  Beasonsfield  in  1876,  and  ■ 
during  his  administration  the  queen  was  M 
proclaimed  Empress  of  India,  and  war  S 
was  waged  with  Afghanistan.  In  1880  * 

he  resigned  and  was  created  an  earl.  He  * 
early  attained  reputation  as  a poet  under  3 
the  pen  name  of  “Owen  Meredith”;  and  :J 
wrote  Clymnestra  and  other  Poems,  ' 
Lucile,  Tannhauser,  or  the  Battle  of  the 
Bards,  Fables  in  Song,  King  Poppy,  ; 
Glenaveril,  besides  prose  works.  He  also  > 
published  the  life  and  letters  of  his 
father.  He  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Paris  in  1888,  and  died  there  in  1891. 


M 


M is  the  thirteenth  letter  and  tenth 
consonant  of  the  English  alphabet.  It 
represents  a labial  and  nasal  articulation 
the  compression  of  the  lips  being  accom- 
panied with  the  fall  of  the  uvula  so  as  to 
allow  the  voice  to  form  a humming  sound 
through  the  nose,  which  constitutes  the 
difference  between  this  letter  and  b. 

MAARTENS  (mar'tfinsL  Maarten,  a 
novelist  of  Dutch  birth  and  English 
training,  whose  real  name  is  J.  M.  M. 
van  der  Poorten-Schwartz,  was  born 
in  1858.  His  first  novel.  The  Sin  of 
Joost  Avelingh,  was  clever  and  success- 
ful both  with  critics  and  the  public.  An 
Old  Maid’s  Love,  A Question  of  Taste, 
God’s  Fool,  are  other  works  of  merit. 
The  Greater  Glory  was  first  to  gain  for 
Maartens  that  general  recognition  that 
has  been  accorded  also  to  My  Lady  No- 
body and  to  his  later  novels. 

MAB,  a mythical  personage  often  re- 
presented as  queen  of  the  fairies. 

MACAD'AM,  John  Loudon,  the  great 
improver  of  roads,  was  born  at  Ayr, 
probably  in  1756,  and  died  in  1836. 
Having  spent  his  early  years  in  the 
United  States  he  returned  to  Great 
Britain  and  was  appointed  agent  for 
victualling  thenavy  in  thewestern  ports. 
In  1815  he  was  appointed  surveyor  of 
the  Bristol  roads,  and  thus  received  the 
opportunity  to  put  his  road-making  im- 
provements into  practice.  He  was  so 
successful  in  this  that  the  House  of 
Commons  presented  him  with  a sum  of 
$10,000,  and  his  mode  of  road-making  is 
still  known  as  Macadamization.  This 
method  consists  in  covering  the  road- 
way or  forming  the  road-crust  with 
small  broken  stones  to  a considerable 
depth,  and  consolidating  them  by  heavy 
rollers,  so  as  to  form  a hard,  firm,  and 
smooth  surface. 

MACARO'NI,  Maccaroni,  preparation 
of  wheaten  flour,  used  as  food,  usually 
simply  boiled  and  served  up  with  grated 
cheese,  or  in  soups,  etc.  Macaroni  is 
generally  made  in  tubular  pieces  resem- 
bling a long  pipe-stalk  by  pressing  it 
through  holes  in  a metal  plate.  Vermi- 
celli is  a similar  preparation,  but  is  more 
thread-like.  Macaroni  is  a wholesome 
food,  made  best  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Naples,  and  considered  a national  dish  of 
the  Italians. — Macaroni  was  used  as  a 
popular  term  for  a coxcomb  or  dandy 
about  1770-1775. 

MACAR'THUR,  Arthur,  American 
soldier  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1845.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of 


Perryville,  Stone  River,  and  Chatta- 
nooga, and  in  the  Atlanta  campaign.  In 
February,  1866,  he  entered  the  regular 
army  as  first  lieutenant,  and  in  July, 
1889,  he  became  assistant  adjutant- 
general,  with  the  rank  of  major.  He  was 
appointed  brigadier-general  of  volun- 
teers in  May,  1898,  and  major-general  of 
volunteers  in  August  of  the  same  year, 
and  in  1898-99  was  engaged  on  special 
duty  in  Havana,  Cuba.  In  1899  he  was 
sent  tothe  Philippine  Islands,  and  in  1900 
succeeded  General  Otis  as  commander 
of  the  Division  of  the  Philippines  and 
military  governor  of  the  islands.  In 
January,  1900,  he  was  promoted  to  be  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army, 
and  in  February,  1901,  to  be  major- 
general.  Upon  his  return  to  the  United 
States  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Lakes,  whence  he 
was  transferred  to  the  Department  of 
California. 

MACAU'LAY,  Thomas  Babington, 
Lord,  historian,  essayist,  and  politician, 
was  born  1800  at  Rothley  Temple, 
Leicestershire,  and  died  at  Kensington 
1859.  In  1818  he  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  obtained  the  Chan- 
cellor’s medal  for  a poem  on  Pompeii, 
and  a second  time  for  a poem  on  Even- 
ing; received  a fellowship,  and  took  his 
M.  A.  degree  in  1825.  Before  this  he  be- 
gan to  contribute  to  Knight’s  Quarterly 
Magazine,  in  which  appeared  his  poems 
of  the  Armada,  Ivry,  and  the  Battle  of 
the  League ; and  in  1 825  he  inaugurated 


Lord  Macaulay. 


his  brilliant  career  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review  by  his  article  on  Milton.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln’s  Inn  in  1826. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1830  as  mem- 


ber for  Caine,  and  made  his  first  speech 
in  support  of  freedom  for  the  Jews  in  f 
England.  During  his  political  career 
Macaulay  had  continued  his  literary  - 
labors.  In  1842  he  published  his  Lays  of 
Ancient  Rome;  and  in  1848  appeared 
the  first  two  of  the  five  volumes  of  his 
History  of  England,  which  covers  the 
period  between  the  accession  of  James 
II.  and  the  death  of  William  III  This 
brilliant  rhetorical  exposition,  although 
touched  with  partisanship  and  with  a 
tendency  to  paradox,  has  attained  the 
position  of  an  English  classic.  He  was 
created  a peer  in  1857,  and  at  his  death 
he  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  Life  and  Letters  of  Macaulay  has 
been  published  by  his  nephew.  Sir  Geo. 
Otto  Trevelyan. 

MACAW',  a genus  of  beautiful  birds 
of  the  parrot  tribe.  The  macaws  are 
magnificent  birds,  distinguished  by 


having  their  cheeks  destitute  of  feathers, 
and  their  tail-feathers  long.  They  are 
all  natives  of  the  tropical  regions  of 
South  America.  The  largest  and  most 
splendid  in  regard  to  color  is  the  great 
scarlet  or  red  and  blue  macaw.  The  great 
green  macaw  and  the  blue-and-yellow 
macaw  are  somewhat  smaller. 

MACAW-TREE,  the  name  given  to 
several  species  of  trees  of  the  genus 
Acrocomia,  natives  of  tropical  America,  >■ 
the  fruit  of  one  species  yields  an  oil  of  a 
yellowish  color  of  the  consistence  of  but- 
ter,  with  a sweetish  taste  and  an  odor  of  > 
violets,  used  by  the  natives  of  the  West  ? 
Indies  as  an  emollient  in  painful  affec- 
tions of  the  joints. 

MACBETH,'  MACBEDA,  or  MAC- 
BETHAD,  son  of  Finnelaech,  a king  of 
Scotland  who  reigned  from  1040  to  1057. 
During  the  reign  of  Duncan  he  was 


MACCABEES 


M’CULLOCa 


“morrhaer”  of  Moray  by  inheritatlce, 
and  by  his  marriage  with  Gruoch,  grand- 
daughter of  Kenneth  IV.  This  Duncan, 
in  his  attempt  to  subdue  the  independ- 
ent chiefs  of  the  north,  was  slain  by 
Macbeth  at  “Bothgowan,”  which  is 
supposed  to  be  near  Elgin.  By  this 
means  Macbeth  became  king,  and,  ac- 
cording to  all  accounts,  his  reign  was 
fairly  successful.  In  1050  he  is  said  to 
have  gone  on  a pilgrimage  to  Rome. 
At  the  death  of  their  father  the  sons  of 
Duncan  had  taken  refuge  with  their 
uncle  Siward,  earl  of  Northumberland, 
and  with  his  aid  they  invaded  Scotland 
in  1054;  a battle  was  fought  at  Dunsi- 
nane,  but  it  was  not  until  1057  that 
Macbeth  was  finally  defeated  and  slain 
at  Lumphanan  in  Aberdeen.  The 
legends  which  gradually  gathered  round 
the  name  of  Macbeth  were  collected  by 
John  of  Fordun  and  Hector  Boece, 
and  reproduced  by  Holinshed  in  his 
Chronicle,  and  there  found,  as  is  sup- 
posed, by  Shakespeare,  who  has  made 
such  splendid  use  of  them. 

MACCABEES,  Books  of,  treat  of  the 
Jewish  history  under  the  Maccabean 
princes;  they  are  five  in  number,  the 
first  two  of  which  are  included  in  the 
English  Apocrypha,  and  are  accounted 
canonical  by  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches. 

M’CARTHY,  Justin,  M.  P.,  novelist, 
historian,  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Cork  in  1830.  His  novels  are  numerous, 
and  his  historical  writings  include  A 
History  of  Our  Own  Times,  History  of 
the  Four  Georges,  etc.  He  was  a Home 
Rule  representative  for  Longford  from 
1879  till  1900.  He  died  in  1904.  His 
son,  Justin  Huntley  McCarthy  (born 
1859),  has  also  been  an  M.  P.  of  the 
same  party,  and  is  favorably  known  in 
literature  as  the  author  of  If  I Were  King. 

MACCLELLAN,  George  Brinton,  an 
American  general,  born  at  Philadelphia 
1826,  died  1885.  He  was  trained  at  the 
West  Point  Military  School;  served  in 
the  Mexican  war;  joined  the  Red  river 
expedition  as  engineer;  and  in  1855  was 


George  B.  MacClellan. 


appointed  to  the  commission  which 
reported  on  the  condition  of  European 
armies,  and  watched  the  military  opera- 
tions during  the  Crimean  war.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  civil  war  in  the  states  he 
superseded  McDowell  after  the  first 
battle  of  Bull’s  Run;  and  became  com- 
P.  E.— 49 


mander-in-chief  on  the  1st  November, 
1861.  In  this  capacity  he  organized  the 
raw  levies  of  the  North  and  advanced 
against  Richmond  the  following  spring, 
but  was  relieved  from  his  supreme  com- 
mand by  President  Lincoln  in  1862,  and 
thenceforth  led  the  army  of  the  Potomac 
in  a series  of  engagements  which  term- 
inated in  the  Seven  Days’  Battle, 
when  he  had  to  retire  from  his  lines  in 
front  of  Richmond.  Afterward,  when 
Lee  advanced  into  Maryland,  Mac- 
Clellan fought  the  battles  of  South 
Mountain  and  Antietam  (September 
14-17,  1862),  and  compelled  the  con- 
federate forces  to  retire.  The  political 
authorities  being  dissatisfied  with  his 
apparent  slackness  in  following  up  this 
victory,  MacClellan  was  relieved  from 
his  command  and  retired  from  the  army. 
In  1864  he  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency,  but  was  overwhelmingly 
defeated  by  Abraham  Lincoln. 

M’CLERNAND,  John  Alexander, 
American  soldier,  was  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1812.  He  removed  to  Illinois,  and 
practiced  law,  and  for  some  years  edited 
a newspaper  at  Shawneetown.  In  1836- 
40  and  in  1812  he  served  in  the  state 
legislature,  and  from  1843  to  1851  sat  in 
congresss  as  a democrat.  In  1859  he  was 
reelected  to  congress,  but  resigned  at  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  war  to  raise  a 
brigade  of  which  he  was  given  command. 
He  commanded  the  right  of  the  line  at 
Fort  Donelson,  led  a division  at  Shiloh, 
and  was  at  Champion  Hill,  Vicksburg, 
and  other  battles.  Afterward  he  com- 
manded the  thirteenth  army  corps  until 
relieved  in  July,  1863,  and  in  Novem- 
ber, 1864,  he  resigned  from  the  army. 
He  died  in  1900. 

MACCLINTOCK,  Vice-Admiral  Sir 
Francis  Leopold,  K.  C.  B.,  born  at  Dun- 
dalk 1819;  entered  the  navy  in  1831; 
became  a lieutenant  in  1845;  and  in 
1848  joined  the  expedition  sent  out  by 
the  British  government  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin,  the  Arctic  explorer.  In 
1850,  and  again  in  1852,  he  went  out 
with  other  Arctic  expeditions,  and  on 
the  latter  occasion  was  instrumental  in 
rescuing  MacClure  and  his  companions. 
MacClintock  set  forth  again  in  1857  as 
commander  of  the  Fox,  a vessel  equipped 
by  Lady  Franklin,  and  discovered 
documentary  and  other  evidence  of  the 
death  of  Franklin.  For  these  services 
the  explorer  was  knighted  in  1860.  He 
died  in  1887. 

MACCLURE, Vice-Admiral  Sir  Robert 
John  Le  Mesurier,  C.  B.,  born  in  1807, 
died  in  1873.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1824;  joined  an  Arctic  expedition  in 
1836;  accompanied  Sir  John  Ross  into 
the  same  region  in  1848;  and  himself 
took  command  of  an  Arctic  expedition 
in  1850.  He  penetrated  as  far  north  as 
Melville  Sound,  and  there  discovered  a 
passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
which  he  named  Prince  of  Wales  Strait. 

M’CLURE  (ma-kloor'),  Alexander 
Kelly,  American  journalist,  was  born  in 
Sherman  Valley,  Perry  co..  Pa.,  in  1828. 
He  was  state  superintendent  of  printing 
in  1855,  a member  of  the  state  conven- 
tion of  1855,  which  met  at  Pittsburg  to 
organize  the  republican  party.  As  a 
leader  of  the  Pennsylvania  delegation  in 
the  republican  national  convention  of 
1860  he  aided  in  the  nomination  of 


Abraham  Lincoln.  In  1875  he  estab- 
lished the  Philadelphia  Times  of  which 
he  was  editor  in  chief  till  1891.  He  has 
published  Three  Thousand  Miles  Through 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  Our  'Presidents 
and  How  We  Make  Them.  Recollec- 
tions of  Half  a Century. 

M’CLURE,  Samuel  Sidney,  American 
editor  and  publisher,  was  born  in 
County  Antrim,  Ireland,  in  1857.  In 
1884  he  established  a newspaper  syndi- 
cate which  has  grown  to  great  propor- 
tions. In  1893  he  founded  McClure’s 
Magazine  and  in  1899  the  publishing 
house  of  McClure,  Phillips  & Company, 
New  York.  He  is  the  president  also  of 
the  S.  S.  McClure  Company  of  the  same 
city. 

M’COOK,  Alexander  McD.,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Ohio  in  1831.  He 
served  against  the  Apaches,  and  from 
1858  to  1861  was  instructor  of  infantry 
tactics  at  West  Point.  He  commanded  a 
regiment  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
and  a division  of  the  army  of  the  Ohio  in 
the  Tennessee  and  Mississippi  cam- 
paigns. He  was  brevetted  colonel  for 
services  at  Shiloh,  and  finally  brigadier- 
general  and  major-general  United  States 
army  for  gallant  and  meritorious  services 
at  Perrysville  and  elsewhere.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general in  the  regular  army  for 
“gallant  and  meritorious  services  at  the 
battle  of  Perryville’’  and  major-general 
for  “gallant  and  meritorious  services  in 
the  field  during  the  rebellion,’’  and  in 
March,  1867,  reentered  the  regular  serv- 
ice as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  became 
a brigadier-general  in  1890  and  a major- 
general  in  1894,  was  retired  from 
service  in  1895,  represented  the  United 
States  at  the  coronation  of  the  Czar  in 
May,  1896,  and  from  September,  1898, 
to  February,  1899,  served  on  a com- 
mission appointed  by  President  Mc- 
Kinley to  investigate  the  administration 
of  the  war  department  during  the  Span- 
ish-American  war.  He  died  in  1903. 

M’CORMICK,  Cyrus  Hall,  American 
inventor  and  manufacturer,  was  born 
in  Virginia  in  1809.  He  moved  to  Chi- 
cago in  1847.  In  1831  he  constructed 
the  reaping  machine  which  has  become 
known  all  over  the  world.  In  1859  he 
contributed  largely  to  the  establish- 
ment at  Chicago  of  the  Presbyterian 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  Northwest, 
and  afterward  endowed  a professor’s 
chair  in  Washington  and  Lee  University, 
Lexington,  Va.  He  died  in  1884. 

M’COSH,  James,  a Scottish-American 
philosopher,  was  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1811.  In  1868  he  came  to  Amer- 
ica and  became  president  of  Princeton 
College  of  New  Jersey,  and  took  a promi- 
nent place  among  American  divines  and 
educators.  He  resigned  the  presidency 
in  1888  owing  to  advancing  age  but 
retained  the  chair  of  philosophy  and 
continued  to  live  in  Princeton  until  his 
death.  Besides  numerous  contributions 
to  British  and  American  reviews,  he  has 
published  many  philosophical  works 
and  essays,  and  some  occasional  sermons 
and  addresses.  He  died  in  1894. 


M’CULLOCH,  Ben,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Rutherford  co.,  Tenn.,  in 
1811;  In  1835  he  started  to  join  the 


M’CULLOCH 


M’DOWELL 


In  the  war  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico  he  won  distinction  as  an 
officer  of  the  Texas  rangers.  He  was 
particularly  successful  as  a scout  and 
was  made  quarter-master  with  the  rank 
of  major.  In  1849  Major  McCulloch 
settled  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  where  he 
was  chosen  sheriff  of  the  county.  In 
1852  he  returned  to  Texas,  where  he 
was  appointed  United  States  marshal 
under  the  democratic  administration, 
and  later  spent  several  years  in  Wash- 
ington. At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  states  he  resigned  his  govern- 
ment emplo3unent  and  joined  the  con- 
federates, and  was  commissioned  brig- 
adier-general on  May  14,  1861.  He 
gathered  a force  of  men,  and  marched 
through  Arkansas  toward  Missouri, 
formed  a junction  with  the  troops  under 
Gen.  Sterling  Price  and  encountered 
the  national  troops  under  Gens.  Nathan- 
iel Lyon  and  Franz  Sigel.  The  battle  of 
Wilson’s  Creek  was  the  result,  where  the 
confederates  were  victorious.  Later  he 
led  a division  at  the  battle  of  Pea  Ridge 
and,  while  riding  forward  to  reconnoiter, 
was  killed  by  a bullet. 

M’CULLOCH,  Hugh,  American  finan- 
cier, was  born  in  Maine  in  1808.  In  1863 
he  became  comptroller  of  the  currency 
and  assisted  Secretary  Chase  in  carrying 
out  the  provisions  of  the  act  organizing 
national  banks.  In  March,  1865,  he  be- 
came secretary  of  the  treasury,  which 
office  he  held  for  four  years  He  was 
instrumental  in  converting  the  debt 
and  took  strong  ground  in  favor  of  a 
resumption  of  specie  payments  and  the 
reduction  of  the  national  debt.  From 
1871  until  1878  he  was  at  the  head  of  a 
banking  institution  in  England,  and  in 
October,  1884,  he  succeeded  Judge 
Gresham  as  secretary  of  the  treasury. 
He  resigned  in  March  following.  He  died 
in  1895. 

M’CLOSKEY,  John,  cardinal,  was 
born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1810.  In 
1834  he  was  ordained  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood.  In  1837  he  became 
pastor  of  St.  Joseph’s  Church  in  New 
York  City,  and  in  June,  1841,  when 
Bishop  Hughes  opened  St.  John’s  Col- 
lege in  Fordham,  N.  Y.,  he  was  ap- 
pointed its  president.  In  1844  he  was 
translated  to  the  new  Roman  Catholic 
diocese  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  where  he  con- 
tinued seventeen  years,  and  built  the 
cathedral.  In  May,  1864,  he  succeeded 
Dr.  John  Hughes  as  archbishop  of  New 
York.  Here  he  built  the  new  St  Pat- 
rick’s cathedral,  and  in  1875  was  created 
cardinal-priest,  being  the  first  American 
elevated  to  that  dignity.  On  several 
occasions  he  was  called  on  to  confer  with 
the  propaganda  at  the  Vatican;  and  he 
took  part  in  the  election  of  Leo  XIII. 
He  died  in  1885. 

MACDONALD,  George,  LL.D.,  novel- 
ist and  poet,  was  born  at  Huntly  in 
1824.  Among  his  numerous  novels  are 
David  Elginbrod,  Alec  Forbes,  Annals  of 
a Quiet  Neighborhood,  Robert  Falconer, 
Malcolm,  The  Marquis  of  Lossie,  Castle 
Warlock,  etc.  He  died  in  1905. 

MACDONALD,  Sir  John  Alexander, 
K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  Canadian  statesman, 
was  bom  in  Scotland  in  1815.  Being 
taken  to  Canada,  he  was  educated  at 
Kingston;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835; 
entered  parliament  for  Kingston  in  1844; 


and  became  successively  a member  of 
the  executive  council,  receiver-general, 
commissioner  of  crown  lands,  and 
attorney-general.  He  became  premier 
in  18167,  a position  which  he  held  until 
1873  when  he  resigned  over  the  Pacific 
Railway  charges,  but  resumed  the  office 
again  in  1878,  and  held  it  till  his  death  in 
1891.  He  was  an  active  promote,  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  and  Canadian 
confederation,  and  was  leader  of  the  con- 
servatives. 

MACDUFF.  See  Banff. 

MACE,  a weapon  of  wa.  in  use  in 
Europe  as  late  as  the  16th  century.  It 
consisted  of  a staff  about  5 feet  long, 
with  a heavy  metal  head,  which  as- 
sumed a variety  of  forms,  but  was  fre- 
quently in  the  form  of  a spiked  ball. 
Another  kind  of  mace  is  a sort  of  heavy 
ornamental  staff  used  as  an  emblem  of 
authority  in  universities,  courts  of  law, 
parliament,  etc. 

MACE,  a spice,  the  dried  aril  or  cover- 
ing of  the  seed  of  the  nutmeg,  this 
covering  being  a fleshy  net-like  envelope 
somewhat  resembling  the  husk  of  a 
Albert.  When  fresh  it  is  of  a beautiful 
crimson  hue.  It  is  extremely  fragrant 
and  aromatic,  and  is  chiefly  used  in 
cooking  or  in  pickles. 

M’CULLOUGH  (m’-kul'lo),  John  Ed- 
ward, American  tragedian,  was  born 
at  Blakes,  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in 
1837.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1853,  and  first  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  a minor  part  at  the  Arch 
Street  Theater,  Philadelphia,  in  1857. 
In  1866-68  he  traveled  with  Edwin 
Forrest,  whose  methods  he  imitated. 
He  took  many  notable  roles,  in- 
cluding Laertes,  lago,  Edgar,  Macduff, 
Richmond,  Hamlet,  Richelieu,  Falcon- 
bridge,  Pierre,  De  Mauprat,  Richmond, 
Spartacus.  His  chief  part,  however, 
was  Virginius,  in  which,  indeed,  he  was 
unrivaled  during  his  time.  His  inter- 
pretations were  of  the  heroic  type.  He 
died  in  1885. 

MACDONOUGH(ma,k-d6n'o),  Thomas, 
American  naval  officer,  was  born  at 
Macdonough,  Del.,  in  1783.  He  entered 
the  United  States  navy  as  a midship- 
man in  1800;  served  on  the  Constellation 
under  Commodore  Murray,  in  1801-02; 
and  in  1803  started  for  Tripoli  in  the 
Philadelphia,  Commodore  Bainbridge, 
but  at  Gibraltar  was  placed  in  charge  of 
a captured  Moorish  frigate,  and  thus 
escaped  capture  and  imprisonment  at 
the  hands  of  the  Tripolitans  when  the 
Philadelphia  ran  aground  on  November 
1,  1803.  In  the  war  of  1812  he  served  as 
first  lieutenant  on  the  Constitution,  and 
in  September,  1812,  was  placed  in  com 
mand  of  the  United  States  naval  force 
on  Lake  Champlain.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  promoted  to  be  master 
commander,  and  in  Plattsburg  harbor, 
on  Sunday,  September  11,  1814,  with  a 
fleet  of  14  vessels,  carrying  86  guns  and 
about  800  men,  he  completely  defeated 
a British  fleet  of  16  vessels,  carrying  95 
guns  and  about  1000  men  under  Capt. 
George  Downie.  For  this  victory  he 
was  commissioned  captain,  then  the 
highest  rank  in  the  United  States  navy, 
and  received  a gold  medal  from  congress 
and  an  estate  on  Cumberland  Head, 
near  Plattsburg,  from  the  legislature  of 
Vermont.  He  died  in  1825. 


MACEDO'l^,  in  ancient  geography, 
a territory  lying  to  the  north  of  Greece, 
which  first  became  powerful  under  its 
king  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  conqueror  of  Greece  Alexan- 
der the  Great  added  immensely  to  the 
empire  of  Macedonia,  and  made,  what 
had  only  been  a petty  province,  mistress 
of  half  the  world.  After  his  death  the 
empire  was  divided;  dominion  was  lost 
over  Greece;  and  the  result  of  the  bat- 
■’es  of  Cynoscephalae  (197  b.c.)  and 
X ^ dna  (168  B.c.)  was  to  reduce  the 
ancient  kingdom  to  a Roman  province. 
Macedonia  now  forms  a part  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  and  is  inhabited  by  Walla- 
chians.  Turks,  Greeks,  and  Albanias. 

MACERATA  (md-che-ra'ta),  a town  in 
Italy.  Pop.  20,263. — The  province, 
bounded  north  by  Ancona,  west  by 
Umbria,  south  by  Ascoli,  and  east  by 
the  Adriatic,  has  an  area  of  1056  sq. 
miles,  produces  much  corn,  fruit,  and 
hemp,  and  rears  great  numbers  of  sheep 
and  cattle.  Pop.  250,368. 

MACFAR'REN,  Sir  George  Alexander, 
musical  composer,  born  in  London  1813, 
died  1887.  His  chief  operas  are  The 
Devil’s  Opera,  Don  Quixote,  Robin 
Hood.  He  also  essayed  the  cantata  in 
Lenore,  and  the  Lady  of  the  Lake, 
while  his  oratorios  are  St.  Jchn  the 
Baptist,  The  Resurrection,  Joseph,  and 
King  David.  He  also  wrote  several 
musical  treatises. 

MACGAHAN  (mak-ga'han),  J.  A., 
American  journalist  and  traveler,  was 
born  in  Perry  co.,  Ohio,  in  1844;  died  in 
Turkey,  June,  1878.  In  1870,  while 
visiting  in  Europe,  he  was  engaged  as 
special  correspondent  for  the  New  York 
Herald.  Afterward  he  became  special 
correspondent  for  the  Herald  at  St. 
Petersburg,  and  reported  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Geneva  conference.  In 
January,  1873,  he  started  on  his  famous 
expedition  to  Khiva.  In  1874  he  pub- 
lished in  London  his  Campaign  on  the 
Oxus,  and  the  Fall  of  Khiva.  In  the 
same  year  he  joined  the  Carlist  forces  in 
Spain  and  for  ten  months  contributed 
letters  to  his  paper  from  that  country. 
During  the  Russo-Turkish  war,  which 
followed,  he  met  with  a severe  accident, 
but  managed  to  keep  in,  the  field,  and 
described  the  scenes  of  battle  from  the 
fight  at  Shipka  Pass  to  the  surrender  of 
Plevna.  He  died  at  Pera,  in  1878,  a 
suburb  of  Constantinople,  of  an  epidemic 
disease. 

M’DOWELL,  Irvin,  American  soldier 
was  born  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  1818. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he 
was  made  a brigadier-general  and  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  federal 
troops  at  Washington.  He  was  in  com- 
mand when  the  Union  army  was  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21, 
1861.  General  McClellan  took  the  com- 
mand soon  after  that  battle,  and  General 
McDowell  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
troops  around  Washington.  He  was 
made  a major-general  of  volunteers, 
March  14th,  and  commander  of  the  de  f 
partment  of  the  Rappahannock,  April 
14,  1862.  In  1863-64  he  was  president 
of  the  court  for  investigating  cotton 
frauds,  and  of  the  board  for  retiring 
disabled  officers.  In  November,  1872, 
he  was  made  major-general  of  the 
regular  army,  and  successively  had  com- 


M'GEE 


MACKAY 


mand  of  the  various  military  depart- 
ments into  which  the  United  States  is 
divided,  until  he  was  placed  on  the 
retired  list  in  1882.  He  died  in  San 
Francisco  May  4,  1885. 

M’GEE,  W.  J.,  American  geologist, 
anthropologist,  and  ethnologist,  was 
born  near  Dubuque,  Iowa,  in  1853.  He 
began  the  study  of  archaiology  and  geol- 
ogy in  1875,  and  in  1877-81  executed  a 
topographic  and  geological  survey  of 
17,000  square  miles  in  northeastern 
Iowa.  In  1881  he  was  appointed  geolo- 
gist in  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  and  in  1885  and  1892  compiled 
standard  geological  maps.  In  1893, 
having  resigned  from  the  Geological 
Survey,  he  was  appointed  ethnologist- 
in-charge  in  the  Bureau  of ' American 
Ethnology.  In  1895  he  explored  the 
Isla  del  Tiburon,  Gulf  of  California, 
home  of  the  Seri  Indians,  a savage  tribe 
which  until  then  had  not  been  studied. 
His  publications  include;  The  Pleisto- 
cene History  of  Northeastern  Iowa,  The 
Geology  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  The  Siouan 
Indians,  Primitive  Trephining,  The 
Seri  Indians,  Primitive  Numbers,  and 
many  other  memoirs  and  minor  papers. 

M’GLYNN,  Edward,  American  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman,  was  born  in  New 
York  City,  in  1837.  He  was  educated 
at  the  public  schools  of  New  York  City, 
and  for  ten  ypars,  from  1851  to  1860, 
studied  theology  at  the  college  of  the 
Propaganda  in  Rome.  In  1860  he  was 
ordained  priest  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  became  a hospital  chaplain.  In 
1866  he  became  pastor  of  St.  Stephen’s 
church  in  New  York  City.  His  unwilling- 
ness to  establish  a parochial  school  in 
connection  with  his  church  brought  him 
into  disfavor  with  the  archbishop  of  his 
diocese  and  his  coadjutor.  Mgr.  Preston. 
He  also  spoke  in  favorof  thelandtheories 
of  Henry  George  on  several  public 
occasions,  for  which  he  came  under  the 
censure  of  his  church,  and  was  sus- 
pended. In  December,  1892,  after  a 
hearing  before  the  Apostolic  Delegate, 
Mgr.  Satolli,  he  made  his  submission 
and  was  restored  to  his  priestly  func- 
tions. He  died  in  1900. 

M’KINLEY,  William,  25th  president 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  in  Niles, 


■William  McKinley. 


Ohio,  in  1843.  After  teaching  school 
for  a short  period,  he  enlisted,  in  June, 


1861,  in  the  twenty-third  Ohio  infantry, 
under  command  of  Colonel  (subse- 
quently General)W.  S.  Rosecrans,  and 
served  through  the  war,  gaining  the 
rank  of  brevet  major.  He  returned  to 
Poland  at  the  close  of  the  war,  began 
the  study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1867.  Entering  on  the  prac- 
tice of  law  at  Canton,  Ohio,  he  soon 
mingled  in  politics,  and  became  a lead- 
ing stump  speaker  in  the  state.  He  was 
elected  prosecutingattorney  in  1869,  and 
in  1876  member  of  congress,  and  re- 
elected successively  until  1882.  With 
one  exception  he  continued  to  hold  his 
seat  in  congress  until  1890.  He  was 
elected  governor  of  Ohio  in  1891,  and 
reelected  in  1893  by  a majority  of 
80,000.  In  June,  1896,  he  was  nominated 
by  the  republican  national  convention  at 
St.  Louis  for  president,  and  elected  by 
a vote  of  271  in  the  electoral  college  to 
176  for  William  J.  Bryan,  his  demo- 
cratic opponent.  In  1900  he  was  re- 
elected by  increased  majorities  both  in 
the  popular  vote  and  in  the  electoral 
college,  the  latter  giving  him  292  votes 
to  155  for  W.  J.  Bryan.  While  holding 
a public  reception  at  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  at  Buffalo,  Sept.  6,  1901,  he 
was  shot  through  the  stomach  by  an 
anarchist  named  Leon  Czolgosz,  of 
Cleveland,  O.  An  operation  was  per- 
formed immediately,  and  the  President 
was  removed  to  the  home  of  President 
Milburn  of  the  Exposition.  For  a week 
the  physicians  announced  steady  im- 
provement, and  it  seemed  that  he  was 
well  out  of  danger,  when  he  relapsed, 
and  died  at  2:15  A.  m..  Sept.  14.  Gan- 
grene had  set  in,  and  a post-mortem  ex- 
amination showed  that  from  the  first 
there  was  no  hope  of  recovery.  He  was 
buried  at  Canton,  O.,  Sept.  19. 

MACGILL  (-giP),  James,  born  in  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  1744,  died  at  Montreal 
1813.  He  emigrated  to  Canada,  knd 
ultimately  became  one  of  the  chief  mer- 
chants in  the  city.  He  left  property 
valued  at  $150,000  (now  enormously 
increased  in  value),  and  $50,000  cash  to 
found  the  university  in  Montreal  which 
bears  his  name. 

MACHIAVELLI  (mak-ya-vel'le),  Nic- 
colo,  a distinguished  Italian  statesman 
and  historian,  born  at  Florence  in  1469; 
died  in  1527.  He  became  prominent  in 
public  affairs  in  1498,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  Ten  at  Florence. 
For  more  than  fourteen  years  he  guided 
the  destinies  of  the  Florentine  Republic, 
undertook  embassies,  concluded  treaties, 
and  jealously  conserved  tlje  rights  and 
liberties  of  his  native  city.  When  the 
Medici  returned  to  power  in  1512  by  aid 
of  Pope  Julius  II.,  Machiavelli  was  de- 
prived of  his  office,  and  imprisoned  for 
his  supposed  complicity  in  a plot  to  over- 
turn the  new  authority,  but  being  re- 
leased after  a time  he  retired  to  his  coun- 
try house  of  San  Casciano.  The  name  of 
Machiavelli  was  for  long  synonymous 
with  all  that  is  tortuous  and  treacherous 
in  state  affairs.  The  more  recent,  as  also 
the  more  generous  estimate  of  this 
Italian  statesman,  is  to  regard  his  Prince 
as  a first  honest  but  imperfect  attempt 
to  construct  a state  out  of  the  decayed 
mediaeval  institutions  still  lingering  in 
Italy,  and  that  its  defects  on  the  ethical 
side  are  due  to  tlie  corrupt  times  in 


which  he  lived,  the  conditions  of  political 
dissimulation  underwhich  his  experience 
was  gained,  and  the  overmastering  de- 
sire he  had  to  see  his  country  unified  and 
made  great. 

MACHINE  GUN,  a name  given  to  any 
of  tliose  pieces  of  ordnance  that  are 
loaded  and  fired  mechanically,  and  can 
deliver  a number  of  projectiles  simul- 
taneously or  in  rapid  succession,  having 
usually  a number  of  separate  barrels. 
The  first  of  these  to  come  into  promi- 
nence in  warfare  was  the  French  mitrail- 
leuse, or  mitrailleur,  which  was  em- 
ployed in  the  Franco-German  war.  The 
Gatling  gun  first  appeared  in  the  United 
States,  and  was  speedily  adopted  by 
Britain  and  other  powers,  with  modifi- 
cations. Other  guns  of  this  kind  are  the 
Hotchkiss,  the  Nordenfeldt,  and  the 
Gardner  gun.  Such  guns,  while  having 
their  own  use  in  warfare  by  land,  are  re- 
garded as  being  of  special  value  in  marine 
warfare,  and  are  intended  mainly  for  use 
against  torpedo-boats.  The  Nordenfeldt, 
the  Gatling,  and  the  Gardner  are  all  in 
use  in  the  British  navy.  The  Gardner 
gun  may  be  mounted  in  various  ways— 
on  a gun-carriage,  or  on  a tripod  stand, 
the  legs  of  which  can  be  screwed  down  to 
a ship’s  deck.  As  to  absolute  rapidity  of 
fire  the  Nordenfeldt  has  slightly  the 
superiority;  yet  the  two-barrel  Gardner 
can  fire  236  rounds,  the  five-barrel 
Gardner  330  rounds  in  half  a minute, 
while  as  regards  reliabilityfor  continuous 
work  and  ease  and  rapidity  of  fire  the 
Gardner  gun  has  manifested  a marked 
superiority  over  the  Nordenfeldt.  The 
latter  is  fired  by  a handle  with  a recipro- 
cating motion,  while  the  Gardner  is  fired 
by  a handle  with  a rotary  motion,  which 
is  the  same  whatever  the  elevation  or 
depression  of  the  gun.  The  Hotchkiss 
gun  fires  heavier  projectiles  (hollow  per- 
cussion shells)  than  the  other  machine 
guns,  the  fire  being  continuous.  It  may 
be  described  as  consisting  of  a gun-metal 
frame  in  which  five  Whitworth  steel  bar- 
rels revolve  with  intermittent  motion, 
having  a single  firing  action  and  cast- 
iron  breech.  The*  barrels  become  sta- 
tionary at  the  moment  of  firing,  loading, 
and  extracting  the  empty  cartridges.  A 
more  recent  machine  gun  is  the  Maxim, 
which,  after  the  first  shot  is  fired  by 
hand  power,  continues  to  fire  shot  after 
shot  by  means  of  the  power  derived  from 
the  explosion  of  each  successive  cart- 
ridge. 

MACHINE  TOOLS,  a name  given  to 
various  machines  constructed  to  perform 
operations  that  otherwise  would  be  done 
by  hand.  They  include  planing  machines, 
drilling  macliines,  punching  machines, 
boring  machines,  steam  hammers,  Clc.; 
and  some  of  them  are  marvels  of  ac- 
curacy and  ingenuity. 

MACKAY  (ma-ke'),  Charles,  LL.D., 
poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Perth  in  1812.  He  visited  America  on  a 
lecturing  tour  (1858),  and  represented 
the  Times  in  New  York  during  the  civil 
war.  His  chief  prose  and  poetical 
works  are:  Songs  and  Poems  (1834),  The 
Hope  of  the  World  and  other  Poeins 
(1840).  Voices  from  the  Mountains 
(1847),  Forty  Years’  Recollections,  1830 
-1870  (1876),  Poetry  and  Humor  of  the 
Scottish  Language  (1882),  The  Founders 
of  the  American  Republic  (1885),  a work 


MACKAY 


MACMAHON 


on  Celtic  Etymology,  and  many  other 
works.  He  died  in  1889. 

MACELAY,  John  William,  American 
capitalist,  born  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  in 
1831.  He  came  to  New  York  City  when 
he  was  a boy.  In  1851  he  went  to  Cali- 
fornia and  in  1852  to  Nevada,  where 
he  secured  a two-fifths  share  in  the 
Bananza  mines  of  the  Comstock  Lode. 
With  Flood,  Fair,  and  O’Brien,  his 
partners,  he  formed  the  Nevada  Bank, 
and  was  long  its  president,  but  with- 
drew his  capital  after  Flood’s  disastrous 
attempt  to  corner  wheat.  In  1884, 
largely  because  of  enmity  to  Jay  Gould, 
he  formed  with  James  Gordon  Bennett 
the  Commercial  Cable  Company  and 
the  Postal  Telegraph  Company  to  fight 
the  Western  Union;  laid  the  cable  in 
spite  of  many  difficulties,  and  fought  a 
long  fight  with  the  old  cable  lines,  which 
cut  the  rate  to  12  cents  a word  in  a vain 
attempt  to  force  Mackay  out.  He  died 
in  1902. 

MACKEN'ZIE,  Sir  Alexander,  Cana- 
dian explorer,  born  at  Inverness,  Scot- 
land, 1755;  died  1820.  In  the  employ- 
ment of  the  Northwest  Fur  Company  he 
explored  the  great  river  named  after  him 
from  the  western  end  of  Great  Slave 
Lake  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  (1789)  He 
made  another  expedition  to  the  western 
coast  (1792),  and  was  the  first  white 
man  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
reach  the  Pacific  coast.  He  returned  to 
Britain  in  1801,  and  was  knighted. 

MACKENZIE,  Alexander,  Canadian 
statesman,  born  in  Logierait,  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  1822.  Originally  a stone- 
mason, he  emigrated  to  Kingston, 
Canada,  in  1842,  and  began  business  as 
a builder  and  contractor.  In  1852  he 
was  editor  of  a liberal  newspaper,  and  he 
entered  parliafiient  in  1861,  becoming 
leader  of  the  liberal  party  in  1873.  On 
the  resignation  of  Sir  John  Macdonald 
that  same  year  he  became  premier,  and 
retained  office  with  much  success  till 
1878  He  died  in  1892.  He  more  than 
once  declined  the  honor  of  knighthood. 

MACKENZIE,  Sir  Alex.  Campbell, 
composer,  born  at  Edinburgh  1847. 
He  became  principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  in  1888.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  oratorio  The  Rose  of 
Sharon  (1884),  the  operas  Colomba 
(1884),  and  The  Troubadour  (1886),  the 
cantata  of  the  Story  of  Sayid  (1886), 
The  Dream  of  Jubal  (1889),  etc. 

MACKENZIE,  Sir  Morell,  M.D.,  born 
at  Leytonstone,  Essex,  1837';  educated 
at  London  Medical  College,  Paris,  and 
Vienna;  obtained  the  Jackson  prize  for 
diseases  of  the  L'-rynx ; became  physician 
to  the  London  Hospital,  and  lecturer  on 
diseases  of  the  throat.  In  1887-88  he 
was  associated  with  the  specialists  of 
Berlin  and  Vienna  in  the  treatment  of 
the  larynx  disease  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick  (at  first,  while  he  was  Crown 
Prince)  of  Germany  He  is  the  author 
of  a treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Throat 
and  Nose  and  several  other  works.  Ho 
died  in  1892. 

MACKEN'ZIE,  a district  of  the  North- 
west Territories,  Canada,  created  in 
1895.  It  extends  from  Athabasca  and 
British  Columbia  on  the  south  to  the 
Arctic  waters  on  the  north,  and  from 
Keewatin  on  the  east  to  Yukon  on  the 
west,  the  western  boundary  line  follow- 


ing the  line  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Divide.  It  contains  an  area  of  563,- 
200  sq.  miles,  being  the  largest  district 
of  Canada,  and  almost  as  large  as  the 
territory  of  Alaska.  It  is  hummocky  and 
broken  throughout,  with  numerous 
swamps  and  lakes.  Great  Bear  Lake  in 
the  north  and  Great  Slave  Lake  in  the 
south  are  two  of  the  largest  lakes  in  the 
dominion.  The  western  half  of  the 
district  is  drained  by  the  Mackenzie 
river.  Among  other  streams  are  the 
Copper-mine  and  the  Great  Fish,  or 
Back  rivers.  The  winters  are  long  and 
severe,  the  summers  short  and  warm. 

MACKENZIE  RIVER,  a large  river  in 
the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada, 
which  flows  out  of  Great  Slave  Lake, 
first  west,  then  north,  finally  northwest ; 
and  after  a course  of  about  1200  miles 
falls  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  numerous 
mouths.  It  was  discovered  by  Alexander 
iMackenzie  in  1789. 

MACKEREL,  one  of  the  spiny  finned 
fishes,  a well-known  and  excellent  table 
fish,  which  inhabits  almost  the  whole 
of  the  European  seas.  Mackerel,  like 


Mackerel. 


herring,  are  caught  only  when  they 
approach  the  shore  to  spawn,  nets  being 
chiefly  used.  The  North  American  mack- 
erel is  also  caught  in  great  quantities  oU 
the  Atlantic  coasts. 

MACLURE,  William,  the  pioneer  of 
American  geology,  was  born  at  Ayr  in 
Scotland,  in  1763.  In  1796  he  came  to 
this  country.  In  1803  he  visited  France 
as  one  of  the  commissioners  appointed 
to  settle  the  claims  of  American  citizens 
on  the  French  government  for  spolia- 
tions committed  during  the  revolution; 
and  during  the  few  years  then  spent  in 
Europe  he  applied  himself  with  enthusi- 
asm to  the  study  of  geology.  On  his 
return  home  he  commenced  the  task  of 
making  a geological  su’-vey  of  the 
United  States.  Almost  every  state  in  the 
Union  from  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  was  traversed  and  mapped  by 
him,  the  Alleghany  mountains  being 
crossed  and  recrossed  some  fifty  times. 
The  results  of  his  unaided  labors  were 
submitted  in  a memoir  to  the  American 
Philosophical  Society  (1809),  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Society’s  Transactions 
(vol.  vi.),  together  with  a geological 
map.  which  thus  antedates  William 
Smith’s  great  geological  map  of  England 
by  six  years.  From  1817  to  his  death 
Maclure  was  president  of  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia, 
and  much  of  the  prosperity  of  the  in- 
stitution,was  due  to  his  devoted  services. 
He  died  in  1840. 

M’KEESPORT,  a city  in  Allegheny 
CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Monongahela  river  at 
the  nouth  of  the  Youghiogheny  river, 
both  of  which  are  here  navigable  for 
steamboats,  and  on  the  Balto.  and  0., 
the  Penn.,  and  the  Pitts,  and  Lake 
Erie  railways;  14  miles  s.e.  of  Pittsburg. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  greatest  bitumin- 
ous coal  region  in  the  country  and  of  the 


natural-gas  wells,  and  is  a large  manu- 
facturing center.  Pop.  42,175. 

M’ALASTER,  John  Bach,  American 
historian,  was  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
in  1852.  In  1883  he  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  American  history  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  in  the  same 
year  the  first  volume  of  a History  of 
the  People  of  the  United  States  was 
published.  It  is  designed  to  cover  the 
period  from  1783  to  1861.  Among  his 
other  published  works  are  Benjamin 
Franklin  as  a Man,  Origin,  Meaning  and 
Application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
A School  History  of  the  United  States, 
and  Daniel  Webster. 

MACMONNIES  (mak-mun'iz),  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  was  born  in  Brooklyn  in 
1863.  The  most  important  of  his  works 
and  the  one  which  has  done  most  to 
secure  his  reputation  was  the  colossal 
fountain  in  the  court  of  honor  at  the 
Columbian  Exhibition  in  Chicago  in 
1893.  He  also  executed  the  Army  and 
Navy  groups  for  the  Soldiers’  and 
Sailors’  monument  at  Indianapolis,  the 
decorations  of  the  triumphal  arch  at  the 
main  entrance  to  Prospect  Park,  Brook- 
lyn, and  the  Battle  Monument  at  West 
Point  He  was  made  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1898  and  won  a grand 
prize  of  honor  at  the  Paris  exposition  of 
1900. 

M’PHERSON,  James  Birdseye,  .\meri- 
ican  soldier,  was  born  in  Sandusky, 
Ohio,  in  1828.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
civil  war  he  applied  for  active  duty, 
was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel,  No- 
vember 12,  1861,  and  became  major- 
general  of  volunteers  October  8,  1862. 
In  the  early  part  of  1862  he  was  at- 
tached to  the  staff  of  Gen.  U.  S.  Grant, 
and  served  as  chief  engineer  at  Fort 
Henry,  Fort  Donelson,  Shiloh  and  the 
siege  of  Corinth.  At  the  battle  of  Fort 
Gibson  part  of  his  corps,  led  by  himself, 
decided  the  battle  in  favor  of  thefederals. 
On  May  12th  his  corps  engaged  part  of 
Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnson’s  army  at 
Raymond,  and  routed  it.  On  August  1, 
1863,  he  was  made  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army.  In  1864  General 
McPherson  was  advanced  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Tennessee. 
He  assembled  25,000  men  at  Hunts- 
ville, Ala.,  in  April,  1864.  From  May 
until  June  he  had  constant  skirmishes 
with  the  confederate  forces,  and  led 
several  attacks  that  inflicted  losses,  but 
led  to  no  permanent  results.  On  July 
22nd  General  Hood  massed  the  con- 
federate forces  and  made  an  attack  on 
the  left  flank  of  General  Sherman’s 
army,  commanded  by  General  McPher- 
son. The  latter  at  the  time  was  at 
General  Sherman’s  headquarters,  en- 
gaged in  consultation,  and  rode  rapidly 
to  the  threatened  point.  In  attempting 
to  pass  from  one  column  to  another,  to 
meet  this  attack,  he  unguardedly  passed 
into  the  enemy’s  lines,  and  was  killed. 
As  a general  he  showed  remarkable 
ability,  being  self-possessed,  quick  of 
perception  and  of  untiring  activity. 
In  one  of  the  public  parks  of  Washing- 
ton a statue  is  erected  to  his  memory 
by  his  comrades  of  the  army  of  the 
Tennessee. 

MACMAHON  (mak-ma-6n),  Marie 
Edm6  Patrick  Maurice  de,  Duke  of 
Magenta  and  Marshal  of  France,  born 


MACON 


MADISON 


t 

'■  in  1808;  educated  at  the  military 
; college  of  St.  Cyr;  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  Algeria;  became  brigadier- 
general  in  1848;  received  command 
of  a division  during  the  Crimean  war, 
and  assisted  in  storming  the  Mala- 
koff;  took  part  in  the  campaign  of 
1859  against  Austria,  and  won  the  battle 
of  Magenta  by  his  prompt  handling  of 
the  left  wing;  and  after  the  war  became 
governor-general  of  Algeria.  At  the  out- 
break of  war  between  France  and  Ger- 
many (1870)  Macmahon  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  1st  army  corps,  which 
was  defeated  at  Weissenburg,  Worth, 
and  finally  fell  back  upon  Chalons.  Here 
I he  rallied  his  forces,  and  proceeded 
northeastward  to  relieve  Bazaine,  who 
was  besieged  in  Metz,  but  he  was  pur- 
' sued  by  the  Germans,  shut  up  by  their 
^ encircling  armies  in  the  town  of  Sedan, 

: and  wounded  in  the  battle  before  the 
? final  surrender.  After  the  armistice  with 
! Germany  he  was  eniployed  by  the  Ver- 
; sailles  government  in  putting  down  the 
commune,  and  in  1873  he  was  elected 
I president  of  the  republic,  a position 
i which  he  occupied  until  1879.  He  died 
[.  in  1893. 

i MA'CON,  a city  in  Georgia,  on  the 
I Ocmulgee,  the  seat  of  a Baptist  univer- 
|t  sity  and  a Wesleyan  female  college 
i Pop.  26,172. 

f MACREADY  (mak-re'di),  William 
e Charles,  English  tragedian,  born  in 
[[i  London  1793,  died  at  Cheltenham  1873. 
'I  He  played  in  the  provinces  with  con- 
I siderable  success,  and  appeared  at 
^ Covent  Garden  in  1816.  In  1826  he 
I’  made  his  first  visit  to  America,  and  in 
jfe  1828  played  in  Paris,  with  great  success 
S in  both  countries.  He  undertook  the 
K management  of  Covent  Garden  in  1837, 
if  and  Drury  Lane  in  1842.  He  revisited 
K'  the  United  States  in  1849;  returned  to 
England;  gave  a series  of  farewell  per- 
m formances,  and  finally  retired  from  the 
K stage  in  1851.  His  Reminiscences  ap- 
K peared  in  1875. 

V M’VEAGH,  Wayne,  American  lawyer 
m and  cabinet  officer,  was  born  at  Chester 
K CO.,  Penn.,  in  1833.  In  1870  he  was 
B appointed  United  States  minister  to 
H Turkey,  and  in  1877  he  was  a member 
T of  the  commission  which  visited  Louis- 
iana  by  request  of  President  Hayes. 
At  the  accession  of  Mr.  Garfield,  in 
F March,  1881,  Mr.  McVeagh  was  ap- 
pointed  attorney-general  of  the  United 
a otates.  This  position  he  resigned  on  the 
.|  accession  of  President  Arthur.  He 
*1  supported  Cleveland  for  the  presidency 
J in  1892  and  from  1893  to  1897  was 
ambassador  to  Italy. 

_ MADAGASCAR,  a large  island  in  the 
jf  Indian  Ocean,  230  miles  distant  from 
jl  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  from  which  it  is 
I separated  by  Mozambique  Channel; 
t length,  975  miles;  average  breadth,  250 
miles;  area,  about  228,500  sq.  miles; 
population,  about  2,500,000.  Mada- 
gascar may  be  described  as  an  elevated 
region,  with  an  average  height  of  3000 
to  5000  feet,  overlooked  by  mountains 
rising  in  some  cases  to  nearly  9000  feet. 
The  most  striking  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion is  a belt  of  dense  forest,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  15  to  20  miles, 
passing  round  the  whole  island.  It  is 
found  at  all  levels  from  6000  feet  to  the 
water’s  edge,  and  the  trees  include 


palms,  ebony,  mahogany,  fig,  cocoanut, 
and  the  ravinala  or  traveler’s  tree, 
which  when  pierced  yields  a refreshing 
juice.  The  vegetable  products  grown 
for  food  include  rice,  manioc  or  cassava, 
sweet-potatoes,  ground-nuts,  and  yams. 
Ginger,  pepper,  and  indigo  grow  wild  in 
the  woods;  cotton,  sugar-cane,  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  hemp  are  cultivated. 
India-rubber,  gum-copal,  and  dye- 
woods  are  exported.  Humped  cattle  are 
found  in  immense  herds,  and  form  a 
large  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, as  also  sheep,  goats,  swine,  and 
horses.  The  most  characteristic  of  the 
mammals  are  the  lemurs.  The  birds  are 
numerous;  snakes  are  rare;  crocodiles, 
lizards,  chameleons  abound.  The  native 
government,  till  overthrown  by  the 
French,  was  an  absolute  monarchy. 
The  army  consisted  of  20,000 men,  raised 
to  50,000  in  the  war  with  France.  The 
capital  is  Antananarivo,  in  the  elevated 
central  region,  with  a population  esti- 
mated at  100,000. — Madagascar  was 
known  to  Marco  Polo  at  the  end  of  the 
13th  century,  and  in  1506  was  visited 
by  the  Portuguese,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  St.  Lorenzo.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  17th  and  during  the  most  of  the 
18th  century  the  French  established 
themselves  in  the  island,  but  they  were 
only  able  after  a hard  struggle  to  retain 
the  islands  of  Ste.  Marie  on  the  east 
coast  and  Nossi-b6  on  the  northwest. 
In  the  year  1810  Radama  I.  became  king 
of  the  Hovas,  and  with  his  approval 
Christian  missionaries  began  to  teach  in 
the  capital  in  1820,  many  converts  were 
made,  the  Bible  was  translated  into 
the  Malagasy  tongue,  the  language  was 
first  reduced  to  a systematic  written 
form,  and  printing  was  introduced. 
In,  1828  he  was  succeeded  by  his  chief 
wife,  Ranavalona,  a woman  of  cruel 
disposition,  who  persecuted  the  Chris- 
tians and  closed  the  island  to  Europeans. 
She  was  succeeded  in  1861  by  her  son, 
Radama  II.,  who  reopened  it  to  the 
missionaries  and  emancipated  the  Afri- 
can slaves.  He  also  granted  extensive 
territories  and  privileges  to  France,  an 
act  which  offended  his  chiefs  and  led  to 
his  assassination  in  1863.  His  wife 
occupied  the  throne  five  years,  and  on 
Ranavalona  II.  becoming  queen  in 
1868,  the  French  brought  forward  their 
claims  on  the  Malagasy  territory,  which 
being  refused,  led  to  war.  The  result  was 
a treaty  (1885)  by  which  Madagascar 
became  a French  protectorate.  Since 
then,  by  means  of  a military  expedition, 
the  French  have  reduced  the  island  to 
the  position  of  a colony  (1895). 

MADDER,  a dye  plant.  It  is  a climb- 
ing perennial,  with  whorls  of  dark  green 
leaves,  and  small  yellowish  cross-shaped 
flowers.  The  prepared  root  is  used  as  a 
red  dye-stuff.  It  yields  colors  of  the 
greatest  permanence,  and  is  employed 
for  dyeing  both  linen  and  cotton.  Two 
kinds  of  it  are  fixed  upon  cotton ; one  is 
simply  called  madder-red,  and  the 
other,  which  possesses  a much  higher 
degree  of  luster  and  fixity,  is  called 
Turkey  or  Adrianople  red,  because  it 
was  for  a long  time  obtained  entirely 
from  the  Levant,  where  it  was  called 
alizara.  The  coloring  principle  of  madder 
is  termed  alizarine,  and  as  this  can  now 
be  obtained  artificially  from  coal-tar, 


the  use  of  madder  in  dyeing  is  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  that  of  artificial 
alizarine. 


MADEIRA  (ma-da'i-ra),  a Portuguese 
island  in  the  North  Atlantic,  360  miles 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  530  miles  from 
Lisbon,  1215  from  Plymouth;  length,  30 
miles;  breadth,  13  miles;  area,  about 
313  sq.  miles.  The  staple  products  of 
Madeira  are  wine  and  sugar.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  is  65°,  the  two 
hottest  months  being  August  and  Sep- 
tember, and  the  three  coldest  January, 
February,  and  March.  The  climate  is 
equable  and  the  island  is  considered  an 
excellent  sanitorium  for  chest  diseases. 
The  Madeiras  were  known  to  the 
Romans,  and  were  rediscovered  and 
colonized  by  the  Portuguese  in  1431. 
Pop.  148,172. 

MAD'ISON,  the  capital  of  Wisconsin, 
75  miles  west  of  Milwaukee,  situated 
upon  an  isthmus  between  lakes  Mendota 
and  Monona,  and  founded  1836.  It  con- 


state capitol,  Madison,  Wls. 


tains  the  state-house,  the  state  univer- 
sity dating  from  1851,  and  has  a lunatic 
asylum,  etc.  It  is  a great  railway  center, 
has  important  manufactures,  a large 
trade,  and  a population  of  21,000. 

MADISON,  a city  in  Indiana,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ohio,  80  miles  s.s.e. 
Indianapolis.  Pop.  11,165. 

MADISON,  James,  fourth  president 
of  the  United  States,  1809-17,  born 
in  Virginia  1751,  died  1836.  He  was 
educated  at  Princeton;  elected  to  the 
Virginia  convention  in  1765;  became  a 
member  of  the  council  of  state ; took  his 
seat  in  the  Continental  congress  in  1780 
and  was  there  made  chairman  of  the 
committee  of  foreign  affairs.  Under 
the  administration  of  Jefferson  he  be- 
came secretary  of  state,  and  in  1809 
he  was  elected  president.  During  his 
term  of  office  war  was  declared  with 


MADNESS 


MAGALHAENS 


Great  Britain,  which  Madison  prosecuted 
for  three  years  with  alternate  defeat 
and  success,  until  the  decisive  battle  of 
New  Orleans  was  fought,  and  peace 


signed  in  1814.  Madison  retired  into 
private  life  in  1817. 

MADNESS,  See  Insanity. 

MADON'NA,  an  Italian  term  of  ad- 
dress equivalent  to  Madam.  It  is  given 
specifically  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  like  Our 
Lady  in  English,  and  hence  pictures 
representing  the  Virgin  are  generally 
called  madonnas. 

MADRAS',  a maritime  city  of  British 
India,  capital  of  the  presidency  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  Coromandel  coast. 
Altogether  the  municipality  covers  an 
area  of  27  sq.  miles,  the  native  and  busi- 
ness part  being  called  the  Black  Town. 
The  chief  objects  of  interest  are  the 
citadel  of  Fort  St.  George,  built  in  1639, 
the  cathedral  of  St.  George,  Scotch 
church  government  house,  senate  house, 
revenue  buildings,  college,  etc.  There 
are  no  manufactures  to  speak  of,  but 
the  export  and  import  trade  amounts 
to  150,000,000  annually.  Madras  was 
founded  in  1639  by  the  English,  and 
soon  became  theirchief  settlement  on  the 
coast.  Pop.  509,396. 

MADRAS,  Presidency  of,  includes 
with  its  dependencies  and  the  state  of 
Mysore  the  entire  south  of  the  peninsula 
of  India.  Its  extreme  length  is  950 
miles,  breadth  450  miles;  area,  149,092 
sq.  miles.  There  are  extensive  forests 
yielding  teak,  ebony,  and  other  valuable 
timber  trees.  The  principal  vegetable 
products  are  rice,  wheat,  barley,  corn, 
and  other  grains;  sugar-cane,  areca, 
yam,  plantain,  tamarind,  jack-fruit, 
mango,  melons,  cocoa-nuts,  ginger, 
tumeric,  pepper,  tobacco,  oil  seeds, 
coffee,  and  cotton.  The  wild  animals 
met  with  are  the  elephant,  tiger,  chetah, 
jackal,  wild  hog,  etc.  The  Madras  ad- 
ministrative authority  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  with  a council  of  three  mem- 
bers appointed  by  the  queen,  and  of 
whom  one  is  the  commander-in-chief. 
For  legislative  purposes  the  council  is 
increased  by  nominations  of  the  gover- 
nor. In  each  of  the  22  districts  there  is 
a collector  and  a sessions  judge.  The 
chief  educational  institution  is  the 


Madras  University,  an  examining  body 
granting  degrees  in  arts,  law,  medicine, 
and  engineering.  The  population  is 
38,208,609,  and  the  native  protected 
states  have  in  addition  a pop.  of  4,190,- 
322.  The  chief  languages  spoken  are  the 
Dravidian,  namely,  Tamil,  Telugu 
(which  are  spoken  by  the  great  majority 
of  the  inhabitants),  Canarese,  and 
Malayalam,  while  Hindustani  is  the 
language  spoken  by  the  Mohammedans. 

MAD'REPORE,a  coral-buildingpolyp, 
forming  coral  of  stony  hardness  and  of  a 
spreading  or  branching  form,  hence  called 
tree-coral.  Madrepore  coral  is  of  a white 
color  wrinkled  on  the  surface  and  full  of 
little  cavities,  in  each  of  which  an  in- 
dividual polyp  was  lodged.  These  polyps 
raise  up  walls  and  reefs  of  coral  rocks 
with  astonishing  rapidity  in  tropical 
climates.  The  term  is  often  applied  also 
to  other  branching  corals. 

MADRID  (ma-drid'),  thfe  capital  of 
Spain,  in  New  Castile,  in  the  province  of 
Madrid,  on  the  Manzanares,  near  the 
center  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  The 
royal  palace,  a combination  of  Ionic  and 
Doric  architecture,  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  in  the  world,  being  470  feet 
each  way,  and  100  feet  high.  It  contains 
a small  but  splendid  Corinthian  chapel,  a 
library  of  nearly  100,000  volumes,  and  a 
fine  collection  of  ancient  armor  and 


manufactures  are  of  small  importance. 
Madrid  only  began  to  be  a place  of 
importance  under  Charles  V.  and  in 
1560  Philip  II.  declared  it  to  be 
the  capital.  It  is  the  creation  of  a 
century,  for  it  has  not  increased  much 
since  the  age  of  Philip  IV.  Pop.  512,150. 

MAD'RIGAL,  a short  amorous  poem, 
consisting  of  not  less  than  three  or  four 
stanzas  or  strophes,  and  containing  some 
tender  and  delicate,  though  simple 
thought,  suitably  expressed.  The  mad- 
rigal was  first  cultivated  in  Italy,  and 
those  of  Tasso  are  among  the  finest 
specimens  of  Italian  poetry.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  an  elaborate  vocal  com- 
position now  commonly  of  two  or  more 
movements,  and  in  five  or  six  parts.  The 
musical  madrigal  was  at  first  a simple 
song,  but  afterward  was  suited  to  an 
instrumental  accompaniment. 

MADURA',  a district  of  India  forming 
part  of  the  Madras  presidency,  mostly  a 
plain  draindd  by  the  Vaigai  river ; skirted 
on  the  southwest  by  the  Travancore 
Hills ; area  8808  sq.  miles,  pop.  2,608,404. 
Tlietown  has  heen  much  improved  under 
British  rule.  Pop.  105,984. 

MADU'RA,  an  island  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  n.  e.  of  Java,  and  separated 
from  it  by  the  Strait  of  Madura;  105 
miles  long,  and  30  miles  broad;  and  be- 
longing to  the  Dutch.  Pop.  1,000,000. 


Puerta  del  Sol  In  Madrid. 


coins.  Madrid  has  no  cathedral,  being 
only  a suffragan  bishopric  of  Toledo,  and 
the  churches  are  few  and  uninteresting. 
The  bull-fights  take  place  in  the  Plaza  de 
Toros  (bull-ring),  a building  which  is 
about  1100  feet  in  circumference,  and 
capable  of  containing  12,000  spectators. 
The  Prado,  nearly  2 miles  long,  a boule- 
vard on  the  east  of  the  city,  forms  the 
popular  promenade,  and  beyond  it  is  the 
park.  The  Royal  Museum  of  Painting 
and  sculpture,  in  the  Prado,  contains 
more  than  2000  pictures.  The  National 
Library,  founded  by  Philip  V.,  contains 
230,000  volumes.  The  University  has  an 
average  attendance  of  5000  students, 
and  there  are  numerous  colleges  ami 
schools,  medical,  military,  law,  etq.  The 


MAELSTROM,  a celebrated  whirlpool 
off  the  coast  of  Norway,  near  the  island 
of  Moskoe,  one  of  the  Lofoddens.  With 
a strong  wind  from  the  northwest  the 
whirlpool  rages  violently,  so  as  to  be 
heard  several  miles,  and  to  engulf  small 
vessels  which  approach  it. 

MAESTO'SO,  an  Italian  musical  term 
meaning  in  a majestic  or  lofty  style. 

MAFEKING,a  small  town  of  Bechuana- 
l.and,  on  the  railway  from  Kimberley  to 
Buluwayo,  famous  for  the  long  stand  it 
made  under  Col.  Baden-Powell  against 
the  Boers  in  the  South  .\frican  war  of 
1899-1902. 

MAGALHAENS  (mag'al-j'a-ens),  or 
MAGELLAN  (ma-gel'an),  Fernando  de, 
a Portuguese  navigator,  who  conducted 


MAGAZINE  GUN 


MAGNETISM 


the  first  expedition  round  the  world; 
born  about  1470;  served  under  Albu- 
querque in  the  East  Indies ; distinguished 
himself  at  the  taking  of  Malacca,  in  151 1 ; 
in  1519  received  the  command  of  a fleet 
of  five  ships  from  Charles  V.  of  Spain, 
with  which  he  sailed  westward  entered 


Magellan. 


the  strait  since  called  after  his  name,  and 
discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  killed  in  a skirmish 
with  the  natives  on  one  of  the  Philip- 

Eines,  and  his  vessels  were  conducted  to 
pain  by  Juan  Sebastian  del  Cano. 
MAGAZINE  GUN.  See  Gunnery. 
MAGAZINES.  See  Periodicals. 
MAG'DALEN,  or  MAGDALENE,  Mary 
that  is,  Mary  of  Magdaia,  a woman 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  as 
having  had  seven  devils  cast  out  of  her, 
as  watching  the  crucifixion,  and  as  hav- 
ing come  early  to  the  sepulchre  on  the 
resurrection  morning.  She  was  errone- 
ously identified  as  the  “woman  who  was 
a sinner”  (Luke  vii.  37),  and  hence  the 
term  Magdalen  came  to  be  equivalent  to 
a penitent  fallen  woman. 

MAGDEBURG  (mah'de-burh),the  cap- 
ital of  Prussian  Saxony,  and  a fortress 
of  the  first  class,  on  the  Elbe,  76  miles 
w.s.w.  of  Berlin,  chiefly  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  which  here  divides 
into  three  arms.  Magdeburg  is  a place 
of  great  antiquity,  being  a trading  center 
in  the  9th  century . It  early  distinguished 
itself  in  the  Reformation.  During  the 
Thirty  Years’  war  the  town  was  besieged, 
stormed,  and  sacked  by  Tilly,  when  20,- 
000  persons  are  said  to  have  been  mur- 
dered. Pop.  229,663. 

MAGELLAN.  See  Magalhaens. 
MAGELLAN,  Strait  of,  separates  the 
continent  of  South  America  from  Tierra- 
del-Fuego,  300  miles  long;  varies  in 
breadth  from  5 to  50  miles,  and  forms 
communication  between  the  South  At- 
lantic and  South  Pacific  Oceans.  The 
number  of  obstructing  islands  makes 
the  channel  difficult  of  navigation.  The 
strait  was  discovered  in  1520  by  Fer- 
nando Magalhaens. 

MAGENTA,  a brilliant  blue-red  color- 
ing substance  derived  from  aniline. 

MAGI  (ma'ji),  the  hereditary  priests 
among  the  Medes  and  Persians,  set 
apart  to  manage  the  sacred  rites,  and 
preserve  and  propagate  the  sacred  tradi- 
tions, acting  also  as  diviners  and  astrolo- 
gers. They  possessed  great  influence  both 
in  public  and  private  affairs,  conducted 
the  education  of  the  princes,  etc.  Their 
order  was  reformed  by  Zoroaster.  The 
name  came  also  to  be  applied  to  holy 
men  or  sages  in  the  East. 

MAGIC,  the  art  or  pretended  art  or 

Eractice  of  producing  wonderful  effects 
y the  aid  of  superhuman  beings  or  of 
departed  spirits  or  the  occult  powers  of 
nature.  A large  proportion  of  magical 
rites  are  connected  with  the  religious 
beliefs  of  those  using  them,  their  efficacy 


being  ascribed  to  supernatural  beings.  In 
savage  countries  the  native  magician  is 
often  sorcerer  and  priest,  and  sometimes 
chief  of  the  tribe.  Among  the  ancient 
Egyptians  magic  was  worked  into  an 
elaborate  system  and  ritual,  and  it  was 
regularly  practiced  among  the  Baby- 
lonians and  Assyrians,  as  well  as  in 
Greece  and  Rome.  Alexandria,  from  the 
2d  to  the  4th  century,  became  the  head- 
quarters of  theurgic  magic,  in  which  in- 
vocations, sacrifices,  diagrams,  talis- 
mans, etc.,  were  systematically  employed. 
This  system,  influenced  by  Jewish  magi- 
cal speculation,  had  a strong  hold  in 
mediaeval  Europe,  and  many  dis- 
tinguished names  are  found  among  its 
students  and  professors.  The  magic 
which  holds  a place  still  among  the  illit- 
erate and  ignorant  classes  has  come 
down  by  tradition  in  popular  folk-lore. 
The  name  natural  magic  has  been  given 
to  the  art  of  applying  natural  causes  to 
produce  surprisingeffects.  Itincludesthe 
art  of  performing  tricks  and  exhibiting 
illusions  by  means  of  apparatus,  the 
performances  of  automaton  figures,  etc. 
See  Legerdemain. 

MAGIC  LANTERN,  a kind  of  lantern 
invented  by  Kircher,  a German  Jesuit 
(1604-80),  by  means  of  which  small 
pictures  or  figures  are  represented. on  the 
wall  of  a dark  room  or  on  a white  sheet, 
magnified  to  any  size  at  pleasure.  It 
consists  of  a closed  lantern  or  box,  in 
which  are  placed  a lamp  and  a concave 
mirror  (as  at  a),  which  reflects  the  light 
of  the  lamp  through  the  small  hole  of  a 
tube  in  the  side  of  the  lantern,  which  is 
made  to  draw  out.  At  the  end  of  this 
tube,  next  to  the  lamp,  is  fixed  a plane 
convex  lens  (b),  and  at  the  other  a 
double-convex  lens  (d).  Between  the 


two  lenses  are  successively  placed  (at  c) 
various  slips  of  glass,  with  transparent 
paintings,  representing  various  subjects, 
which  are  thrown  in  a magnified  form  on 
the  wall  or  screen  opposite  to  the  lantern 
and  spectators.  It  has  been  vastly  im- 
proved of  late,  and  the  substitutions  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  and  electric  lights  for 
the  oil  lamp  has  added  much  to  the  effec- 
tiveness of  its  displays;  while  photog- 
raphy applied  to  tlie  production  of 
objects  has  almost  indefinitely  increased 
its  resources. 

MAGISTRATE,  a public  civil  officer 
invested  with  the  executive  government 
or  some  branch  of  it.  In  this  sense  a king 
is  the  highest  or  first  magistrate  in  a 
monarchy,  as  is  the  president  in  a re- 
public. But  the  word  is  more  particular- 
ly applied  to  subordinate  officers,  to 
whom  the  executive  power  of  the  law  is 
committed,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  as 
governors,  intendants,  prefects,  mayors, 
justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  like. 


MAGNA  CHARTA  LIBERTA'TUM, 

the  Great  Charter  of  Liberties,  a docu- 
ment forming  part  of  the  English  con- 
stitution, and  regarded  as  one  of  the 
mainstays  of  English  liberty,  extorted 
from  King  John  by  the  confederated 
barons  in  1215.  Its  most  important 
articles  are  those  which  provide  that  no  ^ 
freeman  shall  be  taken,  or  imprisoned, 
or  proceeded  against  except  by  the  law- 
ful judgment  of  his  peers  or  by  the  law 
of  the  land;  and  that  no  scutage  or  aid 
shall  be  imposed  in  the  kingdom  (except 
certain  feudal  dues  from  tenants  of  the 
crown),  unless  by  the  common  council  of 
the  kingdom.  The  remaining  and  greater 
part  of  the  charter  is  directed  against 
abuses  of  the  king’s  power  as  feudal 
superior.  It  originally  contained  sixty- 
three  clauses;  subsequent  confirma- 
tions altered  the  number  of  these  till 
1225  when  it  took  its  final  and  accepted 
legal  form  with  thirty-seven  clauses. 
The  most  accurate  and  complete  copy 
of  the  original  charter  is  that  preserved 
in  Lincoln  Cathedral.  The  board  of 
commissioners  on  the  public  records 
ordered  a facsimile  of  it  to  be  engraved, 
and  it  has  been  frequently  translated 
into  English. 

MAGNE'SIA,  a white,  tasteless,  earthy 
substance,  possessing  alkaline  proper- 
ties. It  is  absorbent,  antacid,  mildly 
cathartic,  and  almost  insoluble.  It  is 
found  native  in  the  state  of  hydrate 
and  carbonate,  and  exists  as  a compo- 
nent part  of  several  minerals.  In  com- 
merce, pure  magnesia  is  generally  dis- 
tinguished by  the  term  calcined  magnesia 
and  is  readily  obtained  by  exposing  its 
hydrated  carbonate  to  a red  heat.  The 
hydrated  carbonate  goes  by  the  name  of 
magnesia  or  magnesia  alba.  The  chief 
use  of  magnesia  and  its  carbonate  is  in 
medicine.  See  Magnesium. 

MAGNESIAN  LIMESTONE,  a yellow- 
ish rock  composed  of  carbonates  of  lime 
and  magnesia,  the  latter  amounting  in 
some  cases  to  nearly  a half.  There  are 
several  varieties,  more  or  less  useful  for 
building  or  ornamental  purposes,  which 
are  included  under  the  generic  name 
dolomite.  The  same  name  is  also  given 
to  the  whole  Permian  formation,  from 
this  rock  being  very  largely  developed 
in  it. 


MAGNE'SIUM,  the  metallic  base  of 
magnesia.  It  may  be  obtained  by  decom- 
posing chloride  of  magnesium  by  means 
of  potassium.  It  is  of  a white  color  like 
silver;  its  luster  is  metallic  and  brilliant; 
it  is  very  malleable,  and  fuses  at  a red 
heat.  Heated  to  redness  in  oxygen  gas, 
it  burns  with  brilliancy,  and  combining 
with  oxygen  becomes  magnesia,  or  the 
oxide  of  magnesium.  The  magnesium 
light  is  rich  in  chemical  rays,  and  is  now 
employed  to  some  extent  in  photography. 
The  chief  salts  are  the  carbonate,  the 
chloride,  the  sulphate  (Epsom -salt),  the 
phosphates  and  the  silicates,  among 
which  are  such  minerals  as  chrysolite, 
meerschaum,  soapstone,  and  serpentine. 

MAGNET.  See  Magnetism. 


MAGNETISM,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  phenomena  exhibited  by 
magnets, — phenomena  due  to  one  of 
those  forces  which,  like  electricity  and 
heat,  are  known  only  by  their  effects. 
The  phenomena  of  magnetism  were  first 
observed  in  the  loadstone  or  magnet 


MAGNETISM 


MAGPIE 


(so  named  from  Magnesia  in  Asia 
Minor).  The  loadstone  is  a kind  of  iron 
ore  (magnetic  iron  ore),  and  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  especially  in 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  in 
Siberia.  It  has  the  power  of  attracting 
small  pieces  of  iron  or  steel,  and  when 
suspended  in  such  a way  as  to  be  able 
to  move  freely,  always  points  to  what 
are  called  the  magnetic  poles  of  the 
earth,  that  is  nearly  north  and  south. 
A piece  of  loadstone  forms  a natural 
magnet,  and  has  the  further  remarkable 
power  of  giving  all  its  own  properties  to 
hard  iron  or  steel  when  these  bodies  are 
rubbed  by  it.  A bar  or  mass  of  iron  or 
steel  to  which  the  peculiar  properties 
of  a natural  magnet  have  been  imparted 
by  friction  from  other  magnets  or  by 
electric  induction  is  called  an  artificial 
magnet.  When  freely  suspended,  all 
magnets,  natural  and  artificial,  rest 
with  their  lengths  in  a northerly  and 
southerly  direction,  and  this  property 
is  utilized  in  the  well-known  compass. 
They  attract  iron  and  other  magnetic 
substances  with  a force  increasing  from 
the  middle  of  the  magnet  to  its  extremi- 
ties, which  are  called  its  poles.  The 
magnetism  at  the  two  poles  is  different, 
that  pole  which  points  to  the  north  is 
distinguished  as  the  north  or  north- 
seeking or  austral  pole,  or  by  the  sign 
plus  ( + ) ; that  which  points  to  the  south 
as  the  south  or  south-seeking  or  boreal 
pole,  or  by  the  sign  minus  ( — ).  The 
poles  of  the  same  denomination  repel 
each  other  while  those  of  different 
names  have  mutual  attraction,  thus 
resembling  the  two  electricities,  posi- 
tive and  negative.  The  intensity  of 
this  attraction  and  repulsion  varies  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  distance, 
a law  which  also  governs  electrified 
bodies.  Magnetism  pervades  the  earth 
as  electricity  does  the  atmosphere. 
It  assumes  a totally  different  form 
in  different  substances’  the  metals 
iron,  nickel,  and  cobalt  being  strongly 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  others  such  as 
bismuth,  copper,  silver,  gold,  etc.,  being 
as  strongly  repelled.  (See  Diamagnetic.) 
The  space  in  the  neighborhood  of  a 
magnet  is  called  the  magnetic  field;  a 
piece  of  soft  iron  brought  into  this  space 
becomes  magnetic,  but  it  loses  its 
magnetism  as  rapidly  on  removal  from 
the  field.  (See  Induction,  Magnetic.) 
Steel  has  coercive  force,  in  virtue  of 
which  it  requires  time  for  magnetization, 
and  retains  its  magnetism  on  removal 
from  the  field.  Hard  steel  may  be 
made  magnetic  by  rubbing  it  several 
times  in  the  same  direction  with  a 
powerful  magnet,  and  hence  it  is  easy  to 
multiply  magnets.  The  most  powerful 
permanent  magnets  are  produced  by 
rubbing  bars  of  steel  on  electro-magnets 
(see  Electro-magnetism),  or  by  moving 
them  backwards  and  forwards  along 
the  axis  of  a coil  of  wire  in  which  an 
electric  current  is  passing.  A bar  is 
magnetized  to  saturation  when  its 
magnetism  is  as  great  as  it  can  retain 
without  future  sensible  loss.  When  a 
magnet  is  broken  into  a number  of 
pieces  each  piece  is  found  to  be  magnetic 
and  its  north  pole  is  found  to  have  been 
directed  toward  the  north  pole  of  the 
unbroken  magnet.  When  these  pieces 
are  put  together  again  poles  placed  in 


contact  nullify  each  other,  and  the 
original  magnet  is  reproduced. 

Terrestrial  magnetism,  which  per- 
vades the  whole  earth,  is  extremely 
complicated.  It  becomes  manifest  by  its 
influence  on  the  magnetic  needle,  vary- 
ing with  time  and  place  over  the  earth. 
One  pole  of  the  needle  points  toward  the 
north,  the  other  toward  the  south.  There 
are,  however,  only  two  lines  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  on  which  it  points 
directly  north  and  south,  and  where  the 
magnetic  and  geographical  meridians 
appear  to  coincide.  Elsewhere  the 
needle  deviates  more  or  less  from  the 
true  north.  This  is  termed  the  declina- 
tion of  the  needle,  and  varies  from  place 
to  place,  and  in  the  course  of  time  at  the 
same  place.  (See  Isogonic.)  When  a 
needle  is  balanced  on  a horizontal  axis 
so  that  it  can  turn  in  a vertical  plane, 
the  extremity  attracted  by  the  nearer 
magnetic  pole  of  the  earth  points 
more  or  less  downward.  (See  Dipping- 
needle.)  The  angle  thus  made  is  called 
the  dip  or  inclination,  and  the  lines 
marking  equal  inclinations  on  a map  are 
called  isoclinal  lines.  They  inter- 
sect the  isogonal  lines,  and  the  dip  in- 
creases toward  the  perpendicular  as  the 
magnetic  poles  are  neared.  The  mag- 
netic poles  do  not  coincide  with  the 
geographical  poles,  the  northern  being  in 
70°  5'  n.  and  96°  43'  w.  The  southern  is 
probably  at  73^°  s.  and  147^°  e.  There 
are  two  foci  of  maximum  force  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  two  in  the 
southern.  In  the  northern  hemisphere 
the  stronger  focus  is  assumed  to  be  in 
52°  n.  and  90°  w.,  and  the  weaker  in  70° 
n.  and  115°  e.  In  the  southern  hemis- 
phere the  stronger  focus  is  assumed  to 
be  in  65°  s.  and  140°  e.,  and  the  weaker 
probably  in  50°  s.  and  130°  e.  The 
earth’s  magnetism  is  subject  to  vast 
unaccountable  commotions  or  storms  of 
immense  extent,  which  occur  at  irregu- 
lar intervals  and  are  of  short  duration. 
They  are  often  connected  with  mani- 
festations of  electrical  phenomena,  such 
as  the  aurora  borealis,  or  thunder- 
storms. These  disturbances  are  made 
manifest  by  irregular  motions  of  the 
magneticneedle.  Thevariousphenomena 
connected  with  terrestrial  magnetism 
are  now  automatically  recorded,  and 
systematized  in  the  interests  of  meteor- 
ology. The  magnetic  equator  or  line  of 
no  dip  crosses  the  terrestrial  equator  in 
several  places,  extending  alternately 
on  each  side,  but  never  deviating  more 
than  12°  from  it. 

MAGNETISM,  Animal.  See  Mesmer- 
ism. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY  treats  of 
the  currents  of  electricity  produced  in  a 
conductor  when  its  position  is  changed 
relatively  to  a magnetic  field  (see  Induced 
Current),  whereas  electro-magnetism 
(which  see)  treats  of  magnetization  pro- 
duced by  currents. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRIC  MACHINES. 
In  magneto-electric  machines  an  electro- 
magnet of  compact  form  called  the 
armature  is  caused  to  rotate  near  the 
poles  of  a powerful  fixed  magnet,  in  such 
a manner  that  the  core  of  the  armature 
becomes  magnetized  first  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  in  the  opposite,  bj”^  the 
inductive  action  of  the  poles  of  the  fixed 
magnet.  Every  change  in  the  magneti- 


zation of  the  core  induces  a current  in 
the  coil  wound  upon  it.  Hence  currents 
in  alternately  opposite  directions  are 
excited  in  this  coil,  their  strength  in- 
creasing with  the  speed  of  rotation.  It 
is  now  usual  in  powerful  machines  of 
this  class  to  employ  electro-magnets  as 
the  fixed  magnets,  and  the  current 
which  feeds  these  fixed  magnets  (called 
the  field  magnets)  is  often  the  current 
generated  by  the  machine  itself.  The 
machines  in  this  case  are  called  djmamo 
machines.  This  name  yas  originally 
confined  to  machines  which  thus  supply 
the  current  for  their  own  field  magnets; 
but  it  is  now  applied  to  any  machine  in 
which  the  field  magnets  are  electro- 
magnets. Such  machines,  of  which  there 
is  an  enormous  variety,  driven  by  steam- 
engines  or  other  powerful  motors,  are 
now  almost  universally  employed  when 
electric  currents  are  required  on  a large 
scale,  as  in  electric  lighting.  See  'he 
articles  Dynamo,  Electric  Light,  Electro- 
magnet, Electro-magnetism,  Electro- 
motors. 

MAGNETOMETER,  an  instrument 
employed  for  observing  the  magnetic 
declination,  and  also  for  other  absolute 
magnetic  measurements.  They  are  of 
various  forms  and  are  usually  self- 
recording.  See  Declinometer,  Dipping- 
needle. 

MAGNIFICAT,  the  song  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  Luke  i.  46-55:  so  called  because 
it  commences  with  this  word  in  the 
Latin  Vulgate.  It  is  sung  throughout 
the  Western  Church  at  vespers  or  even- 
song. 

MAGNIFYING-GLASS.  See  Micro- 
scope. 

MAGNO'LIA,  a genus  of  trees  and 
shrubs.  The  species,  which  chiefly  in- 
habit North  America,  Northern  India, 
China,  Japan,  and  other  parts  of  Asia, 
are  trees  much  admired  on  account  of 
the  elegance  of  their  flowers  and  foliage, 
and  are  in  great  request  in  gardens.  In 
their  native  countries  some  of  them  at- 
tain great  height,  and  have  flowers  10 
inches  across. 

MAGOG.  See  Gog. 

MAGPIE,  a bird  belonging  to  the  crow 
family.  There  are  several  species,  two 


Magpie. 


of  which  belong  to  America.  The  com- 
mon European  magpie  is  about  18  inches 


MAGRUDER 


MAINE 


in  length ; the  plumage  is  black  and  white, 
the  black  glossed  with  green  and  purple; 
the  bill  is  stout,  and  the  tail  is  very  long. 
The  magpies  continue  in  pairs  through- 
out the  year,  and  prey  on  a variety  of 
food,  chiefly  animal.  They  are  deter- 
mined robbers  of  other  bird’s  nests,  de- 
stroying the  eggs  and  young  birds.  In 
captivity  they  are  celebrated  for  their 
crafty  instincts,  their  power  of  imitating 
words,  and  their  propensity  to  purloin 
and  secrete  glittering  articles. 

MAGRUDER,  John  B.,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Winchester,  Va.,  in 
1810.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  in 
which  he  commanded  a battalion,  and 
was  bre vetted  lieutenant-colonel.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  he  resigned 
his  commission  of  captain  of  artillery 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  confeder- 
acy. He  won  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel 
and  received  a brigadier-general’s  com- 
mission. At  Yorktown  for  several  weeks 
he  prevented  the  advance  of  the  na- 
tional forces,  was  promoted  major-general 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Malvern 
Hill.  In  October,  1862,  he  was  given 
command  of  the  department  of  Texas, 
and  on  January  1,  1863,  he  recaptured 
Galveston  from  the  Union  forces.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  entered  the  army 
of  the  usurper,  Maximilian,  in  Mexico, 
in  which  he  held  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  After  the  execution  of  Maxi- 
milian he  returned  to  Texas  and  lived 
in  retirement.  He  died  in  1871. 

MAGYARS,  the  Hungarians.  See 
Hungary. 

MAHAN,  Alfred  Thayer,  American 
naval  officer  and  author,  was  born  at 
West  Point,  N.  Y.,  in  1840.  During  the 
civil  war  he  saw  service  in  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  Squadrons.  He  was 
made  lieutenant-commander  in  1865, 
commander  in  1872,  and  captain  in 
1885.  From  1886  to  1889,  and  again 
from  1892  to  1893,  he  was  president  of 
the  Naval  War  College  at  Newport.  At 
his  own  request  he  was  retired  from 
active  service  in  November,  1896,  but 
during  the  war  with  Spain  served  on  the 
Naval  War  Board,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  one  of  the  United  States  rep- 
resentatives to  the  Peace  Congress 
at  The  Hague.  Captain  Mahan’s  reputa- 
tion rests  largely  upon  his  work  as  an 
author.  His  great  work.  Influence  of 
Sea  Power  Upon  History,  1660-1783, 
received  recognition  both  at  home  and 
abroad  as  a work  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance. Among  his  other  works  are  The 
Navy  in  the  Civil  War,  Influence  of  Sea 
Power  upon  the  French  Revolution 
1793-1812,  Life  of  Farragut,  Life  of 
Nelson  and  The  Interest  of  America  in 
Sea  Power,  Present  and  Future. 

MAHA'LEB,  a species  of  cherry,  whose 
fruit  affords  a violet  dye  and  a fermented 
liquor  like  kirsch-wasser.  It  is  found  in 
the  middle  and  south  of  Europe.  Its 
flowers  and  leaves  are  used  by  per- 
fumers, and  its  wood  by  cabinet- 
makers. 

MAHANADI  (ma-ha'na-de ; or  Maha- 
nuddy)  RIVER,  a river  in  Southern 
Hindustan  which  flows  through  the 
Central  Provinces  and  Orissa,  falling 
by  several  mouths  into  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal, after  a course  of  520  miles. 

MAHANOY,  a town  in  Schuylkill  co., 
Pennsylvania,  80  miles  from  Philadel- 


phia, in  the  middle  of  a rich  anthracite 
coal  district.  Pop.  16,175. 

MAHARA'JAH  (literally,  a great 
king),  a title  applied  in  courtesy  to  every 
Indian  rajah,  or  to  any  person  of  high 
rank  or  deemed  holy. 

MAHDI  (ma'de;  Arabic,  the  director 
or  leader),  a name  assumed  by  some  of 
the  successors  of  Mohammed,  particu- 
larly applied  to  the  twelfth  imam,  the 
lineal  descendant  of  Mohammed,  born 
A.D.  868.  He  mysteriously  disappeared, 
being  probably  murdered  by  a rival, 
and  the  belief  was  that  he  would  remain 
hidden  until  the  “last  days,”  when  he 
would  reappear,  and  at  the  head  of  the 
faithful  spread  Mohammedanism  over 
the  world.  Many  professed  Mahdis  have 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  Africa  as 
well  as  Asia,  the  latest  being  Mohammed 
Ahmed,  the  leader  of  the  Soudanese  in- 
surrection (1883-85).  He  was  born  at 
Dongola  in  1843,  died  1885.  He  studied 
Mohammedan  theology  at  Khartoum 
and  Berber,  and  at  25  years  of  age  he 
retired  to  the  island  of  Aba  in  the  White 
Nile,  where  he  lived  in  solitude  for 
fifteen  years.  At  the  age  of  forty  he 
took  up  the  prophetic  role,  and  his  short 
victorious  career  began.  See  Egypt, 
Soudan. 

MAHMUD  (ma'mud),  Sultan  of 
Ghazna,  the  founder  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan Empire  in  India,  born  at  Ghazna 
about  970,  died  1030.  His  father,  Sabak- 
tagin,  governor  of  Ghazna,  owed  a 
nominal  allegiance  to  Persia,  but  was 
really  independent.  On  his  death  Mah- 
mud put  aside  his  elder  brother;  formed 
an  alliance  against  the  Persian  monarch, 
overthrew  his  kingdom  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  an  extensive  empire  in 
Central  Asia  (999).  He  then  turned  his 
attention  to  India,  and  in  a series  of 
twelve  invasions  secured  a great  amount 
of  treasure,  and  vastly  extended  his 
power. 

MAHMUD  I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  born 
1696;  reigned  1730-50. — Mahmud  II., 
Sultan  of  Turkey,  born  1785,  died  1839; 
placed  on  the  throne  by  the  Janizaries 
after  the  murder  of  his  predecessor, 
1808.  The  chief  events  of  his  reign  are 
the  war  with  Russia  from  1808  to  1812, 
which  cost  him  Bessarabia  and  the 
provinces  of  Servia,  Moldavia,  and 
Wallachia,  as  settled  by  the  treaty  of 
Bucharest;  the  war  of  Greek  independ- 
ence, which  ended  in  the  separation  of 
that  country,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
Turkish  fleet  at  Navarino,  1820-28; 
the  extermination  of  the  Janizaries, 
1826;  the  treaty  of  Adrianople,  with  the 
Russians,  who  were  on  the  point  of 
entering  Constantinople,  1829;  the  in- 
dependence of  Egypt  under  Mehemet 
Ali,  and  the  new  treaty  of  Unkiar- 
Skelessi  with  the  Russians,  1832-33. 

MAHOG'ANY,  the  wood  of  a lofty  and 
beautiful  tree,  indigenous  to  Central 
America  and  the  West  Indies.  It  grows 
most  abundantly  and  attains  its  greatest 
development  between  10°  n.  lat.  and  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer.  It  reaches  maturity 
in  about  200  years,  and  grows  to  a height 
of  40  to  50  feet,  diameter  6 to  12  feet. 
The  wood  is  hard,  compact,  reddish- 
brown,  and  susceptible  of  a brilliant 
polish.  It  is  one  of  the  best  and  most 
ornamental  woods  known,  and  is  of 
universal  use  in  the  making  of  furniture. 


It  is  imported  chiefly  from  Mexico  and 
British  Honduras.  That  which  is  im- 
ported from  the  West  Indies  is  called 


Mahogany. 

“Spanish”  mahogany,  and  is  the  most 
valued. 

MAHOMET.  See  Mohammed. 

MAIDENHAIR,  the  name  given  to  an 
elegant  fern  with  a creeping  scaly 
rhizome,  and  bipinnate  fronds,  the 
leaflets  of  which  are  between  rhomboidal 
and  wedge-shaped,  margined  with  ob- 
long sori,  and  more  or  less  deeply  lobed. 

MAIDENHAIR-TREE,  a deciduous 
tree  of  the  yew  family,  a native  of  Japan, 
so  called  from  the  likeness  of  its  leaves 
to  the  maidenhair  fern. 

MAID  OF  ORLEANS.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 

MAIDS  OF  HONOR.  See  Honor, 
Maids  of. 

MAIL,  Coat  of.  See  Arms  and  Armor. 

MAIL-COACHES.  See  Coach. 

MAIMANSINGH,  a British  district  in 
the  Dacca  division,  Bengal;  area,  6287 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  3,472,186. 

MAINE,  one  of  the  eastern  and  mari- 
time United  States  of  North  America 
bounded  on  the  east  and  northeast  by 
New  Brunswick,  north  and  northwest  by 
Quebec,  west  by  New  Hampshire,  and 
southeast  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean ; area, 
33,040  sq.  miles.  Maine  is  nearly  as 
large  as  all  the  rest  of  the  New  England 
states  combined,  and  is  thirty-fifth  in 
size  among  the  states  of  the  Union.  It  is 
mostly  an  elevated  country,  but  hilly 
rather  than  mountainous.  The  state  is 
almost  completely  traversed  by  navi- 
gable rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  Penobscot  and  Kennebec;  and  in  the 


Seal  of  Maine. 


interior  are  numerous  lakes.  The  coast 
abounds  with  islands,  the  largest  of 
which  is  Mount  Desert,  15  miles  long 
and  12  miles  broad;  and  is  indented  with 


MAINE 


MAJOR 


numerous  bays  and  inlets,  the  principal 
of  which  are  Penobscot,  Casco,  and 
Passamaquoddy.  Grass  lands  are  ex- 
tensive, and  Indian  corn,  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  and  flax  are  the  chief  crops.  The 
leading  industry  is  the  production  of 
lumber.  Not  long  ago  the  forests  covered 
about  one-half  the  surface  of  the  state, 
but  they  are  rapidly  diminishing. 
Marble,  slate,  limestone,  and  granite  are 
abundant,  and  iron,  lead,  tin,  copper, 
and  zinc  are  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  fisheries  give  employ- 
ment to  a large  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion ; and  other  industries  are  ship-build- 
ing, the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
woolen  fabrics,  etc.  There  are  about 
1100  miles  of  railways,  and  lines  of 
steamers  ply  regularly  from  the  larger 
ports.  Augusta,  on  the  Kennebec,  is  the 
seat  of  government,  but  Portland  is  the 
principal  town,  and  a seaport  of  great 
importance.  Maine  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  on  March  15,  1820,  having 
been  until  that  time  an  integral  part  of 
Massachusetts.  The  earliest  explorers 
of  the  territory  were  the  Cabots  in  1497, 
followed  by  Verrazzano  in  1524,  and 
Gomez  a year  later.  Gomez  gave  the 
name  to  Penobscot  Bay  and  river,  and 
the  French  built  a fort  on  the  river  in 
1526.  In  1603  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
granted  to  a Protestant  nobleman, 
named  De  Montz  a charter,  which,  in 
the  liberal  fashion  of  those  days,  pur- 
orted  to  convey  title  to  all  the  land 
etween  40°  and  46°  n.  latitude.  Two 
years  later  James  I.  of  England  gave  to 
an  English  company  of  adventurers  a 
charter  covering  everything  from  34°  to 
45°  n.  latitude.  These  grants  created  a 
double  jurisdiction  over  the  greater  part 
of  Maine  and  gave  rise  to  a series  of  con- 
flicts which  extended  over  a century. 
In  1604  De  Montz  established  a settle- 
ment on  Neutral  Island  in  the  St.  Croix 
river,  and  three  years  later  the  English 
founded  a town  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Kennebec.  Here  Capt.  John  Smith  made 
his  headquarters  and  built  a fleet  of 
boats,  with  which  he  explored  New 
England.  In  1622  the  New  England 
council  gave  to  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges 
and  Capt.  John  Mason  the  country  be- 
tween the  Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec, 
and  for  sixty  miles  inland,  which  was 
thenceforward  known  as  Maine.  Gorges 
ruled  as  lord-palatine  under  a new 
charter  obtained  from  Charles  I.  of 
England,  in  1639,  and  established  his 
capital  at  Georgiana  (now  York),  the 
first  chartered  city  in  America.  Troubles 
grew  out  of  the  confusion  of  jurisdiction 
and  in  the  year  1677  Massachusetts 
bought  the  shadowy  title  of  Gorges 
from  his  heirs  for  $6,250.  In  1691  a 
new  charter  given  by  William  and  Mary 
merged  all  the  provinces  from  Plymouth 
to  Acadia  in  the  Province  of  Massa- 
chusetts. For  the  next  120  years  Maine 
was  practically  merged  in  Massachu- 
setts. Maine  contributed  men  to  the 
revolutionary  struggle  and  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Continental  congress. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  in  1812  Great 
Britain  claimed  a great  deal  of  territory 
which  had  long  been  under  the  juris- 
diction of  Massachusetts,  and  the  legiti- 
mate limits  of  Maine  were  cut  down 
almost  6,000  sq.  miles  when  a final 
treaty  was  made.  The  only  important 


subject  of  legislation  in  the  state  of 
other  than  local  interest  has  been  that 
of  prohibition.  After  some  tentative 
lawmaking,  a stringent  prohibitory  law, 
passed  in  1858  was  incorporated  into  the 
constitution,  and  has  remained  in  force 
ever  since.  Prohibition  on  the  whole  has 
not  turned  out  entirely  successful,  and 
evasions  of  the  law  are  frequent  Before 
1856  Maine  was  generally  democratic  in 
state  elections,  and  only  once  (1840) 
voted  against  the  democratic  candidate 
in  presidential  elections.  Since  1856  it 
has  been  emphatically  republican  except 
in  the  years  1878  and  1880,  when  the 
democrats  and  greenback  party  in 
fusion  succeeded  in  electing  their  candi- 
date for  governor.  In  1891  the  Austra- 
lian ballot  law  was  passed.  Pop.  756,000. 

MAINE,  University  of,  a co-educa- 
tional  state  institution  at  Orono,  Maine, 
founded  on  the  national  land  grant  in 
1865  under  the  name  of  the  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 
The  present  name  was  assumed  in  1897. 
The  university  comprises  the  colleges 
of  arts  and  sciences,  agriculture,  engi- 
neering, and  pharmacy,  and  the  school  of 
law.  The  Maine  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  is  a department  of  the 
university.  The  university  confers  the 
bachelor’s  and  master’s  degree  in  arts, 
philosophy,  science,  and  law,  the  de- 
grees of  civil,  mechanial,  and  electrical 
engineer,  and  pharmaceutical  chemist. 
Military  instruction  is  required  by  law. 
Students  are  admitted  upon  examina- 
tion or  on  a certificate  from  an  accredited 
school.  During  1902  courses  were  begun 
in  mining  and  naval  engineering,  a 
summer  school  and  a correspondence 
course  were  established,  and  uniform 
entrance  requirements  with  all  other 
Maine  colleges  were  adopted. 

MAINTENON  (man-t6-n6n),  Fran- 
9oise  D’  Aubign4,  Marchioness  de,  wife 
of  Louis  XIV.  and  grand-daughter  of 
Henry  the  Fourth’s  friend  Theodore 
Agrippa  D’Aubign5,  was  born  in  1635. 
Left  quite  destitute  in  her  tenth  year. 
Mademoiselle  D’Aubign6spent  heryouth 
in  dependence  on  her  rich  relatives,  and 
was  glad  to  contract  a nominal  marriage 
with  the  famous  wit  Scarron,  a deformed, 
old,  and  infirm  man.  On  Sc.vron’s 
death  she  was  intrusted  with  the  charge 
of  the  children  born  to  Louis  XIV.  by 
Madame  de  Montespan.  She  assumed 
this  office  in  1669,  and  played  her  cards 
so  dexterously  that  the  king  married  her 
privately,  probably  in  1685,  when  her 
age  was  fifty  and  his  own  forty-seven. 
For  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  she 
was  his  most  confidential  advisor.  She 
was  a virtuous  woman,  and  a devout  and 
bigoted  Catholic,  ambitious  and  resolute 
but  disinterested  and  charitable.  Her 
published  letters  give  her  a creditable 
place  in  French  literature.  She  died  in 
1719,  at  the  nunnery  or  school  of  Saint 
Cyr,  which  she  herself  had  founded. 

MAINZ  (mints;  English,  Mentz; 
French,  Mayence),  a fortified  town  of 
Germany,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse, 
finely  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Main, 
20  miles  w.s.w.  Frankfort.  Pop.,  in- 
cluding garrison,  84,251. 

MAITLAND,  William,  commonly 
known  as  Secretary  Lethington,  a 
Scottish  statesman,  eldest  son  of  Sir 


Richard  Maitland,  born  about  1525, 
died  1573.  On  Queen  Mary’s  arrival  in 
Scotland  he  was  chosen  one  of  her  prin- 
cipal ministers.  After  Damley’s  murder 
he  conspired  to  effect  Mary’s  escape  from 
Lochleven.  The  regent  Moray  had  him 
arrested  in  1569  as  an  accessory  to 
Damley’s  murder.  He  was  set  at  liberty 
by  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange,  and  after  the 
assassination  of  Moray  he  became  the 
life  and  soul  of  the  queen’s  party,  and 
kept  up  an  active  correspondence  with 
Mary.  In  1571  he  joined  Kirkcaldy  in 
Edinburgh  Castle;  was  proclaimed  a 
traitor  by  the  parliament,  and  attainted 
with  his  two  brothers.  On  the  surrender 
of  Edinburgh  Castle  Kirkcaldy  and  his 
brother  were  hanged,  but  Maitland  died 
in  prison  in  Leith,  presumably  by  his 
own  hand. 

MAIZE,  Indian  corn,  a genus  of  plants 
commonly  cultivated  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  world,  where  it  answers  a 
purpose  similar  to  that  of  wheat  in  more 
northern  countries.  The  common  maize 
or  Indian  corn  is  a monoecious  grass,  of 
vigorous  growth,  with  stems  not  more 
than  2 feet  high  in  some  varieties,  and 
reaching  the  height  of  8 or  even  10  feet 
in  others.  The  grains  are  large,  com- 
pressed, and  packed  closely  in  regular 
parallel  rows  along  the  sides  of  a recep- 
tacle many  inches  long.  In  large  varie- 
ties the  ear  or  cob  is  often  1 foot  long  and 
2 or  3 inches  in  thickness.  Maize  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  America,  where 
it  forms  almost  the  only  bread  eaten  by 
many  of  the  people.  Its  flour,  though 


Maize. 


exceedingly  nourishing,  is  not  glutinous, 
and  must  accordingly  be  mixed  with 
wheat,  rye,  or  other  flour  before  it  can  be 
baked.  InjAmerica  large  quantities  of  un- 
ripe grain  are  roasted  till  they  split,  and 
are  then  eaten  under  the  name  of  pop- 
corn. From  the  green  stems  a syrup  is 
expressed,  which  is  fermented  and  con- 
verted into  a kind  of  spirits.  Paper  has 
been  made  from  maize  fibres.  It  is  also 
cultivated  throughout  a great  part  of 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  in  several  countries 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  as  Spain  and 
Italy.  The  green  stems  and  leaves  form 
nutritious  food  for  cattle,  and  it  is  sown 
and  cut  green  for  this  purpose. 

MAJOLICA,  or  MAIOLICA.  See  Fai- 
ence. 

MAJOR,  in  music,  designates  in  gen- 
eral a larger  in  contradistinction  to  a 
smaller  interval  of  the  same  denomina- 
tion, called  a minor  interval;  thus  a 
major  tone  is  the  interval  between  two 
tones  having  the  proportion  to  each 


MAJOR 


MALDIVE  ISLANDS 


other  in  number  of  vibrations  of  8:9;  a 
minor  tone  the  interval  between  two 
tones  in  the  ratio  of  9:10;  a major  third 
is  an  interval  of  two  tones  (major  and 
minor);  a minor  third  an  interval  of  a 
tone  and  semitone.  The  major  mode  is 
one  of  the  two  recognized  modern 
modes  (or  forms  of  the  scale),  in  which 
the  first  third  in  the  scale  is  a major 
third,  in  contradistinction  to  the  minor 
mode,  in  which  the  first  third  is  a minor 
third. 

MAJOR,  the  rank  next  above  a 
captain,  and  below  a lieutenant-colonel. 
In  the  United  States  the  command 
appropriate  to  the  grade  is:  Infantry,  a 
battalion ; cavalry,  a squadron ; artillery, 
two  or  more  batteries. 

MAJOR'CA,  an  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean belonging  to  Spain,  the  largest  of 
the  Balearic  group,  between  Iviga  and 
Minorca:  greatest  length,  58  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  45  miles;  area,  1420  sq. 
miles.  Chief  town,  Palma.  Pop.  244,265. 

MAJOR-GENERAL,  in  the  United 
States  Army,  the  rank  next  above  that 
of  brigadier-general,  and  below  that  of 
lieutenant-general.  The  command  ap- 
propriate to  his  grade  is  four  regiments, 
or  in  time  of  peace  a department.  In 
war  he  would  command  a division  or  a 
corps. 

MAJORITY,  the  period  when  the 
legal  disabilities  and  peculiar  advan- 
tages and  privileges  incident  to  infancy 
cease.  A person  upon  attaining  his 
majority  has  a last  opportunity  to  dis- 
affirm and  avoid  legal  transactions  to 
which  he  was  a party  during  the  period 
of  his  minority,  and  which  were  voidable 
because  of  his  disability.  Certain  privi- 
leges of  citizenship,  such  as  voting  and 
holding  office,  usually  commence  at  this 
time. 

^MALABAR',  a maritime  district  of 
British  India,  in  the  presidency  of 
Madras,  on  the  west  coast;  area  5765  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  2,652,565.  The  name  Mala- 
bar is  often  applied  to  the  whole  extent 
of  coast  country  as  far  north  as  Bombay. 

MALAC'CA,  a territory  and  townform- 
ing part  of  the  British  colony  of  the 
Straits  Settlements,  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Malay  peninsula,  on  the  Strait  of 
Malacca.  It  extends  about  40  miles 
along  the  shore  of  the  strait,  and  about 
25  miles  inland.  Area  875  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  of  town  15,000;  of  the  district 
95,487. 

MALACCA,  Strait  of,  the  channel  be- 
tween the  Malay  peninsula  and  the 
Island  of  Sumatra,  extending  from  lati- 
tude 1°  to  about  6°  n.  Entire  length, 
about  520  miles;  breadth,  varying  from 
25  miles  to  200  miles. 

MALACCA  CANE,  a cane  made  from 
the  wing-leaved,  erect,  slender,  cane- 
stemmed palm,  which,  when  dressed,  is 
of  a brown  color,  sometimes  mottled  or 
clouded.  It  is  brought  from  Singapore 
and  Malacca,  but  is  chiefly  produced  in 
Sumatra. 

MALACHI  (maPa-ki),  the  twelfth  and 
last  of  the  minor  prophets.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  history  of  the  writer,  and 
it  is  even  doubtful  if  Malachi  (Messenger 
of  Jehovah)  be  a proper  name  or  an  as- 
sumed epithet.  The  book  evidently  be- 
longs to  the  latter  part  of  the  governor- 
ship of  Nehemiah,  about  b.  c.  420.  It 
contains  denunciations  of  the  sins  of  the 


Israelites,  and  predicts  the  coming  of  the 
Messiah  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles. 

MALACHITE  (mal'a-kit),  a carbonate 
of  copper,  a dark  emerald-green  color, 
and  of  a laminated,  fibrous,  or  massive 
structure.  The  finest  specimens  are 
obtained  from  Siberia,  but  it  is  found  in 
many  places  all  over  the  world.  Fibrous 
malachite,  when  finely  pulverized,  is 
used  as  a paint;  massive  malachite  is 
made  into  boxes,  knife-handles,  table- 
slabs,  and  other  ornamental  articles, 
and  is  susceptible  of  a beautiful  polish. 
Blue  malachite  or  azurite  contains  a 
larger  proportion  of  carbonic  acid. 

MAL'AGA,  a seaport  of  southern  Spain, 
in  Andalusia,  capital  of  a province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  Mediterranean.  It 
was  anciently  called  Malaca.  The  climate 
is  one  of  the  mildest  and  most  equal  in 
Europe.  Pop.  130,109. — The  province  of 
Malaga  has  an  area  of  2822  sq.  miles  ;pop. 
511,989.  It  is  traversed  in  all  directions 
by  offsets  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
valleys  are  fertile  and  generally  well 
cultivated,  yielding  cereals,  grapes, 
oranges,  lemons,  figs,  almonds,  sugar- 
cane, etc. 

MALAGA  WINE,  a sweet  Spanish  wine 
produced  in  the  province  of  Malaga.  It 
is  one  of  the  “muscatel”  wines,  and  is 
rich,  luscious,  and  full  of  body. 

MALA'RIA,  air  tainted  by  miasmata 
or  deleterious  emanations  from  animal 
or  vegetable  matter,  especially  the  ex- 
halations of  marshy  districts  which  pro- 
duce fevers  A class  of  diseases,  among 
which  intermittent  and  remittent  fevers 
occupy  a prominent  place,  have  been 
known  from  a very  early  period  to  be 
especially  prevalent  in  marshy  districts, 
where  they  are  promoted  at  particular 
seasons  by  certain  conditions  of  heat  and 
moisture.  The  noxious  agents  by  which 
these  results  are  produced  have  been  at- 
tributed to  the  products  of  vegetable 
decomposition,  the  decomposition  of 
animal  tissues  being  regarded  as  giving 
rise  to  similar  miasmata.  Recent  re- 
search seems  to  show  that,  whatever  de- 
compositionmayhave  to  do  with  malaria, 
the  germs  of  malarial  diseases  are  enabled 
to  enter  the  human  system  through  the 
bites  of  mosquitoes,  and  that  the  clear- 
ance of  these  from  malarial  districts  is 
followed  by  the  disappearance  of  ma- 
1 ^1*1^1  foA^Grs 

MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO,  also  known 
as  the  Indian,  Asiatic,  or  Eastern,  the 
great  group  of  islands  situated  to  the 
southeast  of  Asia,  and  washed  on  the 
west  by  the  Indian  and  east  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Within  these  limits  lie 
some  of  the  largest  and  finest  islands  in 
the  world,  as  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Celebes,  the  Philippines,  etc.,  but  New 
Guinea  is  not  ranked  as  belonging  to  the 
group.  The  chief  of  the  smaller  islands 
are  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands,  Billiton, 
Banca,  Madura,  Bali,  Lombok,  Sum- 
bawa,  Flores,  Timor.  The  small  islands 
may  be  truly  called  innumerable.  A 
large  portion  of  the  archipelago  is  really 
or  nominally  under  the  sway  of  Holland, 
and  this  portion  is  frequently  called  the 
Dutch  East  Indies. 

MALAY  PENINSULA,  the  most  south- 
ern part  of  continental  Asia,  the  long, 
narrow  projection  that  stretches  first  s. 
' and  then  s.  e.  from  Siam  and  Burmah. 


It  is  connected  with  lower  Siam  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Kra,  has  on  the  e.  the  Gulf  of 
Siam  and  the  China  Sea,  and  on  the  w. 
the  Strait  of  Malacca.  It  varies  in  width 
from  45  miles  at  the  n.  to  about  210  miles. 
The  area  is  about  70,000  sq.  miles,  and 
the  pop.  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
650,000  to  1,000,000  including  large 
numbers  of  Chinese. 

MALAYS,  the  name  of  a race  of  people 
inhabiting  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
spread  over  all  the  Asiatic  Archipelago. 
They  claim  to  have  had  their  native 
country  in  the  Highlands  of  Sumatra, 
where  they  established  the  once  power- 
ful state  of  Menangkabo,  now  subject  to 
the  Dutch.  In  physical  appearance  they 
are  rather  under  the  middle  height,  light 
brown  in  color,  with  black,  straight  hair, 
high  cheek-bones,  black  and  slightly 
oblique , eyes,  and  scanty  or  no  beard. 
The  civilized  Malays  profess  the  Moham- 
medan religion.  They  are  said  to  be  of  a 
taciturn,  undemonstrative  disposition; 
naturally  indolent,  treacherous  in  their 
alliances,  and  addicted  to  piracy. 

MALCOLM  (mal'kom)  I.,  King  of 
Scotland,  reigned  from  943  to  954.— 
Malcolm  11.  succeeded  Kenneth  II.  in 
1005.  In  his  reign  Lothian  and  Strath- 
clyde became  parts  of  the  Scottish  king- 
dom. He  was  assassinated  at  Glamis  in 
1034.  He  was  the  last  direct  male  de- 
scendant of  Kenneth  MacAlpine. — Mal- 
colm III.,  surnamed  Canmore  (Great 
Head),  born  about  1024,  slain  near  Aln- 
wick, 1093.  His  father,  Duncan,  being 
slain  by  Macbeth  (1040),  he  sought  aid 
from  Siward  of  Northumbria,  and  was 
also  assisted  by  Edward  the  Confessor. 
On  the  defeat  and  death  of  Macbeth  he 
was  crowned  at  Scone  in  1058.  In  1068 
he  granted  asylum  to  Edgar  Atheling, 
his  mother,  and  two  sisters  (one  of  whom, 
Margaret,  he  married  in  1070),  with  a 
number  of  Saxon  exiles.  His  reign, 
which  was  mostly  taken  up  with  wars 
with  England,  had  nevertheless  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  civilization  and 
consolidation  of  Scotland. — -Malcolm  IV, 
(the  Maiden)  succeeded  his  grandfather, 
David  I.,  in  1153.  He  surrendered 
Northumberland  and  Cumberland  to 
Henry  II.  in  1157.  Died  at  Jedburgh  in 
1165,  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  See 
Scotland. 

MALCOLM,  Sir  John,  a distinguished 
soldier  and  diplomatist,  was  born  near 
Langholm,  in  Dumfriesshire,  1769;  died 
in  London  1833.  He  entered  in  1782,  as 
a cadet,  the  service  of  the  East  India 
Company.  He  was  three  times  ambassa- 
dor to  Persia,  and  did  excellent  service 
in  the  pacification  of  India  after  the 
wars  of  Holkar  and  the  Peishwa.  la 
1827  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
Bombay,  which  post  he  continued  to 
fill  until  1831,  when  he  finally  returned 
to  Britain.  He  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  in  1812. 

MALDEN,  a city  in  Middlesex  co., 
Mass.,  5 miles  n.  of  Boston,  on  the 
Malden  river.  It  has  extensive  manu- 
facturing industries,  and  a pop.  of 
40,160. 

MAL'DIVE  ISLANDS,  a remarkable 
chain  of  islands  in  the  Indian  ocean. 
The  larger  islands  are  richly  clothed 
with  wood,  chiefly  palm,  and  are  fertile 
I in  fruit  and  in  various  kinds  of  edible 
roots;  they  also  produce  millet,  and 


MALEBRANCHE 


MAMMALIA 


abound  in  cocoa-nuts,  fowls,  and  all 
descriptions  of  fish.  Pop.  150,000  to 
200,000. 

MALEBRANCHE  (mil-briinsh),  Nich- 
olas, a French  philosopher,  born  in  1638, 
died  1715.  In  1673  he  published  his 
treatise  De  la  Recherche  de  la  V6rit6. 
The  doctrines  of  this  celebrated  work 
are  founded  upon  Cartesian  principles. 

MALLARD.  See  Duck. 

MALLEABILITY,  the  property  of 
being  susceptible  of  extension  by  beat- 
ing; almost  restricted  to  metals.  The 
following  is  the  order  of  malleability  of 
the  metals:  Gold,  silver,  copper,  plati- 
num, iron,  aluminium,  tin,  zinc,  lead, 
cadmium,  nickel,  cobalt.  Ductility  and 
malleability  are  nearly  allied,  but  they 
are  seldom  possessed  in  the  same  pro- 
portion by  the  same  metal. 

MAL'LORY,  Stephen  Russell,  cabinet 
officer  in  the  confederacy,  was  born  at 
Trinidad,  W.  I.,  in  1813,  and  in  1832 
was  appointed  by  President  Jackson 
inspector  of  customs  at  Key  West. 
From  1851  to  1861  he  represented 
Florida  in  the  United  States  senate. 
In  1861.  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  confederate  navy,  then  without  a 
ship.  After  the  war  he  was  taken 
prisoner,  but  in  1866  was  released  on 
parole.  He  died  in  1873. 

MALLOW,  the  mallow  is  a common  and 
widely  diffused  species  of  plants, possessed 
of  mucilaginous  properties.  The  whole 
plant  is  used  in  fomentations,  cata- 
plasms, and  emollient  enemas.  When 
fresh  the  flowers  are  reddish-purple, 


but  on  drying  become  blue,  and  yield 
their  coloring  principle  both  to  water 
and  alcohol.  The  alcoholic  tincture 
furnishes  one  of  the  most  delicate  of 
reagents  for  testing  the  presence  of 
alkalies  or  acids. 

MALMAISON,  a historic  chateau  in 
France,  department  of  the  Seine,  5 miles 
w.  of  Paris,  once  the  property  of  Rich- 
elieu. It  was  the  favorite  residence  of 
the  Empress  Josephine,  wife  of  Napo- 
leon I. 

MALMO  (mal'meu),  a seaport  of 
Sweden,  capital  of  the  laen  or  prefecture 
of  Malmohus,  situated  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Sound,  opposite  Copen- 
hagen. The  manufactures  and  other  in- 
dustries are  considerable,  and  the  ship- 
ping trade  of  the  port  is  large.  Pop. 
62,954. — The  laen  of  Malmohus  is  very 
fertile;  has  an  area  of  1781  sq.  miles; 
pop.  413,400. 

MALT,  grain,  usually  barley,  steeped 
in  water  and  made  to  germinate,  the 
starch  of  the  grain  being  thus  converted 
into  saccharine  matter,  after  which  it 
is  dried  in  a kiln,  and  then  used  in  the 


brewing  of  porter,  ale,  or  beer,  and  in 
whisky  distilling.  One  hundred  parts  of 
barley  yield  about  ninety-two  parts  of 
air-dried  malt.  See  Brewing. 

MALTA,  an  island  in  the  Mediterran- 
ean belonging  to  Britain.  The  most 
important  indentation  is  the  double 
bay  on  which  the  capital,  Valetta, 
stands.  The  greatest  elevation  of  the 
island  is  about  750  feet.  The  soil  is  thin, 
and  rests  on  a calcareous  rock;  in  some 
parts  earth  has  been  brought  from 
Sicily  and  put  down.  Corn,  cotton, 
potatoes,  and  clover  are  the  chief  crops. 
Both  the  vine  and  olive  are  cultivated, 
and  fruit,  particularly  figs  and  oranges, 
is  very  abundant.  The  manufactures 
consist  of  cotton  goods,  lace,  jewelry, 
etc.  The  central  position  of  Malta  in 
the  Mediterranean  makes  Valetta  an  in- 
valuable naval  station.  It  has,  in  con- 
sequence, been  provided  with  excellent 
docks  and  very  strong  fortifications. 
The  climate  is  very  hot  in  summer,  but 
pleasant  and  healthy  in  winter,  attract- 
ing many  visitors  at  this  season.  Malta 
passed  successively  through  the  hands 
of  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  aind  Cartha- 
ginians, and  was  finally  attached  to 
Rome  during  the  second  Punic  war. 
After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  it 
was  siezed  at  different  times  by  Vandals, 
Gpths,  and  Saracens.  From  the  last  it 
passed  to  Sicily,  and  followed  its  for- 
tunes till  1522,  when  Charles  V.  granted 
it  to  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 
In  1798  the  grand-master  surrendered  it 
without  defense  to  Napoleon.  It  was 
taken  by  the  British  in  1800,  and  finally 
annexed  by  them  in  1814.  The  execu- 
tive government  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
governor  and  council.  By  a new  con- 
stitution adopted  in  1888  the  legislative 
council  consists  of  the  governor  and  the 
members  of  council  (6),'  with  14  mem- 
bers elected  by  the  constituencies  into 
which  Malta  and  the  islands  of  Gozo 
and  Comino  have  been  divided.  The 
people  are  mainly  of  Arabic  race  and 
speak  a kind  of  Arabic  mixed  with 
Italian.  Italian  and  English  are  also 
spoken.  The  total  pop.,  inclusive  of  the 
garrison,  is  192,000. 

MALTESE  CROSS.  See  Cross. 

MALTESE  DOG,  a very  small  kind  of 
spaniel,  with  long  silky,  generally  white 
hair  and  round  muzzle.  They  are  lively 
and  good-tempered,  and  make  agreeable 
pets. 

MALTHA,  a variety  of  bitumen, 
viscid  and  tenacious,  like  pitch.  It  is 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  and  exhales  a 
bituminous  odor. 

MALTHUS,  Rev.  Thomas  Robert, 
English  political  economist,  born  1766; 
died  1834.  In  1798  he  first  published 
the  views  with  which  his  name  is  asso- 
ciated in  his  Essay  on  the  Principles  of 
Population  as  it  Affects  the  Future 
Improvement  of  Society.  It  was  im- 
proved and  matured  in  subsequent 
editions.  His  leading  principle  is  that 
population,  when  unchecked,  goes  on 
increasing  in  a higher  ratio  than  the 
means  of  subsistence  can,  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  be  made 
to  increase:  that  the  great  natural 
checks  to  excessive  increase  of  popula- 
tion are  vice,  misery,  and  moral  re- 
straint : and  the  great  business  of  the 
enlightened  legislator  is  to  diminish  the 


first  two  and  give  every  encouragement 
to  the  last. 

MALVA'CEiE,  the  mallows,  a large 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  order  consists 
of  herbaceous  or  annual  plants,  inhabit- 
ing all  the  milder  parts  of  the  world, 
but  found  most  plentifully  in  hot 
countries.  Several  species  are  of  essen- 
tial service  to  man.  As  emollients  they 
are  well  known  in  medical  practice. 
The  hairy  covering  of  the  seeds  of  the 
various  species  forms  raw  cotton.  The 
inner  bark  of  many  species  yields  fibre 
of  considerable  value.  Many  species  are 
splendid  flowering  plants. 

MAM'ELUKES,  or  MAMALUKES 
(Arabic,  “slaves”),  the  former  mounted 
soldiery  of  Egypt,  consisting  originally 
of  Circassian  slaves.  As  early  as  1254 
they  became  so  powerful  that  they 
made  one  of  their  own  number  sultan, 
this  dynasty  continuing  till  1517,  when 
it  was  overthrown  by  Selim  I.  They 
still  continued  to  be  virtual  masters  of 
the  country,  however.  They  suffered 
severely  in  opposing  the  French  at  the 
end  of  the  18th  century,  and  in  1811 
Mehemet  Ali  caused  a general  massacre 
of  them  throughout  Egypt. 

MAMMA'LIA,  the  highest  class  at  once 
of  the  Vertebrata  and  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  including  those  warm-blooded 
animals  we  familiarly  term  “quadru- 
peds,” the  whales  and  other  fish-like 
forms,  and  man  himself.  Their  distinc- 
tive characteristic  is  that  the  female 
suckles  the  young  on  a secretion  peculiar 
to  the  class,  furnished  by  the  mammary 
glands  of  the  mother,  and  known  as 
milk.  The  skin  is  always  more  or  less 
covered  with  hairs,  which  are  found 
in  many  forms,  from  the  finest  wool  or 
silky  down  to  large,  coarse  bristles  and 
even  spines.  The  skeleton  exhibits  a 
uniformity  of  essential  structure,  and  in 
most  points  agrees  with  that  of  man. 
The  cavity  of  the  thorax  or  chest  is 
bounded  by  the  ribs,  which  vary  greatly 
in  number,  but  generally  correspond  to 
that  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  skull 
forms  a single  piece  composed  of  bones 
immovably  fastened  together,  to  which 
is  articulated  the  lower  jaw,  composed 
of  two  halves  united  at  the  chin.  The 
skull  is  joined  to  the  spine  by  means 
of  two  condyles  which  fit  into  the  first 
cervical  vertebra.  The  limbs,  like  those 
of  all  other  Vertebrata,  are  never  more 
than  four.  The  front  limbs  are  invaria- 
bly present,  but  in  cetaceans  and  such 
allied  forms  as  the  dugongs  and  mana- 
tees the  hinder  limbs  are  either  com- 
pletely suppressed  or  present  only  in  a 
rudimentary  state.  The  limbs  are  gener- 
ally well  developed,  and  are  most  com- 
monly adapted  for  terrestrial  progres- 
sion; some  are  suited  for  burrowing, 
others  for  climbing,  those  of  the  ceta- 
ceans and  seals  for  swimming,  while  some 
(the  bats)  have  the  fore  limbs  developed 
into  a kind  of  wing.  Teeth  are  present 
in  most  mammals;  but  they  are  only 
represented  in  the  embryo  in  the  whale- 
bone whales,  and  are  entirely  absent  in 
the  anteater,  pangolin,  and  echidna. 
The  chest  or  thorax  in  all  mammals  is 
separated  from  the  abdominal  cavity, 
by  a complete  diaphragm  or  “midriff,” 
which  thus  constitutes  a great  muscular 
^ partition  between  these  cavities,  and 


MAMMARY  GLANDS 


MAN 


also  forms  the  most  important  agent  in 
effecting  the  movements  of  the  chest 
during  respiration.  Within  the  thorax 
the  heart  and  lungs  are  contained; 
while  the  abdomen  and  its  lesser  pelvic 
cavity  contain  the  organs  relating  gen- 
erally to  digestion,  excretion,  and  repro- 
duction. The  stomach,  generally  simple, 
may,  as  in  some  monkeys,  in  the  kan- 
garoos, in  the  pig,  and  most  of  all  in  the 
ruminants,  exhibit  a division  into  com- 
partments. A liver  and  pancreas  are 
present  in  all  Mammalia.  The  lungs  agree 
in  essential  structure  with  those  of  man, 
as  also  does  the  heart  with  its  four  cham- 
bers— right  and  left  auricles  and  right 
and  left  ventricles.  The  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blood  are  non-nucleated,  and  are 
circular  in  shape  exeept  in  the  case  of  the 
camels.  All  mammals  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  monotremes  are  viviparous 
but  there  are  considerable  differences 
in  the  relations  subsisting  between 
mother  and  young  before  birth,  thus 
leading  to  the  division  into  placental 
and  aplacental  mammals.  Man  and 
all  other  mammals  except  the  mono- 
tremes and  marsupials  belong  to  the 
latter  division.  All  mammals  possess 
mammary  or  milk  glands,  which,  how- 
ever, may  differ  chiefly  in  number  and 
position  throughout  the  class.  In  the 
classification  of  this  important  group 
authorities  differ  somewhat,  but  the 
mammals  may  be  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing groups:  man,  apes  and  monkeys, 
the  prosimians  or  lemurs,  the  bats,  the 
insect-eaters,  the  flesh-eaters,  the  seals, 
the  whales  and  dolphins,  the  sea  cows, 
the  elephants,  the  odd-toed  ungulates, 
the  even-toed  ungulates,  the  gnawers  or 
rodents,  the  edentates,  the  marsupials, 
or  pouch-bearing  mammals,  and  the 
monotremes. 

MAMMARY  GLANDS,  the  milk-pro- 
ducing organs,  the  distinctive  mark  of 
the  mammals.  These  structures  present 
in  man  an  essentially  lobular  structure. 
The  lobes  are  divisible  into  smaller 
lobules,  which  consist  ultimately  of 
groups  of  vesicles  which  open  into 
minute  ducts  converging  into  larger 
channels  which  lead  to  the  milk  reser- 
voirs at  the  nipple.  The  nipple  itself  is 
composed  of  unstriped  muscular  fibres 
and  areolar  tissue.  It  also  possesses 
erectile  powers,  and  blood-vessels  are  in 
consequence  freely  distributed  to  it. 
These  glands,  save  in  exceptional  in- 
stances, are  undeveloped  in  the  male. 
They  are  always  in.  pairs  on  some  part 
of  the  ventral  surface  of  the  body,  but  in 
number  and  position  they  vary  much  in 
the  various  groups. 

MAMMEE'-TREE,  or  WEST  INDIA 
APRICOT,  a tall  handsome  tree  bearing 
a fruit  about  the  size  of  a cocoa-nut. 
This  has  two  rinds  inclosing  the  pulp 
which  is  firm,  bright  yellow,  and  has  a 
pleasant  taste  and  smell. 

MAMMON,  a Syriac  word  used  in  St. 
Mathew  as  a personation  of  riches  or 
worldliness.  There  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  any  idol  in  the  east  receiving 
divine  honors  under  this  name. 

MAMMOTH,  a species  of  extinct 
elephant,  the  fossil  remains  of  which  are 
found  in  European,  Asiatic,  and  North 
American  formations.  Geologically 
speaking,  the  mammoth  dates  from  the 
Post-pliocene  period.  It  survived  the 


glacial  period,  and  lived  into  the  earlier 
portion  of  the  human  period;  its  remains 
having  been  frequently  found  associated 
with  human  remains,  and  its  figure  carved 
on  bone.  I-t  appears  to  have  been  widely 
distributed  over  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, but  never  south  of  a line  drawn 
through  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  Lake 
Baikal,  Kamtchatka,  and  the  Stanovoi 
mountains.  It  has  large  curved  tusks, 
and  shaggy  hair.  The  bones  and  tusks 
have  been  found  in  great  abundance  in 
Siberia;  and  an  entire  carcass  which  had 


Skeleton  of  mammoth. 


been  preserved  in  the  ice  and  latterly 
thawed  out,  was  discovered  near  the 
end  of  the  18th  century  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Lena,  in  such  a perfect  state 
that  the  flesh  was  eaten  by  dogs,  wolves, 
and  bears.  Its  skin  was  perfectly  pre- 
served, and  was  seen  to  be  clothed  with 
a furry  wool  of  reddish  color,  inter- 
spersed with  black  hairs.  The  skeleton 
and  other  parts  of  this  animal  are  pre- 
served in  the  St.  Petersburg  Royal 
Museum.  It  must  have  been  twice  aS; 
bulky  as  the  elephants  at  present  living. 

MAMMOTH  CAVE,  a stupendous 
cave  in  Kentucky,  near  Green  River, 
about  80  miles  s.s.w.  of  Louisville. 
It  is  one  of  a large  series  of  vast  caverns 
here  formed  in  the  limestone  rock,  and 
which  are  found  over  an  area  of  6000 
miles  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and 
Indiana.  It  has  been  penetrated  14 
miles,  and  has  many  windings  and  off- 
shots,  some  of  them  but  imperfectly 
explored.  It  is  a dry  cave,  and  the 
remains  of  its  stalactite  and  stalagmite 
formations  are  dusty  and  dilapidated; 
consequently  it  is  more  remarkable  for 
its  extent,  the  size  of  its  halls,  and 
height  of  its  domes,  than  for  the  variety 
or  beauty  of  its  scenery.  It  contains 
several  small  lakes  or  rivers,  the  larg- 
est, Echo  river,  being  more  than  half  a 
mile  long.  It  rises  and  falls  accord- 
ing as  Green  river  is  in  flood  or  other- 
wise, there  being  an  underground  con- 
nection between  them.  The  animals  of 
the  cave  include  blind  wingless  grass- 
hoppers, beetles,  rats,  etc.,  and  the 
viviparous  blind  fish  Amblyopsis. 

MAMMOTH  TREES.  See  Sequoia. 

MAN,  the  most  highly  organized 
member  of  the  animal  world.  The  en- 
deavor has  often  been  made  in  classifi- 
cation to  separate  man  from  the  brute 
creation.  One  system,  expressing  a vast 
gap  between  the  Quadrumana  and  man, 
classifies  man  in  the  order  Bimana 
(“two-handed”),  the  highest  division 
of  the  Mammalian  class;  and  relegates 
the  monkeys  and  apes  to  the  lower  and 
distinct  order — that  of  the  Quadrumana 
(“four-handed”).  The  more  recent 
arrangements,  however,  classify  man 
and  the  monkeys  in  one  order,  making 


man  the  highest  family  or  group  of  this 
order.  From  the  purely  anatomical 
point  of  view  the  differences  which 
separate  the  anthropoid  . apes  from 
man  are  in  some  respects  less  than  those 
which  separate  these  higher  apes  from 
apes  lower  in  the  scale.  But  the  mental 
or  psychical  endowments  of  man  oblige 
us  to  remove  him  far  above  the  highest 
Quadrumana;  and  even  the  characters 
by  which  he  is  anatomically  separated 
from  the  highest  apes  form  a very  dis- 
tinct and  appreciable  series.  The  first 
grand  characteristic  of  man  is  his  erect 
position  and  bipedal  progression.  The 
lower  limbs,  with  the  feet  broad  and 
plantigrade  and  the  well-developed  heel, 
are  devoted  exclusively  to  progression 
and  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body; 
while  the  upper  limbs  have  nothing  to 
do  with  progression,  but  subserve  pre- 
hension entirely.  The  bones  of  the  face 
in  man  do  not  project  forward,  while 
they  are  elongated  in  a downward  direc- 
tion; and  the  face  and  forehead  are  in 
the  more  civilized  races  situated  nearly 
in  the  same  plane,  so  that  the  face  im- 
mediately underlies  the  brain.  Similarly 
the  development  of  a distinct  chin  is 
also  a peculiarly  human  feature,  and 
one  which  in  the  highest  varieties  of 
mankind  becomes  most  marked.  The 
great  cranial  capacity  of  man,  or  the 
greater  size  of  the  cranial  or  brain 
portion  as  compared  with  the  facial 
portion  of  the  skull,  forms  another  note- 
worthy and  distinctive  character  of  the 
human  form.  The  brain  convolutions 
also  are  more  numerous  and  complex 
than  is  the  case  with  any  other  mammal. 
,,The  teeth  of  man  are  arranged  in  a con- 
tinuous series,  and  without  any  dia- 
st§ma  or  interval.  The  development 
of  hair  too  is  very  partial.  The  gorilla 
presents  of  all  the  apes  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  human  type  taken  in  its 
entirety;  but  it  differs  in  the  relative 
number  of  vertebrae  (13  dorsal  and  4 
lumbar,  to  12  and  5 respectively  in 
man),  in  the  order  of  dental  succession 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  interval  or 
diastema,  in  the  less  prominent  muscu- 
lar development  of  the  buttocks  and 
calves,  and  in  other  minor  differences. 
The  orangs  most  closely  approach  man’s 
structure  in  the  number  of  ribs  and  in 
the  form  of  the  cerebrum,  while  they 
exhibit  the  greatest  differences  from 
him  in  the  relative  length  of  the  limbs. 
The  chimpanzees  are  most  anthropoid 
in  the  shape  of  the  cranium,  in  the 
arrangement  and  succession  of  the 
teeth,  and  in  the  length  of  the  arms  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  legs.  Of  the 
higher  apes  the  gibbons  are  those  fur- 
thest removed  from  the  human  type 
of  structure.  Chief  among  the  psychical 
features,  or  rather  among  the  results 
of  the  operation  of  the  principle  of  mind, 
we  note  the  possession  of  the  moral 
sense  of  right  and  wrong.  The  posses- 
sion of  an  articulate  language,  by  which 
he  can  communicate  his  thoughts,  is 
also  the  exclusive  possession  of  man,  and 
draws  a sharp  line  of  separation  between 
him  and  all  other  animals.  With  regard 
to  the  geological  history  of  man,  the  ear- 
liest traces  yet  discovered  belong  to  the 
Post-pliocene  deposits  in  conjunction 
with  existing  species  of  shells  and  some 
extinct  species  of  mammals.  Man’s 


MAN 


MANCHESTER 


advent  upon  the  earth  is  consequently 
referred  to  a period  much  anterior  to 
that  which  former  limits  and  theological 
ideas  prescribed.  Among  the  modern 
theories  regarding  the  origin  of  man 
may  be  noted  those  of  (1)  Darwin;  that 
man  is  directly  descended  from  an 
extinct  form  of  anthropoid  ape,  with  a 
tail  and  pointed  ears,  arboreal  in  its 
habits  and  an  inhabitant  of  the  Old 
World;  further,  that  man  has  diverged 
into  different  races  or  sub-species,  but 
that  all  the  races  agree  in  so  many  un- 
important details  of  structure,  and  in 
so  many  mental  peculiarities,  that  they 
can  be  accounted  for  only  through  in- 
heritance from  a common  progenitor. 
(2)  Wallace  also  affirms  the  original 
unity  of  man,  and  places  him  apart  as 
not  only  the  head  and  culminating 
point  of  the  grand  series  of  organic 
nature,  but  as,  in  some  degree,  a new 
and  distinct  order  of  being;  maintaining 
that  a superior  intelligence  has  guided 
the  development  of  man  in  a definite 
direction  and  for  a special  purpose,  just 
as  man  guides  the  development  of  many 
animals  and  vegetable  forms.  (3)  Carl 
Vogt  holds  a plurality  of  the  race; 
adopts  Darwin’s  idea  of  natural  selec- 
tion accounting  for  the  origin  and  en- 
dowments of  man,  but  rejects  Wallace’s 
ideaof  the  highercontrollingintelligence. 
(4)  Mivart  propounds  a theory  of  a 
natural  evolution  of  man  as  to  his  body, 
combined  with  a supernatural  creation 
as  to  his  soul. 

MAN,  Isle  of,  an  island  in  the  Irish 
Sea,  equidistant  about  27  miles  from 
England  and  Ireland,  and  16  miles 
from  Scotland;  greatest  length,  n.e.  to 
S.W.,  33  miles,  greatest  breadth,  e.  to  w., 
12  miles;  area,  145,325  acres.  There  is  a 
small  island,  the  Calf  of  Man  (800  acres), 
at  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Man.  Lead  and 
zinc  are  found  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, especially  the  former.  Fishing 
is  an  important  industry,  but  the  manu- 
factures are  almost  entirely  domestic. 
The  island  is  governed  by  an  independ- 
ent legislature  called  the  Tynwald, 
consisting  of  two  branches — the  gover- 
nor and  council  and  the  house  of  keys. 
Two  judges  or  “deemsters”  try  civil 
and  criminal  oases.  The  Manx  language, 
a Celtic  dialect,  is  still  in  use,  although 
all  the  inhabitants  speak  En^ish.  The 
principal  towns  are  Douglas,  Castle- 
town, Peel,  and  Ramsey.  This  island 
was  taken  by  the  Norwegians  in  1098, 
sold  to  the  Scots  in  1266,  and  was  re- 
peatedly occupied  by  the  English  and 
Soots  up  till  1344,  whan  it  remained  in 
possession  of  the  former.  It  was  latterly 


Golden-winged  manakin. 


held  as  a feudal  sovereignty  by  the  earls 
of  Derby,  and  more  recently  by  the 
dukes  of  Athole,  from  whom  it  was 
purchased  for  the  British  crown.  Pop. 
54,758. 


MAN'AKIN,  the  name  given  to  the 
dentirostral  insessorial  birds  forming 
the  sub-family  Piprinje.  They  are  gen- 
erally small  and  of  brilliant  plumage 
and  are  mostly  confined  to  South 
America,  a few  species  being  found  in 
Central  America  and  Mexico.  The 
typical  genus  is  Pipra,  which  includes 
the  bearded  manakin  and  several  others. 
An  allied  species  is  the  beautiful  orange 
manakin  or  cock-of-the-rock. 

MANAS'SEH,  (1)  eldest  son  of  Joseph, 
born  in  Egypt.  His  descendants  formed 
a tribe,  which,  in  the  Promised  Land, 
was  settled  half  way  east  of  the  Jordan 
and  half  to  the  west  of  this  river.  (2) 
King  of  Judah,  son  of  Hezekiah,  whom 
he  succeeded  at  twelve  years  of  age,  697 
B.c.  He  became  an  open  idolater;  was 
taken  captive  to  Babylon;  ultimately 
repented  and  was  restored  to  his  king- 
dom. He  reigned  for  fifty-five  years. 

MANATEE',  the  sea-cow  or  lamantin, 
a gregarious  aquatic  mammal  found  on 


The  manatee. 


the  coasts  of  South  America,  Africa, 
and  Australia.  They  generally  frequent 
the  mouths  of  rivers  and  estuaries,  and 
feed  on  algse  and  such  littoral  land 
vegetation  as  they  can  reach  at  high 


tide.  Their  anterior  limbs  or  swimming 
paws  are  furnished  with  nails,  by  means 
of  which  they  drag  themselves  along 
the  shore.  They  are  large  awkward 
animals,  attaining  a length  of  8 to  10 
feet  as  a rule,  but  sometimes  growing 
to  20  feet.  The  skin  is  of  a grayish  color, 
sparsely  covered  with  hairs.  Their  flesh 
is  excellent,  and  they  furnish  a soft, 
clear  oil,  which  does  not  become  rancid. 
There  are  several  species,  the  principal 
being  the  American  manatee,  which  in- 
habits the  shallow  waters  of  the  east 
coasts  of  South  and  North  America, 
and  the  African  manatee.  The  dugong 
belongs  to  the  same  order. 

MANCHA,  La,  an  ancient  province  of 
Spain,  in  New  Castile,  forming  the  chief 


part  of  the  modern  province  of  Ciudad- 
Real;  famous  as  the  scene  of  Don 
Quixote’s  adventures. 

MANCHE  (mansh).  La,  a department 
of  Northern  France,  bounded  on  thew., 
n.,  and  n.e.  by  the  English  Channel,  and 
landward  by  the  departments  of  Calva- 
dos, Orne,  and  Mayenne.  It  is  about  80 
miles  long  by  30  broad,  and  has  an  area 
of  2263  sq.  miles.  Principal  towns, 
Saint-L6,  the  chief  town,  Cherbourg, 
Avaranches,  Coutances,  and  Granville. 
Pop.  491,372. 

MAN'CHESTER,  a mun.,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  and  city  of  Lancashire, 
England,  188  miles  n.n.w.  from  London 
by  railway,  and  32  miles  east  by  north  of 
Liverpool.  Manchester  charter  of  in- 
corporation dates  from  1838;  in  1832 
it  war:  made  a parliamentary  borough, 
and  in  1852  it  became  a city.  Ainong 
the  chief  public  buildings  are  the  town 
hall  or  municipal  buildings,  behind  them 
being  a well-arranged  prison ; the  Royal 
Exchange;  the  Royal  Infirmary;  the 
Free  Trade  Hall,  used  for  public  meet- 
ings ; the  Royal  Institution,  Salford  town- 
hall,  new  general  postoffice,  city  court- 
house, commercial  buildings,  etc.  Among 
the  churches  the  first  place  is  due  to  the 
cathedral,  a fine  specimen  of  Perpen- 
dicular Gothic,  built  in  1422.  The  chief 
educational  institution  is  Owens  College, 
the  nucleus  of  the  Victoria  University, 
founded  in  1846.  Cheetham’s  hospital 
was  founded  under  the  will  of  Humfrey 
Cheetham  in  1653  for  the  education  of 
poor  boys.  Attached  to  the  institution 
is  a library  of  nearly  40,000  vols.,  the 
first  free  library  in  Europe.  The  city 


has  also  a number  of  denominatioral 
colleges.  The  grammar  school  was 
founded  in  1520,  and  has  exhibitions 
at  Oxford  or  Cambridge.  There  are 
numerous  literary,  scientific,  and  philo- 
sophical societies,  some  of  them  of  con- 
siderable standing.  The  free  library, 
established  in  1851,  has  a reference 
library  in  the  main  building  of  100,000 
vols.,  and  six  branches  with  upward 
of  120,000  vols.  Among  the  public 
monuments  the  most  noteworthy  is  the 
Albert  Memorial  in  front  of  the  town- 
hall.  The  chief  manufacture  is  cotton, 
though  woolen  and  silk  fabrics  are  also 
produced.  Metal  manufactures,  engi- 
neering, and  the  making  of  all  kinds  of 
machinery  employ  many  hands.  Rail- 


Manckester— The  Koyal  Infirmary  and  Piccadilly,  from  the  Queen’s  Hotel. 


MANCHESTER 


MANDIBLE 


way  communication  is  of  the  most  ex- 
tensive kind,  the  largest  stations  being 
Victoria,  London  Road,  Ex'change,  and 
Central.  The  commerce  of  the  city  has 
been  further  facilitated  by  the  corn- 
pletion  of  the  ship  canal,  connecting  it 
with  the  Mersey  estuary,  an  under- 
taking which  altogether  has  cost 
$75,000,000.  It  is  35^  miles  long  26  feet 
deep,  has  several  locks,  and  connected 
with  it  are  docks  at  Manchester  100 
acres  in  area.  The  manufacture  of  gas 
and  supply  of  water  are  in  the  hands  of 
the  corporation,  and  an  extensive  scheme 
for  bringing  an  improved  watdT  supply 
from  Thirlmere  in  the  Lake  District 
has  recently  been  completed  at  a cost  of 
$20,000,000.  The  introduction  of 
machinery  in  cotton-spinning  toward 
the  end  of  the  18th  century  gave  power 
and  direction  to  the  trade  of  modern 
Manchester,  and  its  progress  since  has 
been  extraordinarily  rapid.  A tempo- 
rary check  resulted  from  the  civil  war 
in  America,  which  led  to  a cotton  famine 
in  1862,  causing  the  deepest  distress  in 
South  Lancashire.  Pop.  of  Manchester 
543,930;  of  Salford,  421,015. 

MANCHESTER,  a town  in  New 
Hampshire,  on  the  Merrimac,  at  the 
Amoskeag  Falls,  59  miles  north-north- 
west of  Boston.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
manufacturing  places  in  New  England, 
having  the  advantage  of  an  unlimited 
supply  of  water-power  from  the  falls  of 
the  Merrimac.  The  chief  articles  manu- 
factured are  cotton,  woolens,  fire- 
engines,  locomotives,  edge-tools,  castings 
and  paper.  Pop.  1909,  about  65,000. 

MANCHESTER,  a town  in  Chester- 
field CO.,  Va.,  on  the  James  river,  and 
the  Richmond  and  Danville  railroad; 
opposite  Richmond.  Pop.  11,500. 

MANCHU'RIA,  or  MANCHOORIA- 
(Chinese  Shing-fcng)  a Chinese  terri- 
tory occupying  the  northeastern  corner 
of  the  empire,  and  abutting  on  Siberia 
and  Corea,  its  chief  natural  boundaries 
being  the  Yellow  Sea  and  Amur.  It  has 
been  occupied  since  the  troubles  of  1900 
by  Russian  troops,  the  promise  of  evacu- 
ation by  Russia  not  having  yet  been 
carried  out.  The  trans-Siberian  railway 
crosses  it.  It  is  divided  into  three  prov- 
inces, Shing-King,  Feng-Tien,  or  Leao- 
tong  in  the  south,  of  which  Mukden  is 
the  capital;  Kirin  in  the  center,  with  a 
capital  of  the  same  name;  and  He-Lung- 
Kiang  in  the  north,  with  capital  Tsitsi- 
har.  The  total  area  is  about  380,000 
sq.  miles.  The  administration  is  military, 
the  governors  of  the  two  northern  prov- 
inces being  subordinate  to  the  governor 
of  Mukden.  The  Manchus  are  a hardy 
race,  and  their  country  has  long  been 
the  great  recruiting  ground  for  the 
Chinese  army;  but  of  late  years  vast 
numbers  of  Chinese  proper  have  flocked 
into  it,  so  that  now  they  by  far  out- 
number the  native  race.  In  the  17th 
century  the  Manchus  invaded  China 
and  placed  their  leader’s  son  upon  the 
throne.  Since  that  time  the  Manchu 
dynasty  has  continued  to  reign  in 
China,  and  the  Manchu  language  has 
become  the  court  and  official  language. 
The  country  is  mountainous,  but  on  the 
whole  fertile.  The  climate  is  good,  for 
though  the  winters  are  severe  they  are 
healthy  and  bracing.  The  vast  forests 
of  the  north  are  rich  in  useful  timber  of 


all  kjnds.  The  principal  food  crops  are 
pulse,  millet,  barley,  and  wheat.  The 
vine,  indigo,  cotton,  opium,  tobacco, 
etc.,  are  cultivated.  The  chief  seaport  is 
the  treaty  port  Newchwang.  In  1894 
and  1895  Manchuria  was  the  field  of 
war  between  China  and  Japan  and  in 
1900  the  Boxer  movement  was  most 
destructive,  and  in  1904  it  became  the 
theater  of  war  between  Russia  and 
Japan.  On  February  9,  Japan  destroyed 
the  Russian  ships  Variag  and  Korietz  in 
the  harbor  of  Chemulpo,  and  by  a 
torpedo  attack  disabled  some  of  the 
ships  in  Port  Arthur.  The  Japanese 
having  gained  practical  control  of  the 
sea  landed  their  armies,  and  by  their 
brilliant  naval  and  land  campaigns  had 
destroyed  Russia’s  supremacy  in  Asiatic 
waters,  involved  Port  Arthur  in  a pro- 
tracted siege  and  had  driven  the  Rus- 
sian army  back  on  Mukden. 

The  persistent  attempts  of  Admiral 
Togo  to  block  Port  Arthur,  the  blowing 
up  of  several  Russian  ships,  the  blowing 
up  and  ramming  of  Japanese  ships,  the 
destructive  raids  of  the  Vladivostok 
squadroon  on  Japanese  transports,  the 
practical  annihilation  of  the  Vladivostok 
squadroon  were  some  ofthemorestriking 
events  of  the  war  by  sea.  By  land,  the  ar- 
miesledby  Gens.  Kuroki, Oku,  and  Nodzu, 
notwithstanding  desperate  Russian  re- 
sistance, were  irresistible  in  their  on- 
ward progress.  May  1,  Kuroki  forced 
the  passage  of  the  Yalu.  May  20  Oku 
stormed  Kinchau  and  Nanshau  Hill, 
driving  Gen.  Stoessel  back  on  Port 
Arthur.  June  14-16  Gen.  Nodzu  be- 
leagured  Port  Arthur  while  Oku  and 
Kuroki  defeated  Gen.  Stokelberg,  who 
had  been  dispatched  with  30,000  men 
to  the  relief  of  Port  Arthur.  The  Jap- 
anese occupied  Yinkow  at  the  port  of 
Newchwang,  and  on  July  25  again  de- 
feated the  Russians.  One  of  the  fiercest 
battles  in  history  began  on  August  30 
when  after  three  days  of  the  severest 
fighting  Gen.  Kuropatkin  was  compelled 
to  abandon  Liao-yang  and  retire  on 
Mukden,  the  battle  raging  incessantly 
during  the  five  days  retreat. 

On  September  18,  the  Japanese  began 
shelling  the  fortifications  around  Muk- 
den. On  October  4,  Gen.  Kuropatkin 
assumed  the  offensive,  pushing  his  army 
across  the  Hun  river.  Here  he  was 
faced  by  Oku,  Nodzu,  and  Kuroki. 
The  battle  of  the  Hun  river  lasting 
11  days,  and  while  the  losses  on  both 
sides  were  enormous,  the  net  result 
showed  no  gain  to  either  side.  During 
these  months  operations  by  land  and  sea 
before  Port  Arthur  had  been  carried  on 
with  varying  success.  On  December  2 
the  Japanese  took  203  Meter  Hill  at  a 
loss  of  15,000  men,  but  it  enabled  them 
to  mount  their  heaviest  siege  guns  on 
a hill  which  commanded  both  the  town 
and  the  harbor.  On  January  2,  1905, 
Gen.  Stoessel  was  forced  to  surrender 
the  entire  garrison  and  the  ships  within 
the  harbor. 

With  the  fall  of  Port  Arthur  fighting 
was  resumed  at  Mukden  . By  the  middle 
of  February  Marshal  Oyama  had  been 
reinforced  by  an  anny  of  100,000 
veterans  under  Gen.  Nogi,  the  Japanese 
army  now  numbering  400,000  and  the 
Russian  350,000.  On  February  20,  a 
general  advance  v/as  made  against  the 


Russians.  On  March  10  Mukden  was 
occupied  by  the  Japanese  and  the  Rus- 
sian retreat  turned  into  a rout. 

On  the  capitulation  of  the  Port  Arthur 
garrison  in  January,  the  Japanese  fleet 
under  Togo  was  released  from  blockade 
duty  and  lay  in  wait  for  the  Baltic  fleet 
under  Admiral  Rojestvensky,and  on  May 
27  surrounded  the  Russian  fleet  and 
pounded  it  to  pieces. 

The  campaign  on  land  and  sea  was 
again  vigorously  pushed,  when,  yielding 
to  the  earnest  requests  of  President 
Roosevelt  to  stop  the  war  if  possible, 
both  Russia  and  Japan  consented  in  the 
latter  part  of  June  to  hold  a conference 
with  peace  a possible  outcome.  Baron 
J.  Komura  and  Minister  Takahira  for 
Japan  and  Serge  Witte  and  Baron  Rosen 
for  Russia  were  chosen  as  ambassadors 
with  full  powers  to  arrange  terms  of 
peace.  The  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  navy- 
yard  was  selected  as  the  meeting  place. 
On  August  29  the  plenipotentiaries 
reached  a flnal  agreement,  the  treaty  was 
drafted  and  signed  on  September  5. 
Peace  was  concluded  September  5,  1905, 
by  the  intervention  of  President  Roose- 
velt by  the  treaty  of  Portsmouth.  Pop. 
estimated  at  22,000,000. 

MAN'DALAY,  the  capital  of  Burmah 
from  1860  to  1886,  and  now  that  of 
Upper  Burmah,  in  a level  plain  about  2 
miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Irra- 
waddy, 386  miles  by  rail  from  Rangoon. 
Pop.  183,816. 

MANDA'MUe,  in  law,  a command  or 
writ  issuing  from  a superior  court, 
directed  to  any  person,  corporation,  or 
inferior  court,  requiring  them  to  do 
some  act  therein  specified  which  apper- 
tains to  their  office  and  duty,  as  to  admit 
a person  to  an  office  or  franchise,  or  to 
deliver  papers,  etc. 

MAN'DARIN,  the  term  applied  by 
Europeans  to  government  officials  of 
every  grade  in  China.  The  Chinese 
equivalent  is  kwan,  which  signifies 
literally  a public  character. 

MANDARIN  DUCK,  a beautiful  spe- 
cies of  duck  from  Eastern  Asia,  the  males 
of  which  exhibit  a highly  variegated 
plumage  of  green,  purple,  white,  and 


Mandarin  duck. 


chestnut,  the  females  being  colored  a 
more  sober  brown.  The  male  loses  his 
fine  plumage  in  summer. 

MANDATS  (man-da),  a kind  of  paper- 
money  issued  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion, differing  from  the  assignats 
in  so  far  as  specific  pieces  of  prop- 
erty, enumerated  in  a table,  were 
pledged  for  the  redemption  of  the  bills, 
while  the  assignats  furnished  only  a 
general  claim. 

MAN'DIBLE,  the  term  more  espe- 


MANDOLIN 


MANILA 


cially  applied  to  both  the  upper  and 
under  jaws  of  birds.  In  mammals  it  is 
applied  only  to  the  under  jaw,  and  in 
the  Articulata  to  the  upper  or  anterior 
air  of  jaws,  which  are  generally  solid, 
orny,  biting  organs. 

MAN'DOLIN,  a musical  instrument 
of  the  guitar  kind.  There  are  several 
varieties,  each  with  different  tunings. 
The  Neapolitan  has  four  strings  tuned 
like  those  of  the  violin,  G,  D,  A,  E; 
The  Milanese  has  five  double  strings 
(each  pair  in  unison)  tuned  G,  C,  A,  D, 


Mandolin. 


E,  A plectrum  is  used  in  the  right  hand, 
the  fingers  of  the  left  stopping  the 
strings  on  the  fretted  finger-board. 

MANDRILL,  a species  of  baboon 
which  is  distinguished  by  the  short  or 
rudimentary  tail,  by  the  elongated  dog- 
like muzzle,  and  by  the  presence  of 
buttock  callosities  which  are  generally 
brightly  colored.  The  mandrill  inhabits 
Western  Africa,  where  they  associate 
in  large  troops.  Full-grown  males  meas- 


Mandrill. 


ure  about  5 feet ; they  are  exceedingly 
strong  and  muscular,  and  fierce  in  dis- 
position. It  has  cheek  protuberances 
colored  with  stripes  of  brilliant  red  and 
blue. 

MANFRED,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies; 
born  1231,  died  1266.  A natural  son  of 
the  Emperor  Frederick  III.,  he  was 
regent  in  Italy  first  for  his  brother  and 
then  for  his  nephew,  on  whose  rumored 
death  he  was  crowned  king.  He  refused 
to  resign  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  was 
excommunicated,  and  his  kingdom  of 
the  Sicilies  given  as  a papal  fief  to 
Charles  of  Anjou.  The  latter  marched 
into  Naples  and  gained  a victory,  in 
which  Manfred  was  killed. 

MAN'GANESE,  a metal  of  a dusky- 
white  or  whitish-gray  color,  very  hard 
and  difficult  to  fuse.  Exposed  to  air  it 
speedily  oxidizes;  it  decomposes  water 
with  evolution  of  hydrogen.  The  com- 
mon ore  of  manganese  is  the  dioxide, 
black  oxide,  or  peroxide,  a substance 
largely  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
chlorine  for  the  manufacture  of  bleach- 
ing-powder  or  chlorate  of  lime.  It  is 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  plate 


glass,  to  correct  the  yellow  color  which 
oxide  of  iron  is  apt  to  impart  to  the 
glass.  It  is  also  used  in  making  the 
black  enamel  of  pottery.  Other  oxides 
are  the  protoxide,  sesqui-oxide,  the  red 
oxide,  and  permanganic  acid.  The  latter 
is  only  known  in  solution  or  in  a state  of 
combination.  It  is  largely  used  in  an- 
alytical chemistry.  Metallic  manganese 
is  obtained  by  reduction  of  the  oxide 
by  means  of  heat  and  finely-divided 
carbon.  It  resembles  iron  in  appearance 
and  properties;  is  a constituent  of  many 
mineral  waters,  and  is  employed  in 
medicine.  In  steel  manufacture  it  is 
used  in  certain  proportions  with  ad- 
vantage as  regards  the  ductility  of  the 
steel  and  ability  to  withstand  forging, 
and  in  other  manufacturing  operations 
it  forms  an  important  element. 

MANGANESE  BRONZE,  a kind  of 
bronze  in  which  the  copper  forming  the 
base  of  the  alloy  is  mixed  with  a certain 
proportion  of  ferro-manganese,  and 
which  has  exceptional  qualities  in  the 
way  of  strength,  hardness,  toughness, 
etc.  Various  qualities  are  manufactured, 
each  suited  for  certain  special  purposes. 
One  quality,  in  which  the  zinc  alloyed 
with  the  treated  copper  is  considerably 
in  excess  of  the  tin,  is  made  into  rods, 
plates,  etc.,  and  when  simply  cast  is  said 
to  have  a tensile  strength  of  about  24 
tons  per  square  inch,  with  an  elastic 
limit  of  from  14  to  15  tons.  Another 
quality  used  in  gun-founding  has  all  the 
characteristics  of  forged  steel  without 
any  of  its  defects.  A third  quality  is 
now  in  extensive  use  for  toothed-wheels, 
gearing,  brackets,  and  all  kinds  of 
machinery  supports.  From  its  non- 
liability to  corrosion  it  is  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  propellers. 

MANGE,  a cutaneous  disease  to  which 
dogs,  horses,  cattle,  etc.,  are  liable.  It 
resembles  in  some  measure  the  itch  in 
the  human  subject,  ordinary  mange 
being  due  to  the  presence  of  a burrow- 
ing parasite.  Both  local  application  and 
internal  remedies  are  used  in  its  cure. 

MANGO,  the  fruit  of  the  mango-tree, 
a native  of  tropical  Asia,  but  not  widely 
cultivated  throughout  the  tropics. 
Fine  varieties  produce  a luscious, 
slightly  acid  fruit  much  prized  for 
dessert.  The  large  flat  kernel  of  the 
fruit  is  nutritious,  and  has  been 
cooked  for  food  in  times  of  scarcity. 
The  fruit  forms  a fleshy  drupe  about  the 
size  of  a hen’s  egg  or  larger,  somewhat 
kidney-shaped  and  yellowish  or  reddish 
in  color,  spotted  with  black  on  the  out- 
side. The  fruit  is  much  used  for  making 
pickles,  chutneys,  and  curries. ' Dried,  it 
forms  a considerable  article  of  commerce. 
It  yields  by  distillation  a spirit  said  to 
be  not  unlike  whisky  in  flavor.  The 
tree  grows  to  a considerable  size,  with 
an  erect  trunk,  and  yields  a timber  that 
is  used  for  a variety  of  purposes  for 
which  fine  timber  is  not  required,  as  for 
packing-boxes,  country  carts,  rough 
furniture,  house  carpentry,  etc. 

MANGOSTEEN',  a tree  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of 
18  feet,  and  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of 
an  orange,  and  contains  a juicy  white 
pulp  of  a delicate,  sweet,  sub-acid  flavor. 
It  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  delicious 
and  wholesome  of  all  known  fruits.  The 
thick  fleshy  rind  has  astringent  prop- 


erties, and  hence  is  used  medicinally  in 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 

MANGROVE,  a genus  of  plants  con- 
sisting of  trees  or  shrubs  which  grow  in 
tropical  countries  along  the  muddy 
beaches  of  low  coasts,  where  they  form 
impenetrable  barriers  for  long  distances. 
They  throw  out  numerous  roots  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem,  and  also  send 
down  long  slender  roots  from  the 
branches,  like  the  Indian  banyan-tree. 
The  seeds  germinate  in  the  seed  vessel, 
the  root  growing  downward  till  it  fixes 
itself  in  the  mud.  By  retaining  mud  and 
vegetable  matter  among  their  roots 
mangroves  often  help  in  the  gaining  of 
land  from  the  sea.  The  wood  is  dark- 
red,  hard,  and  durable,  and  the  bark  is 
used  for  tanning.  The  fruit  is  said  to  be 
sweet  and  edible,  and  the  fermented 
juice  is  made  into  a kind  of  light  wine. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  the  verbena 
family,  which  occupies  large  tracts  of 
shore  in  tropical  countries,  extending 
as  far  south  as  New  Zealand  and  Tas- 
mania. 

MANHATTAN  ISLAND,  an  island  at 
the  head  of  New  York  bay,  forming  the 
borough  of  Manhattan  in  New  York 
City,  and  containing  the  commercial 
and  financial  nucleus  of  the  metropolis, 
together  with  its  main  residence  portion. 
It  is  situated  between  the  Hudson  or 
North  river  and  the  East  river:  Spuyten 
Duyvil  creek  and  the  Harlem  river 
separate  it  from  the  mainland  on  the 
north  and  northeast.  The  island,  with 
tapering  northern  and  southern  ex- 
tremities, a few  hundred  yards  wide, 
is  13^  miles  long,  with  a maximum 
width,  at  Fourteenth  street,  of  2J  miles, 
and  an  area  of  22  sq.  miles.  It  has  a 
wharfage  front  of  22  miles,  with  a depth 
of  water  sufficient  for  the  largest  vessels. 
Three  bridges  connect  Manhattan  Island 
with  Long  Island.  A number  of  bridges 
span  the  Harlem  river  and  Spuyten 
Duyvil  creek,  and  numerous  steam 
ferries  communicate  with  the  adjacent 
shores.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
rocky,  in  the  north  rising  from  the  Hud- 
son to  an  altitude  of  238  feet  at  Wash- 
ington Heights,  but  sloping  abruptly 
toward  the  east,  where  is  a level  stretch 
formerly  known  as  the  Harlem  Flats. 
The  greater  part  of  the  city  is  built  on 
the  4-ock  foundation ; pile  foundations, 
however,  are  resorted  to  in  the  deeper 
glacial  deposits  and  in  the  beach  sand. 

MANIA.  See  Insanity. 

MAN'IFEST,  is  a document  signed  by 
the  master  of  a vessel  at  the  place  of 
lading,  to  be  exhibited  at  the  custom- 
house, containing  a specific  description 
of  the  ship  and  her  cargo,  with  the  desti- 
nation of  the  ship  and  of  each  package 
of  the  goods,  etc. 

MANI'LA,  or  MANIL'LA,  the  capital 
city  of  the  island  of  Luzon  and  of  all 
the  Philippine  islands,  see  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  primate,  and  residence  of  the 
United  States  governor,  lies  on  the  bay 
of  the  same  name,  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Pasig.  It  consists  of  an  old 
fortified  city  with  extensive  suburbs,  in 
which  are  the  mass  of  the  population, 
and  the  business  premises,  factories, 
and  residences  of  the  European  inhabi- 
tants. Manila  is  the  center  of  commerce 
of  the  Philippines,  and  exports  sugar, 
tobacco,  cigars  and  cheroots,  indigo, 


MANILLA 


MANSARD 


Manila  hemp,  coffee,  mats,  hides,  tre- 
pang,  rice,  etc.  It  imports  British  and 
United  States  cloths,  hardware,  etc.,  and 
a great  variety  of  articles,  tea,  pottery, 
etc.,  from  China.  The  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of  cigars  and  cheroots, 
and  hemp  and  cotton  fabrics.  Manila 


was  founded  by  the  Spaniards  in  1571. 
It  has  frequently  suffered  from  earth- 
quakes. It  has  electric  lighting  and  a 
good  water-supply,  and  is  rapidly  im- 
proving under  American  rule,  especially 
in  sanitation.  Pop.  275,000. 

MANILLA,  or  MANILA  HEMP.  See 
Abaca. 

MANIPUR  (-por'),  a native  state  of 
Northeastern  India,  area,  8000  sq.  miles; 
pop.  283,957 ; capital,  Imphal. 

MANISTEE,  a town  in  Michigan,  on 
Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Manistee.  It  is  in  the  great  fruit  belt  re- 
gion. It  has  the  largest  vacuum  evapora- 
ting salt  plant  in  the  world.  Pop.  17,362. 

MANTTO,  Man'itou,  among  certain 
of  the  North  American  Indians,  a name 
given  to  whatever  is  an  object  of  religi- 
ous awe  or  reverence,  whether  a good  or 
evil  spirit  or  a fetish.  Two  manitos  or 
spirits  are  spoken  of  by  pre-eminence, 
the  one  the  spirit  of  good,  the  other  the 
spirit  of  evil. 

MANITO'BA,a  province  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Saskatchewan  and  Kewatin,  on  the 
east  by  the  states  of  Minnesota  and 
North  Dakota,  and  on  the  west  by 
Assiniboia,  and  Saskatchewan.  It  oc- 
cupies a position  nearly  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  North  American  continent, and 
extends  from  49°  to  52°  50'  n.  lat.;  and 
from  89°  to  101°  20'  w.  Ion.;  area,  esti- 
mated at  64,000  sq.  miles.  The  climate 
is  warm  in  summer,  but  very  cold  in 
winter.  The  summer  mean  is  about  66°, 
but  in  winter  the  thermometer  sinks  to 
30°,  40°,  and  sometimes  50°  below  zero, 
though  this  severe  cold  is  mitigated  by 
a clear  dry  atmosphere.  The  summer 
months  are  part  of  May,  June,  July, 
August,  and  September.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Assiniboine  and  the  Red 
river,  the  latter  having  the  greater  part 
of  its  course  in  the  United  States.  The 
largest  lakes  are  Winnipeg,  Winnipego- 
sis,  and  Manitoba,  the  two  former  being 
only  partially  included  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  province.  The  greater 
part  of  the  province  consists  of  level 
treeless  prairie  land,  covered  with  a 

P.  E.— 50 


rich  vegetable  growth  in  summer.  The 
banks  of  the  streams,  however,  are  lined 
with  a timber  belt  extending  from  about 
half  a mile  to  ten  miles  back.  The  soil 
is  generally  a rich  black  mould,  resting 
partly  on  a limestone  formation,  and 
partly  on  a thick  coat  of  hard  clay. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  Indian  corn,  hops, 
flax,  hemp,  and  all  kinds  of  garden 
vegetables  produce  excellent  crops.  For 
wheat  growing  Manitoba  presents  pe- 
culiar advantages.  Potatoes  and  all 
other  root-crops  thrive  well,  and  the 
prairie  grasses  furnish  good  hay.  Game 
is  abundant,  and  the  rivers  and  lakes 
teem  with  fish.  Manitoba  is  divided  into 
seven  electoral  districts  for  Dominion 
elections,  each  sending  one  member  to 
the  house  of  commons.  The  province 
likewise  sends  four  members  to  the 
senate  of  the  Dominion.  The  public 
affairs  are  administered  by  a lieutenant- 
governor,  an  executive  council  of  five 
members,  and  a legislative  assembly  of 
forty  members  elected  for  four  years. 
The  school  system  established  by  law  is 
now  undenominational,  and  is  supported 
by  local  assessments,  supplemented  by 
legislative  grants.  The  capital  of  the 
province  is  Winnipeg,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Assiniboine  and  Red 
rivers;  other  towns  are  Portage  la 
Prairie,  Brandon,  Selkirk,  and  Emerson. 
The  nucleus  of  Manitoba  was  the  Red 
river  settlement  established  in  1812,  but 
little  progress  was  made  till  the  territory 
became  part  of  Canada  in  1870.  The 
trade  of  the  province  has  been  greatly 
increased  since  1878,  when  Winnipeg 
was  connected  with  the  railway  system 
of  the  United  States;  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway, 
which  crosses  the  province  from  east  to 
west,  has  added  materially  to  its  prog- 
ress and  prosperity.  Pop.  294,947. 

MANITOBA  LAKE,  a lake  of  Canada, 
province  of  Manitoba,  30  or  40  miles 
s.w.  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  about  120  miles 
in  length  by  about  25  miles  in  breadth; 
area,  1900  sq.  miles.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  several  lakes  at  its  northern 
extremity,  and  at  its  southern  White 
Mud  river.  It  discharges  into  Lake 
Winnipeg  through  the  Dauphin  river. 

MANITOU.  See  Manito. 

MANITOU'LIN  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
North  American  islands  in  Lake  Huron, 
consisting  of  Grand  Manitoulin,  80 
miles  long  by  5 to  30  broad.  Little 
Manitoulin,  and  Drummond  island. 
The  two  former  belong  to  Canada,  the 
latter  to  the  United  States  (Michigan). 
Pop.  about  2000,  more  than  one-half 
being  Indians. 

MANITOWOC,  the  county-seat  of 
Manitowoc  co.,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  a river  of  the 
same  name.  It  has  a good  harbor  and 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  13,640. 

MANKA'TO,  a town  in  Minnesota,  70 
miles  s.w.  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  a thriving 
center  of  a large  agricultural  district; 
has  various  manufactures  and  a good 
trade.  Pop.  12,615. 

MANNA,  the  sweet  concrete  juice 
which  is  obtained  by  incisions  made  in 
the  stem  of  a species  of  ash,  a native  of 
Sicily,  Calabria,  and  other  parts  of  the 
south  of  Europe.  The  manna  of  com- 
merce is  collected  in  Sicily,  where  the 


manna-ash  is  cultivated  for  the  purpose 
in  regular  plantations.  The  best  luaiiua 
is  in  oblong  pieces  or  flakes  of  a whitish 
or  pale-yellow  color,  light,  friable,  and 
somewhat  transparent.  It  has  a slight 
peculiar  odor,  and  a sweetish  taste 
mixed  with  a slight  degree  of  bitterness, 
and  is  employed  as  a gentle  laxative 
for  children  or  persons  of  weak  habit. 
It  is,  however,  generally  used  as  an 
adjunct  to  other  more  active  medicines. 
In  Scripture  we  are  told  that  a substance 
called  manna  was  miraculously  fur- 
nished as  food  for  the  Israelites  in  their 
journey  through  the  Arabian  wilderness. 

MANNA-ASH.  See  Manna. 

MANNHEIM,  (man'him)  a town  of 
Germany,  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  near  the  con- 
fluence of  that  river  with  the  Neckar. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Schloss 
or  castle,  the  theater,  arsenal,  Jesuits’ 
church,  etc.  The  town  has  suffered 
severely  from  war,  especially  in  the 
siege  of  1795.  Pop.  140,384. 

MANNING,  Daniel,  American  jour- 
nalist and  politician,  was  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  in  1831.  In  1876  be  became 
a member  of  the  New  York  Democratic 
State  Committee,  was  chosen  secretary 
in  1879  and  chairman  in  1881.  In  1882 
he  contributed  greatly  to  the  election 
of  Grover  Cleveland  as  governor  of 
New  York  and  it  was  Manning’s  astute- 
ness and  tact  that  made  possible  the 
successful  presentation  of  Cleveland’s 
name  as  a candidate  for  the  presidency 
in  1884.  In  the  latter  year  his  personal 
supervision  contributed  greatly  to  the 
success  of  the  democratic  ticket  in  the 
pivotal  state  of  New  York.  From  1885 
to  1887  he  was  secretary  of  the  treasury 
in  Cleveland’s  cabinet,  from  which  he 
retired  on  account  of  ill  health  shortly 
before  his  death  in  1887. 

MANNING,  Henry  Edward,  Cardinal, 
born  at  Totteridge,  Hertfordshire,  1808. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Tractarian 
movement, and  in  1851  joined  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  was  ordained  priest.  On 
the  death  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Archbishop  of  Westmin- 
ster (1865),  and  ten  years  after  he  was 
made  cardinal.  He  died  in  1892. 

MANCEUVRES,  the  movements  and 
evolutions  of  any  large  body  of  troops  or 
fleet  of  ships,  for  the  purpose  of  testing 
the  efficiency  of  the  various  bodies  of  the 
service  under  the  conditions  of  actual 
warfare,  and  for  the  purpose  of  instruct- 
ing officers  in  tactics,  and  officers  and 
men  in  their  various  duties.  For  these 
purposes  mimic  warfare  is  carried  on 
periodicallyunder  the  name  of  military  or 
naval  manoeuvres. 

MAN-OF-WAR  BIRD,  See  Albatross. 

MANOM'ETER,  an  instrument  to 
measure  or  show  the  alterations  in  the 
rarity  or  density  of  the  air,  or  to  measure 
the  rarity  of  any  gas.  Such  instruments 
as  measure  the  elastic  force  of  steam  are 
also  properly  termed  manometers.  They 
are  variously  constructed. 

MANS,  LE  (le  man),  a town  of  France, 
capital  of  department  Sarthe,  on  a 
height  above  the  Sarthe,  115  miles  south- 
west of  Paris.  Pop.  62,948. 

MANSARD  (m&n-sar),  Francois, 
French  architect,  born  in  Paris  1598, 
died  1666.  The  roof  known  by  his  name 


MANSARD  ROOF 


MANUSCRIPTS 


was  his  invention.  His  nephew,  Jules 
Hardouin,  who  assumed  his  name  (1645- 
1708),  attained  great  fame  as  an  archi- 
tect. The  Palais  de  Versailles,  Hotel  des 


A,  Tie-beam,  b,  Collar-beajm.  cc,  Rafters. 

Invalides,  the  Place  Vendome,  and  other 
works  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  were 
from  his  designs. 

MANSARD  ROOF,  a roof  formed  with 
an  upper  and  under  set  of  rafters  on  each 
side,  the  under  set  approaching  more 
nearly  to  the  perpendicular  than  the 
upper. 

MANSFIELD,  the  capital  of  Richland 
CO.,  O.,  on  the  Balt,  and  O.,  the  Erie, 
the  Penn.,  and  the  Pitts.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and 
St.  L.  railways;  180  miles  n.  e.  of  Cincin- 
nati. It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  has 
manufactories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, flour,  stoves,  pumps,  and  numer- 
ous minor  articles.  Pop.  21,625. 

MANSFIELD,  Richard,  American 
actorwas  born  in  the  island  of  Heligoland 
in  1857.  When  about  seventeen  years  of 
age  he  came  to  the  United  States.  His 
first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  as 
Baron  Chevrial  in  A Parisian  Romance, 
and  was  a great  success.  Among  his 
parts  have  been  Doctor  Jekyll  and  Mr. 
Hyde,  Richard  III.,  Beau  Brummell, 
Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  Monsieur  Beaucaire 
and  Brutus.  He  died  in  1907. 

MANSLAUGHTER.  See  Homicide. 

MANTCHOOS.  See  Manchuria. 

MANTELL',  Gideon  Algernon,  geolo- 
gist and  palaeontologist,  born  at  Lewes, 
in  Sussex,  1790,  died  in  London  1852. 
Through  his  investigations  the  fossilized 
skeletons  of  those  gigantic  reptiles  the 
Iguanodon  and  Hylaeosaurus  were  dis- 
covered. He  was  a popular  lecturer  on 
geology,  and  published  The  Fossils  of  the 
South  Downs,  Illustrations  of  the  Geol- 
ogy of  Sussex,  Wonders  of  Geology,  and 
Medals  of  Creation. 

MANTEUFFEL  (man'toi-fl),  Edwin, 
Baron  von,  German  field-marshal,  born 
1809,  died  1885.  He  played  a distin- 
guished part  in  the  Franco-German  war, 
especially  in  several  actions  around  Metz 
at  Amiens,  and  in  driving  Bourbaki’s 
army  across  the  frontier  into  Switzer- 
land. From  June,  1871,  to  July,  1873, he 
commanded  the  army  of  occupation  in 
France,  and  was  made  field-marshal.  In 
1879  he  was  appointed  governor-general 
of  Alsace-Lorraine. 

MANTIS,  a genus  of  orthopterous  in- 
sects, remarkable  for  their  grotesque 
forms.  They  frequent  trees  and  plants. 


Praying-mantis. 


and  the  forms  and  colors  of  their  bodies 
and  wings  are  so  like  the  leaves  and 
twigs  which  surround  them  as  to  give 
them  remarkable  power  to  elude  obser- 


vation. The  praying-mantis  has  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  peculiar  posi- 
tion of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs,  resem- 
bling that  of  a person’s  hands  at  prayer. 
In  their  habits  they  are  very  voracious, 
killing  insects  and  cutting  them  to 
pieces.  They  are  natives  chiefly  of  tropi- 
cal regions,  but  are  also  found  in  France, 
Spain,  and  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe. 
They  are  very  pugnacious,  and  are  kept 
by  the  Chinese  for  the  purpose  of  watch- 
ing them  fight. 

MAN'TUA,  a strongly  fortified  town  of 
Northern  Italy,  one  of  four  forming  the 
Quadrilateral,  capital  of  the  province  of 
the  same  name,  80  miles  e.  s.  e.of  Milan. 
Virgil  was  born  at  the  adjoining  village 
of  Andes,  supposed  to  be  the  modern 
Pietole.  Pop.  28,048. — The  province, 
which  is  intersected  by  the  Po,  Mincio, 
and  other  streams,  produces  rice,  wheat, 
silk,  wine,  etc.;  area,  961  sq.  miles;  pop. 
315,314. 

MAN'U,  an  early  Sanskrit  writer, 
author  of  a book  of  laws,  civil  and  relig- 
ious, called  Dharma-Shastra, still  extant. 

MANUAL  ALPHABET.  See  deaf  and 
Dumb. 

MANUAL  OF  ARMS,  a text-book  of 
rules  and  explanations  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  military  recruits  in  the  use  of 
their  arms  and  their  care  and  preserva- 
tion. In  the  United  States  Army  all 
drills  begin  and  end  with  an  examina- 
tion of  cartridge  chambers,  and  for  pur- 
poses of  instruction  the  movements  are 
divided  into  motions,  and  executed  in 
detail.  The  command  of  execution  de- 
termines the  prompt  execution  of  the 
first  motion,  and  the  commands  Two, 
Three,  etc.,  the  other  motions.  The  eom- 
mands  and  movements  of  the  manual  of 
arms  are  given  after  the  soldier  is  in 
position  with  rifle  at  the  order,  and  are 
as  follows:  (1)  Order  arms;  (2)  carry 
arms;  (3)  present  arms;  (4)  right  shoulder 
arms;  (5)  port  arms.  Other  movements 
are:  (6)  Parade-rest;  (7)  fix  bayonets; 
(8)  charge  bayonets. 

MANUMISSION,  among  the  Romans, 
the  solemn  ceremony  by  which  a slave 
was  emancipated. 

MANURES,  vegetable,  animal,  and 
mineral  matters  introduced  into  the  soil 
to  accelerate  vegetation  and  increase  the 
production  of  crops;  substances  used  to 
improve  the  natural  soil,  or  to  restore  to 
it  tne  fertility  which  is  diminished  by  the 
crops  annually  carried  away.  Animal 
substances  employed  as  manures  com- 
prehend the  putrefying  carcasses  of 
animals,  ground  bones,  blood,  the  excre- 
ments of  animals,  as  the  dung  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  poultry,  etc. ; urine,  guano 
(the  decomposed  excrement  of  aquatic 
birds) ; thescrapings  of  leather,  horn,  and 
the  refuse  of  the  shambles;  the  hair  or 
wool  of  animals.  Liquid  manure,  con- 
sisting of  town  sewage,  the  drainings  of 
dung-heaps,  stables,  and  cow-houses,  is 
largely  employed  in  many  districts.  Al- 
most every  kind  of  vegetable  substance, 
in  one  state  or  another,  isused  as  manure. 
The  principal  mineral  substances  em- 
ployed as  manures  are  lime,  chalk, 
sand,  clay,  marl;  sulphates  of  potash, 
soda,  ammonia,  and  magnesia;  nitrates 
of  potash  and  soda;  and  phosphates 
of  lime.  It  is  from  containing  one  or 
other  of  these  substances  that  apatite. 


basic  slag,  cubic  nitre,  kainite,  etc , 
are  so  valuable.  Modern  researches  upon 
plant  nutrition,  and  the  chemistry  of 
agriculture  in  general,  have  shown  us 
that  the  food  of  plants  may  be  classed 
under  the  two  headings  of  air  food  and 
mineral  food.  Air  food  consists  of  am- 
monia, water,  and  carbon  dioxide;  min- 
eral food,  of  those  substances  which  re- 
main as  ash  when  the  plant  is  ignited. 
The  former  class  of  food  is  supplied  to 
the  plant  partly  from  the  atmosphere 
and  partly  from  the  soil,  the  latter  from 
the  soil  entirely.  In  the  production  of 
food  by  natural  processes  of  plant- 
growth  a certain  amount  of  air  food  and 
also  of  mineral  food  is  abstracted  from 
the  soil,  those  amounts  varying  for  dif- 
ferent species  of  plants;  if  this  food  be 
returned  to  the  soil,  then  a further 
growth  of  plants  may  be  expected;  if, 
however,  seed  is  sown  in  the  partially 
impoverished  soil,  there  must  be  a de- 
erease  in  the  amo.unt  of  crop  obtained 
from  that  soil.  As  the  plants  serve  to 
nourish  animals,  it  follows  that  the  sub- 
stances which  have  been  withdrawn 
from  the  soil  by  the  plants  may  be  re- 
turned to  it  in  the  shape  partly  of  ani- 
mal excreta,  and  partly  of  ground  bones, 
etc.  Different  plants  require  different 
kinds  of  food;  if,  therefore,  the  kind  of 
crop  grown  on  the  same  land  be  varied 
from  year  to  year,  and  if  the  soil  be  tilled 
so  as  to  unlock  its  natural  supplies  of 
mineral  food,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
average  yield  of  crops  may  be  main- 
tained simply  by  the  restitution  to  the 
land  of  that  amount  of  food  which  has 
been  removed  from  it  by  the  plants. 

MANUSCRIPTS,  are  literally  writings 
of  any  kind,  whether  on  paper  or  any 
other  material,  in  contradistinction  to 
printed  matter.  Previous  to  the  intro- 
duction of  printing  all  literature  was 
contained  in  manuscripts,  and  the  de- 
ciphering and  proper  use  of  these  form 
an  important  part  in  the  science  of 
palaeography.  All  the  existing  ancient 
manuscripts  are  written  on  parchment 
or  on  paper.  The  paper  is  sometimes 
Egyptian  (prepared  from  the  real  pa- 
pyrus shrub),  sometimes  cotton  or  silk 
paper.  The  most  common  ink  is  the 
black,  which  is  very  old.  Red  ink  of  a 
dazzling  beauty  is  also  found  in  ancient 
times  in  manuscripts.  With  it  were 
written  the  initial  letters,  the  first  lines, 
and  the  titles,  which  were  thence  called 
rubrics.  Blue,  green,  and  yellow  inks 
were  more  rarely  used.  On  rare  oc- 
casions gold  and  silver  were  the  medi- 
ums, though  from  their  cost  they  are 
oftenest  confined  to  initial  letters.  With 
respect  to  external  form,  manuscripts 
are  divided  into  rolls,  and  into  stitched 
books  or  volumes  (properly  codices). 
The  most  ancient  manuscripts  still  pre- 
served are  those  written  on  papyrus 
which  have  been  found  in  Egyptian 
tombs.  Several  of  these  are  of  date  con- 
siderably before  the  Christian  era:  not- 
ably fragments  of  the  Iliad  and  a papy- 
rus containing  the  orations  of  Lycophron 
and  Euxenippus,  11  feet  in  length  and 
containing  49  columns  of  writing.  Next 
to  them  in  point  of  age  are  the  Latin 
manuscripts  found  at  Herculaneum.  It 
was  a common  custom  in  the  middle 
ages  to  obliterate  and  erase  writings  on 


MANUTIUS 


MARBLING 


parchment,  for  the  purpose  of  writing  on 
the  materials  anew,  manuscripts  thus 
treated  being  called  palimpsests. 

The  art  of  illuminating  manuscripts 
' dates  from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The 
Egyptian  papyri  were  ornamented  with 
vignettes  or  miniatures  attached  to  the 
chapters,  either  designed  in  black  out- 
lines Or  painted  in  primary  colors  in  dis- 
temper. The  oldest  ornamented  Greek 
and  Roman  manuscripts  that  have  sur- 
vived are  the  Diosorides  of  Vienna  and 
the  Virgil  of  the  Vatican,  both  of  the  4th 
century,  and  having  vignettes  or  pic- 
tures in  a Byzantine  style  of  art.  From 
the  8th  to  the  11th  century  the  initial 
letters  in  use  were  composed  of  figures 
of  men,  quadrupeds,  fishes,  birds,  etc. 

MANUTIUS,  Aldus,  or  Aldo  Manuzio, 
Italian  printer,  born  about  1447,  died 
1515.  In  1488  he  established  himself  as 
a printer  at  Venice,  but  the  first  work 
which  he  finished  was  not  published  till 
1494.  In  the  course  of  the  ensuing 
twenty  years  he  printed  the  works  of  the 
most  ancient  Latin  and  Greek  authors 
extant,  as  well  as  many  productions  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  some  treatises 
of  his  own  composition.  He  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  italic  or  cursive  character, 
hence  called  Aldine. 

MANZO'NI,  Alessandro,  an  Italian 
poet  and  novelist,  was  born  1784,  died 
1873.  He  was  the  son  of  Count  Pietro 
Manzoni  and  of  the  Marchioness  Giulia 
Beccaria,  daughter  of  the  Marquis  Cesare 
Beccaria,  author  of  the  well-known 
treatise  on  Crimes  and  their  Punishment. 
After  his  father’s  death  in  1805  he  lived 
for  some  time  in  Paris  with  his  mother, 
and  in  1808  he  married  the  daughter  of  a 
Genoese  banker,  under  whose  influence 
he  settled  down  into  the  fervent  Catholi 
cism  which  colored  all  the  rest  of  his  life. 
His  chief  works  are  the  Inni  Sacri,  a 
series  of  sacred  lyrics;  II  Cinque  Maggio, 
a powerful  ode  on  the  death  of  N apoleon ; 
the  tragedies  II  Conte  di  Carmagnola, 
and  Adelchi;  and  his  great  novel  I 
Proraessi  Sposi  (The  Betrothed). 

MAORIS  (ma'o-riz),  the  name  given  to 
themselvesby  thenativesof  New  Zealand. 

MAP,  a projection  on  a plane  surface 
of  the  whole  or  a part  of  the  earth’s  sur- 
face, showing  its  main  features  in  more  or 
less  detail.  The  earth  being  a spheroid, 
its  surface  cannot  be  made  to  coincide 
rigorously  with  a plane ; and  it  therefore 
becomes  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  a 
projection,  that  is,  a plan  on  a plane  sur- 
face, which  indicates  with  sufficient 
correctness  the  relative  positions,  dimen- 
sions, etc.,  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
spherical  surface.  There  are  five  prin- 
cipal projections,  the  orthographic,  the 
stereographic,  the  globular,  the  conical, 
and  the  cylindrical  or  Mercator’s  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  dif- 
ferent positions  of  the  point  of  projec- 
tion, or  that  in  which  the  eye  is  sup- 
posed to  be  placed.  The  last  named 
gives  a very  erroneous  idea  of  the  rela- 
tive size  of  the  different  portions  of  the 
earth’s  surface,  especially  toward  the 
poles,  but  is  very  useful  to  mariners,  in 
enabling  them  to  lay  off  a course  that 
can  be  steered  by  compass  in  straight 
lines.  (See  Mercator’s  Projection.)  A 
nautical  map  is  usually  called  a chart 
(which  see). 


MA'PLE,  a name  for  trees,  peculiar  to 
the  northern  and  temperate  parts  of  the 
globe.  About  fifty  species  are  known, 
distributed  through  Europe,  North 
America,  and  different  parts  of  Asia. 
They  are  small  or  large  trees,  with  a 
sweetish,  rarely  milky,  sap,  opposite 
deciduous,  simple,  usually  lobed  leaves, 
and  axillary  and  terminal  racemes  or 
corymbs  of  small  greenish  flowers.  The 
characteristic  form  of  the  fruit  is  shown 
in  the  figure.  The  wood  is  valuable  for 
various  purposes,  as  for  carving,  turnery, 
musical  instruments,  wooden  dishes, 
etc.  Another  well-known  species  is  the 
Norway  maple.  The  wood  of  several 
American  species  is  also  applied  to 
various  uses.  The  sugar  or  rock  maple 
is  the  most  important  species;  this  yields 
maple-sugar,  which  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  is  an  important  article  of 
manufacture.  A tree  of  ordinarysize  will 
yield  from  15  to  30  gallons  of  sap  yearly, 
from  which  are  made  from  2 to  4 lbs.  of 


Sugar  maple. 


sugar.  The  knotted  parts  of  the  sugar- 
maple  furnish  the  pretty  bird’s-eye 
maple  of  cabinet-makers.  Some  other 
American  species  are  the  white  maple, 
the  red  or  swamp  maple,  the  striped 
maple  or  moose  wood,  the  mountain 
maple,  the  vine  maple,  and  the  large- 
leafed  maple. 

MAQUI  (mak'we),  an  evergreen  or 
subevergreen  shrub  found  in  Chile,  from 
the  juice  of  whose  fruit  the  Chilians 
make  a kind  of  wine. 

MARASCHINO  (ma-ras-ke'no),  a fine 
liquor  distilled  from  a small  black  wild 
variety  of  cherry.  The  best-known  kinds 
are  the  maraschino  de  Zara,  from  Zara 
in  Dalmatia,  and  that  from  Corsica.  An 
inferior  kind  is  made  in  Germany. 

MARAS'MUS,  a wasting  of  the  flesh 
without  fever  or  apparent  disease;  often, 
however,  dependent  on  disease  of  the 
mesenteric  glands,  or  some  obstruction 
in  the  course  of  the  chyle. 

MARAT  (ma-ra),  Jean  Paul,  one  of  the 
most  infamous  leaders  of  the  French 
revolution,  born  near  Neufch&tel  in  1744. 
The  first  breath  of  the  revolution,  brought 
him  to  the  front,  and  when  Danton  in- 
stituted the  club  of  the  Cordeliers,  Marat 
became  the  editor  of  the  Publiciste 
Parisien,  better  know  under  its  later 
title  L’Amidu  Peuple,  which  was  again 
changed  to  tlie  Journal  de  la  R^publique 
Frangaise,  a journal  which  was  the  organ 
of  that  society,  and  soon  became  the 
oracle  of  the  mob.  His  paper  was  issued 
from  various  places  of  concealment  until 
the  10th  August,  1792,  after  which  he 
Took  his  seat  at  the  commune,  and 


played  a leading  part  in  the  assassina- 
tions of  September  (1792).  He  was  a 
member  of  the  terrible  committee  of 
public  safety,  and  of  the  convention 


Jean  Paul  Marat. 


where  General  Dumouriez  and  the 
Girondists,  who  endeavored  at  first  to 
prevent  his  taking  his  seat,  were  the 
special  objects  of  his  attack.  The  es- 
tablishment of  the  revolutionary  tri- 
bunal, and  of  the  committee  for  arrest- 
ing the  suspected,  was  adopted  on  his 
motions.  On  the  approach  of  May  31,  as 
president  of  the  Jacobin  Club  he  signed 
an  address  instigating  the  people  to  an 
insurrection,  and  to  massacre  all  traitors. 
For  this  Marat  was  delivered  over  to  the 
revolutionary  tribunal,  which  acquitted 
him;  and  the  people  received  him  in 
triumph  and  covered  him  with  wreaths. 
He  was  assassinated  shortly  after  by 
Charlotte  Corday,  July  13,  1793.  His 
remains  were  deposited  in  the  Pantheon 
with  national  honors,  but  were  subse- 
quently removed. 

MAR'ATHON,  a village  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  Attica,  about  20  miles  north- 
east of  Athens.  It  was  situated  (prob- 
ably on  the  site  of  the  modern  Vrana)  on 
a plain  which  extends  for  about  6 miles 
along  the  seashore,  with  a breadth  of 
from  1 J to  3 miles.  It  is  famous  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  Persians  by  the  Athen- 
ians under  Miltiades,  490  b.c. 

MARAT'TI,  Carlo,  Italian  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  1625.  Louis  XIV.  em- 
ployed him  to  paint  his  celebrated  pic- 
ture of  Daphne.  Clement  IX.,  whose 
portrait  he  painted,  appointed  him  over- 
seer of  the  Vatican  gallery.  He  has  been 
styled  the  last  painter  of  the  Roman 
school.  His  Madonnas  were  particularly 
admired.  He  died  in  1713  at  Rome, 
where  his  chief  works  are  to  be  found. 

MARBLE,  the  name  given  to  certain 
varieties  of  limestone  capable  of  re- 
ceiving a brilliant  polish,  and  which, 
both  from  their  durability  and  the  beauty 
of  the  tints  of  many  of  them,  have  at  all 
periods  of  the  world  been  greatly  in  re- 
quest for  purposes  of  art  or  ornament. 
White  statuary  marble  is  a pure  car- 
bonate of  calcium.  Marbles  have  been 
divided  into  seven  varieties  or  classes. 

MARBLING,  in  bookbinding,  a pro- 
cess of  ornamenting  the  edges  of  books 
by  dipping  them,  when  cut,  in  a trough 
about  2 inches  deep  and  filled  with  gum- 
water  on  the  surface  of  which  colored 
pigments  have  been  thrown  and  disposed 
in  various  forms  with  a quill  and  comb. 


MARCASITE 


MARIA  THERESA 


The  colors  adhering  to  the  edge  of  the 
book  are  set  by  dashing  cold  water  over 
them.  Marbled  papers  for  the  sides  of 
books  are  made  in  the  same  manner. 

MAR'CASITE,  iron  pyrites  or  bisul- 
phide of  iron.  It  is  of  a paler  color  than 
ordinary  pyrites,  being  nearly  of  the 
color  of  tin,  and  its  luster  is  more  strong- 
ly metallic. 

MARCELLUS,  Marcus  Claudius,  a 
Roman  general,  five  times  consul  (222, 
215,  214,  210,  and  208  b.c.);  the  first 
Roman  who  successfully  encountered 
Hannibal  in  the  second  Punic  war;  and 
the  conqueror  of  Syracuse  (212  b.c.). 
He  was  killed  in  a skirmish  with  the 
Carthaginians  in  208  b.c. 

MARCH,  originally  the  first  month  of 
the  Roman  year.  Till  the  adoption  of  the 
new  style  in  Britain  (1752),  the  25th  of 
March  was  the  first  day  of  the  legal  year; 
hence  January,  February,  and  the  first 
twenty-four  days  of  March  have  fre- 
quently two  years  appended,  as  January 
1,  170i,  or  1701-2. 

MARCO  POLO.  See  Polo. 

MARCONI,  Guglielmo,  Italian  elec- 
trician was  born  near  Bologna  at  Grif- 
fone  in  1875.  At  the  university  of  Bo- 
logna he  became  interested  in  the  nature 
of  the  Hertzian  wares,  and  saw  the 
possibilities  of  using  these  wares  for  the 
transmission  of  messages.  He  made 
several  successful  experiments  in  1895 
and  1896.  In  1897  The  Marconi  Wireless 
Telegraph  Company  was  started  with 
large  capital.  In  1899  signals  were  suc- 
cessfully exchanged  across  the  English 


channel.  In  1901  from  St.  John,  N.  F., 
Marconi  sent  a signal  to  the  Irish  coast 
and  on  December  9,  1902,  succeeded  in 
sending  a message.  In  February,  1902,  on 
hisway  tothe  United  States,  Marconi  re- 
ceived signals  on  board  ship  at  a distance 
of  2099  miles.  In  January,  1903,  Marconi 
sent  a message  from  President  Roose- 
velt to  King  Edward  from  Cape  Cod, 
Mass.,  direct  to  Poldhu  a distance  of 
3000  miles.  See  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

MARCUS  AURELIUS.  See  Aurelius 
Antoninus. 

MARCY,  William  Learned,  American 
politician,  was  born  at  Sturbridge,  Mass., 
in  1786.  He  soon  became  a leading 
democratic  politician,  and  one  of  the 
“Albany  regency”  which  was  supposed 
to  control  the  action  of  the  party  in 


New  York  State.  He  was  United  States 
senator  in  1831-32,  and  during  his  term 
he  incidentally  made  use  of  the  phrase  so 
frequently  afterward  heard,  “To  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils.”  He  resigned 
to  become  governor  of  New  York,  1833 
— 39.  He  was  secretary  of  war  under 
Polk,  1845-49,  and  secretary  of  state 
under  Pierce,  1853-57.  As  secretary  of 
state  he  conducted  with  success  the 
Koszta  case  in  1854,  involving  a collision 
with  Austria  on  the  subject  of  the  right 
of  expatriation.  All  his  political  leanings 
were  to  that  branch  of  the  democratic 
party  in  New  York  which  made  the 
strength  of  the  new  republican  party  in 
1856,  and  he  would  have  been  its  natural 
leader  if  he  had  followed  his  own  convic- 
tions on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill.  He 
hesitated,  and  other  men.  took  his  place. 
He  died  at  Ballston  Spa,N.Y.,  July  4,1857. 

MARGARET,  Queen  of  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  called  the  North- 
ern Semiramis,  the  daughter  of  Walde- 
mar  III.,  king  of  Denmark;  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1353,  married  to  Hakon, 
king  of  Norway,  in  1363.  The  death  of 
her  husband  in  1380  placed  Norway  in 
her  hands;  that  of  her  son  Olaf  in  1387 
enabled  her  to  secure  the  throne  of  Den- 
mark, to  which  she  had  previously 
brought  about  his  election ; and  after  de- 
feating Albert,  the  Swedish  king,  she  also 
obtained  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Sweden.  She  endeavored  to  place  the 
union  of  the  three  kingdoms  on  a per- 
manent basis  by  the  celebrated  Act  of 
Union,  or  Treaty  of  Calmar  (1397).  She 
died  in  1412,  after  having  raised  herself 
to  a degree  of  power  then  unequalled  in 
Europe  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

MARGARET  OF  ANJOU,  daughter  of 
Ren6,  titular  king  of  Sicily,  was  born  at 
Pont-^-Mousson,  in  Lorraine,  in  1425, 
and  married  in  1443  to  Henry  VI.  of 
England.  The  imbecility  of  the  king 
made  her  practically  regent,  and  her 
power  being  contested  by  the  Duke  of 
York,  a claimant  of  the  throne  by  an 
elder  line,  the  protracted  wars  of  the 
roses  commenced.  At  first  victorious  she 
was  afterward  compelled  to  flee  to 
Scotland,  but  raising  an  army  in  the 
north,  she  secured,  by  the  battles  of 
Wakefield  (1460)  and  St.  Albans  (1461), 
the  death  of  York  and  the  release  of  the 
king.  Her  army,  however,  was  soon 
afterward  annihilated  at  Towton  (1461) 
and  Edward  (IV.),  the  son  of  the  late 
Duke  of  York,  was  declared  king.  She 
succeeded  in  obtaining  assistance  from 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  but  was  once  more 
defeated,  and  took  refuge  in  France. 
Warwick  then  became  embroiled  with 
the  young  king,  and  determined  to  re- 
place Henry  on  the  throne.  Edward  was 
in  turn  obliged  to  escape  to  the  continent 
but  obtaining  assistance  from  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  returned  and  defeated 
Warwick  at  Barnet  (1471).  Margaret, 
collecting  her  partisans,  fought  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury  (1471),  but  was 
totally  defeated.  She  and  her  son  were 
made  prisoners,  and  the  latter,  when  led 
into  the  presence  of  the  royal  victor, 
was  killed.  Henry  soon  after  died  or  was 
murdered  in  the  Tower,  and  Margaret 
remained  in  prison  four  years.  Louis  XI. 
ransomed  her  for  50,000  crowns,  and  in 
1482  she  died. 


MARGARET  OF  VALOIS,  Queen  of 
Navarre,  sister  to  Francis  I.  of  France, 
was  born  at  Angouleme  in  1492.  She 
was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  Louis 
XII.,  and  married  the  Duke  of  Alengon 
in  1509,  became  a widow  in  1525,  and  in 
1527  was  espoused  to  Henry  d’Albret, 
count  of  B6arn  and  titular  king  of 
Navarre.  From  this  time  she  resided  at 
Bearn,  assisting  in  the  development  of 
the  resources  of  the  small  kingdom,  and 
making  it  a center  of  liberal  influence. 
Many  Protestants  took  rpfuge  in  her 
territories;  andher  name  is  closelylinked 
with  those  of  Rabelais,  Dolet,  Marot, 
and  the  leading  men  of  the  period.  She 
herself  possessed  no  ordinary  culture, 
being  credited  with  a knowledge  of  six 
languages  and  the  authorship  of  several 
works,  of  which  the  chief  were  Le  Miroir 
de  I’Ame  P^cheresse,  printed  in  1533 
and  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne  for  its 
Protestant  tendencies;  the  Heptameron, 
a collection  of  Tales  in  imitation  of  the 
Decamerone  of  Boccaccio,  and  first 
printed  inl559;  and  acollectionof  poems 
published  in  1547  under  the  title  of 
Marguerites  de  la  Marguerite  des  Prin- 
cesses. She  died  in  1549,  leaving  one 
child,  Jeanne  d’Albret,  afterwards 
mother  of  Henry  IV. 

MAR'GARINE,  a mixture  of  stearine 
and  palmitine,  obtained  from  beef  fat, 
lard,  etc.,  and  formerly  regarded  as  a 
simple  fat.  The  name  is  now  applied  to 
an  imitation  of  butter.  See  Butterine. 

MAR'GRAVE,  originally  a commander 
intrusted  with  the  protection  of  a mark, 
or  country  on  the  frontier.  The  mar- 
graVes  acquired  the  rank  of  princes,  and 
stood  between  counts  and  dukes  in  the 
German  Empire. 

MARIA  LOUISA,  second  wife  of 
Napoleon  I.;  born  in  1791 ; eldest  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  of  Austria. 
Her  marriage  with  Napoleon  took  place 
in  1810  after  the  divorce  of  Josephine, 
and  in  1811  she  bore  him  a son.  After 
his  everthrow  she  received  in  1816  the 
duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guas- 
talla,  which  she  governed  till  her  death 
in  1847.  At  Napolean’s  death  she  made 
a morganatic  marriage  with  her  cham- 
berlain, Count  Neipperg. 

MARIANA  (or  Marianne)  ISLES.  See 
Ladrones. 

MARIA  THERESA,  Queen  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia,  Arch-duchess  of  Austria, 
and  Empress  of  Germany,  daughter  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI.,  was  born  at 
Vienna  1717,  and  in  1736  married 
Francis  Stephen,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany. 
On  the  death  of  her  father  in  1740  she 
ascended  the  throne  of  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  and  Austria,  and  a little  later 
declared  her  husband  joint  ruler.  Her 
accession  was  in  accordance  with  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction,  but  her  claims  were 
at  once  contested.  Frederick  the  Great 
made  himself  master  of  Silesia;  Spain 
and  Naples  gained  possession  of  the 
Austrian  territory  in  Italy;  and  the 
French,  Bavarians,  and  Saxons  marched 
into  Bohemia,  carrying  all  before  them. 
Charles  Albert  was  proclaimed  Arch- 
duke of  .\ustria,  and  shortly  after  Em- 
peror of  Germany;  .and  the  young  queen 
fled  to  Presburg,  where  she  convoked  the 
dietand  threwherself  uponthes3Tnpathy 
of  her  Hungarian  subjects.  The  French 


MARIE  ANTOINETTE 


MARK,  ST. 


and  Bavarians  were  speedily  driven 
from  her  hereditary  states;  Prussia  made 
a secret  peace  with  the  queen,  who  un- 
willingly abandoned  Silesia  and  Glatz 
to  Frederick;  and  though  by  the  Treaty 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  she  was  also 
compelled  to  give*  up  the  duchies  of 
Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guastalla  to 
Spain,  her  husbandwas  elected  emperor. 
During  the  time  of  peace  which  followed 
Maria  Theresa,  with  the  aid  of  her  hus- 
band and  the  minister  Kaunitz,  made 
great  financial  reforms;  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  commerce  flourished, 
the  national  revenue  greatly  increased, 
and  the  burdens  were  diminished.  The 
Seven  Years’  war  again  reduced  Austria 
to  a state  of  great  exhaustion,  but  on  its 
conclusion  the  empress  renewed  her 
efforts  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  her 
dominions.  Her  son  Joseph  was  elected 
king  of  the  Romans  in  1764,  and  on  the 
death  of  her  husband,  in  1765,  she  asso- 
ciated the  young  prince  with  herself  in 
the  government.  In  1772  she  joined  in 
the  dismemberment  of  Poland, obtaining 
Galicia  and  Lodomeria,  while  in  1777  she 
acquired  Bukowina  from  the  Porte,  and 
in  1779,  by  the  Pe?ice  of  Teschen,  gained 
the  Inn  valley.  She  died  in  1780.  Of  the 
sixteen  children  which  she  bore  to  the 
emperor  ten  survived  her,  one  of  whom 
was  the  unfortunate  Marie  Antoinette. 

MARIE  ANTOINETTE.  See  Antoi- 
nette. 

MARIE  DE  MEDICI  (ma-re  de  med'i- 
che),  the  daughter  of  Francis  II.  of 
Tuscany,  born  1573,  married  in  1600  to 
Henry  IV.  of  France.  On  the  assassina- 
tion of  Henry  she  became  regent,  but 
proved  utterly  incompetent  to  rule. 
Her  partiality  for  unworthy  favorites 
caused  her  deposition  and  imprisonment. 
She  became  reconciled  to  her  son,  the 
weak  Louis  XIII.,  through  Richelieu, 
who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  highest 
power,  but  was  again  imprisoned  at 
Compi^gne  in  1630.  Thence  she  escaped, 
and  after  wandering  through  several 
countries  died  in  misery  at  Cologne 
(1642). 

MARIETTA,  a town,  in  Washington 
county,  Ohio,  the  oldest  town  in  the 
state.  It  is  the  seat  of  Marietta  college, 
founded  in  1835.  Pop.  15,162. 

MARIGOLD,  a name  of  several  com- 
posite plants.  The  common  marigold  is 
a native  of  France  and  of  the  more 
southern  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  an  an- 
nual, from  1 to  2 feet  high,  with  large 
deep-yellow  flowers.  It  is  as  prolific  as 
any  weed,  and  was  formerly  usedin  broths 
and  soups,  partly  to  give  color,  and  part- 
ly as  an  aromatic  seasoning.  It  had  also 
many  medicinal  virtues  assigned  to  it. 
A number  of  species  of  this  genus  are  in- 
digenous to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  so-called  African  marigold  and 
French  marigold,  common  in  flower 
borders,  are  both  Mexican  species,  and 
have  brilliant  flowers. 

MARINE  CORPS,  a body  of  soldiers 
enlisted  for  service  in  the  navy,  either  on 
board  ship  or  on  shore  at  naval  stations 
Or  elsewhere.  Marines,  as  these  soldiers 
are  called  in  the  United  States  and 
British  navies,  are  a relic  of  the  days 
when  ships  were  manned  by  soldiers  as 
their  fighting  complement.  Instead  of 
constituting  the  greater  part  of  a ship’s 


company,  they  now  form  usually  less 
than  15  per  cent,  of  it.  At  the  present 
time  marines  are  used  in  the  United 
States  Navy  on  board  ship  and  to  guard 
naval  stations  at  home  and  in  the  insular 
possessions;  and  when  on  board  ship  they 
constitute  a quickly  available  infantry 
force  for  service  abroad.  Sailors  are  also 
drilled  as  infantry  and  artillery,  but  as 
their  chief  duties  are  connected  with  the 
ship,  when  they  are  landed  the  fighting 
efficiency  of  the  ship  is  greatly  reduced. 

MARINE  HOSPITAL  SERVICE,  a 
bureau  in  the  treasury  department  of  the 
United  States,  charged  with  the  manage- 
ment of  marine  hospitals  and  relief 
stations  for  the  cure  of  sick  and  disabled 
seamen  of  the  American  merchant 
marine.  It  has  also  under  its  supervision 
the  national  quarantine  stations,  the 
supervision  of  local  quarantines,  the 
investigation  and  suppression  of  epi- 
demics and  plagues,  the  collection  and 
dissemination  of  mortality  statistics  and 
sanitary  information,  the  scientific  in- 
vestigation of  sanitary  problems,  and 
the  examination  of  immigrants  under 
the  laws  excluding  those  affected  with 
contagious  diseases.  At  present  there 
are  23  marine  hospitals,  a'  sanitarium  for 
consumptive  seamen  in  New  Mexico, 
and  115  relief  stations. 

MARINE  LAW.  See  Commercial  Law, 
International  Law. 

MARINER’S  COMPASS.  See  Compass. 

MARINES,  a military  force  drilled  as 
infantry,  whose  especial  duty  is  to  serve 
on  board  ships  of  war  when  on  commis- 
sion, and  also  on  shore  under  certain 
circumstances.  They  are  trained  to  sea- 
men’s duties,  but  do  not  go  aloft,  being 
mainly  employed  in  sentry  duty,  etc. 
The  force  was  first  embodied  by  an  order 
in  council  in  1664,  as  a nursery  for  sea- 
men to  man  the  fleet.  The  United  States 
is  the  only  other  nation  which  employs 
marines  in  the  same  manner  as  Britain. 

MARINETTE,  the  capital  of  Marinette 
CO.,  Wis.,  on  Green  Bay,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Menominee  river,  and  on  the  Chi. 
and  N.  W.  and  the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  P. 
railways;  49  miles  n.  by  e.  of  Green 
Bay.  The  city  has  a large  lake  traffic, 
and  is  principally  engaged  in  the  lumber 
industry,  and  in  pulp  and  paper  making. 
Pop.  19,260. 

MARINO,  San,  a town  and  small  inde- 
pendent republic  in  Italy.  The  territory 
consists  of  a craggy  tract,  with  an  area 
of  about  22  sq.  miles,  on  the  borders  of 
the  provinces  of  Forli  and  Urbino,  near 
the  Adriatic  coast.  It  is  the  last  sur- 
viving representative  of  the  Italian  re- 
publics. At  the  head  of  the  government 
are  two  “captains  regent”  elected  for  six 
months.  There  is  a militia  of  950  men. 
The  town  San  Marino  occupies  the  crest 
of  a rocky  hill  2200  feet  in  height,  and 
is  accessible  only  by  the  road  from 
Rimini.  The  principal  inhabitants,  how- 
ever, reside  in  the  hamlet  of  II  Borgo, 
at  its  foot.  Pop.  of  the  town  about  1200; 
of  republic,  9600. 

MARION,  the  capital  of  Grant  co., 
Ind.,  on  the  Mississinewa  river,  and  the 
Cleve.,  Gin.,  Chi.,  and  St.  L.,the  Pitts., 
Gin.,  Chi,  and  St.  L.,  and  the  Toledo,  St. 
L.  and  Kan.  City  railways;  41  miles  s.  e. 
of  Logansport,  67  miles  n.  e.  of  Indian- 
apolis. Pop.  20,761. 


MARION,  the  capital  of  Marion  co., 
0.,  on  the  Cleve.,  Gin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L., 
the  Col.,  Hock.  Val.  and  Toledo,  the 
Col.,  Sandusky  and  Hock.  Val.,  and  the 
Erie  railways;  40  miles  n.  of  Columbus. 
Pop. 14,261. 

MARION,  Francis,  American  general, 
was  born  in  1732  at  Winyah,  near  George- 
town, S.  C.  He  was  made  lieutenant- 
colonel  after  the  defense  of  Fort  Moultrie 
at  the  entrance  of  Charleston  harbor 
(June  28,  1776),  and  was  present  at  the 
unsuccessful  attack  on  Savannah,  Sept. 
1779.  In  August  he  joined  Gates,  but 
was  detached  a few  days  before  Gates’ 
defeat  at  Camden  on  August  16th;  at 
Nelson’s  Ferry,  on  the  20th,  he  rescued 
150  of  the  prisoners  from  a strong  guard. 
He  soon  received  a general’s  commission. 
In  April  Lee  and  Marion  took  Fort 
Watson,  and  in  May  Fort  Motte.  At 
Eutaw  Springs  he  commanded  the  right 


under  Greene.  Alter  the  British  retreat 
to  Charleston,  Marion  went  to  an  im- 
portant session  of  the  colonial  assembly; 
on  the  very  day  that  he  returned  to  his 
brigade,  February  24,  1782,  |t  was  sur- 
prised and  dispersed,  Marion  arriving 
too  late  to  recover  the  day.  After  the 
war  he  occupied  himself  with  farming. 
He  died  February  27,  1795. 

MARIONETTES.  See  Puppet-shows. 

MARK,  St.,  the  Evangelist,  according 
to  the  old  ecclesiastical  writers,  the 
person  known  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostle 
as  “John,  whose  surname  was  Mark” 
(Acts  xii.  12,  25),  for  many  years  the 
companion  of  Paul  and  Peter  on  their 
journeys.  His  mother,  Mary,  was  gen- 
erally in  the  train  of  Jesus,  and  Mark 
was  himself  present  at  a part'  of  the 
events  which  he  relates  in  his  gospel,  and 
received  his  information  partly  from 
eye-witnesses.  He  was  the  cousin  of 
Barnabas  (Col.  iv.  10),  and  accompanied 
Paul  and  him  to  Antioch,  Cyprus,  and 
Perga  in  Pamphylia.  He  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  whence  he  afterward  went 
to  Cyprus,  and  thence  to  Rome.  He  was 
the  cause  of  the  memorable  “sharp  con- 


MARK  ANTONY 


MARMOSE 


tention”  between  Paul  and  Barnabas. 
Of  the  close  of  his  career  nothing  is 
known;  and  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
even  that  the  various  passages,  on  which 
the  church  has  based  the  biographical 
notes  already  cited,  uniformly  refer  to 
the  same  individual.  See  Gospels. 

MARK  ANTONY.  See  Antonius. 

MARKETS.  See  Fairs. 

MARKET  VALUE,  the  value  of  an 
article  as  established  by  public  sales  of 
such  property  in  a particular  locality. 
At  times  this  value  is  proved  by  regular 
market  quotations.  It  is  also  proved  by 
persons  familiar  with  the  price  at  which 
such  property  sells  regularly  in  the 
market.  If  the  market  price  is  abnor- 
mally enhanced  or  depressed  at  the  time 
and  place  for  delivery  of  any  goods,  by 
wrongful  combinations  or  by  an  illegal 
monopoly,  other  evidence  than  the 
market  sales  may  be  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  fair  value  of  the 
property  in  question. 

MARK  TWAIN.  The  nom-de-plume 
of  S.  L.  Clemens. 

MARLBORO,  a city  in  Middlesex 
CO.,  Mass.;  on  the  Fitchburg  and  the 
N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart,  railways;  15 
miles  e.  of  Worcester,  25  miles  w.  of 
Boston.  It  is  in  a choice  fruit-growing 
region,  and  is  widely  noted  for  its  ex- 
tensive manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes. 
Pop.  15,725. 

MARLBOROUGH,  John  Churchill, 
Duke  of,  English  general  and  statesman, 
second  son  of  Sir  Winston  Churchill ; 
born  at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  in  1650. 
At  the  siege  of  Maestricht  he  distin- 
guished himself  so  highly  as  to  obtain 
the  public  thanks  of  the  King  of  Francev 
He  had  a regiment  of  dragoons  pre- 
sented to  him,  and  strengthened  his  in- 
fluence at  court  by  his  marriage  with 
Sarah  Jennings,  an  attendant  upon  the 
princess,  afterward  Queen  Anne.  On 
the  accession  of  James  II.  he  was  sent 
ambassador  to  France,  and  soon  after 
his  return  was  created  Baron  Churchill 
of  Sundridge,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of 
general.  In  1691  he  was  suddenly  dis- 
missed from  all  his  employments  and 
committed  to  the  Tower  on  the  charge 


Duke  of  Marlborough. 


of  high  treason,  but  soon  obtained  his 
release;  though  it  appears  that  the  sus- 
picions against  him  were  not  without 
foundation.  On  the  death  of  Queen 
Mary  he  was  made  a privy-councillor, 
and  appointed  governor  to  the  young 


Duke  of  Gloucester;  and  in  1701  was 
created  by  King  William  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  English  forces  in  Holland, 
and  also  ambassador  plenipotentiary  to 
the  states-general.  In  1702  he  drove  the 
French  out  of  Spanish  Guelders,  and 
took  Li6ge  and  other  towns,  for  which 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
In  1704  he  stormed  the  French  and 
Bavarian  lines  at  Donauworth,  and  in 
the  same  year,  in  conjunction  with 
Prince  Eugene,  gained  the  victory  bf 
Blenheim  over  the  French  and  Bava- 
rians, headed  by  Marshal  Tallard  and 
the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  On  the  victory 
of  Ramillies,  1706,  a bill  was  passed  to 
settle  his  honors  upon  the  male  and 
female  issue  of  his  daughters.  In  the 
campaign  of  1707  his  antagonist  was  the 
famous  Duke  de  Vend6me,5over  whom  he 
'gained  no  advantage,  and  on  his  return, 
found  that  his  popularity  at  court  was  on 
the  decline.  Early  in  1710  he  returned 
to  the  army,  and  with  Prince  Eugene 
gained  another  victory  over  Villars. 
During  his  absence  a new  ministry, 
hostile  to  himself,  was  chosen,  and  on 
his  return  his  command  was  taken  from 
him.  He  repaired  in  disgust  to  the  Low 
Countries  in  1712  and  on  the  accession 
of  George  I.  was  reinstated  in  the  su- 
preme military  command.  Retiring 
from  all  public  employments,  his  men- 
tal faculties  gradually  decayed,  and  he 
died  at  Windsor  Lodge  in  1722.  His 
duchess,  Sarah  Jennings,  born  1660, 
died  1744,  has  been  almost  equally  cele- 
brated for  her  boundless  ambition  and 
avarice.  The  title  fell  to  the  descend- 
ants of  one  of  their  daughters  who  have 
assumed  the  name  of  Churchill. 

MARLINE-SPIKE,  an  iron  pin  taper- 
ing to  a point,  and  principally  used  on 
board-  ship  to  separate  the  strands  of  a 
rope  in  order  to  introduce  the  ends  of 
some  other  through  the  intervals  in  the 
act  of  knotting  or  splicing;  it  is  also  used 
as  a lever  in  various  operations. 

MARLOWE,  Christopher,  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Can- 
terbury 1564.  Besides  six  tragedies  of  his 
own  composition,  the  best  known  of 
which  are  Tamburlaine  the  Great,  Ed- 
ward II.,  Dr.  Faustus,  and  the  Jew  of 
Malta,  he  left  a translation  of  the  Rape 
of  Helen,  by  Coluthus;  some  of  Ovid’s 
Elegies;  the  first  book  of  Lucan’s 
Pharsalia;  and  the  Hero  and  Leander  of 
Musseus,  completed  by  George  Chapman. 
He  appears  to  have  led  a reckless,  dis- 
sipated life,  and  died  in  1593  from  a 
wound  received  in  a quarrel  with  a 
serving-man  at  Deptford.  Marlowe  was 
by  far  the  greatest  dramatic  writer  be- 
fore Shakespeare. 

MARLOWE,  Julia,  American  actress, 
born  near  Keswick,  England,  in  1870. 
She  came  with  her  parents  to  this  coun- 
try when  five  years  old.  In  1887  she 
appeared  in  New  York,  but  it  was  in 
Boston,  in  December,  1888,  that  she 
won,  as  Parthenia  in  Ingomar,  an  as- 
sured place  as  a star.  She  is  an  actress 
of  unusual  personal  charm,  and  soon  be- 
came a popular  favorite  in  a variety  of 
roles,  especially  as  Viola  in  Twelfth 
Night  and  as  Rosalind  in  As  You  Like 
It  Among  Miss  Marlowe’s  successes  in 
modern  plays  may  be  mentioned  Bar- 
bara Frietchie  in  Clyde  Fitch’s  play  of 


that  name  (1899) ; and  Charlotte  Durand 
in  the  dramatization  of  Cable’s  Cavalier 
(1902). 

MAR'MALADE,  a jellied  preparation 
made  from  quinces,  peaches,  apricots, 
oranges,  etc.,  and  portions  of  their  rinds, 
the  most  common  kind  being  made  from 
bitter  or  Seville  oranges. 

MARMALADE-TREE,  Marmalade- 
plum,  a tree  of  the  order  Sapotaceae,  a 
native  of  the  West  Indies  and  tropical 
America,  valued  for  its  fruit,  the  pulp 
of  which  resembles  marmalade.  It  is 
also  called  Mammee-sapota. 


Marmalade-tree. 


MARMONT  (mar-mon),  Auguste  Fred- 
eric Louis  Viesse  de,  Duke  of  Ragusa 
and  Marshal  of  France,  was  born  in  1774, 
and  entered  the  army  as  a lieutenant  of 
infantry  in  his  fifteenth  year.  In  1792  he 
changed  to  the  artillery,  and  at  Toulon 
became  acquainted  with  Bonaparte, 
who  chose  him  for  his  aide-de-camp. 
He  obtained  the  title  of  Duke  of  Ragusa 
for  his  defense  of  Ragusan  territory 
against  the  Russians  and  Montenegrins. 
He  was  present  at  Wagram,  and  after 
the  truce  of  Znaim  was  made  field- 
marshal.  In  1814  he  fought  a final  battle 
under  the  walls  of  Paris,  but  opposition 
appearing  fruitless  he  surrendered  to  the 
allies.  This  proceeding  was  one  main 
cause  of  Napoleon’s  immediate  abdica- 
tion, and  brought  Marmont  into  favor 
with  the  Bourbons.  After  the  restora- 
tion Louis  XVIII.  made  him  a peer  of 
France,  but  he  was  compelled  to  with- 
draw from  Paris  by  the  revolution  of 
1830,  and  his  name  was  struck  off  the 
army  list.  He  accompanied  Charles  X. 
in  his  exile,  and  afterward  traveled, 
publishing  the  results  of  his  travels  in 
1837-39.  He  also  wrote  Esprit  des  In- 
stitutions Militaires  and  his  own  mem- 
oirs. He  died  at  Venice  in  1852. 

MARMOSE,  a marsupial  quadruped 
resembling  the  opossum,  but  less,  being 


only  about  6 inches  in  length  exclusive 
of  the  tail.  It  carries  its  young  about 
1 with  it  on  its  back. 


MARMOSET 


MARRIED  WOMAN 


MAR'MOSET,  a name  of  several  small  I 
South  American  monkeys,  the  smallest 
of  the  monkey  tribe.  They  are  agile  in 
their  movements,  possess  long,  non- 
prehensile  tails,  and  have  a thick  woolly 
fur.  They  bear  a close  resemblance  to 
squirrels  in  general  appearance,  feed 
upon  fruit  and  insects,  and  occasionally 
upon  the  smaller  birds  and  their  eggs. 

MARMOT,  a rodent  quadruped  classed 
with  the  squirrels.  They  are  thick- 
bodied, have  short  tails  and  short 
legs,  and  live  in  burrows,  which  are  gen- 
erally excavated  in  mountainous  situa- 
tions, and  consist  of  a series  of  galleries 
in  which  whole  communities  reside. 
During  the  winter  they  lie  dormant.  The 
marmots  inhabit  Europe,  Northern 
Asia,  and  North  America.  The  prairie- 
dog  or  prairie-marmot,  or  wistonwish, 
of  North  America  is  the  most  familiar 
American  species.  Another  species  is 
the  woodchuck  of  the  middle  states. 


The  marmoset. 


MARNE,  a department  of  France, 
bounded  by  Ardennes,  Aisne,  Seine-et- 
Marne,  Aube,  Haute-Marne,  and  Meuse; 
67  miles  long  by  60  miles  broad;  area, 
3158  sq.  miles.  Pop.  429,424. 

MARNE,  Haute  (Upper  Marne,  a de- 
partment of  France,  bounded  by  Meuse, 
Marne,  Aube,  Cote  d’Or,  Haute-Saone, 
and  Vosges;  area,  2401  sq.  miles.  Chau- 
mont  is  the  capital.  Pop.  247,781. 

MAROCCO.  See  Morocco. 

MAROONS',  the  name  given  to  run- 
away negroes  in  Jamaica  and  in  some 
parts  of  South  America.  In  many  cases 
they  rendered  themselves  formidable  to 
the  colonists.  When  Jamaica  was  con- 
quered by  the  English  in  1655  about 
1500  slaves  retreated  to  the  mountains, 
and  continued  to  harass  the  island  till 
1795,  when  they  were  reduced  by  the 
aid  of  blood-hounds. 

MARQUE,  Letters  of,  or  Letters  of 
Marque  and  Reprisal,  a license  or  extra- 
ordinary commission  granted  by  a 
sovereign  or  the  supreme  power  of  one 
state  to  the  citizens  of  this  state  to  make 
reprisals  at  sea  on  the  subjects  of  another 
under  pretence  of  indemnification  for 
injuries  received ; that  is,  a license  to  en- 
gage in  privateering.  Letters  of  marque 
were  abolished  among  European  nations 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  1856.  The 
United  States  of  America  were  invited 
to  accede  to  this  agreement,  but  de- 
clined. 

MARQUETTE  (mar-kSt'),  the  county- 
seat  of  Marquette  co.,  Mich.,  170  miles 
west  of  Sault  Sainte  Marie;  on  Mar- 


quette Bay,  an  Inlet  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  on  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  and 
Atlantic,  and  other  railroads  that  con- 
nect with  the  mining  centers  of  the 
Lake  Superior  mineral  region.  Pop. 
12,315. 

MARQUETTE,  Jacques,  a Jesuit  mis- 
sionary and  explorer,  was  born  in  1637, 
at  Laon  in  France,  and  died  May  18, 
1675,  on  the  banks  of  a small  stream, 
now  known  as  the  Marquette,  which  has 
its  mouth  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan.  Having  joined  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  he  sailed  for  Canada  in  1666, 
spent  eighteen  months  in  the  vicinity  of 
Three  Rivers,  founded  the  mission  of 
Sault  Sainte  Marie,  on  Lake  Superior, 
in  1668,  and  followed  the  Hurons  to 
Mackinaw  in  1671.  It  is  mainly,  how- 
ever, as  Joliet’s  companion  in  his  voyage 
down  the  Mississippi  in  1673,  that 
Marquette  holds  a permanent  position 
in  the  history  of  discovery  in  America. 
His  narrative,  first  published  in  Theve- 
not’s  Recueil  de  Voyages,  is  printed 
along  with  other  documents  relating  to 
him  in  Shea’s  Discovery  and  Explora- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

MAR'QUETRY,  inlaid  cabinet-work 
in  which  thin  slices  of  different  col- 
ored wood,  sometimes  of  ivory,  pearl, 
shell,  or  metal,  are  inlaid  on  a ground 
usually  of  oak  or  fir,  well  seasoned  to 
prevent  warping.  At  one  time  figures 
and  landscapes  were  represented  by 
means  of  marquetry,  but  it  is  now  chiefly 
disposed  in  regular  geometrical  figures. 

MARQUIS,  Marquess,  a title  of  honor 
next  in  dignity  to  that  of  duke,  first 
given  to  those  who  commanded  on  the 
marches  or  frontiers  of  countries.  The 
title  was  first  introduced  into  England 
by  King  Richard  II.  in  the  year  1387, 
but  fell  into  disuse  until  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  who  created  the  Marquisate 
of  Winchester  in  1551.  The  correspond- 
ing female  title  is  marchioness. 

MARRIAGE,  a solemn  contract  be- 
tween a man  and  woman,  by  which  they 
are  united  for  life  and  assume  the  legal 
relation  of  husband  and  wife.  Different 
localities  have  different  forms  of  the  in- 
stitution, the  most  broadly  marked  of 
which  are  connected  with  the  right  to 
have  only  one  wife — monogamy,  or  a 
plurality  of  wives — polygamy.  Poly- 
andry, by  which  a woman  may  have 
several  husbands,  is  known  to  have 
existed  in  ancient  times,  and  still  exists 
in  various  localities,  as  in  Tibet.  Among 
the  most  civilized  communities  monog- 
amy is  the  prevailing  practice.  Though 
the  church  of  Rome  ranks  marriage 
among  the  sacraments,  and  religious 
observances  are  almost  everywhere 
customary  on  its  celebration,  the  law 
regards  it  as  nothing  more  than  a civil 
contract.  To  render  valid  the  civil  con- 
tract constituting  marriage  it  is  requisite 
that  the  free-will  of  each  of  the  parties 
should  be  spontaneously  exercised,  and 
that  each  should  be  capable  of  giving  an 
intelligent  consent.  In  males  the  age  of 
consent  is  sixteen,  and  in  females  four- 
teen. A promise  to  marry  given  by  a 
person  under  twenty-one  is  not  binding. 
The  legal  disabilities  are:  (1)  An  undis- 
solved prior  marriage,  and  the  former 
husband  or  wife  still  living.  (2)  Being 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  con- 


sanguinity or  affinity,  cousins-german 
being  the  nearest  relatives  that  may 
marry.  Marriage  with  a wife’s  sister  is 
prohibited  as  with  one’s  own  sister.  (3) 
Impotence  or  inability  to  consummate 
the  marriage.  (4)  The  fraudulent  sup- 
pression or  alteration  of  the  name  of  one 
or  both  in  the  publication  of  the  banns; 
but  this  does  not  invalidate  a marriage 
by  license.  Banns  of  marriage  must  be 
published  three  Sundays  in  the  parish 
church  or  public  chapel  of  the  Estab- 
lishment, in  the  parish  wherein  botn 
parties  reside,  or  in  the  parishes  in 
which  each  separately  resides.  Ordinar- 
ily marriages  must  be  celebrated  in  a 
church  by  a clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  or  by  a dissenting  minister  or 
a Roman  Catholic  priest  in  a building 
registered  for  marriages  and  in  presence 
of  the  registrar,  or  they  may  be  cele- 
brated before  the  registrar  and  in  his 
office.  In  the  United  States  marriage  is 
regarded  as  being  entirely  based  on 
contract  or  on  the  present  mutual  con- 
sent of  the  parties;  solemnization  by  a 
clergyman  or  by  a magistrate,  the  pres- 
ence of  witnesses,  and  all  the  customary 
forms  and  ceremonies  being  simply  con- 
venient means  of  perpetuating  the  evi- 
dence of  the  contract.  Marriage  with  a 
deceased  wife’s  sister  is  not  prohibited 
The  age  at  which  a marriage  may  be 
contracted  is  the  same  as  in  England. 

MARRIED  WOMAN,  a woman  by 
marriage  changes  her  legal  status  as  to 
her  personal  rights,  her  contractual, 
property,  and  in  some  cases  her  political 
rights  and  her  rights  before  the  criminal 
law.  After  marriage,  at  common  law, 
she  is  in  a less  favorable  position  in  these 
respects  than  before,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  at  the  criminal  law  when 
the  presumption  of  her  husband’s  coer- 
cion in  case  of  criminal  acts  done  in  his 
presence  makes  her  responsible  for  such 
acts  except  in  the  case  of  more  serious 
crimes.  Her  personal  property  in  pos- 
session and  her  chattels  real,  generally 
speaking,  become  her  husband’s  or  can 
be  disposed  of  by  him ; in  her  real  prop- 
erty he  has  an  estate  for  their  joint  lives 
and  may  have  an  estate  during  his  own 
life.  Her  rights  in  his  property  during 
their  joint  lives  are  practically  limited 
to  her  right  to  the  necessaries  of  life, 
and  the  control  over  his  real  property 
that  arises  from  her  dower  rights  which 
enable  her  as  a matter  of  law  to  refuse 
to  release  her  dower  right.  The  hard- 
ship of  these  disabilities  of  the  common 
law  has  caused  the  courts  of  equity  to 
give  certain  equitable  remedies  against 
the  husband  in  order  to  protect  her  and 
her  children  in  the  enjoyment  of  at  least 
a portion  of  her  property,  and  to  neglect 
some  of  the  legal  formalities  in  giving 
effect  to  agreements  to  create  a separate 
estate  for  the  wife,  and  to  protect  her  by 
establishing  the  doctrine  that  the  use 
of  the  separate  estate  must  be  for  its  use 
or  her  benefit,  and  that  its  income  could 
not  be  anticipated.  Modern  legislation 
has  removed  some  of  these  disabilities. 
The  first  tendency  was  to  free  the  wife 
and  her  property  from  her  husband’s 
control  but  to  make  them  jointly  liable 
for  all  obligations  as  arise  from  the  mar- 
riage relation . In  most  states  the  wife  is 
free  from  common  law  disabilities. 


marryat 


MARSHALLTOWN 


MAR'RYAT,  Frederick,  English  nov- 
elist and  naval  officer,  born  in  1792.  His 
first  attempt  in  literature  was  made  in 
1829,  by  the  publication  of  Frank  Mild- 
may.  Its  success  led  to  an  extensive 
series  of  works  of  the  like  kind,  including 
The  King’s  Own,  Peter  Simple,  Jacob 
Faithful,  Japhet  in  Search  of  a Father, 
Newton  Forster,  Midshipman  Easy, 
Snarley-Yow  or  the  Dog  Fiend,  Master- 
man  Ready,  and  others.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  a Code  of  Signals  for  the 
Merchant  Service  (1837).  He  died  at  his 
residence,  Langham,  Norfolk,  in  1848. 
One  of  his  daughters,  Florence  Marryat, 
has  gained  distinction  as  a novelist. 

MARS,  the  Roman  god  of  war,  at  an 
early  period  identified  with  the  Greek 
Ares,  a diety  of  similar  attributes.  Like 
Jupiter  he  was  designated  father,  and 
was  regarded  in  particular  as  the  father 
of  the  Roman  people,  Romulus  and 
Remus  being  the  fruit  of  his  intercourse 
with  Rhea  Sylvia.  Several  temples  at 
Rome  were  dedicated  to  him.  His  serv- 
ice was  celebrated  not  only  by  par- 
ticular flamines  devoted  to  him,  but  by 
the  College  of  the  Salii,  or  priests  of 
Mars.  The  month  of  March,  the  first 
month  of  the  Roman  year,  was  sacred  to 
him.  As  the  tutelary  deity  of  Rome 
he  was  called  Quirinus,  in  his  character 
as  the  god  of  war  Gradivus  (the  striding). 
Ares,  the  Greek  god  of  war,  was  the  son 
of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Hera  (Juno).  He 
is  represented  as  terrible  in  battle,  but 
not  as  invulnerable,  since  he  was 
wounded  at  various  times  by  Heracles, 
Diomedes,  and  Athena.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a youthful  warrior  of  strong 
fame,  either  naked  or  clothed  with  the 
chlamys.  The  chief  seats  of  the  worship 
of  Ares  were  in  Thrace  and  Scythia. 

MARS,  of  the  superior  planets  that 
which  lies  nearest  the  sun,  or  next  be- 
yond the  orbit  of  the  earth.  He  moves 
round  the  sun  in  686.9797  of  our  mean 
solar  days,  at  the  average  distance  of 

139.312.000  miles,  his  greatest  and  least 
distances  being  152,284,000  and  126,- 

340.000  miles;  his  orbit  is  inclined  to  the 
ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  1°  51'  5";  his  dis- 
tance from  the  earth  varies  from  about 
35,000,000  to  244,000,000  miles;  he 
rotates  on  his  axis  in  24  hours  37  min- 
utes 22  seconds;  the  inclination  of  his 
axis,  or  the  angle  between  his  equator 
and  his  orbit,  is  28°;  his  diameter  is 
about  4400  miles.  His  surface  resembles 
that  of  the  earth;  but  the  seas,  as  the 
parts  which  have  a greenish  tinge  are 
thought  to  be,  cover  a much  smaller 
area  than  the  reddish  parts  or  land.  The 
reddish  hue  of  Mars  is  one  of  his  char- 
acteristic features.  About  every  8 years 
7 months  he  is  in  perihelion  and  perigee 
at  the  same  time,  and  has  a wonderful 
brilliancy.  At  his  poles  are  white  por- 
tions, which  decrease  and  increase  in  size 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  Martial 
summer,  so  that  the  poles  are  supposed 
to  be  surrounded  with  snow.  In  1877 
two  satellites,  both  very  small  bodies 
were  discovered  by  Professor  Hall  of  the 
Naval  Observatory,  Washington.  The 
outer  one,  14,500  miles  distant  from  the 
center  of  Mars,  revolves  round  the  planet 
in  a period  of  30  hours  14  minutes;  the 
inner  one,  5800  miles  from  the  center  of 
Mars,  has  a period  of  7 hours  38  minutes. 


MARSEILLAISE  HYMN  (m&r-se-laz'), 
the  war-song  of  the  French  Republic. 
The  words,  and,  as  is  generally  believed, 
the  music,  were  written  in  1792  by 
Rouget  de  I’Isle,  an  officer  in  garrison  at 
Strasburg,  on  the  occasion  of  a body  of 
volunteers  leaving  that  city  for  the  war 
against  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  the 
poem  was  entitled  by  him  Chant  de 
Guerre  de  I’Armde  du  Rhin  (War-song 
of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine).  It  was  called 
Marseillaise  because  first  sung  in  Paris 
by  volunteers  from  Marseilles. 

MARSEILLES,  French  Marseille 
(mar-salz',  mar-sa-ye),  a city  and  the 
principal  commercial  seaport  of  France, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Bouches-du-Rhone.  Though 
a handsome  city  as  a whole,  Marseilles  is 
not  rich  in  public  edifices.  The  most  de- 
serving of  notice  are  the  large  new  cathe- 
dral in  the  Byzantine  style ; the  church 
of  Notre  Dame  de  la  Garde,  on  a hill  of 
same  name;  the  church  of  St.  Victor; 
the  Hotel  de  Ville;  the  Prefecture;  the 
Palais  des  Arts  de  Longchamp,  with 
picture-gallery  and  natural  history 
museum;  the  exchange;  public  library 
(100,000  vols.);  and  the  triumphal  arch 
through  which  the  town  is  entered  on  the 
side  of  Aix.  The  most  important  manu- 
factures are  soap,  soda,  and  other  chemi- 
cal products;  also  olive  and  other  oils, 
sugar,  machinery,  iron  and  brass  work, 
candles,  glass,  earthenware,  etc.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  in  soap,  olive-oil,  wine, 
brandy,  corn,  flour,  dried  fruits,  tobacco, 
wool,  skins,  iron,  cotton.  Pop.  494,769. 

MARSH,  George  Perkin,  American 
scholar  and  diplomatist,  born  1801.  He 
graduated  at  Dartmouth  College,  studied 
law,  and  practiced  at  the  bar.  In  1842- 
49  he  was  a member  of  congress,  and  in 
1849  was  appointed  American  minister 
at  Constantinople.  Before  returning  in 
1854  he  made  extensive  travels  in 
Europe.  From  1861  till  his  death  in 
1882  he  was  American  minister  to  Italy. 
Among  his  works  are:  Lectures  on  the 
English  Language ; Origin  and  History  of 
the  English  Language;  Man  and  Nature; 

MARSH,  Othniel  Charles,  American 
zoologist  and  paleontologist,  was  born  in 
1831  in  Lockport,  N.  Y.  Upon  his  re- 
turn from  Germany  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  paleontology  and  curator 
of  the  geological  museum  at  Yale,  and 
held  these  positions  until  his  death. 
Professor  Marsh  accomplished  a great 
amount  of  valuable  scientific  work  in 
the  discovery  and  description  of  new 
fossil  vertebrates  from  the  geological 
formations  of  the  Western  states  and 
territories.  His  discoveries  of  the  fossil 
ancestors  of  the  horse  marked  an  epoch 
in  evolutionary  science  and  have  been 
frequently  employed  as  an  illustration 
of  the  principle  of  evolution.  He  served 
as  president  of  the  American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in 
1878,  and  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Sciences  from  1883  to  1895.  The 
Geological  Society  of  London,  of  which 
he  was  a fellow,  bestowed  upon  him  the 
first  Bigsby  medal  in  1877.  He  also 
received  the  Cuvier  prize  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences.  His  valuable  col- 
lection of  fossil  vertebrates  was  left  to 
Yale  University.  He  died  in  1899. 


MARSHAL,  French  Mar4chal,  a word 
of  German  origin  signifying  originally  a 
man  appointed  to  take  care  of  horses. 
A similar  term  is  the  French  conn6table 
or  constable,  from  L.  comes  stabuli 
(count  or  master  of  the  stable).  The 
marshal  of  the  German  Empire  derived 
his  origin  from  the  Frankish  monarchs, 
and  was  equivalent  to  the  comes  stabuli 
or  conn^table.  He  had  to  superintend 
the  ceremonies  at  the  coronation  of  the 
emperor,  and  on  other  high  occasions. 
There  is  still  a marshal  at  the  head  of  the 
households  of  German  sovereigns.  In 
France  mar4chal  de  France  is  the  highest 
military  honor.  In  Germany  general- 
field-marshal  is  the  highest  military 
honor.  In  England  field-marshal  is  an 
honorary  rank  given  occasionally  to 
general  officers.  Another  English  title 
is  earl-marshal.  Marshal  also  signifies  a 
person  who  regulates  the  ceremonies  on 
certain  solemn  celebrations.  In  the 
United  States  a marshal  is  an  executive 
officer  (resembling  the  sheriff)  connected 
with  the  United  States  courts. 

MARSHALL,  John,  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Fauquier 
CO.,  Va.,  in  1755.  At  various  times  from 
1782  to  1798  he  was  elected  a member 
of  the  Virginia  legislature,  in  1788  a 
member  of  the  Virginia  convention  for 
the  ratification  of  the  constitution;  in 
1797  he  was  envoy  extraordinary  to 
France,  and  in  1799  a member  of  con- 
gress; in  1800  he  became  secretary  of 
state;  and  on  January  31,  1801,  he  was 


appointed  to  the  chief-justiceship,which 
position  he  held  until  his  death.  Mar- 
shall as  a lawyer  soon  rose  to  the  first 
rank  at  the  Virginia  bar,  and  acquired 
also  a national  reputation.  In  the  Vir- 
ginia convention  of  1788  his  influence 
was  second  only  to  that  of  Madison  in 
securing  the  adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion. But,  unlike  Madison,  he  continued 
under  the  constitution,  to  support  the 
administration  of  Washington  and  fed- 
eralist measures  in  general.  It  was  as 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  however,  that  Marshall 
won  lasting  fame.  His  reports,  filling 
about  thirty  volumes,  form  a work 
which  time  will  only  render  more  valued. 
He  died  in  1835. 

MARSHALLTOWN,  the  county  seat 
of  Marshall  co.,  la.,  on  the  la.  Cent.,  the 
Chi.  and  N.  W.,  and  the  Chi.  and  Gt. 


MARSH-MALLOW 


MARY  II. 


West,  railways;  70  miles  w.  of  Cedar 
Rapids.  Pop.  13,275. 

MARSH-MALLOW,  a common  plant, 
growing  in  marshes,  especially  near  the 
sea,  in  great  abundance.  It  is  employed 
medicinally  as  a demulcent,  and  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  demulcent  lozenges. 
It  is  perennial,  and  has  a white,  fleshy, 
carrot-shaped  root,  which  may  be  used 
as  food.  The  stem  is  from  2 to  3 feet 
high,  both  leaves  and  stem  being  covered 
with  a soft  down.  The  flowers  are  flesh- 
colored.  Thehollyhock  is  another  species. 

MARSTON  MOOR,  in  Yorkshire, 
about  7 miles  west  of  York,  a locality 
celebrated  for  the  battle  between  the 
royal  forces  under  Prince  Rupert  and 
the  troops  of  the  parliament  under  Fair- 
fax and  Cromwell  (2d  July,  1644),  in 
which  the  latter  were  victorious. 

MARSUPIA'LIA,  or  MARSU'PIALS, 
an  extensive  group  of  mammalia,  differ- 
ing from  all  others  in  their  organization, 
and  including  genera  which  correspond 
to  several  orders  of  ordinary  mammals. 
They  belong  to  the  aplacental  mammals, 
and  their  most  striking  peculiarity  is  the 
production  of  the  young  in  an  immature 
state,  a feature  which  renders  necessary 
the  pouch  in  which  the  immature  young 
are  placed  immediately  on  their  birth. 
In  this  pouch  are  the  mammae  or  teats, 
and  sheltered  here  the  imperfect  young 
ones,  attached  to  the  nippleby  the  mouth 
remain  till  fully  developed.  The  mar- 
supials link  the  mammals  through  the 
Monotremata  to  the  birds  and  reptiles. 
There  are  many  genera  both  herbivor- 
ous and  carnivorous,  the  great  bulk  of 
them  being  confined  to  the  Australian 
region.  The  kangaroo  and  opossum  are 
familiar  examples. 

MARTEN,  the  name  of  several  car- 
nivorous quadrupeds.  The  body  of  the 
marten,  like  that  of  the  weasel,  is 
elongated  and  slender.  The  legs  are 
short,  the  feet  being  provided  with  five 
toes,  armed  with  sharp  claws.  In  habit 
the  martens  differ  from  the  weasels  in 
being  arboreal,  these  forms  climbing 


Kne-marten. 


trees  with  great  ease.  The  pine-marten 
occurs  chiefly  in  North  America  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  of 
smaller  size  than  the  common  marten, 
possesses  a yellowish  mark  on  the 
throat,  and  has  a finer  fur  largely  used 
for  trimmings.  It  burrows  in  the  ground. 
The  famous  sable  marten  which  fur- 
nishes the  valuable  sable  fur,  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  pine-marten.  It  inhabits 
Siberia. 

MARTHA’S  VINEYARD,  an  island  of 
Massachusetts,  on  the  south  side  of  Cape 
Cod,  12  miles  west-north-west  of  Nan- 
tucket, 19  miles  long,  and  from  2 to  10 
broad.  It  contains  one  or  two  seaside 
resorts, 


MARTIAL  LAW,  the  law  by  which 
the  discipline  of  an  army  is  maintained, 
applying  only  to  persons  in  actual  mili- 
tary service,  and  only  to  their  conduct 
in  such  service.  The  jurisdiction  un- 
der the  law  martial  is  in  a distinct 
tribunal,  known  as  a court-martial  ap- 
pointed by  some  superior  officer.  Under 
special  circumstances  of  insurrection 
or  rebellion,  where  the  ordinary  law  is 
insufficient  to  protect  life  and  property, 
it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  administer 
the  law  according  to  the  practice  of 
military  courts,  by  an  armed  force 
occupying  the  disturbed  district.  The 
district  is  then  said  to  be  under  martial 
law. 

MARTIN,  a name  applied  to  several 
birds  or  swallows.  It  builds  a globular 
nest  under  the  eaves  of  houses,  or  in  the 
upper  angles  of  windows.  In  habits  it 


House-martin. 


resembles  the  chimney-swallow,  but  its 
tail  is  less  markedly  forked,  while  its 
nest  also  differs,  that  of  the  chimney- 
swallow  being  cup-shaped. 

MARTINIQUE  (mar-ti-nek'),  one  of 
the  French  West  India  Islands,  in  the 
Windward  group,  area,  380  sq.  miles. 
Its  loftiest  summit.  Mount  Pel4e,  is  4450 
feet  high.  The  climate  is  hot,  but  not 
unhealthy.  Hurricanes  and  earth- 
quakes are  not  unfrequent.  The  prin- 
cipal town,  St.  Pierre,  on  the  northwest 
was  destroyed  by  an  eruption  of  Pel4e 
in  May,  1902,  in  which  many  thousand 
people  perished.  Pop.  207,011. 

MARTYRS,  a name  applied  by  the 
Christian  church  to  those  persons  in 

articular,  who  in  the  early  ages  of 

hristianity,  and  during  the  great  perse- 
cutions, suffered  ignominy  and  death 
rather  than  renounce  their  faith.  Fes- 
tivals in  honor  of  the  martyrs  seem  to 
have  been  observed  as  early  as  the 
second  century. 

MARX,  Karl,  German  socialist,  born 
in  1818,  studied  law  and  philosophy  at 
Berlin.  After  editing  the  Rheinische 
Zeitung  at  Cologne  from  1841  till  its 
suppression,  he  went  in  1844  to  Paris, 
where  he  took  part  in  the  publication  of 
the  Deutsch-Franzosische  Jahrbiicher, 
and  a newspaper,  Vorwarts.  Being  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  Brussels,  he  there  in 
1848  became  head  of  the  central  com- 
mittee of  the  socialists.  In  the  same 
year  he  made  an  attempt  at  Cologne  to 
revive  the  Rheinische  Zeitung,  but  re- 
moved to  London  in  1849.  In  1864  he 
established  the  International,  but  after 
the  disruption  in  1872,  when  he  led  the 
extreme  party,  he  removed  from  Lon- 


don to  New  York.  He  died  in  1883. 
His  chief  work,  the  Bible  of  one  group  of 
socialists,  was  Das  Kapital,  published 
in  1867. 

MARY,  The  Virgin,  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  according  to  tradition  embodied 
in  the  apocryphal  gospels  the  daughter 
of  Joachim  and  Anna  (of  Luke  i.  32). 
The  story  of  her  life  so  far  as  it  is  given 
in  the  New  Testament  begins  with  her 
betrothal  to  Joseph  (Luke  i.),  and  the 
narrative  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  She  is 
thrice  mentioned  during  Christ’s  public 
ministry  (John  ii..  Matt.  xii.  47,  John 
xix.  25-27),  and  once  after  his  death 
(Acts  i.  14).  The  title  of  Mary  to  adora- 
tion did  not  become  a tenet  in  the 
orthodox  Latin  Church  till  the  6th  cen- 
tury, when  the  Christian  Church  began 
to  celebrate  festivals  in  her  honor,  of 
which  the  Purification,  the  Annuncia- 
tion and  the  Visitation  (the  visit  of  Mary 
to  Elizabeth)  are  still  retained  in  Prot- 
estant countries.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
Catholics,  and  the  schismatic  churches 
in  the  east,  observe  several  feasts  be- 
sides the  above  in  honor  of  the  Virgin; 
for  instance  the  birth  of  Mary,  and  her 
death  and  reception  into  heaven  (by 
the  Roman  Catholics  called  the  Assump- 
tion) The  festival  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  is  celebrated  only  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church. 

MARY  I.,  Queen  of  England,  daugh- 
ter of  Henry  VIII.  by  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  was  born  in  1516.  After  her 
mother’s  death  she  was  declared  illegiti- 
mate, but  was  restored  to  her  rights 
when  the  succession  was  finally  settled 
in  1544.  She  was  bred  up  by  her  mother 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  on  which 
account  she  was  treated  with  rigor  under 
Edward  VI.  She  ascended  the  throne 
in  1553,  after  an  abortive  attempt  to  set 
her  aside  in  favor  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 
One  of  her  first  measures  was  the  rein- 
statement of  the  Roman  Catholic  prel- 
ates who  had  been  superseded  in  the 
late  reign.  Her  marriage  to  Philip  II. 
of  Spain,  united  as  it  was  with  a com- 
plete restoration  of  the  Catholic  wor- 
ship, produced  much  discontent,  insur- 
rections broke  out  under  Cave  in  Devon- 
shire, and  Wyat  in  Kent,  which,  although 
suppressed,  formed  sufficient  excuses 
for  the  imprisonment  of  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  in  the  Tower,  and  the  execu- 
tion of  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  husband 
Lord  Guildford  Dudley.  England  was 
now  formally  declared  to  be  reconciled 
to  the  pope;  the  sanguinary  laws  against 
heretics  were  revived,  and  nearly  300 
perished  at  the  stake,  including  Cran- 
mer,  Latimer,  and  Ridley.  Under 
Philip’s  influence  a war  began  with 
France,  which  ended  in  the  loss  of 
Calais  in  1558,  after  it  had  been  held  by 
England  for  above  200  years.  This  dis- 
grace told  acutely  upon  Mary’s  disor- 
dered health,  and  she  died  in  1558. 

MARY  II.,  Queen  of  England,  born  in 
1662,  was  daughter  of  James,  duke  of 
York,  afterwards  James  II.,  by  his  wife 
Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  Lord  Clarendon. 
She  was  married  in  1677  to  William, 
prince  of  Orange;  and  v.^hen  the  revolu- 
tion dethroned  her  father,  Mary  was 
declared  joint-possessor  of  the  throne 
with  William,  on  whom  all  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  government  devolved, 


MARYLAND 


MARY  STUART 


During  the  absence  of  William  in  Ire- 
land in  1690,  and  during  his  various 
visits  to  the  continent,  Mary  managed 
at  home  with  extreme  prudence.  She 
was  strongly  attached  to  the  Protestant 
religion  and  the  Church  of  England. 
She  died  of  small-pox  in  1694.  See 
William  III. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America;  bounded  n.  by  Penn- 
sylvania, e.  by  Delaware  and  the  Atlan- 
tic, s.  by  Virginia  and  Chesapeake  bay 
and  w.  by  Virginia  and  West  Virginia; 
area,  12,210  sq.  miles.  The  part  of  the 
state  lying  to  the  east  of  Chesapeake  bay 
is  called  the  Eastern  shore,  and  the 
other  on  the  west  the  Western  shore. 
The  Eastern  shore  has  a low,  flat,  and 
somewhat  sandy  surface,  covered  in 
many  places  with  stagnant  water,  which 
makes  ague  and  intermittent  fever 
prevalent.  The  Western  shore  gradually 


Seal  of  Maryland. 


rises  toward  the  northwest,  where  it  is 
traversed  by  a lower  branch  of  the  Ap- 
palachian chain,  and  attains  the  height 
of  2000  feet  above  sea-level.  Beyond 
this  the  land  again  sinks,  forming  the 
Hagerstown  valley,  part  of  the  great 
Appalachian  valley.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Potomac,  the  Susquehanna,  and 
the  Patapsco.  Almost  all  the  lower  part 
of  Maryland  is  covered  with  alluvial 
deposits.  In  the  Hagerstown  valley 
there  is  a full  development  of  the  car- 
boniferous system,  with  its  valuable 
seams  of  coal  and  ores  of  iron.  There  are 
three  important  coal-fields  in  the  state. 
The  most  important  crops  are  Indian 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats.  Tobacco  is  very 
largely  grown.  The  fisheries  are  produc- 
tive, and  there  are  extensive  oyster-beds. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton 
goods,  cordage,  bricks,  and  articles  in 
iron;  the  trade,  chiefly  foreign,  is  exten- 
sive. A large  part  of  the  foreign  trade 
consists  in  the  exportation  of  canned 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  oysters.  The 
state  sends  six  representatives  and  two 
senators  to  congress.  Annapolis  is  the 
seat  of  government;  but  Baltimore  is 
the  most  important  city  of  the  state. 
There  is  an  excellent  system  of  free 
public  schools,  and  among  the  higher 
educational  institutions  may  be  noted 
the  St.  John’s  College  at  Annapolis,  and 
the  Peabody  Institute  (founded  in  1857), 
and  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
(opened  in  1876),  both  at  Baltimore. 
Maryland  was  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  Union,  and  was 
first  settled  in  1634  by  English  Roman 


Catholics  under  Leonard  Calvert,  a 
brother  of  Lord  Baltimore,  who  had 
obtained  a charter  from  Charles  I.,  of 
England.  Unlike  the  Puritan  colonists 
of  New  England,  the  early  settlers  of 
Maryland  enacted  laws  granting  tolera- 
tion to  all  forms  of  religious  belief.  The 
early  history  was  greatly  disturbed  by 
conflicts  between  Lord  Baltimore’s 
party  and  the  traders  who  claimed  under 
William  Claiborne  of  Virginia.  The 
Proprietary  party  finally  established 
their  power.  In  1688  Lord  Baltimore’s 
deputies  declined  to  proclaim  William 
and  Mary,  and  the  result  was  a revolt 
which  led  to  the  overthrow  of  the  feudal 
system,  and  Maryland  became  a crown 
colony.  The  Church  of  England  was 
then  established  and  disabilities  were 
imposed  upon  Catholics  and  dissenters. 
In  1714  one  of  the  Baltimore  family  be- 
came a Protestant  and  was  recognized 
as  the  proprietor,  and  from  this  time 
until  1776  the  Baltimores  held  posses- 
sion. The  original  charter  limits  of 
Maryland,  which  was  named  after 
Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I., 
included  all  of  Delaware  and  a consider- 
able part  of  Pennsylvania,  and  con- 
flicted with  the  grant  to  William  Penn. 
The  controversy  between  the  two 
colonies  lasted  from  1682  to  1760,  when 
the  Penn  heirs  proved  successful  and 
Maryland  assumed  its  present  limits, 
and  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line  was  es- 
tablished to  mark  the  boundaries  in 
1763-67. 

In  the  war  of  independence  Maryland 
bore  a conspicuous  part  and  furnished 
20,636  men  to  the  continental  armies. 
In  the  war  of  1812-14,  the  state  had  in 
the  service  no  less  than  42,636  men,  a 
number  only  exceeded  by  the  great 
states  of  New  York  and  Virginia.  In  the 
war  with  Mexico  Maryland’s  contribu- 
tion was  2,500  men.  In  1844  the  first 
line  of  electric  telegraph  in  the  United 
States  was  run  from  Baltimore  to  Wash- 
ington. In  the  civil  war  the  people  of 
Maryland  were  divided  in  sentiment. 
Many  of  her  people  favored  secession, 
a large  number  entered  the  confederate 
army,  and  in  the  first  days  of  the  war 
the  passage  of  Union  troops  through 
Baltimore  was  opposed,  several  Massa- 
chusetts soldiers  being  killed  on  April 
19,  1861 ; but  the  strength  of  the  Union 
party,  added  to  the  efforts  of  the  gover- 
nor served  to  keep  the  state  from  seced- 
ing. In  national  elections,  Maryland 
balanced  with  fair  regularity  before  the 
civil  war  between  democrats  and  the 
federalists  and  whigs.  In  1864  it  voted 
for  Lincoln,  but  from  1868  to  1892  was 
steadily  democratic.  In  1896  and  1900 
it  was  carried  by  the  republicans,  and 
in  1904  it  gave  7 electoral  votes  to 
Parker  and  1 to  Roosevelt.  In  1908  it 
went  Democratic.  Pop.  1909,1,188,044. 

MARY  MAGDALEN.  See  Magdalen. 

MARY  STUART,  Queen  of  Scots,  was 
born  at  Linlithgow  Palace  in  1542,  and 
was  the  daughter  of  James  V.  by  his 
queen,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  a princess  of 
the  family  of  Guise.  In  the  summer  of 
1548  the  young  queen  was  sent  by  her 
mother  to  France,  where  she  was  edu- 
cated in  a French  convent,  and  in  1558 
was  married  to  the  dauphin,  afterward 
Francis  II.  He  died  seventeen  months 


after  his  accession  to  the  crown,  in 
December,  1560,  and  in  Augu..t,1561,the 
widowed  queen  returned  to  Scotland. 
The  calamities  of  Mary  began  with  her 
second  marriage,  namely,  to  her  cousin. 
Lord  Darnley,  whom  she  married  on 
July  29,  1565.  Darnley  was  a Roman 
Catholic,  and  immediately  after  the 
marriage  the  Earl  of  Moray  and  others 
of  the  Protestant  lords  combined 
against  the  new  order  of  things.  They 
were  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Eng- 
land, and  the  popularity  of  Mary  began 
to  decline.  In  addition  to  this  Darnley 
proved  a weak  and  worthless  profligate, 
and  almost  entirely  alienated  the  queen 
by  his  complicity  in  the  murder  of 
Rizzio  (March  9,  1566),  though  a recon- 
ciliation seemed  to  be  effected  between 
them  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  their 
son,  afterward  James  VI.  of  Scotland 
and  I.  of  England  (19th  of  June,  1566). 
About  the  close  of  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, Darnley  withdrew  from  the  court, 
and  in  the  meantine  the  Earl  of  Both- 
well  had  risen  high  in  the  queen’s  favor. 
Once  more,  however,  an  apparent 
reconciliation  took  place  between  the 
king  and  queen.  Darnley  had  fallen  ill, 
and  was  lying  at  Glasgow  under  the  care 
of  his  father.  Mary  visited  him,  and 
took  measures  for  his  removal  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  was  lodged  in  a house 
called  Kirk-of-Field,  close  to  the  city 
wall.  He  was  there  tended  by  the  queen 
herself ; but  during  the  absence  of  Mary 
at  a masque  at  Holyrood  the  house  in 
which  Darnley  lay  was  blown  up  by  gun- 
powder, and  he  himself  was  afterward 
found  dead  with  marks  of  violence  on 
his  person  (February  9,  1567).  The  cir- 
cumstances attending  this  crime  were 
very  imperfectly  investigated,  but  popu- 
lar suspicion  unequivocally  pointed  to 
Bothwell  as  the  ringleader  in  the  out- 
rage, and  the  queen  herself  was  sus- 
pected, suspicion  becoming  still  stronger 
when  she  was  carried  off  by  Bothwell, 
with  little  show  of  resistance,  to  his 
castle  of  Dunbar,  and  married  to  him  on 
the  15th  of  May.  A number  of  the 
nobles  now  banded  together  against 
Bothwell,  who  succeeded  in  collecting  a 
force;  but  on  Carberry  Hill,  where  the 
armies  met  on  the  15th  June,  his  army 
melted  away.  The  queen  was  forced  to 
surrender  herself  to  her  insurgent  nobles, 
Bothwell  making  his  escape  to  Dunbar, 
then  to  the  Orkney  Islands,  and  finally 
to  Denmark.  The  confederates  first 
conveyed  the  queen  to  Edinburgh,  and 
thence  to  Loch  Leven  Castle,  where  she 
was  placed  in  the  custody  of  Lady 
Douglas,  mother  of  the  Earl  of  Moray. 
A few  days  after,  on  the  20th  of  June, 
a casket  containing  eight  letters  and 
some  poetry,  all  said  to  be  in  the  hand- 
writing of  the  queen,  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  confederates.  They  were  held  by 
the  confederates  to  afford  unmistakable 
evidence  of  the  queen’s  guilt,  and  on  the 
24th  of  July  she  was  forced  to  sign  a 
document  renouncing  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land in  favor  of  her  infant  son,  and  ap- 
pointing the  Earl  of  Moray  regent  dur- 
ing her  son’s  minority.  After  remaining 
nearly  a year  in  captivity  Mary  suc- 
ceeded in  making  her  escape  from  Loch 
Leven  (May  2,  1568),  and,  assisted  by 
the  few  friends  who  still  remained 


MASCALONGE 


MASQUE 


attached  to  her,  made  an  effort  for  the 
recovery  of  her  power.  Defeated  by  the 
regent’s  forces  at  the  battle  of  Landside 
(May  13,  1568),  she  fled  to  England,  and 
wrote  to  Elizabeth  entreating  protection 
and  a personal  interview;  but  this  the 
latter  refused  to  grant  until  Mary  should 
have  cleared  herself  of  the  charges 
laid  against  her  by  her  subjects.  For 
more  than  eighteen  years  she  continued 
to  be  the  prisoner  of  Elizabeth,  and  in 
that  time  the  place  of  her  imprisonment 
was  frequently  changed,  her  final  prison 
being  Fotheringhay  Castle,  Northamp- 
tonshire. She  was  at  last  accused  of  be- 
ing implicated  in  a plot  by  one  Babing- 
ton  against  Elizabeth’s  life,  and  having 
been  tried  by  a court  of  Elizabeth’s  ap- 
pointing, was  on  the  25th  of  October, 
1586,  condemned  to  be  executed.  There 
was  a long  delay  before  Elizabeth  signed 
the  warrant,  but  this  was  at  last  done 
on  the  1st  of  February,  1587.  Mary  re- 
ceived the  news  with  great  serenity,  and 
was  beheaded  a week  later,  on  February 
8,  1587,  in  the  castle  of  Fotheringhay. 

MAS'CALONGE,  a fine  North  Ameri- 
can fresh-water  fish  of  the  pike  genus, 
inhabiting  the  St.  Lawrence  basin. 

MASCAGNI  (mh-ska'nye),  Pietro, 
Italian  composer,  was  born  at  Leghorn  in 
1863.  In  1879  he  wrote  a sjunphony  in 
C minor,  in  1881  a cantata.  In  1890 
the  production  in  Rome  of  his  opera 
Cavalleria  Rusticani  raised  him  from 
utter  obscurity  to  the  height  of  fame. 
His  subsequent  works  have  met  with 
varying  success.  In  1895  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  Rossini  conser- 
vatory at  Pesaro.  In  1902  he  made  a 
tour  of  America  with  limited  success. 

MAS'CARENE  ISLANDS,  the  islands 
of  Bourbon,  Mauritius,  and  Rodriguez, 
so  called  from  Mascarenhas,  a Portu- 
guese navigator,  who  discovered  Bour- 
bon in  1545. 

MASHO'NALAND,  the  land  of  the 
Mashonas,  in  South  Africa,  on  the  north- 
east of  Matabeleland  and  south  of  the 
Zambesi,  being  part  of  the  territory  of 
the  British  South  Africa  Company  or 
Southern  Rhodesia.  It  consists  largely 
of  open  plains  and  table-lands,  well- 
watered  and  fertile,  and  is  believed  to  be 
very  rich  in  gold.  'The  Mashonas  belong 
to  the  Kaffir  race,  and  were  formerly 
masters  of  a much  wider  territory,  but 
have  been  cooped  up  within  their  present 
limits  by  the  powerful  Matabele.  They 
are  a peaceful  people,  clever  as  smiths 
and  weavers.  Salisbury  is  the  chief  place. 

MASK,  a covering  for  the  face,  often 
shaped  so  as  to  form  a rude  representa- 
tion of  the  human  features.  They  have 
been  in  use  from  the  most  ancient 
times.  Among  the  Greeks  they  were 
used  particularly  in  the  processions 
and  ceremonies  attending  the  worship 
of  Dionysus  (Bacchus).  As  the  origin  of 
Grecian  tragedy  was  closely  connected 
with  the  worship  of  Dionysus,  masks 
were  used  in  it  even  in  the  begin- 
ning. The  ancient  masks  usually  cov- 
ered the  whole  head,  and  accordingly 
represented  the  features,  head,  hair,  and 
eyes.  They  had  mostly  very  large  open 
mouths,  and  seem  to  have  had  some 
effect  in  strengthening  the  voice  of  the 
speaker,  this  being  required  by  the 
immense  size  of  the  ancient  theaters. 


The  Roman  theater  differed  little  from 
the  Grecian  in  the  use  of  the  mask, 
which  the  Italian  popular  theater,  called 
Commedia  dell’  Arte,  closely  resembling 
the  old  Roman  mime  and  pantomime, 
still  retains.  The  mask  used  at  masked 
balls  or  masquerades  is  a covering  for 
the  head  and  face  made  from  a light 
stuff,  a common  form  being  the  half- 
mask covering  eyes  and  nose  only.  See 
Masqued-ball. 

MASK,  The  Iron.  See  Iron  Mask. 

MASKELONGE.  See  Mascalonge. 

MAS'KELYNE,  Nevil,  English  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  in  1732, 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Cam- 
bridge, chosen  a fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  in  1761  deputed  to  proceed 
to  St.  Helena  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus.  In  1765  he  became  astronomer 
royal;  and  in  1767  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Nautical  Almanac,  which 
he  edited  till  his  death.  In  1774  he  was 
employed  in  observations  on  the  eclipses 
of  Jupiter’s  satellites;  and  the  same  year 
went  to  Scotland  to  ascertain  the  grayi- 
tative  attraction  of  the  mountain  Schie- 
hallien.  He  died  in  1811. 

MASON,  Charles,  born  in  England  in 
1730.  For  several  years  he  served  as 
assistant  in  the  Greenwich,  England, 
Observatory,  and  with  Jeremiah  Dixon, 
made  an  observation  of  the  transit  of 
Venus  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1761 . 
Two  years  later  the  two  scientists  were 
instructed  to  survey  the  boundary  line 
between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland. 
They  spent  four  years  on  this  work,  and 
the  line  then  drawn  became  famous  in 
the  history  of  the  United  States,  as  prac- 
tically marking  the  northern  limit  of  the 
slave  states.  Mason  and  Dixon’s  line, 
however,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  boundary  of  36°  30',  beyond  which 
slavery  was  not  to  be  permitted  in  any 
territories  of  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  1777. 

MASON,  George,  member  of  the  fed- 
eral convention  of  1787,  was  born  in  Fair- 
fax CO.,  Va.,  in  1726.  He  served  in  the 
Virginia  convention  in  1775,  and  drafted 
its  declaration  of  rights  and  plan  of  gov- 
ernment. His  most  conspicuous  service 
was  in  the  federal  convention  of  1787, 
of  which  he  was  a member.  He  died 
October  7,  1792. 

MASON,  James  Murray,  born  in  Fair- 
fax CO.,  Va.,  November  3,  1798.  He 
served  many  years  in  the  Virginia  house 
of  delegates,  and  sat  in  congress  as  a 
democrat  from  1837  to  1839.  From  1847 
to  1861  he  sat  in  the  United  States  sen- 
ate from  Virginia,  but  resigned  to  join 
the  confederacy.  In  the  autumn  of  1861 
he  was  apponted  with  John  Slidell  as 
commissioner  from  the  confederate 
states  to  England.  They  sailed  from 
Charleston,  October  12th,  for  Cuba.  Here 
they  took  passage  for  England  on  the 
British  mail  steamer  Trent.  This  vessel 
was  overhauled  by  a United  States  ship 
of  war  under  the  command  of  Com- 
mander Charles  Wilkes,  who  demanded 
the  bodies  of  Mason  and  Slidell,  and  the 
steamer  being  unarmed,  the  captain 
turned  the  men  over  to  him  They  were 
brought  to  Boston  and  confined  in  Fort 
Warren,  and  congress  passed  a resolu- 
tion of  thanks  to  Wilkes  for  his  prompt 
action.  The  British  government  made 


an  immediate  demand,  and  a peremp- 
tory one,  for  the  delivery  of  the  men, 
whom  they  claimed  were  protected  by 
the  British  flag.  There  was  a great  out- 
cry against  surrendering  them,  but 
Abraham  Lincoln  showed  his  good  sense 
and  political  w'isdom  by  giving  them  up. 
This  occurrence,  known  as  the  Trent 
affair,  intensified  the  ill-feeling  between 
England  and  the  United  States,  which 
had  grown  out  of  the  expressions  of 
sympathy  made  by  the  English  aristo- 
crats for  the  confederates.  He  died  in 
1871. 

MASON,  John  Young,  born  in  Vir- 
ginia in  April,  1799.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  North  Carolina  in 
1816,  and  practiced  law  for  many  years 
in  his  native  state.  He  sat  in  the  state 
legislature  and  in  congress  from  1831 
to  1837,  then  became  a judge  of  the 
United  States  district  court,  and  in  1844 
was  appointed  secretary  of  the  navy. 
In  1845  he  became  attorney  general  of 
the  United  States,  and  a year  later  re- 
turned to  the  navy  department.  From 
1853  until  his  death  he  was  minister  to 
France.  He  died  in  1899. 

MASON  AND  DIXON’S  LINE,  the  line 
of  39°  43'  26.3"  north  latitude,  which 
separates  the  states  of  Maryland  and 
Pennsylvania,  in  the  L^nited  States. 
From  the  time  of  the  grant  of  the  latter 
territory  to  William  Penn  by  Charles  II 
in  1681  there  were  disputes  between  the 
family  of  Penn  and  that  of  the  Lords 
Baltimore,  the  possessors  of  Maryland, 
as  to  the  boundary  between  the  two 
territories.  An  agreement  was  at  last 
come  to  in  1760,  the  line  of  demarcation 
being  named  after  the  astronomers 
Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon, 
who  traced  the  greater  part  of  it. 
Milestones  were  set  up  along  the  whole 
of  this  boundary  line. 

MASON-BEES,'a  name  given  to  insects 
which  construct  their  nests  with  sand  or 
gravel,  agglutinated  together  by  means 
of  a viscid  saliva,  and  fix  them  on  the 
side  of  walls,  etc.,  or  avail  themselves 
of  some  cavity  for  that  purpose  The 
mason-bees,  like  the  carpenter-bees, 
leaf-cutters,  and  other  allied  forms,  are 
solitary  in  habits,  not  living  in  com- 
munities like  the  ordinary  bees  and 
wasps. 

MASONRY,  Free.  See  Freemasonry. 

MASON-SPIDER,  a spider  more  com- 
monly known  as  the  “Trap-door  Spider” 
(which  see). 

MASON-WASP,  a name  given  to  cer- 
tain hymenopterous,  insects  especially 
from  their  ingenuity  in  excavating  their 
habitation  in  the  sand. 

MASQUE,  or  MASK,  a dramatic  en- 
tertainment much  in  favor  in  the  courts 
of  princes  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  in  the  latter  particularly  in 
England.  In  its  earliest  form  it  is  per- 
haps best  described  as  a masquerade 
with  an  arranged  programme  of  music, 
dancing,  etc.,  and  a banquet.  The  first 
masque  of  this  kind  in  England  was 
performed  in  1510,  and  they  were  fre- 
quently introduced  into  the  plays  of 
Shakespeare,  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
The  parts  in  the  masques  of  the  16th 
and  i7th  centuries  w'ere  usually  repre- 
sented by  the  first  personages  of  the 
kingdom ; if  at,  court  the  king,  queen,  and 


MASQUED-BALL 


MASSACHUSETTS 


princes  of  the  blood  often  performed  in 
them. 

MASQUED-BALL,  an  entertainment, 
generally  of  a public  character,  in  which 
the  company  are  masked  or  otherwise 
disguised  by  dominoes.  The  bal  costume 
in  which  the  dancers  appear  in  fancy 
costumes,  but  unmasked,  is  the  nearest 
approach  which  American  taste  and  law 
allow  to  this  species  of  entertainment, 
which,  from  its  nature,  is  peculiarly 
liable  to  abuse. 

MASS,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
the  prayers  and  ceremonies  which  ac- 
company the  consecration  of  the 
eucharist.  The  word  is  used  generally  for 
all  that  part  of  the  Catholic  service  in 
which  the  eucharist  is  offered.  At 
present  the  mass  consists  of  four  chief 
parts;  1.  The  introduction;  2,  the  offer- 
torium,  or  sacrifice ; 3,  the  consecration ; 
4,  the  communion.  These  four  chief 
parts,  of  which  the  latter  three  are  con- 
sidered the  most  essential,  are  composed 
of  several  smaller  parts,  each  having  its 
proper  denomination.  They  consist  of 
prayers,  hymns,  shorter  and  longer 
passages  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  a 
number  of  ceremonies,  which,  as  the 
essential  point  of  the  mass  is  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Lord,  consist  partly  of  sym- 
bolical ceremonies  commemorative  of 
important  circumstances  in  the  Savior’s 
life,  or  signs  of  devotion  and  homage 
paid  to  the  presence  of  the  Lord  in  the 
host.  The  order  of  these  ceremonies, 
and  of  the  whole  celebration  of  the  mass, 
is  given  in  the  missal  or  mass-book.  The 
masses  are  modified  according  to  many 
circumstances,  e.g.  according  to  the  saint 
in  honor  of  whom  the  mass  is  celebrated 
or  the  seasons  of  the  year  connected 
with  different  events  in  the  Savior’s  life, 
or  the  purpose  for  which  the  mass  is 
said,  as  the  missa  pro  defunctis  (mass 
for  the  dead).  Votive  mass  is  an  ex- 
traordinary mass,  instead  of  that  of  the 
day,  rehearsed  on  some  special  occasion . 
Low  mass  is  the  ordinary  mass  per- 
formed by  the  priest,  without  music. 
High  mass  is  celebrated  by  the  priest, 
assisted  by  a deacon  and  sub-deacon  or 
other  clergy,  and  sung  by  the  choristers, 
accompanied  by  the  organ  and  other 
musical  instruments.  Besides  these 
there  are  different  masses  according  to 
the  different  rites;  the  Greek  mass,  the 
Latin  mass,  the  Roman  mass  and  Gre- 
gorian mass,  etc. 

MASS,  in  physics,  the  quantity  of 
matter  in  any  body,  or  the  sum  of  all 
the  material  particles  of  a body.  The 
mass  of  a body  is  estimated  by  its  weight 
whatever  be  its  figure,  or  whether  its 
bulk  or  magnitude  be  great  or  small. 
See  Dynamics. 

MASSA-CARRARA,  formerly  a small 
state  of  Italy.  In  1859  it  was  united 
with  those  portions  of  the  duchies  of 
Parma  and  Modena  lying  west  of  the 
Apennines,  and  erected  into  the  prov- 
ince Massa  e Carrara.  The  province  is 
celebrated  for  the  Carrara  marble. 
Area,  685  sq.  miles ; pop.  181,007. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  Atlan- 
tic United  States  of  North  America, 
bounded  north  by  Vermont  and  New 
Hampshire;  east  by  the  Atlantic;  south 
by  the  Atlantic,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Connecticut;  and  west  by  New  York; 


area,  8315  sq.  miles;  capital,  Boston. 
The  coast-line  of  the  state,  which  has  a 
length  of  about  250  miles,  is  indented 
with  deep  and  extensive  bays,  of  which 
Massachusetts  Bay  (which  includes  the 
large  bays  of  Boston  and  Cape  Cod), 
Buzzard  and  Nantucket  Bays  are  the 
most  capacious.  The  indentations  in 


Seal  of  Massachusetts. 


these  bays  form  excellent  harbors,  the 
most  commodious  of  which  are  New- 
buryport,  Boston  Harbor,  and  Marble- 
head. The  islands  of  Nantucket  and 
Martha’s  Vineyard,  with  several  others, 
belong  to  Massachusetts.  The  west 
part  of  the  state  is  traversed  by  the 
Green  Mountain,  whose  loftiest  peak 
rises  3500  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
most  considerable  rivers  are  the  Con- 
necticut, Housatonic,  and  the  Merrimac. 
The  soil  is  poor  and  sandy  near  the 
coast,  where  salt  marshes  frequently 
occur;  but  in  the  middle  and  western 
parts  it  is  very  fertile  and  well  cultivated. 
Massachusetts  has  for  many  years  been 
the  largest  producer  of  granite.  Lime- 
stone is  quarried  and  also  an  increasing 
quantity  of  marble,  iron  pyrite,  corun- 
dum, iron  manganese,  tin,  slate,  and 
tripoli  are  also  produced.  The  fishing 
industry  is  of  great  importance.  Boston 
began  to  export  fish  as  early  as  1633, 
whales  were  caught  off  Nantucket  in 
1690  and  New  Bedford  became  famous 
in  the  whale  fisheries.  The  United 
States  Fish  Commission  and  the  state 
have  extensive  hatcheries.  The  climate 
is  liable  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
48°.  The  principal  vegetable  productions 
are  Indian  corn,  rye,  oats,  potatoes, 
hemp,  flax,  pease,  hops,  beans,  and 
pumpkins;  wheat,  buck-wheat,  and  bar- 
ley are  raised  only  in  small  quantities. 
A considerable  portion  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground  is  still  covered  with  forests, 
consisting  of  pine,  oak,  walnut,  birch, 
maple,  ash,  cedar,  cherry,  and  chestnut. 
All  varieties  of  fruit-trees  are  culti- 
vated with  success.  Massachusetts  is  the 
fourth  state  in  the  Union  in  manufac- 
turing, being  excelled  in  this  respect  only 
by  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illi- 
nois; but  in  proportion  to  its  area  and 
population  it  is  the  first.  Lowell  is  the 
great  center  of  the  cotton  manufac- 
tures. In  the  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes — both  leather  and  rubber — Massa- 
chusettsholds  firstrank.  Worstedgoods, 
hosiery,  silks,  linens,  etc.,  are  also  largely 
manufactured.  There  are  numerous 


forges  and  furnaces;  machine-shops, 
manufactures  of  edge-tools,  agricultural 
implements,  cutlery,  boots  and  shoes, 
etc.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively. In  shipping  Massachusetts  is 
superior  to  any  other  state  of  the  Union 
except  New  York.  Themeansof  internal 
communication  are  ample.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  railways  may  be  mentioned 
the  Hoosac  Tunnel  piercing  the  Hoosac 
mountain  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
state,  with  a length  of  5J  miles.  In 
educational  matters  Massachusetts  has 
a high  reputation,  among  its  leading  in- 
stitutions being  Harvard  university, 
the  oldest  in  the  Union,  Boston  univer- 
sity, and.  Amherst  college.  Massachusetts 
is  divided  into  fourteen  counties;  and 
besides  the  capital,  Boston,  the  chief 
towns  are  Worcester,  Lowell,  Cam- 
bridge, Fall  River,  Lawrence,  and  Lyim. 
Massachusetts  was  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  Union.  Its  coasts 
were  known  to  the  early  Norsemen,  but 
its  first  authentic  record  is  that  of  the 
discovery  of  Cape  Cod  in  1602.  John 
Smith,  of  Pocahontas  fame,  explored  it 
to  some  extent  in  1614,  but  it  was  not 
until  1620  that  the  Puritans  of  the  May- 
flower effected  their  landing  at  Ply- 
mouth on  December  21st.  The  Massa- 
chusetts Colony  was  established  in 
1628-30,  and  made  the  first  settlement 
of  Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1630.  The 
early  years  of  the  colonists  were  made 
uneasy  by  continued  difficulties  with  the 
Indians,  who  under  Pequot,  in  1637, 
and  King  Philip,  1675-76,  caused  much 
loss  of  life.  The  first  settlers  were  Puri- 
tans of  the  Church  of  England;  the 
religious  liberty  whichthey  had  sacrificed 
so  much  to  obtain  for  themselves  they 
denied  to  others  and  persecuted  with  im- 
partiality Quakers,  heretics.  Catholics, 
and  Protestant  Dissenters,  not  to  speak 
of  burning  women  as  witches. 

Massachusetts  was  engaged  in  con- 
stant struggle  with  the  English  crown. 
In  1685,  the  crown  finally  annulled  the 
charter  of  the  colony,  and  sent  orders  to 
unite  New  York  and  New  England  under 
one  rule.  On  the  occurrence  of  the 
revolution  of  1688,  the  people  rose  and 
reestablished  their  colonial  government. 
The  province  of  Maine  was  united  in  the 
new  provincial  charter  of  1691,  and  Sir 
William  Phips  became  the  first  royal 
governor,  the  attempt  to  unite  New 
York  with  Massachusetts  being  aban- 
doned. From  this  time  until  the  acces- 
sion of  George  III.  to  the  English  throne 
the  history  of  Massachusetts  forms  one 
long  record  of  struggle  between  the 
popular  party  and  the  home  govern- 
ment as  represented  by  the  royalist 
governors. 

The  Puritan  colony  led  in  the  active 
opposition  to  royal  usurpation  and  the 
imposition  of  the  Stamp  Act,  and  in 
1770  occurred  what  is  known  as  the 
“Boston  Massacre,’’  when  the  regular 
troops  fired  into  an  unarmed  crowd 
which  had  gathered  for  a lawful  purpose. 
Three  years  later  witnessed  the  Boston 
“tea-party,”  when  a party  of  citizens, 
disguised  as  Indians,  threw  the  taxed 
tea  into  the  harbor.  The  British  parlia- 
ment retaliated  by  closing  the  port  of 
Boston,  and  Gen.  Thomas  Gage  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  town,  In 


Massachusetts  college 


MASTER  IN  CHANCERY 


April,  1775,  the  first  gun  of  the  war  was 
fired  at  Lexington.  The  royal  forces 
were  shut  up  in  Boston,  and  the  pro- 
vincial troops,  though  technically  de- 
feated at  Bunker  Hill,  won  a great  moral 
victory.  Washington,  who  had  been 
appointed  to  the  chief  command,  com- 
pelled the  British  to  evacuate  Boston  in 
March,  1776,  and  after  this  date  there 
was  no  more  fighting  within  the  limits  of 
Massachusetts.  From  1776  until  1790  a 
provisional  government  had  charge,  and 
in  the  last-named  yefar  John  Hancock 
became  the  first  governor  of  the  state. 

The  federal  constitution  was  accepted 
by  a small  majority,  but  Massachusetts 
afterward  became  a stronghold  of  the 
federalist  party.  The  state  opposed  the 
war  with  England  in  1812-14,  but  fur- 
nished a large  quota  of  seamen  to  the 
federal  navy.  During  the  following  half 
century  Massachusetts  developed  won- 
derfully as  a manufacturing  state  and 
grew  rapidly  in  power  and  influence. 
It  became  the  home  of  the  advanced 
thinkers  who  opposed  slavery.  Although 
the  people  at  large  were  righteously 
opposed  to  the  Mexican  war,  the  state 
sent  a regiment  of  over  1000  men  under 
Caleb  Cushing  to  aid  in  carrying  it  on. 
The  whig  party  of  which  Daniel  Webster 
was  the  chief  exponent,  supplanted  the 
federalists,  and  split  to  form  the  free 
soilers  and  later  the  republican  party. 
To  the  civil  war  the  state  contributed 
almost  160,000  troops  and  over  $50,000,- 
000.  In  national  elections  Massachusetts 
has  been  federalist,  whig,  and  republi- 
can with  the  exception  of  the  years 
1804  (Jefferson),  1820  (Munroe),  1824- 
1828  (John  Quincy  Adams).  Pop.  1909, 
ab^”'  8.258,422. 

MASSACHUSETTS  AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE,  a co-educational  state  insti- 
tution at  Amherst,  Mass.,  chartered  in 
1863  and  opened  in  1867.  Winter  courses 
are  offered  for  those  unable  to  take  the 
regular  four  years’  course  and  special 
courses  in  botany,  dairying,  market 
gardening,  and  other  departments  are 
offered  to  women.  The  degrees  con- 
ferred are  B.S.,  M.S.,  and  Ph.D. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY,  a large  bay 
to  the  east  of  the  central  part  of  Massa- 
chusetts; bounded  on  the  north  by  Cape 
Ann,  and  on  the  south  by  Cape  Cod. 

MASSACHUSETTS  HISTORICAL  SO- 
CIETY, the  oldest  historical  society  in 
the  country,  having  been  organized  in 
1781  and  incorporated  in  1794.  Its 
objects  are  the  collection,  preservation, 
and  diffusion  of  the  materials  for  Ameri- 
can history.  The  first  volume  of  “Col- 
lections” was  printed  in  1792,  and  this 
has  been  followed  by  fifty  more,  to- 
gether with  about  twenty  volumes  of 
“Proceedings.”  The  society  has  a 
museum  of  relics  and  antiquities,  and  a 
fine  library  of  30,000  books,  60,000 
pamphlets,  and  many  rare  manuscripts, 
including  the  Parkman  collection  of 
thirty  volumes  of  manuscripts  relating 
to  the  history  of  the  French  in  Canada. 

MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF 
TECHNOLOGY,  a school  of  industrial 
science  in  Boston,  Mass.,  established  in 
1861  for  the  purpose  of  instituting  and 
maintaining  a society  of  arts,  a museum 
of  arts,  and  a school  of  industrial  science, 
and  aiding  generally  by  suitable  means 


the  advancement,  development,  and 
practical  application  of  science  in  con- 
nection with  arts,  agriculture,  manu- 
facture, and  commerce.  Thirteen  dis- 
tinct courses  are  offered,  each  of  four 
years’  duration:  Civil  engineering, 

mechanical  engineering,  miningengineer- 
ing and  metallurgy,  architecture,  chem- 
istry, electrical  engineering,  biology, 
physics,  general  studies,  chemical  en- 
gineering, sanitary  engineering,  geology, 
and  naval  architecture.  Each  of  these 
courses  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Science.  Within  most  of  the  regular 
courses  a considerable  latitude  is  per- 
mitted in  the  selection  of  branches,  a 
partial  choice  of  professional  course  be- 
ing made  at  the  middle  of  the  first  year, 
while  in  the  fourth  year  nearly  the  en- 
tire time  is  devoted  to  professional  sub- 
jects. 

MASSAGE  (mas'azh),  a form  of  medi- 
cal treatment  in  which  the  body  of  the 
patient,  or  some  particular  part  of  it,  is 
subjected  at  the  hands  of  an  attendant 
to  a variety  of  processes  technically  dis- 
criminated as  stroking,  rubbing,  knead- 
ing, pinching,  pressing,  squeezing,  and 
hacking.  The  tendency  of  this  treatment 
is  to  assist  and  stimulate  the  circulation, 
and  to  increase  the  waste-removing 
action  of  the  lymphatic  vessels,  and  thus 
to  affect  the  nutrition,  not  only  of  the 
parts  acted  upon,  but  of  the  whole  body, 
and  promote  the  removal  of  local  swell- 
ings, inflammatory  products,  etc.  The 
process,  for  which  half  an  hour  daily  is 
usually  sufficient,  is  performed  upon  the 
naked  skin  by  the  bare  hands  of  the 
operator,  no  oil  being  used.  The  attend- 
ant should  have  a sufficient  knowledge 
of  anatomy  to  be  able  to  separate  out 
with  the  fingers  a single  muscle  or  group 
of  muscles  for  treatment,  and  to  trace 
the  direction  of  the  larger  vessels  and 
nerve-trunks  and  act  upon  them  directly. 
The  principal  movementsshould  bechar- 
acterized  by  a certain  uniformity  and 
method.  Thus  in  stroking  with  a steady 
pressure  the  limbs  of  the  patient,  the 
strokes  should  always  be  from  the  ex- 
tremities toward  the  heart,  not  back- 
ward and  forward  in  a random  way; 
and  in  kneading  the  belly  with  the  heel 
of  the  hand,  the  movements  are  carried 
round  in  the  direction  of  the  colon.  The 
treatment  has  been  remarkably  success- 
ful in  cases  of  nervous  disorder  of  a 
hysterical  kind,  and  in  cases  of  wasting 
through  imperfect  nutrition  dependent 
upon  disturbances  of  stomach,  bowels, 
or  liver,  and  it  has  proved  valuable  in 
diabetes,  some  of  the  special  diseases  of 
women,  and  certain  cases  of  paralyzed 
and  contracted  muscles. 

MASSENA  (mas-a-na),  Andr4,  Marshal 
of  France,  born  in  1758  at  Nice.  In  1775 
he  entered  the  French  army.  During  the 
revolution  he  entered  a battalion  of 
volunteers,  was  elected  chief  of  his 
battalion  in  1792,  and  in  1793  made 
general  of  brigade.  In  1799  he  defeated 
the  Austrian  and  Russian  forces  at 
Zurich,  and  in  1800,  by  his  defence  of 
Genoa  for  three  months,  gave  Bona- 
parte time  to  strike  successfully  at 
Marengo.  In  1804  he  was  created  mar- 
shal of  the  empire.  In  1807  he  was  given 
the  command  of  the  right  wing  of  the 
French  army  in  Poland,  and  soon  after 


received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Rivoli.  In 
1809  he  distinguished  himself  against 
the  Austrians,  and  at  Esslingen  his  con- 
stancy and  firmness  saved  the  French 
army  from  total  destruction.  Napoleon 
rewarded  him  with  the  dignity  of  Prince 
of  Esslingen.  In  1810  he  took  command 
of  the  army  in  Portugal,  and  forced 
Wellington  within  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  till  want  of  provisions  com- 
pelled Mass4na  to  retire.  In  1814  he  was 
made  a peer  by  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
though  on  the  return  of  the  emperor  he 
acknowledged  his  authority,  he  took  no 
active  part  in  the  events  of  the  hundred 
days.  He  died  in  1817. 

MASSENET  (mas-na),  Jules,  French 
composer,  born  in  1842.  He  is  the  com- 
poser of  several  operas,  of  which  the  best 
known  areHerodias,  Don  C6sar  de  Bazan, 
and  Manon  Lescaut.  His  Scenes  Pittor- 
esques  are  also  well  known,  and  there 
is  a long  list  of  works  by  him,  includ- 
ing the  choral  works  Maria  Magdalene, 
Eva,  La  Vierge,  etc. 

MAS'SILLON,  a city  in  Stark  co., 
Ohio,  on  the  Tuscarawas  river,  the  Ohio 
Canal,  and  the  Cleve.,  Lorain  and 
Wheel.,  the  Pen^.,  and  the  Wheel,  and 
Lake  Erie  railways;  65  miles  s.  of  Cleve- 
land. It  is  in  an  agricultural,  coal- 
mining, and  sandstone-quarrying  region. 
Pop.  13,325. 

MASSILLON  (m&s-e-yon),  Jean  Bap- 
tiste, French  pulpit  orator,  born  in  1663 
at  Hy§res,  in  Provence.  The  applause 
which  he  met  with  in  Paris,  even  at 
court,  was  almost  without  example. 
Louis  XIV.  gave  him  special  praise,  and 
the  deaths  of  Bossuet  and  Bourdaloue 
in  1704  left  him  at  the  head  of  the 
French  preachers.  He  pronounced  the 
funeral  oration  of  Louis  XIV.  in  1715, 
and  in  1717  the  regent  appointed  him  to 
the  see  of  Clermont.  In  1719  Massillon 
was  chosen  a member  of  the  Academy. 
The  same  year  he  retired  to  his  diocese, 
where  he  acted  the  part  of  a model  prel- 
ate, and  died  in  1742.  He  was  the  great- 
est pulpit  orator  France  has  produced. 

MASSINGER  (mas'in-jer),  Philip,  a 
distinguished  English  dramatist,  born  at 
Salisbury  in  1583.  Little  is  known  of  his 
personal  history  beyond  the  fact  that  he 
was  associated  with  Fletcher,  Middleton, 
Rowley,  and  Dekker  in  the  composition 
of  certain  plays.  A note  of  his  burial 
appears  in  the  register  of  St.  Savior’s, 
Southwark;  “March  20,  1639-1640, 

buried  Philip  Massinger,  a stranger.” 
As  a dramatist  Massinger  is  more  natural 
in  his  characters  and  poetical  in  his  dic- 
tion than  Jonson,  and  some  critics  rank 
him  next  to  Shakespeare.  In  tragedy, 
however,  he  is  rather  eloquent  and 
forcible  than  pathetic,  and  he  is  de- 
fective in  humor.  His  best  plays  are 
the  Duke  of  Milan,  A City  Madam,  A 
Very  Woman,  The  Fatal  Dowry,  A New 
Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts.  The  last -men- 
tioned still  maintains  its  place  on  the 
stage,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  charac- 
ters Marrall  and  Overreach. 

MAST.  SeeShip. 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY,  an  officer  of 
a chancery  or  equity  court,  appointed  to 
assist  the  chancellor  or  judge.  His  duties 
in  general,  are  not  prescribed  by  statute. 
It  is  a common  practice  to  refer  causes 
to  a master  for  hearing,  particularly 


MASTER  OF  ARTS 


MATHER 


Causes  involving  intricate  accounts  and 
requiring  computations.  A master  is 
often  appointed  to  examine  witnesses, 
to  take  depositions,  to  inquire  into  and 
report  the  facts  of  a case  to  a chancellor 
or  judge  of  the  court,  to  make  settle- 
ments under  deeds,  to  discharge  special 
acts  under  the  direction  and  in  behalf 
of  the  court,  etc. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS  (M.A.  or  A.M.),an 
academical  honor  conferred  by  the 
universities  of  Britain, theUnited  States, 
Germany,  etc.,  upon  students  after  a 
course  of  study  and  a previous  examina- 
tion in  the  chief  branches  of  a liberal 
education,  particularly  languages,  phil- 
osophy, mathematics,  physics,  and  his- 
tory. In  the  German  universities  the 
title  is  merged  in  that  of  Doctor  of  Phil- 
osophy (Ph.D.). 

MASTICATION,  the  process  of  division 
of  the  food  effected  in  the  mouth  by  the 
combined  action  of  the  jaws  and  teeth, 
the  tongue,  palate,  and  muscles  of  the 
cheeks.  This  process  is  seen  in  its  typical 
perfection  in  the  higher  Vertebrata  only. 
By  it  the  food,  besides  being  triturated, 
is  mixed  with  the  salivary  fluid.  Im- 
perfect mastication  is  a fertile  source  of 
indigestion. 

MASTIFF,  a race  of  large  dogs  found 
under  various  names  from  Tibet  to  Eng- 
land. The  English  mastiff  is  a noble- 
looking dog  with  a large  head,  a broad 
muzzle,  lips  thick  and  pendulous  on  each 
side  of  the  mouth,  hanging  ears  and 
smooth  hair,  the  height  at  the  shoulder 
usually  ranging  from  25  to  29  inches. 
The  old  English  breed  was  brindled, 
but  the  usual  color  to-day  is  some  shade 
of  buff  with  dark  muzzle  and  ears.  The 
Tibet  mastiff,  which  is  also  a fine  animal, 
is  common  in  Tibet  and  in  Bhutan  as  a 
house  dog. 

MAS'TODON,  an  extinct  genus  of 
Proboscidea  or  elephants,  the  fossil  re- 
mains of  which  first  occur  in  the  Miocene 
rocks  of  the  Tertiary  period,  and  which 
persist  through  the  Pliocene  and  Post- 
pliocene epochs  also.  In  general  struc- 
ture the  mastodons  bear  a close  resem- 
blance to  the  existing  species  of  ele- 


Mastodon  restored. 

1,  Molar  tooth,  weighing  17  lbs.  2,  Skull  of 
mastodon  of  miocene  period. 

phants.  Their  chief  peculiarities  consist 
in  the  dentition  and  structure  of  the 
teeth.  The  geographical  range  of  the 
mastodons  included  North  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia — one  species  in- 
habited England,  Germany,  France  and 
Italy.  A specimen,  almost  entire,  from 
the  Pliocene  deposits  of  Piedmont, 
measured  17  feet  from  the  tusks  to  the 


tail;  and  an  American  specimen  meas- 
ured 18  feet  in  length  and  11  feet  5 
inches  in  height. 

MATABE'LELAND,  the  land  of  the 
Matabele,  a warlike  Kaffir  race  or  people 
inhabiting  part  of  South  Africa  between 
the  Limpopo  and  Zambesi,  north  of  the 
Transvaal,  into  which  they  removed 
from  Natal  in  1827  under  their  chief 
Moselikatse.  It  is  now  being  rapidly  set- 
tled and  developed.  Bulawayo  is  the 
capital. 

MATAN'ZAS,  a seaport  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Cuba,  52  miles  east  of 
Havana,  with  one  of  the  largest,  safest 
and  most  convenient  harbors  in  America. 
It  has  considerable  commerce,  exporting 
sugar,  molasses,  and  coffee,  and  ranking 
in  importance  next  to  Havana.  Pop. 
about  40,000. 

MATCHES,  in  the  most  common  sense 
of  the  term,  are  splints  or  small  slips  of 
wood,  one  end  of  which  is  dipped  into  a 
composition  that  ignites  by  friction  or 
other  means.  One  of  the  first  forms  of 
this  article  was  the  brimstone  match, 
which  was  a thin  strip  of  resinous  or  dry 
pinewood  with  pointed  ends  dipped  in 
sulphur,  which  were  lighted  with  tinder 
ignited  by  a flint  and  steel.  The  lucifer- 
match  was  introduced  in  1827,  the  in- 
flammable substance  being  a mixture 
of  chlorate  of  potash  and  sulphide  of 
antimony,  applied  to  the  match,  which 
had  been  previously  dipped  into  melted 
sulphur.  Safety  matches  were  invented 
in  Sweden  in  1855,  and  are  now  exten- 
sivelyused.  In  the  safety-match  the  com- 
position is  divided  between  the  match 
and  the  friction  paper  attached  to  the 
box,  so  that  the  match  can  only  be 
lighted  in  brdinary  circumstances  by  be- 
ing rubbed  on  the  prepared  paper.  The 
compound  put  on  the  match  consists 
of  chlorate  and  bichromate  of  potash, 
red-lead,  and  sulphide  of  antimony, 
while  the  friction  paper  is  coated  with  a 
mixture  of  amorphous  phosphorus  and 
sulphide  of  antimony. 

MATCHLOCK,  an  old  form  of  musket 
fired  by  means  of  a match.  They  were 
invented  in  the  first  half  of  the  15th 
century,  and  were  succeeded  by  the 
arquebus.  See  Musquet. 

MATE  (ma'ta),  the  plant  that  yields 
Paraguay  tea,  a kind  of  holly.  It  has 
smooth,  ovate-lanceolate,  unequally  ser- 
rated leaves,  much  branched  racemes  of 
flowers,  the  subdivisions  of  which  are 
somewhat  umbellate.  In  Brazil  and  other 
parts  of  South  America  the  leaves  are 
extensively  used  as  a substitute  for  tea, 
the  name  Mat6  having  been  transferred 
to  the  plant  from  the  gourd  or  calabash 
in  which  the  leaves  are  infused.  Boiling 
water  is  poured  upon  the  powdered 
leaves,  then  a lump  of  burned  sugar  and 
sometimes  a few  drops  of  lemon  juice 
are  added.  It  contains  theine,  and  acts 
as  a slight  aperient  and  diuretic. 

MATERIALISM,  in  philosophy,  that 
system  which  denies  the  existence  of  a 
spiritual  or  immaterial  principle  in  man, 
called  the  mind  or  soul,  distinct  from 
matter;  or  in  a more  extended  sense,  the 
doctrine  that  is  founded  on  the  hy- 
pothesis that  all  existence  (including, 
of  course,  the  conscious  subject)  may  be 
resolved  into  a modification  of  matter. 

MATE'RIA  MED'ICA,  the  collective 


name  given  to  the  materials  with  which 
physicians  attempt  to  cure  or  alleviate 
the  numerous  diseases  of  the  human 
body,  and  which  comprehend  a great 
variety  of  substances  taken  from  the 
mineral,  animal,  and  vegetable  king- 
doms— such  as  mercury,  antimony, 
arsenic,  and  zinc,  from  among  the 
metallic  bodies;  sulphur,  lime,  soda, 
nitre,  magnesia,  borax,  and  several  salts, 
from  among  the  other  minerals;  and 
some  200  substances  belonging  to  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

MATHEMATICS  is  the  science  in 
which  known  relations  between  magni- 
tudes are  subjected  to  certain  processes 
which  enable  other  relations  to  be  de- 
duced. Mathematical  principles  which 
are  deduced  from  axioms  with  the  help 
of  certain  definitions  belong  to  pure 
mathematics,  and  those  which  have  been 
deduced  with  the  help  of  pure  mathe- 
matics from  certain  simple  physical  laws, 
belong  to  mixed  mathematics.  Arithme- 
tic, geometry,  algebra,  plane  and  spheri- 
cal trigonometry,  analytical  or  co- 
ordinate geometry,  the  differential  and 
integral  calculus,  quaternions,  the  cal- 
culus of  finite  differences,  etc.,  are  de- 
partments of  pure  mathematics;  the 
dynamics  of  rigid  bodies  and  the  appli- 
cation of  its  principles  in  astronomy  and 
in  investigating  the  actions  of  forces  on 
ordinary  matter,  acoustics,  the  un- 
dulatory  theory  of  light,  optics,  thermo- 
dynamics, electricity  and  magnetism, 
etc.,  are  departments  of  mixed  mathe- 
matics. See  Algebra,  Arithmetic, 
Dynamics,  Geometry,  etc. 

MATHER,  Cotton,  D.D.,  American 
writer,  born  in  Boston  1663.  In  1685 
he  published  his  Memorable  Providences 
relating  to  Witchcraft  and  Possessions, 
which  was  used  as  an  authority  in  the 
persecution  and  condemnation  of  nine- 
teen victims  burned  for  witchcraft  at 
Salem  in  1692.  He  died  in  1728  with  the 
reputation  of  having  been  the  greatest 
scholar  and  author  that  America  had 
then  produced,  his  publications,  some 
of  huge  dimensions,  amounting  to  382. 

MATHER,  Increase,  D.D.,  one  of  the 
early  presidents  of  Harvard  College, 


was  bom  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts, 
1639j  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1656; 


MATHEW 


MAXIM 


ordained  a minister  in  1G61;  president 
of  Harvi^rd  College  from  1685  to  1701. 
When  King  Charles  II.  signified  his  wish 
that  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  should 
be  resigned  into  his  hands,  in  1683.  Dr. 
Mather  contended  against  a compliance. 
In  1688  he  was  deputed  to  England,  as 
agent  of  the  province,  to  procure  redress 
of  grievances.  He  held  conferences  with 
King  James  II.,  and  with  William  and 
Mary,  and  in  1692  returned  to  Boston 
with  a new  charter  from  the  crown, 
settling  the  government  of  the  province. 
He  died  at  Boston  in  1723. 

MATHEW,  Rev.  Theobald,  popularly 
known  as  Father  Mathew,  Irish  apostle 
of  temperance,  was  born  in  1790,  studied 
at  Maynooth,  and  was  ordained  a priest 
m 1814.  Shortly  afterward  he  was 
appointed  to  a missionary  charge  at 
Cork,  and  established  a society,  on  the 
model  of  those  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
for  visiting  the  sick  and  distressed.  A 
more  extended  undertaking  was  the 
celebrated  temperance  crusade,  which 
was  so  successful  that  in  a few  months 
he  had  150,000  converts  in  county  Cork 
alone.  He  died  in  1856. 

MATHEWS,  Charles,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish comedian,  born  in  London  1776.  He 
made  his  debut  at  Richmond  in  1793, 
and  after  ten  years’  acting  in  the  prov- 
inces made  his  first  appearance  in  Lon- 
don at  the  Haymarket  Theater  in  1803. 
He  instituted,  in  1818,  a species  of  en- 
tertainment in  the  form  of  a monologue 
which,  under  the  title  Mathews  at 
Home,  for  five  successive  seasons  drew 
crowded  audiences  to  the  English  Opera 
House.  In  1822  he  played  in  America, 
and  on  his  return  in  1823  produced  his 
Trip  to  America,  which  was  as  favorably 
received  as  his  At  Home.  He  continued 
both  entertainments  for  upward  of  ten 
years.  In  1834  he  was  again  enthusiastic- 
ally received  in  America,  but  was  taken 
ill  on  the  return  voyage,  and  died  at 
Plymouth  in  1835.  His  powers  of  mim- 
icry have  perhaps  never  Been  surpassed 
on  the  stage.  His  son  Charles  James 
(born  1803,  died  1878)  long  held  a promi- 
nent place  as  a light  comedian.  His 
first  wife  was  Madame  Vestris,  the  cele- 
brated actress.  In  his  sixty-sixth  year 
he  made  a tour  of  the  world,  gaining 
everywhere  great  applause  for  the  grace 
and  finish  and  exquisite  humor  of  his 
acting. 

MATRIX,  in  mining  and  geology,  the 
rock  or  main  substance  in  which  any 
accidental  crystal,  mineral,  or  fossil  is 
embedded. 

MATTER,  that  which  occupies  space, 
and  through  which  force  is  manifested. 
It  is  also  that  which  makes  itself  known 
to  us  by  our  bodily  senses,  though  there 
is  believed  to  exist  one  kind  of  matter 
at  least  which  is  too  subtle  to  be  per- 
ceived by  the  senses,  namely,  the  inter- 
molecular  and  interstellar  ether. 
Roughly  speaking,  matter  exists  in  one 
of  three  states,  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous, 
but  these  are  not  marked  off  by  any  dis- 
tinct line.  Matter  is  commonly  regarded 
as  the  antithesis  of  mind. 

MATTHEW,  St.,  evangelist  and  apos- 
tle, son  of  Alpheus;  previous  to  his  call  a 
publican  or  officer  of  the  Roman  customs 
and,  according  to  tradition,  a native  of 
Nazareth.  After  the  ascension  of  Christ 


we  find  him  at  Jerusalem  with  the  other 
apostles,  but  this  is  the  last  notice  of 
him  in  Scripture.  Tradition  represents 
him  as  preaching  fifteen  years  in  Jerusa- 
lem, then  visiting  the  Ethiopians,  Mace- 
donians, Persians,  Syrians,  etc.,  and 
finally  suffering  martyrdom  in  Persia. 
His  (Jospel  has  been  supposed  by  some 
critics  to  have  been  originally  written  in 
Hebrew,  or  rather  Aramaic,  but  it  is 
only  found  in  Greek.  The  chief  aim  of 
this  Gospel  is  evidently  to  prove  the 
Messianic  character  of  Jesus.  See  Gospel. 

MATTHEWS  (James)  Brander,  Ameri- 
can author  was  born  in  New  Orleans  in 
1852.  In  1892  he  was  made  a professor  in 
Columbia,  and  soon  won  eminence  in 
America  as  a critic  of  dramatic  litera- 
ture. His  writings  consist  of  essays  on 
the  theater,  of  comedies,  and  of  short 
stories.  Among  his  best  known  works  are 
His  Father’s  Son,  A Confidant  of  To- 
morrow, Americanisms  and  Britticisms, 
Margery’s  Lovers,  In  the  Vestibule 
Limited,  The  Historical  Novel  and  other 
essays,  Actors  and  i^tresses  of  the 
United  States,  etc. 

MATTOON,  a city  in  Coles  co..  111.,  on 
the  111.  Cent.,  the  Cleve.,  Cin.,  Chi.  and 
St.  L.,  and  the  Peoria,  Dec.  and  Evans, 
railways;  56  miles  w.  of  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  172  miles  s.  by  w of  Chicago.  It  is 
in  a corn  and  broom-corn  growing 
region.  Pop.  11,510. 

MAUPASSANT  (mo'pa'san'),  Henri 
Ren6  Albert  Guy  de,  French  novelist, 
one  of  the  greatest  modern  writers  of 
short  stories.  His  first  story,  Boule  de 
Suif,  published  in  1881,  revealed  a fin- 
ished master  of  the  naturalistic  school. 
Among  his  well  known  works  are  La 
Maison  Tellier,  Mile  Fifi,  Bel  Ami, 
Pierre  et  Jean,  and  Notre  Coeur.  He 
died  in  1893. 

MAUREPAS  (mor-pa),  Jean  Fr4d4ric 
Ph61ippeaux,  Count  de,  French  states- 
man, born  in  1701.  An  epigram  on  Ma- 
dame de  Pompadour  led  to  his  banish- 
ment from  the  court  in  1749,  but  Louis 
XVI.  recalled  him  in  1774,  and  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  his  ministry,  and  he 
retained  the  confidence  of  the  king  till 
his  death  in  1781.  The  restoration  of 
the  parliaments  was  the  principal  meas- 
ure of  his  later  ministry. 

MAURICE,  of  Saxony,  Count.  See 
Saxe. 

MAURICE  OF  NASSAU,  Prince  of 
Orange,  stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands, 
the  youngest  son  of  William  the  Silent, 
was  born  1567.  He  died  at  the  Hague 
in  1625,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Frederick  Henry. 

MAURICIUS,  Flavius  Tiberius,  one  of 
the  greatest  Byzantine  emperors,  was 
born  about  539  a.d.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  war  against  the  Persians, 
obtaining  by  his  complete  victory  over 
them  in  581,  the  honor  of  a triumph  at 
Constantinople.  A defeat  of  the  Byzan- 
tines by  the  Avars,  and  the  massacre  of 
the  Byzantine  prisoners,  whom  Mauri- 
cius  declined  to  ransom,  led  to  a revolt 
of  his  troops  on  the  Danube.  They 
marched  on  Constantinople  under 
Phocas,  who  was  proclaimed  emperor 
(602),  and  Mauricius  was  seized  and 
executed  in  603. 

MAURITIUS,  or  ISLE  OF  FRANCE, 
an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  a colony 


of  Great  Britain,  400  miles  east  front 
Madagascar;  area,  705  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
371,655. 

MAU'RY,  Matthew  Fontaine,  Ameri- 
can naval  officer  and  hydrographer, 
born  in  Spottsylvania  co.,  Va.,  in  1806. 
In  1839  he  sustained  a fracture  of  the 
leg  which  made  him  a cripple  for  life. 
This  accident  led  to  his  being  appointed 
to  the  Naval  Observatory  and  Hydro- 
graphic  office  in  Washington,  where  he 
made  a study  of  old  ships’  logs,  the 
result  of  which  was  a series  of  Wind  and 
Current  Charts  that  were  of  incalculable 
benefit  to  navigators.  Here  also  he  pre- 
pared his  Physical  Geography  of  the 
Sea  and  Its  Meteorology.  He  died  in 
1873. 

MAUSER,  (mou'zer),  Paul,  German 
inventor,  was  born  at  Oberndorf,  Wiirt- 
temberg  in  1838.  In  1879  he  invented 
the  Mauser  revolver,  and  in  1882,  in  con- 
junction with  his  brother,  he  succeeded 
in  securing  the  adoption  by  the  Servian 
government  of  an  improved  rifle  known 
as  the  “Mauser,  1882.”  He  is  princi- 
pally known,  however,  for  his  invention 
of  the  Mauser  magazine  rifle,  and  a mag- 
azine revolver.  (See  Small  Arms.)  His 
weapon  was  distinguished  for  its  low 
trajectory,  and  the  projectile  which  it 
fired  for  its  penetrative  power.  In  1898 
he  was  elected  a member  of  the  Reich- 
stag. 

MAUSOLE'UM,  a sepulchral  monu- 
ment, so  named  from  Mausolus,  a king 
of  Caria,  to  whom  his  wife  Artemisia 
erected  a monument  which  became 
so  famous  as  to  be  esteemed  the  seventh 
wonder  of  the  world,  and  to  give  a 
generic  name  to  all  superb  sepulchres. 
From  Pliny  we  learn  that  its  height  was 
140  feet.  In  modern  times  the  term  is 
applied  generally  to  a sepulchral  edifice 
erected  for  the  reception  of  a monument, 
or  to  contain  tombs. 

MAUVE,  a beautiful  purple  dye  ob- 
tained from  aniline,  used  for  dyeing  silks, 
etc.  In  silk  and  wool  the  colors  are  per- 
manent without  the  us^  of  mordants. 

MAXIL'LA,  the  term  applied  in  com- 
parative anatomy  to  the  upper  jaw- 
bones of  Vertebrates,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  mandible  or  lower  jaw;  and 
in  Invertebrata  to  the  second  or  lesser 
pair  or  pairs  of  jaws.  Thus  in  insects, 
spiders,  crustaceans,  etc.,  the  maxillse 
form  definite  and  important  organs  in 
the  trituration  and  division  of  food. 

MAX'IM,  Sir  Hiram  Stevens,  Ameri- 
can civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical 
engineer,  inventor  of  the  automatic 
system  of  firearms,  was  born  in  Sangers- 
ville,  Maine,  in  1840.  In  1878  he  in- 
vented an  incandescent  lamp  capable  of 
burning  for  1000  hours.  Other  impor- 
tant inventions  were  “a  method  of  flash- 
ing electric  carbons”  and  “a  process  to 
standardize  carbons  for  electric  light- 
ing.” In  1880  he  went  to  Europe  and 
exhibited  some  of  his  inventions  at  the 
Paris  exposition  of  1881.  His  most  cele- 
brated invention  was  the  Maxim  gun 
(see  Machine  Guns).  More  than  one  hun- 
dred international  patents  relating  to 
petroleum  and  other  motors,  explosives, 
smokeless  powders,  and  so  on,  were 
taken  out  by  him.  Maximite  powder, 
a smokeless  high  explosive,  was  one  of 
his  discoveries.  He  became  a naturalized 


Maximianus 


mazarin 


citizen  of  Great  Britain  because  of  the 
alleged  unfair  treatment  of  his  inven- 
tions by  the  United  States  government. 
He  was  made  a chevalier  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  and  was  created  a knight  by 
the  English  crown  in  1901. 

MAXIMIA'NUS,  Marcus  Aurelius  Va- 
lerius Herculius,  a Roman  emperor, 
who  became  colleague  of  Diocletian  in 
the  empire  286  a.d.  He  endeavored  to 
murder  his  rival  Constantine,  to  whom 
he  had  given  his  daughter  Faustina  in 
marriage,  and  being  frustrated  by  the 
fidelity  of  the  latter,  strangled  himself 
310.  He  was  the  father  and  contem- 
porary of  Maxentius. 

MAXIMIL'IAN  I.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, son  of  the  Emperor  Frederick 
III.  and  of  Eleonora  of  Portugal,  was 
born  in  1459;  in  1486  was  elected  king 
of  the  Romans,  and  emperor  in  1493. 


He  first  became  an  independent  prince 
by  his  marriage  with  Mary  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
who  was  killed  in  1477.  He  died  in  1519, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson 
Charles  V.  See  Germany. 

MAXIMILIAN  II.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, born  1527,  died  1576.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ferdinand  I.,  in  1564. 

MAXIMILIAN,  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
known  in  his  earlier  life  as  Ferdinand 
Maximilian  Joseph,  Archduke  of  Aus- 
tria, born  at  Vienna,  1832,  was  the 
younger  brother  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  of 
Austria.  In  1863  he  was  induced  by  the 
Emperor  Napoleon,  to  accept  the  throne 
of  Mexico.  With  this  intention  he  en- 
tered Mexico  in  June,  1864.  Having 
become  involved  in  financial  and  politi- 
cal difficulties,  Maximilian,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  Napoleon,  resolved  to  abdicate 
(1866),  and  he  had  proceeded  to  Orizaba 
when  he  was  induced  to  return  by  the 
conservative  party  in  the  state.  The 
fighting  which  followed  culminated  in 
^he  capture  and  execution  of  the  em- 
peror and  two  of  his  chief  generals, 
19th  June,  1867. 

MAXIMILIAN  JOSEPH,  King  of 
Bavaria,  born  1756,  died  1825.  He  mar- 
ried his  daughter  to  Eugene  Beauharnais, 
son  of  Napoleon’s  wife  Josephine,  and 
had  his  duchy  raised  to  a kingdom  in 
1806.  In  1813  he  joined  the  league 
against  France. 

MAXIMI'NUS,  Caius  Julius  Verus, 
Roman  emperor,  the  son  of  a peasant  of 
Thrace.  He  entered  the  Roman  army 
under  Septimus  Severus  before  210,  and 
gradually  rose  in  rank  until,  on  the 
death  of  Alexander  Severus,  he  caused 
himself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  a.d. 


235.  He  was  successful  in  his  German 
campaigns,  but  his  acts  of  barbarity 
and  tyranny  provoked  an  insurrection, 
in  the  attempt  to  quell  which  he  was 
assassinated  by  his  own  soldiery,  a.d. 
238.  The  emperor  is  represented  as  be- 
ing of  immense  stature  and  strength. 

MAXIMITE,  an  explosive  used  in  the 
bursting  charge  of  shells.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  explode  it  by  shock  but  is  easily 
detonated  by  a suitable  fuse.  It  melts 
at  a temperature  of  174  when  heated 
in  air.  When  detonated  the  products 
of  combustion  are  almostwholly  gaseous. 
In  an  unconfined  state  it  burns  slowly 
without  explosion';  heated  it  melts  and 
evaporates  rapidly  but  not  explosively. 
It  was  invented  by  Sir  Hiram  Maxim. 

MAXIMUM,  is  the  greatest  quantity 
or  degree  fixed,  attainable,  or  attained, 
in  any  given  case  as  opposed  to  mini- 
mum, the  smallest.  In  mathematics  and 
physics  maximum  is  used  also  for  the 
value  which  a varying  quantity  has  at 
the  moment  when  it  ceases  to  increase 
and  begins  to  decrease. 

MAY,  fifth  month  in  the  year,  but 
third  in  the  old  Roman  calendar,  has 
thirty-one  days.  The  Romans  regarded 
it  as  unlucky  to  contract  marriages 
during  its  course — a superstition  still 
prevalent  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 
On  the  1st  of  May  the  old  Celtic  peoples 
held  a festival  called  Beltane.  In 
former  days  out-door  sports  and 
pastimes  on  the  first  of  May  were  very 
common,  and  are  not  yet  entirely 
given  up.  They  included  the  erection 
of  a May-pole  decorated  with  flowers 
and  foliage,  round  which  young  men 
and  maidens  danced,  one  of  the  latter 
being  chosen  for  her  good  looks  as 
queen  of  the  festival,  or  “Queen  of 
the  May.” 

MAY-APPLE,  a plant,  a native  of 
North  America,  and  its  creeping  root- 
stalk  affords  an  active  catharticmedicine 


May-apple. 


known  as  podophyllin.  The  yellowish 
pulpy  fruit,  of  the  size  of  a pigeon’s  egg, 
is  slightly  acid,  and  is  sometimes  eaten. 

MAYENCE  (ma-yans).  See  Mainz. 

MAYENNE  (ma-yen),  a department 
of  northwestern  France,  named  from 
the  small  river  Mayenne,  which  joins 
with  the  Sarthe  to  form  the  Maine;  area, 
1996  sq.  miles.  Laval  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  313,103. 

MAYO,  a western  maritime  county  of 
Ireland,  in  Connaught;  area,  1,360,731 
acres,  of  which  about  an  eighth  is  under 
tillage.  Principal  towns,  Castlebar  (the 
county  town),  Ballina,  and  Westport. 
Pop.  199,166. 


Mayo,  Frank,  American  actor,  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1839.  In  1863  he  be- 
came a leading  man  in  San  Francisco 
and  in  1865  in  Boston.  He  appeared  in 
Othello,  Hamlet,  Ferdinand  in  The 
Tempest,  and  other  classic  roles,  but  his 
greatest  suceess  was  as  Badger  in  The 
Streets  of  New  York,  till  in  1872  he 
brought  out  Davy  Crockett.  Among 
his  later  productions  were  his  own 
dramatization  of  Nordeck  and  of  Mark 
Twain’s  Pudd’nhead  Wilson,  the  latter 
a character  well  suited  to  display  his 
peculiar  gifts  as  a comedian.  He  died  in 
1896. 

MAYO,  Richard  Southwell  Bourke, 
sixth  Earl  of,  born  1822;  entered  parlia- 
ment in  1847  under  the  title  of  Viscount 
Naas;  was  made  chief  secretary  for 
Ireland  under  the  Derby  administration 
(1852-68).  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
in  1867,  and  was  appointed  viceroy  of 
India  by  Mr.  Disraeli  in  1868.  After  a 
successful  career  in  this  capacity,  he 
was  assassinated  at  Port  Blair  in  the 
Andamans  by  a Mohammedan  convict 
in  1872. 

MAYOR,  the  chief  magistrate  of  a 
city  or  corporate  town  in  England,  Ire- 
land, the  British  colonies,  and  the 
United  States.  The  mayor  is  elected 
by  the  people,  and  holds  office  for  two 
years.  In  some  of  the  larger  cities  the 
term  has  been  lately  extended  to  four 
years.  The  mayors  of  London,  York, 
Dublin,  and  two  or  three  other  towns, 
are  called  “lord-mayor;”  the  lord- 
mayor  of  London  having  also  the  title  of 
“right  honorable,”  first  allowed  in  1354 
by  Edward  III.  Mayors  are  ex-officio 
justices  of  the  peace  during  both  their 
year  of  mayorality  and  the  following 
one. 

MAZANDERAN,  or  MAZENDERAN, 

a province  of  Persia,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  capital  is 
Sari,  and  the  population  of  the  province 
is  estimated  at  300,000. 

MAZARIN  (ma-za-ran),  Jules,  or 
GUILIO  MAZARINI,  first  minister  of 
Louis  XIV.  and  cardinal,  an  Italian  by 
origin,  born  in  1602,  died  1661.  He 
entered  the  pope’s  military  service,  and 
distinguishea  himself  by  diplomatic 
ability,  for  which  he  was  rewarded  with 
two  canonries,  and  the  appointment  of 
nuncio  to  the  court  of  France  (1634- 
36).  Here  he  gained  the  favor  of  Riche- 
lieu; accepted  service  from  the  king, 
and  became  a naturalized  citizen  of 
France;  was  made  a cardinal  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  diplomatic  services  in  Savoy 
and  in  1642,  when  Richelieu  died,  Maz- 
arin promptly  succeeded  him.  On  the 
death  of  Louis  XIII.  the  queen,  Anne 
of  Austria,  became  regent  for  her  young 
son,  Louis  XIV.,  and  it  was  thought 
that  Mazarin  would  be  dismissed;  but 
instead  he  gained  over  the  queen-regent, 
and  made  himself  master  of  the  nation. 
The  parliament  of  Paris  denounced  his 
increasing  taxation,  while  the  nobility 
dreaded  his  supremacy,  and  the  com- 
bination of  these  malcontents  resulted 
in  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde  (w’hich 
see).  As  the  immediate  result  of  the  con- 
flict, Mazarin  had  to  go  into  exile,  but 
finally  returned  to  his  position  at  court 
in  1653.  During  the  succeeding  eight 
years  he  remained  all-powerful  in 


MAZEPPA 


MECHANICS 


Prance.  Just  as  his  foreign  policy  was 
successful,  so  was  his  home  policy  dis- 
astrous. He  dSd  nothing  for  the  people 
but  increase  their  taxes  to  fill  an  im- 
poverished exchequer.  Yet  when  he  died 
Mazarin  left  an  enormous  fortune  to  his 
nieces,  whom  he  had  married  into  the 
most  powerful  families  of  Italy  and 
France. 

MAZEP'PA,  John,  Hetman  of  the 
Cossacks,  born  about  1645.  He  became 
page  to  the  King  of  Poland,  and  being 
detected  in  an  intrigue  with  a Polish 
lady  of  high  rank,  Mazeppa  was  bound 
naked  upon  an  untamed  horse  by  her 
husband  and  cast  loose.  He  was  found 
and  released  by  some  peasants,  and 
afterward  joined  the  Cossacks,  where 
his  skill,  sagacity,  and  strength  pro- 
cured him  the  position  of  hetman  in 
1687.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  Peter 
the  Great,  who  made  him  prince  of  the 
Ukraine ; but  having  entered  into  a 
treasonable  intrigue  with  Charles  XII. 
he  suffered  defeat  with  the  Swedish 
monarch  at  Pultawa,  fled  to  Bender, 
and  there  died  in  1709.  He  is  the  hero 
of  a poem  by  Lord  Byron,  and  a drama 
by  Pushkin. 

MAZUR'KA,  or  MAZOUR'KA,  a 

lively  Polish  round  dance  in  J or  J time, 
and  generally  danced  by  four  or  eight 
pairs.  It  is  quicker  than  the  polonaise. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  music. 

MAZZINI  (mat-se'ne),  Giuseppe, 
Italian  patriot,  born  at  Genoa  180.5, 
died  at  Pisa  1872.  While  he  was  an  ad- 
vocate he  turned  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture, his  first  significant  essay  being 
' Dante’s  Love  of  Country.  _ As  his  writ- 

Iings  grew  more  distinctly  liberal  in  their 
politics  the  government  suppressed  the 
Indicatore  Genovese  and  the  I dicatore 
Livornese,  the  papers  in  which  they 
appeared.  He  afterward  joined  the 
Carbonari,  and  was  imprisoned  in 
Savona  for  some  months.  On  his  release 
(1832)  he  was  exiled  to  Marseilles,  but 
he  was  compelled  by  the  French  govern- 
ment to  retire  into  Switzerland.  During 
the  following  five  years  he  planned  and 
organized  various  unsuccessful  revolu- 
tionary movements,  until,  in  1837,  he 
^ was  expelled  by  the  Swiss  authorities 
^ and  sought  refuge  in  London.  During 
K the  revolutionary  movements  of  1848 
K he  proceeded  to  Italy ; served  for  a time 
S under  Garibaldi,  and  when  the  pope 
E fled  from  Rome  he  became  president  of 
B its  short-lived  republic,  made  a heroic 
■ defense  of  the  capital  against  the  French, 
B until  compelled  to  surrender.  From  that 
■ time  he  continued  to  organize  various 
T risings  in  Italy,  and  the  successful 
S Sicilian  expedition  of  Garibaldi  in  1860 
3 was  due  largely  to  his  labors. 

B MEADE,  George  Gordon,  American 
soldier,  bom  of  American  parentage  at 
Cadiz,  Spain,  in  1815.  In  October,  1836, 
he  resigned  from  the  army  and  adopted 
the  profession  of  civil  engineer.  In  1842 
. he  was  reappointed  to  the  army  as  a 
; second  lieutenant  in  the  corps  of  topo- 
graphical engineers.  On  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  with  Mexico,  when  Gen- 
eral Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  he 
was  ordered  to  the  front,  and  served 
with  distinction  throughout  the  war. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  Vas 
. ordered  to  Washington;  was  commis- 

>4:  p.  E.— 51 


sioned  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in 
1861,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
second  brigade  of  the  Pennsylvania  re- 
serve corps.  In  1862  he  was  commis- 
sioned major-general  of  volunteers.  He 
was  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Fredericks- 


Gen.  Geo.  G.  Meade. 


burg  and  Chancellorsville,  covering  the 
retreat  at  Chancellorsville  with  his 
corps  and  guarding  the  crossingsuntilthe 
entire  anny  was  safely  over  the  Rappa- 
hannock. On  June  28,  1863,  he  suc- 
ceeded General  Hooker  in  the  command 
of  the  Anny  of  the  Potomac.  On  July 
1st  the  hostile  armies  met  at  Gettys- 
burg, and  a three  days’  battle  ensued, 
which  resulted  in  the  utter  discomfiture 
of  Lee,  who,  however,  was  not  pursued 
with  any  vigor.  For  this  victory  Meade 
was  publicly  thanked  by  a resolution  of 
congress,  passed  January  28,  1866. 
From  May  4,  1864,  to  April  9,  1865, 
General  Meade  commanded  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac,  under  General  Grant, 
through  the  bloody  struggle  in  the 
Wilderness,  and  until  the  surrender  of 
Lee.  On  August  18,  1864,  he  was  com- 
missioned a major-general  in  the  United 
States  army.  He  died  in  1872. 

MEADOW-LARK,  a North  American 
starling-like  bird  frequenting  meadows 
and  open  places.  Few  American  song- 
birds are  more  general  favorites.  It  is 
a near  relative  of  the  bobolink,  oriole, 
and  blackbird.  The  common  meadow 
lark  of  the  eastern  states  ranges  in  sum- 
mer from  New  Brunswick  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  even 
in  winter  only  retreats  as  far  south  as 
Southern  New  England  and  Illinois. 
The  western  meadow-lark  occupies  the 
western  half  of  the  continent  andextends 
southward  into  Western  Mexico,  while 
other  subspecies  occur  in  Cuba  and 
Mexico.  They  are  somewhat  less  than 
a foot  in  length,  with  large  feet  and  a 
long,  straight,  sharp  bill.  The  feathers 
of  the  upper  surface  are  prevailingly 
black,  with  rufous  and  buff  borders  and 
tips,  so  that  the  whole  upper  surface  is 
variegated  with  those  three  colors. 
The  throat,  breast,  and  anterior  half  of 
the  belly  are  bright  yellow,  with  a 
prominent  black  crescent  about  the 
middle  of  the  breast.  The  tail  feathers 
are  narrow  and  short,  and  when  the 
bird  takes  to  the  wing  the  white  outer 
ones  become  very  conspicuous.  The 
notes  of  the  meadow-lark  are  clear  and 
strong — a sort  of  cheerful  whistle — but 
they  differ  in  different  localities,  so  that 
the  notes  of  the  Florida  birds  are 
markedly  different  from  those  heard  in 
the  northern  states.  The  notes  of  the 
western  meadow-lark  are  famous  for 
their  musical  quality. 

MEADVILLE,  a town  in  the  north- 
west of  Pennsylvania,  the  seat  of  Alle- 
gheny College  (Methodist  Episcopal) 


and  a Unitarian  theological  school. 
Pop.  12,120. 

MEAL-WORM,  the  larva  of  a beetle, 
which  infests  granaries,  corn-mills,  bake- 
houses, etc.,  and  is  very  injurious  to 
flour,  meal,  and  the  like. 

MEAN,  in  mathematics,  a quantity 
having  a value  intermediate  between 
those  of  two  other  quantities.  The  arith- 
metical mean  between  two  quantities  is 
equal  to  half  their  sum ; the  geometrical 
mean  to  the  square-root  of  their  prod- 
uct; and  the  harmonic  mean  to  twice 
their  product  divided  by  their  sum. 

MEASLES,  also  called  Rube'ola,  an 
acute  infectious  fever,  chiefly  affecting 
children.  In  a period  of  from  ten  to 
fourteen  days  after  contagion  symptoms 
of  the  disease  begin  to  appear  in  sneezing, 
watering  of  the  eyes,  hoarseness,  a hard 
cough,  and  high  temperature.  On  the 
fourth  day  of  the  fever  a rash  appears 
in  blotches,  crescentic  in  form,  first 
upon  the  temples,  and  gradually  ex- 
tends over  the  whole  surface  of  the 
body.  It  begins  to  fade  about  the 
seventh  day.  The  complications  most 
to  be  dreaded  are  inflammations  of  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  eye  and 
chest.  The  treatment  consists  in  keeping 
the  patient  confined  to  bed  in  a warm 
room,  relieving  the  chest  by  hot  bathing 
or  warm  packing,  and  preventing  con- 
stipation. During  convalescence  give 
good  nourishing  food. 

MEASURES,  See  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures. 

MEATH  (meth),  a county  of  Ireland, 
province  of  Leinster,  abutting  on  the 
Irish  sea;  area,  579,861  acres.  Pop. 
67,463. 

MECCA,  or  MEKKA,  a city  of  Arabia, 
about  60  miles  from  Jidda,  its  port  on 
the  Red  Sea,  and  the  birth-place  of 
Mohammed,  consequently  the  holiest 
city  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  In  its 
center  is  the  Beitu-’llah  (house  Ci  God) 
or  El-Haram  (the  inviolable) — the  great 
mosque  inclosing  the  Kaaba,  occupying 
a square  dividing  the  upper  from  the 
lower  town.  The  city  is  annually  filled 
at  the  time  of  the  Hajj  or  pilgrimage  to 
the  Kaaba.  This  pilgrimage,  enjoined 
by  Mohammed  on  all  his  followers,  is 
the  sole  foundation  of  Mecca’s  fame, 
and  the  only  source  of  its  wealth  and 
occupation.  The  pop.  is  estimated  at 
50,000,  with  the  periodical  addition 
of  from  100,000  to  150,000  pilgrims. 

MECHAIN  (ma-shan),  Pierre  Fran- 
cois Andre,  French  astronomer,  born 
1744,  died  1804.  His  name  is  notably 
connected  with  the  measurement  of  a 
degree  of  the  meridian  in  order  to  get  a 
natural  basis  for  the  new  French  decimal 
system  of  weights  and  measures. 

MECHANICAL  POWERS,  the  simple 
instruments  or  elements  of  which  every 
machine,  however  complicated,  must  be 
constructed;  they  are  the  lever,  the 
wheel  and  axle,  the  pulley,  the  inclined 
plane,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw.  See 
those  terms. 

MECHANICS,  the  term  originally 
used  to  denote  the  general  principles  in- 
volved in  the  construction  of  machinery. 
Latterly  the  term  became  divorced  from 
all  direct  connection  with  practical  ap- 
plications, and  dealt  entirely  with  ab- 
stract questions  in  which  the  laws  of 


MECHANICS’  LIEN 


MEDICI 


force  and  motion  were  involved.  In  this 
sense  mechanics  is  usually  divided  into 
dynamics,  which  treats  of  moving  bodies 
and  the  forces  which  produce  their 
motion;  and  statics,  which  treats  of 
forces  compelling  bodies  to  remain  at 
rest.  See  Dynamics,  Statics. 

MECHANICS’  LIEN,  a statutory  lien 
or  charge  upon  real  estate  to  secure 
payment  for  work  and  labor  performed 
on,  or  materials  furnished  for,  buildings 
or  other  improvements  thereon,  at  the 
request  or  with  the  consent,  express  or 
implied,  of  the  owner.  With  the  de- 
velopment of  business  customs  much 
work  which  was  formerly  done  by  per- 
sons acting  as  servants  for  a master  came 
to  be  performed  by  independent  con- 
tractors who  stood  on  an  equal  footing 
with  those  who  engaged  them.  For  the 
protection  of  such  contractors  and  of 
material  men  whose  wares  are  used  in 
buildings  and  other  improvements  on 
real  estate,  the  statutes  known  as 
“mechanics’  lien  laws’’  have  been 
enacted  in  all  the  United  States  and  in 
Canada.  The  theory  on  which  me- 
chanics’ liens  are  given  by  statute  is 
that  the  value  of  the  real  estate  has  been 
increased  bythe  addition  of  theimprove- 
ments  on  which  the  work  was  performed 
or  materials  furnished,  and  that  the 
property  should  accordingly  be  held 
subject  to  such  claims.  This  creates  a 
preference  of  these  claims  over  those  of 
unsecured  creditors  of  the  owner,  but  a 
mechanics’  lien  is  subject  to  valid  prior 
liens  on  the  real  estate,  such  as  mort- 
gages, judgments,  taxes,  etc.  The  term 
mechanics’  lien  is  used  in  a general  sense 
to  cover  all  liens  for  labor,  whether 
skilled  or  unskilled,  and  to  describe 
liens  for  materials  furnished.  These 
liens  give  a right  to  look  to  the  property 
for  compensation,  but  do  not  create  a 
personal  claim  against  the  owner.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  lien  attaches  both  to 
the  building  or  improvement  and  to  the 
land  on  which  it  is  erected;  but  if  the 
improvement  is  placed  on  the  land  with- 
out the  owner’s  consent  the  lien  will  not 
extend  to  the  land,  but  will  cover  the 
improvement  to  the  extent  of  the  in- 
terest of  the  person  who  ordered  the 
work  and  materials.  The  lien  only 
attaches  to  the  very  property  on  which 
the  work  was  done,  and  will  not  affect 
the  other  real  estate  of  the  owner.  A 
mechanics’  lien  may  be  filed  against 
any  title  or  interest  in  real  estate,  even 
though  it  is  quite  limited,  as  a lease  for  a 
year,  provided  it  is  such  an  interest  as 
may  be  sold  on  execution. 

As  a general  rule  the  work  to  which 
the  owner  is  entitled  under  a contract 
must  be  entirely  performed  before  the 
contractor  can  file  a lien,  but  where  an 
owner  defaults  in  his  payments  or 
otherwise  breaks  his  part  of  the  con- 
tract, the  right  to  file  a lien  usually 
attaches  at  once.  In  order  to  perfect  a 
mechanics’  lien  the  statutes  of  most 
jurisdictions  provide  that  a notice 
setting  forth  the  names  of  the  owner  and 
the  party  claiming  the  lien,  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done,  a description 
of  the  premises,  the  total  contract 
price,  the  amount  paid  thereon,  the 
amount  still  due,  and  the  date  when  the 
last  item  of  work  was  performed,  shall 


be  filed  in  the  county  clerk’s  oflSce  and 
a copy  thereof  served  on  the  owner  of 
the  property  affected. 

MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN,  a grand 
duchy  of  the  German  Empire;  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  else- 
where chiefly  by  Prussia  and  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz;  area,  4847  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
607,835. 

MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ,  a grand 
duchy  of  the  German  Empire.  Pop. 
102,628. 

MECON'IC  ACID,  an  acid  with  which 
morphia  is  combined  in  opium.  When 
pure,  meconic  acid  forms  small  white 
crj'stals.  Its  aqueous  solution  forms  a 
deep  red  color  with  the  persalts  of  iron, 
which  therefore  are  good  tests  for  it. 

MEDALLION,  a term  applied  to  the 
large  antique  medals  struck  in  Rome 
and  in  the  provinces  by  the  emperors. 
They  were  usually  of  gold  or  silver,  and 
exceeded  in  size  the  largest  coins  of 
these  metals  of  which  the  name  and 
value  are  known.  They  were  probably 
struck  to  commemorate  persons  or 
events.  In  architecture  the  term  is 
applied  to  any  circular  or  oval,  and 
sometimes  square  tablet,  bearing  on  it 
objects  represented  in  relief,  as  figures, 
heads,  animals,  flowers,  etc. 

MEDALS.  See  Numismatics. 

MEDE'A,  in  Greek  mythology,  daugh- 
ter of  iEetes,  king  of  Colchis,  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  She 
enabled  Jason  to  obtain  the  celebrated 
golden  fleece  and  lived  with  him  for  ten 
years,  until  he  discarded  her  in  favor  of 
Glauce  or  Creusa,  daughter  of  King 
Creon.  In  revenge  she  sent  Glauce  a 
bridal  robe  which  enveloped  her  in  con- 
suming flame,  and  thereafter  she  slew 
her  own  children  by  Jason.  There  are 
many  versions  of  this  Greek  myth,  and  it 
has  been  a favorite  theme  with  painter 
and  dramatist.  Euripides  has  a well- 
known  tragedy  of  this  name. 

MED'FORD,  a city  in  Middlesex  co.. 
Mass.,  five  miles  north  by  west  of  Bos- 
ton; on  the  Mystic  river,  and  on  the 
southern  and  western  divisions  of  the 
Boston  and  Maine  railroad.  Pop.  21,280. 

MEDIA,  an  ancient  country  in  West- 
ern Asia,  formerly  the  seat  of  a powerful 
kingdom,  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
northwestern  portion  of  modern  Persia. 
The  Medes  and  Persians,  from  their  near 
resemblance  to  each  other,  appear  to 
have  amalgamated  readily  after  the 
conquest  or  revolution  which  gave  the 
ascendency  to  the  latter.  Media  hence- 
forward formed  part  of  the  Persian 
Empire,  and  shared  its  fate. 

MEDIATIZATION,  the  term  applied 
to  the  annexation  of  the  smaller  German 
sovereignties  to  larger  contiguous  states, 
which  took  place  on  a large  scale  after 
the  dissolution  of  the  German  Empire 
in  1806. 

MEDICAL  JURISPRUDENCE.  See 

Forensic  Medicine. 

MEDICI  (ma'dl-che),  a Florentine 
family  who  rose  to  wealth  and  influence 
by  successful  commerce,  and  who  con- 
tinued to  combine  the  career  of  mer- 
chants and  bankers  with  the  exercise  of 
political  power,  a princely  display  of 
private  munificence,  and  a liberal  pat- 
ronage of  literature  and  art.  The  Medici 
were  associated  with  the  history  of  the 


Florentine  republic  from  an  early  period, 
but  they  first  became  prominent  in  the 
person  of  Salvestro,  who  became  gon- 
falonier in  1378.  Giovanni  de’  Medici 
(1360-1429)  amassed  great  riches  by 
trade  ; rendered  great  services  to  the  city 
and  in  1421  became  gonfalonier.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Cosmo  (the 
elder,  1389-1464),  surnamed  the  father 
of  his  country.  Cosmo  acquired  im- 
mense wealth  and  influence,  and  laid 


the  foundation  of  his  reputation  by  the 
munificent  patronage  of  art  and  letters, 
and  the  conjunction  of  consummate 
statesmanship  with  his  commercial  en- 
terprise. He  was  for  thirty-four  years  the 
sole  arbitrator  of  the  republic  and  the 
adviser  of  the  sovereign  houses  of  Italy. 
His  grandson  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent 
(1449-92)  was  the  second  great  man  of 
the  house  of  Medici.  He  governed  the 
state  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Giuliano  (1453-78)  till  the  latter  was 
assassinated  by  the  Pazzi,  a rival  Floren- 
tine family.  Escaping  from  this  massa- 
cre he  sustained  a war  with  Ferdinand 
of  Naples,  with  whom  he  signed  a defi- 
nite peace  in  1480.  The  rest  of  Lorenzo’s 
reign  was  passed  in  peace  and  in  those 
acts  of  profuse  liberality  and  magnifi- 
cent patronage  of  arts  and  sciences,  in 
which  he  rivaled  or  excelled  his  grand- 
father. He  left  three  sons — Piero  (1471- 
1503),  Giovanni  (afterward  Pope  Leo 
X.),  and  Giuliano,  duke  of  Nemours. 
Piero  succeeded  his  father,  but  was  de- 
prived of  his  estates  when  the  French 
invaded  Italy  in  1494.  He  finished  his 
career  in  the  service  of  France.  His 
eldest  son  Lorenzo  came  to  power  by  the 
abdication  of  his  uncle  Giuliano,  who 
became  Duke  of  Urbino.  He  died  in 
1519,  leaving  a daughter,  the  famous. 
Catherine  de  Medici,  queen  of  France. 
After  several  reverses  in  the  family 
Alessandro,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the, 
last  named  Lorenzo,  was  restored  to 
Florence  by  the  troops  of  Charles  V., 
and  by  an  imperial  decree  he  was  de-j 
dared  head  of  the  republic,  and  after-  ? 
ward  Duke  of  Florence.  The  next  name  ' 
of  importance  in  the  family  is  that  of 
Cosmo  “the  great,’’  in  1537  proclaimed 
Duke  of  Florence  and  afterward  Grand- 
duke  of  Tuscanj\  A learned  man  him- 
self, he  was  a great  patfon  of  learning 


MEDICINE 


MEGAPODITIS 


and  art,  a collector  of  paintings  and 
antiquities.  He  died  in  1574.  Francisco 
Maria,  his  son,  obtained  from  the  Em- 
peror Maximilian  II.,  whose  daughter 
Joanna  he  had  married,  the  confirma- 
tion of  his  title  of  grand-duke  in  1575 
which  continued  in  his  family  until  it 
became  extinct  in  1737  on  the  death  of 
Giovanni  Gasto,  who  was  succeeded  by 
Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine.  See  Tuscany, 
Catherine  de  Medici,  Marie  de  Medici. 

MEDICINE,  the  science  of  diseases, 
and  the  art  of  preventing,  healing,  or 
alleviating  them.  It  deals  with  the  facts 
of  disease,  with  the  remedies  appropriate 
to  various  diseases,  with  the  results  of 
accident  or  injury  to  the  human  body, 
with  the  causes  that  affect  the  origin 
and  spread  of  diseases,  and  with  the 
general  laws  that  regulate  the  health  of 
individuals  and  the  health  of  com- 
munities. It  is  broadly  divided  into  two 
great  sections,  surgery  (which  see)  and 
medicine  proper;  that  is  to  say,  the 
diseases  affecting  the  outer  frame  visible 
to  the  eye  are  relegated  to  the  care  of 
the  surgeon,  while  those  that  affect  the 
internal  organs  belong  to  the  province 
of  the  physician.  A department  related 
to  both  is  obstetric  medicine  or  mid- 
wifery, dealing  with  child-bearing  and 
with  the  diseases  peculiar  to  women. 
With  this  department  is  closely  con- 
nected that  which  comprehends  the 
diseases  of  children.  There  are  also  de- 
partments dealing  with  special  organs, 
such  as  those  relating  to  diseases  of  the 
eye,  of  the  ear,  of  the  throat,  of  the  skin, 
etc.,  each  of  which  occupies  its  own 
domain  of  knowledge,  and  is  repre- 
sented by  highly-trained  specialists. 
The  treatment  of  the  insane,  as  it  is 
concerned  with  nervous  diseases  and 
correlated  states  of  other  organs,  is  an 
integral  part  of  medical  practice.  War 
also  has  given  rise  to  special  develop- 
ments of  medical  and  surgical  science, 
viz. ; military  hygiene  and  military  sur- 
gery; and  the  administration  of  the  law 
has  created  a special  branch — medical 
jurisprudence  or  forensic  medicine. 

At  first  all  diseases,  in  common  with 
other  phenomena,  were  attributed  to 
supernatural  causes,  and  the  direct  do- 
ings of  unseen  beings;  and  had  to  be 
exorcised  by  ceremonies,  prayers,  and 
adjurations.  In  course  of  time  it  was 
recognized  that  diseases  were  natural 
phenomena,  but  at  the  same  time  each 
was  held  to  be  a principle  or  entity  dis- 
tinct from  its  effects,  and  each  disease 
was  supposed  to  have  a specific  remedy 
— something  that  would  actually  cure 
the  disease.  Such  views  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  various  systems  of  treatment. 
For  instance,  one  school  held  that  only 
vegetable  remedies  were  appropriate 
to  the  treatment  of  diseases;  another 
school  upheld  the  hydropathic  system, 
or  the  virtues  of  the  bath  in  one  or  other 
of  its  forms  as  a universal  panacea  for 
all  human  ills.  A third  maintained  the 
application  of  the  homoeopathic  prin- 
ciple that  similars  are  cured  by  similars 
that  is  to  say,  diseases  are  cured  by  sub- 
stances having,  in  small  doses,  an  action 
on  the  body  similar  to  that  of  the  dis- 
ease, so  that  one  might  treat  diseases  by 
% series  of  fixed  and  specific  formulae  all 
depending  on  this  single  principle. 


Finally,  even  in  orthodox  medical 
circles  there  is  a strong  disposition  to 
attribute  success  of  treatment  to  •par- 
ticular drugs,  and  to  simply  act  on  a 
principle  contrary  to  that  of  homoeop- 
athy, viz.:  that  diseases  are  cured  by 
contraries,  that  is,  by  remedies  having 
an  action  on  the  body  the  reverse  of  that 
of  the  disease.  All  these  opinions  de- 
pend on  a mistaken  view  of  disease. 
Anything  that  interferes  with  the  free 
and  healthy  action  of  any  part  of  the 
body  produces  a state  of  disease,  and 
the  symptoms  of  the  disturbance  mani- 
fest the  disease.  For  instance,  in  the  case 
of  zymotic  diseases,  they  are  caused  by 
the  entrance  into  the  body  of  living 
germs  which  grow  and  multiply  in  the 
blood  and  tissues,  and  interfere  with  the 
various  organs.  These  germs  are,  how- 
ever, not  the  disease,  but  the  cause  of 
the  disease.  Again  many  diseases  are 
due  not  to  something  that  has  entered 
the  body,  but  to  a breaking  down  of  a 
certain  part  of  the  system.  It  is  clear, 
therefore,  that  no  specific  remedies  can 
be  applied  to  such  diseases.  The  object 
of  the  physician  is  to  restore  as  far  as 
possible  the  conditions  of  healthy  action : 
to  remove  if  he  can  the  causes  of  the 
disease,  to  relieve  pain,  and  to  control 
symptoms  so  as  to  direct  them  toward 
recovery. 

The  chief  departments  of  medical 
science  may  be  given  as  follows:  The 
science  of  health  is  called  hygiene,  or  as 
far  as  it  relates  to  the  regulation  of  the 
diet,  dietetics.  Pathology  is  the  science 
of  disease,  of  that  in  which  it  consists, 
its  origin,  etc.  Nosology  treats  of  the 
various  sorts  of  diseases,  their  origin  and 
symptoms,  and  strives  to  arrange  dis- 
eases according  to  a scientific  classifica- 
tion. Pathological  anatomy  deals  with 
the  mechanical  alterations  and  changes 
of  structure.  Therapeutics  is  the  science 
of  the  cure  of  diseases,  often  divided 
into  general,  treating  of  the  subject  of 
cure  in  general,  its  character,  etc.;  and 
special,  of  the  cures  of  the  particular  dis- 
eases. Surgery  treats  of  external  dis- 
eases and  injuries,  and  the  mode  of  re- 
lieving derangements  by  operative 
means.  Obstetrics  treats  of  the  modes 
of  facilitating  delivery.  Materia  medica 
is  the  science  of  medicines,  their  exter- 
nal appearance,  history,  and  effects  on 
the  human  organization.  Pharmacy 
teaches  how  to  preserve  drugs,  etc.,  and 
to  mix  medicines.  Clinics  applies  the 
results  of  all  these  sciences  at  the  bed- 
side of  the  patient.  (See  the  various 
medical  articles  under  separate  heads.) 
Among  names  famous  in  the  history  of 
medicine,  may  be  mentioned  Hippocra- 
tes, the  father  of  medicine ; Celsus,  Galen, 
Avicenna,  Paracelsus,  Vesalius,  Van  Hel- 
mont,  Sylvius,  Stahl,  Harvey,  Syden- 
ham, Boerhaave,  Hoffman,  Cullen, 
Brown,  Hahnemann,  etc.  There  are  vari- 
ous statutes  having  direct  relation  to 
medicine:  they  may  be  divided  into 
four  groups  (1)  those  related  to  public 
health;  (2)  those  relating  to  lunacy  (and 
habitual  drunkenness) ; (3)  those  relating 
to  the  status  of  the  medical  profession, 
to  dentists,  and  to  pharmaceutical  chem- 
ists; (4)  those  relating  to  restrictions 
on  the  practice  of  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology. See  also  Surgery. 


MEDITERRANEAN  SEA,  the  great 

inland  sea  between  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  about  2200  miles  long  and  1200 
in  extreme  breadth.  It  communicates 
on  the  west  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  on  the  north- 
east with  the  Black  Sea  through  the  Sea 
of  Marmara  and  the  Straits  of  the 
Dardanelles  and  Constantinople.  The 


principal  rivers  which  discharge  them- 
selves directly  into  the  Mediterranean 
are  the  Ebro,  Rhone,  Po,  and  Nile. 
The  depth  varies  from  30  to  2150  fath- 
oms. Owing  to  the  very  narrow  channel 
which  connects  the  Mediterranean  with 
the  main  ocean,  there  is  very  little  tide; 
though  on  parts  of  the  African  coast, 
etc.,  a rise  of  more  than  6 feet  sometimes 
occurs. 

MEERSCHAUM  (mer-shum),  a hy- 
drated silicate  of  magnesium,  consisting 
of  60.9  parts  silica,  26.1  magnesium, 
and  12.0  water,  occurring  as  a fine  white 
compact  clay.  It  is  found  in  Europe, 
but  more  abundantly  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  is  manufactured  into  tobacco-pipes. 

MEERUT',  or  MIRAT',  a city,  canton- 
ment, and  administrative  center  of  the 
United  Provinces,  India.  Pop.  118,129. 
The  district  of  the  same  name  occupies 
an  area  of  2379  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,391,458. 

MEGAPO'DIUS,  a genus  of  rasorial 
birds,  type  of  the  family  Megapodidse, 
the  best  known  and  most  remarkable 
species  of  which  is  the  Australian  jungle- 
fowl,  a large  bird  remarkable  for  erect- 
ing considerable  mounds,  composed  of 
earth,  grass,  decayed  leaves,  etc.,  some- 
times 15  feet  high  and  150  in  circum- 


Nest  of  megapodius. 

ference,  and  in  the  center  of  which,  at  a 
depth  of  2 or  3 feet,  it  deposits  its  eggs, 
leaving  them  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat 
of  the  fermenting  vegetable  mass. 


MEGAPHONE 


MELON 


MEGAPHONE,  a speaking-trumpet 
used  to  render  the  voice  audible  at  con- 
siderable distances.  It  consists  of  a 
large  funnel  of  tin  or  papier-mach6,  in 
which  the  sound-waves  are  so  re- 
flected that  they  issue  from  its  mouth  in 
approximately  parallel  directions.  The 
size  and  shape  of  the  megaphone  are  so 
regulated  that  the  usual  tones  of  the 
voice  undergo  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  strengthening.  For  this  rea- 
son a megaphone  to  be  used  with  the 
best  effect  by  a woman  would  be  differ- 
ent in  size  from  that  suited  to  the  deeper 
notes  of  a man’s  voice.  The  megaphone 
has  succeeded  the  old  speaking-trumpet 
for  use  at  sea,  and  is  generally  employed 
by  naval  officers  and  mariners  for  com- 
municating with  the  shore  or  with  a 
distant  vessel. 

MEGAP'TERA,  a genus  of  whales  of 
the  family  Balaenidse,  including  the 
hump-backed  whales. 

MEGATHE'RIUM,  a fossil  genus  of 
edentate  mammals,  allied  to  the  sloths, 
but  having  feet  adapted  for  walking  on 
the  ground,  found  in  the  upper  Tertiary 
or  pampas  deposits  of  South  America.  It 
was  about  8 feet  high,  and  its  body  12 


to  18  feet  long.  Its  teeth  prove  that  it 
lived  on  vegetables,  and  its  fore-feet, 
about  a yard  in  length  and  armed  with 
gigantic  claws,  show  that  roots  were  its 
chief  objects  of  search. 

MEHEM'ET  ALI,  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
born  at  Kavala,  in  Macedonia,  in  1769, 
died  1849.  He  entered  the  Turkish  army, 
and  served  in  Egypt  against  the  French; 
rose  rapidly  in  military  and  political 
importance;  became  pasha  of  Cairo, 
Alexandria,  and  subsequently  of  all 
Egypt.  In  1811  he  massacred  the 
Mamelukes  to  the  number  of  470  in 
Cairo,  and  about  1200  over  the  country. 
By  means  of  a vigorous  domestic  policy 
Mehemet  reduced  the  finances  to  order; 
organized  an  army  and  a navy;  stimu- 
lated agriculture,  and  encouraged  manu- 
factures. In  1824-27  he  assisted  the 
sultan  in  endeavoring  to  reduce  the 
Morea,  which  led  to  the  destruction  of 
his  fleet  by  the  allied  European  powers 
at  Navarino  (1827).  Subsequently  he 
turned  his  armies  against  the  sultan, 
and  in  his  efforts  to  secure  dominion 
over  Syria  by  armed  invasion,  he  was 
so  far  successful  (see  Ibrahim  Pasha) 
that  the  European  powers  had  to  inter- 
fere and  compel  him  to  sign  a treaty  in 
1839,  which  gave  him  the  hereditary 
pashalic  of  Egypt  in  lieu  of  Syria,  Candia 
and  Hejaz.  In  his  latter  days  he  sank 
into  dotage. 


MEISSONIER  (ma-son-ya),  Jean 
Louis  Ernest,  French  painter,  born  in 
Lyons  1815;  went  to  Paris  in  1830;  first 
picture  exhibited.  The  Visitors,  1834. 
He  first  became  known  as  an  illustrator 
of  books,  but  rapidly  became  famous 
for  the  singular  perfection  of  his  art. 
His  pictures,  which,  whether  in  genre 
or  in  portraiture,  are  almost  without 
exception  upon  a small  scale,  are  char- 
acterized by  great  minuteness  of  execu- 


J.  L.  E.  Meissonier. 


tion  and  high  finish,  but  are  at  the 
same  time  not  less  remarkable  for  their 
excellence  in  composition  and  breadth 
of  treatment.  They  have  the  force  of 
appeal  of  large  works.  Among  his 
pictures,  which  possess  an  astonishing 
market  value,  may  be  mentioned.  The 
Smoker  (1839);  La  Partie  des  Boules 
(1848) ; Napoleon  III,  at  Solferino  (1864) ; 
the  (Cavalry  Charge  (1867),  sold  for 

150.000  francs;  the  picture  entitled 
“1807”  (1875),  representing  Napoleon  I, 
in  the  battle  of  Friedland,  sold  for 

300.000  francs;  Le  Guide  (1883);  Jena 
(1889).  He  died  in  1891. 

MELANCHOLIA,  Melancholy.  See  In- 
sanity. 

MELANCHTHON  (me-langk'thon), 
Philip,  German  reformer,  born  at 
Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate,  1497;  died  at 
Wittenberg,  1560.  In  1518,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Luther  and  Reuchlin,  he  was 
invited  by  Frederick,  elector  of  Saxony, 
to  fill  the  chair  of  Greek  in  the  recently 
founded  University  of  Wittenberg.  In 
1519  he  accompanied  Luther  to  Leipzig, 
in  order  to  dispute  with  Dr.  Eck,  and  in 
1521  he  published  his  famous  Loci 
Communes,  an  exposition  of  Protestant 
dogmatics,  which  ran  through  some 
sixty  editions  in  his  lifetime,  and  was 
followed  by  other  influential  writings, 
such  as  the  Epitome  Doctrinse  Chris- 
tianse  (1524). 

MEL'ANITE,  a lime-iron  variety  of 
garnet,  of  a velvet  black  or  grayish 
black,  occurring  always  in  crystals  of  a 
dodecahedral  form.  See  Garnet. 

MELBOURNE,  a city  of  Australia, 
capital  of  the  colony  of  Victoria.  Mel- 
bourne was  founded  in  1836  during  the 
premiership  of  Lord  Melbourne,  after 
whom  it  was  named.  It  was  incorporated 
in  August,  1842,  and  in  1849  erected 
into  an  episcopal  see.  The  public  build- 
ings of  Melbourne  as  a whole  are  hand- 
some and  substantial.  Among  them  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  houses  of  par- 
liament, the  treasury,  the  law-courts, 
the  free  library,  containing  over  200,000 
volumes;  the  mint,  the  university,  with 
an  admirable  museum  attached.  The 

. s 


chief  industrial  products  are  leather, 
clothing,  furniture,  flour,  ales,  cigars. 


ironware,  woolens,  etc.  Population  of 
city  proper,  66,391;  inclusive  of  suburbs, 
493,956. 

MELODEON',  the  early  American 
organ,  in  which  an  exhaust  or  suction 
bellows  draws  the  air  inward  through 
the  reeds.  The  supply  of  wind  for  the 
reeds  is  obtained  by  means  of  a pair  of 
treadles,  worked  by  the  performer,  and 
the  reeds  themselves  are  controlled  by 
stops  and  slider  mechanism.  The  tone 
of  the  instrument  has  been  steadily  im- 
proved, and  now  successfully  imitates  a 
number  of  orchestral  instruments. 

MELODRAMA,  originally  and  strictly 
that  species  of  drama  in  which  the  dec- 
lamation of  certain  passages  is  inter- 
rupted by  music,  but  now  the  term  has 
come  to  designate  a romantic  play, 
generally  of  a serious  character,  in  which 
effect  is  sought  by  startling  incidents, 
striking  situations,  and  exaggerated 
sentiment,  aided  often  by  splendid 
decoration  and  music. 

MELODY,  in  the  most  general  sense 
of  the  word  any  successive  connection 
or  series  of  tones;  in  a narrower  sense, 
a series  of  tones  which  please  the  ear  by 
their  succession  and  variety;  and  in  a 
still  narrower  sense,  the  particular  air 
or  tune  of  a musical  piece. 

MELON,  a well  known  plant  and  fruit. 
It  is  an  herbaceous,  succulent,  climbing 
or  trailing  annual,  cultivated  for  its 
fruit  in  hot  eastern  countries  from  time 
immemorial.  There  are  many  varieties. 


Melon. 


as  the  Cantaloupe,  which  is  reckoned  the 
best.  The  water-melon  is  much  culti- 
vated in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world 
on  account  of  its  refreshing  juice,  which, 
however,  is  less  sweet  than  that  of  the 
common  melon. 


MELOS 


MENNONITES 


MELOS,  now  MILOS  or  MILO,  an 

island  belonging  to  Greece,  in  the  Gre- 
cian Archipelago.  In  1820  a peasant 
discovered  here  the  celebrated  statue 
known  as  the  Venus  of  Milo,  now  placed 
in  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 

MELROSE,  a city  in  Middlesex  co.. 
Mass.,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroad; 
7 miles  n.  of  Boston.  Pop.  15,160. 

MELTING-POINT.  See  Fusing-point. 

MELVILLE,  George  Wallace,  Ameri- 
can naval  engineer,  was  born  in  New 
York  City  in  1841.  He  entered  the 
United  States  navy  as  an  engineer  in 
1861.  Among  his  contributions  to  the 
building  up  of  the  new  navy  are  his 
designs  for  the  triple  screw  machinery 
for  the  two  cruisers  Columbia  and 
Minneapolis.  Melville  sailed  in-  1879 
under  Lieutenant  De  Long  on  the  ill- 
fated  Jeannette  expedition  to  discover 
a northeast  passage  across  the  Polar 
Sea.  After  the  loss  of  the  Jeannette  he 
brought  to  safety  the  crew  of  his  own 
boat,  and  subsequently  conducted  the 
search  which  discovered  the  Jeannette 
records  and  the  bodies  of  De  Long  and 
his  companions.  He  was  afterward  a 
member  of  the  Greely  Relief  Expedi- 
tion (1884).  He  was  appointed  chief 
engineer  in  1881,  engineer-in-chief  in 
1887,  and  rear-admiral  in  1899.  He  is 
the  author  of  “In  the  Lena  Delta.” 

MELVILLE  ISLAND.— 1.  An  island 
in  the  Polar  Sea,  north  of  America. 
Captain  Parry  discovered  it,  and  passed 
the  winter  of  1819-20  there.  2.  An 
island  oflf  the  north  coast  of  Australia; 
area,  about  1800  sq.  miles. 

MEMBRANE,  in  anatomy,  a texture 
of  the  animal  body,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  laminae,  which  covers  organs, 
lines  the  interior  of  cavities,  or  takes 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  walls  of 
canals  or  tubes.  Membrane  is  generally 
divided  into  three  kinds,  mucous,  serous 
and  fibrous.  The  lining  of  the  nose, 
trachea,  oesophagus,  stomach,  intes- 
tines, is  of  the  first  kind;  the  serous 
membranes  form  the  lining  of  the  sacs 
or  closed  cavities,  as  of  the  chest,  ab- 
domen, etc.;  the  fibrous  membranes  are 
tough,  inelastic,  and  tendinous,  such  as 
the  dura  mater,  the  pericardium,  the 
capsules  of  joints. 

MEMNON,  a mythological  personage 
mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems  as  the 
beautiful  son  of  Eos  (the  morning),  and 
in  the  post-Homeric  accounts  as  the  son 
of  Tithonus  and  nephew  of  Priam,  whom 
he  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  He 
slew  Antilochus,  but  was  himself  slain 
by  .\chilles.  His  mother  was  filled  with 
grief  at  his  death,  which  Zeus  en- 
deavored to  soothe  by  making  her  son 
immortal.  The  name  of  Memnon  was 
latterly  connected  with  Egypt,  and  was 
attached  to  a statue  still  standing  at 
Thebes,  being  one  of  two  known  from 
their  size  as  “the  Colossi.”  This  statue 
known  as  “the  vocal  Memmon,”  was 
celebrated  in  antiquity  as  emitting  a 
sound  every  morning  at  the  rising  of 
the  sun— perhaps  through  the  craft  of 
the  priests,  though  some  think  it  was 
owing  to  expansion  caused  by  heat. 
Both  statues  seem  originally  to  have 
been  about  70  feet  high. 

MEMORY,  the  power  or  the  capacity 
of  having  what  was  once  present  to  the 


senses  or  the  understanding  suggested 
again  to  the  mind,  accompanied  by  a 
distinct  consciousness  that  it  has  for- 
merly been  present  to  it;  or  the  faculty 
of  the  mind  by  which  it  retains  the 
knowledge  of  past  events,  or  ideas  which 
are  past.  The  word  memory  is  not  em- 
ployed uniformly  in  the  same  precise 
sense,  but  it  always  expresses  some 
modification  of  that  faculty  which 
enables  us  to  treasure  up  and  preserve 
for  future  use  the  knowledge  which  we 
acquire;  a faculty  which  is  obviously 
the  great  foundation  of  all  intellectual 
improvement.  The  word  memory  is 
sometimes  used  to  express  a capacity  of 
retaining  knowledge,  and  sometimes  a 
power  of  recalling  it  to  our  thoughts 
when  we  have  occasion  to  apply  it  to 
use,  the  latter  being  more  correctly 
called  recollection.  See  Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS,  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  some  20 
miles  south  of  Cairo,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Menes,  the  first  king  of 
Egypt.  It  was  a large,  rich,  splendid 
city,  and  after  the  fall  of  Thebes,  the 
capital  of  Egypt.  At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  (524  b.c.) 
it  was  the  chief  commercial  center  of  the 
country,  and  was  connected  by  canals 
with  the  Lakes  of  Moeris  and  Mareotis. 
With  the  rise  of  Alexandria  the  im- 
portance of  Memphis  declined,  and  it 
was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in 
the  7th  century.  The  pyramids  of 
Sakkara  and  the  colossal  statue  of 
Rameses  II.,  now  mutilated  and  thrown 
down,  are  the  chief  objects  of  anti- 
quarian interest  on  the  site. 

MEMPHIS,  a city  and  port  in  Ten- 
nessee, on  the  Mississippi,  just  below 
the  junction  of  Wolf  river,  209  miles 
w.s.w.  of  Nashville.  It  stands  upon  a 
bluff  about  30  feet  above  the  river  in  its 
highest  floods,  and  is  fronted  by  a fine 
esplanade.  Its  rapid  growth  is  due  to 
its  favorable  position  for  trade,  which  is 
largely  carried  on  by  rail  and  river, chief- 
ly in  cotton.  Pop. 1909,  about  175,000. 

MENA'DO,  the  capital  of  a Dutch 
residency  of  same  name  in  the  northeast 
peninsula  of  Celebes.  The  town  itself 
has  a population  of  about  6000,  while 
the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  territory 
number  about  500,000. 

MENDELSSOHN-EARTHOLDY,  Felix, 
distinguished  composer,  born  at  Ham- 
burg, 1809,  died  at  Leipzig,  1847.  He 
was  the  son  of  a wealthy  Jew,  who, 
recognizing  his  son’s  talent  for  music, 
had  him  carefully  trained.  In  his  ninth 
year  he  publicly  appeared  in  Berlin  as  a 
musician,  and  in  his  sixteenth  year  he 
produced  the  well-known  overture  to 
the  Midsummer  Night’s  Dream.  In  1829 
he  began  an  extensive  tour  through 
England,  Scotland,  France,  Italy,  and 
on  his  return  to  Germany  he  became 
musical  director  in  Dusseldorf.  Here  he 
tried  to  establish  a theater  but  without 
success;  and  when  he  left  that  city  in 
1835  he  became  conductor  of  the  fam- 
ous concerts  in  the  Gewandhaus  of 
Leipzig — a position  which  he  main- 
tained with  several  slight  interruptions 
until  his  death.  In  1841  he  was  ap- 
pointed musical  director  to  the  King  of 
Saxony;  was  afterward  summoned  to 
Berlin  by  the  King  of  Prussia  to  become 


director  of  music  at  the  Academy  of 
Arts;  and  journeyed  repeatedly  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  conducted  his  own  music 
at  London  and  Birmingham.  Of  his 
musical  compositions  the  best  known  are 
the  oratorios  Elijah  and  St.  Paul;  the 
overture  to  Ruy  Bias;  and  his  Songs 
without  Words.  He  left  unfinished  the 
oratorio  of  Christus  and  the  opera  of 
Lorlei. 

MENDICANT  ORDERS.  See  Orders 

(Religious). 

MENDOZA,  a province  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Andes,  area,  about  34,000  sq.  miles. 
The  country  is  volcanic,  the  soil  fertile 
but  requiring  irrigation;  chief  products: 
corn,  wine,  and  fruits.  Pop.  141,431. — 
The  capital,  which  has  the  same  name, 
is  situated  about  2891  feet  above  the 
sea  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras.  It  was 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1861,  over  13,000  lives  being 
lost,  but  has  been  rebuilt,  and  has  now 
about  29,500  inhabitants. 

MENELA'US,  in  Greek  mythology, 
son  of  Atreus,  brother  of  Agamemnon, 
and  husband  of  the  beauteous  Helen, 
with  whom  he  received  the  kingdom  of 
Sparta  or  Lacedaemon.  His  wife  having 
been  abducted  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam, 
king  of  Troy,  he  summoned  the  Greek 
princes  to  avenge  the  affront,  and  him- 
self led  sixty  ships  to  the  siege  of  Troy. 
After  its  conquest  he  returned  with 
Helen  to  his  native  land  in  a devious 
voyage  which  led  him  to  Cypria,  Phoe- 
nicia, Egypt,  and  Libya  during  a period 
of  eight  years. 

MENES,  or  MENA,  according  to 
Egyptian  traditions,  the  first  king  of 
Egypt.  See  Egypt. 

MENINGITIS  (-ji'tis),  the  term  ap- 
plied to  inflammation  of  the  two  inner 
membranes  (meninges)  which  envelop 
the  brain — the  arachnoid  membrane  and 
the  pia  mater.  There  are  two  forms  of 
this  disease  called  simple  and  tuber- 
cular. The  former  may  be  caused  by 
injuries  of  the  head,  exposure  to  cold  or 
heat,  disease  of  the  ear,  etc.,  and  the 
symptoms  are,  pain  in  the  head,  giddi- 
ness, feverishness,  and  often  vomiting; 
while  the  latter  is  frequently  due  to  a 
scrofulous  taint,  and  is  also  called  acute 
hydrocephalus  or  water  in  the  head. 

MENNO,  Simons,  the  founder  of  the 
sect  known  as  the  Mennonites,  was  born 
in  Friesland  1496,  died  1561.  He  was 
educated  for  the  church,  and  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest;  but  about  1510 
he  joined  the  Anabaptists.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  disturbances  at 
Munster  Menno  collected  the  scattered 
remnants  of  the  sect,  inculcated  on  them 
more  moderate  views,  and  for  many 
years  in  Holland  and  the  north  of  Ger- 
many, as  far  as  Livonia,  labored  to  in- 
crease the  number  of  his  followers,  and 
to  disseminate  his  doctrines.  In  this  he 
was  not  unsuccessful,  and  there  are  still 
a number  of  congregations  in  Holland, 
Germany,  and  Russia  who  pass  under 
the  name  of  Mennonites.  These  do  not 
believe  in  original  sin,  and  object  to 
taking  oaths,  making  war,  or  going  to 
law.  The  Mennonites  are  also  found  in 
the  United  States,  where  they  number 
about  200,000.  See  Anabaptists. 

MENNONITES.  See  above  article. 


MENOMINEE 


MERIDEN 


MENOMINEE,  the  capital  of  Menomi- 
nee CO.,  Mich.,  on  Green  Bay,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Menominee  river,  and  on 
the  Chi.,  Mil.  and  St.  Paul  and  the  Chi. 
and  N.  W.  railways;  52  miles  n.n.e.  of 
Green  Bay.  It  has  numerous  saw-mills, 
and  is  an  important  Imnber  shipping- 
point.  Pop.  15,710. 

MENSCHIKOFF,  ALEXANDER,  Dan- 
ilovitch,  Russian  minister,  born  at 
Moscow  in  1672,  died  1729.  He  was  born 
in  humble  life,  but  ultimately  became 
a prince  of  the  empire  and  first  favorite 
with  Peter  the  Great.  When  that  mon- 
arch died  his  power  under  Catherine  I. 
was  greatly  increased.  After  two  years  she 
was  succeeded  by  her  grandson,  Peter 
II.,  who  came  under  the  guardianship  of 
Menschikoff,  and  to  whom  he  endeav- 
ored to  marry  his  daughter.  His  de- 
signs, however,  were  frustrated  by  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  Dolgorukis  and 
the  young  czar,  and  Menschikoff  was 
exiled  to  Siberia,  where  he  died. 

MENSTRUATION,  or  MENSES,  the 
periodical  discharge  of  blood  from  the 
generative  organs  of  the  human  female. 
The  period  at  which  menstruation  begins 
is  usually  between  the  14th  and  16th 
year;  it  recurs  at  monthly  intervals, 
lasting  for  four  to  six  days,  and  thus 
continues  until  from  the  45th  to  the  50th 
year;  the  discharge  at  each  period  is 
from  6 to  8 oz.  All  these  conditions, 
however,  vary  with  each  individual. 
A discontinuance  of  this  discharge  is 
one  of  the  first  signs  of  conception,  and 
the  cessation  usually  continues  during 
the  period  of  pregnancy  and  lactation. 

MENSURATION  is  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  the  simpler  processes  of 
mathematics  to  the  measurement  of  the 
area  of  a plane  figure,  or  the  volume  of 
a solid,  the  result  being  expressed  in 
square  or  cubic  inches,  feet,  yards,  etc. 
The  area  of  any  plane  rectilineal  figure 
is  easily  found,  since  it  can  always  be 
dividedinto  a certain  number  of  triangles 
and  the  area  of  every  triangle  is  equal 
to  the  base  multiplied  by  half  the  per- 
pendicular height.  If  the  figure  is  a 
parallelogram  its  area  is  equal  to  any 
side  multiplied  by  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance from  this  side  to  the  opposite;  if 
a trapezium  it  is  equal  to  half  the  sum 
of  two  opposite  sides  multiplied  by  the 
perpendicular  distance  between  them. 
Circumference  of  a circle  = diameter 
multiplied  by  3.14159.  Area  of  a circle 
= square  of  radius  multiplied  by  3.14159 
= radius  multiplied  by  half  circum- 
ference. Volume  of  any  rectangular 
solid  = length,  breadth,  and  depth  mul- 
tiplied together. 

MENTAL  DERANGEMENT.  See  In- 
sanity. 

MENTAL  PHILOSOPHY.  See  Mind, 
Metaphysics,  Psychology. 

MENTHOL,  a white  crystalline  sub- 
stance obtained  from  oil  of  peppermint 
of  which  it  smells  strongly,  used  exter- 
nally in  cases  of  nervous  headache. 

MENTZ.  See  Mainz. 

MENU.  See  Manu. 

MEPHISTOPH'ELES,  older  forms 
Mephistophilus,  Mephistophilis,  the 
name  of  a demon  in  the  old  puppet- 
plays,  adopted  and  developed  by  Mar- 
lowe in  his  tragical  history  of  Dr.Faustus, 
and  more  especially  by  Goethe  in  the 


first  part  of  Faust,  where  he  becomes  the 
cultured  personification  of  evil  rather 
than  the  Satan  of  popular  belief. 

MERCANTILE  LAW.  See  Commer- 
cial Law. 

MERCATOR,  Gerard,  geographer, 
born  at  Rupelmonde,  in  Flanders,  1512; 
died  1594.  He  studied  at  Louvain;  be- 
came a lecturer  on  geography  and 
astronomy;  entered  into  the  service  of 
Charles  V.,  for  whom  he  made  a celestial 
and  a terrestrial  globe;  and  in  1559  he 
retired  to  Duisburg  as  cosmographer  to 
the  Duke  of  Juliers.  He  is  the  author  of 
a method  of  projection  called  by  his 
name  (see  next  article),  the  principles  of 
which  were  applied  practiaclly  by  Ed- 
ward Wright,  in  1599.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  Tabulse  Geographicae  (Cologne, 
1578). 

MERCATOR’S  PROpCTION,  a meth- 
od of  projection  used  in  map-making  in 
which  the  meridians  and  parallels  of 
latitude  cut  each  other  at  right  angles, 
and  are  both  represented  by  straight 
lines.  By  means  of  this  projection  sea- 
men are  enabled  to  steer  by  compass  in 
straight  lines,  and  not  in  the  spiral 
necessitated  by  the  other  projections. 
It  is  constructed  as  follows;  A line  of 
any  length  is  drawn  to  represent  the 
equator.  This  line  is  divided  into  36  or 
18  equal  parts  for  meridians  at  10°  or  20° 
apart,  and  the  meridians  are  then  drawn 
through  these  perpendicular  to  the 
equator.  From  a table  of  meridional 
parts  take  the  distances  of  the  parallels 
and  of  the  tropics  and  arctic  circles  from 
the  equator,  marking  them  off  above 
and  below  it.  Join  these  points,  and  the 
projection  is  complete. 

MERCIER,  Honor4,  Canadian  politi- 
cian, born  1840.  He  studied  law,  and 
has  been  engaged  in  journalism.  He  sat 
in  the  Dominion  parliament  from  1872 
till  1874,  and  became  solicitor-general  in 
the  legislative  assembly  of  Quebec  in 
1879,  and  attorney-general  in  1887. 

MERCURY,  in  mythology,  the  name 
of  a Roman  divinity,  identified  in  later 
times  with  the  Greek  Hermes.  As  repre- 
senting Hermes  he  was  regarded  as  the 
son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia,  and  was  looked 
upon  as  the  god  of  eloquence,  of  com- 
merce, and  of  robbers.  He  was  also  the 
messenger,  herald,  and  ambassador  of 
Jupiter.  As  a Roman  divinity  he  was 
merely  the  patron  of  commerce  and 
gain.  See  Hermes. 

MERCURY,  in  astronomy,  the  planet 
nearest  the  sun.  He  moves  round  the 
sun  in  87.9693  of  our  mean  solar  days, 
at  a mean  distance  of  35,392,000  miles; 
his  eccentricity  of  orbit  is  0.205618;  the 
inclination  of  his  orbit  to  the  ecliptic  is 
70°  0'  8". 2,  his  diameter  about  3050 
miles.  The  period  of  his  axial  rotation  is 
the  same  as  that  of  his  revolution  round 
the  sun.  His  volume  is  about  jj  that  of 
the  earth ; his  density  xV  greater  than  the 
earth’s.  He  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in 
the  spring  and  autumn  after  sunset  and 
before  sunrise.  Transits  of  Mercury  over 
the  sun’s  disc  take  place  at  intervals  of 
13,  7,  10,  3,  10,  3,  etc.,  years. 

MERCURY,  called  also  quicksilver,  a 
metal  whose  specific  gravity  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  metal,  except  the 
platinum  metals,  gold,  and  tungsten, 
being  13.56,  or  thirteen  times  and  a half 


heavier  than  water.  It  is  the  only  metal 
which  is  liquid  at  common  temperatures. 
It  freezes  at  a temperature  of  39°  or  40° 
below  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit,  that  is,  at 
a temperature  of  71°  or  72°  below  the 
freezing  point  of  water.  Under  a heat  of 
660°  it  rises  in  fumes,  and  is  gradually 
converted  into  a red  oxide.  Mercury  is 
used  in  barometers  to  ascertain  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  in  ther- 
mometers to  determine  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well 
adapted  by  its  expansibility,  and  the 
extensive  range  between  its  freezing  and 
boiling  points.  Preparations  of  this 
metal  are  among  the  most  powerful 
poisons,  and  are  extensively  used  as 
medicines.  The  preparation  called 
calomel  or  mercurious  chloride  is  a most 
efficacious  deobstruent.  Another  valu- 
able preparation  is  corrosive  sublimate 
or  mercuric  chloride.  From  the  fluid 
state  in  which  mercury  exists  it  readily 
combines  with  most  of  the  metals,  to 
which,  if  in  sufficient  quantity,  it  im- 
parts a degree  of  fusibility  or  softness. 
An  alloy  of  mercury  and  any  other  metal 
is  termed  an  amalgam.  Mercury  is 
chiefly  found  in  the  state  of  sulphide, 
but  it  is  also  found  native.  The  chief 
mines  of  mercury  are  in  Spain,  but  it 
is  also  found  in  Germany,  Italy,  China, 
California,  Borneo,  Mexico,  and  Peru. 

MERCY,  Sisters  of,  the  name  given  to 
members  of  female  religious  com- 
munities founded  for  the  purpose  of 
nursing  the  sick  at  their  own  homes, 
visiting  prisoners,  attending  lying-in 
hospitals,  superintending  the  education 
of  females,  and  the  performance  of 
similar  works  of  charity  and  mercy. 
Communities  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  are  now 
widely  distributed  over  Europe  and 
America,  some  of  them  being  connected 
with  the  Church  of  England. 

MEREDITH,  George,  poet  and  novel- 
ist, born  1828  in  Hampshire;  studied  for 
the  law,  but  essayed  a literary  career 
with  a volume  of  poems  in  1851.  This 
was  followed  by  others,  among  them 
the  following:  Farina,  a Legend  of 
Cologne;  The  Ordeal  of  Richard  Feverel; 
Poems  and  Ballads;  The  Egoist;  Diana 
of  the  Crossways;  Ballads  and  Poems  of 
Tragic  Life ; The  Amazing  Marriage. 

MERGAN'SER,  a genus  of  aquatic 
birds  belonging  to  the  duck  family. 


Red-breasted  merganser. 

They  inhabit  lakes  and  the  sea-coast, 
migrate  southward  in  winter,  lay  from 
eight  to  fourteen  eggs,  and  are  gregari- 
ous in  habit. 

MERTDEN,  a town  in  Connecticut, 
18  miles  n.e.  of  New  Haven.  It  is  largely 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  iron- 
castings,  tinware,  cutlery,  brass-work, 
glass,  woolen  goods,  and  plated  ware. 

I It  contains  a state  reformatory.  Pop. 

) 29,296. 


ii 


MERIDIAN 


MESMERISM 


MERIDIAN,  one  of  the  innumerable 
imaginary  lines  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  that  may  be  conceived  of  as  pass- 
ing through  both  poles  and  through  any 
other  given  place,  and  serving  to  settle 
the  longitude  of  places  and  thus  to  mark 
their  exact  position.  There  are  also  cor- 
responding lines  called  astronomical  or 
celestial  meridians,  which  are  imaginary 
circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  passing 
through  the  poles  of  the  heavens  and 
the  zenith  of  any  place  on  the  earth’s 
surface.  Every  place  on  the  globe  has 
its  meridian,  and  when  the  sun  arrives  at 
this  line  it  is  noon  or  mid-day,  whence 
the  name  (Latin  meridianus — medius, 
middle,  and  dies,  day).  The  longitude 
of  a place  is  its  distance — usually  stated 
in  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds — east, 
or  west  of  any  meridian  selected  as  a 
starting-point,  just  as  its  latitude  is  its 
distance  north  or  south  of  the  equator. 
In  Britain  it  has  long  been  the  custom 
to  count  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich as  a starting-point;  this  meridian 
being  called  the  first  meridian,  and  the 
longitude  of  Greenwich  being  marked  0 
or  nothing.  Other  countries,  however, 
had  selected  their  own  meridian,  with 
the  result  that  confusion  arose  among 
geographers  and  navigators  in  localizing 
any  given  place.  This  difficulty  was  dis- 
cussed at  a national  conference  held  at 
Washington  October,  1884,  and  at  last 
Greenwich  was  selected  as  the  geographi- 
cal and  astronomical  reference  meridian 
of  the  world,  longitude  to  be  reckoned 
east  and  west  from  this  up  to  180°.  It 
was  also  arranged  that  the  astronomical 
day  should  begin  at  midnight,  1st  Janu- 
ary, 1885,  so  that  astronomers  hence- 
forth have  one  definite  day  over  all  the 
world.  See  also  Longitude,  Day. 

MERIDIAN,  the  capital  of  Lauder- 
dale CO.,  Miss.,  on  the  E.  Tenn.,  Va.  and 
Ga.,  the  Mobile  and  Ohio,  and  the 
Queen  and  Cresc.  railways,  85  miles  e. 
of  Jackson,  135  miles  n.  by  w.  of  Mobile, 
Ala.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
chiefly  producing  cotton.  Pop.  16,210. 

MERIDIAN  CIRCLE,  a mural  circle 
or  transit  circle. 

MERINO  (me-re'no),  a twilled  woolen 
tissue,  dyed  various  colors,  and  often 
also  printed.  In  the  better  kind  of  goods 
both  the  warp  and  the  woof  are  of  carded 
woolen  yarn,  but  in  inferior  sorts  the 
warp  is  of  (jbtton. 

MERINO  SHEEP,  a variety  of  sheep 
originally  peculiar  to  Spain,  but  now 


Head  of  Merino  ram,  before  and  after  shearing. 


reared  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  in 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  etc.  They  are 


raised  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  their  long 
fine  wool,  the  mutton  being  but  little 
esteemed. 

MERLIN,  a legendary  Welsh  prophet 
and  magician,  who  is  said  to  have  lived 
in  the  5th  century.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  offspring  of  a demon  and  a 
Welsh  princess,  and  became  adviser  to 
the  English  kings  Vortigern,  Ambrosius, 
Utherpendragon,  and  Arthur.  There 
was  also  a prophet  connected  with  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Strathclyde  called 
Merlin  the  Wild,  or  Merlinus  Caledon- 
ius,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  6th 
century.  His  prophecies,  containing  also 
those  ascribed  to  the  Welsh  Merlin,  were 
published  at  Edinburgh  in  1615. 

MERLIN,  the  smallest  of  the  British 
falcons,  being  only  about  the  size  of  a 
black-bird,  but  very  bold.  It  was  for- 
merly used  in  hawking  quails,  part- 
ridges, larks,  and  such  small  game,  and 
is  even  yet  occasionally  trained.  It  is  of 
a bluish  ash  color  above;  reddish  yellow 
on  the  breast  and  belly,  with  longitudi- 
nal dark  spots,  the  throat  of  the  adult 
male  white.  It  builds  its  nest  on  the 
ground. 

MERMAID  AND  MERMAN,  were 
legendary  creatures  who  lived  in  the  sea, 
possessed  a human  body  united  to  the 
tail  of  a fish,  and  who  were  supposed 
capable  of  entering  into  social  relation- 
ships with  men  and  women.  Under 
various  names  they  were  known  over 
Northern  Europe,  the  typical  mermaid 
being  a lovely  creature  who  combs  her 
long  beautiful  hair  with  one  hand  while 
she  holds  a looking-glass  with  the  other. 
The  origin  of  this  myth  is  supposed  to 
rest  in  the  human-like  appearance  of 
certain  aquatic  animals, such  as  the  seal. 
The  legends  of  mermaids  and  mermen 
have  been  largely  treated  in  poetry. 

MERRIMAC,  a river  of  the  United 
States  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massa- 
chusetts. The  immense  water-power 
furnished  by  its  falls  has  created  the 
towns  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  of  Nashua  and  Manches- 
ter in  New  Hampshire. 

MERSEY,  an  important  river  of  Eng- 
land, expands  into  an  estuary  17  miles 
from  its  mouth  at  Runcorn;  and  its 
entire  length  is  60  miles.  The  principal 
towns  on  its  banks  are  Warrington, 
Stockport,  Birkenhead,  and  Liverpool. 
The  Manchester  Ship  Canal  comprises 
part  of  the  channel  of  the  Mersey. 

MERSEY  TUNNEL,  opened  in  1886, 
connects  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  by 
a railway  under  the  river  Mersey.  It  is 
21  feet  high,  26  feet  wide,  and  31  feet 
below  the  bed  of  the  river;  is  4^  miles 
long  with  the  approaches,  and  is  ven- 
tilated by  means  of  large  fans  and  a 
small  tunnel  which  runs  alongside.  The 
cost  of  construction  is  stated  to  have 
been  .$6,250,000. 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL,  a parliamentary 
borough  of  South  Wales,  county  of 
Glamorgan,  24  miles  n.n.w.  of  Cardiff, 
on  the  Taff.  Pop.  (which  includes  Aber- 
dare),  122,536;  of  town,  69,227. 

MESMER,  Friedrich  Anton,  German 
physician,  founder  of  the  doctrine  of 
mesmerism  or  animal  magnetism,  was 
born  in  1733,  died  in  1815.  He  professed 
to  cure  diseases  by  stroking  with  mag- 
nets, but  about  1776  he  renounced  their 
use,  and  declared  that  his  operations  were 


conducted  solely  by  means  of  the  mag- 
netism peculiar  to  animal  bodies.  (See 
Mesmerism.)  He  went  to  Paris  in  1778, 
where  he  achieved  considerable  success 
and  fame  and  made  many  converts  to 
his  views,  but  was  regarded  by  the 
medical  faculty  as  a charlatan.  The 
government  at  length  appointed  a com- 
mittee of  physicians  and  members  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  to  investigate 
his  pretensions.  The  report  was  un- 
favorable, and  the  system  fell  into  dis- 
repute. Mesmer  retired  to  Swabia, 
where  he  died. 

MESMERISM,  Animal  Magnetism 
(electro-biology,  hypnotism),  terms  ap- 
plied to  certain  peculiar  nervous  con- 
ditions which  may  be  artificially  in- 
duced, and  in  which  the  mind  and  body 
of  one  individual  may  be  peculiarly  in- 
fluenced by  another  apparently  in- 
dependently of  his  own  will.  The  term 
mesmerism  is  derived  from  Mesmer  (see 
preceding  article),  who  professed  to  pro- 
duce these  conditions  in  others  and  to 
cure  diseases  by  the  influence  of  a 
mysterious  occult  force  residing  in  him- 
self. This  force  he  called  animal  magnet- 
ism. He  held  that  it  pervaded  the  whole 
universe,  and  specially  affected  the 
nervous  system.  The  phenomena  were 
known  from  the  earliest  ages,  when  the 
priests  of  most  of  the  ancient  civiliza- 
tions affected  to  cure  diseases  by  the 
touch  of  the  hand,  or  threw  people  into 
deep  sleeps,  induced  dreams,  and  pro- 
duced many  of  the  effects  now  referred 
to  mesmerism.  While  the  phenomena 
which  Mesmer  professed  to  produce 
were  probably  in  many  cases  genuine 
his  theory  of  animal  magnetism  rested 
on  no  proper  scientific  basis.  He  has 
been  followed  by  many  disciples,  whose 
success  in  producing  the  mesmeric  con- 
dition has  left  no  doubt  as  to  the  reality 
of  many  of  the  phenomena  of  mesmer- 
ism; but  modern  scientific  investigation, 
while  not  fully  explaining  all  these,  has 
shown  that  they  are  due  to  peculiar 
nervous  conditions,  and  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  presuppose  any  occult 
force  to  account  for  them.  The  means 
usually  employed  to  produce  the  mes- 
meric condition  are  such  as  touching 
and  stroking  with  the  hands,  according 
to  rule  (manipulation),  breathing  on  the 
person,  fixing  the  eyes  on  him,  etc.  It 
may  also,  it  is  said,  be  produced  by 
causing  the  patient  to  stare  at  an  object, 
especially  a bright  one,  placed  in  such  a 
position  as  to  strain  the  eye,  the  effect 
being  completed  by  a few  passes  of  the 
hand  over  the  face  without  touching  it. 
In  the  condition  thus  induced  the  patient 
seems  to  be  in  a kind  of  sleep.  The  limbs 
will  remain  in  any  position  in  which  they 
may  be  placed.  By  stroking  the  surface 
of  the  body  the  muscles  adjacent  may 
be  rendered  rigid  as  in  a person  suffering 
from  catalepsy.  Reason  and  memory 
are  temporarily  suspended,  the  will  is 
paralyzed,  and  the  subject  is  irresistibly 
impelled  to  act  in  accordance  with  sug- 
gestion, however  absurd.  He  can  be 
persuaded  into  any  hallucination,  such 
as  that  he  is  some  one  other  than  himself, 
or  that  he  hears  or  sees,  smells  or  tastes 
something  which  has  no  existence  before 
him.  As  a therapeutic  agent  mesmerism 
has  been  successfully  employed  in  cer- 


MESOPOTAMIA 


METAMORPHOSIS 


tain  forms  of  disease,  especially  in  cases 
of  nervous  irritation  and  sleeplessness, 
and  such  diseases  in  general  as  have  a 
nervous  origin.  It  has  been  claimed  also 
by  professors  of  the  art  that  the  patient 
when  in  this  condition  can  determine 
the  nature  of  any  disease  from  which  he 
may  be  suffering  and  the  means  of  its 
cure,  that  he  can  penetrate  the  mysteries 
of  the  future  and  hold  communication 
with  distant  persons.  But  these  last 
statements  cannot  be  regarded  as 
authenticated. 

MESOPOTA'MIA,  a name  given  by 
the  Greeks  to  the  extensive  region  in- 
closed by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
anciently  associated  with  the  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  monarchies.  Its  Old 
Testament  name  is  Aram  Naharaim, 
or  Padan  Aram.  The  Greek  title  was 
probably  not  in  use  till  after  Alexander 
the  Great  invaded  the  east.  This  coun- 
try is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Arabs,  Kurds 
and  Armenians.  Many  of  them  are 
nomadic,  and  their  chief  occupation  is 
the  grazing  of  cattle.  Mesopotamia  is 
now  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire. 

MESOZOTC  PERIOD,  the  term  ap- 
plied by  geologists  to  the  geological 
period  between  the  Palseozoic  and  the 
Cainozoic.  It  is  coextensive  with  the 
secondary  formations,  and  includes  the 
rocks  of  the  Triassic,  Oolitic,  and  Creta- 
ceous groups. 

MESQUITE,  a small  tree  allied  to  the 
acacia,  common  in  Mexico,  Texas,  and 
other  of  the  western  states.  It  yields 
a gum  not  much  inferior  to  gum  arabic; 
its  seeds  are  eaten,  and  a drink  is  pre- 
pared from  the  mucilage  of  its  pods. 
Another  species  has  pods  that  are  eaten 
by  the  Indians,  being  rich  in  saccharine 
matter.  They  are  of  a twisted  form, 
hence  the  name  “screw  bean.” 

MESSALI'NA,  Valeria,  the  third  wife 
of  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius.  She  is 
notorious  in  history  on  account  of  her 
licentiousness  and  cruelty.  She  was 
murdered  a.  d.  48. 

MESSA'NA.  See  Messina. 

MESSE'NIA,  a country  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  Messenia  gives  name  to 
a monarchy  in  modern  Greece,  with  an 
area  of  1221  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of 
119,327. 

MESSFAH,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Christos  of  the  New  Testament, 
that  is,  “anointed,”  has  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament several  applications,  as  to  the 
whole  Jewish  people,  to  the  priests,  to 
the  kings  (“the  Lord’s  Anointed”),  and 
even  to  Gentile  kings,  as  persons  who 
had  been  anointed  with  holy  oil.  The 
designation,  however,  owes  its  special 
importance  to  the  application  of  it  in 
the  prophetic  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  an  ideal  holy  king  and  deliverer 
whose  advent  they  foretold.  The  whole 
of  the  prophetic  pictures  agreed  in 
placing  Jehovah  in  the  central  place  of 
the  desired  kingship.  These  prophecies, 
which  are  called  the  Messianic  prophe- 
cies, had  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  come 
to  be  applied  by  the  Jews  to  a temporal 
king  who  should  free  them  from  foreign 
oppression.  They  arc  affirmed  by  Jesus 
Christ  and  His  apostles  to  apply  to  and 
be  fulfilled  in  Him  ; and  this  is  the  belief 
of  the  Christian  Church,  by  which  he  is 


called  “The  Messiah.”  The  rationalistic 
school  of  theologians  assert  that  Jesus 
laid  claim  to  the  dignity  either  to  meet 
the  preconceptions  of  his  countrynien, 
or  because  he  felt  that  the  truth  which 
he  taught  was  the  real  kingdom  never 
to  be  destroyed  which  the  God  of  Heaven 
was  to  set  up. 

MESSI'NA,  the  chief  commercial  town 
and  seaport  of  Sicily,  capital  of  the 
province  and  on  the  strait  of  the  same 
name.  Pop.  149,823,  in  1908  when  it 
was  destroyed  by  earthquake.  (See 
earthquake.) — The  province  of  Messina 
has  an  area  of  1768  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  548,898. 

MESSINA,  Strait  of,  the  strait  which 
separates  Sicily  from  Italy.  It  has  a 
length  of  about  20  miles,  and  varies  in 
width  from  2 miles  in  the  north  to  11 
miles  in  the  south,  is  very  deep,  and 
has  a strong  tidal  current. 

MESTIZOS  (mes-te'zos),  people  of 
mixed  origin  in  countries  where  Spanish 
Europeans  have  settled  and  inter- 
mingled with  the  natives. 

METALLURGY  (met'al-er-ji),  the  art 
of  working  metals,  comprehending  the 
whole  process  of  separating  them  from 
other  matters  in  the  ore,  smelting, 
refining,  etc. 

METALS,  elementary  substances  have 
been  divided  by  chemists  into  two 
classes,  metals  and  non-metals  or  metal- 
loids, but  these  merge  one  into  the  other 
by  gradations  so  imperceptible  that  it  is 
impossible  to  frame  a definition  which 
will  not  either  include  some  non-metallic 
bodies  or  exclude  some  metallic.  The 
term  metal  is  an  ideal  type,  and  is  ap- 
plied to  those  elementary  substances 
which  in  the  combination  of  physical 
characteristics  which  they  present  ap- 
proach more  or  less  nearly  to  it.  The 
following  are  the  chief  characteristics  of 
metals.  They  are  opaque,  having  a 
peculiar  luster  connected  with  their 
opacity  called  metallic;  insoluble  in 
water;  solid,  except  in  one  instance,  at 
ordinary  temperatures ; generally  fusible 
by  heat;  good  conductors  of  heat  and 
electricity;  capable,  when  in  the  state  of 
an  oxide,  of  uniting  with  acids  and  form- 
ing salts;  and  have  the  property,  when 
their  compounds  are  submitted  to 
electrolysis,  of  generally  appearing  at 
the  negative  pole  of  the  battery.  Many 
of  the  metals  are  also  malleable,  or  sus- 
ceptible of  being  beaten  or  rolled  out 
into  sheets  or  leaves,  and  some  of  them 
are  extremely  ductile  or  capable  of  be- 
ing drawn  out  into  wires  of  great  fineness. 
They  are  sometimes  found  native  or 
pure,  but  more  generally  combined  with 
oxj'gen,  sulphur,  and  some  other  ele- 
ments, constituting  ores.  The  great 
difference  in  the  malleability  of  the 
metals  gave  rise  to  the  old  distinction  of 
metals  and  semi-metals,  which  is  now 
disregarded.  The  following — fifty-two 
in  number — are  the  principal  substances 
usually  regarded  as  metals:  aluminium, 
antimony,  barium,  beryllium,  or  glu- 
cinum,  bismuth,  cadmium,  caesium,  cal- 
cium, cerium,  chromium,  cobalt,  colum- 
dium,  or  niobium,  copper,  didymium, 
erbium,  gallium,  germanium,  gold,  in- 
dium, iridium,  iron,  lanthanum,  lead, 
lithium,  magnesium,  manganese,  mer- 
cury, molybdenum,  nickel,  osmium. 


palladium,  platinum,  potassium,  rho- 
dium, rubidium,  ruthenium,  scandium, 
silver,  sodium,  strontium,  tantalum, 
tellurium,  terbium,  thallium,  thorium, 
tin,  titanium,  tungsten,  uranium,  van- 
adium, yttrium,  zinc,  zirconium.  Of 
these  gold,  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
zinc,  platinum,  iron,  are  the  most 
malleable;  gold,  which  possesses  the 
quality  in  the  greatest  degree,  being 
capable  of  being  beaten  into  leaves  jolriyTr 
of  a millimetre  in  thickness.  The  fol- 
lowing, given  in  the  order  of  their  duc- 
tility, are  the  most  ductile:  platinum, 
silver,  iron,  copper,  gold,  aluminium, 
zinc,  tin,  lead,  platinum  wire  having 
been  obtained  of  not  more  than  ysW  of 
a millimetre  in  diameter.  The  majority 
of  the  useful  metals  .are  between  seven 
and  eight  times  heavier  than  an  equal 
bulk  of  water;  platinum,  osmium,  and 
iridium  are  more  than  twenty  times 
heavier;  while  lithium,  potassium,  and 
sodium  are  lighter.  The  metals  become 
liquid,  or  otherwise  change  their  con- 
dition, at  very  various  temperatures: 
platinum  is  hardly  fusible  at  the  highest 
temperature  of  a furnace ; iron  melts  at  a 
little  lowertemperature ; andsilver  some- 
what lower  still;  while  potassium  melts 
below  the  boiling-point  of  water,  and 
becomes  vapor  at  a red  heat,  and  it  and 
sodium  may  be  moulded  like  wax  at  16° 
C.  (61°  Fahr.).  Mercury  is  liquid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  and  freezes  only 
at  39^°  C.  below  zero  (-39°  Fahr.). 
Osmium  and  telluriiun  are  also  regarded 
by  some  as  non-metals.  All  the  metals, 
without  exception,  combine  with  oxygen 
sulphur,  and  chlorine,  forming  oxides, 
sulphides,  and  chlorides,  and  many  of 
them  also  combine  with  bromine,  iodine, 
fluorine.  Several  of  the  later  discovered 
metals  exist  in  exceedingly  minute 
quantities,  and  were  detected  only  by 
spectrum  analysis,  and  there  is  every 
likelihood  that  research  in  this  direction 
will  add  to  the  present  list  of  metals. 

METAMOR'PHIC  ROCKS,  in  geology, 
stratified  or  unstratified  rocks  of  any  age 
whose  original  texture  has  been  altered 
and  rendered  less  or  more  crystalline  by 
subterranean  heat,  pressure,  or  chemi- 
cal. agency.  The  name  is  given  more 
especially  to  the  lowest  and  azoic,  or 
non-fossiliferous,  stratified  rocks,  con- 
sisting of  crystalline  chists,  and  embrac- 
ing granitoid  schist,  gneiss,  quartz-rock, 
mica-schist,  and  clay-slate,  most  of 
which  were  originally  deposited  from 
water  and  crystallized  by  subsequent 
agencies.  They  exhibit  for  the  most  part 
cleavage,  crumpling,  and  foliation,  and 
their  lines  of  stratification  are  often  in- 
distinct or  obliterated. 

METAMOR'PHOSIS,  any  change  of 
form,  shape,  or  structure.  In  ancient 
m3d;hology  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
transformations  of  human  beings  into 
inanimate  objects,  with  which  ancient 
fable  abounds.  In  zoology  it  includes  the 
alterations  which  an  animal  undergoes 
after  its  exclusion  from  the  egg  or  ovum, 
and  which  alter  extensively  the  general 
form  and  life  of  the  individual.  All  the 
changes  which  are  undergone  by  a 
butterfly  in  passing  from  the  fecundated 
ovum  to  the  imago,  or  perfect  insect, 
constitute  its  development  — each 
change,  from  ovum  to  larva,  from  laiA'^a 


METAPHOR 


METHODISTS 


to  pupa,  and  from  pupa  to  imago,  con- 
stituting a metamorphosis. 

MET'APHOR,  a figure  of  speech 
founded  on  the  resemblance  which  one 
object  is  supposed  to  bear,  in  some  re- 
spect to  another,  and  by  which  a word 
is  transferred  from  an  object  to  which 
it  properly  belongs  to  another  in  such  a 
manner  that  a comparison  is  implied, 
though  not  formally  expressed.  It  may 
be  called  a simile  without  any  word  ex- 
pressing comparison.  Thus,  “that  man  is 
a fox,”  is  a metaphor;  but  “that  man 
is  like  a fox,”  is  a simile.  So  we  say, 
a man  bridles  his  anger;  beauty  awakens 
love  or  tender  passions;  opposition  fires 
courage. 

METAPHYS'ICS,  a word  first  applied 
to  a certain  group  of  the  philosophical 
dissertations  of  Aristotle  which  were 
placed  in  a collection  of  his  manuscripts 
after  his  treatise  on  physics.  As  since 
employed,  it  has  had  various  significa- 
tions, and  latterly  it  has  been  understood 
as  applying  to  the  science  which  inves- 
tigatesthe  ultimate  principles  that  under- 
lie and  are  presupposed  in  all  being  and 
knowledge.  In  the  part  of  the  Aristo- 
telian treatise  alluded  to  the  problems 
were  concerned  with  the  contemplation 
of  being  as  being,  and  the  attributes 
which  belong  to  it  as  such.  This  im- 
plies that  things  in  general  must  be 
divided  into  beings  or  things  as  they  are, 
and  into  phenomena  or  things  as  they 
appear.  In  modern  usage  metaphysics  is 
very  frequently  held  as  applying  to  the 
former  division,  that  is  to  the  ultimate 
grounds  of  being.  To  attain  this  end  it 
takes  into  account  the  correlative  of 
being,  that  is,  knowledge,  and  of  knowl- 
edge not  as  coming  within  the  province 
of  logic  or  of  mental  philosophy,  but  as 
it  is  in  relation  to  being  or  objective 
reality.  In  this  respect  metaphysics  is 
synonymous  with  ontology.  The  science 
has  aiso  been  considered  as  synonymous 
with  psychology,  and  to  denote  that 
branch  of  philosophy  which  investigates 
the  faculties,  operations,  and  laws  of  the 
human  mind. 

METAZOA  (met-a-zo'a),  one  of  the 
two  great  sections  into  which  Huxley 
divides  the  animal  kingdom,  the  other 
being  the  Protozoa.  The  lowest  of  the 
Metazoa  are  the  Porifera  or  sponges. 
That  portion  of  the  Metazoa  which 
possess  a notochord,  constitute  the  sub- 
kingdom Vertebrata;  the  rest  are  in- 
v©rt  ©brSito 

METEMPSYCHO'SIS,  transmigration; 
the  passage  of  the  soul  from  one  body 
to  another.  See  Transmigration  of  the 
Soul. 

METEOR,  a name  originally  given  to 
any  atmospheric  phenomenon ; it  is  now 
more  usually  applied  to  the  phenomena 
known  as  shooting-stars,  falling-stars, 
fireballs,  or  bolides,  aerolites,  meteorol- 
lites,  meteoric  stones,  etc.  It  is  now 
generally  believed  that  these  phenomena 
are  all  of  the  same  nature,  and  are  due 
to  the  existence  of  a great  number  of 
bodies,  some  of  them  very  small  indeed, 
revolving  roimd  the  sun,  which,  when 
they  happen  to  pass  through  the  earth’s 
atmosphere,  are  heated  by  friction  and 
become  luminous.  Under  certain  cir- 
cumstances portions  of  these  bodies 
reach  the  earth’s  surface,  and  these  are 


known  as  meteorites  or  meteoric  stones. 
These  stones  consist  of  known  chemical 
elements.  They  have  this  peculiarity, 
that  whereas  native  iron  is  extremely 
rare  among  terrestrial  minerals,  it 
usually  forms  a component  part  in 
meteorites,  and  is  known  as  meteoric 
iron.  Exceptionally  large  showers  of 
meteors  appear  in  August  and  Novem- 
ber every  year,  and  the  November 
showers  exhibit  a maximum  brilliancy 
every  33  years.  As  to  the  connection  of 
meteors  \Vith  comets  see  Comets. 

METEORIC  IRON.  See  Iron  (Native), 
and  Meteor. 

METEORIC  STONES.  See  Meteor. 

METEOROLOGY,  the  science  or 
branch  of  knowledge  that  treats  of  at- 
mospheric phenomena  relating  to  wea- 
ther and  climate.  The  phenomena  with 
which  it  deals  and  the  instruments  used 
in  their  observation  are  mainly  these, 
viz. : temperature  (thermometer),  humid- 
ity (hygrometer),  atmospheric  pressure 
(barometer),  wind  (anemometer),  rain- 
fall (rain-gauge),  and  clouds.  These 
phenomena  are  all  referable  to  tlie 
action  of  the  sun,  and  accordingly  pre- 
sent variations  depending  upon  locality 
(including  the  infinitely  varied  physical 
features  of  different  places),  the  diurnal 
revolution  of  the  earth  upon  its  axis, 
and  the  annual  revolution  of  the  earth 
roimd  the  sun.  It  is  the  business  of 
meteorology  to  examine  the  laws  which 
regulate  these  variations.  It  pursues  its 
inquiries  in  two  directions,  (1)  with 
reference  to  the  variations  observed  at 
different  times  in  the  same  locality  with 
the  view  of  obtaining  average  results 
as  to  its  climate — climatology,  and  (2) 
with  reference  to  the  variations  observed 
in  different  localities  at  the  same  time 
with  the  view  of  arriving  at  the  laws 
which  regulate  the  changes  in  the 
weather — weather  study.  In  the  prose- 
cution of  this  study  observations  are 
taken  at  the  same  hour  of  Greenwich 
time  at  a number  of  stations  situated 
over  a large  extent  of  the  earth’s  sur- 
face. These  observations  include  read- 
ings of  barometer,  thermometer,  hygrom- 
eter, rain-gauge,  anemometer,  etc., 
with  non-instrumental  observation  of 
clouds.  The  results  which  indicate  the 
phenomena  existing  at  that  hour  at  the 
several  stations  are  tabulated,  or  regis- 
tered, formed  into  weather  charts,  etc. 
These  charts  are  made  by  putting  down 
on  a map  readings  taken  at  the  same 
moment  over  a large  tract  of  country, 
and  joining  by  lines  the  points  where  the 
readings  agree.  Since  the  general  use 
of  the  electric  telegraph  this  branch  has 
assumed  great  practical  importance. 
By  its  means  observations  made  at 
many  distant  places  may  be  imme- 
diately communicated  to  one  center, 
and  men  of  science  are  thus  enabled  to 
forecast  with  considerable  accuracy  the 
weather  which  may  be  expected  in  cer- 
tain districts.  Such  forecastscanbe  made 
with  great  accuracy  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  where  the  atmospheric 
conditions  are  very  constant,  and  varia- 
tions from  the  average  are  consequently 
easily  observed.  They  are  attended  with 
much  more  difficulty  in  temperate  coun 
tries.  In  the  British  Isles  they  are  ex- 
ceptionally difficult  owing  to  the  fact  that 


on  the  side  from  which  nearly  all 
weather  changes  come,  namely,  the 
west,  thp  existence  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  renders  telegraphic  warning  of 
changes  of  weather  impossible.  The 
fact  that  a storm  is  travelling  eastward 
may  be  telegraphed  from  America,  but 
there  is  always  a chance  of  its  being 
dissipated  or  deflected  long  before  it 
reaches  the  coasts  of  Europe.  It  having 
been  observed,  however,  that  a storm  is 
always  preceded  by  a fall  of  the  barom- 
eter, the  tendency  to  fall  is  observed 
some  time  before  the  minimum  depres- 
sion occurs;  the  notice  of  this  tehdency, 
together  with  observations  of  the  wind 
and  motions  of  cirrus  clouds,  enables 
storm  warnings  to  be  sent  from  observ- 
atories to  the  Meteorological  office  es- 
ta,bllshed  by  government  in  London, 
whence  they  are  telegraphed  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  further  eastward  we  travel  in 
Europe  the  easier  does  the  forecasting 
of  the  weather  become.  In  the  United 
States,  where  the  majority  of  storms 
rise  in  the  district  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  are  thus  capable  of 
easy  observation,  great  accuracy  has 
been  attained.  In  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  and  most  civilized  coun- 
tries, systems  of  weather  forecastinghave 
now  been  established  since  about  the 
year  1860,  the  name  of  Admiral  Fitzroy 
being  associated  with  the  early  days  of 
the  system  in  England.  The  United 
Kingdom  is  now  divided  into  eleven 
districts,  and  a forecast  for  each  of  these 
is  issued  twice  a day.  Weather  disturb- 
ances are  generally  cyclonic  or  anti- 
cyclonic  in  character.  In  the  U.S.,  where 
the  majority  of  storms  rise  in  the  dis- 
trict to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
are  thus  capable  of  easy  observation, 
great  accuracy  has  been  attained.  The 
Weather  Bureau  originated  in  1870,  as 
an  attachment  to  the  Signal  Service 
Office  of  the  War  Department.  In  1891 
it  was  transferred  by  law  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  its  functions  being 
closely  allied  to  that  interest.  Its  fore- 
casts of  the  coming  weather  seldom  ex- 
tend beyond  twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours  in  advance,  and  are  telegraphed 
and  published  twice  daily.  See  Cyclone, 
Anti-cyclone,  Climate,  etc. 

METH'ODISTS,  a sect  of  Christians 
founded  by  John  Wesley,  so  called  from 
the  fact  that  the  name  was  applied  to 
Wesley  and  his  companions  by  their 
fellow-students  at  Oxford,  on  account 
of  the  exact  regularity  of  their  lives,  and 
the  strictness  of  their  observance  of 
religious  duties.  The  religious  move- 
ment which  resulted  in  the  foundation 
of  this  sect  began  at  Oxford  in  1729, 
the  chief  leaders  besides  John  Wesley 
being  his  brother  Charles  and  George 
Whitefield  (see  Wesley,  Whitefield). 
The  first  general  conference  of  the 
Methodists  was  held  in  1744,  and  the 
Methodists  were  constituted  a legally 
corporate  body  in  1784.  Their  doctrines 
are  substantially  those  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  appointment  of  a minis- 
ter of  the  body  to  any  place  is  always 
for  three  years.  There  are  in  addition  to 
the  ordained  ministers  lay  preachers, 
leaders,  trustees,  and  stewards.  The 
body  is  governed  by  an  annual  confer- 


METHYL 


MEXICAN  WAR 


ence,  having  at  its  head  a president  and 
secretary,  whose  term  of  office  lasts  but 
for  a year.  In  each  district  the  ministers 
hold  half-yearly  meetings,  the  several 
chairmen  being  appointed  by  the  con- 
ference. There  are  also  quarterly  cir- 
cuit meetings  of  ministers  and  lay 
officers.  The  supreme  legislative  and 
judicial  power  is  vested  in  the  conference 
to  which  the  half-yearly  and  quarterly 
district  and  circuit  meetings  are  sub- 
ordinated. The  number  of  members  at 
Wesley’s  death  was  76,968;  but  the  de- 
nomination has  increased  with  such 
marvelous  rapidity,  that  there  are  said 
to  be  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
above  28,000,000  adherents.  The 
Methodists  are  especially  numerous  in 
North  America,  forming  numerically 
the  leading  denomination  in  the  United 
States.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  is  the  oldest  and  leading  Metho- 
dist body  in  America.  Since  1845  it  has 
been  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
Methodists  of  the  southern  states  form- 
ing what  is  called  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  South. 

METH'YL,  the  name  given  to  the 
hypothetical  radical  of  methyl  alcohol 
which  is  contained  in  wood  spirit.  It  is 
analogous  to  ethyl  in  its  chemical  char- 

METHYLATED  SPIRIT,  spirit  of  wine 
containing  10  per  cent  of  wood  naphtha, 
which  contains  a large  proportion  of 
methylic  alcohol.  The  naphtha  com- 
municates a disagreeable  flavor,  which 
renders  it  unfit  for  drinking,  and  for  this 
reason  it  is  admitted  duty  free.  It  is  of 
much  use  in  the  arts  as  a solvent,  for 
preserving  specimens,  in  manufacture 
of  varnishes,  for  burning  in  spirit- 
lamps,  etc. 

METHYLIC  ALCOHOL,  alcohol  ob- 
tained by  the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood. 

METONIC  CYCLE,  METONIC  YEAR, 

the  cycle  of  the  moon,  or  period  of 
nineteen  years,  in  which  the  lunations  of 
the  moon  return  to  the  same  days  of  the 
month ; discovered  by  Meton,  an  Athen- 
ian mathematician  who  flourished  432 

B.C. 

METRE,  rhytlimical  arrangement  of 
syllables  into  verses,  stanzas,  strophes, 
etc.  See  Rhythm,  Verse. 

METRE,  M6tre,  a French  measure  of 
length,  equal  to  39.37  English  inches  or 
3.28  feet,  the  standard  of  linear  measure, 
being  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  equator  to  the  North 
Pole,  as  ascertained  by  actual  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian. 

METRIC  SYSTEM  OF  WEIGHTS 
AND  MEASURES.  See  Decimal  System. 

METRIC  SYSTEM  SIMPLIFIED,THE, 
the  following  tables  of  the  metric 
system  of  weights  and  measures  have 
been  simplified  as  much  as  possible  by 
omitting  such  denominations  as  are  not 
in  practical,  everyday  use  in  the  coun- 
tries where  the  system  is  used  exclusively. 

TABLES  OF  THE  SYSTEM. 

Length.— The  denominations  in  practical 
use  are  millimetres  (mm.),  centimetres  (cm.), 
metres  (m.),  and  kilometres  (km.). 

10  mm.  = 1 cm;  100  cm.  = 1 m. ; 1,000m,  = 1km. 

Note.— A decimetre  is  10  cm. 

Weight.— The  denominations  in  use  are 
grams  (g.),  kilos*  (kg.),  and  tons  (metric  tons). 

1,000  g.  r=  1 kg. ; 1,000  kg.  = 1 metric  ton. 


Capacity.— The  denominations  in  use  are 
cubic  centimetres  (c.c.)  and  litres  (1.). 

1,000  c.c.  = 1 1.  Note.— A hectolitre  is  100  1. 
(seldom  used). 

Relation  of  capacity  and  weight  to  length.  A 
cubic  decimetre  Is  a litre  and  a litre  of  water 
weighs  a kilo. 

APPROXIMATE  EQUIVALENTS. 

A metre  is  about  a yard;  a kilo  is  about  2 
pounds;  a litre  is  about  a quart;  a centimetre 
is  about  >i-inch;  a metric  ton  is  about  same  as 
a ton;  a kilometre  is  about  % mile;  a cubic 
centimetre  is  about  a thimbleful;  a nickel 
weighs  about  5 grams. 


PRECISE  EQUIVALENTS. 


1 acre 

— .am  hectar 

.4047 

1 bushel 

-35 

litres 

35.24 

1 centimetre  

= .39 

inch 

.3937 

1 cubic  centimetre 

= .061  cubic  inch. . 

.0610 

1 cubic  foot 

= .028 cubic  metre 

.0285 

1 cubic  inch. 

-16 

cubic  cent,  t 16.39 

1 cubic  metre 

= 35 

cubic  feet. .. 

35.31 

1 cubit  metre 

.=  1.3 

cubic  yards 

1.308 

1 cubic  yard 

- .76 

cubic  metre 

.7615 

i foot 

.-30 

centimetres.  30.48 

1 gallon.. 

- 3.81 

litres 

3.785 

1 grain 

- .065gram 

.0648 

1 gram 

. = 15 

grains 

15.43 

1 hectar 

- 2.5 

acres 

2.471 

1 inch 

-25 

millimetres . 25.40 

I kilo 

.-  2.2 

pounds 

2.205 

1 kilometre 

= .62 

intie 

.6214 

1 litre 

= .91 

quart  (dry) 

.9081 

1 litre 

= 1.1 

quarts  (liq’(l)1.057 

1 metre 

= 3.3 

feet. 

3.281 

1 mile 

= 1.6 

kilometres. 

1.609 

1 millimetre 

.—  .0391nch.. 

.0394 

1 ounce  (av’d) 

. = 28 

grams 

28.35 

1 ounce  (Troy) . . . 

.=31 

grams 

31.10 

1 'Deck 

“ 8.8 

litres 

8.809 

1 pint 

= .47 

litre 

.4732 

1 pound. 

— .4l6 

kilo  . . .... 

.4536 

1 quart  (dry) 

= 1.1 

litres 

1.101 

1 quart  (liquid). .. 

= .95 

litre 

.9464 

1 sq.  centimetre. . 

= .15 

sq.  inch .... 

.1550 

1 sq.  foot 

= . 093 sq.  metre.. . 

.0929 

1 sq.  inch 

= 6.5 

sq.  c’timetr’s  6.453 

1 sq.  metre 

= 1.2 

sq.  yards. . . 

1.196 

1 sq.  metre 

.-11 

sq.  feet 

10.76 

1 sq.  yard 

= .84 

sq.  metre... 

.8361 

1 ton  (2,0001bs).... 

= .91 

metric  ton. 

.9072 

1 ton  (2,240  lbs.) .. . 

= 1 

metric  ton. 

1.017 

1 ton  (metric) 

= 1.1 

ton  (2, 000  lbs)  1.102 

1 ton  (metric) 

= .98 

ton  (2,240  lbs)  .9842 

1 y^rd 

= .91 

metre 

.9144 

* Contraction  for  kilogram,  t Centimetres. 

MET'RONOME,  an  instrument  con- 
sisting of  a weighted  pendulum  moving 
on  a pivot  and  set  in  motion  by  clock- 
work; invented  about  1814,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining,  by  its  vibrations, 
the  quickness  or  slowness  with  which 
musical  compositions  are  to  be  executed 


Metronome,  showing  extent  of  vibrations. 

so  as  to  mark  the  time  exactly.  There  is 
a sliding  weight  attached  to  the  pendu- 
lum rod,  by  the  shifting  of  which  up  or 
down  the  vibrations  may  be  made  slower 
or  quicker.  A scale  indicates  the  number 
of  audible  beats  given  per  minute,  and 
this  must  be  made  to  agree  with  the 
number  attached  to  the  music  by  its 
composer. 

METROSIDE'ROS,  a genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs,  one  species  known  as  iron- 
wood,  is  a tree,  a native  of  Java  and 


Amboyna.  The  trees  of  this  genus  have 
thick,  opposite,  entire  leaves,  and  heads 
of  showy  red  or  white  flowers. 


Iron-wood. 


METTERNICH  (met'ter-nih),  Clemens 
Lothar  Wenzel,  Prince  von  Metternich, 
Austrian  statesman,  born  1773,  died 
1859.  He  represented  Austria  as  am- 
bassador at  various  European  courts 
between  1801  and  1809.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs.  In  this  capacity  he  negotiated 
the  marriage  of  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Louisa  with  Napoleon,  and  conducted 
her  to  Paris.  In  1813,  after  the  French 
reverses  in  Russia,  Austria  gave  in  her 
adhesion  to  the  other  allied  powers, 
and  declared  war  against  France.  From 
this  period  the  policy,  not  only  of 
Austria,  but  in  a great  measure  that 
also  of  the  leading  continental  powers, 
was  shaped  by  Metternich.  He  was  one 
of  the  plenipotentiaries  who  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Paris,  and  he  presided  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna  (1814).  The  object' 
of  his  policy  was  to  arrest  the  progress 
of  what  were  called  revolutionary  prin- 
ciples. With  this  view  he  formed  the 
scheme  kno'wn  as  the  Holy  Alliance. 
He  continued  in  power  till,  by  the  revo- 
lution of  1848,  he  was  driven  from  office, 
and  had  to  flee  to  England,  where  he 
remained  till  1851,  when  he  returned 
and  lived  in  retirement  at  Vienna. 

METZ,  a town  and  important  fortress 
of  Alsace-Lorraine,  on  the  Moselle,  which 
here  divides  into  several  arms,  79  miles 
northwest  of  Strasburg.  Pop.  60,186. 

MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE  (meurt-e 
mo-zel),  a department  of  northeast 
France,  formed  in  1871  by  uniting  por- 
tions of  the  old  departments  of  Meurthe 
and  Moselle,  in  consequence  of  the 
cession  by  France  to  Prussia  of  a portion 
of  her  territory  on  the  east  under  the 
treaty  of  Frankfort  (10th  May,  1871) ; 
area,  2024  sq.  miles.  The  capital  is 
Nancy.  Pop.  484,722. 

MEUSE  (meuz),  a European  river, 
which  rises  in  France,  in  the  south  of  the 
department  Haute-Marne,  and  flows 
through  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland. 
Its  length,  including  windings,  is  580 
miles.  It  is  navigable  for  about  460 
miles. 

MEUSE,  a northeast  department  of 
France;  area,  2404  sq.  miles.  Bar-le-Duc 
is  the  capital  Pop.  283,480. 

MEXICAN  WAR,  a war  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  in  1846-48, 
was  the  result  of  outrages  upon  Ameri- 
can citizens,  the  recognition  of  the  in- 


MEXICAN  WAR 


MEXICO 


dependence  of  Texas  by  the  United 
States  (1837),  the  annexation  (1845)  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States,  in  the  face 
of  bitter  opposition  on  the  part  of 
Mexico,  herself  torn  with  revolution  and 
contending  factions,  and  finally  of  a dis- 
pute regarding  the  boundary  of  Texas, 
the  United  States  claiming  the  Rio 
Grande  as  the  boundary,  while  Mexico 
held  that  Texas  did  not  extend  farther 
south  than  the  Nueces. 

Gen.  Zachary  Taylor,  with  an  army  of 
4000  men,  arrived  at  the  Rio  Grande  at 
a point  opposite  Matamoros,  on  March 
28,  1846,  where  he  erected  Fort  Brown. 
Gen.  Ampudia,  the  Mexican  commander 
at  Matamoros,  sent  a note  to  Taylor, 
telling  him  to  withdraw  back  to  the 
Nueces  under  the  alternative  of  war. 
Taylor  refused,  and  in  the  meantime 
Gen.  Arista  superseded  Ampudia,  and 
sent  part  of  his  army  across  the  river  on 
April  24  to  attack  Taylor.  Capt. 
Thornton,  with  a small  party  of  Ameri- 
can dragoons,  sent  up  the  river  to  watch 
the  Mexican’s  movements,  fell  into  an 
ambuscade  on  the  25th,  a few  were 
killed  and  the  rest  were  captured.  This 
was  the  formal  beginning  of  the  war.  A 
messenger  dispatched  by  Taylor  soon 
reached  Washington,  and  on  May  11 
President  Polk  sent  a message  to  con- 
gress declaring  that  “Mexico  has  passed 
the  boundary  of  the  United  States,  has 
invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  Ameri- 
ican  blood  upon  American  soil.  War 
exists,  and,  notwithstanding  all  our 
efforts  to  avoid  it,  exists  by  the  act  of 
Mexico  herself.”  Taylor,  on  May  8, 
with  3000  men,  encountered  Arista  with 
6000  at  Palo  Alta,  defeating  him,  with  a 
loss  of  forty-four  Americans,  and  600 
Mexicans.  On  the  9th  Taylor  met  the 
Mexicans  at  Reseca  de  la  Palma,  and 
won  another  victory,  the  American  loss 
being  110  and  the  Mexican  estimated  at 
1000.  Taylor  captured  100  prisoners, 
eight  pieces  of  artillery  and  a large 
quantity  of  military  stores.  On  the  18th 
Taylor  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  and  took 
possession  of  Matamoros,  which  had 
been  evacuated  by  the  retreating  Mexi- 
cans. 

Taylor,  now  promoted  to  be  a major- 
general,  remained  at  Matamoros,  getting 
reinforcements,  which  were  mostly 
volunteers,  and  in  September,  1846, 
marched  to  Monterey.  On  the  19th  the 
army  encamped  before  the  city,  an 
attack  was  begun  on  the  20th,  and  after 
desperate  fighting  Ampudia  surrendered 
the  city  on  the  24th.  An  armistice  of 
eight  weeks,  subject  to  revocation  by 
either  government  at  any  time,  was 
then  agreed  to,  the  Mexicans  being 
allowed  to  take  their  army  out  of  the 
city.  As  Taylor  was  making  prepara- 
tions to  march  against  San  Luis  Potosi, 
orders  came  to  him  which  stripped  him 
of  most  of  his  best  troops,  which  were 
sent  to  Gen.  Scott,  who  was  to  invade 
Mexico  from  Vera  Cruz.  Taylor,  en- 
camped at  Auga  Neva,  near  Saltillo, 
learning  that  Santa  Anna,  who  had  been 
put  in  command  of  the  Mexican  army  in 
the  revolution  which  deposed  President 
Paredes  in  the  summer  of  1846,  and  who 
became  president  in  December  of  that 
year,  was  marching  with  20,000  men  to 
attack  him,  fell  back  a few  miles  to  a 


strong  position  at  Buena  Vista,  with  his 
force  of  5,000,  mostly  volunteers,  who 
had  not  participated  in  any  of  his  bat- 
tles. Here  Taylor  was  assailed  by  Santa 
Anna  on  February  22,  1847,  but  after 
fierce  fighting,  Santa  Anna  retreated. 

This  was  the  end  of  the  fighting  under 
Taylor,  and  closed  the  campaign  in  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  Nevertheless, 
it  gave  Taylor  the  prestige  which  gained 
him  the  presidential  nomination  in  the 
whig  convention  of  1848,  and  the  elec- 
tion in  that  year. 

Two  months  after  Taylor’s  first  bat- 
tle on  the  Rio  Grande,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  prosecute  the  war  on  a larger 
scale,  and  General  Winfield  Scott,  the 
commanding  general  of  the  American 
army,  was  sent  to  invade  Mexico  from 
a base  at  Vera  Cruz.  Vera  Cruz  was 
invested,  and  on  the  refusal  of  the  Mexi- 
can general,  Landaro,  in  command  of 
the  city,  to  capitulate,  Scott  opened 
fire  on  March  22,  and  after  a four  days’ 
terrific  bombardment  the  city  was  sur- 
rendered with  5000  prisoners  and  400 
pieces  of  artillery. 

On  April  8,  1847,  Scott  began  his 
memorable  march  to  the  City  of  Mexico. 
At  a position  of  great  natural  strength 
in  the  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
Scott,  with  8500  men,  encountered 
Santa  Anna  with  12,000  on  April  17, 
stormed  Santa  Anna’s  position  on  the 
18th,  and  captured  3000  prisoners, 
4500  stand  of  arms  and  43  cannon. 
Scott  paroled  his  prisoners,  captured 
Jalape  without  resistance  on  the  19th, 
occupied  Perote,  on  the  summit  of  the 
Cordilleras,  on  the  22d,  and  entered 
Puebla  on  May  15 

The  arrival  of  Gen.  Franklin  Pierce 
with  re-inforcements  of  about  2500 
men  in  August  set  Scott’s  army  again 
in  motion.  On  the  6th  of  that  month  the 
march  on  the  City  of  Mexico  was  re- 
sumed. On  the  20th,  Contreras  and 
Cherubusco  were  captured  after  fierce 
fighting,  3000  prisoners  being  taken,  in- 
cluding eight  generals,  two  being  ex- 
presidents, and  thirty-seven  pieces  of 
artillery.  An  armistice  was  granted  to 
Santa  Anna  on  August  23,  and  Nicholas 
P.  Trist,  a special  commissioner  from 
Polk,  opened  negotiations  with  the 
Mexicans  for  peace.  No  agreement  being 
reached  and  Santa  Anna  utilizing  the 
cessation  of  operations  by  strengthening 
his  fortifications,  Scott  resumed  hos- 
tilities. On  September  8 Molino  del  Rey 
was  stormed  by  Worth,  and  on  the  12th, 
after  a two  days’  battle,  Chapultepec, 
by  Scott,  was  also  carried  by  storm. 

The  Americans  entered  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  the  14th,  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment having  abandoned  it  on  the 
previous  day.  There  were  some  dis- 
turbances in  the  city  on  that  day,  and 
guerrilla  fighting  under  Santa  Anna’s 
direction  afterward,  but  the  general 
result  could  not  be  changed.  On  Feb- 
ruary 2,  1848,  at  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  a 
small  town  near  the  city  of  Mexico,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  by  Trist,  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States,  and  three 
commissioners  representing  Mexico, 
whereby  the  southwest  boundary  of 
Texas  was  fixed  at  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
line  claimed  by  Texas  and  the  United 
States,  and  New  Mexico  and  California 


were  added  to  the  United  States,  for 
which  this  country  paid  $15,000,000  to 
Mexico,  and  assumed  the  pa3rment  of 
claims  amounting  to  $3,250,000  of 
American  citizens  against  Mexico.  The 
American  flag  was  lowered  in  the  city  of 
Mexico  on  June  12,  1848,  and  the  Mexi- 
can flag  was  run  up.  It  was  saluted  by 
the  American  troops,  who  at  once 
marched  out  of  the  city,  and  the  evacu- 
tion  of  Mexico  began.  An  addition  of 
545,783  square  miles  to  the  country’s 
domain  was  made  and  the  boundary  of 
the  United  States  was  advanced  to  the 

MEXTCO,  or  MEJICO  (ma-tii-ko),  a 
republic  of  North  America,  between  the 
United  States  and  Central  America,  and 
having  on  the  east  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
on  the  west  the  Pacific  Ocean ; area 
estimated  at  742,148  sq.  miles.  Nearly 
one-half  of  this  territory  lies  within  the 
torrid  zone,  but  the  peculiar  geological 
structure  of  the  republic,  that  of  an 
elevated  plateau  rising  into  volcanic 
peaks,  supported  by  the  two  branches  of 
the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  the  northeast 
and  northwest,  causes  the  greatest 
diversity  of  climate.  The  largest  river 
is  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  forming 
part  of  the  boundary  with  the  United 
States.  Mexico  is  a country  of  great 
natural  resources.  There  is  a vast 
variety  of  usefid  indigenous  trees  and 
plants,  and  many  others  have  been  in- 
troduced. The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  maize  and  other  corn, 
sisal-hemp,  tropical  fruits,  cotton,  coffee, 
sugar,  tobacco,  indigo,  vanilla,  cochineal, 
etc.  Large  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared, 
especially  in  the  north.  The  chief  in- 
dustries (besides  agriculture  and  mining) 
are  the  manufacture  of  cottons  and 
woolens,  pottery,  tobacco  and  cigars, 
leather,  soap,  sugar-refining,  brewing, 
and  distilling  (principally  from  the 
agave  or  maguey),  etc.  Mexico  is  rich 
in  minerals,  especially  gold  and  silver, 
which  are  far  the  most  valuable  of  the 
exports. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  twenty- 
seven  states;  two  territories;  and  what  is 
called  the  Federal  District,  which  com- 
prises Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  repub- 
lic, and  a small  portion  of  adjoin ing  ter- 
ritory. The  population  in  1908  was  about 
15,000,000.  All  religions  are  tolerated, 
but  no  religious  body  can  own  landed 
property.  Primary  education  is  com- 
pulsory, but  the  law  is  not  strictly  en- 
forced. The  schools  are  supported  partly 
by  the  central  and  partly  by  the  state 
government,  and  partly  by  charitable 
foundations  supported  by  voluntary 
subscriptions.  The  present  form  of  gov- 
ernment is  that  of  a federal  republic, 
each  member  of  which  manages  its  own 
internal  concerns.  The  supreme  execu- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a president,  who 
has  powers  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
president  of  the  United  States.  There  is 
an  army  numbering  on  the  peace  footing 
some  30,000  men.  The  chief  money  unit 
is  the  silver  peso  or  dollar,  nominal 
value  50c. 

Prior  to  1521  Mexico  was  inhabited 
by  an  Aztec  race  and  ruled  by  native 
emperors.  (See  Aztecs.)  This  race  had 
attained  a remarkable  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  interesting  remains  of  their 


MEXICO 

architecture  are  existent  in  the  teocallis 
or  pyramids  of  Cholula,  Pueblo,  and 
Papantla.  In  1521  Mexico  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Spaniards  under  Hernando 
Cortez.  Cortez  called  it  New  Spain, 
and  was  created  captain-general,  but  in 
1535  was  displaced  by  a viceroy.  From 
that  date  till  1821  the  country  was  one 
of  the  viceroyalties  of  Spanish  America, 
and  governed  by  a series  of  viceroys 
possessed  of  almost  absolute-power. 
The  spirit  of  discontent  engendered  by 
the  selfishness  of  the  Spanish  rule  mani- 
fested itself  in  open  rebellion,  when, 
in  1808  the  deposition  of  King  Ferdi- 
nand by  Napoleon  and  the  unsettled  state 
of  affairs  in  Spain  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity. This  rebellion,  begun  by  a priest, 
Hidalgo,  and  continued  with  more  or 
less  vigor  till  1821,  secured  in  that  year 
the  independence  of  Mexico.  After  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  secure  a Bour- 
bon prince  for  the  throne,  Iturbide,  the 
chief  of  the  insurgents,  caused  himself 
to  be  proclaimed  emperor.  May  18,  1822, 
under  the  title  of  Augustin  I.,  but  was 
forced  to  abdicate,  March,  1823.  A new 
form  of  government,  on  federal  repub- 
lican principles,  was  then  established, 
the  constitution  being  adopted  and  pro- 
claimed in  1824.  Since  the  acquisition 
of  its  independence  Mexico  has  had  a 
most  unsettled  history.  The  republican 
form  of  government  has  been  inter- 
rupted by  numerous  dictatorships,  and 
by  the  brief  rule  of  the  Austrian  arch- 
duke Maximilian  as  emperor  from  1864 
till  his  execution  in  1867;  and  till 
recently  there  has  been  almost  incessant 
civil  war.  It  has  also  been  at  war  with 
Spain  (1829),  the  United  States  (1847- 
48),  the  allied  armies  of  Spain,  France, 
and  England  (1861),  and  with  France 
(1862). 

MEXICO,  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Mexico,  is  situated  within  the  state  of 
Mexico  in  the  Federal  district  (461  sq. 
miles),  about  7400  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  near  several  lakes.  It  is  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Tenoch- 
titlan,  which  was  destroyed  on  the  cap- 
ture of  Mexico  by  the  Spaniards  in  1521. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  the  palace  of  government,  the 
college  of  mines,  the  mint,  the  town- 
house,  the  university,  etc.  Mexico  en- 
joys a mild  climate,  and  a pure  and 
healthy  atmosphere.  Pop.  estimated  at 
350,000. 

MEXICO,  one  of  the  states  of  the 
Mexican  republic;  area,  7848  sq.  miles. 
It  lies  in  the  south  of  Mexico,  and  forms 
an  elevated  region,  one  of  the  best  cul- 
tivated and  most  thickly  peopled  part 
of  the  republic.  Its  capital  is  Toluca, 
but  it  embraces  within  its  boundaries 
the  city  and  Federal  District  of  Mexico. 
Pop.  924,457. 

MEXICO,  Gulf  of,  a large  bay  or  gulf 
of  the  Atlantic,  oval  in  form,  and  nearly 
surrounded  by  a continuous  coast  line 
3000  miles  in  length,  of  the  United 
States  and  Meixco;  estimated  area, 
800,000  sq.  miles.  It  gives  name  to  the 
Gulf  Stream,  which  issues  from  it  by 
the  Strait  of  Flordia. 

MEYERBEER  (mi'6r-bar),  Giacomo, 
musical  composer,  born  in  Berlin  1791, 
died  at  Paris  1864.  His  father  was  of 
Jewish  descent.  He  gave  early  proof 


of  his  devotion  to  music,  and  at  nine 
was  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pianists 
in  Berlin.  He  studied  under  Bernhard 
Anselm  Weber  at  Berlin,  and  the  Abbe 
Volger  at  Darmstadt,  wdiere  he  began 
his  life-long  friendship  with  Karl  Maria 
von  Weber.  His  first  two  operas, 
Jephtha’s  Daughter  and  Abimelek,  the 
one  produced  at  Munich  and  the  other 
at  Vienna,  having  failed,  he  went  to 
Italy.  There  he  rapidly  composed  a 
series  of  operas  in  the  Italian  style, 
which  were  generally  well  received : 
In  1826  he  went  to  Paris.  There  he  pro- 
duced Robert  le  Diable  (1831);  Les 
Huguenots  (Paris,  1836) ; Le  ProphSte 
(1849) ; and  L’Africaine  (1865).  In  these 
Parisian  operas  he  ceases  to  be  an 
imitator  of  the  Italians,  and  it  is  upon 
them  that  his  fame  as  a composer  is 
founded.  Besides  his  operas  Meyerbeer 
wrote  a great  number  of  songs,  an 
oratorio,  cantatas,  a Te  Deum,  etc. 

MEZZOTINT,  a particular  manner  of 
engraving  on  copper  or  steel  in  imitation 
of  painting  in  Indian  ink,  the  lights  and 
gradations  being  scraped  and  burnished 
out  of  a prepared  dark  ground.  The 
surface  of  the  plate  is  first  completely 
covered  with  minute  incisions,  so  that  it 
would  give  in  this  condition  a uniform 
black  impression.  The  design  is  then 
drawn  on  the  face,  and  the  dents  are 
erased  from  the  parts  where  the  lights  of 
the  piece  are  to  be,  the  parts  which  are 
to  represent  shades  being  left  untouched 
or  partially  scraped  according  to  the 
depth  of  tone. 

MIAMA  (mi-a'mi),  a river  of  the 
United  States,  in  Ohio,  joining  the  Ohio 
below  Cincinnati;  length  150  miles. 

MIASMA.  See  Malaria. 

MICA,  a mineral  of  a foliated  struc- 
ture, consisting  of  thin  flexible  laminae 
or  scales,  having  a shining,  pearly,  and 
almost  metallic  luster.  These  are  some- 
times parallel,  sometimes  interwoven, 
sometimes  wavy  or  undulated,  some- 
times representing  filaments.  The 
laminae  of  mica  are  easily  separated, 
and  are  sometimes  not  more  than  the 
300,000th  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
The  plates  are  sometimes  as  large  as  36 
inches  diameter.  They  are  employed  in 
Russia  for  window  panes,  and  in  that 
state  are  called  muscovy-glass.  Mica 
enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
crystalline  rocks,  as  granite,  gneiss, 
mica  schists,  chlorites,  talcose  rocks 
and  occurs  in  trappean  and  volcanic 
products.  It  is  found  also  in  many  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  as  shales  and  sandstones, 
giving  them  their  laminated  texture. 
In  the  latter  case,  it  is  derived  from  the 
disintegration  of  the  crystalline  rocks. 
It  is  essentially  a silicate  of  alumina, 
with  which  are  variously  combined 
small  proportions  of  the  silicates  of 
potash,  soda,  lithia,  oxide  of  iron,  oxide 
of  manganese,  etc.,  in  accordance  with 
which  several  species  have  been  con- 
stituted, as  common  or  potash  mica, 
lithia  mica,  magnesia  mica,  pearl  mica. 
Regarded  as  minerals,  varieties  of  mica 
have  received  the  names  of  biotite, 
lepidolite, muscovite,  lepidomelane,  stea- 
tite, etc. 

MICACEOUS  ROCKS,  rocks  of  which 
mica  is  the  chief  ingredient,  as  mica  slate 
and  clay  slate. 


MICHIGAN  t 

MICAH,  the  sixth  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets, a member  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
He  prophesied  in  the  reigns  of  Jotham, 
Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  and  was  a con- 
temporary of  Isaiah.  His  style  is  pure 
and  correct,  his  images  bold  and  vivid. 

MICA  SCHIST,  MICA  SLATE,  a meta- 
morphic  rock,  composed  of  mica  and 
quartz ; it  is  highly  fissile  and  passes  by 
insensible  gradations  into  clay-slate. 

MICHAEL,  St.  (Hebrew,  “he  who  is 
equal  to  God”),  in  Jewish  theosophy,  the 
greatest  of  the  angels  (Daniel  x.  13,  21j 
xii.  1),  one  of  the  seven  archangels.  In 
the  New  Testament  he  is  spoken  of  as 
the  guardian  angel  of  the  church  (Jude, 
ver.  9;  Rev.  xii.  7).  There  is  a festival 
of  St.  Michael  and  All  Angels  in  the 
Western  Church,  held  on  29th  Septem- 
ber. (See  Michaelmas.) — The  order  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George  is  a British 
order  of  knighthood  dating  from  1818. 
It  consists  of  Knights  Grand  Cross*(G.C. 
M.G.),  Knights  Commanders  (K.C.M.G.) 
and  Companions  (C.M.G.).  The  ribbon 
of  the  order  is  blue  with  a red  stripe 
down  the  center.  The  badge  is  a white 
star  of  seven  double  rays,  having  in  the 
center  a representation  of  St.  Michael 
overcoming  Satan. 

MICHAEL,  St.  or  SAG  MIGUEL,  the 

largest  of  the  Azores,  famous  for  the  pro- 
duction of  oranges  and  lemons,  of  which 
it  exports  120,000  boxes  annually.  The 
population  is  about  115,000;  capital, 
Ponta  Delgado. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO.  See  Buonarotti. 

MICHAELMAS,  the  feast  of  St. 
Michael  the  Archangel  (see  Michael,  St.). 
It  falls  on  the  29th  of  September,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  established  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  5th  century. 

MICHIGAN  (mish'i-gan),  one  of  the 
north-central  United  States;  area, 58,915 
sq.  miles.  It  consists  of  two  separate 
peninsulas — one  projecting  eastward 
between  Lakes  Superior,  Huron,  and 
Michigan,  and  bounded  inland  by  AVis- 
consin ; the  other  projecting  northward 
between  Lakes  Michigan,  Huron,  St, 
Clair,  and  Erie,  and  bounded  on  the 


Seal  of  Michigan. 


south  by  Ohio  and  Indiana.  It  has  up- 
ward of  1100  miles  of  lake-coast,  with 
numerous  bays  and  excellent  harbors 
The  northwestern  peninsula,  occupying 
nearly  a third  of  the  whole  surface,  is 
comparatively  elevated,  and  presents  a 
succession  of  mountains  an(l  lakes, 
plains,  rivers,  and  forests.  The  surface 


MICHIGAN 


MICROMETER 


of  the  other  peninsula  is  gently  undulat- 
ing, and  rises  gradually  from  the  lakes 
toward  its  center.  It  is  mostly  covered 
with  fine  forests  of  timber,  interspersed 
with  plains  and  prairies.  Agriculture  is 
the  staple  industry,  the  chief  cereals 
being  wheat  and  Indian  corn.  The  re- 
maining crops  include  barley,  buck- 
wheat, rye,  hay,  potatoes,  tobacco,  hops, 
etc.  After  agriculture,  lumbering  is  per- 
haps the  chief  employment.  The  culti- 
vation of  fruit-trees  is  receiving  in- 
creasing attention,  and  considerable 
quantities  of  apples  and  peaches  are  now 
exported.  The  mines  in  the  northwest- 
ern peninsula  produce  haematite  ore, 
from  which  is  obtained  great  quantities 
of  excellent  iron;  and  here  also  are 
seated  very  rich  copper  mines.  Salt  of 
unsurpassed  purity  occurs  in  a basin 
extending  over  8000  sq.  miles.  Manu- 
facturing industries  are  varied  and  im- 
portant. The  important  commerce  of 
the  state  is  greatly  benefited  by  its  large 
navigable  waters  and  by  its  extensive 
system  of  railways,  which  measure  some 
7500  miles.  The  capital  is  Lansing,  but 
the  commercial  metropolis  and  much 
the  largest  city  is  Detroit,  Grand  Rapids 
being  next  in  size.  In  the  primary  schools 
education  is  free,  but  a fee  may  be  re- 
quired for  advanced  studies  in  higher 
schools.  At  the  head  of  the  educational 
institutions  is  the  Michigan  University, 
situated  at  Ann  Arbor.  Remains  of 
ancient  mines  and  mining  implements 
have  been  found  within  the  present 
limits  of  the  state.  The  white  discoverers 
and  first  settlers  were  French  mission- 
aries and  fur  traders,  some  of  whom 
visited  the  site  of  Detroit  as  early  as 
1610.  In  1641  French  Jesuits  found 
their  way  to  the  falls  of  the  Saint  Mary. 
The  first  actual  settlement  by  Europeans 
within  the  limits  of  the  state  was  the 
mission  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie,  founded 
by  Father  Marquette  and  others  in 
1668.  Three  years  later  Michilimacki- 
nac  (now  Mackinac)  was  established. 
In  1679  and  1686  forts  were  built  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Joseph,  and  at  the 
outlet  of  Lake  Huron,  and  in  1701 
Antoine  de  la  Mothe-Cadillac  founded 
Detroit.  The  territory,  with  other 
French  possessions,  fell  into  the  hands 
ol  the  English  at  the  end  of  the  French 
and  Indian  war.  Detroit  was  occupied 
in  1763,  but  early  in  May  of  that  year 
the  Indians,  loyal  to  the  French,  rose 
under  Pontiac,  massacred  the  garrison 
at  Mackinac,  and  besieged  Detroit  for 
about  five  months.  During  the  revolu- 
tion Detroit  was  the  starting  point  for 
many  Indian  expeditions  which  laid 
waste  the  American  frontier.  After 
1784  the  Indians  of  the  northwest, 
deeming  themselves  unjustly  treated 
by  the  Americans,  waged  a bloody  war- 
fare against  the  western  settlements 
till  they  were  brought  to  terms  by 
General  Wayne  in  1795.  By  the  treaty 
of  peace  concluded  in  that  year,  they 
ceded  large  tracts  of  land  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michi- 
gan and  in  the  north  to  the  LTnited 
States.  On  June  30,  1805,  Michigan  was 
set  off  as  a separate  territory,  with  sub- 
stantially its  present  limits,  and  Gen. 
William  Hull  was  appointed  governor. 
During  the  war  of  1812  the  inhabitants 


were  harassed  by  the  British  and  In- 
dians; Mackinac  was  captured  by  the 
British;  Detroit  was  surrendered  by 
Governor  Hull;  and  at  Frenchtown,  in 
1813,  a number  of  American  prisoners 
of  war  were  massacred  by  the  Indians. 
In  1819  the  territory  was  authorized  to 
send  a delegate  to  congress,  and  in  1823 
the  system  of  rule  by  a governor  and 
three  judges  was  replaced  by  that  of  a 
governor  and  a council  of  nine,  selected 
from  eighteen  chosen  by  the  people; 
in  1825  the  council  was  increased  to 
thirteen,  and  after  1827  the  members 
were  elected  by  popular  vote.  In  1835 
a state  constitution  was  adopted  by  a 
convention  called  for  that  purpose,  but 
the  admission  of  Michigan  into  the 
Union  was  delayed  by  a dispute  with 
Ohio  concerning  a strip  of  land  on  the 
southern  boundary.  There  was  dd-nger 
that  the  dispute  would  lead  to  blood- 
shed, but  in  1836  congress  agreed  to 
admit  Michigan  upon  condition  that 
she  should  surrender  her  claim  to  the 
disputed  territory  and  accept  in  lieu 
thereof  a larger  area  in  the  Upper  Penin- 
sula. The  first  convention  called  to  con- 
sider this  proposal,  January  26,  1836, 
rejected  it,  but  it  was  accepted  by  a 
second  in  December,  1836,  and  on 
January  26,  1837,  Michigan  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union. 

The  opening  of  the  Erie  canal  (1825) 
poured  a vast  stream  of  immigration 
into  Michigan.  The  first  bank  was  estab- 
lished at  Detroit  in  1818,  and  by  1837 
there  were  fifteen  such  institutions. 
The  state  undertook  the  building  of 
three  railways  across  the  Lower  Penin- 
sula, but  after  running  greatly  into  debt 
was  forced  in  1846  to  sell  them.  In 
1847  the  capital  was  removed  from 
Detroit  to  Lansing.  Legislation  after  the 
civil  war  was  concerned  largely  with  the 
taxation  of  corporations.  In  1889  the 
Australian  ballot  was  adopted.  A fac- 
tory inspection  act  was  enacted  in  1894, 
and  a stringent  anti-trust  law  in  1S99. 
Michigan  has  consistently  supported  the 
republican  party  since  its  formation, 
except  for  three  lapses — in  1882  and 
1883,  when  the  democrats  and  green- 
back party  in  fusion  elected  their  can- 
didate for  governor,  and  in  1890,  when 
the  democrats  alone  carried  the  state. 
Pop.  2,875,000. 

MICHIGAN,  Lake,  the  second  largest 
of  the  great  lakes  of  North  America. 
It  is  wholly  within  the  United  States, 
having  the  state  of  Michigan  on  the  east 
and  northwest,  Wisconsin  and  Illinois 
on  the  west,  and  Indiana  on  the  south. 
On  the  northeast  it  communicates 
with  Lake  Huron  by  the  narrow  strait 
of  Mackinaw.  It  is  350  miles  long,  and 
on  an  average  60  miles  broad;  area, 
estimated  at  26,000  sq.  miles.  The  lake 
is  578  feet  above  sea-level;  the  greatest 
ascertained  depth  is  about  1000  feet. 

MICHIGAN  CITY,  a city  in  Laporte 
CO.,  Ind.,  56  miles  east  of  Chicago,  111.; 
on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  Lake 
Erie  and  Western,  the  Chicago,  Indian- 
apolis and  Louisville,  and  the  Michigan 
Central  railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
northern  Indiana  state  prison,  and  has  a 
United  States  life-saving  station.  There 
are  good  transportation  facilities,  to 
which  are  du(  the  city’s  large  commer- 


cial interests,  the  trade  being  principally 
in  lumber,  salt,  and  iron  ore.  The  manu- 
factures of  railroad  cars,  chairs,  hosiery, 
and  knit  goods,  lumber  and  products  of 
lumber  are  important.  Pop.  17,620. 

MICHIGAN  STATE  AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE  a coeducational  state  insti- 
tution at  Lansing,  Mich.,  the  oldest 
institution  of  its  kind  in  the  country. 
It  was  established  in  pursuance  of  a 
constitutional  provision  in  1855,  and 
was  opened  in  1857.  There  are  three 
courses,  agricultural,  mechanical,  and 
women’s  or  domestic  science.  Farmers’ 
institutes  are  carried  on  annually  in 
each  county  of  the  state. 

MICHIGAN,  University  of,  a coeduca- 
tional state  institution  at  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.,  chartered  in  1837.  The  institution 
was  opened  in  1841,  graduating  its  first 
class  in  1845.  It  is  intended  primarily 
for  the  higher  education  of  residents  of 
the  state,  but  receives  students  from  all 
parts  of  the  country  on  payment  of  a 
small  tuition  fee.  The  governing  body  is 
a board  of  regents,  elected  for  terms  of 
eight  years.  The  university  is  organized 
in  seven  departments:  literature,  sci- 
ences, and  the  arts,  engineering,  medi- 
cine and  surgery,  law,  pharmacy,  the 
Homoeopathic  Medical  College,  and 
the  College  of  Dental  Surgery.  Each 
department  has  its  special  faculty,  with 
representation  on  the  University  Senate, 
which  considers  questions  of  common 
interest.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  science, 
and  law;  civil,  mechanical,  and  electri- 
cal engineer;  and  doctor  of  philosophy, 
science,  medicine,  dental  surgery,  and 
dental  science.  The  university  was  a 
pioneer  in  coeducation,  women  having 
first  been  admitted  in  1870.  They  now 
constitute  about  one-fifth  of  the  student 
body.  Coeducation  at  the  university 
has  been  uniformly  successful.  Entrance 
is  based  upon  examination  or  upon  cer- 
tificates from  accredited  schools.  The 
university  has  no  dormitories  and  no 
commons.  Recent  extension  of  the 
elective  system  has  resulted  in  a con- 
siderable loss  in  the  choice  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  mathematics,  and  a marked 
gain  in  the  modern  languages. 

MICHOACAN',  one  of  the  states  of 
Mexico,  on  the  Pacific  Coast;  area, 
25,689  sq.  miles.  It  has  rich  mines  of 
gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals.  Capital 
Morelia.  Pop.  930,033. 

MICKIEWICZ  (mits-kya'vich),  Adam, 
Polish  poet;  born  1798,  died  1855.  He 
wrote  several  epics,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  chief  national  poet  of  his  country. 

MICMACS,  a tribe  of  North  American 
Indians,  mostly  inhabiting  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Nova  Scotia,  and  numbering 
some  3600.  Their  language  has  been 
reduced  to  writing,  and  a dictionary 
of  it  has  been  compiled. 

MICROM'ETER,  an  instrument  used 
with  a telescope  or  microscope,  for 
measuring  very  small  distances.  Microm- 
eters are  variously  constructed;  but 
in  perhaps  the  most  common  form 
(the  filar  micrometer)  the  principle  of 
operation  is  that  the  instrument  moves 
a fine  thread  or  wire  parallel  to  itself 
in  the  plane  of  the  image  of  an  object, 
formed  in  the  focus  of  a telescope,  the 
wire  or  thread  being  moved  by  means  of 


MICROPHONE 

delicate  screws  with  graduated  heads, 
60  that  the  distance  traversed  by  the 
wire  can  be  measured  with  the  greatest 
precision.  The  micrometer  is  of  the 
utmost  value  to  the  astronomer,  and 
in  trigonometrical  surveys,  and  military 
and  naval  operations. 

MICROPHONE,  an  instrument  to 
make  faint  sounds  more  audible.  The 
most  sensitive  conductor  of  sound  is 
willow-charcoal,  dipped  when  at  white- 
heat  into  a bath  of  mercury.  A piece  of 
charcoal,  thus  prepared,  placed  vertical- 
ly between  two  carbon-blocks  which  are 
connected  with  a telephone,  is  a com- 
mon form  of  microphone,  and  magnifies 
sounds,  otherwise  inaudible, enormously. 

MICROSC9PE,  an  optical  instru- 
ment consisting  of  a lens  or  combination 
of  lenses  (in  some  cases  mirrors  also) 
which  magnifies  objects  and  thus  ren- 
ders visible  minute  objects  that  can- 
not be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  or  en- 
larges the  apparent  magnitude  of 
small  visible  bodies,  so  as  to  enable  us  to 
examine  their  minute  texture  or  struc- 
ture. For  a good  microscope  an  achro- 
matic combination  of  lenses  to  form  an 
object-glass  and  a well-made  eye-piece 
are  necessary.  The  magnifying  power 
of  an  instrument  may  be  increased  by 
(1)  increasing  the  magnifying  power  of 
the  object-glassg  (2)  increasing  the 


Compound  microscope. 


power  of  the  eye-piece;  (3)  increasing 
the  distance  between  the  objective  and 
the  eye-piece.  The  simplest  form  of 
microscope  is  nothing  more  than  a lens 
or  sphere  of  any  transparent  substance, 
in  the  focus  of  which  minute  objects  are 
placed.  When  a microscope  consists  of 
two  or  more  lenses,  one  of  which  forms 
an  enlarged  image  of  objects,  while  the 
rest  magnify  that  image,  it  is  called  a 
compound  microscope.  A binocular 
microscope  is  a miscroscope  with  two 
tubes  starting  from  a point  above  the 


object-glass,  which  is  simple,  and 
gradually  diverging  to  fit  the  eyes  of  the 
observer.  The  rays  of  light  arising  from 
the  object  under  observation  are  caused 
to  diverge  into  the  two  tubes  by  a prism. 
A solar  microscope  has  a reflector  and  a 
condenser  connected  with  it,  the  former 
being  employed  to  throw  the  sun’s  rays 
on  the  latter,  by  which  it  is  condensed 
to  illuminate  the  object  placed  in  its 
focus.  A lucernal  microscope  is  the 
same  in  principle  as  the  solar,  except 
that  a lamp  is  used,  instead  of  the  sun, 
to  illuminate  the  object.  When  an 
oxyhydrogen  lime-light  is  used  it  is 
called  an  oxyhydrogen  microscope. 

The  magnifying  power  of  a micro- 
scope varies  inversely  with  the  size  of 
the  objective,  the  smaller  the  objective 
the  larger  being  the  magnification. 
In  looking  into  a compound  microscope 
the  observer  sees  only  two  dimensions — 
length  and  breadth.  Magnification,  there- 
fore, is  expressed  in  diameters,  or  areas. 
An  object  which  is  magnified  1,000 
diameters  is  really  magnified  1,000,000 
times,  that  is,  1,000]  X 1,000  times,  1,000 
being  the  diameter 'of  the  magnification. 
The  highest  power  lenses  magnify  2,800 
to  3,000  diameters.  High  powers  lose 
in  definition,  so  that  often  a lower 
power  will  show  more  detail  than  a 
higher. 

MICROTASIM'ETER,  an  instrument 
for  measuring  extremely  small  varia- 
tions, in  the  expansion  or  contraction 
caused  by  heat,  moisture,  etc.  It  has 
been  used  by  astronomers  to  indicate 
the  altered  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
sun  during  an  eclipse  or  when  the  at- 
mosphere is  filled  with  moisture. 

MIDAS,  in  Greek  mythology,  king  of 
Phrygia,  whose  request  that  whatsoever 
he  touched  should  turn  to  gold  was 
granted  by  the  god  Dionysus  (Bacchus). 
In  this  way  even  his  food  became  gold, 
and  it  was  not  until  he  had  bathed  in 
the  Pactolus  that  the  fatal  gift  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  river.  Another  legend  is 
that,  in  a musical  contest  between  Pan 
and  Apollo,  Midas,  who  was  umpire, 
decided  in  favor  of  the  former;  where- 
upon the  angry  Apollo  bestowed  upon 
the  presumptuous  critic  a pair  of  ass’s 
ears. 

MIDDLE  AGES,  a term  applied 
loosely  to  that  period  in  European 
history  which  lies  between  the  ancient 
and  modern  c’vilizations.  With  some 
writers  the  period  began  when  the 
western  Roman  Empire  was  over- 
thrown by  Odoacer  in  476;  with  others 
when  Charlemagne  was  crowned  em- 
peror of  the  West  in  800;  while  yet 
others  make  it  begin  when  the  Frankish 
Empire  ended  in  843.  The  end  of  the 
period  is  variously  conceived  to  have 
closed  with  the  Reformation  in  Ger- 
many; with  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus;  with  the  invention  of 
printing;  and  with  rhe  end  of  the 
Thirty  Years’  war  in  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648).  The  outstanding  political 
events  of  Middle  Ages  include  the  rise 
of  the  German,  French,  and  Italian 
nationalities;  the  rise  of  the  Norman 
power,  and  the  conquest  of  England  by 
William  of  Normandy;  the  crusades; 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Holy 
Roman  (or  German)  Empire.  The  two 
most  characteristic  uiititutions  which 


MIDWIFERY 

grew  up  into  widespread  power  during 
the  Middle  Ages  were  the  feudal  system 
(which  see),  the  monastic  institutions 
and  the  power  of  the  papal  hierarchy. 

MIDDLESBROUGH,  a river  port  and 
mun.,  pari.,  and  county  borough  of 
England.  Pop.  91,300. 

MIDDLESEX,  the  metropolitan  coun- 
ty of  England,  one  of  the  smallest  in 
the  kingdom,  but  among  the  most 
important,  from  its  containing  the 
greater  portion  of  the  city  of  London; 
area,  181,317  acres.  Pop.  3,585,139. 

MIDDLETOWN,  a city  (settled  in 
1650,  incorporated  in  1784);  formerly  a 
port  of  entry,  and  one  of  the  county- 
seats  of  Middlesex  co..  Conn.;  on  the 
Connecticut  river  opposite  Portland, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  iron 
railway  bridge,  and  on  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H., 
and  Hart,  railroad;  15  miles  s.  of  Hart- 
ford, 24  miles  n.e.  of  New  Haven.  Pop. 
11,310. 

MIDDLETOWN,  a city  in  Orange  co., 
N.  Y.,  on  the  Wallkill  river,  and  the 
Erie,  the  N.  Y.,  Ont.  and  W.,  and  the 
N.  Y.,  Sus.  and  West,  railways;  24 
miles  w.s.w.  of  Newburg,  66  miles  n.n.w. 
of  New  York.  It  is  in  an  agricultural 
and  dairy  region,  is  the  seat  of  the  New 
York  Homoeopathic  Hospital  for  the 
insane.  Pop.  17,315. 

MIDDLETOWN,  a city  in  Butler  co., 
Ohio,  on  the  Miami  river,  and  the  Cin., 
Ham.  and  Day.,  the  Cleve.,  Cin.,  Chi, 
and  St.  L.,  the  Cin.  and  Day.,  and  the 
Middle,  and  Day.  railways;  32  miles  n. 
of  Cincinnati.  There  are  paper-mills, 
tobacco  factories,  paper-bag  factories, 
foundry,  planing-mill,  and  flour-mills. 
Pop.  11,140. 

MIDGE,  the  ordinary  name  given 
to  numerous  minute  species  of  flies,  re- 
sembling the  common  gnat.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  in  water,  where  they 
undergo  metamorphosis. 

MIDHAT  PASHA,  a Turkish  states- 
man, born  1822,  died  1884.  He  was 
educated  in  Constantinople;  entered 
the  Turkish  civil  service;  attracted 
attention  by  his  administrative  capac- 
ity; became  governor  of  Bulgaria  in 
1862,  and  was  ultimately  in  1876  created 
grand  vizier.  In  this  position  he  was 
supreme  in  the  palace,  and  caused 
Abdul  Aziz  and  Murad  V.  to  be  deposed. 
In  the  following  year,  however,  he  was 
himself  banished;  and  in  1881,  after 
a judicial  investigation  into  the  murder 
of  Adbul  Aziz,  he  was  condemned  and 
exiled  to  Arabia,  where  he  died. 

MIDIANITES,  an  Arabian  tribe,  repre- 
sented in  the  Old  Testament  as  the 
descendants  of  Midian,  son  of  Abraham 
by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv.2),  and  described 
as  engaged  at  an  early  period  in 
commerce  with  Egypt.  They  dwelt  in 
the  land  of  Moab  (Arabia  Petraea),  to 
the  southeast  of  Canaan.  One  portion  of 
them  inhabited  the  country  on  the  east 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

MIDNAPUR,  an  administrative  dis- 
trict of  Bengal,  with  an  area  of  5082  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  2,517,802. 

MIDRASH,  is  the  general  name  given 
among  the  Jews  to  the  exposition  of  the 
hidden  meaning  of  the  Scriptures.  It 
includes  any  and  every  ancient  expo- 
sition on  the  law,  psalms,  and  prophets. 

MIDWIFERY,  a branch  of  medicine  or 


MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS 


MILITARY  ACADEMY 


surgery,  also  called  obstetrics,  being  the 
art  of  aiding  and  facilitating  childbirth, 
and  of  providing  for  the  preservation  of 
the  health  and  life  of  the  mother  during 
and  after  her  delivery. 

MIGRATION  OF  ANIMALS,  the  phe- 
nomenon of  certain  animals  moving, 
either  periodically  or  at  irregular  times 
and  seasons,  from  one  locality  or  region 
to  another,  sometimes  far  distant. 
Migration  has  been  observed  in  mam- 
mals, birds,  fishes,  and  insects,  but  it 
probably  occurs  in  other  groups  of  the 
animal  world,  the  observation  of  which 
is  less  easy  than  that  of  the  higher  forms. 
The  buffaloes  or  bisons  of  North  America 
used,  it  would  seem,  to  migrate  in  herds 
from  one  place  to  another.  Many  fishes 
(for  example  salmon,  lampreys,  etc.) 
make  periodical  journeys  from  the  sea 
toward  fresh-water  streams  and  'rivers 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs. 
The  migratory  habits  of  locusts,  and 
those  of  certain  species  of  ants,  etc., 
exemplify  migration  among  insects;  but 
among  the  birds  we  meet  with  the  best- 
marked  instances  of  migration.  With 
sea-birds  (for  example,  puffins),  the  day 
of  arrival  or  that  on  which  they  appear 
in  certain  localities  may  be  prognosti- 
cated with  perfect  safety;  and  similarly, 
the  day  of  departure  appears  in  some 
birds  vfor  example,  swifts),  to  be  almost 
as  accurately  timed.  Storks  have  been 
known  to  return  regularly  to  their  old 
nests,  and  the  same  has  been  observed 
of  swallows.  The  mode  in  which  birds 
migrate  varies  greatly  even  in  the  same 
species  of  bird.  The  swallows  migrate 
in  bodies  comprising  vast  numbers,  and 
so  also  do  cranes,  wild  ducks,  geese,  and 
many  other  forms.  The  migratory  flight 
is  generally  made  against  the  wind;  and 
certain  species  of  birds,  as  quails  for 
instance,  appear  to  wait  for  favoring 
winds,  and  to  delay  their  flight  by  rest- 
ing on  islands  when  the  wind  is  un- 
favorable. Regarding  the  causes  of 
migration,  science  cannot  at  present 
definitely  pronounce.  Probably  a com- 
bination of  causes,  or  different  causes 
in  different  cases,  as  scarcity  or  plenty 
of  food-supply,  the  powerful  influences 
of  temperature,  and  the  influence  of  the 
breeding-season,  may  contribute  to  the 
migratory  “instinct.”  It  has  been  fur- 
ther suggested  by  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace, 
that  this  migratory  habit  or  instinct 
has  gradually  been  acquired  since  a time 
when  the  breeding  and  feeding  grounds 
of  the  animals  were  coincident,  these 
having  been  gradually  separated  by 
climatic  and  geological  changes. 

MIKADO  (mi-ka'do),  the  emperor  of 
Japan,  the  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal 
head  of  the  empire.  See  Japan. 

MIL'AN,  a city  of  Northern  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  its  own  name. 
The  city  is  entered  by  eleven  gates, 
several  of  which  are  magnificent.  The 
chief  open  space  is  the  Piazza  d’Armi 
(Place  of  Arms),  part  of  which  has  been 
made  into  an  amphitheater  capable  of 
containing  30,000  spectators.  The 
castle,  now  a barrack,  fronts  the  Piazza 
d’Armi  on  one  side;  at  the  opposite  side 
is  the  Porta  Sempione  with  the  fine  Arco 
Sempione  or  Arco  della  Pace,  built  of 
white  marble.  The  Piazza  del  Duomo,in 
front  of  the  cathedral,  is  the  center  of 


the  traffic  of  Milan.  Among  the  public 
edifices  the  first  place  belongs  to  the 
Duomo  or  cathedral,  a magnificent 
structure,  inferior  only  in  size  to  St. 
Peter’s  at  Rome  and  the  cathedral  of 
Seville.  It  was  begun  in  1386,  and  was 


Milan— The  Cathedral,  from  the  Corso  Vlttorla 
Emanuele. 

only  completed  in  1805.  There  are  many 
other  fine  edifices,  among  them  being 
Palazzo  di  Brera  or  Delle  Scienze  Lettere 
ed  Arte,  containing  the  picture-gallery 
and  the  library  of  the  academy  (200,- 
000  vols.) ; and  the  Ambrosian  Library, 
the  earliest,  and  still  one  of  the  most 
valuable  public  libraries  in  Europe. 
The  chief  theater  is  La  Scala,  accom- 
modating 3600  spectators.  The  manu- 
factures include  silks,  cottons,  lace, 
carpets,  hats,  earthenware,  jewelry,  etc. 
Pop.,  including  suburbs,  491,460. 

MILDEW,  a name  given  to  various 
minute  parasitic  fungi  producing  a state 
of  disease  or  decay  in  living  and  dead 
vegetable  matter,  and  in  some  manu- 
factured products  of  vegetable  matter, 
such  as  cloth  and  paper.  Numerous 
cultivated  crops,  fruit-trees,  etc.,  suffer 
from  mildew. 

MILE,  a measure  of  length  or  distance, 
and  used  as  an  itinerary  measure  in 
almost  all  countries  of  Europe.  The 
English  statute  mile  contains  8 furlongs, 
each  40  poles  or  perches,  of  yards. 
The  statute  mile  is  therefore  1760  yards, 
or  5280  feet.  It  is  also  80  surveying 
chains,  of  22  yards  each.  The  square 
mile  is  6400  square  chains,  or  640  acres. 
The  Roman  mile  was  1000  paces,  each 
5 feet;  and  a Roman  foot  Being  equal 
to  11.62  modern  English  inches,  it 
follows  that  the  ancient  Roman  mile 
was  equal  to  1614  English  yards,  or  very 
nearly  H^bs  of  an  English  statute  mile. 
The  ancient  Scottish  mile  was  1984 
yards  = 1.127  English  miles;  the  Irish 
mile,  2240  yards  = 1.273  English  miles; 
the  German  short  mile  is  3.897  English 
miles,  the  German  long  mile  5.753.  The 
geographical  or  nautical  mile  is  the 
sixtieth  part  of  a degree  of  latitude,  or 
2028  yards  nearly. 

MILES,  Nelson  j^pleton,  American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Westminster,  Mass., 


in  1839.  He  served  in  the  battle  of 
Fredericksburg,  was  wounded  at  Chan- 
cellorsville,  and  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paign before  Richmond  in  1864.  In 
July,  1866,  he  was  appointed  colonel, 
fortieth  infantry,  regular  army;  and  on 
March  2,  1867,  he  was  bre vetted  briga- 
dier and  major-general,  U.  S.  A.,  for 
bravery  atChancellorsvilleand  Spottsyl- 
vania.  During  the  succeeding  year 
General  Miles’  chief  service  was  against 
the  Indians  in  the  west.  In  1886  he  made 
a campaign  against  the  Apaches  and 
compelled  their  chiefs,  Geronimo  and 
Natchez,  to  surrender.  In  1890  he  be- 
came a major-general,  and  in  1895,  he 
became  the  commanding  general  of  the 
army.  In  1897  he  represented  the  United 
States  army  at  Queen  Victoria’s  jubilee. 
During  the  war  of  1898  against  Spain 
he  directed  in  person  the  occupation  of 
Porto  Rico.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general  in  February,  1901, 
in  "pursuance  of  an  act  of  congress  of 
June  6,  1900.  In  1902-03  he  made  a- 
tour  of  inspection  in  the  Philippine 
Islands. 

MILESIANS,  a name  sometimes  given 
to  natives  of  Ireland,  a portion  of  whose 
inhabitants,  according  to  Irish  tradition 
or  legend,  are  descended  from  Milesius, 
a fabulous  king  of  Spain,  whose  two  sons 
conquered  the  island  1300  years  before 
Christ,  establishing  a new  nobility. 

MILHAU  (me-yo).  See  Millau. 

MILITARY  LAW.  See  Martial  Law. 

MILITARY  ORDERS.  See  Orders 
(Military). 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes — regimental  schools, 
which  give  training  in  the  ordinary 
branches  of  education  to  soldiers  and 
their  children;  and  schools  which  are 
intended  to  prepare  pupils  for  the  duties 
of  military  service.  The  Royal  Academy 
at  Woolwich  gives  instruction  in  the 
special  duties  of  the  artillery  and  engi- 
neer branch  of  the  service;  the  college 
at  Sandhurst  for  infantry  and  cavalry; 
and  the  Greenwich  Naval  college  for 
marine  artillery.  Schools  for  practical 
instruction  to  officers  and  men  are  also 
established:  for  gunnery,  at  Shoebury- 
ness;  for  military  engineering,  at  Chat- 
ham ; for  musketry,  at  Hythe ; for  army 
surgeons,  at  Netley;  and  there  are  also 
establishments  for  the  education  of 
officers  of  the  regular  army  and  of  the 
auxiliary  forces  in  the  advanced  bran- 
ches of  their  profession  in  all  the  large 
garrison  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
Similar  institutions  exist  in  all  European 
countries,  in  the  United  States  (the 
Military  Academy,  West  Point),  and  in 
Canada,  where  there  is  a military  col- 
lege at  Kingston,  and  eight  military 
schools  in  the  different  provinces. 

MILITARY  ACADEMY,  United  States, 
at  West  Point.  Each  senator,  congres- 
sional district,  and  territory — also  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Porto  Rico  and 
Alaska — is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet  at 
the  academy.  There  are  also  forty  ap- 
pointments at  large,  specially  conferred 
by  the  president  of  the  United  States. 
The  number  of  students  is  thus  limited 
to  523. 

Appointments  are  usually  made  one 
year  in  advance  of  date  of  admission,  by 
the  secretary  of  war,  upon  the  nomina- 


MILITARY  SERVICE 


MILITIA 


tion  of  the  senator  or  representative. 
These  nominations  may  either  be  ma  d 
after  competitive  examination  or  given 
direct,  at  the  option  of  the  representa- 
tive. The  representative  may  nominate 
two  legally  qualified  second  candidates, 
to  be  designated  alternates.  The  alter- 
nates will  receive  from  the  war  depart- 
ment a letter  of  appointment,  and  will 
be  examined  with  the  regular  appointee, 
and  the  best  qualified  will  be  admitted 
to  the  academy  in  the  event  of  the  fail- 
ure of  the  principal  to  pass  the  pre- 
scribed preliminary  examinations.  Ap- 

Eointees  to  the  Military  Academy  must 
e between  seventeen  and  twenty-two 
years  of  age,  free  from  any  infirmity 
which  may  render  them  unfit  for  mili- 
tary service,  and  able  to  pass  a careful 
examination  in  reading,  writing,  spell- 
ing, English  grammar,  English  com- 
position, English  literature,  arithmetic, 
algebra  through  quadratic  equations, 
plane  geometry,  descriptive  geography 
and  the  elements  of  physical  geography, 
especially  the  geography  of  the  United 
States,  United  States  history,  the  out- 
lines of  general  history,  and  the  general 
principles  of  physiology  and  hygiene;  or 
in  lieu  thereof  to  submit  a certificate  of 
graduation  from  a public  high  school  or 
state  normal  school,  or  a certificate  that 
the  candidate  is  a regular  student  of  an 
incorporated  college  or  university. 

The  course  of  instruction,  which  is 
quite  thorough,  requires  four  years,  and 
is  largely  mathematical  and  professional. 
The  principal  subjects  taught  are  mathe- 
matics, English,  French,  drawing,  drill 
regulations  of  all  arms  of  the  service, 
natural  and  experimental  philosophy, 
chemistry,  chemical  physics,  mineralogy, 
geology,  electricity,  history,  inter- 
national, constitutional,  and  military 
law,  Spanish,  civil  and  military  engi- 
neering, art  and  science  of  war,  and 
ordnance  and  gunnery.  About  one- 
fourth  of  those  appointed  usually  fail 
to  pass  the  preliminary  examinations, 
and  but  little  over  one-half  the  re- 
mainder are  finally  graduated.  The  dis- 
cipline is  very  strict — even  more  so  than 
in  the  army — and  the  enforcement  of 
penalties  for  offenses  is  inflexible  rather 
than  severe.  Academic  duties  begin 
September  1 and  continue  until  June  1. 
Examinations  are  held  in  each  Decem- 
ber and  June,  and  cadets  found  pro- 
ficient in  studies  and  correct  in  conduct 
are  given  the  particular  standing  in  their 
class  to  which  their  merits  entitle  them, 
while  those  cadets  deficient  in  either 
conduct  or  studies  are  discharged. 

From  about  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
end  of  August  cadets  live  in  camp,  en- 
gaged only  in  military  duties  and  re- 
ceiving practical  military  instruction. 
Cadets  are  allowed  but  one  leave  of 
absence  during  the  four  years’  course, 
and  this  is  granted  at  the  expiration  of 
the  first  two  years.  The  pay  of  a cadet 
is  $609.50  per  year,  and,  with  proper 
economy,  is  sufficient  for  his  support. 
The  number  of  students  at  the  academy 
is  usually  about  four  hundred  and 
seventy. 

Upon  graduating  cadets  are  commis- 
sioned as  second  lieutenants  in  the 
United  States  army.  The  vffiole  number 
of  graduates  from  1802  to  1906,  inclu- 


sive, has  been  4,530.  It  is  virtually  ab- 
solutely necessary  for  a person  seeking 
an  appointment  to  apply  to  his  senator 
or  member  of  congress.  The  appoint- 
ments by  the  president  are  usually  re- 
stricted to  sons  of  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy,  who,  by  reason  of  their  shift- 
ing residence,  due  to  the  necessities  of 
the  service,  find  it  next  to  impossible 
to  obtain  an  appointment  otherwise. 

MILITARY  SERVICE  INSTITUTION 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  an  organiza- 
tion of  officers  of  the  United  States 
regular  army  and  allied  forces,  asso- 
ciated for  professional  improvement,  the 
interchange  of  views  upon  military 
matters,  and  such  topics  in  general  as 
may  be  calculated  to  promote  the  best 
interests  of  the  army  of  the  United 
States.  The  headquarters  of  the  Institu- 
tion are  at  Governor’s  Island,  N.  Y. 
The  Journal  of  the  Military  Service 
Institution  published  its  first  number 
in  January,  1880,  and  is  devoted  to 
regimental  histories  and  the  discussion 
of  contemporary  military  questions, 
domestic  and  foreign. 


MILITIA,  the  United  States  militia 
consists  of  every  able-bodied  male  citi- 
zen of  the  respective  states,  territories, 
and  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  every 
able-bodied  citizen  of  foreign  birth,  who 
has  declared  his  intention  to  become  a 
citizen,  who  is  more  than  eighteen  and 
less  than  forty-five  years  of  age.  It  is 
divided  into  two  classes — the  organized 
militia,  known  as  the  National  Guards 
of  the  state,  territory,  or  District  of 
Columbia,  or  by  such  other  designation 
as  may  be  given  them  by  the  laws  of  the 
respective  states  or  territories,  and  the 
remainder  known  as  the  reserve  militia. 
The  organization,  armament,  and  dis- 
cipline are  the  same  as  those  prescribed 
for  the  regular  and  volunteer  armies  of 
the  United  States.  The  president  may 
call  out,  for  a period  not  exceeding  nine 
months,  such  numbers  of  the  militia  of 
the  states,  territories,  or  District  of 
Columbia  as  he  may  deem  necessary. 
During  their  period  of  service  they  be- 
come subject  to  the  same  rules  and 
articles  of  war  as  the  regular  forces. 
Each  state  and  territory  and  the  Dis- 


States  and  tkbritoeibs 

Generals 

and 

General 

Staff 

Officers 

Cavalry 

Artillery 

Infantry 

Total 

Organized 

Militia 

Number 

Available 

for 

Military 
Duty  (Un- 
organized) 

Alabama 

9 

67 

136 

2,084 

2,296 

72,000 

Arizona 

1 

94 

344 

439 

15,.500 

Arkansas 

39 

1,126 

1,165 

255,000 

California 

30 

*287 

292 

2,750 

3,353 

232,500 

Colorado 

13 

*261 

59 

741 

1,074 

70,000 

Connecticut 

14 

97 

252 

2,449 

2,812 

109,500 

Delaware 

7 

381 

388 

41,500 

District  of  Columbia 

14 

t48 

81 

1,572 

1,715 

63,000 

Florida. 

15 

1,539 

1,554 

189,500 

Georgia.. 

21 

46i 

257 

2,233 

2,912 

306,000 

Hawaii 

5 

46 

469 

510 

8,250 

Idaho. 

6 

670 

676 

52,000 

Illinois 

40 

*507 

00 

6,052 

5,780 

757,500 

Indiana 

15 

*tl30 

252 

1,865 

2,262 

515,000 

Iowa 

17 

*54 

2,089 

2,160 

324,000 

Kansas 

12 

60 

1,099 

1,171 

112,000 

Kentucky 

7 

49 

157 

1,012 

1,223 

255,000 

Louisiana.  

9 

*251 

420 

640 

1,320 

138,000 

Maine.. 

8 

*t32 

1,196 

1,236 

106,000 

Maryland.. 

13 

56 

2,053 

2,122 

200,000 

Massachusetts 

37 

350 

1,020 

4,773 

5.143 

476,000 

Michigan 

17 

2,973 

2,390 

290,000 

Minnesota 

10 

2i5 

1,667 

1,692 

216,000 

Mississippi. 

19 

1,186 

1,205 

269,000 

Missouri 

16 

92 

2,036 

2,144 

396,000 

Montana 

4 

484 

488 

33,000 

Nebraska 

7 

150 

62 

1,129 

1,348 

120,000 

Nevada 

7 

129 

136 

7,400 

New  Hampshire 

16 

65 

1,074 

1,155 

38,000 

New  Jersey 

46 

*77i 

129 

4,944 

4,290 

420,000 

New  Mexico 

3 

69 

338 

410 

39,100 

New  York. 

70 

*550 

1,796 

111,860 

14,276 

1,000,000 

North  Carolina 

47 

60 

1,495 

1,602 

282,000 

North  Dakota 

7 

612 

619 

60.000 

Ohio 

30 

i26 

440 

4,804 

5,400 

662,000 

Oklahoma 

7 

*131 

474 

612 

67,000 

Oregon 

10 

61 

70 

872 

1,013 

79,500 

Pennsylvania 

62 

*290 

143 

8,536 

9,021 

963,000 

Rhode  Island 

20 

150 

96 

652 

916 

68,000 

South  Carolina 

18 

2,236 

2,254 

100.000 

South  Dakota 

3 

769 

772 

60,000 

Tennessee 

7 

42 

1,797 

1,846 

170,000 

Texas  

44 

*ffi2 

2,095 

2,351 

425,000 

18 

41 

220 

279 

30,500 

Vermont 

4 

97 

597 

694 

47,000 

Virginia 

12 

51 

140 

1,769 

1,972 

309,000 

Washington 

7 

710 

717 

154,000 

West  Virginia 

11 

998 

1,009 

130.000 

Wisconsin 

9 

65 

70 

2,480 

2,624 

385,000 

Wyoming 

7 

53 

230 

290 

12,000 

Total 

861 

*4,780 

6,684 

95,253 

107,578 

11,086,750 

* Includes  Mounted  Signal  Corps,  t Includes  Ambulance  Corps,  t Includes  Engineer  Corps. 

Alaska  and  Indian  Territory  have  no  militia,  though  provision  is  made  for  such  it  need 
arises.  Guam  and  Samoa  each  has  a small  provisional  force  used  more  for  police  purposes 
than  for  military.  The  Philippines  have  a constabulary  force  which  can  be  used  either  lor 
police  or  war  purposes,  provided  the  latter  is  on  the  islands.  So  also  Porto  Rico  has  a pro- 
visional force  of  7C0  foot  and  100  mounted  men.  100  non-commissioned  officers,  and  26  officers, 
the  whole  under  command  of  a lieutenant-colonel  of  the  United  States  Army.  Numbers  availa- 
ble in  the  Southern  States  Include  negroes  capable  of  bearing  arms. 


MILK 


MILLER 


r.'-i 


trict  of  Columbia  hasan  adjutant-generd 
who  is  charged  with  the  duties  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  state,  and  the  rendering 
of  regular  reports  to  tlie  secretary  of 
war  regarding  the  strength,  condition, 
etc.,  of  the  organized  militia  of  the  state 
to  which  he  belongs. 

The  table  preceding  is  an  abstract  of 
the  militia  force  of  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  records  of  the  war  de- 
partment up  to  December  1,  1906. 

MILK,  the  secretion  peculiar  to  the 
females  of  the  class  mammalia,  which  is 
secreted  in  the  marnmary  glands,  and 
which  is  employed  as  the  nutritive  fluid 
of  the  young  mammal  after  its  birth. 
Examined  by  aid  of  the  microscope, 
milk  is  seen  to  consist  of  a clear  fluid, 
containing  many  globules,  the  average 
size  of  which  is  about  of  an  inch 

in  diameter,  and  each  appears  to  consist 
of  oily  matter  invested  by  a thin  layer 
of  albumin.  When  churned,  the  globules 
in  the  milk  are  forced  together  en  masse, 
and  form  butter.  The  cream  of  milk  is 
formed  by  the  globules  rising  to  the  top 
of  the  milk  without  coalescing;  the 
“skim”-milk,  or  that  left  after  the  cream 
is  formed,  being  of  a pale  bluish  color, 
owing  to  its  being  deprived  of  its  fatty 
or  oily  particles.  In  itself,  milk  exhibits 
the  type  of  a perfect  food.  The  casein  of 
milk  represents  the  albuminous  or  flesh 
constituents  of  food;  the  butter  supplies 
the  fatty  or  oleaginous  parts;  the  water 
exists  as  such  in  milk,  while  it  contains 
the  saccharine  constituents  in  the  form 
of  milk-sugar,  and  the  inorganic  parts  in 
the  form  of  phosphates  of  lime  and  alka- 
line chlorides,  so  necessary  for  the  pro- 
duction of  bone.  The  milk  of  every 
.animal  has  certain  peculiarities  which 
distinguish  it  from  all  other  milk,  but 
the  general  properties  are  the  same  in 
all.  In  the  making  of  butter,  cream  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  some  time,  during 
which  an  acid  is  generated.  It  is  then 
put  into  a churn  and  agitated,  when  the 
butter  gradually  separates.  The  butter- 
milk, or  that  left  after  the  separation  of 
the  butter  by  churning  contains  the 
casein,  sugar,  etc.,  of  the  milk;  and  the 
milk  left  after  creaming  also  contains 
the  greater  part  of  the  casein  and  milk 
sugar.  Milk  may  be  coagulated  by 
various  substances,  but  rennet  prepared 
from  the  fourth  stomach  of  the  calf  is 
generally  used  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  result  of  coagulation  is  to  separate 
the  milk  into  a thin  fluid,  or  whey,  and 
a thick  whitish  deposit,  the  curd.  (See 
Butter,  Cheese.)  Whey  has  a pleasant 
taste,  and  contains  a large  quantity  of 
the  milk-sugar,  hence  it  is  frequently 
used  as  drink,  and  from  its  nutritious 
quality  it  is  administered  to  delicate 
people.  It  is  also  sometimes  made  to 
undergo  fermentation,  by  which  a very 
weak  spirituous  fluid  is  obtained.  (See 
Koumiss.)  Condensed  milk  (which  see) 
is  now  largely  used,  and  consists  of 
ordinary  milk  which  has  undergone  a 
process  of  evaporation  and  been  mixed 
with  sugar.  Milk  is  very  liable  to  be  in- 
fected with  the  germs  of  disease,  either 
from  disease  in  the  cow,  contamination 
from  unhealthy  persons,  or  the  use  of 
infected  water  in  cleaning  vessels;  and 
many  epidemics  of  zymotic  disease  have 
been  traced  to  impure  milk. 

P.  E.— 52 


MILK-FEVER,  a febrile  state  some- 
times induced  in  women  when  the  milk 
begins  to  be  secreted  after  parturition. 
It  is  accompanied  with  severe  pains  and 
throbbing  in  the  head,  flushing  in  the 
face,  thirst,  heat  and  dryness  of  the  skin. 
The  pulse  is  full,  the  tongue  furred, 
bowels  costive,  urine  scanty,  and  light 
and  sound  are  painful.  The  treatment 
consists  in  cooling  saline  purgatives, 
good  ventilation  and  moderate  tempera- 
ture in  apartments,  and  encouraging  the 
free  flow  of  milk.  Milk-fever  attacks  the 
lower  animals,  and  in  cows  it  is  best 
prevented  by  unstimulating  diet,  and  by 
milking  the  cow  regularly  ten  days  be- 
fore calving. 

MILK-SNAKE,  a harmless  snake  of 
the  United  States. 

MILKY- WAY.  See  Galaxy. 

MILL,  originally,  a machine  for  grind- 
ing and  reducing  grain  or  other  sub- 
stance to  fine  particles;  now  applied 
also  to  machines  for  grinding  or  polish- 
ing by  circular  motion,  and  especially 
to  complicated  machinery  for  working 
up  raw  material  and  transforming  it  into 
a condition  in  which  it  is  fit  for  im- 
mediate use  or  for  employment  in  a 
further  stage  of  manufacture.  In  the 
first  sense  of  the  word  we  have  flour- 
mills and  meal-mills,  cider-mills,  coffee- 
mills;  in  the  second  sense  we  speak  of  a 
lapidary’s  mill;  and  in  the  third  sense 
we  speak  of  cotton-mills,  spinning-mills, 
weaving-mills,  oil-mills,  saw-mills,  bark- 
mills,  fulling-mills,  etc.  The  word  com- 
monly includes  the  building  for  the 
special  accommodation  of  the  machinery, 
as  well  as  the  machinery  itself.  The 
oldest  kind  of  flour  or  meal  mill  was  the 
hand-mill  or  quern. 

MILL,  John  Stuart,  son  of  James 
Mill,  was  born  in  London  1806,  died  at 
Avignon  1873.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
he  entered  upon  a course  of  political 
economy.  His  fifteenth  year  was  spent 
in  France;  on  his  return  he  studied  law 
for  a time,  and  in  1823  he  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  the  East  India  House,  re- 
maining in  the  company’s  emlpoyment 
till  it  was  supplanted  by  the  crown  in 
1858.  In  1823  the  Westminster  Review 
was  begun  by  the  followers  of  Bentham, 
and  young  Mill  was  one  of  its  earliest 
contributors,  while  from  1835  to  1840 
he  was  its  principal  conductor.  In  his 
twenty-first  year  he  edited  Bentham’s 
work  On  Evidence.  In  1843  appeared 
the  first  of  his  two  chief  works,  A System 
of  Logic,  Ratiocinative  and  Inductive, 
the  second  being  Principles  of  Political 
Economy,  1848.  To  these  he  afterward 
added  his  work  On  Liberty,  1859; 
Thoughts  on  Parliamentary  Reform, 
1861;  Utilitarianism,  1862;  the  Exami- 
nation of  Sir  William  Hamilton’s  Phil- 
osophy, and  a Study  of  Auguste  Comte 
and  Positivism,  1865.  His  Autobiog- 
raphy was  published  in  1873,  and  the 
three  essays.  Nature,  The  Utility  of 
Religion,  and  Theism,  in  1874.  Mill’s 
works  on  logic  and  political  economy 
are  standard  text-books.  In  the  former 
he  placed  the  system  of  inductive  logic 
on  a firm  basis.  See  Logic. 

MILLAIS  (mil'as).  Sir  John  Everett, 
Bart.,  R.  A.,  born  at  Southampton  1829. 
In  his  earlier  days  he  was  a leader  of  the 
Pre-Raphaelite  School,  but  on  attaining 
maturity  in  art  he  abandoned  the 


peculiarities  for  which  that  school  is 
noted.  As  the  result  of  this  new  depart- 
ure Millais  painted  such  pictures  as 
Ferdinand  Lured  by  Ariel,  Mariana  in 
the  Moated  Grange,  The  Huguenot 
Lovers,  The  Black  Brunswicker  and 


Ophelia,  while  its  influence  was  also 
apparent  in  his  landscapes  of  Chill 
October,  The  Fringe  of  the  Moor,  etc. 
In  portraiture  he  holds  the  foremost 
rank  and  has  painted  a number  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  the  day. 
He  was  made  a baronet  in  1885,  and  he 
was  also  a member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  Many  of  his  works  are  well 
known  by  engravings.  He  died  in  1896. 

MILLEN'NIUM,  an  aggregate  of  a 
thousand  years;  a word  used  to  denote 
the  thousand  years  mentioned  in  Rev. 
XX.  1-5,  during  which  period  Satan  will 
be  bound  and  restrained  from  seducing 
men  to  sin,  and  during  which,  millennar- 
ians  believe,  Christ  will  reign  on  earth 
with  his  saints.  The  near  approach  of 
the  millennium  has  been  often  foretold. 

MILLEPEDE,  a name  common  to 
animals  resembling  centipedes  from  the 
number  of  their  feet.  The  most  common 
is  about  1^  inch  long.  The  young  when 
hatched  have  only  three  pairs  of  legs, 
the  remainder  being  gradually  acquired 
till  the  number  is  complete,  which  is 
usually  about  120  pairs. 

MILLER,  Hugh,  geologist,  was  born 
at  Cromarty  in  1802.  In  1840  he  went  to 
Edinburgh  as  editor  of  the  Witness 
newspaper,  after  1843  the  chief  organ 
of  the  Free  Church.  In  this  paper  he 
printed  the  work  subsequently  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  The  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  which  attracted  the  im- 
mediate attention  of  the  scientific  world 
and  established  his  reputation  as  a 
geologist.  This  was  followed  by  First 
Impressions  of  England  and  its  People; 
Footsteps  of  the  Creator;  My  Schools 
and  Schoolmasters,  a charming  account 
of  his  earlier  life;  and  The  Testimony  of 
the  Rocks,  in  which  he  tried  to  reconcile 
the  Mosaic  account  of  creation  with  the 
teachings  of  geology.  Having  just  fin- 
ished this  latter  work,  his  brain  collapsed 
from  over-pressure,  and  he  died  by  a 
pistol-shot  from  his  own  hand  at  Porto- 
bello  in  1856.  His  Schools  and  School- 
masters was  supplanted  by  the  Life  and 
Letters,  published  in  1871. 

MILLER,  Joaquin,  the  pen-name  of 
Cincinnatus  Heine  Miller,  born  1841  in 
Indiana;  spent  some  time  in  the  Cali- 
fornia mining  districts;  lived  with  the 
Modoc  Indians  for  five  years;  edited  a 


MILLER 


MILWAUKEE 


/ 

newspaper  called  the  democratic  Regis- 
ter; studied  law  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  Oregon,  and  became  district  judge 
in  Canyon  City,  subsequently  settled  in 
California.  He  has  written  Pacific  Poems, 
\ Songs  of  the  Sierras,  Songs  of  the  Sun 
Lands,  Songs  of  the  Desert,  Songs  of  the 
Mexican  Seas,  besides  novels  and  dramas. 

MILLER,  Joseph,  better  known  as 
Joe  Miller,  was  born  in  1684,  it  is  sup- 
posed in  London,  and  was  a favorite 
low  comedian.  He  died  in  1738.  The 
jests  which  have  immortalized  his  name 
were  collected  in  1738,  by  John  Mottley, 
author  of  the  life  of  Peter  the  Great, 
and  other  works. 

MILLER,  William,  the  founder  of  an 
American  religious  sect  holding  peculiar 
millennarian  views,  was  born  at  Pitts- 
field, Massachusetts,  in  1781,  and  died  in 
1849.  About  1843  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  was  expected  by  as  many  as 
50,000  believers  in  the  doctrines  of 
Miller;  and,  although  the  disappoint- 
ment of  their  hopes  somewhat  dimin- 
ished their  numbers,  many  continued 
their  adherence  to  his  tenets  regarding 
the  nature  of  the  millennium. 

MILLET,  a common  name  for  various 
species  of  cereals  yielding  abundance  of 
small  seeds,  cultivated  in  the  East  Indies, 
China,  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  etc.,  where 
it  is  used  as  human  food.  The  leaves  and 
panicles  are  given  both  green  and  dried 
as  fodder  to  cattle.  German  millet  is 
cultivated  on  account  of  its  seeds,  which 
are  used  as  food  for  cage-birds.  Italian 
millet  is  a closely  allied  species. 

MILLET  (mi-la),  Jean  Francois, French 
artist,  born  at  Gruchy,  near  Cher- 
bourg, in  1814,  died  in  1875.  He 
worked  with  his  peasant  father  in  the 
fields;  studied  drawing  at  the  academy 
of  Cherbourg;  from  thence  passed  with 
an  allowance  from  this  town  to  the 
atelier  of  Delaroche  in  Paris,  and  ex- 
hibited at  the  Salon  in  1840.  As  a stu- 
dent and  until  the  death  of  his  first  wife 
in  1844  he  was  frequently  in  the  greatest 
poverty,  and  his  life  subsequently  was 
by  no  means  free  from  difficulty.  In 
1849  he  left  Paris  and  settled  among  the 
peasants  of  Barbizon,  on  the  edge  of 
Fontainebleau  Forest,  and  devoted 
himself  totransferringtheir  simpleevery- 
day  life  to  his  canvases,  which  he  did 
with  great  truth  of  sentiment  and  sub- 
dued poetic  charm.  Of  his  paintings 
may  be  mentioned  The  Sheep-shearers, 
The  Gleaners,  The  Sower,  The  Shep- 
herdess withher  Flock,  and  The  Angelus. 
The  last  was  sold  by  auction  in  Paris  in 
1889  for  about  $115,000.  His  works  are 
at  present  very  highly  esteemed. 

MILLIGRAMME,  a French  weight, 
the  thousandth  part  of  a gramme,  or 
.0154  of  a grain. 

MILLIMETRE,  a French  lineal  meas- 
ure containing  the  thousandth  part  of  a 
meter;  equal  to  .03937  of  an  inch. 

MILMAN,  Henry  Hart,  D.D.,  born  in 
London  1791,  died  1868.  His  principal 
works  are ; Samor,  a legendary  poem ; 
The  Fall  of  Jerusalem;  The  Martyr  of 
Antioch;  History  of  the  Jews;  History 
of  Christianity  to  the  Abolition  of 
Paganism;  History  of  Latin  Christian- 
ity. 

MILTI'ADES  (dez),  an  Athenian  gen- 
eral of  the  5th  century  b.c.  When  Greece 


was  invaded  by  the  Persians  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  ten  generals,  and  drew 
up  the  army  on  the  field  of  Marathon, 
where,  b.c.  490,  he  gained  a memorable 
victory.  Next  year  he  persuaded  the 
Greeks  to  intrust  him  with  a fleet  of 
seventy  vessels,  in  order  to  follow  up  his 
success.  With  this,  to  gratify  a private 
revenge,  he  attacked  the  island  of  Paros, 
but  was  repulsed,  and  dangerously 
wounded.  On  his  return  to  Athens  he 
was  impeached,  and  condemned  to  pay 
a fine  of  fifty  talents.  Being  unable  to 
pay,  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
soon  after  died  of  his  wound. 

MILTON,  John,  English  poet,  was 
born  in  London,  Eng.,  Dec.  9,  1608; 
died  there,  Nov.  8,  1674.  At  the  age  of 
seventeen  he  entered  Christ’s  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  resided  for  seven 
years.  It  had  been  intended  by  his 
parents  that  he  should  enter  the  church, 
but  their  puritanical  beliefs  and  his  own 
scruples  regarding  the  oaths  decided 
otherwise.  In  1637,  on  the  death  of  his 
mother,  he  made  a continental  journey, 


Milton. 


in  which  he  visited  Paris,  where  he  was 
introduced  to  Grotius,  Florence,  where 
he  met  Galileo,  Rome  and  Naples.  After 
remaining  abroad  for  fifteen  months  he 
returned  to  England.  The  home  at 
Horton  having  been  broken  up,  Milton 
settled  in  the  metropolis.  While  settled 
here  his  Paradise  Lost  was  partially 
sketched  out.  In  the  summer  of  1643 
Milton  married  Mary  Powell,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a royalist  family.  Divided  from 
her  kinsfolk  by  politics,  he  was  also  dis- 
similar to  his  wife  in  age — she  being  little 
more  than  seventeen,  while  he  was 
thirty-five.  Moreover,  she  found  his 
habits  austere  and  his  house  dull,  with 
the  result  that  she  returned  to  her  father 
about  a month  after  marriage.  In  the 
end,  however,  his  wife  returned  in  1645, 
bore  him  three  daughters,  and  continued 
to  live  with  him  until  her  death  in  1653. 
Wheti  in  1649  Charles  I.  was  executed 
and  arepublicestablished,  Milton  avowed 
his  adherence  to  it  in  his  pamphlet 
Tenure  of  Kings  and  Magistrates,  and 
was  appointed  foreign  (Latin)  secretary 
to  the  commonwealth.  In  his  literary 
task  his  eyesight  suffered  so  much  that 
in  1652  he  became  totally  blind.  In  1663 
he  began  the  writing  of  Paradise  Lost. 
This  was  published  in  1667,  the  pub- 
lisher agreeing  to  pay  the  author  $25 
down  and  a further  $25  after  the  sale  of 
each  edition  of  1300  copies.  In  two 


years  a second  edition,  now  arranged 
into  twelve  books,  was  printed,  and 
Milton’s  position  as  the  greatest  poet  of 
his  time  was  established.  In  1670  there 
appeared  his  History  of  Britain  to  the 
Norman  Conquest,  and  in  the  following 
year  the  continued  vigor  of  his  poetic 
faculty  was  shown  in  Paradise  Regained 
and  Samson  Agonistes.  In  1674,  the  last 
year  of  his  life,  he  printed  his  Epistolse 
Familiares  and  Prolusiones  Oratorise. 

His  death  took  place  at  his  house  in 
Bunhill,  and  he  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  St.  Giles,  Cripplegate. 

MILLVILLE,  a city  in  Cumberland 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Maurice  river,  here 
navigable,  and  the  W.  Jersey  railroad; 

40  miles  s.  of  Philadelphia.  Pop.  11,790. 

MILWAU'KEE,  chief  city  and  port  of 
Wisconsin,  United  States,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  here  re- 
ceives the  united  rivers  Milwaukee  and 
Menomonee.  It  has  an  elevation  of  from 
600  to  700  feet  above  sea  level,  rising 
from  80  to  125  feet  above  Lake  Michi- 
gan, and  reaching  its  greatest  height  in 
Kilbourn  Park,  which  affords  a fine 
view.  The  business  quarter  is  near  the 
Milwaukee  river,  while  the  largest  and 
most  beautiful  residence  sections  lies  to 
the  west  and  east,  and  are  characterized 
by  handsomely  shaded  avenues  and  de- 
tached houses.  The  accessibility  of 
popular  health  and  pleasure  resorts  and 
the  beauty  of  its  suburbs,  add  to  the 
attractions  of  Milwaukee.  Among  these 
suburbs  is  the  city  of  Wauwatosa — the 
seat  of  the  state  fair  grounds  and  of  a 
group  of  county  institutions : almshouse, 
hospital,  hospital  for  the  insane,  chronic 
insane  asylum,  and  a children’s  home. 
The  rivers  are  spanned  by  a number  of 
bridges,  and  there  are  three  viaducts, 
one  of  which,  over  the  Menominee  Valley 
is  nearly  a mile  long. 

Among  the  most  prominent  buildings 
are  the  city  hall,  the  county  court-house, 
the  United  States  government  building, 
and  the  public  library  and  museum. 
The  library  has  120,000  volumes  and 
maintains  a number  of  branches  in 
various  parts  of  the  city.  The  Layton 
Art  Gallery  is  located  in  a fine  building 
and  possesses  a valuable  collection.  The 
chamber  of  commerce,  athenaeum,  light- 
house, squadron  armory,  and  the  Ger- 
mania, Pabst,  and  Mitchell  buildings 
also  are  noteworthy  structures.  A mile 
west  of  the  city  limits  is  a National 
Soldier’s  Home,  accommodating  2400 
inmates  and  surrounded  by  400  acres  of 
well-kept  grounds. 

The  Johnston  emergency  hospital,  the 
Milwaukee  general  hospital,  the  United 
States  marine  hospital,  and  the  state 
industrial  home  for  girls  are  among  a 
large  number  of  charitable  institutions 
of  various  kinds.  Owing  to  the  large 
population  of  German  birth  and  de- 
scent, Turner  and  musical  societies  play  j 
an  unusually  important  part  in  the  club  I 
and  society  life  of  the  city.  Milwaukee 
is  the  seat  of  a Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop and  of  a Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop. 

The  main  element  in  the  prosperity 
of  Milwaukee  is  its  vast  trade  in  grain, 
and  extensive  industrial  establishments 
connected  with  iron,  flour,  leather, 
lager-beer,  agricultural  implements,  etc. 


MIMICRY 


MINERALOGY 


It  has  rapidly  advanced  from  a popul- 
tion  in  1840  of  1700  to  one  of  400,000. 

MIMICRY,  the  name  given  to  that 
condition  or  phenomenon  which  con- 
sists in  certain  plants  and  animals  ex- 
hibiting a wonderful  resemblance  to 
certain  other  plants  or  animals,  or  to 
the  natural  objects  in  the  midst  of  which 
they  live.  This  peculiar  characteristic  is 
generally  the  chief  means  of  protection 
the  animal  has  against  its  enemies.  It 
is  well  seen  in  the  leaf-insects  and  in  the 
“walking-stick”  insects.  Certain  tropi- 
cal butterflies  reproduce  the  appearance 
of  leaves  so  closely  that  even  the  para- 
sitic fungi  which  grow  upon  the  leaves 
are  imitated.  So  also  a South  American 
moth  has  a most  accurate  resemblance 
to  a humming  bird;  while  the  cacti  of 
America  and  the  euphorbias  of  Africa 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  each  other, 
though  widely  different  in  structural 
characters.  The  theoretical  explanation 
of  this  mimetic  quality  is  attributed  by 
recent  biologists  to  purposes  of  self 
preservation.  Thus,  the  form  or  color 
which  enables  an  animal  to  seize  its  prey 
easily  and  to  protect  its  own  life  by 
deceptive  resemblance  to  other  objects, 
is  conceived  to  be  that  form  and  color 
which  is  most  likely  to  survive.  The 
term  is  used  in  a merely  metaphorical 
sense,  and  implies  no  act  of  volition  on 
the  part  of  the  animal  or  plant. 

MIN'ARET,  a slender  lofty  turret 
rising  by  different  stages  or  stories,  sur- 
rounded- by  one  or  more  projecting 
balconies,  commonly  attached  to  mos- 
ques in  Mohammedan  countries,  and 
frequently  of  very  elegant  design. 


Minarets— Mosque  of  St.  Sophia, 
Constantinople. 


Minarets  are  used  by  the  priests  for 
summoning  from  the  balconies  the  peo- 
ple to  prayers  at  stated  times  of  the  day ; 
so  that  they  answer  the  purpose  of 
belfries  in  Christian  churches. 

MINAS  GERAES  (me'nas  je-ra'es),  the 
most  populous  of  the  Brazilian  states, 
bounded  by  Bahia,  Espirito  Santo,  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Goyaz;  area 
246,700  sq.  miles.  The  capital  is  Bello 
Horizonte.  Pop.  3,018,807. 


MIND,  a term  that  admits  of  no  ex- 
haustive scientific  definition,  but  may  be 
said  to  indicate,  generally,  the  power 
possessed  by  each  of  us  in  virtue  of 
which  we  know,  think,  feel,  and  will. 
Limited  to  the  individual,  and  verifiable 
only  through  individual  experience,  its 
phenomena  have  long  been  held  to  rep- 
resent .the  immaterial  as  distinguished 
from  the  material  world,  mind  and 
matter  forming  thus  a direct  antithesis. 
Yet  we  have  no  experience  of  mind  as 
apart  from  matter,  and  many,  instead 
of  regarding  mind  as  a separate  entity, 
hold  it  rather  to  be  akin  to  some  func- 
tion of  the  nervous  system.  The  mental 
powers  or  functions  are  generally  classed 
as  three — intellect  or  understanding, 
emotion  or  feeling,  and  volition  or  will. 
Sometimes  the  term  mind  is  specially 
given  to  the  first  (the  intellect),  which 
itself  possesses  several  powers  or 
capacities,  such  as  perception,  memory, 
reasoning,  imagination.  It  is  by  the 
intellect  that  we  acquire  knowledge, 
investigate  phenomena,  and  combine 
means  to  ends,  etc.;  but  the  ultimate 
analysis  of  our  mental  powers  gives 
different  results  with  different  investi- 
gators, the  classification  of  the  faculties 
of  the  mind  being  thus  very  various. 
The  science  that  has  specially  to  do  with 
the  investigation  of  mental  phenomena 
is  generally  known  as  psychology.  See 
also  Emotion,  Imagination,  Will,  etc. 

MINDANA'O,  one  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  next  to  Luzon  in  point  of  size, 
about  300  miles  long  and  105  broad; 
area,  34,250  sq.  miles.  All  the  country, 
except  upon  the  sea-coast,  is  mountain- 
ous, the  volcano  of  Apo  being  8819  feet 
high.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Mindanao 
and  the  Batuan,  and  there  are  several 
lakes.  Some  coffee,  cocoa,  and  colJton  are 
exported.  The  chief  town  is  Zamboanga 
or  Samboangan,  a port  and  naval  station 
at  its  western  extremity.  The  total 
population,  according  to  a recent  Ameri- 
can estimate,  is  about  300,000.  Min- 
danao was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States  in  1898. 

MINDO'RO,  one  of  the  larger  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  situated  south  of 
Luzon,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Strait  of  Manila;  about  110  miles  long 
by  about  53  broad.  It  is  evidently 
volcanic,  the  climate  is  hot,  and  the 
rain  almost  incessant.  Rice,  cacao,  and 
wild  cinnamon  are  among  the  products. 
Pop.  61,900. 

MINE,  in  military  language  a subter- 
ranean passage  dug  under  the  wall  or 
rampart  of  a fortification,  or  under  any 
building  or  other  object,  for  the  purpose 
of  blowing  it  up  by  gunpowder  or  other 
explosive.  What  are  called  submarine 
mines  are  now  used  in  the  defense  of 
places  liable  to  attack  from  a naval  force. 
Such  a mine  consists  of  a charge  of  some 
powerful  explosive  inclosed  in  a suitable 
case,  which  is  anchored  at  the  bottom  of 
the  water,  or  at  a suitable  depth,  and 
may  be  exploded  at  will  by  means  of 
electricity  so  as  to  blow  up  a hostile 
vessel,  or  the  mere  contact  of  a vessel 
may  cause  it  to  explode. 

In  ordinary  language  a mine  is  a pit 
or  deep  excavation  in  the  earth,  from 
which  coal,  metallic  ores,  and  other 
mineral  substances  are  taken.  The  pits 


from  which  stones  only  are  taken  are 
called  quarries.  See  Mining  and  Mine 
Inspection. 

MINE  WORKERS  OF  AMERICA,  The 

United,  American  labor  union,  the 
largest  in  the  country  organized  January 
25,  1890,  the  object  of  which  is  to  unite 
mine  employees  that  produce  or  handle 
coal  or  coke  in  or  around  the  mines  and 
ameliorate  their  condition  by  means  of 
conciliation,  arbitration  or  strikes.  The 
national  executive  committee  consists 
of  the  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, treasurer,  and  one  delegate  from 
each  of  the  25  districts.  In  the  bitumi- 
nous districts  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio, 
and  Pennsylvania  strikes  have  been 
practically  eliminated  by  the  annual 
joint  conference,  or  collective  bargain- 
ing, between  the  miners  and  operatives, 
in  which  a scale  of  prices  for  the  follow- 
ing year  is  adopted  and  the  settlement 
of  further  differences  provided  for  by 
local  boards  of  arbitration.  Mr.  John 
Mitchell  was  elected  president  in  1898 
and  has  held  that  position  constantly 
since  that  time. 

MINERAL'OGY,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  properties  of  mineral  sub- 
stances, and  teaches  us  to  characterize, 
distinguish,  and  classify  them  according 
to  their  properties.  It  comprehends  the 
study  or  science  of  all  inorganic  sub- 
stances in  the  earth  or  on  its  surface. 
As  distinguished  from  geology,  mineral- 
ogy deals  with  the  various  mineral 
bodies  as  separate  constituents  of  the 
earth’s  crust,  and  examines  their  prop- 
erties as  such,  while  geology  treats  them 
in  the  aggregate,  as  building  up  the  crust 
of  the  earth,  and  as  forming  masses  and 
presenting  phenomena  that  have  a his- 
tory to  be  investigated.  Minerals  may  be 
described  and  classified  either  in  accord- 
ance with  their  chemical  composition, 
their  crystallographic  forms,  or  their 
physical  properties  of  hardness,  fracture, 
luster,  etc.,  or  a combination  of  all,  and 
thus  various  systems  of  classification 
have  been  adopted.  Most  minerals 
crystallize  in  definite  forms,  and  this 
form  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics 
of  many  mineral  species.  There  are  not 
a few,  however,  which  are  not  distinctly 
crystalline,  but  are  earthy  or  occur  in 
masses;  the  latter  exhibiting  important 
varieties  of  structure,  as  laminated, 
fibrous,  granular  reniform,  botryoidal, 
etc.  Other  distinctive  characteristics  are 
color,  which,  however,  varies  even  in  the 
same  mineral;  luster,  the  character  of 
the  light  reflected  from  the  surface,  and 
described  as  adamantine,  vitreous, 
nacreous,  greasy,  silky,  etc.;  fracture,  or 
the  character  of  the  freshly-broken  sur- 
face; streak,  or  the  appearance  and  color 
of  a furrow  made  in  the  mineral  by  a 
hard-tempered  knife  or  file;  and  hard- 
ness, which  is  now  determined  by  what 
is  called  Mohs’s  scale.  In  this  scale  cer- 
tainminerals  are  represented  bynumbers 
from  1 to  10,  viz.  (1)  talc,  common 
laminated  light-green  variety;  (2)  gyp- 
sum, a crystallized  variety;  (2.5)  mica; 
(3)  calcite,  transparent  varietyg  (4) 
fluorspar,  crystalline  variety ; (5)  apatite, 
transparent  variety;  (5.5)  scapolite, 
crystalline  variety;  (6)  potash,  felspar, 
white  cleavable  variety;  (7)  quartz, 
transparent;  (8)  topaz,  transparent;  (9) 


MINERAL  WATERS 


MINING 


corundum  ; (10)  diamond.  To  determine 
the  hardness  of  a mineral,  it  is  ascer- 
tained by  experiment  which  of  these  it 
will  scratch  and  which  will  scratch  it; 
thus  if  a mineral  will  scratch  fluorspar 
but  not  apatite,  while  the  latter  will 
scratch  it,  its  hardness  is  between  4 and 
5.  Diaphaneity,  refraction,  polarization, 
electric  properties,  etc.,  are  all  distin- 
guishing marks.  In  the  classification  of 
minerals,  their  chemical  composition, 
though  not  to  be  regarded  by  itself,  is  of 
much  importance.  Among  famous 
names  in  connection  with  mineralogy 
may  be  noted  those  of  Werner,  Haiiy, 
Mohs,  Dana,  etc 

MINERAL  WATERS  is  the  term  com- 
monly applied  to  the  spring-waters  that 
contain  an  unusual  quantity  of  such  sub- 
stances as  sodium,  magnesia,  iron,  car- 
bonic acid,  and  sulphur;  but  it  cannot  be 
used  in  any  absolute  fashion.  The  most 
popular  European  springs  are  those  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Wiesbaden,  Baden- 
Baden,  Carlsbad,  Ahrweiler  (Apollinaris) 
Friedrichshall,  Buda-Pesth  (Hunyadi- 
Janos),  Vichy,  and  Bath.  The  most  pop- 
ular springs  in  the  United  States  are 
Congress,  and  Excelsior,  at  Saratoga,  N 
Y.;  Warm  Sulphur  Springs,  Virginia; 
Hot  Springs,  Arkansas;  Red  Sulphur 
Spring,  Sharon,  N.  Y.;  Las  Vegas  Hot 
Springs,  N.  Mex.;  Bethesda  Spring, 
Waukesha,  Wis.  The  waters  are  usu- 
aDy  drunk  at  an  early  hour  before 
breakfast,  and  the  curative  effects  are 
greatly  aided  by  early  rising,  moderate 
exercise,  mental  relaxation,  and  com- 
plete freedom  from  all  kinds  of  excess. 
It  has  not  been  found  practical  or  useful 
to  classify  mineral  waters  under  their 
chemical  elements,  but  the  attempt  has 
been  made,  as  where  the  springs  are  de- 
scribed as — salt,  earthy,  sulphur,  iron, 
alkaline,  and  alkaline-saline.  Besides 
the  substances  which  these  terms  indi- 
cate, the  waters  are  frequently  impreg- 
nated with  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is 
found  to  aid  digestion  while  giving  a 
pleasant  stimulus  to  the  general  system. 

MINERAL  WOOL,  a substance  which 
is  produced  from  the  vitreous  liquid  slag 
of  a blast-furnace  drawn  out  into  fine 
fibres  under  pressure  of  steam.  The  slag, 
when  in  a molten  condition,  is  driven  by 
the  steam  from  the  furnace  through  a 
cresoent-shaped  aperture,  and  suddenly 
cools  into  long  fibrous  filaments.  The 
thin,  glassy,  thread-like  substance  thus 
produced  is  useful  as  a non-conductor  of 
heat,  and  it  has,  therefore,  been  largely 
employed  as  a covering  for  boilers  and 
steam-pipes,  to  prevent  the  freezing  of 
water  in  pipes,  etc. 

MINERVA,  a daughter  of  Jupiter,  and 
one  of  the  great  divinities  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  She  was  looked  upon  as  the 
patroness  of  all  arts  and  trades,  and  her 
annual  festival,  called  Quinquatrus, 
lasted  from  the  19th  to  the  23d  of  March 
inclusive.  This  goddess  was  believed  to 
protect  warriors  in  battle,  and  to  her  was 
ascribed  the  invention  of  numbers,  and 
of  musical  instruments,  especially  wind- 
instruments.  At  Rome  a temple  was 
built  for  Minerva  by  Tarquin  on  the 
capitol,  where  she  was  worshipped  along 
with  Jupiter  and  Juno;  and  there  was 
also  a temple  on  the  Aventine  dedicated 
to  herself  alone.  This  deity  is  supposed 


t 


to  be  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  her  char- 
acter has  much  in  common  with  the 
Greek  goddess  Athena. 

MINHO  (min'yo),  more  fully  Entre 
Douro  e Minho,  a province  of  Portugal, 
Pop.  1,014,768. 

MIN'IATURE,  a small  painting,  espe- 
cially a portrait,  executed  with  delicate 
care,  chiefly  upon  ivory,  also  upon  vel- 
lum, paper,  etc.  The  term  is  from  the 
Italian  miniatura,  originally  applied  to  a 
small  painting,  such  as  those  formerly 
used  to  adorn  manuscripts,  from  the 
common  use  of  minium  or  vermilion  in 
the  ornamentation  of  the  illuminated 
manuscripts  in  the  middle  ages.  The  art 
of  miniature  painting  was  carried  to  its 
highest  perfection,  chiefly  in  France, 
during  the  18th  century. 

MINING  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
underground  engineering  process  by 
which  minerals  are  excavated  and 
brought  to  the  earth’s  surface.  That  this 
process  in  a rude  form  was  known  to  the 
ancients  is  shown  by  references  in  the 
book  of  Job,  the  records  of  the  Phceni- 
cians  and  Egyptians,  and  the  signs  of 
supposed  Roman  excavations  found  in 


the  lode,  and  if  the  lode  is  going  down 
on  a slope,  the  galleries  in  such  case  are 
not  vertical  above  one  another.  These 
galleries  are  connected  by  vertical  pas- 
sages or  “winzes;”  and  in  this  way  they 
are  ventilated,  and  the  material  to  be 
excavated  is  divided  into  rectangulai 
blocks.  The  metal  ore  after  being  ex- 
cavated is  broken  up  by  the  miner,  put 
into  a barrow,  wheeled  to  one  of  the 
main  galleries,  thence  transported  in. 
cars  drawn  on  rails  by  men,  mules,  or 
engines,  to  the  main  shaft.  There  it  is 
hoisted  to  the  surface  in  an  iron  “kibble” 
or  a wooden  “skip”  which  travels  up 
and  down  in  guides  fixed  to  the  side  of 
the  shaft.  Access  to  many  metalliferous 
mines  is  still  obtained  by  means  of 
ladders  fixed  almost  vertically  in  the 
sides  of  the  shaft.  This  toilsome  method 
is  averted  in  some  mines  by  what  is  called 
a “man-engine,”  which  consists  of  two 
rods  with  platforms  attached  which 
move  up  and  down  reciprocally  the  dis- 
tance between  two  platforms,  the  miner 
ascending  or  descending  from  the  plat- 
form of  one  rod  to  that  of  another  alter- 
nately. Besides  the  shafts  there  is 


OBAWlNQ  SHArr, 


iHIMB 


i 

.'i' 

1' 


Section  of  part  of  copper  mine. 

The  parts  lightly  shaded  indicate  where  the  mineral  has  been  removed. 


Britain.  The  development  of  mining  has 
been  greatly  advanced  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  gunpowder  for  blasting  purposes; 
by  the  use  of  steam-engines  for  pumping 
water  from  the  mine  and  bringing  ma- 
terial to  the  surface;  and  by  the  aid  of 
improved  ventilation,  which  now  enables 
mines  to  be  carried  to  deeper  levels. 

Metalliferous  mining  has  to  deal  with 
a mineral  which  is  found  in  lodes  or 
veins  irregularly  imbedded  in  rock- 
fissures,  the  trend  of  which  is  uncertain 
and  the  thickness  variable.  In  preparing 
to  excavate  this  irregularly  distributed 
mineral  two  shafts  are  sunk  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  lodes,  one  of  which  is  used 
for  pumping  and  ventilating  the  mine, 
the  other  for  drawing  the  material  to 
the  surface.  From  these  two  shafts 
horizontal  galleries  are  driven  at  dis- 
tances of  10  or  more  fathoms  apart,  an 
additional  gallery  being  driven  at  in- 
tervals of  10  or  15  fathoms  as  the  mine  is 
increased  in  depth.  The  galleries  are 
driven  as  far  as  possible  on  the  course  of 


usually  an  entrance  to  the  mine  called  v 
an  “adit”  or  “day-level”  which  is  driven  ' 
straight  into  the  mine  from  the  nearest  'f 
convenient  depression  or  valley  and  is 
mainly  used  for  purposes  of  drainage.  * 
Adits  are  sometimes  of  great  length. 

Coal-mining  has  to  deal  with  a mineral  ■* 
which  is  deposited  in  seams  or  beds, 
sometimes  nearly  horizontal,  at  other 
times  nearly  vertical.  These  seams  are  - 
interstratified  wdth  layers  of  sandstone, 
shale,  clay,  etc.,  and  w-hen  the  beds  are 
tilted  the  coal  has  been  frequentl3'  found 
outcropping  at  the  surface.  In  the  chief  ■ ; 
coal-fields  of  the  United  Kingdom  this  V-' 
outcrop  coal  has  been  exhausted,  and  h 
it  is  now  found  necessary  to  approach  ^ 
the  coal-seams  by  means  of  shafts,  of  a ^ 
rectangular  or  circular  shape,  sunk  into  % 
the  earth.  The  rectangular  shape,  com-'M 
monly  IS  feet  by  6 feet,  is  that  which  i9:<S 
used  most  frequently  in  Scotland,  while 
the  circular  shaft  obtains  in  the  large® 
mines  of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  S 
Before  sinking  the  shaft  it  is  exj 


MINION 


MINNESOTA 


to  bore  down  through  the  strata  in  order 
to  test  the  thickness  and  direction  of  the 
coal-measures.  The  bore-hole  is  usually 
begun  by  digging  a small  pit  above  6 
feet  deep,  and  the  old  method  was  to 
pierce  the  rock  by  means  of  a cutting- 
tool  attached  to  long  rods  and  worked  by 
a lever  with  hand-power.  Various  im- 
provements on  this  slow  method  have 
been  recently  made,  as  where  hydraulic 
or  steam  power  is  used  to  drive  the 
boring-rods,  and  diamond  drills  em- 
ployed instead  of  the  steel  tool.  (See 
Boring).  When  this  boring  test  has 
been  found  satisfactory  the  shaft  is 
then  sunk.  One  shaft  not  unfre- 
quently  intersects  a number  of  work- 
able coal-seams,  these  being  gener- 
ally separated  by  shale,  sandstone,  and 
limestone.  Seams  of  coal  vary  in  thick- 
ness from  2 inches  up  to  30  feet  as 
in  Staffordshire,  or  even  to  90  feet  as  in  a 
small  coal  area  at  Johnstone,  near  Glas- 
gow. The  coal  having  been  reached,  the 
mining  engineer  has  to  devise  the  safest 
and  most  economical  method  of  cutting 
the  coal  and  sending  it  to  the  surface. 
There  are  two  commonly  adopted 
methods  of  working  out  coal-seams,  viz. 
the  “pillar-and-stall”  or  “stoop-and- 
room”  system,  and  the  “longwall”  or 
“longwork”  system.  The  former  method 
consists  in  excavating  “rooms”  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  divide  the  coal  into  rec- 
tangular pillars  or  “stoops.”  In  the 
early  days  of  coal-mining  the  stalls  were 
made  large  and  the  upholding  pillars 
left  small,  no  attempt  being  afterward 
made  to  recover  the  coal  in  these  pillars. 
When  the  floor  of  the  mine  was  of  soft 
clay  or  lime  the  weight  of  the  roof  drove 
the  pillars  down,  causing  the  floor  to  rise 
in  the  center  between  the  pillars,  and 
establishing  an  undulating  movement 
throughout  the  underlying  strata  called 
by  miners  “the  creep.”  To  prevent  this 
the  coal  is  now  left  in  wide  barriers  or 
“pannels”  which  divide  one  part  of  the 
workings  from  another.  The  pillars  of 
coal  which  are  now  left  are  recovered  by 
a second  operation,  which  consists  in 
cutting  them  out  after  a division  or 
pannel  has  been  excavated  to  its  bound- 
ary or  by  working  them  out  when  the 
stalls  have  been  driven  the  length  of  two 
or  three  pillars.  These  pillars  are,  in 
most  cases,,  about  20  yards  square,  and 
in  one  panel  of  the  mine  there  are  often 
600  such  pillars.  In  the  “longwall” 
method  the  miner  cuts  into,  or  “holes” 
into,  the  under  part  of  the  coal-bed  for 
two  or  three  feet,  and  then,  with  the  aid 
of  wedges  driven  in  atop,  he  loosens  and 
extracts  the  mass  of  coal  which  has  been 
“holed.”  By  this  system  the  entire  coal- 
seam  is  at  once  extracted,  while  the 
empty  space  or  “goaf”  is  filled  in  with 
waste  material  as  the  work  advances. 

One  of  the  most  important  matters 
connected  with  coal-mining  is  ventila- 
tion. To  facilitate  this  there  are  two 
openings  into  the  mine,  which  are  tech- 
nically called  the  “intake”  and  “return” 
air-passages.  The  necessary  supply  of 
pure  air  is  maintained  either  by  the 
natural  heat  of  the  mine  causing  a con- 
stant inrush  of  cold  air;  by  pumps  or 
fans  forcing  the  air  down  the  “downcast” 
shaft  or  drawing  it  up  the  “upcast” 
shaft;  or  by  furnace  ventilation.  This 


latter  mode  is  considered  the  most 
efficient.  The  furnace  by  its  heat  causes 
a constant  current  up  the  upcast  shaft, 
thus  drawing  the  vitiated  air  away  from 
the  workings.  Connected  with  ventila- 
tion is  the  dangerous  accumulation  of 
fire-damp  which  may  take  place  in  a 
mine,  to  guard  against  which  safety- 
lamps  have  been  introduced.  See  Fire- 
damp, Safety-lamp. 

The  pumping  of  water  out  of  the  work- 
ings is  an  essential  part  of  mining.  Some 
of  the  largest  pumping  engines  raise  from 
2000  to  3000  gallons  of  water  per  minute. 
Air-engines  are  frequently  in  use  for 
subterranean  haulage  and  for  driving 
the  coal-cutting  machines  which  are  now 
to  some  extent,  employed. 

MINION,  a size  of  type  between  bre- 
vier and  nonpareil.  See  Printing. 

MINISTERS,  the  name  applied  in 
politics  to  the  chief  servants  of  the  state 
in  the  administration  of  its  affairs,  and 
the  chief  representatives  of  a country  at 
a foreign  court.  The  former  are  known 
collectively  as  the  ministry,  and  the  head 
of  the  administration  is  called  the  prime- 
minister  or  premier.  All  the  ministers 
are  appointed  by  the  prime-ministers, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  crown. 

MINISTERS,  Foreign,  are  those  ac- 
credited representatives  which  one  coun- 
try sends  to  another.  Generally  they  are 
divided  into  three  classes.  The  highest 
in  rank  is  the  ambassador  extraordinary, 
who  can  claim  to  represent  his  state  or 
sovereign  in  his  own  person,  and  receive 
honors  and  enjoy  privileges  accordingly. 
The  legates  and  nuncios  of  the  pope  also 
belong  to  this  class.  Envoys  extra- 
ordinary, internuncios,  and  ministers 
plenipotentiary  belong  to  the  second 
class,  and  neither  hold  the  same  degree 
of  power  nor  receive  the  same  distinction 
as  the  former.  The  third  class  includes 
ministers  resident,  envoys,  and  charges 
d’affaires,  the  last  being  sometimes  re- 
garded as  a fourth  class.  Persons  who 
are  sent  merely  to  conduct,  the  private 
affairs  of  their  monarch  or  his  subjects 
in  a foreign  place  are  called  agents  or 
residents;  and  where  they  are  occupied 
chiefly  with  subjects  of  a commercial 
character  they  are  called  consuls.  When 
the  foreign  minister  is  accredited  directly 
to  the  sovereign  of  a state  he  can  demand 
an  audience,  his  person  is  considered  in- 
violable, and  he  is  freed  from  taxes  and 
territorial  restrictions.  See  Ambassador, 
Envoy,  Consul. 

MINK,  an  American  and  European 
quadruped,  allied  to  the  polecat.  It  is 


Minks. 


semi-aquatic,  burrowing  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  and  ponds,  living  on  frogs, 
crayfishes,  and  fishes,  which  it  pur.sues 
in  the  water.  It  exhales  a strong  odor  of 
musk,  and  its  fur  is  in  considerable  re- 
quest. The  European  and  American 
minks  are  by  some  regarded  as  distinct 
species. 

MINNEAP'OLIS,  a city  of  the  United 
States,  capital  of  Hennepin  co.,  Minne- 
sota, on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi,  at 
the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  8 miles  n.w.  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  regularly  laid  out  with 
avenues  80  feet  wide  running  east  and 
west,  having  double  rows  of  trees  on 
each  side. 

Minneapolis  stands  on  a gently  un- 
dulating plateau,  800  feet  above  sea- 
level,  jn  a picturesque  lake  region  much 
frequented  as  a place  of  resort.  There  are 
several  lakes  within  the  city  limits  and 
of  others  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  Lake 
Minnetonka  isthe  largestand  most  popu- 
lar. An  extensive  park  system  has  been 
developed.  There  are  some  twenty 
parks,  comprising  a proportionately 
large  area  of  1581  acres.  Minnehaha 
Park,  of  133  acres,  is  a picturesque  tract, 
embracing  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha,  50 
feet  in  height,  which  have  been  immor- 
talized by  Longfellow’s  Hiawatha.  Ad- 
joining the  park  are  the  beautiful 
grounds  of  the  State  Soldier’s  Home, 
occupying  60  acres.  Minneapolis  has 
many  handsome  edifices,  both  public 
and  private.  The  court  house  and  city 
hall  was  completed  at  a cost  of  more 
than  $3,000,000. 

The  principal  industries  are  the  manu- 
facture of  flour,  engines,  boilers,  agricul- 
tural implements,  carriages,  wagons, 
and  pork-packing.  The  city  possesses  a 
territory  of  about  33  sq.  miles,  with  the 
celebrated  falls  of  Minnehaha  and  several 
fine  lakes. 

Among  the  railroads  that  contribute 
to  the  high  commercial  and  industrial 
rank  of  Minneapolis  are : the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern;  the  Burlington  Route; 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul; 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific; 
the  Northern  Pacific;  the  Great  North- 
ern; the  Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  and 
Sault  Sainte  Marie;  the  Chicago  Great 
Western ; and  the  Saint  Paul  and  Duluth. 
The  Mississippi  river  is  navigable  to 
Minneapolis,  but  vessels  practically  go 
no  higher  than  Saint  Paul.  Pop.  300,000. 

MINNESO'TA,  one  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  bounded  north  by 
Canada,  east  by  Lake  Superior  and  Wis- 
consin, south  by  Iowa,  and  west  by  the 
Dakotas;  area,  83,360  sq.  miles.  The 
chief  towns  are  Minneapolis,  and  the 
capital,  St.  Paul.  This  state  occupies 
the  summit  of  a central  plateau  formed 
by  the  conterminous  basins  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  St.  Lawrence,  and  Lake  Win- 
nipeg. The  surface  is  generally  an  un- 
dulating plain,  with  a general  slope 
southeast  toward  the  basin  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, which,  with  its  affluents,  drains 
about  two-thirds  of  the  state.  The  Red 
river  of  the  north,  which  forms  part 
of  the  west  boundary,  also  receives  a 
part  of  the  drainage,  and  part  is  carried 
by  Rainy  Lake  river  to  the  Lake  of  the 
Woods,  part  to  Lake  Superior.  Lakes 
are  numerous,  including  Leech  lake. 
Red  lake.  Vermilion  lake.  Mille  Lacs, 


MINNESOTA  RIVER 


MINT 


and  part  of  Lake  of  the  Woods  and 
Rainy  lake.  Iron  and  copper  are  among 
the  chief  minerals.  The  soil  for  the  most 
part  is  good,  and  the  Red  river  valley  is 
considered  the  finest  wheat-growing 
district  in  the  state.  A large  forest 
known  as  the  “Big  Woods”  extends  over 
the  center  of  Minnesota  for  the  length  of 
100  miles  and  a breadth  of  40  miles,  and 
the  country,  especially  above  lat.  46°, 
is  well  wooded  with  pine,  spruce,  oak, 
beech,  elm,  maple,  while  the  prairies 
have  been  planted  with  millions  of  trees 
by  the  aid  of  state  bounties.  The  climate 
is  on  the  whole  excellent,  the  winters, 
though  cold,  being  clear  and  dry;  and, 
the  temperature  being  equable,  the 
state  has  become  a winter  resort  for  in- 
valids. 

Although  only  a little  over  one-half 
of  the  land  area  is  included  in  farms, 
the  state  has  attained  the  first  rank  in 


Seal  of  Minnesota. 


the  cultivation  of  certain  crops.  In  the 
Red  river  valley  wheat-growing  has 
been  extensively  developed.  With  the 
introduction  of  modern  methods  the 
state  mills  became  famous  for  the  high 
quality  of  their  product.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  wheat  increased  rapidly,  and  in 
1890  the  state  had  become  first  in  both 
acreage  and  production.  Oats  has  about 
a third  as  great  an  acreage  as  wheat, 
and  ranks  next  to  it  in  importance. 
Both  corn  and  oats  are  grown  most  ex- 
tensively in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
state.  In  barley  and  flaxseed  raising 
also,  the  state  takes  a high  rank,  and 
increasing  quantities  of  rye  are  produced. 
Hay  and  forage  crops  cover  about  one- 
half  as  great  an  acreage  as  is  devoted  to 
wheat.  Large  quantities  of  Irish  pota- 
toes are  raised,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  sugar  beet  has  been  introduced. 
Fruit  culture  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  and  is  not  yet 
extensively  developed. 

Minnesota  is  one  of  the  richest  states 
in  forest  resources,  having  a woodland 
area  of  about  52,200  sq.  miles.  Hard- 
wood forests  border  the  prairies,  while 
farther  north  the  white  pine  predomi- 
nates, Norway  pine  and  spruce  being 
also  abundant.  The  lumber  industry 
has  increased  rapidly  and  it  ranks  third 
in  importance.  There  is  a forest  reserve 
of  200,000  acres  in  Chippewa  reserva- 
tion. 

Minnesota  is  favored  with  the  ad- 
vantages of  both  the  Saint  Lawrence 
and  the  Mississippi  systems  of  naviga- 


tion. The  latter  is  becoming  relatively 
less  important  owing  to  the  develop- 
ment of  railroads.  Duluth  has  become 
one  of  the  leading  lake  ports.  It  has 
immense  shipments  of  ore,  grain,  and 
lumber.  But  few  regions  of  the  country 
are  better  supplied  with  railroads  than 
are  the  southern  and  western  parts  of 
the  state.  Minneapolis-Saint  Paul  is  the 
objective  point  of  most  of  the  great  lines 
northwest  of  Chicago,  and  the  transcon- 
tinental Great  Northern  and  Northern 
Pacific  crosses  the  state  from  east  to 
west.  Among  the  lines  which  have  a 
large  mileage  in  the  state  are  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul;  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern ; the  Chicago, 
Saint  Paul  and  Omaha';  the  Eastern 
Railway  of  Minnesota;  and  the  Minne- 
sota and  St.  Louis.  The  total  mileage 
has  increased  from  1092  miles  in  1870  to 
over  7000. 

By  the  state  constitution  a portion  of 
land  is  set  apart  in  each  township  to  pro- 
vide a perpetual  education  fund.  The 
state  university  is  at  Minneapolis.  The 
state  sends  two  senators  and  three  repre- 
sentatives to  the  national  congress. 

The  first  European  to  visit  the  region 
now  included  within  the  state  was 
Duluth,  who,  in  1678,  built  a fort  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pigeon  river,  on  the  north 
shore  of  Lake  Superior.  In  1680  the  Falls 
of  Saint  Anthony  were  discovered  by 
Louis  Hennepin,  a Franciscan  priest 
Before  1700  there  were  trading  posts 
situated  on  Lake  Pepin  and  on  the 
Minnesota  river.  Minnesota  formed  a 
part  of  the  extensive  territory  ceded  by 
France  to  Great  Britain  in  1763.  In 
1766  it  was  explored  by  Capt.  Johnathan 
Carver,  of  Connecticut.  In  1783  it  be- 
came a possession  of  the  United  States. 
The  exploring  expedition  of  Lieutenant 
Pike  in  1805  was  followed  by  many 
others  within  the  succeeding  forty  years ; 
and  with  an  increased  knowledge  of  the 
country  came  the  first  important  be- 
ginning of  immigration.  , The  Indian 
titles  to  the  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi 
were  not  extinguished  until  the  year 
1838,  and  it  was  not  until  March  3,  1849, 
that  the  territory  of  Minnesota  was 
organized,  with  the  Missouri  river  as  its 
western  boundary.  In  1851  the  Indian 
titles  to  the  lands  (except  reservations) 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  North  were  extinguished, 
and  immigration  increased  rapidly.  On 
May  11,  1858,  Minnesota  was  admitted 
as  a state.  In  1862  the  Sioux  Indians, 
under  Little  Crow,  angered  at  the  con- 
tinuous inroads  made  upon  their  lands, 
attacked  and  destroyed  many  of  the 
frontier  settlements.  Over  500  white 
settlers  and  soldiers  were  killed  and 
25,000  people  were  driven  from  their 
homes.  Legislation  after  the  civil  war 
was  concerned  largely  with  the  regula- 
tion of  railway  corporations. 

Since  1860  Minnesota  has  been  stead- 
ily republican,  save  for  the  election  of 
1898,  when  the  democrats,  populists, 
and  silver  republicans  elected  their  can- 
didate for  governor.  Pop.  2,125,000. 

MINNESOTA  RIVER,  a river  in  the 
United  States,  which  flows  through 
Minnesota  and  falls  into  the  Mississippi 
5 miles  above  St.  Paul; length,  470 miles. 

MINNESOTA,  University  of,  a co- 


educational state  institution  of  higher 
learning  in  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  estab- 
lished in  1851.  Its  government  is  vested 
in  a board  of  thirteen  regents,  nine 
appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  state 
and  holding  office  for  six  years,  and 
three  ex-oflBcio  members,  the  governor, 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  the  president  of  the  uni- 
versity. The  annual  income  of  the  uni- 
versity is  now,  1906,  about  $510,500, 
received  from  various  sources,  as  follows; 
Permanent  endowment  fund,  $53,000; 
Hatch  and  Morrill  bills,  $40,000;  state 
tax  of  yVtt  of  a mill,  $194,000;  annual 
state  appropriation,  $69,500,  fees,  $126,- 
000;  miscellaneous  sources,  $28,000.  It 
provides  courses  in  general  college  work, 
engineering,  mining,  chemistry,  agri- 
culture— including  forestry,  home  eco- 
nomics, short  practical  course  in  agri- 
culture and  dairying,  law,  medicine — 
including  homeopathic  medicine,  den- 
tistry, pharmacy,  leading  to  appropriate 
degrees.  The  faculty  numbers  350; 
students  4,000;  alumni  6148;  buildings 
35,  valued  at  $2,200,000;  campus  50 
acres  on  east  bank  of  Mississippi  river 
well  wooded  with  native  oaks,  valued  at 
$300,000;  experimental  farm  200  acres, 
valued  at  $400,000,  and  substations  val- 
ued at  $30,000  Co-educational  in  all 
departments. 

MINNOW,  a species  of  fish  belonging 
to  the  same  genus  as  the  carp.  They 
swim  in  shoals,  seldom  exceed  3 inches 
in  length,  and  make  excellent  bait  for 
trout.  In  America  various  small  fish 
receive  this  name. 

MINOR,  a person  of  either  sex  under 
age,  who  is  under  the  authority  of  his 
parents  or  guardians,  or  who  is  not  per- 
mitted by  law  to  make  contracts  aniT 
manage  his  own  property.  See  Age. 

MINOR,  in  Music.  See  Major. 

MIN'OTAUR,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
monster  fabled  to  have  had  the  body 
of  a man  with  the  head  of  a bull,  and  to 
have  fed  on  human  flesh,  on  which 
account  Minos  shut  him  up  in  the  laby- 
rinth of  Daedalus,  and  at  first  exposed 
to  him  criminals,  but  afterward  youths 
and  maidens  yearly  sent  from  Athens 
as  a tribute.  He  was  slain  by  Theseus. 

MINSK,  a town  of  Russia,  capital  of 
government  of  same  name.  Pop.  91,494. 
The  government,  which  has  an  area  of 
35,290  sq.  miles,  has  extensive  forests 
and  great  stretches  of  marsh  or  swamp. 
Pop.  2,156,123. 

MINSTREL,  a singer  and  musical  per- 
former on  instruments.  In  the  middle 
ages  minstrels  were  a class  of  men  who 
subsisted  by  the  arts  of  poetry  and  music 
and  sang  to  the  harp  or  other  instrument 
verses  composed  by  themselves  or  others. 
The  person  of  the  minstrel  was  sacred; 
his  profession  was  a passport;  he  was 
“high  placed  in  hall,  a welcome  guest.” 
So  long  as  the  spirit  of  chivalry  existed 
the  minstrels  were  protected  and  ca- 
ressed but  they  afterward  sank  to  so  low 
a level  as  to  be  classed,  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  with  beggars  and 
vagabonds. 

MINT,  the  name  given  to  several 
aromatic  plants.  They  are  nearly  all 
perennial,  having  square  stems  which 
bear  opposite  and  simple  leaves;  they 
are  wiaely  distributed  throughout  tem- 


MINT 


MIRROR 


perate  regions;  and  tliey  abound  in 
resinous  dots  which  contain  an  essential 
oil.  Mint  has  an  agreeable  odor,  and  par- 
takes in  the  highest  degree  of  tonic  and 
stimulatingproperties.  Spearmint  is  gen- 
erally used,  mixed  with  vinegar  and 
sugar,  in  sauce.  Peppermint  yields  the 
well-lmown  stimulating  oil  of  the  same 
name.  Pennyroyal  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  peppermint. 

MINT,  the  place  where  a country’s 
coinage  is  made  and  issued  under  special 
regulations  and  with  public  authority. 
In  England  there  was  formerly  a mint 
in  almost  every  county;  the  sovereign, 
barons,  bishops,  and  principal  monas- 
teries exercised  the  right  of  coining 
and  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  William 
III.  that  all  the  provincial  mints  were 
abolished.  The  present  mint  on  Tower 
Hill,  in  London,  was  erected  between 
the  years  1810  and  1815.  In  former 
times  the  coinage  was  made  by  contract 
at  a fixed  price.  The  English  mint  sup- 
plies the  whole  of  the  coinage  of  the 
British  Empire,  except  Australia  and 
the  East  Indies,  which  are  supplied  from 
branch  mints  at  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
Calcutta,  and  Bombay.  In  the  United 
States,  there  are  mints  at  Philadelphia, 
San  Francisco,  Carson,  and  New  Orleans. 
In  France,  as  in  England,  the  number 
of  mints  was  at  one  time  considerable. 
See  Coining. 

MIN'UET,  a slow  graceful  dance  said 
to  have  been  invented  in  Poitou,  in 
France,  about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  performed  in  J or  f time.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a tune  or  air  to 
regulate  the  movements  in  the  dance, 
or  composed  in  the  same  time. 

MENUS,  in  algebra,  the  term  applied 
to  the  negative  or  subtractive  sign  -, 
which,  when  placed  between  two  quan- 
tities, signifies  that  the  latter  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  former ; thus  a - b (called 
a minus  b)  signifies  that  b is  to  be  sub- 
tracted from  a.  Quantities  which  have 
the  sign  minus  before  them  are  called 
negative  or  minus  quantities;  as,  -xy, 
- 5 cd. 

MIN'UTE,  a division  of  time  and  of 
angular  measure.  As  a division  of  time 
it  is  the  sixtieth  part  of  an  hour.  As  a 
division  of  angular  measure  it  is  the 
sixtieth  part  of  a degree.  In  astronomi- 
cal works  minutes  of  time  are  denoted 
by  the  initial  letter  m,  and  minutes  of  a 
degree  or  of  angular  space,  by  an  acute 
accent  ('). 

MI'OCENE,  in  geology,  the  name 
given  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  to  a subdivi- 
sion of  the  tertiary  strata.  The  terms 
Mipcene  and  Pliocene  are  comparative, 
the  first  meaning  less  recent  and  the 
other  more  recent.  The  Miocene  strata 
contain  fossil  plants  and  shells  which 
indicate  a warm  climate.  The  mammals 
are  important,  and  foreshadow  the 
animal  life  of  the  present  day.  No  strata 
of  Miocene  age  occur  in  the  British  Isles. 

MIRABEAU  (me-ra-bo),  Gabriel  Hon- 
or4  Riquetti,  Comte  de,  French  states- 
man, bom  in  1749  at  Bignon,  near 
Nemours;  died  at  Paris  April  2,  1791. 
At  an  early  age  he  manifested  extra- 
ordinary intelligence;  but  his  youth 
was  a stormy  ana  licentious  one,  so  much 
so  that  on  several  occasions  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  his  father  under  a lettre  de 


cachet.  It  was  during  an  imprisonment 
at  Vincennes,  which  lasted  three  years 
and  a half,  that  he  wrote  his  Lettres  ^ 
Sophie,  Lettres  de  Cachet,  and  L’Espion 
D4-valis6.  On  his  release  from  this  prison 
he  lived  for  some  time  in  Holland  and 
England,  returning  to  France  in  1785. 
On  the  assembling  of  the  states-general 
Mirabeau,  elected  for  Aix,  soon  became 
prominent.  When  the  king  required 
the  tiers  6tat  to  vote  apart  from  the 
other  two  orders  it  was  Mirabeau  who 
counseled  resistance,  demanded  the 
withdrawal  of  the  troops,  consolidated 
the  national  assembly,  and  defied  the 
king’s  orders.  For  some  months  he  con- 
tinued to  lead,  but  he  soon  found  that 


Mirabeau. 


the  members  of  the  assembly  were 
mostly  impracticable  and  inexperienced 
men,  whose  chief  function  was  to  discuss 
an  ideal  constitution.  As  a practical 
statesman  Mirabeau  desired  action,  and 
for  this  reason  he  attempted  to  form 
alliances  with  Lafayette,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  Necker,  and  finally  with  the 
queen.  Correspondence  with  the  latter 
was  maintained  through  La  Marck,  and 
he  received  a subsidy  from  the  royal 
party.  No  practical  result  followed  from 
this  secret  alliance,  for  the  queen  rejected 
Mirabeau’s  counsel  and  suspected  his 
methods  of  government.  Whether  he 
might  ultimately  have  been  able  to 
guide  the  revolution  into  peaceful  ways 
has  always  been  a matter  of  conjecture 
to  historians,  but  this  possibility  was 
prevented  by  his  death  in  1791.  This 
was  regarded  as  almost  a national 
calamity,  and  the  people  buried  him 
with  splendid  pomp  in  the  Pantheon. 

MIRACLE,  a suspension  of,  or  devia- 
tion from,  the  known  laws  of  nature, 
brought  about  by  the  direct  interference 
of  a supreme  supernatural  Being.  It  is 
in  its  nature,  as  the  term  applies,  an 
occurrence  which  is  strange,  marvelous, 
inexplicable,  and  is  usually  connected 
with  some  ulterior  moral  purpose.  By 
the  elder  theologians  a miracle  was  con- 
ceived to  be  the  triumph  of  the  Divine 
Will  over  the  work  of  His  hands  and  the 
laws  of  His  making.  In  modern  exegesis, 
however,  the  miraculous  element  is  not 
considered  to  give  evidence  of  opposing 
forces.  On  the  contrary,  a miracle  is 
explained  as  a manifestation  of  the 
Divine  Power  working  through  laws  and 
by  methods  unknown  to  us,  and  which. 


upon  a higher  plane,  are  altogether 
natural  and  orderly. 

MIRAGE  (mi-razh'),  an  optical  illu- 
sion, occasioned  by  the  refraction  of 
light  through  contiguous  masses  of  air 
of  different  density;  such  refraction  not 
unfrequently  producing  the  same  sensi- 
ble effect  as  direct  reflection.  It  consists 
in  an  apparent  elevation  or  approxima- 
tion of  coasts,  mountains,  ships,  and 
other  objects,  accompanied  by  inverted 
images.  In  deserts  where  the  surface  is 
perfectly  level  a plain  thus  assumes  the 
appearance  of  a lake,  reflecting  the 
shadows  of  objects  within  and  around  it. 
The  mirage  is  commonly  vertical,  that 
is,  presenting  an  appearance  of  one 
object  over  another,  like  a ship  above  its 
shadow  in  the  water.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  images  are  horizontal.  Loom- 
ing is  a phenomenon  of  the  same  nature, 
in  which  the  objects  appear  to  be  lifted 
above  their  true  positions,  so  that  an 
observer  sees  objects  which  are  beyond 
the  horizon.  The  cause  is  in  both  cases 
the  same,  for  while  the  mirage  is  pro- 
duced in  most  instances  by  reflection 
from  the  desert  sand,  looming  is  occa- 
sioned by  reflection  from  the  sky.  The 
phenomenon  called  Fata  Morgana  which 
is  sometimes  seen  on  the  Calabrian 
coast  is  a kind  of  mirage.  By  it  men 
and  animals  apparently  of  immense  size 
may  sometimes  be  seen  presented  in  the 
air. 

MIRROR,  a smooth  surface  capable  of 
regularly  reflecting  a great  proportion 
of  the  rays  of  light  that  fall  upon  it.  The 
mirrors  used  by  the  ancients,  and  more 
especially  by  the  Etruscans,  were  made 
of  thin  polished  bronze.  Small  metal 
mirrors  were  also  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  and  specimens  brought  by 
the  latter  have  been  found  in  Cornwall. 
The  making  of  glass  mirrors,  which  had 
their  backs  silvered  with  an  amalgam 
of  mercury  and  tin,  was  early  practiced 
by  the  Venetians.  In  1835  Liebig  ob- 
served that  by  heating  aldehyde  in  a glass 
vessel  along  with  an  ammonical  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  a coating  of  brilliant 
metallic  silver  was  left  upon  the  glass. 
This  has  now  been  made  use  of  in  mirror- 
making by  what  are  known  as  the  hot 
and  cold  processes.  In  the  hot  process 
the  glass  is  first  sensitized  with  a solution 
of  tin,  which  is  then  rinsed  off  and  the 
plate  laid  upon  a flat,  double-bottomed 
metal  table  heated  by  steam  to  about 
100°  Fahr.  In  this  position  a solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  ammonia,  and  tartaric 
acid  in  distilled  water  is  poured  over  it ; 
and  if  the  temperature  is  kept  uniform 
a thick  deposit  of  silver  will  be  formed 
in  about  half  an  hour.  When  the  silver 
layer  is  carefully  wiped  this  process  is 
repeated.  In  the  cold  process  a solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  nitrate  of  ammonium 
and  caustic  soda  dissolved  in  water,  is 
mixed  with  a solution  of  loaf-sugar, 
vinegar,  and  water.  This  is  poured 
quickly  and  evenly  over  the  glass  plate, 
and  the  silver  is  precipitated  in  a few 
minutes,  after  which  it  is  washed  and  the 
process  repeated.  The  silvering  is  then 
protected  by  a coating  of  shellac  or 
copal  varnish.  More  recently  a solution 
of  bichloride  of  platinum  is  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  glass  and  precipitated 
with  oil  of  lavender  in  the  manufacture 


MIRZAPUR 


MISSISSIPPI 


of  the  cheapest  mirrors.  Mirrors  may 
be  plane  or  spherical,  and  in  the  latter 
case  they  may  be  either  convex  or  con- 
cave. The  optical  principles  involved  in 
reflection  from  mirrors  are  simple. 

MIRZAPUR,  a city  of  India,  capital  of 
a district  of  same  name,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  on  the  Ganges,  56  miles  be- 
low Allahabad  and  45  above  Benares. 
Pop.  79,862. — The  district  has  an  area 
of  5223  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,161,508. 

MISDEMEANOR,  an  offense  of  a less 
atrocious  nature  than  a crime,  including 
generally  all  indictable  offenses  which 
do  not  amount  to  felony,  as  perjury, 
libels,  conspiracies,  assaults,  etc. 

MISERE'RE,  the  name  of  a psalm  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  service, 
taken  from  the  fifty-first  Psalm,  be- 
ginning in  the  Vulgate,  “Miserere  mei, 
Domine”  (“Pity  me,  O Lord”).  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  a projecting 
bracket  on  the  under  side  of  a hinged 
seat  in  a stall  of  a church;  or  to  the  seat 
and  bracket  together.  The  bracket  served 
as  a rest  for  a person  standing,  the  seat 
being  turned  up. 

MISSIONS,  Missionaries.  The  first 
Christian  missionaries  were  the  apostles, 
and  by  them  and  their  successors  Chris- 
tianity was  in  the  course  of  a few  cen- 
turies spread  over  all  parts  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  some  parts,  as  in  Britain, 
it  gave  way  again  before  the  Germanic 
invaders  of  the  5th  and  6th  centuries, 
and  some  of  the  most  noted  mission- 
aries were  those  who  reintroduced  their 
faith  among  the  German  tribes.  St. 
Augustine  or  Austin,  who  was  sent  by 
Gregory  the  Great  with  forty  associates 
to  preach  the  gospel  among  the  Saxons 
of  Britain  at  the  end  of  the  6th  century, 
was  the  first  of  this  missionary  group. 
Britain  in  its  turn  sent  forth  mission- 
aries, such  as  St.  Boniface,  “the  apostle 
of  Germany.”  Germany  also  sent  out 
the  missionaries  who  converted  Den- 
mark, Sweden  and  Norway,  Poland, 
Hungary,  and  Bohemia.  The  Crusades 
opened  up  new  spheres  for  missionary 
efforts  in  the  east,  and  two  religious 
orders  founded  at  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century,  the  Dominicans  and  Fran- 
ciscans, devoted  themselves  to  preach- 
ing among  the  Musselmans.  Others  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  Tartary,  Tibet,  and 
China,  but  the  persecutions  there  be- 
came so  violent  that  those  countries  had 
to  be  abandoned.  A new  impulse  was 
given  to  missions  by  the  discovery  of 
the  New  World.  When  the  way  had 
been  prepared  by  the  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese armies  a crowd  of  friars  of  all 
orders  set  out  for  the  West  Indies,  Mexi- 
co, Peru,  and  Brazil,  to  spread  Catholi- 
cism ; but  very  few,  like  Las  Casas,  pro- 
tected- the  natives  from  rapacity  or 
preached  Christianity  by  their  conduct. 
The  powerful  order  of  the  Jesuits,  which 
was  founded  in  the  16th  century, 
turned  their  attention  to  the  east,  and 
the  celebrated  Francis  Xavier,  a mem- 
ber of  the  order,  proceeded  to  India, 
where  his  efforts  were  crowned  with 
success.  From  India  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Japan,  where  it  had  to 
contend  against  terrible  persecutions, 
before  which  the  missionaries  were  com- 
pelled to  retire.  Father  Ricci,  another 
Jesuit,  penetrated  to  Peking,  and  suc- 


ceeded about  the  end  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury in  gaining  a firm  footing.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  some 
Dominican  missionaries  made  Tonquin 
and  Cochin  China  the  center  of  their 
efforts,  and  pushed  out  thence  into  all 
the  neighboring  countries  with  consider- 
able success.  In  1622  Gregory  XV.  gave 
a better  organization  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  missions  by  the  foundation  of 
the  Propaganda,  and  they  are  now  very 
widely  spread  and  carried  on  with  much 
energy. 

The  earliest  Protestant  foreign  mis- 
sion appears  to  have  been  one  which  was 
established  in  Brazil  in  1555.  Gustavus 
Vasa,  king  of  Sweden  from  1523  to  1560, 
toward  the  close  of  his  reign  sent  forth 
a mission  to  convert  the  Laplanders. 
Shortly  after  the  settlement  of  New 
England  in  1620  John  Eliot  took  a deep 
interest  in  the  condition  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  and  in  1646  began  a 
regular  mission  among  that  people. 
But  these  were  only  isolated  trivial 
efforts,  and  it  was  not  until  the  18th 
century  that  the  true  missionary  spirit 
awoke.  The  English  took  the  lead  in 
this  movement,  but  were  speedily  fol- 
lowed by  Danes  and  Germans,  espe- 
cially the  Moravian  Brethren.  After  the 
missions  of  Great  Britain  the  next  in 
importance  are  those  of  the  United 
States.  The  first  missionary  society  of 
this  country  was  founded  in  1810  under 
the  title  of  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions.  The 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union  was 
founded  in  1814,  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church  Missionary  Society  in  1819, 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Missionary 
Society  in  1820,  the  Presbyterian  Board 
of  Foreign  Missions  in  1833.  The  Ameri- 
can missionaries  have  naturally  done 
much  in  the  conversion  of  the  Indians 
of  this  continent,  but  their  missions  are 
widely  spread  elsewhere. 

MISSISSIP'PI  (“Great  Water”),  the 
principal  river  of  North  America,  and 
one  of  the  largest  rivers  in  the  world. 
It  has  its  source  in  Lake  Itasca,  state  of 
Minnesota,  whence  it  issues  about  12 
feet  wide  and  2 feet  deep ; from  thence  it 
trends  southward  through  a number  of 
lakes  and  over  a series  of  rapids  until 
the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  are  reached; 
below  this  it  receives  the  Iowa,  the 
Illinois,  and  the  Missouri  as  tributaries, 
but  the  latter  is  really  the  main  stream, 
having  a length  of  2908  miles  before  the 
rivers  unite,  while  that  of  the  Mississippi 
is  only  1330  miles.  From  St.  Louis,  a 
little  below  their  confluence,  the  Mis- 
sissippi becomes  a broad,  rapid,  muddy 
river,  liable  to  overflow  its  banks;  lower 
down  it  receives  in  succession  the  Ohio, 
Arkansas,  and  Red  rivers,  and  it  finally 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through  a large 
delta  with  several  “passes,”  some  dis- 
tance belowNew  Orleans.  The  combined 
lengths  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi 
are  about  4200  miles;  the  whole  area 
drained  by  the  Mississippi  is  1,246,000 
sq.  miles;  the  maximum  flood  volume 
reaches  1,400,000  cubic  feet  per  second 
below  the  Ohio;  and  the  sediment  trans- 
ported to  the  gulf  annually  would  make 
a solid  block  1 mile  square  and  260  feet 
high.  Above  its  junction  with  the  Ohio 
at  Cairo  the  river  enters  upon  a large 


alluvial  basin,  bounded  on  both  sides 
by  high  bluffs,  and  through  this  plain 
the  river  winds  for  about  1150  miles. 
The  volume  is  usually  smallest  in  Octo- 
ber and  greatest  in  April,  and  the  low- 
lying  lands  are  subject  to  terrible  flood- 
ings during  the  spring  freshets.  At  many 
places  attempts  have  been  made  to 
secure  the  river  within  its  banks  and 
save  the  country  from  loss  and  suffering 
by  building  dykes,  or  levees  as  they  are 
called.  The  sediment  carried  down, 
however,  is  continually  raising  the  bed 
of  the  river,  and  thus  breaks  are  fre- 
quently made  in  these  levees.  A recent 
method  of  improving  the  river’s  course, 
sanctioned  by  congress  and  superin- 
tended by  Captain  Eads,  is  to  construct 
light  willow  screens  or  dams  on  the 
shoals  and  at  the  wide  places  on  the 
river  where  bars  already  exist.  By  this 
a deposit  is  formed  which  in  time  will 
act  as  a bank  to  hem  in  the  river,  while 
the  increased  volume  thus  obtained 
will  help  to  scour  out  a deeper  channel. 
The  most  important  towns  on  the  river 
banks  are  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  Cairo, 
Memphis,  Vicksburg,  Natchez,  and 
New  Orleans. 

MISSISSIPPI,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  America;  bounded  north  by  Tennes- 
see, east  by  Alabama,  south  by  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  Louisiana,  and  west  by 
Louisiana  and  Arkansas;  area,  46,810 
sq.  miles.  The  Mississippi  winds  along 
its  western  frontiers  for  530  miles.  Near 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  the  country  is  low 
and  swampy,  the  central  part  is  hilly 
and  mostly  prairie-land,  a large  part  of 
the  northeast  is  covered  with  forests, 
while  7000  sq.  miles  along  the  Mississippi 
consist  of  rich  bottom-lands.  This  river 


Seal  of  Mississippi. 


receives  the  far  larger  part  of  the  drain- 
age. In  the  north  the  climate  is  toler- 
ably mild  and  agreeable;  but  in  the 
south,  below  lat.  13°,  and  along  the 
swampy  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  it  i.s 
both  extremely  hot  and  unhealthy.  In 
the  southeast,  where  the  pine  forests 
extend,  the  soil  is  light  and  compara- 
tively barren,  but  large  tracts  of  it  are 
well  adapted  for  pasture.  In  the  north- 
west, on  the  borders  of  the  Yazoo,  the 
soil  is  composed  of  rich  black  mould;', 
and  in  the  Mississippi  bottom-lands,  ; 
where  it  is  protected  from  inundation  ' 
by  embankments  or  levees,  it  is  of  re-  ) 
markable  fertility.  The  staple  of  the  > 
state  is  cotton,  and  the  othc  crops  are  j 
chiefly  Indian  corn,  bananas,  sweet-  | 


MISSISSIPPI 


MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME 


potatoes,  tobacco,  and  indigo;  while 
fruit  is  abundant.  The  predominant  in- 
dustry in  the  state  is  agriculture  and  it 
is  highly  favored  both  by  the  nature  of 
the  climate  and  the  soil.  The  most  de- 
sirable region  is  included  between  the 
Yazoo  and  the  Mississippi  rivers.  Very 
extensive  areas  are  still  covered  with 
forests,  but  it  is  nearly  all  susceptible  of 
cultivation.  There  are  18,240,736  acres, 
or  61.5  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  in- 
cluded in  farms.  Of  this  41.6  percent 
is  improved,  the  improved  area  hav- 
ing increased  about  1,500,000  acres 
since  1860,  while  the  unimproved  area 
remains  about  the  same.  The  change 
in  the  system  of  agriculture  incident 
upon  the  cessation  of  slavery  has  de- 
creased the  average  size  of  farms  from 

369.7  acres  in  1860  to  82.6  in  1900. 
In  no  other  state  is  cotton  so  dominant 
as  in  Mississippi.  The  acreage  of  cotton 
is  over  half  of  the  total  crop  acreage  and 
contributes  63.6  per  cent  of  the  value 
of  farm  crops.  The  state  ranks  third  in 
the  production  of  cotton.  The  greatest 
production  was  reached  in  1897-98, 
when  the  output  amounted  to  1,600,000 
bales,  and  only  once  in  that  decade  did 
the  production  fall  below  1,000,000 
bales.  Aside  from  cotton  the  agricultural 
interest  of  the  state  is  almost  wholly 
centered  in  corn.  The  acreage  of  this 
crop  constitutes  95.9  per  cent  of  the 
total  area  devoted  to  cereals.  The  pro- 
duction of  oats  has  decreased.  Com- 
pared with  its  sister  state  across  the 
Mississippi  river,  remarkably  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  growing  of  sugar  cane, 
and  the  crop  of  late  years  is  almost 
wholly  converted  into  syrup  and  mo- 
lasses. Small  fruits  and  orchard  fruits 
are  not  extensively  raised.  In  the  de- 
cade 1890-1900,  however,  the  number 
of  trees  almost  doubled.  In  the  latter 
year  the  peach  trees  numbered  1,856,748 
which  was  53  per  cent  of  the  total  num- 
ber. 

The  manufacturing  industry  is  prob- 
ably less  developed  in  Mississippi  than 
in  any  other  of  the  older  states  of  the 
Union.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rate  of 
the  recent  increase  has  been  ■ greater 
than  that  of  most  of  the  other  states. 
In  the  decade  1880-1890  the  value  of 
the  manufactured  product  increased 

148.8  per  cent  and  in  the  decade  1890- 
1900  increased  116.1  per  cent.  Having 
no  large  transportation  center,  and  the 
water  power  and  mineral  resources  be- 
ing of  little  consequence,  the  state  is  at 
a comparative  industrial  disadvantage. 
But  the  products  of  her  cotton  fields 
and  forests  supply  an  abundance  of  raw 
materials. 

The  manufacture  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  cake — experienced  an  increase 
during  the  decade  of  177.6  per  cent.  The 
state  contained  the  first  mill  of  this 
kind  erected  in  the  United  States.  A 
less  absolute  but  much  larger  per  cent 
of  increase  was  made  in  cotton-ginning. 
The  export  trade,  carried  on  through 
New  Orleans  and  Mobile,  is  chiefly  in 
lumber  and  cotton,  while  the  river  and 
coasting  traffic  is  large.  The  railroads 
extend  to  about  2500  miles.  The  state 
supports  a public  school  system  with 
separate  schools  for  the  white  and  col- 
ored races,  besides  a state  university 


and  other  schools  of  high  grade.  The 
capital  is  Jackson.  The  other  principal 
towns  are  Vicksburg  and  Natchez. 

In  1539  Hernando  de  Soto,  with  a 
band  of  Spanish  adventurers,  crossed 
the  northeastern  part  of  what  is  now 
the  state,  and  in  the  early  part  of  1541 
reached  the  Mississippi  river,  near  the 
present  site  of  Memphis,  Tenn.  In  1673 
the  French  explorers  Joliet  and  Mar- 
quette, passing  down  the  Mississippi, 
sailed  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Arkan- 
sas. In  1681-82  La  Salle  sailed  down 
the  river  to  its  mouth,  and,  taking 
formal  possession  for  the  king  of  France, 
Louis  XIV.,  named  the  country  Louis- 
iana after  him.  The  first  attempt  to 
found  a colony  was  made  in  1699  by 
Iberville,  who  brought  200  Immigrants 
from  France  to  Biloxi,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Biloxi. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1763,  France 
ceded  all  her  possessions  east  of  the 
Mississippi  river  to  England,  excepting 
the  island  of  New  Orleans,  ceded  to 
Spain.  The  British  province  of  West 
Florida  at  first  extended  eastward  from 
the  Mississippi  river  along  the  Gulf 
coasts,  with  its  northern  limit  at  the 
31st  parallel  of  north  latitude.  Soon 
afterward  the  northern  boundary  was 
, fixed  at  a line  drawn  eastward  from  the 
point  where  the  Yazoo  river  unites  with 
the  Mississippi. 

During  the  revolutionary  war  of  the 
Atlantic  colonies,  West  Florida  re- 
mained undisturbed  until  1779.  In 
1781  West  Florida  was  conquered  by 
Spain.  In  1798,  the  territory  was  ex- 
tended from  the  Mississippi  river  east- 
ward to  the  Chattahoochee  river.  By 
the  treaty  of  1795  Spain  ceded  her  claims 
to  the  United  States.  In  the  war  of 
1812  the  territory  was  well  represented 
at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  In  March, 
1817,  congress  passed  an  enabling  act  for 
the  admission  of  Mississippi  to  the  Union 
and  the  state  was  formally  admitted 
December  10,  1817.  The  most  notable 
features  of  the  first  constitution  of 
Mississippi  were  the  high  property 
qualifications  for  holding  office,  the 
short  tenures  of  offices,  and  the  large 
appointing  power  of  the  governor  and 
legislature.  The  first  governor  was 
David  Holmes,  and  during  his  adminis- 
tration the  capital  was  permanently 
located  at  Jackson,  near  the  headwaters 
of  the  Pearl  river.  Upon  the  outbreak 
of  the  Mexican  war  Mississippi  was 
called  upon  to  furnish  one  regiment  of 
volunteers,  but  more  than  enough  men 
for  two  regiments  responded.  The  first 
regiment  was  commanded  by  Col. 
Jefferson  Davis,  who  won  great  distinc- 
tion at  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista.  In 
1851  occurred  the  first  important  strug- 
gle in  Mississippi  over  the  slavery  ques- 
tion, which  had  become  serious  on 
account  of  the  enactment  by  congress 
of  the  so-called  Compromise  Measures 
of  1850.  It  was  left,  however,  for  the 
election  of  Lincoln  to  bring  the  secession 
movement  to  a head.  An  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  on  January  9, 
1861,  by  a convention,  by  a vote  of  84 
to  15,  and  the  state  constitution  was 
amended  to  bring  it  into  conformity 
with  the  constitution  of  the  confederate 


states.  In  1870  the  state  was  re-admitted 
into  the  Union.  By  the  constitution  of 
1890  the  suffrage  was  restricted  to  those 
able  to  read  a section  of  the  constitu- 
tion, or  to  interpret  any  passage,  if  read 
aloud,  a provision  aimed  against  the 
negro  voter,  and  sufficiently  successful 
in  attaining  its  aim.  In  national  elec- 
tions Mississippi  has  been  a democratic 
state  with  the  exception  of  the  year 
1840,  when  it  voted  for  the  whig  candi- 
date, and  of  1872,  when  its  vote  was 
given  to  Grant.  In  1864  and  1868  its 
vote  was  not  counted.  Pop.  1,750,612. 

MISSISSIPPI,  University  of,  a state 
university  chartered  in  1844  and  opened 
in  1848,  at  Oxford,  Miss.,  and  main- 
tained until  1880  by  annual  grants  by 
the  legislature.  In  1872  the  policy  of 
separate  schools,  with  optional  studies 
and  with  courses  leading  to  other  de- 
grees besides  that  of  B.A.,  was  adopted. 
The  work  of  the  university  is  organized 
in  seven  undergraduate  courses,  par- 
tially elective,  leading' to  the  bachelor’s 
degree  in  arts,  science,  pedagogy,  phi- 
losophy, mining,  and  both  civil  and 
electrical  engineering.  The  university 
also  maintains  a law  school  and  a sum- 
mer school,  and  confers  the  degree  of 
M.A.  and  Ph.D.  In  1894  the  preparatory 
education  was  discontinued  at  the  uni- 
versity; and  the  requirements  for  ad- 
mission are  those  adopted  by  the  Asso- 
ciation of  Colleges  and  Preparatory 
Schools  of  the  Southern  States,  of  which 
the  universityis  one  of  the  original  mem- 
bers. Students  from  approved  high 
schools  are  admitted  without  examina- 
tion. Since  1882  women  are  admitted 
to  the  classes,  but  are  not  permitted 
to  lodge  on  the  campus. 

MISSISSIPPI  AGRICULTURAL  AND 
MECHANICAL  COLLEGE,  a state  insti- 
tution at  Agricultural  College,  Miss., 
founded  in  1880  on  the  federal  land 
grant  of  1862.  It  has  a preparatory  de- 
partment and  three  courses  of  instruc- 
tion, agricultural,  mechanical,  and  tex- 
tile, with  provision  for  graduate  work 
and  summer  sessions.  It  confers  the 
degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Master  of 
Science,  and  the  honorary  degree  of 
Master  of  Progressive  Agriculture.  Tui- 
tion is  free  to  students  residing  in  the 
state;  others  pay  an  annual  fee  of  $20. 
The  college  has  a military  organization, 
and  all  students  are  required  to  wear  a 
prescribed  uniform  within  five  miles  of 
the  college  buildings.  The  attendance 
of  women  is  permitted. 

MISSISSIPPI  SCHEME,  a bubble 
scheme  projected  by  John  Law  at  Paris 
in  1717.  Part  of  the  scheme  was  for  the 
colonization  and  development  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  but  combined  with 
this  there  was  a banking  scheme  and  a 
scheme  for  the  management  of  the 
national  debt,  the  whole  being  sup- 
ported by  the  French  government. 
Such  were  the  hopes  raised  by  this 
undertaking  that  the  shares  originally 
issued  at  500  livres  (say  $100)  were 
sold  at  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  and  even 
forty  times  their  value.  People  came 
from  all  parts  of  France,  and  even 
from  foreign  countries,  in  order  to  in- 
vest in  the  company,  and  there  was 
a general  mania  of  specidation.  The 
state  took  advantage  of  the  popular 


MISSOURI 


MISSOURI 


frenzy  to  issue  increased  quantities  of 
paper-money,  which  was  readily  ac- 
cepted by  the  public  creditors  and  in- 
vested in  shares  of  Law’s  company. 
This  went  on  till  the  value  of  the  paper- 
money  became  depreciated  in  value  and 
all  the  shares  fell  in  price.  All  attempts 
to  check  the  downward  course  failed, 
and  when  Law,  the  originator  of  the 
bankrupt  company,  fled  from  France  in 
1720  the  state  acknowledged  itself 
debtor  to  the  shareholders  to  the  extent 
of  1700  million  livres.  See  Law,  John. 

MISSOURI  (mi-s6're),  a river  of  North 
America,  which  is  formed  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Montana,  winds  circuit- 
ously along  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
then  east  till  it  reaches  the  western 
boundary  of  N.  Dakota,  and  receives 
the  Yellowstone.  Here  it  begins  to  flow 
southeastward  through  N.  and  S. 
Dakota,  then  forms  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  Nebraska,  separating  it  from  Iowa 
and  Missouri;  separates  for  a short  dis- 
tance Kansas  from  Missouri,  then  strikes 
eastward  across  the  latter  state,  and 
joins  the  Mississippi  after  a course  of 
2908  miles.  It  it  navigable  2500  miles 
from  the  Mississippi.  Its  affluents  are 
very  numerous  on  both  banks,  but  by 
far  the  most  important  of  them  are  the 
Yellowstone,  the  Nebraska  or  Platte, 
and  the  Kansas,  all  from  the  west. 

MISSOURI,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  bounded  north  by  Iowa; 
east  by  the  Mississippi,  which  separates 
it  chiefly  from  Illinois,  but  partly  also 
from  Kentucky  and  Tennessee;  south 
by  Arkansas;  and  west  by  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  from  which  it  is  partly  sepa- 
rated by  the  Missouri,  and  by  the  Indian 
Territory;  area,  69,415  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  traversed  by  numerous  hills 
and  swelling  ridges,  but  the  southeast 
comer  is  almost  an  alluvial  flat.  The 


Seal  of  Missouri. 


most  important  rivers  are  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Missouri,  the  latter  of  which 
crosses  the  state  from  west  to  east,  and 
has  several  navigable  tributaries — the 
Lamine,  Osage, Gasconade,  the  Grand,  and 
Charlton.  The  state  is  rich  in  minerals: 
iron  and  lead  are  produced,  the  latter 
in  large  quantities,  and  coal  is  raised  to 
the  extent  of  some  4,000,000  tons 
annually.  Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  and 
there  is  a great  deal  of  valuable  timber. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry, 
33,997,873  acres,  or  77.3  per  cent  of  the 
total  area,  is  included  in  farms.  The  crop 
production  is  characterized  by  the  great 


attention  given  to  corn,  which  consti- 
tutes over  71  per  cent  of  the  total  cereal 
crop,  and  places  Missouri  among  the 
leading  corn  states.  Wheat  is  the  next 
most  important  of  the  cereals.  A largely 
increasing  acreage  is  devoted  to  hay  and 
forage,  which  together  rank  next  to  corn 
in  area.  A great  deal  of  flax  is  raised 
near  the  western  border  of  the  state 
south  of  the  Missouri  river.  In  the 
lowlands  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
state,  cotton  is  the  leading  crop.  Po- 
tatoes and  iorghum  cane  are  grown 
throughout  Missouri.  The  state  pro- 
duces watermelons,  tomatoes,  cab- 
bages, and  other  vegetables.  Broom 
corn  and  castor  beans  receive  some  at- 1 
tention.  Both  small  fruits  and  orchard  I 
fruits  are  grown  in  abundance. 

Red  deer  are  found  in  every  part  of 
the  state,  especially  in  the  thinly  set- 
tled and  mountainous  districts.  Wild 
turkeys  are  numerous  in  the  swampy 
and  mountainous  districts,  and  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  Prairie 
chickens  are  found  in  the  prairie  portion 
of  Missouri,  and  are  shipped  in  great 
quantities  to  eastern  markets.  And  in 
all  parts  of  Missouri  are  found  the 
quail  or  Virginia  partridge.  The  rab- 
bit, a species  of  hare,  is  so  common  as  to 
be  considered  a .pest.  The  gray  squir- 
rel and  the  red  fox-squirrel  are  also 
found  in  large  numbers  all  over  the 
state.  Black  bass,  perch,  catfish,  buf- 
falo fish,  suckers,  and  pike  are  the 
leading  varieties  of  native  fish. 

Missouri  is  the  leading  manufactur- 
ing state  west  of  the  Mississippi.  De- 
velopment in  this  direction  has  been 
favored  by  its  location  on  the  Mississip- 
pi and  Missouri  rivers.  The  growing 
of  tobacco  in  the  state  gives  rise  to  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  this  product, 
especially  chewing  and  smoking  tobac- 
co and  snuff.  A large  number  of  rail- 
roads cross  the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis, 
while  Kansas  City  and  St.  Joseph  on 
the  western  border  are  also  large  rail- 
road centers.  Some  of  the  leading  lines 
in  Missouri  are:  The  Missouri  Pacific, 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe,  the 
St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco,  St.  Louis 
Southwestern,  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
and  Quincy,  Chicago  and  Alton,  the 
Wabash,  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moun- 
tain and  Southern.  The  climate  is 
generally  healthy,  but  subject  to 
extremes.  Education  has  been  well 
provided  for,  both  by  the  state  and  by 
the  different  religious  bodies.  Be- 
sides the  state  university  there  are  other 
universities  and  colleges  (medical  and 
other),  normal  schools,  school  of  agri- 
culture, school  of  mining  and  metal- 
lurgy, etc.  Jefferson  City  is  the  capital, 
but  St.  Louis  is  the  commercial  metropo- 
lis and  largest  city,  and  there  are  many 
others  more  populous  than  Jefferson. 

Missouri  was  part  of  the  vast  area  of 
Louisiana  claimed  by  the  French  on  the 
ground  of  the  discoveries  of  La  Salle, 
who  descended  the  Mississippi  to  its 
mouth  in  1681-82.  A few  years  before 
La  Salle,  in  1673,  Marquette  and  Joliet 
had  sailed  down  the  river  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  The  territory 
included  within  the  present  state  was 
traversed  before  1720  by  parties  of 
French  explorers  in  search  of  mines  of 


lead  and  silver,  and  in  1723  a certain 
Lieutenant  Renaud  received  the  grant 
of  a large  tract  of  land  in  that  region. 
The  foundation  of  Old  Saint-Genevieve 
is  sometimes  placed  in  the  year  1735. 
The  second  settlement  within  the  state 
was  St.  Louis,  established  as  a trading- 
post  in  1764,  a year  after  the  cession  of 
Louisiana  to  Spain  by  the  Peace  of  Paris. 
After  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana  by 
the  United  States,  in  1803,  the  entire 
territory  was  divided  into  two  by  the 
line  of  the  33d  parallel  of  latitude,  the 
northern  part  being  known  as  the  dis- 
trict and  territory  of  Louisiana  till  1812 
and  subsequently  as  the  territory  of 
Missouri.  In  June,  1812,  Missouri  was 
organized  as  a territory,  with  a gover- 
nor and  general  assembly.  In  1818 
Missouri  applied  for  admission  to  the 
Union  as  a state.  Two  years  of  bitter 
controversy  followed  a resolution  in- 
troduced into  Congress  of  an  anti-slav- 
ery restriction.  This  was  settled  by 
the  adoption  of  the  ‘ ‘Missouri  compro- 
mise,” which  forbade  slavery  in  all 
that  portion  of  the  Louisiana  purchase 
lying  north  of  36°  30'  except  in  Mis- 
souri, and  on  July  19, 1820,  Missouri  was 
admitted  to  the  union. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Missouri,  though  a slave  state, 
was  not  an  ardent  defender  of  slavery, 
and  a very  large  proportion  of  its  citizens 
were  interested  in  movements  look- 
ing toward  the  gradual  emancipation  of 
the  slaves.  With  the  rise  of  the  abolition- 
ists, however,  Missouri  became  decidedly 
a pro-slavery  state.  It  favored  the 
annexation  of  Texas  in  1845,  and  took 
a very  prominent  share  in  the  Mexican 
war.  General  Kearny’s  army  of  invasion 
consisting  largely  of  Missourians.  In 
1849  the  legislature  adopted  the  so- 
called  Jackson  resolutions,  in  which  the 
right  of  congress  to  regulate  slavery  in 
the  territories  was  denied,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  squattersovereignty  wasasserted. 
In  reply  to  President  Lincoln’s  call  for 
troops.  Governor  Jackson,  who,  with 
the  rest  of  the  state  government,  was  in 
favor  of  secession,  refused  to  participate 
in  the  “unholy  crusade,”  and  sum- 
moned the  state  militia  to  arms.  Be- 
tween the  state  militia  and  the  federal 
troops,  under  Colonel  Lyon  aided  by 
the  volunteer  bands  which  the  loyalists 
of  St.  Louis  had  organized,  civil  war 
ensued.  The  governor,  together  with  a 
majority  of  the  legislature,  fled  to  the 
southern  part  of  the  state,  and  the 
supreme  power  was  assumed  by  the  con- 
vention, which  declared  all  the  offices 
vacant  and  proceeded  to  install  a pro- 
visional government.  With  the  fall  of 
the  confederate  power  in  Missouri  the 
regular  state  government  was  reorgan- 
ized (1864),  and  in  January,  1865,  a con- 
stitutional convention  controlled  by  the 
radical  union  party  assembled  in  St. 
Louis.  Since  the  war  the  prosperity  of 
the  state  has  been  greatly  increased  by 
the  development  of  its  mineral  indus- 
tries, and  the  growth  of  railroads.  The 
improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Missouri  was  carried 
on  actively  for  many  years.  In  the 
matter  of  public  education  there  has 
been  exceedingly  rapid  progress,  the 


MISSOURI  COMPROMISE 


MITRAILLEUSE 


school  fund  of  the  state  being  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  Union.  In  1903  an  ex- 
position was  held  at  St.  Louis  to  com- 
memorate the  one  hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana. 

From  1824  to  the  civil  war  Missouri 
was  always  democratic,  but  the  whig 
minority  was  very  strong.  From  1864 
to  1872  the  republicans  were  in  power, 
but  the  defection  of  a large  body  of 
liberal  republicans  who  were  opposed 
to  the  vindictive  policy  pursued  against 
those  who  had  participated  in  the  re- 
bellion led  to  the  reestablishment  of 
democratic  supremacy,  which  has  re- 
mained unbroken  since,  save  for  the  elec- 
tion of  1894,  when  the  republicans  secured 
a majority  in  the  legislature  and  the  con- 
gressional delegation.  Pop.  3,575,862. 

MISSOURI  COMPROMISE,  an  act  of 
the  American  congress,  passed  in  1820, 
by  which  Missouri  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a slave-holding  state  but 
which  enacted  that  slavery  should  never 
be  established  in  any  future-formed 
state  north  of  lat.  36°  30'. 

MISSOURI,  University  of,  at  Colum- 
bia, in  Boone  county,  is  the  oldest  state 
university  west  of  the  Mississippi  river. 
Its  legal  existence  dates  from  Feb.  11, 
1839,  and  the  beginning  of  its  courses  of 
instruction  from  April  14,  1841.  The  or- 
ganization of  the  university  comprises 
nine  departments:  The  college  of  lib- 
eral arts;  the  Missouri  teachers’  col- 
lege, the  college  of  agriculture  and 
mechanic  arts  (including  the  experi- 
ment station),  the  college  of  engineer- 
ing, the  Missouri  school  of  mines  (at 
Rolla),  the  department  of  law,  the  de- 
partment of  medicine,  the  Missouri  state 
military  school,  and  the  graduate  de- 
partment. All,  excepting  the  military 
school,  are  open  to  women.  178  profes- 
sors, assistant  professors,  instructors, 
and  assistants  were  engaged  in  teaching 
in  the  various  faculties  in  1906.  Forty- 
five  states  and  eighteen  foreign  coun- 
tries were  represented  in  1905-6  by 
2,067  students,  an  increase  in  attend- 
ance of  more  than  100%  since  1901, 
when  the  enrollment  first  reached  1,000. 
No  tuition  is  charged  and  the  cost  of 
living  is  comparatively  low.  Excellent 
laboratory  facilities  exist  and  in  the 
various  general  and  special  libraries 
more  than  120,000  books  and  pamphlets 
are  accessible  to  students.  The  build- 
ings, grounds,  books,  and  other  equip- 
ment are  valued  at  $2,000,000,  and  the 
income  of  the  university  in  1905-6  was 
$510,000.  There  are  30  buildings — 23  at 
Columbia  and  7 at  the  School  of  Mines 
at  Rolla. 

MISTLETOE,  a plant  growing  para- 
sitically  on  various  trees,  and  celebrated 
on  account  of  the  religious  purposes  to 
which  it  was  consecrated  by  the  ancient 
Celtic  nations  of  Europe,  being  held  in 
great  veneration  by  the  Druids,  par- 
ticularly when  it  was  found  growing  on 
the  oak.  It  is  a small  shrub,  with  sessile, 
oblong,  entire,  somewhat  leathery 
leaves,  and  small,  yellowish-green  flow- 
ers, the  whole  forming  a pendent  bush 
covered  in  winter  with  small  white  ber- 
ries, which  contain  a glutinous  substance. 
It  is  common  enough  on  certain  species 
of  trees,  such  as  apple  and  pear  trees, 
hawthorn,  maple,  lime,  and  other 


similar  trees,  but  is  very  seldom  found 
on  the  oak.  Its  roots  penetrate  into  the 
substance  of  the  tree  on  which  it  grows, 
and  latterly  it  kills  the  branch  support- 
ing it. 

MISTRAL,  a violent  cold  northwest 
wind  experienced  in  Provence  and  other 
neighboring  districts  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  destroying  crops, 
fruit,  blossom,  etc.  It  blows  with  great- 
est violence  in  autumn,  winter,  and 
early  spring. 

MITCHEL,  Ormsby  McKnight,  Ameri- 
can astronomer,  was  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1809.  He  was  assigned  to  the  artillery, 
and  until  1832  was  assistant  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  United  States 
military  academy.  He  resigned  from 
the  army  and  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics, philosophy,  and  astronomy  in 
Cincinnati  College  in  1836.  In  1844  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  construction 
of  an  observatory  in  Cincinnati,  of 
which  he  vvas  made  first  director.  During 
his  incumbency  of  this  office,  which  ex- 
tended over  many  years,  he  made  many 
notable  astronomical  discoveries,  in- 
cluding, with  exactness,  that  of  the  period 
of  rotation  of  the  planet  Mars,  and  in 
1859  he  took  charge  of  the  Dudley 
University  in  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  was 
promoted  major-general  of  volunteers 
in  1862.  He  died  in  1862. 

MITCHELL,  Donald  Grant  (Ik  Mar- 
vel), American  author,  was  born  in 
Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1822.  In  1850 
and  1851  he  wrote  Reveries  of  a 
Bachelor,  and  Dream  Life,  the  books 
most  popularly  associated  with  his 
pseudonym,  Ik  Marvel.  In  1848  he 
again  went  abroad,  traveling  through 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land, and  on  his  return  published  The 
Lorgnette,  a periodical  in  the  manner 
of  Irving’s  Salmagundi.  In  May,  1853, 
Mr.  Mitchell  was  appointed  United 
States  consul  at  Venice,  and  on  his  re- 
turn, in  1855,  settled  on  a farm  near 
New  Haven,  Conn.  In  1876  he  received 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Yale.  He  died 
in  1907. 

MITCHELL,  John,  labor  representa- 
tive, was  born  in  Braidwood,  111.,  in 
1869.  He  worked  in  the  coal  mines  of 
Illinois  and  joined  the  Knights  of  Labor 
in  1885.  He  was  secretary  and  treasurer 
of  United  Mine  Workers  in  1895,  na- 
tional vice-president  in  1898.  He  was 
elected  vice  president  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  in  1900.  He  was 
president  of  the  United  Mine  Work- 
ers from  1898,  to  Jan.  1908.  He 
directed  the  strike  of  the  an- 
thracite workers,  and  brought  it, 
through  the  intervention  of  President 
Roosevelt,  to  a successful  conclusion. 
He  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  laboi 
representatives  in  the  United  States. 
In  1902  he  was  appointed  a member  ot 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Indus- 
trial Department  of  the  National  Civic 
Federation . 

MITCHELL,  Margaret  J.  (Maggie), 
American  actress,  was  born  at  New 
York  City  about  1832,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  when  a child  on  the 
stage  of  the  old  Bowery  theater.  She 
became  prominent  as  a soubrette  during 
1852,  and  later  acquired  a national  rep- 
utation in  Fanchon  the  Cricket,  of  which 


she  is  the  original.  She  has  played  with 
great  success  Little  Barefoot,  The  Pearl 
of  Savoy,  and  other  dramas  adapted  to 
the  requirements  of  her  particular  school. 

MITCHELL,  Silas  Weir  American 
neurologist,  was  born  in  Virginia  in 
1829.  His  earliest  work  of  importance 
consisted  of  researches  upon  the  chemi- 
cal composition  and  physiological  action 
of  venom  snakes.  He  system  of  “Rest 
Treatment”  has  been  adopted  the  world 
over.  He  is  best  known  to  the  public 
through  his  novels,  Hugh  Wynne,  Free 
Quaker,  The  Adventures  of  Fran5ois, 
Dr.  North  and  His  Friends,  etc. 

MITE,  a name  common  to  numerous 
small,  in  some  cases  microscopic,  ani- 
mals. Sometimes  the  name  is  given  only 
to  those  of  the  Acarida  which  have  feet 
formed  for  walking  and  the  mouth  not 
furnished  with  a sucker  formed  of 
lancet-like  plates,  as  in  the  ticks,  but 
with  mandibles.  Some  are  of  a wander- 
ing character,  and  are  found  under 
stones,  leaves,  the  bark  of  trees;  or  in 
provisions,  as  meal,  cheese,  pepper,  etc.; 
others  are  stationary  and  parasitic  on 
the  skin  of  various  animals  sometimes 
proving  of  serious  injury  to  them. 

MITFORD,  Mary  Russell,  English 
authoress,  daughter  of  a physician  at 
Alresford,  Hampshire,  and  born  there 
1786,  died  1855.  Her  best-known  work 
is  Our  Village,  a series  of  prose  sketches 
descriptive  of  English  country  life  and 
scenery,  drawn  from  the  village  of  Three 
Mile  Cross,  near  Reading. 

MITHRIDA'TES,  or  MITHRADA'- 
TES,  king  of  Pontus,  on  the  southern 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  surnamed  the 
Great.  His  father  was  murdered  b.c. 
120,  and  Mithridates  ascended  the 
throne  at  the  age  of  thirteen.  Soon 
after  attaining  his  majority  he  com- 
menced his  career  of  conquest,  which 
made  him  master  of  nearly  all  Asia 
Minor,  besides  Greece,  and  brought  him 
into  conflict  with  Rome.  For  four  years 
Mithridates  disputed  possession  of  Asia, 
but  was  at  last  compelled  to  succumb, 
B.c.  84,  After  the  death  of  Sulla,  which 
occurred  in  b.c.  78,  Mithridates  levied 
another  army  with  a determination  to 
expel  the  Romans  from  Asia.  Being  de- 
feated by  Lucullus,  who  was  appointed 
consul  B.c.  74,  he  was  followed  by  the 
victorious  Romans  into  his  own  states, 
and  driven  to  seek  a refuge  in  Armenia, 
then  ruled  by  Tigranes,  who  refused  to 
deliver  him  up.  Here  Mithridates  raised 
a third  great  army,  and  in  b.c.  67  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Romans,  and,  fol- 
lowing up  his  success,  rapidly  recovered 
the  larger  part  of  his  dominions.  The 
Romans  now  invested  Pompey  with 
absolute  power  in  the  east,  and  by  him, 
in  B.c.  66,  the  forces  of  Mithridates 
were  completely  routed  near  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  king  retired  to  Bosporus 
(the  Crimea),  where  his  troops,  headed 
by  his  son  Pharnaces,  broke  out  in 
mutinv,  and  Mithridates  killed  himself 
B.c.  63. 

MITRAILLEUSE  (mit-ra-yeuz),  a 
breech-loadUig  machine-gun  introduced 
in  France  shortly  before  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71.  It  consists  of 
a number  of  rifled  barrels,  generally 
thirty-seven,  either  bound  together  or 
bored  out  of  the  solid,  and  mounted  on 


MITRE 


MODULATION 


the  same  principle  as  an  ordinary  field- 
piece.  Plungers  and  springs  are  fixed  in 
connection  with  the  breech  ends  of  the 
barrels  that  they  may  be  fired  in  suc- 


Mitrailleuse. 


cession  with  great  rapidity,  so  as  to  con- 
centrate a deadly  fire  upon  any  desired 
point. 

MITRE,  a sacerdotal  ornament  worn 
on  the  head  by  bishops  and  archbishops 
(including  the  pope),  cardinals,  and  in 
some  instances  by  abbots,  upon  solemn 
occasions,  or  by  a Jewish  high-priest.  It 
is  a sort  of  cap  pointed  and  cleft  at  the 
top,  this  form  being  supposed  to  sym- 
bolize the  “cloven  tongues”  of  the  day 
of  Pentecost.  The  pope  has  four  mitres, 
which  are  more  or  less  rich  according  to 
the  solemnity  of  the  feast-days  on 
which  they  are  to  be  worn.  The  English 
archbishops  have  a ducal  coronet  round 
their  mitres. 

MITTIMUS,  in  law,  a warrant  of  com- 
mitment to  prison;  also  a writ  for  re- 
moving records  from  one  court  to  an- 
other. 

MIZZEN,  a term  applied  to  the  after- 
most mast  of  a three-masted  vessel, 
that  is  the  one  nearest  the  stern.  In  a 
four-master  the  jigger-mast  comes  be- 
tween it  and  the  stern 

MNEMONICS  (ne-mon'iks),  the  art  of 
assisting  the  memory  by  methods  of 
association.  Many  devices  have  been 
devised  for  assisting  in  the  recollection 
of  facts,  dates,  numbers,  or  the  like, 
but  they  all  go  on  the  principle  of  asso- 
ciating the  thing  to  be  remembered  with 
something  else  which  can  be  more  easily 
recollected.  The  art  dates  from  a very 
early  period,  Simonides  the  Greek  poet 
(500  B.c.)  having  devised  a system.  All 
the  systems  are  more  or  less  arbitrary, 
and  their  chief  value  would  seem  to  lie 
in  the  exercise  which  they  give  the 
memory,  thereby  strengthening  it.  Mem- 
orial lines  and  verses  have  been  exten- 
sively used  as  aids  to  memory 

MOA,  an  extinct  bird  of  New  Zea- 
land. See  Dinornis. 

MOAB,  the  land  of  the  Moabites,  a 
tribe  dwelling  in  the  mountainous  region 
east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  According  to  the 
Mosaic  account  (Gen.  xix:  30)  the 
Moabites  were  descended  from  Moab, 
the  son  of  Lot  by  his  eldest  daughter. 
In  the  time  of  the  judges  they  were  for 
eighteen  years  masters  of  the  Hebrews, 
but  in  the  time  of  David  were  rendered 
tributaries  to  them.  After  the  Babylon- 
ish captivity  they  lost  their  separate 
national  existence. 

MOABITE  STONE,  a monument  of 
black  basaltic  granite  about  3 feet  5 
inches  high  and  1 foot  9 inches  wide  and 
thick,  with  rounded  top  but  square 
base,  on  which  there  is  an  inscription  of 
thirty-four  lines  in  Hebrew-Phcenican 


characters,  discovered  in  1868  at  Dhiban 
in  the  ancient  Moab.  It  was  unfor- 
tunately broken  by  the  natives,  but 
almost  the  whole  of  the  inscription  has 
been  recovered  from  the  broken  pieces. 
The  inscription  dates  about  900  b.c., 
and  is  the  oldest  known  in  the  Hebrew- 
Phoenician  form  of  writing.  It  was 
erected  by  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  and  is 
a record  of  his  wars  with  Omri,  king  of 
Israel,  and  his  successors 

MOBERLY,  a city  in  Randolph  co.. 
Mo.,  on  the  Mo.,  Kan.  and  Tex.  and  the 
Wabash  railways;  130  miles  e.  by  n.  of 
Kansas  City,  148  miles  w.  of  St.  Louis. 
It  contains  the  division  headquarters 
and  machine-shops  of  the  Wabash  rail- 
way system.  Pop.  10,142. 

MOBILE  (mo-bel'),  a city  and  port  of 
the  United  States,  in  Alabama,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mobile,  at  its  entrance 
into  Mobile  Bay.  It  has  regular  streets 
and  several  fine  public  buildings;  is  well 
supplied  with  water,  and  generally 
healthy,  though  at  times  visited  by  yel- 
low fever.  It  has  an  important  export 
trade,  and  next  to  New  Orleans  is  one 
of  the  greatest  cotton  marts  of  the  South. 
A channel  33  miles  long  is  maintained 
by  dredging  to  allow  the  approach  of 
tolerably  large  vessels  to  the  harbor; 
but  it  is  proposed  to  construct  a new 
and  deeper  harbor  on  Dauphine  Island, 
which  will  be  connected  with  Mobile  by 
rail.  Pop.  1909  about  65,000. 

MOBILE,  a river  of  the  United  States, 
in  Alabama,  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Alabama  and  the  Tombigbee,  which 
unite  about  45  miles  above  the  town  of 
Mobile.  It  enters  Mobile  Bay  by  two 
mouths. 

MOBILE  BAY,  an  estuary  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  from  8 to  18  miles  wide,  and 


about  35  miles  in  length,  n.  to  s.,  the 
general  depth  being  12  to  14  feet. 

MOBILIER.  See  Credit  Mobilier. 

MOBILIZATION,  a military  term,  be- 
ing the  act  of  putting  troops  into  a state 
of  readiness  for  active  service.  The 
mobilization  of  an  army  or  a corps  in- 
cludes not  only  the  calling  in  of  the  re- 
serve and  the  men  on  furlough,  but  the 
organizing  of  the  staff,  as  well  as  the 
commissariat,  medical,  artillery,  and 
transport  services,  the  accumulating  of 
provisions,  munitions,  and  the  like. 

MOC'CASIN,  a shoe  or  cover  for  the 
feet,  made  of  deer-skin  or  other  soft 


leather,  without  a stiff  sole,  and  orna- 
mented on  the  upper  part;  the  custom- 
ary shoe  worn  by  the  native  American 
Indians. 

MOC'CASIN  SNAKE,  a very  venomous 
serpent  frequenting  swamps  in  many  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  America.  It  is  about 
two  feet  in  length,  dark-brown  above, 
and  gray  below. 

MOCKING-BIRD,  an  American  bird 
of  the  thrush  family.  It  is  of  an  ashy- 
brown  color  above,  lighter  below,  and  is 
much  sought  for  on  account  of  its  won- 
derful faculty  of  imitating  the  cries  or 
notes  of  almost  every  species  of  animal, 
as  well  as  many  noises  that  are  produced 
artificially.  Its  own  notes  form  a beau- 
tiful and  varied  strain.  It  inhabits  North 
America  chiefly,  being  a constant  resi- 
dent of  the  southern  states,  and  but  rare 
and  migratory  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  continent.  It  is  also  found  in  the 
West  Indian  Islands  and  in  Brazil. 

MOD'ENA,  a town  of  North  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  its  own  name. 
Pop.  64,941. — Modena  was  formerly  an 
independent  duchy  bordering  on  Tus- 
cany, Lucca,  Bologna,  Mantua,  and 
Parma;  area,  2340  sq.  miles;  pop.  over 


Mocking-bird. 


600,000.  It  is  now  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Modena  (966  sq.  miles; 
pop.  315,804),  Massa-Carrara,  and  Reg- 
gio. 

MODERATOR,  the  person  who  pre- 
sides at  a meeting  or  disputation;  now 
used  chiefly  as  the  title  of  the  chairman 
for  president  of  meetings  or  courts  in 
the  Presbyterian  churches. 

MODJESKA,  Helena,  actress,  was 
born  at  Cracow,  Poland,  about  1843. 
In  1865  she  became  the  theatrical  star 
and  favorite  of  Warsaw,  a position 
which  she  held  until  about  1876,  when 
she  and  her  husband  emigrated  to 
America.  She  made  her  appearance  in 
1877  in  an  English  version  of  Adrienne 
Lecouvreur  at  San  Francisco.  She  won 
immediate  success  and  has  since  achieved 
various  triumphs  on  both  sides  of  t'he 
Atlantic.  Her  notable  impersonations 
were  Ophelia,  Rosalind,  Imogen,  Cleo- 
patra, Lady  Macbeth.  In  1889-90  she 
starred  with  Edwin  Booth  in  Romeo 
and  Juliet. 

MODOCS,  an  American  Indian  tribe 
originally  settled  on  the  s.  shore  of 
Klamath  lake,  California.  From  1847 
till  1873  they  were  in  continual  conflict 
with  the  whites.  Only  a small  remnant 
of  them  now  exists  in  the  Indian  ter- 
ritory and  in  Oregon. 

MODULATION,  in  music,  the  tran- 
sition from  one  key  to  another.  The 
simplest  form  is  the  change  from  a given 
key  to  one  nearly  related  to  it,  namely, 
its  fifth  (dominant),  fourth  (subdomi* 


MOGUL 


MOHAWK 


nant),  its  relative  minor,  or  the  relative 
minor  of  its  fifth.  Modulation  is  gen- 
erally resorted  to  in  compositions  of 
some  length,  for  the  purpose  of  catch- 
ing and  pleasing  the  ear  with  a fresh 
succession  of  chords. 

MOGUL',  a word  which  is  the  same  as 
Mongol,  but  is  applied  particularly  to 
the  sovereigns  of  Mongolian  origin, 
called  Great  or  Grand  Moguls,  descend- 
ants of  Tamerlane,  who  ruled  in  India 
from  the  16th  century  downward,  the 
first  of  them  being  the  conqueror  Baber. 
See  India,  History  of. 

MOHAIR,  the  hair  of  the  Angora  goat 
of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  soft  and  fine  as  silk, 
of  a silvery  whiteness,  and  is  manufac- 
tured into  camlets,  plush,  shawls,  braid- 
ings, and  other  trimmings,  etc. ' 

MOHAM'MED,  Mahom'et,  or  more 
correctly  Muhammad,  the  founder  of 
Islamism,  was  an  Arabian  by  birth,  of 
the  tribe  of  the  Koreish,  and  was  born 
of  poor  parents  in  571  a.d.,  in  Mecca. 
In  his  twenty-fifth  year  his  uncle  re- 
commended him  as  agent  to  a rich 
widow,  named  Chadidja,  and  he  ac- 
quitted himself  so  much  to  her  satisfac- 
tion that  she  married  him,  and  thus 
placed  him  in  easy  circumstances.  He 
seems  to  have  had  from  his  youth  a pro- 
pensity to  religious  contemplation,  for 
he  was  every  year  accustomed,  in  the 
month  Ramadhan,  to  retire  to  a cave 
in  Mount  Hara,  near  Mecca,  and  dwell 
there  in  solitude.  Mohammed  began  his 
mission  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his  age 
by  announcing  his  apostleship  to  his 
own  family.  His  wife  was  one  of  the 
first  to  believe  in  him,  and  among  other 
members  of  his  family  who  acknowl- 
edged his  mission  was  his  cousin  Ali,  the 
son  of  Abu  Talib.  Of  great  importance 
was  the  accession  of  Abu  Bekr,  a man  of 
estimable  character,  who  stood  in  high 
respect,  and  persuaded  ten  of  themost 
considerable  citizens  of  Mecca  to  join 
the  believers  in  the  new  apostle.  They 
were  all  instructed  by  Mohammed  in 
the  doctrines  of  Islam,  as  the  new  religion 
was  styled,  which  were  promulgated  as 
the  gradual  revelations  of  the  divine 
will,  through  the  angel  Gabriel,  and  were 
collected  in  the  Koran.  After  three  years 
Mohammed  made  a more  public  an- 
nouncement of  his  doctrine,  but  his 
followers  were  few  for  years.  In  621 
Mohammed  lost  his  wife,  and  the  death 
of  Abu  Talib  took  place  about  the  same 
time.  Deprived  of  their  assistance  he 
was  compelled  to  retire,  for  a time,  to 
the  city  of  Taif.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
was  readily  received  by  the  pilgrims 
who  visited  the  Kaaba,  and  gained 
numerous  adherents  among  the  families 
in  the  neighborhood.  Mohammed  now 
adopted  the  resolution  of  encountering 
his  enemies  with  force.  Only  the  more 
exasperated  at  this  they  formed  a con- 
spiracy to  murder  him;  warned  of  the 
imminent  danger,  he  left  Mecca,  ac- 
companied by  Abu  Bekr  alone,  and  con- 
cealed himself  in  a cave  not  far  distant. 
Here  he  spent  three  days  undiscovered, 
after  which  he  arrived  safely  at  Medina, 
but  not  without  danger  (a.d.  622).  This 
event,  from  which  the  Mohammedans 
commence  their  era,  is  known  under  the 
name  of  the  Hejra,  which  signifies  flight. 
In  Medina  Mohammed  met  with  the 


most  honorable  reception:  thither  he 
was  followed  by  many  of  his  adherents. 
He  now  assumed  the  sacerdotal  and 
regal  dignity,  married  ;\yesha,  daughter 
of  Abu  Bekr,  and  as  the  number  of  the 
faithful  continued  to  increase,  declared 
his  resolution  to  propagate  his  doctrines 
with  the  sword.  In  the  battle  of  Bedr 
(623),  the  first  of  the  long  series  of  bat- 
tles by  which  Islamism  was  established 
over  a large  portion  of  the  earth,  he 
defeated  Abu  Sofian,  the  chief  of  the 
Koreishites.  He  in  turn  was  defeated  by 
them  at  Ohod,  near  Medina,  soon  after, 
and  in  625  they  unsuccessfully  be- 
sieged Medina,  and  a truce  of  ten  years 
was  agreed  on.  Wars  with  the  Jewish 
tribes  followed,  many  Arabian  tribes 
submitted  themselves,  and  in  630  he 
took  possession  of  Mecca  as  prince  and 
prophet.  The  idols  of  the  Kaaba  were 
demolished,  but  the  sacred  touch  of  the 
prophet  made  the  black  stone  again  the 
object  of  the  deepest  veneration,  and 
the  magnet  that  attracts  hosts  of  pil- 
grims to  the  holy  city  of  Mecca.  The 
whole  of  Arabia  was  soon  after  con- 
quered, and  a summons  to  embrace  the 
new  revelation  of  the  divine  law  was  sent 
to  the  Emperor  Heraclius  at  Constanti- 
nople, the  King  of  Persia,  and  the  King 
ot  Abyssinia.  Preparations  for  the  con- 
quest of  Syria  and  for  war  with  the 
Roman  Empire  were  begun,  when 
Mohammed  died  at  Medina  (632).  His 
body  was  buried  in  the  house  of  Ayesha, 
where  he  died,  and  which  afterward  be- 
came part  of  the  adjoining  mosque,  and 
a place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  faithful  in 
all  time  to  come.  Of  all  his  wives,  the 
first  alone  bore  him  children,  of  whom 
only  his  daughter  Fatima,  wife  of  Ali, 
survived  him.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
Mohammed  was  a man  of  extraordinary 
insight  and  deep  reflection.  Though 
without  book-learning,  he  had  a deep 
knowledge  of  man,  was  familiar  with 
Bible  narratives  and  eastern  legends, 
and  possessed  a grasp  of  the  eternal 
ground  of  all  religion,  though  tinged 
and  modified  by  his  vivid  poetic  imagina- 
tion. See  Koran,  Mohammedanism. 

MOHAMMED,  the  name  of  four  Otto- 
man sultans.  See  Ottoman  Empire. 

MOHAMMED  AHMED.  See  Mahdi. 

MOHAMMED  ALI.  See  Mehemet  Ali. 

MOHAMMEDANISM,  the  name  com- 
monly given  in  Christian  countries  to 
the  creed  established  by  Mohammed. 
His  followers  call  their  creed  Islam 
(entire  submission  to  the  decrees  of 
God),  and  their  common  formula  of 
faith  is,  “There  is  no  god  but  Allah,  and 
Mohammed  is  his  prophet.”  The  dog- 
matic or  theoretical  part  of  Mohammed- 
anism embraces  the  following  points:  1. 
Belief  in  God,  who  is  without  beginning 
or  end,  the  sole  Creator  and  Lord  of  the 
universe,  having  absolute  power,  knowl- 
edge, glory,  and  perfection.  2.  Belief 
in  his  angels,  who  are  impeccable  beings, 
created  of  light.  3.  Belief  in  good  and 
evil  Jinn  (genii),  who  are  created  of 
smokeless  fire,  and  are  subject  to  death. 
4.  Belief  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which 
are  his  uncreated  word  revealed  to  the 
prophets.  Of  these  there  now  exist, 
but  in  a greatly  corrupted  form,  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Gospels ; 
and  in  an  uncorrupted  and  incorruptible 


state  the  Koran,  which  abrogates  and 
surpasses  all  receding  revelations. 
(See  Koran.)  5.  Belief  in  Gods  prophets 
and  apostles,  the  most  distinguished  of 
whom  are  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham, 
Moses,  Jesus,  and  Mohammed.  Mo- 
hammed is  the  greatest  of  them  all,  the 
last  of  the  prophets  and  the  most  ex- 
cellent of  the  creatures  of  God.  6.  Belief 
in  a general  resurrection  and  final  judg- 
ment, and  in  future  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments, chiefly  of  a physical  nature. 
7.  The  belief,  even  to  the  extent  of 
fatalism,  of  God’s  absolute  fore-knowl- 
edge and  predestination  of  all  events 
both  good  and  evil. 

The  practical  part  of  Mohammedan- 
ism inculcates  certain  observances  or 
duties,  of  whichfour  are  most  important. 
The  first  is  prayer,  including  prepara- 
tory purifications.  Prayer  must  be  en- 
gaged in  at  five  stated  periods  each  day. 
On  each  of  these  occasions  the  Moslem 
has  to  offer  up  certain  prayers  held  to  be 
ordained  by  God,  and  others  ordained 
by  his  prophet.  During  prayer  it  is 
necessary  that  the  face  of  the  worshipper 
be  turned  toward  the  kebla,  that  is,  in 
the  direction  of  Mecca.  Prayers  may  be 
said  in  any  clean  place,  but  on  Friday 
they  must  be  said  in  the  mosque.  Sec- 
ond in  importance  to  prayer  stands  the 
duty  of  giving  alms.  Next  comes  the 
duty  of  fasting.  The  Moslem  must  ab- 
stain from  eating  and  drinking,  and 
from  every  indulgence  of  the  senses, 
every  day  during  the  month  of  Ramad- 
han, from  the  first  appearance  of  day- 
break until  sunset,  unless  physically  in- 
capacitated. The  fourth  paramount 
religious  duty  of  the  Moslem  is  the  per- 
formance at  least  once  in  his  life,  if  pos- 
sible, of  the  pilgrimage  (el-Hadj)  to 
Mecca,  after  which  he  becomes  a Hadji. 
Circumcision  is  general  among  Moham- 
madans,  but  is  not  absolutely  obligatory. 
The  distinctions  of  clean  and  unclean 
meats  are  nearly  the  same  as  in  the 
Mosaic  code.  Wine  and  all  intoxicating 
liquors  are  strictly  forbidden.  Music, 
games  of  chance,  and  usury  are  con- 
demned. Images  and  pictures  of  living 
creatures  are  contrary  to  law.  Charity, 
probity  in  all  transactions,  veracity 
(except  in  a few  cases),  and  modesty,  are 
indispensable  virtues.  After  Moham- 
med’s death  Abu  Bekr,  his  father-in- 
law,  became  his  successor,  but  disputes 
immediately  arose,  a party  holding  that 
Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  Mohammed,  was 
by  right  entitled  to  be  his  immediate 
successor.  This  led  to  the  division  of 
the  Mohammedans  into  the  two  sects 
known  as  Shiites  and  Sunnites.  The 
former,  the  believers  in  the  right  of  Ali 
to  be  considered  the  first  successor, 
constitute  at  present  the  majority  of 
the  Musselmans  of  Persia  and  India; 
the  latter,  considered  as  the  orthodox 
Mohammedans,  are  dominant  in  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  Arabia,  Turkestan, 
and  Africa.  The  total  Mohammedan 
population  of  the  world  is  estimated  at 
fully  215,000,000.  See  Caliph,  Shiites, 
Sunnites,  etc. 

MO'HAWK,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  the  principal  tributary  of  the 
Hudson  in  the  state  of  New  York;  length 
about  135  miles.  It  affords  abundant 


Mohawks 


MOLLUSCA 


Water-power,  and  flows  through  beau- 
tiful scenery. 

MO'HAWKS,  a tribe  of  North  Anaeri- 
can  Indians,  belonging  to  the  confed- 
eracy of  the  Five  (afterward  six)  nations. 
(See  Iroquois.)  They  originally  inhabited 
the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  river.  With 
the  rest  of  the  confederacy  they  ad- 
hered to  the  British  interest  during  the 
war  of  the  revolution,  and  left  the  coun- 
try on  its  termination  for  Canada,  where 
lands  were  assigned  them  on  the  Grand 
river.  Their  language  has  been  com- 
mitted to  writing. 

MOHIC'ANS,  or  MOHE'GANS,  a tribe 
of  Indians  formerly  occupying  the  coun- 
try now  forming  the  southwestern  parts 
of  New  England  and  that  portion  of 
New  York  state  east  of  the  Hudson. 

MO'HILEV,  a town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  a government  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.  43,106. — The  government  has  an 
area  of  about  18,545  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
1,708,041. 

MOIRE  (mw&-ra),  the  French  name 
given  to  silks  figured  by  the  process 
called  watering.  The  silks  for  this  pur- 
pose, though  made  in  the  same  way  as 
ordinary  silks,  are  of  double  width,  and 
must  be  of  a stout  substantial  make. 
They  are  folded  and  subjected  to  an 
enormous  pressure,  of  from  60  to  100 
tons,  generally  in  a hydraulic  machine, 
and  the  air  in  trying  to  escape  drives 
before  it  the  small  quantity  of  moisture 
that  is  used,  and  hence  is  effected  the 
permanent  marking  called  watering, 
which  is  for  the  most  part  in  curious 
waved  lines. 

MOLASSES,  the  uncrystallized  syrup 
produced  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 
It  differs  from  treacle,  as  molasses  comes 
from  sugar  in  the  process  of  making, 
treacle  in  the  process  of  refining. 

MOLE,  a name  given  to  insectivorous 
animals  of  the  genus  Talpa,  family 
Talpidae,  which,  in  search  of  worms  or 
insect  larvae,  form  burrows  just  under 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  throwing  up 
the  excavated  soil  into  a little  ridge  or 
into  little  hills.  The  common  mole  is 
found  all  over  Europe,  except  in  the 
extreme  south  and  north.  It  is  from  5 
to  6 inches  long;  its  head  is  large,  with- 
out any  external  ears ; and  its  eyes  are 
very  minute,  and  concealed  by  its  fur, 
which  is  short  and  soft.  Its  fore-legs  are 
very  short  and  strong,  and  its  snout 
slender,  strong,  and  tendinous.  It  is 


Eoropefto  mole  (Taivo  etiropero)  Fore-foot  of  ibei 


the  only  British  representative  of  the 
family.  Another  species,  blind  mole,  is 
found  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  has  its 
name  from  its  eye  being  always  covered 
by  its  eyelid.  The  Cape  mole  or  change- 
able mole  is  remarkable  as  being  the  only 
mammal  that  exhibits  the  splendid 
metallic  reflection  which  is  thrown  from 
the  feathers  of  many  birds.  The  “star- 
nosed moles”  of  North  America  are  so 


named  from  the  star  or  fringe-like 
arrangement  of  the  nasal  cartilages. 
The  shrew  moles  of  North  America  are 
more  properly  included  among  the 
shrews. 

MOLE,  a mound  or  massive  work 
formed  of  large  stones  laid  in  the  sea 
so  as  to  partially  inclose  and  shelter  a 
harbor  or  anchorage. 

MOLECULE,  the  smallest  quantity  of 
any  elementary  substance  or  compound 
which  is  capable  of  existing  in  a sepai-ate 
form.  It  differs  from  atom,  which  is  not 
perceived,  but  conceived,  inasmuch  as  it 
is  always  a portion  of  some  aggregate  of 
atoms.  Molecular  attraction  is  that 
species  of  attraction  which  operates 
upon  the  molecules  or  particles  of  a 
body.  Cohesion  and  chemical  affinity 
are  substances  of  molecular  attraction. 
See  Chemistry. 

MOLE-RAT,  a name  given  to  dumpish 
stout-bodied  rodents,  with  short,  strong 
limbs,  a short  tail  or  scarcely  any,  and 
minute  or  rudimentary  eyes  and  ears. 
They  make  tunnels  and  throw  up  hil- 
locks like  the  mole,  but  their  food  ap- 
pears to  consist  wholly  of  vegetable 
substances. 

MOLESKIN,  a strong  twilled  cotton 
fabric  (fustian),  cropped  or  shorn  before 
dyeing;  much  used  for  workmen’s  cloth- 
ing. So  called  from  its  being  soft  like 
the  skin  of  a mole» 

MOLIERE  (mol-yar),  the  assumed 
name  of  Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin,  French 
comic  dramatist,  born  at  Paris  in  1622. 
He  studied  law,  but  gave  it  up  for  the 
career  of  an  actor,  assuming  in  this  pro- 
fession the  name  of  Moliere.  After 
obtaining  great  success  in  the  provinces 
he  settled  in  Paris  in  1658,  having  pre- 
viously produced  his  two  comedies, 
L’Etourdi  and  Le  D4pit  Amoureux. 
In  the  following  year  his  reputation  was 
greatly  advanced  by  the  production  of 
the  Pr4cieuses  Ridicules,  a delicate  satire 
on  the  prevailing  affectation  of  the! 
character  of  bel  esprit,  on  the  pedantry 
of  learned  females,  and  on  affectation 
in  language,  thoughts,  and  dress.  It 
produced  a general  reform  when  it  was 
brought  forward  in  Paris.  Continuing 
to  produce  new  plays,  and  performing 
the  chief  comic  parts  himself,  he  became 
a great  favorite  both  with  the  court  and 
the  people,  though  his  enemies,  rival 
actors  and  authors,  were  numerous. 
Louis  XIV.  was  so  well  pleased  with  the 
performances  of  Moliere’s  company  that 
he  made  it  specially  the  royal  company, 
and  gave  its  director  a pension.  In  1662 
Moliere  made  an  ill-assorted  marriage 
with  Armande  B4jart,  upward  of  twenty 
years  younger  than  himself,  a union  that 
embittered  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 
Among  his  works  other  than  those  men- 
tioned may  be  noted;  L’Ecole  des  Maris, 
L’Ecole  des  Femmes,  Le  Manage  Force, 
Don  Juan,  Le  Misanthrope,  Le  M4decin 
Malgr4  lui,  Le  Tartufe,  L’Avare,  George 
Dandin,  Les  Fourberies  de  Scapin,  Le 
Bourgeois  Gentilhomme,  Le  Malade 
Imaginaire,  etc.  Moliere  died  in  1673 
of  an  apoplectic  stroke,  a few  hours 
after  playing  in  the  latter.  As  a player 
he  was  unsurpassed  in  high  comic  parts; 
and  in  the  literature  of  comedy  he  bears 
the  greatest  name  among  the  moderns 
after  Shakespeare.  He  borrowed  freely 


from  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian  writers, 
but  whatever  materials  he  appropriated 
he  so  treated  them  as  to  make  the  result 
entirely  his  own  and  original.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris  at  first  refused  him  burial 
as  being  an  actor  and  a reviler  of  the 
clergy;  but  the  king  himself  insisted  on  it. 

MOLINE,  a city  in  Rock  Island  co., 
111.,  on  the  Mississippi  river,  and  the 
Chi.,  Bur.  and  Quincy,  Chi.,  Mil.  and 
St.  P.,  and  the  Chi.,  Rock  Is.  and  Pac. 
railways;  opposite  Rock  Island,  2 miles 
e.  of  Davenport,  la.,  168  w.  of  Chicago. 
The  three  cities  of  Moline,  Rock  Island, 
and  Davenort,  are  connected  by  steam 
and  street  railways,  ferries,  and  bridges, 
and  all  derive  water-power  for  manufac- 
turing from  the  river.  The  city  is  in  a 
rich  coal-region,  and  there  are  a num- 
ber of  productive  mines  in  its  vicinity. 
Pop.  20,868. 

MOLLUS'CA,  an  animal  sub-king- 
dom, comprising  those  soft-bodied  ani- 
mals known  as  slugs,  snails,  limpets, 
oysters,  cockles,  etc.  In  some  the  body 
is  naked  and  unprotected,  in  others  it  is 
inclosed  in  a muscular  sac,  but  the  great 
majority  are  provided  with  an  exoskele- 
ton or  shell.  The  shell -bearing  mol- 
luscs are  popularly  divided  into  uni- 
valves, bivalves,  and  multivalves.  The 
univalves  are  those  whose  shell  consists 
of  only  a single  piece,  often  open  and 
cup-shaped,  as  in  the  limpet,  or  more 
commonly  of  a long  cone  wound  spirally 
round  a real  or  imaginary  axis,  as  the 
garden-snail,  the  whelk  or  periwinkle. 
The  bivalves  are  those  of  which  the  shell 
is  formed  of  two  pieces  joined  by  a hinge, 
as  the  cockle  and  oyster.  The  multivalve 


Mollusca  and  molluscoida. 


!,  Cuttle-fish  and  cuttle-bone.  2,  A gastero- 
pod.  3,  A pteropod.  4,  Terebratula  diphya.  5, 
Cytherea  maculata.  6,  Cynthia  papilldsa. 

have  the  shell  composed  of  several 
pieces.  These  latter  molluscs  are  few  in 
number.  The  shells  of  the  Mollusca 
are  secreted  by  the  soft  integument  or 
mantle  (also  called  the  pallium).  The 
chief  mass  of  the  shell  is  made  up  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  with  a small  proportion 
of  animal  matter.  The  mollusca  have  a 
distinct  alimentary  canal,  shut  off  from 
the  general  cavity  of  the  body,  and 
situated  between  the  blood  system, 
which  lies  along  the  back,  and  the  nerve 
system,  which  is  toward  the  ventral 
aspect  of  the  body.  The  digestive  sys- 
tem consists  of  a mouth,  gullet,  stomach, 
intestine,  and  anus,  except  in  a few 
forms,  in  which  the  intestine  ends 
blindly.  The  blood  is  almost  colorless. 
Respiration  is  variously  effected;  in  the 
lamp-shells,  by  long  cilated  arms  spring- 
ing from  the  sides  of  the  mouth ; in  the 
bivalve  shell-fish,  the  cuttle-fishes,  and 
most  of  the  univalves,  by  gills;  while  in 


i 


MOLLY  MAGUIRES 


MONASTERY 


the  remainder  of  the  univalves,  as  snails, 
slugs,  etc.,  the  breathing-organs  have 
the  form  of  an  air-chamber  or  pulmon- 
ary sac,  adapted  for  breathing  air 
c.irectly.  A characteristic  of  the  typical 
Mollusca  is  the  “foot”  or  organ  of  loco- 
motion, which  may  be  modified  so  as  to 
perform  various  offices.  Its  use  in  the 
case  of  the  snail  is  well  known,  and  in 
the  cockle  it  is  developed  to  a great 
size.  In  some  cases  (as  the  razor-shells) 
it  enables  the  animal  to  burrow  rapidly 
in  the  sand;  while  in  the  mussels,  etc., 
the  organ  is  devoted  to  the  secretion  of 
the  well-known  beard  or  byssus,  a col- 
lection of  strong  fibrous  threads  by 
means  of  which  these  animals  moor  or 
fix  themselves  to  rocks,  etc.  In  some 
bivalves  (as  the  oyster)  in  which  the 
locomotive  powers  are  in  abeyance,  the 
foot  is  rudimentary.  In  the  cuttle-fishes 
it  is  represented  by  the  arms  or  ten- 
tacles round  the  mouth.  The  chief 
peculiarity,  however,  of  the  Mollusca  is 
in  the  nervous  system,  which  in  the 
lower  forms  consists  essentially  of  a 
single  ganglionic  mass,  giving  off  fila- 
ments in  various  directions;  while  in  the 
higher  there  are  three  such  masses, 
united  to  one  another  by  nervous  cords. 

MOLLY  MAGUIRES,  the  name  as- 
sumed by  members  of  a secret  illegal 
association  in  Ireland,  afterward  re- 
organized in  the  anthracite  coal-mining 
district  of  Pennsylvania.  The  organiza- 
tion was  guilty  of  many  outrages,  and 
was  broken  up  in  1876,  twenty  mem- 
bers being  hanged  for  murder. 

MOLOCH,  the  chief  god  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians, frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture as  the  god  of  the  Ammonites,  whose 
worship  consisted  chiefly  of  human  sac- 
rifices, ordeals  by  fire,  mutilation,  etc. 

MOLOCH  LIZARD,  a genus  of  lizards 
found  in  Australia.  M.  horridus  (moloch- 
lizard)  is  one  of  the  most  ferocious- 
looking,  though  at  the  same  time  one  of 
of  the  most  harmless  of  reptiles,  the 
horns  on  the  head  and  the  numerous 
spines  on  the  body  giving  it  a most 
formidable  and  exceedingly  repulsive 
appearance. 

MOLTKE  (molt'ke),  Helmuth  Carl 
Bernhard,  C unt  von,  German  field- 


Fleld-marshal  Von  Moltke. 


marshal,  bom  near  Mecklenburg,  1800; 
entered  the  Danish  army  in  1819;  left 
that  service  for  the  Prussian  in  1822, 
and  became  a staff-officer  in  1832.  In 
1835  he  superintended  the  Turkish 
military  reforms,  and  he  was  present 


during  the  Syrian  campaign  against 
Mehemet  Ali  in  1839.  He  returned  to 
Prussia  and  became  colonel  of  the  staff 
in  1851,  and  equerry  to  the  crown  prince 
in  1855.  In  1858  as  provisional  director 
of  the  general  staff  he  acted  in  unison 
with  Von  Roon  and  Bismarck  in  the 
vast  plans  of  military  reorganization 
soon  after  carried  out.  The  conduct  of 
the  Danish  war  (1864)  was  attributable 
to  his  strategy,  as  was  also  the  success 
of  the  Austfo-Prussian  war  of  1866,  and- 
the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  made  field-marshal 
and  became  count  in  1872.  He  retired 
from  the  position  of  chief  of  the  general 
staff  in  1888.  His  death  took  place  in 
1891. 

MOLUC'CAS,  or  SPICE  ISLANDS,  a 

name  originally  confined  to  the  five 
small  islands  of  Ternate,  Tidore,  Motir, 
Makian,  and  Batshian,  but  now  applied 
to  the  widely  scattered  group  lying  be- 
tween Celebes  and  Papua,  between  lat. 
3°  s.  and  6°  n.,  and  Ion.  126°  to  135°  e. 
The  area  is  about  45,000  sq.  miles,  and 
the  population  500,000.  The  islands 
(some  hundreds  in  number)  are  nearly 
all  mountainous,  mostly  volcanic  and 
earthquakes  are  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon. They  abound  in  gaily-colored 
birds  and  gorgeous  insects;  and  are 
covered  by  a luxuriant  tropical  flora. 
Cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  and  sago  are 
exported  to  Europe;  and  birds’-nests, 
trepang,  etc.,  to  China. 

MONACHISM.  See  Monastery  and 
Orders  (Religious). 

MON'ACO,  a principality  lying  be- 
tween the  French  department  Alpes 
Maritimes  (Nice)  and  the  Mediterranean. 
In  1861  the  Prince  of  Monaco  sold  the 
departments  of  Mentone  and  Rocca- 
bruna  to  France  for  4,000,000  francs; 
and  the  principality  has  since  then  been 
confined  to  an  area  of  about  8 square 
miles,  with  a population  of  15,180.  The 
prince  (a  scion  of  the  house  of  Grimaldi) 
exercises  both  legislative  and  executive 
functions,  while  the  people  are  exempt 
from  taxation,  as  the  revenue  is  almost 
entirely  derived  from  the  rents  of  the 
gaming  establishment.  The  capital, 
Monaco  (pop.  3292),  situated  on  a rocky 
height  projecting  into  the  sea,  is  a re- 
nowned watering-place.  About  a mile 
to  the  e.  is  Monte  Carlo,  a collection  of 
hotels  and  villas  which  have  sprung  up 
near  the  luxurious  gardens  of  the  hand- 
some gambling  casino,  established  here 
in  1860.  This  institution  is  now  the  prop- 
erty of  a joint-stock  company.  The  in- 
habitants of  Monaco  are  not  admitted 
to  the  gaming-tables. 

MONAD,  in  philosophy,  an  imaginary 
entity  in  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz, 
according  to  whom  monads  are  simple 
substances,  of  which  the  whole  universe 
is  composed,  each  differing  from  every 
other,  but  all  agreeing  in  having  no  ex- 
tension, but  in'  being  possessed  of  life, 
the  source  of  all  motion  and  activity. 
Every  monad,  according  to  Leibnitz,  is 
a soul,  and  a human  soul  is  only  a monad 
of  elevated  rank. 

MON'AGHAN,  a county  of  Ireland  in 
Ulster;  area  319,741  acres.  Pop.  74,505. 

MONARCHY  is  a state  or  government 
in  which  the  supreme  power  is  either 
actually  or  nominally  vested  for  life  in  a 


single  person,  by  whatsoever  name  he 
may  he  distinguished.  A monarchy  in 
which  the  subjects  have  no  right  or 
powers  as  against  the  monarch  (e.g. 
Persia)  is  termed  despotic  or  absolute; 
when  the  legislative  power  is  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  a monarch,  who,  however, 
is  himself  subject  to  the  law(e.g.  Russia), 
it  is  termed  autocratic;  but  when  the 
monarch  shares  the  power  of  enacting 
laws  with  representatives  of  the  people, 
the  monarchy  is  limited  or  constitu- 
tional (e.g  Great  Britain).  In  ancient 
Greece,  a monarchy  in  which  the  ruler 
either  obtained  or  administered  his 
power  in  violation  of  the  constitution 
was  termed  a tyranny,  however  bene- 
ficient  and  mild  the  rule  might  be. 
Monarchies  are  either  hereditary,  as  in 
Great  Britain,  or  elective,  as  was  for- 
merly the  case  in  Poland. 

MONASTERY,  a house  into  which 
persons  retire  from  the  world  to  lead  a 
life  devoted  to  religion.  The  practice 
of  monachism  or  monastic  seclusion, 
though  it  has  been  carried  to  its  greatest 
development  within  the  Christian  Church 
had  its  origin  in  periods  long  anterior  to 
the  Christian  era,  and  has  long  flourished 
in  countries  where  Christianity  has  little 
or  no  influence,  as  among  the  Brahmans 
and  Buddhists.  Christianity  was  prob- 
ably not  without  its  ascetics  even  from 
the  first,  but  it  was  not  until  the  close 
of  the  3d  century,  when  the  Neo- 
Platonic  and  Gnostic  doctrines  of  the 
antagonism  between  body  and  soul  had 
gained  strength,  that  solitary  life  began 
to  be  specially  esteemed.  The  founda- 
tion of  the  first  Christian  monasteries  is 
ascribed  to  Anthony  the  Great,  who 
about  305,  in  the  deserts  of  Upper 
Egypt,  collected  a number  of  hermits, 
who  performed  their  devotional  exer- 
cises in  common.  His  disciple  Pachomius 
in  the  middle  of  the  4th  century,  built  a 
number  of  houses  not  far  from  each 
other,  upon  the  island  of  Tabenna,  in 
the  Nile,  each  of  which  was  occupied  by 
three  monks  (syncelli)  in  cells,  who  were 
all  under  the  superintendence  of  a prior. 
These  priors  formed  together  the 
CEenobium,  or  monastery,  which  was 
under  the  care  of  the  abbot,  hegumenos 
or  mandrite,  and  were  obliged  to  submit 
to  uniform  rules  of  life.  Western  monas- 
ticism,  which  rapidly  spread  during  the 
5th  century,  was  accompanied  by  many 
irregularities,  until  monastic  vows  were 
introduced  in  the  6th  century  by  St. 
Benedict.  The  monasteries  of  the  west 
now  became  the  dwellings  of  piety,  in- 
dustry, and  temperance,  and  the  refuge 
of  learning.  Missionaries  were  sent  out 
from  them;  deserts  and  solitudes  were 
made  habitable  by  industrious  monks; 
and  in  promoting  the  progress  of  agricul- 
ture and  converting  the  German  and 
Slavonic  nations,  they  certainly  ren- 
dered great  services  to  the  world  from 
the  6th  century  to  the  9th.  Another 
incalculable  benefit  conferred  upon 
civilization  by  the  monasteries  is  the 
preservation  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
classic  and  medi®val  MS.  literature  that 
we  possess. 

But  monasteries  changed  their  char- 
acter, to  a great  degree,  as  their  wealth 
and  influence  increased.  Idleness  and 
luxury  crept  within  their  walls,  together 


MONASTIC  VOWS 


MONGOLS 


with  all  the  vices  of  the  world,  and  their 
decay  became  inevitable,  when,  by  a 
custom  first  introduced  by  the  Frankish 
kings,  and  afterward  imitated  by  other 
princes,  they  came  under  the  care  of  lay 
abbots  or  superiors,  who,  thinking  only 
of  their  revenues,  did  nothing  to  main- 
tain discipline  among  the  monks  and 
nuns.  These  being  left  wholly  to  their 
own  government  by  the  bishops,  origin- 
ally their  overseers,  soon  lost  their 
monastic  zeal.  A few  only,  by  means  of 
the  convent  schools  (founded  by  Charle- 
magne for  the  education  of  the  clergy), 
as,  for  instance,  those  at  Tours,  Lyons, 
Rheims,  Cologne,  Treves,  Fulda,  etc., 
maintained  their  character  for  useful- 
ness till  the  9th  and  10th  centuries.  The 
monastery  at  Cluny,  in  Burgundy,  first 
led  the  way  to  reform.  This  was  founded 
in  the  year  910,  under  Berno,  was  gov- 
erned by  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict,  with 
additional  regulations  of  a still  more 
rigid  character,  and  attained  the  posi- 
tion, next  to  Rome,  of  the  most  import- 
ant religious  center  in  the  world.  Many 
monasteries  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Germany  were  reformed  on  this  model, 
and  the  Benedictine  rule  now  first  be- 
came prominent  in  Britain  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Dunstan.  The  Celtic 
and  other  monasteries  of  Britain  and 
Ireland  heretofore  seem  to  have  had  an 
independent  historical  connection  with 
the  early  monachism  of  Egypt.  The 
three  great  military  orders  (Templars, 
Hospitallers,  and  Teutonic  Knights) 
were  founded  in  the  12th  century;  while 
the  famous  mendicant  orders  of  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicians  date  from 
the  13th.  With  the  reputation  of  re- 
newed sanctity  the  monasteries  acquired 
new  influence  and  new  possessions. 
Many  of  them  (“exempt  monasteries”) 
released  themselves  from  all  superin- 
tending authority  except  -that  of  the 
pope,  and  acquired  great  wealth  in  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  from  the  estates  of 
Crusaders  and  others  placed  under  the 
protection  of  their  privilege  of  inviola- 
bility, or  even  left  to  them  in  reversion. 
But  with  this  growing  influence  the  zeal 
for  reformation  abated;  new  abuses 
sprang  up,  and  the  character  of  each 
monastery  came,  at  last  to  depend 
chiefly  upon  that  of  its  abbot. 

i'he  number  of  monasteries  was  much 
diminished  at  the  time  of  the  reforma- 
tion, when  the  rich  estates  of  those  in 
Protestant  states  were  in  part  appro- 
priated by  the  sovereign  to  his  own  use, 
in  part  distributed  to  nobles  and  eccle- 
siastics, and  in  part  devoted  to  educa- 
tional and  benevolent  purposes.  In 
Catholic  countries  this  period  was 
marked  by  a revival  of  the  spirit  of 
monastic  reform  ; while  many  new  orders 
were  founded  whose  objects  were  more 
directly  practical  (teaching,  tending  the 
sick,  visiting  the  poor)  than  those  of  the 
older  and  more  contemplative  orders. 
Monachism,  however,  as  belonging  to 
the  older  system  of  things,  was  regarded 
with  hostility  by  the  spirit  of  rational- 
ism and  liberalism  which  found  decisive 
expression  in  the  French  revolution ; and 
during  the  18th  century  the  monastic 
orders  were  obliged,  as  the  papal  power 
diminished,  to  submit  to  many  restric- 
tions imposed  upon  them  by  Catholic 


princes,  or  to  purchase  immunity  at  a 
high  price.  In  1781  the  houses  of  some 
orders  were  wholly  abolished  by  the 
Emperor  Joseph  II.,  and  those  suffered 
to  remain  were  limited  to  a certain  num- 
ber of  inmates,  and  cut  off  from  all  con- 
nection with  any  foreign  authority.  In 
France  the  abolition  of  all  orders  and 
monasteries  was  decreed  in  1789,  and 
the  example  was  followed  by  all  the 
states  incorporated  with  France  "under 
the  protection  of  Napoleon  I.  In  the 
19th  century,  however,  under  Napoleon 
III.  and  during  the  early  years  of  the 
republic, monachism  prosperedin  France, 
though  since  1880  only  monasteries 
authorized  by  the  state  are  permitted 
to  exist.  In  Germany  all  orders  except 
those  engaged  in  tending  the  sick  were 
abolished  in  1875.  The  unification  of 
Italy  was  followed  by  a series  of  de- 
crees pronouncing  all  monastic  orders 
illegal.  In  Portugal  monasteries  were 
abolished  by  decree  in  1834,  and  in 
Spain  in  1837.  In  Russia  the  number  of 
such  institutions  is  strictly  limited  by 
law.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  states  of 
South  America  the  same  policy  of 
abolition  has  been  adopted ; whereas  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  several 
orders  have  made  considerable  progress. 

MONASTIC  VOWS,  are  three  in  num- 
ber: poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
The  vow  of  poverty  prevents  the  monks 
from  holding  any  property  individually. 
Monasteries,  however,  professing  merely 
the  “high”  degree  of  poverty  may  pos- 
sess real  estate, yet  not  more  than  enough 
for  their  support,  as  the  Carmellites  and 
Augustines.  In  the  “higher”  degree  a 
monastery  may  hold  only  personal  prop- 
erty, as  books,  dresses,  supplies  of  food 
and  drink,  rents,  etc.,  as  the  Dominicans. 
The  “highest”  degree  absolutely  forbids 
both  real  and  personal  property,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  Franciscans,  and  espe- 
cially the  Capuchins.  The  vow  of  chas- 
tity requires  an  entire  abstinence  from 
familiar  intercourse  with  the  other  sex; 
and  that  of  obedience,  entire  compliance 
with  the  rules  of  the  order  and  the  com- 
mands of  the  superior. 

MONDAY  (that  is,  moon-day;  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Monandseg;  German,  Montag), 
the  second  day  of  our  week,  formerly 
sacred  to  the  moon.  ' ' 

MONEY,  in  its  ordinary  sense,  is 
equivalent  to  pieces  of  metal,  especially 
gold  and  silver,  duly  stamped  and  issued 
by  the  government  of  a country  to  serve 
as  a legalized  standard  of  value.  In  this 
sense  it  is  more  precisely  designated 
metallic  money  to  distinguish  it  from 
paper  money,  from  which  latter  it  is  also 
distinguished  by  having  an  intrinsic 
value.  A few  particulars  regarding 
money  may  here  be  given  as  supple- 
mentary to  information  contained  in  the 
articles  Currency,  Coining,  Bank,  etc. 
The  sovereign  and  half-sovereign  are  the 
legal  metal  standard  of  value  in  the 
United  Kingdom  and  most  of  the  colo- 
nies. By  the  Latin  Monetarj'^  Convention, 
which  includes  France,  Belgium,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  and  Greece,  it  has  been 
agreed  that  the  gold  napoleon  and  the 
silver  five-franc  piece — or  corresponding 
pieces — are  to  be  exchangeable  through- 
out these  countries  as  their  standard 
money;  while  by  the  Scandinavian 


Monetary  Convention,  which  includes 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  the 
gold  20-kroner  and  10-kroner  pieces  are 
the  standard  coins.  These  contracting 
states  have  thus  agreed  to  issue  no  gold 
or  silver  coins  except  of  a certain  weight, 
fineness,  and  diameter.  In  Germany  the 
5-mark,  10-mark,  and  20-mark  pieces, 
and  in  the  United  States  the  gold  dollar, 
are  the  standard  units;  while  in  Austria 
the  silver  florin,  and  in  Russia  the  silver 
rouble,  are  the  recognized  standard 
coins.  Moneys  of  account  are  those  de- 
nominations of  money  in  which  accounts 
are  kept,  and  which  may  or  may  not 
have  a coin  of  corresponding  value  in 
circulation . In  England  the  pound  sterlin  g 
may  be  said  to  be  purely  a money  of  ac- 
count, although  there  is  a coin,  the  sov- 
ereign of  corresponding  value.  Themoney 
unit  in  various  countries  is  as  follows; 
England,  the  pound  sterling;  Belgium, 
France,  and  Swtizerland,  the  franc; 
Germany,  the  mark;  Austria-Hungary, 
the  crown;  Russia,  the  rouble;  Italy, 
the  lira;  Spain,  the  peseta;  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, and  Denmark,  the  krona;  Holland, 
the  guilder;  Portugal,  the  milreis; 
Greece,  the  drachma;  Turkey,  the  pias- 
ter; United  States,  the  dollar;  Brazil,  the 
milreis;  India,  the  rupee;  China,  the 
liang  or  tael ; Japan,  the  yen. 

MONGHYR  (mon-ger'),a  district  and 
town  of  India,  in  Bengal.  The  district 
has  an  area  of  3921  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
35,880;  of  the  district,  2,064,077. 

MONGO'LIA,  a vast  region  of  the 
northeast  of  Asia,  belonging  to  the 
Chinese  Empire,  is  situated  between 
China  Proper  and  Asiatic  Russia;  esti- 
mated area,  1,400,000  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
estimated  at  2,000,000. 

MONGOLS,  a race  of  people  in  the 
northeast  of  Asia,  whose  original  seat 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  north  of  the 
present  Mongolia,  and  in  Siberia  to  the 
southeast  of  Lake  Baikal.  Their  first 
great  advance  was  due  to  Genghis  Khan, 
who  having  been,  originally,  merely  the 
chief  of  a single  Mongol  horde,  com- 
pelled the  other  hordes  to  submit  to  his 
power,  and  then,  in  1206,  conceived  the 
bold  plan  of  conquering  the  whole  earth. 
(See  Genghis  Khan.)  After  the  death  of 
Genghis  Khan,  in  1227,  his  sons  and 
grandsons  pursued  his  conquests,  sub- 
jugated all  China,  subverted  the  cali- 
phate of  Bagdad  (1263),  and  made  the 
Seljuk  sultans  of-  Iconium  tributary. 
In  1237  a Mongol  army  invaded  Russia, 
devastated  the  country  with  the  most 
horrible  cruelty,  and  from  Russia  passed, 
in  two  divisions,  into  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary. At  Pesth  the  Hungarian  army 
was  routed  with  terrible  slaughter,  and 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia,  Henry,  duke  of 
Breslau,  was  defeated  in  a bloody  battle, 
.A-pril  9, 1241.  The  Mongolswere  recalled, 
however,  from  their  victorious  career 
by  the  news  of  the  death  of  Ogdai,  in 
December,  1241,  the  immediate  succes- 
sor of  Genghis  Khan.  The  empire  of  the 
Mongols  was  at  the  summit  of  its  power 
during  the  reigns  of  Mangu  Khan  (1251- 
59)  and  Khubilai  or  Kublai  Khan  (1259- 
94),  the  patron  of  Marco  Polo.  At  that 
time  it  extended  from  the  Chinese  Sea 
and  from  India  far  into  the  interior  of 
Siberia,  and^to  the  frontiers  of  Poland. 
The  principal  seat  of  the  khakan  or  great 


MONITOR 


MONK 


MONEY— VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  COINS  IN  UNITED  STATES 


(Proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  October  1,  1906*) 


Country 

Stand- 

ard 

Monetary  tjnit 

Value  in 
U.S.  Gold 
Dollar 

Coins 

Argent.  R. .. 

Gold. .. 

Peso 

$0.96,5 

Gold:  argentine  ($4.82,4)  and  54  argentine’ 

Silver;  peso  and  divisions. 

Austria-H. . . 

Gold... 

Crown 

.20,3 

Gold:  10  and  20  crowns.  Silver:  1 and  5 

crowns. 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Gold 

Franc 

.19,3 

.48,5 

Gold:  10  and  20  francs.  Silver:  5 francs. 

Silver . 

Boliviano 

Silver:  boliviano  and  divisions. 

Brazil 

Gold, .. 

Milreis 

.54,6 

Gold:  5,  10,  and  20  milreis.  Silver:  54,  1, 
and  2 milreis. 

Canada  

Gold. ., 

Dollar 

1.00 

Cent.  Am. .. 

Silver  . 

Peso) 

.48,5 

Silver:  peso  and  divisions. 

Gold:  escudo  ($1.82,5),  doubloon  ($3.65), and 
condor  ($7.30).  Silver:  peso  and  divisions. 

Chile 

Gold. .. 

Peso 

.36,5 

1 Shanghai 

.72,6 

China 

Silver . 

Tael ..  -(  Halkwan 

11.80,8 

1 Canton  .. 

.79,2 

Colombia.... 

Gold... 

Dollar 

1.00 

Gold:  condor  ($9.64,7)  and  double  condor. 
Silver:  peso. 

Costa  Rica.. 

Gold... 

Colon 

.46,6 

Gold:  2,5,  10,  and  20  colons  ($9.30,7).  Silver: 
5,  10,  25,  and  50  centimos. 

Denmark... 

Gold  . .. 

Crown 

.26,8 

Gold:  10  and  20 crowns. 

Ecuador 

Gold. .. 

Sucre 

.48,7 

Gold:  10  sucres  (W.86,65).  Silver:  Sucre  and 
divisions. 

EEvnt 

Gold... 

Pound  

4.94,3 

Gold;  pound  (100  plasters),  5, 10,  20,  and  60 
piasters.  Silver:  1, 2, 5, 10,  and  20  plasters. 

(lOU  plasters) 

France  

Gold. .. 

Franc 

.19,3 

Gold:  5, 10,  20, 50.  and  100  frs.  Silver:  5 frs. 

Germany  . . . 
Gt.  Britain. . 

Gold . . . 

Mark 

.23,8 

Gold : 5,  10,  and  20  marks. 

Gold. .. 

Pound  sterling. ,. 

4.86.6H 

Gold;  sovereign(poundsterl.)and54 sov’gn. 

Greece 

Gold. .. 

Drachma 

.19,3 

Gold:  5,  10,  20, 50,  and  100  drachmas.  SUver: 

5 drachmas. 

Hayti 

Gold, .. 

Gourde 

.96,5 

Gold:  1,  2, 5,  and  10  gourdes.  Silver:  gourde 
and  divisions. 

India 

Gold. .. 

Pound  Sterlings . . 
Lira 

4.86, 6K 

Gold:  so  V.  ($4.86,65).  Sll. : rupee  and  dlv’ns. 
Gold:  5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  lire.  Silver  I 5 lire. 

Italy 

Gold. .. 

.19,3 

Japan 

Gold. .. 

Yen 

.49,8 

Goldi  1,  2,  5,  10,  and  20  yen.  Silver;  10,  20, 
and  50  sen. 

Mexico 

Gold... 

Peso! 

.49,8 

Gold:  6 and  10  pesos.  Silver:  dollar  (or 
peso)**  and  divisions. 

Netherlands 

Gold. .. 

Florin 

.40,3 

Gold:  10 florins.  Silver:  54, 1.  and 254  florins. 

N’foundland 

Gold. .. 

Dollar 

1.01,4 

Gold:  2 dollars  ($2.02,7). 

Norway  . . 

Gold. .. 

Crown 

.26,8 

Gold:  10  and  20  crowns. 

Panama 

Gold. .. 

Balboa 

1.00,0 

Gold:  1,  254,  5,  10,  and  20  balboas.  Silver: 
peso  and  divisions. 

Peru 

Gold. .. 

Libra  

4.86,654 

1.08 

Gold : 54  and  1 libra.  Sil. ; sol  and  divisions. 
Gold : 1,  2,  5,  and  10  milreis. 

Portugal  . . . 
Russia 

Gold. .. 

Milreis 

Gold... 

Ruble 

.51,5 

Gold;  5,  754, 10,  and  15  rubles.  SUver;  5, 10, 
15,  20,  25,  50,  and  100  copeks. 

Spain 

Gold. .. 

Peseta 

.19,3 

Gold:  25  pesetas.  Silver:  5 pesetas. 

Gold:  10  and  20  crowns. 

Sweden 

Gold  .. 

Crown 

.26,8 

Switzerland 

Gold... 

Franc 

.19,3 

Gold:  5,  10,  20,  50,and  lOOfrancs.  Sil.:  5 fr’s. 

Turkey 

Gold. .. 

Piaster  

.04,4 

1.03,4 

Gold : 25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piasters. 

Gold:  peso.  Silver:  peso  and  divisions. 
Gold:  5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  bolivars.  Silver: 
5 bolivars. 

Uruguay 

Venezuela  . . 

Gold. .. 

Peso 

Gold. .. 

Bolivar 

.19,3 

* The  coins  of  silver-standard  countries  are  valued  by  their  pure  silver  contents,  at  the  aver- 
age market  price  of  silver  for  the  three  months  preceding  the  date  of  this  circular,  t Not 
Including  Costa  Rica.  § The  sovereign  is  the  standard  coin  of , India,  but  the  rupee  ($0.44,8)  is 
the  money  of  account,  current  at  15  to  the  sovereign.  | Customs,  t Seventy-hve  centigrams 
fine  gold.  **  Value  in  Mexico  49.8. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  VALUE  OP  FOREIGN  COINS  AND  PAPER  NOTES  IN 
AMERICAN  MONEY  BASED  UPON  THE  VALUES  EXPRESSED 
IN  THE  ABOVE  TABLE 


Number 

British  £ 
Sterling 

German 

Mark 

French 

Franc, 

Italian 

Lira 

Chinese 

Tael 

(Haik- 

wan) 

Dutch 

Florin 

Japanese 

Yen, 

Mexican 

Peso 

Russian 

Gold 

Ruble 

Austrian 

Crown 

1 

$4.86,654 

$0.23,8 

$0.19,3 

$0.80,8 

$0.40,2 

$0.49,8 

$0.51,5 

$0.20,3 

2 

9.73,3 

.47,6 

.38,6 

1.61,6 

.80,4 

.99,6 

1.03 

.40,6 

3 

14.59,954 

.71,4 

.57,9 

2.42,4 

1.20,6 

1.49,4 

1.54,5 

.60,9 

4 

19.46,6 

.95,2 

.77,2 

3.23.2 

1.60,8 

1.99,2 

2.08 

.81,2 

5 

24.33,254 

1.19 

.96,5 

4.04,0 

2.01 

2.49,0 

2.57,5 

1.01,5 

6 

29.19,9 

1.42,8 

1.15,8 

4.84,8 

2.41,2 

2.98,8 

3.09 

1.21,8 

7 

34.08,554 

1.66,6 

1.35,1 

5.65,6 

2.81,4 

8.48,6 

3.60,5 

1.42,1 

8 

38.93,2 

1.90,4 

1.54,4 

6.46,4 

3.21,6 

3 98,4 

4 12 

1.62,4 

9 

43.79,854 

2.14,2 

1.73,7 

7.27,2 

3.61,8 

4.48,2 

4.63,5 

1.82,7 

10 

48.86,6 

2.38 

1.93 

8.08,0 

4.02 

4.98,0 

5.15 

2.03 

20 

97.33 

4.76 

3.86 

16.16,0 

8.04 

9.96,0 

10  30 

4.06 

30 

145.99,5 

7.14 

5.79 

24.24,0 

12.06 

14.94,0 

15.45 

6.09 

40 

194.66 

9.52 

7.72 

32.32,0 

16.08 

19.92,0 

20.60 

8.12 

50 

243.32,5 

11.90 

9.65 

40.40,0 

20.10 

24.9,()0 

25.75 

10.15 

100 

486.65 

23.80 

19.30 

80.80,0 

40.20 

49.80,0 

51.50 

20.30 

khan  was  transferred  by  Khubilia  from 
Karakorum  to  China;  the  other  coun- 
tries were  governed  by  subordinate 
khans,  all  of  whom  were  descended  from 
Genghis,  and  several  of  whom  succeeded 
in  making  themselves  independent.  This 
division  of  the  empire  was  the  cause  of 
the  gradual  decay  of  the  power  and  con- 

P.  E.— 53 


sequence  of  the  Mongols  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. The  adoption  of  new  religions 
(Buddhism  in  the  east  and  Mohammed- 
anism in  the  west)  also  contributed  to 
their  fall.  In  1368  the  empire  of  the 
Mongols  in  China  was  overturned  by  a 
revolution  which  set  the  native  Ming 
dynasty  on  the  throne.  Driven  north- 


ward to  their  original  home,  the  eastern 
Mongols  remained  for  a time  subject  to 
the  descendants  of  GengWs  Khan,  but 
gradually  splitting  up  into  small  inde- 
pendent tribes  they  finally  were  sub- 
dued and  absorbed  by  the  Manchu  con- 
querors of  China.  Of  the  western  Mon- 
gols the  most  powerful  were  the  Kip- 
chaks  or  Golden  Horde,  who  lived  on  the 
Volga,  and  the  khanate  founded  in  Bok- 
hara, on  the  Oxus,  by  Jagatai,  the  eldest 
son  of  Genghis  Khan.  The  former  gradu- 
ally fell  under  the  power  of  the  Russians ; 
but  among  the  latter  there  appeared  a 
second  formidable  warrior,  Timurlenk 
(Tamerlane),  called  also  Timur  Beg. 
In  1369  he  chose  the  city  of  Samarcand 
for  the  seat  of  his  new  government.  The 
other  Mongol  tribes,  with  Persia,  Central 
Asia,  and  Hindustan,  were  successively 
subjugated  by  him.  In  1402,  at  Ancyra 
(Angora),  in  Asia  Minor,  he  defeated 
and  captured  the  Sultan  Bajazet  I.,  who 
had  been  hitherto  victorious  against  the 
Christians  in  Europe,  and  before  whom 
Constantinople  trembled.  After  Timur’s 
death,  in  1405,  his  empire  barely  held 
together  until  1468,  when  it  was  again 
divided.  Baber  (Babur),  a descendant 
of  Timur,  founded  in  India,  in  1519,  the 
empire  of  the  Great  Mogul,  which 
existed  in  name  till  1857,  though  its 
power  ended  in  1739.  After  the  com- 
mencement of  the  16th  century  the 
Mongols  lost  all  importance  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  world,  became  split  up  into  a 
number  of  separate  khanates  and  tribes, 
and  fell  under  the  power  of  the  neigh- 
boring peoples.  Their  name  still  lingers 
in  the  Chinese  province  of  Mongolia,  but 
Mongolian  tribes  are  found  far  beyond 
its  boundaries. 

The  term  Mongolians  or  Mongolidse  is 
to  some  extent  used  by  anthropologists 
to  signify  a very  large  division  of  the 
races  of  men,  of  which  the  Mongol 
proper  were  considered  typical.  This 
use  of  the  name,  which  includes  Tartars, 
Turks,  Finns,  Chinese,  and  Japanese,  is 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  the 
historical  use. 

MONITOR,  the  popular  name  for  a 
class  of  very  shallow,  heavily-armed 
iron-clad  steam-vessels,  invented  by 
Ericsson,  carrying  on  their  open  decks 
either  one  or  two  revolving , turrets, 
each  containing  one  or  more  enormous 


Ericsson's  monitor  of  1861. 


guns,  and  designed  to  combine  the 
maximum  of  gun-power  with  the  mini- 
mum of  exposure.  Monitors  are  so  called 
from  the  name  of  the  first  vessel  of  the 
kind,  built  during  the  American  civil 
war,  which  proved  its  superiority  in  a 
famous  engagement  with  the  Merrimac 
in  1862. 

MONK,  a man  who  retires  from  the 
world  to  live  in  a monastery  as  member 
of  some  religious  order.  Originally  all 
monks  were  laymen,  but  after  about  the 
8th  century  the  superiors,  and  by  de- 
grees other  members,  were  admitted  to 
holy  orders.  See  Monastery. 

MONK,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle, 


MONKEYS 

an  English  general, famous  forthe  promi- 
nent part  he  took  in  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  was  born  in  1608.  In  the 
struggle  between  Charles  I.  and  the 
parliament  Monk  at  first  joined  the 
royalists;  but  in  January,  1644,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  seige  of  Nantwich, 
and  after  a short  delay  he  was  committed 
to  the  Tower.  After  the  capture  of  the 
king  Monk  took  the  Covenant  and  re- 
gained his  liberty,  in  1646.  Under  the 
parliament  he  served  in  Ireland,  and  sub- 
sequently with  Cromwell  in  Scotland 
and  in  1650  he  reduced  that  country  to 
obedience  within  a few  weeks.  In  1654 


General  Monk. 

he  was  the  head  of  the  English  army  in 
Scotland,  and  he  was  still  in  this  posi- 
tion at  the  death  of  the  protector  and  at 
the  resignation  of  his  son  in  1659.  The 
coming  over  of  Charles  II.  was  arranged 
with  Monk,  and  the  king  rewarded  his 
restorer  with  the  dukedom  of  Albemarle 
the  order  of  the  Garter,  and  with  a pen- 
sion. He  died  in  1670,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

MONKEYS,  the  popular  name  applied 
sometimes  to  the  whole  of  the  great 
mammalian  order  Quadrumana,  some- 
times limited  to  those  of  the  order  that 
have  tails,  and  generally  cheek-pouches, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  apes,  baboons, 
and  lemurs.  The  general  characters  of 
the  quadrumanous  mammals  are  found 
in  the  great  toe  being  opposable  to  the 
other  digits  of  the  foot,  so  that  the  feet 
become  converted  into  “hands.”  The 


Guenon,  or  common  green  monkey. 

hallux  or  thumb  may  be  absent,  but 
when  developed  it  is  generally  opposable 
to  the  other  fingers;  and  the  animals 
thus  come  to  possess  “four  hands,”  or 
are  “quadrumanous.”  The  monkeys 
may  all  be  divided  into  a lower  and  a 
higher  section.  The  higher  section  is 
that  of  the  Catarhina  (Greek,  kata, 
downward,  and  rhines,  nostrils)  or  Old 


World  monkeys.  The  catarhJne  mon- 
keys are  distinguished  by  their  obliquely- 
set  nostrils,  the  nasal  apertures  being 
placed  close  together,  and  the  nasal 
septum  being  naig-ow.  Opposable  thumbs 
and  great  toes  exist  in  nearly  all.  The 
tail  may  be  rudimentary  or  wanting,  but 
in  no  case  is  it  prehensile.  Cheek- 
pouches,  which  are  used  as  receptacles 
for  food  preparatory  to  its  mastication, 
are  present  in  many;  and  the  skin  cover- 
ing the  prominences  of  the  buttocks  is 
frequently  destitute  of  hair,  becomes 
hardened,  and  thus  constitutes  the  so- 
called  natal  callosities.  The  catarhine 
monkeys  inhabit  Asia  and  Africa.  They 
include  the  anthropoid  or  man-like 
apes;  the  gibbons,  the  orang,  the  chim- 
panzee and  the  gorilla,  the  baboons  and 
mandrills,  the  sacred  monkey  of  the 
Hindus,  the  proboscis  monkey,  the 
Diana  monkey,  the  mona,  the  wanderoo, 
etc.  The  lower  section  of  monkeys  con- 
sists of  the  New  World  monkeys, which 
are  entirely  confined  to  South  America. 
They  have  the  nostrils  widely  separated, 
the  septum  or  partition  between  being 
broad,  hence  the  name.  Another  pecul- 
iarity consists  in  their  prehensile  tails 
and  there  are  none  of  the  cheek-pouches 
or  hard  callosities  on  the  rump  so  char- 
acteristic of  Old  World  monkeys.  The 
diet  is  especially  of  a vegetable  nature. 
This  section  includes  the  marmosets, 
the  spider-monkeys,  the  capuchin  mon- 
keys, the  squirrel -monkeys,  the  howling 
monkeys,  etc.  See  Apes,  Baboons,  etc. 

MONK’S-HOOD.  See  Aconite. 

MONMOUTH,  a parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  England,  county 
town  of  Monmouthshire,  is  situated  in  a 
beautiful  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Monnow  and  Wye.  Pop.  5470. — The 
county  is  bounded  by  the  counties  of 
Hereford,  Gloucester,  Brecknock,  and 
Glamorgan,  and  the  estuary  of  the 
Severn;  area,  370,350  acres.  Pop. 
292,327. 

MONMOUTH,  James,  Duke  of,  the 
natural  son  of  Lucy  Walters,  one  of  the 
mistresses  of  Charles  II.,  was  born  at 
Rotterdam  in  1649.  After  the  restora- 
tion he  was  created  Duke  of  Orkney  and 
Duke  of  Monmouth  (1663),  married  the 
daughter  and  heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Buc- 
cleuch,  and  received  the  Garter.  It  was 
reported  that  the  king  had  been  privately 
married  to  Lucy  Walters,  and  the  popu- 
lar dislike  of  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward James  II.,  joined  with  the  fact  of 
Monmouth  being  a Protestant,  gave 
occasion  to  hopes  that  her  son  might 
succeed  to  the  crown.  On  the  accession 
of  James  II.  he  was  induced  to  attempt 
an  invasion  of  England.  His  small  body 
of  undisciplined  troops  were  totally  de- 
feated at  Sedgmoor,  and  the  duke  him- 
self was  captured  and  beheaded  15th 
July,  1685,  after  abject  appeals  to  the 
king  for  mercy. 

MON'OCHROME,  a painting  exe- 
cuted in  a single  color.  This  description 
of  art  is  very  ancient,  and  was  known  to 
the  Etruscans.  The  most  numerous 
examples  existing  of  this  kind  of  paint- 
ing are  on  terra  cotta.  A painting,  to  be 
a proper  monochrome,  must  have  the 
figures  relieved  by  light  and  shade, 

MON'OGRAM,  a character  or  cipher 
composed  of  one,  two,  or  more  letters 


MONOTHEISM 

interwoven,  and  used  as  a sign  or  ab- 
breviation of  a name  or  word.  The  use 
of  monograms  was  common  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  art  of  com- 
bining and  contorting  letters  and  words 
flourished  universally  in  the  middle  ages. 
The  term  is  now  applied  to  conjoined 
initials  of  a personal  name  on  seals, 
trinkets,  letter-paper  and  envelopes,  etc. 
or  employed  by  printers,  painters,  en- 
gravers, etc.,  as  a means  of  distinguish- 
ing their  work. 

MON'OLITH,  a pillar,  obelisk,  or  other 
large  object  cut  from  a single  block  of 
stone.  See  accompanying  plate  and  de- 
scription. 

MONOMET'ALLISM,  the  principle  of 
having  only  one  metallic  standard  in  the 
coinage  of  a country ; opposed  to  bimetal- 
lism. ^ 

MONONGAHE'LA,  a river  of  the 
United  States,  formed  by  the  union  of 
West  Fork  and  Tygart’s  Valley  river  in 
West  Virginia,  runs  north  into  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  unites  with  the  Alleghany, 
at  Pittsburg,  to  form  the  Ohio.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  large  boats  60  miles,  and  for 
small  boats  200  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Its  length  to  the  source  of  the  Tygart’s 
Valley  river  is  300  miles. 

MONOP'OLY,  is  an  exclusive  right, 
conferred  by  authority  on  one  or  more 
persons,  to  carry  on  some  branch  of 
trade  or  manufacture.  The  monopolies 
most  frequently  granted  were  the  right 
of  trading  to  certain  foreign  countries,  of 
importing  or  exporting  certain  articles, 
or  of  exercising  particular  arts  or  trades. 
The  entire  trade  and  industry  of  the 
middle  ages  was  characterized  by  at- 
tempts to  erect  and  maintain  monopo- 
lies, as  evidenced  by  the  trade-guilds 
and  such  associations  as  the  Hanseatic 
League.  The  discovery  of  the  New  World 
only  provided  a fresh  sphere  for  the 
same  system;  for  not  only  did  every 
government  endeavor  to  monopolize  the 
trade  of  its  colonies,  but  in  nearly  every 
case  the  new  countries  were  opened  up 
by  privileged  “adventurers”  and  jealous 
monopoly  companies.  The  granting  of 
monopolies  has  at  all  times  been  opposed 
to  the  spirit  of  English  common  law, 
but  the  practice  was  very  common  prev- 
ious to  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts.  The 
abuse  reached  its  height  under  Eliza- 
beth. Notwithstanding  the  reluctance  of 
the  crown  to  surrender  what  was  con- 
sidered one  of  its  most  valuable  preroga- 
tives, the  Statute  of  Monopolies  (21 
James  I.  cap.  iii.)  was  passed  in  1623, 
abolishing  all  licenses,  monopolies,  etc., 
with  some  exceptions.  This  act,  which 
lifted  an  immense  incubus  from  the  in- 
dustrial prosperity  of  the  realm,  is  (with 
amendments)  still  in  force;  and  its  ex- 
cepting clauses  are  the  basis  of  the  pres- 
ent laws  as  to  patents,  copyrights,  etc. 
Both  in  Great  Britain  and  other  coun- 
tries there  are  certain  so-called  govern- 
ment  monopolies  maintained  on  various 
grounds  of  public  policy.  Examples  of 
such  monopolies  are  the  postal  and  I 
telegraph  service,  the  tobacco  monopoly  j 
in  France,  the  opium  monopoly  in  India,  * 
etc.  There  are  also  numerous  quasi- 
monopolies, such  as  those  enjoyed  by 
railway,  water,  and  gas  companies,  and 
similar  semi-public  ogranizations. 

MON'OTHEISM,  the  belief  in,  and 


MONROE 


MONTAGU 


worship  of,  a single,  personal  God; 
opposed  to  polytheism  and  distinct  also 
from  pantheism.  It  was  at  one  time  the 
received  opinion  that  monotheism  was 
the  primeval  intuitive  form  of  religion, 
but  most  recent  authorities  now  hold 
that  it  was  everywhere  posterior  to 
polytheism,  whence  it  was  evolved  by  a 
gradual  education.  Henotheism,  which 
Max  Muller  and  Schelling  maintain  to  be 
the  primeval  form,  is  merely  the  rudi- 
mentary phase  of  polytheism  in  minds, 
not  yet  conscious  of  the  complexity  of 
the  problems  for  which  polytheism  is 
suggested  as  the  solution  by  more  de- 
veloped intellects.  The  three  great 
modern  monotheistic  religions  are  Juda- 
ism, Christianity,  and  Mohammedanism. 
The  Jewish  prophets  had  a firm  per- 
suasion of  one  God,  the  Father  and 
Judge  of  all ; but  they  are  continually 
upbraiding  the  people  for  lapsing  into 
polytheism.  After  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity the  people  became  fixed  in  their 
belief.  Christian  monotheism  is,  of 
course,  historically  a development  of 
Hebrew  monotheism;  and  Mahomet 
probably  borrowed  the  doctrine  from  the 
same  source.  Both  Jew  and  Moham- 
medan regard  the  Trinitarian  concep- 
tion of  Deity  as  a deviation  from  the 
pure  doctrine  of  monotheism. 

MONROE  (mon-r6')j  James,  fifth 
president  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, was  born  in  1758  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Virginia;  died  at  New  York  in 
1831.  He  was  educated  at  William  and 


Mary  college,  and  from  1776  till  1778 
served  in  the  revolutionary  army.  He 
then  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
law.  In  1782  and  in  1787  he  was  elected 
a member  of  the  Virginia  Assembly,  and 
from  1783  till  1786  he  represented  Vir- 
ginia in  congress.  In  1788  as  a member 
of  the  Convention  of  Virginia  he  stren- 
uously opposed  the  ratification  of  the 
new  Federal  constitution.  In  1790  he 
was  elected  to  the  senate  of  the  United 
States.  In  1794-96  he  was  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  France.  From  1799 
till  1802  he  was  governor  of  Virginia,  and 
m 1803  he  returned  as  envoy-extraor- 
dinary to  France  on  a mission  which 
resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana 
for  15,000,000  dollars.  He  was  after- 
ward employed  in  diplomacy  in  Eng- 
land and  Spain.  In  1811  he  was  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia,  in  1811-17  he  was 
secretary  of  state,  being  secretary  of 
war  in  1 81 4-1 5 . In  1 8 1 6 th  e demo  cratic 
republican  party  elected  him  to  the  pres- 
idency of  the  United  States.  In  1820 
he  was  re-elected,  only  one  vote  being 
cast  against  him.  This  he  owed  chiefly 


to  his  having  procured  the  cession  of 
Florida  by  Spain,  and  to  the  settlement 
of  the  vexed  question  of  the  extension  of 
slavery  by  the  Missouri  compromise 
(which  see).  Mexico  and  the  emanci- 
pated states  of  South  America  were 
formally  recognized  by  the  American 
government  during  Monroe’s  second 
term;  but  the  leading  event  in  it  was 
the  promulgation  of  the  “Monroe  doc- 
trine.” 

MONROE  DOCTRINE,  The,  a prin- 
ciple in  international  politics,  corre- 
sponding in  America  to  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe,  was  formulated  in 
President  Monroe’s  message  of  Decem- 
ber 2,  1823,  in  the  statement  that  the 
United  States  would  consider  any  at- 
tempt to  extend  the  European  political 
system  to  any  portion  of  America,  as 
dangerous  to  their  peace  and  safety. 
At  the  same  time  the  American  con- 
tinents were  declared  to  be  no  longer 
subjects  for  colonization  by  any  Euro- 
pean power.  The  doctrine  has  several 
times  been  asserted,  notably  in  the  atti- 
tude of  the  United  States  toward 
Napoleon  HI.  during  his  Mexican  un- 
dertaking, and  in  connection  with  the 
Panama  Canal  and  the  Venezuela- 
Guiana  boundry  question.  The  interfer- 
ence of  the  United  States  in  Mexico,  re- 
sulting in  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  in 
1866,  and  President  Cleveland’s  declara- 
tion to  Great  Britain  in  connection  with 
theVenezuelan  boundary  dispute  in  1895, 
are  the  notable  examples  of  such  recog- 
nition. Notwithstanding  the  protests 
of  the  United  States  Government,  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
French  had  secured  a foothold  in  Mexico 
and  attempted  to  install  Maximilian,  an 
Austrian  prince,  on  the  Mexican  throne. 
With  the  conclusion  of  peace  a formal 
demand  for  withdrawal  was  made,  and 
General  Sherman  was  sent  to  the  Mexi- 
can frontier  with  a large  force.  After 
some  delay  in  negotiations  the  French 
Emperor  withdrew  his  troops,  and  Max- 
imilian was  left  to  his  fate.  In  the 
Venezuelan  affair,  representations  hav- 
ing been  made  by  our  Government  that 
the  action  of  Great  Britain  was  a viola- 
tion of  the  Monroe  Docti-ine,  the  latter 
yielded  to  the  suggestion  of  the  United 
States  and  consented  to  an  arbitration, 
thus  effecting  an  amicable  settlement. 
It  has  all  the  force  of  a first  principle 
in  the  United  States  but  not  in  inter- 
national law. 

MONSEIGNEUR  (mon-san-yeur),  a 
title  of  dignity  in  France.  Under  Louis 
XIV.  the  dauphin  was  styled  monseign- 
eur, without  any  addition.  Princes, 
dukes  and  peers,  archbishops,  bishops 
(who  adopted  the  title  at  the  close  of  the 
17th  century),  cardinals,  marshals  of 
France,  presidents  of  parliament,  etc., 
were  addressed  by  this  title. 

MONSIEUR  (mo-syeu),  used  without 
any  addition,  formerly  in  France  desig- 
nated the  king’s  eldest  brother,  though, 
in  addressing  him,  the  title  Monseigneur 
was  used.  The  last  prince  so  called  was 
the  Comte  d’ Artois,  brother  of  Louis 
XVIII.  In  common  use  it  answers  both 
to  the  English  sir  and  Mr.,  and  is  also 
used  before  titles. 

MON'SOON,  the  name  given  to  a cer- 
tain modification  or  disturbance  of  the 


regular  course  of  the  trade-winds  which 
takes  place  in  the  Arabian  and  Indian 
seas.  Between  the  parallels  of  10°  and 
30°  south  latitude  the  eastern  trade- 
wind  blows  regularly,  but  from . the 
former  parallel  northward  the  course 
is  reversed  for  half  the  year,  and  from 
April  to  October  the  wind  blows  con- 
stantly from  the  southwest.  During 
the  other  six  months  of  the  year  the 
regular  northeast  trade-wind  prevails. 
These  two  alternating  winds  are  the 
monsoons  proper,  but  the  name  is  now 
commonly  given  to  similar  alternating 
winds  in  any  region. 

MONSTER,  or  Monstrosity,  a term 
applied  in  anatomy  and  physiology  to 
living  beings  which  exhibit  from  birth 
onward  some  important  abnormal 
features  in  structure,  or  present  notable 
deviations  from  the  normal  type  of  their 
kind.  From  the  earliest  times  writers 
have  argued  for  the  production  of  such 
ideal  monsters  by  the  intercourse  of 
demons  and  women,  of  brutes  and  men; 
and  witchcraft,  magic,  spell,  divine 
vengeance — and,  more  lately,  the  effect 
upon  the  mother’s  mind  of  fright,  terror, 
dreams,  etc.,  have  each  and  all  been 
credited,  but  equally  erroneously,  with 
causing  malformations  and  abnormali- 
ties in  the  yet  unborn  child  or  embryo. 
Teratology  can  explain  most,  if  not  all 
malformations,  as  results  of  abnormal 
growth  or  disease.  These  so-called 
“freaks  of  nature”  are  in  truth  the  re- 
sults of  morbid  actions  and  operations 
iu  the  living  organisms,  as  well  defined, 
but  not  yet  so  well  known,  as  are  those 
of  the  healthy  and  normal  body. 

MON'STRANCE,  or  REMONSTRANCE 
is  the  sacred  Vessel  in  which,  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  the  host  is  shown 
to  the  people  at  benedictions,  proces- 
sions, and  other  solemnities.  Its  use 
probably  dates  from  the  establishment. 


of  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  in  1264 
by  Pope  Urban  IV.  The  earliest  mon- 
strances known  date  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury, and  are  made  in  the  form  of  a 
Gothic  tower.  The  most  common  form 
now  consists  of  a chalice-footed  stand  of 
some  precious  metal,  and  a circular  re- 
pository, usually  a transparent  pyx,  sur- 
rounded by  sun-like  rays.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  monstrance  is  shaped  like  a 
coffin. 

MONTAGU,  Lady  Mary  Wortley, 
famous  for  her  brilliant  letters,  was  born 
in  1689,  and  died  in  1762.  She  was  the 
eldest  daughter  of  Evelyn  Pierrepont, 


MONTAIGNE 


MONTCLAin 


afterward  duke  of  Kingston.  Her  beauty 
and  elegance  and  her  wit  and  vivacity 
rapidly  gained  her  admiration  and  in- 
fluence, and  she  became  familiarly  ac- 
quainted with  Addison,  Congreve,  Pope, 
and  other  distinguished  writers.  In  1716 
Mr.  Montagu  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  the  Porte,  and  Lady  Mary  accompan- 
ied him  to  Constantinople,  where  they 
remained  from  January,  1717,  to  May, 
1718.  Itwasduringthisperiod  that  Lady 
Mary’s  famous  “Turkish  Letters”  were 
written.  On  her  return  to  England  she 
resumed  her  ascendency  in  the  gay 
world  of  wit  and  fashion.  Her  letters 
are  marked  by  great  vivacity  and 
graphic  power,  together  with  keen  ob- 
servation and  independent  judgment. 
Lady  Mary  has  another  claim  to  re- 
membrance in  her  courageous  adoption 
of  the  Turkish  practice  of  inoculation 
for  smallpox  in  the  case  of  her  own 
children,  and  for  her  energy  in  promot- 
ing its  introduction  into  England,  in  the 
face  of  a storm  of  obstinate  prejudice. 

MONTAIGNE  (mon-tan'),  Michel  Ey- 
quem  de,  the  famous  French  essayist, 
was  born  in  1533  at  the  castle  of  Mon- 
taigne, in  P^rigord.  In  1580  he  published 
the  first  two  books  of  his  Essais,  and 
immediately  afterward  set  out  on  a 
journey  through  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy  to  restore  his  health,  which 
had  been  shattered  by  the  attacks  of  a 
hereditary  disease.  In  1582  and  1584 
he  was  chosen  mayor  of  Bordeaux.  In 
1588  he  republished  his  Essais,  with  the 
addition  of  a third  book.  After  a last 
visit  to  Paris  (in  the  course  of  which  he 
was  thrown  into  the  Bastille  for  a short 
time  by  the  leaguers)  Montaigne  seems 
to  have  dwelt  quietly  in  his  chateau. 
He  died  of  quinsy  in  1592. 

MONTANA  (m6n-ta'na),  one  of  the 
United  States  organized  as  a territory 
in  1864  out  of  portions  of  the  territories 
of  Idaho  and  Dakota,  admitted  as  a 
state  in  1889.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
ky  the  Canadian  provinces  of  British 
Columbia,  Alberta,  and  Assiniboia  on 


the  east  by  the  Dakotas,  on  the  south  by 
Wyoming  and  Idaho.  It  ranks  third  in 
size  among  the  states  of  the  Union.  Its 
area  is  146,080  sq.  miles.  The  eastern 
three-fifths  of  the  state  consist  of  rolling 
plains,  lying  at  an  elevation  of  from 
2000  feet  in  the  northeast  to  about  4000 
feet  among  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  take  up  the  western 
portion.  The  Main  Divide  runs  from 
Yellowstone  Park  for  some  distance 


along  the  southwestern  boundary,  after 
which  it  turns  eastward  and  then  crosses 
the  state  obliquely  in  a northwestern 
direction.  A great  longitudinal  basin 
separates  the  Main  Divide  from  theBitter 
Root  Mountains  which  form  the  western 
boundary.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Missouri,  the  Yellowstone  and  Clark’s 
Fork  of  the  Columbia.  The  climate  is  in 
general  dry,  exhilarating,  and  healthful. 
The  average  mean  temperature  for  the 
state  is  70°  for  the  warmest  and  11°  for 
the  coldest  month.  The  rainfall  is  ex- 
ceedingly scanty  and  irrigation  is  almost 
necessary  everywhere  for  agriculture. 

Building  materials  such  as  limestone, 
slate,  granite,  sands,  and  clay  are 
abundant,  and  there  are  large  deposits 
of  marble  of  various  hues.  Bituminous 
coal  and  extensive  beds  of  lignite  exist 
in  the  east  along  the  Missouri  and  Yel- 
lowstone rivers,  while  petroleum  is  also 
found.  Copper  is  abundant,  lead,  iron, 
gold,  silver  ores  exist. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  state  it  is 
only  in  exceptional  years  that  the  rain- 
fall is  inadequate,  and  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  state,  on  the  western  side 
of  the  mountains,  the  rainfall  is  plentiful 
and  certain.  Considerable  land  has  been 
brought  under  irrigation  by  the  con- 
struction of  large  canals.  The  irrigated 
region  is  confined  to  the  southwest 
quarter  of  the  state,  the  supply  being 
obtained  from  the  tributary  headwaters 
of  the  Missouri  and  from  the  Yellow- 
stone river. 

Hay  is  the  principal  crop,  its  acreage 
being  more  than  twice  that  of  all  other 
crops.  Native  grasses  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  the  acreage,  but  alfalfa, 
clover,  and  other  tame  varieties  are  also 
grown.  Oats,  wheat,  and  barley  yield 
abundant  crops.  Corn  is  but  little  grown, 
owing  mrtly  to  the  coolness  of  the 
nights.  Potatoes  are  a favorite  crop,  and 
other  vegetables  are  successfully  raised. 
The  apple  and  other  temperate  zone 
fruits  flourish,  and  much  interest  is  be- 
ing developed  in  their  culture. 

The  state  greatly  exceeds  any  other 
in  the  number  of  sheep  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  wool.  Formerly,  the  males 
were  shipped  to  eastern  states  to  be  fed 
for  the  market,  but  with  the  increased 
production  of  alfalfa  it  is  being  found 
possible  to  fatten  them  within  the  state. 
The  number  of  cattle  has  also  shown  a 
considerable  increase,  and  the  breed  has 
greatly  improved. 

The  population  is  about  300,000. 
Helena  is  the  capital.  The  tribal  Indians 
chiefly  Crows,  Blackfeet,  Yankton  Sioux, 
Assiniboins,  Gros  Ventres,  and  Pend 
d’Oreilles,  are  located  on  five  reserva- 
tions, embracing  an  area  of  45,000  sq. 
miles  of  fine  agricultural  and  grazing 
land,  of  which  only  a small  portion  is 
cultivated. 

In  1742  the  Sieur  de  la  Verendrye 
traversed  the  region  now  included  within 
the  state  of  Montana,  and  in  January, 
1743,  reached  the  foot  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Gold  was  discovered  as  early 
as  1852  near  the  Hellgate  river,  but  the 
discovery  aroused  little  attention  till 
1857.  In  the  winter  of  1860  rich  placers 
were  discovered  and  an  active  immigra- 
tion set  in,  mining  settlements  springing 
up  at  Banack  City  on  Grasshopper  creek, 


on  the  Bighole  river,  and  on  North 
Boulder  creek.  In  May,  1863,  gold  was 
discovered  at  Fairweather  Gulch,  near 
Alder  creek.  The  town  of  Virginia  City 
sprang  up  near  the  spot,  and  within  a 
year  it  had  a population  of  4000.  The 
region,  which  constituted  a part  of 
Washington  territory,  was  organized  in 
1860-61  as  Shoshone  and  Missoula 
counties.  In  1863  the  territory  of  Idaho, 
including  the  present  Montana,  was  set 
off  from  Washington,  and  on  May  22, 
1864,  the  territory  of  Montana  was 
erected  from  land  taken  from  Idaho. 
In  1874  the  seat  of  government  was  re- 
moved from  Virginia  City  to  Helena. 
On  June  25,  1876,  occurred  the  dis- 
astrous fight  between  General  Custfer 
and  the  Sioux  Indians  under  Sitting 
Bull  on  the  Little  Big  Horn  river. 

The  prosperity  of  the  territory  was  in- 
creased by  the  completion  of  the  North- 
ern Pacific  railroad  in  1883.  About  1880 
began  the  development  of  silver  and 
copper  mining,  which  soon  surpassed  in 
importance  the  gold-mining  industry. 
In  January  and  February,  1884,  a con- 
stitutional convention  framed  a con- 
stitution which  was  ratified  by  the  peo- 
ple in  November,  and  application  was 
made  to  congress  for  admission  into  the 
Union.  No  action  was  taken,  however, 
until  February,  1889,  when  an  enabling 
act  was  passed  by  congress.  On  Novem- 
ber 8,  1889,  Montana  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  by  proclamation  of  the  presi- 
dent, after  a state  constitution  had  been 
framed  and  state  officers  elected.  In 
national  elections  Montana  v/as  republi- 
can in  1892  and  democratic  in  1896.  In 
1900  it  was  carried  by  the  Democrats 
and  people’s  party,  and  in  1904  and 
1908  by  the  Republicans. 

MONTANA,  University  of,  a coeduca- 
tional state  institution  at  Missoula, 
Mont.,  founded  in  1895.  It  maintains  a 
preparatory  department  and  a depart- 
ment of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts, 
and  offers  graduate  courses,  leading  re- 
spectively to  the  degrees  of  B.A.,  B.S., 
M.A.,  and  M.S.  There  is  also  a summer 
school  of  science  and  a biological  station. 
Tuition  is  free  except  in  the  law  depart- 
ment. 

MONT  BLANC,  the  loftiest  mountain 
of  Europe,  belonging  to  the  Pennine 
chain  of  the  Alps,  and  rising  15,781  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  is  situated  on  the 
frontiers  of  France  and  Italy,  and  near 
that  of  Switzerland.  On  the  s.e.  its  face 
is  steep;  on  the  n.w.  lateral  chains  are 
sent  off,  among  which  about  thirty 
glaciers  are  counted.  The  chief  are  the 
glaciers  Des  Bossons,  Bois,  Argenti^re, 
and  Mer  de  Glace.  The  summit  was  first 
reached  in  June,  1786,  by  the  guide 
Jacques  Balm  at. 

MONTCALM  (mon-kam),  Louis  Joseph 
Saint  Veran,  Marquis  de,  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  1712.  In  1756  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  of  the  French 
troops  in  Canada.  Here  he  took  Fort 
Ontario  and  Fort  William  Henry  and 
occupied  Ticonderoga;  but  at  Quebec  in 
1759  was  completely  defeated  by  Gen- 
eral Wolfe  on  the  Heights  of  Abraham, 
both  commanders  being  mortally 
wounded. 

MONTCLAIR,  a city  in  Essex  co.,  N. 
J.,  on  the  Del.,  Lack,  and  W.  and  the 


MONTE  CARLO 


MONTHS 


N.  Y.  and  Greenwood  Lake  railways; 
5 miles  n.  by  w.  of  Newark,  the  county 
seat,  14  miles  w.n.w.  of  New  York  City. 
Pop.  14,175. 

MONTE  CARLO.  See  Monaco. 
MONTE  CRISTO,  a small  island  6 
miles  in  circumference  belonging  to 
Italy,  25  miles  s.  of  Elba,  the  seat  of  a 
penal  colony.  Dumas  has  given  the 


Gen.  Montcalm. 


name  of  this  isle  to  the  hero  of  one  of  his 
most  popular  romances. 

MONTECU'CULI  or,  more  correctly, 
MONTECU'COLI,  Raimondo,  Prince  of 
the  Empire,  and  Duke  of  Melfi,  military 
commander,  born  near  Modena  in  1608, 
died  at  Linz  1680.  In  1664  he  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Turks  after  hav- 
ing driven  them  out  of  Transylvania. 
In  1673  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
imperial  troops,  and  checked  the  prog- 
ress of  Louis  XIV.  by  the  capture  of 
Bonn,  and  by  forming  a junction  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange  in  spite  of  Turenne 
and  Cond4.  Montecuculi’s  subsequent 
advance  into  Alsace  was  repulsed  by 
the  Prince  of  Cond6.  His  last  military 
exploit  was  the  siege  of  Philipsburg. 

MONTEFIORE  (mon-te-fi-o'ra).  Sir 
Moses,  Jewish  philanthropist  and  cen- 
tenarian, was  born  24th  October,  1784, 
died  28th  July,  1885.  In  1837  he  was 
chosen  sheriff  of  London,  the  same  year 
he  was  knighted,  and  in  1846  he  was 
made  a baronet.  His  benevolence  to 
Jews  throughout  the  world  was  un- 
bounded ; and  he  visited  Palestine  seven 
times,  the  last  when  in  his  92d  year. 

MONTENE'GRO  , an  independent  prin- 
cipality in  Europe,  in  the  northwest  of 
Turkey,  bounded  by  Herzegovina, 
Albania,  the  Adriatic,  and  Balmatia. 
Area,  about  3630  sq.  miles.  The  climate 
is  healthy.  Forests  of  beech,  pine,  chest- 
nuts, and  other  valuable  timber  cover 
many  of  the  mountain  sides.  Fruit- 
trees  of  all  kinds  abound,  especially  in 
the  sheltereJ.  valleys,  where  even  al- 
monds, vines,  and  pomegranates  ripen. 
Agriculture  is  in  a very  rude  and  in- 
efficient state,  though  every  cultivable 
piece  of  land  is  planted  with  Indian 
corn,  pptatoes,  tobacco,  rye,  wheat, 
cabbage(j,  or  some  other  useful  plant. 
Sheep,  (battle,  and  goats  are  reared  in 
great  nWnbers.  Manufactures,  with  ex- 
ception of  a coarse  woolen  stuff,  are 
unknown.  The  population  amounts  to 
aboui  240,000. 

MI)NTEREY  (mon-te-ra'i),  capital  of 
the  ftate  of  New  Leon,  in  Mexico,  about 
1001  miles  from  the  Texas  frontier. 
Moijfterey,  which  is  said  to  be  the  most 
Amiricanized  town  in  Mexico,  has  a 
coi^.iderable  transit  trade.  In  1846  it 
captured  by  the  United  States 
trolps  under  Gen.  Taylor.  Pop.  62,266. 
lONTESPAN  (mon-tes-pan),  Fran- 


9oise  Athenais,  Marchioness  de,  mistress 
of  Louis  XIV.,  born  in  1641,  was  the 
second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Morte- 
mart,  and  was,  in  1663,  married  to  the 
Marquis  de  Montespan.  Mme.  de  Monte- 
span  bore  eight  children  to  the  king, 
four  of  whom  died  in  infancy.  The  others 
were  intrusted  to  the  care  of  Mme. 
Scarron,  afterward  De  Maintenon.  The 
influence  of  the  favorite  mistress  was 
often  exercised  in  public  affairs,  and 
her  empire  over  the  king  continued  until 
about  1679,  when  a growing  attachment 
to  Mme.  de  Maintenon  finally  estranged 
his  affections  from  Mme.  de  Montespan. 
She  rarely  appeared  at  court  after  1685, 
and  in  1691  she  entirely  quitted  it.  Her 
last  years  were  devoted  to  religious  ex- 
ercises, acts  of  benevolence,  and  peni- 
tence. 

MONTESQUIEU  (mon-tes-kyeu), 
Charles  Louis  de  Secondat,  Baron  de  la 
Br^de  et  de,  born  1689  at  the  chS,teau  of 
La  Br^de,  near  Bordeaux;  died  at  Paris 
1755.  The  Lettres  Persanes,  the  first 
of  the  three  great  works  on  which  his 
fame  principally  rests,  appeared  in  1721. 
Other  works  of  less  importance  followed; 
and  in  1728  Montesquieu  was  admitted 
to  the  French  Academy.  He  gave  up  his 
president’s  office  in  1726,  and  then 
visited  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Hol- 
land, and  England.  In  England  he 
stayed  for  eighteen  months,  and  im- 
bibed a deep  admiration  for  its  social 
and  political  institutions.  He  returned 
to  France  in  1731,  and  in  1734  he  pub- 
lished his  Consid4rations  sur  les  Causes 
de  la  Grandeur  et  la  Decadence  des 
Remains.  In  1748  L’Esprit  des  Lois, 
the  result  of  twenty  years  of  labor,  was 
published,  and  at  once  placed  its  author 
among  the  greatest  writers  of  his  coun- 
try. The  scope  of  the  work  is  perhaps 
best  indicated  by  the  sub-title  of  the 
original  edition,  which  describes  it  as  a 
treatise  on  the  relation  which  ought  to 
exist  between  the  laws  and  the  constitu- 
tion, manners,  climate,  religion,  com- 
merce, etc.,  of  each  country.  Among 
his  lesser  works  are  Dialogue  de  Sylla  et 
d’Eucrate,  Le  Voyage  de  Paphos,  Essai 
sur  le  Gout  (unfinished),  Arasce  et  Is- 
menie  (probably  a work  of  his  youth), 
Lettres  FamiliSres,  etc. 

MONTEVID'EO,  capital  of  Uruguay 
is  situated  on  a small  peninsula  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  estuary  of  the  La 
Plata,  130  miles  east-southeast  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  Pop.  250,000,  one-third 
of  whom  are  foreigners. 

MONTEZU'MA,  Aztec  emperor  of 
Mexico  when  Cortez  invaded  tne  coun- 
try in  1519.  Influenced  by  an  ancient 
prophecy,  he  at  first  welcomed  the 
Spaniards;  but  when  he  discovered  that 
they  were  no  supernatural  beings,  he 
secretly  took  measures  for  their  destruc- 
tion. Cortez  on  learning  this  seized 
Montezuma,  and  compelled  him  to 
recognize  the  supremacy  of  Spain.  The 
Aztecs  immediately  rose  in  revolt,  and 
refused  to  be  quieted  by  the  appearance 
of  Montezuma.  While  urging  them  to 
submission  he  was  struck  on  the  temple 
with  a stone  and  fell  to  the  ground.  Cut 
to  the  heart  by  his  humiliation,  he  re- 
fused all  nourishment,  tore  off  his  ban- 
dages, and  soon  after  expired. 

MONTFORT,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Lei- 


cester, famous  in  the  constitutional  his- 
tory of  England,  was  born  in  France  be- 
tween 1195  and  1200.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl 
of  Leicester,  the  “scourge  of  the  Albi- 
genses.”  He  won  the  favor  of  Henry  III. 
and  married  Eleanor,  countess  dowager 
of  Pembroke  , and  sister  of  the  king.  He 
was  conspicuous  among  those  who  ex- 
torted the  Provisions  of  Oxford  from 
the  king  in  the  “Mad  Parliament”  in 
1258;  and  he  was  the  leader  of  the 
barons  in  the  so-called  “Barons’  War” 
that  followed.  In  1264  he  agreed  to  sub- 
mit the  question  of  the  king’s  right  to 
repudiate  the  Provisions  to  Louis  XI.  of 
France;  but  when  the  latter,  by  the 
Mise  of  Amiens,  decided  in  favor  of 
Henry,  De  Montfort  refused  to  be  bound 
by  the  decision.  Both  sides  took  up  arms 
and  at  the  battle  of  Lewes  (May  14, 
1264)  the  king  was  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner.  The  Mise  of  Lewes,  to  which 
Henry  III.  agreed,  contained  the  out- 
lines of  a new  constitution,  in  which  the 
principle  of  representative  government 
was  recognized.  The  king  accepted  the 
constitution  on  Feb.  14,  1265;  but  Prince 
Edward  and  the  Mortimers  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt.  At  the  battle  of 
Evesham  (Aug.  4,  1265)  De  Montfort 
was  defeated  and  slain.  His  memory 
was  long  revered  by  the  people  as  a 
martyr  for  the  popular  liberty. 

MONTGOM'ERY,  or  MONTGOMERY- 
SHIRE, an  inland  county  in  North 
Wales,  has  an  fc-ea  of  495,082  acres,  con- 
sisting mostly  of  wild,  rugged,  and 
sterile  mountains,  varying  from  1000  to 
2000  feet  in  height.  It  contains,  how- 
ever, some  fine  and  fertile  valleys,  the 
most  extensive  and  fruitful  of  which  is 
that  of  the  Severn,  the  principal  river. 
Pop.  54,892. 

MONTGOMERY,  capital  of  Alabama, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  navigable  Ala- 
bama river.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  state-capitol,  the  United  States 
court-house,  and  a number  of  churches. 
Montgomery  contains  several  foundries, 
flour  and  oil  mills,  and  a cotton  factory; 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade.  Pop. 
32,416. 

MONTH,  a period  of  time  derived 
from  the  motion  of  the  moon  generally 
one  of  the  12  parts  of  the  calendar  year. 
The  calendar  months  have  from  28  to 
31  days  each,  February  having  28,  April, 
June,  September,  and  November  30,  the 
rest  31 . Month  originally  meant  the  time 
of  one  revolution  of  the  moon,  but  as 
that  may  be  determined  in  reference  to 
several  celestial  objects  there  are  sev- 
eral lunar  periods  known  by  distinct- 
ive names.  Thus  the  anomalistic  month 
is  a revolution  of  the  moon  from  per- 
igee to  perigee,  average  27  days  13 
hrs.  18  min.  37.4  sec.;  the  sidereal 
month,  the  interval  between  two  suc- 
cessive conjunctions  of  the  moon  with 
the  same  fixed  star,  average  27  days  7 
hrs.  43  min.  11.5  sec.;  the  synodical,  or 
proper  lunar  month;  the  time  that 
elapses  between  new  moon  and  new 
moon,  average  29  days  12  hrs.  44  min. 
2.9  sec.  The  solar  month  is  the  twelfth 
part  of  one  solar  year,  or  30  days  10  hrs. 
29  min.  5 sec. 

MONTHS,  the  Derivations  of  the 
Names  of  the,  January — the  Roman 


MONTMORENCY  i;  ' “ MOODY 


Janus  presided  over  the  beginning  of 
everything;  hence  the  first  month  of  the 
year  was  called  after  him.  February — 
the  Roman  festival  Februs  was  held  on 
the  15th  day  of  this  month,  in  honor  of 
Lupercus,  the  god  of  fertility.  March — 
named  from  the  Roman  god  of  war, 
Mars.  April — Latin,  Aprilis,  probably 
derived  from  aperire,  to  open ; because 
spring  generally  begins,  and  the  buds 
open  in  this  month.  May — Latin  Maius, 
probably  derived  from  Maia,  a feminine 
divinity  worshipped  at  Rome  on  the  first 
day  of  this  month.  June — Juno,  a 
Roman  divinity  worshipped  as  the 
Queen  of  Heaven.  July — (Julius)  Julius 
Ccesar  was  born  in  this  month.  August — 
named  by  the  Emperor  of  Augustus 
Cffisar,  B.c.  30,  after  himself,  as  he  re- 
garded it  as  a fortunate  month,  being 
that  in  which  he  had  gained  several 
victories.  September  (septem,  or  7) — 
September  was  the  seventh  month  in 
the  old  Roman  calendar.  October  (octo, 
or  8) — Eighth  month  of  the  old  Roman 
year.  November  (novem,  or  9). — No- 
vember was  the  ninth  month  in  the  old 
Roman  year.  December  (decern,  or  10) 
— December  was  the  tenth  month  of  the 
early  Roman  year.  About  the  21st  of 
this  month  the  sun  enters  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn,  and  forms  the  winter  solstice. 

MONTMOREN'CY,  a small  river  of 
Canada,  which  rises  in  Snow  lake,  prov. 
of  Quebec,  flows  south,  and  joins  the  St. 
Lawrence  8 miles  belo\fc  Quebec.  Near 
its  mouth  are  the  Falls  m Montmorency, 
which  have  a breadth  of  about  50  feet, 
and  a perpendicular  descent  of  242  feet. 

MONTMORENCY  (mon-mo-ran-si), 
the  name  of  a noble  family  of  France 
and  the  Netherlands,  derived  from  the 
village  of  Montmorency  near  Paris. 
One  of  its  most  distinguished  members 
was  Anne  de  Montmorency,  first  duke 
of  Montmorency,  Constable  of  France, 
and  a distinguished  general,  born  in 
1492.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Marignano  in  1515,  and  for  his 
valor  at  Bicocca  in  1522  was  made  mar- 
shal. He  was  taken  prisoner  along  with 
Francis  I.  at  the  battle  of  Pavia  in  1525, 
but  was  soon  after  ransomed.  In  1536 
he  defeated  Charles  V.  Francis  I.  con- 
ferred on  him  the  dignity  of  Constable  in 
1538.  In  1551  he  was  made  a duke.  In 
1557  he  lost  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin 
against  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  was 
taken  prisoner,  but  he  regained  his  free- 
dom by  the  Peace  of  Cateau-Cam- 
bresis  in  1559.  Under  Charles  IX.  he 
joined  the  Duke  of  Guise  and  Marshal 
St.  Andr6  in  forming  the  famous  trium- 
virate against  Conde  and  the  Huguenots. 
At  the  battle  of  Dreux  in  1562  Mont- 
morency was  made  prisoner  by  the 
Huguenots;  on  the  renewal  of  the  civil 
war  he  gained  a decisive  victory  over 
them  at  St.  Denis,  November  10,  1567, 
though  the  following  day  he  died  of  his 
wounds. 

MONTPELIER,  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Vermont  and  of  Washington  co., 
on  the  Winooski  or  Onion  river,  here 
crossed  by  a stone  bridge,  and  on  the 
Mont,  and  Wells  river  and  the  Cent.  Vt. 
railways;  40  miles  s.e.  of  Burlington,  205 
miles  n.n.w.  of  Boston.  The  principal 
industry  is  the  quarrjung  of  the  cele- 
brated Barre  granite;  other  industries 


are  the  manufacture  of  saw-mill,  candy- 
making, and  other  machinery,  leather, 
organ  and  piano  springs,  and  clothes- 
wringers  and  washing-machines.  Pop. 
10,100. 

MONTPELLIER  (mon-pel-ya),  chief 
town  of  the  department  of  H4rault,  in 
France,  is  situated  in  a picturesque  re- 
gion, on  the  Lez,  about  6 miles  north  of 


State  capitol,  Montpelier,  Vt. 

the  Mediterranean  and  80  miles  w.n.w. 
of  Marseilles.  Pop.  76,364. 

MONTREAL,  the  largest  city  and  the 
commercial  capital  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  is  situated  on  an  island  of  the 
some  name,  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the 
Ottawa,  where,  after  a course  of  750 
miles,  it  debouches  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence. It  is  built  upon  the  left  or  north- 
ern bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  is 
situated  180  miles  s.w.  of  Quebec,  and 
985  miles  by  river  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Behind  the  town  rises  the  Mount 
Royal  (Mont  Real),  from  which  it  de- 
rives its  name,  and  which  is  reserved  as  a 
public  park.  Situated  at  the  junction  of 
the  inland  and  the  ocean  navigationn,  it 
has  a harbor  with  three  miles  of  wharf- 
age accessible  to  steamers  of  the  deepest 
draught.  It  is  also  the  chief  terminus  of 
the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  and  the 


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St.Jeroma 


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St. ScholastiqueX 

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'/  Montreal, 

and  the  junction  of  the 

ST  Lawrence  &OTTAWA 
_ Rivers. 


and 


eastern  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  The  city  is  divided  into  dis- 
tinctly marked  English  and  French 
quarters.  The  chief  public  buildings  are 
tlie  court-house,  custom-house,  city 
hall,  etc.;  and  the  principal  churches  are 
St.  Peter’s  Cathedral,  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  St.  Patrick’s,  Christ 
Church  Cathedral,  St.  Andrew’s,  St. 
Paul’s,  etc.  M’Gill  University.  Presby- 


terian College,  Wesleyan  Theological 
College,  Congregational  College,  Angeli- 
can  Diocesan  College,  Bishop’s  College, 
and  University,  the  Montreal  School  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  are  the  leading 
Protestant  educational  institutions; 
those  of  the  Roman  Catholics  comprise 
Laval  University,  St.  Mary’s  College, 
Montreal  College,  Hochelaga  Convent, 
etc.  Among  the  industrial  establish- 
ments of  Montreal  are  iron  foundries, 
distilleries,  breweries,  sugar-refineries, 
soap  and  candle  works;  and  there  are 
manufactures  of  cotton,  silk,  boots  and 
shoes,  paper,  carpets,  tobacco,  hard- 
ware, edge-tools,  floor-cloth,  carriages, 
etc.  The  Grand  Trunk  railway,  which 
connects  the  railways  of  Canada  with 
those  of  the  United  States,  crosses  the 
St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal  by  the  great 
Victoria  bridge  (formerly  tubular)  9184 
feet  in  length,  constructed  in  1854-59. 
Pop.  318,165,  of  whom  the  majority  are 
Roman  Catholics  and  of  French  origin. 

MONTROSE,  James  Graham,  Mar- 
quis of  (1612-1650),  son  of  the  4th  earl 
of  Montrose,  was  born  at  Montrose  in 
1612.  In  1637  Montrose  joined  the 
covenanters  in  their  resistance  to  epis- 
copacy. In  1639  he  was  one  of  the 


James  Graliam,  Marquis  of  Montrose. 


leaders  who  were  appointed  to  confer 
with  Charles  I.,  after  which  he  went  over 
to  the  royalist  side,  was  created  a mar- 
quis, and  made  commander  of  the  royal 
forces  in  Scotland.  He  was  defeated  at 
Philiphaugh  by  Leslie,  and  fled  to  Nor- 
way in  1646.  In  March,  1650,  he  re- 
turned, landing  in  Orkney  with  a small 
body  of  followers.  He  failed,  however, 
in  raising  an  army,  and  a month  later 
was  surprised  and  captured  in  Ross- 
sliire,  and  was  conveyed  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  was  hanged  and  quartered  21st 
May,  1650. 

MOODS  (in  Logic).  See  Syllogism. 

MOO'DY,  Dwight  Ljmian,  American 
evangelist,  was  born  at  Northfield,  Mass. 
1837.  In  1856  he  removed  to  Chicago, 
became  active  in  mission  work,  and 
established  a Sunday  school  which  num- 
bered over  a thousand  children.  In  1873 
he  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  with 
Ira  D.  Sankey,  the  singer,  and  in  1875 
held  a long  series  of  meetings  in  Brook- 
lyn and  Philadelphia,  and  in  1876  in  New 
York.  Similar  services  followed  in  many 
large  cities  throughout  the  country.  In 
1S82  a second  visit  to  England  was 
made.  He  died  at  Northfield  in  1899. 
He  published  numerous  discourses  and 
works  of  a popular  character. 


MOODY 


MOORE 


MOODY,  William  Henry,  American 
lawyer,  was  born  in  1853,  in  Newbury, 
Essex  CO.,  Mass.  From  1890  to  1895  he 
was  district  attorney  for  the  Massa- 
chusetts Eastern  District,  member  54th 
congress  to  fill  vacancy;  also  member 
56th  and  57th  congresses.  In  May,  1902, 
he  became  secretary  of  the  navy  and  in 
1904  he  was  appointed  attorney-general 
which  he  held  until  190G,  when  he  re- 
signed. 

MOON,  The,  one  of  the  secondary 
planets  and  the  satellite  of  the  earth 
revolves  round  the  latter  in  an  elliptic 
(almost  circular)  orbit,  in  one  sidereal 
month  (see  Month),  at  a mean  distance 
of  238,818  miles,  he.  greatest  and  least 
distances  being  252,948  and  221,593 
miles.  Her  mean  diameter  is  2159  miles. 
Her  surface  is  about  yV  (14,600,000  sq. 
miles)  of  that  of  the  earth;  her  volume 
ytV;  her  mass  about  her  mean 

density  a little  more  than  J.  A mass 
weighing  1 lb.  on  the  earth’s  surface 
would  weigh  about  2.64  ozs.  on  the 
moon’s  surface.  For  every  revolution  in 
her  orbit,  the  moon  rotates  once  on  her 
axis,  so  that  the  same  portion  of  her 
surface  is  constantly  turned  toward 
the  earth;  but  in  virtue  of  an  apparent 
oscillatory  motion,  known  as  libration 
(which  see),  about  | of  her  surface  is  pre- 
sented at  one  time  or  another  to  terres- 
trial observers.  If  the  moon’s  orbit  were 
in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  solar  and 
lunar  eclipses  would  occur  monthly. 
Her  orbit  is,  however,  inclined  5°  8'  48" 
to  the  ecliptic,  so  that  her  meridian  al- 
titude has  a range  of  57°,  and  she  occults 
in  course  of  time  every  star  within  5°  24' 
30"  of  the  ecliptic.  An  eclipse  of  the 
moon  occurs  when  she  passes  into  the 


Orbit  of  the  moon,  showing  the  lunar  phases. 

earth’s  shadow;  when  she  prevents  the 
sun  being  seen  there  is  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun.  (See  Eclipse.)  The  changes  in  the 
appearance  of  the  moon,  described  by 
the  words  waxing  and  waning,  are 
known  as  phases.  The  four  chief  phases, 
occurring  at  intervals  of  90°  in  the  lunar 
orbit,  are  New  Moon,  when  she  is  be- 
tween the  earth  and  sun  (i.e.  in  con- 
junction with  the  sun),  and  so  turns  an 
unilluminated  side  to  the  earth;  First 
Quarter,  when  one-half  of  her  illumin- 
ated disc  (i.e.  one  quarter  of  the  entire 
lunar  surface)  is  visible;  Full  Moon, 
when  her  whole  illuminated  disc  is  pre- 
sented to  the  earth;  and  Last  Quarter, 
when  once  more  only  half  of  her  disc  is 


visibly  illuminated.  Between  new  moon 
and  full  moon  the  moon  is  said  to  wax; 
on  the  rest  of  her  course  she  wanes. 
When  more  than  a semicircle  is  visible 
she  is  said  to  be  gibbous;  when  new  or 
full  she  is  said  to  be  in  her  syzygies.  On 
the  visible  portion  of  the  lunar  surface 
there  is  either  no  atmosphere  or  an  ex- 
ceedingly rare  one,  and  no  traces  of 
organic  life  have  been  observed.  As 
each  portion  is  alternately  in  sunlight 
and  in  shade  for  a fortnight  at  a time, 
and  as  no  atmosphere  has  been  de- 
tected, it  is  conjectured  that  the  lunar 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  far  exceed  the 
greatest  terrestrial  extremes.  The  sur- 
face of  the  moon  is  mainly  occupied  by 
mountains,  most  of  which  are  named 
after  eminent  scientific  men.  They  are 


Comparative  dimensions  of  the  earth  and  the 
moon. 


sometimes  detached  as  precipitous  peaks, 
more  frequently  they  form  vast  continu- 
ous ranges,  but  the  most  prevalent  form 
is  that  of  crater-mountains,  sometimes 
8 to  10  miles  in  diameter,  and  giving 
evident  traces  of  volcanic  action.  Cer- 
tain crater-like  formations,  which  have 
still  greater  diameters  are  generally 
spoken  of  as  “walled  plains.”  Larger 
still  are  the  “gray  plains,”  which  were 
at  one  time  taken  for  seas,  before  the 
absence  of  water  from  the  lunar  surface 
was  demonstrated.  They  may  possibly 
be  the  floors  of  old  seas.  Some  of  the 
mountains  have  been  estimated  to  be 
over  24,000  feet  in  height,  from  obser- 
vation of  their  shadows.  Very  peculiar 
ridges  of  comparatively  small  elevation 
extend  for  great  distances,  connecting 
different  ranges  or  craters.  The  so  called- 
“rilles”  or  “clefts”  are  huge  straight 
furrows  of  great  length  (18  to  90  miles), 
now  generally  believed  to  be  caused  by 
cracks  in  a shrinking  surface.  There  are 
also  valleys  of  various  sizes,  and  “faults” 
or  closed  cracks,  sometimes  of  consider- 
able length.  In  reading  descriptions  of 
the  visible  peculiarities  of  the  moon,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  highest 
telescopic  power  yet  applied  to  that 
planet  is  only  equivalent  to  bringing  it 
within  about  40  miles  of  the  naked  eye. 
The  attraction  of  the  sun  for  the  earth 
and  the  moon  tends  to  diminish  their 
mutual  action.  When  the  moon  is  at  new 
or  full  (in  syzygies)  the  mutual  attrac- 
tion of  the  earth  and  moon  is  lessened 
by  the  sun  more  than  usual,  whereas  it 
causes  a small  increase  in  the  mutual 
action  when  the  moon  is  in  quadrature 
(when  the  line  from  the  earth  to  the  moon 
is  at  right  angles  to  the  line  from  the 
earth  to  the  sun) ; again,  the  sun  exerts 
a direct  tangential  acceleration  on  the 
moon  which  is  positive  (or  toward  the 
sun)  when  the  moon  is  nearer  the  sun 


than  the  earth,  and  negative  when  the 
moon  is  further  away  than  the  earth; 
these  two  produce  what  is  called  the 
moon’s  variation,  which,  on  the  whole,  is 
such  that  in  each  lunation  the  moon’s 
velocity  is  greatest  when  she  is  in 
syzygies  and  least  when  nearly  in  quad- 
rature. For  the  influence  of  the  moon  on 
tides  see  Tides. 

MOORE,  Clement  Clarke,  American 
poet  and  educator,  was  born  in  New  York 
in  1779.  He  compiled  a Hebrew  and 
English  Lexicon,  and  published  a col- 
lection of  Poems,  among  which  is  “Twas 
the  Night  Before  Christmas,”  or  more 
properly,  “A  Visit  from  Saint  Nicholas,” 
through  w^hich  he  is  best  remembered. 
He  died  in  1863. 

MOORE,  George,  a British  novelist 
and  dramatist,  born  in  Ireland  in  1853. 
His  novels,  A Modern  Lover,  A Mum- 
mer’s Wife,  and  Esther  Waters,  aroused 
vigorous  protest  as  being  unduly  realis- 
tic. Among  his  later  works  are  Sister 
Teresa,  Confessions  of  a Young  Man, 
Miss  Fletcher,  Impressions  and  Opin- 
ions, Modern  Painting,  and  The  Celi- 
bates. 

MOORE,  Sir  John,  a celebrated  Brit- 
ish general,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1761, 
killed  at  Corunna  in  1809.  Having  ob- 
tained an  ensign’s  commission  in  the  51st 
regiment  he  served  at  Minorca  in  the 
American  war,  as  bragadier-general  in 
the  West  Indies  (1795),  in  Ireland  dur- 
ing the  rebellion  of  1798,  in  Holland  in 
1799,  and  in  Egypt  in  1801,  where  he 
was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle 
which  cost  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  his 
life.  Moore  was  now  regarded  as  the 
greatest  living  British  general,  and  in 
1805  he  was  knighted.  In  1808  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  army  in  Portugal  to  operate 
against  Napoleon.  He  advanced  to 
Salamanca  in  spite  of  the  gravest  difficul- 
ties, but  was  finally  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Corunna,  a distance  of  200  miles,  in 
face  of  a superior  force.  This  he  accom- 
plished in  a masterly  manner;  but  the 
absence  of  the  fleet  to  receive  his  army 
forced  him  to  a battle  against  Marshal 
Soult,  in  which  Moore  fell,  mortally 
wounded,  in  the  hour  of  victory  (16th 
January,  1809). 

MOORE,  Thomas,  the  national  poet 
of  Ireland,  was  born  in  1779  in  Dublin; 
died  near  Devizes  in  1852.  Moore  in  1806 
published  his  Odes  and  Epistles.  In  1807 
he  agreed  to  write  words  for  a number  of 
Irish  national  airs,  arranged  by  Sir  John 
Stevenson.  In  these  Irish  Melodies, 
which  w'ere  not  finished  till  1834,  he 
found  the  work  for  Avhich  his  genius  was 
peculiarly  fitted,  and  it  is  on  them  that 
his  poetic  reputation  will  mainly  rest. 
With  The  Intercepted  Letters,  or  the 
Twopenny  Post  Bag,  by  Thomas  Brown 
the  Younger  (1812),  Moore  entered  upon 
the  field  of  political  and  social  satire,  in 
which  his  wit  and  playfulness  found  good 
account ; other  works  of  this  kind  are  the 
Fudge  Family  in  Paris  (1818),  Rhymes 
on  the  Road  (1823),  Memoirs  of  Captain 
Rock  (1824),  etc.  His  most  ambitious 
work,  the  gorgeous  Eastern  romance  of 
Lalla  Rookh,  was  published  in  1817. 
The  Life  of  Sheridan  was  produced  in 
1825,  and  The  Epicurean,  a prose  ro- 
mance in  1827.  Next  came  the  Life  of 


MOORISH  ARCHITECTURE 


MORAVIA 


Lord  Byron,  and  the  Life  of  Lord  Ed- 
ward Fitzgerald. 

MOORISH  ARCHITECTURE,  is  that 
form  of  Saracenic  architecture  which 
was  developed  by  the  Moslem  conquerors 
of  Spain  in  building  their  mosques  and 
palaces.  Its  main  characteristics  are — 
the  horse-shoe  arch,  varied  by  the  trefoil, 
cinquefoil,  and  other  forms  of  arch; 
profuse  decoration  of  interiors  by  elabo- 
rately designed  arabesques  in  low  relief, 
enriched  by  colors  and  gilding,  as  well 
as  by  geometrical  designs  worked  in 


Thomas  Moore. 


mosaics  of  glazed  tiles;  the  slenderness 
of  the  columns  in  proportion  to  the  sup- 
ported weight;  and  the  curious  stalac- 
titic  pendentives  by  which  the  transition 
is  effected  from  the  rectangular  ground 
plan  to  the  arched  or  domed  roof.  An 
important  specimen  of  this  style  is  the 
mosque  of  Cordova,  now  the  cathedral, 
which  was  begun  by  Caliph  Abd-el- 
Rahman  (786  A.n.),  completed  by  his 
son,  and  subsequently  much  altered. 


It  consisted  originally  of  eleven  aisles, 
and  the  eight  aisles  which  were  after- 
ward added  (976-1001)  made  it  one  of 
the  largest  buildings  in  Europe,  but  the 
effect  of  its  great  extent,  420  feet  by  375, 
is  marred  by  its  height,  which  is  only 
about  30  feet  to  the  roof.  Another  not- 
able specimen  of  Moorish  architecture  is 
the  Giralda  or  cathedral-tower  of  Seville. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Ab\i 


Yusdf  Kakdb  (1171  a.d.)  as  a tower  of 
victory,  and  was  used  by  the  Moslems  as 
a minaret  or  mueddin-tower.  The  base 
is  a square  of  about  50  feet,  from  which 
the  tower  rises  straight  for  185  feet,  and 
is  now  crowned  by  a belfry  added  in  the 
16th  century.  The  lower  part  of  this 
tower  is  nearly  plain,  but  from  about 


Moorish  decoration— court  of  the  Alhambra. 

one-third  of  its  height  upward  it  is  en- 
riehed  by  sunk  panels  filled  with  orna- 
mentation in  relief,  which  give  lightness 
and  grace  to  the  structure  without  affect- 
ing its  general  massiveness.  The  most 
eharacteristic  Moorish  palace  in  exis- 
tence is  the  Alhambra  in  Granada,  an 
immense  structure  of  simple  and  rather 
forbidding  exterior,  but  within  gorgeous 
almost  beyond  deseription.  (See  Al- 
hambra.) In  this  palace  are  found  to 
perfection  the  distinctive  characteristics 
of  Moorish  architecture. 

MOORS,  a Mohammedan,  Arabie- 
speaking  race  of  mixed  descent,  forming 
part  of  the  population  of  Barbary  and 
deriving  their  name  from  the  Mauri, 
the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Mauretania, 
whose  pure  lineal  descendants  are,  how- 
ever, the  Amazirgh,  a branch  of  the 
Berbers.  The  modern  Moors  have  sprung 
from  a union  of  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  this  region  with  their  Arab  con- 
querors, who  appeared  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury. As  the  Mohammedan  conquerors 
of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain  (711-713)  came 
from  North  Africa,  the  name  Moor  was 
also  applied  to  them  by  Spanish  chroni- 
clers, and  in  that  connection  is  synony- 
mous with  Arab  and  Saracen.  These 
Moors  pushed  northward  into  France, 
until  their  repulse  by  Charles  Martel  at 
the  great  battle  of  Tours  in  732,  after 
which  they  practically  restricted  them- 
selves to  Spain  south  of  the  Ebro  and  the 
Sierra  Guadarrama.  Here,  for  centuries, 
art,  science,  literature,  and  chivalry 
flourished  among  them,  while  the  rest 
of  Europe  was  still  sunk  in  the  gloom  of 
the  dark  ages.  Their  internal  dissensions 
and  divisions,  however,  weakened  them 
in  face  of  the  new  Christian  kingdoms 


of  Aragon  and  Castile,  and  before  the 
close  of  the  13th  century  their  posses- 
sions were  limited  to  the  kingdom  of 
Granada.  This,  too,  was  finally  subdued 
by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  in  1492;  and 
while  great  numbers  of  the  Moors  emi- 
grated to  Africa,  the  remainder,  under 
the  name  of  Moriscos,  assuming  in  great 
part  a semblance  of  Christianity,  sub- 
mitted to  the  Spaniards.  The  cruel 
proselytizing  zeal  of  Philip  II.,  however, 
excited  a sanguinary  insurrection  among 
the  Moors  in  1568-70,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  banishing  of  many  thou- 
sands, while  Philip  III.  completed  the 
work  in  1610  by  finally  expelling  the  last 
of  these,  the  most  ingenious  and  indus- 
trious of  his  subjects.  Between  1492  and 
1610  about  3,000,000  Moriscos  are  esti- 
mated to  have  left  Spain.  The  expulsion 
of  the  Moors  was  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  the  decadence  of  Spain;  for  both 
agriculture  and  industries  fell  into  decay 
after  their  departure.  The  expelled 
Moors,  settling  in  the  north  of  Africa, 
founded  cities  from  which  to  harass  the 
Spanish  coasts,  and  finally  developed 
into  the  piratical  states  of  Barbary, 
whose  depredations  were  a source  of 
irritation  to  the  civilized  Christian 
powers  even  till  well  into  the  19th  cen- 
tury. 

MOOSE.  See  Elk. 

MORADABAD,  a town  of  India  in 
Rohilkhand,  in  the  United  Provinces,  75 
miles  east  of  Meerut,  on  the  Ramganga. 
Pop.  75,176. — The  district  has  an  area 
of  2281  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,179,398. 

MORAINE.  See  Glaciers. 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY.  See  Ethics. 

MORAN,  Thomas,  American  etcher 
and  landscape  painter,  was  born  at 
Bolton,  Lancashire,  in  1837,  and  came 
to  Philadelphia  with  his  parents.  He 
then  studied  oil  painting  in  Paris  and 
Italy.  He  returned  to  the  United  States 
in  1871  and  produced  the  picture  of  the 
“Grand  Canon  of  the  Yellowstone,” 
now  filling  a panel  in  the  Capitol  at 
Washington.  In  1873  he  completed  a 
picture  of  “The  Chasm  of  the  Colorado,” 
which  was  purchased  by  congress  as  a 
companion  of  the  Yellowstone  picture. 
He  was  elected  a member  of  the  National 
Academy  in  1884.  Among  his  smaller 
pieces  are:  “The  Lost  Arrow,”  “The 
Conemaugh  in  Autumn,”  “The  First 
Ship,”  “The  Track  of  the  Storm,” 
“Ponce  de  Leon  in  Florida,”  “New  York 
from  Communipaw,”  and  “After  a 
Thaw.”  His  illustrations  include  de- 
signs for  Longfellow’s  Hiawatha  and 
Whittier’s  Mabel  Martin.  Both  he  and 
his  wife,  Mary  Moran,  are  etchers,  and 
members  of  the  British  Society  of 
Painter-Etchers. 

MORAVIA,  a northwestern  province 
or  crownland  of  the  Austrian  empire, 
area,  8578  sq.  miles.  It  is  inclosed  by  the 
Carpathians  and  other  mountains.  The 
minerals  include  iron,  coal,  graphite,  and 
slate.  Nearly  97  per  cent  of  the  soil  is 
productive,  the  chief  crops  being  rye, 
oats,  barley,  potatoes,  beet-root,  and 
flax.  Fruit  is  very  abundant,  and  large 
quantities  of  wine  are  annually  pro- 
duced. Sheep  in  great  numbers,  and 
cattle,  are  reared.  Moravia  is  the  most 
important  manufacturing  province  of 
the  empire,  after  Austria  Proper  and 
Bohemia.  Its  woolen  industries  are  of 


MORAVIAN  BRETHREN 


MORGAN 


world-wide  fame,  and  linen  and  cotton, 
beet-root  sugar,  iron  and  steel  goods, 
machinery,  beer,  and  spirits.  Pop.  2,276- 
870. 

MORAVIAN  BRETHREN,  also  called 
United  Brethren,  a Protestant  sect  or 
church  which  originally  sprang  up  in 
Bohemia  after  the  death  of  John  Huss. 
After  the  sanguinary  religious  war 
which  prevailed  in  Bohemia  until  1627 
they  were  everywhere  almost  annihi- 
lated. Their  doctrines  were  still,  how- 
ever, secretly  cherished  in  Moravia,  and 
in  1722  a colony  emigrated  thence,  and 
were  invited  by  the  Lutheran  Count 
Zinzendorf  to  settle  on  his  estate  near 
Berthelsdorf,  in  Saxony,  where  they 
built  the  town  of  Herrnhut,  still  the 
headquarters  of  the  church.  The  doc- 
trines of  the  brethren  had  hitherto  been 
more  in  harmony  with  the  Calvinistic 
than  with  the  Lutheran  form  of  Protest- 
antism, but  under  the  influence  of 
Count  Zinzendorf,  who  himself  became 
a bishop,  they  attached  themselves  to 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

MORAY,  or  MURRAY,  James  Stuart, 
Earl  of,  half-brother  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  natural  son  of  James  V.  of  Scot- 
land and  Margaret  Erskine,  born  about 
1533.  On  the  deposition  of  Mary  he  was 
appointed  regent,  defeated  her  forces 
at  Langside  on  her  escape  from  Loch- 
leven  (1568),  and  appeared  as  evidence 
against  her  at  her  trial  in  England.  In 
1570  he  was  shot  in  the  streets  of  Lin- 
lithgow. 

MORBIHAN,  (mor-bi-an)  a north- 
western department  of  France,  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay;  area,  2624  sq.  miles. 
The  chief  town  is  Vannes.  Pop.  563,468. 

MORE,  Sir  Thomas,  a chancellor  of 
England;  born  in  London  in  1480,  be- 
headed 1535.  About  1502  he  became  a 
member  of  parliament,  and  immediately 
made  for  himself  a place  in  history  by 
upholding  the  privileges  of  the  House  of 
Commons  to  treat  all  questions  of  supply 
as  their  own  exclusive  business.  On  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII.  he  was  made 
under-sheriff  of  London.  In  1514  he  was 
envoy  to  the  Low  Countries,  soon  after 
was  made  a privy-councillor,  and  in 
1521  was  knighted.  In  1532  he  became 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
in  1529  succeeded  Wolsey  in  the  chan- 
cellorship. He  was  requested  to  take  the 
oath  to  maintain  the  lawfulness  of  the 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn.  His  re- 
fusal to  do  so  led  to  his  committal  to 
the  Tower,  trial  for  misprision  of  treason, 
and  execution. 

MOREAU  (mo-ro),  Jean  Victor, 
French  general,  born  at  Morlaix,  in 
Bretame,  in  1763,  died  1813.  He  was 
named  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  in  1796.  His 
conduct  of  the  operations,  and  especially 
of  the  retreat  to  the  French  frontier  in 
the  face  of  a superior  army,  showed  ex- 
ceptional strategic  power.  In  1799  he 
was  in  command  of  the  army  of  Italy, 
and  next  year  had  the  command  of  the 
armies  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine. 
Being  found  guilty  of  participation  in 
the  conspiracy  of  Pichegru  and  Cad- 
oudal  against  Napoleon  (1804),  he  had 
to  go  into  exile.  He  was  subsequently 
induced  to  aid  in  the  direction  of  the 
allied  armies  against  his  own  country, 
but  was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle 


before  Dresden  in  1813,  and  died  a few 
days  later. 

MORE'LOS,  an  inland  state  of  Mexico, 
south  of  Mexico,  containing  the  volcano 
of  Popocatepetl;  area,  1776,  sq.  miles; 
Pop. 141,565. 

MO'REY,  Samuel,  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Hebron,  Conn.,  in  1762.  In 
1'793  he  succeeded  in  constructing  a 
small  steamboat,  which  was  moved  by  a 
wheel  at  its  prow.  In  1795  Morey 
patented  a crank-motion  steam-engine 
for  use  in  boats.  Two  years  afterward  he 
built  a boat  with  paddle  wheels  on  each 
side,  and  operated  it  successfully  on  the 
Delaware.  He  had  the  problem  of  steam 
navigation  practically  solved;  but  mis- 
fortunes prevented  him  from  following 
up  his  success,  and  to  Robert  Fulton 
went  the  honor  that  might  otherwise 
have  been  Morey’s.  He  died  in  1843. 

MORGAN, Edwin  Dennison,  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  governor  of  New  York 
from  1859  to  1863.  He  was  born  at 
Washington,  Berkshire  co..  Mass.,  in 
1811.  From  1849  to  1853  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  state  senate.  He  was  a delegate 
to  the  first  national  convention  of  the 
republican  party  at  Philadelphia,  and 
was  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  that 
assembly.  In  1858  he  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  New  York,  and  was  re-elected 
in  1860.  In  the  latter  term  it  fell  to  him 
to  supervise  and  control  the  sending  of 
New  York’s  quota  of  troops  to  the 
front  in  defense  of  the  Union,  and  when 
he  left  office  in  1863  more  than  223,000 
volunteers  had  been  enlisted  in  the 
Federal  service.  In  1861,  in  order  that  he 
might  better  carry  out  the  adminis- 
tration’s desires.  New  York  state  was 
made  a military  district,  and  he  was 
placed  in  command  with  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  died  in  1883. 

MORGAN,  John  Hunt,  American  sol- 
dier, prominent  on  the  confederate  side 
in  the  civil  was,  was  born  at  Huntsville, 
Ala.,  in  1825,  moved  with  his  parents 
to  Kentucky  in  1830.  In  1861  with 
about  two  hundred  men  and  the  guns 
of  the  militia  company  of  which  he  was 
captain,  he  escaped  to  the  confederate 
lines.  His  great  success  in  daring  and 
unexpected  raids  gave  him  the  com- 
mand of  a cavalry  brigade,  and  after 
promotion  to  brigadier-general  made 
the  “Christmas  Raid”  into  Kentucky, 
for  which  he  was  thanked  by  the  con- 
federate congress.  In  June,  1863,  with 
about  2500  men  he  crossed  the  Ohio 
river  into  Indiana  and  was  closely  pur- 
sued by  Generals  Hobson  and  Shakel- 
ford,  and  opposed  everywhere  by  the 
militia.  A sudden  rise  in  the  Ohio  river 
prevented  him  from  recrossing  the 
river  and  he  was  captured  and  con- 
fined in  the  Ohio  state  prison  at  Colum- 
bus. On  November  27th  he  escaped  and 
reached  the  confederate  lines  in  safety. 
On  September  4,  1864,  in  Greenville, 
Tenn.,  he  was  betrayed  by  an  inmate 
of  the  house  in  which  he  was  sleeping, 
and  was  shot  while  attempting  to  es- 
cape. 

MORGAN,  John  Pierpont,  American 
banker  and  financier,  was  born  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  in  1837.  In  1857  he  entered 
the  banking  house  of  Duncan,  Sherman 
& Co.,  in  New  York  City.  In  1860  he 
became  agent  for  George  Peabody  & 
Co.,  of  London,  and  in  1864  became  a 


partner  in  the  firm  of  Dabney,  Morgan 
& Co.,  In  1871  he  entered  as  a partner 
the  banking  firm  of  Drexel,  Morgan  & 
Co.,  which  later  was  changed  to  the 
firm  of  J.  P.  Morgan  & Co.  The  United 
States  Steel  Corporation,  the  Northern 
Securities  Company,  and  the  Atlantic 
shipping  combination  are  examples  of 
his  genius  in  reorganization  and  com- 
bination. 

MORGAN,  John  Tyler,  American 
politician,  born  at  Athens,  Tenn.,  in 
1824.  He  removed  to  Alabama  with  his 
parents  in  1833.  In  1861  he  was  a dele- 
gate from  Dallas  co.,  to  the  Alabama 
state  convention  which  passed  the 
ordinance  of  secession,  and  he  enlisted 
as  a private  in  the  Fifth  Alabama  In- 
fantry, of  which  he  ultimately  became 
lieutenant-colonel.  In  1862  he  recruited 
the  Fifty-first  Alabama  regiment  and 
became  its  colonel.  After  the  war  he 
again  entered  politics  as  an  elector-at- 
large  on  the  Tilden  ticket.  In  1877  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  senate, 
of  which  body  he  remained  a member, 
receiving  his  fifth  re-election  in  Novem- 
ber, 1900.  He  died  in  1907. 

MORGAN,  Lewis  Henry,  American 
ethnologist,  was  born  near  Aurora,  N. 
Y.,  in  1818.  Morgan,  after  leaving  col- 
lege, organized  “The  Grand  Order  of  the 
Iroquois.”  The  limits  of  the  grand 
order  were  to  be  the  territory  anciently 
occupied  by  the  Iroquois.  Morgan  lived 
among  the  existing  tribes,  in  order  to 
master  their  social  organizations  and 
forms  of  government,  and  his  scientific 
interests  assumed  substantial  form  in 
the  celebrated  work.  The  League  of  the 
Iroquois,  in  which  the  author  traced  the 
social  organization,  government,  daily 
occupations,  and  customs  of  this  won- 
derful league. 

In  1858  Morgan  discovered,  in  visit- 
ing a camp  of  Ojibwa,  that  their  system 
of  kinship  was  essentially  the  same  as 
among  the  Iroquois.  This  was  the  revela- 
tion that  determined  Morgan’s  enduring 
fame.  His  System  of  Consanguinity  and 
Affinity  of  the  Human  Family  is  a work 
essential  to  all  studies  on  primitive 
sociology.  His  Ancient  Society  is  a com- 
prehensive and  philosophical  work.  He 
died  in  1881. 

MORGAN,  Sir  Henry,  the  most  fam- 
ous of  English  buccaneers,  was  born  at 
Llanrhynny,  Glamorganshire,  Wales,  in 
1635.  He  was  kidnaped  at  Bristol  when 
a boy,  and  sold  as  a servant  in  Barba- 
does,  whence  after  a time  he  worked  his 
way  to  Jamaica.  There  he  joined  the 
buccaneers,  and  by  1663  was  in  com- 
mand of  a privateer  of  his  own.  He 
took  and  sacked  Puerto  Principe,  and 
then  sailed  to  Puerto  Bello,  Panama, 
which  he  captured  after  a brilliant 
attack.  After  levying  a heavy  ransom 
Morgan  sailed  for  Jamaica.  Later  in  the 
year  he  led  an  expedition  which  ravaged 
the  entire  Cuban  coast,  and  in  January, 
1669,  with  a fleet  of  eight  ships,  he 
started  on  his  famous  expedition  against 
Maracaibo.  The  capture  and  sack  of  the 
town  was  followed  by  the  greatest  ex- 
cesses on  the  part  of  the  buccanners,  who 
were  surprised  in  their  orgies  by  the 
arrival  of  three  Spanish  ships  of  war. 
Morgan  assembled  his  half-drunken 
comrades,  manned  his  ships,  and  after 
parleying  with  the  Spanish  commander 


MORGAN 


MOROCCO 


suddenly  attacked  him,  totally  defeated 
him,  and  escaped.  In  August,  1670,  he 
ravaged  the  Cuban  and  mainland  coasts, 
and  in  January,  1671,  he  captured  and 
plundered  the  city  of  Panama,  one  of 
the  richest  in  Spanish  America.  The 
attack  had  been  made  after  a peace  had 
been  arranged  between  England  and 
Spain,  and  Morgan  was  sent  to  England, 
but  he  took  enough  gold  along  with  him 
to  secure  his  vindication,  eventually 
receiving  knighthood  and  high  favors 
from  the  king;  was  sent  back  to  Jamaica 
as  lieutenant-commander  and  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  majesty’s  forces 
in  the  colony.  He  died  in  1688. 

MORGAN,  William,  American  Mason, 
whose  disappearance  under  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances in  1826  caused  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Anti-Masonic  party,  was  born 
in  Culpeper  co.,  Va.,  in  1775.  He  sud- 
denly disappeared  in  1826,  shortly  after 
it  had  been  announced  that  he  intended, 
in  conjunction  with  one  David  C.  Miller, 
to  publish  a book  exposing  the  secrets 
of  Freemasonry.  Morgan’s  book.  Illus- 
trations of  Freemasonry,  by  One  of  the 
Fraternity  Who  Has  Devoted  Thirty 
Years  to  the  Subject,  was  published  in 
1826  and  was  republished  at  various 
times  thereafter,  sometimes  under  the 
title  of  Free-masonry  Exposed  and  Ex- 
plained. 

MORGANATTC  MARRIAGE,  in  some 
European  counrties,  one  in  which  it  is 
stipulated  that  the  wife  (who  is  inferior 
in  birth  to  the  husband)  and  her  children 
shall  not  enjoy  the  privileges  of  his  rank 
nor  inherit  his  possessions.  The  common 
law  of  Germany  permits  such  marriages 
only  to  the  high  nobility. 

MORGUE  (morg),  a place  where  the 
bodies  of  unknown  persons  who  have 
perished  by  accident,  murder,  or  suicide 
are  exposed,  that  they  may  be  recog- 
nized by  their  friends. 

MOR'ION,  a helmet  of  iron,  steel,  or 
brass,  somewhat  like  a hat  in  shape, 
often  with  a crest  or  comb  over  the  top. 


Morion  of  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

and  without  beaver  or  visor,  introduced 
into  Britain  from  France  or  Spain  about 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 

MORISCO.  See  Moors. 

MORLEY,  Right  Hon.  John,  author 
and  politician,  born  at  Blackburn,  Lan- 
cashire, 1838.  He  conducted  the  Fort- 
nightly Review  from  1867  to  1882,  and 
edited  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  for  three 
years  (1880-83),  and  Macmillan’s  Maga- 
zine for  two  years  (1883-85).  He  also 
edited  the  English  Men  of  Letters  series, 
to  which  he  contributed  the  volume  on 
Burke.  He  is  author  of  Critical  Miscel- 
lanies; Voltaire;  Rousseau;  Diderot  and 
the  Encyclopedists;  Life  of  Cobden; 
Walpole  in  the  English  Statesmen  series; 
Life  of  Gladstone  (1903);  etc.  He  repre- 
sented Newcastle  from  1883  to  1895; 
and  in  1896  became  member  for  the 
Montrose  burghs.  Radical  in  politics,  he 
is  a supporter  of  Irish  Home  Rule,  and 


was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  in  1886, 
and  again  in  1892-95. 

MORMONS,  a sect  founded  in  1830  by 
Joseph  Smith,  a native  of  the  United 
States.  The  distinguishing  peculiarities 
of  the  sect  are — the  belief  in  a continual 
divine  revelation  through  the  inspired 
medium  of  the  prophet  at  the  head  of 
their  church,  the  practice  of  polygamy, 
and  a complete  hierarchical  organiza- 
tion. The  supreme  power,  spiritual  and 
temporal,  rests  with  the  president  or 
prophet  (elected  by  the  whole  body  of 
the  church),  who  alone  works  miracles 
and  receives  revelations.  The  Mormons 
accept  both  the  Bible  and  the  Book  of 
Mormon  as  divine  revelations,  but  hold 
them  equally  subject  to  the  explanation 
and  correction  of  the  prophet.  The 
latter  mentioned  book  (in  large  part  a 
kind  of  historical  romance  written  by 
one  Solomon  Spaulding  in  1812)  pre- 
tends to  be  a history  of  America  from 
the  first  settlement  of  the  continent  after 
the  destruction  of  the  tower  of  Babel 
up  to  the  end  of  the  4th  century  of  our 
era,  at  which  time  flourished  the  legend- 
ary prophet  Mormon,  its  reputed  author. 
It  was  said  to  have  been  written  on  gold 
plates,  and  concealed  until  its  hiding- 
place  was  revealed  to  Smith  by  an  angel. 
The  name  given  to  it  was  evidently 
owing  to  the  important  part  which 
Spaulding  had  assigned  to  Mormon  and 
his  son  Moroni  in  his  novel;  but  Smith 
and  his  coadjutors,  instead  of  confining 
themselves  to  the  original  manuscript, 
had  clumsily  engrafted  upon  it  a number 
of  maxims,  prophecies,  etc.,  evidently 
garbled  from  the  sacred  volume,  and  in- 
terpolated in  such  a manner  as  to  involve 
anachronisms  and  contradictions.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Mormons  is  a mixture 
of  materialism  and  millenarianism,  and 
their  most  distinctive  feature,  poly- 
gamy, which,  though  originally  con- 
demned in  the  Book  of  Mormon,  was 
introduced  under  a theory  of  “spiritual 
wives,”  and  a mysterious  system  of 
unrestricted  marriage  called  “sealing.” 
The  Mormons  first  appeared  at  Man- 
chester, New  York,  whence  they  were, 
compelled  by  the  persevering  hostility 
of  their  neighbors  to  flee,  first  to  Kirt- 
land  in  Ohio  (1831),  then  to  Nauvoo, 
the  “City  of  Beauty,”  in  Illinois  (1838), 
and  finally  to  the  Salt  Lake  in  Utah 
(1848).  In  1844  the  founder,  Joseph 
Smith,  was  shot  by  a mob  in  Carthage 
prison,  where  his  lawless  behavior  had 
brought  him.  The-  advance  made  by 
Mormonism  seems  to  have  been  due  far 
more  to  the  abilities  of  Brigham  Young, 
the  successor  of  Smith,  than  to  the 
founder  himself,  who  was  little  better 
than  a dissipated  and  immoral  scamp. 
Under  Young’s  direction  large  tracts  of 
land  at  Salt  Lake  were  brought  under 
cultivation,  an  emigration  fund  was 
established,  and  a skilful  system  of 
propagandism  set  on  foot,  by  which  large 
numbers  of  converts  were  brought  from 
Europe,  especially  from  Great  Britain. 
A state  was  organized  under  the  name 
of  Deseret.  Congress  refused  to  recog- 
nize it,  but  erected  Utah  into  a territory, 
and  Brigham  Y'oung  was  appointed 
governor  of  it.  He  V’as  soon  removed  by 
the  United  States  authorities,  but  after 
a time  the  Mormons  were  left  pretty 
much  to  themselves.  In  1870  congress 


passed  a bill  to  compel  them  to  renounce 
polygamy,  or  quit  the  United  States. 
A prosecution  was  instituted  against 
Brigham  Young,  who  was  sentenced  to 
fine  and  imprisonment.  In  1877  Young 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  John  Taylor, 
an  Englishman,  who  fn  turn  was  suc- 
ceeded as  president  by  Wilford  Wood- 
ruff in  1887.  In  1890  he  proclaimed  that 
polygamy  is  no  longer  taught  as  a doc- 
trine of  Mormonism'. 

MORNING-GLORY,  a name  given  to 
several  climbing  plants  of  the  convol- 
vulus family,  having  handsome  purple  or 
white,  sometimes  pink  or  pale  blue, 
funnel-shaped  flowers. 

MORNING-STAR,  the  planet  Venus 
when  it  rises  before  the  sun. 

MOROCCO,  or  MAROCCO,  an  empire 
or  sultanate  occupying  the  northwest 
extremity  of  Africa,  bounded  by  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  the  Mediterranean,  Algeria 
and  the  desert ; area,  about  300,000  sq. 
miles.  Its  most  remarkable  natural  fea- 
ture is  Mount  Atlas,  the  great  chain  or 
series  of  chains  extending  through  it 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  reach- 
ing a height  of  12,000  to  15,000  feet.  The 
minerals  include  gold,  silver,  copper, 
iron,  and  lead  in  larger  or  smaller  quan- 
tities. The  flora  includes  the  esculent 
oak  and  cork  oak;  in  the  higher  re- 
gions of  the  Atlas  the  cedar  and  Aleppo 
pine;  the  date-palm  and  the  dwarf -palm 
east  and  south  of  the  Atlas.  Agriculture 
is  in  the  lowest  possible  condition,  and 
the  annual  production  is  calculated 
barely  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  count- 
try.  The  cereal  crops  include  wheat, 
barley,  and  maize;  but  dhurra  or  millet 
constitutes  the  chief  support  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  vine  is  cultivated  only  near 
towns  for  the  sake  of  the  fresh  grapes 
and  for  the  raisins.  All  the  fruits  of  the 
south  of  Europe  are  cultivated  to  some 
extent.  Among  the  wild  animals  are  the 
lion,  panther,  jackal,  hyena,  wild  boar, 
gazelle,  and  several  species  of  large  ante- 
lope. The  locust  is  a cause  of  much  dev- 
astation. The  ostrich  is  found  on  the 
southern  frontiers.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
reared  and  the  spirited  small  horses  for 
which  the  country  was  once  famous  are 
still  numerous.  There  are  large  numbers 
of  goats,  which  furnish  a principal  article 
of  export — the  well-known  Morocco 
leather.  Fez  makes  and  exports  the  cloth 
caps  which  bear  its  name.  Carpets,  em- 
broidered stuffs,  pottery,  arms  are  also 
made.  The  civilization  of  Morocco  has 
sunk  to  a low  condition.  The  education 
at  the  schools  and  at  the  University  of 
Fez  does  not  go  beyond  the  theology  of 
the  Koran.  The  public  libraries,  once 
famous,  are  now  dispersed.  Morality  is 
represented  as  being  in  a deplorable 
state.  The  sovereign  or  sultan,  styled  by 
Europeans  emperor,  is  absolute  in  the 
strictest  sense.  Morocco  in  ancient  times 
formed  part  of  Mauritania,  and  about 
43  .\.D.  was  incorporated  in  the  Roman 
Empire.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  7th 
century  the  Arabs  spread  over  North 
Africa,  and  took  possession  of  Mauri- 
tania. Among  ruling  dynasties  since 
then  have  been  the  Almoravides,  Almo- 
hades,  and  others.  The  present  dynasty, 
the  ninth,  was  founded  in  1648.  In  1814 
the  slavery  of  Christians  was  abolished, 
and  piracy  was  prohibited  in  1817.  The 
conquest  of  Algeria  brought  about  com- 


MOROCCO 


MORRISON 


plications  with  France,  and  the  plunder- 
ing of  vessels  by  pirates  has  often  caused 
troubles  with  European  powers.  In  1859 
a war  broke  out  with  Spain,  owing  to 
attacks  made  by  some  of  the  wild  tribes 
upon  the  Spanish  territory,  and  resulted 
in  a cession  of  land  and  an  indemnity  of 
$20,000,000  to  Spain.  The  population  is 
estimated  at  from  6,000,000  to  6,500,000. 

MOROCCO,  the  capital  (conjunctly 
with  Fez)  of  Morocco,  lies  in  the  south- 
west of  the  country,  on  an  extensive  and 
fertile  plain,  1500  feet  above  sea-level. 
Pop.  estimated  at  40,000  to  50,000. 

MOROCCO,  a fine  kind  of  leather  made 
from  the  skins  of  goats,  imported  from 
the  Levant,  Barbary,  Spain,  Belgium, 
etc.,  tanned  with  sumach,  dyed,  and 
grained,  the  last  process  being  that  which 
gives  it  its  well-known  wrinkled  ap- 
pearance. It  is  extensively  used  in  the 
binding  of  books,  upholstering  furniture, 
making  ladies’  shoes,  etc.  Imitation 
moroccos  are  made  from  sheep-skins,  so 
perfect  in  appearance  that  it  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  them,  but  they  are  entire- 
ly lacking  in  the  durability  of  the  real 
article. 

MOR'PHIA,  MORPHINE,  the  nar- 
cotic principleof  opium,  a vegetable  alka- 
loid of  a bitter  taste,  first  separated  from 
opium  in  1816.  It  forms  when  crystal- 
lized from  alcohol  brilliant  colorless 
prisms  of  adamantine  luster.  As  it  is 
very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  it  is  never 
used  alone  medicinally,  but  it  readily 
combines  with  acids  forming  salts  ex- 
tensively used  in  medicine.  In  small 
closes  it  is  powerfully  anodyne ; in  large 
does  it  causes  death,  with  narcotic  symp- 
toms. It  is  very  commonly  administered 
medicinally  by  subcutaneous  or  hypo- 
dermic injection,  and  the  practice  of  in- 
jecting morphia  has  become  a not  infre- 
quent vice,  leading  to  a diseased  mental 
state  known  as  raorphinomania. 

MORPHOLOGY,  a branch  both  of  zo- 
ology and  botany  which  deals  with  the 
structure  and  form  of  animals  and  plants 
respectively,  and  their  different  organs, 
from  those  of  the  lowest  to  those  of  the 
highest  type.  In  morphology  questions 
of  homology  and  analogy  are  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  morphology 
may  be  said  to  lie  at  the  foundation  of 
all  true  systems  of  classification  and  ar- 
rangement. 

MOR'RILL,  Justin  Smith,  American 
legislator  and  political  leader,  was  born 
in  Strafford,  Vt.,  in  1810.  He  was  elected 
to  congress  in  1854,  was  five  times  re- 
elected, was  transferred  to  the  senate  in 
1867,  and  retained  his  seat  continuously 
until  his  death,  having  at  that  time 
served  for  a longer  consecutive  period 
than  any  other  man.  In  1857  he  intro- 
duced a bill  for  the  establishment, 
through  the  aid  of  public  land  grants, 
of  state  colleges  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts.  This  bill  was  vetoed  by  Presi- 
dent Buchanan.  In  1861  it  was  again 
introduced  by  Morrill,  and  this  time 
became  a law  through  the  signature 
of  President  Lincoln.  Morrill  framed 
and  introduced  in  the  House  the  famous 
Morrill  Tariff  Act  of  1861,  which,  with 
the  enactments  of  1862  and  1864, 
in  the  passage  of  which  he  also  took  a 
prominent  part,  modified  the  tariff  sys- 
tem of  the  United  States.  He  died  in  1898. 


MORRILL,  Lot  Myrick,  American 
legislator  and  cabinet  officer,  was  born  at 
Belgrade,  Maine,  in  1813.  In  1853  and 
1854  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  house  of 
the  state  legislature,  and  in  1856  was 
elected  to  the  state  senate.  He  was 
elected  governor  in  1857,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1858  and  1859.  In  1861  he 
was  chosen  United  States  senator  and 
re-elected  in  1863  and  1869.  In  1876  he 
resigned  to  enter  the  cabinet  of  President 
Grant  as  secretary  of  the  treasury.  This 
portfolio  he  held  until  after  the  inaugu- 
ration of  President  Hayes,  when  he  be- 
came collector  of  customs  at  Portland, 
Maine.  He  died  in  1883. 

MORRIS,  Clara,  American  actress 
and  author,  was  born  in  Toronto,  Can., 
in  1849.  She  was  reared  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  where  at  the  Academy  of  Music 
she  became  a member  of  the  ballet  and 
leading  actress.  In  1872  she  made  a 
sensation  in  L’ Article  47.  Among  her 
great  successes  are  Alixe,  Camille  and 
Miss  Multon.  Her  best  known  works  are 
Little  Jim  Crow  and  other  stories  for 
children,  My  Personal  Experiences  and 
Recollections,  and  A Pasteboard  Crown. 

MORRIS,  George  Pope,  American 
journalist  and  poet,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1802.  His  drama  Briarcliff 
(1825)  was  a popular  success.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  poems:  Woodman,  Spare 
That  Tree,  My  Mother’s  Bible,  We  Were 
Boys  Together,  and  A Long  Time  Ago. 
He  died  in  1864. 

MORRIS,  Gouverneur,  American 
statesman,  was  born  at  Morrisania,  N.  Y., 
in  1752.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1771.  In  1775  he  was  chosen  to  repre- 
sent Westchester  county  in  the  first 
Provincial  Congress  of  New  York.  He 
served  in  two  succeeding  congresses  in 
the  same  and  the  following  year.  In 
1777,  as  assistant  superintendent  of 
finance,  a position  he  held  from  1781  to 
1785,  he  drew  up  a scheme  for  a system 
of  coinage  that  ultimately  became  the 
basis  of  our  present  system.  He  repre- 
sented Pennsylvania  in  the  constitu- 
tional convention  of  1787  at  Philadelphia. 
In  1790  he  went  to  London  as  private 
agent  to  the  British  government  to  con- 
duct negotiations  regarding  the  unfilled 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  1783.  In 
1792  he  was  appointed  minister  to 
France.  In  1800  he  was  elected  from 
New  York  to  the  United  States  senate. 
He  died  in  1816. 

MORRIS,  Lewis,  English  poet,  born 
near  Caermarthen,  Wales,  1834.  His 
poems  have  been  widely  popular,  many 
of  them  running  through  numerous 
editions; , they  include  Songs  of  Two 
Worlds,  Epic  of  Hades,  Gwen,  Ode  of 
Life,  Songs  Unsung,  Gycia,  Songs  of 
Britain,  etc.  His  Jubilee  Ode  was  recog- 
nized by  a silver  medal  from  her  Majesty. 
He  was  knighted  in  1895. 

MORRIS,  Robert,  American  financier 
and  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  born  at  Liverpool, 
England,  in  1734.  At  the  age  of  fourteen 
he  was  sent  to  America  and  by  the  out- 
break of  the  revolutionary  war  had  ac- 
quired a large  fortune.  In  June,  1775,  he 
became  a member  of  the  Pennsylvania 
committee  of  safety;  in  October  of  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  to  a seat  in 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  (to  which  he 
was  re-elected  in  1776),  and  in  November 


he  was  appointed  by  that  body  a dele- 
gate to  the  Continental  congress.  At 
the  explication  of  his  term  in  congress, 
in  1778,  he  was  elected  again  to  the 
state  legislature.  In  October,  1780,  he 
was  returned  to  the  legislature  for  the 
fourth  time. 

The  fortunes  of  the  colonial  army  at 
this  time  had  reached  their  lowest  ebb; 
Charleston  had  fallen ; Gates  was  de- 
feated; ammunition  and  supplies  were 
wanted,  the  continental  currency  was 
worth  little  more  than  waste  paper,  to- 
gether with  Arnold’s  treachery,  made 


the  situation  one  of  despair.  Congress  in 
this  situation  decided  to  supersede  the 
old  treasury  board  by  a superintendent 
of  finance.  Morris  was  chosen  to  the 
position  February  20,  1781.  The  means 
which  enabled  Washington  and  Greene 
to  carry  out  the  campaign  of  1781  were 
raised  by  his  exertions.  In  1781,  with  the 
approval  of  congress,  he  founded  the 
Bank  of  North  i^erica.  He  continued 
to  hold  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
finance  until  November,  1784,  when  he 
resigned.  In  1786  he  was  again  elected 
to  the  legislature,  and  in  1787  became  a 
member  of  the  constitutional  convention 
at  Philadelphia.  He  nominated  Washing- 
ton for  the  presidency  of  the  convention. 
Upon  the  organization  of  the  new 
government  President  Washington  of- 
fered him  the  position  of  secretary  of  the 
treasury.  He  declined  the  offer.  He, 
however,  accepted  a seat  in  the  United 
States  senate  where  he  served  until  1795. 
He  died  in  1806. 

- MORRIS,  William,  English  poet,  born 
in  1834.  His  poems  include  The  Life  and 
Death  of  Jason,  1867 ; The  Earthly  Para- 
dise, 1868-70;  Love  is  Enough,  1873; 
Sigurd  the  Volsung,  1877,  etc.  He  trans- 
lated various  Scandinavian  works,  also 
Virgil’s  .iEneid  and  Homer’s  Odyssey 
into  English  verse,  and  published  roman- 
tic tales,  lectures  on  art,  etc.  He  was  a 
leader  of  the  socialistic  movement  in 
Britain.  He  died  in  1896. 

MORRIS-DANCE,  a dance  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Moriscos 
in  Spain,  formerly  danced  at  puppet- 
shows,  May-games,  etc.,  in  England. 
Bells  were  fastened  to  the  feet  of  the  per- 
formers, which  jingled  in  time  with  the 
music,  while  the  dancers  clashed  their 
staves  or  swords.  In  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VII,  and  VIII.  it  was  a principal  feature 
in  the  popular  festivals. 

MORRISON,  William  Ralls,  American 
politician  was  born  in  Monroe  co., 
Illinois,  in  1825.  He  took  part  in  most  of 


MORRISTOWN 


MORTON 


the  battles  in  Taylor’s  campaign  in  the 
Mexican  war.  From  1855  to  1859  he  was 
a democratic  member  of  the  lower  house 
of  the  Illinois  legislature,  serving  as 
speaker  in  the  last  year.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  he  became  colonel  of  the 
forty-ninth  Illinois  infantry.  In  1863, 
he  resigned  to  take  his  seat  as  a demo- 
crat in  the  thirty-eighth  congress.  From 
1863-65  and  from  1873-87  he  was  a 
member  of  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. During  his  congressional 
career  he  attained  wide  distinction  as  an 
advocate  of  a radical  reduction  in  the 
tariff.  The  bill  of  1884,  embodying  the 
famous  “horizontal”  tariff  scheme,  pro- 
posed a straight  (or  horizontal)  reduc 
tion  of  20  per  cent  from  the  tariff  of  1883. 
In  1885  Morrison  was  defeated  for  elec- 
tion to'the  United  States  senate  by  John 
A.  Logan.  He  was  appointed  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  a member  of  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  in  1887, 
and  served  until  1897,  for  the  last  six 
years  as  chairman. 

MORRISTOWN,  the  capital  of  Morris 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Del.  Lack,  and  West. 
Railroad;  30  miles  W.  of  NewYork  City. 
The  city  is  in  the  great  Morris  county 
peach  and  rose  belt,  has  an  elevation  of 
nearly  700  feet  above  sea-level.  At 
Morris  Plains,  4 miles  from  the  city,  is 
the  New  Jersey  state  lunatic  asylum,  the 
largest  institution  of  its  kind  in  the 
United  States.  Pop.  13,247. 

MORSE,  Samuel  Finley  Breese,  in- 
ventor of  the  electro-magnet  telegraph 
in  its  first  practicable  form ; born  at 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  1791;  died  at  New 
York,  1872.  He devotedspecial  attention 
to  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy; 
but  in  1811  went  to  England  to  study 
painting  under  West.  In  1813  he  was 
awarded  a gold  medal  of  the  Royal 


Samuel  Morse. 


Academy  for  his  model  of  the  Dying 
Hercules.  Returning  to  the  United 
States  in  1815,  he  continued  painting, 
and  in  1826  succeeded  in  establishing  the 
“National  Academy  of  Design,”  of 
which  he  was  first  president.  In  1839  he 
went  to  Europe  for  three  years,  and  dur- 
ing the  return  voyage  worked  out  roughly 
a plan  for  employing  electro-magnetism 
in  telegraphy.  It  was  not  until  1835, 
however,  that  he  was  able  to  exhibit  an 
instrument  that  was  found  to  work  well. 
By  July,  1837,  this  instrument  was  per- 
fected, and  ultimately  in  1843  congress 
granted  him  means  to  construct  an  ex- 
perimental line  between  Washington  and 
Baltimore.  From  that  time  Morse’s 
instrument  came  into  general  use  in 


America  and  Europe.  In  1857  the  repre- 
sentatives of  ten  countries  met  at  Paris, 
and  voted  him  400,000  francs. 

MORSE’S  TELEGRAPH.  See  Tele- 
graph. 

MORTALITY,  Law  of,  the  statement 
of  the  average  proportion  of  the  number 
of  persons  who  die  in  any  assigned  period 
of  life  or  interval  of  age,  out  of  a given 
number  who  enter  upon  the  same  inter- 
val, and  consequently  the  proportion 
of  those  who  survive.  Tables  showing 
how  many  out  of  a certain  number  of 
infants,  or  persons  of  a given  age,  will 
die  successively  in  each  year  till  the 
whole  become  extinct,  are  generally 
called  tables  of  mortality.  See  Insur- 
ance. 

MORTAR,  a mixture  of  sand  with 
slaked  lime  and  water,  used  as  a cement 
for  uniting  stones  and  bricks  in  walls. 

The  proportions  vary  from  1^  part  of 
sand  and  1 part  of  lime  to  4 or  5 parts 
sand  and  1 of  lime.  When  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  air  this  mixture  absorbs 
caibon  dioxide  and  “sets,”  forming  a 
hard,  compact  mass.  Hydraulic  mortars 
wh'ch  harden  under  water,  and  are  used 
for  piers,  submerged  walls,  etc.,  are 
formed  from  so-called  hydraulic  lime, 
containing  considerable  portions  of 
silica  and  alumina.  See  also  Cement. 

MORTAR  is  a kind  of  short  cannon, 
of  a large  bore,  with  a chamber,  used 
especially  for  throwing  shells.  The  fire 
from  mortars  is  what  is  termed  vertical 
fire,  the  mortar  being  directed  at  a high 
angle  and  the  shell  striking  the  ground 
nearly  vertically.  The  principal  recom- 
mendations of  vertical  fire  are,  that  the 
shells  search  behind  cover  and  produce 
a great  moral  effect,  also  that  at  high 
elevations  a great  range  is  obtained  with 
a comparatively  small  charge  of  powder. 

MORT'GAGE,  in  law,  is  the  temporary 
pledging  of  realty  in  security  of  a debt, 
and  as  the  realty  can  not  be  delivered 
into  the  creditor’s  hand,  he  acquires  a 
hold  over  it  by  a deed  called  an  indent- 
ure, or  deed  of  mortgage.  The  ordinary 
form  of  a mortgage-deed  resembles  an 
absolute  conveyance,  but  it  contains  a 
proviso  that  if  the  money  borrowed  is 
repaid  within  a certain  time,  then  the 
mortgagee  shall  reconvey  the  realty  to 
the  mortgagor  or  borrower.  Mortgage 
deeds  must  be  recorded.  A mortgagee 
can  assign  his  mortgage  security  to  an- 
other person,  who  thereupon  stands  in 
his  shoes.  The  laws  of  each  state  in  the 
Union  have  their  own  peculiarities  as  to 
mortgages,  so  that  the  legal  status  of  the 
subject  can  only  be  obtained  by  con- 
sulting the  various  codes. 

MORTIFICATION,  in  medicine,  is  the 
death  of  a part  of  the  body  while  the  rest 
continues  alive,  and  often  in  a sound 
state.  Mortification  is  a popular  term, 
the  scientific  term  being  gangrene  or 
necrosis,  the  former  usually  applied  to 
the  death  of  soft  parts,  the  latter  to 
the  death  of  the  bone.  Mortification  is 
generally  induced  by  inflammation,  by 
exposure  to  freezing  cold,  by  hospital 
fevers,  by  languid,  or  impeded,  or 
stopped  circulation,  as  in  cases  of  bed- 
ridden or  palsied  persons,  and  by  im- 
proper food,  particularly  the  spurred 
rye. 

MORTON,  Julius  Sterling,  .American 
political  leader,  was  born  in  Adams,  Jef- 


ferson CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  1832,  and  was  taken 
by  his  parents  in  1834  fb  Michigan.  In 
1855  he  removed  to  Nebraska,  where  he 
founded  the  City  News,  the  first  news- 
paper published  in  the  state.  In  1856-7 
he  was  elected  to  the  Nebraska  terri- 
torial legislature,  and  in  1858  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Buchanan  secre- 
tary of  the  territory,  and  became  acting 
governor  a few  months  later.  In  1893 
he  entered  the  cabinet  of  President 
Cleveland  as  secretary  of  agriculture. 
In  1901  he  was  appointed  by  President 
McKinley  one  of  the  United  States 
commissioners  for  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase exposition.  He  was  a student  of 
forestry  and  was  the  originator  of  Arbor 
Day  in  Nebraska,  the  observance  of 
which  has  extended  to,  many  other 
states.  He  died  in  1902. 

MORTON,  Levi  Parsons,  American 
banker  and  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Shoreham,  Vt.,  in 
1824.  In  1863  he  founded  the  'oanking- 
house  of  Levi  P.  Morton  & Co.,  later 
Morton,  Bliss  & Co.  In  1878  Morton  was 
elected  to  congress.  From  the  comple- 
tion of  his  term  until  1885  he  was  United 
States  minister  to  France.  In  1888  he 
was  the  successful  candidate  for  vice- 
president  on  the  republican  ticket.  From 
1894  until  1896  he  was  governor  of  New 
York. 

MORTON,  Oliver  Perry,  American 
political  leader,  best  known  as  the  “War 
Governor”  of  Indiana;  w'as  born  in 
Salisbury,  Wayne  co.,  Ind.,  in  1823.  - 
He  entered  politics  as  a democrat,  but 
opposition  to  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill 
led  him  to  withdraw  from  that  party, 
and  ultimately  he  assisted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  republican  party,  to  whose 
first  national  convention  he  was  a dele- 
gate. In  1860  he  was  elected  lieutenant- 
governor,  and  upon  the  governor’s  elec- 
tion as  United  States  senator,  Morton 
became  governor,  January  16,  1861.  . 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he 
threw  himself  with  extraordinary  energy 
into  the  work  of  raising  troops.  He  was 
re-elected  governor  in  1864.  In  1867  he 
was  elected  United  States  senator,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1873.  At  the  republican 
national  convention  in  1876  he  was  a 
strong  candidate  for  the  presidential  j 
nomination,  and  received  124  votes  on  | 
the  first  ballot.  He  subsequently  served  / 
on  the  electoral  commission.  He  died  in  j 
1877. 

MORTON,  William  Thomas  Green,  ) 
American  dentist,  was  born  at  Charlton,  i 
Mass.,  in  1819.  In  1840  he  began  the 
study  of  dentistry  at  the  Baltimore  Col- 
lege of  Dental  Surgery.  In  1844  Morton 
began  with  Dr.  Jackson  of  Boston,  the 
study  of  medicine.  The  art  of  dentistry 
was  at  that  time  in  a transition  stage, 
and  Morton  discovered  many  improve- 
ments, especially  in  attaching  false  teeth. 

In  the  course  of  his  investigations  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  value  of 
sulphuric  ether  as  a local  anajsthetic. 
The  new  form  of  narcosis  was  christened  ^ 
“anaesthesia,”  and  Morton  obtained  a 
patent  for  the  use  of  ether.  Jackson 
also  claimed  the  honor  of  having  made  I 
the  discovery,  and  the  Montyon  prize  | 
of  the  French  Academy  was  equally  j 
aw.arded  to  Dr.  Morton  and  to  Dr. 
Jackson,  but  Dr.  Morton  declined  to 
accept  it,  which  resulted  in  his  receiv-  I 


MOSAIC 


MOSES 


ing  In  1852  the  large  gold  medal,  the 
Montyon  prize  in  medicine  and  surgery. 
He  died  in  1868. 

MOSAIC,  a term  applied  to  a kind  of 
inlaid  work  formed  by  an  assemblage 
of  little  pieces  of  enamel,  glass,  marble, 
precious  stones,  etc.,  of  various  colors, 
cut,  and  disposed  on  a ground  of  cement 
in  such  a manner  as  to  form  designs,  and 
to  imitate  the  colors  and  gradations  of 
painting.  This  kind  of  work  was  used  in 
ancient  times  both  for  pavements  and 
wall  decoration,  while  in  modern  times 
paintings  are  by  this  means  copied,  and 
the  art  is  also  used  in  pavements,  jewelry, 
etc.  The  most  remarkable  modern  works 
of  this  kind  have  been  executed  by 
Roman,  Venetian,  and  Russian  artists, 
those  of  the  Roman  school  being  the 
most  celebrated,  and  consisting  in  par- 
ticular of  a series  of  portraits  of  the 
popes,  and  copies  of  notable  paintings 
by  the  great  artists,  such  as  Rafifaele, 
Domenichino,  Guido,  etc.  For  the  pro- 
duction of  these  works  rods  of  opaque 
colored  glass  are  employed,  an  immense 
variety  of  colors  and  shades  being  used. 
Pieces  are  cut  from  the  ends  of  these 
rods,  according  to  the  color  required  and 
are  arranged  side  by  side,  their  lower 
ends  being  attached  by  the  cement  while 
their  upper  ends  show  the  design.  From 
such  works,  when  on  a small  scale,  sec- 
tions maybe  cut  across, each  section  ex- 
hibiting the  pattern. 

MOSAIC  GOLD,  an  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc,  called  also  ormolu;  also  a sul- 
phide of  tin,  the  aurum  musivum  of  the 

MOSAIC  WOOL-WORK,  rugs,  etc., 
made  of  variously-colored  woolen 
threads,  arranged  so  that  the  ends  show 
a pattern.  The  threads  are  held  firmly 
in  a frame,  so  as  to  form  a dense  mass, 
with  the  upper  ends  of  the  threads  pre- 
senting a close  surface;  this  surface  is 
smeared  with  a cement,  and  has  a back- 
ing of  canvas  attached,  after  which  a 
transverse  section  is  cut  the  desired 
thickness  of  the  pile,  and  so  on  with  a 
number  of  similar  sections. 

MOSASAURUS,  a gigantic  extinct 
marine  lizard  occurring  in  the  calcareous 
freestone  which  forms  the  most  recent 


Skull  of  Mosasanrus. 


deposit  of  the'  Clretaceous  formation. 
This  reptile  was-  about  25  feet  long,  and 
furnished  with  a tail  of  such  construc- 
tion as  must  have  rendered  it  a powerful 
oar. 

MOSBY  (moz'bl,)  John  Singleton, 
American  soldier,  was  born  at  Edge- 
mont,  Powhatan  co.,  Va.,  in  1833.  After 
serving  under  Johnston  in  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley,  in  the  winter  of  1861-62, 
he  was  appointed  an  independent  scout, 
and  guided  a bold  raid  in  the  rear  of 
McClellan’s  army  on  the  Chickahominy 
in  June,  1862.  In  1863  Mosby  recruited 
an  independent  body  of  cavalry  and 
began  his  remarkable  career  as  a “par- 


tisan” leader  of  an  irregular  force  known 
as  rangers,  with  which,  until  the  close  of 
hostilities,  he  operated  in  Virginia  and 
Maryland.  In  August,  1864,  he  captured 
Sheridan’s  entire  supply  train,  which  he 
surprised  near  Berryville.  In  December, 
1864,  he  was  promoted  to  be  colonel. 
After  being  disabled  for  a short  time  by 
a wound,  he  continued  his  operations 
until  Lee’s  surrender,  when  he  disbanded 
his  troops,  gave  himself  up,  and  by 
General  Grant’s  intercession  was  paroled. 
From  1878  to  1885  he  was  United  States 
consul  at  Hong  Kong. 

MOS'COW,  the  second  capital  (for- 
merly the  only  capital)  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  and  is 
situated  in  a highly-cultivated  district  on 
the  Moskwa,  400  miles  southeast  of  St. 
Petersburg,  with  which  it  is  in  direct 
communication  by  rail.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a wall  or  earthern  rampart  26  miles 


volumes,  and  is  the  most  important  of 
the  Russian  universities.  Moscow  is  the 
first  manufacturing  city  in  the  empire, 
and  of  late  years  its  industrial  and  com- 
mercial activity  has  greatly  increased. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  textile 
fabrics,  chiefly  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk, 
besides  hats,  hardware,  leather,  chemi- 
cal products,  beer,  and  spirits.  From  its 
central  position  Moscow  is  the  great 
entrepot  for  the  internal  commerce  of 
the  empire.  The  foundation  of  the  city 
dates  from  1147.  It  became  the  capital 
of  Muscovy,  and  afterward  of  the  whole 
Russian  Empire;  but  was  deprived  of 
this  honor  in  1703,  when  St.  Petersburg 
was  founded.  The  principal  event  in  the 
history  of  Moscow  is  the  burning  of  it  in 
1812  for  the  purpose  of  dislodging  the 
French  from  their  winter  quarters. 
Pop.  (1897),  1,035,664.— The  govern- 
ment forms  an  undulating  tract  of  about 
13,000  sq.  miles,  and  the  soil  is  mostly 


Moscow— general  view  of  the  Kremlin. 


in  circuit  and  of  no  defensive  value ; and 
a considerable  portion  of  the  inclosed 
space  is  unoccupied  by  buildings.  The 
quarter  known  as  the  Kreml  or  Krem- 
lin, on  a height  about  100  feet  above  the 
river,  forms  the  center  of  the  town,  and 
contains  the  principal  buildings.  It  is 
inclosed  by  a high  stone  wall,  and  con- 
tains the  old  palace  of  the  czars  and 
several  other  palaces;  the  cathedral  of 
the  Assumption,  founded  in  1326,  re- 
built in  1472;  the  church  of  the  Annun- 
ciation, in  which  the  emperors  are  re- 
crowned; the  cathedral  of  St.  Michael; 
the  Palace  of  Arms,  an  immense  build- 
ing occupied  by  the  senate,  the  treasury, 
and  the  arsenal;  and  the  Tower  of  Ivan 
Veliki  (209  feet),  surmounted  by  a 
gilded  dome,  and  having  at  its  foot  the 
great  Czar  Kolokol,  or  king  of  bells,  60 
feet  round  the  rim,  19  feet  high,  and 
weighing  upward  of  192  tons,  the  largest 
in  the  world.  Outside  the  Kreml  the 
chief  building  is  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Vassili,  with  no  less  than  twenty  gilded 
and  painted  domes  and  towers,  all  of 
different  shapes  and  sizes.  Among  the 
principal  educational  establishments  are 
the  Imperial  University,  founded  in 
1755  by  the  Empress  Catharine.  It  has 
a rich  museuqi  and  a library  of  200,000 


productive,  the  forests  occupying  about 
39  per  cent.  Pop.  2,433,356, 

MOSES,  leader,  prophet,  and  legisla- 
tor of  the  Israelites,  was  born  in  Egypt 
about  1600  B.C.,  during  the  time  of  the 
oppression  of  the  Hebrews.  His  father, 
Amram,  and  mother,  Jochebed,  both  of 
the  race  of  Levi,  where  obliged  to  ex- 
pose him  in  obedience  to  a royal  edict, 
but  placed  him  in  a basket  of  bulrushes 
on  the  river  border,  where  he  was  found 
by  the  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  king 
as  she  went  to  bathe.  She  adopted  him 
as  her  son,  and  in  all  probability  had 
him  educated  for  the  duties  of  the  priest- 
hood, the  means  of  instruction  thus 
afforded  him  being  the  best  which  his 
time  possessed.  His  expedition  into 
Ethiopia,  in  his  fortieth  year,  as  leader 
of  the  Egyptians,  when  he  subdued  the 
city  of  Saba  (Meroe),  won  the  affections 
of  the  conquered  Princess  Tharbis,  and 
married  her,  rests  only  on  the  tradition 
preserved  by  Josephus.  An  outrage  com- 
mitted by  an  Egyptian  on  a Hebrew 
excited  his  anger,  and  he  secretly  slew 
the  Egyptian.  The  deed  became,  known, 
and  he  escaped  the  vengeance  of  the 
king  only  by  a hasty  flight  into  Arabia. 
Here  he  took  refuge  with  Jethro,  a 
Midianitish  prince  and  a priest,  and 


MOSLEM 


MOTION 


espoused  his  daughter  Zipporah.  The 
promises  of  God  that  his  race  would  be- 
come a great  nation  occupied  much  of 
his  thoughts,  and  at  last  God  appointed 
him  the  chosen  deliverer  from  the  bond- 
age of  Egypt.  Being  slow  of  speech,  and 
possessing  none  of  the  arts  of  an  orator, 
God  therefore  gave  him  power  to  prove 
his  mission  by  miracles,  and  joined  to 
him  his  elder  brother  Aaron,  a man  of 
little  energy,  but  of  considerable  elo- 
quence. Thus  prepared,  Moses  returned 
to  Egypt  at  the  age  of  eighty  years  to 
undertake  the  work.  At  first  he  had  the 
greatest  obstacles  to  overcome,  but  after 
the  visitation  of  ten  destructive  plagues 
upon  the  land.  Pharaoh  suffered  the 
Hebrews  to  depart.  Moses  conveyed 
them  safely  through  the  Red  Sea,  in 
which  Pharaoh,  who  pursued  them,  was 
drowned  with  his  army.  New  difficulties 
arose,  however.  The  distress  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  desert,  the  conflicts  with  hos- 
tile races,  the  jealousies  of  the  elders, 
often  endangered  his  authority  and 
even  his  life,  despite  the  miraculous 
attestations  of  his  mission.  During  the 
term  of  the  encampment  at  Sinai  he 
received  the  Ten  Commandments  and 
the  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the  lives  of 
the  Israelites.  When  they  were  already 
near  the  end  of  their  journey  toward 
Canaan  Moses  saw  himself  compelled, 
in  consequence  of  new  evidences  of  dis- 
content, to  lead  them  back  into  the 
desert,  for  forty  years  more  of  toilsome 
wandering.  He  was  not  himself  per- 
mitted, however,  to  see  the  Israelites 
settled  in  their  new  country  on  account 
of  a murmur  which,  in  the  midst  of  his 
distresses,  he  allowed  to  escape  against 
his  God.  After  appointing  Joshua  to  be 
the  leader  of  the  Hebrews  he  ascended  a 
mountain  beyond  Jordan,  from  which 


medan  places  of  worship  we  find  neither 
altars,  paintings,  nor  images,  but  a great 
quantity  of  lamps  of  various  kinds, 
arabesques  whicn  form  the  principal 
interior  ornament,  and  sentences  from 
the  Koran  written  on  the  walls.  Every 
mosque  has  its  minaret  or  minarets. 
The  buildings  are  often  quadrangular  in 
plan,  with  an  open  interior  court,  where 
are  fountains  for  ablutions.  The  floor 
is  generally  covered  with  carpets,  but 
there  are  no  seats.  In  the  direction 
toward  Mecca  is  the  mihrab,  a recess  in 
the  wall  to  direct  the  worshippers  where 
to  turn  their  eyes  in  prayer,  and  near 
this  is  the  mimbar  or  pulpit.  The  build- 
ings may  embrace  accommodation  for 
educational  purposes,  etc.,  besides  the 
temple  proper. 

MOSQUITO  (mos-ke'to),  a general 
name  for  such  insects  of  the  gnat  family 
as  inflict  a severe  bite  and  make  them- 
selves a pest  to  people  residing  in  warm 
climates,  or  during  the  warm  season  in 
many  arctic  regions. 

MOSQUITO  TERRITORY,  a region  of 
Central  America,  lying  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  forming  the  eastern  seaboard 
of  Nicaragua.  For  a considerable  period 
it  was  governed  by  a native  chief,  and 
was  under  British  protection,  but  in  1860 
it  was  made  over  to  the  state  of  Nicar- 
agua. The  capital  is  called  Bluefields. 

MOSS-AGATE.  See  Mocha-stone. 

MOSSES,  a group  of  cryptogamic  or 
flowerless  plants  of  considerable  extent, 
and  of  great  interest  on  account  of  their 
very  singular  structure.  They  are  in  all 
cases  of  small  size,  seldom  reaching  a foot 
in  height,  but  having  a distinct  axis 
of  vegetation,  or  stem  covered  with 
leaves ; and  are  propagated  by  means  of 
reproductive  apparatus  of  a peculiar 
nature.  They  are  formed  entirely  of 


Court  of  the  mosque  of  Tooloon,  Cairo. 


he  surveyed  the  land  of  promise,  and  so 
ended  his  life  in  his  120th  year. 

MOSLEM,  a general  appellation  in 
European  languages  for  all  who  profess 
Mohammedanism. 

MOSQUE,  a Mohammedan  church  or 
house  of  prayer.  These  buildings  are 
constructed  in  the  Saracenic  style  of 
architecture,  and  often  astonish  by  their 
extent  and  the  grandeur  and  height  of 
their  cupolas  or  domes.  In  these  Moham- 


cellular  tissue,  which  in  the  stem  is 
lengthened  into  tubes.  Their  repro- 
ductive organs  are  of  two  kinds — axillar 
cylindrical  or  fusiform  bodies,  contain- 
ing minute  roundish  particles;  and  thecse 
or  capsules,  supported  upon  a stalk  or 
seta,  covered  with  a calyptra,  closed  by 
an  operculum  or  lid,  within  which  is  a 
peristome  composed  of  slender  proc- 
esses named  teeth,  and  having  a central 
axis  or  columella,  the  space  between 


which  and  the  walls  of  the  theca  is  filled 
with  minute  sporules.  Mosses  ar  ’'>und 
in  cool,  airy,  and  moist  situp'-ons  in 
woods,  upon  the  trunks  of  trees,  on  old 
walls,  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  etc.  The 
genera  of  mosses,  which  are  numerous, 
are  principally  characterized  by  pecu- 
liarities in  the  peristome,  or  by  modifi- 
cations of  the  calyptra,  and  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  urn,  or  hollow  in  which  the 
spores  are  lodged. 

MOTH,  the  popular  name  of  a numer- 
ous and  beautiful  division  of  lepidopter- 


Caterpillar,  chrysalis,  and  butterfly,  male  and 
female,  of  the  gypsy  moth. 

ous  insects,  readily  distinguished  from 
butterflies  by  their  antennae  tapering  to 
a point  instead  of  terminating  in  a knob, 
by  their  wings  being  horizontal  when 
resting,  and  by  their  being  seldom  seen 
on  the  wing  except  in  the  evening  or  at 
night  (though  some  moths  fly  by  day); 
hence  the  term  crepuscular  and  noctur- 
nal lepidoptera  applied  to  them.  Among 


Tiger  moth.  I 

the  more  notable  of  the  moths  are  i? 
the  “feather”  or  “plume-moths,”  the  | 
“death’s-head  moth,”  the  “clothes-  ^ 
moths,”  and  the  “silk-moth.” 

MOTHER  CAREY’S  CHICKEN,  the 
sailors’  name  for  the  stormy  petrel.  See 
Petrel.  I 

MOTHER-OF-PEARL,  or  NACRE,  2 
the  hard  silvery  brilliant  internal  or  9 
nacreous  layer  of  several  kinds  of  shells,  1 
particularly  of  the  oyster  family,  often  S 
variegated  with  changing  purple  and 
azure  colors.  It  is  destitute  of  coloring 
matter,  but  is  composed  of  a series  of 
minute  and  slightly  imbricated  layers  or 
ridges  which  have  the  power  of  decom- 
posing the  rays  of  light,  thus  producing 
beautiful  iridescent  hues.  The  large 
oysters  of  the  tropical  seas  alone  secrete 
this  coat  of  sufficient  thickness  to  render 
their  shells  available  for  the  purposes 
of  manufacture.  Mother-of-pearl  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  the  arts,  particularly 
in  inlaid  work,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  handles  for  knives,  buttons,  toys, 
snuff-boxes,  etc. 

MOTION,  in  physical  science,  is  the 
passing  of  a given  body  from  one  place 


MOTLEY 


MOUSE 


to  another.  We  have  no  idea  of  absolute 
position  in  space,  so  that  when  we  speak 
of  the  motion  of  a point  it  is  only  in 
relation  to  some  point  regarded  as  fixed. 
Thus  our  conception  of  the  movement 
of  the  earth  is  derived  from  its  relation 
in  position  to  the  sun  and  stars  Bodies 
move  in  various  directions,  their  mo- 
tion being  described  as  rectilinear  when 
they  move  in  a straight  line,  curvilinear 
when  they  move  in  a curve,  vibratory 
when  they  move  to  and  fro  in  relation  to 
a fixed  point,  rotatory  when  they  turn 
on  an  axis,  and  circular  when  they  sweep 
round  a given  point.  For  Newton’s 
laws  of  motion  see  Dynamics. 

MOTLEY,  John  Lothrop,  historian 
and  diplomatist,  born  in  Massachusetts 
1814,  died  1877.  He  published,  after 
ten  years’  labor  and  a journey  to  Europe 
his  great  History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Dutch  Republic  in  1856,  a work  which 
was  further  developed  in  the  History  of 
the  United  Netherlands  (1860-65) ; and 
the  Life  and  Death  of  John  Barneveld 
(1874)  He  was  ambassador  from  the 
United  States  to  Vienna  in  1861-67, 
and  to  London  in  1869-70. 

MOTOR  NERVES.  See  Nerve. 

MOTT,  Lucretia  (Coffin),  American 
abolitionist  and  woman’s  rights  advo- 
cate, was  born  on  Nantucket  Island  in 
1793.  As  a resulst  of  a visit  to  Virginia 
she  became  an  ardent  advocate  of 
emancipation.  In  1833  she  attended  the 
first  convention  of  the  American  Anti- 
Slavery  Society.  Soon  afterward  she 
helped  to  organize  the  Female  Anti- 
Slavery  Society.  In  1840,  in  London, 
the  question  of  the  equal  participation 
of  women  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Anti- 
Slavery  Convention  came  up,  and  all 
women  were  excluded.  It  was  then  that 
Lucretia  Mott  and  Elizabeth  Cady 
Stanton  first  discussed  the  woman’s 
rights  movement,  which  they  launched 
eight  years  later  at  a convention  in 
Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.  She  died  in  1880. 

MOUKDEN.  See  Mukden. 

MOULDINGS,  in  architecture  a gen- 
eral term  applied  to  the  varieties  of  out- 
line or  contour  given  to  the  surfaces  or 
edges  of  various  subordinate  parts  or 
features  of  buildings,  whether  projec- 
tions or  cavities,  such  as  cornices,  bases, 
door  or  window  jams,  lintels,  etc. 

MOULMEIN  (moul-min'),  or  MAUL- 
MAIN,  a seaport  of  Burmah,  division 
of  Tenasserim,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Salween.  It  has  a good  harbor,  and  a 
considerable  trade  chiefly  in  teak,  cot- 
ton, rice,  tobacco,  stick-lac,  lead,  copper, 
cocoa-nuts,  hides  and  live  stock.  Pop. 
58,446. 

MOULT,  the  process  of  shedding  or 
casting  feathers,  hair,  skin,  horns,  etc. 
The  word  is  most  commonly  used  with 
regard  to  birds;  but  other  animals,  such 
as  crabs  and  lobsters,  which  shed  their 
entire  shells,  frogs  and  serpents,  which 
cast  their  skins,  are  also  said  to  moult. 

MOUND  BUILDERS,  the  name  given 
to  the  people  who  at  one  time  lived  in 
the  artificial  hillocks  or  mounds  which 
existed  in  the  valleys  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Ohio,  the  Missouri  and  their 
tributaries,  also  in  Michigan,  Wiscon- 
sin, Pennsylvania,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  and  Arkansas,  and 
the  Red  River  valleys,  and  in  certain 
parts  of  North  Carolina  and  Indiana. 


The  new  state  of  Washington  is  dotted 
over  with  these  mounds,  having  an 
arrangement  like  that  on  a five-spot 
playing  card.  The  mounds  are  artificial 
hillocks  of  earth  or  sand — sometimes 
round,  oval,  square,  and  in  some  cases 
polygonal  or  triangular,  varying  in 
height  from  a few  inches  to  100  feet,  and 
in  diameter  from  100  to  300  yards.  The 
most  important  mound  still  in  existence 
is  thatofCahokiain  Illinois.  This  mound 


rises  in  the  midst  of  about  60  others  in 
four  successive  terraces,  reaching  an 
elevation  of  91  feet.  It  covers  a surface 
of  12  acres,  being  almost  equal  to  the 
great  pyramid  of  Cheops.  The  mound- 
builders’  are  now  regarded  merely  as  the 
ancestors  and  representatives  of  the 
tribes  found  in  the  same  region  by  Span- 
'sh,  French,  and  English  pioneers.  The 
chief  contents  of  the  mounds  are  skele- 
tons, with  ceremonial  and  other  objects 
buried  with  the  bodies,  while  the  struc- 
tures are  wholly  of  earth ; in  a few  cases 
house-like  structures  form  the  nucleus 
of  the  mound. 

MOUNTAIN,  a mass  of  earth  and  rock 
rising  above  the  surface  of  the  globe 
higher  than  a hill.  Mountains  are  usually 
found  in  groups,  systems,  ranges,  or 
chains,  though  isolated  mountains,  due 
to  volcanic  action,  are  also  found.  The 
elevation  of  great  mountain  masses  is 
due  to  gigantic  subterranean  movements 
long  continued;  but  mountains  of  con- 
siderable mass  have  also  been  carved 
out  by  surface  denudation.  The  highest 
mountain  in  the  world  is  Mount  Everest, 
one  of  the  Himalayan  range,  which  is 
29,002  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

MOUNTAIN  LION,  the  name  in  the 
western  part  of  the  United  States  for  the 
panther,  cougar,  or  puma.  Early  writers 
upon  America  reported  that  the  lion 
was  a resident  of  North  America  from 
the  skins  they  saw  among  the  Indians, 
which  they  supposed  to  be  those  of 
lionesses.  See  Puma. 

MOUNTAIN  MEADOWS  MASSACRE, 
the  massacre  near  Mountain  Meadows  in 
Utah  in  1857,  of  a party  of  emigrants 

Eassing  through  Utah  on  their  way  to 
outhern  California.  They  numbered 
about  140  men,  women,  and  children. 


Stopping  to  rest  their  horses,  they  were 
fired  upon  by  Indians,  and,  it  is  alleged, 
by  Mormons  disguised.  They  withstood 
siege  until  September  11th,  when,  on 
px’omise  of  protection  by  John  D.  Lee, 
Mormon  bishop  and  Indian  .agent,  they 
left  the  shelter  of  their  wagons.  All 
adults  and  children  over  seven  years  of 
age  were  killed,  and  seventeen  younger 
children  were  distributed  among  Mor- 
mon families,  but  were  afterward  re- 
stored to  relatives  by  the  United  States 
government.  Lee  was  executed  for  this 
crime  in  1877. 

MOUNT  CARMEL,  a town  in  Nor- 
thumberland CO.,  Pa.;  on  the  Lehigh 
Val.,  the  N.  Cent.,  and  the  Phila.  and 
Read,  railways;  28  miles  e.  by  s.  of  Sun- 
bury,  the  county  seat.'  It  has  a number 
of  anthracite  coal  mines.  Pop.  14,689. 

MOUNT  CLEMENS,  the  capital  of 
Macomb  co.,  Mich.,  on  the  Clinton 
river  at  the  head  of  navigation,  and  on 
the  Grand  Trunk  railway;  22  miles  n.e. 
of  Detroit.  It  is  noted  for  its  mineral 
and  magnetic  waters,  said  to  have  re- 
markable curative  properties,  which 
make  the  city  a resort  for  thousands  of 
invalids  annually.  Pop.  8,160. 

MOUNT  VERNON,  a city  in  West- 
chester CO.,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Bronx  river, 
and  the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  H.  and  the  N. 
Y.  C.  and  H.  R.  railways;  13  miles  n.  of 
New  York.  Pop.  21,975. 

MOURNING,  as  the  outward  expres- 
sion of  grief,  has  greatly  varied  at  dif- 
ferenttimes  and  among  differentnations. 
Thus  the  eastern  nations  and  +he  Greeks 
cut  off  their  hair,  while  the  Romans 
allowed  the  beard  and  hair  to  grow;  and 
as  an  evidence  of  mourning  the  ancient 
Egyptians  wore  yellow;  the  Ethiopians, 
gray;  the  Roman  and  Spartan  women, 
white,  which  is  still  the  color  of  grief 
in  china,  Japan  and  Siam;  in  Tur- 
key, blue  and  violet;  and  in  the  other 
European  countries  black  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  Jews,  in  sign  of  grief  at  the 
loss  of  their  relatives,  rent  their  gar- 
ments, tore  out  their  hair,  and  wore 
coarse  garments  of  a dark  color;  and 
with  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  the 
custom  to  lay  aside  all  ornaments  of 
dress,  to  abstain  from  the  bath,  and 
other  indulgences. 

MOUSE,  the  name  of  a number  of  ro- 
dents of  which  the  most  familiar  is  the 
domestic  mouse.  The  harvest-mouse,  is 
a hybernating  mammal,  and  constructs  a 
little  nest  of  grass,  etc.,  entwined  round 


Mouse. 


and  supported  by  the  stalks  of  the  corn 
or  wheat.  The  common  field-mouse  is  a 
dusky  brown,  with  a darker  strip  along 
the  middle  of  the  back,  while  the  tail  is 
of  a white  color  beneath.  There  are  about 
a hundred  members  of  the  mouse  genus, 
of  which  th«  common  rat  is  one.  The 
dormouse  is  of  a different  familyfrom  the 
true  mice. 


MOUTH 


MULLER 


MOUTH,  the  aperture  in  the  head  of 
an  animal  through  which  food  is  received 
and  voice  uttered;  or  generally  the  an- 
terior opening  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
In  the  higher  animals  the  use  of  the 
mouth  is  for  mastication,  the  emission 
of  sound  or  voice,  deglutition,  and 
taste.  In  many  animals  of  a low  type  of 
structure  there  is  no  distinct  mouth. 
Thus  in  the  simpler  Protozoa  the  food  is 
taken  into  the  interior  of  the  body  by  a 
process  of  intussusception,  any  portion 
of  the  surface  being  chosen  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  acting  as  an  extemporaneous 
mouth,  which  closes  up  again  when  the 
particle  of  food  has  been  received  into 
the'  body. 

MOZAMBIQUE  (mo-zam-bek'),  a Por- 
tuguese government  on  the  east  coast 
of  South  Africa,  extending  from  Cape 
Delgado  to  Delagoa  Bay,  and  inland  to 
British  territory  (Rhodesia,  Transvaal, 
etc.);  estimated  area,  380,000  sq.  miles; 
only  a small  part  of  which  is  occupied. 
Pop.  8522. 

MOZART  (ino-zart';  German  pron. 
mo'tsart),  Johann  Chrysostomus  Wolf- 
gang Amadeus,  a great  German  com- 
poser, born  at  Salzburg  1756,  died 
at  Vienna  1791.  At  the  age  of  four 
years  his  father,  Leopold  Mozart,  a 
violinist  of  repute,  began  to  teach  him 
some  minuets  and  other  small  pieces  on 
the  harpsichord.  From  this  period  he 
made  rapid  progress,  and  a concerto  for 
the  harpsichord,  which  he  wrote  in  his 
fifth  year,  was  so  difiBcult  that  only  the 
most  practiced  performer  could  play  it. 
In  his  sixth  year  Mozart  was  taken  by 
his  father,  along  with  his  sister,  to 
Munich  and  Vienna,  where  the  little 
artists  were  received  at  court  with  great 
favor.  In  1763  the  family  made  a 
journey  to  Paris,  where  Mozart  publish- 
ed his  first  sonatas  for  the  harpsichord; 
and  in  the  following  year  they  proceeded 
to  England,  where  the  child-musician 
performed  before  the  court  the  most  dif- 
ficult compositions  of  Bach  and  Handel. 
In  1769  Mozart,  who  had  been  made 
master  of  the  concerts  at  the  court 
orchestra  at  Salzburg,  commenced  a 
journey  to  Italy  in  company  with  his 
father.  In  Rome  he  wrote  down,  on 
hearing  it,  the  famous  Miserere,  annually 
sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  during  the 
holy  week.  At  Milan  in  1770  he  com- 
posed, in  his  fourteenth  year,  his  first 
opera,  Mithridates,  which  was  performed 
more  than  twenty  times  in  succession. 
Henceforth  he  resided  chiefly  in  Salz- 
burg, but  also  visited  Paris,  Munich,  and 
finally  Vienna.  In  the  latter  city,  al- 
though he  was  appointed  composer  to 
the  court,  he  found  it  necessary  to  main- 
tain himself  by  giving  lessons  in  music 
and  writing  waltzes.  Notwithstanding 
this  poverty  it  was  here  that  most  of  his 
best  work,  such  as  his  famous  operas. 
The  Marriage  of  Figaro,  Clemency  of 
Titus,  The  Magic  Flute,  and  his  last 
work,  the  Requiem,  were  written.  It  was 
here  also  that  the  best  pianist  and 
greatest  composer  of  his  time — perhaps 
of  the  world — died  in  obscurity  and  was 
buried  in  a pauper’s  grave.  The  extent 
of  work  done  by  Mozart  during  his  short 
life  is  almost  incredible,  and  in  every  de- 
partment of  composition,  whether  vocal 
or  instrumental,  he  excelled.  In  the  his- 
tory of  music  he  stands  most  prominent- 


ly forward  as  an  operatic  composer,  his 
Don  Giovanni,  Magic  Flute,  and  Mar- 
riage of  Figaro  being  works  previously 
unequalled  and  never  since  surpassed. 

MUCILAGE,  a solution  of  some  gummy 
substance  in  water,  giving  it  a certain 
consistence;  in  chemistry,  one  of  the 
proximate  elements  of  vegetables,  a 
carbohydrate.  It  is  contained  abundant- 
ly in  gum  tragacanth,  many  seeds,  as 
linseed,  quince  seed,  etc.,  and  certain 
roots,  as  marsh-mallow.  It  forms  a thick 
jelly  with  water,  and  when  boiled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  gives  rise  to  a 
sugar  and  a gum. 

Mucus,  a viscid  fluid  secreted  by  the 
mucous  membrane  of  animals,  which  it 
serves  to  moisten  and  defend.  It  covers 
the  lining  membranes  of  all  the  cavities 
which  open  externally,  such  as  those  of 
the  mouth,  nose,  lungs,  intestinal  canal, 
urinary  passages,  etc.  It  is  transparent, 
glutinous,  thready,  and  of  a saline  taste ; 
it  contains  a great  deal  of  water,  chloride 
of  potassium  and  sodium,  lactate  of 
sodium  and  of  calcium  ; and  phosphate  of 
calcium.  Mucus  forms  a layer  of  greater 
or  less  thickness  on  the  surface  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  and  it  is  renewed 
with  more  or  less  rapidity.  Besides 
keeping  these  membranes  in  a moist  and 
flexible  condition,  it  also  protects  them 
against  the  action  of  the  air,  of  the  ali- 
ment, the  different  glandular  fluids,  and 
agencies  that  might  otherwise  irritate 
and  inflame. 

MUD,  in  geology,  a mixture  of  clay  and 
sand  with  organic  matter.  Mud  may  be 
argillaceous,  calcareous,  or  otherwise, 
according  to  the  most  notable  ingredient 
which  enters  into  its  composition. 

MUD-BATH,  a kind  of  bath  connected 
with  some  mineral  springs,  consisting  of 
mud  transfused  with  saline  or  other  in- 
gredients, in  which  patients  suffering 
from  rheumatism,  etc.,  plunge  the  whole 
or  portions  of  the  body. 

MUEZ'ZIN,  or  MUED'DIN,  a Moham- 
medan crier  attached  to  a mosque,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  proclaim  the  ezam  or  sum- 
mons to  prayer  five  times  a day— at 
dawn,  at  noon,  4 p.m.,  sunset,  and  night 
fall.  He  makes  his  proclamation  from 
the  balcony  of  a minaret ; and  as  this  ele- 
vated position  enables  a person  to  see  a 
good  many  of  the  private  proceedings  of 
the  inmates  of  the  neighboring  houses, 
the  post  of  meuzzin  is  often  intrusted  to 
a blind  man. 

MUFTI,  in  the  Turkish  Empire,  a 
religious  officer  who  exercises  the  func- 
tions of  an  authoritative  judge  in  mat- 
ters of  religion.  The  muftis  are  chosen 
from  among  the  ulemas  or  doctors  of  the 
law,  and  the  grand  mufti  or  Sheikh-ul- 
Islam  is  the  highest  officer  of  the  church 
and  the  representative  of  the  sultan  in 
spiritual  matters. 

MUGWORT,  a popular  name  for 
various  species  of  artemisia. 

MUGWUMP,  a term  originally  applied 
to  a voter  identified  with  a particular 
party,  but  claiming  the  right  to  vote 
with  another  party.  Its  popular  use  be- 
gan with  an  article  in  the  New  York  Sun 
for  March  23,  1884,  and  was  in  the  same 
year  applied  to  the  independent  republi- 
cans, who  refused  to  support  James  G. 
Blaine  for  the  presidency  The  name 
was  applied  to  them  in  derision,  but  was 
accepted  by  them,  and  now  regularly  de- 


notes any  body  of  voters  who  profess  to 
be  independent  of  strict  party  obliga- 
tions. 

MUHLHAUSEN  (miil'hou-zn),  a town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  Unstrut,  29 
miles  northwest  of  Erfurt.  It  has  two 
interesting  churches,  an  old  town-house, 
a gymnasium,  and  manufactures  of 
woolen  and  cotton  cloth,  leather,  sewing- 
machines,  etc.  It  was  fonnerly  a free 
city  of  the  empire.  Pop.  33,433. 

MUHLHAUSEN,  or  MULHAUSEN,  a 
town  of  Germany,  situated  on  the  111,  in 
Alsace-Lorraine,  61  miles  s.s.w.  of  Stras- 
burg.'  Pop.  89,012. 

MUKDEN  (muk'den),  MOUKDEN,  a 
town  of  China,  capital  of  Manchuria  and 
of  the  province  of  Leao-Tong,  about  380 
miles  n.e.  of  Peking.  Pop.  about  250,000. 

MULATTO,  a person  that  is  the  off- 
spring of  parents  of  whom  one  is  white 
and  the  other  a negro.  The  mulatto  is  of 
a dark  color  tinged  with  yellow,  with 
frizzled  or  woolly  hair,  and  resembles  the 
European  more  than  the  African. 

MULBERRY,  the  black  or  common 
mulberry  is  the  only  species  worthy  of 
being  cultivated  as  a fruit-tree.  The  fruit 
is  used  at  dessert,  and  also  preserved 
in  the  form  of  a syrup.  The  juice  of 
the  berries  mixed  with  that  of  apples 
forms  a beverage  of  a deep  port-wine 
color,  called  mulberry  cider.  The  white 
mulberry  is  the  most  interesting  of  the 


Black  mulberry. 


genus,  on  account  of  its  leaves  being  used 
for  food  by  silkworms.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  40  or  50  feet,  with  a trunk  2 or 
more  feet  in  diameter.  The  red  mul- 
berry has  fruit  of  a deep-red  color,  and  is 
a valuable  American  tree.  The  paper 
mulberry  is  a distinct  genus,  belonging 
originally  to  Japan,  its  bark  is  used  in 
making  paper,  and  its  wood  is  highly 
valued  for  ornamental  work. 

MULE,  the  name  applied  to  any  ani- 
mal produced  by  a mixture  of  different 
species,  but  specifically  denoting  the 
hybrid  generated  between  an  ass  and  a 
mare.  The  head  of  the  mule  is  long  and 
thin,  its  tail  is  bushy,  and  its  mane  short. 
It  unites  th?  speed  of  the  horse  with  the 
dogged  perseverence  of  the  ass,  and  is 
docile  in  temper  when  fairly  treated. 

MULE,  a spinning-machine  invented 
by  Samuel  Crompton  in  1775,  and  so 
called  from  being  a combination  of  the 
drawing-rollers  of  Arkwright  and  the 
jenny  of  Hargreaves.  In  this  machine 
the  rovings  are  delivered  from  a series  of 
sets  of  drawing-rollers  to  spindles  placed 
on  a carriage,  which  travels  away  from 
the  rollers  while  the  thread  is  being 
twisted,  and  returns  toward  the  rollers 
while  the  thread  is  being  wound. 

MULLER  (miil'^r),  Friedrich  Max,  a 
celebrated  philologist, was  born  atDessau 


MULHALL 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP 


in  1823;  published  (1844)  the  Hitopa- 
desa,  a collection  of  Sanskrit  fables;  pro- 
ceeded then  to  Berlin,  where  he  attended 
tlie  lectures  of  Bopp  and  Schelling;  con- 
tinued his  studies  under  Burnouf  in 
Paris;  came  to  England  in  1846,  and 
established  himself  at  Oxford,  where  he 
was  appointed  successively  Taylorian 
professor  of  modern  languages  (1854), 
assistant,  and  ultimately  sub-librarian  at 
the  Bodleian  library  (1865),  and  pro- 
fessor of  comparative  philology  (1868),  a 
position  which  he  practically  resigned  in 
1875,  but  nominally  held  till  his  death  in 
1900.  He  was  a member  of  the  French 
Institute,  and  an  LL.D.  of  Cambridge 
and  Edinburgh.  His  numerous  writings 
include  an  edition  of  the  Rig-Veda,  His- 
tory of  Sanskrit  Literature,  Lectures  on 
the  Science  of  Language,  Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop,  On  the  Origin  and 
Growth  of  Religion,  Selected  Essays, 
The  Science  of  Thought,  Biographies  of 
Words,  Natural  Religion,  and  he  was  the 
editor  of  the  series  of  Sacred  Books  of 
the  East  undertaken  by  the  university. 

MUL'HALL,  Michael  George,  dis- 
tinguished statistician,  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  in  1836.  In  1884  he  was  elected 
to  the  British  Association  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  science.  His  works  include 
a Handbook  of  the  River  Plata;  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  and  Its  German  Colonies; 
The  English  in  South  America.  In  1880 
Mulhall  brought  out  his  Progress  of  the 
World  in  Arts,  Agriculture,  Commerce, 
Manufacture,  Instruction,  Railways,  and 
Public  Wealth,  since  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  highly  valued  works  on 
statistics:  History  of  Prices;  Industries 
and  Wealth  of  Nations;  and  a Dic- 
tionary of  Statistics.  He  died  in  1900. 

MULLET,  a name  common  to  two 
groups  of  fishes,  viz.  the  gray  mullets 
and  the  red  mullets.  Naturalists,  how- 
ever, generally  restrict  the  name  to  the 
former,  designating  the  red  mullets  as 
sur-mullets.  Of  the  true  mullets  the  best- 
known  is  the  common  gray  mullet  found 
round  the  shores  of  the  British  islands, 
and  in  particular  abundance  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  grows  to  the  length  of  18 
to  20  inches,  and  will  sometimes  weigh 
from  12  to  15  lbs.  It  has  the  habit  of 
rooting  in  mud  or  sand  in  search  of  food. 
Another  species  also  called  gray  mullet  a 
native  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  distin- 
guished by  having  its  eyes  half  covered 
by  an  adipose  membrane.  It  weighs 
usually  from  10  to  12  lbs.,  and  is  the 
most  delicate  of  all  the  mullets.  A 
smaller  species,  the  thick-lipped  gray 
mullet,  is  common  on  the  British  coasts. 
Many  other  species,  natives  of  India  and 
Africa,  are  much  esteemed  as  food. 

MULOCK,  Dinah  Maria.  See  Craik. 

MULTAN',  or  MOOLTAN',  a city  of 
India,  in  the  Punjab,  the  chief  city  and 
capital  of  a district  of  same  name.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  India, 
and  is  the  center  of  a large  trade.  Pop. 
87,394. — The  district  has  an  area  of 
6079  sq.  miles;  pop.  710,548. 

MULTIPLE,  in  arithmetic  a number 
which  contains  another  an  exact  number 
of  times  without  a remainder;  as  12  is  a 
multiple  of  3,  the  latter  being  a submul- 
tiple or  aliquot  part.  A common  multiple 
of  two  or  more  numbers  contains  each  of 
them  a certain  number  of  times  exactly ; 

P.  E.— 54 


thus  24  is  a common  multiple  of  3 and  4. 
The  least  common  multiple  is  the  small- 
est number  that  will  do  this;  thus  12  is 
the  least  common  multiple  of  3 and  4. 
The  same  term  is  applicable  to  algebraic 
quantities. 

MUMMIES,  dead  human  bodies  em- 
balmed and  dried  after  the  manner  of 
those  taken  from  Egyptian  tombs.  An 
immense  number  of  mummies  have  been 
found  in  Egypt,  consisting  not  only  of 
human  bodies,  but  of  various  animals, 
as  bulls,  apes,  ibises,  crocodiles,  fish,  etc. 
The  processes  for  the  preservation  of  the 
body  were  very  various.  Those  of  the 
poorer  classes  were  merely  dried  by  salt 
or  natron,  and  wrapped  up  in  coarse 
cloths  and  desposited  in  the  catacombs. 
The  bodies  of  the  rich  and  the  great 
underwent  the  most  complicated  oper- 
ations, and  were  laboriously  adorned 
with  all  kinds  of  ornaments.  Embalmers 


Mummy  of  Penamen,  priest  of  Amun  Ra— 
British  museum. 

of  different  ranks  and  duties  extracted 
the  brain  through  the  nostrils,  and  the 
entrails  through  an  incision  in  the  side; 
the  body  was  then  shaved,  washed,  and 
salted,  and  after  a certain  period  the 
process  of  embalming,  properly  speaking, 
began . The  whole  body  was  then  steeped 
in  balsam  and  wrapped  up  in  linen  ban- 
dages ; each  finger  and  toe  was  separately 
enveloped,  or  sometimes  sheathed  in  a 
gold  case,  and  the  nails  where  often 
gilded.  The  bandages  were  then  folded 
round  each  of  the  limbs,  and  finally 
round  the  whole  body,  to  the  number  of 
fifteen  to  twenty  thicknesses.  The  head 
was  the  object  of  particular  attention ; 
it  was  sometimes  enveloped  in  several 
folds  of  fine  muslin ; the  first  was  glued 
to  the  skin,  and  the  others  to  the  first ; 
the  whole  was  then  coated  with  a fine 
laster.  The  Persians,  Assyrians,  He- 
rews,  and  Romans  had  all  processes  of 
embalming,  though  not  so  lasting  as  that 
of  Egypt.  "The  art  also  was  practiced  by 
the  Guanches  of  the  Canaries,  the  Mexi- 
cans, Peruvians,  etc.  Natural  mummies 
are  frequently  found  preserved  by  the 
dryness  of  the  air. 

MUMPS,  a disease  consisting  in  a pecu- 
liar and  specific  unsuppurative  inflam- 
mation of  the  salivary  glands,  accom- 
panied by  swelling  along  the  neck,  ex- 
tending from  beneath  the  ear  to  the  chin . 
Children  are  more  subject  to  it  than 
adults. 

MUNCHHAUSEN(munh'hou-zn),  Karl 
Friedrich  Hieronymus,  Baron  von,  a 
German  officer,  born  in  Hanover  in  1720, 
died  1797.  He  served  several  campaigns 
against  the  Turks  in  the  Russian  service 
1737-39.  Baron  Munchhausen’s  Narra- 
tive, a small  book  of  48  pages,  appeared 
in  London  in  1785.  Two  years  after  it 
was  translated  into  German  by  Burger, 
who  naturally  passed  in  Germany  for  the 
writer.  Thereat  author  was  Rudolf  Erich 
Raspe  (1737-94),  a native  of  Hanover 
who  took  refuge  in  England  from  a 
charge  of  theft.  The  book  was  after- 
ward enlarged  by  additional  stories, 
many  of  them  very  old. 


MUNCIE,  the  capital  of  Delaware  co., 
Ind.,  on  the  White  river,  and  the  Lake 
Erie  and  W.,  the  Cleve.,  Gin.,  Chi.  and 
St.  L.,  and  the  Ft.  W.,  Cin.  and  Louis, 
railways;  54  miles  e.  of  Indianapolis,  110 
miles  n.  w.  of  Cincinnati  It  is  in  the 
center  of  the  great  Indiana  natural-gas 
belt,  which  gives  the  factories  free  fuel. 
Pop.  22,132. 

MUN'GOOSE,  a species  of  ichneumon, 
otherwise  known  as  the  “gray”  or 
“Indian”  ichneumon.  Being  easily  do- 
mesticated it  is  kept  in  many  houses  in 
Hindustan  to  rid  them  of  reptiles  and 
other  vermin,  as  rats,  mice,  etc.  It  has 
been  said  that  it  neutralizes  the  poison 
of  snakes,  which  it  fearlessly  attacks,  by 
eating,  during  its  contests  with  them, 
snake-root;  but  its  immunity  is  really 
due  to  the  extreme  celerity  of  its  move- 
ments. It  is  of  a gray  color  flecked  with 
black,  and  about  the  size  of  a rat. 

MUNICH  (mu'nik),  the  capital  city  of 
Bavaria.  It  lies  on  an  extensive  but  un- 
interesting plateau,  about  1700  feet 
above  sea-level,  chiefly  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Isar.  Munich  is  one  of  the  finest 
towns  in  Germany.  Vast  improvements 
are  due  to  the  munificence  of  King  Lud- 
wig I.  The  royal  palace  forms  a very  ex- 
tensive series  of  buildings  chiefly  in  the 
Italian  style,  and  contains  many  magnifi- 
cent apartments  and  rich  artistic  and 
other  treasures.  Connected  with  it  are 
the  court  church  and  the  court  and 
national  theater,  among  the  largest  in 
Germany.  The  city  is  highly  celebrated 
for  its  fine  galleries  of  sculpture  and 
painting,  and  for  various  other  impor- 
tant collections,  such  as  that  of  the  Ba- 
varian national  museum.  The  royal 
library  has  upward  of  1,000,000  volumes 
and  30,000  MSS.,  being  thus  one  of  the 
largest  in  Europe.^  The  university  is  at- 
tended by  some  3500  students,  and  has  a 
library  of  300,000  vols.  There  is  an  acad- 
emy of  science,  an  academy  of  arts,  and 
many  fine  churches,  including  the 
cathedral,  founded  in  1488.  Munich  is 
the  seat  of  the  high  courts  of  legislature 
and  of  law,  and  of  all  the  more  impor- 
tant offices  of  the  state.  It  was  iounded 
by  Henry,  duke  of  Saxony,  in-  962; 
taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  by 
the  French  under  Moreau  in  1800,  and 
by  Napoleon  in  October,  1805.  Pop. 
499,959. 

MUNICIPALITY,  a town  or  city  pos- 
sessed of  certain  privileges  of  local  self- 
government,  derived  from  incorporating 
charters  granted  by  the  state.  Or  the 
term  may  be  applied  to  the  corporation 
or  body  of  persons  in  a town  having  the 
powers  of  managing  its  affairs. 

MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP,  properly 
speaking  the  possession  by  a city  or 
town  of  any  property  is  municipal  own- 
ership ; but  the  term  is  generally  applied 
to  public  ownership  and  operation  of 
public  utilities,  such  as  water  works,  gas 
and  electric  light  plants.  In  England 
this  is  called  municipal  trading.  Muni- 
cipal ownership  has  become  an  issue  in 
America  during  the  last  decade,  advo- 
cacy or  opposition  to  it  being  based 
largely  upon  the  utility  considered,  with 
almost  the  unanimous  agreement  that 
services  of  a sanitary  character,  such  as 
water  works  and  sewerage,  should  be 
under  municipal  control.  'There  is  some 
divergence  of  opinion,  however,  as  to 


MUNKACSY 


MURCIA 


municipal  lighting,  and  less  than  twenty- 
five  gas  works  in  the  United  States  are 
operated  by  municipalities,  while  only 
one-sixth  of  the  electric  light  plants  are 
municipal,  the  largest  of  these  being  in 
Detroit  and  Chicago,  and  which  are  used 
only  for  lighting  streets  and  public 
buildings.  In  Europe,  private  owner- 
ship of  electric  lighting  plants  is  cus- 
tomary outside  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
in  which  the  majority  are  municipal. 
The  gas  works  in  Germany  and  Great 
Britain  are  nearly  evenly  divided  be- 
tween municipal  and  private  plants, 
with  the  tendency  increasing  toward 
the  former. 

All  but  eight  of  the  thirty-eight  cities 
of  over  100,000  population  in  v^merica 
own  their  water  works,  but  of  the  water 
works  in  the  United  States  nearly  one- 
half  are  private  works,  most  of  these 
being  in  the  smaller  towns  which  have 
been  unwilling  to  compete  with  private 
enterprise.  Private  companies  supply 
the  sewerage  for  all  but  six  places  where 
the  population  is  3,000  or  over. 

The  theory  on  which  the  argument 
for  municipal  ownership  is  based  is  that 
undertakings  which  require  the  use  of 
the  streets  or  other  public  places,  are 
natural  monopolies,  and  that  all  natural 
monopolies  should  be  vested  in  the  city 
rather  than  in  the  private  corporation, 
as  their  use  is  compulsory  upon  citizens. 
The  advocates  say  there  is  greater  need 
for  public  lighting  in  the  large  cities  than 
there  is  for  public  water  supply  in  some 
localities. 

The  arguments  for  municipal  owner- 
ship of  street  railways  is  generally  based 
upon  the  additional  theory  that  means  of 
transportation  should  belong  to  the  city 
just  as  much  as  should  the  sidewalks 
upon  which  people  traVel.  Even  when 
there  has  been  a public  sentiment  in 
favor  of  municipal  operation  of  street 
railways,  there  has  been  an  objection 
raised  on  the  ground  that  the  amount  of 
money  involved  affords  unusual  oppor- 
tunity for  graft  and  also  failing  effective 
civil  service  reform  employes  would  be 
used  as  a part  of  the  political  machine. 
These  arguments  have  been  the  prin- 
cipal ones  used  in  cities  like  Chicago, 
where  the  subject  of  municipal  operation 
of  street  railways  has  been  most  agitated. 
Great  Britain  contains  almost  all  the 
municipal  street  railway  systems  in  the 
world,  there  being  about  forty  in  that 
country,  the  most  notable  being  those  in 
Manchester,  Glasgow,  and  Sheffield.  In 
other  cities  and  in  several  places  in 
Canada  street  railways  are  owned  by  the 
city  and  leased  to  operating  companies. 

One-eighth  of  the  ferries  in  the  United 
States  are  municipal,  the  Boston  system 
being  the  most  elaborate.  Several  cities 
owp  their  docks,  including  New  York, 
which  receives  a large  income  there- 
from. There  are  municipal  markets 
throughout  the  world,  150  being  in  the 
larger  cities  of  the  United  States,  the 
largest  of  which  are  those  in  New  York, 
New  Orleans,  Boston,  and  Baltimore. 

Under  municipal  ownership  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
revenue  should  be  sacrificed  to  cheap- 
ness and  efficiency  of  service.  Varying 
policies  in  these  respects  are  in  force,  the 
advocates  of  municipal  ownership  usual- 
ly believing  that  cheapness  is  the  prime 


requisite,  while  the  opponents  declare 
this  of  itself  is  an  argument  against  the 
system,  asserting  it  results  in  an  increase 
of  the  general  tax  rate  and  a consequent 
shifting  of  the  expense  upon  the  large 
property  holders. 

MUNKACSY  (mfin'kach-i),  Mihaly,real 
name  Michael  Lieb,  Hungarian  genre 
and  historical  painter,  born  at  Munkacs 
1846;  studied  at  Gyula,  Vienna,  Munich, 
and  Diisseldorf,  and  settled  in  Paris  in 
1872.  Among  his  best-known  pictures 
are  Last  Day  of  a Condemned  Man,  Mil- 
ton  dictating  Paradise  Lost,  Christ  be- 
fore Pilate,  Last  Moments  of  Mozart.  He 
died  in  1900. 

MUNN,  Orson  Desaix,  American  law- 
yer and  journalist,  was  born  in  Monson, 
Hampden  co..  Mass.  In  1824  he  bought 
with  Alfred  E.  Beach  the  Scientific 
American ; founded  the  Scientific  Ameri- 
can Supplement  in  1876  and  the  Archi- 
tects’ and  Builders’  Edition  in  1885. 

MUNNICH,  Burkhard  Christoph  Count , 
Russian  st.*tesman  and  general  was  born 
in  1683,  and  who,  through  brilliant  mili- 
tary service,  was  made  chief  minister 
and  became  the  most  powerful  man  in 
Russia.  Afterward  falling  from  favor, 
he  was  exiled  to  Siberia  for  twenty  years. 
His  estates  were  finally  restored  to  him 
and  he  was  made  director-general  of  the 
Baltic  poii».  He  died  in  1767. 

MUNROE,  Kirk,  American  journalist 
and  author,  was  born  in  Appleton,  Wis., 
in  1856.  Wrote  many  books  for  boys. 
First  editor  of  Harper’s  Young  People. 
His  works  include:  The  Flamingo 
Feather,  Under  the  Great  Bear,  Dory 
Mates,  and  the  Belt  of  the  Seven  Totems. 

MUNSEY,  Frank  Andrew,  American 
publisher,  was  born  in  Albany, ,N.  Y.,  in 
1854.  Established  the  Golden  Argosy, 
afterward  changed  to  The  Argosy. 
Founded  Munsey’s  Weekly,  which  was 
changed  to  Munsey’s  Magazine,  The 
Puritan,  and  The  Scrapbook.  Controlled 
Washington  Times,  the  New  York  Daily 
News,  and  the  Boston  Journal. 

MUNSON,  James  Eugene,  American 
inventor  and  author,  was  born  in  Paris, 
Oneida  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1835.  Originated 
the  Munson  system  of  stenography,  an 
automatic  typesetting  machine,  and  a 
mechanism  for  operating  typewriting 
machines  by  telegraph. 

MUNSTER,  the  southwest  province  of 
Ireland  comprising  the  six  counties  of 
Clare,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Tipperary, 
and  Waterford.  Area,  9475  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  1,076,188. 

MUNSTER  (miin'ster),  a town  of 
Prussia,  capital  of  the  province  of  West- 
phalia. The  principal  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  the  church  of  St.  Lambert, 
the  townhouse,  the  exchange,  museum, 
theater,  etc.  The  manufactures  include 
woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  etc. 
Pop.  68,562. 

MUNSTER,  Peace  of.  See  Westphalia, 
Peace  of. 

MURAL  CIRCLE,  an  astronomical  in- 
strument consisting  of  a telescope  at- 
tached to  a vertical  brass  circle  which 
turns  upon  an  axis  passing  through  a 
stone  pier.  The  brass  circle  revolves  ex- 
actly in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  is 
carefully  divided  into  degrees  and 
minutes.  Attached  to  the  stone  pier,  and 
at  equal  distances  apart  are  six  micro- 
scoyss  for  the  purpose  of  viewing  the 


graduated  circle  and  determining  ex- 
actly its  position  and  consequently  that 
of  the  telescope.  It  is  regarded  as  the 
principal  fixed  instrument  in  all  the 
great  public  observatories.  Its  chief  use 
is  to  measure  angular  distances  in  the 
meridian,  and  so  to  determine  the  de- 
clination of  a star,  or  its  distance  from 
the  celestial  equator.  The  right  ascen- 
sion of  a star  being  given  by  the  transit 
instrument,  and  its  declination  by  this, 
its  exact  position  is  determined. 

MURAT  (mu-ra),  Joachim,  French 
marshal,  and  for  some  time  King  of  Italy 
born  in  1771,  died  1815.  He  served  in 
the  constitutional  guard  of  Louis  XVI.; 
then  entered  the  12th  Regiment  of 
mounted  chasseurs;  rose  by  his  zealous 
Jacobinism  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel;  was  afterward  removed  as  a 
terrorist,  and  remained  without  em- 
ployment till  his  fate  placed  him  in  con- 
nection with  Bonaparte,  whom  he  fol- 
lowed to  Italy  and  Egypt,  becoming 
general  of  division  in  1799.  In  1800  he 
married  Caroline,  the  youngest  sister  of 
Bonaparte.  He  was  present  at  the  Battle 
of  Marengo,  and  in  1804  was  made  mar- 
shal of  the  empire,  grand-admiral,  and 
prince  of  the  imperial  house.  His  serv- 
ices in  the  campaign  of  1805  against 
Austria,  in  which  he  entered  Vienna  at 
the  head  of  the  army,  were  rewarded  in 
1806  with  the  grand-duchy  of  Cleves  and 
Berg.  In  the  war  of  1806  with  Prussia, 
and  of  1807  with  Russia,  he  commanded 
the  cavalry,  and  in  1808  he  commanded 
the  French  army  which  occupied  Madrid. 
He  anticipated  receiving  the  crown  of 
Spain,  Charles  IV.  having  invested  him 
with  royal  authority;  but  Napoleon,  who 
destined  Spain  for  his  brother  Joseph, 
placed  him  on  the  throne  of  Naples,  July 
15,  1808.  He  then  took  the  title  of 
Joachim  Napoleon.  He  shared  the  re- 
verses of  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
and  in  1813  again  fought  for  Napo- 
leon, whose  cause  he  deserted  after 
the  battle  of  Leipzig.  He  took  up  arms 
again  in  1815  for  Napoleon;  but  being 
defeated  by  Generals  Neipperg  and 
Bianchi  near  Tolentino,  2d  and  3d  May, 
he  was  forced  to  leave  Italy,  and  took 
refuge  in  Toulon.  After  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon  he  escaped  to  Corsica,  and 
set  sail  for  the  Neapolitan  territory  with 
a view  to  recover  his  kingdom.  He 
landed  at  Pinzo  on  8th  October,  but  was 
immediately  captured,  tried  by  a court- 
martial,  and  shot. 

MURCHISON  (mer'chi-sun).  Sir  Rod- 
erick Impey,  Scottish  geologist,  born  at 
Tarradale,  in  Ross-shire,  1792;  died 
1871.  By  a comparison  of  specimens  of 
the  rocks  of  Australia  with  the  aurifer- 
ous rocks  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  which 
he  had  personally  examined,  he  was  led, 
so  early  as  1845,  to  predict  that  gold 
would  be  found  there.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  most  active  members  of 
the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.  He  was  several  times 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society.  He  was  made  K.C.B. 
in  1853,  and  a baronet  in  1863.  His  chief 
works  are  Siluria,  The  Geologyof  Russia, 
and  numerous  contributions  to  the 
transactions  of  the  learned  societies. 
He  endowed  the  chair  of  geology  in 
Edinburgh  university. 

MURCIA  (mur'thi-a),  a city  of  South- 


MURDER 


MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  MOTION 


ern  Spain,  capital  of  the  ancient  king- 
dom and  modern  province  of  same  name. 
Pop.  111,539. — Theprovinceformedpart 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Murcia;  area, 
5970  sq.  miles;  pop.  577,987. 

MURDER,  the  act  of  unlawfully  kill- 
ing a human  being  with  premeditated 
malice,  the  person  committing  the  act 
being  of  sound  mind  and  discretion,  and 
the  victim  dying  within  a year  and  a 
day  after  the  cause  of  death  adminis- 
tered. In  Britain  it  is  the  law  that  every 
person  convicted  of  murder  shall  suffer 
death  as  a felon.  In  the  United  States 
of  America  the  law  recognizes  degrees 
in  murder,  and  in  France  and  some  other 
civilized  nations  “extenuating  circum- 
stances” are  taken  into  consideration. 

MURDOCH  (mur'doh),  William,  an 
inventor,  born  near  Auchinleck,  Ayr- 
shire, in  1754.  At  Redruth,  in  1784,  he 
constructed  a model  high-pressure  en- 
gine to  run  on  wheels,  the  precursor  of 
the  modern  steam  locomotive.  In  1815 
he  introduced  the  hot-water  apparatus 
which,  with  certain  slight  modifications, 
is  now  so  extensively  used  for  heating 
large  buildings  and  conservatories.  Vari- 
ous other  inventions  of  his  might  be 
mentioned;  but  his  work  as  a gas- 
inventor  remains  his  most  conspicuous 
achievement.  In  1792  he  first  lighted 
his  offices  and  cottage  at  Redruth  with 
coal-gas,  but  it  was  not  till  1798  that  he 
constructed  his  first  extensive  appara- 
tus at  Birmingham  for  the  making, 
storing,  and  purifying  of  gas,  with  a view 
to  the  supply  of  factories.  Not  long  after 
this  the  offices  at  Soho  were  lighted  with 
gas,  and  the  new  illuminant  was  brought 
prominently  before  public  notice  in  1802, 
when  the  exterior  of  the  factory  was 
lighted  up  in  celebration  of  the  Peace 
of  Amiens.  His  great  invention  was 
never  patented.  He  retired  from  business 
in  1830,  and  died  in  1839. 

MURGER  (mur-zhar),  Henri,  born  at 
Paris  1822,  died  1861.  He  lived  a life  of 
extreme  privation ; formed  an  informal 
club  or  society  of  unconventional  young 
artists  and  authors  similarly  situated 
which  was  named  “Bohemia,”  and  the 
associates  “Bohemians” — a name  fam- 
ous in  general  literary  history.  He  con- 
tributed a great  mass  of  “copy”  to  nu- 
merous periodicals,  and  at  last  made  a 
reputation  by  his  Scenes  de  la  Vie  de 
Boheme.  He  also  published  two  volumes 
of  poetry.  Ballades  et  Fantaisies,  and 
Les  Nuits  d’Hiver;  and  wrote  dramas 
for  the  Luxembourg  theater,  and  tales, 
etc.,  for  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes. 

MURIATIC  ACID,  the  older  name  of 
hydrochloric  acid. 

MURILLO  (mu-rel'yo),  Bartolomeo 
Esteban,  the  greatest  of  Spanish  painters, 
was  born  at  Seville  in  1618.  He  received 
his  first  instructions  in  art  from  his 
relation  Juan  del  Castillo.  In  1642  he 
visited  Madrid,  and  was  aided  by  Velas- 
quez, then  painter  to  the  king,  who  pro- 
cured him  permission  to  copy  in  the 
Royal  Galleries.  Murillo  returned  to 
Seville  in  1645,  where  he  commenced 
that  great  series  of  w'orks  which  have 
now  made  his  name  so  glorious.  He 
married  a lady  of  fortune  in  1648,  which 
much  aided  his  personal  influence,  and 
he  succeeded  in  establishing  an  academy 
of  the  arts  at  Seville  in  1660,  and  acted 
as  president  the  first  year.  He  died  at 


Seville  3d  April,  1682,  in  consequence 
of  a fall  from  a scaffolding  at  Cadiz, 
where  he  was  engaged  in  the  church  of 
the  Capuchins,  painting  a large  altar- 
piece  of  St,  Catharine.  He  obtained  the 


name  of  Painter  of  the  Conception  from 
his  fondness  for  the  subject  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception.  About  250  of  his 
pictures  are  preserved  in  British  and 
foreign  galleries,  and  in  Spanish  churches. 

MURPHY,  Francis,  an  American  tem- 
perance evangelist,  born  in  1836  in 
Wexford,  Ireland.  In  1870  he  started 
temperance  reform  clubs.  His  head- 
quarters were  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and 
10,000,000  persons  signed  the  pledge 
as  a result  of  his  ministrations  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  United  States.  He 
labored  also  in  England,  and  he  acted 
as  chaplain  in  the  Spanish-American 
war. 

MURRAIN,  a name  given  in  general 
to  any  widely  prevailing  and  contagious 
disease  among  cattle,  though  in  different 
localities  it  is  also  used  as  the  name  of 
some  specific  disease. 

MURRAY,  John,  founder  of  the  Uni- 
versalist  body  in  America,  was  born  at 
Alton,  England,  in  1741.  He  preached 
his  first  sermon  in  America  September 
30,  1770,  in  an  obscure  place  in  New 
Jersey,  called  “Good  Luck.”  He  was 
prominent  in  the  organization  of  a con- 
vention of  his  sect  in  1785,  and  which 
took  the  name  of  Independent  Christian 
Universalists.  In  1793  he  was  installed 
pastor  of  a society  of  Universalists  in 
Boston,  where  he  remained  till  his  death, 
September  3,  1815. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  grammarian,  born 
in  Pennsylvania,  of  Quaker  parents,  in 


1745,  died  1826.  He  wrote,  besides  his 
well-known  English  Grammar,  several 
works  on  education  and  morals. 


MURSHIDABAD',  or  MOORSHEDA- 
BAD,  a city  of  India,  Bengal.  Pop. 
28,553. — The  district  of  Murshidabad 
has  an  area  of  2144  sq.  miles  and  a popu- 
lation of  1,335,374. 

MUSCAT,  or  MASKAT,  the  chief  city 
of  the  sultanate  of  Omdn,  or  Muscat,  a 
seaport  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  near  the 
east  angle  of  Arabia.  It  is  an  important 
center  of  trade,  exporting  coffee,  pearls, 
mother-of-pearl,  dye-stuffs,  drugs,  etc., 
and  importing  rice,  sugar,  piece-goods, 
etc.  Pop.  of  town  and  suburbs  estimated 
at  60,000. 

MUSCATEL',  or  MUSCADEL,  a term 
for  various  sweet,  strong,  and  fragrant 
wines.  • 

MUS'CATINE,  a town  in  Iowa,  on  the 
Mississippi,  at  the  apex  of  what  is  called 
the  Great  Bend,  and  in  connection  with 
an  extensive  net-work  of  railways,  27 
miles  southeast  of  Iowa  City.  Pop. 
16,170. 

MUSCLE  AND  MUSCULAR  MOTION, 

the  name  muscle  is  applied  to  those 
structural  elements  or  organs  in  ani- 
mals which  are  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  movements  either  of  a 
part  of  the  body,  or  of  the  body 
as  a whole.  They  consist  of  fibres  or 
bundles  of  fibres,  susceptible  of  con- 
traction and  relaxation,  inclosed  in  a 
thin  cellular  membrane.  Muscles  are 
composed  of  fleshy  and  tendinous  fibres, 
occasionally  intermixed,  but  the  tendi- 
nous fibres  generally  prevail  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  muscle,  and  the  fleshy 
ones  in  the  belly  or  middle  part  of  it. 
When  the  fibres  of  a muscle  are  placed 
parallel  to  each  other  it  is  called  a simple 
or  rectilinear  muscle;  when  they  inter- 
sect and  cross  each  other  they  are  called 
compound.  When  muscles  act  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other  they  are  termed 
antagonist;  when  they  concur  in  the 
same  action  they  are  called  congener- 
ous. Muscles  are  also  divided  into 
voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles,  the 
former  being  those  whose  movements 
proceed  from  an  immediate  exertion  of 
the  will,  as  in  raising  or  depressing  the 
arm,  bending  the  knee,  moving  the 
tongue,  etc.,  while  the  latter  are  beyond 
this  control,  being  the  agents  in  the  con- 
traction of  the  heart,  arteries,  veins, 
absorbents,  stomach,  intestines,  etc. 
When  examined  under  the  microscope 
the  fibres  of  the  voluntary  muscles  (as 
also  those  of  the  heart)  are  seen  to  be 
marked  by  minute  transverse  bars  or 
stripes,  while  those  of  the  involuntary 
are  smooth  and  regidar  in  appearance. 
The  former  is  therefore  called  striped 
or  striated  muscle,  the  latter  unstriped, 
nonstriated,  or  smooth  muscle.  The 
great  property  of  muscular  tissue  is  the 
power  of  responding  when  irritated. 
The  response  is  in  the  form  of  contrac- 
tion, that  is,  when  the  muscle  is  irritated 
or  stimulated  it  responds  by  shortening 
itself,  so  that  its  ends  are  brought  nearer 
and  it  becomes  thicker  in  the  middle,  its 
inherent  elasticity  making  it  capable  of 
returning  to  its  previous  lengtn  when 
the  stimulation  is  withdrawn.  By  these 
contractions  the  muscles  are  able  to  do 
work.  The  usual  stimulation  is  by 
nervous  action  (see  Nerve),  but  me- 
chanical means,  such  as  pinching,  prick- 
ing, etc.,  electricity,  heat,  and  chemicals 
also  cause  irritation.  All  the  muscles  are 


MUSCOVY 


MUSIC 


connected  with  bones  not  directly  but 
through  the  medium  of  tendons.  A 
tendon  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
white  glistening  cord,  sometimes  flat, 
but  often  cylindrical  and  of  considerable 
thickness.  The  mass  of  flesh  composing 


A striped  muscular  fibre  with  its  sheath. 

the  muscle  is  called  the  belly  of  the 
muscle.  One  end  is  usually  attached  to  a 
bone  more  or  less  fixed,  and  is  called  the 
origin  of  the  muscle.  The  other  end  is 
attached  to  the  bone  meant  to  be  moved 
by  the  contraction  of  the  muscle,  and  is 
called  the  insertion  of  the  muscle.  In- 
voluntary muscle  consists  of  spindle- 
shaped  cells  having  an  elongated  nu- 
cleus in  the  center.  They  are  united  in 
ribbon-shaped  bands,  and  respond  much 
less  rapidly  than  the  voluntary  to  irrita- 
tions, and  the  wave  of  contraction  passes 
over  them  more  slowly.  There  are 
several  hundreds  of  separate  muscles 
in  the  human  body,  and  they  are  broadly 
grouped  into  muscles  of  the  head,  face. 


Muscular  fibre  separated— A into  fibrlll®  and 

B into  discs.  C is  a highly  magnified  por- 
tion of  a fibril. 

and  neck;  muscles  of  the  back;  muscles 
of  the  chest;  muscles  of  the  upper  ex- 
tremity, the  shoulder,  arm,  forearm,  and 
hand;  muscles  of  the  abdomen,  and 
muscles  of  the  lower  extremity,  the 
thigh,  leg,  and  foot. 

MUS'COVY.  See  Russia. 

MUSES,  in  the  Greek  mythology  the 
daughters  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne,  who 
were,  according  to  the  earliest  writers, 
the  inspiring  goddesses  of  song,  and  ac- 
cording to  later  ideas  divinities  presiding 
over  the  different  kinds  of  poetry,  and 
over  the  sciences  and  arts.  Their  original 
number  appears  to  have  been  three, 
but  afterward  they  are  always  spoken 
of  as  nine  in  number:  Clio,  the  muse  of 
history;  Euterpe,  the  muse  of  lyric 
poetry;  Thalia,  the  muse  of  comedy,  and 
of  merry  or  idyllic  poetry;  Mel^omSne, 
the  muse  of  tragedy;  Terpsichore,  the 
muse  of  choral  dance  and  song;  ErSto, 
the  muse  of  erotic  poetry  and  mimicry; 
Polymnia  or  Polyhymnia,  the  muse  of 
the  sublime  hymn;  Urania,  the  muse  of 
astronomy;  and  CalliSpe,  the  muse  of 
epic  poetry. 

MUSE'UM,  a building  or  apartment 
appropriated  as  a repository  of  things 
that  nave  an  immediate  relation  to 
literature,  art,  or  science,  and  where  the 
objects  may  be  inspected  by  those  who 
are  curious  in  sucn  matters.  Of  the 


museums  of  Britain  the  British  museum 
is  the  greatest — being  perhaps  the  great- 
est in  the  world.  Museums  illustrative 
of  the  industrial  arts,  though  of  recent 
origin,  are  of  great  importance.  Fore- 
most among  institutions  of  this  kind  in 
Britain  may  be  instanced  the  South 
Kensington  Museum.  All  the  chief 
capitals  of  Europe  and  many  large  cities 
in  the  United  States  have  valuable 
museums. 

MUSHROOMS,  the  common  name  of 
numerous  cryptogamic  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Fungi.  Some  of  them  are 
edible,  others  poisonous.  The  species 
of  mushrooms  usually  cultivated  is  the 
Agaricus  campestris,  or  eatable  agaric, 
well  known  for  its  excellence  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  sauces,  especially  ketchup. 
Mushrooms  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  are  usually  of  very  rapid 
growth.  In  some  cases  they  form  a 
staple  article  of  food.  In  Tierra  del 
Fuego  the  natives  live  almost  entirely  on 
mushrooms;  in  Australia  many  species 
of  Boletus  are  used  by  the  natives,  and 
is  commonly  called  native  bread.  Mush- 
room spawn  is  a term  applied  to  the 
reproductive  mycelium  of  the  mush- 
room. 

MUSIC,  any  succession  of  sounds  so 
modulated  as  to  please  the  ear;  also  the 
art  of  producing  such  melodious  and 
harmonious  sounds,  and  the  science 
which  treats  of  their  properties,  de- 
pendencies, and  relations.  Sound  is  con- 
veyed through  elastic  media,  as  the 
atmosphere  or  water,  by  undulations, 
which  may  be  generated  in  the  medium 
itself,  as  by  a flute  or  organ-pipe,  or 
transmitted  to  it  by  the  vibrations  of 
violin  or  pianoforte  strings  or  the  reeds 
of  a wind-instrument.  When  the  vibra- 
tions are  fewer  than  16  in  a second  or 
more  than  8192  the  sound  ceases  to  have 
a musical  character.  The  pitch  or 
relative  height  of  a tone  is  determined 
by  the  number  of  vibrations  in  a given 
tone,  the  lower  numbers  giving  the 
grave  or  deep  tones,  the  hi^er  numbers 
the  acute  or  shrill  tones.  The  loudness 
of  a tone  is  determined  by  the  largeness 
of  the  vibrations,  not  their  number. 
The  note  or  music^  sound  called  middle 
C on  the  pianoforte  is  usually  assumed 
by  theorists  to  be  produced  by  512 
vibrations  per  second,  and  this  was  long 
the  pitch  recognized  in  practice  as  the 
standard  or  concert  pitch  useful  for  the 
guidance  of  all  musicians.  The  perpetual 
striving  after  increased  brilliance  of  tone 
led,  however,  to  a gradual  heightening 
of  the  pitch,  and  in  the  course  of  a cen- 
tury the  middle  C in  France  had  become 
522  vibrations,  while  in  England  and 
Germany  it  was  somewhat  higher.  Of 
late  years  there  has  been  a movement 
among  European  musicians  to  lower  the 
pitch  to  about  the  French  standard,  and 
this  lower  pitch  has  now  been  adopted 
by  many  foreign  nations. 

A note  produced  by  double  the  num- 
ber of  vibrations  required  to  produce 
any  given  note  will  be  found  to  be  in 
perfect  unison  with  it  though  higher  in 
pitch.  Between  two  such  notes  there  is  a 
gradation  by  seven  intervals  in  the 
pitch  of  tone,  more  agreeable  than  any 
other,  the  whole  forming  a complete 
scale  of  music  called  the  diatonic  scale. 
The  space  between  the  notes  sounding 


in  unison  is  termed  an  octave,  and  the 
note  completing  the  octave  may  become 
the  keynote  of  a similar  succession  of 
seven  notes,  each  an  octave  higher  or 
double  the  pitch  of  the  corresponding 
note  in  the  first  scale.  These  seven  notes 
of  the  diatonic  scale  are  designated  by 
the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
and  each  note  bears  a fixed  ratio  to  the 
key-note  in  respect  of  pitch  as  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  vibrations. 
Thus  in  the  case  of  a key-note  obtained 
from  a vibrating  string,  its  octave  is  pro- 
duced by  halving  the  string,  which 
vibrates  twice  as  fast  in  a given  time  as 
the  whole  string,  and  the  other  notes 
may  be  obtained  by  applying  recipro- 
cally the  ratios  given  below  to  the  length 
of  the  string. 

Taking  C or  Do  for  our  fundamental 
note  we  have  for  our  scale — 

CDEFGABC  DE  FG  AB 

C,  &c.  (Scale  in  key  of  C major)  or  Do  Re  Mi 

Fa  Sol  La  Si  Do  Re  Mi  Fa  Sol  La  Si  Do,  &c. 

(Ratio  to  key-note). 

The  scale  may  be  extended  up  or 
down  so  long  as  the  sounds  continue  to 
be  musical.  In  order  to  allow  reference 
to  be  made  to  the  various  degrees  of 
scales  without  reference  to  the  key  in 
which  they  are  pitched  the  tones  com- 
posing the  octave  are  known  in  their 
ascending  order  as  (1)  tonic  or  keynote, 
(2)  supertonic,  (3)  mediant,  (4)  sub- 
dominant, (5)  dominant,  (6)  super- 
dominant or  submediant,  (7)  leading 
note  or  subtonic,  (8)  final  note.  The 
tonic,  the  subdominant,  and  the  domi- 
nant are  the  governing  or  emphatic 
notes  of  the  scale.  In  the  diatonic  scale 
the  various  notes  proceed  from  the  key- 
note by  five  tones  and  two  semitones; 
the  semitones  (the  smallest  intervals 
recognized  in  musical  notation)  occur- 
ring between  the  3d  and  4th  and  the  7th 
and  8th  notes  in  the  scale.  The  first  four 
and  last  four  notes,  therefore,  form  a 
natural  division  of  the  octave  into  two 
“tetrachords,”  each  consisting  of  two 
tones  and  a semitone. 

Every  sound  employed  in  the  art  of 
music  is  represented  by  characters  called 
notes  on  a staff — that  is,  five  equidistant 
horizontal  lines  on  or  between  which  the 
notes  are  placed.  A note  represents  a 
higher  or  a lower  sound  according  as  it 
is  placed  higher  or  lower  on  the  staff. 
When  any  note  is  higher  or  lower  in 
pitch  than  can  be  placed  upon  the  staff 
short  lines  called  ledger-lines  are  added 
above  or  below  the  staff  to  indicate  the 
relation  of  the  note  to  those  on  the  staff. 
As,  however,  the  multiplication  of  led- 
ger-lines is  liable  to  become  embarrass- 
ing to  the  eye,  musicians  have  endeavor- 
ed to  overcome  the  difficulty  by  the  use 
of  more  than  one  staff.  The  staves  are 
the  bass,  mean,  and  the  treble,  but  the 
second  is  now  seldom  used.  The  treble 
staff,  which  contains  the  upper  notes,  is 
distinguished  by  a character  called  a G 

or  treble  clef  ^ the  bass  by  a character 

called  the  F or  bass  clef  and  the 


mean  by  a character  called  the  C or 
The  treble  and  bass  clefs 


mean  clef 


only  are  required  for  keyed  instruments 


MUSIC 


MUSIC 


of  the  pianoforte  kind,  and  when  a staff 
is  wanted  for  each  hand  they  are  joined 
by  a brace,  the  upper  staff  carrying  the 
notes  generally  played  by  the  right  hand 
and  the  lower  those  played  generally  by 
the  left,  as  follows: 


tones  between  the  tonic  and  the  third, 
and  is  called  the  major  scale,  there  are 
minor  scales  of  which  the  most  important 
kind  has  an  interval  of  a tone  and  semi- 
tone between  its  tonic  and  third,  the 
seventh  note  being  sharpened  so  as  to 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  steps  in  every 
diatonic  scale  must  correspond  to  those 
of  the  scale  of  C,  in  that  the  notes  com- 
posing it  stand  in  the  same  fixed  ratio 
to  the  keynote  of  the  scale.  In  selecting 
another  ke3mote  than  C,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  modify  some  of  the  natural 
notes  by  the  insertion  of  what  are  called 
sharps  or  flats  in  order  to  preserve  the 
required  relation  and  sequence  of  the 
intervals  (the  tones  and  semitones  in 
their  due  relative  positions)  and  so  pro- 
duce the  major  musical  progression. 
The  sharp  (#)  placed  before  a note  raises 
the  pitch  by  a semitone,  the  flat  (fe) 
lowers  it  by  a semitone.  A sharp  or  flat 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  a staff  affects 
every  note  upon  the  line  which  it 
dominates,  unless  the  contrary  be  in- 
dicated by  the  sign  of  the  natural  (tl), 
which  restores  the  note  to  which  it  is 
attached  to  its  normal  pitch.  In  the 
model  diatonic  scale  given  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  there  is  an  interval  of 
a tone  between  every  note,  except  the 
3d  and  4th  (E  and  F)  and  7th  and  8th 
(B  and  C),  when  the  interval  consists  of 
a semitone.  Now  if  we  wish  to  make  G 
the  key-note  it  is  clear  that  without 
some  contrivance  the  notation  of  the 
scale  from  G to  its  octave  would  throw 
one  of  the  semitones  out  of  its  place — 
namely,  that  between  E and  F,  which, 
instead  of  being,  as  it  ought  to  be,  be- 
tween the  seventh  and  eighth,  is  between 
the  sixth  and  seventh.  It  is  obvious 
then  that  if  we  raise  the  F a semitone  we 
shall  restore  the  interval  of  the  semitone 
to  a position  similar  to  that  which  it 
hald  in  the  key  of  C.  If  D be  taken  as  a 
key-note  we  shall  find  it  necessary  to 
sharpen  the  C as  well  as  the  F in  order 
to  bring  the  semitones  into  their  proper 
places.  Still  proceeding  by  fifths,  and 
taking  A as  a key-note,  a third  sharp 
is  wanted  to  raise  G.  We  may  proceed 
thus  till  we  reach  the  scale  of  C sharp, 
with  seven  sharps,  which  is,  however, 
rarely  used.  This  series  of  scales  with 
sharps  is  obtained  by  taking  the  domi- 
nant, first  of  the  model  scale  as  the  key- 
note and  then  of  the  others  in  succession, 
and  sharpening  the  fourth  of  the  original 
scales  to  make  it  the  seventh  of  the  new. 
Another  series  is  obtained  by  taking  the 
subdominant  of  the  model  scale  as  the 
key-note  and  lowering  its  seventh  a 
semitone,  making  it  the  fourth  of  the 
new  scale,  or  scale  of  F.  Taking  the 
subdominant  of  the  scale  (B)  as  the 
key-note  we  require  to  flatten  the  E in 
addition  to  the  B,  and  so  on  until  we 
have  lowered  all  the  tones  in  the  scale  a 
semitone. 

Besides  the  forms  of  the  diatonic 
scale,  which  have  an  interval  of  two 


form  a leading  note.  In  the  ascending 
scale,  too,  the  harsh  interval  of  the 
second  between  this  leading  note  and 
the  one  immediately  below  it  is  fre- 
quently avoided  by  sharpening  the 
lower  note.  In  the  descending  scale  the 
sharps  are  removed,  and  the  scale  is 
identical  with  the  major,  beginning 
at  its  sixth  and  descending  an  octave. 
See  example  at  top  of  next  page. 

Major  and  minor  scales  which,  like 
those  given  in  the  example,  have  the 
same  key  signature,  are  called  relative. 
Thus,  the  major  scale  of  G has  for  its 
relative  minor  the  scale  of  E minor,  the 
major  scale  of  D has  for  its  relative 
minor  the  scale  of  B minor;  and  so  on. 
Each  minor  scale  is  also  called  the  tonic 
minor  to  the  major  scale  on  the  same 
key-note.  The  tonic  minor  scale  to  C 
major  is  C minor.  One  major  scale  is 
also  said  to  be  related  to  another  when  it 
is  raised  from  its  dominant  or  its  sub- 
dominant : thus  the  scales  of  G and  F are 
held  to  be  nearly  related  to  that  of  C. 

There  is  still  another  kind  of  scale, 
called  the  chromatic  (Greek  chroma, 
color),  because,  like  colors  in  painting 


being  half  the  duration  of  the  note  pre- 
ceding it : 


NoJies. 


Maiur  scale  of  C. 


it  embellishes  the  diatonic  by  its  semi- 
tones. It  consists  of  thirteen  notes, 
and  usually  ascends  by  sharps  and  de- 
scends by  flats. 

Intervals  in  music  (i.e.  the  distance 
from  any  one  note  to  any  other)  are 
reckoned  always  upward  and  inclusively 
number  of  names  of  notes  they  contain, 
both  limits  to  the  interval  being  counted. 
Thus  C to  E is  a third,  both  C and  E 
being  counted  in  the  interval.  They  are 
known  as  major  or  normal  when  they 
are  such  as  would  be  found  in  any  major 
scale;  as  minor  when  the  interval  con- 
sists of  a semitone  less  than  the  corre- 
sponding major  interval;  as  augmented 
when  consisting  of  a semitone  more  than 
major;  as  diminished  when  a semitone 
less  than  minor;  and  as  simple  or  com- 
pound according  as  they  fall  within  or 
exceed  the  compass  of  an  octave. 

Hitherto  notes  have  been  referred  to 
only  as  representatives  of  the  various 
sounds  with  reference  to  their  pitch  and 
distance  from  each  other;  but  each  note 
serves  also  to  mark  the  relative  duration 
of  the  sound  it  represents.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  names  and  forms  of  the  notes 
commonly  in  use,  each  in  succession 


The  stems  of  the  notes  may  be  written 
upward  or  do^vnward  as  convenient.  In 
connection  with  these  notes  other  signs 
are  used  still  further  to  indicate  dura- 
tion. A dot  placed  after  a note  lengthens 
it  by  one-half,  two  dots  by  three-fourths. 
Instead  of  the  dot  a note  of  its  value 
rnay  be  written,  and  a curve,  called  a 
tie,  written  overitand  the  precedingnote. 
Sometimes  three  notes  of  equal  value 
have  to  be  played  in  the  time  of  two,  in 
which  case  the  figure  3 with  a curve 
thrown  over  it  is  written  above  or  be- 
low the  notes.  Two  triplets  (as  this 
group  is  called)  may  be  joined,  and  the 
figure  6 sunnounted  by  a curve  written 
over  them;  they  are  then  performed  in 
the  time  of  four  notes  of  the  same  form. 
A sensible  interval  of  time  often  occurs 
between  the  sounding  of  two  notes; 
this  is  represented  by  characters  called 
rests,  each  note  having  a corresponding 
rest.  A dot  may  be  added  to  a rest  in 
the  same  manner  as  to  a note,  to  indi- 
cate an  addition  of  a half  to  its  length. 
See  the  example  just  given,  which 
shows  the  rests  in  connection  with  their 
corresponding  notes. 

Every  piece  of  music  is  divided  into 
portions  equal  in  time,  called  measures, 
which  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
vertical  lines  called  bars.  The  term  bar 
is  often  loosely  applied  to  the  measure 
as  well  as  to  the  line.  The  exact  length 
of  the  measure  is  indicated  by  a sign 
at  the  beginning  of  the  piece  of  music. 
In  common  time,  indicated  by  a B 
written  after  the  clef,  each  measure 
contains  a semibreve,  or  such  notes  and 
rests  as  make  up  together  its  value. 
Another  form  of  common  time,  marked 
with  a ^ contains  two  semibreves  in 
the  measure,  or  their  equivalents  in 
minims,  crotchets,  etc.  Another  method 
of  indicating  time  (or  rather  more  cor- 
rectly, rhythm)  is  by  figures,  in  the  form 
of  a fraction.  The  figures  of  the  denomi- 
nator are  either  2,  4,  8,  or  16,  which  . 
(the  semibreve  being  considered  the 
unit)  stand  for  minims,  crotchets, 
quavers,  and  semiquavers  respectively; 
and  the  numerator  shows  the  number 
of  these  fractional  parts  of  a semibreve 
in  the  measure.  Besides  common  time, 
which  may  be  indicated  in  two  waj^s, 
there  is  triple  time,  in  which  a measure 
is  made  up  of  three  minims,  crotchets,  or 
quavers,  which  can  only  be  marked  by 
figures;  these  are  f,  |,  or  f.  When  two 
or  four  measures  or  triple  time  are  united 
in  one  measure  the  music  is  said  to  be 
written  in  compound  common  time,  and 
is  indicated  by  the  fractions  | and  |; 
rarer  examples  of  compound  time  signa- 
tures are  f,  |,  -V,  etc.  The  object 

of  the  division  of  musical  passages  into 
measures  is  to  indicate  their  rhythm  . 


MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS 


MUSIC-BOX 


Notes,  like  words  or  syllables,  are 
accented  or  unaccented.  The  strongest 
accent  is  given  to  the  first' note  of  a 
measure.  In  common  time  of  four  notes 
to  the  measure  the  third  has  a subor- 
dinate accent,  as,  though  in  a less  de- 
gree, the  third  measure  note  in  triple 
time.  In  compound  common  time  the 
subordinate  accents  falls  on  the  first 
note  of  the  last  half  of  the  measure,  and 
in  compound  triple  time  on  the  first 
note  of  each  of  the  groups  of  three 
of  which  the  measure  is  composed. 
'When  a curve  is  placed  over  two  notes 
in  the  same  degree,  but  not,  in  the  same 
bar,  the  two  notes  are  played  as  one  of 
the  length  of  both,  and  the  first  note 
acquires  the  accent.  This  displacement 
of  the  accent  is  called  syncopation.  If 
the  curve  is  written  over  notes  of  differ- 
ent degrees  it  is  called  a slur,  and  indi- 
cates that  the  notes  are  to  be  played  or 
sung  smoothly,  as  if  gliding  into  each 
other.  When  an  opposite  effect  is 
wanted,  that  is,  when  the  notes  are  to  be 
produced  distinct  and  detached  (stac- 
cato), a dot  is  placed  over  them.  The 
various  degrees  of  loudness  and  softness 
which  occur  in  a piece  of  music  are  in- 
dicated by  such  Italian  words  as  forte, 
loud;  fortissimo,  very  loud;  piano,  soft; 
pianissimo,  very  soft.  In  order  to  save 
time  in  writing  music  various  abbre- 
viations are  used. 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS,  any  de- 
vice for  the  production  of  sounds, 
whether  of  discord  or  concord,  supposed 
to  arouse  emotion  of  any  kind,  pleasant 
or  unpleasant,  in  the  hearer.  The  origin 
of  many  musical  instruments  dates  back 
to  the  earliest  times.  Monuments  re- 
cently unearthed  at  Thebes  and  in  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Nile  contain  repre- 
sentations of  harps  and  flutes.  Even  so 
recent  an  instrument  as  our  grand  piano- 
forte can  be  traced  through  its  many 
and  vital  changes  to  the  dulcimer  known 
to  the  Arabs  and  Persians.  Many  of  our 
museums  are  filled  with  various  instru- 
ments of  all  times  and  nations  preserved 
only  as  curiosities.  Thus  the  large  family 
of  lutes  is  now  entirely  obsolete;  and 
yet'  at  one  time  these  instruments  en- 
joyed the  same  popularity  as  the  piano- 
forte does  to-day,  and  no  orchestra  was 
complete  without  them.  If  we  except 
the  stringed  instruments,  it  may  safely 
be  asserted  that  no  instrument  found 
in  the  modern  orchestra  is  the  same  as 
it  was  a century  ago.  Musical  instru- 
ments may  be  divided  into  three  classes ; 
stringed,  wind,  and  percussioni  Stringed 
instruments  are  of  three  kinds:  those 
whose  sounds  are  produced  by  friction, 
as  the  violin,  viola,  violoncello,  etc.; 
by  twitching  with  the  finger  or  other- 
wise, as  the  harp,  guitar,  mandolin, 
etc.;  by  striking,  as  the  pianoforte,  and 
dulcimer.  Wind  instruments  are  of  two 
kinds,  viz.,  the  reed  species — as  the 
hautboy,  clarionet,  etc. — and  the  flute 
species,  as  the  flute,  flageolet,  etc.  The 
trumpet,  horn,  trombone,  and  all 
similar  wind  instruments,  are  generally 
classed  among  the  reed  intruments;  but 
whether  the  sound  is  produced  by  the 
lips  of  the  blower  acting  as  a reed,  or  by 
the  compressed  stream  of  air,  as  in 
flute  instruments,  is  not  yet  determined 
Percussion  instruments  are  those  which 
on  being  struck  produce  only  one  fixed 


sound,  as  the  drum,  triangle,  C3nnbals, 
tambourine,  etc.  Whatever  material 
may  be  used  to  form  a musical  instru- 
ment, there  are  only  two  means  of  pro- 
ducing musical  sounds,  and  these  are 
by  the  vibrations  of  a fixed  elastic  body, 
such  as  the  string  of  the  violin  or  piano- 
forte, the  reed  of  the  hautboy,  bassoon 
etc.;  or  by  the  vibrations  of  a confined 
column  of  air  put  into  motion  by  a 


by  filling  or  loading  with  lead  the  indi- 
vidual teeth  are  accurately  attuned. 
Each  tone  and  semitone  in  the  scale  is 
represented  by  three  or  four  separate 
teeth  in  the  comb,  to  permit  of  succes- 
sive repetitions  of  the  same  note  when 
required  by  the  music.  The  teeth  are 
acted  upon  and  musical  vibrations  pro- 
duced by  the  revolution  of  a brass 
cylinder  studded  with  projecting  pins, 


Early  flutes  with  equal-spaced  holes. 


stream  of  compressed  air,  as  in  the  flute, 
flageolet,  anci  all  the  ordinary  flute 
species  of  organ-pipes. 

MUSIC-BOX,  an  instrument  for  pro- 
ducing by  mechanical  means  tunes  or 
pieces  of  music.  The  modern  music-box 
is  an  elaboration  of  the  elegant  toy 
musical  snuff-box  in  vogue  during  the 
18th  century.  The  notes  or  musical 
sounds  are  produced  by  the  vibration  of 
steel  teeth,  or  sj^rings  cut  in  a comb  or 
flat  plate  of  steel.  The  teeth  are  gradu- 
ated in  length  from  end  to  end  of  the 
comb  or  plate,  the  longer  teeth  giving 
the  deeper  notes;  and,  where  necessary, 


which,  as  they  move  around,  raise  and 
release  the  proper  teeth  at'  due  intervals 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  music. 
An  entire  revolution  of  the  cylidner  com- 
pletes the  performance  of  the  special 
pieces  of  music  for  which  the  apparatus 
is  set,  but  upon  the  same  cj'linder  there 
may  be  inserted  pins  for  performing  as 
manj^  as  thirty-six  separate  airs.  This  is 
accomplished  by  making  both  the  points 
of  the  teeth  or  springs  and  the  projecting 
pins  which  touch  them  very  fine,  _ so 
that  a very  small  change  in  the  position 
of  the  cylinder  is  sufficient  to  bring  an 
entirely  distinct  set  of  pins  in  contact 


MUSK 


MUSSET 


with  the  note  teeth.  In  the  more  elabo- 
rate music-boxes  the  cylinders  are  re- 
movable, and  may  be  replaced  by 
others  containing  distinct  sets  of  music. 
In  these  also  there  are  combinations  of 
bell,  drum,  C5unbal,  and  triangle  effects, 
etc.  The  revolving  motion  of  the  cylinder 
is  effected  by  a spring  and  clockwork, 
and  the  rate  of  revolution  is  regulated 
by  a fly  regulator.  The  headquarters 
of  the  music-box  trade  is  Geneva,  where 
the  manufacture  gives  employment  to 
upward  of  1000  persons. 

The  music-box  is  a type  of  numerous 
instruments  for  producing  music  effects 
by  mechanical  means,  in  all  of  which  a 
revolving  cylinder  or  barrel  studded  with 
pins  is  the  governing  feature.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  barrel  operating  by  percus- 
sion or  by  wind  on  reeds,  pipes,  or  strings 
governs  carillons  or  music  bells,  barrel 
organs,  mechanical  flutes,  celestial 
voices,  harmoniphohes,  and  the  some- 
times huge  and  complex  orchestrions 
in  which  a combination  of  all  orchestral 
effects  is  attempted.  A principle  of  more 
recent  introduction  than  the  studded 
cylinder  consists  of  sheets  of  perforated 
paper  or  card,  somewhat  similar  to  the 
Jacquard  apparatus  for  weaving.  The 
perforations  correspond  in  position  and 
length  to  the  pitch  and  duration  of  the 
note  they  represent,  and  as  the  web  or 
long  sheet  of  paper  passes  over  the  in- 
strument, the  perforated  holes  are 
brought  in  proper  position  and  sequence 
under  the  influence  of  the  suction  or 
pressure  of  air  from  a bellows,  and  there- 
by the  notes  are  either  directly  acted 
on,  as  in  the  case  of  reed  instruments,  or 
the  opening  and  closing  of  valves  set 
in  motion  levers  or  liberate  springs 
which  govern  special  notes.  The  United 
States  is  the  original  home  of  the  instru- 
ments controlled  by  perforated  paper 
known  as  organettes,  organinas,  melo- 
deons,  pianola,  etc.  See  Phonograph. 

MUSK,  a substance  used  in  per- 
fumery and  medicine,  and  obtained 
from  several  species  of  deer.  A perfume 
of  similar  character  is  also  obtained 
from  one  or  two  other  animals,  (see 
Musk-rat);  and  various  animals  and 
plants  are  noted  for  emitting  a strong, 
musky  smell. 

MUSK-DEER,  a genus  of  deer,  which 
is  essentially  distinct  from  the  true  deer. 


Musk  deer. 


Their  chief  habitat  is  Asia  and  the  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago;  though  one 
species  is  found  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  These  animals  attain  the  size  of 


a young  roe-deer,  and  the  upper  jaws 
bear  prominent  canine  teeth.  lue  males 
alone  yield  the  musk,  which  is  secreted 
by  an  abdominal  gland  of  about  the 
size  of  a hen’s  egg.  The  Tibet  musk  is 
most  in  repute,  that  known  as  Russian 
or  Siberian  being  inferior  in  quality. 
Besides  its  familiar  use  as  a scent,  musk 
is  employed  medicinally  as  an  anti- 
spasmodic. 

MUSKE'GON,  a city  in  the  state  of 
Michigan,  situated  at  the  upper  end  of 
Lake  Muskegon.  It  does  a great  trade 
in  lumber,  the  timber  being  floated  down 
the  Muskegon  river,  and  passing  through 
extensive  sawing  and  planing  mills  here. 
Pop.  24,501. 

MUSKET,  a hand-gun  with  which 
infantry  soldiers  were  formerly  armed. 
When  first  introduced,  early  in  the  16th 
century,  as  a development  of  the  cul- 
verin  and  arquebus,  it  was  discharged 
by  means  of  a lighted  match  (hence  the 
name  matchlock  given  to  it),  and  was  so 
heavy  that  it  had  to  be  laid  across  a 
staff  or  rest  to  be  fired.  To  make  use 
of  it  the  soldier  required  to  carry  a slow- 
burning  match  with  him,  which  was  apt 
to  be  extinguished  in  wet  weather.  The 
wheel-lock  followed  (16th  century),  the 
chief  feature  of  which  was  a wheel  made 
to  revolve  by  means  of  a spring,  and  to 
cause  sparks  by  friction  against  a flint. 
The  next  improvement  was  the  flint- 
lock proper  (about  1625),  in  which 
sparks  were  produced  by  one  impact  of 
a piece  of  flint  on  the  steel  above  the 
priming  powder.  Musketeers  were  soon 
introduced  into  all  armies,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  infantry 
consisted  of  pikemen  and  musketeers, 
and  all  changes  in  regard  to  the  relative 
proportion  of  the  two  arms  where  always 
in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  flint-lock 
musket  was  introduced  into  the  British 
army  toward  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  was  the  British  musket  of  the 
days  of  the  Peninsular  war  and  Water- 
loo, known  familiarly  as  “Brown  Bess.” 
It  was  superseded  by  the  percussion 
musket  in  1842,  this  musket  being  in 
turn  superseded  by  the  rifle.  See  Rifle. 

MUSKmOUM,  a river  in  the  state  of 
Ohio,  United  States,  and  falling  into  the 
Ohio  river  at  Marietta.  It  is  connected 
with  Lake  Erie  by  canal. 

MUSK-MALLOW,  a British  perennial 
plant,  so  named  from  the  peculiar  musky 
odor  thrown  off  by  the  parts  of  the  plant. 

MUSK-MELON,  a delicious  variety  of 
melon,  named  probably  from  its  frag- 
rance. 

MUSK-OX,  an  animal  intermediate 
between  the  ox  and  sheep.  Resembling 
in  general  appearance  a large  goat-like 
sheep,  its  body  is  covered  with  a coat 
of  tufted  hair,  brownish  in  color  and  of 
great  length.  The  hair  about  the  neck 
and  shoulders  is  so  thick  as  to  give  the 
animal  a “humped”  appearance;  on  the 
rest  of  the  body  it  is  very  long,  smooth, 
and  flowing,  while  interspersed  among  its 
fibres  is  a layer  of  lighter-colored  wool. 
The  musk-ox  is  active  and  agile,  and 
climbs  mountainous  places  with  ease 
and  dexterity.  The  horns,  broad  at  the 
base  and  covering  the  forehead  and 
crown,  curve  downward  between  the 
eye  and  the  ear,  and  then  upward  and 
slightly  backward.  The  horns  of  the 
female  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 


male,  and  their  bases  do  not  touch. 
The  ears  are  short,  the  head  large  and 
broad,  the  muzzle  blunted.  The  average 
size  of  the  male  is  that  of  a small  domes- 
tic ox.  Gregarious  in  habits,  each  herd 
numbers  from  twentyto  thirty  members. 
The  female  brings  forth  one  calf  in  May 
or  June.  The  food  consists  of  grass, 
lichens,  etc.  The  musk-ox  inhabits  the 
Arctic  regions  of  America  north  of  the 
60th  degree  of  latitude.  The  flesh  is 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  though  it  smells 
strongly  of  musk;  the  odor  of  which  is 
also  diffused  from  the  living  animal. 

MUSK-PLANT, a littleyellow-flowered 
musky-smelling  plant, a native  of  Oregon. 

MUSK-RAT,  an  American  rodent 
allied  to  the  beaver,  and  the  only  known 
species  of  the  genus.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a small  rabbit,  and  has  a flattened 
lanceolate  tail,  covered  with  small 
scales  and  a few  scattered  hairs.  Its 
toes  are  separate,  and  provided  with  a 
stiff  fringe  of  hair.  In  summer  it  has  a 
smell  of  musk,  which  it  loses  in  winter. 
The  odor  is  due  to  a whitish  fluid  de- 
posited in  certain  glands  near  the  origin 
of  the  tail'. 

MUSLIN,  a fine,  thin,  cotton  fabric, 
first  made  at  Mosul  or  Moussul  (whence 
the  name),  afterward  in  India.  There 
are  many  different  kinds  made,  as  book, 
mull,  jaconet,  leno,  foundation,  etc. 
Some  Indian  muslins  are  of  extraordi- 
nary fineness.  Figured  muslins  are 
wrought  in  the  loom  to  imitate  tam- 
boured muslins,  or  muslins  embroidered 
by  hand. 

MUSSEL,  a term  popularly  given  to 
several  molluscs,  in  which  “siphons”  or 
tubes  admitting  water  to  the  gills,  are 
absent.  The  common  mussel  forms  a 
typical  example,  the  shells  being  equi- 
valve  and  have  a hinge  destitute  of 
teeth.  It  has  a “byssus”  or  “beard,”  by 
means  of  which  the  mussels  attach 
themselves  to  fixed  objects.  The  mussel 
is  extensively  employed  as  a bait  for 
deep-sea  fishermen ; and  in  some  dis- 
tricts it  is  used  as  an  article  of  food,  the 
best  mussels  approaching  nearly  to  the 
oyster  in  flavor,  though  occasionally 
found  to  be  unwholesome.  The  pond 
mussels,  of  which  many  species  are 
known,  ai;e  found  in  the  rivers  and  lakes 
both  of  Europe  and  America. 

MUSSET  (mu-sa), Louis  Charles  Alfred 
de,  French  poet,  novelist,  and  dram- 
atist, born  at  Paris  in  1810,  died 
there  in  1857.  In  1829  he  published  a 
volume  of  poems  called  Contes  d’  Es- 
pagne  et  d’ltalie,  which  had  an  im- 
mediate and  striking  success.  In  1831 
appeared  Po4sies  Di verses,  and  in  1833 
Un  Spectacle  dans  un  Fauteuil,  in  which 
the  two  chief  pieces  are  a comedy  of  a 
light  and  delicate  grace  called  A quoi 
Revent  les  Jeunes  Filles,  and  a poem 
entitled  Namouna,  written  after  the 
manner  of  Byron.  In  1836  was  published 
his  Confession  d’un  Enfant  du  Siecle,  a 
gloomy  novel,  containing  the  analysis  of 
a diseased  state  of  mind,  all  the  phases 
of  which  the  author  had  studied  in  him- 
self. The  same  settled  melancholy  also 
distinguishes  his  Rolla,  Une  Bonne 
Fortune,  Lucie,  Les  Nuits,  Une  Lettre  k 
Lamartine,  Stances  k Madame  Malibran, 
L’Espoir  en  Dieu,  and  other  poems. 
Among  his  light  and  sparkling  dramatic 
pieces  are:  On  ne  badine  pas  avec  1' 


MUSSULMAN 


MYSTICISM 


Amour,  Les  Caprices  de  Marianne,  II  ne 
faut  pas  jurer  de  Rein,  etc.  In  1852  he 
was  admitted  a member  of  the  French 
Academy.  De  Musset  was  one  of  the 
most  distinctive,  and,  in  a certain  sense, 
original  of  modern  French  writers. 

MUSSULMAN.  See  Moslem. 

MUST,  the  juice  of  grape,  which  by 
fermentation  is  converted  into  wine. 

MUSTANG,  a small  wild  horse  of  the 
Southwestern  states  and  northern 
Mexico,  where  it  is  found  in  extensive 
herds,  and  is  captured  and  tamed  as 
the  Indian  pony.  A reversion  from  the 
domesticated  stock,  it  seldom  exceeds 
13  hands  in  height,  but  is  a strong 
and  useful  animal,  and  capable  of  great 
endurance. 

MUSTARD,  the  seeds  of  the  white  and 
common  mustard,  when  ground  and 
freed  from  husks,  form  the  well-known 


Mustard. 


condiment.  The  plant  is  an  annual,  with 
stems  3 to  4 feet  in  height,  lower  leaves 
lyrate,  upper  lanceolate  and  entire, 
flowers  small  and  yellow.  Tlie  prepara- 
tion from  the  seeds  is  often  very  valuable 
as  a stimulant  to  weak  digestion,  and  as 
an  adjunct  to  fatty  and  other  indigesti- 
ble articles  of  food.  When  mixed  with 
warm  water  and  taken  in  large  quanti- 
ties it  acts  as  an  emetic.  The  tender 
leaves  are  used  as  a salad,  and  the  seeds 
are  used  in  the  well-known  form  of 
poultice,  being  applied  to  various  parts 
of  the  skin  as  a rubefacient.  Oil  of  mus- 
tard is  an  essential  oil  obtained  from  the 
seeds.  It  is  very  pungent  to  the  taste  and 
smell,  and  when  applied  to  the  skin 
speedily  raises  a blister. 

MUTINY,  resistance  by  soldiers  or 
sailors  to  tjie  authority  of  their  officers. 
Joining  in  inciting  to  or  conniving  at 
mutiny  is  punishable  with  death,  whether 
the  troops  are  on  active  service  or  not ; 
on  active  service  the  same  sentence  may 
follow  treachery  or  cowardice,  deserting 
a post,  etc. 

MUTTRA,  a town  in  India,  United 
Provinces,  on  the  Jumna,  36  miles  north- 
west of  Agra.  Pop.  60,042. — The  Muttra 
district  has  an  area  of  1453  sq.  miles; 
pop.  763,221. 

MY'LODON,  a genus  of  extinct  eden- 
tate mammalia,  allied  to  the  megather- 
ium. Its  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
upper  tertiaries  of  South  America.  In 
size  the  mylodon  robustus — the  most 
familiar  species — attained  a length  in 
some  instances  of  11  feet.  Of  terrestrial 
habits,  the  mylodon  obtained  the  vege- 
table food  upon  which  it  subsisted  chiefly 
by  uprooting  trees. 


MYO'PIA,  the  scientific  name  for 
shortsightedness.  See  Sight,  Defects  of. 

MYRIAP'ODA,  the  lowest  class  of  the 
higher  annulose  or  arthropodous  animals 


Skeleton  of  Mylodon. 


represented  by  the  centipedes,  mille- 
pedes, and  their  allies,  and  resembling 
the  Annelids  in  the  lengthened  form  and 
the  numerous  segments  of  the  body, 
each  segment  being  provided  with  one 
pair  of  ambulatory  feet,  whence  the 
name.  They  have  a distinct  head,  but  no 
division  of  the  body  into  thorax  and  ab- 
domen, as  in  insects.  They  are  therefore 
of  a lower  structural  type  than  insects, 
which  in  general  organization  they  re- 
semble. No  wings  are  developed.  They 
respire  through  minute  spiracles  or  pores 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  and 
are  invested  with  a hard  or  horny  cover- 
ing. This  class  is  divided  into  two  orders, 
the  Diplopoda,  in  which  the  fusion  of 
two  rings  gives  apparently  two  pairs  of 
feet  on  each  ring;  and  the  Chilopoda, 


lulus plicatus,  one  of  the  Chilognatha. 

which  have  two  pairs  of  foot-jaws,  and 
not  more  than  one  pair  of  feet  on  each 
segment. 

MYRRH  is  the  name  given  to  a gum 
resin  which  exudes  from  a shrub  growing 


in  Aradia  and  Abj’^ssinia.  It  was  much 
esteemed  as  an  unguent  and  perfume  by 
the  ancients,  who  used  it  also  for  em- 
balming and  for  incense.  It  is  still  used 


as  a perfume  and  for  incense,  as  also 
medicinally.  By  distillation  with  water 
myrrh  yields  a viscid,  browish -green, 
volatile  oil.  Myrrh  of  the  best  quality  is 
known  as  Turkey  myrrh;  that  of  an  in- 
ferior kind  goes  under  the  name  of  East 
Indian,  being  exported  from  Bombay. 

MYRTLE,  a genus  of  plants,  consist- 
ing of  aromatic  trees  or  shrubs,  with 
simple  opposite  leaves  sprinkled  with 
pellucid  glandular  points,  and  having 
axillary  or  terminal  white  or  rose-colored 
flowers.  One  species,  the  common  myrtle 
is  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and 
other  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  has  been  celebrated  from  re- 
mote antiquity  on  account  of  its  fra- 
grance and  the  beauty  of  its  evergreen 
foliage,  and  by  different  nations  was  con- 


1,  branch  with  flowers  of  myrtle:  2,  branch 
with  fruits;  a.  vertical  section  of  a flower;  b, 
calyx,  torus,  and  pistin  of  the  fruit;  d,  ver- 
tical section  of  the  seed,  showing  the  em- 
bryo. 

secrated  to  various  religious  purposes. 
With  the  moderns  it  has  always  been  a 
favorite  ornamental  plant. 

MYSOR',  or  MYSORE',  a principality 
of  southern  India;  area,  27,936  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  5,538,482. 

MYSOR,  the  capital  of  the  state  of 
the  same  name,  250  miles  west  by  south 
of  Madras,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
2450  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pop. 
68,151. 

MYS'TICISM,  a word  of  very  vague 
signification,  applied  sometimes  to  views 
or  tendencies  in  religion  which  aspire 
toward  a more  direct  communication 
between  man  and  his  Maker  through  the 
inward  perception  of  the  mind,  than 
that  which  is  afforded  through  revela- 
tion or  to  efforts  and  inclinations  by 
some  special  and  extraordinary  means  to 
hold  intercourse  with  divine  powers  or 
the  inhabitants  of  higher  worlds.  Ac- 
cording to  John  Stuart  Mill,  “whether  in 
the  Vedas,  in  the  Platonists,  or  in  the 
Hegelians,  mysticism  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  ascribing  objective  exist- 
ence to  the  subjective  creations  of  our 
own  faculties,  to  ideas  or  feelings  of  the 
mind,  and  believing  that,  by  watching 
and  contemplating  these  ideas  of.  its  own 
making,  it  can  read  in  them  what  takes 
place  in  the  world  without.”  The  ten- 
dency toward  mysticism  rjeems  natu- 
rally implanted  in  some  natures,  and  has 
been  observed  in  all  ages.  It  is  a charac- 
teristic feature  of  the  great  .-Vsiatic  re- 


MYTHOLOGY 


MYTILENE 


ligions,  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism.  In 
the  Neo-Platonic  philosophy  it  is  an  im- 
portant element,  as  represented  by 
Plotinus  (204-269  a.d.).  Christianity, 
in  consequence  of  its  special  tendency  to 
practical  good,  as  well  as  of  its  submis- 
sion to  a system  of  doctrine  expressly  re- 
vealed, would  seem  to  have  afforded 
little  scope  for  the  extravagances  of 
mysticism.  It  soon,  however,  made  its 
appearance,  forming  a kind  of  profane 
mixture,  and  reached  its  extreme  in  the 
writings  of  the  so-called  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite.  This  pseudo-Dionysius  ob- 
tained an  extensive  influence,  especially 
through  Hugo  St.  Victor,  in  the  12th 
century,  and  was  everywhere  held  in  high 
respect  until  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  opposition  to  scholasticism, 
which  labored  in  the  construction  of  a 
systematic  and  almost  demonstrative 
theology,  this  system  embodied  a theol- 
ogy of  feeling  and  immediate  illumina- 
tion, which  attached  very  little  import- 
ance to  intellectual  effort,  and  laid  so 
much  the  more  weight  on  purification  of 
heart  and  ascetic  morality.  Of  the  most 
notable  of  the  German  mystics  in  the 
middle  ages  were  Eckhart  and  Tauler. 
In  the  philosophy  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  in  Paracelsus,  Bruno,  and 
others  mysticism  took  a direction  which 
at  a later  period  gave  rise,  on  the  one 
side,  to  the  alchemists  and  Rosicrucians, 
and  on  the  other  side  to  a number  of 
religious  sects,  of  which  such  men  as 
Jacob  Bohmen  and  Swedenborg  may  be 
considered  the  representatives.  The 
Quietism  of  Madame  Guyon  and  her  ad- 
herents (such  as  F4nelon)  in  France  in 
the  18th  century  was  a product  of  the 
same  nature. 

MYTHOLOGY,  the  collective  name 
for  the  whole  body  of  fables,  legends,  or 
traditions  (myths)  that  take  their  rise  at 
an  early  period  of  a nation’s  existence 
and  of  its  civilization,  and  that  embody 
the  convictions  of  the  people  among 
whom  such  fables  arise  as  to  their  gods 
or  other  divine  personages,  their  origin 
and  early  history  and  the  heroes  con- 
nected with  it,  the  origin  of  the  world, 
etc.  Though  speculations  as  to  the  origin 
of  mythology  have  been  put  forth  from 
a very  early  period,  it  is  only  in  recent 
times,  by  the  help  of  comparative  philol- 
ogy, and  by  comparing  together  the 
myths  of  different  peoples  (comparative 
mythology),  that  any  real  advance  has 
been  made.  Myths  are  of  course  believed 
in  by  the  bulk  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  are  current,  and  it  is  only  when 
speculative  and  reflective  spirits  arise, 
and  when  science  and  philosophy  have 
made  some  advances,  that  their  truth  is 
called  in  question.  Thus  Zeus,  Apollo, 
Athene,  Heracles,  and  the  other  divini- 
ties of  ancient  Greece,  were  believed  by 
the  bulk  of  the  people  to  have  a real  ex- 
istence, and  the  stories  regarding  them 


were  looked  upon  as  true;  but  even  in 
Greece  in  early  times  the  absurdities  and 
monstrosities  of  some  of  the  myths  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  philosophers 
and  led  to  attempts  at  explaining  the 
stories  in  such  a way  as  that  they 
should  not  shock  common  sense  or  moral 
feeling.  In  doing  this  three  chief  sys- 
tems of  interpretation  were  followed, 
called  respectively  by  Max  Mtiller  the 
ethical,  the  physical,  and  the  historical. 
Those  who  adopted  the  first  explained 
that  the  stories  of  the  power  and  omnis- 
cience of  the  gods,  of  their  rewarding 
good  and  punishing  evil,  were  invented 
by  wise  men  for  the  purpose  of  main- 
taining law  and  order  in  communities — 
leaving  it  to  be  supposed  that  the 
immoral  representations  of  the  gods 
were  the  inventions  of  poets.  The 
interpreters  of  the  physical  (also  called 
the  allegorical)  school  held  that  the 
myths  contained  explanations  of  nat- 
ural phenomena,  or  of  certain  views 
regarding  them,  under  a peculiar 
phraseology,  which  disclosed  its  hid- 
den wisdom  when  rightly  understood. 
The  third  or  historical  school,  identified 
with  the  name  of  Euhemerus,  repre- 
sented the  gods  as  having  been  originally 
kings  or  chiefs,  great  warriors,  sages,  or 
benefactors  of  the  human  race,  who, 
being  exalted  above  their  fellowmen  in 
life,  after  their  death  gradually  came  to 
be  looked  upon  as  deities. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  theory  of 
mythology  at  the  present  day  is  one  that 
is  based  upon  comparative  philology, 
and  on  a comparison  of  the  myths  of 
the  different  Indo-European  nations. 
Thus  in  early  times  men  would  speak 
quite  naturally  of  the  sun  as  the  child  of 
the  night,  as  the  destroyer  of  the  dark- 
ness, as  the  lover  of  the  dawn  and  as 
deserting  her,  as  traveling  over  many 
lands,  as  the  child  of  the  morning,  as  her 
husband,  as  her  destroyer,  and  so  on. 
This  language  was  natural  in  early  times, 
and  was  perfectly  understood  as  de- 
scriptive simply  of  natural  phenomena, 
and  nothing  else;  but  in  course  of  time 
such  expressions  lost  their  natural  signifi- 
cance, and  in  this  way  it  is  explained 
that  Phcebus  Apollo,  Endymion,  and 
Phaethon,  for  instance,  all  originally 
significant  epithets  applied  to  the  sun 
from  his  brilliancy  or  other  characteris- 
tic, became  the  names  of  divinities,  who 
were  regarded  as  quite  distinct  from  each 
other.  So  Zeus  originally  meant  the  sky, 
Athene  and  Daphne  the  dawn,  Hermes 
the  wind,  and  so  on.  According  to  this 
theory  the  story  of  Apollo  slaying  the 
children  of  Niobe  with  his  arrows  is 
nothing  more  than  a mythological  way  of 
telling  how  the  morning  clouds  are  dis- 
persed before  the  rays  of  the  rising  sun. 
Heracles  or  Hercules,  again,  is  the  sun 
laboring  throughout  his  life  for  the  bene- 
fit of  others : soon  after  birth  he  strangles 


the  serpents  of  darkness,  and  after  per- 
forming innumerable  toil  he  dies  on  the 
funeral  pyre,  as  the  sun  sinks  in  the  fiery 
west.  Endymion,  as  his  name  implies,  is 
the  setting  sun,  who  is  courted  by  the 
moon,  and  who  sinks  to  sleep  in  the  west. 
Some  of  these  identifications  of  deities 
with  natural  phenomena  are  pretty  cer- 
tain. Zeus,  for  instance,  the  supreme  god 
of  Greece,  the  same  as  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Romans  and  the  Dyaus  of  the  early 
Hindus,  is  clearly  the  bright  sky;  and 
among  the  Hindus  the  name  of  the  sky- 
god  Dyaus  always  retained  its  meaning 
of  sky,  so  that  Dyaus  had  only  an  in- 
distinct personality  as  a deity.  The 
Hindu  Varuna,  a sky-god,  is  clearly  the 
same  as  the  Greek  Ouranos,  which  latter 
word,  besides  being  the  name  of  a deity, 
had  the  ordinary  signification  of  sky  or 
heaven.  So  the  Scandinavian  Thor,  the 
god  of  thunder,  can  hardly  be  anything 
else  than  thunder  personified.  Yet  as  a 
whole  the  “solar  theory”  cannot  be  ac« 
cepted  as  a key  to  all  mythology.  It 
fails  to  aicount  for  many  of  the  wild  and 
monstrous  myths  told  of  deities,  of  the 
creation  of  the  world,  of  the  state  of  the 
dead,  etc.,  and  though  it  may  throw  a 
certain  amount  of  light  on  the  mythology 
of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European  nations, 
is  quite  insufficient  when  myths  as  a 
whole  are  investigated. 

Another  road  has  been  taken  therefore 
by  some  recent  investigators.  Thus  Mr. 
Andrew  Lang  finds  a key  to  mythology 
in  a study  of  the  myths  and  mental 
habits  of  savage  races;  he  maintains  that 
“the  savage  and  senseless  element  in 
mythology  is  for  the  most  part  a legacy 
from  ancestors  of  the  civilized  races  who 
were  in  an  intellectual  state  not  higher 
than  that  of  Australians,  Bushmen,  Red 
Indians,  the  lower  races  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, and  other  worse  than  barbaric 
peoples,”  and  that  the  monstrous  myths 
current  in  Greece,  Egypt,  and  India 
were  thus  inherited.  He  points  to  the 
currency  of  such  myths  among  savages 
at  the  present  day,  and  to  the  fact  that 
in  general  savages  are  eager  to  arrive  at 
some  explanation  of  the  natural  phenom- 
ena around  them,  and  are  quite  satis- 
fied with  explanations  that  to  civilized 
men  may  seem  even  imbecile.  AVhen  a 
phenomenon  presents  itself  the  savage 
requires  an  explanation,  and  that  ex- 
planation he  makes  for  himself,  or  re- 
ceives from  tradition,  in  the  shape  of  a 
myth.  But,  indeed,  no  one  theory  can  be 
expected  to  explain  the  origin  of  all 
myths,  for  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that 
some  may  be  pure  products  of  imagina- 
tion, tales  invented  by  early  bards  or 
minstrels  to  beguile  a weary  hour,  while 
in  others  fragments  of  real  history  may 
be  hidden. 

MYTILENE,  or  MITYLENE,  a town  in 
the  island  of  Lesbos.  See  Lesbos. 


N 


NAMES 


N,  the  fourteenth  letter  and  eleventh 
consonant  of  the  English  alphabet; 
formed  by  placing  the  point  of  the 
tongue  against  the  root  of  the  upper 
teeth  and  forcing  out  the  breath.  It  is 
classed  as  a nasal,  a lingual,  and  liquid 
or  semi-vowel.  In  English  and  most 
other  languages  n has  a pure  nasal  sound 
in  French  and  Portuguese,  after  a vowel 
in  the  same  syllable,  as  pn,  un,  etc.,  it 
has  the  effect  of  giving  a semi-nasal 
sound  to  the  vowel  preceding,  that  is  to 
say,  the  vowel  is  sounded  by  an  emission 
of  the  breath  partly  through  the  nose 
and  partly  through  the  mouth.  The 
Spanish  alphabet  has  a character  fi, 
called  n with  the  tilde,  as  in  Espana, 
pronounced  like  ni  in  onion,  minion;  gn 
in  Italian  is  pronounced  in  the  same  way. 

NA'BOB,  in  India,  formerly  the  title 
of  a governor  of  a province  or  the  com- 
mander of  the  troops;  borne,  however, 
by  many  persons  as  a mere  titular  ap- 
pendage. 

NABONASSAR,  a king  of  Babylon, 
with  whose  reign  begins  an  epoch  called 
the  Era  of  Nabonassar.  It  began  on  the 
26th  of  February,  747  or  746  b.c. 

NA'DIR,  in  astronomy,  that  point  of 
the  heavens  w'hich  is  diametrically  op- 
posite to  the  zenith,  or  point  directly 
over  our  heads.  The  zenith  and  nadir 
are  the  two  poles  of  the  horizon. 

NADIR  SHAH,  King  of  Persia,  a 
famous  conqueror  and  usurper,  was  born 
in  1688.  Having  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Afghans  and  Turks  he  ac- 
quired the  chief  power  in  Persia  in  1732, 
seized  the  shah,  confined  and  deposed 
him, and  proclaiming  his  son  Abbas,  then 
an  infant,  in  his  stead,  assumed  the  title 
of  regent.  The  young  king  dying  in  1736, 
he  seated  himself  on  the  throne  as  shah. 
He  undertook  the  conquest  of  India,  at 
the  head  of  120,000  men,  and  with  little, 
resistance  reached  Delhi  in  March,  1739. 
Being  exasperated  by  some  tumults  on 
the  part  of  the  inhabitants  he  caused  a 
general  massacre,  in  which  upwards  of 
100,000  persons  perished.  In  this  ex- 
pedition it  is  supposed  that  he  carried 
away,  and  distributed  among  his  officers, 
valuables  to  the  amount  of  $560,000,000. 
A conspiracy  having  been  formed  against 
him  by  the  commander  of  his  body- 
guard and  his  own  nephew,  he  was  assas- 
sinated in  his  tent  in  1747,  his  nephew, 
Ali  Kuli,  succeeding  to  the  throne. 

NADIYA,  or  NUDDEA,  a district  in 
the  lieutenant-governorship  of  Bengal, 
with  an  area  of  2794  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
1,644,108. 

N^VUS,  or  “MOTHER’S  MARK,”  a 

disfigurement  which  occurs  most  fre- 
quently on  the  head  and  trunk,  but  may 
also  appear  on  the  extremities.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  an  enlargement  of  the 
minute  veins,  or  venous  capillaries, 
which  are  dilated,  and  anastomose  or 
unite  among  themselves  to  form  a vas- 
cular patch  generally  of  a deep-red  color. 
The  familiar  name  of  “mother’s  mark,” 
or  “longing  mark,”  is  applied  from  the 
popular  belief  that  the  lesion  was  the  re- 
sult of  fear,  fright,  unnatural  longing,  or 
some  such  irritation  acting  upon  the  j 


]sr 

mother’s  constitution,  and  communicat- 
ing its  effects  to  the  unborn  child  in  the 
shape  of  this  mark. 

NAGASA'KI,  or  NANGASA'KI  a city 
and  port  in  Japan,  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  island  of  Kiusiu,  beautifully  situated 
on  a peninsula  at  the  extremity  of  a 
harbor,  affording  excellent  anchorage, 
and  inclosed  by  hills,  up  the  sides  of 
which  a portion  of  the  town  extends. 
Nagasaki  was  one  of  five  Japanese  ports 
opened  in  1858  to  the  Britsh  and  Ameri- 
cans, having  been  previously  open  to 


the  Dutch;  and  in  1869  it  and  seven 
others  were  opened  to  foreign  nations 
generally.  The  exports  are  copper,  silk, 
camphor,  tobacco,  porcelain,  lackered 
wares,  etc.  A dry-dock  measuring  460 
by  89  feet  was  opened  here  in  May, 
1879.  Pop.  107,422. 

NAGPUR,  or  NAGPORE,  a town  in 
India,  capital  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
and  of  the  division  of  Nagpur  (area 
24,040  sq.  miles;  pop.  2,716,748),  440 
miles  e.n.e.  of  Bombay.  A bed, of  coal, 
estimated  to  contain  17,000,000  tons 
at  a depth  of  200  feet,  has  been  dis- 
covered at  Nagpur.  There  is  a trade  in 
opium,  hemp,  and  above  all,  in  cotton, 
for  which  this  is  a great  mart.  Nagpur 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  a line  of  rajahs, 
wdiich  became  extinct  in  1853,  when  their 
territory  was  annexed  to  the  British 
dominions.  Pop.  127,734. 

NAIADS,  in  the  Greek  mythology, 
nymphs  of  fountains  and  brooks,  of 
similar  character  to  the  dryads,  oreads, 
etc., analogous  to  the  nixies  of  the  north- 
ern mythology. 

NAIDTD.®,  a family  or  group  of 
water-worms,  some  of  them  of  common 
occurrence  in  the  mud  of  ponds  and 
streams. 

NAILS  (of  Animals),  like  hairs,  are 
appendages  w'hich  belong  to  the  cate- 
gory of  the  exoskeletal  elements  of  the 
animal  frame,  or  as  parts  of  the  skin, 


of  the  outer  layer  of  which  they  are 
modified  appendages.  A nail,  in  fact,  is 
a specialized  arrangement  of  the  cells  of 
the  epidermis.  In  man  the  nails  do  not 
inclose  the  ends  of  the  digits;  but  in  the 
horse,  and  “hoofed”  or  ungulate  quad- 
rupeds generally,  the  nails  assume  the 
form  of  protective  coverings  to  the 
digits,  and  are  then  known  as  “hoofs.” 
Nails  may  be  produced  to  form  “claws,” 
as  in  birds  and  carnivorous  mammals, 
while  in  the  sloths  they  assume  a large 
relative  size,  and  are  used  as  a means  in 
arboreal  progression.  In  the  Amphibia — ■ 
as  in  some  toads,  efts,  etc. — the  nails 
appear  as  mere  thickenings  of  the  skin 
at  the  extremities  of  the  digits.  The 
nails  appear  about  the  fifth  month  of 
fcetal  or  embryonic  life. 

NAILS,  small  pointed  pieces  of  metal, 
generally  with  round  or  flattened  heads, 
used  for  driving  into  timber  or  other 
material  for  the  purpose  of  holding 
separate  pieces  together.  They  are  of 
many  different  lengths  and  shapes. 
Brads  used  for  nailing  floors  and  ceilings 
have  the  head  only  on  one  side;  the 
small  sharp  nails  w'ith  round  flat  heads, 
used  by  sadlers  and  upholsterers,  are 
called  tacks;  the  small  sharp  taper  nails 
without  heads,  used  by  shoemakers,  are 
called  sprigs;  a variety  in  which  the 
head  is  large  and  the  spike  small  are 
called  hobnails;  very  large  nails  are 
called  spikes.  Until  a comparatively 
recent  period  almost  every  kind  of  nail 
was  produced  by  hand  labor  alone,  each 
nail  being  separately  forged  from  a thin 
rod  of  iron.  These  wrought  nails  are 
preferable,  for  many  kinds  of  carpenter 
work,  to  those  made  by  machinery. 
Making  of  wrought  nails  retains,  in 
many  places,  the  character  of  a domes- 
tic manufacture,  the  workmen  being 
often  assisted  by  the  female  members 
of  his  family.  In  1810  a machine  was 
contrived  by  which  nails  could  be  cut 
from  an  iron  sheet,  and  headed  at  one 
operation,  at  the  rate  of  100  per  minute. 
Since  that  time  great  improvements 
have  been  made  in  nail-making  ma- 
chinery, and  the  method  commonly 
adopted  is  to  cut  nails  out  of  sheet-iron 
of  the  required  thickness,  an  operation 
which,  by  the  improved  processes,  is 
carried  on  with  great  rapidity.  The 
quantity  produced  in  this  way  is  as- 
tounding, some  mills  turning  out  at  the 
rate  of  10  miles  of  nail-rods  an  hour. 

NAMAQ'UALAND,  Great,  an  exten- 
sive region  in  South  Africa,  extending 
along  the  w^est  coast  from  the  Orange 
river  to  Walfish  Bay,  and  inland  from 
the  west  coast  to  the  Kalahari  Desert; 
estimated  area  100,000  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
about  50,000  . 

NAMES,  Personal.  It  is  probable  that 
at  first  all  names  were  significant.  Old 
Testament  names  are  almost  all  original, 
that  is,  given  in  the  first  instance  to  the 
individual  bearing  them,  and  either 
originated  in  some  circumstance  of  birth 
or  expressed  some  religious  sentiment, 
thus — Jacob  (supplanter),  Isaiah  (salva- 
tion of  Jehovah),  Hannah  (favor),  Deb- 
orah (bee),  etc.  Neither  the  Hebrews, 


NAMUR 


NAPIER 


Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Per- 
sians, nor  Greeks  had  surnames;  and  in 
the  earliest  period  of  their  history  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Romans.  In 
course  of  time,  however,  every  Roman 
citizen  had  three,  the  praenomen  or  per- 
sonal name,  the  nomen  or  name  of  the 
gens  or  clan,  lastly,  the  cognomen  or 
family  name,  as  Publius  Cornelius 
Scipio.  Conquerers  were  occasionally 
complimented  by  the  addition  of  a 
fourth  name  or  agnomen,  commemora- 
tive of  their  conquests,  as  Publius  Cor- 
nelius Scipio  Africanus.  Greek  names 
refer  to  the  personal  appearance  or 
character;  and  were  often  supplemented 
by  the  occupation,  place  of  birth,  or  a 
nickname.  Times  of  great  public  ex- 
citement have  had  a very  considerable 
influence  in  modifying  the  fashion  in 
names.  It  is  impossible  to  state  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  when  the  modern 
system  of  personal  nomenclature  be- 
came general.  Surnames  were  introduced 
by  the  Norman  adventurers,  but  were 
for  centuries  confined  to  the  upper 
classes.  They  became  general  in  Scot- 
land about  the  12th  century.  In  some 
of  the  wilder  districts  of  Wales  they  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  been  adopted 
even  yet.  The  principal  sources  from 
which  surnames  are  derived  are  per- 
sonal characteristics  (Black,  Long, 
Short),  rank,  profession,  or  occupation 
(Bishop,  ICnight,  Miller),  localities  or 
natural  objects  (Hill,  Dale,  Stone),  and 
patronymics  (Johnson,  Wilson,  An- 
drews). The  Hebrews  had  no  surnames 
proper,  but  to  distinguish  two  men  of 
the  same  name  they  used  the  form 
Solomon  ben  David  (Solomon  son  of 
David).  The  Welsh  used  the  word  ap  in 
the  same  way;  Evan  ap  Richard  (John 
son  of  Richard  = Prichard).  In  most 
countries  the  wife  changes  her  surname 
on  marriage  to  that  of  her  husband;  in 
Spain,  however,  she  retains  it,  while  the 
son  may  adopt  either  the  paternal  or 
maternal  name.  In  Great  Britain  a man 
may  now  change  his  Christian  name  and 
surname  without  an  act  of  parliament, 
royal  license,  or  even  public  advertise- 
ment; but  there  is  no  law  to  compel 
third  parties  to  use  the  new  name. 

NAMUR  (na-miir),  a town  of  Belgium 
capital  of  province  of  same  name,  situate 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Meuse  and  Sam- 
bre,  and  at  the  foot  of  a bold  promontory 
on  which  is  a fortress.  There  is  a fine 
modern  cathedral  (1751-67).  The  town 
has  manufactures  of  cutlery,  hardware, 
etc.  Pop.  31,558. — The  province  has 
an  area  of  1413  sq.  miles.  It  has  coal- 
mines and  flourishing  industries.  - Pop. 
344,323. 

NANA  SAHIB,  the  infamous  leader  of 
the  Sepoys  in  the  Indian  Mutiny.  He 
was  born  in  1825,  and  adopted  by  the 
ruler  of  the  state  of  Bithoor.  On  the 
death  of  the  latter  the  British  refused 
to  recognize  Nana  as  his  successor.  In 
May,  1857,  Nana  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  mutineers  at  Cawnpore. 
The  Europeans  there  capitulated  on  a 
promise  that  they  should  be  sent  away 
in  safety.  But  the  men  were  shot  down 
and  the  women  and  children  massacred. 
(See  Cawnpore.)  Nana  was  defeated  by 
Sir  H.  Havelock,  and  was  driven  across 
the  frontier  into  Nepaul,  and  there  all 
knowledge  of  him  ceases. 


NANCY  (nan-se),  a town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  dep.  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  in 
a fertile  plain,  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Meurthe.  The  manufactures  embrace 
woolens,  cottons,  hosiery,  lace,  em- 
broidery, stained-paper,  etc^  Pop. 
102,559. 

NANKING',  a city  of  China,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Kiangsu.  It  is  one  of 
the  chief  literary  centers  of  China.  Pop. 
estimated  at  150,000. 

NANSEN,  Fridtjof,  Norwegian  ex- 
plorer, born  in  1861,  studied  at  Chris- 
tiana University,  and  in  1882  made  an 
Arctic  voyage  in  a sealing  vessel.  In 
1888  he  crossed  Greenland  from  sea  to 
sea  a little  north  of  latitude  64°.  In 
1893  he  sailed  on  board  a specially-built 
steamer  (the  Fram)  in  the  expectation 
that,  entering  the  Polar  ice  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  New  Siberian 
islands,  he  would  be  drifted  by  a current 
over  the  Pole  and  would  come  out  on  the 
east  side  of  Gr6enland.  After  being 
carried  so  far  in  the  desired  direction  he 
left  the  Fram  and  crew,  and  with  a 
single  companion,  and  with  sledges, 
dogs,  and  kayaks,  took  the  iee.  In  this 
way  he  reached  the  highest  latitude  yet 
attained,  86°  14'  (April,  1895),  and  then 
turned  southwestward  to  Franz  Josef 
Land,  where  he  spent  the  winter  of 
1895-96  and  met  Mr.  Jackson,  leader  of 
an  expedition  sent  from  England,  with 
whom  he  returned,  being  followed  soon 
after  by  the  Fram. 

NANTES  (nant),  a town  of  France 
capital  of  the  department  of  Loire- 
Inferieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Loire  where  it  receives  both  the  Erdre 
and  the  Sevre,  269  miles  west-south- 
west of  Paris.  The  public  edifices  most 
deserving  of  notice  are  the  cathedral, 
in  the  Flamboyant  style,  dating  from  the 
15th  century,  and  containing  many  fine 
monuments;  the  castle,  an  edifice  of  the 
14th  century  partly  modernized  in  the 
16th,  with  massive  round  towers;  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  the  exchange,  the  theater 
museum  of  natural  history,  picture- 
gallery,  the  courts  of  justice,  and  the 
Hotel  Dieu  or  infirmary.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  ship-building,  and  the 
manufacture  of  ships’  boilers  and  ma- 
chinery, linens,  cottons,  sail-cloth,  flan- 
nel, chemicals,  leather,  ropes,  soap,  etc. 
Pop.  132,990. 

NANTES,  Edict  of,  was  signed  by 
Henry  IV.  in  that  city,  April  30,  1598. 
It  allowed  the  Protestants  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  and  threw  open  to 
them  all  offices  of  state.  This  edict  was 
formally  revoked  by  Louis  XIV.  on 
October  20,  1685.  As  a consequence  of 
this  fatal  act  for  France  about  400,000 
Protestants,  forming  the  most  intelli- 
gent and  industrious  section  of  the 
people,  emigrated  to  Britain,  Holland, 
and  other  Protestant  countries,  much 
to  the  benefit  of  their  adopted  homes. 

NANTICOKE,  a town  in  Luzerne  co.. 
Pa.,  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  and 
the  Cent,  of  N.  J.,  the  Penn.,  and  the 
Del.,  Lack,  and  W.  railways;  8 miles  s.w. 
of  Wilkesbarre,  the  county  seat.  Pop. 
14,517. 

NAPHTHA,  a term  which  includes 
most  of  the  inflammable  liquids  produced 
by  the  dry  distillation  of  organic  sub- 
stances. Mineral  or  native  naphtha,  or 
1 petroleum,  is  an  inflammable  liquid 


which  is  found  in  nearly  all  countries, 
but  especially  at  Baku,  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  and  in  Canada  and  Pennsylvania. 
It  consists  of  a mixture  of  hydro- 
carbons chiefly  belonging  to  the  paraffin 
series,  but  it  also  contains  members  of 
the  olefin  and  of  the  benzine  series. 
Boghead  naphtha,  which  is  also  known 
as  photogen  and  paraffin  oil,  is  obtained 
by  distilling  certain  minerals  allied  to 
coal,  such  as  the  Torbane  Hill  mineral 
or  Boghead  coal,  found  at  Bathgate  in 
Scotland.  Coal  naphtha  is  obtained  by 
the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  After  the 
light  oil  has  been  separated  it  is  shaken 
with  caustie  soda  and  afterward  with 
sulphuric  acid.  The  liquid  portion  is 
then  run  off  and  rectified.  Shale  naph- 
tha is  a mixture  of  paraffins  obtained  by 
distilling  bituminous  shales.  When  pe- 
troleum is  distilled,  that  portion  which 
distils  below  76°  C.  is  sold  as  petroleum 
spirit  or  petroleum  ether,  and  is  used  for 
dissolving  india-rubber  and  making 
varnishes.  The  next  fraction  of  the  dis- 
tillate is  sold  under  the  names  benzoline, 
paraffin  oil,  or  mineral  sperm  oil.  Ben- 
zene occurs  in  petroleum,  but  is  more 
abundant  in  the  light  oil  obtained  in  dis- 
tillation of  coal-tar.  Nitro-benzene  is 
largely  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
aniline. 

NAPIER  (na'pi-er).  Sir  Charles  James, 
British  general  and  administrator,  born 
in  1782.  He  entered  the  army  in  1794. 
In  1812  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel. 
In  1837  he  was  made  major-general;  in 
1838  K.C.B.  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
to  the  chief  command  in  the  presidency 
of  Bombay,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general,  and  was  shortly  afterward 
called  to  Scinde.  Here  he  gained  the 
splendid  victories  of  Meanee  and  Hyder- 
abad, and  was  afterward  made  governor 
of  Scinde,  which  he  administered  till 
1847.  Having  returned  to  England,  he 
died  in  1853. 

NAPIER,  Admiral  Sir  Charles,  British 
naval  commander,  was  born  in  1786; 
died  in  1860.  He  entered  the  navy  as 


General  Sir  Charles  Napier. 


midshipman  in  1799,  was  promoted 
lieutenant  in  1805.  He  was  promoted 
commander  in  August,  1809,  and  in 
1811  was  employed  in  Portugal  and 
along  the  coast  of  Southern  Italy.  Re- 
turning to  England,  he  was  appointed 
in  1839  to  the  command  of  the  Powerful, 
and  ordered  to  the  Mediterranean, 
where  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war  be- 
tween Mehemet  Ali  and  the  Porte,  and 
the  co-operation  of  Britain  with  Russia 
and  Austria  on  behalf  of  the  latter 


NAPIER 


NAPOLEON  I. 


power,  Sir  Charles  Napier  performed 
some  of  his  most  gallant  exploits,  in- 
cluding the  storming  of  Sidon  and  the 
capture  of  Acre.  Having  blockaded 
Alexandria,  he  concluded  on  his  own 
responsibility  a convention  with  Me- 
hemet  Ali,  by  which  the  latter  and  his 
family  were  guaranteed  in  the  hereditary 
sovereignty  of  Egypt  on  resigning  all 
claim  to  Syria.  On  his  return  toEngland 
he  was  created  K.C.B.  He  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Southwark  from 
1855  till  his  death. 

NAPIER,  John,  Laird  of  Merchiston, 
near  Edinburgh,  the  inventor  of  loga- 
rithms, was  born  1550,  died  1617.  In 
1614  he  published  his  book  of  logarithms 
(Logarithmorum  Canonis  Descriptio; 
Edinburgh,  4to).  The  invention  was 
very  soon  known  over  all  Europe,  and 
was  everywhere  hailed  with  admiration 
by  men  of  science. 

NAPIER,  Robert  Cornelius,  Baron 
Napier  of  Magdala,  born  in  Ceylon  Dec. 
6,  1810.  He  entered  the  Royal  Engineers 
in  1826,  and  served  in  the  Sutlej  cam- 
paign in  1845-46,  where  he  was  severely 
wounded.  In  1867  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  command  of  the  Abyssinian  expedi- 
tion, and  captured  Magdala,  April  13, 
1868.  He  was  then  made  Baron  Magdala 
and  G.C.B.  In  1870  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief in  India,  with  the  rank 
of  general,  became  governor  of  Gib- 
raltar in  1876,  was  made  field-marshal 
in  1883,  and  constable  of  the  Tower  in 
1887.  He  died  in  1890. 

NAPIER,  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick, 
British  officer,  was  born  in  1785,  died  in 
I860.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered 
the  army,  became  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1813,  and  colonel  in  1830.  Some  years 
after  the  conclusion  of  peace  he  com- 
menced his  celebrated  History  of  the 
Peninsular  War,  the  publication  of 
which  began  in  1828,  and  extended  over 
the  intermediate  period  till  1840.  In 
1841  Colonel  Napier  was  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  major-general;  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-governor  of  Guern- 
sey the  following  year  and  in  1848 
created  a K.C.B. 

NAPLES  (na'plz),  a city  in  Southern 
Italy, the  largest  in  thekingdom,  situated 
on  the  northern  shore  of  the  beautiful 
Bay  of  Naples,  about  160  miles  from 
Rome.  The  city  is  divided  into  two 
unequal  parts  by  a steep  ridge  proceed- 
ing from  the  height  on  which  stands  the 
castle  of  St.  Elmo,  and  terminated  by 
a rocky  islet  surmounted  by  the  Castello 
deir  Ovo.  Among  the  more  remarkable 
public  edifices  is  the  cathedral,  dating 
from  1272,  a large  Gothic  building 
erected  on  the  site  of  two  temples  dedi- 
cated to  Neptune  and  Apollo.  Other 
edifices  are  the  church  De'  Santi  Apos- 
toli,  said  to  have  been  originally  founded 
by  Constantine  the  Great  on  the  site  of 
a temple  of  Mercury,  and,  though  sub- 
sequently rebuilt,  still  very  ancient; 
the  church  of  St.  Paul,  built  in  1817-31 
in  imitation  of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome; 
the  Palazzo  Reale  (Royal  Palace,  a 
building  of  great  size  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  town) ; the  palace  of  Capo  di  Monte 
situated  on  a height  in  the  outskirts; 
the  old  palace,  where  the  courts  of  jus- 
tice now  hold  their  sittings)  the  Palazzo 
dei  Pubblici  Studj,  formerly  occupied 
by  the  university,  but  now  converted 


into  the  Museo  Nazionale,  a museum 
containing  not  only  a valuable  library 
of  275,000  volumes  and  many  rare 
MSS.,  but  also  the  older  and  more  recent 
collections  belonging  to  the  crown, 
the  Farnese  collection  of  paintings  ana 
sculpture  from  Rome  and  Parma,  and 
an  unequalled  collection  of  gems, 
bronzes,  vases,  etc.,  chiefly  obtained 
from  the  excavations  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum ; numerous  theaters,  of 
which  that  of  San  Carlo  is  remarkable 
for  its  magnificence,  and  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  existence.  Naples  has  a uni- 
versity, dating  from  1224,  and  attended 
by  over  3000  students;  many  other 
educational  institutions,  and  numerous 
hosptials  and  charitable  foundations. 
The  manufactures,  which  are  numerous 
but  individually  unimportant,  include 
macaroni,  woolens  and  cottons,  silks 
known  as  gros  de  Naples,  glass,  china. 


musical  instruments,  flowers  and  orna- 
ments, perfumery,  soap,  chemicals, 
machinery,  etc.  Naples  is  one  of  the 
most  densely  populated  cities  of  Europe, 
and  one  of  the  most  peculiar  features  of 
the  city  is  its  unique  population  and  the 
universal  publicity  in  which  life  is 
passed.  In  the  environs  are  situated 
the  tomb  of  Virgil,  the  ancient  ruined 
cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii, 
the  remains  of  Roman  temples,  villas, 
palaces,  and  tombs,  together  with  the 
physical  phenomena  of  Vesuvius.  Pop. 
563,751. 

NAPLES,  Bay  of,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Italy,  in  the  Mediterranean,  extending 
for  about  20  miles  from  the  Capo  di 
Miseno,  its  n.w.  boundary,  to  the  Punta 
della  Campanella,  its  s.e.  limit.  It  is 
separated  from  the  open  sea  by  the 
islands  of  Procida,  Ischia,  and  Capri. 
Its  shores  have  for  ages  been  the  scene  of 
powerful  volcanic  agency,  and  the 
scenery  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its 
beauty  and  grandeur.  Mount  Vesuvius 
is  the  most  striking  and  distinctive 
f63>^UI'0 

NAPOLEON  I., Emperor  of  the  French, 
was  born  August  15,  1769,  at  Ajaccio, 
Corsica,  and  was  the  son  of  Charles 
Bonaparte,  an  advocate,  and  of  Letizia 
Ramolino.  (See  Bonaparte.)  In  his 
tenth  year  he  was  sent  to  the  military 
school  of  Brienne,  and  after  a short  time 
spent  at  that  of  Paris  he  received,  in 
1785,  his  commission  as  lieutenant  of 
artillery.  During  the  development  of 


the  revolution  Napoleon  took  the  popu 
lar  side,  but  in  a quiet  and  undemon- 
strative way.  In  1792  he  became  cap- 
tain of  artillery,  and  in  1793  he  was  sent, 
with  the  commission  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  artillery,  to  assist  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  Toulon,  then  in  the  hands  of  the 
British.  The  place  was  captured  (19th 
December)  entirely  through  his  strategic 
genius;  and  in  the  following  February 
he  was  made  a brigadier-general  of 
artillery.  In  1795,  when  the  mob  of 
Paris  rose  against  the  convention, 
Napoleon  was  made  commander  of  the 
5000  troops  provided  for  its  defense.  He 
had  only  a night  t»  make  arrangements, 
and  next  morning  he  cleared  the  streets 
with  grape,  disbanded  the  national 
guard,  disarmed  the  populace,  and 
ended  the  outbreak.  On  the  9th  March 
1796,  he  married  Josephine  Beauhar- 
nais,  and  soon  after  he  had  to  depart  to 


assume  the  command  of  the  army  of 
Italy  against  the  forces  of  Austria  and 
Sardinia.  After  a series  of  victories, 
culminating  in  that  of  Lodi  (10th  May), 
Naples,  Modena,  and  Parma  hastened 
to  conclude  a peace;  the  pope  was  com- 
pelled to  sign  an  armistice;  and  the 
whole  of  Northern  Italy  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  French.  Army  after  army 
sent  by  Austria  was  defeated  (at 
Roveredo,  Bassano,  Arcole,  Rivoli, 
etc.),  Napoleon  carried  the  war  into  the 
enemy’s  countryg  and  by  the  Peace  of 
Campo  Formio,  which  followed  (Oct. 
17,  1797),  Austria  ceded  the  Nether- 
lands and  Lombardy,  and  received  the 
province  of  Venetia.  The  pope  had 
previously  been  forced  to  cede  part  of 
his  dominions. 

In  December,  1797,  Napoleon  re- 
turned to  Paris.  About  this  time  the 
directory  determined  to  invade  Egypt, 
as  a preliminary  step,  to  the  conquest  of 
British  India.  Napoleon  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  expedition,  and  on  the  1st 
July,  1798,  he  landed  at  Alexandria.  This 
city  fell  on  the  4th  July,  and  Cairo  was 
taken  on  the  24th,  after  the  sanguinary 
battle  of  the  Pyramids.  On  Aug.  4th 
Nelson  annihilated  the  French  fleet  in 
the  Bay  of  .\.boukir.  All  means  of  return 
to  Europe  for  the  French  were  then  cut 
off;  but  Napoleon,  having  suppressed 
with  rigor  a riot  in  Cairo,  advanced  to 
attack  the  Turkish  forces  assembling  in 
Syria.  He  took  El  Arish  and  Gaza,  and 
stormed  Jaffa.  But  after  sixty  days’ 


NAPOLEON  I. 


NAPOLEON  I. 


siege  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  the 
attempt  to  capture  Acre,  which  was  de- 
fended by  a Turkish  garrison  under 
Djezzar  Pasha,  assisted  by  Sir  Sidney 
Smith  and  a small  body  of  English 
sailors  and  marines.  He  re-entered 
Cairo  on  the  14th  June,  1799,  and  on 
the  25th  July  attacked  and  almost 
annihilated  a Turkish  force  which  had 
landed  at  Aboukir.  On  the  22d  August 
he  abandoned  the  command  of  the  army 
to  K14ber,  and  embarking  in  a frigate 
landed  at  Fr4jus,  9th  October,  having 
eluded  the  English  cruisers.  He  has- 
tened to  Paris,  secured  the  co-operation 
of  Moreau  and  the  other  generals  then 
in  the  capital,  and  abolished  the  Direc- 
tory on  the  18th  and  19th  Brumaire 
(9th-10th  November).  A new  constitu- 
tion was  then  drawn  up  chiefly  by  the 
Abb6  Si6y6s,  under  which  Napoleon  was 
made  first  consul,  with  Cambac6r6s  and 
Lebrun  as  second  and  third  consuls. 
From  this  time  he  was  virtually  ruler  of 
France. 

Napoleon’s  government  was  marked 
by  sagacity,  activity,  and  vigor  in  the 
administration  of  civil  affairs,  and  so  far 
was  highly  beneficial  to  France.  But 
war  was  his  element,  and  in  1800  he 
resolved  to  strike  a blow  at  Austria. 
Having  executed  a daring  march  into 
Italy  across  the  Great  St.  Bernard  he 
defeated  the  Austrians  at  Marengo,  and 
after  the  decisive  battle  of  Hohenlinden 
Austria  obtained  peace  by  the  Treaty  of 
Luneville,  1801.  Treaties  were  subse- 
quently concluded  with  Spain,  Naples, 
the  pope,  Bavaria,  Portugal,  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  finally,  on  the  27th  March, 
1802,  the  treaty  known  as  that  of 
Amiens  was  signed  by  Britain.  In  1802 
Napoleon  was  proclaimed  by  a decree 
of  the  senate  consul  for  life,  and  in  1804 
he  had  himself  crowned  as  emperor, 
upward  of  3,000,000  votes  of  the  people 
being  given  in  favor  of  this  measure. 
To  this  period  belongs  the  famous  body 
of  laws  known  as  the  Code  Napoleon. 
See  Code. 

In  1803  war  had  again  broken  out 
with  Britain,  and  Napoleon  collected  an 
army  and  flotilla  which  were  to  invade 
England.  In  1805  Britain,  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Sweden  united  against 
Napoleon,  who  marched  at  once  across 
Bavaria  at  the  head  of  180,000  men,  and 
compelled  the  Austrian  General  Mack 
to  capitulate  at  Ulm  with  23,000  men 
(20th  October),  the  day  before  Nelson’s 
great  victory  at  Trafalgar.  On  the  13th 
November  he  entered  Vienna,  and  on 
December  2,  having  crossed  the  Danube, 
he  completely  routed  the  allied  Russian 
and  Austrian  armies  at  Austerlitz.  The 
Austrian  emperor  instantly  sued  for 
peace,  giving  up  to  France  all  his 
Italian  and  Adriatic  territories.  In 
February,  1806,  a French  army  occupied 
the  continental  part  of  the  Neapolitan 
states,  of  which  Joseph  Bonaparte  was 
declared  king  on  the  deposition  of  their 
former  sovereign.  Another  brother  of 
the  emperor,  Louis,  became  king  of 
Holland.  Various  districts  in  Germany 
and  Italy  were  erected  by  the  conqueror 
into  dukedoms  and  bestowed  upon  his 
most  successful  generals.  This  brought 
him  into  collision  with  Prussia,  and  war 
was  declared  on  8th  October.  On  the 
14th  Napoleon  defeated  the  enemy  at 


Jena,  while  his  general,  Davoust,  on  the 
same  day  gained  the  victory  of  Auerstadt . 
On  the  25th  Napoleon  entered  Berlin 
and  issued  the  celebrated  Berlin  Decrees, 
directed  against  British  commerce.  He 
then  marched  northward  against  the 
Russians,  who  were  advancing  to  assist 
the  Prussians.  At  Pultusk  (28th  De- 
cember) and  at  Eylau  (8th  February, 
1807),  he  met  with  severe  checks;  but 
on  the  14th  June  was  fought  the  battle 
of  Friedland,  which  was  so  disastrous  to 
the  Russian  arms  that  Alexander  was 
compelled  to  sue  for  an  armistice.  On 
the  7th  July  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  was 
concluded,  by  which  the  King  of  Prussia 
received  back  half  of  his.  dominions, 
and  Russia  undertook  to  close  her  ports 
against  British  vessels.  The  Duchy  of 
Warsaw  was  erected  into  a kingdom 
and  given  to  the  King  of  Saxony;  the 
Kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  formed  and 
bestowed  upon  J4r6me,  Napoleon’s 
youngest  brother*  and  Russia  obtained 
a part  of  Prussian  Poland,  and  by  secret 
articles  was  allowed  to  take  Finland 
from  Sweden.  As  Portugal  had  refused 
to  respect  the  Berlin  Decrees,  Napoleon 
sent  Junot  to  occupy  Lisbon  (30th  No- 
vember, 1807).  The  administrative 
affairs  of  Spain  having  fallen  into  con- 
fusion, Napoleon  sent  an  army  under 
Murat  into  that  kingdom,  which  took 
possession  of  the  capital,  and  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bayonne  Charles  IV.  resigned 
the  Spanish  crown,  which  was  given  to 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  Murat  receiving  the 
vacant  sovereignty  of  Naples.  The  great 
body  of  the  Spanish  people  rose  against 
this  summary  disposal  of  the  national 
crown,  and  Britain  aided  them  in  their 
resistance.  Thus  was  commenced  the 
Peninsular  war,  which  lasted  seven 
years.  A French  squadron  was  captured 
by  the  British  at  Cadiz  (June  14,  1808); 
General  Dupont  surrendered  at  Baylen 
with  18,000  men  (22d  July);  Junot  was 
defeated  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (Wel- 
lington) at  Vimeira  (21st  August).  But 
Napoleon  rushed  to  the  scene  of  action 
in  October  at  the  head  of  180,000  men, 
and  entered  Madrid  in  spite  of  all  resist- 
ance by  the  Spaniards  on  the  4th  Decem- 
ber. The  British'  troops,  now  under  Sir 
John  Moore,  were  driven  back  upon 
Corunna,  where  they  made  a successful 
stand,  but  lost  their  general  (16th  Jan- 
uary, 1809).  In  the  meantime  Austria 
again  declared  war  and  got  together 
an  army  in  splendid  condition  under  the 
Archduke  Charles.  Napoleon  hurried 
into  Bavaria,  encountered  the  archduke 
at  Eckmtihl  (22d  April),  and  com- 
pletely defeated  him;  on  the  13th  May 
he  again  entered  Vienna.  On  May  21st 
and  22d  he  was  himself  defeated  at 
Aspern  and  Esslingen;  but  on  the  6th 
July  the  Austrians  were  crushed  at  Wag- 
ram,  which  enabled  Napoleon  to  dic- 
tate his  own  terms  of  peace;  these 
were  agreed  to  on  the  14th  October  at 
Schonbrunn.  On  his  return  to  Paris 
Napoleon  was  divorced  from  Josephine 
who  had  borne  him  no  children,  and  on 
the  2d  April,  1810,  he  was  married  to 
the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa  of  Aus- 
tria. The  fruit  of  this  union  was  a son. 

The  years  1810  and  1811  were  the 
period  of  Napoleon’s  greatest  power. 
On  the  north  he  had  annexed  all  the 
coast-line  as  far  as  Hamburg,  and  on  the 


south  Rome  and  the  southern  Papal 
provinces.  But  now  the  tide  began  to 
turn.  Russia  found  it  impossible  to 
carry  out  the  continental  blockade  and 
give  due  effect  to  the  Berlin  decrees;  so 
in  May  1812  Napoleon  declared  war 
against  that  country,  and  soon  invaded 
it  with  an  army  of  about  500,000  men. 
The  Russians  retired  step  by  step,  wast- 
ing the  country,  carrying  off  all  supplies, 
and  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  general 
engagements.  The  French  pushed 
rapidly  forward,  defeated  the  Russians 
at  Borodino  and  elsewhere,  and  entered 
Moscow  only  to  find  the  city  on  fire.  It 
was  impossible  to  pursue  the  Russians 
farther,  and  nothing  remained  but  re- 
treat. The  winter  was  uncommonly 
severe,  and  swarms  of  mounted  Cossacks 
incessantly  harassed  the  French,  now 
sadly  demoralized  by  cold,  famine,  dis- 
ease, and  fatigue.  Of  the  invaders  only 
about  25,000  left  Russia.  Napoleon  im- 
mediately ordered  a fresh  conscription, 
but  the  spirit  of  Europe  was  now  fairly 
roused.  Another  coalition,  consisting  of 
Prussia,  Russia,  Breat  Britain,  Sweden, 
and  Spain,  was  formed,  which  early  in 
1813  sent  its  forces  toward  the  Elbe. 
Napoleon  had  still  an  army  of  350,000 
in  Germany.  He  defeated  the  allies  at 
Ltitzen,  at  Bautzen,  and  at  Dresden; 
but  the  last  was  a dearly-fought  victory 
for  the  French,  who  were  now  so  out- 
numbered that  their  chief  was  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  on  Leipzig.  There  he 
was  completely  hemmed  in,  and  in  the 
great  “Battle  of  Nations,”  which  was 
fought  on  the  16th,  18th,  and  19th 
October,  he  was  completely  defeated. 
He  succeeded  in  raising  a new  army, 
and  from  January  to  March,  1814,  he 
confronted  the  combined  hosts  of  the 
allies.  But  numbers  were  against  him ; 
and  Wellington,  having  driven  the 
French  out  of  the  Peninsula,  was  ad- 
vancing from  the  south.  On  the  30th 
March  the  allies  captured  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Paris,  and  next  day  they  entered 
the  city.  On  4th  April  Napoleon  ab- 
dicated at  Fontainebleau.  He  was 
allowed  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  of 
Elba,  with  the  title  of  emperor  and  a 
revenue  of  6,000,000  francs,  and  Louis 
XVIII.  was  restored.  After  a residence 
of  ten  months  he  made  his  escape  from 
the  island,  and  landed  at  Frejus  on  the 
1st  March,  1815.  Ney  and  a large  part 
of  the  army  joined  him,  and  he  made  a 
triumphal  march  upon  Paris;  but  it  was 
mainly  the  array  and  the  rabble  that  he 
now  had  on  his  side.  The  allied  armies 
once  more  marched  toward  the  French 
frontier,  and  Napoleon  advanced  into 
Belgium  to  meet  them.  On  the  16th 
June  he  defeated  Blucher  at  Ligny, 
while  Ney  held  the  British  in  check  at 
Quatre-Bras.  Wellington  fell  back  upon 
Waterloo,  where  he  was  attacked  by 
Napoleon  on  the  18th,  the  result  being 
the  total  defeat  of  the  French.  The 
allies  marched  without  opposition  upon 
Paris.  Napoleon  abdicated  in  favor  of 
his  son,  and  tried  to  escape  from  France, 
but  failing  he  surrendered  to  the  captain 
of  a British  man-of-war.  With  the  ap- 
proval of  the  allies  he  was  conveyed  to 
the  island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  was 
confined  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died 
in  May,  1812,  and  was  buried  in  the 
island,  but  in  1840  his  remains  were 


NAPOLEON  11. 


Narvaez 


transferred  to  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 

NAPOLEON  II.,  Napoleon  Fran9ois 
Joseph  Charles  Bonaparte,  only  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  in  Paris  1811; 
died  at  Schonbrunn  1832.  In  his  cradle 
he  was' proclaimed  King  of  Rome.  On  the 
first  abdication  of  the  emperor  he  accom- 
panied his  mother,  Maria  Louisa  of 
Austria,  to  Vienna.  His  title  there  was 
Duke  of  Reichstadt.  He  never  assumed 
the  title  of  Napoleon  II.;  but  on  the 
accession  of  his  cousin  Louis  Napoleon 
in  1852,  some  title  being  necessary,  the 
late  emperor  took  that  of  Napoleon  HI., 
which  being  recognized  by  the  govern- 
ments of  Europe,  implied  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  former  title. 

NAPOLEON  III.,  Charles  Louis  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  Emperor  of  the  French 
was  born  at  Paris  1808;  died  at  Chisel- 
hurst,  England,  1873.  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte, 
brother  of  Napoleon  I.  and  king  of  Hol- 
land, and  of  Hortense  de  Beauharnais. 
His  early  life  was  spent  chiefly  in  Swit- 
zerland and  Germany.  By  the  death  of 
his  counsin  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt 
(Napoleon  II.,  see  above)  he  became 
the  recognized  head  of  the  Bonaparte 
family,  and  from  this  time  forward  his 
whole  life  was  devoted  to  the  realization 
of  a fixed  idea  that  he  was  destined  to 
occupy  his  uncle’s  imperial  throne.  In 
1836  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  the 
garrison  of  Strasburg,  but  the  affair 
turned  out  a ludicrous  failure.  The 
prince  was  taken  prisoner  and  conveyed 
to  Paris,  and  the  government  of  Louis 
Philippe  shipped  him  off  to  the  United 
States.  The  death  of  his  mother  brought 
him  back  to  Europe,  and  for  some  years 
he  was  resident  in  England.  In  1840 
he  made  a foolish  and  theatrical  descent 
on  Boulogne;  was  captured,  tried  and 
sentenced  to  perpetual  confinement  in 
the  fortress  of  Ham.  After  remaining 
six  years  in  prison  he  escaped  and  re- 
turned to  England.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  hastened  to 
Paris,  and  securing  a seat  in  the  national 
assembly,  he  at  once  commenced  his 
candidature  for  the  presidency.  On  the 
day  of  the  election,  10th  December,  it 
was  found  that  out  of  7,500,000  votes 
Louis  Napoleon  had  obtained  5,434,226; 
Cavaignac,  who  followed  second,  had 
but  1,448,107.  On  the  20th  the  prince- 
president,  as  he  was  now  called,  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  republic. 
He  looked  forward  to  a higher  position 
still,  however,  and  pressed  for  an  in- 
crease of  the  civil  list  from  600,000  franc 
first  to  3,000,000,  then  to  6,000,000, 
with  his  term  of  office  extended  to  ten 
years,  and  a residence  in  the  Tuileries. 
At  last,  on  the  evening  of  the  2d  Decem- 
ber, 1851,  the  president  declared  Paris 
in  a state  of  siege,  a decree  was  issued 
dissolving  the  assembly,  180  of  the 
members  were  placed  under  arrest,  and 
the  people  who  exhibited  any  disposi- 
tion to  take  their  part  were  shot  down  in 
the  streets  by  the  soldiers.  Another 
decree  was  published  at  the  same  time 
ordering  the  re-establishment  of  univer- 
sal suffrage,  and  the  election  of  a presi- 
dent for  ten  years.  When  the  vote  came 
to  be  taken,  on  the  20th  and  21st  of  the 
same  month,  it  was  discovered  that 
7,439,218  suffrages  were  in  favor  of  his 


rel;aining  office  for  ten  years,  with  all  the 
powers  he  demanded,  while  only  640,737 
were  against  it.  As  soon  as  Louis  Napo- 
leon found  himself  firmly  seated  he  began 
to  prepare  for  the  restoration  of  the 
empire.  In  January,  1852,  the  national 
guard  was  revived,  a new  constitution 
adopted,  and  new  orders  of  nobility 
issued;  and  at  last,  on  the  1st  of  Decem- 
ber, Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was 
proclaimed  emperor  under  the  title  of 
Napoleon  III.  On  the  29th  January, 
1853,  the  new  sovereign  married  Eugenie 
Marie  de  Montijo,  countess  de  Teba;  the 
result  of  this  union  being  a son,  Napo- 
leon-Louis,  born  16th  March,  1856.  In 
March,  1854,  Napoleon  III.,  in  con- 
junction with  England,  declared  war 
in  the  interest  of  Turkey  against  Russia. 
(See  Crimean  War.)  In  April,  1859,  war 
was  declared  between  Austria  and  Sar- 
dinia, and  Napoleon  took  up  arms  in 
favor  of  his  Italian  ally,  Victor  Emanuel. 
The  allies  defeated  the  Austrians  at 
Montebello,  Magenta,  Marignano,  and 
Solferino.  By  the  terms  of  the  Peace  of 
Villafranca  Austria  ceded  Lombardy 
to  Italy,  and  the  jjrovinces  of  Savoy  and 
Nice  were  given  to  France  in  recognition 
of  her  powerful  assistance  (10th  March, 
1860).  In  1860  the  emperor  sent  out  an 
expedition  to  China  to  act  in  concert 
with  the  British;  and  in  1861  France, 
England,  and  Spain  agreed  to  despatch 
a joint  expedition  to  Mexico  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exacting  redress  of  injuries,  but 
the  English  and  Spaniards  soon  with- 
drew. The  French  continued  the  quarrel 
and  an  Imperial  form  of  government  was 
initiated,  Maxmilian,  archduke  of  Aus- 
tria, being  placed  at  its  head  with  the 
title  of  emperor.  Napoleon,  however 
withdrew  his  army  in  1867,  and  the  un- 
fortunate Maxmilian,  left  to  himself,  was 
captured  and  shot.  On  the  conclusion 
of  the  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866 
Napoleon,  jealous  of  the  growing  power 
of  Prussia,  demanded  a reconstruction 
of  frontier,  which  was  per-emptorily 
refused.  The  ill-feeling  between  the  two 
nations  was  increased  by  various  causes, 
and  in  1870,  on  the  Spanish  crown 
being  offered  to  Leopold  of  Hohen- 
zollern,  Napoleon  demanded  that  the 
king  of  Prussia  should  compel  that 
prince  to  refuse  it.  Notwithstanding  the 
subsequent  renunciation  of  the  crown 
by  Leopold  war  was  declared  by  France 
(19th  July).  (See  Franco-German  war.) 
On  the  28th  July  Napoleon  set  out  to 
take  the  chief  command,  and  on  2d 
September  the  army  with  which  he  was 
present  was  compelled  to  surrender  at 
Sedan.  One  of  the  immediate  conse- 
quences of  this  disaster  was  a revolution 
in  Paris.  The  empress  and  her  son 
secretly  quitted  the  French  capital  and 
repaired  to  England,  where  they  took 
up  their  residence  at  Camden  House, 
Chiselhurst.  Here  they  were  rejoined  by 
the  emperor  (who  had  been  kept  a pris- 
oner of  war  for  a short  time)  in  March, 
1871,  and  here  he  remained  till  his  death. 
His  only  child,  the  prince  imperial,  who 
had  joined  the  British  army  in  South 
Africa  as  a volunteer,  was  killed  by  the 
Zulus  2d  June,  1879. 

NARCIS'SUS,  according  to  Greek 
mythology  the  son  of  the  river-god 
Cephissus.  The  young  Narcissus  was  of 
surpassing  beauty,  but  excessively  vain 


and  inaccessible  to  the  feeling  of  love. 
Echo  pined  away  to  a mere  voice  because 
her  love  for  him  found  no  return.  Neme- 
sis determined  to  punish  him  for  his  cold- 
ness of  heart,  and  caused  him  to  drink  at 
a certain  fountain,  wherein  he  saw  his 
own  image,  and  was  seized  with  a pas- 


Narcissus. 

sion  for  himself  of  which  he  pined  away. 
The  gods  transformed  him  into  the 
flower  which  still  bears  his  name. 

NARCIS'SUS,  an  extensive  genus  of 
bulbous  plants.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  from  their  hardiness,  delicate 
shape,  gay  yellow  or  white  flowers,  and 
smell,  have  long  been  favorite  objects  of 
cultivation,  especially  the  daffodil,  the 
jonquil  and  white  narcissus. 

NARCOT'IC,  derived  from  a Greek 
term  signifying  numbness  or  torpor,  is 
the  name  given  to  a large  class  of  sub- 
stances which,  in  sm.all  doses,  diminish 
the  action  of  the  nerves.  Most  narcotics 
are  stimulating  when  given  in  moderate 
doses;  in  larger  doses  tliey  produce 
sleep;  and  in  poisonous  doses  they  bring 
on  stupor,  coma,  convulsions,  and  even 
death.  Opium,  hemlock,  henbane,  Ijella- 
donna,  aconite,  camphor,  digitalis,  to- 
bacco, alcohol,  leopard’s-bane,  and  a 
variety  of  other  substances,  are  narco- 
tics. 

NARSINGHPUR,  chief  town  of  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name.  Central  Provinces 
of  India.  Pop.  10,222.  The  district  has 
an  area  of  1916  sq.  miles,  and  pop. 
313,829. 

NARVAEZ  (nar-va'eth),  Ramon  Maria, 
Duke  of  Valencia,  Spanish  states- 
man and  general,  born  1800,  died  1868. 
Early  in  life  he  entered  the  Spanish  army 
and  he  rapidly  acquired  distinction. 
When  Gomez,  the  Carlist  general,  was 
engaged  in  his  adventurous  march 
through  Spain  in  1836,  Narvaez,  who 
then  commanded  a division  under  Es- 
partero,  was  directed  to  pursue  him,  and 
totally  routed  him  near  Arcos.  Having 
taken  part  in  an  unsuccessful  rising  of  the 
progressista  party  in  1838,  he  fled  to 
France  and  remained  there  five  years. 
In  1843  he  hastened  to  Spain,  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  an  insurrection,  and 
entered  Madrid  victorious  (July,  1843). 
In  the  following  year  he  formed  his  first 
ministry,  and  received  from  Queen 


NARWHAL 


NATTERJACK 


Isabella  the  rank  of  marshal  and  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Valencia.  His  govern- 
ment was  overthrown  in  1846,  but  he 
was  soon  recalled,  and  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was  several  times  in- 
trusted with  the  formation  of  a cabinet. 

NARWHAL,  a cetaceous  mammal 
found  in  the  northern  seas,  averaging 
from  12  to  20  feet  in  length.  The  body 
color  is  whitish  or  gray  spotted  with 
darker  patches.  There  is  no  dorsal  fin. 
The  dentition  of  the  narwhals  differs 
from  that  of  all  other  members  of  the 
dolphin  family.  In  the  female  both  jaws 
are  toothless,  but  the  male  narwhal  has 
two  canines  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  are 


ville  Is  a great  commercial  center,  having 
a large  trade  in  cotton  and  tobacco. 
There  are  cotton  factories  and  other 
works.  Pop.  1909,  135,000. 

NASHVILLE,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  situ- 
ated at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  one  of  the 
leading  educational  institutions  of  the 
southwest.  The  university  has  a colle- 
giate department  with  an  attendance  of 
over  600,  a medical  school,  and  a pre- 
paratory department  with  over  300 
students  in  each. 

NASIK,  a district  in  Bombay,  British 
India;  area,  5940  sq.  miles.  Pop.  781,- 
206.  The  chief  town  is  Nasik,  which 
I ranks  among  the  most  sacred  places  of 


Narwhal  or  sea-unicorn. 


sometimes  developed  into  enormous 
projecting  tusks,  though  commonly  only 
the  one  on  the  left  side  is  so  developed, 
being  straight,  spiral,  tapering  to  a point 
and  in  length  from  6 to  10  feet.  It  makes 
excellent  ivory.  From  the  frequency 
with  which  the  narwhal  appears  as  hav- 
ing a single  horn  it  has  obtained  the 
name  of  the  Sea-unicorn,  Unicorn-fish, 
or  Unicorn  Whale.  The  food  of  the  nar- 
whal appears  to  consist  chiefly  of  mol- 
lilsca,  and  notwithstanding  its  formid- 
able armature  it  is  said  to  be  inoffensive 
and  peaceable.  The  Greenlanders  ob- 
tain oil  from  its  blubber,  and  manu- 
facture its  skin  into  useful  articles. 

NASH'UA,  a manufacturing  town  in 
New  Hampshire, county  of  Hillsborough, 
35miles  south  of  Concord, at  the  junction 
of  Merrimac  and  Nashua  rivers.  It  has 
several  extensive  cotton  manufactories, 
and  manufactures  of  steam-engines, 
locks,  guns,  tools,  shuttles,  carpets,  etc. 
Pop.  25,382. 

NASHVILLE,  the  capital  of  the  State 
of  Tennessee  and  of  Davidson  co.,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Cumberland,  on 


State  Capitol,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

rocky  bluffs  rising  above  the  river.  The 
state  capitol  on  Capitol  Hill  is  a fine 
building.  The  town  has  no  fewer  than 
four  universities;  Nashville  University, 
with  a specially  important  medical 
school ; Vanderbilt  University;  Fisk  Uni- 
versity for  colored  students;  and  Roger 
Williams  (Baptist)  University.  Nash- 


Hindu  pilgrimage,  and  is  a place  of  con- 
siderable industrial  importance.  Pop. 
21,490. 

NASMYTH,  James,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh 1808.  The  steamhammer,  which 
has  rendered  possible  the  immense 
forgings  now  employed,  was  invented  by 
him  in  1839.,  The  steam  piledriver,  and 
the  safety  foiindry  ladle,  are  among  his 
other  inventions.  He  was  also  a skilled 
astronomer.  He  died  in  1890. 

NASR-ED-DEEN,  Shah  of  Persia, 
born  1829,  succeeded  1848.  In  1856  his 
occupation  of  Herat  involved  him  in 
war  with  Britain.  He  made  two  journeys 
to  weastern  Europe,  in  1873  and  1889. 
In  his  reign  telegraphic  communication 
between  Europe  and  India  through 
Persia  was  secured.  He  was  assassinated 
in  1896. 

NAST,  Thomas,  American  illustrator, 
born  at  Landau,  Bavaria,  in  1840.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  with  his 
parents  in  1846.  He  went  to  England  in 
1860  and  then  traveled  to  Italy  to  follow 
Garibaldi,  making  sketches  of  the  war. 
Returning  to  America,  he  formed  a con- 
nection with  Harper’s  Weekly.  In  1862 
his  drawings  of  scenes  from  the  Ameri- 
can civil  war,  published  in  Harper’s 
periodicals,  attracted  wide  attention. 
In  1872  he  started  Nast’s  Illustrated 
Almanac,  and  illustrated  The  Tribute 
Book,  Nasby’s  Swinging  ’round  the 
Cerkle,  and  other  works,  including 
Dickens’  Pickwick  Papers  and  Pictures 
from  Italy.  In  1894  he  was  with  the  Pall 
Mall  Magazine,  London.  On  May  1, 1902, 
he  was  appointed  as  consul-general  to 
Guyaquil,  Ecuador,  where  he  died  on 
December  7th  of  the  same  year. 

NASTUR'TIUM,  the  genus  to  which 
the  water-cress  belongs.  Also  a popular 
name  for  Indian  cress,  an  American 
climbing  annual  with  pungent  fruits  and 
showy  orange  flowers. 

NATAL',  a British  colony  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  Africa,  bounded  on  the  land 
side  by  Cape  Colony,  Basutoland,  Orange 
River  Colony,  Transvaal,  and  Portuguese 
territory;  area,  including  Zululand  and 
the  Vryheid  district,  etc.,  detached  from 


the  Transvaal  in  1902,  is  36,450  sq.milea. 
The  only  spot  where  sheltered  anchorage 
can  be  obtained  is  at  Port  Natal,  a fine 
circular  bay  near  the  center  of  the  coast. 
Pop.  993,000,  comprising  73,000  whites, 
70,000  Indians,  and  850,000  natives 
(chiefly  Kaffirs). 

NATCHEZ,  a city  of  the  United  States 
in  the  state  of  Mississippi  and  on  the 
river  Mississippi,  279  miles  above  New 
Orleans.  It  is  built  on  a bluff  150  feet 
above  the  water,  and  on  the  narrow 
strip  of  land  between  the  foot  of  the  hill 
and  the  river.  Natchez  is  a great  cotton 
mart,  and  has  an  increasing  trade. 
Pop.  13,870. 

NAT'ICA,  a genus  of  gasteropodous 
molluscs,  forming  the  type  of  the  family 
Naticidse.  The  shell  is  globular,  \vith 
few  whorls.  Seven  or  eight  species  are 
British. 

NATION,  either  a people  inhabiting  a 
certain  extent  of  territory  and  united  by 
common  political  institutions,  such  as 
the  English  nation ; or  an  aggregation  of 
persons  of  the  same  ethnological  family 
and  speaking  the  same  or  a cognate 
language. 

NATIONAL  AIRS,  any  class  of  airs 
peculiarly  identified  with  the  music  of 
some  particular  people,  and  especially  a 
tune  which  by  national  selection  or  con- 
sent is  adapted  to  words  which  represent 
or  reflect  a sentiment,  taste,  or  habit  of 
a nation,  and  which  is  usually  sung  or 
played  on  certain  public  occasions. 

NATIONAL  CHURCH,  the  established 
church  of  a country  or  nation.  In  Eng- 
land the  national  church  is  Protestant 
and  Episcopalian;  in  Scotland,  Protes- 
tant and  Presbyterian.  See  Established 
Church. 

NATIONAL  DEBT,  the  sum  which  is 
owing  by  a government  to  individuals 
who  have  advanced  money  to  the 
government  for  public  purposes,  either 
in  the  anticipation  of  the  produce  of 
particular  branches  of  the  revenue,  or 
on  credit  of  the  general  power  which  the 
government  possesses  of  levying  the 
sums  necessary  to  pay  interest  for  the 
money  borrowed  or  to  repay  the  prin- 
cipal. See  Funds. 

NATIONALISTS,  the  term  applied  to 
the  Irish  political  party  whose  pro- 
gramme includes  the  more  or  less  com- 
plete separation  of  Ireland  from  Great 
Britain.  See  Home  Rule. 

NATIONAL  LEAGUE.  See  Land 
League. 

NATIONAL  PARK.  See  Yellowstone, 
Yosemite,  Northwest  Territories. 

NATIONS,  LAW  OF.  See  International 
Law. 

NATIVITY.  See  Astrology. 

NATRON  LAKES,  several  lakes  or 
pools  rich  in  natron  in  the  vicinity  of 
Zakook,  a village  about  60  miles  w.n.w. 
of  Cairo. 

NATTERJACK,  Natterjack  Toad,  the 
Bufo  calamita,  a species  of  toad  found  in 
various  parts  of  western  Europe,  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  Asia  (including  Tibet),  and 
not  uncommon  in  England.  The  general 
color  is  lightish-brown,  spotted  with 
patches  of  a darker  hue.  A line  or  streak 
of  yellowish  tint  passes  down  the  middle 
line  of  the  back.  It  does  not  leap  or 
crawl  like  the  common  toad,  but  rather 
runs,  whence  it  has  the  name  of  walking 
or  running  toad.  It  has  a deep  and 


NATTOR 


NATURE  PRINTING 


hollow  voice,  audible  at  a great  dis- 
tance. It  is  often  found  in  dry  situations. 

NATTOR',  a town  of  India,  in  Bengal, 
on  the  Nadar  river,  an  offshoot  of  the 
Ganges.  Pop.  9094. 

NATURAL  GAS,  a gas  found  issuing 
naturally  from  crevices  in  the  earth’s 
surface  in  various  localities.  It  burns 
like  ordinary  coal  gas,  and  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  various  hydro-carbons,  the 
chief  ingredient  being  marsh-gas  (fire- 


Natterjack. 


damp).  It  has  long  been  known  and 
utilized  to  some  extent  as  an  illuminant, 
but  only  in  recent  years  has  it  attained 
much  importance,  being  now  largely 
employed  in  the  United  States  both  for 
lighting  purposes  and  as  a fuel.  It  is 
most  abundant  in  the  petroleum  regions. 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  in  its  widest 
sense,  that  department  of  knowledge 
which  comprehends  the  sciences  of  zo- 
ology and  botany,  chemistry,  natural 
philosophy  or  physics,  geology,  palaeon- 
tology, and  mineralogy.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, commonly  used  to  denote  collec- 
tively the  sciences  of  botany  and  zoology, 
and  it  is  sometimes  restricted  to  denote 
the  science  of  zoology  alone. 

NATURALISM,  the  doctrine  that  all 
the  operations  in  the  universe,  moral  as 
well  as  physical,  are  carried  on  in  ac- 
cordance with  fixed  laws,  and  without 
the  interference  of  any  supernatural 
power. 

NATURALIZATION.  See  Alien. 

NATURALIZATION  LAWS  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES,  the  conditions  under 
and  the  manner  in  which  an  alien  may 
be  admitted  to  become  a citizen  of  the 
United  States  are  prescribed  by  sections 
2,  165-74  of  the  revised  statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

The  alien  must  declare  upon  oath  be- 
fore a circuit  or  district  court  of  the 
United  States  or  a district  or  supreme 
court  of  the  territories,  or  a court  of 
record  of  any  of  the  States  having  com- 
mon law  jurisdiction  and  a seal  and 
clerk,  two  years  at  least  prior  to  his  ad- 
mission, that  it  is,  bona  fide,  his  inten- 
tion to  become  a citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  renounce  forever  all 
allegiance  and  fidelity  to  any  foreign 
prince  or  state,  and  particularly  to  the 
one  of  which  he  may  be  at  the  time  a 
citizen  or  subject. 

He  must  at  the  time  of  his  application 
to  be  admitted  declare  on  oath,  before 
some  one  of  the  courts  above  specified, 
“that  he  will  support  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States,  and  that  he  absolute- 
ly and  entirely  renounces  and  abjures  all 
allegiance  and  fidelity  to  every  foreign 
prince,  potentate,  state  or  sovereignty, 
and  particularly,  by  name,  to  the  prince, 
potentate,  state,  or  sovereignty  of  which 
lie  was  before  a citizen  or  subject,” 


which  proceedings  must  be  recorded  by 
the  clerk  of  the  court. 

If  it  shall  appear  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  court  to  which  the  alien  has  applied 
that  he  has  made  a declaration  to  be- 
come a citizen  two  years  before  applying 
for  final  papers,  and  has  resided  con- 
tinuously within  the  United  States  for  at 
least  five  years,  and  within  the  state  or 
territory  where  such  court  is  at  the  time 
held  one  year  at  least;  and  that  during 
that  time  “he  has  behaved  as  a man  of 
good  moral  character,  attached  to  the 
principles  of  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  well  disposed  to  the 
good  order  and  happiness  of  the  same,” 
he  will  be  admitted  to  citizenship.  If  the 
applicant  has  borne  any  hereditary  title 
or  order  of  nobility  he  must  make  an 
express  renunciation  of  the  same  at  the 
time  of  his  application. 

Any  alien  of  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years  and  upward  who  has  been  in  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  and  ha^ 
been  honorably  discharged  therefrom, 
may  become  a citizen  on  his  petition, 
without  any  previous  declaration  of  in- 
tention, provided  that  he  has  resided  in 
the  United  States  at  least  one  year  prev- 
ious to  his  application,  and  is  of  good 
moral  character.  (It  is  judicially  decided 
that  residence  of  one  year  in  a particular 
state  is  not  requisite.) 

Any  alien  under  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years  who  has  resided  in  the  United 
States  three  years  next  preceding  his 
arriving  at  that  age,  and  who  has  con- 
tinued to  reside  therein  to  the  time  he 
may  make  application  to  be  admitted  a 
citizen  thereof,  may,  after  he  arrives  at 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  after  he 
has  resided  five  years  within  the  Uiiited 
States,  including  the  three  years  of  his 
minority,  be  admitted  a citizen;  but  he 
must  make  a declaration  on  oath  and 
prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court 
that  for  two  years  next  preceding  it  has 
been  his  bona  fide  intention  to  become  a 
citizen. 

The  children  of  persons  who  have  been 
duly  naturalized,  being  under  the  age 
of  twenty-one  years  at  the  time  of  the 
naturalization  of  their  parents,  shall,  if 
dwelling  in  the  United  States,  be  con- 
sidered as  citizens  thereof. 

The  children  of  persons  who  now  are 
or  have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States 
are,  though  born  out  of  the  limits  and 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  con- 
sidered as  citizens  thereof. 

The  naturalization  of  Chinamen  is  ex- 
pressly prohibited  by  section  14,  chapter 
126,  laws  of  1882. 

Section  2,000  of  the  revised  statutes  of 
the  United  States  declares  that  “all 
naturalized  citizens  of  the  United  States 
while  in  foreign  countries  are  entitled  to 
and  shall  receive  from  this  government 
the  same  protection  of  persons  and  prop- 
erty which  is  accorded  to  native-born 
citizens.” 

The  right  to  vote  comes  from  the 
state,  and  is  a state  gift.  Naturalization 
is  a federal  right  and  is  a gift  of  the  Union 
not  of  any  one  state.  In  nearly  one-half 
of  the  Union  aliens  (who  have  declared 
intentions)  vote  and  have  the  right  to 
vote  equally  with  naturalized  or  native- 
born  citizens.  In  the  other  half  only 
actual  citizens  may  vote.  The  federal 
naturalization  laws  apply  to  the  whole 


Union  alike,  and  provide  that  no  alien 
may  be  naturalized  until  after  five  years’ 
residence.  Even  after  five  years’  resi- 
dence and  due  naturalization  he  is  not 
entitled  to  vote  unless  the  laws  of  the 
state  confer  the  privilege  upon  him,  and 
he  may  vote  in  several  states  six  months 
after  landing,  if  he  has  declared  his  in- 
tention, under  United  States  law,  to 
become  a citizen. 

The  inhabitants  of  Hawaii  were  de- 
clared to  be  citizens  of  the  United  States 
under  the  act  of  1900  creating  Hawaii  a 
territory.  Under  the  United  States 
supreme  court  decision  in  the  insular 
cases,  in  May,  1901,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Philippines  and  Porto  Rico  are  en- 
titled to  full  protection  under  the  con- 
stitution, but  not  to  the  privileges  of 
United  States  citizenship  until  congress 
so  decrees,  by  admitting  the  countries  as 
states  or  organizing  them  as  territories. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  originally 
the  study  of  nature  in  general;  but  now 
commonly  restricted  to  the  various 
sciences  classed  under  Physics. 

NATURAL  SELECTION,  a phrase  fre- 
quently employed  in  connection  with 
Darwin’s  theory  of  the  origin  of  species, 
to  indicate  the  process  in  nature  by 
which  plants  and  animals  best  fitted  for 
the  conditions  in  which  they  are  placed 
survive,  propagate,  and  spread,  while 
the  less  fitted  die  out  and  disappear; 
this  process  being  combined  with  the 
preservation  by  their  descendants  of 
useful  variations  arising  in  animals  or 
plants.  Mr.  Darwin’s  theory  takes  origin 
from  the  fact  that  all  species  vary  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  These  variations, 
through  particular  or  “selected”  mem- 
bers of  the  species,  become  perpetuated. 
What  was  at  first  a mere  individual  vari- 
ation becomes  in  this  way  and  through 
transmission  a perpetuated  “variety”  or 
a “race.”  These  “races”  are  subject  to 
a similar  process  of  variation,  and  varie- 
ties of  the  race  may  in  turn  appear;  and 
thus  through  the  variety  we  in  time  ar- 
rive at  forms  which  present  characters  so 
widely  different  from  those  of  the  origi- 
nal species  that  they  may  be  regarded 
structurally  and  functionally  as  new 
species.  In  the  domestication  and  breed- 
ing of  cattle  and  sheep,  in  the  numerous 
varieties  of  dogs,  pigeons,  and  other 
animals,  man,  it  is  believed,  through 
artificial  selection,  has  imitated  nature 
in  her  process,  and  has  produced  varie- 
ties or  breeds  which  differ  widely  from 
the  original  stock  or  specific  type. 

NATURAL  THEOLOGY  is  that  de- 
partment of  ethics  which  deals  with 
those  propositions  relating  to  the  exist- 
ence and  attributes  of  God  and  the  duty 
of  man  which  can  be  demonstrated  by 
human  reason,  independent  of  written 
revelation. 

NATURE  PRINTING  is  the  art  of  giv- 
ing an  exact  reproduction  of  natural 
objects  by  printing  from  impressions  of 
the  objects  themselves  formed  by  pres- 
sure on  metallic  plates  The  only  ob- 
jects to  which  the  art  can  be  applied 
with  success  are  those  with  tolerably  flat 
surfaces,  such  as  dried  and  pressed 
plants,  especially  ferns  and  seaweeds, 
embroidery  and  lace,  the  grain  of  wood, 
etc.  In  one  method  the  object  is  placed 
between  a plate  of  copper  and  one  of 
lead,  when  a perfect  intaglio  impres- 


NAUGATUCK 


NAVIGATION 


eion  is  made  on  the  leaden  plate,  from 
which  an  electrotype  is  taken,  and  from 
this  the  impressions  are  taken. 

NAUGATUCK,  a town  in  New  Haven 
CO.,  Conn.,  on  the  Naugatuck  river,  and 
on  the  Naugatuck  Division  of  the  N.Y., 
N.H.  and  Hart.  Railroad;  5 miles  s.  of 
Waterbury.  Its  manufactures  include 
rubber  and  woollen  goods,  malleable 
iron,  paper  boxes,  pins,  buttons,  belt- 
lacing, and  electro-plated  ware.  Pop. 
12,421. 

NAU'SEA,  the  sensation  of  sickness, 
or  inclination  to  vomit,  similar  to  that 
produced  by  the  motion  of  a ship  at  sea. 
Though  the  feeling  is  referred  to  the 
stomach,  it  frequently  originates  in  dis- 
order of  other  and  remote  parts  of  the 
body,  such  as  the  brain,  kidney,  womb, 
etc. 

NAU'TILUS,  a genus  of  cephalopods 
with  polythalamous  ormany-cnambered 
shells.  The  shell  of  the  pearly  nautilus 
is  a spiral  with  smooth  sides.  The 
turns  or  whorls  are  contiguous,  the 
outer  whorl  covering  the  inner.  The 
chambers  of  the  shell  are  separated 
by  transverse  septa,  and  one  after  the 
other  have  been  the  residence  of  the 


Nautilus  shown  in  section. 

animal,  being  successively  abandoned  as 
it  has  grown.  The  animal  thus  always 
resides  in  the  cavity  of  its  outermost  or 
external  chamber.  A siphuncle  connects 
the  body  with  the  air-chambers,  passing 
through  each  transverse  septum  till  it 
terminates  in  the  smallest  chamber  at 
the  inner  extremity  of  the  shell.  These 
internal  chambers  contain  only  air.  By 
means  of  the  siphuncle  the  animal  is 
enabled  to  sink  itself  or  to  swim.  The 
nautilus  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  tropical 
seas.  Only  three  or  four  existing  species 
are  known,  though  the  fossil  species  ex- 
ceed a hundred.  The  name  is  often 
loosely  applied  to  the  shells  of  different 
genera  of  mollusca.  The  animal  which 
has  been  said  to  sail  in  its  shell  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  is  the  paper-nautilus 
or  argonaut.  See  Argonaut. 

NAVAJO  INDIANS  (na-va'ho),  a tribe 
of  American  Indians  numbering  about 
12,000,  many  of  whom  are  engaged  in 
civilized  pursuits.  They  occupy  a reser- 
vation in  the  n.w.  of  New  Mexico  and 
the  n.  e.  of  Arizona. 

NAVAL  ACADEMY  UNITED  STATES, 
the  school  situated  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
founded  in  1845  at  which  are  educated 
the  executive  officers  of  the  United 
States  navy. 

The  students  of  the  naval  academy 
are  called  midshipmen.  Two  midship- 
men are  allowed  for  each  senator,  repre- 
sentative, and  delegate  in  congress,  two 
for  the  district  of  Columbia,  and  five 
each  year  from  the  United  States  at 
large.  The  appointments  from  the  dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  five  each  year  at 
large  are  made  by  the  president.  Gne 
P.  E.— 55 


midshipman  is  allowed  from  Porto  Rico, 
who  must  be  a native  of  that  island.  The 
appointment  is  made  by  the  president, 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  governor 
of"  Porto  Rico.  The  congressional  ap- 
pointments are  equitably  distributed,  so 
that  as  soon  as  practicable  each  senator, 
representative,  and  delegate  in  congress 
may  appoint  one  midshipman  during 
each  congress.  The  course  for  midship- 
men is  six  years — four  at  the  academy, 
when  the  succeeding  appointment  is 
made,  and  two  years  at  sea,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  which  time  the  examina- 
tion for  graduation  takes  place.  Mid- 
shipmen who  pass  the  examination  for 
final  graduation  are  appointed  to  fill 
vacancies  in  the  lower  grade  of  the  line 
of  the  navy  and  of  the  marine  corps,  in 
the  order  of  merit  as  determined  by  the 
academic  board  of  the  naval  academy. 
Candidates  allowed  for  congressional 
districts,  for  territories,  and  for  the  dis- 
trict of  Columbia  must  be  actual  resi- 
dents. Candidates  at  the  time  of  their 
examination  must  be  physically  sound, 
well  formed,  and  of  robust  constitution. 
Attention  will  also  be  paid  to  the  stature 
of  the  candidate,  and  no  one  manifestly 
under  size  for  his  age  will  be  received  at 
the  academy.  The  height  of  candidates 
for  admission  shall  not  be  less  than  5 
feet  2 inches  between  the  ages  of  16  and 
18  years,  and  not  less  than  5 feet  4 inches 
between  the  ages  of  18  and  20  years ; and 
the  minimum  weight  at  16  years  of  age 
shall  be  100  pounds,  with  an  increase  of 
not  less  than  5 pounds  for  each  addi- 
tional year  or  fraction  of  a year  over 
one-half.  Any  marked  deviation  in  the 
relative  height  and  weight  to  the  age  of 
a candidate  will  add  materially  to  the 
consideration  for  rejection.  Candidates 
must  be  unmarried,  and  any  midship- 
man who  shall  marry,  or  who  shall  be 
found  to  be  married,  before  his  final 
graduation,  shall  be  dismissed  from  the 
service.  All  candidates  must,  at  the 
time  of  their  examination  for  admission, 
be  between  the  ages  of  16  and  20  years. 
The  pay  of  a midshipman  is  $500,  be- 
ginning at  the  date  of  admission. 

NAVAL  CADETS.  See  Naval  Acad- 
emy. 

NAVAL  HOSPITALS.  See  Hospital. 

NAVARRE,  a former  kingdom,  now  a 
province  of  Spain,  between  Aragon,  Old 
Castile,  and  Biscay ; area,  4045  sq.  miles; 
pop.  321,015. 

NAVE,  in  Gothic  architecture,  that 
part  of  a church  extending  from  the 
western  entrance  to  the  transept,  or  to 
the  choir  and  chancel,  according  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  church 

NAVEL,  or  UMBILI'CUS,  the  aperture 
or  passage  in  the  abdomen  which  in  the 
adult  is  normally  closed,  but  in  the 
foetus  or  embryo  gives  passage  to  the 
umbilical  vessels,  by  means  of  which  the 
foetus  communicates  with  the  parent 
through  the  placenta.  The  cicatriza- 
tion or  healing  of  the  navel  produces  the 
contracted  and  depressed  appearance 
so  familiar  in  the  external  aspect  of  the 
structure. 

NAVIGATION,  the  science  or  art  of 
conducting  ships  or  vessels  from  one 
plkce  to  another.  The  management  of 
the  sails,  rudder,  etc.,  or  the  working 
of  the  ship  generally,  though  essential 
to  the  practice  of  navigation  belongs 


rather  to  seamanship,  navigation  being 
more  especially  the  art  of  directing  and 
measuring  the  course  of  ships,  the 
method  of  determining  their  position, 
etc.,  by  the  laws  of  geometry,  or  by 
astronomical  principles  and  observa- 
tions. In  order  to  tne  accomplishment 
of  this  the  ship  must  be  provided  with 
accurate  charts  of  seas,  plans  of  ports 
and  harbors,  etc.,  compasses,  chronom- 
eter, sextant,  log  and  log-line,  various 
mathematical  instruments,  leads  and 


Nave— Rheims  cathedral,  Prance;  13th  century. 


lead-lines,  log-book,  etc.  It  is  by  the 
compass  that  the  direction  in  which  the 
ship  sails  or  should  sail  is  determined. 
Though  it  points  in  a northerly  direc- 
tion, it  does  not  generally  point  to  the 
true  north,  but  has  a certain  variation 
which  must  be  taken  into  account.  The 
rate  of  speed  at  which  a vessel  is  sailing 
is  found  by  means  of  the  log,  which  is 
heaved  usually  at  the  end  of  every  hour. 
By  noting  the  rate  of  sailing,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  course,  and  the  time  occupied, 
the  ship’s  position  may  be  estimated^ 
allowance  being  made  for  deviation 
caused  by  currents,  and  by  the  wind 
driving  the  vessel  to  leeward.  The  posi- 
tion thus  determined  is  said  to  be  found 
by  dead-reckoning.  It  is  not  safe  to 
trust  to  dead-reckoning  for  any  length  of 
time,  and  a more  accurate  method  of 
finding  the  vessel’s  position  at  any  time 
is  required.  This  consists  in  taking  ob- 
servations of  the  heavenly  bodies  with 
the  sextant,  and  these  being  compared 
with  data  given  in  the  Nautical  Almanac, 
while  correct  Greenwich  time  is  given 
by  the  chronometer,  the  latitude  and 
longitude,  or  true  position,  is  easily 
found.  In  navigating  a ship  a certain 
knowledge  of  trigonometry  is  required; 
but  the  operations  can  be  much  short- 
ened by  tables  and  insti-uments.  In 
directing  a ship’s  course,  and  applying 
it  on  a chart,  several  methods  of  what 
are  called  sailings  are  employed,  as 
plane  sailing  (the  earth  being  regarded 
as  having  a olane  surface),  Mercator’s 


NAVIGATION  LAWS 


NAVY 


sailing,  great  circle  sailing  (sailing  on  a 
great  circle  of  the  sphere),  etc. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS  are  based  upon 
the  right  of  a state  to  regulate  the  navi- 
gation of  its  own  waters  and  to  protect 
its  own  commerce,  and  may  be  aivided 
into  two  classes. 

The  first  class  includes  all  those  laws, 
once  so  numerous,  designed  to  secure  a 
commercial  monopoly  to  the  state  which 
enacted  them.  Any  advantages  which  a 
British  ship  has,  e.g.,  the  right  of  claim- 
ing protection  for  her  flag,  the  non- 
attacliment  to  her  of  a maritime  lien 
for  necessaries  supplied  in  a British 
port,  are  not  directly  connected  with 
the  policy  under  which  the  navigation 
acts  have  become  obsolete.  These  ad- 
vantages are  not  secured  to  a British 
ship  until  she  is  registered.  American 
law  agrees  with  British  in  this  respect. 
The  United  States  have  imitated  the 
policy  of  England  and  other  commercial 
nations  in  conferring  peculiar  privileges 
upon  American-built  ships  and  owned 
by  our  own  citizens.  The  object  of  the 
registry  acts  is  to  encourage  our  own 
trade,  navigation,  and  ship-building  by 
granting  peculiar  or  exclusive  privileges 
of  trade  to  the  flag  of  the  United  States, 
and  by  prohibiting  the  communication 
of  those  immunities  to  the  shipping  and 
mariners  of  other  countries.  It  may  be 
noticed  that  an  alien  is  generally  incapa- 
ble of  becoming  the  owner  of  a ship. 
This  incapacity  is  specially  preserved  in 
the  case  of  British  ships  by  the  naturali- 
zation act,  1870. 

The  second  class  of  navigation  laws 
includes  those  which  deal  with  the 
navigation  of  any  waters  over  which  a 
state  has  any  control,  and  embraces  all 
that  is  necessary  for  the  due  use  of  such 
waters,  as  rules  of  the  road,  management 
of  harbors  and  lighthouses,  and  licensing 
and  control  of  pilots.  Such  laws  may 
deal  with  (1)  the  high  seas,  (2)  tidal 
waters  other  than  the  high  seas  (3) 
non-tidal  waters. 

NAVIGATOR'S  ISLANDS.  See  Samoa. 

NAVY,  the  ancient  method  of  naval 
warfare  consisted,  in  great  part,  in  the 
driving  of  beaked  vessels  against  each 
other;  and  therefore  skill  and  celerity 
in  manoeuvring,  so  as  to  strike  the  enemy 
at  the  greatest  disadvantage,  were  of  the 
utmost  importance.  This  mode  of  con- 
flict has  been  attempted  to  be  revived 
at  the  pretsent  time,  and  vessels  called 
"steam-rams”  are  specially  constructed 
for  this  species  of  conflict.  The  earliest 
powers  having  efficient  fleets  appear  to 
have  been  the  Phoenicians,  Carthagin- 
ians, Persians,  and  Greeks;  the  Greeks 
had  fleets  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  7th  century  b.c. — the  first  sea-fight 
on  record  being  that  between  the  Corin- 
thians and  their  colonists  of  Corcyra, 
664  B.c.  The  earliest  great  battle  in 
which  tactics  appear  to  have  distinctly 
been  opposed  to  superior  force,  and 
with  success,  was  that  of  Salamis  (480 
B.C.),  where  Themistocles,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  narrows,  forced  the 
Persian  fleet  of  Xerxes  to  combat  in  such 
a manner  that  their  line  of  battle  but 
little  exceeded  in  length  the  line  of  the 
much  inferior  Athenian  fleet.  The 
Peloponnesian  War,  where  "Greek  met 
Greek,”  tended  much  to  develop  the 
art  of  naval  warfare.  But  the  destruc- 


tion of  the  Athenian  marine  power  in 
the  Syracusan  expedition  of  414  b.c., 
left  Carthage  mistress  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  Roman  power,  however, 
gradually  asserted  itself,  and  after  two 
centuries,  became  omnipotent  by  the 
destruction  of  Carthage.  For  several 
following  centuries,  the  only  sea-fights 
were  occasioned  by  the  civil  wars  of  the 
Romans.  Toward  the  close  of  the  em- 
pire, the  system  of  fighting  with  pointed 
prows  had  been  discontinued  in  favor 
of  that  which  had  always  co-existed — 
viz.,  the  running  alongside,  and  board- 
ing by  armed  men,  with  whom  each  ves- 
sel was  overloaded.  Onagers,  balistae, 
etc.,  were  ultimately  carried  in  the  ships, 
and  used  as  artillery;  but  they  were 
little  relied  on,  and  it  was  usual,  after  a 
discharge  of  arrows  and  javelins,  to 
come  to  close  quarters.  A sea-fight  was 
therefore  a hand-to-hand  struggle  on  a 
floating  base,  in  which  the  vanquished 
were  almost  certainly  drowned  or  slain. 

The  northern  invaders  of  the  empire, 
and  subsequently  the  Moors,  seem  to 
have  introduced  swift-sailing  galleys, 
warring  in  small  squadrons  and  singly, 
and  ravaging  all  civilized  coasts  for 
plunder  and  slaves.  This — the  break-up 


of  the  empire — was  the  era  of  piracy, 
when  every  nation,  which  had  more  to 
win  than  lose  by  freebooting,  sent  out 
its  cruisers.  Foremost  for  daring  and 
seamanship  were  the  Norsemen  who 
penetrated  in  every  direction  from 
Bosporus  to  Newfoundland.  Combina- 
tion being  the  only  security  against 
these  marauders,  the  medieval  navies 
gradually  sprang  up;  the  most  con- 
spicuous being — in  the  Mediterranean, 
those  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  Aragon- 
on  the  Atlantic  sea-board,  England  and 
France.  In  the  Mediterranean,  Venice, 
after  a long  struggle  with  the  Genoese, 
and  subsequently  with  the  Turks,  be- 
came the  great  naval  power.  The  Ara- 
gonese fleet  gradually  developed  into 


the  Spanish  navy,  which,  by  the  epoch 
of  Columbus,  had  a rival  in  that  of 
Portugal.  Many  struggles,  left  in  the 
16th  and  17th  centuries,  the  principal 
naval  power  in  the  hands  of  the  English, 
French,  Dutch,  Spaniards,  and  Portu- 
guese. 

Dating  the  modern  navies  of  the 
world  from  the  16th  century,  we  find 
the  Britishnavy  risingfrom  insignificance 
by  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada in  1588;  a blow  which  Spain  never 
recovered,  and  which  the  Dutch  whose 
naval  force  had  acquired  tremendous 
strength  in  their  struggle  for  independ- 
ence, increased  the  weight  of,  by  their 
triumph  in  1607,  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar. 
At  this  time  there  was  no  decisive  supe- 
riority of  the  fleet  of  England  over  that 
of  France;  but  each  was  inferior  to  the 
Dutch  navy.  The  Commonwealth  and 
reign  of  Charles  II.  was  signalized  by  the 
struggle  for  mastery  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch ; when  victory,  after  many 
alternations,  finally  sided  with  the 
former.  Through  the  18th  century,  the 
English  and  French  were  the  principal 
fleets;  but  Louis  XVI.  gave  a decided 
superiority  to  the  navy  of  France;  and 
at  the  period  of  the  American  war,  the 


naval  power  of  England  was  seriously 
threatened.  Spain,  Holland,  and  Russia 
(now  for  the  first  time  a naval  power) 
had  meanwhile  acquired  considerable 
fleets;  and  the  "armed  neutrality,”  to 
which  the  northern  powers  gave  their 
adherence,  rendered  the  British  position 
most  critical. 

Camperdown  broke  the  Dutch  power; 
many  battles  weakened  the  French 
navy;  and  at  Trafalgar,  in  1805,  it,  with 
the  Spanish  power,  was  swept  from  the 
ocean.  The  United  States  had  in  the 
meantime  augmented  their  fleet,  and  in 
the  war  of  1812-1814,  maintained  a 
glorious  struggle.  During  the  American 
war  of  secession,  many  gun-boats, 
"monitors,”  and  ironclads  of  all  classes, 


Order  of  Rank  | 

Powers 

1st  Class  Battleships 

2d  and  3d  Class 

Battleships 

Coast  Defense  Ships 

Armored  Cruisers 

Protected  or 

1st  Class  Cruisers 

Other  Cruisers 

(2d  and  3d  Class) 

Sea-Going  Gunboats 

River  Gunboats 

Torpedo  Boat 

Destroyers 

Torpedo  Boats 

Transports,  Hospital, 

Special  Service, 

Ships,  Tugs,  Etc. 

Subsidized  and 

Auxiliary  Ships 

School  and 

Training  Ships 

OfBcers 

Men 

1 

Great  Britain 

49 

20 

7 

37 

30 

119 

98 

18 

184 

290 

386 

70 

30 

6,756 

96,492 

2 

Prance 

22 

19 

8 

19 

37 

14 

38 

30 

41 

329 

219 

27 

11 

3,590 

52,193 

3 

United  States 

28 

1 

22 

12 

22 

16 

11 

*31 

16 

t41 

103 

15 

5 

2,257 

32,211 

4 

Germany 

11 

6 

12 

19 

17 

30 

12 

43 

86 

116 

22 

17 

2,719 

33,820 

5 

Japan 

tl8 

8 

13 

13 

29 

38 

23 

18 

43 

87 

99 

63 

7 

2,869 

30,490 

6 

Italy 

9 

11 

4 

7 

11 

22 

19 

3 

19 

141 

87 

9 

4 

1,560 

25,800 

7 

Russia 

8 

11 

12 

5 

6 

22 

10 

11 

68 

192 

67 

69 

10 

2,600 

50,000 

8 

Austria-Hungary 

1 

15 

7 

3 

4 

12 

15 

4 

3 

80 

27 

3 

868 

11,000 

9 

Chile 

2 

2 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

18 

26 

2 

660 

7,290 

10 

Turkey 

12 

1 

6 

1 

4 

27 

21 

690 

20,000 

11 

Greece 

4 

1 

5 

12 

2 

44 

15 

1 

585 

6,870 

12 

Denmark 

10 

4 

8 

1 

30 

48 

4 

361 

6,426 

13 

Sweden 

i 

7 

2 

1 

3 

9 

8 

2 

31 

27 

3 

640 

7,612 

14 

Netherlands 

8 

is 

9 

5 

31 

44 

92 

11 

3 

830 

25,000 

15 

Norway 

i 

7 

6 

i 

7 

5 

12 

16 

2 

38 

9 

2 

270 

4,360 

16 

Spain 

4 

4 

3 

31 

9 

20 

5 

14 

20 

io 

7 

749 

5,893 

17 

Brazil 

5 

5 

2 

4 

4 

6 

13 

22 

13 

2 

420 

5,000 

18 

Argentine  Republic . . 

3 

2 

6 

3 

4 

10 

32 

3 

3 

1 

464 

4,826 

19 

Portueal 

3 

1 

3 

21 

20 

2\ 

41 

17 

1 

1 

280 

3,200 

20 

English  Colonies 

9 

7 

14 

16 

23 

7 

2 

181 

2,000 

21 

China 

3 

15 

13 

14 

14 

11 

2 

300 

5,400 

22 

Peru 

3 

5 

142 

1,245 

23 

Mexico 

1 

9 

149 

1,390 

24 

Colombia 

7 

80 

600 

25 

Belgium 

7 

9 

230 

920 

* Includes  captured  vessels  from  Spain,  t Includes  scout  vessels.  J Includes  captured  Rus- 
sian vessels. 


NAVY 


NAVY  YARDS 


were  created;  but  chiefly  adapted  for 
river  and  coast  service.  The  JEmperor 
Napoleon  III.  greatly  enlarged  and 
improved  the  French  navy,  yet  in  the 
war  of  1870-1871  it  had  no  opportunity 
of  proving  its  effectiveness. 

The  contest  between  the  attack  and 
defense  which  has  been  going  on  for 
some  time,  appears  to  have  attained 
its  limits  in  the  100-ton  guns  of  the 
Italian  navy,  andthe  24-inch  armor-plate 
of  the  British^  and  a new  departure 
seems  already  to  have  been  taken  which 
points  in  the  direction  of  steel-plates  and 
speed,  and  a more  special  adaptation  of 
ships  for  particular  services.  The  torpedo 
system  has  introduced  a new  element 
into  naval  warfare,  particularly  in  har- 
bors, rivers,  and  inland  waters,  which 
can  hardly  be  said  to  be  yet  fully  de- 
veloped; and  the  catastrophes  of  the 
Vanguard  of  the  British  navy,  and  the 
Grosser  Kurfiirst  of  the  German,  have 
pointed  out  dangers  connected  with  the 
ram  system  that  had  not  been  calculated 
upon. 

The  table  on  page  866  gives  the  com- 
parative strength  of  the  chief  navies  of 
the  world. 

NAVY,  The  New  American.  The  In- 
diana, Massachusetts  and  the  Oregon 
were  the  first  battleships  rated  as  first- 
class  built  for  the  American  navy — the 
Maine  and  Texas  authorized  in  1886 
being  rated  as  only  second  class.  The 
three  were  sister  ships,  each  having  a 
displacement  of  10,288  tons,  and  each 
carrying  four  13-inch  guns,  eight  8-inch 
guns  and  four  6-inch  guns  in  their  main 
batteries.  The  Oregon  was  built  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  in  pursuance  of  a policy 
adopted  by  congress  in  1888,  of  having 
a part  of  the  new  ships  for  the  navy  con- 
structed on  the  west  coast.  The  Indiana 
and  Massachusetts  played  important 
parts  in  the  naval  operations  in  Cuban 
waters  during  the  war  with  Spain  in 
1898.  The  Oregon  earned  worldwide 
fame  by  its  remarkable  cruise  of  10,800 
miles,  from  San  Francisco  to  Jupiter 
Inlet,  Florida,  around  Cape  Horn.  It 
was  the  most  notable  voyage  ever  under- 
taken by  a battleship  of  its  class  in  the 
history  of  modern  navies. 

In  1891  congress  provided  but  for  one 
addition  to  the  navy — the  protected 
cruiser  Minneapolis — a sister  ship  of  the 
commerce  destroyer  Columbia.  In  1893, 
however,  congress  added  the  armored 
cruiser  Brookl3m  and  the  first-class 
battleship  Iowa  to  the  navy.  Both  ships 
represented  a distinct  advance  in  naval 
construction.  The  Brooklyn  was  larger 
and  more  heavily  armed  than  the  New 
York,  the  only  armored  cruiser  in  the 
navy  at  that  time,  while  the  Iowa  had 
a displacement  of  11,340  tons  as  against 
the  10,288  tons  of  the  Indiana,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Oregon.  Both  ships  ren- 
dered valuable  service  in  the  Spanish- 
American  war.  The  Brooklyn  was  the 
flagship  of  Rear  Admiral  Schley,  second 
in  command  at  the  battle  of  Santiago, 
and  was  hit  oftener  by  Spanish  shells 
than  any  other  American  vessel  in  the 
engagement.  The  Iowa  took  part  in 
the  same  battle. 

Three  gunboats,  the  Helena,  Nash- 
ville, and  Wilmington,  and  a submarine 
torpedo  boat,  the  Plunger,  were  author- 
ized by  congress  in  1893.  The  Nashville 


fired  the  first  hostile  shot  in  the  war 
with  Spain,  capturing  the  Spanish  ship 
Bonaventura  on  the  morning  of  April  22, 
1898,  only  a few  hours  after  war  was 
declared  and  while  Sampson’s  fleet  was 
on  its  way  from  Key  West  to  begin  the 
blockade  of  Havana.  Congress  in  1894 
authorized  only  the  construction  of  three 
torpedo  boats,  the  Foote,  Rodgers  and 
Winslow.  The  Winslow  won  distinction 
in  the  Spanish-American  war  in  the 
action  at  Cardenas  on  May  11,  1898. 
The  Winslow  had  entered  the  bay  to 
assist  in  cable  cutting  operations  and 
came  under  range  of  the  Spanish  shore 
batteries.  Ensign  Worth  Bagley  and 
four  sailors  were  killed,  this  being  the 
first  American  blood  shed  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  war. 

The  congress  of  1895  made  a notable 
increase  in  the  navy,  providing  for  the 
construction  of  no  less  than  eleven  ves- 
sels, including  two  first-class  battleships, 
six  gun  boats  and  three  torpedo  boats. 
The  battleships  were  the  sister  ships 
Kentucky  and  Kearsarge  and  offered  a 
radical  departure  from  any  type  of 
battleship  ever  before  constructed  in 
any  navy.  Both  were  supplied  with 
superimposed  turrets — a pair  of  13-inch 
guns  in  the  lower  turret  and  a pair  of 
8-inch  guns  in  a smaller  turret  mounted 
upon  the  larger  turret.  The  gunboats 
provided  in  the  same  naval  program 
were  the  Annapolis,  Marietta,  Newport, 
Princeton,  Vicksburg,  and  Wheeling. 
They  are  all  small  cruising  vessels,  each 
of  1000  tons  displacement,  built  for 
West  Indian  and  Caribbean  sea  service. 
The  torpedo  boats  included  the  Dupont, 
Porter  and  Roman. 

Congress  in  1896  added  the  three 
first-class  battleships  Alabama,  Illinois, 
and  Wisconsin,  and  ten  torpedo  boats, 
and  in  1897  three  more  torpedo  boats 
and  a training  ship  to  the  navy.  In  1898, 
the  naval  program  was  the  largest  ever 
authorized  at  a single  session  of  con- 
gress. The  list  included  three  first-class 
battleships  larger  than  any  before  de- 
signed for  the  American  navy,  sixteen 
torpedo  boat  destroyers — the  first  ever 
built  by  the  United  States,  twelve 
torpedo  boats,  four  coast  defense  moni- 
tors and  one  gunboat.  The  Spanish- 
American  war  undoubtedly  was  the 
direct  moving  cause  of  this  generous 
expansion  of  the  navy.  The  war  had 
demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  United 
States  could  not  claim  immunity  from 
war  with  a foreign  power  and  that  the 
naval  combats  of  the  future  were  to  be 
fought  with  first-class  battleships. 

The  additions  to  the  navy  authorized 
in  1898  were  three  first-class  battle- 
ships, the  West  Virginia,  Nebraska,  and 
Georgia,  three  great  armored  cruisers, 
the  California,  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia, and  six  protected  cruisers,  and 
in  1900  provided  for  two  more  first-class 
battleships,  the  New  Jersey  and  Rhode 
Island,  three  armored  cruisers,  the  South 
Dakota,  Maryland  and  Colorado,  three 
protected  cruisers  of  a new  and  ad- 
vanced type,  the  Charleston,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Louis,  each  of  9,700  tons  dis- 
placement. 

Congress  in  1900  also  made  a new 
departure  in  naval  construction  by  pro- 
viding for  seven  submarine  torpedo 
boats. 


Two  first-class  battle-ships,  the  Con- 
necticut and  the  Louisiana,  two  armored 
cruisers,  the  Tennessee  and  Washington, 
two  gunboats,  the  Dubuque  and  Padu- 
cah, were  added  in  1902.  The  congress 
of  1903  authorized  no  less  than  five 
first-class  battleships  of  16,000  tons 
displacement  each,  the  equals  of  any 
fighting  ships  afloat  in  any  navy.  In 
1904  a first-class  battleship  and  three 
swift  cruisers  were  added  to  the  navy, 
and  in  1905  two  more  first-class  battle- 
ships were  added. 

No  limit  has  been  fixed  by  naval 
authority,  congressional  action,  or  pub- 
lic sentiment.  The  general  naval  board 
at  the  head  of  which  stands  Admiral 
Dewey  is  on  record  officially  as  stating 
that  the  work  of  construction  should 
continue  without  interruption  until  at 
least  48  first-class  battleships  and  48 
first-class  armored  cruisers  of  the  heav- 
iest class  and  highest  type  should  be  in 
commission. 

NAVY,  ARMY  AND,  RELATIVE 
RANK  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Generals  rank  with  admirals,  lieuten- 
ant-generals rank  with  vice-admirals, 
major-generals  rank  with  first  nine  rear- 
admirals,  brigadier-generals  rank  with 
rear-admirals  after  the  first  nine  and 
commodores,  colonels  rank  with  cap- 
tains, lieutenant-colonels  rank  with 
commanders,  majors  rank  with  lieu- 
tenant-commanders, captains  rank 
with  lieutenants,  first  lieutenants  rank 
with  lieutenants  junior  grade,  second 
lieutenants  rank  with  ensigns,  cadets 
rank  with  midshipmen. 

NAVY,  Department  of  the,  one  of  the 
nine  executive  departments  of  the 
United  States  government,  created  by 
act  of  congress  of  April  30,  1798,  and 
charged  with  the  general  control  and 
administration  of  the  navy.  At  the  head 
of  the  department  is  a secretary,  who 
is  a member  of  the  cabinet,  appointed 
by  the  president  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  senate,  and  receives  an 
annual  salary  of  $8000. 

It  is  his  duty  to  execute  such  orders  as 
the  president  may  give  relative  to  the 
administration  of  naval  affairs,  includ- 
ing the  procurement  of  naval  supplies 
and  the  construction,  armament,  equip- 
ment, and  emplojment  of  vessels  of  war. 
He  makes  annual  report  to  the  president 
of  the  operations  of  the  navy  depart- 
ment. His  deputy  is  the  assistant  secre- 
tary, who  is  appointed  by  the  persident, 
and  who  during  the  absence  or  incapaci- 
tation of  the  secretary  acts  in  his  stead, 
taking  the  title  of  acting  secretary. 

NAVY-YARDS.  1.  Brooklyn  navy- 
yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  2.  Charleston 

navy-yard,  Boston,  Mass.  3.  Ports- 
mouth navy-yard,  near  Norfolk,  Va. 
4.  Kittery  navy-yard,  opposite  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.  5.  League  Island  navy- 
yard,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  6.  Mare  Island 
navy-yard,  near  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
7.  Washington  City  navy-yard,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  8.  Puget  Sound  navy-yard 
Bremerton,  Wash. 

There  are  naval  stations  at  Port 
Royal,  S.  C.;  Charleston,  S.  C.;  Key 
West,  Fla.';  Pensacola,  Fla.';  Algiers, 
La.;  Great  Lakes,  North  Chicago,  111.; 
a torpedo  and  training  station  at  New- 
port, R.  I.,  and  a training  station  on 
Yerba  Buena  Island,  Cal.,  and  the  naval 


NAZARINES 


NEBRASKA 


War  college,  Newport,  R.  I.  Naval  sta- 
tions have  been  established  at  Tutuila, 
Samoa,  Island  of  Guam;  San  Juan, 
Porto  Rico;  Culebra,W.  I. ; Guantanamo, 
Cuba,  Honolulu,  H.  I.,  and  Cavite, 
Philippine  islands.  The  latter  has  be- 
come an  important  naval  base  for  the 
Asiatic  squadroon. 

NAZARINES,  a designation  given  to 
the  early  Christians  from  the  town  of 
Nazareth,  where  Christ  dwelt.  The  name 
was  also  applied  to  a sect  which  arose  at 
the  end  of  the  1st  century,  and  existed 
chiefly  in  Egypt.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  retained  a judaizing  adherence  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  to  have  held  a low 
opinion  about  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

NAZ'ARETH,  a small  town  in  Pales- 
tine, 65  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  cele- 
brated as  the  residence  of  our  Savior 
during  his  youth.  It  is  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  hills.  The  houses  are  of  stone, 
well  built,  with  flat  roofs.  There  is  a 
Franciscan  convent  and  fine  church;  an 
English  mission  church,  school,  and 
orphanage ; a Greek  church,  and  a mos- 
que. Pop.  about  6000. 

NEBO,  or  NABU,  an  ancient  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  deity,  lord  of  the  planet 
Mercury,  and  ruler  of  the  hosts  of 


Nebo. 

heaven  and  earth,  according  to  Baby- 
lonian inscriptions,  especially  honored 
in  Borsippa.  Statues  of  Nebo  have  been 
found  in  Nineveh,  showing  him  with 
long  beard  and  hair,  and  clad  in  a long 
robe. 

NEBRAS'KA,one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  by  South  Dakota,  Iowa,  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Wyom- 
ing; area,  76,855  sq.  miles.  It  lies  in  the 
region  of  the  great  plains  skirting  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  mountains, 
toward  whose  foothills  it  rises  in  a gentle 
tindulating  incline.  The  whole  western 
half  of  the  state  lies  at  an  elevation  of 
more  than  2500  feet  above  the  sea. 

The  climate  is  dry  and  exhilarating. 
The  mean  temperature  for  January  is 
19.7°  and  for  July  74.8°.  The  extremes 
are  very  great,  the  mercury  sometimes 
falling  to  — 42°  and  at  times  rising  to 
114°  The  nights  are  cool.  The  annual 
rainfall  is  23  inches,  but  this  is  very 
unevenly  distributed.  In  the  east  it  is 
sufficient  to  support  agriculture,  ranging 
from  30  inches  on  the  average  to  a local 
maximum  as  high  as  50  inches.  In  the 
western  half  it  is  below  20,  and  in  the 


extreme  west  as  low  as  12  Inches,  so 
that  here  agriculture  cannot  be  carried 
on  successfully  without  irrigation.  On 
the  n.w.  it  is  a desolate  tract  known  as 
the  Mauvaises  Terres  or  Bad  Lands, 
rich  in  interesting  fossil  remains.  Tim- 
ber has  been  extensively  planted  of  late. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Missouri, 
which  forms  the  boundary  on  the  east; 


Seal  of  Nebraska. 


its  great  affluent,  the  Nebraska  or 
Platte,  which,  formed  by  two  main 
forks,  a northern  and  a southern,  both 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  traverses 
the  territory  in  an  eastern  direction;  and 
the  Republican  Fork  of  Kansas  river, 
traversing  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 
The  soil,  except  in  the  northwest  and 
southwest,  is  a deep  rich  loam  underlaid 
by  a porous  clayey  subsoil,  and  is  thus  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  withstand  drought. 
Nebraska  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant agricultural  states.  60.8  per 
cent  of  the  total  land  area  is  included 
in  farms,  and  of  this  61.6  per  cent  is 
improved.  Irrigation  in  the  arid  areas  of 
the  west  has  been  attended  with  success. 
In  some  regions  there  are  supplies  of 
underground  water,  which  can  be 
utilized  by  means  of  windmills  and 
small  reservoirs. 

Corn  is  the  leading  crop,  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  cultivated  acreage  of  the  state 
being  devoted  to  it.  The  acreage  de- 
voted to  wheat  is  about  one-third  that 
of  corn  and  there  have  been  large  in- 
increases  in  the  area  devoted  to  oats 
and  rye  during  each  of  the  last  two  dec- 
ades of  the  nineteenth  century;  rye, 
however,  is  of  only  minor  importance. 
Grasses  cut  for  hay  are  chiefly  wild, 
salt,  or  prairie  grasses,  but  millet,  alfalfa, 
and  other  cultivated  grasses  are  also 
grown.  Potatoes  and  other  vegetable 
crops  are  extensively  grown.  In  the  last 
decade  of  the  past  century  a rapid  in- 
crease was  made  in  the  cultivation  of 
sugar  beets.  The  growing  of  orchard 
fruits  is  mainly  confined  to  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  state.  Cattle  and 
horses  require  little  protection  or  hand 
feeding  during  winter.  Manufactures 
are  as  yet  generally  restricted  to  the 
supply  of  local  wants.  The  railway  sys- 
tem centers  in  Omaha,  the  chief  city, 
the  Union  Pacificrailwaypassing  through 
tiio  state.  Limestone,  sandstone,  and 
gypsum  are  abundant;  coal  is  found  in 
limited  quantity;  and  there  is  a good 
supply  of  salt.  The  chief  towns  are 
Omaha  (by  much  the  largest)  and  Lin- 


coln (the  state  capital).  At  the  head  of 
the  educational  establishments  stand 
the  State  university  at  Lincoln,  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  college  in  Ne- 
braska City,  and  the  Congregational 
college  at  Crete.  In  all  the  principal 
towns  there  are  graded  and  high  schools 
supported  by  general  and  local  taxation, 
and  a generous  share  of  the  public  lands 
has  been  set  apart  for  educational  pur- 
poses. 

Nebraska  was  probably  first  visited 
by  Europeans  in  1541,  in  July  of  which 
year  the  Spanish  general  and  explorer 
Coronado  penetrated  from  New  Mexico 
to  a country  which  he  called  Quivira, 
and  described  as  lying  about  the  fortieth 
parallel,  and  abounding  in  buffalo, 
which  corresponds  with  the  region  of 
the  Platte.  About  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  French  missionaries  from 
Canada  came  to  the  Missouri,  and  still 
later  a few  traders  found  their  way  here. 
It  constituted  a portion  of  the  Louisiana 
territory  which  was  purchased  by  Jef- 
ferson from  France  in  1803.  At  that 
time  Indian  tribes  still  occupied  the 
whole  region.  At  some  earlier  period  a 
more  civilized  race  lived  here  who  made 
pottery  and  skillful  carvings,  built 
houses  and  fortifications,  and  reared 
mounds  which  often  contain  the  ashes 
of  their  dead.  When  Nebraska  came 
into  possession  of  the  United  States  the 
Sioux  Indians  were  most  numerous. 
The  Pawnees,  Otoes,  and  Omahas  were 
next  in  numbers  and  in  importance. 

The  first  settlement  by  whites  was 
made  in  1847  at  Bellevue,  on  the  Mis- 
souri, nine  miles  south  of  Omaha.  Here 
a trading  post  of  the  American  Fur 
company  was  conducted.  The  Mormon 
emigration,  begun  in  1847,  traversed 
several  paths,  one  of  which  lay  through 
Nebraska,  which  thus  became  generally 
known  throughout  the  country.  Dur- 
ing the  overland  traffic  to  California  that 
commenced  in  1849,  depots  of  supply 
were  established  at  Bellevue,  Platts- 
mouth,  Nebraska  City,  and  in  the  in- 
terior at  Forf  Kearney. 

The  act  constituting  Nebraska  a dis- 
tinct territory,  and  opening  its  lands  to 
settlement,  was  approved  May  30,  1854. 
Its  area  then  embraced  351,558  sq. 
miles,  extending  from  the  fortieth  paral- 
lel to  British  America  on  the  north,  its 
eastern  line  connecting  the  Missouri  river 
on  the  southeast  with  the  Red  river  on 
the  north,  and  its  western  line  being  the 
summit  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  In 
1861  Nebraska  was  shorn  of  its  extended 
territory  by  the  cutting  off  of  portions 
of  it  to  form  Dakota  and  Colorado  ter- 
ritories. In  1863  it  was  still  further  re- 
duced by  the  formation  of  Idaho  terri- 
tory. These  curtailments  left  Nebraska 
a purely  prairie  state.  During  the  first 
five  years  after  the  organization  of  the 
territory  the  settlements  rapidly  in- 
creased along  the  Missouri.  Great  num- 
bers who  rushed  to  Pike’s  Peak  in  1859 
when  the  gold  excitement  was  at  its 
height,  on  their  return,  disappointed 
and  disgusted,  stopped  and  opened  farms 
in  the  state.  In  1863  the  Union  Pacific 
railroad  and  in  1864  the  Burlington  and 
Missouri  River  railroad  began  to  sell 
portions  of  their  land  in  Nebraska,  re- 
ceived from  the  general  government 
and  this  became  a most  potent  factor 


NEBRASKA  CITY 


NECROMANCY 


in  turning  a tide  of  emigration  into  the 
state. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  in 
1861  the  population  of  the  territory 
comprised  less  than  30,000.  Yet  Nebras- 
ka furnished  to  the  Union  army  during 
the  war  3,307  officers  and  men. 

In  1866  the  legislature  prepared  a 
constitution  for  a state  government, 
which  a vote  of  the  people  confirmed. 
The  first  legislature  under  the  state  con- 
stitution met  July  4,  1866.  The  bill  to 
admit  Nebraska  as  a state  was  passed 
over  the  president’s  veto,  and  pro- 
claimed on  March  1,  1867. 

The  first  capital  of  Nebraska  was  at 
Bellevue.  It  was  removed  to  Omaha  in 
1855,  where  it  remained  until  Nebraska 
became  a state,  when  it  was  taken  to 
Lancaster,  a town  of  half  a dozen  houses, 
whose  name  was  then  changed  to  Lin- 
coln. The  present  state  constitution 
was  framed  in  1875,  and  was  ratified 
in  the  same  year  by  the  people.  The 
first  legislature  under  the  new  constitu- 
tion met  in  January,  1877.  The  house 
of  representatives  consists  of  eighty- 
four,  and  the  senate  of  thirty  members; 
and  the  legislature  meets  biennially. 

Politically  Nebraska  has  been  repub- 
lican in  national  elections  with  the  ex- 
ception of  1806  and  1908,  when  it  was 
carried  by  the  democratic  candidate, 
William  Jennings  Bryan,  a resident  of 
the  state.  Pop.  1,350.000. 

NEBRASKA  CITY,  the  capital  of 
Otoe  CO.,  Nebraska,  on  the  Missouri, 
about  35  miles  s.  of  Omaha.  It  contains 
the  Nebraska  college  (Episcopal),  and 
the  trade  is  active.  Pop.  10,161. 

NEBRASKA,  University  of,  a co- 
educational state  university  at  Lincoln, 
Neb.,  founded  in  1869.  It  comprises  the 
graduate  school ; the  college  of  literature, 
science,  and  arts;  the  industrial  college, 
the  college  of  law;  the  college  of  medi- 
cine, the  school  of  fine  arts;  and  the 
affiliated  school  of  music.  There  is  also 
a summer  session.  The  regents  have 
intrusted  to  its  charge  the  United  States 
agricultural  experiment  station,  the 
state  museum,  the  botanical  and  geo- 
logical surveys,  and  the  superintendency 
of  farmers’  institutes.  Students  are  ad- 
mitted on  examination  or  on  certificates 
from  accredited  schools.  Military  drill 
is  compulsory  for  first  and  second  year 
male  students  in 'the  college,  and  physi- 
cal training  for  all  first  and  second  year 
woman  students. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR,  a king  of  Baby- 
lon, celebrated  as  the  conqueror  of 
Judah.  He  reigned  from  604  to  561 
B.c.  He  was  the  son  of  Nabopolassar,  by 
whom  the  kingdom  of  Babylon  was 
definitely  made  independent  of  the 
Assyrian  monarchy.  In  the  fourth  year 
of  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Judah  (605-4 
B.C.),  he  defeated  Pharaoh-Necho,  king 
of  Egpyt,  at  Carchemish  (Circesium), 
on  the  Euphrates,  after  which  he  sub- 
jugated Syria  and  Palestine,  carrying 
off  with  him  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
temple  and  the  chief  Jews  into  captivity. 
He  destroyed  Tyre  in  585,  and  some 
years  later  he  invaded  and  ravaged 
Egypt.  During  the  peaceful  years  of 
his  reign  he  rebuilt  in  a magnificent 
manner  Babylon  and  many  of  the  other 
cities  of  the  empire,  and  constructed  vast 
temples,  aqueducts,  and  palaces,  whose 


ruins  still  testify  to  his  grandeur.  His 
insanity  and  the  events  preceding  are 
only  known  to  us  from  the  book  of 
Daniel.  Several  inscriptions  relating  to 
his  reign  have  recently  been  found. 

NEB'ULA,  pi.  Nebulae,  in  astronomy, 
the  name  given  to  certain  celestial  ob- 
jects resembling  white  clouds,  which  in 
many  cases,  when  observed  through 
telescopes  of  sufficient  power,  have  been 
resolved  into  clusters  of  distinct  stars. 
As  more  and  more  powerful  telescopes 
have  been  employed,  the  number  of  re- 
solvable nebulae  has  become  greater  and 
greater,  and  it  is  probable  that  many 
nebulae  irresolvable  at  present  may  yet 
be  shown  to  be  star  clusters  in  tele- 
scopes more  powerful  than  those  now 
employed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  spec- 
troscope has  shown  that  many  nebulae, 
among  which  are  several  that  had 
hitherto  appeared  to'  be  well-authenti- 
cated clusters,  consist,  in  part  at  least,  of 
masses  of  incandescent  gas.  The  recent 
researches  of  Sir  J.  Norman  Lockye 
render  it  probable  that  nebulae  include 
clouds  of  meteors,  which,  by  their  con- 
tinual impact  against  one  another,  pro- 
duce the  heat,  light,  and  gaseous  matter 
that  are  detected  by  our  telescopes  and 
spectroscopes.  A few  of  the  great  nebulae 
such  as  those  of  Orion,  Argo  Navis,  and 
Andromeda,  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye ; 
but  most  are  telescopic  and  of  these  up- 
ward of  5000  are  now  known  to  astron- 
omers. Nebulae  have  been  classified  as 
follows:  (1)  Resolvable  nebulae,  and 
such  as  apparently  only  require  instru- 
ments of  increased  power  to  resolve 
them  into  separate  stars;  (2)  Irresolvable 
nebulae,  showing  no  appearance  of  stars; 
(3)  Planetary  nebulae,  so  called  beeause 
they  slightly  resemble  in  appearance  the 
larger  planets;  (4)  Stellar  nebulae,  those 
having  in  their  center  a condensation  of 
light;  and  (5)  Nebulous  stars,  a bright 
star  often  seen  in  the  center  of  a circular 
nebula,  or  two  bright  stars  associated 
with  a double  nebula,  or  with  two  dis- 
tinct nebulae  near  each  other. 

NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS,  a theory 
by  means  of  which  Laplace  (before  the 
existence  of  nebulous  matter  in  the  uni- 
verse had  been  discovered  by  means  of 
the  spectroscope)  accounted  for  those 
features  of  the  solar  system  which  must 
be  regarded  as  accidental  in  the  New- 
tonian philosophy.  This  theory  sup- 
poses that  the  bodies  composing  the 
solar  system  once  existed  in  the  form  of 
a nebula;  that  this  had  a revolution  on 
its  own  axis  from  west  to  east ; that  the 
temperature  gradually  diminishing,  and 
the  nebula  contracting  by  refrigeration, 
the  rotation  increased  in  rapidity,  and 
zones  of  nebulosity  were  successfully 
thrown  off  in  consequence  of  the  centrifu- 
gal force  overpowering  the  central  at- 
traction. These  zones  being  con- 
densed, and  partaking  of  the  primary 
rotation,  constituted  the  planets,  some 
of  which  in  turn  threw  off  zones  which 
now  form  their  satellites.  The  main  body 
being  condensed  toward  the  center, 
formed  the  sun.  The  theory  was  after- 
ward extended  so  as  to  include  a cos- 
mogony of  the  whole  universe,  and 
though  open  to  certain  objections,  is 
now  generally  received  by  astronomers. 

NECK,  the  part  of  the  body  which  is 
between  the  head  and  the  trunk,  and 


connects  them.  The  bones  of  the  neck  in 
man,  and  in  nearly  all  other  mammals, 
are  the  seven  cervical  vertebrae. 

NECKER,  Jacques,  French  minister 
of  finance,  born  at  Geneva  1732  died 
1804.  In  1776  he  received  an  appoint- 
ment to  the  treasury,  the  direction  of 
which  he  retained  for  five  years.  Mal- 
versation under  the  preceding  reign  had 
caused  a large  deficit,  to  which  the 
American  war  made  great  additions. 
Necker  endeavored  to  meet  the  exigency 
by  loans  and  reforms,  and  above  all  to 
fund  the  French  debt,  and  establish 
annuities  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
state.  His  suppression  of  abuses  had 
created  him  many  enemies  at  court,  and 
shortly  after  the  publication  of  his 
famous  Compte  Rendu,  in  which  he  fur- 
nished a clear  statement  of  the  condition 


Necker. 


in  which  he  had  found  things  of  what 
he  had  done  and  what  he  intended  to  do, 
he  resigned  and  retired  to  Switzerland, 
where  he  published  his  Administration 
of  the  Finances,  which  had  an  immense 
circulation.  In  1788  he  was  recalled  as 
controller-general.  The  states-general 
were  summoned  to  meet  on  the  1st 
of  M^-Y)  1789;  but  not  long  after  the 
advisers  of  the  king  succeeded  in  induc- 
ing him  to  give  Necker  his  dismissal, 
and  to  order  him  to  leave  the  kingdom. 
No  sooner  was  his  removal  known  than 
all  Paris  was  in  a ferment.  The  storming 
of  the  Bastille  followed  (July  14),  and 
the  king  found  himself  compelled  to  re- 
call the  banished  minister.  His  return  to 
Paris  resembled  a triumphal  procession. 
His  first  object  was  to  restore  tranquility 
and  security  of  person  and  property. 
But  he  was  not  equal  to  the  political 
or  even  the  financial  crisis,  and  resigned 
in  September,  1790.  He  passed  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  Switzerland,  where  he 
occupied  himself  in  writing  political  and 
religious  treatises.  Necker’s  daughter 
was  the  well-known  Madame  de  Stael. 

NEC'ROMANCY,  the  divination  of  the 
future  by  questioning  the  dead.  This 
superstition  originated  in  the  East,  and 
is  of  the  highest  antiquity.  We  find 
mention  made  of  necromancy  in  the 
Scriptures,  where  it  is  strongly  con- 
demned. In  the  Odyssey  Homer  has 
made  Ulysses  raise  the  shade  of  Tiresias 
from  the  infernal  regions.  In  many  parts 
of  Greece  there  were  oracles  of  the  dead, 
the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  the  obscurity 
of  history.  Although  this  practice  has 
been  condemned  by  the  Christian 


NECROPOLIS 


NEGRO  MINSTRELSY 


Church  from  the  very  first,  it  has  not 
yet  entirely  ceased.  Modern  spiritualism 
embodies  all  the  elements  of  necromancy 
The  term  is  often  extended  so  as  to  in- 
clude the  general  art  of  magic. 

NECROP'OLIS  (literally,  “city  of  the 
dead”),  a name  originally  applied  to  a 
suburb  of  Alexandria  devoted  to  the 
reception  of  the  dead,  and  hence  ex- 
tended to  the  cemeteries  of  the  ancients 
generally.  The  name  has  also  been 
given  to  some  modern  cemeteries  in  or 
near  towns. 

NECRO'SIS  (literally,  “mortifica- 
tion”), a medical  term  signifying  the 
death  of  the  bone  substance.  It  is  a con- 
dition of  the  bone  substance  correspond- 
ing to  what  gangrene  is  in  the  soft  parts, 
thus  distinguished  from  caries,  which 
corresponds  to  ulceration  in  the  soft 
parts.  Necrosis  is  usually  a result  of 
inflammation  of  the  bone,  and  is  often 
attributed  to  cold,  but  frequently  it  is 
due  to  constitutional  disease. 

NECTAR,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
drink  of  the  gods,  which  was  imagined 
to  contribute  much  toward  their  eternal 
existence.  It  was  said  to  impart  a 
bloom,  a beauty,  and  a vigor  which  sur- 
passed all  conception,  and  together  with 
ambrosia  (their  solid  food)  repaired  all 
the  decays  or  accidental  injuries  of  the 
divine  constitution. 

NEC'TARINE,  a fruit  which  differs 
from  the  peach  only  in  having  a smoother 
rind  and  firmer  pulp,  being  indeed  a 
mere  variety  of  peach.  See  Peach. 

NEEDLE,  a small  instrument  of  steel, 
pointed  at  one  end,  and  having  an  eye 
or  hole  in  it  through  which  is  passed  a 
thread,  used  for  sewing.  From_  very 
ancient  times  needles  of  bone,  ivory, 
wood,  and  bronze,  have  been  used.  The 
manufacture  of  steel  needles  was  first 
introduced  into  England  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  The  operations  that  an 
ordinary  sewing-needle  goes  through  are 
very  numerous,  though  of  late  many  im- 
provements have  been  introduced  which 
reduce  the  number  of  separate  opera- 
tions, and  many  of  the  needle-making 
processes  are  performed  by  machinery  at 
a great  saving  of  time  and  labor.  The 
chief  of  the  ordinary  operations  that  a 
sewing-needle  goes  through  in  their 
proper  order  are  such  as  follow;  The 
cutting  of  the  steel  wire  into  lengths 
suffici^t  for  two  needles;  the  pointing 
of  these  at  both  ends  on  a grindstone  by 
fifty  or  sixty  at  a time;  the  cutting  of 
each  length  through  the  middle  to  give 
two  needles;  the  flattening  of  the  heads 
by  a blow  with  a hammer;  the  piercing 
of  the  eyes  with  a punch  applied  first 
on  one  side  then  on  the  other;  the  trim- 
ming of  the  eyes;  the  grooving  and 
rounding  of  the  head;  hardening,  tem- 
pering, straightening;  polishing,  which 
is  done  by  making  up  some  500,000 
needles  into  a cigar-shaped  bundle  along 
with  emery  and  oil  and  rolling  them 
backward  and  forward  under  a weight. 
Modifications  of  the  ordinary  sewing- 
needle  are  used  in  the  various  forms  of 
sewing  machines,  in  sailmaking,  book- 
binding, glovemaking,  darning,  stay- 
making, etc.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  implements  of  iron  or  steel,  bone, 
wood,  etc.,  used  for  interweaving  or 
interlacing  a thread  or  twine  in  knitting, 
netting,  embroidery,  jacquard-loom 


weaving,  etc.,  and  formed  in  various 
ways,  according  to  the  purpose  for 
which  they  are  intended;  as  also  to  sun- 
dry long  and  sharp-pointed  surgical  in- 
struments, some  employed  for  sewing, 
others  for  other  purposes,  as  in  couching 
for  cataract.  The  small  piece  of  steel 
pointed  at  both  ends  and  balanced  on  a 
pivot,  as  in  the  magnetic  compass  and 
some  forms  of  telegraphic  instruments 
is  also  called  a needle,  and  the  term  is 
used  for  various  other  objects. 

NEEDLE-GUN,  a breech-loading  rifle 
the  cartridge  of  which  contained  a small 
quantity  of  detonating  powder  which 
was  exploded  by  the  rapid  darting  for- 
ward of  a needle  or  small  spike.  It  is 
now  superseded  by  weapons  of  superior 
efficiency.  See  Rifle. 

NE'GATIVE,  in  photography,  is  that 
kind  of  photographic  picture  in  which 
the  lights  and  shadows  of  the  natural 
object  are  transposed;  the  high  lights 
being  black,  and  the  deep  shadows 
transparent,  or  nearly  so.  Negatives  are 
taken  on  glass  and  paper  by  various 
processes,  and  should  indicate  with 
extreme  delicacy,  and  in  reverse  order, 
the  various  gradations  of  light  and  shade 
which  occur  in  a landscape  or  portrait. 
A negative  differs  from  a positive  inas- 
much as  in  the  latter  case  it  is  required 
to  produce  a deposit  of  pure  metallic 
silver  to  be  viewed  by  reflected  light; 
while  in  the  former,  density  to  trans- 
mitted light  is  the  chief  desideratum ; 
accordingly  inorganic  reducing  and 
retarding  agents  are  employed  in  the  de- 
velopment of  a positive,  while  those 
of  organic  origin  are  used  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a negative.  The  possession  of 
favorable  conditions  of  well-directed 
light  being  secured,  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  establish  a proper  and  harmonious 
relation  between  the  collodion  bath,  de- 
veloper, and  time  of  exposure.  A 
recently-iodized  collodion  will  generally 
be  tolerably  neutral,  in  which  case,  if 
the  developer  be  at  all  strong,  and  the 
weather  warm,  the  bath  should  be  de- 
cidedly acid  or  fogging  will  be  the  result. 
Should  the  collodion,  however,  be  red 
with  free  iodine,  a mere  trace  of  acid  in 
the  bath  will  suffice,  while  the  develop- 
ment may  be  much  prolonged,  even  in 
warm  weather,  without  fogging.  If  the 
simple  fact  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
presence  of  acid  either  in  the  bath  col- 
lodion or  developer,  retards  the  reducing 
action  of  the  developer,  it  will  suffice  to 
guide  the  operator  in  many  difficulties. 
The  value  of  a negative  consists  in  the 
power  it  gives  of  multiplying  positive 
proofs. 

NEGLIGENCE,  in  law,  the  omission 
to  do  that  which  ought  to  be  done.  When 
such  want  of  care  results  in  injury  to 
another,  or  involves  a wrong  done  to 
society,  it  renders  the  party  guilty  of 
negligence  liable  to  either  an  action  for 
damages  or  trial  for  misdemeanor.  In 
law  there  are  recognized  three  degrees 
of  negligence:  ordinary,  the  want  of 
ordinary  care  or  diligence;  slight,  the 
want  of  great  care  or  diligence  and  gross, 
the  want  of  slight  care  or  diligence. 
The  person  charged  with  negligence 
must  have  been  under  an  obligation  to 
exercise  care  or  diligence  either  as- 
sumed by  contract  or  imposed  by  law. 
An  alleged  act  of  negligence  must  always 


be  the  proximate  cause  of  the  injury 
sustained;  but  any  injury  caused  to  a 
person  by  another  who  at  the  time  is 
exercising  due  care  is  not  actionable. 
The  question  of  negligence  is  usually 
one  for  a jury,  and  the  onus  of  proof 
rests  on  the  pursuer,  except  when  the 
thing  resulting  from  the  negligence 
speaks  for  itself. 

NEGRITOS,  or  NEGRILLOS,  the 

name  given  to  several  negro-like  races 
inhabiting  the  islands,  etc.,  of  South- 
eastern Asia,  and  often  confounded  with 
the  Papuan  race.  The  chief  tribes  are 
the  Aetas,  the  indigenous  people  of  the 
Philippine  Archipelago,  still  inhabiting 
the  interior  of  the  islands  of  Luzon, 
Negros,  Panay,  Mindoro,  and  Min- 
danao; the  Samangs  of  Malacca;  and 
the  Mincopies  inhabiting  the  Andaman 
Archipelago.  They  are  dwarfish  in 
stature,  averaging  from  4 feet  6 inches 
to  4 feet  8 inches  in  height;  the  nose 
small,  flattened  or  turned  up  at  the 
apex,  and  the  hair  soft  and  frizzled. 
The  various  tribes  speak  distinct  and 
mutually  unintelligible  dialects. 

NEGRO,  the  name  of  numerous  rivers, 
both  large  and  small.  See  Rio  Negro. 

NEGROES,  a race  of  the  human 
species  indigenous  to  the  African 
Soudan,  though  the  term  is  often  ex- 
tended so  as  to  cover  all  the  tribes  in- 
habiting Africa  from  the  southern  mar- 
gin of  the  Sahara  as  far  as  the  territory 
of  the  Hottentots  and  Buslunen,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
These  tribes  are  all  dark-colored,  yellow, 
copper-red,  olive,  or  dark-brown,  passing 
into  ebony-black.  The  typical  negro, 
however,  is  described  as  having  a black 
skin,  woolly  or  crisp  hair,  a protuberant 
mouth  with  thick  lips,  nose  thick  and 
flat,  thick  narrow  skull,  flat  and  receding 
forehead,  hair  of  the  face  scanty,  thorax 
compressed,  flat  buttocks,  long  arms, 
knees  bent  outward,  calves  weak,  and 
feet  comparatively  flat  with  long  heels. 
The  brain,  though  essentially  similar  to 
that  of  the  white  races,  is  not  so  large, 
averaging  about  5 ounces  less  than  that 
of  the  white  man.  The  negro  as  a rule 
differs  as  much  from  the  whites  in  men- 
tal as  in  physical  characteristics,  though 
there  are  many  individual  exceptions. 
He  is  very  receptive,  and  in  that  which 
requires  imitation  he  is  well  developed, 
but  in  that  which  requires  independent 
thought  he  stands  on  a low  stage.  He 
has  less  nervous  sensibility  than  the 
white  man,  and  can  flourish  in  climates 
fatal  to  the  higher  races,  and  the  race 
does  not  diminish  in  contact  with  civiliza- 
tion. Certain  negro  tribes  of  Africa 
present  a surprising  picture  of  barbaric 
civilization  from  contact  with  Moham- 
medanism. The  slave  system  has 
alienated  great  numbers  of  negroes 
from  their  native  country  mostly  to 
America  and  the  West  India  Islands', 
where  there  has  been  considerable  inter- 
mixture of  races.  There  are  upwards  of 
7,000,000  negroes  in  the  United  States, 
many  of  whom  hold  good  positions  in 
society,  as  negroes  also  do  in  the  West 
Indies  and  elsewhere. 

NEGRO  MINSTRELSY,  a species  of 
music  of  a quaint  and  simple  kind, 
which  originated  among  the  negroes  of  i 
the  southern  United  States,  and  was 
first  made  popular  at  public  entertaiu- 


NEGROPONT 


NEPAL 


merits  by  E.  P.  Christy,  the  originator 
of  the  troupes  of  imitation  negro  musi- 
cians. The  words  of  the  songs  are  gen- 
erally in  broken  English,  and  the  har- 
mony almost  entirely  limited  to  the 
chords  of  the  tonic  and  dominant.  The 
bones  and  banjo  are  the  chief  accom- 
panying instruments. 

NE'GROPONT.  See  Eubsea. 

NEGROS,  an  island  in  the  Asiatic 
Archipelago,  belonging  to  the  Philip- 
pines, and  separated  from  Panay  by  a 
strait  about  15  miles  wide.  Length  130 
miles,  average  width  24  miles;  area 
about  3800  sq.  miles.  In  the  central 
mountainous  part  of  the  island  are  a 
considerable  number  of  Negritos,  but 
the  inhabitants  are  chiefly  Malays.  Sugar 
is  the  chief  product.  Pop.  400,000. 

NEGUS,  a drink  made  of  port  or 
sherry  wine  mixed  with  hot  water,  sugar, 
nutmeg,  and  lemon-juice ; so  called  from 
Colonel  Negus,  the  inventor. 

NEHEMI'AH,  a distin^ished  and 
pious  Jew,  who  was  born  in  captivity, 
but  was  made  the  cup-bearer  of  Artaxer- 
xes  Longimanus,  king  of  Persia.  He 
was  sent,  b.c.  444,  as  governor  to  Jeru- 
salem, with  a commission  to  rebuild  the 
walls  and  gates  of  this  city.  He  accom- 
plished his  purpose,  but  not  without 
difficulties,  arising  partly  from  the 
poverty  of  the  lower  classes  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  partly  from  the  opposition  of 
the  Ammonites  and  other  foreign  set- 
tlers. The  Book  of  Nehemiah  contains 
Nehemiah’s  account  of  his  proceedings, 
with  other  matter  which  forms  a sup- 
plement to  the  narration  contained  in 
the  Book  of  Ezra. 

NEILGHERRY  (nel'ge-ri)  HILLS,  a 
district  and  range  of  mountains  in 
Madras  Presidency,  South  Hindustan. 
Area,  957  sq.  miles.  Pop.  91,034. 

NELSON,  Horatio,  Viscount,  a great 
British  admiral,  was  bom  Sept.  29,  1758, 
at  Burnham  Thorpe,  in  Norfolk;  died 
Oct.  21,  1805.  On  the  commencement 
of  the  war  with  the  French  Repub- 
lic he  was  made  commander  of  the 
Agamemnon,  of  sixty-four  guns  (1793), 
with  which  he  joined  Lord  Hood  in  the 


Admiral  Lord  Nelson. 


Mediterranean,  and  assisted  at  the  siege 
of  Bastia  (May,  1794).  At  the  siege  of 
Calvi  (July  10,  1794)  he  lost  an  eye.  For 
his  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  Cape  St. 
Vincent  (Feb.  14,  1797)  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  and  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  inner  squadroon 


at  the  blockade  of  Cadiz.  His  next  serv- 
ice was  an  attack  on  the  town  of  Santa 
Cruz,  in^the  Island  of  Teneriffe,  in  which 
he  lost  his  right  arm.  In  1798  he  joined 
Lord  St.  Vincent  (Admiral  Jervis),  who 
sent  him  to  the  Mediterranean  to  watch 
the  progress  of  the  armament  at  Toulon. 
Notwithstanding  his  vigilance,  the 
French  fleet  which  conveyed  Bonaparte 
to  Egypt  escaped.  Thither'  Nelson  fol- 
lowed, and  after  various  disappoint- 
ments he  discovered  the  enemy’s  fleet 
moored  in  the  Bay  of  Aboukir,  where  he 
obtained  a most  complete  victory,  all 
the  French  ships  but  two  being  taken  or 
destroyed  (August  1,  1798).  This 
achievement  was  rewarded  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile.  His 
next  service  was  the  restoration  of  the 
King  of  Naples.  In  1801  he  was  em- 
ployed on  the  expedition  to  Copen- 
hagen under  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  in  which 
he  effected  the  destruction  of  the  Danish 
ships  and  batteries.  On  his  return  home 
he  was  created  viscount.  When  hos- 
tilities recommenced  after  the  Peace  of 
Amiens  Lord  Nelson  was  appointed  to 
command  the  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  for  nearly  two  years  he  was  engaged 
in  the  blockade  of  Toulon.  In  spite  of 
his  vigilance  the  French  fleet  got  out  of 
port  (March  30,  1805),  and  being  joined 
by  a Spanish  squadron  from  Cadiz, 
sailed  to  the  West  Indies.  The  British 
admiral  hastily  pursued  them,  and  they 
returned  to  Europe  and  took  shelter 
at  Cadiz.  On  the  19th  of  October  the 
French,  commanded  by  Villeneuve,  and 
the  Spaniards  by  Gravina,  ventured 
again  from  Cadiz,  and  on  the  21st  they 
came  up  with  the  British  squadron  off 
Cape  Trafalgar.  An  engagement  took 
place,  in  which  the  victory  was  obtained 
by  the  British,  but  their  commander 
was  wounded  in  the  back  by  a musket- 
ball,  and  shortly  after  expired.  His 
remains  were  carried  to  England  and 
interred  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral. 

NELUM'BIUM,  a genus  of  aquatic 
plants  inhabiting  the  fresh  waters  of  the 


Nelumblum. 


temperate  parts  of  the  world,  type  of  the 
natural  order  Nelumbiaceae,  having 
large  polypetalous  flowers  with  numer- 
ous stamens.  The  best-kno'wn  species 
is  the  Hindu  and  Chinese  lotus,  a mag- 
nificent water-plant  of  the  rivers  and 
ditches  of  all  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia, 
the  Malay  Archipelago,  Australia,  and 
also  found  in  the  Nile.  The  numerous 
canals  of  China  are  filled  with  it,  its 
tubers  being  there  used  as  a culinary 
vegetable.  It  is  a most  beautiful  plant. 


with  peltate  leaves  and  handsome  rose- 
colored  flowers  on  tall  stalks,  and  is  fre- 
quently cultivated  in  hothouses.  In 
Asia  it  is  generally  deemed  sacred,  and 
figures  in  religious  rites.  The  yellow 
water-bean  of  the  southern  states,  has 
starchy  rhizomes,  with  tubers  like  those 


Ripe  receptacle  of  nelumblum. 

of  the  sweet-potato,  which  are  used  for 
food. 

NEM'ESIS,  a female  Greek  divinity 
who  appears  to  have  been  regarded  as  a 
personification  of  the  righteous  anger  of 
the  gods,  inflexibly  severe  to  the  proud 
and  insolent,  i.e.  retributive  justice.  In 
the  theogony  of  Hesiod  she  is  the  daugh- 
ter of  Night,  the  avenging  Fate  who 
checks  and  punishes  the  favorites  of 
Fortune. 

NEOLITH'IC,  in  archaeology,  a term 
applied  to  the  more  recent  of  the  two 
periods  into  which  the  stone  age  has 
been  subdivided,  as  opposed  to  palaeo- 
lithic. During  this  period  there  is  found 
no  trace  of  the  knowledge  of  any  metal 
excepting  gold,  which  it  would  seem  had 
sometimes  been  used  for  ornaments. 
The  Neolithic  stone  implements  are 
finely  shaped  and  polished,  and  are 
found  in  connection  with  the  remains  of 
extinct  animals. 

NE'OPHRON,  a genus  of  birds  of  the 
■vulture  family,  one  species  of  which  in- 


Egyptian  vulture,  or  Pharaoh’s  hen. 


habifs  Southern  Europe,  Egypt,  and 
Asia.  It  is  known  as  the  Alpine  or 
Egyptian  -vulture.  Pharaoh’s  chicken, 

NEO-PLATONISM.  See  New  Pla- 
tonists. 

NEPAL',  NIPAL',  or  NEPAUL',  a 

small  independent  state  situated  on  the 
n.e.  frontier  of  Hindustan;  area,  about 
54,000  sq.  miles.  The  country  is  a table- 
land from  3000  to  6000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  contains  within  its 
boundaries  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world — Mount  Everest,  Dhawalagiri, 
and  on  its  eastern  borders  Kanchinjinga. 
The  principal  products  are  rice,  wheat, 


NEPENTHE 


NERVE 


barley,  pulse,  sugar-cane,  buckwheat, 
hemp,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  madder. 
Pop.  estimated  at  about  2,000,000. 

NEPEN'THE,  a drug  which  was 
fabled  by  the  ancient  poets  to  banish 
the  remembrance  of  grief  and  to  cheer 
the  soul.  It  is  thought  by  many  to  have 
been  opium. 

NEPTUNE,  the  chief  marine  divinity 
of  the  ancient  Romans.  When  the  Greek 
mythology  was  introduced  into  Rome 
he  was  completely  identified  with  the 
Greek  Poseidon,  all  the  traditions  relat- 
ing to  whom  w’ere  transferred  by  the 
Romans  to  their  own  deity.  In  art  he  is 
usually  represented  as  armed  with  a 
trident,  and  the  horse  and  the  dolphin 
are  his  symbols.  See  Poseidon. 

NEPTUNE,  in  astronomy,  the  most 
distant  of  the  known  planets,  its  mean 
distance  from  the  sun  being  2,745,998,- 
000  miles,  and  its  least  distance  from 
the  earth  2,629,000,000  miles.  The 
eccentricity  of  its  orbit  is  .00872;  its 
inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  is 
1°  47'.  Its  apparent  diameter  is  about 
2.7".  Its  real  diameter  is  estimated  at 
36,600  miles,  and  it  seems  to  have  very 
little  polar  compression.  Its  mass  is 
about  16f  times  that  of  the  earth,  and 
it  revolves  round  the  sun  in  164.6  years 
It  has  one  satellite,  whose  period  is  5 
days  21  h.  2 m.  44  s.,  and  whose  mean 
distance  from  the  planet  is  230,000 
miles.  Neptune  was  discovered  in  1846 
in  a position  indicated  independently  by 
Leverrier  and  Adams,  and  deduced  from 
a series  of  recondite  mathematical  cal- 
culations to  find  a body  which  could 
account  for  the  long-observed  perturba- 
tions of  Uranus. 

NERBUDDA,  or  NARBADA  (nar-ba- 
da),  a river  of  Hindustan.  In  religious 
sanctity  it  ranks  second  only  to  the 
Ganges.  Nerbudda  is  also  the  name  of 
a division  of  the  Central  Provinces  of 
India;  area,  17,513  sq.  miles;  pop. 
1,881,147. 

NERO,  Lucius  Domitius  Ahenobarbus 
(after  his  adoption  by  the  Emperor 
Claudius  called  Nero  Claudius  Csesar 
Drusus  Germanicus),  Roman  emperor, 
the  son  of  Cneius  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
bus and  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of 
Germanicus.  He  was  born  in  37  at 


Antium,  and  after  the  marriage  of  his 
mother,  in  third  nuptials,  with  her  uncle, 
the  emperor  Claudius,  was  adopted  by 
that  prince,  and  married  to  his  daughter 
Octavia.  When  Nero  was  about  seven- 
teen years  of  age  his  abandoned  mother 
poisoned  her  husband,  Claudius,  and 
succeeded  in  raising  her  son  to  the 
throne,  over  whom  she  expected  to 
exercise  the  most  absolute  control. 


Nero  became  emperor  in  54,  and  the 
year  following  disposed  of  the  rightful 
heir,  Britannicus,  by  poison.  For  the 
first  few  years  his  public  conduct,  under 
the  control  of  Burrhus  and  Seneca,  was 
unexceptionable;  in  private,  however, 
he  disgraced  himself  by  the  most  odious 
vices,  and  his  mother  endeavored  to 
retain  her  influence  by  shamefully  com- 
plying with  his  inclinations.  In  59  Nero 
caused  this  detestable  woman  to  be 
murdered,  and  then,  fearing  no  rival  in 
power,  gave  full  scope  to  the  darkest 
traits  of  his  character.  In  62  he  repud- 
iated his  wife  Octavia.  In  64  the  burning 
of  Rome  occurred,  which  has  been 
charged,  with  great  probability,  upon 
Nero  himself,  w'ho,  however,  accused 
the  Christians  of  the  act,  and  made  it 
the  occasion  of  the  most  dreadful 
cruelties  toward  them . His  debaucheries 
and  cruelties  occasioned  an  almost  gen- 
eral conspiracy  against  him,  known  as 
that  of  Piso,  in  65,  the  discovery  of 
which  led  to  more  tortures  and  blood- 
shed. The  revolt  of  Vindex  was  also 
suppressed.  That  of  Galba  in  68  suc- 
ceeded, and  Nero  escaped  arrest  by 
stabbing  himself,  being  then  in  the 
thirty-first  year  of  his  age  and  the 
fourteenth  of  his  reign.  He  was  a lover 
of  arts  and  letters,  and  possessed  much 
taste  as  a poet  and  histrionic  performer. 

NERVA,  the  successor  of  Domitian, 
and  one  of  the  most  virtuous  of  the 
Roman  emperors.  He  was  born  in 


Nerva— antique  gem. 


Umbria  in  32  a.d.,  died  a.d.  98.  He  was 
twice  consul,  and  was  elected  emperor 
on  the  death  of  Domitian  in  96.  He 
adopted  Trajan,  who  succeeded  him. 

NERVE,  Nervous  System.  A nerve  is 
one  of  the  fibres  which  proceed  from  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord,  or  from  the  cen- 
tral ganglia  of  lower  animals,  and  ramify 
through  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  whose 
funcjion  is  to  convey  impulses  resulting 
in  sCTlsation,  motion,  secretion,  etc.  The 
aggregate  of  these  nerves,  and  the 
centers  from  which  they  proceed,  forms 
the  nervous  system,  the  medium  through 
which  every  act  or  detail  of  animal  life 
is  inaugurated  and  directed.  The  essen- 
tial idea  of  any  nervous  system  involves 
the  necessary  presence,  firstly,  of  a 
nerve  center  or  centers,  which  generate 
the  nervous  force  or  impulse;  secondly, 
of  conducting  fibres  or  cords,  the  nerves; 
and  thirdly,  of  an  organ,  part,  or  struc- 
ture to  which  the  impulse  or  impression 
may  be  conveyed.  The  nerve-centers  of 
man  and  vertebrates  generally  are  dis- 
posed so  as  to  form  two  chief  sets,  which 
are  to  be  regarded  as  essentially  dis- 
tinct. The  brain  and  spinal  marrow 
together  (see  Brain)  constitute  the  first 


of  these  centers,  and  are  collectively  in- 
cluded under  the  name  cerebro-spinal 
system  or  axis.  The  second  system  is 
the  sympathetic  or  ganglionic.  From 
each  of  these  systems  nerve-cords  are 
given  off — the  cerebral  and  spinal  nerves 
from  the  former;  and  the  so-called 


Nerve-fibres. 


s5Tnpathetic  fibres  from  the  latter. 
The  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  contained 
within  the  continuous  bony  case  and 
canal  formed  by  the  skull  and  spinal 
column;  while  the  chief  masses  of  the 
sympathetic  system  form  an  irregularly 
disposed  chain,  lying  in  front  of  the 
spine,  and  contained  within  the  cavities 
of  the  thorax  or  chest  and  abdomen. 
The  general  functions  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal system  are  those  concerned  with 
volition  and  muscular  movements,  with 


Main  nerves  of  the  human  body. 

the  control  of  the  senses,  and  in  higher 
forms  with  the  operations  of  the  mind. 
The  nerves  of  the  sympathetic  system 
in  chief  are  distributed  to  the  viscera, 
such  as  the  heart,  stomach,  intestines, 
blood-vessels,  etc.;  and  the  operation  of 
this  system  is  in  greater  part  of  involun- 
tary kind,  and  without  the  influence  or 
command  of  the  will.  The  cranial  or 
cerebral  nerves  pass  from  the  brain 
through  different  openings  in  the  skull, 
and  are  all  in  pairs,  the  first  pair  being 
the  olfactory  nerves  or  nerves  of  smell; 
the  second,  the  optic  nerves,  or  nerves 
of  sight;  while  others  have  to  do  with 
hearing,  taste,  general  sensibility,  and 
muscular  motion.  The  spinal  nerves, 
after  issuing  from  their  openings  in  the 
vertebral  column,  split  into  two  divi- 
sions, one  of  which  proceeds  to  supply 
parts  behind  the  spine,  while  the  other 


NERVOUS  DISEASES 


NETHERLANDS 


passes  toward  the  front.  The  first  eight 
spinal  nerves  on  each  side  are  called 
cervical,  the  next  twelve  are  dorsal,  the 
next  five  lumbar,  then  five  sacral,  and 
one  coccygeal. 

All  nervous  structures  consist  of  two 
elements,  nerve-cells  and  nerve-fibres. 
The  cells  and  fibres  are  combined  and 
associated  in  various  ways,  and  are  im- 
bedded in  and  supported  by  fine  con- 
nective tissue  so  as  to  form  a connected 
structure.  The  cells  vary  in  size  from 
z'GJru  inch,  and  consist  of 

masses  of  protoplasm  containing  a nu- 
cleus and  nucleolus.  Processes  or  poles 
pass  from  the  cell,  branching  outward. 


Various  forms  of  nerve-cells. 


Nerve-fibres  are  of  a glossy  transparency 
and  of  a tubular  form.  They  consist  of  a 
rod  passing  down  the  center,  called  the 
axis-cylinder,  which  is  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  a white  substance,  the  whole 
being  inclosed  in  a delicate  sheath 
(neurilemma).  The  axis-cylinder  is  a 
continuation  of  the  nerve-cell  process, 
and  acts  in  an  analogous  manner  to  an 
electric  conductor.  The  nerve-fibres 
may  exhibit  a diameter  so  great  as  the 
T-5^th  of  an  inch;  but  their  average 
breadth  may  be  stated  to  vary  from 
to  the  Wirffth  of  an  inch.  The 
largest  fibres  are  those  of  the  nerve- 
trunks  themselves;  and  they  diminish  in 
size  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  nerve- 
centers — brain  and  spinal  marrow — and 
as  they  approach  to  the  periphery  of  the 
body  or  to  their  ultimate  terminations. 
The  nerve-fibres  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
marrow  do  not  exhibit  a limiting  mem- 
brane; and  in  the  gray  matter  of  the 
brain  and  cord  the  fibres  are  of  exceed- 
inglysmall  size,  notexceedingthe 
or  TTBTnrth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

The  general  functions  of  nerve-fibres 
may  be  briefly  considered  under  two 
aspects.  The  fibres  may  convey  impres- 
sions from  the  brain  or  nerve-centers  to 
their  peripheral  extremities,  or  to  the 
parts  to  which  they  are  distributed.  Or 
secondly,  they  may  transmit  impressions 
from  the  periphery,  or  from  the  parts 
they  supply,  to  their  centers.  A double 
series  of  nerve-fibres,  each  set  subserv- 
ing one  or  other  of  the  preceding  func- 
tions, exists  in  the  cerebro-spinal  as  well 
as  in  the  sympathetic  nervous  system. 
These  series  are  therefore  known  as 
sensory,  afferent,  or  centripital  nerves, 
when  they  transmit  impressions  from 
their  peripheral  -extremities  to  the  brain 
or  centers;  and  as  motor,  efferent,  or 
centrifugal  nerves,  when  they  carry  im- 
pressions from  the  centers  to  their  per- 
ipheral terminations.  Stimuli  of  various 
kinds  applied  to  the  nerves  arouse  the 
so-called  excitability  of  the  fibres,  and 


through  this  property  nerves  convey 
impressions  thus  made  upon  them.  Im- 
pressions have  been  calculated  to  pass 
along  a nerve  at  the  rate  of  about  200 
feet  per  second.  Nerve-fibres  in  any 
case — motor  or  sensory — can  carry  one 
kind  of  impulse  only,  corresponding  to 
the  kind  of  fibre.  In  certain  nerves  the 
impulses  or  impressions  are  of  a limited 
or  specialized  kind,  as  in  the  nerves  of 
special  sense — for  example,  sight,  hear- 
ing, smell — whereby  certain  distinct 
sensations,  of  light,  sound,  or  odors,  are 
produced.  Ana  such  nerves,  therefore, 
respond  only  to  stimuli  of  a special  kind. 
The  various  nerve-centers  of  the  body 
which  originate,  or  at  any  rate  direct 
and  dispose,  the  nerve-force,  may  be 
viewed  as  simply  ganglia,  or  as  collection 
of  ganglia,  or  nervous  masses.  The  brain 
itself  falls  under  this  latter  division. 
The  general  functional  relations  existing 
between  the  nerve-centers  and  the 
nerves  may  be  simply  illustrated  by  the 
phenomena  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  reflex  action.  When  a peripheral 
nerve-fibre  is  irritated  a sensory  or  cen- 
tripetal impression  is  conveyed  toward 
the  nerve-center.  Arriving  at  the  center 
the  impression  is  converted  into  a motor 
or  centrifugal  one,  and  travels-along  the 
motor  nerve-fibres,  to  excite,  it  may  be, 
a muscle  or  other  part  to  action.  The 
general  functional  relation  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  may  be  summarized  by 
stating  that  its  functions  comprehend 
the  reception  and  distribution  of  impres- 
sions; that  these  impressions  originate 
either  from  influences  acting  on  the  per- 
iphery, or  from  the  nerve-centers,  brain, 
or  mind;  that  these  impressions  respect- 
ively influence  or  stimulate  the  mind  or 
nerve-centers,  and  the  muscles  or  secret- 
ing structures;  and  lastly,  that  all 
nervous  phenomena  are  exerted, through 
or  accompanied  by  nervous  action,  and 
that  this  latter  is,  so  far  as  physiology 
has  yet  been  able  to  determine,  of  a 
uniform  and  similar  kind.  See  also  Eye, 
Ear,  Nose,  etc. 

The  Invertebrata  possess  no  such 
specialization  of  the  nervous  centers  as 
is  seen  in  Vertebrates,  in  which  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  are  inclosed  within  their 
bony  case  and  canal,  and  thus  shut  off 
from  the  general  cavity  of  the  body. 
The  great  and  distinctive  feature  be- 
tween the  nervous  system  of  Vertebrata 
and  that  of  lower  forms  consists  in  the 
absence  of  a defined  or  chief  nervous 
center,  through  which  consciousness  may 
intervene  to  render  the  being  intelligent, 
and  aware  of  the  nature  of  the  acts  it 
performs. 

NERVOUS  DISEASES,  are  diseases  due 
either  to  actual  changes  in  the  structure 
of  nerve-fibres  or  nerve-centers,  or  to 
some  irregularity  of  nerve  function 
without  actual  structural  change.  Thus 
nervous  diseases  may  be  due  to  in- 
flammation or  degeneration  of  nerve 
substance;  to  the  pressure  on  some  part 
of  the  nervous  system  of  tumors,  effused 
blood,  or  other  fluid;  to  the  death  of 
some  part  by  the  cutting  off  of  its  blood 
supply,  etc.;  or  may  be  the  result  of 
lowered  nervous  action  as  a part  of 
general  bad  health. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  See  Nerve. 

NEST,  the  abode  or  habitation,  vary- 
ing greatly  in  form,  materials,  and  situa- 


tion, constructed  by  birds  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  incubation  and  the  rearing 
of  the  young.  The  nests  of  birds  are  of 
the  most  diverse  character,  some  birds 
making  little  or  no  nest,  while  others 
construct  receptacles  for  the  eggs  re- 
quiring a vast  amount  of  skill  and  in- 
dustry. The  materials  used  are  also  ex- 
tremely various,  being  such  as  mud  or 
clay,  twigs,  or  branches,  leaves,  grass, 
moss,  wool,  feathers,  etc.  Some  birds, 
for  the  sake  of  protection,  excavate  bur- 
rows in  banks  or  sandy  cliffs  in  which  to 
make  their  nests.  Many  mammals  also 
are  nest-builders,  notably  mice,  moles, 
dormice,  squirrels,  foxes,  weasels,  bad- 
gers, rabbits,  etc. ; and  nests  are  also  con- 
structed by  certain  fishes,  reptiles,  crus- 
taceans, insects,  etc.  See  Birds’  Nests, 
Edible. 

NESTOR,  one  of  the  Greek  heroes  at 
Troy,  son  of  Neleus,  king  of  Pylos.  He 
took  part  in  the  hunting  of  the  Caly- 
donian  boar,  and  in  the  Argonautic  ex- 
pedition. He  is  noted  as  the  wisest  ad- 
viser of  the  chiefs  before  Troy,  after  the 
fall  of  which  he  retired  to  Pylos,  where 
he  lived  to  a great  age. 

NET,  a term  applied  to  that  which 
remains  of  a weight,  quantity,  etc., 
after  making  certain  deductions.  Thus 
net  weight  is  the  weight  of  merchandise 
after  allowance  has  been  for  casks,  bags, 
or  any  inclosing  material. 

NET,  an  open  fabric  made  of  thread, 
twine,  or  cord,  woven  into  meshes  of 
fixed  dimensions,  firmly  knotted  at  the 
intersections.  Nets  are  used  for  a great 
variety  of  purposes,  as  for  protecting 
fruit-trees,  for  collecting  insects  for 
hammocks,  screens,  etc.,  but  chiefly  for 
hunting  and  fishing.  The  chief  kinds  of 
nets  used  in  fishing  are  the  trawl,  the 
drift,  the  seine,  the  kettle  or  weir,  and 
the  trammel  or  set  nets.  The  trawl  is  a 
triangular  bag  with  an  arrangement  for 
keeping  its  mouth  open,  drawn  along 
the  bottom  of  the  water.  The  drift  and 
seine  nets  are  very  long  in  proportion  to 
their  breadth,  and  differ  from  one  an- 
other only  in  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  employed.  The  seine  has  a line  of 
corks  along  one  of  its  long  borders,  and 
a line  of  leaden  weights  along  the  other; 
so  that  when  thrown  into  the  water  it 
assumes  a perpendicular  position.  It  is 
used  near  the  shore,  being  dragged  to 
land  with  any  fish  it  may  enclose,  by 
ropes  fastened  to  the  ends.  The  drift-net 
is  not  loaded  with  lead,  but  floats  in  the 
water,  and  is  used  especially  in  herring- 
fishing, the  fishes  as  they  drive  against 
it  becoming  caught  by  the  gills.  Kettle 
and  weir  nets  are  structures  fixed  on 
stakes  placed  along  the  coast  between 
high  and  low  water.  Trammel  or  set 
nets  are  also  fixed  between  stays,  but 
act  like  drift-nets. 

NETHERLANDS,  The,  or  HOLLAND, 

a kingdom  of  Europe  which  lies  on  the 
North  Sea,  n.  of  Belgium  and  w.  of  part 
of  Northern  Germany.  Its  area  is  12,648 
sq.  miles;  its  pop.  in  1901  was  5,263,267. 
The  country  is  divided  into  eleven  prov- 
inces; North  Brabant,  Gelderland, 
South  Holland,  North  Holland,  Zeeland, 
Utrecht,  Friesland,  Overijssel,  Gronin- 
gen, Drenthe,  and  Limburg.  The  ruler  is 
also  sovereign  (grand-duke)  of  the 
Grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg.  In  addi- 
tion to  her  European  territories  Holland 


NETHERLANDS 


NETTLE 


possesses  extensive  colonies  and  depend- 
encies in  the  Asiatic  archipelago  and 
America;  including  Java,  Sumatra, 
great  part  of  Borneo,  Celebes,  part  of 
New  Guinea,  Surinam  or  Dutch  Guiana, 
the  West  Indian  islands  of  Cura5ao, 
Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  etc.  Estimated 
colonial  pop.  about  38,200,000. 

The  Netherlands  (or  Low  Countries, 
as  the  name  implies)  form  the  most  char- 
acteristic portion  of  the  great  plain  of 
northern  and  w-estern  Europe.  It  is  the 
lowest  part  of  this  immense  level,  some 
portions  of  it  being  16  to  20  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  nearly  all 
parts  too  low  for  natural  drainage.  The 
coast-line  is  very  irregular,  being  marked 
by  the  great  inlet  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  as 
well  as  by  various  others,  and  fringed  by 
numerous  islands.  In  great  part  the 
coast  is  so  low  that  were  it  not  for  mas- 
sive sea-dykes  large  areas  would  be  in- 
undated and  lost  to  the  inhabitants. 
The  highest  elevation,  656  feet,  is  in  the 
extreme  southeast.  The  general  aspect 
of  the  country  is  flat,  tame,  and  un- 
interesting, and  about  a fifth  of  the 
whole  surface  consists  of  marsh,  sand, 
heath,  or  other  unproductive  land. 

The  chief  rivers  of  the  Netherlands  are 
the  Rhine,  Maas  (or  Meuse),  Scheldt, 
and  Ijssel.  The  navigable  canals  are 
collectively  more  important  than  the 
rivers,  on  which  indeed  they  depend 
but  they  are  so  numerous  as  to  defy 
detailed  description.  The  chief  are  the 
North  Holland,  Canal  between  Amster- 
dam and  the  Helder,  length  46  miles; 
and  the  more  important  ship  canal,  15 
miles  long,  26  feet  deep  and  197  wide, 
from  the  North  Sea  to  Amsterdam,  and 
connected  by  locks  with  the  Zuider  Zee. 
Lakes  are  also  very  numerous.  The 
climate  of  the  Netherlands  is  humid, 
changeable,  and  disagreeable.  Wheat, 
of  excellent  quality,  is  grown  only  in 
favored  portions  of  the  south  provinces- 
Rye,  oats,  and  buckwheat,  with  horse, 
beans,  beet,  madder,  and  chicory,  are 
more  common  crops;  and  tobacco  is 
cultivated  in  the  provinces  of  Gelder- 
land.  South  Holland,  and  Utrecht;  flax 
in  North  Brabant,  South  and  North 
Holland,  Friesland,  and  Zeeland;  and 
hemp,  sugar-beet,  oil-§eeds,  and  hops 
in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Culi- 
nary vegetables  are  cultivated  on  a 
large  scale,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of 
supplying  the  internal  demand,  but, 
also  for  the  exportation  of  the  seeds 
which  form  an  important  article  of 
Dutch  commerce.  But  it  is  in  stock 
(cattle,  horses,  sheep,  swine,  goats), 
and  dairy  produce  in  particular,  that  the 
rural  industry  of  the  Netherlands  shows 
its  strength. 

The  commerce  of  the  country  was  at 
one  time  the  most  important  in  the 
world,  and  is  even  yet  of  great  impor- 
tance and  activity.  The  external  com- 
merce is  chiefly  carried  on  with  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  the 
Dutch  colonies  in  the  East.  Among 
imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  the 
chief  are  cottons  and  woolens,  metal 
goods  and  machinery;  the  chief  exports, 
butter  and  biitterine,  live  animals,  wine 
and  spirits,  silks,  sugar.  The  foreign 
trade  centers  chiefly  in  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam.  The  industrial  occupations 
are  varied.  Shipbuilding  and  subsidiary 


trades  are  among  the  chief.  Of  textile 
manufactures  that  of  linen  is  the  most 
important;  but  silks  and  velvets,  as 
well  as  woolens  and  cottons,  are  pro- 
duced in  considerable  quantity.  Pig- 
ments, brandy,  gin,  paper,  glass,  earthen- 
ware, etc.,  are  among  the  more  impor- 
tant products.  Large  numbers  of  the  sea- 
board population  are  employed  in  the 
deep-sea  fisheries.  Railways  have  a 
length  of  1725  miles. 

The  stock  to  which  the  people  belong 
is  the  Teutonic,  the  great  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  being  descendants  of  the 
old  Batavians.  They  comprise  over  70 
per  cent  of  the  population,  and  are 
chiefly  settled  in  the  provinces  of  North 
and  South  Holland,  Zeeland,  Utrecht, 
and  Gelderland.  The  Flemings  of  North 
Brabant  and  Limburg,  and  the  Frisians, 
inhabiting  Friesland,  Groningen, 
Drenthe,  and  Overijssel,  form  the  other 
groups.  The  majority  of  the  people 
belong  to  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
(a  Presbyterian  body);  the  remainder 
being  Roman  Catholics,  Old  Catholics, 
Jews,  etc.  All  religious  bodies  are  on  a 
perfect  equality.  The  government  is  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  the  executive 
being  vested  in  the  king,  and  the  legis- 
lative authority  in  the  states-general, 
sitting  in  two  chambers.  The  upper 
chamber,  fifty  in  number,  is  elected  by 
the  provincial  councils  or  assemblies  of 
the  eleven  provinces;  the  lower  chamber, 
100  in  number,  is  elected  directly,  the 
electors  being  all  males  of  twenty-three 
years  of  age  taxed  at  a certain  figure. 
The  members  of  the  lower  house  are 
paid.  Elementary  schools  are  every- 
where established,  and  are  partly  sup- 
plied by  the  state,  but  education  is  not 
compulsory.  Higher  class  schools  are  in 
all  the  chief  towns;  while  there  are  state 
universities,  namely,  at  Leyden,  Utrecht 
and  Groningen,  and  the  municipal  uni- 
versity at  Amsterdam.  The  commercial 
capital  of  the  country  is  Amsterdam, 
but  the  seat  of  government  and  resi- 
dence of  the  sovereign  is  the  Hague. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  Low 
Countries  belonged  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era  to  Belgic  Gaul.  (See 
Gaul.)  The  northern  portion,  inhabited 
by  the  Batavians  and  Frisians  (see 
those  articles),  formed  part  of  Germany. 
The  southern  portion  as  far  as  the  Rhine 
was  held  by  Rome  up  to  a.d.  400,  after 
which  it  came  under  the  rule  of  the 
Franks,  as  did  also  subsequently  the 
rest  of  the  country.  In  the  11th  century 
the  territory  comprised  in  the  present 
kingdoms  of  Belgium  and  the  Nether- 
lands formed  a number  of  counties,  mar- 
quisates,  and  duchies  corresponding 
more  or  less  with  the  modern  provinces. 
By  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century 
all  these  had  been  acquired  bydhe  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  and  passed  to  the  house 
of  Hapsburg  on  the  marriage  of  the 
daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold  of  Bur- 
gundy to  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Freder- 
ick III.  On  the  abdication  of  Charles  V. 
in  1556  they  passed  to  his  son  Philip  11. 
of  Spain.  In  consequence  of  religious 
persecution  in  1576  Holland  and  Zee- 
land  openly  rebelled,  and  in  1579  the 
five  northern  provinces — Holland,  Zee- 
land,  Utrecht,  Guelders,  and  Friesland 
concluded  the  celebrated  Union  of 
Utrecht  by  which  they  declared  them- 


selves independent  of  Spain.  They  were 
joined  in  1580  by  Overijssel,  and  in  1594 
by  Groningen.  After  the  assassination 
of  William  of  Orange,  July  10,  1584, 
Maurice  became  stadtholder  (governor). 
His  victories  at  Nieuport  and  in  Bra- 
bant, the  bold  and  victorious  exploits  of 
the  Dutch  admirals  against  the  navy  of 
Philip  II.,  the  wars  of  France  and  Eng- 
land against  Spain,  and  the  apathy  of 
Philip  II.,  caused  in  1609  the  Peace  of 
Antwerp.  But  Holland  had  yet  to  go 
through  the  Thirty  Years’  war  before  its 
independence,  now  recognized  by  all  the 
powers  except  Spain,  was  fully  secured 
by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  In  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century  the  United 
Netherlands  were  the  first  commercial 
state  and  the  first  maritime  power  in  the 
world,  and  for  a long  time  maintained 
the  dominion  of  the  sea.  The  southern 
provinces  alternated  between  the  rule 
of  Spain  and  Austria  till  1797,  when 
they  came  under  the  power  of  the  French 
Republic.  In  1806  Louis  Napoleon  be- 
came king  of  Holland,  but  in  1810  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  French  Emipre. 
In  1814  all  the  provinces  both  of  Hol- 
land and  Belgium  were  united  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  to  form  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands.  This  arrangement 
lasted  till  1830,  when  the  southern 
provinces  broke  away  and  formed  the 
Kingdom  of  Belgium.  King  Willem  I. 
attempted  to  reduce  the  revolted  prov- 
inces by  force;  but  the  great  powers 
intervened,  and  finally  matters  were 
adjusted  between  the  two  countries  in 
1839.  (See  Belgium.)  The  king  abdi- 
cated in  1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Willem  II.  (1840-49),  he  being  again 
succeeded  by  his  son  Willem  III.,  who 
died  in  1890,  leaving  his  ten -year-old 
daughter  Wilhelmina  as  queen. 

NETTLE,  a genus  of  plants  consisting 
chiefly  of  neglected  weeds,  having  oppo- 


Upper  part  of  a fruiting  stem  or  nettle. 
a,  the  male  flower:  6,  the  female  flower;  c,  a 
stinging  hair,  taken  from  the  leaf, 
highly  magnified. 

site  or  alternate  leaves,  and  inconspicu- 
ous flowers,  w'hich  are  disposed  in 
axillary  racemes.  The  species  are  mostly 
herbaceous,  and  are  usually  covered 
with  extremely  fine,  sharp,  tubular 
hairs,  placed  upon  minute  vesicles  filled 
with  an  acrid  and  caustic  fluid,  which  by 


NETTLE-RASH 


NEVADA 


pressure  is  injected  into  the  wounds 
caused  by  the  sharp-pointed  hairs 
Hence  arises  the  well-known  stinging 
sensation  when  these  plants  are  in- 
cautiously handled. 

NETTLE-RASH,  a common  disease  of 
the  skin,  an  eruption  closely  resembling 
nettle-stings  both  as  to  appearance  and 
and  as  to  the  sensation  it  originates.  It 
consists  of  small  wheals,  either  red  or 
white,  sometimes  both,  having  the  centers 
white  and  the  margins  red.  The  disease 
may  be  either  acute  or  chronic.  When  it 
is  acute  generally  more  or  less  of  fever 
accompanies  it.  In  almost  all  cases  it 
arises  from  a disordered  condition  of  the 
digestive  organs,  produced  either  by 
indigestible  food,  or  in  some  persons  by 
particular  kinds  of  food  which  others  eat 
with  complete  impunity. 

NEUFCHATEL  (neu-sha-tel) , Neuchi- 
tel,  a Swiss  canton,  bounded  by  France, 
Vaud,  the  Lake  of  Neufchfltel,  and  Bern, 
with  an  area  of  312  sq.  miles.  Several 
ridges  of  the  Jura  run  through  the  coun- 
try. The  Lake  of  NeufchS-tel,  24  miles 
long  by  8 broad,  communicates  through 
the  Aar  with  the  Rhine.  Grazing  and 
dairy-farming  are  extensively  carried  on 
in  the  canton;  wine,  fruits,  hemp,  and 
flax  are  produced.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  lace,  cotton,  watches,  and 
clocks.  The  religion  is  Protestant.  The 
language  is  French,  but  German  is  also 
spoken.  Pop.  126,279. — The  capital, 
which  has  the  same  name,  lies  24  miles 
west  of  Bern,  on  a steep  slope  above  the 
northwestern  shore  of  Lake  Neufch&tcl. 
Pop.  21,354. 

NEURAL'GIA,  the  name  given  to  that 
species  of  morbid  pains  which  occur  only 
in  the  course  of  one  or  more  distinct 
nerves,  and  by  this  locally  are  distin- 
guished from  other  pains.  In  neuralgia 
of  the  fifth  nerve  the  pain  is  in  one  half 
of  the  face,  and  if  the  central  branch  is 
affected  the  pain  is  confined  to  the  upper 
jaw;  neuralgia  of  the  chief  nerve  of  the 
thigh  (sciatic  nerve)  extends  along  the 
buttocks  and  back  of  the  thigh  down  to 
the  knee,  and  is  called  sciatic.  It  also 
affects  the  front,  back,  and  outside  of 
the  leg,  and  the  whole  foot  except  its 
inner  border;  while  neuralgia  of  the 
intercostal  nerves  manifests  itself  in  a 
belt  or  circle  of  pain  around  the  breast. 
The  presence  of  neuralgia  almost  in- 
variably indicates  a week  state  of  the 
system.  The  most  common  and  best 
ascertained  of  the  neuralgias  are  those 
of  the  nerves  of  the  skin  (dermalgia); 
but  nerve  pains  occur  also  in  other 
parts,  as  in  the  joints,  muscles,  and  in 
the  bowels  (enteralgia).  Many  of  the  in- 
ternal parts  may  be  the  seat  of  similar 
local  affections;  such,  for  example,  are 
nervous  affections  of  the  heart  and  res- 
piratory organs,  which,  however,  do 
not  usually  manifest  themselves  by 
acute  pain,  but  by  special  symptoms. 
The  primary  causes  of  the  injury  to  the 
nerve  producing  neuralgia  may  be  very 
various.  It  may  be  inflammation  of  the 
nerve  itself,  a swelling  in  or  upon  it, 
irritation  of  it  produced  by  an  ulcer  or 
suppuration  or  swelling  of  the  adjacent 

Carts,  especially  the  cavities  of  the 
ones,  etc.  Thin-blooded  persons  and 
those  of  weak  nerves  are  most  liable  to 
be  affected  by  neuralgia,  which  varies 
much  both  in  degree  and  duration.  It  is 


often  chronic,  and  often  suddenly  occurs 
during  the  progress  of  other  acute  dis- 
eases, as  in  typhus  or  intermitting  fevers. 
The  treatment  also  of  course  varies  with 
the  nature  of  the  different  cases,  some 
admitting  of  easy  cure  by  the  adminis- 
tration of  nourishing  food,  and  by  the  use 
of  iron  and  quinine,  and  other  tonics, 
while  for  others  the  aid  of  surgery  has 
to  be  called  in. 

NEURASTHE'NIAjis  sometimes  called 
the  American  disease,  but  now  rec- 
ognized as  a world  wide  malady,  is 
perhaps  the  most  frequent  of  the  ac- 
quired nerve  diseases.  All  forms  of 
nervous  energy  are  as  a rule  reduced 
and  fatigue  quickly  follows  the  exercise 
of  any  of  the  functions.  It  occurs  prin- 
cipally during  the  productive  period  of 
life  but  sometimes  occurs  in  neurotic 
children  and  nervous  adults  of  advanced 
years.  High  altitudes,  extremes  of 
climatic  conditions,  wasting  diseases, 
vicious  habits,  physical  illness,  injury, 
shock,  and  fright,  or  protracted  anxiety, 
grief,  worry,  and  excitement,  are  com- 
petent causes.  Excesses  of  all  varieties, 
and  finally  and  most  important  of  all, 
overwork,  must  be  added  to  the  list. 
The  only  essential  element  in  the  causa- 
tion of  neurasthenia  is  overstrain  and 
this  is  a quantity  relative  to  the  inherent 
capacities  of  the  individual  and  often 
correlated  with  hereditary  tendencies  or 
defects. 

NEURITIS,  inflammation  of  a nerve. 
Tenderness  in  the  course  of  the  nerve 
and  pain  recurring  in  paroxysms  are 
among  the  symptoms.  Paralysis  may 
occur  as  a result,  and  in  the  case  of  a 
special  nerve  of  sense  loss  of  the  particu- 
lar sense.  Neuritis  of  the  optic  nerve, 
for  instance,  is  a frequent  cause  of  blind- 
ness. 

NEUROL'OGY,  the  branch  of  science 
concerned  with  the  anatomy,  physiology, 
disorders  and  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system. 

NEURO'SIS,  a morbid,  nervous  state, 
either  functional  or  organic.  Neuroses 
are  classed  as  disorders  of  motion,  sen- 
sory disorders,  disorders  of  nutrition, 
of  heat  perception,  of  circulation  and 
mixed  neuroses. ' Among  the  latter  are 
certain  disorders  effectingthe  extremities 
and  the  sexual  organs. 

NEUROT'IC,  a term  introduced  into 
medicine  to  indicate  some  relationship 
to  the  nervous  system.  Thus  a neurotic 
disease  is  a nervous  disease.  So  medi- 
cines that  affect  the  nervous  system,  as 
opium,  strychnine,  etc.,  are  called 
neurotics. 

NEUTER,  in  zoology,  a term  applied 
to  indicate  those  insect  forms — repre- 
sented chiefly  among  the  ants,  bees,  and 
wasps — in  which  the  characteristics  of 
sex  are  either  present  in  a rudimentary 
condition  or  may  not  be  developed  at 
all.  Thus  among  the  ants  the  community 
consists  of  males,  females,  and  neuters 
or  “workers”  as  they  are  also  termed. 
These  ant-neuters  are  simply  (sexually) 
undeveloped  females,  and  upon  these 
forms  the  performance  of  all  the  labori- 
ous duties  of  the  ant-colony  devolves. 
In  the  bees  the  neuters,  or  workers,  are 
similarly  sterile  females.  The  differences 
between  the  fertile  females  and  neuters 
— both  of  which  are  developed  from 
fertilized  ova — appear  to  be  produced 


through  differences  in  the  food  upon 
which  the  respective  larvae  are  fed,  and 
through  similar  and  surrounding  cir- 
cumstances which  affect  the  nutritive 
development  of  the  larvae.  Plenty  of 
food  is  thus  said  to  produce  females,  and 
a scantier  or  different  dietary  males  or 
neuters.  See  Parthenogenesis,  Ant,  Bee, 
Wasp. 

NEUTRALITY,  means,  in  the  law  of 
nations,  that  state  of  a nation  in  which 
it  does  not  take  part,  directly  or  in- 
directly, in  a war  between  other  nations. 
To  maintain  itself  in  this  state  a nation 
is  often  obliged  to  assume  a threatening 
position,  to  be  able  to  repel,  in  case  of 
necessity,  every  aggression  on  the  part 
of  either  of  the  belligerents.  Such  neu- 
trality is  termed  an  armed  neutrality. 
In  maritime  wars  the  treatment  of 
effects  of  the  enemy  on  board  neutral 
vessels,  or  neutral  effects  on  board  a 
hostile  vessel,  gives  rise  to  very  im- 
portant questions.  In  former  times 
the  principle  was  pretty  generally  ad- 
mitted, that  the  ownership  of  the  goods 
on  board  of  the  vessels  was  the  only 
point  to  be  considered,  and  not  the 
property  of  the  vessels  themselves. 
The  belligerents,  therefore,  seized  mer- 
chandise belonging  to  the  enemy  on 
board  of  neutral  vessels;  but  they  re- 
stored neutral  property  seized  under  the 
enemy’s  flag.  But  the  endless  investi- 
gations which  this  system  caused,  since 
a consequence  of  it  was  the  searching  of 
neutral  vessels,  produced  by  degrees  a 
new  and  totally  contrary  principle,  that 
the  flag  protects  the  cargo.  The  pleni- 
potentiaries of  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
France,  Prussia,  Russia,  Sardinia,  and 
Turkey,  assembled  at  Paris  in  April, 
1856,  agreed  that  the  neutral  flag  should 
cover  an  enemy’s  goods,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  contraband  of  war;  and  that 
neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of 
contraband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to 
capture  under  the  enemy’s  flag.  In  the 
arbitration  (in  1872)  at  Geneva  of  the 
Alabama  claims  of  the  United  States 
against  Great  Britain,  three  rules  were 
agreed  to  by  the  parties,«to  the  effect  that 
a neutral  government  is  bound  to  use 
due  diligence  to  prevent  the  fitting  out 
in,  or  departure  from,  any  of  its  ports  of 
a vessel  which  it  has  reasonable  ground 
to  believe  is  intended  to  carry  on  war 
with  a power  with  which  it  is  at  peace ; 
that  it  is  bound  not  to  permit  a bel- 
ligerent to  make  use  of  its  ports  as  a basis 
of  naval  operations,  or  a source  of  re- 
cruitment of  men  or  military  supplies 
that  it  is  bound  to  exercise  due  diligence 
in  its  own  ports  or  waters,  and  as  to  all 
persons  within  its  jurisdiction,  to  pre- 
vent any  violation  of  these  duties  and 
obligations. 

NEUTRAL  TINT,  a pigment  used  in 
water-colors,  of  a dull  grayish  hue  par- 
taking of  the  character  of  none  of  the 
bright  colors.  It  is  prepared  by  mixing 
together  blue,  red,  and  yellow  in  various 
proportions. 

NEVA'DA  (ne-va'da),  one  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Oregon  and  Idaho,  on  the  east 
by  Utah  and  Arizona,  the  Arizona 
boundary  being  continued  on  the  south- 
east by  the  Colorado  river  as  far  as  the 
35th  parallel,  while  a straight  line 
running  from  the  latter  point  north- 


NEVADA 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


west  to  Lake  Tahoe  in  latitude  39°  n.  and 
thence  along  the  120th  meridian  sepa- 
rates Nevada  from  California  on  the 
southwest  and  west.  It  ranks  fourth  in 
size  among  the  states  of  the  Union.  The 
area  is  110,700  sq.  miles.  It  is  rather 
mountainous,  having  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada. 

Nevada  6wed  her  early  development 
to  mining.  Immensely  rich  lodes  of  sil- 
ver and  gold  were  discovered,  one  of 
which — the  Comstock  lode — produced 
as  high  as  $38,000,000  worth  of  bullion 
in  one  year.  With  the  apparent  ex- 
haustion of  the  Comstock  lode,  the  in- 
dustry decreased  considerably.  Gold, 
copper,  lead,  and  iron  ore  are  also  mined. 
The  other  minerals  found  in  the  state 
are  antimony,  mercury,  nickel,  sulphur, 
gypsum,  salt,  and  borax. 

Agriculture  is  less  developed  in 
Nevada  than  in  any  other  state.  It  is 
the  most  arid  of  the  states  and  at  the 
same  time  contains  the  most  meagre 


Seal  of  Nevada. 


sources  for  an  artificial  water  supply. 
The  most  extensive  irrigated  areas  are 
along  the  Humboldt  river  and  in  the 
west-central  part  of  the  state.  The  in- 
dustry centers  about  stock-grazing,  the 
tilling  of  the  soil  being  a mere  adjunct  to 
it.  The  animal  products,  together  with 
the  hay  and  forage  and  other  products 
fed  to  live  stock,  comprise  80.6  per  cent 
of  the  total  value  of  farm  products. 
Stock-raising  being  so  prominent,  hay 
and  forage  are  naturally  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  crops  grown.  Alfalfa, 
wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes  are 
also  cultivated. 

The  railroad  mileage  is  a little  over 
1000  miles.  The  principal  line  is  the 
Southern  Pacific,  running  from  east  to 
west  through  the  state.  There  are  no 
navigable  streams. 

The  first  settlement  in  Nevada  was 
made  at  Genoa,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  in  1850,  though  as  early  as 
1848  the  Mormons  traveling  between 
Salt  Lake  and  California  had  estab- 
lished a temporary  camp  at  that  place. 
The  Mormons  made  two  or  three  small 
settlements  in  the  valleys  along  the  base 
of  the  Sierra,  and  until  1859,  when  the 
silver  mines  of  the  Comstock  were  dis- 
covered, they  were  the  principal  white 
inhabitants.  The  discovery  of  silver 
caused  great  crowds  of  miners  of  all 
nationalities  to  pour  over  the  Sierra 
Nevada  from  California,  and  in  that 


year  and  1860  several  towns  were  laid 
out  knd  rapidly  built  up.  In  a few  years 
new  mineral  belts  were  discovered  to  the 
eastward,  and  soon  there  were  founded 
many  interior  towns  and  camps.  When 
Utah  territory  was  formed,  September 
9,  1850,  the  western  boundary  was  fixed 
as  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains  and  so  included  much  of  the 
present  state,  but  the  territorial  organi- 
zation did  not  extend  at  once  to  the 
extreme  west,  and  the  inhabitants 
organized  a government  of  their  own. 
A petition  for  territorial  government 
was  sent  to  congress  in  August,  1857, 
and  in  1858  a provisional  government 
was  formed.  In  1860  another  petition 
was  sent  to  congress  and  the  territorial 
delegate  applied  for  admission.  Mean- 
while the  Comstock  lode  had  been  dis- 
covered in  June,  1859,  and  miners 
flocked  thither  from  every  direction. 
The  new  territory  was  separated  from 
Utah,  March  2,  1881,  being  bounded  on 
the  east,  however,  by  the  116th  merid- 
ian. Another  degree  was  cut  from 
Utah,  July  14,  1862,  and  on  May  5, 
1866,  the  eastern  boundary  was  ex- 
tended to  the  114th  meridian  and  that 
part  of  the  state  lying  below  37°  was 
taken  from  Arizona.  Congress  in  March, 
1864,  passed  an  enabling  act  and  in 
July  the  constitution  was  accepted,  and 
the  state  was  admitted  October  31st. 
Politically  the  state  is  swayed  largely 
by  local  interests.  It  was  republican  in 
national  elections  until  1892-,  when  it 
was  carried  by  the  people’s  party.  In 
1896, 1900  and  1908,  it  voted  for  the  free- 
silver  candidate,  "William  Jennings 
Bryan.  The  capital  is  Carson  City,  but 
Virginia  City  (pop.  6500)  is  the  largest 
town.  Pop.  132,000. 

NEVADA,  a city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Vernon  co..  Mo.,  100  miles  south  of 
Kansas  City;  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and 
the  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  rail- 
roads. Nevada  became  the  county  seat 
in  1858,  and  was  incorporated  in  1870. 
Pop.  10,000. 

NEVADA,  Emma,  an  American  dra- 
matic soprano,  born  in  Austin,  Nev.,  in 
1861.  She  first  appeared  in  opera  in 
London  and  subsequently  sustained 
leading  parts  in  the  leading  cities  of  the 
continent’,  making  her  first  professional 
tour  of  the  United  States  in  1884-85. 
She  had  a wide  repertoire,  but  perhaps 
her  most  successful  role  was  Mignon, 
which  part  she  sang  for  an  entire  year 
in  Paris. 

NEVADA  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  the 

head  of  the  educational  system  of  the 
state  of  Nevada  and  the  only  institution 
of  collegiate  grade  within  the  state; 
founded  at  Elko  in  1873  and  removea 
to  Reno  in  1885.  The  university  com- 
prises the  college  of  agriculture,  in- 
cluding departments  of  dairying  and 
domestic  arts  and  sciences,  the  college 
of  arts  and  science,  the  college  of  applied 
science,  with  departments  of  mining  and 
metallurgy  and  mechanical  and  civil 
engineering,  the  State  Normal  School, 
and  the  University  High  School.  Mili- 
tary instruction  forms  part  of  the  curric- 
ulum and  a uniform  is  worn  by  the 
students.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
those  of  B.  A.,  B.  S.,  M.  A.,  M.  S.,  and 
mining,  mechanical  and  civil  engineer. 

NE'W,  for  names  beginning  with  this 


adjective  not  given  here,  see  the  articles 
under  the  name  which  follows  it. 

NE'W  ALBANY,  a city  in  Indiana,  on 
the  Ohio,  opposite  Louisville,  Ky.,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  several  bridges. 
Steamboat  building  is  carried  on,  and 
there  are  iron-foundries,  rolling-mills, 
woolen  factories,  glass-works,  etc.,  Pop. 
24,114. 

NEW  AND  LATTER  HOUSE  OF 
ISRAEL,  See  Jezreelites. 

NEW  ARCHANGEL.  See  Sitka. 

NEWARK,  the  capital  of  Licking  co  , 
Ohio,  on  the  Balt,  and  Ohio,  and  the 
Pitts.,  Gin.,  Chi.  and  St.  L.  railways,  and 
the  Ohio  and  Erie  Canal;  33  miles  n.e. 
of  Columbus.  The  car-shops  of  the  Balt, 
and  Ohio  railroad  are  located  here,  and 
there  are  also  manufactories  of  glass, 
portable  engines,  stoves,  iron-bridge 
work,  paper,  wire-cloth,  carriages,  flour, 
lumber,  and  soap.  Pop.  21,216. 

NEWARK,  a city  and  port,  the  capi- 
tal of  Essex  CO.,  New  Jersey,  9 miles 
west  of  New  York  City,  finely  situated 
on  the  west  side  of  Passaic  river,  about 
4 miles  from  its  mouth  in  Newark  bay. 
It  is  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  and  is 
regularly  laid  out  with  wide,  straight 
streets,  generally  intersecting  at  right 
angles.  Broad  street,  the  principal  thor- 
oughfare, is  more  than  120  feet  broad, 
shaded  with  elms,  and  divides  the  city 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  Newark 
is  distinguished  as  a manufacturing 
town,  the  goods  including  furniture, 
machinery  and  castings,  leather,  boots 
and  shoes,  saddlery,  oil-cloth,  hard- 
ware, clothing,  india-rubber  goods,  etc.; 
there  are  also  textile  factories  (cotton, 
woolen),  and  an  extensive  sewing- 
machine  factory.  There  is  a considera- 
ble coasting  trade  and  constant  steam- 
boat communication  with  New  York. 
Pop.  1909  about  300,000. 

NEW  BEDFORD,  a city  and  port  of 
Massachusetts,  55  miles  south  from 
Boston,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Acushnet, 
which  opens  into  Buzzard’s  bay.  It  has 
cotton-factories,  iron  and  copper  works, 
oil  and  candle  works,  shoe  factories,  etc. 
It  was  at  one  time  the  center  of  the 
American  whale-fishery,  but  this  in- 
dustry has  much  declined.  Pop.  IflO.OOO. 

NEWBERN,  a city  of  North  Carolina, 
the  port  of  entry  for  Pamlico  district, 
on  the  estuary  of  the  Neuse,  which  opens 
into  Pamlico  Sound.  It  has  a large  trade 
in  lumber,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  naval 
stores.  Newbern  was  founded  by  Swiss 
settlers  in  1710.  Pop.  10,210. 

NEW  BRIGHTON,  a part  of  Rich- 
mond borough.  New  York  City,  on 
Staten  Island,  6 miles  southwest  of 
Manhattan.  It  contains  the  “Sailor’s 
Snug  Harbor”  for  aged  and  disabled  sea- 
men of  the  port  of  New  York,  an  institu- 
tion for  destitute  children  of  seamen, 
and  many  fine  residences  of  New  York 
men  of  business.  Pop.  25,331. 

NEW  BRITAIN,  a city  in  Hartford 
CO.,  Conn.,  on  the  N.  Y.  and  N.  E.  and 
the  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  and  Hart,  railways;  9 
miles  s.w.  of  Hartford.  The  industries 
include  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
brass  goods,  artistic  bronze  house- 
trimmings,  builders’  hardware,  cutlerj', 
hosiery,  joiners’  tools,  and  brick.  Pop. 
33,112. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  on  the  east  coast 


NEW  BRUNSWICK 


NEW  GUINEA 


of  North  America.  Its  coast-line  is  in- 
terrupted only  at  the  point  of  junction 
with  Nova  Scotia,  where  an  isthmus  of 
not  more  than  14  miles  in  breadth  con- 
nects the  two  territories,  and  separates 
Northumberland  Strait  from  the  Bay  of 
Fundy.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  St. 
John,  450  miles  in  length,  and  navigable 
for  vessels  of  100  tons  to  Fredericton, 
90  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Bay  of 
Fundy;  and  the  Miramichi,  225  miles  in 
length,  which  falls  into  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  and  is  navigable  for  large 
vessels  25  miles  from  the  gulf.  New 
Brunswick  is  one  of  the  most  amply 
wooded  countries  in  the  world,  and  the 
forests  supply  three-fourths  of  the  total 
exports,  now  including  wood  pulp  for 
paper.  The  fisheries  are  very  valuable. 
The  minerals  exported  include  coal, 
gypsum,  antimony  ore,  copper  ore, 
manganese,  plumbago,  and  unwrought 
stone  Owing  to  its  cheap  coal  and 
proximity  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 
New  Brunswick  is  expected  to  develop 
as  a manufacturing  country,  especially 
now  that  the  railway  system  has  been 
completed  throughout  the  interior  of  the 
province.  The  affairs  of  the  province 
are  administered  by  a lieutenant- 
governor  (appointed  by  the  governor- 
general  in  council),  aided  by  an  execu- 
tive or  advisory  council  consisting  of 
seven  members,  and  a legislative  assem- 
bly of  forty-six  representatives  of  the 
people.  The  province  has  ten  seats  in 
the  Dominion  senate  and  fourteen  in 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  capital  is 
Fredericton,  but  the  chief  commercial 
center  is  St.  John,  which  has  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  on  the  North  Atlantic. 
Pop. in  1891,  321,263; in  1901,  331,120. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a city  in  New 
Jersey,  on  the  Raritan,  which  here  be- 
comes navigable,  29  miles  southwest  of 
New  York.  The  Dutch  Reformed 
Church  has  here  Rutger’s  College  and  a 
theological  seminary  There  are  manu- 
factures of  india-rubber  goods,  paper- 
hangings,  machinery,  etc.  Pop.  24,116. 

NEW'BURG,  a city  of  New  York  state, 
occupying  a commanding  position  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  60 
miles  north  of  New  York  City.  It  has 
a large  river  trade,  especially  in  coal  and 
timber.  Here  is  the  theological  seminary 
of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church.  Here 
also  is  Hasbrouck  House,  Washington’s 
headquarters  in  1782-83.  Pop.  29,715. 

NEW'BURYPORT,  a city  and  port  of 
Massachusetts,  about  3 miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Merrimac.  It  contains 
the  University  of  Modern  Languages 
and  has  cotton-mills,  shoe-factories,  and 
ship-building  yards.  Pop.  15,895. 

NEW  CALEDONIA,  an  island  in  the 
Pacific,  situated  about  800  miles  east  of 
Australia.  It  was  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1774,  and  appropriated  by  the 
French  as  a convict  settlement  in  1854. 
With  the  adjacent  Loyalty  Islands  the 
area  is  estimated  at  6724  sq.  miles,  and 
the  population  at  60,703. 

NEW'CASTLE,  the  principal  shipping 
port  of  New  South  Wales  after  Sidney, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter 
river,  about  75  miles  northeast  from 
Sydney,  on  ground  rising  somewhat 
steeply  from  the  sea.  The  principal 
export  is  coal  from  the  extensive  mines 
of  the  neighborhood,  which  give  em- 


ployment to  over  5000  men.  Pop. 
53,741. 

NEWCASTLE,  Duke  of.  See  Caven- 
dish. 

NEW  CASTLE,  the  capital  of  Law- 
rence co..  Pa.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Shenango  and  the  Neshannock  rivers, 
which  here  form  the  Beaver  river,  and 
on  the  Erie,  the  Penn.,  the  Pitts,  and 
Lake  Erie,  the  Pitts,  and  W.,  and  the 
W.  N.  Y.  and  Penn,  railways;  52  miles 
n.  by  w.  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  in  a bitumi- 
nous coal,  limestone,  fire-clay,  iron-ore, 
and  sandstone  region,  and  has  numerous 
blast  furnaces  and  mills.  Pop.  33,160. 

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME,  a mu- 
nicipal and  parliamentary  borough  of 
England,  Staffordshire,  close  to  the  Pot- 
teries and  19  miles  n.n.w.  of  the  town  of 
Stafford.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough, 
19,914;  of  parliamentary  borough  60,667. 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE,  a mu- 
nicipal, parliamentary,  and  county 
borough  in  the  county  of  Northumber- 
land, but  forming  a county  in  itself. 
Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Nicholas,  an  ancient 
Gothic  structure;  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary;  the 
town-hall,  the  Moot  hall  in  which  the 
assizes  for  the  county  are  held;  the 
castle,  the  Central  railway-station,  the 
ublic  library  and  the  general  market, 
ome  of  the  more  important  of  its  in- 
dustries are  ship-building;  and  the 
manufacture  of  locomotive  and  marine 
engines,  cannon,  shot,  tools,  fire-bricks, 
hemp  and  wire  ropes,  cables,  anchors, 
sails.  Situated  in  the  midst  of  one  of  the 
largest  coal-fields  in  England,  it  exports 
immense  quantities  of  coal.  Pop.  214,- 
881 

NEWCOMB  (nu'kom),  Simon,  Ameri- 
can astronomer  and  mathematician, 
born  in  Wallace,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1835. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1853. 
In  1861  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  United  States  navy. 
He  was  secretary  of  the  Transit  of  Venus 
Commission  in  1871-74,  observed  the 
transit  of  Venus  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  1882,  and  directed  several 
eclipse  expeditions,  beginning  in  1860. 
He  was  professor  of  mathematics  in 
Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1894-1901 
and  editor  of  the  American  Journal  of 
Mathematics.  He  was  a member  of 
nearly  all  the  Imperial  and  Royal 
Societies  of  Europe  and  of  the  various 
scientific  associations  of  this  country. 
He  was  awarded  the  Copley,  the  Huy- 
gens, the  Royal  Society,  and  the  Bruce 
medal;  and  numerous  other  prizes  and 
honorary  degrees. 

NEW'COMEN,  Thomas,  a locksmith 
at  Dartmouth,  in  Devonshire,  toward 
the  close  of  the  17th  century,  and  one  of 
the  inventors  of  the  steam-engine.  New- 
comen conceived  the  idea  of  producing 
a vacuum  below  the  piston  of  a steam- 
engine  after  it  had  been  raised  by  the 
expansive  force  of  the  steam,  which  he 
effected  by  the  injection  of  cold  water 
to  condense  the  vapor.  The  merit  of 
first  applying  the  steam-engine  to  prac- 
tical purposes  is  thus  due  to  Newcomen, 
who,  m conjunction  with  Captain  Savery 
and  John  Cowley,  took  out  a patent  for 
the  invention  in  1705.  See  Steam-engine. 

NEW  ENGLAND,  the  northeast  por- 
tion of  the  United  States,  comprising  the 


states  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
ihont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Connecticut. . Originally  called 
North  Virginia  when  granted  by  James 
I.  to  the  Plymouth  Company  in  1606, 
it  received  the  name  of  New  England 
from  Captain  John  Smith,  who  explored 
and  made  a map  of  the  coast  in  1614. 

NEW'FOUNDLAND,  a large  island  of 
British  North  America,  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  nearer  to  Britain  than 
any  other  part  of  America — the  dis- 
tance from  the  port  of  St.  John’s  to  the 
harbor  of  Valentia,  in  Ireland,  being 
only  about  1918  miles.  Area,  excluding 
the  territory  of  Labrador  on  the  main- 
land, which  belongs  to  this  colony, 
40,000  sq.  miles.  The  famous  banks  of 
Newfoundland  around  the  coasts  swarm 
with  almost  every  variety  of  fish,  par- 
ticularly cod.  The  cod-fishery  is  prose- 
cuted from  June  to  November,  and  may 
be  said,  with  the  other  fisheries,  of  seal, 
lobster,  herring,  and  salmon,  to  form 
the  stable  occupation  of  the  inhabitants. 
Cod-fish  is  far  the  largest  export.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  with  Britain,  Canada,  and 
the  United  States.  The  affairs  of  the 
colony  are  administered  by  a governor, 
appointed  by  the  crown ; an  executive 
council  composed  of  the  governor  and 
six  responsible  ministers;  a legislative 
council  of  fifteen  members,  nominated 
by  the  governor;  and  a house  of  assem- 
bly of  thirty-six  members,  elected  by 
manhood  suffrage  (according  to  act  of 
1889).  Newfoundland  was  discovered 
by  John  Cabot  in  1497,  and  the  first 
English  colony  was  planted  in  1621. 
A struggle  for  supremacy  took  place  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  French;  but 
in  1713  Newfoundland  and  its  depend- 
encies were  declared,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht,  to  belong  wholly  to  Great 
Britain,  the  French  reserving  a right  to 
fish  and  cure  on  certain  parts  of  the 
coast.  Responsible  government  was 
granted  in  1833.  The  colony,  as  yet,  de- 
clines to  join  the  Canadian  Confedera- 
tion. The  only  noteworthy  town  on  the 
island  is  St.  John’s,  the  capital.  Pop. 
216,615., 

NEW  GRANADA.  See  Colombia. 

NEW  GUINEA,  or  PAPUA,  a large 
island  in  Australasia,  next  to  Australia 


the  largest  on  the  globe;  area,  305,900 
sq.  miles;  length  about  1500,  breadth 
from  200  to  400  miles.  The  island  is  rich 
in  tropical  products,  possesses  a copious 
and  peculiar  flora  and  fauna  (birds  of 
paradise  being  especially  numerous  and 
gorgeous),  and  is  suitable  for  tropical 
agriculture.  On  the  west  coast  there  are 
numerous  Malay  settlements,  but  the 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


NEW  JERSEY 


bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Papuas,  a 
race  resembling  the  negroes  of  Guinea. 
The  discovery  of  New  Guinea  was  made 
by  the  Portuguese  early  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, but  little  was  known  of  it  till 
recently.  The  naturalists  were  the  first 
to  make  incursions  into  its  interior,  and 
among  these  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace,  who 
visited  it  in  1858,  was  the  pioneer.  The 
delimitation  and  division  of  the  island 
between  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
Holland  was  settled  in  1885.  That  part 
of  the  island  lying  west  of  the  141st 
meridian  is  assigned  to  Holland,  and 
comprises  150,755  sq.  miles;  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  rest  of  the  island  is 
assigned  to  Germany,  and  the  south- 
ern to  Great  Britain.  The  German  ter- 
ritory, called  Kaiser  Wilhelm’s  Land 
contains  68,785  sq.  miles,  the  English 
territory  86,457  sq.  miles,  estimated 
pop.  135,000.  The  government  of  the 
British  portion  is  in  the  hands  of  an  ad- 
ministrator appointed  by  the  crown, 
assisted  by  an  executive  and  a legis- 
lative council.  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  Queensland  each  contrib- 
ute to  the  expense  of  the  government. 
A German  chartered  company  whose 
object  is  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
country  has  stations  in  German  New 
Guinea.  The  Dutch  have  done  little  or 
nothing  for  their  portion  of  the  island. 
Estimates  of  the  total  population  vary 
between  500,000  and  2,500,000. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada, 
east  by  Maine,  southeast  by  the  Atlantic, 
south  by  Massachusetts,  and  west  by 
Vermont,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  river  Connecticut;  area,  9305  sq. 
miles.  This  state  has  a sea-coast  of  only 
18  miles.  It  ranks  fortieth  in  size  among 


Seal  of  New  Hampshire. 


the  United  States.  New  Hampshire  is 
more  mountainous  than  the  average 
state  on  the  Atlantic  slope.  The  eastern- 
most extension  of  the  Appalachian 
system  traverses  the  state  lengthwise 
and  culminates  in  the  White  Mountains. 
Among  the  peaks  whose  rocky  summits 
reach  above  the  timber  line  is  Mount 
Washington  with  an  altitude  of  6293 
feet.  Every  part  of  the  state  is  well 
drained  by  numerous  streams,  the  nar- 
row western  portion  by  the  Connecticut 
river,  the  remainder  by  rivers  flowing 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  northern 
part  of  the  state  is  drained  by  the 
Androscoggin  river.  The  principal  river 
after  the  Connecticut  is  the  Merrimac. 


The  Merrimac  probably  turns  more 
spindles  than  any  other  riverin  theworld. 
The  southeastern  corner  of  the  state  is 
drained  by  streams  flowing  into  the 
Piscataqua  estuary,  this  being  the  only 
harbor  on  the  coast.  New  England 
abounds  in  lakes,  the  largest  being  Lake 
Winnipiseogee.  The  climate  is  severe, 
the  ground  being  snow  covered,  and  the 
rivers  frozen  from  autumn  to  spring. 
Mica,  granite,  scythe  stones,  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  tin,  arsenic,  and  iron  are  among 
the  chief  minerals  of  the  state.  The 
principal  crops  are  Indian  corn,  oats, 
and  barley;  buckwheat,  hay,  hops, 
tobacco,  potatoes,  flax,  beans,  and  pease 
are  also  raised.  Apple  and  pear  trees 
are  abundant  in  the  cultivated  districts; 
and  the  hilly  and  mountainous  regions 
are  still  covered  with  extensive  forests 
of  pine,  oak,  beech,  birch,  sugar-maple, 
etc.  Manufactures  are  actively  carried 
on,  the  principal  being  cotton,  woolen, 
and  worsted  goods,  boots  and  shoes, 
leather,  lumber,  iron,  machinery,  fur- 
niture, etc.  The  mileage  of  railways  is 
greater  in  proportion  to  population  and 
wealth  than  in  any  other  New  England 
state.  Education  is  well  attended  to. 
There  is  but  one  university,  Dartmouth 
college,  Hanover.  Earliest  settlements  in 
New  Hampshire  were  made  near  Dover 
and  Portsmouth  in  1623.  New  Hamp- 
shire was  a part  of  the  Massachusetts 
colony  from  1641  to  1679,  from  1689 
to  1692,  and  from  1699  to  1741.  During 
the  intervening  dates  and  until  1775 
this  territory  was  under  colonial  gov- 
ernors of  its  own.  The  people  of  New 
Hampshire  took  an  active  part  in  the 
revolutionary  war.  In  1776  a provisional 
government  was  founded,  and  in  1784  a 
state  constitution  was  adopted.  New 
Hampshire  was  the  ninth  state  to  ratify 
the  federal  constitution,  which  it  did  on 
June  21,  1788.  The  popular  name  is 
Granite  state.  The  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  New  Hampshire  was  Portsmouth. 
Until  1805  it  was  migratory  but  at  that 
date  Concord  was  chosen.  New  Hamp- 
shire was  federalist  in  national  politics 
till  1816,  with  the  exception  of  1804, 
when  it  voted  for  Jefferson.  From  1816 
to  1852  it  was  consistently  democratic. 
Since  1856  it  has  been  stanchly  repub- 
lican. The  capital  is  Concord,  the 
largest  city  and  the  chief  manufacturing 
center  is  Manchester,  and  the  only  port 
is  Portsmouth.  Pop.  443,588. 

NEW  HAVEN,  a seaport  town  in 
Connecticut,  on  a bay  of  same  name  in 
Long  Island  Sound,  72  miles  northeast 
of  New  York.  There  are  important 
manufactories  of  carriages,  arms,  wire, 
etc.,  and  there  is  a large  foreign  trade, 
particularly  with  the  West  Indies.  New 
Haven  is  widely  known  as  the  seat  of 
Yale  College  (which  see).  Pop.  128,117. 

NEW  HEBRIDES,  a long  chain  of 
volcanic  islands  in  the  Pacific,  lying 
northwest  of  Fiji  and  northeast  of  New 
Caledonia,  and  embracing  an  area  of 
about  3000  sq.  miles.  The  natives 
(70,000)  are  of  Melanesian  race. 

NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  eastern 
United  States,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
New  York,  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  the  Hudson  river,  south  by  Dela- 
ware and  Pennsylvania,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Delaware  river; 
area,  7815  sq.  miles.  Though  tke  state 


lies  wholly  within  the  Atlantic  slope,  it 
is  crossed  in  the  northwest  by  several 
ranges  of  the  Appalachian  system . There 
are  four  distinctly  marked  topographi- 
cal regions  running  in  parallel  bands 
across  the  state  from  southwest  to  north- 
east. The  first,  the  Kittatinny  range,  an 
extension  of  the  Blue  Mountains  of 
Pennsylvania,  runs  in  a continuous 
ridge  into  New  York.  The  second  in- 
cludes the  Highlands,  an  outlying 
Appalachian  range  consisting  of  plateau- 
like masses,  rising  to  a height  of  1200  to 
1400  feet.  The  third  is  the  Piedmont 
plain,  nearly  as  wide  as  the  first  two 


Seal  of  New  Jersey. 


combined.  The  fourth  constitutes  the 
coastal  plain  and  includes  the  entire 
southern  half  of  the  state  .south  of  a line 
running  from  Trenton  to  Newark  Bay. 

The  western  slope  of  the  state  is 
drained  by  short  tributaries  into  the 
Delaware  river,  but  by  far  the  greater 
portion  drains  directly  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  or  its  inlets.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Passaic  and  Hackensack,  the 
Raritan,  the  Mullica  and  Great  Egg. 
Lakes  are  confined  chiefly  to  the  north- 
ern section. 

The  most  extensively  utilized  of  the 
state’s  diversified  geological  resources 
are  its  clays.  New  Jersey  ranks  second 
in  the  production  of  pottery  and  third 
in  the  total  output  of  clay  products. 
Brick  clay  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
state.  A variety  of  stone  is  quarried  in 
the  northwestern  counties,  and  con- 
stitutes another  important  source  of 
wealth.  The  production  of  granite  has 
increased  rapidly.  New  Jersey  ranks 
second  in  the  production  of  Portland 
cement.  Iron  has  been  mined  con- 
tinuously in  the  northwestern  part  until 
the  present  time.  The  iron  is  mined 
with  greater  difficulty  than  in  the  larger 
iron-producing  regions,  but  the  saving 
of  the  cost  of  transportation  makes  it 
profitable.  The  state  has  an  extensive 
fishery  industry.  Next  to  oysters,  the 
principal  species  with  respect  to  value 
are  clams,  shad,  squeteague,  bluefish, 
and  cod.  The  middle  portion  of  the 
state  is  agreeably  diversified  by  hills 
and  valleys;  the  southern  part  is  level 
and  sandy,  and  to  a great  extent  barren, 
yielding  naturally  little  else  than  shrub- 
oaks  and  yellow  pine.  The  other  por- 
tions of  the  state  have  a good  soil,  and 
produce  Indian  corn  and  other  cereals, 
buckwheat,  potatoes,  etc.  The  fruits 
are  good,  especially  apples,  pears, 
cherries,  plums,  and  peaches.  The  cli- 


NEW  JERSEY,  COLLEGE  OP 


NEW  ORLEANS 


mate  is  mild,  and  nowhere  is  the  cold 
severely  felt  in  winter  except  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  north, 
where  the  finest  cattle  are  reared,  and 
large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese 
made.  New  Jersey  ranks  high  among 
the  states  in  manufacturing  and  chemi- 
cal industries,  while  in  some  industries, 
as  silk,  pottery,  and  glass,  it  stands 
first,  although  it  is  only  sixteenth  in 
population,  and  forty-sixth  in  area. 
It  is  rich  in  metals,  especially  iron  and 
zinc.  The  principal  seat  of  education  is 
the  New  Jersey  college,  Princeton,  one  of 
the  principal  colleges  in  the  United 
States.  There  is  a state  normal  school 
at  Trenton.  The  principal  towns  are 
Newark,  Jersey  City,  Paterson,  Cam- 
den, and  Trenton  (the  capital).  The 
territory  included  within  the  limits  of 
the  present  state  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  from  New  York  between  1614 
and  1620.  It  was  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  Union. 

Cornelius  May  ascended  the  Delaware 
in  1623,  and  built  a fort  4 miles  below 
the  site  of  Camden.  The  Swedes,  who 
had  conquered  and  expelled  the  Eng- 
lish colonists  from  that  region  in  1638, 
were  in  turn  conquered  by  Peter  Stuy- 
vesant  in  1655.  In  1664  the  territory 
was  granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  Duke 
of  York,  and  by  him  to  Sir  George 
Carteret  and  Lord  John  Berkeley. 
There  was  no  trouble  with  the  Indians, 
whose  titles  were  peacefully  purchased. 
The  proprietors  soon  divided  the  terri- 
tory into  East  and  West  Jersey.  In  1674 
Quakers  settled  Salem  and  Burlington 
and  in  1682  a society  under  Penn  bought 
the  Carteret  rights  in  East  Jersey.  The 
two  provinces  were  reunited  in  1702; 
and  from  1738  New  Jersey  had  its  own 
governors.  It  bore  its  part  in  the  colonial 
wars,  contributed  10,726  men  to  the 
continental  army,  besides  militia.  New 
Jersey  suffered  heavily  during  the  revo- 
lution, and  was  the  scene  of  several 
important  campaigns  and  battles.  The 
state  took  an  active  part  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  the  civil  war.  The  popular 
name  is  Jersey  Blue  State.  Politically, 
the  state  has  generally  inclined  toward 
the  democratic  party.  In  1796,  1800, 
and  1812,  it  supported  the  federalist 
candidates;  from  1836  to  1848  it  was 
whig;  in  1860  it  gave  four  votes  to  Lin- 
coln, and  three  to  Douglas;  in  1872  it 
cast  its  vote  for  Grant ; and  in  1896,  1900 
10('4  and  19i)8,  it  went  re]Hiblican.  Pop. 
2,500,000. 

NEW  JERSEY,  COLLEGE  OF.  See 
Princeton  University. 

NEW  JERUSALEM  CHURCH.  See 

Swedenborgians. 

NEW  LEON,  or  NUEVO  LEON,  a 

Mexican  state  bounded  by  Cohahuila, 
Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  Tamau- 
lipas;  area,  23,626  sq.  miles.  It  is  moun- 
tainous but  fertile,  and  lead,  gold,  silver, 
and  salt  are  worked;  chief  town,  Mon- 
terey. Pop.  327,937. 

NEW  LONDON,  a city  in  Connecticut, 
on  the  Thames,  3 miles  from  its  entrance 
into  Long  Island  Sound,  42  miles  e.n.e. 
of  New  Haven.  The  seal,  cod,  and 
mackerel  fisheries  employ  many  of  the 
inhabitants.  New  London  is  a fashion- 
able summer  resort.  Pop.  20,298. 

NEWMAN,  John  Henry,  Cardinal, 
born  at  London  1801.  He  took  part 


with  Keble  and  Pusey  in  originating  the 
Oxford  movement;  was  a leader  in  the 
propaganda  of  High  Church  doctrines, 
and  contributed  largely  to  the  cele- 
brated tracts  for  the  Times.  The  last  of 
these,  on  the  elasticity  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles,  was  censured  by  the 
university  authorities,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Newman’s  resignation  of  his 
livings  (1843)  and  secession  to  the 
Church  of  Rome  (1845).  In  1879  he  was 
created  a cardinal.  He  has  written  some 
remarkable  works  sustaining  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  of  Rome,  particu- 
larly the  Apologia  pro  Vit&  suS,  (1864), 
and  the  Reply  to  Mr.  Gladstone  (1875) 
on  the  Vatican  Decrees.  He  died  in 
1890. 

NEWMAN,  John  Philip,  American 
clerg3Tnan,  bishop  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church,  was  born  in  New 
York  in  1826.  In  1860  he  visited  Egypt 
and  Palestine,  embodying  the  results  of 
this  trip  in  From  Dan  to  Beersheba,  or 
the  Land  of  Promise  as  it  Now  Appears. 
In  1872  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Grant  inspector  of  consulates  in  Asia. 
In  1881  he  was  a delegate  to  the  first 
Ecumenical  Methodist  Conference  in 
London.  In  1888  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church  with 
his  official  residence  at  Omaha,  Neb. 
He  died  in  1899. 

NEW  MEXICO,  one  of  the  territories 
of  the  United  States,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Colorado,  east  by  Texas,  south 
by  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  west  by  the 
territory  of  Arizona;  area,  122,580  sq. 
miles.  New  Mexico  exceeds  in  size  every 
state  in  the  Union  exce^  Texas,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Montana.  The  surface  is 
generally  mountainous,  being  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  A central  valley  extends 
across  the  whole  territory  from  north 
to  south,  with  an  average  breadth  of  20 


Seal  of  New  Mexico. 


miles,  traversed  by  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  hemmed  in  either  by  the  main 
chain  or  by  ramifications  of  the  Rocky 
mountains.  To  the  south  of  the  town 
of  Santa  F4  they  average  from  6000  to 
8000  feet  high,  but  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  town  and  north  of  it  some  snowy 
peaks  rise  to  the  height  of  10,000  or 
12,000  feet.  The  higher  ranges  are 
covered  in  many  places  with  pine  forests 
and  the  lower  with  cedars  and  occasional 
oaks.  The  climate  is  generally  tem- 
perate and  salubrious.  The  soil  is  often 
sandy,  but  an  extensive  system  of 
irrigation  canals  is  projected;  as  it  is, 


about  half  the  surface  consists  of  good 
average  agricultural  land,  producing 
abundant  crops  of  alfalfa,  Indian  corn, 
wheat,  and  pulse.  Fruits  are  abundant, 
and  the  vine  is  largely  cultivated.  Con- 
siderable attention  is  paid  to  the  rfearing 
of  cattle.  There  are  enormous  deposits 
of  coal;  and  iron,  lead,  zinc,  copper, 
silver,  and  gold  are  found  in  important 
quantities. 

The  first  explorers  of  the  region  were 
Spanish.  Santa  F6  was  founded  be- 
tween 1605  and  1616.  The  Indians 
revolted  about  1680,  and  kept  their 
independence  for  ten  years.  The  mines 
were  worked  and  towns  and  missions 
were  founded.  This  region  became  a 
province  of  Mexico  when  that  country 
gained  its  independence  of  Spain  in 
1821.  A small  United  States  force  under 
Gen.  Stephen  Kearney  captured  Santa 
F6,  gained  control  of  the  whole  territory, 
and  secured  its  cession  to  the  United 
States  in  1848.  The  territory  when 
originally  organized  in  1850  included 
Arizona  and  a part  of  Colorado  and 
California.  In  1850  a convention  was 
held  and  a state  constitution  adopted, 
but  the  dread  on  the  part  of  the  north 
of  another  slave  state  prevented  the 
admission  of  New  Mexico.  Frequent 
efforts  to  secure  admission  have  been 
made  since.  In  1894  congress  passed  an 
enabling  act,  and  in  the  fifty-seventh 
congress  (1901-03)  an  act  of  admission 
passed  the  house,  but  did  not  reach  a 
vote  in  the  senate.  The  construction  of 
railroads,  begun  in  1878,  had  a marked 
influence  in  its  development.  The  popu- 
lar name  is  the  Sunshine  State.  Many 
of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Mexican  origin. 
Pop.  193,777. 

NEW  MEXICO,  University  of,  a co- 
educational institution  of  higher  learn- 
ing at  Albuquerque,  New  Mexico,  in- 
corporated by  an  act  of  the  territorial 
legislature  in  1889,  and  indicated  by 
statute  as  the  future  state  university. 
The  collegiate,  normal,  and  preparatory 
departments  were  opened  in  1892. 
Science,  music,  art,  and  commercial 
schools  were  afterward  added.  The 
degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts  and  pedagogy, 
of  master  of  arts  and  sciences,  and  of 
doctor  of  philosophy  are  conferred. 
The  Hadley  Climatological  Laboratory 
is  an  organization  for  research  espe- 
cially with  reference  to  the  influence  of 
the  climate  of  the  arid  and  plateau 
region  of  the  United  States  upon  dis- 
ease. 

NEW  MEXICO  COLLEGE  OF  AGRI- 
CULTURE AND  MECHANIC  ARTS, 

a coeducational  state  institution  at 
Mesilla  Park,  N.  M.,  established  in  1889. 
It  is  supported  mainly  by  a territorial 
tax  and  by  the  Morrill  and  Hatch  funds. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  a city  and  port  of 
the  United  States,  Louisiana,  chiefly  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  100 
miles  above  its  mouth.  The  alluvial 
flat  on  which  it  stands  is  a mere  swamp, 
and  the  town  is  only  saved  from  the 
inundations  of  the  river  by  a strong 
levee  or  embankment,  built  along  the 
city  front,  and  200  miles  above  and  50 
miles  below,  extending  also  around  the 
city  in  the  rear.  The  nucleus  of  the 
town  is  built  around  a bend  of  the  river, 
from  which  it  derives  its  popular  sobri- 
quet “the  Crescent  City.”  The  streets 


NEW  PLATONISTS 


NEWSPAPERS 


in  this  portion  are  mostly  narrow,  but 
many  of  those  in  the  suburbs  are  spa- 
cious and  handsome,  and  lined  with 
shade-trees.  The  public  buildings  are 
neither  numerous  nor  remarkable,  and 
the  manufactures  are  inconsiderable. 
New  Orleans  is  simply  the  outlet  for  the 
produce  of  the  countries  drained  by  the 
Mississippi — sugar,  molasses,  rice,  to- 
bacco, Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats,  flour, 
and  above  all,  cotton.  Ships  of  the 
largest  size  can  now  reach  the  city 
docks.  The  yellow  fever  has  often 
caused  great  mortality,  but  these  epi- 
demics have  been  greatly  mitigated  by 


the  adoption  of  sanitary  measures  and 
drainage  on  a grand  scale.  In  1908  a 
fire  destroyed  §1,600,000  of  property. 
New  Orleans  was  founded  by  the  French 
in  1717,  and  finally  passed  with  Louisi- 
ana to  the  Union  in  1803.  Pop.  400,000. 

NEW  PLATONISTS,  a philosophical 
sect,  so  called  because  they  founded 
their  speculations  on  those  of  Plato; 
also  called  the  Alexandrian  Platonists, 
because  their  chief  seat  was  at  first 
in  Alexandria.  Their  doctrines  (Nea- 
platonism)  had  a tendency  to  unite 
Platonic  ideas  with  Oriental  mysticism, 
and  borrowed  elements  from  various 
schools. 

NEWPORT,  a flourishing  city  in 
Kentucky,  on  the  river  Ohio,  opposite 
Cincinnati,  of  which  it  is  practically  a 
residential  suburb.  Its  chief  manufac- 
tures are  in  iron  and  steel.  Pop.  32,161. 

NEWPORT,  a seaport  of  one  of  the 
capitals  of  Rhode  Island,  finely  situated 
on  its  southwest  shore,  at  the  main  en- 
trance of  Narragansett  bay,  26  miles 
south  by  east  of  Providence,  a most 
fashionable  watering-place.  For  over 
240  years  it  has  been  the  annual  meet- 
ing-place of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
Pop.  26,133. 

NEWPORT  NEWS,  a rising  American 
seaport  in  Warwick  co.,  Virginia,  near 
the  extremity  of  the  peninsula  formed 
by  the  York  and  James  rivers.  New- 
port News  exports  cotton,  lumber, 


wheat  and  fleur,  tobacco,  etc.  Pop. 
23,460. 

NEW  ROCHELLE,  a town  in  West- 
chester CO.,  N.  Y.,  on  the  inlet  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  locally  known  as  New 
Rochelle  harbor,  and  on  the  N.  Y.,  N. 
H.  and  Hart,  railroad;  20  miles  n.e.  of 
the  New  York  city-hall.  Pop.  16,522. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES,  a colony  of 
Great  Britain,  which  at  one  time  com- 
prised the  eastern  half  of  Australia,  but 
is  now  bounded  by  Queensland  on  the 
n.,  Victoria  on  the  s.,  the  Pacific  ocean 
on  the  e.,  and  South  Australia  on  the 
w.,  area,  310,700  sq.  miles.  The  coal- 


fields extend  over  an  area  of  10,000,000 
acres,  with  an  output  of  some  4,600,000 
tons.  Copper  ore  of  the  richest  quality 
has  been  found  in  great  abundance,  but 
is  not  yet  extensively  worked.  Tin  exists 
in  large  quantities,  and  iron  is  very  gen- 
erally distributed.  But  the  chief  min- 
eral product  of  the  colony  has  been 
gold,  the  total  value  of  which  hitherto 
obtained  is  estimated  at  $300,000,000. 
Much  silver  and  lead  are  now  obtained. 
As  the  area  of  the  colony  extends  over 
eleven  degrees  of  latitude,  and  as  it  con- 
tains a good  deal  of  elevated  ground, 
nearly  every  variety  of  climate  is  to  be 
found.  The  agricultural  land  is  chiefly 
under  wheat  and  maize,  oats  and  barley, 
and  there  is  also  a considerable  area 
under  sugar,  vines,  fruit-trees,  etc. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  in  great  variety 
are  grown.  But  the  rearing  of  sheep  and 
cattle  are  the  chief  employments  of  the 
people,  and  wool  is  the  most  important 
article  of  export.  The  manufacturing 
industries  of  the  colony  are  naturally 
not  of  much  importance  as  yet,  but 
they  are  increasing;  and  the  industrial 
works  embrace  tanneries,  woolen  fac- 
tories, soap  and  candle  works,  breweries, 
steam  saw-mills,  shipyards,  foundries, 
machine-works,  clothing  factories,  etc. 
There  are  about  3000  miles  of  open  rail- 
way besides  what  is  in  course  of  con- 
struction ; the  telegraphic  wires  extend 
over  13,700  miles.  The  constitution  of 


New  South  Wales  vests  the  legislative 
power  in  a parliament  of  two  houses, 
the  legislative  council  namely,  and  the 
legislative  assembly.  The  former  con- 
sists of  not  fewer  than  21  (at  present 
of  75)  members  nominated  by  the 
crown  for  life;  and  the  latter  of  125 
members  chosen  triennially  by  125 
constituencies  on  a basis  of  manhood 
suffrage.  The  governor,  nominated  by 
the  crown,  has  a cabinet  of  ten  minis- 
ters. The  colony  sends  six  representa- 
tives to  the  federal  senate  and  twenty- 
six  to  the  federal  house  of  representa- 
tives. It  celebrated  its  centenary  in 
January,  1888.  Pop.  1908,  1,571,300. 

NEWSPAPERS,  although  something 
like  an  official  newspaper  or  govern- 
ment gazette  existed  in  ancient  Rome, 
and  Venice  in  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  had  also  official  news  sheets, 
the  first  regular  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort  in  1615.  In  England 
no  genuine  newspaper  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury has  been  preserved,  and  it  is  not 
till  1622  that  we  find  The  Weekly  News 
from  Italy,  Germany,  etc.,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  first  specimen  of  the 
regular  newspaper  that  appeared  in 
England.  Other  journals  followed,  and 
one  of  these,  published  in  November, 
1641,  under  the  title  of  Diurnal  Occur- 
rences, or  the  Heads  of  Several  Pro- 
ceedings in  both  Houses  of  Parliament, 
is  noticeable  as  the  first  which  furnished  . 
a report  of  the  proceedings  in  parlia- 
ment. The  oldest  existing  newspaper 
in  England  is  the  government  paper, 
the  London  Gazette,  the  first  number 
of  which  was  issued  on  the  7th  of  No- 
vember, 1665,  at  Oxford,  whither  the 
court  had  retired  in  consequence  of  the 
plague  then  raging  in  London. 

The  increase  of  rapid  communication 
generally;  the  development  of  tele- 
graphic communication,  and  the  system 
of  telegraphic  news-agencies,  estab- 
lished first  by  Julius  Reuter  in  1849; 
the  vast  improvement  in  printing,  the 
repeal  of  the  stamp-duty  (originally  im- 
posed in  1712)  in  1855,  and  of  the  paper- 
duty  in  1861,  and  the  enormous  growth 
of  advertisements,  have  given  a great 
impetus  to  this  branch  of  literature. 
Penny  weekly  and  penny  daily  papers 
are  now  exceedingly  numerous;  even 
half-penny  newspapers  are  not  uncom- 
mon. Special  industries  and  profes- 
sions are  now  represented  by  organs  of 
their  own,  and  the  number  of  special 
illustrated  domestic  and  literary  papers 
is  enormous. 

The  Boston  News-Letter,  started  in 
1704,  was  the  first  regularly  established 
American  newspaper.  By  the  com- 
mencement 5)f  the  revolutionary  war 
in  1775  the  number  of  newspapers  pub- 
lished in  the  New  England  states 
amounted  to  thirteen.  In  1889  there 
were  published  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  about  2000  daily  and  11,500 
semi-weekly  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Since  1840  New  York  has  been  the 
acknowledged  metropolis  of  the  news- 
paper and  periodical  press  of  America. 

The  total  number  of  newspapers  pub- 
lished in  the  world  at  present  is  esti- 
mated at  about  60,000,  distributed  as 
follows;  United  States  and  Canada, 
23,461;  Germany,  8,049;  Great  Britain, 
9,500j  France,  6,681  j Japan,  l,000i  ' 


NEWT 


NEW  YORK 


Italy,  2,757;  Austria-Hungary,  2,958; 
Asia,  exclusive  of  Japan,  1,000;  Spain, 
1,000;  Russia,  1,000;  Australia,  1,000; 
Greece,  130;  Switzerland,  1,005;  Hol- 
land, 980;  Belgium,  956;  all  others, 
1,000.  Of  these  more  than  half  are 
printed  in  the  English  language. 

NEWT,  or  EFT,  the  popular  name 
applied  to  various  genera  of  amphibians. 
Water-newts,  or  “water-salamanders” 
as  they  are  sometimes  termed,  possess 
a compressed  tail,  adapted  for  swim- 
ming. These  forms  are  oviparous,  and 
though  aquatic  in  their  habits  they  are 


Great  water-newt. 

yet  strict  air-breathers.  The  larval 
gills  are  cast  off  on  maturity  being 
reached,  or  about  the  third  month  of 
existence.  The  larval  tail  is  retained 
throughout  life.  The  male  animals  are 
distinguished  by  the  possession  of  a 
crest  or  fleshy  ridge  borne  on  the  back. 
The  food  consists  chiefly  of  aquatic  in- 
sects, larvae,  etc. 

NEW  TESTAMENT.  See  Bible. 

NEWTON,  a city  in  Middlesex  co., 
Massachusetts,  on  the  Charles  river,  8 
miles  w.  of  Boston,  a favorite  residence, 
of  Boston  merchants.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution 
(Baptist).  Pop.  36,587. 

NEWTON,  Hubert  Anson,  American 
astronomer  and  mathematician,  was 
born  at  Sherburne,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  The 
study  of  the  law  of  meteoroids  and  of 
comets  and  their  interrelation,  began 
with  the  attempt  to  contribute  to  the 
theory  advanced  by  Professor  Olmsted 
of  Yale  in  1833,  that  meteors  were  a 
part  of  a mass  of  bodies  moving  round 
the  sun  in  a fixed  orbit.  His  authority 
on  these  subjects  became  world-wide, 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences 
awarding  him  the  Smith  gold  medal. 
He  died  in  1896. 

NEWTON,  Sir  Isaac,  the  most  dis- 
tinguished mathematician  of  modern 
times,  was  born  at  Woolsthorpe,  Lin- 
colnshire, December  25,  1642.  In  1663- 
64  he  discovered  the  formula  known  as 
Newton’s  Binomial  Thereom  (see  Bino- 
mial); and  before  1665  he  had  estab- 
lished his  doctrine  of  fluxions.  Some 
years  later  Leibnitz  also  discovered  this 
invaluable  method,  and  presented  it 
to  the  world  in  a different  form — that 
of  the  differential  calculus.  About  this 
time  (1665),  being  obliged  to  quit  Cam- 
bridge on  account  of  the  plague,  he  re- 
tired to  Woolsthorpe,  where  the  idea  of 
universal  gravitation  is  said  to  have 
first  presented  itself  to  him,  from  observ- 
ing the  fall  of  an  apple  in  his  garden. 
In  1666  he  returned  to  Cambridge,  was 
chosen  fellow  of  his  college  (Trinity 
college)  in  1667,  and  the  next  year  was 
admitted  A.M.  By  this  time  his  atten- 
tion had  been  drawn  to  the  phenomena 
of  the  refraction  of  light  through  prisms, 
and  to  the  improvements  of  telescopes. 


His  experiments  led  him  to  conclude 
that  light  is  not  a simple  and  homogene- 
ous substance,  but  that  it  is  composed  of 
a number  of  rays  of  unequal  refrangi- 
bility,  and  possessing  different  colors. 
In  1669,  being  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Cambridge,  and  pre- 
paring to  lecture  on  optics,  he  endeav- 
ored to  mature  his  first  results,  and 
composed  a treatise  on  the  subject. 
In  1672  Newton  was  chosen  a fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society,  to  which  he  com- 
municated a description  of  a new  ar- 
rangement for  reflecting  telescopes, 
which  rendered  them  more  convenient 
by  diminishing  their  length  without 
weakening  their  magnifying  powers; 
and  soon  after,  the  first  part  of  his 
labors  on  the  analysis  of  light.  This 
led  him  into  controversies  with  Hooke, 
Huygens,  and  several  eminent  foreign- 
ers, Newton  maintaining  the  corpus- 
cular theory,  now  generally  given  up  in 
favor  of  the  undulatory  theory.  In  1675 
he  addressed  another  paper  to  the  Royal 
Society,  completing  the  account  of  his 
results  and  of  his  views  on  the  nature  of 
light.  This  treatise,  united  with  his  first 
paper  on  the  analysis  of  light,  afterward 
served  as  the  base  of  the  great  work. 
Treatise  on  Optics  (1704).  He  had  before 
this  deduced  from  the  laws  of  Kepler 
the  important  law  that  gravity  de- 
creased with  the  square  of  the  distance, 
a law  to  which  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
Halley,  and  Hooke  had  all  been  led  by 
independent  study.  No  demonstration 


Sir  Isaac  Newton. 


of  it,  however,  had  been  given,  and  no 
proof  obtained  that  the  same  power 
which  made  the  apple  to  fall,  was  that 
which  retained  the  moon  and  the  other 
planets  in  their  orbits.  Adopting  the 
ordinary  measure  of  the  earth’s  radius, 
Newton  had  been  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  force  which  kept  the  moon  in 
her  orbit,  if  the  same  as  gravity,  was 
one-sixth  greater  than  that  which  is 
actually  ob^served,  a result  which  per- 
plexed him,  and  prevented  him  from 
communicating  to  his  friends  the  great 
speculation  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
In  June,  1682,  however,  he  had  heard 
of  Picard’s  more  accurate  measure  of 
the  earth’s  diameter,  and  repeating 
with  this  measure  his  former  calcula- 
tions, he  found,  to  his  extreme  delight, 
that  the  force  of  gravity,  by  which 
bodies  fall  at  the  earth’s  surface,  4000 
miles  from  the  earth’s  center,  when 
diminished  as  the  square  of  240,000 


miles,  the  moon’s  distance,  was  almost 
exactly  equal  to  that  which  kept  the 
moon  in  her  orbit.  Hence  it  followed 
that  the  same  power  retained  all  the 
other  satellites  round  their  primaries 
and  all  the  primaries  round  the  sun. 
Two  years  were  spent  in  penetrating 
the  consequences  of  this  discovery,  and 
in  preparing  his  immortal  work  Philo- 
sophise Naturalis  Principia  Mathe- 
matica,  commonly  called  “Newton’s 
Principia,”  which  was  printed  in  1687 
at  the  expense  of  Dr.  Halley.  In  1687 
Newton  was  one  of  the  delegates  sent 
by  the  University  of  Cambridge  to 
maintain  its  rights  before  the  High 
Commis.sion  Court  when  they  were 
attacked  by  James  II.,  and  in  1688  he 
was  elected  by  the  university  to  the 
Convention  Parliament.  In  1696  he 
was  appointed  warden  of  the  mint,  and 
in  1699  master.  In  1701  he  was  again 
returned  to  parliament  by  his  univer- 
sity; in  1703  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  Royal  Society;  and  in  1705  was 
knighted  by  Queen  Anne.  In  his  later 
years  he  took  great  interest  in  chem- 
istry, and  in  the  elucidation  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  His  health  was  good  until 
his  eightieth  year,  when  he  suffered 
from  a calculous  disorder,  which  oc- 
casioned his  death,  March  20,  1727. 
He  was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  most  important  of  Newton’s  philo- 
sophical works  are  his  Principia;  his 
Arithmetica  Universalis;  his  Geometria 
Analytica;  his  Treatise  on  Optics,  pub- 
lished in  1705;  and  his  Lectiones  Opticse, 
published  after  his  death.  His  literary 
and  theological  works  are  his  Chronol- 
ogy; his  Observations  on  the  Prophecies 
of  Holy  Writ,  viz.:  Daniel  and  the 
Apobalypse ; and  his  Historical  Account 
of  two  Notable  Corruptions  of  Scripture. 

NEWTON’S  LAWS  OF  MOTION.  See 
Dynamics. 

HEW  YEAR’S  DAY,  the  first  day  of 
the  year,  from  the  earliest  times  ob- 
served with  religious  ceremonies  or  fes- 
tive rejoicing.  New  Year’s  Day,  being 
the  eighth  day  after  Christmas,  is  the 
festival  of  Christ’s  circumcision. 

HEW  YORK,  “the  Empire  State,” 
one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
States  of  North  America,  having  Canada 
on  the  north  and  northwest,  from  which 
it  is  almost  entirely  separated  by  the  St. 
Lawrence,  Lake  Ontario,  the  Niagara 
river,  and  Lake  Erie;  south,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  and  the  Atlantic; 
and  east,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts, 
and  Vermont.  Long  Island  belongs  to 
the  state,  whose  seaboard  otherwise  is 
very  small.  Total  area,  49,170  sq.  miles. 
It  is  the  twenty-sixth  in  point  of  size 
among  the  states.  The  surface  in  the 
southeast  is  traversed  by  several  moun- 
tain ranges  from  New  Jersey,  one  of 
which,  crossing  the  Hudson,  presents  a 
bold  and  lofty  front  on  both  banks, 
and  forms  magnificent  scenery.  The 
Catskill  mountains  have  the  greatest 
average  height,  and  in  Round  Top  attain 
3800  feet;  but  the  culminating  point  is 
Mount  Marcy,  which  belongs  to  the 
Adirondack  group,  and  has  a height  of 
5467  feet.  In  the  west  the  large  tract 
extending  between  Lake  Ontario  on  the 
north  and  Pennsylvania  on  the  south  is 
generally  level.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehanna, 


NEW  YORK 


NEW  YORK 


Mohawk,  Oswego,  Genesee,  Niagara, 
Alleghany,  and  St.  Lawrence.  The  falls 
of  Niagara  partly  belong  to  the  state. 
Besides  the  frontier  lakes  Ontario  and 
Erie,  there  are  many  lakes  of  very  con- 
siderable size,  such  as  Lakes  Champlain, 
George,  Oneida,  Cayuga,  Seneca,  etc. 
The  climate  is  somewhat  vari^le,  but 
with  some  local  exceptions  very  healthy. 
The  greater  part  of  the  soil  is  arable, 
and  New  York  occupies  a foremost  place 
in  agriculture.  The  largest  crops  are 
hay,  oats,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  beans, 
barley,  and,  to  a greater  extent  than 
any  other  state,  potatoes.  Grapes  are 
grown  in  the  Chemung  Valley.  A large 
income  is  annually  obtained  from  the 
products  of  floriculture.  Much  attention 
is  paid  to  the  rearing  of  stock,  both  for 
feeding  and  for  dairy  purposes,  more 
milk,  butter  and  cheese  being  produced 


Seal  of  New  York. 


than  in  any  other  state.  The  forest 
trees  present  a great  variety,  but  the 
forest  area,  which  used  to  include  nearly 
half  the  state,  has  been  much  reduced 
of  late  years.  The  most  important  min- 
eral is  iron.  Lead  ore  is  also  found,  and 
a vast  amount  of  salt  is  made  from  the 
salt  springs.  Granite,  marbles,  sand- 
stones, limestones,  clay,  sand,  and  all 
building  materials  are  abundant.  The 
mineral  springs  of  Saratoga  are  the 
most  celebrated  in  America.  The  manu- 
factures include  nearly  a sixth  of  all  the 
manufactures  of  the  United  States. 
The  foreign  and  internal  trade  are  of 
great  importance.  About  60  per  cent  of 
the  imports  and  40  per  cent  of  the  ex- 
ports of  the  entire  nation  pass  through 
the  port  of  New  York.  The  internal  trade 
is  carried  on  chiefly  by  canals  and  rail- 
roads in  conjunction  with  the  Hudson. 
Of  the  canals  the  most  important  is  the 
Erie  Canal,  which  connects  Lake  Erie 
with  the  Hudson.  The  length  of  railways 
is  over  9000  miles.  The  principal  rail- 
road systems  crossing  the  state  are  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River, 
the  Erie,  the  Lackawanna,  the  New 
York,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis  (with  the 
West  Shore),  the  New  York,  Ontario 
and  Western,  and  the  Lehigh  Valley. 
Other  important  systems  enter  at  the 
east  and  west.  Among  religious  denomi- 
nations the  Protestant  Episcopalians, 
Roman  Catholics,  Episcopal  Methodists, 
Baptists,  and  Presbyterians  are  the  most 
important.  For  the  higher  branches  of 
education  ample  provision  has  been 
made,  there  being  some  thirty  univer- 
sities and  colleges,  and  primary  educa- 


tion is  free.  The  oldest  and  most  im- 
portant university  is  Columbia  in  New 
York  City.  There  is  no  state  university, 
but  Cornell  university  in  Utica  awards 
certain  state  scholarships.  Other  im- 
portant institutions  are  Union  college, 
in  Schenectady,  Hamilton  college,  Clin- 
ton, New  York  university  at  New  York. 
Vassar  college  at  Poughkeepsie,  is  one 
of  the  leading  women’s  colleges  in  the 
country.  The  most  noted  of  the  fifteen 
theological  seminaries  is  Union  in  New 
York  City.  There  are  seven  law  schools, 
twelve  medical  schools,  three  dental  and 
four  schools  of  pharmacy.  Albany  is  the 
capital,  though  it  is  far  below  New  York, 
Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Syracuse  in 
population. 

The  first  European  discoverers  and 
explorers  found  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
continent  under  the  denomination  of  the 
Iroquois  tribes.  John  Smith  met  with 
them  on  the  north  waters  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  in  1607,  and  Hudson  found  them  in 
1609  on  the  banks  of  the  river  to  which 
he  gave  his  name.  The  chief  seat  of  this 
powerful  nation,  whose  sway  was  recog- 
nized from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Tennessee  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Mississippi,  was  in  the  wide  and  fertile 
region  of  western  and  northern  New 
York.  They  organized  the  political 
league  or  confederacy  known  as  the 
Five  Nations.  These  were  the  tribes  of 
Mohawks,  Onondagas,  Ca3rugas,  Sene- 
cas, and  Oneidas.  The  confederacy  was 
at  the  height  of  its  power  about  the 
year  1700.  In  1715  they  were  joined  by 
the  Tuscaroras,  driven  out  from  North 
Carolina,  and  were  afterward  known  as 
the  Six  Nations.  The  American  revolu- 
tion proved  fatal  to  them.  The  political 
history  of  the  province  records  one  con- 
tinued struggle  between  the  royal  gov- 
ernors and  the  general  assembly — the 
assembly  withholding  money  grants, 
and  the  governors  exercising  the  power 
to  dissolve  it  at  will.  The  quartering  of 
British  troops  became  a constant  irrita- 
tion between  the  people  and  the  officers, 
and  the  need  of  money  by  the  authori- 
ties caused  as  severe  a struggle  between 
the  governors  and  the  assembly.  A 
general  congress  of  the  colonies  held  in 
New  York  in  1765  protested  against  the 
stamp  act  and  other  oppressive  ordi- 
nances, and  they  were  in  part  repealed. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities.  New 
York  immediately  joined  the  patriot 
cause;  the  English  authority  was  over- 
thrown, and  the  government  passed  to  a 
provincial  congress.  In  May,  1775,  Forts 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  which 
commanded  Lakes  Champlain  and 
George,  and  secured  the  northern  fron- 
tier, were  captured  by  the  Americans. 
New  York  City  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  continental  army  under 
command  of  General  Washington.  On 
July  9,  1776,  the  provincial  congress  re- 
assembled at  White  Plains,  and  form- 
ally took  the  name  of  the  representatives 
of  the  state  of  New  York.  The  same 
day  they  proclaimed  their  adhesion  to 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
defeat  of  the  Americans  on  Long  Island, 
August  27,  1776,  was  followed  by  the 
abandonment  of  the  city.  The  move- 
ment of  Howe  to  White  Plains,  and  his 
subsequent  successful  operations,  com- 
pelled the  withdrawal  of  the  Americans 


to  New  Jersey.  In  1777  the  advance  of 
Burg05me  from  Canada  was  checked  at 
Saratoga  and  his  entire  army  captured. 
An  attempt  of  Clinton  to  aid  Burgoyne, 
in  which  he  captured  the  forts  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Hudson  Highlands, 
failed;  West  Point  continued  to  com- 
mand the  passage  of  this  important  line 
of  communication.  On  April  20,  1777, 
the  state  assembly  adopted  the  first 
constitution,  Gen.  George  Clinton  was 
elected  governor,  and  held  the  office 
till  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1779  (July 
16)  Stony  Point  was  captured  by  the 
Americans.  In  1780  the  failure  of 
Arnold’s  treason  put  an  end  to  the 
schemes  of  the  British  to  command  the 
river.  On  the  conclusion  of  the  war  New 
York  was  evacuated,  November  25, 
1783.  In  1788  (July  26)  New  York 
adopted  the  federal  constitution,  be- 
came the  most  important  member  of  the 
national  union,  and  received  popularly 
the  name  of  the  Empire  State.  The  seat 
of  government  was  transferred  from 
New  York  City  to  Albany  in  1797.  The 
progress  of  the  state  met  with  no  inter- 
ruption until  the  war  with  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1812,  when  its  northern  frontier 
became  the  seat  of  operations  by  land 
and  water.  The  treaty  of  Ghent  put  an 
end  to  the  war,  and  important  schemes 
for  the  development  of  the  internal 
navigation  to  bring  the  products  of  the 
state  to  tidal  water  were  rapidly  con- 
summated. Steamboat  navigation  began 
on  the  Hudson  in  1807,  and  the  canal 
system  was  perfected  in  1825  in  the 
completion  of  the  Erie  canal,  which 
opened  the  country  from  the  lakes 
to  the  sea.  After  1840,  the  anti-slavery 
feeling  was  strong  in  the  agricultural 
parts  of  the  state,  and  in  1848  the 
democrats,  led  by  Van  Buren,  broke 
away  to  aid  in  forming  the  free-soil 
party.  The  whigs  and  know-nothings 
gained  and  lost  power  in  swift  suc- 
cession before  the  civil  war.  The  mer- 
cantile and  manufacturing  classes  in 
1860  advocated  peace  at  any  price, 
but  the  mass  of  the  people  were  Union- 
ist. The  reaction  following  upon  the 
disasters  of  the  first  year  and  a half  of 
the  war  put  the  democrats  into  power. 
The  war  measures  of  President  Lincoln 
were  denounced  violently  by  the  state 
authorities,  and  the  election  of  1864 
was  bitterly  fought,  the  outcome  being 
decided  in  favor  of  the  republicans  by 
the  votes  of  the  men  at  the  front. 

The  rise  of  the  labor  party  in  1886 
was  the  cause  of  much  important  labor 
legislation.  In  1892  laws  limiting  the 
hours  of  daily  work  and  protecting 
women  and  children  in  factories  and 
shops  were  passed.  In  1867  the  public 
schools  of  the  state  were  made  entirely 
free,  and  in  1875  primary  education  was 
made  compulsory. 

New  York  is  an  uncertain  state  both 
in  national  and  state  elections,  and  the 
influence  exerted  by  its  large  electoral 
vote  on  the  outcome  of  presidential  con- 
tests has  given  it  the  well-earned  name 
of  the  “pivotal  state.’’  New  York  voted 
for  the  republican  candidates  from  1796 
to  1808.  In  1812  it  cast  its  vote  for  De 
Witt  Clinton,  who  had  been  nominated 
by  the  section  of  the  republican,  party 
opposed  to  the  domination  of  the  con- 
gressional caucus,  and  had  been  in- 


NEW  YORK 


NEW  YORK 


dorsed  by  the  federalists.  It  voted  for 
Monroe  in  1816  and  1820,  divided  its 
vote  among  Adams,  Crawford,  Clay, 
and  Jackson  in  1824  (26  out  of  36  for 
Adams),  and  between  Adams  and  Jack- 
son  in  1828  (20  out  of  36  for  Adams). 
It  was  democratic  in  1832,  1836,  1844, 
and  1852,  and  whig  in  1840  and  1848. 
From  1856  to  1864,  it  was  republican, 
and  then  entered  on  a course  of  vacilla- 
tion. It  voted  for  Seymour  (democrat) 
in  1868,  Grant  (republican)  in  1872, 
Tilden  (democrat)  in  1876,  Garfield  (re- 
publican) in  1880,  Cleveland  (democrat) 
in  1884,  Harrison  (republican)  in  1888, 
and  Cleveland  (democrat)  in  1892.  The 
state  went  decidedly  republican  in  1896, 
1900,  1904  and  1908.  Pop.  8,468,640. 

NEW  YORK,  the  chief  city  and  sea- 
port of  the  state  of  New  York,  and  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  respect  of  popula- 
tion and  commerce  the  metropolis  of  the 
American  continent,  and  after  London, 
Eng.,  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  The 
city  is  admirably  situated  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Hudson  river  from  the  north, 
and  the  East  river  from  the  northeast 
(the  latter  a prolongation  of  Long 
Island  Sound),  their  united  waters  ex- 
panding into  New  York  bay,  which 
forms  a magnificent  harbor.  The  ap- 
proach from  the  sea  is  either  by  the  East 
river  and  Long  Island  Sound,  or  by  the 
wide  channel  between  Sandy  Hook  and 
Long  Island,  and  thence  by  “the  Nar- 
rows” between  Staten  Island  and  Long 
Island.  In  the  bay  are  several  islands,  on 
some  of  which  are  forts,  and  on  one  the 
colossal  statue  of  Liberty,  the  largest 
statue  of  modern  times,  151.41  feet  in 
height,  stands  upon  a pedestal  155  feet 
high.  The  chief  portion  of  the  city  is 
situated  on  Manhattan  Island,  13^ 
miles  long  and  generally  about  If  broad, 
and  separated  by  the  narrow  channel  of 
Harlem  river  from  the  mainland;  while 
on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  East  river 
are  Brooklyn  and  Long  Island  City,  and 
on  those  of  the  Hudson,  Jersey  City,  Ho- 
boken, etc.  Since  January,  1898,  Brook- 
lyn, Long  Island  City,  Staten  Island, 
etc.,  have  been  incorporated  in  New 
York. 

The  plan  upon  which  the  newer  por- 
tion of  the  city  is  laid  out  consists  of 
parallel  avenues,  100  feet  or  more  in 
width,  named  numerically  from  first  to 
eleventh,  and  running  from  south  to 
north  as  far  as  the  northern  extremity 
of  Manhattan  island,  intersected  at 
right  angles  by  streets  also  numerically 
named,  and.  crossing  the  city  from  east 
to  west.  Fifth  avenue  (7  miles  long,  100 
feet  wide)  is  the  great  central  avenue, 
and  all  the  streets  running  east  from  it 
have  the  prefix  east,  and  those  running 
west  the  prefix  west,  and  the  houses  are 
numbered  accordingly.  The  main  busi- 
ness thoroughfare  is  Broadway  (5  miles 
long  and  80  feet  wide),  which  in  the 
activity  and  variety  of  its  traffic,  the  ele- 
gance of  its  shops,  and  the  massiveness 
and  grandeur  of  many  of  its  public  and 
private  buildings,  is  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting streets  in  the  world.  Madison 
avenue,  next  east  of  Fifth  avenue,  vies 
with  it  as  a street  of  costly  private 
houses  and  beautiful  churches.  The 
streets  are  traversed  by  innumerable 
electric  street  cars,  supplemented  by 
elevated  railroads  with  steam  motors 


giving  a speed  of  10  miles  per  hour;  and 
a four  track  trunk  line  underground 
railroad  from  City  Hall  Park  through 
Elm  street,  Fourth  avenue,  42nd  street 
and  Broadway  to  96th  street;  a two 
track  southern  extension  line  from  the 
City  Hall  loop,  through  Broadway  to 
South  Ferry,  whence  it  is  to  connect 
with  the  tunnel  under  the  East  river  to 
Brooklyn.  A three  two  track  northern 
extension  to  Van  Cortland  Park  (in 
operation  to  219th  street),  to  the  Har- 
lem river  at  139th  street  and  from 
135th  and  Lennox  avenue  under  the 
Harlem  river  and  on  to  Bronx  Park. 
Ferry-boats  cross  the  Hudson  and  East 
rivers  at  all  hours.  A bridge  across 
Harlem  river  and  a massive  viaduct 
take  the  trains  of  the  New  York  Central 
and  Hudson  River  R.  R.  to  the  Grand 
Central  Depot.  East  river  bridge,  one 
of  the  largest  suspension-bridges  exist- 
ing, connects  New  York  with  Brooklyn. 
This  bridge,  5989  feet  long  and  85  wide, 
costing  over  $20,000,000,  was  opened 
in  1883.  The  Williamsburg  bridge  with 
entrance  at  Clinton  street  in  New  York 
and  Havemeyer  street  in  Brooklyn,  was 
opened  in  1903;  exclusive  of  real  estate 
the  cost  was  $12,000,000.  The  work  of 
construction  on  Manhattan  bridge  com- 
menced in  1901  and  the  anchorages,  the 
towers,  cables  and  suspended  super- 
structure are  now  under  way.  Work  on 
Blackwell’s  Island  bridge  commenced 
in  1901  and  the  cantilever  spans  are 
now  under  way.  The  great  width  of  the 
Hudson  opposite  the  city,  and  the 
necessity  of  keeping  it  an  unimpeded 
highway  of  commerce,  renders  piers  at 
intervals  across  the  river  inadmissible, 
but  a great  cantilever  bridge  is  spoken 
of.  Considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  construction  of  a double  tunnel 
beneath  the  Hudson,  by  which  the 
trains  of  southern  and  western  railroads 
will  pass  under  the  river  directly  into 
the  city.  Of  the  public  parks  the  most 
important  is  Central  park,  situated  near 
the  center  of  Manhattan  island.  Its 
length  is  2J  miles  and  its  width  a little 
more  than  half  a mile,  giving  an  area 
of  840  acres.  Originally  an  unpromising 
stretch  of  rocky  ledges  and  stagnant 
swamps,  it  has  been  made  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  and  beautiful  pleasure- 
grounds  with  which  any  city  in  the 
world  is  adorned.  The  next  important 
is  Prospect  park  in  Brooklyn,  and  the 
third  is  Bronx  park,  occupying  an  area 
of  661  acres  on  both  sides  of  the  Bronx 
river.  More  than  a dozen  small  public 
parks  and  squares  are  scattered  over 
the  city,  the  finest  of  the  latter  being 
Union  Square  on  the  east  side  of  Broad- 
day,  and  Madison  Square  on  the  east 
side  of  Fifth  avenue. 

The  circumstance  that  the  city  is 
hemmed  in  by  water,  and  the  high  price 
of  ground,  have  stimulated  the  building 
of  very  lofty  structures  for  business 
premises  and  to  some  extent  for  dwell- 
ings. The  buildings  most  worthy  of 
notice,  in  an  architectural  aspect,  are 
the  treasury,  in  white  marble  with 
Doric  porticoes;  the  city  hall,  also  of 
white  marble,  in  Italian  style,  attrac- 
tively set  in  the  center  of  an  ornamental 
park;  the  postoffice,  at  the  south  end  of 
City  Hall  park;  the  Academy  of  Design, 
Columbia  college,  numerous  palatial 


private  houses  on  Fifth  avenue,  Madi- 
son avenue,  and  other  streets  adjacent 
to  Central  park,  and  several  of  the  new 
“apartment  houses,”  some  of  which 
cover  entire  city  blocks  and  attain  a 
height  of  10  and  12  stories.  Among  the 
important  office  buildings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Produce  Exchange,  with  a 
tower  225  feet  high,  the  Consolidated 
Stock  and  Petroleum  Exchange,  the 
Broad-Exchange,  the  Equitable  Life 
Assurance  Society,  the  World  Tribune 
and  Times  buildings.  Of  the  newer 
buildings  the  most  notable  is  the  Flat 
Iron  at  the  triangle  of  Broadway  and 
Fifth  avenue,  a twenty  story  wedged 
shaped  building  visible  for  miles.  The 
churches  of  all  denominations  number 
about  500.  Of  the  numerous  church 
buildings  worthy  of  notice  the  most 
conspicuous  are:  Trinity  church  (Epis- 
copal), on  Broadway,  a noble  Gothic 
structure  of  brown  sandstone;  Grace 
church  (Episcopal),  a handsome  Gothic 
building  in  white  marble;  St.  George’s 
(Episcopal) ; St.  Thomas’s  (Episcopal); 
Fifth  Avenue  Presbyterian  church,  in 
the  decorated  Gothic  style,  on  Fifth 
avenue;  All  Souls  (Unitarian);  St.  Pat- 
rick’s (R.C.)  cathedral,  built  of  white 
marble  in  the  decorated  style  of  the 
13th  century,  the  largest  and  most 
Imposing  church  edifice  in  the  country; 
the  Jewish  Temple  Emmanuel,  the 
finest  example  of  Moorish  architecture 
in  the  states.  New  York  is  generously 
provided  with  hospitals,  asylums,  and 
institutions  of  all  kinds  for  the  relief 
of  human  suffering.  The  public  school 
system  is  very  complete.  By  law  the 
attendance  of  children  from  8 to  14 
years  of  age  is  made  compulsory,  and 
the  schools  offer  a superior  education 
free  of  cost  to  children  in  all  grades. 
The  most  important  seat  of  learning  in 
the  city  is  Columbia  college,  founded  by 
charter  of  George  II.  in  1754.  The 
college  has  60  instructors  and  about 
1500  students.  The  university  of  New 
York  City,  founded  in  1831,  has  a large 
corps  of  instructors.  Among  the  public 
monuments  are  statues  of  Washington, 
Lincoln,  Farragut, Franklin, Shakespeare, 
Burns,  Scott,  etc.,  an  ancient  Egyptian 
obelisk  presented  by  the  Khedive  of 
Egypt;  Bartholdi’s  great  Statue  of 
Liberty.  Among  the  numerous  public 
libraries  may  be  noted  the  Astor  Free 
library,  containing  250,000  volumes; 
the  Mercantile  library,  with  210,000 
volumes,  a fine  circulating  library  be- 
longing to  its  members,  but  accessible 
also  to  others;  the  Lennox  library,  with 
a collection  of  rare  books  numbering 
30,000  valuable  manuscripts,  choice 
paintings,  sculptures,  ceramics,  etc. 
Theaters  and  other  places  of  amusement 
are  numerous,  the  principal  ones  being 
the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  the 
Broadway,  the  Casino,  the  Criterion, 
Daly’s,  the  Knickerbocker,  the  Empire, 
the  Herald  Square,  the  Garrick,  Wal- 
lacks,  the  Savoy, .the  Victoria,  Belasco’s, 
the  New  York,  the  Majestic.  New  York 
has  about  40  hotels  that  may  be  ranked 
as  first-class.  The  largest  and  best  known 
is  the  Waldorf-Astoria.  Among  the 
others  are  the  Buckingham,  the  Hol- 
land, the  Murray  Hill,  the  Manhattan, 
the  Netherland,  the  Savoy,  the  Fifth 
Avenue,  the  Hoffman,  the  Imperial. 


NEW  ZEALAND 


NIBELUNGENLIED 


The  most  luxurious  restaurants  in  the 
city  are  Delmonico’s  and  Sherry’s. 
In  summer  there  is  a great  exodus  to 
■watering-places  ahd  other  adjacent 
pleasure  resorts. 

New  York  is  primarily  a commercial 
city  and  a center  of  distribution  of 
domestic  and  foreign  products,  but  it 
is  also  the  center  of  a vast  manufactur- 
ing interest.  The  industries,  however, 
are  more  of  a varied  character  than  in- 
dividually important,  the  chief  being 
connected  with  clothing,  meat-packing, 
printing  and  publishing,  brewing,  etc. 
Immense  numbers  of  immigrants  from 
Europe  arrive  here.  The  water  supply 
is  furnished  from  Croton  Lake,  an  arti- 
ficial reservoir  supplied  by  Croton  river, 
from  which  the  water  is  conveyed  by  an 
aqueduct  of  stone  masonry  of  a capacity 
of  115,000,000  gallons  per  day  a distance 
of  40  miles  to  New  York. 

By  the  act  of  1897,  under  which 
Greater  New  York  was  constituted,  the 
whole  city  is  under  a mayor,  elected  for 
four  years,  who  appoints  heads  of  de- 
partments; a president  of  the  council, 
elected  for  four  years  also,  who  acts  as 
deputy-mayor;  and  a council  and  board 
of  aldermen.  Each  of  the  five  constit- 
uent boroughs  (Manhattan,  Bronx, 
Queens,  Brooklyn,  Richmond)  has  its 
o-nm  president  and  borough  board. 

The  first  regular  line  of  packet  ships 
to  Liverpool  was  started  in  1817.  The 
opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in  1825  gave 
a great  stimulus  to  internal  commerce. 
Since  that  date  the  progress  of  New 
York  has  been  wonderful.  Pop.  in  1830, 
202,589;  in  1850,  515,547;  in  1870, 

942,292;  in  1880,  1,206,600;  in  1890, 
1,513,501;  in  1900,  3,437,202,  and  in 
1909  over  4,400,000. 

NEW  ZEALAND,  a group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Great  Britain  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean.  Pop.  818,973. 

With  mineral  wealth  New  Zealand  is 
liberally  supplied.  Coal  is  obtained  in 
many  parts,  and  copper  has  been  worked 
on  a small  scale.  Gold  is  worked  both  in 
North  and  South  Island.  It  wa^  first 
practically  discovered  in  1861,  and  is 
obtained  in  two  forms,  namely,  as  veins 
in  quartz  reefs,  and  as  alluvial  gold. 
Extending  through  12°  of  latitude,  and 
having  a greatly  diversified  surface. 
New  Zealand  has  necessarily  a very 
varied  though  a remarkably  healthy 
climate.  In  temperature  it  resembles 
France  and  North  Italy,  but  the  humid- 
ity is  considerably  greater. 

The  original  natives  of  New  Zealand, 
called  Maoris,  a people  of  Polynesian 
origin,  are  supposed  to  have  emigrated 
from  the  Navigators’  or  the  Sandwich 
Islands  some  centuries  ago.  Split  up  into 
numerous  petty  tribes,  and  wasting  each 
other  by  internecine  feuds,  their  num- 
bers have  been  so  reduced  that  they  do 
not  now  much  exceed  40,000.  Stock- 
rearing  and  agriculture  are  the  most 
important  industries,  though  mining 
is  also  an  important  occupation.  There 
are  about  20,000,000  sheep  and  the 
most  important  export  is  wool,  frozen 
meat  being  the  next  largest  export. 
Gold  is  another  valuable  export.  New 
Zealand  was  first  discovered  oy  Tasman 
in  1642,  but  little  was  known  of  it  till 
the  visits  of  Cook  in  1769  and  1774. 
The  first  permanent  settlement  was 


made  by  missionaries  in  1815,  but  no 
regular  authority  was  established  by 
the  British  government  till  1833,  when 
a resident  was  appointed,  with  limited 
powers,  and  subordinate  to  the  govern- 
ment of  New  South  Wales.  In  1840  New 
Zealand  was  erected  into  a colony;  in 
1841  'it  was  formally  separated  from 
New  South  Wales  and  placed  under  its 
own  independent  governor;  and  in  1852 
it  received  a constitution  and  responsi- 
ble government.  In  1873  the  Public 
Works  Policy  was  inaugurated,  and 
large  loans  were  raised  for  immigration, 
harbors,  railways,  roads,  etc.  In  1876 
the  provinces  were  abolished;  the  colony 
was  divided  into  63  counties,  and  all 
government  centralized  at  Wellington. 

NEY  (na),  Michel,  Duke  of  Elchin  gen. 
Prince  of  the  Moskwa,  marshal  and  peer 
of  France,  was  born  in  1769  at  Sarre- 
Louis,  in  the  department  of  the  Moselle 
He  entered  the  military  service  in  1788 
as  a private  hussar,  and  rose  by  degrees 
to  the  rank  of  captain  in  1794,  adjutant- 
general  in  1796,  general  of  division  in 
1798,  and  as  such  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Rhine  campaign.  Appointed 
marshal  of  the  empire  by  Napoleon  in 
1805,  he  achieved  victory  over  the 
Austrians  at  Elchingen,  and  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Jena.  During  the  Rus- 
sian campaign  he  commanded  the  third 
division  at  the  battle  of  the  Moskwa, 
and  conducted  the  rear-guard  in  the 
disastrous  retreat.  In  the  campaign  of 
1813  his  skill  and  courage  decided  the 
victory  of  Liitzen,  and  assisted  at 
Bautzen  and  Dresden.  When  Napoleon 
abdicated  and  the  Bourbon  dynasty 
was  established  Ney  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  king  and  received  a 
command;  but  when  the  emperor  landed 
from  Elba  his  old  general  joined  him  at 
Lyons  and  opened  the  way  to  Paris. 
In  the  campaign  which  followed  it  was 
Ney  who  led  the  attack  on  the  British 
center  at  Waterloo,  and  after  five  horses 
had  been  killed  under  him  he  only  re- 
tired from  the  field  at  nightfall.  When 
the  allies  entered  Paris  he  escaped  in 
disguise  to  the  provinces,  but  was 
finally  arrested,  brought  back  to  Paris, 
tried  for  treason,  and  found  guilty. 
The  sentence  was  executed  7th  De- 
cember, 1815. 

NGANHWUY  (ngan-hwl'),  province  of 
China,  bounded  by  the  provinces  of 
Kiangsu,  Honan,  Hupeh,  Kiangsi,  and 
Chekiang.  Pop.  20,596,988.  Capital 
Ngan-king-foo,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Yang-tse-kiang;  pop.  40,000. 

NIAG'ARA,  a river  of  North  America, 
separating  Ontario  from  the  state  of 
New  York,  and”conveying  the  waters  of 
Lake  Erie  into  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  33^ 
miles  long,  and  varies  in  breadth  from 
1 to  4 miles,  being  about  the  former 
where  it  issues  from  Lake  Erie,  near 
the  city  of  Buffalo.  It  is  occasionally 
interspersed  with  low  wooded  islands, 
the  largest  of  which.  Grand  Island,  has 
an  area  of  17,000  acres.  The  total  de- 
scent in  the  river’s  course  between  the 
two  lakes  is  331  feet.  About  15  miles 
from  Lake  Erie  a sudden  narrowing  and 
descent  in  the  channel  causes  what  are 
called  the  Rapids,  below  which  the  river, 
here  divided  by  Goat  Island,  is  precipi- 
tated over  the  celebrated  Falls.  The 
rush  of  the  river  is  such  that  the  water 


is  shot  a clear  40  yards  from  the  cliff, 
leaving  a narrow  pathway  for  a short 
distance  below  for  the  adventurous. 
The  cataract  on  the  south  side  of  the 
island,  called  the  American  Fall,  is  162 
feet  high,  width  1125  feet;  that  on  the 
Canadian  side,  called  the  Great  or 
Horse-shoe  Fall,  is  149  feet  high,  width 
2100  feet.  Below  the  falls  the  river 
rushes  with  great  velocity  down  the 
sloping  bottom  of  a narrow  chasm  for 
a distance  of  7 miles.  About  3 miles 
below  the  falls  a sudden  turn  in  the 
channel  causes  the  water  to  whirl  in  a 


Niagara  Falls,  from  the  U.  S.  side. 

vast  circular  basin  before  renewing  its  «» 
journey.  Logs  and  other  floating  A 
material  sometimes  continue  whirling  ft 
here  for  many  days.  About  one-eighth  W- 
of  a mile  below  the  falls  a suspension 
bridge  1190  feet  long  and  190  feet  above  ,£;■ 
the  water  crosses  the  river,  and  another  ^ 
245  feet  above  the  water  has  been  con-'  ® 
structed  for  railway  and  ordinary  pas-  » 
senger  traffic  about  2 miles  below  the  « 
falls  An  international  reservation  of  S 
the  land  round  the  falls,  to  be  pre-.i>' 
served  in  a state  of  nature,  was  effected  fi 
in  1885 

NIAGARA  FALLS,  a city  in  Niagara  .jg 
CO.,  N.  Y"  , 22  miles  north  by  west  of  9 
Buffalo;  on  the  Niagara  river,  and  on 
the  Erie,  the  Michigan  Central,  the-l^*' 
Lehigh  Valley,  the  New  Y^ork  Central 
and  Hudson  River,  the  West  Shore,  - 
the  Grank  Trunk,  and  the  Wabash  rail- 
roads. The  New  Y^ork  State  Reserva- 
tion here,  which  includes  Prospect  park, 
is  107  acres  in  extent;  and  there  are  • 
three  notable  bridges  connecting  with 
Canada,  one  cantilever  and  two  steel 
arch  bridges.  It  is  developing  into  an  ■ 
important  manufacturing  center,  its 
growth  being  due  to  the  utilization  of 
the  extraordinary  power  of  the  Niagara 
river,  and  falls.  Pop.  22,173 

NIAS,  an  island  in  the  Malay  Archi-  ' i 
pelago,  lying  west  of  Sumatra;  length 
about  70,  breadth  about  20  miles.  Rice, 
sugar,  and  pepper  are  grown  exten-  ■ 
sively.  It  belongs  to  the  Dutch.  Pop. 
100,000. 

NIBELUNGENLIED  (ne'be-lung-en- 
let;  “Lay  of  the  Nibelungen’’),  German 
epic  written  in  the  Middle  High  German 
dialect,  and  dating  from  about  the  12th 
century.  It  is  divided  into  thirty-nine 
sections,  contains  some  6000  lines,  and 
is  constructed  in  four-lined  rhymed 


NICARAGUA 


NICKEL 


Stanzas.  The  tale,  briefly  told,  is  this: 
Kriemhild  lives  with  her  brother  Gun- 
ther, king  of  Burgundy,  at  Worms. 
To  his  court  comes  Siegfried,  son  of 
Siegemund,  king  of  the  Netherlands. 
This  Siegfried  is  possessed  of  the  Nibe- 
lungen  gold  hoard,  a magic  sword,  a 
cloak  of  darkness,  besides  great  strength 
and  courage.  Thus  equipped  he  comes 
to  the  court  and  wins  the  love  of  Kriem- 
hild. In  gratitude  for  his  success  Sieg- 
fried undertakes' to  assist  Gunther,  the 
brother  of  his  bride,  in  his  efforts  to  win 
the  hand  of  Brunhild,  an  Icelandic 
princess.  Together  they  sail  for  the  far 
north,  and  there  Gunther  succeeds,  with 
the  help  of  Siegfried’s  cloak  of  darkness, 
in  winning  the  three  test  games  of  skill 
which  the  lady  played  with  him.  Still 
on  the  bridal  night  the  princess  mocked 
at  Gunther  her  husband,  wrestled  with 
him,  bound  him,  and  hung  him  up 
scornfully  against  the  wall . But  the  next 
night  Gunther,  with  the  invisible  help 
of  his  fr-iend  Siegfried,  overcomes  the 
bride,  and  the  latter  carries  away  her 
girdle  and  ring.  Siegfried  and  his  wife 
Kriemhild  next  appear  on  a visit  to  the 
Burgundian  court  at  Worms,  where 
Gunther  the  king  now  resides  with  his 
wife  Brunhild.  While  there  the  two 
ladies  quarrel,  and  in  her  rage  Kriemhild 
taunts  Brunhild  with  having  had  deal- 
ings with  her  husband  Siegfried,  and  in 
proof  thereof  she  produces  the  ring  and 
girdle  which  he  took  from  her  chamber 
on'the  bridal  night.  Brunhild  bitterly 
resents  this  calumny  and  meditates 
vengeance.  This  she  accomplishes  by 
the  hand  of  Hagen,  one  of  her  husband’s 
warriors,  who  slays  Siegfried  in  his 
sleep.  With  rage  and  grief  in  her  heart 
the  widowed  Kriemhild  broods  over  the 
possibility  of  revenge.  Thirteen  years 
pass  and  then  Kriemhild  marries  Etzel, 
king  of  the  Huns.  Again  thirteen  years 
pass,  and  then  at  her  instigation  Etzel 
invites  Gunther  and  Hagen  with  10,000 
warriors  to  visit  the  capital  of  the  Huns. 
This  they  accept,  and  while  they  are 
seated  at  a great  feast  the  Burgundians 
are  all  massacred  by  the  Huns,  with  the 
exception  of  Gunther  and  Hagen.  These 
two  are  delivered  up  to  Kriemhild,  who 
completes  her  vengeance  by  slaying 
them  both,  while  she  in  her  turn  is  killed 
by  a Hunnish  warrior  who  is  enraged  at 
her  cruelty.  This  epic  has  been  pro- 
duced in  modern  German  by  Simrock, 
Bartsch,  and  Gerlach,  and  translated 
into  English  by  Birch  and  Lettsom, 
while  a resume  will  be  found  in  one  of 
Carlyle’s  miscellanies. 

NICARAG'UA,  a republic  of  Central 
America,  extending  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  having 
on  the  north  and  northeast  the  state  of 
Honduras,  and  on  the  south  Costa 
Rica;  area,  about  49,500  sq.  miles. 
Veins  of  silver,  copper,  and  gold  occur. 
The  climate  is  on  the  whole  healthy, 
the  interior  and  mountainous  parts 
being  more  dry  and  cool  than  on  the 
coasts.  The  vegetable  productions  in- 
clude indigo,  sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  cotton, 
corn,  rice,  etc.  Fruits  of  various  kinds 
are  plentiful.  One  of  the  principal 
sources  of  wealth  consists  in  cattle,  of 
which  there  are  great  numbers,  the  high 
plains  affording  excellent  pasturage. 
The  capital  is  Managua.  In  1821 


Nicaragua  joined  Gautemala,  Costa 
Rica,  Honduras,  and  San  Salvador  in 
revolting  against  Spain,  and  after  a 
sanguinary  civil  war  it  achieved  in- 
dependence. It  has  been  the  scene  of 
various  revolutions  and  counter-revolu- 
tions. The  republic  is  governed  by  a 
president  elected  every  four  years,  a 
senate  and  a house  of  representatives 
elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  caoutchouc,  coffee, 
hides,  dye-wood,  and  indigo.  Corinto 
on  the  Pacific  and  San  Juan  del  Norte  or 
Greytown  on  the  Caribbean  Sea  are  the 


chief  ports.  The  population,  which  con- 
sists in  great  part  of  Indians  and  half 
castes,  is  estimated  at  480,000. 

NICARAGUA,  Lake  of,  an  extensive 
sheet  of  water  in  Central  America,  in  the 
state  of  same  name,  90  miles  long  north- 
west to  southeast;  greatest  breadth,  40 
miles;  mean,  30  miles;  110  feet  above 
the  Pacific  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a strip  of  land  12  miles  wide. 

NICARAGUA  CANAL,  a canal  that  is 
to  be  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  a waterway  for  ships  across 
Central  America  from  the  Pacific  to  the 
Atlantic,  passing  through  Nicaragua, 
and  utilizing  Lake  Nicaragua  and  the 
San  Juan  river.  A beginning  has  re- 
cently been  made,  and  the  total  length 
of  the  route  will  be  170  miles  from  Grey- 
town on  the  Caribbean  sea  to  Brito  on 
the  Pacific.  Of  this  64^  miles  will  con- 
sist of  free  navigation  in  the  San  Juan 
river,  and  56J  of  free  navigation  in  Lake 
Nicaragua,  total  121  miles.  There  will 
be  16  miles  of  excavation  on  the  east 
side,  llj  miles  on  the  west,  with  J mile 
for  six  locks,  making  a total  excavation 
of  28  miles.  In  basins  now  existing  or  to 
be  constructed  by  means  of  dams  and 
embankments  there  will  be  navigation 
for  21  miles.  Besides  the  six  locks  on  the 
west  side  there  will  be  three  on  the  east. 
The  work  is  now  at  a stand-still,  and 
how  it  will  be  completed  remains  to  be 
seen. 

NICE  (nes),  a city  and  seaport  of 
France,  on  the  Mediterranean,  capital 
of  the  department  of  Alpes  Maritimes. 
The  exports  consist  principally  of  oil, 
wine,  and  silk,  with  essences,  perfumes, 
etc.  Nice  belonged  to  Italy  previous 
to  1860.  Pop.  125,099. 

NICE,  Councils  of,  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils held  at  Nice  or  Nicsea,  in  Asia  Minor 
in  325  and  787.  The  object  of  the  first 
Council  of  Nice,  which  was  convened  by 
Constantine,  was  to  settle  the  contro- 
versies which  had  arisen  in  regard  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The  session 
lasted  about  two  months.  A creed  was 


adopted  by  the  council  in  its  later  form 
known  as  the  Nicene  Creed  (which  see). 
The  council  of  787  was  summoned  by 
the  Empress  Irene,  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  pope,  and  it  decreed  that  images 
were  to  be  used  as  aids  to  devotion. 

NICENE  CREED,  a summary  of  Chris- 
tian faith  adopted  by  the  Council  of 
Nice  against  Arianism  A.n.  325,  altered 
and  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, A.D.  381.  Its  characteristics 
are  the  insertion  of  the  term  “of  one 
substance  with  the  Father,’’  directed 
against  the  Arian  heresy;  the  insertion 


of  the  words  “and  the  Son;’’  and  the 
omission  of  the  clause  “He  descended 
into  Hell.’’  It  is  recited  both  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  in  the  Angelican 
Church  liturgies. 

NICHOLAS  I.  (Nikolai  Pavlovich), 
Emperor  of  Russia,  third  son  of  the 
Emperor  Paul  I.,  was  born  1796,  died 
1855.  He  ascended  the  throne  in  1825. 
He  made  war  with  Persia  in  1827-28; 
joined  in  the  Treaty  of  London,  which 
secured  the  independence  of  Greece; 
and  made  one  of  the  allied  powers  who 
destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Navarino 
in  1827.  This  affair  led  to  war  between 
Russia  and  Turkey,  in  which  the  latter 
was  defeated,  paid  indemnity,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Adrianople 
in  1829.  He  suppressed  the  Polish  in- 
surrection which  broke  out  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  with  relentless  severity. 
In  1848  Nicholas  assisted  Austria  with 
an  army  corps  in  putting  down  the 
rising  in  Hungary.  Early  in  1852  began 
the  Russian  effort  to  take  over  the  holy 
places  and  assume  the  protectorate  of 
the  Christians  in  Palestine.  This  led 
to  the  Crimean  war,  before  the  close  of 
which  Nicholas  died  from  lung  disease. 

NICKEL,  a metal  of  a white  color,  of 
great  hardness,  very  difficult  to  be  puri- 
fied, always  magnetic,  and  when  per- 
fectly pure  malleable  and  ductile.  It 
unites  in  alloys  with  gold,  copper,  tin, 
and  arsenic,  which  metals,  it  renders 
brittle.  With  silver  and  iron  its  alloys 
are  ductile.  Nickel  is  chiefly  found  in 
the  United  States,  New  Caledonia,  and 
Germany;  nickel  is  extracted  from  sev- 
eral pyrites,  compounds  of  nickel,  cobalt, 
antimony,  arsenic,  sulphur,  or  iron.  The 
salts  of  nickel  are  mostly  of  a grass-green 
color,  and  the  ammoniacal  solution  of 
its  oxide  is  deep  blue.  Nickel  mixed 
with  brass  in  varying  proportions  is  now 
well  known  and  largely  used  as  German 
silver  or  nickel  silver.  Another  impor- 
tant use  of  the  metal  is  for  coating 
articles  by  the  electro-plate  process.  See 
Nickel-plating. 


NICKEL-PLATING 


NIHILISTS 


NICKEL-PLATING  is  the  process  by 
which  a coating  of  nickel  is  placed  upon 
another  metal,  and  the  essentials  of  the 
process,  as  in  electro-plating,  are  a 
proper  solution  of  the  metal  and  an 
electric  battery. 

NICOT  (ne-ko),  Jean,  born  1530,  died 
1600;  was  French  ambassador  at  the 
court  of  Portugal,  where  he  was  pre- 
sented with  some  seeds  of  the  tobacco 
plant,  which  he  introduced  into  France 
about  1560.  The  botanical  terra  for 
tobacco  (Nicotiana)  is  derived  from  his 
name. 

NIC'OTINE,  a volatile  alkaloid,  base 
obtained  from  tobacco.  It  forms  a 
colorless,  clear,  oily  liquid,  which  has 
a strong  odor  of  tobacco.  It  is  highly 
poisonous,  and  combines  with  acids, 
forming  acrid  and  pungent  salts. 

NICTITATING  MEMBRANE,  or 
“THIRD  EYELID,”  a thin  membrane 
by  which  the  process  of  winking  is  per- 
formed in  certain  animals,  and  which 
covers  and  protects  the  eyes  from  dust 
or  from  too  much  light.  It  is  chiefly 
found  in  birds  and  fishes,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  a rudimentary  condition  in 
man,  and  higher  mammals  generally, 
by  the  “semi-lunar  folds,”  situated  at 
the  inner  or  nasal  angle  of  the  eye. 

NIEBELUNGENLIED.  See  Nibelun- 
genlied. 

NIEL  (ni-el),  Adolphe,  French  mar- 
shal, born  1802,  died  1869.  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  against  Con- 
stantine in  Algeria;  assisted  as  head  of 
the  staff  of  engineers  at  the  siege  of 
Rome  in  1849  during  the  revolutionary 
movement  under  Garibaldi ; commanded 
the  engineers  and  planned  the  opera- 
tions against  Sebastopol  in  1854-55; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859,  and  was  thereafter 
made  a marshal  of  France  by  Napoleon 

lilEVR^  (nyavr),  a department  of 
Central  France,  bounded  by  Yonne, 
Cher,  Allier,  Saone-et-Loire,  and  Cote- 
d’Or;area,  2631  sq. miles.  Pop.  347,645. 

NIGER,  the  name  of  a great  river  of 
Western  Africa,  which  rises  north  of 
Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia,  flows  north 
and  northeast,  afterward  turns  south- 
east and  south  until,  by  various  chan- 
nels, it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  its 
total  length  being  about  2600  miles. 

NIGHT-BLINDNESS,  a defect  of 
vision  in  which  the  eyes  can  see  only  in 
daylight  and  not  by  artificial  light. 

NIGHT-HAWK,  a species  of  goat- 
sucker, a bird  universally  known  in  the 


Common  nigUt-liawk. 


United  States,  9J  inches  in  length  and 
23  in  extent  of  wing.  It  is  a bird  of 
strong  and  vigorous  flight,  and  its  prey 
consists  of  beetles  and  other  large  in- 


sects. The  other  American  species  are 
the  “chuck-will’s  widow”  and  the 
“whip-poor-will,”  both  of  which,  like 
the  night-hawk,  arrive  in  May,  and  leave 
in  September. 

NIGHT-HERON,  a wading  bird  of 
several  species  belonging  to  the  family 
Ardeidae.  The  species  occur  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  It  is  about 


20  inches  in  length,  and  has  three  long 
narrow  feathers  proceeding  from  the 
nape  of  the  neck,  and  hanging  backward. 

NIGHTINGALE,  a well-toown  pas- 
serine bird  of  the  thrush  family.  The 
nightingale  sings  at  night,  and  its  famed 
chant  is  the  love-song  of  the  male,  which 
ceases  when  the  female  has  hatched  her 
brood.  It  is  a native  of  many  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  of  the  north  of 
Africa.  It  is  migratory,  extending  its 
summer  migrations  as  far  north  as  the 


Nightingale. 


south  of  Sweden.  It  feeds  on  caterpil- 
lars and  other  larvte,  frequents  hedges 
and  thickets,  and  builds  its  nest  on  the 
ground  or  near  it,  laying  four  or  five 
eggs  of  a blue  color.  The  young  are 
hatched  in  June,  and  are  prepared  to 
accompany  their  parents  in  their  south- 
ward migration  in  August.  It  is  solitary 
in  its  habits,  and  its  coloring  is  very 
inconspicuous. 

NIGHTINGALE,  Florence,  was  born 
at  Florence  1823.  During  the  Crimean 
war  (1854)  the  hospital  accommodation 
was  found  to  be  very  defective,  and 
Miss  Nightingale  promptly  volunteered 
to  organize  a select  band  of  nurses  at 
Scutari.  The  offer  was  accepted  by  the 
war  office,  and  within  a week  Miss 
Nightingale  was  on  her  way  to  the  east, 
where  she  rendered  invaluable  service 
to  the  sick  and  wounded  by  her  in- 
cessant labors  in  nursing  and  hospital 
reform.  The  strain,  both  mental  and 
physical,  which  this  work  demanded 
permanently  injured  her  health  to  a 
serious  extent.  A sum  of  $250,000  was 


raised  by  public  subscription  in  recog- 
nition of  her  services,  and  this  she  de- 
voted to  the  founding  of  an  institution 
for  training  nurses,  attached  to  St. 
Thomas’s  Hospital,  London. 

NIGHTMARE,  a state  of  oppression 
or  feeling  of  suffocation  which  some- 
times comes  on  during  sleep,  and  is  ac- 
companied by  a feeling  of  intense 
anxiety,  fear,  or  horror,  the  sufferer 
feeling  an  enormous  weight  on  his  breast 
and  imagining  that  he  is  pursued  by  a 
phantom,  monster,  or  wild  beast,  or 
threatened  by  some  other  danger  from 
which  he  can  make  no  exertion  to  es- 
cape. The  sufferer  wakens  after  a short 
time  in  a state  of  great  terror,  the  body 
often  covered  with  sweat.  The  proxi- 
mate cause  of  nightmare  is  said  to  be 
irregularity  of  the  circulation  in  the 
chest  or  brain,  and  the  disorder  is 
generally  due  to  repletion  and  indiges- 
tion, but  sometimes  to  the  fact  of  the 
sufferer  lying  in  an  awkward  position 
in  bed. 

NIGHTSHADE,  the  name  of  various 
species  of  plants,  chiefly  of  the  genus 
to  which  the  potato  belongs.  The  root 
and  leaves  of  woody  nightshade  are 
narcotic,  and  have  been  applied  to 
various  medicinal  uses.  The  berries,  if 
not  absolutely  poisonous,  are  suspicious. 
The  common  nightshade  is  fetid  and 
narcotic,  and  has  also  been  employed 
medicinally.  Deadly  nightshade  is 
Atrbpa  Belladonna.  (See  Belladonna.) 

NIGRITIA.  See  Soudan. 

NI'HILISTS,  the  name  at  first  applied 
specifically  to  the  revolutionary  party 
in  Russia  who  accepted  the  destruc- 
tively negative  philosophy  of  Bakunin 
and  Herzen,  but  now  applied  indis- 
criminately to  Russian  revolutionists. 
This  name  was  given  to  the  party  by 
Tourgenieff  in  his  stories  of  Russian 
society,  and  accepted  by  them  as  de- 
scriptive of  their  character.  Their  ob- 
ject was  to  destroy  all  forms  of  govern- 
ment, overturn  all  institutions,  anni- 
hilate all  class  distinctions,  sweep  away 
all  traditions.  They  left  to  future  gen- 
erations the  task  of  constructing  society 
out  of  the  ruins  left  by  their  relentless 
destructive  policy.  For  some  years  this 
propaganda  was  spread  in  printed  and 
oral  forms  among  the  newly  enfran- 
chised serfs  by  thousands  of  young 
people  of  both  sexes.  About  1874,  how- 
ever, the  Russian  government  began  to 
interfere,  the  newspapers  which  advo- 
cated the  Nihilist  doctrine  were  sup- 
pressed, foreign  pamphlets  seized,  and 
large  groups  of  the  revolutionists  sum- 
marily tried  and  condemned  to  death 
and  exile.  Hitherto  the  Nihilists  had 
spread  their  principles  by  peaceful 
means,  but  after  the  trial  in  1877,  in 
which  99  persons  were  sent  to  Siberia, 
a secret  and  sanguinary  struggle  between 
armed  assassins  and  the  government 
began.  The  first  startling  indication  of 
the  new  departure  was  the  murder  of 
General  Trepoff  by  a young  woman 
named  Vera  Sassulitch,  and  this  was 
followed  by  the  assassination  of  Gen- 
erals Mezentzoff  and  Drenteln,  Prince 
Krapotkin,  and  Commander  Heyking. 
The  incendiary  followed  the  assassin. 
In  June,  1879,  no  fewer  than  3500  fires 
broke  out  in  St.  Petersburg  and  other 
large  towns,  most  of  which  were  attri- 


NIIGATA 


NINGPO 


buted  to  the  Nihilists.  Various  attempts 
were  made  to  assassinate  the  emperor. 
Four  shots  were  fired  at  him  bySolovieff, 
a train  in  which  he  was  supposed  to 
travel  was  wrecked  by  Hartmann,  an 
apartment  in  the  Winter  Palace  at  St. 
Petersburg  was  blown  up,  and  at  last, 
in  March,  1881,  Alexander  II.  was  mur- 
dered by  a bomb  thrown  beneath  his 
carriage  in  the  street  near  the  palace. 
Several  other  murders  followed,  and 
also  attempts  on  the  life  of  Alexander 
III.  Latterly,  however,  their  activity 
has  chiefly  found  expression  in  spread- 
ing socialism  among  the  workmen  of  the 
towns,  and  is  not  strictly  Nihilistic. 

NIIGATA  (ne-i-ga't&),  the  chief  town 
of  the  province  of  Echigo,  Japan,  situ- 
ated on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of 
Hondo  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Shinano.  This  port  was  opened  to 
foreign  trade  by  the  treaty  of  1860. 
The  town  is  well  built,  the  streets  are 
traversed  by  canals,  there  is  an  hospital 
and  a college,  and  a considerable  coast- 
ing trade.  Pop.  53,366. 

NIJNI-NOV'GOROD  (nizh'ne),  a town 
in  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of 
same  name,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Oka  and  Volga,  255  miles  east  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  95,124. — The  province  has  an  area 
of  19,704  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1.482,471. 

NILE,  a great  historic  river  in  Africa, 
the  main  stream  of  which,  known  as  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  White  Nile,  has  its 
chief  source  in  the  equatorial  lake 
Victoria  Nyanza.  What  is  known  as  the 
Bahr-el-Azrek,  or  Blue  Nile,  a much 
smaller  stream,  joins  the  White  Nile  at 
Khartoom,  lat.  15'  40°  n.  The  source  of 
the  Blue  Nile  was  discovered  in  the 
Abyssinian  Highlands  by  Bruce  in  1770, 
while  the  source  of  the  other,  or  true 
Nile,  was  for  long  the  subject  of  specu- 
lation and  exploration.  The  discoveries, 
however,  of  Speke  and  Grant  in  1861-62, 
and  of  Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  1863-64, 
and  subsequent  explorers,  have  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  the  headwaters  of 
the  Nile  are  collected  by  a great  lake 
situated  on  the  equator,  called  Uker- 
ewe  or  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  Nile,  near 
where  it  flows  out  of  Lake  Victoria, 
forms  the  unimportant  Ripon  Falls, 
then  flows  generally  northwest;  about 
lat.  1°  40'  n.  it  expands  into  Lake 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  afterward  forms  the 
Falls  of  Karuma  and  the  Murchison 
Falls,  and  then  enters  another  lake,  the 
Albert  Nyanza,  at  an  elevation  of  about 
2550  feet.  This  lake,  as  was  first  defi- 
nitely ascertained  by  Stanley,  receives 
the  waters  of  another  lake  further  to  the 
southwest.  Lake  Muta  Nzige  or  Albert 
Edward,  the  channel  of  communication 
being  the  river  Semliki.  From  the  Albert 
Nyanza  to  the  Mediterranean  the  gen- 
eral course  of  the  Nile  is  in  a northerly 
direction,  with  numerous  windings. 
Above  Gondokoro,  about  lat.  5°  n., 
the  river  forms  a series  of  cataracts; 
but  between  these  falls  and  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  a distance  of  164  miles,  the 
river  is  broad,  deep,  and  navigable. 
Not  far  below  Gondokoro  the  Nile  be- 
gins to  flow  more  to  the  west  till  it 
reaches  lat.  9°  n.,  where  it  receives  the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal,  one  of  its  chief  tribu- 
taries. On  receiving  this  affluent  it  turns 
due  east  for  about  100  miles,  and  then 
after  receiving  the  Sobat  from  the  south- 


east flows  almost  due  north  to  Khar- 
toom. It  receives  its  last  tributary,  the 
Atbara,  from  the  Abyssinian  frontier, 
for  the  rest  of  its  course  (some  1500 
miles)  being  fed  by  no  contributory 
stream.  Between  this  point  and  the 
frontiers  of  Egypt  occur  several  rapids 
or  cataracts  presenting  greater  or  less 
obstacles  to  navigation,  there  being 
also  another  cataract  some  distance 
below  Khartoom.  In  Egypt,  at  the  head 
of  the  Delta  near  Cairo,  it  divides  into 
two  main  branches,  leading  down  re- 
spectively to  Rosetta  and  Damietta, 
where  they  enter  the  Mediterranean.  As 
rain  scarcely  ever  falls  in  the  greater 
part  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  the  river 
owes  its  supplies  to  the  copious  rains 
and  the  vast  lake  areas  of  the  tropical 
regions  in  which  it  takes  its  rise,  and  its 
volume  thus  depends  upon  the  season. 
It  begins  to  increase  in  June,  attains  its 
greatest  height  about  September,  and 
then  subsides.  The  ordinary  rise  at 
Cairo  is  about  25  feet.  During  the  flood 
a great  portion  of  the  Delta,  and  of  the 
valley  higher  up,  is  inundated.  This 
annual  inundation,  now  controlled  by 
the  great  Assouan  dam  and  other  works, 
with  all  the  bounty  which  it  brings,  is 
watched  and  waited  eagerly,  and  in 
ancient  times  caused  the  Nile  to  be  wor- 
shipped as  a god  alike  by  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans.  Its  length  is 
nearly  4200  miles,  or  rather  less  than 
that  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri. 

NILE,  Battle  of  the.  See  Aboukir. 

NILSSON,  Christine,  born  at  Hassaby, 
near  Wexio,  in  Sweden,  1843.  In  1857 
her  talent  attracted  the  attention  of  a 
wealthy  gentleman,  who  had  her  educa- 
cated  as  a singer  at  Stockholm,  and 
afterward  at  Paris.  In  1864  she  made 
her  first  appearance  as  Violetta  in  La 
Traviata  at  the  Th4S.tre  Lyrique,  Paris, 
and  she  appeared  in  1867  for  the  first 
time  at  Her  Majesty’s  Theater,  Lon- 
don. On  several  occasions  she  has  visited 
America  with  the  utmost  success. 
Among  her  most  famous  impersona- 
tions are  Ophelia  in  Thomas’s  Hamlet, 
and  Margaret  in  Gounod’s  Faust.  In 
1872  she  married  M.  Auguste  Rouzaud, 
who  died  in  1882;  in  1886  she  married 
Count  A.  de  Miranda. 

NIMBUS,  a term  applied  in  art,  espe- 
cially in  sacred  art,  to  a kind  of  halo  or 
disc  surrounding  the  head  in  representa- 
tions of  divine  or  sacred  personages; 
as  also  to  a disc  or  circle  sometimes 
depicted  round  the  heads  of  emperors 
and  other  great  men.  The  nimbus  in 
representations  of  God  the  Father  is  of 
a triangular  form,  with  rays  diverging 
from  it  all  round,  or  in  the  form  shown 
in  the  cut ; the  nimbus  in  representations 
of  Christ  contains  a cross  more  or  less 
enriched,  that  of  the  Virgin  Mary  con- 
sists of  a circlet  of  small  stars,  and  that 
of  angels  and  saints  is  a circle  of  small 
rays.  When  the  nimbus  is  depicted  of  a 
square  form  it  indicates  that  the  person 
was  alive  at  the  time  of  delineation. 
Nimbus  is  frequently  confounded  with 
aureola  and  glory. 

NIMES,  or  NISMES  (nem),  a city  of 
Southern  France,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Gard,  62  miles  northwest  of 
Marseilles.  Nimes  is  chiefly  remarkable 
for  its  Roman  remains,  including  an 
ancient  temple,  with  thirty  beautiful 


Corinthian  columns,  now  serving  as  a 
museum  and  known  as  the  Maison 
Carree ; the  ampitheater,  a circus  capable 
of  seating  20,000  persons;  the  temple 
of  Diana;  the  ancient  Tour  Magne,  on  a 
hill  outside  of  the  city,  supposed  to  have 
been  a mausoleum;  and  a Roman  gate- 
way. In  the  16th  century  it  became  a 
stronghold  of  Calvinism,  and  suffered 
much  during  the  civil  wars,  as  also  by 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 


The  nimbus  as  variously  represented  in 
sacred  and  legendary  art.— 1,  God  the  Father. 
2 and  3,  Christ.  4,  Charlemagne.  5,  Emperor 
Henry  II. 

and  during  the  revolution;  but  latterly 
it  has  become  a busy  manufacturing 
center.  Pop.  80,355. 

NIMROD,  described  in  Gen.  x.  8 to  12 
as  a descendant  of  Ham,  a son  of  Cush, 
a mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord,  and 
the  b^eginning  of  whose  kingdom  was 
Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and  Calneh  in  the 
land  of  Shinar. 

NIN'EVEH,  an  ancient  ruined  city, 
formerly  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire, 
in  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  first  recorded 
notice  of  Nineveh  is  in  Genesis  x.  Again 
it  is  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Jonah  as  a 
“great  city.”  It  remained  the  capital 
of  Assyria  till  about  606  b.c.,  when  it 
was  taken  and  burned  by  the  Babylo- 
nian Nabopolassar  and  the  Median 
Cyaxares.  It  was  maintained  as  a local 
tradition  that  this  ancient  capital  of 
Assyria  lay  buried  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Tigris  opposite  Mosul;  but  the  fact 
was  not  definitely  settled  until  in  1841 
M.  Botta  began  excavations  in  the  vast 
mounds  which  there  existed.  He  was 
followed  in  this  by  Mr  (afterward  Sir 
Henry)  Layard,  who  explored  a great 
portion  of  the  large  angle  formed  by  the 
Tigris  and  the  Zab.  In  the  mounds  of 
Koyuiijik  opposite  Mosul  he  excavated 
the  palaces  of  Sennacherib,  Assurbani- 
pal,  and  Esarhaddon.  The  walls  of  the 
city,  which  the  inscriptions  describe  as 
Ninua,  stretch  along  the  Tigris  for  2J 
miles,  and  the  elaborate  outworks, 
moats,  and  defenses  can  still  be  traced. 
The  important  discoveries  made  by 
Layard  were  continued  by  Loftus, 
Hormuzd  Rassam,  and  G.  Smith,  and 
the  result  of  their  labors  deposited  in 
the  British  Museum.  See  Assyria. 

NINGPO,  a large  city  of  China,  in  the 
province  of  Che-kiang,  one  of  the  porta 
open  to  foreign  commerce.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  tea,  silk,  and  raw 


NIOBE 


NITBO-GLYCERINE 


cotton;  and  the  principal  imports,  sugar 
and  opium.  Pop.  240,000. 

NPOBE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
daughter  of  Tantalus,  married  to  Am- 
phion,  king  of  Thebes.  Proud  of  her 
numerous  progeny,  ■ she  provoked  the 
anger  of  Apollo  and  Artemis  (Diana), 
by  boasting  over  their  mother  Leto 
(Latona),  who  had  no  other  children  but 
those  two.  She  was  punished  by  having 
all  her  children  put  to  death  by  those 
two  deities.  She  herself  was  metamor- 
phosed by  Zeus  (Jupiter)  into  a stone 
which  shed  tears  during  the  summer. 
This  fable  has  afforded  a subject  for  art, 
and  has  given  rise  to  the  beautiful  group 
in  the  tribune  at  Florence,  known  by 
the  name  of  Niobe  and  her  Children. 

NIO'BIUM,  or  COLUMBIUM,  a rare 
metal  discovered  in  1801  in  a black 
mineral  called  columbite  from  North 
America.  It  forms  a black  powder  in- 
soluble in  nitric  acid,  but  readily  soluble 
in  a mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrofluoric 

NIPTGON,  or  NEPTGON  a lake  of 
Canada,  in  Ontario,  about  30  miles 
northwest  of  Lake  Superior.  It  is  about 
70  miles  long  and  40  miles  broad,  with 
rugged  headlands,  deep  bays,  and  many 
islands.  It  is  connected  with  Lake 
Superior  by  the  Nipigon  river. 

NIPIS'SING,  Lake,  a lake  of  Canada, 
in  Ontario,  n.e.  of  Lake  Huron,  irregular 
in  coast-line;  breadth,  about  30  miles; 
length,  48  miles.  It  contains  numerous 
islands,  and  finds  its  only  outlet  by 
French  river  into  Lake  Huron. 

NIPPLE.  See  Mammary  Glands. 

NIRVA'NA.  See  Buddhism. 

NITRATE,  a salt  of  nitric  acid.  The 
nitrates  are  generally  soluble  in  water, 
and  easily  decomposed  by  heat.  De- 
posits of  nitrates  are  present  in  small 
quantities  in  almost  all  soils,  but  enor- 
mous accumulations  exist  in  Chile  and 
Peru.  These  latter  deposits,  which  are 
known  as  Chile  saltpeter,  cubic  nitre,  or 
nitrate  of  soda,  are  found  near  the  coast, 
and  are  probably  produced  from  re- 
mains of  marine  animals  and  birds. 
The  great  value  of  this  nitrate  is  in  its 
application  to  agriculture  as  a fertilizer 
on  impoverished  soil;  for  it  is  now  well 
known  that  crops  require  large  quan- 
tities of  nitrogen  to  secure  their  full 
development.  It  has  been  found  by 
experiment,  for  instance,  that  with  a 
soil  poor  in  nitrogen  the  crop  of  wheat 
per  acre  was  2090  lbs.,  whereas  when 
the  same  soil  was  dressed  with  nitrogen- 
ous manure,  the  return  was  6982  lbs. 
So  also  with  potatoes,  the  poor  soil 
yielded  4452  lbs.  as  compared  with 
17,192  lbs.  when  dressed  with  nitrate. 
The  nitrates,  of  which  nitrate  of  soda  is 
now  considered  the  best,  should  not  be 
usea  on  light  porous  soils  where  the  rain 
will  sink  the  manure  below  the  range  of 
the  roots.  They  make  an  excellent  top- 
dressing in  the  spring,  especially  for 
root-crops. 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER,  a substance 
obtained  by  cooling,  in  the  shape  of 
tabular  crystals,  from  the  solution  pro- 
duced when  Mlver  is  oxidized  and  dis- 
solved by  nitric  acid  diluted  with  two 
or  three  times  its  weight  of  water.  When 
fused  the  nitrate  is  of  a black  color, 
and  it  may  be  cast  into  small  sticks  in  a 
mould;  these  sticks  form  the  lunar 


caustic  employed  by  surgeons  as  a 
cautery.  It  is  sometimes  employed  for 
giving  a black  color  to  the  hair,  and  is 
the  basis  of  the  indelible  ink  for  marking 
linen.  Its  solution  is  always  kept  in  the 
laboratory  as  a test  for  chlorine  and 
hydrochloric  acid. 

NITRATE  OF  SODA,  a salt  analogous 
in  its  chemical  properties  to  nitrate  of 
potash  or  nitre.  It  is  largely  used  as  a 
manure,  and  as  a source  of  nitric  acid 
and  nitre.  See  Nitrate. 

NITRE,  a salt,  called  also  saltpetre, 
and  in  the  nomenclature  of  chemistry 
nitrate  of  potassium  or  potassic  nitrate. 
It  is  produced  by  the  action  of  microbes 
in  soils  containing  potash  and  nitrogen- 
ous organic  matters,  and  forms  an 
efflorescence  upon  the  surface  in  several 
parts  of  the  world,  and  especially  in  the 
East  Indies,  whence  much  nitre  is  de- 
rived. In  some  parts  of  Europe  it  is  pre- 
pared artificially  from  a mixture  of  com- 
mon mould  or  porous  calcareous  earth 
with  animal  and  vegetable  remains 
containing  nitrogen.  It  is  also  manufac- 
tured on  a large  scale  by  chrystallization 
from  a hot  solution  of  chloride  of  potas- 
sium and  nitrate  of  soda.  It  is  a color- 
less salt  with  a saline  taste,  and  crys- 
tallizes in  six-sided  prisms.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  chemistry  as  an  oxidizing  agent 
and  in  the  formation  of  itric  acid.  Its 
chief  use  in  the  arts  is  in  the  making 
of  gun-powder.  It  also  enters  into  the 
composition  of  fluxes,  and  is  extensively 
employed  in  metallurgy;  it  is  used  in 
the  art  of  dyeing,  and  is  much  employ- 
ed in  the  preservation  of  meat  and  ani- 
mal matters  in  general.  In  medicine 
it  is  prescribed  as  cooling,  febrifuge,  and 
diuretic.  Cubic  nitre.  See  Nitrate. 

NITRIC  ACID,  the  most  important 
of  the  five  compounds  formed  by  oxygen 
with  nitrogen.  When  pure  it  is  a color- 
less liquid,  very  strong  and  disagreeable 
to  the  smell,  and  so  acrid  that  it  cannot 
be  safely  tasted  without  being  much 
diluted.  It  is  known  in  the  arts  as  aqua 
fortis,  and  is  commonly  obtained  by'dis- 
tilling  nitre  (potassium  nitrate)  or  Chile 
saltpetre  (sodium  nitrate)  with  strong 
sidphuric  acid.  Nitric  acid  contains 
about  76  per  cent  of  oxygen,  a great 
part  of  which  it  readily  gives  up  to  other 
substances,  acting  thus  as  a powerful 
oxidizer.  Thus  many  metals — such  as 
copper,  tin,  silver,  etc. — when  brought 
into  contact  with  this  acid  are  oxidized 
at  the  expense  of  the  acid  with  the  pro- 
duction of  lower  oxides  of  nitrogen  and 
an  oxygenated  metallic  salt.  Nitric  acid, 
when  moderately  dilute,  acts  on  organic 
bodies  so  as  to  produce  a series  of  most 
useful  substances,  notably  acetic,  oxalic, 
and  picric  acids,  isatin  or  white  indigo, 
etc.  Nitric  acid  is  employed  in  etching 
on  steel  or  copper;  as  a solvent  of  tin  to 
form  with  that  metal  a mordant  for 
some  of  the  finest  dyes;  in  metallurgy 
and  assaying;  also  in  medicine,  in  a 
diluted  state,  as  a tonic  and  as  a sub- 
stitute for  mercurial  preparations  in 
syphilis  and  affections  of  the  liver;  and 
also  in  form  of  vapor  to  destroy  con- 
tagion. 

NITRO-BENZOL,  a liquid  prepared 
by  adding  benzol  drop  by  drop  to  fuming 
nitric  acid.  It  closely  resembles  oil  of 
bitter  almonds  in  flavor,  and  is  largely 
employed  as  a substitute  for  that  oil  in 


the  manufacture  of  confectionery  and 
in  the  preparation  of  perfumery.  It  is 
important  as  a source  of  aniline. 

NITROGEN,  an  important  elementary 
principal,  the  basis  of  nitric  acid  and 
the  principal  ingredient  of  atmospheric 
air.  The  name  nitrogen  was  applied 
to  it  by  Chaptal,  because  of  its  entering 
into  the  composition  of  nitre,  nitric 
acid,  etc.  The  atmosphere  contains 
about  four-fifths  of  its  volume  of  nitro- 
gen, the  rest  being  principally  oxygen* 
nitre  contains  nearly  13  per  cent,  and 
nitric  acid  about  22  per  cent  by  weight 
of  this  substance.  Nitrogen  is  inodorous, 
tasteless,  incumbustible,  and  a very 
inert  substance  in  itself,  although  many 
of  its  compounds,  such  as  nitric  acid 
and  ammonia,  are  possessed  of  great 
chemical  activity.  By  reason  of  its 
inertness  and  general  slowness  of  chemi- 
cal action  it  acts  the  part  of  a diluent 
of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere.  Having 
no  marked  action  of  its  own  on  living 
beings,  its  admixture  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  serves  to  moderate  the  other- 
wise too  violent  action  of  the  latter  gas. 
Under  certain  circumstances  nitrogen 
may  be  induced  to  combine  with  other 
elements,  especially  with  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  carbon,  with  titanium, 
tantalum,  and  tungsten.  Nitrogen  is 
allied  in  many  of  its  chemical  properties 
to  the  other  elementary  substances — 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  antimony,  and 
bismuth;  and  it  has  the  power  of  com- 
bining with  one,  three,  or  five  atoms  of 
a monovalent  element  or  radicle.  The 
oxides  of  nitrogen  are  five  in  number. 
The  first  oxide  of  nitrogen  (nitrogen 
monoxide)  contains  28  parts  by  weight 
of  nitrogen  united  witn  16  parts  by 
weight  of  oxygen.  The  next  oxide 
(dioxide)  contains  28  parts  by  weight  of 
nitrogen  united  with  32  parts  by  weight 
of  oxygen.  In  the  third  oxide  (trioxide) 
28  parts  of  nitrogen  is  united  with  48 
parts  of  oxygen  while  the  fourth  and 
fifth  oxides  (tetroxide,  pentoxide)  con- 
tain respectively  64  and  80  parts  of 
oxygen,  united  in  each  case  with  28  of 
nitrogen.  These  oxides  may  be  all  pro- 
duced from  nitric  acid.  The  trioxide 
forms  a dark-blue  liquid,  which,  when 
added  to  water  at  0°,  combines  there- 
with, forming  nitrous  acid.  This  solu- 
tion acts  as  a reducing  agent,  inasmuch 
as  it  eliminates  gold  and  mercury  as 
metals  from  several  of  their  salts;  on 
the  other  hand,  it  also  exercises  an 
oxidizing  action  on  such  salts  as  ferrous 
sulphate,  potassium,  iodide,  etc.  By 
replacement  of  the  hydrogen  in  nitrous 
acid  a series  of  metallic  salts  is  obtained, 
called  nitrites.  Nitrogen  monoxide  is 
better  known  by  the  name  of  “laughing- 
gas,”  from  the  peculiarly  exhilarating 
effect  which  it  produces  when  breathed 
along  with  a little  air.  If  the  gas  be  pure, 
its  inspiration  soon  brings  about  total 
insensibility,  which  does  not  continue 
long,  and  generally  produces  no  bad 
effects  upon  the  person  who  breathes  it ; 
hence  it  is  much  used  as  an  anaesthetic 
in  minor  surgical  operations,  such  as 
teeth-drawing,  etc. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE,  an  explosive  sub- 
stance appearing  as  a colorless  or  yel- 
lowish oily  liquid,  heavier  than  and  in- 
soluble in  water,  but  dissolved  by  alcohol, 
ether,  etc.  It  may  be  prepared  by  add- 


fjOAH 


NORDICA 


ing  to  350  parts  by  weight  of  glycerine 
2800  parts  by  weight  of  a cooled  mixture 
of  3 parts  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1.845 
specific  gravity  and  1 part  of  fuming 
nitric  acid.  The  liquid  is  poured  into 
ten  or  twenty  times  its  bulk  of  cold 
water,  when  the  heavy  nitro-glycerine 
sinks  to  the  bottom.  When  violently 
struck  nitro-glycerine  explodes,  being 
resolved  into  water,  carbonic  acid, 
nitrogen  oxides,  and  nitrogen.  The 
volume  of  gas  produced  is  about  10,000 
times  the  initial  volume  of  the  nitro- 
glycerine. Explosion  can  also  be  effected 
by  heating  to  about  500°  F.  one  portion 
of  a mass,  whereby  partial  decomposi- 
tion is  set  agoing  which  almost  im- 
mediately propagates  itself  throughout 
the  liquid.  The  explosive  force  of  nitro- 
glycerine compared  with  that  of  an 
equal  volume  of  gunpowder  is  as  13:1. 
If  any  traces  of  acid  be  allowed  to  re- 
main in  nitro-glycerine  it  is  liable  to 
undergo  spontaneous  explosion;  hence 
it  is  an  exceedingly  dangerous  article  to 
transport  or  store  under  such  conditions. 
It  is  advisable  to  prepare  the  substance 
on  the  spot  where  it  is  to  be  used,  and 
only  in  such  quantities  as  may  be  re- 
quired for  immediate  consumption. 
This  method  is  adopted  in  many 
quarries  and  engineering  undertakings, 
especially  in  America.  Nitro-glycerine 
has  for  some  time  been  used  in  the  form 
of  dynamite,  to  produce  which  it  is 
mixed  with  some  light  absorbent  sub- 
stance. See  D3mamite. 

NOAH,  one  of  the  patriarchs  of  the 
Old  Testament,  son  of  Lamech,  is  de- 
scribed in  the  book  of  Genesis  as  being 
chosen  by  God  for  his  piety  to  be  the 
father  of  the  new  race  of  men  which 
should  people  the  earth  after  the  deluge. 
Having  been  warned  by  God  of  the 
coming  flood,  he  built  a vessel  (the  ark) 
by  his  direction,  and  entered  it  with  his 
family  and  all  kinds  of  animals.  (See 
Deluge.)  After  the  waters  had  subsided 
the  ark  rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  where 
Noah  offered  a thank-offering  to  God, 
and  was  assured  that  the  earth  should 
never  again  be  destroyed  by  a flood,  as 
sign  whereof  God  set  the  rainbow  in  the 
clouds.  Noah  died  at  the  ago  of  950 
years,  350  years  after  the  flood.  While 
modern  accounts  place  Mount  Ararat 
in  Armenia,  older  traditions  locate  it  in 
the  mountains  of  the  Kurds,  east  of  the 
Tigris. 

inXON,  Lewis,  an  American  naval 
architect,  born  in  Leesburg,  Va.,  in 
1861.  He  was  superintending  construc- 
tor of  the  navy  at  Cramp’s  shipyard 
and  assistant  constructor  at  the  Brook- 
lyn Navy  Yard,  and  in  1890  designed 
the  battleships  of  the  Indiana  class. 
In  1898  he  was  appointed  president  of 
the  New  York  East  River  Bridge  Com- 
mission. In  1901  he  was  named  head 
of  Tammany  Hall,  but  resigned  the  post 
in  May  of  the  next  year  after  five  months 
service.  He  became  president  of  the 
United  States  Shipbuilding  Company 
of  New  York  City  in  1902. 

NOCTURNE  (nok-tern'),  in  painting, 
a night-piece;  a painting  exhibiting 
some  of  the  characteristic  effects  of 
night  light.  In  music,  a composition 
in  which  the  emotions,  particularly 
tho.se  of  love  and  tenderness,  are  de- 
veloped. Tue  nocturne  has  bocome  a 


favorite  style  of  composition  with 
modern  pianoforte  composers. 

NODE,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the 
points  in  which  two  great  circles  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  such  as  the  ecliptic  and 
equator,  the  orbits  of  the  planets  and 
the  ecliptic,  intersect  each  other;  and 
also  one  of  the  points  in  which  the  orbit 
of  a satellite  intersects  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  of  its  primary.  The  node  at  which 
a heavenly  body  passes  or  appears  to 
pass  to  the  north  of  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  or  great  circle  with  which  its  own 
orbit  or  apparent  orbit  is  compared  is 
called  the  ascending  node;  that  where 
it  descends  to  the  south  is  called  the  de- 
scending node.  At  the  vernal  equinox 
the  sun  is  in  its  ascending  node,  at  the 
autumnal  equinox  in  its  descending  node. 
The  straight  line  joining  the  nodes  is 
called  the  line  of  the  nodes.  The  lunar 
nodes  are  the  points  at  which  the  orbit 
of  the  moon  cuts  the  ecliptic. 

NODE,  in  physics,  a point  in  a vibrat- 
ing body,  or  system  of  vibrating  par- 
ticles, where  there  is  no  movement. 
When  a body  is  vibrating  the  vibratory 
motion  is  conveyed  from  one  place  to 
another  by  the  action  of  the  molecular 
forces  of  the  particles  on  one  another. 
Now  when  all  the  forces  acting  on  a 
certain  particle  are  at  any  instant  in 
equilibrium,  and  the  particle  conse- 
quently remains  at  rest,  there  is  said 
to  be  a node  at  the  particle.  If  a plate 
of  glass  or  metal  be  held  in  the  hand, 
and  a bow  be  drawn  across  the  edge, 
particles  of  fine  sand,  previously  placed 
on  the  plate,  will  arrange  themselves  in 
line,  along  which  it  is  evident  no  vibra- 
tion has  taken  place.  These  lines,  called 
nodal  lines,  generally  form  geometrical 
figures. 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICER,  a 

soldier  with  the  rank  intermediate  be- 
tween that  of  the  private  and  the  com- 
missioned officer.  The  following  classi- 
fication are  the  various  non-commis- 
sioned grades  of  the  United  States  army: 
(1)  Sergeant-major,  regimental,  and 
sergeant-major,  senior  grade,  artillery 
corps;  (2)  quartermaster-sergeant,  regi- 
mental; (3)  commissary-sergeant,  regi- 
mental; (4)  ordnance  sergeant,  post- 
commissary-sergeant, post-quarter-mas- 
ter-sergeant,  electrician  sergeant,  hospi- 
tal steward,  first-class  sergeant  signal 
corps,  chief  musician,  chief  trumpeter, 
and  principal  musician;  (5)  squadron 
and  battalion  sergeant-major,  and  ser- 
geant-major, junior  grade,  artillery 
corps;  (6)  first  sergeant  and  drum-major; 

(7)  sergeant  and  acting  hospital  steward ; 

(8)  corporal.  In  each  grade,  date  of 
appointment  determines  the  order  of 
precedence. 

NOME  (n5m),  the  largest  city  of 
Alaska,  in  the  Northern  District;  sit- 
uated at  the  mouth  of  the  Snake  river, 
13  miles  west  of  Cape  Nome,  on  the 
north  shore  of  Norton  Sound,  Bering 
Sea.  It  is  the  center  of  the  productive 
Cape  Nome  gold-mining  district,  which 
extends  west  along  the  coast  for  about 
20  miles  from  Cape  Nome.  Pop.  15,320. 

NOLLE  PROSEQUI  (npl'le  pros'e- 
kwi),  in  law,  a stoppage  of  proceedings 
by  a plaintiff,  an  acknowledgment  that 
he  has  not  cause  of  action. 

NOMADS,  tribes  without  fixed  habi- 
tations, generally  engaged  in  the  tend- 


ing and  raising  of  cattle,  and  changing 
their  abode  as  necessity  requires  or  in- 
clination prompts.  North  Africa,  the 
interior  of  North  and  South  America, 
and  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of 
Asia,  are  still  inhabited  by  nomadic 
tribes,  some  of  whom  are  little  better 
than  bands  of  robbers. 

NOMINATIVE  CASE,  in  grammar, 
that  form  of  a noun  or  pronoun  which  is 
used  when  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  the 
subject  of  a sentence. 

NON  COMPOS  MENTIS  (“not  of 
sound  mind”),  an  expression  used  of  a 
person  who  is  not  of  sound  understand- 
ing, and  therefore  not  legally  responsible 
for  his  acts. 

NONSUIT,  a term  in  law.  When  a 
person  has  commenced  an  action,  and 
at  the  trial  fails  in  his  evidence  to  sup- 
port it,  or  has  brought  a wrong  action, 
he  is  nonsuited.  A nonsuited  plaintiff 
may  afterward  bring  another  action  for 
the  same  cause,  which  he  cannot  do 
after  a verdict  against  him. 

NORD,  a department  in  the  north- 
east of  France,  bordering  with  Belgium ; 
area,  2170  sq.  miles.  The  principal 
minerals  are  coal  and  iron,  which  are 
extensively  wrought;  and  the  occupa- 
tions connected  with  or  depending  on 
them  render  this  department  among  the 
most  important  in  France.  The  capital 
is  Lille.  Pop.  1,670,184. 

NORDENSKIOLD  (nor'den-sheuld). 
Nils  Adolf  Erik,  Baron,  a Swedish 
naturalist  and  explorer,  born  at  Hel- 
singsfors  Nov.  18,  1832.  He  devoted 
himself  to  science,  and  was  appointed 
to  some  important  posts,  but  becoming 
obnoxious  to  the  Russian  authorities  he 
settled  in  Sweden.  Aided  by  the  King 


Baron  Nordensklold. 


of  Sweden  and  others,  Nordenskiold 
was  enabled,  July  1878,  to  sail  in  the 
Vega,  which  was  the  first  vessel  to  double 
the  most  northern  point  of  the  Old 
World,  Cape  Tchelyuskin,  and  after 
passing  through  Bering’s  Straits,  reach- 
ed Japan  Sept.  2,  1879.  On  his  re- 
turn Nordenskiold  was  enthusiastically 
welcomed  in  Europe,  and  created  a 
baron  by  the  King  of  Sweden.  He  died 
in  1901. 

NOR'DICA,  Lillian,  an  American 
soprano,  born  in  1859  at  Farmington, 
Maine.  She  accompanied  Gilmore’s 
band  to  Europe  in  1878,  and  later  took 
up  the  study  of  opera  with  San  Giovanni. 
After  touring  Germany  and  Russia,  she 
appeared  in  1881  in  Paris,  where  her 
success  was  absolute.  In  1887  she  ap- 
peared in  London,  and  in  1895  made 


NORFOLK 


NORTH  AMERICA 


her  first  appearance  in  opera  in  her 
native  land,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York.  She  achieved  her 
greatest  successes  in  Aida,  Les  Hugue- 
nots, and  the  soprano  parts  in  the 
Wagnerian  operas. 

NORFOLK  (nor'fok),  a county  of 
England.  Area,  1,356,173  acres,  of 
which  1,095,195  acres  are  arable,  mea- 
dow, and  pasture.  The  county  town  is 
Norwich;  the  chief  seaport  is  Yarmouth. 
Pop.  460,040. 

NORFOLK,  a city  and  port  in  the 
county  of  the  same  name,  Virginia,  on 
on  the  river  Elizabeth,  32  miles  from 
the  ocean.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  com- 
modious, and  a large  trade  is  done  in 
cotton.  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  on  the 
opposite  site  of  the  river  constitute  the 
largest  naval  station  in  the  United 
States.  Pop.  50,210. 

NORFOLK-CRAG,  in  geology,  an 
English  tertiary  formation  belonging 
to  the  older  Pliocene,  resting  on  the 
chalk  and  London-clay.  It  consists  of 
irregular  beds  of  ferruginous  sand-clay, 
mixed  with  marine  shells  and  mastodon 
and  elephant  remains. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS,  called  also 
Training  Colleges,  schools  in  which 
teachers  are  instructed  in  the  principles 
of  their  profession  and  trained  in  the 
practice  of  it.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  French  6coles  normales,  established 
at  the  close  of  18th  century.  These 
schools  are  now  numerous  in  all  coun- 
tries that  have  a well-organized  system 
of  education.  They  may  be  either  for 
teachers  in  elementary  schools  or  for 
those  of  the  secondary  schools,  and 
may  be  for  males  or  females  only  or  for 
both  combined. 

NORMAN  ARCHITECTURE,  the 

round-arched  style  of  architecture,  a 
variety  of  the  Romanesque,  introduced 
at  the  Norman  Conquest  from  France 
into  Britain,  where  it  prevailed  till  the 
end  of  the  12th  century.  In  its  earlier 
stages  it  is  plain  and  massive  with  but 
few  mouldings,  and  those  principally 
confined  to  small  features;  as  the  style 
advanced  greater  lightness  and  enrich- 
ment were  introduced,  and  some  of  the 
later  examples  are  highly  enriched.  The 
chevron,  billet,  nail-head,  and  lozenge 
mouldings  are  distinctively  character- 
istic of  this  style.  The  more  specific 
characteristics  of  churches  in  this  style 
are ; cruciform  plan  with  apse  and  apsidal 
chapels,  the  tower  rising  from  the  in- 
tersection of  nave  and  transept  ; semi- 
cylindrical  vaulting;  the  doorways, 
deeply  recessed,  with  highly  decorated 
mouldings;  the  windows  small,  round- 
headed,  placed  high  in  the  wall,  and 
opening  with  a wide  splay  inside;  piers 
massive,  generally  cylindrical  or  octago- 
nal, and  sometimes  enriched  with 
shafts;  capitals  cushion-shaped,  some- 
times plain,  more  frequently  enriched; 
butresses  broad,  with  but  small  pro- 
jection ; walls  frequently  decorated  by 
bands  of  arcades  with  single  or  inter- 
lacing arches.  It  course  of  time  the 
arches  began  to  assume  the  pointed 
character;  the  piers,  walls,  etc.,  to  be 
less  massive;  short  pyramidal  spires 
crown  the  towers;  and  altogether  the 
style  assumes  a more  delicate  and  re- 
fined character,  passing  gradually  into 
the  Early  English.  Besides  ecclesiastical  i 


buildings,  the  Norftians  reared  many 
castellated  structures,  the  best  remain- 
ing specimen  of  which  is  the  Keep  of  the 
Tower  of  London.  The  Norman  archi- 
tects were  not  distinguished  for  science 
in  construction.  The  walls  of  their 
buildings  were  of  great  thickness,  and 
the  piers  supporting  their  arches  were 


Norman  architecture.— Abbaye  aux  Dames, 
Caen. 


usually  of  immense  girth,  yet  notwith- 
standing this  massiveness  their  works 
frequently  gave  way.  The  Abbaye  aux 
Hommes  and  the  Abbaye  aux  Dames  at 
Caen,  Normandy,  afford  excellent  ex- 
amples of  this  style;  as  also  parts  of  the 
cathedrals  of  Durham,  Peterborough, 
Norwich,  and  Canterbury,  as  well  as 
many  smaller  churches. 

NORMAN  CONQUEST,  in  English 
history,  the  successful  attempt  made 
by  William  of  Normandy  in  1066  to 
secure  the  English  crown  from  his  rival 
Harold,  son  of  Earl  Godwin.  It  was  no 
real  conquest  of  the  land  and  people  by 
an  alien  race,  but  rather  resembled  in 
its  chief  characteristics  the  accession  of 
William  of  Orange  to  the  throne  in  1688. 

NOR'MANDY,  an  ancient  province  in 
the  north  of  France,  now  divided  into 
the  department  of  Siene-Inf4rieure, 
Eure,  Orne,  Calvados,  and  Manche. 
On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  it 
was  seized  by  the  Franks,  and  afterward 
in  the  10th  century,  wrested  from  them 
by  the  Normans  or  Northmen,  from 
whom  it  received  its  name.  (See  North 
men.)  Charles  the  Simple  gave  his 
sanction  to  the  conquest  made  by  the 
Normans,  and  Rollo,  their  chief,  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Duke  of  Normandy. 
William  the  Bastard,  sixth  in  succes- 
sion from  Rollo,  having  become  king 
of  England  in  1066,  Normandy  be 
came  annexed  thereto.  On  the  death 
of  William  it  was  separated  from  Eng- 
land and  ruled  by  his  son  Robert,  and 
was  afterward  ruled  by  the  kings  of 
England  until  Philip  Augustus  wrested 
it  from  John  and  united  it  to  France  in 
1203.  Although  several  times  invaded 
by  the  English,  it  was  finally  recovered 


by  the  French  in  1450.  Normandy  is 
one  of  the  richest  and  most  fertile  parts 
of  France. 

NORMANS,  the  descendants  of  the 
Northmen  who  established  themselves 
in  Northern  France,  hence  called  Nor- 
mandy. Besides  the  important  place 
occupied  in  history  by  the  Normans  in 
Normandy  and  England,  bands  of  Nor- 
mans established  themselves  in  S. 
Italy  and  Sicily,  and  Norman  princes 
ruled  there  from  the  middle  of  the  11th 
till  the  end  of  the  12th  century.  See 
Normandy  and  Northmen. 

NORRISTOWN,  a city  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Schuylkill,  16  miles  n.w. 
of  Philadelphia.  It  has  extensive  woolen 
and  cotton  factories,  rolling-mills,  foun- 
dries, etc.  Pop.  26,172. 

NORSE,  the  language  of  Scandinavia. 
Old  Norse  is  represented  by  the  classical 
Icelandic,  and  still  with  wonderful 
purity  by  modern  Icelandic.  The  litera- 
ture includes  the  early  literature  of  the 
people  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Iceland. 

NORTE  (nor'ta),  Rio  Grande  del,  a 
river  of  North  America,  forming  for  a 
long  distance  the  boundary  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States,  and  fall- 
ing into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  shallow 
and  of  little  use  for  navigation.  Length 
about  2000  miles. 

NORTH,  one  of  the  cardinal  points, 
being  that  point  of  the  horizon  or  of  the 
heavens  which  is  exactly  in  the  direction 
of  the  North  Pole.  See  Pole. 

NORTH,  Christoper.  See  Wilson, 
John. 

NORTH,  Frederick,  Lord,  Earl  of 
Guildford,  the  eldest  son  of  Francis, 
second  earl  of  Guildford,  born  in  1732, 
died  1792.  He  belongs  to  English  his- 
tory as  chief  of  the  administration  dur- 
ing the  American  war  of  Independence. 
In  1770  he  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Graf- 
ton as  minister,  when  his  retention  of  the 
tea-duty,  imposed  upon  the  American 
colonists,  led  to  the  rising  in  America, 
and  to  the  declaration  of  independence, 
4th  July,  1776.  Lord  North  resigned 
on  the  20th  of  March,  1782.  He  became 
Earl  of  Guildford  by  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1790. 

NORTH  ADAMS,  a town  in  Berkshire 
CO.,  Massachusetts,  on  the  Hoosac 
river,  near  the  west  end  of  the  great 
Hoosac  Tunnel;  has  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  woolen-goods,  boots,  shoes, 
paper,  and  nitro-glycerine.  Pop.  26,710. 

NORTH  AMERICA,  the  northern  half 
of  the  western  continent,  or  New  World. 
Under  America  a general  description  of 
North  America  has  been  given,  more 
especially  as  compared  and  contrasted 
with  South  America,  but  some  addi- 
tional information  may  here  be  given. 

The  mainland  of  North  America,  in 
the  widest  sense  of  the  name,  is  united 
to  South  America  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  extends  from  lat.  7°  n. 
to  lat.  72°  n.  In  a narrower  sense,  and 
excluding  the  southern  portion  often 
spoken  of  as  Central  America,  it  ex- 
tends only  from  lat.  15°  n.  To  it  on  the 
north  belongs  an  extensive  archipelago 
of  arctic  islands,  to  the  northeast  of 
which  lies  Greenland,  the  latter  gen- 
erally regarded  as  belonging  to  America. 
The  figure  of  North  America  is  very 
irregular,  and  in  that  respect  it  resem- 
bles Europe.  On  the  north  is  the 


NORTH  AMERICA 


NORTH  AMERICA 


great  indentation  of  Hudson  Bay,  al- 
most an  inland  sea,  connected  with  the 
Atlantic  by  Hudson  Strait.  On  the  east 
are  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  with  the 
island  of  Newfoundland  and  the  penin- 
sula of  Nova  Scotia  at  its  entrance; 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  having  on  one 
side  of  its  entrance  the  peninsula  of 
Florida,  on  the  other  that  of  Yucatan. 
From  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  stretch 
eastward  Cuba  and  others  of  the  West 
India  Islands.  The  chief  features  of  the 
Pacific  coast  are  the  Gulf  of  California 
and  peninsula  of  Lower  California — 
further  north  Vancouver  Island  and  the 
chain  of  other  islands  lining  the  coast. 
The  continent  tenninates  in  a peninsular 
extension  forming  Alaska  territory  sepa- 
rated from  Asia  by  Bering’s  Sea  and 
Strait,  the  latter  about  50  miles  wide. 
The  area  of  North  America  (excluding 
Greenland  but  including  the  West 
Indies)  is  about  8,150,000  sq.  miles,  or 
considerably  more  than  double  that  of 
Europe.  As  regards  its  surface  and 
physical  features  generally  it  presents 
various  points  of  similarity  with  Europe 
— numerous  large  rivers,  elevated  moun- 
tain chains,  and  large  plains  suited  for 
the  growth  of  cereals  and  other  crops; 
but  most  of  its  physical  peculiarities  are 
on  a scale  of  greater  magnitude  than 
those  of  Europe.  Thus  its  greatest 
mountain  system,  that  of  the  Cordilleras 
(of  which  the  Rocky  Moitntains  strictly 
speaking  form  only  a part),  extends 
along  the  entire  western  side  of  the  con- 
tinent for  a distance  of  at  least  5000 
miles,  and  rises  to  the  height  of  19,500 
feet;  the  great  plains  which  stretch  on 
the  east  of  these  mountains  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are 
also  of  far  greater  magnitude  than  those 
of  Europe,  contain  th#  largest  bodies  of 
fresh  water  in  the  world,  and  are  inter- 
sected by  a series  of  rivers,  one  of  which, 
the  Mississippi-Missouri,  is  the  longest 
of  all  rivers  (length  4200  miles).  The 
basin  of  the  Mississippi-Missouri  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Appalachian 
chain,  one  of  much  less  comparative 
magnitude,  but  forming  an  important 
feature  of  the  surface  conformation  of 
the  continent.  In  its  great  navigable 
rivers  and  lakes  North  America  possesses 
an  immense  system  of  inland  navigation. 
As  the  great  water-shed  of  North 
Am^ica  is  formed  by  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, all  the  chief  rivers,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  St.  Lawrence,  have  their 
sources  on  its  slopes  or  plateaus,  whence 
they  flow  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Pacific,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  or  Hudson 
Bay.  At  more  than  one  point  in  the 
system  the  water-parting  is  formed  by 
a lake  or  marsh  sending  a stream  on  one 
side  to  the  Pacific  and  on  the  other  side 
to  the  Atlantic.  The  Nelson,  Mackenzie, 
and  Yukon  are  the  chief  rivers  which 
flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  last 
named  having  only  recently  been  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the 
world.  The  St.  Lawrence  is  the  largest 
of  those  which  flow  directly  to  the  At- 
lantic. The  lakes  drained  by  the  St. 
Lawrence,  namely,  Superior,  Michigan, 
Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  together 
cover  an  area  of  97,000  sq.  miles  (or 
more  than  that  of  Great  Britain).  The 
largest,  Lake  Superior,  has  an  area  equal 
tp  that  of  Ireland.  Other  large  lakes 


further  to  the  north  include  Winnipeg, 
Athabasca,  Great  Bear  Lake,  and  Great 
Slave  Lake.  The  principal  islands  on  the 
east  are  Newfoundland,  Anticosti,  Prince 
Edward’s  Island,  and  Cape  Breton,  all 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence ; the 
Bahama  Islands,  Cuba,  Hayti,  Porto 
Rico,  and  Jamaica.  On  the  northwest 
coast  the  principal  islands  are  Van- 
couver’s Island,  Queen  Charlotte’s 
Island,  and  King  George  III.’s  Archi- 
pelago. The  only  others  of  any  im- 
portance are  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
stretching  west  from  the  peninsula  of 
Alaska;  the  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean 
are  almost  inacessible. 

The  climate  admits  of  a vast  variety 
of  vegetable  products  being  grown,  and 
though  in  the  far  north  extremely 
rigorous,  as  a whole  it  is  healthy  and 
well  suited  to  the  peoples  of  Teutonic 
origin  who  now  form  so  large  a portion 
of  the  inhabitants.  As  regards  minerals 
and  other  products  North  America  is 
exceptionally  favored,  possessing  abun- 
dance of  all  those  that  are  most  valuable 
— gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and 
coal.  Immense  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver  have  been  produced.  The  coal 
fields  are  of  prodigious  extent,  the 
Appalachian  stretching  without  inter- 
ruption 720  miles.  The  Pittsburg  seam 
is  225  miles  in  length  and  100  in  breadth. 
Iron  is  worked  in  many  parts,  as  are 
also  copper  and  lead.  Salt  and  petroleum 
are  abundant.  The  forests  are  of  vast 
extent,  and  include  a great  variety  of 
the  most  useful  timber  trees,  as  pines, 
oak,  ash,  hickory,  beech,  birch,  poplar, 
sycamore,  chestnut,  walnut,  maple, 
cedar,  etc.  Maize  or  indian-corn  is  the 
only  important  farinaceous  plant  pecu- 
liar to  the  New  World,  but  almost  all 
fruits  and  grains  known  to  Europe  are 
cultivated  to  perfection  in  North 
America,  to  which  Europe  is  now  in- 
debted for  immense  quantities  of  agri- 
cultural and  dairy  produce,  as  well  as 
provisions  of  various  kinds,  and  raw 
materials  such  as  cotton,  etc. 

The  political  divisions  of  North 
America  are  the  United  States,  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  Newfoundland, 
Mexico,  and  the  Central  American 
States.  Canada  occupies  almost  the 
whole  of  the  continent  north  of  the 
great  lakes  and  lat.  49°  n.  The  territory 
of  the  United  States  extends  from  the 
the  British  possessions  to  Mexico  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlan- 
tic to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Alaska  territory 
belonging  to  the  United  States,  occupies 
the  northwest  corner  of  the  continent. 
The  republican  form  of  government 
prevails  everywhere  except  in  the 
British  dominions.  The  areas  and  popu- 
lation are  as  follows: 

Area, 

sq.  miles.  Pop. 

British  North  America...  3,816,145  5,522,500 

United  States  (including 

Alaska). 3,507,640  88,912,058 

Mexico 767,005  15,000,000 

Central  America  (includ- 
ing British  Honduras) ..  181,527  3,550,100 

West  Indies 81.816  6,366,405 

8,354,133  119,3.51,063 

The  population  now  consists  most 
largely  of  people  of  British  or  at  least 
Teutonic  origin,  though  the  French  and 
Spanish  elements  are  also  well  repre- 
sented. In  the  United  States  people  of 
negro  race  number  nearly  9,000,000. 


The  aboriginal  tribes  of  North  America, 
known  as  Red  Indians,  are  of  a hardy 
and  warlike  character,  but  they  are 
gradually  dying  out  before  the  march  of 
the  white  man.  They  have  all  so  strong 
a resemblance  to  each  other  in  physical 
formation  and  in  intellectual  character 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  their  belonging 
to  one  family.  (See  Indians,  American.) 
In  Mexico,  a people,  perhaps  of  same 
race,  the  Aztecs,  had  made  considerable 
progress  in  civilization  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Europeans.  In  the  extreme  north 
we  find  the  Esquimaux,  who  differ  eon- 
siderably  from  the  Indians,  but  are  often 
classed  along  with  them  as  people  of 
Mongoloid  origin. 

America  is  now  believed  to  have  been 
visited  by  Norsemen  in  the  10th  and 
11th  centuries;  but  the  modern  dis- 
covery is  due  to  Columbus,  who  reached 
one  of  the  West  Indies  in  1492.  Fol- 
lowin'g  his  lead  the  first  to  reach  the 
mainland  was  John  Cabot,  who,  with 
his  son  Sebastian,  sailed  from  Bristol  in 
1497,  and  on  June  24  came  in  sight  of 
Labrador.  In  1512  Sebastian  Cabot 
sailed  again  for  America;  but  a mutiny 
on  board  his  vessels  compelled  him  to 
return  before  more  had  been  accom- 
plished than  a visit  to  Hudson’s  Bay. 
In  the  same  year  Florida  was  discovered 
by  Ponce  de  Leon.  Giovanni  Veraz- 
zano,  a Florentine  sent  out  by  Francis 
I.  of  France  in  1524,  surveyed  upward  of 
2000  miles  of  coast,  and  discovered  that 
portion  now  known  as  North  Carolina. 
Ten  years  afterward,  Jacques  Cartier,  a 
seaman  of  St.  Malo,  sailed  from  that 
port  for  Newfoundland,  the  north  eoast 
of  which  he  surveyed  and  minutely 
described.  He  subsequently  made 
several  voyages,  and  was  the  first 
European  to  enter  the  St.  Lawrence, 
ascending  it  as  high  as  Montreal.  The 
Spaniards  had  previously  conquered 
Mexico,  and  a desire  to  extend  their 
dominion  (1519-21)  in  a northerly  direc- 
tion led  to  further  discoveries  in  North 
America.  The  coast  of  California  was 
discovered  by  Ximenes,  and  in  1539  the 
Gulf  of  California  was  first  entered  by 
Francisco  de  Ulloa.  In  1578  Drake 
visited  the  northwest  coast.  These  dis- 
coveries were  followed  by  those  of  Davis 
in  1585-87,  Hudson  in  1610,  Bylot  and 
Baffin  in  1615-16,  all  in  the  northeastern 
seas.  By  this  time  settlements  had  been 
made  by  the  French,  English,  and  Dutch. 
The  Freneh  occupied  Nova  Scotia  and 
Canada,  and  latterly  Louisiana.  Cap- 
tain Behring,  who  was  sent  out  in  1725 
by  the  Empress  Catharine,  set  at  rest 
the  disputed  point  whether  Asia  and 
America  were  separate  continents.  Other 
names  associated  with  American  mari- 
time discovery  are  Cook,  Meares,  Van 
couver,  Kotzebue,  and,  more  recently, 
Ross,  Parry,  Franklin,  Beechey,  and 
M’Clintock;  inland  travelers  and  dis- 
coverers include  Hearne,  M’Kenzie, 
Back,  Rae,  Simpson,  Schwatka,  etc. 
(See  also  North  Polar  Expeditions.) 
The  Canadian  authorities  have  in 
recent  years  done  much  in  the  way  of 
survey  and  exploring  the  less-known 
portions  of  the  Dominion,  and  Alaska 
is  being  made  known  by  the  efforts  of 
expeditions  from  the  United  States. 
For  general  history  see  Canada,  United 
States,  Mexico,  etc. 


NORTHAMPTON 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


I. 

NORTHAMP'TON,  a pari.,  county, 
and  municipal  borough  of  England, 
capital  of  the  county  of  same  name. 
Pop.  87,021. — The  county  is  bounded 
by  Lincoln,  Rutland,  Leicester,  War- 
wick, Oxford,  Bucks,  Bedford,  Hunting- 
don, and  Cambridge;  area,  629,912 acres, 
of  which  560,000  acres  are  under  crops. 
Pop.  338,064. 

NORTHAMPTON,  a town  in  Hamp- 
shire CO.,  Massachusetts,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Connecticut,  93  miles 
west  of  Boston,  has  woolen,  cotton,  and 
silk  factories,  paper-mills,  etc.  Pop. 
21,525. 

NORTH  BORNEO,  the  territory 
occupying  the  northern  part  of  the 
island  of  Borneo  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  British  North  Borneo  Company, 
having  been  ceded  by  the  Sultans  of 
Sulu  and  Brunei  in  1877-78  and  the 
company  having  received  a royal  charter 
in  1881.  The  territory  embraces  31,000 
sq.  miles,  and  has  a pop.  of  150,000. 
The  exports  comprise  wax,  edible  birds’- 
nests,  cocoa-nuts,  gutta-percha,  sago, 
tobacco,  rattans,  india-rubber,  and 
timber.  With  a good  climate  and  a 
fertile  soil  there  is  believed  to  be  a great 
future  before  North  Boreno.  Along 
with  Brunei  and  Sarawak  the  territory 
was  made  a British  protectorate  in  1888. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  origi- 
nal states  of  the  Union,  is  bounded  on 
the  u.  by  Virginia,  on  the  n.w.  by  Ten- 
nessee, on  the  s.  by  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina,  and  on  the  e.  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  stretches  500  miles  east,  and 
west  across  the  entire  breadth  of  the 


Seal  of  North  Carolina. 


Atlantic  slope  of  the  Appalachians  in 
a long,  narrow,  rudely  triangular  belt, 
its  western  extremity,  less  than  20 
miles  wide,  resting  on  the  highest  pla- 
teau and  summits  of  that  continental 
system  of  mountains,  while  its  eartern 
end  spreads  out  to  a breadth  of  200 
miles,  in  a low,  level  and  gently  undulat- 
ing plane  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  with  a 
curving  shore  line  of  more  than  300 
miles.  Its  area  is  52,286  sq.  miles,  of 
which  3620  are  covered  with  water. 
The  highest  mountains  in  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  are  in 
North  Carolina,  Mitchell’s  Peak,  which 
is  6707  feet,  being  the  highest  point. 
The  greater  part  of  the  state  belongs  to 
the  Atlantic  slope,  but  the  western 
mountain  region  beyond  the  Blue  Ridge 
belongs  to  the  Mississippi  basin,  being 
drained  by  the  headstreams  of  the 
Tennessee  river,  chief  among  which  are 


the  Little  Tennessee  and  the  French 
Broad  river.  The  eastern  slope  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  in  this  state  is  the  water- 
shed for  nearly  all  the  Atlantic  rivers 
of  both  North  and  South  Carolina,  all 
of  them  having  a general  southeast 
course.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  state 
the  Roanoke,  the  Tar,  and  the  Neuse 
enter  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds 
through  deep  and  wide  estuaries.  The 
southern  portion  is  drained  by  the  Cape 
Fear  river,  and  the  western  part  of  the 
Piedmont  plain  by  the  Yadkin  or  Great 
Pedee  and  the  Catawba,  both  of  which 
flow  into  South  Carolina. 

North  Carolina  lies  in  the  warmer 
part  of  the  temperate  zone.  The  climate 
becomes  almost  sub-tropical  in  the 
southeastern  corner.  The  rainfall  is 
abundant  and  very  evenly  distributed, 
both  in  regard  to  seasons  and  localities, 
though  the  central  region  receives  some- 
what less  rain  than  the  coast  and  moun- 
tain regions,  and  the  summer  somewhat 
more  than  the  other  seasons.  North 
Carolina  is  unrivaled  by  any  state  east 
of  the  Mississippi  in  the  variety  of  its 
plant  life.  The  bald  cypress,  white 
cedar,  live  oak,  long  leaf  pine,  and 
hickories  are  indigenous  as  well  as  blue- 
berries, sumacs,  alders,  wild  grapes,  and 
palmettos. 

Mining  has  long  given  occupation  to 
a portion  of  the  population.  Gold  was 
first  discovered  in  1819,  and  between 
that  date  and  1850,  hundreds  of  gold 
and  copper  mines  were  opened  in  the 
middle  and  western  sections.  In  the 
last  few  years  mining  industries  have 
received  a new  impulse.  Iron  ores  are 
mined  on  a considerable  scale  for  ex- 
port, many  new  gold  and  copper  mines 
have  been  opened,  and  the  amount  of 
the  various  mining  industries  is  increas- 
ing very  notably.  Mica  mining  began 
several  years  ago  in  the  mountain  region, 
and  has  grown  to  considerable  impor- 
tance, much  the  larger  part  of  this  ma- 
terial found  in  commerce  being  produced 
here.  Fishing  is  the  most  important 
industry  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state. 
Shad  and  oysters  are  by  far  the  most 
prominent.  Of  the  many  other  varieties 
the  more  important  are  squeteague, 
alewife,  mullet,  striped  bass,  clams,  and 
bluefish.  Agriculture  is  the  leading 
industry.  Yet  the  largest  part  of  the 
swampy  coast  land  is  unreclaimed,  and 
there  is  also  much  waste  land  in  the 
mountainous  area  of  the  west.  The 
crops  which  stand  out  prominently  as 
to  acreage  is  corn,  the  acreage  for  1900 
exceeding  47  per  cent,  of  the  total  crop 
area,  and  the  receipts  equaling  25.2  per 
cent  of  the  total  crop  receipts.  Corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  cotton,  and  tobacco 
are  the  principal  crops.  The  state  ranks 
about  eighth  as  a cotton  state.  The 
state  holds  third  rank  in  the  produc- 
tion of  peanuts  and  second  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sweet  potatoes.  Watermelons, 
cabbages,  and  other  vegetables,  and 
strawberries  and  other  small  fruits  are 
grown  in  abundance.  Orchard  fruits  are 
most  common  in  the  western  part  of  the 
state,  the  apple  being  the  principal 
variety.  Peaches  are  raised,  but  not  in 
such  great  quantities  as  in  otlier  south- 
ern states.  Rice  is  raised  along  the  tide- 
water rivers,  where  the  construction  of 
dikes  makes  possible  a system  of  flood- 


ing and  draining.  Some  horses,  mules 
and  asses  are  raised.  The  manufactures 
include  cotton  goods,  cotton-seed  oil 
and  cake,  tobacco,  flouring  and  grist 
mill  products,  leather  and  lumber  and 
timber  products.  Education  is  not  in  an 
advanced  stage.  Only  a small  part  of 
the  school  age  population  is  provided 
with  schools.  The  chief  institution  for 
higher  education  is  the  University  of 
North  Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill.  North 
Carolina  was  first  visited  by  the  English 
in  1584  under  a charter  granted  by 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

The  First  Provincial  congress  met  in 
defiance  of  Governor  Josiah  Martin  in 
1774,  and  sent  delegates  to  the  con- 
tinental congress.  The  colony  was  the 
first  to  authorize  her  delegates  in  con- 
gress to  vote  for  independence,  on 
April  12,  1776,  and  a state  constitution 
was  adopted  on  December  18,  1776. 
North  Caorlina  troops  took  part  in 
many  of  the  important  battles  of  the 
war,  and  in  1780-81  the  state  was  in- 
vaded by  the  British.  In  1791  the  capi- 
tal was  located  at  Raleigh.  In  1795  the 
State  University  was  opened  for  stu- 
dents. The  state  opposed  secession,  but 
with  President  Lincoln’s  demand  for 
troops  to  coerce  the  seceding  states 
sentiment  changed.  An  ordinance  of 
secession  was  passed  May  20th.  North 
Carolina  furnished  more  than  120,000 
soldiers  to*  the  confederate  cause, 
nearly  twice  her  proportion.  With  the 
beginning  of  reconstruction  in  1867 
the  civil  authority  was  superceded  by 
the  military.  Another  convention  was 
called  in  1868,  and  a constitution  allow- 
ing negro  suffrage  was  adopted.  In  this 
year  the  Ku-Klux-Klan  appeared,  and 
Alamance  and  Granville  counties  were 
placed  under  martial  law.  The  con- 
servative democrats  secured  the  legis- 
lature in  1870.  The  present  constitution 
was  adopted  in  1876,  and  in  1900  a 
clause  intended  to  restrict  negro  suffrage 
was  added.  The  state  has  been  demo- 
cratic in  national  elections  since  the 
beginning  of  parties,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  years  1840-48,  when  it  voted 
for  the  whig  candidates,  and  1868-72, 
when  its  vote  was  cast  for  Grant.  Pop- 
ulation, 2,100,000. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  Uniyersity  of,  a 
state  institution  at  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C., 
chartered  in  1789  and  opened  in  1795. 

It  comprises  a college  and  school  of  law, 
medicine,  pharmacy,  together  with  a 
summer  school  for  teachers.  It  confers 
the  bachelors  degree  in  arts,  science, 
philosophy,  and  law,  the  degree  of 
graduate  in  pharmacy,  the  master’s  de- 
gree in  philosophy,  and  medicine.  Free 
instruction  is  offered  to  graduates  of 
colleges  and  universities,  to  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  to  teachers  and  young  ■ 
men  who  are  preparing  to  teach  and  to  ' 
those  who  are  laboring  under  bodily 
infirmities. 

NORTH  DAKOTA,  one  of  the  north 
central  states  of  the  Union,  is  bounded 
on  the  n.  by  Canada,  on  the  e.  by  Min- 
nesota, on  the  s.  by  South  Dakota,  and 
on  the  west  by  Montana.  Its  extreme 
breadth  from  north  to  south  is  a little 
over  210  miles;  extreme  length  from 
east  to  west  360  miles;  area,  74,312  sq. 
miles.  It  ranks  fourteenth  in  size  among 
the  states  of  the  Union,  The  state  is 


' NORTH  DAKOTA 


NORTHMEN 


almost  entirely  an  undulating  prairie, 
with  no  prominences  of  note.  It  is 
divided  naturally  into  the  Red  river 
and  James  river  valleys,  the  Devil’s 
lake,  and  Turtle  mountain  regions, 
and  the  Mouse  river,  Missouri  slope, 
and  the  North  Dakota  counties.  The 
geological  features  of  the  state  are  full 
of  variety  and  interest.  A very  large 
proportion  of  the  surface  is  covered  by 
glacial  and  alluvial  drift,  and  much  of 
the  country  bears  evidence  of  having 
been  more  than  once  submerged. 

North  Dakota  has  a typical  conti- 
nental climate  characterized  by  enor- 
mous extremes  of  temperature.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  of  17.29  inches 
would  scarcely  suffice  for  the  needs  of 
'agriculture  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
fully  three-fourths  of  the  precipitation 
falls  during  the  growing  season  (April 


Seal  of  North  Dakota. 


to  September).  Forest  growth  is  found 
only  along  the  river  banks,  and  on  the 
Turtle  mountains  in  the  north,  and  in 
some  sections  of  the  Red  river  valley. 
The  remainder  of  the  state  is  a treeless 
prairie  covered  with  numerous  species 
of  grasses  and  other  forage  plants.  The 
principal  trees  are  cottonwood  along 
the  rivers,  and  oak,  elm,  birch,  ash,  and 
poplar  in  the  Turtle  mountains. 

Wheat  is  the  dominant  crop.  The 
Red  river  valley,  which  extends  en- 
tirely across  the  eastern  end  of  North 
Dakota,  is  perhaps  the  most  famous 
wheat-producing  region  in  the  world. 
Oats  is  the  next  most  important  cereal. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  has  increased 
from  a few  thousand  acres  to  an  acreage 
exceeding  that  of  any  other  state. 
Barley  is  most  extensively  produced 
in  the  northeastern  counties  and  corn 
in  the  southeastern.  Potatoes  yield 
abundantly  and  are  an  important  crop. 
But  very  little  fruit  is  raised.  The 
prairie  lands  afford  excellent  pasturage, 
and  large  areas  of  wild  salt  and  prairie 
grasses  are  annually  cut  for  winter  feed. 
Cattle  and  horses,  mules,  asses,  sheep, 
and  swine  in  the  order  named  are  the 
principal  varieties  of  animals  raised. 
Little  manufacturing  is  carried  on. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  state  is  well 
supplied  with  railroad  facilities.  The 
Great  Northern  crosses  the  northern 
part,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  the 
southern  part.  In  addition,  the  St.  Paul, 
Minneapolis  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  enters 
the  state  at  the  southwest  corner  and 
extends  in  a northwest  direction  entirely 
across  the  commonwealth.  The  principal 
mineral  resource  of  the  state  is  brown 


coal,  the  measures  which  extend  be- 
neath the  whole  country  west  of  the 
Missouri  river.  In  many  places  the 
croppings  arc  so  exposed  that  the 
settlers  mine  their  own  fuel.  In  the  Red 
river  region,  salt,  limestone,  and  hydrau- 
lic lime  are  abundant. 

North  Dakota  has  a uniform  public 
school  system  which  extends  from  the 
primary  grade  to  and  including  the 
normal  and  collegiate  course.  Besides 
the  common  schools,  all  the  towns  have 
graded  and  high  schools.  The  state  has 
a university  located  at  Grand  Forks, 
and  there  are  colleges  at  Tower  City, 
Fargo,  Jamestown,  Grand  Forks,  and 
Bismark.  There  is  a deaf  and  dumb 
asylum  at  Devil’s  Lake,  a state  reform 
school  at  Mandan,  a state  hospital  for 
the  insane,  and  a home  for  the  feeble- 
minded at  Jamestown,  a soldiers’  home 
at  Lisbon,  a blind  asylum  in  Pembina 
CO.,  an  industrial  school  and  school  for 
manual  training  at  Ellendale,  and  school 
of  forestry. 

The  population  is  about  600,000. 
Canadians  and  Swedes  are  the  chief 
foreign  nationalities  represented.  At 
the  head  of  the  educational  establish- 
ments of  the  state  are  the  University 
of  North  Dakota,  Fargo  college.  Red 
River  Valley  university,  and  the  Agri- 
cultural college  at  Fargo.  The  two  chief 
towns  are  Fargo  and  Grand  Forks. 
The  territory  of  Dakota  was  named 
after  a family  of  Indians,  and  was 
obtained  by  the  United  States  through 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  in  1803.  The 
first  real  and  permanent  white  settle- 
ment in  this  territory  was  probably 
established  by  French-Canadian  settlers 
near  Pembina  in  1807.  In  1812  Lord 
Selkirk,  by  mistake,  built  his  fort  south 
of  the  Canadian  line.  There  were  fur- 
trading  posts  established  as  early  as 
1808.  Lewis  and  Clark  in  their  expedi- 
tion of  1804-06  spent  the  first  winter 
near  Mandan.  Fremont  in  1839  ex- 
plored much  of  the  country  and  Lieu- 
tenant Warner  in  1855  made  a report 
on  the  region  for  the  government.  The 
part  east  of  the  Missouri  river  was  first 
attached  to  the  territory  of  Minnesota 
in  1849.  The  part  west,  together  with 
much  of  Idaho,  Wyoming,  and  Montana, 
became  part  of  'Nebraska  territory  in 
1854.  On  March  2, 1861,  the  territory  of 
Dakota  was  organized.  The  territory 
was  divided  into  two  (see  South  Dakota) 
on  February  22,  1889,  congress  author- 
ized the  calling  of  conventions  to  form 
constitutions.  On  November  2d  Presi- 
dent Harrison  declared  the  state  ad- 
mitted. Politically  the  state  has  been 
republican  from  its  admission,  with  the 
exception  of  one  election  (1892),  when 
a fusion  of  the  Farmers’  Alliance  with 
the  democrats  gave  them  control. 

NORTH  DAKOTA,  University  of,  a 
coeducational  state  institution  at  Grand 
Forks,  N.  D.,  established  in  1883.  By 
the  enabling  act  of  congress  under  which 
the  state  was  admitted,  the  university 
received  a grant  of  86,080  acres  of  land, 
and  the  School  of  Mines,  a grant  of 
40,000  acres.  The  university  comprises 
a college  of  arts,  a normal  college,  and 
departments  of  law,  mining  engineering, 
mechanical  and  electrical  engineering, 
military  science,  and  pharmacy,  to- 
gether with  a preparatory  department. 


NORTHEAST  PASSAGE.  See  Polar 

r\  Ci  rr*  M 

NORTHEAST  TERRITORY,  a terri- 
tory of  Canada  on  the  east  of  Hudson 
bay,  and  extending  south  to  Quebec 
province.  It  forms  part  of  the  peninsula 
of  Labrador,  and  is  little  known.  It  is 
intersected  by  Rupert’s  river.  East  Main 
river.  Big  river.  Great  and  Little  Whale 
river,  etc.,  all  flowing  west  to  Hudson 
bay,  and  containing  numerous  lakes. 
Purs  are  the  only  commodity  as  yet 
obtained  from  it.  See  Canada. 

NORTHERN-DRIFT,  in  geology,  a 
name  formerly  given  to  boulder-clay 
of  the  Pleistocene  period,  when  its  ma- 
terials were  supposed  to  have  been 
brought  by  polar  currents  from  the 
north. 

NORTHERN  LIGHTS.  See  Aurora. 

NORTHMEN,  the  inhabitants  of  an- 
cient Scandinavia,  or  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  who  in  England  were  also 
called  Danes.  They  were  fierce  and  war- 
like tribes,  who  as  early  as  the  8th  cen- 
tury made  piratical  expeditions  to  all 
parts  of  the  European  seas,  these  piratical 
robbers  being  known  among  them- 
selves as  vikings.  In  795  the  Scandi- 
navians established  themselves  in  the 
Faroe  Isles  and  in  Orkney;  toward  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century  they  founded 
the  governments  of  Novgorod  and  of 
Kiev,  in  Russia;  and  after  the  discovery 
of  Iceland  certain  powerful  Norwegian 
families,  taking  refuge  from  the  persecu- 
tions of  Harold,  king  of  Denmark, 
settled  in  that  island  (in  870).  In  the 
9th  century  they  made  repeated  incur- 
sions into  France,  and  it  became  neces- 
sary to  purchase  their  retreat  with  gold. 
In  that  country  latterly  bands  of  them 
settled  permanently  and  Charles  the 
Simple  was  obliged  (912)  to  cede  to 
them  the  province  afterward  called 
Normandy,  and  to  give  his  daughter  in 
marriage  to  Rollo,  their  chief.  Rollo 
embraced  the  Christian  religion  and  be- 
came the  first  Duke  of  Normandy. 
The  course  of  events  was  somewhat 
similar  in  England.  Egbert,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  9th  century,  had  no 
sooner  made  some  approaches  toward  a 
regular  government  than  the  Danes 
made  their  appearance.  Under  Alfred 
(871-901)  they  overran  great  parts  of 
England,  but  were  finally  defeated, 
and  those  of  them  who  remained  in  the 
country  had  to  acknowledge  his  sway. 
But  they  returned,  under  his  successors, 
in  greater  force,  obtained  possession 
of  the  northern  and  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  11th 
century  three  Scandinavian  princes 
(Canute,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute) 
ruled  successively  over  England.  The 
Saxon  line  was  then  restored;  but  in 
1066  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  a 
descendant  of  Rollo,  obtained  the  Eng- 
lish throne,  an  event  known  as  the  Nor- 
man Conquest.  According  to  the  Saga 
narratives  the  Northmen  were  the  first 
discoverers  of  America.  The  coasts  of 
Spain,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor 
were  ravaged  by  them,  and  in  Byzan- 
tium the  body-guard  of  the  emperors 
long  consisted  of  Northmen  known  as 
Varangians,  being  recruited  chiefly 
from  those  who  had  established  them- 
selves in  Russia.  See  also  Normandy, 
Normans. 


NORTH  POLAR  EXPEDITION 


r 


NORWAY 


NORTH  POLAR  EXPEDITION,  See 

Polar  Explorations. 

NORTH  POLE.  See  Pole. 

NORTH  SEA,  or  GERMAN  OCEAN,  a 

large  branch  of  the  Atlantic  ocean 
lying  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
continent  of  Europe,  having  the  former 
and  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands 
on  the  west;  Denmark  and  part  of  Nor- 
way on  the  east ; Strait  of  Dover,  part  of 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Ger- 
many on  the  south;  and  the  Northern 
ocean  on  the  north.  Extreme  length, 
from  the  Strait  of  Dover  to  Unst,  the 
most  northern  of  the  Shetland  Isles, 
about  700  miles;  greatest  breadth,  be- 
tween Haddingtonshire,  Scotland,  and 
Denmark,  about  420  miles;  area,  not  less 
than  140,000  sq.  miles.  The  North  Sea 
is  deepest  on  the  Norwegian  side,  where 
the  soundings  give  190  fathoms;  but 
its  mean  depth  is  no  more  than  31 
fathoms.  The  bed  of  this  sea  is  traversed 
by  several  enormous  banks  or  eleva- 


tions, of  which  the  greatest  is  the  Dogger 
bank.  The  shores  of  the  sea  are  for  the 
most  part  low,  except  in  Scotland  and 
Norway.  They  present  numerous  estu- 
aries and  other  inlets,  and  are  studded 
with  numerous  important  towns,  the 
sea  being  the  highway  for  an  immense 
maritime  traffic.  The  fisheries,  especially 
of  herring,  cod,  ling,  haddock,  flat-fish, 
etc.,  are  exceedingly  valuable.  The  rise 
and  fall  of  the  tide  is  very  great  at  cer- 
tain places.  The  navigation,  on  ac- 
count of  sand-banks,  winds,  fogs,  etc., 
is  rather  dangerous,  but  numerous  light- 
houses help  to  render  it  safer.  There  are 
numerous  islands  along  the  coasts  of 
Holland,  North  Germany,  Denmark, 
and  Norway. 

NORTH  SEA  AND  BALTIC  CANAL, 

a great  ship  canal  quite  recently  con- 
structed at  the  cost  of  the  German 
Empire,  from  Brunsbiittel  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Elbe  to  the  southernmost  part 
of  the  Eider,  and  thence  close  along  the 
course  of  that  river,  past  Rendsburg, 
latterly  following  the  same  course  as  the 
old  Eider  canal  to  where  it  joins  the  Bal- 
tic at  Holtenau,  near  Kiel.  The  water- 
way measures  197  feet  wide  at  the  surface 
and  72  feet  at  the  bottom,  with  a depth 
of  29J  feet,  and  is  intended  for  the  pas- 
sage of  inen-at-war  as  well  as  merchant 
ships,  serving  thus  a double  purpose. 
Its  length  is  about  60  miles.  The  founda- 
tion-stone of  the  new  works  was  laid 
hy  the  Emperor  William  I.  in  June, 
1887,  and  the  last  stone  was  laid  by  the 
Emperor  William  II.  in  June,  1895. 
Tlie  total  cost  of  the  construction  was 
about  156,000,000  marks  (139,000,000), 
toward  which  Prussia  has  contributed 
fifty  million  marks. 


NORTH-STAR,  the  north  polar  star, 
the  star  a of  the  constellation  Ursa  Minor. 
It  is  close  to  the  true  pole,  never  sets, 
and  is  therefore  of  great  importance 
to  navigators  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. 

NORTH  STAR,  Order  of,  a Swedish 
order  of  knighthood,  established  in 
1748  mainly  as  a recognition  of  impor- 
tant scientific  services. 

NORTHUM'BERLAND,  a northern 
maritime  county  of  England,  bounded 
south  and  southwest  by  the  counties  of 
Durham  and  Cumberland;  east  by  the 
North  sea,  and  north  and  northwest  by 
Scotland.  Area,  1,290,312  acres,  of 
which  about  717,000  acres  are  arable, 
meadow,  and  pasture.  Coal-measures 
occupy  an  area  of  180  sq.  miles;  and 
yield  immense  quantities  of  coal;  lead, 
iron,  limestone,  and  freestone  are  also 
wrought.  The  chief  industries  include 
ship-building  and  rope-making;  forges 
foundries,  iron,  hardware,  and  machine 
works,  chemical  works,  potteries,  glass- 
works, etc.  The  coast  abounds  in  cod, 
ling,  haddock,  soles,  turbot,  herrings, 
and  a variety  of  other  fishes.  North- 
umberland is  divided  into  four  parlia- 
mentary divisions,  Wansbeck,  T3meside, 
Hexham, and  Berwick-upon-Tweed, each 
returning  one  member.  Principal  towns, 
Newcastle,  Tynemouth,  Shields,  Mor- 
peth, and  Alnwick.  Pop.  602,859. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  a 
coeducational  institution  at  Evanston, 
111.,  affiliated  with  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church.  It  was  founded  in  1851 
and  comprises  a college  of  liberal  arts, 
schools  of  law,  medicine,  pharmacy, 
dentistry,  music  and  oratory.  The  col- 
lege of  liberal  arts  and  the  school  of 
music  are  at  Evanston,  the  professional 
schools  in  Chicago.  The  courses  in 
the  college  lead  to  the  bachelor’s  and 
master’s  degree  in  arts,  philosophy, 
science,  and  letters,  and  to  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy.  The  college 
course  is  largely  elective  after  the  second 
year,  and  provision  is  made  for  ad- 
vanced credits  by  which  the  time  re- 
quired for  subsequent  professional  studies 
may  be  shortened.  The  Garrett  Biblical 
Institute,  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control,  forms  the  theological  depart- 
ment of  the  university. 

NORTHWEST  PASSAGE,  a passage 
for  ships  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  into 
the  Pacific  by  the  northern  coasts  of  the 
American  continent,  long  sought  for,  and 
at  last  discovered  in  1850-51  by  Sir  R. 
MacClure.  See  North  Polar  Expeditions. 

NORTHWEST  PROVINCES,  a politi- 
cal division  (lieutenant-governorship)  of 
British  India,  bounded  on  the  n.  by 
Tibet,  on  the  n.e.  by  Nepaul  and  Oudh, 
on  the  s.  by  the  Chutia  Nagpur  district 
and  the  Central  Provinces,  and  on  the 
w.  by  Gwalior,  Rajputhna,  and  the 
Punjab;  area  86,983  sq.  miles.  In  1902 
the  name  was  changed  to  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh.  Pop. 
47,691,782. 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES,  that 
portion  of  northwestern  Canada  outside 
the  provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec, 
Manitoba,  British  Coiumbia,  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  formerly  the  Hud- 
son’s Bay  territory ; estimated  area, 
2,648,000  square  miles.  This  re- 
gion is  governed  by  a lieutenant- 


governor,  assisted  by  an  advisory  coun- 
cil, there  being  also  a legislative  assem- 
bly elected  by  the  people.  Regina  is  the 
seat  of  government.  The  south- 
ern part  of  this  vast  territory 
has  been  divided  into  the  dis- 
tricts of  Assiniboia  and  Atha- 
basca, and  the  provinces  of  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan,  with  the  Yukon 
and  Mackenzie  districts  farther 
north.  The  agricultural  and  other 
capabilities  of  at  least  a third  of  this 
region  are  very  great,  there  being  vast 
areas  adapted  for  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
etc.,  or  for  stock-rearing ; and  land  in  the 
districts  just  mentioned  is  being  rapidly 
taken  up.  Coal  is  abundant,  and  is  now 
being  worked;  petroleum  also  is  abun- 
dant; copper,  silver,  iron,  salt,  and  gold 
have  been  found  in  various  localities. 
Great  quantities  of  furs  are  obtained, 
especially  by  the  agents  and  employees 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  company  to  whom 
the  whole  territory  formerly  belonged, 
and  who  have  many  outlying  forts  and 
stations.  There  are  many  lakes  and 
rivers,  the  former  including  Athabasca, 
Great  Slave  lake.  Great  Bear  lake,  etc. ; 
and  the  latter  the  Saskatchewan,  Atha- 
basca, Peace,  Mackenzie,  etc.,  giving 
10,000  miles  of  navigable  rivers.  (See 
also  Canada.)  The  Canadian  Pacific 
railway  crosses  the  southern  part  of  this 
magnificent  territory,  and  towns  and 
villages  are  rapidly  being  formed  along 
its  course.  There  are  several  other  rail- 
ways made  or  to  be  made,  one  running 
northwest  from  Regina  to  Battleford  and 
Edmonton.  Schools  are  being  estab- 
lished in  the  more  thickly-settled  parts 
and  education  is  free.  In  the  Rocky 
mountain  region  five  tracts  of  land  have 
been  reserved  as  national  parks,  on 
account  of  their  interesting  scenery. 
One  of  these,  260  sq.  miles  in  area, 
presents  a remarkable  aggregate  of  lake, 
river,  and  mountain  scenery,  including 
the  hot  mineral  springs  of  Banff,  which 
are  already  being  taken  advantage  of  by 
persons  suffering  from  various  ailments. 
Pop.  about  20,000. 

NORWAY  (Norwegian,  Norge),  a 
country  in  the  north  of  Europe,  bounded 
on  the  northeast  by  Russian  Lapland, 
and  east  by  Sweden,  and  washed  on  all 
other  sides  by  the  sea — by  the  Arctic 
ocean  on  the  north,  the  Atlantic  and 
the  North  Sea  on  the  northwest  and 
west,  and  the  Skager-Rack  on  the  south. 
It  is  about  1080  miles  in  length,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  is  about  275  miles,  but 
toward  the  north  it  narrows  so  much 
as  to  be  in  some  places  not  more  than  20 
miles;  area,  122,280  sq.  miles,  or  rather 
more  than  the  British  Isles.  The  total 
population  on  Dec.  3,  1906,  was  returned 
at  2,231,088.  The  country  is  divided 
into  twenty  perfectures,  of  which  the 
capital  Christiania  forms  one,  and  the 
city  of  Bergen  another.  Other  important 
towns  are  Trondhjem,  Stavanger,  and 
Drammen. 

The  coast  consists  chiefly  of  bold  pre- 
cipitous cliffs,  and  is  remarkable  both 
for  the  innumerable  islands  by  which  it 
is  lined,  and  the  bays  or  fiords  which 
cut  deeply  into  it  in  all  directions.  The 
surface  is  very  mountainous,  particu- 
larly in  the  west  and  north.  Very  com- 
monly the  mountain  masses  assume  the 
form  of  great  plateaux  or  table-lands, 


NORWICH 


NOSE 


called  fjelds  or  fields,  as  the  Dovre 
Fjeld,  Hardanger  Fjeld,  etc.  The 
highest  summits  belong  to  the  Sogne 
Fjeld,  a congeries  of  elevated  masses, 
glaciers,  and  snow-fields  in  the  center 
of  the  southern  division  of  the  kingdom, 
where  rise  Galdhoepig  (8400  feeth  the 
Glitretind  (8384),  and  Skagastolstind 
(7879).  Immense  snow-fields  and  glaciers 
are  a feature  of  Norwegian  scenery. 
The  few  important  rivers  that  Norway 
can  claim  as  exclusively  her  own  have 
a southerly  direction,  and  discharge 
themselves  into  the  Skager-Rack;  of 
these  the  chief  are  the  Glommen  (400 
miles),  and  its  affluent  the  Lougen. 
The  most  important  river  in  the  north 
is  the  Tana,  which  fonns  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Russia  and  Norway, 
and  falls  into  the  Arctic  ocean.  Lofty 
waterfalls  are  numerous.  Lakes  are 
extremely  niimerous,  but  generally 
small.  The  principal  is  the  Miosen  Vand. 
The  prevailing  rocks  of  Norway  are 
gneiss  and  mica-slate,  of  which  all  the 
loftier  mountains  are  composed.  The 
most  important  .metals  are  iron,  copper, 
silver,  and  cobalt,  all  of  which  are 
worked  to  a limited  extent.  The  climate 
of  Norway  is  on  the  whole  severe.  The 
harbors  on  the  west,  however,  are  never 
blocked  up  with  ice;  but  in  places  more 
inland,  though  much  farther  south, 
as  at  Christiania,  this  regularly  happens. 
The  forests  are  estimated  to  cover  about 
a fifth  of  the  whole  surface,  and  form 
a very  important  branch  of  national 
wealth.  The  principal  forest  tree  is  the 
pine.  Only  about  1000  sq.  miles  is 
under  the  plow.  The  chief  cereal  crop 
is  oats.  Barley  ripens  at  70°  of  latitude ; 
rye  is  successfully  cultivated  up  to  69°; 
oats  to  68°;  but  wheat  not  beyond  64°, 
and  that  only  in  the  most  favorable 
seasons.  Potatoes  are  grown  with  suc- 
cess even  in  the  far  north.  The  farms  are 
generally  the  property  of  those  who 
cultivate  them,  and  commonly  include 
a large  stretch  of  mountain  pasture, 
often  40  or  50  miles  from  the  main  farm, 
to  which  the  cattle  are  sent  for  several 
months  in  summer.  The  rearing  of 
cattle  is  an  extensive  and  profitable 
branch  of  rural  economy.  The  horses 
are  vigorous  and  sure-footed,  but  of  a 
diminutive  size;  the  ponies  are  among 
the  best  of  their  kind,  and  are  often 
exported.  The  reindeer  forms  the  prin- 
cipal stock  in  the  extreme  north. 
Among  the  larger  wild  animals  are  the 
wolf,  bear,  elk,  deer.  The  fisheries  of 
Norway  are  of  very  great  value;  they 
include  the  cod,  herring,  mackerel, 
salmon,  shark,  walrus,  seal,  and  lobster, 
the  cod  and  herring  fisheries  being  by 
far  the  most  important.  The  rivers  and 
lakes  abound  with  salmon  and  salmon- 
trout,  and  make  Norway  one  of  the  best 
angling  countries  in  the  world.  Manu- 
factures include  cotton,  woolen,  flax, 
and  silk  tissues.  Distilleries,  brick- 
works, saw  and  flour-mills,  are  numer- 
ous; and  there  are  foundries,  machine- 
works,  lucifer-match  works,  tobacco- 
factories,  and  sugar-refineries.  The  ex- 
port trade  includes  fish,  timber,  wood- 
pulp,  whale  and  seal  oil,  metals,  skins, 
feathers,  furs,  lucifer-matches,  etc.  The 
exports  in  1907  were  $44,274,000.  The 
chief  imports  are  grain,  oextile  goods, 
wool,  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  wine. 


brandy,  petroleum,  etc.  Imports  in 
1899,  $86,246,000.  The  chief  trade  is 
with  Britain  and  Germany;  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Russia  coming  next. 
The  Norwegians  are  famous  as  sailors, 
and  in  the  tonnage  of  its  mercantile 
navy,  Norway  is  surpassed  only  by 
Britain  and  Germany  in  Europe  Ber- 
gen, Christiania,  and  Trondhjem  are  the 
chief  ports.  Railways  are  about  1200 
miles.  The  monetary  system  is  the  same 
as  that  of  Denmark. 

Norway  is  a limited  hereditary  mon- 
archy. The  king  is  not  allowed  to 
nominate  any  but  Norwegian  subjects 
to  offices  under  the  crown.  On  a new 
succession  the  sovereign  must  be  crowned 
King  of  Norway  at  Trondhjem.  The 
members  of  the  legislative  assembly  or 
Storthing  are  elected  every  three  years 
by  voters  who  have  themselves  been 
elected  by  the  citizens  possessing  a cer- 
tain qualification.  It  subdivides  itself 
into  two  chambers — one,  the  Lagthing, 
consisting  of  one-fourth  of  the  members; 
the  other,  the  Odelsthing,  has  the  re- 
maining three-fourths.  The  chambers 
meet  separately  and  each  nominates  its 
own  president  and  secretary.  Every  bill 
must  originate  in  the  Odelsthing.  When 
carried  in  that  body  it  is  sent  to  the 
Lagthing,  and  thence  to  the  king,  whose 
assent  makes  it  a law.  The  great  body 
of  the  people  are  Protestants  of  the 
Lutheran  confession,  which  is  the  state 
religion.  Other  sects  are  tolerated, 
although  government  offices  are  open 
only  to  members  of  the  Established 
Church.  Elementary  education  is  free 
and  compulsory.  Besides  primary 
schools  there  are  numerous  secondary 
schools.  There  is  but  one  university, 
that  of  Christiania.  The  army  is  raised 
mainly  by  conscription.  The  nominal 
period  of  service  is  thirteen  years,  five 
in  the  line,  four  in  the  Landvcern  (liable 
to  be  called  to  defend  the  country),  and 
four  in  the  Landstorm  (for  local  de- 
fense) The  troops  of  the  line  number 
30,000.  The  navy  comprises  four  iron- 
clads besides  other  vessels.  The  people 
are  almost  entirely  of  Scandinavian 
origin.  A small  number  of  Lapps  (called 
in  Norway  Finns)  and  Qvaens,  reckoned 
at  20,000  in  all,  dwell  in  the  northern 
parts.  The  Norwegian  language  is 
radically  identical  with  the  Icelandic 
and  with  the  Danish.  For  centuries 
Danish  was  generally  employed  as  the 
literary  and  educated  language  of  the 
country,  as  it  still  is;  but  during  last 
century  a vernacular  literature  has 
sprung  up,  the  chief  names  connected 
with  which  are  Wergeland,  Welhaven, 
Asbjornsen,  Bjornson,  Ibsen,  etc. 

In  the  earliest  times  Norway  was 
divided  among  petty  kings  or  chiefs 
(jarls),  and  its  people  were  notorious 
for  their  piratical  habits.  (See  North- 
men.) Harold  Fair-hair  (who  ruled 
from  863  to  933)  succeeded  in  bringing 
the  whole  country  under  his  sway,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Erick.  He 
was  ultimately  driven  from  the  throne, 
which  was  seized  in  938  by  his  brother, 
Hako  I.,  who  had  embraced  Christianity 
in  England.  Magnus  the  Good,  the  son 
of  St.  Olaf  and  Alfhild,  an  English  lady 
of  noble  birth,  was  called  to  the  throne 
in  1036;  and  having  in  1042  succeeded 
• also  to  the  throne  of  Denmark  united 


both  imder  one  monarchy.  (See  Den- 
mark.) After  his  death  the  crowns  of 
Norway  and  Denmark  again  passed  to 
different  individuals.  Iii  1319  the 
crowns  of  Norway  and  Sweden  became 
for  a short  time  united  in  the  person  of 
Magnus  V.  Erick  of  Pomerania  suc- 
ceeded, by  separate  titles,  to  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark;  and  in  1397  was 
crowned  king  of  the  three  kingdoms. 
Sweden  then  for  a time  became  a 
separate  kingdom;  but  the  union  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Norway  was 
drawn  closer  and  closer,  and  very  much 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter,  which 
was  ultimately  degraded  into  a mere 
dependency  of  the  former.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  Norway  becomes  for 
a long  period  merely  a part  of  that  of 
Denmark.  After  the  defeat  of  Napoleon 
by  the  allies  in  1813  it  was  arranged  by 
the  treaty  of  Vienna  in  1814  that  Den- 
mark must  cede  Norway  to  Sweden,  and 
the  result  was  the  union  of  the  two 
countries  under  the  Swedish  crown. 
The  union  was  accompanied  with  a cer- 
tain amount  of  friction,  partly  owing 
to  the  entirely  democratic  character  of 
the  the  constitution  of  Norway,  in 
which  country  titles  of  nobility  were 
abolished  early  in  the  19th  century, 
and  was  dissolved  in  1905,  and  Haakon 
VII.  was  proclaimed  king. 

NORWICH  (nor'ich),  a municipal, 
pari.,  and  county  borough  and  bishop 
see  in  England,  capital  of  the  county  of 
Norfolk,  on  the  Wensum,  where  it  joins 
the  Yare,  98  miles  n.n.e.  of  London. 
The  cathedral,  founded  in  1094,  was 
originally  in  the  Norman  style,  but  now 
exhibits  also  later  styles.  The  castle, 
a noble  feudal  relic,  reputed  to  have 
been  built  by  Uffa  about  1066,  is  finely 
situated  on  a lofty  eminence,  and  still 
surmounted  by  its  massive  donjon  tower 
in  the  Norman  style.  St.  Andrew’s  Hall 
originally  the  nave  of  the  Blackfriars’ 
Church,  the  Guildhall,  and  the  bishop’s 
palace,  also  deserve  mention.  Manufac- 
tures, of  which  worsted  and  mixed  goods 
are  the  staple,  are  extensive,  including 
also  mustard  and  starch,  boot  and  shoe 
making,  iron-working,  brewing,  etc. 
Pop.  111,728. 

NORWICH,  a city  in  Connecticut,  on 
the  Thames,  13  miles  north  of  New  Lon- 
don. The  falls  of  the  river  afford  ex- 
tensive water-power,  and  there  are 
considerable  manufactures  of  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  paper,  fire-arms,  ma- 
chinery, etc.  Pop.  20,115. 

NOSE,  the  organ  in  man  and  the 
higher  animals  exercising  the  olfactory 
sense,  or  that  of  smell,  and  concerned 
through  its  apertures  or  passages  in  the 
function  of  respiration  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  voice.  The  bones  of  the  nose 
comprise  the  boundaries  of  the  nasal 
fossEe  or  cavities,  which  open  in  front  in 
the  nasal  apertures,  and  behind  into  the 
pharynx  or  back  part  of  the  mouth.  The 
front  nostrils,  or  openings  of  the  nose, 
are  in  the  skeleton  of  an  oval  or  heart 
shape,  while  the  openings  of  the  pos- 
terior nostrils  are  of  a quadrilateral  form. 
The  bones  which  enter  into  the  entire 
structure  of  the  nose  number  fourteen. 
In  addition  there  are  certain  cartilagin- 
ous pieces  which  assist  in  forming  the 
structure  of  the  nose,  lateral  cartilages 
on  either  side,  and  a cartilaginous  sep- 


KOSOLOGY 


November 


turn  in  the  middle  between  the  two 
nostrils.  There  is  also  a bony  septum 
which  unites  with  the  cartilaginous 
septum  to  form  the  complete  partition 
of  the  nose  Several  special  muscles 
give  a certain  mobility  to  the  softer 
parts  of  the  organ.  The  nostrils  and 
nasal  cavities  are  lined  by  the  mucous 
membrane  (pituitary  membrane)  richly 
furnished  with  arteries  and  veins  and 
covered  with  a copious  mucous  secretion 
which  keeps  it  in  the  moistened  state 
favorable  to  the  due  exercise  of  the 
function  of  smell.  The  proper  nerves  of 
smell,  the  olfactory  nerves,  form  the 
first  pair  of  cerebral  nerves  or  those 
which  take  origin  from  the  cerebrum'; 
while  the  nerves  of  common  sensibility 
of  the  nose  belong  to  the  fifth  pair  of 
cerebral  nerves.  The  olfactory  nerves 
are  distributed  in  the  mucous  membrane 
of  either  side  in  the  form  of  a sort  of 
thick  brush  of  small  nerve-fibres.  The 
study  of  the  comparative  anatomy  of 
the  nasal  organs  shows  us^ithat  man  pos- 
sesses a sense  of  smell  greatly  inferior 
in  many  instances  to  that  of  the  lower 
animals.  The  distribution  of  the  olfac- 
tory nerves  in  man  is  of  a very  limited 
nature  when  compared  with  what 
obtains  in  such  animals  as  the  dog, 
sheep,  etc.  All  Vertebrates  above  fishes 
generally  resemble  man  in  the  essential 
type  of  their  olfactory  apparatus.  In 
most  fishes  the  nostrils  are  simply  shut 
or  closed  sacs,  and  do  not  communicate 
posteriorly  with  the  mouth.  The  pro- 
boscis of  the  elephant  exemplifies  a 
singular  elongation  of  the  nose,  in  which 
the  organ  becomes  modified  for  tactile 
purposes.  In  the  seals  and  other  diving 
animals  the  nostrils  can  be  closed  at 
will  by  sphincter  muscles  or  valvular 
processes.  The  most  frequent  diseases 
or  abnormal  conditions  which  affect 
the  nose  comprise  congenital  defects, 
and  tumors  or  polj'^pi. 

NOSOLOGY  (from  the  Greek  nosos, 
disease),  in  medicine,  that  science  which 
treats  of  the  systematic  arrangement 
and  classification  of  diseases,  with 
names  and  definitions,  according  to  the 
distinctive  character  of  each  class,  order, 
genus,  and  species.  Many  systems  of 
nosology  have  been  proposed  at  different 
times,  but  that  of  Dr.  William  Farr  has 
been  very  generally  adopted  as  practi- 
cally useful. 

NOSTALGIA.  See  Home-sickness. 

NOTARY,  an  officer  authorized  to 
attest  contracts  or  writings,  chiefly  in 
mercantile  matters,  to  make  them 
authentic  in  a foreign  country;  to  note 
the  non-payment  of  foreign  bills  of 
exchange,  etc.  Often  called  a Notary 
Public. 

NOTATION,  Arithmetical,  Algebraic 
Chemical,  Musical.  See  Arithmetic,  Al- 
gebra, Chemistry,  Music. 

NOTE,  in  music,  a character  which, 
by  its  place  on  the  staff,  represents  a 
sound,  and  by  its  form  determines  the 
relative  time  or  continuance  of  such 
sound.-  See  Music. 

NOT  GUILTY  is  the  general  issue  or 
plea  of  the  accused  in  a criminal  action. 
When  a prisoner  has  pleaded  not  guilty 
he  is  deemed  to  have  put  himself  for- 
ward for  trial,  and  the  court,  may  order 
a jury  for  the  trial  of  such  person  ac- 
cordingly. Should  he  refuse  to  plead. 


the  court  may  direct  the  proper  officer 
to  enter  a plea  of  not  guilty  on  his  be- 
half. On  an  indictment  for  murder  a 
man  cannot  plead  that  it  was  in  his  own 
defense,  but  must  answer  not  guilty; 
the  effect  of  which  is,  that  it  puts  the 
prosecutor  to  the  proof  of  every  material 
fact  alleged  in  the  indictment,  and  it 
allows  the  prisoner  to  avail  himself  of 
any  defensive  circuiristance  as  fully  as 
if  he  had  pleaded  them  in  a specific 
form.  In  England  and  the  United  States 
a jury  can  only  give  a verdict  either  of 
guilty  or  not  guilty,  and  the  latter  often 
really  means  that  there  is  not  sufficient 
evidence  to  convict. 

NOTRE  DAME  (no-tr  d&m),  a title  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  is  the  name  of  many 
churches  in  France,  and  particularly  of 
the  great  cathedral  at  Paris,  which  was 
founded  in  the  12th  century,  and  fonns 
a prominent  object  in  the  city. 

NOTTINGHAM,  a town  near  the  mid- 
dle of  England,  capital  of  the  county  of 
same  name,  on  the  Leen,  near  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Trent,  110  miles  northwest 
of  London.  The  castle,  which  crowns 
the  summit  of  a rock,  rising  133  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Leen,  was 
originally  built  by  William  the  Con- 
queror as  a means  of  overawing  the  out- 
laws frequenting  the  recesses  of  Sher- 
wood Forest.  The  principal  educational 
and  literary  institutions  are  the  Uni- 
versity college  and  Technical  school, 
high-school  for  boys,  the  Blue-coat 
school,  the  school  of  art,  the  People’s 
hall,  and  the  Mechanic’s  institute.  An 
arboretum  covering  18  acres  is  a feature 
of  the  town.  The  staple  manufactures 
are  hosiery  and  lace,  the  latter  being  a 
sort  of  specialty.  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk 
goods,  and  of  articles  in  malleable  and 
cast  iron.  Pop.  239,753. — Nottingham- 
shire, or  Notts,  is  an  inland  county, 
bounded  north  by  York,  east  by  Lincoln, 
south  by  Leicester,  and  west  by  Derby. 
Area,  526,176  acres,  of  which  about  454,- 
000  are  arable,  meadow,  and  pasture. 
Pop.  514,537. 

NOUN  (from  the  Latin  nomen,  name), 
in  grammar,  a word  that  denotes  any 
object  of  which  we  speak,  whether  that 
object  be  animate  or  inanimate,  ma- 
terial or  immaterial.  Nouns  are  called 
proper  or  meaningless  when  they  are 
the  names  of  individual  persons  or 
things,  as  George,  Berlin,  Orion;  com- 
mon, when  they  are  the  name  of  a class 
of  things,  as  book,  page,  ball,  idea, 
emotion;  collective,  when  they  are  the 
names  of  aggregates,  as  fleet,  army, 
flock,  covey,  herd;  material,  when  they 
are  the  names  of  materials  or  substances, 
as  gold,  snow,  water;  abstract,  when 
they  are  the  names  of  qualities,  as 
beauty,  virtue,  grace,  energy.  Some  of 
the  older  grammarians  included  both  the 
noun  and  the  adjective  under  the  term 
noun,  distinguishing  the  former  as  noun- 
substantive and  the  latter  as  noun- 

ticijGcti  V© 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  a province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  consisting  of  a 
peninsula  or  portion  properly  called 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  Island  of  Cape 
Breton,  which  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Strait  or  Gut  of  Canso. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Northum- 
berland strait  and  the  Gulf  of  St. 


Lawrence;  northeast,  south,  and  south- 
east by  the  Atlantic ; west  by  the  Bay  of 
Fundy;  and  north  by  New  Brunswick, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  isthmus 
only  11  miles  broad  (traversed  by  a ship 
railway) ; area,  20,907  sq.  miles,  or  over 
13,000,000  acres.  The  wild  animals 
include  bear,  foxes,  moose,  caribou, 
otter,  mink,  etc.,  and  excellent  sport 
may  be  had.  The  minerals  are  also 
valuable.  Granite,  trap,  and  clay 
slate  rocks  predominate.  Coal,  with  iron 
in  combination  abounds  in  many  places, 
and  more  than  1,500,000  tons  is  raised 
annually.  Gold  is  also  found,  and  is 
being  worked.  Copper  ore  exists,  as  also 
does  silver,  lead,  and  tin ; and  gypsum 
is  plentiful.  Petroleum  has  been  re- 
cently discovered,  and  wells  have  been 
sunk  in  Cape  Breton.  Wheat,  potatoes, 
and  oats  are  important  crops;  and  buck- 
wheat, rye,  barley,  Indian  corn,  and 
field-pease  are  extensively  cultivated. 
Great  quantities  of  hay  are  made,  and 
a good  deal  is  exported.  The  apple- 
orchards  of  the  western  counties  are 
very  productive,  and  extend  along  the 
highway  in  an  unbroken  line  for  30 
miles.  Apples  are  now  largely  exported. 
Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  consider- 
able numbers,  and  are  exported  both  to 
New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland. 
There  are  extensive  fisheries  of  cod, 
haddock,  mackerel,  herrings,  etc.  The 
manufactures  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant, but  a good  deal  of  capital  is  in- 
vested in  saw-mills,  flour-mills,  ship- 
buildin|,  tanning,  ate.  Tho  foreign 
trade  is  comparatively  large,  more 
shipping  being  owned  in  proportion  to 
population  than  in  any  other  country. 
The  imports  consist  principally  of 
British  and  American  manufactures; 
spirits,  sugar,  wines,  coffee,  etc.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  fisH, 
timber,  and  coal.  Education  is  widely 
and  equally  diffused  and  is  free  to  all 
classes.  There  are  four  degree-conferring 
colleges  or  universities.  The  public 
affairs  of  the  colony  are  administered 
by  a lieutenant-governor,  council,  and 
house  of  assembly.  It  sends  ten  members 
to  the  senate  and  twenty  to  the  House 
of  Commons  of  the  Dominion  parlia- 
ment. The  laws  are  dispensed  by  a 
supreme  court  and  district  courts  as  in 
Canada.  Halifax,  the  capital,  possesses 
one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  America.  The 
province  is  well  provided  with  railways. 
Pop.  459,116;  of  the  capital,  40,787. 

NOVEL,  a prose  narrative  of  fictitious 
events  connected  by  a plot,  and  in- 
volving portraitures  of  character  and 
descriptions  of  scenery.  In  its  present 
signification  the  term  novel  seems  to 
express  a series  of  fictitious  narrative 
somewhat  different  from  a romance, 
yet  it  would  be  difficult  to  assign  the 
exact  distinction,  though  the  former  is 
enerally  applied  to  narratives  of  every- 
ay  life  and  manners;  while  the  romance 
deals  with  what  is  ideal,  marvelous, 
mysterious,  or  supernatural.  Prose 
fiction  written  for  entertainment  is  of 
considerable  antiquity. 

NOVEM'BER,  fonnerly  the  ninth 
month  of  the  year,  but  according  to  the 
Julian  arrangement,  in  which  the  year 
begins  on  1st  January,  November  be- 
came the  eleventh  month,  and  com- 
prised 30  days.  See  Calendar. 


NOVGOROD 


NUMBER 


NOV'GOROD,  a town  of  Russia,  capi- 
tal of  the  government  of  same  town,  on 
the  Volkhov,  near  the  point  where  it 
issues  from  Lake  Ilmen,  103  miles  s.s.e. 
St.  Petersburg.  It  was  during  the  middle 
ages  the  largest  and  most  important 
town  of  Northern  Europe.  Novgorod 
was  the  cradle  of  the  Russian  monarchy, 
and  a monument  was  erected  in  1864  to 
commemorate  the  thousandth  anni- 
versary of  the  foundation  of  the  Russian 
State  by  Rurik.  The  trade  and  manu- 
factures are  now  unimportant.  Pop. 
20,599. — The  government  has  an  area 
of  47,236  sq.  miles.  The  principal  crops 
are  rye,  barley,  oats,  flax,  and  hemp. 
Pop.  1,194,078. 

NOVICE,  a candidate  of  either  sex 
for  a religious  order;  the  novitiate  being 
the  time  in  which  the  novice  makes  trial 
of  a monastic  life  before  taking  the  final 
vows.  The  term  of  probation  is  at  least 
one  year,  and  may  extend  to  two  or 
three.  The  order  is  not  bound  to  receive 
a novice  at  the  end  of  his  novitiate, 
neither  can  a novice  be  hindered  to  leave 
the  order  when  the  term  of  novitiate  is 
expired.  The  age  for  commencing  a 
monastic  life  is  fixed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  at  sixteen  years. 

NOVUM  OR'GANUM,  the  second  part 
of  Bacon’s  great  projected  work  the 
Instauratio  Magna,  published  in  1620. 
It  is  written  in  Latin,  and  along  with  the 
Advancement  of  Learning  forms  the 
foundation  of  the  inductive  or  Baconian 
system  of  philosophy. 

NUBIA,  a name  given,  in  a more  or 
less  restricted  sense,  to  the  countries  of 
N.E.  Africa  bounded  n.  by  Egypt,  e. 
by  the  Red  Sea,  s.  by  Abyssinia,  Senaar, 
and  Kordofan,  and  w.  by  the  Libyan 
Desert.  With  the  exception  of  the  valley 
of  the  Nile  the  country  is  generally 
desert.  The  Nubians  belong  to  the 


Arabian  and  Ethiopian  races,  who  con- 
verge in  the  Nile  basin ; they  are  a hand- 
some race,  of  dark-brown  complexion, 
bold,  frank,  cheerful,  and  more  simple 
and  incorrupt  in  manners  than  their 
neighbors  either  up  or  down  the  river. 
Their  language  is  various  dialects  of  the 
Negro  speech  of  Kordofan.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  1,000,000  or  1,500,000.  Among 
the  towns  are  Dongola,  Khartoom, 
Berber,  etc.  See  Egypt,  Soudan. 

P.  E.— 57 


NUDIBRANCHIATA,  the  section  of 
“Naked-gilled”  Molluscs.  They  have 
no  shells  in  their  adult  state,  and  the 
gills  are  completely  exposed,  existing 


Nudibranchlata 


for  the  most  part  as  branched  or  arnores- 
cent  structures  on  the  back  or  sides  of 
the  body.  The  sea-lemons,  sea-lugs,  etc., 
are  examples. 

NUISANCE,  a legal  term  used  to  de- 
note whatever  incommodes  or  annoys; 
anything  that  produces  inconvenience 
or  damage.  Nuisances  are  of  two  kinds 
— public  or  common  and  private.  Public 
nuisances  are:  annoyances  in  the  high- 
ways, bridges,  and  public  rivers;  in- 
jurious and  offensive  trades  and  manu- 
factures, which,  when  hurtful  to  in- 
dividuals, are  actionable,  and  when 
detrimental  to  public  health  or  con- 
venience, punishable  by  public  prosecu- 
tion, and  subject  to  fine  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  offense.  A private 
nuisance  may  be  defined  as  an  injury 
or  annoyance  to  the  person  or  property 
of  an  individual.  Whatever  obstructs 
passage  along  the  public  ways,  or  what- 
ever is  intolerably  offensive  to  individ- 
uals in  their  homes,  constitutes  a nui- 
sance. Causing  inconvenience  to  one’s 
neighbors  may  not  in  itself  be  a nuisance 
at  law;  there  must  be  positive  discom- 
fort or  danger.  As  regards  the  power  for 
the  removal  of  public  and  private 
nuisances,  a statue  was  passed  in  1855 
for  England,  called  the  Nuisances  Re- 
moval Act,  which  has  been  amended  by 
subsequent  acts.  By  these  acts  authority 
is  given  to  some  local  board,  local  officers 
or  overseers  of  the  parish,  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  of  the  act.  The  local 
authority  is  to  appoint  a sanitary  in- 
spector, who  is  empowered  to  remove 
or  remedy  nuisances,  such  as  the  carry- 
ing on  of  noisome  trades  or  manufac- 
tures; may  be  empowered  on  reasonable 
complaint,  to  demand  an  entrance  Into 
any  private  premises  so  as  to  inspect 
their  condition;  and  may  order  the 
removal  of  the  nuisance.  If  the  offender 
refuse  to  do  so  the  local  board  may 
remove  the  nuisance  at  his  expense,  and 
sue  him  for  such  expenses.  The  Public 
Health  Act  of  1867  created  a number 
of  statutory  nuisances.  The  law  in  the 
United  States  differs  little  from  that  of 
England. 

NULLIFICATION  ACTS  is  a term  used 
with  reference  to  certain  acts  adopted 
by  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina  in 
1830-32,  by  which  it  was  sought  to 
nullify  various  acts  of  congress  in  rela- 
tion to  the  tariff. 

Andrew  Jackson  was  president  of  the 
United  States  when  the  state  of  South 
Carolina  undertook  its  nullification 
proceedings,  and  he  made  short  work  of 
them.  After  the  South  Carolina  legis- 
lature had  several  times  declared,  each 
time  in  stronger  language,  what  it  would 
or  could  or  might  do  if  a tariff  bill  were 
passed,  congress  repealed  the  act  of 


1828,  and  adopted  a new  scale  to  take 
effect  March  3,  1833.  President  Jackson 
had  already  declared  in  emphatic  terms 
that  he  would  see  to  the  execution  of 
the  laws,  and  the  state  legislature  had 
declared  his  statement  to  be  an  un- 
authorized interference  with  the  affairs 
of  South  Carolina.  Finally  on  Novem- 
ber 24,  1832,  a convention  called  by  the 
legislature  adopted  an  ordinance  “to 
nullify  certain  acts  of  the  congress  of 
the  United  States,  purporting  tO'  be 
laws  laying  duties  and  imposts  on  the 
importation  of  foreign  commodities.” 
It  declared  the  tariff  laws  of  1828  and 
1832  to  be  unconstitutional  and  void 
and  the  collections  of  duties  unlawful, 
and  finally  declared  that  if  any  attempt 
should  be  made  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment to  coerce  the  state,  they  would 
hold  themselves  absolved  from  all 
obligations  to  maintain  their  political 
connection  with  the  Union  and  would 
organize  a separate  government.  This 
document  was  sent  out  to  other  states  as 
the  declaration  of  South  Carolina. 

Jackson  replied  with  a proclamation 
declaring  the  ordinance  an  act  of  nulli- 
fication and  secession,  denying  the  right 
of  any  state  to  annul  a law,  and  declar- 
ing his  determination  “to  execute  the 
laws,  to  preserve  the  Union  by  all  con- 
stitutional means,  to  arrest,  if  possible, 
by  moderate  and  firm  measures,  the 
necessity  of  a resort  to  force.” 

The  South  Carolina  legislature  pro- 
tested, exhorted  the  people  to  ignore 
the  president’s  proclamation,  and,  on 
December  20,  1832,  passed  an  act  to 
carry  the  ordinance  into  effect  by  pro- 
viding judicial  remedies  in  the  state 
courts  for  the  recovery  of  goods  seized 
or  held  for  dues  under  the  act  of  con- 
gress. On  March  2,  1833,  congress 
amended  the  act  of  1832  by  a compro- 
mise act  reducing  certain  duties,  and 
followed  it  on  the  next  day  by  a Force 
Act,  empowering  the  president  to  use 
military  force  to  secure  the  collection  of 
duties.  Twelve  days  later  the  conven- 
tion came  together  again  and  repealed 
its  ordinance  of  nullification,  but  three 
days  later  it  adopted  another  ordiannee 
declaring  the  Force  Act  null  and  void. 
But,  as  the  original  ordinance  had  been 
repealed  and  the  duties  were  collected 
without  trouble.  General  Jackson  could 
afford  to  treat  the  last  ebullition  as 
mere  brutum  fulmenand  did  so,  although 
he  is  credited  with  an  expressed  desire 
to  hang  John  C.  Calhoun,  the  leader  of 
the  nullification  movement. 

NUMA  POMPILIUS,  the  second  king 
of  Rome,  who  is  said  to  have  reigned 
from  714  to  672  b.c.  He  was  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  most  important 
religous  institutions  of  the  Romans,  and 
left  writings  explanatory  of  his  system, 
which  were  burnt  by  order  of  the  senate 
when  accidentally  discovered  400  years 
after  his  time. 

NUMBER,  a single  unit  considered  a 
part  of  a series,  or  two  or  more  of  such 
units.  An  abstract  number  is  a unit  or 
assemblage  of  units  considered  inde- . 
pendently  of  any  thing  or  things  that 
they  might  otherwise  be  supposed  to 
represent.  For  example,  5 is  an  abstract 
number  while  it  remains  independent; 
but  if  we  say  5 feet  or  5 miles  it  becomes 
a concrete  number.  Cardinal  numbers 


NUMBEil 


i^UREMBERG 


fere  numbers  which  answer  the  question, 
“How  many?”  as  one,  two,  three,  etc., 
in  distinction,  from  first,  second,  third, 
etc.,  which  are  called  ordinal  numbers. 
A prime  number  is  a number  which  can 
be  divided  exactly  by  no  number  except 
itself  and  unity.  A number  is  even  when 
it  is  divisible  by  two,  otherwise  it  is 
odd.  See  Arithmetic. 

NUMBER,  in  grammar,  that  distinc- 
tive form  which  a word  assumes  accord- 
ing as  it  is  spoken  of  or  expresses  one 
individual  or  several  individuals.  The 
form  which  denotes  one  or  an  individual 
is  the  singular  number;  the  form  that  is 
set  apart  for  two  individuals  (as  in 
Greek  and  Sanskrit)  is  the  dual  num- 
ber; while  that  which  refers  indifferently 
to  two  or  more  individuals  or  units  con- 
stitutes the  plural  number. 

NUMBERING-MACHINE,  a machine 
for  impressing  consecutive  numbers  on 
account-books,  coupons,  railway-tickets, 
bank-notes,  etc.  One  of  the  principal 
forms  of  the  apparatus  consists  of  discs 
or  wheels  decimally  numbered  on  their 
peripheries,  the  whole  mounted  on  one 
axle,  upon  which  they  turn  freely,  act- 
ing upon  each  other  in  serial  order. 
The  first  wheel  of  the  series,  containing 
the  units,  is  moved  one  figure  between 
each  impact,  and  when  the  units  are 
exhausted  the  tens  come  into  action 
and  act  in  coincidence  with  the  units; 
so  on  of  the  hundreds,  thousands,  etc. 

NUMBERS,  Book  of,  the  fourth  of 
the  books  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  takes 
its  name  from  the  records  which  it  con- 
tains of  the  two  enumerations  of  the 
Israelites,  the  first  given  in  chaps,  i.-iv. 
and  the  second  in  chap.  xxvi.  It  con- 
tains a narrative  of  the  journeyings  of 
the  Israelties  from  the  time  of  their 
leaving  Sinai  to  their  arrival  at  the 
plains  of  Moab,  and  portions  of  the 
Mosaic  Law.  Formerly  the  authorship 
was  implicitly  attributed  to  Moses,  but 
some  modern  scholars  resolve  the  book 
into  various  parts,  to  each  of  which  is 
assigned  a separate  author.  See  Pen- 
tateuch. 

NUMERAL,  a figure  or  character  used 
to  express  a number;  as  the  Arabic 
numerals,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  or  the  Roman 
numerals,  I,  V,  X,  L,  C,  D,  M,  etc.  See 
Arithmetic. 

NUMERATION,  the  art  of  expressing 
in  characters  any  number  proposed  in 
words,  or  of  expressing  in  words  any 
number  proposed  in  characters.  The 
chief  terms  used  for  this  purpose  are 
the  names  of  the  digits  from  one  to  ten, 
a hundred,  a thousand,  a million,  etc. 
The  term  billion  is  of  uncertain  use: 
in  Brittain  it  is  a million  of  millions- 
in  France,  America,  etc.,  a thousand 
millions. 

NUMID'IA,  an  ancient  country  of 
North  Africa,  corresponding  roughly 
with  modern  Algeria.  It  was  divided 
among  various  tribes,  but  after  the 
second  Punic  war  it  was  united  under 
Massinissa,  and  several  of  its  rulers 
became  noted  in  Roman  history  In 
D.c.  46  it  became  a Roman  province. 

NUMISMATTCS,  or  NUMISMATOL- 
OGY, the  science  of  coins  and  medals, 
the  study  of  which  forms  a valuable 
and  important  adjunct  to  that  of  his- 
tory. The  word  coin  is  in  modern  times 
applied  to  those  pieces  of  metal  struck 


for  the  purpose  of  circulation  as  money; 
while  the  word  medal  signifies  pieces  of 
metal  similar  to  coins  not  intended  for 
circulation  as  money,  but  struck  and 
distributed  in  commemoration  of  some 
person  or  event.  Ancient  coins,  how- 
ever, are  often  termed  medals.  They 
are  of  gold,  silver,  bronze,  electrum,  or 
billon,  and  in  ancient  times  served  not 
only  the  purposes  of  a currency,  but 
as  chronicles  of  political  events,  and 
abstracts  of  the  times.  It  is  also  fromi 
coins  alone  that  we  derive  our  knowl- 
edge of  some  of  the  most  celebrated 
works  of  ancient  art,  particularly  of 
ancient  statuary.  In  ancient,  as  in 
modern  times,  while  the  coins  of  em- 
pires or  kingdoms  were  (at  least  in  later 
times)  distinguished  by  the  head  of  the 
reigning  prince,  those  of  free  states  were 
distinguished  by  some  symbol.  Thus, 
Egypt  was  distinguished  by  a sistrum, 
an  ibis,  a crocodile,  or  a hippopotamus; 
Arabia  by  a camel;  Africa  by  an  ele- 
phant; Athens  by  an  owl;  Syracuse  and 


Nuremberg— The  Pegnitz 

Corinth  by  a winged  horse.  There  were 
also  a number  of  symbols  having  a 
general  signification.  Thus,  a patera 
signified  a libation,  and  indicated  the 
divine  character  of  the  person  holding 
it  in  his  hand;  the  shaft  of  a spear  de- 
noted sovereign  power;  an  ensign  on  an 
altar,  a new  Roman  colony;  and  so 
forth.  Mediaeval  coins  include  the  By- 
zantine, the  coins  of  the  various  Euro- 
pean states  from  the  fall  of  Rome  to  the 
accession  of  Charlemagne;  the  Carlo- 
vingian  currency  from  Charlemagne  to 
the  fall  of  the  Swabian  house  (1268); 
early  Renaissance  to  1450;  and  classical 
Renaissance  from  then  till  1600.  Modern 
coins  are  classed  geographically  and 
chronologically.  Oriental  coins  are  those 
of  Ancient  Persia,  Arabia,  Modern 
Persia,  India,  China,  etc. 

NUN,  a word  of  unknown  origin,  but 
supposed  to  be  connected  with  a Coptic 
word  signifying  “pure,”  applied  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  to  a female 
who  retires  from  the  world,  joins  a 
religious  sisterhood,  takes  upon  herself 
the  vow  of  chastity  and  the  other  vows 
required  by  the  discipline  of  her  con- 
vent, and  consecrates  herself  to  a life  of 


religious  devotion.  Nearly  all  tha 
masculine  orders  or  rules  had  corre- 
sponding feminine  institutions,  while 
there  were  also  numerous  independent 
orders  of  nuns.  At  present  the  number 
of  nuns  is  largely  in  excess  of  that  of 
monks.  The  first  nunnery  is  said  to 
have  been  that  founded  by  a sister  of 
St.  Anthony  about  a.d.  270;  and  the 
first  in  England  was  founded  at  Folks- 
stone  by  Eadbald,  king  of  Kent,  in  630. 

NUN'CIO,  an  ambassador  of  the  first 
rank  (not  a cardinal)  representing  the 
pope  at  the  court  of  a sovereign  entitled 
to  that  distinction.  A papal  ambassador 
of  the  first  rank,  who  is  at  the  same 
time  a cardinal,  is  called  a legate.  The 
title  of  internuncio  is  given  to  an  am- 
bassador of  inferior  rank,  who  repre- 
sentsthe  pope  at  minor  courts.  Formerly 
the  papal  nuncios  exercised  the  supreme 
spiritual  jurisdiction  in  their  respective 
districts.  But  now,  in  those  Catholic 
kingdoms  and  states  which  hold  them- 
selves independent  of  the  court  of  Rome 


and  St.  Lawrence  church. 

in  matters  of  discipline,  the  nuncio  is 
simply  an  ambassador. 

NUREMBERG  (nu'rem-berg),  a town 
in  Bavaria,  93  miles  n.n.w.  of  Munich. 
Within  the  walls  it  is  one  of  the  best- 
preserved  specimens  of  a mediaeval 
town  in  existence.  The  houses  are 
generally  lofty  and  picturesque,  and 
many  of  them  have  three  ranges  of 
dormer-windows  „ on  their  steep  roofs. 
The  town,  which  is  very  densely  built, 
rises  gradually  to  a height  on  the  north 
side,  on  which  the  old  castle  is  situ- 
ated. The  Pegnitz,  traversing  the  town 
from  east  to  west,  divides  it  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts — the  north,  and  the 
south,  which  communicate  by  numerous 
bridges.  It  contains  a large  market- 
place and  several  interesting  churches, 
among  the  finest  of  which  are  the  Gothic 
churches  of  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Sebal- 
dus,  both  dating  from  the  13th  centurs'. 
Other  places  of  worship  are  the  14th 
century  Marienkirche  (Roman  Catholic) , 
and  the  .Jewish  synagogue  in  oriental 
style  (1867-74).  The  castle  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Frederick  Barbarossa 
(1158):  part  of  the  interior  was  fitted 
up  in  Gothic  style  (1854-56)  as  a royal 


NURSE 


N-i7.GHAU 


residence.  Nuremberg  has  extensive 
breweries,  railway-carriage  and  lead- 
pencil  manufactories,  and  produces 
fancy  articles  in  metal,  carved  wood, 
ivory,  etc.,  toys,  chemicals,  clocks  and 
watches,  cigars,  playing-cards,  etc. 
Printing  and  bookbinding  are  also  ex- 
tensively carried  on,  and  the  hop- 
market  is  the  most  important  on  the 
continent.  The  town  is  celebrated,  in 
connection  with  its  industry,  for  the 
invention  of  watches.  Pop.  261,022. 

NURSE,  one  who  tends  or  takes  care 
of  the  young,  sick,  or  infirm ; specifically 
a female  hospital  attendant.  There  are 
now  numerous  institutions  where  active, 
intelligent,  and  physically  able  women 
are  thoroughly  trained  for  this  work. 
The  system  of  sending  trained  nurses  to 
a seat  of  war  originated  with  Miss 
Florence  Nightingale  during  the  Crimean 
war,  and  organizations  for  military 
nursing  during  the  war  are  now  com- 
mon to  all  civilized  countries.  See  Red 
Cross. 

NUT,  in  botany,  a one-celled  fruit 
containing  when  mature  only  one  seed, 
and  enveloped  by  a pericarp  of  a hard, 
woody,  or  leathery  texture,  rarely 
opening  spontaneously  when  ripe. 
Among  the  best  known  and  most 
valuable  nuts  are.  the  hazel-nut,  the 
Brazil-nut,  the  walnut,  chestnut,  and 
cocoa-nut,  all  of  which  are  edible. 
Various  other  kinds  of  nuts  are  used  for 
special  purposes.  Thus  valonia-nuts, 
gall-nuts,  (not  strictly  speaking,  nu-ts — 
see  Galls),  and  myrobalan-nuts  are  used 
in  tanning  and  dyeing,  the  last  two  also 
in  ink-making;  betel-nuts  in  making 
tooth-powder  and  tooth-paste;  and 
coquilla-nuts  and  vegetable-ivory  (the 
kernel  of  the  nut  of  the  Peruvian  palm), 
being  very  hard  and  capable  of  taking 
on  a fine  polish,  are  used  in  making 
small  ornamental  articles  of  turnery. 

NUT'CRACKER,  the  name  of  an  in- 
sessorial  bird.  It  is  generally  referred 
to  the  crow  family,  and  so  placed  as  to 
approximate  either  the  woodpeckers  or 
starlings.  The  European  nutcracker  is 
about  the  size  of  the  jackdaw,  but  with 
a longer  tail.  It  combines  to  a consid- 
erable extent  the  habits  of  the  wood- 

Ceckers  and  those  of  the  omnivorous 
irds.  It  has  received  the  name  of 
nutcracker  from  its  feeding  upon  nuts. 
An  American  species  is  noted  for  the 
diversified  beauty  of  its  plumage,  fre- 
quents rivers  and  sea-shores  in  America. 
NUTGALLS.  See  Galls. 

NUT'HATCH,  the  common  European 
nuthatch  is  a scansorial  bird,  of  shy  and 
solitary  habits,  frequenting  woods  and 
feeding  on  insects  chiefly.  It  also  eats 
the  kernel  of  the  hazel-nut,  breaking 
the  shell  with  great  dexterity.  The 
female  lays  her  eggs  in  holes  of  trees, 
and  hisses  like  a snake  when  disturbed. 
Four  distinct  species  are  found  in  the 
United  States;  the  Carolina  or  white- 
bellied,  the  Canada  or  red-bellied;  the 
brown-headed  nuthatch  of  the  southern 
states  and  the  pygmy  nuthatch  of  the 
southwest. 

NUTMEG,  this  fruit  is  a nearly  spher- 
ical drupe  of  the  size  and  somewhat  the 
shape  of  a small  pear.  The  fleshy  part  is 
of  a yellowish  color  without,  almost 
white  within,  and  4 or  5 lines  in  thick- 
ness, and  opens  into  two  nearly  equal 


White-beUied  nuthatch. 


longitudinal  valves,  presenting  to  view 
the  nut  surrounded  by  its  arillus,  known 
to'us  as  mace.  The  nut  is  oval,  the  shell 
very  hard  and  dark-brown.  This  im- 
mediately envelops  the  kernel,  which  is 
the  nutmeg.  The  tree  producing  this 
fruit  grows  principally  in  the  islands  of 
Banda  in  the  East  Indies,  and  has  been 
introduced  into  Sumatra,  India,  Brazil, 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  reaches  the 
height  of  20  or  30  feet,  producing  numer- 
ous branches.  The  color  of  the  bark  of 
the  trunk  is  a reddish-brown ; that  of  the 
young  branches  a bright  green.  The 
nutmeg  is  an  aromatic,  stimulating  in 
its  nature,  and  possessing  narcotic 
properties,  very  grateful  to  the  taste 


and  smell,  and  much  used  in  cookery. 
Nutmegs  yield  by  distillation  with 
water  about  6 per  cent  of  a transparent 
oil  having  a specific  gravity  .948,  an 
odor  of  nutmeg,  and  a burning,  aromatic 
taste. 

NU'TRIA,  the  commercial  name  for 
the  skins  of  the  coypou  of  S.  America. 
The  overhair  is  coarse;  the  fur,  which  is 
used  chiefly  for  hat-making,  is  soft,  fine, 
and  of  a brownish-ash  color. 

NUTRITION,  the  act  or  progress  by 
which  organisms,  whether  vegetable 
or  animal,  are  able  to  absorb  into  their 
system  their  proper  food,  thus  promoting 
their  growth  or  repairing  the  waste  of 
their  tissues.  It  is  the  function  by  which 
the  nutritive  matter  already  elaborated 
by  the  various  organic  actions  loses  its 
own  nature,  and  assumes  that  of  the 
different  living  tissues — a process  by 
which  the  various  parts  of  an  organism 
either  increase  in  size  from  additions 
made  to  already  formed  parts,  or  by 
which  the  various  parts  are  maintained 
in  the  same  general  conditions  of  form. 


size,  and  composition  which  they  have 
already  by  development  and  growth 
attained.  It  involves  and  comprehends 
all  those  acts  and  processes  which  are 
devoted  to  the  repair  of  bodily  waste, 
and  to  the  maintenance  of  the  growth 
and  vigor  of  all  living  tissues. 

NUTRITIVENESS  OF  FOODS,  aver- 
age quantity  of  nutritive  matter  in 
1,000  parts  of  varieties  of  animal  and 
vegetable  food. 


Cucumber 25 

Melons 30 

Turnips ! 42 

Milk 73 

Cabbage 73 

Carrots. 98 

White  ot  egg. 140 

Beet-root 148 

Cherries 250 

Veal 250 

Beef 260 

Potatoes 260 

Apricots. 260 

Grapes 270 

Chicken 270 

Plums 290 


Pears 160 

Apples 170 

Haddock 180 

Gooseberries 190 

Peaches 200 

Codfish 310 

Sole 210 

Pork 240 

Mutton 290 

Tamarinds 340 

Almonds 650 

Oats 742 

Rye 792 

Rice 880 

Barley. 920 

Wheat 950 


NUX- VOMICA,  the  fruit  of  a species 
of  plants  growing  in  various  places  in 


Strychnos  nux-vomica. 


the  East  Indies  It  is  about  the  size  and 
shape  of  a small  orange,  and  has  a very 
bitter  acrid  taste.  It  is  known  as  a 
very  virulent  poison,  and  is  remarkable 
for  containing  the  vegeto-alkali  strych- 
nia. See  Strychnine. 

NYAN'ZA.  See  Albert  Nyanza  and 
Victoria  Nyanza. 

NYAS'SA,  a large  lake  in  south- 
eastern Africa;  discovered  by  Living- 
stone in  1859.  The  length  of  the  lake  is 
nearly  400  miles,  and  it  varies  in  breadth 
from  15  to  more  than  50.  The  surface 
is  1570  feet  above  the  sea-level;  its 
waters  abound  in  fish.  On  the  west  lies 
British  territory,  on  the  east  the  terri- 
tories of  Portugal  and  Germany.  The 
British  Central  Africa  protectorate 
occupies  the  western  and  southern  shores 
and  extends  toward  the  Zambesi.  Pop. 
845,000. 


NYLGHAU, a species  of  antelope  as 
large  as  or  larger  than  a stag,  inhabiting 


NYMPtt 


OATH 


the  forests  of  Northern  India,  Persia, 
etc.  The  horns  are  short  and  bent  for- 
ward; there  is  a beard  under  the  middle 
of  the  neck;  the  hair  is  grayish-blue. 
The  female  has  no  horns.  The  nylghau 
is  much  hunted  as  one  of  the  noblest 
beasts  of  the  chase,  the  skin  of  the  bull 
being  in  demand  for  the  manufacture 
of  native  shields.  The  name  nylghau 
literally  means  “blue  ox,”  and  has, 
doubtless,  been  applied  to  this  animal 
from  the  ox-like  proportions  of  its  body. 
They  are  known  to  breed  freely  in  con- 
finement. 

NYMPH,  a term  sometimes  applied 
to  denote  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  stage  in 
the  metamorphosis  of  insects  and  other 
animals. 

NYMPH.®A'CE.®,  aquatic  plants ; the 
water-lilies  of  various  parts  of  the  world. 
The  leaves  are  peltate  or  cordate  and 
fleshy;  the  stalks  both  of  flowers  and 


leaves  vary  according  to  the  depth  of 
the  water  on  the  top  of  which  the  leaves 


Nymphoea  Lotus  (white  Egyptian  water-lily). 

float.  The  stems  are  bitter  and  astrin- 
gent, and  the  seeds,  which  taste  like 
those  of  the  poppy,  may  be  used  as  food, 

o 


and  hence  the  Victoria  Regia  is  called 
water-maize  in  South  America.  The 
species  are  mostly  prized  for  the  beauty 
of  their  flowers;  as  the  white  water-lily 
which  grows  in  pools,  lakes,  and  slow 
rivers. 

NYMPHS,  in  mythology,  a numerous 
class  of  inferior  divinities,  imagined  as 
beautiful  maidens,  not  immortal,  but 
always  young,  who  were  considered  as 
tutelary  spirits  not  only  of  certain 
localities,  but  also  of  certain  races  and 
families.  They  occur  generally  in  con- 
nection with  some  other  divinity  of 
higher  rank,  and  they  were  believed  to 
be  possessed  of  the  gift  of  prophecy  and 
of  poetical  inspiration.  Those  who  pre- 
sided over  rivers,  brooks,  and  springs 
were  called  Naiads;  those  over  moun- 
tains, Oreads;  those  over  woods  and 
trees.  Dryads,  and  Hamadryads;  those 
over  the  sea,  Nereids. 


O,  the  fifteenth  letter  and  the  fourth 
vowel  in  the  English  alphabet.  In 
English  O represents  six  or  seven  sounds 
and  shades  of  sound:  (1)  as  in  note,  go, 
etc.  (2)  The  similar  short  sound  as  in 
tobacco.  (3)  The  sound  heard  in  not, 
gone.  (4)  The  same  sound  lengthened  as 
in  mortal.  (5)  The  sound  in  move,  do, 
tomb,  prove.  (6)  The  same  sound  but 
shorter  as  in  wolf,  woman.  (7)  The  sound 
of  u in  tub,  as  in  come,  done,  love. 
It  is  also  a common  element  in  di- 
graphs, as  00,  oa,  ou. 

O’,  in  Irish  proper  names,  a patrony- 
mic prefix  corresponding  to  the  Mac  of 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland;  thus  O’Con- 
nel  means  “the  son  of  Connell.” 

OAJACA,  or  OAXACA  (6-a-ha'k(i),  a 
state  of  Mexico,  on  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  the  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec;  area, 
33,978  sq.  miles.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Indians.  Pop.  948,633. — The 
capital,  which  has  the  same  name,  stands 
near  the  river  Verde,  218  miles  s.s.e.  of 
Mexico,  4800  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop. 
35,049. 

OAK,  the  general  name  of  the  trees 
and  shrubs,  having  monoecious  flowers, 
those  of  the  males  forming  pendulous 
catkins,  those  of  the  females  solitary  or 
in  clusters,  and  having  an  involucre 
which  forms  the  well-known  “cup”  of 
the  fruit — the  acorn.  The  oak  from  the 
remotest  antiquity  has  obtained  a pre- 
eminence among  trees,  and  has  not 
unjustly  been  styled  the  “monarch  of 
the  woods.”  The  species  of  oak  are 
very  numerous,  generally  natives  of  the 
more  temperate  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  but  found  also  in  Java, 
Mexico,  and  S.  America.  They  have 
alternate  simple  leaves,  which  are  entire 
in  some,  but  in  the  greater  number 
variously  lobed  and  sinuated  or  cut; 
evergreen  in  some,  but  more  generally 
deciduous.  For  more  than  a thousand 
years  ships  were  mainly  built  of  common 
oak.  The  common  oak  attains  a height 
of  from  50  to  100  or  even  150  feet,  with 
a diameter  of  trunk  of  from  4 to  8 feet. 
The  oak  subserves  a great  number  of 
useful  purposes,  the  wood  being-  hard, 
tough,  tolerably  flexible,  strong  without 
being  too  heavy,  not  readily  penetrated 


by  water.  The  bark  of  the  common 
oak-tree  and  of  several  others  is  pre- 
ferred to  all  other  substances  for  the 
purpose  of  tanning  on  account  of  the 
amount  of  tannic  and  gallic  acid  it  con- 
tains. Oak  galls,  morbid  growths  caused 
by  insects,  are  also  much  used  in  tan- 
ning, especially  those  of  Q.  infectoria. 
Oak  bark  is  also  used  medicinally  as  an 
astringent. 

OAKLAND,  a town  of  the  United 
States  in  California,  on  the  east  side  of 
San  Francisco  bay,  opposite  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  has  some  extensive  industrial 
establishments,  and  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. Pop.  80,000. 

OAKUM,  the  substance  of  old  tarred 
or  untarred  ropes  untwisted  and  pulled 
into  loose  fibres;  used  for  caulking  the 
seams  of  ships,  stopping  leaks,  etc. 
That  formed  from  untarred  ropes  is 
called  white  oakum. 

OAR,  a long  piece  of  timber  flat  at  one 
end  and  round  at  the  other,  used  to 
propel  a boat,  barge,  or  galley  through 
the  water.  The  flat  part,  which  is  dipped 
into  the  water,  is  called  the  blade;  the 
other  end  is  the  handle;  and  the  part 
between  the  two  is  called  the  loom. 
Oars  are  frequently  used  for  steering,  as 
in  whale-boats.  Sweeps  are  large  oars 
used  in  small  vessels  sometimes  to  assist 
the  rudder,  but  usually  to  assist  the 
motion  of  the  ship  in  a calm.  A scull 
is  a short  oar  of  a length  such  that  one 
man  can  manage  two,  one  on  each  side. 

OA'SIS,  the  name  of  the  fertile  spots 
in  the  Libyan  desert  where  there  is  a 
spring  or  well  and  more  or  less  vegeta- 
tion, but  now  applied  to  any  fertile 
tract  in  the  midst  of  a waste,  and  often 
used  figuratively.  The  oases  of  Northern 
Africa  are  generally  river  valleys,  the 
waters  of  which  are  for  the  most  part 
underground,  or  depressions  surrounded 
by  short  ranges  of  hills,  from  which 
s.aall  brooks  descend,  sometimes  form- 
ing a lake  in  the  center.  In  recent  times 
oases  have  been  formed  in  the  Northern 
Sahara  by  sinking  artesian  wells.  There 
are  many  important  oases  in  the  West- 
ern Sahara,  in  the  Libyan  desert,  in 
Arabia,  Persia,  and  in  the  Desert  of 
Gobi  in  Central  Asia.  In  ancient  times 


the  most  celebrated  oasis  was  that  to  the 
west  of  Egypt,  containing  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Ammon,  now  called  the  Oasis 
of  Siwah. 

OAT,  or  OATS,  a genus  of  edible 
grasses  cultivated  extensively  in  all 
temperate  climates,  and  though  prin- 
cipally grown  as  food  for  horses  largely 
used  when  ground  into  meal  as  human 
food.  There  are  about  sixty  species. 
The  cultivated  species  of  oats  are  sub- 
divided into  a large  number  of  varieties, 
which  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  color,  size,  form  of  seeds,  quality  of 
straw,  period  of  ripening,  adaptation  to 
particular  soils  and  climates,  and  other 
characteristics.  The  yield  of  oats  varies 
from  20  bushels  to  80  bushels  per  acre 
according  to  soil,  etc.  The  weight  per 
bushel  varies  from  35  to  45  lbs.,  and  the 
meal  product  is  about  half  the  weight  of 
the  oats.  Oatmeal  is  a cheap  and  valu- 
able article  of  food,  and  its  value  seems 
to  be  becoming  more  appreciated  among 
the  wealthier  classes  as  it  is  being  neg- 
lected by  the  poorer. 

OATH,  a solemn  assertion  or  promise, 
with  the  invocation  of  God  to  be  a wit- 
ness of  the  truth  of  what  we  say.  Vari- 
ous forms  have  been  associated  with 
oath-taking.  Thus,  men  have  pro- 
claimed and  symbolized  their  promise 
by  chopping  a fowl  in  two,  by  standing 
within  a circle  of  rope,  by  placing  the 
hand  under  another’s  thigh,  by  dipping 
weapons  into  or  drinking  blood,  or  by 
stretching  the  hand  upw’ard  toward  the 
sky,  and  this  latter  gesture  has  estab- 
lished itself  throughout  Europe.  Among 
the  early  Christians  the  question  of  oath- 
taking was  a matter  of  much  contro- 
versy, objection  to  it  being  founded  upon 
Christ’s  command  of  “Swear  not  at  all” 
(Matt.  V.  34);  but  this  injunction  was 
held  by  Athanasius  and  others  only  to 
prohibit  colloquial  as  distinct  from  judi- 
cial swearing.  This  objection  is  still 
maintained,  however,  by  Mennonites, 
Quakers,  Anabaptists;  and  the  Secular- 
ists in  England,  upon  other  grounds, 
refuse  the  judicial  oaths.  In  the  United 
States  a witness  may  either  swear  or 
affirm.  False  testimony  in  either  cas« 
amounts  to  perjury. 


OBADIAH 


OCEAN 


OBADI'AH,  one  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  who  foretells  the  speedy  ruin 
of  the  Edomites.  The  prophecy  was 
probably  uttered  during  the  period 
which  elapsed  between  the  fall  of  Jerusa- 
lem (586  B.c.)  and  the  conquest  of  Edom 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  (583  b.c.). 

OB'ELISK,  a column  of  a rectangular 
form,  diminishing  toward  the  top,  gen- 
erally terminating  in  a low  pyramid. 
The  proportion  of  the  thickness  to  the 
height  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  obelisks ; 


Obelisks  of  Thothmes  and  Hatasou,  at  Karnak 
(Thebes),  Egypt. 


that  is,  between  one-ninth  and  one- 
tenth;  and  the  thickness  at  the  top  is 
never  less  than  half,  nor  greater  than 
three-fourths  of  the  thickness  at  the 
bottom.  Egypt  abounded  with  obelisks, 
which  were  always  of  a single  block  of 
hard  stone;  and  many  have  been  re- 
moved thence  to  Rome  and  other  places. 
They  seem  to  have  been  erected  to  record 
the  honors  or  triumphs  of  the  monarchs. 
The  two  largest  obelisks  were  erected  by 
Sesostris  in  Heliopolis;  the  height  of 
these  was  180  feet.  They  were  removed 
to  Rome  by  Augustus.  A fine  obelisk 
from  Luxor  was  erected  in  Paris  in  1833 
and  the  two  known  as  Cleopatra’s 
Needles  are  now  in  London  and  New 
York.  Besides  those  of  Egypt,  mono- 
liths of  this  appearance,  but  smaller  in 
size,  have  been  found  in  the  ruined  cities 
of  Nineveh  and  Nimrud.  The  obelisks 
which  were  common  to  Rome,  Florence, 
etc.,  had  all  been  removed  from  Egypt 
during  its  domination  by  the  Roman 
emperors.  See  Monoliths. 

OB'ELUS,  a mark,  usually  of  this 

form , or  this  in  ancient  MSS.  or 

old  editions  of  the  classics,  and  indicat- 
ing a suspected  passage  or  reading. 

OBERAJI'MERGAU,  a village  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  celebrated  for  the  per- 
formance, every  ten  years,  of  the  pas- 
sion-play of  Christ’s  crucifixion  and 
ascension.  The  performance  takes  place 
every  Sunday  during  the  summer,  on  a 
large  wooden  stage  open  to  the  sky,  and 
it  usually  lasts  eight  hours.  Primarily 
regarded  by  these  Bavarian  villagers 
as  a religious  exercise,  it  has  become  in 
their  performances  a mystery  play  of  im- 
pressive beauty.  Latterly,  however,  it 
has  taken  the  character  of  a European 
{imuscment  and  a source  of  profit. 


O'BERON,  in  popular  mythology,  a 
king  of  the  elves  or  fairies,  and  husband 
of  Titania.  He  appears  first  in  the  old 
French  poem  Huon  of  Bordeaux,  but  is 
best  known  from  Shakespeare  and  from 
Weber’s  opera  of  Oberon. 

OBESITY.  See  Corpulence. 

OBJECT-GLASS,  in  a telescope  or 
microscope,  the  lens  which  first  receives 
the  rays  of  light  coming  directly  from 
the  object,  and  collects  them  into  a 
focus.  In  the  finest  refracting  telescopes 
the  object-glass  consists  of  an  achromatic 
combination  of  lenses,  formed  of  sub- 
stances having  different  dispersive 
powers,  and  of  such  figures  that  the 
aberration  of  the  one  may  be  corrected 
by  that  of  the  other.  The  substances 
chiefly  used  are  crown-glass  and  flint- 

OBJECTIVE.  See  Object. 

OBLIGATION  is  a term  in  law  which 
describes  the  bond  under  which  a per- 
son binds  himself  to  pay  within  a cer- 
tain time  and  in  the  breaking  of  which 
a penalty  is  involved;  or  the  tie  in  gen- 
eral by  which  a person  is  legally  bound 
to  the  performance  of  anything. 

OBLIGATO,  or  OBBLIGATO,  in 
music,  a part  or  accompaniment  in  a 
composition  for  a particular  instrument 
of  such  character  and  importance  that 
it  is  indispensable  to  the  proper  per- 
formance of  the  piece. 

OBOE  (6'boi),  a musical  wind-instru- 
ment resembling  a clarionet  in  shape, 
and  sounded  through  a double  reed.  It 
consists  of  three  joints  besides  the 
mouthpiece,  and  its  compass  is  generally 
from  B below  the  treble  clef  to  F in  alt. 

Oboe. 

with  the  intermediate  semitones,  being 
a compass  of  two  octaves  and  one  fifth. 
The  name  oboe  is  from  the  Italian;  the 
French  form,  hautboy,  was  formerly 
more  frequently  used. 

O’BRIEN,  William  Smith,  Irish  na- 
tionalist, born  1803,  died  1864.  He 
entered  parliament  in  1826,  and  sub- 
sequently joined  the  Young  Ireland 
group  of  politicians,  and  advocated  the 
use  of  physical  force.  In  an  endeavor 
(1848)  to  effect  a rising  in  Tipperary,  he 
was  surrounded,  arrested,  tried  by 
special  commission  at  Clonmel,  and 
sentenced  to  death,  but  in  the  end  this 
was  commuted  to  transportation.  He 
was  set  at  liberty  in  1854,  and  fully 
pardoned  in  1856. 

OBSERVATORY,  a building  devoted 
to  the  observation  of  astronomical, 
magnetic,  meteorological,  or  other  nat- 
ural phenomena.  The  astronomical  ob- 
servatory is  the  one  of  most  general 
interest.  Astronomical  observation  be- 
gan at  an  early  date  in  China;  the 
pyramids  in  Egypt  seem  in  some  way 
to  have  been  associated  with  stellar 
observation ; and  the  first  historical 
observatory  was  founded  in  Alaxandria 
300  B.c.  Its  work  was  begun  by  Aristil- 
lus,  and  continued  by  Timocharis, 
Hipparchus,  Aristarchus,  and  others. 
The  first  European  observatory  was 
built  at  Nuremberg  by  Bernhard  Wal- 
ther  in  1472,  and  this  was  followed  in  the 


16th  century  by  Tycho  Brahe’s  famous 
observatory  on  the  island  of  Hveen  near 
Copenhagen,  while  another  was  erected 
by  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  at  Cassel  in 
1561.  Through  the  labors  of  Brahe 
practical  astronomy  became  associated 
with  the  universities,  so  that  Leyden 
and  Copenhagen  founded  observatories. 
These  were  followed  by  the  construe-, 
tion  of  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Paris' 
(1667),  the  Greenwich  Royal  Observa- 
tory (1675),  the  Tusculan  Observatory 
near  Copenhagen  (1704),  Berlin  (1705; 
new  observatory  1835),  Vienna  (1756), 
Dublin  (1785),  Konigsberg  (1813),  Syd- 
ney (1820),  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1820), 
Edinburgh  (1825),  Pulkova  near  St. 
Petersburg  (1839),  Cambridge,  United 
States  (1839),  Washington,  United 
States  (1845),  Melbourne  (1853),  Lick 
Observatory,  California  (1888),  Yerkes 
Observatory,  Wisconsin  (1896).  The 
chief  observatory  instruments  are  the 
telescope,  equatorial  and  mural  circle, 
and  transit  instrument,  together  with 
the  sidereal  and  the  solar  clock.  In  the 
larger  observatories  the  application  of 
spectrum  analysis,  photography,  pho- 
tometry, etc.,  has  greatly  increased  the 
number  and  variety  of  observations. 
The  observatory  building  must  be  con- 
structed in  a very  stable  manner,  and 
as  the  instruments  must  be  out  of  con- 
tact with  the  walls  they  are  attached 
to  stone  pillars  that  rest  on  foundations 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  building. 

OBSTETRICS.  See  Midwifery. 

OCCIDENT,  the  western  quarter  of 
the  hemisphere,  so  called  from  the  de- 
cline or  setting  of  the  sun ; the  west : used 
in  contradistinction  to  orient. 

OCCULTATION  is  the  term  used  in 
astronomy  for  the  hiding  of  a star  or 
planet  from  our  sight  by  passing  behind 
some  other  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
specifically  applied  to  the  eclipse  of  a 
star  or  planet  by  the  moon.  The  word 
denotes  also  the  time  during  which  a 
star  or  planet  is  so  hidden  from  our  sight. 

OCCULTISM,  an  “occult”  property 
of  matter  is,  in  mediaeval  phraseology, 
a property  that  requires  to  be  made 
manifest  by  experimentation  ; and  occult 
science  is  simply  experimental  science. 
The  term  has  undergone  a curious  trans- 
formation of  meaning.  As  such  science 
was  the  occupation  of  the  few,  and  was 
not  seldom  suspect  to  the  reigning  the- 
ology, the  word  “occult”  gradually 
assumed  the  significance  that  it  now 
possesses,  of  something  magical  or  un- 
canny or  supernormal. 

OCCUPANCY,  in  law,  the  taking  pos- 
session of  a thing  not  belonging  to  any 
person,  and  the  right  acquired  by  such 
taking  possession. 

OCEAN,  or  SEA,  the  vast  body  of 
water  which  covers  more  than  three- 
fifths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  Al- 
though no  portion  of  it  is  completely 
detached  from  the  rest,  the  ocean  has 
often  been  divided  into  several  great 
basins  or  areas,  viz.  the  Pacific  ocean, 
which  separates  Asia  and  Australia  from 
America;  the  Atlantic  ocean,  which 
separates  America  from  Europe  and 
Africa;  and  the  Indian  ocean,  which 
intervenes  between  Africa  and  Australia, 
together  with  the  Arctic  and  the  Ant- 
arctic oceans,  round  the  north  and  south 
poles  respectively.  Between  these  no 


OCEANIA 


OCTOPUS 


very  definite  limits  can  be  drawn ; thus 
it  is  impossible  to  say  where  the  Atlantic 
or  the  Pacific  ends  and  the  Antarctic 
or  Southern  ocean  begins.  The  bed  of 
the  ocean  appears  to  present  the  same 
irregularities  as  the  surface  of  the  land, 
being  diversified  by  rocks,  mountains, 
plains,  and  deep  valleys.  The  deepest 
soundings  at  present  known  are  515.'! 
fathoms  (in  the  South  Pacific),  4655 
fathoms  (northeast  of  Japan),  and  4561 
fathoms  (north  of  Porto  Rico).  (See 
Atlantic  Ocean,  Pacific  Ocean,  etc.) 
The  waters  of  the  ocean  vary  as  greatly 
in  temperature  as  they  do  in  depth. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  ordinary  effects 
of  isolation ; but  the  abrupt  changes  and 
anomalous  distribution  of  temperature 
is  chiefly  owing  to  currents.  (See  Cur- 
rents, Marine.)  The  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans  are  both  warmer  in  low  latitudes 
than  the  Atlantic,  and  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  equatorial  areas  at  the 
surface  is  assumed  to  be  81°. 5;  the 
warmth  of  the  North  Atlantic  is  anoma- 
lous, and  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Gulf 
Stream.  This  high  temperature  only 
applies  to  the  surface  water  of  the  ocean, 
for  experience  shows  that  in  both 
hemispheres  and  in  all  latitudes  the 
basic  water  of  the  ocean  is  exceedingly 
cold.  In  low  latitudes  water  at  32°  has 
been  drawn  from  great  depths;  while  in 
high  latitudes  water  at  26°  has  been 
found.  This  phenomenon  is  accounted 
for  by  the  supposition  that  the  cold 
water  at  the  poles,  by  reason  of  its 
specific  gravity,  sinks  to  the  bottom  and 
spreads  throughout  the  ocean  basin. 
The  saltness  of  the  ocean  is  due  to  the 
presence  of  various  saline  ingredients 
(chiefly  chloride  of  sodium  or  common 
salt),  which  are  generally  found  in  the 
proportion  of  from  30  to  40  per  thou- 
sand. Recent  observations  have  shown 
that  the  color  and  transparency  of  the 
water  of  the  ocean  are  in  a large  measure 
dependent  on  the  degree  of  saltness. 
In  general  it  is  found  that  the  greater 
the  saltness  the  greater  the  transpar- 
ency, and  also  that  where  the  saltness 
is  very  great  the  water  is  of  a dark-blue 
color,  that  where  it  is  less  the  water  is  of 
lighter  blue,  inclining  to  green,  and  that 
in  the  neighborhood  of  rivers  (where 
the  saltness  is  reduced  to  a minimum) 
the  water  is  as  a rule  of  a greenish-yellow. 

OCEA'NIA  includes  all  the  islands  of 
the  Pacific  between  Asia  on  the  north- 
west, the  Indian  ocean  on  the  west,  the 
Antarctic  ocean  on  the  south,  and 
America  on  the  north  and  east.  It  is 
usually  divided  into  Australasia,  Poly- 
nesia, and  Malaysia  or  the  Malay 
Archipelago. 

OCE'ANUS,  in  Greek  and  Roman 
mythology,  the  eldest  of  the  Titans,  re- 
garded as  the  god  of  the  ocean  or  the 
river  surrounding  the  earth,  and  the 
parent  of  the  Oceanides  or  ocean  nymphs. 

O'CELOT,  a digitigrade  carnivorous 
mammal  of  the  cat  kind  peculiar  to  the 
American  continent.  It  attains  a length 
of  about  3 feet,  while  the  tail  measures 
some  18  inches  more.  The  ocelot  in- 
habits great  forests;  its  food  consists 
mainly  of  birds  and  rodents;  and  it  is 
timid  but  bloodthirsty. 

OCHRE,  a combination  of  peroxide 
of  iron  with  water;  but  the  name  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  clays  colored  with  the 


oxides  of  iron  in  various  proportions. 
Considerable  quantities  of  ochre  are 
obtained  from  the  ferruginous  mud  sepa- 
rated from  tin  and  copper  ores;  and  it 
is  also  found  in  natural  beds  some  feet 
thick  in  the  more  recent  formations. 
Ochres  vary  in  color  from  a pale  sandy 
yellow  to  a brownish  red,  and  are  much 
used  in  painting.  , 


Ocelot. 


O’CONNELL,  Daniel,  Irish  agitator 
born  in  Kerry  in  1775.  He  studied  for 
the  Irish  bar,  and  soon  became  dis- 
tinguished for  legal  skill  and  oratory. 
Turning  his  energy  to  Irish  politics  he 
advocated  Catholic  Emancipation;  skil- 
fully kept  the  agitation  within  constitu- 
tional lines;  became  member  for  Clare 
in  1828;  and  attained  his  triumph  in  the 
following  year  when  the  government 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  granted  the 
Catholic  claims.  After  the  Reform  Bill 
he  became  conspicuous  as  the  head  of  a 
parliamentary  body  called  “O’Connell’s 
Tail.”  In  1841  he  developed  his  policy, 
called  together  enormous  meetings 
throughout  Ireland,  and  loudly  raised 
a cry  for  the  Repeal  of  the  Union.  This 
agitation  Sir  R.  Peel  and  the  govern- 
ment determined  to  put  down.  They 
arrested  O’Connell,  obtained  a convic- 
tion, and  sentenced  him  to  twelve 
months’  imprisonment  with  a fine  of 
110,000.  In  a few  months  the  House  of 
Lords  quashed  this  judgment.  Mean- 
while, however,  a new  and  more  ad- 
vanced party  had  sprung  up  in  the 
Repeal  Association,  and  the  health  of 
O’Connell  was  broken  down.  He  made 
his  last  speech  in  parliament  April,  1847, 
and  died  the  following  month  at  Genoa, 
on  his  way  to  Rome. 

OC'TAGON,  in  geometry,  is  a figure  of 
eight  sides  and  angles,  which  when  the 
sides  and  angles  are  all  equal  is  called  a 
regular  octagon,  and  when  Hiey  are  not 
equal  an  irregular  octagon. 

OCTAHE'DRON,  in  geometry,  a solid 
contained  by  eight  equal  and  equilateral 
triangles.  It  is  one  of  the  five  regular 
bodies. 

OC'TANT,  in  astronomy,  that  position 
or  aspect  of  a heavenly  body,  as  the 
moon  or  a planet,  when  half-way  be- 
tween conjunction  or  opposition  and 
quadrature,  or  distant  from  another 
point  or  body  the  eighth  part  of  a circle 
or  45°.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  an 
instrument  for  measuring  angles,  resem- 
bling a sextant  or  quadrant  in  principle, 
but  having  an  arc  the  eighth  part  of  a 
circle,  or  45° 

OCTAVE,  in  music,  an  interval  of 
seven  degrees  or  twelve  semitones  above 
or  below  some  sound  counted  from;  or 
one  sound  eight  tones  higher  than 
another.  The  octave  is  the  most  perfect 
of  the  chords,  consisting  of  six  full  tones 
and  two  semitones  major.  It  contains 


the  whole  diatonic  scale.  The  most 
simple  perception  that  we  can  have  of 
two  sounds  is  that  of  unisons,  or  sounds 
of  the  same  pitch,  the  vibrations  be- 
ginning and  ending  together.  The  next 
to  this  is  the  octave,  where  the  more 
acute  sound  makes  precisely  two  vibra- 
tions while  the  grave  or  deeper  makes 
one ; consequently,  the  vibrations  of  the 
two  meet  at  every  single  vibration  of 
the  more  grave  one.  Hence  the  ratio  of 
the  two  sounds  that  form  the  octave  is  aa 
1 to  2.  See  Music. 

OCTA'VIA,  daughter  of  Caius  Octav- 
ius and  of  Atia,  and  sister  to  the  Em- 
peror Augustus,  illustrious  for  he/ 
virtues,  her  beauty,  and  her  accomplish- 
ments, was  the  widow  of  Claudius 
Marcellus,  by  whom  she  had  a son  and 
two  daughters,  when  she  was  married, 
at  the  instance  of  her  brother,  to  the 
triumvir  Mark  Antony.  The  latter  neg- 
lected her  for  Cleopatra,  queen  of 
Egypt;  notwithstanding  which,  Octavia 
displayed  the  most  noble  fidelity  to  his 
house  and  fortunes,  and  devoted  herself 
to  the  education  of  all  his  children,  until 
he  divorced  and  ordered  her  to  leave  his 
house,  a command  she  obeyed  without 
complaint.  She  died  in  11  b.c. 

OCTAVIUS,  or  OCTAVIANUS  See 
Augustus. 

OCTA'VO,the  size  of  one  leaf  of  a sheet 
of  paper  folded  so  as  to  make  eight 
leaves:  usually  written  8vo;  hence,  a 
book  having  eight  leaves  to  the  sheet. 
There  are  different  sizes  of  octavo, 
arising  from  the  different  sizes  of  paper 
employed;  as,  foolscap  8vo,  demy  8vo, 
imperial  8vo. 

OCTOBER,  originally  the  eighth 
month  in  the  Roman  calendar,  whence  its 
name,  which  it  still  retained  after  the 
beginning  of  the  year  had  been  changed 
from  March  to  January. 

OCTOPUS,  familiarly  known  as  cut- 
tle-fishes. They  have  eight  arms,  each 
with  two  rows  of  suckers,  which  are 
sessile  or  unstalked.  The  prominent 
head  is  joined  to  the  body  by  a distinct 
nepk,  and  the  body  itself  is  short,  gen- 
erally more  or  less  rounded  in  shape, 
and  unprovided  with  side  or  lateral 


The  common  octopus  or  cuttle. 


fins.  They  have  attained  a notoriety 
from  tales  circulated  concerning  their 
ferocity  and  the  existence  of  gigantic 
members  of  the  genus,  though  the  larg- 
est cuttle-fishes  that  have  been  met 
with  have  belonged  to  other  genera.  The 
common  cuttle  is  found  on  the  British 
shores,  but  is  more  common  in  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  said  to  reach  a 
length  of  9 feet  and  a weight  of  68 
pounds,  the  arms  being  long  and  slender 


ODDFELLOWS 


OGDENSBURG 


ODDFELLOWS,  a large  and  exten- 
sively ramified  friendly  society,  having 
its  headquarters  in  Manchester.  It  was 
originally  an  association  of  a convivial 
kind,  modeled  on  freemasonry,  and  still 
retains  watchwords  and  secret  signs. 
It  assumed  its  present  form  at  a con- 
vention in  Manchester  (1813),  and  has 
spread  widely  in  Britain  and  elsewhere. 
The  organization  was  introduced  into 
the  United  States  in  1819,  and  severed 
its  connection  with  the  British  Union  in 
1842.  Branch  societies  connected  with 
England  or  the  United  States  have  been 
founded  in  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
South  Africa,  South  America,  etc. 

ODE,  a poem  of  lyrical  character, 
supposed  to  express  the  poet’s  feelings 
in  the  pressure  of  high  excitement,  and 
taking  an  irregular  form  from  the 
emotional  fervency  which  seeks  spon- 
taneous rhythm  for  its  varied  utterance. 
The  Greeks  called  every  lyrical  poem 
adapted  to  singing — and  hence  opposed 
to  the  elegiac  poem — an  ode  (ode,  that 
is,  song).  The  principal  ancient  writers 
who  employed  this  form  of  verse  were 
Pindar,  Anacreon,  Sappho,  Alcaeus, 
among  the  Greeks,  and  Horace  among 
the  Romans.  As  employed  by  English 
writers  the  ode  takes  either  the  Pindaric 
form  of  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode 
irregularly  arranged  and  contrasted;  or, 
as  in  its  later  development,  the  form  of 
a regular  series  of  regular  stanzas.  The 
former  style  is  found  in  Dryden’s  Ode 
for  St.  Cecilia’s  Day,  while  the  latter  is 
seen  in  Shelley’s  Ode  to  a Skylark.  The 
masters  of  English  poesy  who  have 
carried  the  ode  to  its  highest  achieve- 
ments are  Milton,  Dry  den,  Collins,  Gray, 
Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Keats,  and 
Shelly. 

ODES'SA,  a Russian  seaport  in  the 
government  of  Kherson,  situated  on  the 
Black  Sea,  between  the  mouth  of  the 
Dnieper  and  Dniester,  on  the  bay  of 
Odessa.  Odessa  is  one  of  the  chief 
wheat  ports  in  the  East,  while  wool,  tim- 
ber, hemp,  flax,  iron,  coal,  etc.,  are 
among  the  staple  exports.  Besides  the 
maritime  trade,  Odessa  carries  on  a 
large  overland  trade  by  rail  with  Ger- 
many, Austria,  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy.  Pop.  405,041. 

ODIN,  or  WODEN,  the  chief  god  of 
Scandinavian  mythology,  the  omnis- 
cient ruler  of  heaven  and  earth,  having 
his  seat  in  Valaskjalf,  where  he  receives 
through  his  two  ravens  tidings  of  all 
that  takes  place  in  the  world.  As  war- 
god  he  holds  his  court  in  Valhalla, 
where  all  brave  warriors  arrive  after 
death  and  enjoy  the  tumultuous  pleas- 
ures they  delighted  in  while  on  earth. 
His  wife  is  Frigga.  The  fourth  day  of 
the  week,  Wednesday,  derived  its  name 
from  this  deity. 

ODOA'CER,  the  first  barbarian  king 
or  ruler  of  Italy  after  the  fall  of  the 
Western  Empire,  a.d.  476  to  493.  He 
was  chosen  head  of  the  barbarian  con- 
federates, and  having  overthrown  Rom- 
ulus Augustulus,  the  last  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors,  he  assumed  the  title  of 
king  in  476.  He  ruled  with  vigor  and 
wisdom.  In  489  Italy  was  invaded  by 
the  Ostrogoths  under  Theodoric,  and  in 
repeated  battles  Odoacer  was  defeated, 
being  latterly  besieged  in  Ravenna,  on 
the  fall  of  which  he  was  assassinated. 


ODONTOGLOS'SUM,  an  extensive 
genus  of  orchids,  natives  of  Central 
America,  much  prized  by  cultivators 


Odontoglossum. 


for  their  magnificent  flowers,  which  are 
remarkable  both  for  their  size  and 
beauty  of  their  colors. 

ODYSSEUS  (o-dis'us).  See  Ulysses. 

OD'YSSEY,  an  epic  poem  attributed 
to  Homer,  in  which  the  adventures  of 
Odysseus  (Ulysses)  are  celebrated.  See 
Homer. 

■ CECUMENTCAL,  universal,  an  epithet 
applied  to  the  general  councils  of  the 
church.  From  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  the  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople took  the  title  of  oecumenical, 
in  the  same  sense  as  the  epithet  Catholic 
is  used  in  the  Western  Church.  See 
Council. 

CE'DIPUS,  in  ancient  Greek  legend, 
son  of  King  Lalus  of  Thebes,  was  ex- 
posed as  an  infant — on  account  of  an 
oracle  saying  that  Laius  would  be  killed 
by  his  son — and  was  brought  up  at  the 
court  of  Corinth.  Having  solved  the 
riddle  of  the  Sphinx  be  became  king  of 
Thebes,  unknowingly  killed  his  own 
father  and  married  his  mother  Jocasta 
a fate  foretold  by  the  Delphic  oracle. 
On  realizing  v^hat  had  been  done  Jocasta 
hanged  herself,  and  Oedipus  put  out  his 
own  eyes.  This  story  has  been  used  by 
the  poets  to  symbolize  the  helplessness 
of  man  before  Fate.  The  GEdipus  of 
.iEschylus  and  Euripides  are  lost,  but 
the  King  QSpidus  and  (Edipus  at  Colonos 
of  Sophocles  remain.  The  story  has  also 
been  made  the  subject  of  tragedies  by 
Corneille,  Voltaire,  Ch6nier,  Dryden 
and  Lee. 

CESOPH'AGUS,  or  GULLET,  the  mem- 
braneous and  muscular  tube  which 
leads  from  the  pharynx  or  back  part  of 
the  mouth  to  the  stomach.  In  man  the 
length  of  the  gullet  is  from  9 to  10  inches. 
It  begins  at  the  fifth  cervical  or  neck 
vertebra,  at  a point  corresponding  with 
the  cricoid  cartilage  of  the  larynx,  and 
it  runs  in  a slightly  deviating  course 
downward  to  the  stomach.  Thus  in  the 
neck  it  lies  close  behind  the  windpipe; 
while  in  the  chest  it  bends  to  the  right 
side  and  then  to  the  left  before  it  pierces 
the  midriff  or  diaphragm — which  forms 
the  floor  of  the  chest — by  a special 
aperture  existing  in  that  structure. 
Internally  the  gullet  is  lined  by  mucous 
membrane,  and  between  the  mucous 
and  muscular  layers  cellular  tissue 
exists.  The  mucous  or  lining  membrane 
is  thick  and  of  pale  color,  and  is  ar- 
ranged in  longitudinal  furrows  Or  folds. 


In  the  lower  animals  the  modifications 
of  the  oesophagus  are  various.  In  birds, 
for  instance,  it  presents  the  expansion 
known  as  the  crop. 

OFEN.  See  Budapest. 

OFFA,  a distinguished  king  of  Mercia, 
who  attained  the  throne  after  Ethelbald, 
on  defeating  the  ursurper  Beornred, 
A.D.  757.  He  founded  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Albans,  and  was  a liberal  patron  to  the 
church.  He  died  in  796. 

OFFENBACH,  Jacques,  French  com- 
poser, born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Cologne 
in  1819,  died  1880.  He  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  in  1835;  became  pro- 
ficient on  the  violoncello,  and  for  some 
time  played  on  this  instrument  in  the 
orchestra  of  the  Th4fltre  Comique.  In 
1847  he  became  conductor  at  the  Th6&tre 
Frangais,  and  subsequently  opened  the 
“Bouffes  Parisiens,”  where  he  enjoyed 
immense  popularity  as  the  composer  of 
such  operas  as  Orph4e  aux  Enfers,  La 
Grande  Duchesse,  La  Belle  H4Rne, 
Madame  Favart,  La  Barbe  Bleue, 
Genevieve  de  Brabant,  and  La  Prin- 
cesse  de  Trebizonde. 

OFFERTORY,  that  portion  of  the 
service  of  the  Eucharist  in  which  the 
offerings  of  the  congregation  are  made, 
whether  these  consist  of  bread  and  wine 
or  alms.  The  term  is  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  denote  that  portion 
of  the  mass  which  is  being  sung  when 
the  priest  offers  the  bread  and  wine; 
while  in  the  Church  of  England  it  is 
applied  to  the  sentences  read  from  the 
service  when  the  alms  are  being  col- 
lected, or  is  applied  to  the  alms  them- 
selves 

OFFICERS,  Military  and  Naval.  In 
the  army,  general  officers  are  those  whose 
command  extends  to  a body  of  forces 
composed  of  several  regiments,  as  the 
general,  lieutenant-general,  major-gen- 
erals, and  brigadiers.  Staff-officers, 
those  who  belong  to  the  general  staff, 
as  the  quartermaster-general,  adjutant- 
generals,  aides-de-camp,  etc.  See  Navy, 
Army  and  Relative  Rank  In. 

OFFING,  a nautical  term  signif3ring 
the  position  of  a vessel,  or  of  a portion 
of  the  sea  within  sight  of  land,  relatively 
to  the  coast.  The  offing  may  be  taken  to 
represent  that  part  of  the  sea  beyond 
the  midline  between  the  eoast  and  the 
horizon. 

OG,  king  of  Bashan  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites, 
by  whom  he  and  his  people  were  de- 
stroyed. He  has  been  transformed  by 
rabbinical  fables  into  one  of  the  giants 
who  lived  before  the  flood,  and  escaped 
the  general  inundation  by  taking  refuge 
on  the  roof  of  Noah’s  ark. 

OGDEN,  the  capital  of  Weber  co., 
Utah,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ogden 
and  Weber  rivers,  the  mouth  of  Ogden 
canon,  and  the  foot-hills  of  the  Wasatch 
mountains;  on  the  Union  Pac.,  the 
Central  Pac.,  and  the  Rio  Grande  West, 
railways;  37  miles  n.  of  Salt  Lake  City. 
It  derives  excellent  power  for  industrial 
purposes  from  the  rivers,  has  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  water  from  mountain 
springs,  and  is  in  an  agricultural,  fruit- 
growing, iron,  salt,  lime,  buildingstone, 
and  coal  region.  Pop.  19,512. 

OGDENSBURG,  a city  in  St.  Law- 
rence CO.,  N.  Y.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  Oswegatchie 


OGLESBY 


OHIO 


rivers;  on  the  Central  Vt.  and  the  Rome, 
Watertown  and  Ogdensburg  railways; 
opposite  Prescott,  Canada,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  steam  ferry  ; 175  miles 
n.n.w.  of  Albany.  The  city  is  the  head- 
quarters of  a line  of  screw  steamers 
plying  between  Chicago  and  inter- 
mediate lake  ports,  and  annually 
handles  a large  amount  of  grain  and 
lumber,  besides  general  lake  and  river 
freight.  Pop.  14,272. 

OGLESBY  (o'g’lz-bl),  Richard  James, 
American  soldier  and  politician,  was 
born  in  Oldham  co.,  Ky.,  in  1824.  He 
moved  to  Illinois  and  served  as  a lieu- 
tenant in  the  Mexican  war,  participat- 
ing in  the  battles  of  Vera  Cruz  and  Cerro 
Gordo.  During  the  gold  excitement  of 
1849  he  crossed  the  continent  to  the 
mining  districts  of  California,  but  re- 
turned in  1851.  In  1860  he  was  elected 
state  senator  but  preferred  to  join  the 
Union  forces  in  the  civil  war.  He  was 
made  major-general.  In  1864  he  was 
elected  governor  of  Illinois,  and  re- 
elected in  1872.  He  was  United  States 
senator  from  1873  to  1879,  and  was 
again  elected  governor  in  1885.  He 
died  in  1899. 

OHI'O,  a river  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  formed  by  the  confluence  of 
the  Alleghany  from  the  north  and  the 
Monongahela  from  the  south,  at  Pitts- 
burg in  Pennsylvania,  where  it  is  a 
navigable  stream  600  yards  broad.  It 
flows  W.S.W.,  separating  the  states  of  W. 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  on  the  south 
from  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  on  the 
north,  and  enters  the  Mississippi  at 
Cairo.  Its  length  from  Pittsburg  to  its 
junction  with  the  Mississippi  is  975 
miles;  area  of  basin,  214,000  sq.  miles. 
The  width  of  the  river  varies  from  400  to 
1400  yards;  average  width,  about  800 
yards,  at  its  mouth  900  yards.  Its  prin- 
cipal affluents  are  the  Miami,  Kentucky, 
Wabash,  Cumberland,  and  Tennessee. 

OHIO,  a state  in  the  American  Union 
which  ranks  fourth  in  point  of  popula- 
tion and  agricultural  products,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Lake  Erie  and 
the  state  of  Michigan,  west  by  Indiana, 
south  by  Kentucky,  southeast  and  east 
by  West  Virginia,  and  northeast  by 
Pennsylvania;  area,  20,760  sq.  miles. 
It  ranks  thirty-second  in  size  among  the 
states.  In  the  north  the  surface  is 
generally  level,  and  in  some  places 
marshy;  in  the  east  and  southeast  it  is 
rugged  and  broken  by  hills,  but  never 
rises  into  mountains.  In  its  natural 
state  Ohio  was  covered  with  dense 
forests;  now  they  cover  but  about  one- 
fifth,  the  trees  most  abundant  being 
several  varieties  of  oak,  maple,  ash, 
black  and  white  walnut,  chestnut, 
beech,  poplar,  sycamore,  linden,  etc. 
The  drainage  is  divided  between  the 
Ohio  and  Lake  Erie.  The  former,  which 
receives  the  far  larger  share,  bounds 
the  state  partly  on  the  east  and  wholly 
on  the  south,  and  is  augmented  from 
within  it  by  the  Mahoning,  Beaver, 
Muskingum,  Hockhocking,  Scioto,  and 
the  Great  and  Little  Miami;  the  latter, 
which  washes  the  northern  frontier  for 
160  miles,  receives  the  Maumee,  Portage, 
Sandusky,  Huron,  Cuyahoga,  Grand, 
and  Ashtabula.  The  climate  is  pleasant 
and  healthful,  though  variable.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  39.35  inches, 


very  evenly  distributed  through  the 
year. 

In  the  southeastern  part  the  soil  is 
formed  directly  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  underlying  rocks,  while  in  the  re- 
maining area,  covering  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  state,  it  consists  of  glacial 
drift  of  great  fertility.  This  soil  contains 
a great  percentage  of  limestone  material 
in  the  west,  while  in  the  northeast  it 
consists  chiefly  of  clay,  and  is  well 
adapted  for  wheat-growing.  The  alluvial 
soil  deposited  along  the  river  courses  is 
excellent  for  the  raising  of  Indian  corn. 
The  extreme  northwestern  part  of  the 
state  exhibits  certain  features  of  prairie 
country.  Both  the  upper  and  lower 
coal  measures  contains  several  workable 


Seal  of  Ohio. 


seams  interbedded  between  strata  of 
shale,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  clay, 
and  ranging  in  thickness  from  two  to 
over  a dozen  feet.  The  interbedding 
strata  of  the  coal  measures  yield  fire- 
clay and  building  stone,  and  here  also 
are  found  the  iron  ores  of  the  carbonate 
variety.  Gypsum  and  salt  deposits  also 
occur  at  various  places.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  events  in  the  mineralogical 
development  of  Ohio  was  the  discovery 
in  1884  of  petroleum  in  the  Trenton 
limestone  formation  of  Lower  Silurian 
age.  This  formation  as  well  as  the  Upper 
Silurian  inclosed  also  considerable  re- 
servoirs of  natural  gas. 

Petroleum  was  discovered  in  1884  and 
the  output  of  the  state  exceeds  that  of 
any  other.  The  petroleum  is  obtained 
in  two  sections  of  the  state,  the  south- 
east and  northwest.  The  former  is 
known  as  the  eastern  district,  and  the 
latter — themore  important — as  the  Lima 
district.  In  a third  region,  known  as  the 
Mecca-Belden  district,  small  quantities 
of  lubricating  oil  are  obtained.  The 
utilization  of  the  state’s  natural  gas 
resources  is  also  of  recent  development. 
There  are  two  gas  fields  corresponding 
in  a general  way  with  those  of  petroleum. 

Ohio  ranks  first  in  the  annual  value 
of  clay  products,  contributing  17.3  per 
'cent  of  the  total  output  for  the  country. 
The  state  regularly  ranks  first  in  the 
figures  for  the  sandstone  product. 
Limestone,  iron,  and  the  carbonate 
variety  of  ore  are  found  in  many  places; 
93.9  per  cent  of  the  total  land  area  is 
in  farms.  The  proximity  of  large  city 
markets  and  the  excellence  of  the 
transportation  facilities  help  to  stimu- 
late agriculture.  The  area  of  corn, 
wheat,  and  hay  each  exceeds  three 


million  acres.  Oats  are  also  exten- 
sively grown,  but  this  crop  decreased 
in  area  during  that  decade.  Rye,  bar- 
ley, and  buckwheat  are  not  exten- 
sively raised.  Ohio  is  one  of  the 
largest  producers  of  Irish  potatoes, 
sweet  corn,  tomatoes,  cabbage  and  to- 
bacco. Ohio  is  probably  the  largest 
producer  of  temperate  zone  orchard 
fruits.  The  region  around  Lake  Erie  is 
especially  favored  for  fruit-raising.  This 
region  has  become  noted  for  its  numer- 
ous and  extensive  vineyards.  Large 
quantities  of  small  fruits  are  grown. 
Horses,  sheep,  cattle,  and  swine  are 
reared  in  great  numbers.  Coal  and  iron 
are  abundant,  particularly  in  the  north- 
east, while  salt,  marble,  limestone,  free- 
stone, and  gypsum  are  found  in  many 
districts.  The  more  important  manufac- 
tures are  bar,  sheet,  and  railway  iron, 
machinery,  hardware,  and  various 
articles  in  metal;  leather,  woolen,  cloth, 
paper,  and  spirits.  Cotton,  silk,  flax, 
and  mixed  goods  are  also  made  to  some 
extent.  The  foreign  trade,  carried  on 
chiefly  with  Canada  across  Lake  Erie, 
is  comparatively  small;  but  a very  ex- 
tensive inland  trade  is  carried  on  both 
by  the  Ohio  and  by  numerous  canals 
and  railways,  which  traverse  the  coun- 
try in  every  direction.  Ohio  ranks  fifth 
in  its  total  railroad  mileage,  and  in  its 
mileage  per  100  sq.  miles  of  area,  21.61 
miles,  it  is  exceeded  by  only  one  other 
of  the  large  states.  Among  the  higher 
educational  establishments  are  the  uni- 
versity at  Athens;  several  denomina- 
tional universities  and  colleges;  schools 
of  law,  medicine,  and  theology.  Ohio 
sends  two  senators  and  twenty-one 
representatives  to  Congress,  and  has 
twenty-three  votes  in  the  presidential 
election. 

Ohio  was  discovered  by  La.  Salle, 
probably  as  early  as  1670,  and  the 
French  took  formal  possession  of  the 
whole  northwest  in  1671.  A few  years 
later  conflicting  claims  arose  between 
the  French  and  the  English  regarding 
this  territory,  which  were  set  at  rest  by 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763,  by  which 
France  surrendered  to  Great  Britain  all 
her  lands  in  the  north  and  west  as  far 
as  the  Mississippi.  In  1787  the  Ohio 
Company  of  Associates  was  organized  in 
New  England  by  those  who  had  served 
in  the  war  of  the  revolution,  and  under 
their  auspices  a large  tract  of  land  was 
purchased  from  the  government  in  the 
territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  river. 
This  was  the  first  public  sale  of  land  by 
the  United  States  government.  In  con- 
nection with  its  sale  the  famous  “Ordi- 
nance of  1788,”  was  passed,  guarantee- 
ing forever  in  the  territory  civil  and 
religious  freedom,  the  system  of  com- 
mon schools,  trial  by  jury,  and  the  right 
of  inheritance.  In  1288  Marietta  and 
Cincinnati  were  founded,  and  till  1791 
settlements  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
territory  increased  rapidly.  In  that  year 
the  Indians  became  troublesome.  Late 
in  1794  a victory  was  gained  by  Gen. 
Anthony  Wayne  over  the  Indians  at 
"Fallen  Timbers”  on  the  Maumee  river. 
The  year  after,  a treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded,  the  Indians  ceding  a great 

Eortion  of  the  territory,  which  settlers 
egan  at  once  to  fill.  Chillicothe  was 
made  the  seat  of  government  for  the 


OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY 


OKLAHOMA 


territory,  and  a capitol  building  erected. 
In  1802  a constitution  was  adopted  for 
the  eastern  division  of  the  territory 
northwest  of  the  Ohio,  to  be  known  as 
“Ohio,”  and  on  Feb.  19,  1803,  Ohio  was 
admitted  into  the  Union. 

The  state  supplied  more  than  its 
quota  of  troops  for  the  Mexican  war, 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  was 
exceedingly  active.  Seventy  regiments 
responded  to  the  first  call  for  troops, 
though  only  thirteen  were  asked.  Sol- 
diers were  sent  into  Virginia  and  helped 
to  save  West  Virginia  to  the  Union, 
and  the  prompt  action  of  Governor 
Dennison  had  its  influence  upon  Ken- 
tucky also.  A large  number  of  the  most 
successful  federal  officers  were  natives 
of  the  state,  as  Grant,  Sherman,  Mc- 
Dowell, Rosecrans,  Garfield,  and  others. 

Ohio  was  democratic  in  national 
elections  from  the  time  of  its  admission 
to  1836.  In  that  year  it  voted  with  the 
whigs  and  since  then  has  been  whig 
and  republican  with  the  exception  of 
the  years  1848  and  1852  when  it  cast  its 
vote  for  Cass  and  Pierce.  The  two 
largest  towns  are  Cincinnati  and  Cleve- 
land, others  being  Toledo  and  Dayton 
and  Columbus.  Pop.  about  4,600,000. 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  a co- 
educational state  institution  at  Colum- 
bus, Ohio.  It  was  founded  in  1870  as 
the  Ohio  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
college,  and  opened  in  1873.  The  uni- 
versity comprises  six  colleges:  Arts, 
philosophy  and  science;  agriculture  and 
domestic  science;  engineering;  law; 
pharmacy;  veterinary  science.  The  col- 
lege confers  the  bachelor’s  degree  in 
course  in  the  various  departments,  and 
the  engineer’s,  master’s,  and  doctor’s 
degrees  for  advanced  work.  Military 
instruction  and  the  wearing  of  a uniform 
are  required  of  the  students.  A labora- 
tory is  maintained  at  Sandusky  for 
summer  work. 

OHIO  UNIVERSITY,  a coeducational 
state  institution  at  Athens,  Ohio,  or- 
ganized in  1804.  Besides  the  collegiate 
department,  the  university  has  schools 
of  music  and  commerce,  a preparatory 
department,  and  a normal  college.  The 
bachelor’s  degree  in  arts,  philosophy, 
science,  and  pedagogy  is  given  in  course 
and  the  master’s  degree  after  one  year’s 
graduate  work.  Tuition  is  free. 

OHM  (6m),  Georg  Simon,  German 
physicist,  born  1787,  died  1854.  He  be- 
came successively  professor  of  physics  at 
Cologne,  director  of  the  Polytechnic  at 
Nuremberg,  and  professor  of  physics  at 
the  University  of  Munich.  He  was  the 
discoverer  of  what  is  known  as  “Ohm’s 
Law”  in  electricity. 

OHM,  the  unit  of  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  electricity.  A piece  of  pure 
copper  wire  485  meters  long  and  1 
millimeter  in  diameter  at  0°  C.  has  a re- 
sistanceof  about  one  ohm.  A “megohm” 
is  a resistance  equal  to  1,000,000  ohms, 
and  a microhm  is  a resistance  equal  to 
one-millionth  of  an  ohm. 

OHM’S  LAW,  an  important  law  in 
electricity,  deduced  by  Professor  Ohm, 
to  the  effect  that  the  intensity  of  the 
electric  current  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  whole  electro-motive  force  in 
operation,  and  inversely  proportional 
to  the  sum  of  the  resistances  in  the 
circuit.  ^ 


OIL-CAKE,  a cake  or  mass  of  com- 
pressed linseed  or  rape,  poppy,  mustard, 
cotton,  and  other  seeds  from  which  oil 
has  been  extracted.  Linseed-cake  is 
much  used  as  a food  for  cattle,  its  value 
as  a fattening  substance  being  greater 
than  that  of  any  kind  of  grain  or  pulse. 
Rape-cake  is  used  as  a fattening  food 
for  sheep.  These  and  other  oil-cakes  are 
also  valuable  as  manures. 

OIL  CITY,  a city  in  Venango  co..  Pa., 
at  the  junction  of  the  Allegheny  river 
and  Oil  creek;  on  the  Allegheny  Valley, 
the  Erie,  the  Lake  Shore  and  Mich. 
South.,  and  the  West.  N.  Y.  and  Pa. 
railways;  8 miles  e.n.e.  of  Franklin,  the 
county  seat,  18  miles  s.  of  Titusville. 
It  is  in  the  center  of  the  great  petroleum- 
oil  district.  Pop.  15,310. 

OIL-GAS,  the  inflammable  gas  and 
vapor  (chiefly  hydrocarbon)  obtained  by 
passing  fixed  oils  through  red-hot  tubes, 
and  which  may  be  used  like  coal-gas  for 
purposes  of  illumination.  The  oil  in  its 
passage  through  the  retorts  is  prin- 
cipally decomposed,  with  the  produc- 
tion of  ethylene,  marsh-gas,  hydrogen, 
carbonic  oxide,  benzene,  etc.,  a gas 
being  thus  produced  which  has  the 
great  advantages  of  being  pure  from 
sulphureous  contamination,  and  of  sup- 
porting a very  brilliant  flame  with  a very 
small  expenditure. 

OIL  OF  VITRIOL,  the  common  name 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

OIL-PAINTING.  See  Painting. 

OIL-PALM,  an  African  tree  abound- 
ing on  the  west  coast  of  that  continent, 
whose  fruit  yields  palm-oil.  See  Palm- 
oil. 

OILS,  a term  given  to  substances 
formed  within  living  animal  or  vegetable 
organisms,  liquid  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, having  a more  or  less  viscid  con- 
sistence, insoluble  in  and  lighter  than 
water,  taking  Are  when  heated  in  air, 
and  burning  with  a more  or  less  lumin- 
ous flame.  The  oils  are  usually  divided 
into  the  fat  or  fixed  oils,  and  the  volatile 
or  essential  oils.  Another  division  would 
be  into  vegetable  oils,  by  far  the  most 
numerous,  and  animal  oils;  and  as  a 
third  popular  division,  the  mineral  oils 
(petroleum,  naphtha).  The  fat  or  fixed 
oils  are  subdivided  into  the  drying  and 
the  non-drying  oils.  The  former  class 
includes  all  bils  which  thicken  when 
exposed  to  the  air,  through  the  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen,  and  are  converted 
thereby  into  varnish,  as,  for  example 
linseed,  nut,  poppy,  and  hemp-seed  oil. 
All  the  drying  oils  are  of  vegetable  origin. 
The  non-drying  oils  (which  are  partly 
of  vegetable,  partly  of  animal  origin) 
when  exposed  to  the  air  also  undergo  a 
change  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
acrid,  disagreeably-smelling,  acid  sub- 
stances, but  though  they  thicken  they 
do  not  become  dry.  The  fixed  vegetable 
oils  (whether  drying  or  non -drying)  are 
generally  prepared  by  subjecting  the 
seeds  of  the  plant  to  pressure,  with  or 
without  heat,  and  they  may  also  be 
extracted  by  means  of  certain  solvents. 
The  animal  oils  are,  for  the  most  part, 
the  fluid  parts  of  the  fat  of  the  animal, 
and  are  separated  by  heat  alone. 
Vegetable  fixed  oils  all  consist  of  one  or 
more  proximate  principles.  Thus  olive- 
oil  contains  chiefly  olein,  with  a little 
stearin;  linseed-oil  is  composed  mainly 


of  lin olein.  The  most  important  of  the 
drying  oils  are  linseed,  hemp,  walnut 
poppy,  candle-nut,  sesame,  sunflower, 
madia,  safflower.  Of  the  non-drying 
oils  the  chief  are  olive,  cotton -seed, 
colza,  rape,  ground-nut,  castor,  croton, 
etc.  A certain  number  of  the  vegetable 
oils  are  also  known  as  vegetable  fats, 
from  their  consistency  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, such  as  palm-oil,  cocoanut 
oil,  shea-butter.  The  animal  oils  com- 
prise neat’s-foot  oil,  train-oil,  seal-oil, 
sperm-oil,  porpoise-oil,  cod-liver  oil, 
shark-oil,  etc.  The  uses  of  the  fixed  oils 
are  very  various.  Many  are  used  as 
articles  of  food,  others  are  used  in 
medicine,  numbers  as  lubricants,  some 
in  the  composition  of  paints  and  var- 
nishes; some  are  important  sources  of 
artificial  light,  and  generally  when  acted 
on  by  an  alkali  they  form  soaps.  A use 
of  oil  now  coming  into  some  importance 
is  as  an  agent  for  calming  the  waves  of 
the  sea  in  certain  circumstances,  more 
especially  to  prevent  them  from  break- 
ing over  a boat  and  so  swamping  her. 

Volatile  oils  are  generally  obtained  by 
distilling  the  vegetables  which  afford 
them  with  water ; they  are  acrid,  caustic, 
aromatic,  and  limpid;  they  are  mostly 
soluble  in  alcohol,  forming  essences. 
They  boil  at  a temperature  consider- 
ably above  that  of  boiling  water,  some 
of  them  undergoing  partial  decompo- 
sition. A few  of  them  are  hydro-carbons 
the  greater  number,  however,  contain 
oxygen  as  one  of  their  ultimate  elements. 
They  are  chiefly  used  in  medicine  and 
perfumery;  and  a few  of  them  are  ex- 
tensively employed  in  the  arts  as  vehicles 
for  colors,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnishes,  especially  oil  of  turpentine. 
They  are  very  numerous,  among  them 
being  the  oils  of  anise,  bergamot,  clove, 
cinnamon,  cajeput,  lavender,  lemon, 
lime,  orange,  mint,  peppermint,  nutmeg, 
marjoram,  rosemary,  thyme,  etc. 

OISE,  a northern  department  in 
France,  Beauvais  is  the  chief  town. 
Pop.  403,146. 

OKLAHO'MA,  one  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Kansas,  on 
the  E.  by  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  on  S. 
by  Texas,  on  W.  by  Texas  and  New  Mex- 
ico, area,  70,430  sq.  miles.  It  exceeds 
in  area  twelve  of  the  states,  or  an 
area  greater  than  the  whole  of  New 
England.  It  has  mostly  the  character 
of  a prairie,  and  considerable  portions 
are  bare  and  arid,  though  others  are 
very  fertile.  Its  rivers  are  chiefly  the 
Red  river  and  its  tributaries,  and  the 
Canadian  river,  the  Cimarron  and  other 
tributaries  of  the  Arkansas.  It  pro- 
duces crops  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  cotton, 
sorghum,  millet,  etc.,  while  large  num- 
bers of  cattle  are  reared.  Oklahoma  is 
making  extraordinarily  rapid  advances 
in  prosperity,  and  now  possesses  well- 
built  towns,  an  extensive  system  of 
railways,  many  public  schools  and  in- 
stitutions. 

The  soil  is  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  the  underlying  rock  forma- 
tions, and  consists  chiefly  of  red  clay 
and  sandstone  material.  In  the  river 
valleys  these  are  mixed  with  a rich  black 
alluvium,  and  the  soils  are  generally  of 
sufficient  depth  to  be  of  almost  inex- 
haustible fertility.  There  are  some 


OKLAHOMA,  UNIVERSITY  Of 


OLIVARE2 


forests  of  oak,  walnut,  and  hickory  in  the 
east,  but  the  western  plains  are  gen- 
erally treeless,  and  covered  with  grama 
drop-seed,  and  bunch  grasses,  while  in 
the  extreme  west  are  found  sage-brush, 
yucca,  and  cactus. 

Oklahoma  is  preeminently  an  agri- 
cultural and  stock-raising  region.  The 
development  of  agriculture  since  the 
’ territory  was  opened  to  settlement  has 
been  phenomenal.  The  cotton  yield  per 
acre  is  in  excess  of  that  of  any  other 
state  or  territory.  Corn  and  wheat  lead 
in  importance.  Other  cereal  crops  are 
oats,  Kafir  corn,  barley,  and  rye.  Hay 
and  forage,  potatoes,  sorghum,  melons, 
peanuts,  castor  beans,  and  broom  corn 


Seal  of  Oklahoma. 


are  also  produced.  Fruit  is  also  grown, 
over  6,000,000  peach  trees  bearing 
fruit.  The  western  part  of  the  state 
is  given  up  to  cattle-raising,  which 
flourished  before  the  region  was  ope;  ed 
to  settlement.  The  number  of  cattle 
has  increased  prodigiously  since  that 
time.  Horses,  mules,  and  swine  are 
also  important,  and  some  sheep  are 
raised.  The  flouring  and  grist-mill  in- 
dustry is  the  most  prominent  of  the 
manufactures.  Cotton -ginning  and  the 
manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil  are  next 
in  importance.  Wheat  is  much  the 
largest  export.  Coal,  asphalt,  oil,  nat- 
ural gas,  granite,  marble,  gypsum,  lead, 
and  zinc,  are  produced.  The  state 
has  nearly  6,000  miles  of  railroad. 

Oklahoma  was  a part  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  and  was  included  in  the  “un- 
organized or  Indian  country”  set  apart 
by  congress  in  1834.  The  Creek  Indians 
(June  14,  1866)  ceded  to  the  United 
States  the  western  part  of  their  domain 
in  Indian  Territory,  for  30  cents  an 
acre,  while  the  Seminoles  gave  up  their 
entire  holdings  for  15  cents  an  acre. 
The  Sacs  and  Foxes,  Cheyennes,  and 
other  tribes  were  settled  upon  part  of 
these  lands,  but  great  tracts  remained 
unoccupied.  In  1890  the  territory  of 
Oklahoma  was  created.  In  1891  almost 
300,000  acres  of  land,  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  Sac  and  Fox,  Pottawatomie, 
Shawnee,  Cheyenne,  and  Arapahoe  In- 
dians, was  thrown  open  to  settlement, 
and  in  1893"  the  Cherokee  strip  of 
6,000,000  acres  was  also  opened.  The 
first  Legislature  met  at  Guthrie,  .August 
27,  but  spent  almost  the  entire  session 
quarreling  over  the  location  of  the  cap- 
ital, which  remained  at  Guthrie.  The 
agitation  for  statehood  began  in  1891,  ^ 


and  a bill  admitting  Oklahoma  as  a 
State  passed  the  House  of  the  Fifty- 
seventh  Congress,  but  failed  to  reach  a 
vote  in  the  Senate.  In  June,  1906,  it 
was  provided  by  Congress  that  Okla- 
homa and  the  Indian  Territory  might 
adopt  a constitution  and  become  a 
state. 

In  September,  1907,  the  constitution 
was  submitted  to  the  people  and  was 
adopted  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
In  November,  1907,  the  state  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  union.  In  1908  the  state 
went  Democratic. 

Indians  of  various  tribes  form  an 
important  element  in  the  population. 
Guthrie  is  the  capital.  Oklahoma 
City  is  also  an  important  center. 
Pop.  1,414,042. 

OKLAHOMA'CITY,  a city  and  capital 
of  Oklahoma  co.,  Okl.,  on  the  North 
Canadian  river,  and  the  Atch.,  Top.  and 
Santa  F4  railroad;  25  miles  s.  of  Guthrie. 
The  city  is  the  largest  cotton-market  in 
Oklahoma;  contains  flour-mills,  cotton- 
gins,  brick-yards,  packing-houses,  and 
several  hotels ; and  has  a large  trade  in 
agricultural  products  and  lumber.  Pop. 
12,415. 

OLAF,  or  ST.  OLAF,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  Norwegian  kings, 
great-great-grandson  of  Harald  Haar- 
fager,  and  son  of  Harald,  chief  of  the 
district  of  Granland,  was  bom  about 
995.  He  was  a friend  of  the  Normans, 
and  fought  as  an  ally  of  Ethelred’s  in 
England.  He  afterward  established 
himself  on  the  throne  of  Norway,  and 
was  a zealous  supporter  of  Christianity. 
Canute  the  Great  having  landed  in  Nor- 
way with  an  army,  Olaf  fled  to  Russia, 
and  in  attempting  to  recover  his  do- 
minions he  was  defeated  and  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Stiklestad  (1030).  Since  1164 
he  has  been  honored  as  the  patron  saint 
of  Norway.  The  order  of  St.  Olaf,  a Nor- 
wegian order  given  in  reward  for  serv- 
ices rendered  to  king  and  country  or  to 
art  and  science,  was  founded  in  1847. 

OLBERS,  Heinrich  Wilhelm  Mat- 
thseus,  a German  astronomer,  born  in 
1758,  died  1840.  He  directed  his  atten- 
tion particularly  to  comets,  and  in  1815 
he  discovered  a new  one,  which  bears 
his  name.  Another  discovery  for  which 
he  is  still  better  known  is  that  of  two 
minor  planets,  Pallas  in  1802,  and  Vesta 
in  1807. 

OLDENBURG,  a grand-duchy  in  the 
north  of  Germany,  consisting  of  three 
separate  and  distinct  territories,  viz. : 
the  duchy  of  Oldenburg,  the  principality 
of  Liibeck,  and  the  principality  of  Bir- 
kenfeld;  total  area,  2479  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
Oldenburg,  318,434;  Liibeck,  37,340; 
Birkenfeld,  43,406;  total,  399,180.  The 
capital  is  Oldenburg  (see  next  article). 

OLDENBURG,  a town  of  Germany, 
capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  same 
name,  24  miles  w.n.w.  of  Bremen,  on  the 
Hunte  (which  is  navigable).  It  has  fine 
promenades  on  the  site  of  the  old  forti- 
fications, a grand-ducal  palace,  public 
library  of  150,000  volumes,  picture- 
gallery,  gymnasium,  manufactures  of 
glass,  leather,  earthenware,  etc.  Pop. 
26,797. 

OLDHAM,  a town  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  6 miles  northeast  of  Man- 
chester. Pop.  pari.  bor.  194,197;  mun. 
bor.  137,238. 


OLD  RED  SANDSTONE,  a geological 
term  made  popular  by  the  writings  of 
Hugh  Miller,  and  applied  by  him  to  the 
red  sandstone  which  underlies  the  car- 
boniferous system,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  New  Red  Sandstone,  which  over- 
lies  the  latter.  It  is  now  generally  in- 
cluded in  the  Devonian  system.  See 
Geolosy. 

OLD  STYLE.  See  Calendar. 

OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Bible. 

OLEAN'DER,  a plant  known  also  by 
the  name  of  rose-bay,  a beautiful  ever- 
green shrub,  with  flowers  in  clusters, 
of  a fine  rose  or  white  color  but  of  an 
indifferent  smell.  The  plant,  especially 
the  bark  of  the  root,  is  medicinal  and 
poisonous. 

OLEAS'TER,  also  called  wild  olive 
tree,  a small  tree  of  the  south  of  Europe 
and  west  of  Asia,  cultivated  especially 
for  its  blossoms,  which  are  very  fragrant. 

OLEF'IANT  GAS,  the  name  originally 
given  to  ethylene  or  heavy  carburetted 
hydrogen.  It  is  a compound  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  and  is  obtained  by  heating 
a mixture  of  two  measures  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  one  of  alcohol.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1796.  It  is  colorless,  tasteless,, 
and  combustible,  and  has  an  aromatic: 
odor  not  unlike  that  of  oil  of  caraways.. 

OLE'IC  ACID,  an  acid  resulting  from 
the  action  of  olive  and  some  other  oils: 
upon  potash.  It  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  soaps,  forming  with  pot- 
ash soft  soap  and  with  soda  hard  soap. 

OLENEK',  a river  of  Northern  Siberia, 
which  rises  under  the  polar  circle,  and 
enters  the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  west  of 
the  Lena  delta;  length,  about  1200 miles. 

OLEOMARGARIN.  See  Margarine. 

OLFAC'TORY  NERVES,  the  nerves 
of  smell,  the  first  pair  of  cerebral  nerves 
or  nerves  from  the  brain.  They  arise 
chiefly  in  connection  with  the  cerebral 
hemispheres,  and  numerous  filaments 
from  them,  perforating  the  ethmoid 
bone,  are  distributed  over  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  nose.  See  Nose. 

OLTGARCHY,  that  form  of  govern-  , 

ment  in  which  the  supreme  power  is  ' 

placed  in  the  hands  of  a small  exclusive 
class. 

OLTGOCLASE,  a soda-lime  felspar, 
the  soda  predominating;  it  occurs  in 
granite,  porphyry,  and  other  igneous  >; 

rocks.  ^ 

OLIPHANT,  Mrs.  Margaret,  maiden  ^ 

name  Wilson,  novelist,  born  near  Mus-  < 
selburgh,  Scotland,  1828;  died  1897.  Her  .? 
first  novel  appeared  in  1849  under  the  ^ 
title  of  Passages  in  the  Life  of  Mrs.  i 
Margaret  Maitland,  and  since  then  she  i 
has  maintained  a high  place  as  a novelist.  ,1 
Besides  this  she  has  written  a Life  of  Ed-  « 
ward  Irving,  lives  or  memoirs  of  Francis  f 
of  Assisi,  The  Makers  of  Florence,  The  } 
Makers  of  Venice,  The  Makers  of  Modern 
Rome  a Literary  History  of  England 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  etc. 

OLIVA'REZ,  Gaspar  de  Guzman,  S 
Count  of,  Spanish  statesman,  born  in 
1587,  died  1645.  He  was  educated  at  % 
the  University  of  Salamanca,  afterward 
appointed  gentleman  of  the  bed-cham-  W 
ber  to  the  Prince  of  Asturias,  and  when  M 
his  royal  master  succeeded  to  the  throne 
as  Philip  IV.  Olivarez  was  appointed  M 
prime-minister.  For  twenty-two  years  V 
(1621-43)  his  power  was  almost  un-  .A 
limited,  but  the  severity  of  his  admlnia-  » 


OLIVE 


OLYMPIAS 


tration  ultimately  caused  revolt  in 
Catlonia  and  Andalusia,  while  the 
Portuguese  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke. 
The  end  of  his  policy  was  public  discon- 
tent and  his  own  private  disgrace.  He 
was  confined  by  the  king  at  Toro,  where 
he  died. 

OLIVE,  a fruit-tree  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  the  most  important 
being  the  common  olive.  It  is  a low 
branching  evergreen  tree,  in  height 
from  20  to  30  feet,  with  stiff  narrow 
dusky-green  or  bluish  leaves.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  white  and  are  produced  in 
axillary  racemes.  The  fruit  is  a berried 
drupe  of  an  oblong  spheroidal  form, 
with  a thin,  smooth,  and  usually  black- 
ish skin,  containing  a greenish  soft  pulp 
adherent  to  a rough,  oblong,  and  very 
hard  stone.  It  is  bitter  and  nauseous, 
but  replete  with  a bland  oil.  The  olive  is 
a native  of  Syria  and  other  Asiatic 
countries,  and  flourishes  only  in  warm 
and  comparatively  dry  parts  of  the 
world.  It  grows  slowly,  and  is  very  long- 
lived.  The  olive-tree  has  in  all  ages  been 


held  in  peculiar  estimation.  It  was  an- 
ciently sacred  to  Minerva.  Olive  wreaths 
were  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
to  crown  the  brows  of  victors,  and  it  is 
still  universally  regarded  as  an  emblem 
of  peace.  The  wood  of  the  olive-tree  is 
beautifully  veined,  and  has  an  agreeable 
smell.  It  is  in  great  esteem  with  cabinet- 
makers on  account  of  the  fine  polish  of 
which  it  is  susceptible.  But  the  olive- 
tree  is  principally  cultivated  for  the  sake 
of  its  oil,  which  is  contained  in  the 
pericarp  or  pulp.  It  is  cultivated  for  this 
purpose  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Malta, 
European  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  the 
Ionian  Islands,  etc.,  and  is  easily  pro- 
pagated either  by  seed,  grafting,  or 
slips.  It  is  very  tenacious  of  life.  The 
fruits  are  also  used  at  table,  not  in  the 
natural  state,  but  generally  pickled, 
the  green  unripe  fruits  being  deprived 
of  part  of  their  bitterness  by  soaking 
them  in  water,  and  then  preserved  in  an 
aromatized  solution  of  salt.  Another 
species  of  olive  inhabits  China,  Japan, 
and  Cochin-China.  The  flowers  are 
used  by  the  Chinese  to  mix  with  and 
perfume  their  tea,  and  also,  together 
with  the  leaves,  for  adulterating  tea. 
The  only  American  species  is  in  some 
districts  called  devil-wood  on  account 
of  the  excessive  hardness  of  the  wood 
and  the  extreme  difficulty  of  splitting  it. 


OLIVE-OIL,  a fixed  oil  obtained  by 
expression  from  the  pulp  of  the  ripe 
fruit  of  the  olive.  It  is  ah  insipid,  in- 
odorous, pale-yellow  or  greenish-yellow, 
viscid  fluid,  unctuous  to  the  feel,  in- 
flammable, incapable  of  combining  with 
water,  and  nearly  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
It  is  the  lightest  of  all  the  fixed  oils. 
Olive-oil  is  much  used  as  an  article  of 
food  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  pro- 
duced, and  to  a smaller  extent  in  other 
eountries,  to  which  it  is  exported  also 
for  medicinal  and  manufacturing  pur- 
poses, etc.  The  best  olive-oil  is  made  in 
the  vicinity  of  Aix,  in  France;  the  kind 
known  by  the  name  of  Florence  oil  is 
also  of  a superior  quality,  and  is  mostly 
used  for  culinary  purposes.  By  far  the 
largest  portion  of  olive-oil  is  imported 
from  Italy.  Spain  also  sends  a large 
quantity.  The  oil  is  also  known  as 
Sweet-oil. 

OLIVES,  MOUNT  OF,  or  MOUNT 
OLIVET,  a hill  on  the  east  side  of  Jeru- 
salem, from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  and  the  brook 
Kedron.  The  principal  summit  has  the 
name  of  Mount  of  Ascension,  and  here 
stands  the  modern  Armenian  church  of 
that  name.  But  according  to  the  Scrip- 
tures the  scene  of  the  ascension  was  near 
to  Bethany  (Luke  xxiv.  50),  which  is  on 
the  further  side  of  the  hill  from  Jerusa- 
lem. A short  way  above  Bethany  is  a 
nearly  flat  part  of  the  hill  on  which 
hundreds  of  people  might  congregate, 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that  that  is 
truly  the  place  from  which  our  Lord 
ascended.  At  the  foot  of  the  hill  lay  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  round  its 
eastern  and  southern  side  is  the  road  by 
which  our  Lord  made  his  triumphal 
entry' into  Jerusalem. 

OL'IVINE,  called  also  chrysolite,  is  a 
mineral,  olive-green  in  color,  occurring 
in  lava,  basalt,  and  certain  meteorites. 
Analysis  proves  it  to  be  a silicate  of  iron 
and  magnesium. 

OLLA  PODRI'DA,  the  name  of  a 
favorite  dish  with  all  classes  in  Spain.  It 
consists  of  a mixture  of  all  kinds  of  meat 
cut  into  small  pieces,  and  stewed  with 
various  kinds  of  vegetables.  Hence  the 
term  is  also  applied  to  any  incongruous 
mixture  or  miscellaneous  collection. 

OLLIVIER  (o-liv-i-a),  Emile,  born  at 
Marseilles  1825.  When  the  empire  was 
established  in  France  Ollivier  gradually 
severed  himself  from  his  former  political 
associates,  and  the  severance  was  final 
when  he,  in  January,  1870,  accepted 
Napoleon’s  invitation  to  form  a ministry. 
It  was  this  ministry  which  declared  war 
with  Germany  in  July,  1870,  and  which 
was  overthrown  with  disgrace  in  August, 
1870.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
works. 

OLMSTED,  Frederick  Law,  American 
landscape  architect,  was  born  in  1822. 
In  1848  he  purchased  a fruit-farm  on 
Staten  Island,  near  New  York,  and  while 
successfully  managing  it,  studied  land- 
scape gardening.  In  1850  he  made  a 
pedestrian  tour  through  England  and 
portions  of  the  Continent,  an  account  of 
which  was  given  in  his  Walks  and  Talks 
of  an  American  Farmer  in  England, 
1852.  In  1855  he  made  a tour  through 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  for  the 
purpose  of  observing  parks  and  rural 
grounds.  In  1856  he  secured  the  prize 


for  the  best  plan  of  laying  out  the  New 
York  Central  Park,  and  was  appointed 
architect  and  chief  engineer.  From  1864 
to  1866  he  spent  in  California,  when  he 
was  made  one  of  the  commissioners  of 
the  National  Park  of  the  Yosemite.  He 
returned  to  New  York  in  1866,  and  had 
charge  of  the  laying  out  of  the  Brooklyn 
Prospect  Park.  He  has  since  been  asso- 
ciated in  designs  for  parks  and  other 
public  works  at  Washington,  Chicago, 
San  Francisco,  and  other  cities.  He 
planned  also  the  approach  from  Pennsyl- 
vania avenue  to  the  capitol  in  Wash- 
ington, was  first  commissioner  of  the 
Yosemite  Park,  and  prominent  in  the 
Niagara  Falls  Reservation  committee, 
and  in  devising  the  system  of  parks  and 
parkways  in  and  around  Boston.  He 
died  in  1903. 

OLNEY,  Richard,  American  politician, 
born  in  Oxford,  Mass.,  in  1835.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  Boston  bar  in  1859. 
Olney  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession,  and 
was  for  many  years  chief  counsel  for  the 
Eastern  railroad,  and  later  for  other 
roads.  He  was  a democratic  member  of 
the  lower  house  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  in  1874.  In  1893  he  was 
offered  the  place  of  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  by  President  Cleve- 
land and  accepted  it.  Upon  the  death  of 
Gresham,  in  1895,  Olney  became  secre- 
tary of  state,  and  continued  to  hold  that 
position  until  the  end  of  Cleveland’s 
administration  in  1897.  His  famous  let- 
ter to  Bayard,  Minister  to  England,  for 
the  information  of  the  English  govern- 
ment as  to  the  American  position  in  the 
Venezuelan  dispute,  attracted  great 
attention  both  in  this  countiy  and  in 
Europe. 

OLYM'PIA,  a locality  in  Greece,  the 
scene  of  the  famous  Olympic  games,  a 
beautiful  valley  or  plain  lying  in  the 
middle  portion  of  the  ancient  district 
of  Elis,  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus  (Morea).  Here  were  col- 
lected thousands  of  statues  of  the  gods 
and  of  victors  in  the  games,  treasure- 
houses  full  of  votive  offerings,  temples, 
altars,  tombs,  and  in  a word  the  most 
precious  treasures  of  Grecian  art.  Among 
the  buildings  were  the  Olympleum  or 
great  temple  of  Zeus,  containing  the 
colossal  statue  of  the  god  by  Phidias; 
the  Herseum  or  temple  of  Hera;  the 
Metroum  or  temple  of  the  mother  of  the 
gods;  the  twelve  treasure-houses;  the 
Prytaneum,  in  which  the  Olympic 
victors  dined  after  the  contest;  the 
Bouleuterion,  in  which  all  the  regula- 
tions regarding  the  games  were  made; 
and  these  were  all  surrounded  with  walls, 
having  a length  of  about  1800  feet  and 
a breadth  of  1500.  Recent  excavations 
have  brought  to  light  numerous  valu- 
able works  of  art,  besides  remains  of 
ancient  buildings,  etc. 

OLYM'PIADS,  the  periods  of  four 
years  between  each  celebration  of  the 
Olympic  games,  by  which  the  Greeks 
computed  time  from  776  b.c.,  the  first 
year  of  the  first  Olympiad,  till  394  a.d., 
the  second  year  of  the  293d  Olympiad. 

OLYM'PIAS,  the  wife  of  Philip  II., 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  the  mother  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Her  haughtiness 
and  more  probably  her  infidelity,  led 
Philip  to  repudiate  her,  and  to  marry 
Cleopatra,  the  niece  of  King  Attains. 


OLYMPIC  GAMES 


ONTARIO 


The  murder  of  Philip,  which  soon  fol- 
lowed this  disgrace  (b.c.  336),  some 
have  attributed  to  the  intrigues  of 
Olympias.  After  the  death  of  her  son 
and  his  successor  Antipater  she  was  be- 
sieged by  Cassander  in  Pydna,  and, 
having  to  surrender,  she  was  put  to 
death  after  a mock  trial  (316  b.c.). 

OLYMPIC  GAMES,  the  great  national 
festival  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  celebrated 
at  intervals  of  four  years  in  honor  of 
Zeus,  the  father  of  the  gods,  on  the  plain 
of  Olympia  (which  see).  The  festival 
commenced  with  sacrifices,  followed  by 
contests  in  racing  (foot,  horse,  charoit), 
wrestling,  boxing,  etc. ; and  closed  on  the 
fifth  day  with  processions,  sacrifices,  and 
banquets  to  the  victors.  The  victors  by 
way  of  prize  were  merely  crowned  with 
garlands  of  wild  olives;  and  on  their 
return  home  they  were  received  with 
extraordinary  distinction,  and  enjoyed 
numerous  honors  and  privileges. 

OLYM'PUS,  the  name  given  to  several 
mountain  ranges  by  the  ancients.  The 
most  celebrated  of  them  was  situated  in 
Thessaly,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  range  called  the  Cambunian  Moun- 
tains, and  now  called  by  the  Greeks 
Elymbos  or  Olymbos.  It  rises  to  the 
height  of  9700  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  was  the  highest  mountain 
in  ancient  Greece.  The  earliest  Greeks 
looked  upon  it  as  the  highest  of  all 
mountains,  as  the  central  point  of  the 
earth’s  surface,  and  as  the  place  where 
the  gods  dwelt.  In  after-times,  when 
the  ideas  of  men  respecting  the  universe 
and  the  gods  were  enlarged,  the  supreme 
beings  were  said  to  reside  in  the  exterior 
sphere  of  the  heavens  revolving  round 
the  space  which  embraced  the  planets; 
and  this  new  abode  of  the  gods  above 
the  firmament  of  heaven  received  the 
name  of  Olympus.  The  other  most  im- 
portant elevation  bearing  this  name  was 
the  Mysian  Olympus,  a range  of  lofty 
mountains  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor,  now  called  Kheshish  Dagh,  Ala 
Dagh,  Ishik  Dagh,  and  Kush  Dagh. 
Olympus  in  Cyprus  may  also  be  men- 
tioned. 

O'MAHA,  the  capital  of  Douglas  co., 
Nebraska,  situated  on  the  Missouri, 
about  600  miles  from  its  confluence  with 
the  Mississippi  and  500  miles  west  of 
Chicago.  It  is  an  important  railway 
center  for  the  northwest.  It  possesses 
large  silver-smelting  works,  steam  en- 
gine and  boiler  works,  soap-works, 
breweries,  etc.,  and  it  is  the  center  of  a 
large  mining  and  agricultural  district. 
The  population,  which  in  1880  was 
30,000  is  now  146,555,  South  Omaha, 
a suburb  of  the  above,  is  now  one  of  the 
largest  pork  and  beef  packing  centers  in 
the  states,  its  population  being  esti- 
mated at  15,000. 

OMAN  (o-man'),  or  MUSKAT,  a sul- 
tanate in  the  southeast  of  Arabia,  partly 
on  the  Persian  gulf,  partly  on  the  Indian 
ocean.  The  capital  is  Muskat.  Pop. 
(estimated),  1,600,000. 

OMAR  KHAYYAM',  Persian  poet, 
astronomer,  and  mathematician,  born 
at  Nishapur  in  Khorasan,  died  there 
1123  A.D.  His  scientific  works,  which 
were  of  high  value  in  their  day,  have 
been  eclipsed  by  his  Rubaiyat,  a collec- 
tion of  about  500  epigrams  in  praise  of 
wine,  love,  and  pleasure,  and  at  the 


same  time,  depressingly  pessimistic. 
There  is  an  admirable  poetic  transla- 
tion of  the  Rubaiyat  or  Quatrains  by 
Edward  Fitzgerald  (1859). 

OM'EGA,  the  name  for  the  Greek  long 
o.  The  last  letter  in  the  Greek  alphabet, 
as  alpha  is  the  first;  and  from  the  ex- 
pression in  Revelation  (chap.  i.  8),  “I 
am  Alpha  and  Omega,  the  beginning 
and  the  ending.”  Inscriptions  on  tomb- 
stones, public  documents,  etc.,  very 
often  began  with  these  two  letters, 
meaning,  “In  the  name  of  God.” 

O'MENS,  certain  signs  or  phenomena 
supposed  to  portend  some  impending 
good  or  evil  fortune.  Among  the  ancient 
Romans  the  taking  of  omens  was  a 
public  institution  of  great  importance. 
See  Augurs,  Auspices. 

OMNIBUS,  a Latin  word  signifying 
“for  all,”  and  now  applied  in  several 
languages  to  the  well-known  vehicle 
used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers. 
The  first  conveyances  of  the  kind  were 
those  which  came  into  use  in  ’ Paris 
(March,  1662)  in  consequence  of  an  edict 
of  Louis  XIV.,  but  they  soon  fell  into 
disuse,  and  were  not  again  reintroduced 
until  1827.  A Mr.  Shillibeer  started  the 
first  omnibus  in  London  in  1829,  and 
they  were  introduced  into  New  York  in 
1830,  and  Amsterdam  in  1839. 

OMNIBUS  BILL,  a term  applied  to 
single  legislative  acts  in  which  are  in- 
corporated a number  of  loosely  related 
measures.  The  term  was  first  applied  to 
a bill  for  the  admission  of  California  to 
the  Union  with  a constitution  prohibit- 
ing slavery.  Many  omnibus  bills  were 
passed  by  state  legislatures,  but  pro- 
visions requiring  that  single  statutes 
shall  deal  with  but  one  main  subject, 
which  shall  be  clearly  indicated  in  the- 
title  have  proved  fatal  to  the  “omnibus 

bill.”  ' ' J 

ONEIDA  (o-ni'da),  a lake  in  .he  state 
of  New  York,  United  States,  the  west- 
ern and  lower  end  of  which  is  about  18 
miles  southeast  of  Lake  Ontario.  It  is 
20  miles  long,  4 miles  broad,  and  its 
waters  find  a vent  by  Oneida  river  into 
Lake  Ontario  at  its  southeast  corner, 
after  they  have  united  with  the  Seneca 
and  formed  the  Oswego  river. 

ONEIDA  COMMUNITY,  a religious 
communistic  society,  otherwise  known 
as  Perfectionists  (which  see). 

ONEIDAS,  once  a North  American 
Indian  tribe  or  nation  belonging  to  the 
confederacy  of  the  Hurons,  and  in- 
habiting Central  New  York.  A remnant 
of  them  now  inhabit  a reservation  in 
Wisconsin,  and  are  well  advanced  in 
civilization.  ' 

O’NEILL,  Peggy  (Margaret  O’Neill 
Eaton),  was  born  in  Washington  In 
1796.  As  the  wife  of  Major  J.  H.  Eaton, 
Jackson’s  secretary  of  war,  she  was  the 
subject  of  a social  war  in  government 
circles  owing  to  certain  charges  connec- 
ing  her  name  with  that  of  Major  Eaton 
while  she  was  still  wife  of  Purser  Tim- 
berlake,  her  first  husband.  It  was  said 
that  from  this  social  disturbance  an 
estrangement  arose  between  Gen.  Jack- 
son  and  Calhoun,  leading  to  the  nomi- 
nation of  Van  Buren  for  the  presidency 
of  1836.  She  died  in  1879. 

ONION,  a well-known  liliaceous  plant, 
the  bulbous  root  of  which  is  much  used 
as  an  article  of  (ood.  It  is  a biennial 


herbaceous  plant  with  long  tubulated 
leaves,  and  a swelling,  pithy  stalk.  The 
peculiar  flavor  varies  much  according  to 
the  size  of  the  bulb,  the  small  reddish 
onions  having  much  more  pungency 
than  the  larger  ones.  The  onion  may  be 
grown  from  the  tropics  to  the  coldest 
verge  of  the  temperate  zone.  There  are 
at  least  twenty  varieties,  the  Strasburg, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  being  among 
the  most  esteemed. 

ONTA'RIO,  formerly  called  Upper 
Canada  and  Canada  West,  a province 
of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  having 
Manitoba  on  the  west;  Keewatin  and 
James  bay  on  the  north;  Quebec  on  the 
east;  and  on  the  southeast,  south,  and 
southwest  the  St.  Lawrence  river,  and 
Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  and  Super- 
ior; area,  220,000  sq.  miles.  Besides  the 
great  lakes  just  mentioned,  which  partly 
belong  to  the  Canadian  Dominion  and 
partly  to  the  United  States,  Ontario  has 
numerous  other  lakes,  such  as  Simcoe, 
Nipissing,  Nipigon,  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
etc.  The  chief  rivers  are  boundary 
rivers:  the  Ottawa,  Niagara,  and  Al- 
bany, the  latter  entering  James  bay, 
part  of  Hudson  bay.  The  Falls  of 
Niagara  in  part  belong  to  the  province. 
There  are  no  mountains  of  importance. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  and 
for  the  most  part  the  soil  is  of  excellent 
quality.  A large  part  of  the  province  is 
covered  with  timber,  and  this,  with  the 
water  facilities,  make  lumbering  one  of 
the  chief  industries.  The  climate  is  in- 
clined to  the  extreme  of  hot  and  cold 
during  summer  and  winter  respectively, 
but  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  makes 
it  very  healthy.  The  minerals  include 
copper,iron,nickel,gypsum, marble, salt, 
and  petroleum.  The  richest,  most  thickly 
settled,  and  most  highly  cultivated 
portion  of  the  province  is  the  peninsula 
between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  and  Huron.  The  crops 
raised  are  chiefly  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
Indian  corn,  and  potatoes,  and  the  fruit- 
growing farms  of  some  districts  yield  a 
plmtiful  crop  of  apples,  plums,  pears, 
peaches,  and  grapes.  Latterly  the  farmer 
here  has  turned  his  attention  to  stock- 
raising  and  dairy-farming  with  en- 
couraging results,  which  are  largely  due 
to  the  easy  accessibility  of  markets  by 
rail,  supplemented  by  the  lake,  river, 
and  canal  navigation.  Chief  among 
the  manufactures  are  woolens,  cotton, 
linen,  hardware,  paper,  soap,  agricul- 
tural implements,  steam-engines,  etc. 
The  educational  system  of  the  province 
provides  for  the  free  education  of  all 
children  in  the  common  schools,  and 
there  is  also  liberal  government  pro- 
vision for  high  schools  and  colleges, 
technical  institutions,,  and  a university; 
while  there  are  also  colleges  and  univer- 
sities not  under  provincial  control.  The 
government  is  administered  at  Toronto 
by  a lieutenant-govenior,  assisted  by  an 
executive  council  of  seven ; while  there 
is  also  a legislative  assembly,  elected  by 
ballot  for  four  years,  and  constituting 
with  the  lieutenant-governor  the  legis- 
lature or  parliament  Pop.  2,250,678. 

ONTARIO,  Lake,  the  most  easterly  of 
the  great  lakes  of  North  America,  lying  , 
along  the  northeast  side  of  the  state  of 
New  York,  and  forming  part  of  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States 


ONTOLOGY 


OPIUM 


and  Canada;  greatest  length,  190  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  about  55  miles;  area, 
5400  sq.  miles.  It  receives  the  waters  of 
Lake  Erie  by  the  Niagara,  and  dis- 
charges its  waters  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
into  the  Atlantic,  1000  miles  distant. 
The  Hudson,  and  the  Oswego  and  Erie 
canals,  form  a connection  through  the 
United  States  between  it  and  the  At- 
lantic. It  is  navigable  throughout  its 
whole  extent  and  at  all  seasons.  The 
most  important  places  on  its  shores  are 
Toronto,  Hamilton,  Kingston,  and  Co- 
burg, in  Canada,  and  Oswego  in  the 
United  States. 

ONTOL'OGY,  the  doctrine  of  being;  a 
name  given  to  that  part  of  the  science  of 
metaphysics  which  investigates  and 
explains  the  nature  and  essence  of  all 
things  or  existences,  their  qualities  and 
attributes.  It  is  also  used  as  equivalent 
to  metaphysics. 

ONYX,  a semi-pellucid  gem  with 
variously-colored  zones  or  veins.  Any 
stone  exhibiting  layers  of  two  or  more 
colors  strongly  contrasted  is  called  an 
onyx,  as  banded  jasper,  chalcedony, 
etc.,  but  more  particularly  the  latter 
when  it  is  marked  with  white  and  strati- 
fied with  opaque  and  translucent  lines. 
The  ancients  valued  it  very  highly,  and 
used  it  much  for  cameos,  many  of  the 
finest  cameos  in  existence  being  of  onyx. 

ONYX  MARBLE,  a very  beautiful 
translucent  limestone  of  stalagmitic 
formation  discovered  by  the  French  in 
the  province  of  Oran,  Algeria,  and  first 
brought  into  general  notice  at  the  Lon- 
don exhibition  of  1862.  It  is  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  ornamental  articles. 

OPAL,  a precious  stone  of  various 
colors,  which  comes  under  the  class  of 
pellucid  gems.  It  consists  of  silica  with 
about  10  per  cent  of  water,  and  is  very 
brittle.  It  is  characterized  by  its  irides- 
cent reflection  of  light.  It  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  Europe,  especially  in 
Hungary,  in  the  East  Indies,  etc.  The 
substance  in  which  it  is  generally  found 
is  a ferruginous  sandstone.  There  are 
many  varieties  or  species,  the  chief  of 
which  are:  (a)  precious  or  noble  opal, 
which  exhibits  brilliant  and  changeable 
reflections  of  green,  blue,  yellow,  and 
red;  (b)  fire  opal,  which  simply  affords 
a red  reflection;  (c)  common  opal,  whose 
colors  are  white,  green,  yellow,  and  red, 
but  without  the  play  of  colors;  (d)  semi- 
opal, the  varieties  of  which  are  more 
opaque  than  common  opal;  (e)  hydro- 
phane,  which  assumes  a transparency 
only  when  thrown  into  water;  (f)  hya- 
lite, which  occurs  in  small  globular  and 
botryoidal  forms,  with  a vitreous  luster; 
(g)  menilite,  which  occurs  in  irregular 
or  reniform  masses,  and  is  opaque  or 
slightly  translucent.  Formerly  the  opal 
was  believed  to  possess  magical  virtues ; 
thus  it  was  believed  to  confer  invisibility 
when  wrapped  in  a bay-leaf. 

OPEN-BILL,  an  African  bird  of  the 
stork  family,  so  named  from  the  odd 
formation  of  the  beak,  which  at  the 
anterior  end  exhibits  a gap  between  the 
mandibles  as  if  part  of  them  were  worn 
away  though  they  meet  at  the  points. 
Their  chief  food  is  molluscs,  and  per- 
haps this  formation  of  bill  has  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  opening  of  the 
shells.  Another  species  inhabits  the 
East  Indies. 


OPEN  DOOR,  a term  in  international 
politics  which  came  into  general  use  in 
1899,  and  has  reference  to  the  equality 
of  commercial  opportunity  in  China  of 
all  nations.  The  enunciation  of  the 
open-door  policy  had  its  origin  in  the 
acquisition  by  various  European  powers 
of  commercial  ports  in  China  and  the 
insistence  of  the  United  States  that  such 
ports  should  be  open  to  all  the  world  on 
equal  terms. 


Open-bill. 


OP'ERA,  a musical  drama,  that  is,  a 
dramatic  composition  set  to  music  and 
sung  on  the  stage,  accompanied  with 
musical  instruments  and  enriched  by  the 
accessories  of  costumes,  scenery,  danc- 
ing, etc.  The  component  parts  of  an 
opera  are  recitatives,  solos,  duets,  trios, 
quartettes,  choruses,  etc.,  and  they  are 
usually  preceded  by  an  instrumental 
overture.  The  lighter  kind  of  opera,  as 
well  as  the  French  opera  comique,  is  of 
a mixed  kind  — partly  spoken,  partly 
sung.  The  chief  varieties  of  opera  are 
the  grand  opera  or  opera  seria,  the  name 
given  to  that  kind  which  is  confined  to 
music  and  singing,  of  which  the  recita- 
tive is  a principal  feature;  the  romantic 
opera,  or  opera  drammatica  of  the 
Italians,  embracing  an  admixture  of  the 
grave  and  lively;  the  comic  opera,  or 
opera  bufla;  as  well  as  many  inter- 
mediate varieties.  Though  the  Greek 
dramas  were  operatic  in  character,  the 
opera  proper  is  of  modern  date  and  of 
Italian  origin,  and  would  seem  to  have 
developed  naturally  from  the  miracle- 
play  of  the  middle  ages,  the  first  operas 
dating  from  the  16th  century. 

OPERA  BOUFFE  (buff),  a farcical 
form  of  opera  buffa  in  which  the  char- 
acters, subject-matter,  and  music  is 
intended  to  burlesque  the  more  serious 
style  of  opera.  Offenbach  was  the 
creator  as  well  as  the  chief  master  in  this 
art.  The  comic  operas  of  Gilbert  and 
Sullivan,  both  in  the  character  of  the 
music  and  the  libretti,  stand  by  them- 
selves. 

OPERA-GLASS,  a small  binocular 
telescope  of  a low  magnifying  power, 
so  called  from  its  use  in  theaters.  The 
two  tubes  are  connected  together,  and 
have  their  foci  adjustable  by  turning 
a milled-headed  screw  between  them. 
See  Telescope. 

OPHICLEIDE  (of'i-klTd),  a brass 
wind-instrument  of  music  invented  to 
supersede  the  serpent  in  the  orchestra 
and  in  military  bands.  It  generally  con- 
sists of  a wide  conical  tube,  terminating 


in  a bell  like  that  of  a horn,  with  a mouth 
piece  and  ten  holes  or  ventages  which 
are  stopped  by  keys.  Ophicleides  are  of 


Ophlclelde. 


two  kinds,  the  bass  and  the  alto;  the 
former  has  a compass  of  three  octaves 
and  one  note,  ranging  from  B bn  the 
third  space  below  the  bass-staff  to  C on 
the  third  space  of  the  treble-staff,  in- 
cluding all  the  intermediate  semitones. 
The  alto  ophicleide  (an  inferior  instru- 
ment) has  the  same  extent  of  compass 
but  starts  an  octave  higher. 

OPHTHALMIA,  an  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  membrane  which  covers  the 
globe  of  the  eye,  and  of  the  correspond- 
ing surface  of  the  eyelids.  It  is  either 
acute  or  chronic,  and  its  commonest 
cause  is  the  presence  of  irritating  matter 
between  the  eyelids  or  the  exposure  of 
the  membrane  to  sudden  cold.  Its 
characteristic  marks  are  pain,  redness, 
a feeling  as  if  sand  were  in  the  eye,  and 
a copious  flow  of  matter. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE,  an  instrument 
for  observing  the  internal  structure  of 
the  eye.  It  consists  of  a mirror  (plane 
in  that  of  Coccius,  concave  in  that  of 
Desmarres),  by  which  light  from  an 
artificial  source  is  directed  into  the  eye 
of  the  patient,  and  a double-convex 
lens,  by  which  the  illumined  parts  of  the 
structure  of  the  eye  are  magnified  in 
order  that  they  may  be  more  easily 
examined,  the  observer  looking  through 
a hole  in  the  center  of  the  mirror.  The 
light  is  usually  placed  to  the  side  of  and 
slightly  behind  the  patient’s  head. 

Opium,  the  inspissated  juice  of  a 
species  of  poppy  cultivated  on  a large 
scale  principally  in  Hindustan  and  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  but  well  known  in  many 
places  as  a garden  plant,  being  an  annual 
with  white,  red,  or  violet  flowers  and 
glaucous  leaves.  The  opium  is  the  juice 
that  flows  from  incisions  made  in  the 
green  heads  or  seed-capsules  of  the 
plant  after  the  fall  or  removal  of  the 
petals,  and  the  best  flows  from  the  first 
incision.  The  juice  is  at  first  a milky 
liquid,  but  soon  solidifies  and  turns 
black,  and  is  then  scraped  off  and  col- 
lected. It  is  one  of  the  most  energetic 
of  narcotics,  and  at  the  same  time  one 
of  the  most  precious  of  all  medicines, 
and  is  employed  in  a great  variety  of 
cases,  but  most  commonly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  sleep  and  relief  from 
pain.  In  medicine  it  is  very  commonly 
u.sed  in  the  form  of  laudanum,  which  is  a 
simple  tincture  or  extract  in  spirits  of 
wine;  it  is  also  an  ingredient  in  various 
patent  and  other  remedies.  Another 
opium  preparation  is  morphine.  In  its 
natural  state  opium  is  heavy,  of  a dense 
texture,  of  a brownish-yellow  color, 
not  perfectly  dry,  but  easily  receiving 
an  impression  from  the  finger;  it  has  a 
faint  smell,  and  its  taste  is  bitter  and 
acrid.  The  chief  active  principle  of 
opium  is  morphia,  or  morphine  in  com- 
bination with  meconic  acia.  The  princi- 
al  part  of  our  supply  of  opium  is 
rought  from  Turkey,  whence  it  is  im- 
ported in  flat  pieces  or  cakes,  covered 


OPORTO 


OPTICS 


with  leaves.  In  the  case  of  many  tem- 
peraments opium  produces  such  agree- 
able effects,  whether  a delightful  dreamy 
calm,  a state  of  pleasant  exhilaration, 
or  beatific  visions,  that  numbers  of 
persons  are  led  to  use  it  habitually,  as 
others  use  alcohol  m some  form,  though 
over-indulgence  in  it  is  attended  with 
at  least  as  evil  effects  as  over-indulgence 
in  the  latter.  But  like  tobacco  it  is  taken 
by  vast  numbers  without  any  apparent 
result  one  way  or  other.  Some  habitual 
takers  of  opium  can  take  as  much  in  a 
day  as  would  kill  ten  or  twenty  persons 
unaccustomed  to  it.  It  is  taken  in  two 
ways,  known  as  opium-eating  and 
opium-smoking.  The  habitual  use  of 
opium  is  most  common  in  China,  the 
southeast  of  Asia,  and  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, where  it  is  chiefly  smoked  in  a 
special  pipe.  The  pipe,  or  rather  the 
stem  of  the  pipe,  is  about  the  length  and 
size  of  an  ordinary  flute ; the  bowl  is 
generally  made  of  earthenware.  The 
smoker,  who  is  always  lying,  or  at  least 
reclining,  takes  a small  portion  of  opium 
about  the  size  of  a pea  on  the  end  of  a 
spoon-headed  needle,  heats  it  at  a lamp, 
and  then  places  it  in  the  bowl  of  the 
pipe,  the  pellet  of  opium  having  pre- 


viously been  perforated  with  the  needle. 
He  them  brings  the  opium  to  the  flame 
of  the  lamp,  inhales  the  smoke  in  several 
inspirations,  and  is  then  ready  to  repeat 
the  process  with  a fresh  quantity  of 
opium  until  the  desired  intoxication 
ensues.  Large  quantities  of  opium  are 
consumed  in  China,  a great  part  of 
which  comes  from  India,  though  prob- 
ably as  much  or  more  is  produced  in 
China  itself.  The  Indian  opium,  how- 
ever, is  preferred  to  their  own  by  the 
best  judges  among  the  Chinese. 

OPOR'TO,  a large  city  and  seaport  of 
Portugal,  the  second  in  the  kingdom, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Entre  Douro  e 
Minho,  on  a steep  declivity  on  the  right 
bank  and  about  2 miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Douro,  170  miles  north  of  Lisbon. 
Pop.  172,421. 

OPOS'SUM,  the  name  of  several 
species  of  marsupial  mammals,  having 
four  hands  and  a long  prehensile  tail. 
They  are  nocturnal  animals,  arboreal  in 
their  habits,  living  constantly  on  trees, 
and  there  pursuing  birds,  insects,  etc., 
although  they  do  not  despise  fruit. 
The  females  of  certain  species  have  an 
abdominal  pouch  in  which  are  the 
mammae,  and  in  which  they  can  inclose 
their  young.  The  best-known  species  of 
opossum  is  common  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  almost  the  size  of  a large 
cat,  the  general  color  whitish-gray,  and  I 


the  whole  hair  of  a wool-like  softness. 
On  the  ground  the  motions  of  the 
opossum  are  awkward  and  clumsy,  but 
on  the  branches  of  a tree  it  moves  with 


great  celerity  and  ease,  using  the  pre- 
hensile tail  to  assist  its  motions.  When 
caught  or  threatened  with  danger  the 
oppssum  counterfeits  death,  and  “play- 
ing ’possum”  has  on  this  account  passed 
into  a proverb  as  used  to  indicate  any 
deceitful  proceeding.  The  female  has 
from  ten  to  fifteen  young,  which  are  for 
a long  time  nourished  in  the  pouch,  to 
which  they  resort  when  alarmed. 

OPPOSITION,  in  astronomy,  the  situa- 
tion of  two  heavenly  bodies  when 
diametrically  opposed  to  each  other, 
or  when  their  longitudes  differ  by  180°. 
Thus  there  is  always  an  opposition  of 
sun  and  moon  at  every  full  moon;  also 
the  moon  or  a planet  is  said  to  be  in 
opposition  to  the  sun  when  it  passes  the 
meridian  at  midnight,  bee  Conjunction. 

OPS,  the  Roman  female  divinity  of 
plenty  and  fertility.  She  was  regarded 
as  the  wife  of  Saturn,  and,  accordingly, 
as  the  protectress  of  everything  con- 
nected with  agriculture. 

OPTATIVE,  in  grammar,  that  form 
of  the  verb  in  which  wish  or  desire  is 
expressed,  existing  in  the  Greek  and 
some  other  languages,  its  force  being 
conveyed  in  English  by  such  circum- 
locutions as  “may  I,”  “would  that  he,” 
etc. 

OPTICS  is  the  branch  of  physics 
which  treats  of  the  transmission  of  light, 
and  its  action  in  connection  with  the 
laws  of  reflection  and  refraction,  includ- 
ing also  the  phenomena  of  vision.  A 


Fig.  1.— Refraction. 

ray  of  light  is  the  smallest  conceivable 
portion  of  light,  and  is  represented  by 
the  straight  line  along  which  it  is  propa- 
gated. A pencil  of  light  is  a collection 


of  such  rays;  it  is  parallel  when  all  the 
component  rays  are  parallel  to  each 
other;  converging  when  they  all  proceed 
to  a single  point;  and  diverging  when 
they  all  proceed  from  a single  point. 
The  focus  of  the  pencil  is  the  point  to 
or  from  which  the  rays  proceed.  Any 
space  or  substance  which  light  can  trav- 
erse is  in  optics  called  “a  medium.” 
When  light  falls  on  any  surface  a certain 
portion  of  it  is  reflected  or  sent  back, 
and  it  is  owing  to  this  reflected  light  that 
objects  are  visible.  When  light  falls 
upon  the  surface  of  a solid  substance 
or  medium  that  it  can  traverse  (a  trans- 
parent substance),  one  portion  greater 
or  less  is  directed  or  reflected  back  into 
the  medium  whence  it  came;  another 
portion  is  transniitted  through  the  solid 
medium,  but  undergoes  a change  called 
refraction;  while  a third  portion  is  ab- 
sorbed in  the  new  medium.  When  all  the 
minute  parts  of  a surface  give  out  rays 
of  light  in  all  directions  we  call  it  a 
luminous  surface,  whether  it  is  self- 
luminous  or  is  merely  reflecting  the  light 
from  a self-luminous  body  such  as  the 
sun.  The  law  of  reflection  is  that  the 
angle  of  incidence  and  that  of  reflection 
are  in  the  same  plane,  and  that  the 
angle  of  reflection  is  equal  to  the  angle 
of  incidence,  and  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  perpendicular.  The  law  holds  true 
whateyer  be  the  nature  of  the  reflecting 


Fig.  2.— Reflection  (plane  mirror). 


surface  or  the  origin  of  the  light  which 
falls  upon  it.  The  law  of  refraction 
comes  mto  operation  when  a ray’ of  light 
passes  through  a smooth  surface  bound- 
ing two  media  not  homogeneous,  such 
as  air  and  water,  or  when  rays  traverse 
a medium,  the  density  of  which  is  not 
uniform,  as  the  atmosphere.  When  the 
ray  of  light  passes  from  a rarer  into  a 
denser  medium,  it  is  bent  or  refracted 
toward  the  perpendicular  line  drawn 
through  the  point  of  incidence,  or  the 
angle  of  refraction  is  less  than  the  angle 
of  incidence.  On  the  contrary,  when  a 
ray  of  light  passes  from  a denser  into  a 
rarer  medium  the  refraction  is  from  the 
perpendicular,  or  the  angle  of  refraction 
is  greater  than  the  angle  of  incidence. 
If  one  medium  is  a liquid  and  the  oMier 
air,  as  in  the  accompanying  figure  (fig. 
1),  the  ray  ri  in  the  liquid  will  make  a 
smaller  angle  with  the  normal  nin  than 
the  ray  si  in  air,  and  vice  versa. 

The  law  of  reflection  is  illustrated 
especially  by  the  action  of  mirrors. 
When  a pencil  of  rays  from  a luminous 
point  falls  on  a plane  mirror  each  ray  is 
reflected  according  to  the  law  given 
above,  and  it  is  easy  to  show  by  geometry 
that  the  pencil  which  was  divergerrt 


OPTIMISM 


ORANG 


before  incidence  has  exactly  the  pame 
divergence  after  reflection ; but  the  rays 
now  seem  to  have  proceeded  from  a 
point  behind  the  mirror.  This  point  is 
•called  the  “virtual  image”  of  the  first 
point  (being  not  a real  image  of  it) ; the 
line  joining  the  points  is  at  right  angles 
to  and  is  bisected  by  the  mirror.  Now 
a luminous  object  is  made  up  of  points, 
each  of  which  sends  a divergent  pencil 
to  the  mirror,  which  seems  after  reflec- 
tion to  proceed  from  a point  behind  the 


Fig.  3.— Keflection  (concave  mirror). 


mirror,  and  hence  a luminous  object 
sends  rays  to  a plane  mirror  which  after 
reflection  seem  to  have  proceeded  from 
a luminous  object  behind  the  mirror. 
An  eye  receiving  a ray  (or  a small  pencil 
or  rays)  gets  the  impression  that  the 
luminous  point  from  which  it  was  t-ent  is 
somewhere  in  the  line  of  the  ray  just  be- 
fore reaching  the  eye,  and  hence  an  eye 
in  such  a position  as  to  receive  after 
reflection  a few  rays  from  every  point  of 
the  object  sees  the  image  of  the  object. 
(See  fig.  2.)  Besides  plane  mirrorrs  con- 
cave and  convex  mirrors  are  often  used 
in  optics.  When  a mirror  is  not  plane 
the  incident  rays  from  a luminous  point 
in  general  neither  converge  to  a single 
point  after  reflection  nor  diverge  as  if 
they  had  come  from  a virtual  image. 
But  when  a concave  mirror  formmg  a 
small  portion  of  a spherical  surface  is 
used  we  find  that  all  the  rays  falling 
upon  it  from  a luminous  point  converge 
so  nearly  to  a luminous  point  after 
reflection  that  their  “aberration”  (as  the 
non-convergence  of  the  rays  is  called) 
may  be  neglected  in  practice.  The  line 
joining  the  center  of  the  spherical  sur- 


Fig. 4.— Magnification  of  near  object  by 
convex  lens. 


face  with  the  “pole”  of  the  mirror  (that 
is,  the  middle  point  of  the  reflecting  sur- 
face) is  called  the  principal  axis.  Any 
bundle  of  rays  parallel  to  the  principal 
axis  converges  after  reflection  to  a point 
in  the  axis  called  the  principal  focus; 
and  any  bundle  of  parallel  rays  con- 
verges after  reflection  to  a focus  which 
is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  mirror 
as  the  principal  focal  distance.  When 
the  object  from  which  the  rays  proceed 
is  at  a considerable  distance,  an  in- 
verted image  of  it  will  be  formed  mid- 
way between  the  center  of  curvature 


and  the  mirror.  When  the  object  is  only 
at  a moderate  distance,  but  exceeding 
half  the  radius  of  curvature,  an  inverted 
image  is  still  formed  in  front  of  the 
mirror,  being  diminished  when  nearer 
the  mirror  than  the  object  is,  and  mag- 
nified when  farther  away  than  the 
object.  The  image  of  an  object  placed 
nearer  a concave  mirror  than  the  prin- 
cipal focus  is  erect  and  larger  than  the 
object,  and  is  “virtual’  as  in  fig.  3, 
where  a b is  the  object,  ba  its  image 
(inverted),  f the  focus,  c the  center  of 
curvature.  The  image  of  any  object  in 
a convex  mirror  is  also  virtual  and  erect ; 
it  is,  however,  smaller  than  the  object. 

When  the  two  faces  of  a piece  of  glass 
through  which  light  is  refracted  are  both 
of  them  plain,  it  is  called  a plate  if  they 
are  parallel,  and  a prism  if  they  are  not 
parallel.  When  the  faces  are  curved,  or 
one  of  them  curved  and  the  other  plain,  it 
is  called  a lens.  Prisms  are  the  essential 
parts  of  the  apparatus  used  for  decom- 
posing light  and  examining  the  prop- 
erties of  its  component  parts,  as  in 
spectrum  analysis.  (See  Light.)  A lens 
may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  an  un- 
limited number  of  prisms,  the  angles 
between  their  faces  gradually  diminish- 
ing the  father  away  from  the  axis  of  the 
lens.  It  is  the  property  of  convex  lens  to 
diminish  the  divergency  of  the  pencils 
of  light,  of  concave  lenses  to  increase 
that  divergency.  It  is  the  duty  of  a 
convex  lens  to  make  rays  parallel  to  the 
axis  falling  on  one  face  of  its  converge 
accurately  to  one  point  after  emerging 
from  the  other  face.  This  point  is  called 
the  principal  focus,  and  is  the  point 
where  a “real”  image  would  be  formed. 
When  rays  parallel  to  the  axis  pass 
through  a concave  lens  they  diverge, 
and  if  produced  backward  in  the  direc- 
tion from  which  they  come  they  would 
meet  at  one  point,  which  in  this  case 
also  is  called  the  principal  focus;  but  it 
is  only  a virtual  focus,  because  the  rays 
themselves  do  not  pass  through  it,  but 
only  their  backward  productions.  Thus 
concave  lenses  bend  rays  from  the  axis, 
and  convex  ones  bend  them  toward  it. 
When  we  look  through  a concave  lens  it 
makes  objects  seem  smaller  whatever 
their  distancesare.  When  we  look  through 
a convex  lens  at  an  object  between  the 
lens  and  the  principal  focus  it  appears 
larger  than  it  really  is,  and  hence  the  use 
of  such  lenses  in  magnifying  glasses, 
microscopes,  and  telescopes.  The  rule 
as  to  the  relative  size  of  object  and  image 
will  be  understood  from  fig.  4,  where 
the  small  arrow  a b is  the  object,  and 
the  large  arrow  its  image,  o being  the 
center  of  the  lens,  f f its  foci.  Rays  from 
a b are  refracted  toward  the  axis  by  the 
lens,  and  as  the  visual  angle,  or  angle 
made  by  the  rays  at  the  eye,  is  larger 
than  if  there  were  no  lens,  the  object 
appears  magnified.  The  length  of  the 
object  and  the  image  will  be  directly  as 
their  distance  from  o;  so  that  if  the 
image  is  three  times  as  far  from  the 
lens  as  the  object,  it  will  be  three  times  as 
long  and  three  times  as  broad.  Convex 
lenses  are  used  in  spectacles  for  long- 
sighted (or  old-sighted)  persons,  because 
the  lens  of  their  eye  is  too  much  flattened 
and  does  not  of  itself  cause  a sufficient 
convergency  of  the  rays  to  make  an 
image  on  the  retina,  but  one  that  would 


fall  behind  it.  Concave  lenses,  again, 
are  used  by  near-sighted  persons,  be- 
cause the  rays  in  their  case  converge  so 
much  as  to  make  an  image  in  front  of 
their  retina  instead  of  on  it.  See  Eye, 
Light,  Microscope,  Telescope,  Spectro- 
scope, etc. 

OP'TIMISM,  that  philosophical  doc- 
trine which  maintains  that  this  world, 
in  spite  of  its  apparent  imperfections, 
is  the  best  possible.  It  is  an  ancient 
doctrine;  among  modern  philosophers 
Leibnitz  is  its  principal  advocate. 

OPTOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  extent  of  the  limits  of 
distinct  vision  in  different  individuals, 
and  consequently  for  determining  the 
focal  lengths  of  lenses  necessary  to  cor- 
rect imperfections  of  the  eye. 

OR'ACLES,  the  answers  which  the 
gods  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Egyptians, 
etc.,  were  supposed  to  give,  by  words 
uttered  or  otherwise,  to  those  who  con- 
sulted them  upon  any  occasion ; also  the 
places  or  sources  whence  these  answers 
were  received.  The  credit  of  oracles  was 
so  great  that  vast  numbers  flocked  to 
them  for  advice.  Scarcely  any  war  was 
waged,  or  peace  concluded,  or  new  forms 
of  government  instituted,  or  new  laws 
enacted,  without  the  advice  and  appro- 
bation of  some  oracle.  The  Greek  oracles 
were  the  most  celebrated,  the  earliest 
, being  that  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  at  Dodona. 
Of  the  other  gods  Apollo  had  many 
oracles,  but  that  at  Delphi  held  the  first 
place,  and  it  was  often  applied  to  for 
explaining  obscure  answers  obtained 
at  Dodona.  Another  famous  oracle  of 
Apollo  was  in  the  island  of  Delos.  The 
Romans  had  no  important  oracles  of 
their  own,  but  had  recourse  to  those  of 
Greece  and  Egypt.  The  early  Christians 
ascribed  the  oracles  in  general  to  the 
operation  of  the  devil  and  his  agents; 
but  the  practices  of  the  priests,  the  man- 
ner and  circumstances  of  delivering  the 
oracles,  the  ambiguity  of  their  answers, 
and  the  art  of  accommodating  them  to 
all  events,  amply  demonstrate  their 
human  origin ; yet  they  long  maintained 
their  standing,  and  sunk  only  with  the 
freedom  and  independence  of  Greece. 
Under  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the 
temples  of  the  prophetic  deities  were 
shut  up  or  demolished. 

ORAN,  a seaport  of  Algeria,  capital  of 
department  of  same  name.  Pop.  88,235, 
of  whom  about  three-fourths  are  Euro- 
peans.— The  department,  forming  a 
long  belt  along  the  Mediterranean,  has 
an  area  of  74,510  sq.  miles,  and  a popu- 
lation of  1,107,354. 

ORANG', or  ORANG-OUTANG, a quad- 
rumanous  mammal,  one  of  the  anthro- 
poid or  man-like  apes  or  monkeys.  This 
animal  seems  to  be  confined  to  Borneo, 
Sumatra,  and  Malacca.  It  is  one  of  those 
animals  which  approach  most  nearly  to 
man,  being  in  this  respect  only  inferior 
to  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla.  It  is 
utterly  incapable  of  walking  in  a per- 
fectly erect  posture.  Its  body  is  covered 
with  coarse  hair  of  a brownish-red 
color;  in  some  places  on  its  back  it  is  6 
inches  long,  and  on  its  arms  5 inches. 
The  face  is  destitute  of  hair  save  at  the 
sides.  It  attains  the  height  of  from  4 to 
5 feet,  measured  in  a straight  line  from 
the  vortex  to  the  heel.  The  arms  reach 
to  the  ankle-joint.  The  hind-legs  aw 


ORANGE 


ORDEAL 


short  and  stunted,  the  nails  of  the  fin- 
gers and  toes  flattened.  They  swing 
themselves  along  from  tree  to  tree  by  the 
aid  of  their  long  arms,  but  their  gait  on 
the  ground  is  awkward  and  unsteady. 
At  birth  the  head  of  the  orang  resembles 


Female  orang-utan. 

that  of  the  young  child.  These  apes  are 
remarkable  for  strength  and  intelligence, 
and  capable  of  being  highly  domesti- 
cated if  captured  young.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  fruits  and  sleep  on  trees.  See 
also  Man,  Apes,  Monkeys. 

ORANGE,  the  fruit  of  the  Citrus 
Aurantium,  and  the  shrub  or  tree  itself. 
The  orange  is  indigenous  in  China, 
India,  and  other  Asiatic  countries,  and 
was  first  introduced  in  Portugal  about 
1520.  It  is  now  extensively  cultivated 
in  Southern  Europe.  In  Portugal  and 
Spain  the  fruit  forms  an  important 
article  of  commerce.  Large  quantities 
are  also  produced  in  the  Azores,  in 
Africa,  America  (especially  in  Florida 
and  California),  and  the  West  Indies, 
in  Australia  and  the  Pacific  Islands. 
The  tree  is  a middle-sized  evergreen, 
with  a greenish-brown  bark.  The  leaves 
are  ovate,  acute,  pointed,  and  at  the 
base  of  the  petiole  are  winged.  The 
white  flower  exhibits  a calyx  with  five 
divisions,  a corolla  with  five  imbricate 
petals,  stamens  equal  in  number  to  the 
petals  or  a multiple  of  them,  and  along 
with  the  petals  inserted  on  a hypogy- 
nous  disc,  the  filaments  being  united  in 
several  bundles.  The  fruit  is  globose, 
bright  yellow,  and  contains  a pulp  which 
consists  of  a collection  of  oblong  vesicles 
filled  with  a sugary  and  refreshing  juice; 
it  is  divided  into  eight  or  ten  compart- 
ments, each  usually  containing  several 
seeds.  The  principal  varieties  are  the 
common  sweet  or  China  orange,  the 
bitter  or  Seville,  the  Maltese  or  red- 
pulped,  the  Tangerine,  the  Mandarin  or 
clove,  and  the  St.  Michael’s.  The  leaves, 
flowers,  and  rind  yield  fragrant  oils 
much  used  in  perfumery  and  for  flavor- 
ing essences.  The  wood  is  fine-grained, 
compact,  susceptible  of  a high  polish, 
and  is  employed  in  the  arts.  The  citron 
and  lemon  are  allied  fruits. 

ORANGE  CITY,  a city  in  New  Jersey, 
16  miles  west  of  New  York.  It  is  pic- 
turesquely situated  on  elevated  ground, 
and  contains  many  fine  residences, 
being  a favorite  resort  of  New  York  City 
men.  Pop.  26,115. 

ORANGE-LILY,  a species  of  lily  hav- 
ing a scaly  bulb,  a leafy  stem  2i  feet 
high,  small  dark  brown  bulbs  in  the 


axils  of  the  leaves,  and  large  orange- 
colored  flowers. 

ORANGEMEN,  the  members  of  a 
secret  society  founded  in  the  north  of 
Ireland  in  1795,  to  uphold  the  Protestant 
religion  and  political  ascendency,  and 
to  oppose  the  Catholic  religion  and  in- 
fluence and  their  secret  societies.  The 
title  of  the  association  was  adopted  in 
honor  of  William  III.  of  England,  prince 
of  Orange.  The  head  of  the  association 
is  the  Imperial  Grand  Lodge  with  its 
imperial  grand-master;  then  there  are 
grand  lodges,  grand  county  lodges,  dis- 
tricts and  subordinate  lodges,  spread 
over  Ireland,  Great  Britain,  and  some 
of  the  colonies,  especially  Canada,  but 
the  chief  strength  is  in  the  north  of 
Ireland.  In  1835  the  society  was  dis- 
solved in  consequence  of  intrigues  in  the 
army,  but  revived  in  1845.  Great 
demonstrations  take  place  annually  on 
the  12th  of  July,  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Aghrim. 

ORANGE  RIVER,  or  GARIEP,  a river 
in  South  Africa,  forming  part  of  the 
north  boundary  of  Cape  Colony,  and 
falling  after  a total  course  of  about  650 
miles  into  the  Atlantic. 

ORANGE  RIVER  COLONY,  a British 
possession  in  South  Africa,  having  the 
Cape  Colony  on  the  s.  and  s.w.,  Trans- 
vaal on  n.  and  n.w..  Natal  and  Basuto- 
land on  e.  and  s.e.,  area  about  50,000 
sq.  miles;  pop.  207,503,  of  whom  about 
78,000  are  whites. 

ORATO'RIO,  a sacred  musical  com- 
position consisting  of  airs,  recitatives, 
duets,  trios,  quartets,  choruses,  etc., 
with  full  orchestral  and  sometimes  organ 
accompaniment,  the  subjects  being 
generally  taken  from  Scripture. 

ORBIT,  in  astronomy,  the  path  of  a 
planet  or  comet;  the  curve-line  which  a 
planet  describes  in  its  periodical  revolu- 
tion round  its  central  body.  The  orbits 
of  the  planets  are  elliptical,  having  the 
sun  in  one  of  the  foci;  and  the  planets 
all  move  in  these  ellipses  by  this  law, 
that  a straight  line  drawn  from  the 
center  of  the  sun  to  the  center  of  any  one 
of  them,  termed  the  radius  vector,  al- 
ways describes  equal  areas  in  equal 
times.  Also,  the  squares  of  the  times  of 
the  planetary  revolutions  are  as  the 
cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the 
sun.  The  satellites  also  move  in  ellipti- 
cal orbits,  having  their  respective 
primaries  in  one  of  the  foci.  The  ele- 
ments of  an  orbit  are  those  quantities 
by  which  its  position  and  magnitude, 
for  the  time,  are  determined ; such  as  the 
major  axis  and  eccentricity,  the  longi- 
tude of  the  node,  and  inclination  of  the 
plane  to  the  ecliptic,  and  the  longitude 
of  the  perihelion. 

ORCHARD,  an  inclosure  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  fruit-trees,  especially  the 
apple,  the  pear,  the  plum,  the  peach, 
and  the  cherry.  The  most  suitable  posi- 
tion for  an  orchard  is  a declivity  lying 
well  exposed  to  the  sun  and  sheltered 
from  the  colder  winds,  but  yet  not  too 
much  shut  in.  The  soil  should  vary 
according  to  the  kind  of  fruit  cultivated, 
and  it  is  generally  allowed  to  produce 
only  grass  besides  the  fruit-trees. 

ORCHESTRA  (or'kes-tra),  the  space 
in  theaters  between  the  seats  occupied 
by  the  spectators  and  the  stage,  ap- 
propriatea  by  the  Greeks  to  the  chorus 


and  the  musicians,  by  the  Romans  to 
the  senators,  and  in  our  modern  theaters 
to  the  musicians.  The  name  is  also  used 
for  the  part  of  concert-rooms  assigned 
to  the  vocal  and  instrumental  per- 
formers; and,  lastly,  is  applied  to  the 
instrumental  performers,  collectively 
taken.  A modern  orchestra  in  the  last 
sense  consists  of  stringed,  wind,  and 
percussion  instruments,  in  varied  pro- 
portions, according  to  the  number  of 
instrumentalists. 

ORCHIDACE.®  (or-ki-da'se-e),  or  OR- 
CHIDS, an  extensive  order  of  en- 
dogens  (nearly  2000  species  being 
known),  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants 
or  shrubs,  with  fibrous  or  tuberous 
roots;  a short  stem  or  a pseudo-bulb; 
entire,  often  sheathing  leaves;  and 
showy  flowers,  with  a perianth  of  six 
segments  in  two  rows,  mostly  colored, 
one,  the  lowest,  generally  differing  in 
form  from  the  rest,  and  often  spiral. 
The  essential  form  of  these  flowers  is 
determined  by  the  presence  of  this  six- 
segmented  perianth,  the  three  outer 
segments  of  which  are  a kind  of  calyx, 
the  three  inner  forming  a kind  of  corolla. 
By  adhesion  or  absorption  the  parts  of 
the  perianth  are  sometimes  reduced  to 
five  or  three,  and  springing  from  its 
sides  are  the  six  stamens  whose  anthers 
contain  pollen-grains.  They  are  natives 
of  all  countries,  but  very  cold  and  dry 
climates  produce  but  few  species;  some 
of  them  grow  in  the  ground,  but  a large 
number  are  epiphytes,  growing  upon 
trees;  and  it  is  above  all  in  the  great 
virgin  forests  of  South  America  and  of 
the  East  Indies  that  the  orchids  abound. 
The  orchids  attract  much  attention, 
and  are  cultivated  with  zeal  on  account 


Butterfly  orchid. 


of  the  beauty  or  curious  shapes  of  the 
flowers  (which  often  assume  the  forms 
of  reptiles,  insects,  and  other  denizens 
of  the  animal  kingdom),  or  for  their  not 
infrequently  fragrant  smells.  The  nutri- 
tive substance  called  salep  is  prepared 
from  the  roots  and  tubers  of  several 
species;  the  fragrant  vanilla  is  obtained 
from  two  species  of  a genus  of  that  name. 

ORCUS,  a name  among  the  Romans 
for  Tartarus  or  the  infernal  regions. 

ORDEAL,  an  ancient  form  of  trial  to 
determine  guilt  or  innocence,  practiced 
by  the  rude  nations  of  Europe,  in  the 
East,  and  bythe  savage  tribes  of  Africa. 
Fire-ordeal  was  performed  either  by 
taking  in  the  hand  a piece  of  red-hot 
iron,  or  by  walking  barefoot  and  blind- 
fold over  glowing  coals  or  over  nine 


.l"  '!>  . ..Cb 


ORDERLIES 


OREGON 


red-hot  ploughshares  laid  lengthwise 
at  unequal  distances;  and  if  the  person 
escaped  unhurt,  he  was  adjudged  inno- 
cent, otherwise  he  was  condemned  as 
guilty.  Water-ordeal  was  performed 
either  by  plunging  the  bare  arm  to  the 
elbow  in  boiling  water,  escape  from  in- 
jury being  considered  proof  of  inno- 
cence; or  by  casting  the  person  sus- 
pected into  a river  or  pond,  and  if  he 
floated  without  an  effort  to  swim  it  was 
an  evidence  of  guilt,  but  if  he  sunk  he 
was  acquitted.  Besides  these  ordeals 
there  were  a variety  of  others  practiced 
in  many  countries,  such  as  the  corsned 
or  hallowed  morsel  trial,  the  trial  by 
touching  the  dead  body  of  a person 
murdered,  which  was  supposed  to  bleed 
if  touched  by  the  murderer,  the  ordeal 
by  swallowing  certain  herbs  and  roots, 
etc.  Ordeals  are  still  found  in  many 
nations  out  of  Europe,  as  in  West 
Africa  and  other  parts  of  that  continent. 
In  Madagascar  till  lately  trial  by  ordeal 
(swallowing  the  poison  of  the  tree 
Tanghinia  venenosa)  was  in  regular 
use.  The  Chinese  still  retain  the  ordeal 
of  fire  and  water,  and  various  ordeals 
are  practiced  among  the  Hindus 

OR'DERLIES,  are  privates  and  non- 
commissioned officers  selected  to  attend 
upon  general  and  other  officers,  for  the 
purpose  of  bearing  their  orders  and 
rendering  other  services.  The  orderly 
officers,  or  officer  of  the  day,  is  the 
officer  of  a corps  or  regiment,  whose 
duty  is  to  superintend  its  interior 
economy,  as  cleanliness,  quality  of  the 
food,  etc.  An  orderly  book  is  provided 
by  the  captain  of  each  company  or 
troop,  in  which  the  general  or  regimental 
orders  are  entered. 

ORDER  OF  THE  DAY,  in  parlia- 
mentary language,  is  a bill  or  other 
matter  which  is  to  be  discussed  on  a 
particular  day. 

ORDERS,  Holy,  a term  applied  to  the 
different  ranks  of  ecclesiastics.  The 
Angelican  and  other  Reformed  Episco- 
pal churches  recognize  only  the  three 
orders  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 
The  Roman  Catholic  church  admits  of 
seven  orders:  four  minor  or  secular — 
doorkeeper,  exorcist,  reader,  and  acolyte 
and  three  major — deacon,  priest,  and 
bishop.  The  Greek  church  has  also  the 
distinction  of  major  and  minor  orders, 
but  the  functions  of  the  four  minor 
orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
are  united  by  the  Greeks  in  the  single 
order  of  reader.  The  term  holy  orders, 
or  simply  orders,  is  also  used  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  clerical  character  or  position 
as  “to  take  orders,”  "to  be  in  orders.” 

ORDERS,  Military,  fraternities  or 
societies  of  men  banded  together  in 
former  times  for  military  and  partly  for 
atriotic  or  Christian  purposes.  Free 
irth  and  an  irreproachable  life  were 
the  conditions  of  admission.  The  chief 
were  the  Templars,  the  Teutonic  Knight 
and  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

ORDERS,  Religious,  are  associations, 
the  members  of  which  bind  themselves 
to  lead  strict  and  devotional  lives,  and 
to  live  separate  from  the  world.  Prior 
to  their  formation  there  were  only  the 
Hermits  or  Anchorites.  (See  Monas- 
tery.) The  entry  into  religious  orders 
from  their  foundation  to  the  present 
time,  is  preceded  by  the  taking  of  the 

P.  fi.— 68 


monastic  vow,  which  enjoins  residence 
in  a monastery,  celibacy,  renunciation 
of  worldly  pleasures,  the  duty  of  prayer, 
fasting,  and  other  austerities,  and  uncon- 
ditional obedience  to  superiors.  These 
conditions  form  the  basis  of  the  majority 
of  orders,  some  being  more  austere  in 
their  observances  than  others.  The  first 
properly  constituted  religious  order  was 
founded  in  the  4th  century  by  St.  Basil. 
The  Basilians  are  now  chiefly  confined 
to  the  Greek  church  in  the  East.  In 
the  time  of  Justinian  (530)  St.  Benedict 
established  a new  order,  the  Benedic- 
tines, under  a set  of  rules  based  princi- 
pally on  those  of  St.  Basil,  and  for  some 
600  years  after  the  greatest  number  of 
European  monks  followed  his  statutes. 
According  to  some  authorities  as  many 
as  23  orders  sprung  from  this  one.  About 
1220  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 
originated  by  taking  amended  rules 
from  their  leaders.  In  the  8th  century 
the  monks  began  to  be  viewed  as  mem- 
bers of  the  clerical  order,  and  in  the 
10th,  by  receiving  permission  to  assume 
the  tonsure,  they  were  formally  declared 
clergymen.  Indeed,  public  opinion  and 
several  papal  bulls  placed  them,  as 
superior  in  sanctity,  above  the  secular 
clergy,  who  for  this  reason  often  became 
monks.  As  the  secluded  life  of  the 
monks,  soon  after  the  origin  of  monas- 
teries, had  given  rise  to  similar  associa- 
tions of  pious  females,  so  nuns  com- 
monly banded  together  as  new  orders  of 
monks  arose,  and  formed  societies  under 
similar  names  and  regulations.  There 
were  also  congregations  of  nuns  who 
united  with  certain  orders  of  monks 
without  adopting  their  names.  The 
Ursuline  and  Hospitaller  nuns,  or  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  are  female  orders  existing  in- 
dependently of  any  male  orders,  and 
living  according  to  the  rules  of  St. 
Augustine.  At  the  head  of  everyreligious 
order  stands  a general  or  governor,  who 
is  chosen  every  three  years  from  the 
officers  of  the  institution,  resides  at 
Rome,  and  is  responsible  only  to  the 
pope.  The  counsellors  of  the  general  are 
the  officers  to  whom  the  supervision  and 
government  of  monasteries  is  committed. 

ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  the 
chief  styles  or  varieties  exhibited  in  the 
architecture  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Technically  the  chief  feature  of  the 
order  is  the  column — including  base, 
shaft  and  capital — and  its  superincum- 
bent entablature  (consisting  of  archi- 
trave, frieze,  and  cornice).  The  character 
of  the  order,  however,  is  displayed  not 
only  in  its  column,  but  in  its  general 
forms  and  detail,  of  which  the  column 
is,  as  it  were,  the  regulator.  There  are 
five  classic  orders,  namely  Grecian : 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian ; Roman ; 
Tuscan,  and  Roman  or  Composite.  See 
Architecture,  Columns,  and  the  articles 
on  the  various  orders. 

ORDINANCE,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
any  law  or  statute  enacted  or  promul- 
gated by  a governmental  authority, 
but  more  commonly  used  to  designate 
laws  or  regulations  passed  by  the  govern- 
ing bodies  of  municipalities.  In  the 
United  States  the  term  is  almost  ex- 
clusively applied  to  the  laws  or  regula- 
tions passed  by  the  common  councils, 
boards  of  aldermen,  or  other  governing 
bodies  of  municipalities.  An  ordinance  * 


differs  from  a resolution,  which  is  an 
expression  of  the  will  of  any  organized 
body,  generally  to  carry  out  some  min- 
isterial act  relating  to  its  own  internal 
management,  or  other  matter  not  affect- 
ing the  general  public,  as  a resolution 
of  respect  in  honor  of  a deceased  person. 
The  formalities  for  the  enactment,  pub- 
lication, enforcement,  and  repeal  of 
ordinances  are  largely  regulated  by 
statutes. 

ORDINATION,  the  initiating  of  a 
Christian  minister  or  priest  into  his 
office.  The  English  Church  considers 
ordination  as  a real  consecration;  the 
high-church  party  maintaining  the 
dogma  of  the  regular  transmission  of  the 
episcopal  office  from  the  apostles  down 
to  the  bishops  of  the  present  day.  For 
ordination  in  the  English  church,  sub- 
scription to  the  thirty-nine  articles  is 
requisite.  The  ceremony  of  ordination 
is  performed  by  the  bishop  by  the  im- 
position of  hands  on  the  person  to  be 
ordained.  In  most  Protestant  countries 
with  a state  church,  ordination  is  a 
requisite  to  preaching;  but  in  some  sects 
it  is  not  held  necessary.  In  the  Presby- 
terian and  Congregational  churches  ordi- 
nation means  the  act  of  settling  a 
licensed  preacher  over  a congreagtion,  or 
conferring  on  him  general  powers  to 
officiate  wherever  he  may  be  called. 

ORDNANCE.  See  Cannon,  Artillery, 
Howitzer,  Mortar,  etc. 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
U.  S.  ARMY.  Its  duties  consist  in  the 
establishment  and  maintenance  of  arse- 
nals, armories,  and  depots  for  the  manu- 
facture and  storage  of  ordnance.  The 
regulations  define  ordnance  and  ordnance 
stores  as  including  cannon  and  artillery 
carriages  and  equipments;  apparatus 
and  machines  for  the  service  and  ma- 
noeuvre of  artillery;  small  arms,  ammu- 
nition, and  accoutrements;  horse  equip- 
ments and  harness  for  the  artillery; 
tools,  machinery,  and  materials  for  the 
ordnance  service. 

ORE,  the  compound  of  a metal  and 
some  other  substance,  as  oxygen,  sul- 
phur, or  carbon  (forming  oxides,  sul- 
phides, carbonates,  etc.),  by  which  its 
distinctive  properties  are  disguised  or 
lost.  Metals  found  free  from  such  com- 
bination and  exhibiting  their  natural 
character  are  called  native.  Metals  are 
commonly  obtained  from  their  ores  by 
smelting,  the  ores  having  been  prev- 
iously oxidized  by  roasting.  Ores  are 
commonly  found  in  veins  or  lodes.  See 
Mining,  and  the  articles  on  the  different 
metals. 

OR'EGON,  one  of  the  United  States, 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  having  on  the 
north  the  Columbia  river;  east,  the 
territory  of  Idaho;  south,  Nevada  and 
California;  and  west,  the  North  Pacific 
ocean;  area,  96,030  sq.  miles.  It  ranks 
seventh  in  size  among  the  states.  The 
300  miles  of  coast-line  are  generally 
rugged  and  precipitous,  and  offer  but 
few  harbors.  The  interior  consists  of 
wide  and  elevated  plateaux,  rich  in 
pastures  and  pine  forests.  Two  great 
ranges  divide  the  whole  territory  into 
three  distinct  portions.  The  first  of 
these  portions  stretches  north  and 
south  along  the  Pacific,  and  east  from  it 
' for  a width  of  100  miles  to  150  miles; 


OREGON 


ORGAN 


and  is  then  hemmed  in  by  a lofty  moun- 
tain-chain, which  is  called,  the  Cascade 
Range,  and  occupies  the  whole  breadth 
of  the  territory  from  s.s.w.  to  n.n.e. 
The  other  two  portions,  much  more 
irregular  in  shape,  are  formed  by  a 
range  which,  under  the  names  of  the 
Blue  mountains  and  the  Klamath 
finally  bends  round  to  the  southwest, 
and  becomes  linked  to  the  Cascade 
range.  The  influence  of  topography  on 
climate  is  very  apparent  in  Oregon. 
The  winds  from  the  ocean  are  deprived 
of  nearly  all  their  moisture  by  the  coast 
and  Cascade  ranges,  which  also  bar  out 
the  tempering  influence  of  the  sea,  so 
that  the  portion  west  of  the  Cascades 
has  a moist  and  equable  insular  climate, 
while  east  of  the  mountains  the  climate 
is  dry  and  continental,  with  great  ex- 
tremes. In  the  west  the  rainfall  is  abun- 
dant, and  in  some  places  excessive. 
On  the  eastern  plateau  it  is  insufficient 
for  the  needs  of  agriculture.  Salmon 
fishing  and  canning  is  one  of  the  most 
important  industries,  and  is  unequaled 
by  any  other  state.  Sturgeon,  halibut, 
oysters,  and  other  varieties  of  fish  are 
caught  in  less  quantities. 

The  different  sections  of  the  state, 
varying  so  distinctly  in  climate,  topog- 
raphy, and  soil,  naturally  vary  in 
agricultural  development.  The  two  lead- 
ing crops  are  wheat  and  hay.  The  area 
devoted  to  wheat  doubled  between  1880 
and  1900.  During  the  same  period  the 
acreage  of  hay  and  forage  gained  over 
threefold.  Oats  are  grown  principally 
in  the  Willamette  valley,  and  barley  in 
the  northeast  counties.  Oats  have  a 
large  acreage.  Potatoes  produce  abun- 
dantly and  are  an  important  crop. 
Sugar  beets  are  also  raised.  The  state 
ranks  second  in  the  production  of  hops, 
their  culture  being  confined  principally 
to  the  Willamette  valley.  The  region 
between  the  Cascade  and  Coast  ranges, 
particularly  Jackson  and  Douglas  coun- 
ties, has  become  noted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  fruit.  Though  the  quantity  of 
arable  land  is  comparatively  small,  the 
pastures  are  large  and  rich;  the  forests 
abound  with  pines  of  almost  unrivalled 
mamificenee,  and  the  metalliferous 
fields  which  have  made  California  so 
famous  are  traced  into  Oregon.  Gold  is 
the  only  mineral  extensively  mined.  It 
is  produced  chiefly  in  the  Blue  moun- 
tain region  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  state.  Other  minerals  found  are 
chrome  iron,  limonite  or  brown  hematite 
iron  ore,  copper,  magnetite  nickel, 
mercury,  platinum,  iridium,  lead  and 
antimony,  as  well  as  clay,  salt,  and 
alkali  deposits.  Small  quantities  of 
silver,  borax,  and  coal  are  mined. 
Horses,  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep  are 
raised  in  great  numbers.  Large  sections 
of  the  state  are  fit  only  for  grazing.  The 
natural  grasses  cure  on  the  ground  and 
supply  nutritive  pasturage  all  the  year. 
The  Pacific  ocean,  the  Columbia  river, 
and  Snake  river  provide  three  sides  of 
the  state  with  the  advantages  of  water 
communication.  Along  the  coast  are 
nine  inlets  which  offer  harbor  facilities. 
Large  ocean  going  vessels  pass  up  the 
Columbia  as  far  as  Portland.  The  con- 
struction of  a canal  at  Cascade  Locks 
allows  river  steamers  to  go  as  far  as  The 
Dalles,  above  which  point  it  is  again 


naviagable.  The  Snake  river  is  navi- 
gable beyond  the  point  where  it  leaves 
the  boundary.  The  Union  Pacific  and 
the  Southern  Pacific  own  the  greater 
portion  of  the  total  mileage  which  is 
very  low,  being  only  about  1700  miles. 
The  chief  exports  consist  largely  of 
wheat  and  lumber  products.  Salem  is  the 
capital.  Portland  is  the  largest  city  in 
the  state. 

The  accounts  of  the  early  exploration 
of  the  western  Pacific  coast  are  con- 
flicting and  unreliable.  The  Spanish  ex- 
plorer Ferrelo  possibly  reached  the 
southern  boundary  of  Oregon  in  1543, 
and  Sir  Francis  Drake  touched  here  in 
1570.  The  English  navigator.  Captain 
Cook  in  1778  landed  at  Nootka  Sound, 


Seal  of  Oregon. 

which  he  so  named.  In  1805-06  Lewis 
and  Clark  explored  much  of  the  country. 
The  northwestern  boundary  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada  was  fixed 
by  the  convention  of  1818  as  the  line 
of  49°  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Oregon 
question  claimed  the  attention  of  con- 
ress  after  1820,  and  the  sentiment  for 
emanding  “all  of  Oregon”  grew.  By 
the  negotiations  with  Russia  (1824-25) 
that  country  agreed  to  make  no  settle- 
ment south  of  54°  40',  and  the  idea 
gained  ground  that  this  was  the  proper 
northern  boundary.  The  settlement  of 
the  northeastern  boundary  had  been 
imsatisfactory,  and  in  1844  a popular 
rallying  cry  of  the  democrats  was 
“Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight.”  It  was 
finally  agreed  in  1846  that  the  boundary 
should  be  49°  to  the  channel  between 
Vancouver  and  the  mainland,  thence 
down  the  middle  of  this  channel, 
through  the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de 
Fuca  to  the  sea.  Oregon  territory,  in- 
cluding the  present  Washington  and 
much  of  Idaho,  was  organized  on  August 
14,  1848.  The  state  was  admitted  Feb- 
ruary 14,  1859,  with  the  present  boun- 
daries. The  state  has  given  its  electoral 
vote  for  the  republican  ticket  except 
in  1868,  and  one  vote  in  1892,  though 
usually  by  small  majorities.  In  1892 
the  democrats  indorsed  one  populist 
elector,  and  the  vote  that  year  was: 
republican,  3;  populist,  1.  Pop.  19e9 
about  650,000. 

OREGON,  University  of,  a coeduca- 
tional State  institution  at  Eugene,  Ore., 
founded  in  1872  and  opened  in  1876.  It 
comprises  the  university  academy;  the 
college  of  literature,  science,  and  the 
arts,  with  a school  of  commerce,  and 


courses  in  law,  journalism,  and  teach- 
ing; the  college  of  science  and  engineer- 
ing, with  courses  preparatory  to  medi- 
cine and  dentistry;  the  school  of  music; 
the  graduate  school;  and  the  schools  of 
law  and  medicine,  the  last  two  at  Port- 
land. 

OREGON  QUESTION,  in  American 
history  the  dispute  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  over  the  de- 
limitation of  their  possessions  on  the 
Northwest  coast,  leading  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  present  boundary. 

OREGON  RIVER,  a river  in  North 
America.  See  Columbia  River. 

OREL,  a central  government  of 
Russia,  south  of  the  Tula  and  Kaluga; 
area,  18,042  sq.  miles.  Its  trade  in 
grain,  dairy  produce,  and  cattle  with 
Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  is  very  ex- 
tensive. Manufactures  are  also  increas- 
ing, and  the  town  is  making  rapid  pro- 
gress. Pop.  78,091.  Pop.  of  government, 
1,963,706. 

O'RENBURG,  a government  of  East- 
ern Russia,  partly  in  Europe,  and  partly 
in  Asia,  with  an  area  of  73,816  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,609,388.  The  capital, 
Orenburg,  on  a slope  above  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ural,  has,  besides  vast 
tallow-melting  establishments,  woolen, 
soap,  and  leather  factories,  and  a large 
caravan  trade  with  Khiva  and  Bokhara. 
Pop.  72,740. 

OREN'SE,  a city  of  N.  W.  ^Spain, 
Galicia,  capital  of  the  province  of  same 
name,  and  see  of  a bishop,  on  the  left 
banks  of  the  Minho,  here  crossed  by  an 
old  and  remarkable  bridge,  built  in 
1230.  Pop.  15,250. — The  province  has 
an  area  of  2739  sq.  miles,  and  a popula- 
tion of  404,311. 

ORES'TES,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
son  of  Agamemnon  and  of  Clytemnestra, 
the  avenger  of  his  father,  by  becoming 
the  murderer  of  his  mother.  For  this 
murder  he  is  relentlessly  pursued  by  the 
Eumenides  or  Furies,  and  only  succeeds 
in  appeasing  these  terrible  goddesses  by 
carrying  out  the  instructions  of  the 
Delphian  oracle  to  bring  back  the 
statue  of  Diana  from  Tauris  to  Argos. 
Married  to  Hermione,  daughter  of 
Menelaus,  Orestes  ruled  over  his  pater- 
nal kingdom  of  Mycenae,  and  over 
Argos,  upon  the  death  of  its  king.  Ores- 
tes is  an  important  fi^re  in  the  Choep- 
hori  and  the  Eumenides  of  jEschylus, 
the  Electra  of  Sophocles,  and  the  Orestes 
and  Iphigenia  in  Tauris  of  Euripides. 

ORGAN,  a wind-instrument  of  music, 
the  grandest  of  musical  instruments, 
the  introduction  of  which  into  the 
church  service  has  undoubtedly  exer- 
cised a powerful  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  musical  art.  It  is  stated  to  be  of 
very  ancient  origin,  but  is  most  prob- 
ably the  offspring  of  the  hydraulicon  or 
water  organ  of  the  Greeks.  The  early 
organs  were  very  imperfect  instruments, 
but  improvements  were  naturally  made 
from  time  to  time,  the  most  notable 
being  those  of  the  16th  century,  when 
the  bellows  were  much  improved  and 
the  division  of  all  the  pipes  into  dif- 
ferent stops  invented,  and  the  tone  of 
the  instrument  adapted  to  the  choir. 
The  invention  of  the  wind-chest  in  the 
17th  century,  by  which  an  equal  pres- 
sure of  wind  can  be  obtained  from  all 
the  bellows,  led  chiefly  to  the  presenA 


ORGAN 


ORIGINAL  SIN 


perfect  state  of  the  organ.  The  three 
essentials  of  an  organ  are;  (1)  a chest 
of  compressed  air;  (2)  a set  of  pipes  pro- 
ducing musical  sounds  in  communica- 
tion with  this  chest ; and  (3)  a keyboard 
or  clavier,  by  means  of  which  this  com- 
munication may  be  opened  or  closed  at 
pleasure.  The  air  is  forced  into  the 
wind-chest  by  means  of  bellows.  To 
the  upper  part  of  each  wind-chest  is 
attached  a sound-board,  a contrivance 
for  conveying  the  wind  to  any  particular 


PIPES 


Organ— internal  arrangements. 


pipe  or  pipes  at  pleasure,  and  divided 
into  as  many  grooves  as  there  are  keys. 
Air  is  admitted  into  these  grooves  by 
means  of  valves  or  pallets,  which  are 
connected  with  the  keys;  the  trans- 
mission of  air  being  regulated  by  the 
register  or  slide.  The  series  of  pipes 
above  each  slider  is  called  a stop.  The 
principal  stops  of  an  organ  are  the  open, 
stopped,  and  double  diapasons;  the 
principal,  dulciana,  twelfth,  fifteenth, 
flute,  trumpet,  clarion,  bassoon,  cre- 
mona,  oboe,  and  vox  humana.  An  organ 
may  have  several  wind-chests  filled  by 
the  same  bellows,  and  several  key-boards 
each  key-board  and  wind-chest  repre- 
senting a distinct  organ.  In  the  largest 
instruments  the  number  of  these  organs 
generally  amounts  to  five;  viz.:  the 
great  organ,  the  choir  organ,  the  swell 
organ,  the  solo  organ,  and  the  pedal 
organ.  The  key-boards  for  the  nand 
are  termed  manuals,  that  for  the  feet 
the  pedal.  The  most  usual  compass  of 
the  manuals  is  from  CC  to  F in  alt,  four 
octaves  and  a half;  that  of  the  pedal 
from  CCC  to  E or  F,  two  and  a quarter 
to  two  and  a half  octaves.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  organ-pipes — flute  pipes 
or  mouth  pipes,  and  reed  pipes,  of  each 
of  which  there  are  several  species,  the 
character  and  quality  of  their  sound 
depending  mainly  on  the  material  em- 
, ployed  in  their  manufacture  (wood  or 
metal),  their  shape,  and  dimensions. 
A hydraulic  engine  has  been  adapted, 
with  success,  to  the  purposes  of  work- 
ing the  bellows,  and  it  is  now  pretty 
generally  adopted.  In  1863  a contriv- 
ance was  patented  for  transferring 
some  of  the  work  from  mechanism  to 
electro-magnetism.  An  organ  built  on 
this  principle  is  termed  an  electric 
organ.  The  principal  advantages  of  this 
description  of  organ  are  that  it  facilitates 
the  playing,  and  enables  the  organist  to 
sit  at  a key-board  at  a distance  from 
the  instrument.  Among  the  largest 
organs  are  those  in  St.  Peter’s  in  Rome, 
of  the  Seville  Cathedral,  of  Weingarten 
in  Suabia,  of  Haarlem,  and  of  Notre 


P * \ 

Dame,  Paris.  The  largest  organ  ever 
constructed  is  that  built  in  1870  for  the 
Royal  Albert  Hall,  London.  There  are 
five  rows  of  keys  for  the  choir,  great, 
swell,  solo,  and  pedal  organs;  138  stops 
nearly  10,000  pipes.  The  bellows  are 
inflated  by  steam  power.  A free-reed 
instrument  was  introduced  about  1860 
by  Mason  and  Hamlin  of  New  York, 
known  as  the  American  organ,  differing 
from  the  harmonium  in  having  smaller 
and  more  curved  reeds  and  in  drawing 
the  air  inward.  It  is  more  easily  blown 
than  the  harmonium,  and  its  tones  are 
of  a more  organ-like  quality,  but  it  is 
inferior  to  the  latter  instrument  in 
variety  of  tone  and  power  of  expression. 

ORGAN,  Organization.  In  biology, 
the  term  organ  is  applied  to  all  the 
definite  parts  with  special  functions, 
forming  as  a whole  the  structure  of  a 
living  body,  whether  animal  or  vege- 
table. The  dissimilarity  between  the 
organs  of  which  a living  being  is  com- 
posed forms  a very  striking  contrast 
to  the  structure  of  lifeless  bodies.  A 
lifeless  body — such  as  a mineral — ex- 
hibits generally  a sameness  or  homo- 
geneity of  structure.  Its  intimate  parts 
or  particles  are  usually  of  a similar  kind 
or  nature.  Hence  this  broad  and  patent 
distinction  has  resulted  in  the  employ- 
ment of  the  terms  organic  and  organized 
to  express  the  characteristics  of  living 
beings;  while  to  the  lifeless  part  of 
creation  the  opposing  term  inorganic 
is  applied.  Organization  thus  means  the 
possession  of  definite  organs,  structures, 
or  parts,  which  have  definite  relations 
to  each  other;  and  an  organism  is  a 
whole,  an  animal  or  plant,  possessing 
such  organs. 

ORIEL  WINDOW,  a window  pro- 
jecting from  the  outer  face  of  a wall, 
in  plan  semi-hexagonal,  semi-octagonal, 
or  rectangular,  thus  having  three  or 
more  sides,  divided  by  mullions  and 


Oriel  window,  Balllol  college,  Oxford. 

transoms  into  different  bays  and  other 
projections,  and  supported  by  brackets 
or  corbels.  A projecting  window  rising 
from  the  ground  is  sometimes  called  an 
oriel,  but  is  more  properly  a bay-win- 
dow. 

ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES,  the  general 
designation  at  the  present  day  for  the 
lan^ages  of  the  nations  of  Asia,  as  also 
of  the  Mohammedan  countries  of  Europe 

ORIFLAMME,  until  Charles  VII. ’s 
reign,  the  royal  standard  of  France 
originally  the  banner  of  the  abbey  of 


St.  Denis  and  its  lord  protector.  When 
the  French  kings  chose  St.  Denis  as 
their  patron  saint,  they  made  the 
oriflamme  the  principal  banner  of  their 
armies.  It  was  a piece  of  red  taffeta 
fixed  on  a golden  spear,  in  the  form  of 
a banner,  and  cut  into  three  points, 
each  of  which  was  adorned  with  a tassel 
of  green  silk. 

ORIGEN  (or'i-jen),  Origines,  sur- 
named  Adamantios,  one  of  the  greatest 
andmost  influential  of  the  Greek  fathers 
born  at  Alexandria,  a.d.  185,  died  at 
Tyre  254.  He  lectured  with  much  suc- 
cess in  Alexandria,  and  gained  the  pa- 
tronage of  Bishop  Demetrius.  His 
studies  were  pursued  with  extraordinary 
zeal;  he  lived  an  ascetic  life,  and  in  order 
to  be  free  from  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  he 
mutilated  himself.  A journey  to  Rome 
(211-212)  greatly  increased  his  reputa- 
tion. In  228  he  went  to  Palestine;  he 
was  so  well  received,  and  so  many 
favors  were  bestowed  on  him,  that  his 
patron  became  jealous,  recalled  him  to 
Alexandria,  and  finally  deprived  him  of 
his  priestly  office,  charged  him  w’ith 
heresy,  and  expelled  him  from  the  city. 
These  persecutions  never  ceased  until 
the  death  of  Demetrius  in  231.  In  a new 
persecution,  under  the  Emperor  Decius, 
Origen,  who  was  viewed  as  a pillar  of 
the  church,  was  thrown  into  prison,  and 
subjected  to  the  most  cruel  sufferings, 
ultimately  resulting  in  his  death.  He 
is  credited  with  some  6000  works,  in- 
cluding smaller  tracts,  but  only  a few 
have  been  transmitted  to  us,  and  some 
of  these  only  in  a distorted  form.  His 
work  against  Celsus  is  considered  as  the 
most  complete  and  convincing  defense 
of  Christianity  of  which  antiquity  can 
boast. 

ORIGINAL  SIN,  in  theology,  the  first 
sin  of  Adam,  namely,  the  eating  of  the 
forbidden  fruit;  hence,  either  the  im- 
putation of  Adam’s  sin  to  his  posterity, 
or  that  corruption  of  nature  and  ten- 
dency to  sin  inherited  from  him.  The 
Greek  fathers  held  that  a perverted  will 
and  sin  are  co-ordinate  with  the  human 
race,  and  that  death  has  dominion  over 
it  by  reason  of  its  origination  from 
Adam  after  the  fall.  -Jn  the  Latin  church 
the  doctrine  was  more  fully  developed 
than  in  the  Greek  church.  Tertullian, 
in  accordance  with  his  doctrine  of 
Traducianism,  which  holds  that  the 
soul  as  well  as  the  body  is  generated  by 
the  parents,  asserted  that  sin  and  death 
were  alike  propagated  from  Adam;  he 
accordingly  held  an  oiginis  vitium,  but 
without  regarding  it  as  actual  sin  or 
denying  to  man  the  possibility  of  good- 
ness. Pelagius  held  that  no  change 
whatever  had  been  brought  about  by 
the  fall,  that  death  was  a part  of  man’s 
original  constitution,  and  that  all  men 
could  render  faultless  obedience  to  the 
law  of  God,  if  they  wished.  Augustine 
succeeded  in  getting  this  doctrine  con- 
demned in  favor  of  his  own,  which  in- 
culcated that  “Death  was  brought  into 
the  world  by  Adam’s  sin;  man’s  free- 
will, the  reflex  of  the  divine  will,  was 
lost  to  him  by  the  fall  as  regards  good; 
there  remained  only  spontaneity,  the 
negative  of  outward  constraint,  and 
free-will  as  regards  evil.’’  Pelagian!^, 
however,  sprung  up  again  in  a modified 
form,  called  semi-Pelagianism,  and 


ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES 


ORNITHOLOGY 


according  to  this  view  death  and  a 
taint  of  corruption  were  inherited  from 
Adam  as  a disease  might  be,  but  man 
still  retained  a power  for  good  without 
the  aid  of  divine  grace ; a doctrine  which 
obtained  much  support  in  the  church. 
The  reformers  of  the  16th  century  up- 
held the  Augustinian  view  of  original 
sin,  though  by  no  means  unanimously, 
in  opposition  to  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  at  the  council  of  Trent  gave  their 
adhesion  to  the  semi-Pelagian  view  of 
the  doctrine.  In  recent  times  orthodox 
theologians,  such  as  Olshausen,  Heng- 
stenberg,  and  others,  have  stood  up  for 
the  Augustinian  doctrine,  while  those 
of  the  more  liberal  school  have  modified 
it  in  various  ways.  Philosophers  as  well 
as  theologians  have  taken  part  in  this 
controversy  about  original  sin. 

ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES.  See  Species. 

ORINO'CO,  a river  of  South  America, 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  its  prin- 
cipal mouth  being  6 leagues  wide ; length 
about  1500  miles.  The  scenery  on  its 
banks  is  magnificent  beyond  descrip- 
tion. Two  remarkable  rapids  occur  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  Orinoco,  and  from 
these  the  river  is  navigable  to  its  mouth 
(about  780  miles). 

O'RIOLE,  a name  popularly  applied 
to  two  groups  of  birds.  The  American 
orioles  are  nearly  allied  to  the  starlings. 
The  Baltimore  oriole,  or  golden  robin,  is 
a familiar  species  of  this  group.  An- 
other, the  orchard  oriole  is  distributed 
very  generally  over  the  United  States. 
The  orioles  proper,  or  those  of  the  Old 


Baltimore  oriole. 


World  are  nearly  related  to  the  thrushes. 
They  are  found  in  Asia,  Africa,  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and 
Southern  and  Eastern  Europe.  The 
golden  oriole  is  the  typical  form,  and  the 
only  European  member  of  the  group. 
The  wings  and  tail  of  the  males  are 
black,  and  contrast  powerfully  with  the 
golden  color  of  the  body.  In  size  it  re- 
sembles a common  thrush  or  blackbird. 
It  chiefly  inhabits  Southern  Europe, 
but  is  occasionally  found  in  Britain. 
The  song  is  loud,  and  resembles  the 
sound  of  the  flute. 

ORI'ON,  a hero  of  Greek  mythology. 
According  tp  Homer  he  was  a beautiful 
youth,  of  whose  charms  Eos  (Aurora) 
became  enamored.  The  gods  were 
jealous  of  her  love,  and  Artemis  slew 
him  with  her  arrows.  According  to  other 
writers  he  was  a great  hunter  of  colossal 
stature,  and  died  of  the  sting  of  a 
scorpion.  The  hero  after  his  death  was 
placed  with  his  hounds  in  the  heavens 
as  a constellation,  which  bears  his  name. 


ORI'ON,  a constellation  situated  in 
the  southern  hemisphere  with  respect 
to  the  ecliptic,  but  the  equinoctial 
passes  nearly  across  its  middle.  This 
constellation  is  represented  by  the 
figure  of  a man  with  a sword  by  his  side. 
It  contains  seven  stars,  which  are  very 
conspicuous  to  the  naked  eye;  four  of 
these  form  a square,  and  the  three  others 
are  situated  in  the  middle  of  it  in  a 
straight  line,  forming  what  is  called  the 
Belt  of  Orion.  Orion  also  contains  a 
remarkable  nebula,  and  thousands  of 
stars  which  are  only  visible  through 
powerful  telescopes. 

ORIS'SA,  a maritime  province  of 
Hindustan,  lying  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
between  Bardwan  and  the  Madras 
Presidency,  forming  a division  or  com- 
missionership  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Lieut  .-governor  of  Bengal.  It  has  an 
area  of  9853  sq.  miles,  and  includes  the 
districts  of  Balasore,  Cattack,  Puri,  the 
.\ngul  and  Khand  Mehals,  besides  trib- 
utary states.  Pop.  4,350,372. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS,  a group  lying 
off  the  northern  coast  of  Scotland,  and 
separated  from  it  by  a channel  called 
the  Pentland  Firth,  about  6 to  8 miles 
broad;  aggregate  area,  375  sq.  miles. 
There  are  67  islands  and  islets,  28  of 
which  are  inhabited.  James  III.  of  Scot- 
land received  the  islands  as  a dowry 
with  Margaret  of  Norway  in  1469,  and 
ever  since  they  have  belonged  to  Scot- 
land. Pop.  28,699. 

ORLEANS  (or-la-an),  a city  of  France, 
formerly  capital  of  Orl6anais,  now  of  the 
department  of  the  Loiret,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  68  miles 
southwest  of  Paris.  In  1428  the  city 
sustained  a siege  against  the  English, 
and  was  relieved  by  the  Maid  of  Orl4ans 
(see  Joan  of  Arc),  whose  statue  in  bronze 
stands  in  one  of  the  public  squares.  It 
was  taken  and  retaken  more  than  once 
in  the  Franco-German  war  in  the  latter 
part  of  1870.  Pop.  67,539. 

ORLEANS,  a French  royal  family, 
two  hpuses  of  which  have  occupied  the 
throne  of  France.  (1)  On  the  death  of 
Charles  VIII.  without  issue  in  1498, 
Louis,  duke  of  Orleans,  great-grandson 
of  their  common  ancestor  Charles  V., 
and  grandson  of  the  first  Duke  of  Or-, 
leans,  being  the  nearest  heir,  ascended 
the  throne  under  the  title  of  Louis  XII. 
Henry  III.  (died  1589)  was  the  last 
sovereign  of  this  house,  or  the  Valois- 
Orl4ans  branch.  (2)  The  house  of  Bour- 
bon-Orl4ans  is  descended  from  Philip, 
duke  of  Orleans,  son  of  Louis  XIII. 
and  younger  brother  of  Louis  XIV. 
His  son  Philip,  duke  of  Orleans,  was 
regent  of  France  during  the  minority  of 
Louis  XV.  His  grandson  Louis-Philippe 
Joseph,  who  assumed  the  surname  of 
Egalit6,  was  beheaded  in  1793.  Louis 
Philippe,  duke  of  Chartres,  afterward 
king  of  the  French,  was  the  son  of 
Egalit4.  The  grandson  of  Louis-Philippe 
the  Comte  de  Paris  (1838-94),  became 
head  of  the  royal  house  and  royalist 
party,  leaving  a son,  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  to  inherit  his  claims.  See 
Bourbon  and  Paris,  Comte  de. 

ORLEANS,  Jean  Baptiste  Gaston, 
Duke  of,  third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France,  and  Mary  of  Medici,  born  1608, 
died  at  Blois  1660.  By  his  first  marriage, 
with  Mary  of  Bourbon,  heiress  of  the 


house  of  Montpensier,  he  had  a daugh- 
ter, the  author  of  some  interesting 
memoirs.  During  the  disturbances  of  the 
Fronde  he  joined  De  Retz,  the  soul  of  the 
Fronde,  who,  however,  soon  saw  through 
the  character  of  his  fickle  and  feeble  con- 
federate. After  the  termination  of  the 
troubles  (1648)  the  duke  was  banished 
to  Blois. 

ORLEANS,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph, 
Duke  of  (Egalit6),  great-grandson  of  the 
regent,  Philippe,  duke  of  Orleans,  was 
born  in  1747;  married  in  1769  the 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Penthievre. 
In  1787  he  was  exiled  for  the  part  he 
took  in  the  Assembly  of  Notables;  in 
1789  he  was  one  of  the  nobles  who 
joined  the  Tiers  Etat  (Third  Estate); 
in  1792  he  went  over  to  the  revolution- 
ary party  without  reserve,  took  the 
name  of  Philippe  Egalit4  (“Philip 
Equality”),  and  vated  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.  It  did  not  save  him  from 
being  arrested  as  a Bourbon,  condemned 
and  beheaded,  6th  November,  1793. 

ORLEANS,  Maid  of.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 

ORLEANS,  New.  See  New  Orleans. 

ORLEANS,  Philippe,  Duke  of,  only 
brother  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  and 
founder  of  the  house  of  Bourbon- 
Orl4ans,  which  for  a short  time  held  the 
throne  of  France,  was  born  in  1640, 
died  1701.  In  his  twenty-first  year  he 
married  Henrietta  of  England,  sister 
of  Charles  II.  The  second  marriage  of 
the  duke,  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth 
of  the  Palatinate  (1671),  was  arranged 
by  Louis  to  secure  the  neutrality  of  the 
Elector  Palatine  in  the  approaching  war 
against  Holland.  In  this  war  the  duke 
distinguished  himself  in  spite  of  his 
effeminacy. 

ORLEANS,  Philippe,  Duke  of.  Regent 
of  France,  son  of  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Orleans  and  the  Princess  Palatine 
Elizabeth,  born  1674,  died  1723.  He 
made  his  military  d6but  at  the  siege  of 
Mons  (1691),  and  in  1693  distinguished 
himself  at  Neerwinden,  but  only  to 
arouse  the  jealousy  of  Louis  XIV.,  his 
uncle,  who  compelled  him  to  retire 
from  the  army.  In  1692  he  married 
Mdlle.  de  Blois,  the  legitimated  daugh- 
ter of  Louis.  In  1707  he  was. appointed 
to  succeed  the  Duke  of  Berwick  in 
Spain,  and  completed  the  subjugation 
of  that  country.  On  the  death  of  the 
king  (1st  September,  1715)  he  was  ap- 
pointed regent.  He  resigned  the  gov- 
ernment to  Louis  XV.  on  13th  February, 
1723. 

ORNE,  a department  in  Normandy, 
France ; area,  2354  sq.  miles.  It  manu- 
factures needles,  pins,  wire,  porcelain, 
cotton  and  linen  cloths,  and  has  valu- 
able granite  quarries.  Alen5on  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  367,248. 

ORNITHOL'OGY,  that  branch  of 
zoology  which  treats  of  birds.  Birds 
form  the  second  class  of  the  great 
division  of  vertebrate  animals,  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  Mammalia 
and  Reptilia,  but  are  more  closely  allied 
to  the  latter.  In  common  with  the 
Mammalia  they  have  warm  blood, 
though  of  a higher  and  uniform  tem- 
perature (8°-12°  higher),  a heart  with 
two  auricles  and  two  ventricles,  and 
breathe  by  lungs;  but  differ  from  them 
in  having  feathers  for  a covering,  two 
feet,  wings,  by  means  of  which  most  of 


ORNITHOLOGY 


ornithology 


them  are  enabled  to  fly,  a horny  bill, 
and  reproduction  by  eggs.  The  feathers, 
the  development  of  which  resembles 
essentially  that  of  hair,  constitute  ap- 
pendages of  a unique  kind,  as  being 
developed  only  in  connection  with  the 
bird-class.  The  under-plumage  of  most 
birds  is  formed  by  a thick  coating  of 
small  shaftless  feathers,  embedded  in 
the  skin  and  called  down.  Various 
names  are  given  to  feathers  according 
to  their  position;  thus  the  long  quills 
on  the  part  of  the  wing  corresponding 
to  the  hand  are  called  primaries,  those 
on  the  lower  fore-arm  secondaries,  and 
those  on  the  upper  part  of  the  fore-arm 
tertiaries,  those  on  the  shoulder-blade 
and  humerus  scapulars.  The  feathers 
covering  the  bases  of  the  wing-quills  are 
called  wing-coverts,  and  those  covering 


Plumage  of  bird— Bohemian  chatterer. 


a,  primaries:  6,  secondaries:  c,  coverts:  d, 
scapulars:  e,  tall  feathers; /,  forehead;  g,  sin- 
ciput; A,  occiput. 

the  rectrices,  or  great  feathers  of  the 
tail,  tail-coverts.  Birds  moult  or  renew 
their  feathers  periodically,  and  in  many 
cases  the  winter  plumage  displays  a 
different  coloring  from  the  summer 
plumage.  The  plumage  in  most  cases 
is  changed  frequently  before  it  attains 
its  characteristic  and  full-grown  state. 

The  mouth  of  birds  takes  the  form  of 
a beak  or  bill;  the  jaws  or  mandibles 
are  hard  and  horny,  and  more  or  less 
prolonged  into  a point,  while  there  are 
no  fleshy  lips,  and  no  teeth  (except  in 
certain  fossil  birds)  ; a horny  sheathihg 
generally  smooth,  but  sometimes  ser- 
rated, takes  the  place  of  the  latter. 
The  beak  is  variously  modified  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  habits  of  the  bird 
and  the  nature  of  the  food  on  which  it 
subsists.  The  sense  of  taste  is  not  keen, 
their  tongue  being  generally  slender, 
pointed,  and  more  or  less  horny,  though 
some  birds,  as  the  parrots,  have  it 
fleshy.  The  nostrils  open  upon  the  side, 
or  at  the  base  of  the  beak.  Their  sense 
of  smell  is  often  very  delicate.  A circle 
of  naked  skin  called  the  cere  in  many 
birds  surrounds  the  base  of  the  mandi- 
bles. The  sight  of  birds  is  extremely 
keen,  and  equally  adapted  for  near  and 
for  distant  objects.  A peculiar  feature 
in  the  eye  is  the  nictitating  membrane, 
a sort  of  third  translucent  eyelid  which 
rests  in  the  inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but 
can  be  drawn  over  it  so  as  to  protect  it 
from  too  strong  a light.  Birds  have  no 
external  ear,  with  the  exception  of  the 
nocturnal  tribes;  these  have  a large 
exterior  conch  in  the  form  of  a thin 
leathery  piece  of  flesh.  The  internal  ear 


is  very  large,  and  the  sense  of  hearing 

very  quick. 

The  bone-tissue  of  birds  is  light  and 
compact.  The  bones  are  whiter  and 
contain  a larger  proportion  of  phosphate 
of  lime  than  those  of  the  mammalia  and 
lower  vertebi-ates.  The  bones  of  most 
birds  are  pneumatic,  that  is,  contain 
air  instead  of  marrow,  to  adapt  them  for 
flight;  the  air  being  admitted  by  means 
of  special  apertures  which  are  connected 
with  certain  sacs,  termed  air-cells, 
filled  with  air  from  the  lungs.  In  many 
birds,  however,  the  long  bones  are  filled 
with  marrow,  as  are  also  all  the  bones 
of  young  birds.  The  humeri,  cranial 
bones,  and  sternum  are  most  generally 
pneumatic,  the  femora  more  rarely  so. 
The  vertebrae  vary  considerably  in  num- 
ber in  different  species.  The  neck  is 
always  more  or  less  elongated  and  flexi- 
ble, and  consists  of  from  9 to  23  verte- 
brae. The  dorsal  region,  or  region  of  the 
back,  is  composed  of  from  4 to  9 verte- 
brae, and  is  generally  firm,  forming  a 
support  for  the  movements  of  the  wings. 
In  all  birds  the  neck  is  of  sufficient 
length  to  reach  the  oil-gland  situated 
at  the  tail,  the  secretion  of  which  is  used 
for  “preening”  or  dressing  the  feathers. 
The  vertebrae  interposed  between  the 
dorsal  vertebrae  and  those  of  the  tail  are 
united  to  form  the  sacrum,  the  number 
of  vertebrae  which  may  thus  coalesce 
varying  from  9 to  20.  The  caudal  or 
tail  vertebrae  may  number  ten,  the  last 
two  or  more  of  which  unite  to  form  a 
bone,  called  from  its  shape  “plough- 
share” bone.  In  some  species  this  bone 
is  absent,  undeveloped,  or  modified. 
The  bones  of  the  skull  become  firmly 
united  at  an  early  period,  so  as  to  leave 
few  or  no  sutures  or  lines  of  union,  as  in 
mammals,  a complete  bony  case  being 
thus  formed.  The  skull  is  joined,  as  in 
reptiles,  to  the  spinal  column  by  a 
.single  process,  or  condyle,  of  the  occipi- 
tal bone,  or  hindermost  bone  of  the 
skull.  The  chest  or  thorax  is  inclosed 
posteriorly  by  tbe  dorsal  vertebrae, 
laterally  by  the  ribs,  and  in  front  by  the 
sternum  or  breast-bone  and  the  sternal 
ribs.  The  ribs  correspond  in  number 
with  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  from  6 to  9 
pairs  of  ribs  being  thus  found  in  birds, 
the  first  two  being  generally  unattached, 
that  is,  they  do  not  reach  the  sternum 
in  front.  The  sternum  is  large  and 
strong,  and  serves  as  the  point  of  at- 
tachment for  the  most  powerful  of  the 
muscles  by  which  the  wings  are  set  in 
motion.  It  is  provided  with  a medial 
crest  or  keel,  which  is  most  prominent  in 
the  birds  of  most  powerful  flight,  and 
is  altogether  absent  in  the  ostrich  and 
cassowary,  birds  which  do  not  fly.  Upon 
the  upper  or  anterior  portion  of  the 
sternum  the  coracoid  bones  are  borne, 
which  form  the  chief  supports  of  the 
fore-limbs.  At  its  upper  portion  each 
coracoid  bone  articulates  with  the 
scapula  or  shoulder-blade,  and  with  one 
of  the  clavicles.  The  clavicles  or  collar- 
bones are  united  in  most  birds  to  form 
the  furculum  or  merry-thought.  The 
wing  of  the  bird  exhibits  the  essential 
skeletal  elements  found  in  the  fore- 
limb of  all  other  vertebrates.  The 
humerus,  or  bone  of  the  upper  arm,  is 
generally  short;  the  forearm,  composed 
of  the  radius  and  ulna,  being  the  longest 


segment  of  the  fore-limb.  The  ulna  is 
larger  and  better  developed  than  the 
radius,  which  is  slender  and  attenuated. 
In  the  bones  which  form  the  extremity 
of  the  wing  we  recognize  the  rudiments 
of  a thumb  and  two  fingers,  one  of 
which  has  two  phalanges  and  the  other 
only  one.  The  femur  or  thigh  is  short, 
the  tibia  or  shin-bone  forming  the  chief 
element  in  the  leg;  while  the  fibula  is 
attenuated  and  generally  ossified  to  the 
tibia.  The  toes  generally  number  four; 
the  hallux  or  great-toe,  when  present, 
being  composed  of  two  phalanges,  ana 
the  other  toes  of  three,  four,  and  five 
phalanges  respectively.  The  muscles 


Skeleton  of  Egyptian  vulture  to  show  bones 
of  bird. 

a,  post-orbital  process:  6,  lower  jaw;  c,  cervi- 
cal vertebrae ; co,  coracoid  bone ; d.  humerus ; «, 
radius:  /, ulna;  metacarpus ; A,  second  pha- 
lanx of  chief  digit  of  wing:  A',  phalanges  of 
lower  digit;  A",  first  phalanx  of  chief  digit;  i, 
clavicle:  k,  sternum;  I,  pelvis;  m,  coccyx;  n, 
femur;  o,  tibia;  p,  tarso-metatarsus;  g,  pha- 
langes of  foot. 

of  birds  are  firm  and  dense,  and  are 
generally  colored  deep  red.  The  chief 
body-muscles  are  the  pectorals,  or  those 
of  the  breast,  which  are  devoted  to  the 
movements  of  the  wings. 

There  are  three  stomachs  or  stomachic 
dilatations  in  birds;  the  first  is  the  crop, 
a considerable  pouch  attached  to  the 
CBsophagus  or  gullet;  then  the  ventricu- 
lus  succenturiatus,  a slight  dilatation  of 
the  oesophagus,  with  thick  and  glandu- 
lar walls;  then  immediately  after  this  is 
the  gizzard,  a strong  and  muscular 
cavity.  In  granivorous  birds  the  crop 
is  large,  and  serves  as  a reservoir  for  the 
seeds  swallowed  by  them,  which  are 
here  moistened  by  a secretion  before 
passing  into  the  gizzard.  In  these  birds 
the  gizzard  is  extremely  strong,  having 
to  perform  the  task  of  grinding  down 
the  hard  substances  subjected  to  its 
action,  a process  which  is  facilitated  by 
the  small  stones  which  these  birds 
generally  swallow.  The  ventriculus 
secretes  the  gastric  juice,  and  so  far 
represents  a real  stomach.  In  birds 
which  live  on  flesh  or  fish  the  gizzard  is 
weaker  and  less  di.stinct  from  the  ven- 
triculus; while  the  crop  becomes  smaller, 
and  in  some  species  completely  dis- 
appears. The  intestinal  canal  is  relative- 


ORNITHORHYNCHUS 


ORSTED 


ly  smaller  than  in  mammalia  and  pre- 
sents fewer  circumvolutions.  It  ter- 
minates in  an  opening  called  the  cloaca, 
which  is  also  the'  common  termination 
of  the  ureters  and  oviduct.  The  liver  is 
generally  large,  and  colored  a distinct 
bro'wnish  hue,  which  is  deepest  in 
aquatic  birds.  A gall-bladder  is  absent 
in  a few  cases  only,  as  in  the  ostrich, 
pigeons,  and  some  parrots.  The  kidneys 
are  two  in  number,  of  large  size  and 


a 


Digestive  system  of  common  fowl. 

o,  gullet ; 6,  proventriculus : c,  gizzard ; d,  duo- 
denum: e.cBBcal  appendages;/,  large  intestine; 
g,  cloaca;  h,  small  intestines;  i,  liver;  k,  crop, 

elongated  shape.  The  urine  consists  in 
greater  part  of  earthy  matters,  and 
contains  but  a small  proportion  of  water, 
hence  its  whitish  appearance.  The  spleen 
is  usually  of  small  size,  rounded  or  oval, 
but  may  also  be  elongated  or  broad  and 
flattened.  The  heart  is  highly  muscular, 
four-chambered;  the  blood,  deep-red  in 
color,  circulates  rapidly  and  vigorously. 
The  lungs  are  confined  to  the  back  por- 
tion of  the  body,  and  are  attached  to  the 
ribs  instead  of  being  free,  as  in  mam- 
malia. They  are  not  divided  into  lobes, 
and  are  usually  of  a bright-red  color. 
They  are  enveloped  in  a membrane 
pierced  with  large  holes,  which  permit 
the  air  to  pass  into  the  cavities  in  the 
breast  and  in  the  abdomen,  and,  in 
some  species,  even  into  the  interior  of 
the  bones.  The  trachea  or  windpipe  is  of 
great  relative  length  in  birds,  and  is 
adapted  to  the  length  of  the  neck.  The 
nervous  system  evinces  a marked 
superiority  over  that  of  reptiles.  The 
cerebrum,  or  true  brain,  is  larger  than 
in  the  latter,  but  its  surfaee  is  not  con- 
voluted, as  in  most  mammalia.  The 
generative  organs  consist  of  the  essential 
organs  or  testesof  themale, accompanied 
in  some  cases  by  an  intromittent  organ. 
The  female  organs  consist  of  an  ovarium 
and  oviduct.  The  eggs  are  hatched  by 
the  process  of  incubation.  Very  great 
differences  exist  in  the  size,  form,  and 
number  of  eggs  which  may  be  produced 
by  birds,  and  in  the  time  required  for 
their  hatching.  The  varieties  of  nests 
in  which  they  are  deposited,  as  to  mode 
and  materials  used  in  construction,  are 
endless. 

Many  birds  migrate  at  certain  seasons 
from  one  country  to  another,  and  a re- 


cent report  on  migration  shows,  that 
with  very  few  exceptions  there  is 
scarcely  a bird  of  either  the  palaearctic 
or  nearctic  regions  that  is  not,  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree,  migratory  in 
some  part  or  other  of  its  range.  See 
Migration. 

Birds  are  not  numerous  as  fossil 
organisms.  Among  the  most  important 
and  interesting  bird  fossils  we  at  present 
possess  are  the  two  specimens  of  arch- 
aeopteryx found  in  the  slate-quarries  of 
Solenhofen  (Bavaria).  This  bird  differed 
from  all  existing  birds  in  the  elongated 
reptilian  nature  of  its  tail,  which  was 
composed  of  simple  vertebrae,  each 
bearing  a single  pair  of  quill-feathers. 
It  had  also  teeth.  They  certainly  tend 
to  prove  the  evolution  of  birds  from 
reptiles.  Other  two  most  interesting 
fossil  birds  are  the  ichthyornis  and  the 
hesperornis,  both  found  in  the  creta- 
ceous formations  of  North  America  and 
both  provided  with  teeth ; but  while  the 
former  must  have  had  powerful  wings 
the  latter  was  quite  wingless. 

ORNITHORHYNCHUS,  the  duck- 
billed water-mole  of  Australia.  With 
the  echidna  or  porcupine  ant-eater  of 
Australia  it  forms  the  order  Monotre- 
mata — the  lowest  division  of  the  mam- 
malian class.  This  curious  animal  was 
first  described  by  Shaw  in  1792,  and 
caused  no  little  excitement  among  zo- 
ologists. It  presents  a quadruped,  of  the 
shape  and  size  of  a small  otter,  covered 
with  short  bro'wn  fur;  a horny  flat  bill 
like  a duck;  a short  flat  tail;  short  legs 
with  five-toed  and  webbed  feet,  ter- 
minated by  claws.  The  eyes  are  small; 
external  ear  wholly  wanting.  The  skull 
is  bird-like  in  conformation;  brain  with- 
out convolutions;  coracoid  bones  as  in 
birds  well  developed.  Its  young  are 
produced  from  eggs,  are  born  blind  and 


Ornithorhynchus  or  water-mole. 


hairless,  and  suckled  from  milk-glands 
destitute  of  nipples.  It  forms  large  bur- 
rows in  river  and  lake  banks,  rising  from 
near  the  surface  of  the  water  to  a height 
of  perhaps  twenty  feet  above  it,  the 
nest  being  at  the  higher  end.  It  swims 
for  its  food,  which  consists  of  insects, 
worms,  larvae,  etc. 

ORPHAN  ASYLUM,  or  ORPHANAGE, 

an  establishment  in  which  orphans  are 
provided  for  and  educated.  In  all  well- 
regulated  states  the  duty  of  taking  care 
of  destitute  orphans  was  recognized  at 
an  early  age,  and  it  appears  that  the 
cities  of  Thebes,  Athens,  and  Rome  had 
establishments  in  which  orphaned,  de- 
serted, and  illegitimate  children  were 
supported  and  educated  at  the  public 
expense.  In  the  laws  of  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian there  is  frequent  mention  of  such 


institutions.  In  the  middle  ages  such 
asylums  were  numerous  and  generally 
under  the  direction  of  the  clergy.  In 
recent  times  public  orphanages  have 
been  substituted  or  supplemented  by 
the  farming-out  system,  that  is,  the 
children  are  brought  up  in  private 
families  willing  to  undertake  their 
charge.  This  system,  with  due  care  in 
the  selection  of  guardians  and  judicious 
supervision,  has  proved  satisfactory 
wherever  it  has  been  tried.  It  is  more 
economical,  and  the  example  of  respect- 
able family  life  cannot  fail  to  have  a 
beneficial  moral  influence,  which  is 
absent  in  the  public  establishments. 

ORPHEUS  (or'fus),  a personage  of 
great  importance  in  the  mythology  of 
Greece,  surrounded  by  a multitude  of 
legends,  which  invariably  associate  him 
with  Apollo  and  the  Muses.  To  him  is 
attributed  the  application  of  music  to 
the  worship  of  the  gods.  Apollo  pre- 
sented him  with  his  lyre,  and  the  Muses 
instructed  him  to  use  it,  so  that  he 
moved  not  the  beasts  only,  but  the 
woods  and  rocks  with  its  melody.  Hav- 
ing lost  his  wife  Eurydice  by  the  bite  of 
a serpent  he  descended  to  Hades  to  try 
and  get  her  back.  His  music  so  moved 
the  infernal  deities  Pluto  and  Proserpine 
that  they  consented  to  her  return  to 
earth,  only  her  husband,  whom  she  was 
to  follow,  must  not  look  back  till  they 
had  reached  the  upper  world.  This  con- 
dition the  impatient  Orpheus  violated 
and  lost  his  wife  forever.  He  is  said 
to  have  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of 
band  of  furious  women  engaged  in  the 
mystic  rites  of  Bacchus.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  one  of  the  Argonauts,  and  to 
him  is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  so- 
called  Orphic  mysteriesjconnected  with 
the  worhsip  of  Bacchus.  A considerable 
literature  was  connected  with  the  name 
of  Orpheus,  the  oldest  portions  of  which 
were  not  earlier  than  530  b.c.  In  part 
it  yet  exists,  there  being  still  extant  a 
mythological  poem  called  Argonautica, 
certain  hymns,  etc. 

ORRIS  ROOT,  or  IRIS  ROOT,  the 
root  of  several  species  of  Iris.  One 
species,  on  account  of  its  violet-like 
smell,  is  employed  in  perfumery  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  tooth-powder.  It 
is  also  used  in  pharmacy  as  a pectoral. 

ORSI'NI,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
and  powerful  families  in  Italy.  It  be- 
came known  about  the  11th  century, 
and  had  already  acquired  high  rank  and 
extensive  possessions  in  the  papal  states 
when  one  of  its  members,  Giovanni 
Gaetano,  was  raised  to  the  pontificate 
under  the  title  of  Nicholas  III.  (1277- 
80).  The  feud  between  the  Orsini  and 
Colonna  families  is  celebrated  in  history; 
it  commenced  toward  the  close  of  the 
13th  century,  and  is  distinguished  for 
bitterness,  unscrupulousness,  and  vio- 
lence, assassination  being  not  unfre- 
quently  resorted  to.  Many  of  the  Orsini 
became  famous  military  chiefs.  Vin- 
cenzo Marco  Orsini  (Benedict  XIII.) 
succeeded  Innocent  XIII.  as  pope  in 
1724.  The  Orsini  family  is  now  divided 
into  two  branches,  the  Orsini-Gravina 
at  Rome  and  the  Orsini  of  Piedmont. 

ORSTED,  or  OERSTED  (eur'sted) 
Hans  Christian,  Danish  physicist,  bom 
in  1777,  died  at  Copenhagen  1851. 
His  fame  first  became  diffused  over  the 


ORTHODOX 


OSPREY 


scientific  world  in  1819  by  the  discovery 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  electro- 
magnetism. In  1829  he  became  director 
of  the  Polytechnic  School  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  on  the  occasion  of  his  jubilee 
festival  in  1850  he  was  created  a privy- 
councillor 

OR'THODOX.  the  opposite  of  hetero- 
dox (which  see),  generally  applied  to 
what  is  regarded  as  the  established 
opinion,  or  that  which  is  commonly 
considered  as  right.  The  term  is  chiefly 
used  in  religious  controversies  to  desig- 
nate certain  religious  faiths  or  doc- 
trines. 

ORTHO'EPY,  that  branch  of  gram- 
matical knowledge  which  deals  with 
correct  pronunciation. 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  that  part  of  gram- 
mar which  treats  of  the  nature  and  prop- 
erties of  letters,  and  their  proper  appli- 
cation in  writing  words,  making  one  of 
the  four  main  divisions  or  branches  of 
grammar. 

ORTHOP.®'DIA,  a branch  of  medical 
science  relating  to  the  cure  of  natural 
deformities.  Hippocrates  already  oc- 
cupied himself  with  the  correction  of 
deformed  bones,  but  it  was  not  until 
a comparatively  recent  epoch  that  this 
important  subject  met  with  the  serious 
attention  it  deserves.  Several  institu- 
tions for  the  cure  of  bodily  malforma- 
tions were  founded  in  France  and  Ger- 
many in  the  early  part  of  this  century. 
Orthopsedia  is  divided  into  prophylactic 
or  preventive,  and  therapeutic  or  cura'^ 
tive.  The  object  of  the  former  is  to  pre- 
vent deformities  in  infants,  and  is  ob- 
tained by  hygienic  means,  such  as  pure 
air,  careful  nursing,  and  suitable  food, 
clothing,  and  exercise;  that  of  the  latter 
to  correct  deformities  already  existing 
by  mechanical  treatment,  which  is  most 
successful  when  resorted  to  as  soon  as 
any  deviation  from  natural  shape  mani- 
fests itself.  In  our  time  the  manufacture 
of  orthopaedic  apparatus  has  become 
highly  developed,  and  forms  an  im- 
portant branch  of  trade. 

ORTHOP'TERA,  an  order  of  insects 
in  which  the  metamorphosis  is  incom- 
plete. They  have  four  wings,  the  an- 
terior pair  being  semicoriaceous  or 
leathery,  usually,  with  numerous  ner- 
vures,  the  wings  sometimes  overlap- 
ping and  sometimes  meeting  like  the 
roof  of  a house.  The  feelers  are  gen- 
erally straight,  filiform  organs.  The 
limbs  vary  in  conformation  according 
to  their  methods  of  movement.  In 
their  metamorphosis  the  larvae  and 
pupae  are  both  active,  and  the  pupae  gen- 
erally resembles  the  perfect  insect,  the 
wings  being  imdeveloped.  These  insects 
are  divided  into  Rimning  and  Leaping 
Orthoptera.  Of  the  former  division  the 
coachroaches,  earwigs,  mantis  insects, 
walking-stick  insects,  and  walking  leaves 
form  the  chief  families.  The  Saltatoria 
are  represented  by  the  locusts,  some  of 
which  want  wings  entirely,  crickets,  and 
grasshoppers.  See  also  Entomology. 

ORTOLAN,  a bird  of  the  bunting 
family,  a native  of  Northern  Africa  and 
Southern  Europe.  The  colors  are  yellow 
on  the  throat  and  around  the  eyes,  the 
breast  and  belly  being  of  reddish  hue, 
while  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is 
brown  varied  with  black.  Its  delicate 
flesh  is  much  esteemed  by  epicures, 


and  large  quantities  are  annually  caught 
and  fattened  for  the  table  in  the  south 
of  France,  Italy,  and  Cyprus. 


Ortolan. 


OSAGE,  a river  in  the  United  States, 
which  rises  in  Kansas,  flows  through 
Missouri,  and  after  a winding  course  of 
500  miles  joins  the  Missouri  10  miles 
below  Jefferson  City.  The  river  gave 
name  to  an  Indian  tribe,  the  remnant  of 
which  now  inhabit  the  Indian  territory. 

OSAGE  ORANGE,  a tree  of  the  nat. 
order  Moracese  (mulberry),  indigenous 
to  North  America,  where  it  is  frequently 
used  as  a hedge-plant.  It  produces  a 
large  yellow  fruit  of  a woody  texture, 
somewhat  resembling  an  orange,  but 
not  edible. 

OSA'KA,  or  OHOSA'KA,  the  second 
city  and  a free  port  of  Japan,  in  the 
island  of  Hondo,  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Yodo  Gawa,  28  miles  s.s.w.  of  Kioto. 
Pop.  821,235. 

OSCAR  I.,  Joseph  Francois  Bema- 
dotte.  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  son 
of  Bemadotte  (Charles  XIV.),  born  at 
Paris  in  1799,  died  1859.  In  1823  he 
married  Josephine,  eldest  daughter  of 
Prince  Eugene  Beauharnais.  During 
the  reign  of  his  father  he  was  three  times 
(in  1824,  1828,  and  1833)  viceroy  of 
Norway,  where  he  made  himself  popular 
by  his  good  administration.  He  acceded 
to  the  throne  in  1844;  reformed  the  civil 
and  military  administration  of  the 
state:  abolished  primogeniture;  estab- 
lished complete  liberty  of  conscience; 
encouraged  education  and  agriculture; 
promoted  railways,  telegraphs,  etc.  He 
took  little  part  in  foreign  politics.  He 
resigned  in  favor  of  his  eldest  son  in 
1857. 

OSCAR  II.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way, bom  1829;  succeeded  his  brother, 
Charles  XV.,  in  1872.  In  1905  the 
union  of  Sweden  and  Norway  was  dis- 
solved, since  which  time  Oscar  has  been 
King  of  Sweden  only.  He  is  a writer 
of  some  merit ; has  translated  Goethe’s 
Faust  into  Swedish,  and  published  a 
volume  of  poems  under  the  pen-name 
of  Oscar  Frederik.  He  died  in  1907. 

OSCILLATION,  the  act  of  swinging  to 
and  fro.  The  term  is  often  indiscrimin- 
ately applied  to  all  sorts  of  forward  and 
backward  motions,  but  it  has  special 
reference  to  the  movements  of  the  pen- 
dulum, which  are  subject  to  well- 
established  laws.  See  Pendulum. 

OSHKOSH,  the  capital  of  Winnebago 
CO.,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Winnebago,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Fox  river.  It  has 
numerous  saw  and  shingle  mills,  sash, 
door,  and  window  factories,  with  other 
industrial  establishments.  Pop.  33,190. 

OSI'RIS,  one  of  the  great  Egyptian 
divinities.  He  was  the  brother  and 


husband  of  Isis,  and  the  father  of  Horus. 
He  is  styled  the  Manifestor  of  Good, 
Lord  of  Lords,  King  of  the  Gods,  etc. 
In  the  Egyptian  theogony  he  represented 
the  sum  of  beneficent  agencies,  as  Set 
of  evil  agencies.  Osiris,  after  having 
established  good  laws  and  institutions 
throughout  Egypt,  fell  a prey  to  the 
intrigues  of  his  brother  Set,  the  Ty- 
phon  of  the  Greeks.  He  became  after- 
ward the  judge  of  the  dead.  There  are 
a multitude  of  traditions,  both  Greek 
and  Egyptian,  about  Osiris.  He  is 
represented  under  many  different  forms, 
and  compared  sometimes  to  the  sun  and 
sometimes  to  the  Nile.  His  soul  was 
supposed  to  animate  the  sacred  bull 
Apis,  and  thus  to  be  continually  present 
among  men.  The  worship  of  Osiris  ex- 


Oslris. 


tended  over  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 
Rome,  but  the  attacks  of  the  philoso- 
phers and  the  rise  of  Christianity  put  an 
end  to  it. 

OSBiALOOSA(6s'ka-lob'sa),the  county 
seat  of  Mahaska  co.,  la.,  60  miles 
southeast  of  Ues  Moines.  Pop.  11,012. 

OSLER  THEORY,  William  Osier, 
professor  of  medicine  in  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  and  later  of  Oxford,  in 
1904  made  the  statement  that  man’s 
best  work  was  done  before  forty.  This 
statement  perverted  became  the  basis 
of  what  is  known  as  the  Osier  theory 
that  men  past  that  age  have  outlived 
their  usefulness. 

OSMAN.  See  Caliph  and  Ottoman 
Empire. 

OSMAN  DIGNA,  a Soudanese  slave 
merchant  and  lieutenant  to  the  Mahdi, 
said  to  have  been  born  of  French  parents 
at  Rouen  in  1836.  He  has  proved  him- 
self one  of  the  ablest  leaders  on  the 
Mahdist  side.  In  1884  he  defeated  an 
Egyptian  force  under  Baker  Pasha  near 
the  Red  Sea  coast  of  the  Soudan.  He 
was  defeated  soon  after  by  a British 
force,  but  continued  to  give  trouble  till 
in  January,  1900,  he  was  captured. 

OSMAN  PASHA,  Turkish  general 
bom  at  Tokat  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  1832; 
entered  the  Turkish  army  in  1853;  his 
great  achievement  was  the  defense  of 
Plevna  during  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
(1877).  He  afterward  held  the  office  of 
war  minister  and  other  high  posts.  He 
died  in  1900. 

OSPREY,  a well-known  raptorial 
bird,  called  also  fishing-hawk,  fishing- 
eagle,  and  sea-eagle.  It  occurs  both  in 
the  Old  and  New  World,  near  the  shores 
of  the  sea  or  great  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  builds  its  nest  in  high  trees  ana 


OSSIFICATION 


OTIS 


cliffs.  It  lives  on  fish,  and  pounces  with 
great  rapidity  on  its  prey,  as  it  happens 
to  come  near  the  surface  of  the  water, 
the  toes  being  armed  with  strong  curved 
nails.  The  general  body-color  is  a rich 
brown,  the  tail  being  banded  with  light 
and  dark  (in  the  old  birds  the  tail  is  pure 
white),  head  and  neck  whitish  on  their 
upper  portions,  and  a brown  stripe  ex- 
tends from  the  bill  down  each  side  of 
the  neck;  under  parts  of  the  body 
whitish,  legs  of  a bluish  tint.  In  length 
the  osprey  averages  about  2 feet,  the 
wings  measuring  over  4 feet  from  tip  to 
tip.  The  female  lays  three  or  four  eggs. 
The  American  bald-eagle  pursues  the 
osprey,  who  drops  his  prey  with  the 


Osprey. 

view  of  escaping,  when  the  eagle  im- 
mediately pounces  after  the  descending 
fish,  and  seizes  it  ere  it  touches  the 
water. 

OSSIFICATION,  the  process  of  bone 
formation,  which  in  all  cases  consists  of 
the  deposition  of  earthy  or  calcareous 
matter.  It  may  take  place  by  the  depo- 
sition of  osseous  material  in  fibrous 
membranes,  and  thus  the  flat  bones  of 
the  skull  are  developed ; or  by  deposition 
in  cartilage,  as  in  the  case  of  the  long 
bones  of  the  skeleton.  The  process  of 
ossification  in  cartilage  begins  at  various 
well-marked  points  called  centers  of 
ossification,  where  proliferation  of  car- 
tilage cells  and  a deposit  of  lime  salts 
occurs.  (See  also  Bone).  Most  organs  of 
the  body  may  become  the  seat  of  ab- 
normal ossification.  Deposits  of  limy 
matter  take  place  frequently  within  the 
coats  of  arteries,  making  them  easily 
ruptured;  but  this  process  is  rather  one 
of  calcification. 

OS'SOLI,  Margaret  Sarah  Fuller,  an 
American  authoress,  born  in  1810,  re- 
markable for  her  precocious  and  ex- 
tensive linguistic  attainments.  She  be- 
came associated  with  Emerson  and 
other  eminent  literary  men.  She  visited 
Europe  in  1846,  married  in  1847  the 
Marchese  Ossili;  embarked  with  her  hus- 
band for  New  York,  but  they  were 
wrecked,  and  both  perished  off  Long 
Island,  July  16,  1850.  She  wrote  several 
works,  including  Women  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  etc. 

OSTEOL'OGY,  the  department  of 
anatomical  science  specially  devoted 
to  a description  of  the  bony  parts  or 
skeleton  of  the  body,  and  included  under 
the  wider  science  of  anatomy  (which  see, 
as  also  Skeleton,  Bone,  etc.). 

OSTEOP'ATHY,  a method  of  treating 
dise.ase  by  manipulation,  the  purpose 


and  result  of  which  is  to  restore  the 
normal  condition  of  nerve  control  and 
blood  supply  to  every  organ  of  the  body, 
by  removing  physical  obstruction  or  by 
stimulating  or  inhibiting  activity  as 
the  condition  may  require. 

OSTRA'CION,  the  scientific  name  of 
the  fishes  known  as  trunk-fishes.  The 


Ostraclon  or  trunk-flsh. 


body  is  inclosed  in  a literal  armor- 
casing of  strong  bony  plates  or  scales  of 
the  ganoid  variety,  which  are  immova- 
bly united,  and  invest  every  part  of 
the  body  save  the  tail,  which  is  movable, 
but  is  itself  inclosed  in  a bony  casing. 
These  fishes  do  not  attain  a large  size, 
and  are  common  in  tropical  seas. 

OSTRACISM,  a political  measure 
practiced  among  the  ancient  Athenians 
by  which  persons  considered  dangerous 
to  the  state  were  banished  by  public 
vote  for  a term  of  years  (generally  ten), 
with  leave  to  return  to  the  enjoyment 
of  their  estates  at  the  end  of  the  period. 
It  takes  this  name  from  the  shell  or 
tablet  on  which  each  person  recorded 
his  vote.  Among  the  distinguished  per- 
sons ostracized  were  Themistocles,  Aris- 
tides, and  Cimon,  son  of  Miltiades,  who 
were  afterward  recalled. 

OSTRICH,  a cursorial  bird  that  inhab- 
its the  sandy  plains  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  is  the  largest  bird  existing,  attain- 
ing a height  of  from  6 to  8 feet.  The 
head  and  neck  are  nearly  naked;  the 
general  body  plumage  is  black,  the  wing 
and  tail  feathers  white,  occasionally  with 
black  markings ; the  quill-feathers  of  the 
wings  and  tail  have  their  barbs  wholly 
disconnected,  hence  their  graceful  ap- 
pearance. The  legs  are  extremely 
strong,  the  thighs  naked.  There  are  only 
two  toes,  the  hallux  or  hind  toe  being 
wanting.  The  pubic  bones  are  united. 


African  ostrich. 


a conformation  occurring  in  no  other 
bird.  The  wings  are  of  small  size  and  are 
incapable  of  being  used  as  organs  of 
flight,  but  the  birds  can  run  with  extra- 
ordinary speed,  outdistancing  the  fleet- 
est horse.  The  bill  is  broad  and  of  a 
triangular  depressed  shape.  The  food 


consists  of  grass,  grain,  etc.,  and  sub- 
stances of  a vegetable  nature,  and  to  aid 
in  the  trituration  of  this  food  the  ostrich 
swallows  large  stones,  bits  of  iron  and 
glass,  or  other  hard  materials  that  come 
in  the  way.  Ostriches  are  polygamous, 
each  male  consorting  with  several  fe- 
males, and  they  generally  keep  to- 
gether in  flocks.  The  eggs  average  3 
lbs.  in  weight,  and  several  hens  often 
lay  from  ten  to  twelve  each  in  the  same 
nest,  which  is  merely  a hole  scraped  in 
the  sand.  The  eggs  appear  to  be  hatched 
mainly  by  the  exertions  of  both  parents 
relieving  each  other  in  the  task  of  in- 
cubation, but  also  partly  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  The  South  African  ostrich  is 
often  considered  as  a distinct  species. 
Three  South  American  birds  of  the 
same  family  are  popularly  known  as  the 
American  ostrich,  and  are  very  closely 
allied  to  the  true  ostrich,  differing 
chiefly  in  having  the  head  feathered 
and  three-toed  feet,  each  toe  armed  with 
a claw.  (See  Rhea.)  The  ostrich  has 
been  hunted  from  the  earliest  ages  for 
its  feathers,  which  have  always  been 
valued  as  a dress  decoration.  The 
feathers  of  the  back  are  those  most 
valued,  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  rank 
next.  The  black  plumes  are  obtained  by 
dyeing. 

OSTROGOTHS.  See  Goths. 

OSWE'GO,  a city  and  port  in  Oswego 
CO.,  New  York,  on  the  Oswego,  which 
here  falls  into  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  beau- 
tifully situated,  regularly  and  hand- 
somely built,  and  is  the  great  emporium 
for  the  traffic  to  New  York  from  Canada 
and  the  west.  It  is  famous  for  its  vast 
starch  factory,  and  has  extensive  mills, 
tanneries,  foundries,  machine-shops,  and 
ship-yards.  The  river  supplies  ample 
water-power.  The  entrance  to  the 
port  is  guarded  by  Fort  Ontario.  Pop. 
25,230. 

OTA'GO,  one  of  the  provincial  districts 
of  New  Zealand,  including  the  whole  of 
the  southern  part  of  South  Island,  south 
of  the  districts  of  Canterbury  and  West- 
land,  being  surrounded  on  the  other 
three  sides  by  the  sea;  area  about  15,- 
000,000  acres.  Pop.  173,111. 

OTAL'GIA,  a painful  affection  of  the 
ear.  It  may  be  due  to  inflammation  of 
the  ear;  it  may  be  a symptom  of  other 
diseases;  or,  it  may  be  a species  of 
neuralgia.  It  is  often  associated  with 
other  nervous  ailments  such  as  tooth- 
ache, and  neuralgic  pains  in  the  face; 
and  as  its  intensity  and  duration  gener- 
ally depend  upon  the  condition  of  the 
latter,  otalgia  is  probably  only  a local 
symptom  of  the  other  troubles.  Chil- 
dren, especially  during  their  fast-grow- 
ing period,  are  frequently  subjected  to 
otalgic  pains.  The  treatment  adopted 
in  neuralgic  affections  is  usually  and 
with  success  also  applied  to  this  com- 
plaint. 

OTIS,  Elwell  Stephen,  American  sol- 
dier, was  born  at  Frederick,  Md.,  in 
1838.  He  served  throughout  the  civil 
war,  rising  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Twenty-second 
Infantry  in  the  regular  army,  and  by 
successive  promotion  became  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  1900. 
In  1898  he  was  sent  to  the  Philippines, 
where  he  relieved  Major-General  Wesley 


OTIS 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRE 


Merrit  as  commander  of  the  United 
States  forces  and  military  governor  of 
the  islands.  He  was  a member  of  the 
first  Philippines  commission  in  1899. 
In  1900  he  was  recalled  to  the  United 
States  and  assigned  to  the  command  of 
the  Department  of  the  Lakes,  and  in 
March,  1902, [was  retired  from  the  service 

OTIS,  Fessenden  Nott,  American 
surgeon,  born  at  Ballston  Spa,  N.  Y.,  in 
1825.  He  invented  many  surgical  in- 
struments, of  which  the  more  important 
are  the  urethrometer,  the  dilating 
catheter,  and  an  evacuator  for  use  after 
lithotrity.  He  died  in  1900. 

OTIS,  George  Alexander,  American 
military  surgeon,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
in  1830.  He  was  appointed  surgeon  of 
United  States  Volunteers,  in  1864  and 
was  assigned  to  duty  as  curator  of  the 
Army  Medical  Museum  and  custodian 
of  the  Division  of  Surgical  Records  at 
Washington.  Owing  to  his  zeal  and 
energy  the  museum  came  to  possess  the 
most  valuable  surgical  and  anatomical 
collections  in  the  world.  He  died  in 
1881. 

OTIS,  Harrison  Gray,  American  poli- 
tician, was  born  in  1765  in  Boston.  In 
1796  he  was  elected  to  the  state  legisla- 
ture, and  the  next  year  was  sent  to 
congress  as  a federalist.  In  1817  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator  and  mayor 
of  Boston  in  1829.  His  brilliant  oratori- 
cal powers  made  him  a leader  in  the 
senate,  where  he  opposed  the  further 
extension  of  slavery.  He  died  in  1848. 

OTIS,  James,  American  statesman, 
bom  in  West  Barnstable,  Mass.,  in  1725. 
He  became  prominent  by  resigning  his 
office  of  advocate-general  in  1761  rather 
than  argue  in  favor  of  writs  of  assist- 
ance, i.e.,  general  search  warrants  for 
the  discovery  of  smuggled  goods  into 
the  colony.  In  1762  he  was  elected  to 
the  legislature.  In  1765  he  made  a 
motion  which  was  carried  that  a con- 
gress of  representatives  from  the  various 
colonies  be  convened.  The  Stamp  Act 
Congress  of  1765  was  the  result.  In 
1769  he  was  accused  in  England  of 
treason  which  he  publicly  denounced. 
In  1771  he  was  again  returned  to  the 
legislature.  He  died  in  1783. 

OTI'TIS,  inflammation  of  the  ear, 
accompanied  with  intense  pain.  Within 
the  tsrmpanum  it  is  called  internal,  be- 
yond it  external  otitis;  and  like  all  other 
inflammations  it  may  be  acute  or 
chronic.  Scrofulous  and  syphilitic  con- 
stitutions are  particularly  liable  to  this 
diesase.  Internal  otitis  is  often  a serious 
malady,  producing  fever  and  delirium, 
and  ending  in  suppuration,  and  gener- 
ally in  the  rupture  of  the  tympanum 
and  more  or  less  deafness.  The  treat- 
ment is  similar  to  that  of  other  in- 
flammatory ailments. 

OTTAR  OF  ROSES,  See  Attar. 

OT'TAWA,  a river  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  forming  for  a considerable 
part  of  its  length  the  boundary  between 
the  provinces  of  Quebec  and.  Ontario. 

OTTAWA,  a city  in  the  prov.  of 
Ontario,  capital  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ottawa 
about  90  miles  above  its  confluence  with 
the  St.  Lawrence,  lOOmileswest  of  Mon- 
treal, and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  rail- 
way. The  city,  divided  into  the  Upper 
and  Lower  town  by  the  Rideau  Canal, 


has  wide  streets  crossing  at  right  angles, 
and  some  of  the  finest  buildings  in  the 
Dominion.  The  chief  are  the  govern- 
ment buildings,  constructed  of  light- 
colored  sandstone  in  the  Italian-Gothic 
style.  The  educational  institutions  in- 
clude a Roman  Catholic  College,  the 
Canadian  Institute,  the  Mechanics’ 
Institute  and  Athenaeum,  etc.  Ottawa 
has  important  and  increasing  manufac- 
turers, and  is  the  great  center  of  the 
lumber  trade.  It  is  connected  with  Hull, 
on  the  Quebec  side  of  the  Ottawa,  by  a 
suspension  bridge.  In  1858  it  became 
the  capital  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada. 
Part  of  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1900. 
Pop.  59,902. 

OTTAWA,  a town  in  Illinois,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Illinois  and  Fox  rivers, 
84  miles  southwest  of  Chicago.  Pop. 
12,424. 

OTTER,  a carnivorous  mammal. 
There  are  several  species  differing 
chiefly  in  size  and  fur.  They  all  have 
large  flattish  heads,  short  ears,  webbed 
toes,  crooked  nails,  and  tails  slightly 
flattened  horizontally.  The  common 
river-otter  of  Europe  inhabits  the  banks 
of  rivers,  feeds  principally  on  fish,  and 
is  often  very  destructive,  particularly 
to  salmon.  The  under  fur  is  short  and 
woolly,  the  outer  is  composed  of  longer 


Canada  otter. 

and  coarser  hairs  of  dark  brown  hue. 
They  burrow  near  the  water’s  edge,  line 
their  nests  with  grass  and  leaves,  and 
produce  from  four  to  five  young.  The 
weight  of  a full-grown  male  is  from  20 
to  24  lbs. ; length  from  nose  to  tail  2 feet, 
tail  15  to  16  inches.  The  American  or 
Canadian  otter  averages  about  4 feet  in 
length  inclusive  of  the  tail.  It  is  plenti- 
ful in  Canada,  and  furnishes  a valuable 
fur,  which  is  a deep  reddish-brown  in 
winter,  and  blackish  in  summer.  The 
sea-otters  represented  typically  by  the 
great  sea-otter,  inhabit  the  coasts  of 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  but  are  of  com- 
paratively rare  occurrence.  The  tail  is 
short,  measuring  about  7 inches  only; 
weight  60  to  70  lbs.  The  fur  is  soft,  and 
of  a deep  lustrous  black,  or  of  a dark 
maroon  color  when  dressed,  and  much 
prized.  In  general  appearance  the  sea- 
otter  somewhat  resembles  a small  seal. 

OTTO,  German  sovereign.  See  Otho. 

OTTOMAN  EMPIRE,  the  Turkish 
Empire,  the  territories  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa  more  or  less  under  the  sway, 
of  the  Turkish  sultan.  In  Europe,  be- 
sides the  immediate  provinces  in  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  are  Bulgaria  (with 
Eastern  Roumelia),  and  Bosnia,  Herze- 
govina, etc.,  held  by  Austria;  in  Asia, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  including  Palestine, 
Mesopotamia,  part  of  Arabia,  Candia, 


and  others  of  the  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago; in  Africa,  Egypt,  over  which 
there  is  a nominal  suzerainty,  and  the 
vilayet  of  Tripoli.  Formerly  the  em- 
pire was  much  more  extensive,  even  in 
recent  times  comprising  Greece,  Rou- 
mania,  Servia,  Bessarabia,  Tunis,  etc. 
We  shall  here  give  a brief  sketch  of  the 
history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  refer- 
ring to  the  article  Turkey  for  informa- 
tion regarding  the  geography,  consti- 
tution, etc.,  of  Turkey  proper. 

The  Ottoman  Turks  came  originally 
from  the  region  of  the  Altai  mountains, 
in  Central  Asia,  and  in  the  6th  century 
A.D.  pushed  onward  to  the  west  in  con- 
nection with  other  Turkish  tribes. 
Early  in  the  8th  century  they  came  in 
contact  with  the  Saracens,  from  whom 
they  took  their  religion,  and  of  whom 
they  were  the  first  slaves  and  mer- 
cenaries, and  finally  the  successors  in 
the  caliphate.  In  the  13th  century  they 
appeared  as  allies  of  the  Seljukian  Turks 
against  the  Mongols,  and  for  their  aid 
received  a grant  of  lands  from  the 
Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium  in  Asia  Minor. 
Their  leader,  Othman  or  Osman,  of  the 
race  of  Oghuzian  Turkomans,  became 
the  most  powerful  emir  of  Western  Asia, 
and  after  the  death  of  the  Seljuk  sultan 
of  Iconium  in  the  year  1300  he  pro- 
claimed himself  sultan.  He  died  in  1326. 
Thus  was  founded  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Saracen,  Seljuk,  and  Mongol  power  the 
Empire  of  the  Osman  or  Ottoman  Turks 
in  Asia;  and  after  Osman,  the  courage, 
policy,  and  enterprise  of  eight  great 
princes,  whom  the  dignity  of  caliph 
placed  in  possession  of  the  standard  of 
the  prophet,  and  who  were  animated  by 
religious  fanaticism  and  a passion  for 
military  glory,  raised  it  to  the  rank  of 
the  first  military  power  in  both  Europe 
and  Asia  (1300-1566). 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century, 
and  most  of  the  17th  century,  the  chief 
wars  were  with  Venice  and  with  Austria. 
The  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571),  in  which 
the  Ottoman  fleet  was  overthrovm  by 
the  combined  fleets  of  Venice  and  Spain, 
was  the  first  great  Ottoman  reverse  at 
sea;  and  the  battle  of  St.  Gothard 
(1664),  near  Vienna,  in  which  Monte- 
cuculi  defeated  the  Vizier  Kiuprili,  the 
first  great  Ottoman  reverse  on  land. 
In  1683  Vienna  was  besieged  by  the 
Turks,  but  was  relieved  by  John  Sobi- 
eski  and  Charles  of  Lorraine;  in  1687  the 
Turks  were  again  defeated  at  Mohacz, 
and  in  1697  (by  Prince  Eugene  at 
Szenta.  Then  followed  the  Treaty  of 
Carlowitz  in  1699,  by  which  Mustapha 
II.  agreed  to  renounce  his  claims  upon 
Transylvania  and  a large  part  of  Hun- 
gary, to  give  up  the  Morea  to  the  Vene- 
tians, to  restore  Podolia  and  the  Uk- 
raine to  Poland,  and  to  leave  Azov  to 
the  Russians.  Eugene’s  subsequent 
victories  at  Peterwardein  and  Belgrade, 
obliged  the  Porte  to  give  up,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Passarowitz  in  1718,  Temes- 
war,  Belgrade,  with  a part  of  Servia  and 
Walachia;  but  the  Turks  on  the  other 
hand  took  the  Morea  from  Venice,  and 
by  the  Treaty  of  Belgrade  in  1739  re- 
gained Belgrade,  Servia,  and  Little  Wal- 
achia, while  for  a time  they  also  regained 
Azov. 

Russia,  which  had  been  making 
steady  advances  under  Peter  the  Great 


OTTUMWA 


OUTRIGGER 


and  subsequently,  now  became  the 
reat  opponent  of  Turkey.  In  the  mid- 
le  of  the  18th  century  the  Ottoman 
Empire  still  embraced  a large  part  of 
Southern  Russia.  The  victories  of 
Catharine  II. ’s  general  Romanzoff  in  the 
war  between  1768  and  1774  determined 
the  political  superiority  of  Russia,  and 
at  the  Peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainargi,  in 
1774,  Abdul-Hamid  was  obliged  to  re- 
nounce his  sovereignty  over  the  Crimea, 
to  yield  to  Russia  the  country  between 
the  Bog  and  the  Dnieper,  with  Kinburn 
and  Azov,  and  to  open  his  seas  to  the 
Russian  merchant  ships.  By  the  Peace 
of  Jassy,  1792,  which  closed  the  war  of 
1787-91,  Russia  retained  Taurida  and 
the  country  between  the  Bog  and  the 
Dniester,  together  with  Otchakov,  and 
gained  some  accessions  in  the  Caucasus. 
In  the  long  series  of  wars  which  followed 
the  French  revolution  the  Ottoman 
Empire  first  found  herself  opposed  to 
France,  in  consequence  of  Bonaparte’s 
campaign  in  Egypt,  and  finally  to 
Russia,  who  demanded  a more  distinct 
recognition  of  her  protectorate  over  the 
Christians,  and  to  whom,  by  the  Peace 
of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812,  she  ceded 
that  part  of  Moldavia  and  Bessarabia 
which  lies  beyond  the  Pruth.  In  1817 
Mahmud  II.  was  obliged  to  give  up  the 
principal  mouth  of  the  Danube  to 
Russia.  Further  disputes  ended  in  the 
Porte  making  further  concessions, 
which  tended  toward  loosening  the  con- 
nection of  Servia,  Moldavia,  and  Wala- 
chia with  Turkey.  In  1821  broke  out  the 
war  of  Greek  independence.  The  re- 
monstrances of  Britain,  France,  and 
Russia  against  the  cruelties  with  which 
the  war  against  the  Greeks  was  carried 
on  proving  of  no  avail,  those  powers 
attacked  and  destroyed  the  fleet  of 
Mahmud  at  Navarino  (1827).  In  1826 
the  massacre  of  the  Janizaries  took 
place  at  Constantinople,  after  a revolt. 
In  1828-29  the  Russians  crossed  the 
Balkans  and  took  Adrianople,  the  war 
being  terminated  by  the  Peace  of 
Adrianople  (1829).  In  that  year  Turkey 
had  to  recognize  the  independence  of 
Greece.  In  1831-33  Mehemet  Ali, 
nominally  Pasha  of  Egypt,  but  real 
ruler  both  of  that  and  Syria,  levied  war 
against  his  sovereign  in  1833,  and 
threatened  Constantinople;  when  the 
Russians,  who  had  been  called  on  for 
their  aid  by  the  sultan,  forced  the  in- 
vaders to  desist.  In  1840  Mehemet  Ali 
again  rose  against  his  sovereign;  but 
through  the  active  intervention  of  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  and  Russia,  was  com- 
pelled to  evacuate  Syria,  though  he  was, 
in  recompense,  recognized  as  hereditary 
viceroy  of  Egypt. 

'ihe  next  important  event  in  the 
history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  was  the 
war  with  Russia  in  which  Turkey  be- 
came involved  in  1853,  and  in  which  she 
was  joined  by  England  and  France  in 
the  following  year.  This  war,  known  as 
the  Crimean  war  (which  see),  terminated 
with  the  defeat  of  Russia,  and  the  con- 
clusion of  a treaty  at  Paris  on  the  30th 
of  March,  1856,  by  which  the  influence 
of  Russia  in  Turkey  was  greatly  reduced. 
The  principal  articles  were  the  abolition 
of  the  Russian  protectorate  over  the 
Danubian  principalities  (the  Moldavia 
and  Walachia,  united  in  1861  as  the 


principality  of  Roumania),  the  rectifica- 
tion of  the  frontier  between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  and  the  cession  of  part  of 
Bessarabia  to  the  latter  power. 

In  1875  the  people  of  Herzegovina, 
unable  to  endure  any  longer  the  mis- 
government  of  the  Turks,  broke  into 
rebellion.  A year  later  the  Servians 
and  Montenegrins  likewise  took  up  arms, 
and  though  the  former  were  unsuccess- 
ful and  obliged  to  abandon  the  war, 
the  Montenegrins  still  held  out.  Mean- 
time the  great  powers  of  Europe  were 
pressing  reforms  on  Turkey,  and  at  the 
end  of  1876  a conference  met  at  Con- 
stantinople with  the  view  of  making  a 
fresh  settlement  of  the  relations  be- 
tween her  and  her  Christian  provinces. 
All  the  recommendations  of  the  con- 
ference were,  however,  rejected  by 
Turkey;  and  in  April  following  Russia, 
who  had  been  coming  more  and  more 
prominently  forward  as  the  cham- 
pion of  the  oppressed  provinces  and 
had  for  months  been  massing  troops 
on  both  the  Asiatic  and  the  European 
frontier  of  Turkey,  issued  a warlike 
manifesto  and  commenced  hostile  opera- 
tions in  both  parts  of  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire. She  was  immediately  joined  by 
Roumania,  who  on  the  22d  of  May 
(1877)  declared  her  independence.  The 
progress  of  the  Russians  was  at  first 
rapid;  but  the  Turks  offered  an  obsti- 
nate resistance.  After  the  fall  of  Kars, 
however,  November  18,  and  the  fall  of 
Plevna,  December  10,  the  Turkish  resist- 
ance completely  collapsed,  and  on  the  3d 
of  March,  1878,  Turkey  was  compelled  to 
agree  to  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano,  in 
which  she  accepted  the  terms  of  Russia. 
The  provisions  of  this  treaty  were,  how- 
ever, considerably  modified  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  concluded  on  the  13th 
of  July  following  by  which  Roumania, 
Servia,  and  Montenegro  were  declared 
independent;  Roumanian  Bessarabia 
was  ceded  to  Russia;  Austria  was  em- 
powered to  occupy  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina; and  Bulgaria  was  made  a prin- 
cipality. (See  Berlin,  Treaty  of.)  The 
main  events  in  the  history  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  since  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
are  the  French  invasion  of  Tunis  in 
1881,  leading  to  a French  protectorate; 
the  treaty  with  Greece,  executed  under 
pressure  of  the  great  powers  in  1881  by 
which  Greece  obtained  Thessaly  and  a 
strip  of  Epirus;  the  occupation  of  Egypt 
by  Britain  in  1882;  and  the  revolution  at 
Philippopolis  in  1885,  by  which  Eastern 
Rumelia  became  united  with  Bulgaria. 
More  recent  events  include  the  massacres 
of  Armenians  in  1895-96;  the  Cretan  in- 
surrection and  the  consequent  war  with 
Greece  in  1897,  resulting  in  the  defeat 
of  the  latter;  the  granting  of  autonomy 
to  Crete  in  1898;  and  the  Macedonian 
revolt  of  1903.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  annexed  by  Austria.  Bulgaria 
proclaimed  its  independence;  the  sultan 
proclaimed  a constitution  in  1908. 

OT'TUMWA,  a city  in  Iowa,  on  the 
Des  Moines  river,  75  miles  n.w.  of  Bur- 
lington, an  important  railroad  center 
and  a place  of  growing  commercial  and 
industrial  activity.  Pop.  18,197. 

OUBLIETTE  (6'bli-et),  a dungeon 
existing  in  some  old  castles  and  other 
buildings,  with  an  opening  only  at  the 
top  for  the  admission  of  air.  It  was  used 


for  persons  condemned  to  perpetual 

imprisonment  or  to  perish  secretly. 

OUDH,  or  OUDE  (oud),  a province  of 
British  India,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Nepaul,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  the 
province  of  Agra;  area,  24,246  sq.  miles. 
Lucknow  is  the  capital,  and  the  main 
center  of  population  and  manufactures. 
Pop.  12,833,077  (mostly  Hindus),  giving 
the  large  average  of  521  to  the  sq.  miles. 

OUDH  (formerly  Ayodhya),  an  an- 
cient town  in  Faizabad  district,  Oudh, 
adjacent  to  Faizabad,  on  the  river 
Gogra.  In  remote  antiquity  it  was  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of 
Indian  cities,  and  is  famous  as  the  early 
home  of  Buddhism  and  of  its  modem 
representative.  Jainism.  A great  fair, 
attended  by  about  500,000  people,  is 
held  every  year.  Pop.  11,643. 

OUDINOT  (6-di-n6),  Charles  Nicolas, 
Duke  of  Reggio,  peer  and  marshal  of 
France,  born  in  1767.  In  1791  he  was 
elected  commandant  of  a volunteer 
battalion.  In  1792  he  was  colonel  of  the 
regiment  of  Picardy,  in  1793  brigadier- 
general,  and  in  1799  general  of  division. 
Mass^na  made  him  chief  of  the  general 
staff,  and  under  his  command  he  de- 
cided the  battle  of  the  Mincio.  In  1804 
Napoleon  gave  him  the  command  of  a 
grenadier  corps  of  10,000  men,  which 
was  to  form  the  advance-guard  of  the 
main  army.  At  the  head  of  these  troops 
he  performed  many  exploits,  winning 
the  battle  especially  of  Ostrolenka,  and 
deciding  the  fate  of  three  great  battles — 
Austerlitz,  Friedland,  and  Wagram. 
After  the  last-named  battle  Napoleon 
made  him  a marshal  and  Duke  of  Reggio. 
After  Napoleon’s  abdication  he  gave  in 
his  adhesion  to  the  Bourbons,  to  whom 
he  ever*afterward  remained  faithful,  and 
who  heaped  upon  him  every  honor. 
He  died  in  1847. — His  eldest  son,  Nicolas 
Charles  Victor  (born  1791),  commanded 
the  troops  which  effected  the  capture  of 
Rome  from  Garibaldi  in  1849.  He  died 
in  1863. 

OUIDA  (we'da).  See  Ram4e,  Louisa 
de  la. 

OUNCE,  in  Troy  weight,  is  the 
twelfth  part  of  a pound,  and  weighs  480 
grains;  in  avoirdupois  weight  is  the  six- 
teenth part  of  a pound,  and  weighs 
437^  grains  Troy. 

OUTRAM  (ou'tram),  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral Sir  James,  was  born  at  Butterley 
Hall,  Derbyshire,  1803.  In  1842  he  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  negotiate 
with  the  Ameers  of  Sind.  In  1856  he  was 
nominated  chief  commissioner  of  Oudh. 
He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  Brit- 
ish forces  in  the  Persian  war  of  1856-57. 
Although  of  higher  rank  than  Havelock, 
he  fought  under  him  until  Lucknow  was 
relieved  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell.  In  the 
following  March  he  commanded  the  first 
division  of  infantry  when  Sir  Colin 
finally  regained  possession  of  Lucknow. 
His  services  were  rewarded  with  a baro- 
netcy, the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  the 
order  of  the  grand-cross  of  the  Bath, 
and  the  thanks  of  parliament;  and 
statues  were  erected  in  his  honor  in 
London  and  Calcutta.  He  died  at  Pau 
in  1863,  and  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster .'^bbey. 

OUT'RIGGER.  an  iron  bracket  fixed 
on  the  side  of  a boat,  with  a rowlock  at 
its  extremity,  so  as  to  give  an  increased 


SIX  MILLION 
WOMEN 

Approve  3 Types  of 

KOTEX 

to  meet  the  personal 
needs  of  all  women 

■ “Any  size”  napkin  will  not  do, 
just  as  one  size  shoe,  or  hat,  or 
dress  will  not  fit  every  woman. 

For  the  ordinary  needs  of  most 
women  REGULAR  KOTEX,  in  the 
BLUE  BOX,  is  ideal.  It  gives  full 
protection  and  complete  contfort. 
The  millions  of  women  who  are 
completely  satisfied  with  Regular 
will  have  no  reason  to  change. 

Usually  the  menstrual  flow  is 
heavier  on  the  second  and  third 
days,  causing  women  to  change  nap- 
kins oftener.  SUPER  KOTEX,  in  the 
BROWN  BOX,  removes  this  diffi- 
culty by  giving  'jovi  greater  absorbency 
and  protection.  Although  Super  has 
extra  layers  of  Cellucotton  (not  cot- 
ton) it  is  no  longer  or  wider  than 
Regular. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  period,  and 
for  any  day  when  the  flow  is  light, 
many  women  prefer  the  comfort  of 
a smaller  napkin.  Try  JUNIOR 
KOTEX,  in  the  GREEN  BOX,  for 
such  times.  You  are  certain  to  like 
the  convenience  of  a smaller  nap- 
kin, especially  when  you  can  be  sure 
of  the  adequate  protection  which 
all  types  of  Kotex  provide. 


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Room  1445 

919  North  Michigan  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 

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Kurb  Fibs 


ANODYNE  TABLETS  FOR 
CERTAIN  DAYS 


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• The  medicinal  action  of  Kurb  Anodyne 
Tablets  is  such  that  they  lessen  the  per- 
ception of  pain  and  distress;  their  use 
generally  results  in  increased  comfort 
during  menstruation.  Also  recommended 
for  the  relief  of  simple  headaches,  and 
muscular  aches  and  pains. 

Dose:  1 or  2 tablets  with  water;  if 
necessary,  repeat  with  1 in  3 hours. 

If  your  dealer  does  not  have  Kurb 
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dealer’s  name  and  address. 


INVISIBLE  SANITARY  PROTECTION 
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are  also  recommended  by  physicians  as 
ideal  for  white  secretions  due  to  over- 
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K O T E X 


BI\  U I E.  VI 

ELT 


Quest 


KOTEX  WONDERFORM  BELT 


^ This  narrow,  adjustable  Kotex  Belt  is 
imall  and  inconspicuous,  yet  extra  safe 
and  secure  in  every  way.  Dainty,  unbreak- 
able fasteners  prevent  slipping  which  is 
the  most  frequent  cause  of  chafing. 


POSITIVE  DEODORANT  POWDER 
FOR  PERSONAL  DAINTINESS 


Because  this  belt  is  flat  and  thin,  woven 
to  fit  the  body,  it  is  self-balancing!  That 
means  you  can  bend  every- which -way 
without  harness -like  restraint.  And  you 
end  waist-line  consciousness! 

The  patented  clasp  is  even  more  secure 
than  safety  pins.  And  it’s  so  easy  to  use! 
You  simply  draw  the  gauze  end  of  your 
Kotex  pad  through  the  notched  hole 
until  secure,  then  down  through  the 
round  hole,  and  you  have  a balanced  pad. 
Buy  a Kotex  Belt  with  Kotex. 


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A NEW  DEODORANT 

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pletely. In  fact,  this  soothing  powder  de- 
stroys body  odors  of  all  types  and  does 
not  irritate  or  chafe.  Being  unscented  it 
does  not  cover  up  one  odor  with  another 
or  interfere  with  the  fragrance  of  your 
perfume.  Buy  Quest  when  you  buy  Kotex. 


WONDERSOFT  KOTEX 


FOR  MORE  COMFORT 
AND  SATISFACTION 


— follow  these  directions 


Can’t  Chafe  , , . Can’t  Fail . . . Can’t 
Show  . . . and  only  KOTEX  can 
offer  you  these  advantages. 


T . Moisture-Proof  Edges.  A special 
moisture-proof  strip  is  under  the 
Wondersoft  cotton  edge.  No  acci- 
dents, because  the  edges  stay  dry! 
Examine  the  pad  and  you’ll  see  the 
moistute-proof  edges  are  there. 

2.  Soft  Cushion  Top.  There  is  a 
smooth,  super-soft  tissue  cushion 
under  the  gauze.  It’s  on  both  top 
and  bottom,  prevents  chafing,  gives 
more  comfort  than  ever  without 
adding  thickness. 

3.  The  Rounded  Ends  of  Kotex 
are  also  flattened  and  tapered.  With 
Kotex  there  are  never  any  tell-tale 
wrinkles  . . . even  under  your  clos- 
est fitting  dresses. 

4.  The  Center  layer  has  channels 
which  guide  moisture  lengthwise, 
away  from  the  edges. 

This  “Equalizer”  gives 
extra  security  without 
extra  bulk.  Makes 
Kotex  hold  its  shape — 
no  twisting  or  roping. 

5.  Wondersoft  Edges. 

To  guard  against  chaf- 
ing and  irritation,  a 
soft,  downy  layer  of 
cotton  cushions  the 
edges  only.  The  surface 
is  left  free  to  absorb. 


1 . Although  Kotex  may 
be  worn  on  either  side, 
we  suggest  you  wear  the 
gauze  told  away  from  the 
%ody.  Then  there  is  no 
ossibility  of  cutting  or 
urning,  no  chance  for 
irritation  when  walking. 


2.  For  utmost  comfort 
and  protection,  curve 
the  edges  of  Kotex 
downwards  when  put- 
ting it  on.  Do  not  try  to 
wad  the  pad  together. 

3.  Wear  Kotex  snugly,  close  to  the 
body.  Pin  or  fasten  the  gauze  so  the  pad 
can’t  slip  and  twist  to  one  side.  Wear- 
ing it  too  loosely  may  result  in  roping 
and  twisting,  also  allow  the  edges  to 
become  soiled.  This  is  the  most  fre- 
quent cause  of  chafing  and  irritation 
along  the  thighs,  greatly  increases  your 

discomfort,  and  adds  dan- 
ger of  soiled  clothing. 
Remember  always  that  a 
pad  firmly  fastened  offers 
you  better  protection. 

4.  If  you  use  a narrow 
adjustable  belt  with  pat- 
ented clasps,  always 
gather  the  gauze  length- 
wise. Fold  gauze  ends  on 
a bias  if  you  use  a belt 
with  safety  pins.  . . . Pin 
through  all  thicknesses  o 
the  gauze. 

5.  To  dispose  of  Kotex 
first  remove  the  insid 
filler  from  the  gauze  an 
flush  it  away.  Then  cu 
the  gauze  in  two  with 
pair  of  scissors  ; flush  on 
half  away  . . . then  flus 
the  remainder  away. 


6.  Kotex  is  made  from 
Cellucotton  { not  cot- 
ton), the  world’s  finest 
absorbent.  Ask  any  hos- 
pital nurse. 


OUZEL 


OWEN 


leverage  to  the  oar  without  widening 
the  boat;  hence,  a light  boat  for  river 
matches  provided  with  such  apparatus. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  a con- 
trivance in  certain  boats  and  canoes, 
consisting  of  a projecting  framework  or 
arrangement  of  timbers  for  counter- 
balancing the  heeling-over  effect  of  the 
sails,  which  are  large  in  proportion  to 
the  breadth  of  the  vessel.  , 


OUZEL  (ou'zl),  a genus  of  insessorial 
or  perching  birds,  included  in  the  family 


Ring-ouzel. 


of  the  thrushes.  The  specific  name  of 
the  common  or  ring  ouzel  is  derived 
from  the  presence  of  a broad  semilunar 
patch  or  stripe  of  white  extending  across 
its  breast.  The  water  ouzel  belongs  to  a 
different  family.  (See  Dipper.)  Ouzel  is 
also  an  old  or  poetical  name  for  the 
blackbird. 

OVAL,  an  egg-shaped  curve  or  curve 
resembling  the  longitudinal  section  of 
an  egg.  The  oval  has  a general  resem- 
blance to  the  ellipse,  but,  unlike  the 
latter,  it  is  not  symmetrical,  being 
broader  at  one  end  than  at  the  other. 

OVA'RIAN  TUMOR,  a morbid  growth 
in  the  ovary  of  a woman,  sometimes 
weighing  as  much  as  30,  50,  or  upward  of 
100  lbs.  or  more,  consisting  of  a cyst 
containing  a thin  or  thick  ropy  fluid, 
causing  the  disease  known  as  ovarian 
dropsy,  which  is  now  generally  cured 
by  the  operation  of  ovariotomy. 

OVARIOT'OMY,  the  operation  of  re- 
moving the  ovary,  or  a tumor  in  the 
ovary  (see  above);  a surgical  operation 
first  performed  in  1809,  and  long  con- 
sidered exceedingly  dangerous,  but 
latterly  performed  with  great  and  in- 
creasing success,  especially  since  the 
adoption  of  the  antiseptic  treatment 
inaugurated  by  Lister. 

O'VARY,  or  OVARIUM,  the  essential 
part  of  the  female  generative  apparatus 
in  which  the  ova  or  eggs  are  formed  and 
developed.  The  ovary  in  the  female 
corresponds  to  the  testis  of  the  male. 
In  adult  women  the  ovaries  exist  as  two 
bodies  of  somewhat  oval  shape,  and 
compressed  from  side  to  side,  of  whitish 
color  and  uneven  surface.  They  are 
situated  one  on  each  side  of  the  womb, 
and  are  attached  to  the  hinder  portion 
of  the  body  of  the  womb  by  two  thin 
cord-like  bands — the  ovarian  ligaments, 
and  by  a lesser  fibrous  cord  to  the 
fringed  edge  of  the  fallopian  tube.  Each 
ovary  is  about  1^  inch  in  length,  and 


about  li  drachms  in  weight,  and  con- 
tains a number  of  vesicles  known  as 
ovisacs  or  Graafian  follicles,  in  which 
the  ova  are  developed.  The  functions 
of  the  ovary,  which  are  only  assumed 
and  become  active  on  the  approach  of 
puberty,  are  the  formation  of  ova,  their 
maturation,  and  their  final  discharge  at 
periodic  menstrual  epochs  into  the 
uterus  or  womb.  There  the  ovum  may 
be  impregnated  and  detained,  or  pass 
from  the  body  with  the  menstrual  flow. 
The  ovaries  are  subject  to  diseased  con- 
ditions, chief  among  which  are  cancer 
and  the  occurrence  of  tumors  and  cysts. 
See  Ovarian  Tumor,  Ovariotomy. 

O'VARY,  in  botany,  is  a hollow  case 
inclosing  ovules  or  young  seeds,  con- 
taining one  or  more  cells,  and  ultimately 
becoming  the  fruit.  Together  with  the 
style  and  stigma  it  constitutes  the  fe- 
male system  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
When  united  to  the  calyx  it  is  called 
inferior;  when  separated,  superior. 

OVATION.  See  Triumph. 

OVEN,  a close  chamber  of  any  de- 
scription in  which  a considerable  degree 
of  heat  may  be  generated,  used  for 
baking,  heating,  or  drying  any  substance. 

OVEN  BIRDS,  birds  belonging  to  the 
family  Certhidae  or  Creepers,  found  in 
South  America.  They  are  all  of  small 
size,  and  feed  upon  seeds,  fruits,  .and 
insects.  Their  popular  name  is  derived 


Oven-bird. 


from  the  form  of  their  nest,  which  is 
dome-shaped,  and  built  of  tough  clay  or 
mud  with  a winding  entrance. 

OVENS  RIVER,  a river  in  the  north- 
east of  the  Australian  colony  of  Victoria, 
a tributary  of  the  Murray.  The  dis- 
trict is  an  important  gold-mining  and 
agricultural  one. 

OVERLAND  ROUTE  to  India,  the 
route  via  Dover,  Calais,  Paris,  Macon, 
the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  Modena,  to 
Brindisi,  thence  by  steamer  to  Port 
Said,  through  the  Suez  Canal,  and  down 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  destined  Indian  port. 
Alternative  routes  are  from  Marseilles 
or  Trieste  by  steamer  to  Alexandria, 
and  thence  by  rail  to  Ismailia. 

OVERSHOT  WHEEL,  a wheel  driven 
by  water  shot  over  from  the  top.  The 
buckets  of  the  wheel  receive  the  water 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  the  top,  and 
retain  it  until  they  approach  the  lowest 
point  of  the  descent.  The  water  acts 
principally  by  its  gravity,  though  some 
effect  is  of  course  due  to  the  velocity 
with  which  it  arrives. 

O'VERTURE,  in  music,  an  introduc- 
tory symphony,  chiefly  used  to  precede 
great  musical  compositions,  as  oratorios 
and  operas,  and  intended  to  prepare  the 
hearer  for  the  following  composition, 


properly  by  concentrating  its  chief 
musical  ideas  so  as  to  give  a sort  of  out- 
line of  it  in  instrumental  music.  This 
mode  of  composing  overtures  was  first 
conceived  by  the  French.  Overtures 
are,  however,  frequently  written  as  in- 
dependent pieces  for  the  concert-room. 


OVIBOS.  See  Musk-ox. 

OVID,  in  full  Publius  Ovidus  Naso, 
a celebrated  Roman  poet,  born  43  b.c. 
He  enjoyed  a careful  education,  which 
was  completed  at  Athens,  where  he 
gained  a thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  language.  He  afterward  traveled 
in  Asia  and  Sicily.  He  never  entered  the 
senate,  although  by  birth  entitled  to 
that  dignity,  but  filled  one  or  two  un- 
important public  offices.  Till  his  fiftieth 
year  he  continued  to  reside  at  Rome, 
enjoying  the  friendship  of  a large  circle 
of  distinguished  men.  By  an  edict  of 
Augustus,  however  (a.d.  8),  he  was 
commanded  to  leave  Rome  for  Tomi, 
a town  on  the  inhospitable  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea,  near  the  mouths  of  the 
Danube.  Ovid  died  at  Tomi  in  the  year 
18  A.D.  His  works  include  love  elegies; 
letters  of  heroines  to  their  lovers  or 
husbands;  Art  of  Love,  Love  Remedies, 
the  Metamorphoses,  in  fifteen  books; 
Fasti,  a sort  of  poetical  calendar ; Tristia; 
Epistolffi  ex  Pon'to,  Epistles  from 
Pontus,  etc. 

OV'IDUCT,  the  name  given  to  the 
canal  by  which,  in  animals,  the  ova  or 
eggs  are  conveyed  from  the  ovary  to  the 
uterus  or  into  the  external  world.  In 
mammals  the  oviducts  are  termed 
Fallopian  tubes,  being  so  named  after 
the  anatomist  who  first  described  them. 

OVIEDO  (6-vi-a'd6),  a town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  a province  of  same  name,  230 
miles  northwest  of  Madrid.  Pop.  48,- 
103. — The  province,  area  4080  square 
miles,  pop.  627,069,  is  situated  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  and  bounded  by  the 
provinces  of  Santander,  Leon,  and  Lugo. 

OVUM,  the  “egg”  or  essential  prod- 
uct of  the  female  reproductive  system, 
which,  after  impregnation  by  contact 
with  the  semen  or  essential  fluid  of  the 
male,  is  capable  of  developing  into  a 
new  and  independent  being.  The 
essential  parts  to  be  recognized  in  the 
structure  of  every  true  ovum  or  egg  con- 
sist, firstly,  of  an  outer  membrane  known 
as  the  vitelline  membrane.  Within  this 
is  contained  the  vitellus  or  yolk,  and 
imbedded  in  the  yolk-mass  the  germinal 
vesicle  and  smaller  germinal  spot  are 
seen.  See  Ovary,  Reproduction. 

OWEN,  John,  D D.,  English  Noncon- 
formist divine,  born  at  Stadham,  Ox- 
fordshire, in  1616.  He  was  appointed  to 
preach  at  Whitehall  the  day  after  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.;  accompanied 


OWEN 


OWLS 


Cromwell  in  his  expeditions  both  to 
Ireland  and  Scotland;  in  1651  was  made 
dean  of  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford, 
and  in  1652  was  nominated  by  Crom- 
well, then  chancellor  of  the  university, 
his  vice-chancellor,  offices  of  which  he 
was  deprived  in  1657.  He  died  in  1683. 

OWEN,  Sir  Richard,  K.C.B.,  com- 
parative anatomist  and  [palaeontologist, 
was  born  at  Lancaster  1804.  Having 
settled  in  the  metropolis  he  became 
assistant  curator  of  the  Hunterian 
Museum.  In  1834  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at 
St.  Bartholomew’s  hospital;  in  1836 
professor  in  anatomy  and  physiology 


Sir  Richard  Owen. 

at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
in  1856  superintendent  of  the  natural 
history  department  in  the  British 
Museum,  from  which  last  post  he  retired 
in  1883.  He  died  in  1892.  He  was  the 
greatest  palseontologist  since  Cuvier,  and 
as  a comparative  anatomist  was  a 
worthy  successor  to  Hunter.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer  on  his  special  sub- 
jects, and  an  honorary  fellow  of  nearly 
every  learned  society  of  Europe  and 
America. 

OWEN,  Robert,  philanthropist  and 
social  theorist,  born  at  Newtown,  Mont- 
gomeryfshire.  North  Wales,  in  1771, 
died  there  1858.  In  1812  he  published 
New  Views  of  Society,  or  Essays  upon 
the  Formation  of  Human  Character; 
and  subsequently  a Book  of  the  New 
Moral  World,  in  which  he  completely 
developed  his  socialistic  views,  insist- 
ing upon  an  absolute  equality  among 
men.  He  had  three  opportunities  of 
setting  up  social  communities  on  his  own 
plan — one  at  New  Harmony  in  America, 
another  at  Orbiston  in  Lanarkshire, 
and  the  last  in  1844,  at  Harmony  Hall 
in  Hampshire,  all  of  which  proved 
signal  failures.  In  his  later  years  Mr. 
Owen  became  a firm  believer  in  Spirit- 
ualism. His  eldest  son,  Robert  Dale 
Owen  (1801-77),  for  a time  resident 
minister  of  the  United  States  at  Naples, 
is  chiefly  known  as  an  exponent  of 
spiritualism.  He  was  author  of  several 
works  on  that  and  other  subjects. 
Another  son,  David  Dale  Owen  (1807- 
60),  acquired  reputation  as  a geologist. 

OWEN,  Robert  Dale,  social  reformer, 
was  born  at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1801. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1825. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Indiana  legisla- 
ture in  1835.  He  was  a member  of  con- 
gress in  1843-47.  He  took  a leading  part 
jn  the  settlement  of  the  Northwestern 


boundary,  in  the  Oregon  question,  and 
in  founding  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
From  1853  to  1858  he  was  charg6 
d’affaires  and  minister  at  Naples.  He 
served  in  the  ordnance  commission  and 
the  Freedmen’s  Bureau  during  the  civil 
war.  Owen  was  a zealous  advocate  of 
Spiritualism.  His  chief  publications  are : 
Outlines  of  the  System  of  Education  at 
New  Lanark,  Moral  Physiology,  Foot- 
falls on  the  Boundary  of  Another  World, 
The  Wrong  of  Slavery,  Debatable  Land 
Between  This  World  and  the  Next.  He 
died  in  1877. 

OWENSBORO,  the  capital  of  Daviess 
county,  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  160 
miles  from  Louisville,  is  extensively 
engaged  in  the  curing  of  tobacco  and  the 
manufacture  of  whisky.  Pop.  15,325. 

OWENS  COLLEGE,  Manchester,  was 
established  under  the  will  of  John 
Owens,  a Manchester  merchant,  who 
died  in  1846,  and  left  about  $500,000  for 
the  purpose  of  founding  an  institution 
for  providing  a university  education, 
in  which  theological  and  religious  sub- 
jects should  form  no  part  of  the  instruc- 
tion given. 

OWL  PARROT,  the  type  and  only 
known  representative  of  a peculiar  group 
of  the  parrot  family,  is  a large  bird, 
a native  of  the  South  Pacific  Islands, 
and  especially  of  New  Zealand.  In 
aspect  and  in  nocturnal  habits  it  re- 
sembles the  owl.  It  feeds  on  roots,  which 
it  digs  out  of  the  earth  with  its  hooked 
beak.  It  seldom  flies;  it  is  generally  to  be 
seen  resting  in  hollow  stumps  and  logs, 
and  is  said  to  hibernate  in  caves. 

OWLS,  a group  of  birds  forming  a 
well-defined  family,  which  in  itself  rep- 
resents the  Nocturnal  Section  of  the 


Barn-owl. 


order  of  Raptores  or  Birds  of  Prey.  The 
head  is  large  and  well  covered  with 
feathers,  part  of  which  are  generally 
arranged  around  the  eyes  in  circular 
discs,  and  in  some  species  form  horn- 
like tufts  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
head.  The  beak  is  short,  strongly  curved 
and  hooked.  The  ears  are  generally  of 
large  size,  prominent,  and  in  many  cases 
provided  with  a kind  of  fleshy  valve  or 
lid,  and  their  sense  of  hearing  is  ex- 
ceedingly acute.  The  eyes  are  very 
prominent  and  full,  and  project  forward, 
the  pupils  being  especially  well  de- 
veloped— a structure  enabling  the  owls 
to  see  well  at  dusk  or  in  the  dark.  The 
plumage  is  of  soft  downy  character, 
rendering  their  flight  almost  noiseless. 
The  tarsi  are  feathered,  generally  to  the 
very  base  of  the  clav's,  but  some  forms, 
especially  those  of  fish-catching  habits, 
have  the  toes  and  even  the  tarsi  bare. 
The  toes  are  arranged  three  forward  and 


one  backward;  but  the  outer  toe  can 
be  turned  backward  at  will,  and  the 
feet  thus  converted  into  hand-like  or 
prehensile  organs.  In  habits  most  spe- 
cies of  owls  are  nocturnal,  flying  about 
during  the  night,  and  preying  upon  the 
smaller  quadrupeds,  nocturnal  insects, 
and  upon  the  smaller  birds.  Mice  in 


Long-eared  owl. 


particular  form  a large  part  of  their  food. 
During  the  day  they  inhabit  the  crevices 
of  rocks,  the  nooks  and  crannies  of  old 
or  ruined  buildings,  or  the  hollows  of 
trees;  and  in  these  situations  the  nests 
are  constructed.  They  vary  greatly  in 
size,  the  smallest  not  being  larger  than  a 
thrush.  In  their  distribution  the  owls 
occur  very  generally  over  the  habitable 
globe,  both  worlds  possessing  typical 
representatives  of  the  group.  The  com- 
mon white  or  barn  owl  is  the  owl  which 
has  the  greatest  geographical  range, 
inhabiting  almost  every  country  "in  the 
world.  The  tawny  or  brown  owl  is  the 
largest  of  the  species  indigenous  to 
Britain,  and  is  strictly  a woodland  bird, 
building  its  nest  in  holes  of  trees.  The 
genus  Asio  contains  the  so-called  horned 
owls,  distinguished  by  elongated  horn- 
like tufts  of  feathers  on  the  head.  The 
long-eared  owl  appears  to  be  common  to 
both  Europe  and  America.  It  inhabits 
woods.  The  short-eared  owl  frequents 
heaths,  moors,  and  the  open  country 
generally  to  the  exclusion  of  woods.  It 
has  an  enormous  geographical  range. 
The  eagle  owl  is  rare  in  Britain,  but 
occurs  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Lap- 
land,  and  over  the  continent  of  Europe 
to  the  Mediterranean.  A similar  species 
extends  over  the  whole  of  North  America. 
Owls  of  diurnal  habits  are  the  hawk  owl 
and  the  snowy  owl.  The  hawk  owl 
mostly  inhabits  the  Arctic  regions,  but 
migrates  southward  in  winter,  as  does 
the  snowy  owl,  which  is  remarkable  for 
its  large  size  and  snowy  plumage.  The 


Burrowing  owl. 

little  owl,  the  bird  of  Pallas  Athena,  is 
spread  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  but  is  not  a native  of  Britain.* 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  owls  is 


ox 


OXYGEN 


the  burrowing  owl  of  America  and  the 
West  Indies,  which  inhabits  the  bur- 
rows of  the  marmots  (which  see),  or 
prairie-dogs — the  owls  possessing  them- 


_Nest  of  burrowing  owl. 

selves  of  these  burrows  and  breeding 
therein,  much  to  the  discomfort  of  the 
original  possessors  of  the  abodes. 

OX,  the  general  name  of  certain  well- 
known  ruminant  quadrupeds.  The  char- 
acters are:  the  horns  are  hollow,  sup- 
ported on  a bony  core,  and  curved  out- 
ward in  the  form  of  crescents;  there  are 
eight  incisor  teeth  in  the  under  jaw, 
but  none  in  the  upper;  there  are  no 
canines  or  dog-teeth;  the  naked  muffle 
is  broad.  The  common  ox  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  our  domestic  animals. 
Its  flesh  is  the  principal  article  of  animal 
food;  and  there  is  scarcely  any  part  of 
the  animal  that  is  not  useful  to  man- 
kind; the  skin,  the  horns,  the  bones,  the 
blood,  the  hair,  and  the  very  refuse  of 
all  these,  have  their  separate  uses. 
Having  been  specially  domesticated  by 
man  from  a stock  which  it  is  probably 
impossible  to  trace,  the  result  has  been 
the  formation  of  very  many  breeds, 
races,  or  permanent  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  valued  for  their  flesh  and 
hides,  some  for  the  richness  and  abun- 
dance of  their  milk,  while  others  are  in 
great  repute  both  for  beef  and  milk. 
The  name  of  ox  is  used  also  in  a more 
restricted  sense  to  signify  the  male  of 
the  bovine  genus  castrated,  and  full- 
grown,  and  nearly  so.  The  young  cas- 
trated male  is  called  a steer.  He  is  called 
an  ox-calf  or  bull-calf  until  he  is  a year 
old,  and  a steer  until  he  is  four  years  old. 
The  same  animal  not  castrated  is  called 
a bull. 

OXAL'IC  ACID,  an  acid  which  occurs, 
combined  sometimes  with  potassium  or 
sodium,  at  other  times  with  calcium,  in 
wood-sorrel  and  other  plants;  and  also  in 
the  animal  body,  especially  in,  urine,  in 
urinary  deposits  and  in  calculi.  Many 
processes  of  oxidation  of  organic  bodies 
produce  this  substance.  Thus  sugar, 
starch,  cellulose,  etc.,  yield  oxalic  acid 
when  fused  with  caustic  potash,  or  when 
treated  with  strong  nitric  acid.  Saw- 
dust is  very  much  used  for  producing 
the  acid.  Oxalic  acid  is  a solid  substance, 
which  crystallizes  in  four-sided  prisms, 
the  sides  of  which  are  alternately  broad 
and  narrow,  and  the  summits  dihedral. 
They  are  efflorescent  in  dry  air,  but 
attract  a little  humidity  if  it  be  damp. 
They  are  soluble  in  water,  and  their 
acidity  is  so  great  that,  when  dissolved 
in  3600  times  their  weight  in  water,  the 
solution  reddens  litmus  paper,  and  is 
perceptibly  acid  to  the  taste.  Oxalic 
acid  is  used  chiefly  as  a discharging 
agent  in  certain  styles  of  calico-printing, 
for  whitening  leather,  as  in  boot-tops, 
and  for  removing  ink  and  iron  mould 


from  Wood  and  linen.  It  is  a violent 
poison.  Oxalates  are  compounds  of 
oxalic  acid  with  bases;  one  of  them, 
binoxalate  of  potash,  is  well  known  as 
salts  of  sorrel,  or  salts  of  lemon. 

OXFORD,  a city  and  county  borough 
in  England,  capital  of  Oxford  county, 
and  seat  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
universities  in  the  world  is  situated 
about  50  miles  w.n.w.  London,  on  a 
gentle  acclivity  between  the  Cherwell 
and  the  Thames,  here  called  the  Isis. 
Oxford,  as  a city  of  towers  and  spires, 
of  fine  collegiate  buildings  old  and  new, 
of  gardens,  groves,  and  avenues  of  trees, 
is  unique  in  England.  Of  the  university 
buildings  the  most  remarkable  are 
Christ’s  Church,  the  largest  and  grandest 
of  all  the  colleges,  with  a fine  quadrangle 
and  other  buildings,  a noble  avenue  of 
trees  (the  Broad  Walk),  the  cathedral 
serving  as  its  chapel;  Magdalen  college, 
considered  to  be  the  most  beautiful  and 
complete  of  all;  Balliol  College,  with  a 
modern  front  (1867-69)  and  a modern 
Gothic  chapel;  Brasenose  college;  and 
New  college  (more  than  500  years  old), 
largely  consisting  of  the  original  build- 
ings, and  especially  noted  for  its  gardens 
and  cloisters;  besides  the  Sheldonian 
theater,  a public  hall  of  the  university; 
the  new  examination  schools,  new 
museum,  Bodleian  library,  Radcliffe 
library,  and  other  buildings  belonging 
to  the  university.  Pop.  49,413. — Oxford 
county  is  bounded  by  Northampton, 
Warwick,  Gloucester,  Berks,  and  Buck- 
ingham; area,  483,621  acres,  of  which 
more  than  five-sixths  are  under  crops 
or  in  grass.  Manufactures  are  of  little 
importance.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Thames  or  Isis,  Thame,  Evenlode, 
Cherwell,  and  Windrush.  Pop.  182,768. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY,  one  of  the 
two  great  English  universities,  estab- 
lished in  the  middle  ages,  and  situated 
in  the  city  of  Oxford  (which  see).  Like 
Cambridge  it  embraces  a number  of 
colleges  forming  distinct  corporations, 
of  which  the  oldest  is  believed  to  be 
University  college,  dating  from  1253, 
though  Merton  college  was  the  first  to 
adopt  the  collegiate  system  proper. 
The  following  list  contains  the  name  of 
the  colleges,  with  the  time  each  was 


founded; 

1.  University  college 1253 

2.  Balliol  college 1268 

3.  Merton  college 1274 

4.  Exeter  college 1314 

5.  Oriel  college 1326 

6.  Queen’s  college 1340 

7.  New  college 1379 

8.  Lincoln  college 1427 

9.  All  Souls’  college 1437 

10.  Magdalen  college 1458 

11.  Brasenose  college 1509 

12.  Corpus  Christ!  college  . . . 1516 

13.  Christ  Church  college. .. . 1546 

14.  Trinity  college 1554 

15.  St.  John’s  college 1555 

16.  Jesus  college 1571 

17.  Wadham  college 1612 

18.  Pembroke  college 1624 

19.  Worcester  college 1714 

20.  Keble  college |1870 

21.  Hertford  college 11874 


Students  enter  as  commoners  or  as 
“scholars”  or  “exhibitioners,”  accord- 
ing as  they  obtain  some  of  the  numerous 
scholarships  or  exhibitions  which  may 


be  competed  for.  The  degrees  conferred 
are  those  of  Bachelor  and  Master  in 
Arts,  and  Bachelor  and  Doctor  in  Music, 
Medicine,  Civil  Law,  and  Divinity. 
Twelve  terms  of  residence  are  required 
for  the  ordinary  degree  of  B.A.  No 
further  residence  is  necessary  for  any 
degree,  and  no  residence  whatever  is 
required  for  degrees  in  music.  Women 
were  admitted  to  the  examinations  in 
1884,  but  do  not  receive  degrees.  Three 
colleges  for  women  have  been  estab- 
lished: Somerville  hall.  Lady  Margaret 
hall,  and  St.  Hugh’s  hall.  Mansfield 
college,  for  the  education  of  men  for  the 
nonconformist  ministry,  was  established 
in  1888.  The  total  number  of  students 
is  about  3000.  The  total  humber  of  pro- 
fessorships, etc.,  in  the  university  is 
about  fifty.  The  institutions  connected 
with  the  university  include ; the  Bodleian 
library  (the  second  in  the  kingdom), 
the  Ashmolean  museum.  Botanic  gar- 
dens, Taylor  institution  for  modern  lan- 
guages, University  museum,  Radcliffe 
library,  Observatory,  and  Indian  in- 
stitute. Affiliated  colleges  are:  St. 
David’s  college,  Lan^peter  (1880);  Uni- 
versity college,  Nottingham  (1882);  and 
Firth  College,  Sheffield  (1886). 

OXIDES,  the  compounds  of  oxygen 
with  one  other  element;  thus  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  form  oxide  of  hydrogen  or 
hydrogen  oxide,  oxygen  and  chlorine 
form  a series  of  oxides  of  chlorine, 
oxygen  and  copper  form  oxide  of  copper 
or  copper  oxide,  and  so  on.  When  two 
oxides  of  the  same  element  exist,  the 
name  of  that  which  contains  the  greater 
proportion  of  oxygen  ends  in  ic,  while 
the  name  of  the  oxide  containing  less 
oxygen  ends  in  ous ; thus  we  have  nitrous 
oxide,  and  nitric  oxide.  If  there  be 
several  oxides  they  may  be  distinguished 
by  such  prefixes  as  hypo,  per,  etc.,  or  by 
the  more  exact  prefixes  mono,  di,  tri, 
tetra,  etc.  For  the  different  oxides  see 
the  articles  on  the  individual  chemical 
elements. 

OXUS,  a large  river  in  Central  Asia. 
The  principal  head-stream'  of  the  Oxus 
is  by  some  considered  to  be  the  Panja 
river,  which  rises  in  a lake  of  the  Great 
Pamir,  at  a height  of  13,900  feet.  The 
Oxus  for  a considerable  distance  forms 
the  boundary  between  Afghanistan  and 
Bokhara.  Total  course,  1300  miles. 

OXYGEN,  a gas  which  is  the  most 
widely  distributed  of  all  the  elements. 
Eight-ninths  by  weight  of  water,  one- 
fourth  of  air,  and  about  one-half  of 
silica,  chalk,  and  alumina  consist  of 
oxygen.  It  enters  into  the  constitution 
of  nearly  all  the  important  rocks  and 
minerals;  it  exists  in  the  tissues  and 
blood  of  animals ; without  it  we  could  not 
live,  and  by  its  agency  disintegration  of 
the  animal  frame  is  carried  on  after 
death.  All  processes  of  respiration  are 
carried  on  through  the  agency  of  oxygen, 
all  ordinary  processes  of  burning  and  of 
producing  light  are  possible  only  in  the 
presence  of  this  gas.  Oxygen  is  invisible, 
inodorous,  and  tasteless;  it  is  the  least 
refractive,  but  the  most  magnetic  of  all 
the  gases;  it  is  rather  heavier  than  air, 
having  a specific  gravity  of  1.1056,  re- 
ferred to  air  as  1.00;  it  is  soluble  in  water 
to  the  extent  of  about  three  volumes  in 
100  volumes  of  water  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. Oxygen  was  liquefied  for  the 


OXYHYDROGEN  LIGHT 


Pacific  ocean 


first  time  in  1877  by  the  application  of 
intense  cold  and  pressure;  it  has  even 
been  solidified.  It  is  possessed  of  very 
marked  chemical  activity,  having  a 
powerful  attraction  for  most  of  the  sim- 
ple substances,  the  act  of  combining 
with  which  is  called  oxidation.  Some 
substances  when  brought  into  contact 
with  this  gas  unite  with  it  so  violently 
as  to  produce  light  and  heat;  in  other 
cases  oxidation  is  much  more  gradual, 
as  in  the  rusting  of  metals.  The  presence 
of  oxygen  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  one  of 
the  physical  conditions  of  life.  In  in- 
spiring we  receive  into  the  lungs  a sup- 
ply of  oxygen ; this  oxygen  is  carried  by 
the  blood  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
body,  and  there  deposited  to  do  its 
work  of  tissue-forming,  etc.;  the  de- 
oxygenated  blood  returns  to  the  lungs, 
and  again  receives  a fresh  supply  of  the 
necessary  oxygen.  Trees  and  plants 
evolve  oxygen,  which  is  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid  ab- 
sorbed by  the  leaves  from  the  atmos- 
phere. This  is  due  to  the  action  of  the 
sun’s  rays  and  the  chlorophyll  or  green 
coloring  matter  of  the  leaves.  When 
oxygen  unites  with  another  element  the 
product  is  called  an  oxide.  The  oxides 
form  a most  important  series  of  chemi- 
cal compounds  (see  Oxides  and  the 
articles  on  the  various  chemical  ele- 
ments), The  power  of  supporting  com- 
bustion is  one  of  the  leading  features 
of  oxygen  and  until  the  discovery  of 
oxygen  no  well-founded  explanation  of 
the  facts  of  combustion  was  known. 
Oxygen  exists  in  another  form  different 
from  that  of  the  ordinary  gas;  in  this 
form  it  exhibits  many  marked  peculiari- 
ties. See  Ozone. 

OXYHYDROGEN  LIGHT,  or  LIME- 
LIGHT, a brilliant  light  produced  when 
a jet  of  mixed  oxygen  and  hydrogen  gas 
is  ignited  and  directed  on  a solid  piece 
of  lime.  It  is  commonly  used  in  magic 
lantern  exhibitions;  and  the  two  gases 
are  kept  in  separate  air-tight  bags,  or 


P,  the  sixteenth  letter  and  twelfth 
consonant  in  the  English  alphabet.  It  is 
one  of  the  mutes  and  labials,  and  rep- 
resents a sound  produced  by  closely 
compressing  the  lips  till  the  breath  is 
collected,  and  then  letting  it  issue. 
See  B. 

PACA,  a genus  of  rodents.  The  com- 
mon paca  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 


The  brown  paca. 


rodents,  being  about  2 feet  long  and 
about  1 foot  high.  In  form  it  is  thick  and 
clumsy,  and  the  tail  is  rudimentary.  In 
habits  the  pacas  are  chiefly  nocturnal 


iron  cylinders  into  which  the  gas  is 
forced  under  very  high  pressure.  From 
these  receptacles  tubes  conduct  the 
gases  to  meet  in  a common  jet. 

OXYHYDROGEN  MICROSCOPE,  one 
in  which  the  object  is  illuminated  by 
means  of  the  oxyhydrogen  light,  and  a 
magnified  image  of  it  thrown  on  a screen. 

OYER  AND  TERMINER,  in  English 
law,  is  a commission  directed  to  two  of 
the  judges  of  the  circuit  and  other  gen- 
tlemen of  the  county  to  which  it  is  issued 
by  virtue  of  which  they  have  power,  as 
the  terms  imply,  to  hear  and  determine 
certain  specified  offenses.  The  com- 
missions of  oyer  and  terminer  are  the 
most  comprehensive  of  the  several  com- 
missions which  constitute  the  authority 
of  the  judges  of  assize  on  the  circuits. 

OYSTER,  an  edible  mollusc,  and  a 
near  ally  of  the  mussels,  etc.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  possession  of  an  in- 
equivalve  shell,  the  one  half  or  valve 
being  larger  than  the  other.  The  shell 
may  be  free,  or  attached  to  fixed  objects, 
or  may  be  simply  imbedded  in  the  mud. 
The  foot  is  small  and  rudimentary,  or 
may  be  wanting.  A single  (adductor) 
muscle  for  closing  the  shell  is  developed. 
The  common  oyster  is  the  most  familiar 
member  of  the  genus.  The  fry  or  fer- 
tilized ova  of  the  oyster  are  termed 
“spat,”  and  enormous  numbers  of  ova 
are  produced  by  each  individual  from 
May  or  June  to  September — the  spawn- 
ing season.  The  spat  being  discharged, 
each  embryo  is  found  to  consist  of  a 
little  body  enclosed  within  a minute 
but  perfectly  formed  shell,  and  possess- 
ing vibratile  filaments  or  cilia,  by  which 
the  young  animal  at  first  swims  freely 
about,  and  then  attaches  itself  to  some 
object.  In  about  three  years  it  attains 
its  full  growth.  The  oysters  congregate 
together  in  their  attached  state  to  form 
large  submarine  tracts  or  “oyster-beds,” 
as  they  are  termed.  In  England  the 
Gravesend  beds,  and  those  extending 
along  the  coasts  of  Kent  and  Essex,  are 

P 

and  herbivorous.  They  excavate  bur- 
rows, run  swiftly,  and  swim  and  dive 
with  facility.  They  are  found  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  South  America,  from 
Paraguay  to  Surinam.  The  flesh  is  said 
to  be  savory. 

PACE,  a measure  of  length,  used  as  a 
unit  for  long  distances.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  passus,  which  was,  how- 
ever, a different  measure,  the  Latin 
passus  being  measured  from  the  mark 
of  the  heel  of  one  foot  to  the  heel  of  the 
same  foot  when  it  next  touched  the 
ground,  thus  stretching  over  two  steps; 
while  the  English  pace  is  measured  from 
heel  to  heel  in  a single  step.  The  Latin 
pace  was  somewhat  less  than  5 feet; 
the  English  military  pace  at  the  ordinary 
marching  rate  is  2i  feet,  and  at  double 
quick  time  3 feet. 

PACER,  the  ambling  gait  of  the  pacer, 
smooth,  and  lateral,  as  distinguished 
from  the  diagonal  gait  of  the  trotter,  has 
been  appreciated  from  the  earliest  an- 
tiquity. The  time  for  a paced  mile  has 
gradually  been  reduced  from  2:28,  until 
in  1905  Dan  Patch  made  it  in  1 :55L 
The  gaits  of  trotting  and  pacing  are 


celebrated;  in  Scotland  the  beds  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth;  in  France,  those  of 
Rochelle,  Rochefort,  R6  and  Oleron, 
Cancale,  and  Granville;  in  Denmark  the 
Schleswig  beds  and  those  at  the  north 
point  of  Jutland;  in  America  the  beds 
of  Virginia,  of  Georgia,  and  of  Long 
Island.  The  most  common  American 
species  is  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  most  favorable 
bottom  and  locality  for  oyster-beds 
appear  to  be  those  situated  in  parts 
where  the  currents  are  not  too  strong, 
and  where  the  sea-bed  is  shelving,  and 
covered  by  mud  and  gravel  deposits. 

The  Unite  I States  and  France  are  the 
chief  seats  of  the  oyster  industry.  In 
the  United  States  the  natural  oyster 
beds  are  still  a source  of  great  wealth, 
while  in  Europe  the  native  beds  have 
long  since  been  practically  destroyed. 
Large  quantities  of  American  oysters 
are  now  sent  to  Europe ; and  the  Ameri- 
can are  generally  larger  than  the  Euro- 
pean. 

OZONE,  a modified — technically  an 
allotropic — form  of  oxygen.  Two  vol- 
umes of  ozone  contain  three  volumes 
of  oxygen  condensed  to  two  volumes. 
Ozone  exists  in  small  quantities  in  pure 
country  air,  and  is  produced  in  various 
ways.  When  an  electric  machine  is  set 
in  operation  a peculiar  smell'  may  be 
perceived;  after  a discharge  of  lightning 
the  same  smell  is  perceptible.  The  sub- 
stance which  manifests  this  odor  is 
ozone,  and  in  each  of  those  cases  ozone 
is  produced.  Ozone  acts  as  a very 
powerful  oxidizer;  for  this  reason  it  is  of 
great  service  in  the  atmosphere,  as  it  so 
readily  oxidizes,  and  thus  renders  com- 
paratively unhurtful,  animal  effluvia 
and  other  obnoxious  products  of  animal 
or  vegetable  decomposition.  Ozone 
rapidly  bleaches  indigo,  converting  it 
into  a white  substance  called  isatin, 
which  contains  more  oxygen  than  the 
indigo  itself. 


practically  interchangeable,  though  it 
is  still  true  that  a fast  trotter  becomes  a 
faster  pacer. 

PACHA.  See  Pasha. 

PACIFIC  OCEAN  (formerly  called 
also  the  South  Sea),  that  immense  ex- 
panse of  water  which  extends  between 
the  North  and  South  American  con- 
tinents and  Asia  and  Australia.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  oceans,  exceeding  in  com- 
pass the  whole  of  the  four  continents 
taken  together,  and  occupying  more 
than  a fourth  part  of  the  earth’s  area 
and  fully  one-half  of  its  water  surface. 
On  the  west  it  extends  to  the  Indian 
ocean,  and  has  several  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct seas  connected  with  it — the  China 
sea.  Yellow  sea.  Sea  of  Japan,  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  etc.;  on  the  north  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Arctic  ocean  by  Behring’s 
straits,  on  the  south  it  is  bounded  by 
the  Antarctic  ocean,  and  on  the  east  it 
joins  the  Atlantic  at  Cape  Horn-.  Within 
this  enormous  circumference  it  includes 
the  numerous  islands  composing  the 
groups  of  Australasia  and  Polynesia,  and 
those  adjoining  America  and  Asia.  The 
average  depth  of  the  Pacific  appears  to 


pack-ice 


PAGE 


be  greater  than  that  of  the  Atlantic,  and 
its  bed  more  uniform.  Recent  soundings 
between  the  Friendly  islands  and  New 
Zealand  gave  depths  of  from  5022  up  to 
5155  fathoms  (nearly  six  miles)  not  far 
from  Kermadec  islands.  The  greatest 
depth  previously  known  was  4655 
fathoms  n.e.  of  Japan.  (See  Ocean.)  In 
the  Pacific  the  tides  never  attain  the 
maximum  heights  for  which  some  parts 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans  are 
celebrated.  On  all  the  west  coast  of 
America  the  rise  of  the  tide  is  usually 
below  10  feet,  and  only  in  the  Bay  of 
Panama  does  it  vary  from  13  to  15  feet. 
The  trade  winds  of  the  Pacific  are  not  so 
regular  in  their  limits  as  those  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  this  irregularity  extends 
over  a much  wider  region  in  the  case  of 
the  southeast  trade  winds  than  in  the 
case  of  the  northeast.  The  cause  of  this 
is  the  greater  number  of  islands  in  the 
South  Pacific  ocean,  which,  especially  in 
the  hot  season,  disturb  the  uniformity 
of  atmospheric  pressure  by  local  con- 
densations. The  northeast  trade  wind 
remains  the  whole  year  through  within 
the  northern  hemisphere.  The  southeast 
trade  wind,  on  the  other  hand,  ad- 
vances beyond  the  equator,  both  in  sum- 
mer and  winter,  still  preserving  its 
original  direction.  In  the  region  stretch- 
ing from  New  Guinea  and  the  Solomon 
islands  southeastward,  there  are  no 
regular  winds.  The  zones  of  the  two 
trade  winds  are  separated  by  regions  of 
calms  and  of  light  winds,  the  limits  of 
which  vary  of  course  with  the  varying 
limits  of  these  zones.  In  the  Chinese 
seas  the  terrible  typhoon  occasionally 
rages,  and  may  occur  at  any  season  of 
the  year.  As  to  the  chief  currents  of  the 
Pacific  see  Currents,  Marine.  The  Por- 
tuguese were  the  first  Europeans  who 
entered  the  Pacific,  which  they  did  from 
the  east.  Balboa,  in  1513,  discovered  it 
from  the  summit  of  the  mountains  which 
traverse  the  Isthmus  of  Darien.  Magel- 
lan sailed  across  it  from  east  to  west  in 
1520-21.  Drake,  Tasman,  Behring, 
Anson,  Byron,  Bougainville,  Cook,  Van- 
cover,  Lap^rouse,  and  others,  traversed 
it  in  different  directions  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries. 

PACK-ICE,  in  the  Arctic  seas,  an 
immense  assemblage  of  large  floating 
pieces  of  ice.  When  the  pieces  are  in 
contact  the  pack  is  said  to  be  closed; 
when  they  do  not  touch,  though  very 
near  each  other,  it  is  said  to  be  open. 

PACK-SADDLE,  contrivances  for  the 
transportation  of  merchandise  or  mili- 
tary stores.  The  pack-saddle  in  most 
general  use  consists  of  crossed  sticks, 
fastened  to  saddle-bars  of  long  bearing. 
In  the  United  States  army  pack-animals 
are  usually  supplied  with  the  aparejo. 
Ammunition  mules  are  equipped  with 
pack-saddles,  specially  adapted  for  the 
carrying  of  ammunition  boxes,  which 
are  placed  in  such  a way  as  to  admit  of 
easy  access  when  the  animal  is  employed 
in  supplying  troops  in  action. 

PACKING  INDUSTRY,  the  slaughter- 
ing of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and  the 
utilization  of  their  carcasses  is  an  im- 
portant industry.  The  best  parts  of  the 
animals  are  shipped  in  refrigerator  cars 
and  vessels  for  consumption  as  fresh 
meat  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  while 
Other  parts  are  cured,  by  smoking  or 


salting.  The  fatty  portions  are  con- 
verted into  lard  and  commercial  grease. 
The  bones  are  converted  into  glue  or 
fertilizers,  and  the  hoofs  and  horns  are 
used  or  sold  for  other  purposes. 

The  animals  are  killed,  hooked  by  the 
nose  to  an  endless  chain,  passed  through 
scalding  vats,  and  then  through  an 
automatically  adjusted  scraper  which 
deprives  them  of  hair  and  bristles  in  a 
few  seconds.  The  animals  are  then 
hoisted,  head  down,  upon  an  inclined 
rail  and  disemboweled,  beheaded, 
washed,  trimmed  and  whirled  to  the 
chill-rooms  at  the  rate  of  twenty  a 
minute.  In  dressing  hogs,  about  20  per 
cent  is  offal  and  the  rest  is  used  as  meat, 
of  which  only  about  10  per  cent  is  sold 
as  fresh  meat.  The  other  parts  are  cured, 
usually  by  pickling  in  brine  for  seven 
or  eight  weeks,  and  then  smoking  for 
twenty-four  hours.  The  most  profitable 
part  of  the  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  sausage.  The  meat  used  is  chiefly 
trimmings,  which  are  obtained  from  all 
parts  of  the  establishment.  The  meat 
is  chopped,  mixed  with  potato  flour 
and  water.  Certain  spices  are  added,  in- 
cluding sage,  pepper,  salt,  ginger,  and 
mustard.  The  intestines  are  used  for 
sausage  casings. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  pork-packing  industry  is  the  manu- 
facture of  lard.  Two  grades  of  lard  are 
made — leaf  lard  and  steam  lard.  In  the 
leaf  lard  of  commerce,  not  only  the  pure 
leaf,  but  all  sorts  of  trimmings  from  the 
belly  of  the  animal  are  used.  Steam  lard 
is  made  from  scraps  taken  from  all  parts 
of  the  animal,  particularly  from  the 
feet,  or  even  the  feet  themselves  and 
the  head  bones. 

In  dressing  cattle,  the  parts  intended 
to  be  sold  as  fresh  beef  are  allowed  to 
cool  for  forty-eight  hours  and  then 
shipped.  In  the  canning  of  fresh  beef, 
inferior  meat  is  used,  either  poorer  grade 
of  cattle  or  poorer  cuts.  Since  1891  the 
whole  packing  industry  has  been  under 
vigilant  government  inspection. 

PADDLE-FISH,  a large  fish  allied  to 
the  sturgeons,  so  named  from  the 
elongated  broad  snout  with  which  it 
stirs  up  the  soft  muddy  bottom  in  search 
of  food.  It  often  reaches  a length  of  from 
5 to  6 feet.  The  paddle-fishes  are  ex- 
clusively North  American  in  their  dis- 
tribution, being  found  in  the  Mississippi, 
Ohio,  and  other  great  rivers  of  this  con- 
tinent. 

PADDLE-WHEEL,  in  steam-ships 
one  of  the  wheels  (generally  two  in  num- 
ber, one  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
vessel)  provided  with  boards  or  floats 
on  their  circumferences,  and  driven  by 
the  engine  for  the  ship’s  propulsion 
through  the  water.  On  rivers  liable  to 
such  obstructions  as  floating  trees,  etc., 
a single  paddle-wheel  placed  at  the  stern 
of  the  vessel  is  employed.  The  ship  is 
propelled  by  the  reaction  of  the  water 
upon  the  floats.  Most  power  is  gained 
when  the  floats  are  vertical,  passing 
through  the  water  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  of  greatest  pressure.  The  pad- 
dle-wheel is  now  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  river-boats;  in  ocean-going 
steamers  it  has  given  place  to  the  screw. 

PADEREWSKI  (pa'de-r6f'ske),  Ignace 
Jan.,  Polish  pianist  and  composer,  was 
born  in  Poland  in  1860.  He  received  his 


musical  education  at  Warsaw  and  Ber- 
lin, and  was  made  professor  of  music  in 
the  Conservatory  of  Music  in  Warsaw 
at  the  age  of  eighteen.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-four  he  was  made  professor  in 
the  Conservatory  of  Strasburg.  Later 
he  studied  in  Vienna  and  began  pro- 
fessional tours.  For  his  three-months 
season  in  the  United  States  1895-96 
he  received  $200,000.  He  has  made  four 
American  tours — in  1891,  1893,  1896, 
and  1899.  His  compositions  for  the 
piano  have  become  widely  known;  they 
include : Prelude  and  Minuet,  Elegie  op. 
4,  Danses,  Polonaises. 

PAD'UA,  a city  in  Italy,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  22  miles 
west  of  Venice.  The  university,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  in  1238,  was  long  re- 
nowned as  the  chief  seat  of  law  and 
medicine  in  Italy ; and  very  many  names 
famous  in  learning  and  art  are  connected 
with  Padua,  such  as  Galileo,  Scaliger, 
Tasso,  Giotto,  Lippo  Lippi,  and  Dona- 
tello. Pop.  82,283.  The  province  of 
Padua  has  an  area  of  854  sq.  miles,  and 
pop.  of  443,227. 

PADU'CAH,  a town  in  M’Cracken  co., 
Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  not  far  from 
themouthof  theTennessee.  Pop.  21,315. 

P.®AN  , in  Greek,  a hymn  to  Apollo  or 
to  other  deities,  or  a song  in  praise  of 
heroes. _ A paean  was  sung,  previous  to 
battle,  in  honor  of  Ares  (Mars),  and  after 
a victory,  in  praise  of  Apollo. 

P.ffi'ONY.  See  Peony. 

PAGANI'NI,  Niccolo,  a celebrated 
violinist,  born  in  1784  at  Genoa,  died  at 
Nice,  1840.  His  father,  who  had  some 
knowledge  of  music,  and  discerned  the 
talents  of  his  son,  put  him  at  a very  early 
age  under  the  best  masters  (Costa, 
Rolla,  Paer)  to  learn  music,  and  par- 
ticularly the  violin.  With  this  instru- 
ment his  progress  was  so  rapid  that  at 
the  age  of  nine  he  was  able  to  perform 
in  public  at  Genoa.  His  first  engagement 
was  in  1805,  at  Lucca,  where  he  found 
a patroness  in  Princess  Eliza,  Bona- 
parte’s sister.  In  1813  he  left  Lucca  for 
Milan,  and  in  1828  visited  Vienna.  From 
this  period  his  fame  was  world-wide. 
The  wonder  which  he  excited  was- caused 
not  merely  by  the  charm  of  his  execu- 
tion and  his  extraordinary  skill,  but 
also  by  his  external  appearance,  which 
had  something  weird  and  even  demonia- 
cal in  it.  After  visiting  almost  all  the 
great  towns  of  Germany  he  made  a 
musical  tour  through  France  and  Great 
Britain,  realizing  immense  gains.  His 
last  years  were  spent  at  a villa  near 
Parma. 

PAGANS,  the  worshippers  of  many 
gods,  the  heathen;  so  called  by  the 
Christians  because  after  Christianity 
had  become  predominant  in  the  towns 
the  ancient  polytheistic  faith  still  lin- 
gered in  the  villages  (pagi)  and  country 
districts.  . 

PAGE, Thomas  Nelson,  American  nov- 
elist, was  born  in  1853.  His  first  note- 
worthy literary  effort  was  Marse  Chan 
published  in  1884  and  incorporated 
with  Meh  Lady  and  other  stories  in  Ole 
Virginia.  Among  those  of  his  other 
works  the  following  are  the  best  known: 
Two  Little  CorJederates,  Red  Rock,  and 
Gordon  Keith. 


PAGING-MACHINE 


PAINTING 


PAGING-MACHINE,  a machine  for 
printing  consecutive  numbers  on  the 
pages  of  a book,  bank-notes  and 
cheques,  railway-tickets,  etc.  Several 
machines  of  this  kind  have  been  in- 
vented, all  of  which  consist  essentially 
of  a number  of  revolving  discs  bearing 
the  ten  digits  in  raised  figures  on  their 
circumference,  with  various  contriv- 
ances for  making  the  first  disc  describe 
one-tenth  of  a revolution  after  every 
figure  is  printed,  for  making  the  second 
disc  describe  one-tenth  of  a revolution, 
every  time  the  first  makes  a complete 
revolution,  and  so  on,  as  well  as  for 
supplying  the  figures  with  ink  at  each 
impression.  Provision  is  also  made  for 
the  printing  of  duplicate  and  alternate 
numbers  if  this  is  required. 

PAGO'DA,  the  name  given  to  Hindu 
and  Buddhist  temples.  The  temple 
proper  is  generally  of  pyramidal  form, 
and  of  a number  of  stories,  of  great  size 


Great  Pagoda  at  Bhiivaneswar,  Orissa, 
India. — Pergusson. 

and  height,  and  embellished  with  ex- 
traordinary splendor  Connected  with 
it  may  be  various  other  structures,  open 
courts,  etc.,  the  whole  forming  archi- 
tecturally a very  imposing  group.  Pa- 
godas are  numerous  not  only  in  Hindu- 
stan but  also  in  Burmah,  Siam,  and 
China.  The  statues  in  the  temple  are 
often  of  a colossal  size. 

PAHANG',  a state  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula;  area,  10,000  sq. 
miles;  pop.  83,419.  By  the  treaty  con- 
cluded between  Great  Britain  and  the 
Sultan  of  Pahang  in  1888  the  control  of 
the  foreign  relations  of  that  state  was 
conveyed  to  the  government  of  the 
Straits  Settlements;  and  Pahang  is  now 
practically  a dependency  of  that  colony. 

PAHLANPUR,  or  PALANPUR,  a town 
in  India,  presidency  of  Bombay,  prov- 
ince of  Gujerat.  Pop.  of  town,  17,799; 
of  agencj’’,  467,691. 

PAIN,'  an  uneasy  sensation  of  body, 
resulting  from  particular  impressions 
made  on  the  extremities  of  the  nerves 
transmitted  to  the  brain.  Physical  pain 
may  be  produced  by  various  causes — 
by  injuries  to  the  organs  in  which  the 
pain  is  localized;  by  a peculiar  state  of 
the  brain  and  nerves;  or  by  the  sym- 
pathetic affection  of  an  organ  at  some 
distance  from  that  which  has  been  in- 
jured. It  is  often  of  great  service  in  aid- 
ing the  physician  at  arriving  at  a correct 
diagnosis  of  a disease,  and  still  more 
obviously  in  frequently  being  the  only 


intimation  which  a patient  has  of  the 
fact  of  there  being  a disease  which  de- 
mands a remedy.  The  degree  of  pain, 
however,  is  rarely  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  gravity  of  a disease,  and  is  often 
altogether  absent  when  there  are  other 
symptoms  of  a serious  malady. 

PAINE,  Robert  Treat,  an  American 
patriot,  was  born  in  1731  in  Boston, 
Mass.  He  was  a delegate  in  1768  to  a 
convention  called  by  prominent  citizens 
after  Governor  Bernard  had  dissolved 
the  legislature  for  refusing  to  rescind  its 
circular  letter  to  the  other  colonies,  and 
in  1770  he  managed,  in  the  absence  of 
the  attorney-general,  the  prosecution 
of  Captain  Preston  and  his  men  for 
firing  upon  the  citizens  on  March  5th. 
In  1773-74  he  was  a member  of  the 
Massachusetts  assembly;  was  one  of  the 
representatives  of  Massachusetts  in  the 
continental  congress  from  1774  to  1778; 
and  was  a signer  of  the  declaration  of 
independence.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  (1780)  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  He 
died  in  1814. 

PAINE,  Thomas,  political  and  deisti- 
cal  writer,  born  in  1737  at  Thetford  in 
Norfolk.  In  1774  emigrated  to  America, 
with  a letter  of  introduction  from  Frank- 
lin. Paine  threw  himself  heart  and  soul 
into  the  cause  of  the  colonists,  and  his 
pamphlet  entitled  Common  Sense,  writ- 
ten to  recommend  the  separation  of  the 
colonies  from  Great  Britain,  and  his 
subsequent  periodica  called  the  Crisis, 
gave  him  a title  to  be  considered  one  of 
the  founders  of  American  independence. 
In  1787  he  returned  to  England,  and  in 
answer  to  Burke’s  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution  wrote  his  Rights  of 
Man.  A prosecution  was  commenced 
against  him  as  the  author  of  that  work, 
but  while  the  trial  was  pending  he  was 
chosen  member  of  the  national  conven- 
tion for  the  department  of  Calais,  and, 
making  his  escape,  set  off  for  France, 
where  his  Rights  of  Man  had  gained  him 


great  popularity,  and  arrived  there  in 
September,  1792.  On  the  trial  of  Louis 
XVI.  he  voted  against  the  sentence  of 
death,  proposed  his  imprisomnent  dur- 
ing the  war  and  his  banishment  after- 
ward. This  conduct  offended  the 
Jacobins,  and  toward  the  close  of  1793 
he  was  excluded  from  the  convention, 
arrested,  and  committed  ito  prison, 
where  he  lay  for  ten  months,  escaping 
the  guillotine  by  an  accident.  Just  be- 
fore his  confinement  he  had  finished  the 
first  part  of  his  work  against  revelation, 


entitled  the  Age  of  Reason^  it  was  pub-> 
lished  in  London  and  Paris  in  1794,  by 
which  step  he  forfeited  the  countenance 
of  the  greater  part  of  his  American  con- 
nections. He  remained  in  France  till 
August,  1802,  when  he  embarked  for 
America,  where  he  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life,  occupied  with  financial  ques- 
tions and  mechanical  inventions.  He 
died  at  New  York  in  1809. 

PAINTER’S  COLIC.  See  Lead-Poison- 
ing. 

PAINTING  is  the  art  of  representing 
the  external  facts  of  and  objects  in 
nature  by  means  of  color.  A study  of 
the  art  requires  a knowledge  of  form, 
animate  and  inanimate;  of  perspective; 
and  of  light  and  shade.  Considered  in 
relation  to  the  subjects  treated,  paint- 
ing may  be  divided  into  decorative, 
historical,  portrait,  genre  (scenes  of 
common  or  domestic  life),  landscape 
with  seascape,  architectural,  still  life. 
According  to  the  methods  employed 
in  the  practice  of  the  art  it  is  termed 
oil,  water-color,  fresco,  tempera  or  dis- 
temper, and  enamel  painting,  and  in 
mosaics,  on  glass,  porcelain,  terra-cotta, 
and  ivory  (this  last  being  called  mina- 
ture-painting.)  Decorative  works,  usu- 
ally in  fresco  or  tempera,  but  some- 
times in  oil,  are  generally  executed  upon 
the  parts  of  a building.  For  the  basis  of 
easel  pictures,  wood-panels  prepared 
with  a coating  of  size  and  white  were 
used  solely  up  to  the  14th  century  for 
both  oil  and  tempera,  and  are  still 
sparingly  employed;  but  canvas  covered 
with  a priming  of  size  and  white-lead, 
and  tightly  nailed  over  a wooden  frame 
called  a “stretcher,”  is  now  almost 
universally  adopted  for  oil-painting. 
For  water-colors  paper  alone  is  em- 
ployed. The  tools  used  by  an  artist  are 
charcoal,  colored  crayons,  and  lead- 
pencils  for  outline  purposes;  colors,  a 
palette  for  holding  the  same,  a palette- 
knife  for  mixing  them ; brushes  for  lay- 
ing them  on;  and  an  easel  with  adjust- 
able heights  for  holding  the  canvas.  A 
wooden  mannikin,  with  movable  joints, 
and  termed  a “lay-figure,”  is  sometimes 
used  on  which  to  arrange  costumes  and 
draperies. 

The  term  “oil-colors”  is  employed  to 
denominate  colors  ground  with  oil,  and 
water-colors  those  wherein  gum  and 
glycerine  have  been  employed. . Both 
are  ground  solid,  an  oil  medium  being 
used  in  the  first  case  and  water  in  the 
second  to  thin  out  the  colors  when  on 
the  palette.  Fresco-painting  is  executed 
on  wet  plaster.  Mosaic  work  is  formed 
by  small  cubes  of  colored  glass,  called 
tesserae,  fixed  in  cement;  in  tempera 
the  colors  are  mixed  with  white';  in 
encaustic,  wax  is  the  medium  employed; 
and  in  enamel  the  colors  are  fired.  Egyp- 
tian, Greek,  and  early  Roman  paintings 
were  executed  in  tempera ; Byzantine  art 
found  its  chief  expression  in  mosaics, 
though  tempera  panels  ■were  executed; 
and  early  Christian  art  up  to  and  partly 
including  the  14th  century  adopted  this 
last  method.  The  vehicle  employed  in 
mixing  the  colors  was  a mixture  of  gum 
and  white  of  egg,  or  the  expressed  juice 
of  fig-tree  shoots.  The  introduction  of 
oil-painting  was  long  attributed  to  the 
Van  Eycks  of  Bruges  (circa  1380-1441), 
but  painting  in  oil  is  known  to  have 


PAINTING  ON  GLASS 


PALATINATE 


been  practiced  at  a much  earlier  period, 
and  it  is  now  generally  held  that  the  in- 
vention of  the  Van  Eycks  was  the  dis- 
covery of  a drying  vehicle  with  which  to 
mix  or  thin  their  colors,  in  place  of  the 
slow-drying  oil  previously  in  use.  This 
new  vehicle  was  composed  of  a thickened 
linseed-oil  mixed  with  a resinous  varnish, 
and  it  was  its  introduction  that  effected 
so  great  a. revolution  in  the  art  of  paint- 
ing. For  an  account  of  special  methods 
of  painting  see  articles  Fresco-painting, 
Mosaic,  Encaustic  Tiles,  Enamel,  etc. 

PAINTING  ON  GLASS.  See  Glass- 
painting. 

PAINTS.  See  Pigments. 

PAISLEY,  a municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  of  Scotland,  in  the 
county  of  Renfrew.  Paisley  has  been 
long  noted  for  its  manufactures,  espe- 
cially of  textile  goods.  The  shawl  manu- 
facture, introduced  about  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century,  and  long  a flour- 
ishing industry,  is  not  now  a staple,  but 
the  textile  manufacture  is  still  large, 
though  the  chief  industry  is  that  of 
sewing  cotton,  for  which  Paisley  is 
celebrated  all  over  the  world.  Among 
the  other  manufactures  are  tapestry, 
embroidery,  tartans,  and  carpets.  Pop. 
79,355. 

PAL'ADIN,  a term  originally  applied 
to  the  Count  of  the  Palace,  or  Count 
Palatine,  the  official  who  superintended 
the  household  of  the  Carlovingian 
sovereigns,  and  then  to  the  companions 
in  arms  of  Charlemagne,  who  belonged 
to  his  court.  Latterly  it  was  used  in  a 
more  general  sense. 

PALiEARCTIC  REGION,  in  zoology, 
one  of  six  divisions  of  the  world  based 
upon  their  characteristic  fauna.  It  em- 
braces Europe,  Northern  Asia,  and  Africa 
north  of  the  Atlas  range. 

PALiEOG'RAPHY,  is  the  science  by 
means  of  which  ancient  inscriptions, 
and  the  writings  and  figures  on  ancient 
monuments,  are  deciphered  and  ex- 
plained; as  distinguished  from  diplo- 
matics, which  deals  with  written  docu- 
ments. 

PAL.®ONTOL'OGY  is  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  living  beings,  whether 
animal  or  vegetable,  that  have  in- 
habited the  globe  in  the  successive 
periods  of  its  past  history.  The  com- 
parison of  the  fossil  remains  of  plants 
and  animals,  belonging  for  the  most 
part  to  extinct  species,  has  given  a power- 
ful impulse  to  the  science  of  comparative 
anatomy,  and  through  it  a truer  insight 
has  been  obtained  into  the  natural 
arrangement  and  subdivision  of  the 
classes  of  animals.  But  the  science 
which  has  profited  in  the  highest  degree 
from  palaeontology  is  geology.  Palae- 
ontology, apart  from  its  importance  as 
treating  of  the  past  life-history  of  the 
earth,  assists  the  geologist  in  his  determ- 
ination of  the  chronological  succession 
of  the  materials  composing  the  earth’s 
crust.  As  a general  result  of  united 
geological  and  palaeontological  re- 
searches, it  has  been  found  possible  to 
divide  the  entire  series  of  stratified  de- 
posits into  a number  of  rock-systems  or 
formations,  each  of  which  is  defined 
by  possessing  an  assemblage  of  organic 
remains  which  are  not  associated  in  any 
other  formation.  These  systems  as  a 
whole  are  divided  into  three  great 

P.  E.--59 


divisions,  based  on  the  characters  of 
their  organic  remains,  and  thus  repre- 
senting three  successive  life-periods,  as 
follows:  Palaeozoic,  or  ancient  life  epoch, 
which  includes  the  Laurentian,  Cam- 
brian, Silurian,  Devonian,  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  Carboniferous,  and  Permian 
rock  systems.  Mesozoic,  or  middle  life 
epoch,  including  the  Triassic,  Jurassic  or 
Oolitic,  and  Cretaceous  rock  systems. 
Cainozoic,  or  recent  life  epoch,  which 
comprises  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  Plio- 
cene, and  Post-tertiary  rock  systems. 
The  fossil  remains  of  the  first  two  divi- 
sions mostly  belong  to  extinct  species. 
The  Cainozoic  fossils  belong  mostly  to 
living  species  or  species  only  recently 
extinct.  See  Geology. 

PAL.®OTHE'RIUM,  an  extinct  genus 
of  Ungulate  or  Hoofed  Quadrupeds  with 
three  toes.  These  animals  resembled 
tapirs,  and  varied  in  size  from  a sheep 


Palaeotherlum  restored. 

to  a horse.  They  had  twenty-two  teeth 
in  each  jaw,  and,  in  all  probability,  a 
short  mobile  snout  or  proboscis.  This 
genus  forms  the  type  of  the  family 
Palaeotheridae,  which  occur  as  fossils  in 
Eocene  and  Miocene  strata. 

PAL.ffiOZOIC.  See  Palaeontology. 

PALAIS-ROYAL  (pi-la-rwa-yM),  a 
popular  resort  of  the  Parisians,  origin- 
ally a royal  palace  as  the  name  implies. 
The  original  palace  was  built  (1629-36) 
by  Richelieu,  and  by  him  presented  to 
Louis  XIII.  It  was  confiscated  by  the 
republicans  in  1793,  and  the  Tribunal 
sat  in  the  palace  during  the  Reign  of 
Terror.  At  the  Restoration  it  was  re- 
purchased by  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  but 
in  the  revolution  of  1848  it  was  again 
appropriated  to  the  state.  In  1871  it 
was  set  on  fire  by  the  Communists,  but 
has  since  been  restored.  The  Th4itre 
Fran5ais  and  several  shops  now  form 
parts  of  the  buildings  of  the  Palais- 
Royal. 

PALANQUIN,  PALANKEEN  (pal-an- 
ken'),  a covered  conveyance  used  in 
India,  China,  etc,,  borne  by  poles  on  the 


Palanquin. 


shoulders  of  men,  and  in  which  a single 
person  is  carried  from  place  to  place. 
The  palanquin  proper  is  a sort  of  box 
about  8 feet  long,  4 feet  wide,  and  as 


much  in  height,  with  wooden  shutters 
on  the  venetian-blind  principle.  It 
used  to  be  a very  common  conveyance 
in  India,  especially  among  the  Euro- 
peans, but  the  introduction  of  railways 
and  the  improvement  of  the  roads  have 
almost  caused  its  discontinuance. 

PAL' ATE,  the  name  applied  to  the 
roof  of  the  mouth.  Tt  consists  of  two 
portions,  the  hard  palate  in  front,  the 
soft  palate  behind.  The  former  is 
bounded  above  by  the  palatal  bones, 
in  front  and  at  the  sides  by  the  alveolar 
arches  and  gums,  being  lined  by  mucus 
membrane;  behind  it  is  continuous  with 
the  soft  palate.  It  supports  the  tongue 
in  eating,  speaking,  and  swallowing. 
The  soft  palate  is  a movable  fold  sus- 
ended  from  the  posterior  border  of  the 
ard  palate.  It  consists  of  mucous 
membranes,  nerves,  and  muscles,  and 
forms  a sort  of  partition  between  the 
mouth  and  the  hinder  nostrils.  Its  upper 
border  is  attached  to  the  posterior  mar- 
gin of  the  hard  palate;  its  lower  border 
is  free.  The  uvula  hangs  from  the  mid- 
dle of  its  lower  border,  and  on  each  side 
are  two  curved  folds  of  mucous  mem- 
brane called  the  arches  or  pillars  of  the 
soft  palate.  Between  these  on  either 
side  of  the  pharynx  are  the  two  glandu- 
lar bodies  known  as  tonsils.  The  upper 
surface  of  the  soft  palate  is  convex,  the 
lower  surface  is  concave  with  a median 
ridge,  the  latter  pointing  to  the  early  or 
embryo  stage  of  its  formation,  when  it 
consists  of  two  distinct  parts.  Non- 
union of  these  halves  and  of  those  of  the 
hard  palate  constitutes  the  deformity 
known  as  cleft  palate,  often  associated 
with  hare-lip.  Glands  are  abundant  in 
the  soft  palate,  secreting  the  mucus 
which  serves  to  lubricate  the  throat 
during  the  passage  of  food.  The  soft 
palate  comes  into  action  in  swallowing, 
and  also  in  speaking,  being  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  utterance  of  certain 
sounds.  The  special  use  of  the  uvula  is 
not  well  known.  It  is  often  relaxed  or 
enlarged,  causing  a troublesome  cough. 

PALAT'INATE,  a division  of  the  old 
German  Empire,  under  the  rule  of 
counts-palatine,  consisting  of  two  sepa- 
rate portions  distinguished  as  the  Upper 
and  Lower  Palatinate.  The  Upper  or 
Bavarian  Palatinate  was  bounded 
mainly  by  Bohemia  and  Bavaria,  and 
its  capital  was  Amberg.  The  Lower  or 
Rhenish  Palatinate  lay  on  both  sides 
of  the  Rhine,  surrounded  by  Baden, 
Alsace-Lorraine,  etc.,  its  chief  towns 
being  Heidelberg  and  Mannheim.  The 
counts-palatine  were  in  possession  of  the 
Palatinate  and  the  districts  belonging 
to  it  as  early  as  the  11th  century,  and 
were  long  among  the  most  powerful 
princes  of  the  German  Empire.  At  the 
peace  of  Westphalia  (1 648)  the  Lower  Pal- 
atinate was  separated  from  the  Upper, 
Bavaria  getting  the  latter,  while  the 
former  now  became  a separate  electorate 
of  the  empire,  and  was  henceforth 
generally  known  as  the  Palatinate.  By 
the  treaties  of  Paris  (1814-15)  the 
Palatinate  v/as  split  up;  Bavaria  re- 
ceived the  largest  part,  and  the  re- 
mainder was  divided  between  Hesse- 
Darmstadt  and  Prussia.  The  name 
Palatinate  now  belongs  to  the  detached 
portion  of  Bavaria  on  the  west  of  the 
Rhine,  while  the  Upper  Palatine  forms 


i>ALATlNfi 


PALEY 


another  portion  of  the  monarchy.  See 
Bavaria. 

PALATINE.  See  Palatinate  and 
Count  Palatine. 

PALATINE  HILL.  See  Rome. 

PALE,  in  heraldry,  the  first  and  sim- 
plest kind  of  ordinary.  It  is  bounded  by 


A pale  azure. 

two  vertical  lines  at  equal  distances 
from  the  sides  of  the  escutcheon,  of 
which  it  incloses  one-third. 

PALEN'CIA,  a town  of  Spain  in  Leon, 
capital  of  a province  of  same  name. 
Pop.  16,118. — The  province  of  Palencia 
is  fertile  and  watered  by  the  Carrion  and 
Pisuerga.  Area,  3128  sq.  miles;  pop. 
192,473. 

PALER'MO,  a seaport  town,  the  capi- 
tal of  Sicily,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island.  The  city  is 
ornamented  by  numerous  fountains, 
and  has  many  public  edifices,  including 
a cathedral  of  the  10th  century  which 
contains  monuments  in  porphyry  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  and  King  Roger 
the  Norman.  The  manufactures  consist 
chiefly  of  silks,  cottons,  oil -cloth, 
leather,  glass,  and  gloves.  The  principal 
exports  are  sumach,  wine  and  spirits, 
fruits,  sulphur,  skins,  oil,  essences, 
cream  of  tartar,  liquorice,  and  manna ; 
imports,  colonial  produce,  woolen,  cot- 
ton and  silk  tissues,  hardware,  earthen- 
ware, etc.  The  fisheries  are  very  pro- 
ductive, and  give  employment  to  nearly 
40,000  hands.  Pop.  310,352. — The  prov- 
ince of  Palmero  contains  an  area  of 
1963  sq.  miles.  Pop.  785,016. 

PAL'ESTINE,  Antique,  or  the  HOLY 
LAND,  a maritime  country  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  the  southwest  of  Syria,  hav- 
ing on  the  north  the  mountains  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon,  east  the 
Arabian  Desert,  south  Arabia,  and  west 
the  Mediterranean;  length,  north  to 
south,  about  140  miles;  breadth,  about 
80  miles;  area,  nearly  10,000  sq.  miles 
(or  one-third  the  size  of  Scotland).  The 
coast  has  no  indentations  except  the 
Bay  of  Acre  in  the  north.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  interior,  besides  its  gen- 
erally irregular  character,  is  the  deep 
valley  of  the  Jordan,  a river  which  inter- 
sects the  country  from  north  to  south, 
and  connects  three  lakes,  the  Dead  Sea, 
Lake  of  Gennesaret,  and  Lake  Merom. 
The  surface  is  generally  mountainous,  or 
consists  of  a series  of  plateaux,  both  on 
the  west  and  the  east  of  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan.  With  the  exception  of 
Mount  Hermon  in  the  north  (9050  feet) 
few  of  the  heights  exceed  3000  feet. 
The  most  remarkable  are  Carmel,  on 
the  southwest  side  of  the  Bay  of  Acre; 
Jebel  Tur  (Tabor),  farther  inland;  Ebal 
and  Gerizim,  about  the  middle  of  the 
country;  Zion,  Moriah,  and  the  Mount 
of  Olives,  in  and  near  Jerusalem. 
Palestine  has  comparatively  few  plains, 
though  in  few  countries  is  there  such 
endless  variety  of  valley  as  to  size, 
shape,  color,  and  fertility.  The  maritime 
or  coast  plains  of  Sharon  and  Philistia. 


the  river  plain  of  Jordan,  and  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon  in  the  north,  are  all  that  are 
worthy  of  mention.  The  maritime  plains 
are  well  peopled  and  cultivated.  The 
Jordan  plain  is  nearly  a waste  of  sand. 
The  plain  of  Esdraelon  or  valley  of 
Jezreel  is  of  great  fertility.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Jordan  (which  see). 
This  river  has  a length  of  200  miles, 
including  windings,  but  its  direct  course 
is  only  about  70.  Its  course  from  Merom 
to  the  Dead  Sea  is  mostly  below  the 
sea-level.  Most  of  the  so-called  rivers 
of  Palestine  are  merely  winter  torrents 
which  run  dry  in  summer.  Of  the  few 
permanent  rivers  emptying  into  the 
Mediterranean,  the  most  important  are 
the  Kishon,  which  drains  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon;  and  the  Aujeh  farther  south. 
The  chief  tributary  of  the  Jordan  is  the 
Zerka  or  Jabbok.  The  most  remarkable 
lake  is  the  Dead  Sea  (which  see),  46 
miles  long,  9 or  10  broad,  and  about 
1292  feet  below  the  Mediterranean. 
The  other  lakes  are  Bahr-el-Huleh 
(Merom),  5 miles  long  and  4 miles 
broad,  about  6 feet  above  the  Mediter- 
ranean; and  Lake  Gennesaret  or  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  682  feet  below  it,  12^ 
miles  long,  7^  broad.  In  Palestine  the 
wells  and  springs  are  numerous,  and 
are  all  counted  worthy  of  note.  Among 
the  most  interesting  are  the  springs  of 
hot  water  which  issue  forth  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan  Valley.  Of  these 
there  are  five  or  six  with  a temperature 
varying  from  109°  to  144°  F.  As  re- 
gards geology  the  chief  rock  formation 
of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Jor- 
dan is  limestone,  full  of  caves.  Sand- 
stone also  occurs,  with  basalt  and  other 
volcanic  rocks,  the  latter  being  espe- 
cially common  on  the  east  side  of  Jor- 
dan. Signs  of  volcanic  action  are  abun- 
dant, and  earthquakes  are  still  common. 
The  year  may  be  divided  into  two  sea- 
sons, summer  and  winter.  During  the 
former,  which  lasts  from  April  to  No- 
vember, little  or  no  rain  falls;  during  the 
latter  there  is  a considerable  fall  of  rain, 
the  annual  average  at  Jerusalem  being 
about  60  inches.  In  the  Jordan  valley 
and  along  the  Mediterranean  lowlands 
the  summer  heat  is  apt  to  be  oppressive. 
During  the  winter  the  ground  is  seldom, 
if  ever,  frozen  except  on  the  higher  ele- 
vations. Palestine  was  once  very  fertile 
and  were  the  same  attention  paid,  as 
formerly,  to  artificial  irrigation,  and 
the  construction  of  reservoirs  and 
water-courses,  it  might  be  so  again. 
Among  the  products,  besides  the  usual 
cereals,  are  grapes,  figs,  olives,  oranges, 
and  apricots.  The  flora  of  Palestine  is 
rich  in  flowering  plants,  including  the 
scarlet  anemone,  ranunculus,  narcissus, 
crocus,  pheasants  eye,  etc.  The  country 
was  once  well  timbered,  but  it  is  now, 
as  a whole,  bare  and  desolate,  though 
forests  of  pine  and  oak  exist  on  the  east 
of  the  Jordan.  On  the  west  side  of  the 
river,  however,  there  are  few  trees. 
The  most  common  tree  is  the  oak,  in- 
cluding the  prickly  evergreen  oak  and 
two  deciduous  species.  Other  trees  are 
the  olive,  palm,  oleander,  sycamore 
walnut,  ash,  cedar.  The  wild  animals 
include  the  leopard,  hyaena,  bear,  wolf, 
jackal,  boar,  antelope,  gazelle,  porcu- 
pine, coney,  jerboa,  etc.  The  domestic 
animals  of  burden  are  the  ass,  mule,  and 


camel,  the  horse  being  little  used.  The 
cattle  are  not  generally  very  numerous. 
Sheep  and  goats  are  abundant.  Among 
the  birds  are  eagles,  vultures,  hawks — 
birds  of  prey  being  very  numerous — 
ravens,  bee-eaters,  hoopoes,  storks,  and 
nightingales.  Fish  abound  in  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  the  Jordan.  There  are  many 
species  of  reptiles,  among  them  being 
the  chamseleon,  land  and  water  tortoise, 
lizards,  and  serpents,  and  even  the 
crocodile. 

The  name  Palestine,  from  the  Hebrew 
Pelescheth,  means  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines. It  is  properly  only  applicable  to 
the  southwest  part  of  the  country.  The 
ancient  name  of  the  country  was  Canaan 
and  when  thus  named,  in  the  time  of  the 
patriarchs,  it  was  parcelled  out  among 
a number  of  independent  tribes,  all 
probably  Semitic.  In  the  time  of  Moses 
the  district  east  of  the  Jordan  was  taken 
and  divided  among  the  tribes  of  Reuben 
and  Gad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh; 
and  latterly  the  whole  territory  was 
apportioned  among  the  twelve  Jewish 
tribes.  For  the  subsequent  history  see 
the  article  Jews.  In  the  time  of  our 
Saviour  Palestine  was  held  by  the 
Romans,  and  divided  into  the  four 
provinces  of  Galilee,  Samaria,  Judea, 
and  Perea.  In  606  Palestine  w'as  taken 
by  the  Saracens  under  Omar.  The 
severites  exercised  toward  Christians 
,gave  rise  to  the  Crusades,  but  Moham- 
medanism prevailed,  and  the  country 
sank  into  a degraded  state.  The  sultan 
of  Egypt  ruled  it  till  1517,  when  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  Turkish  Empire. 

It  is  only  within  a comparatively 
recent  period  that  the  exploration  of 
Palestine  has  been  carried  out  system- 
atically and  with  some  attempt  at 
thoroughness,  though  much  yet  remains 
to  be  done.  The  most  valuable  results 
have  been  those  achieved  under  the 
direction  of  the  “Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund,”  a society  organized  in  1865 
for  the  purpose  of  making  an  exhaustive 
exploration  and  an  exact  survey  of  the 
Holy  Land.  In  1870  the  American 
Palestine  Exploration  society  was  or- 
ganized, and  it  was  agreed  that  the 
English  society  should  confine  itself 
to  the  western  side  of  the  Jordan,  and 
the  American  society  to  the  eastern. 
The  triangulation  of  Western  Palestine 
was  begun  in  1871  and  finished  in  1877. 
A large  and  detailed  map  of  the  country 
has  been  published  and  an  immense 
mass  of  valuable  information  regarding 
topography,  natural  history,  etc.,  ac- 
cumulated. The  present  population  of 
the  country  is  estimated  at  650,000, 
the  Arab  element  being  probably  the 
prevailing  one,  and  the  Arabic  language 
generally  in  use.  The  people  consist 
partly  of  the  fellahin  or  settled  cultiva- 
tors, artisans,  etc.;  partly  of  the  nomad 
Bedouin,  who  live  by  rearing  cattle  or 
by  less  reputable  means.  The  country 
exports  some  grain,  olive-oil,  oranges, 
etc.  Jaffa  and  Acre  are  the  chief  ports, 
Jerusalem  (connected  by  the  railway  | 
with  Jaffa)  and  Nablus  the  largest  towns.  • 
See  also  Jerusalem,  Cirusades,  etc. 

PALEY,  William,  English  theological 
and  philosophical  writer,  was  born  at 
Peterborough  in  1743,  died  1805.  His 
chief  works  are : The  Principles  of  Moral 
and  Political  Philosophy  (1785);  Hors 


PALIMSEST 


PALMETTO  PALM 


Paulinse  (1790) ; A View  of  the  Evidences 
of  Christianity  (1794) ; Natural  theology 
or  Evidences  of  the  Existence  and  At- 
tributes of  the  Deity  collected  from  the 
Appearance  of  Nature  (1802).  As  a 
writer  he  had  little  claim  to  originality 
but  was  distinguished  by  clearness  and 
cogency  of  reasoning,  lucidity  of  ar- 
rangement, and  force  of  illustration.  His 
system  of  moral  philosophy  is  founded 
purely  on  utilitarianism. 

PAL'IMSEST,  a manuscript  prepared 
by  erasure  for  being  written  on  again, 
especially  a parchment  so  prepared  by 
washing  or  scraping.  This  custom  was 
brought  about  by  the  costliness  of 
writing  materials,  and  was  practiced 
both  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
in  the  monasteries,  especially  from  the 
7th  to  the  13th  centuries.  That  which 
replaced  the  ancient  manuscripts  was 
nearly  always  some  writing  of  an 
ecclesiastical  character.  The  parch- 
ments which  have  been  scraped  are 
nearly  indecipherable.  Those  which 
have  been  washed  have  often  been  re- 
vived by  chemical  processes.  Fragments 
of  the  Iliad  and  extensive  portions  of 
many  Greek  and  Roman  writers  have 
been  recovered  by  these  means. 

PALISADE,  a fence  or  fortification 
consisting  of  a row  of  strong  stakes  or 
posts  set  firmly  in  the  ground,  either 
perpendicularly  or  obliquely,  for  the 
greater  security  of  a position,  and  par- 
ticularly for  the  closing  up  of  some  pas- 
sage or  the  protection  of  any  exposed 
point. 

PALISSY,  Bernard,  a French  artist 
and  philosopher,  born  about  1510.  He 
was  apprenticed  in  a glass-work  at 
Agen,  where  he  learned  the  art  of  paint- 
ing on  glass.  After  sixteen  years  of  un- 
-remunerated  labor  (1538-54),  he  ob- 
tained a pure  white  enamel,  affording 
a perfect  ground  for  the  application  of 
decorative  art,  and  his  enamelled  pot- 
tery and  sculptures  in  clay  became 
recognized  as  works  of  art.  He  suffered 
persecution  as  a Huguenot,  and  was 
arrested  in  1589  and  thrown  into  the 
Bastille,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died 
in  1590.  He  left  several  philosophical 
works. 

PALISSY-WARE,  a peculiar  kind  of 
French  art  pottery  invented  by  Bernard 
Palissy.  The  surface  is  covered  with  a 
jasper-like  white  enamel,  upon  which 
animals,  insects,  and  plants  are  repre- 
sented in  their  natural  forms  and  colors. 
Specimens  of  this  ware  are  much  valued 
and  sought  after  by  collectors. 

PALLADIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  a spe- 
cies of  Italian  architecture  founded  upon 
the  Roman  antique  as  interpreted  by  the 
writings  of  Vitruvius,  but  rather  upon 
the  secular  buildings  of  the  Romans 
than  upon  their  temples.  It  is  conse- 
quently more  applicable  to  palaces  and 
civic  buildings  than  to  churches.  A 
characteristic  feature  of  the  style  is  the 
use  of  engaged  columns  in  facades,  a 
single  range  o^  these  often  running 
through  the  two  principal  stories.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Inigo 
Jones,  a follower  of  the  Venetian  school 
of  Palladio 

PALLA'DIUM,  a metal  discovered  by 
Wollaston  in  1803,  and  found  in  small 
quantity  associated  with  native  gold 
and  platinum.  It  presents  a great  general 


resemblance  to  platinum,  but  is  harder, 
lighter,  and  more  easily  oxidized.  It  is 
useful  on  account  of  its  hardness,  light- 
ness, and  resistance  to  tarnish,  in  the 
construction  of  philosophical  instru- 
ments. 

PALLAS,  of  the  minor  planets  re- 
volving round  the  sun  between  Mars 
and  Jupiter,  that  whose  orbit  is  most 


Palladian  architecture. — Teatro  Olimpico, 
Vicenza,  Italy. 

inclined  to  the  ecliptic.  It  was  dis- 
covered in  1802  by  Gibers  at  Bremen.  It 
revolves  round  the  sun  in  4.61  years; 
diameter  172  miles. 

PALLAS  ATHENE,  the  Greek  god- 
dess of  wisdom,  subsequently  identified 
with  the  Roman  Minerva.  See  Athena. 

PALLISER,  Sir  William,  born  in  Dub- 
lin 1830.  He  was  the  inventor  of  pro- 
jectiles and  guns  which  bear  his  name, 
and  wa,s  the  author  of  many  improve- 
ments in  fortifications,  etc.  He  was 
knighted  in  1873  and  died  in  1882. 

PALM,  the  tree.  See  Palms. 

PALMA,  an  episcopal  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  Island  of  Majorca,  130 
miles  south  of  Barcelona.  Pop.  63,937. 

PALMA,  La,  the  most  northwesterly 
of  the  Canary  Islands;  area,  224  sq. 
miles;  capital,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Palma, 
the  principal  port.  Pop.  38,822. 

PALMA  CHRISTI,  a name  frequently 
applied  to  the  castor-oil  plant. 

PALMER,  John  McAuley,  American 
soldier  and  political  leader,  was  born  at 
Eagle  Creek,  Scott  co.,  Ky.,  in  1817. 
He  removed  to  Illinois,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1840.  He  served 
in  the  state  senate,  and  in  1860  was  a 
republican  presidential  elector.  In 
April,  1861,  he  was  appointed  colonel 
of  an  Illinois  volunteer  regiment,  served 
at  Island  No.  10,  Stone  river,  and  Chick- 
amauga,  and  was  promoted  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  led  the  four- 
teenth army  corps  through  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  May  till  September,  1864. 
From  1870  until  1873  he  served  as  gov- 
ernor of  Illinois.  In  1890  he  was  elected 
United  States  senator,  and  in  1896 
aecepted  the  nomination  for  president 
from  the  gold  democrats.  He  died  in 
1900. 


PALMER,  Ray,  American  clergyman 
and  hymn-writer,  was  born  at  Little 
Compton,  R.  I.,  in  1808.  He  was  called 
to  the  pastorate  of  the  Central  Congre- 
gational church,  Batlv  Maine,  in  1835. 
In  1866  he  relinquished  pastoral  work 
and  became  secretary  of  the  American 
Congregational  Union  at  New  York. 
He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  a writer  of 
hymns,  one  of  which — My  faith  looks 
up  to  Thee — exists  in  twenty  different 
languages.  He  died  in  1887. 

PALMERSTON  (pa'mer-stun),  Henry 
John  Temple,  Viscount,  English  states-,^ 
rnan,  was  born  in  Westminster  1784, 
died  1865.  In  1802  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  title  (an  Irish  one).  In  ■ 
1807  he  was  returned  as  member  for 
Newport,  I.  of  Wight,  and  became 
junior  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  the  Duke 
of  Portland’s  administration.  In  1809 
he  became  secretary  of  war,  and  two 
years  later  he  was  elected  member  for 
Cambridge  university.  He  was  a sup- 
porter of  Catholic  emancipation,  and 
retired  from  office  in  the  Wellington 
ministry  in  1828  with  others  of  the 
Canning  party.  He  had  already  made  a 
reputation  for  his  command  of  foreign 
policy,  and  in  1830  he  was  made  foreign 
secretary  in  the  whig  ministry  of  Earl 
Grey.  From  this  time  he  continued  to 
be  a member  and  leader  of  the  liberal 
party.  In  1831  he  was  returned  for 
Bletchingley,  and  after  the  reform  bill 
(1832)  for  South  Hants.  He  retired  from 
office  in  December,  1834,  but  in  April, 
1835,  he  resumed  his  former  appointment 
under  Lord  Melbourne.  He  continued 
in  office  as  foreign  secretary  until  1841. 
It  was  during  this  period  that  he  gained 
his  great  reputation  for  vigilance  and 
energy  in  the  conduct  of  foreign  affairs. 
In  1845  he  supported  the  repeal  of  the 


Viscount  Palmerston. 


corn-laws,  and  in  1846  he  was  foreign 
secretary  in  the  Russell  ministry.  Several 
causes  of  dissatisfaction,  the  chief  being 
his  recognition  of  Louis  Napoleon  with- 
out consulting  his  colleagues,  led  to 
Palmerston’s  resignation  in  December, 
1851.  In  Februrary,  1852,  he  became 
home  secretary  in  the  coalition  minis- 
try of  Lord  Aberdeen.  On  the  resigna- 
tion of  this  ministry  he  became  prime 
minister,  which  position  he  held,  with 
a brief  interruption,  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life. 

PALMETTO  PALM,  a common  name 
of  several  palms,  especially  of  the  cab- 
bage-palm, which  grows  in  the  West 


PALMISTRY 


PALPITATION 


Indies  and  in  the  southern  states  of 
North  America.  It  attains  the  height  of 
40  or  50  feet,  and  is  crowned  with  a tuft 
of  large  leaves.  It  produces  useful  tim- 
ber, and  the  leaves  are  made  into  hats, 
mats,  etc. 

PALMISTRY,  a pseudo-science,  the 
professors  of  which  claim  that  the 
mental  traits  of  an  individual  are 
indicated  by  the  shape,  markings, 
and  other  characters  of  the  hand.  The 
more  ardent  advocates  of  palmistry 
hold  that  the  future  of  the  individual 
can  be  “read”  in  this  way.  Palmistry 
is  a very  ancient  science  and  may  have 
some  real  basis  of  fact  under  it,  al- 
though the  respectability  attaching 
to  it  thus  far  has  been  very  dubious. 
Palmistry,  like  astrology,  has  a very 
complex  system  of  ideas  and  a difficult 
nomenclature  into  which  it  is  impos- 
sible more  than  barely  to  enter  here. 
The  drawing  shows  different  types  of 
hand,  the  types,  in  the  numbered  order 
being  the  “bilious”  hand,  indicating 
brute  instinct  rather  than  reason;  the 
“square”  or  stubborn  hand;  the  “spatu- 
late”  or  energetic  hand;  the  philosophic 
hand;  the  artistic,  the  idealistic,  and 
the  diplomatic  hand.  Figure  9 shows 
the  principal  lines  of  the  palm.  The 
row  of  fingers  from  No.  1 to  No.  11  may 


Traits  of  the  hand. 


be  described  as  follows : Large  fingers, 
indicating  a vulgar  and  cruel  dis- 
position; small,  thin  fingers,  a keen, 
active  mind;  long,  thin  fingers,  love  of 
detail;  fat  fingers,  sensuality;  smooth 
fingers,  artistic  ability;  knotty  fingers, 
truthfulness  and  good  business  ability; 
pointed  fingers,  enthusiasm;  square 
fingers,  strong-mindedness;  spatulate 
fingers,  positiveness;  mixed  fingers, 
adaptability;  obtuse  fingers,  coarse- 

IX6SS. 

PALMIT'IC  ACID,  a fatty  acid  oc- 
curring in  many  fats,  whether  of  the 
animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  such  as 
palm-oil,  butter,  tallow,  lard,  etc.,  and 
existing  partly  in  a free  state  but  gen- 
erally in  combination  with  glycerin  (as 
a glyceride). 

PALM-OIL,  a fatty  substance  ob- 
tained from  several  species  of  palms, 


but  chiefly  from  the  fruit  of  the  oil- 
palm,  a native  of  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  This  tree  grows  to  the  height 
of  80  feet,  bears  a tuft  of  large  pinnate 
leaves,  and  has  a thick  stem  covered 
with  the  stumps  of  the  stalks  of  dead 
leaves.  The  fruits,  which  are  borne  in 
dense  clusters,  are  about  inches  long 
by  1 inch  in  diameter,  and  the  oil  is  ob- 


Palm-oil  tree. 

tained  from  their  fleshy  covering.  In  cold 
countries  it  acquires  the  consistence 
of  butter,  and  is  of  an  orange-yellow 
color.  It  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap  and  candles,  for  lubri- 
cating machinery.  By  the  natives  of 
the  Gold  Coast  this  oil  is  used  as  butter; 
and  when  eaten  fresh  is  a wholesome 
and  delicate  article  of  diet.  It  is  called 
also  Palm-butter. 

PALMS,  the  Palmaceae,  a nat.  order 
of  arborescent  endogens,  chiefly  in- 
habiting the  tropics,  distinguished  by 
their  fleshy,  colorless,  six-parted  flowers, 
inclosed  within  spathes;  their  minute 
embryo  lying  in  the  midst  of  albumen, 
and  remote  from  the  hilum ; and  their 
rigid,  plaited  or  pinnated  leaves,  some- 
times called  fronds.  The  palms  are 
among  the  most  interesting  plants  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  from  their 
beauty,  variety,  and  associations,  as 
well  as  from  their  great  value  to  man- 
kind. While  some  have  trunks  as 
slender  as  the  reed,  or  longer  than  the 
longest  cable  (500  feet),^  others  have 
stems  3 and  even  5 feet  thick;  while 
some  are  of  low  growth,  others  exhibit 
a stem  towering  from  160  to  190  feet 
high,  as  wax-palm  of  South  America. 
About  600  species  are  known,  but  it  is 
probable  that  many  are  still  unde- 
scribed. Wine,  oil,  wax,  flour,  sugar, 
sago,  etCo,  are  the  produce  of  palmsj 


to  which  may  be  added  thread,  utensils, 
weapons,  and  materials  for  building 
houses,  boats,  etc.  There  is  scarcely 
a single  species  in  which  some  useful 
property  is  not  found.  The  cocoanut, 
the  date,  and  others  are  valued  for  their 
fruit;  the  cabbage-palm,  for  its  edible 
terminal  buds ; the  fan-palm,  and  many 
more,  are  valued  for  their  foliage, 
whose  hardness  and  durability  render  it 
an  excellent  material  for  thatching; 
the  sweet  juice  of  the  Palmyra  and 
others,  when  fermented,  yields  wine; 
the  center  of  the  sago-palm  abounds  in 
nutritive  starch;  the  trunk  of  the  wax- 
palm  exudes  a valuable  wax;  oil  is 
expressed  in  abundance  from  the  oil- 
palm;  many  of  the  species  contain  so 
hard  a kind  of  fibrous  matter  that  it 
is  used  instead  of  needles,  or  so  tough 
that  it  is  manufactured  into  cordage; 
and,  finally,  their,  trunks  are  in  some 
cases  valued  for  their  strength,  and 
used  as  timber,  or  for  their  elasticity 
or  flexibility. 

PALM  SUNDAY,  the  last  Sunday 
before  Easter,  on  which  Christ’s  entry 
into  Jerusalem,  when  palm  branches 
were  strewed  before  him,  is  celebrated. 
It  is  still  celebrated  with  much  sol- 
emnity by  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
branches  are  strewed  in  the  churches. 

PALMY'RA  PALM,  the  common 
Indian  palm,  a tree  ranging  from  the 
northeastern  parts  of  Arabia  through 
India  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  In  India 
and  other  parts  of  Asia  it  forms  the 
chief  support  of  6,000,000  or  7,000,000 
of  population.  Its  fruit  is  a valuable 
food,  its  timber  is  excellent,  and  it 
furnishes  thatch,  cordage,  and  material 
for  hats,  fans,  umbrellas,  etc.  It  pro- 
duces sugar  and  arrack,  and  its  leaves 
are  used  for  writing -tablets.  The 
young  shoots  are  boiled  and  eaten,  the 
seeds  are  edible,  and  the  fruit  yields 
a useful  oil.  A full-grown  palmyra  is 


Palmyra  palm. 

from  60  to  70  feet  high,  and  its  leaves 
are  very  large. 

PALPITATION  consists  of  repeated 
attacks  of  violent  and  spasmodic  action 
of  the  heart.  When  palpitation  aris^ 
from  organic  lesion  of  the  heart  it  is 
called  symptomatic;  when  it  is  caused 
by  other  disorders  disturbing  the  heart’s 
action  it  is  called  functional.  Disor- 


PALSY 


PAN-AMERICAN  CONGRESS 


ders  which  may  cause  palpitation  in- 
clude nervous  affections,  ansemia,  chlor- 
osis, protracted  mental  emotion,  exces- 
sive use  of  stimulants,  etc. 

PALSY,  paralysis,  especially  a local 
or  less  serious  form  of  it.  See  Paralysis. 

PAMPAS,  a name  given  to  the  vast 
treeless  plains  of  South  America  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  Paraguay,  and 
Uruguay.  The  pampas  are  generally 
covered  with  grass  and  other  herbage, 
and  in  many  parts  with  gigantic  thistles, 
but  with  the  heat  of  summer  the 
vegetation  is  much  burned  up.  Shallow 
lakes  or  swamps  occur  in  some  parts, 
and  parts  have  the  character  of  a salt 
steppe.  The  pampas  are  roamed  over 
by  various  tribes  of  Indians,  as  well  as 
by  herds  of  wild  horses  and  cattle.  In 
many  parts  there  are  now  cattle  ranches, 
and  large  flocks  of  sheep  are  also  reared. 

PAMPAS-GRASS,  a grass  which  grows 
in  the  pampas  in  the  southern  parts  of 
South  America.  It  has  panicles  of 
silvery  flowers  on  stalks  more  than  10 
feet  high,  and  its  leaves  are  from  6 to  8 
feet  long.  The  male  and  female  flowers 
are  on  separate  stalks. 

PAN,  a rural  divinity  of  ancient 
Greece,  the  god  of  flocks  and  herds,  rep- 
resented as  old,  with  two  horns,  pointed 
ears,  a goat’s  beard,  goat’s  tail  and  goat’s 
feet.  The  worship  of  Pan  was  well  estab- 
lished particularly  in  Arcadia.  Pan  in- 
vented the  syrinx  or  pandean  pipes. 
From  him  comes  the  expression  panic 
fear,  because  he  was  believed  to  cause 
sudden  and  often  inexplicable  terror. 

PANAMA,  a town  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia,  capital  of  the  department  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Gulf  of  Panama 
and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  The  city  lies  on  a tongue 
of  land,  across  which  its  streets  stretch 
from  sea  to  sea.  The  harbor  is  shallow, 
but  affords  secure  anchorage.  Panama 
is  chiefly  important  as  the  terminus  of 
the  interoceanic  railway  and  also  of  the 
Panama  canal.  The  railway,  which 
has  been  in  operation  since  1855,  runs 
across  the  isthmus  from  Panama  to 
Colon  or  Aspinwall  on  the  Atlantic, 
and  accommodates  a large  traffic. 
Pop.  25,000.  The  department  occupies 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding  are  the  leading  indus- 
tries, but  the  climate  is  generally  un- 
healthful. The  prosperity  of  the  depart- 
ment depends  largely  upon  its  favorable 
geographical  position,  which  facilitates 
transit  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 
Area,  31,890  square  miles.  Pop.  285,000. 

PANAMA  canal,  a canal  in  process 
of  construction  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans.  The  first  step  to  build 
this  canal  was  the  concession  to  Lieut. 
Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse  given  by  the  govern- 
ment of  Colombia,  granting  to  him  and 
his  associates  the  exclusive  privilege 
for  99  years  to  use  the  territory  of  the 
country  for  this  purpose.  Wyse  drew 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  into  his  project 
and  a company  was  organized  in  France 
with  de  Lesseps  as  president.  Work 
was  begun  in  1881  and  by  1882 

S6,500,000  had  been  sunk  in  the  work. 
The  disruption  of  the  plan  and  the 
Paris  scandals  arising  out  of  it  are  well 
known.  The  receivers  of  the  company 
organized  a new  concern  and  in  1899 


the  United  States  government  appeared 
in  the  enterprise.  Negotiations  begun 
at  that  time  ended  in  1903  with  the 
acquisition  by  the  United  States  of 
the  company’s  rights  and  property  for 
$40,000,000. 

In  1905  a committee  of  engineers  ap- 
pointed by  President  Roosevelt  recom- 
mended that  a sea-level  canal  be  built 
but  on  recommendation  of  the  presi- 
dent a lock  canal  was  authorized,  be- 
ginning in  the  Bay  of  Limon,  a mile 
northwest  of  the  city  of  Colon  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  with  achannel  500  feet  in 
width  and  41  feet  in  depth  at  mean  tide, 
running  due  south  to  the  shore  line  of 
Limon  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hindi 
river.  This  distance  is  4)^  miles.  Then 
the  canal  passes  through  low  and 
swampy  ground  in  a southerly  direc- 
tion three  miles  to  the  town  of  Gatun, 
the  width  for  this  stretch  being  600  feet 
and  the  depth  45  feet.  At  Gatun  there 
is  a space  between  the  hills  of  over 

7.000  feet,  through  which  the 
waters  of  the  Chagres  river  and 
its  tributaries  flow  to  the  sea. 
This  space  is  buttressed  on  either  side 
with  rocks  and  hills,  and  about  midway 
in  this  space  there  is  a mountain  of 
rock  and  earth,  in  which  it  is  proposed 
to  excavate  a diversion  channel  through 
which  the  Chagres  river  will  flow  dur- 
ing the  construction  of  the  earth  dam. 
The  plan  is  to  construct  this  dam  across 
the  entire  space  at  a height  of  135 
feet  above  sea  level  and  create 
a lake.  Vessels  are  to  be  raised 
to  the  level  of  the  lake,  to  be 
known  as  Lake  Gatun,  by  three  dup- 
licate locks  ranging  in  a flght  of 
steps,  each  lock  being  900  feet  interior 
length,  110  feet  wide,  40  feet  deep  over 
the  miter  sills,  with  a lift  in  each  lock 
of  28  2-3  feet.  These  six  locks,  con- 
structed of  a mass  of  masonry  and  con- 
crete, will  be  buried  in  Gatun  hill  and 
founded  on  rock  throughout.  Lake 
Gatun,  when  created  by  the  construc- 
tion of  this  dam,  will  be  171  square  miles 
in  area  and  wull  form  the  summit  level 
of  the  canal,  which  will  be  85  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  total  length  of  the 
lake  will  be  30  miles,  of  which  23  miles 
will  be  navigated  by  ships  crossing  the 
isthmus.  Its  depth  will  be  about  75 
feet  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
dam,  this  being  maintained  with  little 
reduction  toBohio  (a  distance  of  about 
10  miles) , and  thence  reducing  gradually 
toward  Obispo,  where  the  depth  of  45 
feet  will  be  obtained  with  but  little  ex- 
cavation, the  bed  of  the  river  being 
about  45  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
future  lake. 

For  15.69  miles  above  the  Gatun  locks 
the  deep  portion  of  the  lake  will  have 
generally  a width  exceeding  half  a 
mile  and  only  a small  amount  of  exca- 
vation will  be  required  to  provide  a 
navigable  channel  no  where  less  than 

1.000  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  45 
feet  deep.  Farther  up  the  lake  as  the 
amount  of  excavation  required  to  ob- 
tain a depth  of  45  feet  increases,  the 
minimum  width  of  the  channal  will  be 
decreased,  first  to  800  feet  for  a distance 
of  3.86  miles  from  San  Pablo  to  Juan 
Grande,  then  to  500  feet  for  3.73  miles 
to  Obispo,  and  to  300  feet  for  1.55  miles 
from  Obispo  to  Las  Cascades,  where  the 


channel  will  be  further  narrowed  to 
200  feet  through  the  heaviest  portion  oi 
the  great  central  mass  known  as  Cule- 
bra. 

For  a distance  of  4.7  miles  through 
the  deep  portion  of  the  Culebra  cut  the 
channel  is  to  have  a bottom  width  of 
200  feet  and  to  have  nearly  vertical 
sides  below  the  w'ater  line  and  then 
will  become  300  feet  wide  for  1.88  miles 
to  the  Pedro  Miguel  locks,  w'here  the 
summit  level  will  end.  The  duplicate 
locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  will  have  one 
lift  of  31  feet.  Passing  the  locks  the 
channel  will  be  500  feet  wide  for  1.64 
miles,  then  increasing  to  1,000  feet  or 
more  for  the  further  distance  of  3.38 
miles  to  the  Sosa  locks  on  the  shore  of 
Panama  bay.  This  broad  navigation 
will  be  in  an  artificial  lake  created  by 
three  dams,  to  be  subsequently  de- 
scribed. There  are  to  be  duplicate 
flights  of  locks  on  the  west  side  of  Soca 
hill  near  La  Boca  with  tw’o  lifts  of  about 
31  feet  each  from  ordinary  low  tide  to 
the  level  of  Lake  Sosa.  From  the  Sosa 
lock  to  the  7-fathom  curve  in  Panama 
bay  a distance  of  four  miles,  the  chan- 
nel is  to  be  300  feet  w ide  at  the  bottom 
and  45  feet  deep  below'  mean  tide. 

The  waterway  may  be  summarized 
w ith  reference  to  the  channel  widths  as 


follows: 

Length, 

Per  cent 

Width 

miles. 

of  route. 

1,000  feet 

38.4 

800  feet 

3.86 

78 

500  feet 

24.7 

800  feet 

7.21 

14.5 

200  feet 

4.70 

9.4 

Locks  and  approaches 

5.2 

Total  

49.72 

100.0 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  canal  is 
$150,000,000. 

PANAMA,  Isthmus  of,  formerly  called 
the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  has  a breadth 
of  from  30  to  70  miles,  connects  North 
with  South  America,  and  separates  the 
Pacific  from  the  Atlantic.  The  coast  is 
rocky  and  lofty  along  the  Carribean 
sea,  but  low  and  swampy  along  the 
Pacific. 

PANAMA  HATS,  hats  made  from  the 
immature  unexpanded  leaves  of  the 
stemless  screw-pine,  a native  of  Central 
America  and  Colombia.  After  special 
t reatment  to  remove  the  soft  parts  of  the 
leaf,  the  fibre  is  soaked  to  render  it  pli- 
able, and  the  weaving  is  done  under 
water.  The  hats  most  valued  are  those 
made  from  single  leaves. 

PAN-AMERICAN  CONGRESS,  owing 
to  the  efforts  of  James  G.  Blaine,  dele- 
gates from  the  republics  of  Mexico  and 
the  Central  and  South  American  states 
assembled  at  Washington,  Oct.  2,  1889, 
for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  forma- 
tion of  an  American  Customs  Union, 
under  which  the  trade  of  American 
nations  with  each  other  might  be  main- 
tained. The  congress  continued  without 
final  adjournment  for  five  months,  and 
voted  to  recommend  the  establishment 
of  regular  communications  betw'een  the 
ports  of  the  several  American  states, 
from  trade  and  customs  regulations, 
weights  and  measures,  patent,  copy- 
right, and  trade  mark  laws,  a common, 
legal-tender  silver  coin,  and  a plain 
arbitration  of  all  questions  and  disputes. 


PAN-AMERICAN  EXPOSITION 


PANTOMIME 


The  congress  adjourned  April  19,  1890. 
In  1900  the  United  States  government 
invited  all  the  American  republics  to 
meet  in  a similar  congress  in  October, 
1901.  An  invitation  to  meet  in  the  City 
of  Mexico  was  accepted,  and  the  con- 
gress was  held  in  October,  1902. 

PAN-AMERICAN  EXPOSITION,  an 
exposition  held  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  from 
May  1,  to  November  2,  1901.  Its  pur- 
pose was  to  illustrate  the  progress  of 
the  countries  in  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere during  the  nineteenth  century. 
A site  in  the  northern  part  of  Buffalo 
covering  an  area  of  350  acres  and  within 
three  miles  of  the  business  center  of  the 
city,  was  chosen.  The  color  treatment 
gained  for  the  exposition  the  name  of 
the  Rainbow  City,  or  the  Tinted  City. 
The  Triumphal  Causeway  was  perhaps 
the  most  ornate  feature.  It  represented 
the  apotheosis  of  the  United  States,  an 
allegorization  of  national  pride,  while 
the  Electric  Tower- at  the  other  end 
symbolized  the  great  waters,  suggesting 
that  the  importance,  growth,  and  pros- 
perity of  Buffalo  were  due  chiefly  to  the 
Great  Lake  system  and  waterways  on 
which  it  was  located.  The  total  attend- 
ance was  given  as  8,179,674.  On  Sep- 
tember 6th  President  William  McKinley 
was  shot  down  by  an  assassin  while 
holding  a public  reception  in  the  Temple 
of  Music,  and  he  died  eight  days  later 
at  the  house  of  John  J.  Milburn,  the 
president  of  the  exposition. 

PANAY,  an  island  of  the  Philippines, 
between  Mindoro  and  Negros.  It  is  of 
triangular  form,  about  100  miles  broad 
and  100  miles  long.  It  is  mountainous 
but  very  fertile,  and  the  inhabitants 
have  made  considerable  progress  in  civil- 
ization. Capital  Iloilo.  Pop.  735,000. 

PANCAKE,  a thin  cake  of  batter 
fried  or  baked  in  a pan.  Pancakes  are 
regarded  as  specially  the  dish  to  be 
eaten  on  Shrove  Tuesday. 

PAN'CREAS,  the  sweet-bread  of  ani- 
mals; one  of  the  viscera  of  the  abdomen. 
In  man  it  lies  behind  the  stomach  in 
front  of  the  first  and  second  lumbar 
vertegrse.  The  pancreas  is  an  oblong 
gland  about  8 inches  long,  IJ  inch 
broad,  and  from  ^ to  1 inch  thick.  Its 
right  extremity,  called  the  head,  lies  in 
a bend  of  the  duodenum.  The  tail  or 
left  extremity  extends  to  the  spleen. 
The  structure  of  the  pancreas  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  salivary  glands.  It  is  com- 
posed of  lobules  throughout.  The 
secretion  of  this  gland  is  conveyed  to  the 
intestines  by  the  pancreatic  duct.  This 
duct  runs  from  right  to  left,  and  is  of  the 
size  of  a quill  at  its  intestinal  end. 
The  pancreatic  juice  is  a clear,  ropy 
fluid.  The  functions  of  the  pancreatic 
juice  in  digestion  are  devoted  to  the 
conversion  of  starchy  elements  into 
sugar  and  to  the  assimilation  of  fatty 
matters.  It  also  acts  upon  albuminoid 
matters. 

PANDA,  or  Wah,  an  animal  of  the 
bear  family  found  in  the  woody  parts 
of  the  mountains  of  Nortliern  India, 
about  equal  to  a-  large  cat  in  size.  It 
is  chestnut-brown  in  color,  and  dwells 
chiefly  in  trees,  preying  on  birds,  small 
quadrupeds,  and  large  insects. 

PANDI'ON.  See  Osprey. 

PANDIT,  or  PUNDIT,  a learned 
Brahman;  one  versed  in  the  Sanskrit 


language,  and  in  the  sciences,  laws,  and 
religion  of  the  Hindus. 

PANDO'RA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
first  woman  on  earth,  sent  by  Zeus  to 
mankind  in  vengeance  for  Prometheus’s 
theft  of  heavenly  fire.  Each  of  the  gods 
gave  her  some  gift  fatal  to  man.  Ac- 


Panda. 


cording  to  later  accounts  the  gods  gave 
her  a box  full  of  blessings  for  mankind, 
but  on  her  opening  the  box  they  all 
flew  away,  except  hope.  Epimetheus, 
brother  of  Prometheus,  married  her. 

PAN'GOLIN,  the  name  applied  to  the 
Scaly  Ant-eaters.  They  occur  in  South- 
ern Asia  and  Africa;  have  the  body  in- 
vested by  a covering  of  imbricated 
scales  of  horny  material;  vary  from  3 
to  4 feet  in  length,  and  defend  them- 
selves by  assuming  the  form  of  a ball. 
The  tail  is  long,  and  the  feet  are  pro- 
vided with  strong  curved  claws,  which 


assist  the  animals  in  burrowing.  The 
jaws  are  destitute  of  teeth,  and  the 
tongue  is  of  great  length.  The  food 
consists  of  insects.  The  four-toed 
pangolin  inhabits  West  Africa. 

PANORA'MA,  a painting  in  which  all 
the  objects  that  can  be  seen  naturally 
from  one  point  are  represented  on  the 
concave  side  of  a whole  or  half  cylindri- 
cal wall,  the  point  of  view  being  the  axis 
of  the  cylinder.  A painting  of  this  kind 
when  well  mounted  produces  a complete 
illusion,  and  no  other  method  is  so  well 
calculated  to  give  an  exact  idea  of  an 
actual  view. 

PANSY.  See  Violet. 

PAN'TAGRAPH.  See  Pantograph. 

PANTHEISM,  in  philosophy,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  substantial  identity  of  God 
and  the  universe,  a doctrine  that  stands 
midway  between  atheism  and  dogmatic 
theism.  The  origin  of  the  idea  of  a God 
with  the  theist  and  the  pantheist  is  the 
same.  It  is  by  reasoning  upon  ourselves 
and  the  surrounding  objects  of  which  we 
are  cognizant  that  we  come  to  infer  the 
existence  of  some  superior  being  upon 
whom  they  all  depend,  from  whom  they 
proceed,  or  in  whom  they  subsist.  Pan- 
theism assumes  the  identity  of  cause 
and  effect.  Matter,  not  less  than  mind, 
is  with  it  the  necessary  emanation  of  the 
Deity.  The  unity  of  the  universe  is  a 


unity  which  embraces  all  existing 
variety,  a unity  in  which  all  contradic- 
tions and  all  existing  and  inexplicable 
congruities  are  combined.  Pantheism 
has  been  the  foundation  of  nearly  all  the 
chief  forms  of  religion  which  have 
existed  in  the  world.  It  was  represented 
in  the  East  by  the  Sankhya  of  Kapila,  a 
celebrated  system  of  Indian  philosophy. 
The  Persian,  Greek,  and  Egyptian  re- 
ligious systems  were  also  pantheistic. 
Spinoza  is  the  most  representative 
pantheist  of  modern  times.  A twofold 
division  of  pantheism  has  been  pro- 
posed: 1.  That  which  loses  the  world  in 
God,,  one  only  being  in  whose  modifica- 
tions ' are  the  individual  phenomena. 
2.  That  which  loses  God  in  the  world  and 
totally  denies  the  substantiality  of  God. 

PANTHEON  (pan-the'on),  a cele- 
brated temple  at  Rome,  built  in  27  b.c. 
by  Marcus  Agrippa.  It  is  a large  edifice 
of  brick,  built  in  circular  form,  with  a 
portico  of  lofty  columns.  It  has  the 
finest  dome  in  the  world  (142^  feet  inter- 
nal diameter,  143  feet  internal  height), 
and  its  portico  is  almost  equally  cele- 
brated. It  is  now  a church,  and  is  known 
as  Santa  Maria  Rotonda.  Raffael  and 
other  famous  men  are  buried  within  its 
walls.  The  Pantheon  in  Paris,  for  some 
the  time  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  is  a 
noble  edifice  with  a lofty  dome,  de- 
voted to  the  interment  of  illustrious 
men. 

PANTHER,  one  of  the  Felidae  or  cat 
tribe,  of  a yellow  color,  diversified  with 
roundish  black  spots,  a native  of  Asia 
and  Africa.  The  panther  is  now  sup- 


Panther. 


posed  to  be  identical  with,  br  a mere 
variety  of  the  leopard.  The  name  pan- 
ther (in  vulgar  language  painter)  is  given 
to  the  puma  in  America. 

PANTOGRAPH,  also  called  Panta- 
graph  and  Pentagraph,  an  instrument 
consisting  of  four  limbs  joined  together 
by  movable  joints,  and  so  constructed 
that  by  means  of  it  maps  and  plans  may 
be  copied  mechanically  either  on  the 
scale  on  which  they  are  drawn  or  on  an 
enlarged  or  reduced  scale.  It  is  made  in 
a variety  of  forms. 

PANTOMIME,  properly  a theatrical 
representation  without  words,  consist- 
ing of  gestures,  generally  accompanied 
by  music  and  dancing.  The  modern 
pantomime  is  a spectacular  play  of  a 
burlesque  character,  founded  on  some 


PAPACY 


T^KfER 


popular  fable,  and  interspersed  with 
singing  and  dancing,  followed  by  a 
harlequinade,  the  chief  characters  in 
which  are  the  harlequin,  pantaloon, 
columbine,  and  clown,  which  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  Italian  pantomime, 
although  their  present  development  is 
almost  entirely  modern. 

PAPACY.  See  Popes. 

PAPAL  STATES,  the  name  given  to 
that  portion  of  Central  Italy  of  which 
the  pope  was  sovereign  by  virtue  of  his 
position.  The  territory  extended  ir- 
regularly from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  latterly  comprised  an 
area  of  15,289  sq.  miles  with  3,126,000 
inhabitants.  Rome  was  the  capital.  The 
foundation  of  the  Papal  States  was  laid 
in  754,  when  Pepin  le  Bref  presented 
the  exarchate  of  Ravenna  to  Stephen 
II.,  bishop  of  Rome.  Benevento  was 
added  in  1053,  and  in  1102  Matilda  of 
Tuscany  left  Parma,  Modena,  and  Tus- 
cany to  the  pope.  In  1201  the  Papal 
States  were  formally  constituted  an 
independent  monarchy.  Subsequently 
various  territories  were  added  to  or 
subtracted  from  the  pope’s  possessions, 
which  were  incorporated  with  France 
by  Napoleon  in  1809,  but  restored  to 
the  pope  in  1814.  A revolution  broke 
out  in  Rome  in  1848,  and  the  pope  fled 
to  Gaeta,  but  he  was  reinstated  by 
French  troops,  and  Rome  was  gar- 
risoned by  French  soldiers  until  1870. 
In  the  meantime  one  state  after  another 
threw  off  its  allegiance  to  the  pope  and 
joined  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  when 
the  French  left  Rome  in  August,  1870, 
King  Victor  Emanuel  took  possession 
of  the  city,  declared  it  the  capital  of 
Italy,  and  thus  abolished  the  temporal 
power  of  the  pope. 

PAP  AW',  a tree  of  South  America, 
now  widely  cultivated  in  tropical  coun- 
tries. It  grows  to  the  height  of  18  or  20 
feet,  with  a soft  herbaceous  stem, 
naked  nearly  to  the  top,  where  the 


Papaw. 

leaves  issue  on  every  side  on  long  foot- 
stalks. Between  the  leaves  grow  the 
flower  and  the  fruit,  which  is  of  the  size 
of  a melon.  The  juice  of  the  tree  is  acrid 
and  milky,  but  the  fruit  when  boiled  is 
eaten  with  meat,  like  other  vegetables. 
The  juice  of  the  unripe  fruit  is  a power- 
ful vermifuge;  the  powder  of  the  seed 
even  answers  the  same  purpose.  The 
juice  of  the  tree  or  its  fruit,  or  an  infu- 
sion of  it,  has  the  singular  property  of 
rendering  the  toughest  meat  tender. 


and  this  is  even  said  to  be  effected  by 
hanging  the  meat  among  the  branches. 
The  papaw  of  North  America  produces 
a sweet  edible  fruit. 

PAPER,  a thin  and  flexible  substance, 
manufactured  principally  of  vegetable 
fibre,  used  for  writing  and  printing  on, 
and  for  various  other  purposes.  Egypt, 
China,  and  Japan  are  the  countries  in 
which  the  earliest  manufacture  of  paper 
is  known  to  have  been  carried  on.  The 
Egyptian  paper  was  made  from  the 
papyrus  (whence  the  word  paper),  but 
this  was  different  from  paper  properly 
so  called.  (See  Papyrus.)  According  to 
the  Chinese  the  fabrication  of  paper 
from  cotton  and  other  vegetable  fibres 
was  invented  by  them  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury B.c.  From  the  East  it  passed  to  the 
West,  and  it  was  introduced  into  Europe 
by  the  Arabs.  Spain  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  country  in  Europe  in  which 
paper  from  cotton  was  made,  probably 
in  the  11th  century;  and  at  a later  period 
the  manufacture  was  carried  on  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany.  It  cannot 
now  be  ascertained  at  what  time  linen 
rags  were  first  brought  into  use  for 
making  paper;  but  remnants  of  Spanish 
paper  of  the  12th  century  appear  to  in- 
dicate that  attempts  were  made  as 
early  as  that  time  to  add  linen  rags  to 
the  cotton  ones. 

Paper  is  made  either  by  the  hand  or 
by  machinery.  When  it  is  made  by  the 
hand  the  pulp  is  placed  in  a stone  vat,  in 
which  revolves  an  agitator,  which  keeps 
the  fibrous  particles  equally  diffused 
throughout  the  mass;  and  the  workman 
is  provided  with  a mould,  which  is  a 
square  frame  with  a fine  wire  bottom, 
resembling  a sieve,  of  the  size  of  the 
intended  sheet.  These  moulds  are  some- 
times made  with  the  wires  lying  all  one 
way,  except  a few  which  are  placed  at 
intervals  crosswise  to  bind  the  others 
together,  and  sometimes  with  the  wires 
crossing  each  other  as  in  a woven  fabric. 
Paper  made  with  moulds  of  the  former 
kind  is  said  to  be  laid,  and  that  made 
with  those  of  the  latter  kind  wove.  The 
so-called  water-mark  on  paper  is  made 
by  a design  woven  in  wire  in  the  mould. 
Above  the  mould  the  workman  places 
a light  frame  called  a deckle,  which 
limits  the  size  of  the  sheet.  He  then 
dips  the  mould  and  deckle  into  the  pulp, 
a portion  of  which  he  lifts  up  horizontal- 
ly between  the  two,  gently  shaking  the 
mould  from  side  to  side,  to  distribute 
the  fibers  equally  and  make  them  cohere 
more  firmly,  the  water,  of  course,  drain- 
ing out  through  the  wire  meshes.  The 
sheets  thus  formed  are  subjected  to 
pressure,  first  between  felts,  and  after- 
ward alone.  They  are  then  sized,  pressed 
once  more,  and  hung  up  separately  on 
lines  in  a room  to  dry.  The  freedom  with 
which  they  are  allowed  to  contract 
under  this  method  of  drying  gives  to 
hand-made  paper  its  superior  firmness 
and  compactness.  After  drying  they  are 
ready  for  making  up  into  quires  and 
reams,  unless  they  are  to  be  glazed, 
which  is  done  by  submitting  the  sheets 
to  a very  high  pressure  between  plates 
of  zinc  or  copper. 

In  paper-making  by  machinery,  a 
process  patented  in  France  in  the  end 
of  18th  century,  the  pulp  is  placed  in 
wooden  or  iron  vessels  at  one  end  of  the 


machine,  and  is  kept  constantly  agitated 
by  a revolving  spindle  with  arms  at- 
tached to  it.  From  these  the  pulp  passes 
to  the  pulp-regulator,  by  which  the 
supply  of  pulp  to  the  machine  is  kept 
constant,  thence  through  sand-catchers 
and  strainers  till  it  reaches  the  part  of 
the  machine  which  corresponds  to  the 
hand-mould.  This  consists  of  an  endless 
webof  brass  wire-cloth, whichconstantly 
moves  forward  above  a series  of  revolv- 
ing rollers,  while  a vibratory  motion 
from  side  to  side  is  also  given  to  it, 
which  has  the  same  object  as  shaking 
the  mould  in  making  by  the  hand.  Mean- 
while its  edges  are  kept  even  by  what 
are  called  deckle  or  boundary  straps 
of  vulcanized  india-rubber.  At  the  end 
of  the  wire-cloth  the  pulp  comes  to  the 
dandy-roll,  which  impresses  it  with  any 
mark  that  is  desired.  The  fabric  is  now 
received  by  the  felts,  also,  like  the  wire 
part  of  the  machine,  an  endless  web, 
the  remaining  water  being  pressed  out 
in  this  part  of  the  machine  by  four  or 
five  consecutive  rollers.  If  intended  for 
a printing-paper,  or  any  other  kind  that 
requires  no  specia'  sizing,  it  is  dried  by 
being  passed  round  a succession  of  large 
hot  cylinders,  with  intermediate  smooth- 
ing rolls.  It  is  then  rendered  glossy 
on  the  surface  by  passing  between 
polished  cast-iron  rollers  called  calen- 
ders, and  is  finally  wound  on  a reel 
at  the  end  of  the  machine,  or  sub- 
mitted to  the  action  of  the  cutting  ma- 
chinery, by  which  it  is  cut  up  into  sheets 
of  the  desired  size.  If  the  paper  is  to  be 
sized,  the  web,  after  leaving  the  machine 
is  passed  through  the  sizing-tub,  and  is 
then  led  round  a series  of  large  skeleton 
drums  (sometimes  as  many  as  forty) 
with  revolving  fans  in  the  inside,  by  the 
action  of  which  it  is  dried.  If  the  paper 
were  dried  by  hot  cylinders  after  the 
sizing,  there  would  be  a loss  of  strength 
in  consequence  of  the  drying  being  too 
rapid.  After  being  dried  the  paper  is 
glazed  by  the  glazing-rollers,  and  then 
cut  up.  In  some  cases  the  sizing  is  done 
after  the  paper  has  been  cut  into  sheets, 
these  being  then  hung  up  to  dry  on  lines, 
like  hand-made  paper,  acquiring  in  the 
process  something  of  the  same  hardness 
and  strength.  The  total  length  of  a 
paper-machine,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  wire-cloth  to  the  cutters,  is  fre- 
quently more  than  100  feet. 

Blotting  and  filtering  paper  are  both 
made  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary  paper 
except  that  the  sizing  is  omitted.  Copy- 
ing paper  is  made  by  smearing  writing 
paper  with  a composition  of  lard  and 
black-lead,  which,  after  being  left  alone 
for  a day  or  so,  is  scraped  smooth  and 
wiped  with  a soft  cloth.  Incombustible 
paper  has  been  made  from  asbestos,  but 
since  fire  removes  the  ink  from  a book 
printed  on  this  material,  the  invention  is 
of  no  utility,  even  though  the  paper 
itself  be  indestructible.  Indelible 
cheque  paper  has  been  patented  on 
several  occasions.  In  one  kind  of  it  the 
paper  is  treated  with  an  insoluble  fer- 
rocyanide  and  an  insoluble  salt  of 
manganese,  and  is  sized  with  acetate  of 
alumina  instead  of  alum.  Parchment 
paper  or  vegetable  parchment  is  made 
from  ordinary  unsized  paper  by  treat- 
ment with  sulphuric  acid  or  oil  of  vitriol 
and  ammonia.  The  so-called  rice  paper 


PAPER-HANCxINGS 


PARACHUTE 


is  not  an  artificial  paper,  but  a vegetable 
membrane  imported  from  China,  and 
obtained  apparently  from  the  pith  of  a 
plant.  Tissue  paper  is  a very  thin  paper 
of  a silky  softness  used  to  protect  en- 
gravings in  books  and  for  various  other 
purposes.  Tracing  paper  is  made  from 
tissue  paper  by  soaking  it  with  Canada 
balsam  and  oil  of  turpentine  or  nut-oil 
and  turpentine. 

In  recent  times  the  uses  of  paper  have 
greatly  multiplied.  Besides  being  largely 
employed  for  making  collars,  cuffs,_and 
other  articles  of  dress,  it  is  sometimes 
used  for  making  huts  in  the  backwoods 
of  America;  for  making  boats,  pipes, 
and  tanks  for  water;  cuirasses  to  resist 
musket-bullets,  wheels  for  railway-car- 
riages, and  even  bells  and  cannons. 
Paper  wheels  have  been  used  for  Pull- 
man cars,  and  have  worn  out  one  set  of 
tires.  Cannons  made  of  paper  have 
actually  been  tried  with  success.  In  the 
production  of  paper  England,  America, 
Germany,  and  France  take  the  lead. 

PAPER-HANGINGS,  ornamental  pa- 
pers often  pasted  on  the  walls  of  the 
rooms  in  dwelling-houses.  The  staining 
of  papers  for  this  purpose  is  said  to  be  a 
Chinese  invention,  and  was  introduced 
into  France  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century.  It  is  now  common  everywhere, 
but  more  especially  in  France,  England, 
and  the  United  States.  Most  of  the  proc- 
esses in  paper-staining  are  now  usually 
done  by  machinery;  but  there  is  still 
much  hand-work  in  the  finer  qualities, 
especially  those  produced  in  France. 
The  first  operation  is  that  of  grounding, 
which  consists  in  covering  the  surface 
with  some  dull  color,  the  tint  of  which 
varies.  Papers  with  a glazed  ground  are 
usually  glazed  immediately  after  receiv- 
ing the  ground  tint.  The  designs  on  the 
surface  of  paper-hangings  are  applied 
by  hand  processes  and  machines  exactly 
similar  to  those  employed  in  calico- 
printing. 

PAPER  MONEY.  See  Currency. 

PAPER-MULBERRY.  See  Mulberry. 

PAPER-NAUTILUS.  See  Argonaut. 

PAPIER  MACHE  (p&p-ya  ma-sha), 
a substance  made  of  cuttings  of  white 
or  brown  paper  boiled  in  water,  and 
beaten  in  a mortar  till  they  are  reduced 
into  a kind  of  paste,  and  then  boiled 
with  a solution  of  gum  Arabic  or  of  size 
to  give  tenacity  to  the  paste.  Sulphate 
of  iron,  quicklime,  and  glue  or  white  of 
egg,  are  sometimes  added  to  enable  the 
material  to  resist  the  action  of  water, 
and  borax  and  phosphate  of  soda  to 
render  it  to  a great  extent  fire-proof. 
It  is  used  for  making  all  sorts  of  useful 
and  ornamental  articles  that  can  be 
formed  in  moulds.  Another  variety  of 
papier  mfi,ch6  is  made  by  pasting  or  glu- 
ing sheets  of  paper  together,  and  press- 
ing them  when  soft  into  the  form  which 
it  is  desired  to  give  them. 

PAPILL.®,  the  name  applied  in 
physiology  to  small  or  minute  processes 
protruding  from  the  surface  of  the  skin, 
or  of  membranes  generally,  and  which 
may  possess  either  a secretory  or  other 
function.  The  human  skin  exhibits 
numerous  papillae,  with  divided  or  single 
extremities,  and  through  which  the 
sense  of  touch  is  chiefly  exercised.  The 
papillae  of  the  tongue  are  important  in 


connection  with  the  sense  of  taste.  See 
Skin  and  Tongue. 

PAPPENHEIM,  Gottfried  Heinrich, 
Count  of,  imperial  general  in  the  Thirty 
Years’  war,  born  in  1594  at  Pappen- 
heim,  in  Bavaria.  In  1626  he  conquered 
with  the  assistance  of  the  Bavarians, 
40,000  peasants  in  Upper  Austria,  and 
in  1630  joined  Tilly,  who  ascribed  the 
loss  of  the  battle  of  Leipzig  in  1631  to  his 
impetuosity.  He  appeared  on  the  field 
of  Ltitzen  on  the  side  of  Wallenstein, 
but  was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  the 
day  after  the  battle,  1632. 

PAPY'RUS,  an  aquatic  plant.  It  has 
acquired  celebrity  from  furnishing  the 
paper  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The 
root  is  very  large,  hard,  and,  creeping; 
the  stem  is  several  inches  thick,  naked, 
except  at  the  base,  8 to  15  or  more  feet 


Egyptian  papyrus. 


high,  triangular  above,  and  terminated 
by  a compound,  wide-spreading,  and 
beautifull  umbel,  which  is  surrounded 
with  an  involucre  composed  of  eight 
large  sword-shaped  leaves.  The  little 
scaly  spikelets  of  inconspicuous  flowers 
are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  rays 
of  this  umbel.  Formerly  it  was  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Lower  Egyqjt,  but 
is  now  rare  there.  It  is  abundant  in  the 
equatorial  regions  of  Africa  in  many 
places,  and  is  found  also  in  Western 
Africa  and  in  Southern  Italy.  The  in- 
habitants of  some  countries  where  it 
grows  manufacture  it  into  various  arti- 
cles, including  sail-cloth,  cordage,  and 
even  wearing  apparel  and  boats.  Among 
the  ancient  Egyptians  its  uses  were 
equally  numerous,  but  it  is  best  known 
as  furnishing  a sort  of  paper.  This  con- 
sisted of  thin  strips  carefully  separated 
from  the  stem  longitudinally,  laid  side 
by  side,  and  then  covered  transversely 
by  shorter  strips,  the  whole  being  caused 
to  adhere  together  by  the  use  of  water 
and  probably  some  gummy  matter. 
A sheet  of  this  kind  formed  really  a sort 
of  mat.  In  extensive  writings  a number 
of  these  sheets  were  united  into  one 
long  roll,  the  writing  materials  being  a 
reed  pen  and  ink  made  of  animal  char- 
coal and  oil.  Thousands  of  these  papyri 
or  papyrus  rolls  still  exist  (many  of 
them  were  found  in  the  ruins  of  Her- 
culaneum), but  their  contents,  so  fax  as 
deciphered,  with  a few  exceptions,  have 
only  been  of  moderate  value. 

PARA,  or  BELEM,  a city  and  seaport 
in  Brazil,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Pard. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  gover- 
nor’s palace,  the  cathedral,  and  the 
churches  of  Santa  Anna  and  Sao  Joao 
Baptista..  It  is  the  seat  of  the  legislative 


assembly  of  the  state.  The  principal 
exports  are  caoutchouc,  cacao.  Brazil- 
nuts,  copaiba,  rice,  piassava,  sarsapa- 
rilla, annotto,  cotton,  etc.  Pop.  50,064. 
— The  state  of  Pard,  the  most  northerly 
in  Brazil,  comprises  an  area  of  443,790 
sq.  miles  on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
Amazon,  and  consists  chiefly  of  vast 
alluvial  plains  connected  with  this  river 
and  its  tributaries.  Pop.  407,350. 

PARAB'OLA,  one  of  the  curves  known 
as  conic  sections.  If  a right  cone  is  cut 
by  a plane  parallel  to  a slant  side,  the 


J e c <j  n 


Parabola. 


section  is  a parabola.  It  may  also  be 
defined  as  the  curve  traced  out  by  a 
point  which  moves  in  such  a way  that  its 
distance  from  a fixed  point,  called  the 
“focus,”  is  always  equal  to  its  perpen- 
dicular distance  from  a fixed  straight 
line,  called  the  “directrix.”  In  the 
fi^re  b h is  the  directrix  and  f the  focus, 
while  p is  a point  that  moves  so  that 
the  perpendicular  gp  is  always  equal 
to  the  line  p f ; the  curve  pad  described 
by  a point  so  moving  is  a parabola. 
The  line  f a c through  the  focus  is  the 
axis  or  principal  diameter;  any  line 
parallel  to  it  as  b d r is  a diameter.  The 
path  of  a projectile  in  vacuo,  when  not 
a vertical  straight  line,  is  parabolic. 

PARACEL'SUS,  or  PHILIPPUS 
AUREOLUS  THEOPHRASTUS  BOM- 
BASTUS  VON  HOHENHEIM,  empiric 
and  alchemist,  born  at  Einsiedeln,  in  the 
canton  of  Schwyz,  in  Switzerland,  in 
1493.  Dissatisfied  with  the  means  of 
acquiring  knowledge  in  his  native  coun- 
try, he  traveled  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  everywhere  seeking  to  add  to 
his  knowledge.  In  the  course  of  his  travels 
he  became  acquainted  with  remedies 
not  in  common  use  among  physicians 
(probably  preparations  of  mercury),  by 
means  of  which  he  performed  extra- 
ordinary cures,  and  obtained  great 
reputation.  He  died  at  the  hospital  of 
St.  Sebastian  at  Salzburg  in  1541.  For  a 
long  time  he  was  regarded  as  little  better 
than  a charlatan,  but  he  enriched 
science,  particularly  chemistry  and 
medicine,  with  some  valuable  discover- 
ies, and,  indeed,  is  sometimes  looked 
upon  as  the  founder  of  modern  thera- 
peutics. 

PARACHUTE  (pa'ra-shot),  an  ap- 
paratus of  an  umbrella  shape  and  con- 
struction, usually  about  20  or  30  feet 
in  diameter,  attached  to  balloons,  by 
means  of  which  the  aeronaut  may  de- 
scend slowly  from  a great  height.  It  is 
shut  when  carried  up,  and  expands  of 
itself  when  the  aeronaut  begins  to  de- 
scend; but  it  is  not  altogether  to  be  de- 
pended on,  and  accidents  in  connection 
with  its  use  have  been  frequent.  The 
earliest  mention  of  a machine  of  this 
kind  is  in  a MS.  describing  experiments 
made  with  one  in  1617.  In  1783  the 
French  physician  Lenormand  made 
several  further  experiments  at  Mont- 
pellier; and  shortly  after  the  machinu 


Paradise 


PARALLEL  MOTION 


became  well  known  through  the  de- 
scents of  Blanchard  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
uon.  See  Aeronautics. 

PARADISE,  the  garden  of  Eden.  The 
word  is  originally  Persian,  and  signifies 
a park.  It  was  introduced  into  the 
Greek  language  by  Xenophon,  and  has 
been  introduced  into  modern  languages 


Parachute. 


as  a name  for  the  garden  of  Eden  (and 
hjnce  of  any  abode  of  happiness) 
through  its  use  in  that  sense  in  the 
Septuagint. 

PARADISE,  Bird  of.  See  Bird  of 

Paradise. 

PARADOX,  a statement  or  propo- 
sition which  seems  to  be  absurd,  or  at 
variance  with  common  sense,  or  to  con- 
tradict some  previously-ascertained 
truth,  though,  when  duly  investigated, 
it  may  prove  to  be  well  founded. 

PAR'AFFIN,  a solid  white  substance 
of  a waxy  appearance  which  is  separated 
from  petroleum  and  ozokerit,  and  is  also 
largely  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  various  organic  bodies, 
such  as  brown  coal  or  lignite,  bitumi- 
nous coal,  shale,  etc.  In  Scotland  the 

?araffin  industry  is  highly  important. 

he  process  generally  consists  in  heating 
bituminous  shale  in  iron  retorts  at  a 
low  red  heat ; condensing  the  tarry  prod- 
ucts, and  purifying  these  by  distilla- 
tion, washing  successively  with  soda, 
water,  and  acid,  and  again  distilling; 
Those  portions  of  the  oil  which  solidify 
in  the  final  distillations  are  collected 
separately  from  the  liquid  portions, 
washed  with  soda  and  acid,  and  crys- 
talized  or  again  distilled.  The  partially 
purified  paraffin  (called  paraffin  scale)  is 
now  again  treated  with  acid,  allowed 
to  solidify,  submitted  to  the  action  of 
centrifugalmachines,andfinally  strongly 
pressed  in  order  to  remove  any  liquid 
oil  which  may  still  adhere  to  it.  The 
refined  paraffin  is  largely  manufactured 
into  candles,  which  may  be  either  white 
or  colored,  and  may  be  mixed  with  a 
certain  quantity  of  wax,  etc.  The  liquid 
oils  obtained  in  the  process  come  into 
commerce  under  the  general  name  of 
paraffin-oil,  the  lighter  oils  being  used 
for  illuminating  and  the  heavier  for 
lubricating  purposes.  Paraffin  has  re- 
ceived its  name  on  account  of  its  re- 
markable indifference  to  or  want  of 
affinity  with  other  substances.  Besides 
being  used  for  candles,  it  is  used  for 
vestas  and  tapers,  for  water-proofing, 
sizing,  and  glazing  fabries,  as  an  electric 
insulator,  as  a coating  for  the  inside  of 
beer  barrels,  etc. 

PARAGUAY  (p&'ra-gwi),  a republic  of 
South  America,  surrounded  by  the 


Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  and  Bolivia; 
area,  97,6PC  sq.  miles.  The  climate  is 
agreeable,  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture being  about  75°.  The  natural 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  shown  by  a 
vegetation  of  almost  unequalled  luxu- 
riance \nd  grandeur.  In  the  forests  are 
found  at  least  sixty  varieties  of  timber- 
tree,  besides  dye-woods,  gums,  drugs, 
perfumes,  vegetable  oils,  and  fruits. 
Many  of  the  hills  are  covered  with  the 
yerba  mat4  or  Paraguay  tea.  The 
larger  plains  are  roamed  over  by  im- 
mense herds  of  cattle,  which  yield  large 
quantities  of  hides,  tallow,  bones,  etc.; 
and  on  all  the  cultivated  alluvial  tracts 
sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  corn, 
etc.,  are  raised  in  profusion.  Asuncion, 
the  capital,  and  Villa  Rica  are  con- 
nected by  a railway  about  90  miles  long. 

Paraguay  was  originally  a Spanish 
colony,  the  first  settlement  being  made 
in  1535.  In  1608  a number  of  Spanish 
Jesuits  established  a powerful  and  well- 
organized  government,  which  lasted  till 
1758,  when  it  was  overthrown  by  the 
Brazilians  and  Spaniards.  Early  in  the 
19th  century  its  isolated  position 
enabled  it  by  a single  effort  to  emanci- 
pate itself  from  Spanish  rule.  In  1844 
Don  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez  was  elected 
president  for  ten  years,  and  soon  after 
the  country  was  declared  free  and  open 
to  both  foreigners  and  foreign  commerce. 
Don  Carlos  Lopez  remained  president 
of  Paraguay  till  his  death  in  1862,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Don  Fran- 
cisco, who  concluded  treaties  of  com- 
merce with  Enlgand,  France,  the  United 
States,  Brazil,  etc.,  and  did  all  in  his 
power  to  promote  the  growth  of  agri- 
culture and  industry  in  the  land.  A 
popular  constitutional  government  has 
been  established,  and  the  state  is  mak- 
ing rapid  progress  in  population  and 

Brity.  The  people  are  largely  half- 
or  of  Indian  blood.  Pop.  635,571. 
PA^GUAY,  a river  of  South  America 
rises  in  the  Brazilian  state  of  Matto 
Grosso,  takes  a course  generally  south- 
ward, and  joins  the  Parand,  at  the  south- 
west angle  of  the  state  of  Paraguay 
after  a course  of  some  1300  miles.  It 
receives  the  Pilcomayo,  Vermejo,  and 
other  large  rivers,  and  is  a valuable 
highway  of  trade  to  Paraguay  and 
Brazil. 

PARAKEETS,  or  PARROQUETS,  a 
sub-family  or  group  of  the  parrots, 
characterized  by  their  generally  small 
size  and  their  long  tail-feathers.  The 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  form 
the  chief  habitat  of  these  birds,  but 
species  also  occur  in  India  and  Aus- 
tralia. Among  the  most  familiar  forms 
are  the  rose-ringed  and  Alexandrine 
parakeets.  The  former,  found  in  India 
and  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  Africa,  has 
a bright-green  body  and  a pink  circle 
round  the  neck.  The  Alexandrine  para- 
keet of  India  is  a nearly  allied  speeies. 
These  birds  may  be  taught  to  speak 
with  distinctness.  The  ground  parakeets 
of  Australia  live  among  the  reeds  and 
grass  of  swamps,  generally  in  solitary 
pairs.  The  common  ground  parakeet  of 
Australia  possesses  a green  and  black 
plumage,  the  tail  being  similarly  colored, 
and  the  body-feathers  having  each  a 
band  of  dark-brown  hue.  The  grass 
parakeets  of  Australia,  of  which  the 


small  warbling  parakeet  is  a good 
example,  inhabit  the  central  fiat  lands 
of  Australia,  and  feed  on  the  seeds  of 
the  grasses  covering  the  plains.  They 
perch  on  the  eucalypti  or  gum-trees 
during  the  day,  and  the  nests  are  situated 
in  the  hollows  of  these  trees.  Contrary 


Rose-ringed  parakeet. 


to  most  parrots  they  have  an  agreeable 
voice. 

PARALLAX,  the  apparent  change  of 
place  which  bodies  undergo  by  being 
viewed  from  different  points.  Thus  an 
observer  at  a sees  an  object  b in  line 
with  an  object  c,  but  when  he  moves  to 
d it  is  in  line  with  e,  and  seems  to  have 
gone  backward.  The  term  has  become 
technical  in  astronomy,  and  implies 
the  difference  of  the  apparent  positions 
of  any  celestial  object  when  viewed 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  from 
the  center  of  either  the  earth  or  the  sun. 
The  term  “parallax”  is  also  employed 
to  denote  the  non-coincidence  of  the 
cross  fibers  in  a telescope  with  the  focus 
of  the  eye-glass. 

PARALLEL  LINES,  in  geometry, 
straight  lines  in  the  same  plane  which 
never  meet,  no  matter  how  far  pro- 
duced. 

PARALLEL  MOTION,  a mechanical 
contrivance  employed  by  Watt  to  com- 
municate the  alternate  pushes  and  pulls 
of  the  piston-rod  of  a steam-engine  to  the 
end  of  a vibrating  beam,  and  which 
prevents  the  action  of  forces  tending  to 


Part  of  beam  of  condensing  engine. 
abed,  Parallel  motion,  e.  Piston-rod. 
/,  Pump-rod. 


destroy  the  right-line  motion  of  the 
piston-rod.  The  motion  given  to  the 
end  of  the  rod  is  not  accurately  in  a 
straight  line,  but  it  is  very  nearly  so. 
Watt’s  parallel  motion  is  still  employed 
in  all  stationary  beam-engines.  In 
marine  beam-engines  the  arrangement 


PARALLELOGRAM  OP  FORCES 


PARHELION 


employed  differs  somewhat  in  form, 
but  is  the  same  in  principle  as  Watt’s 
contrivance. 

PARALLELOGRAM  OF  FORCES,  an 

important  dynamical  principle,  de- 
duced by  Newton,  which  may  be  stated 
thus:  If  two  forces  acting  in  different 
directions  on  a particle  at  the  same  time 
be  represented  in  magnitude  and  direc- 
tion by  two  straight  lines  meeting  at 
the  particle,  their  resultant  effect  in 
giving  motion  to  the  particle  is  that  of 
a force  represented  in  magnitude  and 
direction  by  the  diagonal  (terminating 
in  the  particle)  of  the  parallelogram,  of 
which  the  two  former  lines  areAwo  sides. 

PARALLELS  OF  LATITUDE.  See 
Latitude. 

PARAL'YSIS,  a bodily  ailment,  which 
in  its  effect  consists  in  loss  of  power  in 
moving  or  loss  of  feeling,  or  in  both, 
and  it  is  caused  by  disease  of  the  brain, 
spinal  cord,  or  nerves,  or  it  may  be  due 
to  lead-poisoning.  When  the  paralysis 
is  limited  to  one  side  of  the  body,  and 
the  voluntary  power  of  moving  the 
muscles  is  lost,  this  is  due  to  disease  of 
the  brain  and  receives  the  specific  name 
of  hemiplegia.  It  is  generally  caused  by 
the  bursting  of  a blood-vessel  in  the 
brain;  it  may  also  be  due  to  a blood- 
vessel being  blocked  by  a clot  of  blood. 
The  paralysis  may  be  sudden  and  with- 
out unconsciousness,  or  it  may  be 
gradual  and  attended  with  sickness, 
fainting,  and  confusion  of  mind.  In 
ordinary  cases  it  will  be  found  that  one 
side  of  the  body  is  powerless,  the  face 
twisted,  the  speech  thick  and  indis- 
tinct. Recovery  may  be  complete,  or 
partial,  or  the  attack  may  prove  fatal. 
In  any  case  the  shock  is  apt  to  be  re- 
peated. When  one  side“of  the  body  and 
the  opposite  side  of  the”  face  is  affected, 
the  disease,  which  has  its  seat  in  the 
region  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  re- 
ceives the  name  of  cross  paralysis,  and  is 
considered  more  dangerous  than  ordi- 
nary hemiplegia.  When,  again,  the  dis- 
ease is  situated  in  the  spinal  cord,  the 
paralysis,  which  receives  the  name  of 
paraplegia,  may  affect  either  the  upper 
or  lower  part  of  the  body,  or  motion 
may  be  lost  on  one  side  and  sensation 
on  the  other.  Local  paralysis  is  the 
term  used  when  disease  or  injury  affects 
a specific  nerve-trunk,  and  has  no  con- 
nection with  disease  of  the  brain  or 
spinal  cord.  The  effect  of  this  local 
paralysis  is  to  deprive  the  muscles  of 
their  nerve-supply,  in  which  case  they 
lose  their  power,  becoming  weak  and 
faint. 

PARANA,  a river  in  South  America, 
the  largest  except  the  Amazon,  and 
draining  a larger  basin  than  any  other 
river  in  the  New  World  except  the 
Amazon  and  the  Mississippi.  Its  length, 
from  its  sources  to  its  junction  with  the 
Paraguay,  is  probably  1500  miles,  and 
thence  to  the  sea  GOO  miles  more. 

PARANA,  a state  of  Southern  Brazil, 
having  on  the  north  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo,  on  the  east  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
south  the  state  of  Santa  Catharina, 
and  west  Paraguay  and  the  province 
Matto  Grosso;  area,  85,429  sq.  miles. 
Its  chief  town  is  Curitiba.  Pop.  187,548. 

PARANOIA,  a form  of  insanity  in 
which  for  years  the  intellect  of  the 
pastient  remains  unimpaired,  though 


dominated  by  a systematized  delusion. 
An  acquired  or  transmitted  neuro- 
degenerative  taint  is  almost  invariably 
present,  though  a sudden  or  severe  in- 
jury to  the  nervous  system  may  be  the 
cause.  It  may  follow  a severe  fever  or 
an  Injury  to  the  head.  It  may  equally 
well  be  caused  by  great  emotional  strain 
or  a constantly  harassing  thought. 

Paranoiacs  usually  present  somatic 
evidences  of  degeneration,  such  as  a de- 
formed or  asymmetrical  skull,  badly 
developed  teeth,  strakbismus,  atrophy 
of  one  side  of  the  body,  and  differences 
in  size  of  hands  or  feet. 

PARAPET,  in  fortification,  a work, 
usually  of  earth,  intended  to  protect  the 
troops  within  the  ramparts,  as  well  as 
the  pieces  of  artillery  used  in  the  de- 
fense. In  order  to  fire  the  defenders 
ascend  a ledge  called  a banquette,  about 
half-way  up  the  parapet.  In  architecture 
the  term  parapet  is  applied  to  the 
structures  placed  at  the  edges  of  plat- 
forms, balconies,  roofs  of  houses,  sides 
of  bridges,  etc.,  to  prevent  people  from 
falling  over. 

PARAPHERNALIA,  in  law,  a woman’s 
apparel,  jewels,  and  other  things,  which, 
in  the  lifetime  of  her  husband,  she  wore 
as  the  ornaments  of  her  person,  and  to 
which  she  has  a distinct  claim. 

PARASELENE  (pa-ra-se-le'ne),  a lu- 
minous ring  or  circle  sometimes  seen 
round  the  moon,  or  there  may  be  more 
than  one  ring  as  well  as  certain  bright 
spots,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  the 
moon.  Paraselenae  or  mock  moons  are 
analogous  to  parhelia  or  mock  suns. 
See  Parhelion. 

PARASITES,  the  name  applied  to 
animals  which  attach  themselves  to  the 
exterior  or  inhabit  various  situations 
in  the  interior,  of  the  bodies  of  other 


Paraselenae. 


animals,  including  such  forms  as  tape- 
worms, flukes,  scolices  or  hydatids,  fish- 
lice,  bird-lice,  common  lice,  etc.  True 
parasites  obtain  their  nourishment  from 
the  animals  on  which  they  live,  but 
there  is  another  class  of  parasites  that 
only  obtain  a lodging  or  abode  at  the 
expense  of  the  animals  they  accompany. 

PARBUCKLE,  a method  of  raising  or 
lowering  any  cylindrical  body,  such  as  a 
barrel,  by  an  inclined  plane  and  a rope, 
the  rope  being  doubled,  the  double 
placed  round  a post  at  the  top  of  the 
plane,  and  the  ends  passed  under  and 
round  the  object  to  be  raised  or  lowered, 
when  by  pulling  or  slackening  this  can 
be  accomplished. 


PARCHMENT,  the  skins  of  sheep, 
she-goats,  and  several  other  animals  so 
dressed  or  prepared  as  to  be  rendered  fit 
for  writing  on.  This  is  done  by  stretching 
the  skin  on  a frame,  separating  all  the 
flesh  and  hair  from  tne  skin,  reducing  its 
thickness  with  a sharp  instrument,  and 
smoothing  the  surface  with  pumice- 
stone  covered  with  pulverized  chalk  or 
slaked  lime.  After  it  is  reduced  to  some- 
thing less  than  half  its  original  thick- 
ness, it  is  smoothed  and  slowly  dried  for 
use.  The  name  parchment  signifies 
literally  paper  of  Pergamus  (Asia  Minor), 
where  parchment  was  first  extensively 
brought  into  use  about  200  b.c.  Vellum 
is  a finer  kind  prepared  from  the  skins 
of  calves  or  kids.  Parchment  is  now 
chiefly  used  for  writing  important  legal 
documents  on. 

PARCHMENT,  Vegetable.  See  Paper. 

PARDON,  the  remission  of  the  penalty 
of  a crime  or  offense.  In  England,  in 
nearly  all  cases  of  crime  except  where 
there  is  an  impeachment,  a pardon  from 
the  crown  may  be  granted  before  a 
trial  as  well  as  after;  and  it  stops  further 
progress  in  the  inquiry  and  prosecution 
at  whatever  time  it  is  granted.  In  Amer- 
ica the  constitution  provides  that  the 
president  “shall  have  power  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardon  for  offenses  against 
the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment.” The  senate  has  the  whole 
power  of  trying  impeachments. 

PAREGORIC  ELIXIR,  known  also  as 
the  camphorated  tincture  of  opium, 
is  a solution  of  powdered  opium,  cam- 
phor, benzoic  acid,  and  oil  of  anise. 
When  used  carefully  it  is  found  to  be 
an  excellent  anodyne  and  anti-spas- 
modic. 

PARESIS,  popularly  but  improperly 
called  softening  of  the  brain,  is  more 
common  in  males  than  in  females.  It 
occurs  most  frequently  between  the 
ages  of  thirty  and  fifty-five.  Few  cases 
show  hereditary  tendency.  While  in 
general  the  disease  is  said  to  be  more 
frequent  among  the  lower  classes,  in 
this  country  it  is  most  common  among 
the  middle  and  upper  classes.  About 
80  per  cent  of  cases  give  a syphilitic 
history.  Alcoholic  and  sexual  excesses 
and  severe  mental  or  emotional  strains 
may  also  be  mentioned  as  factors. 

PAREN'THESIS,  pi.  Parentheses,  an 
explanatory  or  qualifying  sentence,  or 
part  of  a sentence,  inserted  into  the 
midst  of  another  sentence,  without  be- 
ing grammatically  connected  with  it. 
It  is  generally  marked  off  by  upright 
curves  ( ),  but  frequently  by  dashes  — 
— , and  even  by  commas. 

PARHE'LION,  a mock  sun,  having 
the  appearance  of  the  sun  itself,  and 
seen  by  the  side  of  that  Ivyninary. 
Parhelia  are  sometimes  double,  some- 
times triple,  and  sometimes  more 
numerous.  They  appear  at  the  same 
height  above  the  horizon  as  the  true 
sun,  and  they  are  always  connected  with 
one  another  by  a white  circle  or  halo. 
They  are  the  result  of  certain  modifica- 
tions which  light  undergoes  when  it 
falls  on  the  crystals  of  ice,  rain-drops, 
or  minute  particles  that  constitute  suit- 
ably situated  clouds.  Parhelia  which 
appear  on  the  same  side  of  the  circle 
with  the  true  sun  are  often  tinted  with 
prismatic  colors. 


PARIAH 


PARIS 


. PA'RIAH,  a name  somewhat  loosely 
applied  to  any  of  the  lowest  class  of 
people  in  Hindustan,  who  have,  properly 
speaking,  no  caste,  hence,  one  despised 
and  contemned  by  society;  an  outcast. 
Properly,  however.  Pariah  (a  Tamil 
name)  is  applied  to  the  members  of  a 
somewhat  widely  spread  race  in  South- 
ern India,  generally  of  the  Hindu  re- 
ligion, and  though  regarded  by  the 
Hindus  as  of  the  lowest  grade,  yet 


Parhelia. 


superior  to  some  ten  other  castes  in  their 
own  country.  They  are  frequently  serfs 
to  the  agricultural  class,  or  servants  to 
Europeans. 

PARIAN  MARBLE,  a mellow-tinted 
marble,  highly  valued  by  the  ancients, 
and  chosen  for  their  choicest  works. 
The  principal  blocks  were  obtained  from 
Mount  Marpassus,  in  the  island  of  Paros. 

PARIS,  the  capital  of  France  and  of 
the  department  of  the  Seine,  lies  in  the 
Seine  valley  surrounded  by  heights. 
Through  the  valley  the  river  runs  from 
east  to  west,  inclosing  two  islands,  upon 
which  part  of  the  city  is  built.  It  is 
navigable  by  small  steamers.  The  quays 
or  embankments,  which|  extend  along  the 
Seine  on  both  sides,  being  built  of  solid 
masonry,  protect  the  city  from  inunda- 
tion and  form  excellent  promenades. 
The  river,  which  within  the  city  is  fully 
530  feet  in  width,  is  crossed  by  numer- 
ous bridges,  the  more  important  being 
Pont  Neuf,  Pont  des  Arts,  Pont  du 
Carrousel,  Pont  Royal,  Pont  de  I’Alma, 
etc.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a line  of 
fortifications  which  measures  22  miles; 
outside  of  this  is  the  enceinte,  while 
beyond  that  again  are  the  detached 
forts.  These  now  form  two  main  lines 
of  defense.  The  inner  line  consists  of 
sixteen  forts,  the  outer  line  of  eighteen 
forts  besides  redoubts;  the  area  thus 
inclosed  measuring  430  sq.  miles,  with 
an  encircling  line  of  77  miles.  The  water 
supply  of  the  city  is  derived  from  the 
Seine,  the  Marne,  the  Vannes,  the  Ourcq 
canal,  from  artesian  wells,  and  from 
springs,  but  is  still  very  defective. 

In  the  older  parts  of  the  city  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  but  in 
in  the  newer  districts  the  avenues  are 
straight,  wide,  and  well-paved.  What 
are  known  as  “the  boulevards”  include 
the  interior,  _ exterior,  and  military. 
That  which  is  specifically  called  The 
Boulevard  extends  in  an  irregular  arc 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Seine,  from  the 


Place  de  la  Bastille  in  the  east  to  the 
Place  de  la  Madeleine  in  the  west.  It  in- 
cludes the  Boulevards  du  Temple,  St. 
Martin,  St.  Denis,  des  Italiens,  Capuchins, 
Madeleine,  etc.,  and  its  length  of  nearly 
3 miles  forms  the  most  stirring  part  of 
the  city.  Here  may  be  noted  also  the 
triumphal  arches  of  the  Porte  St.  Denis 
and  the  Porte  St.  Martin,  the  former  of 
which  is  72  feet  in  height.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  Seine  the  boulevards  are 
neither  so  numerous  nor  so  extensive, 
the  best  known  being  the  Boulevard  St. 
Germain,  which  extends  from  the  Pont 
Sully  to  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde.  The 
exterior  boulevards  are  so  named  be- 
cause they  are  outside  the  city  limits  of 
1860;  and  the  military  boulevards,  still 
further  out,  extend  round  the  fortifica- 
tions. After  the  boulevards  mentioned 
the  best  streets  are  the  Rue  de  Rivoli, 
Rue  Castiglione,  Rue  de  la  Paix,  Rue 
de  la  Chauss^e  d’Antin,  the  Rue  des 
Pyramides,  and  twelve  fine  avenues 
radiating  from  the  Place  de  I’Etoile. 
There  are  six  passenger  stations  for  the 
railways  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  a railway  around  the  city 
(the  ceinture),  by  means  of  which  inter- 
change of  traffic  between  the  different 
lines  is  effected.  There  are  also  tram- 
way lines  to  Versailles,  St.  Cloud,  and 
other  places  in  the  suburbs. 

The  most  notable  public  squares  or 
places  are  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  elegant  squares 
in  Europe,  adorned  by  an  Egyptian 
obelisk,  fountains,  and  statues;  Plaee  de 
I’Etoile,  in  which  is  situated  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe,  a splendid  structure  152 


feet  in  height;  the  Place  Vendome,  with 
column  to  Napoleon  I.;  Place  des  Vic- 
toires,  with  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.;  Place  de  la  Bastille,  with  the 
Column  of  July;  Place  de  la  Rdpublique, 
with  colossal  statue  of  the  Republic, 
etc.  Within  the  city  are  situated  the 
gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  which  are 
adorned  with  numerous  statues  and 
fountains;  the  gardens  of  the  Luxem- 
bourg, in  which  are  fine  conservatories 
of  rare  plants;  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
in  which  are  the  botanical  and  zoologi- 
cal gardens,  hothouses,  museums,  etc.. 


which  have  made  this  scientific,  institu- 
tion famous;  the  Buttes-Chaumont 
Gardens,  in  which  an  extensive  old 
quarry  has  been  turned  to  good  account 
in  enhancing  the  beauty  of  the  situation ; 
the  Parc  Monceaux;  and  the  Champs 
Elys^es,  the  latter  being  a favorite 
promenade  of  all  classes.  But  the  most 
extensive  parks  are  outside  the  city. 
Of  these  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  on  the 
west,  covers  an  area  of  2150  acres,  gives 
an  extensive  view  toward  St.  Cloud 
and  Mont  Val6rien,  comprises  the  race- 
courses of  Longchamps  and  Auteuil, 
and  in  it  are  lakes,  cascades,  ornamental 
caf^s,  and  the  Jardin  d’Acclimatation. 
The  Bois  de  Vincennes,  on  the  east,  even 
larger,  is  similarly  adorned  with  artificial 
lakes  and  streams,  and  its  high  plateau 
offers  a fine  view  over  the  surrounding 
country.  The  most  celebrated  and  ex- 
tensive cemetery  in  Paris  is  Pere  la 
Chaise  (106J  acres),  finely  situated  and 
containing  the  tombs  of  many  celebri- 
ties. The  Catacombs  are  ancient  quar- 
ries which  extend  under  a portion  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  city,  and  in 
them  are  deposited  the  bones  removed 
from  old  cemeteries  now  built  over. 

Of  the  churches  of  Paris  the  most 
celebrated  is  the  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  situated  on  one  of  the  islands  of 
the  Seine,  called  the  He  de  la  Cite.  It  is 
a vast  cruciform  structure,  with  a lofty 
west  front  flanked  by  two  square  towers, 
the  walls  sustained  by  many  flying- 
buttresses,  and  the  eastern  end  octag- 
onal. The  whole  length  of  the  church  is 
426  feet,  its  breadth  164  feet.  The! 
foundation  of  Notre  Dame  belongs  to 


the  6th  century;  the  present  edifice 
dates  from  1163,  but  it  was  not  finished 
till  early  in  the  14th  century,  being  re- 
stored in  1845.  The  church  of  La 
Madeleine,  a modern  structure  in  the 
style  of  a great  Roman  temple,  with  a 
peristyle  of  lofty  Corinthian  columns, 
stands  on  an  elevated  basement  front- 
ing the  north  end  of  the  Rue  Royale; 
the  church  of  St.  Genevieve,  built  about 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  was  after 
its  completion  set  apart,  under  the  title 
of  the  Panth4on,  as  the  burying-place  of 
illustrious  Frenchmen.  We  may  also 


Paris.— The  Place  de  la  Concorde  and  Montmartre  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 


PARIS 


PARIS 


name  St.  Eustache  (1532-1637),  an 
interesting  example  of  French  Renais- 
sance architecture  "St.  Germain  I’Auxer- 
rois;  St.  Gervais;  St.  Roch;  St.  Sulpice; 
Notre  Dame  de  Lorette;  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul;  etc.  On  the  very  summit  of 
Montmartre  is  the  Church  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  a vast  new  structure  in  the  By- 
zantine style  estimated  to  cost  $5,000,™ 
000.  The  chief  French  Protestant 
churches  are  the  Oratoire  and  R4demp- 
tion.  There  are  several  churches  be- 
longing to  English,  Scotch,  and  Amer- 
ican denominations,  a Russian  Greek 
church,  and  several  synagogues. 

Notable  among  the  public  buildings  of 
Paris  are  its  palaces.  The  Louvre,  a 
great  series  of  buildings  within  which 
are  two  large  courts,  is  now  devoted  to  a 
museum  which  comprises  splendid  col- 
lections of  sculpture,  paintings,  engrav- 
ings, bronzes,  pottery,  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  antiquities,  etc.  The  palace  of 
the  Tuileries  was  set  on  fire  in  1871  by 
the  Communists.  The  ruins  have  been 
removed,  but  a few  of  the  architectural 
details  have  been  preserved.  The  Palais 
du  Luxembourg,  on  the  south  side  of 
the  river,  has  very  extensive  gardens 
attached  to  it,  and  contains  the  Mus4e 
du  Luxembourg,  appropriated  to  the 
works  of  modern  French  artists.  The 
Palais  Royal  is  a famed  resort.  The 
Palais  de  l’Elys4e,  situated  in  the  Rue 
St.  Honor4,  with  a large  garden,  is  now 
the  residence  of  the  president  of  the 
republic.  The  Chambre  des  D4put4s-^ 
known  under  the  Empire  as  the  Palais 
du  Corps  L4gislatif — is  the  building  in 
which  the  deputies  meet.  The  Palais  de 
ITndustrie,  built  for  the  first  inter- 
national exhibition  in  1855,  is  used  for 
the  annual  salon  of  modern  paintings, 
etc.  The  Hotel  de  Ville  is  situated  in  the 
Place  de  I’Hotel  de  Ville,  formerly  Place 
de  Greve,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river. 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  Communists  in 
1871,  but  has  now  been  re-erected  on  the 
same  site  with  evengreatermagnificence. 
It  is  a very  rich  example  of  Renaissance 
architecture.  The  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
built  in  1670,  is  now  used  as  a retreat 
for  disabled  soldiers,  and  is  capable  of 
accommodating  5000.  The  church  at- 
tached has  a lofty  and  finely-propor- 
tioned dome.  It  contains  the  burial- 
place  of  the  first  Napoleon.  The  Palais 
de  Justice  is  an  irregular  mass  of  build- 
ings occupying  the  greater  part  of  the 
western  extremity  of  the  He  de  la  Cit4. 
Opposite  the  Palais  de  Justice  is  the 
Tribunal  de  Commerce,  a quadrangular 
building  inclosing  a large  court  roofed 
with  glass.  The  mint  (Hotel  des  Mon- 
naies)  fronts  the  Quai  Conti,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Seine,  and  contains  an 
immense  collection  of  coins  and  medals. 
The  other  principal  government  build- 
ings are  the  treasury  (Hotel  des  Fi- 
nances), in  the  Rue  de  Rivoli;  the  record 
office  (Hotel  des  Archives  Nationales). 
The  Exchange  (La  Bourse)  was  com- 
pleted in  1826;  it  is  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram,  212  feet  by  126  feet, 
surrounded  by  a range  of  sixty-six 
columns.  The  extensive  markets  form 
a striking  feature  of  Paris,  the  most  im- 
portant being  the  Halles  Centrales, 
where  fish,  poultry,  butcher-meat  and 
garden  produce  are  sold.  A notable  and 
unique  structure  is  the  Eiffel  Tcrwer, 


built  in  connection  with  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1889.  It  is  a structure  of 
iron  lattice-work  984  feet  high,  and 
having  three  stages  or  platforms.  It  is 
as  yet  the  highest  building  in  the  world. 

The  chief  institution  of  higher  educa- 
tion is  the  academy  of  the  Sorbonne, 
where  are  the  university  “faculties”  (see 
France,  section  Education)  of  literature 
and  science,  while  those  of  law  and  of 
medicine  are  in  separate  buildings. 
There  are,  besides,  numerous  courses 
of  lectures  in  science,  philology,  and 
philosophy  delivered  in  the  College  de 
France,  and  courses  of  chemistry, 
natural  history,  etc.,  in  the  museum  of 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  Of  the  libraries 
the  most  important  is  the  Bibliotheque 
Rationale,  the  largest  in  the  world. 
The  number  of  printed  volumes  which 
it  contains  is  estimated  at  2,500,000, 
besides,  3,000,000  pamphlets,  manu- 
script volumes,  historical  documents, 
etc.  Among  other  libraries  are  those  of 
the  Arsenal,  St.  Genevieve,  Mazarin, 
De  la  Ville,  De  ITnstitut,  and  De 
rUniversitd  (the  Sorbonne). 

There  are  many  hospitals  in  Paris  de- 
voted to  the  gratuitous  treatment  of  the 
indigent  sick  and  injured;  and  also 
numerousestablishmentsof  a benevolent 
nature,  such  as  the  Hotel  des  Invalides, 
or  asylum  for  old  soldiers,  the  lunatic 
asylum  (Maison  des  Ali4n4s,  Charenton), 
blind  asylums;  the  deaf  and  dumb  in- 
stitute (Institution  des  Sourds-Muets) ; 
two  hospitals  at  Vincennes  for  wounded 
and  convalescent  artisans;  the  creches, 
in  which  infants  are  received  for  the 
day  at  a small  charge;  and  the  ouvroirs, 
in  which  aged  people  are  supplied  with 
work. 

The  theaters  of  Paris  are  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of  any  other  city  in  the 
world.  The  most  important  are  the 
Opera  House,  a gorgeous  edifice  of  great 
size,  built  between  1861-75;  the  Theatre 
Fran^ais;  the  Od4on;  the  Th45.tre  de  la 
Gait4,  for  vaudevilles  and  melodramas: 
Th4S,tre  des  Folies  Dramatiques,  Th4&tre 
du  Chatelet,  Theatre  du  Vaudeville, 
Th4&tre  des  Vari4t4s,  Theatre  de  la 
Porte  St.  Martin,  and  the  Theatre  de 
I’Ambigu  Comique. 

The  most  important  manufactures  are 
articles  of  jewelry  and  the  precious 
metals,  trinkets  of  various  kinds,  fine 
hardware,  paper-hangings,  saddlery  and 
other  articles  in  leather,  cabinet-work, 
carriages,  various  articles  of  dress,  silk 
and  woolen  tissues,  particularly  shawls 
and  carpets.  Gobelin  tapestry,  lace, 
embroidery,  artificial  flowers,  combs, 
machines,  scientific  instruments,  types, 
books,  engravings,  refined  sugar,  to- 
bacco (a  government  monopoly),  chemi- 
cal products,  etc.  That  which  is  dis- 
tinctively Parisian  is  the  making  of  all 
kinds  of  small  ornamental  articles, 
which  are  called  articles  de  Paris.  A 
large  trade  is  carried  on  by  the  Seine 
both  above  and  below  Paris  as  well  as 
by  canals. 

The  first  appearance  of  Paris  in  his- 
tory is  on  the  occasion  of  Caesar’s  con- 
quest of  Gaul,  when  the  small  tribe  of 
the  Parisii  were  found  inhabiting  th'^ 
banks  of  the  Seine,  and  occuf  "ui  g th. 
island  now  called  lie  de  la  Cit6.  1 was 
a fortified  town  in  360  a d.,  when  the  sol- 
diers of  Julian  here  summoned  him  to 


fill  the  imperial  throne.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century  it  suffered  much  from 
the  northern  hordes,  and  ultimately  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  headed  by 
Clovis,  who  made  it  his  capital  in  508. 
In  987  a new  dynasty  was  established 
in  the  person  of  Hugo  Capet,  from  whose 
reign  downward  Paris  long  continued  to 
be  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  France. 
In  1437  and  1438,  under  Charles  VII., 
Paris  was  ravaged  by  pestilence  and 
famine,  and  such  was  the  desolation 
that  wolves  appeared  in  herds  and 
prowled  about  the  streets.  Under  Louis 
XI.  a course  of  prosperity  again  com- 
menced. In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
the  Paris  walls  were  leveled  to  the 
ground  after  having  stood  for  about 
300  years,  and  what  are  now  the  prin- 
cipal boulevards  were  formed  on  their 
site  (1670).  Only  the  Bastille  was  left 
(till  1789),  and,  in  place  of  the  four 
principal  gates  of  the  old  walls,  four 
triumphal  arches  were  erected,  two  of 
which,  the  Porte  St.  Denis  and  Porte 
St.  Martin,  still  stand.  Many  of  the 
finest  edifices  of  Paris  were  destroyed 
during  the  revolution,  but  the  work  of 
embellishment  was  resumed  by  the 
directory,  and  continued  by  all  subse- 
quent governments.  The  reign  of 
Napoleon  III.  is  specially  noteworthy  in 
this  respect ; during  it  Paris  was  opened 
up  by  spacious  streets  and  beautified 
to  an  extent  surpassing  all  that  had 
hitherto  been  effected  by  any  of  his 
predecessors.  Among  modern  events 
in  the  history  of  Paris  are  the  siege  of 
the  city  by  the  Germans  in  the  war  of 
1870-71,  and  the  subsequent  siege  by 
the  French  national  government  in 
order  to  wrest  the  city  from  the  hands 
of  the  Commune.  Paris  was  the  scene 
of  international  exhibitions  in  1855, 
1867,  1878,  and  1889,  but  the  greatest 
was  that  of  1900,  which  presented 
an  epitome  of  the  progress  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  was  visited 
by  47,000,000  persons,  or  about  two- 
thirds  more  than  the  number  who 
visited  that  of  1889.  Pop.  2,750,000. 

PARIS,  in  Greek  mythology,  also 
called  Alexander,  the  second  son  of 
Priam,  king  of  Troy,  by  Hecuba.  His 
mother  dreamed  before  his  birth  that 
she  had  brought  forth  a firebrand, 
which  was  interpreted  to  mean  that  he 
would  cause  the  destruction  of  Troy. 
To  prevent  this  the  child  was  exposed 
on  Mount  Ida,  where  he  was  discovered 
by  a shepherd,  who  brought  him  up  as 
his  own  son.  Here  his  grace  and  courage 
commended  him  to  the  favor  of  (Enone, 
a nymph  of  Ida,  whom  he  married.  At 
the  marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  a dis- 
pute arose  whether  Hera,  Athena,  or 
Aphrodite  was  the  most  beautiful,  and 
as  such  entitled  to  the  golden  apple. 
Paris  was  chosen  judge,  and  decided  in 
favor  of  Aphrodite,  who  had  promised 
him  the  fairest  woman  in  the  world 
for  his  wife.  Subsequently  he  visited 
Sparta,  the  residence  of  Menelaus,  who 
had  married  Helena  (or  Helen),  the 
fairest  woman  of  the  age,  whom  he 
persuaded  to  elope  with  him.  This  led 
to  the  siege  of  Troy,  at  the  capture  of 
which  he  was  killed  by  an  arrow. 

PARIS,  Louis  Albert  Philippe  d’Or- 
le.ins,  Comte  de,  eon  of  the  Due  d’Or- 
leans,  and  grandson  of  Louis-Philippe, 


PARIS 


PARNELL 


bom  1838.  After  the  revolution  of 
1848  he  resided  chiefly  in  Claremont, 
England,  where  he  was  educated  by  his 
mother.  During  the  American  civil 
war  of  1861  he,  along  with  his  brother 
the  Due  de  Chartres,  volunteered  into 
the  northern  army,  and  served  for  some 
time  on  the  staff  of  General  McClellan. 
On  his  return  to  Europe  the  following 
year  he  married  his  cousin  the  Princess 
Marie-Isabelle,  eldest  daughter  of-  the 
Due  de  Montpensier.  After  the  Franco- 
German  war  he  was  admitted  a member 
of  the  first  national  assembly.  On  the 
death  of  the  Comte  de  Chambord,  the 
Comte  de  Paris  was  recognized  as  head 
of  the  royal  house  of  France.  Under 
the  expulsion  bill  of  1886  he,  along  with 
the  other  royal  princes,  was  forbidden 
to  enter  France.  He  published  a his- 
tory of  the  Civil  War  in  America,  and  a 
work  on  English  Trade-unions.  He  died 
in  1894. 

PARIS,  the  capital  of  Lamar  co., 
Tex.,  on  the  Gulf,  Col.  and  S.  F4,  the 
St.  L.  and  San.  Fran.,  and  the  Tex.  and 
Pac,  railways;  15  miles  s.  of  the  Red 
river,  64  miles,  e.  of  Sherman.  It  is  in  a 
wheat  and  cotton  growing  region  and  is 
the  trade  center  of  a large  territory. 
Pop.  11,410. 

PARIS,  Treaties  of,  of  the  numerous 
treaties  bearing  this  designation  a few 
only  of  the  most  important  can  be 
mentioned  here.  On  February  10, 1763, 
a treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  England, 
in  which  Canada  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain . On  February  6, 1 778,  was  signed 
that  between  France  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  independence  of  the 
latter  country  was  recognized.  A treaty 
was  signed  between  Napoleon  I.  and  the 
allies,  ratified  April  11,  1814,  by  which 
Napoleon  was  deposed  £jnd  banished  to 
Elba.  The  treaty  for  the  conclusion  of 
peace  between  Russia  on  the  one  hand, 
and  France,  Sardinia,  Austria,  Turkey, 
and  Great  Britain  on  the  other,  at  the 
end  of  the  Crimean  war,  was  ratified 
March  30,  1856.  Lastly,  the  treaty  of 
peace  with  Germany,  at  the  end  of  the 
Franco-German  war,  was  concluded 
May  10,  1871,  and  modified  by  the  con- 
vention of  October  12,  1871. 

PARIS,  University  of,  came  into  exist- 
ence in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  was  long  the  most  famous 
center  of  learning  in  Europe.  It  was 
suppressed  in  1793  along  with  the  other 
French  universities,  a new  system  being 
then  introduced.  It  had  long  ceased, 
however,  to  maintain  its  old  position. 
See  France. 

PARIS  BASIN,  in  geology,  the  great 
area  of  tertiary  strata  on  which  Paris  is 
situated.  Besides  a rich  fossil  fauna  of 
marine  and  fresh-water  mollusca,  the 
remains  of  mammals  are  abundant  and 
interesting. 

PARIS  BLUE,  a bright  blue  obtained 
by  exposing  a mixture  of  rosaniline,  ten 
times  its  weight  of  aniline,  and  some 
benzoic  acid  to  a temperature  of  180°  C. 

PARIS  GREEN,  a preparation  of  cop- 
per and  arsenic  employed  in  making 
artificial  flowers,  in  wall-papers,  etc. 
It  is  a virulent  poison. 

PARK,  Mungo,  African  traveler, 
born  near  Seltok  in  Scotland  1771, 
died  1806.  He  was  educated  at  Edin- 


burgh for  the  medical  profession;  received 
an  appointment  as  assistant-surgeon  on 
board  an  East  Indiaman  and  made  a 
voyage  to  India.  Returning  to  Eng- 
land in  1793  he  was  engaged  by  the 
African  Society  to  trace  the  course  of 
the  Niger.  He  reached  the  Gambia  at 
the  end  of  1795,  and  advancing  north- 
eastward arrived  at  the  Niger  near  Segu. 
After  exploring  part  of  the  course  of  the 
river  he  returned  home,  and  published 
his  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa  in 
1799.  He  settled  at  Peebles  as  a coun- 
try doctor,  but  in  1805  accepted  com- 
mand of  a government  expedition  to  the 
Niger.  Having  advanced  from  Pisania 
on  the  Gambia  to  Sansanding  on  the 
Niger,  he  built  a boat  at  the  latter 
place,  with  the  intention  of  following 
the  Niger  to  the  sea.  It  was  afterward 
ascertained  that  the  expedition  ad- 
vanced down  the  river  as  far  as  Boussa, 
where  it  was  attacked  by  the  natives. 
It  is  supposed  that  Mungo  Park  was 
drowned  in  his  efforts  to  escape.  The 
Journal  of  his  second  expedition  as  far 
as  the  Niger  was  published  in  1815. 

PARKER,  Theodore,  American  divine, 
son  of  a Massachusetts  farmer,  born  at 
Lexington  1810,  died  at  Florence  1860. 
He  studied  at  Harvard  University,  and 
in  1837  was  settled  as  a Unitarian 
preacher  at  West  Roxbury.  Although 
his  doctrine  was  accounted  heterodox, 
yet  such  was  his  eloquence  and  ability 
that  he  soon  became  famous  as  a 
preacher  and  lecturer  throughout  New 
England.  In  1843  he  visited  England, 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  and  set- 
tled as  a preacher  in  Boston  on  his  re- 
turn. He  was  a prominent  advocate  of 
the  abolution  of  ^avery.  The  principal 
of  his  published  works  are;  Occasional 
Sermons  and  Speeches;  and  Sermons  on 
Theism,  Atheism,  and  the  Popular 
Theology. 

PARKERSBURG,  the  capital  of  Wood 
co.,  W.  Va.,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ohio  and  the  Little  Kanawha  rivers; 
on  the  Balt,  and  0.,  the  Balt,  and  O.S. 
W.,  and  the  Ohio  River  railways;  96 
miles  s.  by  w.  of  Wheeling.  It  is  in  a rich 
oil  and  natural-gas  region.  Pop.  with 
suburbs,  15,210. 

PARKES,  Sir  Henry,  son  of  a War- 
wickshire farmer,  born  1815;  emigrated 
to  Sydney  in  1839,  and  entered  the 
New  South  Wales  Parliament  in  1854. 
He  became  colonial  secretary  in  1866, 
and  prime  minister  in  1872-75,  and 
several  times  subsequently.  He  was 
author  of  the  N.  S.  Wales  public  schools 
act,  and  advocated  free-trade,  Austra- 
lian federation,  and  imperial  federa- 
tion. He  died  in  1896. 

PARKHURST,  Charles  Henry,  an 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman,  pas- 
tor of  the  Madison  Square  Presbyterian 
church.  New  Fork,  and  noted  reformer. 
Dr.  Parkhurst  was  born  in  Massachu- 
setts and  graduated  from  Amherst 
college  in  1866.  His  first  charge  was  as 
pastor  of  the  Lenox  (Mass.)  Congrega- 
tional church.  In  1891  he  became 

Srominent  as  a prosecutor  of  vice  in 
iCW  York  City  and  his  investigations 
brought  about  the  appointment  of  the 
Lexow  committee  in  1894.  He  is  a 
dramatic  preacher  and  an  able  lecturer. 

PARKMAN,  Frances,  American  his- 
torian, was  born  in  Boston  in  1823. 


He  selected  as  his  life  work  the  writing 
of  the  rise,  decline  and  fall  of  the  French 
power  in  America.  His  works  include 
The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac,  Pioneers  of 
France  in  the  New  World,  The  Jesuits 
in  North  America,  La  Salle  and  the 
Discovery  of  the  Great  West,  The  Old 
Regime  in  Canada,  Count  Frontenac 
and  New  France  Under  Louis  XIV.,  and 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe.  He  died  in  1893. 

PARLIAMENT,  the  supreme  legisla- 
tive assemblyjand  court  of  lawin  Britain. 
See  Britain. 

PARMA,  a ciU^  of  North  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Parma,  on  the  small 
river  Parma,  72miles  southeast  of  Milan. 
The  manufactures  are  of  silk,  cottons, 
woolens,  felt-hats,  etc.  Pop.  49,370. — 
The  province  lies  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Po;  area,  1235  sq.  miles;  pop. 
277,842. 

PAR'MESAN  CHEESE,  a cheese  made 
of  skimmed  milk  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Parms.  by  a peculiar  process,  flavored 
with  saffron,  and  celebrated  for  its 
keeping  qualities.  Indeed,  it  becomes  so 
hard  as  to  require  to  be  grated  when 
used. 

PARNAS'SUS,  or  LIAKU'RA,  a moun- 
tain of  Greece,  situated  in  Phocis,  65 
miles  northwest  of  Athens.  It  has  two 


Rev.  Charles  H.  Parkhurst. 


prominent  peaks,  one  of  which  was 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Bacchus 
and  the  other  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses, 
while  on  its  southern  slope  was  situated 
Delphi  and  the  Castalian  fount.  Its 
height  is  8068  feet,  and  a magnificent 
view  is  obtained  from  its  top. 

PARNELL,  Charles  Stewart,  born  at 
his  father’s  estate  of  Avondale,  co. 
Wicklow,  Ireland,  in  1846.  He  became 
member  of  parliament  for  Meath  in 
1875;  organized  the  “active”  Home 
Rule  party,  and  developed  its  obstruc- 
tion tactics;  and  in  1879  formally 
adopted  the  policy  of  the  newly-formed 
Land  League,  was  an  active  member  of 
it,  and  was  chosen  president  of  the 
organization.  At  the  general  election 
of  1885  he  was  re-elected  for  Cork,  and 


PARODY 


PARTICLES 


next  year  he  and  his  followers  sup- 
ported the  Home  Rule  proposals  in- 
troduced by  Mr.  Gladstone,  while  he 
also  brought  in  a bill  for  the  relief  of 
Irish  tenants  that  was  rejected.  He 
made  a disgraceful  appearance  in  a 
divorce  case,  and  was  cast  off  by  the 
Gladstonian  party,  and  denounced  by 
the  Irish  priesthood.  He  died  in  1891. 

PAR'ODY,  a kind  of  literary  compo- 
sition, usually  in  verse,  in  which  the 
form  and  expression  of  grave  or  serious 
writings  are  closely  imitated,  but 
adapted  to  a ridiculous  subject  or  a 
humorous  method  of  treatment. 

PAROLE',  a promise  given  by  a 
prisoner  of  ■war  that  he  will  not  try  to 
escape  if  allowed  to  go  about  at  liberty; 
or  to  return,  if  released,  to  custody  at  a 
certain  time  if  not  discharged;  or  not  to 
bear  arms  against  his  captors  for  a 
certain  period;  and  the  like. 

PARO'TID  GLAND,  in  anatomy,  one 
of  the  salivary  glands,  there  being  two 
parotids,  one  on  either  side  of  the  face, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  external 
ear,  and  communicating  with  the  mouth 
by  a duct. 

PAR'QUETRY,  a species  of  inlaid 
woodwork  in  geometric  or  other  pat- 
terns, and  generally  of  different  colors, 
principally  used  for  floors. 

PARR,  Catharine.  See  Catharine  Parr. 

PARROT,  a name  common  to  birds 
of  the  family  of  climbers.  The  bill  is 
hooked  and  rounded  on  all  sides,  and  is 
much  used  in  climbing.  The  tarsi  are 
generally  short  and  strong,  the  toes 
being  arranged  two  forward  and  two 
backward.  The  tongue,  unlike  that  of 
most  other  birds,  is  soft  and  fleshy 


Gray  parrot. 


throughout  its  whole  extent.  The  wings 
are  of  moderate  size,  but  the  tail  is 
often  elongated,  and  in  some  cases 
assists  in  climbing.  The  plumage  is 
generally  brilliant.  Parrots  breed  in 
hollow  trees,  and  subsist  on  fruits  and 
seeds.  Several  species  can  not  only 
imitate  the  various  tones  of  the  human 
voice,  but  also  exercise  in  some  cases 
actual  conversational  powers.  Some 
live  to  a great  age,  instances  being 
known  of  these  birds  reaching  seventy 
and  even  ninety  years.  The  species  are 
nun.erous,  and  are  known  under  the 
various  names  of  parrots,  parakeets, 
macaws,  lorikeets,  lories,  and  cocka- 
toos, the  name  parrot,  when  used  dis- 


tinctively, being  generally  applied  to 
species  of  some  size,  that  have  a strongly 
hooked  upper  mandible  and  a tail  short 
or  of  medium  length.  They  are  natives 
of  both  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions, 
and  even  extend  northward  into  the 
United  States,  and  south  to  the  Straits 
of  Magellan,  New  Zealand,  and  Tas- 
mania. The  best-known  species  is  the 
gray  parrot  of  Western  Africa,  which 
can  be  most  easily  trained  to  talk.  The 
green  parrots  are  also  common  as  do- 
mestic pets,  being  brought  from  the 


PsittacidEe. 

1,  Head  and  foot  of  macaw.  2.  Do.  of  blue-'bel- 
lled  lorikeet.  3,  Do.  of  Goliath  aratoo. 

4,  Head  of  gray  parrot. 

tropical  regions  of  South  America.  The 
Carolina  parrot  is  found  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  gregarious  in  its  habits. 

PARSERS',  the  name  given  in  India 
to  the  fire-worshipping  followers  of 
Zoroaster,  chiefly  settled  in  Bombay, 
Surat,  etc.,  where  they  are  among  the 
most  successful  merchants.  They  have 
a great  reverence  for  fire  in  all  its  forms, 
since  they  find  in  it  the  symbol  of  the 
good  deity  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormuzd). 
To  this  divinity  they  have  dedicated 
“fire-temples,”  on  whose  altar  the  sacred 
flame  is  kept  continually  burning. 
Benevolence  is  the  chief  practical  pre- 
cept of  their  religion,  and  their  practice 
of  this  finds  its  evidence  in  their  many 
charitable  institutions.  One  of  the  most 
curious  of  their  customs  is  in  the  dis- 
posal of  their  dead.  For  this  they  erect 
what  are  called  “towers  of  silence,” 
built  of  stone,  about  25  feet  high,  and 
with  a small  door  to  admit  the  corpse. 
Inside  is  a large  pit  with  a raised  cir- 
cular platform  round  it  on  which  the 
body  is  exposed  that  it  may  be  denuded 
of  flesh  by  vultures,  after  which  the 
bones  drop  through  an  iron  grating  into 
the  pit  below.  The  number  of  Parsees  in 
India  at  last  census  was  94,190. 

PARSLEY,  a plant,  one  species  of 
which,  the  common  parsley,  is  a well- 
known  garden  vegetable,  used  for  com- 
municating an  aromatic  and  agreeable 
flavor  to  soups  and  other  dishes. 

PARSNIP,  a plant  of  which  there  are 
many  Varieties.  It  is  a tall  erect  plant, 
with  pinnate  leaves  and  bright-yellow 
flowers,  and  much  cultivated  for  its 
roots,  which  have  been  used  as  an 
esculent  from  a very  early  period.  They 
are  also  cultivated  as  food  for  the  use  of 
cattle. 


PARSON,  in  English  ecclesiastical 
law,  is  the  rector  or  incumbent  of  a 
parish;  also,  in  a wider  sense,  any  one 
that  has  a parochial  charge  or  cure  of 
souls.  Four  requisites  are  necessary  to 
constitute  a parson,  viz.  holy  orders, 
presentation,  institution,  and  induction. 
His  duties  consist  chiefly  of  performing 
divine  service  and  administering  the 

CCl  r*  T**!  IVI  t Q 

PAR'THENON,  a celebrated  Grecian 
temple  of  Athena,  on  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens,  one  of  the  finest  monuments  of 
ancient  architecture.  It  is  built  of 
marble,  in  the  Doric  style,  and  had 
originally  8 columns  on  each  of  the  two 
fronts,  with  17  columns  on  the  sides, 
or  46  in  all,  of  which  32  are  still  stand- 
ing; length  228  feet,  breadth  101,  and 
height  to  the  apex  of  the  pediments  64 
feet;  height  of  columns  34  feet  3 inches. 
The  pediments  were  filled  with  large 
statues,  the  metopes  adorned  with 
sculptures  in  relief.  After  serving  as  a 
Christian  church  and  as  a mosque,  it 
was  rendered  useless  for  any  such  pur- 


Soutliwest  angle  of  the  Parthenon,  from 
the  Museum  hill. 


pose  in  1687  by  the  explosion  of  a 
quantity  of  gunpowder  which  the  Turks 
had  placed  in  it  during  the  siege  of 
Athens  by  the  Venetians.  Though  the 
more  precious  pieces  of  sculpture  have 
been  dispersed  among  various  European 
collections  the  Parthenon  still  bears  an 
imposing  aspect. 

PARTICIPLE,  in  grammar,  a part  of 
speech,  so  called  because  it  partakes  of 
the  character  both  of  a verb  and  an 
adjective.  The  participle  differs  from 
the  adjective  in  that  it  implies  time,  and 
therefore  applies  to  a specific  act,  where- 
as the  adjective  designates  only  an 
attribute,  as  an  habitual  quality  or  char- 
acteristic, without  regard  to  time. 
When  we  say,  “he  has  learned  his  les- 
son,” we  have  regard  to  a specific  act 
done  at  a certain  time ; but  in  the  phrase 
“a  learned  man,”  learned  designates  an 
habitual  quality.  In  the  former  case 
learned  is  a participle;  in  the  latter, 
an  adjective.  There  are  two  participles 
in  English:  the  present — ending  in  -ing, 
and  the  past — ending,  in  regular  verbs, 
in  -ed. 

PARTICLES,  such  parts  of  speech  as 
are  incapable  of  any  inflection,  as,  for 


PARTNERSHIP 


PASSIONISTS 


instance,  the  preposition,  conjunction, 
etc. 

PARTNERSHIP  is  the  association  of 
two  or  more  persons  for  the  purpose  of 
undertaking  and  prosecuting  conjointly 
any  business,  occupation,  or  calling; 
or  a voluntary  contract  by  words  or 
writing,  between  two  or  more  persons, 
for  joining  together  their  money,  goods, 
labor,  skill,  or  all  or  any  of  them,  upon 
an  agreement  that  the  gain  or  loss  shall 
be  divided  in  certain  proportions  among 
them,  depending  upon  the  amount  of 
money,  capital  stock,  etc.,  furnished  by 
each  partner.  Partnership  may  be 
constituted  by  certain  acts  connected 
with  the  undertaking  apart  from  any 
deed  or  oral  contract.  The  duration  of 
the  partnership  may  be  limited  by  the 
contract  or  agreement,  or  it  may  be 
left  indefinite,  subject  to  be  dissolved 
by  mutual  consent.  The  members  of  a 
partnership  are  called  nominal  when 
they  have  not  any  actual  interest  in  the 
trade  or  business,  or  its  profits;  but, 
by  allowing  their  names  to  be  used,  hold 
themselves  out  to  the  world  as  ap- 
parently having  an  interest;  dormant 
or  sleeping,  when  they  are  merely  pas- 
sive in  the  firm,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  who  are  active  and  conduct  the 
business  as  principles,  and  who  are 
known  as  ostensible  partners.  A part- 
nership n«iy  be  limited  to  a particular 
transaction  or  branch  of  business,  with- 
out comprehending  all  the  adventures 
in  which  any  one  partner  may  embark, 
but  such  reservation  must  be  specified 
in  the  deed  of  contract.  For  in  the  usual 
course  each  member  of  a partnership  is 
liable  at  common  law  f(|r  the  debts  of 
the  firm,  and  a sleeping  partner  is  re- 
sponsible for  all  debts  of  the  firm  which 
have  been  contracted  during  his  part- 
nership. Each  partner  may  also  sue  the 
firm  as  if  it  were  a distinct  person,  and 
the  firm  may  be  made  bankrupt  without 
the  goods  of  any  of  the  partners  being 
sequestrated.  The  partners  are,  however, 
liable  jointly  and  severally  to  creditors 
in  payment  of  its  debts. 

PARTRIDGE,  William  Ordway,  Amer- 
ican sculptor  and  author,  born  in  Paris 
in  1861.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia 
university,  in  New  York  City,  and  studied 
modeling  under  Galli  in  Florence,  and 
Welonski  in  Rome.  Some  of  his  larger 
works  are  the  bronze  statue  of  Hamilton 
in  front  of  the  Hamilton  Club,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  Shakespeare  in  Lincoln  Park, 
Chicago,  and  the  equestrian  statue  of 
General  Grant  in  Brooklyn.  His  publi- 
cations include:  Art  for  America;  Song 
Life  of  a Sculptor,  The  Technique  of 
Sculpture,  The  Angel  of  Clay,  a novel; 
and  Nathan  Hale.  For  a time  he  was 
professor  of  fine  arts  at  Columbian  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.  C. 

PARTRIDGE,  a well-known  rasorial 
bird  of  the  grouse  family.  The  common 
partridge  occurs  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
Europe,  in  North  Africa,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Western  Asia.  The  wings  and 
tail  are  short,  the  tarsi  as  well  as  the  toes 
naked,  and  the  tarsi  not  spurred.  The 
greater  part  of  the  plumage  is  ash-gray 
finely  varied  with  brown  and  black. 
They  feed  on  grain  and  other  seeds, 
insects  and  their  larva  and  pupa.  The 
name  partridge  is  applied  in  the  United 


States  to  several  North  American  species 
of  quails. 

PARTRIDGE-BERRY,  a plant  in- 
habiting North  America,  also  known 
as  wintergreen.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  another  North  American  shrub,  a 


Red-legged  partridge. 

pretty  little  trailing  plant,  with  white, 
fragrant  flowers  and  scarlet  berries, 
natural  order  Rubiaceae. 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH  are  the  classes 
into  which  words  are  divided  in  virtue 
of  the  special  functions  which  they  dis- 
charge in  the  sentence.  Properly  speak- 
ing there  are  only  seven  such  classes, 
namely  the  noun,  adjective,  pronoun, 
verb,  adverb,  preposition,  and  conjunc- 
tion; for  the  article,  which  is  usually 
classed  as  a separate  part  of  speech,  is 
essentially  an  adjective,  while  the  inter- 
jection can  hardly  be  said  to  belong  to 
articulate  speech  at  all.  Each  of  the 
parts  of  speech  will  be  found  separately 
treated  under  their  several  heads 
throughout  the  work. 

PASADENA,  city  in  Los  Angeles  co.. 
Cal.,  on  the  Los  Angeles  Terminal  and 
the  Southern  Pac.  railways;  9 miles 
n.e.  of  Los  Angeles.  It  is  at  the  foot  of 
the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  850  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
is  in  the  beautiful  San  Gabriel  valley, 
noted  for  its  orange  and  lemon  groves 
and  the  cultivation  of  smaller  fruit. 
Pop.  11,215. 

PASCAL,  Blaise,  a French  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  born  at  Clermont, 
in  Auvergne,  1623,  died  1662.  In  early 
youth  he  showed  a decided  inclination 
for  geometry,  and  so  rapid  was  his  ad- 
vance that  while  yet  in  his  sixteenth 
year  he  wrote  a treatise  on  conic  sec- 
tions, which  received  the  astonished 
commendation  of  Descartes.  His  studies 
in  languages,  logic,  physics,  and  phil- 
osophy were  pursued  with  such  assiduity 
that  his  health  was  irrecoverably  gone 
in  his  eighteenth  year.  In  1647  he  in- 
vented a calculating  machine,  and  about 
the  same  time  he  made  several  dis- 
coveries concerning  the  equilibrium  of 
fluids,  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere, 
etc.  He  now  came  under  the  influence 
of  the  Jansenists  Arnauld  and  others, 
and  from  1654  he  lived  much  at  the 
monastery  of  Port  Royal,  and  partly 
accepted  its  rigorous  rule,  though  he 
never  actually  became  a solitaire.  About 
1655  he  wrote,  in  defense  of  his  Jansenist 
friend  Arnauld,  his  famous  Provincial 
Letters  (Lettres  Ecrites  par  Louis  de 
Montalte  h un  Provincial  de  ses  Amis), 
and  after  his  death  his  Pensees  or 
Thoughts  were  published  as  the  frag- 
ments of  an  unfinished  apology  for 
Christianity. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS  (pa-de-ka-la),  a mar- 
itime department  of  Northern  France; 


area,  2550  sq.  miles.  The  principal 
harbors  are  Boulogne  and  Calais.  The 
chief  minerals  are  indifferent  coal, 
good  pipe  and  potter’s  clay,  and  excel- 
lent sandstone.  There  are  numerous 
iron-foundries,  glass-works,  potteries, 
tanneries,  bleach-works,  mills,  and  fac- 
tories of  all  kinds.  The  capital  is  Arras. 
Pop.  955,391. 

PASHA,  in  Turkey,  an  honorary  title 
originally  bestowed  on  princes  of  the 
blood,  but  now  conferred  upon  military 
commanders  of  high  rank  and  the  gover- 
nors of  provinces.  There  are  three 
grades,  each  distinguished  by  a number 
of  horse-tails  waving  from  a lance,  the 
distinctive  badge  of  a pasha.  Three 
horse-tails  are  allotted  to  the  highest 
dignitaries;  the  pashas  of  two  tails  are 
generally  the  governors  of  the  more 
important  provinces;  and  the  lowest 
rank,  of  one  tail,  is  filled  by  minor  pro- 
vincial governors. 

PASSAIC,  a city  in  Passaic  co.,  N.  J., 
on  the  Passaic  river,  and  the  Erie,  the 
Del.,  Lack,  and  W.,  and  Susquehanna 
railways;  5 miles  s.e.  of  Paterson,  the 
county  seat,  12  miles  n.w.  of  New  York 
City.  Pop.  30,125. 

PASSAGE,  Birds  of.  See  Migration. 

PASSENGER  PIGEON,  a bird  of  the 
pigeon  family,  which  abounds  in 
America.  It  is  distinguished  from  the 
common  pigeon  chiefly  by  its  long 
graduated  tail.  It  is  about  15  inches  in 
length,  with  finely-tinted  plumage, 
small  head,  and  long  wings.  The  multi- 
plication of  these  pigeons  is  so  rapid, 
and  their  destructive  power  so  great, 
that  they  are  obliged  to  migrate  from 
place  to  place  in  vast  flocks  to  obtain 
their  food.  They  fly  in  dense  columns 
at  a great  height,  and  such  a column, 
one  mile  broad  and  140  miles  long,  has 
been  observed.  The  larger  breeding- 
places  are  said  to  cover  a forest  area  of 
about  40  miles. 

PASSENGERS,  in  law,  the  railway 
and  other  public  carriers  contract  to 
carry  passengers  without  any  negligence 
on  their  (the  carriers’)  part.  In  case  of 
accident  it  lies  on  the  carrier  to  show 
that  it  was  from  no  fault  or  negligence 
on  his  part,  or  on  the  part  of  his  serv- 
ants, that  the  accident  occurred.  Hence 
all  passengers  injured  (or  in  case  of 
death  their  nearest  relatives)  have  a 
claim  for  compensation,  unless  it  can 
be  proved  that  the  accident  was  due  to 
the  fault  of  the  passenger.  Passengers 
by  sea  are  carried  subject  to  the  same 
general  law  as  those  by  land : the  carriers 
are  bound  to  observe  all  due  precautions 
to  prevent  accident  or  delay. 

PASSION^The,  a name  for  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Jesus  and  its  attendant  suffer- 
ings. 

PASSION-FLOWER,  a large  genus  of 
twining  plants.  They  are  all  twining 
plants,  often  scrambling  over  trees  to  a 
considerable  length,  and  in  many  cases 
are  most  beautiful  objects,  on  account 
of  their  large,  rich,  or  gaily-colored 
flowers,  which  are  often  succeeded  by 
orange-colored  edible  fruits,  for  which 
indeed  they  are  chiefly  valued  in  the 
countries  where  they  grow  wild. 

PASSIONISTS,  a religious  order  in  the 
Church  of  Rome,  founded  in  1737.  The 
members  practice  many  austerities; 
they  go  bare-footed,  rise  at  midnight  to 


PASSION-PLAY 


PATENT 


recite  the  canonical  hours,  etc.  It  is 
also  known  as  the  Order  of  the  Holy 
Cross  and  the  Passion  of  Christ. 

PASSION-PLAY,  a mystery  or  miracle 
play  representing  the  different  scenes 
in  the  passion  of  Christ.  The  passion 
play  is  still  extant  in  the  periodic  repre- 
sentations at  Oberammergau. 

PASSION-WEEK.  See  Holy  Week. 
PASSIVE,  in  grammar,  a term  applied 
to  certain  verbal  forms  or  inflections 
expressive  of  suffering  or  being  affected 
by  some  action,  or  expressing  that  the 
nominative  is  the  object  of  some  action 
or  feeling;  as,  she  is  loved  and  admired. 

PAS'SOVER,  a feast  of  the  Jews,  in- 
stituted to  commemorate  the  providen- 
tial escape  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt, 
when  God,  smiting  the  first-born  of  the 
Egyptians,  passed  over  the  houses  of 
the  Israelites,  which  were  marked  with 
the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb.  It  was 
celebrated  on  the  first  full  moon  of  the 
spring,  from  the  14th  to  the  21st  of  the 
month  Nisan,  which  was  the  first 
month  of  the  sacred  year.  During  the 
eight  days  of  the  feast  the  Israelites 
were  permitted  to  eat  only  unleavened 
bread,  hence  the  passover  was  also 
called  the  “feast  of  unleavened  bread." 
Every  householder  with  his  family  ate 
on  the  first  evening  a lamb  killed  by  the 
riest,  which  was  served  up  without 
reaking  the  bones.  The  passover  was 
the  principal  Jewish  festival. 

PASSPORT,  a warrant  of  protection 
and  authori.y  to  travel,  granted  to 
persons  moving  from  place  to  place,  by 
a competent  authority.  In  some  states 
no  foreigner  is  allowed  to  travel  without 
a passport  from  his  government,  and 
in  all  cases  the  visitor  to  the  continent 
of  Europe  is  wiser  to  provide  himself 
with  one,  if  only  as  a means  of  indenti- 
fication.  In  Russia,  and  Turkey  in 
particular,  a passport  is  indispensable. 

PASTi^  Giuditta,  operatic  singer, 
born  at  Como,  near  Milan,  in  1798,  of 
Jewish  parents,  died  1865.  She  ap- 
peared at  first  without  success,  but  in 
1819-22  her  reputation  steadily  in- 
creased, and  up  till  1833  she  held  one  of 
the  foremost  places  on  the  lyric  stage, 
which  she  then  quitted.  She  was  spe- 
cially distinguished  in  the  tragic  opera; 
Bellini  wrote  for  her  his  Norma  and 
Sonnambula,  and  she  made  the  roles  of 
Medea,  Desdemona,  and  Semiramide 
her  own. 

PASTE,  a composition  in  which  there 
is  just  sufficient  moisture  to  soften 
without  liquefying  the  mass,  as  the  paste 
made  of  flour  used  in  cookery.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  a highly  refractive 
variety  of  glass,  a composition  of  pounded 
rock-crystal  melted  with  alkaline  salts, 
and  colored  with  metallic  oxides;  used 
for  making  imitation  gems. 

PASTEL,  or  PASTIL,  a colored  crayon. 
Pastel  painting.  See  Crayon. 

PASTERN,  the  part  of  a horse’s  leg 
between  the  joint  next  the  foot  and  the 
coronet  of  the  hoof ; it  answers  to  the 
first  phalanx  of  a man’s  finger. 

PASTEUR  (pa,s-teur),  Louis,  French 
chemist  and  bacteriologist,  born  at 
Dole,  Jura,  1822,  died  1895;  educated 
chiefly  at  the  Ecole  Normals,  Paris, 
where  in  1847  he  took  his  degree  as 
doctor.  The  following  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  physics  in  Stras- 


burg,  where  he  devoted  much  research 
to  the  subject  of  fermentation;  in  1857 
he  received  the  appointment  of  dean  in 
the  Faculty  of  Sciences,  Lille;  in  1863 
he  became  professor  of  geology,  chem- 
istry, and  physics  at  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts,  Paris;  and  in  1867  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  the  Sorbonne. 
He  became  a member  of  the  French 
academy  in  1882.  He  has  been  espe- 
cially successful  in  proving  the  part 
played  by  microbes  in  fermentation  and 
decomposition,  in  introducing  a success- 
ful treatment  of  disease  in  silkworms 


M.  Louis  Pasteur. 


and  cattle,  and  has  achieved  great 
success  in  his  efforts  to  check  hydro- 
phobia by  means  of  inoculation.  To 
enable  him  to  deal  with  this  disease 
under  the  best  conditions  a Pasteur 
Institute  was  opened  in  Paris,  where 
patients  are  received  from  all  parts  of 
Europe.  Pasteur  Institutes  have  also 
been  opened  in  many  of  the  large  cities 
of  the  Union.  See  Hydrophobia. 

PASTORAL  POETRY,  poetry  which 
deals,  in  a more  or  less  direct  form,  with 
rustic  life.  It  has  generally  flourished  in 
highly-corrupted  artificial  states  of 
society.  Thus  it  was  that  Theocritus, 
the  first  pastoral  poet,  made  artistic 
protest  against  the  licentiousness  of 
Syracuse;  and  Virgil  wrote  his  Bucolics 
and  Eclogues  in  the  corrupt  Roman 
court.  In  the  16th  century  pastoral 
poetry  received  its  most  notable  expres- 
sion in  the  Arcadia  of  G.  Sannazaro, 
the  Aminta  of  Tasso,  and  the  Pastor 
Fido  of  Guarini.  This  tendency,  which 
was  so  potent  in  Italy,  spread  to  Eng- 
land, and  influenced  the  Shepherd’s 
Calendar  of  Spenser,  the  Arcadia  of 
Sidney,  the  Faithful  Shepherdess  of 
Fletcher,  As  You  Like  It  of  Shakespeare, 
and  the  Comus  of  Milton. 

PASTURES,  land  under  grass  and 
herbage,  whicn  is  eaten  as  it  grows  by 
horses,  oxen,  sheep,  and  other  herbiv- 
orous animals.  First-class  pastures  are 
used  for  feeding  heavy  oxen;  second 
class  for  inferior  or  dairy  cattle;  while 
hill-sides,  moors,  and  uplands  are 
utilized  for  sheep. 

PATA'GIUM  is  the  name  applied  to 
the  expansion  of  the  skin  or  integument- 
ary membrane  by  means  of  which  bats, 
flyiiig  squirrels,  flying  lizards,  and  other 
semi-aerial  forms  support  themselves 
in  the  air.  This  membrane  is  not  a true 
wing,  but  is  used  as  a kind  of  parachute 
for  temporary  support. 


PATAGO'NIA,  is  the  name  applied  to 
that  extreme  portion  of  South  America 
which  is  bounded  e.  by  the  Atlantic,  w. 
by  the  Pacific,  s.  by  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan, and  n.  by  the  Rio  Negro.  Since  1881 
this  large  territory  has  been,  by  treaty, 
divided  between  Chile  and  the  Argentine 
Republic,  so  that  the  portion  west  of 
the  Andes  (63,000  sq.  miles)  belongs  now 
to  the  former,  and  the  portion  east  of  the 
Andes  (360,000)  belongs  to  the  latter. 
The  Straits  of  Magellan  form  a southern 
boundary  of  360  miles,  and  separate  the 
mainland  from  the  innumerable  islands 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  Here  the  Chilian 
government  have  established  the  settle- 
ment of  Punta  Arenas,  with  stations 
along  the  coast.  The  Patagonians  are  a 
tall,  muscular  race  averaging  fully  6 
feet  in  height,  with  black  hair,  thick 
lips,  and  skin  of  a dark-brown  color. 
They  are  a nomad  race,  divided  into 
numerous  tribes,  whose  chief  occupa- 
tion is  in  hunting  and  cattle-breeding. 


Patagonians. 


This  native  population,  however,  never 
numerous,  is  rapidly  disappearing. 
Colonization  is  encouraged  by  the 
Argentine  government,  and  there  are 
many  tracts  suitable  for  European 
settlement.  The  country  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Magellan  in  1520. 

PATE  DE  FOIE  GRAS  (pa-ta  de  fwa 
gra),  a dish  made  from  the  enlarged 
livers  of  overfed  geese,  and  much 
relished  by  epicures.  It  is  made  in  the 
form  of  a pie,  and  from  its  oily  nature 
is  very  indigestible. 

PATEL'LA,  the  name  applied  in 
anatomy  to  the  “knee-cap”  or  “knee- 
pan,”  the  sesamoid  bone  of  the  knee. — 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  a genus  of 
gasteropodous  molluscs  comprising  the 
limpets. 

PA'TENT,  a privilege  from  the  gov- 
ernment, granted  by  letters  patent 
(whence  the  name),  conveying  to  the  in- 
dividual or  individuals  specified  therein 
the  sole  right  to  make,  use,  or  dispose 
of  some  new  invention  or  discovery  for 
a certain  limited  period,  which  in  the 
United  States  may  run  to  seventeen 
years  should  the  inventor  be  able  to 
prove  that  the  invention,  though  of 
great  public  utility,  has  been  up  till  that 
time  almost  unprofitable  to  him.  Letters 
patent  are  obtained  upon  application  to 


PATERNOSTER 


PATTI 


the  commissioner  of  patents,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  setting  forth  that  the 
petitioner  has,  after  great  labor  and 
expense,  made  a certain  discovery 
which  he  describes,  and  which  he  be- 
lieves will  be  of  great  public  utility,  and 
that  he  is  the  first  inventor.  The  person 
applying  for  a patent  must  furnish  a 
provisional  specification  along  with  his 
application,  giving  a general  account  of 
the  nature  of  the  article  or  invention  he 
wishes  to  be  patented.  The  application 
and  specification  are  submitted  to  an 
examiner  connected  with  the  patent 
office,  and  if  he  report  that  everything  is 
satisfactory  and  done  in  due  form,  the 
application  is  accepted,  otherwise  the 
party  may  have  to  make  amendments 
in  his  application  and  specification. 
Before  doing  so,  however,  he  is  allowed 
to  appeal  to  the  commissioner  of  patents 
who  decides  the  matter.  Finally  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  supreme  court  of  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  fee  upon 
filing  an  application  is  $15;  on  issuing 
the  patent,  $20;  on  application  for  ex- 
tension of  a patent,  $50;  on  granting  an 
extension  $50.  A prior  patent  by  the 
inventor  in  a foreign  country  does  not 
debar  him  from  receiving  a patent  in 
the  United  States,  provided  the  appli- 
cation be  made  within  seven  months 
of  the  application  for  the  foreign  patent. 

Where  a person  has  made  an  inven- 
tion, but  has  not  completed  the  details 
to  his  satisfaction,  or  feels  that  he  can 
improve  on  it,  he  may  protect  himself 
against  a patent  being  granted  mean- 
while for  the  same  thing,  by  filing  a 
“caveat”  in  the  patent  office.  A caveat 
is  a notice  which  contains  a description 
of  the  thing  claimed  as  an  invention, 
and  concludes  with  a request  that  the 
inventor’s  rights  be  protected  until  he 
has  completed  his  invention  and  has  an 
opportunity  to  apply  for  a patent.  A 
caveat  is  kept  secret  by  the  patent  office, 
and  entitles  the  caveator  to  notice  of  the 
filing  of  an  interfering  application  for  a 
period  of  one  year.  If  such  notice  is 
sent  him,  the  caveator,  to  retain  his 
rights,  must  file  his  application.  Speci- 
fications, and,  if  necessary,  models  or 
samples,  within  three  months  there- 
after. Where  he  does  this  his  invention 
is  considered  to  date  back  to  the  date 
of  filing  the  caveat.  When  the  rights  of 
a patentee  are  being  infringed  he  can 
protect  them  by  a civil  process  at  law, 
and  his  suit  will  be  upheld  if  he  can 
prove  that  the  main  elements  of  his  in- 
vention have  been  infringed.  A patent 
once  granted  can  be  revoked  if  anyone 
can  show  that  the  patentee  is  not  the 
inventor.  The  patent  laws  vary  con- 
siderably in  foreign  countries. 

PATERNOSTER  (Latin,  “Our  Fa- 
ther”), the  opening  words  of  the  Latin 
version  of  the  Lord’s  Prayer,  hence  em- 
loyed  to  designate  the  prayer  itself, 
ee  Lord’s  Prayer. 

PAT'ERSONjthe  capital  of  Passaic  co.. 
New  Jersey,  on  both  sides  of  the  Passiac, 
near  its  celebrated  falls,  and  16  miles 
northwest  from  New  York.  The  town 
was  founded  in  1792,  and  now  possesses 
numerous  churches,  a Court-house,  jail, 
library,  etc.  The  falls,  72  feet  high,  are 
within  the  city  limits  and  supply  abun- 
dant water-power  to  the  numerous  cot- 
ton, silk,  and  woolen  factories,  dye  and 

P.  E.— 60 


print  works,  iron-foundries,  machine- 
shops,  tanneries,  saw,  paper,  and  fulling 
mills,  etc.  Pop.  120,114. 

PATERSON,  William,  financier  and 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  was 
born  in  Dumfriesshire  1665,  died  in 
London  1719.  He  went  through  Eng- 
land as  a pedlar,  settled  for  a time  at 
Bristol,  subsequently  resided  in  the 
Bahama  Islands.  Returning  to  London 
he  engaged  in  trade  with  suceess,  and 
in  1694  proposed  and  founded  the  Bank 
of  England,  being  one  of  its  first  direc- 
tors. 

PATHOLOGY,  that  part  of  medicine 
which  explains  the  nature  of  diseases, 
their  causes  and  symptoms,  compre- 
hending nosology,  etiology,  and  symp- 
tomatology. Pathology  may  be  divided 
into  general  pathology,  which  regards 
what  is  common  to  a number  of  diseases 
taken  as  a class;  and  special  pathology, 
which  treats  of  individual  diseases. 

PATIA'LA,  an  Indian  native  state  in 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Punjab  govern- 
ment, the  larger  part  of  which  is  situated 
south  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  other  part  in 
the  hill  country  near  Simla;  area,  5887 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  of  the  state,  1,583,521. 
The  capital  is  Patiala,  130  miles  s.e.  of 
Amritsir.  It  was  founded  in  1752  by 
Sardar  Ala  Singh,  and  has  a pop.  of 
53,545. 

PATNA,  a city  of  Hindustan,  in  the 
lieutenant-governorshif)  of  Bengal.  By 
reason  of  its  central  position  and  natural 
advantages  the  city  is  an  important 
business  center,  and  the  chief  seat  of  the 
opium  trade.  Pop.  134,785. — The  dis- 
trict of  Patna  has  an  area  of  2079  sq. 
miles,  for  the  most  flat  and  exceedingly 
fertile.  The  staple  crop  is  rice,  and  the 
other  products  are  wheat,  barley,  cotton, 
tobacco  and  sugar-cane.  Pop.  1,623,856. 

PATNA,  a native  state  in  the  Central 
Provinces  of  India.  Area  2400  sq.  miles. 
It  is  now  under  direct  British  super- 
vision. Pop.  277,566. 

PATOIS  (pa-twa),  a French  word  of 
unknown  origin  used  to  denote  a dialect 
spoken  by  the  rustic,  provincial,  or  un- 
educated classes. 

PATRIARCHS  are  the  antediluvian 
heads  of  families,  and  the  three  fathers 
of  the  Hebrew  race,  Abraham,  Isaac 
and  Jacob.  The  term  at  a later  period 
became  the  title  of  the  presidents  of  the 
sanhedrim,  which  exercised  a general 
authority  over  the  Jews  of  Syria  and 
Persia  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem. From  them  the  title  was  adopted 
by  the  Christians,  who  applied  it,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century,  to  the 
bishops  of  Rome,  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  The 
Patriarch  of  Rome  became  the  supreme 
pontiff  of  the  west  (see  Popes),  the  four 
heads  of  the  eastern  ehurch  preserving 
the  title  of  patriarch.  The  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  is  the  primate  of  the 
Greek  church  in  the  Ottoman  empire, 
and  bears  the  title  of  aecumenical. 

PATRICIANS,  the  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  members  and  descend- 
ants by  blood  or  adoption  of  the  original 
gentes,  houses  or  clans  who,  after  the 
plebians  became  a distinct  order,  con- 
stituted the  aristocracy  of  the  city  and 
territory.  See  Rome. 

PATRICK  (Patricius).  St.,  the  apostle 
of  Ireland,  was  born  aoout  396  in  the 


British  Roman  province  of  Valentia, 
probably  at  Nemthur  on  the  Clyde 
where  Dumbarton  now  is.  His  father,  a 
decurion  in  the  Roman  army,  retired  to 
a farm  on  the  Solway,  whence,  at  the 
age  of  sixteen,  Patrick  was  carried  off 
by  a band  of  marauders  and  sold  as  a 
slave  to  the  Irish  Piets  of  county  An- 
trim. After  six  years  he  made  his 
escape,  and,  resolving  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  conversion  of  Ireland,  pre- 
pared himself  for  the  priesthood,  prob- 
ably at  the  monastic  institution  founded 
by  St  Ninian  at  Candida  Casa  (Whit- 
horn) in  Galloway.  Having  been  or- 
dained a bishop  and  received  the  papal 
benediction  from  Celestine  I.,  he  went 
over  to  Ireland  about  the  year  432. 
Here  he  is  said  to  have  founded  over  360 
churches,  baptized  with  his  own  hand 
more  than  12,000  persons,  and  ordained 
a great  number  of  priests.  The  date  of 
his  death  is  probably  469;  it  took  place 
at  a place  called  Saul,  near  Downpat- 
rick, and  his  relics  were  preserved  at 
Downpatrick  till  the  time  of  the  refor- 
mation. His  authentic  literary  remains 
consist  of  his  Confessions  and  a letter 
addressed  to  a Welsh  chief  named 
Corotic.  The  existence  of  two  other  Irish 
apostles,  Patrick  or  Palladius,  and  Senn 
(old)  Patrick,  about  the  same  time  has 
caused  much  confusion  in  the  history 
of  the  early  Irish  church. 

PATMCK,  St.,  Order  of,  am-  Irish 
Order  of  knighthood,  instituted  in  1783 
by  George  III.,  originally  consisting 
of  the  sovereign,  the  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland  for  the  time  being  (who  is  the 
grandmaster  of  the  order),  and  fifteen 
knights;  but  by  a statute  in  1833  the 
order  was  enlarged  and  the  nmnber  of 
knights  raised  to  twenty-two.  The 
badge  of  the  order  is  of  gold,  oval  in 
shape,  with  the  cross  of  St.  Patrick  sur- 
mounted by  a shamrock  in  the  center, 
and  round  this  is  a blue  enamelled  band 
bearing  the  motto  “Quis  separabit.” 
The  badge  is  suspended  to  a collar  of 
roses  and  harps  by  means  of  an  imperial 
crown  and  gold  harp.  The  mantle  and 
hood  are  of  sky-blue  tabinet,  lined  with 
white  silk. 

PATROL',  a walking  or  marching 
round  by  a guard  in  the  night  to  watch 
and  observe  what  passes,  and  to  secure 
the  peace  and  safety  of  a garrison,  town, 
camp,  or  other  place ; also,  the  guard  or 
persons  who  go  the  rounds  for  observa- 
tion. 

PA'TRON,  in  the  Roman  republic,  a 
patrician  who  had  plebeians,  called 
clients,  under  his  immediate  protection 
and  whose  interests  he  supported  by  his 
authority  and  influence.  In  later  times 
the  term  patron  was  applied  to  every 
protector  or  influential  promoter  of  the 
interests  of  others;  hence  the  saints  who 
were  believed  to  watch  over  the  interests 
of  particular  persons,  places,  or  trades 
were  called  patron  saints. 

PATTI,  Adelina  Maria  Clorinda,  opera- 
singer,  born  at  Madrid  in  1843;  re- 
ceived her  musical  training  from  her 
brother-in-law,  Maurice  Strakosch; 
made  her  first  appearance  in  New  York 
in  1859  as  Lucia;  and  in  1861  made  a 
brilliant  d6but  at  Covent  Garden,  Lon- 
don, in  the  parts  of  Amina,  Violetta, 
Zerlina,  and  Martha.  Since  then  she  has 
successfully  established  her  reputation 


PATTISON 


PAWTUCKET 


.'.s  an  artist  in  the  chief  cities  of  Europe 
and  America.  In  1868  she  married  the 
Marquis  de  Caiix,  but  got  divorce  in 
1883.  In  1886  she  married  Signor 
Nicolini,  and  in  1899  Baron  Cederstrom. 

PATTISON,  Mark,  English  writer, 
born  in  1813,  died  in  1884.  He  was  a 
contributor  to  the  famous  Essays  and 
Reviews,  and  published  an  edition  of 
Pope’s  Epistles  and  Satires  (1869),  a 
work  on  Isaac  Casaubon  (1875),  a me- 
moir of  Milton  in  the  Men  of  Letters 
Series . (1879),  the  Sonnets  of  Milton 
(1883),  and  numerous  articles  in  re- 
views, etc. 

PAUL,  the  apostle,  commonly  called 
Saint  Paul,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents 
at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and  inherited  the 
rights  of  a Roman  citizen.  He  received 
a learned  education,  and  early  went  to 
Jerusalem  to  study  under  Gamaliel,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  Jewish  rabbins. 
Thus  prepared  for  the  office  of  teacher, 
he  joined  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  and 
became  a persecutor  of  the  Christians, 
to  crush  whom  the  sanhedrim  em- 
ployed him  both  in  and  out  of  Jerusalem. 
He  was  present  at  and  encouraged  the 
stoning  of  Stephen,  and  it  was  only  when 
he  was  overtaken  by  a vision  on  his  way 
to  Damascus  that  be  became  a convert 
to  Christianity.  His  sudden  conversion 
was  indicated  by  the  change  of  his  name 
from  Saul  to  Paul,  and  he  engaged  in  the 
work  of  an  apostle  with  an  ardor  that 
overcame  every  difficulty.  Arabia, 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  were  the 
scenes  of  his  labors.  The  churches  of 
Philippi  in  Macedonia,  of  Corinth, 
Galatia,  and  Thessalonica,  honored  him 
as  their  founder;  and  he  wrote  epistles 
to  these  churches,  and  to  the  churches 
in  the  chief  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor.  By  admitting  the  Gentiles  to 
the  church  he  incurred  the  hatred  of  the 
Jews,  who  persecuted  him  as  an  apos- 
tate. Undismayed,  the  apostle  went 
to  Jerusalem  and  was  there  arrested  and 
brought  to  Csesarea,  where  he  was  kept 
a prisoner  for  two  years  by  the  Roman 
governors  Festus  and  Felix.  He  ap- 
pealed, as  a Roman  citizen,  to  the  em- 
eror;  and  on  his  way  to  Rome,  where 
e arrived  in  the  year  62,  he  was  ship- 
wrecked on  the  island  of  Melita.  At 
Rome  he  was  treated  with  respectful 
kindness,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  he  for  some  time  regained  his 
liberty.  According  to  the  tradition  of 
the  early  church  the  apostle  suffered 
martyrdom  during  the  reign  of  Nero. 

PAUL  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia,  son  of 
Peter  III.  and  Catharine  II.,  was  born 
in  1754.  On  the  death  of  Catharine  in 
1796  ne  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and 
began  his  reign  with  acts  of  generosity. 
He  put  an  end  to  the  war  with  Persia, 
and  liberated  the  Poles  who  were  in 
confinement  in  Russia.  He  joined  the 
coalition  of  crowns  against  France,  and 
sent  100,000  men,  under  Suwarofif  and 
Korsakoff,  to  Italy  and  Switzerland, 
and  partly  to  Holland,  but  he  afterward 
favored  the  cause  of  Napoleon.  Paul 
caused  himself  to  be  declared  grand- 
master of  the  Knights  of  Malta  Q.798), 
but  Britain,  having  conquered  the  island 
in  1800,  refused  to  surrender  it  to  the 
Russian  emperor.  He  therefore  laid  an 
embargo  on  all  British  ships  in  the 


Russian  ports,  and  prevailed  upon  the 
Swedish,  Danish,  and  Prussian  courts 
to  enter  into  a convention  against  Great 
Britain.  At  length  (1801)  the  internal 
administration  and  his  increasing  acts 
of  tyranny  gave  rise  to  a strong  popular 
discontent,  and  he  was  murdered  in  his 
bed  March  24,  1801. 

PAUL,  St.,  Minnesota.  See  Saint  Paul. 

PAULDING,  James  Kirke,  miscellane- 
ous writer,  born  in  Dutchess  co.,  New 
York,  1779;  died  1860.  He  removed  to 
New  York,  where  he  became  intimately 
acquainted  with  Washington  Irving, 
and  published  in  connection  with  him  a 
series  of  humorous  and  satirical  essays, 
entitled  Salmagundi.  For  some  years 
he  was  secretary  of  the  United  States 
navy.  He  published  a second  series  of 
Salmagundi,  entirely  his  own  composi- 
tion; several  novels,  among  which  are 
Konigsmarke,  and  the  Dutchman’s 
Fireside;  a Life  of  Washington;  and 
many  political  pamphlets,  poems,  etc. 

PAUL’S  (St.)  CATHEDRAL,  London, 
is  situated  on  Ludgate  Hill,  an  elevaton 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames.  The 
site  of  the  present  building  was  originally 
occupied  by  a church  erected  by  Ethel- 
bert,  king  of  Kent,  in  610.  This  was 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1087,  and  another 
edifice.  Old  St.  Paul’s,  was  shortly  after- 
ward commenced.  The  structure  was 
in  the  Gothic  style,  in  the  form  of  a 
Latin  cross,  690  feet  long,  130  feet 
broad,  with  a lead-covered  wooden 
spire  rising  to  the  height  of  520  feet. 
The  middle  aisle  was  termed  Paul’s 
Walk,  from  its  being  frequented  by 
idlers  as  well  as  money-lenders  and 
general  dealers.  Old  St.  Paul’s  was 
much  damaged  by  a fire  in  1137,  by 
lightning  in  1444,  again  by  fire  in  1561, 
and  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  great 
fire  in  1666.  The  ruins  remained  for 
about  eight  years,  when  the  rebuilding 
was  taken  in  hand  by  the  government 
of  Charles  II.  (1675-1710).  The  whole 
building  was  completed  at  a total  cost 
of  $7,500,000  under  one  architect  (Sir 
Christopher  Wren),  one  master-mason 
(Thomas  Strong),  and  one  Bishop  of 
London  (Dr.  Henry  Compton).  The 
building  is  of  Portland  stone,  in  the 
form  of  a cross.  Its  length  is  510  feet; 
the  width  from  north  to  south  portico 
282  feet;  the  general  height  is  100  feet. 
The  whole  is  surmounted  by  a great 
dome  raised  on  eight  arches.  Above 
the  dome  is  a lantern  or  gallery  ter- 
minated above  by  a ball  and  gilded 
cross,  404  feet  from  the  pavement  be- 
neath. The  elevated  portico  forming 
the  grand  entrance  consists  of  twelve 
Corinthian  columns,  with  an  upper 
series  of  eight  pillars  of  the  composite 
order,  supporting  a pediment  ; the  front 
being  flanked  by  two  bell-towers  120 
feet  in  height.  The  entablature  repre- 
sents in  relief  the  conversion  of  St. 
Paul,  a work  of  Francis  Bird.  Upon  the 
south  front,  which  corresponds  with  the 
north,  is  a phoenix  rising  from  the  flames 
with  the  motto,  “Resurgam”  (I  shall 
rise  again).  The  pavement  of  the  interior 
is  composed  of  slabs  of  black  and  white 
marble.  The  crypt  under  the  name  con- 
tains the  burying-places  of  many  illus- 
trious personages,  and  some  interesting 
relics  of  old  St.  Paul’s.  Various  decora- 
tive, structural  and  other  improvements 


have  recently  been  made  on  the  interior 
of  the  cathedral. 

PAUNCEFOTE,  Sir  Julian,  was  born 
at  Munich,  Bavaria,  September  13, 
1828,  and  educated  at  Paris,  Geneva,  and 
and  at  Marlborough  college.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  of  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1852,  joined  the  Oxford  circuit,  and  also 
practiced  as  a conveyancer.  He  was 
appointed  attorney-general  of  Hong- 
Kong  in  May,  1865,  and  acted  as  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  in  1869, 
and  in  1874  was  knighted  by  patent. 
He  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  the 
Leeward  islands  in  1873,  and  assistant 
under-secrqtary  of  state  for  the  eolonie.s 
in  1874.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
assistant  (legal)  under-secretary  of  state 
for  foreign  affairs.  He  was  created  a 
C.B.  and  a K.C.M.G.  in  1880,  and  in 
1882  he  succeeded  the  late  Lord  Tenter- 
den  as  permanent  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs.  In  1885  he  re- 
ceived the  grand  cross  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George.  In  1888  he 
was  appointed  British  ambassador  at 
Washington.  In  the  Bering  Sea,  the 
Venezuelan,  and  other  difficulties  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  Pauncefote’s  tact  in  dealing 
with  international  affairs  was  powerful, 
and  his  friendliness  to  the  United  States 
was  shown  in  his  efforts  to  have  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  abrogated.  He 
was  a British  delegate  to  the  peace  con- 
ference at  The  Hague  in  1899,  and  for 
his  services  there  was  raised  to  the  peer- 
age as  Baron  Pauncefote  of  Preston. 
He  died  in  1902. 

PAUPERISM.  See  Poor  and  Poor'’s 
Laws. 

PAUSA'NIAS,  a Lacedaemonian  gen- 
eral, nephew  of  Leonidas.  He  com- 
manded the  allied  Greeks  against  the 
Persians  at  the  battle  of  Plataea  in  479 
B.C.  To  himself  alone  he  ascribed  the 
victory,  and  his  pretensions  became  in- 
supportable when  he  afterward,  with  a 
combined  Greek  fleet,  delivered  Greece, 
Cyprus,  and  finally  Byzantium  from 
the  Persian  rule.  At  length  he  entered 
into  secret  negotiations  with  Xerxes, 
and  conceived  the  design  of  making 
himself  master  of  Greece.  To  escape 
arrest  he  sought  shelter  in  the  temple  of 
Athene  at  Sparta,  where  he  was  shut  in 
by  the  enraged  people  and  starved  to 
death  (b.c.  467). 

PA'VIA  (pa-ve'a),  a city  of  Italy,  in 
Lombardy,  22|  miles  from  Milan,  capi- 
tal of  a province  of  the  same  name.  Pop. 
35,447. — The  province,  which  extends 
on  both  sides  of  the  Po,  has  an  area  of 
1285  sq.  miles,  partly  covered  by  the 
Apennines.  Pop.  496,832. 

PAVILION,  in  architecture,  a turret 
or  small  building,  usually  isolated,  hav- 
ing a tent-formed  roof,  whence  the 
name.  A projecting  part  of  a building, 
when  it  is  carried  higher  than  the  general 
structure  and  provided  with  a tent- 
formed  roof,  is  also  called  a pavilion. 

PAWL,  a short  piece  or  bar  moving 
round  a pivot  at  one  end,  so  as  to  catch 
in  a notch  or  projection  of  a revolving 
body  and  prevent  motion  in  one  direc- 
tion, as  in  the  capstan  or  windlass  of  a 
ship. 

PAWTUCK'ET,  a town  in  Providence 
CO.,  Rhode  Island,  39  miles  s.s.w.  of 
Boston.  It  occupies  a pleasant  sitej 


PAX 


PEACOCK 


has  cotton*mills,  print-works,  machine- 
shops,  etc.;  manufactures  of  boots, 
shoes,  carriages,  and  an  extensive  trade. 
Pop.  43,110. 

PAX,  an  ecclesiastical  utensil  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  formed  usually 
of  a plate  of  metal,  chased,  engraved,  or 
inlaid  with  figures  representing  the 
Virgin  and  Child,  the  crucifixion,  etc., 
which,  having  been  kissed  by  the  priest 
during  the  Agnus  Dei  of  the  high  mass, 
is  handed  to  the  acolyte,  who  presents 
it  to  be  kissed  by  each  of  the  ecclesiastics 
officiating,  saying  to  them  Pax  tecum 
•(peace  to  thee).  The  decorations  of  the 
pax  are  frequently  very  rich. 

PAX-WAX,  the  name  given  to  the 
strong,  stiff  tendons  running  along  the 
sides  of  the  neck  of  a large  quadruped 
to  the  middle  of  the  back,  as  in  an  ox  or 
horse.  It  diminishes  the  muscular  effect 
needed  to  support  the  head  in  a hori- 
zontal position. 

PAYMASTER,  an  officer  in  the  United 
States  army  and  navy,  from  whom  the 
officers  and  men  receive  their  wages, 
and  who  is  intrusted  with  money  for 
that  purpose.  In  matters  of  general 
discipline  the  paymaster  is  subordinate 
to  the  commanding  officer  of  his  regi- 
ment; but  in  regard  to  the  immediate 
duties  of  his  office  he  is  directly  respon- 
sible to  the  war-office.  The  paymaster 
of  a ship  in  the  navy  has  a general 
charge  of  the  financial  department  in 
dx0  V0SS0I 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL,  a British 
government  officer  whose  duties  were 
formerly  limited  to  the  army,  but  who 
now  acts  as  paymaster-general  of  all  the 
services.  Formerly  it  was  a lucrative, 
but  it  is  now  an  unpaid  office.  The  pay- 
master-general is  ex-officio  a privy 
councillor. 

PAYNE,  Henry  B.,  American  politi- 
cian and  capitalist,  born  at  Hamliton, 
N.  Y.,  in  1810.  In  1849  he  was  elected 
to  the  state  senate  by  the  democrats, 
and  was  their  candidate  for  United 
States  senator  in  1851  and  for  governor 
in  1857.  In  1872  he  led  the  Ohio  delega- 
tion at  the  Baltihiore  convention  which 
nominated  Horace  Greeley  for  the 
presidency.  In  1875  he  was  elected  to 
congress  by  a fusion  of  democrats  and 
liberal  republicans,  and  was  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  house  on  the 
electoral  commission  in  1877.  He  was 
elected  United  States  senator  in  1884 
and  served  from  1885  until  1891.  He 
died  in  1896. 

PAYNE,  Henry  Clay,  American  poli- 
tician, was  born  in  Ashfield,  Mass.,  in 
1843.  In  1863  he  removed  to  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  and  from  1875  to  1885  was  po.st- 
master  of  Milwaukee.  In  1880  he  became 
a member  of  the  republican  national 
committee,  and  in  the  presidential  cam- 
paigns of  1896  and  1900,  as  vice-chair- 
man, conducted  the  republican  cam- 
paign in  the  west.  In  1897  he  was 
offered  the  post  of  ambassador  to  Ger- 
many by  President  KcKinley,  but  de- 
clined. In  January,  1902,  he  succeeded 
Charles  Emory  Smith  as  postmaster- 
general  in  President  Roosevelt’s  cabinet. 

PAYNE,  John  Howard,  best  known 
as  the  author  of  Home,  Sweet  Home, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1791.  He  made 
his  d6but  at  the  Park  theater.  New  York, 
February  24,  1809,  as  Young  Norval  in 


Douglas.  Payne  adapted  many  plays 
from  the  French  and  produced  a num- 
ber of  original  ones,  among  them  Brutus, 
or  the  Fall  of  Tarquin,  Therese,  Virginia, 
and  the  comedy  of  Charles  II.  The  song 
Home,  Sweet  Home,  occurs  in  his  opera 
of  Clari,  or  the  Maid  of  Milan,  which 
was  produced  at  the  Covent  Garden 
theater  in  May,  1823.  He  was  appointed 
American  consul  at  Tunis,  Africa,  in 
1842;  was  recalled  in  1845;  and  re- 
appointed in  1851.  He  died  there  April 
9,  1852,  and  was  buried  in  the  Cemetery 
of  Saint  George  at  Tunis.  In  1883  his 
remains  were  brought  to  Washington. 

PEA,  a well-known  leguminous  plant 
of  many  varieties.  It  is  a climbing 
annual  plant,  and  has  been  cultivated 
from  remote  antiquity.  It  forms  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  culinary  vege- 
tables; contains  much  farinaceous  and 
saccharine  matter,  and  is  therefore 
highly  nutritious.  Its  seed-vessel  is  a 
pod  containing  one  row  of  round  seeds, 
which  are  at  first  soft  and  juicy,  in 
which  state  they  are  i#ed  for  the  table 
under  the  name  of  green  peas.  They 
afterward  harden  and  become  farina- 
ceous. A whitish  sort,  which  readily  split 
when  subjected  to  the  action  of  mill- 
stones, is  used  in  considerable  quantities 
for  soups. 

PEABODY,  a town  in  Essex  co..  Mass., 
five  miles  northwest  of  Salem.  It 
adopted  its  present  name  in  1868  in 
honor  of  the  philanthropist,  George  Pea- 
body, who  was  born  in  the  township. 
Peabody  institute,  which  is  located  here, 
contains  various  memorials  of  its 
founder.  Pop.  12,258. 

PEABODY,  George,  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  Danvers  (now  Peabody) 
Mass.,  February  18,  1795.  Through  his 
energy  and  skill  he  found  himself  in  1830 
at  the  head  of  one  of  the  largest  mer- 
cantile concerns  in  the  world.  About 
1837  he  established  himself  in  London, 
England,  as  merchant  and  money- 


George  Peabody. 


broker,  and  in  1843  he  withdrew  from 
the  concern  in  America.  It  is,  however, 
as  a philanthropist  that  Peabody  has 
made  his  name  a household  word.  The 
number  of  his  great  benefactions  to 
public  objects  is  too  great  for  mention 
here.  It  must  suffice  to  name  among  the 
more  important  a gift  of  $125,000  for 
educational  purposes  at  Danvers; 
$500,000  to  found  and  endow  an  in- 
stitution for  science  in  Baltimore,  a 
sum  afterward  increased  by  a second 
donation  of  $500,000;  of  various  sums 
to  Harvard  university ; and  of  $1,750,000 


for  the  erection  of  dwelling-houses  for 
the  working-classes  in  London,  which 
sum  was  increased  by  his  will  to  $2,500,- 
000.  He  received  from  the  Queen  the 
offer  of  a baronetcy,  but  declined  it. 
In  1867  the  United  States  congress 
awarded  him  a special  vote  of  thanks 
for  his  many  large  gifts  to  public  institu- 
tions in  America.  He  died  at  Eaton 
Square,  London,  November  14,  1869. 

PEABODY  COLLEGE  FOR  TEACH- 
ERS, a coeducational  training  school  in 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  founded  in  1875 
through  a benefaction  of  $1,000,000  by 
George  Peabody,  planned  to  foster  the 
cause  of  intellectual  development  in 
the  south.  Nashville  was  selected  as  the 
most  favorable  location,  and  upon  the 
offer  of  the  trustees  the  buildings  and 
endowment  of  the  University  of  Nash- 
ville were  accepted  as  the  foundation. 
The  university  confers  the  degrees  of 
bachelor  and  master  of  arts,  sciences, 
and  letters.  The  college  is  supported  by 
the  state,  the  University  of  Nashville, 
and  the  Peabody  board,  which  main- 
tains nearly  200  scholarships,  distrib- 
uted by  the  general  agent  of  the  Pea- 
body fund. 

PEACE,  Breach  of.  See  Breach. 

PEACE,  Justice  of.  See  Justice. 

PEACH,  a tree  and  its  fruit,  of  the 
almond  genus,  of  many  varieties.  This 
is  a delicious  fruit,  the  produce  of  warm 
or  temperate  climates.  The  tree  is  of 
moderate  stature,  but  varies  in  this 
respect  according  to  soil  and  climate. 
The  varieties  of  the  fruit,  which  is  a 
large  downy  drupe  containing  a stone, 
are  very  numerous,  differing  in  size, 
flavor,  and  time  of  ripening,  but  they 
are  principally  of  two  sorts,  the  free- 
stones and  the  cling-stones,  so  called 
according  as  the  stone  separates  readily 
or  adheres  to  the  flesh.  The  peach-tree 
is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Europe  from  Persia.  In  the  south- 
ern parts  of  England  it  is  grown  out  of 
doors,  and  in  the  United  States  it  is 
extensively  cultivated,  great  quantities 
being  canned  for  export.  The  ripe  fruit 
is  distilled  and  made  into  peach  brandy. 
The  nectarine  is  a smooth  variety  of 

PEACOCK,  called  also  Peafowl,  a large 
and  beautiful  gallinaceous  bird  of  the 


Peacock. 


genus  Pavo,  properly  the  male  of  the 
species,  the  female  being,  for  distinc- 
tion’s sake,  called  a peahen.  The  com- 
mon peacock  is  a native  of  India  and 


PEANUT 


PEBBLE 


southeastern  Asia.  This  bird  is  char- 
acterized by  a crest  of  peculiar  form, 
and  by  the  tail  coverts  of  the  male 
extending  far  beyond  the  quills,  and 
being  capable  of  erection  into  a broad 
and  gorgeous  disc.  The  shining,  lax, 
and  silky  bards  of  these  feathers,  and 
the  eye-like  spots  which  decorate  their 
extremities,  are  known  to  every  one. 
The  colors  and  plumage  are  said  to  be 
more  brilliant  in  the  wild  than  in  the 
domesticated  state.  The  wild  peahen 
lays  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  eggs,  and 
produces  only  a single  brood  in  each 
year.  The  young  birds  of  both  sexes  are 
feathered  alike  for  the  first  two  years; 
and  in  the  third  year  the  tail-coverts  of 
the  male  begin  to  be  developed  and 
to  assume  their  lustrous  appearance. 

PEANUT,  an  annual  plant,  also  called 
groundnut,  earthnut,  goober,  etc.  It 
grows  from  one  to  two  feet  high  with 
thick,  greenish,  hairy,  stems  and 
branches.  After  the  flower  has  fallen 
the  peduncle  bends  downward  and 
pushes  into  the  ground  where  the  fruit 
or  pod  develops.  The  pods  are  pale 
straw  colored,  wrinkled,  slightly  curved, 
and  often  contracted  in  the  middle,  and 
contain  one  or  two  seeds.  Since  1866 
it  has  been  an  important  crop  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  mainly  grown  in 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee. 

Peanuts  are  used  as  a forage  crop  and 
as  hay.  The  ripe  nuts  and  the  cake  which 
remains  after  the  oil  is  pressed  are  also 
fed.  Peanut  kernels  resemble  other 
leguminous  seeds  in  being  rich  in  pro- 
tein. The  fat  content  is  also  high.  If 
immature  pods  are  left  on  the  vines,  no 
other  fooa  is  necessary  during  the 
winter.  Peanut  cake  mixed  with  less 
concentrated  feeds  has  been  found  to  be 
a useful  cattle  food.  A material  called 
“peanut  meal”  is  made  by  grinding 
peanut  hulls,  immature  peanuts,  and 
those  of  an  inferior  grade.  Of  the 
4,000,000  bushels  of  peanuts  raised 
yearly  in  the  United  States,  3,000,000 
bushels  are  used  as  roasted  peanuts. 
Many  nuts  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  confectionery  and  peanut  butter. 
The  latter  is  prepared  by  grinding  the 
nut  and  generally  mixing  it  with  a little 
water.  Peanut  oil  is  made  in  large  quan- 
tities in  Europefrom  African-raised  nuts. 
The  shelled  nuts  contain  30  to  50  per 
cent  of  oil,  which,  if  carefully  made,  is 
of  good  flavor,  and  is  used  for  various 
culinary  purposes  and  in  the  arts. 

PEAR,  a tree  growing  wild  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  from 
which  the  numerous  cultivated  varieties 
have  originated.  The  fruit  is  char- 
acterized by  a saccharine  aromatic  juice, 
a soft  and  pearly  liquid  pulp,  melting  in 
the  mouth,  as  in  the  butter-pear;  or  by 
a firm  and  crisp  consistence,  as  in  the 
winter  bergamots.  The  pear  is  chiefly 
propagated  by  grafting  or  budding  on 
the  wild  pear  stock,  or  on  stocks  raised 
from  the  seeds  of  cultivated  pears,  called 
free  stocks.  It  is  also  grafted  on  the 
quince,  medlar,  and  the  white  thorn. 
At . the  present  day  more  than  200 
varieties  are  enumerated,  and  constant 
accessions  are  made  every  year.  France 
and  the  north  of  Italy  are  celebrated 
for  the  perfection  to  which  they  have 
carried  the  culture  of  this  fruit.  Numer- 


ous varieties  are  cultivated  solely  for 
the  purpose  of  making  perry,  a liquor 
analogous  to  cider,  and  prepared  nearly 
in  the  same  manner.  The  wood  is  fine- 
grained, of  a yellowish  color,  and  sus- 
ceptible of  a brilliant  polish.  In  the 
early  ages  of  Greece  it  was  employed  in 
statuary;  now  it  is  used  for  musical 
instruments,  the  handles  of  carpenter’s 
tools,  in  wood-engraving,  etc. 

PEARL,  the  name  applied  to  a con- 
cretion produced  within  the  shells  of 
certain  species  of  bivalve  molluscs  as 
the  result  of  some  abnormal  secretory 
process.  These  concretions  are  highly 
valued,  and  are  classed  among  the  gems. 
The  production  of  a pearl  is  generally 
begun  by  the  introduction  of  some 
foreign  body,  such  as  a grain  of  sand, 
within  the  mantle-lobes.  The  presence 
of  this  body  has  the  effect  of  setting  up 
an  irritant  action,  resulting  in  the  dep- 
osition by  the  mantle  of  a quantity  of 
nacreous  material  over  the  offending 
particle.  This  material,  in  certain  species 
of  molluscs,  is  of  such  a texture  and 
character,  and  is  so  deposited  in  regular 
laminae  or  layers,  that  in  due  time  the 
structure  known  as  a “pearl”  varying 
in  worth  and  brilliancy,  is  formed.  Chief 
among  such  molloscs  are  the  pearl- 
oyster,  the  pearl-mussel,  and  the  fresh- 
water mussels. 

The  chief  pearl-oyster  fisheries  are 
those  of  Ceylon,  which,  together  with 
the  fisheries  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  were 
known  to  the  ancients.  The  chief  seat 
of  the  Ceylon  fishery  is  in  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar,  on  the  northeast  of  the  island. 
The  best  pearls  are  found  about  Ceylon, 
Persia,  and  other  eastern  coasts,  and 
inferior  ones  on  the  tropical  coasts 
of  America.  The  pearl-oyster  occurs 
throughout  the  Pacific.  Very  fine  pearls 
are  obtained  from  the  Sulu  Archipelago 
on  the  northeast  of  Borneo.  Of  late 
years  pearl-fishing  has  been  started  with 
considerable  success  in  Australian  seas; 
and  it  is  carried  on  also  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  upon  the  coast  of  California, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Panamd. 

Pearls  have  formed  valued  articles  of 
decoration  and  ornament  from  the 
earliest  times.  Julius  Ctesar  presented 
Servilia,  the  mother  of  Marcus  Brutus, 
with  a pearl  valued  in  modern  computa- 
tion at  $240,000;  while  Cleopatra  was 
said  to  have  swallowed  one  gem  valued 
at  $300,000.  A pearl  purchased  by  the 
traveler  Tavernier  is  alleged  to  have 
been  sold  by  him  to  the  Shah  of  Persia 
for  $900,000.  The  “Pilgrim”  pearl  of 
Moscow  is  diaphanous  in  character,  and 
weighs  24  carats. 

Artificial  pearls  are  largely  made  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  They  are 
very  well  imitated  by  the  scales  of  cer- 
tain fishes.  A substitute  for  black  pearls 
is  found  in  close-grained  hsematite,  not 
too  highly  polished,  and  pink  pearls 
are  imitated  by  turning  small  spheres 
out  of  the  rosypart  of  the  conch-shell. 

PEARL,  Mother  of.  See  Mother-of- 
Pearl. 

PEARL-ASH,  the  common  name  for 
carbonate  of  potassium.  See  Potash. 

PEARL  STONE,  a felspathic  mineral, 
consisting  of  silicate  of  aluminium  with 
varying  quantities  of  iron,  lime,  and 
alkalies;  it  occurs  in  spherules,  which 
have  a pearly  luster. 


PEARLY  NAUTILUS,  a name  for  the 
common  nautilus.  See  Nautilus. 

PEAT,  a kind  of  turfy  substance  con- 
sisting of  vegetable  matter  which  has 
accumulated  by  constant  growth  and 
decay  in  hollows  or  moist  situations  on 
land  not  in  a state  of  cultivation,  always 
more  or  less  saturated  with  water,  and 
consisting  of  the  remains,  more  or  less 
decomposed,  of  mosses  and  other  marsh 
plants.  Peat  is  generally  of  a black  or 
dark-brown  color,  or  when  recently 
formed,  of  a yellowish-brown;  it  is  soft 
and  of  a viscid  consistence,  but  it  be- 
comes hard  and  darker  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  When  thoroughly  dried  it  burns, 
giving  out  a gentle  heat  without  much 
smoke,  accordingly  it  is  used  as  fuel  in 
those  countries  where  it  abounds,  as  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  It  often  covers 
large  areas,  forming  what  is  called  peat- 
bogs, and  in  these  the  accumulation  of 
solid  peat  may  reach  a great  depth, 
sometimes  50  feet  or  more.  When  pre- 
pared for  fuel  in  the  ordinary  way  it  is 
dug  from  the  bog  in  rectangular  brick- 
like masses,  which  are  set  up  to  dry  on 
the  spot,  and  when  sufficiently  dried  are 
carried  away  and  stacked.  Peat,  as  it  is 
cut  from  the  bog,  contains  from  80  to 
90  per  cent  of  water,  and  when  air-dried 
it  retains  a proportion  of  water  equal 
to  from  15  to  25  per  cent  of  the  whole 
weight.  To  increase  its  value  as  fuel 
several  methods  have  been  adopted; 
but  in  any  successful  process  for  treat- 
ing peat  it  must  be  condensed  by  arti- 
ficial means,  and  the  water  must  be 
expelled  and  dried  out.  See  Fuel. 

PEARY,  Robert  Edwin,  American 
Arctic  explorer,  was  born  at  Cresson, 
Pa.,  in  1856.  In  1887-8  he  was  engineer- 
in-chief  of  the  Nicaragua  ship  canal. 
In  1891  he  started  on  his  first  Arctic 
expedition  and  made  a brilliant  record  of 
achievements,  not  the  least  of  which 
were  the  results  of  his  studies  and 
minute  experimentation  in  the  field 
covering  every  phase  of  the  equipment 
for  Arctic  work.  He  proved  that  the 
northern  extension  of  the  great  interior 
ice-caps  end  below  latitude  82°  n. 
He  also  established  the  insularity  of 
Greenland  and  ascertained  the  exist- 
ence of  detached  ice-free  land  masses 
north  of  the  mainland  and  the  fact  that 
the  east  and  west  coasts  rapidly  con- 
verge north  of  the  seventy-eighth 
parallel.  In  1893-95  he  made  another 
voyage  to  the  same  region.  In  the 
spring  of  1902  he  started  over  the  frozen 
Arctic  ocean  from  Cape  Hecla,  on  the 
north  coast  of  Grant  Land,  in  his 
attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  At 
his  farthest  camp  in  latitude  84°  17'  n. 
the  polar  pack  became  impracticable 
and  further  efforts  to  advance  were 
given  up.  He  had  attained  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  pole  in  the  American 
Arctic.  Commander  Peary  was  elected 
president  of  the  American  Geographical 
Society  in  December,  1902. 

PEARY  LAND,  a name  given  to  the 
northern  coast  region  of  Greenland 
which  was  first  explored  by  Peary  in  1892. 

PEA-WEEVIL.  See  Pea-beetle. 

PEBA,  a species  of  the  armadillo 
found  in  various  parts  of  South  America. 
Its  flesh  is  much  valued  by  the  natives. 

PEBBLE,  in  jewelry,  a name  com- 
monly given  to  an  agate.  Scotch  agates 


PECAN 


PEEL 


are  commonly  known  as  Scotch  pebbles. 

’PECAN',  Pecan-nut,  a species  of 
hicko^  and  its  fruit,  growing  in  North 
America.  It  is  a large  tree,  with  hard, 
very  tough  wood,  pinnate  leaves,  and 
catkins  of  small  flowers. 

PEC'CARY,  a genus  of  ungulate  quad- 
rupeds, incluaed  in  the  even-toed  sec- 
tion of  that  order,  and  nearly  allied  to 


Peba,  or  Texan  armadillo. 


the  swine,  in  which  family  the  genus  is 
classified.  These  animals  are  exclusively 
confined  to  America,  in  which  continent 
they  represent  the  true  swine  of  the  Old 
World.  In  general  form  the  peccaries 
resemble  small  pigs.  The  best-known 
species  are  the  collared  peccary  and  the 
white-lipped  peccary.  The  former  rtccurs 
abundantly  in  South  America,  and  also 
extends  into  North  America,  living 
generally  in  small  flocks,  which  do  not 
hesitate  to  attack  with  their  tusks  any 


Collared  peccary. 

one  who  meddles  with  them.  Their  food 
consists  of  maize,  potatoes,  sugar-canes, 
and  similar  materials;  and  cultivated 
fields  suffer  much  from  their  raids, 
This  species  of  peccary  is  readily  do- 
mesticated. The  flesh  is  savory,  and  less 
fat  than  pigs’  flesh.  The  peccary  pos- 
sesses a glandular  sac  or  pouch,  situated 
in  the  loins,  which  secretes  a strongly- 
smelling  fluid  of  foetid  nature.  This  must 
be  cut  away  immediately  on  killing  a 
peccary,  to  avoid  contaminating  the 
flesh. 

PECK,  the  fourth  part  of  a bushel; 
a dry  measure  of  8 quarts  for  grain, 
pulse,  etc.  The  standard  or  imperial 
peck  contains  2 gallons  or  554.548 
cubic  inches. 

PECK,  Harry  Thurston,  American 
editor  and  critic,  born  in  1856  in  Stam- 
ford, Conn.  His  publications  include 
The  Semitic  Theory  of  Creation,  Sueton- 
ius, Latin  Pronunciation,  and  he  also 
edited  University  Bulletin,  A Dictionary 
of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiquities, 
Classical  Studies,  Roman  Life  in  Latin 
Prose,  and  Verse,  Trimalchio’s  Dinner, 
and  a series  of  Latin  classics  for  college 
use.  In  1890  he  became  editor-in-chief 
of  The  International  Encyclopaedia, 
continuing  as  such  until  1901,  when, ' 


with  President  Gilman  and  Professor 
F.  M.  Colby,  he  edited  The  New  Inter- 
national Encyclopaedia.  In  1895  he 
became  editor  of  the  Bookman. 

PECOS  RIVER,  a river  of  New  Mexico 
and  Texas,  which  has  a southeasterly 
course  of  about  600  miles,  and  falls  into 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  but  in  sum- 
mer is  generally  dry. 

PECQUET  (pek-a),  Jean,  born  at 
Dieppe  about  1620,  died  1674;  studied 
medicine,  and  especially  anatomy,  at 
Montpelier.  He  discovered  and  demon- 
strated the  course  of  the  lacteal  ves- 
sels in  the  human  body. 

PED'ALS,  parts  of  the  mechanism  of 
a musical  instrument  acted  on  by  the 
feet.  Pedals  are  used  for  different  pur- 
poses in  different  instruments.  In  the 
organ  they  are  used  in  two  distinct 
ways:  first,  to  act  on  the  swell  and  stops 
when  the  instrument  is  played  with  the 
hands;  second,  to  act  upon  a distinct  set 
of  pipes,  called  the  pedal  organ,  and 
which  are  played  independently.  On 
the  pianoforte  there  was  at  first  only 
one  pedal,  used  to  raise  the  dampers 
and  prolong  the  sound  after  the  fingers 
were  lifted  from  the  keys;  a second  was 
used  to  soften  the  notes,  and  is  called 
the  soft  or  una-corda  pedal;  a third  has 
of  late  years  been  introduced,  which 
arrests  the  sound  immediately  after  the 
note  is  struck,  and  produces  an  artificial 
staccato.  In  the  harmonium  the  pedals 
supply  the  instrument  with  wind. 

PED'ESTAL,  an  insulated  basement 
or  support  for  a column,  a statue,  or  a 
vase.  It  usually  consists  of  a base,  a 
dado,  and  a cornice.  When  a range  of 
columns  is  supported  on  a continuous 
pedestal  the  latter  is  called  a stylobate. 

PED'IGREE.  See  Genealogy. 

PED'IMENT,  in  classic  architecture, 
the  triangular  mass  resembling  a gable, 
above  the  entablature  at  the  end  of 
buildings  or  over  porticos.  The  pedi- 
ment is  surrounded  by  a cornice,  and  is 
often  ornamented  with  sculpture.  The 
triangular  finishings  over  doors  and 
windows  are  also  called  pediments. 
In  the  debased  Roman  style  the  same 
name  is  given  to  the  same  parts,  though 
not  triangular  in  their  form.  In  the 
architecture  of  the  middle  ages  small 
gables  and  triangular  decorations  over 
openings,  niches,  etc.,  are  called  pedi- 
ments. 

PEDOM'ETER,  is  an  instrument  like 
a watch,  which  serves  to  indicate  the 
distance  a pedestrian  traveler  has  gone, 
or  rather  the  number  of  paces  he  has 
made. 

PEDRO  II,,  ex-Emperor  of  Brazil, 
was  born  at  Rio  Janeiro  1825;  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  abdication  of  his 
father,  Dom  Pedro  I.,  in  1831 ; and 
married  the  Princess  Theresa  Christina 
Maria  (died  1890),  sister  of  Francis  I., 
king  of  Naples,  in  1843.  Brazil  prospered 
greatly  under  the  rule  of  Pedro  II.,  who 
did  much  to  develop  its  resources  in 
every  direction.  In  1871  he  issued  an 
imperial  decree  for  the  gradual  abolition 
of  slavery,  which  totally  ceased  in  Brazil 
in  May,  1888.  He  was  deposed  by  the 
revolution  of  November,  1889,  and 
died  at  Paris  in  1891. 

PEDUN'CLE,  in  botany,  the  stem  or 
stalk  that  supports  the  fructification  of 
a plant,  i.  e,,  the  flower  and  the  fruit. 


PEEKSKILL,  an  industrial  town  of 
the  United  States,  state  of  New  York, 
on  Hudson  river,  43  miles  north  of  New 
York  City.  Pop.  11,917. 

PEEL,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Viscount, 
youngest  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel,  born 
1829.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Oxford;  was  member  for  Warwick 
(1865-1895);  pari.  sec.  to  Poor-law 
board  (1868-71);  sec.  to  Board  of  Trade 
(1871-73);  patronage  sec.  to  treasury 
(1873-74);  under  sec.  for  Home  depart- 
ment (1880) ; succeeded  Sir  Henry 
Brand  in  1884  as  speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  retiring  in  1895;  was  chair- 
man of  the  Licensing  commission  of 
1896-1900  and  drafted  the  minority 
report. 

PEEL,  Sir  Robert,  British  statesman, 
was  born  5th  February,  1788,  near 
Bury  in  Lancashire.  Immediately  on 
attaining  his  majority  he  was  elected 
member  of  parliament  for  Cashel;  in 
1810  he  became  under-secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  and  in  1812-18 
he  was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  In 
1822,  under  the  Liverpool  ministry,  he 


Sir  Robert  Peel. 


became  home  secretary,  and  continued 
in  this  office  till  the  dissolution.  Refus- 
ing to  take  oflBce  under  Canning,  he 
joined  the  ministry  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  in  1828  as  home  secretary. 
The  principal  act  of  this  ministry  was 
the  passing  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
relief  bill,  which  cost  Peel  his  seat  for 
Oxford.  Peel  also  passed  the  New 
Metropolitan  Police  Act,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  new  nicknames  Bobbies  and 
Peelers  for  the  London  police.  In  1830 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  baronet.  In 
the  election  of  1832  he  was  returned  for 
Tamworth,  for  which  he  continued  to 
sit  during  the  remainder  of  his  life.  On 
the  dismissal  of  the  Whig  government 
in  1834  Peel  undertook  the  government 
but  his  party  in  the  house  being  in  a 
minority  the  task  was  hopeless.  After 
a brief  struggle  the  ministry  resigned, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  Whig  min- 
istry of  Lord  Melbourne,  which  lasted 
from  1835  to  1841.  The  general  election 
of  1841  gave  a large  majority  to  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  and  the  formation  of  a 
conservative  ministry  could  no  longer 
be  delayed.  In  the  session  of  1842  the 
most  important  measures  were  the 
sliding-scale,  by  which  a considerable 
reduction  was  made  on  the  duties  on  the 
importation  of  corn;  the  imposition  of 
an  income-tax  for  three  years,  but 


PEER 


PELEUS 


which,  with  various  alterations,  has  con- 
tinued to  be  levied  to  the  present  time; 
and  a revision  of  the  tariff.  In  1844  and 
1845  he  passed  his  celebrated  English 
and  Scotch  Banking  Acts.  During  the 
recess  in  1845  the  potato-rot  and  famine 
in  Ireland  brought  the  question  of  the 
corn-laws  to  a crisis,  and  Peel  declared 
in  favor  of  their  total  repeal.  The  act 
repealing  corn-laws  (after  a modified 
duty  for  three  years)  was  passed  26th 
June,  1846.  On  the  same  day  the  minis- 
try was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  the  Irish  Coercion  bill,  and 
on  the  29th  of  June  Sir  Robert  Peel  re- 
signed. As  leader  of  the  opposition  he 
supported  many  of  the  measures  of  the 
government  of  Lord  John  Russell,  who 
succeeded  him ; but  the  policy  of  Lord 
Palmerston  after  the  revolution  crisis 
of  1848-49  evoked  from  him  a more 
active  hostility  to  the  ministry.  On 
29th  June,  1850,  he  was  thrown  from  his 
horse,  and  received  injuries  of  which  he 
died  on  2d  July.  By  his  will  he  re- 
nounced a peerage  for  his  family,  as  he 
had  before  declined  the  Garter  for  himself. 

PEER,  in  general,  signifies  an  equal, 
one  of  the  same  rank  and  station.  In  this 
sense  it  is  used  by  the  common  law  of 
England,  which  declares  that  every 
person  is  to  be  tried  by  his  peers.  Peer 
also  signifies  in  Britain  a member  of  one 
of  the  five  degrees  of  nobility  that  con- 
stitute the  peerage  (duke,  marquis, 
earl,  viscount,  baron),  or  more  strictly 
a member  of  the  House  of  Lords.  The 
dignity  and  privileges  of  peers  originated 
with  the  growth  of  the  feudal  system, 
the  peers  being  originally  the  chief 
vassals  holding  fiefs  directly  from  the 
crown,  and  having,  in  virtue  of  their 
position,  the  hereditary  right  of  acting 
as  royal  counselors.  Subsequently  not 
all  the  crown  vassals  appeared  at  court 
as  advisers  of  the  king,  but  only  those 
who  were  summoned  to  appear  by  writ. 
This  custom  grew  at  length  into  a rule, 
and  these  summonses  were  considered 
proofs  of  hereditary  peerage.  Latterly 
the  honor  of  the  peerage  has  been  ex- 
clusively conferred  by  patent.  As  re- 
gards their  privileges  all  peers  are  on  a 
perfect  equality.  The  chief  privileges 
are  those  of  a seat  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
of  a trial  by  persons  of  noble  birth  in 
case  of  indictments  for  treason  and 
felony,  and  misprison  thereof,  and  of 
exemption  from  arrest  in  civil  cases. 
The  British  peerage  collectively  consist 
of  peers  of  England,  of  Scotland,  of 
Great  Britain,  of  Ireland,  and  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  only  a portion  of 
the  Scotch  and  Irish  peers  are  peers  of 
parliament.  The  lords  spiritual,  though 
sitting  in  the  House  of  Lords,  are  not 
considered  peers. 

PEF'FER,  William  Alfred,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  in  1831  in  Cumberland 
CO.,  Pa.  In  1865  he  removed  to  Kansas, 
established  the  Fredonia  Journal  and 
the  Coffeyville  Journal.  In  1874  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  senate,  in  1880  was 
a republican  presidental  elector,  and 
in  1881  assumed  the  editorship  of  the 
Kansas  Farmer.  From  1891  to  1897  he 
represented  the  people’s  party  in  the 
United  States  senate,  and  in  1898  was 
nominated  by  the  prohibitionists  for 
governor  of  Kansas.  Among  his  pub- 
lications are; 


Peffer’s  Tariff  Manual,  The  Way  Out, 
The  Farmer’s  Side,  Americanism  in  the 
Philippines,  Rise  and  Fall  of  Populism 
in  the  United  States. 

PEG'ASUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
winged  horse,  the  offspring  of  Poseidon 
and  Medusa.  Bellerophon  made  use  of 
Pegasus  in  his  fight  with  the  Chimsera. 
With  the  stroke  of  his  hoof  Bellerophon 
called  forth  the  sacred  well  Hippocrene, 
on  Mount  Helicon,  from  which  he  was 
in  later  times  called  the  horse  of  the 
muses. 

PEGU  (pe'go),  now  a division  of  Lower 
Burmah,  but  previous  to  1757  a power- 
ful and  independent  kingdom,  and  from 
that  period  up  to  1853  a province  of  the 
Burmese  empire,  from  which  it  was 
severed  and  annexed  to  the  British  do- 
minions in  1853.  The  province  com- 
prised the  whole  delta  of  the  Irrawady; 
area,  25,964  sq.  miles;  pop.  2,323,512. 
The  modern  division  of  Pegu  lies  mainly 
on  the  east  of  the  lower  Irrawady;  area, 
9159  sq.  miles;  cultivated  area,  2043 
sq.  miles;  pop.  1,818,845.  Chief  town, 
Rangoon. 

PEI-HO  (pe-i-ho'),  a river  of  Northern 
China,  rises  near  the  Great  Wall,  and 
flows  southeast  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechelee. 
It  is  navigable  for  boats  to  within  20 
miles  of  Peking,  which  it  passes  at  the 
distance  of  about  10  miles. 

PEIRCE,  Benjamin,  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  April  4,  1809;  died  October  6, 
1880.  He  graduated  in  1829  at  Harvard, 
where  he  became  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy,  and 
afterward  of  astronomy,  holding  the 
latter  chair  until  his  death.  Professor 
Pierce  was  for  many  years  connected 
with  the  United  States  coast  survey 
and  made  several  valuable  observations 
of  eclipses  and  other  celestial  phenomena. 
He  achieved  great  note  as  a mathe- 
matician, was  a member  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  of  the 
Royal  Astronomical  society,  and  of 
many  other  learned  bodies.  His  writings 
on  mathematics  are  text-books  in  all 
American  colleges.  He  died  in  1880. 

PEKING',  or  PEKIN',  the  capital  of 
the  Chinese  empire,  in  the  province  of 
Chih-le  or  Pechelee,  on  an  extensive, 
barren,  sandy  plain,  between  the  rivers 
Pei-ho  and  Hoen-ho,  about  40  miles 
from  the  Great  Wall,  and  100  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Pechelee.  The  entire  circuit 
of  the  walls  and  suburbs  of  Peking  is 
reckoned  at  30  miles.  There  are  in  all 
sixteen  gates  leading  into  the  city,  each 
protected  by  a semicircular  enciente, 
and  a higher  tower  built  in  galleries. 
The  city  consists  of  two  portions,  the 
north  or  Tartar  city,  and  the  south  or 
Chinese  city.  The  former  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  a parallelogram,  and  consists 
of  three  inclosures,  one  within  the  other, 
each  surrounded  by  its  own  wall.  The 
innermost  inclosure  (“the  forbidden 
city’’)  contains  the  imperial  palace,  and 
buildings  connected  with  it,  in  which 
the  emperor  and  royal  family  reside. 
The  second  inclosure  (“the  imperial 
city”)  is  the  residence  of  the  imperial 
princes  and  officials  of  the  highest  rank. 
The  outer  or  Tartar  city  proper  is  the 
seat  of  the  six  supreme  tribunals,  and 
contains  the  legations  of  Great  Britain, 
France,  the  United  States,  and  Russia. 
In  the  Chinese  city  broad  straight  streets 


run  from  gate  to  gate,  intersecting  each 
other  at  right  angles,  but  they  are  un- 
paved, and  in  rainy  weather  impassable 
from  mud.  Among  the  principal  public 
buildings  of  Peking  are  the  'Temple  of 
Eternal  Peace,  belonging  to  the  lamas; 
the  Mohammedan  mosque;  the  obser- 
vatory; the  temple  of  agriculture  and 
the  temple  of  heaven.  In  the  latter 
temple  the  emperor  periodically  offers 
sacrifice.  It  occupies  a commanding 
position,  and  is  approached  from  the 
different  sides  by  magnificent  alabaster 
stairs.  There  are  religious  edifices  ap- 
propriated to  many  forms  of  religion, 
the  principle  of  toleration  being  here 


Temple  of  Heaven,  Peking. 

carried  to  the  utmost  extremity.  Among 
the  institutions  of  Peking  are  the  na- 
tional college,  the  medical  college, 
astronomical  board,  and  the  imperial 
observatory.  Peking  is  regarded  by  the 
the  Chinese  as  one  of  their  most  ancient 
cities,  but  it  was  not  made  the  capital 
of  the  country  until  its  conquest  by  the 
Mongols  about  1282.  In  the  war  of  1860 
Peking  was  occupied  by  the  British  and 
French.  In  1900  the  foreign  colony  was 
besieged,  and,  was  relieved  by  an  inter- 
national force  after  severe  fighting. 
Pop.  variously  estimated  at  from 
500,000  to  1,650,000. 

PELEE  (pa-la'),  Mont,  an  active 
volcano  of  the  island  of  Martinique, 
situated  in  its  northwestern  part,  in 
about  latitude  14°  48'  n.  The  elevation 
of  the  culminating  point  previous  to 
May,  1902,  was  about  4300  feet;  of  the 
newly  formed  cone,  with  its  extended 
“plug”  or  obelisk,  in  May,  1903,  5200 
feet.  The  historically  recorded  erup- 
tions of  Mont  PeRe  are  those  of  1762, 
August,  1851,  and  1902-03.  The  great 
eruptions  of  1902  were  from  the  basin 
of  the  Etang  Sec,  or  “Dry  Lake.”  The 
active  opening  of  this  crater  was  on 
April  25,  1902;  on  May  5th,  descended 
the  “avalanche”  of  boiling  black  mud 
that  destroyed  the  sugar  estate  of 
Gu4rin,  and  buried  beneath  its  mass 
thirty  or  more,  and  on  May  8th  the 
black  cloud  of  explosive  and  exploded 
superheated  steam,  destroyed  Saint 
Pierre,  and  about  30,000  people.  The 
second  death-dealing  eruption  of  Mont 
PeRe  took  place  on  August  30th  at 
about  9 p.m.  The  loss  of  life  in  this 
later  explosion  has  been  estimated  at 
from  2000  to  2500, 

PELEUS  (pe'lus),  in  Creek  mythology. 


PELEW  ISLANDS 


PENANCE 


son  of  ^S,cu8,  king  of  ^gina.  After 
many  adventures  he  became  master  of 
a part  of  Thessaly,  and  married  the 
nymph  Thetis,  by  whom  he  became  the 
father  of  Achilles.  The  nuptials  were 
celebrated  on  Mount  Pelion,  and  hon- 
ored with  the  presence  of  all  the  gods, 
who  brought  rich  bridal  presents.  After 
his  death  he  received  divine  honors. 

PELEW'  ISLANDS,  a group  belong- 
ing to  the  Caroline  Archipelago,  in  the 
North  Pacific  ocean.  They  are  about 
twenty  in  number,  extend  nearly  n.n.e. 
and  s.s.w.  87  miles,  and  are  completely 
encircled  by  reefs.  They  are  fertile,  and 
enjoy  a good  climate  The  inhabitants 
are  Polynesians,  and  have  generally  got 
a high  character  from  visitors.  Pop. 
6000. 

PE'LIAS,  a genus  of  serpents,  includ- 
ing the  common  viper  or  adder. 

PEL'ICAN  the  name  of  several  web- 
footed birds.  They  are  larger  than  the 
swan,  have  a great  extent  of  wing,  and 
are  excellent  swimmers.  Pelicans  are 
gregarious,  and  frequent  the  neighbor- 
hood of  rivers,  lakes,  and  the  sea-coast, 
feeding  chiefly  on  fish,  which  they  cap- 
ture with  great  adroitness.  They  have 
a large  flattened  bill,  the  upper  mandible 
terminated  by  a strong  hook,  which 
curves  over  the  tip  of  the  lower  one; 
beneath  the  lower  mandible,  which  is 
composed  of  two  flexible,  bony  branches 
meeting  at  the  tip,  a great  pouch  of 
naked  skin  is  appended,  capable  of 
holding  a considerable  number  of  fish, 
and  thus  enabling  the  bird  to  dispose 
of  the  superfluous  quantity  which  may 
be  taken  during  fishing  expeditions, 
either  for  its  own  consumption  or  for  the 
nourishment  of  its  young.  The  species 
are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  They  sometimes  perch  upon 
trees;  the  nest  is  of  rough  construction, 
usually  placed  close  to  the  water.  The 
common  or  white  pelican  is  colored  a 
delicate  white,  tinged  with  rose  or  pink. 
The  young  birds  are  fed  by  the  parents 
with  fishes  from  the  pouch,  and  the 
males  are  said  to  feed  the  incubating 
females  in  a similar  manner.  The  com- 
mon pelican  inhabits  Europe,  Asia,  and 


Pelican. 

Africa.  About  the  middle  of  September 
flocks  repair  to  Egypt.  During  the 
summer  months  they  take  up  their 
abode  on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  shores  of  Greece.  They  are  rare 
in  France  and  unknown  in  Britain. 
The  pelican  is  not  only  susceptible  of 
domestication,  but  may  even  be  trained 
to  fish  for  its  master. 

PELISSIER  (pa-les-ya),  Jean  Jacques 
Amable.  Due  de  Malakoff,  Marshal  of 


France,  was  born  in  1794,  died  in  Algeria 
1864.  In  1855  he  replaced  Canrobert  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  French  army 
in  the  Crimea;  and  by  the  vigor  with 
which  he  pushed  the  siege  he  justified 
the  expectations  which  had  been  formed 
of  him.  On  the  capture  of  the  Malakoff 
and  the  fall  of  Sebastopol  P41issier  re- 
ceived his  marshal’s  baton,  and  an  an- 
nual pension  of  100,000  francs.  He  was 
afterward  vice-president  of  the  senate, 
a privy-councillor,  and  ambassador  to 
England  (1858).  In  1860  he  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  Algeria. 

PELOPONNE'SUS,the  peninsula  which 
comprehends  the  most  southern  part 
of  Greece,  now  called  the  Morea.  Pelo- 
ponnesus was  anciently  divided  into  six 
states:  Messenia,  Laconia  (Sparta), 
Elis,  Arcadia,  Achaia,  and  Argolis,  to 
which  some  add  Sicyon.  See  Greece  and 
articles  on  the  different  states. 

PE'LOPS,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Tantalus,  king  of  Lydia.  He  married 
Hippodamia,  a daughter  of  King 
QSnomaus  of  Elis,  and  succeeded  his 
father-in-law  in  that  kingdom.  Pelopon- 
nesus received  its  name  from  him.  Of 
his  sons,  Atreus  and  Thyestes  are  most 
celebrated.  Many  and  very  different 
myths  are  connected  with  his  name. 

PELVIS  (Latin,  pelvis,  a basin),  the 
bony  basin  formed  by  the  “haunch- 
bones”  and  sacrum  of  Vertebrata,  which 


Pelvis. 


o,  Ilium;  6,  Ischium;  c,  pubis;  d,  symphysis 
pubis;  e,  sacrum;  /,  coccyx;  g,  acetabulum 
or  cavity  for  head  of  thigh-bone. 

constitutes  the  girdle  or  arch  giving 
support  to  the  lower  or  hinder  limbs. 
The  pelvis  thus  corresponds  to  the 
shoulder-girdle  of  the  upper  or  fore 
limbs;  and  forms  a cavity  or  basin  in 
which  several  of  the  abdominal  viscera, 
and  organs  relating  to  reproduction  and 
the  urinary  functions,  are  protected  and 
contained.  The  pelvis  of  man  differs 
materially  from  that  of  woman,  the 
differences  having  chiefly  reference  to 
the  greater  capacity  required  for  the 
womb  during  pregnancy  and  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  child  at  birth.  It  also 
varies  somewhat  in  the  different  races 
of  men. 

PEM'BROKE,  a parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  and  seaport  of  South 
Wales,  a capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  on  a creek  on  the  southern 
side  of  Milford  Haven,  206  miles  west 
of  London.  The  county  is  bounded  by 
Cardiganshire,  Carmarthenshire,  the 
Bristol  Channel,  and  St.  George’s  chan- 
nel; area,  391,181  acres,  of  which  about 
300,000  acres  are  under  cultivation. 
Pop.  88,749. 

PEM'ICAN,  originally  a North  Ameri- 
can Indian  preparation  consisting  of  the 
lean  portions  of  venison  dried  by  the 
sun  or  wind,  and  then  pounded  into  a 
paste  and  tightly  pressed  into  cakes. 


Pemican  made  of  beef  has  sometimes 
been  used  by  travelers. 

PEN,  an  instrument  for  writing  with  a 
fluid.  Pens  of  some  sort  have  been  in  use 
from  very  early  times,  adapted  to  the 
material  on  which  the  characters  were  to 
be  inscribed.  The  metallic  stilus  for  the 
production  of  incised  letters  was  prob- 
ably the  earliest  writing  implement. 
It  was  used  by  the  Romans  for  writing 
on  tablets  coated  with  wax;  but  both 
they  and  the  Greeks  also  used  what  is  the 
true  ancient  representative  of  the 
modern  pen,  namely,  a hollow  reed,  as  is 
yet  common  in  eastern  countries.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  quills  were  used  for 
writing  as  early  as  the  5th  century  a.d. 
In  Europe  they  were  long  the  only 
writing  implement,  the  sorts  generally 
used  being  those  of  the  goose  and  swan. 
Up  till  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
present  century  these  formed  the  prin- 
cipal materials  from  which  pens  were 
made.  In  1803  Mr.  Wise  produced  steel 
pens  of  a barrel  form,  mounted  in  a bone 
case  for  carrying  in  the  pocket.  Joseph 
Gillott  commenced  the  manufacture 
about  1820,  and  succeeded  in  making 
the  pen  of  thinner  and  more  elastic 
steel,  giving  it  a higher  temper  and 
finish.  Improvements  have  so  reduced 
the  cost  and  raised  the  quality,  that  a 
gross  of  better  pens  are  now  sold  by  the 
same  makers  at  one-sixth  of  the  price  of 
a single  pen  in  1821.  Gold  pens  tipped 
with  minute  particles  of  iridium  are  now 
in  somewhat  extensive  use,  and  a good 
one  will  last  for  years.  Fountain  pens 
and  penholders,  to  carry  a considerable 
supply  of  ink  and  to  discharge  it  in  an 
equal  manner,  were  invented  by  Joseph 
Bramah.  The  most  successful  form  of 
fountain  pen  yet  introduced  is  the  stylo- 
g^raph  patented  in  the  United  States  by 
Cross  1878,  and  by  Mackinnon  1879. 

PENAL  LAW.  See  Criminal  Law. 

PENANCE,  in  theology,  a punishment 
accepted  or  self-imposed  by  way  of 
satisfaction  and  in  token  of  sorrow  for 
sin.  In  the  early  Christian  church 
penances  were  of  three  kinds — secret, 
public,  and  solemn.  The  first  consisted 
of  such  actions  as  are  commonly  im- 
posed by  confessors  at  the  present  day, 
as  the  repetition  of  certain  prayers,  etc. 
Public  penance  was  in  use  from  the 
earliest  days  of  the  church.  It  was  often 
very  severe,  and  the  penitents  had  to 
make  a public  confession  of  their  sins 
in  the  church.  It  became  gradually  the 
custom  of  the  bishops  to  commute  the 
canonical  penances  for  pious  works, 
such  as  pilgrimages,  alms-deeds,  and 
other  works  of  charity — and  these  again 
were  exchanged  for  indulgences.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  penance  is  one 
of  the  seven  sacraments.  The  matter  of 
it  consists  of  the  three  acts  of  the  peni- 
tent: 1,  Contrition,  or  heartfelt  sorrow 
for  sin  as  being  an  offense  against  God; 
2,  Confession  to  an  authorized  priest; 
and  3,  Satisfaction,  or  the  acceptance  and 
performance  of  certain  penitential  works' 
in  atonement  of  the  sin ; and  the  form  of 
the  sacrament  is  the  sentence  of  absolu- 
tion from  sin  pronounced  by  the  priest 
who  received  the  confession,  and  has 
been  satisfied  of  the  earnest  repentance 
of  the  sinner.  According  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  Protestants  there  is  no  such  sacra- 
ment; they  consider  repentance  and 


PENANG 


PENGUIN 


faith  as  the  only  requisites  for  forgive- 
ness. 

PENANG',  Pulo-Penang,  or  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  an  island  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  lying  at  the  north  en- 
trance of  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  off  the 
west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a channel  2 to  5 
miles  across;  area,  107  sq.  miles.  The 
island  produces  cocoa-nuts  and  areca- 
nuts,  nutmegs  and  cloves,  rice,  sugar, 
coffee,  and  pepper.  Georgetown,  or 
Penang  (pop.  84,948),  the  capital  and 
port  of  the  settlement,  is  a handsome 
town,  rapidly  increasing  in  size,  and 
has  a large  commerce.  Pop.  of  Penang, 
128,830. 

PENCIL,  an  instrument  used  for 
painting,  drawing,  and  writing.  The 
first  pencils  used  by  artists  were  prob- 
ably pieces  of  colored  earth  or  chalk  cut 
into  a form  convenient  for  holding  in 
the  hand.  On  the  introduction  of  moist 
colors,  however,  delicate  brushes  of 
fine  hairs  were  used.  Pencils  of  this 
kind,  and  of  various  degrees  of  fineness 
are  now  almost  solely  used  by  painters 
for  laying  on  their  colors;  but  in  China 
and  Japan  they  are  generally  employed, 
instead  of  pens,  for  writing.  The  hairs 
used  for  these  pencils  are  obtained  from 
the  camel,  badger,  squirrel,  sable,  goat, 
etc.  Black-lead  pencils,  for  writing  or 
drawing,  are  made  of  graphite  or  plum- 
bago (otherwise  known  as  black-lead), 
generally  cased  in  cedar  wood.  The 
comparative  hardness  and  blackness  of 

Eencils  are  attained  by  the  degree  of 
eat  to  which  they  are  subjected  and 
the  proportions  of  graphite  and  clay  in 
the  leads.  Nuremberg  is  the  great  center 
of  the  lead-pencil  trade.  Colored  pencils 
are  prepared  from  various  chalks,  such 
as  are  used  for  crayons,  instead  of  the 
graphite.  Pencils  for  writing  on  slate 
are  made  by  cutting  slate  into  small 
square  pieces  and  rounding  them,  or  into 
narrow  slips  and  incasing  them  in  wood. 

PENDEN'TIVE,  in  architecture,  the 
portion  of  a dome-shaped  vault  which 
descends  into  a corner  of  a quadrangular 
opening  when  a ceiling  of  this  kind  is 
placed  over  a straight-sided  area;  in 


Pendentive  roof,  Salisbury  cathedral  a a a, 
pendentlves. 

Gothic  architecture,  the  portion  of  a 
groined  ceiling  springing  from  one  pillar 
or  impost,  and  hounded  by  the  ridges 
or  apices  of  the  longitudinal  and  trans- 
verse vaults. 

PENDLETON,  Edmund,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Carolina  co., 
Va.,  in  1721.  He  was  a delegate  to  the 
First  Continental  congress  and  was 
president  of  the  Virginia  conventions 


of  1775  and  1776.  The  resolution  of 
May,  1776,  instructing  the  state  dele- 
gates to  introduce  a declaration  of  in- 
dependence in  congress  was  written  by 
him.  In  1788  he  presided  over  the 
Virginia  convention  which  ratified  the 
federal  constitution,  he  himself  taking 
an  active  part  in  the  debate  and  being 
largely  responsible  for  the  final  decision. 
He  died  in  1803. 

PENDLETON,  George  Hunt,  born  in 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  July  15,  1825.  He 
practiced  law  in  Cincinnati,,  served  in 
the  state  senate,  and  from  1856  until 
1865  sat  in  congress  as  a democrat. 
In  1864  he  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  on  the 
democratic  ticket,  headed  by  George  B. 
McClellan.  From  1879  until  March, 
1885,  he  was  United  States  senator  from 
Ohio,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  ap- 
pointed by  President  Cleveland,  minister 
to  Germany.  He  died  in  1889. 

PENDULUM,  in  the  widest  sense,  a 
heavy  body  suspended  so  that  it  is  free 
to  turn  or  swing  upon  an  axis  which  does 
not  pass  through  its  center  of  gravity. 
Its  only  position  of  stable  equilibrium 
is  that  in  which  its  center  of  gravity  is  in 


Gridiron  Mercurial 
pendulum,  pendulum. 

the  same  vertical  plane  with  the  axis. 
If  the  body  is  displaced  from  this  posi- 
tion it  will  tend  to  return  to  it,  and  it 
will  oscillate  or  swing  from  one  side  of 
that  position  to  the  other  until  its 
energy  is  destroyed  by  friction,  and  it 
at  length  comes  to  rest.  A small,  heavy 
body  suspended  from  a fixed  point  by  a 
string,  and  caused  to  vibrate  without 
much  friction,  is  called  a “simple 
pendulum.”  A true  simple  pendulum  is 
a mathematical  abstraction:  a heavy 
particle,  an  inextensible  and  inflexible 
weightless  string,  and  no  friction ; these 
conditions  are  only  approximated  to  in 
nature.  The  ordinary  pendulum  is  what 
is  properly  a “compound  pendulum.” 
A compound  pendulum,  as  seen  in 
clocks,  is  usually  a rigid,  heavy,  pendu- 
lous body,  varying  in  size  according  to 
the  size  of  the  clock,  but  the  “seconds” 
pendulum  may  be  considered  the 
standard.  The  penduliun  is  connected 
with  the  clockwork  by  means  of  the 
escapement,  and  is  what  renders  the 
going  of  the  clock  uniform.  In  a clock  it 
is  necessary  that  the  period  of  vibration 
of  the  pendulum  should  be  constant. 
As  all  substances  expand  and  contract 
with  heat  and  cold,  the  distance  from 
the  center  of  suspension  to  the  center  of 
gravity  of  a pendulum  is  continually 
altering.  Pendulums  constructed  so 


that  increase  or  diminution  of  tempera- 
ture do  not  affect  this  ratio  are  called 
compensation  pendulums.  These  take 
particular  names,  according  to  their 
forms  and  materials,  as  the  gridiron 
pendulum,  the  mercurial  pendulum,  etc. 
The  former  is  composed  of  a number  of 
rods  so  connected  that  the  expansion  or 
contraction  of  certain  of  them  is  counter- 
acted by  that  of  the  others.  The  mer- 
curial pendulum  consists  of  one  rod 
with  a vessel  containing  mercury  at  the 
lower  end,  so  adjusted  in  quantity  that 
whatever  alterations  take  place  in  the 
length  of  the  pendulum,  the  center  of 
oscillation  remains  the  same,  the  mer- 
cury ascending  when  the  rod  descends, 
and  vice  versa. 

PENEL'OPE,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  wife  of  Odyssus  (Ulysses)  and 
mother  of  Telemachus,  who  was  but  an 
infant  when  his  father  sailed  against 
Troy.  During  the  protracted  absence 
of  Odysseus,  Penelope  was  surrounded 
by  a host  of  suitors,  whom  she  put  off 
on  the  pretext  that  before  she  could 
make  up  her  mind  she  must  first  finish 
a large  robe  which  she  was  weaving  for 
her  father-in-law  Laertes.  To  gain  time 
she  undid  by  night  the  work  she  had 
done  by  day.  Her  strartagem  was  at  last 
communicated  to  the  suitors  by  her 
servants,  and  her  position  became  more 
diflBcult  than  before;  but  fortunately 
Odysseus  returned  in  time  to  protect  his 
spouse,  and  slay  the  obnoxious  wooers 
who  had  been  living  in  riot  and  wasting 
his  property. 

PENGUIN,  a family  of  natatorial  or 
swimming  birds  adapted  for  living 
almost  entirely  in  the  water.  They 
possess  only  rudimentary  wings,  desti- 
tute of  quill-feathers,  and  covered  with  a 
scaly  integument  or  skin.  Although 
useless  as  organs  of  flight  the  wings  are 
very  effective  aids  in  diving,  and  on 
land  they  may  be  used  after  the  fashion 
of  fore-limbs.  The  legs  are  placed  at  the 
hinder  extremity  of  the  body,  and  the 
birds  assume  an  erect  attitude  when  on 
land.  The  toes  are  completely  webbed. 
They  inhabit  chiefly  the  high  southern 
latitudes,  congregating  sometimes  in 


Emperor  peoguln. 


colonies  of  from  30,000  to  40,000.  There 
are  three  different  types  of  penguins, 
represented  by  the  king  penguin,  the 
jackass  penguin,  and  the  rockhopper. 
The  jackass  penguin  and  the  rockhopper 
are  about  2 feet  3 inches  in  height,  and 


PENINSULA 


PENNSYLVANIA 


the  king  penguin  somewhat  larger;  but 
a fossil  penguin  of  the  upper  Eocene 
stood  from  6 to  7 feet  high. 

PENIN'SULA,  a portion  of  land  almost 
surrounded  by  water,  and  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a narrow  neck  or 
isthmus. 

PENINSULAR  WAR,  The,  was  caused 
by  the  intrigues  and  ambition  of  Napo- 
leon, who  proposed  the  partition  of 
Portugal  (1807),  and  placed  his  brother 
Joseph  upon  the  throne  of  Spain.  For 
a time  the  whole  peninsula  was  occupied 
by  French  troops,  but  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  peoples  rose  in  defense  of 
their  liberties,  and  waged  a fierce 
guerilla  warfare  against  the  invaders. 
Britain  joined  the  patriots  in  1808.  Of 
the  memorable  struggle  which  ensued 
the  main  features  were  the  retreat  of 
Sir  John  Moore  to  Coruna,  and  his 
glorious  death  there;  the  accession  of 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (afterward  Duke 
of  Wellington)  tothe  supreme  command, 
his  formation  of  the  celebrated  lines  of 
Torres  Vedras,  where  he  held  the  French 
armies  in  check  until  he  had  accom- 
plished the  complete  liberation  of  Por- 
tugal; and  his  subsequent  victorious 
march  through  Spain,  marked  by  the 
great  battles  of  Salamanca  (1812)  and 
Vittoria  (1813).  In  the  spring  of  1814  the 
tide  of  war  rolled  through  the  passes 
of  the  Pyrenees  into  the  south  of  France, 
where  this  great  struggle  was  concluded 
by  the  crowning  victory  of  Toulouse. 

PENITENTIARY,  a prison  in  which 
convicted  offenders  are  confined  and 
subjected  to  a course  of  discipline  and 
instruction  with  a view  to  their  reforma- 
tion. Penitentiaries,  in  this  latter  sense, 
were  'instituted  by  act  19  George  III. 
cap.  vii.  See  Prison. 

PENN,  William,  the  founder  of  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in 
London  in  1644.  From  his  father  he  had 
inherited  a claim  upon  the  government 
of  S80,000,  and  in  settlement  of  this 
claim  the  government  in  1681  granted 
him  large  territories  in  North  America, 
the  present  state  of  Pennsylvania,  with 
right  to  found  a colony  or  society  with 
such  laws  and  institutions  as  expressed 
his  views  and  principles.  The  following 
year  Penn  came  over  to  America  and 
laid  the  foundations  of  his  colony  on  a 
democratical  basis,  and  with  a greater 
degree  of  religious  liberty  than  had  at 
that  time  been  allowed  in  the  world.  A 
great  number  of  settlers,  not  only 
Quakers,  but  members  of  all  denomina- 
tions, Englishmen,  Germans,  Swedes, 
gathered  together;  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia was  laid  out  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware,  and  the  colony  soon  came 
into  a most  flourishing  condition.  He 
remained  in  the  province  about  two 

f fears,  adjusting  its  concerns,  and  estab- 
ishing  a friendly  intercourse  with  his 
colonial  neighbors.  Soon  after  Penn 
returned  to  England  King  Charles  died 
(1685);  and  the  respect  which  James  II. 
bore  to  the  late  admiral,  who  had  recom- 
mended his  son  to  his  favor,  procured 
to  him  free  access  at  court.  He  made  use 
of  this  advantage  to  solicit  the  discharge 
of  his  persecuted  brethren,  1500  of  whom 
remained  in  prison  at  the  decease  of  the 
late  king;  and  his  influence  is  thought 
to  have  hastened,  if  it  did  not  occasion, 
the  proclamation  for  a general  pardon, 


and  the  repeal  of  religious  tests  and 
penalties.  At  the  revolution  in  1688 
Penn’s  intimacy  with  the  abdicated 
monarch  created  suspicions,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  accused  of 


treason,  and  withdrew  from  public 
notice  till  1693.  In  1699  he  again  sailed 
for  Pennsylvania,  intending  to  make  it 
the  place  of  his  future  residence;  but 
he  returned  to  England  again  in  1701. 
He  died  at  Ruscombe,  Berks,  30th 
July,  1718. 

PENNON,  a small  triangular  flag  car- 
ried by  the  knights  of  the  middle  ages 
near  the  points  of  their  lances,  bearing 
their  personal  devices  or  badges,  and 
sometimes  richly  fringed  with  gold. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  bounded  by 
New  York,  Lake  Erie,  Ohio,  W.  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland,  Delaware,  and  New 
Jersey;  area,  45,215  sq.  miles.  Except 
on  the  east,  where  the  river  Delaware 
forms  an  irregular  boundary  line,  its 
sides  form  an  almost  exact  parallelo- 
gram facing  the  cardinal  points.  The 
surface  is  traversed  southwest  to  north- 
east by  the  Alleghany  chain,  and  covered 
by  many  smaller  ranges,  which  are  more 
or  less  parallel  to  it.  On  the  east  side 
the  Alleghanies  are  rugged  and  steep, 
but  on  the  west  descend  very  gradually, 
and  then  stretch  out  into  an  extensive 


Seal  of  Pennsylvania. 


table-land.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Delaware,  which  receives  the  Lehigh 
and  the  Schuylkill;  the  Susquehanna; 
and  the  Alleghany,  which  unites  at 
Pittsburg  with  the  Monongahela  to  form 
the  Ohio.  Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the 
healthiest  states  of  the  Union.  The  soil 


has  various  grades  of  fertility,  but  is  in 
general  well  adapted  for  agricultural 
operations.  The  richest  and  most  highly 
cultivated  tract  is  southeast  of  the 
mountains  on  both  banks  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna. 

Pennsylvania’s  agriculture  is  highly 
varied  and  quite  large.  The  state  leads 
the  country  in  the  production  of  rye 
and  is  second  in  buckwheat,  having  one- 
third  of  the  total  acreage  of  the  country 
in  that  staple.  Potatoes,  sweet  corn, 
and  cabbage  form  a large  part  of  its 
roducts.  Its  fruit  industry  is  also  large, 
ixty-six  per  cent  of  its  fruit  trees 
are  apple  trees.  The  state  ranks  fourth 
in  dairy  products,  and  its  poultry  pro- 
duction is  very  large. 

In  manufactures  Pennsylvania  ranks 
second.  It  furnishes  54  per  cent  of  all 
the  iron  manufactures  of  the  country. 
It  ranks  first  in  foundry  and  machine- 
shop  products,  furnishing  more  than 
one-half  the  locomotives  of  the  country. 
A different  group  of  industries,  less 
dependent  upon  the  material  resources 
of  the  state,  is  the  manufacture  of  tex- 
tiles, in  which  the  state  takes  second 
rank.  Philadelphia,  the  principal  seat 


of  the  industry,  is  the  largest  textile 
center  in  the  country.  Pennsylvania 
ranks  second  in  the  manufacture  of 
woolen  goods  and  hosiery.  In  1900 
Pennsylvania  manufactured  48  per  cent 
of  the  total  carpet  product  of  the  United 
States.  More  ingrain  carpets  are  prob- 
ably made  in  Philadelphia  than  in  any 
other  city  in  the  world. 

Coal,  iron,  and  salt  are  found  in  ah 
most  exhaustless  abundance.  In  the 
mountain  districts  of  the  south  and 
east  to  the  west  of  the  Susquehanna  an 
anthracite  coal-field  occurs  over  an  area 
estimated  at  472  sq.  miles;  while  to  the 
west  of  the  Alleghanies  a vast  bitumin- 
ous coal-field,  of  which  Pittsburg  may 
be  considered  the  center,  has  been  traced 
over  an  area  of  12,300  sq.  miles.  The 
annual  output  of  coal  alone  exceeds  in 
value  the  total  mineral  product  of  any 
other  state.  Anthracite  has  been  mined 
continuously  since  1820.  The  anthracite 
coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania  yield  almost 
the  entire  product  for  the  United  States, 
and  represent  the  only  high-grade  an- 
thracite producing  region  in  the  world. 
It  was  not  until  about  1875  that  bitumi- 
nous coal  began  to  be  extensively  used  in 
iron-smelting,  but  since  then  it  has  far 
exceeded  anthracite  in  annual  tonnage. 
There  are  about  100,000  employees 
engaged  in  coal  mining. 


PENNSYLVANIA  DUTCH 


PENSACOLA 


Pennsylvania  has  always  ranked  first 
in  the  production  of  coke,  usually  yield- 
ing about  two-thirds  of  the  total  for  the 
United  States.  Pennsylvania  is  with- 
out a rival  in  the  stone-quarrying  in- 
dustry. The  production  of  slate  is  about 
two-thirds  that  for  the  whole  country. 
Pennsylvania  also  ranks  first  in  the 
amount  of  limestone  quarried.  About 
two-fifths  of  the  limestone  is  used  for 
flux,  and  a somewhat  less  amount  is 
burned  into  lime.  Pennsylvania  stands 
second  in  the  value  of  its  clay  products 
and  first  in  the  output  of  brick.  The 
state  produces  in  value  over  half  the 
total  product  of  Portland  cement  for 
the  United  States.  Some  rock  cement  is 
also  produced.  Other  products  worthy 
of  note  are  metallic  paint,  mineral  water, 
salt,  and  ochre.  The  strata  of  both  coal 
fields  contain  many,  valuable  seams  of 
ironstone,  and  both  the  smelting  and 
working  of  iron  have  long  been  regarded 
as  the  most  important  interest  of  the 
state.  An  accession  of  immense  value 
was  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  1859, 
In  railroad  mileage  Pennsylvania  is  ex- 
ceeded by  only  one  state,  having  up- 
ward of  10,500  miles  of  road,  with  pro- 
portional passenger  and  freight  traffic. 

Philadelphia  and  Erie  are  ports  of  en- 
tiy.  Philadelphia  ranks  third  among  the 
Atlantic  coast  ports  in  the  value  of  its 
foreign  trade.  Erie  has  one  of  the  best 
harbors  on  Lake  Erie,  and  carries  on  a 
large  import  trade  in  Michigan  iron  and 
Canadian  lumber,  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  coal.  Pittsburg  has  an  im- 
mense inland  trade,  while  its  local  ship- 
yards build  large  numbers  of  steamboats 
for  use  on  the  western  streams. 

The  largest  religious  denomination  is 
the  Methodist  Episcopal.  Education  is 
free  but  not  compulsory.  Among  the 
higher  educational  institutions  are  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadel- 

Ehia,  and  Pennsylvania  college,  Gettys- 
urg.  Harrisburg,  though  an  insignifi- 
cant place  compared  with  Philadelphia, 
Pittsburg,  and  several  other  towns,  con- 
tinues to  be  the  capital. 

Pennsylvania  was  settled  by  the 
Dutch  when,  on  Aug.  28,  1609,  Henry 
Hudson  anchored  in  Delaware  Bay  in 
his  ship  the  Half  Moon.  The  grant  of 
the  extensive  territory  called  Pennsyl- 
vania,made  by  Charles  II. in  1681  to  Wil- 
liam Penn,  carried  with  it  full  proprie- 
torship and  dominion,  saving  only  the 
king’s  sovereignty.  In  1682,  when  Penn 
crossed  the  sea  to  take  possession,  he 
found  the  western  bank  of  the  Delaware 
already  occupied  by  nearly  6,000  Swedes, 
Dutch,  and  English,  the  Swedes  having 
begun  a settlement  in  1638.  To  these, 
as  to  settlers  from  all  nations,  he  con- 
ceded equal  liberties.  English  Quakers, 
Scotch  and  Irish  Presbyterians,  Ger- 
man Mennonites,  French  Huguenots, 
men  of  all  religions,  were  alike  welcome ; 
the  population  increased  for  a few  years 
at  the  rate  of  one  thousand  a year;  then 
more  rapidly,  so  that  at  the  end  of 
seventy-five  years  it  exceeded  200,000. 
Though  stout  against  the  Stamp  Act  of 
1765  and  other  parliamentary  encroach- 
ments, Pennsylvania  was  not  swift  to 
move;  a committee  of  safety  seized  the 
reins  till  the  people  could  speak  through 
a representative  convention.  The  con- 
vention espoused  the  revolution.;  in 


September,  1776,  a state  constitution 
was  promulgated,  in  1778  the  old  charter 
was  formally  annulled  and  the  Penn 
claims  silenced  by  payment  of  $650,000. 
During  the  war  Pennsylvania  was  the 
scene  of  important  events — the  delib- 
erations of  the  congress  and  the  declara- 
tion of  independence  in  1776;  the  battles 
of  Brandywine  and  Germantown  in 
1777;  the  British  occupation  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  encampment  of  Wash- 
ington at  Valley  Forge,  in  1777-78. 
A brief  but  violent  mutiny  of  the  unpaid 
soldiery  of  Pennsylvania  in  1781  led 
congress  to  adopt  a better  system  of 
finance,  under  the  wise  guidance  of 
Robert  Morris  of  Philadelphia.  In  1812, 
at  the  outbreak  of  war  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, Pennsylvania  promptly  furnished 
its  quota  of  troops.  Internal  'mprove- 
ments  were  projected  early,  and  the 
Schuylkill  canal  was  begun  in  1815  and 
completed  in  1825.  From  1829  to  1836 
the  projected  improvements  called  for 
the  construction  of  292  miles  of  canal 
and  126  miles  of  railroad,  at  a total 
cost  of  $35,000,000.  The  first  bill  for  a 
public  school  system  was  passed  in  the 
face  of  violent  opposition  in  1834. 
Though  the  iron  and  coal  had  been 
known  to  exist  before  the  revolution,  it 
was  not  until  1839  that  anthracite  was 
successfully  applied  to  the  manufacture 
of  iron.  The  first  oil  well  was  sunk  near 
Titusville  in  1859.  At  the  opening  of  the 
war  with  the  southern  states  in  1861, 
in  response  to  the  president’s  call  for 
14,000  men  as  the  state’s  quota, 
Pennsylvania  sent  25,975,  and  during 
the  war  furnished  a total  of  387,284. 
No  other  northern  state  was  invaded. 
At  Gettysburg,  near  the  state  border, 
a three  days’  battle  was  fought,  June 
30  to  July  3, 1863,  resulting  in  a decisive 
victory  of  the  federal  forces.  In  1864 
Chambersburg  was  burned  by  the  con- 
federates. 

A criminal  combination  in  the  anthra- 
cite mining  region,  known  as  the  “Molly 
Maguires,”  was  broken  up  in  1876  by 
due  course  of  law,  twenty  men  being 
hanged  for  murder.  In  1877  the  “rail- 
road riots,”  an  outbreak  of  di.ssatisfied 
railway  employees,  caused  a vast  de- 
struction of  property  at  Pittsburg  and 
vicinity,  but  were  quelled  by  the  mili- 
tary. The  constitution  has  been  four 
times  revised — in  1838,  1850,  1857, 
1874. 

In  national  elections  the  state  was  at 
the  outset  federalist,  but  in  1796  four- 
teen of  its  fifteen  votes  were  cast  for 
Jefferson.  Eight  votes  were  cast  for  him 
again  in  1800,  while  seven  went  to  the 
federalist  candidate.  From  this  time 
until  1840  the  state  was  democratic. 
The  state  gave  its  vote  to  Polk  in  1844, 
to  Taylor  in  1848,  and  in  1852  and  1856 
to  the  democratic  candidates.  Since 
1860  the  state  has  been  overwhelmingly 
republican  in  national  affairs,  though, 
on  account  of  factional  fights  in  the 
republican  ranks,  a democratic  gover- 
nor has  been  twice  elected.  Population 
7,450,000. 

PENNSYLVANIA  DUTCH,  a German 
dialect  mixed  with  English  spoken  in 
Pennsylvania  by  German  settlers  and 
their  descendants. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  Historical  Society 
of,  an  association  organized  in  Phila- 


delphia in  1824.  Its  object  is  the  elucida- 
tion of  history  with  special  reference  to 
that  of  Philadelphia.  It  has  a valuable 
historical  library  and  a museum  at 
Philadelphia.  The  society  has  a sub- 
scribed publication  fund  of  $40,000, 
the  revenue  from  which  is  expended  in 
printing  matter  of  historic  interest. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  University  of,  an 
institution  of  higher  learning  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  established  in  1740  as  a 
charitable  school  and  raised  to  the 
grade  of  an  academy  in  1751.  In  1755 
the  institution  was  converted  into  the 
College  and  Academy  of  Philadelphia. 
In  1791  an  act  was  passed  amalgamating 
the  old  college  with  the  new  university 
under  its  present  title.  In  1872  the 
university  was  moved  to  its  present  site. 

The  departments  of  the  university  are 
the  college,  including  the  school  of  arts, 
the  Towne  Scientific  school  and  the 
courses  for  teachers,  the  departments 
of  philosophy  (graduate  school),  law, 
medicine,  dentistry,  veterinary  medi- 
cine, and  archiBology;  the  Wistar  insti- 
tute of  anatomy  and  biology;  the 
laboratory  of  hygiene,  the  veterinary 
hospital,  the  library  and  the  Flower 
astronomical  observatory,  physical  edu- 
cation. The  school  of  art  offers  courses 
in  arts  and  science,  finance  and  com- 
merce, biology  and  music.  The  Towne 
scientific  school  offers  courses  in  archi- 
tecture, science,  and  technology,  me- 
chanical, electrical,  civil,  and  chemical 
engineering,  and  chemistry. 

The  university  confers  the  degrees  of 
bachelor  of  arts, laws,  music, and  science, 
master  of  arts  and  science,  doctor  of 
philosophy,  medicine,  dental  surgery, 
and  veterinary  medicine,  and  the  tech- 
nical degrees  of  civil,  mechanical  elec- 
trical, and  chemical  engineer. 

PENNY,  a British  coin  (formerly  of 
copper  since  1860  of  bronze),  the  twelfth 
part  of  a shilling.  It  was  at  first  a silver 
coin  weighing  about  22J  grains  troy, 
or  the  two-hundred-and-fortieth  part  of 
a Saxon  pound.  Till  the  time  of  Edward 
I.  it  was  so  deeply  indented  by  a cross 
mark  that  it  could  be  broken  into  halves 
(thence  called  half-penny)  or  quarters 
(fourthings  or  farthings).  Its  weight  was 
steadily  decreased  till  at  last,  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  it  was  fixed  at  7|j 
grains,  or  the  sixty-second  part  of  an 
ounce  of  silver.  Copper  pennies  were 
first  coined  in  1797,  but  copper  half 
pennies  and  farthings  had  been  in  use 
from  1672. 

PENNYWEIGHT,  a troy  weight  con- 
taining 24  grains,  each  grain  being  equal 
in  weight  to  a grain  of  wheat  from  the 
middle  of  the  ear,  well  dried.  It  was 
anciently  the  weight  of  a silver  penny, 
hence  the  name. 

PENOB'SeOT,  the  largest  river  of 
Maine,  United  States  of  America.  It 
flows  300  miles  south  by  west  to  Penob- 
scot bay.  It  is  navigable  for  ships  to 
Bangor,  60  miles,  where  the  tide  rises 
17  feet. 

PENSACO'LA,  a port  of  entry  and 
capital  of  Escambia  co.,  Florida,  on  the 
Pensacola  bay,  64  miles  east  of  Mobile. 
Pensacola  suffered  considerably  in  1861 
during  the  American  civil  war.  Vessels 
drawing  21  feet  can  approach  the  town, 
and  the  bay  is  one  of  the  safest  and 
most  capacious  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 


PENSIONS 


PENZA 


It  is  a naval  station  and  depot,  and 
is  well  defended  by  several  strong  forts. 
Pop.  20,110. 


PENSIONS,  annual  allowances  o^ 
money  settled  upon  persons,  usually  for 
services  previously  rendered.  In  Great 
Britain,  besides  large  sums  devoted  to 
pensioning  army  and  navy  men,  pen- 
sions are  conferred  upon  the  judges  of 


the  like,  or  to  their  widows  or  families, 
for  the  purpose  of  rewarding  personal 
merit  and  of  encouraging  literature,  art, 
and  science.  The  policy  of  ^the  United 
States  government  has  confined  the 
bestowment  of  pensions  to  the  officers 
and  privates  who  have  served  in  the 
army  or  navy  during  the  wars  in  which 
the  republic  has  been  engaged,  or  who 
have  been  wounded  or  otherwise  dis- 
abled while  in  active  service,  and  to 
their  widows,  children,  and  other  de- 
pendent relatives. 

PEN'TACLE,  a figure  consisting  of 
five  straight  lines  crossing  and  joined  so 
as  to  form  a five-pointed  star.  It  was  a 
symbol  among  the  Gnostics,  and  was 
employed  with  superstitious  import  by 
the  astrologers  and  mystics  of  the 
middle  ages. 

PEN'TAGON,  a figure  of  five  sides 
and  five  angles;  if  the  sides  and  angles 
be  equal  it  is  a regular  pentagon;  other- 
wise, irregular. 

PENTATEUCH,  the  Greek  name 
applied  to  the  first  five  books  in  the 


THE  NUMBER  OP  PENSION  CLAIMS,  PENSIONERS,  AND  DISBURSEMENTS,  1861-1905, 

ARE  AS  FOLLOWS; 


Fiscal  Year 
Ending  June  30 

Total 

Number 

of 

Applica- 

tions 

Filed 

Total 

Number 

of 

Claims 

Allowed 

Numt 

Invalids 

)er  of  Pens! 
on  the  Roll 

Widows, 

Etc. 

oners 

Total 

Disbursements 

1861 

4.337 

4,299 

8,636 

81,072,461.55 

1863 

2,487 

462 

4,341 

3,818 

8,159 

790,384.76 

1863 

49,332 

7,884 

7,821 

6,970 

14,791 

1,035,139.91 

1864 

53,599 

39,487 

23,479 

27,656 

51,135 

4,504,616.92 

1865 

72,684 

40,171 

35,880 

50,106 

85,986 

8,525,153.11 

1866 

65,256 

50,177 

55,653 

71,070 

126,723 

13,459,969.43 

1867 

86,753 

36,483 

69,565 

83,618 

153,183 

18,619,956.46 

1868 

20,768 

28,921 

75,957 

93,686 

169,643 

24,010,981.99 

1869 

26,066 

23,196 

82,859 

105,104 

187,963 

38,432,884.08 

1870 

24,851 

18,221 

87,521 

111,165 

198,686 

27,780.811.81 

1871 

43,969 

16,562 

93,394 

114,101 

207,495 

33,077,383.63 

1872 

26,391 

34,333 

113,954 

118,275 

232,299 

30,169,341.00 

1873 

18,303 

16,052 

119,500 

118,911 

238,411 

29,185,289.62 

1874 

16,734 

10,462 

121,638 

114,613 

236,241 

30,593,749.50 

1875 

18,704 

11,152 

123,989 

111,832 

234,821 

29,683,116.63 

1876 

23,533 

9,977 

124,239 

107,898 

232,137 

28,351,599.69 

1877 

23,715 

11,326 

128,723 

103,381 

233,104 

28,580,157.04 

1878 

44,587 

11,963 

131,649 

93,349 

233,998 

26,844,415.18 

1879 

57,118 

31,346 

138,615 

104,140 

242,755 

33,780,526.19 

1880 

141,466 

19,545 

145,410 

105,392 

250,803 

57,240,540.14 

1881 

31,116 

27,394 

164,110 

104,720 

268,830 

50,626,538.51 

1882 

40,939 

27,664 

183,633 

103,064 

285,697 

51,296,280.54 

1883  

48,776 

38,162 

206,043 

97,616 

303,6.58 

60,431,973  85 

1884 

41.785 

34,192 

225,470 

97,286 

323,756 

57,373,536.74 

1885 

40,918 

35,767 

247,146 

97,979 

345,135 

65,693,706.73 

1886 

49,895 

40,857 

270,346 

95,437 

365,783 

64,584,270.45 

1887 

72.465 

65,194 

306,298 

99,709 

406,007 

74,815,486.85 

1888 

75,726 

60,262 

343,701 

108,856 

453,557 

79,646,146.37 

1889 

81,230 

61,931 

373,699 

116,026 

489,725 

89,131,968.44 

1890 

105,044 

66,637 

415,654 

122,290 

537,944 

106,493,890.19 

1891 

696,941 

156,486 

536,821 

139,339 

676,160 

118,548,9,59.71 

1892 

246,638 

224,047 

703,242 

173,836 

876,068 

141,086,948.84 

1893 

119,361 

121,630 

759,706 

206,306 

966,013 

158,155,343.51 

1894 

57,141 

39,085 

754,383 

215,163 

969,544 

140,772,163.78 

1895 

45,361 

39,185 

750,951 

219,567 

970.524 

140,959,361.00 

1896 

42,244 

40.374 

747,967 

222,557 

970,678 

139,380,075.00 

1897 

50,585 

50,101 

746,829 

229,185 

976,014 

110,845,772.00 

1898 

48,732 

52,648 

760,853 

232,861 

993,714 

145,748,865..56 

1899 

53,881 

37,077 

753,451 

238,068 

991,519 

139,483,696.00 

1900 

51.964 

40,645 

751,864 

241,674 

993,529 

139,381,522.73 

1901 

58,373 

44,868 

747,999 

249,736 

997,735 

139,583,231.98 

1902 

47,965 

40,173 

738,809 

260,637 

999,446 

138,491,822.48 

1903 

.52,325 

40,136 

728,732 

267,813 

996,545 

138,890,088.64 

1904  

55,794 

44,296 

720,315 

274,447 

994,762 

143,093,818.75 

1905 

52,841 

50,027 

717,158 

281,283 

998,441 

142,099,386.05 

Total 

3,033,336 

1,876,096 

*3,264,130,257  90 

the  higher  courts  and  upon  many  other 
civil  officers  who  have  performed  their 
duties  for  a specified  number  of  years 
and  then  resigned  their  active  functions. 
They  are  also  frequently  granted  to  dis- 
tinguished and  meritorious  authors, 
artists,  scientific  men,  inventors,  and 


Bible,  called  also  the  Law  of  Moses,  or 
simply  the  law.  The  division  of  the 
whole  work  into  five  parts  has,  by  some 
authorities, been  supposed  to  be  original; 
others,  with  more  probability,  think  it 
was  so  divided  by  the  Greek  translators, 
the  titles  of  the  several  books  being 


Greek,  not  Hebrew.  It  begins  with  an 
account  of  creation  and  the  primeval 
condition  of  man;  of  the  entrance  of  sin 
into  the  world,  and  God’s  dealing  with 
it,  broadening  out  into  a history  of  the 
early  world,  but  again  narrowing  into 
biographies  of  the  founders  of  the  Jewish 
family;  it  then  proceeds  to  describe  how 
the  family  grew  into  a nation  in  Egypt, 
tells  us  of  its  oppression  and  deliverance; 
of  its  forty  years’  wandering  in  the 
wilderness;  of  the  giving  of  the  law 
with  all  its  civil  and  religious  enact- 
ments; of  the  construction  of  the  taber- 
nacle; of  the  census  of  the  people;  of 
the  rights  and  duties  of  the  priesthood; 
and  concludes  with  the  last  discourses  of 
Moses  and  his  death.  The  Pentateuch 
and  the  book  of  Joshua  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  together  as  the  hlexateuch; 
when  Judges  and  Ruth  are  added,  as 
the  Octateuch. 

PENTECOST,  a Jewish  festival,  held 
on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  passover, 
in  celebration  of  the  ingathering  and  in 
thanksgiving  for  the  harvest.  It  was 
also  called  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  because 
it  was  celebrated  seven  weeks  after  the 
passover.  It  is  also  a festival  of  the 
Christian  church,  occurring  fifty  days 
after  Easter,  in  commemoration  of  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  dis- 
ciples, called  in  England  Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND  FIRTH,  a channel  sepa- 
rating the  mainland  of  Scotland  from 
the  Orkney  islands,  and  connecting  the 
North  Sea  with  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It 
is  about  17  miles  long  east  to  west,  and 
6 to  8 miles  broad.  A current,  setting 
from  east  to  west,  flows  through  it  with 
a velocity  of  3 to  9 miles  an  hour,  caus- 
ing many  eddies,  and  rendering  its 
navigation  difficult  and  dangerous. 

PENUM'BRA,  the  partial  shadow  be- 
tween the  full  light  and  the  total  shadow 
caused  by  an  opaque  body  intercepting 
the  light  from  a luminous  body,  the 
penumbra  being  the  result  of  rays 
emitted  by  part  of  the  luminous  body. 
An  eye  placed  in  the  penumbra  would 
see  part  of  the  luminous  body,  part  be- 
ing eclipsed  by  the  opaque  body;  an 
eye  placed  in  the  “umbra,”  or  place  of 
total  shadow,  would  receive  no  rays 
from  the  luminous  body;  an  eye  placed 


Umbra  and  penumbra. 

anywhere  else  than  in  the  penumbra 
and  umbra  sees  the  luminous  body 
without  eclipse.  The  subject  is  of  im- 
portance in  the  consideration  of  eclipses. 
In  a partial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  as  long 
as  any  part  of  the  same  is  visible  the 
parties  observing  are  in  the  penumbra; 
when  the  eclipse  is  total,  in  the  umbra. 
The  cut  sliows  the  phenomena  of  the 
umbra  and  penumbra  in  the  case  of  a 
luminous  body  between  two  opaque 
bodies,  the  one  larger,  the  other  smaller 
than  itself.  See  also  Eclipse. 

PENZA,  a government  of  Russia, 
bounded  by  Nijni-Novgorod,  Tambov, 


PEONY 


PERGUNNAHS 


Saratov,  and  Simbirsk;  area,  14,996 
sq.  miles;  pop.  1,491,215.  About  60 
per  cent  of  the  soil  is  arable,  the  chief 
crops  being  rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  hemp, 
potatoes,  and  beet-root,  and  about  14 
per  cent  is  under  meadows  or  grazing 
land.  The  forests  are  extensive.  Penza, 
the  capital,  is  on  an  eminence  at  the 
junction  of  the  Penza  and  Sura,  440 
miles  southeast  of  Moscow.  Pop.  61,851. 

PE'ONY,  a genus  of  plants  very  gen- 
erally cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their 
large  showy  flowers.  The  species  are 
mostly  herbaceous,  having  perennial 
tuberous  roots  and  large  deeply-lobed 
leaves.  The  flowers  are  solitary,  and  of 
a variety  of  colors,  crimson,  purplish, 
ink,  yellow,  and  white.  The  flowers, 
owever,  have  no  smell,  or  not  an  agree- 
able one,  except  in  the  case  of  a shrubby 
species,  a native  of  China,  of  several 
varieties,  with  beautiful  whitish  flowers 
stained  with  pink.  The  roots  and  seeds 
of  all  the  species  are  emetic  and  cathartic 
in  moderate  doses. 

PEOPLE’S  PALACE,  a building  in  the 
East  End  of  London,  situated  in  Mile- 
end  Road,  opened  by  the  queen.  May 
1887.  It  provides  for  the  population 
of  the  East  End  a hall  for  concerts,  en- 
tertainments, etc.,  a library  and  reading- 
rooms,  gymnasia,  swimming-baths,  so- 
cial-meeting rooms,  rooms  for  games, 
refresliment  rooms,  a winter-garden, 
technical  schools,  etc.  The  nucleus  of 
the  palace  was  the  Beaumont  Institute 
founded  by  Mr.  J.  T.  B.  Beaumont 
(died  1840),  who  left  $65,000  to  estab- 
lish an  institution  for  the  moral  and 
intellectual  improvement  of  the  work- 
ing-classes in  the  East  End  of  London. 
A movement  set  on  foot  by  a novel  by 
Sir  Walter  Besant — All  Sorts  and  Con- 
ditions of  Men — resulted  in  raising  the 
fund  to  $375,000. 

PEO'RIA,  the  capital  of  Peoria  co., 
Illinois,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Illinois 
river  (here  called  from  its  width  Lake 
Peoria).  Peoria  is  a great  railway  center, 
and  is  connected  with  St.  Louis  by  river 
steamers  and  with  Chicago  by  the 
Michigan  canal.  It  is  a rapidly  rising 
place,  the  seat  of  a large  grain  traflBc, 
and  has  great  iron-works  and  other 
manufacturing  establishments.  Pop. 
1909  about  75,000. 

PEPPER,  a genus  of  plants.  The 
pepper  which  furnishes  the  black  pepper 
of  commerce,  is  a native  of  the  East 
Indies,  where  it  is  cultivated  on  an 


extensive  scale.  It  is  a climbing  plant 
with  broad,  ovate,  acuminate  leaves, 
and  little  globular  berries,  which,  when 
ripe,  are  of  a bright-red  color.  The 


pepper  of  Malacca,  Java,  and  especially 
of  Sumatra,  is  the  most  esteemed.  Its 
culture  has  been  introduced  into  various 
other  tropical  countries.  White  pepper 
is  the  best  and  soundest  of  the  berries, 
gathered  when  fully  ripe,  and  deprived 
of  their  external  skin.  The  Chavica 
Betle,  or  betel,  belongs  to  the  same 
natural  order.  Cayenne  pepper,  Guinea 
pepper,  bird  pepper,  etc.,  are  the  prod- 
uce of  species  of  Capsicum.  Jamaica 
pepper  is  pimento  or  allspice. 

PEPPERMINT.  See  Mint. 

PEP'SINE,  an  active  principle  of  the 
gastric  juice,  a peculiar  animal  prin- 
ciple secreted  by  the  stomach.  The 
pepsine  or  pepsia  of  pharmacy  is  a prep- 
aration of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
stomach  of  the  pig  or  calf.  It  is  often 
prescribed  in  cases  of  indigestion  con- 
nected with  loss  of  power  and  tone  of 
the  stomach. 

PEPYS  (peps  or  pep'is),  Samuel, 
secretary  to  the  admiralty  in  the  reigns 
of  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  was  born 
at  Brampton,  Huntingdonshire,  1632. 
He  died  in  1703.  He  was  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  for  two  years;  but 
his  title  to  fame  rests  upon  his  Diary 
(1659-69),  which  is  a most  entertaining 
work,  revealing  the  writer’s  own  char- 
acter very  plainly,  giving  an  excellent 
picture  of  contemporary  life,  and  of 
great  value  for  the  history  of  the  court 
of  Charles  II.  It  is  in  shorthand,  was 
discovered  among  a collection  of  books, 
prints,  and  manuscripts  bequeathed  by 
Pepys  to  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge 
and  was  first  printed  in  1825. 

PERJE'A,  a district  of  Palestine  east- 
ward of  the  Jordan,  the  “Gilead”  of  the 
Old  Testament. 

PERAK  (pa'rAk),  a native  state  of  the 
Malay  peninsula,  extending  about  80 
miles  along  the  west  coast,  and  stretch- 
ing inward  to  the  mountain  range  which 
forms  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula; 
area,  7949  sq.  miles,  pop.  328,801. 
Since  1875  Perak  has  been  practically  a 
dependency  of  the  Straits  settlements, 
the  native  rajah  being  controlled  by  a 
British  resident  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor of  that  colony. 

PERCEPTION,  in  philosophy,  the 
faculty  of  perceiving;  the  faculty  by 
which  we  have  knowledge  through  the 
medium  or  instrumentality  of  the  bodily 
organs,  or  by  which  we  hold  communica- 
tion with  the  external  world.  Percep- 
tion takes  cognizance  only  of  objects 
without  the  mind.  We  perceive  a man, 
a horse,  a tree;  when  we  think  or  feel, 
we  are  conscious  of  our  thoughts  and 
emotions.  Two  great  disputes  are  con- 
nected with  perception,  both  brought 
into  full  prominence  by  Bishop  Berke- 
ley. The  first  is  the  origin  of  our  judg- 
ments of  the  distances  and  real  mag- 
nitudes of  visible  bodies.  The  second 
question  has  reference  to  the  grounds 
we  have  for  asserting  the  existence  of  an 
external  material  world,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Berkeley,  was  connected  with 
the  other.  See  Idealism. 

PER'CEVAL,  Spencer,  English  states- 
man, son  of  John  Perceval,  Earl  of 
Egmont,  born  1762.  In  1801  he  became 
solicitor-general,  and  in  1802  attorney- 
general.  In  1807  he  was  appointed 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  Duke  of  Portland,  in  1809, 


he  became  premier.  In  this  post  he  con- 
tinued till  May  11,  1812,  when  a person 
named  Bellingham  shot  him  dead  with 
a pistol  in  the  lobby  of  the  House  of 
Commons. 

PERCH,  a genus  of  fishes,  forming  the 
type  of  the  perch  family.  The  common 
perch  is  a common  tenant  of  fresh- 
water lakes  and  rivers.  The  body  is 
broad,  andjsomewhat  flattened  laterally. 
There  are  two  dorsal  fins,  the  anterior 


Perch. 


supported  by  very  strong  spines.  It  is 
colored  a greenish-brown  on  the  upper 
parts,  the  belly  being  of  a yellowish  or 
golden  white.  The  sides  are  marked 
with  from  five  to  seven  blackish  bands 
The  average  weight  is  from  2 to  3 lbs. 
The  perch  is  a voracious  feeder,  devour- 
ing smaller  fishes,  worms,  crustaceans, 

PERCUSSION,  in  medicine,  that 
method  of  diagnosis  which  consists  in 
striking  gently  on  the  surface  of  one  of 
the  cavities  of  the  body,  and  then  en- 
deavoring to  ascertain  from  the  sound 
produced  the  condition  of  the  organ 
lying  beneath.  Percussion  is  most 
frequently  used  on  the  chest,  but  it  is 
also  occasionally  applied  to  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  the  head,  etc. 

PERCUSSION  CAPS,  are  small  copper 
cylinders,  closed  at  one  end  for  con- 
veniently holding  the  detonating  com- 
position which  is  exploded  by  percussion 
so  as  to  ignite  the  powder  in  certain 
kinds  of  fire-arms.  The  copper  cap  came 
into  general  use  between  1820  and  1830. 

PERENNIAL,  in  botany,  a term  ap- 
plied to  those  plants  whose  roots  subsist 
for  a number  of  years,  whether  they 
retain  their  leaves  in  winter  or  not. 
Those  which  retain  their  leaves  are 
called  evergreens,  such  as  cast  their 
leaves  are  called  deciduous.  • Perennial 
herbaceous  plants,  like  trees  and  shrubs, 
produce  flowers  and  fruit  year  after 
year. 

PERFUMES,  substances  emitting  an 
agreeable  odor,  and  used  about  the  per- 
son, the  dress,  or  the  dwelling.  Per- 
fumes of  various  sorts  have  been  held  in 
high  estimation  from  the  most  ancient 
times.  The  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Phoe- 
nicians, Assyrians,  and  Persians  are 
known  to  have  made  great  use  of  them, 
as  did  also  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
In  the  middle  ages  France  and  Italy 
were  most  conspicuous  for  the  use  and 
preparation  of  perfumes  Perfumes  are 
partly  of  animal  but  chiefly  of  vegetable 
origin.  They  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  crude  and  prepared.  The  former 
consist  of  such  animal  perfumes  as  muck, 
civet,  ambergris,  and  such  vegetable 
perfumes  as  are  obtained  in  the  form  of 
essential  oils.  The  prepared  perfumes, 
many  of  them  known  by  fancy  names, 
consist  of  various  mixtures  or  prepara- 
tions of  odorous  substances  made  up 
according  to  recipe. 

PERGUNNAHS  (Pargands),  The 
Twenty-four,  a district  of  India,  forming 


PERICARDITIS 


PERIOSTITIS 


the  metropolitan  district  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governorship of  Bengal;  area,  2128 
eq.  miles.  Pop.  (exclusive  of  Calcutta), 
1 892  033 

PERICARDITIS,  inflammation  of  the 
membranous  sac  containing  the  heart. 
In  the  acute  stage  of  the  disease  there  is 
exudation  of  lymph  or  serum ; at  a later 
stage  false  membranes  are  formed;  and 
at  a still  later  stage  the  two  sides  become 
glued  together,  forming  adherent  peri- 
cardium. This  is  generally  followed  by 
changes  in  the  substance  of  the  heart 
or  in  Its  internal  surface,  orifices,  or 
valves,  and  a fatal  termination  is  rarely 
long  delayed.  The  symptoms  of  peri- 
carditis are : 1st,  pain  more  or  less  acute, 
in  the  situation  of  the  heart;  fever  is 
present  with  loss  of  appetite  and  dry 
tongue.  An  anxious  respiration  and  a 
feeling  of  overwhelming  oppression  are 
also  present,  with  frequent  sighing, 
which  gives  momentary  relief.  Most 
of  the  symptoms  are  aggravated  by 
motion  or  a high  temperature.  For  the 
diagnosis  of  pericarditis  we  must  rely 
mainly  on  the  physical  signs,  but  it  is 
only  when  the  effusion  is  considerable 
that  investigation  by  percussion  is  of 
much  use.  In  ordinary  cases^  where 
adhesion  takes  place,  there  may  be  an 
apparently  complete  recovery  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks  or  less ; but  adhesion 
frequently  gives  rise  to  other  structural 
changes  of  the  heart,  and  then  fatal 
disease  of  that  organ  almost  always 
follows.  In  slight  cases  a real  cure  with- 
out adhesion  may  be  effected.  This  dis- 
ease is  frequently  brought  on  by  ex- 

Eosure  to  cold  or  draughts  when  the 
ody  is  warm  and  perspiring.  Its  most 
frequent  occurrence  is  in  connection 
with  acute  rheumatism. 

PERICAR'DIUM,  the  investing  fibro- 
serous  sac  or  bag  of  the  heart  in  man 
and  other  animals.  In  man  it  contains 
the  heart  and  origin  of  the  great  vessels. 
It  consists  of  two  layers  an  outer  or 
fibrous  and  an  inner  or  serous  layer. 
The  inner  surface  of  the  membrane 
secretes  a serous  fluid,  which  in  health 
is  present  only  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
lubricate  the  heart,  and  so  to  facilitate 
its  movements  within  the  sac. 

PERTCLES  (-klez),  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  statesmen  of  ancient  Greece, 
born  at  Athens  about  494  b.  c.  He  was 
connected  by  family  relations  with  the 
aristocracy,  but  as  Cimon  was  already  at 
its  head  he  endeavored  to  gain  the  favor 
of  the  popular  party.  In  this  he  fully 
succeeded  by  his  eloquence,  abilities, 
and  political  tactics,  so  that  on  the  death 
of  Cimon,  in  449  b.c.,  Pericles  became 
virtual  ruler  of  Athens.  By  his  great 
public  works  he  flattered  the  vanity  of 
the  Athenians,  while  he  beautified  the 
city  and  employed  many  laborers  and 
artists.  His  chief  aim  was  to  make 
Athens  undoubtedly  the  first  power  in 
Greece,  as  well  as  the  chief  center  of  art 
and  literature,  and  this  position  she  at- 
tained and  held  for  a number  of  years. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war  (b.c.  431),  in  which  Athens 
had  to  contend  against  Sparta  and  other 
states,  Pericles  was  made  commander- 
Vn-chief.  The  Spartans  advanced  into 
Attica,  but  Pericles  had  made  the  rural 
population  take  refuge  in  Athens  and 
refused  battle.  After  they  retired  he  led 


an  army  into  Meharis,  and  next  year  he 
commanded  a powerful  fleet  sent  against 
the  Peloponnesus.  In  430  b.c.  a plague 
broke  out  at  Athens,  and  for  a brief 
period  Pericles  lost  his  popularity  and 
was  deprived  of  the  command.  The 
people,  however,  soon  recalled  him  to 
the  head  of  the  state,  but  amid  his 
numerous  civil  cares  he  was  afflicted  by 


domestic  calamities.  Many  of  his  friends 
and  his  two  sons,  Xanthippus  and  Para- 
lus,  were  carried  off  by  the  plague ; and 
to  console  him  for  this  loss  the  Athenians 
allowed  him  to  legitimize  his  son  by 
Aspasia.  He  now  sunk  into  a lingering 
sickness,  and  died  b.c.  429,  in  the  third 
year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Pericles 
was  distinguished  by  intellectual  breadth, 
elevated  moral  tone,  unruffled  serenity, 
and  superiority  to  the  prejudices  of  his 
age.  His  name  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  highest  glory  of  art,  science, 
and  power  in  Athens. 

PERIER  (pa-ri-a),  Casimir,  French 
statesman,  was  born  at  Grenoble  in  1777; 
educatedat  Lyons  ;and  servedwith  honor 
in  the  campaigns  of  Italy  (1799  and 
1800).  In  1802  he  established  a prosper- 
ous banking-house  in  company  with  his 
brother.  In  1817  he  was  elected  to 
represint  the  department  of  the  Seine 
in  the'  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Here  he 
became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposi- 
tion under  Charles  X.,  and  was  no  less 
distinguished  as  the  firm  and  eloquent 
advocate  of  constitutional  principles 
than  as  an  enlightened  and  sagacious 
financier.  After  the  revolution  of  1830 
he  was  prime-minister  to  Louis  Philippe 
from  M^arch  13,  1831,  to  his  death  by 
cholera.  May  16,  1832. 

PERIGEE  (-je),  that  point  in  the  orbit 
of  the  moon  which  is  at  the  least  dis- 
tance from  the  earth.  See  Apogee. 

PERIHE'LION,  that  part  of  the  orbit 
of  the  earth  or  any  other  planet  in  which 
it  is  at  the  point  nearest  to  the  sun. 
The  “perihelion  distance”  of  a heavenly 
body  is  its  distance  from  the  sun  at  its 
nearest  approach. 

PERIM'ETERjingeometry,  the  bounds 
or  limits  of  any  figure  or  body.  The 

f)erimeters  of  surfaces  or  figures  are 
ines;  those  of  bodies  are  surfaces. 

PERIOD,  in  astronomy,  the  interval 
of  time  occupied  by  a planet  or  comet  in 
traveling  once  round  the  sun,  or  by  a 
satellite  in  traveling  round  its  primary. 

PERIODICALS,  publications  which 
appear  at  regular  intervals,  and  whose 


principal  object  is  not  the  conveyance  of 
news  (the  main  function  of  newspapers), 
but  the  circulation  of  information  of  a 
literary,  scientific,  artistic,  or  miscel- 
laneous character,  as  also  criticisms  on 
books,  essays,  poems,  tales,  etc.  Periodi- 
cals exclusively  devoted  to  criticism  are 
generally  called  reviews,  and  those 
whose  contents  are  of  a miscellaneous 
and  entertaining  kind  magazines;  but 
there  is  no  great  strictness  in  the  use  of 
the  term.  The  first  periodical  was  pub- 
lished in  France,  being  a scientific  maga- 
zine, the  Journal  des  Savants,  issued  in 
1665,  and  still  existing  in  name  at  least. 
The  most  famous  French  literary 
periodical  is  the  Revue  de  Deux  Mondes, 
begun  in  1829,  from  1831  issued  fort- 
nightly, and  marked  by  an  ability  which 
has  placed  it  in  the  front  rank  of  the 
world’s  periodicals.  Into  it  tales,  poems, 
etc.,  are  admitted,  and  the  names  of  the 
contributors  have  to  be  attached  to 
their  articles.  The  earliest  English 

f)eriodical  seems  to  have  been  the  Week- 
y Memorials  for  the  Ingenious,  the  first 
number  of  which  is  dated  January,  1681 
-82,  and  which  lasted  but  a year.  In 
1802  was  introduced  the  Edinburgh  Re- 
view, which  came  out  every  threemonths, 
and  soon  had  a formidable  rival  in  the 
Quarterly  Review  (1809).  To  meet  the 
demand  for  critical  literature  at  shorter 
intervals  than  three  months,  there  was 
published  in  1865  the  Fortnightly 
Review,  which  for  about  a year  was  true 
to  its  name,  but  has  since  appeared 
monthly.  The  first  English  magazine 
properly  speaking  may  be  said  to  be  the 
Gentleman’s  Journal,  or  Monthly  Mis- 
cellany, commenced  in  1692.  The  most 
noted  American  reviews  and  magazines 
are  the  North  American  Review,  The 
World’s  Work,  Harper’s  Magazine,  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  Lippincott’s  Maga- 
zine, Scribner’s  Magazine,  the  Century 
Magazine,  the  Forum,  etc.,  etc. 

PERIODICTTY,  the  disposition  of 
certain  things  or  phenomena  to  recur  at 
stated  periods.  As  a physiological  and 
pathological  term  it  denotes  the  regular 
or  nearly  regular  recurrence  of  certain 
phenomena  of  animal  life,  such  as  sleep 
and  hunger.  The  first  indication  of  a 
diseased  state  is  generally  a disturbance 
of  the  natural  or  acquired  periodicity 
of  the  various  functions  of  life. 

PERIOSTEUM,  the  fibrous  mem- 
brane investing  the  bones,  and  which 
serves  as  a medium  for  the  transmission 
of  the  nutritive  blood-vessels  of  the 
bone.  The  periosteum  firmly  adheres 
to  the  surface  of  bones  (including  the 
inside  of  the  long  bones),  save  at  their 
gristly  or  cartilaginous  extremities, 
and  it  becomes  continuous  with  the 
tendons  or  ligaments  inserted  into 
bones'.  When  the  periosteum,  through 
disease  or  injury,  becomes  affected, 
the  blood  supply  and  nutrition  of  the 
bone  suffer,  and  in  consequence  the 
bone-tissue  dies  or  becomes  necrosed, 
and  is  exfofiated  or  thrown  off.  When  a 
bone  is  fractured  the  periosteum  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  repair  of  the 
injury,  new  osseous  material  being 
deposited  by  the  membrane. 

PEroOSTITIS,  inflammation  of  the 

Ceriosteum,  a painful  ailment  frequently 
rought  on  by  sudden  exposure  to  cold 
after  being  heated. 


PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY 


PERPENDICULAR  STYLE 


PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY,  the 

philosophy  of  Aristotle  and  his  fol- 
lowers, so  called,  it  is  believed,  because 
he  was  accustomed  to  walk  up  and  down 
with  his  more  intimate  disciples,  while 
he  expounded  to  them  his  doctrines. 
The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  starts  from 
his  criticism  of  the  Platonic  doctrine 
of  ideas,  in  combating  which  he  is  led 
to  the  fundamental  antithesis  of  his 
philosophy,  that  between  matter  and 
form.  The  notion  or  idea  of  a thing  is 
not,  he  says,  a separate  existence 
different  from  the  thing  itself,  but  is 
related  to  the  thing  only  as  form  to 
matter.  Every  sensible  thing  is  a com- 
pound of  matter  and  form,  the  matter 
being  the  substance  of  which  the  thing 
consists,  while  the  form  is  that  which 
makes  it  a particular  thing  (a  stone, 
for  example,  and  not  a tree),  and  there- 
fore the  same  as  its  notion  or  idea.  The 
form  is  the  true  nature  of  a thing. 
Origination  is  merely  matter  acquiring 
form,  it  is  merely  a transition  from 
potential  to  actual  existence.  Every- 
thing that  actually  exists  previously 
existed  potentially  in  the  matter  of 
which  it  is  composed.  Matter  is  thus 
related  to  form  as  potentiality  to 
actuality.  And  as  there  is,  on  the  one 
hand,  formless  matter,  which  is  mere 
potentiality  without  actuality,  so,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  pure  form, 
which  is  pure  actuality  without  poten- 
tiality. This  pure  form  is  the  eternal 
Being,  styled  by  Aristotle  the  first  or 
prime  mover. 

PERIPTERAL,  in  Greek  architecture, 
a term  signifying  surrounded  by  a row 
of  columns:  said  of  a temple  or  other 
building,  especially  of  a temple  the  cella 


Plan  of  peripteral  temple. 

of  which  is  surrounded  by  columns, 
those  on  the  flanks  (or  sides)  being 
distant  one  intercolumniation  from  the 
wall. 

PERISTALTIC  (or  Vermicular)  MO- 
TION, the  name  given  to  certain 
movements  connected  with  digestion 
observed  in  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
which  proceed  with  a wave-like  or 
spiral  motion,  the  object  being  gradu- 
ally to  propel  forward  the  contents  of 
these  viscera. 

PERISTYLE,  in  architecture,  a range 
of  columns  surrounding  the  exterior 
or  interior  of  anything,  as  the  cella  of 
a temple.  It  is  frequently  but  incor- 
rectly limited  in  signification  to  a 
range  of  columns  round  the  interior  of 
a place,  as  an  open  court. 

PERITONE'UM,  the  serous  membrane 
lining  the  abdominal  cavity  and  cover- 


ing the  intestines.  Like  all  other  serous 
membranes,  the  peritoneum  presents 
the  structure  of  a closed  sac;  one  layer 
(parieta)  lining  the  abdominal  walls,  the 
other  or  visceral  layer  being  reflected 
over  the  organs  of  the  abdomen.  A 


Over 


Peritoneum  of  human  female,  in  longitudinal 
section,  somewhat  diagrammatical. 

cavity — the  peritoneal  cavity — is  thus 
inclosed  between  the  two  layers  of  the 
membrane,  and  this  contains  in  health 
a quanty  of  serous  fluid  just  sufficient 
to  moisten  its  surfaces. 

PERITONITIS,  a common  and  very 
frequently  fatal  disease  caused  by 
inflammation  of  the  peritoneum.  The 
latter  is  a great  membrane,  very  thin, 
and  in  the  form  of  a closed  sac,  of  the 
same  structure  as  the  pleural  membrane 
and  the  pericadium.  This  membrane 
encloses  the  viscera,  or  contents,  of  the 
abdominal  cavity;  but  the  viscera  are 
not  within  the  cavity  of  the  sac,  but 
are  invested  by  the  outside  of  the  sac, 
much  the  same  as  if  one  were  to  wrap 
up  several  objects  in  a deflated  foot- 
''all.  It  is  clear  that  the  cavity  of  the 
football  would  not  enclose  the  objects, 
but  that  the  interior  walls  of  the  foot- 
ball would  be  everywhere  in  contact. 
When  foreign  bodies,  most  frequently 
bacteria,  or  disease  germs,  find  their 
way  into  the  cavity  of  the  peritoneum, 
the  membrane  becomes  inflamed,  the 
interior  surfaces  often  adhere  to  each 
other,  the  intestines  become  deranged, 
fever  follows,  and  unless  prompt  treat- 
ment is  resorted  to  death  ensues, 
especially  in  acute  peritonitis.  In 
acute  peritonitis  the  first  symptoms 
are  chill  and  pain  in  the  abdomen, 
more  intense  pain  on  pressure,  and  pain 
on  breathing.  The  appearance  of  the 
patient’s  face  is  characteristic:  “Sharp 
nose,  hollow  eyes,  collapsed  temples, 
ears  cold  and  turned  out,  skin  of  the 
forehead  rough,  distended,  and  parched, 
the  color  of  the  face  brown,  black, 
livid,  or  lead-colored.”  Acute  peritoni- 
tis is  usually  fatal  in  two  to  ten  days, 
death  being  very  sudden. 

Chronic  peritonitis  is  caused  prin- 
cipally by  germs,  and  is  not  painful 
except  occasionally.  The  treatment 
for  the  acute  form  is  local  application 
of  ice  bags  and  calomel  or  salts.  Chronic 


peritonitis  frequently  yields  readily 
to  treatment. 

PERJURY,  the  act  or  crime  of  wil- 
fully making  a false  oath  in  judicial 
proceedings  in  a matter  material  to  the 
issue  or  cause  in  question.  The  penal- 
ties of  perjury  attach  to  wilful  falsehood 
in  an  affirmation  made  by  a Quaker  or 
other  witness  where  such  affirmation  is 
received  in  lieu  of  an  oath.  Perjury  is 
a misdemeanor  punishable  at  common 
law,  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  but 
several  acts  provide  for  additional 
punishment.  Popularly,  the  mere  act 
of  making  a false  oath,  or  jjf  violating 
an  oath,  provided  it  be  lawful,  is  con- 
sidered perjury. 

PERM,  an  eastern  government  of 
Russia,  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in 
Asia;  area,  128,211  sq.  miles.  The 
government  is  rich  in  minerals,  com- 
prising iron,  silver,  copper,  platinum, 
nickel,  lead,  and  gold.  Pop.  3,003,208. — 
Perm,  the  capital  of  the  government,  is 
situated  on  the  Kama,  930  miles  north- 
east of  Moscow.  It  has  flourishing 
industries  in  iron,  steel,  leather,  etc. 
In  the  neighborhood  is  a government 
manufactory  of  steel  guns  and  munitions 
of  war.  Pop.  45,403. 

PERMANENT  WHITE,  a white  pig- 
ment consisting  of  sulphate  of  barium 
precipitated  from  the  chloride  by  adding 
dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

PERNAMBU'CO,  a town  in  Brazil, 
the  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  east  coast.  It  consists 
of  three  distinct  parts:  Recife,  occupy- 
ing a small  peninsula;  San  Antonio,  on 
an  island;  and  Boa  Vista,  on  the  main- 
land, the  three  parts  being  connected 
by  iron  bridges.  The  harbor  is  formed 
by  the  reef,  which  incloses  a belt  of 
water  about  a mile  in  width.  The  trade 
is  extensive.  Pop.  130,000. — The  state, 
has  an  area  of  about  46,000  square  miles.' 
The  principal  cultivated  crops  are  the 
sugar-cane  and  cotton.  Pop.  1,014,700. 

PEROXTDES,  the  general  name  ap- 
plied to  the  binary  compounds  of 
oxygen  containing  the  greatest  amount 
of  that  element. 

PERPENDIC'ULAR,  in  geometry,  a 
line  falling  directly  on  another  line,  so 
as  to  make  equal  angles  on  each  side. 
A straight  line  is  said  to  be  perpendic- 
ular to  a curve,  when  it  cuts  the 
curve  in  a point  where  another  straight 
line  to  which  it  is  perpendicular  makes 
a tangent  with  the  curve.  In  this  case 
the  perpendicular  is  usually  called 
a normal  to  the  curve. 

PERPENDICULAR  STYLE,  in  archi- 
tecture, a variety  of  the  pointed  Gothic, 
the  latest  variety  to  be  introduced, 
sometimes  called  the  florid  or  Tudor 
style  of  Gothic.  It  prevailed  in  Eng- 
land from  about  the  end  of  the  14th 
to  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  It 
is  chiefly  characterized  by  the  pre- 
dominance of  straight  lines  in  the  de- 
sign, and  especially  in  its  tracery.  An- 
other feature  is  the  lofty  square  towers 
of  its  churches,  divided  into  stages  by 
bands,  and  each  stage  filled  with 
windows.  The  mullions  of  the  windows 
are  vertical,  generally  rise  to  the  main 
arches,  and  are  often  crossed  by 
horizontal  bars  or  transoms.  Large 
windows  are  a distinctive  feature  of 
this  style.  The  tracery  of  the  doors  is 


PERPETUAL  motion 


PERSEUS 


similar  to  that  of  the  windows.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  roof  peculiar  to  the 


Perpendicular  style. 

style — the  vaulted  roof,  with  fan- 
tracery,  and  the  open  timber-roof. 

PERPETUAL  MOTION,  motion  that, 
once  originated,  continues  forever  or 
indefinitely.  The  problem  of  a perpetual 
motion  consists  in  the  invention  of  a 
machine  which  shall  have  the  principles 
of  its  motion  within  itself,  and  number- 
less schemes  have  been  proposed  for  its 
solution.  It  was  not  till  the  discovery  of 
the  principle  of  the  conservation  of 
energy  (see  Energy,  Conservation  of), 
experimentally  proved  by  Joule,  that 
the  impossibility  of  the  existence  of  a 
perpetual  motion  was  considered  to  be  a 
physical  axiom.  This  principle  asserts 
that  the  whole  amount  of  energy  in  the 
universe,  or  in  any  limited  system  which 
does  not  receive  energy  from  without,  or 
part  with  it  to  external  matter,  is  invari- 
able. But  every  machine  when  in  action 
does  a certain  amount  of  work,  if  only  in 
overcoming  friction  and  the  resistance  of 
air,  and  as  the  perpetual  motion  machine 
can  start  with  only  a certain  amount  of 
energy,  this  is  gradually  used  up  in  the 
work  it  does.  A machine,  in  short, 
would  be  required  in  which  there  was  no 
friction,  and  which  met  with  no  resist- 
ance of  any  kind.  The  mechanical  ar- 
rangements which  have  been  put 
forward  as  perpetual  motions  by  inven- 
tors are  either,  (1)  Systems  of  weights, 
which  are  allowed  to  slide  on  a wheel 
into  such  positions  relatively  to  the  axis 
of  the  wheel  as  to  produce  a constant 
turning  moment  in  one  direction;  (2) 
Masses  of  liquid  moving  in  wheels  on  the 
same  principle;  (3)  Masses  of  iron  ar- 
ranged on  the  same  principle,  but  sub- 
jected to  the  attractions  of  magnets 
instead  of  their  own  weights.  Numbers 
of  patents  for  such  machines  are  con- 
stantly being  taken  out,  but  in  every 
case  inventors  show  an  ignorance  of  the 
most  elementary  principles  of  natural 
philosophy. 

PERRY,  Matthew  Galbraith,  Ameri- 
can naval  officer  was  born  in  Rhode 
Island,  in  1794.  He  was  a younger 
brother  of  Com.  Oliver  Hazard  Perry. 
In  1809  he  became  midshipman,  and  in 
1813  was  made  lieutenant.  In  1853 
Commodore  Perry  organized  and  com- 
manded the  famous  expedition  to  Japan 
that  opened  that  country  to  intercourse 
with  the  civilized  world.  On  his  return  a 


report  of  the  expedition  was  published 
by  the  United  States  govermnent,  in 
three  volumes,  entitled  Report  of  Com- 
modore Perry’s  Expedition  to  Japan. 
He  died  in  1858. 

PERRY,  Oliver  Hazard,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  South  Kings- 
ton, R.  I.,  in  1785.  On  April  7, 1799,  he 
received  his  commission  as  midshipman, 
and  on  January  15,  1807,  was  promoted 
lieutenant.  After  building  a fleet  of  gun- 
boats, he  commanded  the  schooner 
Revenge,  that,  in  1810,  cruised  off  the 
southern  coast  of  the  United  States. 
This  vessel  was  wrecked  on  a reef  near 
Watch  Hill,  R.  L,  January  8,  1811,  but 
Perry  was  honorably  acquitted  of  neglect 
or  carelessness  by  a court  of  inquiry, 
Tnereafter  he  repeatedly  applied  for  a 
command  at  sea,  which  was  refused,  and 
eventually  offered  his  services  to  Com. 
Isaac  Chauncey  on  the  lakes,  who 
ordered  him  for  duty  to  Lake  Erie.  Here 
at  Erie,  he  superintended  the  building  of 
a number  of  small  vessels,  the  largest  of 
which  were  of  500  tons  burden ; with  them 
he  expected  to  encounter  the  British 
flotilla,  under  Captain  Barclay.  Perry’s 
squadron  consisted  of  nine  vessels  of 
1,671  tons,  with  54  guns.  On  the  British 
side  Capt.  Robert  Heriot  Barclay  had  a 
flotilla  of  six  vessels  of  1,460  tons, 
manned  by  450  men  and  63  pieces  of 
cannon.  On  September  10,  1813,  the 
American  forces  moved  out  of  Put-in- 
Bay  for  action,  and  after  a hard-fought 


contest,  on  the  afternoon  of  that  day  the 
British  flotilla  surrendered.  Captain 
Barclay  waswounded  in  the  action.  Con- 
gress bestowed  on  Perry  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  the  British,  having  lost 
control  of  Lake  Erie,  evacuated  Detroit. 
Perry  served  in  the  Mediterranean  under 
Decatur,  and  in  1819  was  sent,  in  com- 
mand of  a squadron,  to  the  Caribbean 
sea,  where,  on  the  Orinoco  river,  he  died 
of  yellow  fever. 

PERSECUTIONS,  the  name  usually 
applied  to  periods  during  which  the  early 
Christians  were  subjected  to  cruel  treat- 
ment on  account  of  their  religion.  Ten 
of  these  are  usually  counted.  The  first 
persecution  (64-68)  was  carried  on 
under  Nero.  The  cruelties  practiced  on 
this  occasion  are  worthy  of  the  ferocious 


instincts  of  that  notorious  tyrant.  The 
apostles  Peter  and  Paul  suffered  in  this 
persecution.  The  second  persecution 
(95-96)  was  raised  by  the  Emperor 
Domitian.  Many  eminent  Christians 
suffered;  and  it  is  generally  held  that  St. 
John  was  exiled  to  Patmos  at  this  time. 
The  third  persecution  began  in  the  third 
year  of  Trajan  (100).  This  persecution 
continued  for  several  years,  with  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  severity  in  many  parts 
of  the  empire,  ‘and  the  severity  of  it 
appears  from  the  great  number  of 
martyrs  mentioned  in  the  old  martyr- 
ologies.  The  fourth  persecution,  under 
Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180),  at  different 
places,  with  several  intermissions  and 
different  degrees  of  violence,  continued 
the  greatest  part  of  his  reign.  It  raged 
with  particular  fury  in  Smyrna  and 
Lyons,  and  Vienne  in  Gaul.  Polycarp 
and  Justin  Martyr  are  famous  victims  of 
this  period.  The  fifth  began  in  197  under 
Severus.  During  the  sixth  persecution, 
under  Maximian  (235-238),  only  Chris- 
tian teachers  and  ministers  were  perse- 
cuted. Decius  began  his  reign  (249)  with 
a persecution  of  the  Christians  (the 
seventh)  throughout  his  dominions. 
This  was  the  first  really  general  perse- 
cution. Valerian  in  257  put  to  death 
few  but  the  clergy  (eighth  persecution); 
and  the  execution  of  the  edict  of 
Aurelian  against  the  Christians  (274) — 
the  ninth  persecution,  as  it  was  called — 
was  prevented  by  his  violent  death.  A 
severe  persecution  of  the  Christians  (the 
tenth)  took  place  under  the  Emperor 
Diocletian  (303).  Throughout  the  Ro- 
man empire  their  churches  were  des- 
troyed, their  sacred  books  burned,  and 
all  imaginable  means  of  inhuman 
violence  employed  to  induce  them  to 
renounce  their  faith.  Persecutions,  prin- 
cipally directed  against  the  clergy, 
continued  with  more  or  less  vigor  until 
Constantine  the  Great  (312  and  313)  re- 
stored to  the  Christians  full  liberty  and 
the  use  of  their  churches  and  goods;  and 
his  conversion  to  Christianity  made  it 
the  established  religion  in  the  Roman 
empire. 

PERSEPH'ONE,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Demeter 
(Ceres).  While  she  was  gathering  flowers 
near  Enna  in  Sicily  Pluto  carried  her  off 
to  the  infernal  regions,  with  the  consent 
of  Zeus,  and  made  her  his  wife,  but  in 
answer  to  the  prayers  of  Demeter  she 
was  permitted  to  spend  the  spring  and 
summer  of  each  year  in  the  upper  world. 
In  Homer  she  bears  the  name  of  Perse- 
phoneia.  The  chief  seats  of  the  worship 
of  Persephone  were  Attica  and  Sicily. 
In  the  festivals  held  in  her  honor  in 
autumn  the  celebrants  were  dressed  in 
mourning  in  token  of  lamentation  for 
her  being  carried  off  by  Pluto,  while  at 
the  spring  festivals  they  were  clad  in 
gay  attire  in  token  of  joy  at  her  return. 
In  works  of  art  Persephone  is  sometimes 
represented  as  sitting  by  the  side  of  her 
husband,  and  sometimes  alone. 

PERSEUS  (per'sus),  an  ancient  Greek 
hero,  son  of  Danae  and  Zeus.  He  was 
set  adrift  in  the  sea  on  his  birth,  in  a 
chest  along  with  his  mother.  But  the 
chest  reached  the  Island  of  Seriphos, 
and  Perseus  was  brought  up  by  the 
king  of  the  island,  who  exacted  a promise 
from  him  to  fetch  the  head  of  the  Gorgon 


PERSEUS 


PERSIA 


Medusa.  This  he  accomplished  under 
the  guidance  of  Hermes  and  Athena, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  the  nymphs. 
He  also  delivered  Andromeda  from  a 
sea-monster  (see  Andromeda),  an  ex- 
ploit which  is  frequently  figured  in  an- 
cient art.  He  was  king  of  Tiryns  and 
founder  of  Mycenae.  After  his  death 
Perseus  was  worshipped  as  a hero,  and 
placed  among  the  stars. 

PERSEUS,  the  last  king  of  the  Mace- 
donians, and  an  illegitimate  son  of 
Philip  V.,  succeeded  his  father  B.c.  178, 
and  entered  keenly  into  the  hostilities 
which  had  previously  broken  out  against 
Rome.  The  Romans  sent  an  army 
against  him  and  gained  a signal  victory 
at  Pydna  168  b.c.  Perseus  fled  to 
Samothrace,  but  was  given  up  to  the 
Romans,  and  some  years  after  died  in 
captivity  at  Alba,  near  Rome. 

PERSEUS,  a northern  constellation 
surrounded  by  Andromeda,  Aries,  Tau- 
rus, Auriga,  Camelopardalus,  and  Cas- 
siopeia. 

PERSIA,  a kingdom  of  Western  Asia ; 
bounded  north  by  Transcaucasian  Rus- 
sia, the  Caspian,  and  Russian  Central 
Asia;  east  by  Afghanistan  and  Baluch- 
istan; south  by  the  Persian  Gulf;  and 
west  by  Asiatic  Turkey;  extending  for 
700  miles  from  n.  to  s.  and  900  miles 
from  e.  to  w.;  area,  about  636,000  sq. 
miles;  pop.  from  7,000,000 to  9,000,000. 
The  country  is  divided  into  33  provinces, 
capital  Teheran  (pop.  150,000  to  200,- 
000);  chief  trade  centers,  Teheran, 
Tabreez,  Ispahan;  chief  ports,  Bushire 
and  Bender  Abbas  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Other  large  towns  are;  Meshed,  Bal- 
froosh,  Kerman,  Yezd,  Hamadan,ShirAz, 
Kazvin,  Kom,  Resht. 

Persia  may  be  considered  as  an  ele- 
vated plateau,  broken  by  clusters  of 
hills  or  chains  of  rocky  mountains, 
which  alternate  with  extensive  plains 
and  barren  deserts;  the  desert  of 
Khorassan  in  the  northeast  alone 
absorbs  about  one-seventh  of  the  entire 
area.  Low  tracts  exist  on  the  Persian 
gulf  and  the  Caspian  sea.  The  interior 
plains  have  an  elevation  of  from  2000 
to  6000  feet  above  the  sea.  This  vast 
central  plateau  is  supported  in  the  n. 
and  s.  by  two  great  mountain  chains  or 
systems,  and  from  these  all  the  minor 
ranges  seem  to  spring.  The  north  chain, 
an  extension  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  enters 
Persia  from  Northern  Afghanistan, 
proceeds  across  the  country,  and  reaches 
its  greatest  elevation  on  the  south  of  the 
Caspian,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  the 
Elburz  mountains,  and  attains  in  Mount 
Demavend  a height  of  nearly  20,000 
feet.  Still  further  west  it  becomes 
linked  with  the  mountains  of  Ararat. 
The  other  great  mountain  system  runs 
from  northwest  to  southeast  nearer  the 
Persian  gulf,  is  of  considerable  width, 
and  forms  several  separate  ranges.  In 
one  of  these  an  elevation  of  17,000  feet 
is  reached.  The  rivers  are  few  and  in- 
significant. Not  one  of  them  is  of  any 
navigable  importance,  except  the  Eu- 
phrates, which  only  waters  a small  por- 
tion of  the  southwest  frontier,  and  the 
Karun,  recently  opened  to  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  world.  The  latter  is  entirely 
within  Persian  territory,  and  flows  into 
the  Shat-el-Arab,  or  united  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  Of  the  streams  which  flow 


northward  into  the  Caspian  the  only 
important  one  is  the  Kizil-Uzen  or 
Sefid  Rud  (White  river),  which  has  a 
course  of  about  350  miles.  There  are  a 
great  number  of  small  fresh-water 
lakes,  and  a few  very  extensive  salt 
lakes,  the  largest  being  Urumiah  in  the 
extreme  northwest. 

The  climate  varies  considerably  in 
different  provinces,  and  in  the  central 
plateau  intense  summer  heat  alternates 
with  extreme  cold  in  winter.  The 
mineral  wealth  of  Persia  is  but  little 
developed.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  antimony 
are  abundant;  sulphur,  naphtha,  and 
rock-salt  unlimited;  coal  also  exists. 
The  turquoise  mines  of  Nishapur  are 
about  the  only  ones  receiving  anything 
like  adequate  attention.  The  interior  of 
Persia,  particularly  its  eastern  and 
southern  regions,  is  mostly  devoid  of 
vegetation  over  large  areas;  the  south- 
west has  its  forests  of  stunted  oaks  and 
other  trees,  and  jungle;  but  on  the  Cas- 
pian the  mountain  sides  are  covered  with 
dense  and  magnificent  woods  of  oak, 
beech,  elm,  and  walnut,  intermingled 
with  box-trees,  cypresses,  and  cedars. 
Lower  down  wheat  and  barley  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated.  In  the  level  and 
rich  plains  below  the  sugar  cane  and 
orange  come  to  perfection;  the  pome- 
granate grows  wild;  the  cotton-plant 
and  mulberry  are  extensively  and  suc- 
cessfully cultivated,  and  large  tracts  are 
occupied  by  the  vine,  and  orchards 
producing  every  kind  of  European  fruit. 
In  the  low  plains  the  only  grain  under 
extensive  and  regular  culture  is  rice; 
the  principal  subsidiary  crops  are  cot- 
ton, indigo,  opium,  sugar,  madder,  and 
tobacco.  Excellent  dates  are  produced 
on  the  southern  coast  tracts.  Irrigation 
is  well  understood  and  extensively 
practiced.  The  domestic  animals  are; 
sheep,  chiefly  of  the  large-tailed  variety; 
goats,  some  of  which  produce  a wool 
little  inferior  to  that  of  Cashmere;  asses 
and  mules  of  a large  and  superior  de- 
scription; horses  of  Arab,  Turkoman 
and  Persian  breeds,  and  camels.  Wild 
animals  include  the  lion,  leopard,  wolf, 
jackal,  hyena,  bear,  porcupine,  wild  ass, 
gazelle,  etc. 

The  manufactures  of  Persia  were  once 
celebrated,  but  excepting  some  carpets 
and  shawls  it  may  be  said  that  the  coun- 
try has  ceased  to  export  manufactured 
articles.  Its  chief  exports  now  are  rice, 
dried  fruits,  opium,  silk,  wool,  cotton, 
hides,  pearls,  and  turquoises.  Chief 
imports:  textiles,  china  and  glass,  car- 
riages, sugar,  tea,  coffee,  petroleum, 
drugs,  and  fancy  articles.  The  internal 
trade  of  the  country  is  almost  entirely 
carried  on  by  caravans,  the  beasts  of 
burden  being  horses,  camels,  and  mules. 
Railways  are  as  yet  hardly  known  in 
Persia, and  good  roads  are  almost  equally 
rare. 

The  government  of  Persia  is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy.  The  only  control  to 
which  its  ruler,  the  Shah,  is  subject  are 
the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  He  sur- 
rounds himself  with  a certain  number 
of  advisers,  forming  a ministry,  eleven 
of  whom  are  heads  of  special  depart- 
ments. These  ministers  he  calls  and 
dismisses  at  pleasure.  The  army  on  a 
war  footing  is  supposed  to  number 
60,000  men. 


The  population  is  chiefly  made  up  of 
Iranians  or  pure  Persians  and  Turanians 
(Turkish  and  Tartar  tribes),  and  in 
religion  belongs  almost  exclusively  to 
the  Shiah  sect  of  Mohammedans,  or 
more  properly  to  a subdivision  of  that 
sect.  The  priesthood  is  very  influential 
and  very  bigoted.  Education  is  com- 
paratively well  attended  to,  Persia  being 
considered,  next  to  China,  the  best- 
educated  country  in  Asia.  The  Persians 
are  rather  short  and  slender  built,  fair 
in  complexion,  hair  long  and  straight, 
but  beard  bushy,  and  almost  invariably 
jet  black.  The  women  are  beautiful, 
intellectual,  and  polite.  The  Persian  is 
celebrated  for  his  affable  manners,  but 
also  for  his  craft  and  deceit.  Polygamy 
is  both  authorized  and  encouraged. 

The  Persian  empire  was  founded  by 
Cyrus  (559-29  b.c.),  and  existed  under 
his  successors  of  the  Achsemenean 
dynasty  until  Darius  III.  (338-30  b.c.) 
was  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Persia 
ultimately  fell  to  his  general  Seleucus 
(312  B.C.),  whose  successors,  the  Seleu- 
cidse,  ruled  over  it  till  236  b.c.,  when 
Arsaces  I.  founded  the  Parthian  empire, 
of  which  Persia  formed  a part.  The 
Parthian  empire  continued  till  226  a.d., 
when  Persia  once  more  gained  the  as- 
cendency under  Ardash4r  Babigdn, 
whose  descendants,  the  Sassanidae,  con- 
tinued to  rule  till  the  7th  century,  when 
Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Caliph 
Omar,  and  became  a province  of  the 
Mohammedan  empire.  The  Arab  con- 
quest made  a deep  and  lasting  impres- 
sion on  Persia.  Under  its  influence  the 
old  Persian  religion  was  given  up  in 
favor  of  Mohammedanism.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century  Persia 
began  to  be  broken  up  into  numerous 
petty  states,  and  became  the  prey  of 
successive  conquerors — the  Seljuk  Turks 
(1037);  Genghis  Khan  (1220);  Tamer- 
lane (1387);  and  the  Turkomans,  who 
were  succeeded  by  the  Sufi  dynasty, 
(1501-1736).  Ismail  Sufi,  the  first 
sovereign  of  this  dynasty,  assumed  the 
title  of  Shah,  and  introduced  the  Shiite 
or  Shiah  sect,  or  sect  of  Ali,  Moham- 
med’s son-in-law,  from  whom  he  pre- 
tended to  be  descended.  Nadir  Shah 
ascended  the  throne  in  1736,  and  re- 
stored Persia  to  something  of  her 
former  importance,  but  he  was  mur- 
dered in  1747,  and  his  death  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a long  period  of  anarchy, 
only  broken  by  the  reign  of  Kerin  Khan, 
until  Agha  Muhammed,  a Turkoman 
eunuch,  founded  the  present  dynasty  of 
the  Kajars  (1794).  Agha  Muhammed 
was  murdered  in  1797,  and  succeeded  by 
his  nephew.  Path  Ali,  whose  reign  was 
largely  taken  up  with  unsuccessful  wars 
Avith  Russia  and  Turkey.  He  died  in 
1835,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, Mohammed,  in  whose  reign  Russian 
influence  became  predominant  at  Tehe- 
ran. His  son  N&sr-ed-din  the  reigning 
Shah,  ascended  the  throne  in  1848.  His 
efforts  to  annex  Herat  led  to  a war  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  Persia,  in 
which  Bushire  was  taken  by  the  British 
forces,  and  severe  defeats  were  inflicted 
upon  the  Persian  troops  at  Kooshab  and 
Mohammerah.  By  the  Peace  of  Paris 
(March  3,  1857),  however,  Persia  re- 
nounced all  claim  to  Herat.  The  bound- 


PERSIAN  GULP 


PERSPIRATION 


ary  between  Persia  and  the  Russian 
territory  beyond  the  Caspian  was  settled 
in  1881. 

PERSIAN  GULF,  a gulf  -separating 
Persia  from  Arabia,  and  communicating 
with  the  Indian  ocean  by  the  Strait  of 
Ormuz,  35  miles  wide;  greatest  length, 
560  miles;  medium  breadth,  180  miles. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  the  united 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  of  a number 
of  small  streams;  the  principal  port  is 
Bushire.  There  are  many  islands  in  the 
gulf;  the  largest  are;  Kishim,  Ormuz, 
and  the  Bahrein  Isles;  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  latter  there  are  lucrative 
pearl-fisheries. 

PERSIAN  POWDER,  an  efficacious 
insecticide  introduced  from  the  east, 
and  prepared  from  the  flowers  of  the 
roseum,  a native  of  the  Caucasus,  Persia, 
etc. 

PERSIAN  WHEEL,  or  NORIA,  the 

Puisaro  of  the  south  of  France,  a ma- 
chine for  raising  water  to  irrigate  gar- 
dens, meadows,  etc.,  employed  from 
time  immemorial  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
introduced  by  the  Saracens  into  Spain 
and  other  European  countries.  It  con- 
sists of  a double  water-wheel,  with  float- 
boards  on  one  side  and  a series  of  buckets 
on  the  other,  which  are  movable  about 
an  axis  above  their  center  of  gravity. 
The  wheel  is  placed  in  a stream,  the 
water  turns  it,  and  the  filled  buckets 
ascend;  when  they  reach  the  highest 
point,  their  lower  ends  strike  against  a 
fixed  obstacle,  and  the  water  is  dis- 
charged into  a reservoir.  In  Portugal, 
Spain,  South  of  France,  and  Italy,  this 
contrivance  is  extensively  used;  and 
has  been  modified  to  enable  it  to  draw 
water  also  from  ponds  and  wells,  ani- 
mals supplying  the  motive  power,  and 
pots,  leather  or  other  bags  taking  the 
place  of  buckets. 

PERSIGNY  (per-sen-ye),  Jean  Gilbert 
Victor  Fialin,  Due  de,  French  states- 
man, born  1808,  died  1872.  In  1840  he 
shared  Napoleon’s  expedition  to  Bou- 
logne. On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848,  he  hastened 
to  Paris,  contributed  largely  to  de- 
termine the  vote  by  which  Napoleon 
was  elected  president  (10th  December, 
1849),  and  was  also  one  of  the  most 
prominent  actors  in  the  coup  d’etat 
(December  2,  1851),  by  which  he  be- 
came Napoleon  III.  He  held  the  office  of 
minister  of  the  interior  from  1852-54, 
and  again  from  1860-63;  was  appointed 
member  of  the  senate  1852,  ambassador 
to  Great  Britain  1855.  He  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  duke  in  1863. 

PERSIM'MON,  the  fruit  of  a tree  (a 
species  of  ebony)  inhabiting  the  United 
States  of  America,  more  especially  the 
southern  states,  where  it  attains  the 
height  of  60  feet  or  more.  The  fruit  is 
succulent,  reddish,  and  about  the  size  of 
a small  plum,  containing  a few  oval 
stones.  It  is  powerfully  astringent  when 
green,  but  when  fully  ripe  the  pulp  be- 
comes soft,  palatable,  and  very  sweet. 

PERSIS'TENCE,  in  physics,  the  con- 
tinuance of  an  effect  after  the  cause 
which  first  gave  rise  to  it  is  removed;  as, 
the  persistence  of  the  impression  of  light 
on  the  retina  after  the  luminous  object 
is  withdrawn;  the  persistence  of  the 
motion  of  an  object  after  the  moving 
force  is  withdrawn. 

P.  E.— 61 


PERSONATION.  See  False  Persona- 
tion. 

PERSONIFICATION,  in  the  fine  arts, 
poetry,  and  rhetoric,  the  representation 
of  an  inanimate  subject  as  a person. 
This  may  be  done  in  poetry  and  rhetoric 


Personification.— The  “Church  of  Christ.” 
from  the  west  front  of  the  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  Paris  (13th  century  sculpture). 

either  by  giving  epithets  to  inanimate 
subjects  which  properly  belong  only  to 
persons,  or  by  representing  them  as 
actually  performing  the  part  of  animated 
beings. 

PERSPEC'TIVE,  the  art  or  science 
which  teaches  how  to  produce  the  rep- 
resentation of  objects  on  a flat  surface 
so  as  to  affect  the  eye  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  object  or  objects  themselves 
when  viewed  from  a given  point.  Per- 
spective is  intimately  connected  with 
the  arts  of  design,  and  is  particularly 
necessary  in  the  art  of  painting,  as  with- 
out correctness  of  perspective  no  picture 
can  be  entirely  satisfactory.  Perspective 
alone  enables  us  to  represent  fore- 
shortenings (see  Foreshortening)  with 
accuracy,  and  it  is  requisite  in  delineat- 
ing even  the  simplest  positions  of  ob- 
jects. That  part  of  perspective  which 
relates  to  the  form  of  the  objects  differs 
essentially  from  that  which  teaches  the 
gradation  of  colors  according  to  the 
relative  distance  of  objects.  Hence  per- 
spective is  divided  into  mathematical 
or  linear  perspective,  and  the  perspective 
of  color  or  aerial  perspective.  The  con- 
tour of  an  object  drawn  upon  paper  or 
canvas  represents  nothing  more  than 
such  an  intersection  of  the  rays  of 
light  sent  from  the  extremities  of  it 
to  the  eye,  as  would  arise  on  a glass 
put  in  the  place  of  the  paper  or  can- 
vas. Suppose  a spectator  to  be  look- 
ing through  a glass  window  at  a pros- 
pect without,  he  will  perceive  the 
shape,  size,  and  situation  of  every 
object  visible  upon  the  glass.  If  the 
objects  are  near  the  window  the  spaces 
they  occupy  on  the  glass  will  be  larger 
than  those  occupied  by  similar  objects 
at  a greater  distance ; if  they  are  parallel 
to  the  window,  their  shapes  upon  the 
glass  will  be  parallel  likewise ; if  they  are 
oblique,  their  shapes  will  be  oblique; 


and  so  on.  As  the  person  alters  his 
position,  the  situation  of  the  objects 
upon  the  window  will  be  altered  also. 
The  horizontal  line,  or  line  correspond- 
ing with  the  horizon,  will  in  every  situa- 
tion of  the  eye  be  upon  a level  with  it, 
that  is,  will  seem  to  be  raised  as  far 
above  the  ground  upon  which  the  specta- 
tor stands  as  his  eye  is.  Now  suppose 
the  person  at  the  window  keeping  his 
head  steady  draws  the  figure  of  an  ob- 
ject seen  through  it  upon  the  glass  with 
a pencil,  as  if  the  point  of  a pencil 
touched  the  object,  he  would  then  have 
a true  representation  of  the  object  in 
perspective  as  it  appears  to  his  eye. 
Representations  of  objects  have,  how- 
ever, generally  to  be  drawn  on  opaque 
planes,  and  for  this  purpose  rules  must 
be  deduced  from  optics  and  geometry, 
and  the  application  of  these  rules  con- 
stitutes what  is  properly  called  the  art 
of  perspective.  Linear  perspective  in- 
cludes the  various  kinds  of  projections. 
Scenographic  projection  represent  ob- 
jects as  they  actually  appear  to  the  eye 
at  limited  distances.  Orthographic  pro- 
jections represent  objects  as  they  would 
appear  to  the  eye  at  an  infinite  dis- 
tance, the  rays  which  proceed  from 
them  being  parallel  instead  of  converg- 
ing. It  is  the  method  on  which  plans  and 
sections  are  drawn.  A bird’s-eye  view 
is  a scenographic  or  orthographic  pro- 
jection taken  from  an  elevated  point 
in  the  air  from  which  the  eye  is  supposed 
to  look  down  upon  the  objects.  Aerial 
perspective  teaches  how  to  judge  of  the 
degree  of  light  which  objects  reflect 
in  proportion  to  their  distance,  and  of 
the  gradation  of  their  tints  in  propor- 
tion to  the  intervening  air.  By  its  ap- 
plieation  each  object  in  a picture  re- 
ceives that  degree  of  color  and  light 
which  belongs  to  its  distance  from  the 
spectator.  The  charm  and  harmony  of  a 
picture,  particularly  of  a landscape, 
depend  greatly  upon  correct  aerial  per- 
spective. 

PERSPIRATION,  or  SWEAT,  the 

fluid  secretion  of  the  sweat  glands  of  the 
skin.  The  term  perspiration  is,  however, 
sometimes  used  to  include  all  the  secre- 
tions of  the  skin,  such  as  those  of  the 
sebaceous  glands  or  follicles,  etc.  The 
sweat-glands,  situated  in  the  sub- 
cutaneous adipose  or  fat  tissue  of  the 
skin,  consist  of  a coiled-up  tube,  in- 
vested by  a capillary  net-work  of  blood- 
vessels, and  continued  to  the  surface  of 
the  skin,  where  it  opens  in  an  oblique 
valvular  aperture.  The  openings  of  the 
sweat-ducts  constitute  the  popular 
“pores”  of  the  skin.  The  largest  and 
most  numerous  ducts  are  situated  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand  (Krause  estimates 
2736  to  the  square  inch,  Erasmus  Wilson 
3528).  Perspiration  is  divided  into  in- 
sensible and  sensible,  the  former  being 
separated  in  the  form  of  an  invisible 
vapor,  the  latter  so  as  to  become  visible 
by  condensation  in  the  form  of  little 
drops  adhering  to  the  skin.  Water, 
fatty  acids,  carbonic  acid,  salts,  etc., 
are  removed  from  the  body  by  the  sweat, 
by  which  also  the  skin  is  kept  moist. 
By  the  passing  off  of  the  sweat  as  vapor, 
heat  is  lost  from  the  body,  and  thus  the 
greater  or  less  activity  of  the  sweat 
glands  plays  an  important  part  in 
regulating  the  bodily  temperature.  For 


PERTH 


PERU 


these  reasons  the  regular  process  of  per- 
spiration is  necessary  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  good  health.  The  constituents  of 
sweat  are  to  some  extent  dependent  on 
the  various  bodily  conditions  and  cir- 
cumstances, hence  the  various  results 
of  analysis  by  different  authorities.  The 
quantity  of  sweat  evolved  from  the  skin 
has  been  estimated  at  nearly  2 lbs. 
daily. 

PERTH,  a city  and  royal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
the  county  of  the  same  name.  Perth  is 
celebrated  for  its  extensive  dye-works. 
It  manufactures  woolens,  winceys, 
hosiery,  jute,  table-linen,  gauge-glasses 
for  boilers,  castings,  etc.  Till  the  death 
of  James  I.,  in  1437,  it  was  the  capital 
of  Scotland,  and  both  then  and  sub- 
sequently it  became  the  scene  of  some 
of  the  most  remarkable  events  in  Scot- 
tish history.  Pop.  32,872. — The  county, 
which  occupies  the  center  of  Scotland, 
has  an  extreme  length,  east  to  west,  of 
63  miles;  breadth,  north  to  south,  60 
miles;  area,  1,664,690  acres,  of  which 

32,000  are  water  and  349,000  acres  are 
under  cultivation.  Pop.  123,255. 

PERTH  AMBOY,  a city  and  port  of 
entry  in  Middlesex  co.,  N.  J.,  at  the 
mouth  of  Raritan  river;  on  Raritan  bay, 
Staten  Island  Sound,  and  the  Cent,  of 
N.  J.,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Penn.,  and 
the  Staten  Island  Rapid  Transit  rail- 
ways; 21  miles  s.w.  of  New  York.  It  is 
in  a fire-clay  and  kaolin  region;  has  a 
large  and  excellent  harbor;  and  con- 
tains terra-cotta  works,  large  dry-docks, 
and  immense  coal  and  freight  shipping 
d6p6t  and  wharves  of  the  Lehigh  Valley 
railroad.  Pop.  20,145. 

PERTURBATIONS,  the  orbital  irregu- 
larities or  deviations  of  the  planets  from 
their  regular  elliptic  orbits.  These  de- 
viations arise,  in  the  case  of  the  primary 
planets,  from  the  mutual  gravitations 
of  these  planets  toward  each  other, 
which  derange  their  elliptic  motions 
round  the  sun;  and  in  that  of  the  sec- 
ondaries, partly  from  the  mutual  gravi- 
tation of  the  secondaries  of  the  same 
system,  similarly  deranging  their  elliptic 
motions  round  their  primary,  and  partly 
from  the  unequal  attraction  of  the  sun 
on  them  and  on  their  primary.  Of  the 
planetary  perturbations,  the  most  im- 
portant in  a practical  point  of  view  are 
those  which  arise  from  the  mutual 
attractions  of  the  three  bodies,  the  sun, 
the  earth,  and  the  moon. 

PERU',  a republic  of  South  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Ecuador,  on 
the  west  by  the  Pacific  ocean,  on  the 
south  by  Chile,  and  on  the  east  by  Bolivia 
and  Brazil;  area,  683,145  sq.  miles; 
estimated  pop.  in  1896,  2,900,000.  The 
population  consists  of  about  57  per 
cent  aboriginal  Indians,  23  per  cent 
mixed  Indian  races,  and  20  per  cent  of 
descendants  of  Spaniards,  Europeans 
(chiefly  Italians,  French,  and  Spaniards), 
and  Asiatics  (chiefly  Chinese). 

This  country  exhibits  great  varieties 
of  physical  character.  It  is  traversed 
throughout  its  length  by  the  Andes, 
running  parallel  to  and  on  an  average 
60  miles  distant  from  the  coast,  the 
region  between  largely  consisting  of 
sandy  desert,  except  where  watered  by 
transverse  mountain  streams.  The 
Andes  consist  here  of  two  main  chains 


or  Cordilleras,  connected  by  cross 
ranges,  inclosing  extensive  and  lofty 
valleys  and  plateaus.  The  Andes  region 
is  roughly  estimated  at  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  entire  area  of  Peru.  The 
loftiest  summits  are  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  W.  Cordillera;  several 
peaks  attain  there  an  altitude  of  nearly 

20,000  feet,  and  the  Chuquibamba  rises 
to  21,000  feet.  The  most  important  dis- 
tricts are  those  of  Pasco,  of  Cuzco,  the 
valleys  of  the  Rio  Jauja,  and  of  the 
Marafion  or  Amazon.  The  first  of  these 
lies  at  one  of  those  points  where  the 
branches  of  the  Andes  unite,  the  ridges 
sinking  into  an  elevated  plain,  which 
has  here  a general  height  of  14,000  feet. 
The  veins  of  the  precious  metals,  with 
which  this  region  abounds,  have  at- 
tracted to  it  a comparatively  dense 
population.  The  table-land  of  Cuzco 
descends  from  an  elevation  of  less  than 


Peruvians. 


12,000  feet  in  the  s.  to  about  8000  feet 
in  the  n.  Of  the  lakes  Lake  Titicaca 
(12,542  feet  above  sea-level),  the  largest 
in  South  America,  and  which  partly 
belongs  to  Bolivia,  is  the  only  one  of 
commercial  importance.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Marafion  or  main  stream 
of  the  Amazon,  and  the  Huallaga  and 
Ucayale,  which  join  the  Marafion;  the 
Ucayale,  formed  by  the  united  waters 
of  a number  of  streams  (Apurimac, 
Urubamba,  Paucartambo),  being  about 
the  same  size  as  that  river.  In  the  mari- 
time region  of  Peru  earthquake  shocks 
are  of  common  occurrence,  and  some  of 
them  have  been  of  exceptional  severity, 
the  most  disastrous  being  those  of  1746, 
1868,  and  1877.  Gold  and  silver  occur 
in  all  the  provinces  of  Peru,  and  form 
the  chief  wealth  of  the  country.  Quick- 
silver is  also  abundant.  Copper,  lead 
and  iron  also  exist  in  various  places. 

The  climate  of  Peru  is  as  varied  as  its 
physical  aspect.  On  a portion  of  the 
coast  no  rain  has  fallen  within  the  mem- 
ory of  man,  but  the  garua,  a thick 
heavy  mist  often  approaching  to  drizz- 
ling rain,  is  a partial  compensation, 
and  the  rivers  from  the  Andes  afford 
means  of  irrigation  for  sugar  and  cotton 

Clantations.  The  central  plateau  region 
as  a mild  and  comparatively  humid 
climate,  but  the  higher  regions  are  in- 
clement and  subject  to  terrific  tempests. 
East  of  the  Andes  the  regular  equatorial 
winds  from  the  east  come  loaded  with 
humidity,  and,  checked  by  the  moun- 
tains, pour  down  copious,  and  in  some 
places  perpetual  rains. 

Peru  is  incomparably  rich  in  botany. 


each  region  having  its  own  flora.  In 
the  less  elevated  portions  of  the  Eastern 
Andes  a tropical  vegetation  is  found; 
while  on  the  higher  parts  representa- 
tives of  alpine  families  (as  the  gentians) 
luxuriate.  In  the  forests  of  Eastern 
Peru  cinchona  trees  grow  abundantly 
and  supply  the  valuable  bark  from  which 
the  quinine  is  extracted.  The  same  zone, 
especially  the  hot  plains  and  swamps, 
also  supply  coca,  the  medicinal  prop- 
erties of  which  have  for  centuries  been 
known  to  the  natives  of  Peru  and  Bolivia 
who  chew  the  leaves  as  a stimulant. 
Tobacco,  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  coffee, 
cocoa,  and  corn  are  grown  in  various 
parts  and  in  increasing  quantities.  The 
eastern  face  of  the  Andes  is  as  remark- 
able for  its  fauna  as  it  is  for  its  flora. 
The  forests  on  the  lower  ranges  and  in 
the  plains  swarm  with  many  species  of 
parrots  and  monkeys;  the  tapir,  sloth, 
ant-eater,  armadillo,  etc.,  are  found 
here;  the  rivers  are  alive  with  alligators; 
and  in  the  inundated  plains  the  boa- 
constrictor  attains  a huge  size.  The 
puma  and  the  South  American  bear  in- 
habit the  higher  levels;  the  llama,  the 
guanaco,  the  alpaca,  and  the  vicufia, 
the  still  more  elevated  regions. 

Peru  exports  precious  metals,  silver 
ores,  copper,  guano,  wool  of  the  sheep 
and  the  llama,  alpaca,  and  vicufia, 
cotton,  sugar,  cinchona  bark,  rubber, 
coca  leaves  and  cocaine,  hides,  chin- 
chilla skins,  etc.  The  chief  imports  are 
machinery,  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen 
goods,  and  provisions.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  minerals,  sugar,  wool,  cotton, 
hides,  cocaine,  borax,  coffee,  and  rice; 
imports,  smallwares,  cottons,  provisions, 
woolens,  etc.  The  foreign  trade  is 
chiefly  carried  on  with  Britain,  Ger- 
many and  the  United  States. 

The  government  is  based  on  a con- 
stitution adopted  in  1867,  and  modeled 
on  that  of  the  United  States.  The  legis- 
lative power  is  in  the  hands  of  a senate 
and  a house  of  representatives.  The 
president,  elected  for  four  years,  is  the 
head  of  the  executive,  and  is  assisted  by 
two  vice-presidents.  By  the  laws  of  the 
republic  the  Indian  is  on  a level  in 
political  rights  with  the  white  men; 
there  exists  absolute  political  but  not 
religious  freedom,  the  constitution  pro- 
hibiting the  exercise  of  any  other  religion 
than  the,  Roman  Catholic.  There  is, 
however  a considerable  amount  of 
tolerance.  Education  is  compulsory  and 
free;  there  are  universities  at  Lima, 
Arequipa,  and  Cuzco.  The  Peruvian 
language,  of  which  there  are  many  dia- 
lects, still  maintains  itself  alongside  of 
the  language  of  the  conquerors. 

Of  the  early  history  of  Peru  we  are 
almost  entirely  ignorant,  but  existing 
ruins,  spoils  secured  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  the  descriptions  left  us  by  the  his- 
torians of  the  Spanish  conquest,  suf- 
ficiently prove  that  the  ancient  Peru- 
vians had  no  mean  knowledge  of  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  metal  work,  etc. 
They  also  had  made  considerable  prog- 
ress in  astronomical  science.  The  early 
religion  of  the  Peruvians  is  bound  up  in 
the  god  Viracocha,  the  creator  of  the  sun 
and  the  stars,  and  from  him  the  Incas  or 
emperors  claimed  descent  as  the  sons  of 
the  sun.  Under  the  Incas  the  empire 
was  divided  into  four  parts,  corre- 


t^ERUGlNO 


PETER  i. 


spending  to  the  four  cardinal  points; 
each  division  had  a separate  government 
presided  over  by|a  viceroy  of  royal  blood. 
All  the  land  belonged  to  the  Inca;  and 
trade  was  carried  on  by  barter,  money 
being  unknown.  The  thirteenth  mon- 
arch of  the  Incas  was  reigning  when  the 
Spanish  adventurer  Pizarro  disem- 
barked in  Peru  in  1531.  The  Inca  was 
taken  prisoner  (1532),  numbers  of  his 
subjects  were  massacred,  and  the  whole 
country  fell  in  a short  time  into  the 
hands  of  the  invaders.  It  was  then 
formed  into  a Spanish  viceroyalty;  sub- 
sequently part  of  it  was  incorporated  in 
New  Granada,  and  the  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres  was  constructed  out  of 
some  of  the  provinces.  In  1821  the 
country  proclaimed  it  independence, 
but  did  not  obtain  actual  freedom  from 
Spanish  rule  until  1824,  after  a pro- 
longed war.  Since  then  Peru,  like  the 
rest  of  the  South  American  republics, 
has  suffered  much  from  dissensions  and 
revolutions.  In  the  spring  of  1879  it 
joined  Bolivia  in  a war  against  Chile,  re- 
sulting in  the  complete  defeat  of  both 
the  former.  Peru  had  to  cede  by  the 
peace  of  1883  the  province  of  Tarapacd 
absolutely  to  Chile,  which  also  got  pos- 
session provisionally  of  the  department 
of  Tacna.  Since  then  Peru,  though  little 
troubled  with  external  complications, 
has  been  disturbed  by  the  ambitions  of 
rival  politicians,  and  even  civil  war. 

PERUGINO  (per-u-je'no),  Pietro  Va- 
nucci,  surnamed  II  Peruglno,  the 
founder  of  the  Roman  school  of  paint- 
ing, born  at  Cittd  della  Pieve  (a  de- 
pendency of  Perugia)  in  1446,  died  at 
Fontignano  1523.  About  1480  Pope 
Sixtus  IV.  sent  for  him  to  Rome  where 
he  was  employed  along  with  Signorelli, 
Ghirlandaio,  Botticelli,  and  Rosselli  in 
decorating  the  Sistine  Chapel  with 
frescoes.  Fine  specimens  of  his  frescoes 
are  preserved  in  Perugia,  Rome,  Bo- 
logna, and  Florence,  and  specimens  of 
his  other  works  are  not  infrequent  in 
European  galleries.  Raphael  is  his  most 
celebrated  disciple. 

PERUVIAN  BARK.  See  Bark,  Peru- 
vian. 

PERUZZI  (pa-rut'se),  Baldassari,  arch- 
itect and  painter  of  the  Roman  school, 
born  at  Sienna  1481,  died  at  Rome 
1537.  He  went  early  to  Rome  and  was 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  various 
churches.  He  designed  the  Farnesina 
Villa  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  and  he 
succeeded  Raphael  as  architect  of  St. 

PES'ARO,  a fortified  town  and  sea- 
port of  Italy.  The  illustrious  composer 
Rossini  was  born  here  in  1792.  Pop.  of 
town,  13,609. — The  province  of  Pesaro  e 
Urbino  has  an  area  of  1144  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  233,155. 

PESHA'WAR,  a town  of  India,  in  the 
n.  w.  frontier  province,  capital  of  divi- 
sion of  same  name,  12  miles  east  of  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Khyber  Pass. 
The  division  or  commissionership  com- 
prises the  districts  of  Peshawar  (area, 
2444  sq.  miles;  pop.  786,406),  Hazara, 
and  Kohat,  with  the  control  of  part  of 
the  hill  tribes  inhabiting  the  Khyber 
Pass.  Area,  8206  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,715,- 
248. 

PESO,  a silver  coin  and  money  of  ac- 
count used  in  Mexico  and  other  parts  of 


Spanish  America,  and  often  considered 
equivalent  to  a dollar. 

PESSIMISM,  a modern  term  to  denote 
the  opinion  or  doctrine  that  maintains 
the  most  unfavorable  view  of  every- 
thing in  nature,  and  that  the  present 
state  of  things  only  tends  to  evil ; that  in 
human  existence  there  is  an  enormous 
surplus  of  pain  over  pleasure,  and  that 
humanity  can  find  real  good  only  by 
abnegation  and  self-sacrifice.  It  is  anti- 
thetical to  optimism,  and  as  a specula- 

iive  theory  is  the  work  of  Schopenhauer 
nd  Von  Hartmann,  though  it  is  preluded 
in  the  metaphysics  of  Brahmanism  and 
the  philosophy  of  Buddhism. 

PESTALOZZI,  Johann  Heinrich,  a 
Swiss  philanthropist  and  educational  re- 
former, born  1746,  died  1827.  His  novel 
Lienhardt  and  Gertrud  (1781-89,  4 vols.) 
exerted  a powerful  moral  influence, 
while  his  educational  treatises  have  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  more  rational 
system  of  elementary  instruction  which 
now  obtains  in  America.  The  grand  prin- 
ciple that  lay  at  the  basis  of  Pestalozzi’s 
method  was  that  of  communicating  all 
instruction  by  direct  appeal  to  the  senses 
and  the  understanding,  and  forming  the 
child  by  constantly  calling  all  his  powers 
into  exercise,  instead  of  making  him  a 
mere  passive  recipient,  selecting  the 
subjects  of  study  in  such  a way  that 
each  step  should  best  aid  the  further 
progress  of  the  pupil. 

PESTH,  or  PEST.  See  Budapest. 
PESTILENCE.  See  Plague. 

PETAL,  an  appellation  given  to  the 
leaves  of  the  corolla  of  plants,  in  opposi- 
tion to  those  of  the  calyx,  called  sepals. 

PET'ALITE,  a rare  mineral,  a silicate 
of  aluminium  and  lithium,  containing 
from  5 to  6 per  cent  of  the  latter.  It 
occurs  in  masses  of  foliated  structure; 
color  white,  occasionally  tinged  with  red, 
green,  or  blue. 

PETARD',  a bell-shaped  machine  of 
gun-metal,  loaded  with  powder,  at- 
tached to  an  object  and  exploded; 
formerly  used  to  break  down  gates, 
bridges,  barriers,  etc. 

PETER  the  apostle,  commonly  called 
Saint  Peter,  was  a Galilean  fisherman 
from  Bethsaida,  Originally  named  Simon 
the  son  of  Jona,  and  brother  of  St. 
Andrew,  who  conducted  him  to  Christ. 
Jesus  greeted  Simon  with  the  significant 
words,  “Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of  Jona ; 
thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas”  (in  Greek 
Petrus,  a stone,  whence  the  name  Peter). 
After  the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes 
Peter  became  a regular  and  intimate 
disciple  of  our  Lord.  The  impetuosity  of 
his  character  led  Peter,  especially  in  the 
early  days  of  his  apostleship,  to  commit 
many  faults  which  drew  upon  him  the 
rebuke  of  his  divine  Master.  His  zeal  and 
eloquence  made  him  often  the  speaker  in 
hehalf  of  his  fellow-apostles  on  impor- 
tant occasions,  and  his  opinions  had 
great  influence  in  the  Christian  churches. 
On  one  memorable  occasion  he  incurred 
the  rebuke  of  the  apostle  Paul  in  conse- 
q^uence  of  his  behavior  toward  the 
Grentile  Christians  in  regard  to  social  in- 
tercourse. Nothing  certain  is  known  of 
his  subsequent  life,  but  it  is  almost 
beyond  doubt  that  he  was  a joint- 
founder  of  the  church  at  Rome,  and  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  there,  most 
likely  under  Nero,  about  64  a.d.  The 


only  written  documents  left  by  Peter 
are  his  two  Epistles.  The  genuineness  of 
the  First  Epistle  is  placed  beyond  all 
reasonable  doubt,  both  the  external  and 
internal  evidence  being  of  the  strongest 
description;  that  of  the  Second,  however 
has  been  disputed  by  numerous  critics 
on  what  appears  to  be  plausible  grounds. 
Doubts  of  its  genuineness  already  ex- 
isted in  the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  it 
was  not  admitted  into  the  New  Testa- 
ment canon  till  393  a.d. 

PETER  the  cruel.  King  of  Castile  and 
Leon,  born  1334,  succeeded  his  father 
Alfonso  XI.  13.50,  and  died  1369.  His 
reign  was  one  long  series  of  cruelties  and 
despotic  acts. 

PETER  the  hermit,  an  enthusiastic 
monk  of  Amiens,  whose  preaching,  after 
a pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (end  of  the 
11th  century),  gave  rise  to  the  first 
Crusade.  (See  Crusades.)  Peter  led  the 
way  through  Hungary  at  the  head  of  an 
undisciplined  multitude  of  more  than 
30,000  men,  a comparatively  small  num- 
ber of  whom  survived  to  reach  their 
destination,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  personal  courage  at  the  storming 
of  the  holy  city.  On  his  return  to  his 
native  country  he  founded  the  abbey  of 
Noirmoutier,  and  died  its  first  superior 
in  1115. 

PETER  I.  (The  Great),  Alexeievitch, 
Emperor  of  Russia,  born  1672,  was  the 
eldest  son  by  his  second  wife  of  the  Czar 
Alexis  Mikhailovitch.  His  elder  brothers 
Fedor  and  Ivan,  were  feeble  in  consti- 
tution. Fedor  succeeded  his  father  in 
1676,  and  died  in  1682.  Ivan  renounced 
the  crown,  and  Peter  was  declared  czar, 
with  his  mother,  the  Czarina  Natalia 
Kirilovna,  as  regent.  Sophia,  third 
daughter  of  Alexis,  ambitious  to  govern 


succeeded  in  having  Ivan  proclaimed 
czar  jointly  with  Peter,  and  herself  re- 
gent. Peter  was  relegated  to  private  life, 
his  education  purposely  neglected,  and 
his  had  habits  encouraged.  In  1689  he 
wrested  the  power  from  his  sister,  and 
confined  her  in  a convent.  Peter  was  now 
virtually  sole  emperor,  though,  till  the 
death  of  his  brother  in  1697,  he  associ- 
ated his  name  with  his  own  in  the  ukases 
of  the  empire.  He  now  determined  to  dc 
what  he  could  to  raisi  his  country  out  of 
its  barbarism,  and  to  place  its  people  in 
the  ranks  of  civilized  nations.  His 
journey  to  Holland  and  England  (1697- 
98),  when  he  practically  worked  in  ship- 
yards, is  familiar;  and  the  knowledge  he 


PETER’S,  ST. 


PETERSBURG,  ST. 


there  gained  was  amply  profited  by  on 
his  return.  Peter,  however,  not  only 
created  a navy,  but  gave  Russia,  a sea- 
board and  sea-ports  by  wresting  the 
Baltic  provinces  from  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden.  Young  Russian  nobles  were 
obliged  to  travel;  schools  of  navigation 
and  mathematics  were  founded;  agri- 
culture was  improved  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  implements,  seeds,  and  superior 
breeds  of  cattle.  Peter  imported  foreign 
artisans  of  all  kinds,  established  manu- 
factories of  arms,  tools,  and  fabrics,  and 
distributed  metallurgists  through  the 
mining  districts  of  Russia;  roads  and 
canals  were  made  to  foster  internal  com- 
merce, and  to  extend  trade  with  Asia. 
In  1703  he  laid  the  foundation  of  St. 
Petersburg,  and  twenty  years  later  of  its 
Academy  of  Sciences.  Laws  and  institu- 
tions which  in  any  way  interfered  with 
his  projects,  he  either  abolished  or  al- 
tered. In  his  zeal  to  do  good  he  was  too 
frequently  injudicious  in  choosing  times 
and  seasons,  and  the  least  show  of  oppo- 
sition irritated  him  into  ferocity.  He  re- 
pudiated his  wife  a few  years  after  mar- 
riage for  her  reactionary  leanings;  for 
the  same  reason  his  son  Alexis  was  ill 
treated,  compelled  to  renounce  the  suc- 
cession, and  condemned  to  death,  but 
died  suddenly  before  sentence  could  be 
carried  out.  Peter  died  28th  January, 
1725,  the  immediate  cause  being  inflam- 
mation, contracted  while, assisting  in  the 
rescue  of  some  soldiers  in  Lake  Ladoga. 
In  1707  he  had  married  his  mistress 
Catharine;  this  marriage  was  publicly 
celebrated  in  1712;  Catharine  was 
crowned  in  1724,  and  succeeded  Peter 
after  his  death.  See  Catharine  I. 

PETER’S,  Saint,  the  Cathedral  of 
Rome,  the  largest  and  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  churches  in  Christendom. 
It  is  a cruciform  building  in  the  Italian 
style,  surmounted  by  a lofty  dome, 
built  on  the  legendary  site  of  St.  Peter’s 
Martyrdom.  In  306  Constantine  the 
Great  erected  on  this  spot  a basilica 
of  great  magnificence.  In  the  time  of 
Nicholas  V.  it  threatened  to  fall  into 
ruins,  and  he  determined  on  its  recon- 
struction, but  the  work  of  restoration 
proceeded  slowly,  and  Julius  II.  (1503- 
13)  decided  on  the  erection  of  an  entirely 
new  building.  He  laid  the  foundation- 
stone  of  the  new  cathedral  on  the  18th 
of  April,  1506,  and  selected  the  famous 
Bramante  as  his  architect.  After  the 
latter’s  death  various  architects  had 
charge  of  the  work  until  Michael  Angelo 
was  appointed  in  1546.  He  nearly  com- 
pleted the  dome  and  a large  portion  of 
the  building  before  his  decease  (1564). 
The  nave  was  finished  in  1612,  the 
facade  and  portico  in  1614,  and  the 
church  was  dedicated  by  Urban  VIII. 
on  18th  November,  1626.  The  exten- 
sive colonnade  which  surrounds  the 
piazza  and  forms  a magnificent  approach 
to  the  church  was  begun  by  Bernini  in 
1667,  and  the  sacristy  erected  by  Carlo 
Marchionni  in  1780.  The  interior  diam- 
eter of  the  dome  is  139  feet,  the  exterior 
diameter  195J  feet;  its  height  from  the 
pavement  to  the  base  of  the  lantern  405 
feet,  to  the  top  of  the  cross  outside  448 
feet.  The  length  of  the  cathedral  within 
the  walls  is  613J  feet;  the  height  of  the 
nave  near  the  door  152h  feet;  the  width 
87J  feet.  The  width  of  the  side  aisles  is 


33 J feet;  the  entire  width  of  nave  and 
side  aisles,  including  the  piers  that 
separate  them,  197J  feet.  The  height  of 
the  baldacehino  is  94J  feet.  The  cir- 
cumference of  the  piers  which  support 
the  dome  is  253  feet.  The  floor  of  the 
cathedral  covers  nearly  5 acres,  and  its 
cost  is  estimated  to  have  exceeded 
$50,000,000. 

PETERSBURG,  a city  and  river  port, 
Dinwiddie  co.,  Virginia,  on  the,  Appo- 
mattox river,  23  miles  s.  of  Richmond. 
It  is  an  important  railway  center,  and 
a place  of  considerable  trade  and  manu- 
facturing industry.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  Federal  forces  under  General 
Grant  in  1864-65,  and  the  capture  of 
this  town,  “the  last  citadel  of  the  con- 
federacy,” was  soon  followed  by  the 
surrender  of  General  Lee  and  the  end  of 
the  war.  Pop.  25,355. 

PETERSBURG,  St.,  the  capital  and 
most  populous  town  of  the  Russian 
empire,  is  built  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Neva,  a considerable  part  being  on  the 
south  or  left  bank  of  the  river;  a small 


portion  on  the  north  bank;  and  the  re- 
mainder on  the  numerous  islands 
formed  by  the  different  river  mouths, 
these  various  sections  being  connected 
by  numerous  bridges.  The  site  is  low 
and  marshy,  and  liable  to  periodic  in- 
undations; it  is  also  unhealthy,  the 
death-rate  largely  exceeding  the  birth 
rate.  The  streets  are  long,  wide,  and 
regular,  and  there  are  some  immense 
squares;  the  public  buildings  are  numer- 
ous, magnificent,  and  of  colossal  pro- 
portions; the  quays  massive  and  of 
granite.  Among  the  many  palaces  are 
the  Winter  Palace,  now  used  only  for 
ceremonial  purposes,  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  luxurious  in  Europe;  the 
Marble  Palace  so  called;  the  Michael 
Palace,  now  used  as  the  School  of  Mili- 
tary Engineers;  and  the  Hermitage 
Palace,  containing  a fine  library  and 
one  of  the  richest  collections  of  French, 
Flemish,  Dutch,  Italian,  Spanish,  Rus- 
sian, and  other  paintings,  the  private 
property  of  the  czars,  besides  engravings, 
coins,  gems,  antiquities,  etc.  The  cot- 
tage in  which  Peter  the  Great  lived 


while  superintending  the  construction 
of  St.  Petersburg  is  still  preserved. 
Other  buildings  of  importance  are; 
The  Admiralty,  a vast  parallelogram  of 
brick,  with  a naval  and  natural  history 
museum  and  library;  the  arsenal,  con- 
taining a museum  of  artillery;  the 
palaces  of  the  general  staff  and  of  the 
senate;  the  custom-house,  the  exchange, 
and  imperial  bank;  the  fortress  of 
Petropavlovsk  (the  Russian  bastile)  the 
academy  of  sciences,  with  extensive 
museum  and  library;  and  the  imperial 
library,  with  over  a million  volumes  and 
large  collections  of  manuscripts  aiid  en- 
gravings. There  are  numerous  hospitals 
and  charitable  institutions,  a university, 
founded  in  1819,  many  special  academies 
and  four  theaters  maintained  by  the 
state.  Of  the  monuments  the  colossal 
equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the  Great, 
erected  by  Catharine  11.  (1782),  and  the 
monolithic  Doric  column  of  granite,  80 
feet  high,  erected  by  Nicholas  to  the 
memory  of  Alexander  I.,  take  first  rank; 
but  these,  in  common  with  many  of  the 


finest  buildings  have  severely  suffered 
from  climatic  influences.  St.  Petersburg 
commands  a large  share  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  whole  empire,  but  exact 
statistics  are  not  obtainable.  Formerly 
the  port  of  the  capital  was  at  the  strongly 
fortified  island  town  of  Cronstadt 
(which  see),  but  large  vessels  now  reach 
St.  Petersburg  by  means  of  a deep  canal, 
and  commodious  harbors  have  been 
constructed  here.  The  manufactures 
are  varied,  but  the  principal  are  glass- 
works, tanneries,  sugar-refineries,  cotton 
mills,  breweries,  and  tobacco  works; 
also  several  government  establishments 
besides  those  connected  with  military 
and  naval  equipment,  as  a carpet  manu- 
factory, modeled  on  that  of  the  Gobelins 
at  Paris,  and  a glass  and  porcelain 
manufactory.  St.  Petersburg  was 
founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1703, 
when  he  had  just  wrested  its  site  from 
the  Swedes.  The  forced  construction  of 
a city  in  a site  apparently  forbidden 
bj^  nature  cost  the  lives,  according  to 
various  accounts,  of  from  100,000  to 
200,000  peasants,  collected  from  all 


PETER’S  PENCE 


PETROLEUM 


paris  of  the  Russian  empire.  It  was  at  | 
first  built  entirely  of  wood,  and  without  | 
a proper  street  system,  but  the  extensive 
fires  of  1736  and  1737  facilitated  the 
reconstruction  on  an  improved  plan. 
The  Empress  Elizabeth  did  much  to 
improve  the  city;  it  is,  however,  chiefly 
indebted  to  Catharine  II.  for  its  regular- 
ity and  architectural  splendor;  and  the 
improvements  under  Nicholas  and  Alex- 
ander II.  have  made  it  one  of  the  finest 
of  European  capitals.  Pop.  1,267,023. 

PETER’S  PENCE,  a papal  tribute 
collected  in  several  of  the  western  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  The  idea  of  an  annual 
tribute  seems  to  have  originated  in 
England  before  the  Norman  conquest, 
and  was  exacted  from  every  house- 
holder about  St.  Peter’s  Day  for  the 
support  of  an  English  college  or  hospice 
in  Rome.  It  was  finally  abolished  by 
Elizabeth.  This  contribution  was  some- 
times also  called  Romescot.  It  is  still 
collected  among  Catholics,  especially 
since  the  abolition  of  the  pope’s  tem- 
poral power. 

PETION  DE  VILLENEUVE  (pa-ti-on 
de  vel-neuv),  Jerome,  French  revolu- 
tionary, was  born  in  1753,  was  chosen 
deputy,  by  the  tiersdtat  of  that  city, 
to  the  states-general  in  1789.  In  October 
he  was  made  a member  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety;  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Assembly  in  1790; 
appointed  president  of  the  criminal 
tribunal  of  Paris,  and  became  mayor  of 
Paris  in  1791.  After  the  death  of  the 
king  he  was  nominated  a deputy  to  the 
convention;  joined  the  Girondists;  was 
impeached  by  Robespierre;  escaped 
from  prison,  and  died,  it  is  supposed, 
from  hunger,  his  body,  in  1794,  being 
found  in  a field  in  the  department  of  the 
Gironde  half  devoured  by  wolves. 

PETITION  OF  RIGHT,  in  English 
history,  a parliamentary  declaration  of 
the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people, 
assented  to  by  Charles  I.  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign  (1628),  and  considered 
a constitutional  document  second  in 
importance  only  to  Magna  Charta.  The 
petition  demanded;  (1)  that  no  freeman 
should  be  forced  to  pay  any  tax,  loan, 
or  benevolence,  unless  in  accordance 
with  an  act  of  parliament;  (2)  that  no 
freeman  should  be  imprisoned  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  the  land;  (3)  that  soldiers 
and  sailors  should  not  be  billeted  on 
private  persons;  (4)  commissions  to  pun- 
ish soldiers  and  sailors  by  martial  law 
should  be  abolished. 

PETIT  JURY.  See  Jury. 

PETOFI  (p.e-teu'fe),  Sander,  a Hun- 
garian poet,  born  in  1823.  His  lyric  of 
Most  vagy  soha  (Now  or  Never)  became 
the  war-song  (1848)  of  the  revolution; 
and  in  recognition  of  his  lyrical  fer- 
vency he  has  been  named  “the  Hun- 
garian Burns.’’  In  the  revolutionary 
war  he  was  appointed  an  adjutant  under 
Bern,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Schiissburg  (1849). 

PETRARCH  (pet'rark),  Francesco 
Pctrarca,  an  Italian  poet  and  scholar, 
born  at  Arezzo  20th  July,  1304.  It  was 
at  Avignon  in  1.327  that  he  first  saw,  in 
the  church  of  St.  Claire,  the  Laura  who 
exercised  so  great  an  influence  on  his 
life  and  lyrics.  Our  information  regard- 
ing this  lady  is  exceedingly  meagre,  but 
it  is  supposed  that  her  name  was  Laura  I 


[ de  Noves,  that  she  had  become  the  wife 
I of  Hughes  de  Sade  two  years  before  she 
was  seen  by  Petrarch,  and  that  she  died 
in  1348  a virtuous  wife  and  the  mother 
of  a large  family.  After  this  first  meet- 
ing Petrarch  remained  at  Avignon  three 
years,  singing  his  purely  Platonic  love, 
and  haunting  Laura  at  church  and  in  her 
walks.  He  then  left  Avignon  for  Lom- 
bez  (French  department  of  Gers),  where 
he  held  a canonry  gifted  by  Pope  Bene- 
dict XII.,  and  afterward  visited  Paris, 
Bfjabant,  Ghent,  the  Rhine,  etc.  In 
1337  he  returned  to  Avignon,  bought  a 
small  estate  at  Vaucluse,  in  order  to  be 
near  Laura,  and  here  for  three  years 
wrote  numerous  sonnets  in  her  praise. 


His  Latin  works  were  highly  esteemed, 
and  in  1341  he  was  called  to  Rome  to 
receive  the  laureate  crown  awarded  for 
his  Latin  poem  of  Africa,  an  epic  on  the 
Punic  wars.  At  Parma  he  learned  the 
death  of  Laura,  which  he  recorded  on 
his  copy  of  Virgil,  and  celebrated  in  his 
Triumphs.  A large  part  of  his  time  was 
employed  in  various  diplomatic  mis- 
sions, and  in  1370  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Arqua,  near  Padua,  where  he 
passed  his  remaining  years  in  religious 
exercises,  dying  18th  July,  1374.  Among 
his  Latin  works  are  three  books  of 
Epistles  (Epistolae  Familiares)  and 
twelve  Eclogues,  his  poem  Africa,  vari- 
ous philosophical,  religious,  political, 
and  historical  treatises;  his  Italian 
poems,  on  which  his  fame  now  entirely 
rests,  chiefly  consist  of.  Sonetti  and 
Canzoni  in  Vita  e in  Morte  di  Laura,  and 
of  Trionfi  (Triumphs),  a series  of  alle- 
gorical visions.  His  poems  had  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  development 
of  Italian  and  modern  European  poetry. 

PETREL,  the  common  name  of  the 


Stormy  petrel. 


web-footed  oceanic  birds  of  the  family 


Procellaridse.  The  petrels  are  nocturnal 
in  their  habits,  breed  in  holes  in  the 
rocks,  lay  but  oim  egg,  and  are  almost 
all  of  small  size  afia  more  or  less  somber 
plumage.  The  smaller  species  are  well 
known  to  sailors  under  the  name  of 
Mother  Carey’s  chickens,  and  their  ap- 
pearance is  supposed  to  presage  a storm. 
The  term  stormy  petrel  is  more  exclu- 
sively applied  to  a bird  which  seems  to 
run  in  a remarkable  manner  along  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  where  it  picks  up  its 
food. 

PETRIFICATIONS  are  the  organic 
bodies  (animal  or  vegetable)  which  have, 
by  slow  process,  been  converted  into 
stone.  The  term  is  used  in  much  the 
same  sense  as  fossils. 

PETRO'LEUM,  a variety  of  naphtha, 
called  also  rock  or  mineral  oil,  a liquid 
inflammable  substance  in  certain  locali- 
ties exuding  from  the  earth,  in  some 
places  collected  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  wells,  in  other  places  obtained 
in  great  quantities  by  boring.  It  is 
essentially  composed  of  a great  number 
of  hydrocarbons;  is  unctuous  to  the 
touch;  exhales  a strong  odor;  flows 
chiefly  from  beds  associated  with  coal 
strata;  and  is  found  in  enormous  quan- 
tities in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States,  Russia  (especially  at  Baku  on 
the  Caspian),  Canada,  Burmah,  etc. 
At  Baku  a single  well  is  said  sometimes 
to  spout  as  much  as  11,000  tons  of  oil 
in  a single  day,  the  oil  rising  perhaps 
to  the  height  of  300  feet.  It  yields 
kerosene,  paraffin,  and  paraffin  oil,  so 
extensively  employed  for  illuminating 


Outburst  of  petroleum  in  well. 

purposes;  also  lubricating  oil  and  vase- 
line; and  has  been  largely  employed  as 
liquid  fuel  in  factories,  locomotives, 
and  steamships.  Steamers,  specially 
constructed  with  tanks,  are  now  en- 
gaged in  its  transport,  and  in  the  larger 
towns  in  England  vast  reservoir-tanks 
for  its  reception  have  been  recently  con- 
structed. Attention  was  first  strongly 
drawn  to  petroleum  by  the  successful 
manufacture  and  sale  of  paraffin  oil  in 


PEWTER 


PHAROS 


Britain.  This  industry  was  also  started 
in  America,  but  it  soon  came  to  an  end 
after  1859,  when  a company  “struck 
oil”  by  boring  at  Oil  Creek,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  obtained  a supply  of  400 
gallons  a day.  This  led  to  numerous 
other  borings,  and  the  oil  was  obtained 
in  such  quantities  that  towns  of  con- 
siderable size  ,^oon  sprang  up  in  the  oil 
district,  railways  were  constructed, 
immense  reservoirs  were  made,  and  long 
lines  of  oil  pipes  laid  down,  while  large 
fortunes  were  realized.  At  first  the 
borings  were  not  very  deep,  and  the  oil 
generally  flowed  naturally ; subsequently 
deeper  borings  were  necessary,  and  the 
oil  could  only  be  raised  to  the  surface  by 
pumping.  Boring  for  oil  is  carried  on  in 
the  same  way  as  for  water.  See  Artesian 
Wells.  Boring. 

PEWTER,  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead,  or 
of  tin  with  proportions  of  lead,  zinc, 
bismuth,  antimony,  or  copper,  and  used 
for  domestic  utensils.  One  of  the  finest 
sorts  of  pewter  is  composed  of  83  parts 
of  tin  to  17  parts  of  antimony,  while  the 
common  pewter  of  which  beer-mugs  and 
other  vessels  are  made  consists  of  4 
parts  of  tin  and  1 of  lead.  The  kind  of 
pewter  of  which  tea-pots  are  made 
(called  Britannia-metal)  is  an  alloy  of 
tin,  brass,  antimony,  and  bismuth. 

PFENNIG,  a small  copper  or  rfither 
bronze  coin  current  in  Germany,  of 
which  100  = 1 mark ; so  that  ten  pfennige 
are  worth  a little  over  two  cents. 

PHACOCHERE  (fa'ko-ker),  Phaco- 
choere,  the  wart-hog  of  Africa,  apachy- 
dermatous  mammal,  akin  to  the  swine, 
characterized  by  a large  wart-like  ex- 
crescence on  each  side  of  the  face.  The 


Wart-hog. 


tusks  of  the  male  project  8 or  9 inches 
beyond  the  lips,  and  form  terrible 
weapons.  One  species  is  the  Abyssinian 
phacochere  or  Ethiopian  wild-boar. 

PHA'COPS,  a genus  of  fossil  trilobites. 
P.  latifrons  is  characteristic  of  the 
Devonian  formation,  and  is  all  but 
world-wide  in  its  distribution. 

PHvEDO,  a Greek  philosopher,  a 
scholar  of  Socrates,  and  founder  of  a 
school  of  philosophy  in  Elis.  The  dia- 
logue of  Plato  on  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  which  contains  the  conversation  of 
Socrates  in  prison  before  his  death, 
bears  the  name  of  Phsedo.  None  of  his 
own  writings  are  extant. 

PH^DRA,  in  Greek  mythology, 
daughter  of  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  was  the 
sister  of  Ariadne  and  wife  of  Theseus. 
She  falsely  accused  her  stepson,  Hip- 
polytus,  of  a criminal  attempt  upon  her 
nonor,  an  injustice  of  which  she  after- 
ward repented,  and  was  either  killed  by 


her  husband  or  committed  suicide. 
Sophocles  and  Euripides  made  this  the 
subject  of  tragedies  (both  of  which  are 
lost),  and  their  example  was  followed  by 
Racine. 

PHA'ETHON,  a mjdhological  charac- 
ter, who  one  day  obtained  leave  from  his 
father  Helios  (the  Sun)  to  drive  the 
chariot  of  the  sun,  but  being  unable  to 
restrain  the  horses  Zeus  struck  him  with 
a thunderbolt  and  hurled  him  headlong 
into  the  river  Po.  The  name  in  its  Eng- 
lish form  of  Phaeton  is  applied  to  an  open 
four-wheeled  carriage. 

PHAL'ANGER,  the  name  given  to 
marsupial  quadrupeds  inhabiting  Aus- 
tralasia. They  are  generally  of  the  size 
of  a cat,  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits. 


Vulpine  phalanger. 


and  live  in  trees,  feeding  on  insects, 
fruits,  leaves,  etc.  The  sooty  phalanger 
or  tapoa,  so  called  from  its  color,  is 
pretty  common  in  Tasmania.  The  vul- 
pine phalanger  or  vulpine  opossum  is 
another  species,  common  in  Australia. 

PHALAN'GES  (-jez),  the  name  applied 
to  the  separate  bones  of  which  the  digits 
(or  fingers  and  toes)  of  vertebrates  are 
composed.  Each  digit  or  finger  of  the 
human  hand  consists  of  three  phalanges, 
with  the  exception  of  the  pollex  or 
thumb,  which  is  composed  of  two  only. 

PHAL'ANX,  a name  given  generally 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  whole  of  the  heavy- 
armed infantry  of  an  army,  but  more 
specifically  to  each  of  the  grand  divisions 
of  that  class  of  troops  when  formed  in 
ranks  and  files  close  and  deep,  with 
their  shields  joined  and  their  pikes  cross- 
ing each  other.  The  Spartan  phalanx 
was  commonly  8 feet  deep,  while  the 
Theban  phalanx  was  much  deeper. 

PHAL'ARIS,  a small  genus  of  grasses, 
of  which  the  seed  of  one  of  the  species, 
canary-grass,  is  extensively  employed 
as  food  for  birds,  and  commonly  known 
as  canary-seed. 

PHALLUS,  the  emblem  of  the  genera- 
tive power  in  nature,  carried  in  solemn 
procession  in  the  Bacchic  orgies  of 
ancient  Greece,  and  also  an  object  of 
veneration  or  worship  among  various 
Oriental  nations.  In  botany.  Phallus  is 
a genus  of  fungi. 

PHANEROGA'MIA,  a primary  divi- 
sion of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  com- 
prising those  plants  which  have  their 
organs  of  reproduction  (stamens  and 
pistils)  developed  and  distinctly  ap- 
parent. 

PHANTASMAGO'RIA,  a term'  applied 
to  the  effects  produced  by  a magic- 
lantern. 

PHARAOH  (fa'ro),  the  name  given  in 
the  Bible  to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  corre- 
sponding to  the  p-ra  or  ph-ra  of  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  which  signifies 
the  sun.  The  identification  of  the 
Pharaohs  mentioned  in  Scripture  with 


the  respective  Egyptian  kings,  particu- 
larly the  earlier  ones,  is  a matter  of 
great  difficulty. 

PHARISEES,  a religious  sect  among 
the  Jews  which  had  risen  into  great  in- 
fluence at  the  time  of  Christ,  and  played 
a prominent  part  in  the  events  recorded 
in  the  New  Testament.  The  most  prob- 
able account  of  the  origin  of  the  Pharisees 
as  a distinct  sect  is  that  which  refers  it 
to  the  reaction  against  the  attempt  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  break  down  the 
distinctions  between  his  Jewish  and  hia 
Greek  subjects.  At  the  time  of  Christ 
the  Pharisees  stood  as  the  national 
party  in  politics  and  religion — the  op- 
ponents of  the  Sadducees.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Pharisees  was 
that  of  the  existence  of  an  oral  law  to 
complete  and  explain  the  written  law. 
“Moses,”  says  the  Mishna,  “received 
the  law  (the  unwritten  law  is  meant) 
from  Sinai,  and  delivered  it  to  Joshua, 
and  Joshua  to  the  elders,  and  the  elders 
to  the  prophets,  and  the  prophets  to  the 
men  of  the  Great  Synagogue.”  This  oral 
law  declared  the  continuance  of  life 
after  the  death  of  the  body,  and  the  res- 
urrection of  the  dead.  This  authorita- 
tive tradition  received  in  process  of  time 
additions  which  were  not  pretended  to 
be  derived  directly  from  Moses: — 1st. 
Decisions  of  the  Great  Synagogue  by  a 
majority  of  votes  on  disputed  points. 
2d.  Decrees  made  by  prophets  and  wise 
men  in  different  ages.  3rd.  Legal  deci- 
sions of  proper  ecclesiastical  authorities 
on  disputed  questions.  These  authorities 
comprehended  both  the  writers  of  the 
sacred  books  and  their  approved  com- 
mentators. There  is  no  doubt  that 
though  their  strict  observance  of  small 
points  often  led  to  hypocrisy  and  self- 
glorification,  the  sect  contained  a body 
of  pious,  learned,  and  patriotic  men  of 
progress. 

PHARMACOPCE'IA,  a book  contain- 
ing the  prescriptions  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  medicines  recognized  by  the 
general  body  of  practitioners.  Up  till 
1863  separate  Pharmacopoeias  were 
issued  by  the  Colleges  of  Physicians  of 
London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  Since 
then  a British  Pharmacopoeia,  issued  by 
the  medical  council  of  tne  kingdom,  is 
recognized  by  the  whole  medical  pro- 
fession of  Great  Britain.  There  is  also  an 
American  Pharmacopoeia,  based  on  that 
of  Britain. 

PHAR'MACY,  pharmaceutics,  the  art 
of  preparing,  compounding,  and  combin- 
ing substances  for  medical  purposes:  the 
art  of  the  apothecary.  As  these  sub- 
stances may  be  mineral,  vegetable,  or 
animal,  theoretical  pharmacy  requires  a 
knowledge  of  botany,  zoology,  and 
mineralogy;  and  as  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  their  properties,  and  the  laws 
of  their  composition  and  decomposition, 
of  chemistry  also.  In  a narrower  sense 
pharmacy  is  merely  the  art  of  com- 
pounding and  mixing  drugs  according 
to  the  prescription  of  the  physician. 

PHAROS,  a lighthouse.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  island  of  Pharos,  close 
to  and  now  part  of  Alexandria,  which 
protected  the  port  of  that  city.  On  the 
eastern  promontory  of  the  island  stood 
the  lighthouse  of  Alexandria,  so  famous 
in  antiquity,  and  considered  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world,  built  300  years  B.c. 


PHARYNX 


PHILADELPHIA 


PHARYNX  (fa'ringks),  the  terra  ap- 
plied to  the  muscular  sac  which  inter- 
venes between  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 
and  the  narrow  oesophagus,  with  which 
it  is  continuous.  It  is  of  a funnel  shape, 
and  about  4 inches  in  length;  the 
posterior  nostrils  open  into  it  above  the 
soft  palate,  while  the  larynx,  with  its 
lid,  the  epiglottis,  is  in  front  and  below. 
The  contraction  of  the  pharynx  trans- 
mits the  food  from  the  mouth  to  the 
oesophagus.  From  it  proceed  the 
eustachian  tubes  to  the  ears. 

PHAS'MID.iE,  specter  insects  or  walk- 
ing-sticks, remarkable  for  their  very 
close  resemblance  to  the  objects  in  the 
midst  of  which  they  live,  this  peculiarity 
known  as  mimicry,  being  their  only  pro- 
tection against  their  enemies.  Some  of 
them  are  destitute  of  wings  and  have 


Phasmidae,  or  specter  Insects. 

1,  Brazilian  walking-stick.  2,  Australian. 

the  appearance  of  dead  twigs,  while  the 
absence  of  motion  in  the  insects  add  to 
the  deception.  In  others,  as  the  genus 
Pyhllium,  the  wings  have  the  appear- 
ance of  withered  leaves,  while  the 
brighter  hue  of  the  wing-covers  of  a few 
of  larger  size  give  to  the  animal  the  ap- 
pearance of  a fresher  leaf. 

PHEASANT,  the  general  name  given 
to  birds  of  the  family  Phasianidae, 
which  comprises  several  genera  besides 
that  of  the  pheasants  proper,  Phasianus. 


Golden  pheasant. 


Impeyan  pheasant. 


There  are  usually  naked  spaces  of  skin 
on  the  head  or  cheeks  and  often  combs 
or  wattles.  The  plumage  of  the  males  is 
trilliant,  that  of  the  females  more  sober, 


and  the  males  carry  spurs  on  the  tarso- 
metatarsus.  The  wings  are  short,  the 
tail  long.  The  three  front  toes  are  united 
by  a membrane  up  to  the  first  joint,  and 
the  hinder  toe  is  articulated  to  the  tar- 
sus. The  food  consists  of  grains,  soft 
herbage,  roots,  and  insects.  They  are 
chiefly  terrestrial  in  habits,  taking  short, 
rapid  flights  when  alarmed.  The  phea- 
sants are  polygamous,  thfe  males  and 
females  consorting  together  during  the 
breeding-time,  which  occurs  in  spring. 

PHELPS,  Edward  John,  American 
political  leader  and  diplomat,  born  at 
Middlebury,  Vt.,  in  1822.  In  1851  he 
was  appointed  Second  Comptroller  of 
the  United  States  treasury.  In  1870  he 
was  a member  of  the  Vermont  constitu- 
tional convention.  He  was  appointed  by 
President  Cleveland,  Minister  to  the 
Court  of  Saint  James’s.  In  1893  he  was 
appointed  senior  counsel  for  the  United 
States  in  the  Bering  sea  arbitration.  He 
died  in  1900. 

PHELPS,  Elizabeth  Stuart.  An  Amer- 
ican author.  See  Ward,  Elizabeth  Stuart 
Phelps. 

PHENIC  ACID,  phenol.  See  Carbolic 
Acid. 

PHENOM'ENALISM,  that  system  of 
philosophy  which  inquires  only  into  the 
causes  of  existing  phenomena.  The 
sceptical  phenomenalism  of  Hume  is 
now  represented  by  Positivism.  A 
phenomenalist  does  not  believe  in  an 
invariable  connection  between  cause 
and  effect,  but  holds  this  generally  ac- 
knowledged relation  to  be  nothing  more 
than  an  habitually  observed  sequence. 

PHI'DIAS  of  Athens,  a celebrated 
Greek  sculptor,  who  was  born  about  490 
B.C.,  and  flourished  in  the  age  of  Pericles 
but  of  whose  life  hardly  any  particulars 
are  known.  Among  his  works  were  three 
statues  of  Athena  which  were  all  in  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens  in  the  time  of 
Pausanias.  One  colossal  statue  of 
Athena  was  in  bronze,  and  the  god- 
dess was  represented  as  a warrior- 
goddess  in  the  attitude  of  battle.  The 
second  and  still  more  famous  stood  in 
the  Parthenon,  and  was  made  of  ivory 
and  gold,  representing  Athena  standing 
with  a spear  in  one  hand  and  an  image 
of  Victory  in  the  other;  it  measured, 
with  the  pedestal,  about  41 J feet  in 
height.  The  third  statue,  in  bronze,  of  a 
smaller  size,  was  called  emphatically  the 
beautiful,  on  account  of  its  exquisite 
proportions.  Another  colossal  statue 
by  Phidias,  that  of  Zeus  at  Olympia, 
was  ranked  for  its  beauty  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Zeus  was  here 
seen  sitting  upon  a throne,  with  an  olive 
wreath  of  gold  about  his  fSimples;  the 
upper  part  of  his  body  w#  naked;  a 
wide  mantel,  covering  the  rest  of  it, 
hung  down  in  the  richest  folds  to  his 
feet,  which  rested  on  a footstool.  The 
naked  parts  of  the  statue  were  of  ivory, 
the  dress  was  of  beaten  gold.  The  right 
hand  held  a Victory,  and  the  left  a 
scepter  tipped  with  the  eagle.  The  Zeus 
was  removed  to  Constantinople  by 
Theodosius  I.,  and  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  475  a.d.  During  the  government 
of  Pericles,  which  lasted  twenty  years, 
Athens  was  adorned  with  costly  temples, 
colonnades,  and  other  works  of  art. 
Phidias  superintended  these  improve- 
ments; and  the  sculptures  with  whick 


the  Parthenon,  for  instance,  among 
other  buildings,  was  adorned,  were 
partly  his  own  work,  and  partly  in  the 
spirit  and  after  the  ideas  of  this  great 
master.  Of  the  merits  of  these  we 
can  ourselves  judge.  Phidias  received 
great  honors  from  the  Athenians,  but 
he  is  also  said  to  have  been  falsely 
accused  of  peculation,  and  of  impiety  for 
putting  his  own  likeness  and  that  of 
Pericles  on  the  shield  of  Athena.  He 
diec^robably  about  b.c.  432. 

PHILADELPHIA,  a city  and  river 
port  in  Pennsylvania,  after  New  York 
and  Chicago  the  largest  city  in  the 
Union,  125  miles  northeast  of  Washing- 
ton and  85  miles  southwest  of  New  York, 
situated  between  the  rivers  Delaware 
and  Schuylkill,  with  suburbs  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  both  rivers,  96  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  site  is 
nearly  flat,  but  slopes  gently  both 
toward  the  Delaware  and  the  Schulykill. 
The  houses  are  generally  built  of  brick, 
the  private  houses  having  in  many  cases 
dressings  of  white  marble.  The  streets 
were  originally  laid  out  so  as  to  run 
nearly  due  westward  from  the  Delaw'are, 
intersected  by  other  streets  running 
nearly  north  and  south,  and  still  almost 
everywhere  the  streets  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles.  Market  street,  the  great 
central  street  running  east  and  west,  and 
continuously  built  upon  for  over  4 miles, 
has  a width  of  100  feet;  Broad  street, 
the  principal  central  street  running  north 
and  south,  is  built  upon  to  about  the 
same  length,  and  is  113  feet  in  width. 
Most  of  the  other  chief  streets  vary  from 
50  to  66  feet  broad,  some  of  the  avenues, 
however,  being  much  wider.  At  the 
intersection  of  some  are  fine  squares. 
There  are  more  than  1500  miles  of 
streets,  900  miles  of  which  are  paved, 
and  there  are  951  miles  of  sewers  and 
over  1300  miles  of  water  mains.  The 
street  railways,  employing  the  over- 
head trolley  system,  have  over  500 
miles  of  track,  and  the  steam  railroads 
over  360  miles.  A subway  system  of 
four  tracks  from  the  Delaware  to  the 
Schuylkill,  with  an  elevated  extension 
from  the  Schuylkill  to  the  city  limits  is 
nearly  completed.  Several  fine  bridges, 
both  for  railway  and  general  traflSc, 
span  the  Schuylkill,  and  a regular  serv- 
ice of  steam-ferries  across  the  Dela- 
ware affords  communication  with  the 
shores  of  New  Jersey.  Among  the  not- 
able public  buildings  are  the  state  house, 
containing  a large  room  called  Inde- 
pendence Hall,  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  declaration  of  independence 
was  signed  here  (4th  July,  1776);  the 
custom-house,  a white  marble  edifice; 
the  United  States  mint,  a marble- 
fronted  building;  the  post-office,  a large 
and  handsome  granite  structure  with  a 
dome;  the  new  city-hall,  a splendid 
building  of  granite  and  marble,  com- 

Eleted  in  1889,  with  a tower  450  feet 
igh,  surmounted  by  a statue  of  William 
Penn;  Girard  college,  a fine  example  of 
the  Corinthian  style;  the  buildings  of 
Pennsylvania  university;  the  splendid 
building  accommodating  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts.  Among  the  leading  office 
buildings  are  the  Land  Title  Annex,  the 
Real  Estate  Trust  building,  the  Arcade 
building,  the  Commonwealth  Trust 
building,  the  Real  Estate  Title  and 


PHILEMON 


PHILIP  III. 


Trust  Company  building,  the  Drexel 
building,  the  Bullitt  building,  the 
Provident  building.  The  Pennsylvania 
railroad  station,  with  a train  shed  over 
700  feet  long,  and  the  Reading  terminal, 
a handsome  railroad  station,  approached 
like  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad 
by  a viaduct,  are  notable  railway  ter- 
minals and  office  headquarters.  Of 
newspaper  buildings  the  most  prominent 
are  those  of  The  North  American  (22 
stories).  The  Record,  and  The  Public 
Ledger.  Philadelphia  has  many  im- 
portant hotels,  among  the  most  elegant 
and  commodious  of  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  Walton  and  the  new 
Bellevue-Stratford,  both  on  Broad 
street  near  city  hall.  The  structures 
representing  various  interests  are  the 
Masonic  and  Odd  Fellow’s  temples. 
Young  Men’s  Christian  Association 
building.  Young  Women’s  Christian 
Association,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, the  Kenneth  Israel  synagogue,  the 
Baptist  Temple,  Holy  Trinity  (Protest- 
ant Episcopal),  the  Arch  Street  (Method- 
ist Episcopal),  the  First  Presbyterian 
and  the  Tabernacle  Presbyterian  and 
the  Friends’  Meeting  House  on  Arch 
street — the  Quaker  Westminster  of 
America.  Of  educational  institutions 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Drexel 
institute,  the  new  Boys’  High  school, 
Girard  college  with  its  early  Grecian 
structures,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  high 
school  are  architecturally  of  importance. 
Charitable  institutions  are  numerous 
and  efficient.  The  educational  estab- 
lishments include  the  Pennsylvania 
university ; the  Jefferson  Medical  college; 
University  Medical  college;  the  Women’s 
Medical  college;  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts;  the  School  of  Design  for  Women; 
the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences;  the 
Franklin  institute;  numerous  colleges, 
academies,  and  other  educational  in- 
stitutions, supported  by  the  various 
religious  denominations;  the  Girard 
college,  devoted  to  the  secular  educa- 
tion of  orphan  boys;  and  the  public 
schools.  Many  of  the  above  institutions 
possess  extensive  and  valuable  libraries 
in  addition  to  which  are  the  large  col- 
lections belonging  to  the  Library  com- 
pany, and  to  the  Mercantile  library;  and 
Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  recognized 
centers  of  literary,  dramatic,  and  artistic 
culture.  In  addition  to  the  public 
squares,  the  chief  place  of  outdoor 
recreation  is  Fairmount  park,  with  an 
area  of  2740  acres,  possessing  much  nat- 
ural beauty,  being  well-wooded  and 
having  a great  variety  of  surface.  Many 
fine  monuments  have  been  placed  in  the 
park,  among  them  being  those  of  Wash- 
ington, Lincoln,  Garfield,  Grant,  Schiller 
Goethe,  Columbus  and  Joan  of  Arc. 
The  principal  places  of  indoor  amuse- 
ments are  the  theaters,  numerous  con- 
cert-rooms, etc.  The  Walnut  Street 
theater  is  the  oldest  in  the  county.  The 
other  theaters  are:  Keith’s  New  theater, 
the  Garrick,  the  South  Broad,  the  Chest- 
nut Street,  the  Grand,  and  the  Academy 
of  Music.  Philadelphia  ranks  high  as  a 
center  of  foreign,  inland,  and  coasting 
trade.  The  leading  articles  of  export 
are  grain,  provisions,  petroleum,  anthra- 
cite, and  gas-coal,  iron  and  ironwares, 
lumber,  tobacco,  and  cotton  (raw  and 
manufactured).  The  principal  imports 


Consist  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  flax  goods, 
tinplate,  iron  and  iron-ore,  chemicals, 
etc.  Philadelphia  is  a great  manufactur- 
ing city,  ranking  third  in  the  value  of 
products,  the  carpet  industry  being  the 
largest  in  the  country.  The  other  lead- 
ing manufactures  are  iron  and  steel, 
machinery  and  tools,  refined  sugar, 
clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  brewery  prod- 
ucts, chemicals,  household  furniture, 
etc. — Philadelphia  was  founded  and 
named  by  William  Penn  in  1682  as  the 


capital  of  his  colony  of  Pennsylvania. 
For  a long  time  it  was  almost  exclusively 
occupied  and  controlled  by  Quakers. 
Many  of  its  most  important  improve- 
ments were  due  to  Benjamin  Franklin, 
and  it  played  a most  prominent  part 
during  the  revolutionary  war.  In  May- 
November,  1876  (a  hundred  years  after 
the  issue  of  the  declaration  of  independ- 
ence ),  a centennial  exhibition  was  held 
on  the  grounds  at  the  southwest  ex- 
tremity of  Fairmount  park.  Pop. 
1909  estimated  at  1,500,000. 

PHILE'MON,  Epistle  of  Paul  to,  one 
of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament. 
This  epistle,  according  to  the  prevalent 
opinion,  was,  together  with  the  Epistles 
to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  and  Philip- 
pians,  written  from  Rome  during  St. 
Paul’s  first  imprisonment  in  that  city. 
The  only  doubt  thrown  on  this  opinion 
by  those  who  accept  the  genuineness  of 
the  epistles  is  contained  in  the  sugges- 
tion supported  by  Meyer  and  others, 
that  these  epistles  were  written  during 
the  apostle’s  imprisonment  at  Caesarea. 
The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
Philemon  is  questioned  by  very  few 
critics. 

PHILIP,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
according  to  John’s  gospel  “of  Beth- 
saida,  the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter,’’ 
and  who  was  called  to  follow  Jesus  at 
Bethany.  After  the  resurrection  he  was 
present  at  the  election  of  Matthias  to 
the  apostleship,  but  is  not  again  men- 
tioned. In  the  Western  church  he  is 
commemorated  on  1st  May. — Philip 
the  Evangelist,  often  confounded  with 
the  above,  is  first  mentioned  in  Acts 


vi.  5.  He  preached  at  Smyrna,  where 
Simon  Magus  was  one  of  his  converts; 
baptised  the  Ethiopian  eunuch;  en- 
tertained Paul  and  his  companion  on 
their  way  to  Jerusalem,  when  “he  had 
four  daughters  which  did  prophesy.’’ 

PHILIP  II.,  King  of  Macedon,  the 
most  famous  of  the  five  Macedonian 
kings  of  this  name,  was  born  B.c.  382. 
and  succeeded  his  elder  brother  Perdic- 
cas  in  360.  His  ambition  was  to  make 
himself  in  the  first  place,  supreme  in 
Greece,  and  to  accomplish  this  he  began 
by  seizing  the  Greek  towns  on  his  bor- 
ders: Amphipolis,  which  gave  him 
access  to  the  gold-mines  of  Mount  Pan- 
gseus,  Potidaea,  Olynthus,  etc.  The 
“sacred  war’’  carried  on  by  the  Am- 
phictyonic  council  against  the  Phocians 
gave  Philip  his  first  opportunity  for 
interfering  directly  in  the  affairs  of 
Greece.  After  the  capture  of  Methone — 
the  last  possession  of  the  Athenians  on 
the  Macedonian  coast — between  354 
and  352,  Philip  made  himself  master  of 
Thessaly,  and  endeavored  to  force  the 
pass  of  Thermopylae,  but  was  repulsed 
by  the  Athenians.  The  terror  of  his 
name  provoked  the  “Philippics”  of 
Demosthenes,  who  endeavored  to  rouse 
the  people  of  Athens  to  form  a general 
league  of  the  Greeks  against  him;  but 
by  346  he  was  master  of  the  Phocian 
cities  and  of  the  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
and  as  general  to  the  Amphictyon  coun- 
cil he  was  the  crowned  protector  of  the 
Grecian  faith.  Demosthenes  exerted  all 
his  eloquence  and  statesmanship  to 
raise  the  ancient  spirit  of  Grecian  in- 
dependence, and  a powerful  army  was 
soon  in  the  field,  but  being  without  able 
or  patriotic  commanders  it  was  de- 
feated at  the  decisive  battle  of  Chaeroneia 
in  August,  338  b.c.  After  this  last  strug- 
gle for  freedom  Philip  was  acknowledged 
chief  of  the  whole  Hellenic  world,  and 
at  a congress  held  at  Corinth  he  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Greek 
forces,  and  was  to  organize  an  expedi- 
tion against  Persia.  While  preparing  for 
this  enterprise  he  was  murdered  in  336 
B.C.,  some  say  at  the  instigation  of  his 
wife  Olympias. 

PHILIP  I.,  King  of  France,  was  born 
1052,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  under 
the  guardianship  of  Baldwin  V.,  count  of 
Flanders,  in  1060.  He  died  in  1108. 

PHILIP  II.,  Augustus,  King  of 
France,  born  1165,  was  crowned  as  suc- 
cessor during  the  lifetime  of  his  father 
Louis  VII.,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1180. 
In  1190  he  embarked  at  Genoa  on  a 
crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  where  he 
met  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  who  was  en- 
gaged in  the  same  cause  in  Sicily.  The 
jealousies  and  disputes  which  divided 
the  two  kings  induced  Philip  to  return 
home  the  next  year.  He  invaded  Nor- 
mandy during  Richard’s  capivity  (1193), 
confiscated  the  possessions  of  King 
John  in  France  after  the  death  of  Prince 
Arthur  (1203b  prepared  to  invade  Eng- 
land at  the  instance  of  the  pope  (1213), 
turned  his  arms  against  Flanders  and 
gained  the  celebrated  battle  of  Bouvines 
(1214).  He  died  in  1223. 

PHILIP  III.,  called  the  Hardy,  King 
of  France,  was  the  son  of  Louis  IX.  and 
Margaret  of  Provence.  He  was  born 
1245,  and  succeeded  his  father  1270. 
The  invasion  of  Sicily  by  Peter  of  Ara- 


PHILIP  IV. 


PHILIPPINES 


gon,  and  the  massacre  of  the  French, 
known  as  “the  Sicilian  vespers,”  caused 
him  to  make  war  against  that  prince,  in 
the  course  of  which  he  died,  1285. 

PHILIP  IV.  (Le  Bel),  King  of  France 
was  born  in  1268,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  1285.  He  had  already  married 
Joanna,  queen  of  Navarre,  by  which 
alliance  he  added  Champagne  as  well  as 
Navarre  to  the  royal  domain,  which  he 
made  it  his  policy  still  further  to  in- 
crease at  the  expense  of  the  great 
vassals.  He  even  attempted  to  take 
Guienne  from  [gdward  I.  of  England, 
but  afterward  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  that  monarch,  and  gave  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage  (1299),  from 
which  originated  the  claim  of  Edward 
III.  on  the  crown  of  France.  Philip  left 
numerous  ordinances  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  which  mark  the  de- 
cline of  feudalism  and  the  growth  of  the 
royal  power.  He  also  convoked  and 
consulted  the  states-general  for  the 
first  time.  He  died  in  1314. 

PHILIP  VI.  of  Valois,  King  of  France, 
was  the  nephew  of  Philip  iV.,  to  whose 
last  son,  Charles  IV.,  he  succeeded  in 
virtue  of  the  Salique  law.  He  was  born 
in  1293,  and  succeeded  to  the  crown  in 
1328.  In  his  reign  occurred  the  wars 
with  Edward  III.  of  England,  who 
claimed  the  French  crown  as  grandson, 
by  his  mother,  of  Philip  IV.  (see  above 
article).  Philip  died  in  1350. 

PHILIP  II.  of  Spain,  was  the  son  of 
Charles  V.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal,  and 
was  born  at  Valladolid  in  1527.  He  was 
married  in  succession  to  the  Princess 
Mary  of  Portugal  1543,  and  to  Mary  of 
England  in  1554,  the  same  year  in  which 
he  became  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily  by 
the  abdication  of  his  father.  In  1555  his 
father  resolved  to  abdicate  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  Netherlands  in  Philip’s 
favor.  This  was  done  in  public  assembly 
at  Brussels  on  25th  October,  1555;  and 
on  16th  January,  1556,  in  the  same  hall 
he  received,  in  presence  of  the  Spanish 


grandees  then  in  the  Netherlands,  the 
crown  of  Spain,  with  its  possessions  in 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  The  cause  of 
religion  in  France  was  a constant  sub- 
ject of  solicitude  with  Philip.  In  Naples, 
as  in  Spain,  his  zeal  led  him  to  persecute 
the  Protestants ; but  it  was  in  the  Nether- 
lands that  his  bigotry  and  obstinacy 
had  their  most  disastrous,  though 
ultimately  fortunate  results.  In  1566 
the  revolt  of  the  Netherlands  com- 
menced, which  ended  in  the  separation 
of  the  seven  northern  provinces  from 


the  crown  of  Spain,  and  their  formation 
into  the  Dutch  Republic.  In  1571  the 
Archduchess  Anne  of  Austria  became 
his  fourth  wife,  and  the  same  year  his 
natural  brother,  Don  John  of  Austria, 
obtained  the  great  naval  victory  of 
Lepanto  over  the  Turks.  In  1580  his 
troops  under  Alva  subdued  Portugal, 
of  which,  and  all  its  dependencies, 
Philip  now  became  sovereign.  In  1586 
Philip  declared  war  with  England.  The 
year  U 588  saw  the  destruction  of  the 
Armada  and  the  descent  of  Spain  from 
her  position  as  a first-class  power  in 
Europe.  The  remainder  of  his  reign  was 
occupied  with  war  and  intrigues  with 
France,  but  in  1598  the  Peace  of  Vervins 
was  concluded.  He  died  in  1598. 

PHILIP  V.  of  Spain,  the  first  Spanish 
king  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  was  born 
at  Versailles  1683,  died  1746.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France, 
and  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  Spain  by 
the  will  of  Charles  II.,  who  died  without 
direct  heirs,  as  the  grandson  of  Charles’ 
elder  sister.  On  the  death  of  Charles  in 
November,  1700,  he  was  immediately 
proclaimed  king,  and  was  generally 
recognized  in  Spain,  Naples,  and  the 
Netherlands;  but  the  succession  was  con- 
tested by  the  Archduke  Charles  of  Aus- 
tria, whose  claim  was  enforced  by  the 
armies  of  England,  Holland,  and  Aus- 
tria in  the  wars  of  the  Spanish  succession 
which  began  in  1702.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  (1713)  he  was  recognized  as 
King  of  Spain,  but  Gibraltar  was  lost  to 
Spain,  Minorca  was  also  ceded  to  Eng- 
land, Sicily  to  Savoy,  the  Netherlands, 
Naples,  and  the  Milanese  to  Austria. 
In  1724  Philip  resigned  the  crown  of 
Spain  in  favor  of  his  son  Don  Louis,  but 
the  death  of  Louis  a few  months  later 
induced  him  to  resume  the  royal  power. 
He  died  in  1746,  after  a reign  of  forty- 
six  years. 

PHILIP  the  bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
born  in  1342  ,was  the  fourth  son  of  John, 
king  of  France.  He  fought  at  Poitiers 
(1356),  where,  according  to  Froissart,  he 
acquired  the  surname  of  the  Bold.  He 
shared  his  father’s  captivity  in  England, 
and  on  his  return  his  father,  whose 
favorite  he  was,  made  him  Duke  of 
Touraine,  gave  him  the  Duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  made  him  premier  peer  of 
France.  He  was  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful French  princes  during  the  minority 
of  Charles  VI.,  during  whose  insanity  he 
acted  as  regent,  retaining  the  regency  till 
his  death  in  1404. 

PHILIP  I.  (The  Magnanimous),  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  born  in  1504.  He  began 
to  reign  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  in- 
troduced the  Lutheran  religion  into 
Hesse  in  1526.  In  1527  he  founded  the 
University  of  Marburg,  subscribed  the 
protestation  to  the  Diet  of  Spires  in 
1529,  submitted  the  Confession  of  Faith 
at  Augsburg  in  1530,  and  in  1531 
formed  with  the  Protestant  princes  the 
Schmalkalden  League.  He  was  forced  to 
submit  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  in 
1547,  who  kept  him  a prisoner  for  five 
ears.  After  his  return  to  his  dominions 
e sent  a body  of  auxiliaries  to  assist  the 
French  Huguenots.  He  died  in  1567. 

PHILIP'PI,  a city  of  Macedonia,  now 
in  ruins,  founded  by  Philip  of  Macedon 
about  B.c.  356.  The  two  battles  fought 
in  B.c.  42,  which  resulted  in  the  over- 


throw of  Brutus  and  Cassius  by  Antony 
and  Octavius,  were  fought  here  Philippi 
was  visited  on  several  occasions  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  who  addressed  to  the 
church  there  one  of  his  epistles. 

PHILIP'PIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of 
St.  Paul’s  epistles,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  from  Rome  toward  the 
close  of  his  first  imprisonment  there, 
about  A.D.  63.  Some  authorities  suppose 
it  to  have  been  written  in  Caesarea.  The 
genuineness  of  this  epistle  has  been  little 
questioned.  It  is  referred  to,  though  not 
quoted,  in  the  epistle  of  Polycarp  and 
by  Tertullian  and  other  early  fathers. 
Epaphroditus,  who  conveyed  it,  was  the 
messenger  of  the  Philippians  to  Paul, 
and  had  been  ill  at  Rome,  which  had 
been  a cause  of  anxiety  to  the  Philip- 
pians. Paul,  therefore,  hastened  his 
return,  and  sent  this  epistle  by  him. 

PHILIP'PICS,  the  name  given  to 
three  celebrated  orations  of  the  Greek 
orator  Demosthenes  against  Philip,  king 
of  Macedon  (351-341  b.c.).  This  name 
was  also  applied  to  Cicero’s  fourteen 
speeches  against  Antony,  and  it  has 
hence  come  to  signify  an  invective  in 
general. 

PHILIP'PINES,  or  PHILIPPINE  IS- 
LANDS, an  archipelago  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  n.e. 
of  Borneo,  having  on  the  west  the 
China  sea,  on  the  east  the  North  Pacific, 
and  on  the.  south  the  Sea  of  Celebes; 
area,  114,360  sq.  miles;  pop.  about 
7,000,000.  It  consists  of  about  1200 
large  and  small  islands  Of  the  former 
the  chief  are  Luzon,  Mindoro,  Samar, 
Panay,  Leyte,  Cebu,  Negros,  Bohol, 
Mindanao,  and  Palawan.  Luzon  is  the 
only  island  of  great  commercial  im- 
portance. It  contains  the  capital  Ma- 
nila. The  shore  lines  and  internal  sur- 
face of  the  larger  islands  are  extremely 
rugged  and  irregular.  Their  magnifi- 
cent mountain  ranges  are  clothed  with 
a gigantic  and  ever-teeming  vegeta- 
tion; and  between  these  lie  extensive 
slopes  and  plains  of  the  richest  tropical 
fertility,  watered  by  numerous  lakes  and 
rivers,  which  afford  abundant  means  of 
irrigation  and  transport.  The  climate  on 
the  whole  is  healthy,  but  hurricanes  are 
common.  Earthquakes  are  frequent, 
and  often  very  destructive.  The  prin- 
cipal agricultural  product  is  rice,  and 
next  in  importance  are  sugar-cane, 
tolacco,  and  coffee.  Fibrous  plants  are 
also  abundant,  and  among  the  chief  of 
these  are  the  well-known  Manila-hemp, 
the  cotton-plant,  the  gomuti  palm, 
ramie,  etc.  The  pine-apple  is  grown  both 
for  its  fiber  and  its  fruit.  The  textile 
productions  of  the  Philippines,  the  work 
of  the  native  population,  are  consider- 
able in  number,  ranging  from  the  deli- 
cate and  costly  pina  muslins,  made  from 
the  pine-apple  fibre,  to  coarse  cottons, 
sacking,  and  the  mats  made  of  Manila- 
hemp  and  the  fiber  of  the  gomuti  palm. 
The  islands  are  rich  in  minerals,  includ- 
ing gold,  iron,  quicksilver,  sulphur,  coal, 
marble,  petroleum,  etc.,  but  they  are 
little  worked.  The  foreign  trade  is  most- 
ly in  the  hands  of  British  and  American 
mercantile  houses,  and  consists  prin- 
cipally in  the  export  of  sugar,  tobacco, 
Manila-hemp,  indigo,  coffee,  birds’- 
nests,  trepang,  sapan-wood,  dye-woods, 
hides,  rattans,  mother-of-pearl,  gold- 


PHILISTINES 


PHILOLOGY 


PHILIPPINE  WAR,  1899-1900,  CHRONOLOGY  OP 

Hostilities  began  

Battles  around  Manila 

Battle  at  Pasig ' 

Battle  at  Mallnea 

Battle  at  Santa  Cruz 

Santa  Cruz  captured 

San  Fernando  captured 

Battle  at  Bacoor 

Battle  at  Imus 

Battle  at  Colamba 

Battle  at  Calulut 

Battle  at  Angeles 

Major  John  A.  Logan  killed 

General  Gregorio  del  Pilar  killed 

General  Lawton  killed 

Taft  commission  appointed 

Amnesty  proclaimed 

Aguinaldo  captured 

Civil  government  party  established 


dust,  etc.,  and  in  importing  rice  and 
other  food-stuffs,  and  various  manu- 
factured articles.  The  natives  are  of 
diverse  origin.  Wild  tribes,  some  of 
which  are  extremely  ferocious,  still 
haunt  the  mountains.  The  chief  moun- 
tain tribes  are  the  Negritos,  diminutive 
negroes,  who  have  given  their  name  to 
the  island  Negros,  though  not  confined 
to  it;  and  the  iEtas  or  Itus,  a dusty  or 
coppercolored  race.  But  the  great  mass 
of  the  population  consist  of  the  Tagals, 
inhabiting  Luzon,  and  the  Bisayans, 
who  inhabit  the  other  islands.  These 
speak  respectively  the  Tagal  and 
Bisayan  tongues,  each  of  which  has  a 
variety  of  dialects.  Half-castes,  Indo- 
European  and  Indo-Chinese,  engross 
much  of  the  business  and  wealth  of  the 
islands.  Spaniards  are  comparatively 
few.  The  independent  tribes  are  partly 
Mohammedan  and  partly  heathen.  Most 
of  the  former  subjects  of  Spain  profess 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  priests  are  very 
numerous.  The  largest  town  and  chief 
seaport  as  well  as  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment js  Manila.  The  Philippines  were 
discovered  by  Magellan  in  1520-21,  and 
were  finally  annexed  to  the  Spanish 
dominions,  and  named  after  Philip  II. 
In  1762  Manila  was  taken  and  for  a 
short  time  held  by  a British  fleet,  and 
the  Americans  seized  it  in  1898.  The 
islands  were  ceded  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States  in  1898. 

In  February,  1900,  the  provisional 
government  of  the  islands  was  intrusted 
to  a new  board  of  civil  commissioners, 
five  in  number,  at  the  head  of  which  was 
Judge  William  H.  Taft  of  Ohio.  The 
commission  in  January,  1901,  estab- 
lished a municipal  code  for  the  govern- 
ment of  cities  other  than  Manila  and 
tribal  settlements.  A constitution  for 
the  government  of  the  provinces  enacted 
by  the  commission  provided  that  their 
oflicials  should  be  a governor  elected 
by  the  municipalities  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  commission,  and  a sec- 
retary, a treasurer,  a commissioner  of 
public  works,  and  a public  prosecutor, 
all  appointed  by  the  commission.  From 
time  to  time  the  commission  instituted 
civil  governments  in  the  localities  as 
circumstances  required,  until  in  1903 
morethanTOOlocalities  had  local  govern- 
ments suited  to  their  conditions.  By  an 
act  of  the  commission  dated  June  11, 
1901,  the  judicial  system  was  re- 
organized. A supreme  court  was  created 
to  consist  of  seven  justices,  four  Ameri- 
can and  three  native;  and  sixteen  courts 
of  First  Instance,  over  which  natives 
presided,  were  established.  The  city  of 
Manila,  the  capital,  is  governed  by  a 
board  of  three  commissioners.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  above  measures  the  present 
constitution  of  government  for  the 
Philippines  consists  of  the  Philippine 
commission,  the  governor  and  vice- 
governor,  the  departments  of  the  in- 
terior, of  commerce  and  police,  of 
finance  and  justice,  and  of  public  in- 
struction. 

The  first  Filipino  assembly  elected  by 
the  people  was  opened  on  October  15, 
1907,  on  which  occasion  Secretary  of 
War  Taft  made  an  address  in  which  he 
expressed  the  exact  truth  of  the  situa- 
tion as  seen  by  the  authorities  at  Wash- 
ington. 


PHILISTINES,  the  name  of  a Semitic 
people  or  race  who  inhabited  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  lowlands  of  Palestine, 
from  the  coast  near  Joppa  to  the  Egyp- 
tian desert  south  of  Gaza.  They  oc- 
cupied five  chief  cities  (Ashdod,  Gaza, 
Gath,  Askelon,  Ekron),  and  these 
formed  a kind  of  confederacy  under 
five  lords  or  chiefs.  Mention  is  made  of 
this  people  in  Genesis  xxi.,  xxvi.,  but  it 
was  during  the  time  of  the  Judges  in 
Israel,  and  subsequently  in  the  reigns 
of  Saul  and  David,  that  the  Philistines 
attained  their  highest  power,  and  from 
the  latter  received  their  greatest  defeats. 
In  the  wars  between  Assyria  and  Egypt 
the  country  of  Philistia  was  subdued  by 
Tiglath-Pileser  (734  b.c.);  but  the 
Philistines  still  intrigued  with  Egypt, 
and  made  various  revolts  against  Sargon 
and  Sennacherib  to  assert  their  in- 
dependence. During  the  Babylonian 
captivity  they  avenged  themselves  on 


Philistine  prisoners.— Sculptures  at  Medinet 
Haboo. 

their  old  enemies  the  Israelites  (Ezekiel 
XXV.  15),  but  subsequently  the  two 
nations  seem  (Nehemiah  xiii.  23),  to 
some  extent,  to  have  fraternized.  The 
origin  of  this  race  has  been  a question 
of  much  debate  by  Biblical  critics. 

PHILIP,  John  Woodward,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  New  York 
City  in  1840.  He  was  appointed  to  the 
United  States  Naval  academy,  became 
midshipman  in  1861,  and  served  during 
the  civil  war  in  the  gulf.  In  1897  he 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  battle- 
ship Texas,  which  took  a prominent 
part  in  the  naval  battle  of  Santiago 
during  the  Spanish-American  war.  In 
August,  1898,  he  was  made  commodore 
and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
second  squadron  of  the  North  Atlantic 
fleet,  and  in  March,  1899,  he  was  made 
rear-admiral  and  made  commandant  of 
the  Brooklyn  Navy  yard.  He  died  in 
1900. 

PHILLIPSBURG,  a city  in  Warren 
CO.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  river,  and 
the  Cent,  of  N.  J.,  the  Del.,  Lack,  and 
West.,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  and  the  Penn, 
railways;  opposite  Easton,  Pa.,  50 


February  4,  1899 
February  4-7,  1899 
March  13,  1899 
March  26,  1899 
April  10,1899 
April  25,  1899 
May  5,  1899 
June  13, 1899 
June  16, 1899 
July  26,  1899 
August  9, 1899 
August  16,  1899 
November  14, 1899 
December  10,  1899 
December  19, 1899 
February  25,  1900 
June  21,  1900 
March  23,  1901 
July  4, 1901 

miles  n.n.w.  of  Trenton.  It  is  in  an 
agricultural,  iron-ore,  and  limestone 
region,  and  is  noted  for  its  extensive 
iron-works  and  their  productions.  Pop. 
12,120. 

PHILLIPS,  Wendell,  American  ab- 
olitionist, born  at  Boston,  1811g  died 
1884.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard 
university,  studied  law,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  (1834);  joined  the  movement 
for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1837,  and 
gave  it  the  aid  of  hie  oratorical  gifts  and 
unremitting  advocacy  until  in  1865  the 
negroes  of  the  United  States  were  made 
free  citizens.  His  Speeches,  Letters,  and 
Lectures  were  published  in  1863. 

PHILOLOGY,  or  COMPARATIVE 
PHILOLOGY,  a term  commonly  used  as 
equivalent  to  the  science  of  language, 
otherwise  called  Linguistic  Science,  or 
Linguistics.  This  science  treats  of  lan- 
guage as  a whole,  of  its  nature  and 
origin,  etc.,  and  of  the  different  lan- 
guages of  the  world  in  their  general 
features,  attempting  to  classify  and 
arrange  them  according  to  such  general 
features,  and  to  settle  in  what  relation- 
ship each  stands  to  the  others.  The 
philologist  as  such  does  not  study  lan- 
guages for  practical  purposes,  or  to  be 
able  to  read  and  speak  a number  of  them, 
though  the  more  he  is  tolerably  familiar 
with  the  better.  He  rather  studies  them, 
in  the  way  a naturalist  studies  a series 
of  animals  or  plants,  as  if  they  were 
separate  organisms  each  with  a life  and 
growth  of  its  own.  That  every  language 
has  such  a life  and  growth  is  true  in  a 
sense,  for  languages  are  continually  in  a 
state  of  change ; yet  a language  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  an  organism  like  a plant 
or  an  animal,  but  rather,  to  quote  Pro- 
fessor Whitney,  as  an  institution,  an 
outcome  of  the  needs  of  human  beings 
for  communication  with  their  fellows. 
A language  is  a system  of  vocal  sounds 
through  which  ideas  are  conveyed  from 
person  to  person  in  virtue  of  the  fact 
that  certain  ideas  are  attached  or  belong 
to  certain  sounds  by  a sort  of  conven- 
tion or  general  understanding  existing 
among  those  who  use  the  language. 
That  there  is  any  natural  law  by  which 
one  idea  belongs  to  one  vocal  sound 
rather  than  to  another  can  hardly  be 
affirmed  in  view  of  the  fact  that  if  we 
select  any  one  idea  we  shall  find  that 
each  of  the  thousand  languages  of  thn 
world  expresses  this  idea  by  a different 
sound  or  group  of  sounds.  Indeed,  ideas 
can  be  conveyed  otherwise  than  by  vocal 
sounds,  as  witness  the  elaborate  sign- 
language  that  has  been  developed  in 
some  communities,  as  also  the  finger- 
language  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  We 


PHILOMELA 


PHILOSOPHY 


can  even  conceive  that  a language  of 
hieroglyphics  or  written  symbols  might 
exist  with  no  spoken  language  alongside 
of  it.  We  have,  however,  no  knowledge 
of  any  such  case,  and,  in  fact,  wherever 
man  exists  we  find  him  making  use  of 
speech,  which,  indeed,  is  one  of  his  most 
distinct  and  marked  characteristics. 
As  to  the  origin  of  language  nothing  is 
really  known,  £(8liough  most  probably  it 
is  an  invention  or  acquisition  of  the 
human  race,  and  not  an  original  endow- 
ment. 

To  begin  with  our  own  language  and 
the  kindred  tongues.  Philology  has 
succeeded  in  showing  that  the  English 
language  is  one  of  a group  of  closely 
allied  languages  which  are  known  by  the 
general  name  of  the  Teutonic  or  Ger- 
manic tongues.  The  other  languages 
of  the  group,  some  of  which  are  more 
closely  connected  with  English  than  the 
rest,  are  Dutch,  German,  Danish,  Ice- 
landic or  Old  Norse,  Swedish,  and 
Gothic;  to  which  may  be  added,  as  of 
less  importance  and  having  more  the 
character  of  dialects,  Norwegian,  Fris- 
ian, the  Plattdeutsch  or  Low  German 
of  Northern  Germany,  and  Flemish, 
which  differs  little  from  Dutch.  The 
Teutonic  tongues  are  often  divided  into 
three  sections,  based  on  closeness  of 
relationship:  the  High  German,  of  which 
the  modern  classical  German  is  the 
representative;  the  Low  German,  in- 
cluding English,  Dutch,  Frisian,  Platt- 
deutsch, and  Gothic;  and  the  Scandi- 
navian, including  Danish,  Swedish,  and 
Icelandic.  Another  division  is  into: 
East  Germanic,  including  Gothic  and 
Scandinavian;  and  West  Germanic,  in- 
cluding the  others. 

The  evidence  that  all  these  lan^ages 
are  closely  akin  is  to  be  found  in  the 
great  number  of  words  that  they  possess 
in  common,  in  the  simlliarity  of  their 
structure,  their  inflections,  their  manner 
of  compounding  words — in  short,  in 
their  family  likeness.  This  likeness  can 
only  be  accounted  for  by  supposing  that 
these  languages  are  all  descended  from 
one  common  language,  the  primitive 
Teutonic,  which  must  have  been  spoken 
at  a remote  period  by  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  Teutonic  peoples,  there 
being  then  only  one  Teutonic  people 
as  well  as  one  Teutonic  tongue.  In 
their  earliest  form,  therefore,  and  when 
they  began  to  be  differentiated,  these 
languages  must  have  had  the  character 
of  mere  dialects,  and  it  is  only  in  so  far 
as  each  has  had  a history  and  literature 
of  its  own  that  they  have  attained  the 
rank  of  independent  languages. 

The  Teutonic  tongues,  with  the  primi- 
tive or  parent  Teutonic  from  which  they 
are  descended,  have  been  proved  by  the 
investigations  of  philologists  to  belong 
to  a wider  group  or  family  of  tongues, 
which  has  received  the  name  of  the 
Aryan,  Indo-European,  or  (especially 
in  Germany)  Indo-Germanic  family. 
The  chief  members  of  this  family  are 
the  Teutonic,  Slavonic  (Polish,  Rus- 
sian, Bohemian),  Lithuanian,  Celtic 
(Welsh,  Irish,  Gaelic,  etc.),  Latin  (or 
Italic),  Greek  (or  Hellenic),  Armenian 
Persian,  and  Sanskrit.  Just  as  the  Teu- 
tonic tongues  are  believed  to  be  the 
offspring  of  one  parent  Teutonic  tongue, 
60  this  parent  Teutonic  and  the  other 


members  of  the  Aryan  family  are  all 
believed  to  be  descended  from  one  primi- 
tive language,  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  parent-speech.  The  people 
who  spoke  this  primeval  Aryan  lan- 
guage, the  ancestors  (linguistically  at 
least)  of  the  Aryan  races  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  are  believed  by  many  to  have  had 
their  seat  in  Central  Asia  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Caspian  sea.  This,  however,  is  very 
proolematical,  and  some  philologists  see 
reason  to  think  that  Europe  may  rather 
have  been  the  original  home  of  the 
Aryans.  This  latter  view  is  now  perhaps 
the  one  most  generally  held. 

How  remote  the  period  may  have 
been  when  the  ancestors  of  the  Teutons, 
the  Celts,  the  Slavs,  the  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, Persians,  and  Hindus  were  living 
together  and  speaking  a common  lan- 
guage is  uncertain.  Yet  the  general 
character  of  their  language  is  approxi- 
mately known,  and  philologists  tell  us 
with  some  confidence  what  consonant 
and  what  vowel  sounds  the  Aryan 
parent-speech  must  have  possessed, 
what  were  the  forms  of  its  inflections, 
and  what,  at  the  least,  must  have  been 
the  extent  of  its  vocabulary,  judging 
from  the  words  that  can  still  be  traced 
as  forming  a common  possession  of  the 
sister  tongues  of  the  family. 

The  Aryan  tongues,  ancient  and 
modern,  are  entitled  to  claim  the  first 
rank  among  the  languages  of  the  globe, 
both  for  richness,  harmony,  and  variety, 
and  more  especially  as  embodying  a 
series  of  literatures  to  which  no  other 
family  of  tongues  can  show  a parallel. 
Next  in  importance  come  the  Semitic 
tongues — Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  etc.  These,  like  the  Aryan  ton- 
gues, form  a well-marked  family,  one 
notable  peculiarity  of  which  is  the  pos- 
session of  “triliteral”  roots,  or  roots  of 
which  three  consonants  form  the  basis 
and  give  the  general  meaning,  while  in- 
flection or  modification  of  meaning  is 
indicated  by  internal  vowel -change. 
Thus  the  vowels  play  a subordinate 
part  to  the  consonants,  and  do  not,  as  in 
the  Aryan  tongues,  associate  with  them 
on  equal  terms.  Other  important  lin- 
guistic families  are  the  Hamitic,  which 
includes  the  ancient  Egyptian,  the  Cop- 
tic, Berber,  Galla,  Somali,  etc.;  the 
Turanian  or  Ural-Altaic,  which  in- 
cludes Turkish,  Finnish,  Hungarian, 
Mongolian,  etc.;  and  the  Southeastern 
Asiatic,  which  includes  Chinese,  Sia- 
mese, etc.  The  Turanian  languages  be- 
long to  the  type  known  as  agglutinate  or 
agglutinating,  being  so  called  from  the 
fact  that  the  root  always  maintains  a 
sort  of  independence  or  distinctive  ex- 
istence, the  other  elements  of  the  word 
being  more  or  less  loosely  “glued”  or 
stuck  on  as  it  were.  The  Chinese  is  the 
chief  of  the  monosyllabic  languages,  so 
called  from  their  words  consisting  nor- 
mally of  monosyllables.  Other  families 
of  languages  are  the  Malayo-Polynesian 
of  the  Indian  Archigelago  and  Pacific; 
the  Bflntu,  a great  family  of  South 
Africa;  and  the  American  Indian  lan- 
guages, which  are  characterized  as 
polysynthetic,  from  the  way  in  which 
they  crowd  as  many  ideas  as  possible 
into  one  unwieldy  expression.  All  these 
families  form  groups,  so  far  is  as  known, 


separate  from  and  independent  of  each 
other;  and  attempts  to  connect  any 
two  of  them,  as  Aryan  and  Semetic,  for 
instance,  have  met  with  little  success. 
Formerly  etymologists  had  no  hesita- 
tion in  deriving  English  words  from 
Hebrew  roots,  but  this  was  in  the  days 
when  there  was  no  science  of  compara- 
tive philology.  That  all  languages  are 
descendants  of  one  original  tongue,  as  is 
believed  by  many,  linguistic  science  can 
neither  affirm  nor  deny.  We  may  add 
that  community  of  language  is  not  a 
proof  of  community  race,  since  it  is  well 
known  that,  as  the  result  of  war  or  other- 
wise, races  have  given  up  the  language 
that  once  belonged  to  them  and  adopted 
some  other. 

PHILOME'LA,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of  Atfens, 
who  being  violated  and  deprived  of  her 
tongue  by  Tereus,  the  husband  of  her 
sister  Progne  made  known  her  wrong  to 
the  latter  by  embroidering  it  in  tapestry 
In  revenge  the  sisters  murdered  Itys 
the  son  of  Progne  by  Tereus,  and  served 
him  up  to  his  father.  Tereus  pursued 
them,  but  they  were  changed  by  the 
gods  into  birds,  Philomela  and  Progne 
into  a nightingale  and  a swallow,  and 
Tereus  into  a lapwing. 

PHILOSOPHER’S  STONE.  See 

Alchymy. 

PHILOSOPHY,  a term  first  brought 
into  general  use  by  Socrates.  Philosophy 
is  the  science  that  deals  with  the 
general  principles  which  form  the  basis 
of  the  other  sciences,  and  of  which  they 
themselves  take  no  cognizance.  It 
follows  up  the  data  of  experience  to 
their  ultimate  grounds,  regarding  each 
particular  fact  in  relation  only  to  a final 
principle,  and  as  a determinate  link  in 
the  system  of  knowledge.  In  this  view 
philosophy  may  be  defined  as  the  science 
of  principles. 

For  all  practical  purposes  the  history 
of  philosophy  may  be  treated  as  com- 
mencing with  the  Greeks,  the  philo- 
sophic notions  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East  being  considered  merely  as  intro- 
ductory to  the  Greek  philosophy,  in 
which  many  oriental  notions  were  incor- 
porated. The  first  problem  of  Greek 
philosophy  was  to  explain  the  enigma  of 
external  nature,  to  solve  the  problem 
not  of  the  soul  but  of  the  world.  Thales 
(about  600  B.c.)  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  Ionian  school  which,  with  the 
Eleatic  school,  was  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  speculative  thought  in  pre- 
Socratic  times;  the  former  of  these 
schools  being  characterized  by  Aristotle 
as  seeking  to  find  a material,  the  latter 
a formal  principle  of  all  things.  In 
Socrates  (470-399  b.c.),  who  united 
scientific  method  and  a high  ethical  and 
religious  spirit,  the  destructive  teaching 
of  the  Sophists  found  its  keenest  op- 
ponent. What  are  called  the  minor 
Socratic  school — the  Cynics,  Cyrenaics, 
and  Megarians — severally  professed  to 
regard  Socrates,  as  their  founder,  the 
Cynics,  however,  defining  the  end  of 
action  as  self-sufficiency,  the  Cyrenaics 
as  pleasure,  and  the  Megarians  as  rea- 
son. With  Plato  (430-347)  philosophy 
lost  its  one-sided  character.  Though 
professedly  a disciple  of  Socrates  his 
system  of  idealism  is  his  own.  The 
Platonic  idea  is  the  pure  archetypal 


PHILTRE 


PHCEXICIA 


essence,  which  is  the  source  of  all  the 
finite  realities  that  correspond  to  it.  The 
visible  world  in  an  inferior  reproduction 
of  the  world  of  pure  ideas,  where  shine 
in  all  their  splendor  the  good,  the  true, 
and  the  beautiful.  In  logic  Plato  brings 
back  science  to  general  ideas.  In  ethics 
the  highest  end  of  man  is  regarded  as 
the  unity  of  his  nature.  Plato’s  ideal 
theory  is  criticised  by  Aristotle,  because 
he  gives  no  real  explanation  of  the  con- 
nection between  the  phenomenal  and 
the  ideal.  In  Aristotle’s  own  system, 
instead  of  beginning  with  the  general 
and  the  absolute,  as  Plato  had  done,  he 
begins  with  the  particular  and  in- 
dividual. His  whole  philosophy  is  a 
description  of  the  given  and  empirical; 
and  his  method  is  induction.  His 
system  presents  us  with  a number  of  co- 
ordinate sciences,  each  having  its  inde- 
pendent foundation,  but  no  highest 
science  which  should  comprehend  them 
all.  The  three  schools  of  Greek  philoso- 
phy which  followed  the  systems  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  which  mark  the  de- 
clining days  of  Greece,  are  those  of  the 
Stoics.  Epicureans,  and  Sceptics. 

Modern  philosophy,  which  begins 
with  the  15th  century,  is  characterized 
by  a freer,  more  independent  spirit  of 
inquiry.  First  the  scholastic  philosophy 
was  attacked  by  those  w'ho  called  to 
mind  the  ancient  Greek  philosophy  in  its 
original  purity.  After  this  struggle  new 
views  were  presented.  Baeon  and  Locke 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Descartes  on  the 
other,  stand  respectively  at  the  head  of 
the  two  systems — empiricism  and  ideal- 
ism, which  begin  modern  philosophy. 
Bacon  created  no  definite  system  of 
philosophy,  but  gave  a new  direction  to 
thought,  the  empiricism  which  he 
founded  finally  developing  into  scep- 
ticism. The  system  of  Descartes  was 
opposed  by  Gassendi,  and  received  mod- 
ifications at  the  hands  of  others,  espe- 
cially Malebranche.  The  most  important 
successor,  however,  of  Descartes  was 
Spinoza,  who  reduced  the  three  Carte- 
sian substances  to  unity,  to  one  infinite 
original  substance,  the  ground  of  all 
things,  that  excludes  from  itself  all  nega- 
tion or  determination,  and  is  named, God 
or  nature.  Locke  (1632-1704),  who  had 
a precursor  in  Hobbes  (1588-1679),  the 
influence  of  whom,  however,  chiefly  con- 
cerned the  history  of  political  science,  is 
regarded  as  the  father  of  modern 
materialism  and  empiricism.  As  oc- 
cupying the  general  position  of  Locke 
mention  may  be  made  of  Isaac  Newton, 
Samuel  Clarke,  William  Wollaston,  the 
Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and  Francis 
Hutcheson.  The  philosophy  of  Locke 
received  a further  development  in 
France,  where  Condillac  sought  to  ex- 
plain the  development  of  humanity  by 
the  simple  development  of  the  sensa- 
tions. Then  followed  the  materialism  of 
Helvetius,  d’Holbach,  La  Mettrie,  and 
others  including  several  of  the  Ency- 
clopedists. In  opposition  to  this  ma- 
terialistic tendency  arose  the  idealism 
of  Leilinitz  and  Berkeley.  The  theories 
of  Leibnitz  were  systematized  by  Wolff, 
and  from  his  time  to  Kant  German 
philosophy  assumed  no  new  stand-point. 
It  was  reserved  for  Iliime  to  trace  out  the 
ultimate  consequences  of  the  Cartesian 
and  Lockian  philosophy,  and  to  produce 


the  great  metaphysical  revolution  of 
which  Reid  and  Kant  were  the  first 
movers.  Kant  (1724-1804),  who  may 
be  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  19th  century,  sought 
to  bring  together  into  unity  the  one- 
sided endeavors  of  his  predecessors  in 
the  realistic  and  idealistic  schools.  He 
took  up  a critical  stand-point,  and  from 
it  instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  origin  of 
our  experience  or  cognition.  In  the 
hands  of  Fichte  the  critical  idealism  of 
Kant  becomes  absolutely  subjective 
idealism.  “All  that  is,  is  ego;”  this  is 
the  principle  of  the  Fichtian  system  ; the 
world  is  merely  phenomenal,  conscious- 
ness is  a phenomenon,  perception  is  a 
dream.  Fichte’s  subjective  idealism 
found  its  continuation  in  the  objective 
idealism  of  Schelling  and  the  absolute 
idealism  of  Hegel.  Hegel  (1770-1831), 
developed  the  principle  of  identity,  and 
created  the  system  of  absolute  idealism. 
In  his  philosophy  he  aims  at  elevating 
consciousness  to  the  standpoint  of  abso- 
lute knowledge,  and  systematically 
developing  the  entire  contents  of  this 
knowledge  by  means  of  the  dialectical 
method.  Schleiermacher  (1768-1834) 
promulgated  an  eclecticism  to  which 
Plato,  Spinoza,  Kant,  and  Schelling 
were  the  chief  contributors.  Schopen- 
hauer (1788-1860)  developed  a doctrine 
which  may  be  described  as  a transitional 
form  from  the  idealism  of  Kant  to  the 
realism  at  present  prevalent.  In  France 
two  philosophical  tendencies  opposed 
the  sensualism  and  materialism  so  uni- 
versal at  the  beginning  of  last  century. 
Of  these  the  one  was  theosophical  and 
the  other  found  expression  in  the  eclec- 
tic and  spiritualistic  school  founded  by 
Royer-Collard  as  the  disciple  of  Reid, 
and  further  built  up  by  Cousin,  who 
incorporated  into  its  body  of  doctrines 
a number  of  German  philosophical 
notions.  Jouffroy  attempted  to  unite  the 
philosophy  of  his  predecessor  Maine  de 
Biran  to  that  of  the  Scottish  school,  and 
became  associated  with  the  spiritualistic 
school,  to  which  also  belong  the  names  of 
Gamier,  Janet,  R4musat,  Franck,  Jules 
Simon,  and  others.  This  school  has  con- 
tended valiantly  against  the  pantheistic 
tendencies  of  the  age.  Independent 
systems  are  those  of  Piere  Leroux, 
Lamennais,  Jean  Reynaud,  and  Buchez. 
Materialism  has  its  supporters  in  Ca- 
banis,  who  sees  in  thought  only  a secre- 
tion of  the  brain,  Broussais,  Gall,  and 
others.  Positivism,  founded  by  Auguste 
Comte,  numbers  not  a few  followers. 

In  Great  Britain  the  associational 
psychology  of  Hartley,  Priestley,  and 
Dr.  Darwin  found  representatives  in  the 
19th  century  in  James  Mill  (1773-1836) 
and  his  son  John  Stuart  Mill  (1806-73), 
who  make  the  principal  of  association  the 
sole  explanation  of  psychical  phenom- 
ena. Bain,  Grote,  and  Lewes  followed 
more  or  less  in  the  same  track.  Herbert 
Spencer  attempted  to  widen  the  psy- 
chological principles  of  the  associational 
psychology  into  a universal  doctrine  of 
evolution.  In  America,  as  in  England, 
philosophy  has  been  prosecuted  more  as 
an  applied  science,  and  in  its  special  re- 
lations to  morals,  politics,  and  theology. 
Among  the  best-known  names  are  those 
of  Jonathan  Edwards,  Henry  P.  Tappan, 
Thomas  C.  Upham,  Francis  Wayland, 


and  others.  A modified  scholasticism, 
mostly  Thomism,  prevails  in  the  catho- 
lic seminaries  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy.  In  most  of  the  continental  coun- 
tries, German  philosophy  has  exerted 
no  small  influence.  In  Italy  a peculiar 
philosophical  school,  represented  by 
Rosmini,  Mamiani,  and  Gioberti,  has 
flourished  during  the  lfl|h  century. 

PHILTRE,  a potion  exposed  to  have 
the  power  of  exciting  love.  The  prepa- 
ration was  frequently  associated  with 
magic  rites,  and  the  ingredients  were 
frequently  of  a harmless,  fanciful,  or 
disgusting  kind.  At  times,  however, 
poisonous  drugs  were  employed,  the 
death  of  Lucretius  and  the  madness  of 
Caligula  being  alike  ascribed  to  philtres 
administered  by  their  wives. 

PHLEBOT'OMY,  or  VENESECTION, 
the  act  of  letting  blood  by  opening  a 
vein;  a method  of  treatment  formerly 
applied  to  almost  all  diseases,  but  now 
chiefly  confined  to  cases  of  general  or 
local  plethora.  Another  mode  of  letting 
blood  is  by  cupping  or  by  the  applica- 
tion of  leeches.  It  has  been  one  of  the 
processes  of  the  medical  profession  from 
the  earliest  times. 

PHLOX,  a genus  of  perennial  herba- 
ceous plants,  natives  for  the  most  part 
of  North  America,  though  some  of  the 
species  are  to  be  met  with  in  Asia.  The 
flowers  are  of  a purple  or  violet  color, 
more  rarely  white  or  red,  with  a salver- 
shaped corolla,  and  a narrow  sub- 
cylindrical  tube  longer  than  the  calyx. 
The  trailing  kinds  are  excellent  for  rock- 
work. 

PHtEBUS.  See  Apollo. 

PHCENICIA,  in  ancient  geography,  a 
country  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Mount  Lebanon,  and 
containing  the  celebrated  cities  Tyre 
and  Sidon.  Phoenicia  proper  was  a tract 
of  country  stretching  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  not  much 
more  than  28  miles  in  length,  and  little 
more  than  1 mile  in  average  breadth; 
Sidon  being  situated  near  its  northern, 
and  Tyre  not  far  from  its  southern 
boundary.  In  a wider  sense  Phoenicia 
was  regarded  as  beginning  on  the  north 
with  the  Island  of  Aradus,  and  extending 
south  to  the  town  of  Dora,  a little  be- 
low the  promontory  of  Carmel,  being 
about  120  miles  in  length,  and  rarely 
more  than  20  in  breadth.  It  is  watered 
by  several  streams  flowing  from  Lebanon 
to  the  sea,  such  as  the  Eleutherus,  the 
Adonis,  the  Lycus,  the  Tamyras,  the 
Leontes.  The  country  is  fertile  in  tim- 
ber, corn,  fruits,  etc.;  and  besides  the 
great  cities  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  it  was 
anciently  studded  with  numerous 
smaller  towns,  forming  almost  an  un- 
broken line  along  the  coast.  Among 
these  towns  in  earlier  times  were  Arvad, 
Accho,  Arka,  Tripolis,  Berytus,  Sa- 
repta,  Dora,  etc.  Many  of  the  road- 
steads or  harbors  were  excellent,  but 
are  now  silted  up. 

The  wealth  and  powei  of  the  Phoe- 
nicians arose  from  their  command  of  the 
sea,  and  it  was  their  policy  not  to  pro- 
voke any  of  the  nations  to  the  east  of 
them,  and  not  to  quarrel  unnecessarily 
with  Israel,  which  was  their  granary. 
The  relation  between  Hiram  and  David 
was  probabl}^  but  a sample  of  such  inter- 
national treaties  and  intercourse,  .\fter 


PHCENIX 


PHONOGRAPH 


the  division  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom 
Phoenicia  would  naturally  cultivate 
alliance  with  the  Ten  Tribes  nearest  to 
it,  and  Ahab  married  a Phoenician 
princess.  The  country  was  afterward 
successively  incorporated  in  the  Assyr- 
ian, Babylonian,  and  Persian  empires, 
but  the  cities  retained  more  or  less  their 
independence.  It  was  next  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  henceforth 
simply  formed  part  of  Syria. 

From  a very  early  period  the  Phoeni- 
cians occupied  themselves  in  distant 
voyages,  and  they  must  speedily  have 
reached  to  a style  of  substantial  ship- 
building. Xenophon  passes  a high 
eulogy  on  a Phoenician  ship;  and  they 
were  skilled  in  navigation  and  the  nauti- 
cal applications  of  astronomy.  Lebanon 
supplied  them  with  abundance  of  timber 
and  Cyprus  gave  them  all  necessary 
naval  equipments,  from  the  keel  to  the 
top-sails.  In  the  reign  of  Pharaoh- 
Necho  these  daring  navigators  even 
circumnavigated  Africa,  and  the  Phoeni- 
cians furnished  Xerxes  with  300  ships, 
which  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Salamis. 
The  commerce  of  Tyre  reached  through 
the  world.  It  traded  in  the  produce  of 
the  whole  known  world,  from  the  ivory 
and  “bright  iron”  and  ebony  and  cotton 
fabrics  of  India  to  the  tin  from  Cornwall 
and  Devonshire.  Fishing  was  also  an 
important  industry,  and  the  Tyrians 
sold  fish  in  Jerusalem.  The  Phoenicians 
excelled  in  the  manufacture  of  the  pur- 
ple dye  from  the  shell-fish  murex,  abun- 
dant on  its  coasts.  The  glass  of  Sidon 
was  no  less  famous  than  the  Tyrian  dye. 
Phoenicia  produced  also  articles  of  silver 
and  gold  as  well  as  of  brass;  its  inhabi- 
tants were  also  skilled  in  architecture 
and  in  mining. 

The  maritime  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience of  Phoenicia  led  to  the  planta- 
tion of  numerous  colonies  in  Cyprus, 
Rhodes,  and  the  islands  of  the  ^gean — 
the  Cyclades  and  Sporades — in  Sicily,  in 
Sardinia,  the  Balearic  islands,  and  in 
Spain.  The  most  celebrated  of  the 
Phoenician  colonies,  however,  was  Car- 
thage, in  Northern  Africa,  which  ex- 
tended its  sway  over  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula and  disputed  with  Rome  the  su- 
premacy of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  was  the  case  in  Canaan  at  the  in- 
vasion, each  Phoenician  city  was  gov- 
erned by  a king  or  petty  chief.  A power- 
ful aristocracy  existed  in  the  chief 
towns,  and  there  were  also  elective 
magistrates,  called  by  the  Romans 
suffetes,  a disguised  form  of  the  Hebrew 
soffet.  Sidon,  and  afterward  Tyre, 
exercised  a hegemony  over  the  other 
states.  The  relation  of  Phoenicia  to  her 
colonies  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
very  close.  Their  religion,  however, 
bound  the  mother  country  and  the 
colonies  in  a common  worship.  Car- 
thage often  sent  presents  to  the  chief 
Phoenician  god;  so  did  Gades  and  other 
settlements. 

While  the  wealth  and  commerce  of 
Phoenicia  must  have  brought  art  and 
refinement,  the  people  were  noted  for 
their  dissoluteness.  As  a people  the 
Phoenicians  early  obtained  a reputation 
for  cunning  and  faithlessness.  They  were 
often  pirates;  they  were  certainly  slave- 
traders.  They  purchased  slaves  from 
the  northern  shores  of  the  Black  sea, 


and  they  also  kidnaped  and  sold  the 
children  of  Israel— a practice  which 
brought  upon  them  the  denunciation 
of  the  prophets,  and  a just  retaliation 
was  predicted  to  fall  upon  them. 

The  language  of  ancient  Phoenicia 
was  closely  akin  to  Hebrew.  The 
famous  passage  in  the  Poenulus  of 
Plautus  illustrates  the  assertion.  Of 
ninety-four  words  on  a tablet  dis- 
covered at  Marseilles  in  1845  relat- 
ing to  the  sacrificial  ritual  no  less  than 
seventy-four  are  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Coins  and  seals  also  disclose  the 
same  affinity,  as  do  the  numerous  in- 
scriptions. Proper  names  can  all  be 
explained  in  the  same  way.  The  inven- 
tion of  letters  is  often  ascribed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  The  Greeks  believed  that 
letters  had  been  brought  to  them  from 
Phoenicia  by  Cadmus.  The  so-called 
Cadmean  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet 
areABrAEFIKLMNOIIP 
2 T,  the  sixth  letter  F being  the  digam- 
ma, which  afterward  disappeared  from 
the  Greek  alphabet.  The  names  of 
these  letters  have  no  meaning  in  Greek, 
but  they  have  each  a significance  in 
Phoenician  or  Hebrew.  The  affinity  of 
the  old  Greek  letters  in  form  to  the 
Phoenician  and  early  Hebrew  can  be 
easily  traced.  The  literature  of  Phoe- 
nicia has  perished.  See  also  Tyre, 
Sidon,  Carthage,  etc. 

PHCENIX,  a fabulous  Egyptian  bird, 
about  the  size  of  an  eagle,  with  plumage 
partly  red  and  partly  golden.  Of  the 
various  stories  told  of  it  by  Herodotus 
and  others  the  most  popular  is  to  the 
effect  that  the  bird,  at  an  age  of  500 
years,  conscious  of  its  approaching 
death,  built  a funeral  pile  of  wood  and 
aromatic  gums,  which  it  lighted  with 
the  fanning  of  its  wings,  and  rose  from 
the  flames  with  a new  life.  The  Egyp- 
tians regarded  it  as  a symbol  of  im- 
mortality, and  it  is  still  used  as  an  em- 
blem of  this. 

PHCENIX,  the  scientific  name  of  the 
date  palm  genus. 

PHCENIXVILLE,  a town  of  the  United 
States,  in  Chester  co.,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  Schuylkill,  with  extensive  ironworks. 
Pop.  10,722. 

PHOLAS,  a genus  of  marine  bivalves, 
in  which  the  shell  gapes  at  both  ends. 
The  shell,  which  is  of  thin  white  tex- 
ture, is  studded  over  on  its  outer  sur- 
face with  numerous  rasp-like  promi- 


Pholades  in  their  holes. 

nences,  by  means  of  which  the  animal 
excavates  burrows  in  wood,  rocks,  in- 
durated clay,  etc.,  maintaining  corn- 


munication  with  the  outer  world  by 
means  of  long  breathing-tubes  or  siphons 
with  fringed  edges. 

PHONETTCS,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  various  sounds  pertaining 
to  human  speech,  their  distinctive 
characteristics,  the  voice-mechanism  by 
which  they  are  uttered,  and  the  methods 
by  which  they  may  be  best  represented 
to  the  eye.  Any  system  of  writing  is 
strictly  phonetic  when  by  it  each  dif- 
ferent sound  is  represented  by  a differ- 
ent character,  and  the  same  sound 
always  by  the  same  character. 

PHO'NOGRAPH,  an  instrument  by 
means  of  which  sounds  can  be  per- 
manently registered,  and  afterward  re- 
produced from  the  register.  It  con- 
sists essentially  of  a curved  tube,  one 
end  of  which  is  fitted  with  a mouth- 
piece, while  the  other  end  (about  2 
inches  in  diameter)  is  closed  in  with  a 
disc  or  diaphragm  of  exceedingly  thin 


Phonograph. 


metal.  Connected  with  the  center  of 
this  diaphragm  is  a steel  point,  which, 
when  the  sounds  are  projected  on  the 
disc  from  the  mouthpiece,  vibrates 
backward  and  forward.  This  part  of 
the  apparatus  is  adjusted  to  a cylinder 
which  rotates  on  a horizontal  axis.  On 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  cut  a spiral 
groove,  and  on  the  axis  there  is  a spiral 
screw  of  the  same  pitch,  which  works  in 
a nut.  When  the  instrument  is  to  be 
used  a piece  of  tin-foil  is  gummed  round 
the  cylinder,  and  the  steel  point  is  ad- 
justed so  as  to  be  just  touching  the  tin- 
foil,  and  above  the  line  of  the  spiral 
groove.  If  some  words  are  now  spoken 
through  the  mouthpiece,  and  the  cylin- 
der kept  rotating  either  by  the  hand  or 
clockwork,  a series  of  small  indentations 
are  made  on  the  foil  by  the  vibratory 
movement  of  the  steel  point,  and  these 
markings  have  all  an  individual  char- 
acter of  their  own,  due  to  the  various 
sounds  addressed  to  the  mouthpiece. 
The  sounds  thus  registered  are  repro- 
duced by  approaching  the  diaphragm 
and  its  steel  point  toward  the  tin-foil 
as  at  first  commencing,  at  the  point 
where  it  was  when  the  cylinder  originally 
started,  and  then  once  more  setting  the 
cylinder  in  motion.  The  indentations 


rilOXOGRAPHY 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


previously  made  now  cause  the  steel 
point  to  rise  or  fall  or  otherwise  move 
as  the  markings  pass  under  it,  and  the 
result  is  that  the  diaphragm  is  thrown 
into  a state  of  vibration  exactly  cor- 
responding to  the  movements  induced 
by  the  markings,  and  thus  affects  the 
air  around  so  as  to  produce  sounds,  and 
these  vibrations,  being  exactly  similar  to 
those  originally  made  by  the  voice, 
necessarily  reproduce  these  sounds  to 
the  ear  as  the  words  at  first  spoken.  In- 
stead of  these  tin-foil  strips  hollow  cylin- 
ders of  wax  are  now  commonly  used. 
In  this  case  the  record  consists  of  a 
series  of  markings  cut  into  the  wax  by  a 
fine  steel  point.  The  same  cylinders  can 
be  used  a large  number  of  times,  the 
previous  record  being  always  shaved  off 
and  a new  surface  thus  obtained. 

PHONOG'RAPHY,  a system  of  writ- 
ing by  which  the  sounds  of  a language 
are  accurately  represented.  The  name 
is  generally  applied  to  Pitman’s  system 
of  shorthand.  See  Shorthand. 

PHONOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
ascertaining  the  number  of  vibrations 
of  a given  sound  in  a given  space  of 
time. 

PHOSPHATE,  in  chemistry,  the  gen- 
eric term  for  the  salts  formed  by  the 
union  of  phosphoric  anhydride  with 
bases  or  water  or  both.  They  play  a 
leading  part  in  the  chemistry  of  animal 
and  plant  life,  the  most  important  in 
this  connection  being  the  phosphate  of 
soda,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  the  basic 
phosphate  of  magnesia.  In  agriculture 
the  adequate  supply  of  phosphates  to 
plants  in  the  form  of  manures  becomes 
a matter  of  necessity  in  all  deplenished 
soils.  These  phosphatic  manures  con- 
sist for  the  most  part  of  bones,  ground 
ones,  mineral  phosphates  (apatite, 
phosphorite,  coprolites),  basic  slag, 
superphosphates  and  reduced  super- 
phosphates (both  prepared  by  treating 
broken-up  bones  with  vitriol),  bone-ash, 
and  phosphatic  guano.  See  also 
Manures. 

PHOSPHIDES,  compounds  of  phos- 
phorus with  one  other  element,  more 
especially  with  the  metals. 

PHOSPHORES'CENCE,  the  property 
which  certain  bodies  possess  of  becom- 
ing luminous  without  undergoing  ob- 
vious combustion.  It  is  sometimes  a 
chemical,  sometimes  a physical  action. 
Certain  mineral  substances  exhibit  the 
phenomenon  when  submitted  to  insola- 
tion, to  heat,  to  friction,  to  electricity, 
or  to  cleavage.  Rain,  water-spouts,  and 
meteoric  dust  sometimes  present  a self- 
luminous  appearance.  Several  vegeta- 
ble organisms,  chiefly  cryptogams,  ex- 
hibit this  kind  of  luminosity;  but  the 
most  interesting  cases  of  phosphor- 
escense  occur  in  the  animal  world,  the 
species  in  which  the  luminous  property 
has  been  observed  belonging  nearly  to 
every  main  group  of  the  zoological 
series.  In  some  of  the  lowest  life  forms 
and  in  many  of  the  jelly-fishes  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body  is  phosphor- 
escent; in  other  organisms  the  phos- 
phorescent property  is  localized  in  cer- 
tain organs,  as  in  the  sea-pens,  certain 
annelids,  the  glow-worms,  fire-flies,  etc.; 
while  many  deep-sea  fishes  have  shining 
bodies  embedded  in  the  skin.  The  phos- 
phorescence of  the  sea  is  produced  by 


the  scintillating  or  phosphorescent  light 
emitted  from  the  bodies  of  certain  micro- 
scopic marine  animals,  and  is  well  seen 
on  the  surface  of  the  ocean  at  night. 
Phosphorescence  in  animals  appears  to 
be  a vital  process,  consisting  essentially 
in  the  conversion  of  nervous  force  (vital 
energy)  into  light;  just  as  the  same 
force  can  be  converted  by  certain  fishes 
into  electricity.  See  Fluorescence. 

PHOSPHORTC  ACID,  an  acid  usually 
obtained  by  burning  phosphoretted 
hydrogen  in  atmospheric  air  or  oxygen. 
It  is  also  produced  by  the  oxidation  of 
phosphorous  acid,  by  oxidizing  phos- 
phorus with  nitric  acid,  by  the  decom- 
position of  apatite  and  other  native 
phosphates,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
It  is  used  in  medicine  in  the  form  of 
solution,  constituting  the  dilute  acid 
of  the  Pharmacopoeia.  It  is  peculiarly 
suited  to  disordered  states  of  the  mucous 
surfaces,  and  also  to  states  of  debility, 
characterized  by  softening  of  the  bones. 

PHOS'PHORITE,  a species  of  cal- 
careous earth;  a sub-species  of  apatite. 
It  is  an  amorphous  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  is  valuable  as  a fertilizer. 

PHOSPHOROSCOPE,  an  instrument 
designed  to  show  the  phosphorescence 
of  certain  bodies  that  emit  light  but  for 
a very  short  period.  By  its  means  many 
substances  hitherto  unsuspected  of 
phosphorescence  have  been  proved  cap- 
able of  retaining  light  for  very  short 
periods.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
philosophical  toy  for  showing  phos- 
phorescent substances  in  the  dark. 

PHOSPHOROUS  ACID,  an  acid  pro- 
duced by  exposing  sticks  of  phosphorus 
to  moist  air,  and  in  several  other  ways. 
Phosphorous  acid  exists  usually  in  the 
form  of  a thick  uncrystallizable  syrup, 
but  it  may  also  be  obtained  crystallized. 

PHOS'PHORUS,  a solid  non-metallic 
combustible  substance  ranking  as  one 
of  the  elements;  sjmibol  P,atomicweight 
31;  specific  gravity  1.826.  It  occurs 
chiefly  in  combination  with  oxygen, 
calcium,  and  magnesium,  in  volcanic 
and  other  rocks,  whose  disintegration 
constitutes  very  fertile  soils.  It  exists 
also  in  the  plants  used  by  man  as  food, 
and  is  a never-failing  and  important 
constituent  in  animal  structures.  It  is 
manufactured  from  bones,  which  consist 
in  part  of  phosphate  of  lime,  or  from 
native  mineral  phosphate  of  lime. 
Common  phosphorus  when  pure  is  al- 
most transparent  and  colorless.  At 
common  temperatures  it  is  a soft  solid, 
easily  cut  with  a knife,  and  the  cut  sur- 
face, has  a waxy  luster;  at  108°  iWuses, 
and  at  550°  is  converted  into  vapor. 
It  is  exceedingly  inflammable.  Exposed 
to  the  air  at  common  temperatures  it 
undergoes  slow  combustion,  emits  a 
white  vapor  of  a peculiar  alliaceous 
odor,  appears  luminous  in  the  dark,  and 
is  gradually  consumed.  On  this  account 
phosphorus  should  always  be  kept  under 
water.  A very  slight  degree  of  heat  is 
suflicient  to  inflame  phosphorus  in  the 
open  air.  Gentle  pressure  between  the 
fingers,  friction,  or  a temperature  not 
much  above  its  point  of  fusion,  kindles 
it  readily.  It  burns  rapidly  even  in  the 
air,  emitting  a splendid  white  light, 
and  causing  intense  heat.  Its  combus- 
tion is  far  more  rapid  in  oxygen  gas,  and 
the  light  far  more  vivid.  The  product  of 


the  perfect  combustion  of  phosphorus 
is  phosphorous  pentoxide  or  phosphoric 
anhydride,  a white  solid  which  readily 
takes  up  water,  passing  into  phosphoric 
acid.  Compounds  of  phosphoric  anhy- 
dride with  basic  bodies  are  known  as 
phosphates.  Phosphorus  may  be  made 
to  combine  with  most  of  the  metals, 
forming  compounds  called  phosphides. 
When  dissolved  in  fat  oils  it  forms  a 
solution  which  is  luminous  in  the  dark. 
It  is  chiefly  used  in  the  preparation  of 
lucifer-matches,  and  also  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  phosphoric  acid.  It  is  of  all 
stimulants  the  most  powerful  and  dif- 
fusible, but  on  account  of  its  activity 
highly  dangerous.  It  can  be  safely  ad- 
ministered as  a medicine  only  in  ex- 
tremely minute  doses  and  with  the 
utmost  possible  caution.  Phosphorus 
presents  a good  example  of  allotropy,  in 
that  it  can  be  exhibited  in  at  least  one 
other  form,  known  as  red  or  amorphous 
phosphorus,  presenting  completely  dif- 
ferent properties  from  common  phos- 
phorus. This  variety  is  produced  by 
keeping  common  phosphorus  a long 
time  slightly  below  the  boiling-point. 
It  is  a red,  hard,  brittle  substance,  not 
fusible,  not  poisonous,  and  not  readily 
inflammable  so  that  it  may  be  handled 
with  impunity.  When  heated  to  the 
boiling-point  it  changes  back  to  common 
phosphorus. 

PHOTO-ENGRAVING,  a common 
name  of  many  processes  in  which  the 
action  of  light  on  a sensitized  surface  is 
made  to  change  the  nature  or  condition 
of  the  substance  of  the  plate  or  its  coat- 
ing, so  that  it  may  by  processes  be  made 
to  afford  a printing  surface  correspond- 
ing to  the  original  from  which  the  photo- 
graphic image  was  derived.  See  Zinc 
Etching,  Halftone  Engraving. 

PHOTOG'RAPHY  is  the  art  of  taking 
representations  of  objects  by  the  action 
of  light  through  the  lenses  of  the  camera 
obscura  on  a previously  prepared  sur- 
face. It  is  of  comparativelyrecent  origin, 
though,  as  early  as  the  commencement 
of  the  19th  century,  Mr.  Thomas  Wedge- 
wood  had  discovered  a method  of  copy- 
ing paintings  on  glass  and  of  making 
profiles  by  the  action  of  light  upon 
nitrate  of  silver.  About  1814  M.  Nice- 
phore  Niepce  in  France  discovered  a 
method  of  producing,  by  means  of  the 
camera  obscura,  pictures  on  plates  of 
metal  coated  wdth  asphaltum,  and  at 
the  same  time  of  rendering  them  per- 
manent. In  1839  Daguerre  announced 
the  discovery  of  the  Daguerreotype. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  Mr.  Henry 
Fox  Talbot  had  discovered  the  process 
of  obtaining  pictures  in  the  camera  by 
the  agency  of  light  on  paper  coated  with 
chloride  and  nitrate  of  silver,  and  also  of 
fixing  them  when  so  obtained.  Mr. 
Talbot  gave  the  name  of  calotype  to  his 
process.  Numerous  modifications  of  the 
calotype  were  introduced,  besides  vari- 
ous new  photographic  processes,  the 
most  important  b^eing  those  of  M.  Niepce 
de  St.  Victor  and  Mr.  Scott  Archer,  the 
former  of  whom  introduced  the  use  of 
albumen  and  the  latter  that  of  collodion 
as  a substitute  for  paper,  these  sub- 
stances being  in  either  case  thinly 
spread  over  a plate  of  glass.  Mr.  .^.rcher 
perfected  the  wet  collodion  process, 
and  published  full  working  details  in 


PHOTOGRAVURE 


PHYLLOXERA 


1851.  Collodion  dry  plates  were  intro- 
duced by  Dr.  Hill  Norris  in  1856;  col- 
lodion emulsion  dry  plates  by  Messrs. 
Sayce  and  Bolton  in  1864.  In  1871  Dr. 
R.  L.  Maddox  discovered  that  glass 
plates  could  be  coated  with  an  emulsion 
consisting  of  bromide  of  silver  contained 
in  gelatine.  This  gelatine  dry-plate 
process  was  improved  by  Bennett  in 
1878,  and  came  into  general  use  about 
1880.  It  is  now  almost  the  only  process 
employed  in  ordinary  photography. 

Photographs  may  be  either  negative 
or  positive.  Negative  photographs  are 
produced  in  the  camera,  and  exhibit 
the  lights  and  shades  contrary  to  nature, 
that  is,  the  lights  dark  and  shades  white. 
In  order  to  obtain  prints  or  positives 
several  methods  are  used.  In  silver 
printing  a paper  sensitized  by  being 
floated  on  a solution  of  albumen  mixed 
with  common  salt,  and  then  on  a solu- 
tion of  nitrate  of  silver,  is  placed  in 
close  contact  with  the  negative  in  a 
printing-frame,  and  exposed  to  light 
until  the  silver  compounds  have  become 
sufficiently  darkened.  It  is  afterward 
toned,  fixed,  and  washed.  In  the  platino- 
type  process  the  paper  is  sensitized  by 
ferric  oxalate  and  a double  salt  of  potas- 
sium and  platinum.  The  latter  process 
requires  no  toning,  and  produces  a per- 
manent print. 

Various  modes  of  multiplying  photo- 
graphic pictures  by  photolithography 
have  been  successfully  tried.  A com- 
mon mode  is  to  take  a print  on  paper 
sensitized  with  gelatine  and  bichromate 
of  potassium,  and  to  ink  it  with  a suit- 
able oily  ink.  This  ink  adheres  to  the 
parts  where  the  gelatine  has  been  acted 
on  by  light  and  has  become  insoluble, 
but  where  the  gelatine  is  still  soluble  the 
ink  can  be  easily  washed  off.  It  is  then 
transferred  to  a lithographic  stone  in 
the  usual  way.  In  photo-zincography 
the  process  consists  in  projecting  an  im- 
pression on  a plate  of  prepared  zinc  by 
photography  and  then  engraving  it  by 
etching  with  acids,  so  that  copies  can  be 
printed  from  the  plate.  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  gelatine  plate  the  art  of 
photography  has  made  immense  ad- 
vances, and  its  applications  are  endless. 
Hand  (sometimes  called  detective) 
cameras  in  all  shapes  and  sizes  have 
been  introduced,  some  of  which  take 
pictures  of  J and  | plate  size.  Many  im- 
provements have  also  been  made  in 
instantaneous  shutteis.  These  are  now 
so  carefully  adjusted  by  mechanical 
appliances  that  they  can  be  regulated  to 
a small  fraction  of  a second,  or  a pro- 
longed exposure  can  be  given  to  any 
part  of  the  subject  at  will.  These  instan- 
taneous processes  have  enabled  scien- 
tists to  analyse  muscularmovements  and 
the  various  modes  of  locomotion.  Re- 
markable results  have  also  been  attained 
in  the  application  of  photography  to 
astronomy,  and  pictures  of  the  most 
remote  parts  of  the  heavens  are  now 
common.  Its  application  in  the  various 
rocesses  of  book-illustration  has  also 
een  very  successful.  Photography  by 
means  of  artificial  light  is  regularly 
practiced.  Recently  it  has  been  dis- 
covered that  by  means  of  a current  of 
electricity  and  a glass  globe  or  tube  ex- 
hausted of  air,  rays  may  be  produced 
which  penetrate  many  solid  substances 


though  unable  to  penetrate  others,  and 
which  give  an  image  of  such  opaque 
bodies  on  a photographic  plate.  By 
these  rays  (X-rays,  Rontgen  rays)  we 
may  get  a photograph  (or  radiograph) 
showing,  for  instance,  the  bones  in  the 
hand,  the  coins  in  a purse,  etc. 

PHOTOGRAVURE,  a process  of  en- 
graving in  which  by  the  aid  of  photog- 
raphy Subjects  are  reproduced  as  plates 
suited  for  printing  in  a copper-plate 
press.  The  process  known  as  Helio- 
gravure (which  see)  is  essentially  the 
same. 

PHOTO-HELIOGRAPH,  an  instru- 
ment for  observing  transits  of  Venus  and 
other  solar  phenomena,  consisting  of  a 
telescope  mounted  for  photography  on 
an  equatorial  stand  and  moved  by 
suitable  clockwork. 

PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY.  See  Pho- 
togrm>hy. 

PHOTOM'ETER,  an  instrument  in- 
tended to  indicate  relative  quantities  of 
light,  as  in  a cloudy  or  bright  day,  or  to 
enable  two  light-giving  bodies  to  be  com- 
pared. Photometers  depend  on  one  or 
other  of  the  two  principles,  that  the  eye 
can  distinguish  whether  two  adjacent 
surfaces  are  equally  illuminated,  and 
whether  two  contiguous  shadows  have 
the  same  depth.  Benson’s  photometer  is 
based  on  the  former  principle.  Rum- 
ford’s  on  the  latter.  The  common  unit 
for  comparison  is  the  light  emitted  by  a 
sperm-candle  burning  120  grains  of 
spermaceti  per  hour,  other  li^ts  being 
said  to  have  the  intensity  of  so  many 
candles.  Improved  forms  of  photom- 
eters for  more  easily  obtaining  the 
illuminating  power  produced  by  coal- 
gas  and  the  electric  light  have  recently 
been  introduced. 

PHO'TOPHONE,  an  instrument  in- 
vented in  1880  by  Prof.  Graham  Bell, 
which  resembles  the  telephone,  except 
that  it  transmits  sounds  by  means  of  a 
beam  of  light  instead  of  the  connecting 
wire  of  the  telephone.  The  success  of  the 
instrument  depends  upon  a peculiar 
property  of  the  rare  metal  s^enium, 
that,  namely,  of  offering  more  or  less 
opposition  to  the  passage  of  electricity 
according  as  it  is  acted  upon  or  not  by 
light.  In  its  simplest  form  the  apparatus 
consists  at  the  receiving  end  of  a plane 
mirror  of  some  flexible  material  (such 
as  silvered  mica)  upon  which  a beam  of 
light  is  concentrated,  and  the  voice  of  a 
speaker  directed  against  the  back  of 
this  mirror  throws  the  beam  of  light 
reflected  from  its  surface  into  undula- 
tions which  are  received  on  a parabolic 
reflector  at  the  other  end,  and  are 
centered  on  a sensitive  selenium  cell  in 
connection  with  a telephone,  which  re- 
produces in  articulate  speech  the  un- 
dulations set  up  in  the  beam  of  light  by 
the  voice  of  the  speaker. 

PHO'TOSPHERE,  the  luminous  en- 
velope, supposed  to  consist  of  incandes- 
cent matter,  surrounding  the  sun.  See 
Sun. 

PHOTO-ZINCOGRAPHY.  See  Pho- 
tography. 

PHRENOLOGY,  the  term  applied  to 
the  psychological  theories  of  Gall  and 
Spurzheim,  founded  upon  (1)  the  dis- 
covery that  the  brain,  as  the  organ  of  the 
mind,  is  not  so  much  a single  organ  as 
a complex  congeries  of  organs;  and  (2) 


observations  as  to  the  existence  of  a 
certain  correspondence  between  the 
aptitudes  of  the  individual  and  the  con- 
figuration of  his  skull.  Phrenology  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  a development, 
partly  scientific  and  partly  empirical,  of 
the  general  idea  that  a correspondence 
exists  between  the  physical  structure 
and  the  psychical  and  mental  traits  of 
every  individual  man  or  animal.  It  was 
long  ago  observed  by  physiologists  that 
in  animals  a certain  character  and  in- 
telligence seemed  to  accompany  a cer- 
tain formation  and  size  of  skull.  Lava- 
ter,  in  his  system  of  physiognomy,  went 
further  than  this,  and  gave  to  particular 
shapes  of  the  head  certain  powers  and 
passions:  the  conical  head  he  terms 
religious;  the  narrow  retreating  front, 
weak-minded;  the  broad  neck,  salacious, 
etc.  But  it  was  reserved  to  Drs.  Gall 
and  Spurzheim  to  expand  this  germ  of 
doctrine  into  a minute  system,  and  to 
map  out  the  whole  cranium  into  small 
sections,  each  section  being  the  dwelling- 
place  of  a certain  faculty,  propensity,  or 
sentiment. 

So  far  as  phrenology  was  scientific  it 
undoubtedly  was  one  cause  which  led  to 
the  minute  anatomical  investigations  to 
which  the  brain  has  latterly  been  sub- 
jected; and  Gall  and  Spurzheim  have 
high  claims  to  be  regarded  as  anatomical 
discoverers  and  pioneers.  Previous  to 
their  dissections  the  brain  had  generally 
been  regarded  as  a single  organ  rather 
than  a complex  congeries  of  organs. 
Gall’s  view  of  the  physiology  of  the 
brain  was,  that  the  convolutions  are 
distinct  nervous  centers,  each  having 
its  own  special  activity ; that  the  frontal 
lobes  are  occupied  by  the  perceptive 
group  of  centers;  the  superior  lobes  by 
the  moral  and  aesthetic  groups;  the  in- 
ferior lobes  by  the  group  mainly  con- 
cerned in  the  nutrition  and  adaptation 
of  the  animal  to  external  conditions ; and 
the  posterior  lobes  to  the  social  instincts. 
To  a considerable  extent  these  views 
have  been  pronounced  to  be  well  founded 
by  later  specialists,  and  thus  the  leading 
positions  of  Gall  and  Spurzheim  have 
taken  a place  in  scientific  psychology 
as  represented  by  Bain,  Carpenter, 
Ferrier,  Wagner,  Huschke,  and  others. 

PHTHIO'TIS,  a district  of  ancient 
Greece,  in  the  south  of  Thessaly,  now 
forming  a monarchy  of  Greece.  Pop. 
128,440. 

PHTHISIS  (thi'sis).  See  Consumption. 

PHYLAC'TERY,  among  the  Jews  a 
strip  of  parchment  inscribed  with  cer- 
tain texts  from  the  Old  Testament,  and 
inclosed  within  a small  leathern  case, 
which  was  fastened  with  straps  on  the 
forehead  just  above  and  between  the 
eyes,  and  on  the  left  arm  near  the  region 
of  the  heart.  The  four  passages  in- 
scribed upon  the  phylactery  were  Ex. 
xiii.  1-10,  11-16;  Deut.  vi.  4-9;  xi.  18- 
21.  The  custom  was  founded  on  a literal 
interpretation  of  Ex.  xiii.  16;  Deut.  vi. 
8;  xi.  18.  Phylacteries  are  the  ‘prayer- 
thongs”  of  the  modern  Jews.  In  their 
origin  they  were  regarded  as  amulets, 
which  protected  the  wearer  from  the 
power  of  demons,  and  hence  their  name, 
which  is  from  the  Greek  phulassein,  to 
guard. 

PHYLLOXE'RA,  a|genus  of  plant-lice. 
The  type  of  the  genus  is  a species  which 


PHYSALIA 


PIANO 


lives  upon  oak-trees ; but  the  Phylloxera  ; 
vastatrix,  or  grape  Phylloxera,  a species 
which  injuriously  affects  the  vine,  has 
attracted  so  much  attention  of  late 
years  that  it  has  come  to  be  known  as  the 
Phylloxera.  Its  proper  home  is  North 
America,  where  it  was  known  early  in 
the  history  of  grape-culture,  and  where 
it  doubtless  existed  on  wild  vines  from 
time  immemorial.  It  was  discovered  in 
England  in  1863,  and  about  the  same 
time  it  made  its  appearance  in  France. 
In  1885  its  presence  was  discovered  in 
Australia,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  in  Algeria;  and,  generally  speaking, 
it  has  now  obtained  a foothold,  at  least 
in  restricted  localities,  in  every  country 
where  the  grapevine  is  cultivated.  Vines 
attacked  by  Phylloxera  generally  show 
external  signs  the  second  year  of  attack 
in  a sickly  yellowish  appearance  of  the 
foliage  and  in  stunted  growth,  and  the 
third  year  they  frequently  perish,  all 
the  finer  roots  having  decayed  and 
wasted  away.  Many  remedies  have  been 
proposed,  but  none  are  universally 
practicable  or  satisfactory. 

PHYSA'LIA,  a genus  of  marine  ani- 
mals. One  species  is  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Portuguese  man-of-war.  These 
hydrozoa  are  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  one  or  more  large  air-sacs,  by 
which  they  float  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  Numerous  tentacles  depend  from 


Portuguese  man-of-war. 

the  under  side,  one  class  short  and  the 
other  long.  The  shorter  are  the  nutritive 
individuals  of  the  colony,  the  longer, 
which  in  a Physalia  5 or  6 inches  long 
are  capable  of  being  extended  to  12  or 
18  feet,  possess  a remarkable  stinging 
power,  and  are  probably  used  to  stun 
their  prey. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  is  that 
branch  of  geography  which  treats  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  or  of  any  part  of  it 
as  regards  its  natural  features  and  con- 
formation, the  changes  that  are  con- 
stantly taking  place  and  that  have 
formerly  taken  place  so  as  to  produce 
the  features  now  existing;  it  points  out 
the  natural  divisions  of  the  earth  into 
land  and  water,  continents,  islands, 
rivers,  seas,  oceans,  etc.;  treating  of  the 
external  configuration  of  mountains, 
valleys,  coasts,  etc.;  and  of  the  relation 
and  peculiarities  of  different  portions  of 
the  water  area,  including  currents,  wave- 
action,  depth  of  the  sea,  salt  and  fresh 
water  lakes,  the  drainage  of  countries, 
etc.  The  atmosphere  in  its  larger  fea- 
tures is  also  considered,  including  the 
questions  of  climate,  winds,  storms, 


rainfall,  and  meteorology  generally. 
Lastly  it  takes  up  various  questions 
connected  with  the  organic  life  of  the 
globe,  more  especially  the  distribution 
of  animals  and  plants,  and  their  relation 
to  their  environment;  tracing  the  in- 
fluence of  climate,  soil,  natural  barriers 
or  channels  of  communication,  etc.,  upon 
the  growth  and  spread  of  plants  and 
animals,  including  in  the  latter  the 
various  races  of  man.  The  field  of 
physical  geography  is  thus  by  no  means 
easy  to  confine  within  strict  limits,  as 
it  is  so  closely  connected  at  various 
points  with  geology,  mineralogy,  botany 
and  zoology,  chemistry,  ethnology,  etc. 

PHYSICS,  or  NATURAL  PHILOSO- 
PHY, is  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of 
the  material  world,  or  of  the  laws  and 
properties  of  matter;  more  restrictedly 
it  treats  of  the  properties  of  bodies  as 
bodies,  and  of  the  phenomena  produced 
by  the  action  of  the  various  forces  on 
matter  in  the  mass.  It  thus  has  as  its 
chief  branches  the  subjects  dynamics, 
hydrostatics,  heat,  light,  sound,  elec- 
tricity, and  magnetism.  See  the  different 
^1*1;  1 0l6S 

PHYSIOG'NOMY,  the  doctrine  which 
teaches  the  means  of  judging  of  char- 
acter from  the  countenance.  Aristotle 
is  the  first  who  is  known  to  have  made 
any  attempts  in  physiognomy.  He  ob- 
served that  each  animal  has  a special 
predominant  instinct;  as  the  fox  cun- 
ning, the  wolf  ferocity,  and  so  forth, 
and  he  thence  concluded  that  men 
whose  features  resemble  those  of  certain 
animals  will  have  similar  qualities  to 
those  animals.  Baptista  della  Porta,  in 
his  work  De  Hmnana  Physiognomia 
(1586),  revived  this  theory  and  carried 
it  out  further.  The  theory  was  adopted 
and  illustrated  by  the  French  painter 
Lebrun,  in  the  next  century,  and  by 
Tischbein,  a German  painter  of  the  18th 
century.  The  physiologist  Camper 
sought  new  data  in  a comparison  of  the 
heads  of  different  types  of  the  human 
species,  and  in  attempting  to  deduce 
the  degree  of  intelligence  belonging  to 
each  type  from  the  size  of  the  facial 
angle.  Lavater  was  the  first  to  develop 
an  elaborate  system  of  physiognomy, 
the  scope  of  which  he  etJarged  so  as  to 
include  all  the  relations  between  the 
physical  and  moral  nature  of  man. 

PHYSIOG'RAPHY,  a term  often  used 
as  equivalent  to  physical  geography; 
but  otherwise  used  to  embrace  the 
aggregate  of  information  necessary  to  be 
acquired  as  a preliminary  to  the 
thorough  study  of  physical  geography, 
or  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of 
nature  and  its  forces. 

PHYSIOL'OGY.inmedicaland  biologi- 
cal science  the  department  of  inquiry 
which  investigates  the  functions  of 
living  beings.  In  fts  wide  sense  the 
living  functions  of  both  animals  and 
plants  fall  to  be  investigated  by  physiol- 
ogy, this  division  of  the  subject  being 
comprehended  under  the  terms  com- 
parative physiology  and  animal  and 
vegetable  physiology.  When  more 
specially  applied  to  the  investigation  of 
the  functions  in  man  the  appellation 
human  p^hysiology  is  applied  to  the 
science.  The  importance  of  physiological 
inquiry  in  connection  with  the  observa- 
tion of  diseased  conditions  cannot  be 


overrated.  The  knowledge  of  healthy 
functions  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the 
perfect  understanding  of  diseased  con- 
ditions; and  the  science  of  pathology, 
dealing  with  the  causes  and  progress  of 
diseases,  may  in  this  way  be  said  to 
arise  from,  and  to  depend  upon,  phys- 
iological inquiry.  Physiology  in  itself 
thus  forms  a link  connecting  together 
the  various  branches  of  natural  history 
or  biology  and  those  sciences  which 
are  more  specially  included  within  a 
medical  curriculum.  The  history  of 
scientific  physiology  may  be  said  to 
begin  with  Aristotle  (384-322  b.c.),  who 
attained  no  mean  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  Alexandrian  school,  flourish- 
ing about  280  b.c.  under  the  Ptolemies, 
and  represented  by  Erasistratus,  Hero- 
philus,  and  others,  obtained  greater 
opportunities  for  the  acquirement  of 
physiological  knowledge,  through  the 
investigation  of  the  bodies  of  criminals 
who  had  been  executed.  Erasistratus 
thus  threw  much  light  on  the  nervous 
system  and  its  physiology;  while  Hero- 
philus  made  important  observations  on 
the  pulse,  and  in  addition  discovered 
the  lacteal  or  absorbent  vessels.  After 
this  there  was  a period  of  decline,  but 
Galen, -living  in  the  2d  century  after 
Christ,  again  raised  the  science  to  a re- 
spectable position,  and  effected  a vast 
advance  and  improvement  in  physio- 
logical knowledge.  The  systems  which 
succeeded  Galen  and  his  times  consisted, 
until  about  1543,  of  absurd  speculations 
and  theories,  conducive  in  no  respect  to 
the  advance  of  true  knowledge.  In  1543 
Vesalius  paved  the  way  toward  the 
more  scientific  epochs  of  modern  times 
by  his  investigations  into  the  anatomy 
and  structure  of  the  human  frame.  In 
1619  Harvey,  the  “father  of  modern 
physiology,”  discovered  the  circulation 
of  the  blood.  Since  this  time  the  history 
of  physiology  has  gone  hand  in  hand 
with  the  general  history  of  anatomy 
(which  see).  One  noteworthy  peculiarity 
of  modern  physiological  research  con- 
sists in  the  introduction  and  extensive 
use  of  the  experimental  mode  of  inves- 
tigation in  physiology;  and  of  elaborate 
and  delicate  instruments  and  apparatus, 
such  as  the  sphygmograph,  or  pulse- 
recorder ; the  ophthalmoscope ; the  laryn- 
goscope, and  the  microscope.  The  dif- 
ferent departments  of  physiology  may 
be  enumerated  as  comprehending  the 
investigation  of  the  three  great  functions 
which  every  living  being  performs, 
namely,  (1)  nutrition,  including  all  that 
pertains  to  digestion,  the  circulation, 
and  respiration;  (2)  innervation,  com- 
prising the  functions  performed  by  the 
nervous  system ; (3)  reproduction,  which 
ensures  the  continuation  of  the  species 
and  includes  also  the  phenomena  of 
development.  See  the  articles  Digestion, 
Respiration,  Skin,  Eye,  Ear,  Larynx, 
Tongue,  etc. 

PIACENZA  (pya-chen'tsa),  a town  of 
North  Italy,  capital  of  province  of  same 
name.  The  manufactures  consist  of 
cotton  goods,  woolens,  stockings,  hats, 
leather,  etc.,  and  there  are  also  several 
silk-spinning  and  paper-mills.  Pop. 
34,987.  The  province  belongs  to  tne 
basin  of  the  Po,  and  is  generally  fertile; 
area,  965 sq. miles; pop., 245,126. 

1 PIANO,  soft,  low;  used  in  music  in 


PIANOFORTE 


PIGEON 


contradistiflction  to  forte.  Pianissimo, 
the  superlative  of  piano. 

PIANOFORTE,  or  PIANO,  a musical 
stringed  instrument,  the  strings  of 
which  are  extendad  over  bridges  rising 
on  the  sounding-board,  and  are  made 
to  vibrate  by  means  of  small  felted 
hammers,  which  are  put  in  motion  by 
keys,  and  where  a continued  sound  is 
not  intended  to  be  produced  have  their 
sound  deadened  immediately  after  the 
touch  of  the  keys  by  means  of  leathern 
dampers.  Its  name  is  compounded  of 
two  Italian  words  signifying  soft  and 
strong,  and  it  was  so  called  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  harpsichord,  the  in- 
strument which  it  superseded,  and 
which  did  not  permit  of  the  strength  of 
the  notes  being  increased  and  dimin- 
ished at  will.  The  mechanism  by  which 
the  movement  of  the  keys  is  conveyed 
to  the  strings  is  called  the  action,  and 
there  is  no  part  of  the  pianoforte  in 
which  the  variations  are  more  numerous. 
There  are  usually  three  strings  in  the 
pianoforte  for  each  note  in  the  higher 
and  middle  octaves,  two  in  the  lower, 
and  one  in  the  lowest  notes.  The  strings 
are  of  steel  wire.  The  lowest  notes  have 
their  strings  wound  round  with  a double 
coil  of  brass  wire,  and  those  next  above 
with  a single  coil.  Pianofortes  are  either 
in  the  form  of  the  grand  piano,  in  which 
the  strings  lie  in  the  direction  of  the 
keys,  or  they  have  the  strings  stretched 
vertically  perpendicular  to  the  keys, 
which  is  now  the  most  common  form, 
and  constitutes  the  upright  piano. 
Recently  a variety  called  the  upright 
grand  has  also  been  introduced.  Grand 
pianos  are  used  as  concert  Intruments, 
and  have  the  greatest  compass  and 
strength.  The  common  compass  of  the 
piano  at  present  is  six  and  seven-eighths 
or  seven  octaves.  The  invention  of  the 
pianoforte  can  scarcely  be  ascribed  to 
any  one  man  in  particular.  The  first 
satisfactory  hammer-action  appears  to 
have  been  invented  by  an  Italian  of 
Padua,  named  Bartolommeo  Cristofali, 
about  1711.  The  instrument  was  not  in- 
troduced into  England  till  the  latter 
half  of  the  18th  century.  Among  the 
principal  improvers  of  the  pianoforte 
are  Sebastian  Erard,  the  founder  of  the 
celebrated  firm  still  in  existence ; Roller 
et  Blanchet,  the  French  firm  which  in- 
troduced the  upright  piano;  Broadwood, 
Collard,  Hopkinson,  Kirkman,  Bech- 
stein,  Steinway,  Weber,  besides  others. 

PIAS'SABA,  or  PIAS'SAVA,  a strong 
vegetable  fibre  imported  from  Brazil, 
and  largely  used  for  making  brooms.  It 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  palms.  The 
fibre  proceeds  from  the  decaying  leaves, 
the  petioles  of  which  separate  at  the 
base  into  long,  coarse,  pendulous  fringes. 

PIASTRE  (pi-as'tr),  a name  first  ap- 
plied to  a Spanish  coin,  which,  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,  obtained 
almost  universal  currency.  The  Spanish 
piastre  had  latterly  the  value  of  about 
$1.00. 

PIAZ'ZA,  in  architecture,  is  a square 
or  other  open  space  surrounded  by 
buildings.  The  term  is  frequently,  but 
improperly,  used  to  signify  an  arcaded 
or  colonnaded  walk. 

PICA,  a size  of  type.  See  Printing. 

PICA, the  generic  name  of  the  magpies. 

. PIC'ARDY,  formerly  a province  of 

P. 


France,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  king- 
dom, lying  between  the  British  Channel, 
Normandy,  and  Artois,  now  divided 
among  the  departments  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  Somme,  Aisne,  Oise,  and  Nord. 
The  capital  was  Amiens. 

PIC'COLO,  a small  flute  having  the 
same  compass  as  the  ordinary  flute,  but 
pitched  an  octave  higher. 

piqp;'EREL,  the  young  of  the  fish 
known  as  the  pike.  In  America  the  name 
is  given  to  some  of  the  smaller  kinds  of 
pike. 

PICKET,  a military  term  having 
several  meanings.  Specifically  it  is  used 
as  describing  a small  body  of  men  posted 
at  some  point  beyond  the  general  line  of 
sentries  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
the  motions  of  an  enemy,  or  giving 
timely  notice  in  case  of  impending 
attack.  In  camp,  horses  are  said  to  be 
picketed  when  secured  to  a picketing 
rope.  Pegs  of  wood  or  iron  used  to  secure 
tent  ropes  are  also  called  pickets.  In  all 
English  garrisons  and  camps  a small 
body  of  men  under  a corporal  or  ser- 
geant, and  known  as  the  garrison  picket, 
patrols  the  lines  or  city  as  a disciplinary 
check  on  the  troops,  and  a support  to 
the  military  police. 

PICKETT,  George  Edward,  soldier, 
born  in  Richmond,  Va.,  January  25, 
1825;  died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  July  30, 
1875.  At  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war 
he  resigned  from  the  United  States  army, 
and  was  commissioned  colonel  in  the 
army  of  the  Confederacy.  At  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  Pickett  led  the  famous 
final  assault  on  the  Union  lines,  but,  left 
without  adequate  support,  his  com- 
mand was  hurled  back  and  almost  anni- 
hilated. In  May,  1864,  General  Pickett 
attacked  Gen.  Benjamin  F.  Butler’s  army 
between  Richmond  and  Petersburg,  and 
captured  his  works.  At  Five  Forks  on 
April  1,  1865,  General  Pickett’s  forces 
were  surrounded  and  overwhelmed. 
After  the  war  he  returned  to  Rich- 
mond. 

PICKLES,  vegetables  and  certain 
fruits  first  steeped  in  strong  brine,  and 
then  preserved  in  close  vessels.  Wood 
vinegar  is  often  used,  but  malt  or  wine 
vinegar  produces  the  best  pickles. 
Owing  to  the  corroding  effects  of  brine 
and  vinegar  the  use  of  metallic  vessels 
should  be  avoided  in  making  pickles. 
To  give  a green  color  to  pickles  verdigris 
or  other  poisonous  compounds  of  copper 
is  sometimes  employed  by  manufac- 
turers. 

PIEDMONT,  a department  or  terri- 
torial division  of  Italy,  between  Switzer- 
land, Lombardy,  Liguria,  and  France; 
area,  11,198  sq.  miles;  pop.  3,233,431. 

PIER,  in  architecture,  is  the  name 
applied  to  a mass  of  masonry  between 
openings  in  a wall,  such  as  doors,  win- 
dows, etc.  The  solid  support  from  which 
an  arch  springs  or  which  sustains  a 
tower  is  also  called  a pier.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  a mole  or  jetty  carried 
out  into  the  sea,  intended  to  serve  as  an 
embankment  to  protect  vessels  from 
the  open  sea,  and  to  form  a harbor. 

PIERCE,  Franklin,  fourteenth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  descended 
from  an  old  yeoman  family  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  was  born  at  Hillsboro,  N.  H., 
November  23,  1804.  In  1829  he  was 
elected  to  the  state  legislature,  of  which 


he  was  speaker  in  1832-33.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  chosen  a member  of  congress 
and  in  1837  he  was  elected  to  the  senate 
of  the  United  States.  In  1842  he  re- 
signed his  seat  in  the  senate,  and  re- 
turned to  the  practice  of  the  law.  In 
1846  he  was  offered  the  position  of 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States, 
but  declined  it.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Mexican  war  he  joined  as  a volunteer 
one  of  the  companies  raised  in  Concord. 
He  was  soon  after  appointed  colonel 
of  the  ninth  regiment,  and  in  March,  1847, 
brigadier-general.  In  1852,  as  candidate 
of  the  democratic  party,  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  United  States  by  254 
electoral  votes  against  42  given  to  Gen. 
Winfield  Scott.  The  special  feature  of 


Franklin  Pierce. 


his  inaugural  address  was  the  support  of 
slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
announcement  of  his  determination 
that  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act  should  be 
strictly  enforced.  This  was  the  keynote 
of  his  administration,  and  pregnant  with 
vital  consequences  to  the  country. 
President  Pierce,  surrounded  by  an  able 
cabinet,  among  them  Jefferson  Davis  as 
secretary  of  war,  firmly  adhered  through- 
out his  administration  to  the  pro-slavery 
party.  He  failed,  notwithstanding,  to 
obtain  renomination,  but  was  suc- 
ceeded by  James  Buchanan,  March  4, 
1857,  and  retired  to  his  home  in  Con- 
cord, N.  H.,  after  spending  some  years  in 
Europe.  During  the  war  of  1861-65  his 
sympathies  were  wholly  with  the  south, 
but,  with  the  exception  of  delivering  a 
stong  speech  at  Concord  in  1863,  he  took 
no  very  active  part  in  politics.  He  died 
October  8,  1869. 

PIERRE,  Bernardin  de  Saint.  See 
Saint-Pierre. 

PIG.  See  Hog. 

PIGEON,  the  common  name  of  a 
group  of  birds.  The  pigeons  or  doves  as 
a group  have  the  upper  mandible  arched 
toward  its  apex,  and  of  horny  con- 
sistence ; a second  curve  exists  at  its  base 
where  there  is  a cartilaginous  plate  or 
piece  through  which  the  nostrils  pass. 
The  crop  is  of  large  size..  The  pigeons 
are  generally  strong  on  the  wing.  They 
are  mostly  arboreal  in  habits,  perching 
upon  trees,  and  building  their  nests  in 
elevated  situations.  Both  sexes  incu- 
bate; and  these  birds  generally  pair  for 
life;  the  loss  or  death  of  a mate  being  in 
many  cases  apparently  mourned  and 
grieved  over,  and  t he  survivor  frequent  ly 
refusing  to  be  consoled  by  another  mate. 


PIGEON  ENGLISH 


PILGRIMAGES 


The  song  consists  of  the  well-known 
plaintive  cooing.  The  pigeons  are  dis- 
tributed in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 


Passenger-pigeon. 


but  attain  the  greatest  luxuriance  of 
plumage  in  warm  and  tropical  regions 
The  house-pigeons,  tumblers,  fan-tails, 
pouters,  carriers,  and  jacobins  are  the 
chief  varieties  of  the  rock-pigeon,  and 
have  been  employed  by  Darwin  (see  his 


Domestic  pigeon,  homing  variety. 


Origin  of  Species  and  his  Animals  under 
Domestication)  to  illustrate  many  of  the 
points  involved  in  his  theory  of  “descent 
by  natural  selection.”  See  also  Carrier 
Pigeon,  Passenger  Pigeon,  Turtle-dove, 

PIGEON  ENGLISH,  conjectured  to  be 
a form  of  “business  English;”  a con- 
glomeration of  English  and  Portuguese 
words  wrapped  in  a Chinese  idiom,  used 
by  English  and  American  residents  in 
China  in  their  intercourse  with  the 
native  traders. 

PIG-IRON.  See  Iron. 

PIGMENT-CELL,  in  physiology,  a 
small  cell  containing  coloring  matter,  as 
in  the, choroid  coat  of  the  eye. 

PIGMENTS,  materials  used  for  im- 
parting color,  especially  in  painting,  but 
also  in  dyeing  or  otherwise.  The  coloring 
substances  used  as  paints  are  partly 
artificial  and  partly  natural  productions. 
They  are  derived  principally  from  the 
mineral  kingdom  ; and  even  when  animal 
or  vegetable  substances  are  used  for 
coloring  they  are  nearly  always  united 
with  a mineral  substance  (an  earth  or 
an  oxide).  In  painting  the  colors  are 
ground,  and  applied  by  means  of  some 
liquid,  which  dries  up  without  changing 
them.  The  difference  of  the  vehicle  used 
with  the  method  of  employing  it  has 
given  rise  to  the  modes  of  painting  in 
water-colors,  oil-colors,  in  fresco,  in  dis- ' 


temper,  etc.  For  oil-painting  mineral 
substances  are  more  suitable  than  lakes 
prepared  with  minerals,  because  the 
latter  become  darker  by  being  mixed 
with  oil.  The  lake  colors  have  tin  or 
alum  for  their  basis,  and  owe  their  tint  to 
animal  or  vegetable  coloring  substances. 
Indigo  is  a purely  vegetable  color,  as  is 
also  blue-black,  which  is  obtained  from 
burned  vine-twigs.  Ivory  black  is  a 
purely  animal  color,  being  nothing  else 
than  burned  ivory.  In  staining  porcelain 
and  glass  the  metallic  colors  which  are 
not  driven  off  by  heat  and  are  not  easily 
changeable  are  used. 

PIGMY.  See  Pygmy. 

PIG-NUT.  See  Earth-nut. 

PIKA,  the  calling-hare,  an  animal 
nearly  allied  to  the  hares.  It  is  found  in 
Russia,  Siberia,  and  North  America,  and 
is  remarkable  for  the  manner  in  which 
it  stores  up  its  winter  provision,  and  also 
for  its  voice,  the  tone  of  which  so  much 
resembles  that  of  a quail  as  to  be  often 
mistaken  for  it. 

PIKE,  a genus  of  fishes.  The  pikes 
form  the  types  of  the  family  Esocidae, 
in  which  group  the  body  is  lengthened, 
flattened  on  the  back,  and  tapering 
abruptly  toward  the  tail.  One  dorsal 
fin  exists,  this  structure  being  placed  far 
back  on  the  body,  and  opposite  the  anal 
fin.  The  lower  jaw  projects.  Teeth  are 
present  in  plentiful  array,  and  are  borne 
by  almost  every  bone  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  mouth.  The  com- 
mon pike  occurs  in  the  rivers  of  Europe 
and  North  America.  It  is  fished  chiefly 
for  the  sake  of  its  flesh,  which  is  ac- 
counted exceedingly  wholesome.  The 
pikes  are  very  long-lived,  and  form  the 
tyrants  of  their  sphere,  being  the  most 
voracious  of  fresh-water  fishes.  When 
fully  grown  the  pike  may  attain  a length 
of  5 or  6 feet,  and  there  are  numerous 
instances  on  record  in  which  these  fishes 
have  greatly  exceeded  that  length.  The 
sea  pikes  also  known  as  gar-pikes,  are 
also  included  in  the  family  Esocidae. 
The  saury  pike  resembles  the  gar-pike 
in  general  conformation,  but  possesses 
the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  in  the  shape  of  a 
number  of  divided  “finlets.”  The  bony 
pike  of  North  American  lakes  and  rivers 
belongs  to  an  entirely  different  order  of 
fishes — that  of  the  Ganoidei.  See  Bony 
Pike. 

PIKE,  a sort  of  lance,  a weapon  much 
used  in  the  middle  ages  as  an  arm  for 
infantry.  It  was  from  16  to  18  feet  long, 
and  consisted  of  a pole  with  an  iron 
point.  For  some  time  every  company 
in  the  armies  of  Europe  consisted  of  at 
least  two-thirds  pike-men  and  one-third 
harquebusiers.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
omitted  the  pike-men  in  some  regiments 
entirely.  The  invention  of  the  bayonet 
drove  the  pike  out  of  use. 

PIKE,  Zebulon  Montgomery,  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  explorer,  was  born  at 
Lamberton,  N.  J.,  in  1779,  and  educated 
at  Easton,  Penn.  In  1805  he  engaged  on 
an  expedition  to  ascertain  the  source  of 
the  Mississippi  river.  The  two  following 
years  were  passed  by  him  in  exploring 
the  territory  of  Louisiana,  discovering, 
while  thus  occupied,  what  has  since  been 
known  as  “Pike’s  Peak,”  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Pike  published  the  results 
of  his  expedition  in  An  Account  of  an 
Expedition  to  the  Sources  of  the  Missis- 


sippi, and  Through  the  Western  Parts 
of  Louisiana,  . . . and  a Tour  Through 
the  Interior  Parts  of  New  Spain.  He 
died  in  1813. 

PIKE-PERCH,  a genus  of  fishes  close- 
ly allied  to  the  perch,  but  showing  a re- 
semblance to  the  pike  in  its  elongated 
body  and  head.  Like  the  pike,  it  is  a 
dangerous  enemy  to  other  fresh-water 
fishes,  but  the  flavor  of  its  flesh  is  ex- 
cellent. In  Europe  it  occurs  in  two 
species.  It  also  occurs  in  the  fresh 
waters  of  North  America,  such  as  the 
great  lakes,  the  upper  Mississippi,  and 
the  Ohio. 

PIKE’S  PEAK,  one  of  the  highest 
summits  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
(14,134  feet),  in  the  center  of  the  state  of 
Colorado.  It  was  discovered  by  General 
Pike  in  1806.  It  abounds  in  rich  gold- 
bearing  quartz,  and  has  a meteorological 
observatory.  A rack-rail  line  of  rail- 
way, 9 miles  long,  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain  has  recently  been  constructed. 

PILASTER,  a square  pillar  projecting 
from  a pier  or  a wall  to  the  extent  of 
from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  its 
breadth.  Pilasters  originated  in  Grecian 


Pilaster— Corinthian. 

architecture.  In  Roman  they  were 
sometimes  tapered  like  columns  and 
finished  with  capitals  modeled  after  the 
order  with  which  they  were  used. 

PILATE,  Pontius,  the  sixth  Roman 
procurator  of  Judaea.  He  succeeded 
Valerius  Gratus  in  a.d.  26.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  early  history.  He  was  a 
narrow-minded  and  impolitic  governor, 
and  at  the  very  beginning  of  his  term  of 
office  led  to  commotions  among  the 
Jews  at  Jerusalem.  When  Christ  had 
been  condemned  to  death  by  the  Jewish 
priests,  who  had  no  power  of  inflicting 
capital  punishments,  he  was  carried  by 
them  to  Pilate  to  be  executed.  Yielding 
to  the  clamors  of  the  Jews  the  Roman 
governor  ordered  Jesus  to  be  executed, 
but  permitted  Joseph  of  Arimathea  to 
take  his  body  and  bury  it.  Pilate  was 
afterward  removed  from  his  office  by 
Vitellius,  prefect  of  Syria  (a.d.  36),  and, 
according  to  tradition,  was  banished  by 
Caligula  to  Vienna  (Vienne),  in  Gaul, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  died  or  com- 
mitted suicide  some  years  after. 

PILES.  See  Hemorrhoids. 

PILGRIMAGES,  the  practice  of  mak- 
ing pilgrimages  to  places  of  peculiar 
sanctity  is  as  ancient  as  it  is  wide-spread. 


PILGRIM  FATHERS 


PINE 


The  ancient  Egyptians  and  Syrians  had 
privileged  temples,  to  which  worship- 
pers came  from  distant  parts.  The  chief 
temples  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor 
swarmed  with  strangers.  But  it  is  in 
Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  that 
the  practice  has  attained  its  greatest 
development.  The  first  Christian  pil- 
grimages were  made  to  the  graves  of  the 
martyrs.  By  the  end  of  the  4th  and 
beginning  of  the  5th  century  the  custom 
had  become  so  general  as  to  lead  to 
abuses.  Throughout  the  middle  ages, 
and  especially  about  the  year  1000,  the 
religious  fervor  of  the  people  manifested 
itself  in  numerous  pilgrimages,  especially 
to  Jerusalem.  The  outrages  inflicted  on 
the  Christian  pilgrims  by  the  Saracens 
led  to  the  Crusades,  which  were  them- 
selves nothing  else  than  gigantic  armed 
pilgrimages.  The  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of 
Loretto,  near  Rome,  that  of  St.  James 
of  Compostella  in  Spain,  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours  in  France,  were  all  sacred  spots 
to  which,  from  the  10th  to  the  13th 
century,  and  even  much  later,  pilgrims 
resorted  in  innumerable  crowds;  and 
from  the  end  of  the  12th  century  the 
shrine  of  St.  Thomas  Becket  at  Canter- 
bury had  the  same  honor  in  England. 
After  the  reformation  the  practice  of 
making  pilgrimages  fell  more  and  more 
into  abeyance,  and  the  spirit  which  led 
to  it  seems  almost  to  have  become  ex- 
tinct among  Christians,  although  there 
are  still  occasional  outbursts  of  it  among 
the  Roman  Catholics,  as  in  the  modern 
pilgrimages  to  Paray-le-Monial,  Lour- 
des, Iona,  and  Holy  Island.  In  the 
Greek  church  Mount  Athos  is  the  chief 
shrine  of  pilgrimage.  For  Mohammedans 
the  great  place  of  pilgrimage  is  Mecca, 
which  was  the  resort  of  Arabian  pil- 
grims long  before  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed. Among  the  Hindus  and  the 
Buddhists  also  the  practice  of  perform- 
ing pilgrimages  largely  prevails. 

PILGRIM  FATHERS,  the  name  given 
to  the  English,  Scotch,  and  Dutch  non- 
conformists who,  sailing  from  South- 
ampton in  the  Mayflower,  landed  at 
what  is  now  Plymouth  in  Massachusetts, 
December,  1620,  and  colonized  New 
England. 

PILLAR.  See  Column. 

PIL'LORY,  a frame  of  wood  erected 


Pillory. 

on  posts,  with  movable  boards,  and 
holes  through  which  were  put  the  head 


and  hands  of  a criminal  for  punishment. 
In  this  manner  persons  were  formerly 
exposed  to  public  view,  and  generally  to 
public  insult. 

PILLS,  medicines  made  up  in  globules 
of  a convenient  size  for  swallowing 
whole,  the  medicine  being  usually 
mixed  up  with  some  neutral  substance 
such  as^  bread-crumbs,  hard  soap,  ex- 
tract of  liquorice,  mucilage,  syrup, 
treacle,  and  conserve  of  roses.  The 
coverings  are  liquorice  powder,  wheat 
flour,  fine  sugar,  and  lycopodium.  In 
many  cases  pills  are  now  enamelled  or 
silvered,  which  deprives  them  of  most  of 
their  unpleasantness.  Pills  are  a highly 
suitable  form  for  administering  medi- 
cines which  operate  in  small  doses,  or 
which  are  intended  to  act  slowly  or  not 
to  act  at  all  until  they  reach  the  lower 
intestines,  and  in  some  other  cases. 

PILOT,  a person  duly  licensed  by  any 
piloting-. authority  to  conduct  ships  to 
which  he  does  not  belong  as  one  of  the 
crew.  Pilots  are  in  fact  taken  on  board 
to  superintend  the  steering  of  the  vessel, 
where  the  navigation  is  difficult  and 
dangerous,  in  consequence  of  their  spe- 
cial knowledge  of  particular  waters; 
and  it  is  to  this  class  alone  that  the  term 
now  applies,  whereas  in  early  times  the 
pilot  was  the  steersman,  or  the  individ- 
ual who  conducted  the  navigation  of 
a ship  across  the  ocean  and  out  of  sight 
of  land.  The  laws  of  pilotage  in  the 
United  States  are  regulated  by  the  in- 
dividual States  according  to  the  Acts  of 
congress. 

PILOT-FISH,  a genus  of  fishes  in- 
cluded in  the  mackerel  family.  The 
pilot-fish  was  formerly  supposed  to  act 
as  a pilot  to  the  mariner,  and  is  still 
supposed  to  act  as  such  to  sharks.  It 


The  pilot-fish. 


often  follows  in  the  wake  of  ships  for 
long  distances,  associating  with  sharks 
and  devouring  the  refuse  thrown  over- 
board. The  average  length  is  about  12 
inches.  In  general  form  it  resembles 
the  mackerel. 

PILSEN,  a town  in  Western  Bohemia, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Mies  and  Rad- 
busa,  53  miles  southwest  of  Prague.  The 
chief  article  of  manufacture  and  com- 
merce is  beer.  Coal,  iron,  alum,  etc., 
are  worked  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop. 
68,292. 

PIN,  a piece  of  wire,  generally  brass, 
sharp  at  one  end  and  with  a head  at  the 
other,  chiefly  used  by  women  in  adjust- 
ing their  dress.  By  the  old  methods  of 
manufacture  by  hand,  the  distinct  pro- 
cesses, from  the  straightening  of  the 
wire  to  the  spinning  and  hammering  of 
the  head,  were  usually  said  to  be  four- 
teen. At  present  all  those  processes, 
from  the  cutting  of  the  wire  to  the  stick- 
ing of  the  pins  into  papers,  are  performed 
by  machinery.  Pins  came  into  common 
use  in  England  in  the  15th  century.  In 
the  17th  century  Birmingham  became 
the  seat  of  the  pin-manufacture,  and 
has  continued  to  be  so  ever  since.  Solid- 


headed pins,  which  are  those  now  gen- 
erally in  use,  were  first  made  in  1824. 

PINAR'  DEL  RIO,  a town  of  Cuba,  90 
miles  southwest  of  Havana,  in  the 
famous  Vuelta  de  Abajo,  where  the  best 
tobacco  grows.  Pop.  10,180. 

PINDAR,  the  greatest  of  the  lyric 
poets  of  Greece,  born  in  Bceotia,  in  or 
near  Thebes,  of  a noble  family,  about 
522  B.c.  Little  is  known  with  certainty 
of  his  life;  even  the  date  of  his  death  is 
doubtful.  The  most  probable  account 
appears  to  be  that  he  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  in  which  case  his  death  would 
fall  about  442  b.c.  He  practiced  all 
kinds  of  lyric  poetry,  and  excelled 
equally  in  all.  His  works  embraced 
hymns  to  the  gods,  paeans,  dithyrambs, 
dancing  and  drinking  songs,  dirges, 
panegyrics  on  princes,  and  odes  in  honor 
of  the  victors  in  the  great  Grecian  games, 
but  the  only  poems  of  his  which  have 
come  down  to  us  entire  belong  to  the 
last  class,  the  Epinicia.  Forty-five  of 
the  epinician  odes  of  Pindar  are  still 
extant.  Fourteen  of  these  are  in  cele- 
bration of  Olympic  victors,  twelve  of 
Pythian,  eleven  of  Nemean,  and  eight 
of  Isthmian. 

PINE,  the  popular  name  of  trees  of 
the  genus,  Pinus,  natural  order  Coni- 
ferae,  which  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
orders, namely,  1.  the  fir  tribe;  and  2. 
the  cypress  tribe.  The  pines  belong  to 
the  former  section,  and  are  distinguished 
from  the  spruce,  larch,  fir,  cedar,  etc., 
chiefly  by  having  persistent  leaves  in 
clusters  of  two  to  five  in  the  axils  of 
membranous  scales.  All  the  European 
species,  except  one  have  only  two  leaves 
in  a sheath;  most  of  the  Asiatic,  Mexi- 
can, and  Californian  kinds  have  three, 
four,  or  five  leaves,  and  those  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  have  generally 
three.  There  are  extensive  forests  of  it 
in  Russia,  Poland,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Germany,  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and 
the  Vosges.  The  Corsican  pine  grows 
to  a height  of  from  80  to  100  feet,  and 
in  the  island  of  Corsica  it  is  said  to  reach 
an  altitude  of  140  to  150  feet.  Sabine’s 
pine  was  discovered  in  California  in 
1826.  The  leaves  are  in  threes,  rarely  in 
fours,  from  11  to  14  inches  long;  the 
trees  are  of  a tapering  form,  straight, 
and  from  40  to  120  feet  high,  with 
trunks  from  3 to  12  feet  in  diameter. 
The  Cembran  pine  is  a native  of  Switzer- 
land and  Siberia.  The  red  Canadian 
pine,  or  yellow  pine,  inhabits  the  whole 
of  Canada  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  is  also  found  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States. 
The  trunk  rises  to  the  height  of  70  or  80 
feet  by  about  2 in  diameter  at  the  base, 
and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  uniform 
size  for  two-thirds  of  its  length.  The 
wood  is  yellowish,  compact,  fine-grained, 
resinous,  and  durable.  The  true  yellow 
pine  rises  to  the  height  of  50  or  60  feet, 
by  15  or  18  inches  in  diameter  at  base. 
The  cones  are  small,  oval,  and  armed 
with  fine  spines.  The  timber  is  largely 
used  in  shipbuilding  and  for  house 
timber.  The  other  American  pines  are 
the  Jersey  pine,  the  trunk  of  which  is  too 
small  to  be  of  any  utility  in  the  arts;  the 
pitch  pine,  which  is  most  abundant 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  wood 
of  which,  when  the  tree  grows  in  a dry, 
gravelly  soil,  is  compact,  heavy,  and 


PINEAL  GLANDj 


PIPE 


contains  a large  proportion  of  resin; 
the  loblolly  pine,  the  timber  of  which 
decays  speedily  on  being  exposed  to  the 
air;  the  long-leaved  pine,  which  abounds 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  Carolinas,  Geor- 
gia, and  Florida,  furnishing  resin,  tar, 
pitch,  and  turpentine,  and  timber  which 
is  hardly  inferior  to  the  white  oak  in 
naval  architecture  • the  Weymouth  pine, 
the  timber  of  whicn,  though  not  without 
essential  defects,  is  consumed  in  much 
greater  quantities,  and  for  a far  greater 
variety  of  purposes,  than  almost  any 
other;  and  Lambert’s  pine,  which  grows 
between  the  fortieth  and  forty-third 
parallels  of  latitude,  and  about  100 
miles  from  the  Pacific.  It  is  of  gigantic 
size,  the  trunk  rising  from  150  to  upward 
of  200  feet,  and  being  from  7 to  nearly 
20  feet  in  diameter. 

PINE'AL  GLAND  ,in  anatom y,is  a body 
(not  properly  a gland)  forming  part  of 
the  brain.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a pea, 
and  is  connected  with  the  cerebrum  at 
its  base  by  four  peduncles  or  stalks  and 
by  some  few  cross  fibers.  Its  use  is  not 
known.  It  was  considered  by  the  an- 
cients to  be  the  seat  of  the  soul. 

PINE-APPLE,  a plant  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Bromeliacese,  much 
esteemed  for  its  richly-flavored  fruit, 
which  somewhat  resembles  a pine-cone. 
A native  of  tropical  America,  it  is  now 
naturalized  in  many  hot  countries,  and 
is  also  cultivated  in  hothouses.  The 
common  pine-apple  plant  yields  the 
fiber  of  which,  in  Manila,  the  beautiful 
pina  cloth  is  made.  The  fiber  is  also  used 
for  textile  purposes  in  China,  and  to 
some  extent  in  India,  and  it  is  believed 
that  in  the  latter  country  the  fiber 
might  soon  come  to  be  an  article  of  com- 
mercial importance. 

PINE  BLUFF,  the  capital  of  Jefferson 
CO.,  Ark.,  on  the  Arkansas  river  at  the 
head  of  low-water  navigation,  and  on  the 
St.  L.,  Iron  Mount,  and  South.,  and  the 
St.  L.  S.  West,  railways;  42  miles  s.s.e. 
of  Little  Rock.  It  is  built  on  a bluff  228 
feet  above  sea-level  in  the  cotton-pro- 
ducing region  of  the  state.  Pop.  13,740. 

PINES,  ISLE  OF,  an  island  of  the 
West  Indies;  35  miles  s.  of  the  western 
end  of  Cuba.  The  island  is  a dependency 
of  Cuba,  contains  1214  sq.  miles  of 
undulating  or  flat  and  marshy  land, 
and  has  about  5000  inhabitants.  Capital 
and  principal  village,  Nueva-Gerona. 
The  island  contains  marble  quarries, 
and  is  a favorite  health  resort  for  suf- 
ferers from  lung  diseases. 

PIN'ERO,  Arthur  Wing,  English 
dramatist,  was  born  in  London  in  1855. 
He  made  his  appearance  as  an  actor  at 
Edinburgh  in  1874.  He  obtained  under 
Henry  Irving  a practical  experience  in 
stagecraft  which  was  of  great  value  to 
him.  In  1876  he  made,  with  Two  Can 
Play  at  That  Game,  his  first  attempt  at 
play-writing,  to  which  after  1881  he  de- 
voted himself.  In  the  long  list  of  his 
plays  are : The  Money  Spinner,  the 
Schoolmistress,  the  Hobby  Horse,  Sweet 
Lavender,  The  Weaker  Sex,  The  Profli- 
gate, Lady  Bountiful,  The  Second  Mrs. 
Tanqueray,  The  Notorious  Mrs.  Ebb- 
smith,  Trelawney  of  the  “Wells”,  The 
Gay  Lord  Quex,  Iris.  Of  his  earlier 
pieces  the  most  popular  was  the  do- 
mestic drama  called  Sweet  Lavender. 

PINION,  in  machinery,  a small  wheel 


which  plays  in  the  teeth  of  a larger  one, 
or  sometimes  only  an  arbor  or  spindle 
in  the  body  of  which  are  several  notches 
forming  teeth  or  leaves,  which  catch  the 
teeth  of  a wheel  that  serves  to  turn  it 
round. 

PINK,  a genus  of  plants.  More  than 
100  species  are  known.  Their  roots  are 
annual  or  perennial;  the  stems  herba- 
ceous and  jointed;  the  leaves  opposite 
and  entire,  and  the  flowers  terminal, 
aggregate,  or  solitary,  and  always  beau- 
tiful. The  clove  pink  or  carnation,  and 
the  garden  pink,  of  which ' there  are 
many  varieties,  are  familiar  species. 

PINNACLE,  in  architecture,  any  lesser 
structure  that  rises  above  the  roof  of  a 
building,  or  that  caps  and  terminates 
the  higher  parts  of  angles  or  of  but- 
tresses. The  application  of  the  term  is 
now  generally  limited  to  an  ornamental 
pointed  mass  rising  from  angles,  but- 


Pinnacle,  Trinity  church,  Cambridge. 

tresses,  or  parapets,  and  usually  adorned 
with  rich  and  varied  devices.  They  are 
usually  square  in  plan,  but  are  some- 
times octagonal,  and  in  a few  instances 
hexagonal  and  pentagonal.  The  tops 
are  generally  crocheted,  and  have  Snails 
on  the  points. 

PINNATE,  in  botany,  formed  like  a 
feather.  A pinnate  leaf  is  a species  of 
compound  leaf  wherein  a single  petiole 
has  several  leaflets  or  pinnules  attached 
to  each  side  of  it. 

PINT,  a measure  of  capacity  used  for 
both  liquids  and  dry  goods;  it  is  the 
eighth  part  of  a gallon,  or  34.65925  cubic 
inches. 

PINZON',  a family  of  Spanish  navi- 
gators, natives  of  Palos,  who  were  asso- 
ciated with  Columbus  in  the  discovery 
of  America. — Martin  Alfonso,  the  eldest, 
was  of  great  assistance  to  Columbus  in 
fitting  out  his  fleet,  and  in  the  voyage 
commanded  the  Pinta. — Vicente  Yanez, 
his  brother,  commanded  the  Nina  in  the 
first  voyage  of  Columbus. — Francisco 
Martin,  the  third  brother,  was  pilot  of 
the  Pinta  in  the  first  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus. From  him  descended  the  nobel 
Spanish  family  of  Pinzon. 

PIOTRKOV,  a town  of  Russian  Poland 
in  the  government  of  same  name,  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  of  Poland.  It  was  at  one 
time  the  seat  of  the  Polish  diet,  and  the 
kings  were  elected  here.  Pop.  30,372. — 
The  government  has  an  area  of  4729 
sq.  miles.  It  is  moderately  fertile,  and 


has  considerable  manufactures  of  cottons 
and  woolens.  Pop.  1,409,044. 

PIPA,  a genus  of  toads,  of  which  the 
best  known  species  is  of  Surinam  and 
Brazil,  popularly  designated  the  Suri- 
nam toad.  The  tongue  and  teeth  are 
wanting  in  this  family.  The  pipa  is  one 
of  the  most  repulsive  looking  of  the 
toads,  and  is  noted  as  exemplifying,  in 
the  case  of  the  female  animals,  an 
anomalous  mode  of  developing  the  eggs 
and  young.  A number  of  pits  or  depres- 
sions termed  “dorsal  cells”  appear  to  be 


Surinam  toad. 


formed  on  the  back  of  the  female  pipas 
at  the  breeding  season.  In  each  cell  an 
egg  is  deposited,  the  eggs  being  first 
deposited  by  the  female  in  water  after 
the  usual  method,  and  being  impreg- 
nated by  the  male,  who  then  collects 
the  eggs  and  places  them  in  the  female’s 
back.  Each  cell  appears  to  be  closed  by 
a lid-like  fold,  and  within  the  cells  the 
eggs  are  hatched  and  the  young  pass 
their  tadpole  state. 

PIPE,  a tube  for  the  conveyance  of 
water,  steam,  gas,  or  other  fluid,  used 
for  a great  variety  of  purposes  in  the 
arts  and  in  domestic  economy.  The 
materials  of  which  pipes  are  made  are 
also  very  various,  wood,  stone,  earthen- 
ware, iron,  lead,  copper,  leather,  gutta- 
percha, etc.,  being  all  employed.  Drain- 
age and  sewerage  pipes  of  great  strength 
and  size  (measuring  from  1 to  2 up  to 
54  inches  in  diameter)  are  now  usually 
made  of  fire-clay,  glazed  on  their  outer 
and  inner  surfaces.  Large  iron  pipes  are 
usually  cast,  and  are  used  for  the  supply 
of  water  and  gas. 

PIPE,  tobacco,  a bowl  and  connecting 
tube,  made  of  baked  clay,  wood,  stone, 
or  other  material,  and  used  in  smoking 
tobacco.  The  cheap  pipes  in  common 
use  are  made  of  a fine-grain  white  plastic 
clay.  The  chief  processes  in  the  manu- 
facture of  clay  pipes  are  moulding  and 
baking.  Finer  and  more  expensive  pipes 
are  made  of  meerschaum,  a somewhat 
plastic  magnesian  stone  of  a soft  greasy 
feel.  Meerschaum  pipe  making  is  carried 
on  to  the  greatest  extent  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  Vienna  may  be  said  to  be  the 
center  of  the  manufacture.  Briar-root 
pipes,  with  the  bowl  and  stem  of  one 
piece  of  wood,  and  provided  with  amber, 
ivory,  or  bone  mouthpieces,  are  now 
very  common.  They  are  made  of  the 
roots  of  a large  variety  of  heath.  Many 
Germans  and  Dutchmen  prefer  pipes 
with  porcelain  bowls,  which  are  some- 
times beautifully  painted  in  the  style  of 
fine  chinaware  painting.  The  eastern 
hookah  is  a pipe  of  great  size,  the  bowl 
of  which  is  set  upon  an  air-(ight  vessel 
partially  filled  with  water,  and  has  a 


PIPE-CLAY 


PISTIL 


T*-- 

.V* 


small  tube  which  passes  down  into  the 
water;  the  long  flexible  smoking-tube  is 
inserted  in  the  side  of  the  vessel,  and  the 
smoke  is  made  to  pass  through  'the 
water,  being  thus  cooled  and  deprived 
of  some  noxious  properties.  Upon  the 
American  continent  pipes  have  been  in 
use  from  a very  remote  period.  Indian 
pipes,  with  elaborately-carved  soap- 
stone bowls  and  ornamented  wooden 
stems,  or  entirely  of  baked  clay,  have 
been  found  in  the  ancient  mounds  of  the 
west,  together  with  other  relics  of  an 
unknown  race.  See  Calumet. 

PIPE-CLAY,  a fine  white  clay  which 
is  used  for  making  tobacco  pipes  and 
articles  of  pottery,  also  for  cleaning 
soldiers’  belts,  etc. 

PIPE-FISHES,  a genus  of  fishes  near- 
ly allied  to  the  curious  little  fishes  popu- 
larly known  as  “sea-horses.”  They  are 
distinguished  by  a long  and  tapering 
body,  and  by  jaws  united  to  form  a tube 
or  pipe,  bearing  the  mouth  as  the  tip. 
It  averages  20  inches  in  length.  A very 


Great  pipe-fish. 


remarkable  circumstance  in  connection 
with  the  pipe-fishes  consists  in  the  males 
of  some  species  possessing  a pouch-like 
fold,  situated  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  in 
which  the  eggs  are  contained  after  being 
extruded  from  the  body  of  the  females, 
and  in  which  the  young,  after  hatching, 
continue  to  reside  for  a time. 

PIPPIN,  the  name  given  to  a certain 
class  of  apples,  probably  because  the 
trees  were  raised  from  the  pips  or  seeds, 
and  bore  the  apples  which  gave  them 
celebrity  without  grafting.  The  Ribston, 
Golden,  and  Newton  Pippin  are  favorite 
varieties. 

PIQUA,  town  in  Miami  co.,  Ohio,  on 
Miami  river,  and  Miami  and  Erie  canal, 
90  miles  northeast  of  Cincinnati.  Pop. 
14,280. 

PIQUET',  a;  game  at  cards  played  be- 
tween two  persons  with  thirty-two 
cards,  all  the  plain  cards  below  seven 
being  thrown  aside.  In  playing,  the 
cards  rank  in  order  as  follows:  the  ace 
(which  counts  eleven),  the  king,  queen, 
and  knave  (each  of  which  counts  ten), 
and  the  plain  cards,  each  of  which  counts 
according  to  the  number  of  its  pips.  The 
player  who  first  reaches  100  has  the 
game.  The  score  is  made  up  by  reckon- 
ing in  the  following  manner; — Carte 
blanche,  the  point,  the  sequence,  the. 
quatorze,  the  cards,  and  the  capot. 

PIQUE-WORK,  a fine  kind  of  inlaid 
work,  resembling  Buhl-work,  but  much 
more  expensive  and  elaborate,  the  inlay 
being  minute  pieces  of  gold,  silver,  and 
other  costly  materials. 

PI'RACY  is  the  crime  of  robbery  and 
depredation  committed  upon  the  high 
seas.  It  is  an  offense  against  the  uni- 
versal law  of  society.  In  England  the 
offense  was  formerly  cognizable  only  by 
the  admiralty  courts,  which  proceeded 
without  a jury,  in  a method  founded 
upon  the  civil  law;  but  now  any  justices 
of  assize,  or  oyer  and  terminer,  or  jail 


delivery,  may  try  persons  accused  of 
piracy.  Piracy,  in  the  common  sense  of 
the  word,  is  distinguished  from  priva- 
teering by  the  circumstance  that  the 
pirate  sails  without  any  commission,  and 
under  no  national  flag,  and  attacks  the 
subjects  of  all  nations  alike;  the  pri- 
vateer acts  under  a commission  from  a 
belligerent  power,  which  authorizes  him 
to  attack,  plunder,  and  destroy  the 
vessels  which  he  may  encounter  belong- 
ing to  the  hostile  state. 

PISA,  a town  of  Northern  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name.  In  the  northwest  part  of  the  city 
is  a remarkable  group  of  buildings  con- 
sisting of  the  Duomo  or  Cathedral,  the 
Baptistery,  the  famous  “Leaning 
Tower,”  and  the  Campo  Santo.  The  man- 
ufactures consist  chiefly  of  silk,  woolen, 
and  cotton  goods.  The  population, 
which  reached  150,000  when  the  city 
was  in  its  zenith,  is  how  61,279.  The 
province  of  Pisa  has  an  area  of  1180  sq. 
miles,  and  a population  of  320,829.  See 
Leaning  Tower. 

PISCES,  or  FISHES,  See  Ichthyol- 
ogy. 

PISCES  (the  Fishes),  a sign  of  the 
zodiac,  which  is  entered  by  the  sun 
about  the  19th  of  February.  The  con- 
stellation which  occupies  the  zodiacal 
region  corresponding  to  the  sign  has  the 
same  name;  it  contains  some  interesting 

rlr»nnl<i  cfnT*a 

PISCICULTURE,  the  breeding,  rear- 
ing, preservation,  feeding,  and  fattening 
of  fish  by  artificial  means.  Pisciculture 
has  been  practiced  from  very  remote  ages, 
having  been  in  use  in  ancient  Egypt,  and 
followed  in  China  in  early  times  on  a very 
large  scale.  The  art,  so  far  as  the  per- 
fecting of  natural  conditions  under 
which  fish  live  and  thrive,  without  in- 
terfering directly  with  the  ordinary 
processes  of  nature,  has  thus  always 
been  more  or  less  practiced.  But  the 
discovery  that  the  ova  of  fish  can  be 
taken  from  the  body  of  the  female 
parent,  impregnated  with  the  male  milt 
and  hatched  in  tanks,  has  led  to  a great 
extension  of  the  art.  One  great  point 
in  modern  pisciculture  is  the  propaga- 
tion and  rearing  of  young  fish  in  artifi- 
cial ponds  with  the  view  of  introducing 
fish  into  some  locality  where  they  were 
not  previously  found.  Salmon  and 
trout  ova  have  been  sent  from  Britain, 
and  successfully  propagated  in  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  The  art  has 
now  come  into  general  favor  and  is  wide- 
ly followed,  very  many  rivers  having  on 
their  banks  breeding  and  rearing  estab- 
lishments for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
the  stock  of  fish  in  the  streams.  In 
Scotland  a very  successful  effort  has 
been  carried  out  at  Stormontfield,  near 
Perth,  on  the  Tay,  and  there  is  a still 
more  famous  piscicultural  establishment 
belonging  to  Sir  James  Gibson  Maitland 
at  Howietoun,  near  Stirling.  The  Mid- 
lands Counties’  Fish  Culture  Establish- 
ment at  Malvern  Wells  is  the  largest  in 
England.  From  Huningue,  near  Basel, 
on  the  Rhine,  millions  of  ova  are  annual- 
ly despatched  to  England,  Germany, 
Spain,  and  other  countries.  The  Ameri- 
can Fish  and  Fisheries  Commission  have 
successfully  introduced  into  various 
waters  the  American  white  fish,  the  Cal- 
ifornian trout,  the  American  brook  char, 


etc.,  and  pisciculture  on  a large  scale  is 
practiced  both  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  artificial  culture  of  oysters, 
mussels,  lobsters,  and  other  Crustacea, 
is  also  receiving  attention;  and  alto- 
gether the  art  is  every  year  attaining  a 
greater  development,  and  promises  to 
become  yet  an  important  department  of 
commercial  industry. 

PISIS'TRATUS,  “tyrant”  of  Athens, 
was  descended  from  Codrus,  the  last 
king  of  Athens,  and  was  born  not  later 
than  612  b.c.  He  was  rich,  handsome, 
and  eloquent,  and  being  by  nature  am- 
bitious he  soon  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  one  of  the  three  parties  into 
which  Attica  was  then  divided.  By 
putting  himself  forward  as  the  patron 
and  benefactor  of  the  poor,  and  by 
advocating  civil  equality  and  a demo- 
cratic constitution,  he  was  able  (not- 
withstanding the  opposition  of  Solon) 
to  seize  upon  the  acropolis  (citadel)  in 
560  B.C.,  and  thus  to  make  himself  mas- 
ter, or,  as  the  Greeks  termed  it,  “tyrant” 
of  the  city.  But  though  a tyrant  in  the 
Greek  sense,  his  use  of  power  was  by  no 
means  tyrannical.  He  made  no  at- 
tempt to  abolish  the  wise  laws  of  Solon, 
but  confirmed  and  extended  their  au- 
thority. He  was,  however,  twice  driven 
from  Athens;  but  in  the  eleventh  year  of 
his  second  banishment  succeeded  in 
making  himself  master  of  the  sover- 
eignty for  the  third  time.  Pisistratus 
erected  splendid  public  buildings  at 
Athens,  established  a public  library,  and 
collected  and  arranged  the  poems  of 
Homer,  and  conducted  himself  with  so 
much  prudence  and  clemency  that  his 
country  scarcely  ever  enjoyed  a longer 
term  of  peace  and  prosperity.  He  died 
527  B.C.,  leaving  two  sons,  Hippias  and 
Hipparchus,  to  inherit  his  power,  who 
were  not,  however,  able  to  preserve  it. 

PISTACHIO  (pis-ta'shi-o),  a tree  of 
several  species,  growing  to  the  height  of 
15  to  20  feet.  It  yields  the  well-known 
pistachio-nut,  which  contains  a kernel 


Pistachio. 


of  a pleasant  taste,  resembling  that  of 
the  almond,  wholesome  and  nutritive, 
yielding  a pleasant  oil.  It  is  a native  of 
western  Aisa. 

PISTIL,  in  botany,  the  female  or 
central  seed-bearing  organ  of  a phanero- 
gamous flower,  consisting  of  one  or 
more  carpels  or  modified  leaves.  There 
may  be  only  a single  pistil  or  several  in 
the  same  flower.  It  consists  essentially 
of  two  parts,  the  ovary,  containing  the 
ovules  or  young  seeds,  and  the  stigma, 


PISTOL 


PITT 


a cellular  secreting  body,  which  is  either 
seated  immediately  on  the  ovary  (as  in 
the  tulip  and  poppy),  and  is  then 
called  sessile,  or  is  borne  on  a stalk 
tailed  a style  interposed  between  the 
ovary  and  stigma.  It  is  on  the  stigma 
that  the  pollen  falls  by  which  the  fecun- 
dation takes  place,  after  which  the  ovule 
develcms  into  the  seed. 

PISTOL,  a small  firearm  with  a curved 
stock,  discharged  with  one  hand,  named 
from  the  town  of  Pistoja,  where  they 
were  first  made.  Pistols  were  introduced 
into  England  in  1521.  Mention  is  made 
of  their  use  in  1544.  The  “dag”  men- 
tioned by  the  Elizabethan  writers  was  a 
kind  of  clumsy  pistol.  Pistols  are  made 
of  various  sizes,  ranging  from  6 inches 
to  18  and  even  24  inches  (the  holster 
pistol).  See  Firearms,  Revolver, 

PISTOLE  (pis-toF),  a gold  coin  met 
with  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  more 
especially  in  Spain,  value  about  $4.00, 
but  not  now  coined.  It  was  originally  a 
Spanish  coin,  and  v/as  equivalent  to  a 
quarter  of  a doubloon. 

PISTON,  in  machinery,  a movable 
piece,  generally  of  a cylindrical  form, 
60  fitted  as  to  occupy  the  sectional  area 
of  a tube,  such  as  the  barrel  of  a pump 
or  the  cylinder  of  a steam-engine,  and 
capable  of  being  driven  alternately  in 
two  directions  by  pressure  on  either  of 
its  sides.  One  of  its  sides  is  fitted  to  a 
rod,  called  the  piston-rod,  which  it 


Piston  and  cylinder. 

either  moves  backward  and  forward,  as 
in  the  steam-engine,  where  the  motion 
given  to  the  piston-rod  is  communicated 
to  the  machinery,  or  by  which  the  piston 
is  itself  made  to  move,  as  in  the  pump. 
The  piston  is  usually  made  to  fit  tightly 
by  some  kind  of  material  used  as  pack- 
ing, the  piston-rod  being  also  made 
similarly  tight  by  material  closely 
packed  in  the  stuffing-box  (s  s). 

PITCAIRN  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the 
South  Pacific,  belonging  to  the  Low 
Archipelago,  lat.  25°  5'  s.;  Ion.  130°  5' 
W'.;  length,  2^  miles;  breadth,  about  1 
mile.  It  was  discovered  by  Carteret  in 
1767.  Its  coast  is  almost  perpendicular 
throughout  its  whole  extent,  fringed 
with  formidable  rocks  and  reefs,  accessi- 
ble only  at  two  points,  and  not  at  all  in 
stormy  weather.  It  rises  to  the  height 
of  1100  feet,  and  the  soil,  naturally 
fertile,  yields  good  pasture,  potatoes, 
yams,  plantain  and  bread-fruit,  pine- 
apples, and  other  tropical  fruits.  In 
1881  the  inhabitants  numbered  96,  and 
in  1901,  126.  Whalers  and  trading 
vessels  occasionally  call  and  exchange 
the  products  of  civilization  for  the  pro- 
duce of  the  island. 

PITCH,  the  residuum  obtained  by 
boiling  tar  till  the  volatile  matter  is 


driven  off.  It  is  extensively  Used  for 
caulking  the  seams  of  ships,  for  pre- 
serving wood  and  iron-work  from  the 
effects  of  water,  for  making  artificial 
asphalt,  etc. 

PITCH,  the  acuteness  or  gravity  of 
any  particular  musical  sound,  which  is 
determined  by  the  number  of  air- 
vibrations  in  a given  time — the  greater 
the  number  the  higher  the  note.  In 
stringed  instruments  the  pitch  is  de- 
pendent on  the  length,  thickness,  and 
degree  of  tension  of  the  string;  in  wind 
instruments,  such  as  the  flute  or  organ, 
chiefly  on  the  length  of  the  column  of 
air  set  in  motion.  (See  Music.)  The 
tuning-fork  is  in  common  use  to  assist 
in  giving  some  desired  pitch. 

PITCH-BLENDE,  a mineral  com- 
posed of  86.5  oxide  of  uranium,  2.5 
black  oxide  of  iron,  galena  and  silex. 
In  color  it  varies  from  brown  to  black, 
and  occurs  globular,  reniform,  massive, 
disseminated,  and  pulverulent.  It  gen- 
erally accompanies  uranite. 

PITCHER-PLANT,  a name  given  to 
several  plants  from  their  pitcher-shaped 
leaves,  the  best  known  of  which  is  a 


[Pitcher-plant. 


native  of  China  and  the  East  Indies.  14 
is  a herbaceous  perennial,  and  grows  in 
marshy  situations.  The  leaves  are  ses- 
sile, oblong,  and  terminated  at  the 
extremities  by  a cylindrical  hollow 
vessel  resembling  a common  water- 
pitcher,  which  contains  a fluid  secreted 
by  the  plant  itself.  This  pitcher  is  fur- 
nished with  a lid  which  generally  opens 
in  the  day  and  shuts  at  night,  and  which 
is  regarded  as  the  true  blade  of  the  leaf. 
Wonderful  curative  powers  are  ascribed 
to  the  fluid  in  the  pitcher  and  to  the 
leaf  and  the  root  of  this  plant  by  the 
natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  Mada- 
gascar. 

PITCH-PINE.  See  Pine. 

PITH,  the  cylindrical  or  angular 
column  of  cellular  tissue  at  or  near  the 
center  of  the  steam  of  a plant,  also  called 
the  medulla.  It  is  not  usually  continued 
into  the  root,  but  is  always  directly 
connected  with  the  terminal  bud  of  the 
stem;  and  in  the  first  instance  also  by 
means  of  the  medullary  rays  with  the 
lateral  leaf-buds.  When  examined 
microscopically  it  presents  in  section  a 
union  of  cells  resembling  those  of  a 
honeycomb,  of  which  a good  example  is 
afforded  by  Chinese  rice-paper,  the  pith 
of  the  Aralia  papyrifSra.  The  pith  is  at 
first  succulent  and  of  a greenish  color, 
afterward  it  becomes  dry,  and  in  many 
plants  its  cells  are  broken  up,  leaving 
large  cavities.  In  its  primary  state  it 
appears  to  be  a reservoir  of  nourishment 
for  the  embryo  plant 


PITT,  Earl  of  Chatham.  See  Chat- 
ham (William  Pitt,  Earl  of). 

PITT,  William,  second  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Chatham,  born  May  28,  1759; 
died  January  23,  1806.  He  possessed  a 
remarkably  precocious  intellect,  but  ms 
physical  powers  were  weak.  He  was 
educated  privately  till  his  fourteenth 
year,  when  he  entered  Cambridge.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1780,  and  entered 
parliament  the  following  year  as  mem- 
ber for  Appleby.  His  success  in  the 
house  was  of  unparalleled  rapidity. 
He  supported  Burke’s  financial  reform 
bill,  and  spoke  in  favor  of  parliamentary 
reform;  became  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer at  twenty-three,  under  the 
Earl  of  Shelburne,  and  in  the  following 
year  attained  the  position  of  prime 
minister.  Although  strongly  supported 
by  the  sovereign,  he  stood  opposed  to  a 
large  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons 
and  a dissolution  took  place  in  March 
1786.  At  the  general  election  which 
followed  the  voice  of  the  nation  ap- 
peared decidedly  in  his  favor,  and  some 
of  the  strongest  aristocratical  interests 
in  the  country  were  defeated,  Pitt  him- 
self being  returned  by  the  University 
of  Cambridge.  His  first  measure  was 
the  passing  of  his  India  bill,  establishing 
the  board  of  control,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  much  of  that  fiscal  and  finan- 
cial regulation  that  gave  so  much  6clat 
to  the  early  period  of  his  administration. 
The  establishment  of  the  delusive  scheme 
of  a sinking  fund  followed  in  1786,  apd 
his  Regency  bill  in  1788.  The  French 
revolution  now  broke  out,  and  in  1793 
war  arose  between  Great  Britain  and 
France,  a conflict  which  brought  a 
heavy  responsibility  on  Pitt,  and  im- 
mense sacrifices  and  burdens  on  his 
country.  In  1800  the  Irish  union  was 
acoomplished.  In  1801  the  opposition 
of  the  king  to  all  further  concession  to 
the  Irish  Catholics  caused  Pitt  to  resign 
his  post.  The  Peace  of  Amiens  succeeded 


■William  Pitt.— From  the  statue  by  Chantrey. 

and  the  Addington  administration, 
which  concluded  it,  Pitt  supported  for 
a time,  and  then  joined  the  opposition. 
The  new  minister,  who  had  renewed  the 
war,  unable  to  maintain  his  ground, 
resigned;  and  in  1804  Pitt  resumed  his 
post  at  the  treasury.  Returning  to 
power  as  a war  minister,  he  exerted  all 
the  energy  of  his  character  to  render 
the  contest  successful,  and  found  means 
to  engage  the  two  great  military  powers 
of  Russia  and  Austria,  in  a new  coalition, 
which  was  dissolved  by  the  battle  of 


PITTSBURG 


PLACENTA 


Austerlitz.  This  event  he  did  not  sur- 
vive long;  his  constitution,  weakened 
by  hereditary  gout,  rapidly  yielded  to 
the  joint  attack  of  disease  and  anxiety. 

PITTSBURG,  a city  in  Allegheny  co., 
Pennsylvania,  in  the  angle  between  the 
Monongahela  and  the  Allegheny  rivers 
where  they  unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  It 
is  admirably  situated  for  trade,  having 
ample  river  and  railway  connection  with 
the  great  commercial  emporiums  of  the 
east,  west,  and  south,  while  in,  the 
neighborhood  there  are  immense  and 
cheaply-obtainable  coal  supplies.  These 
exceptional  advantageshave  made  Pitts- 
burg the  chief  center  of  the  American 
iron  and  steel  industry;  smelting  fur- 
naces, foundries,  rolling-mills,  etc., 
being  numerous  and  on  a large  scale. 
The  glass  manufactures  of  Pittsburg 
also  rank  first  in  importance  in  the 
United  States;  cotton  goods,  leather, 
earthenware,  white  lead,  soda,  tobacco, 
beer  and  spirits  are  largely  produced; 
but  the  chief  exports  are  iron  and  steel, 
hardware  and  machinery,  glass,  coal,  and 
coke.  Pittsburg  consists  of  the  town 
proper  and  of  several  large  suburbs, 
and,  with  those  that  are  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  rivers  the  connection  is  kept 
up  by  twelve  bridges,  comprising  some 
very  excellent  examples  on  the  sus- 
pension principle.  Of  the  adjacent 
places,  which,  though  separately  in- 
corporated, are  properly  regarded  as 
only  suburbs  of  Pittsburg,  the  most  im- 

Eortant  are  Allegheny  on  the  right 
ank  of  the  Allegheny  river,  a favorite 
residence  with  the  wealthier  classes, 
and  Braddocks  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Monongahela  to  the  east  of  the  city. 
Both  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  possess 
many  fine  public  buildings  and  institu- 
tions. Natural  gas  is  extensively  em- 
ployed for  both  lighting  and  heating 
purposes.  Pittsburg  occupies  the  site 
of  a fort  called  Du  Quesne,  built  by  the 
French  in  1754;  captured  by  the  British 
in  1758,  and  named  after  William  Pitt. 
It  was  chartered  in  1816,  but  since  then 
its  boundaries  have  been  several  times 
extended.  On  November  18,  1907,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
declared  the  act  consolidating  the  cities 
of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  valid.  The 
consolidation  gives  the  city  an  area  of 
thirty-eight  square  miles,  and  an  esti- 
mated population  in  1909,  565.000.  It  will 
outrank'  Cleveland  and  Baltimore,  giv- 
ing Boston  a close  race  for  fifth  place 
in  size,  and  will  have  the  largest  ton- 
nage of  any  city  in  the  world. 

The  officials  in  Allegheny  will  at  once 
become  deputies  to  those  in  Pittsburg 
until  the  next  election,  which  is  in 
1909. 

PITTSBURG,  a city  in  Crawford  co., 
Kan.,  on  the  Atch.,  Top.  and  S.  F6,  the 
Kan.  City,  Ft.  Scott  and  Mem.,  the 
Kan.  City,  Pitts,  and  Gulf,  the  Mo. 
Pac.,  andi  the  St.  L.  and  San.  Fran, 
railways;  10  miles  s.e.  of  Girard,  the 
county  seat.  It  is  in  a coal  mining 
region.  P(m.  12,224. 

PITTSFIELD,  a city  of  Massachusetts, 
on  the  Housatonic,  which  is  here  formed 
by  the  waters  from  several  lakes.  It  is 
well  built,  manufactures  extensively  cot- 
ton and  woolen  goods,  silk,  castings,  ma- 
chinery, tools,  paper,  boots  and  shoes, 
brewery  products,  etc.,  and  owing  to  its 


salubrious  climate  and  fine  scenery  is  a 
favorite  summer  resort.  Pop.  25,875. 

PITTSTON,  a town  in  Pennsylvania, 
9 miles  from  Wilkesbarre,  in  an  im- 
portant coal  district.  Pop.  14,670. 

PIUS  II.  (.lEneas  Sylvius  Piccolomini), 
pope,  born  1405,  died  1464.  He  became 
secretary  to  Cardinal  Capranica,  and 
the  Council  of  Basel  in  1431 ; to  the 
anti-pope  Felix  V.  in  1439,  and  to 
Frederick  III.  of  Germany  in  1442.  He 
succeeded  Calixtus  III.  as  pontiff  1458. 
Pius  II.  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
men  of  his  age,  and  left  some  valuable 
and  interesting  historical  works,  ora- 
tions, and  letters. 

PIUS  V.  (Michele  Giuslieri),  pope, 
born  in  1504,  died  1572.  He  was  raised 
to  the  cardinalate  by  Paul  IV.  in  1557, 
appointed  inquisitor  in  Lombardy,  then 
inquisitor-general,  and  chosen  pope  in 
1565.  He  chiefly  distinguished  himself 
by  his  cruel  persecutions  of  Protestants 
and  Jews.  In  1570  he  excommunicated 
Elizabeth  of  England. 

PIUS  VI.  (Giovanni  Angelo  Braschi), 
pope,  born  at  Cesena  1717,  died  at 
Valence  1799.  He  held  Important 
offices  under  several  pontiffs,  was  raised 
to  the  cardinalate  by  Clement  XIV., 
and  succeeded  him  in  1775. 

PIUS  VII.  (Gregorio  Barnaba  Chiara- 
monti),  pope,  born  at  Cesena  in  1742, 
died  1823.  Pius  VI.  created  him  bishop 
of  Tivoli,  cardinal  and  bishop  of  Imola; 
and  his  friendly  attitude  toward  the 
Cisalpine  republic  secured  him  the 
favor  of  France,  and  the  election  to  the 
papal  chair  in  1800. 

PIUS  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Mastai- 
Ferretti),  pope,  born  in  1792,  was  des- 
tined for  a military  career,  and  on  the 
restoration  of  Pius  VII.  entered  the 
Guardia  Nobile  of  the  Vatican,  but  soon 
after  adopted  the  clerical  profession. 
He  held  various  ecclesiastical  offices 
under  Leo  XII.,  who  appointed  him 
archbishop  of  Spoleto  in  1827,  and  to  the 
see  of  Imola  in  1832.  Although  raised  to 
the  cardinalate  in  1840,  he  resided  in  his 
diocese  until  his  election  to  the  pontifi- 
cate in  1846.  The  immaculate  concep- 
tion of  the  Virgin  was  settled  by  a papal 
decree  in  1854,  and  the  dogma  of  papal 
infallibility  was  established  by  the 
ecumenical  council  of  1870.  By -this 
time  the  pope’s  dominions  had  been 
greatly  reduced,  and  what  remained  of 
the  temporal  power  was  secured  by  the 
presence  of  French  troops  at  Rome. 
But  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  III. 
caused  their  withdrawal;  the  Italian 
troops  took  possession,  and  the  political 
rule  of  the  holy  see  was  at  an  end.  The 
Vatican  was  left  to  the  pope,  and  his 
independence  ensured.  Free  diplomatic 
intercourse,  the  honors  due  to  a sover- 
eign, and  a civil  list  of  $650,000  yearly, 
were  secured  to  him.  But  these  he  de- 
clined, and  year  after  year  he  confined 
himself  to  the  Vatican  and  its  garden, 
declaring  that  he  was  under  restraint, 
and  a prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  His 
death  took  place  in  February,  1878. 

PIZAR'RO,  Francisco,  Spanish  ad- 
venturer, the  discoverer  and  conqueror 
of  Peru,  was  born  in  1478,  the  illegiti- 
mate son  of  a hidalgo,  and  was  first  a 
swineherd  and  then  a soldier.  The  spirit 
of  adventure  which  at  that  time  per- 
vaded Spain,  prompted  him  to  seek 


fortune  in  the  newly-fouftd  continent 
of  America,  where  he  participated  in 
various  military  and  trading  expedition. 
While  resident  near  PanamJ,  he  became 
associated  with  two  other  adventurers, 
Hernando  Lugue,  or  de  Lugues,  and 
Diego  de  Almagro.  In  1524  they  jointly 
fitted  out  an  expedition  with  a view  to 
exploration  and  conquest,  and  on  their 
second  voyage  discovered  Peru;  but 
finding  their  force  inadequate  for  con- 
quering the  country,  Pizarro  returned 
to  Spain  for  assistance.  He  arrived  in 
Seville  in  1528,  was  granted  the  neces- 
sary powers  and  a small  force,  and  re- 
crossed the  Atlantic  in  1531.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  arrived  in  Peru  during 
a civil  war,  treacherously  seized  the 
person  of  the  reigning  inca  at  a friendly 
banquet,  and  after  extorting  an  im- 
mense ransom  put  him  to  death.  The 
whole  empire  was  gradually  conquered 
without  much  opposition,  but  its  settle- 
ment was  long  in  abeyance  owing  to  a 
feud  between  Pizarro  and  Almagro. 
Hernando  Pizarro,  a brother  of  the  gen- 
eral strangled  Almagro  in  1537.  This  act 
was  avenged  in  1541  when  a son  of 
Almagro  murdered  Francisco  Pizarro 
in  his  palace  at  Lima.  Lima  was  founded 
by  Pizarro  in  1535,  and  his  remains  are 
interred  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city, 
also  founded  by  him. 

PLACE,  La.  See  Laplace. 

PLACENTA,  the  structure  which,  in 
the  higher  mammalia,  connects  the 
foetus,  or  unborn  embryo,  with  the  cir- 
culation of  the  mother,  thus  providing 
for  its  due  nutrition.  In  its  most  typical 
form  it  is  only  met  with  in  the  higher 
mammalia,  which  are  therefore  called 
placental  mammals,  while  the  lower 
mammalia  are  termed  implacental  or 
aplacental,  from  their  wanting  a pla- 
centa; the  latter  include  only  the  two 
orders  Monotremata  and  Marsupialia. 
Certain  analogous  structures  also  exist 
in  connection  with  the  development  of 


Transverse  and  vertical  sections  to  show 
placenta.  1,  central  placenta:  2,  axlle  central 
placenta;  3,  parietal  placenta;  aa,  placentae. 

the  young  of  some  species  of  sharks 
and  dog-fishes.  The  human  placenta 
presents  the  most  perfect  type,  and  is  a 
special  growth  on  the  part  both  of  the 
womb  and  the  ovum.  By  the  end  of 
pregnancy  it  forms  a disc-like  mass, 
measuring  7J  inches  across,  f inch  thick, 
and  about  20  oz.  in  weight.  Connected 
with  it  near  the  middle  is  the  umbilical 
cord,  by  means  of  which  the  growing 
embryo  is  attached  to  the  placenta. 
Through  the  placenta  and  the  umbilical 
cord  the  blood  of  the  embryo  comes  into 
close  communication  with  the  blood  of 
the  mother,  by  means  of  which  its 
purity  and  nourishing  qualities  are 
maintained,  and  the  requisite  supply  of 
material  furnished  for  the  embryo’s 
continued  life  and  growth.  At  the  end  of 


PLACENTA 


PLANET 


pregnancy  the  placenta  is  thrown  off  as 
the  after-birth,  after  the  child  itself  has 
been  expelled. 

PLACENTA,  in  botany,  a develop- 
ment of  cellular  tissue  at  the  inner  or 
ventral  suture  of  a carpel,  to  which  the 
ovules  or  seeds  are  attached  either  im- 
mediately or  by  umbilical  cords,  as  in 
the  pod  of  the  pea.  The  placenta  is 
formed  on  each  margin  of  the  carpel, 
and  is  therefore  essentially  double. 
When  the  pistil  is  formed  by  one  carpel 
the  inner  margins  unite  in  the  axis,  and 
usually  form  a common  placenta.  When 
the  pistil  is  composed  of  several  carpels 
there  are  generally  separate  placentas  at 
each  of  their  margins.  The  term  parietal 
placenta  is  applied  to  one  not  projecting 
far  inward,  or  one  essentially  constituted 
of  the  wall  of  the  seed-vessel.  The  form 
of  placentation  forms  an  important  dis- 
tinction between  the  various  orders  of 
plants. 

PLAGUE,  a contagious  and  very  fatal 
febrile  disease  characterized  by  entire 
prostration  of  strength,  stupor,  delirium, 
often  nausea  and  vomiting,  and  certain 
local  symptoms,  as  buboes,  carbuncles, 
and  livid  spots  (petechise).  Like  all 
other  malignant  fevers  the  plague  has 
its  various  stages,  but  most  frequently 
runs  its  course  in  three  days,  although 
death  may  ensue  a few  hours  after  its 
appearance.  If  the  patient  survive  the 
fifth  day,  he  will,  under  judicious  treat- 
ment, generally  recover.  It  is  now  al- 
most universally  admitted  that  the 
plague  is  a specific  disease,  and  that  it  is 
the  result  of  a miasmatic  poison.  It  is 
also  well  established  that  unfavorable 
climatic  influences,  such  as  heat  and 
humidity  combined,  faulty  sanitary 
conditions,  inadequate  air,  light,  water, 
and  food,  favor  its  spread  when  once 
introduced.  There  is  no  specific  remedy 
against  the  disease,  and  a variety  of 
treatment  has  been  adopted  on  different 
occasions  and  by  different  medical  men. 
The  plague  appeared  in  the  most  ancient 
times,  although  historians  have  used 
the  term  indiscriminately  for  other 
epidemics.  The  first  recorded  visitation 
of  the  plague  to  Europe  is  that  at  Athens 
(430  B.C.),  described  by  Thucydides; 
Josephus  relates  that  of  Jerusalem  a.d. 
72.  Among  the  most  disastrous  plagues 
of  antiquity  are  those  of  Rome  in  262, 
when  5000  persons  are  said  to  have 
died  daily;  and  of  Constantinople  in 
544.  From  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  to 
the  12th  century,  it  ravaged  at  inter- 
vals various  parts  of  Europe,  particular- 
ly France  and  Germany.  In  the  13th 
century  it  was  brought  to  modern 
Europe  by  the  Crusaders,  and  from 
1347  to  1350  it  traversed  all  Europe, 
and  was  then  called  the  black  death. 
The  scourge  again  claimed  its  victims 
in  the  succeeding  centuries,  and  in  1593 
it  was  brought  to  England  by  an  army 
returning  from  the  continent.  Before 
the  true  nature  of  the  disease  became 
known  it  had  gained  a firm  footing  in 
London,  and  there  were  11,503  deaths. 
London  .ost  by  the  plague  36,269  lives 
in  1603;  35,500  in  1625;  13,480  in  1636; 
and  68,600  in  1665.  The  plague  in  Mar- 
seilles in  1720  caused  the  death  of  over 
60,000  in  seven  months,  and  in  Messina 
(1743)  of  43,000  in  three  months.  In 
1771  it  nearly  swei)t  off  the  whole  popu- 


lation of  Moscow.  Subsequently  it  ap- 
peared locally  in  Europe  at  a number  of 
points.  In  1878-79  it  caused  many 
deaths  on  the  Lower  Volga;  but  the 
most  severe  recent  visitation  was  in 
India,  in  1896-99,  and  subsequently, 
even  in  1902. 

PLAICE,  a genus  of  so-called  “Flat- 
fishes.” The  common  plaice,  a well- 
known  food  fish,  attains  an  average 
length  of  12  or  18  inches.  The  dark  or 
upper  side  is  colored  brown,  spotted 
with  red  or  orange;  the  body  is  com- 
paratively smooth;  the  ventral  fins  are 
situated  on  the  throat,  and  are  thus 


The  plaice. 


jugular  in  position ; the  mouth  is  of  small 
size,  and  provided  with  small  teeth. 
These  fishes  are  all  “ground-fishes,” 
that  is,  feed  and  swim  near  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  They  are  caught  chiefly  by 
means  of  trawl-nets. 

PLAIN,  a tract  of  country  of  nearly 
uniform  elevation.  Plains  receive  a 
variety  of  names  in  different  countries, 
as  steppes  in  Russia  and  Asia;  savannas, 
prairies,  pampas,  etc.,  in  America. 
Elevated  plains  are  called  plateaus  >or 
table-lands. 

PLAINFIELD,  a city  in  Union  co., 
N.  J.,  on  Green  Brook,  and  the  Central 
railroad  of  N.  J.;  11  miles  n.  of  New 
Brunswick,  24  miles  w.s.w.  of  New 
York  City.  The  principal  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  printing-presses, 
oil-cloth,  carpets,  and  machine  tools. 
Pop.  18,267. 

PLAINTIFF,  in  English  law,  the  per- 
son who  commences  a suit  against  an- 
other in  law  or  equity. 

PLAN,  in  architecture,  a drawing 
showing  the  design  of  a building,  a term 
chiefly  used  in  reference  to  horizontal 
sections  showing  the  disposition  of  the 
walls  and  various  floors  of  the  building, 
and  of  the  doors  and  windows,  etc.; 
but  also  applied  to  elevations  and  ver- 
tical sections.  A geometrical  plan  is  one 
wherein  the  several  parts  are  repre- 
sented in  their  true  proportions.  A 
perspective  plan  is  one,  the  lines  of 
which  follow  the  rules  of  perspective, 
thus  reducing  the  sizes  of  the  more  dis- 
tant parts.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  draught  or  representation  on  paper 
of  any  projected  work,  as  the  plan  of  a 
city  or  of  a harbor. 

PLANE,  a joiner’s  tool,  consisting  of  a 
smooth-soled  solid  block,  through  which 
passes  obliquely  a piece  of  edged  steel 
forming  a kind  of  chisel,  used  in  paring 
or  smoothing  boards  or  wood  of  any 
kind.  Planes  are  of  various  kinds,  as 
the  jack-plane  (about  17  inches  long), 
used  for  taking  off  the  roughest  and 
most  prominent  parts  of  the  wood;  the 
trying-plane,  which  is  used  after  the 
jack-plane;  the  smoothing-plane  (7J 
inches  long)  and  block-plane  (12  inches 


long),  chiefly  used  for  cleaning  off  fin- 
ished work,  and  giving  the  utmost  de- 
gree of  smoothness  to  the  surface  of  the 
wood;  the  compass-plane,  which  has  its 
under  surface  convex,  its  use  being  to 
form  a concave  cylindrical  surface. 
There  is  also  a species  of  plane  called  a 
rebate-plane,  being  chiefly  used  for 
making  rebates.  The  plough  is  a plane 
for  sinking  a channel  or  groove  in  a sur- 
face, not  close  to  the  edge  of  it.  Mould- 
ing-planes are  for  forming  mouldings, 
and  must  vary  according  to  the  design. 
Planes  are  also  used  for  smoothing 
metal,  and  are  wrought  by  machinery. 
See  Planing  Machine. 

PLANE,  in  goemetry,  a surface  such 
that  if  any  two  points  in  it  are  joined  by 
a straight  line  the  line  will  lie  wholly 
within  the  surface. 

PLANE,  Inclined.  See  Inclined  Plane. 

PLANE-TREE,  a genus  of  trees,  the 
American  plane-tree  or  button-wood 
(the  sycamore  or  cotton-tree  of  the 
West),  abounds  in  American  forests, 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio  attains 
sometimes  a diameter  of  from  10  to  14 
feet,  rising  60  or  70  feet  without  a 
branch.  The  bark  is  pale-green  and 
smooth,  and  its  epidermis  detaches  in 
portions;  the  fresh  roots  are  a beautiful 
red;  the  leaves  are  alternate,  palmated, 
or  lobed;  and  the  flowers  are  united  in 
little  globular,  pendent  balls.  The  wood 
in  seasoning  takes  a dull  red  color,  is 
fine-grained,  and  susceptible  of  a good 


Oriental  plane-tree. 


polish,  but  speedily  decays  on  exposure 
to  the  weather.  The  oriental  plane  re- 
sembles the  preceding,  and  is  plentiful 
in  the  forests  of  Western  Asia. 

PLANET,  a celestial  body  which  re- 
volves about  the  sun'as  its  center  (pri- 
mar3'  planets),  ora  body  revolving  about 
another  planet  as  its  center  (secondary 
planets,  satellites,  or  moons).  The  known 
major  planets  are,  in  the  order  of  their 
proximity  to  the  sun.  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus,  and  Neptune.  Mercury,  Venus, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  were  known 
to  the  ancients.  Uranus  was  accident- 
ally discovered  by  Herschel  in  1781, 
while  the  discovery  of  Neptune  was  the 
result  of  pure  intellectual  work,  the 
calculating  of  Leverrier  and  Adams 
(1845).  The  planetoids  or  asteroids  are 
small  bodies  discovered  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century  be- 
tween the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
The  number  of  these  asteroids  is  annual- 
ly increased  by  fresh  discoveries;  over 
400  are  now  known.  Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  and  Mars  closelj'  resemble 


PLANT 


PLATINUM 


each  other  in  many  respects.  They  are 
all  of  moderate  size,  with  great  densities; 
the  earth  weighing  as  much  as  five  and 
a half  times  an  equal  bulk  of  water. 
They  shine  only  by  refiected  sunlight. 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  of  enormous 
size,  of  small  densities,  some  of  them 
weighing  less  than  an  equal  bulk  of 
water,  and  probably  exist  at  a high 
temperature,  and  give  out  in  addition  to 
reflected  sunlight  a considerable  amount 
of  light  and  heat  of  their  own.  The 
most  colossal  of  the  planets  is  Jupiter; 
its  volume  exceeds  that  of  the  earth 
about  1200  times.  Saturn  is  next  in 
size.  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune,  being  outside  the  earth’s  or- 
bit, are  sometimes  called  the  superior 
planets;  Venus  and  Mercury  being 
within  the  earth’s  orbit,  are  called  in- 
ferior planets.  The  family  of  major 
planets  has  also  been  subdivided  into  in- 
tra-asteroidal  planets — Mercury,  Venus, 
the  Earth,  Mars;  and  extra-asteroidal 
planets — Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and 
Neptune,  the  character  of  the  two  being 
very  different  as  above  described.  The 
planet  which  approaches  nearest  to  the 
earth  is  Venus,  the  least  distance  in 
round  numbers  being  23  millions  of 
miles;  the  most  distant  is  Neptune, 
least  distance  2629  million  miles.  We 
give  here  a comparative  table  of  the 
planets;  see  also  the  separate  articles. 


part  of  the  sole  in  walking,  are  termed 


Plantigrada— foot  of  polar  bear, 
a,  femur  or  thigh;  6,  tibia  or  leg;  c,  tarsus  or 
foot;  d,  calx  or  heel;  e,  planta  or  sole  of  foot; 
/,  digit!  or  toes. 

PLASTERING  is  the  art  of  covering 
the  surface  of  masonry  or  wood  work 
with  a plastic  material  in  order  to  give  it 
a smooth  and  uniform  surface,  and 
generally  in  interiors  to  fit  it  for  painting 
or  decoration.  In  plastering  the  interior 
of  houses  a first  coat  is  generally  laid  on 
of  lime,  thoroughly  slacked,  so  as  to  be 
free  from  any  tendency  to  contract 
moisture,  and  mixed  with  sand  and 
cow’s  hair.  For  the  purpose  of  receiving 
this  coat  the  wall  is  generally  first 
covered  with  laths  or  thin  strips  of 
wood,  with  narrow  interstices  between. 
The  face  of  the  first  coat,  which  should 
be  a considerable  thickness,  is  trowelled, 
or  indented  with  cross  lines  by  the 
trowel,  to  form  a key  for  the  finishing 
coats.  The  second  coat  is  applied  to  this 


Mean  Distance 
From  the 
Sun 

Distance  from  the  Earth 

Time  of 
Revolution 
Round  the 
Sun 

Time  of 
Rotation  on 
Axis 

Greatest 

Least 

Miles 

Miles 

Miles 

Mean  Solar 
Days 

h. 

m. 

s. 

Mercury 

3.5,393,000 

135,631,000 

47,229,000 

87.9692 

? 

Venus 

66,131,000 

159,551,000 

23,309,000 

224,7007 

f 

91,430,000 

365.2563 

23 

56 

4 

Mars 

139,312,000 

245,249,000 

62,389,000 

686.9794 

24 

37 

23 

Jupiter 

475,693,000 

591,569,000 

408,709,000 

4332.5848 

9 

55 

28 

Saturn 

872,1.35,000 

1.014,071,000 

831,210,000 

10759.2197 

10 

29 

17 

Uranus 

1,753,851,000 

1,928,666,000 

1,745,806,000 

30686.8205 

? 

Neptune 

2,746,271,000 

2,863,183,000 

2,629,360,000 

60126.722 

? 

PLANT.  See  Botany. 

PLANTAGENET,  a surname  first 
adopted  by  Geoffrey,  Count  of  Anjou, 
and  said  to  have  originated  from  his 
wearing  a branch  of  broom  (plante  de 
genet)  in  his  cap.  This  name  was  borne 
by  the  fourteen  kings,  from  Henry  II. 
to  Richard  III.,  who  occupied  the 
English  throne  from  1154-1485.  In 
1400  the  family  was  divided  into  the 
branches  of  Lancaster  (Red  Rose),  and 
Amrk  (White  Rose),  and  from  their  re- 
union in  1485  sprang  the  House  of 
Tudor.  See  England. 

PLANTATION,  a term  formerly  used 
to  designate  a colony.  The  term  was 
latterly  applied  to  an  estate  or  tract  of 
land  in  the  southern  states  of  America, 
the  West  Indies,  etc.,  cultivated  chiefly 
by  negroes  or  other  non-European 
laborers.  In  the  southern  states  the  term 
planter  is  specially  applied  to  one  who 
grows  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  or  tobacco. 

PLANTIGRA'DA,  plantigrades,  car- 
nivorous animals  in  which  the  whole  or 
nearly  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  is 
applied  to  the  ground  in  walking.  This 
section  includes  the  bears,  raccoons, 
coatis,  and  badgers.  Carnivora  which, 
like  the  weasels  and  civets,  use  only 


when  it  is  thoroughly  dried.  It  is  rubbed 
in  with  a flat  board  so  as  thoroughly  to 
fill  the  indentations  and  cover  the  un- 
equal surface  of  the  first  coat  with  a 
smooth  and  even  one.  In  plastering 
walls  great  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  surface  perfectly  vertical.  The  set- 
ting coat,  which  is  of  pure  lime,  or  for 
mouldings  or  finer  work  of  plaster  of 
paris  or  stucco,  is  applied  to  the  second 
coat  before  it  is  quite  dry.  A thin  coat- 
ing of  plaster  of  paris  is  frequently 
applied  to  ceilings  after  the  setting  coat. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  the  name  given 
to  gypsum  when  ground  and  used  for 
taking  casts,  etc.  If  one  part  of  pow- 
dered gypsum  be  mixed  with  two  and  a 
half  parts  of  water  a thin  pulp  is  formed, 
which  after  a time  sets  to  a hard,  com- 
pact mass.  By  adding  a small  quantity 
of  lime  to  the  moistened  gypsum  a very 
hard  marble-like  substance  is  obtained 
on  setting. 

PLASTERS  are  applications  of  local 
remedies  to  any  part  of  the  surface  of 
the  body  by  means  of  a supporting  tex- 
ture of  leather,  silk  or  other  cloth,  or 
merely  of  paper.  Plasters  may  be  in- 
tended to  give  protection,  support,  or 
warmth,  or  they  may  be  actively 


medicinal.  (See  Blister.)  The  materials 
most  frequently  used  in  plasters  are 
belladonna,  cantharides,  galbanum,  isin- 
glass, lead,  mercury,  opium,  pitch,  resin, 
iron,  and  soap,  and  their  adhesive  prop- 
erty is  generally  due  to  the  combina- 
tion of  oxide  of  lead  with  fatty  acids. 

PLASTIC  CLAY,  in  geology,  a name 
given  to  one  of  the  beds  of  the  Eocene 
period  from  its  being  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  pottery.  It  is  a marine 
deposit. 

PLATA,  Rio  de  La  (River  of  Silver), 
or  River  Plate,  runs  for  more  than  200 
miles  between  the  Argentine  Republic 
and  Uru^ay,  and  is  not,  strictly  speak- 
ing, a river,  but  rather  an  estuary, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  great 
rivers  Parand  and  Uruguay  (which  see). 
It  flows  into  the  Atlantic  between  Cape 
St.  Antonio  and  Cape  St.  Mary,  and  has 
here  a width  of  170  miles.  On  its  banks 
are  the  cities  and  ports  of  Montevideo 
and  Buenos  Ayres. 

PLATEAU  (pla-to).  See  Table-land. 

PLATE-GLASS.  See  Glass. 

PLATE-POWDER,  a fine  powder  for 
cleaning  gold  and  silver  plate,  common- 
ly made  of  a mixture  of  rouge  and  pre- 
pared chalk. 

PLATING,  the  coating  of  a metallic 
article  with  a thin  film  of  some  other 
metal,  especially  gold  or  silver.  As  re- 
gards plating  with  precious  metals, 
electro-deposition  has  entirely  super- 
seded the  old  Sheffield  method,  which 
consisted  in  welding  plates  of  various 
metals  at  high  temperatures.  This 
welding  process  is  now,  however,  largely 
employed  in  plating  iron  with  nickel  for 
cooking  vessels,  iron  with  brass  for 
stair-rods  and  other  furnishing  and 
domestic  requisites,  and  lead  with  tin 
for  pipes,  etc. 

PLAT'INUM,  one  of  the  metals  first 
made  known  to  Europe  in  1741.  Native 
platinum  occurs  mostly  in  small,  irreg- 
ular grains,  generally  contains  a little 
iron,  and  is  accompanied  besides  by 
iridium,  osmium,  rhodium,  palladium, 
ruthenium  (hence  called  the  “platinum 
metals’’),  and  also  sometimes  by  copper, 
chromium,  and  titanium.  It  was  first  ob- 
tained in  Peru,  and  has  since  been  found 
in  various  other  localities,  such  as  Can- 
ada, Oregon,  the  West  Indies,  Brazil, 
Colombia,  Borneo,  etc.,  but  the  chief 
supply  of  platinum  ore  comes  from  the 
Ural  mountains  in  Siberia.  It  was  there 
discovered  in  beds  of  auriferous  sands  in 
1823,  and  has  been  worked  by  the 
Russian  government  since  1828.  Pure 
platinum  is  almost  as  white  as  silver, 
takes  a brilliant  polish,  and  is  highly 
ductile  and  malleable.  It  is  the  Jieaviest 
of  the  ordinary  metals,  and  the  least 
expansive  when  heated;  specific  gravity 
21.53  rolled,  21.15  cast.  It  undergoes 
no  change  from  the  combined  agency  of 
air  and  moisture,  and  it  may  be  exposed 
to  the  strongest  heat  of  a smith’s  forge 
without  suffering  either  oxidation  or 
fusion.  Platinum  is  not  attacked  by  any 
of  the  pure  acids.  Its  only  solvents  are 
chlorine  and  nitro-muriatic  acid,  which 
act  upon  it  with  greater  difficulty  than 
on  gold.  In  a finely  divided  state  it  has 
the  power  of  absorbing  and  condensing 
large  quantities  of  gases.  On  account  of 
its  great  infusibility,  and  its  power 
generally  of  withstanding  the  action  of 


PLATO 


PLEBEIANS 


chemical  reagents,  platinum  is  much 
used  as  a material  for  making  vessels  to 
be  used  in  the  chemical  laboratory. 
Crucibles,  evaporating  dishes,  etc,  are 
very  often  made  of  platinum ; so  also  the 
large  stills  used  for  the  evaporation  of 
sulphuric  acid.  The  useful  alloys  of 
platinum  are  not  numerous.  With  silver 
it  forms  a tolerably  fusible  white  alloy, 
malleable  and  brilliant  when  polished; 
but  it  scales  and  blackens  by  working. 
Gold,  by  a forge  heat,  combines  with 
platinum,  and  the  alloys,  in  all  propor- 
tions, are  more  fusible  than  the  latter 
metal.  In  the  proportion  of  38  grs.  to  1 
oz.  it  forms  a yellowish-white,  ductile, 
hard  alloy,  which  is  so  elastic  after 
hammering  that  it  has  been  used  for 
watch-springs ; but  the  favorable  results 
expected  from  them  have  not  been 
realized.  Alloyed  with  iridium  (a  rare 
metal  of  the  same  group)  it  possesses  an 
excellent  and  unalterable  surface  for 
fine  engraving,  as  in  the  scales  of  astro- 
nomical instruments,  etc.  This  alloy  has 
also  been  adopted  for  the  construction 
of  international  standards  of  length  and 
weight.  Mercury,  by  trituration  with 
spongy  platinum,  forms  an  amalgam 
at  first  soft,  but  which  soon  becomes 
firm,  and  has  been  much  used  in  obtain- 
ing malleable  platinum.  A coating  of 
platinum  can  be  given  to  copper  and 
other  metals  by  applying  to  them  an 
amalgam  of  spongy  platimun  and  5 
parts  of  mercury;  the  later  metal  is 
then  volatilized  by  heat.  Lead  com- 
bines with  platinum  readily;  and  iron 
and  copper  in  like  manner.  The  last- 
mentioned,  when  added  in  the  propor- 
tion of  7 to  16  of  platinum  and  1 of  zinc, 
and  fused  in  a crucible  under  charcoal 
powder,  forms  the  alloy  called  artificial 
gold.  Steel  unites  with  platinum  in  all 
proportions,  and,  especially  in  the  pro- 
portion of  from  1 to  3 per  cent  of  plati- 
num, forms  a tough  and  tenacious  alloy, 
well  adapted  for  cutting  instruments. 
Arsenic  unites  easily  with  platinum,  and 
is  sometimes  employed  for  rendering  the 
latter  metal  fusible.  An  alloy  of  plati- 
num, iridium,  and  rhodium  is  used  for 
making  crucibles,  etc.  It  is  harder  than 
pure  platinum,  is  less  easily  attacked  by 
chemical  reagents,  and  bears  a higher 
temperature  without  fusing. 

PLATO  , an  ancient  Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  one  of  the  great  schools  of 
Greek  philosophy,  was  born  at  Athens  in 
B.c.  429,  died  in  b.c.  347.  About  his 
twentieth  year  he  came  directly  under 
the  influence  of  Socrates,  and  from  this 
time  he  gave  himself  entirely  to  philoso- 
phy. He  is  said  to  have  visited  Gyrene 
(in  North  Africa),  lower  Italy,  and 
Sicily.  About  b.c.  389  or  388  Plato 
returned  to  Athens  and  began  to  teach 
his  philosophical  system  in  a gym- 
nasium known  as  the  Academy,  his 
subsequent  life  being  unbroken,  except 
by  two  visits  to  Sicily.  He  appears  to 
have  had  a patrimony  sufficient  for  his 
wants,  and  taught  without  remunera- 
tion. One  of  his  pupils  was  Aristotle. 

The  reputed  works  of  Plato  consist  of 
dialogues  and  letters,  the  latter  now  re- 
garded as  spurious;  but  the  genuineness 
of  most  of  the  dialogues  is  generally 
admitted. 

The  philosophy  of  Plato,  must  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  grandest  efforts 


ever  made  by  the  human  mind  to  com- 
pass the  problem  of  life.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  Socrates  he  held  the  great  end 
of  philosophic  teaching  to  be  to  lead  the 
mind  of  the  inquirer  to  the  discovery  of 
truth  rather  than  to  impart  it  dogmatic- 
ally, and  for  this  end  he  held  oral 
teaching  to  be  superior  to  writing.  The 
cardinal  principle  of  Plato’s  dialectical 
system  is  the  doctrine  of  ideas.  True 
science,  according  to  him,  was  con- 
versant, not  about  those  material  forms 
and  imperfect  intelligences  which  we 
meet  with  in  our  daily  intercourse  with 
men;  but  it  investigated  the  nature  of 
those  purer  and  more  perfect  patterns 
which  were  the  models  after  which  all 
created  beings  were  formed.  These  per- 
fect types  he  supposes  to  have  existed 
from  all  eternity,  and  he  calls  them  the 
ideas  of  the  great  original  Intelligence. 
As  these  cannot  be  perceived  by  the 
human  senses,  whatever  knowledge  we 
derive  from  that  source  is  unsatisfactory 
and  uncertain.  Plato,  therefore,  main- 
tains that  degree  of  scepticism  which 
denies  all  permanent  authority  to  the 
evidence  of  sense.  Having  discovered  or 
created  the  realm  of  ideas  he  surveyed 
it  throughout.  He  defined  its  most  ex- 


Plato.— Antique  gem. 


cellent  fonns  of  beauty,  justice,  and 
virtue,  and  having  done  so  he  deter- 
mined what  was  the  supreme  and  dom- 
inant principle  of  the  whole.  It  is  the 
idea  of  the  Good.  The  harmony  of  in- 
telligence throughout  its  entire  extent 
with  goodness,  this  is  the  highest  attain- 
ment of  Plato’s  philosophy.  His  ethical 
system  was  in  direct  dependence  upon 
his  dialectics.  He  believed  that_  the 
ideas  of  all  existing  things  were  origin- 
ally contained  in  God.  These  ideas  were 
each  the  perfection  of  its  kind,  and  as 
such  were  viewed  by  God  with  approval 
and  love.  God  himself  being  infinitely 
good  was  the  object  of  all  imitation  to 
intelligent  beings,  hence  the  ethics  of 
Plato  had  a double  foundation,  the 
imitation  of  God  and  the  realization  of 
ideas,  which  were  in  each  particular 
the  models  of  perfection.  To  his  cos- 
mical  theories  he  attributed  only  prob- 
ability, holding  that  the  dialectical 
method  by  which  alone  truth  could  be 
discovered  was  applicable  only  to  ideas 
and  the  discovery  of  moral  principles. 
The  most  valuable  part  of  Plato’s  cos- 
mogony is  its  first  principle,  that  God, 
who  is  without  envy,  planned  all  things 
that  they  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  himself. 

The  followers  of  Plato  have  been 
divided  into  the  Old,  Middle,  and  New 
Academies;  or  into  five  schools;  the 


first  representing  the  Old,  the  second 
and  third  the  Middle,  and  the  fourth  and 
fifth  the  New  Academy.  In  the  first 
are  Speusippus,  Xenocrates,  and  Hera- 
clides,  and  others.  Of  these  the  first 
reverted  to  pantheistic  principles,  the 
second  to  mysticism,  and  the  last  was 
chiefly  distinguished  as  an  astronomer. 
In  the  Middle  Academy,  of  which  were 
Arcesilas  and  Carneades,  the  founders 
of  the  second  and  third  school,  sceptical 
tendencies  began  to  prevail.  The  New 
academy  began  with  Philo  of  Larissa, 
founder  of  the  fourth  school. 

PLATT,  Thomas  Collier,  American 
political  leader,  was  born  at  Owego, 
N.  Y.,  in  1833.  In  1872  he  was  elected 
to  congress,  again  in  1874,  and,  upon 
the  expiration  of  Francis  Kernan’s  term 
as  United  States  senator,  was  chosen 
his  successor,  January  18,  1881.  He 
became  connected  with  the  United 
States  express  company,  of  which  he 
has  been  president  since  1883.  Platt 
eventually  gained  virtual  control  of  the 
republican  party  in  New  York  and  was 
again  elected  to  the  senate  both  in  1897 
and  in  1903.  He  has  been  a delegate  to 
all  republican  national  conventions 
since  1876  as  well  as  a member  of  the 
national  republican  committee. 

PLATTDEUTSCH  (pUt'doich),  or 
Low  German,  is  the  language  of  the 
North  German  Lowlands,  from  the 
borders  of  Holland  to  those  of  Russian 
Poland.  The  Dutch  and  Flemish  lan- 
guages also  belong  to  the  Low  German 
dialects,  but  being  associated  with  an 
independent  political  system,  and  hav- 
ing a literature  of  their  own,  are 
reckoned  as  distinct  languages.  The  Low 
German  dialects  agree  in  their  con- 
sonantal system  not  only  with  Dutch 
and  Flemish,  but  also  with  English  and 
the  Scandinavian  tongues.  (See  Phil- 
ology.) Until  the  reformation  Low  Ger- 
man was  the  general  written  language 
of  the  part  of  the  continent  above  men- 
tioned; but  from  that  time  Low  German 
works  became  gradually  fewer,  owing 
to  the  position  now  taken  by  the  High 
(or  modern  classical)  German.  Even 
as  a spoken  language  High  German  has 
ever  since  been  slowly  superseding  the 
Low.  In  recent  times,  however.  Low 
German  literature  has  received  a new 
impetus  from  Klaus  Groth  and  Fritz 
Reuter.  Linguistically  the  Low  Ger- 
man dialects  have  received  a good  deal 
of  attention,  and  many  valuable  lexico- 
graphical works  have  appeared. 

PLATTSBURG,  a manufacturing  town 
and  military  station  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  state  of  New  York,  on  the 
Saranac,  where  it  enters  Lake  Cham- 
plain. Pop.  10,010. 

PLAYING-CARDS.  See  Card. 

PLEBEIANS  (ple-be'anz),  or  PLEBS, 
in  ancient  Rome,  one  of  the  great  orders 
of  the  Roman  people,  at  first  excluded 
from  nearly  all  the  rights  of  citizenship. 
The  whole  government  of  the  state,  with 
the  enjoyment  of  all  its  oflJces,  belonged 
exclusively  to  the  patricians,  with 
whom  the  plebeians  could  not  even 
intermarry.  The  civil  history  of  Rome 
is  to  a great  extent  composed  of  the 
struggles  of  the  plebeians  to  assert  their 
claim  to  the  place  in  the  commonwealth 
to  which  their  numbers  and  social  im- 
portance entitled  them,  and  which  wettj 


PLEBISCITE 


PLIOCENE 


crowned  with  complete  success  when 
(b  c.  286)  the  Lex  Hortensia  gave  the 
plebiscita,  or  enactments  passed  at  the 
plebeian  assemblies,  the  force  of  law. 
From  this  time  the  privileges  of  the  two 
classes  may  be  said  to  have  been  equal. 

PLEB'ISCITE,  a vote  of  a whole 
nation  obtained  by  universal  suffrage, 
a form  of  voting  introduced  into  France 
under  the  Napoleonic  regime,  and 
named  after  the  Roman  plebiscita.  The 
term  is  also  used  in  a more  general  sense. 

PLEIADES  (pll'a-dez),  the  so-called 
“seven  stars”  in  the  neck  of  the  con- 
stellation Taurus,  of  which  only  six  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye  of  most  persons. 
They  are  regarded  by  Madler  as  the 
central  group  of  the  Milky  Way.  An- 
cient Greek  legends  derive  their  name 
from  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
the  nymph  Pleione,  fabled  to  have  been 
placed  as  stars  in  the  sky,  and  the  loss 
of  the  seventh  was  variously  accounted 
for.  In  reality  the  cluster  consists  of  far 
more  than  seven  stars. 

PLEISTOCENE  (plis'to-sen),  in  geol- 
ogy, the  lower  division  of  the  Post-ter- 
tiary formation.  The  fossil  remains  be- 
long almost  wholly  to  existing  species. 
The  Pleistocene  mollusca  all  belong  to 
still  living  species,  but  its  mammals  in- 
clude a few  extinct  forms.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  “glacial”  or  “drift”  period, 
owing  to  the  great  prevalence  of  glaciers 
and  icebergs  at  that  period. 

PLENIPOTENTIARY,  an  ambassador 
appointed  with  full  power  to  negotiate 
a treaty  or  transact  other  business. 

PLESIOSAU'RUS,  a genus  of  extinct 
amphibious  animals,  nearly  allied  to  the 
Ichthyosaurus.  The  remains  of  this 
curious  genus  were  first  brought  to  light 
in  the  Lias  of  Lyme  Regis  in  1822,  but 
over  twenty  species  are  now  known,  and 
they  have  formed  the  subject  of  im- 
portant memoirs  by  Owen  and  other 
palaeontologists.  Its  neck  was  of  enorm- 
ous length,  exceeding  that  of  its  body; 
it  possessed  a trunk  and  tail  of  the  pro- 
portions of  an  ordinary  quadruped;  to 


Plesiosaurus,  partially  restored. 


these  were  added  the  paddles  of  a whale. 
The  neck  vertebrae  numbered  forty  or 
fewer.  From  twenty  to  twenty-five 
dorsal  segments  existed ; and  two  sacral 
vertebrae  and  from  thirty  to  forty  caudal 
segments  completed  the  spine.  No  dis- 
tinct breast-bone  was  developed.  The 
head  was  not  more  than  or  ^“5  of  the 
length  of  the  body ; the  snout  of  a taper- 
ing form;  the  orbits  large  and  wide. 
The  teeth  were  conical,  slender,  curved 
inv,rard,  finely  straited  on  the  enamelled 
surface,  and  hollow  throughout  the  in- 
terior. These  animals  appear  to  have 
lived  in  shallow  seas  and  estuaries,  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  some,  they  swam  upon 
or  near  the  surface,  having  the  neck 
arched  like  the  swan,  and  darting  it 
down  at  the  fish  within  reach.  Some  of 


the  Plesiosauri  were  upward  of  20  feet 
long.  Their  remains  occur  from  the 
Lias  to  the  Chalk  rocks  inclusive,  these 
forms  being  thus  exclusively  of  the 
Mesozoic  age. 

PLETH'ORA,  in  medicine,  an  excess 
of  blood  in  the  human  system.  A florid 
face,  rose-colored  skin,  swollen  blood- 
vessels, frequent  nose-bleeding,  drowsi- 
ness and  heavy  feeling  in  the  limbs,  and 
a hard  and  full  pulse,  are  symptoms,  and 
this  condition,  habitual  in  many  per- 
sons, and  which,  if  not  aptually  a dis- 
ease, yet  predisposes  to  inflammations, 
congestions,  and  haemorrhages.  Plethora 
may,  however,  develop  in  persons  of  all 
conditions  and  ages  as  the  result  of  too 
much  stimulating  food  (as  an  excessive 
meat-diet),  over-eating,  large  consump- 
tion of  malt  and  spirituous  liquors, 
residence  in  northern  and  elevated 
regions  with  sharp,  dry  air,  want  of 
exercise,  too  much  sleep,  amputation  of 
a limb — in  short  of  any  action  tending 
to  unduly  increase  the  volume  of  blood. 
Plethora  of  a mild  form  may  be  reduced 
by  copious  draughts  of  diluents,  a 
vegetable  diet,  and  plenty  of  exercise; 
but  in  cases  requiring  prompt  relief 
leeches  or  bleeding  must  be  resorted  to. 

PLEURA,  the  serus  membrane  lining 
the  cavity  of  the  thorax  or  chest,  and 
which  also  covers  the  lungs.  Each  lung 
is  invested  by  a separate  pleura  or  por- 
tion of  this  membrane.  In  the  thorax 
each  pleura  is  found  to  consist  of  a por- 
tion lining  the  walls  of  the  chest,  this 
fold  being  named  the  parietal  layer  of 
the  pleura.  The  other  fold,  reflected 
upon  the  lung’s  surface,  is  named  in 
contradistinction  the  visceral  layer. 
These  two  folds  inclose  a space  known 
as  the  pleural  cavity,  which  in  health 
contains  serous  fluid  in  just  sufficient 
quantity  to  lubricate  the  surfaces  of  the 
pleurae  as  they  glide  over  one  another  in 
the  movements  of  respiration.  The  dis- 
ease to  which  the  pleurae  are  most  sub- 
ject is  pleurisy. 

PLEU'RISY,  the  inflammation  of  the 
pleura.  It  may  be  acute  or  chronic, 
simple  or  conmlicated  with  catarrh  and 
pneumonia.  Generally  part  only  of  the 
pleura  is  affected,  but  sometimes  the 
inflammation  extends  to  the  whole,  and 
even  to  both  pleurae  (double  pleurisy). 
Acute,  it  is  a very  common  complaint 
due  to  a variety  of  causes,  but  most  fre- 
quently to  sudden  chills.  It  invariably 
commences  with  shivering,  its  duration 
and  intensity  generally  indicating  the 
degree  of  severity  of  the  attack;  fever 
and  its  attendant  symptoms  succeed 
the  shivering.  A sharp,  lancinating  pain, 
commonly  called  stitch  in  the  side,  is 
felt  in  the  region  affected  at  each  in- 
spiration. A short,  dry  cough  also  often 
attends  this  disease.  While  the  in- 
flammation continues  its  progress  a 
sero-albuminous  effusion  takes  place, 
and  when  this  develops  the  febrile 
sjmaptoms  subside,  usually  from  the 
fifth  to  the  ninth  day.  Acute  pleurisy  is 
seldom  fatal  unless  complicated  with 
other  diseases  of  the  lungs  or  surround- 
ing parts,  and  many  patients  are  re- 
stored simply  by  rest,  moderate  sweat- 
ing in  bed,  spare  and  light  diet,  mild 
and  warm  drinks,  and  the  application 
of  hot  mustard  and  linseed-meal  poul- 
tices to  the  affected  part.  Opiates  to 


relieve  pain  are  often  needful.  When 
acute  pleurisy  is  treated  too  late  or  in- 
sufficiently it  may  assume  the  chronic 
condition,  which  may  last  from  six 
weeks  to  over  a year,  and  result  in  death 
from  gradual  decay,  as  in  the  case 
of  consumptives,  or  from  asphyxia. 
Chronic  pleurisy  is  characterized  by 
effusion,  which  accumulates  in  the 
pleural  cavity,  and  soon  tends  to  pro- 
duce lesions  and  complications  in  the 
surrounding  organs.  Besides  local 
treatment  purgatives  and  diuretics  are 
used,  but  if  the  disease  does  not  yield  to 
these  remedies,  the  liquid  must  be 
evacuated  by  operation.  Pleurisy,  acute 
and  chronic,  sometimes  also  appears 
without  accompanying  pain;  it  is  then 
called  latent  pleurisy. 

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,  a form  of 
pneumonia  peculiar  to  the  bovine  race. 
It  is  highly  contagious,  and  proves 
rapidly  fatal.  It  first  manifests  itself  in 
a morbid  condition  of  the  general  sys- 
tem; but  its  seat  is  in  the  lungs  and 
pleura,  where  it  causes  an  abundant 
inflammatory  exudition  of  thick  plastic 
matter.  The  lungs  become  rapidly  filled 
with  this  matter,  and  increase  greatly  in 
weight.  Whether  pleuro-pneumonia  is 
specifically  a local  or  general  disease  is 
disputed,  as  also  the  manner  of  treat- 
ment. On  the  one  hand  bleeding  and 
mercurial  treatment,  as  in  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia,  is  recommended.  On  the 
other,  evacuating  remedies,  maintain- 
ing the  strength  of  the  animal,  and  pro- 
moting the  action  of  the  skin,  bowels, 
and  kidneys. 

PLINY  (Caius  Plinius  Secundus), 
Roman  writer,  commonly  called  Pliny 
the  Elder,  was  born  a.d.  23,  probably  at 
Comum  (Como).  Every  leisure  moment 
was  devoted  to  literature  and  science, 
and  his  industry  was  so  great  that  he 
collected  an  enormous  mass  of  notes, 
which  he  utilized  in  writing  his  works. 
He  adopted  his  nephew,  Pliny  the 
Younger,  a.d.  73,  and  perished  in  the 
eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius  which  over- 
whelmed Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  in 
79.  The  only  work  of  Pliny  which  is  now 
extant  is  his  Natural  History,  a work 
containing  a mass  of  information  on 
physics,  astronomy,  etc.,  as  well  as 
natural  history  proper. 

PLINY  (Caius  Plinius  Csecilius  Secun- 
dus), the  Younger,  a nephew  of  the 
former,  was  born  a.d.  61  at  Comum 
(Como).  Having  lost  his  father  at  an 
early  age,  he  was  adopted  by  his  uncle 
and  inherited  the  latter’s  estates  and 
MSS.,  and  also  his  industry  and  love  of 
literature.  He  was  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished and  best  men  of  his  age. 
The  time  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  it 
is  supposed  that  he  died  about  the  year 
115.  As  an  author  he  labored  with  ardor, 
and  attempted  both  prose  and  poetry. 
Of  his  writings  only  a collection  of  letters 
in  ten  books,  and  a panegyric  on  Trajan, 
remain. 

PLI'OCENE,  a geological  term  ap- 
plied to  the  most  modern  of  the  divi- 
sions of  the  Tertiary  epoch.  The  Ter- 
tiary series  Sir  C.  Lyell  divided  into 
four  principal  groups,  namely,  the 
Eocene  and  the  Miocene  (which  see),  the 
Older  Pliocene,  and  the  Newer  Pliocene 
or  Pleistocene  each  characterized  by 
containing  a very  different  proportion 


FLOCK 


PLUTARCH 


of  fossil  recent  (or  existing)  species.  The 
Newer  Pliocene,  the  latest  of  the  four, 
contains  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of  recent 
fossils;  the  Older  Pliocene  contains 
from  35  to  50  per  cent  of  recent  fossils. 
The  Newer  Pliocene  period  is  that  which 
immediately  preceded  the  recent  era ; 
and  by  the  latest  system  of  classification 
it  has  been  removed  from  the  Tertiary 
and  placed  in  the  Post-tertiary  or 
Quaternary  epoch.  The  Pliocene  period 
proper,  or  the  Crag  period,  is  that  which 
intervened  between  the  Miocene  and  the 
Newer  Pliocene.  Both  the  Newer  and 
the  Older  Pliocene  exhibit  marine  as 
well  as  fresh-water  deposits. 

PLOCK  (plotsk),  or  PLOTZK,  capital 
of  the  government  of  the  same  name  in 
Russian  Poland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  78  miles  n.w.  of  Warsaw.  It  has 
a handsome  cathedral,  dating  from  the 
10th  century,  and  a bishop’s  palace.  Its 
manufactures  are  unimportant,  but  it 
has  a large  trade.  Pop.  27,073. — The 
province  has  an  area  of  4209  sq.  miles, 
mostly  level,  and  marshes  and  lakes 
abound.  Fully  one-third  of  the  area  is 
forest.  Corn  and  potatoes  are  the  chief 
agricultural  products,  and  sheep  and 
cattle  are  extensively  reared.  Pop. 
577,490. 

PLOUGH,  an  implement  drawn  by 
animal  or  steam  power,  by  which  the 
surface  of  the  soil  is  cut  into  longitudinal 
slices,  and  these  successively  raised  up 
and  turned  over.  The  object  of  the 
operation  is  to  expose  a new  surface  to 
the  action  of  the  air,  and  to  render  the 
soil  fit  for  receiving  the  seed  or  for 
other  operations  of  agriculture. — Steam 
ploughs  on  various  principles  have 
latterly  become  familiar  among  farmers. 
Some  are  driven  by  one  engine  remain- 
ing stationary  on  the  headland,  which 
winds  an  endless  rope  (generally  of 
wire)  passing  round  pulleys  attached  to 
an  apparatus  called  the  “anchor,”  fixed 
at  the  opposite  headland,  and  round  a 
drum  connected  with  the  engine  itself. 
Others  are  driven  by  two  engines,  one  at 
either  headland,  thus  superseding  the 
“anchor.”  As  steam-ploughing  appara- 
tus are  usually  beyond  both  the  means 
and  requirements  of  single  farmers, 
companies  have  been  formed  for  hiring 
them  out.  In  steam-ploughing  it  is  com- 
mon to  use  ploughs  in  which  two  sets  of 
plough  bodies  and  coulters  are  attached 
to  an  iron  frame  moving  on  a fulcrum, 
one  set  at  either  extremity,  and  pointing 
different  ways.  By  this  arrangement 
the  plough  can  be  used  without  turning, 
the  one  part  of  the  frame  being  raised 
out  of  the  ground  when  moving  in  one 
direction,  and  the  other  when  moving 
in  the  opposite.  It  is  the  front  part  of 
the  frame,  or  that  farthest  from  the 
driver,  which  is  elevated,  the  ploughing 
apparatus  connected  with  the  after  part 
being  inserted  and  doing  the  work. 
Generally  two,  three,  or  four  sets  of 
plough  bodies  and  coulters  are  attached 
to  either  extremity,  so  that  two,  three, 
or  four  furrows  are  made  at  once. 

PLOVER, the  common  name  of  several 
species  of  birds.  They  inhabit  all  parts 
of  the  world.  They  are  gregarious,  and 
most  of  them  are  partial  to  the  muddy 
borders  of  rivers  and  marshy  situations, 
subsisting  on  worms  and  various  aquatic 
insects;  but  some  of  them  affect  dry 


sandy  shores.  Their  general  features 
are:  bill  long,  slender,  straight,  com- 
pressed; nostrils  basal  and  longitudinal; 
legs  long  and  slender,  with  three  toes  be- 
fore, the  outer  connected  to  the  middle 
one  by  a short  web;  wings  middle-size. 
Most  of  them  moult  twice  a year,  and 
the  males  and  females  are  seldom  very 
dissimilar  in  appearance.  The  various 
species  pass  so  imperceptible  into  one 


another  that  their  classification  is  often 
attended  with  difficulty.  All  nestle  on 
the  ground.  They  run  much  on  the  soil, 
patting  it  with  their  feet  to  bring  out 
the  worms,  etc.  The  golden  plover,  also 
called  yellow  and  whistling  plover,  is  the 
best  known,  and  its  flesh  and  its  olive- 
green  dark-spotted  eggs  are  considered 
a delicacy  by  epicures. 

PLUM,  a genus  of  plants.  About  a 
dozen  species  are  known,  all  inhabiting 
the  north  temperate  regions  of  the 
globe.  They  are  small  trees  or  shrubs, 
with  alternate  leaves  and  white  flowers, 
either  solitary  or  disposed  in  fascicles  in 
the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  common 
garden  plum  is  the  most  extensively 
cultivated,  and  its  fruit  is  one  of  the 
most  familiar  of  the  stone-fruits.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  differing  in 
size,  form,  color,  and  taste.  Some  are 
mostly  eaten  fresh,  some  are  dried  and 
sold  as  prunes,  others  again  are  pre- 
served in  sugar,  alcohol,  syrup,  or  vine- 
gar. They  make  also  excellent  jams  and 
jellies,  and  the  syrup  from  stewed  plums 
forms  a refreshing  drink  for  invalids, 
and  a mild  aperient  for  children.  Per- 
haps the  most  esteemed  of  all  varieties 
is  the  green  gage.  A very  popular  and 
easily  grown  sort  is  the  damson.  The 
wood  of  the  plum-tree  is  hard,  compact, 
traversed  with  reddish  veins,  suscepti- 
ble of  a fine  polish,  and  is  frequently  em- 
ployed by  turners  and  cabinet-makers. 
The  sloe  or  black-thorn  is  a species  of 
wild  plum  bearing  a small,  round,  blue- 
black,  and  extremely  sour  fruit.  Its 
juice  is  made  into  prune-wine,  which  is 
chiefly  employed  by  distillers,  wine  and 
spirit  merchants,  etc.,  for  fining,  color- 
ing, purifying,  and  mellowing  spirits. 

PLUMBA'GO.  See  Graphite. 

PLUMMET,  plumb-line,  a leaden  or 
other  weight  let  down  at  the  end  of  a 
cord  to  regulate  any  work  in  a line  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon,  or  to  sound 
the  depth  of  anything.  Masons,  carpen- 
ters, etc.,  use  a plumb-line  fastened  on  a 
narrow  board  or  plate  of  brass  or  iron  to 
judge  whether  walls  or  other  objects  be 
perfectly  perpendicular,  or  plumb  as  the 
artificers  call  it.  Near  a range  of  high 
mountains  the  plumb-line,  as  can  be 
shown  by  special  arrangements,  is  not 
perfectly  true,  but  inclines  toward  the 
mountains;  and  officers  in  charge  of  the 
United  States  coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 


vey among  the  Hawaian  Islands,  have 
recently  observed  that  the  deviation  of 
a plumb-line  from  the  vertical  is  greater 
in  the  case  of  mountains  in  an  island 
than  in  continental  mountains,  and 
greater  in  the  neighborhood  of  extinct 
volcanoes  than  that  of  active  volcanoes. 
In  given  localities  the  plumb-line  also 
varies  according  to  the  ebb  and  flow  of 
the  tide. 

PLU'MULE,  in  botany,  that  part  of 
the  seed  which  grows  into  the  stem  and 
axis  of  the  future  plant.  In  the  seeds  of 
the  bean,  horse-chestnut,  etc.,  the 
plumule  is  distinctly  visible,  but  in 
plants  generally  it  is  scarcely  percepti- 
ble without  the  aid  of  a magnifying 
glass,  and  in  many  it  does  not  appear 


p,  Plumule. 


till  the  seed  begins  to  germinate.  The 
first  indication  of  development  is  the 
appearance  of  the  plumule,  which  is  a 
collection  of  feathery  fibers  bursting 
from  the  enveloping  capsule  of  the  germ, 
and  which  proceeds  immediately  to 
extend  itself  vertically  upward. 

PLUS  (L.,  more),  in  mathematics, 
signifies  addition;  the  sign  by  which  it  is 
indicated  is  -t- ; thus  A -f-  B,  which  is 
read  A plus  B,  denotes  that  the  quantity 
A is  to  be  added  to  the  quantity  B. 
Plus,  or  its  sign  +,  is  also  used  to  indi- 
cate a positive  magnitude  or  relation,  in 
opposition  to  minus  — , which  indicates 
a negative. 

PLUSH,  a fabric  similar  to  velvet, 
from  which  it  differs  only  in  the  length 
and  density  of  the  nap.  The  nap  may  be 
formed  either  in  the  warp  or  woof,  the 
one  in  which  it  is  being  double,  there 
being  a warp  and  a woof  for  the  nap. 
Plushes  are  now  made  almost  exclusive- 
ly of  silk.  The  cheaper  qualities  have  a 
cotton  backing.  Some  of  the  finest  dress 
plushes  are  produced  in  London,  plushes 
for  gentlemen’s  hats  come  chiefly  from 
Lyons,  while  common  or  imitation 
plushes  are  largely  manufactured  in 
Germany.  Plush  is  now  also  extensively 
used  in  upholstery  and  decorative  work. 

PLUTARCH  (plQ'tark),  a learned 
Greek  writer,  born  at  Cheronsea  in 
Boeotia,  where  he  also  died.  Neither 
the  year  of  his  birth  nor  that  of  his  death 
is  accurately  known,  but  it  is  generally 
held  that  he  lived  from  the  reign  of  Nero 
to  that  of  Hadrian  (54-117  a.d.).  He 
appears  from  his  writings  to  have  visited 
Italy,  lectured  there  on  philosophy,  and 
stayed  some  time  at  Rome,  where  he 
established  a school  during  the  reign  of 
Domitian.  His  Parallel  Lives  of  illus- 
trious Greeks  and  Romans  is  the  work  to 
which  he  owes  his  fame.  The  lives  are 
nearly  all  written  in  pairs,  one  Greek 
and  one  Roman,  followed  by  a compari- 
son of  the  two,  and  are  models  of  bio- 
graphical portraiture.  We  have  numer- 
ous editions  and  translations  of  them. 
Plutarch’s  other  works,  about  sixty  in 
number, are  generally  classed  as  moralia, 
though  some  of  them  are  narrative.  His 
writings  show  that  he  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  literature  of  his  time. 


PLUTO 


PO 


and  with  history,  and  that  he  must  have 
had  access  to  many  books. 

PLUTO,  in  classical  mythology,  the 
god  of  the  infernal  regions,  the  ruler  of 
the  dead.  He  was  a son  of  Cronus  and 
Rhea,  a brother  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  and  to  him,  on  the 
partition  of  the  world,  fell  the  kingdom 
of  the  shades.  He  married  Persephbne 
(which  see).  By  the  Greeks  he  was  gen- 
erally called  Hades  and  by  the  Romans 
Orcus,  Tartarus,  and  Dis  Pater.  As  is 
the  case  with  all  other  pagan  deities,  the 
accounts  of  Pluto  vary  with  different 
writers  and  periods,  and  in  later  ages  he 
was  confounded  with  Plutus.  The  wor- 
ship of  Pluto  was  extensively  spread 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
cypress,  the  box,  the  narcissus,  and  the 
plant  adiantum  (maiden-hair),  were  sa- 
cred to  him  : oxen  and  goats  were  sacri- 
ficed to  him  in  the  shades  of  night,  and 
his  priests  were  crowned  with  cypress. 
He  is  represented  in  gloomy  majesty, 
his  forehead  shaped  by  his  hair,  and 
with  a thick  beard.  In  his  hand  he  holds 
a two-forked  scepter,  a staff,  or  a key ; by 
his  side  is  Cerberus.  He  is  often  accom- 
panied by  his  wife. 

PLUTONIC  ROCKS,  unstratified  cry- 
stalline rocks,  such  as  granites,  green- 
stones, and  other,  of  igneous  origin, 
formed  at  great  depths  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  They  are  distinguished 
from  those  called  volcanic  rocks,  al- 
though they  are  both  igneous;  plutonic 
rocks  having  been  elaborated  in  the  deep 
recesses  of  the  earth,  while  the  volcanic 
are  solidified  at  or  near  the  surface. 

PLUTUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god 
of  riches.  Zeus  struck  him  blind  because 
he  confined  his  gifts  to  the  good;  and  he 
thenceforth  conferred  them  equally  on 
the  good  and  the  bad.  His  residence 
was  under  the  earth.  Plutus  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Aristophanes’  comedy  of  the 
same  name. 

PLUVIOSE,  the  fifth  month  of  the 
French  republican  calendar,  including 
January  20 — Feb.  18  or  19.  See  Calendar. 

PLYMOUTH  (plim'uth),  a seaport, 
municipal,  pari.,  and  county  borough  of 
England,  in  Devonshire,  at  the  head  of 


Plymouth  Sound.  Plymouth  is  well  de- 
fended both  land-  and  seaward  by  a 
series  of  forts  of  exceptional  strength 
provided  with  heavy  ordnance.  A 
stupendous  breakwater  has  been  con- 


structed at  a cost  of  about  $10,000,000. 
The  western  harbor,  is  specially  devoted 
to  the  royal  navy,  and  here  are  the  dock- 
yard, and  Keyhain  steam -yard.  The 
mercantile  marine  is  accommodated  in 
the  eastern  harbor.  Pop.  107,509. 

PLYMOUTH,  a seaport  and  capital  of 
Plymouth  co.  Massachusetts,  37  miles 
s.s.e.  of  Boston,  founded  by  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  in  1620.  It  is  situated  in  a capa- 
cious but  shallow  bay,  andhasextensive 
fisheries,  rope  and  canvas  factories,  also 
iron-works.  Pilgrim  Hall,  and  a colossal 
monument  to  the  pilgrims,  on  the  to]) 
of  the  adjoining  hill,  are  the  chief  sights 
of  the  place.  Pop.  10,485. 

PLYMOUTH,  a growing  town  in 
Lucerne  co.,  Penn.  Coal  mining  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on.  Pop.  14.879. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN,  Plymouth- 
ites,  a sect  of  Christians  who  first  ap- 
peared at  Plymouth  in  1830,  but  have 
since  considerably  extended  over  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  among 
the  Protestants  of  France,  Switzerland, 
Italy,  etc.  They  object  to  national 
churches  as  being  too  lax,  and  to  dis- 
senting churches  as  too  sectarian,  recog- 
nizing all  as  brethren  who  believe  in 
Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit  as  his  Vicar. 
They  acknowledge  no  form  of  church 
government  nor  any  office  of  the  minis- 
try, all  males  being  regarded  by  them 
as  equally  entitled  to  “prophesy”  or 
preach. 

PLYMOUTH  ROCK,  a ledge  of  rock 
in  Pljunouth  harbor.  Mass.,  on  which 
the  Pilgrims  are  said  to  have  stepped 
when  disembarking.  A beautiful  granite 
canopy  has  been  erected  upon  the  rock. 

PLYMOUTH  ROCK,  a breed  of  do- 
mestic fowls.  It  is  of  large  size  and  has 
valuable  qualities  for  market  purposes. 
The  favorite  variety  is  the  “barred,” 
of  a grayish  white  color,  every  feather 
marked  with  many  curving  black  bands. 
The  average  weight  of  the  cock  is  9J 
pounds,  of  hens  7^  pounds. 

PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH,  propulsion 
by  means  of  compressed  air  or  by  form- 
ing a vacuum.  Pneumatic  railways  have 
thus  far  proved  abortive,  but  propulsion 
by  compressed  air  has  been  successfully 
applied  to  a variety  of  practical  uses. 
Parcels  are  thus  conveyed,  and  internal 
communication  in  mercantile  houses, 
hotels,  etc.,  is  carried  on  by  its  means. 
The  most  developed  application  tof  com- 
pressed air  as  a motive  force  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  telegraph  and  post- 
office  service  of  large  cities.  Pneumatic 
dispatch,  which  has  proved  a most 
useful  auxiliary  in  securing  prompt  and 
cheap  collection  and  distribution  of 
telegraphic  messages,  was  first  intro- 
duced in  London  by  Latimer  Clark  in 
1853,  improved  by  Varley  1858,  and 
again  by  Siemens  in  1863.  The  vehicles 
charged  with  the  messages,  technically 
called  carriers,  are  forced  through  leaden 
tubes  connecting  the  various  stations, 
and  from  1^  to  3 inches,  diameter  by 
means  of  air-pressure  at  one  end,  or 
sucked  through  by  a partial  vacuum  at 
the  other.  The  invention  of  Latimer 
Clark  and  Varley  required  a separate 
tube  between  each  pair  of  stations,  and 
admitted  of  only  a single  despatch  at  a 
time;  but  a system  of  laying  tubes  in 
circuit  for  the  continuous  transmission 
of  dispatches,  by  means  of  an  uninter-' 


rupted  air-current  in  one  direction, 
was  adopted  in  Berlin  by  Messrs.  Sie- 
mens and  Halske  in  1863,  and  intro- 
duced in  London  in  1870.  Pneumatic 
tubes  are  also  in  growing  use  in  Liver- 
pool, Manchester,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  etc. 
The  circuit  system,  but  not  with  a con- 
tinuous current,  is  extensively  used  in 
Paris.  The  first  attempt  at  pneumatic 
dispatch  in  America  was  made  by  A.  E. 
Beach  in  1867.  The  construction  of  an 
atmospheric  railway  tunnel  was  com- 
menced but  after  a short  distance  was 
complete  the  work  was  abandoned. 
This  was  the  first  and  only  attempt  at 
atmospheric  railway  construction  in 
America.  The  use  of  pneumatic  dis- 
patch has,  however,  become  very  ex- 
tensive. It  is  in  use  in  all  the  large  cities 
in  stores  for  carrying  cash  to  and  from 
a centrally  located  cashier’s  desk  and 
in  a great  many  cities  it  is  also  used  in 
carrying  small  parcels.  The  po.st -office 
department  of  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Chicago  and  other  large  cities  use  it  ex- 
tensively, and  it  is  proposed  to  keep 
extending  the  service  as  fast  as  possible. 

PNEUMATICS,  that  branch  of  physics 
which  treats  of  the  mechanical  proper- 
ties of  elastic  fluids,  and  particularly  of 
atmospheric  air.  The  chemical  proper- 
ties of  elastic  fluids  (air  and  gases)  be- 
long to  chemistry.  Pneumatics  treat 
of  the  weight,  pressure,  equilibrium, 
elasticity,  density,  condensation,  rare- 
faction, resistance,  motion,  etc.,  of  air; 
it  treats  also  of  air  considered  as  the 
medium  of  sound  (acoustics),  and  as  the 
vehicle  of  heat,  moisture,  etc.  It  also 
comprehends  the  description  of  those 
machines  which  depend  chiefly  for  their 
action  on  the  pressure  and  elasticity  of 
air,  as  the  various  kinds  of  pumps, 
artificial  fountains,  etc.  The  weight  of 
the  air,  and  its  pressure  on  all  the  bodies 
on  the  earth’s  surface,  w'ere  quite  un- 
known to  the  ancients,  and  only  first 
perceived  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury by  Galileo,  when  a sucking-pump 
refused  to  draw  water  above  a certain 
height;  and  to  Torricelli,  his  pupil,  be- 
longs the  honor  of  giving  first  a natural 
explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  See 
Air,  Air-pump,  Atmosphere,  Barometer, 
Gas,  Pump,  etc. 

PNEUMONIA,  acute  inflammation  of 
the  lung  substance.  The  more  general 
symptoms  are  feverishness,  constant 
pressing  pain  on  the  chest,  difficult 
breathing  and  painfid  cough.  The  base 
of  the  lung  is  generally  attacked,  and 
the  right  lung  twice  as  often  as  the  left, 
but  both  may  be  affected.  Pneumonia  is 
frequently  complicated  with  pleurisy 
(which  see).  The  patient  must  be  kept 
quiet  in  bed,  the  affected  parts  poulticed 
and  the  bowels  attended  to.  Mild 
nourishing  diet,  with  medicines  to 
stimulate  the  skin  and  to  reduce  fever, 
should  be  given. 

PO,  the  largest  river  of  Italy.  It 
rises  on  the  confines  of  France  and  Pied- 
mont in  Mount  Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  and  receives  during  its  long  course 
to  the  Adriatic  (about  450  miles),  a vast 
number  of  tributary  streams.  It  divides 
the  great  plain  of  Lombardy  into  two 
nearly  equal  parts,  and  is  the  grand  re- 
ceptacle for  the  streams  flowing  south 
from  the  Alps,  and  for  the  lesser  waters 
that  flow  north  from  a part  of  the 


PNEUMATIC  TOOLS 


Poison 


Apennine  range.  Its  principal  affluents 
are,  on  the  left,  the  Baltea,  Sesia, 
Ticino,  Adda,  and  Mincio;  on  the  right 
the  Tanaro,  Trebbia,  and  Panaro.  The 
Po,  in  spite  of  embankments,  etc.,  is  the 
cause  of  frequent  inundations,  especially 
near  its  mouth.  In  some  places,  owing  to 
the  silt  carried  down,  its  channel  is  now 
raised  above  the  country  through  which 
it  flows.  Fish  are  plentiful  in  it,  includ- 
ing the  shad,  salmon,  and  even  sturgeon. 

PNEUMATIC  TOOLS,  portable,  self- 
contained-motor  tools,  for  metal  and 
wood  working,  operated  by  compressed 
air.  In  the  percussion  type  work  is  done 
by  rapidly  repeated  percussive  blows 
and  in  the  rotary  type  by  a rotary  or 
boring  action.  The  motive  power  used 
is  air  under  pressure,  and  the  motor  is 
contained  within  the  tool.  There  are 
nearly  100  different  styles  of  tools  in 
use  and  new  appliances  are  being  con- 
stantly discovered.  Hammering,  ram- 
ming, calking,  chipping,  riveting,  shav- 
ing, drilling,  boring,  screwing,  clipping, 
carving,  and  expanding  tubes  are  some 
of  the  classes  of  work  done. 

POACHING,  the  trespassing  on  an- 
other’s property  for  the  purpose  of  kill- 
ing or  stealing  game  or  fish.  For  the  law 
relating  to  the  poaching  of  game  see 
Game  Laws. 

POCAHON'TAS,  daughter  of  Pow- 
hatan, a celebrated  American-Indian 
warrior  of  Virginia,  born  about  the  year 
1595.  Some  romantic  incidents  are  told 
of  her  life,  but  there  seem  to  be  con- 
siderable doubts  as  to  their  truth.  She 
is  said  to  have  shown  a great  friendship 
for  the  English  who  colonized  Virginia, 
and  to  have  rendered  them  substantial 
services.  In  1607  she  prevailed  on  her 
father  to  spare  the  life  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  his  prisoner,  and  two  years  later 


Pocahontas. 


frustrated  a plot  to  destroy  him  and  his 
party.  After  Captain  Smith  had  left 
the  colony  she  was  kept  as  a hostage 
by  an  English  expeditionary  force 
(1612).  During  this  detention  she  mar- 
ried Mr.  Rolfe,  an  Englishman,  who  in 
1616  took  her  on  a visit  to  England, 
where  she  was  baptized  and  assumed  the 
name  of  Rebecca.  She  died  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  left  one  son,  who  was 
educated  in  London,  and  whose  de- 
scendants are  said  to  exist  still  in  the 
state  of  Virginia. 

PODIEBRAD  (pod'ye-brAd),  George, 
King  of  Bohemia,  born  1420,  died  1471. 
In  1444  he  became  one  of  the  two  gover- 
nors of  Bohemia  during  the  minority  of 
Ladislas,  Albert’s  posthumous  son,  now 


king  of  the  country,  and,  after  over- 
coming the  Catholic  opposition,  sole 
regent  in  1451.  Ladislas  died  in  1457, 
and  Podiebrad  was  elected  to  the  throne 
in  the  following  year,  and  crowned  by 
the  Catholic  bishops  in  1459.  He  in- 
augurated his  reign  by  the  introduction 
of  various  beneficent  laws,  wise  ad- 
ministration, and  a policy  of  concilia- 
tion toward  the  Catholics;  but  he  was 
not  allowed  to  carry  out  his  reforms  in 
peace.  The  pope,  Paul  II.,  publicly 
denounced  him  as  an  heretic  in  1463, 
excommunicated  him,  and  his  legate 
soon  produced  a rising  among  the 
Catholics.  In  order  to  secure  the  aid  of 
the  Poles  he  declared  the  successor  to 
the  throne  of  Poland  to  be  his  own 
successor,  while  his  sons  should  only 
inherit  the  family  estates  (1469).  The 
Poles  were  thus  immediately  drawn  to 
his  side;  the  Emperor  Frederick  also 
declared  in  his  favor;  and  his  Catholic 
subjects  became  reconciled  to  him. 
Shortly  after  he  destroyed  the  infantry 
of  the  Hungarians.  He  thus  saw  himself 
at  last  completely  secured  in  his  king- 
dom; but  no  sooner  was  this  accom- 
plished than  he  died;  being  succeeded 
by  Ladislas,  eldest  son  of  Casimir  IV., 
king  of  Poland,  who  thus  united  the  two 
crowns. 

PODO'LIA,  a government  of  South- 
western Russia;  area,  16,224  sq.  miles. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  salubrious, 
the  soil  generally  very  fertile;  in  fact, 
Podolia  forms  one  of  the  most  valuable 
agricultural  possessions  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  Pop.  3,031,500.  Capital,  Kam- 
enetz. 

POE,  Edgar  Allan,  American  poet  and 
romantic  writer,  born  at  Baltimore 
1809,  died  in  the  same  city  1849.  His 
father  and  mother  were  actors,  and  be- 
ing left  an  orphan  when  a mere  child  he 
was  adopted  by  Mr.  Allan,  a wealthy 
Baltimore  merchant.  His  early  educa- 
tion he  received  at  Stoke-Newington, 
London,  1816-21,  and  on  his  return  to 
America  attended  a school  at  Richmond, 
Virginia,  and  finally  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Charlottesville.  Here  he  dis- 
played extraordinary  talents,  but  also 
contracted  a taste  for  fast  living  which 
occasioned  quarrels  with  his  benefactor, 
and  caused  him  to  quit  America  for 
Eurime.  He  took  part  in  the  struggles  of 
the  Greeks  for  independence,  and  for  a 
few  years  led  an  erratic  life  on  the  con- 
tinent. In  1829  he  returned  to  America, 
a reconciliation  with  Mr.  Allan  took 
place,  and  he  was  sent  as  cadet  to  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point.  Fur- 
ther irregularities  brought  about  a com- 
plete rupture  with  Mr.  Allan,  and  Poe 
enlisted  as  a private  soldier,  however, 
only  to  desert  later  on.  His  literary 
career  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in 
1835,  when  he  gained  the  prize  offered 
by  the  Baltimore  Saturday  Visitor  for  a 
tale  and  a poem.  He  then  became  suc- 
cessively editor  of  the  newly-founded 
Southern  Literary  Messenger  at  Rich- 
mond, contributor  to  the  New  York 
Review  at  New  York,  and  editor  of 
Burton’s  Gentleman’s  Magazine  and 
Graham’s  Magazine  at  Philadelphia. 
For  these  periodicals  he  wrote  a number 
of  tales,  exhibiting  a weird  yet  fascinat- 
ing imagination.  While  at  Richmond, 
in  1836,  he  married  his  cousin,  Virginia 


Clemm,  a beautiful  and  amiable  girl.  > 
The  great  event  in  Poe’s  life  was  the 
publication  at  New  York  in  1845  of  his  ( 
poem  the  Raven,  which  spread  his  fame 
to  the  whole  English-speaking  world. 
For  this  remarkable  production  Poe  is 
said  to  have  received  $10.00.  He  was 
subsequently  connected  with  The  Home 
Journal  and  The  Broadway  Journal. 

In  1848  his  wife  died.  Passing  through 
Baltimore  in  1849,  on  his  way  to  New 
York  to  make  preparations  for  a second 
marriage,  he  was  led  to  excessive  drink- 
ing, and  died  from  its  effects  at  the 
hospital. 

POET  LAUREATE.  See  Laureate. 

POETRY,  that  one  of  the  fine  arts 
which  exhibits  its  special  character  and 
powers  by  means  of  language;  or,  ac- 
cording to  Aytoun,  the  art  which  has 
for  its  object  the  creation  of  intellectual  >' 
pleasures  by  means  of  imaginative  and 
passionate  language,  and  language  gen- 
erally, though  not  necessarily,  formed 
into  regular  numbers.  It  has  also  been 
defined  as  the  concrete  and  artistic  ex- 
pression of  the  human  mind  in  emotional 
and  rhythmical  language.  It  is  the  ; 
earliest  form  of  literature,  and  also  the 
final  and  ideal  form  of  all  pure  literature ; 
its  true  place  lying  between  music  on 
the  one  hand  and  prose  or  loosened 
speech  on  the  other.  The  poet  deals  with 
language  as  the  painter  does  with  color, 
sometimes  invading  the  domain  of  music 
and  sometimes  that  of  prose,  or  rather  he 
brings  prose  into  the  domain  of  poetry. 
The  two  great  classes  of  poetic  impulse 
are  dramatic  imagination  and  lyric 
imagination.  Partdking  of  the  character 
of  both  is  epic  or  narrative  poetry. 
(See  Epic.)  To  the  dramatic  class  belong 
tragedy  and  comedy;  to  the  lyric  belong 
the  song,  hymn,  ode,  anthem,  elegy, 
sonnet,  and  ballad,  though  the  last-  ■■  , 
named  frequently  has  a kind  of  epic 
character.  Other  forms,  such  as  “didac- 
tic” poetry,  “satirical”  poetry,  are  also 
in  use,  but  it  is  a question  if  they  enter  J 
into  the  circle  of  poetry  at  all.  See  .■ 
separate  articles  on  the  various  species. 
Poetics  is  the  theory  of  poetry;  that 
branch  of  criticism  which  treats  of  the 
nature  and  laws  of  poetry. 

POINT,  in  geometry,  is  a quantity 
which  has  no  parts,  or  which  is  indivisi- 
ble, or  which  has  position  without  mag- 
nitude. Points  may  be  regarded  as  the 
ends  or  extremities  of  lines.  If  a point 
is  supposed  to  be  moved  in  any  way,  it 
will  by  its  motion  describe  a line. 

POINTER  DOG,  a breed  of  sporting 
dogs,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  hounds. 
The  original  breed  is  Spanish,  but  a cross 
with  the  fox-hound  is  now  generally 
used.  It  is  smooth,  short-haired,  gener- 
ally marked  black  and  white  like  the 
fox-hound,  but  occasionally  a uniform 
black.  It  derives  its  name  from  its  habit 
of  stopping  and  pointing  with  the  head 
in  the  direction  of  game,  discovered  by 
a very  acute  sense  of  smell.  The  dog 
once  having  pointed  remains  perfectly 
quiet.  This  faculty  in  the  pointer  is 
hereditary,  but  is  better  developed  by 
training. 

POISON,  any  agent  capable  of  pro- 
ducing a morbid,  noxious,  dangerous, 
or  deadly  effect  upon  the  animal  econ- 
omy, when  introduced  either  by  cutane- 
ous absorption,  respiration,  or  the  diges- 


POITIERS,  DIANA  OP 


POLAR  distance 


tive  canaL  Poisons  are  divided,  with 
respect  to  the  kingdom  to  which  they 
belong,  into  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral;  but  those  which  proceed  from 
animals  are  often  called  venoms,  while 
those  that  are  produced  by  disease  have 
the  name  virus.  With  respect  to  their 
effects  they  have  been  divided  into  four 
classes,  namely,  irritant,  narcotic,  nar- 
cotico-acrid,  and  septic  or  putrescent. 
Many  poisons  operate  chemically,  cor- 
roding the  organized  fiber,  and  causing 
inflammation  and  mortification.  To  this 
class  belong  many  metallic  oxides  and 
salts,  as  arsenic,  one  of  the  most  deadly 
poisons;  many  preparations  of  copper, 
mercury,  and  antimony,  and  othermetals ; 
the  mineral  and  vegetable  acids ; the  sub- 
stance derived  from  some  plants,  as  the 
spurges  and  mezereon;  and  cantharides, 
from  the  animal  kingdom.  Other  poisons 
exercise  a powerful  action  upon  the 
nerves  and  a rapid  destruction  of  their 
energy.  These  are  the  sedative  or  stupe- 
fying poisons,  and  belong  for  the  most 
part  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Opium, 
hemlock,  henbane,  belladonna,  are  the 
best-known  forms  of  this  poison.  Prus- 
sic acid,  a poison  obtained  from  the 
kernels  of  several  fruits,  the  cherry- 
laurel,  etc.,  is  one  of  the  most  rapid 
destroyers  of  life.  Among  plants  there 
are  many  which  unite  the  properties  of 
both  kinds,  as  the  common  foxglove, 
and  the  monkshood  or  aconite.  An  alka- 
loid is  extracted  from  the  latter,  ^th  of 
a grain  of  which  has  proved  fatal. 
Another  class  of  poisons  suddenly  and 
entirely  cause  a cessation  of  some  func- 
tion necessary  to  life.  To  this  class  be- 
long all  the  kinds  of  gas  and  air  which 
are  irrespirable,  suffocating  vapors,  as 
carbonic  acid  gas,  fumes  of  sulphur  and 
charcoal,  etc.  Many  preparations  of 
lead,  as  acetate  or  sugar  of  lead,  car- 
bonate or  whitelead,  etc.,  are  to  be 
counted  in  this  class.  The  effect  of 
poisons  materially  depend  on  the  ex- 
tent of  the  dose,  some  of  the  most  dead- 
ly poisons  being  useful  remedies  in  cer- 
tain quantities  and  circumstances. 
Antidotes  naturally  vary  with  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  poisons.  They  sometimes 
protect  the  body  against  the  operation 
of  the  poison,  sometimes  change  this 
last  in  such  a manner  that  it  loses  its 
injurious  properties,  and  sometimes 
remove  or  remedy  its  violent  results. 
Thus  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  acrid  and 
corrosive  substances  we  use  the  fatty, 
mucilaginous  substances,  as  oil,  milk, 
etc.,  which  sheathe  and  protect  the 
coats  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  against 
the  operation  of  the  poison.  Against  the 
metallic  posions  substances  are  em- 
ployed which  form  with  the  poison 
insoluble  compounds,  such  as  freshly 
prepared  hydrated  oxide  of  iron,  or 
dialysed  iron  for  arsenic,  albumin  (white 
of  egg)  for  mercury;  Epsom  or  Glauber’s 
salts  for  lead.  Lime,  chalk,  and  mag- 
nesia are  the  best  remedies  for  the 
powerful  acids.  For  cantharides,  muci- 
lage, gruel,  and  barley-water  are  em- 
ployed. We  oppose  to  the  alkaline 
poisons  the  weaker  vegetable  acids,  as 
vinegar.  Prussic  acid  is  neutralized  by 
alkalies  and  freshly  precipitated  oxide 
of  iron.  To  arouse  those  poisoned  by 
opium,  we  use  coffee  and  ammonia,  and 
Joelladonna  as  an  antagonistic  drug. 


Chloral-hydrate  poisoning  is  similarly 
treated;  and  for  strychnia  or  nux 
vomica,  animal  charcoal  in  water  and 
chloral-hydrate  are  used.  The  sale  of 
poison  is  regulated  and  restricted  by  law. 
Poisoning  was  common  in  ancient 
Rome,  and  in  France  and  Italy  during 
the  17th  century. 

POITIERS,  DIANA  OF.  See  Diana  of 
Poitiers. 

POKEWEED,  a North  American 
branching  herbaceous  plant.  Its  root 
acts  as  a powerful  emetic  and  cathartic, 
but  its  use  is  attended  with  narcotic 
effects.  Its  berries  are  said  to  possess 
the  same  quality;  they  are  employed  as 
a remedy  for  chronic  and  syphilitic 
rheumatism,  and  for  allaying  syphiloid 
pains.  The  leaves  are  extremely  acrid, 
but  the  young  shoots,  which  lose  this 
quality  by  boiling  in  water,  are  eaten  in 
the  United  States  as  asparagus. 

POLACCA,  or  POLACRE,  a three- 
masted  vessel  used  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  masts  are  usually  of  one  piece,  so 
that  they  have  neither  tops,  caps,  nor 
cross-trees.  It  carries  a fore-and-aft 
sail  on  the  mizzen-mast,  and  square 
sails  on  the  main-mast  and  fore-mast. 

POL'AND,  an  extensive  territory  of 
central  Europe,  which  existed  for  many 
centuries  as  an  independent  and  power- 
ful state;  but  having  fallen  a prey  to 
internal  dissensions,  was  violently  seized 
by  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  as  a 
eommon  spoil,  partitioned  among  these 
three  powers,  and  incorporated  with 
their  dominions.  In  its  greatest  pros- 
perity it  had  at  least  11,000,000  of  in- 
habitants, and  an  area  of  350,000  sq. 
miles,  and  immediately  before  its  first 
partition  an  areS,  of  about  282,000  sq. 
miles,  stretching  from  the  frontiers  of 
Hungary  and  Turkey  to  the  Baltic,  and 
from  Germany  far  east  into  Russia, 
forming  one  compact  kingdom.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Carpathians,  form- 
ing its  southwestern  boundary,  and  a 
ridge  of  moderate  elevation  penetrating 
into  it  from  Silesia,  the  country  presents 
the  appearance  of  an  almost  unbroken 
plain,  composed  partly  of  gently-undu- 
lating expanses,  partly  of  rich  alluvial 
flats,  partly  of  sandy  tracts,  and  partly 
of  extensive  morasses.  Its  principal 
streams  are  the  Vistula,  the  Niemen, 
and  the  Dwina,  all  belonging  to  the 
basin  of  the  Baltic;  and  the  Dniester, 
South  Bug,  and  Dnieper,  with  its  tribu- 
tary, Pripet,  belonging  to  the  basin  of 
the  Black  sea.  The  physical  configura- 
tion of  the  country  makes  it  admirably 
adapted  for  agriculture.  Next  to  grain 
and  cattle  its  most  important  product 
is  timber. 

The  Poles,  like  the  Russians,  are  a 
Slavonic  race,  and  are  first  spoken  of  as 
the  Polani,  a tribe  or  people  between  the 
Vistula  and  Oder.  The  country  was 
divided  into  small  communities  until 
thereign  of  Mieezyslaw I. (962-992)  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  who  renounced  paganism 
in  favor  of  Christianity,  and  was  a vassal 
of  the  German  emperor.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Boleslaw  the  Great  (992-1025) 
who  raised  Poland  into  an  independent 
kingdom  and  increased  its  territories. 
In  succeeding  reigns  the  country  was 
involved  in  war  with  Germany,  the 
heathen  Prussians,  the  Teutonic  knights, 
and  with  Russia.  The  last  of  the  Rast 


dynasty  was  Casimir  the  Great  (1364- 
70),  during  whose  reign  the  material 
prosperity  of  Poland  greatly  increased. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Louis 
of  Anjou,  king  of  Hungary,  whose 
daughter,  Hedwig,  was  recognized  as 
“king”  in  1384,  and  having  married 
Jagello,  prince  of  Lithuania,  thus  estab- 
lished the  dynasty  of  the  Jagellons, 
which  lasted  from  1386  to  1572.  During 
this  period  Poland  attained  its  most 
powerful  and  flourishing  condition.  In 
1572  the  Jagellon  dynasty  became  ex- 
tinct in  the  male  line,  and  the  monarchy, 
hitherto  elective  in  theory,  now  became 
so  in  fact.  The  more  important  of  the 
elective  kings  were  Sigismund  III. 
(1587-1637,  Wladislaw  or  Ladislaus  IV. 
(1632-48),  John  Casimir  (1648-69),  and 
the  Polish  general  Sobieski,  who  became 
king  under  the  title  of  John  III.  (1674- 
96).  He  was  succeeded  by  Augustus  II., 
Elector  of  Saxony,  who  got  entangled 
in  the  war  of  Russia  with  Charles  XII., 
and  had  as  a rival  in  the  kingdom  Stan- 
islaus Lesezynski.  Augustus  III.  (1733 
— 63)  followed,  and  by  the  end  of  his 
reign  internal  dissensions  and  other 
causes  had  brought  the  country  into  a 
state  of  helplessness.  In  1772,  under  the 
last  feeble  king  Stanislaus  Augustus 
(1764-95),  the  first  actual  partition  of 
Poland  took  place,  when  about  a third 
of  her  territories  were  seized  by  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Russia,  the  respective 
shares  of  the  spoil  being  Prussia  13,415 
sq.  miles,  Austria  27,000  sq.  miles,  and 
Russia  42,000  sq.  miles.  What  remained 
to  Poland  was  completely  under  Russian 
influence.  Another  partition  in  1793 
gave  Russia  nearly  97,000  sq.  miles  and 
Prussia  22,500  sq.  miles.  A third  parti- 
tion took  place  in  1795  after  the  heroic 
attempt  of  Kosciusko  to  save  his  coun- 
try, and  the  last  king  of  Poland  became 
a pensionary  of  the  Russian  court.  The 
successive  partitions  gave  Russia  up- 
ward of  180,000  sq.  miles,  Austria  about 
45,000  sq.  miles,  and  Prussia  57,000  sq. 
miles.  From  1815  to  1830  Russian 
Poland  was  a constitutional  monarchy 
with  the  emperor  as  king,  but  the  Poles, 
taking  occasion  of  the  French  revolution 
at  the  latter  date  rashly  engaged  in  an 
insurrection,  which  only  hastened  their 
complete  absorption  in  Russia.  The 
name  Kingdom  of  Poland  indeed  re- 
mains, but  all  the  autonomic  institu- 
tions of  the  country  have  been  swept 
away,  and  the  whole  country  is  being 
rapidly  Russified.  The  Polish  language 
has  been  entirely  superseded  by  Russian 
in  all  courtsof  law,educational establish- 
ments and  public  offices;  and  all  official 
correspondence  must  be  in  Russian. 
The  population  in  1907  was  9,442,590, 
of  whom  over  70  per  cent  were  Roman 
Catholics. 

POLAR  BEAR.  See  Bear. 

POLAR  CIRCLES,  two  imaginary 
circles  of  the  earth  parallel  to  the  equa- 
tor, the  one  north  and  the  other  south, 
distant  23°  28'  from  either  pole.  See 

llTlflAT*  AT*r*^lP 

POLAR  DISTANCE,  the  angular  dis- 
tance of  any  point  on  a sphere  from 
one  of  its  poles;  more  especially,  the 
angular  distance  of  a heavenly  body 
from  the  elevated  pole  of  the  heavens. 
It  is  measured  by  the  intercepted  arc 
of  the  circle  passing  through  it  and 


POLAR  EXPLORATION 


POLAR  EXPLORATION 


In  1815  polar  exploration  found  a 
promoter  in  Sir  John  Barrow,  who 
offered  a reward  of  i20,000  sterling  to 
anyone  making  the  northwest  passage, 
and  £5,000  for  reaching  89  degrees 
north  latitude,  which  would  be  sixty- 
nine  miles  south  of  the  pole. 

Two  years  later,  in  1817,  two  expe- 
ditions set  out,  one  by  way  of  Spitz- 
bergen,  the  other  by  Baffin’s  Bay.  The 
Dorothea  and  the  Trent,  on  the  Spitz- 
bergen  routek  were  commanded  by 
Captain  David  Buchen  and  Lieutenant 
John  Franklin.  The  other  expedition 
was  in  charge  of  Captain  John  Ross 
and  Lieutenant  Edward  Parry.  Neither 
expedition  was  a success.  In  1827 
Parry  on  his  third  voyage  made  his 
historic  dash  for  the  pole  from  Spitz- 
bergen  by  sledge  boats  and  reached 
latitude  82  degrees  and  42  minutes. 

In  1845  Sir  John  Franklin  made  his 
tragic  voyage.  His  ships,  the  Erebus 
and  the  Terror,  were  seen  by  a whaler 
in  July,  1845,  and  that  was  the  last 
trace.  Eor  three  years  the  British 
admiralty,  spurred  on  by  Lady  Frank- 
lin, sent  out  relief  expeditions,  but 
the  only  reward  of  the  searchers  was 
the  discovery  of  the  grewsome  relics 
of  a frightful  tragedy.  One  vessel 
had  been  crushed  in  the  ice,  the  other 
had  been  stranded  on  the  shore  of 
King  William’s  Island.  Three  winters 
in  the  north  had  reduced  the  explorers 
to  skeletons,  and  they  had  fallen  one 
by  one  by  the  way  in  an  effort  to 
drag  their  sledges  over  the  ice  to  a 
land  camp. 

The  field  of  arctic  exploration  was 
entered  by  Walter  Wellman  in  1894. 
He  made  his  effort  to  reach  the  pole 
with  sledge  and  boat,  using  a ship 
from  Spitzbergen,  scene  of  his  later 
attempts  by  balloon  fight.  His  ves- 
sel, the  Ragnvald  Jarl,  was  crushed 
by  fioes.  May  28,  1894,  at  Walden 
Island.  He  continued  north  by  sledge 
after  the  wreck  occurred.  He  was 
obliged  to  abandon  the  attempt  six 
miles  from  Platen  Islands,  near  the 
eighty-first  parallel.  His  second  ex- 
pedition was  in  1898-9,  when  he  pene- 
trated Franz  Josef  Land.  He  had 
raised  the  funds  for  the  expedition 
without  assistance.  His  ship  was  the 
Frithjof,  a Norwegian  vessel. 

In  1899  the  ship  of  the  Duke  of 
Abruzzi  touched  at  Franz  Josef  Land 
and  Wellman,  as  the  first  settler,  wel- 
comed the  duke.  Then,  in  1906,  Well- 
man was  prepared  to  start  in  his  first 
attempt  to  reach  the  pole  in  a dirigible 
balloon.  Atmospheric  conditions  were 
such  as  to  make  a start  impracticable. 
He  started,  however,  a year  later,  but 
was  forced  to  halt.  His  last  attempt 
was  in  1909,  but  an  accident  to  his 
balloon  forced  him  again  to  relinquish 
the  project.  He  announced  then  that 
he  would  try  again. 

In  1897  Andree  and  two  companions 
left  Danes  Islands  from  a point  only 
a few  hundred  yards  from  Walter 
Wellman’s  camp  in  an  attempt  to 
reach  the  pole  by  balloon.  It  was 
not  a dirigible  balloon  and  the  hope 
of  the  explorers  was  that  the  winds 
would  blow  it  up  to  the  pole.  The  last 
seen  of  the  balloon  it  was  drifting  out 


over  the  Barents  sea,  and  since  then 
nothing  has  been  heard  of  it  nor  has 
a trace  been  found. 

The  adventures  of  Frithjof  Nansen, 
the  Norwegian  explorer,  who  in  1896 
got  as  far  north  as  86  degree’s  14  min- 
utes, are  recent  enough  to  be  com- 
paratively fresh  in  the  public  memory. 
He  sailed  from  Christiana  in  the  Fram, 
with  the  intention  of  forcing  his  way 
into  the  arctic  ice  near  the  New  Si- 
berian Islands  and  then  drifting  to 
the  pole. 

A party  was  sent  out  to  establish 
supply  stations  to  which  the  explorer 
might  retreat  if  necessary,  and  the 
cross  country  work  was  to  be  done 
on  skis.  Nansen  was  absent  a long 
time  and  fears  were  entertained  for 
his  safety,  but  he  returned,  having 
penetrated  farther  north  than  any 
other  explorer  up  to  that  time. 

In  1900  the  Duke  of  Abruzzi,  nephew 
of  the  King  of  Italy,  sailed  from 
Christiania  in  the  Stella  Polari.  He 
was  considered  an  amateur,  but  he 
planted  his  standard  in  latitude  86  de- 
grees 34  minutes,  a new  record  that 
stood  until  Peary  penetrated  to  lati- 
tude 87  degrees  6 minutes  six  years 
later. 

Captain  Roald  Amundsen  in  1903-6 
made  the  Northwest  Passage,  which 
had  been  vainly  sought  since  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  and  which  had 
never  been  accomplished  by  ships 
alone,  although  MacClure  is  credited 
with  making  it  by  ships  and  sledges. 
In  a tiny  sealer,  the  Gjoa,  he  entered 
Lancaster  Strait  and  proceeded  to 
a harbor  100  miles  from  the  magnetic 
pole,  which  is  in  or  near  King  William 
Land.  For  nineteen  months,  day  and 
night,  the  party  made  uninterrupted 
magnetic  observations.  Two  members 
of  the  party  in  the  spring  of  1905 
charted  the  east  coast  of  Victoria 
Land  as  far  as  the  seventy-second 
parallel  and  discovered  an  unknown 
tribe  of  Eskimos,  the  Kiilnermiums. 
The  expedition  spent  a second  winter 
in  the  ice  and  in  the  summer  of  1906 
reached  civilization  through  Bering 
Strait. 

In  1904  Baron  Toll,  a Russian,  led 
a polar  exploration  party  by  way  of 
Siberia,  but  all  the  members  perished 
from  the  cold. 

In  1903  Erickson,  a Dane,  headed 
an  expedition  and  got  as  far  as  Saun- 
ders Island,  where  they  were  rescued 
in  a destitute  condition.  In  the  same 
year  Anthony  Fiala,  a young  Brooklyn 
explorer,  sailed  on  the  ship  America 
and  proceeded  farther  north  than  the 
Duke  of  Abruzzi.  His  party  endured 
great  hardships  before  they  were 
rescued. 

POLAR  FORCES,  in  physics,  forces 
that  are  developed  and  act  in  pairs  with 
opposite  tendencies,  as  in  magnetism, 
electricity,  etc. 

POLA'RIS,  the  pole-star,  which  see. 

POLARTSCOPE,  an  optical  instru- 
ment, various  kinds  of  which  have  been 
contrived,  for  exhibiting  the  polarization 
of  light,  or  for  examining  transparent 
media  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
their  polarizing  power.  The  important 


portions  of  the  instrument  are  the 
polarizing  and  analysing  plates  or 
prisms,  and  these  are  formed  either  o 
natural  crystalline  structures,  such  r 
Iceland-spar  and  tourmaline,  or  of  . 
series  of  reflecting  surfaces  artificially 
joined  together.  The  accompanying 
figure  shows  Malus’  polariscope.  a and  b 


are  the  reflectors,  the  one  serving  as 
polarizer,  the  other  as  analyzer,  each 
consisting  of  a pile  of  glass  plates.  Each 
reflector  can  be  turned  about  on  a hori- 
zontal axis,  and  the  upper  one,  or  analy- 
zer, can  also  be  turned  about  on  a ver- 
tical axis,  the  amount  of  rotation  being 
measured  on  the  horizontal  circle  c c. 
See  Polarization  of  Light. 

POLARITY,  that  quality  of  a body  in 
virtue  of  which  peculiar  properties 
reside  in  certain  points  called  poles; 
usually,  as  in  electrified  or  magnetized 
bodies,  properties  of  attraction  or  re- 
pulsion, or  the  power  of  taking  a cer- 
tain direction;  as,  the  Polarity  of  the 
magnet  or  magnetic  needle,  whose  pole 
is  not  that  of  the  earth,  but  a point  in 
the  Polar  Regions.  A mineral  is  said  to 
possess  polarity  when  it  attracts  one 
pole  of  a magnetic  needle  and  repels  the 
other. 

POLARIZATION  OF  LIGHT,  an  alter- 
ation produced  upon  light  by  the  action 
of  certain  bodies  by  which  it  is  made  to 
change  its  character.  A common  ray 
of  light  exhibits  the  same  properties  on 
all  sides,  but  any  reflected  or  refracted 
ray,  or  a ray  transmitted  through  cer- 
tain media,  exhibits  different  prop- 
erties on  different  sides;  and  is  said 
to  be  polarized.  The  polarization  of 
light  may  be  effected  in  various  ways, 
but  chiefly  in  the  following: — (1)  By 
reflection  at  a proper  angle  (the  ‘ ‘polar- 
izing angle”)  from  the  surfaces  of  trans- 
parent media,  as  glass,  water,  etc. 
(2)  By  transmission  through  crystals 
possessing  the  property  of  double  refrac- 
tion, as  Iceland-spar.  (3)  By  trans- 
mission through  a sufficient  number  of 
transparent  uncrystallized  plates  placed 
at  proper  angles.  (4)  By  transmission 
through  a number  of  other  bodies  im- 
perfectly crystallized,  as  agate,  mother- 
of-pearl,  etc.  The  knowledge  of  this 
singular  property  of  light  has  afforded 
an  explanation  of  some  interesting 


POLE 


POLICE 


phenomena  in  optics.  A simple  example 
S of  polarization  may  be  illustrated  by 
■§  two  slices  of  the  semi-transparent 
V mineral  tourmaline  cut  parallel  to  the 

■ axis  of  the  crystal.  If  one  is  laid  upon 

■ the  other  in  the  positions  A B (see  fig. 
K below)  they  form  an  opaque  com- 
f bination.  If  one  is  turned  round  upon 

! the  other  at  various  angles  it  will  be 
found  that  greatest  transparency  is 
( produced  in  the  position  corresponding 
with  a b (which  represents  the  natural 
I Dosition  they  originally  occupied  in 
the  crystal),  an  intermediate  stage  being 
that  shown  at  a'  b'.  The  light  which  has 
passed  through  the  one  plate  is  polar- 
ized, and  its  ability  to  pass  through  the 
' other  plate  is  thus  altered.  Reflection 
is  another  very  common  cause  of  polar- 
ization. The  plane  of  polarization  is 
that  particular  plane  in  which  a ray  of 
polarized  light  incident  at  the  polar- 
izing angle  is  most  copiously  reflected. 
When  the  polarization  is  produced  by 
reflection  the  plane  of  reflection  is  the 
plane  of  polarization.  According  to 
Fresnel’s  theory,  which  is  that  generally 
I received,  the  vibrations  of  light  polar- 
t ized  in  any  plane  are  perpendicular  to 
\ that  plane.  The  vibrations  of  a ray 
, reflected  at  the  polarizing  angle  are 
i accordingly  to  be  regarded  as  per- 
> pendicular  to  the  plane  of  incidence  and 
' reflection,  and  therefore  as  parallel  to 
the  reflecting  surface.  Polarized  light 


A a’ 


Polarization  of  light. 


cannot  be  distinguished  from  common 
light  by  the  naked  eye;  and  for  all 
experiments  in  polarization  two  pieces 
of  apparatus  must  be  employed — one 
to  produce  polarization,  and  the  other 
to  show  it.  The  former  is  called  a 
polarizer,  the  latter  an  analyzer;  and 
every  apparatus  that  serves  for  one  of 
these  purposes  will  also  serve  for  the 
other.  One  such  apparatus  is  shown 
in  the  article  Polariscope.  The  usual  proc- 
ess in  examining  light  with  a view 
to  test  whether  it  is  polarized,  consists 
in  looking  at  it  through  the  analyzer, 
and  observing  whether  any  change  of 
brightness  occurs  as  the  analyzer  is 
rotated.  There  are  two  positions, 
differing  by  180°,  which  give  a minimum 
of  light,  and  the  two  positions  inter- 
mediate between  these  give  a maximum 
of  light.  The  extent  of  the  changes 
thus  observed  is  a measure  of  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  polarization  of  light. 
Very  beautiful  colors  may  be  produced 
by  the  peculiar  action  of  polarized  light ; 
as  for  example,  if  a piece  of  selenite 
(crystallized  gypum)  about  the  thick- 
ness of  paper  is  introduced  between 
the  polarizer  and  analyzer  of  any  polar- 
izing arrangement,  and  turned  about 
in  different  directions,  it  will  in  some 
positions  appear  brightly  colored,  the 
color  being  most  decided  when  the 
analyzer  is  in  either  of  the  two  critical 
positions  which  give  respectively  the 

^ ' greatest  light  and  the  greatest  dark- 

I P.  E.— 63 


ness.  The  color  is  changed  to  its  com- 
plementary by  rotating  the  analyzer 
through  a right  angle;  but  rotation  of 
the  selenite,  when  the  analyzer  is  in 
either  of  the  critical  positions,  merely 
alters  the  depth  of  the  color  without 
changing  its  tint,  and  in  certain  critical 
positions  of  the  selenite  there  is  a com- 
plete absence  of  color.  A different  class 
of  appearances  are  presented  when  a 
plate,  cut  from  a uniaxial  crystal  by 
sections  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is 
inserted  between  the  polarizer  and  the 
analyzer.  Instead  of  a broad  sheet  of 
uniform  color,  there  is  exhibited  a 
system  of  colored  rings,  interrupted 
when  the  analyzer  is  in  one  of  the  two 
critical  positions  by  a black  or  white 
cross.  Observations  of  this  phenomenon 
affords  in  many  cases  an  easy  way  of 
determining  the  position  of  the  axis 
of  the  crystal,  and  is  therefore  of  great 
service  in  the  study  of  crystalline 
structure.  Crystals  are  distinguished 
as  dextro-gyrate  or  Isevo-gyrate,  accord- 
ing as  their  colors  ascend  by  a right- 
handed  or  left-handed  rotation  of  the 
analyzer  horizontally.  Glass  in  a state 
of  strain  exhibits  coloration  when  placed 
between  a polarizer  and  analyzer,  and 
thus  we  can  investigate  the  distribution 
of  the  strain  through  its  substance. 
Unannealed  glass  is  in  a state  of  per- 
manent strain.  A plate  of  ordinary 
glass  may  be  strained  by  a force  applied 
t^o  its  edges  by  means  of  a screw.  The 
state  of  strain  may  be  varied  during 
the  examination  of  the  plate  by  polar- 
ized light.  A plate  of  quartz  (a  uniaxial 
crystal)  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  optic 
axis  exhibits,  when  placed  between 
an  analyzer  and  polarizer,  a system 
of  colored  rings  like  any  other  uniaxial 
crystal;  but  we  find  that  the  center  of 
the  rings,  instead  of  having  a black 
cross,  is  brightly  colored — red,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  etc.,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate. 

POLE,  the  name  given  to  either  ex- 
tremity of  the  axis  round  which  the 
earth  revolves.  The  northern  one  is 
called  the  north  pole,  and  the  southern 
the  south  pole.  Each  of  these  poles  is  90° 
distant  from  every  part  of  the  equator. 
In  astronomy,  the  name  is  given  to  each 
of  the  two  points  in  which  the  axis  of  the 
earth  is  supposed  to  meet  the  sphere  of 
the  heavens,  forming  the  fixed  point 
about  which  the  stars  appear  to  re- 
volve. In  a wider  sense  a pole  is  a point 
on  the  surface  of  any  sphere  equally 
distant  from  every  part  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a great  circle  of  the  sphere; 
or  a point  90°  distant  from  the  plane  of 
a great  circle,  and  in  a line  passing  per- 
pendicularly through  the  center,  called 
the  axis.  Thus  the  zenith  and  nadir  are 
the  poles  of  the  horizon.  So  the  poles  of 
the  ecliptic  are  two  points  of  the  sphere 
whose  distance  from  the  poles  of  the 
world  is  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the 
ecliptic,  or  they  are  90°  distant  from 
every  part  of  the  ecliptic.  Pole,  in 
physics,  is  one  of  the  points  of  a body 
at  which  its  attractive  or  repulsive 
energy  is  concentrated,  as  the  poles  of 
a magnet,  the  north  pole  of  a needle, 
the  poles  of  a battery. 

POLE,  Perch,  or  Rod,  a measure  of 
length  containing  16^  feet  or  5i  yards. 
Sometimes  the  term  is  used  as  a super- 


ficial measure,  a square  pole  denoting 
X yards,  or  30^  square  yards. 

'POLE-AXE,  an  axe  attached  to  a pole 
or  handle  of  which  the  length  varies  con- 
siderably. It  was  formerly  used  by 
mounted  soldiers,  and  in  the  navy  for 
boarding  purposes. 

POLECAT,  a name  common  to  several 
species  of  carnivora  of  the  weazel  family. 
The  common  polecat  is  about  17  inches 
long,  and  the  tail  6 inches.  The  color  is 
dark  brown.  It  is  a nocturnal  animal, 
sleeping  during  the  day  and  searching 
for  its  prey  at  night.  It  is  especially  d j- 


structive  to  poultry,  rabbits,  and  game. 
Frogs,  toads,  newts,  and  fish  are  often 
stored  as  food  by  this  voracious  animal. 
It  has  glands  secreting  a fetid  liquor, 
somewhat  like  that  of  the  American 
skunk,  which  it  ejects  when  irritated  or 
alarmed. 

POLEM'ICS,  the  art  or  practice  of 
disputation  generally,  but  in  a special 
sense  that  branch  of  theological  learn- 
ing which  pertains  to  the  history  or  con- 
duct of  ecclesiastical  controversy. 

POLEM'OSCOPE,  a sort  of  stand  or 
frame  high  enough  to  rise  above  a para- 
pet or  other  similar  object,  having  a 
plane  mirror  at  top  so  fitted  as  to  reflect 
any  scene  upon  another  mirror  below, 
and  thus  enable  a person  to  see  a scene 
in  which  he  is  interested  without  ex- 
posing himself. 

POLE-STAR,  the  star  a of  the  con- 
stellation Ursa  Minor,  situated  about  1° 
20'  from  the  north  celestial  pole,  round 
which  it  thus  describes  a small  circle. 
It  is  of  the  second  magnitude,  and  is  of 
great  use  to  navigators  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  Two  stars  called  the 
pointers,  in  the  constellation  Ursa 
Major  (the  Great  Bear,  commonly  called 
the  Plough),  always  point  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  pole-star,  and  enable  it  to  be 
found  readily. 

POLICE  (po-les'),  the  system  insti- 
tuted by  a community  to  maintain 
public  order,  liberty,  and  the  security 
of  life  and  property.  In  its  most  popu- 
lar acceptation  the  police  signifies  the 
administration  of  the  municipal  laws 
and  regulations  of  a city  or  incorporated 
town  or  borough.  The  primary  object 
of  the  police  system  is  the  prevention  of 
crime  and  the  pursuit  of  offenders;  but 
it  is  also  subservient  to  other  purposes, 
such  as  the  suppression  of  mendicancy, 
the  preservation  of  order,  the  removal 
of  obstructions  and  nuisances,  and  the 
enforcing  of  those  local  and  general 
laws  which  relate  to  the  public  health, 
order,  safety,  and  comfort.  The  term  is 
also  applied  to  the  body  of  men  by 


POLIGNAC 


POLITICAL  OFFENSES 


whom  the  laws  and  regulations  are 
enforced. 

POLIGNAC  (pol-in-yak),  Jules 
Auguste  Armand  Marie,  Prince  de,  a 
French  statesman,  belonging  to  an 
ancient  French  family,  born  at  Paris 
1780,  died  at  St.  Germain  1847.  After 
the  restoration  he  was  appointed  ad- 
jutant-general to  the  king,  and  entered 
the  chamber  of  peers.  In  1820  he  ob- 
tained from  the  pope  the  title  of  a 
Roman  prince.  In  1823  he  succeeded 
Chateaubriand  as  ambassador  at  Lon- 
don; but  after  the  accession  of  Charles 
X.  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  time  in 
Paris.  He  was  successively  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  and  president  of  the 
council.  At  the  revolution  of  1830  he 
was  apprehended  and  condemned  to 
perpetual  imprisonment.  He  remained 
m the  fortress  of  Ham  till  the  amnesty 
of  1836  allowed  him  to  take  up  his 
residence  in  England.  He  was  ultimately 
permitted  to  return  to  France.  He  was 
the  author  of  Considerations  Politiques 
(1832).  Several  other  members  of  the 
family  were  men  of  some  note. 

POLISHING  is  the  name  given  to  the 
process  by  which  the  surface  of  a ma- 
terial is  made  to  assume  a perfectly 
smooth  and  glossy  appearance,  usually 
by  friction.  The  article  to  be  polished 
must  first  be  made  smooth  and  even, 
after  which  the  polishing  begins.  In  the 
case  of  wood  the  process  is  commonly 
effected  by  rubbing  with  French  polish 
(which  see).  In  metals,  by  polishing- 
steel  or  blood-stone,  or  by  wood  covered 
over  with  leather,  and  on  which  pul- 
verized tripoli,  chalk,  tin-putty,  etc.,  is 
sprinkled.  In  glass  and  precious  stones, 
by  tin-putty  and  lead  siftings;  in  marble, 
by  tin-putty  and  tripoli;  in  granite  and 
other  hard  stones,  by  tripoli  and  quick- 
lime. 

POLISHING-POWDER,  a prepara- 
tion of  plumbago  for  polishing  iron 
articles,  also  a composition  variously 
made  up  for  cleaning  gold  and  silver 
plate.  See  Plate-powder. 

POLISHING-PLATE,  a gray  or  yel- 
lowish slate,  composed  of  microscopic 
infusoria,  found  in  the  coal-measures  of 
Bohemia  and  in  Auvergne,  and  used  for 
polishing  glass,  marble,  and  metals. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  the  science 
of  the  social  ordering  of  wealth,  or  the 
science  which  has  as  its  aim  the  investi- 
gation of  the  social  conditions  regulating 
the  production,  distribution,  exchange, 
and  consumption  of  wealth,  the  term 
wealth  being  understood  to  mean  all 
articles  or  products  possessing  value 
in  exchange.  While,  however,  political 
economy  is  susceptible  of  wide  defini- 
tion on  these  lines,  the  exact  scope  of 
the  science  within  the  terms  of  the 
definition  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
confused  debate.  From  the  nature  of 
the  actual  conditions  of  the  production 
and  regulation  of  wealth,  and  the  place 
of  the  systematic  examination  of  these 
as  departmental  to  a larger  science  in- 
vestigating the  natural  laws  of  the  for- 
mation and  progress  of  civilized  com- 
munities, it  is  impossible  to  sunder  it 
entirely  from  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  considerations  tending  to  enlarge 
indefinitely  its  scope.  The  varying  ex- 
tent to  which  these  elements  have 
entered  into  the  treatment  of  the  sub- 


ject by  economists  has  given  rise  to  con- 
troversy not  only  as  to  whether  eco- 
nomics is  to  be  considered  as  a physico- 
mental  or  a purely  mental  science,  but 
even  as  to  its  claim  to  be  considered  an 
independent  science  at  all.  By  most 
economists  it  is  urged,  that  as  the 
reasoned  and  systematic  statement  of  a 
particular  class  of  facts  it  may  rightly 
claim  to  be  considered  a science,  while, 
as  dealing  with  inanimate  things  only 
incidentally  as  the  measure  of  motives 
of  desire,  it  is  to  be  classed  with  the 
moral  or  social  sciences.  Of  more  im- 
portance, as  affecting  the  whole  history 
of  the  science,  have  been  the  questions 
arising  from  the  method  employed  in 
economic  inquiry.  The  modern  English 
school  of  economists,  including  the 
names  of  Adam  Smith,  Ricardo,  Mill, 
Cairns,  Fawcett,  and  Marshall,  have 
been  mainly  guided  by  the  deductive 
method,  its  more  extreme  representa- 
tives, such  as  Senior,  asserting  this 
method  to  be  the  only  one  applicable 
to  the  science.  In  point  of  fact  political 
economy  has  necessarily  availed  itself 
of  both  methods.  It  has  been  deductive 
in  soTar  as  it  has  assumed  at  the  outset 
certain  hypotheses,  and  derived  from 
these  by  a dialectical  process  the  guiding 
principles  of  the  science;  but  even  the 
older  economists,  working  under  the 
immediate  influence  of  the  mathe- 
matico-physical  sciences  chiefly,  cannot 
be  justly  accused  of  having  overlooked, 
though  they  tended  to  underestimate, 
the  necessity  of  supplementing  deduc- 
tion by  induction.  The  hypothesis  on 
which  the  economic  system  was  founded, 
was  that  in  the  economic  sphere  the 
principal  motive  of  human  action  was 
individual  self-interest,  leading  men  to 
seek  to  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of 
wealth  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
effort;  this  hypothesis  being  followed 
out  to  its  logical  conclusions,  under 
assumed  conditions  of  perfectly  free 
competition,  in  connection  with  the  facts 
of  the  limitations  of  the  earth’s  extent 
and  reproductiveness,  and  the  theory 
of  a tendency  in  the  race  to  multiply 
to  an  incalculable  extent  in  the  absence 
of  natural  or  artificial  obstacles.  On 
this  basis  theories  of  value,  rent,  and 
population  were  formed,  having  the 
character  of  laws,  but  of  laws  which  were 
hypothetical  merely — true  only  under 
the  assumed  conditions  of  an  environ- 
ment in  which  competition  was  free 
and  frictionless,  unhampered  by  inert- 
ness, ignorance,  restrictive  customs, 
and  the  like.  In  this  respect  the  method 
adopted  and  the  results  arrived  at  found 
analogy  in  those  physical  sciences  the 
laws  of  which  are  only  applicable  in 
actual  fact  under  large  and  variable 
modification.  There  was,  however,  an 
indisputable  tendency  among  the  earlier 
economic  writers  to  regard  these  hypo- 
thetical laws  as  in  a greater  degree  rep- 
resentative of  actual  fact  than  they  were, 
and  even,  when  the  actual  facts  fell 
short  of  the  theoretic  conditions,  to 
regard  these  as  prescriptive  and  regula- 
tive. The  ethical  protest  against  this 
tendency  found  a strong  support  in  the 
development  of  the  group  of  biological 
sciences,  opening  up  new  conceptions  of 
organic  life  and  growth;  and  as  the 
result  of  these  and  other  influences  the 


old  rigidity  in  the  application  of  theory 
has  largely  disappeared.  Where  the 
older  economist  tended  to  look  upon  the 
subject-matter  of  economics  as  more  or 
less  constant  and  furnishing  lav^s  of 
universal  application,  the  modern  econo- 
mist, having  regard  to  ,the  complexity 
and  variability  of  human  motives  and 
the  development  of  the  race  both  in  the 
matter  of  character  and  institutions, 
has  come  to  recognize  that  the  abstract 
conception  of  a frictionless  competitive 
atmosphere,  in  which  self-interested 
motives  worked  with  mechanical  regu- 
larity, can  never  bear  other  than  a 
qualified  application  to  actual  economic 
conditions,  and  that  laws  relating  to  the 
economic  aspects  of  life  at  one  stage  of 
human  development  seldom  apply  at 
another  without  large  modification.  He 
realizes  clearly  what  the  older  economist 
only  imperfectly  perceived,  and  even 
more  imperfectly  expressed,  that  the 
system  they  were  elaborating  was  to 
be  considered  rather  as  an  instrument 
to  assist  in  the  discovery  of  economic 
truth,  than  a body  of  truths  represent- 
ing any  actual  or  desirable  social  state. 
When  regarded  in  this  light — as  a 
means  to  assist  in  the  disentanglement 
of  the  complex  motives  operative  in 
actual  economic  relations — the  isolation 
of  one  set  of  economic  forces,  and  the 
tracing  of  the  logical  issues  of  these, 
becomes  of  the  highest  value,  despite 
the  danger  in  careless  use  of  neglecting 
necessary  modification  and  of  translat- 
ing its  hypothetic  statements  into  pre- 
scriptions for  conduct  and  social  organi- 
zation. It  has  been  this  neglect,  the 
assumption  of  didactic  authority,  and 
the  extent  of  the  modifications  often 
necessary  in  the  practical  application  of 
theory  which  have  tended  to  bring  the 
older  school  into  discredit  at  the  hands 
of  Comte,  Cliff  Leslie,  Ruskin,  and  a 
large  number  of  foreign  economists — 
some  complaining  with  Comte  of  the 
tendency  to  vicious  abstractions,  and 
the  impossibility  of  isolating  to  any 
useful  end  the  special  phenomena  of 
economics  from  other  social  phenomena 
some,  like  the  German  and  American; 
historic  schools,  arguing  that  it  is  desir- 
able and  necessary  to  reason  direct 
from  historic  facts  to  facts  without  the 
intervention  of  any  formal  economic 
theory.  So  far,  however,  the  opponents 
of  the  older  method  of  dealing  with 
economic  problems,  though  they  have 
accomplished  an  admirable  work  in 
clearing  the  older  economics  of  many 
confusions  and  misapprehensions,  have 
failed  to  supply  a superior  method  of 
analyzing  the  phenomena  constituting 
the  subject-matter  of  the  science,  while 
many  of  them  have  not  scrupled  to 
avail  themselves  largely  of  the  results 
arrived  at  by  the  method  they  condemn. 

POLITICAL  OFFENSES,  are  those 
offenses  considered  injurious  to  the 
safety  of  the  state,  or  such  crimes  as 
form  a violation  of  the  allegiance  due  by 
a subject  to  the  recognized  supreme 
authority  of  his  country.  In  modern 
times  the  crimes  considered  political 
offenses  have  varied  at  different  periods 
and  in  different  states.  In  Britain  the 
most  serious  political  offenses  are  termed 
treason  (see  Treason  and  Treason- 
Felony),  and  those  of  a lighter  nature 


POLITICS 


POLY'CARP 


which  do  not  aim  at  direct  and  open 
violence  against  the  laws  or  the  sover- 
eign, but  which  excite  a turbulent  and 
discontented  spirit  which  would  likely 
produce  violence,  are  termed  sedition. 
(See  Sedition.)  Political  offenders  of 
foreign  countries  are  by  English  law  not 
included  in  extradition  treaties.  In  the 
United  States  also,  and  in  mo.st  of  the 
coun^es  of  Europe,  the  extradition 
treat^  do  not  include  the  giving  up  of 
political  offenders. 

POL'ITICS,  in  its  widest  extent,  is 
both  the  science  and  the  art  of  govern- 
ment, or  the  science  whose  subject  is  the 
regulation  of  man  in  all  his  relations  as 
the  member  of  a state,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  this  science.  In  other  words  it 
is  the  theory  and  the  practice  of  ob- 
taining the  ends  of  civil  society  as  per- 
fectly as  possible.  In  common  parlance 
we  understand  by  the  - politics  of  a 
country  the  course  of  its  government, 
more  particularly  as  respects  its  rela- 
tions with  foreign  nations. 

POLK  (pok),  James  Knox,  president 
of  the  United  States  of  North  America 
from  1845-49,  was  born  in  1795  in  North 
Carolina;  died  at  Nashville  1849.  He 
studied  Jaw  and  entered  congress  as 
representative  of  Tennessee  in  1825. 
He  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  repre- 


sentatives from  1835  to  1838.  His  advo- 
cacy of  the  annexation  of  Texas  led  to 
his  election  as  president  in  1844.  The 
annexation  of  Texas,  the  Mexican  war, 
the  acquisition  of  upper  California  and 
New  Mexico,  and  the  settlement  of  the 
Oregon  boundary  were  the  chief  events 
of  his  term  of  office. 

POLKA,  a species  of  dance  of  Bohe- 
mian origin,  but  now  universally  popu- 
lar, the  music  to  which  is  in  | time,  with 
the  third  quaver  accented.  There  are 
three  steps  in  each  bar,  the  fourth  beat 
being  always  a rest. 

POLLACK,  a fish  of  the  cod  family. 


Pollack. 

The  pollack  belongs  to  the  same  genus 
as  the  whiting,  the  members  of  this 
genus  possessing  three  dorsal  fins  and 
two  anals.  The  lower  jaw  is  longer  than 


the  upper  jaw,  and  the  tail  is  forked,  but 
not  very  deeply.  It  inhabits  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  and  is  common  on  all  the 
British  coasts,  as  well  as  on  the  shores  of 
Norway.  The  northern  coasts  of  Britain 
appear  to  be  those  on  which  these  fishes 
are  most  abundant.  The  pollacks  are 
gregarious  in  habits,  and  swim  in  shoals. 
It  bites  keenly  at  either  bait  or  fly,  and 
affords  good  eating. 

POLLEN,  the  male  element  in  flower- 
ing plants;  the  fine  dust  or  powder 
which  by  contact  with  the  stigma  ef- 
fects the  fecundation  of  the  seeds.  To 
the  naked  eye  it  appears  to  be  a very 
fine  powder,  and  is  usually  inclosed  in 
the  cells  of  the  anther;  but  when  ex- 
amined with  the  microscope  it  is  found 
to  consist  of  hollow  cases,  usually 
spheroidal,  filled  with  a fluid  in  which 


Pollen  grains  (magnified). 

are  suspended  drops  of  oil  from  the 
20,000th  to  the  30,000th  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  grains  of  starch  five  or 
six  times  as  large.  Impregnation  is 
brought  about  by  means  of  tubes 
(pollen-tubes)  which  issue  from  the 
pollen-grains  adhering  to  the  stigma, 
and  penetrate  through  the  tissues  until 
they  reach  the  ovary.  The  cut  shows  the 
pollen-grains  of  (1)  manna-ash,  (2)  clove, 
(3)  strong-scented  lettuce. 

POLO,  Marco,  Venetian  traveler,  was 
born  about  the  year  1256.  His  father 
Nicolo  was  the  son  of  Andrea  Polo,  a 
patrician  of  Venice.  Shortly  before 
Marco’s  birth,  Nicolo  with  his  brother 
Matteo  set  out  on  a mercantile  expedi- 
tion, and  ultimately  arrived  at  Kemenfu 
on  the  frontiers  of  China,  where  they 
were  favorably  received  by  Kubilai,  the 
grand-khan  of  the  Mongols.  In  1266  the 
khan  sent  the  brothers  on  a mission  to 
the  pope,  and  they  arrived  in  Venice  in 
1269.  Two  years  later  they  again  set  out 
for  the  east,  this  time  accompanied  by  the 
young  Marco.  After  reaching  the  court 
of  Kubilai,  Marco  rapidly  learned  the 
language  and  customs  of  the  Mongols, 
and  became  a favorite  with  the  khan, 
who  employed  him  on  various  missions 
to  the  neighboring  princes.  Soon  after- 
ward he  was  made  governor  of  Yang- 
tchou,  in  eastern  China,  an  appointment 
he  held  for  three  years.  In  1292  the 
three  Polos  accompanied  an  escort  of  a 
Mongolian  princess  to  Persia.  After  ar- 
riving at  Teheran  they  heard  of  Kubilai’s 
death,  and  resolved  to  return  home. 
They  reached  Venice  in  1295.  In  the 
following  year  Marco  Polo  took  part,  in 
the  naval  battle  of  Curzola,  in  which  he 
was  taken  prisoner.  During  his  captiv- 
ity he  dictated  to  a fellow-prisoner, 
Rustichello  or  Rusticiano  of  Pisa,  an 
account  of  all  his  travels,  which  was 
finished  in  1298.  After  his  liberation  he 
returned  to  Venice,  where  he  died  in 
1323.  His  book — known  as  the  Book  of 
Marco  Polo — created  an  immense  sen- 
sation among  the  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  was  regarded  by  many  as  pure 
fiction.  It  made  known  to  Europeans 
the  existence  of  many  nations  of  which 
they  were  formerly  totally  ignorant,  and 


created  a passion  for  voyages  of  dis- 
covery. 

POLONAISE,  is  a polish  national 
dance,  which  has  been  imitated,  but 
with  much  variation,  by  other  nations. 
The  Polonaise,  in  music,  is  a movement 
of  three  crochets  in  a bar,  characterized 
by  a seeming  irregularity  of  rhythm, 
produced  by  the  syncopation  of  the  last 
note  in  a bar  with  the  first  note  of  the 
bar  following,  in  the  upper  part  or 
melody,  while  the  normal  time  is  pre- 
served in  the  bass. 

POLTA'VA,  or  PULTAWA,  a govern- 
ment of  Russia,  bounded  by  Czernigov, 
Kharkov,  Ekaterinoslav,  Kherson,  and 
Kiev;  area,  19,265  sq.  miles.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  fertile  and  best  cultivated 
portions  of  the  Russian  empire,  and 
grows  large  quantities  of  grain.  Pop. 
2,520,887. — Poltava,  the  capital,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Poltava  with  the 
Worskla,  has  straight  and  broad  streets, 
a cathedral,  important  educational  in- 
stitutions, etc.  As  a place  of  trade  Pol- 
tava derives  importance  from  the  great 
fair  held  on  20th  July  each  year.  Wool 
is  the  great  staple  of  trade.  Horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep  are  likewise  bought  and 
sold  in  great  numbers.  It  contains  a 
monument  to  Peter  the  Great,  who  here 
defeated  Charles  XII.  in  1709.  Pop. 
53,060. 

POLYAN'DRIA,  or  POLYANDRY,  de- 
notes the  custom  of  one  woman  having 
several  husbands  (generally  brothers) 
at  one  time.  This  system  prevailed 
among  the  Celts  of  Britain  in  Caesar’s 
time,  and  occurs  yet  in  southern  India, 
in  Tibet,  among  the  Eskimo,  the 
Aleutians,  some  tribes  of  American 
Indians,  and  in  the  South  seas.  The 
practice  is  believed  to  have  had  its  origin 
in  unfertile  regions  in  an  endeavor  to 
check  the  undue  pressure  of  population 
on  the  means  of  subsistence. 

POLYANTHUS,  a beautiful  and 
favorite  variety  of  the  common  prim- 
rose, a native  of  most  parts  of  Europe, 
growing  in  woods  and  copses  in  a moist 
clayey  soil.  The  leaves  are  obovate, 


Garden  polyanthus. 


oblong,  toothed,  rugose,  and  villous  be- 
neath. The  flowers  are  in  umbels  on  a 
scape  or  flower  stalk  3 to  6 inches  or  more 
in  length.  In  addition  to  propagating 
from  seeds  polyanthuses  may  also  be 
readily  increased  by  division. 

POL'YCARP,  one  of  the  Christian 
fathers,  and,  according  to  tradition,  a 
disciple  of  the  apostle  John,  was  born 
probably  in  Smyrna  about  69  or  70; 
martyred  155  or  156.  According  to  a 
legendary  fragment  ascribed  to  a writer 
named  Pionius,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  his  native  city  by  St.  Joha 


?OLYCRATES 


Polytheism 


During  the  persecution  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  Polycarp  was  seized  and 
brought  before  the  Roman  proconsul  at 
Smyrna.  Having  refused  to  renounce  his 
faith  he  was  condemned  to  the  flames. 
He  wrote  several  letters,  which  were 
current  in  the  early  church,  but  have 
all  perished  except  one  addressed  to  the 
Philippians,  which  appears  to  have  been 
written  about  115,  and  is  valuable  for 
its  quotations  from  the  apostolic  writ- 
ings. 

POLYC'RATES,  Greek  tyrant  or  abso- 
lute ruler  of  Samos  during  the  time  of 
the  elder  Cyrus.  He  nmde  himself 
master  of  the  island  by  wolence,  and 
having  secured  absolute  sway  seized 
upon  several  of  the  neighboring  islands 
and  some  towns  upon  the  mainland.  In 
522  B.c.  the  Persian  satrap  Oroetes 
treacherously  invited  Polycrates  to  his 
palace  and  there  crucified  him.  Polyc- 
rates  seems  to  have  had  much  taste  for 
learning  and  the  arts,  and  greatly  pro- 
moted the  refinement  of  the  Samians. 

POLYG'AMY  consists  in  a man’s  hav- 
ing more  than  one  wife  at  the  sametime. 
In  ancient  times  polygamy  was  prac- 
ticed by  all  the  eastern  nations,  and  was 
sanctioned  or  at  least  tolerated  by  their 
religions.  It  was  permitted  to  some  ex- 
tent among  the  Greeks,  but  entirely  dis- 
appeared with  the  later  development 
of  Greek  civilization.  To  the  ancient 
Romans  and  Germanic  races  it  was  un- 
known. It  prevailed  among  the  Jewish 
patriarchs  both  befofe  and  under  the 
Mosaic  law.  But  in  the  New  Testament 
w'e  meet  with  no  trace  of  it.  Polygamy 
has  never  been  tolerated  among  Chris- 
tians, although  the  New  Testament  con- 
tains no  injunction  against  it.  It  was, 
however,  practiced  by  the  Mohamme- 
dans and  Mormons  (up  till  recently).  A 
statute  of  Edward  I.  treated  polygamy 
as  a capital  crime. 

POL'YGLOT,  a work  which  contains 
the  same  matter  in  several  languages. 
It  is  more  particularly  used  to  denote  a 
copy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  which 
two,  three,  or  more  translations  are 
given,  with  or  without  the  original.  The 
first  great  work  of  the  sort  is  the  Com- 
plutensian  polyglot,  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and 
splendidly  printed  (1514-17),  in  6 folio 
volumes  at  Alcala  de  Henares,  called  in 
Latin  Com plu turn,  whence  the  name  of 
the  work.  It  contains  the  Hebrew  text 
of  the  Old  Testament,  with  the  Vulgate, 
the  Septuagint,  a literal  Latin  transla- 
tion, and  a Chaldee  paraphrase  (which 
is  also  accompanied  by  a Latin  transla- 
tion). Another  celebrated  polyglot  is 
that  of  Antwerp,  called  the  Royal  Bible, 
because  Philip  II.  of  Spain  bore  part  of 
the  cost  of  publication.  It  was  conducted 
by  the  learned  Spanish  theologian, 
Benedict  Arias  Montanus,  assisted  by 
other  scholars.  It  appeared  at  Antwerp 
in  8 folio  volumes  (1569-72).  The  Paris 
polyglot  appeared  in  1654,  in  10  folio 
volumes.  The  London  or  Walton’s  poly- 
glot, in  ten  languages,  appeared  in  6 
volumes  folio,  with  two  supplementary 
volumes  (London,  1654-57).  It  was  con- 
ducted under  the  care  of  Bryan  Walton, 
afterward  Bishop  of  Chester,  and  con- 
tains all  that  is  in  the  Paris  polyglot, 
but  with  many  additions  and  improve- 
ments. Tt  '■nntains  the  original  text 


according  to  several  copies,  with  an 
Ethiopia  and  a Persian  translation,  and 
the  Latin  versions  of  each.  Bagster’s 
Polyglot  folio,  London  (1831),  gives 
eight  versions  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
nine  of  the  new. 

POLYGON,  in  geometry,  a plane 
figure  of  many  angles  and  sides,  or  at 
least  of  more  than  four  sides.  A polygon 
of  five  sides  is  termed  a pentagon;  one- 
of  six  sides,  a hexagon;  one  of  seven 
sides,  a heptagon,  and  so  on.  Similar 
polygons  are  those  which  have  their 
several  angles  equal  each  to  each,  and 
the  sides  about  their  equal  angles  pro- 
portionals. All  similar  polygons  are 
to  one  another  as  the  squares  of  their 
homologous  sides.  If  th«  sides,  and 
consequently  the  angles,  are  all  equal 
the  polygon  is  said  to  be  regular;  other- 
wise, it  is  irregular.  Every  regular 
polygon  can  be  circumscribed  by  a circle 
or  have  a circle  inscribed  in  it. — Polygon 
of  forces,  in  mechanics,  the  name  given 
to  a theorem  which  is  as  follows : — If  any 
number  of  forces  act  on  a point,  and  a 
polygon  be  taken,  one  of  the  sides  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  line  representing 
one  of  the  forces,  and  the  following 
sides  in  succession  by  lines  representing 
the  other  forces  in  magnitude,  and 
parallel  to  their  directions,  then  the 
line  which  completes  the  polygon  will 
represent  the  resultant  of  all  the  forces. 

POLYHE'DRON,  in  geometry,  a body 
or  solid  bounded  by  many  faces  or 
planes.  When  all  the  faces  are  regular 
polygons  similar  and  equal  to  each  other 
the  solid  becomes  a regular  body.  Only 
five  regular  solids  can  exist,  namely, 
the  tetrahedron,  the  hexahedron,  the 
octahedron,  the  dodecahedron,  and  the 
icosahedron. 

POLYNE'SIA,  a general  name  for  a 
number  of  distinct  archipelagoes  of 
small  islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific 
ocean,  extending  from  about  lat.  35° 
n.  to  35°  s.,  and  from  Ion.  135°  e.  to 
100°  w.,  the  Philippines,  New  Guinea, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand  being  ex- 
cluded. (See  Oceania.)  The  islands  are 
distributed  into  numerous  groups,  hav- 
ing a general  direction  from  n.w.  to  s.e. 
The  groups  north  of  the  equator  are  the 
Pelew,  Ladrone,  or  Marianne,  Caroline, 
Marshall,  Gilbert  or  Kingsmills,  Fan- 
ning, and  Hawaii  or  the  Sandwich 
islands.  South  of  the  equator  are  New 
Ireland,  New  Britain,  Solomon  islands, 
New  Hebrides,  Fiji,  New  Caledonia, 
Navigator,  Friendly,  Cook’s  or  Harvey, 
and  the  Society  islands,  the  Low  Archi- 
pelago, the  Marquesas  islands,  and  the 
isolated  Easter  island.  The  term  Poly- 
nesia is  sometimes  restricted  to  the 
groups  most  centrally  situated  in  the 
Pacific;  the  New  Hebrides,  Solomon 
islands.  New  Britain,  New  Ireland 
(Bismark  Archipelago),  etc.,  being 
classed  together  as  Melanesia,  whereas 
the  Carolines,  Ladrones,  Marshall  islands 
etc.,  form  Micronesia.  The  predominat- 
ing race,  occupying  the  central  and 
eastern  portion  of  Polynesia,  is  of  Malay 
origin,  with  oval  faces,  wide  nostrils, 
and  large  ears.  The  hair  and  complex- 
ion vary  greatly,  but  the  latter  is  often 
a light  brown.  Their  language  is  split 
up  into  numerous  dialects.  The  other 
leading  race  is  of  negroid  or  Papuan 
origin,  with  negro-like  features  and 


crisp  mop-like  hair.  They  are  confined 
to  Western  Polynesia,  and  speak  a 
different  language,  with  numerous  dis- 
tinct dialects. 

POLYPHE'MUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  most  famous  of  the  Cyclops,  who  is 
described  as  a cannibal  giant  with  one 
eye  in  his  forehead,  living  alone  in  a 
cave  of  Mount  .lEtna  and  feeding  his 
flocks  on  that  mountain.  Ulysses  and 
his  companions  having  been  driven  upon 
the  shore  by  a storm,  unwarily  took 
refuge  in  his  cave.  Polyphemus,  when 
he  returned  home  at  night,  shut  up  the 
mouth  of  the  cavern  with  a large  stone, 
and  by  the  next  morning  had  eaten  four 
of  the  strangers,  after  which  he  drove 
out  his  flocks  to  pasture,  and  shut  in  the 
unhappy  captives.  Ulysses  then  con- 
trived a plan  for  their  escape.  He  in- 
toxicated the  monster  with  wine,  and  as 
soon  as  he  fell  asleep  bored  out  his  one 
eye  with  the  blazing  end  of  a stake. 
He  then  tied  himself  and  his  compan- 
ions under  the  bellies  of  the  sheep,  in 
which  manner  they  passed  safely  out  in 
the  morning.  Polyphemus  was  the  de- 
spised lover  of  the  nymph  Galatea. 

POLYPODIA'CEjE , a natural  order  of 
ferns,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  type 
of  the  whole.  They  constitute  the 
highest  order  of  acrogenous  or  crypto- 
gamic  vegetation,  and  are  regarded  as 
approaching  more  nearly  to  cycadaceous 
gymnosperms  than  to  any  other  group 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  They  are 
usually  herbaceous  plants  with  a per- 
manent stem,  which  either  remains 
buried  or  rooted  beneath  the  soil,  or 
creeps  over  the  stems  of  trees,  or  forms 
a scarcely  movable  point  of  growth, 
round  which  new  leaves  are  annually 
produced  in  a circle,  or  it  rises  into  the 
air  in  the  form  of  a simple  stem,  bearing 
a tuft  of  leaves  at  its  apex  and  some- 
times attaining  the  height  of  40  feet, 
as  in  the  tree-ferns. 

POLYPUS,  in  medicine,  a name  given 
to  tumors  chiefly  found  in  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  nostrils,  throat,  ear, 
and  uterusj  rarely  in  the  stomach, 
bladder,  and  intestines.  Polypi  differ 
much  in  size,  number,  mode  of  adhesion, 
and  nature.  One  species  is  the  mucous, 
soft,  or  vesicular,  because  its  substance 
consists  of  mucous  membrane  with  its 
embedded  glands;  another  is  called  the 
hard  polypus,  and  consists  of  fibrous 
tissue.  Poljrpi  may  be  malignant  in  char- 
acter, that  is,  of  the  cancerous  type. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL.  See  Ecole 
Polytechnique. 

POLYTHEISM,  the  belief  in,  and 
worship  of,  a plurality  of  gods;  opposed 
to  monotheism,  the  belief  in,  and  wor- 
ship of  one  god.  It  is  still  a matter  of 
debate  whether  polytheism  is  a primary 
form  of  human  belief,  or  a degeneration 
of  an  original  monotheistic  idea.  It  is 
argued,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  sense 
of  personal  dependence,  the  feeling  that 
there  was  an  undefined  power,  a mysteri- 
ous something  around  and  above  him, 
did  not  primarily  present  itself  to  the 
mind  of  man  except  under  a fomr  of 
unity.  His  earliest  religion  would  there- 
fore be  of  a monotheistic  character,  but 
of  a highly  unstable  nature,  and  emi- 
nently liable,  among  races  of  rude 
faculties  and  little  power  of  abstraction, 
to  assume  a polytheistic  form,  the  idea 


POLYZOA 


POMPEII 


of  one  Supreme  Being  being  readily 
obscured  by  the  multiplicity  of  the 
visible  operations  of  that  being  on  earth. 
Those  who  affirm  that  polytheism  was 
a primary  form  of  religious  belief  argue 
that  man,  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  his 
own  life,  and  of  the  nature,  origin,  and 
properties  of  other  objects,  could  at 
first  only  attribute  vaguely  to  all  visible 
things  the  same  kind  of  conscious 
existence  as  that  which  belonged  to  him- 
self. Thus  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
would  all  be  living  beings;  and  their  in- 
fluence, from  the  absence  of  any  idea  of 
a natural  order,  would  be  seen  in  the 
working  of  the  material  world,  and  in  all 
the  accidents  of  human  life.  As  being 
beyond  human  control,  and  as  affecting 
the  condition  of  men,  they  would  be 
loved  or  feared;  and  with  the  growth  of 
the  idea  that  they  might  be  pro- 
pitiated or  appeased  the  system  of 
polytheism  would  be  complete.  See 
Monotheism  and  Mythology. 

POLYZO'A,  a class  of  Molluscoida  or 
Lower  Mollusca,  generally  known  by  the 
popular  names  of  “sea-mosses”  and 
“sea-mats.”  They  are  invariably  com- 
pound, forming  associated  growths  or 
colonies  of  animals  produced  by  gem- 
mation from  a single  primordial  in- 
dividual, and  inhabit  a polyzoarium,  or 
aggregate  of  cells,  corresponding  to  the 
polypidom  of  the  com.posite  hydroids. 


A — Polyzoon. 

1,  Natural  .size.  2,  Portion  of  same  magnified. 
a.  Cells.  6,  Ovicells.  c,  Avicularia. 

The  polypide,  or  individual  polyzoon, 
resides  in  a separate  cell  or  chamber,  has 
a distinct  alimentary  canal  suspended 
freely  in  a body  cavity,  and  the  repro- 
ductive organs  contained  within  the 
body.  The  body  is  inclosed  in  a double- 
walled  sac,  the  outer  layer  of  which  is 
chitinous  or  calcareous,  and  the  inner  a 
delicate  membranous  layer.  On  the 
ectocyst  are  seen  certain  peculiar  proc- 
esses caflcd  “bird’s-head  processes,”  or 
avicularia,  from  their  shape,  the  use  of 
which  is  unknown.  The  mouth-opening 
at  the  upper  part  of  each  cell  is  sur- 
rounded by  a circlet  of  hollow  ciliated 
tentacles,  which  perform  the  function 
of  respiration,  and  the  cell  may  be  closed 
by  a sort  of  valve  called  the  epistome. 
■Ml  the  Polyzoa  are  hermaphrodite.  In 
many  cases  there  are  ovicells  or  sacs  into 
which  the  fertilized  ova  pass.  From 
these  proceed  free-swimming  ciliated 
embryos  which  develop  into  polypides. 
f Continuous  gemmation  exists  in  all. 
They  are  all  aquatic  in  their  habits; 
the  marine  Polyzoa  being  common  to  all 
seas,  but  the  fresh-water  genera  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  north  temperate 
zone. 


POMEGRANATE  (pom'gra-nat),  a 
dense  spiny  shrub,  from  8 to  20  feet 
high,  supposed  to  have  belonged  origin- 
ally to  the  north  of  Africa,  and  subse- 
quently introduced  into  Italy.  It  was 
called  by  the  Romans  Carthaginian 
apple.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  lanceo- 


Pomegranate. 


late,  entire,  and  smooth;  the  flowers  are 
large  and  of  a brilliant  red;  the  fruit  is  as 
large  as  an  orange,  having  a hard  rind 
filled  with  a soft  pulp  and  numerous  red 
seeds.  The  pulp  is  more  or  less  acid  and 
slightly  astringent.  The  pomegranate  is 
extensivelycultivated  throughout  South- 
ern Europe,  and  sometimes  attains  a 
great  size. 

POMERA'NIA,  a province  of  Prussia, 
bounded  by  the  Baltic,  Mecklenburg, 
Brandenburg,  and  West  Prussia;  area, 
11,622  sq.  miles.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Oder,  Persante,  and  Stolpe.  The 
soil  is  generally  sandy  and  indifferent, 
but  there  are  some  rich  alluvial  tracts, 
producing  a quantity  of  grain.  Flax, 
hemp,  and  tobacco  are  also  cultivated. 
Pop.  1,634,832. 

POMPADOUR  (pon-pa-dor),  Jeanne 
Antoinette  Poisson,  Marquise  de,  the 
mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  in  1721, 
and  was  said  to  be  the  daughter  of  the 
farmer-general  Lenormand  de  Tourne- 
hem,  who  at  his  death  left  her  an  im- 
mense fortune.  In  1741  she  married  her 
cousin,  Lenormand  d’Etiolles.  A few 
years  later  she  succeeded  in  attracting 
the  attention  of  the  king,  and  soon 
entirely  engrossed  his  favor.  In  1745 
she  appeared  at  court  as  the  Marquise 


de  Pompadour.  Here  she  at  first  posed 
as  the  patroness  of  learning  and  the 
arts,  but  with  the  decay  of  her  channs 
she  devoted  her  attention  to  state 
affairs.  Her  favorites  filled  the  most  im- 


ortant  offices,  and  she  is  said  to  have 
roimht  about  the  war  with  Frederick 
II.  Me  died  in  1764,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
four,  hated  and  reviled  by  the  nation. 

POMPEII  (pom-pa'ye),  an  ancient 
city  of  Italy,  in  Campania,  near  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  about  12  miles  southeast  from 
the  city  of  that  name,  and  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Vesuvius  on  its  southern  side. 
Before  the  close  of  the  republic,  and 
under  the  early  emperors,  Pompeii  be- 
came a favorite  retreat  of  wealthy 
Romans.  In  a.d.  63  a fearful  earth- 
quake occurred,  which  destroyed  a 
great  part  of  the  town.  The  work  of  re- 
building was  soon  commenced,  and  the 
new  town  had  a population  of  some 
30,000  when  it  was  overtaken  by  an- 
other catastrophe  on  24th  August,  a.d. 
79.  This  consisted  in  an  eruption  of 
Mount  Vesuvius,  which  suddenly  belched 
forth  tremendous  showers  of  ashes,  red- 
hot  pumice-stone,  etc.,  so  as  to  over- 
whelm the  city  for  a considerable  depth. 
In  1906  an  eruption  took  place  accom- 
panied by  earthquakes,  which,  compared 
with  other  great  eruptions,  was  one  of 
the  most  important  in  its  history.  Many 
towns  were  destroyed  by  lava.  Pompeii 
was  threatened  for  a time,  but  only  a 
few  houses  were  destroyed.  In  Naples, 
12  miles  from  the  volcano,  the  fall  of 
ashes  was  so  great  that  it  caused  the 
death  and  injury  of  many  people.  The 
number  of  lives  lost  was  over  300,  and 
the  loss  of  property  was  incalculable. 
Pompeii  was  consigned  to  oblivion 
during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  was  not 
until  1748,  when  a peasant  in  sinking  a 
well  discovered  a painted  chamber  with 
statues  and  other  objects  of  antiquity, 
that  anything  like  a real  interest  in  the 
locality  was  excited.  Excavations  were 
now  prosecuted  and  in  1755  the  amphi- 
theater, theater,  and  other  parts  were 
cleared  out.  Under  the  Bourbons  the 
excavations  were  carried  out  on  a very 
unsatisfactory  plan.  Statues  and 
articles  of  value  alone  were  extricated, 
while  the  buildings  were  suffered  to  fall 
into  decay  or  covered  up  again.  To  the 
short  reign  of  Murat  (1808-15)  we  are 
indebted  for  the  excavation  of  the 
Forum,  the  town  walls,  the.  Street  of 
Tombs,  and  many  private  houses. 
Latterly  the  government  of  Victor 
Emmanuel  assigned  $12,500  annually 
for  the  prosecution  of  the  excavations. 


and  a regular  plan  has  been  adopted, 
according  to  which  the  ruins  are  sys- 
tematically explored  and  carefully  pre- 
served. The  town  is  built  in  the  form  of 
an  irregular  oval  extending  from  cast  to 


POMPEY 


PONTE VEDRA 


west.  The  circumference  of  the  walls 
amounts  to  2925  yards.  The  area  within 
the  walls  is  estimated  at  160  acres; 
greatest  length,  } mile;  greatest  breadth 
J mile.  There  are  eight  gates.  The 
streets  are  straight  and  narrow  and 
paved  with  large  polygonal  blocks  of 
lava.  The  houses  areslightly  constructed 
of  concrete,  or  occasionally  of  bricks. 
Numerous  staircases  prove  that  the 
houses  were  of  two  or  three  stories.  The 
ground  floor  of  the  larger  houses  was 
generally  occupied  by  shops.  Most  of 
the  lar'ger  houses  are  entered  from  the 
street  by  a narrow  passage  (vestibulum) 
leading  to  an  internal  hall  (atrium), 
which  provided  the  surrounding  cham- 
bers with  light  and  was  the  medium 
of  communication;  beyond  the  latter  is 
another  large  public  apartment  termed 
the  tabulinum.  The  other  portion  of  the 


greeted  him  with  the  surname  of  Magnus 
(Great).  Pompey  demanded  a triumph, 
to  which  Sulla  reluctantly  consented. 
He  entered  Rome  in  triumph  in  Sep- 
tember 81,  and  was  the  first  Roman 
permitted  to  do  so  without  possessing 
a higher  dignity  than  that  of  equestrian 
rank.  After  the  death  of  Sulla,  Pompey 
put  an  end  to  the  war  which  the  revolt 
of  Sertorius  in  Spain  had  occasioned, 
and  in  71  obtained  a second  triumph. 
In  this  year,  although  not  of  legal  age 
and  without  official  experience,  he  was 
elected  consul  with  Crassus.  In  67  he 
cleared  the  Mediterranean  of  pirates, 
and  destroyed  their  strongholds  on  the 
coast  of  Cilicia.  In  the  four  years,  65-62, 
he  conquered  Mithridates,  Tigranes,  and 
Antiochus,  king  of  Syria.  At  the  same 
time  he  subdued  the  Jews  and  took 
Jerusalem  by  storm.  He  returned  to 


Pompeii — House  of  the  Tragic  Poet,  so  called. 


house  comprised  the  private  rooms  of 
the  family.  All  the  apartments  are 
small.  The  shops  were  small  and  all  of 
one  character,  having  the  business  part 
in  front  and  one  or  two  small  chambers 
behind,  with  a single  large  opening 
serving  for  both  door  and  window.  The 
chief  public  buildings  are  the  so-called 
Temple  of  Jupiter,  the  Temple  of  Venus, 
the  Basilica,  the  Temple  of  Mercury,  the 
Curia,  and  the  Pantheon  or  Temple  of 
Augustus.  There  are  several  interesting 
private  buildings  scattered  through  the 
town,  including  the  villa  of  Diomedes, 
the  house  of  Sallust,  and  the  house  of 
Marcus  Lucretius.  The  Museum  of 
Naples  owes  many  of  its  most  interest- 
ing features  to  the  ornaments,  etc., 
found  in  the  public  and  private  edifices 
above  mentioned. 

POMPEY,  in  full  Cneius  Pompeius 
Magnus,  a distinguished  Roman,  born 
B.c.  106,  was  the  son  of  Cneius  Pom- 
peius Strabo,  an  able  general.  In  b.c. 
89  he  served  with  distinction  under  his 
father  in  the  war  against  the  Italian 
allies.  In  the  struggle  between  Marius 
and  Sulla,  Pompey  raised  three  legions 
to  aid  the  latter,  and  regained  all  the 
territories  of  Africa  which  had  forsaken 
the  interest  of  Sulla.  This  success  ex- 
cited the  jealousy  of  Sulla,  who  recalled 
him  to  Rome.  On  his  return  Sulla 


Italy  in  62  and  disbanded  his  army,  but 
did  not  enter  Rome  until  the  following 
year,  when  he  was  honored  with  a third 
triumph.  Pompey,  in  order  to  strengthen 
his  position,  united  his  interest  with 
that  of  Cmsar  and  Crassus,  and  thus 
formed  the  first  triumvirate.  This  agree- 


Pompey.— Antique  gem. 


ment  was  concluded  by  the  marriage 
of  Pompey  with  Caesar’s  daughter  Julia ; 
but  the  powerful  confederacy  was  soon 
broken.  During  Caesar’s  absence  in 
Gaul  Pompey  ingratiated  himself  with 
the  senate,  was  appointed  sole  consul, 
and  the  most  important  state  offices 


were  filled  with  Caesar’s  enemies. 
Through  his  influence  Caesar  was  pro- 
claimed an  enemy  to  the  state,  and  his 
rival  was  appointed  general  of  the  army 
of  the  republic.  Caesar  crossed  the 
Rubieon  in  49  (see  Caesar),  and  in  sixty 
days  was  master  of  Italy  without  strik- 
ing a blow.  Pompey  crossed  over  to 
Greece,  and  in  this  country,  on  the 
plains  of  Pharsalia,  occurred  the  decisive 
battle  which  made  Caesar  master  of  the 
Roman  world.  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt, 
where  he  hoped  to  find  a safe  asylum. 
The  ministers  of  Ptolemy  betrayed  him, 
and  he  was  stabbed  on  landing  by  one  of 
his  former  centurions  in  b.c.  48. 

POMPEY’S  PILLAR,  a celebrated 
column,  standing  on  an  eminence  about 
1800  feet  to  the  south  of  the  present 
walls  of  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  It  con- 
sists of  a Corinthian  capital,  shaft,  base, 
and  pedestal.  The  total  height  of  the 
column  is  104  feet;  the  shaft,  a monolith 
of  red  granite,  is  67  feet  long,  and  9 feet 
in  diameter  below  and  not  quite  8 at 
top.  It  is  named  from  the  Roman  pre- 
fect Pompeius,  who  erected  it  in  honor 
of  Diocletian  about  or  soon  after  302  a.d. 

PONCE  DE  LEON  (pon'the  de  le-on'), 
Juan,  one  of  the  early  Spanish  dis- 
coverers in  America,  born  about  1460, 
died  at  Cuba  1521.  He  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  second  expedition 
in  1493,  and  was  sent  by  Ovando  to 
conquer  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 
Having  there  amassed  great  wealth, 
and  received  information  of  an  is- 
land situated  to  the  north,  he  dis- 
covered the  country,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  Florida.  Ponce  returned  to 
Spain  in  1513,  and  was  appointed  by 
Ferdinand  governor,  of  the  island  of 
Florida,  as  he  called  it,  on  condition 
that  he  should  colonize  it.  In  1521  he 
embarked  nearly  all  his  wealth  in  two 
ships,  and  proceeded  to  take  possession 
of  his  province.  He  was,  however,  met 
with  determined  hostility  by  the  natives, 
who  made  a sudden  attack  upon  the 
Spaniards,  and  drove  them  to  their 
ships.  In  the  combat  Ponce  de  Leon 
was  mortally  wounded. 

PONDICHERRY,  a town,  capital  of 
the  French  East  Indian  settlement  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  east  or  Coro- 
mandal  coast,  85  miles  south  by  west 
from  Madras.  Its  territory  is  surrounded 
on  the  land  side  by  the  Bi-itish  district 
of  South  Arcot,  and  has  an  area  of  115 
sq.  miles;  pop.  182,000. 

PONDOLAND,  a maritime  territory 
of  Cape  Colony  abutting  on  Natal,  90 
miles  from  n.e.  to  s.w.,  and  about  50 
from  n.w.  to  s.e.  Pop.  about  200,000. 
It  was  the  last  remnant  of  independent 
Kaffraria,  became  a British  protectorate 
in  1884,  and  was  annexed  to  the  Cape 
in  1894. 

PONTE  VEDRA  (pon-te-va'dra),  a 
town  in  Northwest  Spain,  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  old  wall;  consists  of 
broad,  well-paved  streets,  and  well- 
built  houses  of  granite,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  velvet,  woolen  and 
cotton  cloth,  hats,  leather,  etc.  Pop. 
20,012. — The  province  produces  in 
abundance  corn,  rye,  wheat  and  millet, 
flax,  fruit,  and  wine,  and  rears  great 
numbers  of  cattle.  Area,  1730  sq.  miles; 
pop.  463,564. 


PONTIAC 


POPE 


PONTIAC,  the  capital  of  Oakland  co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Clinton  river,  and  the 
Detroit,  Gr.  Haven  and  Mil.  and  the 
Pontiac,  Oxford  and  N.  railways;  26 
miles  n.w.  of  Detroit.  Within  the  county 
and  a few  miles  from  the  city  are  over 
!’  400  lakes,  with  a total  area  of  about 

f 30,000  sq.  miles,  teeming  with  choice 
> fish.  Pop.  11,542. 

■-  PONTOON',  in  military  engineering, 
' a flat-bottomed  boat,  or  any  light  frame- 
• work  or  floating  body  used  in  the  con- 
' struction  of  a temporary  bridge  over  a 
river.  One  form  of  pontoon,  used  in  the 
i'  British  service,  is  a hollow  tin-plate 
cylinder,  with  hemispherical  ends,  and 
divided  by  several  longitudinal  and 
transverse  partitions  to  act  as  braces 
and  to  prevent  sinking  if  pierced  by  a 
shot  or  Dy  accident.  Another  is  in  the 


Pontoon  and  pontoon  bridge. 


a,  Pontoon,  external  and  Internal  structure. 
bb,  End  of  same,  supporting  the  roadway,  c. 
Plan  of  bridge,  dd,  Pontoons,  e.  Rafters  for 
supporting  the  roadway,  f,  Roadway  complete 

form  of  a decked  canoe,  and  consists  of  a 
timber  frame  covered  with  sheet  copper. 
It  is  formed  in  two  distinct  parts,  which 
are  locked  together  for  use  and  dis- 
located for  transportation,  and  is  also 
divided  into  air-tight  chambers.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  a water-tight 
structure  or  frame  placed  beneath  a 
submerged  vessel  and  then  filled  with 
air  to  assist  in  refloating  the  vessel ; and 
to  a water-tight  structure  which  is  sunk 
by  filling  with  water  and  raised  by 
pumping  it  out,  used  to  close  a sluice- 
way or  entrance  to  a dock. 

POOLE,  William  Frederick,  American 
librarian,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  in 
1821.  He  was  librarian  of  the  Boston 
Mercantile  library,  1852-56;  then  of  the 
, Athenaeum,  where  he  remained  thir- 
teen years,  becoming  known  as  one  of 
the  leading  librarians  of  the  country. 
He  was  in  charge  of  the  Cincinnati 
Public  library  in  1869-73;  of  the  Chi- 
cago Public  library  in  1873-87;  and  of 
the  Newberry  library,  Chicago,  from 
1887  till  his  death.  Dr.  Poole  was  most 
widely  known  for  his  admirable  Index 
to  Periodical  Literature,  of  which  he 
published  enlarged  editions  in  1853  and 
in  1882.  He  died  in  1894. 

POONAH,  or  PUNA,  a city  and  dis- 
^ trict  of  Hindustan,  in  the  presidency  of 
Bombay.  It  is  about  119  miles  east  of 
r . Bombay  by  the  Great  Indian  Peninsu- 
la lar  railway.  Pop.  153,320,  of  whom 
; 40,000  are  in  the  cantonments. — The 

t district  has  an  area  of  5348  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  995,074. 

POOP,  the  aftermost  and  highest  part 
the  hull  in  large  vessels;  or,  a partial 
deck  in  the  aftermost  part  of  a ship 
above  the  deck  proper. 

POOREE,  or  PURI,  a town  and  dis- 


trict of  India,  in  the  province  of  Orissa. 
The  town  is  250  miles  s.w.  from  Cal- 
cutta. It  contains  the  shrine  of  Jugger- 
naut, to  whose  worship  crowds  flock 
from  every  part  of  India.  Pop.  49,334. — 
The  district  has  an  area  of  2473  sq. 
miles,  and  a pop.  of  1,017,286. 

POOR  RICHARD'S  ALMANAC,  a 
popular  almanac  published  by  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  in  1732  and  continued 
for  twenty-five  years.  As  “Richard 
Saunders”  Franklin  supplied  in  his 
almanacs,  of  which  10,000  were  sold 
yearly,  a fund  of  proverbs,  homely 
wisdom  and  common  sense  of  the  great- 
est practical  value  to  the  people  of  this 
country. 

POPE,  the  title  given  to  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy.  It  seems 
to  have  been  used  at  first  in  the  early 
church  as  a title  of  reverence  given  to 
ecclesiastics  generally,  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  it  is  applied  in  the  Greek 
church  to  all  priests.  In  the  early 
Western  church  the  title  of  pope  was 
ultimately  bestowed  upon  the  metro- 
politan bishops,  but  in  the  struggle  for 
pre-eminence  the  claim  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  only  pope  was  enforced  by 
the  Bishop  of  Rome.  This  claim  of  pre- 
eminence was  founded  on  the  belief, 
supported  by  the  early  traditions  of 
the  church,  that  the  Apostle  Peter 
planted  a church  in  Rome,  and  that  he 
died  there  as  a martyr.  This  tradition, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  alleged 
pre-eminence  of  Peter  among  Christ’s 
disciples,  came  to  be  regarded  as  suffi- 
cient reason  for  the  primacy  of  the 
Bishop  of  Rome  in  the  churcli.  Conse- 
quently from  the  end  of  the  4th  century 
the  Bishop  of  Rome  was  the  first  among 
the  five  patriarchs  or  superior  bishops 
of  Christendom.  A decree  of  the  em- 
peror Valentian  III.  (445)  acknowl- 
edged the  Bishop  of  Rome  as  primate, 
but  until  the  8th  century  many  meas- 
ures of  the  popes  met  with  violent  oppo- 
sition. Leo  the  Great  (440-461)  was  the 
first  to  base  his  claims  to  the  primacy  on 
divine  authority  by  appealing  to  Matt, 
xvi.  18;  and  he  did  much  to  establish 
the  theory  that  bishops  in  disputes  with 
their  metropolitans  had  a right  of  ap- 
peal to  Rome.  The  Eastern  church  al- 
ways resisted  the  see  of  Rome,  and  this 
mainly  occasioned  the  schism  that  in 
1054  divided  Christendom  into  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches.  After  the 
8th  century  several  circumstances  con- 
tributed to  open  to  the  popes  the  way 
to  supreme  control  over  all  churches. 
Among  these  were  the  establishment 
of  missionary  churches  in  Germany 
directly  under  Rome,  the  pseudo- 
Isidorian  decretals,  which  contained 
many  forged  documents  supporting  the 
general  supremacy  of  the  Roman  pontiff 
the  gradations  of  ecclesiastical  rank, 
and  the  personal  superiority  of  some 
popes  over  their  contemporaries.  Leo 
the  Great  (440-461),  Gregory  I.,  the 
Great  (590-604),  and  Leo  III.  (795-816), 
who  crowned  Charlemagne,  all  increased 
the  authority  of  the  papal  title.  Much 
violence  and  corruption  prevailed  in  the 
Roman  see  during  the  middle  ages.  In 
1059  the  dignity  and  independence  of 
the  papal  chair  were  heightened  by  the 
constitution  of  Nicolas  II.,  placing  the 
right  of  election  of  the  pope  in  the  hands 


of  the  cardinals.  In  1073  Gregory  VII., 
at  a Roman  council,  formally  prohibited 
the  use  of  the  title  of  pope  by  any  other 
ecclesiastic  than  the  Bishop  of  Rome; 
he  also  enforced  a celibate  life  upon  the 
clergy,  and  prohibited  lay  investiture. 
The  reign  of  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216) 
raised  the  papal  see  to  the  highest  de- 
gree of  power  and  dignity;  and  having 
gained  almost  unlimited  spiritual  do- 
minion, the  popes  now  began  to  extend 
their  temporal  power  also.  The  do- 
minions under  the  pope’s  temporal  rule 
had  at  first  consisted  of  a territory 
granted  to  the  papal  see  by  Pepin  in 
754,  which  was  subsequently  largely  in- 
creased. The  popes,  however,  con- 
tinued to  have  to  some  extent  the 
position  of  vassals  of  the  German  em- 
pire, and  until  the  12th  century  the 
German  emperors  suffered  no  election 
of  pope  to  take  place  without  their 
sanction.  Innocent  III.,  however,  largely 
increased  his  territories  at  the  expense 
of  the  empire,  and  the  power  of  the  em- 
perors over  Rome  and  the  pope  may 
now  be  said  to  have  come  to  an  end. 
Favorable  circumstances  had  already 
made  several  kindgoms  tributary  to  the 
papal  see,  which  had  now  acquired  such 
power  that  Innocent  III.  took  upon 
him  to  depose  and  proclaim  kings,  and 
put  both  France  and  England  under  an 
interdict.  France  alone  first  successfully 
resisted  the  popes.  In  Philip  the  Fair 
Boniface  VIII.  found  a master,  and  his 
successors  between  1307  and  1377  re- 
mained under  French  influence,  and 
held  their  courts  at  Avignon.  Their 
dignity  sunk  still  lower  in  1378  when 
two  rival  popes  appeared.  Urban  VI.  and 
Clement  VII.,  causing  a schism  and 
scandal  in  the  church  for  thirty-eight 
years.  This  schism  did  much  to  lessen 
the  influence  of  the  popes  in  Christen- 
dom, and  it  subsequently  received  a 
greater  blow  from  the  Reformation. 
During  the  reign  of  Leo  X.  (1513-25) 
Luther,  Zuinglius,  and  Calvin  were  the 
heralds  of  an  opposition  which  separated 
almost  half  the  west  from  the  popes, 
while  the  policy  of  Charles  V.  was  at  the 
same  time  diminishing  their  power,  and 
from  this  time  neither  the  new  support 
of  the  Society  of  Jesuits  nor  the  policy 
of  the  popes  could  restore  the  old 
authority  of  the  papal  throne.  The 
national  churches  obtained  their  free- 
dom in  spite  of  all  opposition,  and  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  bringing  to 
an  end  the  Thirty  Years’  war  and  the 
religious  struggle  in  Germany,  gave 
public  legality  to  a system  of  toleration 
which  was  in  direct  contradiction  to  the 
papal  doctrines.  The  bulls  of  the  popes 
were  now  no  longer  of  avail  beyond  the 
states  of  the  church  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  sovereigns,  and  the  rev- 
enues from  foreign  kingdoms  decreased. 
Pius  VI.  (1775-98)  witnessed  the  revo- 
lution W’hich  not  only  tore  from  him 
the  French  church,  but  even  deprived 
him  of  his  dominions.  In  1801,  and 
again  in  1809,  Pius  VII.  lost  his  liberty 
and  possessions,  and  owed  his  restora- 
tion in  1814  to  a coalition  of  temporal 
princes,  among  whom  were  two  heretics 
(English  and  Prussian)  and  a schismatic 
(the  Russian).  Nevertheless  he  not  only 
restored  the  Inquisition,  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  other  religious  orders, 


POPE 


POPULATION 


but  advanced  claims  and  principles 
entirely  opposed  to  the  ideas  and  resolu- 
tions of  his  liberators.  The  same  spirit 
that  actuated  Pius  VII.  actuated  in  like 
manner  his  successors,  Leo  XII.  (1823- 
29),  Pius  VIII.  (1829-30),  and  above  all 
Gregory  XVI.  (1831-46).  The  opposi- 
sion  of  the  latter  to  all  reforms  in  the 


Pope. 


civil  relations  of  the  papal  dominions 
contributed  greatly  to  the  revolution  of 
1848,  which  obliged  his  successor,  Pius 
IX.,  to  flee  from  Rome.  The  power  of  the 
papacy  was  further  weakened  by  the 
events  of  1859,  1860,  and  1866.  And 
after  the  withdrawal  of  the  French 
troops  from  Italy  in  1870,  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  took  possession  of  Rome, 
and  since  that  time  the  pope  has  lived 
in  seclusion  in  the  Vatican. 

By  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Council 
of  1870  the  pope  has  supreme  power  in 
matters  of  discipline  and  faith  over  all 
and  each  of  the  pastors  and  of  the  faith- 
ful. It  is  further  taught  by  the  Vatican 
council  that  when  the  pontiff  speaks  ex 
cathedra,  that  is  when  he,  in  virtue  of 
his  apostolic  office,  defines  a doctrine  of 
faith  and  morals  to  be  held  by  the  whole 
church,  he  possesses  infallibility  by 
divine  assistance.  The  pope  cannot 
annul  the  constitution  of  the  church  as 
ordained  by  Christ.  He  may  condemn  or 
prohibit  books,  alter  the  rites  of  the 
church,  and  reserve  to  himself  the  canon- 
ization of  saints.  A pope  has  no  power 
to  nominate  his  successor,  election  being 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals, 
who  are  not  bound  to  choose  one  of 
their  own  body.  The  papal  insignia  are 
the  tiara  or  triple  crown,  the  straight 
crosier,  and  the  pallium.  He  is  addressed 
as  “Your  holiness.” 

POPE,  Alexander,  a celebrated  Eng- 
lish poet,  was  born  May  21,  1688.  His 
father  was  a London  merchant  and  a 
devout  Catholic.  Soon  after  his  son’s 
birth  the  father  retired  to  Binfield,  near 
Windsor.  Pope  was  small,  delicate,  and 
much  deformed.  His  education  was  a 
desultory  one.  In  1711  he  published  his 
poem  the  Essay  on  Criticism,  which  was 
followed  by  The  Rape  of  the  Lock, 
a polished  and  witty  narrative  poem 
founded  on  an  incident  of  fashionable 
life.  His  next  publications  were  The 
Temple  of  Fame,  a modernization  and 
adaptation  of  Chaucer’s  House  of  Fame; 
Windsor  Forest,  a pastoral  poem  (1713)j 
and  The  Epistle  of  Eloisa  to  Abelard 
(1717).  From  1713  to  1726  he  was  en- 
gaged on  a poetical  translation  of 


Homer’s  works,  the  Iliad  (completed  in 
1720)  being  wholly  from  his  pen,  the 
Odyssey  only  half.  In  1728  he  published 
his  Dunciad,  a mock  heroic  poem  in- 
tended to  overwhelm  his  antagonists 
with  ridicule.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
excessive  vehemence  of  its  satire,  and  is 
full  of  coarse  abuse.  This  was  followed 
by  Imitations  of  Horace  (among  the 
most  original  of  his  works),  and  by 
Moral  Epistles  or  Essays.  His  Essay  on 
Man  was  published  anon}Tnously  in 
1733,  and  completed  and  avowed  by  the 
author  in  the  next  year.  This  work  is 
distinguished  by  its  poetry  rather  than 
by  its  reasonings,  which  are  confused 
and  contradictory.  In  1742  he  added  a 
fourth  book  to  his  Dunciad,  in  which  he 
attacked  Colley  Cibber,  then  poet- 
laureate.  He  died  on  May  30,  1744,  and 
was  interred  at  Twickenham. 

POPE,  John,  American  soldier  was 
born  in  Kaskaslcia,  111.,  in  1822.  He  saw 
service  in  the  Florida  Indian  war  and 
served  under  General  Taylor  in  the 
Merican  war.  He  was  one  of  President 
Lincoln’s  escort  to  Washington  on  the 
occasion  of  his  first  inauguration.  In 

1861  he  was  made  brigadier-general.  In 

1862  he  was  called  to  Washington  and 
assigned  to  the  army  of  Virginia.  He 
was  utterly  defeated  by  Stonewall 


John  Pope. 


Jackson  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  He  returned  to  Washington  and 
resigned  his  command.  After  the  war 
he  was  placed  in  command  of  one  of  the 
southern  military  districts.  In  1882  he 
was  made  major-general.  He  was  placed 
on  the  retired  list  in  1886.  He  died  in 
1902. 

POPLAR,  a well-known  genus  of 
hardy  deciduous  trees,  with  both  barren 
and  fertile  flowers  in  catkins,  stamens 
four  to  thirty,  leaves  alternate,  broad, 
with  long  and  slender  foot-stalks  flat- 
tened vertically,  the  leaves  having  gen- 
erally more  or  less  of  a tremulous 
motion.  About  eighteen  species  have 
been  observed,  natives  of  Europe,  cen- 
tral and  northern  Asia,  and  North 
America.  Some  of  the  poplars  are  the 
most  rapid  growers  of  all  hardy  forest 
trees.  They  thrive  under  a variety  of 
conditions  as  regards  soil' etc.,  but  do 
best  in  damp  situations.  The  timber  of 
the  poplar  is  white,  light,  and  soft,  and 
not  very  valuable. 

POPOCATEPETL,  an  active  volcano 
in  Mexico,  in  the  province  of  Puebla; 
long.  98°  33'  w. ; lat.  18°  36'  n.  Its  height 
has  been  estimated  at  17,884  feet.  The 
crater  is  3 miles  in  circumference  and 
1000  feet  deep.  Forests  cover  the  base 
of  the  mountain,  but  its  summit  is 
mostly  covered  with  snow. 

POPPY,  the  common  name  for  a 
species  of  herbaceous  plant,  all  bear- 
ing large,  brilliant,  but  fugacious 
flowers.  The  white  poppy  yields  the 


well-known  opium  of  commerce.  Most 
of  the  species  are  natives  of  Europe, 
and  four  are  truly  natives  of  Britain. 
They  often  occur  as  weeds  in  fields 
and  waste  places,  and  are  frequently 
also  cultivated  in  gardens  for  orna- 
ment. The  seeds  of  the  white  poppy 


a.  The  upper  part  of  the  stem  with  the  0ower. 

6,  The  lower  part  of  the  plant,  c,  The  fruit. 

yield  a fixed  harmless  oil  employed  for 
culinary  purposes;  and  the  oil-cake  is 
used  for  feeding  cattle.  The  roots  of  the 
poppy  are  annual  or  perennial;  the 
calyx  is  composed  of  two  leaves,  and 
the  corolla  of  four  petals;  the  stamens 
are  numerous,  and  the  capsule  is  one- 
celled,  with  several  longitudinal  par- 
titions, and  contains  a multitude  of 
SGcds 

POPULATION,  the  power  of  propa- 
gation inherent  in  all  organic  life  may 
be  regarded  as  infinite.  There  is  no  one 
species  of  vegetable  or  animal  which 
under  favorable  conditions  as  to  space, 
climate,  and  food  (that  is  to  say,  if  not 
crowded  and  interfered  with  by  others), 
would  not  in  a small  number  of  years 
overspread  every  region  of  the  globe. 
To  this  property  of  organized  beings 
the  human  species  forms  no  exception. 
And  it  is  a very  low  estimate  of  its 
power  of  increase  if  we  only  assume  that, 
under  favorable  conditions,  each  gen- 
eration might  be  double  the  number  of 
the  generation  which  preceded  it. 
Taking  mankind  in  the  mass,  the  in- 
dividual desire  to  contribute  to  the  in- 
crease of  the  species  may  be  held  to  be 
universal,  but  the  actual  growth  of 
population  is  nowhere  left  to  the  un- 
aided force  of  this  motive,  and  nowhere 
does  any  community  increase  to  the 
extent  of  its  theoretical  capacity,  even 
though  the  growth  of  population  has 
come  to  be  commonly  considered  as  an 
indispensable  sign  of  the  prosperity  of  a 
community.  For  one  thing  population 
cannot  continue  to  increase  beyond  the 
means  of  subsistence,  and  every  increase 
beyond  actual  or  immediately  attain- 
able means,  must  lead  to  a destruction 
of  life.  But  if  population  is  thus  actually 
limited  by  the  means  of  subsistence,  it 
cannot  be  prevented  by  these  means 
from  going  further  than  these  means 
will  warrant;  that  is  to  say,  it  will  only 
be  checked  or  arrested  after  it  has 
exceeded  the  means  of  subsistence. 
It  becomes  then  an  inquiry  of  great  im- 
portance by  what  kind  of  checks  popu- 
lation is  actually  brought  up  at  the 


POPULIST  PARTY 


PORPHYRY 


point  at  which  it  is  in  fact  arrested. 
This  inquiry  was  first  systematically 
treated  in  an  Essay  on  the  Principle  of 
Population  published  in  1798  by  the 
Rev.  T.  R.  Malthus.  Malthus  points 
out  that  population  increases  in  a 
geometrical,  while  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence only  increase  in  an  arithmetical 
ratio.  And  in  examining  the  bearing 
on  each  other  of  the  different  ratios  of 
increase  of  human  life,  and  of  the  means 
of  supporting  it,  he  has  deduced  a law 
to  the  proof  of  which  a considerable 
portion  of  his  work  is  devoted.  This  law 
is  that  the  energy  of  reproduction  raises 
above  all  the  ordinary  accidents  of 
human  life,  and  the  inevitable  restraints 
imposed  by  the  various  organizations 
of  human  society,  so  that  in  all  the 
various  countries  and  climates  in  which 
men  have  lived,  and  under  all  the  con- 
stitutions by  which  they  have  been 
governed,  the  normal  tendency  of 
population  has  always  been  to  press 
continously  upon  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence. Malthus  divides  the  checks  on 
the  increase  of  population  into  two 
classes,  preventive  and  positive;  the 
one  consisting  of  those  causes  which 
prevent  possible  births  from  taking 
place,  the  other  of  those  which,  by 
abbreviating  life,  cut  off  actual  ex- 
cesses of  population.  In  a further 
analysis  of  these  checks  he  reduces 
them  to  three — vice,  misery,  and  moral 
restraint.  The  proof  of  his  main  position 
is  historical  and  statistical.  In  regard  to 
the  subsidiary  inquiry,  the  most  striking 
point  brought  out  is  the  rarity  of  moral 
restraint  and  the  uniform  action,  in 
innumerable  forms,  of  vice  and  misery. 
In  order  that  the  latter  should  be  weak- 
ened in  their  action,  and  the  former 
strengthened,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
general  standard  of  living  in  a com- 
munity raised  as  high  as  possible,  and 
that  all  may  look  to  the  attainment  of  a 
position  of  comfort  by  the  exercise  of 
prudence  and  energy.  The  following 
figures  m.ay  be  given  as  approximately 
representing  the  density  of  population 
in  the  great  divisions  of  the  world  (but 
some  of  the  figures  are  mere  estimates): 


Area  in 
thousands 
of  sq.  miles 

Pop. 

in 

millions 

Density 

per 

sq.  mile 

Europe 

3.861 

390 

100 

Africa 

13.121 

197 

16 

A.sia  

16.217 

789 

47 

Oceania 

4,247 

38 

9 

N.  America. 

9.035 

104 

115 

S.  America.. 

7,066 

32 

4 6 

POPULIST  PARTY,  or  PEOPLE’S 
PARTY,  a political  party  organized  at 
Cincinnati  in  May,  1891.  On  July  2, 
1892,  a national  convention  of  the 
populist  party  met  at  Omaha,  Neb., 
and  nominated  James  B.  Weaver  of 
lov/a  for  president  and  James  G.  Field 
of  Virginia  for  vice-presiuent.  The 
ticket  received  22  electoral  votes  and  a 
popular  vote  of  1,055,424.  In  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1896,  the 
populist  party  nominated  for  president 
W.  J.  Bryan,  who  had  already  received 
the  nomination  of  the  democratic  party, 
and  for  vice-president  Thomas  E.  Wat- 
son of  Georgia.  In  the  campaign  of 


1900  the  populist  party  again  nominated 
for  president  W.  J.  Bryan,  who  was 
also  the  democratic  nominee,  and 
Charles  A.  Towne  of  Minnesota,  but  he 
subsequently  withdrew,  and  the  na- 
tional executive  committee  of  the  popu- 
list party  substituted  Stevenson,  who 
had  already  received  the  nomination 
by  the  democratic  party  for  vice- 
president.  It  received  155  electoral 
votes. 

PORBANDAR,  a town  of  India,  chief 
town  of  a native  state  of  the  same  name, 
in  the  political  agency  of  Kattyawar, 
Bombay.  It  is  built  on  a creek  on  the 
s.w.  coast  of  Gujerat,  and  has  a brisk 
trade  with  Bombay  and  Malabar.  Pop. 
14,569.  The  state  has  an  area  of  535 
sq.  miles  and  a pop.  of  72,077. 

PORCH,  an  exterior  appendage  to  a 
building,  forming  a covered  approach 
to  one  of  its  principal  doorways.  The 
porches  in  some  of  the  older  churches 
are  of  two  stories,  having  an  upper 
apartment  to  which  the  name  parvis  is 
sometimes  applied. — The  porch  was  a 
public  portico  in  Athens  where  the 
philosopher  Zeno  taught  his  disciples. 
Hence  The  Porch  is  equivalent  to  the 
School  of  the  Stoics. 

POR'CUPINE,  a name  of  certain 
rodent  quadrupeds.  The  body  is  covered, 
especially  on  the  back,  with  the  so-called 
quills,  or  dense  solid  spine-like  struc- 
tures, intermixed  with  bristles  and  stiff 
hairs.  There  are  two  incisors  and  eight 
molar  teeth  in  each  jaw,  which  continue 
to  grow  throughout  life  from  permanent 
pulps.  The  muzzle  is  generally  short 
and  pointed,  the  ears  short  and  rounded. 
The  anterior  feet  possess  four,  and  the 
hinder  feet  five  toes,  all  provided  with 
strong  thick  nails.  The  common  or 
crested  porcupine,  found  in  Southern 
Europe  and  in  Northern  Africa,  is  the 
best-known  species.  When  fully  grown 
it  measures  nearly  2 feet  in  length,  and 
some  of  its  spines  exceed  1 foot.  Its 
general  color  is  a grizzled  dusky  black. 
The  spines  in  their  usual  position  lie 
nearly  flat,  with  their  points  directed 
backward;  but  when  the  animal  is  ex- 
cited they  are  capable  of  being  raised. 
The  quills  are  loosely  inserted  in  the 
skin,  and  may,  on  being  violently 
shaken,  become  detached — a ciremn- 
stance  which  may  probably  have  given 
rise  to  the  purely  fabulous  statement 
that  the  animal  possessed  the  power  of 
actually  ejecting  its  quills  like  arrows 
or  darts  at  an  enemy.  These  animals 
burrow  during  the  day,  and  at  night 
search  for  food,  which  consists  chiefly 


Porcupine. 

of  vegetable  matter.  Of  the  American 
species,  the  Canadian  or  North  Ameri- 
ean  porcupine  is  the  best  known.  It  is 
about  2 feet  long,  and  of  slow  and 


sluggish  habits.  The  quills  in  this  species 
are  short,  and  are  concealed  among  the 
fur.  The  ears  are  short,  and  hidden  by 
the  fur.  The  tail  is  comparatively  short. 
The  genus  of  South  America  possesses  a 
distinctive  feature  in  the  elongated  pre- 
hensile tail,  adapting  it  for  arboreal 
existence.  These  latter  forms  may  thus 
be  termed  “tree  porcupines.”  In  length 
the  typical  species  of  this  genus  averages 
li  foot,  the  tail  measuring  about  10 
inches. 

PORGIE,  a fish  of  the  family  Sparidae, 
with  an  oblong  body,  scaly  cheeks,  and 
one  dorsal  fin,  found  off  the  coasts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant food  fishes,  and  attains  a length 
of  18  inches  and  a weight  of  4 lbs. 

PORK,  the  flesh  of  swine,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  and  widely-used 
species  of  animal  food.  Pork  is  coarser 
and  ranker  than  beef  or  mutton,  but 
when  of  good  quality  and  well  cured  it 
develops  a richness  and  delicacy  of 
flavor  in  marked  contrast  with  the  dry- 
ness and  insipidity  of  other  salted  meat. 
The  abundance  and  digestive  quality 
of  its  fat  renders  it  a suitable  diet  for 
cold  climates.  The  swine  was  forbidden 
to  be  eaten  by  the  Mosaic  law,  and  is 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  especially 
typical  of  the  unclean  animals.  Other 
Eastern  nations  had  similar  opinions 
as  to  the  use  of  pork.  Pork  contains  less 
fibrine,  albuminous  and  gelatinous  mat- 
ter than  beef  or  mutton. 

POROSITY,  the  name  given  to  a prop- 
erty possessed  by  all  bodies,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  their  molecules  are  not 
immediately  contiguous  to  one  another, 
but  are  separated  by  intervening  spaces 
or  pores. 

PORPHYR'IO,  a genus  of  birds  of  the 
rail  family  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 


Porphyrio. 

Africa,  and  remarkable  for  the  structure 
of  its  beak  and  the  length  of  its  legs. 
It  feeds  on  seeds  and  other  hard  sub- 
stances, and  lives  in  the  neighborhood 
of  water,  its  long  toes  enabling  it  to  run 
over  the  aquatic  plants  with  great 
facility.  It  is  about  18  inches  long,  of 
a beautiful  blue  color,  the  bill  and  feet 
red. 

PORPHYRY,  originally  the  name 
given  to  a very  hard  stone,  partaking 
of  the  nature  of  granite,  susceptible  of  a 
fine  polish,  and  consequently  much  used 
for  sculpture.  It  consists  of  a homo- 
geneous felspathic  base  or  matrix,  hav- 
ing crystals  of  rose-colored  felspar, 
called  oligoclase,  with  some  plates  of 
blackish  hornblende,  and  grains  of 
oxidized  iron  ore  imbedded,  giving  to 
the  mass  a speckled  complexion.  It  is 
of  a red,  or  rather  of  a purple  and  white 
color,  more  or  less  variegated,  the 


PORPOISE 


PORTER 


shades  being  of  all  gradation  from  violet 
to  a claret  color.  Egypt  and  the  East 
furnish  this  material  in  abundance. 
It  also  abounds  in  Minorca,  where  it  is 
of  a red  lead  color,  variegated  with 
black,  white,  and  green.  Pale  and  red 
porphyry,  variegated  with  black,  white, 
and  green,  is  found  in  separate  nodules 
in  Germany,  England,  and  Ireland. 
The  art  of  cutting  porphyry  as  practiced 
by  the  ancients  appears  to  be  now  quite 
lost.  In  geology  the  term  porphyry  is 
applied  to  any  unstratified  or  igneous 
rock  in  which  detached  crystals  of  fels- 
par or  some  other  mineral  are  diffused 
through  a base  of  other  mineral  com- 
position. The  varieties  of  porphyry  are 
known  as  felspar  porphyry,  claystone 
porphyry,  porphyritic  granite,  and 
porphyritic  greenstone. 

PORPOISE,  a genus  of  cetacean  mam- 
malia. The  common  porpoise  is  the 
smallest  and  most  familiar  of  all  Cetacea, 
and  occurs  plentifully  off  the  British 
coasts  and  in  the  North  sea.  It  attains 
average  length  of  5 feet.  The  front  of 
the  head  is  convex  in  form,  and  has  the 
spiracle  or  blow-hole  in  the  middle  line. 
The  eyes  and  ears  are  small.  The  caudal 
fin  is  horizontal  and  flattened.  The  neck 
is  very  short.  The  fore  limbs  project 
from  the  body.  No  hind  limbs  are  de- 
veloped. The  teeth  are  small  with 
blunted  crowns.  The  stomach  is  in  three 
portions.  No  olfactory  nerves  exist. 
The  porpoise  feeds  almost  entirely  on 
herrings  and  other  fish,  and  herds  or 
“schools”  of  porpoises  follow  the  herring 
shoals,  among  which  they  prove  very 
destructive.  An  allied  species  is  the 


round-headed  porpoise,  or  “caaing 
whale”  of  the  Shetlanders.  These  latter 
measure  from  20  to  24  feet  in  length, 
and  are  hunted  for  the  sake  of  the  oil. 
See  Caaing  AVhale. 

PORT,  a kind  of  wine.  See  Port  Wine. 

PORT,  a harbor  or  haven,  or  place 
where  ships  receive  and  discharge  cargo. 
A free  port  is  one  at  which  the  goods  im- 
ported are  exempted  from  the  payment 
of  any  customs  or  duties,  as  long  as  they 
are  not  conveyed  into  the  interior  of  the 
country. 

PORT,  the  name  given  to  the  left  side 
of  a ship  (looking  toward  the  prow),  as 
distinguished  from  the  starboard  or 
right  side.  Formerly  larboard  was  used 
instead  of  port. 

PORTAGE,  a term  applied  in  Canada 
to  a break  in  a chain  of  water  communi- 
cation, over  which  goods,  boats,  etc., 
have  to  be  carried,  as  from  one  lake, 
river,  or  canal  to  another;  or,  along  the 
banks  of  rivers,  round  waterfalls,  rapids, 
0tc 

PORTAL  CIRCULATION,  a subordi- 
nate part  of  the  venous  circulation,  be- 
longing to  the  liver,  in  which  the  blood 
makes  an  additional  circuit  before  it 
joins  the  rest  of  the  venous  blood.  The 


term  is  also  applied  to  an  analogous 
system  of  vessels  in  the  kidney. 

PORT  ARTHUR,  naval  station  and 
fine  harbor  on  the  Liaotung  peninsula  of 
n.  e.  China,  taken  by  the  Japanese  in 
1894,  and  acquired  by  Russia  in  1898, 
and  in  1905  taken  for  the  second  time  by 
the  Japanese,  who  retain  control. 

PORT-AU-PRINCE  (por-to-prans), 
capital  of  the  Republic  of  Hayti.  The 
chief  exports  are  mahogany  and  red- 
wood, coffee,  and  cocoa-nuts.  Pop. 
40,000. 

PORTCULLIS,  a strong  grating  of 
timber  or  iron,  resembling  a harrow. 


Portcullis. 


made  to  slide  in  vertical  grooves  in  the 
jambs  of  the  entrance-gate  of  a fortified 
place,  to  protect  the  gate  in  case  of 

PORTE,  Ottoman,  SUBLIME  PORTE, 
common  term  for  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment. The  chief  office  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  is  styled  Babi  Ali,  lit.  the  High 
Gate,  from  the  gate  (bab)  of  the  palace 
at  which  justice  was  administered;  and 
the  French  translation  of  this  term  being 
Sublime  Porte,  hence  the  use  of  this 
word. 

PORTER.  See  Brewing. 

PORTER,  David,  American  naval 
officer,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1780.  In  1798  he  entered  the  navy  as 
midshipman  on  board  the  United  States 
ship  Constellation  and  participated  in 
the  war  with  the  French.  Next  year  he 
was  made  lieutenant  and  was  assigned  to 
the  West  Indies  station,  where  he  saw 
service  against  the  pirates  in  those 
waters.  In  1806  he  was  made  master, 
and  in  1812  captain.  In  the  latter  year 
he  fought  in  the  Essex  the  famous  action 
with  the  Alert,  which  he  sank  in  eight 
minutes.  He  made  numerous  captures 
during  the  war  of  1812,  both  of  British 
ships  and  Peruvian  privateers,  nearly 
destroying  the  British  whale  fisheries  in 
the  Pacific.  From  1815  till  1824  Captain 
Porter  was  a member  of  the  board  of 
navy  commissioners.  In  1829  he  was 
appointed  consul  of  Algiers,  and  in  the 
next  year  minister  to  Turkey,  where  he 
remained  till  his  death.  He  was  the 
author  of  a Journal  of  the  Cruise  of  the 
Essex,  and  from  his  letters  several  other 
interesting  books  have  been  compiled. 
It  can  be  said  of  him  that  the  two  most 
distinguished  officers  of  the  United 
States  navy  during  the  late  war  received 
their  earliest  training  on  his  ship.  These 


two  were  his  son  and  adopted  son,  David 
D.  Porter,  and  David  G.  Farragut.  He 
died  in  1843. 

PORTER,  David  Dixon,  _ American 
admiral,  was  born  at  Philadelphia,  in 
1814.  He  saw  his  first  battle  in  the 
Mexican  navy  at  the  time  his  father  was 
chief  in  command  of  that  service,  and 
in  1829,  he  became  a midshipman  in  the 
United  States  navy.  He  served  in  the 
Mediterranean  station  till  1835,  at  which 
time  he  was  assigned  to  the  United 
States  coast  survey  corps.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  he  had  attained 
the  rank  of  commander.  In  January, 

1863,  he  captured  Arkansas  Post,  and  in 
April  destroyed  the  Grand  Gulf  bat- 
teries. At  this  time  he  was  made  rear- 
admiral,  and  had  command  of  all  the 
naval  forces  on  the  Mississippi  river. 
After  the  fall  of  Vicksburg  he  assisted 
Banks  in  his  Red  river  expedition  in 

1864.  The  same  year  saw  him  trans- 
ferred to  the  James  river  in  Virginia,  and 
he  was  employed  in  the  two  attacks  on 
Fort  Fisher  (in  the  second  one  of  which 
the  fort  was  captured),  besides  other 
important  expeditions.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  was  made  vice-admiral,  and 
in  1866  he  became  superintendent  of  the 
naval  academy  of  Annapolis,  Md.  In 
1870,  on  the  death  of  Admiral  Farragut, 
he  became  admiral  (coinmander-in- 
chief)  of  the  navy.  Admiral  Porter  wrote 
several  books,  among  them  being  Life  of 
Commodore  David  Porter,  Incidents 
and  Anecdotes  of  the  Civil  War,  His- 
tory of  the  Navy  in  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion,  and  two  works  of  fiction. 

He  died  in  1891. 

PORTER,  Fitz-John,  American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
in  1822.  He  served  in  the  Mexican  war 
with  General  Scott,  being  wounded  in 
the  battles  around  the  City  of  Mexico. 

He  was  twice  brevetted  for  gallantry  • 
during  the  war,  and  in  1849  he  was 
appointed  instructor  of  cavalry  and 
artillery  at  West  Point.  In  1861  he  had 
reached  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  regu- 
lar army,  and  on  the  beginning  of 
hostilities  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  At  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  Porter  was  ordered  to  attack 
Jackson’s  flank,  but  failed  to  move  (as 
he  alleged)  on  account  of  Longstreet 
being  immediately  in  his  front.  Pope 
laid  the  blame  of  his  defeat  on  Porter’s 
inactivity,  and  even  charged  him  with 
treachery.  Soon  after  this  event  McClel- 
lan was  restored  to  the  chief  command, 
and  General  Porter  participated  in  the 
battle  of  Antietam.  On  November  27, 
1862,  he  was  tried  by  court-martial  on  a 
charge  of  disobedience  of  orders,  and 
after  a tedious  investigation  was 
cashiered  from  the  army.  Appeal  was 
taken,  and  a board  of  inquiry  was  called 
to  proceed  with  a rehearing  of  the  case, 
and  Porter  was  in  1878  declared  blame- 
less. In  Cleveland’s  administration,  a 
bill  was  passed  and  signed  by  the 
president  authorizing  the  restoration  of 
Porter  to  the  regular  army,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  the  bill  taking  effect  iii 
1886. 

PORTER,  Horace,  American  soldier 
and  diplomat.  He  was  born  in  1837  ^ 

at  Huntingdon,  Pa.  At  the  reduction  of  "J 
Fort  Pulaski,  Ga.  (1862),  he  was  the  ^ 
chief  of  ordnance  and  artillery,  and 


PORTER 


PORTSMOUTH.  TREATY  OP 


earned  the  brevet  rank  of  captain.  He 
participated  in  the  Tennessee  campaign 
during  which  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Chickamauga  and  took  part  in  the 
defense  of  Chattanooga.  On  April  4, 
1864,  he  was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant- 
colonel  and  was  assigned  to  the  staff  of 
General  Grant.  On  March  13,  1865,  he 
received  the  brevet  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  When 
Grant  was  elected  to  the  Presidency 
Porter  became  his  private  secretary.  In 
1873  he  resigned  from  the  army  to  be- 
come vice-president  of  the  Pullman  Car 
company,  and  during  the  following 
years  he  filled  executive  positions  on 
several  railroads.  In  1897  President 
McKinley  appointed  him  ambassador 
to  France.  His  writings  include  West 
Point  Life;  Campaigning  with  Grant; 
and  the  articles  on  Five  Forks  and  the 
Pursuit  of  Lee  and  The  Surrender  at 
Appomattox  Court  Hou.se,  in  Battles 
and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War. 

PORTER,  Jane,  was  born  at  Durham, 
England  in  1776,  and  made  her  first  essay 
in  literature  in  1803  by  the  publication 
of  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw,  an  historical 
romance,  which  became  extremely  popu- 
lar and  secured  her  European  fame.  A 
still  greater  success  attended  her  Scot- 
tish Chiefs  (1809).  She  died  at  Bristol 
1850. 

PORTER,  Noah,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
American  philosopher  and  writer,  born 
at  Farmington,  Conn.,  in  1811.  Gradu- 
ating at  Yale  college  in  1831,  he  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  Congregational 
church.  New  Milford,  Conn.,  in  1836,  and 
in  1843  settled  at  Springfield,  Mass. 
Returning  to  Yale  in  1846  as  professor  of 
metaphysics  and  moral  philosophy,  he 
was  elected  president  in  1871,  and  con- 
tinued to  hold  that  position  till  1886. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  Historical  Dis- 
courses, the  Human  Intellect,  Books  and 
Reading,  the  Science  of  Nature  versus  the 
Science  of  Man,  The  Elements  of  Intel- 
lectual Philosophy,  The  Elements  of 
Moral  Science,  Bishop  George  Berkeley, 
and  Kant’s  Ethics.  Dr.  Porter  also 
edited  an  edition  of  Webster’s  Dic- 
tionary. He  died  in  1892. 

PORT  HURON,  a city  on  the  St. 
Clair  river,  Michigan,  where  it  leaves 
Lake  Huron.  It  has  an  extensive  lum- 
ber trade,  ship-yards,  saw,  flour,  and 
planing  mills,  etc.,  and  is  connected 
with  Sarnia  in  Canada  by  ferries  and  a 
railroad  passing  under  the  river.  Pop. 
21  972 

POR:TICO,  in  architecture,  a kind  of 
porch  before  the  entrance  of  a building 
fronted  with  columns,  and  either  pro- 
jecting in  front  of  the  building  or  re- 
ceding within  it.  Porticoes  are  styled 
tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  octostyle,  deca- 
style,  according  as  the  columns  number 
four,  six,  eight,  or  ten. 

PORTLAND,  a seaport  and  largest 
city  in  Maine,  on  a peninsula  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Casco  bay,  a 
picturesque  and  well-built  city,  with 
handsome  public  buildings,  and  abun- 
dance of  trees  in  many  of  its  streets. 
Locomotive  cars,  etc.,  are  made;  there 
are  also  ship  building  yards,  glass-works, 
potteries,  and  rope-walks;  and  the  re- 
fining of  petroleum  and  sugar  is  exten- 
sively carried  on.  The  trade  both  mari- 
time and  inland  is  extensive,  Portland 


being  the  terminus  of  important  rail- 
ways. The  principal  exports  are  tim- 
ber, fish,  beef,  butter,  etc.  Pop.  60,242. 

PORTLAND,  the  chief  city  of  Oregon, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  Willamette 
river,  about  12  miles  from  its  confluence 
with  the  Columbia.  It  is  the  terminus  of 
the  Northern  Pacific,  Union  Pacific, 
Great  Northern,  and  the  Southern  Pacific 
railways,  and  is  at  the  head  of  ship 
navigation,  having  regular  steam  com- 
munication with  British  Columbia  and 
San  Francisco.  Pop.  1909  about  250,000. 

PORTLAND  BEDS,  in  geology,  a 
division  of  the  upper  Oolites  occurring 
between  the  Purbeck  beds  and  the 
Kimmeridge  clay,  consisting  of  beds  of 
hard  oolitic  limestone  and  freestone  in- 
terstratified  with  clays  and  resting  on 
light-colored  sands  which  contain  fossils, 
chiefly  mollusca  and  fish  with  a few 
reptiles.  They  are  named  from  the  rocks 
of  the  group  forming  the  Lsle  of  Portland 
in  Dorsetshire,  from  whence  they  may 
be  traced  through  Wiltshire  as  far  as 
Oxfordshire. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT,  a well-known 
cement,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 
in  color  to  Portland  stone.  It  is  made 
from  chalk  and  gault  clay  in  definite 
porportions.  These  materials  are  in- 
timately mixed  with  water,  and  formed 
into  a sludge.  This  is  dried,  and  when 
caked  is  roasted  in  a kiln  till  it  becomes 
hard.  It  is  afterward  ground  to  a fine- 
powder,  in  which  state  it  is  ready  for 
market.  This  cement  is  much  employed 
along  with  gravel  or  shivers  for  making 
artificial  stone.  A month  after  it  is  set 
it  forms  a substance  so  hard  as  to  emit  a 
sound  when  struck. 

PORTLAND  STONE  is  an  oolitic  lime- 
stone occurring  in  great  abundance  in 
the  Isle  of  Portland,  England.  It  is  one 
of  the  members  of  the  Portland  Beds, 
and  is  much  used  in  building,  being  soft 
when  quarried,  but  hardening  on  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere. 

PORTO-RICO,  one  of  the  larger  West 
India  islands,  the  fourth  in  size  of  the 
Antilles,  east  of  Hayti;  area,  with  sub- 
ordinate isles,  3596  sq.  miles.  The 
island  is  beautiful  and  very  fertile.  A 
range  of  mountains,  covered  with  wood, 
traverses  it  from  east  to  west,  averaging 
about  1500  feet  in  height,  but  with  one 
peak  3678  feet  high.  In  the  interior  are 
extensive  savannahs;  and  along  the 
coast  tracts  of  fertile  land,  from  5 to  10 
miles  wide.  The  streams  are  numerous, 
and  some  of  the  rivers  can  be  ascended 
by  ships  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 
There  are  numerous  bays  and  creeks. 
The  chief  harbor  is  that  of  the  capital, 
San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico;  others  are 
Mayaguez,  Ponce,  and  Arecibo.  The 
climate  is  rather  healthy  except  during 
the  rainy  season  (Sept. — March).  Gold 
is  found  in  the  mountain  streams. 
Copper,  iron,  lead,  and  coal  have  also 
been  found;  and  there  are  salines  or 
salt  ponds.  The  chief  products  are  sugar, 
rum,  molasses,  coffee,  cotton,  tobacco, 
hides,  live-stock,  dye-woods,  timber, 
rice,  etc.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in 
149.3,  it  was  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1510,  who  ceded  it  to  the  United  States 
in  1898.  Pop.  953,243. 

PORTO-RICO,  San  Juan  de,  the 
capital  and  principal  seaport  of  the 
above  island,  on  its  north  coast,  stands 


upon  a small  island  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a bridge,  is  surrounded  by 
strong  fortifications,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  govermnent  and  superior  courts  of 
the  island.  The  hai-bor  is  capable  of 
accommodating  ships  of  the  largest  size. 
Pop.  32,048. 

PORT  SAID,  a town  of  Egypt,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  at  the  northern  entrance 
of  the  Seuz  Canal.  It  was  begun  simul- 
taneously with  the  canal  in  1859,  being 
designed  for  its  terminal  port.  There  is 
an  outer  harbor  formed  by  two  piers 
jutting  out  into. the  sea,  each  terminated 
by  a small  lighthouse.  This  admits 
large  ocean  steamers,  which  thus  sail 
into  the  inner  harbor  and  from  it  into 
the  canal.  Near  the  entrance  to  the 
inner  harbor  is  a lofty  lighthouse  with  a 
powerful  light.  Pop.  42,095. 

PORTSMOUTH,  the  principal  station 
of  the  British  navy,  a seaport,  municipal 
county,  and  pari,  borough  of  England, 
in  Hampshire,  on  the  southwest  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  of  Portsea.  The 
royal  dockyard  covers  an  area  of  about 
500  acres,  and  is  considered  the  largest 
and  most  magnificent  establishment  of 
the  kind  in  the  world.  A series  of  hills, 
4 miles  to  the  north  of  Portsmouth,  and 
commanding  its  front  to  the  sea,  are 
well  fortified  with  strong  forts.  On  the 


Gosport  side  a line  of  forts  extends  for 
4 miles.  The  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  includes  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  island  of  Portsea.  It  sends 
two  members  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
Pop.  189,160. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a seaport  in  Rock- 
ingham CO.,  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Piscataqua,  3 miles 
above  its  mouth  in  the  Atlantic,  50 
miles  north  by  east  of  Boston.  It  has 
long  been  noted  for  its  skill  in  naval 
architecture,  and  for  maritime  enter- 
prise. It  is  the  seat  of  a government 
navy-yard,  and  the  harbor  is  one  of  the 
safest  and  most  commodious  in  the 
United  States,  Pop.  12,237. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a seaport  town  in 
Norfolk  CO.,  Virginia,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Elizabeth,  88  miles  e.s.e.  Richmond; 
has  a military  academy  and  a harbor 
allowing  ships  of  the  heaviest  burden  to 
come  to  the  wharfs.  At  Gosport,  a sub- 
urb, are  a navy-yard,  dry  dock,  and 
naval  hospital.  Pop.  19,115. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a town  in  Scioto  co., 
Ohio,  on  the  Ohio;  has  extensive  iron 
manufactures.  Pop.  20,146. 

PORTSMOUTH,  TREATY  OF,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  proposal  of  President 
Roosevelt  in  May,  1905,  after  nearly 
16  months  of  war,  Russia  and  Japan 
named  their  plenipotentiaries  to  end  the 
war  and  conclude  peace.  The  meeting 


PORTUGAL 


PORTUGAL 


took  place  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  on 
September  5th.  The  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  plenipotentaries  and  was  approved 
by  the  Emporor  of  Japan  and  the  Czar 
of  Russia  on  the  16th  of  September. 

POR'TUGAL,  a kingdom  in  the  south- 
west of  Europe,  forming  the  west  part  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula;  bounded  east  and 
north  by  Spain,  and  west  and  south  by 
the  Atlantic;  greatest  length,  north  to 
south,  345  miles,  greatest  breadth,  140 
miles.  Seven  old  provinces : Minho,  Traz- 
os-Montes,  Beira  (Upper  and  Lower), 
Estremadura,  Alemtejo,  and  Algarve 
now  form  seventeen  districts,  total 
area  34,462  sq.  miles,  population, 
5,021,657  in  1906.  Add  to  these  the 
Azores  (921  sq.  miles;  population, 
256,474),  and  Madeira  (315  sq.  miles; 
population,  150,528),  which  gives  a 
grand  total  of  35,698  sq.  miles,  and  a 
population  of  5,428,659.  The  colonial 
possessions  of  Portugal  consist  of — in 
Asia — Goa,  Salsette,  Damaun,  and  Diu, 
all  in  Hindustan,  Macao  in  China,  and 
possessions  in  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
having  together  an  area  estimated  at 
9000  sq.  miles  and  a population  esti- 
mated at  941,000;  in  Africa— Cape  Verd, 
St.  Thomas,  and  Prince’s  Islands,  the 
Guinea  settlements,  Angola,  Mozambique 
and  dependencies,  with  an  aggregate 
area  of  792,000  sq.  miles,  and  an  esti- 
mated population  of  8,197,790.  The 
total  area  of  the  Portuguese  possessions, 
therefore,  amounts  to  801,000  sq.  miles, 
the  population  to  nearly  9,250,000. 

Portugal  is  only  partially  separated 
from  Spain  by  natural  boundaries.  Its 
shape  is  nearly  that  of  a parallelogram. 
The  coast-line,  of  great  length  in  pro- 
portion to  the  extent  of  the  whole  sur- 
face, runs  from  the  north  in  a general 
s.s.w.  direction  till  it  reaches  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  where  it  suddenly  turns  east. 
The  only  harbors  of  importance,  either 
from  their  excellence  or  the  trade 
carried  on  at  them,  are  those  of  Lisbon, 
Oporto,  Setubal,  Faro,  Figueira,  Aveiro, 
and  Vianna.  The  interior  is  generally 
mountainous,  a number  of  ranges 
stretching  across  the  country,  forming 
a succession  of  independent  river  basins, 
while  their  ramifications  form  the  water- 
sheds of  numerous  subsidiary  streams, 
and  inclose  many  beautiful  valleys. 
The  minerals  include  lead,  iron,  copper, 
manganese,  cobalt,  bismuth,  antimony, 
m.arble,  slate,  salt,  saltpeter,  litho- 
graphic stones,  mill-stones,  and  porce- 
lain earth.  No  rivers  of  importance  take 
their  rise  in  Portugal.  The  Minho  in  the 
north,  the  Douro,  and  the  Tagus  all 
flow  from  east  to  west.  The  Guadiana  is 
the  only  large  river  which  flows  mainly 
south.  Portugal  can  only  claim  as 
peculiarly  her  own  the  Vouga,  Mondego, 
and  Sado. 

The  climate  is  greatly  modified  by  the 
proximity  of  the  sea  and  the  height  of 
the  mountains.  In  general  the  winter  is 
short  and  mild,  and  in  some  plaees  never 
completely  interrupts  the  course  of 
vegetation.  In  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts the  loftier  summits  obtain  a 
covering  of  snow,  which  they  retain  for 
months;  but  south  of  the  Douro,  and 
at  a moderate  elevation,  snow  does  not 
lie  long.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
of  Lisbon  is  about  56°.  Few  countries 
have  a more  varied  flora  than  Portugal. 


Many  of  the  mountains  are  clothed  with 
forest  trees,  among  which  the  common 
oak  and  the  cork  oak  are  conspicuous. 
In  the  central  provinces  chestnuts  are 
prevalent;  in  the  south  both  the  date  and 
the  American  aloe  are  found;  while  in 
the  warmer  districts  the  orange,  lemon, 
and  olive  are  cultivated  with  success. 
The  mulberry  affords  food  for  the  silk- 
worm, and  a good  deal  of  excellent  silk 
is  produced.  The  vine,  too,  is  culti- 
vated, and  large  quantities  of  wine  are 
exported.  Agriculture  generally,  how- 
ever, is  at  a low  ebb,  and  in  ordinary 
years  Portugal  fails  to  raise  cereals  suf- 
ficient to  meet  its  own  consumption. 
Among  domestic  animals  raised  are 
mules  of  a superior  breed,  sheep,  goats, 
and  hogs.  More  horned  cattle  have  been 
raised  and  of  a better  quality,  and  live- 
stock now  figures  with  timber  and  wine 
among  the  chief  exports.  The  fisheries, 
so  long  neglected,  have  also  been  revived 
in  recent  years. 

Manufactures  are  of  limited  amount, 
although  they  have  been  increasing  of 
late  years.  They  embrace  woolens, 
cottons,  silks,  earthenware  and  porce- 
lain, soap,  paper,  iron  goods,  hats,  etc. 
The  principal  exports  are  wine,  cork, 
cattle,  timber,  olive-oil,  fruits,  iron  and 
copper  pyrites,  and  wool;  the  principal 
imports  are  cereals,  salt  provisions, 
colonial  produce,  woolen,  cotton,  linen, 
and  silk  tissues,  iron,  steel,  and  other 
metals,  and  coal.  The  bulk  of  the  trade 
is  with  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Brazil. 

The  crown  is  hereditary  both  in  the 
male  and  female  line.  The  constitution 
recognizes  four  powers  in  the  state — the 
legislative,  executive,  judicial,  and  mod- 
erating. The  last  is  vested  in  the  soverr 
eign.  There  are  two  chambers,  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  and  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies.  In  1885  a law  was  passed  abol- 
ishing hereditary  peerages  by  a gradual 
process.  While  the  established  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  other  religions 
are  tolerated.  Conventual  establish- 
ments were  suppressed  in  1834.  Edu- 
cation, under  a distinct  ministry,  is  com- 
pulsory; but  the  law  is  not  enforced,  and 
the  general  state  of  education  is  low. 
The  army,  consisting  of  30,000  men  on 
the  peace  footing,  is  raised  both  by 
conscription  and  enlistment.  The  navy 
is  as  yet  of  insignificant  strength. 

The  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  and 
and  Greeks  early  traded  to  this  part  of 
the  peninsula,  the  original  inhabitants 
of  which  are  spoken  of  as  Lusitanians, 
the  country  being  called  Lusitania. 
When  the  Spaniards  finally  wrested  the 
country  between  the  Minho  and  the 
Douro  from  Moorish  hands,  they  placed 
counts  or  governors  over  this  region. 
Alphonso  I.,  defeated  Alphonso,  king 
of  Castile,  in  1137,  and  made  himself 
independent.  In  1139  he  gained  the 
brilliant  victory  of  Ourique  over  the 
Moors,  and  was  saluted  on  the  field 
King  of  Portugal.  The  cortes  convened 
by  Alphonso  in  1143  at  Lamego  con- 
firmed him  in  the  royal  title,  and  in  1181 
gave  to  the  kingdom  a code  of  laws  and 
a constitution.  The  succeeding  reigns 
from  Alphonso  I.  to  Dionysius  (1279) 
are  noteworthy  chiefly  for  the  conquest 
of  Algarve  (1251)  and  a conflict  with  the 
pope,  who  several  times  put  the  king- 


dom under  interdict.  Dionysius’  wise 
encouragement  of  commerce,  agricul- 
ture, manufactures,  and  navigation  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  future  greatness 
of  Portugal.  He  liberally  patronized 
learning,  and  founded  a university  at 
Lisbon,  transferred  in  1308  to  Coimbra. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Alphonso  IV.,  who 
in  conjunction  with  Alphonso  II.  of 
Castile  defeated  the  Moors  at  Salado  in 
1340.  He  murdered  Inez  de  Castro,  the 
wife  of  his  son  Pedro  (1355)  who  suc- 
ceeded him.  Dying  in  1367,  Pedro  I. 
was  succeeded  by  Ferdinand,  on  whose 
death  in  1383  the  male  line  of  the  Bur- 
gundian princes  became  extinct.  His 
daughter  Beatrice,  wife  of  the  King  of 
Castile,  should  have  succeeded  him;  but 
the  Portuguese  were  so  averse  to  a con- 
nection with  Castile  that  John  I.,  natural 
son  of  Pedro,  grand-master  of  the  order 
of  Avis  (founded  in  1162),  was  saluted 
king  by  the  estates.  In  1415  he  took 
Ceuta,  on  the  African  coast,  the  first  of  a 
series  of  enterprises  which  resulted  in 
those  great  expeditions  of  discovery  on 
which  the  renown  of  Portugal  rests.  In 
this  reign  v'ere  founded  the  first  Portu- 
guese colonies,  Porto  Santo  (1418), 
Madeira  (1420),  the  Azores  (1433),  and 
those  on  the  Gold  coast.  The  expeditions 
of  discovery  were  continued  with  ardor 
and  scientific  method.  Bartolommeo 
Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in 
1487,  and  Vasco  da  Gama  reached  India 
in  1498.  In  1500  Cabral  took  possession 
of  Brazil.  While  these  great  events 
were  still  in  progress  John  II.  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  cousin  Emanuel  (1495- 
1521).  The  conquests  of  Albuquerque 
and  Almeida  made  him  master  of 
numerous  possessions  in  the  islands  and 
mainland  of  India,  and  in  1518  Lope  de 
Soares  opened  a commerce  with  China. 
Emanuel  ruled  from  Babelmandeb  to 
the  Straits  of  Malacca,  and  the  power  of 
Portugal  had  now  reached  its  height. 
In  the  reign  of  John  III.,  son  of  Emanuel 
(1521-57),  Indian  discoveries  and  com- 
merce were  still  further  extended.  The 
Inquisition  was  introduced  (1536),  and 
the  Jesuits  were  admitted  (1540).  Sebas- 
tian, the  grandson  of  John  III.,  who  had 
introduced  the  Jesuits,  having  had  his 
mind  inflamed  by  them  against  the 
Moors  of  Africa,  lost  his  life  in  the  battle 
against  these  infidels  (1578),  and  left 
his  throne  to  the  disputes  of  rival  can- 
didates, of  whom  the  most  powerful, 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  obtained  possession 
of  the  kingdom  by  the  victory  of 
Alcantara.  Portugal  continued  under 
the  dominion  of  Spain  till  1640,  and  her 
vast  colonial  possessions  were  united  to 
the  already  splendid  acquisitions  of  her 
rival.  But  these  now  began  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  who,  being  pro- 
voked by  hostile  measures  of  Philip, 
attacked  the  Portuguese  as  well  as  the 
Spanish  possessions  both  in  India  and 
America.  They  deprived  the  Portu- 
guese of  the  Moluccas,  of  their  settle- 
ments in  Guinea,  of  Malacca,  and  of 
Ceylon.  They  also  acquired  about  half  of 
Brazil,  which,  after  the  re-estabiish- 
ment  of  Portuguese  independence,  they 
restored  for  a pecuniary  compensation. 
In  1640,  by  a successful  revolt  of  the 
nobles,  Portugal  recovered  her  inde- 
pendence, and  John  IV.,  duke  of 
Braganza,  reigned  till  1656,  when  he 


PORT  WINE 


POST-OFFICE 


was  succeeded  by  Alphonso  VI.  On  the 
accession  of  Maria  Francisca  Isabella, 
eldest  daughter  of  Joseph,  in  1777,  the 
power  was  in  the  hands  of  an  ignorant 
nobility  and  a not  less  ignorant  clergy. 
In  1792,  on  account  of  the  sickness  of 
the  queen,  Juan  Maria  Jos4,  prince  of 
Brazil  (the  title  of  the  prince-royal  until 
1816),  was  declared  regent.  His  con- 
nections with  England  involved  him  in 
war  with  Napoleon;  Portugal  was  oc- 
cupied by  a French  force  under  Junot, 
and  the  royal  family  fled  to  Brazil.  In 
1808  a British  force  was  landed  under 
Wellington,  and  after  some  hard  fighting 
the  decisive  battle  of  Vimeira  took  place 
(August  21),  which  was  followed  by  the 
Convention  of  Cintra  and  the  evacuation 
of  the  country  by  the  French.  The 
French  soon  returned,  however;  but  the 
operations  of  Wellington,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  strength  of  his  position  with- 
in the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  forced  them 
to  retire.  The  Portuguese  now  took  an 
active  part  in  the  war  for  Spanish  inde- 
pendence. On  the  death  of  Maria  -in 
1816,  John  VI.  ascended  the  throne  of 
Portugal  and  Brazil,  in  which  latter 
country  he  still  continued  to  reside. 
A revolution  in  favor  of  constitutional 
government  was  effected  without  blood- 
shed in  1820,  and  the  king  invited  to 
return  home,  which  he  now  did.  In  1822 
Brazil  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Portugal, 
and  proclaimed  Dom  Pedro,  son  of 
John  VI.,  emperor.  John  VI.  died  in 
1826,  having  named  the  Infanta  Isa- 
bella Maria  regent.  She  goveimed  in  the 
name  of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  Dom 
Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal,  who  granted  a 
new  constitution,  modeled  on  the 
French,  in  1826.  In  1831  Dom  Pedro 
resigned  the  Brazilian  crown,  and  re- 
turning to  Europe  succeeded  in  over- 
throwing Dom  Miguel,  and  restoring  the 
crown  to  Maria  in  1833,  dying  himself 
in  1834.  In  1836  a successful  revolution 
took  place  in  favor  of  the  restoration  of 
the  constitution  of  1820,  and  in  1842 
another  in  favor  of  that  of  1826. 
Maria  died  in  1853.  Her  husband, 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg  (Dom  Ferdi- 
nand II.),  became  regent  for  his  and  her 
son,  Pedro  V.,  who  himself  took  the 
reins  of  government  in  1855.  Pedro  died 
in  1861,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Louis  I.  Louis  died  in  1889, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Carlos  I. 
During  these  latter  reigns  the  state  of 
Portugal  has  generally  been  fairly  pros- 
perous. On  Feb.  Ist,  1908,  King  Carlos 
and  the  Crown  Prince  Luig  Philippe 
were  killed  and  the  Infant  Manuel 
slightly  injured  by  assassins  as  the  king 
and  queen  and  their  two  sons  were  re- 
turning in  their  carriage  to  the  palace. 
On  Feb.  3rd,  Manuel  II.  was  crowned 
king. 

PORT  WINE  is  a very  strong,  full- 
flavored  wine  produced  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Douro,  Portugal,  and  has 
its  name  from  the  place  of  shipment, 
Oporto.  It  is  slightly  astringent,  and  has 
a color  varying  from  pink  to  red.  It 
requires  three  or  four  years  to  mature, 
and  with  age  becomes  tawny;  it  re- 
ceives a certain  proportion  of  spirit  to 
hasten  the  process  of  pr^aration.  The 
vintage  begins  early  in  ^ptember  and 
extends  into  October.  Large  quantities 
of  artificial  port  are  made. 


POSEN,  a fortified  town  in  Prussia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name.  The  most  noteworthy  public 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  in  the 
Gothic  style  (1775),  the  town  parish 
church,  a fine  building  in  the  Italian 
style,  both  Roman  Catholic;  the  town- 
house  (1508),  with  a lofty  tower;  the 
Raczynski  library;  the  municipal 
archive  building,  etc.  The  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of  agricultural  machines, 
manures,  woolen  and  linen  tissues, 
carriages,  leather,  lacquerware,  etc.;  be- 
sides breweries  and  distilleries.  Pop. 
117,014. — The  province  is  bounded  by 
west  Prussia,  Russian  Poland,  Silesia, 
and  Brandenburg; area,  11,178  sq.  miles. 

POSIDONIUS,  a Stoic  philosopher, 
born  in  Syria,  about  135  b.c.  He  settled 
as  a teacher  at  Rhodes,  whence  he  is 
called  the  Rhodian.  T?he  most  dis- 
tinguished Romans  were  his  scholars, 
and  C!icero  was  initiated  by  him  into 
the  Stoic  philosophy.  Removing  to 
Rome  in  51  b.c.,  he  died  not  long  after. 
In  his  physical  investigations  he  was 
more  a follower  of  Aristotle  than  of  the 
Stoic  school. 

POSITIVE,  in  photography,  a picture 
obtained  by  printing  from  a negative, 
in  which  the  lights  and  shades  are 
rendered  as  they  are  in  nature.  See 
Photography. 

POSITIVE  PHILOSOPHY,  or  POSI- 
TIVISM, is  the  name  given  by  Auguste 
Comte  to  the  philosophical  and  religious 
system  promulgated  by  him  (chiefly  in 
his  Cours  de  Philosophie  Positive,  1830- 
42,  and  his  posthuinous  Essays  on  Reli- 
gion). The  distinguishing  idea  which 
lies  at  the  root  of  this  two-fold  system 
is  the  conception  that  the  anomalies 
of  our  social  system  cannot  be  reformed 
until  the  theories  upon  which  it  is 
shaped  have  been  brought  into  com- 
plete harmony  with  science.  The  leading 
ideas  of  Comte’s  philosophy  are  (1)  the 
classification  of  the  sciences  in  the  order 
of  their  development,  proceeding  from 
the  simpler  to  the  more  complex — 
mathematics,  astronomy,  physics,  chem- 
istry, biology,  and  sociology;  and  (2)  the 
doctrine  of  the  “three  stages,”  or  the 
three  aspects  in  which  the  himian  mind 
successively  views  the  world  of  phenom- 
ena, namely,  the  the  ological,  the  meta- 
physical, and  the  scientific. 

POST-RESTANTE,  a department  in 
a post-office  where  letters  so  addressed 
are  kept  till  the  owners  call  for  them.  It 
is  for  the  convenience  of  persons  passing 
through  a country  or  town  where  they 
have  no  fixed  residence. 

POST-GLACIAL.  See  Post-tertiary. 

POST  MORTEM  (“after  death”),  a 
Latin  term  used  as  in  the  phrase  post 
mortem  examination,  an  inspection 
made  of  a dead  body  by  some  com- 
petent person  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
cause  of  death. 

POST-OFFICE,  a department  of  the 
government  of  a country  charged  with 
the  conveyance  of  letters,  newspapers, 
parcels,  etc.  From  the  time  of  Cyrus  the 
Elder  down  to  the  middle  ages  various 
rulers  had  concocted  more  or  less  effec- 
tive systems  of  postal  communication 
throughout  their  dominions;  but  the 
“post”  as  we  know  it  today  is  an  institu- 
tion of  very  modern  growth.  The  first 
traces  of  a postal  system  in  England 


are  observed  in  the  statutes  of  Edward 
III.,  and  the  postoffice  as  a department 
of  government  took  its  rise  in  the  em- 
ployment of  royal  messengers  for  carry- 
ing letters.  The  first  English  post- 
master we  hear  of  was  Sir  Brian  Tuke, 
his  date  being  1533.  In  1543  a post 
existed  by  which  letters  were  carried 
from  London  to  Edinburgh  within  four 
days,  but  this  rate  of  transportation, 
rapid  for  that  period,  lasted  but  a short 
time.  James  I.  improved  the  postal 
communication  with  Scotland,  and  set 
on  foot  a system  for  forwarding  letters 
intended  for  foreign  lands.  In  1607  he 
appointed  Lord  Stanhope  postmaster 
for  England,  and  in  1619  a separate 
postmaster  for  foreign  parts.  Up  to  with- 
in a short  time  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I., 
merchants,  tradesmen,  and  professional 
men  availed  themselves  of  any  means  of 
conveyance  that  offered,  or  employed 
express  messengers  to  carry  their  corre- 
spondence. The  universities  and  prin- 
cipal cities  had  their  own  posts.  The 
foreign  merchants  settled  in  London 
continued  to  send  their  foreign  letters 
by  private  means  long  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  foreign  post.  In  1632 
Charles  I.  forbade  letters  to  be  sent  out 
of  the  kingdom  except  through  the  post- 
office.  In  1635  he  established  a new 
system  of  posts  for  England  and  Scot- 
land. All  private  and  local  posts  were 
abolished,  and  the  income  of  the  post- 
offices  was  claimed  by  the  king.  Inter- 
rupted by  the  civil  wars,  peace  had  no 
sooner  been  restored  than  a more  per- 
fect postal  system  was  established.  In 
1683  a penny  post  was  set  up  in  the 
metropolis.  During  the  government  of 
William  III.  acts  of  parliament  were 
passed  w’hich  regulated  the  internal 
postal  system  of  Scotland:  and  under 
Queen  Anne,  in  1711,  the  postal  system 
of  England  was  arranged  on  the  method 
on  which,  with  some  modifications,  it 
continued  till  near  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century.  Sir  Rowland  Hill,  the 
author  of  the  sj'stem  at  present  existing, 
gave  the  first  intimation  of  his  plan  in  a 
pamphlet  in  the  year  1837.  He  soon  had 
the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  legislature 
adopt  his  plan,  in  its  principal  features 
at  least,  and  on  the  10th  January,  1840, 
the  uniform  rate  of  1 d.  per  i oz.  for 
prepaid  letters  came  into  operation. 
The  success  of  Rowland  Hill’s  scheme 
was  vastly  favored  by  the  invention  of 
the  adhesive  postage-stamp,  the  idea  of 
which  would  seem  to  be  due  to  Mr. 
James  Chalmers  of  Dundee.  Subse- 
quently many  important  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  management  of 
the  post-office  business.  One  of  these 
was  the  adoption  of  postal  carriages  on 
railways,  by  which  the  delivery  of  letters 
was  greatly  accelerated.  These  car- 
riages are  fitted  with  an  apparatus  into 
which  letter-bags  are  thrown  without 
stopping  or  even  materially  slackening 
the  speed  of  the  train;  while  the  sorting 
of  letters,  etc.,  proceeds  during  the 
transit.  The  reduction  of  the  cost  of 
carriage,  the  great  increase  in  the 
rapidity  of  transmission,  the  immense 
development  of  commerce,  together 
with  the  increase  of  population,  have 
had  the  effect  of  enormously  increasing 
the  work  done  by  the  post-office. 

Other  departments  under  the  manage- 


POST-PLEIOCENE 


POTASH 


ment  of  the  post-office  in  Great  Britain 
are  the  money-order  departments,  the 
savings-bank  department,  annuities  and 
life  assurance  department,  and  tele- 
graph department.  For  the  annuities 
and  life  assurance  department  see  Post- 
office  Insurance.  The  money-order  de- 
partment was  annexed  to  the  post-office 
in  1838.  By  means  of  an  inland  money- 
order  an  amount,  not  exceeding  $50, 
can  be  transmitted  to  any  person  in  any 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  pre- 
sented for  payment  at  the  post-office 
named  in  it  within  twelve  months  after 
the  date  of  issue,  otherwise  it  is  legally 
void.  At  first  the  rates  were  much 
higher  than  they  are  now.  Postal  orders 
are  now  provided  with  counterfoils  for 
retention  by  the  sender.  There  are  now 
money-order  conventions  with  most 
foreign  countries  and  with  all  the  colo- 
nies, so  that  money  in  this  form  can  be 
transmitted  to  most  parts  of  the  world. 

Since  1861  post-office  savings  banks 
have  been  in  operation  in  Britain;  the 
deposits  are  paid  over  to  the  com- 
missioners for  the  reduction  of  the 
national  debt  who  allow  interest  at  2^ 
per  cent  per  annum.  Not  more  than 
$150  may  be  deposited  by  a person 
in  any  one  year  nor  may  the  total 
amount  so  deposited  exceed  $1000. 
France,  Austria,  Germany,  Canada, 
and  other  countries  also  have  the  like 
savings  banks. 

The  telegraph  lines  of  the  United 
Kingdom  have  been  worked  by  the 
post-office  since  1870.  An  act  passed 
in  1868  authorized  the  postmaster 
general  to  buy  up  all  existing  lines,  to 
make  extensions  and  improvements  as 
occasion  requires,  and  to  work  them  as 
part  of  the  post-office  business.  A 
second,  passed  in  1869,  practically  gave 
the  government  a monopoly  in  telegraph- 
ing. The  rate  is  6d.  for  twelve  words  or 
less,  and  ^d.  for  every  word  afterward, 
the  addresses  of  sender  and  receiver  be- 
ing both  charged  for. 

In  the  English  colonies  of  America 
before  1639  such  postal  facilities  as  ex- 
isted were  supplied  by  private  enter- 
prise. Letters  from  abroad  were  delivered 
at  the  wharf  to  those  who  called  for 
them  or  sent  to  a near-by  coffee-house 
for  distribution.  Benjamin  Franklin 
was  more  identified  with  the  Colonial 
post-office  than  any  other  man.  In  1737 
tie  was  appointed  postmaster  of  Phila- 
delphia. He  immediately  systematized 
the  department.  In  1753  the  delivery  of 
letters  by  the  penny  post  was  begun.  In 
1792  rates  of  postage  were  fixed  which 
remained  unaltered  for  nearly  half  a 
century.  They  were:  for  30  miles  and 
under,  6 cents;  over  30  miles  and  not 
exceeding  60  miles,  8 cents;  over  60  and 
not  exceeding  100  miles,  10  cents;  and 
so  on  up  to  450  miles  and  over,  for 
which  the  charge  was  25  cents.  In  1851 
the  rate  on  letters  not  exceeding  ^ ounce 
in  weight  was  reduced  to  3 cents  for  dis- 
tances under  3000  miles  and  6 cents  for 
distances  above  3000  miles.  In  1863 
the  element  of  distance  as  a factor  in 
fixing  the  scale  of  rates  was  abolished 
and  a uniform  rate  of  3 cents  was 
established  for  letters  not  exceeding  J 
ounce  in  weight.  In  1883  this  rate  was 
reduced  to  2 cents. 

In  1847  adhesive  postage  stamps 


[were  first  introduced  into  the  United 
I States,  but,  on  account  of  the  high  rate 
of  postage  and  the  provision  allowing 
optional  prepa3ment,  they  did  not  come 
into  general  use  until  1855,  when  the 
rates  were  reduced  and  prepayment  re- 
quired. In  1852  stamped  envelopes 
were  introduced  and  in  1872  postal 
cards  were  authorized.  In  1879  double 
or  reply  postal  cards  were  authorized, 
and  in  1898  private  mailing  cards  were 
allowed  to  be  sent  through  the  mails  at 
the  rate  of  one  cent  postage,  subject  to 
certain  restrictions  prescribed  by  the 
postmaster-general. 

By  an  act  of  1855  provision  was  made 
for  a system  of  registration  by  which 
extra  precaution  is  taken  in  the  trans- 
mission of  valuable  letters  and  parcels 
upon  payment  of  a fee  of  eight  cents  in 
addition  to  the  regular  postage.  By  an 
act  of  1897,  provision  was  made  for 
indemnifying  persons  who  lose  regis- 
tered letters  and  parcels  of  value,  when 
the  actual  value  of  the  article  is  less 
than  $25. 

In  1864  the  postal  money  order 
system  was  adopted.  No  single  money 
order  for  more  than  $100  may  be  issued. 

The  system  of  delivering  mail  by 
carriers  at  the  houses  and  offices  of 
persons  to  whom  it  is  addressed  was 
first  introduced  in  1863.  In  1865  free 
delivery  was  extended  to  all  places 
having  a population  of  50,000.  In  1873 
the  system  was  extended  to  all  places  of 
20,000  inhabitants  and  over,  and  in 
1887  to  cities  of  10,000  inhabitants. 
Provision  was  alsq  made  in  1885  for 
special  or  immediate  delivery  of  letters 
within  certain  limits  upon  the  payment 
of  a fee  of  10  cents  in  the  form  of  a 
special  stamp.  In  1896  the  delivery  of 
mail  in  rural  districts  was  inaugurated. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  no  dis- 
tinct parcels  post  as  in  England,  parcels 
being  conveyed  through  the  regular 
malls  as  fourth-class  matter.  Arrange- 
ments, however,  exist  with  Mexico, 
certain  of  the  West  Indies,  and  certain 
Central  and  South  American  countries 
providing  for  a parcels  post  between  the 
countries  concerned. 

In  the  United  States  all  mail  matter 
is  divided  into  four  classes.  The  first 
class  includes  letters,  post-cards,  and 
anything  closed  against  inspection : 
postage,  2 cents  each  oz.  or  additional 
fraction  of  an  oz.;  post-cards,  1 cent; 
registered  letters,  8 cents  in  addition  to 
postage.  Second  class  matter  includes 
all  newspapers,  periodicals,  etc.,  issued 
as  frequently  as  four  times  a year: 
postage,  one  cent  per  lb.  or  fraction 
thereof.  When  the  newspapers,  etc.,  are 
sent  by  persons  other  than  the  publishers 
the  charge  is  one  cent  for  each  four 
ounces.  Mail  matter  of  the  third  class 
includes  books,  circulars,  proof-sheets, 
etc.:  postage,  1 cent  for  each  2 ozs.; 
limit  of  weight,  4 lbs.  each  package. 
The  fourth  class  embraces  merchandise 
and  all  matters  not  included  in  the  other 
three  classes:  postage,  1 cent  per  oz.; 
limit  of  weight,  4 lbs.  Prepayment  of 
postage  by  stamps  for  all  classes  of 
matter  is  required.  In  most  of  the  Cen- 
tral and  South  American  states  the  pos- 
tal system  is  as  yet  far  from  being  well 
organized,  though  a somewhat  better 
state  of  affairs  prevails  in  Chile,  Mexico, 


the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Brazil,  in 
each  of  which  there  is  also  a system  of 
state  telegraphs. 

In  recent  years  an  immense  stride  has 
been  taken  in  the  improvement  of 
postal  communication  between  different 
countries  by  the  formation  of  the 
International  Postal  Union,  the  pro- 
visions adopted  by  which  came  into 
force  in  1875.  The  Union  has  been 
greatly  enlarged  since  that  time;  and 
only  a few  countries  or  regions  now  re- 
main outside  of  it,  such  as  China, 
Abyssinia,  Arabia,  etc.  All  the  coun- 
tries in  the  Union  have  a uniform  charge 
for  letters,  etc.,  passing  between  them. 
Practically  an  ounce  letter  (new  rule 
put  in  force  Oct.  1,  1907)  is  carried  to 
any  part  of  the  world  for  five  cents  and 
a post  card  for  two  cents.  In  1908  a 
two-cent  postage  rate  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  went 
into  effect. 

POST-PLEIOCENE,  or  POST-PLIO- 
CENE, in  geology,  same  as  Pleistocene. 

POST-TERTIARY,  in  geology,  the 
Lyellian  term  for  all  deposits  and  phenom- 
ena of  more  recent  date  than  the  Nor- 
wich or  mammaliferous  crag.  It  may  be 
restricted  so  as  only  to  include  acciunu- 
lations  and  deposits  formed  since  the 
close  of  the  glacial  or  bolder  drift  sys- 
tems, and  has  been  divided  into  three 
sections — historic,  pre-historic,  and  post 
glacial.  The  first  comprises  the  peat  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  fens,  marshes 
river-deposits,  lake-silts,  accumulations 
of  sand-drift,  etc.,  containing  hiunan 
remains,  canoes,  metal  instruments, 
remains  of  domestic  animals,  etc.  The 
pre-historic  comprises  similar,  or  nearly 
similar  deposits,  but  the  remains  found 
in  them  are  older,  comprising  stone 
implements,  pile-dwellings,  and  extinct 
animals,  as  the  Irish  deer,  mammoth, 
etc.  To  the  post-glacial  belong  raised 
beaches,  with  shells  of  a more  boreal 
character  than  those  of  existing  seas, 
the  shell-marl  under  peat,  many  dales 
and  river  valleys,  as  well  as  the  common 
brick-clay,  etc.,  covering  submarine 
forests  or  containing  the  remains  of 
seals,  whales,  the  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
unis,  hyaena,  hippopotamus,  etc. 

POTASH,  or  POTASSA,  an  alkaline 
substance  obtained  from  the  ley  of 
vegetable  ashes  which  is  mixed  with 
quicklime  and  boiled  down  in  iron  pots, 
and  the  residuum  ignited,  the  substance 
remaining  after  ignition  being  common 
potash.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
ashes  and  the  pots  (called  potash  kettles) 
in  which  the  lixivium  is  (or  used  to  be) 
boiled  down.  An  old  name  was  vege- 
table alkali.  Potash  in  this  crude  state 
is  an  impure  carbonate  of  potassium 
which  when  purified  is  known  in  com- 
merce as  pearl-ash.  It  is  used  in  the 
making  of  glass  and  soap,  and  large 
quantities  of  it  are  now  produced  from 
certain  “potash  minerals”  (especially 
carnallite),  instead  of  from  wood  ashes. 
What  is  known  as  caustic  potash  (hy- 
drate of  potassium,  is  prepared  fi-om 
ordinary  potash.  It  is  solid,  white,  and 
extremely  caustic,  eating  into  animal 
and  vegetable  tissues  with  great  readi- 
ness. It  changes  the  purple  of  violets  to 
green,  restores  reddened  litimus  to  blue 
and  yellow  tumeric  to  reddish-brown. 
It  rapidly  attracts  humidity  from  the  air 


POTASH  WATER 


POTOMAC 


and  becomes  semi-fluid.  It  is  fusible  at 
a heat  of  300°,  and  is  volatilized  at  low 
ignition.  It  is  used  in  surgery  under  the 
name  of  lapis  infernalis  or  lapis  causticus 
for  destroying  warts,  fungoid  growths, 
etc.,  and  may  be  applied  beneficially  to 
the  bites  of  dogs,  venomous  serpents, 
etc.  In  chemistry  it  is  very  extensively 
employed,  both  in  manfactures  and  as 
an  agent  in  analysis.  It  is  the  basis  of 
the  common  soft  soaps,  for  which  pur- 
pose, however,  it  is  not  used  in  its  pure 

POTASH  WATER,  an  aei’ated  water 
produced  by  mixing  bicarbonate  of 
potash  with  carbonic  acid  water  in  the 
proportion  of  20  grains  to  each  bottle 
of  the  water,  or  about  half  an  ounce  to 
the  gallon.  Bisulphate  of  potash,  as 
being  cheaper  than  tartaric  acid,  is 
sometimes  used  (but  should  not  be)  with 
carbonate  of  soda  to  produce  the  com- 
mon effervescing  drink.  A valuable 
medicinal  water  is  compounded  of  a cer- 
tain proportion  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

POTAS'SIUM  (a  latinized  term  from 
potash),  a name  given  to  the  metallic 
basis  of  potash,  discovered  by  Davy  in 
1807,  and  one  of  the  first-fruits  of  his 
electro-chemical  researches;  symbol,  K; 
atomic  weight,  39.1.  Next  to  lithium 
it  is  the  lightest  metallic  substance 
known,  its  specific  gravity,  being  0.865 
at  the  temperature  of  60°.  At  ordinary 
temperatures  it  may  be  cut  with  a knife 
and  worked  with  the  fingers.  At  32°  it 
is  hard  and  brittle,  with  a crystalline 
texture;  at  50°  it  becomes  malleable, 
and  in  luster  resembles  polished  silver; 
at  150°  it  is  perfectly  liquid.  Potassium 
has  a very  powerful  affinity  for  oxygen, 
which  it  takes  from  many  other  com- 
pounds. A freshly-exposed  surface  of 
potassium  instantly  becomes  covered 
with  a film  of  oxide.  The  metal  must 
therefore  be  preserved  under  a liquid 
free  from  oxygen,  rock-oil  or  naphtha 
being  generally  employed.  It  conducts 
electricity  like  the  common  metals. 
When  thrown  upon  water  it  decomposes 
that  liquid  with  evolution  of  hydrogen, 
which  burns  with  a pale  violet  flame, 
owing  to  the  presence  in  it  of  potash 
vapor.  Chloride  of  potassimn  is  known 
in  commerce  as  “muriate  of  potash,” 
and  closely  resembles  common  salt 
(chloride  of  sodium).  It  is  obtained  from 
potassic  minerals,  the  ashes  of  marine 
plants  (kelp),  and  from  sea-water  or 
brine  springs.  It  enters  into  the  manu- 
facture of  saltpeter,  alum,  artificial 
manure,  etc.  Bromide  and  iodide  of 
potassium  are  useful  drugs.  Bicarbonate 
of  potassium  is  obtained  by  exposing  a 
solution  of  the  carbonate  to  the  air, 
carbonic  acid  being  imbibed  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  crystals  being  de- 
posited; or  it  is  formed  more  directly  by 
passing  a current  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
through  a solution  of  the  carbonate  of 
such  a strength  that  crystals  fonn  spon- 
taneously. It  is  much  used  in  medicine 
for  making  effervescing  drinks.  Nitrate 
of  potassium  is  nitre,  or  saltpeter.  Sul- 
phate of  potassium  is  used  medicinally 
as  a mild  laxative,  in  making  some  kinds 
of  glass  and  alum,  and  in  manures.  The 
bisulphate  is  used  as  a chemical  reagent 
and  in  colico-printing  and  dyeing. 
Chlorate  of  potassium  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  lucifer  matches,  in  cer- 


tain operations  in  colico-printing,  and 
for  filling  friction-tubes  for  firing  cannon. 
It  is  a well-known  source  of  oxygen. 
The  bichromate  is  also  used  in  calico- 
printing  and  dyeing.  Cyanide  of  potas- 
sium is  much  used  in  photography. 

POTATO,  a plant  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Solanaceffi,  which  also  in- 
cludes such  poisonous  plants  as  night- 
shade, henbane,  thorn-apple,  and  to- 
bacco. We  owe  this  esculent  to  western 
South  America,  where  it  still  grows  wild 
chiefly  in  the  region  of  the  Andes,  pro- 
ducing small,  tasteless,  watery  tubers. 
The  potato  is  a perennial  plant,  with 
angular  herbaceous  stems,  growing  to 
the  height  of  2 or  3 feet;  leaves  pinnate ; 
flowers  pretty  large,  numerous,  disposed 
in  corymbs,  and  colored  violet,  bluish, 
reddish,  or  whitish.  The  fruit  is  globular, 
about  the  size  of  a gooseberry,  reddish- 
brown  or  purplish  when  ripe,  and  con- 
tains numerous  small  seeds.  The  tubers, 
which  furnish  so  large  an  amount  of  the 
food  of  mankind,  are  really  underground 
shoots  abnomially  dilated,  their  increase 
in  size  having  been  greatly  fostered  by 
cultivation.  Their  true  nature  is  proved 
by  the  existence  of  the  “eyes”  upon 
them.  These  are  leaf-buds,  from  which, 
if  a tuber  or  a portion  of  it  containing 
an  eye  is  put  into  earth,  a young  plant 
will  sprout,  the  starchy  matter  of  the 
tuber  itself  supplying  nutriment  until  it 
throws  out  roots  and  leaves,  and  so 
attains  an  independent  existence.  The 
potato  succeeds  best  in  a light  sandy 
loam  containing  a certain  proportion  of 
vegetable  matter.  The  varieties  are 
very  numerous,  differing  in  the  time  of 
ripening,  in  their  form,  size,  color,  and 
quality.  New  ones  are  readily  procured 
by  sowing  the  seeds,  which  will  produce 
tubers  the  third  year,  and  a full  crop  the 
fourth.  But  the  plant  is  usually  propa- 
gated by  sowing  or  planting  the  tubers, 
and  it  is  only  in  this  way  that  any  one 
variety  can  be  kept  in  cultivation.  Like 
all  plants  that  are  extensively  cultivated 
and  under  very  difi'erent  circumstances 
of  soil,  climate,  and  artificial  treatment, 
the  potato  is  extremely  subject  to  disease. 
Among  the  diseases  to  which  it  is  liable 
are  the  “curl,”  the  “scab,”  the  “dry- 
rot,”  and  the  “wet-rot,”  besides  the 
more  destructive  potato  disease  proper. 
The  principal  feature  of  the  curl  is  the 
curling  of  the  shoots  soon  after  their 
first  appearance.  After  that  they  make 
little  progress,  and  sometimes  disappear 
altogether.  The  plants  produce  no 
tubers,  or  only  a few  minute  ones,  which 
are  unfft  for  food.  The  scab  is  a dis- 
ease that  attacks  the  tubers,  which 
become  covered  with  brown  spots  on  the 
outside,  while  underdeath  the  skin  is  a 
fungus  called  Tubercinia  scabies.  The 
dry-rot  is  characterized  by  a hardening 
of  the  tissues,  which  are  completely 
gorged  with  mycelium  (the  vegetative 
part  of  fungi).  In  the  disease  called  wet- 
rot  the  potato  is  affected  much  in  the 
same  way  as  by  the  dry-rot;  but  the 
tubers,  instead  of  becoming  hard  and 
dry,  are  soft.  The  fungus  present  in 
wet-rot  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  that 
accompanies  dry-rot.  The  potato  is  also 
attacked  by  various  insects,  the  most 
destructive  being  the  Colorado  beetle. 
The  tubers  consist  almost  entirely  of 
starch,  and  being  thus  deficient  in  nitro- 


gen, should  not  be  too  much  relied  on  as 
a staple  article  of  diet.  Potatoes  are 
extensively  used  as  a cattle-food,  and 
starch  is  also  manufactured  from  them. 
A coarse  spirit  is  also  obtained  from 
them  by  distillation,  the  starch  being 
converted  into  sugar  by  means  of  malt 
or  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  fermentation 
set  up. 

POTATO-BUG,  a name  given  in 
America  to  many  insects  injurious  to 


Colorado  potato  bug  and  its  feeding  larva. 

the  potato,  such  as  the  Colorado  beetle, 
which  see. 

POTEMKIN  (pot-yom'kiii),  Gregory 
Alexandrovitch,  Russian  general,  a favor- 
ite of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.,  born 
in  1736,  died  in  1791.  From  1776  till  his 
death,  a period  of  more  than  fifteen 
years,  he  exercised  a boundless  sway 
over  the  destinies  of  the  empire.  In 
1783  he  suppressed  the  khanate  of  the 
Crimea,  and  annexed  it  to  Russia.  In 
1787,  being  desirous  of  expelling  the 
Turks  from  Europe,  he  stirred  up  a new 
war,  in  the  course  of  which  he  took 
Oczakoff  by  storm  (1788).  In  the  follow- 
ing year  (1789)  he  took  Bender,  but  as 
the  finances  of  Russia  were  now  ex- 
hausted Catharine  was  desirous  of  peace. 
Potemkin,  however,  resolved  on  con- 
quering Constantinople,  resisted  the 
proposal  to  treat  with  the  enemy,  and 
went  to  St.  Petersburg  to  wun  over  the 
empress  to  his  side  (March,  1791);  but 
during  his  absence  Catharine  sent  plen- 
ary powers  to  Prince  Repnin,  who 
signed  a treaty  of  peace.  When  Potem« 
kin  learned  what  had  been  done  he  set 
out  for  the  army,  resolved  to  undo  the 
work  of  his  substitute;  but  he  died  on 
the  way,  at  Nicolaieff. 

POTENTIAL  ENERGY,  that  part  of 
the  energy  of  a system  of  bodies  which  is 
due  to  their  relative  position,  and  which 
is  equal  to  the  work  which  would  be 
done  by  the  various  forces  acting  on  the 
system  if  the  bodies  w'ere  to  yield  to 
them.  If  a stone  is  at  a certain  height 
above  the  earth’s  surface  the  potential 
energy  of  the  system  consisting  of  the 
earth  and  stone,  in  virtue  of  the  force 
of  gravity,  is  the  work  which  might  be 
done  by  the  falling  of  the  stone  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth. 

POTEN'ZA,  a town  of  Southern  Italy 
and  a bishop’s  see,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  on  a hill  of  the 
Apennines  near  the  Basento,  85  miles 
e.s.e.  of  Naples.  The  province  is  partly 
bounded  by  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Its  chief  productions 
are  corn,  hemp,  wine,  silk,  cotton.  Area, 
4122  sq.  miles;  pop.  490,705. 

POTO'MAC,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  which  forms  the  boundary  be- 
tween Maryland  and  Virginia,  passes 
Washington,  and  after  a course  of  nearly 
400  miles  flows  into  Chesapeake  bay, 
being  about  8 miles  wide  at  its  mouth. 
The  termination  of  the  tide-water  is  at 
Washington,  about  125  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  the  river  is  navigable  tor  large 


POTOSi 


POTTERY 


ships  all  that  distance.  Above  Washing- 
ton are  several  falls  which  obstruct 
navigation. 

POTOSI  (pot-o-se';  common  pronun- 
ciation, po-to'se),  a city  of  Southern 
Bolivia,  in  the  department  of  same  name 
on  the  slope  of  the  mountain  mass  of 
Cerro  de  Potosi,  more  than  13,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  in  bare  and  barren 
surroundings.  It  has  long  been  cele- 
brated for  its  silver-mines,  which  were 
at  one  time  exceedingly  productive,  and 
have  again  begun  to  show  an  improved 
return.  Pop.  15,000. — The  department 
has  an  area  of  54,000  sq.  miles,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  wealth,  espe- 
cially silver.  Pop.  325,615 

POTIPOURRI  (p6-p6-re),  signifies  the 
same  as  olla  podrida;  also,  and  more 
generally,  a musical  medley,  or  a literary 
composition  made  up  of  parts  put  to- 
gether without  unity  or  bond  of  con- 
nection. 

POTSDAM,  a town  in  Prussia,  a 
bishop’s  see,  capital  of  the  proviiice 
of  Brandenburg,  and  the  second  royal 
residence  of  the  kingdom,  is  charm- 
ingly situated  in  the  midst  of  wooded 
hills,  17  miles  southwest  of  Berlin, 
on  the  Havel,  which  here  has  sev- 
eral lakes  connected  with  it.  Potsdam 
was  an  unimportant  place  till  the  Great 
Elector  selected  it  as  a place  of  resi- 
dence and  built  the  royal  palace  in  the 
town  (1660-71).  Pop.  58,452. 

POTTER,  Paul,  a celebrated  Dutch 
painter  of  animals,  born  at  Enkhuisen 
in  1625.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1654, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-nine.  His 
engravings  are  much  esteemed,  and  his 
paintings  command  a high  price. 

POTTER,  Henry  Codman,  Episcopal 
bishop  of  the  diocese  of  New  York.  He 
was  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  May 
25,  1835,  educated  at  the  Episcopal 
academy  in  Philadelphia  and  at  the 


Theological  seminary  of  Virginia.  His 
earlier  charges  were  Christ  church, 
Greensburg,  Pa.,  in  1857;  St.  John’s 
church  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  in  1859;  Trinity 
church,  Boston,  in  1866;  and  Grace 
church.  New  York,  in  1868. ' He  be- 
came bishop  of  New  York  in  1887,  hav- 
ing been  assistant  bishop  four  years 
previously.  He  is  well  known  as  a 
lecturer.  He  died  in  1908. 


POTTERY,  the  art  of  forming  vessels 
or  utensils  of  any  sort  in  clay.  This  art 
is  of  high  antiquity,  being  practiced 
among  various  races  in  prehistoric 
times.  We  find  mention  of  earthenware 
in  the  Mosaic  writings.  The  Greeks  had 
important  potteries  at  Samos,  Athens, 
and  Corinth,  and  attained  great  perfec- 
tion as  regards  form  and  ornamentation. 
The  Italians  are  said  first  to  have  be- 
come acquainted  with  this  kind  of  ware 
as  it  was  manufactured  in  the  Island  of 
Majorca,  and  hence  they  gave  it  the 
name  of  majolica.  About  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  the  manufactory  of- 
Bernard  Palissy  at  Saintes  in  France  be- 
came famous  on  account  of  the  beauti- 
ful glaze  and  rich  ornaments  by  which 
its  products  were  distinguished.  A little 
later  the  Dutch  began  to  manufacture 
at  Delft  the  more  solid  but  less  beautiful 
ware  which  thence  takes  its  name.  The 
principal  improver  of  the  potter’s  art  in 
Britain  was  Josiah  Wedgwood  in  the 
18  th  century.  Porcelain  or  china  ware 
first  became  known  in  Europe  about  the 
end  of  the  16th  century  through  the 
Dutch,  who  brought  it  from  the  East. 

Though  the  various  kinds  of  pottery 
and  porcelain  differ  from  each  other  in 
the  details  of  their  manufacture,  yet 
there  are  certain  general  principles  and 
processes  which  are  common  to  them 
all.  The  first  operations  are  connected 
with  the  preparation  of  the  potter’s 
paste,  which  consists  of  two  different 
ingredients — an  earthy  substance,  which 
is  the  clay  proper;  and  a siliceous  sub- 
stance, which  is  necessary  to  increase 
the  firmness  of  the  ware,  and  render  it 
less  liable  to  shrink  and  crack  on  ex- 
posure to  heat.  The  clay  is  first  finely 
comminuted,  and  reduced  to  the  con- 
sistency of  cream,  when  it  is  run  off 
through  a set  of  wire,  gauze,  or  silk 
sieves  into  cisterns,  where  it  is  diluted 
with  water  to  a standard  density.  The 
other  ingredient  of  the  potter’s  material 
is  usually  ground  flints,  or  flint-powder , 
as  it  is  called.  The  flint  nodules  are 
reduced  to  powder  by  being  heated  and 
then  thrown  into  water  to  make  them 
brittle.  They  are  then  passed  through 
a stamping-mill  and  ground  to  fine 
powder;  which,  treated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  clay,  is  finally  passed 
as  a creamy  liquor  into  a separate  cis- 
tern. These  liquors  are  now  mixed  in 
such  measure  that  the  dry  flint-powder 
bears  to  the  clay  the  proportion  of  one- 
sixth  or  one-fifth,  or  even  more,  accord- 
ing to  the  quality  of  the  clay  and  the 
practice  of  the  manufacturer.  The  mix- 
ture is  then  forced  into  presses,  lined 
with  cloth,  by  means  of  a force-pump, 
the  cloth  retaining  the  clay  and  allow- 
ing the  water  to  escape.  The  clay  now 
forms  a uniform  inelastic  mass,  which  is 
cut  into  cubical  lumps  and  transferred 
to  a damp  cellar,  where  it  remains  until 
a process  of  femnentation  or  disintegra- 
tion renders  it  finer  in  grain  and  not  so 
apt  to  crack  in  the  baking.  But  even 
after  this  process  the  ingredients  com- 
posing the  paste  are  not  intimately 
enough  incorporated  together  nor  suflB- 
ciently  fine  in  texture  until  another 
operation  has  been  undergone,  called 
slapping  or  wedging,  which  consists  in 
repeatedly  brealang  the  lumps  across 
and  striking  them  together  again  in  an- 


other direction,  dashing  them  on  a 
board,  etc.  This  final  process  of  incor- 
poration is  now  most  frequently  per- 
formed by  machinery. 

In  making  earthenware  vessels,  if  they 
are  of  a circular  form,  the  first  operation 
after  the  paste  has  been  made  is  turning, 
or  what  is  technically  called  throwing 
them  on  the  wheel.  This  is  an  apparatus 
resembling  an  ordinary  turning-lathe, 
except  that  the  surface  of  the  chuck,  or 
support  for  the  clay,  is  horizontal  in- 
stead of  vertical.  The  chuck  is  in  fact  a 


Successive  stages  of  earthenware  vessel 
on  the  potter’s  wheel. 


revolving  circular  table,  in  the  center  of 
which  a piece  of  clay  is  placed,  which 
the  potter  begins  to  shape  with  his 
hands.  The  rotary  motion  of  the  table 
gives  the  clay  a cylindrical  form  in  the 
hands  of  the  potter,  who  gradually 
works  it  up  to  the  intended  shape.  It 
is  then  detached  from  the  revolving 
table  and  dried,  after  which,  if  intended 
for  finely-finished  ware,  it  is  taken  to  a 
lathe  and  polished.  It  is  at  this  stage 
that  the  handles  and  other  prominent 
parts  are  fitted  on,  which  is  done  by 
means  of  a thin  paste  of  clay  called  slip. 
The  articles  are  now  removed  to  a room 
in  which  they  are  dried  more  thoroughly 
at  a high  temperature.  Y7hen  they 
have  reached  what  is  called  the  green 
state  they  are  again  taken  to  a lathe 
and  more  truly  shaped,  as  well  as 
smoothed  and  burnished.  ■ When  the 
article  are  not  of  a circular  form,  and 
accordingly  cannot  be  produced  by 
means  of  the  wheel,  they  are  either 
pressed  or  cast  in  molds  of  plaster  of 
Paris.  In  the  former  case  the  paste  used 
is  of  the  same  consistency  as  that  em- 
ployed on  the  wheel ; in  the  latter,  molds 
of  the  same  sort  are  used,  but  the  clay 
mixture  is  poured  into  them  in  the  con- 
dition of  slip.  By  the  absorption  of  the 
water  in  the  parts  next  the  dry  mold  a 
crust  is  formed  of  greater  or  less  thick- 
ness, according  to  the  time  that  the 
liquid  is  allowed  to  remain.  The  molds 
are  in  two  or  more  pieces,  so  as  to  be 
easily  detached  from  the  molded 
article. 

When  shaped  and  dried  the  articles 
are  ready  for  the  kiln,  in  which  they  are 
exposed  to  a high  temperature  until 
they  acquire  a sufficient  degree  of  hard- 
ness for  use.  The  paste  of  •,'hich  the 
earthenware  is  composed  is  thus  con- 
verted into  what  is  called  bisq’ie  or  bis- 
cuit. While  undergoin.g  tbi',  pricccs  of 
baking,  the  arti^'l^'s  are  inclccc'’.ir.  l.’rger 
vessels  of  baked  fire-clay,  called  saggers, 
to  protect  them  from  the  fire  and  smoke. 


POTTSTOWN 


POWELL 


nnd  to  distribute  the  heat  more  uni- 
formly. The  whole  firing  lasts  from 
forty  to  forty-two  hours.  After  the 
kilns  have  been  allowed  to  cool  very 
slowly,  the  articles  are  taken  out,  and 
if  they  are  not  to  be  decorated  in  color, 
and  sometimes  also  when  they  are  to  be 
so  decorated,  they  are  immersed  in  a 
-vitrifiable  composition  called  glaze, 
which,  after  the  vessels  have  been  a 
second  time  subjected  to  heat  in  glazed 


The  muffle  for  fixing  the  colors  on  decorated 
porcelain. 

saggers,  is  converted  into  a coating  of 
glass,  rendering  the  vessels  impermeable 
to  water. 

Porcelain  or  china  ware  is  formed  only 
from  argillaceous  minerals  of  extreme 
delicacy,  united  with  siliceous  earths 
capable  of  communicating  to  them  a 
certain  degree  of  translucency  by  means 
of  their  vitrification.  Porcelain  is  of 
two  kinds — hard  and  tender.  Both  con- 
sist, like  other  earthenwares,  of  two 
parts — a paste  which  forms  the  biscuit, 
and  a glaze.  The  biscuit  of  hard  porce- 
lain is  composed  of  kaolin  or  china  clay, 
and  of  decomposed  felspar.  The  glaze 
consists  of  a felspar  rock  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  water,  so 
as  to  form  a milky  liquid  into  which  the 
articles  are  dipped  after  a preliminary 
baking.  Tender  porcelain  biscuit  is  made 
of  a vitreous  frit,  composed  of  sili- 
ceous sand  or  ground  flints,  with  other 
ingredients  added,  all  baked  together  in 
a furnace  till  half-fused,  and  then  re- 
duced to  a condition  of  powder. 

The  manufacture  of  pottery,  stone- 
ware, and  china  has  been  established  in 
the  United  States  for  many  years,  and 
is  now  conducted  on  the  most  extensive 
scale  both  at  the  east  and  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  west — notably  at  a pottery 
in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where  a very  supe- 
rior quality  of  ornamental  china  is  in- 
cluded in  the  output.  The  principal 
depots  for  the  manufacture  of  this  com- 
modity are  at  Trenton,  N.  J.,  and  at 
East  Liverpool,  Ohio,  where,  it  is  said, 
fully  nine-tenths  of  the  capital  em- 
ployed in  the  production  of  pottery  in 
the  United  States  are  invested.  There 
are  potteries  also  at  East  Boston,  Mass.; 
Geddes,  N.  Y. ; Green  Point,  L.  I.; 
Peoria.  111.,  and  at  various  points  in 
West  Virginia,  their  lines  of  production 
grading  from  the  ordinary  descriptions 
of  pottery  to  the  best  qualities  of  vitri- 
fied china.  The  trade  catered  to  is 
domestic,  and  for  some  portions  of  Can- 
g.da.  South  America,  and  Mexico. 

POTTSTOWN,  a town  in  Pennsy!-  ‘ 

P.  E.-64 


vania,  on  the  Schuylkill,  between  Phila- 
delphia, and  Reading.  Pop.  15,120. 

POTTSVILLE,  a town  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  the  center  of  the  great  anthra- 
cite coal-fields,  with  blast-furnaces, 
forges,  foundries,  rolling-mills,  machine 
factories,  etc.  Pop.  18,210. 

POUGHKEEPSIE  (po-kep'si),  a city 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  the  capital  of 
Dutchess  county,  situated  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  74  miles  north 
of  New  York  City  and  70  miles  south  of 
Albany.  It  is  built  partly  on  a slope, 
partly  on  a plateau,  about  200  feet  above 
the  river,  and  is  prettily  situated.  It  is 
distinguished  for  its  educational  insti- 
tutions, and  is  known  as  the  “City  of 
Schools.”  These  include  Vassar  college 
for  women,  one  of  the  chief  institutions 
of  the  kind  in  America.  Poughkeepsie 
was  the  seat  of  the  convention  of  1788, 
at  which  the  federal  constitution  was 
adopted.  Pop.  19U9,  26,000. 

POULTICE,  in  medicine,  a soft  moist 
application  applied  externally  to  some 
part  of  the  body  either  hot  or  cold,  but 
generally  the  former.  The  simple  poul- 
tice is  made  with  linseed  meal  and  boil- 
ing water,  spread  out  with  uniform 
thickness  on  a cloth  or  rag,  and  is  used 
where  it  is  desired  to  hasten  the  progress 
of  inflammation.  Its  moisture  causes 
relaxation  of  the  skin,  and  thereby 
lessens  the  discomfort  or  pain.  It  acts 
also  as  a counter-irritant,  producing  a 
redness  and  congestion  of  the  skin.  Dis- 
infecting poultices  are  made  with  char- 
coal, mixed  with  linseed-meal  and  bread. 
The  sedative  poultice,  made  with  beer, 
yeast,  flour,  and  hot  water,  is  generally 
used  to  relieve  pain  in  cases  of  cancer. 
The  best-known  poultice,  however,  is 
the  counter-irritant,  commonly  called 
a mustard-plaster.  This  may  be  made, 
by  mixing  linseed-meal  with  water,  and 
adding  mustard.  It  produces  a rapid 
but  mild  counter-irritation,  indicated 
by  a redness  of  the  skin  and  is  very 
useful  in  cases  of  bronchitis,  lumbago 
and  similar  affections. 

POULTRY,  a general  name  for  all 
birds  bred  for  the  table,  or  kept  for  their 
eggs.  The  birds  most  commonly  in- 
cluded under  this  designation  are  the 
common  fowl,  the  pea-fowl,  the  guinea- 
fowl,  the  turkey,  goose,  and  duck. 

POUND,  an  English  weight  of  two 
different  denominations,  avoirdupois 
and  troy.  The  pound  troy  contains  5760 
grains,  and  is  divided  into  12  ounces; 
the  pound  avoirdupois,  contains  7000 
grains,  and  is  divided  into  16  ounces. 
The  pound,  or  pound  sterling,  the  high- 
est monetary  denomination  used  in 
British  money  accounts,  and  equal  to 
20  shillings,  was  so  called  from  originally 
being  equal  to  a quantity  of  silver 
weighing  one  pound.  The  pound  is 
strictly  a money  of  account,  the  coin 
representing  it  being  the  sovereign. 
See  Money. 

POUSSIN,  Nicolas,  a distinguished 
French  painter,  born  at  Andelys  in  1594. 
From  1640  to  1642  he  resided  in  Paris; 
but  the  rivalry  of  French  painters  and 
the  want  of  appreciation  of  his  works 
induced  him  to  return  to  Rome,  where 
he  lived  until  his  death  in  1665.  Among 
his  works  are  the  Seven  Sacraments, 
the  Death  of  Germanicus,  the  Capture 
of  Jerusalem,  the  Plague  of  the  Philis- 


tines, Abraham’s  Servant  and  Rebecca, 
the  Adulteress,  the  Infant  Moses,  Moses 
Bringing  Water  from  the  Rock,  the 
Worship  of  the  Golden  Calf,  John  Bap- 
tizing in  the  Wilderness,  etc.,  and  many 
fine  landscapes. 

POUTER,  a variety  of  fancy  pigeon, 
named  for  the  habit  of  pouting  or  puffing 


English  pouter. 

up  the  breast.  They  occur  in  many 
different  color  varieties.  See  Pigeon. 

POWDERLY,  Te  rre  n c e Vincent, 
.American  labor  leader,  was  born  at 
Carbondale,  Lackawana  co..  Pa.,  in 
1849.  In  1879  he  was  elected  general 
master  workman  of  the  Knights  of 
Labor,  which  he  reorganized  and  greatly 
extended  its  interests.  In  1893  owing 
to  internal  differences  arising  from  oppo- 
sition to  his  policy  he  resigned.  In  1878; 
1880,  and  1882  he  wms  elected  mayor  oi 
Scranton  as  candidate  of  the  labor 
greenback  party,  and  in  1891  republican 
delegate-at-large  to  the  projected  state 
constitutional  convention.  He  studied 
law  in  1893-94,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
of  Lackawanna  co..  Pa.,  in  1894,  and 
to  that  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court  in  1901.  From  1897  untU  his 
resignation  in  1902  he  was  United  States 
commissioner-general  of  immigration. 
During  the  presidential  cam.paigns  of 
1896  and  1900  he  appeared  as  a republi- 
can stump  speaker  in  the  west  and 
south. 

POWELL,  John  Weslejq  American 
geologist  and  anthropologist,  was  born 
at  Mount  Morris,  N.  Y.,  in  1834.  In 
1867  Major  Powell  visited  the  Rocky 
mountains  of  Colorado  for  exploration 
and  research.  In  1869  he  induced  Con- 
gress to  establish  a geological  and  topo- 
graphical survey  of  the  Colorado  river 
and  its  tributaries,  an  undertaking 
which  consumed  the  following  ten  years. 
He  published  in  1876  Contributions  to' 
North  American  Ethnology.  In  1881  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  United 
States  geological  and  geographical  sur- 
vey. In  1894  he  resigned  this  office  to 
devote  himself  to  the  directorship  of  tlie 
Bureau  of  Anthropology,  and  to  ethno- 
logical and  philosophical  studies.  He 
died  in  1902. 

POWELL,  Robert  Stephenson  Smyth 
Baden-,  English  general,  born  in  1857 
During  the  South  African  war  of  1899- 
1902  he  highly  distinguished  himself  by 


POWER  OF  ATTORNEY 


PRECEDENT 


his  defense  of  Mafeking  from  October, 
1899,  till  his  relief  in  May,  1900,  for  which 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  Author  of  Pig-sticking,  Recon- 
naissance, Cavalry  Instruction,  Down- 
fall of  Prempeh,  Matabele Campaign, etc. 

POWER  OF  ATTORNEY,  in  law,  a 
written  instrument  whereby  one  person 
is  authorized  to  act  for  another  as  his 
agent  or  attorney,  either  generally  or  in 
a special  transaction. 

POWERS,  Hiram,  American  sculptor, 
born  in  1805.  He  early  displayed  great 
ingenuity  in  mechanical  matters,  but 
having  formed  the  acquaintance  of  a 
German  sculptor,  and  having  been 
taught  modeling  by  him,  he  determined 
to  become  himself  a sculptor.  He  pro- 
duced busts  of  many  American  states- 
men. His  most  famous  ideal  works  are 
the  statue  of  Eve,  the  Greek  Slave,  and 
the  Fisher  Boy.  He  died  in  1873. 

POWERS,  The  Great,  a term  of 
modern  diplomacy,  by  which  are  now 
meant  Britain,  France,  Austria,  Ger- 
many, Italy,  and  Russia. 

POYNTER,  Sir  Edward  John,  R.  A., 
British  painter,  was  born  in  Paris  in 
1836;  was  elected  an  associate  in  1869 
and  a Royal  Academician  in  1876,  be- 
came president  and  was  knighted  in 
1896.  He  was  the  first  Slade  professor 
of  art  at  University  college,  London. 
He  is  the  author  of  Ten  Lectures  on  Art 
(1879). 

PREFECT,  the  title  of  various  func- 
tionaries of  ancient  Rome.  Of  these  the 
most  important  was  the  prsefectus  urbi 
or  urbis  (preefect  of  the  city).  During  the 
kingly  period  and  the  early  republic 
the  praefectus  urbis  had  the  right  to  exer- 
cise all  the  powers  of  the  king  or  consuls 
in  their  absence.  After  the  foundation 
of  the  praetorship  this  office  lost  its 
dignity  and  privileges;  but  under  the 
empire  it  was  revived  as  that  of  chief 
permanent  magistrate  of  the  city,  with 
important  military  functions. 

PRzETOR,  an  important  official  in  the 
ancient  Roman  state.  Up  to  367  b.c. 
the  title  was  merely  an  adjunct  to  that 
of  consul;  but  when  at  that  date  the 
consulship  was  thrown  open  to  the 
plebeians,  the  judicial  functions  of  the 
consul  were  separated  from  his  other 
duties  and  given  to  a new  patrician 
magistrate,  who  was  entitled  the  praetor. 

PRjETORIANS,  the  body-guard  of  the 
Roman  emperors,  first  established  as  a 
standing  body  by  Augustus.  They  were 
reorganized  and  their  powers  curtailed 
by  Septimius  Severus  and  by  Diocletian, 
and  were  finally  disbanded  by  Constan- 
tine the  Great  in  312  a.d. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION,  a public  and 
solemn  decree  pronounced  by  the  head 
of  a legislature.  In  European  history 
several  important  treaties  are  called 
pragmatic  sanctions,  but  the  one  best 
known  by  this  name  is  the  instrument 
by  which  the  German  emperor  Charles 
VI.,  beingwithoutmaleissue,  endeavored 
to  secure  the  succession  to  his  female 
descendants.  It  was  in  accordance  with 
this  instrument  that  he  settled  his  do- 
minions on  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa. 

PRAGUE,  the  capital  of  Bohemia,  a 
prosperous  and  well-built  city  near  the 
center  of  the  kingdom,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Moldau,  here  crossed  by  seven  bridges; 
153  miles  northwest  of  Vienna  and  75 


miles  southeast  of  Dresden,  with  both 
of  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  Its 
site  is  a regular  basin,  cut  in  two  by  the 
river,  from  the  banks  of  w’hich  the 
houses  rise  on  both  sides  till  they  are 
terminated  and  inclosed  by  hills  of  con- 
siderable height.  Among  the  public 
buildings  of  Prague  are  the  old  castle, 
or  palace  of  the  Bohemian  kings;  the 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  the  Teyn- 
kirche  or  old  church  of  the  Hussites,  in- 
teresting as  containing  statues  and  other 
works  of  art  and  the  burial-place  of  the 
astronomer  Tycho  Brahe;  the  palace  of 
Wallenstein,  originally  a magnificent 


View  In  Prague. 


structure,  but  now  much  dilapidated, 
etc.  Prague  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  the  kingdom,  dating  from  the  8th 
century.  Its  university  was  founded  in 
1348,  and  had  at  one  time  about  10,000 
students.  Recently  it  was  divided  into 
two  universities,  a German  and  a Czech 
or  Bohemian,  having  together  more  than 
3500  students.  During  the  Austro- 
Priissian  war  in  1866  Prague  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Prussians,  and  here  the 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  on  the  23d 
August.  Pop.  201,589,  or  with  suburbs 
385,238,  of  whom  about  six-sevenths 
are  Bohemians. 

PRAIRIE,  the  name  given  in  North 
America  to  the  vast  natural  meadows  or 
plains  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  espe- 
cially lying  between  it  and  the  Rocky 
mountains,  and  extending  northward 
into  Central  Canada.  Throughout  this 
immense  territory  the  differences  of 
level  are  sufficient  to  produce  a steady 
flow  of  the  rivers,  but  not  so  great  as  to 
obstruct  their  navigation,  thus  securing 
a unique  system  of  easy  inter-communi- 
cation between  all  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. There  is  a great  sameness  in  the 
features  of  the  topography,  the  vegetable 
productions,  the  soil,  and  geological 
features.  Some  of  the  prairies  that  have 
a peculiarly  undulating  surface  are 
known  as  rolling  prairies.  Immense 
tracts  are  cultivated,  and  produce  large 
crops  of  wheat  and  corn  with  little  out- 
lay of  labor  on  the  part  of  the  farmer. 

PRAIRIE-DOG,  or  MARMOT,  a 


small  rodent  animal,  the  wistonwish, 
allied  to  the  marmot  as  well  as  to 
the  squirrel,  and  found  on  the  North 
American  prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi 
and  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  These 
animals  live  gregariously  in  burrows, 
and  are  characterized  by  a sharp  bark, 
like  that  of  a small  dog,  whence  their 
popular  name.  They  are  about  1 foot 


Prairie-dogs. 


in  length  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is 
rather  short.  Their  burrows  are  quite 
close  together,  and  have  a mound  of 
excavated  earth  near  the  entrance,  on 
which  the  little  animals  are  wont  to  sit 
and  look  around  them.  These  com- 
munities are  termed  “villages.”  The 
prairie-dog  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
the  prairie-squirrel,  to  which  it  is  allied. 

PRAIRIE-HEN,  the  popular  name  of 
the  pinnated  grouse  of  the  United  States. 
The  neck  of  the  male  is  furnished  with 
neck-tufts  of  eighteen  feathers,  and  is 
remarkable  also  for  two  loose,  pendu- 
lous, wrinkled  skins,  which  somewhat 
resemble  an  orange  on  inflation.  The 
prairie-hen  is  much  prized  for  the  table. 

PRAIRIE-SQUIRREL,  or  GOPHER, 
a name  for  several  animals  of  North 
America,  found  in  the  prairies  in  great 
numbers.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  not 
on  trees,  and  much  resemble  the  prairie- 
dog  or  marmot.  They  have  cheek- 
pouches,  in  which  their  food  is  carried. 
This  consists  of  prairie  plants  with  their 
roots  and  seeds. 

PRAIRIE-WOLF,  or  COYOTE,  the 

small  wolf  which  is  found  on  the  prairies 
in  North  America,  believed  by  many  to 
be  a mere  variety  of  the  European  wolf. 
It  is  a cowardly  animal,  and  only  dan- 
gerous to  man  when  in  packs  and  pressed 
by  hunger. 

PRE-ADAMITES,  those  supposed  in- 
habitants of  the  earth  prior  to  the  crea- 
tion of  Adam.  Ancient  legends  or  tradi- 
tions of  the  East  speak  of  nations  and 
empires  existing  before  Adam’s  creation, 
and  of  a line  of  kings  who  ruled  over 
them.  In  modern  times  the  subject  w'as 
taken  up  by  Isaac  de  la  Peyrere,  who, 
in  a work  published  in  1655,  maintained 
that  the  Jews  were  the  descendants  of 
Adam,  and  the  Gentiles  those  of  a long 
anterior  creation,  founding  his  opinions 
on  Romans  v.  12-14. 

PREC'EDENT,  in  law,  a judicial  de- 
cision which  serves  as  a rule  for  future 
determinations  in  similar  cases.  Prece- 
dents, strictly  speaking,  are  binding  on 
tribunals  only  when  they  are  actual 
decisions  of  the  point  in  question ; what 
is  termed  an  extrajudicial  opinion  or 
obiter  dictum — the  opinion  of  a judge 
pronounced  where  it  was  not  called  for 
to  decide  the  issue — can  have  authority 
only  from  the  character  of  the  judge, 
and  not  as  a precedent.  Precedents  are 
now  of  as  much  authority  in  courts  of 
equity  as  in  those  of  common  law. 


PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOXES 


PRESBYTERIANS 


PRECESSION  OF  THE  EQUINOXES, 

a slow  motion  of  the  line  of  intersection 
of  the  celestial  equator  or  equinoctial 
and  the  ecliptic,  which  causes  the  posi- 
tions occupied  by  the  sun  at  the  equinox 
(the  equinoctial  points,  which  see)  to 
move  backward  or  westward  at  the 
mean  rate  of  50.25"  per  year.  This 
motion  of  the  equinox  along  the  ecliptic 
carries  it,  with  reference  to  the  diurnal 
motion,  continually  in  advance  upon  the 
stars;  the  place  of  the  equinox  among 
the  stars,  with  reference  to  the  diurnal 
motion,  thus  precedes  at  every  subse- 
quent moment  that  which  it  previously 
held,  hence  the  name.  This  sweeping 
round  in  the  heavens  of  the  equinoctial 
line  indicates  a motion  of  the  axis  of 
rotation  of  the  earth,  such  that  it  de- 
scribes circles  round  the  poles  of  the 
ecliptic  in  25,791  years.  Nutation  is  a 
similar,  but  much  smaller  gyratory  mo- 
tion of  the  earth’s  axis,  whosp  period  is 
about  nineteen  years.  From  these  two 
causes  in  combination  the  axis  follows  a 
sinuous  path,  instead  of  a circle,  about 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  Nutation  causes 
the  equinoctial  points  to  be  alternately 
in  advance  of  and  behind  their  mean 
place  due  to  precession  by  6.87".  At 
present  the  vernal  equinoctial  point  is  in 
the  zodiacal  sign  Pisces,  and  it  is  mov- 
ing toward  the  sign  Aquarius. 

PRECIOUS  METALS,  a name  com- 
monly applied  to  gold  and  silver  in  con- 
tradistinction to  such  ordinary  and 
abundant  metals  as  iron,  copper,  lead. 

PRECIPITATE,  in  chemistry,  a solid 
body  produced  by  the  mutual  action  of 
two  or  more  liquids  mixed  together,  one 
or  other  of  them  holding  some  substance 
in  solution.  The  term  is  generally  ap- 
plied when  the  solid  appears  in  a floc- 
culent  or  pulverulent  form.  Substances 
that  settle  or  sink  to  the  bottom  like 
earthy  matters  in  water  are  called  sedi- 
ments, the  operating  cause  being  me- 
chanical, not  chemical.  Red  oxide  or 
peroxide  of  mercury  is  often  called  red 
precipitate. 

PREDESTINATION,  in  theology,  the 
term  used  to  denote  the  degree  of  God, 
whereby  the  elect  are  foreordained  to 
salvation.  The  theory  of  predestination 
represents  God’s  absolute  will  as  deter- 
mining the  eternal  destiny  of  man,  not 
according  to  the  fore-known  character 
of  those  whose  fate  is  so  determined, 
but  according  to  God’s  own  choice. 
This  doctrine  has  been  the  occasion  of 
many  disputes  and  controversies  in  the 
church  in  all  ages.  On  the  one  side,  it 
has  been  observed  that  the  doctrine  of 
predestination  destroys  moral  distinc- 
tion, introduces  fatalism,  and  renders 
all  our  efforts  useless.  On  the  other 
side,  it  is  contended  that  if  God’s 
knowledge  is  infinite  he  must  have 
known  everything  from  eternity;  and 
that  the  pennission  of  evil  under  such 
circumstances  is  indistinguishable  from 
a plan  or  decree  under  which  it  is  fore- 
ordained. The  first  great  champions  of 
these  opposite  views  were  Pelagius  and 
Augustine.  The  former  held  that  there 
was  a possibility  of  good  in  man’s  nature, 
and  that  the  choice  of  salvation  lay  in 
man’s  will.  Augustine  maintained  that 
apart  from  divine  grace  there  is  no  pos- 
sibility of  good  in  human  nature,  and 
that  since  the  fall  man’s  will  has  no 


power  of  choice.  Predestination’forms 
one  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
Calvinistic  theology;  the  question  is  left 
an  open  one  by  the  Anglican  church, 
and  also  by  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
since  the  reformation. 

PRE-EXISTENCE,  Doctrine  of,  the 
doctrine  sometimes  maintained  that  the 
soul  of  every  man  has  an  existence  pre- 
vious to  that  of  his  body.  This  opinion 
was  very  prevalent  in  the  East,  and  was 
held  by  several  Greek  philosophers, 
more  especially  by  the  Pythagoreans, 
Empedocles,  and  also  apparently  by 
Plato.  A similar  doctrine  has  found 
some  countenance  in  Christian  times  as 
an  explanation  of  the  union  of  soul  and 
body.  In  favor  of  this  theory  appeal  is 
made  to  these  peculiar  sensations  which 
are  sometimes  raised  by  sights  or  sounds, 
which  we  feel  conscious  of  having  had  a 
former  familiarity  with,  though  reason 
would  persuade  us  we  had  seen  them  for 
the  first  time.  The  doctrine  is  supported 
by  some  modern  German  philosophers, 
particularly  the  younger  Fichte. 

PREFET  (pra-fa),  the  title  of  an 
important  political  functionary  in 
France,  whose  office  was  created  in 
1800  at  the  instance  of  Napoleon.  There 
is  a pr4fet  at  the  head  of  each  depart- 
ment, who  is  intrusted  with  the  whole 
organization  and  management  of  the 
police  establishments;  but  not  with  the 
punishment  of  police  offenses. 

PREGNANCY,  the  state  of  a female 
who  is  with  child.  It  lasts  in  the  human 
subject  from  274  to  280  days;  that  is  to 
say,  that  time  should  elapse  from  the 
moment  of  conception  to  the  time  of 
birth.  Among  the  earliest  signs  of  preg- 
nancy are  the  stoppage  of  the  monthly 
discharge,  and  sickness,  usually  felt  in 
the  early  part  of  the  day,  and  thus  called 
“morning  sickness.’’  The  latter  usually 
begins  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  week, 
and  may  last  all  the  time,  but  often 
diminishes  in  course  of  the  fourth  month. 
Changes  in  the  breast  are  evident  during 
the  second  month,  the  nipple  becoming 
more  prominent,  and  the  dark  circle 
round  it  being  deeper  in  tint  by  the 
ninth  week,  little  elevated  points  in  it 
being  more  marked.  Toward  the  fourth 
month  enlargement  of  the  belly  becomes 
noticeable,  and  continues  to  increase 
regularly  till  delivery  takes  place. 
About  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth 
week  quickening  occurs;  that  is,  the 
mother  becomes  aware  of  movements  of 
the  child.  None  of  these  signs  are,  how- 
ever, absolutely  conclusive,  as  various 
conditions  may  give  rise  to  similar  signs 
or  signs  resembling  them.  The  only 
conclusive  evidence  is  the  detection  of 
the  sounds  of  the  child’s  heart,  heard 
by  applying  the  ear  to  the  belly  of  the 
mother,  midway  between  the  naval  and 
the  line  of  the  groins,  a little  to  the  right 
or  left  of  the  middle  line.  They  may  be 
detected  about  the  eighteenth  week. 
During  pregnancy  women  should  take 
regular  meals  of  plain,  nourishing  food, 
avoiding  rich  and  highly-seasoned 
dishes,  and  should  restrain  unwhole- 
some cravings,  which  sometimes  exist. 
Gentle  but  regular  and  moderate  exer- 
cise should  be  engaged  in,  all  undue 
exertion,  effort,  and  fatigue  being 
avoided.  Clothing  should  be  warm, 
woolen  next  the  skin,  and  nowhere  tight.  ’ 


Prudence  in  baths  must  be  exercised, 
too  hot  or  too  cold  water  being  avoided, 
and  the  bowels  must  be  kept  well  ref- 
lated, only  the  mildest  medicine  being 
used.  Above  all  a calm  and  equable 
frame  of  mind  should  be  cultivated,  and 
there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  asking 
advice  of  the  doctor. 

PRE'LUDE,  in  music,  originally  the 
first  part  of  a sonata;  though,  as  the 
name  implies,  it  may  be  an  introduction 
to  any  piece  of  music.  Bach  and  his  con- 
temporaries elaborated  preludes  con- 
siderably; and  Chopin  wrote  several 
piano  works  which,  though  complete  in 
themselves,  he  designated  preludes. 
Latterly  the  term  has  been  applied  to 
operatic  introductions  when  they  are 
shorter  than  the  usual  overture.  Wagner 
in  particular  has  prefaced  most  of  his 
operas  with  a prelude. 

PREPOSITION,  a part  of  speech  which 
is  used  to  show  the  relation  of  one  object 
to  another,  and  derives  its  name  from 
its  being  usually  placed  before  the  word 
which  expresses  the  object  of  the  rela- 
tion. In  some  languages  this  relation  is 
often  expressed  merely  by  changes  of 
the  termination. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  a name  applied  to 
those  Christians  who  hold  that  there  is 
no  order  in  the  church  as  established  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles  superior  to  that 
of  presbyters,  and  who  vest  church 
government  in  presbyteries,  or  asso- 
ciations of  ministers  and  elders,  pos- 
sessed all  of  equal  powers,  without  any 
superiority  among  them.  The  Presby- 
terians believe  that  the  authority  of 
their  ministers  is  derived  from  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands 
of  the  presbytery;  and  they  oppose  the 
independent  scheme  of  the  common 
rights  of  Christians  by  the  same  argu- 
ments which  are  used  for  that  purpose 
by  the  Episcopalians.  They  affirm  that 
all  ministers,  being  ambassadors  of 
Christ,  are  equal  by  their  commission; 
and  that  Episcopacy  was  gradually 
established  upon  the  primitive  practice 
of  making  the  moderator,  or  speaker  of 
the  presbytery,  a permanent  officer. 
These  positions  they  maintain  against 
the  Episcopalians  by  the  general  argu- 
ment that  the  terms  bishop  and  presby- 
ter are  used  as  synonymous  terms  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  that  they  were 
used  simply  to  designate  the  minister 
appointed  by  the  apostles  to  take  charge 
of  a new  church  on  its  foundation.  They 
therefore  claim  validity  for  the  ordina- 
tion after  the  Presbyterian  fonn,  as 
there  was  originally  no  higher  ecclesiastic 
than  a presbyter  in  the  church. 

The  first  Presbyterian  church  in 
modern  times  was  founded  in  Geneva 
by  John  Calvin  about  1541 ; and  the  con- 
stitution and  doctrines  were  thence  in- 
troduced, with  some  modifications,  into 
Scotland  by  John  Knox  about  1560, 
though  the  Presbyterian  was  not  legally 
recognized  as  the  national  fonn  of 
church  government  until  1592.  For 
nearly  a century  after  this  date  there 
was  a continual  struggle  in  Scotland  be- 
tween Episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism ; 
until  ultimately  by  the  Treaty  of  Union 
in  1707  it  was  agreed  on  the  part  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland  that  that  fonn  of 
church  government  should  be  the  na- 
tional form  of  ecclesiastical  government 


PRESBYTERY 


PRESERVED  PROVISIONS,  ETC. 


in  Scotland,  and  that  the  Scotch  church 
should  be  supported  as  the  only  one 
established  by  law. — The  constitution 
of  the  Scotch  church,  and  of  the  Presby- 
terian church  generally,  is  as  follows: 
The  kirk-session  is  the  lowest  court,  and 
is  composed  of  the  parochial  minister, 
or  ministers,  if  more  than  one,  and 
of  lay  elders  (usually  from  six  to  twenty) 
the  minister,  or  senior  minister  where 
there  are  more  than  one,  being  president 
or  moderator.  This  court  exercises  the 
religious  discipline  of  the  parish;  but  an 
appeal  may  be  made  from  its  decisions 
to  the  presbytery,  and  again  from  the 
presbytery  to  the  synod.  A presbytery 
consists  of  the  pastors  of  the  churches 
within  a certain  district,  and  of  an  elder 
connected  with  each,  while  the  synod 
comprises  the  presbyteries  within  a cer- 
tain area,  their  ministers  and  represen- 
tative elders.  The  genei'al  assembly  is 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  court,  its  de- 
cisions being  supreme.  Besides  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland  there  are 
other  important  religious  bodies  whose 
constitution  is  strictly  Presbyterian,  but 
who,  from  different  principles,  decline 
to  have  any  connection  with  the  state. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  United  Free 
church  of  Scotland,  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Free  and  United  Presbyterian 
churches. 

Shortly  after  the  reformation  Presby- 
terianism was  in  considerable  strength 
in  England,  a large  number  of  the  Puri- 
tans preferring  this  system  to  episcopacy, 
but  it  subsequently  declined  in  strength. 
The  rule  of  the  Stuarts,  however,  did 
much  to  renew  its  vigor,  and  in  1642 
the  Long  Parliament  abolished  epis- 
copacy, a measure  followed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  the  famous  assembly  of  divines 
at  Westminster  the  following  year.  In 
1646  presbytery  was  sanctioned  by  par- 
liament, but  it  was  never  generally 
adopted,  or  regularly  organized,  except 
in  London  and  Lancashire.  Soon  after 
the  restoration  episcopacy  was  restored, 
and  about  2000  Presbyterian  clergy 
were  ejected  from  their  cures  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  in  1662. 
Presbyterianism  has  ever  since  been 
simply  one  of  the  forms  of  dissent  in 
England,  and  has  held  no  prominent 
position,  though  many  Presbyterian 
churches  are  scattered  throughout  Eng- 
land. Of  these  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber are  united  to  form  a single  body,  the 
Presbyterian  church  of  England. — The 
Presbyterian  church  in  Ireland  originated 
through  the  settlement  of  Scottish  colo- 
nists in  Ulster  in  the  reign  of  James  I. 
WhenCharles  II.  attempted  to  force  Prel- 
acy upon  the  Scotch  many  of  them  took 
refuge  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  which 
gave  the  cause  of  Presbyterianism  in 
that  country  a fresh  impulse.  The  favor 
shown  them  by  William  III.  was  of 
great  assistance  to  them;  which  they 
repaid  by  the  part  they  played  in  the 
rebellion  under  James  II.,  particularly 
in  the  memorable  siege  of  Londonderry. 
As  a test  of  his  gratitude  the  king 
doubled  the  sum  given  for  the  support 
of  their  ministers,  hence  known  as 
Regium  Donum;  the  act  of  1869,  how- 
ever, which  disestablished  the  Irish 
church,  provided  also  for  the  discon- 
tinuance of  this  sum. — The  Presbyter- 
ian church  of  the  United  States  is  un- 


doubtedly to  be  reckoned  as  a daughter 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  There  are  at 
present  a number  of  different  organiza- 
tions of  Presbyterians  in  the  states;  and 
the  body  is  also  an  important  one  in 
Canada  and  the  other  British  colonies, 
and  on  the  European  continent. 

PRES'BYTERY,  a judicatory,  consist- 
ing of  the  pastors  of  all  the  churches  of 
any  particular  Presbyterian  denomina- 
tion within  a given  district,  along  with 
their  ruling  (i.e,  presiding)  elders,  there 
being  one  ruling  elder  from  each  church- 
session  commissioned  to  represent  the 
congregation  in  conjunction  with  the 
minister.  The  functions  of  the  presby- 
tery are,  to  grant  licenses  to  preach  the 
gospel,  and  to  judge  of  the  qualifica- 
tions of  such  as  apply  for  them ; to  ordain 
ministers  to  vacant  charges;  to  judge 
in  cases  of  reference  for  advice,  and  in 
complaints  and  appeals  which  come 
from  the  church-sessions  within  the 
bounds  of  the  presbytery;  and  generally 
to  superintend  whatever  relates  to  the 
spiritual  interests  of  the  several  congre- 
gations under  its  charge,  both  in  respect 
of  doctrine  and  discipline.  Appeals  may 
be  taken  from  the  presbytery  to  the 
provincial  synod,  and  then  to  the  gen- 
eral assembly. 

PRESCOTT,  George  Bartlett,  Ameri- 
can electrician,  was  born  at  Kingston, 
N.  H.,  in  1830.  In  1852  he  discovered 
that  the  aurora  borealis  is  an  electric 
phenomenon.  He  invented  an  improve- 
ment in  telegraph  insulators  in  1872; 
with  Thomas  A.  Edison  invented  and 
introduced  the  duplex  telegraph  and 
the  quadruplex  telegraph;  and  also  in- 
troduced from  Europe  the  system  of 
sending  messages  in  pneumatic  tubes. 
He  died  in  1894. 

PRESCOTT,  William  Hickling,  Ameri- 
can historian,  born  in  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, 1796;  died  1859.  Acquaintance 
with  Spanish  literature,  which  he  began 
to  cultivate  in  1824,  led  him  to  attempt 
his  first  great  work  on  Spanish  history, 
the  Reign  of  Ferdinana  and  Isabella, 
published  1837.  It  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  both  in  America  and 
Europe;  was  rapidly  translated  into 
French,  Spanish,  and  German;  and  its 
author  was  elected  a member  of  the 
Royal  academy  at  Madrid.  Prescott’s 
next  work  was  the  History  of  the  Con- 
quest of  Mexico,  with  a Preliminary 
View  of  the  Ancient  Mexican  Civiliza- 
tion, and  the  Life  of  the  Conqueror 
Hernando  Cortez,  which  appeared  in 
1843,  and  was  received  with  an  equal 
degree  of  favor.  In  1847  he  published  the 
History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru,  with  a 
Preliminary  View  of  the  Civilization  of 
the  Incas.  In  1855  the  first  two  volumes 
of  the  long-expected  History  of  the 
Reign  of  Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain,  ap- 
peared, and  proved  to  the  public  equally 
acceptable  with  Prescott’s  former  works. 
In  1858  was  published  a third  volume; 
but  the  sudden  death  of  the  author  from 
apoplexy  put  a stop  to  his  labors. 
Prescott  affords  a remarkble  instance 
of  the  success  of  indomitable  industry 
and  perseverance,  carried  out  in  spite  of 
the  affliction  of  partial  and  latterly 
almost  total  blindness. 

PRESCRIPTION,  in  medicine,  is  the 
form  with  directions,  in  which  a medi- 
cine or  medicines  are  ordered  or  pre- 


scribed by  a medical  man.  The  several 
medical  substances  which  may  be  con- 
tained in  a prescription  are  distinguished 
by  names  indicative  of  the  office  per- 
formed by  each.  These  are:  1.  The 
basis,  which  is  the  principal  or  most 
active  iiigt-edient.  2.  The  adjuvant,  or 
that  which  is  intended  to  promote  the 
action  of  the  basis.  3.  The  corrective, 
intended  to  modify  its  action.  4.  The 
excipient,  or  that  which  gives  the 
whole  a commodious  or  agreeable  form. 
To  these  certain  writers  add  a fifth,  the 
intermedium,  which  is  the  substance 
employed  to  unite  remedies  which  do 
not  mix  with  each  other  or  with  the 
excipient,  such  as  yolk  of  eggs  and 
mucilage,  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  emulsions.  In  choosing  the  form  of 
a prescription  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  solutions  and  emulsions 
generally  act  with  more  certainty  and 
rapidity  than  powders  diffused  through 
water;  and  these  again  than  the  semi- 
solid and  solid  forms  of  medicine. 

PRESERVED  PROVISIONS,  MEATS, 
ETC.,  the  preservation  of  dead  organized 
matter  from  the  natural  process  of  de- 
cay is  a most  useful  means  of  increasing 
and  diffusing  the  food  supply  of  the 
world.  Animals,  vegetables,  and  fruits 
may  all  be  easily  preserved  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  preserving  of  fruits  is  an  old 
and  familiar  process.  This  is  generally 
effected  by  boiling  or  stewing,  though 
drying  is  also  frequently  resorted  to, 
where  the  fruit  is  meant  to  be  kept  in- 
tact. Fruits  intended  for  confectionery 
are  preserved  in  four  different  ways:  1. 
In  the  form  of  jam,  in  which  the  fruit  is 
boiled  with  from  one-half  to  about  equal 
its  weight  of  sugar.  2.  In  the  form  of 
jelly,  in  which  the  juice  only  is  preserved 
by  being  carefully  strained  from  the 
solid  portions  of  the  fruit,  and  boiled 
with  a third  to  a half  of  its  weight  of 
sugar.  3.  By  candying,  which  consists 
in  taking  the  fruits  whole  or  in  pieces, 
and  boiling  them  in  a clear  syrup  of 
sugar  previously  prepared.  They  absorb 
the  syrup,  which  is  then  crystallized  by 
the  action  of  a gentle  heat.  4.  By  stew- 
ing them  in  a weak  syrup  of  sugar  and 
water  till  they  become  soft  but  not 
broken,  and  transferring  them  with  the 
syrup  to  jars,  adding  pale  brandy  equal 
in  quantity  to  the  syrup.  Several  kinds 
of  vegetables,  as  cabbages,  cucumbers, 
cauliflowers,  onions,  are  preserved  by 
pickling.  Antiseptics  are  used  to  pre- 
serve meats  also,  salting  being  the  most 
common  process.  But  to  preserve  large 
quantities  of  vegetable  and  animal  prod- 
ucts for  food  purposes,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  keep  them  nearly  in  their  fresh 
state,  they  must  be  subjected  to  one  of 
three  processes.  These  are — drying, 
refrigeration,  and  exclusion  of  air.  With 
vegetables,  which  contain  so  large  an 
amount  of  water  in  proportion  to  their 
solid  and  nutritious  material,  the  proc- 
ess of  drying  is  peculiarly  applicable, 
and  it  is  largely  employed  as  the  means 
of  furnishing  fresh  vegetable  food  for 
ships  in  a compact  and  portable  form, 
when,  in  addition  to  desiccation,  com- 
pression is  also  employed.  The  preserva- 
tion of  articles  of  food  by  the  application 
of  cold  is  the  simplest  of  all  known 
methods,  and  in  such  climates  as  North 
America,  Russia,  etc.,  it  is  largely  taken 


PRESS 


PRESSBURG 


advantage  of.  In  1875  ice  began  to  be 
used  to  preserve  fresh  meat  in  con- 
siderable quantities,  which  was  sent 
from  America  to  Europe.  The  modern 
methods  of  refrigeration  for  carrying 
. purposes  consist  of  an  air-tight  room  on 
board  ship,  where  the  meat  is  kept,  and 
through  which  dry  cold  air  is  made  to 
circulate  by  means  of  special  machinery 
driven  by  steam,  the  air  being  first  com- 
pressed and  cooled,  and  a further  cool- 
ing taking  place  when  it  is  again  allowed 
to  expand. 

The  process  of  preservation  by  ex- 
clusion from  the  action  of  atmospheric 
air  is  yearly  assuming  more  importance 
and  being  more  largely  practiced.  The 
most  perfect  method,  and  that  which  is 
now  most  generally  resorted  to,  is  the 
inclosure  of  the  food  in  air-tight  cases 
from  which  the  air  is  then  expelled; 
upon  the  perfection  of  the  air-excluding 
proce.ss  depends  entirely  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  article.  The  plan  now  gen- 
erally adopted  is  commonly  known  as 
canning,  and  is  applicable  alike  for 
flesh-meats,  vegetables,  and  fruits.  The 
process  is  usually  as  follows:  The  pro- 
visions of  whatever  kind  are  packed  into 
a tin  cylinder,  and  the  interstices  filled 
in  with  water  or  other  appropriate  fluid, 
as  gravy  in  the  case  of  flesh-food.  The 
lid,  which  is  perforated  with  a small 
aperture  or  pin-hole,  is  soldered  care- 
fully down.  The  cases  are  then  set  in  a 
bath  of  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium ; 
heat  is  applied  until  the  whole  boils,  and 
the  air  is  thus  expelled  through  the  pin- 
holes. These  holes  are  then  hermetically 
closed,  and  the  canister  and  its  contents 
are  once  more  subjected  to  the  opera- 
tion of  heat  until  the  provisions  are  per- 
fectly cooked.  When  it  has  become  cool 
the  canister  is  coated  over  with  paint 
and  removed  to  the  proving  room,  an 
apartment  the  temperature  of  which  has 
been  raised  to  the  degree  of  temperature 
most  favorable  to  decomposition.  If  the 
operation  has  been  successfully  per- 


formed, the  ends  or  sides  of  the  canisters 
will  have  fallen  in  to  some  extent  from 
the  outward  pressure  of  the  air.  If,  after 
the  interval  of  some  days,  the  ends  bulge 
out,  it  is  a certain  sign  that  the  process 
has  not  been  successful,  the  liberated 
gases  causing  the  outward  pressure. 
Such  cases  should  be  rejected  or  sub- 
mitted again  to  the  process.  Not  only 
may  boiled  provisions  be  preserved  in 
this  way,  but  roast  meats  also.  An 
improvement  on  this  process  has  been 
effected  by  introducing  into  the  canis- 
ters a small  quantity  of  sulphite  of  soda 
which  causes  the  absorption  of  any 
traces  of  free  oxygen  which  may  lurk  in 
the  cases. 

PRESS,  Correction  of  the.  See  Correc- 
tion of  the  Press. 

PRESS,  Liberty  of  the,  the  liberty  of 
every  citizen  to  print  whatever  he 
chooses,  which  at  the  same  time  does  not 
prevent  his  being  amenable  to  justice 
for  the  abuse  of  this  liberty.  The  right 
of  printing  rests  on  the  same  abstract 
grounds  as  the  right  of  speech,  and  it 
might  seem  strange  to  a man  unac- 
quainted with  history  that  printing 
should  be  subjected  to  a previous  cen- 
sorship, as  it  is  in  some  states,  and  has 
been  in  all,  any  more  than  speaking, 
and  that  the  liberty  of  the  press  should 
be  expressly  provided  for  in  the  consti- 
tutions of  most  free  states.  But  when 
we  look  to  history  we  find  the  origin  of 
this,  as  of  many  other  legislative 
anomalies,  in  periods  when  politics, 
religion,  and  individual  rights  were  con- 
fusedly intermingled.  It  is  only  since 
men’s  views  of  the  just  limits  of  govern- 
ment have  become  clearer  that  the 
liberty  of  the  press  has  been  recognized 
as  a right;  and  to  England  we  are  par- 
ticularly indebted  for  the  establishment 
of  this  principle.  The  existence  of  a 
censorship  of  the  press  was  for  centuries, 
however,  deemed  an  essential  to  the 
safety  of  all  European  goveriunents. 
Liberty  of  printing,  as  we  understand  it, 


PRESIDENTS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


is  a comparatively  modern  notion; 
Milton’s  plea  for  a free  press  met  with  no 
response  from  his  own  party,  nor  for 
very  many  years  later  was  it  the  cue 
of  any  party  in  the  English  common- 
wealth to  refrain  from  suppressing  the 
writings  of  their  political  opponents. 
In  England  the  liberty  of  the  press,  soon 
after  printing  was  introduced,  was  regu- 
lated by  the  king’s  proclamations,  pro- 
hibitions, charters  of  license,  etc.,  and 
finally  by  the  court  of  Star-chamber. 
The  long  parliament,  after  their  rupture 
with  Charles  I.,  assumed  the  same  power. 
The  government  of  Charles  II.  imitated 
their  ordinances,  and  the  press  did  not 
really  become  free  till  the  expiration  of 
the  statutes  restricting  it  in  1693,  after 
which  it  was  found  impossible  to  pass 
new  laws  in  restraint  of  it,  and  it  has 
remained  free  ever  since,  the  last  restric- 
tion being  done  away  with  on  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  newspaper  stamp  duty,  in 
1856.  Such  legal  checks  as  remain  are 
merely  intended  to  prevent  outrages  on 
religion  or  decency,  to  protect  subjects 
from  defamation,  and  to  conserve  the 
copyright  of  authors.  The  constitutions 
of  many  of  the  United  States  declare, 
as  we  should  expect,  for  liberty  of  the 
press.  The  same  may  be  said  of  all  the 
South  American  republics.  Among 
European  countries,  it  may  be  generally 
said  the  liberty  of  the  press  is  found 
most  predominant  among  the  weaker 
powers,  such  as  Spain,  Turkey,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  Switzerland,  and  Rou- 
mania;  in  France  the  press  may  be  said 
to  be  comparatively  free;  while  in  Ger- 
many, Austria,  and  particularly  in 
Russia,  there  are  still  many  restrictions. 
In  the  British  colonies  the  law  is  as  in 
England,  but  in  India  the  governor- 
general  exercises  a censorship.  See 
Books  (Censorship  of). 

PRESSBURG,  or  PRESBURG,  a town 
in  Hungary,  35  miles  east  of  Vienna, 
beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Danube,  and  on  spurs  of  the  Little 


Name 

Birthplace 

Year 

Paternal 

Ancestry 

Residence 

Inaugurated 

Politics 

Place  of  Death 

Year 

Age 

Year 

Age 

1 

George  Washington 

W estmoreland  Co. , Va 

1732 

English  

Va. 

1789 

57 

Fed 

Mt.  Vernon,  Va 

1799 

67 

2 

John  Adams. . . 7 

Quincy,  Mass 

1735 

English 

Mass 

1797 

62 

Fed 

Quincy,  Mass 

1826 

90 

3 

Thomas  Jefferson 

Shad  well,  Va 

1743 

Welsh 

Va. . . . 

1801 

58 

Rep.f 

Monticello,  Va. 

1826 

83 

4 

James  Madison 

Port  Conway,  Va 

1751 

Enellsh 

Va. 

1809 

58 

Rep.  

Montpeiier,  Va 

1836 

85 

5 

James  Monroe 

Westmoreland  Co. , Va 

1758 

Scotch 

Va. 

1817 

59 

Rep. 

New  York  City 

1831 

73 

6 

John  Quincy  Adams 

Quincy,  Mass 

1767 

English 

Mass 

1825 

58 

Rep.t. . .. 

Washington,  D.  C 

1848 

80 

7 

Andrew  Jackson 

Union  Co.,  N.  C.* 

1767 

Scotch-Irlsh . . 

Tenn 

1829 

62 

Dein. 

Hermitage,  Tenn 

1845 

78 

8 

Martin  Van  Buren 

Kinderhook,  N.  Y.. 

1782 

Dutch  

N.  Y 

1837 

55 

Dem 

Linden  wold,  N.  Y 

1862 

79 

9 

William  H.  Harrison 

Berkeley,  Va 

1773 

English 

Ohio. 

1841 

68 

Whig.. .. 

Washington,  D.  C 

1841 

68 

10 

John  Tyler 

Greenway,  Va 

1790 

English 

Va 

1841 

51 

Dem 

Richmond,  Va 

1862 

72 

n 

James  K.  Polk 

Mecklenburg  Co.  ,N.  C. 

1795 

Scotch-Irish . . 

Tenn 

1845 

50 

Dem. 

Nashville,  Tenn 

1849 

53 

12 

Zachary  Taylor 

Orange  Co.,'Va 

1784 

Enelish  . 

La. 

1849 

65 

Whig. 

Washington,  D.  C... 

1850 

65 

13 

Millard'  Fillmore 

Summerhill,  N.  Y. . . 

1800 

English 

N.  Y 

1850 

50 

Whig.. .. 

Buflalo,“N.  Y 

1874 

74 

14 

Franklin  Pierce 

Hillsboro,  N.  H. 

1804 

English 

N.  H 

1853 

49 

DemT. 

Concord,  N.  H 

1869 

64 

1.5 

James  Buchanan 

Cove  Gap,  Pa 

1791 

Scotch-Irish 

Pa 

1857 

66 

Dem 

Wheatland,  Pa 

1868 

77 

16 

Abraham  Lincoln 

Larue  Co.,  Ky 

1809 

English 

111. 

1861 

52 

Rep 

Washington,  D.  C 

1865 

56 

17 

Andrew  Johnson 

Raleigh,  N.  C 

1808 

English 

Tenn 

1865 

57 

Rep. 

Carter’s  Depot,  Tenn. 

1875 

66 

18 

Ulysses  S.  Grant 

Point  Pleasant,  Ohio 

1822 

Scotch  . 

D.  C 

1869 

47 

Rep.  . . . 

Mt.  McGregor,  N.  Y . . 

1885 

63 

19 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes. . . . 

Delaware,  Ohio 

1822 

Scotch  

Ohio 

1877 

54 

Rep 

Fremont,  Ohio  

1893 

70 

20 

James  A.  Garfield' 

Cuyahoga  Co. , Ohio . . 

1831 

English 

Ohio 

1881 

49 

Rep. 

Long  Branch,  N.  J . . . 

1881 

49 

21 

Chester  A.  Arthur 

Fairfield,  Vt 

1830 

Scotch-Irish . . 

N.  Y 

1881 

51 

Rep. 

New~York  City 

1886 

56 

22 

Grover  Cleveland 

Caldwell,  N.  J 

1837 

Enerlish  . 

N.  Y 

1885 

48 

Dein. 

2:i 

Benjamin  Harrison 

North  Bend,  Ohio 

1833 

English 

Ind 

1889 

55 

Rep.  . 

Indianapolis,  Ind 

1901 

67 

24 

Grover  Cleveland 

Caldwell,  N.  J 

1837 

English  . 

N.  Y 

1893 

56 

Dem.  . 

25 

William  McKinley 

Niles,  Ohio. 

1843 

Scotch-Irish . . 

Ohio 

1897 

54 

Rep.  . . . 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

1901 

58 

26 

Theodore  Roosevelt 

New  York  City 

1858 

Dutch  

N.  Y 

1901 

43 

Rep. . . 

*Jack.son  called  himself  a South  Carolinian  and  his  biogragher,  Kendall,  recorded  his  birthplace  in  Lancaster  County,  S.  C.,  but  Parton 
has  published  documentary  evidence  to  show  that  Jackson  was  born  in  Union  County,  N.  C.,  less  than  a quarter  mile  from  the  South  C.arolin.a 
line.  tThe  Democratic  party  of  to-day  claims  lineal  descent  from  the  first  Republican  Party  and  President  Jefferson  as  its  founder.  tPolitical 
parties  were  disorganized  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  John  Quincy  Adams.  He  claimed  to  be  a Republican,  but  his  doctrines  were  decidedly 
Federalistic.  The  opposition  to  his  Adminstration  took  the  name  of  Democrats  and  elected  Jackson  President. 


PRESTON 


PRIMATE 


Carpathians.  Pop.  65,867,  fully  more 
than  half  of  whom  are  Germans,  and 
5400  Jews. 

PRESTON,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  -of  England,  in  Lan- 
cashire, 27  miles  northeast  of  Liverpool, 
agreeably  situated  on  a height  above 
the  right  or  north  bank  of  the  Ribble. 
Population  112,982. 

PRESIDENT,  the  supreme  executive 
officer  of  the  United  States.  The  quali- 
fications of  a person  raised  to  this  dignity 
are  to  be  a natural-born  citizen  of  the 
age  of  35  years,  and  to  have  resided 
14  years  within  the  United  States.  The 
election  is  by  electoral  colleges  in  every 
state.  In  his  legislative  capacity  the 
president  has  the  power  of  approving 
bills  sent  to  him  after  passing  congress, 
or  of  returning  them  to  the  house  in 
which  they  originated.  In  his  executive 
capacity  he  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy;  his  powers  are  pre- 
scribed in  the  constitution.  He  holds 
his  office  for  four  years,  and  is  eligible 
for  re-election.  The  table  on  preceding 
page  gives  the  presidents  in  the  order 
of  their  succession. 

PRESIDENTIAL  SUCCESSION,  THE. 
The  presidential  succession  is  fixed  by 
chapter  iv  of  the  acts  of  the  forty-ninth 
congress,  first  session.  In  case  of  the 
removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability 
of  both  the  president  and  vice-president, 
then  the  secreatry  of  state  shall  act  as 
president  until  the  disability  of  the 
president  or  vice-president  is  removed 
or  a president  is  elected.  If  there  be  no 
secretary  of  state,  then  the  secretary  of 
the  treasury  will  act;  and  the  remainder 
of  the  order  of  succession  is  as  follows: 
The  secretary  of  war,  attorney-general, 
postmaster-general,  secretary  of  the 
navy,  and  secretary  of  the  interior.  The 
secretary  of  agriculture  and  secretary  of 
commerce  and  labor  were  added  by  sub- 
sequent enactment.  The  acting  presi- 
dent must,  upon  taking  office,  convene 
congress,  if  not  at  the  time  in  session,  in 
extraordinary  session,  giving  twenty 
days’  notice.  This  act  applies  only  to 
such  cabinet  officers  as  shall  have  been 
confirmed  by  the  senate,  and  are  eligible 
under  the  constitution  to  the  presidency. 

PRETORIA,  the  capital  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, in  South  Africa,  situated  in  a 
valley,  4.500  feet  above  sea-level,  1040 
miles  by  railway  from  Cape  Town,  349 
from  Delagoa  bay.  There  are  govern- 
ment buildings,  English  cathedral,  and 
other  churches,  market  buildings,  mu- 
seums, etc.  Pop.  15,000. 

PREVENTION  OF  CRUELTY  TO 
ANIMALS.  See  Animals,  Cruelty  to. 

PRI'AM,  in  Greek  legend,  the  last 
king  of  Troy,  the  son  of  Laomedon.  By 
his  second  wife,  Hecuba,  he  had,  ac- 
cording to  Homer,  nineteen  children, 
the  most  famous-  being  Hector,  Paris, 
Cassandra,  and  Troilus.  His  name  has 
been  rendered  famous  by  the  tragical  fate 
of  himself  and  his  family,  as  a result  of 
the  Trojan  war.  When  he  was  extremely 
old  the  Greeks  demanded  of  him  the  res- 
toration of  Helen,  who  had  been  carried 
away  by  Paris,  and  on  his  refusal  to  give 
her  up  they  made  war  against  Troy,  and 
took  and  destroyed  the  city,  after  a 
siege  of  ten  years.  Homer  gives  no 
account  of  the  death  of  Priam ; but  other 
poets  represent  him  to  have  been  slain  1 


at  the  altar  of  Zeus  by  Pyrrhus  the 
Cjr0©k 

PRi’b'YLOV,  or  PRIBYLOFF,  IS- 
LANDS, a group  of  islands  on  the  coast  of 
Alaska,  United  States,  in  Behring  sea. 
The  largest  are  St.  Paul,  St.  George, 
Walrus,  and  Beaver  islands.  They  are 
frequented  by  numbers  of  fur-seals.  The 
natives  are  Aleutians. 

PRICKLY  ASH,  a name  given  to 
several  prickly  shrubs  of  the  United 
States.  They  have  an  aromatic  and 
pungent  bark,  which  from  being  used  as 
a remedy  for  toothache  gains  them  the 
name  of  toothache-tree. 

PRICKLY  PEAR,  otherwise  called 
Indian  fig,  is  a fleshy  and  succulent 


Prickly  pear. 


plant,  destitute  of  leaves,  covered  with 
clusters  of  spines,  and  consisting  of 
flattened  joints  inserted  upon  each  other. 
The  fruit  is  purplish  in  color,  covered 
with  fine  prickles,  and  edible.  The 
flower  is  large  and  yellow.  It  is  a native 
of  the  tropical  parts  of  America,  whence 
it  has  been  introduced  into  Europe, 
Mauritius,  Arabia,  Syria,  and  China. 
It  is  easily  propagated,  and  in  some 
countries  is  used  as  a hedge-plant.  It 
attains  a height  of  7 or  8 feet. 

PRIEST,  in  its  most  general  significa- 
tion, a man  whose  function  is  to  incul- 
cate and  expound  religious  dogmas,  to 
perform  religious  rites,  and  to  act  as  a 
mediator  between  worshippers  and 
whatever  being  they  worship.  In  some 
countries  the  priesthood  has  formed  a 
special  order  or  caste,  the  office  being 
hereditary ; in  other  countries  it  has  been 
elective.  In  sacred  history  the  patriar- 
chal order  furnishes  an  example  of  the 
family  priesthood.  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  perform  priestly  acts,  and 
“draw  near  to  the  Lord,’’  as  also  does 
Job,  and  the  Arab  sheikh  to  this  hour 
unites  in  his  person  the  civil  and  religious 
headship.  The  Mosaic  priesthood  was 
the  inheritance  of  the  sons  of  Aaron,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  The  order  of  the 
priests  stood  between  the  high-priest  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  Levites  on  the 
other.  The  ceremony  of  their  consecra- 
tion is  described  in  Exodus  xxiv.  and 
Leviticus  viii.  They  wore  a special 
dress,  and  their  actions  were  in  many 
cases  prescribed  strictly  by  the  Mosaic 
law.  In  the  New  Testament  believers 
generally  are  regarded  as  having  the 
character  of  priests,  and  it  is  held  by 
many  Protestants  that  the  idea  of  a 
consecrated  priesthood  invested  with 
sacrificial  functions  is  repugnant  to 
Christianity.  In  some  churches,  there- 
fore, the  name  priest  is  not  used,  minis- 


ter, pastor,  etc.,  being  the  term  em- 
ployed instead.  Those  Christians,  how- 
ever, who,  like  the  Roman  Catholics, 
Greeks,  etc.,  look  upon  the  eucharist  as 
a sacrifice,  regard  the  priest  as  perform- 
ing sacrificial  duties,  and  as  standing  in 
a special  relation  between  God  and  his 
fellow-men.  The  priests  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  are  bound  to  a life  of  celibacy; 
but  in  the  Greek  church  a married  man 
may  be  consecrated  a priest.  In  the 
Angelican  and  other  Episcopal  churches 
the  priests  form  the  second  order  of 
clergy,  bishops  ranking  first.  Diverse 
views  of  the  priestly  office  are  held  in  the 
Angelican  and  allied  churches. 

PRIESTLEY,  Joseph,  an  English 
philosopher  and  divine,  was  born  in 
1733  near  Leeds.  In  1761  he  became  a 
teacher  in  the  Dissenting  academy  at 
Warrington,  and  while  here  wrote  a 
History  of  Electricity,  which  gained  him 
admission  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  from  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  In  1767  he  became  minister 
of  the  Mill  Hill  chapel  at  Leeds,  where 
his  religious  opinions  became  decidedly 
Socinian.  While  here  he  published  his 
History  and  Present  State  of  Discoveries 
relating  to  Vision,  Light,  and  Colors 
(1772),  his  next  important  work  being 
Institutes  of  Natural  and  Revealed 
Religion  (1772-74).  In  1774  he  discov- 
ered oxygen,  or  “dephlogisticated  air,’’ 
as  he  called  it,  a result  which  was 
quickly  followed  by  other  important 
discoveries  in  chemistry.  He  died  in 
1804. 


Joseph  Priestley. 


PRI'MARY,  in  geology,  a term  applied 
by  the  early  geologists  to  rocks  of  a more 
or  less  crystalline  structure,  supposed  to 
owe  their  present  state  to  igneous 
agency.  They  were  divided  into  two 
groups:  stratified,  consisting  of  gneiss, 
mica  schist,  argillaceous  schist,  horn- 
blende schist,  and  all  slaty  and  crystal- 
line strata  generally;  and  unstratified, 
these  being  chiefly  granite.  By  geolo- 
gists of  the  present  day  the  term  pri- 
mary is  used  asi'equivalent  to  paloeozoic, 
the  name  given  to  the  oldest  known 
group  of  stratified  rocks,  extending  from 
the  Pre-cambrian  to  the  Permian  forma- 
tion. See  Geology. 

PRI'MATE,  in  the  early  Christian 
church  the  title  assumed  by  the  bishop 
of  the  capital  of  a province,  and  hence 
equivalent  to  metropolitan.  In  Africa 
the  title  belonged  to  the  bishop  who  had 
been  longest  ordained.  In  France  the 


PKIMATES 


PRINTING 


Archbishop  of  Lyons  was  appointed 
primate  of  the  Gauls  by  Gregory  VII. 
in  1079.  In  the  German  empire  the 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg  was  primate. 
In  the  Church  of  England  both  the 
archbishops  still  retain  the  title  of  pri- 
mate, the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  be- 
ing distinguished  as  the  primate  of  all 
England,  and  the  Archbishop  of  York 
as  the  primate  of  England.  In  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  church  of  Ireland  the 
Archbishop  of  Armagh  is  primate,  as 
formerly  when  the  church  was  estab- 
lished. 

PRIMA'TES  (-tez),  the  highest  order 
or  group  of  the  mammalia,  including  the 
orders  bimana  and  quadrumana,  and 
thus  placing  man,  monkeys,  apes,  and 
lemurs  in  one  great  division. 

PRIMOGENITURE,  the  right  of  the 
eldest  son  and  those  who  derive  through 
him  to  succeed  to  the  property  of  the 
ancestor.  In  the  United  States  no  dis- 
tinction of  age  or  sex  is  made  in  the  de- 
scent of  estates  to  lineal  descendants. 

PRIMROSE,  a genus  of  beautiful  low 
Alpine  plants,  natural  order  Primulacece. 
Some  are  among  the  earliest  flowers  in 
spring,  as  the  common  primrose,  the 
oxlip,  and  cowslip;  and  several  Japanese 
and  other  varieties  are  cultivated  in 


Primrose. 

gardens  as  ornamental  plants.  Their 
roots  are  perennial;  the  leaves  almost 
always  radical;  and  the  flowers  sup- 
ported on  a naked  stem,  and  usually  dis- 
posed in  a sort  of  umbel.  The  varieties 
of  the  common  primrose  which  have 
arisen  from  cultivation  are  very  numer- 
ous. 

PRIMULA'CE.®,  the  primrose  order 
of  plants,  a natural  order  of  monopetal- 
ous  exogens,  distinguished  by  the 
stamens  being  opposite  to  the  lobes  of 
the  corolla,  and  having  a superior  cap- 
sule with  a free  central  placenta.  It  con- 
sists of  herbaceous  plants,  natives  of 
temperate  and  cold  regions.  Many  have 
flowers  of  much  beauty,  and  some  are 
very  fragrant.  See  Primrose. 

PRINCE,  literally  one  who  holds  the 
first  place.  In  modern  times  the  title  of 
prince  (or  princess)  is  given  to  all  sover- 
eigns generally,  as  well  as  to  their  sons 
and  daughters  and  their  nearest  rela- 


tions. In  Germany  there  is  a class  of  sov- 
ereigns, ranking  next  below  the  dukes, 
who  bear  the  title  of  prince  (Fiirst)  as  a 
specific  designation;  members  of  royal 
families  are,  however,  denominated 
Prinzen.  On  the  continent  there  are 
many  ancient  families  not  immediately 
connected  with  any  reigning  house  who 
bear  the  title  of  prince. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  an  is- 
land forming  a province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
and  separated  by  Northumberland  strait 
from  New  Brunswick  on  the  east  and 
Nova  Scotia  on  the  south;  greatest 
length,  from  east  to  west,  about  130 
miles;  breadth,  varying  from  4 to  34 
miles;  area,  about  2134  sq.  miles,  or 
1,305,760  acres,  of  which  over  1,000,000 
are  under  cultivation.  The  island  is 
supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Cabot.  It  was  first  colonized  by  France, 
captured  by  Britain  in  1745,  restored 
and  recaptured,  and  finally  in  1873  was 
admitted  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Pop.  10.3,2.58. 

PRINCE  OF  WALES,  the  title  of  the 
heir-apparent  of  the  British  throne,  first 
conferred  by  Edward  I.  on  his  son  (after- 
wards Edward  II.)  at  the  time  of  his 
conquest  of  the  Principality  of  Wales. 
Edward  III.  was  never  Prince  of  Wales, 
but  the  title  has  been  conferred  on  all  the 
male  heirs-apparent  to  the  English  (and 
afterward  the  British)  throne  from 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  son  of  Ed- 
ward III. 

PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY,  an  insti- 
tution of  higher  education  at  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  founded  in  1740.  It  was  called 
the  College  of  New  Jersey  and  was  situ- 
ated at  Elizabethtown,  and  removed  to 
Newark,  where  the  first  commencement 
was  celebrated  in  1748.  In  1752  it  was 
voted  that  the  college  be  fixed  at  Prince- 
ton. In  1754  the  cornerstone  was  laid 
for  the  first  building,  which  was  named 
Nassau  Hall.  The  college  was  completed 
and  the  students  removed  from  Newark 
to  Princeton  in  the  fall  of  1756. 

The  government  of  the  university  is  in 
the  hands  of  a board  of  trustees  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Governor  of  Nev’ 
Jersey.  The  university  is  organized  in 
three  departments,  the  Academic,  the 
school  of  science,  and  the  graduate 
school.  The  college  course  embraces  in- 
struction in  the  three  departments  of 
philosophy,  language  and  literature, 
mathematics,  and  natural  science.  The 
graduate  department  offers  over  200 
courses  of  study  leading  to  the  matser’s 
and  doctor’s  degree  in  arts  and  science. 

The  university  provides  pecuniary 
aid  to  deserving  students  through  a large 
number  of  endowed  scholarships  and 
charitable  funds.  In  1902  Woodward 
Wilson  became  its  president. 

PRINCIPIA  (Lat.,  principles).  A 
famous  mathematical  treatise  in  Latin, 
by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  (1687).  It  consists 
of  three  parts,  two  on  the  motions  of 
bodies  and  one  on  the  solar  system,  and 
contains  the  full  develoment  of  New- 
ton’s great  discovery,  the  principal  of 
universal  gravitation. 

PRINTING,  in  a general  sense,  is  the 
art  of  stamping  impressions  of  figures, 
letters,  or  signs,  with  ink  upon  paper, 
vellum,  cloth,  or  any  similar  substance; 
but  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  pro- 


duction of  photographs  from  negatives, 
where  neither  ink  nor  pressure  is  used. 
Printing  may  be  done  (1)  from  engraved 
metal  plates,  in  which  the  ink  is  stored 
for  transference  in  the  sunk  or  incised 
lines  of  the  pattern  (see  Engraving); 
(2)  from  a level  surface,  as,  polished 
stone,  where  the  ink  is  confined  to  the 
lines  by  a repellent  medium  (see 
Lithography);  or  (.3)  from  surfaces  in 
relief,  where  the  ink  is  transferred  from 
the  raised  characters,  which  may  be 
either  on  one  block  or  on  separate  or 
movable  types.  The  latter  method  is  so 
much  the  more  important  that  it  gives 
its  restricted  meaning  to  the  term 
printing,  unless  where  otherwise  quali- 
fied. 

It  is  a matter  of  much  dispute  to 
whom  is  due  the  merit  of  adopting 
movable  types.  The  invention  has  long 
been  popularly  credited  to  Johan  Guten- 
berg, but  critical  examination  of  early 
Dutch  and  German  specimens  and 
historical  evidence  would  seem  to  point 
to  Laurens  Janszoon  Coster  of  Haarlem 
as  the  first  inventor.  The  date  of  the 
Haarlem  invention  is  variously  placed 
between  1420  and  1430.  Coster’s  types 
were  first  of  wood,  then  of  lead,  and 
lastly  of  tin ; the  first  book  printed  from 
movable  types  being  probably  one 
entitled  Speculum  Nostrce  Salutis. 
Gutenberg  in  1449  connected  himself 
with  a rich  citizen  in  Mainz,  named 
Johann  Fust  or  Faust,  who  advanced 
the  capital  necessary  to  prosecute  the 
business  of  printing.  Soon  after  (prob- 
ably in  1453)  Peter  Schoffer,  who  after- 
ward became  Fust’s  son-in-law,  was 
taken  into  copartnership,  and  to  him 
belongs  the  merit  of  inventing  matrices 
for  casting  types,  each  individual  type 
having  hitherto  been  cut  in  wood  or 
metal.  The  oldest  work  of  any  con- 
siderable size  printed  in  Mainz  with 
cast  letters,  by  Gutenberg,  Fust,  and 
Schoffer,  finished  about  1455,  is  the 
Latin  Bible,  which  is  called  the  Forty- 
two-lined  Bible,  because  in  every  full 
column  it  has  forty-two  lines;  or  the 
Mazarin  Bible,  from  a copy  having  been 
discovered  in  the  library  of  Cardinal 
Mazarin  in  Paris. 

The  art  of  printing  was  first  intro- 
duced into  England  by  William  Caxton, 
who  established  a press  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1476. 

The  various  letters  and  marks  used 
in  printing  are  cast  on  types  or  rec- 
tangular pieces  of  metal,  having  the 
sign  in  relief  on  the  upper  end.  These 
types,  with  the  low  pieces  required  to 
fill  up  spaces,  are  placed  in  cells  or 
boxes  in  a shallow  tray  or  case  in  such 
way  that  any  letter  can  be  readily  found. 
The  cases  are  mounted  on  a stand  or 
frame,  so  that  they  may  lie  before  the 
person  who  is  to  select  and  arrange  the 
types,  technically  styled  a compositor. 
The  Roman  types  used  are  of  three 
kinds:  an  alphabet  of  large  capitals 
(ABC  etc.),  one  of  small  capitals  (a  b c 
etc.),  and  one  of  small  letters  (a  b c etc.), 
called  lower-case  by  the  compositor. 
Of  italic  characters  only  large  capitals 
and  lower-case  are  used.  Besides  these 
there  are  many  varieties  of  letter,  such 
as  Old  English,  and  imitations  of  manu- 
script letters,  the  mention  of  which 
could  only  be  serviceable  to  the  prac- 


PRIOR 


PRISON 


tical  printer.  Types  are  of  various  sizes, 
the  following  being  those  in  use  among 
British  printers  for  book  work: — Eng- 
lish, Pica,  Small  Pica,  Long  Primer, 
Bourgeois,  Brevier,  Minion,  Nonpareil, 
Pearl,  Diamond.  English  has  5|  lines 
and  Diamond  17  lines  in  an  inch.  See 
Type. 

The  main  part  of  the  work  of  a com- 
positor consists  in  picking  up  types 
from  their  respective  boxes,  as  required 
to  give  the  words  in  the  author’s 
manuscript  that  has  been  supplied  to 
him.  The  types  are  lifted  by  the  right 
hand  and  placed  in  a composing  stick 
held  in  the  left.  The  composing  stick 
is  a sort  of  box  wanting  one  side,  and 
having  one  end  movable  to  enable  it  to 
be  adjusted  to  any  required  length  of 
line.  When  the  words  in  the  stick  have 
increased  till  they  nearly  fill  the  space 
between  the  ends  they  are  “spaced  out,” 
that  is,  the  blanks  between  the  words 
are  so  increased  or  diminished  as  to  make 
them  exactly  do  so.  Line  is  in  this  way 
added  to  line  till  the  stick  is  full,  when 
it  is  emptied  on  to  a flat  board  with 
edges,  called  a galley.  Subsequently 
the  column  of  types  so  produced  is 
divided  into  portions  of  definite  length; 
these  are  furnished  with  head-lines  and 
folios,  and  become  pages.  See  Type 
Setting  Machines. 

The  first  printing  press  in  America 
was  set  up  in  1536,  by  Antonio  de  Men- 
doza, Viceroy  of  Mexico,  and  in  1638 
the  first  press  in  our  country  was  estab- 
lished at  Harvard  college,  the  second 
at  Philadelphia  in  1685,  and  the  third 
in  New  York  in  1693. 

The  process  of  printing  is  as  follows: 
The  pages  of  type  to  be  printed  are 
locked  up  with  iron  or  wedge-shaped 
boxwood  blocks  called  quoins  in  a steel 
frame  called  a “chase.”  Books  are 
usually  printed  in  sheets  of  sixteen  pages 
or  multiples  of  sixteen,  and  when  locked 
in  the  chase  ready  for  printing  it  is  called 
a form.  The  surface  of  the  type  is 
covered  with  ink  by  composition  rollers, 
which  are  made  from  a mixture  of 
molasses,  glue,  glycerine,  etc.,  boiled 
together  and  cast  in  brass  molds. 

The  first  printing  press  was  made  by 
Conrad  Saspach,  a turner,  in  1436,  under 
the  direction  of  Gutenberg.  The  con- 
templation of  a wine  press  gave  Guten- 
berg the  first  conception  of  a printing 
press.  The  essential  feature  of  the  first 
press  was  a movable  flat  board,  platen, 
as  now  called.  The  form  was  laid  upon  a 
movable  bed,  inked  with  balls,  the 
paper  placed  upon  it  and  pushed  under 
the  platen  which  was  brought  down  up- 
on it  by  a powerful  screw,  squeezing  the 
paper  upon  the  form.  In  1683,  Moxon, 
the  first  technical  writer  on  printing, 
speaks  of  a newly  invented  press,  mean- 
ing the  old  wooden  press  improved  by 
Blaen  of  Amsterdam,  From  this  time 
until  Earl  Stanhope  enlarged  and  im- 
proved the  hand  press  about  1800,  im- 
provements were  slow.  In  1772  a 
rotary  press  was  patented  in  England  by 
Adkin  & Walker,  for  the  purpose  of 
“stamping  and  printing  on  paper, 
cotton,  and  other  cloths,  whereby  the 
printing  on  such  material  would  be 
greatly  facilitated  and  rendered  much 
less  expensive  and  more  perfect  and  ex- 
act.” In  1790,  William  Nicholson,  of 


London,  editor  of  a scientific  journal, 
took  out  a patent  for  a press,  which  fore- 
shadowed nearly  every  fundamental 
principle  in  the  improved  presses  of  to- 
day, even  to  the  use  of  curved  plates 
fastened  upon  a cylinder,  and,  the  use  of 
small  form  rollers  feeding  from  a large 
one.  Nicholson  never  constructed  a 
press,  however,  and  his  patent  was 
merely  a forecast  of  modern  methods. 

In  1818  Edward  Cowper  invented 
several  improvements,  including  a flat 
ink-distributing  table,  ink  fountain, 
distributing  and  form  rollers.  In  the 
same  year  Konig  patented  a perfecting 
press  (by  which  both  sides  of  the 
sheet  was  printed  at  the  rate  of  750 
papers  per  hour).  Cowper  also  im- 
proved on  this.  The  principle  of 
these  presses  was  used  for  years  with 
improved  methods  for  carrying  the 
sheets.  Robert  M.  Hoe,  the  American 
inventor,  made  marked  and  practical 
improvements  increasing  the  capacity 
of  presses.  Mr.  Hoe,  in  1847,  made  a 
rotary  press  which  would  print  about 
20,000  papers  an  hour  on  one  side. 
Then  the  invention  of  William  A.  Bul- 
lock of  Philadelphia,  which  printed  com- 
plete from  a role  or  web,  followed.  This 
was  improved  on  by  Walters  of  London, 
but  the  Hoe  presses  soon  distanced  all, 
and  to-day  a press  constructed  by  R. 
Hoe  & Co.,  when  running  at  full  capac- 
ity, uses  eight  rolls  of  paper,  each  four 
newspaper  pages  wide.  This  machine 
requires  125  horse-power  to  drive  it, 
and  when  running  at  its  full  capacity 
consumes  in  an  hour  about  70  miles  of 
paper  the  width  of  the  roll,  or  280  miles 
of  paper  the  width  of  the  newspaper 
page.  In  addition  to  the  eight  rolls  of 
paper  already  mentioned  eight  other 
rolls  are  in  position,  so  that  when  any 
of  the  rolls  run  out  the  roll-carrier  may 
be  turned  on  a turntable,  and  the  new 
roll  of  paper  quickly  pasted  to  the  end 
of  the  depleted  roll.  The  running 
speed  of  this  press  is  96,000  papers  an 
hour — four,  six,  eight,  ten,  twelve, 
fourteen  or  sixteen  pages — or  48,000 
eighteen,  twenty,  twenty-two,  twenty- 
four,  twenty-six,  twenty-eight,  thirty, 
or  thirty-two  page  papers,  all  delivered, 
folded  to  half-page  size,  pasted,  and 
counted.  Other  rotary  presses  of 
merit  are  made  in  this  country,  and  in 
France  and  Germany,  but  they  contain 
no  distinctive  principle  that  calls  for 
minute  description. 

PRIOR,  a title  somewhat  less  digni- 
fied' than  that  of  abbot,  formerly  given 
to  the  head  of  a small  monastery, 
designated  a priory.  Similarly  the  term 
prioress  was  applied  to  the  head  of  a 
convent  of  females.  See  Abbey. 

PRIOR,  Matthew,  an  English  poet, 
the  son  of  a joiner,  born  in  1644,  and 
educated  at  Westminster  school.  He 
died  in  1721  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Prior  was  endowed 
with  much  wit  and  power  of  satire ; and 
many  of  his  lighter  pieces  are  charming, 
but  his  serious  performances  fail  in 
moving  either  the  feelings  or  the  fancy. 

PRISCIA'NUS,  usually  known  as 
Priscian,  a celebrated  Roman  gram- 
marian, who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  5th  century  of  our  era,  and  of  whom 
little  more  is  known  than  that  he  was 
born  at  Caesarea,  taught  grammar  at 


Constantinople  in  the  time  of  Justinian, 
and  wrote  the  Institutiones  Gram- 
matical, an  exposition  of  Latin  grammar. 
His  work,  successively  abridged  by 
several  writers,  formed  the  basis  of 
instruction  in  Latin  up  to  the  15th 
century,  and  there  exist  at  present  about 
one  thousand  MSS.  of  it,  none  dating 
before  the  9th  century.  It  contains 
numerous  quotations  from  Latin  authors 
now  lost. 

PRISM,  in  geometry,  a solid  figure 
which  might  be  generated  by  the  motion 
of  a line  kept  parallel  to  itself,  one  ex- 
tremity of  it  being  carried  round  a rec- 
tilinear figure.  A “right  prism”  is  one 
in  which  the  faces  are  at  right  angles  to 
the  ends.  In  optics  a prism  is  a trans- 


Light  passing  through  prism. 

parent  body  having  two  plane  faces  not  , 
parallel  to  each  other,  and  most  com- 
monly it  is  made  of  glass,  and  triangular 
in  section,  the  section  forming  either  a 
’■ight-angled,  equilateral,  or  isosceles 
triangle.  The  two  latter  varieties  are 
most  familiar.  If  a ray  of  light,  s i,  enter 
such  a prism  by  one  of  the  two  principal 
faces,  it  is  bent  in  passing  through  so  as 
to  take  the  direction  bysieb.  The  angle 
which  the  ray  in  the  prism  makes  with 
the  normal,  n i,  is  always  smaller  than 
the  angle  of  incidence,  n i s,  and  the 
angle  which  it  makes  with  the  normal, 
e n',  is  smaller  than  the  angle  of  emer- 
genbe,  n'  e b,  the  ray  being  always  bent 
toward  the  base  of  the  prism.  Not 
only  is  the  ray  thus  bent,  but  it  is  also 
decomposed,  and  by  suitable  arrange- 
ments could  be  exhibited  as  made  up  of 
what  are  usually  known  as  the  seven 
primary  colors:  violet,  indigo,  blue, 
green,  yellow,  orange,  and  red. 

PRISON,  a house  in  which  a person  is 
confined  and  thereby  deprived  of  his 
personal  liberty;  especially  a building 
for  the  confinement  or  safe  custody  of 
criminals,  debtors,  or  others.  Imprison- 
ment is  now  one  of  the  recognized  meth- 
ods of  judicially  punishing  certain 
crimes;  but  formerly  it  was  employed 
in  nearly  every  country  in  Europe  for 
purposes  of  injustice  and  oppression. 
Men  were  hidden  in  dark  dungeons, 
where  in  a short  time  they  perished, 
through  the  inefficiency  of  the  law  to 
protect  those  who  were  offensive  to  the 
powerful;  and  even  in  Great  Britain, 
where  the  laws  have  always  condemned 
the  incarceration  of  the  innocent,  the 
prison  was,  by  the  connivance  of  the 
authorities,  made  subser\dent  to  gross 
injustice  and  cruelty.  To  the  18th 
century  belongs  the  honor  of  initiating 
the  proper  regulation  of  imprisonment. 
In  Britain  parliamentary  inquiries 


PlUVATEER 


PROCTOR 


brought  out  strange  revelations  as  to  the 
horrors  of  tlie  debtors’  prisons;  but 
public  interest  in  the  subject  was  only 
effectually  aroused  by  the  extraordinary 
exertions  of  the  celebrated  John  How- 
ard, who  in'  1773  began,  without  any 
official  standing,  to  make  inspections  of 
the  chief  English  prisons.  He  found 
these  places  not  only  insanitary  and  ill- 
ventilated,  but  filthy,  poisonous,  and 
in  ne.ii'ly  every  case  overcrowded.  Dis- 
ease was  rampant,  and  no  measures  were 
taken  to  prevent  its  spread;  many  of  the 
prisons  were  utterly  unfit  for  human 
creatures  to  live  in:  and,  to  crown  all, 
such  intercourse  was  allowed  between 
the  prisoners  as  ensured  the  reduction 
of  all  to  the  level  of  the  most  corrupt 
and  criminal.  Howard’s  revelations 
caused  such  a feeling  throughout  the 
country  that  prison  reformation  could 
no  longer  be  delayed.  The  result  was 
that  parliament  entrusted  a committee 
of  three  (of  whom  Howard  was  one) 
with  the  duty  of  framing  a suitable 
scheme  for  the  future  management  of 
the  prisons.  The  chief  features  recom- 
mended were — solitary  confinement, 
cleanliness,  medical  help,  regular  work 
and  the  enforcement  of  order — the 
same  principles,  indeed,  which  are  now 
adopted  by  every  civilized  state  in  the 
world. 

PRIVATEER,  a vessel  of  war  owned 
and  equipped  by  private  individuals  to 
seize  or  plunder  the  ships  of  an  enemy. 
Such  a vessel  must  be  licensed  by  govern- 
ment and  under  a letter  of  marque, 
otherwise  she  is  a pirate.  The  letters 
of  marque  were  first  granted  in  England 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  V.,  in  view  of 
the  war  with  France;  and  they  were 
issued  to  aggrieved  subjects  in  order 
that  they  might  compensate  themselves 
for  injury  done  by  foreigners.  It  was 
probably  in  deprecation  of  irresponsible 
warfare  of  any  kind  that  the  powers 
agreed  to  abandon  privateering  in  1856. 

PRIVY-COUNCIL,  the  council  of  state 
of  the  British  sovereign,  convened  to 
concert  matters  for  the  public  service, 
and  for  the  honor  and  safety  of  the  realm . 
The  English  privy-council  may  be  said 
to  have  existed  from  times  of  great  an- 
tiquity; but  the  concilium  ordinarium, 
established  by  Edward  I.,  was  the  parent 
of  the  modern  institution. 

PRIZE,  anything  captured  in  virtue 
of  the  rights  of  war.  Property  captured 
on  land  is  usually  called  booty,  the  term 
prize  being  more  particidarly  used  with 
reference  to  naval  eaptures.  The  right  of 
belligerents  to  eapture  the  property  of 
their  enemies  on  the  sea  is  universally 
admitted,  as  well  as  the  right  to  prevent 
violation  of  the  law  of  nations  by 
neutrals,  so  long  as  the  independence  of 
other  nations  is  not  interfered  with.  It 
is  accordingly  settled  as  a principle  of 
the  law  of  nations  that  every  belligerent 
has  a right  to  establish  tribunals  of 
prize,  and  to  examine  and  decide  upon 
all  maritime  captures;  and  likewise  that 
the  courts  of  prize  of  the  captors  have 
exclusive  jurisdiction  over  all  matters 
relating  to  captures  made  under  the 
authority  of  their  sovereign.  The  sen- 
tence of  a court  of  competent  jurisdiction 
once  pronounced  is  conclusive  and  bind- 
ing on  all  nations. 

PROA,  a peculiar  kind  of  sailing-boat 


used  in  the  Malay  or  eastern  Archipelago 
and  the  Pacific.  It  is  variously  con- 
structed, but  regularly  has  one  side  quite 
flat,  on  a line  with  the  stem  and  stern, 
while  the  other  side  is  curved  in  the 
usual  way;  and  being  equally  sharp  at 
stem  and  stern,  it  sails  equally  well  in 
either  direction  without  turning.  Their 
shape  and  small  breadth  of  beam  would 
render  them  peculiarly  liable  to  overset 
were  it  not  for  the  outrigger  they  carry, 
adjusted  sometimes  to  one  side  and 
sometimes  to  both  sides.  The  outrigger 
in  the  example  here  shown  is  a large 


Proa,  with  outrigger. 


structure  supported  by  and  formed  of 
stout  timbers.  The  outrigger  may  have 
weights  placed  on  it  and  adjusted  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Proas  carry  a 
lugsail  generally  of  matting. 

PROBATE,  in  law,  the  official  proof  of 
a will,  that  is  the  proceeding  by  which 
it  is  established  as  the  last  will  and  testa- 
ment of  the  party  whose  will  it  professes 
to  be. 

PROBATE  COURT,  an  English  tri- 
bunal established  by  act  of  parlia- 
ment in  1857,  to  which  all  the  powers 
previously  exercised  by  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  in  the  granting  of  probates  of 
wills  and  letters  of  administration  were 
transferred.  This  court  was  merged  in 
the  supreme  court  by  the  Judicature  Act 
of  1874,  by  which  its  jurisdiction  was  as- 
signed to  a probate,  divorce,  and  ad- 
miralty division.  The  functions  of  this 
branch  are  confined  entirely  to  deciding 
on  the  authenticity  of  wills  and  upon  the 
proper  persons  to  whom  administration 
is  to  be  committed  when  no  will  exists. 
The  practice  of  the  court  is  thrown  open 
to  the  whole  legal  profession,  and  its 
proceedings  are  otherwise  assimilated  to 
the  courts  of  common  law. 

In  many  of  the  United  States  probate 
tribunals  are  distinct  courts,  with  origi- 
nal and  extensive  jurisdiction  not  only 
over  the  probate  of  wills  and  the  admin- 
istration of  decedents’  estates,  but  over 
the  appointment  of  guardians  to  minor 
and  other  legally  incompetent  persons, 
over  petitions  for  the  adoption  of  chil- 
dren, and  the  change  of  names.  They 
are  always  inferior  courts,  from  whose 
decisions  appeals  may  be  taken  to  higher 
tribunals.  For  their  jurisdiction  and 
powers,  the  statutes  in  each  state  must 
be  consulted. 

PROBOS'CIS,  the  term  applied  to  the 
longer  or  shorter  flexible  muscular  organ 
formed  by  the  elongated  nose  of  several 
mammals.  Although  seen  in  a modified 
degree  in  the  tapirs,  etc.,  the  term  is 


more  generally  restricted,  and  applied  to 
indicate  the  flexible  “trunk”  of  the 
elephant. 

PROBOSCIS  MONKEY.or  KAHAU,  a 

native  of  Borneo,  distinguished  particu- 
larly by  its  elongated  nose,  its  shortened 


Kahau. 


thumbs,  and  its  elongated  tail.  The 
general  color  is  a lightish  red.  These 
monkeys  are  arboreal  in  habits,  and  ap- 
pear to  frequent  the  neighborhood  of 
streams  and  rivers,  congregating  in 
troops. 

PROBUS,  Marcus  Aurelius,  one  of  the 
ablest  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was  born 
at  Sirmium  in  the  year  232.  His  skilfid 
administration  and  public  virtues  did 
not,  protect  him  from  enmity;  and  after 
a short  reign  he  was  murdered  in  a mili- 
tary insurrection  in  282. 

PROCONSUL  and  PROPR^TOR, 
orignally,  in  the  ancient  Roman  system 
of  administration,  a consul  or  praetor 
whose  command  (or  imperium)  was  pro- 
longed for  a particular  purpose  after  his 
demission  of  office.  In  course  of  time  the 
terms  came  to  be  applied  to  any  one 
who  was  intrusted  with  some  special 
service,  and  with  magisterial  authority 
for  the  purpose  of  performing  it.  Pro- 
consuls  and  propraetors  were  generally 
men  who  had  been  consuls  or  praetors, 
but  were  not  always  so.  There  were  four 
varieties  of  proconsul:  1.  A distinguished 
statesman,  formerly  consul,  appointed 
for  a special  duty.  2.  An  individual,  who 
had  never  been  consul,  was  sometimes 
created  proconsul  to  be  sent  on  some 
important  mission.  3.  A consul  occa- 
sionally had  his  imperium  prolonged,  in 
order  to  complete  some  undertaking  he 
had  commenced.  4.  A consul  appointed 
after  his  term  of  office  to  the  govern- 
ment of  a province.  The  proconsuls 
under  the  republic  had  no  authority 
within  the  walls  of  Rome,  and  they  lost 
their  imperium  on  entering  the  city. 
Under  the  empire  the  emperor  was  al- 
■v\'ays  invested  with  proconsular  author- 
ity. 

PROCTER,  Bryan  Waller,  an  English 
poet  and  prose  writer,  born  about  1789; 
died  in  London,  October  4,  1874.  His 
daughter,  Adelaide  Ann,  born  in  London 
in  1825,  died  in  1864,  was  a poetess  of 
some  note.  Her  songs  and  hymns  show 
much  taste  and  feeling,  but  she  never 
attempted  anything  on  a large  scale. 
Her  best-known  volume  is  Legends  and 
Lyrics,  published  in  1858. 

PROCTOR,  Redfield,  American  politi- 
cal leader  and  cabinet  officer,  was  born 


PROCTOR 


PROPAGATION 


at  Proctorsville,  Vt.,  in  1831.  He  served 
throughout  the  civil  war,  rising  to  be 
colonel  of  the  Fifteenth  Vermont.  He 
served  several  terms  in  the  state  legisla- 
ture, from  1876-8,  as  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, and  from  1878-80  as  governor.  In 
1889  he  entered  the  cabinet  of  President 
Harrison  as  secretary  of  war.  He  re- 
signed in  1891  to  accept  an  appointment 
as  United  States  senator,  which  office  he 
held  until  1905.  He  died  in  1908. 

PROCTOR,  Richard  Anthony,  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Chelsea  in  1837,  and 
educated  at  King’s  college,  London,  and 
Cambridge  university.  Having  devoted 
himself  specially  to  the  study  of  astrono- 
■ my,  he  published  a number  of  valuable 
works  on  the  subject,  including  Saturn 
and  its  System,  Handbook  of  the  Stars, 
Half  Hours  with  the  Telescope,  Half 
Hours  with  the  Stars,  Other  Worlds 
than  Ours  (a  very  popular  work).  Light 
Science  for  Leisure  Hours,  The  Transits 
of  Venus,  The  Cycloid  and  Cylcoid 
Curves,  several  Star  Atlases,  The  Uni- 
verse of  Stars,  The  Moon,  Old  and  New 
Astronomy,  etc.,  besides  two  treatises 
' on  whist.  He  died  in  1888. 

PROC'URATOR,  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  a provincial  officer  who  man- 
aged the  revenue  of  his  province.  In 
some  of  the  small  provinces,  or  in  a part 
of  a large  province,  the  procurator  dis- 
charged the  office  of  a governor,  and  had 
the  power  of  punishing  capitally,  as  was 
the  case  with  Pontius  Pilate  in  Judaa, 
which  was  attached  to  the  provi»ce  of 
Syria. 

PROFESSOR,  the  title  given  to 
salaried  teachers  in  universities  and 
similar  institutions  who  are  appointed 
to  deliver  lectures  for  the  instruction  of 
students  in  some  particular  branch  of 
learning. 

PROGNO'SIS,  in  medicine  the  pre- 
judgment of  the  physician  regarding  the 
probable  course  and  result  of  a disease. 
Such  a judgment  is  based  upon  the 
known  character  of  the  disease  modified 
by  the  age,  sex,  environment,  previous 
health,  etc.,  of  the  patient. 

PROHIBITION  PARTY.  The  prohi- 
bition party  is  a political  organization 
that  during  recent  years  has  occupied  a 
position  of  no  inconsiderable  importance 
among  the  political  parties  of  the  United 
States.  The  principles  of  the  party  first 
found  expression  in  Maine  during  1851, 
when  the  state  adopted  a law  prohibi- 
tory in  its  character  that  yet  remains 
on  the  statute  book.  On  various  oc- 
casions since  1867  conventions  have 
been  held,  and  since  1869  those  conven- 
ing have  nominated  candidates  for  the 
presidency  of  the  United  States,  as  also 
for  state  and  county  offices.  In  1890 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
in  a case  on  appeal  from  Iowa,  decided 
that  the  transportation  of  liquor  through, 
and  the  sale  of  liquor  in  original  pack- 
ages could  not  be  prohibited  in  any  of 
the  states  or  territories  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  the  statute  of  Iowa 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  liquors  in  the 
state  was  in  violation  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  In  the  elec- 
tions held  in  November,  1907,  local  op- 
tion was  nearly  everywhere  successful 
in  the  southern,  central  and  western 
states,  including  some  of  the  larger 
cities.  The  conclusions,  after  a thorough 


investigation,  are:  That  prohibition  has, 
abolished  or  prevented  the  manufacture 
of  liquor  on  a large  scale,  that  the  sup- 
pression of  retail  trade  is  dependent 
upon  local  sentiment,  and  is  more  suc- 
cessful in  the  country  than  in  the  city. 

PROJECTILES,  Theory  of,  is  that 
branch  of  mechanics  which  treats  of  the 
motion  of  bodies  thrown  or  driven  some 
distance  by  an  impelling  force,  and 
whose  progress  is  affected  by  gravity  and 
the  resistance  of  the  air.  The  most  com- 
mon cases  are  the  balls  projected  from 
cannon  or  other  firearms.  If  thrown 
horizontally,  the  body  will  move  in  a 
curved  path,  because  it  retains  un- 
changed (leaving  out  of  account  the  re- 
sistance of  the  air)  its  horizontal  veloc- 
ity, while  it  falls  faster  and  faster  toward 
the  ground.  A body  projected  obliquely 
has  initially  a certain  horizontal  veloc- 
ity and  a certain  vertical  velocity. 
It  retains  its  horizontal  velocity  un- 
changed, but  its  vertical  velocity  is 
altered  by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  in 
both  of  these  cases  we  find  that  the  path 
of  the  projectile  is  a parabola.  With  a 
given  velocity  the  greatest  range  of  a 
projectile  is  obtained  by  projecting  at  an 
angle  of  45°  with  the  vertical.  The  actual 
path  of  a bullet  is  always  within  the 
parabola  of  the  theoretical  projectile, 
and  hence  the  range  of  a gun  is  much 
less  than  what  the  parabola  would  give. 
The  range  depends  also  upon  the  shape 
and  weight  of  the  projectile  as  well  as 
upon  it  initial  velocity.  See  Gunnery. 

PROJECTION,  the  representation  of 
something  by  means  of  lines,  etc.,  drawn 
on  a surface,  especially  the  representa- 
tion of  any  object  on  a perspective  plane, 
or  such  a delineation  as  would  result 
were  the  chief  points  of  the  object  thrown 
forward  upon  the  plane,  each  in  the 
direction  of  a line  drawn  through  it  from 
a given  point  of  sight  or  central  point. 
This  subject  is  of  great  importance  in 
the  making  of  maps,  in  which  we  have 
to  consider  the  projection  of  the  sphere 
or  portions  of  it.  Projections  of  the 
sphere  are  of  several  kinds,  according  to 
the  situations  in  which  the  eye  is  sup- 
posed to  be  placed  in  respect  of  the 
sphere  and  the  plane  on  which  it  is  to  be 
projected. 

PROLETA'RII,  the  name  which  was 
given  to  those  Roman  citizens  who,  in 
the  classification  of  their  means  by 
Servius  Tullius,  stood  in  the  sixth  or 
lowest  class.  The  term  has  been  revived 
in  modern  times  as  a designation  of  the 
lowest  class  of  the  community;  but  more 
frequently  the  collective  appellation 
proletariat  is  used. 

PROM'EROPS,  a genus  of  insessorial 
birds,  many  of  which  are  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage.  They 
have  a longish  bill,  an  extensible  tongue, 
and  feed  upon  insects,  soft  fruits,  and 
the  saecharine  juices  of  plants.  One 
species  is  a native  of  New  Guinea; 
another  is  a native  of  Africa. 

PROMETHEUS,  in  Greek  mythology, 
one  of  the  Titans,  brother  of  Atlas  and 
of  Epimetheus,  and  the  father  of  Deuca- 
lion. His  name  means  “forethought,”  as 
that  of  his  brother  Epimetheus  signifies 
“afterthought.”  He  gained  the  enmity 
of  Zeus  by  bringing  fire  from  heaven  to 
men,  and  by  conferring  other  benefits 
on  them.  To  punish  this  offense  Zeus 


sent  down  Pandora,  who  brought  all 
kinds  of  diseases  into  the  world.  He 
caused  Prometheus  himself  to  be  chained 
by  Hephaestus  (Vulcan)  on  a rock  of  the 
Caucasus  (the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
world,  according  to  the  notions  of  the 
earlier  Greeks),  where  his  liver,  which 
was  renewed  every  night,  was  torn  by  a 
vulture  or  an  eagle,  fie  was  ultimately 
delivered  by  Heracles,  who  destroyed 
the  vulture,  unlocked  the  chains,  and 
permitted  Prometheus  to  return  to 
Olympus. 


Promerops. 


PRONG-BUCK,  or  PRONG-HORN 
ANTELOPE,  a species  of  antelope,  which 
inhabits  the  western  parts  of  North 
America.  It  frequents  the  plains  in 
summer  and  the  mountains  in  winter. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  hollow-hornecf  ante- 
lopes, and  the  only  living  one  in  which 
the  horny  sheath  is  branched,  branching 
being  otherwise  peculiar  to  deer  which 
have  bony  antlers. 

PROOF  IMPRESSION,  in  printing,  a 
rough  impression  from  types,  taken  for 
correction.  A first  proof  is  the  impres- 
sion taken  with  all  the  errors  of  work- 
manship After  this  is  corrected  another 
impression  is  printed  with  more  care  to 
send  to  the  author : this  is  termed  a clean 
proof.  When  this  is  corrected  by  the 
author,  and  the  types  altered  according- 
ly, another  proof  is  taken  and  carefully 
read  over : this  is  called  the  press  proof. 
In  engraving,  a proof  impression  is  one 
taken  from  an  engraving  to  show  the 
state  of  it  during  the  progress  of  the 
work;  also,  an  early  impression,  or  one  of 
a limited  number,  taken  before  the 
letters  to  be  inserted  are  engraved  on 
the  plate. 

PROPAGATION,  the  multiplication  or 
continuation  of  the  species  of  animals  or 
plants.  As  a technical  term  it  is  used 
chiefly  in  regard  to  plants.  The  most 
common  method  of  propagating  plants 
is  of  course  by  their  seed.  There  are 
other  ways,  however,  by  which  plants 
are  propagated  naturally.  Some,  for 
example,  throw  off  runners  from  their 
stems  which  creep  along  the  ground,  and 
these  runners  take  root  at  the  buds,  and 
send  up  new  plants.  The  commonest 
artificial  methods  of  propagating  plants 
are  budding,  layering,  the  various  forms 
of  grafting,  including  inarching  or  graft- 
ing by  approach,  propagation  by  offsets 
and  by  slips Some  plants  (as  the  potato) 
are  propagated  by  dividing  the’ tubers  or 
underground  stems,  each  “eye”  or  leaf- 
bud  of  which  sends  up  a new  plant, 
while  a few  are  propagated  by  cuttings 
of  the  leaves. 


PROPHETS 


PROTOPLASM 


PROPHETS,  among  the  Hebrews,  in- 
spired teachers  sent  by  God  to  declare 
his  purposes  to  his  people.  From  the 
time  of  Samuel  frequent  mention  is  made 
'of  a body  of  men  bearing  the  general 
name  of  prophets.  They  were  members 
of  a school  in  which  young  men  of  all 
the  tribes  were  instructed  in  the  law,  and 
apparently  also  in  sacred  poetry  and 
music.  The  first  school  of  this  nature 
appears  to  have  been  set  up  by  Samuel 
at  Ramah,  and  there  is  mention  of  others 
at  Bethel,  Jericho,  Gilgal,  and  else- 
where. It  is  probable  that  these  schools 
of  the  prophets  were  formed  to 
strengthen  the  attachment  of  the  Jews 
to  their  religion,  and  to  maintain  that 
religion  pure.  The  chief  function  of  the 
prophetic  order  was  to  maintain  the 
Mosaic  theocracy  in  its  purity,  and  the 
patriotism  which  strongly  characterizes 
all  the  Hebrew  prophets  was  closely  con- 
nected with  their  religious  zeal.  The 
Jewish  people  being  the  chosen  of  God 
and  the  immediate  subjects  of  the  divine 
ruler,  it  is  the  constant  cry  of  the 
prophets  that  the  people  should  turn  to 
righteousness  in  order  to  be  delivered 
from  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  The 
predictive  powers  of  prophets  have  been 
the  occasion  of  much  controversy.  The 
ability  of  the  prophets  to  foretell  the 
future  was  generally  believed  in  by  the 
Jews,  and  in  one  passage  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Deut.  xviii.  22,  is  made  a 
negative  test  of  the  justness  of  a person’s 
claim  to  be  a prophet.  The  main  con- 
troversies with  regard  to  this  predictive 
power  turn  upon  two  points — first,  the 
reality  of  the  power,  which  is  by  some 
altogether  denied;  and  secondly,  the 
reference  of  the  prophecies.  With  regard 
to  the  reference  of  the  prophecies  the 
chief  controversy  is  connected  with  the 
prophetical  writings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment supposed  to  relate  to  the  Messiah. 
Regarding  these  prophecies  three  differ- 
ent positions  are  taken  up  by  different 
schools  of  Biblical  critics.  Those  who 
deny  to  the  prophets  the  power  of  fore- 
telling future  events  altogether  neces- 
sarily deny  also  the  reference  of  the 
prophecies  in  question  to  Christ  as  the 
Messiah.  Another  school,  while  admit- 
ting the  reference  of  at  least  some  of  the 
passages  to  historical  events,  contend 
that  in  their  secondary  meaning  they 
have  also  a reference  to  the  Messiah. 
The  third  school  hold  that  none  but  the 
Messianic  interpretation  is  permissible. 

PROPR^TOR.  See  Praetor,  Procon- 
sul. 

PROPYL^'A,  in  Greek  architecture, 
the  entrance  to  a temple.  The  term  was 
employed  particularly  in  speaking  of  the 
superb  vestibules  or  porticoes  conduct- 
ing to  the  Acropolis  of  Athens.  This 
magnificent  work,  of  the  Doric  order  was 
constructed  under  the  direction  of 
Pericles  (b.c.  437-433)  after  the  designs 
of  Mnesicles,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
architects  of  his  age. 

PROPYLON.  See  Pylon. 

PROSCE'NIUM,  the  part  in  a theater 
from  the  curtain  or  drop-scene  to  the 
orchestra;  also  applied  to  the  curtain 
and  the  ornamental  framework  from 
which  it  hangs.  In  the  ancient  theater  it 
comprised  the  whole  of  the  stage. 

PROSCRIPTION,  in  Roman  history,  a 
tnode  of  getting  rid  of  enemies,  first  re- 


sorted to  by  Sulla  in  82'B.c.,and  imitated 
more  than  once  afterwards  in  the 
stormy  years  that  closed  the  republic. 

PROSE,  ordinary  spoken  or  written 
language,  untrammeled  by  poetic  meas- 
ure, and  thus  used  in  contradistinction 
to  verse  or  poetry.  The  true  character  of 
prose  can  be  clearly  conceived  only  by 
considering  it  in  relation  to  poetry.  The 
two  chief  states  of  the  inward  man  may 
be  called  the  thinking  and  the  poetical 
states,  and  depend  upon  thp  predomi- 
nance of  the  understanding,  or  the 
imagination  and  feelings.  If  we  think 
(in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word)  we 
combine  ideas  according  to  the  laws  of 
reason;  and  prose,  which  is  the  language 
of  sober  thought,  is  characterized  by  the 
abstractness  and  precision  belonging  to 
ideas  that  occupy  the  understanding. 
Artistic  and  finished  prose  is  among  the 
latest  attainments  both  of  nations  and 
individuals,  and  it  would  appear  that 
with  most  nations  classical  prose  writers 
are  fewer  than  classical  poets. 

PROS'ELYTE,  a person  who  leaves 
one  religion  for  the  profession  of  another. 
The  Jews,  in  New  Testament  times  at 
least,  had  two  classes  of  proselytes, 
namely,  the  “proselytes  of  the  gate,”  as 
they  were  termed;  and  the  “proselytes 
of  righteousness,”  or  of  the  covenant. 
According  to  the  rabbis  the  proselytes  of 
the  gate  were  those  who  renounced 
idolatry  and  worshipped  the  only  true 
God  according  to  the  (so-called)  seven 
laws  of  the  children  of  Noah,  without 
subjecting  themselves  to  circumcision 
and  the  other  commands  of  the  Mosaic 
law.  The  proselytes  of  righteousness 
were  persons  who  had  been  fully  con- 
verted from  paganism  to  Judaism,  had 
been  circumcised,  and  bound  themselves 
to  observe  the  Mosaic  law. 

PROSIM'I.iEj  a name  applied  to  the 
lemurs  and  their  allies. 

PROS'ODY,  that  part  of  grammar 
which  treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables, 
of  accent,  and  of  the  laws  of  versification. 
Though  chiefly  restricted  to  versifica- 
tion, it  may  also  be  extended  to  prose 
composition.  In  the  Greek  and  Latin 
languages  every  syllable  had  its  deter- 
minate length  or  quantity,  and  verses 
were  constructed  by  systems  of  re- 
curring feet,  each  foot  containing  a defi- 
nite number  of  syllables,  possessing  a 
certain  quantity  and  arrangement.  The 
versification  of  modern  European  lan- 
guages,in  general,  is  regulated  mainly  by 
accent  and  number  of  syllables,  though 
the  weight  or  quantity  of  syllables  has 
also  to  be  taken  into  account  if  har- 
monious verse  is  to  be  produced. 

PROTECTION,  applied  in  economics 
to  an  artificial  advantage  conferred  by  a 
government  or  legislature  on  articles  of 
home  production,  either  by  means  of 
bounties  or  (more  commonly)  by  duties 
imposed  on  the  same  or  similar  articles' 
introduced  from  abroad.  Such  duties 
may  be  simply  protective,  that  is,  such 
as  that  the  foreign  and  home  articles  can 
compete  in  the  market  on  nearly  equal 
terms  ; or  prohibitory,  that  is,  such  as  to 
exclude  foreign  competition  altogether. 

iLPtiO— Ho 

PROTESTANTS,  a name  given  to  the 
party  who  adhered  to  Luther  during  the 
reformation  in  1529,  and  protested,  or 
made  a solemn  declaration  of  dissent 


from  a decree  of  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
and  the  diet  of  Spires,  and  appealed  to  a 
general  council.  The  protesting  mem- 
bers were  the  electors  John  of  Saxony 
and  George  of  Brandenburg,  Princes 
Ernest  and  Francis  of  Brunswick-Liine- 
burg,  Philip,  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and 
Wolfgang,  prince  of  Anhalt,  together 
with  fourteen  imperial  cities,  the  chief 
of  which  were  Strasburg,  N iirnberg,  Ulm 
and  Constance.  The  name  is  now  ap- 
plied generally  to  those  Christian  de- 
nominations that  differ  from  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  that  sprang  from  the 
reformation.  See  Reformation. 

PROTECTS,  in  classical  mythology,  a 
marine  deity  who  fed  the  flocks  (seals)  of 
Poseidon  (Neptune)  in  the  ^Egean  Sea. 
He  is  represented  as  a soothsayer  who 
prophesied  only  when  compelled  by 
force  and  art,  and  who  tried  every 
means  to  elude  those  who  consulted 
him,  and  changed  himself,  after  the 
manner  of  the  sea  gods,  into  beasts, 
trees,  and  even  into  fire  and  water. 

PROTHONOTARY,  a term  for  certain 
functionaries  connected  with  the  papal 
court  who  receive  the  last  wills  of  cardi- 
nals, make  informations  and  proceedings 
necessary  for  the  canonization  of  saints, 

PROTOCOC'CUS,  a genus  of  algse 
(red-snow)  appears  on  the  surface  of 
snow,  tinging  extensive  tracts  in  the 
Arctic  regions  or  among  the  Alps,  in  an 
incredibly  short  space  of  time,  with  a 
deep  crimson.  This  plant,  which  may  be 


Protococcus  nivalis  (red-snow),  magnified  and 
natural  size. 

regarded  as  one  of  the  simplest  forms  of 
vegetation,  consists  of  a little  bag  or 
membrane  forming  a cell.  A large  num- 
ber of  these  are  commonly  found  to- 
gether, but  each  one  is  separate  from  the 
rest,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a distinct 
individual. 

PROTOCOL,  in  diplomacy,  a docu- 
ment serving  as  a preliminary  to,  or  for 
the  opening  of,  any  diplomatic  trans- 
action; also,  a diplomatic  document  or 
minute  of  proceedings,  signed  by  friend- 
ly powers  in  order  to  secure  certain 
political  ends  peacefully. 

PROTOPLASM,  a sub.stance  consist- 
ing of  carbon,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
hydrogen,  nearly  identical  with  the 
white  of  an  egg,  and  constituting  the 
most  elementary  living  matter  in  animal 
and  plant  structures.  It  is  colorless, 
transparent,  and  apparently  destitute  of 
structure,  and  is  seen  in  its  simplest 
form  in  some  of  the  lowest  types  of 
animal  life,  as  in  the  Protozoa.  When 
unrestricted  by  an  imprisoning  envelope 
it  is  endued  with  the  power  of  extending 
itself  in  all  directions  in  the  form  of  mu- 
table processes  which  can  be  withdrawn 
spontaneously,  and  it  has  also  the  power 
of  passing  or  flowing  in  minute  masses 
through  closed  membranes  without  these 
masses  thereby  losing  their  identity  of 


PROTOZOA 


PRUSSIA 


form.  In  the  form  of  cells,  the  skin  of 
which  is  merely  dead  and  hardened  pro- 
toplasm, and  inclosing  a nucleus,  or  with 
a nucleus  embedded  in  its  substance,  it 
is  the  structural  unit  of  all  organized 
bodies,  constituting  not  only  the  basis 
of  the  ovum  of  both  plants  and  animals, 
but  of  the  tissues  themselves  in  their 
perfect  state,  which  are  mere  multiples 
of  such  cell-units  variously  modified. 
(The  nucleus  is  believed  by  some  to  be 
doubtful,  and  due  to  imperfection  in  the 
glass.)  As  the  protoplasm  in  our  bodies 
is  continually  undergoing  waste,  a con- 
tinuous renewal  of  the  material  is  es- 
sential to  the  continuance  of  life.  Ani- 
mals, however,  cannot  elaborate  proto- 
plasm from  mineral  substances  for 
themselves,  they  being  able  only  to  con- 
vert by  the  process  of  digestion  dead 
protoplasm  into  living.  Plants  can,  on 
the  other  hand,  manufacture  proto- 
plasm from  mineral  compounds  and  the 
atmosphere,  and  so  they  are  the  store- 
house of  protoplasmic  matter  for  the 
animal  kingdom.  Some  biologists  prefer 
the  term  Bioplasm  to  that  of  Proto- 
plasm, as  being  more  expressive  of  its 
function.  Sarcode  is  also  used  similarly. 

PROTOZO'A,  a sub-kingdom  includ- 
ing the  most  lowly  organized  members 
of  the  animal  kingdom. 

PROUDHON  (pro-don),  Pierre  Joseph, 
a French  publicist,  born  at  Besan^on 
1809,  died  there  1865.  Political  economy 
became  his  chief  study,  and  in  1840 
appeared  his  famous  work,  bearing  on 
the  title-page  the  question:  Qu’est-ce 
que  la  Propriety?  (What  is  property .’),  to 
which  the  first  page  of  the  treatise  con- 
tains the  answer,  “C’est  le  Vol”  (it  is 
theft).  Besides  those  already  noticed 
his  more  important  treatises  are:  Dis- 
cours sur  la  Celebration  du  Dimanche, 
De  la  Creation  de  I’Ordre  dans  I’Hu- 
manite,  Systeme  des  Contradictions 
Economiques. 

PROVERBS,  one  of  the  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  usually  in 
the  main  ascribed  to  Solomon,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  superscriptions  in  chap, 
i.  1 ; x.l ; XXV.  1 , which,  if  not  written  by 
Solomon  himself  (as  the  first  two  of  them 
may  have  been),  at  least  represent  the 
traditional  views  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
church.  According  to  modern  Biblical 
critics  the  book  of  Proverbs  is  composed 
of  seve’-al  sections  written  by  different 
author,  and  at  different  times,  and 
finally  collected  into  a single  book  at 
some  period  subsequent  to  the  return 
from  the  captivity.  All  seem  to  be 
agreed  that  some  part  of  the  book  is  to 
be  ascribed  to  Solomon,  but  there  is 
great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  how 
large  his  share  is.  With  regard  to  the 
other  two  contributors  to  Proverbs 
named  in  the  book  itself,  Agur  and 
Lemuel,  nothing  whatever  is  known; 
and  in  the  case  of  Lemuel  it  is  even  sus- 
pected that  the  name  is  not  that  of  a 
real  personage.  The  canonicity  of  the 
book  of  Proverbs  is  represented  as  a sub- 
ject of  dispute  in  the  Talmud,  some 
having  objected  to  receive  the  book  as 
canonical  on  account  of  the  contradic- 
tions it  contains.  It  ultimately  found 
its  place,  however,  in  all  the  Jewish  lists 
of  the  sacred  writings. 

PROVIDENCE,  one  of  the  capitals  of 
the  state  of  Rhode  Island  (the  other 


being  Newport),  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Providence  or  Seekonk,  at  the 
head  of  Narragansett  bay,  40  miles 
s.s.w.  of  Boston.  There  are  many  fine 
public  and  private  buildings.  Of  the 
former  the  most  important  are  the 
city-hall,  library  building,  court-house, 
the  buildings  of  Brown  university,  etc. 
The  industrial  establishments  include 
flour  and  saw  mills,  cotton  and  woolen 
factories,  foundries,  steam-engine  and 
boiler  factories,  machine-shops;  print- 
ing, bleaching,  calendering,  and  dye 
works,  etc.  Providence  has  a safe  and 
commodious  harbor,  though  somewhat 
difficult  of  access,  and  the  coasting  trade 
is  important.  Pop.  1909,  211,000. 

PROVOST-MARSHAL,  in  the  army, 
is  an  officer  of  the  rank  of  a captain, 
who  deals  with  offenses  against  dis- 
cipline, brings  the  offenders  to  punish- 
ment, and  sees  the  sentence  executed. 
In  the  navy  there  is  a similar  office. 

PRUDHON  (prii-don),  Pierre,  a French 
painter,  born  in  1758,  died  in  1823.  His 
importance  consists  in  the  fact  that,  in 
opposition  to  David,  he  accentuated  the 
purely  pictorial  element  and  the  effect 
of  light  in  his  works. 

PRUNING  , is  the  severing  of  portions 
of  the  stem,  laranches,  shoots,  leaves,  or 
roots  of  a plant  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving excrescent  or  unprofitable 
growths,  and  rendering  the  sap  more 
conductive  to  the  nutrition  of  the 
valuable  parts  of  the  plant.  The  im- 
mediate effect  of  pruning  is  to  reduce 
the  growth  of  a plant  in  as  far  as  it  de- 
pends on  the  amount  of  foliage  duly 
exposed  to  the  light ; but  as  by  judicious 
pruning  the  parts  left  have  not  only  a 
greater  share  of  sap,  but  are  better  ex- 
posed to  the  light,  its  ultimate  effect  is 
to  produce  a larger  and  stronger  plant. 
From  the  tendency  of  sap  to  flow  in 
increased  quantity  into  the  parts  im- 
mediately adjoining  those  where  its 
flow  has  been  interrupted,  an  almost 
unlimited  power  is  given  to  the  gardener 
of  controlling  the  direction  of  the  growth 
of  a plant.  The  season  for  pruning 
varies  with  the  nature  of  the  tree  and 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  pruned.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  autumn  or 
winter  is  the  best  season  for  extensive 
pruning;  in  summer  an  excess  of  vigor 
in  the  plant  may  require  a little  pruning, 
but  in  spring  it  not  only  weakens  the 
plant  but  is  liable  to  induce  disease. 
Root-pruning  is  employed  to  check 
rapidity  of  growth  and  to  induce  de- 
velopment of  flower-buds.  The  best 
season  for  this  operation  is  after  the 
leaves  have  fallen  in  autumn  or  before 
the  sap  begins  to  flow  in  spring. 

PRUSSIA  (German,  Preussen),  King- 
dom of,  the  leading  state  of  the  German 
empire,  comprising  the  g^reater  part  of 
Northern  and  Eastern  Germany,  and 
part  of  Western  Germany,  divided  as  in 
the  following  table: 


Provinces 

Area— sq.  miles 

Pop. 

East  Prussia.... 

14,280 

1,994,417 

West  Prussia.,.. 

9,852 

1,563,469 

Brandenburg.... 

15,405 

4,992,102 

Pomerania. 

11,627 

1,634,659 

Posen 

11,182 

1,888,0» 

Silesia  

15,562 

4,668,378 

Saxony  

9,747 

2,833,224 

Schleswig-Holstein 7,295 

1,387,587 

Hanover 

14,855 

2,590,336 

Westphalia 

7,802 

3,188,072 

Hesse-Nassau.... 

6,089 

1,897,310 

Rhineland 10,422  5,758,99.5 

Hohenzollern 441  66,783 

Total 184,500  34,463,377 

The  capital  and  largest  town  is  Berlin. 
Other  large  towns  are  Breslau,  Cologne, 
Frankfort,  Hanover,  Magdeburg,  Diissel- 
dorf,  Stettin,  Charlottenburg,  and  Kon- 
igsberg.  The  whole  of  Northern  and 
Eastern  Prussia,  from  Holland  on  the 
west  to  Russia  on  the  east,  belongs  to 
the  great  plain  of  Northern  Europe,  and 
may  be  described  generally  as  a vast 
plain,  elevated  in  the  south  and  south- 
west, and  thence  descending  toward 
the  Baltic  and  the  German  ocean.  On 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  North  sea, 
large  tracts  are  only  saved  from  inunda- 
tion by  low  sand-hills.  Behind  these 
hills  extensive  lagoons,  on  the  Baltic 
coast  called  Haffs,  have  been  formed, 
communicating  with  the  sea  by  narrow 
outlets.  The  chief  bays  or  gulfs  are 
Danzig  bay,  Pomeranian  bay,  and  Kiel 
bay,  all  on  the  Baltic  coast;  and  on  the 
Baltic  coast  are  the  islands  of  Riigen, 
Usedom,  Wollin,  etc.;  in  the  North  sea 
the  North  Frisian  islands  and  East 
Frisian  islands.  The  principal  river 
of  Prussia  is  the  Elbe,  which  enters  it 
from  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  flows 
northwestward,  and  enters  the  North 
sea  between  Hanover  and  Holstein. 
The  Weser  and  the  Ems,  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  west  of  the  Elbe.  Lakes 
abound  in  almost  every  province.  The 
climatic  conditions  of  this  extensive 
territory  must  necessarily  be  diversified. 
The  average  of  a number  of  places 
situated  between  the  highest  and  lowest 
altitudes  gives  a mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  52°  Fahr. 

The  south-western  division  of  Prussia, 
consisting  of  the  greater  part  of  West- 
phalia, the  Rhenish  province,  and  Hesse- 
Nassau,  differs  so  much  from  the  eastern 
divisions  as,  in  many  repsects,  to  present 
a striking  contrast  to  it.  In  particular, 
its  surface  as  a whole  is  much  more 
finely  diversified.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  this  portion  of  the  Prussian 
monarchy  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  which,  entering  it  on  the  south- 
east, traverses  it  in  a n.n.w.  direction 
till  it  enters  Holland.  There  are  numer- 
ous streams  tributary  to  the  Rhine, 
the  largest  being  the  Moselle  with  its 
tributary  the  Saar.  There  are  no  lakes 
worth  mention  in  this  portion  of  Prussia. 
As  compared  with  the  division  already 
described,  the  climate  of  this  part  of 
Prussia  is  milder  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer,  the  mean  annual  temperature 
being  about  1°  higher. 

The  Rhine  valley  and  the  province  of 
Saxony  may  be  considered  the  most 
productive  portions  of  the  kingdom. 
Rye  is  the  chief  agricultural  product, 
oats  are  largely  grown  in  the  north-east, 
wheat  chiefly  in  the  south  and  west, 
while  the  other  grain  crops  are  spelt  (an 
inferior  sort  of  wheat),  corn,  millet, 
and  barely.  Potatoes  are  extensively 
cultivated ; beet-root  for  the  production 
of  sugar  is  a very  important  crop;  flax, 
hemp,  and  rape-seed  cover  large  areas; 
tobacco  is  raised  in  several  provinces; 
and  in  the  Rhine  and  Moselle  districts 
the  vine  is  freely  cultivated  and  some 
of  the  finest  wines  produced.  In  East 
Prussia  horses  are  reared  chiefly  for 


PRUSSIA 


PRUSSIA 


military  purposes;  cattle  are  largely 
exported  from  the  maritime  provinces, 
and  in  West  Prussia  and  Pomerania 
sheep  are  raised  in  large  numbers.  The 
forests  cover  about  23  per  cent  of  the 
total  area,  and  are  a great  source  of 
wealth,  forestry  being  nowhere  better 
understood  than  in  Prussia.  In  some 
of  the  forests  the  wild  boar  is  common, 
other  wild  animals  being  the  wolf,  lynx, 
wild-cat,  etc. 

Mining  is  one  of  the  chief  branches  of 
Prussian  industry;  the  most  important 
mineral  products  being  coal  and  lignite, 
iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  zinc,  while 
other  minerals  produced  to  a greater  or 
less  extent  are  cobalt,  nickel,  arsenic, 
antimony,  manganese,  rock-salt,  kainit 
and  other  potash  salts,  alum,  and  cop- 
peras. The  chief  textile  manufactures 
are  those  of  linens,  cottons,  and  woolens. 
Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Westphalia, 
are  the  provinces  in  which  the  linen  in- 
dustry is  chiefly  developed;  the  cotton 
manufacture  is  most  extensive  on  the 
Rhine;  the  woolen  manufacture  has  its 
chief  seats  in  Brandenburg  and  the 
Rhenish  province;  while  silk  and  velvet 
are  made  in  the  Rhine  valley,  as  also  at 
Berlin.  In  iron  and  steel  ware  the  chief 
manufacturing  centers  are  Essen,  Sol- 
ingen,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  Burtscheid. 
The  manufacture  of  porcelain  and  the 
finer  kinds  of  ware  is  extensive,  and 
leather  and  paper  making  are  large  in- 
dustries. Other  manufactures  of  na- 
tional importance  are  beet-root  sugar, 
chocolate,  chicory,  chemical  products, 
and  tobacco. 

Prussia  carries  on  a large  trade  both 
by  sea  and  with  its  inland  neighbors. 
The  principal  exports  are  textile  fabrics, 
yarn,  metals  and  metal  wares,  agricul- 
tural produce  and  live  stock,  wool,  chem- 
icals, spirits,  coal,  timber,  leather,  stone- 
ware and  glass,  etc.;  and  the  imports 
are  chiefly  in  the  raw  materials  con- 
nected with  the  textile  and  other  manu- 
factures, and  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  and 
other  colonial  products.  Besides  the 
ordinary  road  and  canal  communication, 
Prussia  has  an  extensive  system  of  rail- 
ways. The  principal  ports  are  Memel, 
Pillau,  Kftnigsberg,  Danzig,  Stettin, 
Stralsund,  Kiel,  and  Flensburg  on  the 
Baltic;  and  Altona  on  the  North  sea. 
In  some  of  these  ports,  and  particularly 
Stettin,  shipbuilding  is  carried  on  with 
considerable  activity.  The  system  of 
money,  weights,  and  measures  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  Germany. 

Prussia  is  a monarchy  hereditary  in 
the  male  line,  the  present  constitution  of 
which  was  framed  by  the  government 
with  the  aid  of  the  constituent  assembly, 
in  18.50,  and  subsequently  modified  by 
royal  decrees.  The  king  is  assisted  in 
the  executive  by  an  irresponsible  privy- 
council  and  by  a cabinet  which  is  nomi- 
nally responsible  to  a legislative  assem- 
bly composed  of  two  chatTTbers.  The 
primary  qualification  of  electors  is  based 
on  taxation,  and  the  primary  electors 
are  divided  into  three  classes.  Although 
the  reigning  family  and  nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  population  are 
Protestant,  absolute  religious  liberty  is 
guaranteed  by  the  constitution.  A com- 
plete system  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
university  education  exists,  all  grades 
of  schools  being  linked  together  accord- 


ing to  a definite  scheme  or  schemes  of 
study.  Elementary  education  is  en- 
forced by  law,  maintained  by  local  taxes, 
and  administered  by  local  authority. 
Prussia  has  ten  universities — Berlin, 
Bonn,  Breslau,  Gottingen,  Greifswald, 
Halle,  Kiel,  Konigsberg,  Marburg,  and 
Munster.  The  historical  development  of 
the  Prussian  kingdom  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  three  important  elements. 
The  first  of  these  is  found  in  the  growing 
power  of  the  Electorate  of  Branden- 
burg, which  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
future  kingdom;  the  second  relates  to 
the  acquirement  of  the  province  of 
Prussia,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  new 
heterogeneous  territory;  and  the  third  is 
associated  with  the  rule  of  the  Hohen- 
zollern  family,  under  whose  skilful  dip- 
lomatic and  military  guidance  the  small 
Brandenburg  electorate  has  grown  into 
what  is  now  considerably  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  German  empire.  Branden- 
burg, which  had  been  conquered  by 
Charlemagne  in  789,  was  erected  into  a 
margraviate  by  Henry  I.  (the  Fowler), 
emperor  of  Germany  in  926.  Albert  the 
Bear,  who  received  Brandenburg  as  a 
fief  from  the  Emperor  Lothaire  (1134), 
conquered  the  Slavonian  Wends,  and 
took  in  1157  the  title  of  Margrave  of 
Brandenburg.  Brandenburg  later  fell 
as  a lapsed  fief  to  the  empire,  and  Louis 
of  Bavaria  gave  it  to  his  son.  Remain- 
ing under  Bavarian  rule  for  three  elec- 
torates it  was  subsequently  ceded  to  the 
house  of  Luxemburg,  and  Charles  IV., 
the  first  imperial  representative  of  this 
house,  gave  it  successively  to  his  sons 
Wenceslaus  (1373)  andSigismund  (1378). 
The  latter  being  in  debt  received  from 
Frederick,  the  burgrave  of  Niirnberg, 
a loan  of  400,000  gold  florins,  for  which 
Frederick  held  Brandenburg  in  pawn, 
and  subsequently  acquired  it  in  full. 
This  burgrave  was  the  descendant  of 
Conrad  of  Hohenzollern,  a cadet  of  a 
Suabian  family  to  whom  belonged  a 
small  territory  surrounding  the  ances- 
tral castle  of  Hohenzollern,  of  which 
they  traced  their  lordship  back  to  the 
time  of  Charlemagne.  Frederick  11. , 
who  succeeded  his  father  in  1440,  ex- 
tended the  possessions  of  his  family  by 
policy  as  well  as  by  valor.  In  1470  he 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  brother  Albert 
III.,  Joachim  II.,  who  succeeded  in  1535, 
embraced  the  Reformation,  and  estab- 
lished Lutheranism  in  1539.  In  1537 
he  acquired  the  reversion  of  the  prin- 
cipalities of  Liegnitz,  Brieg,  and  Wohlau. 
John  George  succeeded  in  1571 . Joachim 
Frederick,  who  succeeded  in  1598,  mar- 
ried his  son  John  Sigismund  to  the 
daughter  of  Frederick  Albert,  duke  of 
Prussia;  and  in  1618  John  Sigismund 
united  the  duchy  of  Prussia  to  the  elec- 
torate, thus  bringing  it  about'that  the 
whole  country  became  known  as  Prussia. 

John  Sigismund  was  succeeded  in 
1619  by  his  son  George  William,  who 
was  unequal  to  encounter  the  terrible 
crisis  that  now  occurred  in  the  affairs  of 
Germany,  the  Thirty  Years’  war.  A 
ve^  different  man  was  his  son  Frederick 
William,  called  the  (^eat  Elector,  who 
may  be  regarded  as  the  virtual  founder 
of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  Dying  in 
1688  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  F red- 
erick, who  in  1701  had  himself  crowned 
as  king,  being  the  first  king  of  Prussia.  * 


Frederick  I.  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
(1713)  Frederick  William  I.,  who  gov- 
erned Prussia  till  1740.  He  went  to  war 
with  Charles  XII.,  and  acquired  part  of 
Pomerania,  with  Stettin,  from  Sweden. 
At  his  death  he  left  a prosperous  country, 
a well-supplied  treasury,  and  an  army 
of  80,000  men  to  his  successor. 

Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
succeeded  to  the  crown  on  the  death  of 
his  father  in  1740.  In  less  than  a year 
after  his  accession  he  proclaimed  war 
against  Maria  Theresa  in  order  to  enforce 
his  claim  to  the  Silesian  principalities, 
and  invaded  Silesia.  By  a treaty  con- 
cluded at  Berlin  (1742)  Frederick  ob- 
tained the  cession,  with  the  exception  of 
some  specified  districts,  of  both  upper 
and  lower  Silesia,  and  of  Glatz.  Con- 
ceiving that  the  .Austrians  might  seek 
to  regain  this  territory,  Frederick  in 
1744  invaded  Bohemia,  and  commenced 
what  is  called  the  Second  Silesian  war. 
He  gained  such  successes,  that  when 
peace  was  concluded  in  1745,  Austria 
confirmed  the  cession  of  Silesia,  which 
was  guaranteed  by  Great  Britain.  In  the 
Seven  Years’  war  the  immense  force.s 
which  his  enemies  were  able  to  bring 
into  the  field  reduced  Frederick  to  the 
greatest  straits,  and  gave  opportunity 
for  the  development  of  his  strategic 
genius.  According  to  Frederick’s  calcu- 
lation 886,000  men  had  perished  in  a 
war  w’hich  failed  in  effecting  any  terri- 
torial change;  but  it  transformed 
Prussia  into  one  of  the  chief  European 
powers.  Frederick  determining  again  to 
extend  his  boundaries  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  Austria,  and  invaded  the 
territories  of  Poland.  Negotiations 
followed  with  Russia,  and  in  1772  the 
partition  of  Poland  was  arranged  in  a 
treaty  between  the  three  powers.  In 
this  way  Prussia  obtained  most  of 
Pomerania  and  a large  portion  of  Poland. 
Frederick  died  in  1786,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew  Frederick  William 
II. 

In  1792,  war  having  already  been  de- 
clared by  the  French  authorities  against 
the  empire,  the  Prussians,  under  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  invaded  France. 
They  were  defeated  by  Kellerman  at 
Valmy,  and  soon  afterwards  Frederick 
William  withdrew  from  this  war  with 
France.  Then  followed  a second  and  a 
third  partition  of  Poland  (1793,  1795), 
by  which  Prussia  acquired  a consider- 
able accession  of  territory.  Frederick 
William  died  in  1797,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Frederick  William  III.  In  1804 
Prussia  recognized  Napoleon  as  Em- 
peror of  France,  and  in  the  campaign 
which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  Austria 
at  Austerlitz  (1805)  remained  neutral. 
This  attitude  was  at  first  successful,  but 
ultimately  it  led  to  distrust  among  the 
German  states,  and  by  the  formation  of 
the  confedOfation  of  the  Rhine  Prussia 
was  isolated  and  left  to  the  mercy  of 
Napoleon.  On  the  14th  October,  1806, 
the  armies  met  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt, 
where  the  Prussians  Avere  completely  de- 
feated, and  the  whole  country  was  soon 
in  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  who  entered 
Berlin  in  triumph.  At  the  Peace  of  Tilsit 
(June  1807),  concluded  between  Prussia 
and  Napoleon,  all  lands  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Elbe  Avere  ceded  to 
Napoleon  for  his  free  disposal,  and  a war 


PRUSSIAN  BLUe 


ptarmigan 


indemnity  of  140,000,000  francs  was 
imposed  on  the  mutilated  kingdom.  In 
the  great  struggle  for  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon,  an  important  part  was  taken 
by  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  and  the 
Prussian  troops  along  with  the  British 
bore  a noble  part  in  the  Waterloo 
struggle.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1815),  when  the  map  of  Europe  was  re- 
arranged, Prussia,  was  placed  in  a more 
advantageous  position  than  before.  She 
now  also  formed  one  of  the  states  in  the 
new  Gennan  confederacy. 

After  the  restoration  Frederick  Wil- 
liam III,  leaned  to  the  despotic  counsels 
of  Austria  and  Russia,  supported  hearti- 
ly the  Holy  Alliance,  and  entered  upon  a 
reactionary  policy  which  continued  un- 
til his  death  in  1840.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Frederick  William  IV.  The  Poles  in 
1848  revolted  against  Prussian  rule,  but 
the  movement  was  summarily  sup- 
pressed. In  1857,  the  king  being  uable 
to  conduct  affairs  by  reason  of  mental 
illness,  his  brother  William  became  re- 
gent, and  ulitimately  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  Frederick  William 
in  18G1. 

The  new  king,  William  I.,  showed  a 
disposition  to  absolutism,  which  in  1862 
— 63  occasioned  a lengthened  dispute 
between  the  chambers  and  the  ministry 
under  Count  Bismarck.  Through  a dis- 
agreement with  Austria  over  Schleswig 
and  Holstein  the  brief  campaign  known 
as  the  Seven  Weeks’  war  took  place 
(1866),  the  Prussian  forces  were  armed 
with  the  new  needle-^gun,  and  the  whole 
movements  were  directed  by  the  chief  of 
the  staff.  Count  von  Moltke.  The 
Austrians,  under  General  Benedek,  were 
completely  defeated  near  Koniggratz  in 
Bohemia,  where  on  3d  July  was  fought 
the  decisive  battle  of  Sadowa;  and  peace 
soon  followed.  In  1870  Prince  Leopold 
of  Hohenzollern  consented  to  become  a 
candidate  for  the  tlien  vacant  Spanish 
throne.  This  was  opposed  by  the  French 
emperor,  who  demanded  not  only  that 
the  candidates  should  withdraw,  but 
that  the  King  of  Prussia  should  pledge 
himself  not  to  permit  any  such  future 
candidature.  This  being  refused,  warwas 
declared  by  France  on  15th  July,  1870, 
with  a most  disastrous  result  to  herself. 
(See  Franco-German  War.)  After  the 
German  arms  had  proved  entirely  suc- 
cessful, on  the  invitation  of  the  North 
German  parliament  supported  by  the 
South  German  states,  the  King  of  Prussia 
assumed  on  18th  January,  1871,  the 
title  of  Gennan  emperor. 

From  this  point  the  history  of  Prussia 
is,  to  a great  extent,  merged  in  that  of 
the  German  empire.  In  the  hands  of 
Prince  Bismarck,  acting  as  premier  of 
Prussia  as  well  as  chancellor  of  the 
empire,  a strong,  central,  autocratic 
government  was  maintained.  In  his 
policy,  both  home  and  foreign.  Prince 
Bismarck  was  supported  by  the  Em- 
peror William  I.  until  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  March,  1888.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Frederick  III.,  who,  when  he 
ascended  the  throne,  was  struggling 
with  a deadly  throat  disease.  When  he 
died  in  June  1888  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  William  II.,  who  has  shown 
himself  a ruler  with  a mind  and  will  of 
his  own. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE,  a cyanide  of  iron 


possessed  of  a deep-blue  color,  and  much 
used  as  a pigment.  It  is  also  used  in 
medicine. 

PRUSSIAN  BROWN,  a color  obtained 
by  adding  a solution  of  the  yellow  prus- 
siate  of  potash  to  a solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  which  throws  down  a pre- 
cipitate of  deep  brown.  This,  wnen 
washed  and  dried,  is  equal  to  madder, 
and  possesses  greater  permanency. 

PRUSSIC  ACID,  called  also  hydro- 
cyanic or  cyanhydric  acid,  was  dis- 
covered by  Scheele  in  1782,  but  first 
prepared  in  the  pure  state  by  Gay- 
Lussac  in  1811.  It  is  a colorless  liquid 
which  solidifies  at  5°  F.  to  feathery 
crystals,  and  boils  at  80°.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  0.7.  It  dissolves  in  all 
proportions  in  water,  forming  a liquid 
which  reddens  litmus-paper  but  slightly. 
It  is  found  in  the  kernels  of  bitter  al- 
monds, peaches,  apricots,  plums,  cher- 
ries, and  quinces ; the  blossom  of  peaches, 
sloes,  etc.;  the  leaves  of  the  beech, 
cherry,  laurel;  and  various  parts  of  other 
plants.  Pure  prussic  acid  is  prepared  by 
passing  a stream  of  dry  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  over  dry  cyanide  of  mercury. 
This  acid,  which  is  one  of  the  strongest 
poisons  known,  is  used  medicinally  to 
remove  various  forms  of  irritation;  but 
in  all  cases  it  must  be  used  with  ex- 
treme caution.  When  an  overdose  is 
administered  death  is  instantaneous, 
and  with  a lesser  dose  the  symptouis  are 
convulsions  or  paralysis.  The  nature  of 
its  action  is  not  clearly  understood,  but 
the  best  antidotes  are  found  to  be  am- 
monia, chlorine-water,  or  a subcutane- 
ous injection  of  atropine. 

PSALMS,  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  containing  the 
liturgical  collection  of  hymns  used  by 
the  Jews  in  the  temple  service.  Each 
psalm  in  the  collection,  with  a few  ex- 
ceptions, has  a particular  superscription, 
such  as  maschil,  instruction,  michtam, 
memorial,  etc.  The  chronology  of  the 
psahns  is  much  disputed.  The  earliest 
(Psalm  xc.)  is  said  to  have  been  written 
by  Moses,  many  are  attributed  to 
David,  a few  are  supposed  to  have  been 
written  on  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
and  some  are  assigned  to  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees.  In  structure  the  psalms 
have  the  strophe  and  anti-strophe  which 
is  so  characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry.  It 
would  also  seem  that  many  of  them  were 
meant  to  be  sung  in  parts,  the  chief  part 
■by  the  officiating  priest,  and  a respon- 
sive part  by  the  people.  The  book  of 
Psalms  as  we  have  it  is  essentially  the 
hymn-book  of  the  second  temple,  and 
according  to  the  latest  criticism,  was 
ascribed  to  David,  merely  because  the 
order  of  the  worship  in  the  second  temple 
was  the  same  as  that  prescribed  by  him 
for  the  first  temple. 

PSALTER,  specifically,  the  version  of 
the  Psalms  in  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer;  also  applied  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  to  a series  of  devout 
sentences,  150  in  number,  and  to  a large 
chaplet  or  rosary  with  150  beads,  agree- 
ing with  the  number  of  the  psalms. 

PSALTERY,  or  PSALTERION,  an  in- 
strument of  music  used  by  the  Hebrews, 
the  fonn  of  which  is  not  now  known. 

PSKOV,  or  PLESKOV,  a government 
of  Russia,  bounded  by  those  of  St. 
Petersburg,  Novgorod,  Tver,  Smolensk, 


Vitebsk,  Livonia;  area,  17,069  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  948,080. — Pskov,  or  Pleskov,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  the  Velikaia,  on 
which  there  is  regular  communication 
by  steamer  with  Dorpat.  Pop.  30,424. 

PSORI'ASIS,  a kind  of  skin  disease,  in 
which  elevated  red  patches  appear 
covered  with  large  scales,  'there  being 
often  cracks  or  fissures  between,  from 
which  blood  may  ooze.  In  some  cases  it 
is  a syphilitic  affection.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  the  itch. 

PSYCHE  (si'ke),  a sort  of  mythical  or 
allegorical  personification  of  the  human 
soul,  a beautiful  maiden  whose  charming 
story  is  given  by  the  Latin  writer  Ap- 
puleius.  She  was  so  beautiful  as  to  be 


Cupid  (Eros)  and  Psyche.— Capitoline 
Museum,  Rome. 

taken  for  Venus  herself.  This  goddess, 
becoming  jealous  of  her  rival’s  charms, 
ordered  Cupid  or  Love  to  inspire  her 
with  love  for  some  contemptible  wretch. 
But  Cupid  fell  in  love  with  her  hhnself. 
Many  were  the  trials  Psyche  underwent, 
arising  partly  from  her  own  indiscretion, 
and  partly  from  the  hatred  of  Venus, 
with  whom,  however,  a reconciliation 
was  ultimately  affected.  Psyche  by 
Jupiter’s  command  became  immortal, 
and  was  forever  united  with  her  beloved. 

PSYCHICAL  RESEARCH  (si'ki-kal). 
Society  for,  an  English  society,  founded 
in  1882,  “for  the  purpose  of  making  an 
organized  attempt  to  investigate  that 
large  group  of  debatable  phenomena 
designated  by  such  terms  as  mesmeric, 
psychical,  and  spiritualistic.” 

PSYCHOLOGY  (si-koP-)  is  the  science 
or  department  of  philosophy  which 


Ptarmigan,  winter  plumage. 

deals  with  the  phenomena  of  mind.  See 
Mind,  Physics,  Philosophy. 

PTARMIGAN  (tir'-),  a bird  of  the 
grouse  family,  distinguishfed  from  the 
true  grouse  by  having  the  toes  as  well  aa 


PTERICHTHYS 


PUCK 


the  tarsi  feathered.  The  male  is  about 
15  inches  long,  the  female  about  an  inch 
less.  In  summer  the  predominant  colors 
of  its  plumage  are  speckled  black,  brown, 
or  gray,  but  in  winter  the  male  becomes 
nearly  pure  white,  and  the  female  en- 
tirely so.  In  Britain  it  is  to  be  met  with 
only  on  the  summits  of  some  of  the  high- 
est Scottish  hills,  chiefly  amid  the 
Grampians,  in  the  Hebrides  and  Ork- 
neys, and  sometimes  but  rarely  in  the 
lofty  hills  of  Cumberland  and  Wales. 
The  willow-ptannigan  or  willow-grouse 
occurs  in  great  abundance  in  the  arctic 
regions  of  America  and  in  Norway, 
whence  great  numbers  are  brought  to  the 
London  market. 

PTERICHTHYS  (te-rik'this),  a fossil 
genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone. 

PTERODACTYL  (“winged-finger”),  a 
genus  of  extinct  flying  reptiles  of  the 
order  Pterosauria,  found  in  the  Juralime- 
stone  fonnation,  in  the  Lias  at  Lyme- 


Pterodaotyl. 

Regis,  in  the  Oolite  slate  of  Stonefield, 
etc.  The  pterodactyls  had  a moderately 
long  neck,  and  a large  head;  the  jaws 
armed  with  equal  and  pointed  teeth; 
most  of  the  bones,  like  those  of  birds, 
were  “pneumatic,”  that  is,  hollow  and 
filled  with  air;  but  the  chief  character 
consisted  in  the  excessive  elongation  of 
the  outer  digit  (or  little  finger)  of  the 
forefoot,  which  served  to  support  a fly- 
ing membrane.  A number  of  species 
have  been  discovered,  most  of  them 
small  or  of  moderate  size,  but  one  must 
have  had  an  expanse  of  wing  of  at  least 
20  feet. 

PTHAH,  or  PHTHA,  an  ancient  Egyp- 
tian divinity,  the  creator  of  all  things 
and  source  of  life,  and  as  such  father 
and  sovereign  of  the  gods.  He  was 
worshipped  chiefly  at  Memphis  under 
the  figure  of  a mummy-shaped  male, 
and  also  as  a pygmy  god. 

PTOLEMAIC  SYSTEM,  in  astronomy, 
that  maintained  by  Claudius  Ptolemy, 
the  astronomer,  who  supposed  the  earth 
to  be  fixed  in  the  center  of  the  universe, 
and  that  the  sun  and  stars  revolved 
around  it.  This  long-received  theory 
was  rejected  for  the  Copernican  system. 

PTOL'EMY  (Ptolemaios),  the  name  of 
a line  of  Grseco-Egyptian  kings,  who 
succeeded,  on  the  division  of  the  empire 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  the  portion 
of  his  dominions  of  which  Egypt  was 
the  head.  Ptolemy  I.,  called  Soter, 
the  Savior,  was  by  birth  a Macedonian. 
Ptolemy  was  one  of  the  intimate  friends 
of  Alexander,  attended  the  king  on  his 


expedition  to  Asia,  was  admitted  into 
the  bodyguard,  and  in  329  b.c.  com- 
manded one  of  the  chief  divisions  of 
the  army.  On  the  death  of  Alexander 
he  attached  himself  to  the  party  of 
Perdiccas,  and  secured  for  himself  the 
government  of  Egypt.  He  married  Eury- 
dice,  daughter  of  Antipater,  and  in  b.c. 
320  he  seized  the  satrapy  of  Phoenicia 
and  Coele-Syria.  In  308  he  invaded 
Greece,  and  proclaimed  himself  as  a 
liberator.  Ptolemy  died  in  B.c.  283. 
— Ptolemy  II.  (Philadelphus),  bom 
B.c.  309,  succeeded  his  father,  and 
reigned  in  almost  complete  peace.  His 
chief  care  as  ruler  was  directed  to  the 
internal  administration  of  his  kingdom. 
He  spared  no  pains  to  fill  the  library  of 
Alexandria  with  all  the  treasures  of 
ancient  literature,  and  among  the  archi- 
tectural works  erected  during  his  reign 
were  the  lighthouse  on  the  island  of 
Pharos,  the  Alexandrian  museum,  and 
the  royal  burying-place.  — Ptolemy  III., 
surnamed  EuergCtes  (“benefactor”).  He 
was  early  engaged  in  an  important  war 
against  Syria,  which  having  invaded  he 
advanced  without  opposition  to  Antioch, 
then  turned  eastward,  subduing  Mesopo- 
tamia, Babylonia,  etc.  He  died  in  b.c. 
222,  being  succeeded  by  Ptolemy  IV., 
surnamed  Philopator.  His  Syrian  pos- 
.sessions  having  been  gradually  wrested 
from  him  by  Antiochus  the  Great, 
Ptolemy  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a 
large  anny  and  completely  defeated 
Antiochus  at  Raphia,  in  b.c.  217. — 
Ptolemy  V.  (surnamed  Epihpiines),  his 
son  and  successor,  was  under  five  years 
old  at  his  father’s  death,  and  this  led 
Philip  of  Macedon  and  Antiochus  III. 
(the  Great)  of  Syria  to  pom  bine  to  dis- 
possess Ptolemy,  and  divide  his  domin- 
ions. To  avert  this  danger  the  guardians 
of  the  young  king  placed  him  under  the 
protection  of  Rome,  which  thus  had 
first  an  occasion  for  interfering  in  the 
affairs  of  Egypt.  Ptolemy  was  poisoned 


Ptolfemy  I.— Antique  gem. 


b.c.  181 . — Ptolemy  VI.  (surnamed  Philo- 
metor)  was  a child  at  the  death  of  his 
father.  His  reign  was  much  disturbed 
by  the  rivalry  of  a brother,  and  being 
expelled  from  Alexandria  he  repaired  to 
Rome  B.c.  164,  by  whose  intervention  he 
was  replaced.  He  died  in  b.c.  146. — 
Ptolemy  XI.  (“flute-player”)  was  driven 
from  his  kingdom  by  his  subjects,  who 
were  ground  down  by  taxation;  but  he 
was  restored  by  the  Romans  (to  whom 
he  gave  great  sums  of  money),  and  died 
B.c.  51. — Ptolemy  XII.,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, reigned  jointly  with  his  sister 
Cleopatra  till  B.c.  48,  when  Cleopatra 


was  expelled,  and  raising  an  army  in 
Syria  invaded  Egypt.  On  the  arrival 
of  Caesar,  Cleopatra  by  her  charms  ac- 
quired an  ascendency  over  him . Ptolemy 
put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurgents, 
was  defeated  by  Caesar,  and  drowned 
in  attempting  to  make  his  escape,  in 
B.c.  48  or  47. — Ptolemy  XIII.  (Auletes), 
the  youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  XL,  was 
declared  king  by  Caesar  in  conjunction 
with  his  sister  Cleopatra  in  b.c.  47. 
He  was  married  to  his  sister,  but  being 
only  a boy  possessed  no  more  than  the 
name  of  husband  or  king.  Cleopatra 
caused  him  to  be  put  to  death,  and  the 
line  of  the  Ptolemies  ended  when  Cleo- 
patra perished  by  her  own  hands  after 
Octavius  defeated  Antony  at  Actium, 
and  Egypt  become  a Roman  province, 
B.c.  30. 

PTOMAINE  (to'ma-in),  one  of  a class 
of  alkaloids  or  organic  ba.ses,  which  are 
generated  as  a result  of  putrefaction, 
during  morbid  conditions  prior  to  death, 
and  even,  it  is  said,  during  normal 
healthy  conditions  of  life.  Some  of  them 
are  highly  poisonous,  and  in  their  action 
may  even  resemble  strychnine. 

PU'BERTY,  the  period  in  both  male 
and  female  marked  by  the  functional 
development  of  the  generative  system. 
In  males  it  usually  takes  place  between 
the  ages  of  thirteen  and  sixteen;  in 
females  somewhat  earlier;  and,  as  a rule, 
in  very  warm  climates  puberty  is 
reached  somewhat  sooner  than  else- 
where. In  males  puberty  is  marked  ex- 
ternally by  the  deepening  of  the  voice, 
the  first  appearance  of  the  beard,  greater 
firmness,  fullness  of  body,  etc.;  in  fe- 
males, by  the  enlargement  of  the  breasts, 
and  by  the  general  rounding  out  of  the 
frame,  and  most  unequivocally  of  all 
by  the  commencement  of  menstruation. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  the  schools,  espe- 
cially the  elementary  schools,  estab- 
lished under  any  national  system  of  edu- 
cation ; but  in  England  the  term  is  often 
specifically  applied  to  certain  important 
secondary  schools  or  colleges,  including 
Eton,  Harrow,  Winchester,  Rugby, 
Westminster,  St.  Paul’s,  Shrewsbury, 
etc.,  known  as  “the  great  public  schools 
of  England.” 

In  the  United  States ’the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  the  institutions  maintained  at 
public  expense  for  the  formal  education 
of  children.  The  idea  of  organizing 
schools  where  rich  and  poor  might  obtain 
efficient  free  instruction  did  not  take 
firm  root  in  the  minds  of  the  people  of 
the  several  states  until  the  early  part  of 
the  19th  century.  The  federal  govern- 
ment has  by  means  of  land  grants  and 
other  aid  encouraged  the  several  states 
in  the  establishment  of  school  systems. 

The  three  main  types  of  public  schools 
in  the  United  States  are:  (1)  the  city 
elementary  and  high  schools;  (2)  the 
town  union  school,  which  includes  a 
high  school  department ; (3)  the  district 
school,  so  called  from  its  usually  being 
established  in  certain  rural  districts, 
and  offering  elementary  instruction. 

PUCK,  a celebrated  elf,  the  “m.erry 
wanderer  of  the  night,”  whose  character 
and  attributes  are  depicted  in  Shake- 
speare’s Midsummer  Night’s  Dream, 
and  who  was  also  known  by  the  names 
of  Robin  Goodfellow  and  Friar  Rush. 
He  was  the  chief  of  the  domestic  fairies, 


pudding-stone 


PULLEY 


and  many  stories  are  told  of  his  noc- 
turnal exploits. 

PUDDING-STONE,  or  PLUM-PUD- 
DING STONE,  a term  now  considered 
synonyinous  with  conglomerate,  but 
originally  applied  to  a mass  of  flint 
pebbles  cemented  by  a siliceous  paste. 
When  select  specimens  are  cut  and 
polished  they  resemble  a section  of  a 
plum-pudding,  and  are  used  for  orna- 
mental purposes. 

PUEB'LA,  in  full  La  Puebla  de  los 
Angeles,  the  capital  of  a Mexican  state 
of  the  same  name,  situated  on  a plateau 
76  miles  s.e.  of  Mexico.  It  has  spacious 
streets  and  solidly-built  houses,  the 
cathedral  being  a magnificent  structure. 
It  contains  a large  number  of  religious 
edifices,  many  of  them  highly  decorated. 
There  are  also  several  colleges,  a museum 
and  a theater.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  Mexican  manufacturing  industry, 
and  its  chief  products  are  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  leather,  glass,  earthen- 
‘ware,  and  soap.  Puebla  was  built  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1533-34.  Pop.  93,521.  The 
state  consists  of  an  elevated  plateau, 
and  contains  much  fertile  soil.  On  the 
western  frontier  is  the  volcano  of  Popo- 
catepetl, the  highest  mountainin  Mexico. 
Area,  12,042  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,021,133. 

PUEBLO,  the  second  largest  city  and 
county-seat  of  Pueblo  co.,  Colorado. 
Its  transportation  facilities  comprise 
the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande,  the  Atchi- 
son, Topeka  and  Santa  F4,  the  Missouri 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  and  the  Colorado  and  Southern. 
Pueblo  is  the  great  distributing  and 
receiving  point  for  this  section  of  vast 
natural  wealth.  It  has  become  known 
as  the  “Pittsburg  of  the  West,”  being 
famous  for  its  iron  and  steel,  and  smelt- 
ing industries.  Pop.  33,267. 

PUEBLO  INDIANS  are  semi-civilized 
Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
some  9,000  in  number,  living  in  villages 
in  communal  houses  (a  number  of 
families  together),  and  possessed  of  con- 
siderable skill  in  agriculture  and  the 
simpler  kinds  of  manufacture.  The 
village  communities  are  self-governed,, 
and  they  are  only  nominally  citizens 
of  the  United  States. 

PUER'PERAL  FEVER,  a dangerous 
contagious  disease  peculiar  to  women  in 
childbed,  and  due  to  the  absorption  of 
poisonous  material  by  the  raw  surface 
of  the  womb.  The  poison  may  originate 
from  decomposing  material  in  the  womb 
itself,  but  is  generally  introduced  from 
without. 

PUFF-ADDER,  a serpent  found  in 
South  and  Central  Africa.  Its  popular 
name  is  derived  from  its  power  of  puffing 
out  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  when 
irritated  or  alarmed.  It  is  very  thick, 
attains  a length  of  4 or  5 feet,  and  is 
extremely  venomous.  The  Bosjesmen 
poison  their  arrows  with  its  venom. 

PUFF-BALLS,  a species  of  birds  so 
called  from  their  globular  shape,  and 
because  if  they  are  struck  when  ripe 
the  dry  spores  fly  out  in  powder  like  a 
puff  of  smoke,  from  a genus  of  fungi. 
When  young,  and  whether  raw  or  cooked, 
some  of  them  are  very  good  eating. 

PUFFIN,  the  name  for  the  marine 
diving  birds.  The  common  puffin  is  a 
native  of  the  arctic  and  northern  tem- 
perate regions,  and  is  often  met  with  on 


the  rocky  cliffs  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. It  is  about  a foot  in  length,  and 
from  the  singular  shape  and  enormous 
size  of  its  bill,  which  is  striped  with 


Puff-bird. 


orange  upon  bluish-gray,  is  often  called 
the  sea-parrot  or  the  coulter-neb.  Their 
plumage  is  glossy  black,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  cheeks  and  under-surfaces 
which  are  white.  It  breeds  upon  rocks 
and  in  the  rabbit-warrens  near  the  sea, 


Common  Puffin. 


and  lays  one  egg,  which  is  white.  It 
lives  on  fish,  Crustacea,  and  insects,  and 
is  a gregarious  and  migratory  bird. 

PUGET  SOUND  (pu'jet),  an  inlet  on 
tho  northwest  coast  of  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington, forming  tho  southwest  continua- 
tion of  Juan  de  Fuca  strait,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  Admiralty  inlet.  On 
its  shores  are  Seattle,  Oljrmpia,  and 
other  important  cities. 

PUGILISM.  See  Boxing. 

PULASKI  (pdblas'ke),  Casimir,  Polish 
soldier  in  the  American  revolution,  was 
born  in  Podolia,  Poland,  in  1748.  He 
joined  enthusiastically  in  the  movement 
to  liberate  his  country,  and  fought 
heroically  in  the  unequal  struggle  against 


the  Russians.  He  was  accused,  unjustly 
it  appears,  of  complicity  in  the  plot  to 
abduct  King  Stanislas  Poniatowski  from 
Warsaw  (1771),  and  in  consequence  was 
outlawed  and  deprived  of  has  estates. 


He  was  induced  by  Franklin  and  the 
French  ministry  to  assist  the  Americans 
against  England.  He  arrived  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1777.  In  1778,  with  the  sanc- 
tion of  congress,  he  organized  an  in- 
dependent corps  of  cavalry  and  light  , 
infantry,  called  Pulaski’s  Legion.  In 
1779  he  commanded  the  French  and  ’ 
American  cavalry  at  the  siege  of  Savan- 
nah, and  during  the  attack  of  October 
9th  was  mortally  wounded,  dying  two 
days  later  on  board  the  United  States  , 
brig  Wasp. 

PU'LITZER,  Joseph,  American  jour- 
nalist, was  born  at  Budapest,  Hungary, 
in  1847.  He  came  to  the  United  States  ' 
in  1864.  After  serving  in  a federal 
cavalry  regiment  in  1864-5  he  became  a : 
reporter  on  Carl  Schurz’s  Westliche 
Post,  St.  Louis,  later  becoming  man- 
aging editor  with  a proprietary  interest. 

In  1869  he  was  elected  to  the  state 
legislature.  In  1878  he  purchased  the  J 
St.  Louis  Dispatch  and  combined  it  with  ; 
the  Evening  Post,  which  as  the  Post- 
Dispatch  became  an  important  journal 
of  the  west.  In  1883  he  purchased  the 
New  York  World  which,  under  hisman-  ■' 
agement  obtained  an  immense  circula-  - 
tion.  In  1884  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  congress  from  New  York. 

He  has  made  donations  to  educational 
and  charitable  causes,  and  in  1903  pro- 
vided an  endowment  fund  for  a school 
of  journalism  at  Columbia  university. 

PULLEY,  a small  wheel  movable 
about  an  axle,  and  having  a groove  cut 
in  its  circumference  over  which  a cord 
passes.  The  axle  is  supported  by  a kind  • 
of  case  or  box  called  the  block,  which 
may  either  be  movable  or  fixed  to  a firm 
support.  The  pulley  is  one  of  the  six 
simple  machines  or  mechanical  powers 
and  is  used  for  raising  weights.  A single 

- 

A 


□ 

Fig.  t Fig.  2. 

pulley  serves  merely  to  change  the  direc-  • 
tion  of  motion,  but  several  of  them  may 
be  combined  in  various  ways,  by  which  ; 
a mechanical  advantage  or  purchase  is  ' 
gained,  greater  or  less,  according  to  their  , 
number  and  the  mode  of  combination. 
The  advantage  gained  by  any  combina-  '» 
tion  or  system  of  pulleys  is  readly  com-  > 
puted  by  comparing  the  velocity  of  the 
weight  raised  with  that  of  the  moving  .? 
power,  according  to  the  principle  of  A 
virtual  velocities.  The  friction,  however,  ^ 
in  the  pulley  is  great,  particularly  when 
many  of  them  are  combined  together. 

A pulley  is  said  to  be  fixed  when  the  1 
block  in  which  it  turns  is  fixed,  and  it  is  , 
said  to  be  movable  when  the  block  is  Y 
movable.  In  the  single  fixed  pulley  i 
(fig.  1)  there  is  no  mechanical  advantage,  ^ 
the  power  and  weight  being  equal.  It  ,| 
may  be  considered  as  a lever  of  the  first  4 
kind  with  equal  arms.  In  the  single  .$ 
movable  pulley  (fig.  2)  where  the  cords  fl 
are  parallel  there  is  a mechanical  ad-A 
vantage,  there  being  an  equilibrium  9 
when  the  power  is  to  the  weight  as  1 to  2.  a 


PULLMAN 


PUMP 


It  may  be  considered  as  a lever  of  the 
second  kind,  in  which  the  distance  of  the 
power  from  the  fulcrum  is  double  that 
of  the  weight  from  the  fulcrum.  In  a 
system  of  pulleys  (fig.  3,  4)  in  which  the 
same  string  passes  round  any  number 
of  pulleys,  and  the  parts  of  it  between 
the  pulleys  are  parallel,  there  is  an 


Fig.  a Fig.  4. 


equilibrium  when  the  power  is  to  the 

{weight  as  1 to  the  number  of  strings  at 
the  lower  block.  In  a system  in  which 
each  pulley  hangs  by  a separate  cord  and 
the  strings  are  parallel  (fig.  5),  there  is 
fi  an  equilibrium  when  the  power  is  to  the 
r weight  as  1 to  that  power  of  2 whose 
fij  index  is  the  number  of  movable  pulleys 
i|  (in  the  case  here  illustrated  1 ; 2»  or  1 : 8) . 
f Whatever  be  the  mechanical  arrange- 
ment  of  the  pulleys  and  of  the  ropes  the 


Fig.  a 


[principle  of  all  pulleys  is  the  same, 
namely,  the  transmission  of  the  tension 
of  a rope  without  sensible  diminution 
so  as  to  obviate  the  loss  of  force  conse- 
quent on  rigidity.  The  term  pulley  is 
used  indifferently  to  denote  either  a 
single  sheave  or  the  complete  block  and 
i:  its  sheaves.  In  machinery,  a pulley  is  a 
wheel,  generally  with  a nearly  flat  face, 
which  being  placed  upon  a shaft  trans- 
mits power  to  or  from  the  different  parts 
of  the  machinery,  or  changes  the  direc- 
tion of  motion  by  means  of  a belt  or 
• band  which  runs  over  it. 

PULLMAN,  n industrial  town  now 
forming  a part  of  Chicago.  It  was 
founded  in  1880  by  George  M.  Pullman, 
who  established  here  the  extensive  shops 
of  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Company. 

IThe  idea  of  the  promotor  was  to  secure 
for  his  employees  all  the  advantages 
which  might  accrue  from  congenial  sur- 
roundings. The  high  rates  charged  for 
rent,  water,  and  gas,  however,  caused 
dissatisfaction  among  the  residents,  and 
in  1889  they  voted  in  favor  of  annexa- 

P.  E.— 65 


tion  to  Chicago.  Population,  at  that 
time,  about  12,000. 

PULLMAN,  George  Mortimer,  an 
American  inventor,  born  in  1831  in 
Chautauqua  co.,  N.  Y.  In  1859  he  re- 
moved to  Chicago,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  remodeled  two  old  coaches  into  sleep- 
ing cars.  Four  years  later  he  built  the 
first  new  sleeping  car,  “Pioneer,”  upon 
lines  of  the  now  famous  “Pullman”  cars. 
In  1867  he  organized  the  Pullman  Palace 
Car  company,  and  was  its  president  until 
his  death,  in  1897. 

PULLMAN-CAR,  a luxuriously  fitted 
up  railway  carriage,  named  after  its  in- 
ventor, for  the  use  of  which  an  extra 
charge  is  made,  and  which  is  specially 
adapted  for  sleeping  in,  or  as  a drawing 
room  or  dining  car. 

PULMONARY  CONSUMPTION.  See 
Consumption. 

PULPIT,  the  elevated  inclosure  or 
desk  in  a church  from  which  the  preacher 
delivers  his  discourse.  The  pulpitum 


Pulpit  of  Niccola  Pisano,  in  the  Baptistery 
at  Pisa,  Italy. 

of  the  ancient  Roman  theatres  «fas  that 
part  of  the  stage  where  the  actors  per- 
formed. 

PULQUE  (piil'ka),  or  Octli,  a favorite 
drink  in  Mexico  and  Central  America, 
made  from  the  juice  of  various  species 
of  agave,  pleasant  and  harmless  until 
after  protracted  fermentation,  when  it 
becomes  an  intoxicant.  A kind  of 
brandy  is  also  distilled  from  it. 

PULSE,  leguminous  plants  or  their 
seeds,  including  all  kinds  of  beans,  peas, 
lentils,  etc.  The  considerable  proportion 
of  nitrogen  which  they  contain  makes 
them  very  nutritious,  and  on  that  ac- 
count they  are  much  eaten,  with  or 
without  rice,  in  India,  where  the  chick- 
pea (Cicer  arietinum)  is  one  of  these 
very  largely  used.  The  Hebrew  word 
translated  pulse  in  the  authorized  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  Daniel  i.  12,  16,  prob- 
ably means  edible  seeds  in  general. 

PULSE,  the  throbbing  movement  of 
the  walls  of  blood-vessels,  from  the  pass- 
ing waves  of  blood  due  to  the  beats  of 
the  heart.  It  is  limited  in  healthy  coi\- 
ditions  to  the  arteries.  In  the  newly- 
born  child  the  healthy  pulse  registers 
130  to  140  beats  a minute;  at  two  years 
of  age,  105,  at  ten  years  about  90,  at 


fifteen  to  twenty  about  70;  while  in  old 
age  it  may  sink  to  about  60.  In  females 
it  is  somewhat  higher  than  in  males, 
and  during  certain  fevers  it  sometimes 
reaches  140  beats  per  minute.  In  arteries 
which  lie  immediately  under  the  skin 
it  can  be  felt  with  the  finger,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  radial  artery,  the  pulsa- 
tion of  which  is  very  perceptible  at  the 
wrist.  The  state  of  the  pulse  is  therefore 
an  indication  of  the  force  and  frequency 
of  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  of  the 
fulness  of  the  vessels. 

PULSOM'ETER,  an  instrument  of  the 
pump  kind  for  raising  water,  especially 
when  that  liquid  is  mixed  with  solid 
matter.  It  acts  by  the  condensation  of 
waste  steam  sent  into  a reservoir,  the 
water  rushing  up  into  the  vacuum  fonned 
by  the  condensation.  From  the  accom- 
panying figure  it  will  be  seen  that  it  con- 


Pulsometer. 


sists  essentially  of  a double  chamber, 
or  two  connected  chambers,  aa,  having 
a ball-valve  i at  top  (which  shuts  either 
chamber  alternately)  and  clack-valves 
ee  at  bottom.  Steam  is  admitted  at  k 
to  one  of  the  chambers  and  presses  out 
the  water  contained  there  through  f to 
the  pipe  d to  be  carried  away.  Con- 
densation then  taking  place  a vacuum  is 
formed,  and  the  ball  falls  over  and  closes 
the  opening  through  which  the  steam 
entered,  and  water  flows  up  through  the 
clack-valves  and  again  fills  the  chamber. 
The  steam  in  the  meantime  is  now  acting 
upon  the  water  in  the  adjoining  cham- 
ber, condensation  then  taking  place 
there,  the  ball  falls  back  to  that  side, 
and  the  operations  go  on  alternately, 
the  result  being  a steady  stream  of  water 
sucked  into  one  chamber  after  another, 
and  then  forced  out  and  upward  by  the 

PU'MICE,  a substance  frequently 
ejected  from  volcanoes,  of  various  colors, 
gray,  white,  reddish-brown  or  black; 
hard,  rough,  and  porous;  specifically 
lighter  than  water,  and  resembling  the 
slag  produced  in  aniron  furnace.  Pumice 
is  really  a loose,  spongy,  froth-like  lava. 
It  contains  75  parts  silica  and  17  alumina 
with  some  iron,  lime,  soda,  etc.,  and  the 
pores  being  generally  in  parallel  rows,  it 
seems  to  have  a fibrous  structure.  Pum- 
ice is  of  three  kinds,  glassy,  cornrnon, 
and  porphyritic.  It  is  used  for  polishing 
ivory,  wood,  marble,  metals,  glass,  etc.; 
also  for  smoothing  the  surfaces  of  skins 
and  parchment.  . . 

PUMP,  a contrivance  for  raising 


PUMPERNICKEL 


PUNCTUATION 


liquids  or  for  removing  gases  from  yes- 
e«ls.  The  air-pump  is  dealt  with  in  a 
separate  article.  Though  the  forms 
under  which  the  hydraulic  pump  is  con- 
structed, and  the  mode  in  which  the 
power  is  applied,  may  be  modified  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways,  there  are  only 
four  which  can  be  considered  as  differing 
from  each  other  in  principle.  These  are 
the  sucking  or  suction  pump,  the  lift- 
pump,  the  force-pump,  and  the  rotary 
or  centrifugal  pump.  Of  these  the  suc- 
tion or  common  household  pump  is  most 
in  use,  and  for  ordinary  purposes  the 


Suction-pump. 


most  convenient.  The  usual  form  and 
construction  of  this  pump  are  shown 
in  the  annexed  engraving.  A piston  a 
is  fitted  to  work  air-tight  within  a hol- 
low cylinder  or  barrel  bb;  it  is  moved  up 
and  down  by  a handle  connected  with 
the  piston-rod,  and  is  provided  with  a 
valve  e opening  upwards.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  barrel  is  another  valve  f,  also 
opening  upward,  and  which  covers  the 

e 


Force-pump  of  steam-engine 


orifice  of  a tube  cc,  called  the  suction- 
tube,  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  barrel, 
and  reaching  to  the  bottom  of  the  well 
from  which  the  water  is  to  be  raised. 
When  the  piston  is  drawn  up  from  the 
bottom  of  the  barrel  the  air  below  is 
rarefied,  and  the  pressure  of  the  external 
air  acting  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  well,  causes  the  water  to  rise 
in  the  suction-tube  until  the  equilib- 
rium is  restored.  After  a few  strokes 
the  water  will  get  into  the  barrel,  the  air 
below  the  piston  having  escaped  through 


th®  piston-valve  e.  By  continuing,  the 
water  will  get  above  the  piston  and  be 
raised  along  with  it  to  the  cistern  d,  at 
the  top  of  the  barrel,  where  it  is  dis- 
charged by  a spout.  The  lift-pump  has 
also  two  valves  and  a piston,  both  open- 
ing upward ; but  the  valve  in  the  cylinder 
instead  of  being  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder  is  placed  in  the  body  of  it, 
and  at  the  height  where  the  water  is 
intended  to  be  delivered.  The  bottom  of 
the  pump  is  thrust  into  the  well  a con- 
siderable way,  and  the  piston  being 
supposed  to  be  at  the  bottom,  as  its 
valve  opens  upward  there  will  be  no  ob- 
struction to  the  water  rising  in  the 
cylinder  to  its  height  in  the  well.  When 
the  piston  is  drawn  up  its  valve  will 
shut,  and  the  water  in  the  cylinder  will 
be  lifted  up;  the  valve  in  the  barrel 
will  be  opened,  and  the  water  will  pass 
through  it  and  cannot  return  as  the 
valve  opens  upward; — another  stroke 
of  the  piston  repeats  the  same  process, 
and  in  this  way  the  water  is  raised  from 
the  well ; but  the  height  to  which  it  may 
be  raised  is  not  in  this  as  in  the  suction- 
pump  limited  to  32  or  33  feet.  The  force- 
pump  differs  from  both  of  these  in  hav- 
ing its  piston  solid,  or  without  a valve 
and  also  in  having  a side  pipe  with  a 
valve  opening  outward,  through  which 
the  water  is  forced  to  any  height  re- 
quired, or  against  any  pressure  that 
may  oppose  it.  In  such  pumps  the 
plunger  or  solid  piston  is  frequently 
employed  instead  of  the  ordinary  piston ; 
this  arrangement  is  represented  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  which  shows  a 
section  of  the  feed-pump  of  a steam- 
engine.  The  plunger  a works  air-tight 
through  a stuffing-box  b at  the  top  of 
the  barrel,  and  on  being  raised  produces 
a vacuum  in  the  pump-barrel  into, 
which  the  water  rushes  by  the  pipe  c 
and  is  discharged,  on  tne  descent  of  the 
plunger  through  the  pipe  d,  the  valves 
e and  f serving  to  intercept  the  return 
of  the  water  at  each  stroke.  The  side 
pipe  d,  however,  requires  the  addition  of 
an  air-vessel.  “Double-acting”  pumps 
are  often  employed  for  household  pur- 
poses. (See  Fire-engine.)  Centrifugal 
pumps  are  universally  employed  wher- 
ever the  lift  is  not  too  great,  and  the 
quantity  of  water  is  considerable.  A 
wheel,  shaped  like  an  ordinary  fan,  has 
passages  leading  from  its  center  to  its 
circumference ; it  is  made  to  rotate  very 
rapidly  in  a casing.  Its  circumference 
communicates  with  a delivery  pipe, 
and  its  center  with  a pipe  leading  to  the 
water  which  is  to  be  pumped.  The  rapid 
revolution  of  the  wheel  causes  by  centrif- 
ugal action  a constant  flow  of  water 
from  center  to  circumference  of  the 
wheel;  and  in  this  way  the  water  is 
sucked  up  to  the  center  of  the  wheel, 
and  leaves  the  circumference  by  the 
eduction  pipe. 

PUMPERNICKEL,  a coarse  brown 
bread  made  in  Westphalia  from  un- 
bolted rye. 

PUMPKIN,  a climbing  plant  and  its 
fruit.  The  pumpkin  is  originally  from 
India,  but  is  at  present  cultivated  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  America. 
The  fruit  is  red,  and  sometimes  ac- 
quires a diameter  of  2 feet.  There  are 
two  varieties  of  the  plant,  one  with 
roundish,  the  other  with  oblong  fruit. 


The  fruit  is  eaten  in  a cooked  state. 

PUNCH  (contracted  from  punchinello) 
the  chief  character  in  a popular  comic 
exhibition  performed  by  puppets,  who 
strangles  his  child,  beats  to  death  Judy 
his  wife,  belabors  a police-officer,  etc. 
The  puppet-show  of  Punch  seems  to 
have  Deen  first  popular  in  England  dur- 


Pumpkin. 

ing  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  The  hero 
was  sometimes  called  Punchinello,  a 
semi-anglicized  form  of  the  Neapolitan 
Pulcinello. 

PUNCH,  a beverage ; received  its  name 
from  the  Hindu  word  panch,  five,  this 
being  the  number  of  its  ingredients, 
arrack,  tea,  sugar,  water,  and  lime-juice. 
In  a common  brew  of  the  beverage  its 
ingredients  are  rum,  brandy,  sugar, 
boiling-water,  and  lemon-juice. 

PUNCH,  a tool  worked  by  pressure 
or  percussion,  employed  for  making 
apertures,  in  cutting  out  shapes  from 
sheets  or  plates  of  various  materials 
in  impressing  dies,  etc.  Punches  are 
usually  made  of  steel,  and  are  variously 
shaped  at  one  end  for  different  uses. 
They  are  solid  for  stamping  dies,  etc., 
or  for  perforating  holes  in  metallic 
plates,  and  hollow  and  sharp-edged  for 
cutting  out  blanks,  as  for  buttons,  steel- 
pens,  jewelry,  and  the  like. 

PUNCHEON,  a liquid  measure  of 
capacity  containing  from  84  to  120 
gallons. 

PUNCTUATION,  the  art  of  employing 
signs  by  which  the  parts  of  a writing  or 
discourse  are  connected  or  separated  as 
the  sense  requires,  and  the  elevation, 
depression,  or  suspension  of  the  voice 
indicated.  Punctuation  serves  both  to 
render  the  meaning  intelligible,  and  to 
aid  the  oral  delivery.  Our  present  sys- 
tem of  punctuation  came  very  gradually 
into  use  after  the  invention  of  printing, 
the  Venetian  printers,  the  Manutii 
contributing  materially  to  its  develop- 
ment. The  principal  points  used  in  Eng- 
lish composition  are  the  comma  (,), 
semi-colon  (;),  colon  (;),  period  oi  full 
stop  (.),  note  of  interrogation  (?),  note 
of  exclamation  or  admiration  (!),  dash 
( — ),  and  parenthesis  ().  The  comma 
marks  the  smallest  grammatical  division 
in  a sentence,  separating  the  several 
members  of  a series,  and  the  subordinate 
clauses  from  the  main  clause.  The  semi- 
colon Indicates  a longer  pause  than  the 
comma,  but  requires  another  member 
or  members  to  complete  the  sense.  The 
colon  denotes  a still  longer  pause,  and 
may  be  inserted  when  a member  of  a 
sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  but  is 
followed  by  some  additional  illustration 
of  the  subject.  The  period  indicates  the 
end  of  a sentence,  and  is  also  used  after 
contracted  words,  headings,  titles  of 
books,  etc.,  and  generally  after  Roman 
numerals.  The  note  of  interrogation  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  a direct  interroga- 


- I 


PUNISHMENT 


PURPLE 


tory  sentence.  The  note  of  exclamation 
or  admiration  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
auch  words  or  clauses  as  indicate  sur- 
prise or  other  emotion.  The  dash  is  em- 
ployed where  a sentence  breaks  off 
abruptly,  and  the  subject  is  changed; 
where  the  sense  is  suspended,  and  is 
continued  after  a short  interruption; 
after  a series  of  clauses  leading  to  an 
important  conclusion;  and  in  certain 
cases  to  indicate  an  ellipsis.  The  paren- 
thesis incloses  a word  or  phrase  intro- 
duced into  the  body  of  a sentence,  with 
which  it  has  no  grammatical  connection. 

PUNISHMENT,  a penalty  inflicted  on 
a person  for  a crime  or  offense,  by  the 
authority  to  which  the  offender  is  sub- 
ject; a penalty  imposed  in  the  enforce- 
ment or  application  of  law.  The  punish- 
ments for  criminal  offenses  now  known 
to  the  English  law,  are  death  by  hang- 
ing, penal  servitude,  imprisonment  with 
and  without  hard  labor,  solitary  con- 
finement, detention  in  a reformatory 
school,  subjection  to  police-supervision, 
and  putting  under  recognizance. 

In  the  United  States,  while  there  are 
but  few  agencies  for  the  a.ssistance  of 
discharged  prisoners,  considerable  care 
is  devoted  to  the  treatment  and  check- 
ing of  juvenile  crime.  Reformatories 
have  existed  since  1825,  when  the  first 
was  established  on  Randall’s  Island 
within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  New 
York.  There  are  also  a number  of 
semi-public  schools.  The  percentage  of 
youths  reformed  and  trained  into  good 
citizens  has  been  placed  as  high  as  60, 
75,  even  80  per  cent.  Parents  may  in 
some  states  contribute  to  the  support 
of  their  children  in  reformatories,  but 
as  a rule  the  inmates  are  orphans  or 
abandoned  children  or  those  whose  par- 
ents are  very  poor.  The  best  system 
for  training  and  caring  for  juvenile 
offenders  probably  is  that  which  obtains 
in  Massacnusetts. 

PUNJAB,  or  PAN  JAB  (the  name 
means  “Five  Rivers”),  a province  of 
British  India,  under  the  administration 
of  a lieutenant-governor,  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  the  region  intersected  by 
the  five  tributaries  of  the  Indus,  the 
Sutlej,  the  Beas,  the  Ravi,  the  Chenab, 
and  the  Jhelum.  The  present  lieuten- 
ant-governorship of  the  Punjab,  how- 
ever, is  larger  than  the  Punjab  proper, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Afghan- 
istan and  Beluchistan;  on  the  north 
by  Kashmir;  on  the  east  by  the  United 
(N.W.)  provinces;  and  on  the  south 
by  Sind  and  Rajputana.  The  area, 
exclusive  of  the  connected  native 
states,  is  97,209  sq.  miles;  the  pop., 
according  to  the  census  of  1901, 
20,330,339;  inclusive  of  native  states, 
the  area  is  133,741  sq.  miles,  and  the 
pop.  24,754,737.  The  Punjab  has  had  a 
rather  eventful  history  from  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great  downward.  After 
being  long  held  by  rulers  of  Afghan  or 
Tartar  origin,  the  Sikhs  under  Runjit 
Singh  established  themselves  here  early 
in  the  19th  century.  Latterly  the  coun- 
try fell  into  a very  d stracted  state ; its 
Sikh  rulers  came  into  warlike  contact 
with  the  British,  and  after  the  second 
Sikh  war  in  1849,  the  country  was 
brought  under  British  adminstiration. 

PUNNAH,  . native  state  of  India,  in 
Bundclcund,  by  the  British  agency  of 


which  it  is  politically 
formerly  very  prosperous 
of  its  diamond  mines.  Estimated  area, 
2568  sq.  miles;  pop.  239,333. — Punnah 
is  the  chief  town.  Pop.  14,676. 

PUNT,  an  oblong  flat-bottomed  boat 
used  for  fishing  and  shooting  in  shallow 
waters.  The  most  common  mode  of  pro- 
pulsion is  by  pushing  with  a pole  against 
the  bottom  of  the  river,  etc.,  a process 
which  is  hence  called  punting. 

PURDUE'  UNIVERSITY,  a coeduca- 
tional state  institution  of  higher  learn- 
ing, established  in  1869  at  Lafayette, 
Ind.,  and  named  for  John  Purdue,  an 
early  benefactor.  The  university  is  the 
Indiana  Institute  of  Technology  and 
embraces  six  schools : Mechanical  engi- 
neering, civil  engineering,  electrical 
engineering,  agriculture,  science,  and 
pharmacy.  Students  in  each  of  the 
schools  are  required  to  spend  an  average 
of  three  hours  a day  in  laboratory,  shop, 
or  field.  It  confers  thedegreesof  bachelor 
of  science  and  graduate  in  pharmacy  in 
course,  and  the  following  degrees  for 
advanced  work:  Master  of  science,  me- 
chanical, electrical,  and  civil  engineer, 
and  analytical  chemist. 

PUR'GATIVES,  are  medicines  used 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  bowels.  The  following  is  a 
common  classification  of  them : (1)  Lax- 
atives or  mild  cathartics,  employed 
when  the  least  possible  irritation  is  de- 
sired, such  as  manna,  sulphur,  cassia, 
castor-oil,  tamarinds,  prunes,  honey, 
ripe  fruit.  (2)  Saline  or  cooling  laxa- 
tives, giving  rise  to  more  watery  evacua- 
tions than  the  first  group,  such  as  Epsom 
salts,  Glauber’s  salt,  phosphate  of  soda, 
Seidlitz  powders,  etc.  (3)  Active  cathar- 
tics, occasionally  acrid,  frequently  tonic 
and  stomachic,  such  as  rheubarb,  senna 
(often  in  the  fonn  of  black  draught), 
and  aloes.  (4)  Drastic  or  violent  cathar- 
tics, such  as  jalap,  scammony,  gamboge, 
croton-oil,  colocynth,  and  elaterium, 
which  in  large  doses  act  as  irritant 
poisons,  and  are  employed  in  smaller 
doses  chiefly  when  the  bowels  have 
failed  to  be  moved  by  milder  purgatives. 
(5)  Mercurial  purgatives,  such  as  calomel 
blue  pill,  and  gray  powder.  Of  late 
years  podophyllin,  a preparation  of  the 
resin  of  the  May-apple,  has  come  much 
into  vogue  as  a substitute  for  mercury 
in  its  various  forms.  All  the  members 
of  this  group  are  usually  combined  with 
or  followed  by  other  purgatives,  blue 
pill,  for  instance,  being  followed  by  black 
draught,  and  podophyllin  combined 
with  taraxacum. 

PUR'GATORY,  as  believed  in  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  is  an  inter- 
mediate state  after  death  in  which 
the  souls  of  the  righteous  expiate, 
through  temporary  suffering,  sins  com- 
mitted in  this  life,  and  not  fully  atoned 
for  before  death.  According  to  the 
council  of  Trent,  they  are  “assisted  by 
the  suffrages  of  the  faithful,  but  espe- 
cially by  the  most  acceptable  sacrifice  of 
the  mass,”  to  be  enabled  to  enjoy  the 
happiness  of  heaven.  Catholics  claim 
that  this  belief  in  purgatory  is  upheld  by 
the  general  teaching  of  Scripture  with- 
out being  specifically  declared  in  any 
particular  passage ; they  also  claim  that 
it  is  in  harmony  with  the  faith  and  prac- 
tice of  the  early  Christian  ages. 


superintended, 
from  the  yield 


PURIM,  a Jewish  festival  observed  on 
the  14th  and  15th  of  Adar  (MarchL  in- 
stituted to  commemorate  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  Persia  from  the  de- 
struction threatened  them  by  the 
schemes  of  Haman  (Esther  ix). 

PU'RITANS,  a name  first  .applied  to 
those  English  Protestants  who  regarded 
the  reformation  in  England  as  incom- 
plete, and  the  Anglican  church,  even  of 
Edward  VI.,  as  retaining  too  much  of 
the  discipline,  ritual,  and  ceremonial  of 
the  Church  of  Rome.  Many  of  them, 
who  were  driven  into  exile  under  Queen 
Mary,  and  who  returned  to  England 
after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  brought 
back  a zealous  desire  to  remodel  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  spirit  of  con- 
tinental Protestantism,  especially  that 
of  Geneva.  In  1572  a presbytery  was 
set  up  at  Wandsworth  in  Surrey,  and 
before  many  years  Presbyterianism 
found  adherents  both  among  the  clergy 
and  the  laity.  Meanwhile  the  Brownists, 
the  Independents  of  later  days,  whose 
Congregationalism  was  as  much  opposed 
to  Presbyterianism  as  to  Episcopacy, 
began  to  be  organized  and  to  make  some 
progress.  In  doctrine  these  two  Puritan 
parties  differed  little  from  each  other, 
or  from  many  Anglicans  who  remained 
contented  with  the  Church  of  England  as 
it  was.  The  hopes  with  which  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.  inspired  the  Puritan 
party  in  the  church  were  grieviously 
disappointed  when  their  moderate  de- 
mands for  a reform  of  ritual  and  a slight 
modification  of  episcopal  authority  were 
rejected  at  the  Hampton  Court  con- 
ference. During  his  reign  the  prelates 
and  many  of  the  clergy  became  less 
Protestant,  while  the  Puritan  element 
in  the  church,  and  out  of  it',  increased  in 
intensity.  Nonconformity  was  pursued 
by  new  penal  statutes,  and  numbers  of 
Puritans  emigrated  to  New  England. 
This  emigration  continued  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  and  the  ascendency 
of  Laud.  With  the  downfall  of  the 
Anglican  system  Independency  again 
reared  its  head  in  England.  The  In- 
dependents now  combined  with  their 
Congregationalism  the  desire  for  a 
theological  latitude,  which  widened  the 
gulf  between  them  and  the  Presby- 
terians. The  army  became  leavened 
with  Independency,  and  Oliver  Crom- 
well its  champion.  With  his  ascendency 
the  influence  of  Presbyterianism  as  a 
power  in  the  state  dwindled,  and  In- 
dependency became  the  dominant  ele- 
ment in  English  Puritanism.  After  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  and  of  the  old 
Anglicanism,  the  Presbyterians,  In- 
dependents, and  Baptists  were  the 
three  chief  denominations  into  which 
Puritanism  had  split  up.  Since  then 
Nonconformists  or  Dissenters  has  been 
the  term  generally  used  where  Puritan- 
ism would  formerly  have  been  employed. 

PUR'NIAH,  the  northeastern  district 
of  the  Bhdgalpur  division  of  the  lieu- 
tenant-governorship of  Bengal.  Rice 
and  indigo  are  its  chief  products.  Area, 
4956  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,944,658.  Pur- 
niah,  the  chief  town,  stands  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Saurd  river.  It  is  an  un- 
healthy place,  but  does  a considerable 
trade  in  jute.  Pop.  14,600. 

PURPLE,  a secondary  color  com- 
pounded by  the  union  of  the  primaries 


PURSE-CRAB’ 


PYEMIA 


blue  and  red.  Of  all  the  various  kinds  in 
use,  the  Tyrian  dye  was  anciently 
the  most  celebrated.  This  color  was 
produced  from  an  animal  juice  found  in 
a shell-fish  called  murex  by  the  ancients ; 
and  as  it  was  thus  obtained  only  in  small 
quantities,  its  use  was  restricted  to  the 
great  and  wealthy.  It  became  the  dis- 
tinctive color  of  imperialism,  and  the 
later  emperors  of  the  East  forbade  its  use 
by  subjects.  Hence  their  offspring  were 
called  purphyrogeniti,  born  in  the  pur- 
ple. In  modern  times,  and  from  the  red 
or  scarlet  hat,  cassock,  and  stockings 
worn  by  them,  cardinals  are  sometimes 
said  to  have  obtained  the  purple.  With 
the  general  disuse  of  the  purple  obtained 
from  shell-fish,  archil  and  cudbear, 
yielded  by  various  species  of  lichens, 
were  employed  in  the  d3'eing  of  silk  and 
wool ; but  they  have  been  superseded 
by  the  purples  obtained  from  aniline. 
For  cotton  the  chief  purple  dye  was  fur- 
nished by  madder,  but  the  alizarin  to 
which  madder  owed  its  dyeing  proper- 
ties is  now  prepared  from  coal-tar.  The 
common  shades  of  purple  with  which 
wool  is  dyed  are  obtained  from  logwood 
with  a mordant  of  alum  and  tartar. 

PURSE-CRAB,  a name  for  decapod 
crustaceans  allied  to  the  hermit-crabs. 
A species,  the  robber-crab,  found  in  the 
Mauritius  and  the  more  eastern  islands 
of  the  Indian  ocean,  is  one  of  the  largest 
crustaceans,  being  sometimes  2 to  3 feet 
in  length. 

PUS,  the  white  or  yellowish  matter 
found  in  abscesses,  and  formed  upon  the 
surfaces  of  what  are  termed  healthy 
sores. 

PU'SEY,  Edward  Bouveri^'  D.  D., 
after  whom  the  Tractarian  movement 
in  the  Church  of  England  became  desig- 
nated Puseyism,  was  born  in  1800.  In 
1833  the  Tracts  for  the  Times  began  to 
appear,  but  he  was  not  prominently 
connected  with  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment until  1835-36,  when  he  contributed 


to  the  Tracts  one  on  baptism,  which 
excited  much  attention.  He  died  in 
1882.  Among  the  more  substantial  of  his 
works,  in  addition  to  his  Library  of 
English  Fathers  and  Anglo-Catholic 
Library,  are  his  Councils  of  the  Church, 
from  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  a.d. 
51,  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople, 
A.D.  381  (1857);  Daniel  the  Prophet, 
nine  lectures  (1864);  and  the  Minor 
Prophets,  with  a commentary  and  intro- 
duction to  the  several  books  (1860-67). 


PUSHKAR,  town  of  India,  in  Ajmere- 
Merwdra,  Rajputdna,  the  only  one  in 
India  containing  a temple  dedicated  to 
Brahma.  A great  fair  in  October  and 
November  is  attended  by  about  100,000 
pilgrims.  Pop.  5000. 

PUSHKIN,  Alexander  Serg4yevitch,  a 
famous  Russian  poet,  born  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1799,  died  1837.  His  works  have 
been  translated  into  German,  French, 
and  English. 

PUTNAM,  Israel,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Old  Salem  village  (now 
Danvers),  Mass.,  in  1718.  In  August, 
1755,  during  the  French  and  Indian 
war,  he  was  commissioned  lieutenant 
by  the  Connecticut  legislature,  later  in 
the  year  became  one  of  Roger’s  Rangers, 
in  March,  1756,  became  captain,  saved 
Fort  Edward  from  being  destroyed  by 
fire  in  the  winter  of  1757,  and  in  March, 


Israel  Putnam. 


1758,  became  major.  In  1775,  hearing 
of  the  battle  of  Lexington,  he  left  his 
plow  in  the  field,  and  rode  to  Cambridge 
in  one  day,  a distance  of  sixty-eight 
miles.  Returning,  he  was  made  brigadier- 
general  by  the  legislature,  organized  and 
drilled  a regiment.  In  1775  he  received 
his  commission  from  congress  as  major- 
general.  On  the  evacuation  of  Boston 
in  the  spring  of  1776,  Putnam  was  placed 
in  command  of  New  York.  In  1779,  one 
of  his  outposts,  guarded  by  150  men 
and  two  cannon,  was  attacked  by  the 
British  officer  Tryon,  with  1500  men. 
Putnam,  being  closely  pursued  while  on 
his  way  with  his  men  to  a swamp,  is  said 
to  have  dashed  down  a steep  hill  and 
escaped.  Riding  to  Stamford  and  col- 
lecting the  militia,  he  formed  a junction 
with  his  troops,  pursued  Tryon  in  his 
retreat,  and  took  50  prisoners.  In  the 
summer  of  1779  he  had  command  of 
the  troops  in  the  Highlands,  and  com- 
pleted the  fortifications  at  West  Point, 
The  army  going  into  winter  quarters,  he 
returned  home,  and  on  starting  out 
again  for  camp  was  stricken  with  paraly- 
sis, from  which  he  never  completely 
recovered.  He  died  May  19,  1790  . 

PUTNAM,  Rufus,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Sutton,  Mass.,  in  1738.  He 
enlisted  as  a private  soldier  for  service 
in  the  French  and  Indian  war  in  1757. 
He  entered  the  continental  army  as 
lieutenant-colonel  in  May,  1775,  and  in 
August,  1776,  was  appointed  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  army  with  the  rank  of 
colonel.  He  was  given  command  of  a 
Massachusetts  regiment  in  November, 
and  in  1777  served  in  the  campaign 
against  Burgoyne.  He  was  a member 
for  several  terms  of  the  Massachusetts 
legislature,  and  during  Shay’s  rebellion 
was  General  Lincoln’s  aide.  He  was  one 
of  the  judges  of  the  United  States  court 
in  the  northwest  territory  from  1790 


to  1796,  concluded  an  important  treaty 
with  the  Indians  at  Vincennes,  Ind., 
in  1792.  In  1812  he  organized  the  first 
Bible  society  west  of  the  Alleghanies. 
He  died  in  1824. 

PUTNEY,  a suburb  of  London,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames  opposite  Fulham,  and 
within  the  parliamentary  bounds  of 
Wandsworth.  The  town  is  about  8 miles 
above  London  Bridge  by  river,  and  4^ 
miles  from  Hyde  Park  Corner  by  road. 
The  headquarters  of  the  English  rowing 
world  are  at  Putney.  Pop.  24,139. 

PUTREFACTION,  such  a decomposi- 
tion of  dead  organic  matter  as  is  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  the  evolution  of 
fetid  gases,  now  regarded  as  due  to  the 
agency  of  bacteria  or  other  organisms 
floating  in  tlie  atmosphere,  which  find  a 
nidus  in  the  putrescible  matter  and 
grow  and  multiply  in  it.  The  substances 
in  which  these  animalcules  are  thus  de- 
veloped are  reduced  either  to  much 
more  simple  compounds,  or  to  their 
original  separate  elements.  The  putre- 
faction, or  putrefactive  fermentation,  of 
animal  substances  is  usually  attended 
by  more  fetid  and  noxious  exhalations 
than  those  arising  from  vegetable  prod- 
ucts, chiefly  through  the  more  abun- 
dant presence  of  nitrogen  in  the  former. 
The  formation  of  ammonia,  or  of  am- 
monical  compounds,  is  a characteristic 
of  most  cases  of  animal  putrefaction, 
while  other  combinations  of  hydrogen 
are  also  formed,  especially  carburetted 
hydrogen,  together  with  complicated 
and  often  highly  infectious  vapors  or 
gases,  in  which  sulphur  and  phosphorus 
are  frequently  discerned.  These  putre- 
factive effluvia  are  for  the  most  part 
easily  decomposed  or  rendered  innocu- 
ous by  the  agency  of  chlorine.  The 
rapidity  of  putrefaction  and  the  nature 
of  its  products  are  to  a great  extent 
influenced  by  temperature,  moisture, 
and  access  of  air.  A temperature  between 
60°  and  80°,  a due  degree  of  humidity 
and  free  access  of  air,  are  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  proceeds  most 
rapidly.  Hence  the  action  of  the  minute 
organisms  which  produce  putrefaction 
can  be  checked  or  altogether  prevented 
by  a very  high,  or  a very  low,  tempera- 
ture, by  the  exclusion  of  air,  and  by  the 
absence  of  moisture.  Antiseptics  pre- 
vent and  to  some  extent  arrest  the  prog- 
ress of  putrefaction. 

PUTTY,  a kind  of  paste  or  cement 
compounded  of  whiting  or  soft  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  linseed-oil,  beaten 
or  kneaded  to  the  consistence  of  dough. 
In  this  state  it  is  used  by  glaziers  for 
fixing  in  the  squares  of  glass  in  window 
frames,  etc.,  and  also  by  house-painters 
to  stop  up  holes  and  cavities  in  wood- 
work before  painting. 

PUY-DE-DOME  (pu-e-de-dQm),  a de- 
partment of  Central  France  ; area,  3070 
sq.  miles;  takes  its  name  from  a volcanic 
cone  (4805  feet)  which  overlooks  it.  The 
highest  point  in  the  department,  Puy- 
de-Sancy,  6188  feet,  is  the  most  ele- 
vated peak  of  Central  France.  The  in- 
dustries of  the  department  include 
paper-making,  sugar  production,  and 
the  manufacture  of  various  textile 
fabrics.  Pop.  544,194. 

PY.ffiMIA  (pl-e'mi-a),  blood-poison- 
ing, a dangerous  disease  resulting  from 


PYGMALION 


PYRAMUS  AND  THISBE 


the  introduction  of  decaying  animal 
matter,  pus,  or  other  morbid  product 
into  the  system.  Such  matter  may  be 
introduced  through  an  ulcer,  wound, 
an  imperfectly  closed  vein,  or  a mucous 
membrane,  as  that  of  the  nose.  This 
disease  was  common  after  severe  opera- 
tions in  crowded  hospitals,  whose  at- 
mosphere was  loaded  with  purulent  or 
contaminated  matter.  It  has  been  much 
checked  of  late  years  by  the  improved 
ventilation  of  hospitals,  and  by  the 
application  of  antiseptics  in  the  per- 
formance of  surgical  operations  and  the 
dressing  of  wounds. 

PYGMA'LION,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
king  of  Cyprus,  who,  having  made  an 
ivory  image  of  a maiden,  fell  in  love 
with  his  own  work,  and  entreated  Venus 
to  endow  it  with  life.  His  prayer  was 
granted,  and  the  maiden  became  his 
wife. 

PYGMY,  one  of  a race  of  dwarfs,  first 
mentioned  by  Homer  as  dwelling  on  the 
shores  of  Ocean,  and  having  to  sustain 
a war  against  the  cranes  every  spring. 
Later  writers  place  them  mainly  in 
Africa,  Aristotle  at  the  sources  of  the 
Nile,  and  in  fact  there  are  dwarfish  races 
in  the  interior  of  Africa. 

PYLONS,  in  Egyptian  architecture, 
the  name  given  to  powers  or  masses  of 


Pylon— Temple  of  Edfou,  Egypt. 


Propylon  at  Kamak,  Egypt. 

masonry,  somewhat  resembling  trun- 
cated pyramids,  placed  one  on  each  side 
at  the  entrance  of  temples,  and  having 


a very  imposing  appearance.  Behind 
them  in  the  larger  temples  there  was 
often  a large  open  court,  and  in  front 
there  might  be  an  avenue  with  sphinxes 
on  either  side.  An  entrance  of  which 
these  pylons  form  part  is  sometimes 
called  a propylon.  See  Egypt  (Architec- 
ture). 

PYM,  John,  English  statesman  and 
leader  of  the  popular  party  during  the 
reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  was 
born  in  Somersetshire  1584;  studied  at 
Oxford  and  became  famous  as  a lawyer. 
He  entered  parliament  in  1614,  and 
during  the  reign  of  James  he  attained 


John  Pym. 


great  influence  by  his  opposition  to  the 
arbitrary  measures  of  the  king.  In 
November,  1643,  he  was  made  lieuten- 
ant-general of  ordnance,  and  in  the 
following  month  he  died,  and  was  buried 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

PYRAMID,  in  architecture,  a colossal 
structure  of  masonry  having  a rectangu- 
lar base  and  four  triangular  sides  ter- 
minating in  a point,  used  by  the  ancients 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  sepul- 
chres or  for  religious  purposes,  especially 
in  Egypt.  The  largest  and  most  remark- 
able of  the  Egyptian  pyramids  occur  in 
several  groups  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Nile,  on  the  border  of  the  Libyan  desert, 
extending  for  a distance  of  about  25 
miles  from  north  to  south,  the  farthest 
north  being  opposite  Cairo.  They  are 
built  chiefly  of  the  hard  limestone  of  the 
adjacent  hills,  but  large  blocks  of  granite 
brought  from  a distance  are  also  used, 
especially  on  the  outside.  The  four  sides 
are  so  placed  as  to  face  the  four  cardinal 
points.  These  structures  are  supposed 
to  date  from  about  3000  b.c.  to  2300 
B.c.  The  stones  used  varied  in  size,  but 
are  mostly  large,  requiring  wonderful 
mechanical  skill  to  quarry  them,  trans- 
port them,  and  raise  and  adjust  them  in 
their  proper  places.  An  almost  fabulous 
number  of  laborers  were  engaged  in 
erecting  the  chief  Egyptian  pyramids,  of 
which  the  group  of  Gizeh,  4 miles  s.w  of 
Cairo,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  ancient 
Memphis,  is  the  most  remarkable.  This 
group  consists  of  nine  pyramids,  among 
them  the  three  most  celebrated  of  all, 
the  pyramid  of  Cheops  (Khufu),  called 
the  Great  Pyramid;  of  Cephren  (Kha- 
fra) ; and  of  Mycerinus  (Menkauru). 
According  to  Herodotus  the  Great 
Pyramid  took  100,000  men  working  for 
ten  years  to  make  a causeway  3000  feet 
long  in  order  to  facilitate  the  transport 


of  the  stone  from  the  quarries;  and  the 
same  number  of  men  for  twenty  years 
more  to  complete  the  pyramid  itself. 
Its  base  forms  a square  each  side  of 
which  was  originally  768  feet,  though 
now,  by  the  removal  of  the  coating,  only 
750  feet  long,  occupying  13  acres.  The 
outer  surface  forms  a series  of  steps,  each 
of  the  average  height  of  3 feet  or  more. 


The  pyramids  or  Ghlzeh,  Egypt. 

When  the  structure  was  perfect  this  step 
formation  was  hidden  by  the  coating, 
which  rendered  the  sides  quite  smooth, 
and  the  apex,  where  there  is  now  a space 
of  12  sq.  yards,  was  no  doubt  originally 
quite  sharp.  The  height  was  originally 
about  480  feet,  but  is  now  only  451.  The 
interior,  entered  49  feet  above  the  base 
of  the  north  face,  contains  several 
chambers,  one  of  which,  called  the 
King’s  Chamber,  is  34^  feet  long,  17 
wide,  and  19  high,  and  contains  a sar- 
cophagus of  red  granite.  The  second 
pyramid  is  690  feet  square  and  447  feet 
high.  The  third  pyramid  is  only  354  feet 
square  and  203  feet  high,  and  is  the  best 
constructed  of  the  three.  The  six  smaller 
pyramids  which  complete  the  Gizeh 
group  are  of  much  inferior  interest.  The 
pyramids  are  supposed  to  have  been 
built  by  the  respective  kings  as  tombs 
and  memorials  of  themselves;  and  it  is 
conjectured  that  they  were  begun  at 
the  beginning  of  each  reign,  and  that 
their  size  corresponded  with  the  length 
of  it.  About  350  yards  southwest  of  the 
Great  Pyramid  is  the  celebrated  Sphinx. 
Ruins  of  pyramids  are  to  be  found  at 
Benares  in  India  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
East.  Certain  monuments  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants,  found  in  Mexico,  are  also 
called  pyramids.  These  seem  to  have 
been  intended  to  serve  as  temples,  the 
tops  of  them  being  flat  and  surmounted 
by  a house  or  chamber  in  which  sacred 
rites  were  probably  performed.  The 
largest  and  perhaps  the  oldest  of  them  is 
that  of  Cholula,  which  is  said  to  have 
a base  of  1770  feet  and  a height  of  177 
feet. 

PYR'AMUS  AND  THIS'BE,  a pair  of 
devoted  lovers,  who,  as  their  story  is 
told  by  Ovid  (Met.  iv.  55-165),  resided 
in  Babylon,  and  being  prevented  by 
their  parents  from  meeting  openly,  were 
in  the  habit  of  secretly  conversing 
through  an  opening  of  the  wall,  as  their 
houses  adjoined.  They  agreed  one  day 
to  meet  at  the  tomb  of  Ninus,  when 
Thisbe,  who  was  the  first  at  the  rendez- 
vous, was  surprised  by  a lioness  and 
took  to  flight.  In  her  haste  she  dropped 
her  garment,  which  the  lioness  seizing 


PYKENEES 


PYTHIAS 


covered  with  blood,  having  immediately 
before  killed  an  ox.  Pyramus  appearing 
on  the  scene,  and  concluding  from  the 
blood-besmeared  robe  that  Thisbe  was 
dead,  killed  himself.  Thisbe  returning 
soon  afterward,  and  finding  the  body 
of  her  lover,  also  killed  herself.  The 
story  was  very  popular  in  the  time  of 
Shakespeare,  who  made  it  the  subject 
of  the  burlesque  interlude  in  A Mid- 
summer Night’s  Dream. 

PYRENEES',  a lofty  mountain  range, 
the  crest  of  the  main  chain  of  which 
forms  the  boundary  between  France 
and  Spain.  It  abuts  with  one  extremity 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  with  the  other 
on  the  Atlantic.  Its  length,  from  Cape 
Creux  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  to  Fontara- 
bia,  on  the  bay  of  Biscay,  is  about  280 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  little 
more  than  50  miles.  It  consists  of  two 
lines,  which  form  parallel  ridges  about 
20  miles  apart  from  each  other,  except 
near  the  center,  towards  which  the 
range  rises  both  from  the  east  and  west. 
The  descent  on  the  south  side  is  much 
more  abrupt  than  on  the  north.  Its 
loftiest  summits  are  near  its  center, 
where  its  culminating  point,  Maladetta, 
or  Pic  de  N4thou,  reaches  a height  of 
11,424  feet.  The  principal  passes  in  the 
Pyrenees,  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
valleys  from  opposite  sides  of  the  axis, 
take  in  the  east  part  of  the  chain  the 
name  of  Cols,  and  toward  the  center 
that  of  Ports.  Only  four  of  these  are  con- 
veniently practicable  for  carriages.  In 
1885  the  French  and  Spanish  govern- 
ments agreed  to  the  construction  of  two 
railways,  of  which  the  tunnels  perfora- 
ting the  Pyrenees  were  to  be  made  at 
the  cost  of  both  countries.  In  the 
Pyrenees  is  to  be  found  some  of  the 
finest  scenery  in  France.  The  climate, 
genial  and  warm,  banishes  perpetual 
snow  to  1300  feet  higher  than  the  snow- 
line of  the  Alps.  The  French  Pyrenees 
abound  in  mineral  springs,  in  connection 
with  which  are  some  of  the  gayest  water- 
ing-places in  Europe,  chief  among  them 
BagnSres  de  Luchon.  Barege  is  in  a 
dreary  gorge,  but  its  waters  are  cele- 
brated for  their  efficacy. 

PYRENEES  (pe-ra-na),  the  French 
name  of  the  Pyrenees,  giving  name  to 
three  French  departments. — Basses- 
Pyr4n4es  (bas-pe-ra-na),  is  a department 
of  Southwestern  France,  at  the  angle 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Its  industry  is 
mainly  agricultural.  The  surface  is 
diversified,  there  is  much  fine  scenery, 
and  the  forests  are  extensive  and  valua- 
ble. Biarritz,  its  chief  watering-place, 
is  well  known  as  a health  resort,  espe- 
cially in  winter.  Pau  is  the  capital  of 
the  department.  Area,  2943  sq.  miles; 
pop.  432,999. — Hautes-Pyr4n4es  (6t-pe- 
ra-na)  is  a department  of  Southern 
France,  bounded  partly  by  Spain,  partly 
by  Basses-Pyren4es)  and  other  depart- 
ments. To  it  in  the  south  belong  some 
of  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Pyrenees. 
The  finest  scenery  and  the  mineral 
springs  of  the  department  attract  many 
visitors.  Area,  1749  sq.  miles;  pop. 
234,825.  Tarbes  is  the  capital. — Pyrdndes- 
Orientales  (pe-ra-na-zo-re-an-tal),  a de- 
partment of  Southern  France,  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Spanish  frontier.  Its  chief  wealth  lies  in 
jte  wines,  of  which  the  well-known 


Roussillon  is  one.  The  department  is 
also  very  rich  in  iron.  Pergipnan  is  the 
capital.  Area,  1592  sq.  miles;  pop. 
211,187. 

PYRHE'LIOMETER,  an  instrument 
devised  by  M.  Pouillet  for  measuring  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

PYRITES  (pi-rl'tez),  a name  given  in 
mineralogy  tovarious  metallic  sulphides, 
chiefly  to  the  sulphides  of  copper  and 
iron.  Pyrites  is  largely  used  as  a source 
of  sulphur  in  the  manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric acid. 

PYROGALLIC  ACID,  an  acid  ob- 
tained by  the  dry  distillation  of  gallic 
acid  (which  see).  It  forms  crystals  that 
have  neither  smell  nor  color,  is  readily 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether,  has 
a neutral  feaction,  readily  absorbs 
oxygen  in  an  alkaline  solution,  and  be- 
comes of  a dark  brown  color.  It  is  used 
in  photography,  and  sometimes  as  a 
hair-dye. 

PYROM'ETER,  any  instrument,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  measure  all  gradua- 
tions of  temperature  above  those  in- 
dicated by  the  mercurial  thermometer. 

PYR'OSCOPE  , an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  intensity  of  heat  radiating 
from  a hot  body,  or  the  frigorific  in- 
fluence of  a cold  body. 

PY'ROTECHNY,  the  science  of  mak- 
ing and  using  artificial  fire-works,  the 
chief  ingredients  of  which  are  nitre, 
sulphur,  and  charcoal.  Iron  filings  yield 
bright  red  and  white  sparks.  Steel 
filings  and  cast-iron  borings  contain 
carbon,  and  give  a more  brilliant  fire 
with  wavy  radiations.  Copper  filings 
give  flame  a greenish  tint,  those  of  zinc 
a fine  blue  color;  the  sulphurate  of  anti- 
mony gives  a less  greenish  blue  than 
zinc,  but  with  much  smoke;  amber, 
resin,  and  common  salt  give  a yellow 
fire.  Lampblack  produces  a very  red 
color  with  gunpowder,  and  a pink  with 
niter  in  excess.  Verdigris  imparts  a pale 
green,  sulphate  of  copper  and  sal- 
ammoniac  a palm-tree  green.  Lycopo- 
dium, used  also  in  the  manufacture  of 
stage-lighting,  burns  with  a rose  color 
and  a magnificent  flame.  See  Fire-works. 

PYROX'YLINE,  a term  embracing 
gun-cotton  and  all  other  explosive  sub- 
stances obtained  by  immersing  vegetable 
fiber  in  nitric  or  nitro-sulphuric  acid, 
and  then  suffering  it  to  dry.  These  sub- 
stances are  nitro-derivatives  of  cellulose. 

PYRRHIC  DANCE,  an  ancient  Grecian 
warlike  dance,  which  consisted  chiefly 
in  such  an  adroit  and  nimble  turning 
of  the  body  as  represented  an  attempt 
to  avoid  the  strokes  of  an  enemy  in 
battle,  and  the  motions  necessary  to 
perform  it  were  looked  upon  as  a kind  of 
training  for  war. 

PYRRHO,  a Grecian  philosopher  of 
Elis,  founder  of  the  Pyrrhonian  or  scep- 
tical school,  flourished  about  340  b.c. 
A disposition  to  doubt  is  often  called, 
from  this  philosopher,  Pyrrhonism. 

PYRRHUS,  King  of  Epirus,  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  generals  of  antiquity, 
was  born  about  318  B.c.  He  defeated 
the  Romans  in  two  battles,  but  with 
severe  loss  to  himself ; then  passed  over 
into  Sicily,  returned  to  Italy  again,  and 
was  defeated  at  Beneventum  275  n.c. 
He  now  retired  to  Epirus,  took  part  in 
the  Greek  troubles,  and  was  killed  at 
Argos,  B.c.  272. 


PYTHAG'ORAS,  a Grecian  philoso- 
pher, supposed  to  have  been  born  about 
586  B.c.  at  Samos.  He  went  to  Scyros, 
and  was  a scholar  of  Pherecydes  till  the 
death  of  the  latter;  others  make  him  also 
a scholar  of  Thales  and  Anaximander. 
He  is  said  to  have  gathered  knowledge 
from  the  philosophers  or  learned  men 
of  Phoenicia,  Syria,  Egypt,  Babylon, 
India,  etc.,  but  eventually  settled  at  the 
Greek  city  of  Crotona  in  Lower  Italy, 
probably  about  529  b.c.  His  abilities 
and  character  led  great  numbers,  chiefly 
of  the  noble  and  wealthy  classes,  to 
adopt  his  views.  Three  hundred  of 
these  were  formed  into  a select  fraternity 
or  order,  and  were  bound  by  vow  to 
Pythagoras  and  each  other,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cultivating  the  rites  and  observ- 
ances enjoined  by  their  master,  and 
studying  his  philosophy.  They  thus 
formed  at  once  a philosophical  school 
and  a religious  order.  The  political  in- 
fluence of  this  body  became  very  con- 
siderable, and  was  exerted  in  the  interest 
of  the  aristocratic  party.  The  demo- 
cratic party  strenuously  opposed  the 
growing  power  of  the  order,  and  their 
enmity  caused  Pythagoras  to  retire  to 
Metapontum,  where  he  died  about 
506  B.c.  His  public  instruction  con- 
sisted of  practical  discourses  in  which 
he  recommended  virtue  and  dissuaded 
from  vice,  with  a particular  reference  to 
the  various  relations  of  mankind,  as 
those  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents 
and  children,  citizens  and  magistrates, 
etc.  His  disciples  were  required  to  prac- 
tice the  greatest  purity  and  simplicity 
of  manners.  He  imposed  upon  them, 
it  is  said,  a silence  of  from  two  to  five 
years,  according  to  circumstances.  He 
alone  who  had  passed  through  the  ap- 
pointed series  of  trials  was  allowed  to 
hear  the  word  of  the  master  in  his  im- 
mediate presence.  To  the  initiated  the 
doctrines  were  not  delivered,  as  to 
others,  under  the  mask  of  images  and 
s3mibols,  but  unveiled.  Pythagoras  left 
no  writings;  the  Golden  Sentences  ex- 
tant under  his  name  having  been  com- 
posed or  compiled  by  later  hands. 

PYTHIAN  GAMES,  one  of  the  four 
great  Grecian  games,  instituted  in  honor 
of  Apollo,  and  celebrated  at  Delphi.  Un- 
til about  586  b.c.  they  were  under  the 
management  of  the  Delphians,  and  took 
place  every  eighth  year;  but  after  that 
date  they  were  conducted  by  the 
Amphictyons,  and  celebrated  every 
fourth  year,  prizes  being  given  for 
flute-playing,  athletic  sports,  and  horse 
and  chariot  racing.  Eventually  con- 
tests in  tragedy,  painting,  sculpture, 
etc.,  were  added.  At  first  prizes  of  silver 
or  gold  were  awarded,  but  afterward 
the  simple  laurel  wreath  and  palm- 
branch  were  substituted.  Tney  con- 
tinued to  be  celebrated  until  the  end  of 
the  4th  century  of  our  era. 

PYTHIAS,  Knights  of,  a fraternal  and 
beneficial  order  founded  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  in  1864.  Its  objects  are  the  prac- 
tice of  friendship,  benevolence  and 
charity  toward  the  members.  Its  most 
binding  obligation  is  complete  and  abso- 
lute secrecy.  The  first  lodge  instituted 
was  Washington  lodge.  In  1868  a new 
constitution  was  adopted  at  Washington 
under  which  was  organized,  as  the  cen- 
tral governing  body,  the  Supreme  Lodge 


PYTHONESS 


QUAIL 


Knights  of  Pythias  of  the  World.  Its 
roll  of  membership  exceeds  600,000.  The 
uniform  rank  is  another  division  of  the 
order.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the 
supreme  lodge  also,  but  is  directed  by 
an  officer  whose  title  is  major-general. 
The  members  of  this  grade  are  on  the 
same  plane  with  the  other  members, 
but  only  those  members  who  have  re- 
ceived the  rank  of  knight  are  eligible 
for  membership.  Pythian  knighthood 
confers  three  ranks  or  degrees,  viz.: 
The  initiatory  rank  of  “page;”  the 
armorial  rank  of  “esquire;”  and  the 
chivalric  rank  of  “knight.”  The  motto 
of  the  order  is:  “Be  generous,  brave,  and 
true.” 

PYTHON,  a genus  and  family  of  ser- 
pents allied  to  tlie  family  Boidee  or  Boas. 
They  are  not  venomous,  but  kill  their 
prey  by  compression.  The  pythons  be- 
long exclusively  to  the  Old  World,  and 
are  of  enormous  size,  sometimes  attain- 
ing a length  of  30  feet.  They  are  found 
in  India  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago,  in  Africa  and  in  Australia. 
A rudimentary  pelvis  and  traces  of 
hinder  limbs  exist  in  the  pythons,  these 
structures  terminating  externally  in  a 
kind  of  hooked  claw.  The  head  exceeds 


Q,  the  seventeenth  letter  in  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  a consonant  having  the 
same  sound  as  k or  hard  c.  It  is  a super- 
fluous letter  in  English,  as  the  combina- 
tion qu,  in  which  it  always  occurs,  could 
be  equally  well  expressed  by  kw  or  k 
alone  when  the  u is  silent.  It  did  not 
occur  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  the 
sound  qu  in  Anglo-Saxon  words  being 
regularly  written  cw  or  cu,  but  was  bor- 
rowed from  the  French-Latin  alphabet. 

QUADRAN'GLE,  in  geometry,  a quad- 
rilateral figure;  a plane  figure  having 
four  sides,  and  consequently  four  angles. 
In  ordinary  language  it  is  a square  or 
quadrangular  court  surrounded  by 
buildings,  as  often  seen  in  the  buildings 
of  a college,  school,  or  the  like. 

QUAD'RANT,  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring angular  altitudes,  variously  con- 
structed and  mounted  for  diffe^nt 
specific  uses  in  astronomjq  navigation, 
surveying,  etc.,  consisting  originally  of 
a graduated  arc  of  90°,  with  an  index 
or  vernier,  and  either  plain  or  telescopic 
sights,  along  with  a plumb-line  or  spirit- 
level  for  fixing  the  vertical  or  horizontal 
direction.  Its  principle  and  application 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  sextant,  by 
which  it  is  superseded.  See  Sextant. 

QUADRILLE',  a dance  of  French 
origin,  which  consists  generally  of  five 
consecutive  figures  or  movements, 
danced  by  four  sets  of  couples,  each 
forming  the  side  of  a square. 

QUADRU'MANA  (“four-handed”),  the 
name  applied  by  Cuvier  and  others  to 
denote  the  order  of  mammalia  repre- 
sented by  the  lemurs,  monkeys,  and 
apes,  from  the  fact  that  these  forms 
agree  in  possessing  a great  toe  so  con- 
structed as  to  be  capable  of  opposing  the 
other  digits  of  the  feet,  instead  of  being 
placed  parallel  with  the  other  toes,  thus 
forming  a kind  of  “hand”  adapted  for 
supporting  the  foot  on  the  ground. 


the  neck  in  thickness,  and  the  mouth  is 
extremely  large.  Aided  by  their  pre- 


, t> 


Python. 


hensile  tails  and  rudimentary  hinder 
limbs,  the  pythons  suspend  themselves 

Q 

QUADRUPED,  the  name  popularly 
applied  to  those  higher  vertebrate  ani- 
mals which  possess  four  developed  limbs. 
The  name  is  usually  restricted  to  four- 
footed  mammals. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE,  an  al- 
liance, so  called  from  the  number  of  the 
contracting  parties,  concluded  in  1718 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Austria,  and  acceded  to  by  Holland  in 
1719,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht.  The  occasion  of  the  alliance 
was  the  seizure  by  Spain  of  Sardinia  in 
1717,  and  Sicily  in  1718,  both  of  which 
she  was  forced  to  give  up. 

QU.®STOR,  the  name  of  certain  mag- 
istrates of  ancient  Rome  whose  chief 
office  was  the  management  of  the  public 
treasure,  being  receivers  of  taxes,  trib- 
utes, etc. 

QUAGGA,  a species  of  the  horse  genus, 
nearly  allied  to  the  zebra,  and  formerly 
found  on  the  plains  of  Southern  Africa. 
Striped  liked  the  zebra,  it  yet  possessed 
no  bands  on  the  limbs;  of  a dark  or 
blackish-brown  on  the  head,  neck,  and 
shoulders,  the  back  and  hind  quarters 
were  of  a lighter  brown,  while  the  croup 
was  of  a russet  gray.  The  under  parts  of 
the  body  were  white,  the  upper  parts  of 
the  legs  and  tail  being  marked  by  whitish 
bars.  The  quagga  was  of  smaller  size 
than  the  zebra,  and  in  general  conforma- 
tion bore  a closer  resemblance  to  the 
horse.  Gregarious  in  habits,  the  quagga 
is  said  to  have  mingled  indiscriminately 
with  the  zebra  herds.  Its  food  consisted 
of  grasses  and  mimosa  leaves.  It  is  now 
said  to  be  absolutely  extinct.  The 
animal  to  which  the  name  quagga  is  now 
applied  is  Burchell’s  zebra. 

QUAIL,  a genus  of  rasorial  birds,  in- 
cluded in  the  family  of  the  partridges, 
to  which  they  are  nearly  allied,  but  from 
which  they  differ  in  being  smaller,  in 
having  a relatively  shorter  tail,  no  red 


from  the  branches  of  trees  and  lie  in 
wait  near  water  for  animals  which  come 
to  drink.  The  genus  python  contains 
various  species,  the  best  known  of  which 
is  the  West  African  python,  common  in 
menageries.  The  female  python  hatches 
her  eggs  by  the  heat  of  her  body. 

PY'THONESS,  the  priestess  of  Apollo 
at  his  temple  at  Delphi  who  gave  oracular 
answers.  See  Delphi. 

PYX  (Greek,  pyxis,  a box),  a covered 
vessel  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  to  contain  the  consecrated  host. 
In  ancient  times,  although  generally 
rectangular  in  shape,  it  sometimes  had 
the  form  of  a dove,  and  was  suspended 
above  the  altar.  It  is  now  cylindrical, 
cup  or  bell  shaped,  with  a cross-sur- 
mounted cover,  and  is  frequently 
delicately  chased  and  inlaid. 

PYX,  Trial  of  the,  the  final  trial  by 
weight  and  assay  of  the  gold  and  silver 
coins  of  the  United  Kingdom,  prior  to 
their  issue  from  the  mint,  a certain  num- 
ber being  taken  and  tested  by  way  of 
sample  of  the  whole.  The  trial  takes 
place  periodically  by  a jury  of  gold- 
smiths summoned  by  the  lord-chancel- 
lor, and  constitutes  a public  attestation 
of  the  standard  purity  of  the  coin. 


space  above  the  eye,  longer  wings,  and 
no  spur  on  the  legs.  The  common  quail 
is  a migratory  bird,  and  is  found  in  every 
country  of  Europe,  and  in  many  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  about  8 inches 
in  length.  The  color  of  the  upper  parts 
is  brownish  with  lighter  and  darker 
markings,  of  the  under  parts  yellowish. 
The  quail  is  very  pugnacious,  and  in 
some  places  quail  fights  are  a form  of 
amusement,  as  was  the  case  also  in 
ancient  times.  Its  flesh  is  deemed  ex- 
cellent food,  and  large  numbers  are 
brought  alive  and  dead  from  the  conti- 


Bob-whlte,  or  common  quail  of  America. 


nent  to  the  British  markets.  In  Britain 
these  birds  arrive  early  in  May,  and  de- 
part southward  in  October.  There  are 
several  other  species,  in  appearance  and 
habits  not  greatly,  differing  from  the 
common  quail,  as  the  Coromandel  quail, 
the  Australian  quail,  the  white  throated 
quail,  the  Chinese  quail,  an  elegant 
little  species  measuring  only  4 inches  in 
length,  etc.  The  name  of  quail  is  also 
given  to  some  birds  of  other  genera,  as 
the  Virginia  or  Maryland  quail,  and  the 
Californian  or  crested  quail.  The  Vir- 
ginian quail  is  common  throughout 


QUAlffinS 


QUARTZ 


North  America,  and  extends  as  far  south 
as  Honduras.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  European  quail.  The  flesh  is  very 
white  and  tender,  and  is  unequalled  in 
delicacy  by  any  other  member  of  its 
order  in  America. 

QUAKERS,  a society  of  Christians 
which  took  its  rise  in  England  about 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  George 
Fox,  a native  of  Drayton,  in  Leicester- 
shire, was  the  first  to  teach  the  religious 
views  which  distinguish  the  society. 
He  commenced  his  ministerial  labors  in 
1647,  and  immediately  fell  under  per- 
secution. But  persecution,  as  usual, 
enlisted  the  sympathies  of  many  in  his 
cause.  'After  making  multitudes  of  con- 
verts he  organized  them  into  a church, 
which  became,  although  not  until  after 
severe  persecution,  one  of  the  recognized 
sects  of  Christianity.  Among  the  other 
eminent  members  of  the  society  in  its 
early  days  we  may  mention  Wiiibim 
Penn,  Robert  Barclay,  George  White- 
head,  Stephen  Crisp,  Isaac  Pennington, 
John  Crook,  Thomas  Story,  etc.  The 
early  Quakers  were  marked  as  a peculiar 
people  by  their  testimonies  against 
oaths,  a paid  ministry,  and  tithes ; their 
use  of  the  singular  pronouns  when  ad- 
dressing only  one  person;  their  refusal 
to  take  off  the  hat  as  a compliment  to 
men;  the  plainness  of  their  apparel;  and 
their  disuse  of  the  ordinary  names  of  the 
months  and  days.  The  name  Quakers 
was  given  to  them  in  derision,  and 
though  they  accepted  the  name  they 
^all  themselves  by  that  of  Friends.  One 
of  the  brighest  chapters  in  the  annals  of 
Quakerism  is  that  relating  to  the  found- 
ing of  the  colony  of  Pennsylvania.  (See 
Penn,  William,  Pennsylvania.) 

The  society,  or  the  orthodox  section 
of  it,  believes  that,  under  the  gospel 
dispensation,  all  wars  and  fightings  are 
strictly  forbidden;  the  positive  injunc- 
tion of  Christ,  “Love  your  enemies,” 
etc.,  entirely  precluding  the  indulgence 
of  those  passions  from  which  only  such 
contests  can  arise.  They  also  believe 
that  the  express  command,  “Swear  not 
at  all,”  prohibits  the  Christian  from  the 
use  of  judicial  as  well  as  other  oaths. 
In  like  manner,  following  the  spirit  of 
the  Scriptures,  they  believe  that  a special 
call  is  necessary  to  constitute  a true 
minister  of  the  gospel,  that  the  faithful 
minister  should  not  preach  for  a pecuni- 
ary reward,  that  the  essential  baptism 
is  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  not  by  water,  and 
that  the  Lord’s  supper  is  also  entirely  of 
a spiritual  nature.  They  therefore  re- 
nounce both  these  sacraments  so  far  as 
the  ordinary  outward  forms  are  con- 
cerned. As  to  the  cardinal  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  the  incarnation,  crucifix- 
ion, resurrection,  redemption  through 
Christ’s  death,  justification,  etc.,  their 
beliefs  are  similar  to  those  of  orthodox 
Christians  generally.  The  Quakers  were 
one  of  the  first  sects  to  allow  women  to 
teach  publicly.  As  early  as  1727  they 
censured  the  traffic  in  slaves,  and  the 
efforts  of  the  society  had  a great  in- 
fluence in  bringing  about  their  emanci- 
pation. They  object  to  balls,  gaming- 
places,  horse-races,  theaters,  and  music ; 
also  to  the  reading  of  plays,  romances, 
and  novels;  and  enjoin  plainness  of  dress 
and  the  avoidance  of  ornaments. 

The  society  is  governed  by  its  own  ' 


code  of  discipline,  which  is  enacted  and 
supported  by  meetings  of  four  degrees 
for  discipline — namely,  preparative, 
monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly  meet- 
ings. The  preparative  digest  and  prepare 
the  business  for  the  monthly  meetings, 
in  which  the  executive  power  is  prin- 
cipally lodged,  subject,  however,  to  the 
revision  and  control  of  the  quarterly 
meetings,  which  are  again  subject  to  the 
supervision  and  direction  of  the  yearly 
meetings.  There  are  about  60,000  mem- 
bers and  adherents  in  Britain,  about 
95,000  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, besides  small  numbers  in  other 
countries. 

QUANTITY,  that  property  of  any- 
thing, in  virtue  of  which  it  is  capable  of 
being  measured,  increased,  or  dimin- 
ished, relating  to  bulk,  weight,  or  num- 
ber. In  mathematics  a quantity  is  any- 
thing to  which  mathematical  processes 
are  applicable.  In  grammar  it  signifies 
the  measure  of  a syllable,  or  the  time  in 
which  it  is  pronounced — the  metrical 
value  of  syllables  as  regards  length  or 
weight  in  pronunciation.  In  Latin  and 
Greek  poetry  quantity  and  not  accent 
regulates  the  measure. 

QUAR'ANTINE,  the  period  (originally 
forty  days)  during  which  a ship  coming 
from  a port  suspected  of  contagion,  or 
having  a contagious  sickness  on  board, 
is  forbidden  intercourse  with  the  place 
at  which  she  arrives.  This  form  of 
quarantine  is  now  confined  to  foreign 
countries  where  cholera,  yellow  fever, 
etc.,  have  to  be  guarded  against.  In 
Britain  quarantine  is  altogether  abol- 
ished. If  there  be  evidence  or  suspicion 
of  infectious  disease  on  board  a vessel 
arriving  in  a British  port,  the  customs- 
officers  report  the  same  to  the  port 
sanitary  authorities,  who  have  power 
to  deal  with  cases  under  the  public 
health  acts.  Quarantine  was  originally 
introduced  at  Venice  as  a measure  of 
proection  against  plague  or  leprosy 
about  the  middle  of  the  14th  century, 
Venice,  then  the  chief  trading  center  of 
the  Mediterranean,  being  especially 
liable  to  contagion  through  vessels  com- 
ing from  Eastern  ports.  A lazaretto  was 
early  erected  here  in  connection  with 
the  quarantine  restrictions.  In  the  Unit- 
ed States  it  is  a misdemeanor  punishable 
by  a fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  for 
the  master,  pilot,  or  owner  of  any  ves- 
sel entering  a port  of  the  United  States 
in  violation  of  the  quarantine  law  passed 
in  1888,  or  regulations  framed  under  it. 

QUARREL,  a bolt  or  dart  to  be  shot 
from  a cross-bow,  or  thrown  from  a 
catapult,  especially  one  with  a square 
head  and  pyramidal  point. 

QUARRY,  an  open  excavation  made 
for  obtaining  stone,  such  as  granite, 
marble,  sandstone,  limestone,  and  slates. 
Stones  suitable  for  important  building 
purposes  are  usually  found  at  a good 
distance  below  the  surface.  In  the  case 
of  unstratified  rocks,  such  as  granite, 
whinstone,  etc.,  the  stone  is  most  fre- 
quently detached  from  the  mass  by 
blasting,  a process  by  which  much  valu- 
able stone  is  wasted,  and  a different 
method  is  employed  whenever  it  is  found 
possible.  This  is  frequently  the  case  with 
some  stratified  rocks,  such  as  sandstone, 
from  which  blocks  are  separated  by 
hand-tools  alone.  Small  holes  a few 


inches  asunder  are  cut  along  a certain 
length  of  rock,  into  which  steel  wedges 
are  inserted.  These  are  driven  in  by 
heavy  hammers  until  the  stratum  is  cut 
through.  The  large  blocks  necessary  for 
monumental  purposes  are  generally 
obtained  in  this  way,  and  before  they 
leave  the  quarry  they  are  usually  re- 
duced as  nearly  as  possible  to  a rectangu- 
lar form. 

QUART,  an  English  measure  of  capac- 
ity, being  the  fourth  part  of  a gallon,  or 
8 gills. 

QUARTER-DECK,  the  upper  deck, 
or  aftermost  part  of  the  upper  deck,  of  a 
vessel,  extending  from  the  main-mast 
to  the  stern,  or  to  the  poop  (when  there 
is  one).  In  ships  of  war  it  is  especially 
set  apart  for  the  officers. 

QUARTERING,  in  heraldry,  is  divid- 
ing a coat  into  four  or  more  quarters  or 
quarterings,  by  perpendicular  and  hori- 
zontal lines,  etc.  See  Heraldry. 

QUARTER-MASTER,  in  the  army, 
an  officer  who  attends  to  the  quarters 
for  the  soldiers,  their  provisions,  fuel, 
forage,  etc.  There  is  a quarter-master 
attached  to  every  regiment,  battalion, 
etc.,  who  generally  holds  the  relative 
rank  of  lieutenant.  A quarter-master  in 
the  navy  is  a petty  officer  appointed  by 
the  captain,  who,  besides  having  charge 
of  the  stowage  of  ballast,  and  provisions 
coiling  of  ropes,  etc.,  attends  to  the 
steering  of  the  ship. 

QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL,  a 
staff  officer  of  high  rank  in  the  army, 
whose  department  is  charged  vdth  all 
orders  relating  to  the  marching,  em- 
barking, disembarking,  billeting,  quar- 
tering, and  cantoning  of  troops,  encamp- 
ments and  camp  equipage.  The  quarter- 
master-general is  attached  to  a whole 
army  under  a commander-in-chief,  and 
generally  holds  the  rank  of  major-general 
while  to  every  brigade  is  attached  a 
deputy-assistant  quarter-master-general. 

QUARTERN,  a term  sometimes  used 
to  designate  the  fourth  of  a peck,  or  of  a 
stone;  as  the  quartern-loaf.  In  liquid 
measure  it  is  the  fourth  part  of  a pint. 

QUARTET', or  QUARTETTE',  a musi- 
cal composition  for  four  instruments, 
generally  stringed  instruments  (that  is, 
two  violins,  one  viola  or  tenor  violin, 
and  one  violoncello) ; also  a composition 
for  four  voices,  with  or  without  accom- 
paniment. 

QUARTO  (4to),  a book  of  the  size  of 
the  fourth  of  a sheet;  a size  made  by 
twice  folding  a sheet,  which  then  makes 
four  leaves. 

QUARTZ,  the  name  given  to  numer- 
ous varieties  of  the  native  oxide  of  silicon, 
called  also  silicic  acid.  Quartz  embraces 
a large  number  of  varieties.  It  occurs 
both  crystalized  and  massive,  and  in 
both  states  is  most  abundantly  diffused 
throughout  nature,  and  is  especially 
one  of  the  constituents  of  granite  and 
the  older  rocks.  'VMien  crystalized  it 
generally  occurs  in  hexagonal  prisms, 
terminated  by  hexagonal  pyramids.  It 
scratches  glass  readily,  gives  fire  with 
steel,  becomes  positively  electrical  by 
friction,  and  two  pieces  when  rubbed  to- 
gether become  luminous  in  the  dark. 
The  colors  are  various,  as  white  or  milky, 
gray,  reddish,  yellowish  or  brownish, 
purple,  blue,  green.  Quartz  veins  are 
often  found  in  metamorphic  rocks,  and 


QUATREFOIL 


QUEEN 


frequently  contain  rich  deposits  of  gold. 
The  principal  varieties  of  quartz  known 
by  distinct  names  are  the  following: 
1,  rock-crystal;  2,  smoky  quartz;  3, 
yellow  quartz;  4,  amethyst;  5,  siderite 
or  blue  quartz;  6,  rose  quartz;  7,  milky 
quartz;  8,  irised  quartz;  9,  common 
quartz;  10,  fat  (greasy)  quartz;  11, 
flint;  12,  hornstone;  13,  Lydian  stone; 
14,  float  stone  (swimming  stone);  15, 
fibrous  quartz;  16,  radiating  quartz;  17, 
chalcedony;  18,  carnelian;  19,  chryso- 
prase;  20,  agate.  The  name'rock-crystal 
is  applied  to  transparent  and  colorless 
crystals.  Smoky  quartz  consists  of 
crystals  and  crystalline  masses  which 
are  translucent  and  of  a brown  color. 
Yellow  quartz,  sometimes  called  Bo- 
hemian or  Scottish  topaz,  is  transparent, 
and  of  various  shades  of  yellow.  Ame- 
thyst is  of  every  shade  of  violet,  and 
nearly  transparent.  Siderite  is  of  an 
azure-blue  color,  and  never  in  regular 
crystals.  Rose  quartz  is  of  a rose-red 
color.  Milky  quartz  is  massive,  trans- 
lucent, and  of  a milk-white  color.  Irised 
quartz  exhibits  the  colors  of  the  rainbow. 
Fat  or  greasy  quartz  has  the  appearance 
of  having  been  immersed  in  oil.  Flint 
has  a more  compact  texture  than  com- 
mon quartz,  is  dull,  only  translucent  on 
the  edges,  of  a brownish  color,  and  breaks 
with  a conchoidal  fracture.  Hornstone 
resembles  flint,  but  its  conchoidal  frac- 
ture is  less  distinct.  Lydian  stone  differs 
from  flint  chiefly  in  having  a darker 
color,  less  translucency,  and  a fracture 
somewhat  slaty;  when  black  it  is 
often  called  basanite.  Floatstone  con- 
cists  of  a delicate  tissue  of  minute 
crystals,  visible  only  under  a powerful 
magnifier.  Owing  to  the  cavities  it  con- 
tains it  will  sometimes  float  on  water. 
Fibrous  quartz  consists  of  those  varieties 
which  are  in  distinct  parallel  concre- 
tions. Radiating  quartz  is  like  fibrous 
quartz,  except  that  the  fibers  diverge 
from  a common  center,  and  resemble  the 
radii  of  a circle,  instead  of  being  parallel. 
Chalcedony  includes  those  varieties  of 
radiating  quartz  where  the  thickness  of 
the  individuals  becomes  so  much  dimin- 
ished as  to  render  them  nearly  or  alto- 
gether impalpable.  Carnelian  differs 
from  chalcedony  merely  in  having  a 
blood-red  color.  Chrysoprase  also  re- 
sembles chalcedony  in  composition,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  granular  instead  of 
fibrous;  its  color  is  apple-green.  Agate 
implies  the  occurrence  of  two  or  more 
of  the  above  varieties  existing  together 
in  intimate  union.  Cat’s  eye,  avanturine, 
prase,  plasma,  heliotrope,  Compostella 
hyacinth,  jasper  (red,  brown,  striped, 
and  porcelain),  jasper  agate.  Mocha  stone, 
Venushair  agate,  etc.,  formerly  in- 
cluded under  quartz,  are  only  mixtures 
of  this  mineral  with  other  substances. 
Several  varieties  of  quartz  are  of  im- 
portant use  in  the  arts  and  manufactures. 
The  ancients  regarded  rock-crystal  as 
petrified  water,  and  made  use  of  it  for 
the  fabrication  of  vases.  At  present  it  is 
employed  not  only  for  cups,  urns,  chan- 
deliers, etc.,  but  for  seals,  spectacle- 
glasses,  and  optical  instruments.  Quartz 
enters  into  the  composition  of  glass,  both 
white  and  colored.  In  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain  it  is  added  in  the  state  of  an 
impalpable  powder,  and  forms  part 
of  the  paste;  it  is  also  used  in  other 


kinds  of  pottery.  Quartz  is  used  as  a 
fluid  in  the  melting  of  several  kinds  of 
ores,  particularly  those  of  copper,  and 
in  other  metallurgical  processes.  Touch- 
stone is  a hard  velvety-black  variety  of 
Lydian  stone. 

QUATREFOIL  (kwa't6r-foil),  in  archi- 
tecture, an  opening  or  a panel  divided  by 
cusps  or  foliations  into  four  leaves,  or 
more  correctly  the  leaf-shaped  figure 
formed  by  the  cusps.  It  is  an  ornament 
which  has  been  supposed  to  represent 
the  four  leaves  of  a cruciform  flower. 


Quatrefoils. 

and  is  common  in  the  tracery  of  Gothic 
windows.  Bands  of  small  quatrefoils 
are  much  used  as  ornaments  in  the  per- 
pendicular Gothic  style,  and  sometimes 
in  the  decorated.  The  same  name  is  also 
given  to  flowers  and  leaves  of  similar 
forms  carved  as  ornaments  on  mould- 
ings, etc. 

QUAVER,  a note  and  measure  of  time 
in  music,  equal  to  lialf  a crotchet  or  the 
eighth  of  a semibreve.  See  Music. 

QUAY  (ke),  a landing-place  substan- 
tially built  along  a line  of  coast  or  a river 
bank,  or  round  a harbor,  and  having 
posts  and  rings  to  which  vessels  may  be 
moored,  frequently  also  cranes  and 
storehouses  for  the  convenience  of  mer- 
chant ships. 

QUAY  (kwa),  Matthew  Stanley,  Ameri- 
can politician,  born  in  Dillsburg,  York 
CO.,  Pa.,  in  1833.  During  the  civil  war 
he  was  assistant  commissary-general  of 
the  state,  and  military  secretary  to  the 
governor.  He  was  a member  of  the  legis- 
lature from  1865  to  1867;  secretary  of 
state  for  Pennsylvania  from  1872  to 
1878,  recorder  of  Philadelphia  from 
1878  to  1879,  again  secretary  of  state 
from  1879  to  1882,  elected  state  treas- 
urer in  1885,  and  was  chosen  United 
States  senator  in  1887.  In  1888  he  was 
chairman  of  the  executive  committee  of 
the  republican  national  committee.  He 
was  re-elected  to  the  senate  in  1893,  but 
failed  to  succeed  himself  in  1899,  because 
of  a deadlock  which  lasted  throughout 
the  session  of  the  legislature.  He  was 
appointed  senator  by  the  governor,  but 
the  senate  refused  to  recognize  the  ap- 
pointment. He  was,  however,  nominated 
to  succeed  himself  by  the  republican 
state  convention,  and  in  1901  was  re- 
elected for  the  term  to  expire  in  1905. 
He  died  in  1904. 

QUEBEC',  a city  and  shipping  port  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  situated  on  a 
promontory  near  the  confluence  of  the 
St.  Charles  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  ter- 
minating abruptly  in  Cape  Diamond, 
which  has  a height  of  333  feet,  and  on 
the  banks  of  both  streams.  It  is  about 
400  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  140  miles  northeast  of 
Montreal,  to  which  the  river  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels.  On  the  Plains  of  Abra- 
ham, west  of  the  upper  town,  a column 
40  feet  high  has  been  erected  to  the 
memory  of  General  Wolfe;  while  in  the 
upper  town  there  is  a handsome  obelisk, 
65  feet  high,  to  the  joijiL .memory  of  the 


two  commanders,  Wolfe  and"MontcaIm, 
who  both  fell  at  the  taking  of  Quebec. 
Ship-building  is  the  chief  industry. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of  iron- 
castings,  machinery,  cutlery,  nails, 
leather,  paper,  india-rubber  goods,  rope, 
tobacco,  beetroot-sugar,  etc.  Quebec  is 
the  chief  seat  of  the  Canadian  trade  in 
timber,  immense  quantities  of  which  are 
here  accumulated,  so  that  at  certain 
seasons  rafts  moored  within  booms  may 
be  seen  extending  along  the  water’s 
edge  for  6 miles.  Pop.  75,000. 

QUEBEC,  a province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n.  by 
Labrador  and  the  northeast  territory  of 
Canada;  on  the  e.  by  Labrador  and  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  on  the  s.  by  the 
Chaleurs  bay.  New  Brunswick,  and  the 
states  of  Maine,  Mew  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, and  New  York;  and  on  the  s.w. 
by  the  River  Ottawa,  which  separates  it 
from  the  province  of  Ontario.  It  is 
nearly  1000  miles  in  length  from  e.  to 
w.  by  300  in  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of 
188,694  sq.  miles.  The  climate  is  varia- 
ble, though  salubrious,  the  temperature 
ranging  from  20°  below  zero  in  winter 
to  90°  in  summer.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile,  and  well  suited  for  the  growth  of 
cereals,  hay,  etc.;  corn,  flax,  and  to- 
bacco are  also  grown,  especially  to  the 
west  of  the  longitude  of  Quebec,  while 
grapes,  melons,  peaches,  and  tomatoes 
in  this  region  come  to  maturity  in  the 
open  air.  A large  portion  of  the  prov- 
ince is  still  covered  with  forest,  the  white 
and  red  pines  and  the  oak  being  the 
most  valuable  trees  for  timber.  The 
fisheries  are  extensive  and  valuable. 
The  minerals  worked  include  apatite, 
asbestos,  gold,  copper,  iron,  plumbago, 
etc.  The  manufactures  are  steadily 
increasing,  and  include  furniture, leather, 
paper,  chemicals,  boots  and  shoes, 
woolen  goods,  steam  and  agricultural 
machinery.  The  chief  exports  are  timber 
and  fish.  The  educational  system  em- 
braces institutions  of  all  grades,  from 
primary  schools  upward,  at  the  top 
being  three  universities — Laval  univer- 
sity, Quebec  (Roman  Catholic);  Macgill 
university,  Montreal  (Protestant);  and 
Bishop’s  college,  Lennoxville  (Angli- 
can). The  affairs  of  the  province  are 
administered  by  a lieutenant-governor 
(appointed  by  the  governor-general)  and 
an  executive  council  composed  of  8 
members,  assisted  by  a legislative  as- 
sembly of  74  members  and  a legislative 
council  of  24  members.  The  latter  hold 
their  appointments  for  life;  the  former 
are  elected  by  the  people  for  five  years. 
The  capital  is  Quebec,  but  Montreal  is 
the  largest  town.  Pop.  1,620,974. 

QUEEN,  a woman  holding  a position 
similar  to  that  of  king.  In  Britain  the 
queen  is  either  queen-consort  or  merely 
wife  of  the  reigning  king,  who  is  in 
general  (unless  where  expressly  ex- 
empted by  law)  upon  the  same  footing 
with  other  subjects,  being  to  all  intents 
the  king’s  subject,  and  not  his  equal; 
or  queen-regent,  regnant,  or  sovereign, 
who  holds  the  crown  in  her  own  right, 
and  has  the  same  powers,  prerogatives, 
and  duties  as  if  she  had  been  a king,  and 
whose  husband  is  a subject ; or  queen- 
dowager,  widow  of  the  king,  who  en- 
joys most  of  the  privileges  which  belong 
to  her  as  queen-consort  Prussia, 


QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  ISLANDS 


QUIETISM 


Sweden,  Belgium,  and  France  there  can 
be  no  queen-regent.  See  Salic  Law.  ■ 

QUEEN  CHARLOTTE  ISLANDS,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  North  Pacific 
ocean,  off  the  mainland  of  British  Colum- 
bia, north  of  Vancouver  island,  dis- 
covered by  Cook  about  1770,  and  an- 
nexed to  the  British  crown  about  1787. 

QUEEN’S  COUNTY,  a county  of  Ire- 
land, in  the  province  of  Leinster,  with 
an  area  of  664  sq.  miles.  Pop.  57,226. 

QUEENSLAND,  an  Australian  colony, 
comprising  the  whole  northeast  portion 
of  Australia  north  of  New  South  Wales 
and  east  of  S.  Australia  and  its  northern 
territory,  being  elsewhere  bounded  by 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  Torres  strait, 
and  the  Pacific.  A considerable  portion 
is  thus  within  the  tropics,  the  most 
northern  part  forming  a sort  of  penin- 
sula, known  as  York  peninsula.  It  has 
an  area  of  about  668,224  sq.  miles,  and  is 
divided  into  twelve  large  districts, 
namely,  Moreton  (east  and  west).  Dar- 
ling Downs,  Burnett,  Port  Cur- 
tis, Maranoa,  Leichhardt,  Kennedy, 
Mitchell,  Warrego,  Gregory,  Burke,  and 
Cook.  Most  of  these  districts  are  now 
subdivided  into  counties.  Toward  the 
west  a large  portion  of  the  surface  is  dry 
and  barren,  but  toward  the  east,  and  for 
a long  stretch  along  the  coast,  boundless 
plains  or  downs,  admirably  adapted  for 
sheep-walks,  and  ranges  of  hills,  gen- 
erally well  wooded  and  intersected  by 
fertile  valleys,  form  the  prevailing 
features  of  the  country.  The  coast  is 
skirted  by  numberless  islands,  and  at 
some  distance  is  the  Great  Barrier  Reef. 
The  highest  mountains  are  near  the 
coast,  the  greatest  elevation  being  about 
5400  feet.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Brisbane,  the  Burnett,  the  Pioneer  the 
Fitzroy,  and  the  Burdekin  flowing  into 
the  Pacific,  and  the  Flinders  and  Mitchell 
into  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  Some  of 
these  streams  are  navigable  for  a con- 
siderable distance  inland.  The  coast  is 
indented  with  many  noble  bays,  afford- 
ing some  capacious  natural  harbors, 
which  have  already  been  brought  into 
practical  use  as  the  outlets  for  the  pro- 
duce of  the  adjacent  districts.  The  cli- 
mate is  healthy,  and  the  temperature 
comparatively  equable.  The  mean  tem- 
perature at  Brisbane  is  69°,  the  extreme 
range  being  from  35°  to  106°.  In  the 
more  northern  parts  the  climate  is  tropi- 
cal. The  rainfall  in  the  interior  is  scanty 
and  variable;  the  mean  at  Brisbane  is 
about  35  inches.  Thq indigenous  animals 
and  plants  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
rest  of  Australia.  Pop.  525,262. 

QUEENSTOWN,  formerly  Cove  of 
Cork,  a maritime  town  of  Ireland,  and 


an  important  naval  station,  9 miles 


southeast  of  Cork,  on  the  south  side  of 
Great  island,  which  rises  abruptly  out 
of  Cork  harbor  to  a considerable  eleva- 
tion. It  is  the  port  for  the  transmission 
of  American  mails,  and  a chief  emigra- 
tion station.  It  has  little  trade  and  no 
manufactures,  being  almost  solely  de- 
pendent on  the  military  and  naval 
establishments  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.  7909. 

QUENTIN',  St.  (san  kan-tan),  an  an- 
cient town  of  France,  department  of 
Aisne,  on  a height  above  the  Somme,  87 
miles  n.e.  of  Paris,  which  from  its  posi- 
tion on  the  frontiers  between  France 
and  the  Low  Countries  figures  much  in 
history.  Pop.  50,150. 

QUERETARO  (ke-ra't^-ro),  a city  in 
Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same 
name,  on  a plateau  6365  feet  above  sea- 
level,  110  miles  northwest  of  Mexico. 
Pop.  33,152. — The  state  of  Quer6taro 
has  an  area  of  3207  sq.  miles,  and  forms 
part  of  the  central  plateau  of  the  Cor- 
dillera, presenting  a very  rugged  sur- 
face, traversed  by  mountain\__  "purs  and 
lofty  heights.  Grain  and  cattle  form  the 
chief  wealth  of  the  state.  The  minerals 
are  comparatively  unimportant.  Pop. 
232,389. 

QUERN,  a hand-mill  for  grinding  corn, 
such  as  is  or  has  been  in  general  use 
among  various  primitive  peoples.  In 
using  the  quern  the  grain  is  dropped  with 
one  hand  into  the  central  opening,  while 
with  the  other  the  upper  stone  is  re- 


Stone  querns  for  grinding. 


volved  by  means  of  a stick  inserted  in  a 
small  opening  near  the  edge.  Hand- 
mills  of  this  description  are  used  in  parts 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland  to  the  present 
day. 

QUESNAY  (ka-na),  Fran9ois,  a French 
physician  of  some  eminence,  but  chiefly 
noted  as  a writer  on  political  economy, 
born  in  1694,  died  in  1774.  He  was  the 
author  of  various  surgical  and  medical 
works;  of  several  articles  in  the  Ency- 
clop^die,  in  which  he  expounds  his 
economical  views;  and  tracts  on  politics, 
including  a treatise  on  the  Physiocratic 
System  G768). 

QUETELET  (kat-la),  Lambert  Adolphe 
Jacques,  Belgian  statistician  and  as- 
tronomer, born  at  Ghent  in  1796, 
studied  at  the  lyceum  of  his  native  town, 
where,  in  1814,  he  became  professor  of 
mathematics.  A member  of  the  Belgian 
Royal  academy,  he  became  its  perpetual 
secretary  in  1834.  Quetelet’s  writings 


on  statistics  and  kindred  subjects  are 
very  numerous.  He  also  published  many 
papers  on  meteorology,  astronomy,  ter- 
restrial magnetism,  etc.  Died  1874. 

QUEZAL,  a most  beautiful  Central 
American  bird.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
magpie,  and  the  male  is  adorned  with 
tail-feathers  from  3 to  3^  feet  in  length, 
and  of  a gorgeous  emerald  color.  These 
feathers  are  not  strictly  speaking  the 
true  tail-feathers  (the  color  of  which  is 
black  and  white),  but  are  the  upper  tail 
coverts  of  the  bird.  The  back,  head  (in- 


Quezal. 


eluding  the  curious  rounded  and  com- 
pressed crest),  throat,  and  chest  are  of 
the  same  rich  hue,  the  lower  parts  being 
of  a brilliant  scarlet.  The  female  wants 
these  long  feathers,  and  is  otherwise 
much  plainer.  The  food  of  the  quezal 
consists  chiefly  of  fruits.  It  lives  in 
forests  of  tall  trees.  There  are  several 
allied  species  of  birds,  but  none  with  the 
distinctive  feature  of  the  quezal. 

QUICK-FIRING  GUNS,  a type  of  ord- 
nance of  recent  introduction,  consisting 
of  breech-loading  guns  of  comparatively 
small  size,  the  projectile  and  powder  for 
which  are  combined  together  in  a metal- 
lic cartridge-case,  so  that  loading  and 


Hotchkiss  slx-pounder  with  deck  mount. 


firing  are  thus  facilitated.  They  are 
mounted  on  special  carriages  provided 
with  steel  shields  to  protect  the  gunners, 
are  fitted  with  special  gear  for  handling 
and  aiming,  and  are  fired  by  electricity. 

QUICKSAnD,  a large  mass  of  loose 
or  moving  sand  mixed  with  water  formed 
on  many  sea-coasts,  dangerous  to  per- 
sons who  trust  themselves  to  it  and  find 
it  unable  to  support  tl  eir  weight. 

QUI'ETISM,  a religious  movement  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  at  the  close 


QUTNcr: 


QUOITS 


of  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the  18th 
centuries,  largely  of  a mystic  character. 

QUINCE,  the  fruit  of  the  quince-tree, 
which  is  supposed  to  be  a native  of 
Western  Asia,  but  is  now  cultivated 
throughout  Europe,  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States  for  its  handsome 


Quince. 


golden  yellow  fruit,  which,  though  hard 
and  austere  when  plucked  from  the  tree, 
becomes  excellent  when  boiled  and 
eaten  with  sugar,  or  preserved  in  syrup, 
or  made  into  marmalade. 

QUINCEY,  Thomas  de.  See  De 
Quincey. 

QUINCY,  a town  in  Adams  co.,  Illi- 
nois, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi, 
105  miles  northwest  of  St.  Louis.  It  is 
an  important  railway  center;  has  an 
extensive  river  traffic,  and  various 
manufacturing  establishments  including 
tobacco  manufactories,  foundries,  ma- 
chine-shops, saw  and  flour  mills,  and  an 
extensive  and  rapidly  increasing  trade. 
Pop.  1909,  estimated  at  40,000. 

QUINCY,  a town  in  Norfolk  co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, on  a branch  of  Boston  har- 
bor, about  7 miles  from  Boston.  Its 
most  important  and  lucrative  industry 
is  the  working  of  the  quarries  which 
furnish  the  well-known  Quincy  granite. 
The  fisheries  also  are  important,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  vessels  are  fitted 
out  in  the  building-yards.  Pop.  26,314. 

QUINCY,  Josiah,  an  American  writer, 
born  at  Boston  1772,  died  1864.  Edu- 
cated for  the  law,  he  made  politics  his 
profession,  and  was  a member  of  con- 


gress from  1804  to  1812.  Then  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  senate  of  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts,  a position 
which  he  held  till  1821,  in  which  year  he 
held  the  office  of  speaker  of  the  house. 
From  1823  to  1828  he  was  mayor  of 
Boston  and  effected  various  important 
reforms.  From  1829  to  1845  ne  was 
president  of  Harvard  college.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  History  of  Harvard 


University;  Municipal  History  of  the 
Town  and  City  of  Boston  during  Two 
Centuries;  Life  of  John  Quincy  Adams. 

QUIN'INE,  a white,  crystalline  alka- 
loid substance,  inodorous,  very  bitter, 
and  possessed  of  marked  antifebrile 
properties.  It  is  obtained  from  the  bark 
of  several  trees  of  the  order  Cinchonacese 
(see  Cinchona),  but  perhaps  the  best  is 
that  from  calisaya  bark.  It  was  dis- 
covered about  1820,  and  has  entirely 
superceded  the  use  of  the  bark  itself  in 
medicine,  being  most  commonly  used  in 
the  form  of  sulphate  of  quinine.  The 
extraordinary  value  of  quinine  in  medi- 
cine as  a febrifuge  and  tonic  has  given 
rise  to  a large  trade  in  Peruvian  bark, 
and  has  caused  the  cinchona  tree  to  be 
extensively  planted  in  India  and  else- 
where. Quinine  in  small  doses  is 
stomachic,  in  large  doses  it  causes  ex- 
treme disturbance  of  the  nerves,  head- 
ache, deafness,  blindness,  paralysis,  but 
seldom  death. 

QUINQUAGESIMA,  name  of  the  Sun- 
day before  Lent,  because  fifty  days  be- 
fore Easter. 

QUINSY,  the  common  name  for  in- 
flammation of  the  tonsils.  The  inflam- 
mation is  generally  ushered  in  by  a feel- 
ing of  uneasiness  in  the  part.  The  voice 
is  thick,  and  there  is  often  swelling  of 
the  glands  of  the  neck,  with  loss  of 
appetite,  thirst,  headache,  and  a con- 
siderable degree  of  general  fever.  The 
tonsils,  uvula,  and  even  the  soft  palate 
are  swollen  and  vascular,  and  the  tongue 
is  foul  and  furred.  In  severe  cases  res- 
piration is  considerably  impeded,  and 
swallowing  is  always  difficult  and  pain- 
ful. The  inflammation  of  the  throat  may 
terminate  either  in  resolution  or  sup- 
peration.  The  most  frequent  cause  of 
quinsy  is  cold,  produced  by  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  But  in  a great 
many  cases  it  will  be  found  that  the 
patient  has  been  predisposed  to  the  dis- 
ease, owing  to  a bad  state  of  the  diges- 
tive organs.  The  best  treatment  to  ward 
off  an  attack  is  to  administer  a dose  of 
some  strong  purgative  saline  medicine. 
Bland  soothing  drinks  should  be  given 
during  the  course  of  the  disease,  and 
sucking  small  pieces  of  ice  give  much 
relief. 

QUINTAIN,  a figure  or  other  object 
set  up  to  be  tilted  at  with  a lance.  It  was 


Ancient  quintain  at  Otfham,  Kent. 


constructed  in  various  ways;  a common 
form  in  England  consisted  of  an  upright 


post,  on  the  top  of  which  was  a hori- 
zontal bar  turning  on  a pivot;  to  one  end 
of  this  a sand-bag  was  attached,  on  the 
other  a broad  board;  and  it  was  a trial 
of  skill  to  tilt  at  the  board  end  with  a 
lance,  and  pass  on  before  the  bag  of  sand 
could  whirl  round  and  strike  the  tilter 
on  the  back. 

QUINTET',  a vocal  or  instrumental 
composition  in  five  parts,  in  which  each 
part  is  obligato,  and  performed  by  a 
single  voice  or  instrument. 

QUINTIL'IAN,  Marcus  Fabius  Quinti- 
lianus,  a Roman  rhetorician,  born  at 
Calagurris  (Calahorra)  in  Spain,  prob- 
ably between  35  and  40  a.d.;  died  about 
118.  He  began  to  practice  as  an  advo- 
cate at  Rome  about  a.d.  69,  and  sub- 
sequently became  a teacher  of  rhetoric. 
His  work,  De  Institutione  Oratoria,  con- 
tains a system  of  rhetoric  in  twelve 
books,  and  includes  some  important 
opinions  of  Greek  and  Roman  authors. 

QUIRE,  twenty-four  sheets  of  paper. 
Twenty  quires  make  a ream. 

QUIRINAL,  one  of  the  seven  hills  of 
ancient  Rome.  There  is  a palace  here, 
begun  in  1574,  and  formerly  a summer 
residence  of  the  popes,  but  since  1871 
the  residence  of  the  King  of  Italy.  See 
Rome. 

QUIT-CLAIM,  in  law,  signifies  a re- 
lease of  any  action  that  one  person 
has  against  another.  It  signifies  also  a 
quitting  of  a claim  of  title  to  lands,  etc. 

QUITO  (ke'to),  the  capital  of  Ecuador, 
in  a ravine  on  the  east  side  of  the  volcano 
of  Pichincha,  9348  feet  above  the  sea, 
a little  to  the  south  of  the  equator.  It 
has  repeatedly  suffered  from  earth- 
quakes. Pop.  about  80,000,  largely  con- 
sisting of  haif-breeds  and  Indians. 

QUIT-RENT,  in  law,  a small  rent  pay- 
able by  the  tenants  of  most  manors, 
whereby  the  tenant  goes  quit  and  free 
from  all  other  services. 

QUOITS,  a game  played  with  a flattish 
ring  of  iron,  generally  from  8^  to  9^ 
inches  in  • external  diameter,  and  be- 
tween 1 and  2 inches  in  breadth.  It  is 
convex  on  the  upper  side  and  slightly 
concave  on  the  under  side,  so  that  the 
outer  edge  curves  downward,  and  is 
sharp  enough  to  cut  into  soft  ground. 
The  game  is  played  in  the  following 
manner:  Two  pins,  called  hobs,  are 
driven  into  the  ground  from  18  to  24 
yards  apart;  and  the  players,  who  are 
divided  into  two  sides,  stand  beside  one 
hob,  and  in  regular  succession  throw 
their  quoits  (of  which  each  player  has 
two)  as  near  the  other  hob  as  they  can, 
giving  the  quoit  an  upward  and  forward 
pitch  with  the  hand  and  arm,  and  at 
same  time  communicating  to  it  a whirl- 
ing motion  so  as  to  make  it  cut  into  the 
ground.  The  side  which  has  the  quoit 
nearest  the  hob  counts  a point  toward 
game,  or  if  the  quoit  is  thrown  over  the 
hob,  it  counts  two. 

QUORUM,  a term  used  in  commis- 
sions, of  which  the  origin  is  the  Latin 
expression,  quorum  unum  A.  B.  esse 
volumus  (“of  whom  we  will  that  A.  B. 
be  one”),  signifying  originally  certain 
individuals,  without  whom  the  others 
could  not  proceed  in  the  business.  In 
legislative  and  similar  assemblies  a 
quorum  is  such  a number  of  naembers 
as  is  competent  to  transact  business. 


RABBI 


RACINE 


R 


R is  the  eighteenth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
lish alphabet,  classed  as  a liquid  and 
semi-vowel.  In  the  pronunciation  of 
Englishmen  generally  it  represents  two 
somewhat  different  sounds.  The  one  is 
heard  at  the  beginning  of  words  and 
syllables,  and  when  it  is  preceded  by  a 
consonant;  the  other,  less  decidedly 
consonantal,  is  heard  at  the  end  of  words 
and  syllables,  and  when  it  is  followed  by 
a consonant.  In  the  pronunciation  of 
many  English  speakers,  r,  followed  by  a 
consonant  at  the  end  of  a syllable,  is 
scarcely  heard  as  a separate  sound,  hav- 
ing merely  the  effect  of  lengthening  the 
preceding  vowel;  when  it  is  itself  final, 
as  in  bear,  door,  their,  etc.,  it  becomes 
a vowel  rather  than  a consonant. — The 
three  Rs,  a humorous  and  familiar  de- 
signation for  Reading,  Writing,  and 
Arithmetic.  It  originated  with  Sir  Will- 
iam Curtis,  who,  on  being  asked  to  give 
a toast,  said,  “I  will  give  you  the  three 
Rs,  Writing,  Reading,  and  Arithmetic.” 

RABBI,  a title  of  honor  among  the 
Hebrews,  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
English  master.  There  are  two  other 
forms  of  the  title,  rabboni  and  rabbani, 
the  former  of  which  is  found  in  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  supposed  that  this  title 
first  came  into  use  at  the  period  imme- 
diately preceding  the  birth  of  Christ.  In 
the  time  of  our  Lord  it  was  applied  gen- 
erally to  all  religious  teachers,  and  hence 
sometimes  to  Christ  himself.  Now  the 
term  rabbi  or  rabbin  is  applied  to  reg- 
ularly appointed  teachers  of  Talmudic 
Judaism. 

RABBIT,  a genus  of  rodent  mammals, 
included  in  the  family  Leporidae,  to 
which  also  belong  the  hares.  It  is  of 
smaller  size  than  the  hare,  and  has 
shorter  ears  and  hind  legs.  The  rabbit’s 
fur  in  its  native  state  is  of  a nearly  uni- 
form brown  color,  whilst  under  domesti- 


Rabbit  (white  lop-eared  variety). 


cation  the  color  may  become  pure  white, 
pure  black,  piebald,  gray,  and  other 
hues.  The  texture  of  the  fur  also  changes 
under  domestication.  The  rabbit  is  a 
native  of  all  temperate  climates,  and  in 
its  wild  state  congregates  in  “warrens” 
in  sandy  pastures  and  on  hill-slopes. 
Rabbits  breed  six  or  seven  times  a year, 
beginning  at  the  age  of  six  months,  and 
producing  from  five  to  seven  or  eight  at 
a birth.  They  are  so  prolific  that  they 
may  easily  become  a pest  as  in  Australia, 
if  not  kept  in  check  by  beasts  and  birds 
of  prey.  They  feed  on  tender  grass  and 
herbage,  and  sometimes  do  great  dam- 
age to  young  trees  by  stripping  them  of 
their  bark.  They  grow  exceedingly  tame 
under  domestication,  and  sometimes 
exhibit  considerable  intelligence.  Rab- 


bits are  subject  to  certain  diseases,  such 
as  rot — induced  probably  by  damp  and 
wet  — parasitic  worms,  and  a kind  of 
madness.  The  skin  of  the  rabbit  is  of 
considerable  value;  cleared  of  hair,  it  is 
used  with  other  skins  to  make  glue  and 
size.  The  fur  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hats,  and  to  imitate  other  and 
more  valuable  furs,  as  ermine,  etc. 

RABELAIS  (rab-la),  Frangois,  a hu- 
morous and  satirical  French  writer,  born 
in  or  before  1495,  the  son  of  an  apothe- 
cary, of  Chinon  in  Touraine.  He  entered 
the  Franciscan  order  at  Fontenay-le- 
Comte,  in  Poitou,  and  received  the 
priesthood.  In  the  course  of  a few  years 
we  find  him  at  Montpellier,  where  he 
studied  medicine,  having  by  this  time 
become  a secular  priest;  he  was  ad- 
mitted bachelor  in  1530,  and  for  some 
time  successfully  practiced  and  taught. 
In  1532  he  went  to  Lyons,  where  he 
published  a work  of  Hippocrates  and  one 
of  Galen,  and  the  first  germ  of  his 
Gargantua  (1532  or  1533).  The  first 
part  of  his  Pantagruel  appeared  under 
the  anagram  of  Alcofribas  Nasier,  within 
a year  or  so  after  the  former  work,  and 
its  success  was  such  that  it  passed  three 
editions  in  one  year.  Soon  after  its  pub- 
lication Rabelais  accompanied  Jean  du 
Bellay  on  an  embassy  to  Rome.  On  his 
return  to  France  he  went  first  to  Paris; 
but  not  long  after  he  is  found  once  more 
at  Lyons,  where  the  Gargantua,  as  we 
now  have  it,  first  saw  the  light  (1535). 
The  Gargantua  and  Pantagruel  together 
form  a single  work  professing  to  narrate 
the  sayings  and  doings  of  the  giant 
Gargantua  and  his  son  Pantagruel.  The 
next  few  years  were  as  unsettled  as  re- 
gards his  abode  as  any  previous  period 
of  Rabelais’  life,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
follow  him.  Probably  he  was  in  Paris  in 
1546,  when  the  third  book  of  his  Gar- 
gantua and  Pantagruel  appeared,  but 
during  most  of  1546  and  part  of  1547  he 
was  physician  to  the  town  of  Metz.  In 
the  third  book  all  the  great  moral  and 
social  questions  of  the  day  were  dis- 
cussed with  the  gaiety  and  irony  peculiar 
to  Rabelais,  and  with  a freedom  that 
roused  the  suspicion  of  the  clergy,  who 
endeavored  to  have  it  suppressed.  The 
favor  of  the  king  secured  its  publication, 
but  it  was  with  more  difficulty  that  a 
license  was  obtained  for  the  fourth  book 
from  Henry  II.,  who  had  succeeded 
Frangois  in  1547.  This  book  did  not 
appear  complete  till  1552.  About  1550 
Rabelais  was  appointed  to  the  cure  of 
Meudon,  but  he  resigned  his  position  in 
1552,  and  died  a year  later  according  to 
most  authorities.  He  left  the  whole  of 
the  fifth  book  of  his  remarkable  romance 
in  manuscript.  By  many  Rabelais  has 
been  set  down  as  a gross  buffoon,  and 
their  is  much  in  his  writings  to  justify 
the  harsh  judgment,  though  we  must 
remember  what  was  the  taste  of  his 
times.  As  regards  the  purpose  of  his 
work,  many  have  looked  upon  Rabelais 
as  a serious  reformer  of  abuses,  religious, 
moral,  and  social,  assuming  an  extrava- 
gant masquerade  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting himself  from  the  possible  con- 
sequences of  his  assaults  on  established 
institutions. 


RABIES  (ra'bi-ez),  the  name  given  to 
a disease,  probably  a kind  of  blood- 
poisoning,  with  which  dogs,  horses,  cats, 
wolves,  and  other  animals  are  attacked, 
and  to  which,  indeed,  all  animals  are 
said  to  be  liable.  A bite  from  some  rabid 
animals  induces  hydrophobia  in  man. 
See  Hydrophobia. 

RACE-HORSE,  a horse  bred  or  kept 
for  racing  or  running  in  contest,  called 
also  a blood-horse  and  a thorough-bred 
horse.  The  American  race-horse  is  per- 
haps the  finest  horse  in  the  world  as 
regards  speed  for  a moderate  distance. 
It  is  of  Arabian,  Berber,  or  Turkish  ex- 
traction, improved  and  perfected  by  the 
influence  of  the  climate,  and  by  careful 
crossing. 

RACHEL  (ra-shell).  Mademoiselle 
(Elizabeth  Rachel  Felix),  a French 
tragedienne,  of  Jewish  extraction,  born 
in  1821 ; died  in  1858.  Her  reputation  was 
speedily  established  as  the  first  tragic 
actress  of  her  day.  In  1841  she  visited 
England,  and  was  received  with  the 
greatest  enthusiasm.  Her  renown  con- 
tinued to  increase,  and  for  many  years 
she  reigned  supreme  at  the  Th^Atre 
Frangais,  making  also  tours  to  the  pro- 
vincial towns  of  France,  to  Belgium,  etc. 
Later  she  visited  America,  but  when  there 
caught  a severe  cold,  which  terminated 
in  consumption.  She  was  of  a fierce  and 
unlovable  temper,  destitute  of  moral 
principle,  and  very  avaricious. 

RACINE  (ra-sen'),  a town  in  Racine 
CO.,  Wisconsin,  on  the  west  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan.  It  has  a fine  harbor,  and 
enjoys  considerable  trade.  It  has  iron- 
foundries,  manufactures  of  machinery 
and  agricultural  implements;  tanneries 
and  flour-mills,  and  extensive  railway- 
carriage  works.  Pop.  33,302. 

RACINE  (ra-sen),  Jean  Baptiste,  a 
distinguished  French  dramatist,  born 
at  La  Fert4-Milon  (Aisne)  1639,  died  at 
Paris  1699.-  He  was  educated  at  Port- 
Royal,  the  famous  Jansenist  institution, 
and  latterly  at  the  College  d’Harcourt. 
After  writing  an  ode,  called  Nymphes 
de  la  Seine,  in  honor  of  the  king’s  mar- 
riage, and  two  comedies,  now  lost,  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Boileau  and 
MoliSre,  and  began  to  write  for  the  stage. 
His  first  tragedy,  the  Th4baide,  or  Les 
Freres  Ennemis,  was  performed  by 
Moli^re’s  troupe  at  the  Palais-Royal  in 
1664,  as  was  also  his  next,  Alexandre, 
in  1665.  His  first  master-piece  was 
Andromaque,  which  on  its  performance 
at  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne,  in  1667,  pro- 
dueed  a profound  impression.  The  im- 
mediate successor  of  Andromaque  was 
Les  Plaideurs  (1668),  a witty  and  delight- 
ful imitation  of  the  Wasps  of  Aristo- 
phanes. His  next  pieces  were  Britan- 
nicus  (1669);  B6r^nice  (1670);  Bajazet 
(1672);  Mithridate  (1673);  Iphigenie 
(1674) ; Phedre  (1677),  the  last  piece  that 
Racine  produced  expressly  for  the 
theater.  In  1673  he  obtained  a seat  in 
the  French  academy.  His  death  is  said 
to  have  been  hastened  by  grief  at  lo.sing 
the  favor  of  the  king.  .As  a dramatist 
Racine  is  usually  considered  the  model 
of  the  French  classical  tragic  drama, 
and  in  estimating  his  powers  in  this 
field  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account 


RACK 


RADIUM 


the  stiff  conventional  restraints  to  which 
that  drama  is  subjected.  What  he 
achieved  within  these  limits  is  extra- 
ordinary. Besides  his  dramas  Racine  is 
the  author  of  epigrams,  odes,  and  hymns, 
etc. 

RACK,  an  instrument  for  the  judicial 
torture  of  criminals  and  suspected  per- 
sons. It  was  a large  open  wooden  frame 
within  which  the  prisoner  was  laid  on 
his  back  upon  the  floor,  with  his  wrists 
and  ankles  attached  by  cords  to  two 
rollers  at  the  end  of  the  frame.  These 
rollers  were  moved  in  opposite  directions 
by  levers  till  the  body  rose  to  a level 
with  the  frame;  questions  were  then  put, 
and  if  the  answers  were  not  deemed 
satisfactory,  the  sufferer  was  gradually 
stretched  till  the  bones  started  from  their 
sockets.  It  was  formerly  much  used  by 
civil  authorities  in  the  cases  of  traitors 
and  conspirators;  and  by  the  members 
of  the  Inquisition,  for  extorting  a re- 
cantation from  imputed  heretical  opin- 
ions. The  rack  was  introduced  into 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
although  declared  by  competent  judges 
to  be  contrary  to  English  law,  there  are 
many  instances  of  its  use  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Charles  I. 

RACK,  in  machinery,  a straight  or 
slightly  curved  metallic  bar,  with  teeth 
on  one  of  its  edges,  adapted  to  work 
into  the  teeth  of  a wheel  or  pinion,  for 
the  purpose  of  converting  a circular  into 
a rectilinear  motion,  or  vice  versa. 

RACOON',  or  RACCOON',  an  Ameri- 
can plantigrade  carnivorous  mammal, 
the  common  racoon  being  the  Procyon 
lotor.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a small  fox, 
and  its  grayish-brown  fur  is  deemed 
valuable,  being  principally  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  hats.  This  animal  lodges 
in  hollow  trees,  feeds  occasionally  on 
vegetables,  and  its  flesh  is  palatable 
food.  It  inhabits  North  America  from 


Common  racoon. 


Canada  to  the  tropics.  The  black- 
footed racoon  of  Texas  and  California 
is  P.  Hermandezii.  The  agouara  or  crab- 
eating racoon  is  found  further  south  on 
the  J&nerican  continent  than  the  above 
species,  and  is  generally  larger.  Although 
dominated  “crab-eating”  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  any  more  addicted  to  this 
dietary  than  the  common  species. 

RADETZ'KY,  Joseph  Wenceslaus, 
Count,  a famous  Austrian  soldier,  born 
at  Trebnitz,  in  Bohemia,  in  1766;  died 
■1858.  Commencing  his  career  in  a Hun- 
garian regiment  of  horse  in  1784,  he 
fought  in  most  of  the  campaigns  in 
which  Austria  was  engaged  from  that 
date  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  includ- 
ing Hohenlinden,  Wagram,  and  Leipzig. 
But  his  most  signal  services  were  in 


Italy,  whither  he  was  called  by  the 
commotions  following  the  French  revolu- 
tion of  1830,  and  where  a great  part  of 
his  subsequent  life  was  spent.  Radetzky 
was  made  field-marshal  in  1836,  and 
honors  and  rewards  were  showered  upon 
him. 

RADIOM'ETER,  an  instrument  de- 
signed for  measuring  the  mechanical 
effect  of  radiant  energy.  It  consists  of 
four  crossed  arms  of  very  fine  glass, 
supported  in  the  centre  by  a needle- 


point, having  at  the  extreme  ends  thin 
discs  of  pith,  blackened  on  one  side. 
The  instrument  is  placed  in  a glass 
vessel  exhausted  of  air,  and  when  ex- 
posed to  light  the  arms  revolve. 

RADISH,  a well-known  cruciferous 
plant.  The  tender  leaves  are  used  as  a 
salad,  the  green  pods  as  a pickle,  and 
the  succulent  roots  are  much  esteemed. 

RADIUM,  a metal  in  elemental  form, 
possessing  the  extraordinary  property  of 
constantly  emitting  rays  of  heat  and 
light  without  combustion,  without 
chemical  change  of  any  kind,  and  with- 
out any  apparent  change  in  its  molec- 
ular structure,  was  discovered  and 
named  by  the  French  physicist,  Pierre 
Curie  and  his  Polish  wife,  in  Paris,  in 
1898. 

Imagine,  if  you  can,  an  atom  of 
radium — an  infinitesimal  speck,  too 
small  to  be  seen  even  with  the  aid  of  a 
most  powerful  microscope.  Now  imag- 
ine that  this  infinitesimal  atom  is  a 
hollow  globe  and  that  inside  this  globe 
are  150,000  ions — each  ion  having  room 
enough  to  fly  through  space  at  the  in- 
credible rate  of  speed  of  20,000  miles  a 
second,  and  only  rarely  coming  in  con- 
tact with  another  atom.  An  ion  is  the 
smallest  division  of  an  atom_recognized 
by  science. 

Place  this  atom  of  radium,  composed 
of  150,000  ions,  in  a small  instrument 
known  to  scientists  as  a spinthariscope, 
which  is  really  a powerful  microscope 
fitted  with  a florescent  screen.  Then 
liberate  the  150,000  ions  and  watch 
them  hurl  themselves  with  incredible 
force  against  the  florescent  screen. 
Each  ion  becomes  a wave  of  light  and  as 
each  ion  strikes  the  florescent  screen  it 
explodes,  giving  out  myriads  of  sparks 
and  engendering  heat. 

Such  an  atom  is  radium.  A piece  of 
radium  weighing  a tenth  part  of  a grain 
is  composed  of  millions  of  atoms,  and 
each  atom  in  turn  is  made  up  of  150,000 


ions.  This  tenth  of  a grain  of  radium  is 
an  active  force,  the  myriads  of  ions  con- 
stantly disintegrating — each  ion  the 
source  of  heat  and  light.  For  months, 
years,  decades,  and  centuries  the  ions 
would  continue  to  hurl  themselves  from 
that  tenth  part  of  a grain  of  radium,  and 
in  all  those  centuries  the  tenth  of  a grain 
would  not  become  appreciably  smaller, 
nor  would  the  disintegrating  process 
lose  its  power  to  eminate  rays  of  heat 
and  light. 

Then,  instead  of  a tenth  of  a grain  of 
radium,  imagine  a pound  of  it — ten 
pounds — one  hundred  pounds.  Even 
science,  which  pierces  millions  of  miles 
of  space,  which  estimates  the  myriad 
numbers  of  the  stars  and  weighs  the 
planets  of  countless  solar  systems,  has 
not  yet  dared  to  place  a limit  on  the  heat 
and  light  giving  power  of  radium  in  the 
mass. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  a piece  of 
radium  weighing  fourteen  pounds,  if  so 
great  a quantity  could  be  produced, 
and  if  all  its  energy  could  be  applied 
mechanically,  would  drive  a one-horse- 
power engine  for  at  least  50,000  years. 
Thus  radium,  if  it  could  only  be  pro- 
duced in  sufficient  quantities,  would 
transform  night  into  day  and  do  away 
with  coal,  electricity,  gas,  and  oil.  It 
would  light  streets  and  buildings  and 
supply  power  for  factories  and  work- 
shops. It  would  revolutionize  the  in- 
dustry of  the  world. 

Unfortunately,  radiiun  cannot  be  pro- 
duced except  in  infinitesimally  small 
quantities.  Up  to  the  present  time  it  has 
been  found  only  in  a dark,  velvety 
mineral  called  pitchblende,  found  mostly 
in  the  Erzgebirge  mountains  in  Austria. 
In  7,000  tons  of  pitchblende  there  are 
possibly  two  pounds  of  radium.  Pro- 
fessor and  Madame  Curie  laboriously 


Madame  Curie. 


pulverized,  fractionized,  and  washed 
eight  tons  of  uranium — a metal  found 
in  pitchblende — and  secured  only  fifteen 
grains  of  radium — say  the  466th  part  of 
a pound.  At  that  rate,  the  cost  of  pro- 
ducing a pound  of  radium  would  ap- 
proximate $3,000,000. 

The  scientific  history  of  radium  covers 
a scant  eleven  years.  The  investigations 
which  led  to  its  discovery  began  in  1895 
with  the  discovery  of  the  X-rays  by 
Professor  Roentgen.  This  discovery 
impelled  scientists  in  all  parts  of  the 


RADOM 


RAILWAYS 


world  to  begin  an  investigation  of  the 
mystery  hidden  behind  the  X-rays  of 
light  which  has  the  power  of  passing 
through  solid  substances.  The  first 
result  was  produced  by  Prof.  Henri 
Becquerel,  a noted  French  physicist, 
who  discovered  that  uranium  emitted 
rays  like  the  X-rays  and  which  rendered 
a gas  through  which  they  passed  a con- 
ductor of  electricity. 

Now,  uranium  was  found  in  pitch- 
blende, and  Professor  Curie  and  his  wife, 
who  had  been  extracting  uranium  from 
pitchblende  and  experimenting  along 
the  same  lines  with  Professor  Becquerel 
carried  their  researches  still  further, 
and  in  1898  discovered  radium.  The 
discovery  was  made  by  Madame  Curie 
herself.  In  experimenting  with  pitch- 
blende, the  chief  component  of  which  is 
uranium  oxide,  she  noticed  that  the 
crude  pitchblende  would  affect  a photo- 
graphic plate  or  discharge  an  electrified 
body  much  more  quickly  than  the  same 
weight  of  pure  uranium  salt.  She  there- 
fore concluded  that  there  was  still  hid- 
den in  pitchblende  some  element  having 
a greater  radio  activity  than  uranium 
oxide.  Following  this  conclusion,  aided 
by  her  husband,  she  proceeded  to  sepa- 
rate the  various  substances  of  pitch- 
blende by  chemical  analysis.  After  each 
separation  she  determined  by  careful  ex- 
periment which  of  the  parts  contained 
the  greater  amount  of  radio  activity.  She 
followed  this  process  to  the  end,  and  the 
discovery  of  radium  was  the  result. 

Naturally,  the  discovery  created  the 
greatest  interest  throughout  the  world. 
Medical  science,  which  had  been  quick 
to  adopt  the  X-rays  in  medicine  and 
surgery,  began  experimenting  with  radi- 
um as  a cure  for  disease.  The  fact  that 
radium,  when  exposed  to  the  flesh, 
would  burn  aw'ay  the  tissue,  led  to  the 
belief  that  the  newly  discovered  ele- 
ment might  be  used  successfully  for  the 
eradication  of  cancer.  The  experiments 
so  far,  however,  have  not  enabled  medi- 
cal science  to  determine  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  the  value  of  radium  as  a 
remedial  agency. 

Professor  Curie,  who  shared  with  his 
wife  the  honor  of  discovering  radium 
was  accidentally  killed  in  Paris  on  April 
19,  1906.  His  death  ended  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  marital  partnerships 
in  the  history  of  science.  Professor 
Curie  was  43  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  His  wife  formerly  was  Miss 
Skiodowska,  of  Polish  birth.  When  she 
went  to  Paris  to  complete  her  studies, 
her  independent  means  were  so  small 
she  could  not  matriculate  at  one  of  the 
big  schools,  and  so  she  went  to  a munici- 
pal working  class  institute,  where  Pro- 
fessor Curie  directed  the  laboratory. 
Her  remarkable  ability  led  him  to  make 
her  his  assistant.  Their  marriage  fol- 
lowed, and  they  pursued  their  scientific 
researches  together.  Their  discovery  of 
radium  made  them  famous  in  a day. 
In  1903  they  received  the  Nobel  prize 
for  chemistry,  and  a short  time  later 
Madame  Curie  was  awarded  $12,000 
from  the  Osiris  jjrizt  of  France.  Mme. 
Curie  was  appointed  to  succeed^  her 
husband  as  leotjurer  on  physical  science 
at  the  Sorbonne,  this  oeing  the  first 
instance  of  a woman  e^r  being  ap- 
pointed to  such  a place  in  France. 


RADOM,  a town  in  Russian  Poland, 
on  the  Radomka,  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  same  name.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  oil,  vinegar  and  leather. 
Pop.  28,749. — ^The  government  has  an 
area  of  4768  square  miles;  forms  the 
most  elevated  portion  of  the  Polish 
plain;  is  much  wooded;  agriculture  and 
cattle-raising  the  chief  occupations  of 
the  inhabitants.  Pop.  820,363. 

RAFFLE,  a game  of  chance,  in  which 
several  persons  each  deposit  part  of  the 
value  of  a thing  for  the  chance  of  gain- 
ing it. 

RAFFLE'SIA,  a genus  of  parasitical 
plants.  This  gigantic  flower,  one  of  the 
marvels  of  the  vegetable  world,  was 
discovered  in  the  interior  of  Sumatra  by 
Sir  T.  Raffles  and  Dr.  Arnold.  The  whole 
plant  seems  to  consist  of  little  else  be- 
yond the  flower  and  root.  The  perianth 
or  flower  forms  a huge  cup  reaching  a 


Eafflesla  Arnold!. 


width  of  3 feet  or  more ; it  weighs  from 
12  to  15  lbs.,  and  some  of  its  parts  are 
J inch  in  thickness.  It  is  fleshy  in  char- 
acter and  appearance,  remains  expanded 
for  a few  days,  and  then  begins  to  pu- 
trefy, having  quite  the  smell  of  carrion, 
and  thus  attracting  numerous  insects. 

RAGNAROK  (rag'na-rek),  in  Scan- 
dinavian mythology,  literally  twilight 
of  the  gods  or  doom  of  the  gods,  the  day 
of  doom  when  the  present  world  will  be 
annihilated  to  be  reconstructed  on  an 
imperishable  basis. 

RAGOUT,  meat  or  fish  stewed  with 
vegetables,  and  highly  seasoned  to 
excite  a jaded  appetite. 

RAGS,  though  valueless  for  most  pur- 
poses, are  yet  of  great  importance  in  the 
arts,  particularly  in  paper-making. 
Woolen  rags,  not  being  available  for 
paper,  are  much  used  for  manure;  but 
those  of  a loose  texture,  and  not  too 
much  worn,  are  unraveled  by  means 
of  machinery,  and  mixed  up  with  good 
wool,  to  form  what  is  known  as  shoddy, 
with  which  cheap  woolen  goods  are 
made;  while  the  refuse  is  pulverized  and 
dyed  various  colors,  to  form  the  flock 
used  by  paper-stainers  for  their  flock- 
papers. 

RAHWAY,  a town  of  the  United 
States,  in  Union  county.  New  Jersey, 
20  miles  s.w.  of  New  York,  on  river  of 
same  name,  navigable  for  small  craft. 
Industries  include  carriage  and  other 
factories.  Pop.  10,110. 

RAI  BARELI  (rl  ba-rfiffS),  a town  of 
Oudh,  India,  administrative  head-quar- 
ters of  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
banks  of  the  8ai,  4S  miles  s.e.  of  Luck- 
now. There  is  a bridge  over  the  Sai, 
several  interesting  ancient  structures. 


and  the  usual  government  buildings. 

Pop.  18,798. — The  district  forms  part ' 
of  the  Lucknow  division,  has  an  area  of 
1751  sq.  miles,  and  a population  of 
1,036,521. 

RAIBOLINI  (ri-bo-le'ne),  Francesco 
di  Marco  di  Giacomo,  usually  called 
Francesco  Francia,  a famous  Italian 
painter,  engraver,  medallist,  and  gold- 
sniith,  was  born  at  Bologna  about  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century,  died  1533. 

He  excelled  particularly  in  Madonnas, 
and  executed  a number  of  admirable 
frescoes  in  the  church  of  St.  Cecilia  at 
Bologna,  but  his  most  famous  work  is  an 
altar-piece  exhibiting  the  Madonna,  St. 
Sebastian,  etc.,  in  the  church  of  St. 
Giacomo  Maggiore  in  the  same  city. 

RAILWAYS,  roads  made  by  placing 
on  the  ground,  on  a specially  prepared 
track,  continuous  parallel  lines  of  iron 
or  steel  rails,  on  which  carriages  with 
flanged  wheels  are  run  with  little  fric- 
tion and  at  consequent  high  velocities. 

The  necessity  for  railways  originated  in 
the  requirements  of  the  coal-traffic  of 
Northumberlandshire,  where  the  first 
railways,  formed  on  the  plan  of  making 
a distinct  surface  and  track  for  the 
wheels,  were  constructed.  In  1676,  near 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  the  coals  were  con- 
veyed from  the  mines  to  the  banks  of 
the  river,  “by  laying  rails  of  timber 
exactly  straight  and  parallel;  and  bulky 
carts  were  made,  with  four  rollers  fitting 
those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  was 
made  so  easy  that  one  horse  would  draw 
4 or  5 chaldrons  of  coal.”  Steam-power 
was  first  used  on  these  tram-roads  early 
in  the  18th  century,  but  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  present  great  railway  system 
dates  from  1821,  when  an  act  was  passed 
for  the  construction  of  the  Stockton  and 
Darlington  railway,  which  was  opened 
in  1825.  The  United  States  of  America 
quickly  followed  Britain  in  railway  con- 
struction, and  between  1830  and  1833 
railways  were  rapidly  opened  in  the 
states.  Horse  railroads  extending  to  a 
considerable  length  were  in  existence 
before  1830.  There  was  no  development 
of  the  railway  system  in  France  till  about 
1842,  when  several  great  lines  were 
established;  Belgium  and  the  Nether- 
lands followed,  but  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Russia  were  somewhat  behind  the 
western  European  nations  in  their  rail- 
way development. 

The  modern  railway  consists  of  one 
or  more  pairs  of  parallel  lines  of  iron  or 
steel  bars,  called  rails,  these  bars  joining 
each  other  endwise,  and  the  parallel 
lines  being  several  feet  apart.  The  width 
between  the  rails  is  called  the  gauge. 
What  is  known  as  the  national  or  stand- 
ard gauge,  used  in  Britainand  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  and  formerly  called  the 
narrow  gauge,  measures  4 feet  8i  inches 
between  the  rails;  the  broad  gauge 
(now  gone  out  of  use)  being  7 feet.  It  is 
believed  to  have  originally  represented 
the  width  suitable  for  the  coal  wagons 
of  the  North  of  England,  and  has  been 
found  on  the  whole  very  satisfactory.  ^ 
Ireland  the  gauge  is  5 feet  3 inches,  in 
India  5 feet  6.  Narrower  gauges  are 
used  in  certain  special  lines;  and  in  the  . 
United  States  the  standard  gauge  is  4 ' 

feet  Si  Inches.  A pair  of  parallel  lines  of 
rails  constitutes  a single  track  of  railway, 
two  pairs  a double  line,  and  so  on.  The  ^ 

J 


RAILWAYS 


RAILWAYS 


RAILROAD  SPEED  NOTABLE  FAST  RUNS  OF  PASSENGER  TRAINS 

LONG  DISTANCES. 


FOR 


Railroad 

Terminals 

Dis- 

tance 

Miles 

Inclubiv* 

Time 

H.U. 

Miles 

per 

Hour 

London — Didcot 

53  25 

0 47 

68 

Westshore  ....T i 

East  BuHalo— Frankfort 

201.7 

4.00 

50.4 

TiOnrton,  N.  W.  & Caledonian 

London— Edinburgh 

400 

7.38 

53.4 

Plant  System,  Atlantic  Coast  Line 

Jacksonville— Richmond 

661.5 

12.51 

51.48 

Pennssvivania.  

Camden— Atlantic  City 

68.3 

0.45J4 

76.60 

London — Aber  een 

8.32 

63.28* 

New  York — Buffalo. 

436.50 

6.47 

64.83* 

New  York  Central  “World  Flyer” 

Albany —^racuse 

148 

2.10 

68.3 

Chicago,  Burlington  & Quincy 

Chicago— Den  ver 

1,025 

18.52 

58.74 

Lehigh  Val.,  Black  Diamond  Exp. 

Alpine,  N.  Y.— Geneva  Jc.,  N. Y 

43.96 

0.33 

80 

North  Pla  te— Omaha 

391 

4.39 

63.49 

Rnrlinp^ton  Route 

Burlington— Chicago  

205.8 

3.085^ 

65. 5t 

Riirlinston  Route  

Eckley— Wray  

14.8 

0.9 

98.7 

‘‘20th  Century  Ltd.”  on  L.  Shore.. 

Kendallvllle-^Toledo 

91 

1.15 

72.8 

Atlantic  Coast  Ijlne  

Jacksonville— Savannah 

172 

2.32 

70.7 

“30th  Century  Ltd.”  on  L.  Shore.. 

Toledo— Elkhart 

133.4 

1,64 

70.2 

Great  Western  (England) 

London—  Plymouth 

246 

3.64 

63,13 

Michigan  Central 

Niagara  Falls— Windsor 

225.66 

3.11M 

70.74 

Great^Westorn  (England) 

Paddington— Bristol 

118.5 

1.24 

84.6 

Pennsylvania. ..... .~ 

Crestline— Port  Wayne 

131 

1.53 

69.56 

Chicago— Pittsburgh 

468 

7,20 

63.53* 

Lake  Shore  & Mich.  Southern 

Buffalo- Chicago 

526 

7.50 

69.69t 

New  York— C hlcago 

897 

16.3 

56.07 

Chicago— New  York 

960.52 

15.56 

60.28t 

Pennsylvania. 

Washington,  O.— Port  Wayne. 

81 

1.4 

75.84' 

Pittsburgh,  Ft.  Wayne  & C 

Crestline,  0.— Clark  June.,  Ind. 

257.4 

3.27 

74.55 

Datb 


May, 

July, 

Aug., 

Aug., 

April, 

Aug., 

Sept., 

Sept., 

Feb., 

April, 

Aug., 

May, 

Mar., 

Aug., 

Mar., 

May, 

July, 

April, 

July, 

Nov., 

June, 

June, 

June, 

June, 

July, 

Oct., 


1848. 

1885. 

1888. 

1894. 

1895. 
1895. 
1895. 
I8,)5. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1900. 
1903. 

1902. 

1903. 
1903. 

1903. 

1904. 
1904. 

1904. 

1905. 
1905. 
1905. 
1905. 
1905. 
1905. 


* Including  stops.  J Excluding  stops. 

rails  are  supported  at  a little  height 
above  the  general  surface  by  iron  pedes- 
tals called  chairs,  which  again  are  firmly 
fixed  to  wooden  or  iron  (sometimes 
stone)  supports  called  ties,  placed  at 
intervals  and  embedded  in  the  material 
of  the  roadway.  A railway,  in  general, 
approaches  as  nearly  to  a straight  line 
between  its  two  extremes  as  the  nature 
of  the  country  and  the  necessities  of  the 
intermediate  traffic  will  permit.  It  is 
carried  over  valleys,  either  by  embank- 
ments or  viaducts,  and  through  hills  or 
elevated  ground  by  deep  trenches  called 
cuttings,  or  by  tunnels.  In  favorable 
cases  the  surface  line  of  the  railway  is  so 
adjusted  that  the  materials  excavated 
from  the  cuttings  will  just  serve  to  form 
the  embankments.  Should  the  excavated 
material  be  in  too  small  quantity  to 
form  the  embankment,  recourse  is  had 
to  an  excavation  along  the  sides  of  the 
site  of  the  latter  to  supply  the  deficiency. 
The  line  of  railway  can  seldom  run  for 
any  distance  on  a level,  and  its  various 
slopes  are  termed  gradients,  the  ar- 
rangements of  the  rises  and  falls  being 
termed  the  grading  of  the  line.  A more 
or  less  steep  ascent  is  termed  an  incline. 
When  the  line  is  formed  its  surface  is 
covered  with  broken  stones  or  clean 
gravel  called  ballasting,  and  in  this  the 
sleepers  for  sustaining  the  chairs  and 
rails  are  embedded.  The  wooden  ties 
are  laid  across  the  roadway  about  3 feet 
apart  from  center  to  center,  and  to  them 
the  chairs  which  sustain  the  rails  are 
spiked.  Sometimes  longitudinal  wooden 
ties  aie  used  along  with  the  transverse 
ties.  These  consist  of  beams  laid  under 
the  rails  and  secured  to  the  transverse 
ties.  When  such  are  used  chairs  are  fre- 
quently dispensed  with,  the  rails  being 
formed  with  a flange  at  bottom  which  is 
fastened  directly  to  the  wooden  beam. 
When  the  railway  track  is  thus  com- 
pleted the  work  is  called  the  permanent 
way,  and  it  furnishes  the  route  over 
which  carriages  or  cars,  wagons,  vans, 
etc.,  are  dragged  by  a locomotive  engine, 


a number  of  these  vehicles  forming  a 
train. 

In  the  railway  of  a single  line  of  rail  it 
is  necessary  to  make  provision  for  per- 
mitting meeting  engines  or  carriages 
to  pass  each  other  by  means  of  sidings, 
which  are  short  additional  lines  of  rail 
laid  at  the  side  of  the  main  line,  and  so 
connected  with  it  at  each  extremity  that 
a carriage  can  pass  into  the  siding  in 
place  of  proceeding  along  the  main  line. 
In  double  lines,  in  addition  to  sidings, 
which  are  in  them  also  required  at  many 
places,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  car- 
riages crossing  from  one  line  of  rails  to 
another.  This  change  in  the  direction  of 
the  carriage  is  effected  by  switches. 
Switches  or  points  are  short  movable 
rails  close  to  the  main  rails  connected  by 
rods  to  suitable  handles,  the  extremities 
of  these  short  rails  being  formed  so  as  to 
guide  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  of  a car- 
riage from  one  line  of  rail  to  another. 
Switches  are  usually  coupled  or  inter- 
locked with  the  signals  or  signalling 
apparatus,  so  necessary  for  properly 
carrying  on  the  traffic — coupled  when 
they  are  moved  simultaneously  with  the 
signals,  interlocked  when  the  necessary 
movement  of  the  switches  is  com.pleted 
before  the  signal  is  moved.  Signalling  is 
effected  by  means  of  semaphores  in  day- 
light and  lights  of  three  colors,  white, 
green,  or  blue,  and  red,  at  night.  The 
telegraph  is  also  used  in  regulating  the 
traffic.  (See  Block  System.)  The  various 
places  along  the  line  of  railway,  where 
railway  trains  stop  for  taking  up  or 
depositing  goods  or  passengers  are 
termed  depots,  with  the  prefix  of  freight 
or  passenger,  as  they  are  allotted  to  the 
one  or  the  other;  the  stations  at  the 
extremities  of  a railway  are  called 
terminals. 

The  mode  in  which  the  locomotive 
acts  in  moving  the  cars  is  that  by  its 
weight  and  the  friction  of  its  wheels  on 
the  rails  a tractive  force  is  provided 
sufficient  to  enable  it  to  move  at  a high 
rate  of  velocity,  and  to  drag  great  loads 


after  it.  In  some  particular  cases  a fixed 
engine  is  employed  to  give  motion  to  a 
rope  by  which  the  care  are  dragged 
along,  the  rope  being  either  an  endles* 
rope  stretched  over  pulleys,  or  one  which 
winds  and  unwinds  on  a cylinder.  Such 
engines  are  termed  stationary  engines, 
and  are  used  chiefly  on  inclined  planes, 
where  the  ascent  is  too  steep  for  the 
locomotive  engine.  In  some  cases  the 
cars  are  impelled  by  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  in  some  few  cases  by  electricity. 
(See  Atmospheric  Railway,  Electric  Rail- 
way.) The  locomotives,  passenger  cars, 
freight  cars  or  trucks,  vans,  etc.,  con- 
stitute the  rolling  stock  of  a railway. 
For  the  sake  of  uniformity,  externally 
and  in  many  of  the  details,  the  cars  are 
usually  made  of  the  same  external  length 
width,  and  height,  and  suitably  in  the 
interior.  The  underworks  of  the  cars 
may  thus  be  identical  in  construction, 
and  a uniformity  of  working  and  wear- 
ing parts  is  thus  secured,  which  is  con- 
ducive to  economy  of  maintenance. 
They  are  usually  from  40  to  60  feet  long 
with  a center  passage,  the  doors  being 
at  the  ends — with  the  seats  arranged 
transversely  on  each  side.  At  platform 
at  the  end  enables  a person  to  go  from 
end  to  end  of  the  train.  There  is  gen- 
erally but  one  class  of  passengers,  but 
on  long  journeys  Pullman  and  other 
sleeping-cars  are  used  at  extra  fares. 
The  average  speed  of  express  passenger 
trains  in  the  United  States  is  about  60 
miles  an  hour  for  the  express  trains  and 
from  30  to  40  miles  an  hour  for  the 
regular  local  trains;  express  freight 
trains  from  20  to  25  miles.  Railways  for 
the  local  service  of  large  cities  are 
usually  partly  or  wholly  underground, 
as  in  the  London  Metropolitan  railway, 
the  New  York  Central  and  Hudson 
River  R.  R.,  or  elevated  above  the  street 
traffic,  as  in  New  York  and  Chicago. 

Some  of  the  tunnels,  bridges,  and 
viaducts  constructed  in  connection  with 
railways  are  among  the  engineering 
triumphs  of  the  age.  Of  the  former  the 
most  notable  are  those  of  Mt.  Senis,  the 
St.  Gothard,  and  the  Arlberg  tunnel  in 
the  Alps;  the  Severn  tunnel, and  the  Mer- 
sey tunnel  in  England,  and  the  Hoosac 
tunnel  in  Massachusetts.  The  greatest 
of  the  railway  bridges  are  those  over  the 
Forth  and  the  Tay  in  Scotland;  the 
Britannia  tubular  bridge  over  the 
Menai  straits,  North  Wales;  the  Victoria 
bridge,  Montreal;  the  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  Suspension  bridge.  There  are 
many  stone  viaducts  of  great  length. 
The  Congleton  viaduct,  on  the  Manches- 
ter and  Birmingham  railway,  is  perhaps 
the  longest  in  England;  it  is  1026  yards 
long  and  106  feet  high.  An  iron  viaduct 
2J  miles  long  connects  the  city  of  Venice 
with  the  mainland. 

The  use  of  sleeping  cars  and  parlor 
cars  introduced  an  element  of  comfort  in 
railway  travel  which  was  of  great  im- 
portance in  this  country,  on  account  of 
the  distance  traversed.  The  buffet  car 
was  afterward  provided  to  avoid  delays 
at  meal  stations.  Dining  cars,  intro- 
duced shortly  afterward,  led  to  the  de- 
velopment of  vestibuled  trains.  Ves- 
tibuled  express  trains  are  now  in  general 
use,  on  which  sleepers,  parlor  cars,  a 
dining  car,  a smoking  saloon,  library, 
bath-room,  barber-shop,  and  writing- 


RAIN 


RAINBOW 


room  are  provided.  In  the  United  States 
between  four  and  five  thousand  pas- 
sengers are  killed  and  injured  each  year 
by  railway  accidents.  These  figures 
seem  large  until  the  enormous  number 
of  passengers  carried  safely  to  one  in- 
jured is  calculated.  According  to  the 
report  of  the  interstate  commerce  com- 
mission, 2,316,648  passengers  were  car- 
ried safely  in  1900  to  one  passenger 
killed,  and  139,740  passengers  were 
carried  safely  to  one  injured.  In  Eng- 
land in  1900  the  proportion  was  one 
passenger  killed  in  8,461,309  and  one 
injured  in  470,848.  On  the  continent  of 
Europe  in  many  cases  an  even  better 
record  is  maintained.  The  total  mileage 
in  the  United  States  at  the  close  of  1 905 
was  212,624,  the  capital  stock  $6,741,- 
956,825, the  bonded  debt  $7,821,243,105, 
gross  earnings  $2,112,197,770,  the  net 
earnings  $685,464,488. 

BAIN,  the  water  that  falls  from  the 
Iuft^'ens.  Rain  depends  upon  the  forma- 
flOTi  and  dissolution  of  clouds.  The  in- 
visible aqueous  vapor  suspended  in  the 
atmosphere,  W’hich  forms  clouds,  and  is 
deposited  in  rain,  is  derived  from  the 
evaporation  of  water,  partly  from  land, 
but  chiefly  from  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
ocean.  At  a given  temperature  the  at- 
mosphere is  capable  of  containing  no 
more  than  a certain  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapor,  and  when  this  quantity  is  present 
the  air  is  said  to  be  saturated.  Air  may 
at  any  time  be  brought  to  a state  of 
saturation  by  a reduction  of  its  tem- 
perature, and  if  cooled  below  a certain 
point  the  whole  of  the  vapor  can  no 
longer  be  held  in  suspension,  but  a part 
of  it  condensed  from  the  gaseous  to  the 
liquid  state  will  be  deposited  in  dew  or 
float  about  in  the  form  of  clouds.  If  the 
temperature  continues  to  decrease  the 
vesicles  of  vapor  composing  the  cloud 
will  increase  in  number  and  begin  to  de- 
scend by  their  own  weight.  The  largest 
of  these  falling  fastest  will  unite  with  the 
smaller  ones  they  encounter  during 
their  descent,  and  thus  drops  of  rain 
will  be  formed  of  a size  that  depends  on 
the  thickness,  density,  and  elevation  of 
the  cloud.  The  point  to  which  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  must  be  reduced  in 
order  to  cause  a portion  of  its  vapor  to 
form  clouds  or  dew  is  called  the  dew- 

Eoint.  The  use  of  the  spectroscope  has 
ecome  to  some  extent  a means  of  an- 
ticipating a fall  of  rain,  since  when  light 
that  has  passed  through  aqueous  vapor 
decomposed  by  the  spectroscope  a 
bana  is  seen  (the  rain-band),  which 
is^^h  more  intense  the  greater  the 
amoSl;  of  vapor  present.  The  average 
rainf^  in  a year  at  any  given  place  de- 
pends on  a great  variety  of  circum- 
stances, as  latitude,  proximity  to  the 
sea,  elevation  of  the  region,  configura- 
tion of  the  countryand  mountain  ranges, 
exposure  to  the  prevailing  winds,  etc. 
When  the  vapor-laden  atmosphere  is 
drifted  toward  mountain  ranges  it  is 
forced  upward  by  the  latter,  and  is  con- 
sequently condensed,  partly  by  coming 
into  contact  with  the  cold  mountain 
tops,  and  partly  by  the  consequent  ex- 
pansion of  the  air  due  to  the  greater 
elevation.  The  presence  or  absence  of 
vegetation  has  also  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  rainfall  of  a district.  Land 
devoid  of  vegetation  has  its  soil  Intensely 


heated  by  the  fierce  rays  of  the  sun,  the 
air  in  contact  with  it  also  becomes 
heated,  and  is  able  to  hold  more  and 
more  moisture,  so  that  the  fall  of  rain  is 
next  to  impossible.  On  the  other  hand, 
land  covered  with  an  abundant  vegeta- 
tion has  its  soil  kept  cool,  and  thus  assist 
in  condensation.  Although  more  rain 
falls  within  the  tropics  in  a year,  yet 
the  number  of  rainy  days  is  less  than  in 
temperate  climes.  Thus  in  an  average 
year  there  are  80  rainy  days  in  the 
tropics,  while  in  the  temperate  zones  the 
number  of  days  on  which  rain  falls  is 
about  160.  At  the  equator  the  average 
yearly  rainfall  is  estimated  at  95  inches. 
At  a few  isolated  stations  the  fall  is 
often  very  great.  At  Cherrapungee,  in 
the  Khasia  Hills  of  Assam,  615  inches 
fall  in  the  year,  and  there  are  several 
places  in  India  with  a fall  of  from  190 
to  280  inches.  In  Britain,  Skye,  and  a 
large  portion  of  the  mainland  to  the 
s.e.  as  far  as  Loch  Lomond,  the  greater 
part  of  the  lake  district  of  Northern 


primary,  and  the  outer  the  secondary 
rainbow.  Each  is  formed  of  the  colors 
of  the  solar  spectrum,  but  the  colors  are 
arranged  in  the  reversed  order,  the  red 
forming  the  exterior  ring  of  the  primary 
bow,  and  the  interior  of  the  secondary. 
The  primary  bow  is  formed  by  the  sun’s 
rays  entering  the  upper  part  of  the  fall- 
ing drops  of  rain,  and  undergoing  two 
refractions  and  one  reflection;  and  the 
secondary,  by  the  sun’s  rays  entering 
the  under  part  of  the  drops,  and  under- 
going two  refractions  andtwo  reflections. 
Hence,  the  colors  of  the  secondary  bow 
are  fainter  than  those  of  the  primary. 
Rainbows  are  sometimes  produced  by 
the  sun’s  rays  shining  on  the  spray  of 
cascades,  fountains,  etc.,  and  then  a 
whole  circle  can  frequently  be  seen.  A 
broken  rainbow  mostly  occurs  from  the 
field  not  being  filled  with  falling  rain, 
but  it  will  also  happen  when  the  sun  is 
invisible  from  part  of  the  field.  The 
moon  sometimes  forms  a bow  or  arc  of 
light,  more  faint  than  that  formed  by 


Non-concentric  rainbow  observed  in  Sweden  in  1875. 


England,  and  the  mountainous  parts  of 
Wales  have  an  average  of  80  inclies  and 
upward  (the  highest,  128.50  inches  at 
Glencoe  in  Argyleshire).  The  s.e.  of 
England  has  the  smallest,  22.50  to  25 
inches.  The  rainfall  at  Paris  is  22  in.; 
New  York,  43  in.;  Washington,  41  in.; 
San  Francisco,  22  in.;  Sitka,  Alaska,  90 
in.;  Honduras,  153  in.;  Maranhao,  280 
in.;  Singapore,  97  in.;  Canton,  78  in.; 
New  South  Wales,  46  in.;  South  Aus- 
tralia, 19  in.;  Victoria,  30  in.;  Tasmania 
20  in.;  Cape  Colony,  24  in.  The  greatest 
annual  rainfall  hitherto  observed  seems 
to  be  on  the  Khasia  Hills. 

RAINBOW,  a bow,  or  an  arc  of  a circle 
consisting  of  all  the  prismatic  colors, 
formed  by  the  refraction  and  reflection 
of  rays  of  light  from  drops  of  rain  or 
vapor,  appearing  in  the  part  of  the 
heavens  opposite  to  the  sun.  When  the 
sun  is  at  the  horizon  the  rainbow  is  a 
semicircle.  When  perfect  the  rainbow 
presents  the  appearance  of  two  concen- 
tric arches;  the  inner  being  called  the 


the  sun,  and  called  a lunar  rainbow.  A 
spurious  or  supernumerary  rainbow  is 
a bow  seen  in  connection  with  a fine 
rainbow,  lying  close  inside  the  violet 
of  the  primaiy  bow,  or  outside  that  of 
the  secondary  one.  Its  colors  are  fainter 
and  more  impure,  as  they  proceed  from 
the  principal  bow,  and  finally  merge  into 
the  diffused  white  light  of  the  primary 
bow,  and  outside  the  secondary. 

Non-concentric  bows  have  been  seen 
at  various  times  during  the  last  two 
hundred  years.  One  of  the  most  per- 
fect was  observed  by  Halley,  the  astron- 
omer, on  August  6,  1698.  It  appears 
to  have  been  a very  perfect  specimen  of 
a non-concentric  bow,  extending  in  an 
unbroken  arch  from  the  feet  of  the 
inner  bow  to  the  summit  of  the  outer 
or  secondary  bow.  The  order  of  colors 
in  this  non-concentric  bow  was  the  same 
as  in  the  primary;  so  that  where  it  ap- 
peared to  overlap  the  secondary  bow 
there  was  a portion  of  a white  arch. 
Perhaps  one  of  the  most  remarkable 


RAIN-GAUGE,  OR  PLUVIOMETER 


SIR  WALTER  RALEIGH 


cases  is  tliat  represented  in  our  illus- 
tration, ill  ivhich  i t will  be  noted  that 
between  the  ordinary  inner  and  outer 
bows  there  are  the  legs  of  a bow  non- 
concentric  with  both.  This  splendid 
sight  was  seen  at  Nya,  Kopparberg,  in 
Sweden,  by  M.  Gumoelius,  on  June  19, 
1875,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  similar 
bows  have  been  recorded  in  Sweden  on 
several  occasions.  In  this  case,  besides 
the  non-concentric  bow,  several  sup- 
plementary concentric  bows  were  seen, 
as  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Other  wonderful  rainbows,  or,  perhaps 
more  correctly,  mist-bows,  have  been 
seen  on  rare  occasions.  Aeronauts  and 
mountaineers  have  observed  them  of  a 
completely  circular  form,  when  they 
have  happened  to  be  in  elevated  posi- 
tions. A somewhat  similar  phenomenon 
is  sometimes  observed  by  the  boatmen 
of  Lake  Superior  when  there  is  a low- 
lying  fog  on  the  water,  and  a brilliant 
sun  overhead.  On  such  occasions  an 
iridescent  halo  surrounds  the  shadow  of 
the  observer’s  head,  but  is  generally  of  a 
simply  circular  form. 

RAIN-GAUGE,  or  PLUVIOMETER, 
an  instrument  used  to  measure  the 
quantity  of  rain  which  falls  at  a given 
place.  They  are  variously  constructed. 
A convenient  form  (shown  in  figure)  con- 
sists of  a cylindrical  tube  of  copper, 
with  a funnel  at  the  top  where  the  rain 
enters.  Connected  with  the  cylinder  at 
the  lower  part  is  a glass  tube  with  an 
attached  scale.  The  water  which  enters 
the  funnel  stands  at  the  same  height  in 


Rain-gauge. 


the  cylinder  and  glass  tube,  and  being 
visible  in  the  latter  the  height  is  read 
immediately  on  the  scale,  and  the  cylin- 
der and  tube  being  constructed  so  that 
the  sum  of  the  areas  of  their  sections  is  a 
given  part,  for  instance  a tenth  of  the 
area  of  the  funnel  at  its  orifice,  each  inch 
of  water  in  the  tube  is  equivalent  to 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  of  water  entering 
the  mouth  of  the  funnel.  A stop- 
cock is  added  for  drawing  off  the 
water.  A simpler  form  of  gauge  con- 
sists of  a funnel  having  at  tne  mouth 
a diameter  of  4.697  inches,  or  an  area 
of  17.33  sq.  inches.  Now,  as  a fluid 
ounce  contains  1.733  cubic  inches,  it 
follows  that  forgery  ounce  fluid  col- 
lected by  this  gauge  the  tenth  of  an  inch 
of  rain  has  fallen.  Recently-constructed 
automatic  gauges  give  a continuous 
record  of  rainfall;  indicate  the  duration 
of  each  shower,  the  amount  of  rain  that 
has  fallen,  and  the  rate  at  which  it  fell 
RAIN-TREE,  a leguminous  tree  of 
tropical  America,  now  largely  planted 
in  India  for  the  shade  it  furnishes,  and 
jaecause  it  flourishes  in  barren  salt- 
impregnated  soils,  as  well  as  for  its 
sweet  pulpy  pods,  which  are  greedily 
eaten  by  cattle.  I 

P.  E.— 66 


RAIPUR  (ri-p6r'),  a town  of  India, 
headquarters  of  district  of  same  name 
in  the  Chhatisgarh  division.  Central 
provinces.  Pop.  32,114. — The  district 
includes  within  its  limits  four  small 
feudatory  states;  area,  11,724  sq.  miles; 
pop.  1,422,778. 

RAISINS,  the  dried  fruit  of  various 
species  of  vines,  comparatively  rich  in 
sugar.  They  are  dried  by  natural  or 
artificial  heat.  The  natural  and  best 
method  of  drying  is  by  cutting  the 
stalks  bearing  the  finest  grapes  half 
through  when  ripe,  and  allowing  them 
to  shrink  and  dry  on  the  vine  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  Another  method  con- 
sists of  plucking  the  grapes  from  the 
stalks,  drying  them,  and  dipping  them 
in  a boiling  lye  of  wood-ashes  and  quick- 
lime, after  which  they  are  exposed  to 
the  sun  upon  hurdles  of  basket-work. 
Those  dried  by  the  first  method  are 
called  raisins  of  the  sun  or  sun-raisins, 
muscatels,  or  blooms;  those  by  the 
second,  lexias.  The  inferior  sorts  of 
grapes  are  dried  in  ovens.  Raisins  are 
produced  in  large  quantities  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Califor- 
nia, etc.  Those  known  as  Malagas, 
Alicantes,  Valencias,  and  Denias  are 
well-known  Spanish  qualities.  A kind 
without  seeds,  from  Turkey,  are  called 
sultanas.  The  Corinthian  raisin,  or 
currant,  is  obtained  from  a small  variety 
of  grape  peculiar  to  the  Greek  Islands. 

RAJAH,  or  RAJA,  in  India,  originally 
a title  which  belonged  to  those  princes 
of  Hindu  race,  who,  either  as  independ- 
ent rulers  or  as  feudatories,  governed  a 
territory;  subsequently,  a title  given  by 
the  native  government  to  Hindus  of 
rank.  It  is  now  not  unfrequently  as- 
sumed by  the  zemindars  or  landholders, 
the  title  Mah4rS,jah  (great  rajah)  being 
generally  reserved  to  the  more  or  less 
powerful  native  princes. 

RAJPIPLA,  native  state  of  India,  in 
Bombay  presidency,  watered  by  the 
Nerbudda.  Area,  1514  sq.  miles;  pop. 
114,756;capital  Nandod. 

RAJPUTA'NA,  a large  province  of 
India,  under  the  suzerainty  of  Britain 
since  1817,  in  the  west  part  of  Hindus- 
tan proper,  extending  from  the  Jumna 
and  Chumbul  rivers,  west  to  Sind  and 
Bhawalpur,  and  comprising  the  greater 
part  of  the  Indian  desert.  It  includes 
the  British  district  of  Ajmere-Merwara 
and  twenty  autonomous  states,  each 
under  a separate  chief ; has  a total  area 
of  127,541  sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of 
9,723,301,  exclusive  of  a considerable 
Bheel  pMulation,  estimated  at  230,000. 

RAjSHAHI,  a division  or  commis- 
sionership  of  Bengal,  extending  from 
the  Ganges  to  Sikkim  and  Bhutan.  Area, 
17,428  sq.  miles;  pop.  8,019,187. — The 
district  of  Rdjshdhi,  forming  part  of  the 
division,  has  an  area  of  2361  sq.  miles; 
a pop.  of  1,460,644.  Capital  of  division 
and  district  Rdmpur  Beauleah. 

RAKE,  an  implement  which  in  its 
simplest  form  consists  merely  of  a 
wooden  or  iron  bar  furnished  with 
wooden  or  iron  teeth,  and  firmly  fixed 
at  right  angles  to  a long  handle.  In 
farming  it  is  used  for  collecting  hay, 
straw,  or  the  like,  after  mowing  or  reap- 
ing; and  in  gardening  it  is  used  for 
smoothing  the  soil,  covering  the  seed, 
etc.  Large  rakes  for  farm  work  are 


adapted  for  being  drawn  by  horses ; and 
there  are  many  modifications  both  of 
the  hand-rake  and  the  horse-rake. 

RALEIGH  (ral'i),  the  capital  of  North 
Carolina,  near  the  center  of  the  state. 
Among  the  principal  public  buildings 
are  the  state-house  with  a handsome 


Horse-rake. 


columned  front,  the  court-house,  and 
post-office,  all  in  granite.  It  is  an  im- 
portant cotton  center,  and  the  industries 
are  various.  Pop.  15,940. 

RALEIGH  (ral'i),  or  RALEGH,  Sir 
Walter,  navigator,  warrior,  statesman, 
and  writer  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
James  I.  In  1584  he  obtained  a charter 
of  colonization  and  unsuccessfully  at- 
tempted the  settlement  of  Virginia  in 
one  or  two  following  years.  In  1584,  also, 
he  obtained  a large  share  of  the  for- 
feited Irish  estates,  and  introduced  here 
the  cultivation  of  the  potato.  In  1588  he 
rendered  excellent  service  against  the 
Spanish  Armada,  and  subsequently 
vessels  were  fitted  out  by  him  to  attack 
the  Spaniards.  To  discover  the  fabled 
El  Dorado  or  region  of  gold  he  planned 
an  expedition  to  Guiana,  in  which  he 
embarked  in  1595,  and  reached  the 
Orinoco;  but  was  obliged  to  return  after 


Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 


having  done  little  more  than  take  a 
formal  possession  of  the  country  in  the 
name  of  Elizabeth.  In  1596  he  held  a 
naval  command  against  Spain  under 
Lord  Howard  and  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
and  assisted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
fleet  and  the  capture  of  Cadiz.  Next 
year  he  captured  Fayal  in  the  Azores;  in 
1600  he  became  governor  of  Jersey. 
James  I.,  on  his  accession  in  1603,  had 
his  mind  soon  poisoned  against  Raleigh, 
whom  he  deprived  of  all  his  offices. 
Accused  of  complicity  in  Lord  Cobham’s 
treason  in  favor  of  Arabella  Stuart, 
Raleigh  was  brought  to  trial  at  Win- 
chester in  November  1603,  found  guilty 
of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  death.  He 
was,  however,  reprieved  and  confined 


RAM 


RANGPUR 


in  the  tower.  Here  he  remained  for 
twelve  years,  devoting  himself  to 
scientific  and  literary  work.  In  1616 
he  obtained  his  release  by  bribing  the 
favorite  Villiers,  and  by  offering  to  open 
a mine  of  gold  which  he  believed  to  exist 
near  the  Orinoco.  The  enterprise  proved 
disastrous.  Raleigh’s  force  had  at- 
tacked the  Spaniards,  and  on  his  return 
James,  to  favor  the  Spanish  court,  with 
his  usual  meanness  and  pusillanimity 
determined  to  execute  him  on  his  former 
sentence.  After  a trial  before  a com- 
mission of  the  privy-council  the  doom  of 
death  was  pronounced  against  him,  and 
was  carried  into  execution  October  29, 
1618. 

RAM,  a steam  iron-clad  ship-of-war, 
aimed  at  the  prow  below  the  water-line 
with  a heavy  iron  or  steel  beak  intended 
to  destroy  an  enemy’s  ships  by  the  force 
with  which  it  is  driven  against  them. 
The  beak  is  an  independent  adjunct  of 
the  ship,  so  that,  in  the  event  of  a serious 
collision,  it  may  be  either  buried  in  the 
opposing  vessel  or  carried  away,  leaving 
uninjured  the  vessel  to  which  it  is  at- 
tached. By  naval  experts  the  ram  is  con- 
sidered as  a main  element  in  the  solution 
of  the  problem  of  coast  defense. 

RAMEE,  Louise  de  la  (Ouida),  Eng- 
lish novelist  of  French  extraction,  born 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  1840,  has  latterly 
lived  much  in  Italy.  She  published  her 
first  novel,  “Held  in  Bondage,”  in  1863, 
and  since  then  has  been  a very  prolific 
writer.  Among  her  best  works  are 
Stratlunore,  Chandor,  Puck,  Moths, 
Princess  Napraxine,  A House  Party, 
Gilderoy,  etc.  She  died  in  1908. 

RAM'ESES,  or  RAMSES  (in  Egyptian, 
“the  Child  of  the  Sun”),  the  name  given 
to  a number  of  Egyptian  kings. — 
Rameses  I.  was  the  first  king  of  the 
nineteenth  dynasty,  and  was  not  among 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  series. — 
Rameses  II.,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
was  the  third  king  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty',  and  was  born  in  the  quarter 
of  a century  preceding  the  year  1400 
B.c.  He  is  identified  by  many  with  the 
Sesostris  of  Greek  writers.  (See  Sesos- 
tris.)  His  first  achievement  was  the 
reduction  of  Ethiopia  to  subjection.  He 
defeated  a confederation  among  whom 
the  Khita  or  Hittites  were  the  chief  in  a 
great  battle  near  the  Orontes  in  Syria, 
and  in  a subsequent  stage  of  the  war 
took  Jerusalem  and  other  places.  He 
was  a zealous  builder  and  a patron  of 
art  and  science.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  king  who  oppressed  the  He- 
brews, and  the  father  of  the  king  under 
whom  the  exodus  took  place. — Rameses 
III.,  the  Rhampsinitus  of  Herodotus, 
belonged  to  the  twentieth  dynasty,  and 
was  uniformly  successful  in  war.  He 
endeavored  to  surpass  his  ancestors  in 
the  magnificence  of  his  buildings. 

RAM'ESES,  one  of  the  treasure-cities 
of  Egypt  built  by  the  Hebrews  during 
the  oppression,  and  probably  named 
after  Rameses  II.  It  has  been  identified 
by  Lepsius  with  Tell-el-Maskhfita  on  the 
Fresh-water  canal  (about  12  miles  west 
of  the  Suez  canal),  and  by  Brugsch  with 
Tanis  the  modern  San. 

RAMPANT,  in  heraldry,  standing  up- 
right upon  its  hind-lsgs  (properly  on  on# 
foot)  as  if  attacking;  said  of  a beast  of 
prey,  as  the  lion.  It  differs  from  salient. 


which  means  in  the  posture  of  springing 
forward.  Rampant  gardant  is  the  same 
as  rampant,  but  with  the  animal  look- 
ing full-faced.  Rampant  regardant  is 


Rampant.  Rampant  gardant. 


when  the  animal  in  a rampant  position 
looks  behind. 

RAMPART,  in  fortification,  an  eleva- 
tion or  mound  of  earth  round  a place, 
capable  of  resisting  cannon-shot,  and  on 
which  the  parapet  is  raised.  The  ram- 
part is  built  of  the  earth  taken  out  of  the 
ditch,  though  the  lower  part  of  the  outer 
slope  is  usually  constructed  of  masonry. 
The  term  in  general  usage  includes  the 
parapet  itself. 

RAMPUR',  capital  of  a native  state  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  United  Provinces 
of  India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kosila 
river,  18  miles  e.  of  Moradabad.  Pop. 
78,758. — The  state,  which  is  under  the 
political  superintendence  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  Provinces,  has  an 
area  of  899  sq.  miles  and  a pop.  of 
532,067. 

RANDALL,  Samuel  Jackson,  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  in  1828.  In  1858  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  state  senate.  In 
November,  1862,  he  was  elected  to  rep- 
resent the  First  Pennsylvania  district 
in  congress,  to  which  he  was  thirteen 
times  successively  reelected.  In  the 
Forty-third  congress  (1873-75)  by  direct- 
ing the  democratic  opposition  to  the 
“Force  Bill”  he  was  recognized  as  the 
leader  of  his  party  in  the  house.  In 
December,  1876,  he  was  elected  to 
succeed  Speaker  Kerr,  who  had  died 
during  the  recess  of  congress.  He  was 
reelected  speaker  of  the  Forty-fifth  and 
Forty-sixth  congresses(1877-81).  At  the 
democratic  national  convention  of  1880 
he  received  128J  votes  on  the  second 
ballot  for  the  nomination  to  the  presi- 
dency. In  his  last  two  elections  to  con- 
gress he  was  unopposed  by  the  repub- 
licans. He  died  in  1890. 

RANDOLPH,  Edmund  Jennings,  an 
American  statesman,  w'as  born  in  Will- 
iamsburg, Va.,  in  1753.  In  August,  1775, 
he  became  one  of  Washington’s  aides, 
and  in  1776  sat  in  the  Virginia  constitu- 
tional convention.  He  was  the  first 
attorney-general  under  the  new  state 
constitution  (1776),  sat  in  the  continen- 
tal congress  from  1780  to  1782,  and  was 
governor  of  Virginia  from  1786  to  1788. 
In  1789,  he  was  appointed  by  Washing- 
ton attorney-general  of  the  United 
States.  On  January  2, 1 794, he  succeeded 
Jefferson  as  secretary  of  state,  but  re- 
signed in  August,  1795.  Returning  to 
his  home,  he  became  the  leader  of  the 
Virginia  bar,  and  in  1807  helped  defend 
Aaron  Burr  against  the  charge  of  trea- 
son. He  died  in  1813. 

RANDOLPH,  John,  of  Roanoke, 
American  stateeman,  waa  born  at  Caw. 
sons  in  Chesterfield  co.,  Va.,  in  1773- 
In  1799  he  was  elected  to  congress  and 
became  the  democratic-republicanleader 
of  the  house  of  representatives.  He 


opposed  the  war  of  1812,  and  the  Mis- 
souri compromise,  and  stigmatized  the 
northern  members  who  voted  for  the 
latter  as  “doughfaces.”  In  1822  and 
1824  he  visited  England.  In  1825  he 
began  his  two  years’  service  as  senator 
from  Virginia,  and  fought  his  famous 


I 


duel  with  Henry  Clay.  In  1830  he  was  ‘ 
appointed  minister  to  Russia.  He  died  ' 
in  1833. 

RANGE,  in  gunnery,  the  horizontal 
distance  to  which  a shot  or  other  pro- 
jectile is  carried.  When  a cannon  lies  , 
horizontally  it  is  called  the  point-blank 
range;  when  the  muzzle  is  elevated  to 
45  degrees  it  is  called  the  utmost  range. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  ricochet,  the 
skipping  or  bounding  shot,  with  the 
piece  elevated  from  3 to  6 degrees. 
Several  instruments  have  been  invented 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  range  or 
distance  or  objects  against  which  guns 
are  to  direct  their  fire,  being  known  as 
range-finders  or  telemeters.  They 
generally  depend  on  trigonometrical 
principals  and  on  the  use  of  telescopes. 

RANGE-FINDER,  an  instrument  used 
to  determine  the  horizontal  distance  of 
the  object  to  be  hit  from  the  gun  which 
is  firing.  They  are  of  three  types,  those 
furnishing  their  own  base's  for  measure- 
ment, those  depending  upon  a known 
dimension  of  the  object  aimed  at,  and 
those  utilizing  a time  observation.  The 
first-named  type  have  the  most  general 
application,  but  satisfactory  instru- 
ments  are  either  very  cumbersome  or 
delicate,  or  are  liable  to  give  ranges  con- 
siderably  in  error. 

RANGOON',  the  capital  of  Lower 
Burmah,  and  the  chief  seaport  of  Bur- 
mah,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  ^ 
Pegu,  Hlaing  or  Rangoon,  and  Pu-zun- 
doung  rivers,  about  21  miles  from  the 
sea.  Since  its  occupancy  by  the  British 
in  1852  Rangoon  has  undergone  such 
changes  that  it  is  practically  a new 
town,  and  its  population  has  increased 
five-fold.  Pop.  234,881.  Of  the  popula- 
tion about  100,000  are  Buddhists)  Bur- 
mese) and  60.000  Hindus. 

RANGPUR',  a district  in  the  Rajshnhi  -, 
division  of  Bengal;  area,  3486  sq.  miles,  --i 
This  territory  is  flat  and  well-watered,  ' 
the  chief  product  being  rice.  Pop.  .j 
2,097,964. — Rangpur,  the  capital,  is  . 
situated  on  the  Ghagh£t  river,  270  J 
miles  n.e.  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  14,300.  -,1 


RANK 


BAPHIA 


RANK,  a line  of  soldiers  standing 
abreast  or  side  by  side  ; often  used  along 
with  file,  which  is  a line  running  from 
the  front  to  the  rear  of  a company,  bat- 
talion, or  regiment,  the  term  rank  and 
file,  thus  comprising  the  whole  body  of 
the  common  soldiers. 

RANKE  (ran'ke),  Leopold  von,  Ger- 
man historian,  born  in  1795,  died  1886. 
His  first  published  work  (1824)  was  a 
History  of  the  Romance  and  Teutonic 
Nations  from  1494  to  1535.  This  was 
followed  by  Princes  and  Peoples  of 
Southern  Europe  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  (1827).  The  Servian  Revolu- 


tion (1829),  History  of  the  Popes  (1834- 
37),  History  of  Germany  in  the  time  of 
the  Ruformation  (1839-47),  History  of 
Prussia  during  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies (1847-48),  History  of  France, 
chiefly  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries 
G852-55),  History  of  England  in  the 
17th  century  (1859-68),  besides  a num- 
ber of  smaller  works  supplementary  of 
his  History  of  Germany. 

RANSOM,  the  money  or  price  paid  for 
the  redemption  of  a prisoner,  captive, 
or  slave,  or  for  goods  captured  by  an 
enemy,  and  formerly  a sum  paid  for 
prisoners  of  war. 

RANUNCULA'CE.®,  a natural  order 
of  exogenous  polypetalous  plants,  in 
almost  all  cases  herbaceous,  inhabiting 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world,  and  un- 
known in  hot  countries  except  at  con- 
siderable elevations.  They  have  radical 
or  alternate  leaves  (opposite  in  Clematis) 
regular  or  irregular,  often  large  and 
handsome  flowers,  and  fruits  consisting 
of  one-seeded  achenes  or  many  seeded 
follicles.  There  are  about  30  genera  and 
500  species.  They  have  usually  poison- 
ous qualities,  as  evinced  by  aconite  and 
hellebore  in  particular.  Some  of  them 
are  objects  of  beauty,  as  the  larkspurs, 
ranunculus,  anemone,  and  pseony.  See 
next  article. 

RANUN'CULUS,  a genus  of  herbaceous 
plants,  the  t5rpe  of  the  natural  order 
Ranunculaceae.  They  have  entire, 
lobed,  or  compound  leaves,  and  usually 
panicled,  white  or  yellow  flowers.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  almost  ex- 
clusively inhabit  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. Almost  all  the  species  are  acrid 
and  caustic,  and  poisonous  when  taken 
internally,  and,  when  externally  applied, 


will  raise  blisters.  The  various  species 
found  wild  are  known  chiefly  by  the 
common  names  of  crowfoot,  buttercup, 
and  spearwort. 

RAPE,  the  carnal  knowledge  of  a 
woman  forcibly  and  against  her  will. 
By  the  English  law  this  crime  is  felony, 
and  is  punishable  with  penal  servitude 
for  life.  By  24  and  25  Viet.  (1861)  cap. 
c.  unlawfully  and  carnally  knowing  any 
girl  under  the  age  of  ten  years,  with  or 
without  her  consent,  was  regarded  as 
rape,  and  punishable  as  such;  if  the  girl 
were  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twelve 
the  punishment  was  penal  servitude 
for  five  years,  or  imprisonment  not  ex- 
ceeding two  years  with  or  without  hard 
labor.  But  by  the  Criminal  Law  Amend- 
ment Act  of  1885  the  maximum  penalty 
of  penal  servitude  for  life  has  been  ex- 
tended to  the  defilement  of  girls  under 
thirteen;  and  the  maximum  penalty  of 
two  years’  imprisonment  with  hard 
labor  has  been  extended  to  the  defile- 
ment of  girls  under  sixteen  years.  In  the 
case  of  older  females  consent  must  be 
withheld  or  there  is  no  rape.  In  Scot- 
land this  crime  may  still  be  punished 
with  death,  though  it  never  is  so.  In  the 
United  States  the  crime  is  treated  as  a 
felony,  and  the  punishment  is  imprison- 
ment for  life  or  a term  of  years. 

RAPE,  a plant  of  the  cabbage  family, 
cultivated  for  its  seeds,  from  which  oil 
is  extracted  by  grinding  and  pressure. 
It  is  also  cultivated  for  the  succulent 
food  which  its  thick  and  fleshy  stem  and 
leaves  supply  to  sheep  when  other  fodder 
is  scarce.  The  oil  obtained  from  the  seed, 
which  is  much  the  same  as  colza  oil,  is 
used  for  various  economical  purposes, 
for  burning  in  lamps,  for  lubricating 
machinery,  in  medicine,  etc.  The  oil- 
cake is  used  as  food  for  sheep  and  cattle, 
and  as  a fertilizer. 

RAPH'AEL  or  RAFFAELLO,  Sanzio 
or  Santi,  one  of  the  greatest  painters 
that  ever  lived,  was  born  at  Urbino  1483, 


died  1520.  His  father,  Giovanni  Sanzio, 
a painter  of  some  merit,  from  whom  young 
Raphael  received  his  first  instruction, 
died  in  1494,  and  he  was  then  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  an  uncle.  His  studies, 
however,  were  not  interrupted,  and  at 
the  early  age  of  twelve  he  was  received 
into  the  studio  of  Perugino  at  Perugia 
as  one  of  his  pupils,  and  continued  with 
that  celebrated  painter  for  six  or  eight 
years.  His  most  important  works  are 
the  Madonna  del  Gran  Duca  (Florence); 
Madonna  del  Giardino  (Vienna);  Holy 


Family  (Madrid) ; Chi-ist  Bearing  the 
Cross  (Madrid);  Marriage  of  Joseph  and 
the  Virgin  (Brera,  Milan);  the  Ansidei 
Madonna  (National  gallery);  Madonna 
(belonging  to  Lord  Cowper) ; Tempi 
Madonna  (Munich) ; and  the  Bridge- 
water  Madonna  (Bridgewater  house). 
Besides  these  he  painted  as  Vatican 
frescoes  (1508-11)  the  allegorical  figures 
of  Theology,  Philosophy,  Justice,  and 
Poetry,  in  the  corners  of  the  ceiling;  the 
Fall  of  Adam,  Astronomy,  Apollo  and 
Marsyas,  and  Solomon’s  Judgment,  all 
having  reference  to  the  four  principal 
figures  of  the  apartment;  and,  lastly,  on 
the  fourth  wall,  over  the  windows.  Pru- 
dence, Temperance,  and  Fortitude, 
besides  many  others.  During  this  time 
Raphael  prepared  designs  for  several 
palaces  in  Rome  and  other  cities  of 
Italy  (notable  among  wliich  were  the 
series  of  designs  in  the  Villa  Farnesina  to 
illustrate  the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche), 
finished  the  Madonna  for  the  church  of 
St.  Sixtus  in  Piacenza  (now  in  Uresden), 
and  painted  the  portraits  of  Beatrice 
of  Ferrara,  of  the  Fornarina  of  Caron- 
delet  (now  in  England),  and  of  Count 
Castiglione.  It  was  probably  at  a later 
period  that  Raphael  prepared  for  Augus- 
tino  Ghigi  designs  for  the  building  and 
decoration  of  a chapel  in  Sta.  Maria  del 
Popolo  and  for  Leo  X.  the  celebrated 
cartoons  for  the  tapestry  of  one  of  the 
chambers  of  the  Vatican.  Seven  of  these 
cartoons  are  now  in  the  South  Kensing- 
ton museum.  To  this  period  also  belong 
his  easel -pieces  of  John  in  the  Desert 
(of  which  there  exist  several  copies) ; 
his  Madonna  and  Child,  on  whom  an 
angel  is  strevdng  flowers;  a St.  Margaret 
(Louvre);  the  Madonna  della  Seggiola 
(Florence),  St.  Cecilia  (Bologna).  Ra- 
phael’s last  and  unfinished  painting — 
the  Transfiguration  of  Christ — is  in  the 
Vatican.  Attacked  by  a violent  fever, 
which  was  increased  by  improper  treat- 
ment, this  great  artist  died  at  the  age  of 
thirty-seven  years,  and  was  buried  with 
great  pomp  in  the  Pantheon.  His  tomb 
is  indicated  by  his  bust,  executed  by 
Naldini,  and  placed  there  by  Carlo 
Maratti. 

RA'PHIA,  a genus  of  palms,  rather 
low  trees  with  immense  leaves,  inhabit- 


Eaphla  vinlfera. 

ing  swampy  coasts.  One  specie,  a native 
of  West  Africa,  Madagascar,  Polynesia, 


RAPID  FIRE  GUN 


RATTLESNAKE 


etc.,  besides  yielding  palm-wine,  supplies 
materials  for  the  roofs  and  other  parts 
of  houses,  for  baskets  and  other  work, 
etc.  The  fibre  of  these  palms  is  known 
as  raphia  or  raffia,  and  is  used  for  mat- 
ting, for  tying  up  plants,  etc. 

RAPID  FIRE  GUN.  See  Machine  Gun. 
Quick  Firing  Guns. 

RA'PIER,  a light,  highly-tempered, 
edgeless  and  finely-pointed  weapon  of  the 
sword  kind,  used  for  thrusting.  It  is 
about  3 feet  in  length  and  was  long  a 
favorite  weapon  for  duels.  Its  use  now, 
however,  is  restricted  to  occasions  of 
state  ceremonial. 

RAPPAHAN'NOCK,  a river  in  Vir- 
ginia, which  rises  in  the  Blue  Ridge, 
runs  e.s.e.  about  130  miles,  and  flows 
into  Chesapeake  bay.  It  passes  the 
towns  of  Falmouth,  Fredericksburg, 
Port-Royal,  and  Leeds,  and  is  navigable 
to  Fredericksburg,  110  miles. 

RAPTO'RES,  the  birds  of  prey,  an 
order  of  birds,  also  called  Accipitres,  in- 
cluding those  which  live  on  other  birds 
and  animals,  and  are  characterized  by 
a strong,  curved,  sharp-edged,  and 
sharp-pointed  beak,  and  robust  short 
legs,  with  three  toes  before  and  one  be- 
hind, armed  with  long,  strong,  and 
crooked  talons.  The  eagles,  vultures, 
falcons,  and  owls  are  examples. 

RARTTAN,  a river  of  New  Jersey, 
United  States,  formed  by  two  branches 
which  unitedly  flow  s.e.,  and  fall  into 
Raritan  bay  near  Perth  Amboy.  It  is 
navigable  as  far  as  New  Brunswick. 

RASHI,  properly  Rabbi  Solomon- 
ben-Isaak,  a great  Jewish  rabbi,  born 
at  Troyes,  France,  in  1040;  died  1105. 
His  most  famous  work  is  a Commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch;  he  also  wrote  com- 
mentaries on  the  Prophets,  the  Talmud, 
and  various  treatises  on  miscellaneous 
subjects. 

RASO'RES,  gallinaceous  birds  or 
scratchers,  an  order  of  birds  comprising 
the  sub-orders  Gallinacei,  or  fowls,  tur- 
keys, partridges,  grouse,  etc.,  and  the 
Columtjacei,  or  pigeons,  which  are  often 
made  a distinct  order.  The  common 
domestic  fowl  may  be  regarded  as  the 
type  of  the  order.  They  arc  charac- 
terized by  the  toes  terminating  in  strong 
claws,  for  scratching  up  seeds,  etc.,  and 
by  the  upper  mandible  being  vaulted, 
with  the  nostrils  pierced  in  a mem- 
braneous space  at  its  base,  and  covered 
by  a cartilaginous  scale.  The  rosarial 
birds  are,  as  a rule,  polygamous  in 
habits;  the  pigeons,  however,  present 
an  exception  to  this  rule,  and  their 
young  are  also  produced  featherless  and 
helpless. 

RASPBERRY,  the  fruit  of  the  well- 
known  shrubby  plant  and  the  plant 
itself,  which  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the 
bramble  or  blackberry,  dewberry,  and 
cloudberry.  Several  varieties  are  cul- 
tivated, either  red,  flesh-colored,  or 
yellow.  Raspberries  are  much  used  in 
cookery  and  confectionery,  and  the  juice 
mixed  with  a certain  portion  of  sugar  and 
brandy,  constitutes  the  liquor  called 
raspberry  brandy.  Raspberry  vinegar, 
a refreshing  summer  beverage  and  cool- 
ing drink  for  invalids,  is  composed  of 
raspberry  juice,  vinegar,  and  sugar. 

RAT,  one  of  the  rodent  mammalia,  | 
forming  a typical  example  of  the  family 
Muridae  or  mice.  The  best  known  species 


are  the  (so-called)  Norway  or  brown 
rat  and  the  true  English  or  black  rat.  The 
brown  rat  grows  to  about  9 inches  in 
length,  has  a shorter  tail  than  the  other, 
small  ears,  is  of  a brownish  color  above 
and  white  below,  and  is  altogether  a 
much  larger  and  stronger  animal.  Sup- 
posed to  have  belonged  originally  to 
India  and  China,  it  only  became  known 
in  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century;  but  it  is  now  found  in  al- 
most every  part  of  the  habitable  globe, 
and  where  it  has  found  a footing  the 
black  rat  has  disappeared.  It  is  a 
voracious  omnivorous  animal,  swims 
readily  in  water,  breeds  four  or  five 
times  in  the  year,  each  brood  numbering 
about  a dozen,  and  these  again  breed  in 
about  six  months.  The  black  rat  is 
usually  about  7 inches  in  length,  has  a 
sharper  head  than  the  other,  larger  ears 
and  a much  longer  tail.  It  is  much  less 
numerous  than  the  brown  rat  and  more 
timid.  To  this  variety  belongs  the  white 
rat,  which  is  sometimes  kept  as  a house- 
hold pet.  Various  other  animals  are 
called  rats. 

RATCHET, an  arm  or  piece  of  mechan- 
ism one  extremity  of  which  abuts 
against  the  teeth  of  a ratchet-wheel; 
called  also  a click,  pawl,  or  detent.  If 
employed  to  move  the  wheel  it  is  called 
a pallet.  See  next  article. 

RATCHET-WHEEL,  a wheel  with 
pointed  and  angular  teeth,  against 
which  a ratchet  abuts,  used  either  for 
converting  a reciprocating  into  a rotary 
motion  on  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  fixed 
or  for  admitting  of  circular  motion  in 


one  direction  only  as  in  a winch,  a cap- 
stan, etc.  For  both  purposes  an  arrange- 
ment is  employed  similar  to  that  shown 
in  the  figure,  in  which  a is  the  ratchet- 
wheel,  b a reciprocating  lever,  to  the 
end  of  which  is  jointed  the  small  racthet 
or  pallet  c.  This  ratchet,  when  the 
lever  is  moved  in  one  direction,  slides 
over  the  teeth,  but  in  returning  draws 
the  wheel  with  it.  The  other  ratchet  d 
permits  of  the  motion  of  the  wheel  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrow,  but  opposes  its 
movement  in  other  the  direction. 

RATEL',  or  HONEY-BADGER,  a car- 
nivorous quadruped  of  the  badger 


Honey-ratel. 


family,  found  chiefly  in  South  and  East 
Africa,  and  in  India.  The  Cape  or  South 


African  ratel  averages  about  3 feet  in 
length,  including  the  tail,  which  meas- 
ures 8 or  9 inches  in  length.  The  fur  is 
thick  and  coarse,  the  color  is  black  on 
the  under  parts,  on  the  muzzle,  and 
limbs,  whilst  the  tail,  upper  surface, 
sides,  and  neck  are  of  grayish  hue.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  destruction  it  makes 
among  the  nests  of  the  wild  bee,  to  the 
honey  of  which  it  is  very  partial. 

RATIO,  the  numerical  measure  which 
one  quantity  bears  to  another  of  the 
same  kind,  expressed  by  the  number 
found  by  dividing  the  one  by  the  other. 
The  ratio  of  one  quantity  to  another  is 
by  some  mathematicans  regarded  as  the 
quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the 
second  quantity  by  the  first;  by  others, 
as  the  quotient  obtained  by  dividing 
the  first  by  the  second. 

RATIONALISM,  is  the  doctrine  which 
affirms  the  prerogative  and  right  of 
reason  to  decide  on  all  matters  of  faith 
and  morals  whatever  so-called  “author- 
ity” may  have  to  say  on  the  matter. 
In  1835  Strauss  published  his  Life  of 
Jesus,  a work  in  which,  from  the  Hege- 
lian stand-point,  and  in  a destructive 
spirit,  he  discusses  the  origin  of  the  New 
Testament.  The  movement  which  this 
originated  is  chiefly  associated  with 
scientific  materialism,  agnosticism,  etc., 
and  rationalism  as  a distinctive  phase 
of  religious  controversy  may  be  said  to 
have  then  ceased. 

RA'TISBON,  a town  of  Bavaria,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Oberpfalz  or  Upper 
Palatinate,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube  opposite  the  junction  of  the 
Regen,  65  miles  n.n.e.  of  Munich  and  53 
miles  s.e.  of  Nuremberg;  1010  feet  above 
the  sea.  Pop.  50,000. 

RAT'LINES,  small  lines  which  tra- 
verse the  shrouds  of  a ship  horizontally, 
at  regular  distances  of  about  15  to  16 
inches,  forming  a variety  of  ladders 
reaching  upwards  to  the  different  mast- 
heads. 

RATTANS',  the  commercial  name  for 
the  long  trailing  stems  of  various  species 
of  palm  forming  a considerable  article 
of  export  from  India  and  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  They  have  all  perennial, 
long,  round,  solid,  jointed,  unbranching 
stems,  extremely  tough  and  pliable.  All 
the  species  are  very  useful,  and  are 
employed  for  wicker-work,  seats  of 
chairs,  walking-sticks,  thongs,  ropes, 
cables,  etc. 

RATTLESNAKE,  a name  of  various 
venomous  American  snakes,  distin- 
guished from  the  other  members  of  the 
family  by  the  tail  terminating  in  a 
series  of  articulated  horny  pieces,  which 
the  animal  vibrates  in  such  a manner 
as  to  make  a rattling  sound.  _ The  func- 
tion of  the  “rattle”  is  dubious.  The 
rattlesnake  is  one  of  the  most  deadly 
of  poisonous  serpents,  but  hogs  and 
peccaries  kill  and  eat  it,  finding  protec- 
tion in  the  thickness  of  their  hides  and 
the  depth  of  their  layers  of  fat.  A num- 
ber of  species  belong  to  the  United 
States  and  Mexico.  East  of  the  Missis- 
sippi the  banded  rattlesnake,  is  the  best 
known  and  most  dreaded  species.  It  is 
naturally  a sluggish  animal,  ready  to 
defend  itself,  but  seldom  commencing 
the  attack.  It  feeds  on  rats,  squirrels, 
small  rabbits,  etc.,  and  reaches  a length 
of  5 or  6 feet.  Other  species  are  the 


RAUCH 


RAYNOUARD 


striped  rattlesnake,  found  from  Mexico 
to  Brazil;  the  diamond  rattlesnake,  the 
western  black  rattlesnake,  the  prairie 


Rattlesnake  coiled  to  sti-ike. 


rattlesnake,  and  the  horned  rattlesnake 
of  the  American  deserts. 

RAUCH  (rouh),  Christian,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  German  sculptors, 
born  at  Arolsen  1777,  died  1857.  He 
was  especially  great  in  ideal  figures  and 
in  portraiture.  Among  his  chefs  d’ceuvre 
may  be  mentioned  the  monument  of 
King  Frederick  William  III.  and  Queen 
Louisa  in  the  Charlottenburg  mauso- 
leum, the  colossa'  equestrian  statue  of 
Frederick  the  Great  at  Berlin,  having 
the  base  surrounded  by  groups  of  his 
most  distinguished  contemporaries,  and 
forming  altogether  one  of  the  most 
notable  monuments  in  Europe;  the  six 
colossal  figures  of  Victory  in  the  Wal- 
halla,  and  a group  representing  Moses 
with  his  hands  supported  by  Aaron  and 
Hur. 

RAVAILLAC  (ra-va-yak),  Francois, 
the  murderer  of  Henry  IV.  of  France, 
born  1578.  His  various  disappointments 
and  his  religious  fanaticism  led  him  to 
plan  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV., 
which  he  successfully  accomplished 
14th  May,  1610.  Upon  this  he  was 
seized,  horribly  tortured,  and  put  to 
death. 

RAV'ELIN,  a detached  triangular 
work  in  fortification,  with  two  embank- 
ments which  form  a projecting  angle. 
In  the  figure  b b is  the  ravelin  with  a 


its  redout,  and  c c its  ditch,  d d being  the 
main  ditch  of  the  fortress,  and  e the 
passage  giving  access  from  the  fortress 
to  the  ravelin. 

RAVEN,  a large  bird  of  the  crow  fam- 
ily. Its  plumage  is  entirely  black;  it  is 
above  2 feet  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the 
bill  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and 
about  52  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 


extended  wings.  It  can  be  taught  to 
imitate  human  speech,  and  in  a domestic 
state  is  remarkable  for  its  destructive- 
ness, thievishness,  and  love  of  glittering 
things.  It  flies  high,  and  scents  carrion, 
which  is  its  favorite  food,  at  the  distance 


Raven. 


of  several  miles;  it  feeds  also  on  fruit, 
small  animals,  etc.  It  is  found  in  every 
part  of  the  globe. 

RAVEN'NA,  a town  of  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Montone,  about  4 miles  west  of  the 
Adriatic,  and  43  miles  east  by  south  of 
Bologna.  The  principal  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  founded  in  the  4th  but  re- 
built during  the  17th  century,  adorned 
with  some  of  Guido’s  finest  paintings; 
the  ancient  baptistry,  an  octagonal 
structure,  the  church  of  San  Vitale,  one 
of  the  earliest  of  Christian  churches,  hav- 
ing been  consecrated  in  547 ; the  Basilica 
of  San  Giovanni  Evangelista,  founded  in 
414,  the  church  of  San  Apollinare  Nuovo 
(or  San  Martino),  the  mausoleum  of  the 
empress  Galla  Placidia,  daughter  of 
Theodosius  the  Great,  dating  from  the 
5th  century;  the  palace  of  Theodoric, 
king  of  the  Ostro-Goths;  the  tomb  of 
Dante ; the  town-house,  library,  museum, 
etc.  Pop.  64,031.  The  province  has  an 
area  of  820  sq.  miles;  pop.  235,485. 

RAWAL  PINDI,  a town  of  British 
India,  in  the  Punjab,  situated  in  the 
district  between  the  Indus  and  the 
Jhilam.  It  has  an  arsenal,  extensive 
cantonments,  and  important  military 
works,  churches,  schools,  public  park, 
etc.  It  is  on  the  railway  from  Lahore 
to  Peshawar,  and  carries  on  a thriving 
transit  trade  between  Hindustan  and 
Afghanistan.  Pop.  87,688. 

RAWLINS,  John  Aaron,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  East  Galena,  111.,  in 
1831.  On  April  16,  1861,  shortly  after 
the  fall  of  Fort  Sumter,  he  made  a 
powerful  war  speech  at  a meeting  which 
was  presided  over  by  Ulysses  S.  Grant. 
Shortly  afterward  he  became  a major 
in  an  Illinois  regiment,  but  resigned  that 
post  in  order  to  become  Grant’s  assist- 
ant adjutant-general,  friend  and  ad- 
viser. He  became  chief  of  staff  in  No- 
vember, 1862,  and  was  honored  with 
numerous  promotions,  ending  with  that 
of  brevet  major-general,  March  13,  1865. 
When  Grant  became  president  he  made 
Rawlins  his  secretary  of  war.  He  died 
in  1869. 

RAWLINSON,  Rev.  George,  born  in 
1815.  Besides  various  short  works  on 
antiquity  he  published  a translation  of 


Herodotus  with  a commentary  (1858- 
60) ; The  Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the 
Ancient  Eastern  World  (4  vols.  1862- 
67),  followed  by  the  Sixth  (1873),  and 
the  Seventh  Oriental  Monarchy  (1876); 
History  of  Ancient  Egypt  (2  vols. 
1881) ; Egypt  and  Babylon  (1885) ; Phoe- 
nicia (1889),  etc.  He  died  in  1902. 

RAWLINSON,  Sir  Henry  Creswicke, 
G.C.B.,  brother  of  the  above,  born  in 
1810.  He  has  published  A Commentary 
on  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Baby- 
lon and  Assyria  (1850);  Outline  of  the 
History  of  Assyria  (1852);  Notes  on  the 
Early  History  of  Babylon  (1854);  and 
the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western 
Asia,  edited  along  with  E.  Norris  and 
G.  Smith  (5  vols.  1861-70).  He  was 
D.C.L.  of  Oxford,  LL.D.  of  Cambridge 
F.R.S.,  and  a corresponding  member  of 
the  French  Institute.  He  died  in  1895. 

RAY,  a family  of  fishes,  including  the 
skate  and  allied  forms,  recognized  by  the 
flattened  body  and  by  the  extremely 
broad  and  fleshy  peetoral  fins,  which 
seem  to  be  mere  continuations  of  the 
body.  These  fishes  produce  large  eggs 
which  are  inclosed  in  cartilaginous  cap- 
sules quadrilateral  in  form,  with  pro- 


Ray. 


cesses  at  the  corners,  and  known  famil- 
iarly as  “mermaids’  purses,’’  etc.  The 
most  common  members  of  this  group 
are  the  thornback  ray  or  skate,  so 
named  from  the  curved  spines  which 
arm  the  back  and  tail;  and  the  common 
gray  or  blue  skate,  which  possesses  an 
acutely-pointed  muzzle,  the  body  being 
somewhat  lozenge-shaped,  and  the  color 
ashy-gray  above.  The  starry  ray  is  so 
called  from  having  a number  of  spines 
on  its  upper  surface  rising  from  rayed 
or  starlike  bases;  it  reaches  a length  of 
30  inches.  The  sting  ray  occurs  in  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  but  is  also  found  on 
the  Brftish  coasts,  having  the  tail  armed 
with  a long  spine,  serving  as  a means  of 
defense.  The  horned  ray,  common  in  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  attains  occasionally 
a large  size. 

RAYNOUARD  (ra-no-ar),  Frangois 
Juste  Marie,  French  poet  and  philologist, 
born  at  Brignoles,  Provence,  1761;  died 
1836.  We  wrote  several  tragedies,  such 
as  Scipion,  Don  Carlos,  Charles  I.,  Les 
Templiers,  but  he  is  chiefly  remembered 
as  a philologist  who  revived  the  study 
of  Proven9al  by  his  Choix  des  Poesies 
originales  des  Troubadours  (1816-21), 
six  vols.  8vo) ; Lexique  Roman,  ou  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  la  Langue  des  Troubadours 
(1836-44,  six  vols.  8vo) ; Grammaire 
Compart  des  Langues  de  I’Europe 
Latine  dans  leurs  Rapports  avec  la 
Langue  des  Troubadours  (1821,  8vo). 


RAZORBILL 


RAZORBILL  (ra'zor-bil),  the  razor- 
billed auk,  or  tinker,  so  called  from  the 
deep,  compressed,  and  trenchant  bill. 
The  bill  is  feathered  for  about  one-half 
its  length,  in  the  rest  of  its  extent  being 
vertically  furrowed,  and  hooked  at  the 
tip ; one  of  the  furrows  is  white,  the  bill 
being  otherwise  black,  like  the  feet ; the 
mouth  is  yellow.  The  plumage  is  black 
on  the  upper  parts,  the  lower  parts  from 
the  neck  in  summer,  and  from  the  bill 
in  winter,  being  white ; there  is  a narrow 
white  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye,  and 
the  tips  of  the  secondaries  are  white. 
The  bird  is  about  18  inches  long,  and  27 


Razorbill,  in  winter  plumage. 


in  extent  of  wings.  It  inhabits  arctic 
and  northerly  regions  of  both  hemis- 
pheres, subsists  chiefly  on  fish,  and  nests 
on  rocky  sea-coasts,  laying  a single  egg 
about  3 by  2 inches,  white  or  whitish, 
spotted  and  blotched  w'ith  different 
shades  of  brown.  The  flesh  is  eatable. 

REACTION  , in  physics,  counteraction, 
the  resistance  made  by  a body  to  the 
action  or  impulse  of  another  body, 
which  endeavors  to  change  its  state, 
either  of  motion  or  rest.  It  is  an  axiom 
in  mechanics  that  “action  and  reaction 
are  always  equal  and  contrary,”  or  that 
the  mutual  actions  of  two  bodies  are 
always  equal  and  exerted  in  opposite 
directions.  In  chemistry,  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  mutual  or  reciprocal  ac- 
tion of  chemical  agents  upon  each  other. 
In  pathology,  reaction  is  the  action  of 
an  organ  which  reflects  upon  another 
the  irritation  previously  transmitted 
to  itself. 

READE  (red),  Charles,  novelist,  son 
of  Mr.  John  Reade  of  Ipsden  house  in 
Oxfordshire,  born  in  1814,  died  1884. 
The  most  scholarly  and  artistic  of  his 
writings.  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth, 
dealing  with  the  lives  of  the  parents 
of  Erasmus,  appeared  in  1861,  and 
among  the  more  important  cf  his  other 
works  are:  The  Course  of  Lrue  Love 
Never  Did  Run  Smooth,  Love  Me  Little 
Love  Me  Long,  White  Lies,  Hard  Cash, 
Griffith  Gaunt,  Put  Yourself  in  His 
Place,  A Terrible  Temptation,  Single- 
heart and  Double-face,  A Perilous  Se- 
cret, etc. 

READ,  Nathan,  American  inventor, 
was  born  in  Warren,  Mass.,  in  1759. 
In  1788  he  conceived  the  idea  of  utiliz- 
ing the  steam  engine  for  propelling 
boats  and  carriages,  and,  with  that 
end  in  view,  began  a series  of  ex- 
periments which  resulted  in  the  in- 
vention (1789)  of  the  vertical  multi- 
tubular fire-box  boiler  now  in  general 
use.  In  1 798  he  patented  a machine  for 
cutting  and  heading  nails  at  one  opera- 
tion. He  was  a member  of  congress  from 
1800  to  1803.  Among  his  inventions 


were;  a pumping  engine,  a threshing 
machine,  a method  for  equalizing  the 
action  of  windmills,  and  a plan  for 
utilizing  the  force  of  the  tide,  by  means 
of  reservoirs.  He  died  in  1849. 

READ,  Opie  Percival,  an  American 
author,  was  born  in  Nashville,  Tenn., 
in  1852.  He  edited  the  Kansas  Gazette 
from  1878  until  1881.  In  1883  he  estab- 
lished the  Arkansaw  Traveler,  of  which 
he  was  the  editor  until  1893.  His  works 
include:  A Kentucky  Colonel,  Emmet 
Bonlore,  A Tennessee  Judge,  My  Young 
Master,  Bolanyo,  In  the  Alamo,  The 
Jucklins,  An  American  in  New  York, 
and  several  plays. 

READ,  Thomas  Buchanan,  American 
poet  and  artist,  born  in  Chester  co..  Pa., 
in  1822.  He  is  best  known  as  a poet, 
especially  for  his  stirring  Sheridan’s 
Ride,  and  his  charming  stanzas  entitled 
Drifting.  His  first  volume,  Poems, 
appeared  in  1847.  Lays  and  Ballads 
followed  the  next  year;  The  New  Pas- 
toral, an  elaborate  description  of  Penn- 
sylvania life;  The  House  by  the  Sea.  In 
1848  he  compiled  a volume  entitled 
Female  Poets  of  America,  which  was 
illustrated  by  engravings  of  portraits 
painted  by  himself.  He  died  in  New 
York  City  in  1872. 

READING  (red'ing),  a pari,  county, 
and  municipal  borough  of  England, 
capital  of  the  county  of  Berks,  on  the 
Kennet,  near  its  confluence  with  the 
Thames,  36  miles  west  of  London.  There 
are  interesting  remains  of  a magnificent 
abbey  founded  by  Henry  I.,  who  was 
buried  within  its  precincts  in  1135. 
Reading  sends  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. Pop.  72,214. 

READING,  a city  in  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Schuylkill,  52  miles 
northwest  of  Philadelphia.  The  chief 
industries  are  muslin  and  woolen  goods, 
felt  hats,  iron-founding,  tanning,  etc. 
Pop.  92,300. 

READJUSTERS,  the  name  applied  to 
a political  party  in  Virginia  which 
favored  the  readjustment  or  scaling 
down  of  the  state  debt  which  at  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  amounted  to  about 
$41,000,000,  and  which  was  increased 
by  the  extravagance  and  corruption  of 
the  reconstruction  governments. 

REAGAN  (re'gan),  John  H.,  senator, 
was  born  in  Sevier  co.,  Tenn.,  October 
8, 1818.  In  1839  he  went  to  Texas,  where 
he  served  against  the  Indians.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1856,  serving  till 
the  war  broke  out,  when  he  became  a 
member  of  the  state  secession  conven- 
tion; voted  for  secession,  and  was  sent 
to  the  provisional  congress.  He  was 
made  postmaster-general  of  the  con- 
federacy, and  was  for  a short  time  act- 
ing secretary  of  the  treasury.  After  the 
fall  of  the  confederacy  he  was  captured 
with  Jefferson  Davis,  and  confined  for 
many  months  in  Fort  Warren.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1874,  and  suc- 
cessively till  1887,  in  which  year  he  was 
elected  senator  for  Texas.  He  resigned 
from  the  senate  to  become  chairman 
of  the  Texas  State  Railroad  Commission. 
He  was  one  of  the  authors  of  the  inter- 
state commerce  law,  passed  in  1887. 
He  died  in  1905. 

REA'GENT,  in  chemical  analysis,  a 
substance  employed  as  a test  to  deter- 
mine the  presence  of  some  other  sub- 


REAPING-M.\C1I1NE, or  REAPER 


stance.  Thus,  the  infusion  of  galls  is  a 
reagent  which  detects  iron  by  a dark 
purple  precipitate;  the  prussiate  of 
potash  is  a reagent  which  exhibits  a blue 
with  the  same  metal,  etc. 

REAL,  in  law,  pertaining  to  things 
fixed,  permanent,  or  immovable.  Thus 
real  estate  is  landed  property,  including 
all  estates  and  interest  in  lands  which 
are  held  for  life  or  for  some  greater 
estate,  and  whether  such  lands  be  of 
freehold  or  copyhold  tenure.  So  a real 
action  is  an  action  brought  for  the 
specific  recovery  of  lands,  tenements, 
and  hereditaments. 

I^ALISM,  in  metaphysics,  as  opposed 
to  idealism,  the  doctrine  that  tltiere  is 
an  immediate  or  intuitive  cognition 
of  external  objects,  while  according  to 
idealism  all  we  are  conscious  of  is  our 
ideas.  According  to  realism  external 
objects  exist  independently  of  our  sen- 
sations or  conceptions;  according  to 
idealism  they  have  no  such  independent 
existence.  As  opposed  to  nominalism, 
it  is  the  doctrine  that  asserts  that  gen- 
eral terms  like  man,  tree,  etc.  are  not 
mere  abstractions,  but  have  real  exis- 
tences corresponding  to  them.  In  the 
middle  ages  there  was  a great  con- 
troversy between  the  realists  and  the 
nominalists,  the  chief  controversy  which 
divided  the  schoolmen  into  rival  parties. 
The  realists  maintained  that  things 
and  not  words  are  the  objects  of  dia- 
lectics. Under  the  denomination  of  real- 
ist were  comprehended  the  Scotists  and 
Thomists,  and  all  other  sects  of  school- 
men, except  the  followers  of  Ocean  and 
Abelard,  who  were  nominalists. 

REAM,  a quantity  of  paper,  consist- 
ing of  20'quires  of  24  sheets  each.  The 
printer’s  ream  consists  of  21 J quires, 
or  516  sheets. 


REAPING-MACHINE,  or  REAPER,  a 

machine  for  cutting  down  standing  wheat, 
etc.,  usually  worked  by  a pair  of  horses, 
the  cutting  machinery  being  driven  by 
being  connected  with  the  wheels  on 
which  the  machine  is  drawn  over  the 
field.  The  cutting  is  effected  rather  in 
the  manner  of  a pair  of  scissors  than  in 
that  of  a scythe,  and  a.  series  of  small 
toothed  wheels  have  to  be  connected 
with  the  main  wheel  or  wheels  so  as  to 
produce  the  fast  motion  necessary  for 
driving  the  cutting  knives.  These  knives 
generally  consist  of  triangular  pieces  of 
steel  riveted  to  an  iron  bar,  and  are 
sometimes  smooth-edged  and  some- 
times tooth-edged.  The  knife-bar  pro- 
jects horizontally  from  the  side  of  the 
machine  at  a short  distance  above  the 
ground,  and  moves  backward  and  for- 
ward on  guides  fixed  at  the  back  of  a 
number  of  pointed  fingers,  which  enter 
the  standing  grain  and  guide  the  straw 
to  the  edges  of  the  knives.  The  motion 
of  the  bar  being  very  rap^,  the  grain  is 
cut  down  with  corresponding  speed,  and 
as  it  is  cut  it  is  received  on  a platform 
fixed  behind  the  knife-bar.  In  most 
cases  a revolving  rake  with  four  inclined 
arms  is  attached  to  such  machines,  and 
set  in  motion  by  the  driving-wheel.  Two 
of  the  arms  bring  the  wheat  well  on  to  the 
knife-bar,  and  the  others  deliver  the 
wheat  cut  at  the  back  of  the  machine. 
Many  of  the  recent  machines  are  also  fit- 
ted with  a binding  apparatus.  .4n  endless 
apron  receives  the  grain  as  it  is  cut,  and 


REASON 


RED  CROSS  SOCIETIES 


deposits  it  in  a trough  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  machine.  By  an  ingenious  me- 
chanical arrangement  the  loose  straw 
is  caught  and  compressed  by  two  iron 
arms;  wire  from  a reel  is  passed  round 
t-  the  sheaf,  fastened  by  twisting,  cut 
' away,  and  the  bound  sheaf  is  tossed 
out  of  the  trough  by  one  of  the  arms  by 
which  it  was  compressed.  Other  ap- 
• paratus  are  constructed  so  as  to  bind 
; with  cord,  straw  rope,  etc.  See  Agri- 
, culture. 

t REASON,  a faculty  of  the  mind  by 
1 which  it  distinguishes  truth  from  false- 
E hood,  and  which  enables  the  possessor 
I to  deduce  inferences  from  facts  or  from 
fc  propositions,  and  to  combine  means  for 
the  attainment  of  particular  ends. 
Reason  is  the  highest  faculty  of  the 
human  mind,  by  which  man  is  distin- 
guished from  brutes,  and  which  enables 
^ him  to  contemplate  things  spiritual  as 
[ well  as  material,  to  weigh  all  that  can 
■ be  said  or  thought  for  and  against  them, 

I and  hence  to  draw  conclusions  and  to  act 
accordingly.  In  the  language  of  English 
i philosophy  the  terms  reason  and  under- 
[ standing  are  sometimes  nearly  identical, 
and  are  so  used  by  Sewart;  but  in  the 
i critical  philosophy  of  Kant  a broad  dis- 
tinction is  drawn  between  them. 

; REAUMUR  (ra-o-miir),  Ren4  Antoine 
1 Ferchault  de,  French  physicist  and 
I naturalist,  born  in  1683  at  La  Rochelle, 

' died  1757.  As  a natural  philosopher  he  is 
‘ celebrated  for  the  invention  of  an  im- 
proved  thermometer,  which  he  made 
known  in  1731  (see  Thermometer);  but 
his  greatest  work  is  the  M^moires  pour 
servir  ^THistoire  Naturelle  des  Insectes, 
6 vols. 

REBEC',  an  old  stringed  instrument 
somewhat  similar  to  the  violin,  having 
properly  three  strings  tuned  in  fifths. 


Ret)ec  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


and  played  with  a bow.  It  was  of 
Arabian  or  Turkish  origin  and  was  in- 
troduced by  the  Moors  into  Spain. 

REBUS,  a group  of  words  or  a phrase 
f written  by  figures  or  pictures  of  objects 
whose  names  resemble  in  sound  the 


Rebus  of  Abbot  Isllp,  Rebus  of  Bishop  Oldham, 
Westminster  abbey.  Rxeter  cathedral. 


words  or  the  syllables  of  which  they  are 
t composed;  thus,  “I  can  see  you”  might 
L be  expressed  by  figures  or  pictures  of  an 
eye,  a can,  the  sea,  and  a ewe.  In 
heraldry  a rebus  is  a device  on  a coat  of 
arms  conveying  an  illusion  to  the  name 
of  the  person,  as  castles  for  Castleton, 
three  cups  for  Butler.  The  accompany- 
ing cuts  show  rebuses  on  personal  names 
(not  very  happy  attemps,  however),  the 
one  standing  for  the  name  Oldham 
(Owledom),  the  other  for  Islip.  I slip 


may  be  obtained  several  ways,  as  from 
the  eye  and  the  slips  on  the  tree ; or  the 
figure  may  be  supposed  to  say  “I  slip,” 
or  the  hand  to  belong  to  a person  slip- 
ping. 

RECAMIER  (ra-ka-mi-a.),  Jeanne 
Fran9oise  Julie  Adelaide,  whose  maiden 
name  was  Bernard,  born  at  Lyons  1777, 
died  1849.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  she 
went  to  Paris,  and  was  there  married 
to  Jacques  Rdcamier,  a rich  banker, 
more  than  double  her  own  age.  From 
this  time  her  aim  was  to  surround  her- 
self with  personal  admirers,  and  to  at- 
tract to  her  salon  the  chief  personages  in 
French  literature  and  politics. 

RECIPROC'ITY,  a term  in  economics 
commonly  applied  in  international  re- 
lationships to  the  arrangement  whereby 
two  nations  mutually  agree  to  import 
to  each  other  certain  goods,  either  duty 
free  or  with  duties  which  are  equivalent. 

Spa  Ti  I'PP—'f  uq  fiP 

RECON'NAISSANCE,  in  military  af- 
fairs, an  examination  of  a territory  or  of 
an  enemy’s  position,  for  the  purpose  of 
directing  military  operations.  The  term 
is  also  used  in  geodetics,  etc.,  a recon- 
naissance being  an  examination  of  a 
region  as  to  its  general  natural  features, 
preparatory  to  a more  particular  survey, 
as  for  determining  the  location  of  a road, 
a railway,  a canal,  or  the  like. 

RECONSTRUCTION,  in  American  his- 
tory, the  method  by  which  the  seceded 
states,  after  the  war,  were  restored  to 
their  former  relations  with  the  union. 

RECTANGLE,  a right-angled  parallel- 
ogram, or  a quadrilateral  figure  having 
all  its  angles  right  angles  and  its  op- 
posite sides  equal.  Every  rectangle  is 
said  to  be  contained  by  any  two  of  the 
sides  about  one  of  its  right  angles. 

RECTIFY,  in  chemistry,  to  refine  by 
repeated  distillation  or  sublimation,  by 
which  the  fine  parts  of  a substance  (as 
some  kind  of  spirits)  are  separated  from 
the  grosser.  To  rectify  liquors,  in  the 
spirit  trade,  is  to  convert  the  alcohol 
produced  by  the  distiller  into  gin, 
brandy,  etc.,  by  adding  flavoring  ma- 
terials to  it.  Thus  in  order  to  convert 
the  spirit  into  London  gin,  juniper 
berries  and  coriander  seeds  are  added 
previous  to  the  last  rectific.ation.  CEnan- 
thic  ether  and  other  things  give  the 
flavor  of  brandy. 

RECTUM,  in  anatomy,  the  third  and 
last  part  of  the  large  intestine  opening 
at  the  anus ; so  named  from  an  erroneous 
notion  of  the  old  anatomists  that  it  was 
straight. 

RED,  one  of  the  primary  colors,  the 
color  of  that  part  of  the  spectrum  which 
is  farthest  from  the  violet.  The  red  rays 
are  the  least  refrangible  of  all  the  rays 
of  light.  (See  Color.)  Red  pigments  or 
coloring  matters  include  Vermillion, 
realgar,  cochineal,  lakes  and  madders, 
coal-tar  colors,  etc.  The  different  forms 
of  oxide  of  iron  are  Indian  red,  which  is 
pure,  finely  ground  hsematite;  Venetian 
red  and  colcothar,  which  are  coarser 
forms  of  the  same  substance.  Minium  or 
lead  oxide,  and  another  form  of  the  same 
substance  containing  a little  carbonate, 
are  known  as  Paris  red. 

REDAN',  in  field  fortification,  the 
simplest  kind  of  work  employed,  con- 
sisting of  two  parapets  of  earth  raised 
so  as  to  form  a salient  angle,  with  the 


apex  toward  the  enemy  and  unprotected 
on  th*  rear.  Several  redans  connected 


Redans. 


by  curtains  form  lines  of  intenchment. 

RED-BIRD,  the  popular  name  of 
several  birds  in  the  United  States,  as  the 
summer  red-bird,  the  Baltimore  oriole 
or  hang-nest. 

REDBREAST,  or  ROBIN  RED- 
BREAST, a species  of  bird  belonging 
to  the  family  of  warblers.  The  red 
breast  of  the  male  is  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  these  well-known  birds,  the 
female  possessing  the  breast  of  a duller 
yellowish-brown  color.  The  young  are  of 
a dull  yellowish-green  color,  and  want 
the  characteristic  breast-coloring  of  the 


American  robin. 


adult.  The  nest  is  made  of  moss  and 
leaves,  and  is  lined  internally  with 
feathers.  The  eggs  number  five  or  six, 
and  are  white,  spotted  with  pale  brown. 
The  robin  redbreast  of  America  is  a 
thrush,  congeneric  with  the  British 
blackbird;  and  one  of  the  bluebirds,  is 
usually  called  the  blue  robin. 

RED  CEDAR,  a species  of  juniper 
found  in  North  America  and  the  ''^st 
Indies ; the  heartwood  is  of  a bright  red, 
smooth,  and  moderately  soft,  and  is  in 
much  request  for  the  outsides  of  black- 
lead  pencils. 

RED  CORAL,  an  important  genus  of 
sclerobasic  corals  belonging  to  the  order 
of  Alcyonaria,  Red  coral  is  highly 
valued  for  the  manufacture  of  jewelry, 
and  is  obtained  from  the  coasts  of 
Sicily,  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

RED  CROSS  SOCIETIES, . interna- 
tional associations  formed  to  mitigate 
the  horrors  of  war  by  alleviating  the 
sufferings  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 
M.  Jean  Henri  Dunant,  a citizen  of 
Geneva,  Switzerland,  was  an  eye  wit- 
ness at  the  Battle  of  Solferino  to  the 
unnecessary  suffering  that  resulted  from 
inability  of  the  regular  surgical  corps 
to  take  care  of  the  thousands  of  wounded 
who  lay  upon  the  field.  In  his  book 
Un  Souvenir  de  Solf6rino,  published 
three  years  afterward,  he  described  the 
horrors  witnessed  and  proposed  that 
societies  be  formed  in  every  country 
for  the  purpose  of  training  nurses  to 
supplement  the  regular  military  surgical 


RED  CURRANT 


REDSTART 


corps  in  time  of  war.  An  international 
conference  was  held  in  Geneva  in  1863, 
sixteen  nations  being  present,  and  a 
provisional  program  agreed  upon.  The 
Geneva  convention  was  signed  in  1864 
by  fourteen  nations,  a number  that  has 
now  been  increased  to  forty  three.  In 
1884  the  American  National  Red  Cross 
society  was  formed,  and  its  usefulness 
widened  by  including  not  only  relief 
during  war,  but  also  during  great 
calamities,  such  as  famine,  pestilence, 
flood,  or  fire.  The  American  association 
has  expended  over  $2,000,000,  and  has 
afforded  relief  to  the  sufferers  from  the 
Michigan  fires  of  1881,  the  Florida  yel- 
low fever  of  1888,  the  Johnstown  fiood 
of  1889,  the  Russian  famine  of  1891-92, 
the  South  Carolina  tidal  wave  of  1893, 
the  Armenian  massacres  of  1896,  the 
Spanish  reconcentrado  system  in  Cuba 
in  1897-98,  the  Galveston  tidal  wave  of 
1900,  the  Mont  Pelee  eruption  of  1902, 
and  the  San  Francisco  earthquake  and 
fire  in  1906.  The  association  rendered 
valuable  assistance  during  the  Spanish- 
American  war. 

RED  CURRANT,  a deciduous  shrub 
much  cultivated  for|its  fruit,  indigenous 
in  the  northern  portions  of  Europe  and 
America.  The  juice  of  the  fruit  is  used 
for  making  jelly,  and  a well-known  fer- 
mented liquor  called  current  wine. 

RED-FISH,  a species  of  fish  found  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America, 
a large  red  fish  caught  in  considerable 


numbers  for  food.  A smaller  species 
receives  the  same  name,  and  is  called 
also  red-perch,  rose-fish,  etc. 

RED  GUM,  the  popular  name  of  a 
florid  eruption  usually  occurring  in  in- 
fants before  and  during  first  dentition, 
and  appearing  on  the  most  exposed 
parts,  as  the  face,  neck,  arms,  and  hands. 
It  is  almost  always  an  innocent  disease, 
and  seldom  lasts  over  a month. 

RED  HAND, in  heraldry,  originallythe 
arms  of  the  province  of  Ulster,  but 
granted  to  baronets  as  their  distinguish- 
ing badge  on  the  institution  of  the  order 
in  1611.  It  consists  of  a sinister  (or 
left)  hand,  open,  erect,  showing  the 
palm. 

RED-LEAD,  an  oxide  of  lead  pro- 
duced by  heating  the  protoxide  in  con- 
tact with  air.  It  is  much  used  as  a pig- 
ment, and  is  commonly  known  as 
Minium. 

RED  OCHRE,  a name  common  to  a 
variety  of  pigments,  rather  than  desig- 
nating an  individual  color,  and  com- 
prehending Indian  red,  light  red,  Vene- 
tian red,  scarlet  ochre,  Indian  ochre, 
reddle,  bole,  and  other  oxides  of  iron. 
As  a mineral  it  designates  a soft  earthy 
variety  of  hiematite. 

REDOUT',  in  fortification,  a general 
name  for  nearly  every  class  of  works 
wholly  inclosed  and  undefended  by  re- 


entering or  flanking  angles.  The  word 
is,  however,  most  generally  used  for  a 
small  inclosed  work  of  various  form — 
polygonal,  square,  triangular,  or  even 
circular,  and  used  mainly  as  a temporary 
field  work. 

RED  PINE,  a species  of  pine  also 
called  Norway  Pine.  Its  wood  is  very 
resinous  and  durable,  and  is  much  used 
in  house  and  ship-building.  It  produces 
turpentine,  tar,  pitch,  resin,  and  lamp- 
black. 

RED-POLE  (red-poll),  a name  given 
to  several  species  of  linnets.  The  same 
name  is  given  to  the  American  red- 
headed warbler  and  yellow  red-pole. 

RED  RIVER,  a large  river  of  the 
United  States,  the  southernmost  of  the 
great  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  It 
rises  in  Northern  Texas,  and  has  several 
sources,  the  chief,  besides  the  main 
stream,  being  called  the  North  and 
South  Forks,  which  unite  with  it  on  the 
boundary  of  Texas  and  Oklahoma  ter- 
ritory. The  stream  then  flows  e.s.e., 
forming  the  boundary  between  Texas 
and  the  Indian  territory,  and  between 
Texas  and  Arkansas;  cuts  off  a corner  of 
the  letter  state,  and  then  flowing  through 
Louisiana  falls  into  the  Mississippi,  125 
miles  northwest  of  New  Orleans;  total 
course  estimated  at  1550  miles;  chief 
affluents — the  Washita,  which  joins  it 
in  Louisiana;  and  the  False  Washit 
which  it  receives  in  the  Indian  territory, 
Much  of  its  course  is  through  rich  prai- 
ries. About  1200  miles  of  the  river  are 
useful  for  navigation,  but  its  mouth  at 
low  water  can  be  entered  only  by  boats 
drawing  2 feet. 

RED  RIVER  OF  THE  NORTH,  a river 
of  North  America,  which  rises  in  Elbow 
lake,  in  Minnesota,  flows  south  and 
southwest,  and  then  nearly  north,  cross- 
ing from  the  United  States  into  Mani- 
toba, where  it  falls  into  Lake  Winnipeg. 
Its  entire  length  is  665  miles,  525  of 
which  are  in  the  United  States.  In 
Manitoba  it  receives  the  Assiniboine, 
another  large  stream,  at  its  junction 
with  which  stands  the  town  of  Winnipeg. 

RED  RIVER  SETTLEMENT,  a settle- 
ment formed  in  1812  by  the  Earl  of  Sel- 
kirk on  the  banks  of  the  above  river; 
repurchased  by  the  Hudson’s  Bay  com- 
pany in  1836;  finally  transferred  to  the 
Canadian  government  in  1870  and  now 
made  part  of  the  province  of  Manitoba. 

RED  SEA,  or  ARABIAN  GULF,  a 
branch  of  the  Indian  ocean,  communi- 
cating with  it  by  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  stretching  in  a n.n.w.  direction 
between  Arabia  on  the  east,  Abyssinia, 
Nubia,  and  Egypt  on  the  west,  and  con- 
nected with  the  Mediterranean  on  the 
north  by  the  Suez  canal.  It  forms  a long 
and  narrow  expanse,  stretching  for  1450 
miles,  with  a breadth  which  averages 
about  180  miles,  but  diminishes  grad- 
ually at  its  extremities.  At  the  northern 
end  it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  of 
which,  forming  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  pene- 
trates into  Arabia  for  about  100  miles, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  15 
miles;  while  the  other,  forming  the  Gulf 
of  Suez,  penetrates  between  Arabia  and 
Egypt  for  about  200  miles,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  about  20  miles. 
The  shores  consist  generally  of  a low, 
sandy  tract,  varying  in  width  from  10 
to  30  miles,  and  suddenly  terminated  ‘ 


by  the  abutments  of  a lofty  table-land 
of  3000  feet  to  6000  feet  high.  Occupy*^ 
ing  a long  deep  valley  this  water  ex- 
panse has  gradually  been  divided  into 
three  channels  formed  by  coral  reefs 
and  islands.  In  the  main  channel  the 
depth  reaches  in  one  place  1054  fathoms, 
but  diminishes  toward  the  extremities 
to  40  fathoms,  while  in  the  harbor  of 
Suez  it  amounts  to  only  3 fathoms. 
The  cross  trade  consists  largely  tf  pil- 
grims to  and  from  Mecca ; the  traffic  up 
and  down  has  been  immensely  increased 
by  the  Suez  canal.  The  Isrealites  are 
supposed  to  have  crossed  the  Red  sea 
at  its  northern  extremity  in  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  and  near  the  town  of  that  name, 
but  opinions  vary  as  to  the  precise  spot. 

REDSHANK,  a bird,  so  called  from  its 
red  legs.  It  is  about  11  inches  long,  re- 
sides in  Britain  all  the  year,  but  is  known 
also  as  a summer  bird  of  passage  in  the 


Redshank. 


most  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
occurring  in  winter  as  far  south  as  India. 
The  spotted  redshank  visits  Britain  in 
spring  and  autumn  on  its  migrations 
north  and  south. 

REDSTART,  a bird  belonging  to  the 
family  Sylviadse,  nearly  allied  to  the 
redbreast,  but  having  a more  slender 
form  and  a more  slender  bill.  It  is  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  Britain  as  a sum- 
mer bird  of  passage,  and  has  a soft,  sweet 
song.  The  tail  is  red,  whence  the  name, 
start  being  A. -Saxon  steort,  a tail.  The 
forehead  is  white,  the  throat  black,  the 
upper  parts  lead-gray  or  brown.  The 


American  redstart. 


black  redstart  is  distinguished  from  the 
common  redstart  by  being  sooty  black 
on  the  breast  and  belly  where  the  other 
is  reddish  brown,  and  is  onl5’'  an  occa- 
sional visitor  to  Great  Britain.  The 
American  redstart  is  a small  bird  of  the 
family  Musicapidse  or  fly-catchers,  com- 
mon in  most  parts  of  North  America. 


RED-TOP 


REFLEX  NERVOUS  ACTION 


RED-TOP,  a well-known  species  of 
bent-grass,  highly  valued  in  United 
States  for  pasturage  and  hay  for  cattle. 

RED-WOOD,  the  name  of  various 
sorts  of  wood  of  a red  color,  as  an  Indian 
dyewood;  a coniferous  tree  of  California, 
the  red-wood  of  the  timber  trade.  The 
tree  reaches  a very  great  size,  and  forms 
forests  in  the  coast  mountains  of  Cali- 
fornia 

REEBOK  (ra'bok;  that  is  roebuck), 
a species  of  South  African  antelope.  The 
horns  are  smooth,  long,  straight,  and 
slender.  The  reebok  is  2 J feet  high  at  the 


Koebuck. 


shoulder,  of  a slighter  and  more  graceful 
form  than  the  generality  of  other  ante- 
lopes and  extremely  swift. 

REED,  Thomas  Brackett,  an  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  was  born  at  Port- 
land, Maine,  in  1839.  In  1868-69  he 
was  a member  of  the  lower  house  of 
the  Maine  legislature,  and  in  1870  sat 
in  the  state  senate.  From  1870  to  1872 
he  was  attorney-general  of  Maine;  from 
1874  to  1877  solicitor  of  the  City  of 
Portland.  In  1876  he  was  elected  to 
congress  and  was  continuously  reelected 
until  1898.  In  1889,  1895,  1897  he  was 
chosen  speaker  of  the  house.  Before  the 
expiration  of  his  last  term  he  resigned 
his  seat  in  congress  and  entered  upon 
the  practice  of  law  in  New  York  City. 
In  1896  Reed  was  a candidate  for  the 
republican  nomination  for  the  presi- 
dency. He  died  in  1902. 

REED,  Walter,  American  army  sur- 
geon, sanitarian,  and  bacteriologist,  was 
born  in  Virginia  in  1851.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  surgeon  in  the  army  in 
1875.  In  1893  he  was  appointed  curator 
of  the  Army  Medical  museum  in  Wash- 
ington. In  1898  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  a board  to  investigate  the  epi- 
demic occurrence  of  typhoidfever  among 
the  troops  assembled  for  the  Spanish- 
American  war.  It  developed  that  in- 
fected water  was  not  an  important  factor 
but  that  the  infection  was  distributed 
by  the  agency  of  flies  and  on  the  hands, 
feet  and  clothing  of  the  men.  In  1899 
Reed,  with  his  assistant,  Carroll,  demon- 
strated the  fallacy  of  the  claim  of 
Sanarelli  that  the  bacillus  icteroides 
was  the  causative  agent  of  yellow  fever. 
In  1900  Reed  went  to  Havana  and 
demonstrated  that  yellow  fever  is  trans- 
mitted by  the  bite  of  mosquitoes  of  a 
certain  variety,  which  have  become  in- 
fected by  previously  biting  persons  sick 


of  yellow  fever,  with  the  result  that 
yellow  lever  was  exterminated  in  Cuba. 
He  died  in  1902. 

REED,  a name  usually  applied  indis- 
criminately to  all  tall,  broad-leaved 
grasses  which  grow  along  the  banks  of 
streams,  pools,  and  lakes,  and  even  to 
other  plants  with  similar  leaves,  grow- 
ing in  such  situations,  as  the  bamboo. 
The  largest  of  all  the  grasses  of  northern 
climates,  is  used  for  roofing  cottages, 
etc.  The  sea-reed  or  mat-grass  is  often 
an  important  agent  in  binding  together 
the  masses  of  loose  sand  on  sea-shores. 
The  bur-reed  of  Britain  is  of  the  reed- 
mace  order. 

REED,  in  music,  a vibrating  slip  or 
tongue  in  the  mouth-piece  through 
which  a hautboy,  bassoon,  or  clarinet  is 
blown,  originally  made  of  reed;  or  one 
of  the  thin  plates  of  metal  whose  vibra- 
tions produce  the  notes  of  an  accordion, 
concertina,  or  harmonium,  or  a similar 
contrivance  in  an  organ-pipe. 

REED-BIRD.  See  Rice-bunting. 

REED-MACE,  a plant  known  b^y  the 
name  of  cat-tail,  and  grows  in  ditches 
and  marshy  places,  and  in  the  borders  of 
ponds,  lakes,  and  rivers.  They  are  tall, 
stout,  erect  plants,  sometimes  6 or  8 
feet  high,  with  creeping  root-stocks, 
long  flag-like  leaves,  and  long,  dense, 
cylindrical  brown  spikes  of  minute 
flowers.  They  are  sometimes  errone- 
ously called  bulrush. 

REEF,  a certain  portion  of  a sail  be- 
tween the  top  or  bottom  and  a row  of 
eyelet-holes  running  across  the  sail,  one 
or  more  reefs  being  folded  or  rolled  up  to 
contract  the  sail  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
crease of  the  wind.  There  are  sets  of 
cords  called  reef-points  attached  to  the 
sail  for  tying  up  the  reefs,  and  the  sail 
is  also  strengthened  by  reef-bands  across 
it.  There  are  several  reefs  parallel  to 
each  other  in  the  superior  sails,  and 


Wherry  with  fore  sail  reefed,  the 
main-sail  showing  reef-hands 
and  reef-points. 

there  are  always  three  or  four  reefs 
parallel  to  the  foot  or  bottom  of  the 
chief  sails  which  are  extended  upon 
booms.  Many  ships  are  now  fitted  with 
sails  which  can,  by  a mechanical  ap- 
pliance, be  reefed  from  the  deck. 

REEF,  a chain,  mass,  or  range  of 
rocks  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean,  lying 
at  or  near  the  surfaee  of  the  water. 

REEL,  a machine  on  which  yarn  is 
wound  to  form  it  into  hanks,  skeins,  etc. 
Also  a skeleton  barrel  attached  to  the 
butt  of  a fishing-rod,  around  which  the 
inner  end  of  the  line  is  wound,  and  from 
which  it  is  paid  out  as  the  fish  runs  away 
when  first  hooked, 


REEL,  a lively  dance  peculiar  to  Scot- 
land, in  one  part  of  which  the  couples 
usually  swing  or  whirl  round,  and  in 
the  other  pass  and  repass  each  other, 
forming  the  figure  8.  The  music  for  this 
dance,  called  by  the  same  name  is  gen- 
erally written  in  common  time  of  four 
crotchets  in  a bar,  but  sometimes  in  jig 
time  of  six  quavers. 

REEVES,  John  Sims,  tenor  singer, 
born  at  Shooters’  Hill,  Kent,  in  1822, 
appeared  as  a baritone  on  the  stage  at 
Newcastle  in  1839;  joined  a company  at 
Drury  Lane  under  Macready  as  second 
tenor  in  1841;  visited  the  continent  and 
studied  under  Bordogni  at  Paris,  and 
Mazzucato  at  Milan;  and  in  1847  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  met  with 
great  success.  He  devoted  himself  more 
especially  to  oratorio  and  ballad  singing 
and  long  held  the  reputation  of  being 
the  first  of  modern  tenors.  He  published 
an  autobiography  in  1889.  Died  in  1900. 

REFEREN'DUM  is  a term  used  in 
the  United  States  to  denote  the 
reference  to  the  citizen  voters  of  resolu- 
tions or  laws  passed  by  their  represen- 
tatives. If  these,  when  so  referred,  are 
accepted  by  the  majority  of  the  voters 
of  the  canton,  then  they  become  part 
of  the  law  of  the  land;  but  if  they  are 
rejected,  then  the  rejection  is  final. 
The  referendum  is  obligatory  when  the 
law  or  resolution  affects  the  constitu- 
tion; in  other  cases  it  is  optional,  and 
may  be  demanded  on  the  requisition  of  a 
certain  number  of  voters. 

REFLECTOR,  a polished  surface  of 
metal,  or  any  other  suitable  material, 
applied  for  the  purpose  of  reflecting 


rays  of  light,  heat,  or  sound  in  any 
required  direction.  Reflectors  may  be 
either  plane  or  curvilinear;  of  the  former 
the  common  mirror  is  a familiar  ex- 
ample. Curvilinear  reflectors  admit  of 
a great  variety  of  forms,  according  to  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  employed; 
they  may  be  either  convex  or  concave, 
spherical,  elliptical,  parabolic,  or  hyper- 
bolic, etc.  The  parabolic  form  is  per- 
haps the  most  generally  serviceable,  be- 
ing used  for  many  purposes  of  illumina- 
tion, as  well  as  for  various  highly  im- 
portant philosophical  instruments.  The 
annexed  cut  is  a section  of  a ship  lantern 
fitted  with  an  argand  lamp  and  para- 
bolic reflector,  a a is  the  reflector,  b the 
lamp,  situated  in  the  focus  of  the  poh 
ished  concave  paraboloid,  c the  oil 
cistern,  d the  outer  frame  of  the  lantern, 
and  e the  chimney  for  the  escape  of  the 
products  of  combustion. 

REFLEX  NERVOUS  ACTION,  in 
physiology,  those  actions  of  the  nervous 
system  whereby  an  impression  is  trans- 
mitted along  sensory  nerves  to  a nerve 


EEFORMATION 


REFRIGERATION 


center,  from  which  again  it  is  reflected 
to  a motor  nerve,  and  so  calls  into  play 
some  muscle  whereby  movements  are 
produced.  These  actions  are  performed 
involuntarily,  and  often  unconsciously, 
as  the  contraction  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
when  exposed  to  strong  light. 

REFORMATION,  the  term  generally 
applied  to  the  religious  revolution  in  the 
16th  century  which  divided  the  Western 
church  into  the  two  sections  known  as 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Protestant. 
Before  this  era  the  pope  exercised  abso- 
lute authority  over  the  whole  Christian 
church  with  the  exception  of  those 
countries  in  which  the  Greek  or  Eastern 
church  had  been  established.  He  also 
claimed  supremacy  in  temporal  affairs 
wherever  his  spiritual  authority  was 
recognized.  The  great  movement  known 
as  the  Reformation  was  started  by 
Martin  Luther,  an  Augustine  monk  of 
Erfurt,  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Wittenberg;  and  what  im- 
mediately occasioned  it  was  the  sale  of 
indulgences  in  Germany  by  a duly 
accredited  agent,  Johann  Tetzel,  a 
Dominican  monk  of  Leipzig.  Luther 
condemned  this  abuse,  first  in  a sermon 
and  afterward  in  ninety-five  theses  or 
questions  which  he  affixed  to  the  door 
of  the  great  church,  October  31st,  1517. 
This  at  once  roused  public  interest  and 
gained  him  a number  of  adherents, 
among  them  men  of  influence  in  church 
and  state.  Luther  urged  his  spiritual 
superiors  and  the  pope  to  put  a stop  to 
the  traffic  of  Tetzel  and  to  reform  the 
corruptions  of  the  church  in  general. 
A heated  controversy  now  arose,  Luther 
was  fiercely  assailed,  and  in  1520  ex- 
communication  was  pronounced  against 
him  by  Pope  Leo  X.  Upon  this  the 
reformer  appealed  to  a general  council; 
and  when  his  works  were  burned  at 
Mainz,  Cologne,  and  Louvain,  he  public- 
ly committed  the  bull  of  excommunica- 
tion with  the  papal  canons  and  decrees 
to  the  flames  (December,  1520).  From 
this  time  Luther  formally  separated 
from  the  Roman  church,  and  many  of 
the  principal  German  nobles  — Hutten, 
Sickingen,  Schaumburg,  etc.,  the  most 
eminent  scholars,  and  the  University  of 
Wittenberg,  publicly  declared  in  favor 
of  the  reformed  doctrines  and  discipline. 
Luther’s  bold  refusal  to  recant  at  the 
Diet  of  Worms  (April  17,  1521),  gave 
him  increased  power,  while  the  edict  of 
Worms  and  the  ban  of  the  emperor  made 
his  cause  a political  matter. 

The  Reformation  in  England  was  only 
indirectly  connected  with  the  reform 
movement  in  Germany.  Wickliffe,  and 
the  Lollards,  the  revival  of  learning,  the 
writings  of  More,  Colet,  and  Erasmus, 
the  martyrdom  of  Thomas  Bilney,  had 
all  combined  to  render  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  church  unpopular.  This 
feeling  was  greatly  increased  when  the 
writings  of  Luther  and  Tyndale’s  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  found  eager  readers. 
Then  the  political  element  came  in  to 
favor  the  popular  reform  movement. 
Henry  VIII.,  in  his  efforts  to  obtain  a 
divorce  from  Catherine,  found  it  neces- 
sary to  repudiate  the  papal  supremacy 
and  declare  himself  by  act  of  parliament 
(1534)  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church 
of  England.  To  this  the  pope  replied  by 
threats  of  excommunication,  which 


were  not,  however,  immediately  exe- 
cuted. Yet  the  breach  with  Rome  was 
complete,  so  far,  at  least,  as  the  king 
was  concerned.  Under  the  new  laws  of 
supremacy  and  treason  several  of  the 
clergy  suffered  at  Tyburn;  Sir  Thomas 
More  and  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester, 
were  beheaded  at  Tower  Hill;  and  the 
lesser  and  greater  monasteries  were  sup- 
pressed. 

In  Scotland  the  movement  was  more 
directly  connected  with  the  continent, 
and  in  particular  with  Geneva.  The  first 
indication  of  the  struggle  against  the 
Roman  doctrine  is  found  in  the  martyr- 
dom (1528)  of  Patrick  Hamilton;  and 
this  policy  of  suppression  was  con- 
tinued (1539-46)  with  great  severity  by 
Cardinal  Beaton,  until  he  himself  be- 
came the  victim  of  popular  vengeance. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  result  of 
this  persecution,  and  the  martyrdom  of 
George  Wishart,  which  Beaton  had 
brought  about,  was  that  it  determined 
John  Knox  to  embrace  the  new  reformed 
faith.  In  1546-47  the  Scottish  reformer 
established  himself  as  preacher  to  the 
Protestant  congregation  which  held  the 
castle  of  St.  Andrews.  When  the  castle 
was  captured  by  the  French  fleet  Knox 
was  made  prisoner  and  treated  as  a 
galley-slave,  but  regained  his  liberty 
after  about  eighteen  months’  hardship, 
and  settled  in  England.  During  the 
Marian  persecutions  he  withdrew  to  the 
continent  and  vi.sited  the  churches  of 
France  and  Switzerland,  but  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1559.  Here  he  at  once  joined 
the  Protestant  party;  preached  in  Dun- 
dee, Perth,  and  St.  Andrews,  amid  public 
tumult  and  the  destruction  of  images, 
altars,  and  churches;  and  finally,  under 
the  protection  of  the  lords  of  the  con- 
gregation, he  established  himself  as  a 
preacher  of  Protestantism  in  St.  Giles, 
Edinburgh.  From  this  center  Knox 
traveled  all  over  Scotland  teaching  the 
reformed  faith ; and  such  was  the  roused 
spirit  of  the  people  that  when  the  Scot- 
tish parliament  assembled  (1560)  a 
popular  petition  was  presented  demand- 
ing the  abolition  of  popery.  This  was 
promptly  accomplished,  and  at  the 
assembling  of  the  new  Church  of  Scot- 
land shortly  afterward  Knox  presented 
his  reformed  system  of  government 
under  the  name  of  the  First  Book  of 
Discipline  which  was  adopted  by  the 
assernbly.  (See  Knox.)  The  position 
thus  secured  by  the  reformer  was  main- 
tained and  the  Reformation  successfully 
established  in  Scotland.  In  Ireland  for 
various  causes  the  Reformation  never 
made  much  progress. 

REFOR'MATORY  SCHOOLS,  schools 
instituted  for  the  training  of  juvenile 
offenders  (under  sixteen)  who  have  been 
convicted  of  an  offense  punishable  by 
penal  servitude  or  imprisonment.  'The 
offender,  after  undergoing  a short  im- 
prisonment, is  committed  to  a certified 
reformatory  under  an  order  from  the 
court,  and  there  detained  for  a period 
not  less  than  two  and  not  more  than 
five  years. 

REFRACTION,  the  deflection  or 
change  of  direction  impressed  upon  rays 
of  light  obliquely  incident  upon  and 
passing  through  a smooth  surface  bound- 
ing two  media  not  homogeneous,  as  air 
and  water — or  upon  rays  traversing  a 


medium,  the  density  of  which  is  not 
uniform,  as  the  atmosphere.  A familiar 
instance  of  refraction  is  the  broken  ap- 
pearance which  a stick  presents  when 
thrusl  partly  into  clear  water,  the  por- 
tion in  the  water  apparently  taking  a 
different  direction  from  the  other  por- 
tion. Glass,  water,  and  other  solids  and 
fluids  each  have  a different  power  of 
refraction,  and  this  power  in  each  case 
may  be  expressed  numerically  by  a 
number  known  as  the  index  of  refrac- 
tion. Atmospheric  refraction  is  the 
apparent  angular  elevation  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  above  their  true  places, 
caused  by  the  refraction  of  the  rays  of 
light  in  their  passage  through  the  earth’s 
atmosphere,  so  that  in  consequence  of 
this  refraction  the  heavenly  bodies  ap- 
pear higher  than  they  really  are.  It  is 
greatest  when  the  body  is  on  the  horizon, 
and  diminishes  all  the  way  to  the  zenith, 
where  it  is  nothing.  Double  refraction 
is  the  separation  of  a ray  of  light  into 
two  separate  parts,  by  passing  through 
certain  transparent  mediums,  as  Iceland 
spar,  one  part  being  called  the  ordinary 
ray,  the  other  the  extraordinary  ray. 
All  crystals  except  those  whose  three 
axes  are  equal  exhibit  double  refraction. 

REFRACTOR,  or  REFRACTING  TEL- 
ESCOPE. See  Telescope. 

REFRIGERANT  (re-frij'-),  a cooling 
medicine,  which  directly  diminishes  the 
force  of  the  circulation,  and  reduces 
bodily  heat  without  any  diminution  of 
nervous  energy.  The  agents  usually  re- 
garded as  refrigerants  are  weak  vege- 
table-acids, or  very  greatly  diluted 
mineral  acids ; effervescing  drinks,  saline 
purgatives,  etc.  Refrigerants  in  medi- 
cine and  surgery  are  also  applied  exter- 
nally in  the  form  of  freezing-mixtures 
prepared  with  salt  and  pounded  ice  for 
the  purpose  of  lowering  the  temperature 
of  any  particular  part  of  the  body. 

REFRIGERATION,  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing cold  by  artificial  means.  Me- 
chanical refrigeration  is  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  artificial  ice,  for  the 
freezing  and  chilling  of  freshly  killed 
meat  in  slaughter  houses,  the  cooling  of 
meat,  fish,  fowl,  fruits,  vegetables,  and 
other  perishable  provisions,  the  cooling 
of  the  atmosphere  of  dwellings  and 
hospitals,  and  for  a variety  of  manufac- 
turing processes.  The  refrigerating  de- 
vices all  belong  to  one  or  the  other  of  the 
following  five  classes : (1)  the  liquefaction 
process  by  which  the  more  or  less  rapid 
liquefaction  of  a solid  is  utilized  to 
abstract  heat ; (2)  the  vacuum  process, 
by  which  the  abstraction  of  heat  is 
effected  by  the  evaporation  of  a portion 
of  the  liquid  to  be  cooled;  (3)  the  com- 
pression process,  in  which  the  abstrac- 
tion of  heat  is  effected  by  the  evapora- 
tion of  a separate  refrigerating  agent 
of  a more  or  less  volatile  nature,  ■which 
agent  is  subsequently  returned  to  its 
original  condition  by  mechanical  com- 
pression and  cooling;  (4)  the  absorption 
process,  by  which  'the  abstraction  of 
heat  is  effected  by  the  evaporation  of  a 
separate  refrigerating  agent  of  more  or 
less  volatile  nature  under  the  direct 
action  of  heat,  which  agent  again  enters 
into  solution  with  a liquid;  (5)  the  cold 
air  process  in  which  air  or  other  gas  is 
first  compressed,  then  cooled,  and  after- 


REFRIGERATOR 


REINDEER 


ward  permitted  to  expand  while  doing 
work. 

REFRIGERATOR,  a name  applied  to 
cooling  apparatus  of  various  kinds.  One 
kind  is  an  apparatus  for  cooling  wort, 
beer,  etc.,  consisting  of  a large  shallow 
1 vat  traversed  by  a continuous  pipe 
; through  which  a stream  of  cold  water 

fis  passed.  The  wort,  etc.,  runs  in  one 
direction  and  the  water  in  another,  so 
r • that  the  delivery  end  of  the  wort  is  ex- 
posed  to  the  coolest  part  of  the  stream 
L of  water.  Another  kind  of  refrigerator  is 
t a chest  or  chamber  holding  a supply  of 
F.  ice  to  cool  provisions  and  prevent  them 
|[  spoiling  in  warm  weather;  or  a vessel 
; surrounded  by  a freezing-mixture  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  ice-cream,  ices, 

‘ etc. 

; REFUGEE',  a person  who  seeks  safety 
f in  a foreign  country  to  escape  persecu- 
I-  tion  for  religious  or  political  opinions. 
r A large  historical  movement  of  this  kind 
■ occurred  when  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was 
[ repealed  in  Franee  (1685).  Such  were 
, the  oppressions  then  put  upon  the 
j Protestants  by  the  dominant  Roman 
Catholic  party  that  800,000  of  the 
I former,  it  is  estimated,  sought  refuge  in 
; England,  Denmark,  Holland,  Switzer- 

i land,  and  Germany. 

' REGAL,  a small  portable  organ  played 
i with  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  the 


Regal,  from  an  old  painting. 


left  being  used  in  working  the  bellows. 
It  was  much  used  during  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries. 

REGA'LIA,  the  emblems  or  insignia  of 
royalty.  The  regalia  of  England  con- 
b-  sist  of  the  crown,  scepter  with  the  cross, 

' the  verge  or  rod  with  the  dove,  the  so- 
. called  staff  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 


r several  other  articles.  These  are  pre- 
served  in  the  jewel-room  in  the  Tower 
i,  of  London.  , 

f;  REGENERATION,  in  theology,  is  the 
‘ equivalent  used  by  the  English  trans- 
lators of  the  Bible  for  the  Greek  word 
palingenesia,  which  occurs  only  twice 
in  the  New  Testament,  in  Matt.  xix.  28 
and  in  Titus  iii.  5.  In  the  former  passage 
the  term  is  applied  generally  to  the 
• gospel  dispensation  as  a process  of 
i renovation,  in  the  latter  it  is  used  as 
;;  descriptive  of  the  process  of  individual 
salvation.  An  equivalent  term  is  used 
in  1 Peter  i.  3,  where  it  is  translated 
“begotten  us  again;”  and  in  one  or  two 
other  passages  regeneration,  as  a theo- 
t,  logical  term,  refers  to  the  doctrine  of  a 
change  effected  upon  men  by  divine 
L"  grace,  in  order  to  fit  them  for  being  par- 


takers of  the  divine  favor,  and  for  being 
admitted  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

REGENT-BIRD,  or  KING  HONEY- 
EATER,  a very  beautiful  bird  of  Aus- 
tralia, belonging  to  the  family  Melipha- 
gidae  or  honey-eaters.  The  color  of  the 
plumage  is  golden  yellow  and  deep 
velvety  black.  It  was  discovered  during 


Regent-bird. 


the  regency  of  George  IV.,  and  was 
named  in  compliment  to  him. 

REGGIO  (red' jo)  DI  CALABRIA,  a 
seaport  of  South  Italy,  capital  of  a 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  east 
coast  of  the  Strait  of  Messina,  a hand- 
some and  beautifully-situated  town. 
Pop.  23,853. — The  province  occupies 
the  southwestern  extremity  or  toe  of 
Italy,  and  is  a rugged  and  mountainous 
region.  The  area  is  1515  sq.  miles;  the 
pop.  398,086. 

REGGIO  NELL'  EMILIA,  a town  of 
North  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of 
same  name,  15  miles  w.n.w.  Modena. 
— The  province  of  Reggio  lies  between 
those  of  Parma  on  the  west  and  Modena 
on  the  east;  area,  877  sq.  miles;  pop. 
259  793 

REGIL'LUS,  anciently  a small  lake 
of  Italy,  in  Latium,  to  the  southeast  of 
Rome  (site  uncertain),  celebrated  for  a 
great  battle  between  the  Romans  and 
Latins  in  b.c.  496. 

REGIMENT,  a body  of  regular  soldiers 
forming  an  administrative  division  of  an 
army,  and  consisting  of  one  or  more 
battalions  of  infantry  or  of  several 
squadrons  of  cavalry,  commanded  by 
a colonel  and  other  officers.  A regiment 
is  the  largest  permanent  association  of 
soldiers,  and  the  third  subdivision  of  an 
army  corps,  several  regiments  going  to  a 
brigade,  and  several  brigades  «o  a 
division.  These  combinations  are  tem- 
porary, while  in  the  regiment  the  same 
officers  serve  continually,  and  in  com- 
mand of  the  same  body  of  men.  The 
strength  of  a regiment  may  vary  greatly, 
as  each  may  comprise  any  number  of 
battalions. 

REHAN  (re'an),  Ada,  American  ac- 
tress, was  born  in  Limerick,  Ireland,  in 
1860,  and  was  brought  to  the  United 
States  when  about  six  years  old.  Her 
greatest  roles  are  those  of  Rosalind  in  As 
You  Like  It,  Katharine  in  The  Taming 
of  the  Shrew,  Viola  and  Lady  Teazle. 
Among  her  parts  were  those  of  Peggy  in 
The  Country  Girl,  Kate  Verity  in  The 
Squire.  She  was  Maid  Marian  in  Tenny- 
son’s Foresters,  and  Roxane  in  Cyrano 
de  Bergerac.  Miss  Rehan  had  great 
success  in  Germany,  France  and  Eng- 
land. 

REICHSTAG  (rihs'tAh),  the  imperial 
parliament  of  Germany,  which  assembles 
at  Berlin. 


REID  (red),  Capt.  Mayne,  born  in  the 
north  of  Ireland  in  1819,  died  1883. 
His  love  of  adventure  took  him  to 
America,  where  he  traveled  extensively 
as  hunter  or  trader;  joined  the  United 
States  army  in  1845  and  fought  in  the 
Mexican  war.  He  afterward  returned  to 
London,  where  he  became  well  known 
as  a writer  of  thrilling  juvenile  stories, 
many  of  them  based  on  his  American 
experiences,  such  as  the  Rifle  Rangers, 
Scalp  Hunters,  the  War  Trail,  the  Head- 
less Horseman,  etc. 

REID,  Whitelaw,  American  journalist 
and  statesman,  was  born  in  Xenia, 
Ohio,  in  1837.  He  served  as  correspond- 
ent of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette  during  the 
civil  war,  was  pi;esent  at  Shiloh,  Gettys- 
burg, and  elsewhere,  and  was  afterward 
chosen  librarian  of  the  house  of  repre- 
sentatives (1863-66).  He  joined  the 
staff  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  in 
1872,  became  its  editor  and  principal 
owner.  He  declined  the  appointment 
as  minister  to  Gennany  but  accepted 
the  nomination  for  vice-president  (1892) 
and  the  appointment  of  minister  to 
France  (1889-92)  and  special  ambassa- 
dor to  Queen  Victoria’s  jubilee  (1897). 
He  was  a member  of  the  peace  com- 
mission that  terminated  the  Spanish 
war  (1898),  and  special  ambassador  to 
Great  Britain  for  the  coronation  of 
Edward  VII.  (1902). 

REINDEER  (ran'der),  a species  of 
deer  found  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  has  branched,  re- 
curved, round  antlers,  the  summits  of 
which  are  palmated;  the  antlers  of  the 
male  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the 
female.  These  antlers,  which  are  an- 
nually shed  and  renewed  by  both  sexes, 
are  remarkable  for  the  size  of  the  branch 
which  comes  off  near  the  base,  called 
the  brow  antler.  The  body  is  of  a thick 


Reindeer. 


and  square  form,  and  the  legs  shorter 
in  proportion  than  those  of  the  red-deer. 
Their  size  varies  much  according  to  the 
climate,  those  in  the  higher  arctic 
regions  being  the  largest;  about  4 feet 
6 inches  may  be  given  as  the  average 
height  of  a full-grown  specimen.  The 
reindeer  is  keen  of  sight,  swift  of  foot, 
being  capable  of  maintaining  a speed  of 
9 or  10  miles  an  hour  for  a long  time, 
and  can  easily  draw  a weight  of  200 
lbs.,  besides  the  sledge  to  which  they 
are  usually  attached  when  used  as 
beasts  of  draught.  Among  the  Lapland- 
ers the  reindeer  is  a substitute  for  the 
hors#,  the  cow,  and  the  sheep,  as  he 


REINDEER  MOSS 


REMBRANDT 


furnishes  food,  clothing,  and  the  means 
of  conveyance.  The  caribou  of  North 
America,  if  not  absolutely  identical  with 
the  reindeer,  would  seem  to  be  at  most 
a well-marked  variety  of  it. 

REINDEER  MOSS,  a lichen,  which 
constitutes  almost  the  sole  winter  food 
for  reindeer,  etc.,  in  high  northern 
latitudes,  where  it  sometimes  attains 
the  height  of  1 foot.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  moors  and  mountains  of  Britain. 
Its  taste  is  slightly  pungent  and  acrid, 
and  when  boiled  it  forms  a jelly  possess- 
ing nutritive  and  tonic  properties. 

RELATIVE  RANK  in  the  Army  and 
Navy.  See  Navy  and  Army  Relative 
Rank  in. 

RELICS,  remains  of  saints  and 
martyrs  or  objects  connected  with  them, 
and  especially  memorials  of  the  life  and 
passion  of  our  Lord,  to  which  worship 
or  a special  veneration  is  sanctioned 
and  practised  both  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  Greek  churches.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in 
regard  to  relics  was  fixed  by  the  council 
of  Trent,  which  decreed  in  1563  that 
veneration  should  be  paid  to  relics  as 
instruments  through  which  God  bestows 
benefits  on  men;  a doctrine  which  has 
been  rejected  by  all  Protestant  churches. 
The  veneration  of  relics  is  not  peculiar 
to  Christianity,  but  has  found  a place 
in  nearly  every  form  of  religion.  Budd- 
hism is  remarkable  for  the  extent  to 
which  relic-worship  has  been  carried  in  it. 

RELIEF,  in  sculpture  and  architec- 
ture, is  the  protection  of  a figure  above 
or  beyond  the  surface  upon  which  it  is 
formed.  According  to  the  degree  of  pro- 
jection a figure  is  described  as  in  high, 
middle,  or  low  relief.  High  relief  (alto- 
rilievo)  is  that  in  which  the  figures  pro- 


High  relief— The  Rondanini  mask  of  Medusa 
in  the  Glyptothek,  Munich— iliustrating  the 
late  beautified  type  of  the  Gorgon. 

ject  at  least  one-half  of  their  apparent 
circumference  from  the  surface  upon 
which  they  are  formed ; low  relief  (basso- 
rilievo)  consists  of  figures  raised  but  not 
detached  from  a flat  surface;  while 
middle  relief  (mezzo-rilievo)  lies  between 
these  two  forms. 

I^LIGION,  the  feeling  of  reverence 
which  men  entertain  toward  a Supreme 
Being  or  to  any  order  of  beings  conceived 
by  them  as  demanding  reverence  from 
the  possession  of  superhuman  control 
over  the  destiny  of  man  or  the  powers  of 
nature;  more  especially  the  recognition 
of  God  as  an  object  of  worship,  love,  and 


obedience.  The  common  use  of  the  term, 
applies  it  to  a body  of  doctrines  handed 
down  by  tradition,  or  in  canonical  books, 
and  accompanied  by  a certain  outward 
system  of  observances  or  acts  of  wor- 
ship. In  this  sense  we  speak  of  the 
Jewish,  the  Christian,  the  Hindu,  etc., 
religions.  Religions  in  this  sense  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  poly- 
theistic and  monotheistic ; that  is,  those 
recognizing  a plurality  of  deities  and 
those  that  recognize  but  one.  A dualistic 
class  may  also  be  established,  in  which 
two  chief  deities  are  recognized,  and  a 
henotheistic,  in  which  there  are  one 
chief  and  a number  of  minor  deities. 
In  some  religions  magic,  fetishism,  ani- 
mal worship,  belief  in  ghosts  and 
demons,  etc.,  play  an  important  part. 
The  most  remarkable  religious  conquests 
in  history  are  that  of  Judaism,  which 
effected  the  establishment  of  a national 
religion,  originally  that  of  a single 
family,  in  a hostile  territory  by  force 
of  arms  and  expulsion  or  extinction  of 
the  previous  inhabitants;  that  of  Chris- 
tianity, which,  by  the  power  of  per- 
suasion and  in  the  midst  of  persecution, 
overthrew  the  polytheism  of  the  most 
enlightened  nations  of  antiquity;  that 
of  Mohammedanism,  which,  partly  by 
persuasion,  but  more  by  force,  estab- 
lished itself  on  the  site  of  the  eastern 
empire  of  Christianity,  and  extended  its 
sway  over  a population  partly  idolatrous 
and  partly  Christian;  that  of  Buddhism, 
which,  being  expelled  by  persecution 
from  India,  where  it  had  widely  dis- 
seminated itself  by  conversion,  spread 
itself  also  by  moral  suasion  over  the 
larger  portion  of  Eastern  Asia.  All  these 
religions,  with  the  exception  of  Budd- 
hism, which  may  perhaps  be  considered 
atheistic,  are  monotheistic  systems. 

Various  estimates  have  been  made  of 
the  diffusion  of  the  various  religious 
creeds  over  the  world.  These  are  neces- 
sarily very  loose  and  often  differ  widely 
from  each  other.  A recent  estimate  is 
the  following; 


Roman  Catholics 229,000,000 

Protestants 153,000,000 

Eastern  Churches 1 12,000,000 

Mohammedans 194,000,000 

Buddhists 400,000,000 

Brahmanists 208,000,000 

Followers  of  Confucius 80,000,000 

Slnto  Religion 14,000,000 

Jews 7,000,000 


RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY,  or  LIBERTY 
OF  CONSCIENCE,  is  the  recognition  and 
assertion  by  the  state  of  the  right^  of 
every  man,  in  the  profession  of  opinion 
and  in  the  outward  forms  and  require- 
ments of  religion,  to  do  or  abstain  from 
doing  whatever  his  individual  conscience 
or  sense  of  right  suggests.  Religious 
liberty  is  opposed  to  the  imposition  by 
the  state  of  any  arbitrary  restrictions 
upon  forms  of  worship  or  the  propaga- 
tion of  religious  opinions,  or  to  the 
enacting  of  any  binding  forms  of  wor- 
ship or  belief.  The  limit  of  religious 
liberty  is  necessarily  the  right  of  the 
state  to  maintain  order,  prevent  ex- 
cesses, and  guard  against  encroach- 
ments upon  private  right.  In  the  organi- 
zation of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment which  prevailed  from  Constantine 
to  the  Reformation  persecution  was  in 
general  only  limited  by  dissent,  and 
universal  submission  to  the  dominant 


church  became  the  condition  of  religious 
peace  throughout  Christendom,  while 
religious  liberty  was  unknown.  The 
contest  of  opinion  begun  at  the  Refor- 
mation had  the  effect  of  establishing 
religious  liberty,  as  far  as  it  at  present 
exists,  but  the  principle  itself  was  so  far 
from  being  understood  and  accepted  in 
its  purity  by  either  party  that  it  hardly 
suggested  itself  even  to  the  most  en- 
lightened reasoners  of  that  age.  In 
Great  Britain  even,  civil  liberty,  jeal- 
ously maintained,  was  not  understood, 
by  the  dominant  party  at  least,  to  im- 
port religious  liberty.  Active  measures 
of  intolerance  were  adopted  against  Dis- 
senters in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
Even  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  con- 
ditions were  attached  to  the  toleration 
of  Dissenting  preachers;;  and  civil  enact- 
ments against  Roman  Catholics  have 
been  repealed  only  within  Victoria’s 
reign.  Religious  liberty  was  introduced 
in  Prussia  by  Frederick  the  Great,  but 
controvened  by  his  immediate  successor. 
The  state  at  present  in  Prussia,  without, 
perhaps,  actually  dictating  to  private 
individuals,  maintains  a vigilant  con- 
trol over  ecclesiastical  organization,  the 
education  of  the  clergy,  and  all  public 
matters  connected  with  religion.  Re- 
ligious liberty  has  only  been  established 
in  Austria  under  the  present  monarch. 
Italy  first  enjoyed  the  same  advantage 
under  Victor  Emanuel  II.  The  govern- 
ment of  France,  even  since  the  revolu- 
tion, has  always  been  of  a paternal 
character,  but  practically  religious  lib- 
erty exists  in  France.  In  Spain,  in  the 
days  of  its  power  the  most  bigoted  state 
in  Europe,  restricted  liberty  of  worship 
was  allowed  only  in  1876.  Religious 
persecution  was  actively  conducted 
against  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Russia 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Nicholas 
I.,  and  full  religious  liberty  does  not  yet 
exist.  Since  the  Crimean  war  religious 
liberty  has  been  recognized  in  Turkey. 
Toleration  has  thus  been  slowly  ad- 
vancing in  Europe  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  its  recent  progress  has  been 
extensive;  yet  even  in  the  most  ad- 
vanced countries  the  state  of  public 
opinion  on  this  subject  is  still  far  from 
being  satisfactory. 

REM'BRANDT,  in  full,  Rembrandt 
Hermansz  Van  Ryn,  the  most  celebrated 
painter  and  etcher  of  the  Dutch  school, 


Rembrandt  Van  Ryn. 


was  born  in  1606  at  Leyden,  where  his 
father  was  a well-to-do  miller.  His 
eminence  in  portraiture  may  especially 
be  noted  in  portrait-groups  in  particular. 


REMENYI 


RENNET 


His  artistic  development  may  be  broadly 
divided  into  three  periods.  To  the  first 
of  these  (1627-39),  which  shows  less 
mastery  than  the  succeeding  two,  belong 
his  St.  Paul,  Samson  in  Prison,  Simeon 
in  the  Temple,  Lesson  in  Anatomy 
(Tulp  the  anatomist),  and  various  char- 
acter portraits  of  his  wife  as  Queen  Ar- 
temisia, Bathsheba,  the  Wife  of  Sam- 
.eon,  etc.  To  his  middle  period  (1640-54), 
belong  The  Night  Watch,  The  Woman 
ytaken  in  Adultery,  Tobit  and  his  Wife, 
The  Burgomaster  and  his  Wife,  Descent 
from  the  Cross,  Portrait  of  Coppenol, 
Bathsheba,  and  Woman  Bathing. 
Among  the  works  of  his  last  period 
(1655-68)  may  be  mentioned  John  the 
Baptist  Preaching,  Portrait  of  Jan  Six, 
The  Adoration  of  the  Magi,  the  Syndics 
of  Amsterdam,  and  various  portraits  of 
himself.  His  etchings  in  technique  and 
deep  suggestion  have  not  yet  been 
equalled.  He  was  the  first  and  as  yet  the 
greatest  master  of  this  department  of 
art.  Of  his  works  there  are  about  280 
paintings  and  320  etchings  extant  and 
accessible,  dating  from  1625  to  1668. 
He  died  in  1669. 

REMENYI  (r6'man-ye),  Eduard,  Hun- 
garian violin  virtuoso,  was  born  at 
Heves,  in  1830.  He  was  appointed  solo 
violinist  to  Queen  Victoria  in  1853.  He 
afterward  visited  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Mexico,  China,  Japan,  France, 
and  Germany.  He  ranked  among  the 
foremost  musical  artists  of  his  day.  He 
died  while  on  an  American  concert  tour 
in  1898. 

REM'INGTON,  Frederick,  American 
sculptor,  artist,  and  author,  born  in  1861 
at  Canton,  N.  Y.  His  pictures  of  western 
subjects  are  very  popular.  His  statuettes 
include  “The  Broncho  Buster’’  and  “The 
Wounded  Bunkie.’’  They  are  spirited 
bronzes,  executed  with  skill,  and  his 
horses  are  very  fine.  His  stories,  illus- 
trated by  himself,  include  Pony  Tracks, 
Crooked  Trails,  Sundown  Leflare,  Men 
with  the  Bark  on,  and  John  Ermine  of 
the  Yellowstone. 

REMINGTON,  Philo,  American  manu- 
facturer and  inventor,  born  at  Litch- 
field, N.  Y.,  in  1816.  During  the  civil 
war  the  Remingtons  supplied  small  arms 
to  the  federal  government.  Soon  after- 
ward they  began  to  manufacture  the 
breech-loading  rifle  which  bears  their 
name.  In  1873  the  firm  secured  the 
right  to  one  of  the  first  typewriters. 
BothTifles  and  typewriters  have  since 
passed  into  other  hands.  He  died  in 
1889. 

REMITTENT  FEVER,  a fever  which 
suffers  a decided  remission  of  its  violence 
during  the  course  of  the  twenty-four 
hours,  but  without  entirely  leaving  the 
patient.  It  differs  from  an  intermittent 
fever  in  this,  that  there  is  never  a total 
absence  of  fever.  Remittent  fever  is 
severe  or  otherwise  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  climate  in  which  the  poison 
is  generated.  The  autumnal  remittents 
of  temperate  climates  are  comparatively 
mild,  while  the  same  fever  in  the  tropics 
is  often  of  a very  severe  type,  and  not 
unfrequently  proves  fatal.  The  period  of 
remission  varies  from  six  to  twelve 
hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
feverish  excitement  increases,  the  exacer- 
bation being  often  preceded  by  a feel- 
ing of  chilliness.  The  abatenvent  of  the 


fever  usually  occurs  in  the  morning; 
the  principal  exacerbation  generally 
takes  place  towards  evening.  The  dura- 
tion of  the  disease  is  generally  about 
fourteen  days,  and  it  ends  in  a free 
perspiration,  or  may  lapse  into  a low 
fever.  This  fever  is  often  cured  by  the 
administration  of  quinine,  which  should 
be  given  at  the  commencement  of  the 
remission.  A simple  yet  nourishing  diet 
must  also  be  attended  to.  No  stimulants 
must  be  allowed. 

Rem'ora,  a genus  of  fishes  included 
in  the  Goby  family,  and  of  which  the 
common  remora,  or  sucking-fish  is  the 
typical  example.  These  fishes  have  on 
the  top  of  the  head  a peculiar  sucking- 
disc,  composed  of  a series  of  cartilagi- 
nous plates  arranged  transversely,  by 
means  of  which  they  attach  themselves 
to  other  fishes  or  to  the  bottoms  of 


Remora. 

vessels.  The  common  remora  attains 
an  average  length  of  1 foot  and  possesses 
a general  resemblance  in  form  to  the 
herring.  It  is  common  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea  and  in  the  Atlantic  ocean. 
Other  species  are  of  larger  size.  The 
ancients  attributed  to  the  remora  the 
power  of  arresting  and  detaining  ships 
in  full  sail. 

REMUSAT  (ra-mu-za),  Charles  Fran- 
9ois  Marie,  Comte  de,  politician  and  man 
of  letters,  was  born  at  Paris  1797,  died 
1875.  His  works  include  several  on 
English  subjects,  such  as  L’Angleterre 
au  XVIII.  Si^cle,  Bacon,  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury,  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie 
en  Angleterre  depuis  Bacon  jusqu’a 
Locke.  His  mother,  Claire  Elizabeth  de 
Vergennes,  Comtesse  de  R6musat  (born 
1780,  died  1824),  was  a very  remarkable 
woman.  Her  essay  on  Female  Educa- 
tion, published  after  her  death,  received 
an  academic  couronne,  and  her  M^m- 
oires,  published  in  1879-80,  are  par- 
ticularly valuable  for  the  light  which 
they  throw  on  the  court  of  the  first 
empire. 

RENAIS'SANCE,  a term  applied,  in  its 
more  specific  sense,  to  a particular 
movement  in  architecture  and  its  kin- 
dred arts,  but  in  a general  sense  to  that 
last  stage  of  the  middle  ages  when  the 
European  races  began  to  emerge  from 
the  bonds  of  ecclesiastical  and  feudal 
institutions,  to  form  distinct  national- 
ities and  languages ; and  when  medieval 
ideas  became  largely  influenced  by  the 
ancient  classic  arts  and  literature.  It 
was  a gradual  transition  from  the  middle 
ages  to  the  modern,  characterized  by  a 
revolution  in  the  world  of  art  and  litera- 
ture brought  about  by  a revival  and 
application  of  antique  classic  learning. 
The  period  was  also  marked  by  a spirit 
of  exploration  of  lands  beyond  the  sea, 
by  the  extinction  of  the  scholastic  philos- 
ophy, by  the  new  ideas  on  astronomy 
promulgated  by  Copernicus,  and  by  the 


invention  of  printing  and  gunpowder, 
etc. 

RENAISSANCE  ARCHITECTURE,  a 
style  which  originated  in  Italy  in  the 
first  half  of  the  15th  century,  and  after- 
ward spread  over  Europe.  Its  main 
characteristic  is  a return  to  the  classical 
forms  and  modes  of  ornamentation 
which  had  been  displaced  by  the  Byzan- 


Renalssance  sculpture— The  "David”  of 
Michelangelo,  in  the  Accademia, 
Florence,  Italy. 

tine,  the  Romanesque,  and  the  Gothic. 

RENAN  (re-nan),  Joseph  Ernest, 
orientalist,  historian,  and  essayist,  was 
born  at  Tr4guier,  in  Brittany,  February 
27,  1823.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Syriac  in  the  College  de  France,  but  the 
sceptical  views  manifested  in  his  Life  of 
Jesus  (1863)  raised  an  outcry  against 
him,  and  he  was  removed  from  his  ehair, 
to  be  restored  again,  however,  in  1871. 
This  work,  the  publication  of  which 
caused  intense  excitement  throughout 
Europe,  was  the  first  part  of  a compre- 
hensive work  on  the  History  of  the 
Origins  of  Christianity  (Historie  des 
Origines  du  Christianisme),  which  in- 
cludes Les  Apotres,  St.  Paul,  L’Ant4- 
christ,  Les  Evangiles,  L’Eglise  Chr4- 
tienne,  and  Marc  Aur41e,  all  written  from 
the  sceptical  stand-point.  He  became 
a member  of  the  Academy  in  1878,  and 
rector  of  the  College  de  France  in  1883. 
Renan’s  latest  important  work  was  the 
History  of  the  People  of  Israel  (1887-94) 
five  vols.).  He  died  in  1892. 

RENFREW,  or  RENFREWSHIRE,  a 
county  of  Scotland,  bounded  by  Ayr- 
shire, Lanarkshire,  Dumbartonshire, 
and  the  river  and  Firth  of  Clyde;  area, 
156,785  acres,  of  W’hich  about  95,000 
acres  are  cultivated.  Pop.  268,418. 
The  town  of  Renfrew  is  an  ancient  royal 
and  parliamentary  burgh,  6 miles  w.n.w. 
of  Glasgow,  close  to  the  Clyde.  Pop. 
9296. 

RENNES  (renn),  a city  of  France, 
formerly  capital  of  Brittany,  at  present 
capital  of  the  department  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  rivers  Ille  and  Vilaine.  Pop.  74,006. 

RENNET,  the  prepared  inner  surface 


RENT 


REPTILES,.  OR  REPTlLIA 


of  the  stomach  of  a young  calf.  It  con- 
tains much  pepsin,  and  has  the  prop- 
ertj’’  of  coagulating  the  casein  of  milk  and 
forming  curd.  It  is  prepared  by  scraping 
off  the  outer  skin  and  superfluous  fat 
of  the  stomach  when  fresh,  keeping  it  in 
salt  for  some  hours,  and  then  drying  it. 
When  used  a small  piece  of  the  mem- 
brane is  cut  off  and  soaked  in  water, 
which  is  poured  into  the  milk  intended 
to  be  curdled. 

RENT,  in  the  strict  economic  sense, 
the  payment  which,  under  conditions 
of  free  competition,  an  owner  of  land 
can  obtain  by  lending  out  the  use  of  it 
to  others.  This  will  be  found  to  consist 
of  that  portion  of  the  annual  produce 
which  remains  over  and  above  the 
amount  required  to  replace  the  farmer’s 
outlay,  together  with  the  usual  profits. 

Rent,  as  a legal  tenn,  is  the  considera- 
tion given  to  the  landlord  by  a tenant  for 
the  use  of  the  lands  or  subjects  which  he 
possesses  under  lease.  There  is  no  neces- 
sity that  this  should  be,  as  it  usually  is 
money;  for  capons,  horses,  corn,  and 
other  things,  may  be,  and  occasionally 
are,  rendered  by  way  of  rent;  it  may 
also  consist  in  services  or  manual  opera- 
tions. It  is  incidental  to  rent  that  the 
landlord  can  distrain — that  is,  seize  and 
sell  the  tenant’s  chattels  in  order  to 
liquidate  the  rent.  Sometimes  the  owner 
transfers  to  another  by  deed  or  other- 
wise the  right  to  a certain  rent  out  of  the 
lands,  that  is  termed  a rent-charge,  and 
the  holder  of  it  has  power  to  distrain 
for  the  rent,  though  he  has  no  right 
over  the  lands  themselves. 

REPEAT,  in  music,  a sign  that  a 
movement  or  part  of  a movement  is  to 
be  played  or  sung  twice. 

REPLEVTN,  in  law,  is  an  action 
brought  to  recover  possession  of  goods 
illegally  seized,  the  validity  of  which 
seizure  it  is  the  regular  mode  of  contest- 
ing. . 

REP'LICA,  in  the  fine  arts,  is  the  copy 
of  a picture,  etc.,  made  by  the  artist 
who  executed  the  original. 

REPOUSSE  (re-p6'sa),  a kind  of  orna- 
mental metal-work  in  relief.  It  resem- 
bles embossed  work,  but  is  produced  by 
beating  the  metal  up  from  the  back, 
which  is  done  with  a punch  and  hammer 
the  metal  being  placed  upon  a wax 
block.  By  this  means  a rude  resemblance 
to  the  figure  to  be  produced  is  formed, 
and  it  is  afterward  worked  up  by  press- 
ing and  chasing  the  front  surface.  The 
finest  specimens  of  this  style  are  those  of 
Benvenuto  Cellini  of  the  16th  century. 

REPRESENTATIVE  GOVERNMENT, 
is  that  form  of  government  in  which 
either  the  whole  of  a nation,  or  that  por- 
tion of  it  whose  superior  intelligence 
affords  a sufficient  guarantee  for  the 
proper  exercise  of  the  privilege,  is  called 
upon  to  elect  representatives  or  deputies 
charged  with  the  power  of  controlling  the 
public  expenditure,  imposing  taxes, 
and  assisting  the  sovereign  in  the  fram- 
ing of  laws.  See  Constitution. 

REPRIEVE  (re-prev'),  the  suspension 
of  the  execution  of  the  sentence  passed 
upon  a ciminial  for  a capital  offense.  A 
reprieve  may  be  granted  in  various 
ways:  First,  by  the  mere  pleasure  of  the 
sovereign;  second,  when  the  judge  is  not 
satisfied  with  the  verdict,  or  any  favor- 
able circumstance  appears  in  the  crimi- 


nal’s character;  third,  when  a woman 
capitally  convicted  pleads  pregnancy; 
and  lastly,  when  the  criminal  becomes 
insane. 

REPROBATION,  in  theology,  is  the 
doctrine  that  all  who  have  not  been 
elected  to  eternal  life  have  been  repro- 
bated to  eternal  damnation.  This  doc- 
trine was  held  by  Augustine  and  revived 
by  Calvin;  but  most  modern  Calvinists 
repudiate  it  in  the  sense  usually  given 
to  it. 

REPRODUCTION,  the  process  by 
which  anhnals  perpetuate  their  own 
species  or  race.  Reproduction  may  take 
place  in  either  or  both  of  two  chief 
modes.  The  first  of  these  may  be  termed 
sexual,  since  in  this  form  of  the  process 
the  elements  of  sex  are  concerned — male 
and  female  elements  uniting  to  form  the 
essential  reproductive  conditions.  The 
second  may  be  named  asexual,  since  in 
this  latter  act  no  elements  of  sex  are 
concerned.  The  distinctive  character  of 
sexual  reproduction  consists  in  the 
essential  element  of  the  male  (sperm-cell 
or  spermatozoon)  being  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  essential  element  of  the 
female  (germ-cell,  ovum,  or  egg), 
whereby  the  latter  is  fertilized  or  im- 
pregnated, and  those  changes  thereby 
induced  which  result  in  the  formation 
of  a new  being.  Whether  these  elements, 
male  and  female,  be  furnished  by  one 
individual  or  by  two — or  in  other  words 
whether  the  sexes  be  situated  in  separate 
individuals  or  not — is  a fact  of  im- 
material consequence  in  the  recognition 
and  definition  of  the  sexual  form  of  the 
process.  The  reproductive  process, 
therefore,  may  be  (I ) Sexual,  including 

(A)  Hermaphrodite  or  Monoecious  par- 
ents possessing  male  or  female  organs 
in  the  same  individual,  and  these  may 
be  (a)  self-impregnating  (for  example, 
the  tape-worm),  or  (b)  mutually  im- 
pregnating (for  example,  the  snail) ; and 

(B)  Dioecious  parents,  which  may  be  (1) 
Oviparous  (for  example,  most  fishes, 
birds,  etc.),  (2)  Ovo-viviparous  (for 
example,  some  amphibians  and  reptiles), 
or  (3)  Viviparous  (for  example  mam- 
mals). Or  the  reproductive  process  may 
be  (II.)  Asexual,  including  the  processes 
of  (A)  Gemmation  or  budding  (internal, 
external,  continuous,  or  discontinuous), 
and  (B)  Fission  (transverse,  longitudi- 
nal, irregular). 

The  most  perfert  form  of  the  repro- 
ductive process  is  best  seen  in  the  highest 
or  vertebrate  animals,  where  the  male 
elements  are  furnished  by  one  form,  and 
the  female  elements  by  another.  The 
male  element,  with  its  characteristic 
sperm-cells  or  spermatozoa,  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  female  ova  in 
various  ways.  The  ova  when  inmated 
may  undergo  development  external  to 
the  body  of  the  parent,  and  be  left  to  be 
developed  by  surrounding  conditions 
(as  in  the  eggs  of  fishes);  or  the  par- 
ent may  (as  in  birds)  incubate  or 
hatch  them.  Those  forms  which  thus 
produce  eggs  from  which  the  young  are 
afterward  hatched  are  named  oviparous 
animals.  In  other  cases  (as  in  the  land 
salamanders,  vipers,  etc.)  the  eggs  are 
retained  within  the  parent’s  body  until 
such  time  as  the  young  are  hatched, 
and  these  forms  are  hence  named  ovo- 
viviparous  iwhilst  (as  in  mammalia  alone) 


the  young  are  generally  completely  de- 
veloped within  the  parent’s  body,  and 
are  born  alive.  Such  animals  are  hence 
said  to  be  viviparous,  In  the  higher 
mammals,  which  exhibit  the  viviparous 
rnode  of  reproduction  in  fullest  perfec- 
tion, the  mother  and  embryo  are  con- 
nected by  a structure  consisting  partly 
of  foetal  and  partly  of  maternal  tissues, 
and  which  is  known  as  the  placenta. 
(See  Placenta.)  In  tape-worms  we  find 
similar  examples  of  normal  hermaph- 
rodite forms.  Each  segment  or  pro- 
glottis of  the  tape-worm — which  seg- 
ment constitutes  of  itself  a separate 
zobid  or  part  of  the  compound  animal — 
contains  a large  branching  ovary,  de- 
veloping ova  or  eggs,  and  representing 
the  female  organs,  and  also  the  male 
organ  or  testis.  These  organs  between 
them  produce  perfect  or  fertilized  eggs, 
each  of  which  under  certain  favorable 
conditions  is  capable  of  developing  into 
a new  tape-worm.  The  snails  also  form 
good  examples  of  hermaphrodite  animals 
and  illustrate  organisms  which  require 
to  be  mutually  impregnated  in  order  to 
produce  fertilized  eggs — that  is  to  say, 
the  male  element  of  one  hermaphrodite 
organism  must  be  brought  in  contact 
with  the  female  element  of  another 
hermaphrodite  form  before  the  eggs  of 
the  latter  can  be  fecundated. 

REPTILES,  or  REPTlLIA,  a class  of 
vertebrates,  constituting  with  the  birds, 
to  which  they  are  most  closely  allied, 
Huxley’s  second  division  of  vertebrates, 
Sauropsida.  Reptiles,  however,  are 
generally  regarded  as  occupying  a 
separate  place  in  the  animal  kingdom, 
between  birds  and  amphibians.  Rep- 
tiles differ  from  amphibians  chiefly  in 
breathing  through  lungs  during  the 
whole  period  of  their  existence;  and 
from  birds  in  being  cold-blooded,  in  be- 
ing covered  with  plates  or  scales  instead 
of  feathers,  and  in  the  forelegs  (as  far,  at 
least,  as  living  reptiles  are  concerned) 
never  being  constructed  in  the  form  of 
wings. 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  ten 
orders,  four  of  which  are  represented  by 
living  forms,  while  six  are  extinct.  The 
living  orders  are  the  Chelonia  (tortoises 
and  turtles),  the  Ophidia  (serpents  and 
snakes),  the  Lacertilia  (lizards),  and 
Crocodilia  (crocodiles  and  alligators). 
The  extinct  orders  are ; Ichthyopterygia 
(Ichthyosaurus),  Sauropterygia  (Ple- 
siosaurus), Anomodontia  (Rhyncho- 
saurus,  etc.),  Pterosauria  (Pterodacty- 
lus),  Deinosauria  (Megalosaurus,  etc.), 
and  Theriodontia.  The  class  is  also 
divided  into  two  sections,  Squamata 
and  Loricata,  according  as  the  exo- 
skeleton consists  simply  of  scales,  or  of 
bony  plates  in  addition  to  the  scales. 

The  exo-skeleton  varies  greatly  in  its 
development  throughout  the  class.  As 
in  the  tortoises  and  turtles  and  croco- 
diles it  may  attain,  either  separately  or 
in  combination  with  the  endo-skeleton, 
a high  development.  In  serpents  and 
many  lizards  it  is  moderately  develofjed, 
while  in  some  lizards  the  skin  is  com- 
paratively unprotected.  The  skeleton  is 
alwaj’^s  completely  developed  and  ossi- 
fied. The  vertebral  column  in  the  quad- 
rupedal forms  is  divided  into  four  or 
five  regions, less  distinctly  differentiated, 
however,  than  in  the  mammals.  The 


REPUBLIC 


RESISTANCE 


ribs  differ  considerably  in  their  mode 
a£  attachment  to  the  vertebrae,  but  are 
always  present,  and  in  a state  of  greater 
ievelopment  than  in  the  amphibians. 
The  body,  except  in  the  case  of  the 
tortoises,  is  of  an  elongated  form.  The 
limbs  are  very  differently  developed  in 
the  different  species.  In  the  serpents 
and  some  lizards  they  are  completely 
wanting,  or  atrophied;  in  other  lizards 
they  are  rudimentary;  while  in  the  re- 
mainder of  the  class  sometimes  the  an- 
terior and  sometimes  the  posterior  limbs 
are  developed,  and  not  the  others.  In 
no  case  are  the  limbs  developed  to  the 
extent  to  which  they  are  developed  in 
birds  and  quadrupeds,  these  members 
seldom  being  of  sufficient  length  to  keep 
the  body  from  the  ground.  In  some  of 
the  forms,  living  or  extinct,  the  limbs 
are  modified  for  swimming  or  for  flight. 
The  lower  jaw  is  connected  with  the 
skull  through  the  intervention  of  a 
quadrate  bone,  and,  as  this  often  pro- 
jects backward,  the  opening  of  the 
mouth  is  very  great,  and  may  even  ex- 
tend beyond  the  base  of  the  skull. 
Teeth,  except  in  the  turtle  and  tortoises, 
are  present,  but  are  adapted  rather  for 
seizing  and  holding  prey  than  masticat- 
ing food,  and,  except  in  the  crocodiles, 
are  not  sunk  in  sockets.  The  skull 
possesses  a single  occipital  condyle,  by 
means  of  which  it  articulates  with  the 
spine.  The  brain  is  small  compared 
with  the  size  of  the  skull.  The  muscular 
system  is  developed  more  like  that  of 
the  birds  and  mammals  than  that  of  the 
amphibians  or  fishes.  The  intestinal 
tract  is  generally  differentiated  into  an 
oesophagus,  stomach,  small  intestine, 
and  large  intestine.  It  terminates  in  a 
cloaca,  which  is  also  common  to  the 
efferent  ducts  of  the  urinary  and  gen- 
erative systems.  In  some  forms  (as 
snakes)  the  stomach,  like  the  gullet,  is 
capable  of  great  distention.  The  heart 
has  only  three  cavities,viz.:  two  separate 
auricles  and  a single  ventricular  cavity, 
usually  divided  into  two  by  an  in- 
complete partition.  Respiration  is  al- 
ways performed  by  the  lungs,  which  are 
highly  organized,  and  often  attain  a 
great  size.  The  ova  are  in  general  re- 
tained within  the  body  of  the  parent 
until  the  development  of  the  young  has 
proceeded  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  and 
then  expelled  and  left  to  the  heat  of  the 
sun;  but  in  some  forms  (as  snakes  and 
lizards)  they  are  hatched  in  the  interior 
of  the  body.  Reptiles  are  found  in  great- 
est number,  and  in  most  typical  form 
and  variety,  in  the  warm  or  tropical 
regions  of  the  earth.  During  winter,  or 
in  the  colder  seasons  of  the  year,  most 
reptiles  hybernate,  and  snakes  are  nota- 
ble as  periodically  moulting  their  skin 
or  epidermis.  See  the  different  orders  in 
separate  articles. 

REPUB'LIC,  a constitution  in  which 
the  supreine  power  in  the  state' is  vested, 
not  in  a hereditary  ruler,  but  in  the 
citizens  themselves.  According  to  the 
constitution  of  the  governing  body  a 
republic  may  therefore  vary  from  the 
proudest  aristocracy  to  the  most  abso- 
lute democracy.  In  the  small  states  of 
ancient  Greece  the  supreme  power  was 
vested  in  the  whole  body  of  the  citizens, 
who  met  in  common  assembly  to  enact 
their  laws.  In  the  oligarchic  republics 


of  Genoa  and  Venice  the  supreme  power 
was  consigned  to  the  nobles  or  a few 
privileged  individuals.  In  all  modern 
republics  the  representative  system  pre- 
vails. Besides  the  diminutive  republic 
of  San  Marino,  in  Italy,  and  Andorra, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Pyrenees  the 
only  republics  in  Europe  at  the  present 
day  are  those  of  Switzerland  and  France. 
Switzerland  has  been  a republic  ever 
since  it  liberated  itself  from  German  rule ; 
and  France  has  been  thrice  a republic — 
from  1793  to  1804,  from  1848  to  1852, 
and  from  1870  to  the  present  time.  Hol- 
land was  a republic  from  the  separation 
of  the  seven  provinces  from  Spain  until 
1815;  Great  Britain  was  nominally  a 
republic  from  1649  to  1660;  Spain  pos- 
sessed a republican  government  in 
1868-69,  and  in  1873-74.  In  the  New 
World  the  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment prevails  universally  among  the 
fndependent  states,  the  most  important 
of  all  the  republics  there  being  the 
United  States.  The  United  States,  like 
Switzerland,  is  a federative  republic, 
consisting  of  a number  of  separate  states 
bound  together  by  a treaty,  and  having 
a central  government,  with  power  to 
enact  laws  binding  on  all  the  citizens. 
Mexico  has  been  a republic  since  1824, 
except  during  the  short-lived  empire 
from  1863  to  1867.  Brazil  has  only  been 
a republic  since  November,  1889. 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY,  in  United 
States  politics,  a name  first  applied  to 
the  party  which  favored  a strong  central 
government,  not  acting  through  the 
states,  but  directly  upon  the  people; 
opposed  to  the  democratic  party,  which 
maintained  the  rights  of  individual 
states.  The  party  was  latterly  identified 
with  the  anti-slavery  movement,  and 
was  the  party  of  the  north  in  the  civil 
war.  It  is  strongly  protectionist.  Since 
1860  when  Abraham  Lincoln  was  elected 
by  the  Republicans,  with  the  exception 
of  the  years  1884-88,  1892-96,  when 
Grover  Cleveland  was  elected  by  the 
Democrats,  the  Republicans  have  been 
successful  in  electing  their  candidate 
for  the  presidency. 

REPUDIATION,  a refusal  on  the  part 
of  a government  to  pay  the  debts  con- 
tracted by  the  governments  which  have 
preceded  it.  Repudiation  has  some- 
times been  resorted  to  by  the  smaller 
American  republics,  and  by  some  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  Europe  there  are 
also  instances  of  a similar  kind. 

REPULSION,  in  physics,  is  a term 
often  applied  to  the  action  which  two 
bodies  exert  upon  one  another  when 
they  tend  to  increase  their  mutual  dis- 
tance. It  was  formerly  thought  that 
there  were  two  forces,  attraction  and 
repulsion,  which  balanced  and  counter- 
acted each  other;  but  it  is  now  known 
that  all  apparent  repulsion  is  merely  a 
difference  of  attractions. 

RESERVE,  in  military  matters,  has 
several  significations.  In  battle  the 
reserve  consists  of  those  troops  not  in 
action,  and  destined  to  supply  fresh 
forces  as  they  are  needed,  to  support 
those  points  which  are  shaken,  and  to 
be  ready  to  act  at  decisive  moments. 
The  reserve  of  ammunition  is  the  maga- 
zine of  warlike  stores  placed  close  to  the 
scene  of  action  to  allow  of  the  supply 
actually  in  the  field  being  speedily  re- 


plenished. The  term  reserves  is  also 
applied  to  those  forces  which  are  liable 
to  be  called  into  the  field  on  great 
emergencies,  for  the  purposes  of  national 
defence ; which  has  received  a military 
training  but  follow  the  ordinary  occupa- 
tions of  civil  life,  and  do  not  form  part  of 
the  standing  army.  Such  reserves  now 
form  a part  of  all  national  troops  organ- 
ized on  a great  scale. 

RESERVE,  in  banking  and  insurance, 
that  portion  of  capital  which  is  set  aside 
to  meet  liabilities,  and  which,  in  banking, 
is  therefore  not  employed  in  discounts 
or  temporary  loans. 

RESERVOIR  (rez'6r-vwir),  an  arti- 
ficial basin  in  which  a large  quantity  of 
water  is  stored.  The  construction  of  a 
reservoir  often  requires  great  engineer- 
ing skill.  In  the  selection  of  a site  the 
great  object  should  be  to  choose  a 
position  which  will  give  the  means  for 
collecting  a large  supply  of  rainfall  with 
as  little  recourse  as  possible  to  artificial 
structures  or  excavations.  The  enibank- 
ments  or  dams  may  be  constructed 
either  of  masonry  or  earth-work,  but 
the  latter  is  the  more  usual,  as  it  is 
generally  the  more  economical  method. 
Reservoirs  in  which  the  dams  are  built 
of  earth-work  must  be  provided  with 
a waste-weir,  to  admit  of  the  surplus 
water  flowing  over;  in  the  reservoirs  of 
which  the  dams  are  built  of  masonry 
there  is  no  necessity  for  a waste-weir, 
as  then  the  water  may  be  allowed  to 
overflow  the  wall,  there  being  no  fear 
of  its  endangering  the  works.  The  outlet 
at  the  bottom,  by  which  the  water  to  be 
used  is  drawn  off  from  the  reservoir, 
may  consist  either  of  a tunnel,  culvert,  or 
iron  pipes  provided  with  suitable  sluices. 
Distributing  reservoirs  for  cities  are 
generally  built  of  masonry.  They  are 
placed  nigh  enough  to  command  the 
highest  part  of  the  town,  and  are  capa- 
cious enough  to  contain  half  a day’s 
supply,  their  chief  use  being  to  store 
the  surplus  water  during  the  night. 

RESINS,  a class  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in 
alcohol,  and  easily  softened  or  melted 
by  heat.  Resins  are  either  neutral  or 
acid ; they  are  transparent  or  translu  cent ; 
they  have  generally  a yellow-brown 
color;  are  sometimes  elastic,  but  more 
generally  friable  and  hard.  They  become 
electric  when  rubbed.  Resins  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes;  (1)  Those 
which  exude  spontaneously  from  plants, 
or  from  incisions  in  the  stems  and 
branches.  They  are  generally  mixtures 
of  gum-resins  and  volatile  oils.  The 
principal  resins  belonging  to  this  class 
are  benzoin,  dragon’s-blood,  Peru  bal- 
sam, storax,  copaiba,  copal,  elemi, 
guaiacum,  jalap,  lac,  myrrh,  sandarach, 
and  turpentine.  (2)  Resins  extracted 
from  plants  by  alcohols;  they  generally 
contain  definite  carbon  compounds. 
The  principal  resins  belonging  to  this 
class  are  gum  ammoniacum,  angelica- 
root,  Indian  hemp,  cubebs,  manna,  arid 
squill.  (3)  Fossil  resins,  occurring  m 
coal  or  lignite  beds,  amber,  asphab 
copaline,  fossil  caoutchouc,  etc. 

RESISTANCE,  Electrical,  the  oppo- 
sition which  a conductor  offers  to  tha 
flow  of  electricity,  the  conductor  being 
removed  so  far  from  neighboring  con- 
ductors that  their  action  will  be  very 


resonance 


RESURRECTION 


email,  and  maintained  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  0°  C.  The  unit  of  resistance  is 
called  an  ohm. 

RES'ONANCEjin  acoustics, a strength- 
ening of  sound.  When  a person  speaks 
in  an  empty  room  the  walls  reflect  the 
words.  Suppose  we  have  only  to  deal 
with  one  reflecting  surface,  at  a distance 
of  112.5  feet  from  the  speaker;  there 
will  be  an  interval  of  one-fifth  of  a sec- 
ond between  the  word  and  its  echo,  and 
the  sound  will  be  distinguished  from  its 
reflection;  for  any  shorter  distance  the 
echo  will  merely  strengthen  the  sound. 
Resonance  includes  such  strengthening 
of  sound  as  occurs  in  sounding-boards 
and  the  bodies  of  musical  instruments. 

RESPIRATION,  the  act  of  respiring  or 
breathing.  Respiration  is  that  great 
physiological  function  which  is  devoted 
to  the  purification  of  the  blood  by  the 
removal,  through  the  media  of  the 
breathing  organs,  of  carbonic  acid  and 
other  waste  products,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  the  revivifying  of  the  blood  by 
the  introduction  of  the  oxygen  of  at- 
mospheric air.  It  is  thus  partly  ex- 
cretory and  partly  nutritive  in  its  char- 
acter. The  other  waste  products,  besides 
carbonic  acid,  which  are  given  off  in  the 
process  of  animal  respiration  are  water, 
ammonia,  and  organic  matters;  the 
carbonic  acid  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant. 

In  man  and  the  higher  animals  res- 
piration is  carried  on  by  the  breathing 
organs  or  lungs.  The  blood  is  conveyed 
to  the  breathing  organs  by  special 
vessels,  the  right  side  of  the  heart  in 
birds  and  mammals  being  exclusively 
employed  in  driving  blood  to  the  lungs 
for  purification.  The  blood  is  sent 
through  the  pulmonary  or  lung  capil- 
laries in  a steady  stream,,  and  passes 
through  these  minute  vessels  at  a rate 
sufficient  to  expose  it  to  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  contained  in  the  air-cells  of 
the  lungs.  The  essential  part  of  the 
function  of  respiration,  namely,  the 
exchange  of  carbonic  acid  gas  for  oxy- 
gen, thus  takes  place  in  the  lung,  where 
the  dingy-hued  venous  blood  becomes 
converted  into  the  florid  red  arterial 
blood.  Respiration  includes  the  physical 
acts  of  inspiration  and  expiration,  both 
involuntary  acts,  although  they  may 
be  voluntarily  modified.  From  four- 
teen to  eighteen  respiratory  acts  take 
place  per  minute,  the  average  quantity 
of  air  inhaled  by  a healthy  adult  man 
being  about  30  cubic  inches,  a slightly 
smaller  quantity  being  exhaled.  This 
definite  volume  of  air  which  ebbs  and 
flows  is  termed  tidal  air.  The  quantity 
(about  100  cubic  inches)  which  may  be 
taken  in  a deep  inspiration,  in  addition 
to  the  tidal  air,  is  tenned  complemental 
air.  The  quantity  of  air  (75  to  100  cubic 
inches)  remaining  in  the  chest  after  an 
ordinary  expiration  has  expelled  the 
tidal  air,  is  named  supplemental  or 
reserve  air,  and  this  may  be  in  greater 
part  expelled  by  a deeper  expiration; 
while  a quantity  of  air,  also  averaging 
from  75  to  100  cubic  inches,  alwaj^s 
remains  in  the  lungs  after  the  deepest 
possible  expiratory  effort,  and  cannot  be 
got  rid  of.  This  latter  quantity  is  there- 
fore approximately  named  residual  air. 
The  difference  in  the  mode  of  breathing 
between  the  two  sexes  is  clearly  per- 


ceptible. In  man  it  is  chiefly  abdominal 
in  its  character;  that  is  to  say,  the  lower 
part  of  the  chest  and  sternum,  together 
with  the  abdominal  muscles,  participate 
before  the  upper  portions  of  the  chest 
in  the  respiratory  movments;  while  in 
women  the  breathing  movements  are 
chiefly  referable  to  the  upper  portions 
of  the  chest.  In  women,  therefore, 
breathing  is  said  to  be  pectoral. 

Every  volume  of  inspired  air  loses 
from  4|  to  5 per  cent  of  oxygen  and 
gains  rather  less  carbonic  acid.  The 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  given  off 
varies  under  different  circumstances. 
More  carbonic  acid  is  excreted  by  males 
than  by  females  of  the  same  age,  and  by 
males  between  eight  and  forty  than  in 
old  age  or  in  infancy.  An  average 
healthy  adult  man  will  excrete  more 
than  8 oz.  of  carbon  in  24  hours.  Hence 
the  necessity  for  repeated  currents  of 
fresh  air  in  meeting  places  and  places  of 
public  entertainment,  in  halls  and  in 
churches,  and  for  the  proper  ventilation 
of  sleeping  apartments.  The  breathing 
of  an  atmosphere  vitiated  by  organic 
matter  and  carbonic  acid  results  in  im- 
perfect oxygenation  of  the  blood,  is 
accompanied  or  followed  by  headaches, 
drowsiness,  and  lassitude,  and  is  the 
source  of  many  serious  and  even  fatal 
disorders. 

While  in  man  and  the  more  highly 
organized  animals  respiration  is  carried 
on  by  the  lungs,  in  fishes  it  is  effected  by 
the  gills.  The  essential  feature  of  any 
breathing  organ  is  a thin  membrane, 
having  the  blood  on  one  side  and  air, 
or  water  containing  air,  on  the  other; 
and  the  essential  feature  of  respiration  is 
an  interchange  of  products  between  the 
blood  and  the  atmosphere,  oxygen  pass- 
ing from  atmosphere  into  the  blood,  and 
carbonic  acid  and  organic  matters  from 
the  blood  into  the  atmosphere.  In  the 
protozoa  no  respiratory  organs  are 
specialized,  but  the  protoplasixf'of  which 
the  bodies  of  these  animals  are  composed 
has  doubtless  the  power  of  excreting 
waste  matters,  as  well  as  of  absorbing 
nutritive  material.  Even  in  compara- 
tively high  organisms,  where  no  spe- 
cialized breathing  organs  ^re  developed 
the  function  of  respiration  may  be 
carried  on  by  the  skin  or  general  body 
surface — the  integument  being,  as  in 
the  highest  fonns,  intimately  correlated 
in  its  functions  to  the  breathing  process. 
Thus  in  earthworms,  lower  Crustacea, 
etc.,  the  breathing  appears  to  be  solely 
subserved  by  the  body-surfaces. 

Respiration  goes  on  in  plants  as  well 
as  in  animals,  the  plant  in  the  presence 
of  light  exhaling  oxygen  and  inhaling 
carbonic  acid,  and  thus  reversing  the 
action  of  the  animal. 

RESPIRATION,  Artificial.  See  Drown- 
ing. 

RESPIRATOR,  a mouth-covering, 
which  gives  warmth  to  the  air  inhaled, 
and  is  used  by  persons  having  delicate 
lungs.  It  is  constructed  of  a series  of 
layers  of  very  fine  silver  or  gilt  wires 
placed  closely  together,  which  are  heated 
by  the  exhalation  of  the  wann  breath, 
and  in  turn  heat  the  cold  air  before  it  is 
inhaled.  Other  respirators,  designed  to 
exclude  smoke,  dust,  and  other  noxious 
substances,  are  used  by  firemen,  miners, 
cutlers,  grinders,  and  the  like. 


RESPIR'ATORY  SOUNDS,  in  medi- 
cine, the  sounds  made  by  the  air  when 
being  inhaled  or  exhaled,  as  heard  by  the 
ear  applied  directly  to  the  chest,  or  in- 
directly through  the  medium  of  the 
stethoscope.  The  respiratory  sounds  are 
of  the  highest  importance  in  the  diagno- 
sis of  diseases  of  the  chest  and  bronchial 
tubes. 

REST,  in  music,  an  interval  of  silence 
between  two  sounds,  and  the  mark 
which  denotes  such  interval.  Each  note 
has  its  corresponding  rest.  See  Music. 

RESTIA'CEjE,  a natural  order  of 
plants  allied  to  the  Cyperacese  or  sedges, 
and  confined  to  the  southern  hemis- 
phere, being  found  chiefly  in  South 
Africa  and  Australia.  They  are  herbs 
or  undershrubs,  with  matted  roots 
which  bind  shifting  soil,  hard  wiry 
stems,  simple  narrow  leaves,  the  sheaths 
of  which  are  usually  split,  and  incon- 
spicuous brown  rush-like  panicles  of 
flowers. 

RESTORATION,  in  English  history, 
the  re-establishment  of  Charles  II.  on 
the  throne.  May  29,  1660.  The  restora- 
tion was  held  as  a festival  in  the  Church 
of  England  till  1859. 

RESURRECTION,  the  rising  again  of 
the  body  from  the  dead  to  be  reunited 
to  the  soul  in  a new  life.  It  has  formed 
a part  of  the  belief  of  the  Christian 
church  since  its  first  formation,  and  has 
been  embodied  as  an  article  to  each  of 
the  creeds.  There  are  traces  to  be  found 
of  such  a belief  among  heathen  nations 
from  a very  early  period.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  Jews,  particularly 
those  of  later  times,  held  the  doctrine, 
though  it  would  be  difficult  to  point  to 
any  express  indication  of  it  in  the  Old 
Testament.  It  appears,  however,  to  be 
alluded  to  in  Isaiah  xxvi.  19,  and  is  dis- 
tinctly affirmed  in  Daniel,  chap.  xii. 
J.-3.  That  the  belief  in  the  resurrection 
was  generally  held  among  the  Jews  at 
the  time  of  Christ  is  evident,  particularly 
from  the  position  occupied  by  the  Sad- 
ducees,  a sect  having  as  its  most  char- 
acteristic feature  the  denial  of  the  res- 
urrection. Beyond  doubt,  however,  it 
was  the  gospel  that  “brought  life  and 
immortality  to  light.”  At  best  the 
notions  of  a resurrection  and  future 
state  current  prior  to  the  advent  of 
Christ  were  dim  and  undefined,  and  it 
remained  for  him  to  set  them  in  a full 
clear  light,  and  give  evidence  and  pledge 
of  their  reality,  by  his  own  resurrection. 
With  regard  to  the  information  con- 
veyed to  us  in  the  New  Testament  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  we  are 
taught  that  it  will  be  universal,  extend- 
ing to  the  wicked  as  well  as  to  the  right- 
eous, John  V.  28,  29;  Rev.  xx.  13; that 
there  shall  be  identity,  in  some  sense, 
between  the  body  which  died  and  the 
body  which  shall  be  raised,  2 Cor.  v.  10; 
that,  as  regards  the  resurrection  of  the 
righteous,  the  body,  though  identical, 
shall  be  wonderfully  altered,  Phil.  iii. 
21 ; 1 Cor.  xv. ; Luke  xx.  35,  36 ; and  that, 
as  regards  the  time  of  the  resurrection, 
it  shall  be  at  the  end  of  this  present 
earthly  state,  and  that  it  shall  be  con- 
nected with  the  coming  of  our  Lord  to 
judge  the  world,  1 Thess.  iv.  16. 

Connected  with  this  subject  is  the  res- 
urrection of  Christ  himself  from  the 
dead,  the  corner-stone  of  the  Christian 


RESZKE 


REVERBERATORY  FURNACE 


'system.  The  evidence  in  support  of  it 
is  marked  by  the  following  char- 
acteristics: (1)  The  variety  of  circum- 
stances under  which  the  risen  Savior 
appeared.  (2)  The  circumstantiality  of 
the  testimony  given  by  the  different 
witnesses.  (3)  The  simplicity  and  ap- 
parent truthfulness  with  which  the 
witnesses  described  their  impressions 
when  the  Savior  appeared  to  them.  (4) 
That  the  event  borne  witness  to  was 
completely  unexpected  by  the  wit- 
nesses; and  (5)  That  the  testimony  was 
published  to  the  world  on  the  very  spot 
where,  and  at  the  very  moment  when, 
the  event  was  said  to  have  happened. 

RESZKE  (rSsh'ke),  Edouard  de,  Pol- 
ish opera  singer,  brother  of  Jean  de 
Reszke,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1856. 
He  made  his  first  public  ^pearance  in 
1876  at  the  Italiens  in  Paris,  as  the 
King  in  Verdi’s  Aida,  which  was  so 
successful  that  Massenet  intrusted  to 
him  the  creation  of  Le  roi  de  Lahore  at 
La  Scala  in  Milan.  From  1880  to  1884 
he  sang  with  the  Royal  Italian  Opera 
company  in  London,  where  he  became 
famous  as  one  of  the  greatest  dramatic 
bassos  of  his  time. 

RESZKE,  Jean  de,  Polish  dramatic 
tenor,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  1853. 
In  1874  he  made  his  d6but  at  Venice, 
as  Alfonso  in  La  Favorita,  under  the 
name  of  De  Reschi.  He  made  his  second 
d4but  before  the  public  in  1879,  this 
time  in  the  tenor  rdle  of  Robert  le 
Diable,  at  Madrid.  His  success  was  in- 
stantaneous. His  repertoire  includes 
Faust,  Lohengrin,  L’Africaine,  Aida, 
Le  Cid  (written  for  him  by  Massenet), 
Les  Huguenots,  Elaine,  Romeo  and 
Juliet,  and  Tristan.  He  is  conceded  to 
be  one  of  the  most  artistic  singers  and 
actors  known  to  the  operatic  stage.  For 
many  years  subsequent  to  1891,  both 
the  De  Reszkes  were  favorite  members 
of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  Com- 
pany, New  York. 

RETAINER,  in  law,  the  contract  be- 
tween a solicitor  and  a client,  or  a 
solicitor  and  counsel  for  professional 
services,  and  the  document  given  by  the 
solicitor  to  a counsel  engaging  his  ser- 
vices. When  the  counsel  is  engaged  for 
a particular  suit  the  document  is  called 
a special  retainer;  and  when  he  is  en- 
gaged for  all  matters  of  litigation  in 
which  such  party  may  be  at  any  time 
involved,  it  is  called  a general  retainer. 
The  retainer  is  in  all  cases  accompanied 
by  a preliminary  fee  called  a retaining 
fee. 

RETENTION  OF  URINE,  in  medicine, 
a condition  in  which  the  urine  cannot  be 
expelled  from  the  bladder  at  all,  or  only 
with  great  difficulty;  to  be  distinguished 
from  suppression  of  urine,  a condition 
in  which  the  bladder  is  empty,  the  urine 
not  having  been  secreted  by  the  kidneys. 
It  may  be  due  to  some  mechanical  ob- 
struction, as  a.  calculus,  a clot  of  blood, 
or  a tumor,  or  to  paralysis,  etc.  If  not 
relieved  by  means  of  the  catheter  or 
otherwise  it  may  cause  rupture  of  the 
bladder  and  death. 

RETICULATED  WORK,  a species  of 
masonry  very  common  among  the  an- 
cients, in  which  the  stones  are  square 
and  laid  lozenge-wise,  resembling  the 
meshes  of  a net,  and  producing  quite  an 

P.  K.- : ; 


ornamental  appearance.  It  is  the  opus 
reticulatum  of  the  Romans. 

RET'INA,  in  anatomy,  a membrane 
of  the  eye,  formed  by  an  expansion  of 
the  optic  nerve,  and  so  constituted  as  to 
receive  the  impressions  which  result  in 
vision.  See  Eye. 

RETORT',  a vessel,  generally  of  glass, 
used  in  chemistry,  for  distilling  liquids. 
Retorts  consist  of  a flask-shaped  vessel, 
to  which  a long  neck  or  beak  is  attached. 
The  liquid  to  be  distilled  is  placed  in  the 
flask  and  heat  applied.  'The  products 


Ancient  Roman  reticulated  work. 

of  distillation  condense  in  the  cold  neck 
of  the  retort,  and  are  collected  in  a suit- 
able receiver.  In  gas-making,  retorts 
of  iron  or  fire-clay  are  used  for  distilling 
the  eoa:. 

RETRIEVER,  a dog  specially  trained 
to  fetch  game  which  has  been  shot, 
and  greatly  valued  by  sportsmen  for  its 
sagacity  in  the  field  and  in  the  water. 
The  larger  and  more  familiar  breed 
of  retrievers  is  formed  by  crossing  the 
Newfoundland  and  setter;  the  smaller 
breed  is  formed  by  crossing  the  water- 
spaniel  and  terrier.  The  typical  re- 
triever is  20  or  more  inches  high,  with  a 
stoutly-built  body,  strong  limbs,  webbed 
toes,  and  black  and  curly  fur. 

RETROGRADE,  a term  given  to  the 
apparent  motion  of  a planet  among  the 
stars  when  it  is  in  opposition  to  the 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic.  The 
motion  of  a planet  in  the  direction  from 
right  to  left  is  said  to  be  direct. 

RETROGRESSION  OF  THE  MOON’S 
NODES,  the  motion  of  the  moon 
nodes — the  two  points  in  which  the 
moon’s  orbit  meets  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic — in  the  direction  opposite  to 
that  of  the  sun’s  motion  in  the  ecliptic. 
The  moon’s  nodes  slowly  change  at  each 
revolution  of  the  moon,  in  the  direction 
from  left  to  right,  and  make  a complete 
revolution  round  the  earth  in  18.6  years. 

REUMONT,  (roi'mont),  Alfred  Von, 
German  historian,  born  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  August  15,  1808.  He  died  in 
1887.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
valuable  works  on  the  history  of  Italy, 
including  Contributions  to  Italian  His- 
tory, The  Carafas  of  Maddaloni,  History 
of  the  City  of  Rome,  etc.  He  also  wrote 
on  the  history  of  art. 

REUNION  (ra-u-ni-6n),  formerly  Bour- 
bon, an  island  in  the  Indian  ocean, 
between  Mauritius  and  Madagascar,  115 
miles  from  each;  area,  1127  sq.  miles. 
It  was  annexed  by  France  in  1643,  and 
is  an  important  French  colony,  now 
sending  a representative  to  the  chamber 


of  deputies,  and  forming  practically 
almost  a department  of  France.  The 
population,  which  consists  of  creoles, 
negroes,  Indian  coolies,  Chinese,  Malays, 
etc.,  is  179,639. 

REUSS  (rois),  two  principalities  of 
Central  Germany,  consisting  of  several 
separate  territories  situated  between 
Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Bavaria,  and  be- 
longing to  an  older  and  a younger  line 
of  the  family  of  Reuss.  Reuss-Greiz,  the 
territory  of  the  elder  line,  comprises 
an  area  of  122  sq.  miles,  with  a popula- 
tion of  68,396;  the  territory  of  the 
younger  line,  Reuss-Schleiz-Gera,  has  an 
area  of  318  sq.  miles,  with  a pop.  of 
139  210 

REUTER  (roi't6r),  Fritz,  German 
humorist,  was  born  in  1810,  and  edu- 
cated at  Rostock  and  Jena.  His  first 
literary  venture  was  a volume  of  humor- 
ous poems  in  Low  German  (Lauschen 
and  Riemels,  1853),  which  met  with 
extraordinarv  success.  His  greatest 
work  is  Olle  Kamellen,  a series  of  prose 
tales,  which  stamped  him  as  the  greatest 
writer  of  Plattdeutsch  and  one  of  the 
greatest  humorists  of  the  century.  He 
died  at  Eisenach  in  1874. 

REUTER  (roi'ter),  Paul  Julius,  Baron, 
born  at  Cassel  in  1816,  was  connected 
with  the  electric  telegraph  system  from 
the  beginning,  and  in  1849  established 
Reuter’s  News  Agency  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  In  1865  he  converted  his 
agency  into  a limited  liability  company. 
In  1871  he  received  the  title  of  baron 
from  the  Duke  of  Coburg-Gotha.  He 
laid  some  important  telegraphic  cables. 
He  died  in  1899. 

REVAL,  or  REVEL,  a fortified  seaport 
of  Russia,  capital  of  Esthonia,  on  a 
sm.all  bay  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  It  is 
much  frequented  for  sea-bathing.  Pop. 
64,578. 

REVEILLE  (re-vel'ye),  the  signal 
iven  in  garrisons  at  break  of  day,  by 
eat  of  drum  or  sound  of  bugle,  for  the 
soldiers  to  rise  and  the  sentinels  to  for- 
bear challenging  until  the  retreat  is 
sounded  in  the  evening. 

REVELATION,  the  knowledge  of  God 
and  his  relation  to  the  world,  given  to 
m.en  by  God  himself,  and  for  the  Chris- 
tian contained  in  the  Bible.  The  earliest 
revelations,  made  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
were  preserved  till  later  times,  and 
gradually  enlarged  during  the  Mosaic 
period  by  successive  revelations  to 
chosen  individuals,  with  whom  the  Bible 
makes  us  acquainted  under  the  name 
of  prophets,  from  Moses  to  Malachi,  God 
having  finally  completed  his  revelations 
through  Christ. 

REVELATION,  Book  of.  See  apo- 
calypse . 

REVENUE,  the  income  of  a nation 
derived  from  taxes,  duties,  and  other 
sources,  for  public  u.ses.  See  articles  on 
the  different  countries,  also  Taxation,  etc. 

REVENUE  CUTTER,  a sharp-built 
single-masted  vessel,  armed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  smuggling  and  en- 
forcing the  custom-house  regulat-'ons. 

REVER'BERATORY  FURNACE,  a 
furnace  in  which  the  material  is  heated 
without  coming  into  contact  with  the 
fuel.  Between  the  fireplace  a and  the 
bed  on  which  the  material  to  be  heated 
b lies,  a low  partition  wall,  called  a fire- 
bridge, is  placed.  The  flame  passes  over 


RE /ERE 


REVOLVER 


this  bridge,  and  plays  along  the  flat  arch 
which  surmounts  the  whole,  reflecting  or 
reverberating  the  heat  downward. 
The  reverberatory  furnace  gives  free 
access  of  air  to  the  material,  and  is  em- 


Section  of  reverberatory  furnace, 
ployed  for  oxidizing  impurities  in  metals, 
and  for  other  similar  purposes. 

REVERE  (re-ver'),  Paul,  born  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  January  1,  1735, 
has  earned  fame  by  riding  through 
Charlestown  to  Concord  on  the  night  of 
April  18,  1775,  to  give  warning  of  the 
British  expedition,  which  was  resisted 
next  day  at  Lexington  and  Concord; 
a service  immortalized  in  Longfellow’s 
poem.  The  Midnight  Ride  of  Paul 
Revere.  He  had  been  a goldsmith  and 
copper-plate  engraver,  and  subsequently 
he  set  up  a foundry  and  erected  works 
for  rolling  copper  at  Canton,  Massa- 
chusetts, still  carried  on  by  his  suc- 
cessors as  the  Revere  Copper  company. 
He  died  May  10,  1818. 

REVISED  STATUTES,  the  acts  of  the 
legislatures  of  the  various  states  and  of 
congress.  After  a large  number  of  these 
volumes  have  been  issued,  it  is  found 
that  acts  in  the  earlier  volumes  are  re- 
pealed or  amended  by  acts  reported  in 
later  ones,  that  some  have  become 
obsolete  by  reason  of  changed  con- 
ditions. Where  this  state  of  facts  exists, 
most  of  the  states  have  at  some  time 
authorized  thorough  revisions  of  their 
statute  law.  The  general  laws  are  thus 
collected,  arranged  and  amended,  are 
reenacted  by  the  legislature  and  then 
constitute  the  official  revised  statutes  of 
the  state,  superseding  all  original  acts 
on  the  same  subject.  There  have  been 
several  revisions  of  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

REVIVAL,  a term  applied  to  religious 
awakenings  in  the  Christian  church,  and 
to  the  occurrence  of  extensive  spiritual 
quickening  and  conversion  in  the  general 
community.  The  first  great  revival  in 
Europe  was  the  Reformation  in  the  16th 
century,  which  awoke  the  church  from 
the  sleep  of  centuries.  When  religion 
had  degenerated  into  formalism  in  Eng- 
land in  the  17th  century  a second  re- 
vival of  spiritual  interest  rvas  accom- 
plished through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  Puritans.  When  the  church  had 
once  more  sank  into  a state  of  sloth  and 
apathy  in  the  18th  century,  it  was 
aroused  by  the  preaching  of  Writfield, 
the  Wesleys,  Rowland  Hill,  Venn, 
Newton,  Cecil,  Fletcher,  and  a multitude 
of  other  earnest  men.  Coincident  with 
this  movement  was  the  origin  of  mis- 
sions to  the  heathen.  Scotland  also  pre- 
sents several  remarkable  revivals.  But 
it  was  reserved  for  recent  times  to  wit- 
ness in  America  and  Great  Britain  per- 
haps the  most  remarkable  religious 
revival  which  has  been  witnessed  since 
the  era  of  the  Reformation.  Movements 


of  this  nature,  but  of  limited  extent, 
have  not  been  infrequent  in  the  Ameri- 
can churches,  as  in  1736  and  1830;  but 
the  great  revival  which  originated  in 
the  United  States  in  1858  subsequently 
extended  to  the  British  islands,  and  was 
experienced  with  more  or  less  power 
throughout  almost  every  part  of  the 
world.  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
were  the  principal  centers  of  the  move- 
ment, which  became  universal  in  the 
United  States,  embracing  all  denomina- 
tions and  all  classes  of  society.  In  the 
summer  of  1859  the  revival  extended 
to  the  north  of  Ireland,  chiefly  through 
the  agency  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
and  from  Ireland  it  spread  to  Scotland, 
where  its  power  was  extensively  felt  by 
the  long-neglected  population  of  the 
fishing  villages  in  the  east  and  north, 
and  in  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Aberdeen, 
Perth,  Dundee,  Paisley,  Dumfries,  and 
other  large  towns.  Wales  largely  par- 
ticipated in  this  revival;  the  increase 
to  the  membership  of  its  churches  in  one 
year,  from  June,  1859,  amounting  to 
100,000.  Various  parts  of  England  also 
shared  in  the  movement.  The  most 
extraordinary  revival  movement  of 
modern  times,  was  that  initiated  by  the 
two  American  “evangelists,”  D.  L. 
Moody  and  Ira  D.  Sankey,  whose  re- 
spective functions  it  has  been,  to  use 
their  own  words,  “to  preach  and  to  sing 
the  gospel.”  The  movement  commenced 
in  1873  in  England,  but  it  attained  no 
great  prominence  until  the  arrival  of 
the  two  evangelists  in  Edinburgh.  Their 
ministrations  in  that  city,  and  after- 
wards in  Glasgow,  Dundee,  and  other 
towns  in  Scotland,  and  also  in  England 
and  Ireland,  up  to  Au^st,  1875,  were 
attended  daily  by  multitudes  of  people, 
a remarkable  feature  of  these  assem- 
blies being  the  presence  in  great  numbers 
of  the  upper  ranks  of  society,  even  to 
members  of  the  peerage  and  royal 
family.  On  their  return  to  the  United 
States  they  headed  a similar  movement 
there;  and  they  paid  a second  and 
equally  successful  visit  to  Britain  in 
1883-84.  Reuben  Archer  Torrey,  cler- 
gyman and  evangelist,  became  associ- 
ated with  the  work  of  Moody,  and  has 
met  with  great  success.  In  1902-3  he 
visited  and  preached  in  England,  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
Tasmania,  China,  Japan  and  India;  re- 
turning to  Britain  in  1903-5,  holding 
meetings  in  principal  English  and 
Scotch  cities,  including  5 months  in 
Albert  Hall,  London.  He  preaches 
continually  and  in  1907  he  held  the 
most  extra  ordinary  andsuccessful  revival 
in  Chicago  in  a vast  steam  tent,  erected 
especially  for  the  purpose.  His  works 
have  been  translated  into  French,  Ger- 
man, Spanish,  Portuguese,  Chinese  (2 
languages),  Japanese,  Hindustani.  The 
Salvation  Army,  which  was  originated 
in  1865  and  organized  under  its  pres- 
ent name  in  1878,  and  the  Volunteers 
of  America,  organized  in  1896,  may  be 
regarded  as  permanent  revival  organi- 
zations. See  Salvation  Army.  Volun- 
teers of  America. 

REVOLUTION,  the  more  or  less  sud- 
den, and  it  may  be  violent,  overturning 
of  a government  or  political  s5’'stem, 
with  the  substitution  of  something  else 
The  term  “revolution”  is  applied  dis- 


tinctively in  English  history  to  the  con- 
vulsion by  which  James  II.  was  driven 
from  the  throne  in  1688;  and  in  French 
history  to  the  upheaval  of  1789.  Sub- 
sequent French  revolutions  are  those  of 
1830,  1848,  1851,  and  1870-71.  The 
American  war  of  independence  (1775-83) 
is  often  called  a revolution. 

REVOLVER,  a description  of  firearm 
in  which  a number  of  charges  contained 
in  a revolving  cylinder  are,  by  pulling 
the  trigger,  brought  successively  into 
position  and  fired  through  a single 
barrel.  For  the  introduction  of  the  re- 
volver in  its  present  form  we  are  in- 
debted to  Colonel  Samuel  Colt,  of  the 
United  States,  though  repeating  pistols 
had  long  been  known  in  other  countries. 
These  were  made  from  one  mass  of  metal 
bored  into  the  requisite  number  of 
barrels,  but  were  so  clumsy  as  to  be 
almost  quite  useless.  In  Colt’s  weapon 
there  is  a revolving  cylinder  containing 
six  chambers  placed  at  the  base  of  the 
barrel,  each  chamber  having  at  its  rear 
end  a nipple  for  a cap.  These  contain 
the  cartridges,  which  are  put  in  from  the 
front  of  the  breech-piece  and  driven 
home  by  a lever  ramrod  placed  in  a 
socket  beneath  the  barrel.  The  revolver 
is  fired  through  the  single  barrel,  the 
cylinder  being  turned  by  mechanism 
connected  with  the  lock,  until  each 
chamber  in  succession  is  brought  round 
so  as  to  form  virtually  a continuation  of 
the  barrel.  Various  modifications  of 
Colt’s  revolver  have  been  introduced, 
with  the  view  in  some  cases  of  increasing 
the  rapidity  and  facility  of  firing,  in 


others  of  diminishing  by  safeguards  th< 
risks  to  which  inexperienced  hands  must 
ever  be  exposed  in  the  use  of  these  weap- 
ons. In  the  Smith  and  Wesson  revolver 
one  of  the  most  recent  (adopted  by 
Austria  and  Russia),  facility  in  loading 
is  a feature,  the  cylinder  and  barrel  to- 
gether being  pivoted  to  the  front  of  the 
stock,  so  that  by  setting  the  hammer 
at  half-cock,  raising  a spring-catch,  and 
lowering  the  muzzle  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  is  turned  up  to  receive  fresh 
metallic  cartridges.  When  this  is  done 
the  muzzle  is  pressed  back  until  the 
snap-catch  fastens  it  to  the  back  plate, 
and  the  revolver  is  again  ready  to  be  , 
fired.  In  the  latest  form  of  this  revolvei  I 
the  spent  cartridges  are  thrown  out  of  ( 
the  cylinder  by  means  of  an  automatic* 
discharger.  As  a military  weapon  the 
revolver  will,  it  is  thought,  be  super- 
seded by  a repeating  pistol  with  mech- 
anism similar  to  that  of  magazine 
rifles.  The  revolver  principle  has  also 
been  applied  to  rifles,  and  to  guns  fof 


REWA  KANTHA 


RHINE 


throwing  small  projectiles,  as  in  the 
Gatling  and  other  machine  guns. 

REWA  KANTHA,  a political  agency 
of  India,  subordinate  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Bombay.  It  was  established  in 
1821-26,  and  has  under  its  control  61 
separate  states,  great  and  small,  on  the 
Nerbudda,  most  of  which  are  tributary 
to  the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda.  Area,  4980 
sq.  miles;  pop.  478,889. 

REYNOLDS,  Sir  Joshua,  English  por- 
trait-painter, was  born  at  Plympton, 
Devonshire,  16th  July,  1723.  Among  the 
more  notable  of  his  portraits  are  the 
Duchess  of  Hamilton  (1758),  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  (1759),  Miss  Palmer  (1770), 
Mrs.  Nesbitt  as  Circe  (1781),  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons  as  the  Tragic  Muse  (1784),  the 
Duchess  of  Devonshire  and  Child  (1786), 


/ 

Vt 


Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 


and  Miss  Gwatkin  as  Simplicity  (1788). 
In  1768,  on  the  foundation  of  the  Royal 
academy,  he  was  chosen  president,  and 
received  the  honor  of  knighthood; and 
in  17&4  he  was  appointed  principal 
portrait-painter  to  the  king.  As  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  academy  he  delivered 
his  celebrated  annual  Discourses  on 
Painting,  the  last  of  which  was  delivered 
in  1790.  He  died  unmarried  February 
23,  1792,  and  was  interred  in  St.  Paul’s 
C£ith0di'^l 

RHAMNA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  or 


Branch  of  common  buckthorn  with  fruit, 
o,  female  flower:  6,  male  flower;  c,  leaf,  show- 
ing the  nervation. 


shrubs, 
opposite 


with  simple,  alternate,  rarely 
leaves,  small  greenish-yellow 


flowers,  a valvate  calyx,  hooded  petals, 
opposite  to  which  their  stamens  are  in- 
serted, and  a fruit  which  is  either  dry 
or  fleshy.  This  order  contains  about 
250  known  species,  distributed  very 
generally  over  the  globe.  There  is  a re- 
markable agreement  throughout  the 
order  between  the  properties  of  the 
inner  bark  and  the  fruit,  especially  in 
several  species,  in  which  they  are  both 
purgative  and  emetic,  and  in  some  de- 
gree astringent.  Many  species,  however, 
bear  wholesome  fruit;  and  the  berries  of 
most  of  them  are  used  for  dyes.  The 
buck-thorn  and  jujube  belong  to  this 
order. 

RHEIMS,  or  REIMS  (remz),  a town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Marne,  in 
an  extensive  basin  surrounded  by  vine- 
clad  hills,  82  miles  e.n.e.  of  Paris.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
erected  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
one  of  the  finest  Gothic  structures  now 
existing  in  Europe;  the  archi-episcopal 
palace  (1498-1509),  occupied  by  the 
French  kings  on  the  occasion  of  their 
coronation;  the  church  of  St.  Remy 
(11th  and  12th  centuries),  the  oldest 
church  in  Rheims,  the  Porte  de  Mars,  a 
Roman  triumphal  arch  erected  in 
honor  of  Julius  CiEsar  and  Augustus; 
the  town-house,  of  the  17th  century; 
and  several  ancient  mansions,  particu- 
larly the  hotel  of  the  counts  of  Cham- 
pagne. The  staple  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  the  wine  known  as  cham- 
pagne, and  of  woolen  fabrics,  such  as 
flannels,  merinoes,  blankets,  etc.  Since 
the  Franco-German  war  it  has  been  sur- 
rounded with  detached  forts,  which 
render  it  a place  of  great  strength. 
Pop.  107,017. 

RHENISH  PRUSSIA,  the  most  west- 
erly province  of  Prussia,  touching  w.and 
n.  Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and  Holland; 
area,  10,420  sq.  miles;  greatest  length 
from  n.  tc  s.  about  200  miles,  greatest 
breadth  about  90.  Pop.  5,758,995,  the 
majority  of  whom  are  Roman  Catholics. 

RHENISH  WINES,  the  general  desig- 
nation for  the  wines  produced  in  the 
region  watered  by  the  Rhine,  and  spe- 
cifically for  those  of  the  Rheingau,  the 
white  wines  of  which  are  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  red  wines  are  not  so  much 
esteemed,  being  considered  inferior  to 
those  of  Bordeaux.  Good  wines  are  also 
produced  in  the  valleys  of  the  Neckar, 
Moselle,  and  other  tributaries  of  the 
Rhine.  The  vineyards  are  mainly  be- 
tween Mannheim  and  Bonn,  and  the 
most  valuable  brands  of  wines  are  those 
of  Johannisberg,  Steinberg,  Hochheim, 
Riidesheim,  Rauenthal,  Markobrunn, 
and  Assmannshausen,  the  last  being  a 
red  wine. 

RHE'OSTAT,  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring electrical  resistances,  invented 
by  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone.  The  rheo- 
stat is  very  convenient  for  measuring 
small  resistances;  but  for  practical  pur- 
poses, such  as  measuring  the  resistance 
of  telegraph  cables,  Wheatstone’s  bridge 
(an  apparatus  of  which  there  are  several 
forms)  is  always  used. 

RHESUS  MONKEY,  a name  for  two 
species  of  monkeys,  the  bruh  or  pig- 
tailed monkey  which  inhabits  the  Malay 
peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  and  is  often  domesticated; 
and  a species  of  monkey  held  sacred  in 


India,  where  they  swarm  in  large  num« 
bers  about  the  temples. 

RHET'ORIC,  in  its  widest  sense,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  theory  of  eloquence, 
whether  spoken  or  written,  and  treats 
of  the  general  rules  of  prose  style,  in 
view  of  the  end  to  be  served  by  the  com- 
position. In  a narrower  sense  rhetoric 
is  the  art  of  persuasive  speaking,  or  the 
art  of  the  orator,  which  teaches  the 
composition  and  delivery  of  discourses 
intended  to  move  the  feelings  or  sway 
the  will  of  others.  In  the  wider  sense 
rhetoric  treats  of  prose  composition  in 
general,  purity  of  style,  structure  ol 
sentences,  figures  of  speech,  etc.;  in 
short,  of  whatever  relates  to  clearness, 
preciseness,  elegance,  and  strength  of 
expression.  In  the  narrower  sense  it 
treats  of  the  invention  and  disposition 
of  the  matter,  the  character  of  the  style, 
the  delivery  or  pronunciation,  etc. 
Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Quintilian  are  the 
principal  writers  on  rhetoric  among  the 
ancients;  and  among  the  English,  Camp- 
hell.  Blair,  Whately,  Spalding,  and  Bain. 

RHEUMATISM,  an  ailment  or  set  of 
ailments  attended  with  sharp  pains, 
partly  neuralgic  in  character,  and  partly 
owing  perhaps  to  infection  with  certain 
disease  germs.  Some  varieties  of  it  have 
so  much  resemblance  to  the  gout  that 
some  physicians  have  considered  it  as 
not  an  entirely  distinct  disease.  Rheu- 
matism is  distinguished  into  acute  and 
chronic.  The  former  is  characterized  by 
fever  more  or  less  severe,  pains  in  the 
joints,  which  are  swollen,  red,  and  ten- 
der, and  sweating.  The  inflammation 
flits  from  one  joint  to  another,  one  joint 
getting  well  when  another  is  attacked; 
and  the  pain  may  be  very  severe.  The 
entire  duration  of  an  attack,  if  not 
treated,  may  be  from  two  to  six  or  ten 
weeks,  and  disease  of  the  heart  may  be 
a consequence  of  this  disease.  Chronic 
rheumatism  is  distinguished  by  pain 
and  stiffness,  either  stationary  or  shift- 
ing, in  the  joints,  without  fever.  It  is 
aggravated  by  damp  weather,  and 
usually  is  never  absolutely  got  rid  of. 
Acute  rheumatism  mostly  terminates 
in  one  of  these  species.  Rheumatism 
may  arise  at  all  times  of  the  year,  when 
there  are  frequent  vicissitudes  of  the 
weather  from  heat  to  cold,  but  the  spring 
and  autumn  are  the  seasons  in  which  it  is 
most  prevalent;  and  it  attacks  persons 
of  all  ages,  but  very  young  people  are 
less  subject  to  it  than  adults.  Obstructed 
perspiration,  occasioned  either  by  wear- 
ing wet  clothes,  lying  in  damp  sheets  or 
damp  rooms,  or  by  being  exposed  to  cool 
air  when  the  body  has  been  much 
heated  by  exercise,  is  the  cause  which 
usually  produces  rheumatism. 

RHiNE,  the  finest  river  of  Germany, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  rivers  of 
Europe,  its  direct  course  being  460 
miles  and  its  indirect  course  800  miles 
(about  250  miles  of  its  course  being  in 
Switzerland,  450  in  Germany,  and  100 
in  Holland) ; while  the  area  of  its  basin  is 
75,000  sq.  miles.  The  chief  towns  on 
its  banks  are  Constance  and  B51e  in 
Switzerland;  Spires,  Mannheim,  Mainz, 
Coblentz,  Bonn,  Cologne,  and  Diissel- 
dorf,  with  Worms  and  Strasburg  not  far 
distant,  in  Germany;  Arnheim,  Utrecht, 
and  Leyden,  in  Holland.  Its  breadth  at 
BMe  is  750  feet;  between  Strasburg  and 


HHTNOCEROS 


RHODES 


Spires  from  1000  to  1200  fee^  at  Mainz 
1500  to  1700  feet;  and  at  Emmerich, 
where  it  enters  the  Netherlands,  2150 
feet.  Its  depth  varies  from  5 to  28  feet, 
and  at  Dtlsseldorf  amounts  even  to  50 
feet.  It  is  navigable  without  interrup- 
tion from  BMe  to  its  mouth,  a distance 
of  550  miles,  and  much  timber  in  rafts, 
coal,  iron,  and  agricultural  produce  are 
conveyed  by  it. 

RHINOCEROS,  a genus  of  hoofed 
mammals,  belonging  to  the  perisso- 
dactylate  or  odd-toed  division,  allied  to 
the  elephant,  hippopotamus,  tapir,  etc. 
They  are  large  ungainly  animals,  having 
short  legs,  and  a very  thick  skin,  which  is 
usually  thrown  into  deep  folds.  There 
are  seven  molars  on  each  side  of  each 
jaw;  there  are  no  canines,  but  there  are 
usually  incisor  teeth  in  both  jaws.  The 
feet  are  furnished  with  three  toes  each, 
encasedin  hoofs.  The  nasal  bonesusually 
support  one  or  two  horns,  which  are  of 
the  nature  of  epidemic  growths,  some- 
what analogous  to  hairs.  When  two 
horns  are  present  the  one  is  placed  be- 
hind the  other  and  is  generally  shorter 
than  it.  These  animals  live  in  marshy 
places,  and  subsist  chiefly  on  grasses  and 
foliage.  They  are  exclusively  confined 
to  the  wamer  parts  of  the  eastern  hemi- 
sphere. The  most  familiar  species  is  the 
one-horned  or  Indian  rhinoceros,  which, 
like  all  the  Asiatic  species,  has  the  skin 
thrown  into  very  definite  folds,  cor- 
responding to  the  regions  of  the  body. 
The  horn  is  black,  and  usually  very 
thick.  The  upper  lip  is  very  large,  and 
is  employed  by  the  animal  somewhat  as 
the  elephant  uses  his  trunk.  Though 


Indian  rhinoceros. 


possessed  of  great  strength  it  is  quiet 
and  inoffensive  unless  provoked.  The 
Javanese  rhinoceros  is  distinguished 
from  the  Indian  chiefly  by  its  smaller 
size.  It  has  been  trained  to  bear  a saddle 
and  to  be  driven.  It  occurs  in  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  The  Sumatran 
species  is  found  in  Sumatra  and  the 
Malay  peninsula.  It  has  two  horns,  the 
first  being  the  longer  and  sharper.  The 
typical  African  rhinoceros  is  found  in 
Southern  Africa  generally.  Like  other 
African  species  it  possesses  no  skin- 
folds.  The  horns  are  of  very  character- 
istic confomation,  the  front  horn  being 
broad  and  raised  as  on  a base,  sharp- 
pointed,  and  curved  slightly  backward, 
while  the  hinder  horn  is  short  and  coni- 
cal. This  animal  appears  to  be  of  fero- 
cious disposition,  is  quick  and  active, 
and  greatly  feared  by  the  natives.  Other 
allied  African  species  are  the  Keitloa 
or  Sloan’s  rhinoceros,  the  common  white 
rhinoceros,  and  the  long-horned  white 
rhinoceros.  Fossil  species  are  numerous 
and  range  from  the  Miocene  tertiary 


through  th«  Pliocene  and  Post-pliocene 
deposits.  The  “woolly  rhinoceros,’’ 
fomerly  inhabited  England  and  ranged 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 

RHINOCEROS-BIRD,  or  RHINOC- 
EROS-HORNBILL.  See  Hornbill. 

RHIO,  or  RIOUW,  a seaport  belong- 
ing to  the  Dutch,  in  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago, on  an  islet  50  miles  southeast  of 
Singapore.  It  is  the  capital  of  a Dutch 
residency,  comprising  the  islands  of  the 
Rhio  archipelago  and  other  groups  as 
well  as  districts  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sumatra.  The  population  of  the  resi- 
dency is  estimated  at  90,000.  The  Rhio 
archipelago  is  a group  of  small  islands 
lying  chiefly  south  and  east  of  Singapore. 
Chief  island  Bintang. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  original 
thirteen  States  of  North  America,  be- 
tween Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and 
the  Atlanticfj  area,  1250  sq'.  miles. 
Rhode  Island  is  the  smallest  in  area  of 
the  states  of  the  Union.  The  surface, 
which  in  the  north  is  hilly  and  rugged, 
but  elsewhere  generally  level,  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  Narragansett  bay,  a 
fine  body  of  water  about  30  miles  long 
by  15  miles  broad,  and  containing 
several  islands,  and  among  others  the 
one  which  gives  the  state  Jts  name. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Pawtucket, 
the  Pawtuxet,  and  the  Pawcatuck.  The 
climate  is  mild  and  equable,  and  well 
adapted,  from  its  pleasant  summers  and 
temperate  winters,  for  invalids  from 
the  south.  Corn,  oats,  hay  and  forage 
are  the  most  important  crops.  Potatoes, 
sweet  corn,  and  other  vegetables  are 
grown  for  the  local  market.  The 
minerals  include  coal,  iron  ore,  and 
limestone;  sandstone,  marble,  and  ser- 
pentine are  sufficiently  common.  The 
soil  is  only  of  indifferent  fertility.  Manu- 
factures form  the  staple  industry;  they 
consist  of  cotton,  woolen,  worsted,  and 
mixed  textiles,  jewelry,  and  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products.  The  higher 
education  is  provided  for  by  Brown 
university  at  Providence.  A compulsory 
education  law  is  now  in  force  for  chil- 
dren from  7 to  14  for  twelve  weeks  in 
the  year  only.  The  chief  cities  are 
Providence,  Pawtucket,  and  Newport. 
Providence  and  Newport  both  rank  as 
state  capitals.  Rhode  Island  is  one  of 


the  six  New  England  states,  and  one 
of  the  original  thirteen  which  formed 
the  Union.  The  Northmen  are  sup- 
posed to  have  visited  Rhode  Island  in 


the  tenth  century,  and  the  “Old  Stonti 
Mill’’  at  Newport  has  been  claimed  as 
their  work.  Rhode  Island  was  first 
settled  when  Roger  Williams  was  ban- 
ished from  Massachusetts  bay,  and 
settled  with  a few  companions  at 
“Providence  Plantations,’’  on  land 
purehasedfromthe  Narragansett  Indians 
probably  in  June,  1636.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  parlia- 
ment granted  (1644)  a charter  uniting 
the  settlements  as  the  “Incorporation 
of  Providence  Plantations  in  the  Nar- 
ragansett bay  in  New  England.’’ 

The  union  effected  by  this  instru- 
ment was  of  the  very  loosest  descrip- 
tion, but  under  the  pressure  of  causes 
which  threatened  the  very  existence  of 
the  colony  a new  and  much  more  com- 
prehensive charter  was  obtained  in 
1663.  This  extraordinarily  liberal  in- 
strument constituted  the  fundamental 
law  of  Rhode  Island  for  the  next  180 
years,  through  a succession  of  vicissi- 
tudes. Massachusetts  and  other  Amer- 
ican colonies  were  withdrawn  in  1686, 
but  the  efforts  of  the  royal  agent  were 
frustrated  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island;  and  in  this  colony  the  govern- 
ment was  simply  committed  tempora- 
rily to  the  separate  towns  which  had 
constituted  tne  colony,  the  charter 
government  being  peacefully  resumed 
three  years  later,  in  1689.  Rhode 
Island  was  hardly  free,  during  the  next 
seventy  years,  from  some  form  of  con- 
flict with  the  mother  country  over  the 
question  of  charter  rights ; and  in  the 
steps  which  served  to  precipitate  the 
War  of  Independence  (1775-83)  as  well 
as  in  the  war  itself,  it  was  among  the 
foremost.  During  the  revolution 
Newport  was  held  (1776-79)  by  British 
troops,  and  in  1780  the  French  fleet 
was  stationed  there.  The  famous  soldier 
of  Rhode  Island  was  General  Nathanael 
Greene,  who  ranks  easily  second  to 
Washington  in  generalship. 

The  state  refused  to  send  delegates  to 
the  convention  which  drew  up  the 
federal  constitution,  and  it  was  not 
until  threats  of  coercion  had  been  made 
that  the  instrument  was  ratified.  May 
29,  1790.  A new  state  constitution  was 
adopted  as  a result  in  1842,  which  has 
been  frequently  amended  since.  The 
property  qualification  for  suffrage  was 
not  abolished  until  1888,  and  election  by 
a plurality  has  been  allowed  since  1893. 
Until  1900the  legislaturemetin  Newport 
in  April  to  canvass  the  vote  and  ad- 
journed to  Providence  in  January  to 
transact  business.  Now  all  sessions  aro 
held  in  Providence.  Since  1856  the 
state  has  been  republican  in  national 
elections.  Pop.  614,000. 

RHODES  (rodz),  a Turkish  island  in 
the  ./Egean  sea,  off  the  southwest  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  separated  from  it  by  a 
channel  10  miles  broad;  area,  560  sq. 
miles.  It  is  traversed  by  a mountain 
range,  the  highest  point  of  which  is 
4786  feet.  Pop.  30,000,  of  whom  20,000 
are  Greeks,  7000  Turks,  and  1500  Jews 
— Rhodes,  the  capital,  stands  at  the 
northeastern  extremity  of  the  island, 
rising  from  the  sea  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheater,  with  fortifications  mainly 
the  work  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 
The  celebrated  Colossus  of  Rhodes  stood 
* for  fifty-six  years,  and  was  prostrated 


RHODES 


RIB 


by  an  earthquake  224  b.c.  Pop.  about 

11,000. 

RHODES,  Cecil,  born  in  England  in 
1853,  went  out  to  South  Africa  early  in 
life,  and  becoming  connected  with  the 
Kimberley  diamond  mines  accumulated 
a large  fortune.  Having  entered  the 
Cape  parliament,  he  became  colonial 
prime-minister  in  1890,  and  held  this 
position  till  1896,  when  his  alleged  con- 
nection with  the  Jameson  raid  caused 
him  to  resign.  He  was  the  leading  spirit 
in  the  British  South  Africa  company, 
and  it  was  mainly  by  his  influence  that 
Rhodesia  became  British.  He  was  made 
a privy  councillor  in  1895.  He  died  in 
1902. 

RHODES  SCHOLARSHIPS,  The,  un- 
der the  will  of  Cecil  John  Rhodes,  who 
died  in  1902,  a large  part  of  his  estate 
was  bequeathed  in  trust  for  the  purpose 
of  maintaining  a number  of  British, 
American,  and  German  students  at 
Oxford  university,  in  the  belief  that 
"a  good  understanding  between  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  the  United  States 
will  secure  the  peace  of  the  world,  and 
that  educational  relations  form  the 
strongest  tie.”  The  founder  suggested 
the  following  basis  for  awarding  these 
scholarships;  (1)  Proficiency  in  literary 
and  scholastic  attainments,  which  was 
to  count  three-tenths;  (2)  success  in 
outdoor  sports,  two-tenths;  (3)  qualities 
of  manhood,  etc.,  three-tenths;  (4) 
qualities  of  leadership,  two-tenths. 
Qualifications  second  and  third  were 
to  be  decided  upon  by  a vote  of  the 
fellow  students,  first  and  fourth  by  the 
masters  of  the  respective  schools  where 
candidates  prepare.  The  number  of 
scholarships  to  be  thus  distributed  are 
as  follows;  Rhodesia,  9;  Cape  Colony, 
12;  Natal,  3;  Australia,  18;  New  Zea- 
land, 3;  Canada,  6;  Newfoundland,  3; 
Bermuda,  3;  Jamaica,  3;  two  to  each 
state  and  territory  of  the  United  States 
and  15  to  Germany.  The  annual  value 
of  the  colonial  and  American  scholar- 
ships is  $1,500,  tenable  for  three  years. 
Only  one-third  of  the  colonial  and  one- 
half  of  the  American  scholarships  are  to 
be  filled  each  year.  The  disposal  of  the 
German  scholarships  is  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  emperor.  Candidates  must  be 
from  20  to  25  years  of  age  and  must  have 
attended  two  years  at  a recognized  in- 
stitution of  higher  learning.  Scholars 
must  be  umnarried  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

RHODE'SIA,  a vast  British  territory 
in  South  Africa,  stretching  northward 
from  the  Transvaal  across  the  Zambesi 
to  the  Congo  Free  State,  and  comprising 
Mashonaland,  Matabeleland,etc.  South- 
ern Rhodesia  is  being. rapidly  developed. 
Chief  towns,  Bulawayo  and  Salisbury. 

RHO'DIUM,  a metal  belonging  to  the 
platinum  group,  discovered  by  Wollas- 
ton in  1804.  It  is  of  grayish-white  color 
very  ductile  and  malleable,  hard  and 
very  infusible,  unaltered  in  the  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  but  oxidizes  at 
a red  heat.  It  has  been  used  for  the 
points  of  metallic  pens. 

RHODODEN'DRON,  a genus  of  ever- 
green shrubs  with  alternate,  entire 
leaves,  and  ornamental  flowers  disposed 
in  corymbs,  belonging  to  a sub-order  of 
the  heaths  and  chiefly  inhabiting  the 
mountainous  regions  in  Europe,  North 


and  South  America,  and  Asia.  The 
varieties  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
much  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  colors 


Rhododendron. 


of  the  flowers  range  through  rose,  pink, 
lilac,  scarlet,  purple,  red,  and  white. 

RHONDDA,  an  urban  district  in 
Glamorganshire,  South  Wales,  in  the 
valley  of  a river  of  same  name,  which 
also  gives  name  to  a pari.  div.  Pop.  of 
urban  dist.,  113,735;  of  div.  88,968. 

RHONE  (ron),  a river  which  rises  in 
Switzerland,  in  the  east  of  canton  Valais, 
taking  its  origin  in  the  Rhone  Glacier, 
5581  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  passes 
through  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and  enters 
France,  flowing  first  southward  and 
then  westward  to  the  city  of  Lyons, 
where  it  turns  almost  due  south,  and  so 
continues  till  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Lyons.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the 
Saone,  which  enters  it  at  the  city  of 
Lyons;  other  large  tributaries  are  the 
Is^re  and  Durance.  Its  whole  course  is 
about  500  miles;  its  drainage  area  is 
38,000  miles;  and  it  is  navigable  for  360 
miles. 

RHONE,  a department  in  France,  in 
the  basin  of  the  Rhone,  to  which  it  sends 
its  waters  by  the  Saone  (with  the 
Azergues)  and  the  Gier;  area,  1077  sq. 
miles.  The  city  of  Lyons  is  the  capital 
Pop.  806,737. 

RHUBARB,  a genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Polygonaceaai. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  large- 
leaved  herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  a 


Spiral  vessels  of  rhubarb,  with  cell  tissue 
on  each  side— highly  magnified. 

considerable  portion  of  Central  Asia, 
with  strong  branching,  almost  fleshy 
roots  and  erect  branching  stems  6 to  8 
feet  high.  They  usually  possess  more 
or  less  purgative  and  astringent  proper- 
ties; this  18  essentially  the  case  with 


their  roots,  and  hence  these  are  largely 
used  in  medicine.  The  principal  kinds 
of  medicinal  rhubarb  have  received  such 
names  as  Russian  or  Turkey,  East  In- 
dian, Himalayan,  Chinese,  and  English, 
according  to  their  source  or  the  route  by 
which  they  have  reached  Europe.  At 
present  most  of  the  Asiatic  rhubarb 
comes  from  China.  American  rhubarb 
has  long  been  eultivated  for  medical  pur- 
poses. The  leaf-stalks  of  this  speeies 
and  others  are  now  largely  used  for  tarts, 
puddings,  jam,  etc.,  and  the  juice  is 
made  into  a kind  of  wne. 

RHYME,  more  correctly  Rime  (A. 
Saxon,  rim,  number),  in  poetry,  a cor- 
respondence in  sound  of  the  terminating 
word  or  syllable  of  one  line  of  poetry 
with  the  terminating  word  or  syllable 
of  another. 

RHYTHM,  in  general,  means  a meas- 
ured succession  of  divisions  or  intervals 
in  written  composition,  music,  or  danc- 
ing. The  rhythm  of  poetry  is  the  regular 
succession  of  accent,  emphasis,  or  voice- 
stress;  or  a certain  succession  of  long 
and  short  (heavy  and  light)  syllables  in 
a verse.  Prose  also  has  its  rhythm,  and 
the  only  difference  (so  far  as  sound  is 
concerned)  between  verse  and  prose  is, 
that  the  former  consists  of  a regular 
succession  of  similar  cadences,  or  of  a 


Medicinal  rhubarb. 

limited  variety  of  cadences,  divided  by 
grammatical  pauses  and  emphases  into 
proportional  clauses,  so  as  to  present 
sensible  responses  to  the  ear  at  regular 
proportioned  distances.  In  music, 
rhythm  is  the  disposition  of  the  notes  of 
a composition  in  respect  of  time  and 
measure;  the  measured  beat  which 
marks  the  character  and  expression  of 
the  music. 

RIAZAN,  or  RYAZAN  (rya-zhn'),  a 
government  of  Central  Russia.  The 
government  has  an  area  of  16,254  sq. 
miles,  and  is  wholly  drained  by  the 
Oka  and  its  tributaries.  The  surface 
on  the  right  of  the  Oka  is  largely 
swampy  and  has  extensive  forests;  on 
the  left  it  is  generally  fertile.  Cereals 
of  all  kinds  are  produced  for  export. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton, 
linen,  leather,  and  spirits.  Pop.  1,783,- 
958. 

RIB,  the  name  given  to  the  curved 
bones  which  in  man  and  the  other  verte- 
brates spring  from  either  side  of  the 
spine  or  vertebral  column,  and  which 


RIBBON-FISHES 


J 


RICHARD  III 


may  ormay  not  be  joined  to  a sternum  or 
breast-bone  in  front.  The  ribs  ordi- 
narily agree  in  number  with  the  verte- 
brate of  the  back  or  dorsal  region.  Thus 
in  man  twelve  dorsal  vertebrae  and 
twelve  pairs  of  ribs  exist.  The  true  or 
sternal  ribs  are  the  first  seven,  which 
are  articulated  at  one  extremity  to  the 
spine,  and  at  the  other  to  the  sternum 
by  means  of  cartilages.  The  false  or 
short  ribs  are  the  remaining  five;  the 
uppermost  three  being  united  by  their 
cartilages  to  the  cartilage  of  the  last 
true  rib.  The  others  are  free  at  their 
sternal  extremity,  and  hence  have  been 
called  “floating  ribs.”  Ribs  are  wanting 
in  such  lower  fishes  as  lampreys,  lance- 
lets,  etc.,  and  in  amphibians  such  as 
frogs  and  toads.  The  number  of  these 
bones  may  be  very  great  in  certain 
species,  and  they  are  occasionally  de- 
veloped in  the  cervical  and  pelvic 
regions  in  reptiles  and  birds  respectively. 

RIBBON-FISHES,  the  name  of  cer- 
tain deep-sea  fishes  met  with  in  all  parts 
of  the  ocean,  generally  found  floating 
dead  on  the  surface,  or  thrown  ashore 
by  the  waves.  The  body  is  like  a band 
from  15  to  20  feet  long,  10  to  12  inches 
broad,  and  an  inch  or  two  thick.  These 
fishes  are  generally  silvery  in  color. 
They  live  at  such  a depth  that  when 
they  reach  the  surface  the  expansion  of 
gases  in  the  body  so  loosens  all  parts  of 
the  muscular  and  bony  system  - that 
some  portions  are  nearly  always  broken 
on  lifting  them  out  of  the  water.  The 
fin  rays  in  young  ribbon-fishes  are  ex- 
traordinarily developed,  some  of  them 
being  several  times  longer  than  the 
body. 

RICAR'DO,  David,  a celebrated  writer 
on  finance  and  political  economy,  was 
born  in  London,  in  1772,  died  1823. 
In  1793  he  embraced  Christianity  and 
married  a Christian  wife.  He  then  began 
business  as  a stockbroker  on  his  own 
account,  and  in  a short  time  realized  an 
immense  fortune.  His  first  publication 
was  on  the  subject  of  the  depreciation 
of  the  national  currency  (1810).  He 
then  published  an  Essay  on  Rent,  and 
his  name  is  usually  associated  with  a 
certain  distinctive  view  on  this  subject. 
But  his  most  important  work  is  his 
Treatise  on  Political  Economyand  Taxa- 
tion, which  appeared  in  1817.  In  1819 
he  entered  parliament  as  member  for 
Portarlington.  In  1822  he  published  a 
pamphlet  on  Protection  to  Agriculture. 
Though  his  mode  of  treatment  is  totally 
different,  he  belongs  essentially  to  the 
school  of  Adam  Smith. 

RICCIO.  See  Rizzio. 

RICE,  a cereal  plant,  natural  order 
Graminacese  or  Grasses.  This  important 
food-plant  was  long  known  in  the  East 
before  it  was  introduced  into  Egypt  and 
Greece.  It  is  now  cultivated  exten- 
sively in  the  low  grounds  of  the  tropical 
and  sub-tropical  parts  of  south-eastern 
Asia,  Egypt,  Japan,  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  several  districts  of  south- 
ern Europe.  The  culm  of  the  rice  is  from 
1 to  6 feet  high,  annual,  erect,  simple, 
round,  and  jointed;  the  leaves  are  large, 
firm,  and  pointed,  arising  from  very 
long,  cylindrical,  and  finely  striated 
sheaths;  the  flowers  are  disposed  in  a 
panicle  somewhat  resembling  that  of 
the  oat;  the  seeds  are  white  and  oblong, 


but  vary  in  size  and  form  in  the  numer- 
ous varieties.  In  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant  a high  summer  temperature  is 
required,  combined  with  abundance  of 
water.  Thus  the  sea-board  areas  and 
river  deltas  which  are  subject  to  inunda- 
tion give  the  best  conditions,  otherwise 
irrigation  is  necessary.  The  amount  of 
water  required  by  the  plant  depends 
upon  its  strength  and  stage  of  growth. 
In  Egypt  it  is  sown  while  the  waters  of 
the  Nile  cover  the  land,  and  the  rice 
plant  grows  luxuriant  in  the  rich  allu- 
vial deposit  left  by  the  receding  flood. 
The  Chinese  obtain  two  crops  a year 
from  the  same  ground,  and  cultivate  it 
annually  on  the  same  soil,  and  without 
any  other  manure  than  the  mud  de- 
posited by  the  water  of  the  fiver  used  in 
overflowing  it.  The  young  plants  are 
transplanted  into  ploughed  furrows, 
and  water  is  brought  over  them  and 
kept  on  until  the  plants  begin  to  ripen. 
The  first  crop  is  cut  in  May,  and  a second 
is  immediately  prepared  for  by  burning 
the  stubble,  and  this  second  crop  ripens 
in  October  or  November.  In  India  two 
harvests  are  obtained  in  the  year,  espe- 
cially in  Bengal,  and  frequently  two 


Rice. 


crops  are  taken  from  the  same  field. 
In  Japan,  Ceylon,  and  Java  rice  is  cul- 
tivated much  in  the  same  manner. 
Mountain  rice  is  a hardy  variety  which 
thrives  on  dry  soil;  and  in  India  it  is 
cultivated  at  an  altitude  of  8000  feet. 
Rice  can  be  profitably  cultivated  only 
fin  warm  countries,  but  has  for  some 
time  past  been  grown  in  South  Germany 
and  Italy.  In  the  United  States  it  is 
grown  chiefly  in  the  swampy  districts  of 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Louisiana. 
In  the  husk  rice  is  known  by  the  name 
of  “paddy.”  Rice  is  more  largely  con- 
sumed by  the  inhabitants  of  the  world 
than  any  other  grain ; but  it  contains  less 
flesh-forming  matter  (nitrogenous),  this 
essential  element  being,  in  100  parts  of 
rice,  only  6.5.  At  one  period  Europe  was 
supplied  from  America,  but  this  source 
has  almost  been  entirely  superseded  by 
Lower  Burmah,  India,  Siam,  Japan,  and 
Cochin-China.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
East  obtain  from  rice  a vinous  liquor 
more  intoxicating  than  wine;  and  arack 
is  also  made  from  it.  See  Arack. 

RICE-BUNTING,  a name  given  to  two 
distinct  birds.  The  first,  also  known  by 
the  name  “bob-o’-link,”  a bird  of  the 
bunting  family,  which  migrates  over 
North  America  from  Labrador  to 
Mexico,  appearing  in  Massachusetts 
about  the  beginning  of  May.  Their  food 
is  insects,  worms,  and  seeds,  including 
rice  in  South  Carolina.  The  song  of  the 


male  is  singular  and  pleasant.  When  fat 
their  flesh  becomes  little  inferior  in  flavor 
to  that  of  the  European  ortolan.  The 
other  species,  known  as  the  rice-bunting, 
also  known  as  the  Java  sparrow  and 


paddy  bird.  It  belongs  to  the  true 
finches,  a group  nearly  allied  to  the 
buntings.  It  possesses  a largely-de- 
veloped bill ; the  head  and  tail  are  black, 
the  belly  rosy,  the  cheeks  of  the  male 
white,  and  the  legs  flesh-colored.  It  is 
dreaded  in  Southern  Asia  on  account  of 
the  ravages  it  commits  in  the  rice-fields. 

RICE-PAPER,  a substance  prepared 
from  thin,  uniform  slices  of  the  snow- 
white  pith  of  a plant  which  grows  in 
Formosa.  Rice-paper  is  prepared  in 
China,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  artificial  flowers  and  by  native  artists 
for  water-color  drawings. 

RICHARD  I.,  King  of  England,  sur- 
named  Cceur  de  Lion,  second  son  of 
Henry  II.  by  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  was 
born  at  Oxford  in  1157.  He  several 
times  rebelled  against  his  father,  and  in 
1189,  supported  by  the  King  of  France, 
he  defeated  the  forces  of  Henry,  who 
was  compelled  to  acknowledge  Richard 
as  his  heir.  On  Henry’s  death  at  Chinon, 
Richard  sailed  to  England  and  was 
crowned  at  Westminster  (September, 
1189).  The  principal  events  of  his  reign 
are  connected  with  the  third  crusade,  in 
which  he  took  part  uniting  his  forces 
with  those  of  Philip  of  France.  In  the 
course  of  this  crusade  he  married  the 
Princess  Berengaria  of  Navarre  in 
Cyprus.  Richard  left  Palestine  in  1192 
and  sailed  for  the  Adriatic,  but  was 
wrecked  near  Aquileia.  On  his  way 
home  through  Germany  he  was  seized 
by  the  Duke  of  Austria,  whom  he  had 
offended  in  Palestine,  and  was  given  up 
a prisoner  to  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. 
During  his  captivity  his  brother  John 
headed  an  insurrection  in  England  in 
concert  with  the  King  of  France,  but 
Richard,  Avho  was  ransomed,  returned 
to  England  in  1194,  and  the  movement 
came  to  nothing.  Richard  then  passed 
over  to  Normandy,  and  spent  the  rest 
of  his  life  there  in  warfare  of  no  decisive 
character.  He  died  in  April,  1199,  of  a 
wound  received  while  besieging  the 
castle  of  Chains.  Richard  was  thoroughly 
neglectful  of  his  duties  as  a king,  and 
owes  his  fame  chiefly  to  his  personal 
bravery. 

RICHARD  II.,  King  of  England,  son  of 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  and  grandson 
of  Edward  III.,  was  born  at  Bordeaux 
in  1366.  He  succeeded  the  latter  in  1377. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  murdered 
in  1 400. 

RICHARD  III.,  King  of  England,  the 
last  of  the  Plantagcnet  kings,  born  at 
Fotheringhay  castle  in  1450,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Richard,  duke  of  York, 


RICHARD 


RICHTER 


who  was  killed  at  Wakefield.  On  the 
accession  of  his  brother  Edward  IV.  he 
was  created  Duke  of  Gloucester,  and 
during  the  early  part  of  Edward’s  reign 
served  him  with  great  courage  and 
fidelity.  He  married  in  1473  Anne 
Neville,  joint-heiress  of  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, whose  other  daughter  was  united 
to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  quarrels 
rose  between  the  two  brothers  over 
their  wives’  inheritance.  On  the  death 
of  Edward  in  1483,  the  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester was  appointed  protector  of  the 
kingdom;  and  he  immediately  caused 
his  nephew,  the  young  Edward  V.,  to  be 
declared  king,  and  took  an  oath  of 
fealty  to  him.  But  Richard  soon  began 
to  pursue  his  own  ambitious  schemes. 
Earl  Rivers,  the  queen’s  brother,  and 
Sir  R.  Grey,  a son  by  her  first  husband, 
were  arrested  and  beheaded  at  Pomfret, 
and  Lord  Hastings,  who  adhered  to  his 
young  sovereign,  was  executed  without 
trial  in  the  Tower.  It  was  now  asserted 
that  the  king  and  his  brother  were 
illegitimate,  and  that  Richard  had  a 
legal  title  to  the  crown.  The  Duke  of 
Buckingham  supported  Richard,  and  a 
body  of  peers  and  citizens  having  offered 
him  the  crown  in  the  name  of  the  nation 
he  accepted  it,  and  on  July  8,  1483,  was 
crowned  at  Westminster.  The  deposed 
king  and  his  brother  were,  according  to 
general  belief,  smothered  in  the  Tower 
of  London  by  order  of  their  uncle. 
Ricliard  governed  with  vigor  and  ability, 
but  was  not  generally  popular,  and  in 
1485  Henry,  earl  of  Richmond,  head  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster,  landed  with  a 
small  army  at  Milford  Haven.  Richard 
met  him  on  August  23d  with  an  army 
of  15,000  men  at  Bosworth,  in  Leicester- 
shire. Richmond  had  only  6000  men, 
but  relied  on  the  secret  assurances  of 
aid  from  Stanley,  who  commanded  a 
separate  royal  force  of  7000.  In  the 
midst  of  the  battle,  Stanley,  by  falling 
on  the  flank  of  the  royal  army,  secured 
the  victory  to  Riclimond.  Richard 
during  the  battle  was  slain;  he  pos- 
sessed courage  as  well  as  capacity; 
but  his  conduct  showed  cruelty,  dis- 
simulation, treachery,  and  ambition. 
He  has  been  represented  as  of  small 
stature,  deformed,  and  of  a forbidding 
aspect;  but  his  personal  defects  have 
probably  been  magnified. 

RICHARD,  Earl  of  Cornwall  and 
Emperor  of  Germany  between  1256  and 
1272,  during  the  so-called  interregnum, 
a son  of  King  John  of  England,  was 
born  in  1209.  In  1268  he  again  visited 
Germany  and  held  a diet  at  Worms  in 
the  following  year.  He  died  in  England 
2d  April,  1272. 

RICHARDSON,  Charles,  LL.D.,  born 
in  1775,  died  1865.  In  1818  he  under- 
took the  lexicographical  articles  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana,  and  after- 
ward published  his  great  work,  a New 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language 
(2vols.  1835-37).  He  also  wrote  a work 
on  the  Study  of  Languages  (1854),  and 
contributed  frequently  to  the  Gentle- 
man’s and  other  magazines. 

RICHARDSON,  Sir  John,  naturalist 
and  arctic  traveler,  born  at  Dumfries 
1787,  died  near  Grasmere  1865.  After 
studying  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  he  entered  the  royal  navy, 
in  1807,  as  assistant-surgeon.  He  served 


on  various  stations  till  1819,  and  was 
surgeon  and  naturalist  to  the  arctic 
expeditions  of  1819-22  and  1825-27, 
under  Sir  John  Franklin,  exploring  on 
the  latter  occasion  the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  ocean  between  the  Mackenzie 
and  Coppermine  rivers.  In  March,  1848, 
he  took  charge  of  an  expedition  to  search 
for  Franklin,  and  on  his  return  published 
The  Arctic  Searching  Expedition  (1851) 
and  The  Polar  Regions  (1861). 

RICHARDSON,  Samuel,  English  nov- 
elist, was  born  in  1689  in  Derby- 
shire, and  received  only  a common 
school  education.  In  1741  liis  Pamela, 
or  Virtue  Rewarded,  was  published  and 
its  popularity  was  so  great  that  it  ran 
through  five  editions  in  one  year.  In 
1749  the  appearance  of  Clarissa  Har- 
lowe,  fully  established  his  literary  re- 
putation. The  History  of  Sir  Charles 
Grandison  appeared  in  1753,  and  was 
also  received  with  great  applause.  He 
died  in  1761,  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  St.  Bride,  in  Fleet  street. 

RICHELIEU  (resh-lyeu).  Arm  and 
Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardinal,  Due  de, 
French  statesman,  born  at  Paris  9th 
September,  1585;  died  there  4th  of 
December,  1642.  In  1614  as  deputy  of 
the  clergy  of  Poitou  to  the  states- 
general  he  managed  to  insinuate  hun- 
self  into  the  favor  of  the  queen-mother, 
Marie  de  Medici,  who  obtained  for  him 
the  post  of  grand-almoner,  and  in  1616 
that  of  secretary  of  state  for  war  and 
foreign  affairs.  He  obtained,  through 
the  influence  of  the  queen-mother,  the 
cardinal’s  hat,  and  in  1624  was  admitted 
into  the  council  of  state.  From  this  date 
he  was  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  he  at 
once'began  systematically  to  extend  the 
power  of  the  crown  by  crushing  the 
Huguenots,  and  overthrowing  the  privi- 
leges of  the  great  vassals;  and  to  increase 
the  influence  of  the  French  monarchy 
by  undermining  that  of  the  Hapsburgs, 
both  beyond  the  Pyrenees  and  in  Ger- 
many. The  rallying  point  of  the  Hugue- 
nots was  Rochelle;  and  Richelieu  laid 
siege  to  that  city,  commanding  the  amiy 
in  person.  Rochelle,  supported  by  sup- 
plies from  England,  held  out  for  some 
time,  but  was  compelled  to  surrender  by 
famine  (October  29,  1628).  After  the 
suppression  of  the  Huguenots  his  next 
step  was  the  removal  of  the  queen- 
mother  from  court,  she  having  endea- 
vored to  effect  his  fall.  This  he  accom- 
plished in  November,  1630.  In  1631 
Richelieu  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  duke. 
In  1632  a rising  in  favor  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  the  king’s  brother,  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  royal  forces  directed  by 
Richelieu,  and  the  Duke  of  Montmor- 
ency was  executed.  The  whole  period 
of  his  government  was  marked  by  a 
series  of  conspiracies  of  the  feudal 
nobility,  the  queen-mother,  the  queen 
herself,  and  even  Louis,  against  the 
royal  power  exercised  by  Richelieu. 
But  he  was  prepared  at  every  point  and 
his  vengeance  sure.  During  the  Thirty 
Years’  war  the  cardinal  employed  all 
the  arts  of  negotiation  and  even  force 
of  arms  to  protect  the  Protestants  of 
Germany,  for  the  purpose  of  humbling 
the  power  of  Austria.  For  the  same 
object  he  declared  war  against  Spain  in 
16.35,  and  the  separation  of  Portugal 
from  Spain  was  effected  by  his  assist- 


ance (1640).  He  also  endeavored  to 
weaken  Austrian  influence  in  Italy,  and 
procured  the  transfer  of  the  duchy  of 
Mantua  to  the  Duke  of  Nevers.  Among 
the  last  to  be  crushed  by  him  were 
Cinq-Mars  and  De  Thou,  who,  with  the 
king’s  approval,  attempted  to  ruin  the 
great  minister.  Before  his  death  he 
recommended  Cardinal  Magarin  as  his 
successor.  Richelieu  was  a great  states- 
man, but  he  was  proud,  arrogant,  and 
vindictive.  He  was  a patron  of  letters 
and  art,  and  founder  of  the  French 
academy  and  the  Jardin  des  Plantes. 
He  was  the  author  of  Memoires  relating 
to  the  years  1624-38;  Histoire  de  la 
M6re  et  du  Fils,  etc. 

RICHMOND,  the  capital  of  Virginia, 
is  finely  situated  on  the  north  side  of 
James  river,  at  the  head  of  tide-water, 
lOOmiless.w.of  Washington.  Thestreets 
are  generally  wide  and  well-built,  and 
mostly  intersect  each  other  at  right 
angles.  There  are  many  fine  buildings, 
including  the  capital,  governor’s  house, 
city  hall,  federal  buildings,  buildings  of 
Richmond  college,  churches,  schools, 
asylums,  etc.  The  state  house  or  capitol 
contains  Houdon’s  celebrated  marble 
statue  of  Washington,  and  in  the  capi- 
tol grounds  are  Foley’s  bronze  statue  of 
General  T.  J.  (“Stonewall”)  Jackson 
and  Crawford’s  bronze  statue  of  Wash- 
ington, 25  feet  high,  on  a pedestal  42 


State  capitol,  Riclimond. 

feet  high,  surrounded  by  other  bronze 
statues.  Water-power  is  almost  un- 
limited, and  the  various  mills  and  fac- 
tories give  employment  to  numerous 
workmen.  The  trade  staples  are  to- 
bacco, iron,  grain,  and  flour.  The  first 
occupation  of  any  part  of  its  site  was 
by  English  settlers  in  1609;  the  city 
was  formally  founded  in  1742,  and  be- 
came the  seat  of  government  in  1780. 
During  the  civil  war  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
confederate  govermnent.  It  was  in- 
vested by  the  federal  armies,  and  sur- 
rendered on  April  3,  1865.  Pop. 114,000. 

RICHMOND,  a city  in  Indiana,  on 
the  east  fork  of  the  Whitewater,  and 
at  the  junction  of  several  important 
lines  of  railway  (which  connect  it  with 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  etc.),  69 
miles  east  of  Indianapolis.  Pop.  21,201. 

RICHTER,  Gustav,  German  painter, 
born  at  Berlin  1823,  died  there  1884. 
He  was  a member  of  the  Academies  of 
Berlin,  Munich,  and  Vienna;  executed 
frescoes  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  and 
attracted  attention  by  his  Raisiag  of 


RICHTER 


RIFLE 


Jairus’  Daughter  and  his  Building  of 
the  Pyramids,  a colossal  picture  (at 
Munich).  It  is  on  his  portraits,  how- 
ever, that  hi?  fame  chiefly  rests,  his 
sitters  having  included  many  European 
celebrities. 

RICHTER,  Jean  Paul  Friedrich,  com- 
monly called  Jean  Paul,  German  writer, 
was  born  March  21,  1763,  at  Wunsiedel, 
in  the  Fichtelgebirge,  and  died  Novem- 
ber 14, 1825,  at  Baireuth.  In  1787-94  he 
had  published  his  Greenland  Lawsuits, 
G 783-84),  Selection  from  the  Devil’s 
Papers  (1789),  The  Invisible  Lodge 
(1793).  This  brought  him  fame  and 
money,  and  was  followed  by  another 
romance,  Hesperus  (1795),  and  The 
Life  of  Quintus  Fixlein  (1796),  a humor- 
istic idyl,  works  which  made  his  name 
one  of  the  best  known  in  Germany.  In 
1798  he  went  to  Weimar,  and  subse- 
quently moved  to  other  towns,  finally 
settling  at  Baireuth  in  1804. 

RICHETS,  a disease  peculiar  to  in- 
fancy, chiefly  characterized  by  changes 
in  the  texture,  chemical  composition, 
and  outward  form  of  the  bony  skeleton, 
and  by  altered  functions  of  the  other 
organs,  transient  for  the  most  part,  but 
occasionally  permanent.  The  chief  ex- 
ternal features  are  the  legs  bent  out- 
ward, chest  unduly  projecting,  head 
large  and  forehead  projecting,  spine 
often  curved,  joints  large  and  promi- 
nent, general  form  stunted,  etc.  Rickets 
is  chiefly  a disease  of  large  cities,  and  its 
development  is  favored  by  want  of 
nourishing  food,  overcrowding,  and 
neglect  of  sanitary  and  hygienic  pre- 
cautions generally.  In  the  treatment  of 
rickets  all  means  are  employed  by  which 
the  system  is  invigorated,  including 
good  food,  fresh  air,  and  exercise.  The 
use  of  splints  for  the  legs  is  often  bene- 
ficial, and  as  the  child  grows  up  nature 
often  remedies  the  worst  features. 

RICOCHET  FIRING,  the  firing  of 
guns,  mortars,  or  howitzers  with  small 
charges  and  low  elevation,  so  as  to  cause 
the  balls  or  shells  to  bound  along.  It  is 
very  destructive,  and  is  frequently  used 
in  sieges  to  clear  the  face  of  a ravelin, 
bastion,  or  other  work,  dismounting 
guns  and  scattering  men;  and  may  also 
be  used  against  troops  in  the  field. 

RID'PATH,  John  Clark,  American 
historian  and  educator,  was  born  in 
Putnam  co.,  Ind.,  in  1840.  His  writings, 
chiefly  popularizations  of  historical 
matter,  are  his  Academic  History  of  the 
United  States,  Popular  History  of  the 
United  States,  Cyclopaedia  of  Universal 
History,  The  Great  Races  of  Mankind. 
He  compiled  a Library  of  Universal 
History,  and  helped  to  edit  the  People’s 
Cyclopaedia.  His  most  widely  circulated 
work  is  Ridpath’s  History  of  the  United 
States.  He  died  in  1900. 

RIEN'ZI,  Cola  di,  a native  of  Rome, 
born  about  1312.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
tavernkeeper,  acquired  a good  educa- 
tion, and  early  distinguished  himself  by 
his  talents,  and  especially  by  bis  attacks 
on  the  tyranny  of  the  nobles.  In  1342 
he  endeavored  to  induce  Pope  Clement 
VI.,  then  at  Avignon,  to  initiate  reforms, 
but  nothing  was  done.  In  1347,  during 
the  absence  of  the  governor  of  Rome, 
Stefano  Colonna,  Rienzi  summoned  a 
secret  assembly  of  his  friends  upon 
Mount  Aventine,  and  inducea  them  all 


to  subscribe  an  oath  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a plan  of  government  which  he 
called  the  good  estate.  The  people  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  title  of  tribune,  with 
all  the  attributes  of  sovereignty.  He 
banished  several  noble  families,  and 
compelled  Colonna  to  quit  Rome.  His 
strict  regard  to  justice  and  the  public 
good  in  the  first  exercise  of  his  power 
induced  even  the  pope  to  countenance 
him.  But  he  subsequently  became  am- 
bitious and  haughiv,  and  finding  he  had 
lost  the  confidence  of  the  people  he  with- 
drew from  Rome  in  1348.  He  returned 
secretly  to  Rome  in  1350,  but  was  dis- 
covered, and  fell  into  the  hands  of  Pope 
Clement  at  Avignon,  who  imprisoned 
him  for  three  years.  Innocent  VI.  re- 
leased Rienzi,  and  sent  him  to  Rome  to 
oppose  another  popular  demagogue 
named  Boroncelli.  But  after  a turbulent 
administration  of  a few  months  he  was 
killed  in  1354. 

RIEL  (re-61'),  Louis,  leader  of  the  so- 
called  “Riel’s  Rebellion”  in  Canada, 
was  born  at  Saint  Boniface,  Manitoba, 
in  1844.  He  came  into  prominence  as 
the  leader  of  the  rebellion  of  1869. 
Colonel  Wolseley  (afterward  Sir  Garnet 
Wolseley,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
British  army)  was  dispatched  with  a 
force  of  about  1400  men.  Finding  re- 
sistance hopeless.  Riel  and  some  of  his 
associates  fled  to  the  United  States. 
Later  he  went  to  Montana.  In  1884  he 
was  invited  by  French  half-breeds 
living  near  the  forks  of  the  Saskatche- 
wan to  come  and  assist  them  in  forcing 
the  government  to  settle  their  claims  to 
certain  land  grants  and  to  give  them 
certain  other  rights.  Riel  accepted  and 
was  made  president  of  the  provisional 
government.  Troops,  however,  were 
dispatched  against  the  rebels,  and  the 
main  stronghold  of  Batoche  was  taken 
by  General  Middleton.  Riel  himself  was 
soon  afterward  captured,  and  in  July 
was  brought  to  trial  at  Regina  for  high 
treason,  condemned,  and  on  November 
16,  1885,  was  hanged. 

RIFLE,  a portable  firearm,  the  inter- 
ior surface  of  the  barrel  of  which  is 
grooved,  the  channels  being  cut  in  the 
form  of  a screw.  The  number  of  these 
spiral  channels  or  threads,  as  well  as 
their  depth,  varies  in  different  rifles,  a 
highly  approved  form  b*ing  with  the 
channels  and  ridges  of  equal  breajJth, 
and  the  spiral  turning  more  quickly  as  it 
nears  the  muzzle.  The  bullet  fired  is 
now  always  of  an  elongated  form.  The 
great  advantage  gained  by  a weapon  of 
this  construction  is  that  the  bullet  dis- 
charged from  the  piece,  by  having  a 
rotatory  action  imparted  to  its  axis 
coincident  with  its  line  of  flight,  is  pre- 
served in  its  direct  path  without  being 
subject  to  the  aberrations  that  injure 
precision  of  aim  in  firing  with  unrifled 
arms.  As  a necessary  consequence  of 
the  projectile  being  carried  more  directly 
in  its  line  of  aim,  its  length  of  range,  as 
well  as  its  certainty  in  hitting  the  object, 
is  materially  increased.  Rifles  were  in- 
vented in  (Germany  in  1498,  and  have 
been  used  as  military  weapons  since 
1631,  but  were  not  used  in  the  British 
army  until  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century.  Till  1851  the  British  infantry, 
with  the  exception  of  those  regiments 
known  as  rifle  corps,  was  universally 


armed  with  the  smooth-bore  musket. 
In  1851  the  first  rifle  firing  an  elongated 
bullet  came  in  under  the  name  of  the 
Mini6.  Some  of  the  regiments  in  the 
Ciimean  war  were  ani.ed  with  this  rifle, 
but  it  was  cumbersome  and  heavy.  It 
was  succeeded  in  1853  by  the  Enfield 
rifle.  The  chief  feature  of  this  rifle  was 
the  reduction  of  the  bore  to  .577  in.  in 
diameter,  which  made  it  considerably 
lighter.  Britain  was  longer  in  adopting 
the  breech-loading  system  than  some 
other  countries.  Up  to  1866  all  British 
rifles  had  been  muzzle-loaders,  but  in 
that  year  the  Snider  system  of  convert- 
ing muzzle-loading  arms  into  breach- 
loaders  was  adopted,  and  the  army  tem- 
porarily supplied  with  Enfield  rifles 
converted  into  Sniders.  Trials  on  a 
very  extensive  scale  followed,  resulting 
in  the  acceptance  in  1871  of  the  Martini- 
Henry  rifle,  which  became  the  rifle 
of  the  British  army  from  1874  on- 
ward. In  this  excellent  weapon  the 
breech  is  closed  by  a block  which  con- 
tains a piston  or  striker,  the  latter  ex- 
ploding the  cartridge  by  the  force  of  a 
strong  spiral  spring  passing  round  it. 
An  improved  form  of  this  arm  was  sub- 
sequently produced,  viz.  the  Enfield- 
Martini,  in  which  the  barrel  had  a smaller 
bore,  the  diameter  being  reduced  from 
.45  inch  to  .40.  It  was  then  determined  by 
the  authorities  to  adopt  a repeating  or 
magazine  rifle,  and  in  1887  the  Lee- 
Metford  rifle  was  approved  of.  The 
rifling  (Metford  system)  is  in  seven 
grooves  without  corners  or  angles,  one 
turn  or  twist  in  10  inches,  calibre  .303. 
The  German  needle-gun  and  the  French 
Chassepot  were  the  first  of  the  breech- 
loading rifles  to  acquire  a reputation  for 
their  use  in  actual  warfare.  Both  these 
rifles  have  long  been  superseded,  first 
by  single-firing  and  then  by  repeating 
or  magazine  rifles.  Germany  having 
adopted  the  Mauser  rifle  and  France 
the  Lebel. 

The  repeating  rifle  is  a development 
of  a very  old  type  of  weapon.  In  the 
Spencer,  the  first  used  with  signal 
success,  the  cartridges  were  in  the  stock 
of  the  arm ; in  the  Winchester,  one  of  the 
best  known  of  repeating  rifles,  they  are 
in  a tube  underneath  the  barrel.  Some 
modern  military  magazine  rifles  draw 
their  supply  of  cartridges  from  a reserve 
contained  in  a detachable  magazine,  the 
advantage  being  the  greater  efficiency  of 
the  weapon  as  a single-loader.  The 
magazine  of  the  Lebel  rifle  is  in  the  fore 
end  of  the  stock.  The  breech  mechan- 
ism usually  preferred  is  that  upon  the 
“door-bolt”  principle,  of  which  the 
Chassepot  and  Prussian  needle-gun  were 
well-known  types;  the  Winchester  is 
one  of  the  few  actuated  by  an  under 
lever.  In  the  Mannlicher,  the  weapon 
adopted  by  Austria,  the  bolt  is  drawn 
back  simply;  in  others  it  has  to  be 
turned  to  the  left  before  it  can  be  with- 
drawn. With  the  Lebel  the  breech-bolt 
has  two  projections,  which,  when  the 
bolt  is  turned,  securely  lock  the  bolt 
close  to  the  base  of  the  cartridge ; in  the 
Lee-Metford,  a similar  double-locking 
arrangement  is  placed  where  the  pro- 
jecting knob  to  actuate  the  mechanism 
joins  the  breech-bolt.  The  magazine  of 
the  Lee-Metford,  containing  eight  car- 
tridges, is  placed  under  the  stock  behind 


RIGA 


RINGWORM 


clie  barrel,  to  the  level  of  which  a spiral 
spring  in  the  magazine  raises  the  car- 
tridges. The  breech-bolt,  which  contains 
the  firing  mechanism  and  extractor, 
when  pushed  forward  forces  the  raised 
cartridge  into  the  barrel.  The  magazine 
is  detached  by  pressing  a “catch,”  or 
blocked  by  a “cut-off,”  when  the  rifle 
may  be  used  as  a single-loader. 

When  Whitworth  produced  his  hexag- 
onal bore  rifle  of  .450  caliber,  it  was 
thought  that  thebulletwas  of  insufficient 
diameter,  and  the  .577  was  adopted  in 
its  stead;  later,  after  twenty  years’  ex- 
perience with  the  .450  Martini-Henry, 
the  bore  has  been  still  further  reduced, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  discoveries  of  Heb- 
ler,  whose  Swiss  rifle  of  7^  millimetres 
was  found  to  give  increased  velocity, 
greater  range,  equal  accuracy,  and  at 
the  same  time  permitted  of  lighter 
ammunition  being  used.  The  bullet  is 
coated  with  thin  steel,  ferro-nickel,  or 
other  hard  metal,  so  that  it  shall  not 
strip  in  the  rifling,  which  has  a sharp 
twist,  one  complete  turn  in  less  than 
12  inches,  and  leaves  the  muzzle  at  a 
velocity  of  2000  or  more  feet  per  second, 
thus  giving  an  extreme  range  of  3500 
yards.  Improved  explosives,  almost 
smokeless  and  which  do  not  foul  the 
barrel,  have  added  to  the  success  of  the 
small-bore  rifle. 

Sporting  rifles  have  a shorter  range 
and  inferior  velocity  to  the  best  mili- 
tary weapons,  their  object  being  not  ex- 
treme range  or  penetration,  but  great 
force  at  impact  to  produce  such  a shock 
as  will  paralyze  the  game  shot. 

RIGA,  a seaport  of  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  Livonia,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Duna  or  Dwina,  about  5 
miles  above  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of 
Riga.  Pop.  282,943,  of  whom  nearly 
half  are  Germans,  and  Protestants  by 
religion. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  OF,  on  February  13, 
1688-89,  the  declaration  of  right  was 
delivered  by  the  lords  and  commons  to 
the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange.  In 
October,  1689,  the  rights  claimed  by  the 
declaration  were  enacted  with  some 
alterations  by  the  bill  of  rights,  next  to 
Magna  Charta  the  greatest  landmark  in 
the  constitutional  history  of  England 
and  the  nearest  approach  to  the  written 
constitutions  of  other  countries. 

The  declaration  of  right  and  the  bill 
of  rights  introduced  no  new  principle 
into  the  English  constitution.  In  the 
United  States,  the  main  provisions  of  the 
bill  of  rights,  so  far  as  they  are  applica- 
ble, have  been  adopted  both  in  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  and  in 
the  state  constitutions.  See  Bill,  Rights 
of. 

RIGHTS  OF  MAN,  a theoretical  dec- 
laration passed  by  the  French  National 
assembly  in  August,  1789.  It  was 
attacked  by  Edmund  Burke  in  his 
Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution. 
Thomas  Paine  replied  to  Burke  in  his 
Rights  of  Man.  See  Paine,  Thomas. 

RIGOR  MORTIS,  the  rigidity  of  limbs 
that  follows  death.  It  is  one  of  the  signs 
of  cessation  of  life. 

RIG- VEDA,  the  first  and  principal  of 
the  Vedas  or  sacred  hymns  of  the 
Hindus.  See  Vedas. 

RILEY,  Charles  Valentine,  entomolo- 
gist, was  born  at  London,  England,  in 


1843,  came  to  v^erica  in  1860,  and 
located  in  Chicago.  He  served  during 
the  civil  war  as  a member  of  the  134th 
Illinois  infantry.  In  1877  he  was  ap- 
pointed chief  of  the  entomological  com- 
mission of  the  United  States,  and 
entomologist  of  the  agricultural  de- 
partment in  1878.  He  organized  the 
entomological  branch  of  that  depart- 
ment in  1881,  also  having  the  custody 
of  the  insect  department  of  the  National 
museum,  which  now  contains  over  100,- 
000  specimens  given  it  by  Professor 
Riley.  He  was  a member  of  the  leading 
scientific  organizations  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  He  has  been  a volumin- 
ous writer  on  entomology,  and  is  the 
author  of  works  dealing  with  the  various 
phases  of  that  science.  He  died  in  1895 

RILEY,  James  Whitcomb,  American 
poet,  was  born  in  1853.  His  first  book 
of  verse  appeared  in  1883,  entitled.  The 
Old  Swimmin’-hole  and  ’Leven  More 
Poems.  Among  his  other  works  are: 
Character  Sketches  and  Poems,  After- 
whiles, Pipes  o’  Pan:  at  Zekesbury, 
Rh3nnes  of  Childhood,  An  Old  Sweet- 
heart of  Mine,  Green  Fields  and  Run- 
ning Brooks,  Poems  Here  at  Home, 
Armazindy,  Home  Folks,  Book  of 
Joyous  Children. 

RINDERPEST  (German  name),  or 
Cattle-plague,  a contagious  disease 
which  attacks  animals  of  the  ox  family, 
and  is  attended  with  the  most  deadly 
results.  The  disease  appears  to  be 
identical  with  what  was  formerly  known 
as  murrain,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
steppe-murrain,  from  the  Russian  step- 
pes, which  are  its  habitat.  This  disease 
has  caused  great  havoc  among  cattle  for 
at  least  a thousand  years,  spreading 
occasionally  like  a pestilence  over 
Europe.  The  probable  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease is  a micro-organism  which  is  found 
in  the  blood  and  all  the  discharges  of 
the  infected  animals,  and  is  capable  of 
being  transmitted  indirectly  by  any  of 
these  to  great  distances.  Sheep  and 
other  animals  can  be  affected  by  the 
disease,  but  in  a less  intense  form.  The 
period  of  incubation  varies  from  two  to 
ten  days.  The  svmptoms  are  elevation 
of  the  temperature  of  the  body,  followed 
by  a heightened  color  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  and  granular 
yellowish  eruptions  on  the  gums,  lips, 
tongue,  palate,  and  cheeks.  The  skin  be- 
comes congested,  and  develops  scales 
with  papular  eruptions,  and  finally  a 
slimy  discharge  comes  from  the  eyes  and 
nose.  The  name  is  also  given  to  an 
eminently  fatal  cattle  disease  of  America 
differing,  however,  from  the  true  rinder- 
pest in  attacking  cows  only,  and  in 
running  its  course  in  three  days  in  place 
of  seven,  the  general  duration  of  the 
European  form  of  the  disease. 

RINE'HART,  William  Henry,  an 
American  sculptor,  born  near  Union 
Bridge,  Carroll  co.,  Md.,  in  1825.  He  exe- 
cuted the  two  statuettes,  an  “Indian”and 
a “Backwoodsman,”  which  act  as  sup- 
ports for  the  clock  in  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives. He  returned  to  Italy  in 
1858,  .settling  at  Rome,  where  he  died. 
In  1872  his  marble  statue  of  Chief 
Justice  Taney  was  erected  at  Annapolis; 
His  works  are  in  the  Corcoran  Art 
gallery,  Washineton,  and  in  the  Pea- 
body institute,  Baltimore.  The  former 


possesses  his  “Atalanta,”  “Latona  and 
Her  Children,”  “Diana,”  “Apollo,” 
“Endymion,”  and  “Rebecca;”  in  the 
latter  are  the  works  left  in  the  sculptor’s 
studio  at  his  death,  and  his  “Clytie 
Forsaken  by  Apollo,”  which  is  con- 
sidered his  masterpiece.  He  died  in 
1874. 

il^G,  an  ornament  for  the  fingers 
which  has  been  worn  from  the  most 
ancient  period  of  civilization.  Among 
the  ancient  nations  who  are  known  to 
have  attached  special  importance  to  the 
wearing  of  rings  were  the  Assyrians, 
Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Ro- 
mans. The  nose,  ears,  arms,  and  even 
the  legs  and  toes  have  also,  among 
various  people,  been  decorated  with 
them.  Rings  have  also  from  a very  early 
period  been  reckoned  as  symbols  of 
authority,  which  could  be  delegated  by 
merely  delivering  the  ring  to  an  agent; 
they  were  also  used  as  symbols  of  sub- 
jection. The  earliest  mention  of  rings 
is  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  and  relates  to 
the  Hebrews.  Among  the  Egyptians 
rings  of  gold  were  worn  in  great  profu- 
sion. The  common  people  wore  porce- 
lain rings.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
used  them  for  sealing  contracts,  closing 
coffers,  etc.  The  modern  use  of  wed- 
ding rings  was  probably  derived  from 
the  Jews.  A ring  appears  from  an  early 
period  to  have  been  one  of  the  insignia 
of  a bishop.  Motto  rings  date  from  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  and  were  long 
popular  in  Britain. 

RINGBONE,  an  exostosis  or  bony 
tumor  mostly  met  with  on  the  coronet 
of  overworked  horses,  but  sometimes 
seen  on  colts,  or  even  newly-dropped 
foals.  Ringbone  injures  a horse’s  market 
value,  and  is  practically  incurable. 

RING-DOVE,  or  CUSHAT,  the  largest 
of  the  pigeons  inhabiting  Britain,  a bird 
which  occurs  very  generally  throughout 
the  wooded  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  mi- 
gratory in  countries  in  which  the  severe 
winters  preclude  the  possibility  of  its 
obtaining  a due  supply  of  food,  and  even 
in  Britain,  in  which  it  permanently  re- 
sides, it  appears  on  the  approach  of 
winter  to  assemble  in  flocks,  and  to  per- 
form a limited  migration,  probably  in 
search  of  food.  A bluish-gray  color  pre- 
vails generally  over  the  head,  cheeks, 
neck,  back,  and  rump,  while  the  breast 
and  under  parts  of  the  neck  are  of  a 
purplish  red,  the  belly  and  thighs  dull 
white.  A patch  of  white  on  either  side 
of  the  neck  forms  a sort  of  ring  or  collar. 
The  average  length  is  about  16  or  17 
inches.  The  food  of  the  ring-dove  con- 
sists of  grain,  acorns,  berries,  the  leaves 
and  tops  of  turnips,  etc.  The  nests  are 
composed  of  sticks  and  twigs  loosely 
placed  together.  The  birds  are  wary 
and  shy,  and  rarely  breed  in  confine 
ment. 

RINGWORM,  a chronic  contagioub 
disease  of  the  hair,  hair-bulbs,  and 
epithelial  covering  of  the  skin.  It  is  due 
to  a microscopic  fungus,  which  lays 
hold  upon  and  preys  upon  these  tissues, 
and  is  very  contagious.  It  is  known  by 
the  decolorization  and  brittleness  of  the 
affected  hairs,  by  the  scaly  eruption, 
and  roundness  of  the  affected  patches. 
Ringworm  is  most  commonly  found  on 
the  scalp.  The  treatment  of  the  disease 
consists  in  destroying  the  vitality  of  the 


RIO-DE-JANEIRO 


RIPPLE-MARKS 


fungus,  which  is  effected  by  a solution  of 
sulphurous  acid  or  of  corrosivesublimate. 

WO-DE-JANEIRO  (re-o-de-zhi-na'i- 
ro),  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Brazil, 
second  largest  city  of  South  America,  is 
most  beautifully  and  advantageously 
situated  on  the  southeastern  coast,  on  a 
fine  natural  harbor  formed  by  a bay  of 
the  same  name.  The  finest  buildings  are 
the  opera-house,  senate-house,  military 
barracks,  and  the  national  museum. 


while  the  churches  are  chiefly  notable 
for  their  gaudy  interior  decorations. 
A striking  feature  in  the  city  is  the  aque- 
duct, which  brings  the  water  a distance 
of  12  miles  and  here  crosses  a wide 
valley  on  a beautiful  double-tier  of  gran- 
ite arches.  Among  benevolent  institu- 
tions are  the  Casa  da  Misericordia, 
several  other  hospitals,  and  a large 
lunatic  asylum.  There  are  two  colleges, 
medical  schools,  a naval  and  military 
academy,  numerous  scientific  establish- 


extends  inward  15  miles,  with  a width 
varying  from  2 to  8 miles.  It  is  diversi- 
fied with  numerous  islands,  surrounded 
by  hills  covered  by  luxuriant  tropical 
vegetation, and  affords  safeanchoragefor 
the  largest  vessels.  Manufactures  are 
unimportant,  but  there  is  an  extensive 
trade  in  coffee,  sugar,  hides,  tobacco, 
timber,  etc.  The  principal  imports  are 
linen,  woolen,  and  cotton  tissues;  iron 
and  steel  goods,  and  provisions  and 
preserved  meats.  The  city  is  the  central 
terminus  of  the  railways  of  the  country; 
pop.  522,621. 

The  state  of  Rio-de-Janeiro  hasan  area 
of  about  28,000  miles,  and  is  decidedly 
mountainous  in  the  center.  It  is  the 
best-cultivated  state  in  Brazil,  the  chief 
crop  being  coffee.  Immense  herds  of 
cattle  are  reared,  and  the  forests  are  rich 
in  timber.  Capital,  Nictheroy.  Pop. 
876,884. 

RIO  - GRANDE  - DEL  - NORTE.  See 

Bravo. 

RIO-GRANDE-DO-SUL,  the  most 
southern  state  in  Brazil,  bounded  partlj' 
by  the  Atlantic,  and  bordering  with 
Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Republic, 
has  an  area  of  91,336  sq.  miles,  and  a 
pop.  of  897,455.  It  is  well-watered,  con- 
tains much  fertile  land,  and  has  a 
healthy  climate.  On  the  coast  is  the 
large  lake  or  lagoon  of  Patos,  besides 
others.  The  chief  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants  are  cattle-rearing  and  agri- 
culture. Among  the  population  are 
100,000  Germans,  there  being  a number 
of  flourishing  German  settlements.  There 
are  some  600  miles  of  railway.  Hides, 
tallow,  horse-hair,  bones,  etc.,  are  ex- 
ported. The  capital  is  Porto  Alegre. 
The  town  of  Rio-Grande  is  situated  on  a 
peninsula  near  where  the  Lake  of  Patos 
communicates  with  the  Atlantic.  Its 
houses  are  mostly  of  earth,  and  its 
streets  unpaved.  It  has  an  active  trade 
in  hides,  horse-hair,  wool,  tallow,  etc. 
Pop.  18,000  or  19,000. 


produced.  Pop.  100,000.  Chief  town. 
La  Rioja,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra 
Velasco,  in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and 
orange  groves.  Pop.  8000. 

RIO  NEGRO  (Spanish  “black  river”), 
the  name  of  numerous  streams,  of  which 
two  are  important;  (1)  A river  of  South 
America,  and  principal  tributary  of  the 
Amazon.  It  rises  in  Colombia  and  joins 
the  Amazon  after  a course  of  about  1000 
miles  at  Manaos,  Brazil.  Through  its 
affluent,  the  Cassiquiari,  there  is  direct 
communication  between  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco.  (2)  A river  of  South 
America  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween the  Argentine  Republic  and 
Patagonia.  It  rises  in  the  Andes  in 
Chile,  and  is  about  700  miles  long.  Its 
current  is  very  rapid,  and  its  bed  ob- 
structed with  shoals  and  sandbanks. 

RIOT,  a disturbance  of  the  public 
peace,  attended  with  circumstances  of 
tumult  and  commotion,  as  where  an 
assembly  destroys,  or  in  any  manner 
damages,  seizes,  or  invades  private  or 
public  property,  or  does  any  injury 
whatever  by  actual  or  threatened  vio- 
lence to  the  persons  of  individuals.  By 
the  English  common  law  a riot  is  an 
unlawful  assembly  of  three  or  more 
persons  which  has  actually  begun  to 
execute  the  common  purpose  for  which 
it  assembled  by  a breach  of  the  peace, 
and  to  the  terror  of  the  public.  A law- 
ful assembly  may  become  a riot  if  the 
persons  assembled  form  and  proceed  to 
execute  an  unlawful  purpose  to  the 
terror  of  the  people,  although  they  had 
not  that  purpose  when  they  assembled. 
Every  person  convicted  of  riot  is  liable 
to  be  sentenced  to  hard  labor.  By  act  1 
George  I.  cap.  v.  s.  2,  called  the  Riot 
Act,  whenever  twelve  or  more  persons 
are  unlawfully  assembled  to  the  dis- 
turbance of  the  peace,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  justices  of  the  peace,  and  the  sheriff 
and  under-sheriff  of  the  county,  or  of  the 
mayor  or  other  head  officers  of  a city  or 
town  corporate,  to  command  them  by 
proclamation  to  disperse.  And  all  per- 
sons who  continue  unlawfully  together' 
for  one  hour  after  the  proclamation  was 
made,  commit  a felony,  and  are  liable  to 
penal  servitude  or  imprisonment  (sub- 
stituted for  death  by  7 Will.  4 and  1 
Viet.).  The  act  also  contains  a clause 
indemnifying  the  officers  and  their 
assistants  in  case  any  of  the  mob  should 
be  killed  or  injured  in  the  attempt  to 
arrest  or  disperse  them.  Compensation 
out  of  the  rates  is  paid  to  persons  sus- 
taining damage  by  riot.  In  the  United 
States  the  definition  of  Riot  and  its 
punishment  are  regulated  by  statue  but 
the  English  law  practically  covers  the 
subject. 

RIPLEY,  George,  an  American  author, 
born  at  Greenfield,  Massachusetts,  1802; 
died  1880.  He  became  literary  editor 
of  the  New  York  Tribune  in  1849,  and 
was  joint  editor  with  C.  A.  Dana  of  the 
American  Cyclopaedia  (1858-63,  16vols., 
also  of  the  second  edition). 

RIPPLE-MARKS,  the  wavy  or  ridgy 
marks  left  on  the  beach  of  a sea,  lake, 
or  river  by  the  ripples  or  wavelets.  Such 
marks  have  often  been  preserved  when 
the  sand  has  hardened  into  rock,  and  are 
held  by  geologists  as  indications  that 
deposition  of  the  beds  in  which  they 
occur  took  place  on  the  sea-shore  or  at  a 


View  of  Rio-de-Janeiro. 


ments,  public  schools,  national  library, 
a botanical  garden  and  observatory.  At 
Ilio  is  the  chief  military  arsenal  of  the 
republic,  while  on  one  of  the  islands  in 
the  bay  there  is  a naval  arsenal  with 
docks  and  building  yards.  The  bay  has 
its  entrance,  1700  yards  wide,  between 
Fort  St.  Juan  and  Fort  Santa  Cruz,  and 


RIOJA  (re-6'ha).  La,  one  of  the  west- 
ern provinces  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
It  is  well  watered  on  the  west,  but  in 
the  east  and  south  there  are  salt  and 
sand  deserts.  The  climate  is  dry  and 
healthy.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  and  cattle-rearing. 
Excellent  wheat,  wine,  and  fruits  are 


RISTO'RI 


ROADS 


depth  not  greater  than  60  feet.  We  have 
also  wind  ripple-marks  and  current 
ripple-marks,  and  it  requires  much  dis- 
crimination to  determine  the  produc- 
ing cause. 

RISTO'RI,  Adelaide,  Italian  actress, 
born  1822.  She  married  the  Marquis 
Capranica  del  Grillo  in  1847,  and  after- 
ward played  in  all  the  chief  European 
capitals.  She  took  her  farewell  of  the 
English  stage  in  Manchester,  Nov.  8, 
1873.  Among  her  chief  eharacters  are 
Medea,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  Marie 
Antoinette,  Mary  Stuart,  and  Lady 
Macbeth.  She  visited  the  United  States 
in  1866,  1875,  and  1884-85.  She  died 
in  1906. 

RITUALISM,  a strict  adherence  to 
rites  and  ceremonies  in  public  worship. 
The  term  is  more  especially  applied  to  a 
tendency  recently  manifested  in  the 
Church  of  England,  resulting  in  a series 
of  changes  introduced  by  various  clergy- 
men of  the  high  church  party  into  the 
services  of  the  church.  These  changes 
may  be  described  externally  as  generally 
in  the  direction  of  a more  ornate  wor- 
ship, and  as  to  their  spirit  or  animating 
principle,  as  the  infusion  into  outward 
forms  of  a larger  measure  of  the  symbolic 
element.  They  are  defended  on  the 
rounds  of  law,  ancient  custom,  in- 
erent  propriety,  and  divine  sanction  or 
authority.  The  points  of  ritual  about 
which  there  has  been  the  most  violent 
contention  are  those  which  involve  the 
adoration  of  Christ  as  present  on  the 
altar  under  the  forms  of  bread  and  wine. 
Other  points  are;  the  eastward  position 
of  the  priest  at  consecration;  lights  on 
the  holy  table;  the  use  of  various  vest- 
ments; the  use  of  incense;  mixing  water 
with  wine  for  communion;  fasting  be- 
fore communion  from  previous  mid- 
night ; regular  confession  to  a priest,  with 
absolution  and  penance;  etc. 

RIVER-HORSE,  a name  sometimes 
given  to  the  hippopotamus. 

RIVERS  rank  high  in  importance 
among  the  natural  features  of  the  globe, 
and  are  intimately  connected  with  the 
history  and  condition  of  mankind.  They 
have  always  formed  important  high- 
ways of  communication,  and  the  great 
cities  built  upon  their  banks  have  con- 
stituted in  all  ages  the  seats  of  empire. 
Every  circumstance  concerning  rivers 
is  therefore  of  importance,  as  their 
source,  length  of  channel,  outlet,  rapid- 
ity of  current,  depth,  and  consequent 
capability  of  navigation.  The  source  of 
a river  is  either  a spring  or  springs,  or  a 
lake,  or  the  river  takes  its  origin  from  the 
melting  of  the  snow  and  ice  on  moun- 
tains. The  termination  of  a river  is 
usually  in  the  sea,  a lake,  or  another 
river,  or  it  may  lose  itself  in  the  sand. 
All  the  streams  which  ultimately  gather 
into  one  river  form  a river  system,  and 
the  region  which  is  drained  by  such  a 
system  of  streams  is  called  a river  basin. 
River  basins  are  usually  separated  from 
each  other  by  more  or  less  elevated 
ground,  and  the  line  of  greatest  eleva- 
tion between  them  is  called  a watershed. 
In  speaking  of  the  right  and  left  bank 
of  a river  we  are  always  supposed  to 
have  the  position  of  a person  looking 
in  the  direction  toward  its  mouth.  The 
volume  of  water  which  rivers  contain 
varies  with  many  conditions,  dependent 


upon  the  nature  of  the  sources  by  which 
they  are  fed  and  the  amount  of  rainfall 
throughout  their  course.  The  periodical 
melting  of  the  snows  adds  greatly,  in 
some  cases,  to  the  volume  of  rivers 
which  have  their  origin  in  mountain 
regions,  the  rainy  season  in  tropical 
regions  has  a similar  effect  (as  in  the  case 
of  the  Nile),  often  causing  extensive 
inundations.  In  arid  countries  the  so- 
called  rivers  are  often  mere  surface 
torrents,  dependent  on  the  rains,  and 
exhibiting  merely  the  dry  beds  of  water- 
courses during  the  season  of  drought. 
The  “creeks”  of  Australia  and  the 
“wadies”  of  the  Arabian  desert  are  of 
this  character.  The  average  fall  of  a 
river’s  bed  is  indicated  by  the  difference 
between  the  altitudes  of  its  source  and 
its  outlet  compared  with  its  length  of 
channel.  The  fall  of  many  great  rivers 
is  much  less  than  might  be  supposed. 
The  Amazon  has  a fall  of  only  12  inches 
in  the  last  700  miles  of  its  course.  The 
Volga,  which  rises  at  an  elevation  of 
633  feet  above  the  Caspian  sea,  has  an 
average  inclination  of  less  than  4 inches 
to  the  mile  throughout  its  course  of  more 
than  2000  miles.  The  Aberdeenshire 
river  Dee, which  rises  at  a height  of  4060 
feet,  has  a course  of  only  87  miles  to  its 
outlet,  showing  an  average  declivity  of 
46  feet  per  mile.  Many  rivers  carry  down 
immense  quantities  of  earthy  matter 
which  accumulates  at  their  mouths 
forming  what  is  called  a delta  (which 
see).  Among  the  great  rivers  of  the 
world  are  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri 
(4200  miles),  and  the  Amazon  (3900 
miles),  in  America;  the  Yang-tse-Kiang, 
the  Amoor,  the  Yenisei,  the  Indus,  and 
Ganges  in  Asia,  all  over  1500  miles  in 
length;  the  Congo  (3000  miles),  the 
Niger  (2600  miles),  and  the  Nile  (4200 
miles),  in  Africa;  and  the  Danube  (1670 
miles),  Volga  (2200  miles),  and  the 
Rhine  (800  miles),  in  Europe. 

RIVER-TORTOISE,  a name  of  a 
family  of  tortoises  that  are  aquatic  in 
their  habits,  coming  to  shore  only  to 
deposit  their  eggs.  They  are  exclusively 
carnivorous,  subsisting  on  fishes,  rep- 
tiles, birds,  etc.  The  edges  of  the  mandi- 
ble are  so  sharp  and  firm  that  they  easily 
snap  off  a man’s  finger.  They  inhabit 
almost  every  river  and  lake  in  the 
warmer  regions  in  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  and  are  particularly  plentiful 
in  the  Ganges,  where  they  prey  on  human 
bodies. 

RIVET,  a short  metallic  pin  or  bolt 
passing  through  a hole  and  keeping  two 
pieces  of  metal  together;  especially,  a 
short  bolt  or  pin  of  wrought  iron,  copper, 
or  of  any  other  malleable  material, 
formed  with  a head  and  inserted  into  a 
hole  at  the  junction  of  two  pieces  of 
metal,  the  point  after  insertion  being 
hammered  broad  so  as  to  keep  the  pieces 
closely  bound  together.  Rivets  are 
espeeially  employed  in  making  boilers, 
tanks,  iron  bridges,  etc.  They  are  closed 
up  by  hammering  when  they  are  in  a 
heated  state,  the  hammering  being  either 
done  by  hand  or  by  maehinery. 

RIVIERA  (riv-i-a'ra),  the  name  given 
to  a portion  of  the  coast  of  North  Italy, 
on  each  side  of  the  town  of  Genoa.  It 
extends  to  Spezzia  on  the  east  and  Nice 
on  the  west,  and  is  much  resorted  to  by 
invalids. 


RIZZIO,  David,  a native  of  Turin, 
came  to  Scotland  in  1564  in  the  train  of 
the  ambassador  from  Savoy,  and  soon 
became  so  great  a favorite  with  the 
queen  that  he  was  appointed  her  secre- 
tary for  foreign  languages.  The  dis- 
tinction with  which  he  was  treated  by 
his  mistress  soon  excited  the  envy  of 
the  nobles  and  the  jealousy  of  Darnley. 
A conspiracy,  with  the  king  at  its  head, 
was  formed  for  his  destruction,  and 
before  he  had  enjoyed  two  years  of  court 
favor,  the  Lord  Ruthven  and  others  of 
his  party  were  introduced  by  Darnley 
into  the  queen’s  apartment,  where 
they  dispatched  the  object  of  their  re- 
venge, 9th  March,  1566.  Popular  tradi- 
tion assigns  to  Rizzio  the  improvement 
of  the  Scottish  style  of  music,  but  many 
of  the  airs  which  have  been  ascribed  to 
Rizzio  are  traced  to  more  distant  periods. 

ROACH,  a species  of  fresh-water  fish 
of  the  carp  family  found  in  Britain 


The  European  roach. 


other  parts  of  Europe.  Their  average 
length  is  about  9 or  10  inches.  Allied 
fishes  receive  the  same  name  in  America. 

ROADS  are  artificial  pathways  formed 
through  a country  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  travelers  and  the  carriage  of 
commodities.  Though  the  Romans  set 
an  example  as  roadbu:Jders,some  of  their 
public  highways  being  yet  serviceable, 
the  roads  throughout  most  of  Europe 
were  in  a wretched  condition  till  toward 
the  end  of  the  18th  century.  France  was 
in  advance  of  other  countries  in  road- 
making; in  England  a decided  improve- 
ment of  the  highways  only  began  in  the 
19th  century.  When  diversities  of  level 
are  necessary,  road-engineers  fix  the 
degree  of  inclination  at  the  lowest  possi- 
ble point.  Telford  estimated  the  maxi- 
mum inclination  of  a road  to  be  1 in  24, 
but  except  in  extreme  cases  it  is  con- 
sidered better  that  it  should  not  exceed  1 
in  50.  The  angle  of  repose,  or  maximum 
slope  on  which  a carriage  will  stand,  has 
been  estimated  at  1 in  40.  The  width  of 
the  road  is  also  a very  important  con- 
sideration as  bearing  both  on  the  original 
cost  and  on  the  permanent  mainte- 
nance. A properly-constructed  road,  be- 
sides a foundation,  consists  of  two  layers, 
an  upper  and  an  under.  After  a good 
foundation  is  obtained  the  laying  of  a 
base,  the  best  material  being  concrete 
of  gravel  and  lime,  gives  durability  to 
the  road.  Upon  this  base  the  actual 
roadway  is  laid  with  a slight  inclination 
from  the  center  to  the  sides  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drainage.  Before  the  time  of 
Macadam  it  was  customary  to  use 
broken  stones  of  different  sizes  to  form 
the  roadway,  the  consequence  being 
that  in  couse  of  time  the  smaller  stones 
sank,  making  the  road  rough  and  dan- 
gerous. Macadam  early  in  the  19th 
century  introduced  the  principle  of 
using  stones  of  uniform  size  from  top  to 
bottom.  What  is  known  as  the  rule  of 


ROANOKE 


ROBINSON 


the  rula  is  that  in  passing,  whether 
going  in  the  same  or  opposite  direction, 
the  rider  or  driver  must  pass  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  other  rider  or  driver. 

ROANOKE  (ro-a-nok'),  a navigable 
river  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Dan 
and  the  Staunton,  which  after  a course  of 
about  250  miles  falls  into  Albemarle 
sound.  It  is  tidal  for  75  miles.  — The 
town  of  Roanoke,  Virginia,  situated  on 
this  river,  has  become  a flourishing  in- 
dustrial center.  Pop.  25,160. 

ROARING,  in  horses,  is  a disease  of 
the  nerves  and  muscles  of  the  larynx 
which  causes  an  obstruction  to  the  pas- 
sage of  air,  giving  rise,  when  the  horse  is 
briskly  exercised,  to  the  peculiar  sound 
from  which  the  disease  derives  its  name. 
The  cause  of  the  disease  is  in  most  cases 
attributed  to  fatty  degeneration  and 
atrophy  of  the  laryngeal  nerve,  which 
brings  about  an  atrophy  of  the  muscles 
of  the  larynx  on  the  side  affected,  and 
thus  causes  the  arytenoid  cartilage  to 
obstruct  the  passage.  The  disease  gen- 
erally affects  the  left  side,  and  is  not,  as 
a rule,  amenable  to  treatment.  Several 
cases  have  been  cured  lately  by  excision 
of  a portion  of  the  affected  arytenoid 
cartilage,  and  this  operation  promises  to 
be  very  successful  in  this  disease. 

ROASTING  is  the  cooking  of  meat  by 
the  direct  action  of  fire — that  is,  by  dry 
heat,  either  before  the  fire  or  in  an  oven. 
Roasting  before  an  open  fire  is  con- 
sidered preferable  to  roasting  in  an  oven 
(which  is  analogous  to  baking),  on 
account  of  the  free  ventilation  to  which 
it  exposes  the  meat  during  the  process. 
The  apparatus  in  most  kitchens  for 
open  roasting  are  a fire,  a spit,  a con- 
trivance for  turning  the  meat  to  present 
all  sides  of  it  alternately  to  the  fire,  a 
screen  to  economize  the  heat,  and  a 
saucepan  to  catch  the  dripping.  The 
fire  must  be  kept  even  and  bright 
throughout.  During  the  process  of 
roasting,  the  meat  should  be  basted 
with  the  dripping  to  keep  it  soft  and 
allow  the  heat  to  penetrate.  The  spe- 
ciality of  roasting  as  compared  with  boil- 
ing is  that  it  retains  the  saline  ingredi- 
ents of  the  meat.  The  time  allowed  for 
roasting  is  roughly  estimated  at  a quar- 
ter of  an  hour  to  1 lb.  of  meat.  Longer 
time  is  required  in  winter  than  in  sum- 
mer, and  for  new  than  old  killed  meat. 

ROBBERY,  a felonious  and  forcible 
taking  away  another  man’s  goods  or 
money  from  his  person,  presence,  or 
estate  by  violence  or  putting  him  in  fear. 
Violence  or  intimidation  is  the  criterion 
which  distinguishes  robbery  from  other 
larcenies ; and  it  is  sufficient  that  so  much 
force  or  threatening,  by  word  or  gesture, 
is  used  as  might  create  an  apprehension 
of  danger,  so  as  to  lead  a man  to  part 
with  his  property  against  his  will.  High- 
way robbery,  or  the  forcible  taking  of 
property  from  travelers,  in  many  coun- 
tries is  a capital  offense,  and  in  all 
civilized  countries  is  severely  punished. 

ROBERT,  Duke  of  Normandy,  sur- 
named  the  Devil,  was  the  younger  son 
of  Duke  Richard  II.  by  his  marriage 
with  Judith,  a daughter  of  Count  God- 
frey of  Brittany.  In  1027  he  succeeded 
his  elder  brother,  Richard  III.,  whom  he 
is  charged  with  having  poisoned.  The 
first  years  of  his  government  were  em- 
ployed in  bringing  hie  rebellious  vassals 


into  subjection,  and  he  then  restored 
Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders  to  his  states, 
assisted  Henry  I.,  king  of  France,  against 
his  mother  Constantia,  and  humbled 
Count  Otho  of  Champagne.  In  1034  his 
fleet  was  wrecked  off  Jersey  while  on  its 
way  to  England  to  support  his  nephews 
Alfred  and  Edward  against  Canute,  who 
had  excluded  them  from  the  succession 
to  the  English  throne.  Hereupon  he 
concluded  a truce  with  Canute,  by 
which  the  two  princes  were  promised 
half  of  England.  In  1033  he  set  out  to 
visit  the  holy  places,  and  subsequently 
made  the  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  on 
foot.  While  returning  he  died  suddenly 
at  Nicsea  in  Asia  Minor  (103.5)-,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  been  poisoned  by  his 
servants.  His  heroic  deeds  and  penance 
have  given  rise  to  numerous  stories. 
William  the  Conqueror  was  his  son. 

ROBERT  II.,  King  of  Scotland,  was 
the  son  of  Marjory,  daughter  of  Robert 
Bruce,  and  of  Walter,  steward  of  Scot- 
land, and  was  thus  the  first  of  the 
Stewart  or  Stuart  kings.  He  was  born 
1316,  and  was  recognized  by  parliament 
in  1318  as  heir  to  the  crown.  On  the 
death  of  David  II.  he  was  crowned  at 
Scone,  26th  March,  1371.  Fle  had  long 
acted  as  regent,  and  had  done  good 
service  in  the  English  wars.  An  act  of 
parliament  in  1375  settled  the  crown  on 
his  sons  by  his  first  wife  Elizabeth  Mure 
of  Rowallan,  illegitimate  by  ecclesiasti- 
cal law.  His  reign  was  comparatively  a 
peaceful  one,  one  of  the  chief  events 
being  the  battle  of  Otterburn.  He  died 
in  1390. 

ROBERT  III.,  King  of  Scotland,  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1340 
and  was  originally  called  John,  but 
changed  his  name  on  his  coronation,  in 
1390.  Robert  died  in  1406. 

ROBERT  OF  GLOUCESTER,  an  Eng- 
lish historian,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a monk  in  the  abbey  of  Gloucester  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  but  of  his 
private  history  nothing  is  known. 

ROBERTS,  Frederick  Sleigh,  Earl, 
V.C.,  son  of  Sir  Abraham  Roberts,  was 
born  in  1832.  He  entered  the  army  and 
became  a lieutenant  in  the  Bengal 
artillery  in  1851  and  a captain  in  1860. 
He  gained  the  Victoria  Cross  in  the 
Indian  mutiny,  and  was  made  brevet- 
major.  He  took  part  in  the  Abyssinian 
war  1867-68,  and  in  1872  was  made  a 
C.  B.  for  his  services  in  India  on  the 
Lushai  expedition.  He  commanded  a 
column  in  the  Afghan  war  of  1878,  and 
after  a brilliant  march  from  Cabul  to 
Candahar  utterly  defeated  Ayoub  Khan. 
In  1881  he  was  created  a baronet  and 
G.C.B.  He  became  commander-in-chief 
in  India  in  1885,  was  made  a baron  in 
1892,  field-marshal  and  commander-in- 
chief in  Ireland,  1895;  commander-in- 
chief in  the  Boer  war,  1900;  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  1900;  created  earl 
and  K.G.,  1901.  He  is  author  of  Forty- 
one  Years  in  India  (1897). 

ROBESPIERRE  (rob-es-pi-ar),  Fran- 
cois Maximilien  Joseph  Isidore,  was 
born  at  .\rras  in  1758,  and  was  the  son 
of  an  advocate.  He  was  educated  at  the 
college  of  Louis-le-Grand  at  Paris.  He 
afterward  practiced  as  an  advocate  at 
Arras,  and  held  for  a short  period  the 

Position  of  judge  in  the  bishop’s  diocese, 
n 1789  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the 


states-general,  and  was  a zealous  sup- 
porter of  democratic  measures.  At  this 
time  he  became  a prominent  member 
of  the  Jacobins  and  other  revolutionary 
clubs.  In  March,  1791,  he  was  appointed 
public  accuser  to  the  New  Courts  of 
Judicature.  He  remained  in  the  back- 
ground during  the  September  massacres 
of  1792,  which  he  assisted  in  planning, 
leaving  the  work  with  Marat  and  Dan- 
ton.  In  the  same  month  he  was  elected 
a member  of  the  convention,  and  in  the 
proceedings  against  Louis  XVI.  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  the  relentless  ran- 
cour with  which  he  opposed  every  pro- 
posal to  avert  or  delay  the  fatal  result. 
On  19th  March,  1794,  the  H6bertists  fell 
victims  to  his  jealousy.  Eleven  days 
later  he  caused  Danton  to  be  arrested, 
who,  after  a trial  of  three  days,  was 
guillotined,  together  with  Camille  Des- 
moulins, on  April  5th.  Robespierre’s 
power  now  seemed  to  be  completely 
established,  and  the  Reign  of  Terror  was 


Maximilien  Robespierre. 


at  ius  height.  On  June  8,  1794,  he,  as 
president  of  the  convention,  made  the 
convention  decree  the  existence  of  the 
Supreme  Being ; and  on  the  same  day  he 
celebrated  the  Feast  of  the  Supreme 
Being.  In  the  meantime  a party  in  the 
convention  was  formed  against  Robes- 
pierre and  on  July  27  he  was  openly 
accused  of  despotism.  A decree  of  arrest 
was  carried  against  him,  and  he  was 
thrown  into  the  Luxembourg  prison. 
He  was  released  by  his  keeper  on  the 
night  of  the  same  day,  and  conducted  to 
the  Hall  of  Commune,  where  his  sup- 
porters were  collected.  On  the  following 
day  Barras  was  sent  with  an  armed  force 
to  effect  his  arrest.  Robespierre’s  fol- 
lowers deserted  him,  and  he  was  guil- 
lotined on  July  27,  1794,  together  with 
some  twenty-three  of  his  supporters. 
The  tendency  with  modern  writers  is  to 
modify  the  character  for  infamy  which 
at  one  time  obtained  regarding  Robes- 
pierre. 

ROBIN,  a name  given  to  several  birds, 
more  especially  to  the  robin  redbreast  of 
Europe  (see  Redbreast)  and  to  an  Ameri-  ■ 
can  species  of  blackbird,  as  also  to  the 
bluebird  of  America. 

ROBINSON,  Rev.  Edward,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  biblical  scholar  and  explorer  of 
the  Holy  Land,  born  at  Southington, 
Connecticut,  1794;  died  at  New  York 
1863.  In  1837  he  made  a voyage  to  the 
Holy  Land.  The  result  of  tnis  journey 


ROBINSON  CRUSOE 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


was  his  great  work  entitled  Biblical  Re- 
searches in  Palestine,  Mount  Sinai,  and 
Arabia  Petrsea  (1841,  3 vols.),  subse- 
quently enlarged  after  a second  visit  to 
Palestine  in  1852.  He  had  been  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  biblical  literature 
in  Union  Theological  seminary.  New 
Yoi;Jc,  but  only  entered  on  the  duties  in 
1840,  occupying  the  post  till  his  death. 

ROBINSON  CRUSOE,  a celebrated 
romance,  written  by  the  well-known 
Defoe,  and  published  in  1719. 

ROB  ROY  (that  is,  “Robert  the  Red”) 
a celebrated  Highland  freebooter,  whose 
true  name  was  Robert  Macgregor,  but 
who  assumed  his  mother’s  family  name, 
Campbell,  on  account  of  the  outlawry 
of  the  clan  Macgregor  by  the  Scotch 
parliament  in  1662.  He  was  born  about 
1660.  He  was  the  younger  son  of  Donald 
Macgregor  of  Glengyle,  by  his  wife,  a 
daughter  of  Campbell  of  Glenfalloch. 
His  own  designation  was  of  Inversnaid, 
but  he  seems  to  have  acquired  a right  to 
the  property  of  Craig  Royston,  on  the 
east  side  of  Loch  Lomond.  Like  other 
Highland  gentlemen,  Rob  Roy  was  a 
trader  in  cattle  previous  to  the  rebellion 
of  1715,  in  which  he  joined  the  adherents 
of  the  pretender.  On  the  suppression  of 
the  rebellion  the  Duke  of  Montrose, 
with  whom  Rob  Roy  had  previously 
had  a quarrel,  took  the  opportunity  to 
deprive  him  of  his  estates;  and  the  latter 
began  to  indemnify  himself  by  a war  of 
reprisals  upon  the  property  of  the  duke. 
An  English  garrison  was  stationed  at 
Inversnaid,  not  far  from  Aberfoyle,  the 
residence  of  Rob  Roy;  but  his  activity 
and  courage  saved  him  from  the  hands 
of  his  enemies,  from  whom  he  continued 
for  some  time  to  levy  blackmail.  In  his 
latter  years  he  became  reconciled  to 
Montrose,  and  died  at  Balquhidder  in 
1734.  See  Sir  Walter  Scott’s  Introduc- 
tion to  the  novel  of  Rob  Roy. 

ROB'SON,  Stuart,  American  come- 
dian, was  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in 
1836,  his  real  name  being  Robson  Stuart. 
His  Captain  Crosstree  in  the  burlesque 
of  Black-Eyed  Susan  is  one  of  his  best 
characters.  In  1877  he  made  a hit  in 
Our  Boarding  House  with  W.  H Crane 
and  the  two  established  a partnership 
which  lasted  till  1889.  They  success- 
fully revived  several  of  Shakespeare’s 
comedies.  Among  their  greatest  suc- 
cesses were  The  Two  Dromios  and  The 
Henrietta.  He  died  in  1903. 

ROC,  a fabulous  bird  of  immense  size 
and  strength,  which  is  mentioned  in  the 
ArabianNights  entertainments.  A belief 
in  it  was  spread  in  Europe  during  the 
middle  ages,  having  been  brought  from 
the  east  probably  as  a consequence  of 
the  Cruades. 

ROCHAMBEAU  (ro-shin-bO),  Jean 
Baptiste  Donatien  de  Vimeur,  Count 
de.  Marshal  of  France,  born  1725,  en- 
tered the  French  army  in  1742,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Seven  Years’ 
war,  and  became  field-marshal  in  1761. 
He  died  in  1807. 

ROCHEFORT  (rosh -for), Henri  (Victor 
Henri,  Marquis  de  Rochefort-Lugay),  a 
French  journalist,  dramatist,  and  poli- 
tician, born  in  Paris,  1832.  After  Sedan 
he  became  a member  of  the  govern- 
ment of  National  defense.  He  fled  from 
Paris  in  May,  1871,  when  he  foresaw  the 
end  of  the  Commune,  of  which  he  had 


been  a vigorous  supporter,  but  was 
arrested  by  the  Versailles  government 
and  sentenced  to  transportation  to  New 
Caledonia.  He  escaped  in  1874,  and 
after  the  general  amnesty  of  1880  re- 
turned to  Paris  (July  12th),  where  he 
founded  his  new  journal  the  Intransige- 
ant.  He  was  returned  as  deputy  by  the 
department  of  the  Seine,  but  resigned  his 
seat  in  February,  1886.  His  influence 
suffered  from  his  joining  in  the  Boulang- 
ist  movement. 

ROCHELLE  SALTS,  the  double  tar- 
trate of  sodium  andpotassium, crystalliz- 
ing in  large  rhombic  prisms.  It  has  a 
mild,  hardly  saline  taste,  and  acts  as  a 
laxative. 

ROCHESTER,  capital  of  Monroe  co.. 
New  York  state,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Genesee  (over  which  are  several  bridges), 
7 miles  above  its  entrance  into  Lake 
Ontario,  on  the  Erie  canal,  which  here 
crosses  the  river  by  a splendid  aqueduct. 
The  town  is  well  built,  among  buildings 
and  institutions  being  a Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  a court-house,  and  city-hall, 
a university,  a Baptist  theological  semi- 
nary, a free  library,  an  athenaeum,  etc. 
The  prosperity  of  Rochester  is  partly  due 
to  the  immense  water-power  furnished 
by  the  falls  of  the  Genesee,  which  within 
the  city  limits  makes  a descent  of  268 
feet,  one  of  the  falls  having  a height  of 
96  feet.  This  power  is  employed  in 
driving  flour-mills,  which  are  here  on  a 
great  scale,  and  also  in  various  other 
industrial 'establishments.  The  suburbs 
are  highly  cultivated,  there  being  a great 
extent  of  nursery  grounds.  In  1812  two 
log-huts  were  the  only  buildings  on  the 
site  now  occupied  by  Rochester.  Pop. 
1909,  estimated  at  200,000. 

ROCK,  in  geology,  is  a term  applied 
to  any  considerable  aggregation  of 
mineral  matter,  whether  hard  and  mas- 
sive like  granite,  marble,  etc.,  or  friable 
and  unconsolidated  like  clay,  sand,  and 
gravel.  In  popular  language,  however, 
it  is  confined  to  any  large  mass  of  stony 
matter  as  distinguished  from  soil,  mud, 
sand,  gravel,  etc. 

ROCKET,  a projectile  consisting  of  an 
iron  cylinder  filled  with  an  inflammable 
composition,  the  reaction  of  the  gases 
produced  by  the  combustion  of  which, 
pressing  on  the  head  of  the  rocket,  serve 
to  propel  it  through  the  air.  Rockets 
were  firstusedin  eastern  countries.  They 
were  kept  point  first  by  the  use  of  a 
stick  which  acted  on  the  principle  of  an 
arrow’s  feathers.  But  the  rocket  now 
used  has  no  stick,  being  kept  point  first 
by  rapid  rotation,  imparted  to  it  by 
means  of  three  curved  shields  fixed  on 
the  base  so  as  to  be  on  the  same  side  of 
each  vent.  They  may  be  discharged  from 
tubes  or  troughs,  or  even  laid  on  the 
ground.  In  war  rockets  are  chiefly  used 
for  incendiary  purposes,  for  moral  effect 
— especially  frightening  horses  and  for 
various  irregular  operations.  Signal  and 
sky  rockets  are  small  rockets  formed  of 

Easteboard  cylinders,  filled  with  com- 
ustible  materials,  which,  when  the 
rocket  has  attained  its  greatest  height 
and  bursts,  cast  a brilliant  light  which 
may  be  seen  at  a great  distance. 

ROCKEFELLER,  John  D.,  American 
capitalist,  was  born  in  Richford,  Tioga 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1839.  In  1851  when 
twelve  y^ars  of  age  he  was  taken  by 


his  parents  to  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In 
1860  he  engaged  in  the  oil  business,  and 
in  partnership  with  his  brother  William 
and  others  built  in  1865  a large  refin- 
ery known  as  the  Standard  Oil  Refinery. 
In  1870  a number  of  firms  were  com- 
bined under  the  name  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Co.,  of  which  John  D.  was  the  presi- 
dent and  controlling  spirit.  By  de- 
grees the  Standard  Oil  Company  ab- 
sorbed or  drove  out  of  business  most  of 
its  rivals.  In  1882  the  Standard  Oil 
Trust  was  organized,  but  this  was  dis- 
solved ten  years  later.  Since  that  time 
the  various  companies  have  been  oper- 
ated separately,  but  all  are  under  the 
management  of  Rockefeller  and  his 
associates,  whose  control  of  the  oil 
business  is  complete.  In  1892  he 
founded  and  encfowed  the  University 
of  Chicago.  To  this  institution  he  has 
given  nearly  $25,000,000.  In  1907  the 
Standard  Oil  Co.  was  fined  for  violating 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Law  in  receiv- 
ing rebates  from  the  Chicago  & Alton 
Railway,  $39,000,000. 

ROCKFORD,  a city  in  Illinois,  finely 
situated  on  the  Rock  river,  93  miles 
w.n.w.  of  Chicago.  It  has  abundant 
water-power,  woolen  and  cotton  fac- 
tories, iron-foundries,  agricultural  ma- 
chine and  implement  factories,  wagon 
and  carriage  factories,  etc.  Pop.  37,090. 

ROCK  ISLAND,  a town  in  Rlinois,  on 
the  Mississippi,  at  the  foot  of  the  Upper 
Rapids,  deriving  its  name  from  an 
island  in  the  river,  on  which  there  is  now 
an  extensive  government  arsenal.  It  is 
a great  center  of  railway  and  river 
traffic,  and  is  connected  with  Daven- 
port on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river 
by  a railway  and  general  traffic  bridge. 
Pop.  23,683. 

ROCK  RIVER,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  which  rises  in  Wisconsin,  50 
miles  west  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  falls 
into  the  Mississippi  2 miles  below  Rock 
Island  City.  Length,  330  miles,  about 
225  of  which  have  been  ascended  by 
small  steam -boats. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS,  a name  indefi* 
nitely  given  to  the  whole  of  the  exten- 
sive system  of  mountains  which  covers 
a great  portion  of  the  •w'estern  half  of 
North  America,  but  more  properly  ap- 
plied to  the  eastern  border  of  this  moun- 
tain region,  commencing  in  New  Mexico 
in  about  32°  30'  n.  lat.,  and  extending 
throughout  the  continent  to  the  Polar 
sea;  terminating  west  of  the  Mackenzie 
river,  in  lat.  69°  n..  Ion.  135°  w.  The 
Rocky  mountains  in  the  United  States 
are  divided  into  two  parts  in  Southern 
Wyoming  by  a tractof  elevated  plateaus. 
The  chief  groups  of  the  southern  half 
are  the  Front  or  Colorado  range,  which 
in  Wyoming  has  a mean  elevation  of 
9000  feet  (at  Evan’s  Pass,  where  it  is 
crossed  by  the  Union  Pacific  railway 
8269  feet).  In  Colorado  it  increases  to  a 
mean  height  of  13,000  feet,  its  highest 
points  being  Gray’s  Peak  (14,341  feet). 
Long’s  Peak  (14,271  feet),  and  Pike’s 
Peak  (14,147  feet).  The  Sawatch  range, 
south  of  the  Arkansas  river,  has  its 
highest  peak  in  Mount  Harvard  (14,375 
feet),  with  passes  at  an  elevation  of 
from  12,000  to  13,000  feet.  The  “Parks” 
of  Colorado  are  high  mountain  valleys, 
known  as  North,  Middle,  South,  and 
San  Luis  parks,  with  an  elevation  of 


ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  WHITE  GOAT 


ROENTGEN 


from  6000  to  10,000  feet,  surrounded  by- 
ranges  3000  to  4000  feet  higher.  The 
west  border  of  the  San  Luis  park  is 
formed  by  the  San  Juan  range  with  at 
least  a dozen  peaks  over  14,000  feet, 
and  between  one  and  two  hundred  above 

13.000  feet.  On  the  northeastern  side 
this  park  is  bounded  by  the  Sangre  de 
Cristo  range,  in  which  is  Blanca  peak 
(14,464  feet).  The  Uintah  range,  di- 
rectly west  of  North  park,  has  several 
points  above  13,000  feet;  and  the  Wah- 
satch  range,  which  forms  the  western 
limit  of  the  southern  division  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  rises  to  a height  of 

12.000  feet  just  east  of  Salt  Lake  City. 
The  northern  division  of  the  Rocky 
mountains,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Wind  river  range  and  the  Yellowstone 
region  (see  Yellowstone),  is  lower  and 
has  less  impressive  scenery  than  the 
southern.  In  Idaho  and  Montana  the 
groups  are  more  irregular  in  outline 
than  in  the  south,  and  the  division  into 
ranges  more  uncertain.  Of  these  the 
Bitter  Root  mountains  in  part  of  their 
course  fonn  the  divide  between  the 
Missouri  and  the  Columbia.  There  two 
ranges  reach  altitudes  of  upward  of 
9000  feet,  and  are  crossed  by  a number 
of  passes  at  elevations  of  from  5500  to 
6500  feet.  The  Northern  Pacific  railway 
crosses  at  Mullan’s  pass  (5548  feet) 
through  a tunnel  3850  feet  long.  The 
Crazy  mountains,  north  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, reach  a height  of  11,000  feet; 
other  groups  are  the  Big  Horn  mountains 
and  the  Black  Hills,  whose  highest  point 
is  Mount  Harvey  (9700  feet).  The 
highest  peaks  yet  accurately  measured 
in  the  Canadian  Rocky  mountains 
proper  are  Robson  peak  (13,700  feet) 
and  Athabasca  (13,500).  Formerly  the 
Canadian  Rockies  were  regarded  as  cul- 
minating in  Mount  Brown,  to  which  a 
height  of  16,000  feet  was  assigned. 
Mount  Logan  (19,500)  and  Mount  St. 
Elias  (18,000),  on  or  near  the  Alaska 
frontier,  do  not  properly  belong  to  the 
range.  The  Rocky  mountains  contain 
some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  world, 
and  are  especially  rich  in  deposits  of 
gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  etc. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  WHITE  GOAT, 
The  hair  is  long,  especially  about  the 
fore  quarters,  and  beneath  it  is  a wooly 
underfur.  It  is  about  three  feet  high  at 
the  shoulders,  which  are  somewhat  arched 


Rocky  Mountain  goat. 

or  humped,  while  the  head  is  carried 
low.  The  nose  is  hairy,  there  is  a beard, 
and  the  horns,  present  in  both  sexes, 
are  slender,  smooth,  backward-curving, 
eight  to  ten  inches  long  and  black,  which 
is  also  the  color  of  the  small  hoofs.  Its 
home  is  the  mountains  from  the  “high 


sierras”  of  California  and  the  central 
Rocky  mountains  to  Alaska.  Its  long 
silky  coat  and  its  pure  white  color  in- 
dicate a snowy  habitat,  and  this  animal 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  glacial  peaks  and 
the  great  snow-fields  alone,  rarely  com- 
ing down  even  as  low  as  the  timber-line, 
but  finding  its  foliage  among  the  alpine 
pastures  that  border  the  glaciers.  It 
climbs  with  astonishing  agility. 

ROCO'CO,  a debased  variety  of  the 
Louis-Quatorze  style  of  ornament,  pro- 


ceeding from  it  through  the  degeneracy 
of  the  Louis-Quinze.  It  is  generally 
a meaningless  as.semblage  of  scrolls 
and  crimped  conventional  shell-work, 
wrought  into  all  sorts  of  irregular  and 


Rococo— An  interior  in  Schloss  Bruchsal, 
Baden,  Germany. 

indescribable  forms,  without  individual- 
ity and  without  expression. 

RODEN'TIA,  or  RODENTS,  an  order 
of  mammalia,  comprising  the  gnawing 
animals,  such  as  rats,  mice,  squirrels, 
rabbits,  etc.  They  are  distinguished  by 
the  following  characteristics;  the  teeth 
are  limited  to  molars  and  incisors,  ca- 
nines, being  entirely  absent;  the  molars 
have  tuberculated  or  fiattish  crowns, 
and  are  especially  adapted  for  the  attri- 
tion of  food;  the  incisors  are  long,  and 
spring  from  permanent  pulps,  thus  being 
continually  reproduced  and  shoved  out- 
ward from  their  bases.  In  the  typical 
species  the  outer  faces  of  the  incisors  are 
covered  with  hard  enamel,  but  not  the 
inner  ones,  hence  the  latter  are  soft  and 
wear  away  faster  than  the  anterior  sur- 
faces, thus  keeping  a sharp  edge  on  the 
teeth.  The  digits  are  generally  four  or 
five  in  number,  and  are  provided  with 
claws.  The  intestine  is  long,  and  the 
C£Ecum  generally  large.  The  brain  is 
almost  destitute  of  convolutions.  The 
eyes  are  placed  laterally. 

The  rodentia  are  divided  into  two 


main  divisions  or  sub-orders.  One 
represented  by  mice,  rats,  squirrels, 
marmots,  beavers,  porcupines,  etc.,  hav- 
ing the  incisors  strictly  limited  to  two 
in  each  jaw;  and  the  other  compre- 
hending hares  and  rabbits,  distinguished 
by  four  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  and 
two  in  the  lower. 

RODNEY,  George  Brydges,  Baron 
Rodney,  British  naval  hero,  born  in 
1718  at  Walton-upon-Thames.  In  1759, 
having  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
admiral,  he  bombarded  Havre  de  Grfice 
in  face  of  the  French  fleet.  In  1726  he 
reduced  Martinique,  and  on  his  return 
was  rewarded  with  a boronetcy.  In 


Lord  Rodney. 


1779  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  com- 
mand on  the  West  India  station,  and  in 
January,  1780,  completely  defeated  a 
Spanish  fleet  under  Langara  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent.  On  April  12,  1782,  he  obtained 
a decisive  victory  over  the  French  fleet 
under  De  Grasse.  He  died  21st  May, 
1792. 

ROE,  Edward  Payson,  American 
clergjonan  and  novelist,  was  born  in 
Moodna,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1838. 
He  was  from  1865  until  1874  pastor  of 
the  Presbj^terian  church  at  Highland 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  after  which  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  lecturing,  writing,  and  fruit 
culture.  His  first  novel.  Barriers  Burned 
Away,  a story  suggested  by  the  Chicago 
fire,  met  with  great  success.  All  of  his 
novels  have  been  popular.  Among  them 
are  What  Can  She  Do,  Opening  of  a 
Chestnut  Burr,  A Face  Illumined,  Near 
to  Nature’s  Heart.  He  died  in  1888. 

ROEBUCK,  Roe-deer,  a European 
deer  of  small  size,  the  adult  measuring 
about  2 feet  at  the  shoulders.  The  horns 
or  antlers  are  small,  and  provided  with 
three  short  branches  only.  The  general 
body-color  is  brown,  whitish  beneath. 
These  animals  inhabit  mountainous  and 
wooded  districts.  When  irritated  of 
alarmed  they  may  prove  very  danger- 
ous adversaries,  and  are  able  to  inflict 
severe  wounds  with  their  antlers.  See 
Reebuck. 

ROENTGEN  (rent'gen)  Wilhelm  Kon- 
rad, German  physicist,  was  born  at' 
Lennep,  in  Rhenish  Prussia  in  1845.  He 
received  his  doctor’s  degree  in  1869  at 
the  Universitv  of  Zurich.  In  1899  he  was 


appointed  professor  of  experimental 
physics  at  the  University  of  Munich.  He 
discovered  the  rays  which  bear  his 
name  in  1895.  For  this  discovery  he 
received  the  Rumford  medal  of  the  Royal 
society  of  London  and  the  Barnard 


ROGERS 


ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE 


medal  of  Columbia  University,  awarded 
in  1900  for  the  greatest  discovery  in 
science  during  the  preceding  five  years. 
(See  X-Rays.) 

ROGERS,  John,  American  sculptor, 
was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1829.  He 
exhibited  the  “Slave  Auction”  in  1860, 
and  in  1860-65  he  executed  a series  of 
war  statuette  groups  in  gray  clay, 
among  which  were  the  “Picket  Guard,” 
“One  More  Shot,”  and  “Union  Ref- 
ugees.” Other  statuette  groups  illus- 
trate passages  from  Shakespeare,  Irv- 
ing’s Rip  Van  Winkle,  and  Longfellow’s 
Miles  Standish  (“John  Alden  and  Pris- 
cilla”). His  ambitious  efforts  include  the 
equestrian  statue  in  bronze  of  General 
Reynolds  in  front  of  the  City  Hall, 
Philadelphia,  and  a bronze  group  of 
“Ichabod  Crane  and  the  Headless  Horse- 
man.” He  died  in  1904. 

ROGERS,  Randolph,  American  sculp- 
tor, was  born  at  Waterloo,  New  York,  in 
1825.  Among  his  works  are  a statue  of 
“John  Adams”  in  the  cemetery  at 
Mount  Auburn,  near  Boston:  the  bronze 
doors  of  the  new  capitol  extension  in 
Washington,  the  bas-reliefs  of  which  rep- 
resent the  principal  events  of  the  career 
of  Columbus;  and  figures  of  Marshall, 
Mason,  and  Nelson  for  the  Washington 
monument  at  Richmond,  Va.  His  other 
works  include  a colossal  bronze  statue  of 
Lincoln  for  Philadelphia;  the  “Genius  of 
Connecticut”  for  the  state  capitol  in 
Hartford;  and  a statue  of  W.  H.  Seward 
in  New  York.  He  died  in  1892. 

ROGERS,  Samuel,  English  poet,  born 
at  Stoke-Newington,  London,  July  30, 
1763;  died  18th  December,  1855.  His 
first  appearance  before  the  public  was 
in  1786,  when  he  gave  to  the  world  his 
Ode  to  Superstition,  and  other  Poems. 
The  Pleasures  of  Memory,  with  which 
his  name  is  principally  identified,  ap- 
peared in  1792,  and  An  Epistle  to  a 
Friend  (1798).  In  1812  he  published  The 
Voyage  of  Columbus,  a fragment;  in 
1814,  Jacqueline,  a tale;  in  1819,  Human 
Life;  and  in  1822,  Italy,  a descriptive 
poem  in  blank  verse. 

ROGERS,  William  Au^stus,  Ameri- 
can astronomer  and  physicist,  was  born 
in  Waterford,  Conn., in  1832.  He  mapped 
a part  of  the  skies  north  of  the  zenith  and 
published  “Observations”  in  the  Annals 
of  the  observatory.  His  most  important 
work  was  in  the  field  of  micrometry 
and  included  the  construction  of  a 
dividing  engine  of  high  precision.  His 
copies  of  English  and  French  standards 
of  length,  obtained  in  1880,  are  in 
regular  use  by  American  astronomers. 
He  died  in  1898. 

ROGUE,  in  law,  a vagrant  or  vaga- 
bond. Persons  of  this  character  were, 
by  the  ancient  laws  of  England,  to  be 
punished  by  whipping  and  having  the 
ear  bored  with  a hot  iron.  The  term 
rogues  and  vagabonds  is  given  to  vari- 
ous definite  classes  of  persons,  such  as 
fortune-tellers,  persons  collecting  alms 
under  false  pretenses,  persons  deserting 
their  families  and  leaving  them  charge- 
able to  the  parish,  persons  wandering 
about  as  vagrants  without  visible  means 
of  subsistence,  persons  found  on  any 
premises  for  an  unlawful  purpose,  and 
others.  Rogues  and  vagabonds  may  be 
summarily  committed  to  prison  for  three 
months  with  hard  labor.  See  Vagrant. 


ROHAN  (r5-an),  Henri,  Duke  of, 
French  Protestant  leader,  born  in  1579. 
In  his  sixteenth  year  he  joined  the  court 
of  Henry  IV.,  and  after  the  death  of  the 
latter  in  1610  became  chief  of  the  Hugue- 
nots. After  the  fall  of  Rochelle  (1628) 
and  the  peace  of  1629  Rohan  withdrew 
from  France  and  wrote  his  Memoires 
Sur  les  Choses  Advenues  en  France 
definis  la  Mort  de  Henry  IV.  M4moires 
sur  la  Guerre  de  la  Valteline  Les  Int6rets 
des  Princes,  and  Discours  Politiques. 
He  died  in  1639. 

ROHAN,  Louis  Ren4  Edouard,  Prince 
de.  Cardinal-bishop  of  Strasburg,  was 
born  in  1734  at  Paris.  In  1772  he  went 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Vienna. 
He  derives  his  notoriety,  however, 
chiefly  from  the  affair  of  the  necklace. 
He  was  then  grand  almoner  of  France, 
and  being  thrown  into  the  Bastile,  con- 
tinued in  prison  more  than  a year,  when 
he  was  acquitted  and  released  by  the 
parliament  of  Paris,  August,  1786.  He 
died  in  Germany  in  1803. 

ROHILKHAND,  or  ROHILCUND,  a 
division  of  British  India,  United  Prov- 
inces; area,  10,885  sq.  miles;  pop. 
5,343,674.  It  is  subdivided  into  the 
districts  Bijnur,  Muradabad,  Budaon, 
Bareli,  Pilibhit,  and  Shahjahanpur.  It 
incloses  the  native  principality  of 
Rampur. 

ROHLFS  (rolfs),  Friedrich  Gerhard, 
a celebrated  African  traveler,  born  in 
1831  at  Vegesack,  Germany.  His  works 
include,  among  others;  Journey  through 
Morocco  (1869),  Land  and  People  of 
Africa  (1870),  Across  Africa  (1874-75), 
Journey  from  Tripoli  to  the  Kufra 
Oasis  (1881),  My  Mission  to  Abyssinia 
(1883).  He  died  in  1890. 

ROLAND,  or  ORLANDO,  a celebrated 
hero  of  the  romances  of  chivalry,  and 
one  of  the  paladins  of  Charlemagne,  of 
whom  he  is  represented  as  the  nephew. 
His  character  is  that  of  a brave,  un- 
suspicious, and  loyal  warrior,  but  some- 
what simple  in  his  disposition.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Song  of  Roland,  an  old  French 
epic,  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Roncesvalles  after  a desperate  struggle 
with  the  Saracens,  who  had  attacked 
Charlemagne’s  rear-guard.  The  cele- 
brated romantic  epics  of  Boiardo 
(Orlando  Innamorato)  and  Ariosto  (Or- 
lando Furioso)  relate  to  Roland  and  his 
exploits. 

ROLFE,  William  James,  an  Ameri- 
can Shakespearean  scholar  and  educa- 
tor, born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  in 
1827.  In  1867  he  edited  an  edition  of 
Craik’s  English  of  Shakespeare.  This 
led  to  the  preparation  of  a complete 
edition  of  Shakespeare  (40  vols).  He 
also  edited  the  select  Poems  of  Gold- 
smith; of  Gray;  of  Tennyson;  Enoch 
Arden  and  Other  Poems ; Scott’s  Com- 
plete Poems;  Byron’s  Childe  Harold; 
Macaulay’s  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome; 
Wordsworth;  In  Memoriam ; Idyls  Jof 
the  King;  and  a complete  edition  of 
Tennyson;  Shakespeare,  the  Boy;  Life 
of  Shakespeare. 

ROLLER,  a genus  of  birds,  generally 
of  small  size.  The  common  roller  is 
found  in  Europe  as  a summer  visitor, 
but  only  occasionally  visits  Great  Brit- 
ain. Africa  appears  to  be  its  native 
country.  In  size  the  roller  averages  the 
common  jay.  The  plumage  is  in  general 


an  assemblage  of  blue  and  green,  mixed 
with  white,  and  heightened  by  the  con- 
trast of  more  sombre  colors.  The  voice 
is  noisy  and  harsh.  The  food  consists  of 
insects,  small  reptiles,  and  fruit. 


Vi 


ROLLIN  (rol-an),  Charles,  a French 
historian,  born  at  Paris  in  1661,  studied 
theology,  obtained  a chair  in  the  College 
de  France,  and  latterly  was  a rector  of 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  died  in 
1741.  His  Ancient  History  was  long 
popular  in  English,  but  is  now  quite  oift 
of  date. 

ROLLING-MILL,  a combination  of 
machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
malleable  iron  and  other  metals  of  the 
same  nature.  It  consists  of  one  or  more 
pairs  of  iron  rollers,  whose  surfaces  are 
made  to  revolve  nearly  in  contact  with 
each  other,  while  the  heated  metal  is 
passed  between  them,  and  thereby  sub- 
jected to  a strong  pressure.  The'  first 
rolling  is  to  expel  the  scoriae  and  other 
impurities,  after  which  the  mass  of 
metal  is  cut  into  suitable  lengths,  which 
are  piled  on  one  another  and  reheated, 
when  the  mass  which  has  been  partially 
fused  is  again  passed  through  the 
rollers.  This  second  rolling  deter- 
mines its  fonn  into  a hoop,  rail,  bar, 
or  plate  according  to  the  form  given  to 
the  surfaces  of  the  rollers.  See  Iron. 

ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE,  the  style 
of  building  practiced  by  the  ancient 


Roman  architecture. 

Great  hall  in  the  baths  of  Caracalla. 

Romans.  Derived  on  the  one  hand  from 
the  Etruscans,  and  on  the  other  from 


ROMAN  CANDLE 


ROMANS 


the  Greeks,  the  fusion  ultimately  re- 
sulted in  an  independent  style.  Its 
essential  characteristics  are,  the  em- 
ployment of  the  Tuscan  and  the  Com- 
posite order,  and  the  introduction  and 
free  use  of  the  semicircular  arch  and 
arcade,  together  with  the  use  of  rounded 
and  prominent  mouldings,  often  pro- 
fusely decorated.  In  Roman  architec- 
ture the  great  feature  is  the  employ- 
ment of  the  arch  as  well  as  the  lintel, 
while  Greek  architecture  employs  the 
lintel  only.  It  produced  various  con- 
structions, unknown  to  Greek  art,  such 
as  amphitheaters,  circuses,  aqueducts, 
bridges,  baths,  triumphal  arches,  etc.  It 
has  thus  been  of  vastly  greater  practical 
utility  than  the  Greek,  and  is  bold  and 
imposing  in  appearance.  The  column 
as  a support,  being  no  longer  exclusively 
a necessity,  was  often  of  a purely  deco- 
rative character,  and  was  largely  used 
in  front  of  closed  walls,  in  domes  above 
circular  interiors,  and  in  the  construc- 
tion of  cylindrical  and  groined  vaulting 
over  oblong  spaces.  The  arch  was  freely 
used  internally  as  well  as  externally, 
and  became  an  important  decorative 
feature  of  interiors.  The  Roman  temples 
as  a rule,  from  the  similarity  of  the 
theogony  to  that  of  the  Greeks  were  dis- 
posed after  the  Greek  form,  but  a purely 
Roman  tvpe  is  seen  in  the  circular 
temples  such  as  tne  Tantheon  at  Rome, 
the  temple  of  the  Sibyl  at  Tivoli,  the 
temple  of  Vesta  at  Rome,  etc.  This 
style  of  architecture  was  introduced  by 
the  Romans  into  all  their  colonies  and 
provinces — vast  existing  remains  evi- 
dencing the  solid  character  of  the  build- 
ings. it  reached  its  highest  stage  during 
the  reign  of  Augustus  (b.c.  27),  and 
after  the  translation  of  the  seat  of  em- 
pire to  Byzantium  it  degenerated  and 
ultimately  gave  place  to  a debased 
style. 

ROM.^N  candle,  a kind  of  firework 
consisting  of  a tube  which  discharges  in 
rapid  succession  a series  of  white  or 
colored  stars  or  balls. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  that 
society  of  Christians  which  acknowl- 
edges the  bishop  of  Rome  as  its  visible 
head.  The  foundation  of  the  Christian 
church  at  Rome  is  uncertain,  but  St. 
Paul  did  not  visit  Rome  until  after  he 
had  written  his  Epistle  to  the  Rotuans. 
The  claim  of  supremacy  on  the  part  of 
the  bishop  of  Rome  is  based  on  the  be- 
lief that  our  Lord  conferred  on  Peter 
a primacy  of  jurisdiction;  that  that 
apostle  fixed  his  see  at  Rome;  and  that 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  in  unbroken  suc- 
cession from  Peter,  have  succeeded  to  his 
prerogative  of  supremacy.  The  distinc- 
tive character  of  the  Roman  church  is 
tiie  supremacy  of  the  papacy.  Its 
doctrines  are  to  be  found  in  the  Apostles’ 
creed,  the  Nicene  creed,  the  Athanasian, 
and  that  of  Pius  IV.  The  latter  added  the 
articles  on  transubstantiation,  invoca- 
tion of  saints,  and  others  which  chiefly 
distinguish  the  Roman  from  other  Chris- 
tian communities.  The  dogmas  of  the 
immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  papal  infallibility  are  recent 
additions.  Roman  Catholics  believe 
that  the  mass  is  the  mystical  sacrifice 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  that  the 
body  and  blood  are  really  present  in  the 
eucharist,  and  that  under  either  kind 


Christ  is  received  whole  and  entire. 
They  also  believe  in  purgatory,  that  the 
Virgin  Mary  and  the  saints  are  to  be 
honored  and  invoked,  and  that  honor 
and  veneration  are  to  be  given  to  their 
images.  Seven  sacraments  are  recog- 
nized, viz.;  Baptism,  confirmation,  the 
holy  eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unc- 
tion, holy  orders,  and  matrimony.  Fast- 
ing and  confession  form  part  of  the  dis- 
cipline. The  clergy  of  the  church  in  the 
west  are  bound  by  a vow  of  celibacy  im- 
plied in  their  ordination  as  sub-deacons. 
The  clergy  of  those  Greek  and  Armenian 
churches  that  are  united  in  communion 
with  the  see  of  Rome,  may  receive  orders 
if  married,  but  may  not  marry  after  ordi- 
nation. Under  the  generic  name  of  Ro- 
man Catholics  are  comprised  all  churches 
which  recognize  the  supremacy  of  the 
Pope  of  Rome,  including  the  United 
Greeks,  Slavonians,  Ruthenians,  Syrians 
Copts,  and  Armenians.  The  supreme 
council  or  senate  of  the  Roman  ehurch 
is  the  college  of  cardinals,  70  in  number, 
who  are  the  advisors  of  the  sovereign, 
and,  on  the  death  of  the  pontiff,  elect 
his  successor.  The  total  number  of 
members  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
has  been  estimated  at  229,000,000. 

ROMANCE,  a fictitious  narrative  in 
prose  or  verse,  the  interest  of  whieh 
turns  upon  incidents  either  marvelous 
or  uncommon.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  class  of  languages  in  which  such 
narratives  in  modern  times  were  first 
widely  known  and  circulated;  these 
were  the  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish, 
called  the  Romance  Languages. 

ROMANCE  LANGUAGES,  those  lan- 
guages of  South  Europe  which  owe  their 
origin  to  the  language  of  Rome — the 
Latin — and  to  the  spread  of  Roman 
dominion  and  civilization.  They  include 
the  Italian,  French,  Provencal,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  Roumanian,  and  Romansch. 
Their  basis  was  not,  however,  the  classic 
Latin  of  literature,  but  the  popular 
Roman  language — the  Lingua  Romana 
rustica  spoken  by  the  Roman  soldiers, 
colonists,  and  others,  and  variously 
modified  by  uneducated  speakers  of  the 
different  peoples  among  whom  it  be- 
came the  general  means  of  communica- 
tion. In  all  of  these  tongues  Latin  is  the 
chief  ingredient,  and  a knowledge  of 
Latin  helps  very  greatly  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  them. 

ROMANESQUE  ARCHITECTURE,  a 
general  and  rather  vague  term  applied 
to  the  styles  of  architecture  which  pre- 
vailed in  Western  Europe  from  the  5th 
to  the  12th  century.  The  Romanesque 
may  be  separated  into  two  divisions; 
(a)  the  debased  Roman,  in  use  from  the 
5th  to  the  8th  century;  and  (b)  the  later 
Romanesque  of  the  8th  to  the  12th  cen- 
tury, which  comprises  the  Lombard, 
Rhenish  or  Gennan,  and  Norman  styles. 
The  former  is  characterized  by  a pretty 
close  imitation  of  the  features  of  Roman, 
with  changes  in  the  mode  of  their  ap- 
plication and  distribution;  the  latter, 
while  based  on  Roman  form,  is  Gothic  in 
spirit,  has  a predominance  of  vertical 
lines,  and  introduces  a number  of  new 
features  and  greatly  modifies  others. 
To  the  former  belong  especially  churches 
of  the  basilica  type  in  various  cities  of 
Italy,  as  also  a number  of  circular 
churches,  and  many  of  these  buildings 


have  a certain  affinity  to  the  Byzantine 
type  of  architecture.  The  semicircular 
arch  is  used  throughout  the  entire  period 
and  the  general  expression  of  the  build- 
ings is  rather  severe.  It  assumes  differ- 
ent phases  in  different  countries.  In 
Romanesque  churches  of  the  9th  and 
the  11th  century  the  prevailing  features 
are;  that  in  plan  the  upper  limb  of  the 
cross  is  short  and  terminated  by  a semi- 
circular or  semioctagonal  apse;  the  tran- 


End  view  and  plan  of  Romanesque  church 
of  Laach  (Rhenish  Prussia). 


septs  frequently  short,  and  often 
rounded  externally;  the  walls  very 
thick,  without  buttresses  or  with  but- 
tresses having  very  slight  projection ; the 
pillars  thick,  sometimes  simply  cylindri- 
cal or  clustered  in  large  masses,  and 
either  plain  or  with  but  simple  decora- 
tion; the  capitals  of  cushion  form,  some- 
times plain,  at  others  enriched  with 
various  ornaments  peculiar  to  the  style. 
Externally,  roofs  of  moderate  pitch, 
towers  square  or  octagonal,  low  or  of 
moderate  elevation,  and  with  termina- 
tions of  pyramidal  character;  windows 
round-headed  and  without  mullions; 
doorways  moderately  recessed  and 


Romanesque  ornament. 

highly  decorated  with  the  cable,  chevron 
and  other  distinctive  ornaments ; arcades 
much  employed  for  decoration,  fre- 
quently by  a continuous  series  round  the 
upper  part  of  the  apse  and  round  the 
upper  parts  of  transepts  also,  when  the 
transepts  are  rounded  externally.  The 
principal  front  is  frequently  flat  and 
decorated  with  arcades  in  successive 
rows  from  the  apex  of  the  roof  till  just 
above  the  portals,  producing  a rich 
effect,  as  at  Pisa  cathedral. 

ROMANS,  Epistle  to  the,  the  most 
elaborate,  and,  in  a doctrinal  point  of 


ROMANTIC 


ROME 


^view,  the  most  important  comjJosition 
of  St.  Paul.  It  sets  forth  that  the  gospel 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  is  a 
power  unto  salvation  to  all  men,  both 
Jews  and  Gentiles.  The  writer  then 
deplores  the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  and 
in  the  practical  part  admonishes  the 
Romans  to  exercise  the  various  gifts 
bestowed  upon  each  in  a spirit  of  love 
and  humility;  he  especially  urges  the 
strong  to  bear  with  the  weak,  and  con- 
cludes with  various  salutations  and 
directions.  In  modern  times  doubts 
have  been  thrown  upon  the  authenticity 
of  the  concluding  portion  of  this  epistle, 
some  critics  regarding  the  whole  of 
chapter  xvi.  as  spurious. 

ROMANTIC,  a term  used  in  literature 
as  contradistinguished  to  antique  or 
classic.  The  name  romantic  school  was 
assumed  about  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  by  a number  of  young  poets  and 
critics  in  Germany,  the  Schlegels, 
Novalis,  Tieck,  etc.,  whose  efforts  were 
directed  to  the  overthrow  of  the  artificial 
rhetoric  and  unimaginative  pedantry  of 
the  French  school  of  poetry.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  a similar  school  which  arose 
in  France  between  twenty  and  thirty 
years  later,  and  which  had  a long  strug- 
gle for  supremacy  with  the  older  classic 
school;  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine,  etc., 
were  the  leaders. 

ROME,  the  most  famous  state  of 
ancient  times,  originally  comprising 
little  more  than  the  city  of  Rome, 
latterly  an  empire  embracing  a great 
part  of  Europe,  North  Africa,  and 
Western  Asia.  The  origin  of  Rome  is 
generally  assigned  to  the  year  753  b.c., 
at  which  time  a band  of  Latins,  one  of 
the  peoples  of  Central  Italy,  founded  a 
small  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber, 
about  15  miles  from  the  sea,  the  popula- 
tion being  subsequently  augmented  by 
the  addition  of  Sabines  and  Etruscans. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  5th  century 
B.C.,  after  extending  her  territory  to 
the  south,  Rome  turned  her  arms  against 
Etruria  in  the  north.  For  ten  years 
(405-396)  the  important  city  of  Veii  is 
said  to  have  been  besieged,  till  in  the 
latter  year  it  was  taken  by  Camillus,  and 
the  capture  of  this  city  was  followed 
by  the  submission  of  all  the  other  towns 
in  the  south  of  Etruria. 

During  the  period  343-264  Rome  was 
engaged  in  many  important  wars,  the 
chief  of  which  were  the  four  Samnite 
wars,  the  great  Latin  war,  the  war  with 
the  Greek  cities  of  Southern  Italy,  and 
the  war  with  Pyrrhus,  the  invader  of 
Italy  from  Greece.  Rome  having  con- 
quered Italy,  felt  at  liberty  to  contend 
for  the  possession  of  Sicily,  at  this  time 
almost  entirely  under  the  dominion  of 
the  great  maritime  power  of  Carthage. 
An  opportunity  for  interfering  in  Sicilian 
affairs  was  easily  found,  and  in  264  B.c. 
the  First  Punic  or  Carthaginian  war 
began.  It  lasted  for  more  than  twenty 
years,  caused  the  loss  of  three  large 
fleets  to  the  Romans,  and  the  defeat  of 
a Roman  army  under  Regulus  in  Africa ; 
but  in  241  a great  victory  over  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  caused  the  latter 
power  to  sue  for  peace 

Meanwhile  the  Carthaginians  had 
been  making  considerable  conquests  in 
Spam,  which  awakened  the  alarm  and 
envy  of  the  Romans,  and  induced  them 

P.  E.~68 


to  enter  into  a defensive  alliance  with 
the  Greek  colony  of  Saguntum,  near  the 
east  coast  of  that  country.  In  221  b.c. 
Hannibal,  the  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca, 
who  had  bravely  and  skilfully  main- 
tained the  Carthaginian  arms  in  Sicily, 
and  had  since  founded  and  in  great  part 
established  the  Carthaginian  empire  in 
Spain,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
Carthaginian  forces.  The  taking  of 
Saguntum,  a city  allied  to  Rome,  oc- 
casioned the  Second  Punic  war,  during 
which  Hannibal  traversed  Gaul,  crossed 
the  Alps,  and  invaded  Italy.  The  war 
lasted  for  sixteen  years  (218-202  b.c.); 
and  was  carried  on  with  consummate 
generalship  on  the  part  of  Hannibal, 
who  inflicted  on  the  Romans  one  of  the 
most  disastrous  defeats  they  ever  sus- 
tained, at  CanniE,  in  216  B.c.  This  great 
man  was  ill  supported  by  his  country, 
and  the  war  terminated  in  favor  of  the 
Romans  through  the  defeat  of  Hannibal 
by  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  at  Zama  in  Africa 
in  202  B.c.  (See  Hannibal.)  One  of  the 
results  was  that  the  power  of  Carthage 
was  broken  and  Spain  practically  be- 
came a Roman  possession. 

Philip  V.  of  Macedonia  had  favored 
Hannibal,  and  so  gave  Rome  a pretext 
to  mix  in  Grecian  affairs.  The  result  was 
that  Macedonia  was  made  a Roman 
province  (148  b.c.),  while  in  the  same 
year  that  Carthage  fell  Corinth  was 
sacked,  and  soon  after  Greece  was  or- 
ganized into  the  province  of  Achaia. 
Previously  Antiochus  the  Great  of 
Syria  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans 
and  part  of  Asia  Minor  brought  into 
vassalage  to  Rome.  In  the  east  Rome 
intrigued  where  she  could,  and  fought 
when  she  was  compelled,  and  by  dis- 
organizing states  made  them  first  her 
dependencies  and  then  her  provinces. 
In  130  B.c.  she  received  by  bequest  the 
dominions  of  Attains  III.  of  Pergamus 
(Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria,  and  Phrygia), 
which  was  formed  into  the  province  of 
Asia.  A serious  war,  almost  of  the  nature 
of  a civil  war,  followed  with  the  Roman 
allies  in  Italy,  who  rose  in  90  b.c.  to 
demand  the  right  of  equal  citizenship 
with  the  people  of  Rome.  This  war, 
known  as  the  Social  war,  lasted  for  two 
years  (90-88  b.c.),  and  ended  in  the  vic- 
tory of  the  Romans,who,  however,  found 
it  advisable  to  concede  the  franchise  to  the 
Italian  tribes  to  prevent  another  rising. 
The  war  had  been  concluded  by  Sulla, 
between  whom  and  Marius  great  rivalry 
prevailed;  and  now  sprang  up  the  first 
Roman  civil  war,  a struggle  between  the 
party  of  Marius  (the  people)  and  that  of 
Sulla  (the  nobles).  Sulla,  the  consul  for 
88,  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Asia 
to  attack  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  a 
war  that  promised  both  glory  and  treas- 
ure. Marius  was  eager  for  the  same  com- 
mand, and  through  intrigue  on  his  be- 
half the  populace  deprived  Sulla  of  the 
chief  command  and  gave  it  to  Marius. 
Thereupon  Sulla  marched  on  Rome 
with  his  legions,  forced  Marius  to  flee 
to  Africa,  and  then  proceeded  to  the 
Mithridatic  war.  In  his  absence  Marius 
returned,  wreaked  a bloody  vengeance 
on  the  partisans  of  his  rival,  and  died 
after  being  appointed  consul  for  the 
seventh  time  (86  b.c.).  Three  years  later 
Sulla  came  back  from  Asia,  having 
brought  the  Mithridatic  war  to  a satis- 


factory conclusion,  and  now  felt  himself 
at  liberty  to  take  his  revenge  on  the 
Marian  party  for  the  atrocities  it  had 
been  guilty  of  toward  his  own  party  in 
his  absence ; and  he  took  it  in  full  meas- 
ure. He  was  appointed  dictator  for 
an  unlimited  term  (81  b.c.),  and  as 
such  passed  a series  of  measures  the 
general  object  of  which  was  to  restore  to 
the  constitution  its  former  aristocratic 
or  oligarchical  character.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  79  b.c.  Sulla  retired  into 
private  life,  and  he  died  the  year  fol- 
lowing. 

The  man  who  now  came  most  promi- 
nently before  the  public  eye  was  Pompey 
one  of  Sulla’s  generals.  His  first  im- 
portant achievement  was  the  subjuga- 
toin  of  the  remnant  of  the  democratic 
or  Marian  party  that  had  gathered  round 
Sertorius  in  Spain  (76-72  b.c.).  On 
his  return  to  Italy  he  extinguished  all 
that  remained  of  an  insurrection  of 
slaves,  already  crushed  by  Crassus  (71), 
and  in  70  b.c.  was  consul  along  with 
Crassus.  In  67  b.c.  he  drove  the  pirates 
from  the  Mediterranean,  and  afterward 
reduced  Cilicia,  which  he  made  into  a 
Roman  province.  He  was  then  ap- 
pointed to  continue  the  war  that  had 
been  renewed  against  Mithridates,  king 
of  Pontus,  whom  he  finally  subdued, 
forming  part  of  his  dominions  in  Asia 
Minor  into  a Roman  province,  and  dis- 
tributing the  rest  among  kings  who  were 
the  vassals  of  Rome.  In  64  b.c.  Pom  pey 
put  an  end  to  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleu- 
cidae  in  Syria,  and  converted  their 
kingdom  into  a province,  and  in  63  b.c. 
advanced  southward  into  Judea,  which 
he  made  tributary  to  Rome.  All  these 
arrangements  were  made  by  him  of  his 
own  authority.  In  the  very  year  in 
which  they  were  completed  a n. ember 
of  the  aristocratic  party,  the  great 
orator  Cicero,  had  earned  great  distinc- 
tion bv  detecting  and  frustrating  the 
Catilinarian  conspiracy. 

Only  three  years  after  these  events 
(60  b.c.)  a union  took  place  at  Rom.e  of 
great  importance  in  the  history  im- 
mediately subsequent.  Caius  Julius 
Caesar,  a man  of  aristocratic  family  who 
had  attached  himself  to  the  democratic 
party  and  had  become  very  popular, 
joined  Pompey  and  Crassus  in  what  is 
called  the  first  triumvirate,  and  prac- 
tically the  three  took  the  governm  ent  of 
Rome  into  their  own  hands.  On  the 
part  of  Caesar,'  who  was  now  elected 
consul,  this  was  the  first  step  in  a career 
which  culminated  in  the  overthrow  of 
the  republic,  and  his  own  elevation  to 
the  position  of  sovereign  of  the  empire. 
After  the  death  of  Crassus  (53  b.c.)  came 
the  struggle  for  supreme  power  between 
Caesar  and  Pompey.  Caesar  had  gained 
great  glory  by  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  but 
now  at  Pompey’s  instigation  was  called 
on  to  resign  his  command  and  disband 
his  army.  Upon  this  he  entered  Italy, 
drove  Pompey  into  Greece,  and  the 
short  civil  war  of  49-48  n.c.,  and  the 
great  battle  of  Pharsalia  in  the  latter 
year,  decided  the  struggle  in  Caesar’s 
favor.  Pompey’s  army  was  utterly 
routed;  he  himself  was  compelled  to 
flee,  and  having  gone  to  Egypt  was 
there  murdered.  In  a short  time  Caesar 
utterly  subdued  the  remains  of  the 
Pompeian  party  and  became  virtually 


ROME 


ROME 


king  in  Rome.  Caesar  was  assassinated 
in  44  B.C.,  and  the  main  result  of  the 
conspiracy  by  which  he  fell  was  that  the 
first  place  in  Rome  had  again  to  be  con- 
tested. The  competitors  this  time  were 
Octavianus,  the  grand-nephew  and 
adopted  son  of  Caesar,  then  only  nine- 
teen, and  Mark  Antony,  one  of  Caesar’s 
generals.  In  43  b.c.  these  two  fonned 
with  Lepidus  what  is  known  as  the 
second  triumvirate;  and  after  avenging 
the  death  of  Caesar  and  putting  an  end 
to  the  republican  party  in  the  battle  of 
Philippi  (42),  Octavian  and  Antony, 
casting  off  Lepidus,  who  was  a weak- 
ling, divided  the  empire  between  them, 
the  former  taking  Rome  and  the  West 
and  the  latter  the  East.  In  ten  years 
war  broke  out  between  the  two,  and  in 
the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (31  b.c.) 
Antony  was  defeated,  and  the  whole 
Roman  world  lay  at  the  feet  of  the  con- 
queror, Egypt  being  also  now  incor- 
porated. Not  long  after  this  Octavian 
received  the  title  of  Augustus,  the  name 
by  which  he  is  known  in  history  as  the 
first  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

In  his  administration  of  the  empire 
Augustus  acted  with  great  judgment, 
ostensibly  adhering  to  most  of  the  re- 
publican forms  of  government,  though 
he  contrived  in  course  of  time  to  obtain 
for  himself  all  the  offices  of  highest 
authority.  The  reign  of  Augustus  is 
chiefly  remarkable  as  the  golden  age  of 
Roman  literature,  but  it  was  a reign  also 
of  conquest  and  territorial  acquisition. 
Before  the  annexation  of  Egypt  Pan- 
nonia  had  been  added  to  the  Roman 
dominions  (35  b.c.),  and  by  the  sub- 
sequent conquest  of  Moesia,  Noricum, 
Rhtetia,  and  Vindelicia,  the  Roman 
frontier  was  extended  to  the  Danube 
along  its  whole  course.  Gaul  and  Spain 
also  were  now  finally  and  completely 
subdued.  The  empire  of  Augustus  thus 
stretched  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Euphrates,  and  from  the  Rhine  and 
the  Danube  to  the  deserts  of  Africa. 
This  emperor  died  in  14  a.d.  His 
reign  is  above  all  memorable  for 
the  birth  of  Christ  in  b.  c.  4.  _ Au- 
gustus was  followed  by  a series  of 
emperors  forming,  when  he  and  Julius 
Ctesar  are  included,  the  sovereigns 
known  as  the  Twelve  Caesars.  The  names 
of  his  successors  and  the  dates  of  their 
deaths  are:  Tiberius,  37  a.d.;  Caligula, 
41;  Claudius,  54;  Nero,  68;  Galba,  69; 
Otho,  69;  Vitellius,  69;  Vespasian, 
79;  Titus,  81;  and  Domitian,  96. 
Nerva’s  reign  was  short  (96-98)  but 
beneficent,  and  he  was  followed  by  four 
emperors,  Trajan,  Hadrian,  Antoninus 
Pius,  and  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  to- 
gether reigned  for  more  than  eighty 
years,  and  under  whom  the  countries 
making  up  the  Roman  empire  enjoyed 
in  common  more  good  government, 
peace,  and  prosperity  than  ever  before 
or  after.  Trajan  (98-117)  was  a warlike 
prince,  and  added  several  provinces  to 
the  Roman  empire.  Hadrian  (117-138), 
the  adopted  son  of  Trajan,  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his 
empire.  It  was  in  his  reign  that  the 
southern  Roman  wall,  or  rampart  be- 
tween the  Tyne  and  the  Solway  Firth, 
was  erected.  Antoninus  Pius  (138-161) 
was  likewise  the  adopted  son  of  his  pre- 
decessor. In  his  reign  the  northern  wall ' 


in  Britain,  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde, 
was  constructed.  The  next  emperor, 
Marcus'  Aurelius  (161-180),  was  both 
the  son-in-law  and  the  adopted  son  of 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  combined  the  qual- 
ities of  a philosopher  with  those  of  an 
able  and  energetic  ruler. 

Commodus  (180-192),  the  son  and 
successor  of  Aurelius,  inherited  none  of 
his  father’s  good  qualities,  and  his  reign, 
from  which  Gibbon  dates  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  empire,  presents  a complete 
contrast  to  those  of  the  five  preceding 
emperors.  In  the  long  list  of  emperors 
who  succeeded  may  be  noted  Septimius 
Severus,  who  reigned  from  193  to  211, 
during  which  time  he  restored  the  em- 
pire to  its  former  prestige.  He  recon- 
quered Mesopotamia  from  the  Par- 
thians,  but  in  Britain  he  confined  the 
Roman  province  to  the  limit  of  Had- 
rian’s 'Wall,  which  he  restored.  He  died 
at  York.  Alexander  Severus,  who 
reigned  from  222  till  235,  was  also  an 
able  ruler,  and  was  also  the  first  emperor 
who  openly  extended  his  protection  to 
the  Christians.  His  death  was  followed 
by  a period  of  the  greatest  confusion. 
The  empire  was  again  consolidated 
under  Aurelian  (270-275),  who  sub- 
dued all  the  other  claimants  to  the 
imperial  dignity,  and  put  an  end 
to  the  Kingdom  of  Palmyra,  which 
was  governed  by  the  heroic  Zenobia. 
The  reign  of  Diocletian  (284-305)  is 
remarkable  as  affording  the  first  ex- 
ample of  that  division  of  the  empire 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  formation 
of  the  empire  of  the  West  and  the  em- 
pire of  the  East.  This  arrangement  tem- 
porarily worked  well,  but  in  323 
Constantine,  the  son  of  Constantins, 
was  left  sole  master  of  the  empire. 
Ever  since  the  time  of  Augustus  and 
Tiberius,  Christianity  had  been  spread- 
ing in  the  Roman  empire,  notwith- 
standing terrible  persecutions.  The 
number  of  churches  and  congregations 
had  increased  in  every  city;  the  old 
religion  had  died  out,  and  very  few  be- 
lieved in  it ; so  at  last  Constantine  judged 
it  wise  to  make  the  Christian  religion 
the  religion  of  the  empire.  He  also  re- 
moved the  seat  of  government  from 
Rome  to  Byzantium,  which  was  hence 
called  Constantinople  (330),  and  com- 
pletely reorganized  the  imperial  ad- 
ministration. Constantine  died  in  337. 
The  empire  was  left  among  histhree  sons, 
of  whom  Constantins  became  solerulerin 
353.  The  next  emperor,  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate, sought  to  restore  the  old  religion 
but  in  vain.  He  was  an  able  ruler,  but 
fell  in  battle  against  the  Persians  in  363. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Jovian,  who 
reigned  less  than  one  year;  and  after  his 
death  (364)  the  empire  was  again  divided, 
Valens  (364-378)  obtaining  the  eastern 
portion,  and  Valentinian  (364-375)  the 
western.  From  this  division,  which  took 
place  in  364,  the  final  separation  of  the 
eastern  and  western  empires  is  often 
dated.  In  the  reigns  of  Valens  and 
Valentinian  great  hordes  of  Huns 
streamed  into  Europe  from  the  steppes 
of  Central  Asia.  After  subduing  the 
eastern  Goths  (Ostrogoths)  they  at- 
tacked those  of  the  west  (Visigoths) ; but 
these,  since  they  had  already  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  were  allowed  by 
Valens  to  cross  from  the  left  to  the  right  1 


bank  of  the  Danube,  and  settle  in  Moesia. 
In  their  new  homes  they  found  them- 
selves exposed  to  the  oppression  and 
rapacity  of  the  Roman  governors,  and 
when  they  could  no  longer  brook  such 
treatment  they  rose  in  rebellion,  and 
defeated  Valens  in  the  sanguinary  battle 
of  Adrianople,  in  the  flight  from  which 
the  emperor  lost  his  life  (378).  His  son 
Gratianus  created  the  heathen  Theo- 
dosius co-regent,  and  intrusted  him  with 
the  administration  of  the  East.  Theo- 
dosius became  a Christian,  fought  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Western  Goths,  but 
was  obliged  to  accept'them  as  allies  in 
their  abodes  in  Moesia  and  Thrace.  In 
394  the  whole  empire  was  reunited  for 
the  last  time  under  Theodosius.  After 
his  death  (395)  the  empire  was  divided 
between  his  two  sons,  Honorius  and 
ArCadius,  and  the  eastern  and  western 
sections  became  pennanent  divisions 
of  the  empire,  the  latter  being  now  un- 
der Honorius.  For  the  further  history  of 
the  empire  of  the  East,  see  Byzantine 
Empire. 

In  402  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths 
who  were  settled  on  the  south  of  the 
Danube,  was  incited  to  invade  Italy, 
but  he  was  soon  forced  to  withdraw  on 
account  of  the  losses  he  suffered  in  battle 
(403).  Scarcely  had  these  enemies  re- 
treated when  great  hosts  of  heathen, 
Teutonic  tribes.  Vandals,  Burgundians, 
Suevi,  and  others,  made  an  irruption  into 
Italy  on  the  north;  but  these  also  were 
overcome  by  Stilicho,  the  guardian  of 
the  youthful  emperor  Honorius,  in  the 
battle  of  Faesulffi  (or  Florence),  and  com- 
pelled to  withrdaw  (406).  The  Bur- 
gundians now  settled  in  part  of  Gaul, 
while  the  Vandals  and  Suevi  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  into  Spain.  In  408  Alaric 
marched  into  Italy,  advanced  up  to  the 
walls  of  Rome,  and  ultimately  took  the 
city  by  storm  (410).  Shortly  after  Alaric 
died,  and  his  brother-in-law  Athaulf 
(Adolphus)  concluded  a treaty  with 
Honorius,  and  retired  into  Gaul,  where 
the  Visigoths  founided  in  the  southwest 
a kingdom  that  extended  originally  from 
the  Garonne  to  the  Ebro  (412).  About 
this  time  also  the  Romans  practically 
surrendered  Britain,  by  withdrawing 
their  forces  from  it,  and  thus  leaving  it 
a prey  to  Teutonic  pirates  and  northern 
savages.  In  429  the  Vandals  wrested 
the  province  of  Africa  from  the  empire 
and  set  up  a Vandalic  kingdom  in  its 
place.  In  452  the  Huns  left  their  set- 
tlements in  immense  numbers  under 
their  king  Attila,  destroyed  Aquileia, 
took  Milan,  Pavia,  Verona,  and  Padua 
by  storm,  laid  waste  the  fruitful  valley 
of  the  Po,  and  were  already  advancing 
on  Rome  when  the  Roman  bishop,  Leo 
I.,  succeeded  in  inducing  them  to  con- 
clude a peace  with  Valentinian,  and 
withdraw.  Soon  after  their  leader 
Attila  died  (453),  and  after  that  the 
Huns  were  no  longer  formidable.  Two 
years  after  the  death  of  Attila,  Eudoxia, 
the  widow  of  Valentinian,  the  successor 
of  Honorius,  invited  the  assistance  of 
the  Vandals  from  Africa,  who  under 
their  leader  Genseric  proceeded  to  Rome 
which  they  took  and  afterward  plun- 
dered for  fourteen  days,  showing  so 
little  regard  to  the  works  of  art  it  con- 
tained as  to  give  to  the  word  vandalism 
the  sense  it  still  expresses  (455).  They 


ROME 


ROME 


then  returned  to  Africa  with  their  booty 
and  prisoners.  After  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Vandals,  Avitus,  a Gaul,  was  in- 
stalled emperor.  Under  him  the  Suevian 
Ricimer,  the  commander  of  the  foreign 
mercenaries  at  Rome,  attained  such  in- 
fluence as  to  be  able  to  set  up  and  depose 
emperors  at  his  pleasure.  The  last  of 
the  so-called  Roman  emperors  was 


Romulus  Augustulus  (475-476  a.d.). 
His  election  had  been  secured  through 
the  aid  of  the  German  troops  in  the  pay 
of  Rome,  and  these  demanded  as  a re- 
ward a third  part  of  the  soil  of  Italy. 
When  this  demand  was  refused,  Odoacer, 
one  of  the  boldest  of  their  leaders,  de- 
posed Romulus,  to  whom  he  allowed 
a residence  in  Lower  Italy  with  a pen- 
sion, and  assumed  to  himself  the  title 
of  King  of  Italy,  thus  putting  an  end  to 
the  Western  Roman  empire,  a.d.  476. 

ROME,  the  capital  of  Italy,  as  for- 
merly of  the  Roman  empire,  republic, 
and  kingdom,  and  long  the  religious 
center  of  western  Christendom,  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  interesting 
cities  of  the  world.  It  stands  on  both 
sides  of  the  Tiber,  about  15  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  ancient  city  occupied  a 
series  of  eminences  of  small  elevation 
known  as  the  seven  hills  of  Rome  (the 
Capitoline,  the  Palatine,  the  Aventine, 
the  Quirinal,  the  Viminal,  the  Esquiline, 
and  the  Cselian  hill),  while  a small  por- 
tion stood  on  the  other  side  of  the  river, 
embracing  an  eighth  hill  (Janiculum). 
The  city  is  tolerably  healthy  during  most 
of  the  year,  but  in  late  summer  and 
early  autumn  malaria  prevails  to  some 
extent. 

Ancient  Rome  was  adorned  with  a 
vast  number  of  splendid  buildings,  in- 
cluding temples,  palaces,  public  halls, 
theaters,  ampitheaters,  baths,  porticoes, 
monuments,  etc.,  of  many  of  which  we 
can  now  form  only  a very  imperfect 
idea.  The  oldest  and  most  sacred  temple 
was  that  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  on  the 
Capitoline  Hill.  The  Pantheon,  a temple 


of  various  gods  (now  church  of  S.  Maria 
Rotonda),  is  still  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion. It  is  a great  circular  building  with 
a dome-roof  of  stone  140  feet  wide  and 
140  feet  high,  a marvel  of  construction, 
being  2 feet  wider  than  the  great  dome 
of  St.  Peter’s.  The  interior  is  lighted  by  a 
single  aperture  in  the  center  of  the  dome. 
Other  temples  were  the  Temple  of 


Apollo,  which  Augustus  built  of  white 
marble,  on  the  Palatine,  containing  a 
splendid  library,  which  served  as  a place 
of  resort  to  the  poets;  the  Temple  of 
Minerva,  which  Pompey  built  in  the 
Campus  Martius,  and  which  Augustus 
covCTed  with  bronze;  the  Temple  of 


Peace,  once  the  richest  and  most  beauti- 
ful temple  in  Rome,  built  by  Vespasian, 
in  the  Via  Sacra,  which  contained  the 
treasures  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  a 
splendid  library,  and  other  curiosities, 
but  was  burned  under  the  reign  of  Corn- 
modus;  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  which 


Aurelian  erected  to  the  east  of  the 
Quirinal ; and  the  magnificent  temple  of 
Venus,  which  Ceesar  caused  to  be  built 
to  her  as  the  origin  of  his  family.  The 
principal  palace  of  ancient  Rome  was 
the  Palatium  or  imperial  palace,  on  the 
Palatine  Hill,  a private  dwelling-house 
enlarged  and  adopted  as  the  imperial 
residence  by  Augustus.  Succeeding  em- 
perors extended  and  beautified  it.  Nero 
built  an  immense  palace  which  was 
burned  in  the  great  fire.  He  began  to 
replace  it  by  another  of  similar  extent, 
which  was  not  completed  till  the  reign 
of  Domitian.  Among  the  theaters,  those 
of  Pompey,  Cornelius  Balbus,  and  Mar- 
cellus  were  the  most  celebrated.  That 
of  Pompey,  in  the  Campus  Martius,  was 
capable  of  containing  40,000  persons. 
Of  the  Theater  of  Marcellus,  completed 
B.c.  13  a portion  still  remains.  The  most 
magnificent  of  the  amphitheaters  was 
that  of  Titus,  completed  a.d.  80,  now 
known  as  the  Coliseum  or  Colosseum. 
Although  only  one-third  of  the  gigantic 
structure  remains,  the  ruins  are  still 
stupendous.  The  principal  of  the  cir- 
cuses was  the  Circus  Maximus,  between 
the  Palatine  and  Aventine,  which  was 
capable  of  containing  260,000  spectators. 
With  slight  exception  its  walls  have 
entirely  disappeared,  but  its  form  is  still 
distinctly  traceable.  The  porticoes  or 
colonnades,  W'hich  were  public  places 
used  for  recreation  or  for  the  transaction 
of  business,  were  numerous  in  the  an- 
cient city,  as  were  also  the  basilicas  or 
public  halls.  Among  them  may  be 
noticed  the  splendid  Basilica  Julia,  com- 
menced by  Ccesar  and  completed  by 
Augustus ; and  the  Basilica  Portia,  which 
was  built  by  Cato  the  censor.  The  public 
baths  or  thermae  in  Rome  were  also  very 
numerous.  The  largest  were  the  Thermae 
of  Titus,  part  of  the  substructure  of 
which  may  still  be  seen  on  the  Esquiline 
Hill;  the  Thermae  of  Caracalla,  even 
larger,  extensive  remains  of  which  still 


exist  in  the  southeast  of  the  city;  and 
the  Thermae  of  Diocletian,  the  largest 
and  most  magnificent  of  all,  part  of 
which  is  converted  into  a church.  Of 
the  triumphal  arches  the  most  celebrated 
are  those  of  Titus  (a.d.  81),  Severus 
(a.d,  203),  and  that  of  Constantine  (a.d. 


nEFEnENOES. 

. Temple  of  Aureliuf- 
:.  Ami>l>ithe&tre. 

V Hall  of  Neptune. 
Ilium  lod  Si'rapinm. 
Teniple  of  Miner>a. 


, Temple  of  Ai-nilo. 

Temple  of  Tr.ijan. 
t Ua'ilica  Ulpia. 
t.  Forum  ofTrnjan. 

. Furum  uf  .Aii|:ustui. 

. Poruni  of  VcxpiKian. 

Baiitm  of  ConsUotiDe. 

1.  Temple  of  Ron»e. 

. tiouie  of  Nero. 

: Home  of  D'lmitiao. 

llouic  of  Augn^lui. 

. Hall  of  Julia— Law  Court. 
>.  Aiyluo). 

• Capitol. 

; Thratrc  of  Maroellua. 

!.  'Ilicatre  of  Pompoy. 

I Dinbitnrmm. 

It  Septa  Julia. 


R^e.— St.  Peter’s  and  the  Vatican. 


ROME 


ROME 


311),  all  in  or  near  the  Forum  and  all 
well-preserved  structures; that  of  Drusus 
(b.c.  8)  in  the  Appian  Way,  much 
mutilated ; that  of  Gallienus  (a.d.262)  on 
the  Esquiline  Hill,  in  a degraded  style 
of  architecture.  Among  the  columns 
the  most  beautiful  was  Trajan’s  Pillar 
in  the  Forum  of  Trajan,  117  feet  in 
height,  still  standing.  The  bas-reliefs 
with  which  it  is  enriched,  extending  in 
spiral  fashion  from  base  to  summit, 
represent  the  exploits  of  Trajan,  and 
contain  about2500  half  and  whole  human 
figures.  A flight  of  stairs  within  the 

Eillar  leads  to  the  top.  The  most  cele- 
rated  of  the  ancient  sewers  is  the 
Cloaca  Maxima,  ascribed  to  Tarquinius 
Priscus,  a most  substantial  structure, 
the  outlet  of  which  is  still  to  be  seen. 
The  Roman  aqueducts  were  formed  by 
erecting  one  or  several  rows  of  arches 
superimposed  on  each  other  across  a 
valley,  and  making  the  structure  sup- 
port a waterway  or  canal,  and  by  pierc- 
ing through  hills  which  interrupted  the 
watercourse.  Some  of  them  brought 
water  from  a distance  of  upward  of 
60  miles.  Among  others,  the  Acqua 
Paola,  the  Acqua  Trajana,  and  the 
Acqua  Marzia,  still  remain  and  con- 
tribute to  the  supply  of  the  city,  and  also 
its  numerous  important  ornamental 
fountains.  Among  the  magnificent 
sepulchral  monuments,  the  chief  were 
the  mausoleum  of  Augustus  in  the  Cam- 
pus Martius ; and  that  of  Hadrian,  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Tiber,  now  the  fortress 
of  modern  Rome,  and  known  as  the 
Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The  city  was  also 
rich  in  splendid  private  buildings,  and 
in  the  treasures  of  art,  with  which  not 
only  the  public  places  and  streets,  but 
likewise  the  residences  and  gardens  of 
the  principal  citizens,  were  ornamented, 
and  of  which  comparatively  few  ves- 
tiges have  survived  the  ravages  of  time. 
The  catacombs  of  Rome  are  subterran- 
ean galleries  which  were  used  as  burial- 
places  and  meeting-places,  chiefly  by 
the  early  Christians,  and  which  extend 
under  the  city  itself  as  well  as  the 
neighboring  country.  The  chief  are 
the  catacombs  of  Calixtus,  St.  Praetexta- 
tus  on  the  Via  Appia;  of  St.  Priscilla  2 
miles  beyond  the  Porta  Salora;  of  St. 
Agnese,  outside  the  Porta  Pia;  of  S. 
Sebastiano,  beneath  the  church  of  that 
name,  etc. 

Among  the  principal  streets  and 
squares  of  modern  Rome  are  the  Piazza 
del  Popolo  immediately  within  the 
Porta  del  Popolo  on  the  north  side  of  the 
city  near  the  Tiber,  with  a fine  Egyptian 
obelisk  in  its  center,  and  two  handsome 
churches  in  front,  standing  so  far  apart 
from  each  other  and  from  the  adjoining 
buildings  as  to  leave  room  for  the  diverg- 
ence of  three  principal  streets,  the  Via  di 
Ripetta,  the  Corso,  and  the  Via  del 
Babuino.  The  Corso,  recently  widened 
and  extended,  stretches  for  upward  of  a 
mile  in  a direct  line  to  its  termination  at 
the  Piazza  di  Venezia,  not  far  from  the 
Capitol,  and  is  the  finest  street  in  the 
city.  The  appearance  of  the  capitol  has 
been  entirely  altered  to  pennit  the 
erection  of  a monument  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel. The  Via  del  Babuino  proceeds 
first  directly  to  the  Piazza  di  Spagna, 
thence  to  the  Quirinal,  and  by  a tunnel 
opens  out  on  the  Esquiline.  It  contains 


a large  number  of  handsome  edifices. 
The  whole  of  the  city  to  the  east  of  this 
street,  and  in  the  triangular  space  in- 
cluded between  it  and  the  Corso,  is  well 
aired  and  healthy,  and  is  regarded  as  the 
aristocratic  quarter.  The  Ghetto,  or 
Jews’  quarter,  which  occupied  several 
mean  streets  parallel  to  the  river  and 
connected  by  narrow  lanes,  was  cleared 
away  by  the  municipal  improvements 
in  1889.  The  city  is  supplied  with  good 
water  partly  by  the  above-mentioned 
aqueducts,  which,  constructed  under  the 
greatest  difficulties  five-and-twenty  cen- 
turies ago,  still  serve  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  built,  and  remain  monu- 
ments of  engineering  skill.  The  chief 
open  spaces  besides  the  Piazza  del 
Popolo  are  the  Piazza  S.  Pietro,  with  its 
extensive  colonnade ; the  Piazza  Navona 
adorned  with  two  churches  and  three 
fountains,  one  at  each  extremity  and 
the  third  in  the  center;  the  Piazza  di 
Spagna,  adorned  by  a monumental  pillar 
and  a magnificent  staircase  of  travertine, 
leading  to  the  church  of  Trinity  de’ 
Monti,  conspicuously  seated  on  an 
eminence  above  it;  the  Piazza  Berberini, 
beside  the  palace  of  the  same  name, 
adorned  by  a beautiful  fountain;  the 
Piazza  Colonna,  in  the  center  of  the  city, 
with  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius;  near  it, 
in  the  Piazza  di  Monte  Citorio,  is  the 
spacious  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Larger 
spaces  for  amusement  or  exercise  have 
been  formed  only  in  a few  spots.  One 
of  the  finest  is  the  Pincio,  or  “hill  of 
gardens,’’  overlooking  the  Piazza  del 
Popolo,  and  commanding  a fine  view. 
It  is  a fashionable  drive  toward  evening, 
and  presents  a gay  and  animated  ap- 
pearance. At  a short  distance  outside 
the  walls  on  the  north  of  the  city  is  the 
Villa  Borghese,  forming  a finely-planted 
and  richly-decorated  park  of  3 miles  in 
circuit,  which,  though  private  property, 
forms  the  true  public  park  of  Rome,  and 
is  the  favorite  resort  of  all  classes.  Vari- 
ous localities  in  and  near  Rome  that 
were  malarious  have  been  rendered 
healthy  by  planting  eucalyptus  trees. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  churches 
is  of  course  the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter, the 
largest  and  most  imposing  to  be  found 
anywhere,  for  the  history  and  descrip- 
tion of  which  see  Peter’s  (St.).  Another 
remarkable  church  is  that  of  San  Gio- 
vanni in  Laterano,  on  an  isolated  spot 
near  the  south  wall  of  the  city.  It  was 
built  by  Constantine  the  Great,  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  896, 
re-erected  (904-911),  burned  in  1308, 
restored  and  decorated  by  Giotto.  Again 
burned  in  1360,  rebuilt  by  Urban  IV. 
and  Gregory  XI.,  and  has  undergone  var- 
ious alterations  and  additions  from 
1430  till  the  present  facade  was  erected 
in  1734.  A modern  extension  has  in- 
volved the  destruction  of  the  ancient 
apse.  From  the  central  balcony  the 
pope  pronounces  his  benediction  on 
Ascension-day;  and  the  church  is  the 
scene  of  the  councils  which  bear  its 
name.  The  residence  of  the  popes  ad- 
joined this  church  until  the  migration  to 
Avignon;  it  is  now  occupied  by  the 
Gregorian  museum  of  the  Lateran. 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  which  ranks 
third  among  the  basilicas,  was  founded 
by  Pop®  Liberius  (352-366),  but  has 
since  had  many  alterations  and  addi- 


tions, the  more  notable  being  those  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  Its  interior, 
adorned  with  thirty-six  Ionic  pillars  of 
white  marble  supporting  the  nave,  and 
enriched  with  mosaics,  is  well  preserved 
and  one  of  the  finest  of  its  class.  Santa 
Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  the  fourth  of  the 
Roman  basilicas,  takes  its  name  from  its 
supposed  possession  of  a portion  of  the 
true  cross,  and  a quantity  of  earth  which 
was  brought  from  Jerusalem  and  mixed 
with  its  foundation.  Another  church  is 
that  of  San  Clemente,  on  the  Esquiline, 
a very  ancient  church,  said  to  have  been 
founded  on  the  house  of  Clement,  St. 
Paul’s  fellow-laborer,  by  Constantine, 
and  containing  a number  of  interesting 
frescoes  by  Masaccio.  It  consists  of  a 
lower  and  an  upper  church,  and  from  an 
archseological  point  of  view  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting.  Qthers  are  II  Gesu, 
on  the  Corso,  the  principal  church  of  the 
Jesuits,  with  a facade  and  cupola  by 
Giacomo  della  Porta  (1577),  and  an  in- 
terior enriched  with  the  rarest  marbles 
and  several  fine  paintings,  decorated  in 
the  most  gorgeous  style,  and  containing 
the  monument  of  Cardinal  Bellarmine; 
Sta.  Maria-degli-Angeli,  originally  a 
part  of  Diocletian’s  Baths,  converted 
into  a church  by  Michael  Angelo,  one  of 
the  most  imposing  which  Rome  possesses 
and  containing  an  altar-piece  by  Mu- 
ziano,  a fine  fresco  by  Domenichino,  and 
the  tomb  of  Salvator  Rosa;  Sta.  Maria 
in  Ara  Coeli,  on  the  Capitoline,  a very 
ancient  church  approached  by  a very 
long  flight  of  stairs,  remarkable  for  its 
architecture  and  for  containing  the 
figure  of  the  infant  Christ  called  the 
santissimo  bambino;  Sta.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin,  at  the  northern  base  of  the 
Aventine,  remarkable  for  its  fine  Alex- 
andrine pavement  and  its  lofty  and 
beautiful  campanile  of  the  8th  century; 
Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  so  called  from 
occupying  the  site  of  a temple  of  that 
goddess,  begun  in  1285  and  restored 
1848-55,  remarkable  as  the  only  Gothic 
church  in  Rome;  and  Sta.  Maria  in  Do- 
minica or  della  Navicella,  on  the  Cselian, 
remarkable  for  eighteen  fine  columns  of 
granite  and  two  of  porphyry,  and  the 
frieze  of  the  nave  painted  in  camaieu  by 
Giulio  Romano  and  Perino  del  Vaga. 
Among  other  notable  churches  are  Sta. 
Maria  della  Pace,  celebrated  for  its 
paintings,  particularly  the  four  Sibyls, 
considered  among  the  most  perfect 
works  of  Raphael;  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo, 
interesting  from  the  number  of  its  fine 
sculptures  and  paintings  (Jonah  by 
Raphael,  ceiling  frescoes  by  Pinturicchio 
and  mosaics  from  Raphael’s  cartoons  by 
Aloisio  della  Pace) ; Sta.  Maria  in  Tras- 
tevere,  a very  ancient  church,  first 
mentioned  in  449,  re-erected  by  Inno- 
cent III.  in  1140,  and  recently  restored; 
San  Paolo  fuori  le  Mura,  erected  to  mark 
the  place  of  St.  Paul’s  martyrdom, 
founded  in  388,  and  restored  and  em- 
bellished by  many  of  the  popes,  burned 
in  1823,  and  since  rebuilt  with  much 
splendor.  It  is  of  great  size,  and  has 
double  aisles  and  transepts  borne  by 
columns  of  granite.  Above  the  columns 
of  the  nave,  aisles,  and  transepts  there  is 
a continuous  frieze  enriched  by  circular 
pictures  in  mosiac,  being  portraits  of  • 
the  popes  from  St.  Peter  onward,  each 
5 feet  in  diameter.  Between  the  win- 


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dows  in  the  upper  part  of  the  nave 
are  large  modern  pictures  representing 
scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Paul. 

The  Vatican,  adjoining  St.  Peter’s, 
comprises  the  old  and  new  palace  of 
the  popes  (the  latter  now  the  ordinary 
papal  residence^;,  the  sistine  chapel,  the 
Loggie  and  Stanze,  containing  some  of 
the  most  important  works  of  Raphael, 
the  picture-gallery,  the  museums  (Pio- 
Clementino,  Chiaramonti,  Etruscan  and 
Egyptian),  and  the  library  (220,000 
vols.  and  over  25,000  MSS.).  The 
palace  on  the  Quirinal  was  formerly  a 
favorite  summer  residence  of  the  popes, 
but  is  now  occupied  by  the  King  of 
Italy.  Among  the  other  palaces  are 
the  Palazzo  della  Cancelleria,  the  Sena- 
torial Palace  in  which  the  senate  holds 
its  meetings,  the  Palazzo  Barberini, 
Borghese,  Colonna,  Corsini  Farnese, 
etc.,  etc. 

Associations  and  institutions  con- 
nected with  art,  science,  or  learning  are 
numerous;  one  of  them,  the  Accademia 
de’  Lincei,  founded  in  1603  by  Galileo 
and  his  contemporaries,  is  the  earliest 
scientific  society  of  Italy.  Besides  the 
Vatican  library  mentioned  above,  the 
chief  are  the  Vittorio  Emanuelo,  500,000 
vols.;  Biblioteca  Casanatense,  200,000 
vols.;  the  Biblioteca  Angelica,  150,000 
vols.;  the  Biblioteca  Barberini,  100,000 
vols.,  and  over  10,000  MSS.,  etc.  For 
elementary  education  much  has  been 
done  since  the  papal  rule  came  to  an 
end.  Hospitals  and  other  charitable 
foundations  are  numerous.  The  prin- 
cipal hospital,  called  Spirito  Santo,  a 
richly-endowed  institution  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber,  combines  a 
foundling  hospital  (with  accommodation 
for  3000),  a lunatic  asylum  (accommo- 
dation for  500),  an  ordinary  infirmary 
(accommodation  for  1000),  and  a refuge 
for  girls  and  aged  and  infirm  persons. 
The  chief  theaters  are  the  Teatro  Apollo, 
Teatro  Argentina,  Teatro  Valle,  the  Ca- 
pranica,  Metastasio,  Rossini,  Costanzi, 
etc. 

The  external  trade  is  unimportant, 
and  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  rail,  the 
Tiber  being  navigated  only  by  small 
craft.  There  are  railway  lines  connecting 
with  the  general  system  of  Italy;  and 
steamers  run  from  Civita  Vecchia  and 
Fiumicino  to  Naples,  Leghorn,  Genoa, 
etc.  For  local  passenger  traffic  there  are 
now  horse  and  electric  tramways.  A 
ship  canal  is  projected  to  connect  the 
city  with  the  sea.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  woolen  and  silk  goods,  artificial 
flowers,  earthenware,  jewelry,  musical 
strings,  mosaics,  casts,  and  various  ob- 
jects of  art.  The  trade  Is  chiefly  in  these 
articles,  and  in  olive-oil,  pictures,  and 
antiquities.  Pop.  490,620. 

ROME,  a city  in  Oneida  co..  New 
York,  on  the  Mohawk  river,  109  miles 
w.n.w.  of  Albany ; has  considerable  man- 
ufactures of  machinery,  iron,  and 
builders’  wood-work,  and  a large  trade 
in  dairy  produce.  Pop.  15,343. 

ROM'ULUS  was  the  mythical  founder 
and  first  king  of  Rome.  His  mother  was 
the  Vestal  virgin,  Sylvia  or  Ilia,  a 
daughter  of  Numitor,  king  of  Alba.  By 
the  god  Mar^  she  became  the  mother  of 
the  twins  Romulus  and  Remus,  who 
were  ordered  by  Amulius,  the  usurping 
brother  of  Numitor,  to  be  thrown  into 


the  Anio.  The  basket  containing  the  two 
boys  was  stranded  beneath  a fig-tree  at 
the  foot  of  the  Palatine  Hill,  and  they 
were  suckled  by  a she-wolf  and  fed  by 
a woodpecker,  until  they  were  accident- 
ally found  by  Faustulus,  the  king’s 
herdsman,  who  took  them  home  and 
educated  them.  When  they  had  grown 
up  they  organized  a band  of  enterprising 
comrades,  by  whose  help  they  deposed 
Amulius  and  reinstated  Numitor  on  his 
throne.  They  next  resolved  to  found  a 
city,  but  as  they  disagreed  as  to  the  best 
site  for  it,  they  resolved  to  consult  the 
omens.  'The  decision  was  in  favor  of 
Romulus,  who  immediately  began  to 
raise  the  walls.  This  is  said  to  have 
happened  in  the  year  753  (according  to 
others  752  or  751)  b.c.  Remus,  who 
resented  his  defeat,  leaped  over  the  rude 
rampart  in  scorn,  whereupon  Romulus 
slew  him.  Romulus  soon  attracted  a con- 
siderable number  of  men  to  his  new  city 
by  making  it  a place  of  refuge  for  every 
outlaw  or  broken  man,  but  women  were 
still  wanting.  He  therefore  invited  the 
Sabines  with  their  wives  and  daughters 
to  a religious  festival,  and  in  the  midst 
of  the  festivities  he  and  his  followers 
suddenly  attacked  the  unarmed  guests, 
and  carried  off  the  women  to  the  new 
city.  This  led  to  a war,  which  was,  how- 
ever, ended  at  the  entreaties  of  the 
Sabine  wives,  and  the  two  states 
coalesced.  Romulus  is  said  finally  to 
have  miraculously  disappeared  in  a 
thunderstorm  (b.c.716). 

RONDO  (Italian),  or  RONDEAU 
(French),  a poem  of  thirteen  lines, 
usually  octosyllabic,  written  throughout 
on  two  rhymes  and  arranged  in  three 
unequal  stanzas;  while  the  two  or  three 
first  words  are  repeated  as  a refrain  after 
the  eighth  and  thirteenth  lines.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a musical  com- 
position, vocal  or  instrumental,  gen- 
erally consisting  of  three  strains,  the 
first  of  which  closes  in  the  original  key, 
while  each  of  the  others  is  so  constructed 
in  point  of  modulation  as  to  reconduct 
the  ear  in  an  easy  and  natural  manner  to 
the  first  strain. 

ROOD,  a measure  of  surface,  the 
fourth  part  of  an  acre,  equal  to  40  square 
poles  or  perches,  or  to  1210  square  yards. 

ROOF,  the  cover  of  any  building,  irre- 
spective of  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
composed.  Roofs  are  distinguished,  Ist, 


Oftble  Root 

by  the  materials  of  which  they  are 
mainly  formed,  as  stone,  wood,  slate, 
tile,  thatch,  iron,  etc. ; 2d,  by  their  form 


Hiproof.  Conical  roof.  Ogee  roof. 


and  mode  of  construction  as  shed,  curb, 
hip,  gable,  pavilion,  ogee,  and  flat  roofs. 
The  span  of  a roof  is  the  width  between 
the  supports ; the  rise  is  the  height  in  the 
center  above  the  level  of  the  supports; 


the  pitch  is  the  slope  or  angle  at  which 
it  is  inclined.  In  carpentry  roof  signifies 
the  timber  framework  by  which  the 
roofing  materials  of  the  building  are 


Curb  roof.  M-roof. 


supported.  This  consists  in  general  of 
the  principal  rafters,  the  purlins,  and 
the  common  rafters.  The  principal 
rafters,  or  principals,  are  set  across  the 


o,  King-post,  cc.  Struts  or  braces,  ee.  Backs 
or  principal  rafters,  gg.  Wall-plates,  b.  Tie- 
beam.  dd.  Purlins,  fj.  Common  rafters.  A, 
Ridge-piece. 

building  at  about  10  or  12  feet  apart] 
the  purlins  lie  horizontally  upon  these, 
and  sustain  the  common  rafters,  which 
carry  the  covering  of  the  roof.  Some- 


ag.  Queen-posts,  cc.  Struts  or  braces,  e, 
Strainmg-beam.  gg.  Wall-plates,  b.  Tie-beam. 
dd.  Purlins,  ff.  Common  rafters,  h,  Ridge- 
piece. 

times,  when  the  width  of  the  building  is 
not  great,  common  rafters  are  used  alone 
to  support  the  roof. 

ROOK,  a bird  of  the  crow  family, 
differing  from  the  crow  in  not  feeding 
upon  carrion,,  but  on  insects  and  grain. 
It  is  also  specially  distinguished  by  its 
gregarious  habits,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  base  of  the  bill  is  naked,  as  well  as 
the  forehead  and  upper  part  of  the 
throat.  In  Britain  and  Central  Europe 
the  rook  is  a permanent  resident;  but 
in  the  north  and  south  it  is  migratory 
in  habits. 

ROOSEVELT,  Theodore,  the  twenty- 
sixth  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1858.  He  was 
elected  to  the  New  York  assembly  in 
1881,  and  allied  himself  with  the  repub- 
lican minority.  He  was  a delegate  to  the 
republican  national  convention  of  1884. 
In  1886  he  was  the  republican  candidate 
for  mayor  of  New  York  City.  From 
1889  to  1895  he  was  a member  of  the 
United  States  civil  service  commission, 
being  appointed  by  President  Harrison 
and  retained  by  President  Cleveland. 
In  1895  he  became  president  of  the  police 
board  in  New  York  City  and  served  for 
two  years.  President  McKinley  in  1897 
appointed  him  assistant  secretary  of 
the  navy,  and  his  work  was  of  value  in 
hurrying  the  navy  to  readiness  for  the 


Shed  Roof 


ROOT 


ROSE 


war  with  Spain.  He  resigned  from  the 
department  in  April,  1898,  and  was 
active  in  organizing  the  First  United 
States  Volunteer  Cavalry,  popularly 
known  as  “Roosevelt’s  Rough  Riders.’’ 
He  was  first  lieutenant-colonel  and 
afterward  colonel,  being  promoted  for 
gallantry  in  the  action  at  Las  Guasimas, 
Cuba. 

He  was  elected  in  1898  governor  of 
New  York.  He  was  nominated  for  vice- 
president  in  1900,  and  was  elected  in 
November  of  the  same  year.  On  Sep- 
tember 14,  1901,  at  the  death  of  Mc- 
Kinley, Roosevelt  became  his  successor. 
He  was  nominated  in  1904  for  the  presi- 


dency and  was  elected  over  Parker,  his 
democratic  opponent,  by  a plurality  of 
2,549,331,  and  a majority  over  all  of 
1,761,998.  The  vote  in  the  electoral 
college  was  Roosevelt  336,  Parker  140. 
This  was  the  largest  popular  majority 
ever  given  a presidential  candidate. 
Upon  his  election  Roosevelt  declared 
he  would  not  accept  a renomination  and 
held  to  that  determination  despite  the 
pressure  upon  him  by  his  friends.  His 
administration  was  marked  by  the  real 
beginning  of  the  Panama  canal,  his 
vigorous  opposition  to  trusts  and  his 
attempts  to  reconcile  capital  and  labor. 
Upon  his  retirement  in  1909,  he  left  for 
a hunting  trip  in  Africa. 

Mr.  Roosevelt  is  the  author  of  the 
following  works:  The  Naval  War  of 
1812,  Life  of  Thomas  Hart  Benton  and 
Life  of  Gouverneur  Morris,  Ranch  Life 
and  Hunting  Trail,  History  of  New  York 
City,  The  Winning  of  the  West,  4 vols.; 
Essays  on  Practical  Politics,  The  Wilder- 
ness Hunter,  American  Political  Ideals, 
Tlie  Rough  Riders,  Life  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, The  Strenuous  Life. 

ROOT,  Elihu,  an  American  lawyer, 
was  born  at  Clinton,  N.  Y.,  in  1845. 
He  began  to  practice  law  in  1867,  was 
especially  successful  as  a corporation 
law'yer,  and  was  counsel  for  the  sugar 
trust,  for  New  York  street  railways,  and 
for  various  railroad  companies.  From 
1883  to  1885  he  was  United  States  dis- 
trict attorney  in  New  York  City.  In 
1899  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war 
to  succeed  Russell  A.  Alger.  He  con- 
tinued in  office  during  McKinley’s 
second  administration  and  under  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  until  the  summer  of 
1903,  when  he  resigned  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  William  H.  Taft.  He  was 
a member  of  the  Alaskan  boundary 
dispute  in  1903,  and  in  1905  was  up- 


oointed  by  -President  Roosevelt  secrc 
tary  of  state. 

ROOT,  George  Frederick,  musician, 
was  born  in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  August  30, 
1820.  He  was  self-taught  in  the  art, 
and  in  his  eighteenth  year  he  went  to 
Boston  to  become  a teacher  of  music. 
In  1844  he  removed  to  New  York;  he 
taught  there  for  a while,  and  in  1850 
he  went  to  Paris  to  study.  In  1859  he 
became  a member  of  the  Chicago  music 
house  of  Root  and  Cady.  Many  of 
his  songs  have  achieved  great  popularity 
particularly  his  war  songs,  among  which 
are  Battle  Cry  of  Freedom,  Tramp, 
Tramp,  Tramp,  Just  Before  the  Battle, 
Mother,  lie  died  in  1905. 

ROPE,  a general  name  applied  to 
cordage  over  1 inch  in  circumference. 
Ropes  are  usually  made  of  hemp,  flax, 
cotton,  coir,  or  other  vegetable  fiber,  or 
of  iron,  steel,  or  other  metallic  wire.  A 
hempen  rope  is  composed  of  a certain 
number  of  yarns  or  threads  which  are 
first  spun  or  twisted  into  strands,  and 
the  finished  rope  goes  under  special 
names  according  to  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  the  strands  of  which  it  is 
composed.  A hawser-laid  rope  is  com- 
posed of  three  strands  twisted  left-hand, 
the  yarn  being  laid  up  right-hand.  A 
cable-laid  rope  consists  of  three  strands 
of  hawser-laid  rope  twisted  right-hand; 
it  is  called  also  water-laid,  or  right-hand 
rope.  A shroud-laid  rope  consists  of  a 
central  strand  slightly  twisted,  and  three 
strands  twisted  around  it,  and  is  thus 
called  also  four-strand  rope.  A flat  rope 


Splices  of  ropes. 

a.  Short  splice.  6,  Long  splice,  c,  Eye  splice. 

usually  consists  of  a series  of  hawser- 
laid  ropes  placed  side  by  side  and  fas- 
tened together  by  sewing  in  a zigzag 
direction.  Wire  ropes  are  made  of  a cer- 
tain number  of  wires  twisted  into  the 
requisite  number  of  strands,  and  are 
now  extensively  used  in  the  rigging  of 
ships  as  well  as  for  cables.  For  greater 
flexibility  hempen  cores  are  used;  thus 
for  instance  we  may  have  a rope  of  six 
strands  around  a hempen  core,  each 
strand  consisting  of  six  wires  around  a 
smaller  hempen  core.  Steel-wire  makes 
a considerably  stronger  rope  than  iron 
wire.  Coir  ropes  are  much  used  on  board 
ships,  as,  though  not  so  strong  as  hemp, 
they  are  not  injured  by  the  salt  water. 

RORQUAL,  the  name  given  to  certain 
whales,  closely  allied  to  the  common 


or  whalebone  ■whales,  but  distinguished 
by  having  a dorsal  fin,  with  the  throat 


and  under  parts  wrinkled  with  deep 
longitudinal  folds,  which  are  supposed 
to  be  susceptible  of  great  dilatation,  but 
the  use  of  which  is  as  yet  unknown. 
Two  or  three  species  are  known,  but 
they  are  rather  avoided  on  account  of 
their  ferocity,  the  shortness  and  coarse- 
ness of  their  baleen  or  whalebone,  and 
the  small  quantity  of  oil  they  produce. 
The  northern  rorqual  attains  a great 
size,  being  found  from  80  to  over  ICc 
feet  in  length,  and  is  thus  the  largest 
living  animal  known.  The  rorqual  feeds 
on  cod,  herring,  pilchards,  and  other 
fish,  in  pursuing  which  it  is  not  seldom 
stranded  on  the  British  shores. 

ROSA'CE.®,  a large  and  important 
order  of  plants,  of  which  the  rose  is  the 
type,  distinguished  by  having  several 
petals,  distinct,  perigynous,  separate 
carpels,  numerous  stamens,  alternate 
leaves,  and  an  exogenous  mode  of 
growth.  The  species,  including  herbs, 
shrubs,  and  trees,  are  for  the  most  part 
inhabitants  of  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
world.  Scarcely  any  are  annuals.  The 
apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry,  peach,  al- 
mond, nectarine,  apricot,  straw'berry, 
raspberry,  and  similar  fruits,  are  the 
produce  of  the  order.  Some  of  the  species 
are  also  important  as  medicinal  plants. 

ROSA'RIO,  a town  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  in  the  province  of  Santa  Fe, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Parand,  170 
miles  northwest  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Pop. 
93,584. 

RO'SARY,  among  Roman  Catholics 
the  recitation  of  the  Ave  Maria  and  the 
Lord’s  Prayer  a certain  number  of  times. 
The  name  is  also  commonly  given  to  the 
string  of  beads  by  means  of  which  the 
prayers  are  counted.  The  complete  or 
Dominican  rosary  consists  of  150  small 
beads  for  the  Aves,  divided  into  groups 
of  10  by  15  large  beads  for  the  Pater- 
nosters. The  ordinary  rosary  has  only 
50  small  beads  and  5 large  beads;  but  if 
repeated  thrice  makes  up  the  full  rosary., 
A doxology  is  said  after  every  tenth  Ave. 
The  use  of  rosaries  was  probably  in- 
troduced by  the  Crusaders  from  the 
East,  for  both  Mohammedans  and 
Buddhists  make  use  of  strings  of  beads 
while  repeating  their  prayers;  but  St. 
Dominic  is  usually  regarded  as  the 
inventor  in  the  Roman  church. 

ROSCOM'MON,  an  inland  county  of 
Ireland,  in  the  east  of  the  province  of 
Connaught,  has  an  area  of  607,691 
acres,  of  which  480,813  are  productive. 
The  chief  towns  are  Roscommon,  Boyle, 
and  Castlerea.  The  cotinty  sends  two 
members  to  parliament.  Pop.  101,639. 

ROSE,  the  beautiful  and  fragrant 
flower  which  has  given  name  to  the 
largest  natural  order  Rosacese,  seems  to 
be  confined  to  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
northern  hemisphere.  The  species  are 
numerous,  and  are  extremely  difficult  to 
distinguish.  They  are  prickly  shrubs, 
with  pinnate  leaves,  provided  with 
stipules  at  their  base;  the  flowers  are 
very  large  and  showy;  the  calyx  con- 
tracts toward  the  top,  where  it  divides 
into  five  lanceolate  segments;  the  corolla 
has  five  petals,  and  the  stamens  are 
numerous;  the  seeds  are  numerous, 
covered  with  a sort  of  down,  and  are 
attached  to  the  interior  of  the  tube  of 
the  calyx,  which,  after  flowering,  takes 
the  form  of  a fleshy  globular  or  ovoid 


ROSEBERY 


ROSS 


' berry.  The  rose  is  easily  cultivated  and 
its  varieties  are  almost  endless. 

ROSEBERY,  Archibald  Philip  Prim- 
rose, Earl  of,  born  in  1847,  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  succeeded  his 
’ grandfather  in  1868.  In  1892-94  he  was 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs  under  Mr. 
■ Gladstone,  and  in  1894-95  he  was  him- 
self Prime  Minister.  He  has  advocated 
the  reform  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  is 
much  interested  in  the  questions  of  iin- 
perial  federation  and  the  social  condi- 
tion of  the  masses.  In  1878  he  married 
Hannah,  daughter  of  Baron  Mayer  de 
Rothschild,  but  lost  his  wife  in  1890. 
He  is  author  of  works  on  Pitt  and  on 
Napoleon. 

ROSECRANS  (ro'ze-krSnz),  William 
Starke,  American  general,  was  born  at 
Kingston,  Ohio,  in  1819.  He  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1842.  In  June,  1861,  he 
was  appointed  colonel  of  the  twenty- 
third  Ohio.  He  took  part  in  General 
McClellan’s  West  Virginia  campaign 
and  won  the  battle  of  Rich  mountain. 
I Shortly  afterward  he  was  put  in  com- 
mand  of  the  federal  forces  in  western 
! Virginia.  In  1862  he  commanded  the 
right  wing  of  the  army  of  the  Mississippi 
in  the  advance  on  Corinth,  fought  the 
; battle  of  luka,  and  successfully  defended 
‘ Corinth  against  Generals  Van  Dorn  and 
I Price,  and  relieved  General  Buell  as 
t commander  of  the  army  of  the  Cumber- 
jf  land.  He  defeated  General  Bragg  in  the 


W.  S.  Rosecrans. 


battle  of  Murfreesboro,  or  Stoneriver. 
In  1864  he  moved  into  East  Tennessee, 
and  was  defeated  by  Bragg  in  the  battle 
of  Chickamauga.  Rosecrans  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Thomas,  and  after  a short 
period  of  service  in  charge  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri  he  was  relieved  of  all 
command.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
resigned  from  the  army;  in  1868  he 
served  as  minister  to  Mexico.  He  was 
elected  to  congress  in  1880  and  again  in 
1882,  as  a democrat.  . From  1885  to 
1893  he  was  register  of  the  United 
States  treasury.  In  1889  congress  passed 
an  act  restoring  him  to  the  rank  and 
pay  of  a brigadier-general.  He  died  in 
1898. 

ROSE-CHAFER,  or  ROSE-BEETLE, 

a beetle  which  frequents  roses,  feeding 
on  the  honey  they  contain.  The  rose- 
chafer  or  rose-bug  of  the  United  States  is 
destructive  to  roses  and  other  plants. 

ROSEMARY,  a shrubby  aromatic 
plant,  a native  of  S.  Europe.  It  has  but 
two  stamens;  the  leaves  dark  green,  with 
a white  under  surface;  the  flowers  are 
pale  blue.  At  one  time  of  considerable 
repute  for  medicinal  purposes,  rosemary 
is  now  esteemed  chiefly  for  yielding, 
by  distillation,  the  aromatic  perfume 
known  as  oil  of  rosemary. 

ROSE  OF  JERICHO,  a small  crucifer- 
ous plant,,  growing  in  the  arid  wastes 
of  Arabia  and  Palestine.  When  full 


grown  and  ripe  its  leaves  drop  and  it 
becomes  rolled  up  like  a ball  in  the  dry 
season,  but  opens  its  branches  and  seed- 
vessels  when  it  comes  in  contact  with 


Rose  of  Jericho. 

1,  The  plant.  2,  The  plant  in  a dry  state.  3,  The 
same  expanded  after  being  put  in  water. 

moisture.  The  generic  name  has  been 
applied  to  it  from  this  circumstance, 
and  in  Greek  signifies  resurrection. 

ROSES,  Wars  of  the,  the  fierce  strug- 
gle for  the  crown  of  England  between 
the  Lancastrians  (who  chose  the  red  rose 
as  their  emblem)  and  the  Yorkists  (who 
chose  the  white) ; it  lasted  with  short 
intervals  of  peace  for  thirty  years  (1455- 
85),  beginning  with  the  battle  of  St. 
Albans  and  ending  with  Bosworth  Field. 

ROSETTA-STONE,  a tablet  of  black 
basalt,  bearing  an  inscription  in  three 
versions  (hieroglyphic,  enchorial,  and 
Greek)  in  honor  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes 
and  belonging  to  about  196  b.c.  It  fur- 
nished the  key  for  the  deciphering  of 
the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions.  The  stone, 
discovered  by  the  French  near  Rosetta 
in  1799,  is  now  in  the  British  museum. 
See  Hieroglyphics. 

ROSE- WINDOW,  a circular  window, 
divided  into  compartments  by  mullions 
and  tracery  radiating  from  a center,  also 
called  Catharine-wheel,  and  marigold- 
window,  according  to  modifications  of 
the  design.  It  forms  a fine  feature  in  the 
church  architecture  of  the  13th  and  14th 


Rose-window,  St.  David’s. 


centuries,  and  is  mostly  employed  in  the 
triangular  spaces  of  gables.  In  France  it 
is  much  used,  and,  notwithstanding 
difficulties  of  construction,  attained 
great  size.  Some  examples,  as  that  at 
Rheims  cathedral,  are  over  40  feet  in 
cli^m  6^01* 

ROSEWOOD,  a wood  so  named  be- 
cause some  kinds  of  it  when  freshly  cut 
have  a faint  smell  of  roses.  Most  rose- 
wood comes  from  Brazil,  but  it  is  also 
found  in  Honduras  and  Jamaica.  The 


name  is  sometimes  given  to  timber  from 
other  sources;  but  the  French  Bois  de 
Rose  (the  German  Rosenholz)  is  called 
tulip-wood  in  English. 

ROSICRUCIANS,  members  of  a secret 
society,  the  first  account  of  which  was 
published  early  in  the  17th  century  in 
two  books  now  generally  ascribed  to 
J.  V.  Andrese,  a Lutheran  clergyman  of 
Wurttemberg.  Many  regard  Andress’s 
writings  as  merely  a veiled  satire  on  his 
own  times,  and  deny  altogether  the 
actual  existence  of  any  such  society, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  since  his  day 
many  persons  (e.g.  Cagliostro)  have  pro- 
fessed to  belong  to  it.  The  aim  of  the 
Rosicrucians,  or  Brothers  of  the  Rosy 
Cross,  was  said  to  be  the  improvement 
of  humanity  by  the  discovery  of  the 
“true  philosophy,’’  and  they  claimed  a 
deep  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of 
nature,  such  as  the  pennutation  of 
metals,  the  prolongation  of  life,  the 
existence  of  spirits,  etc.  According  to 
Andre®  the  society  was  founded  in  the 
14th  century  by  a Gennan  baron  named 
Rosenkreuz  (i.e.  “rosy  cross’’),  who.  was 
deeply  \mrsed  in  the  mysterious  lore  of 
the  East,  and  who  assembled  the  in- 
itiated in  a house  called  the  Sancti 
Spiritus  Domus.  The  “secret”  of  the 
order,  if  it  ever  existed,  has  been  faith- 
fully guarded  by  its  members;  and  the 
general  cloud  of  mystery  shrouding  its 
history  and  objects  has  led  to  its  being- 
connected  in  public  opinion  with  the 
Cabalists,  Illuminati,  etc.  Some  regard 
Rosicrucianism  as  the  origin  of  free- 
masonry. 

ROSIN,  the  name  given  to  the  resin  of 
coniferous  trees  employed  in  a solid  state 
for  ordinary  purposes.  It  is  obtained 
from  turpentine  by  distillation.  In  the 
process  the  oil  of  the  turpentine  comes 
over  and  the  rosin  remains  behind.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  rosin,  varying  in 
color  from  the  palest  amber  to  nearly 
black,  and  from  translucent  to  opaque. 
It  differs  somewhat  according  to  the 
turpentine  from  which  it  is  derived,  this 
being  obtained  from  numerous  species 
of  pine  and  fir.  Rosin  is  a brittle  solid, 
almost  flavorless,  and  having  a char- 
acteristic odor.  It  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sealing-wax,  varnish,  cement, 
soap,  for  soldering,  in  plaisters,  etc. 
Colophony  is  a name  for  the  common 
varieties. 

ROSS,  Alexander,  born  in  Nairnshire, 
Scotland,  1783 ; died  at  Red  River  settle- 
ment (Winnipeg),  1856.  He  went  to 
Canada  in  1805;  joined  Astor’s  expedi- 
tion to  Oregon  in  1810,  and  was  after- 
ward a fur-trader  in  the  Hudson’s  bay 
service.  He  is  the  author  of  Adventures 
of  the  First  Settlers  on  the  Oregon,  Fur 
Hunters  of  the  Far  West,  and  the  Red 
River  Settlement. 

ROSS,  Edward  Alsworth,  American 
economist  and  sociologist,  born  in  1866 
in  Virden,  111.  He  was  professor  at 
Leland  Stanford  university  from  1893 
to  1900,  first  of  economics  and  then  of 
sociology.  He  resigned  in  1900  under 
pressure  and  this  action  aroused  con- 
siderable excitement  over  the  right  of 
academic  free  speech.  Afterward  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  sociology  in  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Sinking  Funds,  Honest 
Dollars,  a free-silver  pamphlet,  and 


ROSS 


ROTHSCHILD 


''i*y 


Social  Control,  a Survey  of  the  Founda- 
tion of  Order. 

ROSS,  Sir  James  Clark,  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  explorer,  was  born  in  London 
in  1800;  died  in  1862.  He  commanded 
the  expedition  in  the  Erebus  and  Terror 
to  the  Antarctic  ocean  in  1839-43  and 
on  his  return  published  a narrative  of 
that  voyage,  which  has  contributed 
largely  to  geographical  and  scientific 
knowledge  generally.  Captain  Ross  was 
knighted  for  his  services,  and  received 
numerous  other  honors.  In  1848  he 
made  a voyage  in  the  Enterprise  to 
Baffin’s  bay  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin. 

ROSS,  Sir  John,  Arctic  navigator,  born 
in  1777,  died  in  1856,  was  the  fourth  son 
of  the  Rev.  Andrew  Ross,  minister  of 
Inch,  Wigtownshire.  His  main  ex- 
pedition, in  the  steamer  Victory,  was 
equipped  by  Sir  Felix  Booth,  and  set 
out  in  May,  1829.  Ross  entered  Prince 
Regent’s  Inlet,  and  discovered  and 
named  Boothia  Felix  and  King  Will- 
iam’s Land.  In  1832  he  was  forced  to 
abandon  his  ships,  and  he  and  his  crew 
suffered  great  hardships  before  they 
were  picked  up  in  August,  1833,  by  his 
old  ship  the  Isabella.  In  1834  Captain 
Ross  was  knighted,  and  in  the  following 
year  published  a narrative  of  his  second 
voyage.  In  1850  he  made  a last  Arctic 
voyage  in  the  Felix,  in  a vain  endeavor 
to  ascertain  the  fate  of  Sir  John  Frank- 
lin. He  became  a rear-admiral  in  1851. 

ROSS  AND  CROMARTY,  formerly  two 
separate  counties  of  Scotland,  now 
united  into  one.  The  latter  consisted 
merely  of  detached  portions  scattered 
over  the  former.  The  county  extends 
across  the  breadth  of  Scotland  from  the 
North  sea  to  the  Atlantic,  between  the 
counties  of  Inverness  and  Sutherland, 
and  includes  the  island  of  Lewis  and 
other  islands.  Area  of  the  whole,  2,003,- 
065  acres,  of  which  220,586  belong  to 
Cromarty.  Principal  towns:  Dingwall 
(the  county  town),  Stornoway,  Cro- 
marty, Invergordon,  Tain,  and  Fort- 
rose.  Pop.  76,149. 

ROSSE,  William  Parsons,  third  earl 
of,  was  born  at  York  in  1800,  died  1867. 
In  1827  he  constructed  a telescope,  the 
speculum  of  which  had  a diameter  of  3 
feet,  and  the  success  and  scientific  value 
of  this  instrument  induced  him  to 
attempt  to  cast  a speculum  twice  as 
large.  After  innumerable  difficulties, 
for  every  step  had  to  be  pioneered  by 
experiment,  and  after  many  failures. 
Lord  Rosse  succeeded  in  1845  in  per- 
fecting machinery  which  turned  out  the 
huge  speculum,  weighing  3 tons,  without 
warp  or  flaw.  It  was  then  mounted  in 
his  park  at  Parsonstown,  on  a telescope 
54  feet  in  length  with  a tube  7 feet  in 
diameter.  A series  of  cranks,  swivels, 
and  pulleys  enables  this  huge  instru- 
ment to  be  handled  almost  with  as  much 
ease  as  telescopes  of  ordinary  size.  The 
sphere  of  observation  was  immensely 
widened  by  Lord  Rosse’s  instrument, 
which  has  been  chiefly  used  in  observa- 
tions of  nebulte. 

ROSSETTI,  Gabriel  Charles  Dante, 
better  known  as  Dante  Gabriel,  painter 
and  poet,  was  born  in  London  in  1828, 
and  died  in  1882.  In  1849  he  exhib- 
ited his  painting  of  the  Girlhood  of  Mary, 
Virgin;  but  his  later  works,  numerous 


as  they  were,  were  rarely  seen  by  the 
public  until  the  posthumous  exhibition 
of  a collection  of  his  paintings  in  1883 
at  the  Royal  Academy.  Rossetti  is  even 
more  famous  as  a poet;  and  his  poems 
are  characterized  by  the  same  vivid 
imagination,  mystic  beauty,  and  sensu- 
ous coloring  as  his  paintings.  In  both 
arts  he  appears  as  a devotee  of  mediaeval- 
ism.  His  chief  poems  are  the  House  of 
Life,  a poem  in  101  sonnets;  the  King’s 
Tragedy  and  other  Ballads,  Dante  at 
Verona,  Blessed  Damozel,  etc.  His  wife 
died  in  1862,  two  years  after  marriage, 
and  from  this  grief  he  never  entirely 
recovered. — His  sister,  Christina  Geor- 
gina (b.  1830,  d.  1894),  was  a poetess  of 
high  merit.  Her  chief  works  are: 
Goblin  Market  and  other  Poems  (1862), 
The  Prince’s  Progress  and  other  Poems 
(1866),  The  Pageant  and  other  Poems 
(1881),  besides  prose  stories,  books  for 
children,  and  several  devotional  works 
in  prose  and  poetry. 

ROSSI'NI,  Gioachino  Antonio,  Italian 
operatic  composer,  was  born  at  Pesaro, 
February  29,  1792;  died  November  13, 
1868.  He  is  specially  considered  to  be  a 
master  of  melody.  His  finest  opera  is 
William  Tell  (1829).  Other  chief  works 
are:  Othello  (1816),  Moses  in  Egypt 
(1818),  and  Semiramide  (1823);  and  the 
comic  operas,  the  Barber  of  Seville 
(1816)  and  La  Cenerentola  (1817).  He 
also  composed  a Stabat  Mater  (1842),  a 
Missa  Solennis  (first  performed  1869), 
and  various  cantatas,  oratorios,  and 
pianoforte  pieces. 

ROSTAND  (ro'stan'),  Edmond,  French 
dramatist,  was  born  in  Marseilles  in 
1868.  His  first  drama  Les  Romanesques 
was  a success  and  was  followed  by  La 
Princesse  Lointaine  and  La  Samaritaine. 
In  1897  his  Cyrano  de  Bergerac  was  a 
success  on  two  continents  and  in  1900 
his  historical  drama  L’Aiglon  having 
for  its  central  figure  the  unhappy  Duke 
of  Reichstadt  “Napoleon  IP’  added 
greatly  to  his  reputation.  Rostand  was 
elected  a member  of  the  French  academy 
in  1901. 

ROSTOV,  or  ROSTOF,  a town  of 
Southern  Russia,  in  the  province  of  the 
Don  Cossacks,  on  the  Don,  about  20 
miles  above  its  mouth  in  the  Sea  of  Azof. 
Pop.  150,000. 

ROT,  a disease  incident  to  sheep 
(sometimes  to  other  animals),  and 
caused  by  the  presence  in  the  gall- 
bladder and  biliary  ducts  of  the  common 
liver-fluke,  developed  from  germs  swal- 
lowed by  the  sheep  with  their  food.  The 
average  length  of  the  mature  fluke  is 
about  1 inch.  Within  the  liver  of  a single 
sheep  several  dozen  of  these  parasites 
may  sometimes  be  found.  The  disease  is 
promoted  by  a humid  state  of  atmos- 
phere, soil,  or  herbage.  It  has  different 
degrees  of  rapidity,  but  is  almost  in- 
variably fatal. 

ROTATION,  in  physics,  is  the  motion 
of  a body  about  an  axis,  so  that  every 
point  in  the  body  describes  a circular 
orbit,  the  center  of  which  lies  in  the- axis. 
It  is  thus  distinguished  from  revolution, 
or  the  progressive  motion  of  a body  re- 
volving round  another  body  or  external 
point.  If  a point,  which  is  not  the  center 
of  gravity,  be  taken  in  a solid  body, 
all  the  axes  which  pass  through  that 
point  will  have  different  moments  of 


inertia,  and  there  must  exist  one  in  * 
which  the  moment  is  a maximiun,  and 
another  in  which  it  is  a minimum.  Those 
are  called  the  principal  axes  of  rotation.  ; 
When  a solid  body  revolves  round  an  i 
axis  its  different  particles  move  with  a 
velocity  proportional  to  their  respective 
distances  from  the  axis,  and  the  velocity 
of  the  particle  whose  distance  from  the 
axis  is  unity  is  the  angular  velocity  of 
rotation. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS,  in  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  is  the  system  or  prac- 
tice of  growing  a recurring  series  of 
different  annual  crops  upon  the  same 
piece  of  land.  The  system  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  different  crops  absorb  dif- 
ferent quantities  of  the  various  inor-  r 
ganic  constituents  of  the  soil,  thus  im- 
poverishing it  for  crops  of  the  same 
kind,  but  leaving  it  unimpaired,  or  even 
improved,  for  crops  feeding  upon  other 
constituents.  Different  soils  and  climates 
require  different  schemes  of  rotation, 
but  it  is  a tolerably  universal  rule  that 
culmiferous  or  seed  crops  should  alter- 
nate with  pulse,  roots,  herbage,  or  fal- 
low. The  rotation  of  crops  may  be 
arranged  in  “courses’’  or  “shifts”  of  any 
number  of  successive  crops;  3,  4,  or  5, 
years’  courses  are  perhaps  the  com- 
monest. 

ROTH'ERHAM,  a municipal  borough 
of  England,  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 5 miles  northeast  of  SheflBeld,  on 
the  Don,  at  its  junction  with  the  Rother. 

The  fine  Perpendicular  church  dates 
from  the  time  of  Edward  IV.;  the  gram- 
mar-school from  1483.  Rotherham  has 
an  Independent  college,  and  extensive 
iron-works  and  manufactures  of  iron 
goods,  soap,  glass,  etc.  Pop.  54,348.  It 
gives  name  to  a parliamentary  division. 

ROTHSCHILD  (rot'shilt;  iii  English 
generally  pronounced  roths'child  or  ros- 
child),  the  name  of  a family  of  Jewish 
bankers,  distinguished  for  their  wealth 
and  influence.  The  founder  of  the  origi- 
nal banking-house  was  Mayer  Anselm 
Bauer  G743-1812),  a poor  orphan,  born  • 
in  Frankfort-am-Main.  Though  edu- 
cated as  a teacher,  Bauer  entered  a bank 
in  Hanover,  and  finally  saved  sufficient 
capital  to  found  a business  of  his  own 
in  the  famous  Judengasse  of  Frankfort, 
at  the  sign  of  the  Red  Scutcheon  (Roth 
Schild),  which  afterward  gave  name  to 
the  family.  He  gained  the  friendship 
of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  who  ap- 
pointed him  his  agent,  and  in  1802  he 
undertook  his  first  government  loan,  rais- 
ing ten  million  thalers  for  Denmark.  At 
his  death  in  1812  he  left  five  sons,  the  ' 
eldest  of  whom,  Anselm  Mayer  von  Roth- 
schild  (1773-1885),  became  head  of  the  . 
firm  in  F rankf  ort,  while  the  others  estab- 
lished branches  at  various  foreign  capi-  . 
tals;  Solomon  Mayer  (1774-1855)  at 
Vienna,  Nathan  Mayer  (1777-1836)  in 
London,  Karl  Mayer  (1788-1855)  at 
Naples,  and  Jacob  (1792-1868)  at  Paris. 
These  branches,  though  in  a measure 
separate  firms,  still  conduct  their  opera- 
tions in  common;  and  no  operation  of 
magnitude  is  undertaken  by  any  with- 
out a general  deliberation  of  all  at 
Frankfort.  The  Naples  branch  was  dis- 
continued in  1860;  the  two  sons  of  Karl  .. 
Mayer  (Mayer  Karl,  1820-86,  and  Wil-  ^ 
helm  Karl)  succeeding  their  childless  ■■ 
uncle  Anselm  at  Frankfort.  The  bold, 


ROTTERDAM 


ROULETTE 


yet  skilful  and  cautious  operations  of 
the  Rothschilds  during  the  troubled 
political  years  after  1813  confirmed  the 
fortunes  of  the  firm.  Nathan  Mayer  in 
particular  distinguished  himself  by  his 
energy  and  resource.  By  means  of  spe- 
cial couriers,  carrier-pigeons,  swift  sail- 
ing-boats, etc.,  he  was  frequently  in 
possession  of  valuable  information  (e.g. 
the  result  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo) 
even  before  the  government,  and  skil- 
fully turned  his  advantage  to  account. 
The  Rothschilds  do  not  contemn  com- 
paratively small  operations;  but  they 
are  chiefly  famous  for  the  enormous 
loans  which  they  raise  and  manage  for 
different  European  governments.  In 
1822  the  five  brothers  were  made  barons 
by  Austria;  and  in  1885  Baron  Nathan 
von  Rothschild  (1840-1905)  was  raised 
to  the  English  peerage.  Lionel  Nathan 
(1808-79),  the  father  of  the  last-named, 
was  the  first  Jew  who  sat  in  parliament 
(1858);  and  various  other  members  of 
the  family  have  risen  to  positions  of 
honor  and  dignity  both  in  Britain  and 
other  countries.  Baron  Alphonse,  the 
head  of  the  firm  of  Rothschild,  governor 
of  the  bank  of  France,  died  in  Paris  in 
1905. 

ROTTERDAM,  the  chief  port  and 
second  city  in  Holland,  is  situated  on  the 


Nieuwe  Maas  or  Meuse,  at  its  junction 
With  the  Rotte,  about  14  miles  from  the 


and  not  interrupted  by  a single  lock. 
The  town  is  intersected  by  numerous 
canals,  which  permit  largo  vessels  to 
moor  alongside  the  warehouses  in  the 
very  center  of  the  city.  These  canals, 
which  are  crossed  by  innumerable  draw- 
bridges and  swing-bridges,  are  in  many 
cases  lined  with  rows  of  trees;  and  the 
handsome  quay  on  the  river  front,  IJ 
miles  long,  is  known  as  the  Boompjes 
(“little  trees’’),  from  a row  of  elms 
planted  in  1615  and  now  of  great  size. 
Many  of  the  houses  are  quaint  edifices, 
having  their  gables  to  the  street,  with 
overhanging  upper  stories.  The  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  town-hall,  court- 
houses, exchange,  old  East  India  House, 
Boymans’  museum,  containing  chiefly 
Dutch  and  modern  paintings,  and  the 
government  dockyards  and  arsenal, 
besides  the  numerous  churches,  of 
which  the  most  conspicuous  is  the 
Groote  Kerk,  or  church  of  St.  Lawrence 
(15th  century).  The  Groote  Markt  has  a 
statue  of  Erasmus,  a native  of  the  town; 
and  there  are  fine  parks  and  a large 
zoological  garden.  Rotterdam  contains 
ship-building  yards,  sugar-refineries,  dis- 
tilleries, tobacco-factories  and  large 
machine  works;  but  its  mainstay  is  com- 
merce. It  carries  on  a very  extensive 
trade  with  Great  Britain,  the  Dutch 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  other  trans- 
oceanic countries,  and  has  an  important 
commerce  with  Germany,  Switzerland, 
and  Central  Europe.  The  Maas  is  crossed 
by  a great  railway-bridge  and  another 
for  carriages  and  foot-passengers.  Pop. 
340,000. 

ROUBAIX  (ro-ba),  a town  of  France, 
department  Nord,  6 miles  n.e.  of  Lille, 
is  a highly  important  seat  of  the  French 
textile  industry.  Woolens,  cottons,  and 
silk  or  mixed  stuffs  are  chiefly  made; 
also  beet-sugar,  machinery,  etc.  Pop. 
124,977. 

ROUBLE,  a silver  coin,  the  standard 
of  money  in  Russia,  with  a legal  weight 
(since  January  1, 1886)  of  19.99  grammes 
equal  to  about  76  cents.  A rouble  is 


there  is  little  but  paper-money,  current 
at  about  30  per  cent  below  its  nominal 
value.  The  gold  imperial  is  worth  10 
roubles,  the  half-imperial  5 roubles. 

ROUEN  (ro-an),  the  old  capital  of 
Normandy,  now  chief  town  of  depar^ 
ment  Seine-Inf6rieure,  in  France,  is 
situated  on  the  Seine,  80  miles  from  the 
sea  and  87  miles  n.n.w.  of  Paris.  It  is 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  the  fourth 
port  in  France.  In  its  older  parts  the 
streets  are  narrow,  picturesque,  and  ill- 
built,  but  interesting  to  the  lover  of 
mediseval  architecture.  The  cathedral, 
erected  in  the  13th-15th  centuries,  is 
one  of  the  finest  Gothic  monuments  in 
Normandy,  though  it  is  surpassed  in 
beauty  by  the  exquisite  church  of  St. 
Ouen,  begun  in  1318  and  finished  at  the 
close  of  the  15th  century.  St.  Maclou 
(15th  century)  is  a fine  example  of  florid 
Gothic.  Among  the  secular  buildings  are 
the  Palais  de  Justice  (late  15th  century), 
exuberant  in  decoration;  the  Hotel  de 
Ville,  formerly  a part  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Ouen;  the  Hotel  de  Bourgth^r- 
oulde  (15th  century),  with  fine  reliefs] 
the  archbishop’s  palace;  and  the  dis- 
tinctive Tour  de  la  Grosse-Horloge 
(1389).  The  new  Musfe,  built  in  1888, 
contains  a large  collection  of  paintings, 
chiefly  of  the  French  school.  The  munic- 
ipal library  has  120,000  volumes  and 
2500  MSS.  Pop.  115,914;  or  including 
the  faubourgs,  160,000. 

ROUGE  (rozh),  a very  fine  scarlet 
powder,  used  by  jewelers  for  polishing 
purposes,  and  prepared  from  crystals  of 
sulphate  of  iron  exposed  to  a high  tem- 
perature. The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
cosmetic  prepared  from  safflower. 

ROUGE-ET-NOIR  (r6zh-e-nwar ; Fr. 
“red  and  black”),  Trente-Un  (trant-un] 
“thirty-one”),  or  Trente  et  Quarante 
(trant-6-ka-rS,nt ; “thirty  and  forty”),  a 
modern  game  of  chance  played  with  the 
cards  belonging  to  six  complete  packs. 
The  punters  or  players  stake  upon  any 
of  the  four  chances;  rouge,  noir,  couleur, 
and  inverse.  The  banker  then  deals  a 
row  of  cards  for  noir,  until  the  exposed 
pips  number  between  30  and  40  (court- 
cards  count  10,  aces  1),  and  a similar  row 
for  rouge.  That  row  wins  which  most 
nearly  approaches  the  number  31,  and 
players  staking  on  the  winning  color 
receive  their  stake  doubled.  Couleur 
wins  if  the  first  card  turned  up  in  the 
deal  is  of  the  winning  color;  in  the  con- 
trary case  inverse  wins.  When  the  num- 
ber of  pips  in  both  rows  are  equal  it  is  a 
refait,  and  a fresh  deal  is  made;  but  if 
both  happen  to  count  exactly  31  it  is  a 
refait  de  trente-et-un,  and  the  banker 
claims  one-half  of  all  stakes.  This  last 
condition  places  the  banker  at  an  ad- 
vantage calculated  to  be  equal  to  about 
14  per  cent  on  all  sums  staked. 

ROUGET  DE  LISLE.  See  Marseillaise 
Hymn. 

ROULETTE  (ro-lef;  Fr.  ‘little 
wheel”),  a game  of  chance,  in  which  a 
small  ivory  ball  is  thrown  off  by  a re- 
volving disc  into  one  of  37  or  38  com- 

Eartments  surrounding  it,  and  num- 
ered  from  1 to  36,  with  one  or  two 
zeros.  Players  who  have  staked  upon 
the  number  of  the  compartment  into 
which  the  ball  falls  receive  thirty-six 
times  their  stake;  less  if  they  have 
staked  upon  more  than  one  number. 


Church  of  St.  liaurens,  Rotterdam.— After  Sir  A.  W.  Calcott.R.  A 


North  sea,  with  which  it  is  also  directly 
connected  by  a ship  canal  (Nieuwe 
Waterweg)  admitting  the  largest  vessels 


divided  into  100  copecks.  Half  and 
quarter  roubles  and  smaller  silver  coins 
are  also  issued;  but  in  actual  circulation 


ROUMANIA 

There  are  also  other  chances  on  which 
stakes  may  be  placed. 

ROUMA'NIA,  a European  kingdom, 
bounded  by  Austria-Hungary,  Servia, 
Bulgaria,  the  Black  sea,  and  Russia; 
area,  50,760  sq.  miles.  It  includes  the 
former  Danubian  principalities  of  Wala- 
chia and  Moldavia  and  the  province  of 
the  Dobrudsha  on  the  Black  sea.  Pop. 
5,912,520.  The  capital  is  Bukarest; 
other  chief  towns  are  Jassy,  Galatz, 
Braila,  and  Giurgevo.  The  chief  cereal 
crops  are  corn,  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
and  oats;  tobacco,  hemp,  and  flax  are 
also  grown;  and  wine  is  produced  on  the 
hills  at  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  are  reared  in 
large  numbers.  Excellent  timber  abounds 
on  the  Carpathians.  Bears,  wolves,  wild 
boars,  large  and  small  game,  and  fish 
are  plentiful.  The  country  is  rich  in 
minerals  of  nearly  every  description,  but 
salt,  petroleum,  and  lignite  are  the  only 
mineralsworked.  Manufactures  are  still 
in  a rudimentary  state. 

The  Roumanians,  who  call  them- 
selves Romani,  claim  to  be  descendants 


Eoumanlan  peasants. 

of  Roman  colonists  introduced  by 
Trajan;  but  the  traces  of  Latin  descent 
are  in  great  part  due  to  a later  immigra- 
tion, about  the  12th  century,  from  the 
Alpine  districts.  Their  language  and 
history  both  indicate  that  they  are  a 
mixed  race  with  many  constituents. 
Their  language,  however,  must  be 
classed  as  one  of  the  Romance  tongues, 
though  it  contains  a large  admixture  of 
foreign  elements.  In  Roumania  there  are 
about  4,500,000  Roumanians,  400,000 
Jews,  200. noo  gypsies,  100,000  Bulgars, 
50,000  Magyars,  50,000  Germans,  15,000 
Greeks,  and  15,000  Armenians.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  population  are  peasants, 
who  until  1864  were  kept  in  virtual  serf- 
dom by  the  boiars  or  nobles.  In  that 
year  upward  of  400,000  peasant  fami- 
lies were  made  proprietors  of  small  hold- 
ings averaging  10  acres,  at  a price  to  be 
paid  back  to  the  state  in  fifteen  years. 
About  4^  millions  of  the  people  belong 
to  the  Greek  church.  Energetic  efforts 


are  being  made  to  raise  education  from 
its  present  low  level.  Roumania  has  two 
universities  (at  Bukarest  and  Jassy), 
several  gymnasia,  and  a system  of  free 
primary  schools,  at  which  attendance  is 
compulsory.  Roumania  is  a hereditary 
constitutional  monarchy,  with  a bicam- 
eral legislature. 

ROUNDERS,  a game  played  with  a 
bat  and  a ball  by  two  parties  or  sides, 
on  a piece  of  ground  marked  off  into  a 
square  or  circle,  with  a batter’s  station 
and  three  goals  all  at  equal  distances. 
On  the  ball  being  thrown  toward  him 
the  batter  tries  to  drive  it  away  as  far 
as  he  can  and  run  completely  round  the 
goals,  or  over  any  one  of  the  four  parts, 
before  the  ball  can  be  thrown  back  to 
the  batting  station.  The  batter  is  de- 
clared out  if  he  fails  to  secure  a run  after 
having  had  three  balls,  if  a fielder  returns 
the  ball  so  as  to  strike  him  while  run- 
ning, or  if  the  ball  from  his  bat  is  caught 
in  the  air  by  one  of  the  fielders.  The 
modern  game  of  base  ball  has  been 
evolved  and  developed  from  Rounders. 

ROUND-FISH,  a fish  of  the  salmon 
family,  found  in  many  of  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  the  northern  United  States  and 
Canada.  When  in  good  condition  it  is 
very  fat  and  of  exquisite  flavor,  weigh- 
ing about  2 lbs. 

ROUNDHEADS,  a name  formerly 
given  by  the  Cavaliers  or  adherents  of 
Charles  I.,  during  the  English  civil  war, 
to  members  of  the  Puritan  or  parlia- 
mentary party,  who  distinguished  them- 
selves by  having  their  hair  closely  cut, 
while  the  Cavaliers  wore  theirs  in  long 
ringlets. 

ROUND  ROBIN,  a written  protest  or 
remonstrance,  signed  in  a circular  form 
by  several  persons,  so  that  no  name 
shall  be  obliged  to  head  the  list.  This 
method  of  bringing  grievances  to  the 
notice  of  superiors  was  first  used  by 
French  officers,  when  its  derivation 
from  rond  ruban  “round  ribbon.” 

ROUND  TABLE,  The,  famous  in  the 
Arthurian  legends,  a table  for  the  accom- 
modation of  a select  fraternity  of  knights 
said  to  have  been  established  by  Uther 
Pendragon,  father  of  King  Arthur,  and 
when  it  was  complete  to  have  had  150 
knights  of  approved  valor  and  virtue. 

ROUND  TOWERS,  a class  of  tall  nar- 


Kound  tower  on  Devenlsh  island,  Fermanagh. 

row  circular  edifices,  tapering  somewhat 
from  the  base  upward,  and  generally 


ROWING 


with  a conical  top,  from  60  to  130  feet 
in  height,  and  from  20  to  30  in  diameter. 
With  the  exception  of  three  in  Scotland, 
they  are  peculiar  to  Ireland.  The  doors 
are  from  6 to  20  feet  from  the  ground, 
the  windows  small.  The  interior  con- 
tained no  stairs,  but  the  successive 
stories  were  reached,  like  the  doors,  by 
means  of  ladders.  Authorities  are  now 
pretty  well  agreed  that  these  towers 
were  the  works  of  a Christianized  race, 
erected  as  places  of  refuge  and  as  watch- 
towers.  They  date  from  the  8th  or  9th 
to  the  13th  century. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  and  most  influential 
writers  of  the  18th  century,  was  born  in 
1712,  at  Geneva.  In  1752  he  brought  out 
a successful  opera tta  (the  music  by  him- 
self), and  soon  after  a celebrated  Letter 
on  French  Music.  In  1754  he  revisited 
Geneva,  where  he  was  readmitted  a free 
citizen  on  once  more  embracing  Prot- 
estantism. Having  returned  to  Paris 
he  wrote  a sort  of  novel,  Julie  ou  La 
Nouvelle  H41oise,  which  was  published 


in  1760,  being  followed  by  Le  Contrat 
Social,  a political  work,  and  Emile  ou 
de  I’Education,  another  story,  in  1762 
'The  principles  expressed  in  these  works 
stirred  up  much  animosity  against  their 
author.  The  chief  importance  of  his 
works  lies  perhaps  in  the  fact  that  they 
contain  the  germ  of  the  doctrines  which 
were  carried  out  with  such  ruthless  con- 
sistency in  the  French  revolution.  Rous- 
seau was  also  a musical  author  and  critic 
of  some  importance. 

ROUSSILLON  (ro-se-yon),  a former 
province  of  France,  now  occupied  by 
the  department  of  the  Pyr4n6es  Orien- 
tales.  It  gave  name  to  a family  of 
counts. 

ROVI'GO,  a town  in  Italy,  23  miles 
s.w.  of  Padua,  capital  of  a province  of 
its  name,  on  the  Adigetto,  an  arm  of  the 
Adige.  The  town-house  contains  a pic- 
ture-gallery and  a library  of  80,000  vols. 
There  is  a handsome  courthouse  and  two 
leaning  towers  belonging  to  a castle 
erected  in  the  10th  century.  Pop.  7272. 
The  province  has  an  area  of  651  sq. 
miles |pop.  217,700. 

ROWING  is  the  art  of  propelling  a 
boat  by  means  of  oars,  which  act  as 
levers  of  the  second  order,  the  work  be- 
ing done  between  the  power  (i.e.,  the 
rower)  and  the  fulcrum  (i.e.,  the  water, 
of  which  the  actual  displacement  is  very 
slight).  That  part  of  the  operation  during 
which  the  power  is  actually  being  ap- 
plied, i.e.,  when  the  oar  is  in  the  water,-, 
is  specifically  called  the  stroke;  while 
feathering  is  the  act  of  turning  the  blade 


ROWLAND 


RUDD 


of  the  oar  so  as  to  be  parallel  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  and  carrying  it  thus 
through  the  air  into  position  to  repeat 
[ the  stroke.  Much  skill  is  required  to  per- 
I.  fonn  these  operations  satisfactorily ; and 
^ in  fact  rowing  can  be  learned  only  from 
observation  and  practice.  Technically 
the  word  “rowing”  is  used  by  boating- 
- men  only  when  each  oarsman  has  but  a 
single  oar;  when  he  has  one  in  each  hand 
he  is  said  to  “scull,”  and  the  oars  are 
called  “sculls.”  Although  rowing  is  cer- 
tainly one  of  themost  ancient  methods  of 
propelling  vessels,  it  has  only  compara- 
tively recently  come  into  prominence  as 
a form  of  sport.  Boat-racing  practically 
dates  from  the  first  quarter  of  the  19th 
century,  and  its  development  has  lain 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  races.  In  the  United 
States  the  first  amateur  rowing-club 
was  founded  in  1834,  but  the  sport  did 
not  make  much  progress  until  the  uni- 
versities of  Yale  (in  1843)  and  Harvard 
(in  1844)  took  it  up,  followed  by  other 
universities.  Yale  and  Harvard  have 
competed  annually  since  1878.  The 
chief  regatta  is  held  on  different  courses 
in  different  years  by  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Amateur  Oarsmen,  founded 
in  1873.  The  use  of  outriggers  was  in- 
troduced about  1844,  that  of  sliding- 
seats,  an  American  invention,  about 
‘ 1871. 

> ROWLAND,  (ro'land),  Henry  Augus- 
tus,  American  physicist,  was  born  at 
: Honesdale,  Pa.,  in  1848.  In  1876  he  be- 
l came  professor  of  physics  at  Johns 
; Hopkins  university,  a chair  which  he 
[ held  until  his  death.  His  determination 
j of  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat 
^ was  one  of  his  most  important  investi- 
; gations.  His  determination  of  the 
^ ohm  was  likewise  of  great  value  and  his 
study  of  the  magnetic  properties  of 
iron  led  to  entirely  new  conceptions  of 
magnetism.  He  investigated  the  solar 
spectrum  and  the  arc  spectra  of  various 
elements, and  carriedon  manyresearches 
in  allied  fields.  His  most  important 
discovery  was  that  of  the  magnetic 
effect  of  electric  convection,  which  has 
a wide-spread  theoretical  bearing  upon 
electrical  phenomena.  He  was  the  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Physical  society 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1901. 

ROWLOCK,  a contrivance  on  a boat’s 
gunwale  on  which  the  oar  rests  in  row- 
ing; as,  a notch  in  the  gunwale,  two 
short  pegs,  an  iron  pin,  etc. 

ROYAL  ARCANUM,  The,  a fraternal 
and  beneficial  society  organized  at 
Boston  in  1877.  The  society  is  governed 
through  councils,  which  are  dominated 
by  the  supreme  council  or  governing 
body.  Benefit  certificates  are  issued  for 
SI  500  and  $3000,  payable  at  death  of  a 
member.  It  has  an  approximate  mem- 
bership of  258,746.  The  emblem  of  the 
society  is  a royal  crown  within  a circle, 
on  the  circumference  of  which  are  ten 
email  Maltese  crosses  with  the  motto, 
“Mercy,  Virtue,  and  Charity.” 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  (London),  The,  the 
oldest  learned  society  out  of  Italy,  was 
founded  for  the  study  and  promotion  of 
natural  science.  It  owes  its  origin  to  a 
club  of  learned  men  who  were  in  the 
habit  of  holding  weekly  meetings  in  Lon- 
don as  early  as  1645,  but  the  year  1660 
is  generally  given  as  the  year  of  its  foun- 


dation. Charles  II.  took  much  interest 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  society,  and  in 
1682  granted  a charter  to  the  “Presi- 
dent, Council  and  Fellows  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London  for  Improving 
Natural  Knowledge.”  Lord  Brouncker 
was  first  president  of  this  incorporated 
Royal  society.  Meetings  are  held  weekly 
from  November  to  June  for  the  purpose 
of  reading  and  discussing  scientific 
papers;  and  the  more  important  of  these 
are  published  in  the  annual  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions,  first  issued  in  1665, 
and  now  fonuing  a most  valuable  series. 
Accounts  of  the  ordinary  meetings,  with 
abstracts  of  papers,  etc.,  appear  also  in 
the  periodical  Proceedings,  begun  in 
1800.  Scientific  research  has  at  all  times 
been  both  initiated  and  encouraged  by 
the  Royal  society,  and  many  of  the 
most  important  scientific  achievements 
and  discoveries  have  been  due  to  its  en- 
lightened methods.  It  deservedly  en- 
joys an  influential  and  semi-official 
position  as  the  scientific  adviser  of  the 
British  government,  which  have  borne 
valuable  fruit,  from  the  voyage  of  Capt. 
Cook  in  the  Endeavour  in  1768  down 
to  the  Challenger  expedition,  more  than 
a century  later.  It  awards  the  Copley, 
Davy,  and  two  royal  medals  annually, 
and  the  Rumford  medal  biennially,  for 
distinction  in  science ; the  first  being  the 
blue  riband  of  scientific  achievement, 
and  bestowed  both  on  foreign  and 
British  savants.  The  roll  of  the  Royal 
society  contains  practically  all  the  great 
scientific  names  of  its  country  since  its 
foundation.  Among  its  presidents  have 
been  Samuel  Pepys,  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
Sir  J.  Banks,  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy,  Prof.  Huxley,  and  Lord 
Kelvin. 

RU'BENS,  Peter  Paul,  the  most  emi- 
nent painter  of  the  Flemish  school,  was 
born  in  1577  at  Siegen  in  Westphalia, 
though  his  childhood  wa^spent  chiefly 
at  Cologne.  In  1621  he  wOT  employed  by 
Marie  de’  Medici  to  design  for  the  gallery 
of  the  Luxembourg  thewell-knownseries 
of  magnificent  allegorical  pictures  illus- 
trating the  life  of  that  princess.  After 
the  death  of  his  wife  in  1626  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  Archduchess  Isabella  in 
endeavoring  to  arrange  a truce  between 
Spain  and  the  Netherlands;  in  1628  he 
was  engaged  in  the  important  private 
negotiations  of  a peace  between  Spain 
and  England,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
visited  Madrid  and  England  (in  1629). 
He  was  knighted  by  Charles  I.,  and  his 
brush,  never  idle  either  in  Madrid  or 
London,  decorated  the  ceiling  of  the 
banqueting-house  at  Whitehall.  In  1630 
he  married  Helena  Fourment,  who  ap- 
pears in  many  of  his  later  works,  and 
settled  once  more  in  Anfwerp,  where  he 
continued  to  produce  numerous  pic- 
tures until  his  death  in  May,  1640.  His 
works  are  in  all  branches  of  his  art — 
history,  landscape,  portraiture,  and 
genre — and  are  met  with  all  over 
Europe.  The  Descent  from  the  Cross 
in  Antwerp  cathedral  is  generally  con- 
sidered his  master-piece.  His  pictures 
number  upward  of  2000,  exclusive  of 
about  500  drawings,  a few  etchings,  etc. 

RU'BICON,  a river  in  North  Italy 
(now  the  Fiumicino,  a tributary  of  the 
Adriatic),  famous  in  Roman  history, 
Caesar  having  by  crossing  this  stream 


(49  B.C.),  at  that  time  regarded  as  the 
northern  boundary  of  Italy,  finally  com- 
mitted himself  to  the  civil  war.  Hence 
the  phrase  “to  pass  the  Rubicon”  is  to 
take  the  decisive  step  by  which  one 
commits  one’s  self  to  a hazardous  enter- 
prise. 

RUBIDTUM,  a rare  metal  discovered 
by  Bunsen  and  Kirchhoff  in  1860,  by 
spectrum  analysis;  symbol  Rb,  atomic 
weight  85.4.  It  is  a white,  shining  metal, 
and  at  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  soft 
as  wax.  It  is  usually  found  in  connection 
with  caesium,  and  belongs  to  the  group 
of  the  alkali  metals.  See  Caesium. 

RU'BINSTEIN,  Anton  Grigoryevitch, 
a Russian  composer  and  pianist,  born  in 
1829.  As  a composer  he  was  very  pro- 
lific being  especially  happy  in  his  piano- 
forte pieces.  His  operas  have  had  but 
a qualified  success.  He  died  in  1894. 
He  had  previously  published  an  auto- 
biography. 

RUBRIC,  in  the  canon  law,  signifies  a 
title  or  article  in  certain  ancient  law 
books,  thus  called  because  written  in 
red  letters  (L.  ruber,  red).  In  modern 
use  rubrics  denote  the  rules  and  direc- 
tions given  at  the  beginning  and  in  the 
course  of  the  liturgy  for  the  order  and 
manner  in  which  the  several  parts  of  the 
office  are  to  be  performed.  Where  red 
ink  is  not  employed  now  the  rubrics  are 
printed  in  italics,  or  in  some  other  dis- 
tinctive character. 

RUBY,  a precious  stone  of  a deep-red 
color,  of  which  there  are  two  varieties — 
the  oriental  and  the  spinel.  The  oriental 
ruby  or  true  ruby  is  a corundum  formed 
nearly  exclusively  of  alumina,  of  great 
hardness,  and  the  most  valuable  of  all 
precious  stones.  A ruby  of  five  carats, 
if  perfect  in  color,  is  said  to  be  worth  ten 
times  as  much  as  a diamond  of  the  same 
weight.  Oriental  rubies  are  found  chiefly 
in  Burmah  and  Siam  ; inferior  specimens 
have  also  occurred  in  North  America 
and  Australia.  Spinel  rubies  consist  of 
an  aluminate  of  magnesium,  and  are 
much  inferior  to  the  true  rubies  in  hard- 
ness and  value.  They  are  found  in 
Burmah;  Ceylon,  and  Australia.  A 
lighter-colored  variety,  discovered  in 
Badakshan,  is  known  as  the  balas  ruby. 

RUBY-THROAT,  a species  of  hum- 
ming-bird, so  named  from  the  brilliant 
ruby-red  color  of  its  chin  and  throat. 
In  summer  it  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
North  America,  up  to  57°  n.  lat.,  being 
thus  remarkable  for  its  extensive  dis- 
tribution. 

RUDD,  a fish  of  the  carp  family,  hav- 
ing the  back  of  an  olive  color;  the  sides 
and  belly  yellow,  marked  with  red;  the 
ventral  and  anal  fins  and  tail  of  a deep- 


red  color.  It  is  common  in  Great  Britain 
and  throughout  Europe.  Its  average 
length  is  from  9 to  15  inches.  Called  also 
Red-eye, 


RUDDER-FISH 


RUNES 


RUDDER-FISH,  a fish  allied  to  the 
mackerel,  very  common  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans,  so  named  from  its 
habit  of  swimming  around  the  sterns  of 
ships,  attracted,  doubtless,  by  the  refuse 
thrown  overboard.  The  flesh  is  said  to 
be  coarse  in  flavor. 

RUE,  a strong-scented  herbaceous 
plant,  native  of  Southern  Europe.  The 
root  is  perennial,  woody;  the  stems 
about  2 feet  high;  the  leaves  alternate, 
petiolate,  and  divided;  and  the  flowers 
yellow.  The  odor  of  rue  is  strong  and 
penetrating,  and  the  taste  acrid  and 
bitter.  It  has  useful  medicinal  properties. 
This  plant  is  an  ancient  emblem  of  re- 


Rue. 


membrance  from  its  evergreen  quality. 
The  old  names  “herb-grace”  or  “herb  of 
grace”  refers  to  this  fact,  or  perhaps  to 
its  common  use  in  sprinkling  the  people 
with  holy  water,  and  as  a charm  against 
witchcraft.  About  20  species  of  rue  are 
known. — Oil  of  rue  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tilling garden  rue  with  water  ;hasa  strong 
disagreeable  odor  and  slightly  bitter 
taste;  and  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in 
aromatic  vinegar. 

RUFF,  a bird  belonging  to  the  gral- 
latores  or  waders,  length,  lOJ  to  12^ 
inches;  plumage,  which  varies  greatly 
in  color,  generally  variegated  brown  on 
back  and  wings,  white  on  belly.  In  the 
breeding  season  the  male  has  its  neck 
surrounded  by  long  plumes,  which,  when 


Ruff. 


raised  form  a kind  of  tippet  or  ruff, 
whence  its  English  name.  The  scientific 
name  (“pugnacious  fighter”)  is  derived 
from  its  pugnacious  habits  at  the  same 
season.  The  females  are  called  reeves. 
These  birds  nest  in  swamps;  the  eggs, 
three  or  four  in  number,  are  pale  green 
blotched  with  brown. 

RUFFED  GROUSE,  a North  Ameri- 
can species  of  grouse  of  the  same  genus 


as  the  hazel-grouse  of  Europe.  It  is 
named  from  the  tufts  of  feathers  on  the 
sides  of  its  neck,  and  frequents  forests 
and  thickets. 

RULE,  BRITANNIA,  a British  na- 
tional song,  of  which  the  words,  almost 
certainly  by  James  Thomson,  form  part 
of  the  masque  of  Alfred,  by  Thomson 
and  David  Mallet,  which  was  first  per- 
formed in  1740.  The  music  was  written 
by  Dr.  Arne. 

RULE  OF  THREE,  The,  an  applica- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  proportion  to 
arithmetical  purposes  by  which  we  are 
enabled  to  find  a fourth  proportional 
to  three  given  numbers,  that  is,  a num- 
ber to  which  the  third  bears  the  same 
ratio  as  the  first  does  to  the  second.  The 
rule  is  divided  into  two  cases,  simple  and 
compound;  now  frequently  termed  siin- 
ple  and  compound  proportion.  Simple 
proportion  is  the  equality  of  the  ratio 
of  two  quantities  to  that  of  two  other 
quantities.  Compound  proportion  is  the 
equality  of  the  ratio  of  two  quantities  to 
another  ratio,  the  antecedent  and  con- 
sequent of  which  are  respectively  the 
products  of  the  antecedents  and  conse- 
quents of  two  or  more  ratios. 

RUM,  the  liquor  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion from  the  skimmings  and  the  mo- 
lasses formed  in  the  manufacture  of 
cane-sugar.  The  pure  distilled  spirit  is 
colorless,  and  receives  its  brown  tint 
from  the  addition  of  caramel.  Rum  is 
obtained  chiefly  from  the  West  Indies 
and  British  Guiana;  the  best  sort  is 
named  Jamaica  rum,  no  matter  where 
manufactured.  Pine-apple  rum  is  ordi- 
nary rum  flavored  with  sliced  pine- 
apples ; tafia  is  an  inferior  French  variety 
of  rum. 

RUMINANTS,  or  RUMINANTLA,  a 

group  of  herbivorous  mammals,  belong- 
ing to  the  great  order  of  hoofed  or  un- 
gulate mammals,  included  in  the  artio- 
dactyle  or  “even-toed”  section  of  these, 
and  comprising  the  five  families,  camel 
and  llama;  chevrotain;  true  deer;  giraffe; 
and  ox,  sheep,  goat,  antelope.  The 
faculty  of  rumination,  though  it  gives 
name  to  this  order,  is  not  quite  peculiar 
to  it.  Ruminants  are  distinguished  from 
other  orders  by  certain  peculiarities  of 
dentition.  The  most  typical  of  the 
group,  the  ox,  sheep,  antelope,  etc.,  have 
no  incisor  or  canine  teeth  in  the  upper 
jaw,  but  have  instead  a hardened  , or. 
callous  pad  against  which  the  six  lower 
incisors  bite.  In  the  lower  jaw  are  two 
canines  quite  similar  to  the  incisors,  and 
the  camelidse  and  tragulidee  possess  also 
upper  canines.  In  both  jaws  are  six 
grinding  teeth  on  either  side,  separated 
by  an  interval  from  the  front  teeth. 
The  feet  of  ruminants  are  cloven.  Horns, 
developed  in  pairs,  are  present  in  the 
majority  of  the  species;  either  solid,  as 
in  the  antlers  of  the  true  deer,  or  hollow 
as  in  the  hornsof  the  ox, etc.  The  alimen- 
tary canal  is  very  long.  The  stomach  is 
divided  into  four  compartments,  fre- 
quently spoken  of  as  four  stomachs. 
The  first  and  largest  (rumen  or  paunch) 
receives  the  food  roughly  bruised  by  the 
first  mastication,  and  transmits  it  to  the 
second  (recticulum  or  honey-comb), 
whence  it  is  sent  back  in  pellets  to  the 
mouth  to  be  rechewed.  This  second 
mastication  is  called  “chewing  the  cud.” 
The  food  is  then  re-swallowed  into  the 


third  stomach  (psalterium,  omasum,  or 
manyplies),  and  passes  finally  into  the 
true  digestive  cavity  (abomasum) . Fluids 
may  pass  directly  into  any  part  of  the 
stomach.  In  young  ruminants,  which 
feed  upon  milk,  the  first  three  “stom- 
achs” remain  undeveloped  until  the 
animal  begins  to  take  vegetable  food. 
Most  of  the  ruminants  are  suitable  for 
human  food.  They  are  generally  gre- 
garious, and  are  represented  by  in- 
digenous species  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
except  Australia. 

RUMINATION,  the  faculty  possessed 
by  some  mammals,  notably  ruminants 
(which  see),  of  “chewing  the  cud” — that 
is,  of  returning  the  food  to  the  mouth 
from  the  stomach  for  remastication  prior 
to  final  digestion.  Some  marsupials  and 
certain  other  mammals  probably  share 
this  faculty  with  the  ruminants. 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT,  is  the  name  by 
which  the  fag-end  or  remainder  of  the 
Long  Parliament  (1640-60)  was  known 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  majority  of  its 
members  on  December  6,  1648,  by 
Cromwell’s  soldiers,  commanded  by 
Colonel  Pride.  Only  sixty  members,  all 
extreme  independents,  were  admitted 
after  this  Pride’s  Purge,  as  it  was  called; 
and  they,  with  the  army,  brought  about 
the  condemnation  of  Charles  I.  The 
Rump  was  forcibly  dissolved  by  Crom- 
well in  1653,  for  opposing  the  demands 
of  the  army.  Twice  after  this  it  was  rein- 
stated, but  both  times  only  for  a brief 
period,  and  finally,  on  the  16th  March, 
1660,  it  decreed  its  own  dissolution. 

RUNES,  the  letters  of  the  alphabets 
peculiar  to  the  ancient  Teutonic  peoples 
of  Northwestern  Europe,  found  in- 
scribed on  monuments,  tomb-stoneSr 
clog-calendars,  bracteates,  rings,  weap- 
ons, etc.,  and  only  rarely  and  at  a late 
period  in  MSS.  They  are  formed  almost 
invariably  of  straight  lines,  either  single 
or  in  combination.  Three  runic  alpha- 
bets (or  “futhorks,”  as  they  are  some- 
times called  from  the  first  six  letters) 
have  hitherto  been  usually  recognized; 
the  Norse,  with  sixteen  characters,  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  with  forty,  and  the  Ger- 


n 

k 

K 

* 

K 

f 

u 

th  o 

r 

k 

h 

n 

I 

A 

H T 

B 

t 

i 

a 

8 t 

b 

1 

m 

y 

Norse  runic 

alphabet. 

man;  but  modern  researches  have  traced 
the  common  origin  of  these  in  an  older 
primary  Germanic  or  Teutonic  futhork 
with  twenty-four  characters.  The  name 
is  generally  believed  to  be  the  same  as 
Anglo-Saxon  rlln,  a mystery,  implying  a 
magical  or  hieroglyphic  character,  which 
doubtless  runic  writings  acquired  when 
the  lapse  ofTime  had  rendered  them  un- 
intelligible to  the  common  people;  and 
runic  wands  or  staves  were  smooth  wil- 
low-wands inscribed  with  runic  charac- 
ters and  used  in  incantations.  The  period 
of  origin  and  the  source  of  runes  are  not 
known.  Scandinavian  and  Anglo-Saxon 
tradition  ascribes  their  invention  to 
Woden.  Some  have  believed  that  the 
Scandinavians  learned  the  art  of  writing 
from  Phoenician  merchants  trading  to 
the  Baltic;  Dr.  Isaac  Taylor  recognizes 
in  the  (Jreek  alphabet  the  prototype  of 


RUNJEET  SINGH 


RUSSELL 


itho  futhorks;  while  others  find  it  in  the 
? Latin.  Runic  inscriptions  abound  in 
Scandinavia,  Denmark,  Iceland,  and  the 
parts  of  England  once  known  as  North- 
umbria, Mercia,  and  East  Anglia,  but 
they  are  also  found  beyond  these  limits. 
Weapons  and  instruments,  inscribed 
with  runes  and  dating  from  300-400 
A.D.,  have  been  dug  up  in  Norway.  The 
use  of  runes  gradually  disappeared  under 
! the  influence  of  the  early  Christian  mis- 
sionaries, who  proscribed  them  on  ac- 
count of  their  magical  reputation;  but 
in  England  some  Christian  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  the  runic  characters. 
The  latest  runic  inscriptions  in  Sweden 
date  about  1450. 

RUNJEET  SINGH,  the  “Lion  of  the 
Punjab”  and  founder  of  the  Sikh  king- 
dom, was  born  in  1780,  and  died  1839. 
In  1836  he  suffered  a heavy  defeat  from 
the  Afghans,  but  he  retained  his  power 
until  his  death.  See  Punjab. 

RUN'NYMEDE,  the  meadow  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Thames,  now  a race- 
course, in  Surrey,  England,  4 miles  below 
Windsor,  where  King  John  met  the 
barons  whocompelled  him  to  sign  Magna 
Charta,  June  15,  1215.  The  actual  sign- 
ing is  said  to  have  taken  jflace  on  Magna 
Charta  Island  opposite  Runnymede. 

RUPEE',  the  standard  silver  coin  of 
British  India,  the  value  of  which  is 
48  cents,  has,  owing  to  the  depre- 
ciation of  silver,  been  much  lower 
in  recent  years.  Its  value  in  India  is  now 
fixed  by  law  at  one-fifteenth  of  a sover- 
eign, or  32  cents.  Arupee  equals  16  annas 
100,000  rupees  are  called  a lac;  100  lacs, 
a crore. 

RUPERT  OF  BAVARIA,  Prince,  dis- 
tinguished as  a cavalry  leader  in  the 
English  civil  war,  the  third  son  of 
Frederick  V.,  elector  palatine  and  king 
of  Bohemia,  by  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
James  I.  of  England,  was  born  in  1619 
at  Prague.  In  1653  he  joined  Charles  II. 
at  Versailles.  After  the  Restoration  he 
was  appointed  lord-high-admiral,  and 
served  with  Monk  against  the  Dutch. 
He  became  governor  of  Windsor  Castle 
and  died  in  London  in  1682  Many  of 
his  latter  years  were  devoted  to  scientific 
study,  and  he  is  credited  with  the  inven- 
tion of  mezzotint  engraving,  which  at 
least  he  introduced  into  England.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first 
governor  of  the  Hudson’s  bay  company. 

RUSH,  the  common  term  for  a genus 
of  plants,  natural  order  Juncacese.  The 
rushes  have  a glumaceous  perianth  of  six 
sepals,  glabrous  filaments,  three  stigmas, 
and  a three-celled  many-seeded  capsule. 
The  leaves  are  rigid,  mostly  roundish, 
and  smooth.  Rushes  are  found  chiefly 
in  moist,  boggy  situations  in  the  colder 
climates;  about  twenty  species  are  noted 
in  the  British  flora.  The  leaves  are  often 
employed  to  form  matting  and  the  bot- 
toms of  chairs,  and  the  pith  for  the  wicks 
of  candles. 

RUSH,  Benjamin,  famous  American 
physician,  was  born  in  1745  near  Phila- 
delphia. In  1766  he  went  to  Edinburgh, 
and  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  there  in 
1768.  He  began  to  practice  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1769,  becoming  at  the  same 
time  lecturer  in  chemistry  at  the  medical 
school  of  that  city  He  afterward  filled 
the  chair  of  the  theory  and  practice  of 
physic  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 


vania. He  early  identified  himself  with 
the  patriotic  party,  was  one  of  the 


signers  of  the  declaration  of  independ- 
ence, and  in  1787  was  a member  of  the 
convention  of  Pennsylvania  for  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution. 
In  1774  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
first  antislavery  society  in  America.  He 
died  in  1813.  Dr.  Rush  was  a volumin- 
ous and  versatile  xvriter.  His  chief 
medieval  works  are  his  Medical  Inquiries 
and  Observations,  Diseases  of  the  Mind, 
and  Medical  Tracts. 

RUSH,  Richard,  statesman,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  August  29,  1780,  and 
died  there  July  30,  1859.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Princeton  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1800.  He  soon  became  a 
prominent  advocate,  and  held  several 
offices  of  importance.  In  1811  he  was 
comptroller  of  the  currency,  and  in  1814 
United  States  attorney-general.  In  1817 
he  was  for  a short  time  secretary  of 
state,  and  was  then  appointed  minister 
to  England,  where  he  performed  some 
important  diplomatic  services.  In  1825 
he  was  secretary  of  the  treasury,  and 
in  1828  he  was  candidate  for  the  vice- 
presidency under  Adams.  From  1847  to 
1851  he  was  minister  to  France. 

RUSK,  Jeremiah  McLain,  ex-governor 
of  Wisconsin,  secretary  of  agriculture, 
was  born  in  Morgan  co.,  Ohio,  June  17, 
1830.  In  1862  he  was  made  major  of 
the  25th  Wisconsin  and  served  with 
Sherman  till  the  close  of  the  war,  attain- 
ing the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In 
1865  he  was  brevetted  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  In  1870  he  was  sent  to 
congress,  and  served  three  terms.  He 
declined  the  offices  of  minister  to  Para- 
guay and  Uruguay,  and  of  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  printing  and  engraving.  In 
1882  he  was  elected  governor  of  Wiscon- 
sin and  served  three  successive  terms. 
In  1889  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
agriculture.  He  died  in  1893. 

RUSKIN,  John,  art  critic  and  political 
economist,  and  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
English  prose  writers  of  last  century, 
was  born  at  London  in  February,  1819. 
In  1843  appeared  the  first  volume  of 
Modern  Painters,  by  a Graduate  of  Ox- 
ford, in  which  Ruskin  maintained  the 
superiority  of  modern  landscape  paint- 
ers, especially  Turner,  to  the  older 
masters,  and  at  the  same  time  advo- 
cated a complete  revolution  in  the  re- 
ceived conventions  of  art  and  art 


criticism.  The  subsequent  volumes,  of 
which  the  fifth  and  last  appeared  in  1860 
expanded  the  subject  into  a most  com- 
prehensive treatise  on  the  principles 
which  underlie,  or  should  underlie,  art, 
while  similar  criticism  was  extended  to 
another  domain  of  art  in  his  Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture  (1851)  and  his 
Stones  of  Venice  (1851-53).  In  1851 
Ruskin  appeared  as  a defender  of  pre- 
Raphaelitism,  which  had  found  inspira- 
tion in  his  works.  As  a political  econo- 
mist and  social  reformer  he  was  an  out- 
spoken and  uncompromising  foe  of  what 
he  considered  the  selfish  and  deadening 
doctrines  of  the  so-called  Manchester 
school,  his  chief  works  in  this  sphere 
being  Unto  this  Last  (1862),  Munera 
Pulveris  (1872),  and  Fors  Clavigera 
(1871-84),  a periodical  series  of  letters 


to  the  working-men  and  laborers  of 
Great  Britain.  He  died  in  1900. 

RUSSELL,  John,  Earl  Russell,  Eng- 
lish liberal  statesman,  was  the  third  son 
of  the  sixth  duke  of  Bedford,  was  born 
in  London  in  1792,  and  died  at  Rich- 
mond in  May,  1878.  In  Lord  Mel- 
bourne’s second  cabinet  (1835-41)  Rus- 
sell was  home  secretary,  and  in  1839  he 
became  colonial  secretary.  From  1841 
till  1845  he  led  the  opposition  against 


John,  Earl  Russell. 


Peel,  with  whom,  however,  he  was  in 
sympathy  on  the  Corn  Law  question; 
and  when  Peel  resigned  in  1846  Russell 
formed  a ministry  and  retained  power, 
though  with  a small  and  uncertain 
majority,  until  February,  1852.  He 
re-entered  office  in  December,  1852,  as 
foreign  secretary  under  Lord  Aberdeen, 
and  in  1855  became  colonial  secretary  in 
Lord  Palmerston’s  cabinet.  In  1865 


kUSSELL 


RUSSIA 


/ 


Earl  Russell  succeeded  Lord  Palmerston 
in  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party, 
but  when  his  new  reform  bill  was  re- 
jected in  1866  the  liberals  resigned. 
Thenceforward  Earl  Russell  held  no 
farther  office,  though  he  warmly  advo- 
cated all  liberal  measures. 

RUSSELL,  William  Clark,  novelist, 
born  at  New  York  in  1844.  He  went  to 
sea  at  an  early  age,  but  abandoned  his 
nautical  career  in  1865  and  took  to 
literature.  Among  his  most  popular 
books  are  John  Holdsworth  Chief  Mate, 
The  Wreck  of  the  Grosvener,  A Sea 
Queen,  The  Lady  Maud,  Jack’s  Court- 
ship, Marooned,  An  Ocean  Tragedy,  etc. 

RUSSIA,  one  of  the  most  powerful 
empires  of  the  world,  second  only  in 
extent  to  the  British  Empire,  which 
has  about  11,000,000  sq.  miles,  and 
third  as  regards  population;  the  Chinese 
Empire  ranking  first,  with  about  400 
million  inhabitants,  the  British  Empire 
second,  with  some  380  millions.  It 
comprehends  most  of  Eastern  Europe 
and  all  of  Northern  Asia,  and  is  bounded 
n.  by  the  Arctic  ocean;  w.  by  Sweden, 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Baltic, 
Prussia,  Austria,  and  Roumania;  s. 
by  the  Black  sea,  Turkey  in  Asia, 
Persia,  Afghanistan,  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire; e.  by  the  Pacific  and  Behring’s 
strait.  The  total  area  in  1906  was 
officially  estimated  at  8,644,100  sq. 
miles;  while  the  population  was  as 
follows : 

Russia  in  Europe  (including  Poland), 
103,662,138;  Finland  (1900),  2,712,562; 
Caucasian  Provinces,  9,251,945;  Siberia, 
5,731,552;  Central  Asia,  7,721,684;  total, 
129,079,881. 

European  Russia  consists  almost 
wholly  of  immense  plains,  the  Valdai 
Hills,  between  St.  Petersburg  and 
Moscow,  averaging  500  feet  and  never 
exceeding  1200  feet  above  sea-level, 
forming  the  only  elevated  region  of  the 
interior  and  an  important  watershed. 
Russia  is  watered  by  numerous  and 
important  rivers,  some  of  great  magni- 
tude and  running  a course  of  thou- 
sands of  miles.  The  Petchora,  the 
Mezene,  Northern  Dwina,  and  Onega 
are  the  principal  rivers  of  European 
Russia  which  send  their  waters  to  the 
Arctic  ocean;  the  Neva,  Volkhoff,  Soir, 
Narova,  Velikaya,  Duna,  Niemen,  and 
Vistula  belong  to  the  Baltic  basin;  the 
Black  sea  basin  comprises  the  Pruth, 
Dniester,  Dnieper,  and  the  Don;  while 
the  Caspian  receives  besides  other  rivers 
the  Volga,  the  largest  of  all  Russian 
rivers.  Asiatic  Russia  has  also  a number 
of  very  large  rivers,  as  the  Obi,  Yenisei, 
and  Lena  in  Siberia,  and  the  Amur 
toward  the  Chinese  frontier. 

Boundless  forests  exist,  especially  in 
the  northern  European  provinces  and 
the  more  temperate  parts  of  Siberia, 
the  area  of  the  forest  land  in  Europe 
being  42  per  cent  of  the  total  area.  The 
fir,  larch,  alder,  and  birch  predominate. 
In  the  south  forests  are  less  abundant, 
and  the  tracts  around  the  Black  sea 
and  the  Caspian,  and  the  immense 
steppes  of  the  south  and  east,  are  almost 
wholly  destitute  of  wood. 

Among  wild  animals  may  be  men- 
tioned the  bear,  the  wolf,  wild  hog,  elk, 
and  various  animals  which  are  hunted  for 
their  furs.  Wild  fowl  abound,  particu- 


larly near  the  mouths  of  rivers.  Both 
on  the  coasts  and  in  the  rivers  a great 
number  of  productive  fisheries  are 
carried  on.  In  the  Arctic  ocean  vast 
numbers  of  seals  are  taken.  The  rivers 
of  the  Caspian,  particularly  the  Ural 
and  Volga,  and  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  are 
celebrated  for  their  sturgeon.  In  the 
same  quarters  are  also  important 
salmon-fisheries.  In  the  regions  border- 
ing on  the  Arctic  ocean  large  herds 
of  reindeer  are  kept;  and  in  the  south, 
among  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Caucasus,  the 
camel  is  often  seen. 

Russia  is  rich  in  minerals.  Gold, 
platinum,  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
manganese,  coal,  salt,  and  saltpetre  all 
exist  in  abundance,  and  there  are 
copious  petroleum  springs  in  the  Caspian 
region.  The  precious  metals  are  chiefly 
obtained  in  the  Ural  and  Altai  regions, 
the  annual  production  averaging:  gold, 
7200  lbs.;  platinum,  5000-7000  lbs.; 
silver,  21,000-25,000  lbs.  In  the  Ural, 
iron  beds  are  also  rich  and  numerous, 
exceeding  all  others  in  productiveness. 
Copper  is  most  abundant  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Perm;  lead  in  the  Ural  and 
some  parts  of  Poland;  saltpetre  in 
Astrakhan.  Of  the  coal-mines  those 
of  the  Don  basin  are  the  principal  at 
present,  those  of  Kielce  ranking  second ; 
the  mines  around  Moscow  come  next. 
About  60,000  tons  of  manganese  ore 
are  annually  extracted  in  the  Ural  and 
the  Caucasus.  The  petroleum  wells  of 
Baku  on  the  Caspian  now  send  their 
products  all  over  Europe. 

Prior  to  the  accession  of  Peter  the 
Great  Russia  had  no  manufactories; 
he  started  them,  and  under  the  more 
or  less  fostering  care  of  his  successors 
they  have  stea&ly  grown.  Especially 
since  1865  a number  of  important 
industries  have  developed,  this  being 
mainly  due  to  Russia’s  protective  policy. 
The  latest  statistics  give  about  2,000,000 
persons  as  being  employed  in  the  vari- 
ous manufacturing  industries. 

The  bulk  of  Russia’s  external  trade 
passes  across  the  European  frontier, 
and  through  the  Baltic  and  Black  sea 
ports.  The  chief  exports  are;  grain 
(about  one-half  of  entire  exports),  flax, 
linseed  and  other  oleaginous  seeds, 
timber,  hemp,  wool,  butter  and  eggs, 
spirits,  bristles,  and  furs,  in  the  order 
indicated.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton, 
wool,  tea,  machinery,  coal  and  coke, 
cotton  yarn,  metal  goods,  wine,  olive- 
oil,  raw  silk,  herrings,  textile  goods, 
fruit,  coffee,  tobacco.  The  import 
trade  is  heaviest  with  Germany,  Great 
Britain,  China,  United  States,  in  order 
named.  The  more  rapid  development 
of  the  vast  natural  resources  and  trade 
of  Russia  is  prevented  by  transport 
difficulties.  The  magnificent  river  and 
canal  system  is  not  available  for  a good 
part  of  the  year,  and  railways  are  com- 
paratively limited.  The  great  railway 
across  Siberia  to  Vladivostock  and 
Port  Arthur  is  practically  complete. 
An  important  line  recently  constructed 
is  the  Transcaspian  railway,  from 
Michailovsk,  on  the  southern  shore  of 
the  Caspian,  to  Samarcand,  via  Bokhara 
The  latter  is  preeminently  a military 
line,  but  it  will  also  largely  stimulate 
trade  in  the  heart  of  Asia.  Trade  is 


further  assisted  by  immense  fairs,  which 
are  much  frequented  by  European  and 
Asiatic  merchants. 

Until  1906  Russia  was  an  absolute 
hereditary  monarchy,  the  emperor  (czar 
or  tzar)  being  the  supreme  ruler  and 
legislator,  and  the  final  tribunal  in  all 
matters  political  or  ecclesiastical.  The 
present  emperor’s  income  is  about 
$12,500,000.  His  title  is  Emperor  and 
Autocrat  of  all  the  Russias,  Czar  of 
Poland,  and  Grand-prince  of  Finland. 
The  administration  is  divided  into  ten 
departments,  formerly  eleven,  with  a 
minister  at  the  head  of  each  nominated 
by  the  emperor.  Finland  has  nominally 
preserved  its  ancient  constitution  with  a 
national  parliament  of  four  estates,  but 
it  is  really  ruled  by  a governing-general 
and  senate  appointed  by  the  emperor. 
Some  of  the  Baltic  provinces  also  pos- 
sessed certain  privileges,  but  these  are 
being  gradually  curtailed.  Each  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire  is  under  a gover- 
nor and  vice-governor;  there  are  also  a 
few  general-governors,  who  have  more 
than  one  government  under  them.  The 
communes  into  which  the  provinces  and 
districts  are  divided  possess  a certain 
amount  of  local  government,  and  elect 
their  own  local  dignitaries,  but  these  are 
again  subject  to  an  all-powerful  police. 
Russia  is  heavily  in  debt,  chiefly  abroad, 
Germany  in  particular  holding  large 
amounts  of  Russian  stocks.  The  bulk  of 
the  revenue  is  obtained  by  indirect 
taxation,  spirits  furnishing  about  one- 
third  of  it,  other  items  are  personal  and 
land  taxes,  trade  licenses,  tobacco  and 
sugar,  customs. 

Russia  possesses  one  of  the  most 
powerful  armies  in  the  world.  On  a 
peace  footing  it  is  placed  at  1,100,000 
men,  the  war  strength  at  4,600,000. 
Only  a certain  number  of  those  annually 
reaching  their  twenty-first  year  are 
drawn  into  the  active  army,  however, 
the  rest  entering  the  first  and  second  re- 
serve. Liability  to  military  service  is 
universal  from  the  age  of  21  to  that  of 
43;  and  five  years  must,  in  regular 
course,  be  passed  in  active  service. 

The  result  of  the  Japanese  war  has  to 
a large  extent  demoralized  the  Russian 
army.  Nothing  absolutely  accurate  as 
to  losses,  etc.,  sustained  by  Russia  can 
be  ascertained,  and,  therefore,  the 
actual  condition  or  strength  of  the  army 
cannot  be  positively  stated.  One  fact, 
however,  is  patent : Russia  never  had  in 
Asia  and  Manchuria  so  great  a number 
of  men  as  500,000,  since  one  line  of  rail- 
road is  absolutely  inadequate  to  supply 
more  than  300,000,  while  the  country  is 
too  poor  to  live  off  of.  In  every  battle 
of  the  war  Japan  outnumbered  Russia 
on  the  battle-field  by  from  10  to  40  per 
cent.  That  was  the  essence  of  Japanese 
strategy.  The  navy  comprises  3 first 
and  9 second  class  battle  ships,  14  coast 
defense,  5 armored  cruisers,  4 proteeted 
or  first  class  cruisers,  26  second  and 
third  class  cruisers,  112  torpedo  boats, 
etc.  It  ranks  seventh  among  the 
navies  of  the  world. 

A number  of  languages  and  a vast 
variety  of  dialects  are  naturally  spoken 
in  a country  comprising  such  a hetero- 
geneous population,  but  the  Russian  is 
the  vernacular  of  at  least  four-fifths  of 
the  inhabitants,  the  literary  and  ofiScial 


KUSBIA 


RUSSIA 


language  being  specifically  the  "Great 
Russian,”  or  that  belonging  to  Central 
Russia  surrounding  Moscow.  It  is  one 
of  the  Slavonic  family  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  languages,  and  as  such 
is  a sister  of  Greek,  Latin,  Sanskrit,  Ger- 
man, English,  etc.  Modern  Russian  has 
been  much  modified  by  the  introduction 
of  Greek,  Tartar,  and  Mongolian  terms. 
It  has  an  alphabet  of  thirty-seven 
letters,  a written  and  printed  character 
of  a peculiar  form,  and  a pronunciation 
which  it  is  hardly  possible  for  any  but 
natives  to  master.  Its  inflexions  are 
both  numerous  and  irregular;  but  it  is 
soft,  sonorous,  remarkable  for  its  copious- 
ness, and  affords  unbounded  facility  for 
rhyme. 

Until  the  18th  Century  Russia  was 
backward  in  the  development  of  her 
literature.  Lomonosof  (1711-65)  wrote 
a number  of  works  both  in  prose  and 
verse,  and  by  his  precepts  and  example 
did  much  to  originate  a national  litera- 
ture, and  to  fix  the  grammar  of  the 
language.  His  contemporary  Sumaro- 
koff  carried  the  drama  to  a high  degree 
of  perfection;  Derzhawin  (1743-1816) 
distinguished  himself  highly  in  lyrical 
and  other  poetry;  and  since  then  many 
writers  have  distinguished  themselves  in 
all  departments.  It  is,  however,  prin- 
cipally to  Karamsin  (1725-1826)  that 
Russia  owes  the  more  general  spread  of 
literary  taste.  The  foundation  of  the 
Russian  academy  in  1783,  and  the 
issue  of  its  great  dictionary,  also  con- 
tributed largely  toward  it.  The  same 
perfection  which  Karamsin  gave  to 
prose,  Dimitrieff  gave  to  poetry.  Of  the 
more  modern  authors  particular  mention 
is  due  to  Alexander  Pushkin,  Russia’s 
greatest  poet,  and  Michael  Lermontoff, 
not  far  his  inferior.  The  most  eminent 
novelists  are  Nicholas  Gogol,  Ivan  Tur- 
genieff,  Feodor  Dostoieffsky,  Alexander 
Herzen,  and  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  the 
last  not  only  a novelist  but  also  one  of 
the  greatest  of  modern  prophets.  Russia 
possesses  a number  of  valuable  libraries. 
The  first  Russian  press  was  set  up  at 
Moscow  in  1554. 

The  established  religion  of  Russia  is 
the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church,  and  one 
of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  state  is 
that  the  emperor  must  belong  to  that 
church,  and  none  of  the  imperial  family 
may  marry  a wife  belonging  to  another 
religion  without  the  express  sanction  of 
the  emperor. 

The  population  of  Russia  is  increas- 
ing faster  than  that  of  any  other  Euro- 
pean nation.  Great  Britain,  perhaps, 
excepted.  As  regards  language  (and  so 
far  also  race)  the  peoples  of  Russia  are 
comprised  under  the  two  great  divisions 
of  Aryans  and  Mongolians;  the  former 
include  Slavonians,  Germans,  and 
Greeks,  the  latter  the  Finnish  and 
Tartar  races.  The  Slavonians  form 
about  86  millions  of  the  population, 
including  6i  million  Poles.  There  are 
about  5J  million  Finns,  2J  milhon 
Lithuanians,  and  some  3^  million  Jews. 
Of  Germans  about  1^  million  reside  in 
Russia,  of  Roumanians  and  Servians  2^ 
millions.  There  are  some  2J  million 
Georgians,  Ossetes,  and  Lesghians,  and 
1 million  Armenians.  The  Turco-Tar- 
tars  count  about  10  millions.  A gradual 
absorption  by  the  Slavonic  races  is  go- 


ing on.  The  political  divisions  of  the 
Russian  people  comprise  numerous 
grades  of  nobility,  which  are  partly 
hereditary  and  partly  acquired  by  mili- 
tary and  civil  service,  especially  the 
former,  military  rank  being  most  highly 
prized  in  Russia.  The  clergy,  both 
regular  and  secular,  form  a separate 
privileged  order.  Previous  to  the  year 
1861  the  mass  of  the  people  were  serfs, 
subject  to  the  proprietors  of  the  soil. 
The  Emperors  Alexander  I.  and  Nicholas 
took  some  initial  steps  toward  the 
emancipation  of  this  class;  but  a bold 
and  complete  scheme  of  emancipation 
was  begun  and  carried  out  by  Alexander 
11.  in  1861. 

The  origin  of  the  Russian  empire 
is  involved  in  much  obscurity,  but  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  having  been  founded 
by  Rurik,  a Scandinavian  (Varangian), 
about  862,  his  dominions  and  those  of 
his  immediate  successors  comprising 
Novgorod,  Kleff,  and  the  surrounding 
country.  Vladimir  the  Great  (980- 
1015),  the  Charlemagne  of  Russia,  intro- 
duced Christianity,  and  founded  several 
cities  and  schools.  But  from  this  period 
down  to  1237,  when  the  country  was 
overrun  by  the  Tartars,  Russia  was 
almost  constantly  the  scene  of  civil  war. 

In  1613  the  house  of  Romanoff, 
whence  the  present  czar  is  descended, 
was  raised  to  the  throne,  and  from  this 
period  the  empire  gained  greater 
strength  and  consistency. 

Russia’s  acquisition  of  territory  for 
the  past  four  centuries  is  shown  by 
the  following  table:  About 

sq.  m. 

Ivan  the  Great 1462,  382,716 

Vassili  Ivanovitch 1505,  510,288 

Ivan  the  Terrible 1584,  1,530,864 

Alexis  Michaelovitch.. . .1650,  5,039,094 

Peter  1 1689,  5,953,360 

Anna 1730,  6,888,888 

Katharine  II 1775,  7,122,770 

Alexander  II 1868,  7,866,940 

Do 1881,  8,325,393 

Alexander  III 1887,  8,644,100 

The  population  from  14  millions  in 
1722  has  grown  to  129  millions  in  1906. 
The  extension  of  the  Russian  empire 
in  the  east  is  still  going  on.  In  1881 
the  Tekk6  Turcomans  were  subjected;  in 
1884  Merv  was  taken;  and  Penjdeh  was 
occupied  and  annexed  in  1885,  which 
led  to  considerable  friction  between 
Russia  and  Britain.  Of  late  years  a 
great  disturbing  element  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Russia  has  sprung  up  in 
Nihilism  (see  Nilihists).  The  murder 
of  the  late  emperor  Alexander  II.  in 
the  streets  of  St.  Petersburg,  by  means 
of  a bomb,  was  their  doing;  and 
repeated  attempts  on  the  life  of  his 
successor  Alexander  III.  (1881-94)  were 
also  made.  Alexander  III.  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  eldest  son,  Nicholas  II. 
Russian  aggression  in  Manchuria  and 
Corea  led  to  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Japan  in  February,  1904. 

The  most  important  events  in  the 
history  of  Russia  have  taken  place  with- 
in the  last  few  years.  These  were  the 
war  with  Japan  (the  greatest  war  of 
history)  and  the  Russian  Revolution,  in 
which  the  monarchy  was  made  a 
limited  one.  Previously  to  the  year 
1906  Russia  was  an  absolute  monarchy 
and  affairs  were  in  the  hands  of  bureaus 


under  the  supreme  will  of  the  czar 
whose  title  was  Emperor  and  Auto- 
crat of  all  the  Russias,  Czar  of  Poland, 
and  Grand  Prince  of  Finland.  The 
revolution  began  to  take  shape  in  1903 
with  the  mutterings  of  the  working- 
men in  the  cities  and  outbreaks  against 
the  Jews.  On  April  19th  of  that  year 
the  atrocities  at  Kishineff  took  place, 
in  which  40  Jews  were  massacred  out- 
right and  several  hundred  injured. 
This  was  but  a bare  month  after  the 
proclamation  of  the  czar  establishing 
religious  toleration. 

The  first  actual  step  taken  by  the 
revolutionists  was  the  assassination 
on  May  19th  of  the  Governor  of  Ufa, 
and  in  August  the  great  industrial 
strikes  began.  Petitions  by  the  work- 
ingmen asking  for  a representative 
government  had  been  everywhere  cir- 
culated, and  toward  the  end  of  1904 
the  emperor,  having  the  Japanese- 
Russian  war  on  his  hands,  issued  a 
proclamation  virtually  refusing  to 
consider  a proposal  for  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  form  of  government. 
On  January  18,  1905,  Father  Gapon, 
followed  by  thousands  of  workingmen, 
gathered  in  St.  Petersburg  to  appeal 
to  the  czar  at  the  palace,  but  the 
crowd  was  dispersed  by  the  soldiery, 
who  killed  and  wounded  a thousand 
or  more.  This  act  of  butchery  only 
fanned  the  flame  of  revolution  and 
great  strikes  were  called  at  Moscow, 
Riga,  Revol,  Odessa,  Warsaw,  Lodz, 
Radom  and  Kovno.  On  February  17th 
the  Grand  Duke  Sergius,  uncle  of  the 
emperor  was  assassinated  by  the  throw- 
ing of  a bomb  at  Moscow.  The  mutinies 
of  Odessa  and  Sevastopol  followed, 
in  which  the  rebels  fired  on  Russian 
forts  from  Russian  warships.  The  em- 
peror, having  granted  the  demands  of  the 
people  for  a constitution  and  a legisla- 
ture, or  national  council,  called  the  Duma, 
set  May  10,1906,  as  the  day  for  its  open- 
ing session.  The  chosen  delegates  gath- 
ered at  the  capital,  but  their  meeting 
proved  more  or  less  farcical,  as  the  Duma 
was  dominated  by  the  czar  and  dissolved 
by  him  before  it  could  accomplish  any- 
thing worth  recording.  The  second  Duma 
was  likewise  dissolved,  and  the  third 
Duma  was  opened  November,  14,  1907. 

Meanwhile  the  war  between  Japan  and 
Russia  was  brought  to  a close  by  the 
mediation  of  President  Roosevelt,  who 
had,  on  June  8,  1905,  suggested  a con- 
ference. The  war  had  begun  in  1903-4 
with  Russia’s  aggressions  in  Manchuria 
and  the  Russian  Navy  had  been  virtu- 
ally wiped  out.  The  following  were  the 
casualties:  Russia  Japan 

Army 314,779  163,086 

Navy 6,000  3,670 

Prisoners 67,101  646 

The  following  table  shows  the  naval 
losses  of  the  two  countries : 

Japan  Russia 

Battleships  sunk  2 12 

Battleships  captured  2 

Armored  cruisers  sunk  5 

Coast  defense  vessels  “ 1 

Coast  defense  captured  2 

Cruisers  sunk  4 6 

Other  ships  sunk  6 33 

Other  ships  captured  16 

On  August  8, 1905,  the  peace  delegates 
from  Russia  and  Japan  met  at  Ports- 


RUSSIAN-JAPANESE  WAR 


RYE 


mouth  and  in  a few  days  the  peace  was 
concluded  by  Russia’s  consent  to  the 
Kiniting  of  Russian  influence  in  the 
Oiient  and  Japan’s  relinquishment  of 
the  claimed  indemnity  of  $600,000,000 
and  the  cession  of  one-half  of  Sakhalin. 

RUSSIAN- JAPANESE  WAR,  in  1894 
and  1895,  through  the  intervention  of 
Russia  and  Germany  Japan  was  de- 
prived of  its  conquests  in  Manchuria,  and 
and  in  1898  Russia  secured  by  lease  from 
China  for  26  years,  the  harbors  of  Port 
Arthur,  and  Ta  Lien  Wau  in  the  Liao- 
Tung  peninsula,  the  very  territory  Japan 
had  been  forced  to  surrender  possession 
of.  The  construction  of  the  Manchurian 
railway  connecting  the  newly  acquired 
possessions  with  the  main  line  of  the 
Siberian  railway  was  begun.  During 
Boxer  uprisings  of  1900  a Russian  force 
invaded  Manchuria  in  retaliation  of  a 
Chinese  attack  of  a Russian  town  on  the 
Amur  river.  Russia  refused  to  with- 
draw from  Manchuria  after  agreeing 
with  China  to  do  so  and  after  repeated 
delays  on  the  part  of  Russia  Japan, 
which  declined  its  paramount  interests 
in  Korea,  threatened  by  Russia,  severed 
diplomatic  relations  with  Russia  and 
hostilities  began  on  the  night  of  Feb- 
ruary 7-8,  1904,  with  a torpedo  attack 
delivered  by  the  Japanese  squadron 
against  the  Russian  fleet  in  the  harbor 
of  Port  Arthur.  This  was  followed  by  the 
Japanese  invasion  of  Korea,  whose  em- 
peror was  compelled  to  make  common 
cause  with  Japan.  The  Japanese  forces 
during  the  18  months  of  war  showed 
themselves  superior  on  both  land  and 
water,  defeating  the  Russians  on  land 
and  compelling  them  to  retreat  as  far 
north  as  Tie-lung  and  on  sea  by  practi- 
cally destroying  the  whole  of  the  Rus- 
sian fleet  in  the  eastern  waters. 

The  chronological  story  of  the  war  is 
as  follows; 

Feb.  8-9,  1904 — Variag  and  Korietz 
destroyed  in  Chemulpo  harbor  and  Togo 
attacks  Port  Arthur  fleet. 

May  1 — Japanese  take  Fengwang- 
cheng. 

May  5 — Japanese  land  at  Pitsewo  and 
begin  to  invest  Port  Arthur. 

May  11 — Russians  evacuate  Dalny, 
destroying  the  town. 

May  26-27 — Battles  of  Nanshan  hill 
and  Kinchow;  loss,  5,130. 

June  14-15 — Oku  defeats  Stackel- 
berg  at  Vafangow;  loss,  11,000. 

June  17 — Battle  of  Motien  Pass; 
Russians  driven  back. 

June  30-31 — Battle  of  Haicheng;  loss, 
5,700. 

July  25 — Russian  forces  driven  out  of 
Newchwang. 

Aug.  10— Sortie  from  Port  Arthur 
harbor;  Russian  fleet  dispersed  and  in 
part  destroyed;  Vice-Admiral  Withoft 
killed. 

Aug.  14 — Kamimura  defeats  Vladi- 
vostok squadron;  Rurik  sunk. 

Aug.  30-Sept.  4 — Japanese,  under 
Oyama,  defeat  Kuropatkin  at  Liaoyang; 
365,000  engaged;  loss,  35,000. 

Sept.  11 — Baltic  fleet  sails  from 
Cronstadt  under  Rojestvensky. 

Oct.  8-18 — Kuroki  defeats  Kuro- 
patkin at  Shakhe  river.  Total  casualties 
61,679,  with  23,000  killed. 

Oct.  22 — The  “Doggerbank  outrage.” 
Two  British  fishermen  killed. 


Nov.  30 — Japanese  take  203-Meter 
hill  by  storm,  losing  12,000. 

Jan.  2 — Stoessel  surrenders  Port 
Arthur  to  Nogi. 

Jan.  26  to  31 — Battle  of  the  Hun 
river;  Russians  defeated  with  loss  of 
15,000;  Japanese  loss,  5,000. 

LOSSES  AND  COST  IN  FIRST  YEAR  OF 
WAR — LOSSES  IN  MEN. 

Russians  killed,  60,000,  wounded, 

155.000,  total,  215,000.  Japanese  killed, 

65.000,  wounded,  110,000,  total,  175,000. 

NAVAL  LOSSES. 

By  Russia — Seven  battleships,  thir- 
teen cruisers  and  fourteen  gunboats, 
torpedo  boats  and  destroyers.  Total, 
34  ships. 

By  Japan — One  battleship,  three 
cruisers,  three  transports  and  sixteen 
torpedo  boats  and  destroyers.  Total, 
23  ships. 

FINANCIAL  COST. 

Official  figures  by  Russia,  $475,000,- 
000;  estimates  made  by  Japan,  $360,- 
000,000.  Total  cost  to  both  countries, 
$835,000,000.  See  Manchuria. 

RUSSIA  LEATHER  is  prepared  in 
Russia  chiefly  from  cow-hides  tanned 
with  willow,  poplar,  and  larch  bark,  and 
is  saturated  with  birch-bark  oil,  which 
gives  it  its  peculiar  odor.  It  is  highly 
esteemed  for  its  durability  and  imper- 
viousness to  water  and  insects,  and  is 
dyed  in  various  colors,  red  and  brown 
being  the  most  frequent.  It  is  much 
used  for  book-bindings  and  fancy 
articles.  Similar  leather  from  cow-hide 
is  made  of  good  quality  in  the  United 
States.  Large  quantities  of  imitation 
Russia  leather  are  made  in  Paris,  but  it 
lacks  durability. 

RUST,  peroxide  of  iron,  formed  by 
the  gradual  oxidation  of  iron  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  To  remove  rust  the 
usual  mode  is  to  rub  the  object  with  a 
piece  of  oiled  rag  or  emery  paper.  More 
rapid  and  more  satisfactory  results  are 
secured  by  using  very  pure  petroleum, 
and  wiping  with  a hempen  or  woolen  rag. 
To  prevent  rust,  dip  iron  or  steel  articles 
in  a mixture  of  equal  parts  of  carbolic 
acid  and  olive-oil,  rubbing  the  surface 
with  a rag.  Others  rub  the  metal  with 
a mercurial  ointment,  leaving  a thin 
layer  over  the  entire  surface.  If  iron  be 
dipped  in  a solution  of  carbonate  of 
potash  or  soda  in  water  the  surface  will 
be  protected  against  rust  for  a long 
time,  and  objects  can  be  protected  for 
any  period  by  burying  in  quicklime. 
Rubbing  the  surface  with  plumbago  has 
a similar  effect. 

RUST,  a disease  which  attacks  cereals 
and  many  pasture  grasses,  known  also 
by  the  names  of  red-gum,  red-rag,  red- 
robin.  It  is  most  common  on  the  leaves, 
on  which  it  is  visible  in  the  form  of 
orange-colored  mealy  spots,  but  is  by 
no  means  confined  to  them.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  a species  of  fungus,  the  growth 
of  which  seems  to  be  specially  favored 
in  ill-ventilated  fields  under  excessive 
summer  heat. 

RUSTIC  WORK  in  masonry  is  a term 
applied  where  the  surface  of  a wall 
shows  grooves  between  the  different 
courses  of  stones  thus  giving  the  ap- 
pearance of  open  joints. 

RUTH,  Book  of,  a canonical  book  of 


the  Old  Testament.  It  is  a kind  of 
appendix  to  the  Book  of  Judges,  and  an 
introduction  to  those  of  Samuel,  and  is 
therefore  properly  placed  between  them. 
The  story  of  Ruth  records  in  simple 
language  the  ancient  rights  of  kindred, 
redemption,  and  other  interesting  cus- 
toms of  Hebrew  antiquity.  The  date  of 
the  history  and  the  name  of  its  writer  are 
unknown,  but  it  is  probably  of  a date 
subsequent  to  the  captivity. 


Rustic  work. 

I , With  chamfered  ;oi  ats.  2,  W ith  rectang  ul,. 
joints. 


RUTHE'NIANS,  Russin'ians,  Russ- 
niaks.  Red  or  Little  Russians,  numer- 
ous Slavonic  tribes  inhabiting  Eastern 
Galicia,  Bukowira,  and  Northeastern 
Hungary,  closely  allied  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Podolia  and  Volhynia.  The 
number  of  Ruthenians  in  the  Austrain 
empire  amounts  to  3,000,000,  of  whom 
about  500,000  are  settled  in  Hungary. 

RUTHERFURD,  Lewis  Morris,  Ameri- 
can scientist,  was  born  in  Morrisania, 

N.  Y.,  in  1816.  He  invented  and  con- 
structed a number  of  instruments  which 
proved  of  great  value  to  astronomers. 

He  constructed  a micrometer  for  the 
measurement  of  astronomical  photo- 
graphs, for  use  upon  pictures  of  solar 
eclipses  or  transits  and  upon  groups  of 
stars,  of  which  he  has  measured  several 
hundred,  showing,  that  the  photo- 
graphic method  is  at  least  equal  in  ac- 
curacy to  that  of  the  heliometer  or  filar- 
micrometer  and  far  more  convenient.  He 
was  one  of  the  original  members  named 
in  the  act  of  congress  in  1863,  creating  ’ 
the  National  Academy  of  Science.  He 
died  in  1892. 

RUTLAND,  the  capital  of  Rutland 
CO.,  Vermont,  117  miles  n.n.w.of  Boston. 

It  is  an  important  railway  junction,  and 
has  valuable  white  marble  quarries  in 
its  vicinity.  Pop.  11,760.  ;■ 

RYE,  a species  of  grain  of  which  there  - 
are  several  varieties.  It  is  an  esculent 
grain  bearing  naked  seeds  on  a flat  ear 
furnished  with  awns  like  barley.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  Levant,  but  has  been  culti-  . 
vated  in  Europe  from  time  immemorial. 

It  thrives  in  climates  and  in  soils  which 
forbid  wheat;  requires  less  manure,  and  ? 
ripens  faster.  It  is  extensively  grown  in 
northern  Europe,  and  rye  bread  forms 
the  chief  subsistence  of  the  laboring  • 
classes  of  many  parts  of  Russia,  Sweden, 
Norway,  Denmark,  Holland,  and  Prussia. 
Unmalted  rye-meal  mixed  with  barley 
malt  and  fermented  forms  the  wash  * 


whence  is  distilled  the  spirit  known  as 
Hollands  gin.  The  straw  is  long,  flexi- 
ble, does  not  rot  easily,  and  is  used  by 
brickmakers  and  thatchers,  also  for 
stuffing  horse-collars,  mattres.ses,  etc.,, 
and  for  making  baskets,  straw  hats,  and 
bonnets.  Rye  is  subject  to  a disease 
called  ergot,  which  renders  it  dangerous 
for  food. 


s 


SACCHAROMETER 


S,  the  nineteenth  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  representing  the  hissing  sound 
produced  by  emitting  the  breath  be- 
tween the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  placed  just  above  the 
upper  teeth.  From  this  circumstance  it 
has  sometimes  been  reckoned  among  the 
linguals  (as  the  tongue  is  essential  in  its 
pronunciation),  sometimes  among  the 
dentals  (as  the  teeth  co-operate  in  pro- 
ducing the  hissing  sound).  More  de- 
scriptively it  is  classed  as  a sibilant  It 
has  a twofold  pronunciation — sharp  or 
hard  as  in  sack,  sin,  this,  thus;  and  soft 
or  sonant  (when  it  is  equivalent  to  z),  as 
in  muse,  wise. 

SAALE  (za'l6),  the  name  of  several 
German  rivers,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  that  which  rises  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Fichtelgebirge,  in  the  north- 
east of  Bavaria,  and  joins  the  Elbe  after 
a course  of  above  200  miles.  It  passes 
the  towns  Hof,  Jena,  Naumburg,  Merse- 
burg, Halle,  etc.,  and  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance. 

SABBATH  (a  Hebrew  word  signifying 
rest)  is  the  day  appointed  by  the  Mosaic 
law  for  a total  cessation  from  labor,  and 
for  the  service  of  God,  in  memory  of  the 
circumstance  that  God,  having  created 
the  world  in  six  days,  rested  on  the 
seventh.  Sabbath  is  not  strictly  synony- 
mous with  Sunday.  Sunday  is  the  mere 
name  of  the  day ; Sabbath  is  the  name  of 
the  institution.  Sundayis  the  Sabbath  of 
Christians;  Saturday  is  the  Sabbath  of 
the  Jews  and  some  minor  Christian  sects. 
The  first  notice  in  the  Old  Testament 
pointing  to  the  Sabbath  occurs  in  Gen. 
li.  2,  3;  but  the  first  formal  institution  of 
the  day  as  a holy  day  and  a day  of  rest 
is  recorded  in  Exod.  xvi.  22-26,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  children  of  Israel  gather- 
ing manna  in  the  wilderness.  Soon  after 
the  observance  of  the  day  was  re-en- 
acted still  more  expressly  and  emphati- 
cally in  the  tables  of  the  law.  Prior  to 
the  captivity  the  Jews  kept  the  Sabbath 
very  indifferently,  but  after  their  return 
from  Egypt  Nehemiah  exerted  himself 
to  secure  the  true  observance.  Gradually 
the  original  law  became  encumbered 
j;  with  a long  list  of  petty  pharisaical  and 
rabbinical  regulations.  The  Sabbath 
M.'  began  at  sunset  on  Friday  and  ended  at 
i sunset  on  Saturday.  On  the  Sabbath  the 
j,  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  go  out  of  the 

■ city  further  than  2000  paces,  that  is, 
, about  a mile,  and  this  distance  was 

called  a Sabbath-day’s  journey.  And  as 
every  seventh  day  was  a day  of  rest  to 
the  people,  so  was  every  seventh  year  to 
I to  the  land.  It  was  unlawful  in  this  year 
’ to  plough  or  sow,  or  prune  vines;  and  if 
the  earth  brought  forth  anything  of  its 
own  accord,  these  spontaneous  fruits 
did  not  belong  to  the  master  of  the 
ground,  but  were  common  to  all.  This 
year  was  called  the  Sabbatical  year,  and 
was  also  to  be  a year  of  release  for  Jewish 
debtors.  In  the  gospels  the  references  to 
I the  Sabbath  are  numerous,  and  they 
. show  us  that  Christ  always  paid  respect 
' to  the  institution  although  he  did  not 

■ regard  the  minute  prohibitions  that  had 
been  added  to  the  original  law.  The  de- 
sire of  distinguishing  the  Christian  from 

j the  Jewish  observance  early  gave  rise  to 

P.  E.— 69 


s 


the  celebration  of  Sunday,  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  instead  of  the  Sabbath  In 
366  the  Council  of  Laodicea  removed 
all  scruples  as  to  the  duty  of  Christians 
to  keep  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  See  Sun- 
day. 

SAB'INES,  an  ancient  people  widely 
spread  in  middle  Italy,  allied  to  the 
Latins,  and  already  an  important  nation 
prior  to  the  foundation  of  Rome. 
Originally  they  were  confined  to  the 
mountain  districts  to  the  n.e.  of  Rome, 
and  their  ancient  capital  was  Amiternum 
near  the  modern  Aquila.  As  an  inde- 
pendent nation  they  ceased  to  exist  in 
290  B.C.,  when  they  were  incorporated 
with  the  Roman  state. 

SABLE,  a carnivorous  mammal,  near- 
ly allied  to  the  common  marten  and  pine 
marten,  found  chiefly  in  Siberia  and 
Kamtchatka,  and  hunted  for  its  fur. 
Its  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  is  about 
18  inches.  Its  fur,  which  is  extremely 
lustrous,  and  hence  of  the  very  highest 
value,  is  generally  brown,  grayish-yellow 
on  the  throat,  and  with  small  grayish- 
yellow  spots  scattered  on  the  sides  of  the 


Sable. 


neck.  It  is  densest  during  winter,  and 
owing  to  the  mode  of  attachment  of  the 
hairs  to  the  skin  it  may  be  pressed  or 
smoothed  in  any  direction.  The  skins  of 
these  varieties  are  frequently  dyed  and 
otherwise  manipulated  to  imitate  the 
true  Russian  sable.  Sable  hair  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  artist’  pencils 
Sable  fur  has  been  of  great  value  from 
very  early  times. 

SABLE,  in  heraldry,  black,  one  of  the 
tinctures  used  in  blazonry.  In  engraving 
it  is  expressed  by  perpendicular  crossed 
by  horizontal  lines. 

SABLE  ISLAND,  a low  treeless  sandy 
island  in  the  North  Atlantic,  off  the  east 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  20  miles  long  and 
1 to  5 broad.  It  has  a refuge  for  ship- 
wrecked persons  and  a lighthouse.  Many 
shipwrecks  have  occurred  on  it.  It  is 
gradually  disappearing. 

SABOTS  (si-bo),  wooden  shoes  made 
each  of  one  piece  hollowed  out  by  boring 
tools  and  scrapers.  They  are  largely 
worn  by  the  peasantry  of  several  Eu- 
ropean countries,  being  well  adapted  to 
protect  the  feet  against  damp.  In  France 
their  manufacture  forms  an  important 
industry.  The  willow,  beech,  and  ash 
are  the  favorite  woods  for  sabotmaking. 

SABRE,  a broad  and  heavy  sword, 
thick  at  the  back  and  somewhat  curved 


at  the  point.  It  is  the  chief  weapon  of 
cavalry  regiments. 

SABRE-TACHE,  a leathern  case  or 
pocket  won  by  cavalry  officers  at  the 
left  side,  suspended  from  their  sword- 
belt.  It  is  rather  ornamental  than  use- 
ful, and  its  face  bears  the  regimental 
emblems,  number,  etc. 

SACBUT,  or  SACKBUT,  a musical  in- 
strument of  the  trumpet  kind  with  a 
slide;  in  fact  an  old  variety  of  trombone. 
The  instrument  called  sabbeka  in  the 
Hebrew  scriptures  has  been  erroneously 
rendered  as  saebut  by  the  translators. 
The  exact  form  of  the  sabbeka  has  been 


Assyrian  saebut,  Irom  bas-relief. 


much  disputed,  but  that  it  was  a 
stringed  instrument  is  certain,  for  the 
name  passed  over  into  Greek  and  Latin 
in  the  forms  sambuke,  sambuca,  a harp- 
like instrument  of  four  or  more  strings. 
The  instrument  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  is  believed  to  rep- 
resent a form  of  the  saebut  of  scripture. 

SACCH'ARIN,  an  artificial  sugar  pre- 
pared from  coal-tar,  first  introduced  to 
commerce  in  1887  by  its  discoverer  Dr. 
Constantin  Fahlberg  of  Salbke  (Ger- 
many). Its  sweetening  properties  are 
enormous;  one  grain  of  saccharin  is  said 
to  sweeten  distinctly  70,000  grains  of 
distilled  water.  It  is  not  a fermentable 
sugar,  and  is  already  in  common  use  in 
the  treatment  of  disease,  as  diabetes, 
for  instance;  and  in  many  cases  in  which 
the  palate  craves  for  sweets,  but  in 
which  ordinary  sugar  cannot  without 
danger  be  permitted.  It  is  also  used  by 
stout  persons,  or  those  inclined  to  be- 
come so,  in  order  to  lessen  the  formation 
of  fat.  To  a certain  extent  it  now  com- 
petes with  natural  sugars,  especially  in 
confectionery  and  preserving.  There  is 
some  doubt  as  to  its  effects  on  the  hu- 
man system.  The  French  Conseil  d' 
Hygiene  et  de  Salubrity  appointed  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  its  proper- 
ties, and  their  report,  issued  in  1888, 
stated  that  its  use  in  food  would  seri- 
ously affect  the  digestive  functions.  The 
discoverer  and  other  chemists,  both 
British  and  foreign,  have  denied,  how- 
ever, that  saccharin  is  injurious,  and  it 
is  also  asserted  that  the  hostility  to  this 
sweetening  substance  emanates  chiefly 
from  persons  interested  in  the  beet- 
sugar  industry.  Saccharin  has  come 
largely  into  use  in  Germany  in  the 
manufacture  of  confectionery,  in  brew- 
ing, etc. 

SACCHAROM'ETER,  or  SACCHARI- 
METER,  an  instrument  for  determining 
the  quantity  of  saccharine  matter  in  any 


SACCO  PHARYNX 


SAFE 


solution.  One  form  is  simply  a hydrom- 
eter for  taking  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  solution;  another  is  a kind  of  polari- 
scope,  so  arranged  that  the  solution  majt 
be  interposed  between  the  polarizer  and 
analyzer,  and  by  observing  the  angle 
through  which  the  plane  of  polarization 
is  turned  in  passing  through  the  solution 
the  datum  is  given  for  the  calculation 
of  the  strength.  (See  Polarization.) 
Several  saccharometers  acting  on  this 
principle,  but  varying  somewhat  in  con- 
struction, are  now  in  use. 

SAC'COPHARYHX,  or  EURYPHAR- 
YNX,  a genus  of  eels.  The  best-known 


Saccopharynx. 


species  was  discovered  only  a few 
years  ago.  It  inhabits  the  depths  of 
the  Atlantic,  is  of  a perfectly  black  color, 
is  sometimes  9 feet  in  length,  and  but 
seldom  met  with.  It  owes  its  name  to  its 
pouch-like  pharynx,  which  enables  it  to 
swallow  other  fish  of  large  dimensions. 
The  muscular  system  is  but  little  devel- 
oped, and  the  bones  are  thin  and  soft. 

SACK,  formerly  a general  name  for  the 
different  sorts  of  dry  wine,  more  espe- 
cially the  Spanish,  which  were  first  ex- 
tensively used  in  England  in  the  16th 
century. 

SACO,  a river  in  the  United  States. 
It  rises  in  New  Hampshire,  in  the  White 
mountains,  and  runs  southeast  into  the 
Atlantic  below  Saco,  in  Maine.  It  is  160 
miles  long,  and  has  falls  of  72  feet  at 
Hiram,  of  42  feet  at  Saco,  and  numerous 
minor  ones. 

SACRAMENT,  Latin,  sacramentum,  a 
pledge,  an  oath,  in  particular  the  mili- 
tary oath  of  allegiance.  This  word 
received  a religious  sense,  in  the 
Christian  church,  from  its  having  been 
used  in  the  Vulgate  to  translate  the 
Greek  mysterion,  a mystery.  Among  the 
early  Latin  ecclesiastical  writers  sacra- 
mentum, therefore,  signifies  a mystery, 
a symbolical  religious  ceremony,  and  was 
most  frequently  applied  by  them  to  the 
rite  of  baptism.  In  modern  Christian 
theology  sacrament  is  defined  as  an  out- 
ward and  visible  sign  of  an  inward  and 
spiritual  grace,  a solemn  religious  cere- 
mony enjoined  by  Christ  to  be  observed 
by  his  followers,  and  by  which  their 
special  relation  to  him  is  created,  of 
tneir  obligations  to  him  renewed  and 
ratified.  In  early  times  the  church  had 
numerous  sacraments,  as  many  as  thirty 
being  enumerated  in  the  first  half  of  the 
12th  century.  The  Roman  and  Greek 
churches  now  recognize  seven  sacra- 
ments -.baptism,  confirmation,  the  Eucha- 
rist, penance,  extreme  unction,  orders, 
and  marriage.  Protestants  in  general 
bold  baptism  and  the  eucharist  to  be  the 
only  sacraments.  The  Socinians  regard 
the  sacraments  merely  as  solemn  rites, 
having  no  divine  eflBcacy,  and  not 
necessarily  binding  on  Christians.  The 


Quakers  consider  them  as  acts  of  the 
mind  only,  and  have  no  outward  cere- 
monies connected  with  them. 

SACRAMEN'TO,  a river  in  California. 
It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  the 
boarders  of  Oregon,  and  drains  the 
central  valley  of  California  from  the 
north.  Its  course  is  about  500  miles,  300 
of  which  are  navigable  for  small  steam- 
ers. It  discharges  its  waters  into  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco. 

SACRAMENTO,  the  capital  of  Califor- 
nia, in  the  county  and  on  the  river  of 
same  name,  80  miles  northeast  of  San 
Francisco.  It  occupies  a low  and  level 
site,  and  vast  sums  of  money  have  been 
spent  for  embankments,  and  in  raising 
the  street  levels,  so  as  to  secure  the  town 
against  inundation  by  the  river.  Saera- 
mento  owes  its  origin  and  prosperity  to 
the  northern  gold-&lds.  It  has  suffered 
much  from  water  and  fire  during  its 
short  existenee,  but  is  now  a regular  and 
well-built  city,  boasting  of  many  good 
buildings.  The  state  capitol,  centrally 


State  capitol,  Sacramento,  Cal. 


situated  in  a large,  well-laid-out  park, 
is  a grand  structure,  and  cost  about 
$5,000,000.  Pop.  1909,  46,000. 

SACRIFICES,  gifts  offered  with  some 
symbolic  intent  to  the  Deity,  generally 
an  immolated  victim  or  an  offering  of 
any  other  kind  laid  on  an  altar  or  other- 
wise presented  in  the  way  of  religious 
thanksgiving,  atonement,  or  concilia- 
tion. The  origin  of  sacrifice  is  a point 
much  disputed;  the  two  opposed  views 
being  that  of  a primeval  appointment 
by  the  Deity,  and  that  of  a spontaneous 
origination  in  the  instinctive  desire  of 
man  to  draw  near  to  God.  The  symbolic 
character  of  sacrifice  may  be  represented 
under  three  heads:  (1)  Propitiatory,  or 
designed  to  conciliate  generally  the 
favor  of  the  Deity;  (2)  Eucharistic,  or 
symbolical  of  gratitude  for  favors  re- 
ceived; (3)  Expiatory,  or  offered  in 
atonement  for  particular  offenses.  To  a 
different  class  may  be  assigned  depre- 
catory sacrifices  designed  to  avert  the 
wrath  or  appease  the  wicked  disposition 
of  deities.  The  customs  of  the  Jews  re- 
garding sacrifice  are  noteworthy  on 
account  of  their  very  express  and  ex- 
plicit claims  to  a divine  origin,  and  be- 
cause of  their  connection  with  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Details  are  amply  given  in 
the  Book  of  Leviticus.  Few  religions, 
whether  ancient  or  modern,  have  omitted 
sacrifices  from  among  their  rites.  The 
ancestors  of  all  the  existing  races  in 
Europe  practiced  human  sacrifices,  and 
similar  usages  widely  prevailed  through- 
out the  world.  Among  Christians  the 


Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  churches  re- 
ard  the  mass  as  a mysterious  sacrifice; 
ut  with  Protestants  it  is  not  generally 
so  regarded. 

SA'CRUM,  in  anatomy,  the  bony 
strueture  which  forms  the  basis  or  in- 
ferior extremity  of  the  vertebral  column. 
The  human  sacrum  forms  the  back  part 


Pelvic  bones,  s,  sacrum. 


of  the  pelvis,  is  roughly  triangular  in 
shape,  consists  of  five  united  vertebrse, 
and  from  its  solidity  it  is  well  adapted  to 
serve  as  the  keystone  of  the  pelvic  arch, 
being  wedged  in  between  and  articulat- 
ing with  the  haunch-bones.  In  most 
mammals  the  number  of  vertebree  form- 
ing the  sacrum  is  smaller  than  in  man. 
In  birds  the  lowest  number  is  about  ten. 
Fishes  possess  no  sacrum  at  all.  The 
sacrum  in  man  is  fully  ossified  and  com- 
pleted in  development  from  the  twenty-  ■ 
fifth  to  the  thirtieth  year  of  life,  but  the 
component  parts  can  generally  be  per- 
ceived even  in  the  most  aged  individuals. 

SAD'DUCEES,  one  of  the  two  chief 
sects  or  parties  existing  among  the  Jews 
in  the  time  of  Christ.  Various  accounts 
are  given  of  their  origin.  Some  critics 
recognize  in  the  Sadducees  the  de- 
scendants and  adherents  of  the  Zadok 
mentioned  in  1 Kings  i.  39. 

SAFE,  a receptacle  for  valuables,  of  : 
iron  or  steel,  or  both  combined.  A safe  , 
to  answer  all  requirements  should  be 
fire,  explosive,  acid,  drill,  and  wedge- 
proof.  A fire-proof  safe  need  only  be  so 
constructed  that,  although  exposed  to  , 
the  intense  heat  of  a conflagration,  itSj' 
inner  recesses  remain  at  a sufficiently) 
low  temperature  to  prevent  combustion 
of  the  contents.  A burglar-proof  safe  ^ 
needs  many  other  safe-g>jards,  and  the 
history  of  safe-making  is  mainly  a record , 
of  struggles  between  the  safe  manufac- 
turer and  the  burglar;  the  result  is  that> 
safes  can  now  be  obtained  which  are  all  ,J 
but  impregnable.  The  safe  consists  of  - 
an  outer  and  an  inner  wall,  the  spaces 
between  being  fiOed  with  some  fire-proof  j 
material  such  as  asbestos,  silicate  cotton,T 
gypsum,  etc.  The  outside  casing,  which ti 
may  be  single  or  compound,  naturally 5 
receives  the  greatest  attention,  and 
various  are  the  devices  of  manufacturers 
to  render  it  sufficiently  hard  and  solid  t(H 
resist  the  finely-tempered  drills  of  the 
burglar.  To  prevent  wrenching,  the 
door  is  secured  by  bolts  moving  straight 
or  diagonally  into  slots  on  one  or  on  all 
sides.  These  bolts  are  moved  by  the  door) 
handle,  and  the  lock-key  fixes  them  in 
their  positions.  With  the  modern  safe 
of  the  best  kind,  the  lock  may  be  said  to 
be  the  only  vulnerable  point,  hence 
much  care  and  ingenuity  have  been  ex- 
pended on  its  mechanism.  The  first 
great  improvements  in  locks,  as  applied 
to  safes,  are  due  to  Chubb  of  London,  a 
name  which  still  stands  in  the  front 
ranks  of  safe-lock  makers;  but  numerous 

J 


SAFE  DEPOSIT  COMPANIES 


SAGE 


patents,  mostly  of  American  origin, 
have  in  recent  years  been  introduced. 
Of  these  the  keyless  pei-mutation  locks 
deserve  particular  mention,  as  they 
obviate  the  danger  which  arises  from 
lost  or  false  keys.  Such  locks  allow  of 
opening  only  after  an  indicator  has  been 
moved  in  accordance  with  a certain  com- 
bination of  numbers  arranged  before 
closing  the  safe.  Some  safe-locks  are  so 
constructed  that  to  be  freed  they  require 
different  keys  on  different  days,  some 
can  only  be  opened  at  a certain  hour, 
this  being  fixed  on  before  the  door  is 
closed ; while  others  again  require  two  or 
more  keys  in  charge  of  different  per- 
sons; in  fact,  the  arrangements  con- 
trived to  render  the  plundering  of  safes 
next  to  impossible  are  too  numerous 
even  to  mention.  The  connection  of 
safes  with  electric  alarms  in  a variety 
of  ways  forms  another  safeguard. 

SAFE  DEPOSIT  COMPANIES,  are 
among  the  comparatively  recent  ad- 
ditions to  the  list  of  bodies  corporate, 
organized  for  a specific  purpose,  and 
operating  under  and  by  vitrue  of  statu- 
tory law  or  special  acts  of  state  legis- 
latures. Deposit  companies  were  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  deposits  of 
valuables  of  almost  every  description, 
such  as  bonds,  notes,  mortgages,  jew- 
elry, gold  and  silver  ware,  family  heir- 
looms, wills,  and  other  legal  documents, 
etc.,  companies  guaranteeing  to  owners, 
upon  payment  by  the  latter  of  a pre- 
mium corresponding  to  the  risk  under- 
taken, absolute  security,  from  loss  by 
fire  or  otherwise,  to  the  articles  de- 
posited. The  acts  of  incorporation  also 
authorize  the  construction  of  such  build- 
ings, safes,  and  other  appurtenances  as 
will  promote  the  security  contemplated 
and  the  faithful  execution  of  the  trust 
created  for  the  benefit  of  depositors. 
The  vaults  or  safe  deposits  for  the  stor- 
age of  valuables  are  constructed  after 
the  latest  designs,  of  the  most  substan- 
tial material,  and  provided  with  every 
appliance  known  to  scientific  investi- 
gation or  mechanical  development  for 
attaining  the  end  in  view,  i.  e.,  absolute 
security  from  visitations  either  by  bur- 
glars or  the  elements.  The  interior  of 
these  vaults  is  peopled,  so  to  speak, 
w'ith  boxes  and  safes  in  which  are  con- 
tained the  valuables  of  clients,  access 
to  which  is  obtained  by  keys,  one  being 
held  by  the  lessee  and  the  other  by  the 
company.  The  vaults  are  opened  and 
closed  by  electricity  at  designated  hours, 
and  their  protection  is  further  guar- 
anteed by  locks  and  bolts,  as  also  by 
the  presence  of  custodians,  who  are  re- 
lieved at  intervals  by  colleagues.  Auto- 
matic signals  are  connected  with  the 
police  department  and  private  detective 
agencies  of  cities  in  which  the  company 
does  business,  and  either  upon  the 
sounding  of  the  alarm  or  its  failure  to 
signal  “all  is  well,”  as  the  device  is  con- 
structed to  do,  investigation  is  at  once 
instituted  to  ascertain  the  cause.  A 
pass-word  is  employed  by  some  of  the 
companies  as  a further  preventive 
against  intrusion,  and  other  agencies 
for  the  promotion  of  security  are 
adopted  as  rapidly  as  they  become 
available. 

SAFETY-LAMP,  a lamp  for  lighting 
coal-mines  without  exposing  the  miners 


to  explosions  of  fire-damp.  The  first 
safety-lamp  was  invented  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy  in  1816,  and  until  a quite 
recent  periodhis  system,  with  someslight 
modifications,  was  in  general  use.  It 
consists  principally  of  a cistern  to  hold 
the  oil,  in  the  top  of  which  the  wick  is 
placed.  Over  the  cistern  a cylinder  of 
wire-gauze  is  fixed  so  as  to  envelop  the 
flame.  The  lamp  is  closed  by  a bolt 
passing  through  both  parts,  and  to  pre- 
vent the  miner  from  exposing  the  flame 
a locking  arrangement  exists.  The 
diameter  of  the  gauze  wire  is  from  to 
gV  of  an  inch,  and  the  apertures  do  not 
exceed  the  of  an  inch  square.  The 
Stephenson  lamp,  better  known  among 
miners  as  the  “Geordie,”  has  a glass 
chimney  as  well  as  the  wire-gauze 
and  the  air  to  feed  the  flame  enters 
through  a perforated  ring  just  below  the 
wick.  This  lamp,  though  safer  than  the 
Davy,  if  used  with  care,  becomes  a 
source  of  danger  if  the  perforated  ring 
is  allowed  to  get  clogged  and  the  glass 
chimney  overheated.  A series  of  trials 
with  safety-lamps,  made  in  Britain  by 
a committee  of  the  Midland  institute, 
led  to  the  condemnation  of  the  ordinary 
Davy  and  Stephenson  lamps  and  to  the 
Introduction  of  the  Mueseler,  Marsant, 
and  several  other  lamps,  which  had  been 
used  with  satisfaction  in  Belgian  and 
French  mines.  They  are,  however,  all 
modifications  of  the  principle  which 
underlies  the  original  invention  of  Sir 
Humphry  Davy.  A safety-lamp  re- 
cently brought  before  the  public  is  the 
Thornebury,  which  is  said  to  be  self- 
extinguishing in  an  explosive  mixture 
of  fire-damp  and  air,  to  give  a strong 
light,  to  be  simple  in  construction,  and 
absolutely  safe.  There  are  also  several 
electric  miner’s  lamps  in  the  market. 

SAFETY-VALVE,  a contrivance  for 
relieving  the  pressure  of  steam  before  it 
becomes  too  great  for  the  calculated 
strength  of  the  containing  vessel.  The 
commonest  form  of  safety-valve  on 


Fig.1. 


steam-boilers  is  a lid  (valve),  pressed 
against  a hole  (seat)  by  either  a spring 
or  a weight;  the  spring  or  weight  not 
exerting  a greater  force  than  can  be 
overcome  by  the  pressure  of  the  steam 
inside,  part  of  which  then  escapes  and 
obviates  any  danger.  The  valve  is  round, 
is  bevelled  round  the  edge,  and  is  fur- 
nished with  a spindle  which  moves 
loosely  in  a guide  attached  to  the  seat; 
the  seat  is  bevelled  to  fit  the  edge  of  the 
valve.  On  locomotive  and  on  ship’s 
boilers  the  valve  is  pressed  against  the 
seat  by  a spring  arrangement;  but  on 
stationary  boilers  a weight  should  al- 
ways be  employed.  Fig.  1 shows  a safety 
valve,  in  which  a weight  is  employed. 
Here  a is  the  valve,  b b the  boiler,  cc  the 
valve-seat,  usually,  like  the  valve  itself, 
made  of  gun-metal,  d the  lever  turning 
upon  a fixed  center  at  e,  and  pressing 
upon  the  valve  by  a steel  point,  f a guide 


for  the  lever,  g a weight  which  may  be 
shifted  backward  and  forward  according 
to  the  pressure  desired.  Fig.  2 shows  a 
form  of  spring  safety-valve,  in  which  a 
series  of  bent  springs  hhh  are  placed 


Pig.  a 


alternately  in  opposite  directions,  their 
extremities  sliding  upon  the  rods  i i,  and 
the  springs  being  kept  down  by  the  cross 
bar  k;  a being  the  valve,  c the  valve- 
seat,  and  b b part  of  the  boiler. 

SAFFRON,  a low  ornamental  plant 
with  grasslike  leaves  and  large  crocus- 
like purple  flowers,  cultivated  in  the 
East  and  in  Southern  Europe  for  the 
sake  of  its  stigmas.  These  when  dried 
form  the  saffron  of  the  shops,  which  has 
a deep-orange  color,  a warm  bitterish 
taste,  and  a sweetish  penetrating  odor. 
Its  orange-red  extract  is  used  by  painters 
and  dyers,  and  the  saffron  itself  also  in 
cookery  and  confectionery  as  a coloring 
and  flavoring  substance. 

SAGE,  Russell,  American  capitalist, 
was  born  in  Shenandoah,  Oneida  co., 
N.  Y.,  in  1816.  In  1852  he  was  elected 
to  congress  as  a whig,  and  reelected  in 
1854,  serving  on  the  Ways  and  Means 
committee.  He  removed  to  New  York 
City  in  1863  and  became  largely  in- 
terested in  railroad  investments.  He 
was  associated  with  Jay  Gould  in  the 
control  of  the  Wabash,  the  St.  Louis 
and  Pacific,  and  other  western  roads, 
and  in  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
company  and  the  Manhattan  Elevated 
Railroad  system  of  New  York  City. 
He  died  in  1906. 


Sage.  1,  inflorescence;  2,  lower  part  of  stem 
with  leaves. 


SAGE,  the  common  name  of  a very 
large  genus  of  plants  containing  about 


sage-brush 


SAHARUNPUR 


450  species,  widely  dispersed  through 
the  temperate  and  wanner  regions  of  the 
globe.  They  are  herbs  or  shrubs  of 
widely  varying  habit,  usually  with  en- 
tire or  cut  leaves  and  various-colored 
(rarely  yellow)  flowers.  The  best  known 
is  the  S.  oflicinalis,  or  garden  sage.  This 
plant  is  much  used  in  cookery,  and  is 
supposed  to  assist  the  stomach  in  digest- 
ing fat  and  luscious  foods.  Sage-tea  is 
commended  as  a stomachic  and  slight 
stimulant. 

SAGE-BRUSH,  a low  irregular  shrub 
of  the  order  Composit®,  growing  in  dry 
alkaline  soils  of  the  North  American 
plains.  The  name  is  also  given  to  other 
American  species  of  Artemisia. 

SAGINAW,  the  capital  of  Saginaw  co., 
Michigan,  on  both  sides  of  the  Saginaw 
river,  here  navigable  for  the  largest  lake 
craft,  about  17  miles  from  Lake  Huron. 
Saginaw  is  well  supplied  with  railway 
connections;  and  there  are  numerous 
saw-mills  and  other  industrial  estab- 
lishments. Pop.  1909,  about  65,000. 

SAGITTA'RIUS  (the  Archer),  in  as- 
tronomy, the  ninth  sign  of  the  zodiac, 
into  which  the  sun  enters  November  22. 
The  constellation  consists  of  eight  visible 
stars.  It  is  represented  on  celestial 
globes  and  charts  by  the  figure  of  a cen- 
taur in  the  act  of  shooting  an  arrow  from 
his  bow. 

SAGO,  a starchy  product  obtained 
from  the  trunk  of  several  species  of  a 
genus  of  palms  named  Sagus,  from 
which  the  finest  sago  is  prepared.  They 
form  immense  forests  on  nearly  all  the 
Moluccas,  each  stem  yielding  from  100 
to  800  lbs.  of  sago.  The  tree  is  about  30 
feet  high,  and  from  18  to  22  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  cut  down  at  maturity, 
the  medullary  part  extracted  and  re- 
duced to  powder  like  sawdust.  The 
filaments  are  next  separated  by  wash- 
ing, and  the  meal  laid  to  dry.  _ For  ex- 
portation the  finest  sago  meal  is  mixed 
with  water,  and  then  rubbed  into  small 
grains  of  the  size  and  form  of  coriander 


Sago  palm. 


seeds.  The  Malays  have  a process  for 
refining  sago,  and  giving  it  a fine  pearly 
luster,  the  method  of  which  is  not  known 
to  Europeans;  but  there  are  strong  rea- 
sons to  believe  that  heat  is  employed, 
because  the  starch  is  partially  trans- 
formed into  gum.  The  sago  so  cured  is  in 
the  highest  estimation  in  all  the  Euro- 
pean markets.  Sago  forms  a light, 
wholesome,  nutritious  food,  and  may 
be  used  to  advantage  in  all  cases  where  a 
farinaceous  diet  is  required.  It  is  also 


largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soluble  cocoas,  and  for  adulterating 
the  common  sorts  of  arrowroot. 

SA'GOIN,  or  SAGOUIN,  the  native 
South  American  name  of  a genus  of 


Sagoin. 


Brazilian  monkeys  of  small  size,  and 
remarkably  light,  active,  and  graceful 
in  their  movements. 

SAGUENAY  (sag'e-na),  a river  of 
Canada,  province  of  Quebec,  formed  by 
two  outlets  of  Lake  St.  John,  which 


and  presenting  some  very  high  moun» 
tain  masses.  Between  Tibesti  and  the 
Niger  we  have  the  elevated  region  of  Air, 
and  toward  the  Atlantic  Adrar.  These 
plateaux  are  intersected  by  many  fertile 
valleys  fit  for  agriculture  and  pasture. 
Other  parts  of  the  desert  are  broken 
by  large  oases  with  a most  luxuriant 
vegetation,  such  as  Twat,  Wargla,  and 
Fezzan.  On  the  borders  of  Algeria  oases 
have  been  created  artificially  by  means 
of  artesian  wells.  A vast  tract  of  true 
desert,  El  Djuf,  lies  in  the  west  central 
region,  and  unites  all  the  worst  char- 
acters of  the  desert — want  of  water, 
intense  heat,  and  moving  sands.  In  the 
desert  proper  there  is  little  of  animal  or 
of  vegetable  life.  A few  species  of  ante- 
lopes, the  wild  ass,  the  mountain  sheep, 
the  hy®na,  the  baboon,  the  tortoise,  and 
the  ostrich,  are  met  with  in  favored 
spots.  Lizards,  jerboas,  and  serpents  of 
many  kinds  retain  undisturbed  posses- 
sion of  the  burning  sands.  Where 
herbage  exists  it  is  mainly  composed  of 
such  plants  as  require  but  little  moisture. 
The  vegetable  wealth  of  the  desert- 
dweller  lies  in  the  date-palm.  The  popu- 
lation, estimated  at  about  2^  millions, 
consists  of  various  tribes  of  Arabs, 
Berbers,  and  negroes.  The  Berbers  are 
almost  confined  to  the  west-central  and 
the  negroes  to  the  east-central  parts. 


Sails  or  a full-rigged  ship. 


unite  about  9 miles  below  the  lake,  from 
which  point  the  river  flows  s.e.,  and  falls 
into  the  St.  Lawrence  at  Tadousac  har- 
bor; length  about  100  miles. 

SAHARA  (sa-ha'ra ; properly  sa'ha-ra) 
The,  that  vast  and  mainly  desert  tract 
of  Northern  Africa  lying  north  and 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Nile.  In  the  north  it 
extends  to  and  forms  part  of  Morocco, 
Algeria,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Egypt; in 
the  south  it  is  chiefly  bounded  By  the 
Soudan.  This  immense  area,  calculated 
at  over  million  square  miles,  is  not, 
as  popularly  supposed,  a great  level 
desert;  on  the  contrary,  it  dffers  con- 
siderable variety  of  configuration  and 
vegetation.  The  surface  ranges  from 
below  sea-level  to  8000  feet  above  it. 
There  are  the  extensive  and  elevated 
plateaux  of  Tasili,  Tibesti,  etc.,  about 
the  center  of  the  Sahara,  running  from 
the  north  in  a southeasterly  direction. 


while  the  Arabs  predominate  in  the 
other  regions.  Camel-breeding,  slave 
and  salt  dealing,  caravan  conducting, 
and  brigandage  form  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  a large  section.  A number  of 
caravan  routes  through  the  Sahara  con- 
nect Timbuctoo  and  the  Soudan  with 
the  maritime  countries  in  the  north. 
Recent  explorations  have  finally  dis- 
posed of  the  idea  that  the  Sahara  is  the 
dried-up  bed  of  a former  inland  sea, 
and  that  it  could  be  restored  to  its 
former  condition  by  admitting  the 
waters  of  the  ocean.  The  diluvial  sea 
theory  is  now  limited  to  the  low-lying 
districts,  El  Djuf  and  Kufra,  which 
abound  in  rock-salt  deposits.  A great 
art  of  the  western  Sahara  is  claimed 
y France.  Spain  has  annexed  a portion 
of  the  littoral  and  interior  between 
Morocco  and  Senegal. 

SAHARUNPUR  (sa-ha-ran-pur'),  » 
town  in  Hindustan,  capital  of  the  dis- 


SAIL 


SAINT  LOUIS 


trict  of  the  same  name,  in  the  United 
i'  Provinces.  It  has  many  handsome 
residences  in  the  European  style,  a 
government  stud,  a botanic  garden,  and 
a large  sugar  and  grain  trade.  Pop. 
66,254. 

SAIL,  a piece  of  cloth  or  tissue  of  some 
kind  spread  to  the  wind  to  impel  or 
as..ist  in  impelling  a vessel  through  the 
water.  Sails  are  usually  made  of  several 
breadths  of  canvas,  sewed  together  with 
a double  seam  at  the  borders,  and  edged 
all  round  with  a cord  or  cords  called  the 
bolt-rope  or  bolt-ropes.  A sail  extended 
by  a yard  hung  by  the  middle  is  called 
a square  sail;  a sail  set  upon  a gaflf, 
boom,  or  stay,  so  as  always  to  hang 
more  or  less  in  the  direction  of  the  ves- 
sel’s length,  is  called  a fore-and-aft  sail. 
The  upper  part  of  every  sail  is  the  head, 
the  lower  part  the  foot,  the  sides  in 
general  are  called  leeches.  The  lower 
two  corners  of  a square  sail  are  in  gen- 
eral called  clues,  and  are  kept  extended 
by  ropes  called  sheets.  Sails  generally 
take  their  names,  partly  at  least,  from 
the  mast,  yard,  or  stay  upon  which  they 
are  stretched;  thus,  the  main-course, 
main-top  sail,  main-topgallant  sail,  are 
respectively  the  sails  on  the  mainmast 
main-topmast  andmain-topgallantmast. 
The  names  of  the  sails  shown  in  fore- 
going cut  are;  1,  flying  jib;  2,  jib;  3, 
fore-topmast  staysail ; 4,  fore-course  (or 
fore-sail) ; 5,  fore-topsail ; 6,  fore-top- 
gallant  sail;  7,  fore-royal;  8,  fore-sky- 
sail;  9,  fore-royal  studding-sail;  10,  fore- 
topgallant studding-sail;  11,  fore-top- 
mast studding-sail;  12,  main-course 
(main-sail);  13,  main-top  sail;  14,  main- 
topgallant  sail ; 1 5,  main-royal ; 1 6,  main- 
sky-sail;  17,  main-royal  studding-sail; 
18,  main-topgallant  studding-sail;  19, 
main-topmast  studding-sail;  20,  mizzen- 
course  (cross-jack);  21,  mizzen-top-sail; 
22,  mizzen-topgallant  sail;  23,  mizzen- 
royal;  24,  mizzen-sky-sail ; 25,  spanker 
or  driver.  The  vessel  represented  might, 
however,  carry  additional  sails  to  those 
shown,  in  the  shape  of  staysails,  etc.; 
and  in  modern  ships  the  top  sails  and 
topgallant  sails  are  often  divided  into 
lower  and  upper.  Fovir-masted  ships  are 
now  not  uncommon.  See  Ship. 

SAINT  CLAIR,  a lake  in  North  Ameri- 
ca, situated  between  Lake  Huron  and 
Lake  Erie,  and  connected  with  the 
former  by  St.  Clair  river,  with  the  latter 
by  Detroit  river.  It  is  30  miles  long, 
greatest  breadth  24  miles,  area  360  sq. 
miles.  It  contains  several  flne  islands. 
The  river  St.'  Clair,  which  separates 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  is  about 
40  miles  long,  1 mile  wide,  and  navigable. 

SAINT  CLOUD,  a city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Stearns  co.,  Minn.,  65  miles 
northwest  of  Minneapolis;  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  and  the  Great  Northern 
and  Northern  Pacific  railroads.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a state  normal  school  and  of  the 
Minnesota  State  reformatory.  Pop. 
10,663. 

SAINTE  AUGUS'TINE,  a city  and  sea- 
I port  and  capital  of  St.  John’s  co.,  Florida 
on  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  and  a fashion- 
able health  resort  during  winter.  It 
is  said  to  be  the  oldest  town  in  the 
' United  States,  having  been  founded  by 
I the  Spaniards  about  1565.  A few  speci- 
j mens  of  Spanish  architecture  remain, 
« but  these  are  rapidly  making  way  for 


modern  structures,  and  the  town  is 
putting  on  a new  appearance.  The  Hotel 
Ponce  de  Leon  is  a monumental  build- 
ing in  the  early  Spanish  Renaissance 
style.  It  occupies  a great  extent  of 
ground,  and  its  architecture  is  rendered 
effective  by  distribution  of  plan,  by 
lofty  towers,  corner  turrets,  arcades, 
and  low-pitched  overhanging  tiled  roofs. 
It  has  also  garden  courts  and  ornamental 
gardens.  There  are  also  other  large 
hotels  and  several  fine  churches.  Per- 
manent population  about  4800,  but  in 
winter  over  10,000. 

SAINTE-BEUVE  (sant-beuv),  Charles 
Augustin,  a French  writer,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  modern  critics,  born  at 
Boulogne  1804,  died  at  Paris  1869.  The 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  was  be- 
stowed on  him  in  1859,  and  the  senator- 
ship  in  1865.  Most  of  his  critical  writ- 
ings have  been  republished  in  various 
editions. 

SAINT  HELENA.  See  Helena  (St.). 

SAINT  JOHN,  a city  and  port  of 
Canada,  province  New  Brunswick,  capi- 
tal of  St.  John  CO.,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  the  same  name,  which  here  enters 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  It  is  built  on  rocky 
and  irregular  ground,  and  presents 
on  the  whole  an  attractive  appearance. 
The  harbor  is  commodious,  spacious, 
never  freezes,  and  is  well  protected  by 


batteries.  _ St.  John  is  the  great  com- 
mercial emporium  of  New  Brunswick, 
and  has  in  particular  a great  trade  in 
lumber.  The  fisheries  are  very  impor- 
tant, and  ship-building  and  a variety  of 
other  industries  are  briskly  carried  on 
Pop.  40,711. 

SAINT  JOHN,  a river  partly  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  partly  to  Canada, 
the  last.  230  miles  of  its  course  being  in 
New  Brunswick;  total  length  550  miles. 
It  is  navigable  for  large  steamers  to 
Fredericton,  a distance  of  80  miles. 
About  225  miles  up  are  the  Grand  Falls, 
75  feet  high.  The  city  of  St.  John  is  at 
its  mouth. 

SAINT  JOHN’S,  capital  of  Newfound- 
land, on  Avalon  peninsula  in  the  south- 
east. Pop.  30,486. 

SAINT  JOSEPH,  a highly  prosperous 
city  in  the  United  States,  capital  of 
Buchanan  county,  Missouri,  on  the  river 
Missouri,  which  is  crossed  by  a fine  iron 
railway  bridge.  It  is  noted  for  its  col- 


leges and  schools,  has  a fine  court-house, 
Sfuendid  opera-house,  large  central  rail- 
road depot,  etc.  It  is  the  most  com- 
mercial and  populous  town  of  Western 
Missouri,  and  an  important  railway 
center.  It  has  manufactories  of  railway 
carriages  and  wagons,  furniture,  en- 
gines and  boilers,  stoves,  clothing,  flour- 
mills, boot  factories,  etc.  Pop.  124,450. 

SAINT- JUST  (san-zhust),  Antoine 
Louis  L4on  Florelle  de,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  men  in  the  French  revolu- 
tion, born  1767,  executed  1794.  He  was 
an  effective  speaker,  but  unscrupulous 
and  uncompromising.  The  guillotine 
was  his  general  answer  to  all  arguments 
and  actions  which  did  not  harmonize 
with  his  own.  He  fell  with  Robespierre 
through  the  events  of  the  9th  Ther- 
midor. 

SAINT  LOUIS  (lu'i  or  lu'is),  the  chief 
city  of  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  State  of 
Missouri,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Mississippi,  less  than  20  miles 
from  its  confluence  with  the  Missouri, 
and  185  miles  north  of  the  influx  of  the 
Ohio.  It  is  distant  by  river  about 
1,200  miles  from  New  Orleans,  and  729 
miles  from  St.  Paul,  the  head  of  navi- 
gation upon  the  upper  Mississippi.  It 
is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  great 
valley,  through  which  the  waters  of  the 


Missouri,  Mississippi,  Ohio,  Illinois  and 
other,  smaller  but  navigable  streams 
find  their  way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
St.  Louis  is  built  upon  a series  of  un- 
dulating hills  or  terraces  that  rise  one 
above  the  other  from  the  river  for  miles 
to  the  west. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  rectilinear.  In 
the  old  portion  of  the  city,  laid  out  by 
the  early  French  inhabitants,  the  streets 
are  narrow,  and  the  blocks  average  300 
feet  square.  In  the  newer  portion  of 
the  city  the  streets  are  wide  and  lined 
with  shade  trees.  The  east  and  west 
streets  run  from  the  river  at  right 
angles.  One  of  these.  Market  street, 
is  the  dividing  center  line.  The 
sewer  system  is  most  extensive,  sur- 
face drainage  being  unknown  in  the 
city.  The  largest  sewer,  known  as  the 
Mill  Creek,  following  the  line  of  a nat- 
ural drain,  is  twenty  feet  wide  and  fif- 
teen feet  high.  The  city  is  lighted  every 
night  of  the  year  by  electricity.  The 


SAINT  LOUIS  WORLD’S  FAIR 


SAINTS 


alleys  are  brightly  illuminated  with  in- 
candescent electric  lights,  and  the  streets 
proper  with  arc-lights  swung  over  the 
streets  at  an  elevation  of  forty-five  feet. 

The  twenty-three  public  parks,  places, 
and  gardens  of  the  city  have  a total 
area  of  2183  acres,  including  that  part  of 
Forest  park  temporarily  used  as  part  of 
the  grounds  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
Exposition.  Forest  park,  the  largest 
of  these,  dates  from  1874.  It  is  almost 
directly  west  of  the  business  center. 
Its  area  of  1371  acres  represents  a cost 
of  $2,304,669  for  ground  and  improve- 
ments. Theschool  system  of  Saint  Louisis 
notable  in  several  particulars,  chiefly  in 
its  application  of  the  theory  of  manual 
training  in  connection  with  the  work  of 
Washington  university,  and  in  its 
pioneer  work  in  illustrating  the  practi- 
cal workings  of  the  theories  of  Froebel. 
The  city  has  begun  supplying  free  books, 
andsupports  the  free  public  library  as  an 
essential  part  of  the  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. Among  the  private  institutions 
are  Washington  university,with  the  Man- 
ual Training  school  and  School  of  Fine 
Arts,  University  of  Saint  Louis,  Forest 
Park  University  for  Women,  the  Chris- 
tian Brothers’  college,  the  Saint  Louis 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  the 
Homeopathic  Medical  College  of  Mis- 
souri, the  Missouri  School  for  the  Blind, 
the  Kenrick  Theological  seminary,  and 
the  Saint  Louis  Law  school,  now  a 
department  of  Washington  university. 
The  principal  libraries  are  the  Public 
and  the  Mercantile.  Among  minor 
libraries,  that  of  the  Missouri  Histor- 
ical society  is  most  important.  The 
principal  theatres  are  the  Olympic, 
the  Century,  the  Garrick,  the  Grand 
Opera  House,  the  Imperial,  Havlin’s,  the 
Odeon  (Grand  Avenue),  and  the  Colum- 
bia. The  Grand  Opera  House  has  a 
seating  capacity  of  2200,  and  the 
Olympic  2400. 

The  railroad  systems  of  which  Saint 
Louis  is  a center  converge  here  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  also  from 
Mexico  and  Canada,  though  the  country 
in  which  the  city  has  fostered  railroad 
development  most  in  marketing  its  out- 
put lies  south  of  Nebraska  and  west  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  twenty-four  rail- 
roads of  which  it  is  a terminus  have 
dwarfed  the  influence  of  the  Mississippi 
as  the  determining  factor  of  its  trade 
without  lessening  the  great  advantage 
of  direct  river  communication  with  tide 
water.  Though  Saint  Louis  is  important 
as  a manufacturing  city  and  markets  its 
own  industrial  output,  it  is  still  more  im- 
portant commercially  as  a distributing 
center  for  products  representing  the 
entire  country.  Its  location  makes  it  a 
point  of  clearing  between  manufactured 
products  and  the  products  of  the  soil  for 
which  they  are  exchanged.  East  Saint 
Louis,  the  principal  industrial  suburb 
on  the  Illinois  side  of  the  river,  is  con- 
nected by  the  magnificent  Eads  Bridge 
for  railroads,  wagons,  and  foot  pas- 
sengers. (See  Bridge.)  The  Mer- 
chants’ Bridge  connecting  the  Illinois 
terminals  of  Saint  Louis  railroads  with 
tlio  Union  Station  system  of  terminals  is 
for  railroads  only.  The  Union  Station 
covers  about  eleven  acres  of  ground 
with  its'  main  building  and  adjacent 
sheds.  Saint  Louis  is  a port  of  entry. 


Its  exports  are  chiefly  to  Mexico,  South 
America,  and  the  West  Indies.  Its 
direct  trade  with  the  Philippines, 
mainly  in  malt  liquors,  has  assumed 
some  importance.  The  principal  ex- 
port shipments  of  flour  and  grain  are 
to  Central  and  South  America,  Cuba, 
England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland, 
and  Germany.  Exports  to  Europe 
consist  largely  of  provisions.  The 
principal  items  are  dry-salt  and  sweet 
pickled  meats,  oleo,  lard  and  hides. 
Exports  of  agricultural  supplies,  hard- 
ware; electrical  supplies,  machinery, 
glass,  etc.,  are  mostly  to  Spanish  Amer- 
ica. The  city  is  “the  largest  tobacco 
market  in  the  world.”  Population 
1909,  estimated  at  704,000. 

SAINT  LOUIS  WORLD’S  FAIR,  the 
international  exposition  held  at  Saint 
Louis  from  April  30,  1904,  until  No- 
vember the  same  year.  It  was  held  to 
commemorate  the  centenary  of  the 
purchase  of  the  Louisiana  territory  by 
the  United  States.  Thirty-four  states 
and  territories  and  many  foreign  gov- 
ernments were  largely  represented,  and 
many  of  them  erected  special  and  typi- 
cal structures.  The  administrative  sys- 
tem of  the  Exposition  included  four 
executive  divisions ; Exhibits,  Exploita- 
tion, Works,  and  Concessions  and  Ad- 
mission. The  Division  of  Exhibits  com- 
prised the  following  fifteen  departments : 
Education,  Art,  Liberal  Arts,  Manu- 
factures, Machinery,  Electricity,  Trans- 
portation, Agriculture,  Horticulture, 
Forestry,  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  Fish 
and  Game,  Anthropology,  Special  Econ- 
omy, and  Physical  Culture. 

SAINT  MARY’S  RIVER,  the  channel 
connecting  Lake  Superior  with  Lake 
Huron,  having  more  the  character  of  a 
lake  than  a river.  At  Sault  Ste.  Marie, 
or  St.  Mary’s  Falls,  there  is  a fall  of  18 
feet,  and  to  enable  vessels  to  avoid  this 
canals  have  been  made  both  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada. 

SAINT  PAUL,  the  capital  of  Minnesota 
and  Ramsey  co.,  on  the  Mississippi,  10 
miles  below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 
Owing  to  its  favorable  position  it  has 
grown  in  about  50  years  from  an  in- 
significant depot  into  a fine  city,  and  a 
great  commercial  and  manufacturing 
center.  It  is  surrounded  by  a complete 


State  capltol,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 


net  of  railways,  and  its  situation  on  the 
Mississippi  offers  water  communication 
of  exceptional  value.  Two  bridges  con- 
nect the  city  with  Minneapolis.  Two 
double-track  interurban  electric  street 


car  routes  join  the  network  in  the  two 
cities. 

The  city  embraces  an  area  of  about 
56  square  miles.  Of  this  area  1,204.42. 
acres,  in  48  separate  tracts,  are  devoted 
to  park  purposes.  The  park  systems  of 
the  Twin  Cities  are  connected  by  drives 
extending  along  the  magnificent  wooded 
gorge  and  the  series  of  rapids  below  the 
Falls  of  Saint  Anthony. 

Saint  Paul  has  numerous  striking 
buildings.  The  finest  is  the  new  state 
Capitol,  of  white  Georgia  marble,  stand- 
ing on  a lofty  eminence.  It  has  a mag- 
nificent dome  and  entrances.  The  new 
post-office  opposite  Rice  park,  and  the 
massive  city  hall  and  court  house, 
occupying  an  entire  square  on  Wabasha 
and  Fourth  streets,  are  other  edifices  of 
merit.  Manufactures  include  agricul- 
tural machinery,  joinery,  railway  roll- 
ing-stock, flour,  leather,  boots,  and  pre- 
served provisions.  There  are  medical 
and  other  colleges.  Pop.  1909,  235,000. 

ST.  PETERSBURG.  See  Petersburg, 
(St.). 

SAINT-PIERRE  (san-pi-ar) , Jacques 
Henri  Bernardin  de,  a French  author, 
born  1737,  died  1814.  His  Etudes  de  la 
Nature,  published  in  1783,  first  secured 
him  a literary  position.  Then  followed 
his  chief  works:  Paul  et  Virginie  (1787) 
and  Chaumi^re  Indienne  (1790),  both  of 
them  (especially  the  former)  very  popu- 
lar. He  was  married  twice  when  well 
advanced  in  3'^ears,  each  time  to  a young 
girl.  In  1795  he  was  admitted  to  the 
Institute. 

SAINTS,  a word  used  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament as  a general  term  to  designate  all 
believers  in  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 
In  a specific  sense  it  signifies  persons 
whose  lives  have  been  deemed  so  emi- 
nently pious  that  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches  have  authorized 
practices  of  commemoration  and  invo- 
cation in  regard  to  them.  The  points  in- 
volved in  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine 
are  the  intercession  of  the  saints  and  the 
utility  of  invoking  them.  According  to 
the  Council  of  Trent  “the  saints  reigning 
with  Christ  offer  their  prayers  for  men 
to  God”;  and  it  teaches  that  “it  is  good 
and  useful  to  call  upon  them  with  sup- 
plication, and  in  order  to  obtain  benefits 
from  God  through  Jesus  Christ,  who 
alone  is  our  Redeemer  and  Savior,  to 
have  recourse  to  their  prayers,  help,  and 
aid.”  This  help  and  aid  is  not  expected 
to  be  given  directly,  but  only  through 
the  favor  the  saints  have  with  God,  and 
through  their  intercession.  As  to  how 
the  saints  are  enabled  to  hear  praj*ers 
addressed  to  them,  there  is  no  definite 
teaching.  It  is  chiefly  holy  men  who 
have  died  since  the  time  of  Christ  that 
are  spoken  of  as  saints.  The  doctrine  of 
saints,  and  the  ideas  and  usages  which 
grew  out  of  them,  form  one  of  the  main 
points  of  difference  between  the  Prot- 
estants and  the  adherents  of  the  above- 
mentioned  churches.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics regard  their  beliefs  on  the  subject 
of  saints  as  supported  by  different  parts 
of  the  Bible  and  the  writing^  of  many  of 
the  early  fathers.  Protestants  generally 
object  to  the  whole  doctrine,  alleging 
that  not  only  is  the  idea  of  saints 
as  intercessors  nowhere  contained  in 
the  Bible  but  that  it  originated  cen- 
turies after  the  establishment  of  Chris- 


SAINT-SIMON 


SALEM 


tianity ; and  that  it  is  against  the  chief 
doctrine  of  Christianity,  which  de- 
clares all  men  to  be  sinners,  and  to  be 
saved  only  by  Christ.  Countries,  cities, 
arts,  trades,  orders,  things,  etc.,  have 
their  patron  saints,  or  saints  who  are 
supposed  to  be  specially  interested  on 
their  behalf;  but  the  church,  it  seems, 
determines  nothing  in  relation  to  them. 
St.  Denis  is  the  patron  of  France;  St. 
George  of  England  and  Russia;  St. 
Andrew  of  Scotland;  St.  Patrick  of  Ire- 
land; Olaff  of  Norway;  Canute  of  Den- 
mark; Nepomuk  of  Bohemia;  Cecelia  of 
music;  Hubert  of  hunting;  Crispin  of 
shoemakers,  etc. 

SAINT-SIMON  (san-se-mon),  Claude 
Henri,  Comte  de,  founder  of  a philo- 
sophico-religious  sect  of  socialists,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1760.  During  the  ten 
years  1803-13  he  wrote  a number  of 
works  on  scientific  and  political  sub- 
jects, in  which  may  be  traced  the 
gradual  development  of  his  socialistic 
theories,  which  found  more  definite 
expression  in  his  subsequent  and  more 
important  writings,  such  as  L’Industrie 
ou  Discussions  Politiques,  Morales  et 
Philosophiques  (1817-18),  and  Parabole 
(1819).  Augustin  Thierry,  Saint  Aubin, 
and  Auguste  Comte,  who  had  become 
his  disciples,  collaborated  in  these  later 
volumes.  Finding  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
curing the  means  of  subsistence  and  of 
publishing  his  works  increasing,  he 
attempted  suicide  by  shooting  (1823),  but 
recovered  with  a mutilated  visage  and 
the  loss  of  an  eye.  He  lived  for  about 
two  years  after  this,  dying  in  1825. 

SAINT-SIMONIANS.  See  Saint-Simon. 

ST.  THOMAS,  a West  Indian  island, 
belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Denmark, 
one  of  the  Virgin  group,  36  miles  east  of 
Porto  Rico.  Area,  33  sq.  miles;  pop. 
14,389;  capital,  Charlotte  Amalia,  on 
the  south  side,  with  a safe  and  com- 
modious harbor,  dock,  fort,  etc.  It  is 
neither  fertile  nor  healthy,  and  is  sub- 
ject to  droughts,  cyclones,  and  earth- 
quakes, but  used  to  be  an  important 
center  of  West  Indian  trade. 

ST.  VINCENT,  a British  West  Indian 
island,  in  the  center  of  the  Windward 
group.  Area,  132  sq.  miles;  pop.  about 
41,000;  capital,  Kingstown,  on  a bay 
of  the  same  name  near  the  s.w.  extremity 
of  the  island,  with  a pop.  of  5593. 

ST.  VINCENT,  Cape,  a promontory 
forming  the  s.w.  extremity  of  Portugal. 
It  is  celebrated  in  naval  history  for  the 
great  victory  gained  here  in  1797  by  the 
British  admiral  Sir  John  Jervis  over  a 
Spanish  fleet  nearly  twice  the  strength 
of  his  own.  Sir  John  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  under  the  title  Earl  of  St.  Vin- 
cent. 

SAKI,  the  common  name  of  several 
species  of  monkeys  inhabiting  South 
America,  closely  allied  to  the  sapajous, 
but  differing  from  the  latter  in  having 
nonprehensile  tails.  They  are  roughly 
subdivided  into  long  and  short-tailed 
sakis.  They  are  all  forest-dwellers,  gre- 
garious, nocturnal,  timid,  and  live 
chiefly  on  honey  and  fruits. 

SALA.  George  Augustus,  a journalist 
and  autnor,  born  in  London  1828.  His 
last  work  was  his  own  Life  and  Adven- 
tures. Much  of  his  work  was  contrib- 
uted to  the  (London)  Daily  Telegraph, 
but  All  the  Year  Round,  the  (3ornnill 


Magazine,  and  the  Illustrated  London 
News  (“Echoes  of  the  Week”)  contain 
many  sparkling  productions  from  his 
pen.  He  died  in  1895. 


Saki  Cuxio. 


SAL'AD,  a preparation  of  raw  vege- 
tables or  herbs,  such  as  lettuce,  endive, 
red  or  white  cabbages,  celery,  cresses, 
radishes,  shalots,  onions,  green  mus- 
tard, dandelion,  corn-salad,  etc  ; or  of 
cooked  beet-root,  potatoes,  French 
beans,  etc.,  with  salt,  vinegar,  oil,  sauces 
and  spices.  A great  number  of  salads 
may  be  made  by  suitable  combination 
of  the  materials  mentioned,  and  still 
further  variety  is  obtained  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  different  kinds  of  shredded 
meat,  fish,  eggs,  sausage,  lobster,  crabs, 
prawns,  shrimps,  sardines,  etc. 

SAL'ADIN,  or  properly  Salah-ed-din, 
a celebrated  sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria, 
born  1137,  died  1193.  His  father,  a 
native  of  Kurdistan,  was  governor  of 
Tekrit  (on  the  Tigris).  He  early  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a soldier,  became 
vizier  to  the  last  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs 
in  succession  to  his  uncle  Shirkuh,  and 
on  the  caliph’s  death  in  Egypt  (1171) 
Saladin  usurped  his  wealth  and  author- 
ity, with  the  approval  of  Nureddin,  the 
sultan  of  Damascus.  After  the  latter’s 
death  (1173),  Saladin  succeeded  also  in 
ossessing  himself  of  Damascus  and 
outhern  Syria.  He  rapidly  extended 
his  conquests  over  Syria  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries,  and  thus  came  in 
contact  with  the  Crusaders  during  the 
Third  Crusade.  The  disastrous  defeat  he 
suffered  from  the  Crusaders  in  1177  com- 
pelled him  to  return  to  Egypt,  but  in 
1182  he  resumed  his  career  of  conquest. 
In  1187  he  gained  the  famous  victory  of 
Tiberias,  and  Jerusalem  surrendered  to 
him  after  a gallant  resistance.  But  the 
fall  of  Acre  in  1191  after  a two  years’ 
siege,  and  the  defeats  at  the  hand  of 
Richard  I.,  compelled  Saladin  to  con- 
clude a truce  (1192),  which  was  followed 
by  the  withdrawal  of  Richard.  About  a 
year  after  this  event  Saladin  died  at 
Damascus. 

SALAMAN'CA,  a city  in  Spain,  capi- 
tal of  a province  of  the  same  name,  120 
miles  northwest  of  Madrid,  on  and  be- 
tween three  hills,  and  on  the  river 
Tonnes,  here  spanned  by  a fine  bridge 
of  twenty-six  arches,  the  greater  part  of 
which  is  of  Roman  origin.  In  pictur- 
esqueness, and  in  the  magnificence  of  its 
ancient  edifices,  Salamanca  is  hardly 
surpassed  by  any  other  Spanish  city. 
Chief  among  the  numerous  attractions 
rank  the  cathedral  (16th  century),  a 
splendid  example  of  florid  Gothic;  the 
old  cathedral,  erected  1102,  in  Roman- 
esque style;  the  university,  the  College 


of  the  Jesuits,  King’s  college,  and 
churches.  The  university  is  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  celebrated  in  Europe, 
and  when  at  its  zenith  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury attracted  some  15,000  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Pop.  24,156. — 
The  province  of  Salamanca,  chiefly 
formed  by  the  Douro  basin,  has  an  area 
of  4940  sq.  miles,  and  a population  of 
320,765.  It  is  rich  in  oak  and  chestnut 
forests  and  cereals,  and  produces  wine, 
oil,  and  hemp. 

SALAMAN'DER,  the  name  given  to 
various  animals  included  in  the  class 
Amphibia  (frogs,  toads,  newts,  etc.),  and 
in  the  order  Urodela  (“tailed”)  of  that 
class.  The  salamanders  may  be  divided 
into  the  land  salamanders  and  the  water 
salamanders,  efts  or  newts.  The  land 
salamanders  have  an  elongated  lizard- 
like form,  four  feet,  and  a long  tail.  The 
skin  is  warty,  with  many  glands  secret- 
ing a watery  fluid,  which  the  animal 
exudes  when  alarmed.  As  this  fluid  is 
injurious  to  small  animals  the  salaman- 
ders have  the  reputation  of  extreme 
venomousness,  though  they  are  in 
reality  entirely  harmless.  The  best- 
known  species  is  the  common  salaman- 


Cominon  salamander. 


der  of  Europe.  It  is  6 to  8 inches  long, 
is  found  in  moist  places  under  stones 
or  the  roots  of  trees,  near  the  borders  of 
springs,  in  deep  woods,  etc.,  and  passes 
its  life  in  concealment  except  at  night 
or  during  rain.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  spotted  salamander,  from  the  bright 
yellow  stripes  on  its  sides.  There  are 
various  other  species  in  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America.  In  America  the  name  is 
often  given  to  the  menopome.  Salaman- 
ders feed  on  worms,  slugs,  snails,  and 
insects.  The  old  legend  that  salaman- 
ders could  live  in  the  midst  of  fire  is,  like 
their  venomousness,  a fiction,  although 
it  is  possible  that  the  watery  secretion 
of  the  skin  might  enable  these  animals 
to  resist  heat  with  impunity  for  a longer 
period  than  other  forms. 

SAL'AMIS,  or  KOLURI,  an  island  of 
Greece,  in  the  Gulf  of  Ailgina,  close  to  the 
shore  of  Attica.  The  celebrated  battle, 
B.c.  480,  in  which  the  vast  and  un- 
wieldy Persian  fleet  under  Xerxes  was 
signally  defeated  by  a much  smaller 
Grecian  fleet,  was  fought  here. 

SAL-AMMONIAC,  the  chloride  of  am- 
monium, now  generally  obtained  from 
the  refuse  of  gas-works.  It  is  used  in 
calico-printing,  in  galvanizing  iron,  in 
soldering,  etc. 

SALEM,  a city  and  seaport  of  Essex- 
CO.,  Massachusetts,  about  14  miles 
n.n.e.  of  Boston.  Its  site  is  fonned  by 
two  inlets  of  the  sea;  the  North  river, 
connected  with  Beverley  by  a bridge 
nearly  1500  feet  long,  and  the  South 
river,  which  forms  the  harbor.  It  has  a 
large  coasting  trade  and  its  manufao- 


SALEM 


SALMON 


turing  industries  are  in  a flourishing 
condition,  particularljr  in  cotton,  jute, 
leather  and  boots,  spirits  and  chemicals. 
Pop.  38,940. 

SALEM,  a district  and  town  of  Hin- 
dustan, Madras  presidency.  Area  of 
district,  7653,  sq.  miles;  pop.  2,205,898. 
— Salem,  the  capital,  is  well  situated  in 
a long  narrow  valley  traversed  by  the 
Tirumanimuttar,  is  clean  and  tolerably 
well  built,  and  has  a good  trade  and  a 
weaving  industry  of  some  importance. 
Pop.  70,621. 

SALER'NO,  a town  and  seaport  of 
Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  30  miles 
southeast  of  Naples,  finely  situated  on 
the  side  and  at  the  foot  of  a hill,  crowned 
by  the  remains  of  an  ancient  Norman 
citadel.  Pop.  22,328.— The  province 
has  an  area  of  2126  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  583,838. 

SALFORD,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  of  England,  in  Lanca- 
shire, which  may  be  considered  an  in- 
tegral portion  of  Manchester,  though  it 
has  a mayor  and  corporation  of  its  own. 
Pop.  220,956.  See  Manchester. 

SALIC  LAW,  the  code  of  laws  of  the 
Salian  Franks.  One  of  the  laws  in  this 
code  excluded  women  from  inheritiiig 
certain  lands,  probably  because  certain 
military  duties  were  connected  with  the 
holding  of  those  lands.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury females  were  excluded  from  the 
throne  of  France  by  the  application  of 
this  law  to  the  succession  to  the  crown, 
and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  the  term  salic 
law  is  commonly  used. 

SALISBURY,  Robert  Arthur  Talbot 
Gascoyne  Cecil,  K.G.,  Third  Marquis  of, 
English  statesman,  was  born  at  Hat- 
field (county  of  Herts)  in  1830,  and 
educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford.  As  Lord 
Robert  Cecil  he  entered  parliament  as 
member  for  Stamford  in  1853,  and 
gradually  made  his  way  till  in  1866,  on 
the  formation  of  Lord  Derby’s  third  ad- 
ministration, he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary of  state  for  India.  He  became  pre- 
mier as  well  as  foreign  secretary  on  the 
fall  of  the  Gladstone  government  in 
1885.  Gladstone  succeeded  again  to 


Marquis  of  Salisbury. 


power  in  the  end  of  the  same  year,  but 
m June  following  was  defeated  on  the 
Irish  bills,  when  Lord  Salisbury  again 
became  premier  and  foreign  secretary, 
with  the  approval  and  support  of  the 
liberal  unionists.  This  position  he  held 
till  1892,  and  in  1895  he  entered  on  a 
third  term  as  premier.  In  1900  he  be- 
came premier  for  the  fourth  time,  but 
he  retired  from  political  life  in  1902. 


He  died  at  Hatfield  on  August  22,  1903. 
He  devoted  much  time  to  scientific 
pursuits. 

SALI'VA,  the  transparent  watery 
fluid  secreted  by  glands  connected  with 
the  mouth.  The  quantity  secreted  in 
twenty-four  hours  varies,  its  average 
amount  is  probably  from  1 to  3 pints. 
The  purposes  served  by  saliva  are  me- 
chanical and  chemical.  It  keeps  the 
mouth  in  a due  condition  of  moisture, 
and  by  mixing  with  the  food  during 
mastication  it  makes  it  a soft  pulpy 
mass,  such  as  may  be  easily  swallowed. 
The  chemical  action  of  saliva  on  the  food 
is  to  convert  the  starchy  elements  into 
some  kind  of  sugar.  The  salivary  glands 
are  compound  tubular  glands  known  as 
the  parotid,  the  sub-maxillary,  and  the 
sub-lingual,  and  numerous  smaller 
bodies  of  similar  structure,  and  with 
separate  ducts,  which  are  scattered 
thickly  beneath  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  lips,  cheeks,  soft  palate,  and  root 
of  the  tongue.  Salivary  glands  are  ab- 
sent in  some  mammals  and  reptiles,  and 
in  most  fishes. 

SALIVATION,  a superabundant  secre- 
tion of  saliva,  either  determined  locally 
by  the  use  of  masticating  irritants,  or 
by  means  which  act  upon  the  whole 
system,  especially  by  mercurial  prepa- 
rations. In  the  last  case  it  is  accom- 
panied by  a coppery  taste,  by  swelling 
of  the  gums,  and  sometimes  by  looseness 
of  the  teeth.  Salivation  is  usually 
diminished  by  the  use  of  astringents, 
laxatives,  etc. 

SALIX,  See  Willow. 

SALMON,  a well-known  fish,  forming 
the  type  of  the  family  Salmonidse.  The 
salmon  inhabits  both  salt  and  fresh 


The  salmon-trout. 


waters,  and  ranks  prominent  among  the 
food-fishes  of  Britain  and  other  coun- 
tries. It  generally  attains  a length  of 
from  3 to  4 feet,  and  an  average  weight 
of  from  12  to  30  lbs.,  but  these  limits  of 
size  and  weight  are  frequently  exceeded. 
The  typical  color  of  the  adult  fish  is  a 
steel-blue  on  the  back  and  head,  be- 
coming lighter  on  the  sides  and  belly. 
Teeth  are  present  in  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  palate,  and  vomer  or  roof  of  the 
mouth;  the  edges  of  the  tongue  are  also 
toothed  or  notched.  The  food  consists 
of  animal  matter,  and  must  vary  with 
the  change  of  habitat  from  salt  to  fresh 
water,  and  vice  versa.  In  the  autumn 
the  salmon  quits  the  sea  and  ascends 
the  rivers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning, 
often  having  to  surmount  considerable 
obstacles,  such  as  falls  of  some  height, 
in  its  progress.  In  many  streams  they 
are  now  assisted  in  this  by  artificial 
structures  known  as  “salmon-ladders,” 
or  the  like.  The  eggs  are  deposited  in  a 
shallow  trough  or  groove  excavated  in 
the  gravelly  bed  of  the  river.  After 
spawning,  the  salmon,  both  male  and 
female,  return  to  the  sea  under  the 
name  of  spent-fish,  foul-fish,  or  kelts. 
the  females  being  further  distinguished 
as  shedders  or  baggits.  In  from  70  to 


150  days  the  young  fish  emerges  from 
the  egg,  and  in  its  embryo  state  it  is  not 
unlike  a tadpole,  being  on  the  average 
about  one  and  a quarter  inches  in  length. 
About  50  days  later  it  assumes  the 
appearance  of  a fish  and  now  approaches 
the  definite  or  parr  stage  of  its  existence, 
beginning  to  be  marked  by  transverse 
bars  of  dark  color.  It  usually  continues 
in  the  shallows  of  its  native  stream  for 
two  years  after  hatching,  and  during 
this  period  it  attains  a length  of  8 inches. 
When  the  season  of  its  migration  arrives, 
generally  between  March  and  June,  the 
fins  have  become  darker  and  the  fish  has 
assumed  a silvery  hue.  It  is  now  known 
as  a smolt  or  salmon  fry.  The  smolts 
now  congregate  into  shoals  and  proceed 
leisurely  seaward.  On  reaching  the 
estuary  they  remain  in  its  brackish 
water  for  a short  time  and  then  make  for 
the  open  sea.  Leaving  its  native  river 
as  a fish,  weighing  it  may  be  not  more 
than  2 ozs.,  the  smolt,  after  three 
months’  absence,  may  return  to  fresh 
water  as  a grilse,  weighing  4 or  5 lbs. 
In  the  grilse  stage  or  salmon  peel,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called,  the  fish  is  capable 
of  depositing  eggs.  After  spawning  in 
the  fresh  water  the  grilse  again  seeks 
the  sea  in  the  autumn,  and  when  its 
second  stay  in  the  ocean  is  over  it  re- 
turns after  a few  months’  absence  as 
the  adult  salmon,  weighing  from  8 to 
10  lbs.  The  salmon  returns  as  a rule  to 
the  river  in  which  it  passed  its  earlier 
existence.  The  fertility  of  the  fish  is 
enormous:  it  has  been  calculated  that 
over  150,000,000  of  salmon  ova  are 
annually  deposited  in  the  Scotch  river 
Tay  alone,  and  of  these  only  about  a 
third  come  to  life  and  attain  the  parr 
stage,  while  of  these  parrs  only  20,- 
000,000  become  smolts  ; and  in  time  only 
100,000  remain  as  perfect  sahnon,  of 
which  70,000  are  caught  and  30,000  left 
for  breeding  purposes.  In  Europe  the 
fish  is  found  between  the  latitudes  of 
45°  and  75°,  in  North  America  in  cor- 
responding latitudes.  The  flesh  of  the 
salmon  when  fresh  is  of  a bright  orange 
color,  and  is  of  highest  flavor  when 
taken  from  the  sea-feeding  fish.  Of  the 
same  genus  as  the  common  salmon  is  the 
salmon-trout,  the  common  river-trout, 
Lochleven  trout,  etc.  What  is  known  as 
the  “land-locked”  salmon,  which  is 
found  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Maine,  and 
New  Brunswick,  and  is  so  called  because 
it  remains  in  inland  waters  and  does  not 
descend  to  the  sea,  is  by  some  regarded 
as  a distinct  species  from  the  common 
salmon,  by  others  not.  In  the  waters  of 
Northwestern  America  are  several  sal- 
mon belonging  to  a distinct  genus,  in- 
cluding the  quinnat  or  king-sahnon, 
blue-back  salmon  or  red-fish,  silver  sal- 
mon, dog  salmon,  and  hump-back  sal- 
mon. The  quinnat  has  an  average 
weight  of  22  lbs.,  but  sometimes  reaches 
100  lbs.  Both  it  and  the  blue-back  sal- 
mon are  caught  in  immense  numbers  in 
the  Columbia,  Sacramento,  and  Frazer 
(especially  in  spring),  and  are  preserved 
by  canning.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  the  quinnat  into  eastern 
North  America  and  Europe.  The  flesh 
of  these  salmon  is  indistinguishable  from 
that  of  the  common  form.  The  salmon  is 
one  of  the  fishes  that  are  important  ob- 
jects of  pisciculture,  and  various  species 


salmon-fishing 


SALVINI 


of  thp  family  have  been  introduced 
into  waters  not  previously  inhabited  by 
them. 

SALMON-FISHING.  Law  of.  See 
Poaching. 

SALMON'ID.ffi,  a family  of  teleostean 
fishes,  belonging  to  the  subdivision 
Malacopteri  of  that  order.  To  this  fam- 
ily belong  the  various  species  of  salmon 
(see  Salmon),  the  trouts,  the  char,  the 
grayling,  the  smelt,  the  vendace,  white- 
fish  of  America,  etc.  The  Salmonidae  are 
abdominal  Malacopteri,  in  that  their 
ventral  fins  are  placed  backward  on  the 
belly.  The  body  is  covered  with  cycloid 
scales;  the  head  is  naked,  and  there  are 
no  barbels.  The  belly  is  rounded,  and 
there  is  a small  adipose  fin  behind  the 
dorsal.  Pyloric  appendages  of  the 
stomach  are  generally  numerous  and 
rarely  absent.  The  air-bladder  is  large 
and  simple.  The  ova  fall  into  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen  before  exclusion.  Sal- 
monidffi  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea  or 
fresh-water,  or  both 

SALONPCA  (ancient,  Thessalonica; 
Turkish,  Saloniki),  a large  seaport  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  on  a gulf  of  the 
.iEgean  sea,  315  miles  w.s.w.  of  Con- 
stantinople, rising  from  the  sea  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheater,  and  forming 
a mixture  of  squalor  and  splendor.  St. 
Paul  preached  the  gospel  here,  and  ad- 
dressed two  of  his  epistles  to  the  Chris- 
tian converts.  Railways  run  to  Vienna 
and  Constantinople.  Pop.  150,000,  half 
being  Jews  and  Greeks. 

SALSETTE',  a large  island  to  the 
north  of  Bombay,  and  connected  with 
Bombay  island  by  bridge  and  cause- 
way; area,  241  sq.  miles.  The  coast 
abounds  in  cocoa-nut  groves,  and  the 
palmyra-palm  grows  plentifully  over 
most  of  the  island.  The  island  is  re- 
markable for  its  cave  architecture. 
Pop.  108,149. 

SALT,  in  chemistry.  It  is  impossible 
to  state  in  very  precise  terms  what  is  the 
idea  attached  to  the  word  salt,  as  at 
present  used  in  chemical  science.  It 
may  perhaps  be  most  correctly  defined 
b3’'  saying  that  it  implies  the  capability 
of  readily  undergoing  double  decompo- 
sition. In  its  most  restricted  significa- 
tion the  word  salt  suggests  a substance, 
which,  if  soluble  in  water,  can  produce 
rapid  double  decompositions  with  other 
soluble  substances,  or  if  insoluble,  can 
be  produced  as  a precipitate,  as  the  re- 
sult of  a rapid  double  decomposition 
taking  place  between  soluble  substances. 
This  is  certainly  the  idea  suggested  by 
the  application  of  the  word  salt  to 
nitrate  of  potassium,  chloride  of  sodium, 
etc.  The  term  salt  is  also  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  substances  which,  like  chloride 
of  ethyl,  give  rise  to  slow  processes  of 
double  decomposition  with  aqueous 
solutions  of  the  salts  specially  so  called. 
The  name  is,  however,  most  commonly 
and  most  appropriately  applied  to  those 
bodies  of  which  reaction  by  double  de- 
composition is  the  most  characteristic 
property,  and  which  exhibit  such  re- 
actions under  the  most  familiar  con- 
ditions. 

SALT,  Common  (chloride  of  sodium, 
NaCl),  a substance  in  common  use  as  a 
seasoner  and  preserver  of  food  from  the 
earliest  stages.  It  exists  in  immense 
quantities  dissolved  in  sea-water,  and 


also  in  the  waters  of  salt  springs,  and 
in  solid  deposits,  sometimes  on  the  sur- 
face, sometimes  at  greater  or  less  depths, 
in  almost  every  geological  series.  Rock- 
salt,  that  is  salt  in  the  crystalline  or 
solid  form,  is  found  in  great  abundance 
in  Cheshire,  Yorkshire,  and  Worcester- 
shire. It  is  also  found  in  abundance  in 
nearly  every  country  of  Europe.  The 
supply  in  other  continents  is  equally 
great.  The  basin  of  the  Indus  and  other 
parts  of  India  possess  extentive  salt 
plains.  In  China  deep  salt-wells  abound. 
The  Sahara  and  Central  and  Southern 
Africa  afford  inexhaustible  supplies. 
Most  of  the  South  American  republics, 
the  West  Indies,  and  the  United  States 
also  have  large  natural  supplies.  Salt 
manufactured  from  sea-water  is  pro- 
duced extensively  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Atlantic  sea-boards  of 
Europe  as  well  as  in  America.  It  is 
chiefly  made  by  natural  drying  in  shal- 
low reservoirs,  but  also  by  boiling.  Sun- 
dried  salt  is  the  purest.  Salt  from  sea- 
water is  usually  known  as  bay-salt. 
Most  salt,  however,  is  produced  from 
rock-salt  or  from  brine  springs,  the 
la^tter  being  due  to  the  melting  of  rock- 
salt  by  water.  Salt  was  subject  to  a 
duty  in  ancient  Rome,  and  this  example 
has  been  generally  followed  in  modern 
states.  One  of  the  most  oppressive  of  the 
salt  taxes  in  Europe  was  the  French 
gabelle.  In  Great  Britain  salt-duties 
were  imposed  in  the  reign  of  William 
III.,  but  the  tax  was  abolished  in  1823. 
In  British  India  salt  is  an  important 
source  of  revenue.  Salt  is  used  as  a glaze 
for  coarse  pottery,  as  a mordant,  for 
giving  hardness  to  soaps,  for  improving 
the  clearness  of  glass ; it  is  the  source  of 
soda  and  of  chlorine,  and  is  thus  of  im- 
mense industrial  importance. 

SALT  LAKE,  Great.  See  Great  Salt 
Lake. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY,  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Utah,  2 miles  from  the  Jordan, 
and  11  miles  from  Great  Salt  Lake.  It 
stands  at  the  base  of  Wasatch  mountains 
4550  feet  above  sea-level.  The  streets 
are  wide,  and  the  dwellings  generally 
small  and  of  one  story.  The  most  re- 
markable public  buildings  are  the  Mor- 
mon tabernacle,  a large  ungainly  build- 
ing with  a roof  like  a dish-cover,  the 
Mormon  temple,  and  the  city-hall.  It 
is  the  metropolis  of  the  Mormons,  and 
was  first  settled  in  1847  by  the  followers 
of  Brigham  Young.  Pop.  100,000. 

SALTS,  Smelling,  a preparation  of 
carbonate  of  ammonia  with  some  agree- 
able scent,  as  lavender  or  bergamot, 
used  by  ladies  as  a stimulant  and  re- 
storative in  fits  of  faintness. 

SALVADOR',  a republic  in  Central 
America,  lies  along  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific,  and  is  bounded  by  Honduras  on 
the  north  and  east,  and  by  Guatemala 
on  the  northwest;  area,  7212  sq.  miles. 
A range  of  volcanic  peaks,  varying  in 
height  from  4000  to  9000  feet,  runs 
through  the  center  of  the  country, 
dividing  an  interior  valley  from  the 
lowlands  on  the  coast.  The  largest  river 
is  the  Lempe,  which  is  only  navigable 
in  parts.  The  soil  is  remarkably  fertile. 
The  most  important  crop  is  indigo, 
which  is  of  excellent  quality.  Corn, 
sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  cotton,  etc.,  also 
thrive  well-  '^attle-breeding  is  carried 


on,  but  not  extensively.  The  manufac- 
tures are  unimportant.  The  chief  ex- 

Eorts  are  coffee,  indigo,  silver,  raw  sugar, 
alsam  of  Peru,  leather,  etc.  They  are  of 
the  annual  value  of  about  $400,000,000. 
The  population  consists  of  a small  num- 
ber of  whites  (of  Spanish  descent), 
Spanish-speaking  Indians,  and  half- 
breeds.  The  established  religion  is 
Roman  Catholicism.  The  government 
is  carried  on  by  a president  and  four 
ministers.  There  is  a congress  of  seventy 
deputies  elected  by  universal  suffrage. 
The  inhabitants  had  long  the  reputation 
of  being  the  most  industrious  in  Central 
America,  and  the  state,  in  proportion 
to  its  size,  is  still  the  most  densely 
peopled.  Pop.  803,534.  Salvador  re- 
mained under  Spanish  rule  until  1821. 
when  it  asserted  its  independence,  ana 
joined  the  Mexican  confederation.  In 
1823,  however,  it  seceded  from  the  con- 
federation, and  subsequently  formed 
part  of  the  republic  of  Central  America. 
In  1853  it  became  an  independent  re- 
public. Its  progress  has  been  much 
hindered  by  internal  dissensions,  revolu- 
tions'and  counter-revolutions  fallowing 
each  other  without  end.  The  capital  is 
San  Salvador. 

SALVAGE,  a recompense  allowed  by 
law  to  anyone,  by  whose  voluntary 
exertions  ships  or  goods  have  been 
saved  from  the  dangers  of  the  sea,  fire, 
pirates,  or  enemies. 

SALVATION  ARMY,  a religious  organ- 
ization originated  in  East  London  by 
William  Booth,  the  leader  and  general, 
in  1865.  The  society  was  developed  into 
its  present  form  and  received  its  name 
in  1878.  Latterly  several  agencies  more 
directly  philanthropic  have  been  grafted 
on  it  for  helping  the  needy  and  outcast. 
With  the  name  army  came  military 
phraseology.  A semi-military  attire 
was  assumed,  barracks  were  built,  and 
the  army  marches  out  with  banners 
displayed  and  bands  of  music.  Music 
(drums,  cornets,  etc.)  is  also  employed 
in  the  meetings,  and  other  proceedings 
of  a sensational  character.  The  object 
is  to  attract  people  who  would  not  enter 
church  or  chapel,  and  for  this  cause 
public-houses,  prisons,  etc.,  are  visited 
and  open-air  meetings  are  held.  The 
weekly  journal  of  the  army  is  the  War 
Cry.  As  a temperance  movement  the 
Salvation  Army  has  been  the  means  of 
converting  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
confirmed  drunkards.  Total  absti- 
nence is  a condition  of  membership. 
The  International  headquarters  are  at 
London,  England.  Its  world-wide 
operations  are  carried  on  in  51  coun- 
tries and  colonies,  embracing  7316 
posts,  under  the  charge  of  20,054  oflS- 
cers  and  employes,  with  45,339  local 
officers,  17,099  brass  bandsmen,  and 
about  50,000  musicians.  Sixty-three 
periodicals  are  published  in  24  languages, 
with  a weekly  circulation  of  about 
1,207,223.  There  are  668  Social  Relief 
Institutions  in  the  world,  under  the 
charge  of  nearly  3,000  officers  and  em- 
ployes. The  headquarters  of  the  Sal- 
vation army  in  America  are  in  New 
York  City. 

SALVINI,  Tommaso,  Italian  tragedian 
was  born  at  Milan  in  1829.  After  win- 
ning renown  in  juvenile  characters  he 
joined  the  Ristori  troupe-  He  appeared 


SAL  VOLATILE 


SAMPAN 


in  the  Edipo  of  Niccolini  and  achieved 
a great  success.  Alfieri’s  Saul  was  per- 
haps the  greatest  of  all  his  characters. 
His  first  appearance  in  the  United 
States  was  in  1873,  and  he  was  so  well 
received  that  he  repeatedly  returned. 
In  1886  he  and  Edwin  Booth  played 
together  for  three  weeks,  Salvini  as 
Othello  and  Booth  as  lago.  After 
Salvini’s  last  tour  in  this  country  in 
1890  he  retired  from  the  stage  to  his 
home  in  Florence.  Died,  1896. 

SAL  VOLATILE  (vo-lat'i-le),  carbon- 
ate of  ammonia.  The  name  is  also  ap- 

Elied  to  a spirituous  solution  of  car- 
onate  of  ammonia  flavored  with 
?^roTn  ^tics 

SALZBURG  (s^ilts'burh),  a city  of 
Austria,  capital  of  the  Duchy  (or  prov- 
ince) of  Salzburg,  is  most  picturesquely 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  rapid 
Salza,  which  is  here  hemmed  in  between 
two  isolated  hills,  63  miles  southeast  of 
Munich.  The  manufactures  are  varied, 
but  not  individually  of  importance. 
Pop.  32,934. — The  Duchy  or  crown-land 
of  Salzburg,  area  2767  sq.  miles,  is  a 
rugged  mountainous  country,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  valleys,  chiefly 
pastoral,  but  in  many  of  them  much 
corn  and  fruit  are  raised.  Wood  is 
abundant,  and  the  minerals,  which  are 
very  valuable,  include  gold,  silver,  lead, 
copper,  cobalt,  iron,  salt,  and  marble. 
Pop.  193,247. 

SAMAR',  one  of  the  Philippine  Isles, 
separated  by  channels  from  Luzon  on 
the  north,  and  Leyte  on  the  south. 
Area,  5000  sq.miles.  The  island  is  densely 
wooded  and  the  soil  fertile,  The  chief 
products  are  rice,  cocoa,  palm-oil,  hemp, 
and  timber.  Pop.  194,027. 

SAMA'RA,  a town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  same  name,  550 
miles  e.s.e.  of  Moscow,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Samara  with  the  Volga.  Pop. 
96,085. — The  government  lies  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Volga,  and  has  an  area  of 
64,985  sq.  miles.  A great  part  is  flat 
and  fertile,  but  is  at  present  little  cul- 
tivated. There  is  little  wood.  Wheat 
and  other  kinds  of  grain  are  the  chief 
products.  There  are  a considerable 
number  of  Swiss  and  German  colonists 
here,  also  Nogai  Tartars,  Bashkirs,  and 
Kirghis.  Pop.  2,650,580. 

SAMARANG',  town  of  Java,  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  island,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Samarang  river.  Next  to 
Batavia  and  Surabaya  it  ranks  as  the 
most  important  commercial  port  of 
Java.  Its  harbor  is  not  good,  and  large 
ships  have  to  anchor  at  some  distance 
from  the  shore.  Pop.  83,000. 

SAMARIA,  an  ancient  town  of  Pales- 
tine, formerly  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Israel,  finely  situated  on  a hill  sur- 
rounded by  higher  hills,  36  miles  n.n.w. 
of  Jerusalem.  Samaria  was  built  by 
Omri,  king  of  Israel,  about  b.c.  925,  and 
was  the  metropolis  of  the  ten  tribes  till 
they  were  carried  away  into  captivity 
about  B.c.  720.  After  its  destruction  by 
John  Hyrcanus  it  was  rebuilt,  and  given 
by  Augustus  to  Herod,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Sebaste.  There  is  now  an  in- 
significant village  here  and  some  striking 
ruins. 

SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH,  an  an- 
cient version  of  the  five  books  of  Moses 
which  has  been  preserved  by  the  Samari- 


tans as  the  canonical  Scriptures  have 
been  by  the  Jews. 

SAMARITANS,  a mixed  people,  who 
inhabited  the  region  between  Judaea 
and  Galilee,  and  who  formed  a sect 
among  the  Jews.  They  consisted  partly 
of  the  tribes  of  Ephriam  and  Manasseh 
left  in  Samaria  by  the  king  of  Assyria, 
when  he  had  carried  their  brethren  away 
captive,  and  partly  of  Assyrian  colonists. 
On  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivity 
they  declined  to  mix  with  the  Samari- 
tans, though  united  with  them  in  reli- 
gion. The  latter  attempted  to  prevent 
the  Jews  from  building  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  and,  failing  in  this,  they  built 
a temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  exclusively 
for  their  own  worship.  A few  of  the 
race  still  exist  at  Nablus.  They  adhere 
strictly  to  the  Mosaic  law,  but  are  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  as  heretics,  as  they 
accept  only  the  Pentateuch,  of  which 
they  have  a special  version  of  their  own. 
They  believe  in  angels,  in  a resurrection 
and  future  retribution,  and  expect  the 
coming  of  a Messiah,  in  whom  they  look 
only  for  a prophet.  In  the  synagogue 
the  Aramaic  Samaritan  dialect  is  used, 
but  they  speak  Arabic.  They  avoid 
connection  with  other  sects,  and  marry 
only  among  themselves. 

SAMARKAND',  a city  of  Asiatic  Rus- 
sia, on  the  Zerafshan  river,  130  miles  e. 
of  Bokhara,  situated  in  a fertile  plain. 
It  contains  80  schools  with  about  1500 
pupils.  Pop.  54,900.  See  Bokhara. 

SA'MIAN  WARE,  a name  given  to  an 
ancient  kind  of  Greek  pottery  made  of 
Samian  earth,  or  to  a variety  of  Roman 
pottery  made  in  imitation  of  this.  The 
vases  are  of  a bright  red  or  black  color, 
covered  with  a lustrous  siliceous  glaze, 
with  separately-moulded  ornaments  at- 
tached to  them. 

SAMNITES  (-nitz),  an  ancient  people 
of  Lower  Italy,  who  were  of  Sabine 
stock,  and  consisted  of  several  tribes. 
They  were  a brave,  frugal,  and  religious 
people.  Their  first  war  with  the  Romans 
resulted  in  favor  of  the  latter,  and  se- 
cured a Samnite  alliance  during  the 
Latin  war  (340-338  b.c.).  The  second 
Samnite  war  (326-304  b.c.)  was  a fierce 
contest,  in  which  the  Romans  were 
shamefully  defeated  at  the  Caudine 
Forks,  but  were  finally  successful. 

SAMO'A,  or  NAVIGATOR  ISLES,  a 
group  of  volcanic  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific,  n.e.  of  the  Fiji  group,  made  up 
of  three  large  islands,  Upolu,  Savaii,  and 
Tutuila;  and  a nulnber  of  smaller  ones; 
total  area  about  1700  sq.  miles,  with  a 
population  of  nearly  37,000.  The  most 
important  island  of  the  group  is  Upolu, 
with  an  area  of  340  sq.  miles,  diversified 
by  mountains  and  fertile  plains;  pop. 
about  17,000.  Apia,  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, is  a town  of  1500  inhabitants 
situated  on  a bay  on  the  n.w.  side  of 
Upolu.  Savaii,  the  largest  of  the  group, 
has  an  area  of  659  sq.  miles,  and  is  ex- 
tremely mountainous  (greatest  height 
5350  feet),  the  interior  being  hardly 
known.  'Tutuila  has  an  area  of  54  sq. 
miles.  The  government  of  Samoa  is  a 
limited  monarchy  presided  over  by  a 
king  and  a vice-king,  with  a parliament 
of  chiefs  called  the  malo.  The  Samoans 
are  of  Polynesian  extraction,  and  vary 
in  color  from  a dark  brown  to  a light 
copper,  occasionally  to  a shade  of  olive. 


They  are  of  fine  physique  and  of  a gentle 
disposition,  and  are  now  all  Christians. 
Their  language  contains  thirteen  letters, 
and  is  soft  and  liquid.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  fishing,  collecting  copra,  the 
cultivation  of  fruit,  cotton,  and  taro, 
and  the  manufacture  of  tapa,  a native 
cloth.  The  cocoa-nut,  bread-fruit  tree, 
taro,  and  banana  form  the  staple  food 
of  the  people.  From  1889  till  1899  the 
islands  were  under  the  joint  control  of 
Germany,  Britain,  and  the  United 
States,  but  in  1899  an  agreement  was 
arrived  at  under  which  Britain  with- 
drew entirely,  while  Germany  received 
Upolu  and  Savaii,  the  United  States 
obtaining  Tutuila  and  other  islands. 

SAMOS,  now  Samo,  an  island  in  the 
Grecian  archipelago  near  the  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  45  miles  southwest  of 
Smyrna,  forming  a principality  tribu- 
tary to  Turkey,  area,  180  sq.  miles.  In 
84  b.c.  it  was  united  with  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia.  In  1550  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Turks.  It  now  occupies 
an  exceptional  position,  having  been 
erected  into  a tributary  principality  of 
the  Sublime  Porte  in  1832,  the  ruler 
being  a Greek  prince.  Pop.  55,000. 

SAM'OTHRACE,  or  SAMOTHRAKI, 
an  island  in  the  n.  of  the  .(Egean  sea, 
belonging  to  Turkey,  about  14  miles 
long  by  8 miles  broad. 

SAMOVAR',  a Russian  tea  apparatus, 
the  water  in  which  is  boiled  by  means  of 


Antique  Russian  samovar, 
hot  coals  contained  in  an  iron  tube,  and 
then  poured  over  the  tea. 

SAM'PAN',  a boat  of  various  build 
used  on  the  Chinese  rivers,  at  Singapore 


Sampan,  Canton  river. 

and  elsewhere,  for  the  conveyance  of 
merchandise,  and  also  frequently  for 


SAMPSON 


SANDERLING 


habitation.  They  are  swift  sailers  both 
with  oar  and  sail. 

SAM'PSON,  William  Thomas,  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  was  born  at  Palmyra, 
New  York,  in  1840.  In  June,  1864,  he 
became  executive  officer  of  the  iron 
clad  Patapsco  of  the  Charleston  block- 
ading squadron.  From  1879  to  1882 
he  commanded  the  Swatara  on  the 
Asiatic  station.  In  1890  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  San  Francisco, 
the  first  modern  steel  cruiser  of  the  new 
navy.  From  January,  1893,  until  May, 

1897,  he  was  chief  of  the  bureau  of 
ordnance.  He  was  appointed  president 
of  the  naval  court  of  inquiry  to  investi- 
gate the  blowing  up  of  the  battleship 
Maine  in  the  harbor  of  Havana  and 
shortly  afterward  he  was  appointed  as 
acting  rear-admiral,  to  the  command  of 
the  North  Atlantic  squadron.  He 
attained  the  rank  of  commodore  in 
regular  line  of  promotion  on  July  3, 

1898,  When  Admiral  Cervera’s  Spanish 
squadron  was  destroyed  Sampson 
himself  was  absent  until  the  battle  was 
practically  over,  but  it  was  fought  on 
lines  laid  down  by  him.  After  the  war  he 
served  as  a Cuban  commissioner,  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  on  March  3, 

1899,  and  until  September,  1901,  was  in 
command  of  the  Boston  (Charlestown) 
Navy  Yard.  He  was  retired  from  active 
service  February  9,  1902.  He  died  in 
1902. 


SAMSON,  an  Israelite  of  the  Tribe  of 
Dan,  the  son  of  Manoah,  reckoned  one 
of  the  judges  of  Israel,  a popular  hero, 
and  an  inveterate  enemy  of  the  Philis- 
tines, flourished  about  1116-1096  b.c. 
His  peculiar  gift  of  great  bodily  strength 
is  strikingly  shown  in  the  nature  of  his 
deeds,  as  tearing  in  pieces  a lion,  break- 
ing his  bonds  asunder,  carrying  away 
the  gates  of  Gaza,  and  throwing  down 
the  pillars  of  the  house  of  Dagon.  Pre- 
vious to  the  latter  event  Delilah,  his 
concubine,  deprived  him  of  his  strength 
for  a period  by  cutting  off  his  hair, 
which  was  a violation  of  his  obligation 
as  a Nazarite,  but  with  the  growth  of  his 
hair  his  strength  returned,  and  at  the 
great  festival  of  Dagon  Samson  pulled 
down  the  building  over  the  heads  of  the 
Philistines,  who  had  blinded  him,  he 
himself  perishing  with  them.  Milton 
has  made  his  death  the  subject  of  a 
drama — Samson  Agonistes. 

SAMUEL,  the  first  of  the  order  of 
prophets  and  the  last  of  the  judges  of 
Israel.  He  was  the  son  of  Elkanah  of 
Ramathaimzophim,  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  and  was  consecrated  by 
Hannah,  his  mother,  to  the  service  of 
Jehovah.  He  was  educated  in  the  house 
of  the  chief  priest  Eli  at  Shiloh,  and  had 
the  disasters  revealed  to  him  that  should 
befall  the  house  of  Eli.  He  assumed  the 
judgeship  of  Israel  about  twenty  years 
after  the  death  of  Eli,  and  headed  a 
successful  expedition  against  the  Philis- 
tines. He  mentions  his  own  name  in  the 
list  of  warlike  chiefs  by  whom  the  Lord 
sent  deliverance  to  his  people,  and  it  is 
recorded  that  he  judged  Israel  as  civil 
ruler  all  his  life,  going  a yearly  circuit 
from  Ramah,  where  was  his  home,  to 
Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh.  His  admin- 
istration was  distinguished  by  the  resto- 
ration of  the  neglected  worship  of 
Jehovah,  He  also  gave  a new  vigor  to 


the  theocratical  institutions  of  Moses 
by  the  establishment  of  schools  of  the 
prophets.  In  his  old  age  Samuel  anointed 
Saul  as  king,  and  when  Saul  failed  in 
his  duties  Samuel  anointed  a new  king, 
David.  He  did  not  live  to  see  the  contest 
between  David  and  Saul  decided. 

SAMUEL,  Books  of,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, are  two  in  number  in  the  modern 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  text.  In  Hebrew 
MSS.  the  work  is  one;  the  division  into 
two  books,  being  first  introduced  by 
Bomberg,  in  1518,  at  Venice.  The  con- 
tents of  the  books  present  us  with  a 
more  or  less  consecutive  narrative  of 
events  relating  to  the  Israelites,  from 
the  priesthood  of  Eli  to  the  death  of 
David.  The  principal  periods  embraced 
in  the  record  are:  the  restoration  of  the 
theocracy  under  Samuel  (book  i.  chap,  i- 
xii.  B.c.  1171-1095);  the  history  of 
Saul’s  reign,  ending  with  his  death  (book 
i.  chaps,  xiii.-xxxi.  b.c.  1095-55) ; and 
the  history  of  David’s  reign  (book  ii. 
B.c.  1055-15).  As  regards  the  author- 
ship of  these  books  it  is  evident  they 
could  not  have  been  written  by  Samuel, 
since  his  death  is  recorded  in  book  i. 
chap.  XXV. 

SAN  ANTONIO,  or  SAN  ANTONIO  DE 
BEXAR,  a town  on  the  San  Antonio 
river,  80  miles  southwest  of  Austin  City, 
Tex.  The  principal  public  buildings  are 
the  hospital,  orphan  asylum,  a Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  college  and  convent, 
arsenal,  and  schools.  The  town  is  a great 
center  of  trade  in  wool,  horses  and 
mules,  hides,  and  grain.  There  are 
several  breweries,  tanneries,  and  flour 
mills.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  Spanish 
towns  on  the  continent,  and  has  a large 
trade  with  Mexico.  Pop.  1909,  100,000. 

SAND,  fine  particles  of  stone,  par- 
ticularly of  siliceous  stone  in  a loose 
state,  but  not  reduced  to  powder  or  dust ; 
a collection  of  siliceous  granules  not  co- 
herent when  wet.  Most  of  the  sands 
which  we  observe  are  the  ruins  of  dis- 
integrated rocks,  and  differ  in  color 
according  to  the  rocks  from  which  they 
were  derived.  VMuable  metallic  ores, 
as  those  of  gold,  platinum,  tin,  copper 
iron,  titanium,  often  occur  in  the  form  of 
sand  or  mixed  with  that  substance.  Pure 
siliceous  sands  are  very  valuable  for  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  for  making  mortar, 
filters,  ameliorating  dense  clay  soils,  for 
making  moulds  in  founding,  and  many 
other  purposes. 

SAND,  George.  See  Dudevant. 

SANDAL,  a kind  of  shoe  or  covering 
for  the  feet  used  among  the  ancient 
Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  con- 


Sandals. 

The  pair  in  the  middle  are  Roman,  those 
on  the  sides  are  Greek. 

sisted  of  a sole  fastened  to  the  foot  by 
means  of  straps  crossed  over  and  wound 
round  the  ankle.  Originally  made  of 
wood,  vegetable  leaves  or  fibers,  or 


leather,  they  afterward  became  articles 
of  great  luxury,  being  made  of  gold, 
silver,  and  other  precious  materials,  and 
beautifully  ornamented.  Certain  re- 
ligious orders  of  the  present  day  W'ear 
s^rid^ls 

SANDALWOOD,  a tree  belonging  to 
the  East  Indies  and  the  Malayan  and 
Polynesian  islands,  remarkable  for  its 
fragrance.  Its  wood  is  used  as  a perfume, 
and  is  manufactured  into  glove-boxes 
and  other  light  articles.  It  is  largely 
used  as  incense  in  the  worship  of  Brah- 
mams  and  Buddhists.  There  are  several 
species  which  furnish  sandalwood,  the 
common  being  S.  album.  Some  trees  of 
other  genera  are  called  false  sandal- 
wood. See  also  Adenanthera. 

SANDALWOOD  ISLAND,  or  JEEN- 
DANA,  a large  island  in  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago belonging  to  the  Dutch  residency 
of  Timor,  crossed  by  the  meridian  of 
120°e.;  area,  4000  sq.  miles;  with  a 
population  of  about  2,300,000.  The 
coast  is  bold,  and  terminates  at  the 


southern  extremity  in  a lofty  and  in- 
accessible peninsula.  The  interior  is 
mountainous.  Edible  birds’  nests,  bees- 
wax, ponies,  and  sandalwood  are  ob- 
tained here.  The  natives  are  of  the 
Malay  race. 

SANDARACH  (san'da-rak),  a resin 
which  exudes  from  the  bark  of  the 
sandarach  tree.  It  is  used  as  incense, 
and  for  making  a pale  varnish.  It  is  also 
used  as  pounce  powder  for  strewing 
over  paper  erasures.  Called  also  Juniper- 
resin. 

SANDARACH  TREE,  a large  conif- 
erous tree  with  straggling  branches, 
yielding  the  resin  described  in  preceding 
article.  It  is  a native  of  Morocco,  Al- 
geria, and  Northern  Africa  generally. 
The  timber  is  fragrant,  hard,  and  dur- 
able, and  is  largely  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  mosques  and  other  buildings, 
as  well  as  for  cabinet  work. 

SAND  CRAB,  or  RACING  CRAB,  a 
genus  of  crabs,  which  live  in  holes  in  the 
sand  along  the  seashores  of  wann  coun- 
tries, inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  Red 
sea,  and  Indian  ocean,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  rapidity  of  its  motions. 

SAND  EEL,  a genus  of  fishes.  The 
body  is  slender  and  cylindrical,  some- 
what resembling  that  of  an  eel,  and 
varying  from  4 inches  to  about  1 foot 
in  length,  of  a beautiful  silvery  luster, 
destitute  of  ventral  fins,  and  the  scales 
hardly  perceptible. 

SANDERLING,  a wading  bird  averag- 
ing from  6 to  8 inches  in  length,  which 


SAN  DIEGO 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  in 
winter  migrates  southward.  It  feeds  on 
small  marine  animals,  and  chiefly  in- 
habits the  sandy  tracts  of  the  sea-beach 
and  the  estuaries  of  rivers.  The  flesh  is 
nutritious  and  pleasant  to  the  taste. 

SAN  DIEGO  (san  de-a'go).  a port  of 
entry  and  the  county  seat  of  San  Diego 
CO.,  Cal.,  125  miles  south  by  east  of  Los 
Angeles,  on  San  Diego  bay,  and  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  rail- 
road, and  several  steamship  lines.  It  is 
a favorite  health  resort,  has  a beautiful 
situation  and  a mild  and  equable  cli- 
mate. Coronado  Beach  with  its  large 
hotel,  ostrich  farm,  botanical  gardens 
and  other  attractions  lies  across  the  bay. 
The  navy  and  the  war  department  have 
separately  large  tracts  of  land  on  the 
bay,  for  a coaling  station  and  fortifica- 
tions respectively,  the  latter  known  as 
Fort  Rosecrans.  Pop.  1909,  40,000. 

SAND  FLIES,  the  name  of  certain 
flies  found  in  various  countries,  the  bite 
of  which  may  give  rise  to  painful  swell- 
ings. They  are  included  in  the  family 
Tipulidae,  which  also  includes  the  well- 
known  “daddy  long-legs”  or  crane-flies. 

SAND  GROUSE,  a genus  of  rasorial 
or  scratching  birds,  belonging  to  the 
family  Pteroclidae,  and  differing  in 
several  respects  from  the  common 
grouse  (which  see),  belonging  to  the 
family  Tetraonidae.  They  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  and  are  most  abundant  in  arid 
sandy  plains.  The  legs  are  longer  than 
in  other  grouse,  and  the  tail  and  wings 
are  pointed.  Pallas’s  sand  grouse  differs 
from  these  in  having  feathered  tarsi  and 
united  toes.  It  is  a native  of  the  sandy 
plains  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  occurs 
in  vast  numbers. 

SAND  HOPPER,  a species  of  small 
insect-like  crustaceans  of  the  order 
Amphipoda,  common  along  most  sea- 
shores, where  they  may  be  met  with 
leaping  about  the  sands  in  great  quan- 
tities after  the  receding  tide. 

SANDHURST,  a flourishing  city  of 
Victoria,  Australia,  about  100  miles 
n.n.w.  of  Melbourne,  an  important  rail- 
way and  gold  mining  center.  It  con- 
tains a handsome  pile  of  public  build- 
ings, fine  townhall,  law  courts,  banks, 
hospital,  benevolent  asylum,  mechanic’s 
institute  (with  a library  of  14,500  vol- 
umes), a theater,  numerous  places  of 
worship,  botanic  gardens,  etc.  It  is 
lighted  with  gas  and  electricity,  and 
well  supplied  with  water.  Besides  gold 
mining,  which  employs  4000-5000 
miners,  iron  founding  and  making  of 
railway  rolling  stock,  coach  building, 
stone  cutting,  tanning,  vine  growing, 
etc.,  are  carried  on.  Pop.  50,000. 

SAND  MARTIN,  or  BANK  MARTIN, 
a bird  included  in  the  family  of  swallows 
a summer  visitant  to  Britain,  where  it  is 
common  in  most  localities.  It  is  the 
smallest  British  member  of  its  family, 
and  is  so  named  from  its  habits  of  nest- 
building in  holes  dug  in  the  high  banks 
of  rivers,  in  the  sides  of  sand  or  gravel 
pits,  and  in  similar  situations.  The 
color  of  the  sand-martin  is  a soft  brown 
on  the  head  and  upper  parts,  and  white 
below,  with  a dark  brown  band  on  the 
chest. 

SAN  DOMINGO  (more  properly  Santo 
Domingo),  the  capital  city  of  the  Do- 


minican rapublic,  which  ineludea  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island  of  Hayti. 
The  town  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ozama  on  the  south  coast,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  government  and  a bishop’s 
see.  It  has  spacious  streets  and  squares, 
a cathedral  dating  from  1540,  a univer- 
sity, etc.  San  Domingo  is  the  oldest 
European  city  of  the  New  World,  and 
was  founded  by  Bartholomew  Columbus 
in  1496.  Columbus  was  buried  here  in 
1536;  but  his  remains  were  removed  to 
Havana  in  1794.  Pop.  about  16,000. 

SANDPAPER  is  made  in  the  same 
way  as  emery-paper,  with  the  difference 
that  sand  is  substituted  for  emery.  See 
Emery. 

SANDPIPERS,  a group  of  small 
grallatorial  or  wading  birds,  belonging 
to  the  family  Scolopacidse  or  snipes. 
These  birds  inhabit  the  shores  of  the 
sea  and  the  estuaries  and  banks  of  rivers, 
and  grope  in  the  soft  mud  for  the  worms, 
small  molluscs,  insects,  etc.,  upon  which 


The  broad-billed  sandpiper. 

they  feed.  They  migrate  southward  in 
winter  in  flocks,  and  appear  to  moult 
twice  a year,  the  summer  plumage  differ- 
ing from  the  winter  dress.  The  voice  is 
shrill  and  unmusical;  and  they  are  able 
both  to  run  and  to  fly  with  rapidity. 
Sandpipers  of  various  species  are  abun- 
dant in  North  America,  and  in  winter  in 
the  West  Indies. 

SANDSTONES corfsist  usuallyof  grains 
of  quartz  aggregated  into  a compact 
rock,  which  may  also,  contain  particles 
of  felspar,  minute  scales  of  mica,  and  an 
admixture  of  clay,  indicating  in  many 
places  their  immediate  derivation  from 
the  debris  of  granitic  rocks.  Sandstones 
are  in  most  cases  chiefly  composed  of 
particles  of  quartz,  united  by  a cement. 
The  cement  is  in  variable  quantity,  and 
may  be  calcareous  or  marly,  argilla- 
ceous or  argillo-ferruginous,  or  even  sili- 
ceous. The  grains  of  quartz  are  some- 
times scarcely  distin^ishable  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  sometimes  are  equal  in 
size  to  a nut  or  an  egg,  as  in  those  sand- 
stones called  conglomerates,  or  some- 
times pudding-stone  or  breccia.  The 
texture  of  some  sandstones  is  very  close, 
while  in  others  it  is  very  loose  and  por- 
ous. Soipe  sandstones  have  a fissile 
structure,  and  have  been  called  sand- 
stone slate.  In  color  sandstone  varies 
from  gray  to  reddish-brown,  in  some 
cases  uniform,  in  other  variegated.  In 
addition  to  quartz  some  sandstones  con- 
tain grains  of  felspar,  flint,  and  siliceous 
slate,  or  plates  of  mica.  Some  sand- 
stones are  ferruginous,  containing  an 
oxide  or  the  carbonate  of  iron.  Sand- 
stones have  been  formed  at  different 
periods  and  under  different  circum- 
stances, and  are  hence  associated  with 
different  rocks  or  formations.  They  are 


in  general  distinctly  stratified,  and  the 
beds  horizontally  arranged,  but  some- 
times they  are  much  inclined  or  even 
vertical.  Sandstone  in  some  of  its  vari- 
eties is  very  useful  in  the  arts,  and  when 
it  has  no  tendency  to  split  is  known  by 
the  name  of  freestone.  When  sufficiently 
solid  it  is  employed  as  a building  stone. 
Some  varieties  are  used  as  millstones  for 
grinding  meal,  or  for  wearing  down 
other  materials  preparatory  to  a polish, 
and  some  are  used  for  whetstones. 

SANDUS'KY,  a city  of  Ohio,  on  a 
sandstone  ridge  on  the  southern  side  of 
Sandusky  bay.  Lake  Erie,  about  61 
miles  w.  of  Cleveland.  The  site  rises 
gradually  from  the  shore  and  commands 
a fine  view  of  the  bay.  The  principal 
public  buildings  are  a courthouse,  a high 
school,  andmanychurches.  Anextensive 
trade  is  done  in  fish,  lumber,  limestone, 
manufactured  woodwork,  grapes,  and 
wine;  and  there  are  large  machine  shops, 
steel  works,  and  engine  and  boiler 
works.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  manufac- 
ture of  articles  in  bent  wood;  and  its 
fisheries  employ  over  1000  hands.  Pop. 
23,764. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS,  a cluster  of 
islands,  thirteen  in  number,  situated  in 
the  North  Pacific,  area,  647  square  miles; 
pop.  31,194.  Honolulu,  the  capital  and 
chief  port  of  the  islands,  is  situated  on 
Oahu.  The  remaining  large  islands  are 
Kauai  and  Niihau,  with  an  area  of  657 
square  miles,  and  11,859  inhabitants. 
The  island  of  Molokai  is  a leper  colony. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  group  belong  to 
the  light-colored  Oceanic  stock,  and  have 
been  civilized  and  converted  to  Christian- 
ity. After  forming  a republic  for  a short 
time,  the  monarchy  having  been  over- 
thrown in  1893,  these  islands  now  be- 
long to  the  United  States,  having  been 
annexed  in  1898.  The  republican  legis- 
lature consisted  of  a senate  of  fifteen 
members,  and  a chamber  of  representa- 
tives of  fifteen  members.  The  head  of 
the  government  was  a president,  elected 
for  six  years  by  the  two  houses  voting 
together,  and  he  was  assisted  by  a coun- 
cil of  state.  Honolulu,  the  capital,  has 
become  an  important  entrepot,  and  in 
it  almost  the  whole  trade  of  the  islands 
is  centered.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar, 
rice,  coffee,  bananas,  tallow,  and  hides; 
the  imports  are  chiefly  manufactured 
goods,  provisions,  grain,  and  timber. 
The  currency  is  that  of  the  United 
States.  The  islands  were  discovered  by 
Cook  in  1778,  who  afterward  lost  his 
life  on  Hawaii.  Pop.  154,001.  In 
1900  the  islands  were  constituted  as  the 
Territory  of  Hawaii.  See  Hawaii. 

SANDY  HOOK,  a low  sandy  penin- 
sula at  the  entrance  of  New  York  har- 
bor. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  the  largest  city  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States, 
almost  totally  destroyed  by  earthquake 
and  fire  on  April  18-21,  1906.  San 
Francisco  was  founded  on  October  9, 
1776,  by  two  Franciscan  monks,  Palon 
and  Cambon,  who  established  an  Indian 
mission  and  called  it  San  FVancisco  de 
Asisi.  The  place  remained  a mission 
until  1822,  when  California  passed  under 
the  control  of  Mexico.  Then  a village 
gradually  was  established,  called 
Dolores.  In  1836  a small  trading  village 
called  Yerba  Buena  was  established  three 


SANGIR  ISLANDS 


SANITARY  SCIENCE 


miles  northeast  of  Dolores,  in  the  bay. 
In  1846,  when  the  United  States  took 
possession,  Yerba  Buena  had  a popula- 
tion of  450,  and  in  that  year  the  village 
dropped  its  new  name  and  took  that  of 
the  mission,  San  Francisco.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  1848  brought  thou- 
sands of  men  to  the  Pacific  coast.  In 
March,  1848,  the  population  of  San 
Francisco  was  800.  In  September 


1849,  it  was  10,000.  From  that  year 
the  city  grew  rapidly.  In  1860  it  was 
56,802;  in  1870,  149,473;  in  1880,  233,- 
959;  in  189ft,  298,997;  in  1909,  400,000. 
In  1906  the  city  covered  an  area  of 


Comparative  area  of  three  great  fires. 


47  square  miles,  with  750  miles  of 
streets,  20  miles  of  boulevards,  275 
miles  of  street  railway,  4,000  stone, 
brick,  and  steel  buildings,  55,000  frame 
buildings,  three  museums  and  art  gal- 
leries, eight  public  libraries,  47  hos- 
pitals, 98  public  schools,  and  many 
hotels,  theatres,  opera  houses,  and 
clubs. 

The  city  was  almost  completely 


destroyed  by  earthquake  and  fire  on 
April  18,  19,  and  20,  1906.  Five  times 
before  had  the  city  been  visited  by 
fire — on  Dec.  14,  1849;  May  4,  1850; 
June  14,  1850;  May  2,  1851,  and  June 
2,  1851.  These  five  fires  destr^ed  $16,- 
000,000  worth  of  property.  The  great 
disaster,  however,  came  at  5:13  o’clock 
on  the  morning  of  April  18,  1906,  when 
three  violent  shocks  of  earthquake 
leveled  many  buildings,  opened  great 
fissures  in  the  streets,  and  shut  off  the 
water  supply  by  breaking  the  mains 
leading  to  the  great  reservoirs.  Almost 
immediately  fires  started  in  a hundred 
different  parts  of  the  city.  There  was 
no  water  with  which  to  fight  the  flames. 
Hundreds  of  buildings  were  blown  up 
with  dynamite  and  shot  to  pieces  with 
artillery,  but  for  three  days  the  fire 
ravaged  almost  unchecked.  In  those 
three  days  an  area  of  fifteen  square 
miles,  or  approximately  10,000  acres, 
was  burned.  The  burnt  district  in- 
cluded nearly  two-thirds  of  the  resi- 
dence portion,  thousands  of  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  establishments,  100 
banks  and  financial  institutions,  all  of 
the  theatres,  opera  houses,  hotels, 
public  libraries,  hospitals,  and  churches, 
and  most  of  the  public  school  buildings. 
More  than  200,000  persons  were  left 
homeless  and  penniless.  Three  hun- 
dred and  seventy-nine  persons  were 
killed  or  died  of  injuries  and  exposure. 

Among  the  notable  buildings  de- 
stroyed by  earthquake  and  fire  were 
the  Palace  Hotel,  the  City  Hall,  which 
cost  $6,000,000,  and  required  25  years 
to  build;  the  famous  residences  of  Nob 
Hill,  the  Call,  Chronicle,  and  Examiner 
buildings,  and  the  Flood,  Mills,  and 
Spreckles  buildings.  The  disaster 
proved  that  the  modern  steel  “sky- 
scraper” can  safely  defy  even  violent 
earthquake  shocks,  for  the  steel  struc- 
tures in  San  Francisco  stood,  while 
massive  stone  and  brick  buildings  of 
the  old-fashioned  construction  were 
razed  to  the  ground.  United  States 
and  state  troops  took  possession  of 
the  ruined  city.  The  federal  soldiers 
took  charge  of  the  hospital  and  re- 
lief work,  established  refugee  camps, 
and  put  down  lawlessness  with  an  iron 
hand.  Scores  of  thieves  were  shot 
down.  The  most  drastic  steps  were 
taken  to  prevent  a recurrence  of  the 
conflagration.  Even  in  the  houses  un- 
touched by  the  flames  no  lights  or  fires 
were  permitted  until  after  the  water 
supply  and  fire  protection  had  been 
restored.  Every  householder,  million- 
aire, and  mechanic  alike  was  compelled 
to  cook  all  meals  in  the  street. 

The  nation  was  quick  to  respond  to 
the  cry  of  the  homeless  and  hungry. 
Congress  appropriated  $2,500,000.  All 
the  cities  raised  huge  sums.  Carloads 
of  provisions  and  clothing  were  hurried 
into  the  city,  and  in  two  days  all  danger 
of  famine  had  passed.  The  property 
loss  was  estimated  at  $200,000,000,  of 
which  approximately  three-fourths  was 
covered  by  insurance.  The  city  is  be- 
ing rapidly  rebuilt  on  a more  extensive 
scale  and  the  new  city  will  be  one  of 
the  most  modern  on  the  continent. 

SANGIR  ISLANDS  (sanger),  a ^oup 
of  small  islands  in  the  Incfian  Archipel- 
ago, situated  between  the  n.  e.extremity 


of  Celebes  and  the  Philippine  isle  of 
Mindanao.  The  natives  are  of  the 
Malay  race,  and  profess  Christianity. 
The  islands  belong  to  the  Netherlands. 
Pop.  about  50,000. 

SAN'HEDRIM,  or  San'hedrin  (cor- 
rupted from  the  Greek  sunedrion,  a 
council),  the  supreme  judicial  tribunal 
of  the  Jews,  existing  in  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  and  in  New  Testament 
times.  According  to  the  Talmud  it  was 
founded  by  Moses  when  he  elected 
seventy  elders  to  assist  him  in  judging 
the  children  of  Israel  in  the  wilderness, 
but  this  view  is  now  generally  rejected. 
The  sanhedrim  consisted  of  seventy 
members  besides  the  president,  who 
was  usually  the  high  priest.  They  were 
chosen  from  among  the  priests,  elders, 
heads  of  families,  and  scribes  or  doctors 
of  law,  and  had  power  to  deal  with  both 
secular  and  spiritual  matters.  At  the 
trial  of  our  Lord  they  sat  in  the  palace 
of  the  high  priest.  The  council  became 
extinct  in  425. 

SANITARY  SCIENCE  teaches  how  to 
maintain  health  and  to  ward  off  disease, 
and  treats  more  especially  of  what  is 
required  of  each  individual  in  his  duty 
to  his  neighbor,  so  that  by  using  such 
means  as  may  ensure  his  own  health  he 
may  in  a negative  way  preserve  that  of 
his  neighbor  also.  The  subject  naturally 
divides  itself  into  four  main  divisions: 
1.  That  relating  to  our  dwellings;  2. 
Food;  3.  Clothing;  4.  Cleanliness.  As 
regards  the  first  head,  our  dwellings 
should  be  situated  so  as  to  ensure  a free 
circulation  of  air  round  them,  and  a 
thorough  system  of  drainage.  The  rooms 
should  be  large,  airy,  and  well  ventilated 
A most  pernicious  source  of  impurity  is 
sewer-gas,  which  can  only  enter  houses 
where  waste  and  soil-pipes  are  in  direct 
communication  with  the  main  system  of 
sewers.  The  decomposition  of  faecal  and 
other  matters  in  drains  produces  both 
ammoniacal  and  other  sulphurous  gases. 
These  gases,  owing  to  their  light  specific 
gravity,  rise  to  the  highest  point  m the 
pipes,  and  from  thence  force  their  way 
through  imperfections  in  drains  and 
pipes,  and  also  through  the  water-traps 
of  closets,  sinks,  etc.,  into  our  houses, 
and  become  a most  potent  atmospheric 
impurity.  They  are  of  two  kinds — an 
odoriferous  and  an  odorless  gas.  The 
former  is  almost  innocuous,  but  the 
latter  is  most  deadly,  since  it  depresses 
the  general  system  and  frequently  con- 
tains the  germs  of  disease.  Sunlight 
and  thorough  ventilation  destroy  the 
properties  of  this  gas.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent sewer-gas  from  entering  a house, 
all  waste-pipes  in  connection  with  the 
sewers  should  be  carried  along  outside 
the  house  and  furnished  with  a ventila- 
tor, so  that  the  gas  may  escape  into  the 
external  air.  The  ventilator  should  dis- 
charge at  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  not 
near  to  a window  or  other  opening  into 
the  dwelling.  The  outlet  of  pipes  from 
wash-basins  in  bed-rooms  should  dis- 
charge in  the  open  air,  and  should  not 
be  directly  connected  with  drains.  Foul 
smells  and  gases  arise  from  many  other 
causes,  such  as  decomposition  of  organic 
matter  within  the  house,  emanations 
from  the  surface  of  the  body,  prepara- 
tions of  arsenic  and  copper  in  wall-paper 
etc.  Flowers  also  give  off  carbonic  acid 


SAN  JOAQUIN 


j 


SANTA  CATHARINA 


gas  at  night,  and  gas-jets  also  pour  much 
impurity  into  the  atmosphere.  Over- 
crowding also  greatly  vitiates  the  at- 
mosphere. Thorough  drainage  of  our 
houses  is  also  very  necessary  in  order 
to  prevent  dampness,  which  is  a most 
prolific  source  of  disease.  Every  portion 
of  a house  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clean  and  after  infectious  or  contagious 
disease  there  should  be  a thorough  cleans- 
ing and  disinfecting  of  the  furniture, 
bedding,  carpets,  etc.  The  neglect  of  an 
efficient  use  of  cold  water  is  perhaps  one 
of  the  most  potent  and  prolific  causes 
of  disease.  The  first  duty  of  every  human 
being  is  to  attend  thoroughly  to  the 
cleansing  of  the  whole  body,  and  this 
can  only  be  done  by  the  free  application 
of  water.  The  daily  use  of  a cold  bath  is 
not  only  conducive  to  health,  but  a 
powerful  preventive  against  disease. 
It  is  always  desirable  when  we  leave  a 
bath  that  a glow — called  the  reaction — 
should  be  felt  all  over  the  body,  and 
this  can  be  assisted  by  the  vigorous  use 
of  a rough  towel.  Bathing  in  this  way  is 
a powerful  natural  tonic  to  the  skin, 
nerves,  and  muscular  system.  It  pro- 
motes digestion,  regulates  the  bowels, 
and  is  in  fact  invaluable  as  a sanitary 
measure.  All  underclothing  should  be 
changed  at  least  once  a week;  and  socks 
and  stockings  every  two  days.  All 
household  furj^ishings  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  free  from  dirt.  One  or  two 
other  points  should  also  be  noticed. 
Exercise  is  one  of  these.  It  may  be 
walking  or  horse  exercise.  Both  are 
invigorating;  both  promote  appetite 
and  digestion  and  the  healthy  action 
of  the  functions  generally.  An  outdoor 
occupation  is  to  be  preferred  on  the 
score  of  health.  In  addition,  freedom 
from  anxiety,  cheerful  society  honesty, 
and  the  practice  of  all  the  virtues 
are  most  conducive  to  the  promotion 
and  preservation  of  health.  See  also 
Germ  Theory  of  Disease,  Disinfectant, 
Public  Health  Acts,  etc. 

SAN  JOAQUIN  (ho-a-ken),  a river  of 
California  which  traverses  the  valley  of 
the  same  name  from  the  Tulare  Lakes, 
joins  the  Sacramento,  and  falls  into 
Suisun  bay.  It  has  a length  of  350  miles. 

SAN  JOSE  (ho-sa'),  the  capital  of 
Santa  Clara  co.,  California,  in  the  valley 
of  Santa  Clara,  46  miles  by  rail  s.  of 
San  Francisco.  The  city  is  embowered 
in  trees  and  shrubberies,  and  has  a fine 
park,  6 miles  distant,  to  which  leads  a 
beautiful  avenue  of  trees.  It  contains  a 
courthouse,  a theater,  state  normal 
school,  public  halls,  a public  library, 
and  other  good  public  buildings.  Wheat, 
wine,  dried  and  canned  fruits,  tobacco, 
etc.,  are  produced  here.  Pop.  25,615. 

SAN  JOSE,  capital  of  the  state  of  Costa 
Rica,  Central  America.  It  stands  on  a 
table-land  4500  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  there  are 
few  public  buildings  worthy  of  note. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  trade  of  the  state. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  and  the  town  is 
surrounded  with  coffee  plantations.  Pop. 
25,000. 

SAN  JUAN  BOUNDARY  QUESTION. 

By  the  treaty  of  Washington  (15th 
June,  1846)  it  was  provided  that  the 
boundary  line  between  British  North 
America  and  the  United  States  should 
be  continued  to  the  middle  of  the  chan- ' 


nel  between  Vancouver’s  Island  and  the 
continent,  and  thence  south  to  the 
Pacific  ocean.  But  the  island  of  San 
Juan  lies  in  the  middle  of  this  channel, 
and  the  question  immediately  arose  to 
whom  the  island  should  belong.  It  was 
a subject  of  long  and  bitter  dispute, 
but  at  last  the  matter  was  submitted 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  Emperor 
William  of  Germany  without  appeal. 
The  emperor’s  award,  dated  October 
21,  1872,  was  given  unreservedly  in 
favor  of  the  American  claim  on  the 
ground  that  the  American  view  of  the 
treaty  of  1846  was  the  more  correct  one. 

SAN  LUIS,  a province  of  the  Argen- 
tine republic.  Area,  23,359  sq.  miles. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  and  rain  seldom 
falls.  The  province  is  rich  in  copper  and 
other  metals.  The  leading  industry  is 
cattle-rearing.  Pop.  100,000. — The  chief 
town  is  San  Luis  de  la  Punta.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  mud  huts  surrounded  by 
mimosa  thickets.  A trade  is  done  in 
cattle  and  hides.  Pop.  7000. 

SAN  LUIS  DE  POTOSI  (pot-o-se'),  a 
city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  state  of 
same  name,  198  miles  n.w.  of  Mexico, 
6350  feet  above  sea-level ; regularly 
built,  with  fine  streets.  It  has  a hand- 
some cathedral;  manufactures  of  cloth- 
ing, shoes,  hats,  etc.;  railway  work- 
shops; and  a considerable  trade.  Pop. 
62,573. — The  state  has  an  area  of  27,500 
sq.  miles,  is  generally  fertile,  and  has 
rich  gold  and  silver  mines.  Pop.  516,486. 

SAN  SALVADOR,  a town  in  Central 
America,  capital  of  the  state  of  Salvador, 
situated  near  the  volcano  of  same  name. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
agriculture.  The  town  was  completely 
destroyed  by  earthquake  on  April  16, 
1854,  and  has  suffered  severely  since. 
It  was  founded  originally  in  1528.  Pop. 
50,000. 

SANSKRIT  LANGUAGE  AND  LITER- 
ATURE. Sanskrit  is  the  name  given  to 
the  learned  and  classical  lan^age  of  the 
Hindus,  the  language  in  which  most  of 
their  vast  literature  is  written,  but 
which  has  not  been  a living  and  spoken 
language  since  about  the  2d  century 
before  Christ.  It  is  one  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  family  of  tongues,  and 
may  be  described  as  a sister  of  the 
Persian,  Greek,  and  Latin,  Teutonic, 
Slavonic,  and  Celtic  tongues.  It  stands 
in  the  same  relation  to  the  modern 
Aryan  languages  of  India  as  Latin  stands 
to  the  Romance  languages.  It  is  a highly 
inflected  language,  having  in  this  re- 
spect many  resemblances  to  Greek. 
To  philologists  it  has  proved  perhaps 
the  most  valuable  of  tongues  and  it  was 
only  after  it  became  known  to  Europeans 
that  philology  began  to  assume  the 
character  of  a science.  Its  supreme 
value  is  due  to  the  transparency  of  its 
structure,  and  its  freedom  from  the  cor- 
rupting and  disguising  effect  of  phonetic 
change,  and  from  obliteration  of  the 
original  meaning  of  its  vocables. 

Sanskrit  literature  covers  a period 
extending  from  at  least  1500  b.c.  to  the 
present  time.  The  great  mass  of  the 
literature  is  in  metre,  even  works  on 
science  and  law  having  a poetical  form. 
The  oldest  literary  monuments  are  the 
Vedas — the  Rig,  the  Yajur,  the  Sama, 
and  the  Atharva  Veda.  They  are  looked 
upon  as  the  source  of  all  the  shastras 


or  sacred  writings  of  the  Hindus,  which, 
however,  include  works  upon  ethics, 
science,  and  philosophy  as  well  as  re- 
ligious works.  In  the  department  of 
epic  poetry  the  chief  productions  are  the 
epics  called  the  Ramayana  and  the 
Mahabharata.  The  Ramayana  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  older  of  the  two,  and  to 
have  been  current  in  India  as  early  as  the 
5th  century  b.c.  The  Mahabharata  is  a 
huge  epic  of  about  220,000  lines,  form- 
ing rather  a cyclopaedia  of  Hindu  my- 
thology, legendary  history,  and  philoso- 
phy than  a poem  with  a single  subject. 
It  is  the  production  of  various  periods 
and  various  authors.  In  the  province 
of  lyric  poetry  we  meet  with  poems  of 
the  greatest  eloquence,  tender  sentiment 
and  beautiful  descriptions  of  nature. 
We  must  mention  in  particular  the 
Meghaduta  (Cloud  Messenger)  of  Kali- 
dasa; the  Ritusanhara  (Circle  of  the 
Seasons)  of  the  same  poet;  and  the 
Gitagovinda  of  Jayadeva,  describing 
the  adventures  of  Krishna.  Though  the 
Hindus  can  boast  of  some  excellent 
specimens  of  dramatic  poetry,  yet,  on 
the  whole,  their  dramas  are  much  in- 
ferior to  those  of  the  Greeks  or  of 
modern  Europe.  The  scientific  litera- 
ture of  India  is  likewise  large.  Grammar 
seems  to  have  had  a special  fascination 
for  the  Hindus.  The  oldest  extant  gram- 
mar is  that  of  Panini,  which  belongs  to 
the  2d  or  3d  century  before  Christ.  In 
mathematics  and  astronomy  the  Hindus 
have  greatly  distinguished  themselves, 
as  also  in  medicine  and  philosophy. 
Sanskrit  literature  was  first  introduced 
to  the  western  world  by  Sir  William 
Jones  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century. 

SANTA  ANNA,  Antonio  Lopez  de, 
Mexican  president,  born  1796,  died  1876. 
He  took  a prominent  part  in  the  ex- 


Santa  Anna. 


pulsion  of  the  Spaniards  from  Mexico, 
and  proclaimed  the  Mexican  republic  in 
1822.  He  was  in  the  front  during  all  the 
Mexican  troubles  till  1833  when  he  be- 
came president.  In  1836  he  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Texans,  but 
returned  the  following  year.  He  was 
again  president  in  1846,  but  on  the 
taking  of  Mexico  by  the  United  States 
troops  in  1847  he  resigned.  He  again 
held  the  office  in  1853-55;  was  banished 
in  1867,  but  permitted  to  return  in  1874. 

SANTA  CATHARI'NA,  a maritime 
state  of  Brazil,  in  the  south;  area,  27,436 
sq.  miles.  It  is  watered  by  numerous 
streams,  the  soil  is  fertile,  the  climate 
mild,  and  the  seasons  regular.  Sugar, 
coffee,  rice,  corn,  mandioca,  and  wheat 
are  the  chief  cultivated  products.  Agri- 
culture and  cattle-rearing  are  the  chief 


SANTA  CLARA 


SAPPHIRE 


industries.  There  are  a number  of  Ger- 
man settlements,  the  inhabitants  of  that 
nationality  being  reckoned  at  70,000. 
The  capital  is  Desterro.  Pop.  283,769. 

SANTA  CLARA  (kla'r4),  a province  of 
Cuba,  occupying  the  central  portion  of 
the  island,  and  bounded  by  the  sea  on 
the  north  and  south,  the  province  of 
Matanzas  on  the  west,  and  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe on  the  east.  Area,  9560  sq.  miles. 
The  province  contains  some  of  the 
largest  sugar  plantations  and  factories, 
while  tobacco  is  also  largely  raised,  and 
the  upland  savannas  offer  rich  pasturage 
It  is  also  rich  in  minerals,  and  asphalt, 
silver,  and  copper  are  mined.  Population 
156,536.  The  capital  is  Santa  Clara. 

SANTA  CRUZ,  capital  and  chief  port 
of  the  Canary  islands  on  the  n.e.  coast  of 
Teneriffe.  The  streets  are  well  paved, 
but  the  houses  are  small,  and  the  public 
buildings  few.  There  is  an  excellent 
harbor  protected  by  a mole,  and  the 
coast  is  defended  by  a number  of  forts. 
Wine,  brandy,  and  cochineal  are  the 
chief  products.  Pop.  15,000 

SANTAL'  PARGANAS,  The,  a district 
in  the  Bhagalpur  division  of  Bengal 
area,  5456  sq  miles.  The  Ganges,  which 
bounds  the  district  on  the  north  and 
partly  on  the  east,  forms  also  its  chief 
drainage.  Various  minerals,  as  coal, 
iron,  and  silver,  have  been  found  in  this 
district.  Pop.  1,754,196. 

SANTALWOOD,  a dyewood  ob- 
tained from  a leguminous  tree  of  the 
East  Indies,  Madagascar,  etc.;  also 
called  Sanders  or  saunders  wood  and  red 
sandalwood.  Sontaline,  a substance 
obtained  from  it,  is  used  in  dyeing  blue 
and  brown. 

SANTANDER',  a city  and  seaport  of 
N.  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  same 
name,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  with  a good 
and  secure  harbor.  Pop.  54,694. — The 
province  is  bounded  by  Biscay,  Burgos, 
Palencia,  and  Oviedo,  and  has  an  area 
of  2111  sq.  miles.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and 
reduces  large  quantities  of  corn, 
emp,  flax,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  etc. 
There  are  also  lead,  coal,  and  iron  mines, 
quarries  of  limestone  and  marble  The 
rearing  of  cattle  is  common,  and  the 
fisheries  along  the  coast  are  well  de- 
veloped. Pop.  263,673. 

SANTERRE  (san-tar),  Antoine  Joseph, 
born  in  Paris  1752,  died  1809.  As  a 
wealthy  brewer  he  was  notable  during 
the  French  revolution  for  his  influence 
over  the  Parisian  mob  in  the  attacks  on 
the  Bastille  and  the  Tuileries.  He  rose 
to  be  commander  of  the  national  guard 
and  a major-general. 

SANTIA'GO,  the  capital  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Chile  and  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Andes,  112  miles  by  rail  e. 
of  Valparaiso.  It  is  intersected  by  the 
Mapocho,  a rapid  stream  issuing  from 
the  Andes,  has  water  channels  in  many 
of  the  streets,  is  lighted  by  electricity, 
and  furnished  with  tramways.  Owing 
to  the  prevalence  of  earthquakes  the 
houses  are  mostly  of  one  story,  and 
generally  occupy  a large  space  of  ground, 
having  gardens  and  patios  or  courts  in 
the  interior.  The  Plaza  or  Great  Square 
is  a large  open  area  adorned  with  a fine 
fountain;  around  it  are  the  municipal 
buildings  and  criminal  courts,  the  post- 
ofl&ce,  the  old  palace,  formerly  the  resi- 


dence of  the  presidents,  now  used  as 
barracks,  the  cathedral,  etc.  There  are 
also  a mint,  a well-appointed  university 
with  about  1000  students,  high  class 
secondary  schools,  school  of  art,  military 
school,  normal  schools,  theater, museum, 
etc.  The  city  was  founded  in  1541.  The 
most  memorable  event  in  its  history 
was  the  burning  of  a church,  in  which 
about  2000  persons  perished  in  1863. 
Pop.  291,725. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA,  a seaport  town 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  Island  of 
Cuba.  It  is  the  oldest  town  of  the  island 
(having  been  founded  in  1514),  is  the 
see  of  an  archbishop,  has  a fine  cathedral 
several  other  churches,  and  a harbor, 
which,  though  difficult  of  access,  is 
spacious  and  deep.  Its  trade  is  con- 
siderable. Pop.  43,090. 

SANTIAGO  DEL  ESTE'RO,  a town  of 
the  Argentine  republic,  in  the  province 
of  same  name,  in  a fertile  district  on  the 
Rio  Dulce.  Pop.  10,000. — The  province 
has  an  area  of  31,500  sq.  miles,  and  is 
well  suited  for  cattle-rearing  and  agri- 
culture. Pop.  160,000. 

SANTOS,  a city  and  seaport  of  Brazil, 
in  the  state  and  50  miles  s.s.e.  of  Sao- 
Paulo,  on  the  South  Atlantic,  in  an  un- 
healthy locality.  The  harbor  is  the  best 
in  the  state,  and  the  chief  outlet  for  its 

Eroducts,  which  are  coffee,  sugar,  to- 
acco,  hides,  etc.  Pop.  50,000. 

SAONE,  Haute  (6t  son,  Upper  Saone), 
a department  in  the  east  of  France; 
area,  2028  sq.  miles.  Verone  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  290,954. 

SAONE-ET-LOIRE  (s6n-6-lwar),  a de- 
partment of  E.  France;  area,  3270  sq. 
miles.  Micon  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
625,885. 

SAO  PAULO  (sa-un-pa'u-l6),  a mari- 
time state  of  Brazil,  between  the  two 
states  of  Minas-Geraes  and  Parang;  area, 
112,940  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,386,242,  in- 
cluding 300,000  Italian  colonists  and 
20,000  Germans. — Sao-Paulo,  the  capi- 
tal is  the  center  of  the  provincial  rail- 
ways, 86  miles  from  its  seaport  Santos, 
and  143  miles  from  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
The  principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral, 
several  monasteries  and  convents,  the 
governor’s  and  the  bishop’s  palace,  the 
townhouse,  etc.  Pop.  65,000. 

SAP,  in  military  affairs,  a narrow 
ditch  or  trench  by  which  approach  is 
made  to  a fortress  or  besieged  place 
when  within  range  of  fire.  It  runs  in  a 
zigzag,  serpentine,  or  similar  direction, 
so  as  not  to  be  enfiladed  by  the  fire  of 
the  fortress.  The  trench  is  formed  by 
trained  men  (sappers),  who  place  gab- 
ions as  a cover,  filled  with  the  earth 
taken  from  trench  along  the  intended 
line  of  parapet;  the  earth  excavated, 
after  the  gabions  have  been  filled,  being 
thrown  up  to  form  a parapet  capable  of 
resisting  artillery.  The  single  sap  has  only 
a single  parapet;  the  double  has  one  on 
each  side.  Sometimes  the  sap  is  entirely 
covered  in.  The  digging  of  a sap  is 
generally  a dangerous  operation.  In  the 
accompanying  figure  a is  a double  sap 
on  the  serpentine  plan;  b,  section  of 
single  sap,  showing  portion  of  gabions; 
c,  section  of  covered  sap;  d,  sap  on 
rectangular  plan. 

SAP,  the  juice  or  fluid  which  circulates 
in  all  plants,  being  as  indispensable  to 
vegetable  life  as  the  blood  to  animal 


life.  It  is  the  first  product  of  the  diges- 
tion of  plant  food,  and  contains  the 
elements  of  vegetable  growth  in  a dis- 
solved condition.  The  absorption  of 
nutriment  from  the  soil  is  effected  by 
the  minute  root-hairs  and  papillae,  the 
absorbed  nutriment  being  mainly  com- 
posed of  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogenous 
compounds  dissolved  in  water.  This 


Sap,  as  variously  constructed. 


ascending,  or  as  it  is  termed  crude  sap, 
is  apparently  transmitted  through  the 
long  cells  in  the  vascular  tissue  of  the 
stem  and  branches  to  the  leaves,  pass- 
ing from  cell  to  cell  by  the  process  known 
as  endosmose. 

SAPAJOU  (sap'a-jo),  the  name  gen- 
erally given  to  a group  of  South  Ameri- 
can prehensile-tailed  monkeys,  includ- 
ing fifteen  or  sixteen  species,  whose 
characteristics  it  is  exceedingly  difficult 
properly  to  define.  Among  the  species 
may  be  named  the  horned  sapajou  (also 


Capucin  sapajou. 


called  horned  capucin) ; and  the  capucin. 
One  of  the  most  common  species  is  the 
weeper.  They  are  small  in  size,  playful 
in  disposition,  leading  a gregarious  life, 
and  feeding  chiefly  on  fruits  and  insects. 

SAPPHIRE  (saf'ir),  a precious  stone, 
next  in  hardness  and  value  to  the  dia- 
mond, belonging  to  the  corundum  class. 
Sapphires  are  found  in  various  places,  as 
Burmah,  India,  and  Ceylon,  in  Asia; 
and  Bohemia  and  Silesia,  in  Europe. 
The  sapphire  proper  is  a beautiful  trans- 
parent stone  of  various  shades  of  blue 
color. 


SAPPHO 


SARDANAPALUS 


SAPPHO  (saf'6),  a distinguished  Greek 
poetess,  born  at  Mitylene,  on  the  island 
of  Lesbos,  and  flourished  about  600  b.c. 
Little  is  known  regarding  her  life, 
though  she  is  made  the  subject  of 
various  legends.  Of  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  common  story  of  her  love  for 
Phaon,  which,  being  unrequited,  caused 
her  to  leap  down  from  the  Leucadian 
rock.  At  Mitylene  Sappho  appears  to 
have  been  the  center  of  a female  coterie, 
most  of  the  members  of  which  were  her 
pupils  in  poetry,  fashion,  and  gallantry. 
Her  odes,  elegies,  epigrams,  of  which 
only  fragments  have  come  down  to  us, 
display  deep  feeling  and  imagination. 
Her  reputation  among  the  ancients  al- 
most borders  on  extravagance. 

SAPSUCKER,  the  popular  American 
name  of  several  small  woodpeckers. 

SARACEN,  an  Arabian  or  other  Mus- 
sulman of  the  early  and  proselytizing 


Sapsucker. 


period;  a propagator  of  Mohammedan- 
ism in  countries  lying  to  the  west  of 
Arabia.  By  mediaeval  writers  the  term 
was  variously  employed  to  designate  the 
Arabs  generally,  the  Mohammedans  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  or  the  Arab-Berber 
races  of  Northern  Africa.  At  a later 
time  it  was  also  applied  to  any  infidel 
nation  against  which  crusades  were 
preached,  such  as  the  Turks. 

SARACENIC  ARCHITECTURE,  the 
style  adopted  by  the  followers  of  Mo- 
hamet in  building  their  mosques, 
palaces,  and  tombs.  Originally  the 
Arabs  possessed  no  distinctive  archi- 
tectural style,  and  the  style  which  they 
at  length  made  their  own  was  developed 
by  architects  belonging  to  the  countries 
which  they  had  conquered.  This  style 
is  chiefly  represented  in  Egypt,  Persia, 
Spain,  Turkey,  and  India,  but  the  Sara- 
cenic architecture  of  Spain  is  generally 
calledby  the  distinctive  name  of  Moorish. 
The  most  prominent  features  of  the 
style  are  the  dome,  the  minaret,  and  the 
pointed  arch.  The  Saracenic  domes  rise 
from  a square  base,  are  graceful  in  form, 
sometimes  in  groups  of  three  or  more, 
and  frequently  enriched  externally  with 
colored  tiles  or  other  decorations.  The 
minarets  are  slender  towers  of  consider- 
able height,  rising  in  stages  or  stories, 
each  with  a balcony,  and  are  most  fre- 
quently octagonal,  sometimes  cylindri- 
cal, rising,  however,  from  a square  base. 
The  arch  is  of  the  pointed  variety,  this 
form  of  arch  having  been  used  by  the 
Arabs  in  Egypt  before  the  rise  of  the 


Gothic  in  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  of  the 
horse-shoe  form.  The  use  of  clustdred 
pendentives  (honey-comb  work)  to  form 
a transition  from  the  quadrangular  area 
under  a dome  to  the  arch  of  the  dome 
itself  is  very  peculiar  and  common.  Ex- 


Saracenic  architecture. 

Mosque  of  Kald  Bey,  Cairo. 

ternally  the  tops  of  walls  are  often 
finished  off  with  an  upright  cresting, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  an  ornament 
taking  the  place  of  a cornice.  Flat  sur- 
faces are  freely  ornamented  with  a pro- 
fusion of  scroll-work  and  conventional 
foliage,  often  in  intricate  and  beautiful 
design.  Stucco  is  much  used  in  orna- 
mentation. 

SARAGOSSA,  or  ZARAGOZA,  a city  of 
Spain,  in  Aragon,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  as  well  as  of  the  an- 
cient kingdom  of  Aragon,  about  20 
miles  n.e.  of  Madrid  by  rail  in  a fertile 
plain  irrigated  by  the  Ebro.  Pop.  98,188. 

SARATO'GA  SPRINGS,  a town  in  the 
state  of  New  York,  about  35  miles  north 
of  Albany,  and  186  miles  north  of  New 
York  City  by  rail.  It  owes  its  prosperity 
to  its  mineral -springs,  which  have  made 
it  the  most  fashionable  watering-place 
in  the  United  States.  The  springs  are 
characterized  by  their  saline  and  chalyb- 
eate ingredients,  combined  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  It  has  numerous  large 
and  handsome  hotels,  several  churches, 
etc.,  and  during  the  season  has  an  influx 
of  about  35,000  visitors.  Ordinary  pop- 
ulation about  14,000. 

SARA'TOV,  a city  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  same  name,  is  built 
on  broken  and  undulating  ground  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Volga,  459  miles  south- 
east of  Moscow,  and  surrounded  by  gar- 
dens. Pop.  137,109. — The  government 
has  an  area  of  32,613  sq.  miles.  The 
principal  exports  are  corn,  hemp,  flax, 
tobacco,  hops,  and  madder.  Pop. 
2,419,884. 


SARA'WAK,  a rajahship  in  the  island 
of  Borneo,  under  British  protection.  It 
is  situated  on  the  west  and  northwest 
side  of  the  island,  and  has  a coast-line 
of  about  400  miles,  while  it  extends  in- 
land for  more  than  100  miles;  area  about 
50,000  sq.  miles.  The  more  important 
vegetable  productions  are  cocoa-nuts, 
rice,  and  sago.  The  minerals  include 
gold,  antimony,  and  quicksilver,  and 
diamonds  are  also  found.  The  original 
inhabitants  are  Dyaks,  but  are  now  very 
much  intermixed  with  Malays  and 
Chinese.  The  rajahship  was  conferred 
upon  Sir  James  Brooke  by  the  Sultan  of 
Borneo  in  1841  in  return  for  distin- 
guished services  in  quelling  disturb- 
ances and  restoring  order,  and  when  he 
died  in  1868  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
nephew.  Capital,  Kuching.  Pop. 
300,000. 

SARCOPH'AGUS,  a coffin  or  tomb  of 
stone;  a kind  of  stone  chest,  generally 
more  or  less  ornamented,  for  receiving 


Egyptian  sarcophagus— Third  pyramid. 

a dead  body.  The  oldest  known  sarcoph- 
agi are  Egyptian,  and  have  been  found 
in  certain  of  the  pyramids.  Two  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  these  are  the  great 
saracophagus  taken  by  the  British  in 
Egypt  in  1801,  now  in  the  British 
museum,  and  the  alabaster  sarcophagus 
in  the  Sloane  museum,  London.  Sar- 
cophagi were  also  used  by  the  Phceni- 


Roman  sarcophagus— Tomb  of  Sclplos. 


cians,  Persians,  and  Romans;  and  in 
modern  times  stone  coffins  have  not 
been  uncommon  for  royalty  and  persons 
of  high  rank. 

SARD,  a variety  of  chalcedony,  which 
displays  on  its  surface  a rich  reddish 
brown,  but  when  held  between  the  eye 
and  the  light  appears  of  a deep  blood- 
red  carnelian. 

SARDANAPA'LUS,  the  name  in  Greek 
of  several  kings  of  Assyria,  one  of  whom 
is  said  to  have  been  the  last  king  of 
Assyria.  He  is  represented  by  Ctesias  as 
a very  effeminate  prince,  wholly  given  to 
sensual  indulgence  and  inactivity,  and 
it  is  related  that  Arbaces,  a Median 
satrap,  in  conjunction  with  Belesis,  a 
Babylonian  priest,  raised  an  army  of 
Medes  against  him  about  785  b.c.  This 
army,  attacking  his  camp  by  night, 
gained  a great  victory,  and  pursued  the 
fugitives  to  the  gates  of  Nineveh.  Here 
Sardanapalus  defended  himself  for  two 
years,  but  ultimately  set  his  palace  on 


SARDINE 


SASSAFRAS 


fire  and  perished  in  the  conflagration 
with  all  his  wives  and  attendants. 

SARDINE,  a small  fish,  now  generally 
regarded  as  identical  with  the  pilchard, 
abundant  in  the  Mediterranean  and  also 
on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal.  It  is  much  esteemed  for 
its  flavor,  and  large  quantities  are  pre- 
served by  being  salted  and  partly  dried. 


Californian  sardine. 

then  scalded  in  hot  olive-oil,  and  finally 
hermetically  sealed  in  tin  boxes  with 
hot  salted  oil,  or  oil  and  butter. 

SARDIN'IA,  an  island  in  the  western 
half  of  the  Mediterranean,  forming  part 
of  the  Italian  kingdom  and  separated 
from  the  island  of  Corsica  by  the  strait 
of  Bonifacio,  not  quite  7 miles  wide; 
length,  152 miles;  central  breadth,  about 
66  miles;  area,  9350  sq,  miles.  The  coast 
is  in  great  part  rugged  and  precipitous, 
and  though  the  island  is  nearly  in  the 
form  of  a parallelogram  there  are  some 
important  indentations,  such  as  the 
Gulf  of  Asinara  in  the  northwest,  the 
Bay  of  Oristano  in  the  west,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Cagliari,  in  the  southeast, 
on  which  Cagliari,  the  capital  of  the 
island,  is  situated.  The  interior  is 
generally  mountainous;  the  chain  which 
traverses  Sardinia  sends  out  branches 
east  and  west,  and  culminates  in  Brunca, 
6291  feet,  and  Gennargentu,  6132  feet. 
The  rearing  of  live  stock  forms  an  im- 
portant industry.  Game  of  all  kinds  is 
very  abundant.  Wild  boars,  stags,  deer, 
and  mufflons  frequent  the  woods  and 
forests.  The  most  valuable  fishery  is 
that  of  the  tunny.  For  administrative 
purposes  Sardinia  is  divided  into  the 
two  provinces  of  Cagliari  and  Sassari. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  Italian  race,  with 
a mixture  of  Spanish,  and  are  char- 
acterized by  a chivalric  sense  of  honor 
and  hospitality,  but  the  family  feud 
or  vendetta  still  exists.  See  next  article. 
Pop.  789,314. 

SARDINIA,  KINGDOM  OF,  a former 
kingdom,  of  the  south  of  Europe,  com- 
posed of  the  Island  of  Sardinia,  the 
Duchy  of  Savoy,  the  Principality  of 
Piedmont,  the  county  of  Nice,  the  Duchy 
of  Genoa,  and  parts  of  the  Duchies  of 
Montferrat  and  Milan;  28,229  sq.  miles- 
pop.  (1858),  5,194,807.  In  1720  Victor 
Amadeus  II.,  duke  of  Savoy,  on  receiv- 
ing the  island  of  Sardinia  in  exchange 
for  Sicily,  took  the  title  of  King  of 
Sardinia.  He  was  succeeded  by  Charles 
Emmanuel  III.,  Victor  Amadeus  III., 
and  Charles  Emmanuel  IV.,  who  in 
1802  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  brother 
Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  the  royal  family 
having  by  this  time,  during  the  domina- 
tion of  Napoleon,  taken  refuge  on  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  In  1814  the  king 
returned  to  Turin,  where  the  seat  of 
government  was  established.  An  in- 
surrection occasioned  his  abdication  in 
1821  in  favor  of  Charles  Felix,  who,  after 
a reign  of  ten  years,  was  succeeded  by 
Charles  Albert.  In  1848  he  headed  the 
league  which  endeavored  to  drive  the 

P.  E.— 70 


Austrians  from  Italy.  The  defeat  of  the 
Sardinian  forces  at  Novara  (1849)  by 
Radetsky,  however,  caused  him  to  ab- 
dicate in  favor  of  his  son  Victor  Em- 
manuel II.  The  position  of  Sardinia  was 
strengthened  by  the  part  which  it  played 
(1854)  in  the  Crimean  war,  while  in  1859 
the  co-operation  of  France  was  secured 
in  a war  against  Austria.  The  brief  cam- 
paign which  followed  ended  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Austrians  at  Magenta  and  Sol- 
ferino,  and  led  to  Sardinia  receiving  a 
large  increase  of  territory,  though  she 
had  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France. 
Soon  after  this  the  Sardinian  Kingdom 
was  merged  in  a united  Italian  Kingdom 
under  Victor  Emmanuel.  See  Italy. 

SARD'ONYX,  a precious  stone,  a beau- 
tiful and  rare  variety  of  onyx,  consisting 
of  alternate  layers  of  sard  and  white 
chalcedony.  The  name  has  sometimes 
been  applied  to  a reddish-yellow  or 
nearly  orange  variety  of  chalcedonic 
quartz  resembling  carnelian,  and  also 
to  carnelians  whose  colors  are  in  alter- 
nate bands  of  red  and  white. 

SARDOU,  Victorien,  French  drama- 
tist, born  at  Paris  in  1831  He  was  suc- 
cessful with  two  playswhich  he  wrote  for 
D4jazet  called  M.  Garat  (1860)  and  Les 
Pr6s-Saint-Gervais  (1862).  His  better- 
known  works,  many  of  which  have  been 
produced  on  the  English  stage,  are  Les 
Pattes  de  Mocuhe,  Nos  Intimes,  La 
Patrie,  Daniel  Rochat,  Thermidor,  and 
Madame  Sans-gene.  Some  of  his  suc- 
cesses have  been  associated  with  Madam 
Bernhardt.  He  wrote  Fedora,  Theo- 
dora, and  La  Tosca.  He  died  in  1908. 

SARGENT,  Epes,  an  American  poet, 
and  dramatist,  was  born  at  Gloucester, 
Mass.,  in  1813;  died  at  Boston  in  1880. 
He  was  the  author  of  that  well-known 
lyric,  A Life  on  the  Ocean  Wave. 

SARGENT,  John  Singer,  American 
portrait  and  figure  painter,  was  born  in 
Florence,  Italy,  in  1856.  His  first  ex- 
hibited pictures  were  “En  route  pour  la 

Eeche,”  a group  of  fisher  girls  upon  the 
each,  and  “Neapolitan  Children  Bath- 
ing.” He  has  received  the  highest  medals 
and  honors,  including  the  Grand  Prix 
at  the  Paris  expositions  of  1889  and 
1900,  and  in  1889  he  was  made  chevalier, 
and  in  1895  officer  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  Among  the  best  known  of  his 
portraits  are  those  of  Carolus  Duran 
and  Dr.  Pozzi,  Edwin  Booth,  Lawrence 
Barrett,  and  Joseph  Jefferson.  He  ex- 
hibited nine  works  at  the  Columbian 
exposition  (1893),  among  which  were 
Ellen  Terry  as  Lady  Macbeth.  In  1903 
he  visited  the  United  States  and  made 
portraits  of  President  Roosevelt,  Secre- 
tary H^  and  others. 

SARSliPARIL'LA, ' the  rhizome  of 
several  plants  of  the  genus  Smilax.  Sar- 
saparilla is  valued  in  medicine  on  ac- 
count of  its  mucilaginous  and  demulcent 
qualities. 

SARTHE  (sart),  a department  of 
Northwest  France;  area,  2395  sq.  miles. 
It  has  a diversified  surface,  presenting 
fertile  plains,  vineyards,  and  extensive 
forests.  The  capital  is  Le  Mans.  Pop. 
436,111. 

SA'SIN,  the  common  Indian  antelope, 
remarkable  for  its  swiftness  and  beauty. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  open  dry  plains  of 
India,  in  flocks  of  from  ten  to  sixtv 
females  to  a single  male.  It  is  grayish 


brown  or  black  on  the  upper  parts 
of  the  body,  with  white  abdomen  and 
breast,  and  a white  circle  round  the 


Sasln  or  Indian  antelope. 

eyes,  and  stands  about  2 feet  6 inches 
high  at  the  shoulder. 

SASBIATCH'EWAN,  a great  river  of 
Canada,  which  rises  in  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains near  Ion.  115°  w.  by  two  principal 
heads,  the  sources  of  which  are  not  far 
apart.  These  branches,  often  called  the 
North  and  South  Saskatchewan,  flow 
generally  east  to  their  junction  about 
150  miles  northwest  of  the  northwest 
angle  of  Manitoba,  whence  the  river 
takes  a curve  northeast  and  southeast, 
and,  passing  through  Cedar  lake,  empties 
itself  into  Lake  Winnipeg,  after  a course 
of  about  1300  miles,  measuring  along 
the  south  branch,  some  70  less  measuring 
along  the  north.  The  main  stream  and 
its  branches  afford  about  1000  miles  of 
navigable  waterway. 

SASKATCHEWAN,  a province  of 
Canada,  named  from  the  above  river, 
bounded  on  the  s.  by  Assiniboia,  e.  by 
Lake  Winnipeg  and  Nelson  river,  n. 
by  the  55th  parallel,  and  w.  by  Alberta, 
Area.  250,650  sq.  miles ; pop.  94,000.  Cap- 
ital, Regina;  Prince  Albert  and  Battle- 
ford  are  the  other  chief  towns,  both  be- 
ing on  the  Saskatchewan. 

SAS'SABY,  an  antelope  found  in  South 
Africa,  living  gregariously  in  herds 
numbering  from  six  to  ten  individuals. 


Sassaby. 


The  body-color  is  a reddish-brown,  the 
limbs  being  of  dark  hue,  while  a blackish 
stripe  marks  the  forehead  and  middle 
of  fsic0 

SAS'SAFRAS,  a genus  of  plants.  It  is 
a small  tree  or  bush  inhabiting  the  woods 
of  North  America  from  Canada  to 
Florida.  The  taste  of  sassafras  is  sharp, 
acrid,  aromatic^  it  is  used  for  flavoring 
purposes,  and  in  medicine  as  a stimula^ 


SASSARI 


SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE 


Srwamp-sassafras  is  the  Magnolia  glauca, 
an  American  tree. 

SAS'SARI,  a town  of  Italy,  in  Sar- 
dinia, capital  of  the  province  of  same 
name  105  miles  n.n.w.  of  Cagliari.  Pop. 
of  town,  38,178;  a province  occupying 
the  north  and  more  fertile  part  of  the 
island.  Pop.  307,314. 

SATA'RA,  a district,  in  the  Bombay 
presidency,  India;  area,  4987  sq.  miles, 
forming  part  of  the  table-land  of  the 
Deccan,  much  broken  by  ridges,  ravines, 
and  isolated  heights.  The  chief  river  is 
the  Kistna,  which  flows  southeast 
through  its  center.  Pop.  1,146,521. — 
The  capital  of  the  district  is  also  called 
Satdra,  and  is  situated  55  miles  south 
of  Poona,  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Krishna  and  the  Yena.  Pop.  26,022. 

SAT'ELLITE,  a secondary  planet,  or 
moon;  a small  planet  revolving  round  a 
larger  one.  The  earth  has  one  satellite, 
called  the  moon;  Neptune  is  also  ac- 
companied by  one;  Mars  by  two;  Uranus 
by  six;  Jupiter  by  four;  Saturn  by  eight. 
Saturn’s  rings  are  supposed  to  be  com- 
posed of  a great  multitude  of  minute 
satellites. 

SATIN,  a soft,  closely-woven  silk, 
with  a glossy  surface.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  satin  part  of  the  weft  is  left  be- 
neath the  warp,  which,  presenting  a close 
and  smooth  surface,  acquires,  after  be- 
ing passed  over  heated  cylinders,  that 
luster  which  distinguishes  it  from  other 
kinds  of  silks. 

SATINET,  a twilled  cloth  made  of 
woolen  weft  and  cotton  warp  pressed 
and  dressed  to  produce  a glossy  surface 
in  imitation  of  satin. 

SATINWOOD,  the  wood  of  a large 
tree.  It  is  a native  of  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  Circars  in  the  East  Indies. 
The  wood  is  of  a deep  yellow  color,  close- 
grained,  heavy  and  durable. 

SATIRE,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
word,  pungent  ridicule  or  cutting  cen- 
sure of  faults,  vices,  or  weaknesses.  In  a 
narrower  sense  it  is  a poem  of  which 
ridicule  and  censure  are  the  object  and 
chief  characteristic.  This  species  of 
poetry  had  its  origin  with  the  Romans, 
but  satires  may  also  take  the  forms  of 
epistles,  tales,  dialogues,  dramas  (as 
with  Aristophanes),  songs,  epics,  fables, 
etc.  The  didactic  satire  originated  with 
Lucilius  (148-103  b.c.),  and  Horace, 
Juvenal,  and  Persius  developed  it. 
Satirists  are  common  in  all  modern 
lit©r&tjT_ir6s 

SATOLLI  (sa-tol'le),  Francesco,  Ital- 
ian cardinal,  was  born  at  Perugia  in 
1831.  In  1888  Satolli  was  made  titular 
archbishop  of  Lepanto.  In  1892  Mgr. 
Satolli  was  sent  to  the  United  States  as 
papal  ablegate  with  plenary  power, 
which  was  confirmed  by  his  appoint- 
ment in  1893  as  apostolic  delegate  to 
the  American  church,  with  an  official 
residence  in  Washington.  He  was 
elevated  to  the  cardinalate  in  1895,  and 
was  re-called  and  succeeded  by  Arch- 
bishop Sebastiano  Martinelli  in  1896. 

SATRAPS,  in  the  ancient  Persian 
empire,  the  governors  of  the  provinces 
which  were  called  satrapies.  The  power 
of  the  satrap,  so  long  as  he  retained  the 
favor  of  his  sovereign,  was  absolute; 
he  levied  taxes  at  his  pleasure  and  aped 
the  capricious  tyranny  of  his  master 
unchecked. 


SATURATION.  In  meteorology  the 
air  is  said  to  be  saturated  with  aqueous 
vapor,  if,  when  the  temperature  is 
slightly  lowered,  condensation  takes 
place.  The  degree  of  saturation  at  any 
place  is  called  the  hydrometric  state. 
The  term  is  applied  in  chemistry  to  the 
union,  combination,  or  impregnation  of 
one  body  with  another  in  such  definite 
proportions  as  that  they  neutralize  each 
other,  or  till  the  receiving  body  can  con- 
tain no  more. 

SATURDAY  (A.  Sax.  Sjeterdceg,  Seet- 
erndaeg — Sater,  Saetern,  for  Saturn,  and 
dffig,  a day — the  day  presided  over  by 
the  planet  Saturn),  the  seventh  or  last 
day  of  the  week;  the  day  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath. 

SATURN,  an  ancient  Italian  deity, 
popularly  believed  to  have  made  his 
first  appearance  in  Italy  in  the  reign  of 
Janus,  instructing  the  people  in  agricul- 
ture, gardening,  etc.,  thus  elevating 
them  from  barbarism  to  social  order  and 
civilization.  He  was  consequently 
elected  to  share  the  government  with 
Janus,  and  his  reign  came  afterward  to 
be  sung  by  the  poets  as  “the  golden 
age.”  He  was  often  identified  with  the 
Cronus  of  the  Greeks.  His  temple  was 
the  state  treasury.  Ops  was  his  wife. 
He  is  often  represented  as  an  elderly 
man,  with  a sickle  and  ears  of  corn  in 
his  hand.  See  Saturnalia. 

SATURN,  one  of  the  planets  of  the 
solar  system,  less  in  magnitude  than 
Jupiter,  and  more  remote  from  the  sun. 
Its  mean  diameter  is  about  70,000  miles, 
its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  some- 
what more  than  872,000,000  miles,  and 


The  planet  Saturn. 

its  year  or  periodical  revolution  round 
the  sun  nearly  twenty-nine  years  and  a 
half.  Its  mass  is  about  90  times  that  of 
the  earth.  Saturn  is  attended  by  eight 
satellites,  and  surrounded  by  a system 
of  flat  rings,  which  are  now  supposed  to 
be  an  immense  multitude  of  small 
satellites,  mixed  probably  with  vaporous 
matter.  See  Planet. 

SATURNA'LIA,  a festival  held  by  the 
Romans  in  honor  of  Saturn,  and  during 
which  the  citizens  with  their  slaves  gave 
themselves  up  to  unrestrained  freedom 
and  mirth.  It  contained  at  first  one  day; 
then  three;  afterward  five;  and  finally 
under  the  Csesars,  seven  days,  namely, 
from  the  17th  to  the  23d  of  December. 
During  its  continuance  no  public  busi- 
ness could  be  transacted,  the  law  courts 
were  closed,  the  schools  kept  holiday, 
and  slaves  were  freed  from  restraint. 
Masters  and  slaves  even  changed  places, 
so  that  while  the  servants  sat  at  table, 
they  were  waited  on  by  their  masters 
and  their  guests.  In  the  last  days  of  the 


festival  presents  were  sent  by  one  friend 
to  another 

SATYRS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a class 
of  woodland  divinities,  in  later  times, 
inseparably  connected  with  the  worship 
of  Dionysus  (Bacchus).  The  satyrs 
appear  in  works  of  art  as  half-man  and 
half-goat,  having  horns  on  the  head,  and 
a hairy  body  with  the  feet  and  tail  of  a 


goat.  They  are  described  as  being  fond 
of  wine  and  of  every  kind  of  sensual 
gratification.  One  of  the  most  famous 
specimens  of  Greek  art  is  the  Satyr  (or 
Faun)  of  Praxiteles. 

SAUERKRAUT  (zou'er-krout),  a fa- 
vorite German  dish,  consisting  of  cab- 
bage cut  fine,  pressed  into  a cask,  with 
alternate  layers  of  salt,  and  suffered  to 
ferment  till  it  becomes  sour. 

SAUL,  king  of  Israel,  from  about  1095 
to  1056  B.C.,  and  the  son  of  Kish,  a 
Benjamite.  Selected  for  this  office  by 
Samuel,  he  obtained,  by  his  personal 
courage  and  military  capacity,  several 
successes  over  the  Philistines,  Edomites, 
Moabites,  and  Ammonites  by  means  of 
which  he  consolidated  the  tribes  and 
confirmed  his  authority.  After  a long 
reign  the  wild  nature  of  the  king  at 
length  showed  itself  in  a kind  of  religious 
frenzy.  This  frenzy,  which  is  briefly  de- 
scribed in  the  Bible  as  an  “evil  spirit  of 
God,”  led  him  to  the  massacre  of  the 
priests  of  Nob  and  various  similar  ex- 
cesses Meanwhile  the  prophet  Samuel, 
estranged  by  the  king’s  misdeeds,  had 
anointed  David  as  his  successor,  and 
this  took  effect  when  Saul  was  slain  by 
his  own  sword  in  a battle  with  the  Phil- 
istines on  Mount  Bilboa. 

SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE  (s6o  sant 
ma're),  the  county  seat  of  Chippewa  co., 
Mich.,  350  miles  west  northwest  of  De- 
troit; on  the  Saint  Mary’s  river,  and  on 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  the  Duluth,  South 
Shore  and  Atlantic,  and  the  Minneapolis, 
Saint  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  rail- 
roads. The  ship  canal  here,  connecting 
Lakes  Superior  and  Huron,  is  noted  for 
its  extensive  freight  traffic.  The  water 
power  afforded  by  the  rapids  near  the 
city  generates  electrical  energy  equiva- 
lent to  100,000  horse  power.  There  are 
lumber  mills,  paper  mills,  a carbide 
manufactory,  dredging  machinery  works 


SAURIA 


SAW-FLIES 


flour  and  woolen  mills,  and  fish-packing 
establishments.  Pop.  12,172. 

SAU'RIA,  the  term  by  which  the  great 
order  of  lizards  is  sometimes  designated, 
including  not  only  the  existing  lizards, 
crocodiles,  monitors,  iguanas,  chame- 
leons, etc.,  but  also  those  fossil  reptiles 
the  ichthyosaurus,  plesiosaurus,  iguano- 
don,  pterodactyl,  etc. 

SAUROID  FISHES,  fishes,  chiefly 
fossil,  that  combine  in  their  structure 
certain  characters  of  reptiles.  The  exist- 
ing sauroid  fishes  consist  of  several 
species,  the  best  known  being  the  bony 
pikes  and  sturgeons. 

SAUTERNE,  a white  Bordeaux  wine 
of  high  repute,  produced  from  grapes 
grown  in  the  neigliborhood  of  Sauternes, 
a village  in  the  department  of  Gironde, 
s.e.  of  Bordeaux. 

SAVAN'NA,  Savannah,  an  extensive 
open  plain  or  meadow  in  a tropical 
region,  yielding  pasturage  in  the  wet 
season,  and  often  having  a growth  of 
undershrubs.  The  word  is  chiefly  used 
in  tropical  America. 

SAVAN'NAH,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  which  forms  the  northeast  boun- 
dary of  Georgia,  and  separates  it  from 
South  Carolina.  It  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Tugaloo  and  Keowee, 
100  miles  by  the  course  of  the  river 
above  Augusta,  and  is  navigable  for 
vessels  drawing  over  18  feet  to  the  city 
of  Savannah,  18  miles  from  the  sea. 

SAVANNAH,  the  capital  of  Chatham 
CO.,  Georgia,  on  the  south  bank  of 
Savannah  river,  18  miles  from  the  sea 
(by  river).  It  is  built  on  a fiat  sandy 
bluff  40  feet  high,  and  is  beautifully  laid 
out  with  wide  streets  and  many  squares, 
most  of  which  are  adorned  by  magnolias, 
live-oaks,  and  other  stately  trees.  It 
has  a well-wooded  park,  several  good 
monuments,  handsome  cotton  exchange, 
court-house,  and  other  public  buildings. 
It  is  the  second  cotton  port  in  the  United 
States,  and  exports  also  quantities  of 
timber,  turpentine,  rosin,  etc.,  besides 
fruits  and  early  vegetables  coastwise. 
From  evaporation  of  the  surrounding 
waters  the  atmosphere  during  summer 
is  very  humid.  Pop.  1909,  80,000. 

SAV'ARY,  Anne  Jean  Marie  Rene, 
Duke  of  Rovigo,  French  general,  born 
1774;  died  1833.  When  the  emperor  re- 
turned from  Elba  he  was  joined  by 
Savary,  who,  after  the  defeat  at  Water- 
loo, desired  to  share  his  imprisonment  in 
St.  Helena.  He  was  afterward  employed 
by  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe  as 
commander-in-chief  in  Algeria. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  the  first  savings 
bank  established  in  Europe  is  said  to 
have  been  at  Brumath,  France,  in  1765. 
The  first  German  savings  bank  was 
established  at  Hamburg  in  1778.  The 
first  English  bank  was  established  in 
1799.  Post  office  savings  banks  were 
established  in  England  in  1861.  In  the 
United  States  the  Philadelphia  Saving 
Fund  Society  was  founded  in  1816,  and 
received  a charter  in  1819;  and  between 
1817  and  1846  twelve  states  had  granted 
such  charters  to  savings  banks  within 
their  bounds,  especially  the  New  Eng- 
land states;  fifty  years  later  there  were 
684  banks  in  the  United  States.  School 
savings  banks  have  been  largely  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  Its  useful- 
ness, however,  is  still  problematical. 


Most  of  the  states  have  endeavored, 
ineffectually,  to  prevent  the  savings 
banks  from  becoming  rivals  to  other 
banks,  so  as  to  reserve  their  privileges 
for  the  poorer  classes.  The  following 
table  shows  the  progress  of  savings 
banks  in  the  United  States: 

SAVINGS  BANKS.  DEPOSITORS,  AND  DEPOSITS  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES  EVERT  TEN  YEARS 
FROM  1830  TO  1890  AND  ANNUALLY 
SINCE  1895. 


Year 

Number  of 
Banks 

Number  of 
Depositors 

Deposits 

1830 

36 

38,085 

$ 6,973,304 

1840 

61 

78,701 

14,051,520 

1850 

108 

251,354 

43,431,130 

1860 

278 

693.870 

149,277,504 

1870 

517 

1,630,846 

549,874,358 

1880 

629 

3,335,583 

819,106,973 

1890 

931 

4,258,893 

1,534,844,506 

1895 

1,017 

4,875,519 

1,810,597,023 

1896 

988 

5,065,494 

1,907,156,377 

1897 

980 

5,301,132 

1,939,376,035 

1898 

979 

5,385,746 

2,065,631,298 

1899 

943 

5,687,818 

2,230,366,954 

1900 

1,003 

6,107,083 

2,449,547,885 

1901 

1,007 

6,358,723 

3,597,094,580 

1903 

1,036 

6,666,672 

2,750,177,290 

1903 

1,078 

7,035,228 

2,935,204,845 

1904 

1,157 

7,305,443 

3,060,178,611 

1905 

1,237 

7,696,339 

3,261,236,119 

1906 

1,319 

8.027,192 

3,482,137,198 

1907 

1,415 

8,588,811 

3,690,078,945 

The  above  table  was  compiled  from  the  re- 
port of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency. 


SAVONARO'LA,  Girolamo,  Italian 
ecclesiastical  reformer,  born  at  Ferrara 
1452.  Educated  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, he  yet  secretly  entered  the  order 
of  Dominicans  at  Bologna  in  1475.  In 
1482  he  was  sent  to  St.  Mark’s  convent 
at  Florence,  and  began  to  preach  there, 
but  with  little  success.  He  retired  into 
Lombardy,  and  there  his  increasing 
fame  as  a preacher  and  theologian  in- 
duced Lorenzo  de’  Medici  to  invite  him 
(1490)  to  return  to  Florence.  And  now 
his  discourses  attracted  such  crowds  that 
the  church  could  not  contain  them  the 
great  theme  of  his  eloquence  being  the 
corruptions  in  church  and  state,  and  the 


general  iniquity  of  the  times.  In  1491 
he  was  elected  prior  of  St.  Mark’s.  At 
this  time  Italy  enjoyed  profound  peace, 
but  Savonarola  startled  his  hearers  by 
foretelling  the  advent  of  foreign  enemies 
bringing  desolation;  and  this  prediction 
was  considered  by  the  people  to  have 
been  fulfilled  when  Charles  VIII.  of 
France  in  1494  invaded  Italy.  Further, 
this  Dominican  preacher  of  St.  Mark’s 
claimed  to  be  a special  messenger  from 
God,  to  be  the  recipient  of  divine  revela- 
tions, to  see  visions,  and  to  have  the 
gift  of  prophecy.  He  foretold  the  death 


of  the  pope,  the  king  of  Naples,  and  his 
patron  Lorenzo.  When  the  latter  was  on 
his  deathbed  (1492)  Savonarola  refused 
to  grant  him  absolution  unless  under 
conditions  which  the  prince  refused. 
After  the  death  of  Lorenzo  and  the  ex- 
pulsion of  his  son  Piero,  Savonarola  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  those  who  de- 
manded a more  democratical  form  of 
government;  and  such  was  now  his 
commanding  influence  in  Florence  that 
he  organized  the  distracted  city  into  a 
form  of  republic,  with  two  councils  and 
a governing  signory.  But  in  his  zeal, 
not  content  with  revolutionizing  Flor- 
ence, he  meditated  the  refonn  of  the 
Roman  court  and  of  the  irregularities  of 
the  clergy.  To  this  end  he  wrote  to  the 
Christian  princes,  declaring  that  the 
church  was  corrupt,  and  that  it  was  their 
duty  to  convoke  a general  council. 
Alarmed  at  this,  Alexander  VI.,  who 
was  then  pope,  excommunicated  him  in 
1497,  and  the  bull  was  read  in  the  cathe- 
dral at  Florence.  But  besides  the  papal 
and  political  influences  which  were  now 
arrayed  against  Savonarola,  his  innova- 
tions in  St.  Mark’s  and  other  monasteries 
had  excited  the  emnity  of  the  monks, 
especially  the  Franciscans.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances Francesco  di  Puglia,  a Fran- 
ciscan friar,  challenged  Savonarola  to 
test  the  truth  of  his  divine  pretensions 
by  passing  with  him  through  the  ordeal 
of  fire.  This  Savonarola  declined;  scenes 
of  tumult  and  riot  arose;  St.  Mark’s  was 
stormed  by  an  infuriated  mob  and 
Savonarola  cast  into  prison.  As  the 
result  of  the  mock  trial  with  torture 
which  followed  in  1498,  Savonarola, 
with  two  of  his  companions,  was  stran- 
gled and  then  burned.  His  writings 
consist  of  some  theological  works,  a 
treatise  on  the  Government  of  Florence, 
and  numerous  sermons. 

SAVOY,  Duchy  of,  formerly  a division 
of  the  Sardinian  kingdom,  now  forming 
two  of  the  departments  of  France; 
bounded  on  the  north  and  northeast  by 
Switzerland,  on  the  east  and  southeast 
by  Piedmont,  and  on  the  south  and  west 
by  the  French  departments  of  Isere  and 
Ain.  By  treaty  (1860)  Savoy  was  ceded 
by  Sardinia  to  France  (see  Sardinia, 
Kingdom  of),  of  which  it  now  forms  two 
departments,  Savoie,  area  1769  sq.  miles 
pop.  267,428,  and  Haute  Savoie,  area 
1314  sq.  miles,  pop.  275,018.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  former  is  Chamb4ry,  of  the 
latter  Annecy. 

SAWANTWA'RI,  a native  state  in  the 
Bombay  preidency,  situated  about  200 
miles  south  of  Bombay,  bounded  north 
and  west  by  the  British  district  of 
Ratnigiri,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Por- 
tuguese territory  of  Goa;  area,  900  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  (mostly  Hindu),  217,800. 

SAWFISH,  a fish  nearly  related  on 
the  one  hand  to  the  sharks,  and  on  the 
other  to  the  rays.  It  attains  a length  of 
from  12  to  18  feet,  has  a long  beak  or 
snout,  with  spines  projecting  like  teeth 
on  both  edges,  armed  with  which  it  is 
very  destructive  to  shoals  of  small  fishes, 
and  is  said  to  attack  and  inflict  severe 
and  even  mortal  injuries  on  the  large 
cetaceans  or  whales. 

SAWFLIES,  a group  of  insects  be- 
longing to  the  order  Hymenoptera,  and 
distinguished  by  the  peculiar  conforma- 
tion of  the  ovipositor  of  the  females. 


SAWS 


SAXON  ARCHITECTURE 


which  is  composed  of  two  broad  plates 
with  serrated  or  toothed  edges,  by 
means  of  which  they  incise  the  stems 


Saw-fly. 

a,  Turnip  saw-fly.  b.  Ovipositor  of  saw-fly 
magnifled  to  show  the  saw. 

and  leaves  of  plants,  and  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  slits  thus  formed.  The  turnip- 
fly  and  the  gooseberry  fly  are  examples. 

SAWS  are  instruments  with  a dentated 
or  toothed  edge  employed  to  cut  wood, 
stone,  ivory,  or  other  solid  substance, 
and  are  either  straight  or  circular.  In 
form  and  size  they  vary  from  the  minute 
surgmal  or  dental  tool  to  the  large  in- 
strument used  in  sawmills.  The  eross- 
cut  saw,  for  cutting  logs  transversely,  is 
a large  straight  saw  wrought  by  two 
persons,  one  at  each  end.  The  ripping 
saw,  half-ripper,  hand-saw,  and  panel 
saw  are  saws  for  the  use  of  one  person, 
the  blades  tapering  in  length  from  the 
handle.  Tenon  saws,  sash  saws,  dove- 
tail saws,  etc.,  are  saws  made  of  very 
thin  blades  of  steel  stiffened  with  stout 
pieces  of  brass,  iron,  or  steel  fixed  on 
their  back  edges.  They  are  used  for 
forming  the  shoulders  of  tenons,  dove- 
tail joints,  etc.,  and  for  many  other  pur- 
poses for  which  a neat  clean  eut  is  re- 
quired. Compass  and  keyhole  saws  are 
long  narrow  saws,  tapering  from  about 
1 inch  to  i inch  in  width,  and  used  for 
making  curved  cuts.  Machine  saws  are 
comprehended  under  three  different 
classes — circular,  reciprocating,  and 
band  saws.  The  circular  saw  is  a disc  of 
steel  with  saw  teeth  upon  its  periphery. 
It  is  made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity 
and  force,  while  the  log  is  pushed 
forward  against  it  by  means  of  a travel- 
ing platform.  The  reciprocating  saw 
works  like  a two-handled  hand  saw,  be- 
ing driven  upward  and  downward  and 
the  wood  carried  forward  against  its 
teeth.  The  band  saw  or  ribbon  saw  con- 
sists of  a thin  endless  saw  placed  like  a 
belt  over  two  wheels,  and  strained  on 
them.  The  ribbon  passes  down  through 
a flat  sawing  table,  upon  which  the 
material  to  be  cut  is  laid.  Saws  for  cut- 
ting stone  are  without  teeth.  The  saw- 
ing of  timber  is  an  important  industry 
in  some  countries,  especially  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  where  immense 
quantities  of  lumber  are  produced. 
Water  power  is  often  employed  to  drive 
the  machinery  of  the  sawmills,  but 
Bteam  is  equally  common. 

SAXE  (saks),  Herman  Maurice,  Comte 
de.  Marshal  of  France,  natural  son  of 
Augustus  II.,  king  of  Poland,  by  Aurora, 
countess  of  Konigsmark,  born  at  Dres- 
den 1696,  died  1750.  In  1747  he  was 
victorious  at  Laufeldt,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  took  Maestricht,  soon  after 
which  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was 


concluded.  He  wrote  a treatise  entitled 
Mes  Reveries,  on  the  art  of  war. 

SAXE,  John  Godfrey,  American  lit- 
terateur, born  1816,  died  1 887.  His  poems 
include  Progress,  a Satirical  Poem 
(1846);  Humorous  and  Satirical  Poems 
(1850);  Money  King  (1859);  Flying 
Dutchman  (1862);  Clever  Stories  of 
Many  Nations  (1865);  The  Masquerade 
(1866);  Fables  and  Legends  (1872);  and 
Leisure  Day  Rhymes  (1875). 

SAXE-ALTENBURG,  an  independent 
duchy  in  Thuringia,  forming  one  of  the 
states  in  the  German  empire,  is  divided 
into  two  nearly  equal  portions  by  a part 
of  Reuss,  and  is  bounded  on  the  s.w.  by 
the  grand  duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar-Eis- 
enach,  on  the  n.  by  Prussia,  and  on 
the  e.  by  Saxony;  area,  510  sq.  miles. 
The  capital  is  Altenburg.  Pop.  194,914. 

SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA,  a duchy  of 
Central  Germany,  one  of  the  states  of 
the  German  empire,  comprising  the 
province  of  Gotha,  lying  between  Prus- 
sia, Schwarzburg,  Meiningen,  and  Wei- 
mar; and  the  province  of  Coburg,  lying 
between  Meiningen  and  Bavaria;  Co- 
burg 218  sq.  miles,  and  Gotha  542  sq. 
miles.  The  government  is  a constitu- 
tional monarchy,  and  each  province  has 
its  own  elective  assembly,  while  the 
duchy  sends  one  member  to  the  Bundes- 
rath  and  two  to  the  Reischstag  of  the 
German  empire.  For  affairs  common  to 
both  divisions  the  assemblies  meet  eon- 
jointly  at  Coburg  and  at  Gotha  alter- 
nately. The  ducal  house  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  population  are  Lutherans. 
Albert  Prinee  Consort  of  England,  was 
a brother  of  Duke  Ernest  II.,  who  was 
succeeded  in  the  dukedom  by  the  late 
Duke  of  Edinburgh,  and  he  in  1900  by 
Leopold,  son  of  the  late  IJuke  of  Albany. 
Pop.,  Coburg,  66,814;  Gotha,  162,736; 
total,  229,550. 

SAXE-MEININGEN,  a duchy  of  Cen- 
tral Germany,  and  one  of  the  states  of 
the  German  empire,  consisting  of  a 
main  body,  and  several  minor  isolated 
portions.  Area,  955  sq.  miles.  The 
government  is  a hereditary  and  con- 
stitutional monarchy,  and  the  great 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Luther- 
ans. The  duchy  sends  one  member  to 
the  Bundesrath  and  two  to  the  Reich- 
stag of  the  German  empire.  The  capital 
is  Meiningen.  Pop.  250,683. 

SAXE- WEIMAR,  a grand  duchy  of 
Central  Germany,  one  of  the  states  of 
the  German  empire,  and  consisting  of 
three  larger  portions,  Weimar,  Neustadt, 
and  Eisenach,  and  twelve  smaller  par- 
cels. Area  of  the  whole,  1421  sq.  miles. 
The  goverment  is  constitutional,  the 
legislative  power  being  vested  in  a house 
of  parliament,  consisting  of  one  cham- 
ber of  thirty-one  members.  Saxe- 
Weimar  sends  one  member  to  the 
Bundesrath  and  three  to  the  Reichstag 
of  the  Germi^n  empire.  Pop.  362,873. 

SAXHORN  (after  M.  Sax,  of  Paris, 
the  inventor),  a name  of  several  brass 
wind  instruments,  with  a wide  mouth- 
piece and  three,  four,  or  five  pistons, 
much  employed  in  military  bands. 
These  horns  comprise  the  piccolo  cornet 
or  high  small  saxhorn,  the  soprano,  the 
alto,  the  tenor,  baritone,  bass,  and 
double  bass. 

SAXTFRAGE,  a popular  name  of 
various  plants,  mostly  inhabitants  mf 


alpine  and  subalpine  regions  of  the 
colder  and  temperate  parts  of  the 
northern  zone.  Most  of  them  are  true 
rock  plants,  with  tufted  foliage  and 
panicles  of  white,  yellow,  or  red  flowers; 
and  many  are  well  known  as  ornamental 
plants  in  gardens. 


Bass  Saxhorn. 


SAXON  ARCHITECTURE,  the  earliest 
stage  of  native  English  architecture,  its 
period  being  from  the  conversion  of 
England  to  Christianity  till  the  Con- 
quest or  near  it,  when  Norman  archi- 
tecture began  to  prevail  (7th  to  11th 
century).  The  few  relics  left  us  of  this 
style  exhibit  its  general  characteristic  as 
having  been  rude  solidity  and  strength. 
The  walls  are  of  rough  masonry,  very 
thick,  without  buttresses,'  and  some- 
times of  herringbone  work;  the  towers 
and  pillars  thick  in  proportion  to  height. 


Saxon  architecture. 

a.  Tower  of  Sompting  church,  Sussex,  b. 
Tower  of  Barton-on-Humber  church,  Lincoln- 
shire. c,  Long  and  short  work,  d,  Window 
with  a baluster. 

the  former  being  sometimes  not  more 
than  three  diameters  high;  the  quoins 
or  angle  masonry  are  of  hewn  stones  set 
alternately  on  end  and  horizontally; 
the  arches  of  doorways  and  windows 
are  rounded,  or  sometimes  these  open- 
ings have  triangular  heads,  their  jambs 
of  long  and  short  work  carrying  either 
rudely  carved  imposts  or  capitals  with 
square  abaci.  Sometimes  heavy  mould- 
ings run  round  the  arches,  and  when 
two  or  more  arches  are  conjoined  in  an 


SAXONS 


SCALE-FERN 


arcade  these  are  on  heavy  low  shaftt 
formed  like  balusters.  Window  open- 
ings in  the  walls  splay  from  both  the 
interior  and  the  exterior,  the  position 
of  the  windows  being  in  the  middle  of 
the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

SAXONS,  a Teutonic  race  whose  name 
is  generally  derived  from  the  Old  Ger- 
man word  sahs  (a  knife  or  short  sword). 
They  are  first  mentioned  by  Ptolemy, 
who  speaks  of  them  as  inhabiting  a dis- 
trict bounded  by  the  Eider,  the  Elbe, 
and  the  Trave.  In  the  3d  century  of 
the  Christian  era  they  were  a numerous, 
warlike,  and  piratical  people.  In  the 
5th  century  considerable  hordes  of  them 
crossed  from  the  continent,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Saxon  kingdoms  in 
Britain — Essex  or  East  Saxons,  Sussex 
or  South  Saxons,  etc.  (See  England  and 
Anglo-Saxons.)  Those  who  remained  in 
Germany  (Old  Saxons)  occupied  a great 
extent  of  country,  of  vague  and  varying 
limits,  which  bore  the  general  name  of 
Saxony.  Charlemagne  waged  a thirty 
years’  war  against  the  Saxons;  and 
Wittikind,  their  national  hero,  with 
many  of  his  countr3mien,  submitted  to 
his  arms,  and  embraced  Christianity. 
See  Saxony,  Kingdom  of. 

SAXON  SWITZERLAND,  a name 
which  has  been  given  to  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  the  Elbe,  south- 
east of  Dresden  and  bordering  on  Bo- 
hemia. It  consists  of  a group  of  moun- 
tains of  sandstone,  with  valleys  and 
streams  of  the  most  picturesque  char- 
acter, in  which  isolated  masses  of  sand- 
stone, large  and  small,  occur  in  very 
fantastic  shapes.  It  is  about  24  miles 
long,  and  equally  wide. 

SAXONY,  Kingdom  of,  a kingdom  of 
Central  Germany ; bounded  on  the  north- 
west, north,  and  east  by  Prussia,  south- 
east and  south  by  Bohemia,  southwest 
by  Bavaria  and  west  by  Reuss,  Saxe- 
Weimar,  and  Saxe-Altenburg;  greatest 
length,  135  miles;  greatest  breadth,  75 
miles;  area,  5786  sq.  miles  (or  rather  less 
than  Yorkshire);  pop.  4,199,758.  For 
administrative  purposes  it  is  divided 
into  the  five  districts  of  Dresden,  Leip- 
zig, Zwickau,  Chemnitz,  and  Bautzen. 

With  the  exception  of  a very  small 
portion  of  the  east,  which  sends  its 
waters  to  the  Baltic,  Saxony  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Elbe,  which  traverses  it 
in  a northwesterly  direction  for  about 
70  miles.  On  the  Prussian  frontiers, 
where  the  district  subsides  to  its  lowest 
point,  the  height  above  the  sea  is  only 
250  feet. 

The  most  important  crops  are  rye, 
oats,  barley,  wheat,  potatoes;  and  or- 
chard fruits,  particularly  apples,  pears, 
and  plums,  are  very  abundant.  Con- 
siderable attention  is  paid  to  the  culture 
of  the  vine.  Large  numbers  of  horned 
cattle  are  exported.  The  wool  of  Saxony 
has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  excel- 
lence. Swine  and  horses  are  of  a superior 
breed.  The  minerals  are  of  great  im- 
portance, and  include  silver,  lead,  tin, 
iron,  cobalt,  nickel,  bismuth, and  arsenic. 
Numerous  seams,  both  of  lignite  and 
coal,  are  found  in  various  districts,  and 
are  worked  to  a considerable  extent. 
The  quarries  furnish  in  abundance 
granite,  porphyry,  basalt,  marble,  ser- 
pentine, and  sandstone.  Several  mineral 
springs  of  reputation  exist  Laxony  is 


an  important  manufacturing  country. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  linen,  lace,  ribbons, 
and  straw-plaiting.  Other  industries  are 
earthenware,  Dresden  ware,  leather, 
chemicals,  etc.,  and  the  printing  estab- 
lishments of  Leipzig  are  well  known. 
Saxony  is  connected  with  the  great 
trunk  lines  which  traverse  Central 
Europe,  and  has  over  1500  miles  of 
railway. 

The  government  is  a constitutional 
monarchy  (forming  part  of  the  German 
empire),  in  which  the  executive  power 
is  lodged  solely  in  the  crown,  and  the 
legislative  power  jointly  in  the  crown 
and  two  chambers.  The  present  ruling 
family  in  Saxony  claims  descent  from 
Wittikind,  the  national  hero  who  was 
conquered  by  Charlemagne  and  em- 
braced Christianity.  The  territory  be- 
came a duchy  about  880,  and  in  the  10th 
century  Duke  Henry  was  elected  Ger- 
man emperor.  In  1813  Saxony  was  the 
scene  of  Napoleon’s  struggle  with  the 
allies,  and  the  battles  of  Lutzen,  Baut- 
zen, Dresden,  and  Leipzig  were  followed 
by  the  congress  of  Vienna  (1814),  when 
a large  part  of  the  dominions  then  under 
the  Saxon  monarch  was  ceded  to  Prussia. 
A period  of  great  progress  followed,  in- 
terrupted somewhat  at  the  revolution- 
ary period  of  1848-49.  In  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  of  1866  Saxony  took  part 
with  Austria,  and  was  occupied  by  the 
Prussian  troops.  Prussia  desired  to  in- 
corporate the  kingdom,  but  Austria, 
supported  by  France,  opposed  this 
arrangement,  and  Saxony  was  admitted 
into  the  North  German  confederation 
instead.  In  the  Franco-German  war 
Saxony  united  with  the  rest  of  Germany 
against  France;  and  the  late  King  Albert 
(then  crown-prince)  was  commander 
of  the  German  army  of  the  Meuse.  In 
1871  Saxony  became  a member  of  the 
New  German  Empire. 

SAXONY,  Prussian,  a province  of  the 
Prussian  monarchy,  of  irregular  shape, 
and  with  isolated  districts,  almost  in  the 
center  of  Germany,  to  the  north  of  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony;  area,  9729  sq. 
miles.  Originally  a part  of  Saxony,  it 
was  given  to  Prussia  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna  (1814).  The  northern  and  large 
portion  belongs  to  the  North  German 
plain ; the  southern  and  southwestern  is 
elevated  or  hilly,  partly  belonging  to  the 
Hartz  mountain  system,  and  containing 
the  Brocken  (3742  feet).  The  chief  river 
is  the  Elbe.  The  soil  is  generally  pro- 
ductive, about  61  per  cent  being  under 
the  plough  and  20  per  cent  forests. 
Beet  sugar  is  largely  produced.  The 
mineral  products  are  valuable,  particu- 
larly lignite,  salt,  kainite,  and  other 
potash  salts.  The  capital  of  the  province 
is  Magdeburg;  other  towns  are  Halle 
(with  a university),  Erfurt,  and  Hal- 
berstadt.  Pop.  2,832,616. 

SAX'TON,  Joseph,  American  inventor, 
was  born  at  Huntingdon,  Pa.,  in  1799. 
He  invented  a machine  for  cutting  the 
teeth  of  chronometer  wheels,  and  an 
escapement  and  compensating  pendu- 
lum for  clocks,  and  constructed  a clock 
for  the  steeple  of  Independence  hall, 
Philadelphia.  Among  his  inventions  are 
the  mirror  comparator  for  comparing 
standard  measures,  and  a new  form  of 
machine  for  dividing  them^  the  deep- 


sea  thermometer,  used  by  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey  in  exploring  the 
Gulf  Stream;  the  self -registering  tide 
gauge  and  the  immersed  hydrometer. 
He  died  in  1873. 

SCAB,  a skin  disease  in  sheep,  analog- 
ous to  itch  in  man  and  mange  in  horses 
and  dogs,  usually  propagated  by  con- 
tagion, and  caused  by  the  presence  of 
minute  acari,  which  burrow  under  the 
skin.  Various  medicines  have  been 
recommended,  such  as  lard  or  pahn  oil, 
2 lbs.;  oil  of  tar,  J lb.;  sulphur,  1 lb., 
mixed  together  and  rubbed  on  the 
diseased  spots. 

SCABBARD  FISH,  a beautiful  fish 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Eastern 
Atlantic,  so  called  because  in  shape  it 
bears  some  resemblance  to  the  sheath 
of  a sword.  It  is  of  a bright  silvery 
whiteness,  with  a single  dorsal  fin  run- 
ning along  its  back. 

SCAD,  or  HORSE  MACKEREL,  a 
genus  of  teleostean  fishes  included  in  the 
family  Scomberidse  or  mackerels,  and 


Scad. 


found  around  the  coasts  of  Britain.  It 
appears  in  large  shoals,  and  the  flesh, 
although  coarse,  is  esteemed  and  eaten 
salted  during  the  winter  months. 

SCALDFISH,  a marine  flatfish,  allied 
to  the  turbot,  sole,  and  flounder. 

SCALD-HEAD,  a fungous  parasitic 
disease  of  the  scalp.  See  Favus. 

SCALDS.  See  Burns  and  Scalds. 

SCALE,  a mathematical  instrument 
consisting  of  a slip  of  wood,  ivory,  or 
metal,  with  one  or  more  sets  of  spaces 
graduated  and  numbered  on  its  surface 
for  measuring  or  laying  off  distances,  etc. 

SCALE,  in  music,  a succession  of  notes 
arranged  in  the  order  of  pitch,  and  com- 
prising those  sounds  which  may  occur 
in  a piece  of  music  written  in  a given 
key.  In  its  simplest  form  the  scale  con- 
sists of  seven  steps  or  degrees  counted 
upward  in  a regular  order  from  a root 
or  prime  (the  tonic  or  keynote),  to  which 
series  the  eighth  is  added  to  form  the 
octave.  It  has  been  the  practice  among 
musicians  to  consider  the  scale  having 
C for  its  keynote  as  the  natural,  model 
or  normal  scale.  The  diatonic  scale 
ascends  by  five  steps  (tones)  and  two 
half-steps  (semitones),  taking  for  the 
names  of  the  notes  the  syllables  do,  re, 
mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  si,  do ; the  two  semitones 
occur  between  E and  F (mi  and  fa)  and 
B and  C (si  and  do).  When  the  scale  is 
graduated  all  the  way  by  a series  of 
twelve  half-steps  or  semitones  it  is  called 
the  chromatic  scale.  A scale  is  said  to  be 
major  when  the  interval  between  the 
keynote  and  the  third  above  it  as  from 
C to  E,  consists  of  two  tones;  it  is  called 
minor  when  the  interval  between  the 
keynote  and  its  third,  as  from  A to  C, 
consists  of  a tone  and  a half.  See  Music. 

SCALE  FERN,  a popular  name  for  a 
fern  so  named  from  the  imbricated 
tawny  scales  at  the  back  of  the  fronds. 


SCALENE' 


SCARFING 


To  this  plant  was  fonnerly  attributed  a 
marvellous  influence  over  the  liver  and 
spleen.  It  is  a British  species,  and  is  said 
to  be  used  as  a bait  for  fish  on  the  coast 
of  Wales. 

SCALENE',  in  mathematics,  a term 
applied  to  a triangle  of  which  the  three 
sides  are  unequal.  A cone  or  cylinder 
is  also  said  to  be  scalene  when  its  axis  is 
inclined  to  its  base,  but  in  this  case  the 
term  oblique  is  more  frequently  used. 

SCALES,  the  imbricated  plates  on  the 
exterior  of  certain  animals,  as  the  pan- 
golins or  scaly  ant-eaters,  serpents  and 
other  reptiles,  and  especially  fishes.  The 
scales  of  the  latter  are  developed  be- 
neath the  true  epidemi,  and  consist  of 
alternate  layers  of  membrane,  of  horny 
matter,  and  occasionally  of  phosphate 
of  lime.  Fishes  are  sometimes  classed, 
in  accordance  with  the  structure  of  their 


Scales  of  fishes. 

1,  Ctenoid  scale  of  the  perch.  2,  Cycloid 
scale  of  the  carp.  3,  Ganoid  scales  of  dlpterus. 
4,  Placoid  scale  of  ray. 

scales,  into  Ctenoid,  Ganoid,  Cycloid, 
and  Placoid,  the  general  appearance  and 
character  of  which  are  well  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figures.  The  term  scale  is 
applied  also  in  botany  to  a small  rudimen- 
tary or  metamorphosed  leaf,  scale-like 
in  form  and  often  in  .arrangement,  con- 
stituting the  covering  of  the  leaf  buds 
of  the  deciduous  trees  in  cold  climates, 
the  invalucrum  of  the  Compositae,  the 
bracts  of  catkins,  etc. 

SCALP,  the  outer  covering  of  the 
skull,  composed  of  skin  and  of  the  ex- 
panded tendon  of  the  occipito-frontal 
muscle,  and  of  intermediate  cellular 
tissue  and  blood  vessels.  Hence  the 
skin  of  the  head  or  a part  of  it,  with  the 
hair  belonging  to  it,  torn  or  cut  off  by  the 
American  Indians  as  a mark  of  victory 
over  an  enemy. 

SCAMIL'LUS,  in  ancient  architecture, 
a sort  of  second  plinth  or  block  under  a 


a,  Scamlllus. 


column,  statue,  etc.,  to  raise  it,  but  not, 
like  a pedestal,  ornamented  with  any 
kind  of  moulding. 

SCANDINAVIA,  the  ancient  name  of 
the  region  now  comprehending  the  three 
northern  kingdoms,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  or  Sweden  and  Norway 
alone,  and  still  not  uncommonly  used. 
These  countries  were  inhabited  in  the 
earliest  times  by  people  of  the  Teutonic 
stock,  and  b.c.  100  the  natives  of  Jut- 
land and  Schleswig  became  formidable 
to  the  Romans  under  the  name  of 
Cimbri.  But  it  was  chiefly  in  the  9th 
century  that  they  made  their  power 


felt  in  the  western  and  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  where  hordes  of  Northmen 
or  Vikings,  as  they  were  sometimes 
called,  made  repeated  raids  in  their 
galleys  on  the  coasts  of  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Holland,  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  where  they 
plundered,  destroyed,  and  sometimes 
founded  new  states.  The  Old  Norse  or 
Scandinavian  literature,  so  far  as  ex- 
tant, is  of  considerable  value,  having 
preserved  to  us  not  only  the  old  versi- 
fication peculiar  to  all  nations  of  Teu- 
tonic origin,  but  also  the  mythology, 
history,  and  laws  of  the  pagan  period  of 
these  northern  countries.  Among  the 
most  valuable  remains  are  the  Edda 
and  the  Sagas  (which  see). 

SCANSO'RES,  an  order  of  birds, 
popularly  known  as  climbing  birds, 
having  the  feet  provided  with  four  toes, 
of  which  two  are  turned  backward  and 
two  forward.  Of  the  two  toes  which  are 
directed  backward  one  is  the  hallux  or 
proper  hind-toe,  the  other  is  the  outer- 
most of  the  normal  three  anterior  toes. 
This  conformation  of  the  foot  enables 
the  scansores  to  climb  with  unusual 


Scansores. 

a.  Head  and  foot  of  cuckoo,  b.  Do.  of  green 
woodpecker,  c.  Do.  of  great  jacamar. 

facility.  Their  food  consists  of  insects 
and  fruit;  their  nests  are  usually  made 
in  the  hollows  of  old  trees.  The  most 
important  families  are  the  cuckoos,  the 
woodpeckers  and  wrynecks,  the  par- 
rots, the  toucans,  the  trogons,  the  bar- 
bets,  and  the  plantain  eaters.  Not  all 
of  this  order  are  actually  climbers,  and 
there  are  climbing  birds  which  do  not 
belong  to  this  order. 

SCAPEGOAT,  in  the  Jewish  ritual, 
a goat  which  was  brought  to  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  where  the  high  priest 
laid  his  hands  upon  him,  confessing  the 
sins  of  the  people,  and  putting  them  on 
the  head  of  the  goat,  after  which  the 
goat  was  sent  into  the  wilderness,  bear- 
ing the  iniquities  of  the  people.  Lev.  xvi. 

SCAP'ULA,  or  SHOULDER  BLADE, 
the  bone  which  in  most  mammalia  forms 
the  chief  bone  of  the  shoulder  girdle, 
and  which  chiefly  supports  the  upper 
limb  on  the  trunk  or  axial  skeleton.  In 
man  the  scapula  exists  as  a flattened 
bone  of  triangular  shape,  which  lies  on 
each  side  of  the  body,  on  the  back,  and 
toward  the  upper  and  outer  border  of 
the  chest  or  thorax.  The  internal  surface 
of  the  scapula  is  concave,  and  is  applied 
against  the  ribs.  The  outer  or  dorsal 
surface  is  divided  into  two  portions  by  a ' 


strong  ridge  which  runs  obliquely  across 
the  bone. 

SCAP'ULARY,  a kind  of  garment  or 
portion  of  dress,  consisting  of  two  bands 
of  woolen  stuff — one  going  down  the 
breast  and  the  other  on  the  back,  over 
the  shoulders — worn  by  a religieux.  The 
original  scapular  was  first  introduced 
by  St.  Benedict,  in  lieu  of  a heavy  cowl 
for  the  shoulders,  designed  to  carry 
loads. 

SCARAB.ffi'US,  an  extensive  genus  of 
coleopterous  insects,  placed  by  Lin- 
naeus at  the  head  of  the  insect  tribes, 
and  answering  to  the  section  Lamelli 
comes  of  Latreille.  They  are  sometimes 
called  dung-beetles,  from  their  habit  of 
inclosing  their  eggs  in  pellets  of  dung, 
which  are  placed  in  holes  excavated  for 
their  reception.  The  S.  sacer,  or  sacred 
beetle  of  the  Egyptians,  was  regarded 


Natural  size. 


with  great  veneration;  and  figures  of  it, 
plain  or  inscribed  with  characters,  were 
habitually  worn  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians as  an  amulet.  Large  numbers  of 
these  scarabiEi  or  scarabs,  made  of  hard 
stone  or  gems,  are  still  found  in  Egypt, 
often  inscribed  with  hieroglyphics.  Some 
of  the  carved  scarabs  are  three  or  four 
feet  long.  The  beetle  itself  was  also  em- 
balmed. 

SCARBOROUGH,  a municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  and  seaport, 
England,  county  of  York  (North  Rid- 
ing), is  beautifully  situated  on  two  open 
sandy  bays  separated  by  a bold  promon- 
tory of  rock  300  feet  high,  on  the  North 
sea,  39  miles  northeast  of  York.  Pop. 
38,160. 

SCARFING,  a particular  method  of 
uniting  two  pieces  of  timber  together 


Various  modes  of  scarfing. 


by  the  extremities,  the  end  of  one  bemg 
cut  or  notched  so  as  to  fit  into  the  other, 


SCARIFICATION 


SCHILLER 


making  the  part  where  the  junction 
takes  place  of  the  same  thickness  as  the 
rest  of  the  pieces  of  timber. 

SCARIFICATION,  the  operation  of 
making  several  incisions  in  the  skin  with 
a lancet  or  scarificator  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  away  blood,  letting  out  fluids, 
etc.;  or  the  removal  of  flesh  about  a 
tooth  in  order  to  get  at  it  the  better 
with  an  instrument. 

SCARLET  FEVER,  or  SCARLETINA, 
is  an  extremely  infectious  disease,  not 
confined  to,  but  common  among  chil- 
dren. In  ordinary  cases  the  beginning  of 
the  disease  is  indicated  by  great  heat  and 
dryness  of  the  skin,  shivering,  headache, 
sickness,  and  sore  throat.  Another 
symptom  is  that  the  tongue  is  coated 
with  a white  fur  through  which  nu- 
merous red  points  stand  up,  from  which 
appearance  it  is  called  the  “strawberry 
tongue.”  On  the  second  day  of  the  fever 
a rash  appears  and  quickly  spreads  over 
the  whole  body,  begins  to  fade  on  the 
fifth  day,  and  disappears  before  the  end 
of  the  seventh.  After  the  rash  has  gone 
the  skin  begins  to  be  shed  in  large  flakes, 
and  this  continues  about  five  weeks. 
During  this  latter  stage  the  disease  is 
most  infectious.  At  the  first  symptoms 
the  patient  should  receive  a dose  of 
castor-oil,  and  then  be  put  in  a warm 
bath.  When  the  fever  has  gone, 
strengthening  food  and  frequent  bath- 
ing should  be  given,  and  an  equal  tem- 
perature in  the  room  observed. 

SCARP,  in  fortification,  the  interior 
slope  or  talus  of  the  ditch  next  the 
fortified  place  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
rampart. 

SCAUP  DUCK,  a species  of  duck  com- 
mon in  North  America  and  the  north  of 
Europe;  and  is  found  in  considerable 
numbers  on  the  British  coasts  during 
the  winter  months.  It  feeds  on  small 
fish,  molluscs,  and  hence  its  flesh  is 
coarse. 

SCEPTICISM,  in  the  wide  sense,  that 
condition  of  mental  conflict  in  the  search 
for  truth  which  involves  suspension  of 
judgment  before  opposing  testimony. 
Specifically,  however,  it  has  been  applied 
to  the  doctrines  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
phers called  Pyrrhonists,  whose  scheme 
of  philosophy  denied  the  possibility 
of  knowing  anything  with  certainty. 
Pyrrho  of  Elis  (360-270  b.c.),  although 
he  himself  left  no  writings,  was  the 
founder  of  this  school.  Chief  among  his 
immediate  disciples  was  Timon  of 
Phliut,  who  taught  that  appearances 
are  neither  false  nor  true,  that  logical 
reasoning  has  no  adequate  sanction, 
and  that  imperturbability  is  the  only 
possible  attitude  before  the  facts  of  life. 
This  position  was  maintained  by  the 
founders  of  the  Middle  Academy,  Ar- 
cesilaus  and  Carneades,  who  employed 
this  philosophy  of  doubt  against  the 
dogmatism  of  the  Stoics.  Arcesilaus, 
who  lived  about  315-241  b.c.,  held  that 
the  report  of  our  senses  is  untrust- 
worthy. Carneades  (213-129  b.c.)  de- 
clared absolute  knowledge  to  be  impos- 
sible, and  was  the  author  of  the  doc- 
trine of  probability.  To  the  later  scepti- 
cal school  of  the  1st  century  b.c.  belongs 
.iEnesidemus  of  Cnossus,  who  expressed 
his  doctrine  of  negation  in  ten  tropes. 
These  were  reduced  to  five  by  Agrippa, 
the  first  of  which  is  connected  with  the 


irreconcilability  of  human  testimony; 
the  second  is  based  on  the  principle  that 
every  proof  requires  to  be  itself  proved; 
the  third  that  knowledge  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
acquired;  the  fourth  forbids  the  assump- 
tion of  unproved  opinion;  and  the  fifth 
seeks  to  discredit  the  reciprocal  method 
of  proof  in  which  one  thing  is  proved  by 
another  and  then  the  second  adduced 
to  prove  the  first.  In  later  times  Al- 
Ghazzali  (1059-1111)  taught  at  Bagdad 
a philosophic  scepticism  to  enforce  the 
truth  of  his  Mohammedan  doctrine. 
In  this  method  he  was  followed  by 
Pascal  (1623-1662),  who  sought  to  es- 
tablish the  necessity  of  Christian  faith 
by  a sceptical  exposure  of  the  fallacy  of 
human  reason.  Among  modern  sceptics 
may  be  mentioned  Montaigne,  Bayle, 
D’Alembert,  and  Hume.  The  latter 
limited  the  range  of  human  reasoning 
to  human  experience,  and  affirmed  that 
any  knowledge  concerning  God  or  a 
future  state  transcends  the  scope  of  our 
faculties.  See  Agnostics. 

SCHAFF  (shaf),  Philip,  D.D.,  biblical 
scholar,  born  in  Switzerland  in  1819. 
He  was  professor  in  the  theological 
seminary  of  the  German  Reformed 
church  at  Mercersburg  (Pa.)  from  1844 
to  1863.  He  was  a prolific  writer,  his 
works  including  History  of  the  Apostolic 
Church;  History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  Religious  En- 
cyclopedia (as  editor),  etc.  He  died  in 
1893. 

SCHAFFHAUSEN  (shif  hou-zn) , a 
town  of  Switzerland,  capital  of  the  can- 
ton of  same  name,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  24  miles  north  of 
Zurich.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  antique 
architecture  of  its  houses.  About  3 
miles  below  the  town  are  the  celebrated 
falls  which  bear  its  name,  and  by  which 
the  whole  volume  of  the  Rhine  is  pre- 
cipitated over  a height  of  more  than  70 


Street  in  Schaffhausen. 


feet.  Pop.  15,597. — The  canton  is  the 
most  northerly  in  Switzerland,  and  is 
situated  on  the  right  or  German  side  of 
the  Rhine;  area,  116  sq.  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  very  much  broken,  being  trav- 
ersed throughout  by  a series  of  ridges 
which  ramify  from  the  Jura.  The  only 
river  is  the  Rhine.  The  inhabitants  are 
generally  Protestants,  and  the  language 
spoken  is  principally  German.  Pop. 
41,514. 

SCHEELE  (sha'le),  Karl  Wilhelm, 
Swedish  chemist,  born  in  1742;  died  in 
1786.  He  discovered  tartaric  acid, 
chlorine,  baryta,  oxygen  shortly  after 
Priestley,  glycerine,  and  arsenate  of 
copper,  called  Scheele’s-green. 

SCHEELE’S-GREEN,  a green  pig- 


ment consisting  of  a pulverulent  arsenate 
of  copper,  first  prepared  by  Scheele 
(see  above);  it  is  used  both  in  oil  and 
water-color  painting. 

SCHELLING  (shel'ing),  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm Joseph  von,  a German  philosopher, 
born  at  Leonberg,  Wiirtemburg,  in  1775; 
died  1854.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  for 
a short  time  also  at  Leipzig,  and  from 
thence  proceeded  to  Jena.  His  philo- 
sophical studies  were  mainly  guided  by 
Fichte,  of  whom  he  was  first  a collea^e, 
and  afterward  successor.  The  principal 
writings  of  Schelling  are;  Ideas  for  a 
Philosophy  of  Nature  (1797);  The  Soul 
of  the  World  (1798),  First  Sketch  of  a 
System  of  the  Philosophy  of  Nature 
(1799),  System  of  Transcendental  Ideal- 
ism (1800),  Exposition  of  My  System  of 
Philosophy,  published  in  the  Journal 
of  Speculative  Physics,  edited  by  him 
(1801-3);  Bruno,  or  the  Divine  and 
Natural  Principle  of  Things  (1802), 
Critical  Journal  of  Philosophy  (in  con- 
junction with  Hegel),  1802-3;  Exposi- 
tion of  the  True  Relation  of  the  Phil- 
osophy of  Nature  to  the  Amended 
Theory  of  Fichte  (1806). 

SCHENCK,  Robert  Gumming,  diplo- 
matist, was  born  in  Franklin,  Ohio,  in 
1809.  He  served  three  terms  in  con- 
gress. His  first  diplomatic'' mission  was 
to  Brazil,  where  he  was  sent  in  1857. 
He  received  the  first  appointment  of 
brigadier-general  from  President  Lin- 
coln, his  commission  being  dated  May 
17, 1861.  He  was  wounded  at  the  second 
battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  in  1862  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 
He  was  again  sent  to  congress  in  1866, 
and  in  1870  he  was  appointed  minister 
to  Great  Britain.  He  died  in  1890. 

SCHENEC'TADY,  a city  of  New  York, 
capital  of  the  county  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Mohawk  river,  about  17  miles 
from  Albany.  It  is  the  seat  of  Union 
college,  incorporated  in  1794,  and  one 
of  the  most  successful  in  the  states. 
The  Erie  canal  and  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  canal  pass  through  the  city. 
It  has  manufactories  of  locomotives 
shawls,  etc.,  besides  woolen  and  flour 
mills.  Pop  1909,  about  77,000. 

SCHILLER,  Johann  Friedrich  Chris- 
toph von,  one  of  the  greatest  of  German 
poets,  was  born  at  Marbach,  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  1759.  He  published  his  play. 
The  Robbers,  at  his  own  expense  in 
1781;  it  excited  an  immense  amount  of 
attention,  and  in  1782  it  was  performed 
at  Mannheim.  In  1785  he  went  to  Leip- 
zig and  Dresden,  where  he  studied  the 
history  of  Philip  II.  In  this  way  be  pre- 
pared himself  not  only  to  write  his 
drama  of  Don  Carlos,  which  appeared  in 
1787,  but  also  to  publish  a History  of 
the  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands  (1788). 
Visiting  Weimar  in  1787  he  received 
friendly  welcome  from  Wieland,  Herder, 
and  Goethe,  the  latter  assisting  to  pro- 
cure him  (1789)  a professorship  of 
philosophy  at  Jena.  Here  he  lectured  on 
history,  and  began  to  publish  Historical 
Memoirs  from  the  Twelfth  Century  to 
the  Most  Recent  Times  (1790);  and  his 
History  of  the  Thirty  Years’  War  ap- 
peared in  1790-3.  His  first  periodical, 
Thalia,  begun  in  1784  at  Mannheim, 
having  ceased  in  1793,  he  formed  a 
plan  of  publishing  a new  periodical.  Die 
Horen  (The  Horae  or  Hours).  He  had 


SCHIST 


SCHOOLCRAFi 


long  been  in  weak  health,  and  being 
attacked  by  fever  died  in  1805.  His 
correspondence  with  Goethe,  William 
von  Humboldt,  and  C.  G.  Korner  has 
been  published,  his  life  has  been  written 
by  Carlyle,  and  of  his  works  there  is 
among  others  an  English  translation  in 
Bohn’s  library. 

SCHIST  (shist),  a geological  term  ap- 
plied to  rocks  which  have  a foliated 
structure  and  split  in  thin  irregular 
plates,  not  by  regular  cleavage,  as  in  the 
case  of  clay-slate,  nor  in  laminee,  as  flag- 
stones. It  is  properly  confined  to  meta- 
m Orphic  or  crystalline  rocks  consisting 
of  layers  of  different  minerals,  as  gneiss, 
mica-schist,  hornblende-schist,  chlorite- 
scliis^’  etc 

SCHLANGENBAD  (shl^ng'en-bat),  a 
watering-place  of  Prussia,  in  Hesse- 
Nassau,  6 miles  w.n.w.  of  Wiesbaden, 
among  wooded  hills.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  lodging  houses,  and  two  large  bathing 
establishments.  The  water  has  a tem- 
perature of  from  80°  to  88°,  and  is  bene- 
ficial in  hysteria,  neuralgia,  rheumatism, 
gout,  paralysis,  etc. 

SCHLEGEL  (shla'gel),  August  Wil- 
helm von,  a distinguished  German 
scholar,  born  at  Hanover  1767,  died  at 
Bonn  1845.  He  wrote  various  poems  and 
ballads,  delivered  lectures  on  literature 
and  art,  published  a tragedy  called  Ion, 
translated  the  most  of  Shakespeare’s 
and  Calderon’s  plays  into  German,  and 
devoted  the  latter  part  of  his  life  to 
oriental  studies  and  the  translation  of 
various  works  from  Sanskrit. 

SCHLEGEL,  Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich 
von,  brother  of  the  foregoing,  born 
1772,  died  1829.  Besides  the  lectures 
which  he  published  his  chief  works  are: 
History  of  the  Old  and  New  Literature, 
Philosophy  of  Life,  Philosophy  of  His- 
tory, and  the  Philosophy  of  Language. 
His  wife,  a daughter  of  Moses  Mendels- 
sohn, was  the  author  of  some  works 
published  under  Schlegel’s  name. 

SCHLEIERMACHER  (shli'er-mah-er), 
Friedrich  Ernst  Daniel,  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  philosopher  born 
at  Breslau  1768,  died  at  Berlin  1834. 
The  works  of  Schleiermacher,  besides 
numerous  sermons,  include:  Outlines  of 
a Critique  of  Ethics  as  Heretofore  Taught, 
Translation  of  Plato’s  Works,  Christian 
Belief  According  to  the  Fundamental 
Doctrines  of  the  Evangelical  Church, 
Sketch  of  a System  of  Morals,  Philo- 
sophical Ethics,  Dialectics,  ^Esthetics, 

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN,  since  1866 
a province  of  Prussia,  bounded. on  the 
north  by  Denmark;  east  by  the  Baltic, 
Lubeck,  and  Mecklenburg,  south  by 
Mecklenburg  and  the  territory  of  Ham- 
burg; southwest  by  the  Elbe;  and  west 
by  the  North  sea;  area,  7273  sq.  miles. 
Schleswig  is  the  portion  lying  north  of 
the  Eider;  Holstein  that  south  of  this 
river.  Schleswig-Holstein  forms  part 
of  the  same  peninsula  with  Jutland,  to 
which  in  its  general  character  it  bears 
considerable  resemblance.  There  are 
extensive  moorlands ; the  west  coast  con- 
sists of  sandy  and  marshy  flats,  pro- 
tected in  Schleswig  by  chains  of  islands, 
in  Holstein  by  lofty  dykes;  the  east 
coast  is  scooped  out  into  natural  har- 
bors; the  principal  streams  flow  to  the 
west,  toward  which  for  the  most  part 


the  country  slopes.  Lakes  are  numerous. 
Schleswig  is  separated  from  Holstein  by 
the  river  Eider  and  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  canal.  The  Eider  is  the  prin- 
cipal river.  The  country  is  fertile,  and  is 
chiefly  agricultural.  The  great  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  of  German  origin. 
The  principal  towns  are  Altona,  Kiel, 
Flensburg,  and  Schleswig,  the  capital. 
Schleswig-Holstein,  which  became  a 
united  duchy  in  1386,  passed  over  to 
Denmark  in  1773,  and  was  appropriated 
by  Prussia  after  the  war  of  1866.  Pop. 
1,387,587. 

SCHLEY  (shla),  Winfield  Scott,  a 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  Frederick  co., 
Md.,  October  9, 1839.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  Naval  academy  and  served  on  the 
frigate  Niagara.  On  July  16,  1862,  he 
was  made  a lieutenant,  and  from  that 
time  on  he  alternated  between  active 
service  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
and  as  instructor  at  the  Naval  academy. 
In  1884  he  was  sent  by  the  United  States 
government  to  find  Greely.  After  a 
journey  through  1400  miles  of  ice  he 
found  Greely  and  six  companions  at 
Cape  Sabine,  Grinnell  Land.  He  was 
appointed  commodore  in  1898.  When 
war  was  declared  against  Spain  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  flying  squadron 
and  ordered  to  find  and  destroy  the 
Spanish  fleet  under  Admiral  Cervera, 
When  the  Spanish  fleet  attempted  to 
escape  from  the  harbor  of  Santiago  it 
was  completely  destroyed  in  a running 
fight,  by  the  American  blockading 
squadron,  which,  during  the  temporary 
absence  of  Samson,  was  under  the  com- 
mand of  Schley.  On  August  10th  he 
became  a rear-admiral,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a member  of  the  commission 
to  arrange  for  the  evacuation  of  Porto 
Rico  by  the  Spanish.  He  retired  from 
active  service  October  9,  1901.  Schley 
wrote  in  collaboration  with  James  Rus- 
sell Soley,  The  Rescue  of  Greely. 

SCHLIEMANN  (shle'man),  Heinrich, 
German  archaeologist,  born  in  1822. 
He  traveled  widely  and  acquired  many 
languages,  and  having  made  a fortune 
commenced  a series  of  archaeological 
investigations  in  the  East.  In  1869  he 
published  at  Paris  his  Ithariue,  Le  P4- 
loponnese,  Troie:  Recherches  Archaeolo- 
giques,  an  account  of  his  travels  in  these 
regions,  and  this  was  followed  in  1874  by 
his  Trojanische  Alterthumer,  giving  the 
results  of  his  researches  and  excavations 
on  the  plateau  of  Hissarlik,  the  alleged 
site  of  ancient  Troy.  In  1875  he  com- 
menced excavations  at  Athens  and 
Mycenae,  and  in  1877  discovered  the  five 
royal  tombs  which  local  tradition  in  the 
time  of  Pausanias  asserted  to  be  those 
of  Agamemnon  and  his  companions. 
Many  treasures  of  gold  and  silver  were 
brought  to  light.  His  Mycenae,  a nar- 
rative of  researches  and  discoveries  of 
Mycenae  and  Tiryns,  was  published  in 
1877,  with  a preface  by  Gladstone.  He 
received  valuable  assistance  in  his  in- 
vestigations from  his  wife,  who  is  a 
native  of  Greece  and  an  accomplished 
scholar.  His  Troja  and  his  Tiryns  are 
in  a measure  supplementary  to  his  earlier 
works  on  Troy  and  Mycenae.  He  died  in 
1890. 

SCHOFIELD,  John  McAllister,  Ameri- 
can soldier,  was  born  in  Chatauqua  co., 
N.  Y.,  in  1831-  Soon  after  the  outbreak 


of  the  civil  war  he  was  appointed  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  In  1864  he 
joined  the  army  of  General  Sherman,  and 
bore  a prominent  part  in  all  its  opera- 
tions until  the  close  of  the  war.  In  1868, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  war;  but 
he  resigned  in  March,  1869,  and  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Missouri,  and  in  1870  to  that 
of  the  Pacific.  From  1876  to  1881  he  was 
superintendent  of  the  Military  academy 
at  West  Point.  In  1882  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  department  of  the 
Pacific,  from  which  he  was  transferred 
in  April,  1886,  to  the  division  of  the  At- 
lantic, and  upon  the  death  of  Gen.  P.  H. 
Sheridan,  August  5,  1888,  succeeded  to 
the  command  of  the  United  States  army. 
In  1895  he  retired  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  He  published  Forty- 
six  Years  in  the  Army.  He  died  in  1906. 

SCHOLASTICISM,  the  name  given  to 
the  system  of  philosophy  taught  by  the 
philosophers  of  the  middle  ages,  who 
were  called  scholastics  or  schoolmen 
from  the  circumstance  that  their  phil- 
osophy originated  in  the  schools  insti- 
tuted by  and  after  Charlemagne  for  the 
education  of  the  clergy.  The  first  period 
of  the  schoolmen  may  be  considered  as 
extending  from  the  9th  to  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  is  characterized  by  the  accom- 
modation of  the  Aristotelian  logic,  and 
of  Neo-Platonic  philosophemes  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  church.  The  period  be- 
gins with  John  Scotus  Erigena,  and 
numbers,  among  other  names,  those  of 
Berengarius  of  Tours  and  his  opponent 
Lafranc,.  Anselm,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, Roscellinus,  Abelard,  Peter 
Lombardus,  and  John  of  Salisbury.  The 
period  is  marked  by  the  controversies 
that  raged  between  the  Nominalists  and 
the  Realists,  and  which  terminated  at 
length  in  the  triumph  of  the  latter.  The 
second  period  of  scholasticism,  extend- 
ing from  the  13th  to  the  15th  century — 
from  Alexander  of  Hales  to  the  close  of 
the  middle  ages,  when  classical  studies 
were  revived  and  the  sciences  of  nature 
and  human  nature  began  once  more  to 
be  studied,  presents  us  with  the  com- 
plete development  of  scholasticism,  and 
also  with  its  dissolution.  During  this 
period  the  Aristotelic  philosophy  exer- 
cised a more  marked  influence;  Realism 
was  also  triumphant,  until,  towards 
the  end  of  the  period,  William  of  Occam 
rose  up  as  the  champion  of  Nominalism, 
and  in  distinguishing  thought  from  be- 
ing, and  the  theoretical  from  the  prac- 
tical, gave  to  philosophy  a wider  range 
and  a freer  spirit.  The  zenith  of  scholas- 
ticism is  constituted  by  Thomas  Aquinas 
a Dominican  (died  1274),  and  Duns 
Scotus,  a Franciscan  (died  1308),  who 
were  the  founders  of  the  two  schools 
into  which  the  entire  movement  was 
thenceforward  divided. 

SCHOOLCRAFT,  Henry  Rowe,  an 
American  ethnologist  and  geologist, 
born  at  Guilderland)  in  Albany  co..  New 
York,  1793.  In  1820  he  was  appointed 
geologist  to  the  expedition  despatched 
by  the  government  to  explore  the 
sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  1821 
was  appointed  secretary  to  an  Indian  con- 
ference at  Chicago.  In  1832  he  con- 
ducted a government  expedition  to  the 
Upper  Mississippi,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  explored  the  sources  of  that  river. 


SCHOONER 


SCHURZ 


In  1836  he  negotiated  the  purchase  for 
government  of  16,000,000  acres  in  this 
region,  and  after  this  he  was  appointed 
acting  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs 
for  the  northern  department.  In  1847 
he  was  appointed  by  the  government 
to  prepare  an  extensive  work  on  the 
Indians,  which  appeared  under  the 
title  of  Historical  and  Statis.tical  In- 
formation respecting  the  History,  Con- 
dition, and  Prospects  of  the  Indian 
tribes  of  the  United  States  (1851-57). 
His  other  works  are;  Algic  Researches, 
comprising  inquiries  respecting  the 
Mental  Characteristics  of  the  North 
American  Indians;  Thirty  Years  with 
the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  Northwestern 
Frontier,  The  Indian  in  His  Wigwam, 
and  the  Myth  of  Hiawatha  and  other 
Legends,  besides  poems,  lectures,  re- 
ports, etc.  For  his  Lectures  on  the 
Indian  Languages  he  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  French  Institute.  He  died 
in  1864. 

SCHOONER,  a small  fast-sailing 
sharp-built  vessel  with  two  masts,  and 
the  principal  sails  of  the  fore-and-aft 
type.  There  are  two  chief  kinds  of 
schooners,  the  top-sail  schooner  and  the 
fore-and-aft  schooner,  the  former  carry- 
ing a square  top-sail  and  top-gallant 


Four-masted  schooner. 


sail  (with  sometimes  a royal)  on  the  fore- 
mast, and  the  latter  having  fore-and-aft 
sails  on  both  masts,  with  sometimes  a 
square  sail  on  the  fore-mast.  The  first 
schooner  is  said  to  have  been  launched 
at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  1713. 
A three-masted  schooner  carries  fore- 
and-aft  sails  on  each  mast. 

SCHOPENHAUER  (sho'pen-hou-er), 
Arthur,  a German  philosopher,  born  at 
Danzig  1788.  From  1814  to  1818  he 
lived  at  Dresden,  and  occupied  himself 
principally  with  the  preparation  of  his 
most  important  work — The  World  as 
Will  and'  Idea.  Previous  to  this  he  had 
published  a work  on  optics  1816.  In 
1818  he  visited  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
from  1822  to  1825  was  again  in  Italy, 
returning  in  the  latter  year  to  Berlin. 
The  final  teaching  of  Schopenhauer  is 
that  of  a philosophic  pessimism,  having 
as  its  ideal  the  negation  of  the  will  to  live. 
He  died  in  1860. 

SCHOTTISCHE  (shot-tish'),  a dance 
performed  by  a lady  and  gentleman, 
somewhat  resembling  a polka;  it  is  in 
I time. 

SCHUBERT  (sho'bert),  Franz,  one  of 
the  greatest  composers  of  modern  times, 
born  at  Vienna  in  1797,  the  son  of  a 
teacher;  commenced  his  musical  educa- 
tion in  his  seventh  year,  and  in  1808  was 
admitted  among  the  choristers  of  the 
court  chapel.  His  songs  and  ballads, 
as  exemplified  in  his  three  principal 


collections,  the  Winterreise  (1826-27), 
the  Miillerlieder  (1828),  and  the  Schwan- 
engesang  (1828),  may  be  said  to  have 
revolutionized  the  Lied  in  making  the 
accompaniment  not  less  interpretative 
of  the  emotions  of  the  poem  than  the 
vocal  part,  and  in  breaking  through  the 
limitations  of  the  old  strophic  method. 
Besides  his  six  hundred  songs  he  left 
about  four  hundred  other  compositions, 
including  fifteen  operas,  six  masses,  and 
several  symphonies.  Two  only  of  the 
operas,  Rosamond  and  the  Enchanted 
Harp,  were  performed  during  his  life, 
and  they  are  considered  inferior  to  his 
unproduced  Fierabras.  His  symphonies 
take  a higher  rank,  the  Seventh  (in  C 
major)  being  ranked  by  Mendelssohn 
and  Schumann  with  Beethoven’s.  His 
entire  work  justifies  Liszt’s  description 
of  him  as  the  most  poetic  of  musicians. 
He  died  in  Vienna  in  1828. 

SCHUMANN  (sho'mAn),  Robert,  musi- 
cal composer  and  critic,  born  at  Zwickau 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  in  1810. 
Prior  to  1840  his  principal  works  were 
the  Fantasias,  the  Scenes  of  Childhood, 
the  Etudes  Symphoniques,  the  Kreis- 
leriana,  the  Abegg  variations,  the  Papil- 
lons,  the  Carnival,  and  two  sonatas  in 
F sharp  minor  and  G minor.  He  then 
commenced  his  great  series  of  orchestral 
works,  his  symphony  in  B flat  being 
first  performed  at  the  close  of  1841.  It 
was  followed  by  his  Overture,  Scherzo 
and  Finale,  his  D minor  symphony, 
three  quartets,  the  piano  quintet  and 
quartet,  the  cantata  Paradise  and  the 
Peri,  the  C major  symphony  (1846), 
Genevieve  (1847),  Manfred  (1848),  the 
Faust  music  (1850),  the  E flat  symphony 
(1851),  and  other  works.  Under  stress 
of  work,  however,  his  reason  failed  him, 
and  after  an  attempt  to  drown  himself 
in  1854  he  was  confined  in  a lunatic 
asylum,  where  he  died  in  1856.  In  the 
line  of  musical  descent  Schumann  stands 
between  Beethoven  and  Wagner. 

SCHUYLKILL  (skol'kil),  a river  of  the 
United  States,  in  Pennsylvania,  which 
rises  in  the  north  side  of  the  Blue  moun- 
tains, runs  southeast,  passes  through 
the  confines  of  Philadelphia,  and  unites 
with  the’  Delaware  7 miles  below  that 
city.  It  is  140  miles  long,  and  navigable 
for  boats  of  300  or  400  tons  to  Phila- 
delphia. 

SCHUYLER,  Philip  John,  American 
general,  was  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1733.  He  reached  the  rank  of  major  in 
the  French  and  Indian  war,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  the  revolutionary  struggle 
was  made  one  of  the  American  major- 
generals.  He  took  the  leading  part  in 
preparing  to  meet  Burgoyne’s  expedi- 
tion in  1778;  but  troops  had  to  be  called 
in  from  other  states,  and  he  was  sub- 
jected to  jealousies  which  thwarted  him 
at  every  step.  Nevertheless,  his  ar- 
rangements were  so  complete  that  he 
had  really  checkmated  Burgoyne  before 
congress  superseded  him  in  the  com- 
mand by  the  appointment  of  Bates,  who 
reaped  all  the  glory  which  should  have 
accrued  to  Schuyler.  Retiring  from  the 
army,  he  served  for  three  years  in  the 
continental  congress,  and  in  the  United 
States  senate,  1789-91,  and  1797-98. 
He  died  at  Albany,  November  18,  1804. 

SCHURMAN(shur'man),  Jacob  Gould, 
American  educator,  was  born  at  Free- 


town, Prince  Edward  island,  in  1854. 
In  1891  he  was  appointed  dean  of  the 
Sage  School  of  Philosophy  at  Cornell, 
and  he  succeeded  Charles  Kendall 
Adams  as  president  of  the  university  in 
1892.  He  became  editor  of  the  Philo- 
sophical Review  in  1892.  In  January, 
1899,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
McKinley  chairman  of  the  first  Philip- 
pine commission,  and  spent  the  greater 
part  of  the  succeeding  year  in  the 
Philippine  islands.  He  received  a di- 
ploma and  was  appointed  a life  member 
of  the  American  Academy  in  Rome  in 
1905.  Among  his  works  are  Kantean 
Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evolution, 
The  Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism,  Re- 
port of  the  Philippine  Commission,  etc. 


SCHURZ  (shurts),  Carl,  German- 
American  soldier  and  political  leader, 
was  born  at  Liblar,  Prussia,  in  1829. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  1848-49,  as  a result  of 
which  he  was  forced  to  retire  to  Switzer- 
land. In  1852  Schurz  came  to  the 
United  States,  remained  in  Philadel- 
phia for  two  years,  and  then  settled  in 
Wisconsin.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Spain,  where  he  remained 
till  December,  1861;  returning  to  the 
United  States,  he  entered  the  army,  and 
in  the  May  following  was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers.  He 
took  part  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  and  commanded  a division  in  the 
battles  of  Chancellorsville  and  Gettys- 
burg. In  the  autumn  of  1863  he  went 
to  Tennessee,  and  took  part  in  several 
battles,  but  resigned  in  1865.  In  1868 
he  removed  to  St.  Louis  and  in  1869  was 
elected  United  States  senator  from 
Missouri.  In  1877  he  was  appointed 
secretary  of  the  interior  by  President 
Hayes.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term, 
1881,  he  removed  to  New  York,  and  was 
the  editor  of  the  Evening  Post  until 
August,  1883.  In  1884  he  took  a leading 
part  in  opposing  the  election  of  James 
G.  Blaine  and  advocating  that  of  Grover 
Cleveland.  Schurz  was  an  enthusiastic 
advocate  of  civil-service  reform,  in  sup- 


SCHWAB 


SCIPIO  AFRICANUS 


port  of  which  he  wrote  many  articles 
and  reports  and  deliveredm  any  speeches. 
His  publications  include  biographies  of 
Henry  Clay  (1887)  and  of  Abraham 
Lincoln  (1891).  He  died  in  1906. 

SCHWAB,  Charles  M.,  first  president 
of  the  United  States  Steel  corporation 
and  later  president  and  chief  owner  of 
the  Bethlehem  Steel  co.,  was  born  at 
Williamsburg,  Pa.,  in  1862.  In  1887  he 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  the 
Homestead  works  and  under  him  these 
works  were  reconstructed  and  made  the 
largest  in  the  world.  In  1889  he  became 
general  superintendent  of  the  Edgar 
Thomson  works.  He  was  made  president 
of  the  Carnegie  Steel  company  in 
February,  1897.  When  the  United 
States  Steel  corporation  was  formed  he 
was  made  president  at  Mr.  Carnegie’s 
suggestion.  He  retired  in  1904  to  be- 
come president  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
company  in  which  he  owns  a majority 

SCHWANN,  Theodore,  M.  D.,  a Ger- 
man phys  ologist,  was  born  at  Neuss, 
in  the  Rhine  provinces,  December  7, 
1810. "Doctor  Schwann  spent  forty  years 
in  important  work  in  connection  with 
anatomy,  and  made  some  very  valuable 
discoveries,  one  of  them  being  that  of 
the  presence  of  pepsin  in  the  gastric 
juice.  He  died  at  Cologne,  January  11, 
1882 

SCHWANTHALER(shvan'ta-ler),Lud- 
wig  Michael,  German  sculptor,  born  at 
Munich  in  1802,  where  his  father,  the 
court  sculptor,  died  in  1821.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  he  succeeded  him, 
and  executed  various  commissions  for 
King  Maximilian,  and  a great  number 
for  his  successor  King  Ludwig.  He  died 
in  1848.  Schwanthaler  was  the  chief 
representative  of  the  “romantic”  school 
in  sculpture,  and  his  works  are  often 
deficient  in  truth  to  nature  and  reality. 

SCHWARZBURG  - RUDOLSTADT 
(shvarts'burh-ro-dol-stat),  a German 
principality,  consisting  of  several  iso- 
lated portions,  situated  between  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  the  Saxon  duchies,  and 
the  principality  of  Reuss.  It  lies  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Thuringian  Forest, 
and  has  an  area  of  362  sq.  miles.  The 
surface  is  rugged,  and  the  soil  by  no 
means  fertile  The  most  important  crop 
is  flax,  the  culture  of  which  is  almost 
universal.  A great  part  of  the  land  is 
devoted  to  pasture,  and  great  numbers 
of  cattle  are  reared.  The  minerals  in- 
clude brown  coal,  iron,  slate,  and  salt. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  glass 
and  porcelain.  The  capital  is  Rudol- 
stadt.  Pop.  93,059. 

SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN, 
a German  principality  on  the  north- 
ern side  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  be- 
tween the  territories  of  Prussian  Sax- 
ony and  the  Saxon  duchies,  and  con- 
sisting of  several  distinct  portions; 
area,  332  sq.  miles.  One  of  the  principal 
sources  of  revenue  is  derived  from  the 
forests,  which  furnish  excellent  timber. 
The  only  manufacture  of  any  inportance 
is  porcelain.  The  capital  is  Sonder- 
shausen.  Pop.  80,898. 

SCHWATKA,  Frederick,  explorer, 
was  born  at  Galena,  111.,  September 
29, 1849  In  June,  1878,  he  sailed  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  in  command  of  the 
Franklin  search  party,  which  returned 


in  September,  1880,  having  discovered 
and  buried  many  of  the  skeletons  of 
Sir  John  Franklin’s  lost  party,  and 
cleared  up  much  of  the  mystery  that  had 
shrouded  their  fate.  He  later  explored 
the  course  of  the  Yukon  river  (1884). 
In  1890  Lieutenant  Schwatka  made  an 
exploring  expedition  to  Mexico.  His 
works  are:  Along  Alaska’s  Great  River, 
Nimrod  in  the  North,  Children  of  the 
Cold.  He  died  in  1892. 

SCHWYZ  (shvets),  a central  canton 
of  Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Lake  of  Zurich  and  canton  St. 
Gall,  west  by  Zug  and  Luzern,  south  by 
Lake  Luzern,  and  east  by  Glarus;  area, 
353  sq.  miles  Schwyz  being  the  most 
important  of  the  cantons  which  first 
threw  off  the  yoke  of  Austria,  gave  the 
name  to  the  whole  confederation.  Its 
present  government  is  an  extreme 
democracy,  the  whole  power,  legislative 
and  executive,  being  lodged  in  the  male 
population  of  legal  age,  who  hold  a 
general  assembly  every  two  years. 
Pop.  55,497. 

SCIATTCA,  a term  used  in  medicine 
to  denote  a rheumatic  affection,  in 
which  the  pain  stretches  along  the 
course  of  the  great  sciatic  nerve,  that  is, 
from  the  hip  along  the  back  part  of  the 
thigh  toward  the  ham  of  the  leg.  There 
is  stiffness  and  pain,  increased  by  any 
change  of  temperature  and  moisture; 
there  is  generally  swelling  of  the  limb 
at  the  commencement  of  the  disease, 
but  after  repeated  attacks  the  limb 
seems  to  shrink,  owing  to  the  wasting  of 
the  muscles.  In  some  cases  the  articula- 
tion of  the  hip  seems  affected,  and  per- 
manent immobility  of  the  limb  takes 
place. 

SCIENCES,  a term  applied  to  the 
generalized  and  systematized  divisions 
of  knowledge.  Science  and  philosophy 
resemble  each  other  in  so  far  as  they 
both  have  to  do  with  knowledge;  but 
while  the  latter  deals  with  the  whole 
sum  of  knowledge,  the  former  takes  up 
special  branches  of  it,  and  it  does  not 
necessarily  go  back  to  first  principles 
like  philosophy.  Given  a sufficient  num- 
ber of  inter-related  facts,  they  may  be 
so  arranged  and  classified,  by  referring 
them  to  the  general  truths  and  principles 
on  which  they  are  founded,  as  to  con- 
stitute a well-certified  and  more  or  less 
complete  branch  of  knowledge,  that  is, 
a science.  The  sciences  are  broadly 
divided  into  pure  or  theoretic  sciences 
and  applied  or  practical  sciences,  the 
latter  being  definable  as  the  knowledge 
of  facts,  events,  or  phenomena  as  ex- 
plained, accounted  for,  or  produced  by 
means  of  powers,  causes,  or  laws;  the 
former  as  the  knowledge  of  these  powers, 
causes,  or  laws,  considered  apart  or  as 
pure  from  all  applications.  To  the  class 
of  pure  or  fundamental  sciences  belong 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  psy- 
chology, and  sociology;  to  the  applied  or 
concrete  belong  geology,  mineralogy, 
botany,  zoology,  meteorology,  geo- 
graphy, ethics,  politics,  law,  jurispru- 
dence, logic,  grammar,  rhetoric,  phil- 
ology, and  political  economy;  naviga- 
tion, engineering,  and  practical  me- 
chanics; surgery,  midwifery,  materia 
medica,  etc. 

SCILLY  ISLANDS  (sil'i),  a group  of 
granitic  islands  belonging  to  England, 


forming  part  of  the  county  of  Cornwall, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  English  channel, 
about  30  miles  west  by  south  of  Land’s 
End.  They  rise  abruptly  from  a deep 
sea,  form  a compact  group  about  30 
miles  in  circumference,  and  are  said  to 
amount  altogether  to  about  140  in 
number  (total  area  3560  acres) ; but 
there  are  only  six  of  any  importance, 
the  remainder  being  mere  rocks  and 
islets.  The  six  alluded  to  are  St.  Mary’s, 
St.  Agnes,  St.  Martin,  Trescow,  Bryher, 
and  Sampson.  Pop.  2096. 

SCIMITAR,  a kind  of  sword  in  use 
among  eastern  nations.  The  blade  is 
nearly  semi-circular  in  form,  with  the 
edge  upon  the  convex  side.  This  form, 
while  ill  adapted  for  thrusting,  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  striking. 

SCIO,  or  SKIO  (si'6;  ske'6),  an  island 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  ^gean  sea, 
separated  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
by  a channel  not  more  than  7 miles  wide 
where  narrowest,  and  about  53  miles 
west  of  Smyrna.  Before  the  war  of 
Greek  independence  Scio  was  peopled 
almost  entirely  by  Greeks,  of  whom  large 
numbers  were  massacred  by  the  Turks 
after  their  subjugation  in  1822.  Scio 
contends  for  the  honor  of  having  given 
birth  to  Homer.  It  possesses  few  an- 
tiquities. In  April,  1881,  the  island 
suffered  much  from  repeated  shocks  of 
earthquake.  Pop.  70,000. 

SCIPTO  AFRICA'NUS,  The  Elder, 
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus 
Major,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of 
Roman  warriors,  was  born  about  235 
B.c.  In  212  B.c.  he  was  unanimously 
elected  sedile,  and  a few  years  after  was 
appointed  proconsul  in  Spain.  His  first 
successful  enterprise  of  importance  was 
the  conquest  of  New  Carthage,  the 
strongholdof  the  Carthaginians  in  Spain. 
The  next  year  (209  b.c.)  Scipio  totally 
defeated  Hasdrubal,  Hannibal’s  brother, 
and  subsequently  a fresh  army,  led  by 
Mago  and  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco. 
The  result  was  to  drive  the  Carthagin- 
ians wholly  from  Spain,  and  Scipio  was 
empowered  to  lead  an  army  against 
Carthage  herself.  The  Carthaginians 
recalled  Hannibal  from  Italy,  but  the 
great  battle  of  Zama,  fought  19th  Octo- 
ber, 202  B.C.,  resulted  in  the  total  defeat 
of  the  Carthaginians,  who,  on  the  advice 
of  Hannibal,  sought  for  peace.  On  his 
return  to  Rome  Scipio  was  honored  with 
a triumph,  and  received  the  surname  of 
Africanus.  He  died,  it  is  believed,  in 
B.c.  183,  the  same  year  as  his  great  op- 
ponent Hannibal. 

SCIP'IO  AFRICA'NUS,  The  Younger, 
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  ^Emilianus 
Africanus  Minor,  son  of  L.  jEmilius 
Paullus,  the  conqueror  of  Macedonia, 
and  adopted  son  of  P.  Cornelius  Scipio, 
the  son  of  Scipio  Africanus  Major,  was 
born  about  187  b.c.  In  b.c.  152  he 
accompanied  the  consul  Lucius  Licinius 
Lucullus  to  Spain  as  military  tribune, 
and  in  b.c.  149,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
third  Punic  war,  commanded  in  Africa 
under  the  consul  M.  Manlius  Nepos.  His 
services  were  so  important  that  in  b.c. 
147,  contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  not 
being  of  the  legal  age,  he  was  unani- 
mously chosen  consul  and  leader  of  the 
forces  against  the  Carthaginians.  In 
B.c.  146  he  took,  and  by  command  of 
the  senate  burned  Carthage,  for  which 


SCIRPUS 


SCOTLAND 


he  was  honored  with  a triumph  at  Rome 
and  with  the  surname  of  Africanus.  He 
was  found  dead  in  his  bed  in  b.c.  129, 
Carbo  being  suspected  of  having  mur- 
dered him.  He  was  a friend  of  Polybius, 
the  historian,  and  a patron  of  Terence. 

SCIRPUS.  See  Bulrush. 

SCISSORBILL,  a genus  of  Laridse  or 
gulls,  so  named  from  the  possession  of 
an  elongated  beak  of  compressed  form, 
the  lower  mandible  exceeding  the  upper 
one  in  length,  and  shutting  into  the 
latter  somewhat  after  the  fashion  that 
the  blade  of  a knife  does  into  its  handle. 
This  curious  beak  is  of  an  orange  color 
at  its  base,  and  black  at  its  tip.  The 
bird,  which  inhabits  the  coasts  of  Ameri- 
ca, and  Africa  is  a dark  brown  on  the 
upper  aspect  of  the  head  and  body;  the 
under  surface  white,  and  a band  of  white 
across  the  wings.  The  average  length  of 
the  scissorbill  is  about  \\  foot. 

SCORE,  in  music,  the  original  draught 
or  its  transcript,  of  a musical  composi- 
tion, with  the  parts  for  all  the  different 
voices  or  instruments  arranged  and 
placed  in  juxtaposition;  so  called  from 
the  practice  of  drawing  the  bar  through 
all  the  parts. 

SCORPION,  the  name  of  animals  of 
the  class  Arachnida  (which  includes 
also  the  spiders).  The  largest  of  their 
class.  Scorpions  have  an  elongated  body 
suddenly  terminated  by  a long  slender 
tail  formed  of  six  joints,  the  last  of  which 
terminates  in  an  arcuated  and  very 
acute  sting,  which  effuses  a venomous 
liquid.  This  sting  gives  rise  to  excruciat- 
ing pain,  but  is  usually  unattended 
either  with  redness  or  swelling,  except 
in  the  glands  of  the  arm-pit  or  groin. 
It  is  very  seldom,  if  ever,  fatal  to  man. 
The  animal  has  four  pairs  of  limbs  borne 
by  the  thorax  or  chest-segments,  and  the 
maxillary  palpi  (organs  of  touch  belong- 
ing to  the  maxilljE  or  lesser  jaws)  are 


Scorpions. 


largely  developed,  and  constitute  a 
formidable  pair  of  nipping  claws.  With 
these  claws  they  seize  their  insect  prey, 
which  is  afterward  killed  by  the  sting. 
The  eyes,  which  are  of  the  simple  kind 
number  six,  eight,  or  twelve.  The  female 
scorpions  are  said  to  exhibit  great  care 
for  their  young,  and  carry  them  on  their 
backs  for  several  days  after  being 
hatched,  while  they  tend  them  carefully 
for  about  a month,  when  they  are  able 
to  shift  for  themselves.  Scorpions  gen- 
erally live  in  dark  places,  and  under 
stones.  They  are  found  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  in  Africa,  in  the  East  Indies, 
and  in  South  America. 

SCORPION  FISH,  or  SEA  SCORPION, 
a genus  of  teleostean  (acanthopterous) 
fishes,  belonging  to  the  Triglidse  or 
gurnard  family.  The  first  dorsal  fin 
possesses  eleven  spines,  the  second  dorsal 


possessing  one  spiny  ray  and  nine  or 
ten  soft  rays.  The  anal  fin  is  short,  and 
has  three  spines  and  five  soft  rays.  The 
red  scorpion-fish  is  a familiar  form.  The 
spotted  scorpion-fish  is  a second  species, 
and,  like  the  preceding  form,  occurs  in 
British  waters,  as  well  as  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Atlantic,  and  the  tropical  seas. 

SCORPION  FLY,  a genus  of  insects 
belonging  to  the  order  Neuroptera,  or 
that  of  the  dragon  flies.  The  name 
scorpion  fly  is  derived  from  the  append- 
ages seen  attached  to  the  abdomen  of 
some  species.  The  male  in  the  common 
species,  for  example,  has  the  sixth  and 
seventh  joints  of  the  abdomen  at- 
tenuated, and  capable  of  extensive  mo- 
tion; while  the  last  joint  forms  a pair 
of  forceps  resembling  those  of  the  ear- 
wigs. When  at  rest  this  tail  is  curled 
over  the  back,  but  when  irritated  the 
forceps  are  used  as  weapons  of  offense 
or  defense. 

SCOTLAND,  the  northern  division  of 
the  Island  of  Great  Britain,  between 
lat.  54°  38'  and  58°  40'  30"  n.;  and  Ion. 
1°  46'  and  6°  8'  30"  w.  It  is  separated 
from  England  substantially  by  the 
Solway,  Cheviots,  and  Tweed,  the  border 
isthmus  being  about  60  miles  across; 
but  the  irregular  boundary  line  meas- 
ures fully  100  miles.  On  all  other  sides 
it  is  bounded  by  the  sea.  Few  points 
in  the  mainland  are  more  than  40  miles 
from  the  sea,  the  country  being  so  much 
penetrated  by  inlets.  The  country  was 
formerly  divided  into  a number  of  dis- 
tricts, many  of  the  names  of  which  are 
still  familiar,  such  as  Lothian,  Tweed- 
dale,  Galloway,  Breadalbane,  etc.,  but 
for  political  purposes  is  now  divided 
into  33  counties,  of  which  Lanark, 
Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  Forfar,  Ayr,  Fife 
and  Renfren  are  the  most  important. 
Pop. 4,772,103.  Edinburgh  (the  capital), 
Glasgow,  Dundee,  and  Aberdeen  each 
contain  upward  of  100,000  inhabitants. 
After  these  come,  in  order  of  population. 
Paisley,  Leith,  Greenock,  Coatbridge, 
Kilmarnock,  Kirkcaldy,  Perth,  Hamil- 
ton, Motherwell,  and  Falkirk. 

The  islands  of  Scotland  number  alto- 
gether nearly  800.  On  the  east  coast 
they  are  few  and  small ; but  on  the  north- 
east are  the  two  large  groups  of  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  the  former  num- 
bering 52  islands,  28  permanently  in- 
habited; the  latter  100  islands,  29  in- 
habited; while  on  the  west  coast  the 
islands  are  large  and  numerous.  Here 
the  Hebrides  extend  for  200  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  are  divided  into  the 
Inner  and  Outer  Hebrides,  the  former 
lying  close  to  the  western  coast  of  the 
mainland  and  stretching  from  Skye  to 
Islay;  the  latter,  parted  from  the  Inner 
Hebrides  by  the  straits  of  the  Minch  and 
the  Little  Minch,  comprise  the  long 
chain  of  islands  from  Lewis  to  Ben- 
becula.  Inclosed  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde 
are  the  islands  of  Arran,  Bute,  and  the 
Cumbraes,  forming  a county  by  them- 
selves. The  west  coast  of  themainland  is 
generally  a wild,  deeply-indented  moun- 
tain-wall, presenting  a series  of  inlets 
or  sea  lochs,  while  toward  the  middle 
the  coast  is  cleft  by  two  great  inlets  with 
openings  to  the  southwest,  the  Firth  of 
Lorn  and  its  continuation  Loch  Linnhe, 
and  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  its  ramifica- 
tions running  far  inland.  The  east  coast 


is  sometimes  low  and  sandy,  but  is  often 
formed  of  steep  rocky  cliffs  of  con- 
siderable elevation,  the  chief  inlets  being 
the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Tay,  and  the 
Moray  Firth,  Cromarty  Firth,  etc. 

Both  from  the  configuration  of  the 
surface  and  the  geological  structure  the 
country  divides  into  three  divisions,  the 
Highlands,  Central  Lowlands,  and 
Southern  Uplands.  The  first  of  these 
divisions  lies  north  of  a line  stretching 
in  a s.w.  direction  from  the  coast  of 
Kincardineshire  to  the  Firth  of  Clyde; 
the  third  is  the  country  s.  of  a line  drawn 
from  Dunbar  southwesterly  to  Girvan; 
the  country  between  these  lines  forms 
the  Central  Lowlands. 

The  chief  rivers  flow  to  the  east,  and 
enter  the  German  ocean,  the  largest 
being  the  Tweed,  Forth,  Tay,  South 
Esk,  North  Esk,  Dee,  Don,  Deveron, 
Spey,  Findhorn,  etc.;  those  entering  the 
sea  on  the  west  are  the  Clyde,  Ayr,  Doon 
Dee,  Nith,  Annan,  and  Esk.  The  Clyde, 
however,  in  its  lower  course  carries  a 
vast  traffic,  this  being  rendered  possible 
chiefly  by  dredging.  Many  of  the  rivers 
are  valuable  from  the  numbers  of  sal- 
mon they  produce.  A striking  feature 
of  the  country  is  the  great  multitude  of 
lakes,  varying  in  size  from  Loch  Lomond 
(28  sq.  miles)  to  the  pool-like  mountain 
tarns.  In  the  Northern  Highlands  al- 
most every  glen  has  its  lake  and  every 
mountain  hollow  is  filled  by  a stream  or 
spring. 

For  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  Trade, 
etc.,  see  Britain. 

The  parliament  of  Scotland  anciently 
comprised  all  who  held  any  portion  of 
land,  however  small,  from  the  crown  by 
tenure  of  military  service,  till  the  reign 
of  James  VI.,  when  the  small  barons  or 
freeholders  were  excused  from  attend- 
ance in  person,  “two  or  more  wise  men,” 
being  deputed  from  each  county  in  pro- 
portion to  its  size.  Its  powers  were 
nominally  extensive,  but  the  supreme 
power  was  virtually  in  the  king,  who 
by  his  influence  often  entirely  .controlled 
its  proceedings.  The  parliament  in  the 
whole  consisted  of  three  estates — the 
nobility,  the  dignified  clergy  (consisting 
of  bishops,  abbots,  and  priors),  and  the 
lesser  barons,  or  representatives  of 
shires  and  burghs.  When  Presbyterian- 
ism was  formally  ratified  by  law  after 
the  revolution  of  1688,  the  ecclesiastical 
estate  ceased  to  have  a place  in  parlia- 
ment. Every  measure  brought  before 
parliament  was  previously  prepared  by 
a committee,  styled  the  lords  of  the 
articles,  chosen  from  each  of  the  three 
orders,  but  in  effect  little  better  than 
royal  nominees.  Before  the  Union  there 
were  four  great  officers  of  state — the 
lord  high-chancellor,  the  high-treasurer, 
the  lord  privy-seal,  and  the  secretary; 
and  there  were  also  four  lesser  officers — 
the  lord  clerk-register,  the  lord-advo- 
cate, the  treasurer-depute,  and  the 
justice-clerk.  Previously  to  the  era  of 
the  Revolution  the  privy-council  of 
Scotland  assumed  inquisitorial  powers, 
andeven  torture  was  administered  under 
the  sanction  of  its  authority;  but  it  is 
now  entirely  merged  in  the  privy-coun- 
cil of  Great  Britain.  The  number  of  peers 
in  the  Scottish  parliament  was  latterly 
160,  and  of  commons  155,  and  all  sat  in 
one  house,  and  voted  promiscuously. 


SCOTLAND 


SCOTLAND 


At  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  the  politi- 
cal system  of  Scotland  was  almost 
entirely  incorporated  with  that  of 
England. 

Scotland  has  had  the  advantage  of  a 
national  system  of  elementary  educa- 
tion for  over  two  centuries,  a school 
having  been  established  in  every  parish 
by  a law  of  1696  (where  such  a school 
was  not  already  established),  according 
to  a system  proposed  by  John  Knox 
long  before.  This  scheme  did  effective 
service  for  the  education  of  the  people, 
till  the  great  increase  of  population, 
especially  in  towns,  rendered  it  unequal 
to  the  task  laid  upon  it,  and  this  not- 
withstanding the  erection  of  many 
schools  by  various  religious  denomina- 
tions. By  the  passing  of  the  Education 
Act  of  1872  board-schools  have  super- 
seded the  old  parish  schools,  there  being 
also  numerous  grammar  or  high  schools 
and  academies  in  every  town  of  any  size, 
though  no  systematic  scheme  of  second- 
ary education.  Other  institutions  are 
the  normal  or  training  schools  and  col- 
leges of  the  different  religious  bodies 
and  the  four  universities  of  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  and  St.  Andrews. 

The  country  now  called  Scotland 
emerges  from  pre-historic  obscurity 
during  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain, 
though  for  many  centuries  little  is 
known  of  its  history.  A Celtie  (and 
Aryan)  people  seem  to  have  entered  the 
country,  and  to  have  gained  predomi- 
nance over  the  non-Aryans,  the  com- 
bined people  occupying  at  the  Roman 
invasion  most  of  the  country  north  of 
the  Forth  and  Clyde  estuaries,  which 
was  called  Caledonia  by  the  Romans, 
and  its  people  Caledonians.  The  south- 
ern part  of  the  country  was  inhabited 
by  another  Celtic  race,  the  Brythons 
or  Britons,  of  the  same  blood  as  the 
Welsh.  The  descendants  of  the  Cale- 
donians were  afterwards  called  Piets, 
and  were  the  predominant  people  in 
North  Britain  at  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century,  when  a colony  of  Scots  or 
Dalriads  from  Ireland  effected  a settle- 
ment in  Argyle,  and  gradually  spread 
over  the  adjacent  regions.  It  is  from 
these  Scots  (a  Celtic  and  Gaelic-speak- 
ing people)  that  the  country  afterward 
received  the  name  of  Scotland,  the  origi- 
nal Scotland  (Scotia)  being  Ireland. 
The  Teutonic  element  was  introduced 
into  Scotland  as  early  as  the  4th  century 
About  the  middle  of  the  9th  century 
Kenneth  MacAlpin,  son  of  a ruler  of  a 
body  of  Scots  established  in  Galloway, 
but  of  Pictish  descent  through  his 
mother,  united  in  his  own  person  the 
sovereignty  of  both  the  Piets  and  the 
Scots.  The  reigns  of  Kenneth  nnd  his 
immediate  successors  were  one  con- 
tinued scene  of  warfare  with  the 
Norsemen  on  one  hand  and  with 
the  Britons  of  Strathclyde  and  the  Eng- 
lish of  Northumbria  on  the  other. 
On  the  advent  of  Malcolm  Canmore 
(lO.'iS)  to  the  throne  after  the  death  of 
Macbeth,  the  able  ursurper  and  mur- 
derer of  Duncan  (see  Macbeth),  the 
purely  Celtic  monarchy  camo  to  an  end. 

On  the  death  of  Malcolm  the  Celtic 
tribes  placed  his  brother  Donald  Bane 
on  the  throne,  but  he  was  driven  from  it 
before  he  had  reigned  a year  by  Dun- 
can, a natural  son  of  the  late  king,  who 


now  seized  the  scepter.  In  1098,  how- 
ever, Edgar  Atheling,  obtained  a force 
from  the  English  king,  and  succeeded  in 
gaining  the  kingdom  for  Edgar,  the 
lawful  son  of  Malcolm.  Edgar  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Alexander  I., 
a prince  whose  reign  is  chiefly  signalized 
by  his  severe  administration  of  justice. 
He  assisted  Henry  I.  of  England,  who 
had  married  his  sister,  in  a war  with  the 
Welsh,  and  died  in  1124,  leaving  the 
throne  to  his  younger  brother  David. 
David  was  brought  into  feudal  relations 
with  the  Norman  king  of  England.  On 
the  accession  of  the  usurper  Stephen  to 
the  English  throne  in  1135,  to  the  prej- 
udice of  Maud  or  Matilda,  wife  of  the 
Emperor  Henry  V.,  only  child  of  Henry 
I.  and  niece  of  David,  the  latter  made 
several  expeditions  into  England  in  sup- 
port of  his  niece’s  claim  to  the  throne. 
His  death  in  1153  was  preceded  by  that 
of  his  only  son,  so  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  Malcolm  the  Maiden,  whose 
reign  of  twelve  years  is  only  remark- 
able for  his  giving  up  Northumberland 
and  Cumberland  to  the  English  king. 
On  the  death  of  Malcolm  IV.  in  1165 
the  crown  fell  to  his  younger  brother 
William,  who  is  known  by  the  title  of 
William  the  Lion.  During  an  expedition 
into  England  for  the  purpose  of  regain- 
ing Northumberland  he  was  taken 
prisoner  (1175),  and  sent  to  Falaise  in 
Normandy,  where  a treaty  was  con- 
cluded acknowledging  the  supremacy 
of  England,  and  declaring  Scotland  a 
fief  and  himself  a vassal  of  the  English 
crown.  This  treaty  remained  in  force 
till  1189,  when  Richard  I.  restored 
Scottish  independence  for  the  sum  of 
10,000  marks  in  order  to  equip  a force 
to  join  the  third  crusade.  The  rest  of 
William’s  reign  was  devoted  to  the  con- 
solidation of  his  kingdom  in  the  north 
and  west.  The  Scottish  alliance  with 
France,  and  many  of  the  Scottish 
burgh  charters,  date  from  this  reign. 
His  successors  were  Alexander  II., 
1214-49,  and  Alexander  III.,  1249-1286. 
Margaret  of  Norway  was  only  three 
years  old  at  Alexander’s  death,  and  a 
regency  consisting  of  four  barons  and 
two  bishops  was  appointed.  Margaret 
died  in  1290  and  was  succeeded  by  John 
Baliol,  who  was  crowned  at  Scone 
(1292)  acknowledging  Edward  as  his 
overlord.  Edward  had  succeeded  in 
conquering  Scotland  when  Wallace, 
the  man  of  the  people,  appeared. 
William  Wallace,  assisted  by  some  of 
the  barons  and  a considerable  body  of 
men,  defeated  the  English  governor, 
the  Earl  of  Surrey,  at  Stirling  Bridge 
(11th  September,  1297),  drove  Edward’s 
garrison  out  of  the  country,  and  made  a 
raid  into  England.  Edward,  who  was 
in  Flanders,  hastened  home,  and  march- 
ing at  the  head  of  a large  army,  de- 
feated Wallace  at  Falkirk  (22d  July, 
1298),  and  before  1303  had  repossessed 
himself  of  the  whole  country.  In  1305 
Wallace  was  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  the  English  near  Glasgow  by  Sir  John 
Menteith;  was  earned  to  London,  and 
after  a mock  trial  was  condemned  as  a 
rebel  and  traitor  to  Edward  and  exe- 
cuted (23d  August,  1305).  Wallace 
soon  had  a more  fortunate,  though 
not  a more  valiant,  successor  in  Robert 
de  Bruce.  He  had  long  been  an 


unwilling  and  restless  retainer  of  Ed- 
ward, but  latterly  determined  to  push 
his  claims  in  Scotland,  and  was  crowned 
as  king  of  the  country  at  Scone  in  1306. 
At  first  his  career  was  not  successful, 
but  the  death  of  Edward  I.  at  Burgh-on- 
Sands,  on  his  way  to  Scotland,  and  the 
inactivity  of  his  son  Edward  II.,  were 
turning-points  in  the  recovery  of  the  in- 
dependence of  Scotland.  Gradually 
Bruce  recovered  the  whole  country,  till 
in  1313  the  only  English  garrison  left 
was  Stirling  Castle,  which  was  closely 
besieged  by  the  Scotch.  To  relieve  it 
Edward  II.  led  into  Scotland  a great 
army,  which  was  totally  defeated  by 
Bruce  in  the  battle  of  Bannockburn 
(24th  June,  1314).  After  this  victory 
Bruce  reigned  with  almost  uninter- 
rupted success,  and  died  in  1329. 
On  the  death  of  Robert  Bruce  his  son, 
David  II.,  a boy  six  years  old,  was  pro- 
claimed king,  and  acknowledged  by  the 
great  part  of  the  nation.  Edward  Baliol, 
however,  the  son  of  John  Baliol  (who 
died  1314)  formed  a party  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supporting  his  pretensions  to  the 
crown;  he  was  backed  by  Edward  III. 
of  England.  At  first  Baliol  was  success- 
ful; and  on  the  24th  September,  1332, 
he  was  crowned  king  at  Scone,  but 
eventually  David  succeeded  in  driv- 
ing him  from  the  kingdom.  At  his 
death  in  1370,  childless,  the  suc- 
cession fell  to  Robert,  son  of  Walter, 
the  high  steward,  and  of  Marjory  Bruce, 
daughter  of  Robert  I.  (Bruce),  Robert 
II.  being  thus  the  first  of  the  Steward,  or 
as  it  came  to  be  written,  Stewart  or 
Stuart,  dynasty.  Robert  II.  died  in  1390 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  John,  who 
upon  his  accession  took  the  name  of 
Robert  III.  The  latter  part  of  the  reign 
of  Robert  III.  was  disturbed  by  the 
ambition  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
Albany,  who  is  said  to  have  caused  the 
death  of  the  profligate  young  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  the  heir  to  the  throne.  Afraid 
for  the  safety  of  his  second  son,  James, 
Robert  designed  to  send  him  to  France; 
but  the  ship  in  which  he  was  being  con- 
veyed was  captured  by  the  English,  a 
misfortune  which  hastened  the  king’s 
death  (1406).  James  I.  being  then  only 
eleven  years  of  age,  and  a captive,  the 
regency  devolved  on  the  Duke  of  Albany. 
After  nineteen  years  of  captivity  he  was 
crowned  at  Scone  (1423).  James’  efforts 
to  diminish  the  power  of  the  great  nobles 
revoked  a conspiracy  against  him,  and 
e was  murdered  in  the  Blackfriars’ mon- 
astery at  Perth  (20th  February,  1437). 
His  son  and  successor  James  II.  being 
only  seven  years  of  age,  the  country  was 
subjected  to  the  miseries  of  a long  and 
feeble  regency.  One  of  the  chief  events 
of  his  reign  was  the  rebellion  and  tem- 
porary overthrow  of  the  powerful  house 
of  Douglas.  James  was  accidentally 
killed  by  the  bursting  of  a cannon  at  the 
siege  of  Roxburgh  Castle  (3d  August, 
1460).  James  III.  was  not  quite  eight 
years  of  age  when  he  succeeded  to  the 
kingdom,  which  was  again  subject  to 
all  the  troubles  of  a minority.  In  1467 
the  young  king  married  Margaret, 
daughter  of  the  Norse  king  Christian, 
and  in  the  shape  of  a pledge  of  payment 
of  her  dowry  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
islands  were  given  up  to  Scotland,  of 
which  they  have  ever  since  formed  a 


SCOTT 


SCOTT 


S)art.  A confederation  against  him  was 
ormed  by  a number  of  his  nobles  in 
1 488 ; the  forces  met  at  Sauchieburn,  near 
Stirling,  where  the  royal  army  was  de- 
feated, and  James  was  murdered  in  the 
flight.  James  IV.,  who  had  been  iii- 
duced  to  join  the  nobles  hostile  to  his 
father,  was  sixteen  years  old  when  he 
ascended  the  throne.  In  1503  he  married 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of 
England,  and  thus  paved  the  way  for 
the  future  union  of  the’  two  kingdoms. 
The  king  was  killed  at  Flodden  Field 
(9th  September,  1513);  his  infant  suc- 
cessor James  V.  had  not  yet  reached 
the  age  of  two  years.  His  cousin,  the 
Duke  of  Albany,  was  appointed  regent, 
but  from  an  early  part  of  the  reign 
James  was  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Earl  of  Angus,  who  had  married 
the  queen  dowager,  and  had  almost 
complete  control  of  affairs  till  1528, 
when  James  then  in  his  seventeenth 
year  managed  to  escape  to  Stirling,  take 
the  government  in  his  own  hands,  and 
drive  Angus  into  England.  His  alliance 
was  sought  by  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  and  in  1537  James  married 
Madeleine,  daughter  of  Francis  I.  The 
young  queen  died  a few  weeks  after  her 
arrival  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  following 
year  James  married  Mary  of  Lorraine, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Guise.  James 
died  at  Caerlaverock  Castle  (14th  Dec., 
1542),  having  just  received  tidings  of 
the  birth  of  his  daughter,  the  future 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  The  event- 
ful period  which  followed  the  acces- 
sion of  Mary  was  dominated  by  the 
Reformation  movement,  and  the  ques- 
tions affecting  the  Union  of  Scot- 
land and  England.  In  1558  she  was 
married  to  the  dauphin  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  the  following  year,  but 
died  in  1560.  Mary  then  returned  to 
Scotland.  Mary’s  reign  was  popular  un- 
til her  unfortunatem  arriage  with  Darn- 
ley  in  1565.  Darnley  was  murdered  by 
the  Earl  of  Bothwell  and  his  servants, 
but  whether  Mary  was  accessory  to  the 
murder  is  yet  a matter  of  controversy. 
The  fact  remains  that  she  married 
Bothwell  within  three  months,  and 
alienated  the  greater  number  of  her 
subjects.  A confederacy  was  formed 
against  her  and  she  was  imprisoned  in 
Lochleven  Castle.  She  escaped  and  fled 
to  England  and  put  herself  under  the 
protection  of  Elizabeth.  Here  she  drops 
from  Scottish  history,  but  her  after-life 
till  her  execution  in  1587  was  a continual 
series  of  plots  to  regain  her  lost  throne. 
James  VI.,  the  son  of  Mary,  being  a 
mere  child,  Moray  held  the  regency  of 
the  kingdom.  The  chief  events  of  the 
reign,  prior  to  the  union  of  the  crowns 
by  the  accession  of  James  to  the  throne 
of  England  as  James  I.,  were  the  raid  of 
Ruthven,  the  marriage  of  James  to  Ann 
of  Denmark,  and  the  Gowrie  conspiracy. 
On  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603, 
James  succeeded  as  the  nearest  heir 
through  his  descent  from  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Henry  VII.  and  wife  of 
James  IV.  He  was  crowned  at  West- 
minster, and  assumed  the  title  of  King 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland. 

There  were  seven  Scottish  parliaments 
called  by  James  after  his  accession, 
wherein  he  was  represented  by  a com- 
missioner sitting  as  president.  His  chief 


energies  were  directed  to  an  attempt  to 
draw  England  and  Scotland  into  a 
closer  union  by  means  of  harmonizing 
the  laws  of  the  two  countries,  and  by 
establishing  episcopacy  in  Scotland. 
James  VI.  died  in  1625,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Charles  I.  For- 
eign wars  and  domestic  troubles  pre- 
vented Charles  from  visiting  Scot- 
land till  1633  when  he  was  crowned  at 
Edinburgh.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  in  England,  Scotland  took  the  part 
of  the  parliament  against  the  king,  and 
was  of  considerable  assistance  to  the 
parliamentary  forces  at  Marston  Moor 
and  elsewhere.  The  affairs  of  the  king 
becoming  hopeless  in  England,  Charles 
gave  himself  up  to  the  Scottish  army 
posted  before  Newark  5th  May,  1646, 
and  was  surrendered  to  the  English 
parliament  30th  January,  1467.  After 
the  execution  of  Charles  (30th  Jan- 
uary, 1649)  the  Scots  proclaimed  his 
son  king,  under  the  title  of  Charles  II. 
The  young  king  was  then  in  Holland. 
He  arrived  in  Scotland,  landing  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Spey,  3d  July,  1650,  and 
marched  southward  by  Aberdeen,  Dun- 
dee, and  St.  Andrews  to  Falkland  palace. 
Cromwell  at  Worcester  utterly  scattered 
theroyalist  forces, and  compelled  Charles 
to  become  a fugitive  (3d  September, 
1651).  Cromwell’s  death  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  fall  of  his  son.  Monk’s 
march  to  London  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
and  the  restoration  of  Charles  11.  (1660). 
The  Scottish  parliament  assembled 
under  the  Earl  of  Middleton,  the  king’s 
commissioner,  January  1,  1661,  and  it 
soon  became  apparent  that  Charles  was 
determined  to  carry  out  the  favorite 
scheme  of  his  father  and  grandfather  of 
establishing  episcopacy  in  Scotland. 
Charles  died  in  1685,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother,  James  VII.  of  Scotland 
and  II.  of  England.  The  chief  events 
of  his  reign,  so  far  as  Scotland 
was  concerned,  were  the  rising,  de- 
feat, and  execution  of  Argyle.  At 
the  Revolution  a convention  of  the 
estates  at  Edinburgh  proclaimed  Wil- 
iam, prince  of  Orange,  James’  son-in- 
law  and  nephew,  and  his  wife  Mary, 
James’  daughter,  king  and  queen  of 
Scotland.  Religious  freedom  was  again 
restored,  and  in  1690  a general  assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  church  again  met. 

The  death  of  William  III.  in  1702 
transferred  the  crowns  of  the  two  na- 
tions to  Queen  Anne,  sister  of  Mary. 
A joint  commission  was  appointed  to 
draw  up  articles  of  union  in  1706.  A 
majority  of  the  parliament  carried  the 
measure  (16th  January,  1707);  it  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent  (March  4);  and 
the  union  took  effect  (May  1).  The  chief 
provisions  of  the  Act  of  Union  were  (1) 
That  the  two  kingdoms  should  be  united 
under  the  name  of  “Great  Britain;’’ 
(2)  that  the  succession  to  the  crown  of 
the  United  Kingdom  should  be  in  the 
Electress  Sophia  of  Hanover  and  her 
heirs,  being  Protestants;  (3)  that  16 
Scottish  peers  and  45  Scottish  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons  should  be 
elected  to  the  one  parliament  sitting 
in  London;  (4)  that  the  Established 
Presbyterian  church  of  Scotland  should 
be  maintained;  (5)  that  Scotland  should 
keep  unchanged  her  own  laws  and  cus- 
toms relating  to  property  and  private 


rights,  and  also  the  court  of  session  and 
other  Scotch  courts;  (6)  that  all  the 
rights  of  trade,  free  intercourse,  and 
citizenship  should  be  of  the  same  for 
Scotch  and  English  subjects.  Hence- 
forth the  general  history  of  Scotland 
may  be  said  to  be  entirely  identified 
with  that  of  England. 

SCOTT,  Michael,  author  of  Tom 
Cringle’s  Log  and  The  Cruise  of  the 
Midge,  was  born  at  Glasgow,  1789,  and 
died  in  1835  The  two  brilliant  sea- 
novels  of  which  he  was  the  author  ap- 
peared anonymously  in  Blackwood’s 
Magazine. 

SCOTT,  Sir  Walter,  Bart.,  poet  and 
novelist,  was  born  in  Edinburgh, 
August  15,  1771.  He  was  a younger  son 
of  Walter  Scott,  writer  to  the  signet,  by 
Anne,  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Ruther- 
ford, professor  of  medicine  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh,  both  connected 
with  old  Border  families.  In  ^05  he  be- 
came prominent  as  an  original  poet  with 
the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  an  ex- 
tended specimen  of  the  ballad  style, 
which  fell  upon  the  public  as  something 
entirely  new,  and  at  once  became  widely 
popular.  In  1808  he  published  Marmion, 
another  poetic  romance  which  greatly 
increased  his  reputation;  and  in  1810  the 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  in  which  his  poetical 
genius  seems  to  have  reached  the  acme 
of  its  powers.  The  appearance  of  Wa- 
verley,  in  1814,  forms  an  epoch  in 
modern  literature  as  well  as  in  the  life  of 
Scott.  This  romance  or  novel  was  rapidly 
followed  by  numerous  others,  forming. 


Sir  ’Walter  Scott. 


from  the  name  of  the  first,  the  series 
known  as  The  Waverley  Novels.  The 
earlier  of  these  were  Guy  Mannering 
(1815),  The  Antiquary,  The  Black 
Dwarf,  Old  Mortality  (1816),  Rob  Roy 
(1817),  The  Heart  of  Midlothian  (1818), 
The  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  A Legend  of 
Montrose,  and  Ivanhoe  (1819).  These 
splendid  works  of  fiction  which  sur- 
prised and  enchanted  the  world,  it  is 
held  by  most,  mark  the  high  tide  of  his 
genius,  those  which  follow  being  placed 
on  a somewhat  lower  level,  although 
there  are  several,  especially  in  the 
second  period,  up  to  1825,  in  which  no 
falling-off  is  perceptible.  Ivanhoe  was 
followed  by  'The  Monastery,  The  Abbot 
(1820),  Kenilworth,  The  Pirate  (1821), 
The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Peveril  of  the 
Peak  (1822L  Quentin  Durward,  St. 
Ronan’s  Well  (1823),  Redgauntlet 
(1824),  The  Betrothed  and  The  Talis- 


SCOTT 


SCREW-PROPELLER 


man  (1825),  Woodstock  (1826),  The 
Chronicles  of  the  Canongate,  The  Fair 
Maid  of  Perth  (1829),  Anne  of  Geier- 
stein  (1829),  Count  Robert  of  Paris  and 
Castle  Dangerous  (1831).  The  Waverley 
novels  were  all  published  anonymously, 
nor  did  Scott  cease  to  be  the  “Great 
Unknown”  until  1827,  although  their 
authorship  had  long  been  an  open  secret 
to  many.  He  died  in  1832  and  was  in- 
terred in  his  family  burial  aisle  amid 
the  ruins  of  Dryburgh  Abbey.  His  life 
was  written  by  his  son-in-law,  John 
Gibson  Lockhart,  a work  which  has 
taken  the  position  of  a classic. 

SCOTT,  Winfield,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  United  States  army,  was  the  son 
of  a Scottish  Jacobite,  and  was  born 
near  Petersburg,  Virginia,  1786;  died 
at  West  Point,  1866.  He  was  brought 
up  to  the  law,  and  admitted  to  the  bar, 
but  never  practiced.  Entering  the  army 
he  served  with  distinction  in  the  war 
of  1812-14,  and  afterward  visited 
Europe,  and  studied  military  science  at 
Paris.  In  1832  and  the  following  years 
General  Scott  was  employed  in  opera- 
tions against  the  Indian  tribes,  and  in 
1841  he  was  appointed  commander-in- 


Winfleld  Scott. 


cnief.  His  fame  rests  upon  his  brilliant 
conduct  of  the  Mexican  war  of  1846-47, 
in  which  he  gained  several  victories  over 
Santa  Anna,  made  himself  master  of 
Mexico,  and  concluded  an  advantageous 
peace.  He  was  twice  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  presidency.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  great  civil  war  he  re- 
mained true  to  the  federal  government, 
but  was  too  infirm  to  take  any  actual 
command.  He  retired  from  active  ser- 
vice in  1861,  and  in  1864  he  published 
his  autobiography. 

SCOTUS,  Duns.  See  Duns. 

SCRANTON,  the  capital  of  Lacka- 
wanna CO.,  Pennsylvania,  in  a valley 
near  the  Lackawanna  river,  150  miles 
w.n.w.  of  New  York.  It  owes  its  rapid 
prosperity  to  the  numerous  collieries  in 
the  vicinity,  to  its  large  rolling-mills  and 
steel  works,  and  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  railway  rolling-stock,  machinery 
edge-tools,  leather,  window  sashes  and 
blinds,  silk  fabrics,  etc.  The  city  was 
founded  in  1840.  Pop.  1909,  130,000. 

SCREAMER,  the  name  given  to  two 
genera  of  South  American  grallatorial  or 
wading  birds,  the  horned  screamer  and 
the  closely  allied  crested  screamer.  The 
latter  has  no  horn,  but  its  head  is  fur- 
nished with  a dependent  crest  of 
feathers. 


SCREW,  a wooden  or  metal  cylinder 
^ving  a spiral  ridge  (the  thread)  wind- 
ing round  it  in  a uniform  manner,  so 
that  the  successive  turns  are  all  exactly 
the  same  distance  from  each  other,  and 
a corresponding  spiral  groove  is  pro- 
duced. The  screw  forms  one  of  the  six 
mechanical  powers,  and  is  simply  a 
modification  of  the  inclined  plane.  The 
energy  is  transmitted  by  means  of  a 
hollow  cylinder  (the  female  screw)  of 
equal  diameter  with  the  solid  one  (the 
male  screw),  having  a spiral  channel  cut 
on  its  inner  surface  so  as  to  correspond 
exactly  to  the  spiral  ridge  raised  upon 
the  solid  cylinder.  Hence  the  one  will 
work  within  the  other,  and  by  turning 
the  convex  cylinder,  while  the  other 
remains  fixed,  the  former  will  pass 
through  the  latter,  and  will  advance 
every  revolution  through  a space  equal 
to  the  distance  between  two  contiguous 
turns  of  the  thread  As  the  screw  is  a 
modificationof  the  inclined  plane  it  is  not 
difficult  to  estimate  the  mechanical  ad- 
vantage obtained  by  it.  If  we  suppose 
the  power  to  be  applied  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  screw,  and  to  act  in  a 
direction  at  right  angles  to  the  radius 
of  the  cylinder  and  parallel  to  the  base 
of  the  inclined  plane  by  which  the  screw 
is  supposed  to  be  formed,  then  the  power 
will  be  to  the  resistance  as  the  distance 
between  two  contiguous  threads  to  the 
circumference  of  the  cylinder.  But  as  in 
practice  the  screw  is  combined  with  the 
lever  and  the  power  applied  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  lever,  the  law  becomes: 
The  power  is  to  the  resistance  as  the 
distance  between  two  contiguous  threads 
to  the  circumference  described  by  the 
power.  Hence  the  mechanical  effect  of 
the  screw  is  increased  by  lessening  the 
distance  between  the  threads  or  making 
them  finer,  or  by  lengthening  the  lever 
to  which  the  power  is  applied.  The  law, 
however,  is  greatly  modified  by  the  fric- 
tion, which  is  very  great.  The  uses  of 
the  screw  are  various.  It  is  an  invalu- 


able contrivance  for  fine  adjustments 
such  as  are  required  in  fine  telescopes, 
microscopes,  micrometers,  etc.  It  is 
used  for  the  application  of  great  pres- 
sure as  in  the  screw-jack  and  screw- 
press;  as  a borer  in  the  gimlet;  and  in 
the  ordinary  screw-nail  we  have  it  em- 
ployed for  fastening  separate  pieces  of 
material  together.  The  differential  screw 
or  Hunter’s  screw,  is  formed  of  two 
screws,  a larger  and  a smaller,  the  former 
being  screwed  internally  to  allow  the 
latter  to  screw  into  it;  the  pitch  of  the 


two  screws  differs  slightly,  and  for  each 
turn  of  the  chief  or  larger  screw  the 
progress  of  the  point  of  the  compound 
screw  is  the  difference  of  pitch.  Greater 
power  is  in  this  way  attained  without 
the  weakness  due  to  a screw  with  fine 
threads.  See  also  Screw-propeller,  Archi- 
medean Screw,  Endless  Screw. 

SCREW-PINE,  the  type  of  an  order  of 
trees  or  bushes  known  asthePandanacere 
or  Screw-pine  order.  They  are  natives 
of  tropical  regions,  and  abound  in  in- 
sular situations,  such  as  the  Eastern 
archipelago.  They  branch  in  a dichoto- 


Screw-pine. 

mous  or  forked  manner,  and  are  re- 
markable for  the  peculiar  roots  they 
send  out  from  various  parts  of  the  stem. 
These  roots  are  called  aerial  or  adven- 
titious, and  serve  to  support  the  plant. 
The  seeds  are  edible;  and  the  flowers 
of  some  species  are  fragrant. 

SCREW-PROPELLER,  an  apparatus 
which,  being  fitted  to  ships  and  driven 
by  steam,  propels  them  through  the 
water,  and  which,  in  all  its  various 
forms,  is  a modification  of  the  common 
screw.  Originally  the  thread  had  the 
form  of  a broad  spiral  plate,  making 
one  convolution  round  the  spindle  or 
shaft,  but  now  it  consists  of  several 
distinct  blades,  forming  portions  of  two, 
three,  or  four  threads,  as  illustrated  by 
a,  b,  c.  Fig.  1,  which  give  an  idea  of  the 
various  forms  of  blades  for  different 
sizes  of  propellers:  a has  a good  shape 
for  the  larger  sizes;  b,  having  three 
blades,  is  successfully  applied  for  twin 
screw  steamers,  and  is  also  useful  with 
two  blades  for  medium  sizes;  c is  suit- 
able for  small  diameters  and  a moderate 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 
Either  two  or  three  blades  of  this  shape 
answer  well  for  barges  and  towing  pur- 
poses. The  usual  position  for  the  screw 
propeller  is  immediately  before  the 
stern-post,  as  shown  in  fig.  2,  the  shaft 
passing  parallel  to  the  keel  into  the 
engine-room,  where  it  is  set  in  rapid 


Fig.  1.— Forms  of  screw-propeller. 

motion  by  the  steam-engines.  This 
rotary  motion  in  the  surrounding  fluid. 


SCRIBES 


SCULPTURE 


which  may  be  considered  to  be  in  a par- 
tially inert  condition,  produces,  accord- 
ing to  the  well-known  principle  of  the 
screw,  an  onward  motion  of  the  vessel 
more  or  less  rapid,  according  to  the 
velocity  of  the  shaft,  the  obliquity  of  the 
blades,  and  the  weight  of  the  vessel. 
In  1827  Mr.  Wilson  of  Dunbar  produced 


Fig.  2.— Screw-propeller  In  position. 

a screw-propeller  which  proved  satis- 
factory, but  the  successful  introduction 
.of  the  screw-propeller  is  due  to  Mr.  F.  P 
Smith  and  to  Ericsson,  who  both  inde- 
pendently and  about  the  same  time 
(1838)  secured  patents.  Numerous 
modifications  of  the  screw-propeller 
have  been  proposed  and  adopted  since 
it  was  first  introduced,  and  it  has  now 
practically  superseded  the  paddle-wheel 
for  sea-going  vessels. 

SCRIBES,  among  the  Jews,  were 
officers  of  the  law.  There  were  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  scribes.  The  former  were 
employed  about  any  kind  of  civil  writ- 
ings or  records.  The  latter  studied, 
transcribed,  and  explained  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 

SCROF'ULA,  or  SCROPHULA,  a dis- 
ease due  to  a deposit  of  tubercle  in  the 
glandular  and  bony  tissues,  and  in 
reality  a form  of  tuberculosis  or  con- 
sumption. It  generally  shows  itself  by 
hard  tumors,  of  the  glands  in  various 
parts  of  the  body,  but  particularly  in 
the  neck,  behind  the  ears,  and  under 
the  chin,  which,  after  a time,  suppurate, 
and  degenerate  into  ulcers,  from  which, 
instead  of  pus,  a white  curdled  matter  is 
discharged.  The  first  appearance  of  the 
disease  is  most  usually  between  the  third 
and  seventh  year  of  the  patient’s  age; 
but  it  may  arise  at  any  period  between 
this  and  the  age  of  puberty;  after  which 
it  seldomPmakes  its  first  attack.  It  is  by 
no  means  a contagious  disease,  but  is  of 
a hereditary  nature,  and  is  often  entailed 
by  parents  on  their  children.  It  may, 
however,  remain  dormant  through  life 
and  not  show  itself  till  the  next  genera- 
tion. The  disease  generally  goes  on  for 
some  years;  and  appearing  at  last  to 
have  exhausted  itself,  all  the  ulcers  heal 
up,  without  being  succeeded  by  any 
fresh  swellings,  but  leaving  behind  them 
an  ugly  puckering  of  the  skin,  and  a scar 
of  considerable  extent.  This  is  the  most 
mild  form  under  which  scrofula  appears. 
In  more  virulent  cases  the  eyes  and  eye- 
lids are  inflamed,  the  joints  become 
affected,  and  caries  of  the  bones  super- 
venes. Hectic  fever  at  last  arises,  under 
which  the  patient  sinks;  or  the  disease 
ends  in  tuberculated  lungs  and  pul- 
monary consumption.  Scrofula  is  also 
called  struma  and  king’s-evil 

SCROLL,  a very  frequent  ornament  in 
architecture,  consisting  of  a band  ar- 
ranged in  undulations  or  convolutions. 


The  name  is  also  given  to  the  volute  of 
the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  columns. 

SCROPHULARIA'CEiE,  a very  large 
natural  order  of  herbaceous  or  shrubby 
monopetalous  exogens,  inhabiting  all 
parts  of  the  world  except  the  coldest, 
containing  about  160  genera  and  1900 
species.  They  have  opposite  or  alternate 
entire  toothed  or  cut  leaves,  and  usually 
four  or  five  lobed  irregular  flowers  with 
didynamous  stamens,  placed  in  axillary 
or  terminal  racemes;  with  a two-celled 
ovary  and  albuminous  seeds.  Many  of 
the  genera,  such  as  the  foxglove,  cal- 
ceolaria, veronica,  mimulus,  antir- 
rhinum, pentstemon,  etc.,  are  valued  by 
gardners  for  their  beautiful  flowers. 

SCULPTURE,  is  the  art  of  imitating 
living  forms  in  solid  substances.  The 
word  means  strictly,  a cutting  or  carv- 
ing in  some  hard  material,  as  stone, 
marble,  ivory,  or  wood;  but  it  is  also 
used  to  express  the  moulding  of  soft 
substances,  as  clay  or  wax,  and  the 
casting  of  metals  or  plaster. 

In  producing  a work  of  sculpture  two 
processes  are  involved,  ’‘modelling” 


Assyrian.— Prom  Nimroud,  930-920  B.  O. 


and  “casting,”  the  former  alone  being 
truly  the  work  of  the  artist.  For  orna- 
ment and  figure  the  same  method  is 
employed.  In  the  former  a ground  of 
clay  is  prepared,  and  upon  it  the  lines  of 
the  ornament  are  lightly  sketched, 
usually  with  a tool.  These  are  then 
clothed  upon  firstly  with  important 
masses,  then  the  connecting  lines,  and, 
lastly,  the  minor  detail,  the  whole  being 
afterward  modelled  to  the  forme  de- 
sired. For  a head  or  bust  a flat  board, 
set  on  a high  stand,  with  a piece  of  wood 
standing  at  right  angles  to  it,  is  used. 
Lead-piping  is  sometimes  further  em- 


living model.  For  a full-length  figure  an 
“armature”  is  prepared,  consisting  of 
an  iron  passing  through  the  center  and 
attached  to  which  are  other  irons  in  the 
case  of  statues,  or  of  lead-piping  for 
statuettes.  These  are  bent  to  the  re- 
quired positions,  the  whole  when  com- 
plete representing  in  line  the  pose  and 


character  of  the  intended  figure.  Upon 
and  around  this  framework  the  figure  is 
first  roughly  built  up  with  clay,  care 
being  taken  to  add  just  as  much  as  is 
requisite,  and  to  follow  the  general 
form  and  direction  of  the  muscles.  The 
essential  difference  between  modeling 
and  carving  is  that  in  the  former 
the  artist  works  from  within  out- 
ward by  the  additions  of  material, 
while  in  the  latter  from  without  inward 
by  the  taking  away  of  material.  The 
sculptor’s  work  proper  generally  ends 
with  the  completion  of  the  clay  model. 
The  next  process  is  that  of  casting. 
Plaster  of  Paris  of  the  consistency  of 
thick  cream  is  poured  over  the  model 
to  the  depth  of  from  2 to  3 inches,  the 
inner  layer  being  colored.  When  this  is 
set,  the  clay  is  carefully  removed,  and 
what  is  termed  a “waste  mould”  is 
formed.  This  is  carefully  washed  and 
when  dry  is  then  oiled.  Into  this  mould 
plaster  of  Paris  is  poured,  and  when 
filled  and  set  hard  the  waste  mould  is 
chipped  off.  The  plaster  of  Paris  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  clay,  and  formed 
what  is  called  a “cast.”  A head  is 


ployed  to  raise  the  height  of  this  piece  of 
wood,  and  around  this  structure  the 
clay  is  roughly  built  up,  a cylindrical 
mass  for  the  neck,  and  an  egg-shaped 
form  for  the  head.  Upon  this  latter  the 
position  of  the  features  is  marked,  and 
the  work  carried  on  by  reference  to  the 


usually  cast  in  halves,  and  a similar 
treatment  is  adopted  in  the  case  of  com- 
plete figures.  This  is  termed  “piece 
moulding.”  Parts  which  project  very 
much  are  removed  and  cast  separately, 
being  afterwards  attached  by  means  of 
plaster  of  Paris.  The  reproduction  of 


SCULPTURE 


SCULPTURE 


this  plaster  cast  in  marble  or  stone  is  a 
mechanical  operation,  usually  intrusted 
to  a skilled  workman.  To  aid  him  he 
employs  a “pointing  machine,”  by 
which  he  first  finds  out  the  distance  of 
any  point  on  the  cast  from  an  imaginary 
vertical  plane  placed  in  front,  and  into 
the  block  of  marble  drills  a hole  whose 
depth  from  the  same  plane  equals  this 


this  the  mould  is  lined  with  wax  and  the 
core  inserted  close  up  to  the  wax  lining. 
The  wax  is  then  melted  out  and  the 
molten  metal  poured  into  the  mould  to 
take  its  place,  the  core  being  afterward 
removed.  The  earliest  records  of  sculp- 
ture that  we  possess,  exhibit  the  art  in 
complete  bondage  to  religion.  Thus  the 
sculptures  of  India  and  China  are  semi- 


analogous  to  that  obtained  by  the 
Greeks  in  their  treatment  of  Hercules, 
but  withal  possessing  no  sense  of  ideal 
beauty. 

These  early  products  of  art,  valuable 
in  themselves,  are  nevertheless  chiefly 
interesting  as  leading  the  way  to  the  full 
development  of  sculpture  under  the 
Greeks.  Greek  sculpture,  in  its  infancy, 
is  strongly  stamped  with  orientd  char- 
acter, as  may  be  seen  by  a careful  ex- 
amination of  the  reliefs  from  the  temple 
of  Assos  now  in  the  Louvre,  and  the 
metopes  from  Sellinus,  casts  of  which 
are  in  the  British  Museum.  But  from 
the  end  of  the  6th  century  b.c.  the  de- 
velopment of  Greek  art  was  rapid  and 
continuous.  Upheld  on  the  one  hand  by 
a noble  mythology,  that  magnified  with- 
out distorting  human  attributes,  and 
supported  on  the  other  by  an  increasing 
knowledge  of  nature,  the  ultimate  per- 
fection of  Greek  art  became  only  a 
question  of  time.  It  came  to  perfection 
in  Phidias,  whose  statues  of  Athene  in 
the  Parthenon  at  Athens  (b.c.  438),  and 
of  Zeus  in  the  temple  at  Olympia,  mark 
the  period  of  the  highest  style  of  Greek 
art.  We  have  in  the  sculpture  of  this 
period,  the  highest  type  of  human 
beauty  joined  to  a god-like  calm  and 
reticence  of  emotion.  Examples  of  the 
grand  style  of  this  epoch  are  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  Parthenon;  the  colossal 
bronze  head  of  Artemis  in  the  British 
museum;  the  Venus  of  Milo,  in  the 
Louvre;  and  the  exquisite  relief  repre- 
senting the  parting  of  Orpheus  and 
Eurydice,  in  the  museum  at  Naples. 
From  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.c.  323,  onward  to  the  conquest  by  the 
Romans,  b.c.  146,  the  progress  of  Greek 
sculpture  is  only  a further,  and  often  a 
weaker,  development  of  the  same  ideal. 
The  celebrated  group  of  the  Laocoon, 
the  head  of  the  Dying  Alexander,  the 
Dying  Gladiator,  and  the  Apollo  Belve- 
dere, are  some  of  the  works  of  this 
epoch  that  are  preserved  to  us. 

The  history  of  sculpture  in  Italy  is 
only  a continuance  of  its  story  in  Greece. 
It  was  Greek  art  produced  by  Greek 
workmen  that  adorned  the  palaces  of 
the  emperors ; and  the  Roman  sculptors, 
in  so  far  as  they  had  any  independent 
existence,  can  only  claim  to  have  im- 
poverished the  ideal  they  received  from 
Greece.  The  special  tendencies  of  Italian 
sculpture  may  be  said  to  have  reached 
their  full  expression  in  the  work  of 
Michael  Angelo  (1475-1564).  Here  we 
see  all  previous  efforts  to  interpret  pas- 
sion and  feeling  summed  up  and  con- 
cluded. His  figures  are  charged  with  all 
the  possibilities  of  human  experience 
and  emotion.  It  was  toward  this  com- 
plete understanding  of  the  resources  of 

Ehysical  expression  that  all  Italian  art 
ad  been  tending,  and  it  is  only  more 
fully  exhibited  in  Michael  Angelo  be- 
cause be  was  the  greatest  master  that 
Italy  produced.  His  works  are  the 
statues  in  the  chapel  of  the  Medici  at 
Florence,  the  Captives  in  the  Louvre, 
the  colossal  David  at  Florence,  the 
Moses  in  Rome,  and  the  Madonna  in 
Bruges.  For  a long  period  after  Michael 
Angelo,  Italian  sculptors  were  content 
to  imitate,  and  sometimes  to  exaggerate 
his  manner.  American  sculpture  is 
entirely  due  to  Italian  influence  exer- 


Eenaissance— 1,  St.  George,  Donatello,  Florence.  2,  Moses,  Michael  Angelo.  3,  Nymph,  Goujon. 


distance.  Innumerable  holes  are  thus 
drilled,  and  the  solid  marble  cut  away 
until  the  bottoms  of  all  the  holes  are 
reached.  This  gives  the  form  roughly, 
and  the  carver  proceeds  to  copy  from  the 
plaster  cast,  carrying  on  the  work  under 
the  supervision  of  the  sculptor,  who 
rarely  carves  the  work  himself  except  in 


St.  Michael  and  satan.— Flaxman. 

finishing  touches.  For  casting  in  metal 
a plaster  mould  is  first  made  as  already 
described.  Within  this  is  fixed  a rudely- 
formed,  solid,  but  removable  mass  called 
a “core,”  the  space  between  it  and  the 
surface  of  the  mould  being  filled  with 
the  molten  metal.  Another  method  for 
smaller  work  is  called  “cire  perdue.”  In 


barbaric  and  naturalistic;  and  in  the 
colossal  figures  of  the  rock-cut  temples 
of  India  there  is  a superadded  symbol- 
ism, which  led  to  the  most  extravagant 
deformities  of  the  human  figure.  It  is 
to  Egypt  that  we  must  turn  for  the  first 
signs  of  higher  and  more  vital  art.  The 
distinctive  characteristics  of  Egyptian 
sculpture  are  colossal  size,  stability, 
and  symmetry,  the  expression  being 
that  of  calm  repose  and  solemnity,  with 
a suggestion  of  the  supernatural.  The 
best  period  of  Egyptian  sculpture  was 
from  1450  to  1000b. c.  Thebestperiod  of 
Assyrian  sculpture  as  a style,  is  inferior 
to  that  of  Egypt.  Its  characteristics  are 


an  intense  and  vigorous  spirit  of  rep- 
resentation without  the  least  reference 
to  ideal  beauty  of  any  kind.  Persian 
sculpture  (560-331  b.c.)  differs  but  little 
from  Assyrian,  and  is  usually  included 
with  it.  Roughly  hewn  and  badly 
modeled,  the  force  of  the  animal  forms 
yet  gives  it  a sense  of  the  gigantic, 


SCULPT  L' RED  STONES 


SEA-DRAGON 


cised  over  Americans  working  in  Italy. 
Among  American  sculptors  are  Crawford, 
Akers,  Hiram  Powers,  W.W.  Story,  Wm. 
Henry  Rinehart,  Miss  Hosmer,  Gould, 
Ball,  Couper,  Saint  Gaudens,  MacMon- 
nies,  Partridge,  Bartlet  and  Barnard. 

■ SCULPTURED  STONES,  a name  spe- 
cially given  to  certain  ancient  monu- 
ments with  sculptured  ornaments  or  de- 
vices, sometimes  with  inscriptions,  found 
in  the  British  islands.  Some  of  the  in- 
scriptions are  in  debased  '^atin.  A good 
example  of  this  class,  called  the  Catt 
Stane,  is  found  in  the  parish  of  Kirk- 
liston, near  Edinburgh.  It  is  a monolith, 
composed  of  a large  boulder  of  trap 
about  4i  feet  in  height,  with  an  imper- 
fect inscription,  which  marks  it  as  a 
sepulchral  stone.  The  peculiarity  of 
these  stones  consists  in  certain  symbols, 
supposed  to  be  of  religious  character, 
but  of  which  nothing  certain  is  known, 
and  no  plausible  interpretation  has  been 
given. 

SCUPPERS,  channels  cut  through  the 
sides  of  a ship  at  the  edges  of  the  deck 
to  carry  w’ater  off  the  deck  into  the  sea. 

SCURVY,  a disease  of  a putrid  nature 
prevalent  in  cold  and  damp  climates, 
and  which  chiefly  affects  sailors,  and  such 
as  are  deprived  of  fresh  provisions  and 
a due  quantity  of  vegetable  food.  It 
seems  to  depend  more  on  a defect  of 
nourishment  than  on  a vitiated  state; 
and  not  to  be  of  a contagious  nature. 
It  comes  on  gradually,  with  heaviness, 
weariness,  and  unwillingness  to  ntiove 
about,  together  with  dejection  of  spirits, 
considerable  loss  of  strength,  and  de- 
bility. As  it  advances  in  its  progress  the 
countenance  becomes  sallow  and  bloated 
respiration  is  hurried  on  the  least  mo- 
tion; the  teeth  become  loose;  the  gums 
are  spongy;  the  breath  is  very  offensive ; 
livid  spots  appear  on  different  parts  of 
the  body;  old  wounds,  which  have  long 
been  healed  up,  break  out  afresh ; severe 
wandering  pains  are  felt,  particularly 
by  night;  the  skin  is  dry;  the  urine  small 
in  quantity;  and  the  pulse  is  small,  fre- 
quent, and  toward  the  last  intermitting; 
but  the  intellect,  for  the  most  part,  clear 
and  distinct.  By  an  aggravation  of  the 
symptoms  the  sufferer  in  its  last  stage 
exhibits  a most  wretched  appearance. 
Scurvy  as  usually  met  with  on  shore  is 
unattended  by  any  sjroptoms  other 
than  slight  blotches,  with  scaly  erup- 
tions on  different  parts  of  the  body,  and 
a sponginess  of  the  gums.  In  the  cure, 
as  well  as  the  prevention . of  scurvy, 
more  is  to  be  done  by  regimen  than  by 
medicines,  obviating  as  far  as  possible 
the  several  remote  causes  of  the  disease ; 
but  particularly  providing  the  patient 
with  a more  wholesome  diet,  and  a large 
proportion  of  fresh  vegetables.  Both  as 
a preventive  and  as  a curative  agent 
lime  or  lemon  juice  is  of  the  first  im- 
portance in  this  disease. 

SCUTARI,  a town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  Bosphorus,  opposite  Constanti- 
nople, of  which  it  is  a suburb.  It  is  built 
on  an  amphitheater  of  hills,  and  contains 
numerous  mosques,  fine  bazaars  and 
baths,  barracks,  and  a seraglio  of  the 
sultan.  Behind  the  town  is  an  immense 
cemetary.  Scutari  contains  granaries 
and  is  a fruit  market.  The  manufactures 
are  saddlery,  silk,  muslin,  and  cotton 
stuffs.  Pop.  60,000. 

P.  E.— 71 


SCYLLA,  a rock  in  the  Strait  of  Mes- 
sina, on  the  Italian  side  nearly  opposite 
the  whirlpool  of  Charybdis.  Various 
legends  were  associated  with  Scylla  and 
Charybdis,  which  were  esteemed  highly 
dangerous  to  navigators. 

SCYM'NIDjE,  a family  of  sharks,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  an  anal  fin, 
and  by  dorsals  unfurnished  with  spines. 
The  lobes  of  the  caudal  fin  or  tail  are 
nearly  equal,  and  the  head  is  furnished 
with  a pair  of  small  spiracles.  The 
Greenland  shark  is  the  best-known 
species. 

SCYTHE,  an  instrument  used  in  mow- 
ing or  reaping,  consisting  of  a long 
curving  blade  with  a sharp  edge,  made 
fast  at  a proper  angle  to  the  lower  end 
of  a more  or  less  upright  handle,  which  is 
bent  into  a convenient  form  for  swinging 
the  blade  to  advantage.  Most  scythes 
have  two  short  projecting  handles  fixed 
to  the  prineipal  handle,  by  which  they 
are  held.  The  real  line  of  the  handle  is 
that  which  passes  through  both  the 
hands,  and  ends  at  the  head  of  the  blade. 
This  may  be  a straight  line  or  a crooked 
one,  generally  the  latter,  and  by  moving 
the  short  handles  up  or  down  the  main 
handle,  each  mower  can  place  them  so 
as  best  suits  the  natural  size  and  posi- 
tion of  his  body.  For  laying  cut  corn 
evenly,  a cradle,  as  it  is  called,  may  be 
used.  The  cradle  is  a contrivance 
somewhat  resembling  a rake  with  three 
or  four  long  teeth  so  fixed  to  the  scythe 
as  to  stretch  the  cut  grain  properly  at 
each  sweep  of  the  scythe.  A species  of 
scythe  which  has  been  called  the  cradle- 
scythe  is  regularly  used  with  the  cradle 
for  reaping  in  some  localities.  One  form 
of  scythe  has  a short  branching  handle 
somewhat  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  Y 
having  two  small  handles  fixed  at  the 
extremities  of  the  two  branches  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane  in  which  they  lie. 
The  Hainault  scythe  is  a scythe  used 
with  only  one  hand,  and  is  employed 
when  the  corn  is  much  laid  and  en- 
tangled. The  person  has  a hook  in  one 
hand  with  which  he  collects  a small 
bundle  of  the  straggling  corn,  and  with 
the  scythe  in  the  other  hand  cuts  it. 

SCYTHTANS,  a name  very  vaguely 
used  by  ancient  writers.  It  was  some- 
times applied  to  all  the  nomadic  tribes 
which  wandered  over  the  regions  to  the 
north  of  the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas, 
and  to  the  east  of  the  latter.  In  the  time 
of  the  Roman  empire  the  name  Scythia 
extended  over  Asia  from  the  Volga  to 
the  frontiers  of  India.  The  people  of  this 
region,  being  little  known,  were  the  sub- 
ject of  numerous  fables. 

SEA.  See  Ocean. 

SEA-ANEMONE,  the  popular  name 
given  to  a number  of  animals  including 
the  genus  Actinia  and  other  genera. 
They  are  among  the  most  interesting 
organisms  met  with  on  the  sea-beach, 
and  in  aquaria  from  a great  attraction. 
All  sea-anemones,  however  varied  in 
coloration  or  form,  present  the  essential 
structure  and  appearance  of  a fleshy 
cylinder,  attached  by  its  base  to  a rock 
or  stone,  and  presenting  at  its  free  ex- 
tremity the  mouth,  surrounded  by  a 
circlet  of  arms  or  tentacles.  With  these 
tentacles,  which  may  be  very  numerous, 
in  some  cases  exceeding  200  in  number, 
they  seize  and  secure  their  food — small 


Crustacea,  molluscs,  such  as  whelks,  etc. 
— which  they  paralyze  by  means  of  the 
thread-cells  common  to  them  with  all 
Coslenterata.  The  mouth  leads  into  a 
stomach-sac,  which,  however,  is  im- 
perfectly specialized,  and  is  such  that  a 
generalized  idea  of  the  structure  of  a 
sea-anemone  may  be  gained  by  suppos- 
ing that  the  animal  in  transverse  section 
represents  a double  tube,  the  outer  tube 
corresponding  to  the  body-walls,  and 
the  inner  tube  to  the  stomach-sac. 
When  fully  expanded  the  appearance 
of  the  anemones  in  all  their  varieties  of 
color  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  But  upon 
the  slightest  .jouch  the  tentacles  can  be 
quickly  rettSSIed  within  the  mouth- 
aperture,  the  fluids  of  the  body  are  ex- 
pelled by  the  mouth,  and  the  animal, 
from  presenting  the  appearance  of  a 
fully  expanded  flower,  becames  a coni- 


Sea-anemones. 

cal  mass  of  jelly-like  matter.  Although 
these  forms  are  attached  to  rocks  and 
fixed  objeets,  they  appear  able  to  detach 
themselves  at  will.  They  are,  most  of 
them,  dioecious,  that  is,  having  the 
sexes  situated  in  different  individuals. 
The  young  are  developed  within  the 
parent  body,  and  appear  in  their  em- 
bryo-state as  free  swimming  ciliated 
bodies  of  an  oval  shape.  The  sea- 
anemones  resemble  the  Hydrse  in  their 
marvelous  powers  of  resisting  injuries 
and  mutilation.  Thus  if  a sea-anemone 
be  divided  longitudinally,  a new  animal 
will  in  due  time  be  formed  out  of  each 
half.  They  appear  singularly  insuscept- 
ible also  to  the  action  of  hot  or  cold 
water,  and  seem  to  be  wonderfully  long- 
lived.  They  are  eaten  as  food  in  Italy, 
Greece,  Provence,  and  on  various  other 
coasts. 

SEA-BATHING  produces  the  stimu- 
lating effects  of  the  ordinary  cold  bath 
with  the  additional  stimulus  due  to  the 
salt,  so  that  it  acts  as  an  invigorating 
tonic.  Persons  who  are  anaemic — that 
is  of  deficient  quality  of  blood — and 
those  suffering  from  any  internal  com- 
plaint ought  to  refrain  from  sea-bathing. 
It  has,  however,  been  found  very 
salutary  in  several  complaints,  as  dis- 
eases of  the  glands  of  all  kinds,  and  of 
the  skin  in  scrofula  and  a scrofulous 
predisposition,  exhausting  sweats,  and 
tendency  to  catarrhs,  chronic  nervous 
diseases,  particularly  hysteric  attacks, 
epilepsy,  St  Vitus’  dance;  also  some- 
times in  chronic  rheumatism. 

SEA-COW.  See  Manatee. 

SEA-DACE.  See  Bass 

SEA-DEVIL.  See  Engler. 

SEA-DRAGON,  a teleostean  fish  in- 
cluded among  the  Lophobranchii.  The 
breast  is  very  wide,  and  the  large  size 


SEA-EA(iLE 


SEAL 


of  the  pectoral  fins,  ■which  form  'wing- 
like  structures,  together  with  its  general 
appearance,  have  procured  for  this  fish 
its  popular  name.  The  sea-dragon 
occurs  in  Javanese  -waters.  The  dragon- 
ets,  fishes  of  the  goby  family,  are  also 
kno'wn  as  sea-dragons. 

SEA-EAGLE,  a name  applied  to  one 
or  two  members  of  the  eagle  family;  but 
probably  with  most  distinctive  value  to 
the  cinereous  or  white-tailed  eagle  or 
erne  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  It  is 
generally  found  inhabiting  the  sea- 
coasts,  and  although  living  mainly  upon 
fish,  yet  makes  inland  journeys  in  search 
of  food,  and  seizes  lambs,  hares,  and 
other  animals.  The  head-^cjlbvered  with 
long  drooping  feathers  oiashy  bro-wn 
color,  while  the  body  is  of  a dark-brown 
hue,  streaked  in  some  places  with  lighter 
tints,  and  having  the  primary  feathers 
of  the  wing  mostly  black.  The  tail  is 
rounded,  and  is  of  white  color  in  the 
adult,  but  brown  in  the  young  bird.  The 
bird  breeds  in  Shetland  and  in  the 
Hebrides.  Its  average  size  appears  to  be 
about  3 feet  in  length,  and  from  6 to 
7 feet  in  expanse  of  wings.  The  Ameri- 
can baldheaded  eagle  from  its  frequent- 
ing the  sea-coasts  is  also  named  the 
sea-eagle.  See  Eagle. 

SEA-HARE,  the  name  of  a genus  of 
gasteropodous  mollusca.  These  animals 
are  slug-like  in  appearance,  and  derive 
their  popular  name  from  the  prominent 
character  of  the  front  pair  of  tentacles, 
which  somewhat  resemble  the  ears  of  a 
hare.  The  shell  is  either  absent  or  is  of 
very  rudimentary  character,  and  is  con- 
cealed by  the  mantle.  Four  tentacles 
exist,  and  the  eyes  are  situated  at  the 


Depilatory  sea-hare. 

base  of  the  hinder  tentacles.  The  sea- 
hares  are  widely  distributed  throughout 
most  seas,  and  generally  inhabit  muddy 
or  sandy  tracts.  They  emit  a fluid  of  a 
rich  purple  hue,  which,  like  the  ink  of 
the  cuttle-fishes,  has  the  property  of 
diffusing  itself  quickly  throughout  the 
surrounding  water.  They  are  also  known 
to  discharge  an  acrid  fluid  of  milky  ap- 
pearance, which  has  an  irritant  effect 
on  the  human  skin. 

SEA-HOG.  See  Porpoise. 

SEA-HORSE.  See  Hippocampus. 

SEAL,  an  engraved  stamp  bearing  a 
device  or  inscription  pertaining  to  the 
owner;  also  the  impression  of  such  a 
stamp  on  a plastic  substance  as  wax. 
A seal  upon  a document  was  originally 
a substitute  for  a signature ; a seal  upon 
a place  of  deposit  answered  the  purpose 
of  security  in  a different  manner  from  a 
lock.  The  use  of  seals  is  of  the  highest 
antiquity,  and  one  of  the  earliest  and 
commonest  forms  is  the  signet-ring.  In 
Egypt  impressions  of  seals  were  made  in 
fine  clay,  and  attached  to  documents  by 
slips  of  papyri.  The  Romans  used  clay, 
bees’-wax,  and  in  the  time  of  the  empire 
lead  for  taking  impressions.  In  the 


time  of  Constantine  flat  metal  seals 
called  bullte  were  used.  The  metals  used 
were  gold,  silver,  and  lead,  and  the  bullae 
were  attached  to  documents  by  silk  or 
woolen  bands.  The  leaden  seal  was 
adopted  by  the  popes.  The  western 
monarchs  generally  used  bullae  up  to  the 
16th  century.  The  use  of  bees’-wax  was 
introduced  by  the  Normans;  sealing- 
wax  was  invented  in  the  17th  century. 

SEALj  the  name  applied  collectively 
to  certain  genera  of  mammals. 

The  true  or  hair  seals,  have  a body  of 
fish-like  contour.  They  have  no  external 
ear,  and  the  hind  limbs  are  permanently 
stretched  out  behind  the  body  and 
parallel  with  the  tail,  a conformation 
obviously  inappropriate  and  unsuited 
for  supporting  the  body  for  locomotion 
on  land,  but  admirably  adapted  for 
swimming.  Five  toes  exist  on  each  foot 
and  the  middle  digits  of  the  hinder  feet 
are  much  shorter  than  the  outer  ones. 
The  toes,  which  are  provided  with  claw- 
like nails,  are  united  by  a web  of  skin, 
and  so  form  effective  swimming  paddles. 


Marbled  seal. 


The  fore  limbs  are  mere  flippers.  The 
dentition  resembles  that  of  carnivora 
generally.  The  fur  generally  consists  of 
a dense  thick  under-fur  and  of  an  outer 
coat  of  longer  and  coarser  hairs.  The 
bones  are  of  light  spongy  texture,  and 
beneath  the  skin  is  a thick  layer  of 
blubber  or  fat.  The  eyes  are  large  and 
intelligent,  and  the  sense  of  smell  is  also 
well  developed.  The  sense  of  touch  ap- 
pears to  reside  chiefly  in  the  “whiskers” 
of  the  face.  The  brain  is  of  large  size  in 
proportion  to  the  body,  and  when  do- 
mesticated seals  exhibit  a very  high 
degreeof  intelligence.  Th^  are  polygam- 
ous, and  seldom  produce  more  than  two 
young  at  a birth,  one  being  the  common 
number.  They  occur  almost  in  all  seas 
except  those  of  tropical  regions.  In  the 
northern  regions  they  are  more  espe- 
cially plentiful.  They  are  largely  hunted 
for  their  skins,  which  are  converted  into 
leather,  and  for  their  blubber,  from 
which  a valuable  oil  is  obtained.  The 


Hooded  or  crested  s«al. 

common  seal  is  found  widely  throughout 
the  northern  regions,  and  also  around 
the  more  northern  coasts  of  Britain. 
Its  average  length  is  from  3 to  6 feet, 


and  the  fur  is  a grayish-brown,  mottled 
with  black.  It  is  very  destructive  to 
most  of  the  food  fishes.  It  is  much 
attached  to  its  young,  and  is  strongly 
attracted  by  musical  sounds.  It  is  never 
met  with  in  large  numbers,  or  far  away 
from  the  land.  Closely  allied  to  the 
common  seal  is  the  marbled  seal  met 
with  on  some  of  the  European  coasts. 
The  harp  seal,  Greenland  seal,  saddle- 


I 


Sea-leopard.  j 

back,  or  atak,  inhabits  almost  all  parts  of  ' 
the  Arctic  ocean.  The  males  average  5 
feet  in  length,  are  colored  of  a tawny 
gray,  and  on  the  back  there  is  a dark 
mark  resembling  a harp  or  saddle  in  ■ 
shape.  In  the  spring,  at  breeding  season, 
these  seals  resort  in  immense  herds  to 
the  floes  of  the  Arctic  ocean,  around 
Jan  Mayen  island,  where  great  numbers  t 
of  them  are  killed  annually  by  crews  of  i 
the  sealing  vessels.  The  great  seal, 
which  measures  8 or  10  feet  in  length, 
occurs  in  Southern  Greenland.  The  gray 
seal  attains  a length  of  from  8 to  9 feet 
and  is  found  on  the  Scandinavian  and 
Icelandic  coasts.  The  best  known  fur 
seal  is  the  northern  fur-seal  which  breeds 


Sea-lion. 

in  the  islands  of  the  Pribyloff  group,  off 
the  coast  of  Alaska,  and  at  the  Com- 
mander islands  in  the  Behring  sea.  The 
outer  and  longer  hairs  of  its  fur  are  of 
a grayish-brown  color,  the  thicker  under- 
fur  being  darker  or  reddish-brown;  and 
it  is  this  fine  under-fur  which,  when 
stripped  of  the  coarse  outer  hairs  and 
dressed  by  the  furrier,  affords  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  valued  of  the  “seal- 
skins” of  commerce. 

The  fur-seal  fishery  is  carried  on 
chiefly  at  the  Pribyloff  islands,  thei 
United  States  government  having  leased! 
them  to  a company  with  the  right  oft 
killing  100,000  young  males  per  annum.! 
The  states  claimed  the  right  to  entirely 
prohibit  sealing  in  Behring  sea,  a claim 
which  led  to  difficulties  with  Britain, 
and  the  case  was  decided  against  them 
by  arbitration,  except  as  regards  the 


SfiALlJCG-WAX 


SEBASTOPOL 


three-mile  limit.  However,  by  mutual 
arrangement,  a close  time  is  now  in  force 
for  the  seals  within  a certain  area,  and 
killing  is  entirely  prohibited  within 
certain  limits. 

SEALING-WAX,  a resinous  prepara- 
tion used  for  securing  folded  papers  and 
envelopes,  and  for  receiving  impressions 
of  seals  set  to  instruments.  Ordinary 
red  sealing-wax  is  made  of  pure  bleached 
■lac,  to  which  when  melted  are  added 
Venice  turpentine  and  vermilion.  In- 
ferior qualities  consist  of  a proportion  of 
common  rosin  and  red-lead,  and  black 
and  other  colors  are  produced  by  sub- 
stituting appropriate  pigments.  Sealing 
wax  was  invented  in  the  17th  century. 

SEA-LION.  See  Seal. 

SEARCH-WARRANT,  in  law,  a writ- 
ten authority  granted  by  a magistrate 
to  a legal  officer  to  search  a house  or 
other  place  for  property  alleged  to  have 
been  stolen  and  suspected  to  be  secreted 
in  the  place  specified  in  the  warrant. 
Similar  warrants  are  granted  to  search 
for  property  or  articles  in  respect  of 
which  other  offenses  are  committed, 
such  as  base  coin,  coiners’  tools,  ex- 
plosives, liquors,  etc.,  kept  contrary  to 
law. 

SEA-SERPENT,  a marine  serpentine 
form  of  large  size  or  sea-monster  of 
doubtful  character,  frequently  alleged 
to  have  been  seen.  From  the  numerous 
substantiated  accounts  of  animals  of 
one  kind  or  another,  but  differing  from 
air  described  and  known  forms  having 
been  seen,  often  close  at  hand,  by  the 
crews  and  passengers  of  ships,  and  by 
respectable  observers  on  land,  we  are 
shut  up  to  the  choice  either  of  believing 
that  in  every  case  the  senses  of  the  ob- 
eervers  must  have  been  mistaken,  or  that 
some  living  form  must  have  been  seen  in 
the  majority  of  cases.  Careful  research, 
and  the  weighing  of  the  evidence  pre- 
sented in  the  accounts  of  “sea-serpent” 
phenomena,  show  that  the  subject  de- 
mands, at  least,  investigation. 

SEA-SICKNESS,  the  name  given  to 
the  nausea  and  other  disagreeable  sen- 
sations produced  on  those  unaccustonaed 
to  a sea-faring  life  by  the  rolling  motion 
of  a vessel  at  sea.  The  exact  causes  and 
etiology  of  this  complaint  are  as  yet 
imperfectly  understood.  Some  observers 
have  referred  the  malady  to  causes  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  altered  or 
affectedfunctions  of  the  nervous  centers, 
others  to  the  regurgitation  of  the  bile 
into  the  stomach;  and  others,  again,  to 
the  irritation  of  the  liver  consequent  on 
the  unusual  movements  of  the  body. 
Probably  all  three  views  contain  a cer- 
tain amount  of  truth.  The  measures 
which  have  been  suggested  for  sea- 
sickness are  preventive  or  curative. 
Preventive  measures,  so  far  as  the  con- 
struction of  the  vessels  themselves  are 
concerned  have  not  proved  of -much 
practical  utility.  Preventive  measures, 
regarded  from  the  patient’s  point  of 
view,  are  practically  limited  to  the 
regulation  of  the  diet,  which  for  some 
days  previously  to  undertaking  the 
voyage  should  be  plentiful,  but  of  light 
and  nutritious  character.  The  bowels 
should  not  be  constipated  above  all 
things;  and  food  should  not  be  taken  for 
at  least  five  or  six  hours  before  going 
on  board.  A cup  of  strong  coffee. 


swallowed  just  before  embarking,  proves 
beneficial  to  some  as  a nerve  stimulant; 
while  others  derive  benefit  from  a nerve 
sedative,  such  as  bromide  of  potassium, 
chloral,  or  opium;  but  these,  especially 
the  two  last,  should  never  be  used  save 
under  strict  medical  direction.  Nitrate 
of  amyl  and  cocaine  have  also  been  used. 
Once  on  board  the  ship,  a position  as 
near  the  center  of  the  vessel  as  practic- 
able is  to  be  preferred,  and  the  posture 
in  lying  should  be  that  on  the  back,  with 
the  head  and  shoulders  very  slightly 
elevated.  With  reference  to  curative 
measures,  during  the  attack  of  nausea 
and  vomiting,  some  derive  benefit  from 
a bandage  applied  moderately  tight 
across  the  pit  of  the  stomach;  some  from 
small  doses  of  brandy  and  ice;  some 
from  saline  effervescing  drinks;  and 
some  from  frequent  draughts  of  luke- 
warm or  even  cold  water. 

SEA-SNAKE,  a name  common  to  a 
family  of  snakes.  These  animals  fre- 
quent the  seas  of  warm  latitudes.  They 
are  found  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  are 
plentiful  in  the  Indian  archipelago. 


Sea-snake. 


They  are  all,  so  far  as  known,  exceed- 
ingly venomous.  They  delight  in  calms, 
where  the  ripple  collects  numerous  fish 
and  medusse,  on  which  they  feed.  One 
species  inhabits  the  Au.stralian  seas, 
and  is  as  thick  as  a man’s  thigh. 

SEASONS,  the  four  grand  divisions  of 
the  year — spring,  summer,  autumn, 
winter.  These  have  distinctive  char- 
acters, best  seen  in  the  temperate  zones. 
Within  the  tropics  they  are  not  so  much 
marked  by  differences  of  temperature  as 
by  wetness  and  dryness,  and  are  usually 
distinguished  as  the  wet  and  dry  seasons. 
Astronomically  speaking,  spring  is  from 
the  vernal  equinox,  when  the  sun  enters 
Aries,  to  the  summer  solstice ; summer  is 
from  the  summer  solstice  to  the  autum- 
nal equinox;  autumn  is  from  the 
autumnal  equinox  to  the  winter  sol- 
stice; winter  is  from  the  winter  solstice 
to  the  vernal  equinox.  The  characters 
of  the  seasons  are  reversed  to  inhabi- 
tants of  the  southern  hemisphere.  See 
Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  Winter; 
also  Climate,  Earth,  Equinox,  etc. 

SEA-SPIDER,  or  SPIDER-CRAB,  a 
marine  crab.  Its  body  is  somewhat 
triangular  in  shape,  and  its  legs  are 
slender  and  generally  long.  It  lives  in 
deep  water,  and  is  seldom  seen  on  the 
shore. 


SEA-SURGEON,  or  SURGEON-FISH, 

so  named  from  the  presence  of  a sharp 
spine  on  the  side  ana  near  the  extremity 
of  the  tail,  bearing  a resemblance  to  a 
surgeon’s  lancet  It  occurs  on  the  At- 
lantic coasts  of  South  America  and 
Africa,  and  in  the  Caribbean  seas.  Its 
average  length  is  from  12  to  19  inches. 

SEA-SWALLOW,  a name  given  to  the 
common  tern  and  also  to  the  stormy 
petrel.  Which  see. 


SEA-TOAD,  a name  given  to  the  great 
spider-crab  found  on  British  coasts  at 
low-water  mark. 

SEATTLE  (se-at'l),  capital  of  King 
CO.,  state  of  Washington,  on  Seattle  bay, 
east  side  of  Puget  sound,  the  largest- 
city  in  the  state  and  the  seat  of  the  state 
university.  It  is  a rapidly  growing  place, 
with  numerous  industrial  establish- 
ments, such  as  shipyards,  foundries, 
machine-shops,  saw-mills,  breweries, 
and  an  active  trade  in  coal  and  lumber. 
Pop.  in  1909,  estimated  at  300,000. 

SEA-URCHIN.  See  Echinus. 

SEA-WATER,  the  salt-water  of  the 
sea,  or  ocean.  Sea-water  contains 
chlorides  and  sulphates  of  sodium 
(chloride  of  sodium  = common  salt), 
magnesium,  and  potassium,  together 
with  bromides  and  carbonates,  chiefly 
of  potassium  and  calcium. 

SEA- WEED,  any  plant  growing  in  the 
sea;  but  the  name  is  usually  confined  to 
members  of  the  natural  order  Algae. 

SEBA'CEOUS  GLANDS,  small  struc- 
tures of  glandular  nature  and  sacculated 
form  which  exist  in  the  substance  of 
the  corium,  or  deeper  layer  of  the  dermis 
or  true  skin,  and  secrete  a fatty  matter. 
They  are  very  generally  distributed  over 
the  entire  skin  surface,  but  are  most 
numerous  in  the  face  and  scalp.  Those 
of  the  nose  are  of  large  size,  but  the 
largest  in  the  body  are  those  of  the  eye- 
lids— the  so-called  Meibomian  glands. 
They  appear  to  be  absent  from  the  skin 
of  the  palms  of  the  hands  and  soles  of 
the  feet.  Each  sebaceous  gland  consists 
essentially  of  a lobulated  or  sac-like 
structure,  with  cells  which  secrete  the 
sebaceous  or  glutinous  humors,  and  with 
a single  efferent  duct;  and  these  ducts 
open  into  the  hair-follicles,  or  sac-like 
involutions  of  the  skin  which  surround 
and  inclose  the  roots  of  hair,  or  simply 
on  the  external  surface  bf  the  skin.  The 
functions  of  the  sebaceous  secretion  are 
chiefly  those  of  keeping  the  skin  moist. 

SEBASTIAN,  St.,  Christian  martyr, 
was  born  at  Narbonne,  and  under 
Diocletian  was  captain  of  the  praetorian 
guard  at  Rome.  He  rose  to  high  favor  at 
court,  but  declared  himself  a Christian, 
and  refusing  to  abjure,  he  was  tied  to  a 
tree  and  pierced  with  arrows.  A Chris- 
tian woman  named  Irene,  who  came  by 
night  to  inter  his  body,  finding  signs  of 
life  in  him,  took  him  home,  and  nursed 
him  till  he  recovered.  He  then  presented 
himself  before  Diocletian,  and  remon- 
strated with  him  on  his  cruelty;  where- 
upon the  emperor  ordered  him  to  be 
beaten  to  death  with  rods  (January  20, 
288),  and  his  body  to  be  thrown  into  the 
cloaca.  His  protection  was  invoked 
against  pestilence,  and  his  martyrdom 
has  been  a favorite  subject  with  painters. 

SEBAS'TOPOL,  a Russian  town  and 
naval  station  on  the  Black  sea,  in  the 
southwest  of  the  Crimea.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Crimean  war,  when  the 
population  amounted  to  43,000  it  be- 
came the  point  against  which  the  opera- 
tions of  all  the  allies  were  mainly  directed 
and  its  siege  forms  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable episodes  in  modern  history. 
Railway  communication  with  Moscow 
has  greatly  improved  the  trade.  There 
are  many  important  public  buildings, 
and  the  monuments  and  relics  of  the 


SECESSIONIST 


sedan 


siege  are  interesting.  Pop.  50,710, 
largely  military. 


SECESSIONIST,  one  who  maintains 
the  right  of  a state  included  under  the 
constitution  of  the  United  States  to 
withdraw  from  the  Union  and  set  up  an 
independent  government ; specifically 
one  who  took  part  or  sympathized  with 
the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  states 
in  their  struggle,  commencing  in  1861, 
to  break  away  from  union  with  the 
northern  states. 

SECOND,  in  the  measurement  of  time 
and  of  angles,  the  60th  part  of  a minute; 
that  is,  the  second  division  next  to  the 
hour  or  degree. 

SECONDARY  FORMATIONS,  in  geol- 
ogy, the  Mesozoic  strata,  midway,  in 
ascending  order,  between  the  Primary 
or  Palaeozoic  below  and  the  Tertiary  or 
Kainozoic  above.  They  range  from  the 
top  of  the  Permian  Formation  to  the  base 
of  the  Eocene,  and  include,  therefore, 
the  Trias,  Lias,  Oolitic,  and  Cretaceous 
Formations. 

SECOND  SIGHT,  a Highland  super- 
stition, formerly  very  common,  which 
supposed  certain  persons  endowed  with 
the  power  of  seeing  future  or  distant 
events  as  if  actually  present.  These 
visions  were  believed  to  be  not  as  a rule 
voluntary,  but  were  said  to  be  rather 
dreaded  than  otherwise  by  those  who 
were  subject  to  them;  yet  it  was  also 
believed  that  those  who  possessed  this 
gift  might  sometimes  induce  visions  by 
the  performance  of  certain  awful  rites 
The  subject  is  treated  at  length  in  Mar- 
tin’s Description  of  the  Western  Islands 
of  Scotland  (1703);  Macleod  of  Hamir’s 
Treatise  on  the  Second  Sight  (1763),  and 
is  discussed  also  in  Dr.  Johnson’s  Jour- 
ney to  the  Hebrides  (1775). 

SECRETARY  BIRD,  the  sole  repre- 
sentative of  the  genus  Serpentarius  order 
Accipitres  or  birds  of  prey.  It  derives 
its  popular  name  from  the  peculiar 
plumes  of  feathers  which  project  from 
the  back  and  sides  of  its  head,  and  give 
it  the  appearance  of  having  bundles  of 
pens  stuck  behind  each  ear  It  has  very 
long  legs,  and  stands  nearly  4 feet  in 
height.  The  wings  are  elongated,  and 
carry  a blunt  spur  on  the  shoulder,  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  quills  being  the 
longest.  The  tail 's  also  very  long,  and 
wedge-shaped,  the  two  middle  feathers 
projecting  beyond  the  others.  The  tibise 
are  feathered  all  the  way  down.  The 
skin  around  the  eyes  is  destitute  of 
feathers.  The  general  color  is  a slaty 
gray,  the  pen-like  feathers  of  the  head 


being  black,  as  also  are  the  feathers  of 
the  tibiae  and  the  primaries  of  the  wings. 
The  secretary  bird  can  fly  with  ease 
when  once  it  takes  wing,  but  it  seems  to 
prefer  the  ground.  It  is  found  over  the 
greater  part  of  Africa,  especially  in  the 
south  It  derives  its  generic  name  from 
its  habits  of  destroying  serpents,  strik- 


Secretary-bird. 


ing  them  with  its  knobbed  wings  and 
kicking  forward  at  them  with  its  feet 
until  they  are  stunned,  and  then  swallow- 
ing them.  As  a foe  to  venomous  snakes 
it  is  encouraged  and  protected  in  South 
Africa,  where  it  is  frequently  brought 
up  tame, 

SECRETARY  OF  STATE.  See  State, 
Department  of. 

SECRETION,  in  animal  physiology, 
is  the  separation  of  certain  elements  of 
the  blood,  and  their  elaboration  to  form 
special  fluids,  differing  from  the  blood 
itself  or  from  any  of  its  constituents, 
as  bile,  saliva,  mucus,  urine,  etc.  Secre- 
tion is  performed  by  organs  of  various 
form  and  structure,  but  the  most  general 
are  those  called  glands.  Of  these  glands 
the  essentially  active  parts  are  the  cells, 
which  elaborate  from  the  blood  a pe- 
culiar fluid  in  each  instance  predeter- 
mined by  the  inherent  function  of  the 
gland  or  organ  of  which  the  cells  are  in- 
tegral parts.  The  chief  general  conditions 
which  variously  affect  secretion  are  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  blood  tra- 
versing the  gland  and  the  influence  of 
the  nervous  system.  Mental  conditions 
alone,  without  material  stimuli,  will 
excite  or  suppress  secretion;  but  this  is  a 
branch  of  the  subject  which  is  yet  ill- 
understood.  Animal  secretions  have 
been  arranged  into — (1)  Exhalations, 
which  are  either  external,  as  those  from 
the  skin  and  mucous  membrane,  or  in- 
ternal, as  those  from  the  surfaces  of  the 
closed  cavities  of  the  body  and  from  the 
lungs;  (2)  Follicular  secretions,  which 
are  divided  into  mucous  and  cutaneous; 
and  (3)  Glandular  secretions,  such  as 
milk,  bile,  urine,  saliva,  tears,  etc. 

Secretion,  in  vegetable  physiology,  is 
the  separation  of  certain  elements  from 
the  sap,  and  their  elaboration  by  par- 
ticular organs.  These  secretions  are  ex- 
ceedingly numerous,  and  constitute  the 
great  bulk  of  the  solid  parts  of  plants. 
They  have  been  divided  into  (1)  General 
or  nutritious  secretions,  the  component 
parts  of  which  are  gum,  sugar,  starch, 
lignin,  albumen,  and  gluten;  and  (2) 
Special  or  non-assimilable  secretions, 
wnich  may  be  arranged  under  the  heads 
of  acids,  alkalies,  neutral  principles. 


resinous  principles,  coloring  matters,'^ 
milks,  oils,  etc. 

SECULARISM,  a philosophy  of  life, 
the  gist  of  which  consists  in  the  advo- 
cacy of  free  thought  and  the  assertion 
of  some  corollaries  derived  from  this  - 
leading  tenet.  It  is  not  atheistic,  inas- 
much  as  it  is  no  tenet  of  that  system 
either  to  affirm  or  deny  the  existence  of  > 
God;  nor  does  it  deny  the  truth  of 
Christianity,  for  that  is  none  of  its  busi- 
ness any  more  than  it  is  to  affirm  or  deny 
some  scientific  theory.  Secularism  in 
England  is  an  offshoot  of  the  socialism 
of  Robert  Owen,  but  its  immediate 
founder  is  George  Jacob  Holyoake,  a 
native  of  Birmingham,  where  he  was 
born  in  1817,  and  began  to  promulgate 
his  views  about  1846.  It  is  to  him  that 
British  legislation  is  chiefly  indebted 
for  the  Evidence  Amendment  Act,  which 
legalized  affirmations  in  lieu  of  oaths. 
Mr.  Charles  Bradlaugh,  Mr.  Holyoake’s 
successor  in  the  leadership  of  the  Eng- 
lish secularists,  carried  this  question  a 
step  further  by  his  refusal  to  take  the 
parliamentary  oath  and  by  the  act  of 
1888  allowing  affirmation  instead. 

SECUNDERABAD',  or  SIKANDA- 
RABAD  (Alexander’s  Town),  British 
military  cantonment  in  India,  in  the 
Nizam’s  Dominion,  6 miles  northeast 
of  Hyderabad.  It  is  the  largest  military 
station  in  India,  covering  a total  area  of 
19  sq.  miles,  including  many  inter- 
spersed villages,  and  forms  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Hyderabad  subsidiary 
force,  which  constitutes  a division  of  the 
Indian  army.  Pop.  74,000. 

SEDA'LIA,  the  capital  of  Pettis  co., 
Missouri,  189  miles  west  of  St.  Louis,  is 
a railroad  center  and  the  seat  of  the 
machine  shops  ,and  carriage  factories 
of  two  railroad  companies.  Pop.  17,160. 

SEDAN',  Sedan  chair,  a covered  chair 
for  carrying  one  person,  borne  on  poles 


Sedan  chair,  time  of  George  II,  (Shut). 


Sedan.  (Open). 

by  two  men,  and  differing  from  the  litter 
or  palanquin  in  that  the  traveler  was 
carried  in  a sitting  posture.  It  is  said  tO 


SEDATIVES 


SEINE 


/r  have  taken  its  name  from  the  town  of 
Sedan  in  France,  It  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1581,  and  was  very  fashion- 
able during  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  the 
early  Georges,  but  disappeared  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century,  on  the 
introduction  of  the  cab. 

SED'ATIVES,  medicines  that  moder- 
ate the  excessive  action  of  an  organ  or 
organic  system.  Digitalis,  for  example, 
is  a sedative  of  the  action  of  the  heart 
and  the  circulatory  system;  and  gum- 
resins  are  sedatives  that  act  on  the 
nervous  system.  Besides  these  aconite, 
chloroform,  conium,  carbonic  acid,  and 
prussic  acid  are  among  the  principal 
sedatives. 

SEDGE,  an  extensive  genus  of  grass- 
Jike  plants,  containing  thousands  of 
species,  mostly  inhabiting  the  northern 
and  temperate  parts  of  the  globe.  The 
greater  proportion  of  the  species  are 
marsh  plants.  The  stems  are  usually 
triangular,  without  joints.  The  sedges 
in  general  are  but  of  little  utility  toman. 
They  furnish  coarse  fodder,  which  is 
ejected  by  most  of  the  domestic  quad- 
rupeds. The  decomposed  roots  and 
leaves  contribute  largely  to  turn  the 
soil  of  marshes  into  peat. 

SEDGE-WARBLER,  a species  of  in- 
sessorial  bird  of  the  warbler  family. 


which  frequents  the  sedgy  banks  of  rivers, 
visiting  Britain  about  the  middle  of 
April  and  migrating  in  September. 

SEDGWICK,  John,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Cornwall,  Conn.,  in  1813; 
died  near  Spottsylvania  Courthouse, 
Virginia,  May  9,  1864.  He  took  part  in 
the  Mexican  war,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  civil  war  was  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  second  cavalry.  In  August,  1861, 
Sedgwick  was  commissioned  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers,  and  assigned  to 
the  army  of  the  Potomac.  At  Antietam 
Sedgwick  w'as  wounded,  but  would  not 
allow  himself  to  be  taken  from  the  field. 
While  directing  the  gunners  in  placing 
some  pieces  of  artillery  in  position  in 
front  of  Spottsylvania  Courthouse,  he 
was  shot  in  the  head  and  instantly 
expired. 

SEDITION,  a term  including  all 
offenses  against  the  crown  and  govern- 
ment which  do  not  amount  to  treason, 
and  are  not  capital,  as  seditious  libels, 
seditious  meetings,  seditious  conspira- 
cies. The  offenses  classed  under  the 
head  of  sedition  are  of  the  same  general 
character  with  those  called  treason,  but 
are  without  the  overt  acts  which  are 
essential  to  the  latter. 

SEDUCTION,  in  law,  the  act  of  per 


suading  a female,  by  flattery  or  decep- 
tion, to  surrender  her  chastity.  English 
law  does  not  give  a right  of  action  either 
to  the  woman  seduced  or  to  her  parents 
or  guardians:  it  only  gives  a right  of 
action  for  seduction  as  occasioning  loss 
of  service;  but  the  word  “service”  is  in- 
terpreted with  the  greatest  liberality, 
and  damages  are  estimated  not  only 
with  reference  to  the  loss  of  service, 
but  also  to  the  distress  and  dishonor 
brought  upon  the  woman’s  family  by 
her  seducer.  By  the  law  of  Scotland  an 
action  for  seduction  is  competent  to  a 
husband  against  the  seducer  of  his  wife, 
and  to  an  unmarried  woman  against  her 
own  seducer,  but  she  must  show  that 
deceit  was  used  toward  her.  In  neither 
country  is  seduction  a criminal  offense. 
The  statutory  rule  which  prevails  widely 
in  the  United  States  rests  both  the  right 
and  remedy  where  the  wrong  is  in- 
flicted, in  the  family  and  parental 
relations.  The  action  is  therefore 
brought  in  the  case  of  an  unmarried 
woman  by  the  parent  (or  guardian)  as 
the  head  of  the  family,  and  in  the  case 
of  a married  woman  by  the  husband. 

SEE,  a word  derived  (through  the 
French)  from  the  Latin  sedes,  a seat, 
and  properly  applied  to  the  seat  or 
throne  of  a bishop,  but  more  generally 
employed  as  the  designation  of  the  city 
in  which  a bishop  has  his  residence,  and 
frequently  as  that  of  the  jurisdiction 
of  a bishop,  that  is,  as  the  equivalent 
of  diocese. 

SEED,  the  impregnated  ovule  of  a 
plant.  It  consists  essentially  of  two 
parts,  namely,  the  nucleus  or  kernel, 
and  the  integuments.  The  latter  consists 
of  two  seed-coats — the  outer  named  the 
episperm  or  testa,  the  inner  the  tegmen 
or  endopleura ; and  the  two  together  are 
sometimes  termed  the  sperm  oderm. 
The  testa  of  some  seeds  is  furnished  with 
hair,  which  cover  the  entire  surface,  as 
in  various  species  of  Gossypium,  where 
they  constitute  the  material  called 
cotton;  or  they  may  be  confined  to  cer- 
tain points  of  the  surface,  as  in  the 
willow,  Epilobium,  etc.;  while  in  the 
pine  the  testa  forms  a wing.  On  the 


12  3 4 


6 « ? 8 


Various  forms  of  seeds  magnified. 

I,  Eschscholtzla  californlca.  2,  Corn  blue- 
bottle. 3,  Oxalls  rosea.  4.  Opium  poppy.  5, 
5,  Stellaria  media.  6,  Sweet-william.  7,  Fox- 
glove. 8,  Saponarla  calabrica. 

outside  of  the  integument  of  the  seed 
there  is  sometimes  an  additional  partial 
covering,  which  has  received  the  name  of 
aril,  and  in  the  nutmeg  forms  the  mace. 
The  nucleus  or  kernel  of  the  seed  is  the 
fully  developed  central  portion  of  the 
ovule.  It  consists  either  of  the  embryo 
alone,  as  in  the  wallflower,  or  of  the 
embryo  along  with  a separate  deposit  of 
nourishing  matter  called  albumen,  as  in 
the  cocoanut  and  wheat  The  embryo  is 


the  young  plant  contained  in  the  seed, 
and  is  the  part  to  the  development  of 
which  all  the  reproductive  organs  con- 
tribute. It  consists  of  a general  axis, 
one  part  of  which  is  destined  to  form 
the  root,  the  other  to  form  the  stem.  The 
axial  portion  is  provided  with  fleshy 
organs  called  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves, 
which  serve  to  nurse  the  young  plant  be- 
fore the  appearance  of  the  true  leaves. 
Plants  possessing  one  cotyledon  are 
termed  monocotyledonous,  those  hav- 
ing two  are  denominated  dicotyledonous 
and  plants  having  only  a cellular  em- 
bryo, as  in  the  cryptogamic  or  flowerless 
plants,  are  called  acotyledonous.  When 
seeds  are  contained  in  an  ovary,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  the  plants  are  called 
angiospermous;  when  the  seeds  are  not 
contained  in  a true  ovary,  with  a style 
or  stigma,  the  plants  are  called  gynmos- 
permous,  as  conifers. 

SE-GAN  FOO,  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  Shen-se,  in  the  northwest  of 
China.  It  was  long  the  capital  of  the 
empire,  and  is  still  of  great  importance’ 
silk,  tea,  and  sugar  being  the  principal 
articles  of  commerce.  Pop.  estimated 
at  about  1,000,000. 

SEGO'VIA,  a town  in  Spain,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  a 
lofty  rock,  washed  by  the  Eresma  and 
Clamores,  43  miles  northwest  of  Madrid. 
— The  province,  area  2713  sq.  miles,  is 
watered  by  streams  which  rise  in  the 
Guadarrama  range  and  flow  northward 
to  the  Douro.  The  inhabitants  are  for 
the  most  part  employed  in  agricultural 
and  pastoral  pursuits.  Pop.  160,111. 

SEIDLITZ  POWDERS,  an  aperient 
medicine,  named  after  the  Seidlitz  spa 
in  Bohemia.  These  powders  are  usually 
put  up  in  a blue  and  a white  paper,  the 
blue  containing  tartrate  of  soda  and 
potash  (Rochelle  salt)  with  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  and  the  white  tartaric  acid. 
The  former  is  dissolved  in  half  a tumbler 
of  water,  and  the  acid  powder  is  then 
added,  which  produces  effervescence, 
and  the  draught  is  taken  while  the 
effervescence  is  going  on. 

SEINE  (sen  or  san),  a river  in  France, 
which  rises  on  the  Plateau  de  Langres, 
dep.  of  Cote-d’Or,  20  miles  northwest 
of  Dijon.  It  flows  generally  in  a north- 
west direction;  receives  on  the  right  the 
Aube,  Marne,  and  Oise,  and  on  the  left 
the  Yonne  and  Eure;  passes  the  towns 
of  Chatillon,  Troyes,  Corbeil,  Paris,  St. 
Denis,  St.  Germain,  Poissy,  Mantes, 
Elboeuf,  Rouen,  Quilleboeuf,  and,  after 
a somewhat  tortuous  course,  falls  into 
the  English  channel  between  Honfleur 
and  Havre.  Its  total  length  is  480  miles, 
and  250  miles  in  a direct  line;  and  its 
basin  has  an  area  of  about  30,000  sq. 
miles. 

SEINE,  a department  in  France,  com- 
pletely inclosed  by  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  and  at  once  the  smallest 
and  most  populous  of  the  French  de- 
partments, including  as  it  does  the  city 
of  Paris.  Area,  185  sq.  miles; pop.  3,669,- 
930.  The  department  has  3 arrondisse- 
ments  (Paris,  St.  Denis,  and  Sceaux),  28 
cantons  (20  in  Paris),  and  forms  the 
archiepiscopal  diocese  of  Paris 

SEINE  Sean  (sen),  a large  net  for 
catching  fish,  buoyed  up  and  weighted 
so  as  to  float  perpendicularly,  the  fish 
being  enclosed  and  caught  by  bringing 


SEINE-ET-MARNE 


SEMITIC  LANGUAGES 


the  ends  of  the  net  together  by  means 
of  ropes 

SEINE-ET-MARNE  (sen-e-marn),  a 
French  department  in  the  basin  of  the 
Seine  and  Marne,  east  of  Seine-et-Oise. 
Area,  2215  sq.  miles;  pop.  355,136.  The 
capital  is  Melum. 

SEINE-ET-OISE  (sen-e-waz),a  French 
department,  in  the  basin  of  the  Seine 
and  Oise,  inclosing  the  department  of 
Seine,  Area,  2163  sq. miles;  pop. 707,325. 
The  capital  is  Versailles. 

SEINE-INFERIEURE  (sen-an-fa-ri- 
eur),  a maritime  department  of  France, 
on  the  English  channel,  mostly  n.  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Seine.  Area,  2330  sq. 
miles;  pop.  833,386.  The  capital  is 
Rouen. 

SEISMOLOGY  (sis-mol'o-ji),  the  sci- 
ence which  treats  of  volcanoes  and 
earthquakes. 

SEISMOM'ETER,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  force  and  direction  of 
earthquakes  and  other  earth  move- 
ments. It  records  both  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  movements  by  means  of  an 
index,  the  record  being  traced  on  smoked 
glass.  There  are  various  forms  of  seis- 
mometer or  seismograph.  One  which  is 
used  in  the  observatory  on  Mount 
Vesuvius  consists  of  a delicate  electric 
apparatus,  which  is  set  to  work  by  the 
agitation  or  change  of  level  of  a iner- 
curial  column,  which  records  the  time 
of  the  first  shock,  the  interval  between 
the  shocks,  and  the  duration  of  each; 
their  nature,  whether  vertical  or  hori- 
zontal, the  maximum  intensity;  and  in 
the  case  of  horizontal  shocks  the  direc- 
tion is  also  given. 

SEJA'NUS,  Aelius,  the  son  of  a Roman 
knight,  and  noted  as  the  favorite  of 
Tiberius,  was  born  as  Vulsinii  in  Etruria. 
He  contrived  to  remove  all  the  members 
of  the  imperial  family  who  stood  be- 
tween him  and  power,  but  having' 
awakened  the  suspicion  of  Tiberius,  he 
was  executed  in  a.d.  31. 

SELECTMEN,  in  New  England,  of- 
ficers chosen  annually  to  manage  the 
affairs  of  a town,  provide  for  the  poor, 
etc.  A town  has  usually  from  three  to 
seven  selectmen,  who  constitute  a kind 
of  executive  authority. 

SELE'NIUM,  a rare  chemical  element 
discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1817  in  the 
refuse  of  a sulphuric  acid  manufactory 
near  Fahlun,  in  Sweden.  It  occurs  in 
several  minerals,  chiefly  in  combination 
with  copper,  lead,  mercury,  and  silver, 
and  is  closely  related,  in  its  general 
chemical  deportment  to  sulphur  and 
tellurium,  these  three  elements  forming 
a group  which  is  characterized  by  cer- 
tain well-marked  general  properties. 
Selenium  takes  fire  when  heated  to  a 
tolerably  high  temperature  in  air  or  in 
oxygen,  burning  with  a blue  flame,  and 
with  the  production  of  the  dioxide. 
With  hydrogen  selenium  forms  the  very 
disagreeably  smelling  gas  seleniuretted 
hydrogen,  the  analo^e  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  To  selenium  the  symbol  Se 
and  the  atomic  weight  96.5  are  given. 

SELIM  I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  was  the 
son  of  Bajazet  II.,  born  in  1467,  died 
1520.  Selim  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  Solyman  I. 

SELIM  III.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  son  of 
Mustapha  III.,  was  born  1761,  assassi- 
nated 1808,  He  succeeded  his  uncle 


Adbul-Hamed  in  1789,  and  attempted 
reforms  in  his  government  after  Euro- 
pean methods,  but  wars  with  Russia, 
Austria,  etc.,  prevented  their  ,being 
carried  out. 

SELI'NUS,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily,  founded 
probably  about  628  b.c.  on  the  south- 
western coast  of  that  island. 

SELKIRK,  or  SELCRAIG,  Alexander, 
the  prototype  of  “Robinson  Crusoe,” 
was  born  in  Largo,  Fifeshire,  in  1676; 
died  on  board  the  royal  ship  Weymouth, 
1723.  He  took  part  in  bucaneering  ex- 
peditions in  the  South  seas,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  a quarrel  with  his  captain 
he  was  put  ashore,  at  his  own  request,  on 
the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  There 
he  lived  alone  for  four  years  and  four 
months,  when  he  was  taken  off  by  the 
captain  of  a privateer.  He  returned 
home  in  1712,  and  his  adventures  be- 
came known  to  the  public.  Defoe’s 
Robinson  Crusoe  appeared  in  1719,  but 
Crusoe’s  experiences  have  but  little  in 
common  with  those  of  Selkirk.  Selkirk 
afterward  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
in  the  navy.  A monument  was  erected 
to  him  in  his  native  town  in  1885. 

SELMA,  a city  in  Dallas  co.,  Alabama, 
on  the  Alabama  river,  93  miles  below 
Montgomery.  It  has  mills  and  various 
manufactories.  During  the  civil  war  it 
an  important  military  station,  and  was 
taken  by  the  federals  in  April,  1865. 
Pop.  10,362. 

SELLERS  (or  Seltzer)  WATER,  a 
mineral  water  found  naturally  in  the 
village  of  Niederselters,  in  the  German 
province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  and  else- 
where, but  also  largely  manufactured. 
Its  chief  ingredients  are  carbonic  acid, 
carbonate  of  soda,  and  common  salt. 
It  acts  as  a mild  stimulant  of  the  mu- 
cous membranes,  and  as  a diuretic. 

SEM'APHORE,  a term  originally  ap- 
plied to  telegraphic  or  signalling  ma- 
chines the  action  of  which  depended 
upon  the  motion  of  arms  round  pivots 
placed  at  or  near  their  extremities. 
Many  kinds  of  semaphores  were  in  use 
before  the  invention  of  the  electric 
telegraph,  and  a simple  form  is  still  em- 
ployed on  railways  to  regulate  traffic  at 
or  near  stations. 

SEMTBREVE,  in  music,  a note  of 
half  the  duration  or  time  of  the  breve. 
The  semibreve  is  the  measure  note  by 
which  all  others  are  now  regulated. 
It  is  equivalent  in  time  to  two  minims, 
or  four  crotchets,  or  eight  quavers,  or 
sixteen  semiquavers,  or  thirty-two  demi- 
semiquavers.  See  Music. 

SEMTCOLON,  in  grammar  and  punc- 
tuation, the  point  (;),  the  mark  of  a 
pause  to  be  observed  in  reading  or 
speaking,  of  less  duration  than  the  colon, 
and  more  than  that  of  the  comma.  It  is 
used  to  distinguish  the  conjunct  mem- 
bers of  a sentence. 

SEM'INOLES,  a tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  an  offshoot  from  the  Choc- 
taw Muskogees.  They  separated  from 
the  confederation  of  the  Creeks,  settled 
in  Florida  1750  under  the  name  of 
Seminoles,  that  is,  fugitives.  They  were 
subsequently  joined  by  other  Indians 
as  well  as  negroes,  and  in  1822  they 
numbered  3900  souls.  As  a punish- 
ment for  their  continual  plundering 
and  murdering  of  the  white  settlers, 


General  Jackson  was  sent  against  them 
in  1818.  They  latterly  sold  their  lands 
and  agreed  to  be  transferred  beyond  the 
Mississippi,  but  refused  to  implement 
their  agreement,  and  under  their  chief 
Osceola  carried  on  a long  and  deter- 
mined resistance.  At  last  they  were 
finally  driven  from  the  Everglade  mo- 
rasses by  United  States  troops,  and 
obliged  to  succumb  in  1842,  when  all  but 
a scanty  remnant  were  transferred  to 
the  Indian  territory,  where  they  now 
form  an  industrious  community. 

SEMIPALATINSK,  or  SEMIPOLAT- 
INSK,  a town  of  Central  Asia,  on  the 
Irtish.  It  consists  chiefly  of  wooden 
buildings  facing  the  river,  and  carries  on 
a considerable  trade  with  the  Kirghis 
and  with  Tashkend,  Khokand,  Bok- 
hara, and  Kashgar.  Pop.  26,353. — The 
province  of  Semipalatinsk  has  an  area 
of  198,192  sq.  miles,  and  a population  of 
685,197,  chiefly  Kirghiz,  Cossacks,  etc. 
It  is  mountainous  in  the  southeast,  con- 
sists of  steppe  land  in  the  northwest,  and 
is  one  of  the  warmest  of  Russian  Asia  in 
summer,  though  the  winter  is  rather 
extreme.  The  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  is  cattle-rearing. 

SEMIQUAVER,  in  music,  a note  half 
the  length  of  the  quaver.  See  Music. 

SEMIR'AMIS,  a queen  of  Assyria, 
whose  history  is  enveloped  in  fable.  As 
the  story  goes,  she  was  a daughter  of 
the  fish-goddess  Derceto  of  Ascalon,  in 
Syria,  by  a Syrian  youth.  Being  ex- 
posed by  her  mother,  she  was  miracul- 
ously fed  by  doves  until  discovered  by 
the  chief  of  the  royal  shepherds,  who 
adopted  her.  Attracted  by  her  beauty, 
Onnes,  governor  of  Nineveh,  married 
her.  She  accompanied  him  to  the  siege 
of  Bactra,  where,  by  her  advice,  she 
assisted  the  king’s  operations.  She  be- 
came endeared  to  Ninus,  the  founder 
of  Nineveh  (about  b.c.  2182),  but  Onnus 
refused  to  yieldher,and  beingthreatened 
by  Ninus,  hanged  himself.  Ninus  re- 
signed the  crown  to  Semiramis,  and  had 
her  proclaimed  queen  of  Assyria.  She 
built  Babylon,  and  rendered  it  the 
mightiest  city  in  the  world.  She  was 
distinguished  as  a warrior,  and  con- 
quered many  of  the  adjacent  countries. 
Having  been  completely  defeated  on 
the  Indus,  she  was  either  killed  or  com- 
pelled to  abdicate  by  her  son  Ninyas, 
after  reigning  forty-two  years.  Accord- 
ing to  popular  legend  she  disappeared 
or  was  changed  into  a dove,  and  was 
worshiped  as  a divinity.  Her  whole 
history  resembles  an  oriental  tale,  and 
even  her  existence  has  been  questioned. 
She  is  probably  a mythological  being 
corresponding  to  Astrate,  or  the  Greek 
.A.phrodite. 

SEMITTC  LANGUAGES,  the  lan- 
guages belonging  to  the  Semites  or 
Semitic  peoples,  that  is  those  regarded  as 
descendants  of  Shem.  The  Semitic  lan- 
guages form  an  important  lin^istic 
family,  w'hich  is  usually  divided  into  a 
northern  and  a southern  section.  To 
the  northern  belong  the  ancient  dialects 
of  .\ssyria  and  Babylonia  (recovered  by 
means  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions); 
the  Hebrew,  'W'ith  the  Samaritan  and 
Moabitic;  the  Phoenician  and  Carthagi- 
nian; and  lastly  the  Aramaic,  ■which  in- 
cludes the  Chaldee  and  the  Syriac.  The 
northern  Semitic  languages  are  now 


SEMMES 


SENNA 


almost  entirely  extinct  as  spoken  lan- 
guages, though  Hebrew  is  to  some  ex- 
tent still  used  in  writing.  The  most,  im- 
portant of  the  south  Semitic  tongues, 
and  the  only  one  now  in  extensive  use, 
is  the  Arabic,  which  as  a spoken  lan- 
guage may  be  divided  into  the  four  dia- 
lects of  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Bar- 
bary. To  this  branch  also  belong  the 
Mimyaritic,  fonnerly  spoken  in  part  of 
Arabia,  the  Ethiopic,  or  ancient  eccle- 
siastical language  of  Abyssinia,  and  the 
Amharic  and  other  modern  dialects  of 
the  same  country.  The  most  prominent 
characteristic  of  the  Semitic  tongues  is 
the  triliteralism  of  their  roots,  that  is, 
the  peculiarity  that  their  roots  regularly 
consist  of  three  consonants  which  always 
remain  unchanged,  the  various  words 
and  word  forms  being  produced  by  the 
insertion  of  vowels  between  the  con- 
sonants of  the  root.  Another  peculiarity 
is  the  absence  of  compound  words. 

SEMMES,  Raphael,  American  naval 
officer,  born  1809,  died  1877.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1832,  having  previously 
studied  law;  took  part  in  the  Mexican 
war,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  joined  the  confederate  service,  and 
gained  much  prominence  from  his  feats 
in  command  of  the  Sumter  and  the 
Alabama.  He  was  imprisoned  after  the 
war,  but  gained  his  liberty  at  the  am- 
nesty. The  rest  of  his  life  was  devoted 
to  law  practice.  He  was  the  author  of 
Service  Afloat  and  Ashore,  Cruise  of  the 
Alabama  and  Sumter,  etc. 

SENATE,  originally  the  supreme  legis- 
lative body  of  ancient  Rome,  first  in- 
stituted according  to  tradition  by 
Romulus.  Tarquinius  Priscus  is  said  to 
have  increased  the  number  of  members 
from  100  to  300,  thus  making  100  rep- 
resentatives for  each  of  the  Patrician 
tribes.  Under  the  republic  the  consuls, 
consular  tribunes,  and  later  the  censors, 
had  the  power  of  choosing  the  senators; 
but  they  were  restricted  to  those  who 
had  previously  held  magistracies,  and 
as  the  magistrates  were  chosen  by  popu- 
lar election  the  senate  was  ultimately  a 
representative  body  Curule  magis- 
trates and  quaestors  had  a seat  ex 
officio  in  the  senate,  and  a right  to  speak, 
but  not  to  vote.  In  the  administration 
of  affairs  the  senate  was  supreme,  and 
during  national  crises  could  invest  the 
consuls  with  absolute  and  dictatorial 
authority.  A decree  of  the  senate  was 
called  senatus  consultum.  The  number 
of  senators  necessary  to  form  a quorum 
during  the  republic  is  uncertain.  After 
this  body  had  remained  for  several 
centuries  at  300,  their  number  was  raised 
by  Sulla  to  600,  he  having  added  300 
equites  to  the  senate.  Julius  Csesar 
made  a further  increase  of  300,  and  at 
one  time  there  were  1000,  but  Augustus 
lowered  their  number  to  600,  and  re- 
quired the  presence  of  400  to  constitute 
a full  assembly.  He  afterward  further 
reduced  them,  and  later  70  members 
were  considered  sufficient.  The  majority 
of  votes  always  decided  a question. 
Latterly,  under  the  republic,  the  trib- 
unes of  the  people,  could  veto  every 
proposition  before  the  senate.  Under 
the  emperors  the  senate  gradually  lost 
its  political  consideration;  finally  it 
often  aceepted  and  passed  the  imperial 
decrees  without  deliberation,  In  modern 


times  the  term  is  applied  to  the  upper 
or  less  numerous  branch  of  a legislature 
in  various  countries,  as  in  France,  in  the 
United  States,  in  most  of  the  separate 
states  of  the  Union,  and  in  some  of  the 
Swiss  cantons.  It  is  also  used  to  desig- 
nate the  governing  body  of  certain 
universities. 

SEN'ECA,  a lake  in  the  western  part 
of  New  York  state,  25  miles  s.  of  Lake 
Ontario,  into  which  its  waters  flow. 
It  is  about  37  miles  long,  from  2 to  4 
miles  broad,  and  630  feet  deep.  It 
communicates  with  the  Erie  canal,  and 
steamers  ply  upon  it. 

SEN'ECA,  Lucius  Annaeus,  called 
Senaca  the  philosopher,  son  of  the  fol- 
lowing, was  born  at  Corduba  (Cordova) 
A.D.  3.  The  good  government  of  the  first 
years  of  Nero’s  reign  was  largely  due  to 
Seneca  (though  Seneca  had  consented 
to  the  assassination  of  Nero’s  mother), 
but  he  lost  his  influence,  and  being 
accused  of  complicity  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Piso  he  was  forced  to  commit  suicide 

(A.D.  66). 

SENECA,  Marcus  Annaeus,  rhetorician 
and  the  father  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
native  of  Corduba,  in  Spain,  and  was 
born  about  61  b.c.  He  died  at  Rome 
toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
(a.d.  37).  He  was  the  author  of  a col- 
lection of  extracts  showing  the  treat- 
ment of  school  themes  by  contemporary 
rhetoricians,  but  of  no  importance  as 
liters  tur© 

SENECAMNDIANS,  a tribe  originally 
inhabiting  the  western  part  of  New  York 
state,  and  belonging  to  the  Six  Nations. 
They  number  upward  of  3000  on  New 
York  reservations,  and  a small  band  are 
in  the  Indian  territory. 

SEN'EFELDER,  Aloys,  the  inventor 
of  lithography,  born  at  Prague  1771, 
died  at  Munich  1834. 

SEN'ECA,  or  SEN'EKA,  a plant  com- 
mon in  the  United  States.  It  has  a 
woody,  branched,  contorted  root,  about 
i inch  in  diameter,  and  covered  with 
ash-colored  bark.  This  has  been  cele- 


brated as  a cure  for  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake.  Medically  it  is  considered 
stimulating,  expectorant,  and  diuretic, 
and  is  now  almost  exclusively  used  in 
cough  mixtures,  being  similar  in  its 
effect  to  squill. 

SEN'EGAL,  a river  of  Western  Africa, 
which  rises  in  the  interior  not  far  from 
some  of  the  Niger  sources,  and  after  a 
course  of  some  1000  miles  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  near  lat.  16°  n.  It  is  navigable 
for  about  700  miles  from  its  mouth,  as 
far  as  the  cataracts  of  Felou,  beyond 


which  its  capabilities  have  not  been 
ascertained. 

SENEGAL,  a French  colonial  de- 
pendency in  West  Africa,  in  Senegam- 
bia,  comprising  the  island  and  town  of 
St.  Louis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal, 
several  forts  along  the  banks  of  that 
river,  the  island  of  Goree,  Albuda  on  the 
Gambia,  and  other  stations  south  of 
Cape  Verd.  Area  (including  dependen- 
cies), 140,000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  2,000,000. 

SENEGAM'BIA,  an  extensive  region 
of  Western  Africa,  comprising  the  coun- 
tries between  lat.  8°  and  17°  n.;  Ion. 
4°  and  17°  30'  w.;  bounded  n.  by  the 
Sahara,  e.  by  Soudan,  s.  by  Guinea,  and 
w.  by  the  Atlantic.  Rice,  rnaize,  and 
other  grains,  with  bananas,  manioc,  and 
yams  are  grown,  while  the  orange, 
citron,  and  other  fruits  introduced  by 
the  Portuguese  are  now  extensively 
cultivated  on  the  hills.  Wild  animals 
comprise  the  elephant,  hippopotamus, 
monkeys,  antelopes,  gazelles,  lion,  pan- 
ther, leopard,  hyenas,  jackal,  crocodile, 
etc.  The  climate  is  intensely  hot,  and 
very  unhealthy  for  Europeans.  The 
region  may  be  divided  into  French 
Senegambia  (Senegal  and  territories  pro- 
tected or  under  French  influence);  Brit- 
ish Senegambia  (Sierra  Leona,  Gambia, 
etc.);  Portuguese  Senegambia  (Bissao, 
Casamanza,  etc.);  and  Liberia.  The 
total  population  of  Senegambia  is  esti- 
mated at  12,000,000,  and  its  area  at 
perhaps  700,000  sq.  miles. 

SENILITY,  in  man  special  physiolo- 
gical conditions  and  pathological  changes 
mark  the  decline  of  life  and  the  approach 
of  old  age.  Death  never  results  from 
old  age.  In  all  cases  some  lesion  points 
the  way  to  the  cause  of  death.  The  pre- 
cautions to  be  taken  against  the  rapid 
advance  of  age  include  avoidance  of 
alcohol  during  one’s  whole  life;  mod- 
erate eating,  especially  after  the  age  of 
forty;  moderate  exercise  after  the  age 
of  sixty  is  reached,  or  after  senescence 
has  begun  to  manifest  itself;  avoidance 
of  strain,  physical  or  mental;  avoidance 
of  worry,  anger,  and  grief ; proper  cloth- 
ing for  all  seasons  and  conditions,  and 
other  avoidance  of  exposure;  together 
with  out-of-door  air. 

SENNA,  a substance  used  in  medicine, 
consisting  of  the  leaflets  of  several 
species  of  Cassia,  but  the  exact  botanical 
source  of  some  of  the  commercial  kinds 


Senna. 


is  still  uncertain.  Alexandrian  senna  is 
grown  in  Nubia  and  Upper  Egypt,  and 
imported  in  large  bales  from  Alexandria. 
It  is  frequently  adulterated  with  the 
loaves  of  other  plants. 


SENNAAR 


SEPTUAGINT 


SENNAAR',  or  SEN  AAR',  a region  of 
Africa,  in  the  Soudan,  area  about 
115,000  sq.  miles,  between  the  Bahr-el- 
Azrek,  or  Blue  Nile  and  the  Bahr-el- 
Abiad,  or  White  Nile.  The  population, 
estimated  at  1,500,000,  is  greatly  mixed. 

SENSATION,  the  name  applied  to  in- 
dicate the  consciousness  of  an  impres- 
sion produced  on  sensory  nerve  fibers 
(See  Nerve.)  An  impression  might  be 
produced  upon  a sensory  nerve  and 
transmitted  to  a nerve  center,  leading  to 
stimulation  of  the  center  and  to  some 
subsequent  change,  but  if  no  conscious- 
ness of  such  existed  it  could  not  be 
called  a sensation.  Thus,  an  impression 
made  on  an  organ  of  sense  might  reach 
a lower  nerve  center,  and  by  reflex 
action  induce  a muscular  movement, 
while  the  centers  devoted  to  conscious- 
ness being  asleep  or  preoccupied  re- 
mained unaffected.  To  this  kind  of  im- 
pression the  term  sensation  is  not  ap- 
plicable. The  external  organs  by  means 
of  which  particular  kinds  of  impressions 
are  primarily  received,  and  thence  trans- 
mitted to  the  brain,  are  called  the  organs 
of  the  senses;  these  are  the  eye,  the  ear, 
the  nose,  and  the  tongue,  besides  the 
nerves  dispersed  under  the  common 
integument,  which  give  rise  to  the  com- 
mon sensation  feeling  or  touch.  This 
last  is  of  a more  general  kind  than  the 
others,  making  us  aware  of  heat  and 
cold,  rough  and  smooth,  hard  and  soft, 
etc.  In  addition  to  these,  according  to 
Professor  Bain,  "the  feelings  connected 
with  the  movements  of  the  body,  or  the 
action  of  the  muscles,  have  come  to  be 
recognized  as  a distinct  class,  differing 
materially  from  the  sensations  of  the 
five  senses.  They  have  been  regarded 
by  some  metaphysicians  as  proceeding 
from  a sense  part,  a sixth  or  muscular 
sense.”  Of  the  sensations  which  are 
most  readily  perceived  by  animals  that 
of  resistance  or  touch  is  perhaps  the 
most  widely  diffused.  By  the  resisting 
feel  of  matter  we  judge  of  its  shape  and 
of  its  other  attributes.  Next  to  resistance 
sensibility  to  heat  is  the  best  defined 
and  most  frequently  displayed  sensa- 
tion. The  sense  of  consciousness  of  light 
or  luminosity  succeeds  that  of  tempera- 
ture; taste  comes  next  in  order;  then 
hearing;  while  smell  is  probably  one  of 
the  least  diffused  of  sensations.  The 
special  senses  and  the  structure  of  the 
organs  of  sense  are  described  under  the 
headings  Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  Smell,  Touch, 
etc.  (which  see). 

SENSES.  See  special  articles  Eye, 
Ear,  Nose,  Smell,  Touch,  etc.;;  also 
Nerve,  Sensation,  etc. 

SENSITIVE  FLAMES,  gas  flames 
which  are  easily  affected  by  sounds, 
being  by  them  made  to  lengthen  out 
or  contract,  or  change  their  form  in 
various  ways.  The  most  sensitive  flame 
is  produced  in  burning  gas  issuing  under 
considerable  pressure  from  a small  taper 
jet.  Such  a flame  will  be  affected  by 
very  small  noises,  as  the  ticking  of  a 
watch  held  near  it,  or  the  chinking  of 
small  coins  100  feet  off.  The  gas  must 
be  turned  on  so  that  the  flame  is  just  at 
the  point  of  roaring. 

SENSITIVE  PLANT,  a plant  cele- 
brated for  its  apparent  sensibility,  a 
native  of  tropical  America.  The  leaves 
are  compound,  consisting  of  four  leaves. 


themselves  pinnated,  uniting  upon  a 
common  footstalk.  At  the  approach  of 
night  the  leaflets  all  fold  together;  and 
the  common  footstalk  bends  toward  the 
stem;  at  sunrise  the  leaves  gradually 
unfold,  and  recover  their  usual  state. 
So  far,  this  is  evidently  the  effect  of 
light,  but  the  same  phenomena  take 
place  on  touching  the  plant  roughly, 
only  that  it  recovers  itself  in  a short 
period.  The  same  property  belongs  to 
other  species  of  Mimosa  and  to  species 
of  other  genera. 

SENTENCE,  in  grammar,  a combina- 
tion of  words  which  is  complete  in  itself 
as  expressing  a thought  or  proposition, 
and  in  writing  is  marked  at  the  close  by 
a full  point.  It  is  the  unit  or  ground- 
form  of  speech.  According  to  the  gram- 
mars a sentence  must  always  contain 
two  members — the  subject  or  thing 
spoken  of,  and  the  predicate  or  that 
which  is  enunciated  regarding  the  sub- 
ject. Accordingly  every  sentence  must 
have  a finite  verb,  though  in  impas- 
sioned language  the  verb  is  frequently 
understood.  Sentences  are  distinguished 
into  simple,  complex,  and  compound. 
A simple  sentence  has  only  one  subject 
and  one  finite  verb,  as  “The  man  is 
brave.”  This  may  be  more  or  less  ex- 
panded by  the  use  of  adjuncts,  and  still 
retain  its  character  of  a simple  sentence. 
A complex  sentence  is  a principal  sen- 
tence with  one  or  more  subordinate  sen- 
tences, as  “The  man,  who  is  truly  pa- 
triotic, will  risk  his  life  fo  rhis  country. 
A compound  sentence  consists  of  two 
or  more  simple  sentences  connected  by 
conjunctions,  as  “The  sun  rises  in  the 
east  and  sets  in  the  west.”  It  differs 
from  the  complex  sentence  in  having 
its  clauses  co-ordinate,  and  not,  as  in 
the  other,  in  subordination  to  a prin- 
cipal clause. 

SENTRY,  or  SENTINEL,  a soldier  set 
to  watch  or  guard  an  army,  camp,  or 
other  place  from  surprise,  by  observing 
and  giving  notice  of  the  approach  of 
danger.  At  night  each  sentinel  is  fur- 
nished with  the  countersign  (a  certain 
word  or  phrase),  and  no  one  may  pass 
him  without  giving  this  signal. 

SE'PAL,  in  botany,  one  of  the  sep- 
arate divisions  of  a calyx  when  that 
organ  is  made  up  of  various  leaves. 
When  it  consists  of  but  one  part  the 
calyx  is  said  to  be  monosepalous;  when 


t «,  Sepals. 


of  two  or  more  parts,  it  is  said  to  be 
di-,  tri-,  tetra-,  pentasepalous,  etc. 
When  of  a variable  and  indefinite  num- 
ber of  parts,  it  is  said  to  be  polysepal- 
ous. 

SEPIA,  a genus  of  Cephalopoda  or 
cuttle  fishes,  included  in  the  family 
Sepiadffi.  These  cephalopoda,  of  which 
the  common  sepia  is  a typical  example, 
belong  to  the  dibranchiate  or  “two- 
gilled”  section  of  their  class,  and  to  the 
group  of  decapodaor  “ten-armed” forms. 
The  family  Sepiadae  possesses  an  inter- 


nal calcareous  shell,  the  so-called  sepio- 
staire  or  “cuttle-fish  bone,”  which  is 
often  cast  up  upon  some  coasts,  and  was 
formerly  in  repute  as  an  antacid  in  medi- 
cine, and  as  the  source  of  the  “pounce” 
once  used  for  spreading  over  eroded 
ink  marks  to  form  a smooth  surface  for 
the  corrected  writing.  There  are  four 
rows  of  pedunculated  suckers  on  the 
arms  of  the  genus  Sepia.  Lateral  fins 
exist.  The  two  tentacles  or  arms,  which 
are  longer  than  the  remaining  eight, 
possess  suckers  at  their  expanded  ex- 
tremities only.  The  eggs  of  the  sepia 
resemble  bunches  of  grapes  in  form,  and 
hence  aresometimes  called  “sea-grapee.” 
The  eggs  are  each  protected  in  a leathery 
capsule.  The  common  sepia  occurs  on 
the  southern  English  coasts,  but  more 
especially  in  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
It  is  chiefly  sought  after  on  account  of 
the  inky  matter  which  it  affords.  This 
secretion,  which  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  extremely  diffusible  through  it,  is 
agitated  in  water  to  wash  it,  and  then 
allowed  slowly  to  subside,  after  which 
the  water  is  poured  off,  and  the  black 
sediment  is  formed  into  cakes  or  sticks. 
When  prepared  with  caustic  lye  it  forms 
a beautiful  brown  color,  with  a fine 
grain,  and  has  given  name  to  a species 
of  monochrome  drawing  now  extensively 
cultivated. 

SE'POYS,  the  name  given  to  the 
native  forces  in  India.  The  native 
Indian  army — infantry,  cavalry,  artil- 
lery, and  sappers  and  miners — now  num- 
bers 145,683  men,  including  2795  native 
officers,  and  1580  European  officers. 
Though  not  generally  equal  in  courage 
and  dexterity  to  European  soldiers, 
the  sepoys  are  hardy  and  endurant,  and 
very  temperate  in  their  food. 

SE^EMBER  (from  the  Latin  septem, 
seven),  the  ninth  month  of  our  year, 
but  tire  seventh  of  the  old  Roman  year, 
which  began  in  March.  It  has  always 
contained  thirty  days. 

SEP'TUAGINT,  or  the  LXZ.,  the 
Version  of  the  Seventy,  the  Alexandrine 
Version,  etc.,  is  the  oldest  Greek  version 
of  the  Old  'Testament.  It  is  so  called 
either  because  it  was  approved  and 
sanctioned  by  the  sanhedrim,  or  supreme 
council  of  the  Jewish  nation,  which  con- 
sists  of  about  seventy  members,  or  be- 
cause, according  to  tradition,  about 
seventy  men  were  employed  on  the 
translation.  The  language  is  the  Hellen- 
istic Greek  of  Alexandria,  based  upon 
the  Attic  dialect.  The  translation  is 
reported  by  Josephus  to  have  been 
made  in  the  reign  and  by  the  order  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt, 
about  270  or  280  years  before  the  birth 
of  Christ.  It  is  believed,  however,  by 
modern  critics  that  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  several  books  is  the  work, 
not  only  of  different  hands,  but  of  sepa- 
rate times.  It  is  probable  that  at  first 
only  the  Pentateuch  was  translated, 
and  the  remaining  books  gradually.  The 
Septuagint  was  in  use  up  to  the  time  of 
our  Savior,  and  is  that  out  of  which 
most  of  the  citations  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment from  the  Old  are  taken.  It  is  an 
invaluable  help  to  the  right  understand- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  prin- 
cipal extant  MSS.  known  are  the  Codex 
Alexandrinus  in  the  British  museum, 
the  Codex  Vaticanus  in  Rome,  and  the 


SEPULCHRAL  MOUND 


SERPENT-CHARMING 


Codex  Sinaiticus  (imperfect)  in  St. 
Petersburg.  The  principal  printed 
editions  are  the  Complutensian  (1514- 
17),  the  Aldine  (Venice,  1518),  the 
Roman  or  Sextine  (1587),  and  the  new 
Cambridge  (1887-95). 

SEPULCHRAL  MOUND.  See  Tumuli, 
Barrow. 

SEQUENCE,  in  music  the  recurrence 
of  a harmonic  progression  or  melodic 
figure  at  a different  pitch  or  in  a different 
key  to  that  in  which  it  was  first  given. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  church  the  term 
sequence  is  applied  to  a hymn  intro- 
duced into  the  mass  on  certain  festival 
days. 

SEQUO'IA  (from  the  American  Indian 
Sequoyah,  who  invented  the  Cherokee 
alphabet),  a genus  of  conifers,  other- 
wise called  Wellingtonia  or  Washing- 
tonia,  consisting  of  two  species  only — 
the  redwood  of  the  timber  trade,  and  the 
Wellingtonia,  the  big  or  mammoth  tree 
of  the  western  states,  the  latter  having 
been  discovered  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  in 
1852.  One  specimen  in  Calaveras  co.. 
Cal.,  has  a height  of  325  feet,  and  a 
girth  6 feet  from  the  ground  of  45  feet. 
The  Mariposa  Grove,  16  miles  south  of 
the  Yosemite  valley,  contains  upward 
of  100  trees  over  40  feet  in  circumference 
and  one  over  93  feet  at  the  ground,  and 
64  feet  at  11  feet  higher.  This  grove 
is  government  property.  Some  of  these 
trees  indicate  an  age  of  over  2000  years. 

SERAGLIO  (se-ral'yo),  properly  Serai, 
the  palace  of  the  Turkish  sultan  at  Con- 
stantinople. It  stands  in  a beautiful 
situation,  on  a point  of  land  projecting 
into  the  sea.  Its  walls  embrace  a circuit 
of  about  9 miles,  including  several 
mosques,  spacious  gardens,  the  harem, 
and  buildings  capable  of  accommodating 
20,000  men,  though  the  number  of  the 
sultan’s  household  does  not  amount  to 
above  10,000.  The  principal  gate  of 
the  seraglio  is  called  Babi  Humayum 
(Sublime  Porte). 

SERAING  (se-ran),  a town  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  Li6^e,  3 miles  south- 
west of  Li4ge,  on  the  Meuse.  Cockerill’s 
extensive  iron,  steel,  and  machine 
works  (including  also  coalpits),  em- 
ploying 12,000  hands,  are  established 
here,  and  other  industries  are  carried 
on.  Pop.  67,942. 

SER'APH.  plural  Seraphim,  a name 
applied  by  the  prophet  Isaiah  to  certain 
attendants  of  Jehovah  in  a divine  vision 
presented  to  him  in  the  temple  (Isa. 
vi.  2).  Very  commonly  by  these  sera- 
phim have  been  understood  to  be  angels 
of  the  highest  order — angels  of  fire.  The 
term  seraphim  is  only  used^  elsewhere 
of  the  serpents  of  the  wilderness  (Num. 
xxi.  6,  8 and  Deut.  viii.  15). 

SERA'PIS,  or  SARA'PIS,  an  Egyptian 
deity  whose  worship  was  introduced  into 
Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  I.  Forty- 
two  temples  are  said  to  have  beenerected 
to  him  in  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies 
and  Romans;  his  worship  extended  also 
to  Asia  Minor,  and  in  146  a.d.  it  was  in- 
troduced to  Rome  by  Antonius  Pius. 
The  image  of  Serapis  perished  with  his 
temple  at  Alexandria,  which  was  de- 
stroyed in  389  by  the  order  of  Theodo- 
sius. 

SERENADE,  music  performed  in  the 
open  air  at  night;  often,  an  entertain- 
ment of  music  given  in  the  night  by  a 


lover,  to  his  mistress  under  her  window; 
or  music  performed  as  a mark  of  esteem 
and  good  will  toward  distinguished  per- 
sons. The  name  is  also  given  to  a piece 
of  music  characterized  by  the  soft 
repose  which  is  suppozed  to  be  in  har- 
mony with  the  stillness  of  night.  The 
Italian  name  Serenata  is  now  applied 
to  a cantata  having  a pastoral  subject, 
and  to  a work  of  large  proportions,  in  the 
form  to  some  extent  of  a symphony. 

SERFS,  a term  applied  to  a class  of 
laborers  existing  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, and  whose  condition,  though  not 
exactly  that  of  slaves,  was  little  removed 
from  it.  Under  this  system,  from  the 
vassals  of  the  king  downward,  the  whole 
community  was  subject  only  on  con- 
dition of  specific  services  to  be  rendered 
to  his  superior  that  any  individual  held 
his  fief.  In  the  case  of  the  lower  classes 
this  servitude  amounted  to  an  almost 
complete  surrender  of  their  personal  lib- 
erty. There  were  two  classes  of  laborers, 
the  villeins  and  the  serfs  proper.  The  for- 
mer occupied  a middle  position  between 
the  serfs  and  the  freemen.  Hallam  re- 
marks, in  reference  to  these  two  classes, 
that  in  England,  at  least  from  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.,  one  only,  and  that  the  in- 
ferior, existed;  incapable  of  property 
and  destitute  of  redress  except  against 
the  most  outrageous  injuries.  A serf 
could  not  be  sold,  but  could  be  trans- 
ferred along  with  the  property  to  which 
he  was  attached.  The  revival  of  the 
custom  of  manumission  counteracted 
the  rapid  increase  of  serfs.  A serf  could 
also  obtain  his  freedom  by  purchase,  or 
by  residing  for  a year  and  a day  in  a 
borough,  or  by  military  service.  By 
these  various  means  the  serf  population 
gradually  decreased.  In  most  parts  of 
the  continent  they  had  disappeared  by 
the  15th  century.  The  extinction  of 
serfdom  in  England  and  Scotland  was 
very  gradual.  As  late  as  1574  Elizabeth 
issued  a commission  of  inquiry  into  the 
lands  and  goods  of  her  bondsmen  and 
bondswomen  in  specified  counties  in 
order  to  compound  for  their  manu- 
mission; and  even  in  the  18th  century, 
a species  of  serfdom  existed  among 
Scottish  minors.  Serfdom  in  Russia  was 
abolished  by  a manifesto  of  Alexander 
II.  on  March  17,  1861. 

SERGEANT,  a non-commissioned  of- 
ficer in  the  army,  ranking  next  above 
the  corporal.  He  is  appointed  to  see 
discipline  observed,  to  teach  the  sol- 
diers their  drill,  and  also  to  command 
small  bodies  of  men,  as  escorts  and  the 
like.  A company  has  four  sergeants, 
of  whom  the  senior  is  called  color- 
sergeant.  Staff -sergeants  are  higher 
than  these,  and  above  all  is  the  sergeant- 
major,  who  acts  as  assistant  to  the 
adjutant. 

SERGIPE  (ser-zhe'pe),  or  SERGIPE- 
DEL-REY,  a maritime  state  of  Brazil, 
n.  of  Bahia;  area,  12,034  sq.  miles.  The 
coast  is  low  and  sandy,  but  the  interior 
is  mountainous.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Sao-Francisco  on  the  north.  Cotton, 
sugar  cane,  rice,  tobacco,  etc.,  are 
grown,  and  the  woods  furnish  good 
timber,  dyewoods,  and  quinine.  Pop. 
311,170.  The  chief  town  is  Aracajh; 
pop.  5000. 

SERIE'MA,  a gallatorial  bird  of  the 
size  of  a heron  inhabiting  the  open  grassy 


plains  of  Brazil  and  other  parts  of  South 
America.  Its  feathers  are  of  a gray  color, 
and  a kind  of  crest  rises  from  the  root 
of  the  beak,  consisting  of  two  rows  of 
fine  feathers  curving  backward.  The 
eye  is  sulphur-yellow,  the  beak  and  feet 
red.  It  is  of  retired  habits,  and  utters 


Seriema. 


a loud  screeching  cry,  which  somewhat 
resembles  that  of  a bird  of  prey  or  the 
yelping  of  a young  dog.  The  seriema 
is  protected  in  Brazil  on  account  of  its 
serpent-killing  habits  and  is  often  do- 
mesticated. 

SERINGAPATAM'  (properly,  Sir- 
ranga-patanam,  “city  of  Vishnu’’),  a 
celebrated  town  and  fortress  in  the 
province  of  Mysore,  Madras  presidency, 
India.  Pop.  10,594,  once  140,000. 

SEROUS  MEMBRANES  are  certain 
double  membranes  in  the  human  body, 
as  the  pleura,  pericardium,  peritoneum, 
etc.,  which  fonn  a sort  of  closed  sac 
surrounding  certain  organs,  the  interior 
surfaces  of  the  sac  secreting  a small 
quantity  of  serous  fluid.  Their  chief 
function  is  to  allow  free  action  to  the 
organs,  and  they  are  also  intimately 
connected  with  the  absorbent  system, 
the  vessels  of  which  freely  open  on  their 
surfaces.  These  membranes  are  liable 
to  various  diseases,  as  inflammation 
(pleurisy,  pericarditis,  etc.),  morbid 
growths,  dropsical  effusions,  hsemor- 
etc 

SERPENT-CHARMING,  an  art  of 
great  antiquity,  confined  in  practice 
exclusively  to  eastern  countries.  Several 
allusions  are  made  to  it  in  the  Bible, 
as  Ps.  Iviii.  5;  Eccl.  x.  11;  Jer.  viii.  17, 
and  also  in  classical  writers.  The  power 
exercised  by  the  charmers  over  poison- 
ous serpents  is  unquestionably  remark- 
able, and  though  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  common  practice  of  the  charmer 
is  to  extract  the  fangs  before  exhibiting 
their  feats,  yet  we  have  good  authority 
for  believing  that  it  is  not  unusual  to 
dispense  with  this.  The  instrument 
usually  employed  in  serpent-charming 
is  a kind  of  pipe,  which  is  varied  by 
whistling  and  the  use  of  the  voice.  The 
effect  of  this  medley  of  sounds  is  to  en- 
tice the  serpents  from  their  holes,  and 
this  done  the  serpent-charmer  pins  them 
to  the  ground  with  a forked  stick.  In 
India  and  other  places  the  art  of  serpent- 
channing  is  an  hereditary  profession, 


SERPENT  EATER 


SERVIA 


and  is  practiced  for  the  purpose  of  gain- 
ing a livelihood  by  administering  to  the 
amusement  of  the  public.  Besides  the 
evident  power  music  has  upon  the  ser- 
pents, they  appear  to  be  influenced  in  a 
marked  degree  by  the  eye  of  the  charmer 
who  controls  them  by  merely  fixing  his 
gaze  upon  them. 

SERPENT  EATER.  See  Secretary 
Bird. 

SERPENTS,  or  SNAKES,  an  order  of 
reptiles,  characterized  by  an  elongated 
and  cylindrical  body  covered  with 
horny  scales,  but  never  with  bony  plates. 
There  is  never  any  breast  bone  nor 
pectoral  arch,  nor  fore-limbs,  nor  as  a 
rule  any  traces  of  hind-limbs.  In  a few 
cases,  however  (as  in  the  python),  rudi- 
mentary hind-limbs  may  be  detected. 
The  ribs  are  always  numerous,  some 
serpents  having  more  than  300  pairs. 
These  not  only  serve  to  give  form  to  the 
body  and  aid  in  respiration,  but  are 
also  organs  of  locomotion,  the  animal 
moving  by  means  of  them  and  of  its 
scales  which  take  hold  on  the  surface 
over  which  it  passes.  The  vertebra?  are 
formed  so  as  to  give’great  pliancy,  most 
if  not  all  serpents  being  able  to  elevate 
a large  portion  of  their  body  from  the 
ground.  They  have  hooked,  conical 
teeth,  not  lodged  in  distinct  sockets 
useless  for  mastication,  but  serving  to 
hold  their  prey.  In  the  typical  non- 
poisonous  or  innocuous  serpents,  both 
jaws  and  the  palate  bear  continuous 
rows  of  solid  conical  teeth.  In  the 
venomous  serpents,  as  vipers,  mttle- 
snakes,  etc.,  there  are  no  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw  excepting  the  two  poison 
fangs.  These  are  long,  firmly  fixed  in  a 
movable  bone,  above  which  there  is  a 
gland  for  the  elaboration  of  poison. 
Each  tooth  is  perforated  by  a tube 
through  which  the  poison  is  forced. 
The  tongue,  which  is  forked,  and  can  be 
protruded  and  retracted  at  pleasure,  is 
probably  rather  an  organ  of  touch  than 
of  taste.  The  eye  is  unprotected  by  eye- 
lids, but  it  is  completely  covered  and 
protected  by  an  anterior  layer  of  trans- 
parent skin  attached  above  and  below 
to  a ridge  of  scales  which  surround  the 
eye.  No  external  ear  exists.  The  nostrils 
are  situated  on  the  snout.  The  heart  has 
three  chambers,  two  auricles  and  a 
ventricle.  The  digestive  system  com- 
prises large  salivary  glands,  a distensible 
gullet,  stomach,  and  intestine,  which 
terminates  in  a cloaca  with  a transverse 
external  opening.  A urinary  bladder  is 
absent.  The  lungs  and  other  paired  or 
symmetrical  organs  of  the  body  gen- 
erally exhibit  an  abortive  or  rudimen- 
tary condition  of  one  of  these  structures. 
As  regards  reproduction  they  are  either 
oviparous  or  ovoviviparous,  the  eggs 
being  either  hatched  externally  or  within 
the  animal’s  body.  Many  serpents, 
especially  the  larger  species,  as  the  boas, 
subsist  on  prey  thicker  than  themselves, 
which  they  crush  by  constriction,  and 
which  they  are  able  to  swallow  from  the 
throat  and  body  being  capable  of  great 
dilatation.  The  order  is  generally  divided 
into  two  sub-orders,  Viperina  and  Colu- 
brina,  the  former  having  only  two 
p>oison  fangs  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  latter 
having  solid  teeth, besidesgrooved  fangs. 
The  different  kinds  or  species  of  snakes 
will  be  found  described  in  articles  under 


their  respective  headings,  such  as  Rattle- 
snake, Python,  etc.  See  also  Reptiles. 

SER'PULA,  a genus  of  Annelida  or 
worms,  belonging  to  the  order  of  Tubi- 
cola  or  tube-dwelling  worms,  inhabiting 
cylindrical  and  tortuous  calcareous 
tubes  attached  to  rocks,  shells,  etc.,  in 
the  sea.  The  worm  fixes  itself  within 


Serpula,  detached  and  In  tube. 


its  tube  by  means  of  the  bristles  at- 
tached to  its  body-segment.  Its  head 
segments  are  provided  with  plume-like 
gills  or  granchise.  No  eyes  exist  in  this 
creature,  although  it  is  extremely  sen- 
sitive to  the  action  of  light. 

SERTO'RIUS,  Quintus,  a Roman  gen- 
eral, born  about  120  b.c.  After  serving 
with  reputation  under  Marius  against 
the  Teutones  in  Spain  he  was  made 
quCstor  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  in  91  b.c.  He 
was  treacherously  assassinated  at  a feast 
by  his  friend  Perperna  b.c.  72.  Sertorius 
has  been  made  the  subject  of  a tragedy 
by  Corneille. 

SERUM,  the  thin  transparent  part  of 
the  blood.  The  serum  of  the  blood, 
which  separates  from  the  crassamentum 
during  the  coagulation  of  that  liquid, 
has  a pale  straw  color,  or  greenish- 
yellow  color,  is  transparent  when  care- 
fully collected,  has  a slightly  saline  taste, 
and  is  somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch. 
It  usually  constitutes  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  blood,  the  pressed  coag- 
ulum  forming  about  one-fourth.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  thin  part  of 
milk  separated  from  the  curd  and  oil. 
See  Blood. 

SERVAL,  or  BUSH  CAT,  a carnivor- 
ous animal  nearly  related  to  the  leopard 
and  its  allies,  a native  of  Africa.  Its 
general  body  color  is  a bright  yellow  or 
golden  luster,  with  a grayish  tint,  and 


Serval. 


marked  with  black  spots.  The  average 
length  is  about  2 feet  10  inches  including 
the  thick  bushy  tail,  which  is  from  10  to 
12  inches  long.  This  animal  is  readily 
domesticated.  Its  fur  qrreat  request, 


and  obtains  high  prices.  The  name  of 
tiger  cat  is  frequently  applied  to  the 
serval. 

SERVE'TUS,  Michael  (properly  Miguel 
Servede),  a learned  Spaniard,  memor- 
able as  a victim  of  religious  intoler- 
ance, was  born  in  1509  at  Villa  Neuva, 
in  Arragon.  He  was  arrested  for  heresy 
and  imprisoned  in  1553,  but  contrived 
to  escape,  and  purposed  to  proceed  to 
Naples.  He  was,  however,  apprehended 
at  Geneva  on  a charge  of  blasphemy 
and  Reresy,  and  his  various  writings 
were  sifted  in  order  to  ensure  his  con- 
demnation. The  divines  of  all  the 
Protestant  Swiss  cantons  unanimous- 
ly' declared  for  his  punishment,  and 
Calvin  was  especially  urgent  and  em- 
phatic as  to  the  necessity  of  putting  him 
to  death.  As  he  refused  to  retract  his 
opinions  he  was  burnt  at  the  stake  on  the 
27th  October,  1553.  Servetus  is  num- 
bered among  the  anatomists  who  made 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

SERVIA,  an  independent  kingdom  of 
Eastern  Europe,  bounded  n.  by  Austria- 
Hungary,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Save  and  the  Danube;  e.  by  Rou- 
mania  and  Bulgaria;  s.  by  Turkey;  and 
w.  by  Bosnia;  area,  18,855  sq.  miles; 
pop.  2,535,915.  The  surface  is  ele- 
vated and  is  traversed  by  ramifica- 
tions of  the  Carpathians  in  the  north- 
east, of  the  Balkans  in  the  southeast, 
and  of  the  Dinaric  Alps  in  the  west.  The 
summits  seldom  exceed  3000  feet, 
though  the  highest  reaches  6325.  The 
chief  agricultural  products  are  corn, 
wheat,  flax,  hemp,  and  tobacco.  Wine 
is  grown  in  the  districts  adjoining  Hun- 
gary, and  the  cultivation  of  prunes  is 
extensive.  Lead,  zinc,  quicksilver, 
copper,  iron,  and  coal  are  found.  Manu- 
factures include  carpet-weaving,  em- 
broidery, jewelry,  and  filigree  work. 
The  principal  exports  are  dried  prunes, 
pigs,  wool,  wheat,  wine,  hides,  cattle, 
and  horses;  imports,  cotton,  sugar, 
colonial  goods,  hardware,  etc.  The  bulk 
of  the  trade  is  with  Austria.  There  are 
340  miles  of  railway  and  1800  miles  of 
telegraph.  The  great  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Slavonians,  and  adhere 
to  the  Greek  church.  The  standing  army 
numbers  about  18,000  men,  with  a re- 
serve of  155,000  men.  Servia  is  divided 
into  fifteen  (formerly  twenty-two)  ad- 
ministrative districts,  of  which  Belgrade 
(the  capital)  forms  one  by  itself.  Other 
principal  towns  are  Nisch,  Leskovatz, 
and  Pozarevatz. 

Servia  was  anciently  inhabited  by 
Thracian  tribes;  subsequently  it  formed 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Mcesia. 
It  was  afterwards  occupied  in  succession 
by  Huns,  Ostrogoths,  Lombards,  Avares 
and  other  tribes.  The  Servians  entered 
it  in  the  7th  century,  and  were  converted 
to  Christianity  in  the  next  century. 
They  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of 
the  Byzantine  emperors,  but  latterly 
made  themselves  independent  and 
under  Stephen  Dushan  (1336-56),  the 
Kingdom  of  Servia  included  all  Mace- 
donia, Albania,  Thessaly,  Northern 
Greece,  and  Bulgaria.  About  1374  a 
new  dynasty  ascended  the  throne  in  the 
person  of  Lazar  I.,  who  was  captured  ■ 
by  the  Turks  at  the  battle  of  Kossova 
(in  Albania)  in  1389,  and  put  to  death. 


SESAMUM 


SEWAGE 


Servia  now  became  tributary  to  Turkey. 
I About  the  middle  of  the  15th  century  it 
f became  a Turkish  province,  and  so  re- 
i.  mained  for  nearly  200  years.  By  the 
' Peace  of  Passarowitz  in  1718  Austria 
received  the  greater  part  of  Servia,  with 
the  capital,  Belgrade.  But  by  the  Peace 
of  Belgrade  in  1739  this  territory  was 
'■  transferred  to  Turkey.  The  barbarity  of 
the  Turks  led  to  several  insurrections. 
Early  in  the  19th  century  Czerny  George 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  malcon- 
V tents,  and,  aided  by  Russia,  succeeded 
after  eight  years  of  fighting  in  securing 
the  independence  of  his  country  by  the 
, Peace  of  Bucharest,  May  28,  1812.  The 
war  was  renewed  in  1813,  and  the  Turks 
, prevailed.  In  1815  all  Servia  rose  in 
arms  under  Milosh,  and  after  a success- 
ful  war  obtained  complete  self-goyern- 
^ ment,  Milosh  being  elected  hereditary 
prince  of  the  land.  Milosh  was  com- 
pelled to  abdicate  in  1839,  and  was 
nominally  succeeded  by  his  son  Milan, 
who  died  immediately,  leaving  the 
throne  vacant  to  his  brother  Michael. 
In  1842  this  prince  was  compelled  to 
follow  the  example  of  his  father  and  quit 
the  country,  Alexander  Kara-George- 
' vitch,  son  of  Czerny  George,  was  elected 
in  his  room;  but  in  December,  1858,  he 
; also  was  forced  to  abdicate.  Milosh  was 
then  recalled,  but  survived  his  restora- 
. tion  little  more  than  a year.  His  son 
Michael  succeeded  him  (1860),  but  was 
^ assassinated  by  the  partisans  of  Prince 
Alexander  on  July  10, 1868.  Theprincely 
dignity  was  then  conferred  on  Milan 
(Obrenovitch),  grand-nephew  of  Milosh. 
{•  After  the  fall  of  Plevna  in  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1877-78  Servia  took  up 
, arms  against  Turkey,  and  by  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin  (13th  July,  1878)  it  obtained 
an  accession  of  territory  and  the  full 
^ recognition  of  its  independence.  It  was 
• erected  into  a kingdom  in  1882.  In  1885 
a short  war  took  place  between  Servia 
and  Bulgaria,  resulting  in  favor  of  the 
latter.  In  1889  Milan  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  son  Alexander  I.  He  and  his 
queen  were  assassinated  in  1903,  and 
Peter  Kara-Georgevitch  succeeded. 

SES'AMUM,  or  SES'AME,  a genus  of 
annual  herbaceous  plants,  natural  order 
Pedaliaceae.  The  species,  though  now 
cultivated  in  many  countries,  are  natives 
of  India.  They  have  alternate  leaves 
and  axillary  yellow  or  pinkish  solitary 
flowers. 

SESOS'TRIS,  a name  given  by  the 
Greeks  to  an  Egyptian  king,  who  is  not 
mentioned  by  that  name  on  the  monu- 
ments, and  who  is  often  identified  with 
Ramses  II.  See  Ramses. 

SES'SILE,  in  zoology  and  botany,  a 
term  applied  to  an  organ  attached  or 


Sessile  leaves.  Sessile  flower. 


sitting  directly  on 
, belongs  without  a 


the  body  to  which  it 
support;  as,  a sessile 


leaf,  one  issuing  directly  from  the  main 
stem  or  branch  without  a petiole  or 
footstalk;  a sessile  flower,  one  having  no 
peduncle;  a sessile  gland,  one  not 
elevated  on  a stalk. 

SEVEN  STARS.  See  Pleiades. 

SEVENTH-DAY  BAPTISTS.  See  Bap- 
tists and  Sabbatarians. 

SEVENTY,  The.  See  Septuagint. 

SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD, 
an  old  designation  of  seven  monuments, 
remarkable  for  their  splendor  or  mag- 
nitude, generally  said  to  have  been : 
the  pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  walls  and 
hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  the  temple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  statue  of  the 
Olympian  Jupiter  at  Athens,  the  Mauso- 
leum at  Halicarnassus,  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  and  the  Pharos  or  lighthouse 
of  Alexandria. 

SEVEN  YEARS’  WAR,  the  war  carried 
on  from  1756-63,  by  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia,  in  alliance  with  England, 
against  Austria,  Russia,  France,  Sweden 
and  most  of  the  smaller  German  states. 
The  war  was  closed  by  the  Peace  of 
Paris  (February  10,  1763),  by  which 
England  obtained  Canada  from  France, 
and  Florida  (in  exchange  for  Havannah) 
from  Spain;  and  by  the  treaty  of  Hu- 
bertsburg  (February  15),  by  which 
Prussia  obtained  Silesia.  The  Seven 
Years’  war  raised  Prussia  to  the  rank 
of  a Great  Power. 

SEVERN,  the  second  largest  river  in 
England,  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
small  streams  which  rise  in  Mount 
Plinlimmon,  Montgomeryshire.  It  flows 
through  Montgomeryshire,  Shropshire, 
Worcestershire,  and  Gloucestershire, 
passing  the  towns  of  Newton,  Welsh- 
pool, Shrewsbury,  Worcester,  Tewkes- 
bury, Gloucester,  and  Bristol,  and  after 
a circuitous  southerly  course  of  about 
210  miles  falls  into  the  Bristol  channel. 
It  receives  the  Tern,  Upper  Avon,  and 
Lower  Avon  on  the  left,  and  the  Teme 
and  Wye  on  the  right.  Its  basin  has  an 
area  of  8580  sq.  miles.  A railway  tunnel 

miles  long  has  been  driven  below  the 
river  from  near  Avonmouth,  in  Glouces- 
tershire, across  to  Monmouthshire,  and  a 
railway  bridge  3581  feet  long  crosses  the 
river  at  Sharpness  higher  up. 

SEVILLE  (se-vilO,  SEVILLA  (se-veF- 
yS.),  a city  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Gaudalquivir,  capital 
of  a province  of  the  same  name,  62 
miles  n.n.e.  of  Cadiz.  It  is  largely  built 
in  the  Moorish  style,  with  narrow,  ill- 
paved  streets,  the  old  Moorish  houses 
having  spacious  interior  courtyards 
with  a fountain  in  the  middle.  The  city 
has  a large  and  handsome  Gothic  cathe- 
dral dating  from  the  15th  century,  with 
its  famous  Moorish  Giralda  or  tower, 
part  of  a mosque  which  gave  place  to 
the  present  cathedral,  and  dating  from 
1 1 96 ; an  alcazar  or  palace  in  the  Moorish 
style;  an  exchange  called  the  Casca 
Lonja;  a bull  ring,  a fine  stone  building 
holding  12,000  persons;  an  aqueduct  of 
410  arches  built  by  the  Moors,  a uni- 
versity, a picture  gallery  rich  in  ex- 
amples of  Murillo  and  Zurbaran,  etc. 
Pop.  148,315. — The  province  has  an 
area  of  5300  sq.  miles,  and  the  greater 
part  consists  of  fertile  plains  producing 
all  kinds  of  cereals,  seeds,  vegetables, 
oranges  and  other  fruits;  wine,  oil, 
tobacco,  etc.  Large  numbers  of  horses 


are  reared.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Guadalquivir.  Minerals  include  iron. 


Seville.— La  Oiralda  and  part  of  the  cathedral. 


silver,  lead,  and  copper.  The  chief 
exports  are  wheat,  barley,  oranges,  oil, 
wool,  copper,  etc.  Pop.  555,256. 

SEWAGE  (su'aj),  the  matter  which 
passes  through  the  drain,  conduits,  or 
sewers,  leading  away  from  human  habi- 
tations singly,  or  from  houses  collected 
into  villages,  towns,  and  cities.  It  is 
made  up  of  excreted  matter,  solid  and 
liquid,  the  water  necessary  to  carry  such 
away,  and  the  waste  water  of  domestic 
operations,  together  with  the  liquid 
waste  products  of  manufacturing  opera- 
tions, and  generally  much  of  the  surface 
drainage  water  of  the  area  in  which  the 
conveying  sewers  are  situated.  Until 
very  recent  times  human  excreta  was 
deposited  inouthouses  or  pits,  commonly 
called  cesspools.  The  invention  of  water- 
closets  necessitated  the  use  of  the  sewers 
and  the  water-carriage  of  excreta  was 
until  lately  regarded  as  the  most  satis- 
factory method  of  disposing  of  these 
matters.  It  was  argued  that  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  held  in  solution  by  the  water 
destroyed  the  organic  matter  and  ren- 
dered it  innoxious.  But  experience  has 
shown  that  no  river  in  the  kingdom 
can  oxidize  the  excreta  of  the  towns  on 
its  banks,  and  that  whenever  these  are 
passed  into  the  rivers  at  some  distance 
from  the  sea  they  are  apt  to  become 
offensive.  Sewage,  when  fresh  and  freely 
exposed  to  the  air,  is  almost  inodorous, 
but  once  it  accumulates  putrefaction 
sets  in,  it  becomes  vilely  odorous,  and 
pollutes  the  atmosphere  by  the  produc- 
tion of  poisonous  gases.  To  prevent  this 
it  has  been  suggested  that  all  sewers 
should  have  a greater  fall  than  at  pres- 
ent, and  many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  gases  in 
sewers  by  ventilation.  Many  methods 
for  the  ultimate  disposal  of  sewage  have 
been  proposed,  but  these  all  may  be 
divided  into  three  great  classes,  viz. 
precipitation,  irrigation,  and  filtration, 
since  the  throwing  of  sewage  into  a body 
of  water  in  order  that  it  may  be  carried 
away  by  currents,  diluted  and  oxygen- 
ated, has  ceased  to  hold  a place  inmodern 
sanitary  schemes.  The  precipitation  of 
sewage,  by  which  the  solid  matter  is 


SEWARD 


SEXTANT 


separated  from  the  liquid  and  used  as  a 
manure  or  otherwise,  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  numerous  patents,  and  many 
chemicals  have  been  employed  for  that 
purpose.  Lime,  lime  and  phosphate  of 
alumina,  and  sulphate  of  iron  have  all 
been  used  with  some  degree  of  success. 
In  the  ABC  process  the  sewage  is  first 
clarified  by  blood,  charcoal,  and  clay, 
and  afterwards  treated  with  sulphate  of 
alumina,  producing  a valuable  manure. 
Irrigation — by  which  the  sewage  is 
directly  applied  to  a piece  of  ground — 
has  been  fully  tried  in  several  localities, 
and  many  people  consider  it  the  most 
successful  solution  of  the  problem  as 
to  the  ultimate  disposal  of  sewage.  The 
ground  is  carefully  prepared,  and  the 
sewage  allowed  to  flow  over  its  surface 
by  gravitation,  and  by  this  process  the 
productiveness  of  the  soil  is  enormously 
increased.  But  farmers  will  only  use  the 
liquid  when  their  land  requires  it;  con- 
sequently when  this  system  is  adopted 
the  local  authorities  have  had  to  add  a 
farm  trust  to  their  many  other  responsi- 
bilities, and  the  system  is  generally 
carried  out  at  a heavy  annual  loss  to  the 
public.  Filtration — the  purification  of 
sewage  by  causing  it  to  filter  through 
the  earth — has  been  proposed  in  cases 
where  land  is  very  valuable  or  difficult 
to  be  secured  for  the  disposal  of  sewage, 
on  the  supposition  that  this  system  will 
only  require  one  acre  for  every  10,000 
inhabitants,  As  the  sewage  passes  down 
through  the  earth  the  air  must  of  neces- 
sity follow  it,  the  oxygen  of  which  will 
re-aerate  the  earth  and  make  it  again  fit 
for  use.  In  recent  systems  of  filtration 
the  sewage  is  made  to  pass  through 
special  filter-beds,  constructed  of  such 
materials  as  cinders,  coke,  sand,  gravel, 
etc.,  the  purification  of  the  sewage  being 
assisted  by  the  action  of  bacteria  con- 
tained in  it.  Some  methods  of  dealing 
with  the  sewage  difficulty  are  based  on 
the  principle  of  keeping  all  excremental 
matters  out  of  the  sewers  and  dealing 
with  them  so  as  to  prevent  decomposi- 
tion. Moule’s  earth-closet  has  been 
successfully  used  in  detached  houses 
and  villages  in  Great  Britain,  but  the 
bulk  of  material  renders  it  difficult  to 
apply  the  system  in  towns.  Other  sys- 
tems equally  successful  render  the  ex- 
creta innocuous  by  mixing  them  with 
charcoal,  sweepings,  refuse,  etc.,  and 
manufacturing  the  mass  into  manure. 
Seaweed  charcoal  has  been  used  instead 
of  earth  with  satisfactory  results.  In 
Hoey’s  system  the  soil  pipe  from  the 
closet  flows  into  a reservoir  under- 
ground, from  which  the  excreta  are 
removed  by  pneumatic  pressure  and 
manufactured  into  portable  manure.  In 
Leinur’s  system,  now  in  operation  at 
Leyden,  Amsterdam,  and  other  Euro- 
pean towns,  the  excreta  are  forced  by 
vacuum  power  into  hermetically  closed 
tanks  above  the  floor  of  the  central 
station.  The  matter  is  then  conducted 
by  air-tight  pipes  to  drying  retorts  and 
reduced  to  a state  of  powder,  or  is  de- 
canted in  a fluid  form  into  vessels  for 
immediate  transport  to  the  country. 
With  regard  to  indoor  drainage  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  each  trap 
connected  either  with  bath,  water- 
colset,  pink,  or  fixed  basin  is  ventilated 
to  the  open  air,  and  the  pipe  from  the 


bath,  sink,  or  fixed  basin  should  never 
pass  into  the  trap  of  the  water-closet, 
as  the  heated  water  promotes  decom- 
position. The  overflow  pipe  from  the 
cistern  should  not  open  into  the  soil 
pipe,  and  the  main  soil  pipe  should  be  of 
iron,  well  covered  with  protecting  com- 
position. Cesspools  should  in  all  cases  be 
abolished. 

SEWARD  (su'ard),  William  Henry 
an  American  statesman,  born  at  Florida, 
Orange  co..  New  York,  May  16,  1801; 
died  at  Auburn,  Cayuga  co.,  in  the  same 
state,  October  10,  1872.  He  studied  for 
the  bar,  and  began  practicing  in  Auburn 
in  1823,  but  gradually  drifted  into 

Eolitics,  and  in  1830  was  elected  a mem- 
er  of  the  New  York  senate.  Displaying 
marked  abilities  as  a politician  he  was 
in  1838  and  1840  chosen  governor  of  his 
native  state,  and  in  1849  was  elected  to  a 
seat  in  the  United  States  senate.  He 
was  the  friend  and  advisor  of  President 
Taylor,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  firm  resistance  to  the  extension  of 
slavery.  In  1860  he  was  a candidate  for 
the  presidency,  but  being  defeated  in 
the  convention  by  Abraham  Lincoln  he 
exerted  himself  to  secure  Lincoln’s 
election.  Lincoln  afterwards  nominated 
Seward  as  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs,  in  which  post  he  discharged  his 
duties  with  great  ability.  He  was  dan- 
gerously wounded  in  April,  1865,  when 
Lincoln  was  assassinated,  but  recovered 
and  fulfilled  the  same  office  under  Lin- 
coln’s successor,  Andrew  Johnson.  He 
resigned  his  post  on  the  accession  of 
President  Grant  in  1869.  He  wrote  a life 
of  John  Quincy  Adams;  his  Speeches, 
Correspondence,  etc.,  appeared  in  1869; 
and  an  Autobiography,  with  continua- 
tion, in  1877. 

SEWING  MACHINES,  the  first  at- 
tempts to  devise  machines  for  replacing 
hand  labor  in  sewing  were  made  early  in 
the  1 9th  century.  The  first  machines  were 
contrivances  for  imitating  mechanically 
the  movements  of  the  hand  in  sewing. 
In  the  machines  of  Thomas  Stone  and 
James  Henderson  (1804)  there  were  two 
pairs  of  pincers,  one  of  which  seized  the 
needle  below  and  the  other  above  the 
cloth,  and  pulled  it  quite  through  on 
either  side  alternately.  In  Heilmann’s 
machine,  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1834,  the 
needle  had  the  eye  in  the  middle  and  a 
point  at  each  end.  The  machine  was 
intended  for  embroidery  work.  Previous 
to  this  (in  1830)  Thimmonier  and  Fer- 
rand  had  contrived  a machine  producing 
what  is  known  as  the  chain  stitch.  But 
the  great  disadvantage  of  this  stitch  is 
that  the  whole  seam  becomes  undone 
if  the  end  of  the  thread  is  pulled.  In 
1854  Singer,  an  American,  devised  a 
machine  calculated  to  remedy  this  de- 
fect of  the  chain  stitch  by  means  of  a 
mechanism  for  tying  a knot  in  the  seam 
at  every  eighth  stitch.  But  long  before 
Singer’s  invention  Elias  Howe,  a poor 
American  mechanic,  had  invented  the 
first  really  satisfactory  sewing  machine 
for  which  he  obtained  a patent  in  May, 
1841.  Howe’s  machine  used  two  threads, 
one  of  which  passed  through  the  eye  of 
the  needle,  while  another  was  contained 
in  a small  shuttle;  and  it  produced  a 
seam  in  which  each  stitch  was  firmly 
locked,  so  that  it  could  not  come  undone 
by  pulling.  Many  improvements  have 


since  been  made  by  other  inventors.  The 
principle  of  the  two  threads  and  the  lock- 
stitch has  been  adhered  to  in  most  of  the 
machines  that  have  been  invented  sub- 
sequently to  that  of  Howe,  but  various 
details  applying  that  principle  have  been 
altered  for  the  better.  In  the  Wheeler 
and  Wilson  machine  the  place  of  the 
shuttle  is  supplied  by  a reel  which  re- 
volves in  a vertical  plane  within  a round 
piece  of  mechanism  so  contrived  as  to 
form  a loop  with  the  reel-thread,  which 
becames  interlocked  with  that  held  by 
the  needle.  Of  single-thread  machines 
one  of  the  best  is  that  of  Wilcox  and 
Gibbs,  which,  while  it  is  easy,  quick, 
and  noiseless  in  working,  makes  a se- 
curer stitch  than  one-thread  machines 
generally.  Sewing  machines  have  now 
been  adapted  to  produce  almost  all 
kinds  of  stitching  which  can  be  done  b}' 
the  hand.  Most  sew'ing  machines  are 
worked  by  the  foot,  but  many  are 
worked  by  the  hand,  and  some  may  be 
worked  by  either.  Steam  and  electricity 
are  also  sometimes  employed  as  a motive 
power  for  sewing  machines.  The  manu- 
facture of  sewing  machines  is  most  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  America. 

SEX,  the  name  applied  to  indicate  the 
particular  kind  of  generative  or  repro- 
ductive element  in  the  constitution  of  an 
animal  or  plant,  being  that  property  or 
character  by  which  an  animal  is  male  or 
female.  Sexual  distinctions  are  derived 
from  the  presence  and  development  of  ‘ 
the  characteristic  generative  organs — 
testes  and  ovary — of  the  male  and 
female  respectively.  See  Reproduction. 

SEXTANT,  an  improved  form  of 
quadrant,  capable  of  measuring  angles 
of  120°.  It  consists  of  a frame  of  metal, 
ebony,  etc.,  stiffened  by  cross-braces, 
and  having  an  arc  embracing  60°  of  a 
circle.  It  has  two  mirrors,  one  of  which 
is  fixed  to  a movable  index,  and  various 
other  appendages.  It  is  capable  of  very 
general  application,  but  it  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed as  a nautical  instrument  for 
measuring  the  altitudes  of  celestial 
objects  and  their  apparent  angular  dis- 
tances. The  principle  of  the  sextant, 
and  of  reflecting  instruments  in  general, 


B 


Sextant. 


depends  upon  an  elementary  theorem 
in  optics,  viz.  if  an  object  be  seen  by 
repeated  reflection  from  two  mirrors 
which  are  perpendicular  to  the  same 
plane,  the  angular  distance  of  the  object 
from  its  image  is  double  the  inclination 
of  the  mirrors.  The  annexed  figure 
shows  the  usual  construction  of  the 
sextant,  qp  is  the  graduated  arc,  bi 
the  movable  index,  b mirror  fixed  to  the 
index,  a mirror  (half-transparent)  fixed 
to  the  arm,  gg'  colored  glasses,  that  may 
be  interposed  to  the  sun’s  rays.  To 
find  the  angle  between  two  stars  hold 


SEXTON 


SHAKERS 


the  instrument  so  that  the  one  is  seen 
directly  through  telescope  t and  the  un- 
silvered portion  of  the  mirror,  and  move 
the  index  arm  so  that  the  image  of  the 
other  star  seen  through  the  telescope  by 
reflection  from  b and  a is  nearly  coinci- 
dent with  the  first,  the  reading  on  the 
arc  gives  the  angle  required;  half  de- 
grees being  marked  as  degrees,  because 
what  is  measured  by  the  index  is  the 
angle  between  the  mirrors,  and  this  is 
half  that  between  the  objects. 

SEXTON,  a corruption  of  sacristan, 
an  under  officer  of  the  church,  whose 
business,  in  ancient  times,  was  to  take 
care  of  the  vessels,  vestments,  etc.,  be- 
longing to  the  church.  The  greater 
simplicity  of  Protestant  ceremonies  has 
rendered  this  duty  one  of  small  impor- 
tance, and  in  the  Church  of  England  the 
sexton’s  duties  now  consist  in  taking 
care  of  the  church  generally,  to  which  is 
added  the  duty  of  digging  and  filling  up 
graves  in  the  churchyard.  The  sexton 
may  be  at  the  same  time  the  parish  clerk. 

SEYMOUR,  Horatio,  American  politi- 
cal leader,  was  born  at  Pompey  Hill, 
Onondaga  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1810.  In  1842- 
46  he  was  mayor  of  Utica,  and  in  1852 
and  1862  he  was  elected  governor  of 
New  York.  In  1868  he  was  president 
of  the  democratic  national  convention 
which  met  in  New  York  City  and  by 
which  he,  himself,  was  nominated  for  the 
presidency.  He  received  only  80  elec- 
toral votes  to  214  for  General  Grant. 
He  died  in  1886 

SHAD,  a name  of  several  European 
fishes,  of  the  family  Clupeidse  or  her- 
rings, and  including  two  species,  the 
common  or  allice  shad  and  the  twaite 
shad.  The  common  shad  inhabits  the 
sea  near  the  mouths  of  large  rivers,  and 
in  the  spring  ascends  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  depositing  its  spawn.  The  form 
of  the  shad  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
other  herrings,  but  it  is  of  larger  size, 
and  in  some  places  receives  the  name  of 
“herring  king.’’,.  Its  color  is  a dark  blue 


above,  with  brown  and  greenish  lusters, 
the  under  parts  being  white.  The  twaite 
shad  is  about  a half  less  than  the  com- 
mon species,  and  weighs  on  an  average 
about  2 lbs.  An  American  species  of 
shad  varying  in  weight  from  4 to  12 
lbs.,  is  highly  esteemed  for  food,  and  is 
consumed  in  great  quantities  in  the 
fresh  state.  They  are  found  all  along 
the  coast  from  New  England  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  have  been  successfully 
introduced  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

SBLADOOF',  Shaduf',  a contrivance 
extensively  employed  in  Egypt  for 
raising  water  from  the  Nile  for  the  pur- 
pose of  irrigation.  It  consists  of  a long 
stout  rod  suspended  on  a frame  at  about 
one-fifth  of  its  length  from  the  end.  The 
short  end  is  weighted  so  as  to  serve  as  the 
counterpoise  of  a lever,  and  from  the 
long  end  a bucket  of  leather  or  earthen- 
ware is  suspended  by  a rope.  The  worker 
dips  the  bucket  in  the  river,  and,  aided 


by  the  counterpoise  weight,  empties  it 
into  a hole  dug  on  the  bank,  from  which 
a runnel  conducts  the  water  to  the  lands 
to  be  irrigated.  Sometimes  two  shadoofs 
are  employed  side  by  side.  When  the 
waters  of  the  river  are  low  two  or  more 
shadoofs  are  employed,  the  one  above 
the  other.  The  lowest  lifts  the  water 


from  the  river  and  empties  it  into  a hole 
on  the  bank,  a second  dips  into  this  hole, 
and  empties  the  water  into  a hole  higher 
up,  and  a third  dips  into  the  hole  just 
below,  and  empties  the  water  at  the  top 
of  the  bank,  whence  it  is  conveyed  by  a 
channel  to  its  destination. 

SHADOW,  the  figure  of  a body  pro- 
jected on  the  ground,  etc.,  by  the  inter- 
ception of  light.  Shadow,  in  optics,  may 
be  defined  a portion  of  space  from  which 
light  is  intercepted  by  an  opaque  body. 
Every  opaque  object  upon  which  light 
falls  is  accompanied  with  a shadow  on 
the  side  opposite  to  the  luminous  body, 
and  the  shadow  appears  more  intense 
in  proportion  as  the  illumination  is 
stronger.  An  opaque  object  illuminated 
by  the  sun,  or  any  other  source  of  light 
which  is  not  a single  point,  must  have 
an  infinite  number  of  shadows,  though 
not  distinguishable  from  each  other, 
and  hence  the  shadow  of  an  opaque  body 
received  on  a plane  is  always  accom- 
panied by  a penumbra,  or  partial  shadow 
the  complete  shadow  being  called  the 
umbra.  See  also  Penumbra. 

SHAF'TER,  William  Rufus,  American 
soldier,  was  born  in  Michigan  in  1835. 
He  enlisted  and  soon  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  was  made  colonel  of 
volunteers,  and  in  1865,  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general.  In  1897  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  brigadier-general  and  com- 
manded the  department  of  California 
until  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish- 
American  war,  when,  he  was  put  in 
command  of  the  first  expedition  to  Cuba. 
On  July  1st  he  carried  the  heights  of  El 
Caney  and  San  Juan.  On  July  3d  Cer- 
vera’s  fleet,  attempting  to  escape  from 
Santiago,  was  destroyed  by  the  American 
battle  ships.  Two  weeks  later  the  sur- 
render of  Santiago  took  place.  In  1901 
he  was  retired  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general  in  the  regular  army.  He  died  in 
1906. 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  first  Earl  of,  was  born  at  Wim- 
borne  St.  Giles’,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  1621, 


and  succeeded  to  a baronetcy  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1631.  He  entered 
into  the  plots  of  the  Monmouth  party 
and  had  to  fly  to  Holland,  where  he 
died  in  1683.  He  is  the  Achitophel  of 
Dryden’s  famous  satire. 

SHAFTESBURY,  Anthony  Ashley 
Cooper,  third  Earl  of,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  a celebrated  philosophical 
and  moral  writer,  was  born  at  Exeter 
House,  in  London,  1671.  In  1708-9  he 
published  several  works  of  a philosophi- 
cal character,  among  others  a Letter  on 
Enthusiasm  and  an  Inquiry  concerning 
Virtue  or  Merit.  In  1710  his  rapidly  de- 
clining health  led  him  to  fix  his  residence 
at  Naples,  where  he  died  in  1713. 

SHAG,  a species  of  cormorant,  also 
called  the  crested  or  green  cormorant, 
from  its  dark  green  plumage.  Its 
average  length  is  about  26  inches,  and 
its  nest,  composed  of  roots  and  stalks  of 
seaweed  lined  with  grass,  is  usually 
found  on  rocky  ledges.  The  young  birds 
have  a brownish  tint  amid  the  green 
plumage,  with  brown  and  white  under- 
surfaces. 

SHAGREEN',  a species  of  leather  pre- 
pared without  tanning,  from  horse,  ass, 
and  camel  skin,  the  granular  appear- 
ance of  its  surface  being  given  by  im- 
bedding in  it,  while  soft,  the  seeds  of  a 
species  of  plant,  and  afterwards  shaving 
down  the  surface,  and  then  by  soaking 
causing  the  portions  of  the  skin  which 
had  been  indented  by  the  seeds  to  swell 
up  into  relief.  It  is  dyed  with  the  green 
produced  by  the  action  of  sal-ammoniac 
on  copper  filings.  It  is  also  made  of  the 
skins  of  the  shark,  sea  otter,  seal,  etc. 
It  was  formerly  much  used  for  watch, 
spectacle,  and  instrument  cases. 

SHAH,  in  Persian,  signifies  “king.” 
The  proper  title  of  the  king  in  Persia  is 
Shah-in-shah,  King  of  kings. 

SHAHJEHANPUR,  a town  in  India, 
in  the  United  Provinces,  95  miles  north- 
west of  Lucknow,  in  the  executive  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name.  There  is  a can- 
tonment at  the  place,  an  American 
Methodist  mission  station  with  churches 
and  schools;  and  sugar  works  in  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  76,458. — The  dis- 
trict forms  a portion  of  the  Rohlkhand 
Division;  has  an  area  of  1744  sq.  miles, 
and  pop.  of  921,624. 

SHAKERS,  or  SHAKING  QUAKERS, 
a sect  which  arose  at  Manchester,  in 
England,  about  1747,  and  has  since  been 
transferred  to  America,  where  it  now 
consists  of  a number  of  thriving  families. 
The  formal  designation  which  they  give 
themselves  is  the  United  Society  of  Be- 
lievers in  Christ’s  Second  Appearing. 
The  founder  of  the  sect  was  Ann  Lee, 
an  expelled  Quaker,  born  in  Manchester 
in  1756.  She  went  to  America  in  1774 
with  seven  followers  and  formed  the 
first  settlement  at  Watervliet,  near 
Albany.  They  agree  with  the  Quakers 
in  their  objections  to  take  oaths,  their 
neglect  of  certain  common  courtesies  of 
society,  their  rejection  of  the  sacraments 
etc.  Thesocieties  are  dividedintosmaller 
communities  called  families,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  male  and  female  head. 
Celibacy  is  enjoined  upon  all,  and  mar- 
ried persons  on  entering  the  community 
must  live  together  as  brother  and  sister. 
In  America  there  are  about  twenty 
communities  with  between  two  and 


SHAKESPEARE 


SHANGHAI 


three  thousand  members,  chiefly  in  the 
New  England  states. 

SHAKESPEARE,  William,  English 
poet  and  dramatist,  was  born  in  1564, 
at  Stratford-upon-Avon,  a town  in  War- 
wickshire, England.  The  first  absolutely 
authentic  event  in  Shakespeare’s  life  is 
his  marriage  with  Anne  Hathaway, 
daughter  of  a yeoman  in  the  hamlet  of 
Shottery,  near  Stratford.  The  marriage 
bond  is  dated  November  28,  1582,  at 
which  time  Shakespeare  was  in  his 
nineteenth  year,  while,  from  the  date 
on  her  tombstone,  it  is  known  that  his 
wife  was  eight  years  older.  On  the  26th 
May  following  their  first  child,  named 
Susanna,  was  baptized,  and  in  February 
of  1585  a son  and  daughter  were  born, 
who  received  the  names  of  Hammet  and 
Judith. 

From  this  date  until  we  find  Shake- 
speare established  in  London  as  a player 
and  dramatist  there  is  a gap  of  seven 
years,  during  which  we  are  again  left  to 
tradition,  and  conjecture.  The  first  date 
in  Shakespeare’s  life  after  his  arrival  in 
London  which  is  settled  by  clear  evi- 
dence is  1593.  In  that  year  he  published 
his  Venus  and  Adonis,  with  a dedication 


William  Shakespeare,  from  monumental 
bust  at  Stratford-upon-Avon. 

of  this  “the  first  heir  of  my  invention,” 
to  Henry  Wriothesly,  earl  of  Southamp- 
ton; and  in  the  following  year  he  dedi- 
cated to  the  same  patron  his  other  poem 
of  The  Rape  of  Lucrece.  His  fame  as  a 
lyrical  poet  and  dramatist  was  also  being 
securely  established.  For  in  1598  there 
was  published  the  Palladis  Tamia,  by 
Francis  Meres,  in  which  twelve  of  his 
plays  are  enumerated.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing this  literary  activity,  he  was 
still  a player,  for  when  Jonson’s  comedy 
of  Every  Man  in  his  Humor  was  pro- 
duced in  1598,  Shakespeare  took  part  in 
the  performance.  At  what  time  he 
ceased  to  appear  upon  the  stage  is  not 
known ; we  are  even  left  in  doubt  when 
he  ceased  to  live  in  London  and  retired 
to  Stratford,  though  this  was  probably 
between  the  years  1610  and  1612.  Of 
his  life  in  Stratford  after  his  return  we 
have  no  information  except  doubtful 
stories  and  a few  scraps  of  documentary 
evidence.  In  February,  1616,  his 
younger  daughter  .Judith  married;  on 
the  25th  of  the  following  month  he 


executed  his  will;  and  in  another  month 
he  was  dead.  He  was  buried  in  the  chan- 
cel of  Stratford  church,  on  the  north  wall 
of  which  a monument,  with  bust  and 
epitaph,  was  soon  afterward  set  up. 
The  face  of  this  bust,  which  may  have 
been  modeled  from  a cast  taken  after 
his  death,  was  colored,  the  eyes  being 
hazel,  the  beard  and  hair  auburn.  This 
bust,  and  the  portrait  engraved  by 
Droeshout,  prefixed  to  the  first  folio 
edition  of  his  writings  (1623),  are  the 
chief  sources  of  our  information  regard- 
ing the  appearance  of  the  poet.  There 
is  also  a death-mask  dated  1616,  and 
what  is  known  as  the  Chandos  portrait, 
which  a-e  interesting  but  not  authorita- 
tive. 

In  classifying  the  plays  of  Shake- 
speare by  the  aid  of  such  chronology 
as  is  possible,  modern  critics  have  found 
it  instructive  to  divide  his  career  as  a 
dramatist  into  four  marked  successive 
stages.  The  first  period  (1588-93)  marks 
the  inexperience  of  the  dramatist  and 
gives  evidence  of  experiment  in  charac- 
terization, looseness  in  the  construction 
of  plot,  with  a certain  symmetrical  arti- 
ficiality in  the  dialogue.  To  this  stage 
belong: — Titus  Andronicus  (1588-90) 
and  part  I.  Henry  VI.  (1590-91),  both 
of  which,  it  is  thought,  Shakespeare 
merely  retouched;  Love’s  Labor’s  Lost 
(1590);  The  Comedy  of  Errors  (1591); 
The  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona  (1592- 

93)  ; A Midsummer  Night’s  Dream  (1593- 

94) ,  parts  II.  and  HI.  Henry  IV.  (1591- 
94),  in  which  it  is  thought  probable  that 
Marlowe  had  a hand;  and  King  Richard 
III.  (1593).  The  second  period  (1594  to 
1601)  is  that  in  which,  with  increased 
security  in  his  art,  the  dramatist  sets 
forth  his  brilliant  pageant  of  English 
history,  his  brightest  conception  of  the 
comedy  of  life,  and  more  than  proves 
his  capacity  for  deeper  things  by  one 
great  romantic  tragedy.  To  this  stage 
belong:  King  Richard  II.  (1594);  parts 
I.  and  II.  Henry  IV.  (1597-98);  King 
Henry  V.  (1599);  King,  John  (1595); 
Romeo  and  Juliet  (1596-97);  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  (1596);  Taming  of  the 
Shrew  (1597);  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor 
(1598) ; Much  Ado  about  Nothing  (1598) ; 
As  You  Like  It  (1599);  and  Twelfth 
Night  (1600-1).  The  third  period 
(1602-8)  shows  that  the  dramatist, 
having  mastered  all  the  resources  of  his 
art  and  tasted  life  to  the  full,  is  strangely 
fascinated  by  mortal  mischance,  so  that 
even  his  comedy  becomes  bitter,  whilehis 
tragedy  is  black  with  the  darkest  temp- 
ests of  passionate  human  experience. 
To  this  stage  in  his  development  belong: 
All’s  Well  that  Ends  Well  (1601-2); 
Measure  for  Measure  (1603) ; Troilus  and 
Cressida  (1603);  Julius  Ccesar  (1601); 
Hamlet  (1602);  Othello  (1604);  King 
Lear  (1605);  Macbeth  (1606);  Antony 
and  Cleopatra  (1607) ; Coriolanus  (1608) ; 
and  Timon  of  Athens  (1607-8).  The 
fourth  period  (1608  to  1613)  is  that  in 
which  Shakespeare,  after  having  passed 
through  a season  which  was  probably 
darkened  by  his  own  personal  experience 
suddenly  attained  the  glad  serenity  of 
mind  which  enabled  him  to  write  his 
last  romantic  plays.  To  this  period 
belong:  Pericles  (1608),  which  is  only 
partly  from  Shakespeare’s  hand;  Ctnn- 
beline  (1609);  The  Winter’s  Tale  (1610- 


11);  The  Tempest  (1610);  with  (the 
doubtful)  Two  Noble  Kinsmen  (1612) 
and  King  Henry  VIII.  (1612-13),  which 
are  partly  by  another  writer,  supposed 
to  be  Fletcher.  Of  non-dramatic  pieces 
Shakespeare  was  the  author  of  Venus 
and  Adonis  (1593),  The  Rape  of  Lucrece 
(1594),  the  Sonnets  and  A Lover’s  Com- 
plaint (1609) ; while  it  is  agreed  that  only 
a few  of  the  poems  in  the  collection  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  The  Passionate 
Pilgrim  (1599)  were  written  by  him. 

SHALE,  a term  applied  in  geology  to 
all  argillaceous  strata  which  possess  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  the  quality  of 
splitting  into  layers  parallel  to  the  planes 
of  deposition.  It  is  the  solidified  mud  of 
ancient  waters,  and  is  various  in  color 
and  composition,  the  chief  varieties 
being  sandy,  calcareous,  purely  argil- 
laceous, and  carbonaceous.  Shale  is  fre- 
quently found  deposited  between  seams 
of  coal,  and  commonly  bears  fossil  im- 
pressions. The  sub-variety  known  as 
bituminous  shale  burns  with  flame,  and 
yields  an  oil,  mixed  with  paraffin,  of 
great  commercial  importance.  Alum 
is  also  largely  manufactured  from  the 
shales  of  Lancashire,  Yorkshire,  and 
Lanarkshire. 

SHAMOKIN  (sha-mo'kin),  a city  of 
Northumberland  co..  Pa.,  40  miles  north 
by  east  of  Harrisburg;  on  the  Lehigh 
valley,  the  Northern  Central,  and  the 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  railroads.  It 
is  the  center  of  an  extensive  anthracite 
coal-mining  industry.  Pop.  21,262. 

SHAMOY  LEATHER,  a soft  leather 
prepared  from  the  skins  of  goats,  deer, 
and  sheep  (originally  the  chamois, 
whence  the  name)  by  impregnating 
them  with  oil.  This  leather  can  be 
washed  without  losing  its  color,  and  is 
put  to  innumerable  uses. 

SHAMPOOING,  the  name  given  in  the 
East  Indies  to  a process  connected  with 
bathing,  in  which  the  whole  body  is 
pressed  and  kneaded  by  the  hands  of  the 
attendants. 

SHAMROCK,  the  name  commonly 
given  to  the  national  emblem  of  Ireland. 
It  is  a trefoil  plant,  generally  supposed 
to  be  the  plant  called  white  clover;  but 
some  think  it  to  be  rather  the  wood- 
sorrel.  The  plant  sold  in  Dublin  on  St. 
Patrick’s  Day  is  the  small  yellow  trefoil. 

SHAMROCK  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  three 
racing  yachts  owned  by  Sir  Thomas 
Lipton,  built  to  compete  for  the  Ameri- 
can Cup  in  the  international  yacht  races 
off  Sandy  Hook,  N.  Y.  The  first  Sham- 
rock competed  in  the  1899  cup  races  and 
was  defeated  by  the  American  yacht 
Columbia  in  the  first  three  races  of  the 
series.  Although  defeated  in  the  1901 
series  by  the  Columbia  which  was  again 
selected  to  defend  the  cup,  Shamrock 
11.  came  nearer  to  actual  victory  than 
any  of  its  predecessors.  Shamrock  III. 
was  defeated  in  the  1903  series  by  the 
1^3!  r)iC3 

SHANGHAI,  or  SHANGHAE  (shang- 
hi'),  a, large  city  and  seaport  of  China, 
province  of  Kiangsoo,  on  the  Woosung 
or  Whangpoo,  about  12  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  the  estuary  of  the  Yan- 
tsze-kiang.  The  Chinese  city  proper  is 
inclosed  w'ithin  walls  24  feet  high,  the 
streets  being  narrow^  and  dirty,  and  the 
buildings  low,  crowded,  and  fcr  the  most 
part  unimportant.  In  1843  Shanghai 


SHANNON 


SHEATH-BILL 


was  opened  as  one  of  the  five  treaty 
ports,  and  an  important  foreign  settle- 
ment is  now  established  (with  a separate 
government)  outside  the  city  walls. 
The  Chinese  authorities  retain  complete 
control  over  all  shipping  dues,  duties  on 
imports  and  exports,  etc.  Shanghai  has 
water  communication  with  about  a third 
of  China,  and  its  trade  since  the  opening 
of  the  port  has  become  very  extensive. 


the  total  of  exports  and  imports  to- 
gether, native  and  foreign,  amounting  to 
$280,000,000  annually.  The  chief  im- 
ports are  cottons,  yarns,  woolens,  and 
opium;  and  the  exports,  silk,  tea,  rice, 
and  raw  cotton.  The  largest  part  of  the 
foreign  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  British 
merchants.  The  foreign  population  is 
about  3000,  and  the  native  population 
is  estimated  at  300,000. 

SHANNON,  the  largest  river  of  Ireland 
rises  at  the  base  of  Cuilcagh  mountain 
in  County  Caven;  flows  s.w.  and  s. 
through  loughs  Allen,  Boderg,  Bofin 
and  Derg ; divides  Connaught  from  Lein- 
ster and  Munster;  and  enters  the  Atlantic 
by  a wide  estuary,  at  the  mouth  of  which 
are  Loop  Head  in  Clare  and  Kerry  Head 
in  Kerry;  length  about  250  miles.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Royal  Canal  and 
the  Grand  canal,  which  give  a direct 
communication  to  Dublin,  and  also  a 
communication  south  into  the  basins  of 
the  Barrow  and  Suir.  The  tide  rises  in 
springs  17  or  18  feet,  and  in  neaps  about 
14  feet. 

SHANSEE',  an  inland  province  of 
Northern  China,  with  an  area  of  65,950 
sq.  miles,  is  the  original  seat  of  the 
Chinese  people,  and  in  its  lowland  parts 
is  well  cultivated.  The  capital  is  Tae- 
yuen-foo.  Pop.  14,000,000. 

SHANGTUNG',  a maritime  province 
of  China,  on  the  Yellow  sea;  area,  53,760 
sq.  miles.  It  was  in  this  province  that 
Confucius  was  born.  The  capital  is 
Tse-nan-foo,  and  the  pop.  29,000,000. 

SHARK,  the  general  name  for  a group 
of  elasmobranchiate  fishes,  celebrated 
for  the  size  and  voracity  of  many  of  the 
species.  The  form  of  the  body  is  elon- 
gated and  the  tail  thick  and  fleshy.  The 


mouth  is  large,  and  armed  with  several 
rows  of  compressed,  sharp-edged,  and 
sometimes  serrated  teeth.  The  skin  is 
usually  very  rough,  covered  with  a mul- 
titude of  little  osseous  tubercles  or 
placoid  scales.  Theyare  themostformid- 


Hammer-headed  shark. 


able  and  voracious  of  all  fishes,  pursue 
other  marine  animals,  and  seem  to  care 
little  whethertheir  preybeliving  ordead. 
They  often  follow  vessels  for  the  sake 
of  picking  up  any  offal  which  may  be 
thrown  overboard,  and  man  himself 


Man-eating  shark. 


often  becomes  a victim  to  their  rapacity. 
The  sharks  formed  the  g^nus  Squalus  of 
Linnaeus,  which  is  now  divided  into 
several  families,  as  the  Carcharidae,  or 
white  sharks;  Lamnidae,  or  basking 
sharks;  Scymnidae,  including  the  Green- 


land shark;  Scyllidae,  or  dog-fishes,  etc. 
The  basking  shark  is  by  far  the  largest 
species,  sometimes  attaining  the  length 
of  40  feet,  but  it  has  none  of  the  ferocity 
of  the  others.  The  white  shark  is  one  of 
the  most  formidable  and  voracious  of 


Bonnet-headed  shark. 


the  species.  It  is  rare  on  the  American 
coasts,  but  common  in  many  of  the 
warmer  seas,  reaching  a length  of 
over  30  feet.  The  hammer-headed 


sharks  which  are  chiefly  found  in  tropi- 
cal seas,  are  very  voracious,  and  often 
attack  man.  They  are  noteworthy  for 
the  remarkable  shape  of  their  head 
which  resembles  somewhat  a double- 
headed hammer,  the  eyes  being  at  the 
extremities.  Other  fonns  are  the  por- 
beagle, blue  shark,  fox  shark,  sea-fox, 
sea-ape  or  thresher,  and  Greenland  or 
northern  shark.  The  shark  is  oviparous 
or  ovoviviparous,  according  to  circum- 
stances. Large  numbers  of  sharks  are 
caught  in  some  places  (Russian  Lapland 
the  north  of  Norway)  for  the  oil  con- 
tained in  their  livers. 

SHARP,  in  music,  the  sign  (Jf)  which, 
when  placed  on  a line  or  space  of  the 
staff  at  the  commencement  of  a move- 
ment, raises  all  the  notes  on  that  line  or 
space  or  their  octaves  a semitone  in 
pitch.  When,  in  the  course  of  the  move- 
ment, it  precedes  a note,  it  has  the  same 
effect  on  it  or  its  repetition,  but  only 
within  the  same  bar. — Double  sharp,  a 
character  ( X)  used  in  chromatic  music, 
and  which  raises  a note  two  semitones 
above  its  natural  pitch. 

SHAW,  George  Bernard,  British  critic, 
and  dramatist,  was  born  in  Dublin  in 
1856.  In  1876  he  settleddn  London  and 
became  known  as  a brilliant  writer. 
His  best  known  works  are:  The  Irra- 
tional  Knot,  Love  Among  the  Artists, 
Cashel  Byron’s  Profession,  and  An 
Unsocial  Socialist,  Plays  Pleasant  and 
Unpleasant,  ^”'hree  Plays  for  Puritans, 
and  Mrs.  Warren’s  Profession.  In  1889 
he  edited  Fabian  Essays,  contributing 
two  to  the  collection,  and  h'  'writings 
include  many  socialistic  pamphlets. 

SHAW,  Henry  Wheeler,  American 
humorist,  better  known  as  Josh  Bill- 
ings, was  born  at  Lanesborough,  Mass., 
in  1818.  His  amusing  phonetic  spelling 
won  great  favor  in  the  early  sixties.  His 
Farmers’  Allminax,  published  annually 
(1870-80)  increased  his  reputation.  He 
contributed  to  the  Century  under  the 
pen  name  “Uncle  Esek,”  and  collected 
his  works  in  1877.  Among  American 
humorists  Josh  Billings  ranks  high  in 
pith  and  point,  and  is  regarded  by  many 
as  a true  moralist.  He  died  in  1885. 

SHAWL,  an  article  of  dress  usually 
of  a square  or  oblong  shape  worn  by 
both  sexes  in  the  East,  but  in  the  West 
chiefly  by  females.  Some  of  the  East- 
ern shawls,  as  those  of  Cashmere,  are 
beautiful  and  costly  fabrics.  The  usual 
materials  in  the  manufacture  of  shawls 
are  silk,  cotton,  hair,  or  wool.  Norwich 
and  Paisley  were  long  famed  for  their 
shawls  made  in  imitation  of  those  from 
India.  The  shawl  was  introduced  into 
Europe  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

SHEAR-TAILS,  a genus  of  humming- 
birds, of  which  the  slender  shear-tail 
and  Cora’s  shear-tail  are  two  familiar 
species.  These  birds  occur,  the  former  in 
Central  America  generally;  the  latter  in 
Peru  and  in  the  Andes  valleys.  They 
derive  their  name  from  the  elongation 
of  two  central  tail-feathers  of  the  males. 

SHEATH-BILL,  a bird  belonging  to 
the  order  Grallse.  They  derive  their 
name  from  the  horny  sheath  which  over- 
lies  the  nostrils,  and  is  continued  back 
until  it  extends  in  a kind  of  hood, 
thickly  feathered,  covering  the  face. 
In  appearance  and  flight  they  are  not 
unlike  pigeons,  their  plumage  being 


SHEYBOYGAN 


SHELL 


dazzlingly  white.  They  inhabit  the 
islands  of  the  southern  oceans,  more 


Sheathbill. 


especially  Kerguelen’s  Island  and  the 
Crozets. 


short,  close,  and  curled,  and  the  mutton 
is  highly  valued.  The  Cheviot  is  a hardier 
breed  than  any  of  the  preceding;  its  wool 
is  short,  thick,  and  fine,  while  its  mutton 
is  of  excellent  quality.  The  black-faced 
breed  is  the  hardiest  of  all,  its  wool  is 
long  and  coarse,  and  its  mutton  is  con- 
sidered the  finest.  The  Merino  variety  of 
sheep  originally  belonged  to  Spain 
(where  in  summer  they  feed  upon  the 
elevated  districts  of  Navarre,  Biscay, 
and  Arragon,  and  winter  in  the  plains 
of  Andalusia,  New  Castile,  and  Estre- 
madura),  but  they  are  now  reared  in 
other  parts  of  the  continent,  as  also  in 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Their  wool 
is  long  and  fine,  but  the  mutton  is  of 
little  value.  Of  the  other  breeds,  which 
are  numerous,  mention  may  be  made  of 
the  broad-tailed  or  fat-tailed  sheep 
common  in  Asia  and  Egypt,  and  re- 
markable for  its  large  tail,  which  is 
loaded  with  fat;  the  Iceland  variety; 
which  has  sometimes  three,  four,  or  five 
horns;  the  fat-rumped  sheep  of  Tartary; 
the  Astrakan  or  Bucharian  sheep,  the 
wool  of  which  is  twisted  in  spiral  curls 
of  a fine  quality;  the  Wallachian  or 
Cretan  ‘ sheep,  which  has  long,  large, 
spiral  horns;  and  the  Rocky  Mountain 
sheep,  a native  of  the  United  States, 
and  notable  for  its  large  horns. 

SHEEP  LAUREL,  a small  North 
American  shrub.  It  is  a favorite  garden 
shrub,  and  receives  its  name  from  its 
leaves  and  shoots  being  hurtful  to  cattle. 

SHEEPSHEAD,  the  name  of  a fish 
caught  on  the  shores  of  Connecticut  and 
Long  Island.  It  is  allied  to  the  gilt-head 


SBiEIK  (shek  or  shak),  a title  of 
dignity  properly  belonging  to  the  chiefs  i 
of  the  Arabic  tribes,  but  now  largely 
used  among  Moslems  as  a title  of  respect. 
The  head  of  the  Mohammedan  monas- 
teries, and  the  head  man  of  a village  are 
sometimes  called  sheiks.  The  chief  mufti 
at  Constantinople  is  the  Sheik-ul-Islam. 

SHEK'EL,  a Jewish  weight  and  in 
later  times  a coin.  The  weight  is  believed 
to  have  been  about  218  or  220  grains 
troy,  and  the  value  of  the  silver  coin  sixty 
cents.  There  were  also  half-shekels 


Half-shekel  (silver)  of  Simon  Maccabseus. 


Sheartail. 


SHEBOY'GAN,  a town  in  Wisconsin, 
on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Sheboygan  river.  It  has  a good  harbor 
and  a trade  in  wheat  and  lumber.  Pop. 
25,000. 

SHEEP,  a ruminant  animal  nearly 
allied  to  the  goat.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  animals  to  man,  as  its  wool  serves 
him  for  clothing,  its  skin  is  made  into 
leather,  its  flesh  is  an  excellent  article  of 
food,  and  its  milk,  which  is  thicker  than 
that  of  cows,  is  used  in  some  countries 
to  make  butter  and  cheese.  The  varieties 
of  the  domestic  sheep  are  numerous,  but 
it  is  not  known  from  what  wild  species 
they  were  originally  bred,  although  it  is 

Erobable  that  the  smaller  short-tailed 
reeds  with  crescent-shaped  horns  are 
descended  from  the  wild  species  known 
as  the  moufflon.  The  ordinary  life  of  a 
sheep  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years; 
but  it  is  usually  fattened  and  sent  to 
market  at  the  age  of  two  or  three  years 
unless  its  fleece  be  the  object  desired. 
The  latter  is  shorn  every  year  about  the 
month  of  May.  The  chief  English  varie- 
ties of  the  sheep  are  the  large  Leicester, 
the  Cotswold,  the  Southdown,  the 
Cheviot,  and  the  black-faced  breeds. 
The  Leicester  comes  early  to  maturity, 
attains  a great  size,  although  the  mutton 
is  not  of  the  finest  quality,  and  its  fleece 
weighs  from  7 to  8 lbs.  The  Cotswold 
breed,  which  has  been  improved  by 
crossing  with  the  Leicesters,  has  fine 
wool,  and  a fine  grained  mutton.  The 
Southdowns  are  large,  their  wool  is 


coined  both  of  silver  and  copper.  A 
shekel  (weight)  of  gold  was  worth  $5.00. 
The  shekel  of  the  sanctuary  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  worth 
double  the  common  shekel. 

SHEL'BYVILLE,  the  county  seat  of 
Shelby  co.,  Ind.,  26  miles  southeast  of 
Indianapolis,  on  the  Blue  river,  and  on 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis  and  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  railroads.  Pop. 
10,160. 

SHEL'DON,  Charles  Monroe,  Ameri- 
can clerg3mian,  born  at  Wellsville,  N.  Y., 
in  1857.  Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions are:  The  Crucifixion  of  Philip 
Strong,  His  Brother’s  Keeper.  In  His 
Steps,  published  in  1896,  had  a won- 
derful sale,  and  aroused  much  criti- 
cism. 

SHELDRAKE,  or  SHEILDRAKE,  the 

name  given  to  two  species  of  British 
ducks,  namely,  the  common  sheldrake 


and  the  bream,  and  is  considered  a de 
licious  food.  It  receives  its  name  from 
the  resemblance  of  its  head  to  that  of  a 

SHEEP  TICK,  a well-known  insect 
belonging  to  the  family  of  horse  flies. 
The  pupae  produced  from  the  eggs  are 
shining  oval  bodies  which  become 
attached  to  the  wool  of  the  sheep.  From 
these  issue  the  tick,  which  is  horn3'-, 
bristly,  of  a rusty  ochre  color,  and  wing- 
less. It  fixes  its  head  in  the  skin  of  the 
sheep,  and  extracts  the  blood,  leaving  a 
large  round  tumor.  Called  also  sheep 
louse. 

SHEFFIELD,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  of  England,  county  of 
York  (West  Riding),  situated  on  hilly 
ground  at  the  junction  of  the  Sheaf  and 
Don,  about  160  miles  north  of  London 
by  rail.  The  trade  of  Sheffield  is  chiefly 
connected  with  cutlery,  for  which  it  has 
long  been  famous,  and  the  manufacture 
of  all  forms  of  steel,  iron,  and  brass 
work.  The  steel  manufacture  includes 
armor  plating,  rails,  engine  castings, 
rifles,  etc.  They  are  also  manufactures  of 
engines,  machinery,  plated  goods,  Bri- 
tannia-metal  goods,  optical  instruments, 
stoves  and  grates,  etc.  Pop.  380,717. 


Sheldrake. 


and  the  ruddy  sheldrake.  They  are  some 
times  called  burrow  ducks,  from  their 
habit  of  making  their  nests  in  rabbit 
burrows. 

SHELL,  the  name  applied  to  the  ex- 
ternal limy  covering  secreted  bj'  various 
groups  of  invertebrate  animals,  but 
restricted  in  a scientific  sense  to  that 
form  of  exoskeleton  secreted  by  the 
mantle  of  the  mollusca.  Thus  the  hard 
coverings  of  crabs,  sea  urchins,  lobsters, 
foraminifera,  etc.,  are  scientifically ' 
known  as  “tests,”  and  are  not  to  be 
regarded  as  true  shells.  The  shell  in  . 
mollusca  grows  with  the  growth  of  the  ’ 
animal,  to  which  it  affords  protection. 


SHELL 


SHERIDAN 


The  shell  or  test  of  a crustacean  does 
not  grow  after  it  has  once  been  formed, 
but  is  cast  and  renewed  from  time  to 
time.  In  its  most  elementary  form  the 
molluscan  shell  exists  as  simply  a cover- 
ing to  the  gills  Each  separate  piece  is 
termed  a valve.  So  that  when  the  shell 
consists  of  one  piece,  as  in  whelks,  lim- 
pets, etc.,  it  is  called  a univalve;  when 
in  two  pieces,  as  in  oysters,  mussels,  etc., 
it  is  called  a bivalve;  and  in  the  Chiton 
family  of  gasteropoda  it  is  called,  be- 
cause of  its  eight  pieces,  a multivalve. 
In  their  chemical  composition  shells  are 
usually  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
mixed  with  a small  proportion  of  or- 
ganic matter.  Shells  are  much  used  in 
ornamental  manufactures 

SHELL,  a hollow  projectile  filled  witli 
a bursting  charge  of  gunpowder  or  other 
explosive  composition,  and  fitted  with  a 
fuse  to  fire  it  at  the  desired  point.  Shells 
are  usually  made  of  cast-iron  or  steel, 
and  for  mortars  or  smooth-bore  cannon 
are  spherical,  but  for  rifled  guns  are  as  a 
rule  elongated.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
shells. — Common  shells  are  simple  hol- 
low projectiles  filled  with  powder.  On 
explosion  they  act  like  a mine.  They  are 
very  effective  in  breaching  earth-works 
or  masonry. — Palliser  shells  are  made  of 
mottled  iron  with  pointed  heads,  nearly 
solid,  and  chilled  white  by  being  cast  in 
iron  moulds.  They  are  intended  for  use 
against  armor-clad  vessels;  the  chilled 
point,  in  virtue  of  its  intense  hardness 


Shells. 


1,  Armour-piercing  steel  shellfor  lll-tongun. 
2, Shrapnel  for  Ill-ton  gun.  3,  Common  shell 
for  111 -ton  gun. 

and  great  crushing  strength,  penetrates 
to  an  extraordinary  depth.  Steel  shells 
of  similar  power  have  also  been  made. — 
Shrapnel  shells  are  shells  filled  with 
bullets,  and  with  a small  bursting  charge 
just  sufficient  to  split  the  shell  open  and 
release  the  bullets  at  any  given  point. — 
Segment  shells  are  of  the  nature  of 
shrapnel.  They  contain  iron  segments 
built  up  round  the  inside  of  the  shell. 
From  their  construction  they  are  in- 
clined to  spread  much  more  than  shrap- 
nel on  bursting,  and  they  should  con- 
sequently be  fired  to  burst  close  to  the 
object.  With  percussion  fuses  great 
results  are  produced. 

SHELLEY,  Mary  Wollstonecraft,  the 
second  wife  of  the  poet  Shelley,  was  the 
daughter  of  William  Godwin  and  Mary 
Wollstonecraft,  and  was  born  in  London 
1797,  died  1851.  Her  romance  of  Frank- 
enstein, which  excited  an  immense  sen- 
sation, was  published  in  1818,  when  she 
was  at  most  twenty-one  years  old.  In 
1840-41  she  edited  Shelley’s  works,  with 
preface  and  biographical  notes. 

SHELLEY,  Percy  Bysshe,  born  at 
. Field  Place,  Horsham,  Sussex,  4th 

P.  E.— 7? 


t, 

August,  1792.  At  Oxford,  in  his  second 
year  at  the  university,  he  published 
anonymously,  apparently  as  a challenge 
to  the  heads  of  the  colleges,  to  whom  it 
was  sent,  a scholastic  thesis  entitled  A 
Defense  of  Atheism.  The  authorship  be- 
ing known  he  was  challenged,  and  refus- 
ing either  to  acknowledge  or  deny  it  was 
at  once  expelled.  After  leaving  the 
university  he  completed  his  poem  of 
Queen  Mab,  begun  some  time  previously 
and  privately  printed  in  1813.  His  first 
great  poem,  Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of 
Solitude,  saw  the  light  in  1816;  and  this 
was  followed  in  1817  by  the  Revolt  of 


Shelley. 


Islam,  a poem  in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 
His  principal  poems,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  are  Rosalind  and 
Helen,  and  Julian  and  Maddola  (the 
latter  a poem  recording  some  of  his 
intercourse  with  Byron),  produced  in 
1818;  the  Cenci  and  the  Prometheus  Un- 
bound, in  1819;  the  Witch  of  Atlas,  in 
1820;  and  the  Epipsychidion,  the 
Adonais  (an  elegy  on  Keats),  and  the 
Hellas,  in  1821.  He  was  drowned  in  the 
Bay  of  Spezia,  Italy,  July  8,  1821. 
Many  memoirs  of  Shelley  have  appeared 
the  best  of  which  is  the  Life  by  Prof. 
Ed.  Dowden  published  in  1886. 

SHEM,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  and 
ancestor  of  Abraham,  who  was  the 
eighth  in  descent  from  him  according 
to  the  genealogies  in  the  book  of  Genesis. 

SHENANDO'AH,  a town  in  Schuyl- 
kill, CO.,  Pennsylvania,  12  miles  n.  of 
Pottsville.  Founded  in  1863,  it  is  the 
center  of  a great  coal  district.  Pop. 
22,416. 

SHENANDOAH,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  which  flows  northeast  through 
the  valley  of  Virginia,  and  immediately 
below  Harper’s  ferry  joins  the  Potomac, 
of  which  it  is  the  principal  tributary.  Its 
length  is  170  miles,  the  greater  part  of 
which  is  navigable  for  boats  The  valley 
of  the  Shenandoah  was  the  scene  of 
numerous  military  operations  in  the 
American  civil  war,  and  was  devastated 
by  General  Sheridan  in  1864. 

SHEN-SE,  a province  of  China, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Great 
Wall,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Yellow 
river;  area,  80,900  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
8,276,967. 

SHEOL,  a Hebrew  word  frequently 
occurring  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
rendered  in  the  Septuagint  by  “hades,” 
in  the  Authorized  Version  of  “grave,” 
“pit,”  and  “hell,”  but  in  the  Revised 
Bible  of  1885  never,  except  in  one  in- 
stance, by  the  last  term.  It  was,  as 


originally  conceived,  the  gloomy  under- 
world, the  abode  of  the  ghosts  or  spirits 
of  the  dead.  No  retributive  idea  was 
connected  with  it  until  the  time  of  the 
exile. 

SHERE  ALI  KHAN,  Amir  of  Afghani- 
stan, was  born  about  1823,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father.  Dost  Mohammed,  in 
1863.  Shere  Ali  in  1879  died,  a fugitive, 
in  Afghan  Turkistan.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  second  son,  Yakub  Khan,  who, 
however,  on  account  of  the  Cavagnari 
massacre,  was  speedily  deposed  and  de- 
ported to  India,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin,  Abdur  Rahman  Khan,  in 
1880. 

SHERTDAN,  Philip  Henry,  American 
general,  and  the  greatest  cavalry  leader 
produced  by  the  American  civil  war, 
was  born  at  Somerset,  Ohio,  in  1831, 
graduated  at  the  Military  academy. 
West  Point,  in  1853,  and  from  1855  to 
1861  served  on  the  frontiers  of  Texas 
and  Oregon.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  a captain  in  the  13th 
infantry.  Having  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  earlier  battles  of  the  war, 
in  April,  1864,  Grant  appointed  him 
chief  of  cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  he  made  several  daring 
cavalry  raids  into  the  south.  His  rush 
from  Winchester  to  Cedar  Creek,  a dis- 
tance of  20  miles,  in  October,  1864, 
which  turned  a federal  defeat  into  a bril- 
liant victory,  is  known  as  “Sheridan’s 
Ride.”  During  the  final  advance  upon 


Philip  H.  Sheridan. 

Richmond  he  was  Grant’s  right-hand 
man;  he  fought  the  battle  of  Five  Forks, 
which  necessitated  Lee’s  evacuation  of 
Richmond  and  Petersburg;  and  as  Lee 
fled  he  constantly  harassed  and  attacked 
him  until  he  compelled  his  surrender  at 
Appomattox  Courthouse,  April  9,  1865. 
After  the  war  he  held  various  military 
commands.  In  March,  1869,  he  became 
lieutenant-general,  and  in  February, 
1884,  on  the  retirement  of  Sherman,  he 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army. 
He  died  August  5,  1888.  An  account  of 
his  military  career,  written  by  himself, 
appeared  in  1889. 

SHERIDAN,  Richard  Brinsley  Butler, 
was  born  at  Dublin  in  1751,  his  father 
being  'Thomas  Sheridan,  actor,  and 
latterly  teacher  of  elocution.  Without 
means  or  a profession  he  applied  himself 
to  composition  for  the  stage,  and  on 
17th  January,  1775,  brought  out  The 


SHERIFF 


SHIELD 


Rivals,  which,  after  a temporary  failure, 
from  bad  acting,  attained  a brilliant 
success.  On  21st  November,  he  produced 
the  comic  opera,  The  Duenna,  which  had 
a run  of  seventy-five  nights  an  unprec- 
edented success.  In  1776  he  managed 
to  find  money  to  become  one  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  Drury  Lane  Theater,  where, 
in  1777,  appeared  The  School  for 
Scandal,  his  most  famous  comedy,  and 
in  1779  The  Critic,  a farce,  which  like  the 
Duenna  and  The  School  for  Scandal 
was  a model  of  its  kind,  and  shared  in 
their  brilliant  success.  His  dramatic 
reputation,  and  especially  his  social 
gifts,  brought  him  into  intimacy  with 
Fox,  Burke,  Windham,  and  other  whig 
leaders,  and  in  1780  Fox  got  him  returned 
to  parliament  for  Stafford.  In  1782  he 
became  under-secretary  of  state;  in 
1783  secretary  of  the  treasury;  in  1806 
treasurer  of  the  navy  and  privy-coun- 
cillor. He  never  became  a statesman, 
but  his  fame  soon  rose  high  as  an  orator. 
His  greatest  effort  was  his  “Begum” 
speech  on  the  impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings  (1787),  which  Pitt  said  “sur- 
passed all  the  eloquence  of  ancient  and 
modern  times.”  His  wife  died  in  1792. 
In  1795  he  married  Miss  Ogle,  a daugh- 
ter of  the  Dean  of  Winchester,  with 
whom  he  received  a considerable  acces- 
sion of  means.  His  parliamentary  career 
ended  in  1812,  and  the  remainder  of  his 
life  was  constantly  harassed  by  debt 
and  disappointment.  He  died  in  1816, 
having  narrowly  escaped  arrest  for  debt 
on  his  death-bed. 

SHER'IFF,  in  England,  the  chief 
officer  of  the  crown  in  every  county, 
appointed  annually.  The  custody  of  the 
county  is  committed  to  him  by  letters- 
patent,  and  he  has  charge  of  all  the  busi- 
ness of  the  crown  therein.  During  his 
tenure  of  office  he  takes  precedence 
within  the  county  of  any  nobleman,  and 
is  entitled  to  sit  on  the  bench  with  the 
justices  of  assize.  The  person  appointed 
IS  bound  under  a penalty  to  serve  the 
office,  except  in  specified  cases  of  exemp- 
tion or  disability,  but  a person  who  has 
served  one  year  is  not  liable  to  serve 
again  till  after  an  interval  of  three  years 
if  there  be  another  sufficient  person  in 
the  county.  The  sheriff  is  specially 
intrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  laws 
and  the  preservation  of  the  peace  and 
for  this  purpose  he  has  at  his  disposal 
the  whole  civil  force  of  the  county — in 
old  legal  phraseology  the  posse  comi- 
tatus.  The  most  ordinary  of  his  func- 
tions, such  as  the  execution  of  writs,  he 
universally  performs  by  a deputy  called 
under-sheriff,  while  he  himself  only  per- 
forms in  person  those  duties  which  are 
either  purely  honorary,  such  as  attend- 
ance upon  the  judges  on  circuit,  or 
which  are  of  some  dignity  and  public 
importance,  such  as  presiding  over 
elections  and  holding  county  meetings, 
which  he  may  call  at  any  time.  The 
office  of  sheriff  was  formerly  heredi- 
tary in  some  counties,  and  continued  so 
in  Westmoreland  till  the  death  of  the 
last  hereditary  sheriff  the  Earl  of  Thanet, 
in  1849. 

In  the  United  States  the  sheriff  is  a 
very  different  functionary,  not  holding 
the  position  of  a judge  at  all,  but  acting 
as  the  highest  peace  officer  of  his  county, 
having  to  pursue  and  arrest  criminals,  to 


carry  out  sentences,  to  take  charge  of 
the  jail,  etc. 

SHERMAN,  a city  in  Grayson  co., 
Texas,  73  miles  n.  of  Dallas.  It  is  the 
center  of  a cotton  and  grain  district. 
Pop.  12.240. 

SHERMAN,  JAMES  SCHOOL- 
CRAFT, born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  24, 
1855 ; graduated  from  Hamilton  Col- 
lege, 1878;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1880; 
president  Utica  Trust  and  Deposit 
company  and  of  the  New  Hartford  Can- 
ning company ; mayor  of  Utica,  1884; 
elected  as  Republican  to  60th,  51st,  53d, 
54th,  55th,  56th,  67th  68th,  59th  and 
60th  congresses ; nominated  for  vice 
president  of  the  United  States  and 
elected  to  that  office  in  November,  1908. 

SHERMAN,  John,  American  states- 
man, was  born  in  1823,  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio  In  1855  he  was  elected  to  the 
thirty-fourth  congress  in  the  interest  of 
the  Free-Soil  party,  and  was  reelected 
to  the  thirty-fifth  and  thirty-sixth  con- 
gresses. He  became  a power  on  the  floor 
and  in  committees,  and  was  recognized  as 
the  foremost  man  in  the  house,  par- 
ticularly in  matters  affecting  finance. 
He  was  again  elected  to  congress  in  1860, 
but  in  the  following  year  was  chosen  to 
the  United  States  senate,  where  he  at 
once  became  a leader.  In  March,  1877, 
Senator  Sherman  was  appointed,  by 
President  Hayes,  secretary  of  the  trea- 
sury. It  was  due  to  his  management 
while  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  that 
the  resumption  of  specie  payments  was 
effected  in  1879  without  disturbance  to 
the  financial  or  commercial  interests  of 
the  country.  He  was  a prominent  can- 
didate for  the  republican  presidential 
nomination  in  1880,  and  again  in  1888. 
In  1897  he  resigned  from  the  senate  to 
become  secretary  of  state  in  the  cabinet 
of  President  McKinley.  He  resigned 
this  office  shortly  after  the  outbreak  of 
war  with  Spain  in  1898,  retired  to  priv- 
ate life,  and  prepared  his  Forty  Years 
in  the  House  and  Senate.  He  died  in  1900 

SHERMAN,  Roger,  born  in  Newton, 
Mass.,  April  19,  1721;  died  in  New 
Haven,  Con.,  July  23,  1793.  When  the 
revolution  began  he  sided  with  the 
patriots,  and  in  August,  1774,  was 
chosen  as  delegate,  to  the  continental 
congress.  Later,  with  Adams,  Franklin, 
Jefferson,  and  Livingston,  he  was  one 
of  the  committee  who  drew  up  the 
declaration  of  Independence.  From 
1784  until  his  death  he  was  mayor  of 
New  Haven,  and  in  1791  was  United 
States  senator  for  Connecticut. 

SHERMAN,  William  Tecumseh,  Amer- 
ican general,  was  born  at  Lancaster, 
Ohio,  1820,  graduated  at  the  military 
academy.  West  Point,  in  1840,  and 
served  in  Florida,  Mexico,  and  elsewhere 
till  1852,  when  he  resigned  his  commis- 
sion. On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war 
he  offered  his  services  to  the  United 
States  government,  and  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  13th  regiment  of  infantry. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  greatly  distinguished  himself  at 
Shiloh,  and  subsequently  took  a promi- 
nent part  in  the  operations  under  Grant 
around  Vicksburg  and  Memphis.  In 
March,  1864,  he  succeeded  Grant  as 
commander  of  the  military  division  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
May,  simultaneously  with  Grant’s  ad- 


vance in  the  east,  he  entered  upon  his 
invasion  of  Georgia.  On  Septemoer  2, 
after  a number  of  battles,  he  received 
the  capitulation  of  Atlanta,  and  on 
December  21,  of  Savannah;  and  then 
turning  northward  into  the  Carolinas 
and  fighting  more  battles,  he  received 
the  surrender  of  General  J.  E.  Johnston, 
at  Durham  station,  April  26,  1865,  a 


William  Tecumseh  Sherman. 

surrender  which  brought  the  war  to  a 
close.  Sherman  was  made  a major- 
general  in  August,  1864,  lieutenant- 
general  in  July,  1866,  and  general  and 
commander-in-chief  in  March,  1869. 
He  was  retired  in  1884.  His  military 
career  is  detailed  in  his  Memoirs,  written 
by  himself,  and  published  in  1875.  He 
died  in  1891. 

SHERRY,  a Spanish  wine  made  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera, 
in  the  province  of  Andalusia,  near  Cadiz. 
The  soil  of  the  best  vineyards  consists 
chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a small 
admixture  of  silex  and  clay,  and  occa- 
sionally magnesia.  The  dry  sherry  is  the 
most  esteemed,  the  finest  variety  being 
the  Amontillado  sherry.  The  sherry 
wines  are  shipped  for  the  most  part  at 
Cadiz,  and  are  principally  exported  to 
England.  No  wine  is  more  largely  imi- 
tated and  adulterated  than  sherry. 

SHETLAND,  or  ZETLAND,  an  insular 
county  of  Scotland,  about  50  miles  n.f*. 
of  Orkney;  area,  352,876  acres.  It  con- 
sists of  about  ninetj’'  islands  and  islets, 
of  which  twenty-nine  are  inhabited,  the 
largest  being  the  following:  Mainland, 
Yell,  Unst,  Whalsey,  Fetlar,  and  Bres- 
say,  the  first  occup3'ing  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  whole  area  of  the  group. 
The  Shetland  pony  is  well  known,  and 
is  not  surpassed  by  any  horse  of  its 
dimensions  for  strength  and  hardihood. 
The  fisheries,  especially  the  herring- 
fishery,  are  very  valuable,  and  afford 
the  chief  employment.  The  knitting  of 
woolen  articles  may  be  said  to  be  the 
only  native  manufacture.  For  parlia- 
mentary purposes  Shetland  unites  with 
Orkney  in  returning  one  member.  Tha 
only  town  is  Lerwick.  Pop.  26,185. 

SHIB'BOLETH,  a word  which 
made  by  Jephthah  the  criterion  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Ephraimites  from  the 
Gileadites  at  the  fords  of  Jordan. 

SHIELD,  a piece  of  defensive  armo^ 


SHIELD 


SHIP 


borne  on  the  left  arm.  Shields  gradually 
disappeared  with  the  introduction  of 
firearms,  but  the  target  and  broadsword 
were  the  favorite  arms  of  the  Scotch 
Highlanders  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century. 

SHIELD,  in  heraldry,  the  escutcheon 
or  field  on  which  are  placed  the  bearings 
in  coats  of  arms.  The  shape  of  the  shield 
upon  which  heraldic  bearings  are  dis- 
played is  left  a good  deal  to  fancy;  the 
form  of  the  lozenge,  however,  is  used 
only  by  single  ladies  and  widows.  The 
shield  used  in  funeral  processions  is  of 
a square  form,  and  divided  per  pale,  the 
one  half  being  sable,  or  the  whole  black, 
as  the  case  may  be,  with  a scroll  border 
around,  and  in  the  center  the  arms  of  the 
deceased  upon  a shield  of  the  usual  form. 

SHIELDS,  South,  a municipal,  pari., 
and  county  borough  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Durham,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Tyne,  opposite  to  North  Shields, 
and  communicating  with  it  by  steam- 
ferry.  The  industries  comprise  glass 
earthenware,  alkali  and  chemicals,  cord- 
age, ,steam-engine  boilers,  and  chain- 
cables  and  anchors,  besides  ship-build- 
ing. Pop.  97,267. 

SHIITES  (shi'itz),  one  of  the  two  great 
sects  of  Mohammedans,  who  do  not 
acknowledge  the  Sunna  as  a law,  and 
believe  that  Ali,  the  fourth  caliph  after 
Mohammed,  was  his  first  lawful  suc- 
cessor. The  Persians  are  Shiites.  See 
Sunnites. 

SHIKARPUR',  chief  town  of  Shikar- 
pur  District,  Sind  Province,  Bombay 
presidency,  India,  18  miles  west  of  the 
Indus  and  26  southeast  of  Jacobabad. 
It  is  an  emporium  for  transit  trade  be- 
tween the  Bolan  Pass  and  Karachi,  but 
has  lost  much  of  its  commercial  im- 
portance since  the  opening  of  the  Indus 
Valley  railway.  The  principal  manu- 
factures are  carpets  and  coarse  cotton 
cloth.  Pop.  50,000. 

SHILLING,  an  English  silver  coin, 
equal  in  value  to  12  bronze  pence  or 
one-twentieth  of  a pound  sterling,  and 
approximate  in  value  to  24  American 
cents,  to  1.25  French  francs,  and  to  1.11 
German  marks. 

SHILOH,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most 
memorable  battles  of  the  American  civil 
war.  Shiloh  is  in  Tennessee,  2 miles  west 
of  Pittsburg  Landing,  on  the  Tennessee 
river,  and  took  its  name  from  a log 
chapel  known  as  “Shiloh  church.”  The 
battle  was  fought  on  the  6th  and  7th 
of  April,  1862,  Grant  and  Sherman  lead- 
ing the  federals,  and  A.  S.  Johnson  and 
Beauregard  the  confederates.  The  first 
day  the  confederates,  taking  the  fed- 
erals by  surprise,  drove  them  from  their 
lines,  with  heavy  loss  in  men  and  guns; 
but  the  second  day  the  federals,  having 
received  reinforcements,  and  largely 
outnumbering  the  confederates,  regained 
their  lines,  and  forced  the  confederates 
to  retreat  to  their  former  position  at 
Corinth. 

SHINGLE,  a thin  piece  of  wood  re- 
sembling a roofing  slate,  and  used  for  the 
same  purpose  and  in  the  same  way.  In 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  and  other 
places  where  timber  is  plentiful,  shingles 
are  extensively  used  for  a roof-covering. 
They  are  usually  cut  by  in^nious  ma- 
chinery devised  for  the  special  purpose. 

SHINGLES,  an  eruptive  skin  disease, 


which  usually  starts  from  the  backbone 
and  goes  half  way  round  the  body,  form- 
ing a belt  of  inflamed  patches,  with 
clustered  vesicles.  It  rarely  encircles 
the  body,  though  the  popular  opinion 
that  if  it  does  it  will  prove  fatal  is  a de- 
lusion. It  is  sometimes  produced  by 
sudden  exposure  to  cold  after  violent 
exercise,  and  sometimes  follows  acute 
affections  of  the  respiratory  organs.  It 
seems  to  depend  upon  abnormal  nervous 
action,  as  it  frequently  marks  out  upon 
the  surface  the  part  of  the  integument 
supplied  by  some  one  branch  of  a nerve. 
It  is  usually  attended  with  more  or  less 
neuralgic  pain  and  fever.  It  is  a self- 
limited  or  cyclical  disease,  usually 
running  its  coarse  in  about  a fortnight. 

SHINTOTSM,  one  of  the  two  great 
religions  of  Japan.  In  its  origin  it  was 
a form  of  nature  worship,  but  the 
essence  of  the  religion  is  now  ancestor 
worship  and  sacrifice  to  departed  heroes. 

SHIP,  in  the  most  general  sense,  a 
vessel  intended  for  navigating  the  ocean. 
In  contradistinction  to  boat,  which  is 
the  most  general  term  for  a navigable 
vessel,  it  signifies  a vessel  intended  for 
distant  voyages.  Ships  Are  of  various 
sizes,  and  fitted  for  various  uses,  and  re- 
ceive various  names,  according  to  their 
rig  and  the  purpose  to  which  they  are 
applied,  as  man-of-war  ships,  transports, 
merchantmen,  barques,  brigs,  schooners, 
luggers,  sloops,  xebecs,  galleys,  etc. 

The  ancient  art  of  ship-building,  like 
many  other  arts,  was  lost  in, the  over- 
whelming tide  of  barbarism  which  over- 
threw the  last  of  the  great  empires  of 
antiquity.  The  ruder  nations  of  Europe 
had  to  begin  again  in  great  measure  on 
their  own  resources.  The  war  galley  of 
the  ancients  may  possibly  be  so  far 
preserved  in  the  mediaeval  galleys 
applied  to  the  same  purpose.  On  the 
Mediterranean,  too,  an  unbroken  line 
of  coasting  ships  may  probably  have 
continued  to  sail.  But  it  appears 
evident  that  the  progress  made  in  ship- 
building under  the  Roman  Empire,  not 
to  speak  of  the  Phoenicians  and  other 
earlier  navigators,  was  much  greater 
than  was  transmitted  to  mediaeval 
Europe.  Ship-building  made  little 
progress  in  Europe  till  the  discovery  of 
the  compass,  which  was  introduced 
in  a rude  form  in  the  12th  century,  and 
had  been  improved  and  had  come  into 
common  use  in  the  14th  century.  The 
opening  up  of  the  passage  to  India  and 
the  discovery  of  America  made  another 
epoch  in  its  progress.  In  the  building  of 
large  vessels  the  Spaniards  long  took  the 
lead,  and  were  followed  by  the  French, 
who  especially  distinguished  themselves 
in  the  theoretical  study  of  the  art.  In 
the  early  progress  of  the  art  of  ship- 
building the  English  took  little  or  no 
part.  When  Henry  VII.  built  the 
Henry  Grace  de  Dieu,  which  is  regarded 
as  the  parent  of  the  British  navy,  the 
English  were  greatly  inferior  to  the 
nations  of  Southern  Europe  both  in 
navigation  and  in  ship-building.  In 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  English  fleet 
proved  its  superiority  to  that  of  Spain 
in  respect  of  fighting  capacity,  but  it  was 
afterward  rivaled  by  that  of  Holland. 
Rapid  improvement  was  made  in  ship- 
building during  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies in  England  as  well  as  the  maritime 


states  of  the  Continent.  The  first  three- 
decker  was  built  in  England  in  1637. 
She  was  called  the  Sovereign  of  the  Seas, 
and  was  deemed  the  best  man-of-war  in 
the  world.  In  1768  the  French  adopted 
three-deckers;  and  from  their  appli- 
cation of  science  they  acquired  a decided 
superiority  in  the  size  and  models  of 
their  ships  over  the  English.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  present  century  the 
lead  in  improvement  was  taken  by  the 
United  States.  English  builders  were 
at  first  skeptical  as  to  American  im- 
provements; but  in  1832  Scott  Russell 
theoretically  established  the  principles 
on  which  speed  in  sailing  depends — 
principles  which  had  already  been 
practically  applied  not  only  by  the 
Americans  but  by  the  Spaniards.  From 
the  time  of  their  theoretical  establish- 
ment they  were  rapidly  adopted  in 
England,  and  a race  of  improvement 
began  between  Great  Britain  and 
America.  The  true  principles  of  con- 
struction both  in  build  and  rig  were 
exemplified  in  the  celebrated  Baltimore 
clipper  schooners,  which  were  sharp  in 
the  bow,  deep  in  the  stern,  of  great 
length,  and  lying  low  in  the  water,  with 
long,  slender  masts,  and  large  sails  cut 
with  great  skill.  The  same  principles 
were  afterward  applied  to  square- 
rigged  vessels,  and  produced  the  Eng- 
lish and  American  clipper  ships  which 
did  so  much  to  develop  the  trade  of 
India,  China,  and  Australia  with  botk 
Europe  and  America.  * 

A great  change  came  over  the  art  of 
ship-building  when  steam  was  intro- 
duced and  wood  gave  place  to  iron  and 
then  to  steel.  The  first  steamer^  built 
expressly  for  regular  voyages  be’tween 
Europe  and  America  was  the  Great 
Western,  launched  in  1837.  She  was 
propelled  by  paddles,  but  about  the 
same  time  Ericsson  invented  his  screw- 
propeller,  which  was  soon  adopted  in 
sea-going  ships,  and  the  British  Ad- 
miralty possessed  a screw  vessel  in  1842. 
Iron  vessels  were  built  early  in  the 
19th  century  for  canal  service,  then 
for  river  service,  and  later  for  packet 
service  on  the  coasts.  About  1838  iron 
vessels  were  built  for  ocean  service,  but 
the  first  ocean-going  steamship  in  its 
resent  form,  built  of  iron  and  propelled 
y the  screw,  was  the  Great  Britain, 
launched  in  1842.  Compound  engines 
were  first'  introduced  with  high-press- 
ure steam  in  1854.  The  progress  of 
steam  navigation  is  marked  by  special 
types  of  vessels  buUt  from  time  to  time. 
Many  of  the  vessels  belonging  to  the 
great  ocean  lines  ar|.  splendid  speci- 
mens of  naval  architecture,  some  of 
them  being  nearly  800  feet  in  length, 
having  a displacement  of  30,000  or 
40,000  tons  or  even  more,  and  with 
engines  working  up  to  30,000  or  40,000 
horse-power,  and  making  the  trip  from 
Queenstown  to  New  York  in  less  than 
five  days.  The  largest  vessels  are  all  pro- 
pelled by  steam,  but  very  large  sailing 
vessels  are  now  constructed  also,  espe- 
cially since  it  became  not  uncommon  to 
fit  them  with  four,  and  even  five,  masts. 

An  iron  vessel  is  lighter  than  a wooden 
one  of  the  same  size,  and  with  iron  ti-ft 
same  strength  may  be  obtained  wi  4 
less  weight.  Iron  is  also  far  mof6 
* manageable  than  wood,  as  it  ean  be 


SHIP  CANAL 

bent  with  ease  into  any  required 
shape.  Steel,  which  is  now  supersed- 
ing iron  for  building  ships,  is  a still 
lighter  material  and  is  equally  manage- 
able. See  Sail  and  Steamship. 

SHIP  CANAL,  a canal  for  the  passage 
of  sea-going  vessels.  Ship  canals  are  in- 
tended either  to  make  an  inland,  or 
comparatively  inland  place,  a seaport,  or 
to  connect  sea  with  sea,  and  thus  obviate 
a long  ocean  navigation.  Of  the  former 
kind  are  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal, 
making  that  city  a seaport,  and  the 
Amsterdam  Canal,  which  gives  Am- 
sterdam a direct  passage  to  the  North 
Sea  at  Ymuiden.  Of  the  latter  kind 
are  the  Suez  Canal,  the  Caledonian 
Canal,  the  North  Sea  and  Baltic  Canal, 
and  (not  yet  completed)  the  Panama 
Canal,  Nicaragua  Canal,  etc.  The 
Caledonian  Canal  was  formed  by  the 
British  government  for  military  pur- 
poses. It  is  a good  example  of  a ship 
canal  which  traverses  high  districts  and 
surmounts  the  elevation  by  locks. 
The  Suez  Canal  (1860-69)  is  the  greatest 
of  all  ship  canals  yet  complete.  It  has 
no  locks  whatever,  and  communicates 
freely  with  the  sea,  connecting  the 
Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea,  88 
miles,  and  reducing  the  length  of  the 
voyage  from  London  to  India  from 
11,379  to  7628  miles.  The  Panama 
Canal,  designed  to  connect  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  with  the  Pacific,  will  be  the 
greatest  engineering  work  of  the  kind 
the  world  has  ever  seen. 

SHIPKA  PASS,  a pass  in  the  Balkans, 
about  4600  feet  above  the  sea,  the  scene 
of  a desperate  and  bloody  ten  days’ 
struggle  during  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
(August  and  Sept.  1877).  In  his  futile 
endeavors  to  take  Fort  Nicholas  at  the 
summit  of  the  pass  from  the  Russians, 
Suleiman  Pasha  lost  20,000  of  his  best 
men. 

SHIP  RAILWAY,  a railway  com- 
posed of  several  tracks,  with  some  sort 
of  carriage  for  transporting  vessels  from 
one  body  of  water  to  another.  Captain 
J.  B.  Eads’s  proposed  plan  for  the 
Tehuantepec  Ship  Railway,  across  the 
isthmus  between  North  and  South 
America  in  Mexican  territory,  consists 
essentially  of  a series  of  some  eight  or 
ten  tracks,  having  a carrying  car  or 
cradle  of  some  five  sections,  with  alto- 
gether 1000  wheels.  Calculated  for  a 
vessel  of  10,000  tons,  this  would  not 
give  a pressure  so  great  as  that  of  an 
ordinary  locomotive.  A ship  railway 
has  been  constructed  by  the  Canadian 
government  between  Chignecto  Bay,  in 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  across  the  isthmus  to 
Northumberland  Straits,  a distance  of  17 
miles,  which  enables  vessels  to  go  from 
Prince  Edward  Island  to  St.  John,  New 
Brunswick,  in  twelve  hours,  and  greatly 
facilitates  the  transport  of  grain  in  bulk 
from  the  lake  ports  to  New  Brunswick. 
The  vessels  are  raised  by  hydraulic 
pressure  a height  of  40  feet  to  the  level 
of  the  railway,  and  placed  on  a double 
track  18  feet  from  center  to  center. 
The  flexible  car  system  of  ship  railway 
invented  by  William  Smith,  harbor 
engineer  of  Aberdeen,  is  designed  to 
allow  of  the  use  of  ordinary  railway 
gradients.  The  car  is  in  sections,  each 
carried  on  a compound  bogie  running 
on  parallel  lines.  Vertical  and  lateral 


SHOCK 


flexibility  are  secured,  and  the  ship  is 
sustained  on  the  car  by  water-cushions, 
so  that  it  is  virtually  kept  floating.  The 
ship  is  raised  on  to  the  cars  by  means 
of  a submerged  shipway  inclosed  within 
a w'et  dock. 


very  thin  film  alone  of  wood  is  left  be- 
tween the  cavities,  which  are  lined  with  a 1 
calcareous  incrustation.  Various  plana,? 
are  tried  to  protect  ships,  piers,  etc.v' 
from  this  destructive  animal,  such  as 
copper-sheathing,  treating  with  creasote, 


Ship  railway. 


SHIP-WORM,  the  popular  name  of  a 
lamellibranchiate  mollusc  belonging  to 
the  Pholadidse  or  pholas  family,  and 
distinguished  by  the  elongation  of  the 
respiratory  “siphons”  or  breathing- 
tubes  conveying  water  to  the  gills,  which 
give  to  this  mollusc  a somewhat  vermi- 
form or  wormlike  aspect.  The  two 
valves  or  halves  of  the  shell  are  of  small 
size  and  globular  shape,  and  are  situated 
at  its  anterior  extremity,  the  valves 


Ship-worm,  and  piece  of  wood  perforated 
by  teredos. 

being  three-lobed.  In  length  the  ship- 
wonn  averages  about  a foot,  and  in 
thickness  about  ^ inch.  It  has  gained 
great  notoriety  from  its  boring  habits, 
occasioning  great  destruction  to  ships 
and  submerged  wood  by  perforating 
them  in  all  directions  in  order  to  estab- 
lish a habitation.  In  boring  into  the 
wood  (the  shell  is  the  boring  instrument) 
each  individual  is  careful  to  avoid  the 
tube  formed  by  its  neighbor,  and  often  a 


etc. ; but  the  plan  which  appears  to  have 
been  most  successful  in  arresting  its 
ravages  is  that  of  driving  a number  of 
short  nails  with  large  heads  into  the 
exposed  timber.  The  rust  from  the 
heads  of  the  nails  appears  to  prevent  its 
operation.  A large  species  of  teredo 
occurs  in  warm  latitudes,  where  it  bores 
into  the  hardened  mud  or  sand  of  the 
sea-bed,  as  well  as  into  timber. 

SHITTIM-WOOD,  of  which  the  taber- 
nacle in  the  wilderness  was  principally 
constructed,  was  the  wood  of  the  shittah 
tree  of  the  Bible,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  Acacia  seyal  of  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula. (See  Acacia.)  It  is  a light  but 
cross-grained  and  enduring  wood,  of  a 
fine  orange-browm  color. 

SHOCK,  in  medicine,  a sudden  vital 
depression  of  the  system  produced  by 
violent  injuries  or  violent  mental 
emotions.  It  is  especially  a surgical 
term.  The  vital  phenomena  of  the  body 
— consciousness,  respiration,  heart-ac- 
tion, capillary  circulation — are  de- 
pressed in  proportion  to  the  shock  re- 
ceived by  the  nerve-centers.  In  the  state 
of  collapse  consequent  upon  a shock  the 
patient  lies  completely  prostrate,  the 
face  pale  and  bloodless,  the  skin  cold  and 
clammy,  and  the  features  contracted 
and  expressive  of  great  languor.  There 
is  also  extreme  muscular  debilitj',  and 
the  pulse  is  frequently,  so  weak  aB 
scarcely  to  be  perceptible.  Incoherency, 
drowsiness,  or  complete  insensibility,  iB 
often  manifested  on  the  part  of  the 
patient.  Shock  results  either  in  a coni' 


SHODDY 


SHOULDER-JOINT 


plete  suspension  of  the  action  of  heart, 
causing  death,  or  passes  into  reaction; 
and  the  treatment  of  shock  is  to  be 
directed  to  the  immediate  development 
of  reaction.  In  mild  cases  external 
warmth,  a little  stimulant,  and  rest  are 
all  that  is  required;  but  in  the  severer 
forms  a more  liberal  recourse  to  heat  and 
stimulants  is  absolutely  necessary,  and 
should  be  continued  until  indications  of 
commencing  reaction  appear.  The  heat 
should  be  applied  to  the  pit  of  the 
stomach  and  the  extremities  by  means 
of  hot  flannel,  hot-water  tins,  or  like 
appliances.  The  stimulant  most  reconi- 
mended  is  brandy  in  hot  water,  and  this 
should  be  followed  by  nourishment,  such 
as  beef-tea. 

SHODDY,  the  fibrous  substance  com- 
posed of  woolen  rags  torn  fine  in  a ma- 
chine called  a “devil,”  and  converted 
into  cheap  cloth  by  being  mixed  and 
spun  with  a certain  proportion  of  fresh 
wool. 

SHOES,  coverings  for  the  feet,  gen- 
erally made  of  leather  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  in  Holland  and  France 
often  of  wood,  and  in  China  and  Japan 
of  paper  and  other  fabrics.  The  shoe  is 
a combination  of  the  sandal  of  the 
oriental  races  and  the  moccasin  of  un- 
tanned hides  of  savage  races — sole  with- 
out upper  and  upper  without  sole.  The 
first  allusion  to  a shoe  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  where  Abraham  refuses  to  take 
so  much  as  a “shoe-latchet”  from  the 
King  of  Sodom.  For  “shoe”  in  this  in- 
stance we  are  probably  to  understand 
“sandal;”  but  shoes  proper,  as  well  as 
sandals,  seem  to  have  been  used  among 
the  Jews;  for  on  the  black  obelisk  from 
Nimroud  Jews  are  represented  as  wear- 
ing shoes  or  boots  with  turned-up  toes, 
similar  to  those  worn  by  orientals  in  the 
present  day.  The  Romans  used  various 
kinds  of  shoes,  such  as  the  solea  or  san- 
dal; the  calceus,  which  covered  [the 
whole  foot,  somewhat  like  our  shoes, 
and  was  tied  with  a latchet  or  lace;  and 
the  caliga,  a very  strong  kind  of  shoe, 
sometimes  shod  with  nails,  worn  by  the 
soldiers,  who  were  thence  called  caligati. 
Both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times 
the  fashion  of  shoes  has  varied  much, 
just  as  in  other  articles  of  dress.  In  the 
reigns  of  Henry  I.  and  Stephen,  shoes 
were  made  for  the  fashionable  with  long 
points  stuffed  with  tow,  and  made  to 
curl  in  the  form  of  a ram’s  horn;  and  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.  the  points  had 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
reached  the  knee,  to  which  they  were 
secured  by  chains  of  silver  or  gold.  In 
the  18th  century,  among  the  ladies, 
absurdly  high-heeled  shoes  were  the 
rage,  a fashion  which  has  been  revived 
within  the  last  few  years.  The  present 
simple  form  of  shoe  was  adopted  in  the 
early  part  of  the  17th  century,  and 
somewhat  later  the  shoe  buckle  came 
into  use.  In  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century  buckles  appear  to  have  become 
unfashionable,  their  place  being  supplied 
by  the  simpler  and  less  costly  shoe- 
strings. To  the  same  period  belongs 
another  improvement  »that  of  making 
shoes  right  and  left.  Boots  are  a variety 
of  shoe  with  the  upper  leathers  length- 
ened so  as  to  protect  part  of  the  leg. 
Till  recently  the  making  of  boots  and 
shoes  was  a purely  manual  handicraft; 


now,  with  the  exception  of  the  finest 
and  best  finished  qualities,  the  manu- 
facture is  done  almost  entirely  by  ma- 
chinery. 

SHOLAPUR',  chief  town  of  Sholapur 
district,  Bombay  presidency,  India,  150 
miles  by  rail  from  Poona.  Its  situation 
between  Poona  and  Haiderabad  has 
made  it,  especially  since  the  opening  of 
the  railway  in  1859,  the  center  for  the 
trade  of  a large  extent  of  country.  Its 
chief  industry  is  the  manufacture  of  silk 
and  cotton  cloth.  Pop.  (including  can- 
tonment), 75,288. — The  district  of 
Sholapur  has  an  area  of  4521  sq.  miles, 
and  pop.  720,978. 

SHOOTING-STAR,  a meteor  in  a 
state  of  incandescence,  caused  by  the 
resistance  of  the  atmosphere,  seen  sud- 
denly darting  along  some  part  of  the 
sky.  See  Aerolite  and  Meteor. 

SHORTHAND,  the  method  of  writing 
by  which  the  process  is  so  abbreviated 
as  to  keep  pace  with  speech.  It  is  also 
known,  according  to  the  principle  under- 
lying the  particular  system,  as  tachy- 
graphy  (quick  writing),  brachygraphy 
(short  writing) , stenography  (com  pressed 
wrRing,  )and  phonography  (sound  writ- 
ing). It  was  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  brevity  but  for  purposes  of 
secrecy;  but  all  knowledge  of  the  art 
was  lost  from  the  10th  century  until  the 
end  of  the  16th,  when  modern  shorthand 
had  its  birth  ip  the  publication  by  Dr. 
Timothy  Bright  of  his  Characterie 
(1587),  and  by  Peter  Bales  of  his  Arte  of 
Brachygraphie  (1590).  In  these  early 
systems  abritrary  signs  were  used  in 
most  cases  to  denote  each  word.  The 
earliest  system  of  shorthand  of  any 
practical  importance  was  that  of  John 
Willis,  whose  Arte  of  Stenographic 
(1602)  became  very  popular.  It  was 
based  on  the  common  alphabet,  with 
the  addition  of  arbitrary  signs;  and  this, 
indeed,  was  the  character  of  the  numer- 
ous systems  which  obtained  until  the 
time  of  Pitman  (1837). 

Pitman  had  a number  of  predecessors, 
whose  systems,  like  his  own,  were 
strictly  phonetic.  These  systems,  how- 
ever, never  obtained  any  footing,  while 
Pitman’s  almost  immediately  became 
popular,  and  is  now  used  by  a larger 
number  of  reporters  and  shorthand 
writers  than  any  other.  Like  all  other 
phonetic  systems.  Pitman’s  rejects  the 
ordinary  orthography,  and  writes  words 
according  to  their  sounds;  thus,  though 
becomes  tho,'  plough  becomes  plow,  and 
enough  becomes  enuf.  Discarding  the 
common  alphabet,  which  formed  the 
basis  of  the  stenographic  systems,  it  has 
adopted  an  alphabet  of  its  own,  consist- 
ing of  a series  of  straight  lines,  curves, 
dots,  etc.,  each  representing  a distinct 
sound.  This  alphabet  is  the  basis  of  a 
highly  ingenious  and  complex  system, 
which  aims  at  securing  the  greatest 
degree  of  brevity  consistent  with  legi- 
bility. This  end  it  endeavors  to  attain 
by  a variety  of  devices,  forming  integral 
parts  of  the  system.  In  rapid  writing  on 
Pitman’s  system  the  vowels  are  gen- 
ernally  omitted 

SHORTHORNS,  a breed  of  cattle  ex- 
ternally distinguished  by  the  shortness 
of  their  horns,  whieh  originated  in  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  in  the  val- 


ley of  the  Tees,  and  under  the  name  of 
Durhams,  Teeswaters,  or  Shorthorns, 
soon  spread  over  all  the  richly  pastured 
distiicts  of  Britain.  They  are  excellent 
for  grazing  purposes,  being  of  rapid  and 
large  growth  with  aptness  to  fatten,  but 
are  inferior  to  some  other  breeds  for 
dairy  purposes. 

SHOSHONE  FALLS  (sho-sho'ne),  on 
Lewis  or  Snake  river,  in  the  state  of 
Idaho,  United  States.  They  rank 
among  the  waterfalls  of  North  America 
next  to  those  of  Niagara  in  grandeur, 
being  about  300  yards  wide  and  200 
feet  high. 

SHOSHONES  (sho-sho’nez),  or 
SNAKES,  a tribe  of  North  American 
Indians  inhabiting  a considerable  stretch 
of  territory  in  Idaho,  Utah,  Nevada, 
etc.  They  live  partly  by  hunting  and 
fishing,  many  of  them  also  on  roots  and 
small  animals.  They  number  about 
5000. 

SHOT,  a term  applied  to  all  solid  pro- 
jectiles fired  from  cannon,  and  also  to 
hollow  projectiles  without  bursting 
charges,  as  the  Palliser  shot.  Solid  shot 
have  gradually  disappeared  since  the  in- 
troduction of  rifled  guns,  which  fire 
elongated  shot  with  more  or  less  conical 
heads.  Some  of  the  shot  fired  by  the 
immense  guns  now  used  weigh  not  far 
short  of  a ton.  Smocrth-bored  ordnance 
still  use  solid  round  shot  and  case-shot 
Case-shot  consists  of  iron  balls  packed 
in  iron  or  tin  cylindrical  cases.  Grape 
differs  only  in  the  balls  being  larger. 
Shot  is  also  the  name  given  to  the  small 
round  pellets  of  lead  used  with  sporting 
guns  for  shooting  small  quadrupeds  and 
birds.  This  kind  of  shot  is  made  by 
dropping  the  melted  lead  through  the 
holes  of  a colander  set  at  a considerable 
height  above  water,  the  drops  naturally 
assuming  the  globular  form. 

SHOULDER- JOINT,  the  articulation 
of  the  upper  arm  or  humerus  with  the 
plenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula  or  shoulder- 
blade.  The  shoulder-joint  forms  an 
example  of  the  ball-and-socket  joints, 
the  ball-like  or  rounded  head  of  the 
humerus  working  in  the  shallow  cup  of 
the  glenoid  cavity.  Such  a form  of  joint 
necessarily  allows  of  very  considerable 
movement,  while  the  joint  itself  is 
guarded  against  dislocation  or  displace- 
ment by  the  strong  ligaments  surround- 
ing it,  as  well  as  by  the  tendons  of  its 
investing  and  other  muscles.  The 
muscles  are  the  supraspinatus  above, 
the  long  head  of  the  triceps  below,  the 
subscapularis  internally,  the  infras- 
pinatus and  teres  minor  externally,  and 
the  long  tendon  of  the  biceps  within. 
The  deltoid  muscle  lies  on  the  external 
aspect  of  the  joint,  and  covers  it  on  its 
outer  side  in  front,  and  behind  as  well, 
being  the  most  important  of  the  muscles 
connected  with  it.  The  movements  of 
the  shoulder-joint  consist  in  those  of 
abduction,  adduction,  circumduction, 
rotation — a “universal”  movement  be- 
ing thus  permitted;  and  its  free  motion 
is  further  aided,  when  the  bony  surfaces 
are  in  contact,  by  separate  movements 
of  the  scapula  itself,  and  by  the  motions 
of  the  articulations  between  the  sternum 
and  clavicle,  and  between  the  coracoid 
process  and  clavicle  also.  The  biceps 
muscle,  from  its  connection  with  both 
elbow  and  shoulder  joints,  brings  the 


SHOVEL-FISH 


SHROVE-TUESDAY 


movements  of  both  into  harmonious 
relation.  The  shoulder-joint  is  liable  to 
various  diseases  and  injuries.  Local  in- 
jury may  result  in  inflammation  of  the 
joint,  while  special  diatheses  or  diseased 
conditions  of  constitutional  origin  may 
each  give  rise,  either  per  se  or  through 
injuries,  to  such  lesions  as  strumous  or 
scrofulous  disease  of  the  joint,  to  syphili- 
tic lesions,  and  to  gouty  or  rheumatic 
attacks.  Of  the  accidents  to  which  the 
joint  is  liable  dislocations  are  by  far  the 
most  frequent. 

SHOVEL-FISH,  a genus  of  fishes  be- 
longing to  the  sturgeon  family,  and 
found  in  North  American  rivers.  It  is  so 
named  from  the  flattened  form  of  the 
head. 

SHOVELLER-DUCK,  a genus  of 
ducks,  distinguished  by  its  long  bill,  of 
which  the  tip  is  hooked  and  broadened. 
The  average  length  of  this  bird  is  about 
18  or  20  inches.  In  the  male  the  colors 
are  rather  gay  and  varied — green,  white, 
brown,  pale,  blue,  and  black.  The  color- 
ing of  the  female  is  more  somber.  The 
shoveller-duck  is  found  in  Britain  dur- 
ing the  winter  months. 

SHOWBREAD,in  the  Bible, the  twelve 
loaves  of  bread,  representing  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  which  were  exhibited 
before  the  Lord  on  the  golden  table  in 
the  sanctuary.  They  were  made  of  fine 
flour  unleavened,  were  changed  every 
Sabbath,  and  were  eaten  by  the  priests 
only. 

S H R A P N EL , Lieutenant  - general 
Henry,  entered  the  Royal  Artillery 
in  1779,  served  with  the  Duke  of  York’s 
army  in  Flanders,  and  shortly  after  the 
siege  of  Dunkirk  invented  the  case-shot 
known  by  the  name  of  shrapnel-shells, 
an  invention  for  which  he  received  from 
government  a pension  of  $6000  a year 
in  addition,  to  his  pay  in  the  army.  He 
retired  from  active  service  in  1825,  at- 
tained the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in 
1827,  and  died  in  1842. 

SHREVEPORT,  a city  in  the  state  of 
Louisiana,  on  the  Red  river,  327  miles 
by  rail  n.w.  of  New  Orleans,  with  which 
it  has  regular  steamboat  communica- 
tions. It  is  situated  in  a splendid  cotton- 
growing region,  and  is  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal cotton-markets  in  the  southwest 
of  the  United  States.  Its  industries  are 
varied.  Pop.  19,161. 

SHREW,  or  SHREW-MOUSE,  a genus 
of  mammals  belonging  to  the  order 
Insectivora,  and  to  be  carefully  distin- 
quished  from  the  ordinary  and  common 
mice  which  are  included  in  the  order 
Rodentia;  and  from  the  dormice,  also 
belonging  to  the  Rodent  order.  The 
shrews  form  the  family  Soricidae,  and 
the  genus  Sorex  includes  the  typical 
members,  namely,  the  common  shrew, 
the  lesser  shrew,  and  the  water  shrew. 
The  common  shrew  averages  about  4 
inches  in  length,  the  square  tail  making 
up  half  of  this  measurement.  It  may 
readily  be  distinguished  by  its  pro- 
longed muzzle,  by  the  teeth  being 
colored  brown  at  the  tips,  and  by  the 
reddish-brown  fur.  It  feeds  upon  insects 
and  their  larvae,  and  inhabits  dry  places, 
making  a nest  of  leaves  and  grasses.  Its 
habits  are  chiefly  nocturnal.  Shrews  are 
very  voracious  in  their  habits,  and  fre- 
quently kill  and  devour  one  another. 
They  secrete  a fluid  of  disagreeable  odor 


in  special  glands,  and  this  odor  prevents 
larger  anhnals  from  eating  their  flesh. 
In  former  days  the  bite  of  the  shrew 
was  accounted  venomous,  while  its 
body,  variously  treated,  was  regarded 
as  a cure  for  many  complaints.  The 
lesser  shrew  closely  resembles  the  com- 
mon shrew  in  external  form,  differing 
from  it  chiefly  in  point  of  size.  The 
water  shrew  attains  a total  length  of 
from  4J  to  5 inches.  The  snout  is  not  so 


Common  European  shrew. 


pointed  as  that  of  the  common  shrew. 
The  ears  are  very  small.  The  color  is 
black  on  the  upper  and  white  on  the 
under  parts.  A prominent  swimming 
fringe  of  stiff  white  hair  is  found  on  the 
tail  and  on  the  toes,  and  forms  a dis- 
tinctive features  of  the  species.  Its  food 
resembles  that  of  the  common  shrew, 
but  aquatic  larvae  appear  to  form  a large 
part  of  its  nutriment.  It  makes  its  bur- 


Amerlcan  water-shrew. 


rows  in  the  overhanging  banks  of  rivers 
and  lakes,  and  dives  and  swims  with 
great  facility.  The  red-toothed  shrews 
characteristic  of  the  North  American 
continent  belong  to  the  allied  genus 
Blarina,  distinguished  from  Sorex  by 
the  dentition  and  the  remarkable  short- 
ness of  the  tail ; but  there  are  also  a num- 
ber of  North  Aiperican  shrews  belong- 
ing to  the  genus  Sorex 

SHRIKE,  a general  name  applied  to 
the  members  of  a family  of  birds.  The 
family  is  conveniently  divided  into  two 
groups,  the  true  shrikes,  and  the  bush- 
shrikes.  The  former  is  distinguished  by 


Great  gray  shrike. 


the  broad  base  of  the  bill,  which  is 
hooked  at  the  tip.  The  nostrils,  which 
are  situated  laterally,  are  surrounded  by 
bristles.  The  fourth  quill  is  longest  in 
the  wings,  and  the  tail  is  of  graduated  or 


conical  shape  The  name  of  drongos  or 
drongo-shrikes  has  been  given  to  certain 
birds  allied  to  the  shrikes,  a^d  forming 
the  family  Dicrurinae.  The  forked-tailed 
crested  shrike,  a bird  inhabiting  India, 
about  10  inches  in  length,  is  an  example 
of  these. 

SHRIMP,  the  name  applied  to  many 
small  crustaceans,  and  especially  to  the 
common  shrimp,  which  belongs  to  the 
ten-footed  Crustacea  and  to  the  sub- 
order Macroura  (long-tailed).  The 
common  shrimp  reaches  a size  of  about 
2i  inches,  inhabits  the  sand  of  many 
parts  of  coasts  and  is  caught  for  the 
market  by  means  of  a bagnet  placed 
transversely  on  a pole,  which  is  pushed 
through  the  sand  at  a depth  of  about 
IJ  or  2 feet.  When  alive  it  is  of  a light- 
brown  or  almost  white  color,  resembling 
that  of  the  sand  in  which  it  lives,  but 
after  boiling  it  assumes  the  well-known 
brown-color.  It  is  common  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts  of  North  America  as 
well  as  those  of  Britain.  The  red  shrimp 
inhabits  deeper  water  than  the  common 
shrimp,  and  is  not  nearly  so  abundant. 
It  reaches  a size  of  from  2 to  2^  inches. 
When  alive  it  is  of  a reddish-gray,  with 
spots  of  deeper  red;  after  boiling  it  is  of 
a uniform  deep  red.  This  species  is 
sometimes  confounded  with  the  common 
prawn;  but  it  never  reaches  the  size  of 
the  prawn,  which,  when  adult,  is  above 
4 inches  in  length. 

SHRINE,  originally  a reliquary,  or 
some  kind  of  receptacle,  for  holding  the 
bones  or  other  relics  of  saints.  Some- 
times shrines  were  merely  small  boxes 
with  raised  tops  like  roofs;  sometimes 
actual  models  of  churches;  sometimes 
the  tombs  or  mausoleums  of  saints — 


Portable  shrine,  Malmesbury  abbey. 

large  constructions,  like  that  of  Edward 
the  Confessor  at  Westminster.  Many 
were  (and  are)  ornamented  w'ith  gold, 
precious  stones,  or  inlaid  work;  and 
among  Roman  Catholics  some  shrines 
are  still  objects  of  pilgrimage. 

SHROPSHIRE,  or  SALOP,  an  inland 
county  of  England,  bounded  by  Che- 
shire, the  detached  part  of  Flintshire, 
Denbighshire,  Montgomeryshire,  Rad- 
norshire, Herefordshire,  Worcestershire, 
and  Staffordshire.  Area,  841,167  acres, 
of  which  about  seven-eighths  are  under 
crop.  Pop.  239,321. 

SHROUDS,  a range  of  large  ropes  ex- 
tended from  the  heads  of  the  lower 
masts  to  both  sides  of  a ship  to  support 
the  masts,  and  named,  from  the  masts  to 
which  they  belong,  the  main,  fore,  and 
mizzen  shrouds.  Topmast,  topgallant, 
and  bowsprit  shrouds  are  all  similar  in 
their  object. 

SHROVE-TUESDAY,  the  day  before 
the  first  day  of  Lent  or  Ash-Wednesday, 


SHRUBS 


SIBERIA 


80  called  as  a day  on  which  confession 
was  specially  made  and  “shrift”  re- 
ceived. (See  Carnival  and  Lent.)  It  was 
a day  of  considerable  festivity,  and 
from  the  common  practice  of  eating 
pancakes  then  the  day  came  to  be  called 
Pancake  Tuesday. 

SHRUBS,  plants  in  which  the  peren- 
nial portion  forms  the  greater  part, 
which  branch  near  the  base,  which  are 
taller  than  bushes  but  not  so  tall  as 
trees,  seldom  exceeding  the  height  of  a 
man.  For  practical  purposes  shrubs  are 
divided  into  the  deciduous  and  ever- 
green kinds.  Among  ornamental  shrubs 
the  best  known  are  those  belonging  to 
the  genera  Rosa,  Ribes,  Rhododendron, 
Azalea,  etc.  Among  evergreen  shrubs  are 
the  box,  the  laurel,  and  various  heaths. 

SIAM',  a kingdom  embracing  a great 
part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula  and 

Eart  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  lying 
etween  Burmah  on  the  west,  and  Anam 


and  Cambodia  on  the  east  and  southeast. 
Its  chief  natural  boundaries  are  the 
Mekong  and  the  sea.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  200,000  sq.  miles,  and 
its  population  at  6,000,000,  including 

2.000. 000  Siamese,  2,000,000  Laotians, 

1.000. 000  Chinese,  and  1,000,000  Malays. 
The  minerals  include  gold,  tin,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  antimony,  be- 
sides several  precious  stones,  such  as  the 
sapphire,  oriental  ruby,  and  oriental 
topaz.  During  the  dry  season,  which! 
lasts  from  November  to  May,  there  is  an 
utter  absence  of  rain  in  this  region,  which 
again  is  so  flooded  by  rain  during  the 
wet  season  as  to  be  converted  into  a vast 
swampy  forest.  Cocoa  and  areca  palms 
are  numerous  in  Siam;  fruits  are  abun- 
dant and  of  excellent  quality;  black 
pepper,  tobacco,  cardamoms,  and  gam- 
boge are  important  products.  The 
forests  produce  aloes-wood,  sappan- 
wood,  teak-timber,  bamboos,  rattans, 
gutta-percha,  dammar,  catechu,  ben- 
zoin, etc.  Among  wild  animals  are  the 
tiger,  leopard,  bear,  otter,  ourang- 
outang,  single-horned  rhinoceros,  and 
elephant,  which  here  attains  a size  and 
beauty  elsewhere  unknown.  The  last, 
when  of  a white  color,  is  held  in  the 
highest  reverence.  The  forests  abound 
with  peacocks,  pheasants,  and  pigeons; 
and  in  the  islands  are  large  flocks  of  the 
swallows  that  produce  the  famed  edible 
birds’-nests.  Crocodiles,  geckoes,  and 
other  kinds  of  lizards,  tortoises,  and 
green-turtles,  are  numerous.  The  py- 
thon serpent  attains  an  immense  size, 
and  there  are  many  species  of  snakes. 

The  chief  export  is  rice,  after  which 
come  teak,  pepper,  dried  fish,  birds’- 
nests,  cattle,  and  teel  seed.  The  chief 
imports  are  gold-leaf  and  treasure,  and 
cottons,  after  which  come  opium,  china 
goods,  gunny  bags,  hardware,  kerosene- 
oil,  and  silk  goods.  The  chief  direct 
exports  are  teak-wood  and  rice.  Tele- 
graph lines  connect  Bangkok  with 
Tavoy  in  Lower  Burmah,  with  Pnom- 
penh in  Cambodia,  and  with  Cheingmai, 
the  chief  city  of  North  Siam,  and  others 
are  being  constructed.  There  is  a postal 
service  at  Bangkok,  and  in  1885  Siam 
joined  the  International  Postal  Union. 
A railway  from  Bangkok  inland  is  being 
made. 


The  Siamese  are  members  of  the  great 
Mongolian  family,  and  of  the  same  race 


as  the  people  of  Burmah  and  Anam. 
In  stature  they  do  not  average  more 
than  5 feet  3 inches  in  height;  they  hWe 
a lighter-colored  skin  than  the  western 
Asiatics,  but  darker  than  the  Chinese. 
The  Siamese  profess  Buddhism,  intro- 
duced into  the  country  about  the  middle 
of  the  7th  century.  Christianity  is  now 
making  some  progress  in  the  country. 
The  language  of  the  chief  Buddhist 
works  is  Pali.  The  printing-press  has 
been  introduced  in  recent  years,  and 
many  of  the  best  Siamese  works  can 
now  be  had  in  a printed  form. 

The  legislative  power  is  exercised  by 
the  king  in  conjunction  with  a council 
of  ministers.  There  is  a small  standing 
army,  officered  to  some  extent  by  Euro- 
peans, and  a general  armament  of  the 
people,  in  the  form  of  a militia.  The 
navy  consists  of  4 steam  corvettes, 
mostly  officered  by  Europeans,  chiefly 
Englishmen.  There  are  41  provinces, 
each  administered  by  a governor. 

Siam  appears  to  have  no  place  in 
history  prior  to  a.d.  638,  and  the  credi- 
ble records  go  back  only  to  1350,  the 
date  of  the  foundation  of  Ayuthia,  the 
old  capital. 

SIAMANG,  one  of  the  higher  anthro- 
poid or  manlike  apes.  This  animal,  the 
largest  and  one  of  the  best  known  of  the 


Siamang. 


gibbons,  inhabits  Sumatra.  It  averages 
about  3 feet  in  height  in  its  adult  state, 
has  very  long  arms,  and  leads  an  essen- 
tially arboreal  life. 

SIAMESE  TWINS,  the  best-known 
example  of  two  malejindividuals  having 
their  bodies  connected  inseparably  from 
their  birth,  being  joined  by  a thick 
fleshy  ligament  from  the  lower  end  of 
the  breast-bone  of  each,  having  the 
common  navel  on  its  lower  border,  so 
that  they  stood  in  a sort  of  oblique 
position  toward  each  other.  Born  in 
Siam  in  1811,  of  a Chinese  father  and  a 
Chino-Siamese  mother,  and  named  Eng 
(“right”)  and  Chang  (“left”),  they  were 
brought  to  the  United  States  in  1829. 
They  were  on  exhibition  in  Europe  and 
America  a number  of  times,  and  ulti- 
mately settled  in  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. They  married  two  sisters  and 
had  large  families  of  children,  none  of 
whom  exhibited  any  malformation. 
Chang  received  a paralytic  stroke  in 
1870,  and  three  years  later  was  affected 
with  an  imflammatory  disease  of  the 
respiratory  organs.  He  died  unexpected- 
ly January  17,  1874)  while  his  brother 


was  asleep,  and  Eng  died  a few  hours 
afterward.  The  Siamese  twins  attracted 
great  attention  during  their  lifetime, 
particularly  from  physiologists  and 
medical  men,  some  of  whom  thought 
that  the  ligament  connecting  them 
might  have  been  cut  without  causing 
the  death  of  either. 

SIBE'RIA,  a great  division  of  the 
Russian  dominions.  It  occupies  all 
North  Asia,  stretching  uninterruptedly 
eastward  from  the  Ural  mountains  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  southward  from 
the  Arctic  ocean  to  the  Chinese  domin- 
ions and  Russian  Central  Asia.  It  has  a 
total  area  of  4,824,570  sq.  miles.,  with  a 
population  of  fully  5,000,000,  and  is 
divided  into  the  governments  of  Tobolsk 
and  Tomsk,  the  governor-generalship  of 
Irkutsk,  including  the  governments  of 
Irkutsk  and  Yeniseisk,  and  the  province 
of  Yakutsk;  and  the  governor-general- 
ship of  the  Amur,  including  the  province 
of  the  Amur,  the  province  of  Trans- 
baikalia, the  provinces  of  the  Coast  and 
the  Anadir,  and  the  island  of  Saghalin. 
The  division  into  Western  Siberia,  East- 
ern Siberia,  and  the  Amur  regions  was 
familiar  for  a number  of  years,  but  is  no 
longer  official.  A region  of  such  vast 
extent  has  naturally  a very  diversified 
configuration;  but  generally  speaking 
Siberia  may  be  considered  as  a vast 
inclined  plane  sloping  gradually  from 
the  Altai,  Sayan,  and  Yablonoi  moun- 
tains on  the  south  to  the  Arctic  ocean 
on  the  north.  In  the  east  it  is  traversed 
in  different  directions  by  several  moun- 
tain ranges,  but  elsewhere  it  is  almost 
unbroken  by  any  greater  heights  than  a 
few  hills.  It  is  drained  chiefly  by  the 
Obi  (2120  miles),  with  its  great  tributary 
the  Irtish  (2520  miles),  the  Yenisei,  and 
the  Lena  (3000  miles),  all  of  which  pur- 
sue a northerly  course  to  the  Arctic 
ocean;  and  by  the  Amur  (2700  miles, 
2400  of  which  are  navigable),  which 
flows  in  an  easterly  and  northeasterly 
direction  to  the  Pacific.  The  principal 
lake  is  Lake  Baikal  in  the  south,  400 
miles  long,  20  to  53  broad,  and  1560 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  chief  islands 
are  the  New  Siberia  group  in  the  Arctic 
ocean,  and  the  island  of  Saghalin,  off 
the  mouth  of  the  Amur,  in  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific.  The 
coast-line  is  very  extensive,  but  the 
Arctic  ocean  is  ice-bound  at  least  ten 
months  out  of  the  twelve,  and  is  almost 
valueless  for  commercial  purposes,  and 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  on  the  Pacific,  is 
infested  with  masses  of  floating  ice  and 
dense  fogs.  The  principal  ports  are 
Vladivostock,  on  the  Sea  of  Japan,  the 
chief  naval  station  of  Russia  on  the 
Pacific;  Okhotsk,  on  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk; 
and  Petropavlovsk,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Kamchatka.  Siberia  enjoys  a warm 
summer,  but  the  winter  is  exceedingly 
severe.  South  Siberia  has,  in  many 
parts,  a very  fertile  soil,  which  yields 
rich  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and 
potatoes;  but  immense  tracts  of  Siberia 
are  utterly  unfit  for  tillage,  more  par- 
ticularly the  tundras  or  great  stretches 
of  boggy  country  along  the  Arctic  ocean. 
In  the  west  are  extensive  steppes. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  northern  limits 
of  agriculture  are  60°  n.  lat.  Cattle- 
breeding  and  bee-keeping  are  largely 
pursued.  Hunting  and  fishing  are  also 


SICARD 


SIDON 


sources  of  remuneration,  ermines,  sables, 
and  other  fur-bearing  animals  being 
numerous.  The  wild  animals  include 
the  elk,  reindeer,  and  other  deer,  bear, 
wolf,  white  and  blue  fox,  lynx,  etc.  The 
forests  are  extensive  and  valuable. 
Large  quantities  of  gold  are  obtained, 
as  well  as  silver,  platinum,  lead,  iron, 
coal,  etc.  The  chief  towns  are  Irkutsk, 
capital  of  Eastern  Siberia  and  a trading 
city;  Tomsk,  capital  of  gov.  Tomsk,  a 
trading  city,  with  a university;  and 
Tobolsk  (20,130),  capital  of  Western 
Siberia.  Yermak  the  Cossack  entered 
Western  Siberia  in  1580,  and  made  a 
rapid  conquest  of  the  western  portion 
of  the  country,  which  he  handed  over 
to  Ivan  the  Terrible  of  Russia.  Bands 
of  hunters  and  adventurers  then  poured 
across  the  Urals,  attracted  by  the  furs, 
and  gradually  penetrated  to  the  Arctic 
ocean  and  the  Pacific.  The  latest 
acquisitions  by  Russia  were  the  Amur 
territory,  and  coast  regions  of  Manchuria 
ceded  by  China  in  1858  and  1860.  Exile 
to  Siberia  began  soon  after  the  conquest, 
and  ever  since  Siberia  has  been  a great 
penal  colony.  Hardened  convicts  and 
important  political  offenders  are  kept 
under  close  control,  but  the  great 
majority  of  the  exiles  are  simply  placed 
in  a particular  district  and  allowed  to 
shift  for  themselves.  The  Russian 
population  of  Siberia,  which  is  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  whole,  consists 
mainly  of  exiles  or  the  descendants  of 
exiles.  The  other  inhabitants  include 
Buriats,  Yakuts,  Tungus,  Tartars, 
Kirghiz,  Samoyedes,  etc.  Some  rail- 
ways exist  in  Western  Siberia,  and  a 
great  trunk-line  has  been  laid  across 
Siberia,  crossing  also  Manchuria,  to  Port 
Arthur  and  Vladivostock  on  the  Pacific. 
Attempts  have  been  made  with  partial 
success  to  open  up  an  over-sea  trade  be- 
tween Britain  and  Siberia  by  way  of 
the  Kara  sea  and  the  Yenisei. 

SICARD  (se-kar),  Roch-Ambroise  Cu- 
curron,  famous  in  the  history  of  the 
education  of  deaf-mutes,  was  born  in 
1742  near  Toulouse,  France.  He  became 
in  1786,  director  of  the  school  for  deaf- 
mutes  established  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Bordeaux  in  the  city  of  that  name, 
whence,  in  1789,  he  removed  to  Paris 
as  successor  to  the  Abbd  de  l’Ep4e,  in 
whose  system  he  made  some  important 
improvements.  He  also  wrote  several 
works  on  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes. 
He  died  in  1822. 

SICILIES,  Kingdom  of  the  Two,  a 
former  kingdom  of  Italy,  consisting  of 
Naples  (or  South  Italy)  and  Sicily. 
In  1860,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in 
Sicily,  and  an  expedition  of  volunteers 
from  Piedmont  and  other  Italian  prov- 
inces under  Garibaldi  sailed  from  Genoa 
to  the  assistance  of  the  insurgents.  The 
result  was  that  the  Neapolitan  troops 
were  driven  from  the  island.  Garibaldi, 
following  up  his  success,  crossed  over 
to  the  mainland,  where  he  met  little  or 
no  opposition;  Francis  II.  fled  from 
Naples;  the  strong  places  in  his  hands 
were  reduced;  and  by  a popular  vote 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  ceased 
to  exist  as  such,  and  became  an  integral 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

SICILY,  the  largest  island  of  the 
Mediterranean,  belonging  to  Italy,  from 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  which  it 


is  separated  by  the  narrow  strait  of 
Messina,  about  2 miles  wide;  area, 
11,289  sq.  miles,  divided  into  seven 
provinces;  pop.  3,529,266.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile.  Three-fourths  of  the  culti- 
vated surface  are  covered  with  cereals, 
chiefly  wheat,  though  oats  and  barley 
are  also  grown.  Cotton,  sugar,  and 
tobacco  are  also  cultivated  to  some  ex- 
tent. Fruits  of  every  variety  are  ex- 
tensively grown,  including  large  quan- 
tities of  oranges  and  lemons.  The  vine 
flourishes  almost  everywhere,  and  much 
wine  is  produced.  The  chief  exports  are 
fruits,  wine,  and  sulphur,  besides  olive- 
oil,  sumach,  cream  of  tartar,  etc.  Sicil- 
ian sulphur  is  extensively  exported,  the 
center  of  this  trade  being  Girgenti  on 
the  south  coast.  Tunny  and  sardine 
fisheries  are  carried  on  round  the  coast. 
The  chief  seats  of  foreign  commerce  are 
the  three  principal  towns,  Palermo, 
Messina,  and  Catinia.  At  the  dawn  of 
history  the  older  races  inhabiting  Sicily 
the  Iberian  Sicani,  from  Iberia  (Spain), 
and  the  Siculi  from  Italy,  are  seen  to  be 
hemmed  in  by  Phoenician  and  Greek 
colonies.  The  Greeks,  who  entered  the 
island  in  the  8th  century  b.c.,  founded 
the  great  cities  of  Syracuse,  Agrigentum, 
and  Messina,  drove  the  Phoenicians  to 
the  northwest  coast,  and  spread  their 
influence  and  culture  over  the  whole 
island.  Greek  art  and  literature  here 
flourished,  and  many  Greek  names  of  dis- 
tinction are  connected  with  Sicily.  The 
Carthaginians  latterly  took  'the  filace 
of  their  kinsmen,  the  Phoenicians,  and 
between  them  and  the  Greeks  a struggle 
ensued,  which  ended  in  favor  of  the 
latter  (480  b.c.).  War  with  the  Car- 
thaginians (1st  Punic  war)  brought  the 
Romans  to  Sicily,  and  having  acquired 
the  Carthaginian  portion  of  the  island 
(241  B.c.)  they  extended  their  rule  over 
the  whole,  Sicily  becoming  a Roman 
province  in  212  b.c.  On  the  decline  of 
the  Roman  Empire  the  island  was  over- 
run by  the  Goths,  who  retained  posses- 
sion till  A.D.  551,  when  Sicily  became 
part  of  the  Byzantine  empire.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  9th  century  the  Sara- 
cens became  masters,  and  continued  so 
till  their  expulsion  by  the  Normans  in 
.the  11th  century,  who  remained  long 
enough  in  possession  to  establish  the 
feudal  system  in  all  its  rigor.  For  a con- 
tinuation of  the  history  of  Sicily  see 
Sicilies  (Kingdom  of  the  Two). 

SICKLE,  a reaping-hook;  a curved 
blade  of  steel  with  a handle,  and  having 
the  edge  of  the  blade  in  the  hollow  of  the 
curve,  used  for  cutting  grain  and  the 
like.  The  sickle  has  been  mostly  super- 
seded by  the  scythe,  artd  the  scythe  in 
turn  has  given  place  to  the  reaping- 
machine. 

SICKLES  (sik'flz),  Daniel  Edgar, 
American  soldier  and  politician,  was 
born  in  New  Y^ork  City  in  1825.  In  1853 
he  was  appointed  corporation  counsel 
of  New  York  City,  and  was  secretary  of 
legation  at  London  under  United  States 
Minister  Buchanan  from  1853  to  1855. 
In  1856  he  was  elected  to  the  New  York 
state  senate.  From  1857  to  1861  he  was 
a democratic  member  of  congress.  He 
was  appointed  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers in  September,  1861,  and  major- 
general  in  November,  1862.  On  the 
second  day  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg 


his  corps  sustained  the  brunt  of  the 
confederate  attack  upon  the  Peach 
Orchard,  on  the  federal  left,  and  Sickles 
himself  lost  a leg.  In  1869  he  was  re- 
tired with  the  full  rank  of  major-general. 

He  was  United  States  minister  to  Spain 
from  1869  to  1873.  He  was  sheriff  of 
New  York  county  in  1890,  was  again 
elected  to  congress  as  a democrat  in 
1892,  and  for  several  years  was  president 
of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Civil 
Service  Commissioners. 

SIDDONS,  Mrs.  Sarah,  daughter  of 
Roger  Kemble,  ‘was  born  at  Brecon, 
South  Wales,  in  1755.  She  commenced 
her  theatrical  career  when  quite  a child, 
and  in  her  nineteenth  year  was  married 
to  William  Siddons,  an  actor  in  her 
father’s  company.  For  thirty  years  she 
continued  to  astonish  and  enchant  the 
lovers  of  the  drama,  and  having  acquired 
an  ample  fortune,  she  took  her  leave  of 
the  stage  in  1812.  Her  greatest  char- 
acters were  Queen  Catharine  in  Henry 
VIII.,  and  Lady  Macbeth.  In  her  art 
she  was  a close  and  systematic  student, 
while  in  private  life  she  enjoyed  the 
respect  of  all  who  knew  her.  She  died 
June  8,  1831. 

SIDEREAL  TIME,  time  measured  by 
the  apparent  motion  of  the  stars.  A 
sidereal  day  is  the  time  from  the  passage 
of  a star  across  the  meridian  till  its  next 
passage,  and  is  exactly  the  period  of  the 
revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  It  is 
the  most  constant  unit  of  time  which  we 
possess.  Its  length  is  23  hours  56  minutes 
4.098  seconds.  A sidereal  year  is  the 
period  in  which  the  fixed  stars  apparent- 
ly complete  a revolution  and  come  to 
the  same  point  in  the  heavens,  and  is 
the  exact  period  of  the  revolution  of 
the  earth  round  the  sun.  There  are 
366.2563612  sidereal  days  in  a sidereal 
year.  See  Day. 

SIDNEY,  Sir  Philip,  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  figures  at  the  court  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  was  the  son  of  Sir  . 
Henry  Sidney  of  Penhurst,  Kent,  where 
he  was  born  in  1554.  In  1585  he  went 
to  the  Netherlands  with  his  uncle 
Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  com- 
manded the  forces  sent  to  assist  the 
Dutch  against  the  Spaniards,  and  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Flushing 
and  general  of  horse,  but  at  Zutphen, 
September  22,  1586,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  at  Arnheim,  October 
7.  He  was  a soldier  and  statesman  of 
great  promise,  and  his  contributions 
to  literature,  though  not  numerous, 
were  of  great  importance  They  include  / 
the  Arcadia  (1590),  a romance  in  a 
medley  of  prose  and  verse  in  Italian 
style  then  popular.  Astrophel  and 
Stella  (1591),  the  first  important  body 
of  sonnets  in  the  English  language;  and 
the  Defense  of  Poesy,  first  published  in 
1595  as  an  Apologie  for  Poetrie. 

SIDON,  or  ZIDON,  a seaport  of  Syria, 
situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  between  Lebanon  and 
the  sea,  about  midway  between  Beyrout 
and  Tyre,  was  long  the  principal  city  of 
Phoenicia  (1600-1300  b.c.).  Its  artistic 
products  were  famous  at  an  early  period, 
as  also  its  manufactures  of  glass,  linen, 
purple  d3m,  and  perfumes,  and  in  com- 
mercial enterprise  it  occupied  a distin- 
guished position.  In  the  Persian,  Gre- 
cian, and  Roman  periods  it  was  still 


SIEDLCE 


SIGHT 


great  and  populous,  and  even  in  the 
middle  ages  it  was  a place  of  consider- 
able importance.  During  the  crusades 
it  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times. 
It  was  almost  completely  destroyed 
during  the  troubles  of  the  13th  century, 
but  in  the  15th  it  reappeared,  under  its 
modern  name  of  Saida,  as  the  port  of 
Damascus.  The  trade  is  now  unimpor- 
tant. Pop.  9000. 

SIEDLCE  (syed'l-tse),  a town  of  Rus- 
sian Poland,  capital  of  the  government 
of  the  same  name,  57  miles  n.s.e.  of 
Warsaw,  the  seat  of  a bishop.  Pop. 
23,714. — The  government  of  Siedlce, 
between  the  Vistula  and  the  Bug,  has 
an  area  of  5535  sq.  miles,  and  a pop. 
of  775,316. 

SIEGE,  the  surrounding  or  investment 
of  a fortified  place  by  an  army  with  a 
view  to  its  capture.  The  taking  of  a 
fortified  place  may  be  attempted  (1) 
by  surprise,  (2)  by  a sudden  onset,  (3) 
by  blockade  out  of  gunshot,  (4)  by  a 
siege,  properly  so  called.  In  a regular 
siege  the  fortress  is  first  blockaded,  so  as 
to  cut  off  all  intercourse  from  without, 
the  besieging  force  encamping  just  be- 
yond reach  of  the  enemies’  guns.  Then 
if  any  detached  works  are  situated  be- 
fore the  fortress,  their  capture  must  be 
effected  in  order  to  admit  the  opening  of 
the  trenches.  The  trenches  are  formed 
in  the  direction  of  the  fortress;  but  that 
they  may  not  be  enfiladed  from  thence, 
they  must  proceed  in  a zigzag  form. 
For  the  protection  of  the  workers 
trenches  called  parallels,  because  they 
run  in  a direction  parallel  or  nearly  so 
to  the  sides  of  the  fortress,  are  dug  at 
intervals.  While  the  trenches  are  being 
opened,  the  besieged,  by  sallies  and 
counter  operations  of  every  kind,  strive 
to  drive  off  the  besiegers,  and  to  destroy 
their  work;  and  the  besiegers  make 
efforts  to  establish  themselves  more  and 
more  securely,  to  raise  batteries,  and 
then,  by  means  of  trenches  and  ad- 
vanced parallels,  to  approach  the  walls 
of  the  fortress;  and  all  the  while  the 
artillery  is  kept  constantly  playing  from 
the  batteries  of  the  besiegers  as  well  as 
from  the  works  and  guns  of  the  be- 
sieged. From  the  last  parallel,  which  ap- 
proaches very  near  the  fortress,  the  be- 
siegers prepare  to  make  breaches.  Here 
likewise  mining  operations  are  carried 
on  whenever  they  are  found  advisable. 
When  at  last  the  breaches  are  practicable 
the  storming  or  scaling  of  the  walls 
follows. 

SIEMENS,  Sir  Charles  William,  engi- 
neer, born  in  Hanover,  4th  April,  1823, 
was  educated  at  the  g3nnnasium  at 
Liibeck,  the  polytechnic  school  at 
Magdeburg,  and  the  University  of 
Gottingin.  After  a training  in  engineer- 
ing and  electricity  in  the  workshops  of 
Count  Stolberg  he  migrated  to  London 
in  1843,  and  at  a later  date  was  joined 
by  his  brother  (Werner),  who  joined 
with  him  in  his  various  undertakings. 
The  great  works  of  Siemens  Brothers  at 
Charleston,  West  Woolwich,  for  the 
manufacture  of  submarine  electric  tele- 
graph cables,  were  established  in  1858; 
and  the  great  steelworks  at  Landore, 
Swansea,  in  1868.  He  labored  mainly  in 
two  distinct  fields,  the  applications  of 
heat  and  the  applications  of  electricity, 
and  won  a great  reputation  in  both.  He 


was  knighted  April,  1883.  He  died 
November  19,  1883.  Werner  died  in 
1892. 

SIENKIEWICZ  (sy6n-ky6'vech),  Hen- 
ryk, famous  Polish  novelist,  was  born  in 
Wola  Okrzejska,  Government  of  Siedlce, 
in  1846.  In  1880  he  published  the  novel 
The  Tartar  Bondage.  Among  his  other 
works  are:  With  Fire  and  Sword,  with 
its  sequels.  The  Deluge  and  Pan  Michael, 
Without  Dogma,  The  Children  of  the 
Soil,  and  Knights  of  the  Cross.  The  suc- 
cess of  Quo  Vadis  was  enormous,  and 
it  has  several  times  been  dramatized. 
His  works  have  been  translated  into 
several  European  languages. 

SIEN'NA,  or  SIENNA  EARTH  a fer- 
ruginous ochreous  earth,  which  when 
raw  is  of  a fine  yellow  color,  and  when 
burned  assumes  a rich  orange-red  tint. 
It  is  used  as  a pigment  in  both  oil  and 
water-color  painting. 

SIERRA  LEONE  (si-er'ra  le-6'ne),  a 
British  colony  and  protectorate  on  the 
coast  of  Western  Africa.  The  colony 
proper  consists  of  the  peninsula  of 
Sierra  Leone,  Sherbro  and  other  small 
islands,  and  the  coast  region  from  the 
French  territory  on  the  northwest  to 
Liberia  on  the  southeast ; area  in  occupa- 
tion, about  3000  sq.  miles.  The  pro- 
tectorate, bounded  inland  by  French 
territory,  has  an  area  of  30,000  sq. 
miles,  and  is  divided  into  districts  under 
commissioners.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
colony  depend  chiefly  upon  trade,  and 
are  mostly  collected  in  Freetown  (the 
capital)  and  the  neighboring  villages. 
The  exports  are  palm  kernels,  palm-oil, 
rubber,  ground-nuts,  kola-nuts,  gum- 
copal,  hides,  ginger,  and  benn6-seed. 
The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain. 
One  great  obstacle  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  colony  is  the  deadly  nature  of  its 
climate,  particularly  to  Europeans,  and 
Sierra  Leone  was  long  known  as  the 
“white  man’s  grave.”  But  Freetown 
(pop.  40,000),  in  particular,  has  become 
healthier  since  getting  a supply  of  good 
water,  with  other  sanitary  improve- 
ments. It  is  the  chief  seaport  of  western 
Africa.  Pop.  1,080,000. 

SIERRA  NEVA'DA  (Spanish,  “Snowy 
Range”),  a chain  of  mountains  in  South- 
ern Spain,  the  most  elevated  in  the 
peninsula.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  in 
the  province  of  Granada,  running  east 
and  west,  and  the  highest  peak  is 
Mulahacen,  which  has  an  elevation  of 
about  11,678  feet,  and  is  capped  with 
everlasting  snow.  The  range  is  rich  in 
fertile  valleys  and  picturesque  scenery. 

SIERRA  NEVADA,  a mountain  range 
of  the  United  States,  in  California,  ex- 
tending north  and  south  along  the  east- 
ern boundary  of  the  state.  It  consists  of 
an  aggregate  of  ranges,  some  70  miles 
wide,  with  numerous  peaks  reaching 
10,000  and  several  nearly  15,000  feet, 
Mt.  Whitney  (14,868)  being  the  highest 
in  the  states.  The  Yosemite  valley  is  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada. 

SIEYES  (sye-yas),  Emmanuel  Joseph, 
better  known  as  the  Abb6  Siey^s,  was 
born  at  Fr4jus  in  1748,  and  pursued  his 
studies  for  the  church  at  Paris.  He 
originated  the  idea  of  the  new  geo- 
graphical division  of  France  into  depart- 
ments, arrondissements,  and  communes. 
In  1791  he  became  member  for  the  Seine 
department,  and  in  1792  deputy  for 


the  department  of  Sarthe.  In  1799,  on 
his  return  from  a mission  to  Berlin,  by 
which  he  secured  the  neutrality  of 
Prussia,  he  became  a member  of  the 
directory.  He  retired  with  the  title  of 
count,  and  obtained  grants  of  land  and 
property  to  the  value  of  at  least 
$200,000.  He  was  exiled  at  the  restora- 
tion, but  returned  on  the  July  revolu- 
tion of  1830,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1836. 

SIGEL  (se'gel),  Franz  a German- 
American  soldier,  was  born  at  Sinsheim, 
in  Baden,  in  1824.  In  1852  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war  he  took  the  side  of  the 
north,  organized  a re^ment  of  infantry 
and  a battery  of  artillery,  which  ren- 
dered good  service  in  the  occupation  of 
Camp  Jackson.  At  the  battle  of  Pea 
Ridge,  March  8,  1862,  he  ordered  a well- 
timed  charge  which  decided  the  day. 
He  commanded  the  First  Corps  in  the 
campaign  which  terminated  with  the 
second  battle  of  Bull  Run,  August, 
1862,  and  in  February,  1864,  was  given 
command  of  the  department  of  West 
Virginia;  He  successfully  defended  with 
4000  men  Maryland  Heights  against 
General  Early  with  14,000  men.  He 
resigned  from  the  army  in  May,  1865. 
From  1871  until  1874  he  was  register  of 
New  York  City,  and  from  1886  until 
1889  was  United  States  pension  agent 
at  the  same  place.  He  died  iirl902. 

SKJHT,  Defects  of,  are  usually  caused 
by  anomalies  in  the  shape  of  the  eye. 
(See  Eye.)  The  normal  eye  is  an  optical 
apparatus  so  constructed  that  the 
images  of  distant  objects  are  thrown 
with  sharpness  on  the  retina;  if  this  is 
not  the  case  the  objects  are  not  seen 
distinctly.  There  are  two  very  common 
instances  of  defective  eyesight,  short- 
sight  or  myopia  and  long-sight  hyperme- 
tropia,  the  one  being  the  reverse  of  the 
other.  In  the  former  case,  owing  to  the 
too  great  power  of  the  crystalline  lens, 
or  to  the  eye  cavity  extending  too  far 
backward,  images  from  objects  at  some 
distance  are  formed  in  front  of  the 
retina.  The  sight  of  the  myope  is  thus 
confused  or  absolutely  defective  for 
objects  beyond  a certain  short  range, 
but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  very  clear  for 
near  objects.  The  remedy  for  myopia  is 
the  employment  of  biconcave  glasses, 
which,  if  the  myopia  is  not  considerable, 
need  only  be  used  for  looking  at  distant 
objects.  In  the  case  of  hypermetropia 
objects  are  seen  distinctly  only  at  a 
range  beyond  that  belonging  to  normal 
vision.  Owing  to  the  shortness  of  the 
eye  cavity  the  lenses  in  this  case  are 
unable  to  converge  the  rays  to  a focus 
within  the  limits  of  the  eye-chamber, 
the  image  being  therefore  formed 
(theoretically)  behind  the  eye.  This 
defect  is  corrected  by  the  use  of  convex 
lenses,  which,  by  converging  the  rays  of 
light,  cause  the  image  to  fall  on  the 
retina.  Both  these  defects  are  usually 
congenital.  A similar  defect  to  hyper- 
metropia is  that  of  presbyopia,  which 
usually  comes  on  with  advancing  years, 
and  is  due  to  diminished  focussing  power 
and  lessed  elasticity  of  the  lens,  the 
result  being  that  the  image  of  a near 
object  is  not  clearly  formed  on  the 
retina  but  behind  it,  while  distant  ob- 
jects are  seen  as  well  as  ever.  The 
remedy  in  this  case  also  is  convex  lenses. 


SIGILLARIA 


SIGURD 


Astigmatism  is  a defect  usually  char- 
acterized by  as3mimetry  in  the  curvature 
of  the  cornea  in  different  meridians. 
Opacities  in  the  cornea  or  crystalline 
lens,  etc.,  are  also  not  uncommon  causes 
of  defective  eyesight. — Double-vision  is 
■when,  as  in  some  cases  of  squinting, 
each  eye  sees  things  separately;  or  it 
may  result  from  muscular  paralysis. — 
Night-blindness  or  hemeralopia  is  a 
peculiar  defect  by  which  a person  be- 
comes suddenly  and  entirely  blind 
when  night  comes  on,  though  he  can  see 
perfectly  well  in  the  daytime. 

SIGILLARIA,  a genus  of  fossil  plants 
found  in  great  abundance  in  the  coal 
measures.  The  plant  occurs  in  the  form 
of  compressed  stems  attaining  a height 
of  40  to  50  feet,  and  a breadth  of  5 feet. 
The  stem  generally  occurs  as  a double 
layer  of  coal  with  a fluted  outer  surface, 
and  showing,  at  regular  intervals,  the 


Slgillaria  in  a coal-mine. 


scars  produced  by  the  bases  of  the  leaf- 
stalk. Their  roots  are  found  in  the  shale 
and  are  known  by  the  name  of  stig- 
maria,  being  at  first  supposed  to  be  dis- 
tinct plants.  No  foliage  of  any  kind  has 
been  found  connected  with  the  trunk. 
Some  suppose  sigillarias  to  be  allied  to 
tree-ferns,  others  to  Coniferse. 

SIGISMUND  (sij'is-mund),  German 
emperor  from  1411-37,  was  born  in 
1368,  and  on  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
emperor  Charles  IV.,  he  obtained  the 
margraviate  of  Brandenburg.  He  mar- 
ried Mary,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Louis 
the  Great  of  Poland  and  Hungary;  but 
on  the  latter’s  death  in  1383  the  Poles 
elected  Mary’s  sister  as  queen;  Sigis- 
mund,  however,  was  crowned  king  of 
Hungary  in  1387.  He  was  crowned 
emperor  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1841, 
and  at  Milan,  and  again  at  Rome  in 
1433.  He  was  now  in  possession  of 
the  imperial  crown  and  the  crown  of 
four  kingdoms.  He  died  at  Znaim  in 
1437. 

SIGNAL  CORPS,  the  system  of  signal 
service  now  in  use  throughout  the  United 
States  was  first  suggested  immediately 
prior  to  the  civil  war  by  Gen.  A.  J. 
Meyer,  an  ofiScer  of  the  United  States 
army,  at  that  date  connected  with  the 
surgeon-general’s  department.  The 
difficulty  of  communication  between 
various  divisions  of  the  army,  particu- 
larly at  points  where  facilities  for  com- 
municating by  telegraph  were  wanting, 
was  the  cause  of  serious  embarrassment 
at  times,  and  gave  birth  to  the  service 
which  has  since  obtained.  General 
Meyer’s  plan  was  to  adopt  certain  prin- 
ciples of  telegraphy,  as  for  example  the 
dots  and  dashes  used  to  represent  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  substituting  therefor 
flags,  which  were  waved  in  one  direction 
to  indicate  dots,  and  in  another  direction 


to  indicate  dashes.  By  this  means 
operators  separated  at  a distance  of  from 
half  a mile  to  ten  miles  would  be  enabled 
to  frame  communications  that  could 
be  readily  comprehended  by  those  to 
whom  they  were  addressed.  After  night- 
fall, or  at  times  when  the  atmosphere 
was  obscured  to  a degree  that  prevented 
the  successful  employment  of  flags, 
colored  lights  were  used  and  found  equal 
to  the  requirements  of  the  occasion. 
The  plan  was  first  utilized  at  points  on 
the  frontier;  and  when,  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  civil  war,  the  difficulty  that 
brought  the  system  into  existence  was 
experienced,  it  was  adopted,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  most  valuable  auxiliaries 
enlisted  in  the  service. 

Appropriations  for  the  support  and 
maintenance  of  the  system  were  regu- 
larly included  in  the  bills  adopted  by 
congress  for  the  support  of  the  army, 
and  its  worth  and  efficiency  were  further 
acknowledged  by  the  same  authority  in 
providing  for  the  establishment  of  a 
school  of  instruction  at  Arlington,  near 
Washington.  The  education  there 
obtainable,  both  practical  and  theoretic, 
is  designed  to  thoroughly  equip  students 
for  the  scientific  work  they  will  be  called 
upon  to  execute,  and  results  show  that 
expectations  thus  indulged  have  been 
fairly  realized. 

When  the  war  terminated  the  system 
had  attained  a high  degree  of  perfection, 
its  value  was  universally  recognized, 
and  its  development  was  continued, 
with  improved  results.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  the  navy,  and  was  the  chief 
impulse  in  the  establishment  of  the 
international  code  in  1901.  Wireless 
telegraphy  is  now  an  important  subject 
of  experiment  for  purposes  of  signaling. 
The  signal  corps  of  the  United  States 
army  has  perfected  its  own  system  and 
has  in  successful  operation  stations  in 
San  Francisco  harbor  and  elsewhere. 
See  Weather  Signals. 

SIGNALS  are  the  means  of  communi- 
cating to  the  eye — as  by  flags,  lights, 
etc.,  and  to  the  ear — as  by  guns,  steam- 
whistles,  fog-horns,  rockets,  etc.,  intel- 
ligence to  greater  distances  than  can  be 
reached  by  t];ie  human  voice.  The  most 
complete  system  of  signaling  is  that 
devised  to  enable  ships  to  communicate 
when  at  some  distance.  The  new  system 
introduced  in  1902,  provides  a flag  for 
each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  five  being 
pennants,  two  burgees,  and  the  rest 
square  flags.  Besides  these  there  is  the 
code  flag  or  answering  pennant.  All  are 
distinctly  colored  so  as  to  be  visible  for  a 
considerable  distance.  With  the  twenty- 
six  alphabetical  flags,  650  two-flag 
signals  and  15,600  three-flag  signals  can 
be  hoisted;  and  in  the  code-book  definite 
meanings  are  attached  to  most  of  these 
combinations.  If  the  code  flag  be 
hoisted  above  two  alphabetic  flags,  a 
latitude  or  longitude  is  signalled;  if 
below  two  such  flags,  the  signal  denotes 
a number.  Some  single  flags  have 
special  meanings  when  hoisted  alone; 
few  signals  require  more  than  three 
flags,  and  there  are  nevermore  than  four 
flags  hoisted  at  once.  When,  owing  to 
distance  or  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  colors  of  the  flags  cannot  be  made 
out,  one  of  three  systems  of  distant 
signals  is  used.  These  involve  the  use  of 


(1)  cones,  balls,  and  drums;  (2)  balls, 
square  flags,  pennants,  and  whefts;  and 
(3)  a fixed  semaphore.  In  the  army 
signalling  is  carried  on  during  the  day 
by  means  of  flags,  sun-flashes  (see  Helio- 
graph), etc.;  and  during  the  night  by 
means  of  colored  lamps,  or  by  a system 
of  long  and  short  flashes  of  light.  On 
the  railways  signaling  is  effected  by  the 
semaphore,  colored  lights,  and  during 
fog  by  cases  filled  with  detonating 
powder  and  placed  on  the  rails  at  cer- 
tain places,  to  be  exploded  by  the  wheels 
of  the  passing  locomotive.  See  Fog- 
signals  and  Heliostat,  and  Weather  Sig- 
nals. 

SIGNATURE, in  music,  the  signs  placed 
at  the  commencement  of  a piece  of 
rnusic.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  the  time 
signature  and  the  key  signature.  The 
key  signature,  including  the  clefs,  is 
usually  written  on  every  stave;  and  the 
sharps  or  flats  there  occurring  affect  all 


Key  and  Time  Sigoatures  on  the  Treble  and  Bass  Clef*. 


1,  Key  of  C;  two  minims  ior  their  equivalents) 
of  0.  four  crotchets  m the  bar  3,  Key  of  JJ;  tv 
bar  4.  Key  of  P;  three  minims  in  the  bar 
three  crotchets  in  the  bar 


m the  bar  2,  Key 
ivo  crotchets  it)  the 
i.  Key  of  D Ihiti 


notes  of  that  degree  (with  their  octaves) 
throughout  the  piece.  The  time  signa- 
ture is  only  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  first  line  and  where  changes  occur. 
It  indicates  the  number  of  aliquot  parts 
into  which  the  bar  is  divided,  as  shown 
above. 

SIGSBEE,  Charles  Dwight,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  at  Albany,  N Y., 
in  1845.  From  1874  to  1878  he  was  em- 
ployed in  exploring  the  bottom  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  received  the  order 
of  the  Red  Eagle  of  Prussia  and  a gold 
medal  for  improvements  which  he  in- 
troduced in  the  work.  In  1882  he  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  battle- 
ship Maine,  which,  while  still  under  his 
command,  was  destroyed  in  the  harbor 
of  Havana,  Cuba,  on  February  15,  1898. 
During  the  war  against  Spain  he  com- 
manded the  auxiliary  cruiser  Saint  Paul. 
From  September,  1898,  to  January, 
1900,  he  commanded  the  battleship 
Texas.  He  wrote  Deep  Sea  Sounding 
and  Dredging,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  and 
Personal  Narrative  of  the  Battleship 
Maine. 

SIGURD,  or  SIGURDR,  in  northern 
mythology,  the  hero  of  the  Volsunga 
Saga,  on  which  the  Nibelungenlied  is 
based.  According  to  the  legend  of  the 
Volsungs,  Sigurd  (the  Siegfried  of  the 
Nibelungenlied)  is  the  posthumous  son 
of  Sigmund,  son  of  Volsung,  a descend- 
ant of  Odin.  After  obtaining  the  golden 
treasure  by  slaying  the  dragon  Fafnir 
with  his  good  sword  Gram  he  eats  the 
monster’s  heart,  and  thus  acquires  the 
power  of  understanding  the  songs  ol 
birds.  He  then  rides  through  a volume 
of  flame  surrounding  a house  in  which 
the  fair  Brenhyldr  (Brunhild)  lay  asleep. 
He  wakes  Brenhyldr,  to  whom  he  plights 
his  troth,  and  then  rides  to  the  palace  of 
Giuki  the  Niflung,  whose  wife  gives 
him  a potion  which  causes  him  to  forget 
Brunhyldr,  and  he  marries  Gudrun 
(Cbrienabild),  Giuki’s  daughter.  Her 


SILK 


brother  Gunnar  (Gunther)  determines  to 
marry  Brenhyldr,  but  is  unable  to  ride 
through  the  flames  • so  his  mother  by  her 
arts  causes  Sigurd  to  go  through  the 
flames  and  bring  away  Brenhyldr  in  the 
form  of  Gunnar.  Sigurd  then  resumes 
his  shape,  and  Brenhyldr  is  handed  over 
to  Gunnar.  When  Brenhyldr  hears  the 
true  story  of  her  rescue  her  love  for  the 
hero  turns  to  hatred,  and  she  seeks  to 
slay  him.  Sigurd  is  eventually  killed  by 
Gunnar’s  half-brother.  His  death  re- 
vives Brenhyldr’s  love,  and  she  dies  of  a 
broken  heart. 

SIKHS  (from  a Sanskrit  word  mean- 
ing “disciple”),  a religious  sect  in  North- 
western Hindustan  which  worships  one 
only  and  invisible  God.  Its  founder  was 
Nanak  Shah,  born  in  1469  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Lahore.  He  labored  to  lead  the 
people  to  a practical  religion,  to  a pure 
worship  of  God  and  love  to  man- 
kind. He  died  about  1540.  Of  his  suc- 
cessors Arjun-mal  gave  stability  and 
unity  to  the  religion  by  publishing 
Nanak’s  writings  in  the  Aid-Granth,  the 
first  sacred  book  of  the  Sikhs.  The  Sikhs 
had  now  rejected  the  authority  of  the 
Koran  and  the  Vedas,  and  thus  aroused 
the  enmity  both  of  the  Mohammedans 
and  Brahmans.  Arjunmal  was  thrown 
into  prison,  where  he  died.  His  son  and 
successor  Har  Govind  transformed  the 
Sikhs  from  peaceful  believers  into  valiant 
warriors,  and  under  his  reign  began  the 
bloody  contest  with  the  Mohammedans. 
The  real  founder  of  the  Sikh  state  was 
Govind  Sinh  or  Singh,  the  tenth  ruler 
from  Nanak.  He  abolished  the  system 
of  castes,  and  gave  all  men  equal  rights. 
His  followers,  owing  to  their  valor  in  the 
protracted  contest  with  the  Moham- 
medans, received  the  title  of  Sinhs  or 
lions.  Govind  Sinh  wrote  the  Dasema 
Padshah  ke  Granth,  or  book  of  the 
tenth  prince,  which,  besides  treating  of 
religious  subjects,  contained  the  history 
of  the  author’s  exploits.  The  Sikhs  hold 
it  in  equal  veneration  with  the  Adi- 
Granth.  Govind  Sinh  died  in  1708,  and 
the  Sikhs  gradually  yielded  to  the  su- 
perior power  of  the  Mohammedans.  A 
small  number  of  the  Sikhs  escaped  to 
inaccessible  mountains,  and  preserved 
the  doctrines  of  their  fathers  and  an 
inextinguishable  hatred  toward  the 
Mohammedans.  After  Nadir  Shah’s  re- 
turn to  Persia  they  left  the  mountains 
and  subdued  all  Lahore.  The  Sikhs  then 
broke  up  into  a number  of  independent 
communities,  each  governed  by  a sidar; 
but  in  1792  Runjeet  Singh  established 
himself  as  despotic  ruler  of  the  Sikhs, 
with  the  title  of  Maharajah.  The  terri- 
tory of  the  Sikhs  now  comprehended  the 
whole  Punjab,  part  of  Multan,  and  most 
of  the  country  between  the  Jumma  and 
Sutlej ; total  area,  69,000  sq.  miles. 
After  Runjeet  Singh’s  death  in  1839  a 
period  of  anarchy  followed.  In  1845 
(first  Sikh  war)  the  Sikhs  attacked  the 
British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  at  Mudki. 
Here  th^y  were  repulsed  (December  18), 
and  again  defeated  at  Ferozeshah  three 
days  later.  On  January  20,  1846,  the 
Sikhs  were  routed  by  Sir  H.  Smith  near 
Aliwal,  and  on  the  10th  February  by 
Gough  at  Sobraon.  A treaty  was  signed 
by  which  Britain  held  the  city  of  Lahore, 
and  a British  resident  took  supervision 
of  the  government,  In  1848  a general 


revolt  broke  out,  and  it  was  evident  that 
the  Sikhs  had  resolved  on  a decisive 
struggle,  being  also  assisted  by  the 
Afghans.  In  this  the  second  Sikh  war 
Lord  Gough  advanced  with  an  army 
against  them,  but  received  a severe 
check  at  Chillianwalla,  13th  January, 
1849.  Both  armies  were  then  reinforced 
and  on  the  21st  February,  at  Gujerat, 
the  power  of  the  Sikhs  was  completely 
broken.  The  Sikh  dominion  was  pro- 
claimed at  an  end  on  the  29th  March, 


Sikh  soldiers. 


and  the  Punjab  was  annexed  to  the 
British  empire  in  India,  the  Maharajah 
Dhulip  Singh  receiving  an  annuity  of 
$250,000.  (See  Punjab.)  The  bulk  of  the 
Sikhs  are  of  J§,t  origin;  they  are  of  fine 
physique,  and  possess  great  powers  of 
endurance  as  well  as  courage.  During 
the  mutiny  the  Sikhs  displayed  the  ut- 
most loyalty  to  the  British.  They  num- 
ber about  1,876,500,  or  yV^h  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  Punjab,  and  compose  the 
mass  of  the  gentry  in  the  region  between 
the  Five  rivers. 

SILE'SIA,  a territory  of  Central 
Europe,  now  divided  politically  between 
Prussia  and  Austria.  Prussian  Silesia 
(15,556  sq.  miles;  pop.  4,868,378)  is 
bounded  east  by  Posen  and  Poland, 
south  by  the  Austrian  territories,  west 
and  north  by  Saxony  and  Branden- 
burg. The  province  is  intersected  by 
branches  of  the  Sudetic  mountains  in 
the  south,  but  is  level  toward  Bran- 
denburg and  Posen,  and  although  in 
p^arts  marshy  and  sandy,  is  yet  fertile. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Oder.  Silesia 
produces  corn,  flax,  madder,  hemp,  hops, 
tobacco,  fruits,  and  tolerable  wines. 
The  mountainous  parts  yield  timber 
and  afford  good  pasturage  and  meadow 
land.  Minerals  include  iron,  copper, 
lead,  silver,  coal,  sulphur,  etc.,  and  there 
are  mineral  waters  in  several  places. 
Linen,  cotton,  and  woolen  goods,  and 
leather  are  the  chief  manufactures. 
Silesia  is  divided  into  three  govern- 
ments— Breslau,  Liegnitz,  and  Oppeln. 
Breslau  is  the  capital.  Austrian  Silesia 
consists  of  that  part  of  Silesia  which  was 
left  to  Austria;  area,  1988  sq.  miles.  It 
is  mountainous,  and  although  the  soil  is 


not  in  all  parts  favorable,  it  is  rendered 
productive  by  the  industry  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  are  also  extensively  en- 
gaged in  linen,  cotton,  and  woolen 
manufactures.  Pop.  680,422. 

SILHET,  or  SYLHET,  chief  town  in 
the  district  of  the  same  name,  Assam, 
Hindustan,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Surmd.  Pop.  14,407. — The  district, 
area  5413  sq.  miles,  consists  of  a uniform 
level,  intersected  by  a network  of  rivers 
and  drainage  channels.  During  the 
rainy  season  the  western  part  of  the 
district  is  submerged.  The  principal  crop 
of  the  low  ground  is  rice.  Pop.  1,969,009. 

SILHOUETTE  (sil-u-et')  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  outlines  of  an  object 
filled  Tn  with  black  color,  in  whichthe 
inner  parts  are  sometimes  indicated  by 
lines  of  a lighter  color,  and  shadows  or 
extreme  depths  by  the  aid  of  a heighten- 
ing of  gum  or  other  shining  medium. 
The  name  comes  from  Etienne  de 
Silhouette,  French  minister  of  finance 
in  1759,  in  derision  of  his  economical 
attempts  to  reform  the  financial  state 
of  France  while  minister.  During  this 
period  all  the  fashions  in  Paris  took  the 
character  of  parsimony,  and  were  called 
5,  la  Silhouette.  The  name  has  only  re- 
mained in  the  case  of  these  drawings. 

SILTCA,  a compound  of  oxygen  and 
silicon,  forming  one  of  the  most  fre- 
quently occurring  substances  in  the 
materials  of  which  this  globe  is  com- 
posed. Silica  forms  a principal  ingredi- 
ent in  nearly  all  the  earthy  minerals,  and 
occurs  either  in  a crystallized  form  or  in 
amorphous  masses.  In  its  naturally 
crystalized  form  it  is  known  as  rock- 
crystal.  Colored  of  a delicate  purple 
these  crystals  are  known  as  amethyst, 
and  when  of  a brown  color,  as  Cairngorm 
stone.  Silica  is  also  met  with  in  the  form 
of  chalcedony  and  carnelian.  It  enters 
largely  into  the  lapidary’s  art,  and  we 
find  it  constituting  jasper,  agate,  cat’s- 
eye,  onyx,  and  opal.  In  opal  the  silica 
is  combined  with  water.  The  resistance 
offered  by  silica  to  all  impressions  is 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  flint,  which 
consists  essentially  of  silica  colored  with 
some  impurity.  Silica  is  found  to  con- 
stitute the  great  bulk  of  the  soil  which 
serves  as  a support  and  food  of  land 
plants,  and  it  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  many  rocks.  Many 
natural  waters  present  us  with  silica  in 
a dissolved  state.  It  is,  however,  not 
soluble  in  pure  water.  The  action  of  an 
alkali  is  required  to  bring  it  into  a soluble 
form.  Silica  forms  a number  of  hydrates, 
which  have  acid  properties,  and  from 
which  a vast  number  of  salts  known  as 
silicates  are  obtained. 

SILICATE  PAINT,  natural  silica,  when 
dried  and  forming  an  almost  impalpable 
powder,  mixed  with  colors  and  oil. 
Unlike  the  ordinary  lead  paints,  all  the 
silicate  colors  are  non-poisonous.  Sili- 
cate white  has  great  covering  power; 
it  is  not  affected  by  gases;  and  heat  of 
500°  is  successfully  resisted. 

SILIQUA'RIA,  a genus  of  marine 
gasteropodous  molluscs,  found  both 
fossil  and  recent.  The  shell  is  tubular, 
spiral,  at  its  beginning,  continued  in  an 
irregular  form,  divided  laterally  through 
its  whole  len^h  by  a narrow  slit,  and 
formed  into  chambers  by  entire  septa. 

SILK,  the  peculiar  glassy  thread  spiy;i 


SILK-COTTON  TREE 


SILURIUS 


by  the  caterpillars  or  larvte  of  certain 
species  of  moths,  and  a well-known  kind 
of  fabric  manufactured  from  it.  The 
chief  silk-producing  larvEe  belong  to  the 
family  of  the  Bombycidae,  of  which 
group  the  common  silk-moth  (Bombyx 
mori)  is  the  most  familiar  species,  being 
that  which  is  by  far  the  most  important 
in  artificial  culture.  This  family  of 
moths  is  distinguished  by  the  small  size 
of  the  proboscis,  by  the  thick  hairy 
body;  and  by  the  large  broad  wings. 
The  common  silk-moth  possesses  a short 
body,  stout  legs,  and  white  wings,  which 
are  marked  by  black  lines  running 
parallel  with  the  wing  borders.  The 
female  moth  deposits  her  eggs  in  sum- 
mer on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry-tree. 
For  hatching  artificially  the  eggs  are 
placed  in  a room  heated  gradually  up 
to  a temperature  of  about  80°  Fahr.  In 
eight  or  ten  days  the  young  appear.  The 
caterpillars  are  then  covered  with  sheets 
of  paper  on  which  mulberry  leaves  are 
spread,  and  make  their  way  through 
perforations  in  the  paper  to  the  mul- 
berry leaves,  their  natural  food.  The 
leaves  when  covered  with  caterpillars 
are  laid  on  shelves  of  wicker-work 
covered  with  brown  paper.  When  first 
hatched  the  larvae  or  worms  are  black 
and  about  i inch  long.  The  larval  or 
caterpillar  stage  lasts  from  six  to  eight 
weeks,  and  during  this  period  the  insect 
generally  casts  its  skin  four  times.  After 
casting  its  last  skin  the  insect  is  about  2 
inches  long,  and  in  ten  days  attains  its 
full  growth  of  3 inches.  The  insect’s 
body  consists  of  twelve  apparent  seg- 
ments, with  six  anterior  forelegs,  and 
ten  fleshy  legs  or  “prolegs”  provided 
with  hooks  in  the  hinder  body-segments. 
The  mouth  is  large,  with  powerful  jaws. 
At  this  stage  the  insect  becomes  lan- 
guid, refuses  food,  and  prepares  for  its 
next  change  into  the  pupa  or  chrysalis 
stage.  Oak,  broom,  or  other  twigs  are 
now  laid  on  the  wicker-frames,  and  the 
worms  crawl  into  these,  where  they  spin 
their  cocoon  by  winding  a self-produced 
silk  thread  many  times  round  their  body. 
This  silky  thread  is  formed  from  a 
glutinous  secretion  contained  in  two 
tubular  glands  on  either  side  of  the 
body,  opening  on  the  lower  lip  of  the 
larva  in  a prominent  aperture  called  the 
spinneret.  This  secretion  becomes  tena- 
cious and  threadlike  when  brought  in 
contact  with  the  air,  and  the  two  fila- 
ments unite  as  they  issue  from  the 
spinneret,  apparently  by  the  glutinous 
secretion  of  another  and  special  gland. 
The  spinning  of  the  pupa-case  or  cocoon 
lasts  from  three  to  five  days.  After 
passing  about  three  weeks  in  the  nymph 
or  chrysalis  stage,  the  larval  form 
emerges  from  the  cocoon  as  the  perfect 
moth  or  imago.  But  those  insects  des- 
tined to  afford  the  silk  material  are  not 
allowed  to  enter  the  imago  stage.  The 
completed  cocoon  with  its  contained 
larva  is  thrown  into  warm  water,  which 
dissolves  the  glutinous  matter  cementing 
the  threads  together,  and  facilitates  the 
unwinding  of  the  silk.  The  average 
length  of  a thread  furnished  by  a single 
cocoon  is  300  yards.  About  12  lbs.  of 
cocoons  yield  1 lb.  of  raw  silk,  and  1 oz. 
of  silk-worms’  eggs  will  give  100  lbs.  of 
cocoons.  The  female  moth  produces 
from  300  to  500  eggs, 


The  Chinese  appear  to  have  been  the 
first  to  render  the  filamentous  cocoon 
substance  serviceable  to  man,  and  China 
is  still  the  chief  silk-producing  country 
in  the  world.  Before  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus the  use  of  silk  was  little  known  in 
Europe,  and  the  culture  of  the  silk- 
worm was  not  introduced  until  the  6th 
century.  It  was  at  first  confined  to 
Constantinople,  but  soon  spread  to 
Greece,  and  then  through  Italy  to 
Spain.  When  the  Duke  of  Parma  took 
Antwerp  in  1585  a check  was  put  on  its 
trade  in  silk  goods,  and  many  of  the 
weavers  from  Flanders  and  Brabant 
took  refuge  in  England.  In  1685  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  drove  hosts  of  silk 
weavers  into  exile,  as  many  as  50,000 
having  settled  in  Spitalfields,  London. 
A silk-throwing  machine,  constructed 


Silk  worm— Larva,  chrysalis,  and  cocoon. 

on  Italian  models  secretly  obtained,  was 
fitted  up  at  Derby  in  1714  by  Thomas 
Lombe  (afterward  Sir  Thomas  Lombe), 
who  obtained  a patent  in  1719.  In 
France  looms  were  set  up  at  Lyons  in 
1450,  and  at  Tours  in  1470.  The  first 
nursery  of  white  mulberry-trees  was 
founded  by  a working  gardner  of  Nismes, 
who  ulitmately  propagated  them  in 
many  districts  in  the  south  of  France. 
Italy  is  now  the  chief  silk-producing 
country  in  Europe,  France  coming  next. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silk  the  first 
operation  is  the  unwinding  of  the  cocoon 
and  the  reeling  of  the  silk.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  placed  in  shallow  vessels 
containing  hot- water,  which  softens  the 
gummy  matter  of  the  cocoons.  The  ends 
of  the  filaments  are  then  conducted  by 
guides  to  large  reels  moved  by  machin- 
ery. Four  or  five  (or  more)  threads 
from  as  many  different  cocoons  are  thus 
brought  together,  and  uniting  by  the 
gum  form  one  thread.  When  the  co- 
coon is  half  unwound  the  filament  de- 
creases 50  per  eent  in  thickness.  The 
silk  thus  produced  is  called  raw  silk. 
Before  it  can  be  woven  into  cloth  the 
raw  silk  must  be  thrown.  This  is  often  a 
special  trade,  and  is  usually  conducted 
by  machinery  in  large  mills.  Previous 
to  throwing,  the  silk  is  carefully  washed, 
wound  on  bobbins,  and  assorted  as  to  its 
quality.  In  the  throwing-machine  it  is 
again  unwound  from  the  bobbins, 
twisted  by  the  revolutions  of  a flyer, 
and  then  wound  on  a reel.  The  twist  of 
the  silk  is  regulated  as  required  by  vary- 
ing the  relative  velocities  of  the  flyer 
and  reel.  The  silk  thus  prepared  is 
called  singles,  and  is  used  for  weaving 
common  or  plain  silks  and  ribbons. 
The  next  operation,  called  doubling,  is 
the  twisting  of  two  or  more  of  these 
threads  on  one  bobbin.  This  is  done 


in  a throwing  machine,  and  the  silk  thus  I 
spun  is  called  tram  silk,  commonly  used  \ 
for  the  weft  of  richer  silks  and  velvets.  * 
Two  or  more  of  these  threads  of  tram-  ' 
silk  twisted  in  the  throwing-mill  to- 
gether constitute  organzine,  a species  of 
silk  thread  used  for  warps  of  fine  fabrics. 
But  in  tram-silk  the  threads  are  ali 
twisted  in  one  direction,  forming  in- 
dividual strands  like  twine,  whereas  in 
organzine  the  collected  threads  are 
twisted  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the 
twist  of  the  strands,  like  cable  or  rope. 
The  silk  in  this  condition  is  called  hard 
in  consequence  of  the  gum,  which  is, 
however,  separated  by  careful  boiling 
The  throwing-machine  has  been  greatly 
improved  both  as  to  accuracy  and  pro- 
duce by  assimilating  it  to  the  cotton 
throstle.  The  manufacture  of  waste  silk 
is  quite  different  from  that  just  de- 
scribed, being  more  akin  to  that  of  wool 
or  cotton.  Waste  silk  consists  of  the 
floss-silk  or  outer  fibres  of  the  cocoons; 
of  the  silk  of  defective  cocoons,  such  as 
those  from  which  the  moths  have  been 
allowed  to  issue;  of  the  remains  of 
cocoons  from  which  the  fibre  has  been 
mostly  reeled,  etc.  Until  about  1857  this 
was  entirely  useless,  but  is  now  the 
object  of  an  important  industr5q  being  . 
cleared  of  the  gum  by  boiling,  and  .sub- 
jected to  such  processes  as  breaking, 
combing,  drawing,  and  roving,  till  it  is 
ready  for  spinning.  Owing  to  the  pro- 
tective policy  the  manufacture  of  silk 
in  the  United  States  has  attained  con- 
siderable dimensions. 

SILK-COTTON  TREE,  a tree  belong- 
ing to  the  natural  order  Sterculiacea, 
indigenous  to  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  It  has  a reddish  and  prickly 
stem  and  palmated  leaves.  The  flowers 
change  from  white  to  red,  and  the  wood 
is  soft  and  spongy.  The  down  which  is 
contained  in  the  seed  capsule  is  used  for 
stuffing  pillows,  chairs,  sofas,  etc. 
Canoes  are  constructed  from  the  tunber. 

SILKWORM-GUT,  a substance  pre- 
pared from  the  silky  secretion  of  the 
caterpillars  of  the  ordinary  silk-worm 
taken  from  the  insects’  body,  and  con- 
stituting the  lustrous  and  strong  lines 
well  known  to  anglers  under  the  name 
of  “gut.” 

SILU'RIUS,  a genus  of  Ashes  of  the 
family  Silurid®,  order  Physostomi.  This 
genus,  of  which  five  species  are  known, 
inhabits  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  The  head  and  body  are 
covered  with  soft  skin,  and  the  jaws 
have  four  or  six  barbeds.  The  only 


Sly  silurus. 


species  which  occurs  in  Europe  is  sly 
silurus  or  sheat-fish  (Silurus  planis), 
found  in  the  fresh  waters  east  of  the 
Rhine.  It  attains  to  a weight  of  300  oi 
400  lbs.,  and  the  flesh  is  firm  and  well 
flavored.  The  family  Siluridm  (other- 
wise named  sheat-fishes)  constitutes  a 
very  extensive  section  of  fishes,  the 


SILVER 


SILVER-FOX 


Species  of  which  are,  for  the  most  part, 
confined  to  the  fresh  waters  of  warm 
climates.  They  present  great  diversity 
of  form,  but  their  most  obvious  external 
characters  are  the  want  of  true  scales. 
The  mouth  is  almost  always  provided 
with  barbules. 

SILVER,  one  of  the  best-known 
metals.  It  appears  to  have  been  known 
almost  as  early  as  gold,  and,  without 
doubt,  for  the  same  reason,  because  it 
occurs  very  frequently  in  a state  of 
purity  in  the  earth,  and  requires  but  an 
ordinary  heat  for  its  fusion.  Pure  silver 
is  of  a fine  white  color.  It  is  softer  than 
copper  but  harder  than  gold.  When 
melted  its  specific  gravity  is  10.47 ; when 
hammered,  10.510.  Its  chemical  symbol 
is  Ag.  It  is  next  in  malleability  to  gold, 
having  been  beaten  into  leaves  only 
jTisVoTs  of  i'^oh  in  thickness.  It 
may  be  drawn  out  into  a wire  much 
finer  than  a human  hair,  and  a wire  of 
silver  0.078  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is 
capable  of  supporting  a weight  of  187.13 
lbs.  avoirdupois.  It  excels  all  other 
metals  as  a conductor  of  heat  and  elec- 
tricity. Silver  melts  when  heated  com- 
pletely red-hot,  and  may  be  boiled  and 
volatilized  by  a very  strong  and  long- 
continued  heat.  It  is  rapidly  volatilized 
when  heated  on  charcoal  by  the  flame 
of  the  compound  blow-pipe.  When 
cooled  slowly  crystals  of  silver  may  be 
obtained.  Silver  is  not  oxidized  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air  neither  is  it  affected 
by  water,  but  it  is  blackened  or  tar- 
nished by  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The 
atomic  weight  of  silver  is  108.  Oxide  of 
silver  is  produced  by  dissolving  silver 
in  a solution  of  nitric  acid  and  precipitat- 
ing with  an  alkali.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  7.14.  The  compound  called  horn  silver 
or  chloride  of  silver  is  obtained  by  dis- 
solving silver  in  nitric  acid  and  mixing 
the  solution  with  a solution  of  common 
salt.  Its  specific  gravity  is  5.550.  When 
exposed  to  the  light  it  turns  to  a blackish 
color,  hence  its  great  use  in  photography. 
Bromide  of  silver  is  the  most  sensitive 
to  light  of  any  known  solid.  It  is  used 
for  coating  the  “dry-plates”  employed 
in  photography.  When  silver  is  long 
exposed  to  the  air  it  acquires  a covering 
of  a violet  color,  which  deprives  it  of  its 
luster;  this  coating  is  sulphide  of  silver. 
Sulphide  of  silver  occurs  native  as  silver- 
glance.  Silver  readily  forms  alloys  with 
iron,  steel,  lead,  tin,  and  mercury.  Of 
all  the  combination  of  acid  and  silver 
the  most  important  is  nitrate  of  silver, 
obtained  by  dissolving  silver  in  nitric 
acid.  If  the  silver  and  acid  are  pure  the 
solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  colorless, 
very  heavy,  and  caustic;  it  stains  the 
skin,  and  all  animal  substances,  of  an 
indelible  black;  after  evaporation  it 
deposits,  on  cooling,  transparent  crys- 
tals of  nitrate  of  silver  (which  see). 

There  are  five  important  silver  ores, 
viz.  native  silver,  vitreous  silver  (or 
silver-glance),  black  sQver,  red  silver, 
and  horn  silver.  The  first  is  usually 
found  in  dentiform,  filiform,  and  capil- 
lary shapes,  also  in  plates  formed  in 
fissures  and  in  superficial  coatings; 
luster  metallic;  color  silver-white,  more 
or  less  subject  to  tarnish;  ductile;  hard- 
ness between  gypsum  and  calcareous 
spar;  specific  gravity,  10.47.  Native 
silver  occurs  principally  in  veins  trav- 


ersing gneiss,  clay-slate,  and  other 
palajzoic  rocks,  but  not  usually  in  great 
quantity.  It  often  forms  a natural  alloy 
with  gold.  Vitreous  silver  presents  itself 
in  various  shapes,  and  is  of  a blaekish 
lead-gray  color  with  a metallic  luster. 
It  is  malleable,  about  as  hard  as  gypsum, 
and  subject  to  tarnish ; specific  gravity, 
7.19.  It  is  more  or  less  pure  silver  sul- 
phide, and  has  been  found  almost  ex- 
clusively in  veins  along  with  ores  of 
lead,  antimony,  and  zinc.  It  occurs  in 
Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Mexico, 
and  Peru;  and  is  an  important  species 
for  the  extraction  of  silver.  Black  silver 
generally  occurs  in  granular  masses  of 
an  iron-black  color.  It  is  sectile  and 
about  as  hard  as  gypsum ; specific 
gravity,  6.2.  This  mineral  is  a com- 
position of  silver  (about  68.5  per  cent) 
with  antimony  and  sulphur  and  traces 
of  iron,  copper,  and  arsenic.  It  is  found 
in  veins  along  with  other  ores  of  silver, 
and  is  a valuable  ore  for  the  extraction 
of  silver.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  Saxony, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  the  American 
continent.  Red  silver  is  found  in  crystals 
and  often  massive,  granular,  and  even 
as  an  impalpable  powder.  It  is  a double 
sulphide  of  silver  and  antimony,  con- 
taining on  an  average  60  per  cent  of 
silver.  It  occurs  in  veins  with  other  silver 
ores,  galena,  and  blende.  It  is  found  in 
various  parts  of  Saxony,  also  in  Bo- 
hemia, Hungary,  and  Norway;  but 
chiefly  in  Mexico,  Peru,  and  the  western 
states  of  America.  Horn  silver,  or  silver 
chloride,  occurs  in  crystals  and  also  in 
crusts  and  granular  masses.  It  contains 
about  76  per  cent  of  silver.  It  is  found 
in  the  upper  parts  of  veins  in  clay-slate, 
and  also  in  beds  with  other  silver  ores 
or  with  iron-ochre.  It  is  not  abundant 
in  Europe,  but  occurs  in  large  masses  in 
Mexico  and  Peru.  The  above  are  the  ores 
of  silver  from  which  silver  is  chiefly 
extracted;  but  argentiferous  sulphides 
of  lead  and  copper  are  also  smelted  for 
the  small  proportion  of  silver  they  con- 
tain. 

Silver  is  extracted  from  its  various 
ores  by  smelting  or  amalgamation.  The 
former  method  is  founded  on  the  great 
affinity  of  silver  for  lead,  which,  when 
fused  with  silver,  acts  as  a solvent  and 
extracts  it  from  its  union  with  baser 
metals.  The  silver  is  afterwards  sepa- 
rated from  the  lead  by  the  process  of 
cupellation  (see  Assaying),  which  con- 
sists in  exposing  the  melted  alloy  to  a 
stream  of  atmospheric  air,  by  which  the 
lead  is  converted  into  an  oxide  (litharge) 
while  the  silver  remains  untouched.  The 
latter  method  depends  upon  the  prop- 
erty of  mercury  to  dissolve  silver  without 
the  aid  of  heat.  The  first  is  called  the  dry, 
the  last  the  wet  way  of  treating  silver 
ores.  One  or  the  other  process  is  em- 
ployed according  to  the  nature  of  the 
ores.  The  ores  which  are  treated  in  the 
dry  way  are  usually  those  consisting 
principally  of  argentiferous  sulphide  of 
lead.  By  this  method  the  ore  is  first 
pulverized  and  roasted  to  expel  the 
sulphur,  and  is  then  freed  from  the  lead. 
The  ores  best  adaped  to  the  process  of 
amalgamation  are  native  silver  and 
vitreous  silver.  The  ores  are  first 
selected  to  form  a proper  mixture  with 
reference  to  the  quantity  of  silver  and 
sulphur  they  contain.  The  sulphur  is 


then  got  rid  of  by  adding  to  the  mixtu.rs 
of  an  ore  10  per  cent  of  common  salt,  by 
which,  during  the  furnace  operation, 
the  sulphur  is  oxidized,  and  the  acid 
thus  formed  unites  with  the  base  of  the 
salt  and  forms  sulphate  of  soda;  while 
the  hydrochloric  acid  thus  set  free  com- 
bines with  the  silver  in  the  ore  that  was 
not  in  the  metallic  state,  and  forms 
chloride  of  silver.  In  this  state  the  ore  is 
reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder  by 
various  mechanical  processes.  It  is  then 
submitted  to  the  action  of  mercury, 
with  which  it  forms  what  is  called  an 
amalgam.  This  amalgam  is  subjected 
to  the  action  of  heat  in  a distilling  fur- 
nace, by  which  the  mercury  is  sublimed, 
and  the  silver  remains.  Silver  is  some- 
times separated  from  copper  by  the 
process  of  eliquation.  This  is  effected 
by  means  of  lead,  which  when  brought 
into  fusion  with  the  alloy  combines 
with  the  silver.  The  argentiferous  lead 
thus  obtained  is  subjected  to  the  usual 
processes  of  cupellation,  and  the  coarse 
copper  from  which  the  silver  has  been 
separated  is  refined.  Large  quantities 
of  silver  are  now  obtained  from  argen- 
tiferous lead  ores  by  a process  known  as 
Pattinson’s  process,  which  depends  on 
the  property  pure  lead  possesses  of 
crystallizing  at  a temperature  at  which 
an  alloy  of  silver  and  lead  is  still  fluid, 
so  that  the  solid  crystals  of  lead  can 
thus  be  removed. 

The  silver  mines  of  North  and  South 
America  are  incomparably  more  im- 
portant than  those  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  The  Mexican  mines  were  worked 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  then 
produced  large  quantities  of  silver.  Up 
to  the  present  time  their  total  yield  has 
been  estimated  at  $3,000,000,000.  Great 
deposits  of  silver  have  been  discovered 
in  the  western  states  of  America,  par- 
ticularly in  Nevada,  Arizona,  Califor- 
nia, Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana,  New 
Mexico,  and  Utah,  and  the  yield 
amounts  to  about  $35,000,000  annually. 
Silver  ore,  chiefly  argentiferous  galena, 
has  also  been  found  in  great  quantities 
in  the  Barrier  ranges  of  New  South 
Wales’.  Some  of  the  mining  concerns 
here  are  the  largest  in  the  world.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  silver  are  also 
produced  in  Europe.  The  average  pro- 
duction of  Germany  is  estimated  at 
about  $4,000,000.  In  Britain  silver  is 
obtained  from  argentiferous  lead  ore  to 
the  value  of  over  $100,000  annually. 
The  world’s  total  production  of  silver 
at  present  is  about  $100,000,000  an- 
nually. 

SILVER-FIR,  a species  of  fir,  so 
called  from  two  silvery  lines  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves.  It  is  a native 
of  the  mountains  of  the  middle  and 
south  of  Europe,  but  has  long  been 
common  in  Britain.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  150  to  180  feet,  forming  a very 
fine  tree.  Its  timber  is  not  so  much 
prized  as  that  of  some  other  species, 
but  is  used  for  various  purposes,  and  is 
durable  under  water.  It  yields  resin, 
turpentine,  tar,  etc.,  especially  the  fine 
clear  turpentine  known  as  Strasburg 
turpentine.  The  American  silver-fir, 
the  balm  of  Gilead  fir,  yields  the  Canada- 
balsam  used  for  optical  purposes.  Other 
species  are  also  called  silver-firs. 

SILVER-FOX,  a species  of  fox  in- 


glLVERlNO 


SINGAPORE 


habiting  the  northern  parts  of  Asia, 
Europe,  and  America,  and  distinguished 
by  its  rich  and  valuable  fur,  which  is  of 
a shining  black  color,  having  a small 
quantity  of  white  mixed  with  it  in 
different  proportions. 

SILVERING,  the  application  of  silver 
leaf  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  that  of 
gold,  for  which  see  Gilding.  Several 
mixtures  containing  silver  have  long 
been  in  use  for  coating  base  metallic 
objects,  but  they  have  been  almost  all 
superseded  by  the  modern  process  of 
electro-plating.  (See  Electro-metal- 
lurgy.) For  a description  of  the  silver- 
ing of  mirrors  see  the  article  Mirror. 

SIMBIRSK',  an  eastern  government 
of  Russia;  area,  29,657  sq.  miles.  It  con- 
sists in  general  of  an  extensive  fertile 
plain  watered  by  the  Volga  and  its 
affluents..  Agriculture  and  cattle-breed- 
ing are  the  leading  industries.  The  prin- 
cipal crops  are  grain,  hemp,  flax,  hay, 
and  tobacco.  Minerals  are  unimportant. 
There  is  an  abundance  of  fish  in  the 
rivers  and  numerous  small  lakes.  Pop. 
1,481,811. — Simbirsk,  the  capital,  stands 
on  a lofty  bank  of  the  Volga,  448  miles 
e.s.e.  of  Moscow.  It  has  wide  streets  and 
squares,  a cathedral,  etc.  There  is  an 
annual  fair,  and  a good  trade  in  corn 
and  fish.  Pop.  43,298. 

SIMEON,  Tribe  of,  the  descendants  of 
Simeon,  the  second  of  Jacob’s  sons  by 
Leah.  They  received  a section  in  the 
southwest  of  Canaan,  which  was  origin- 
ally allotted  to  Judah. 

SIMLA  HILL  STATES,  a collection  of 
twenty-three  Indian  native  states  sur- 
rounding the  sanitarium  of  Simla ; total 
area,  6569  sq.  miles.  The  mountains  of 
these  states  form  a continuous  series  of 
ranges  ascending  from  the  low  hills  of 
Ambdla  (Umballa)  to  the  great  central 
chain  of  the  Eastern  Himdlayas.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Sutlej.  The  climate  is 
genial,  and  the  winters  comparatively 
mild.  Pop.  502,853. 

SIMMS,  William  Gilmore,  American 
author,  born  at  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  1806;  died  1870.  He  pub- 
lished in  1827  a volume  of  poems;  but 
his  best  poem,  Atalantis,  a Tale  of  the 
Sea,  appeared  in  1833.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a series  of  romances  founded 
on  revolutionary  incidents  in  South 
Carolina,  and  by  several  border  tales 
and  historical  romances.  Among  these 
we  may  mention  Guy  Rivers,  The 
Yemassee,  The  Partisan,  Tl'o  Scout, 
Eutaw.  He  was  editorially  connected 
with  several  periodicals,  and  filled 
several  political  offices. 

SIMON  (se-mon),  Jules  (properly 
Jules  Frangois  Suisse  Simon),  a French 
philosopher  and  statesman,  born  at 
Lorient,  department  of  Morbihan,  31st 
December,  1814,  and  educated  in  the 
Ecole  Normale,  Paris.  In  1876  he  be- 
came leader  of  the  republicans,  and  was 
minister  of  the 'interior  until  16th  May, 
1877,  when  he  was  dismissed  by  Mac- 
Mab®».  He  afterward  edited  the  Echo 
Universel.  His  chief  works  include 
Histoire  de  I’Ecole  d’Alexandrie  (1844), 
Le  Devoir  (1854),  La  Libert^  de  Con- 
science (1859),  L’OuvriSre  (1863), L’- 
Ecole  (1864),  Le  Travail  (1866),  La 
Peine  de  Mort  (1869),  Souvenirs  du  4 
Septembre  (1873),  and  Le  Gouverument 


de  M.  Thiers  (two  vols,  1878).  He  died 
in  1896. 

SIMON'IDES  (dez),  a Greek  lyric 
poet,  born  in  the  island  of  Ceos  about 
B.c.  556.  At  a competition  for  the  best 
elegy  upon  those  who  fell  on  the  field 
of  Marathon,  he  gained  the  prize  over 
MSschylus  himself.  Simonides  is  credited 
with  the  addition  to  the  Greek  alphabet 
of  the  long  vowels  and  the  double  letters. 
Only  fragments  of  the  works  of  this  poet 
have  come  down  to  us. 

SIMOOM',  a hot  suffocating  wind  that 
blows  occasionally  in  Africa  and  Arabia, 
generated  by  the  extreme  heat  of  the 
parched  deserts  or  sandy  plains.  The 
air,  heated  by  contact  with  the  noonday 
burning  sand,  ascends,  and  the  influx 
of  colder  air  from  all  sides  forms  a whirl- 
wind orminiature  cyclone,  which  is  borne 
across  the  desert  laden  with  sand  and 
dust.  Its  intense,  dry,  parching  heat, 
combined  with  the  cloud  of  dust  and 
sand  which  it  carries  with  it,  has  a very 
destructive  effect  upon  both  vegetable 
and  animal  life.  The  effects  of  the  si- 
moom are  felt  in  neighboring  regions, 
where  winds  owing  their  origin  to  it  are 
known  under  different  names,  and  it  is 
subject  to  important  modifications  by 
the  nature  of  the  earth’s  surface  over 
which  it  passes.  It  is  called  Sirocco  in 
South  Italy,  Kamsin  in  Egypt  and 
Syria,  and  Harmattan  in  Guinea  and 
Senegambia. 

SIMPLON  (san-plon),  a mountain, 
11,117  feet  high,  belonging  to  the  Alps, 
in  the  canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland, 
and  celebrated  for  the  road  that  passes 
over  it,  which  commences  near  Brieg, 
on  the  Swiss  side,  and  terminates  at  the 
town  of  Domo  d’Ossola,  in  Piedmont. 
A railway  tunnel  12^  miles  long,  cost- 
ing over  $20,000,000,  has  recently  been 
completed,  which  connects  the  lines 
from  Geneva  to  Brieg,  and  from  Domo 
d’Ossola  to  the  Lago  Maggiore. 

SIMPSON,  Sir  James  Young,  M.D., 
the  most  eminent  medical  practitioner 
of  his  day,  and  the  discoverer  of  the 
anaesthetic  properties  of  chloroform,  was 
born  in  1811  at  Bathgate  in  Linlithgow- 
shire, died  at  Edinburgh  1870.  His  first 
paper  on  chloroform  was  read  before 
the  Medico-Chirurgical  Society  of  Edin- 
burgh on  March  10,  1847,  and  it  soon 
came  into  general  use.  He  received 
honors  from  numerous  scientific  so- 
ck ties  in  Europe  and  America,  and  in 
18  '3  was  elected  a foreign  associate  of 
the  Academy  of  Medicine  of  Paris.  In 
1853  he  received  the  laureateship  and 
gold  medal  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences,  with  the  Monthyon  prize  of 
2000  francs  awarded  for  “most 
important  services  done  to  human- 
ity.” He  first  expounded  acupress- 
ure in  a paper  read  before  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh  in  1859,  and 
afterward  in  his  treatise  on  Acu- 
pressure (1864).  For  twenty  years  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  subject  of  hos- 
pital reform,  and  in  his  leisure  found 
time  to  engage  in  antiquarian  research. 
In  1847  he  was  appointed  her  majesty’s 
physician-accoucheur  for  Scotland;  in 
1856  he  was  made  a knight  of  the  royal 
order  of  St.  Olaf  of  Sweden;  and  in  1866 
a baronetcy  was  conferred  on  him. 

SIMS,  George  Robert,  journalist  and 
dramatic  writer,  born  1847.  He  became 


a contributor  to  Fun  under  the  pen 
name  of  “Dagonet,”  and  has  written 
much  on  the  London  slums.  His  most 
successful  dramas  are  The  Lights  o’ 
London,  The  Romany  Rye,  and  in 
collaboration  The  Harbor  Lights,  In  the 
Ranks,  and  London  Day  by  Day.  He 
has  also  written  novels,  etc. 

SINAI  (si'na),  properly  the  general 
name  of  a mountain  mass  in  Arabia 
Petraea,  in  the  south  of  the  peninsula  of 
the  same  name,  which  projects  into  the 
Red  sea  between  the  gulfs  of  Akaba  and 
Suez.  Sometimes  the  name  is  confined 
to  the  culminating  mountain  of  the 
mass,  which  rises  8551  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  whole  mass  is  of  a triangular 
shape,  about  70  miles  long  from  north 
to  south,  and  consists  of  a series  of 
mountains,  composed  for  the  most  part 
of  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyry,  with 
occasional  strata  of  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, and  intersected  by  numerous 
wadis  or  valleys.  The  principal  peaks 
of  the  mass  are  Jebel  Zebir,  8551  feet; 
Jebel  Katerin,  8536  feet;  Jebel  Umm 
Shomer,  8449  feet;  Jebel  Mdsd,  7375 
feet;  and  Jebel  Serbd.1,  6734  feet.  From 
the  time  of  Justinian  downward  Jebel 
Musd,  or  Mount  of  Moses,  has  been 
almost  universally  regarded  as  the 
mountain  of  the  law. 

SINALO'A,  or  CINALOA,  a state  of 
Mexico,  bordering  on  the  Bay  of  Cali- 
fornia; area,  22,630  sq.  miles.  The  west- 
ern portion  of  the  state  is  sandy  and 
barren,  but  the  center  is  very  fertile. 
The  eastern  division  is  traversed  by  the 
Mexican  Cordilleras.  In  the  fertile  dis- 
tricts vegetation  is  luxuriant,  the  chief 
products  being  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  )■ 
figs,  pomegranates,  etc.  The  inhabi-t 
tants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  cattle- 
rearing and  mining.  Pop.  296,701. — 
The  chief  town  is  Culiacan.  Pop.  10,380, 

SIND,  SINDH,  or  SCINDE,  a province 
of  British  India,  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  presidency  of  Bombay.  It  consists 
of  the  l#wer  valley  and  delta  of  the 
Indus,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  and 
northwest  by  Baluchistan  and  Afghani- 
stan; northeast  by  the  Punjab;  east  by 
Rajputana;  and  south  by  the  Runn  or 
Ran  of  Kach  and  the  Indian  ocean;  area, 
48,014  sq.  miles.  It  is  divided  into  five 
districts,  Haidarabad,  Karachi,  Shikar- 
pur,  Thar,  and  Parkar,  and  Upper  Sind 
Frontier,  and  also  includes  the  native 
state  of  Khairpur  (6109  sq.  miles).  The 
chief  city  and  port  is  Kurrachee  or  Kar- 
achi, but  the  ancient  capital  Haidarabad 
is  still  a populous  town.  About  78  per 
cent  of  the  population  are  Mohamme- 
dans; 12  per  cent  Hindus;  5 per  cent 
Sikhs;  and  the  rest  Christians,  Jains, 
Parsees,  Jews,  Buddhists,  etc.  Pop.  (ex- 
clusive of  Khairpur,  131,937),  3,210,910. 

SINE,  in  trigonometry,  a line  drawn 
perpendicularly  from  one  end  of  an  arc 
of  a circle  upon  the  diameter  drawn 
through  the  other  end.  The  sine  of  the 
arc  is  also  the  sine  of  the  angle  sub- 
tended by  the  arc;  that  is,  c E is  the  sine 
of  the  arc  c h and  the  angle  c o H. 

SINGAPORE,  a British  possession, 
forming  one  of  the  Straits  Settlements, 
and  consisting  of  a small  island,  lat. 

1°  17'  n.  ;lon.  103°  50'  e.;  and  its  capital 
of  the  same  name,  with  numerous  sur- 
rounding islets,  off  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  / 


SlNG-SlNG 


SISAL,  OR  GRASS  HEMP 


separated  from  the  mainland  by  a nar- 
row strait  2 miles  to  ^ mile  in  breadth. 
The  principal  island,  which  is  undulat- 
ing and  well  clothed  with  wood,  is  about 
25  miles  long  and  14  miles  average 
breadth;  area,  206  sq.  miles.  Though  so 
near  the  equator  the  island  is  remark- 
able for  its  salubrity.  Cultivated  prod- 
ucts include  nutmegs,  cloves,  gmgcr, 
pepper,  sugar-cane,  coffee,  pine-apples 
and  other  fruits,  sweet-potatoes,  and 
other  vegetables.  Singapore  possesses 
all  the  fruit-bearing  trees  of  the  Indian 
archipelago.  Birds  include  pea-fowls, 
pheasants,  partridges,  etc.  Ainong 
reptiles  are  turtles,  tortoises,  crocodiles, 
cobras  and  other  serpeiits.  The  coast 
and  rivulets  abound  with  fish.  Pop. 
184,554.  The  town  of  Singapore  is 


situated  on  a rivulet  on  the  south  side  of 
the  island.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts 
— the  western,  inhabited  by  Chinese; 
the  central,  by  the  Europeans;  and  the 
eastern,  by  the  Malays.  Singapore  is  the 
great  entrepot  of  Southern  Asia  and  the 
Indian  archipelago,  and  the  port  is 
practically  free.  -Exports  consist  of  tin, 
coffee,  rice,  sago,  tapioca,  pepper,  nut- 
megs, rattans,  gambier,  sugar,  bees’- 
wax,  raw  silk,  gutta-percha,  mother-of- 
pearl,  etc.  Imports  from  Great  Britain 
include  cottons,  woolens,  coals,  iron, 
arms,  wines,  and  various  manufactures; 
and  from  Europe  and  the  United  States 
wines,  spirits,  liquors,  manufactured 
goods,  provisions,  etc.  Singapore  is  the 
capital  of  the  Straits  Settlements  and 
the  residence  of  the  governor.  Pop. 
228  555 

SING-SING,  since  1901  called  Ossin- 
ing, a town  of  the  United  States,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Hudson,  sloping  to  a 
height  of  200  feet,  in  the  state  and  30 
miles  north  of  the  city  of  New  York.  It 
has  a large  state  prison  with  1320  cells, 
military  and  other  schools,  fine  private 
residences,  etc.  There  are  manufactories 
of  tools,  carriages,  and  hardware.  Pop. 
10,106. 

SIOUX  (soo),  or  DAKOTA  INDIANS,  a 
North  American  family  of  Indian  tribes 
dwelling  chiefly  in  S.  Dakota  and 
Nebraska,  and  originally  extending 
from  Lake  Winnipeg  on  the  north  to  the 
Arkansas  river  on  the  south.  They  have 
several  times  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
the  United  States  settlers  and  troops, 
chiefly  because  faith  was  not  kept  with 
them  by  the  government.  In  1862  more 
than  a thousand  settlers  were  killed. 
In  1876  a body  of  them  who  had  taken 
up  a position  in  the  Black  Hills  cut  off 
General  Custer  and  1100  men. 

SIOUX  (s66)  CITY,  the  county  seat  of 
Woodbury  co.,  Iowa,  156  miles  north- 


west of  Hes  Moines ; on  the  Missouri 
river,  at  the  junction  of  the  Big  Sioux 
and  the  Floyd.  Among  the  railroads 
that  enter  the  eity  are  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul, 
Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  the  Illinois 
Central,  the  Great  Northern,  and  the 
Union  Pacific.  There  are  large  flouring 
and  grist  mills,  foundries,  machine 
shops,  meat  packing  establishments, 
breweries,  and  large  railway  machine 
and  repair  shops.  Pop.  1909.  62,000. 

SIOUX  FALLS,  the  county  seat  of 
Minnehaha  co.,  S.  D.,  90  miles  north 
of  Sioux  City,  Iowa;  on  the  Big  Sioux 
river,  here  spanned  by  four  bridges,  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Great  Northern,  the  Illinois  Central, 
the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha,  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
and  Pacific  railroads.  Pop.  12,164. 

SIPHON,  a bent  pipe,  one  leg  of  which 
is  longer  than  the  other,  through  which  a 
liquid  may,  by  the  action  of  gravity,  be 
transferred  from  one  place  to  another  at 
a lower  level  over  an  obstruction  which 
must  be  lower  than  a height  which  de- 
pends on  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
liquid.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  the 
shorter  leg  is  plunged  into  a vessel  con- 
taining liquid,  and  the  air  in  the  tube  is 
now  exhausted  by  being  drawn  through 
the  longer  leg,  whereupon  the  liquid  will 
flow  out  of  the  vessel  through  the  siphon 
until  the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  brought 


1,  Common  siphon.  2,  Improved  siphon, 
with  exhausting  tube  for  filling  it. 

down  to  the  level  of  the  opening  of  the 
short  leg  of  the  siphon.  The  water  rises 
by  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  leg  by  which  it  is  discharged  must 
always  be  longer  than  the  other  to  give 
a greater  weight  of  water  in  this  leg. 
Sometimes  an  exhaust  tube  is  attached 
to  the  longer  leg  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
hausting the  air  by  motion  and  causing 
the  flow  to  commence;  but  an  equally 
effectual  method  is  to  fill  the  tube  with 
liquid  and  then  to  put  it  in  position 
while  still  full,  the  ends  of  course  being 
at  first  stopped.  The  principle  of  the 
siphon  has  been  employed  in  aqueducts 
and  in  drainage  works.  Water  can  be 
siphoned  to  a height  of  32  feet.  The 
principal  use  of  the  siphon  is  for  racking 
wines  and  liquors  from  off  their  lees. 

SIR,  as  a title,  belongs  to  knights  and 
baronets,  and  is  always  prefixed  to  the 
Christian  name. — Sire  is  a term  of  re- 
spect by  which  kings  are  addressed.  The 
word  sir  is  the  same  as  sire,  and  is  de- 
rived from  old  French,  senre,  and  that 
from  senior,  whence  also  seignior,  signor, 
similar  terms  of  courtesy. 

SIREN,  an  instrument  for  producing 


continuous  or  musical  sounds,  and  for 
measuring  the  number  of  sound  waves 
or  vibrations  per  second,  which  produce 
a note  of  given  pitch.  In  its  original 
form  it  consists  of  a disc  with  a circular 
row  of  oblique  holes,  revolving  close  to 
the  top-plate  of  a wind-chest  perforated 
with  corresponding  holes  of  a contrary 
obliquity,  so  that  the  jets  of  air  from  the 


r 

Siren. 

latter  passing  through  the  former  keep 
the  disc  in  motion,  and  produce  a note 
corresponding  to  the  rapidity  of  the 
coincidences  of  the  holes  in  the  two 
plates,  the  number  of  coincidences  or 
vibrations  in  a giyen  time  being  shown 
by  indices  which  connect  by  toothed 
wheels  with  a screw  on  the  axis  of  the 
disc.  See  also  Fog-signals. 

SIRENS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  several  sea-nymphs,  who  by 
their  singing  fascinated  those  who  sailed 
by  their  island,  and  then  destroyed 
them.  When  Ulysses  approached  their 
island,  whieh  was  near  the  coast  of 
Sicily,  he  stuffed  the  ears  of  his  com- 
panions with  wax,  while  he  bound  him- 
self to  the  mast,  and  so  they  escaped. 
The  Sirens  then  threw  themselves  into 
the  sea,  where  they  became  formidable 
rocks.  Another  story  is  that  they  threw 
themselves  into  the  sea  because  van- 
quished in  music  by  Orpheus. 

SIRIUS,  the  brightest  star  in  the 
heavens,  also  called  the  Dog-star, 
situated  in  the  mouth  of  the  constella- 
tion Canis  Major,  of  the  Greater  Dog. 
It  is  estimated  to  have  more  than  13 
times  the  sun’s  magnitude.  See  Dog- 
days. 

SIROCCO,  a hot,  relaxing,  and  op- 
pressive southeast  wind,  which  blows 
in  Sicily  and  South  Italy. 

SIRO'HI,  a native  state  in  the  Raj- 
putana  agency,  India;  area,  3020  sq. 
miles.  The  country  is  much  intersected 
and  broken  up  by  hills  and  rocky 
ranges,  and  frequently  suffers  from 
drought.  Wheat  and  barley  are  the 
staple  crops.  Pop.  154,350. 

SIRSA,  a British  district  in  the  Pun- 
jab, India;  area,  3004  sq.  miles.  It  forms 
for  the  most  part  a barren  and  treeless 
plateau.  A great  cattle  fair  is  held  at 
Sirsd,  the  chief  town,  in  August  and 
September.  Pop.  253,275;  of  town 
12  292. 

SISAL',  or  GRASS  HEMP,  a species  of 
agave  yielding  a valuable  fiber,  a native 
of  Mexico,  Honduras,  Central  America, 
and  specially  cultivated  in  Yucatan.  It 
is  grown  upon  stony  ground,  and  the 
leaves,  from  which  the  fiber  is  prepared, 
are  between  2 and  3 feet  long.  1 he  pulp 


SISCOWET  OR  SISKOWIT 


SKELETON 


is  cleaned  away  from  each  side  of  the 
leaf  and  the  remaining  fiber  is  then 
washed  and  sun-dried,  it  has  consider- 
able commercial  value  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cordage  and  coarse  cloth. 

SIS'COWET  or  SISKOWIT,  a species  of 
North  American  lake-trout,  inhabiting 
chiefly  the  deep  water  of  Lake  Superior 
and  other  lakes. 

SISMON'DI,  Jean  Charles  Leonard  Si- 
monde  de,  historian  and  political  econo- 
mist, was  born  in  Geneva,  9th  May, 
1773.  In  1803  he  published  a work 
entitled  De  la  Richesse  Commerciale, 
ou  Principes  d’Economie  Politique  ap- 
rfiqufe  k la  Legislation  du  Commerce. 
This  essay  was  afterward  remodeled  so 
as  to  form  the  groundwork  of  his  treatise 
published  in  1819  under  the  title  of 
Nouveaux  Principes  d’Economie  Poli- 
tique. In  1807  appeared  the  first  two 
volumes  of  his  Republiques  Italiennes, 
which  ultimately  reached  sixteen  vol- 
umes, and  was  not  completed  till  1818. 
In  1819  he  commenced  his  Histoire  des 
Fran?ais,  a great  work  which  was  to 
occupy  the  greater  part  of  his  remaining 
life.  He  died  of  cancer,  June  25,  1842. 

SISTERHOODS,  a name  given  to 
various  religious  and  charitable  orders 
or  associations  of  women.  These  are 
very  numerous,  and  have  recently  in- 
creased in  number.  Among  the  more 
important  are:  (1)  Sisters  of  Charity 
(also  called  Gray  Sisters,  Daughters  of 
Charity,  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul)  a 
Roman  Catholic  order  founded  in  1634 
at  Paris  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  for  the 
work  of  nursing  the  sick  in  hospitals. 
The  sisters  take  simple  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity,  and  obedience,  which  are 
annually  renewed;  they  add  a fourth 
vow  binding  themselves  to  serve  the 
sick.  They  number  about  40,000  in  up- 
ward of  2000  houses  scattered  over  all 
parts  of  the  civilized  world.  Besides 
nursing  and  conducting  orphanages,  the 
sisters  sometimes  undertake  the  man- 
agement of  poor  schools.  (2)  Sisters  of 
Charity  (Irish),  a congregation  in  no 
way  connected  with  the  above,  founded 
in  1815  by  Mary  Frances  Aitkenhead 
for  the  purpose  of  ministering  to  the  sick 
and  poor  in  hospitals,  and  at  their  own 
homes.  (3)  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
founded  in  France  in  1840,  now  spread 
over  the  world.  Their  chief  object  is  the 
care  of  the  aged  poor,  and  they  beg  from 
house  to  house.  (4)  Sisters  of  Mercy 
(Irish),  an  important  and  flourishing 
order,  founded  by  Catherine  M’Auley, 
Dublin,  in  1827,  for  carrying  on  works 
of  mercy  both  spiritual  and  corporal. 
(5)  Sisters  of  Mercy  (Anglican),  an  im- 
p^ortant  body  founded  in  1845  by  Dr 
Pusey,  the  original  London  house  being 
the  pioneer  of  many  charitable  sister- 
hoods connected  with  the  English 
church,  and  passing  under  various 
names.  See  Mercy  (Sisters  of). 

SISTINE  CHAPEL,  a chapel  in  the 
Vatican,  so  called  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV., 
by  whom  it  was  erected  in  1473.  See 
Vatican. 

SISTRUM,  a kind  of  rattle  or  jingling 
instrument  used  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tians in  their  religious  ceremonies,  espe- 
cially in  the  worship  of  Isis.  It  consisted 
of  a thin  somewhat  lyre-shaped  metal 
frame  through  which  passed  loosely  a 


number  of  metal  rods,  to  which  rings 
were  sometimes  attached. 

SrVA,  the  name  of  the  third  deity  in 
the  Hindu  triad  (Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Siva),  in  which  he  is  represented  as  the 
destroyer  and  also  as  the  creator  or 
regenerator.  His  worshipers  (the  most 
numerous  of  the  Brahmanic  sects)  are 
termed  Saivas,  and  assign  to  him  the 
first  place  in  the  trinity,  attributing  to 
him  also  many  attributes  which  properly 
belong  to  the  other  deities.  His  symbol 
is  the  lingam  or  phallus,  emblematic  of 


Siva. 

creation.  He  is  frequently  represented 
riding  on  a white  bull,  with  five  faces 
and  two,  four,  eight,  or  ten  hands,  hav- 
ing a third  eye  in  the  middle  of  his  fore- 
head pointing  up  and  down,  and  carry- 
ing a trident.  Serpents  commonly  hang 
about  him,  and  he  may  be  seen  with  a 
sort  of  mace  in  one  hand  and  an  antelope 
in  another.  See  Brahmanism. 

SIXTUS  V.  (Felix  Peretti),  the  great- 
est ruler  and  statesman  among  the  popes 
of  the  four  last  centuries,  was  born  in 
1521  near  Montalto,  died  1590.  He 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  1534, 
and  distinguished  himself  in  scholastic 
philosophy,  theology,  and  Latin  litera- 
ture. In  1544  he  taught  the  canon  law 
at  Rimini,  and  two  years  later  at  Siena. 
In  1548  he  was  made  priest,  doctor  of 
divinity,  and  superintendent  of  the 
monastic  school  at  Siena.  In  1556  he 
was  appointed  director  of  the  Franciscan 
school  at  Venice,  and  afterward  in- 
quisitor-general. In  1560  he  went  to 
Rome,  where  the  pope  conferred  upon 
him  several  dignities.  In  1570  he  was 
created  cardinal,  and  took  the  name 
Montalto.  Under  Gregory  XIII.  he 
lived  a retired  life  for  some  years  in  his 
villa,  and  is  said  to  have  assumed  the 
mask  of  pious  simplicity  and  old  age 
in  order  to  prepare  himself  for  the  papal 
chair.  On  Gregory’s  death  in  1585  he 
was  unanimously  elected  pope,  and 
immediately  manifested  himself  an  able 
and  energetic  ruler.  He  restored  order 
in  the  states  of  the  church,  cleared  the 
country  of  bandits,  and  regulated  the 
finances.  He  re-established  discipline 
in  the  religious  orders,  and  fixed  the 
number  of  cardinals  at  seventy.  He 
took  a part  in  most  of  the  great  political 
events  then  agitating  Europe.  He  sup- 


ported Henry  III.  against  the  Hugue- 
nots, and  Philip  II.  against  England. 
The  great  aim  of  his  foreign  policy  was 
the  promotion  of  the  cause  of  Roman 
Catholicism  throughout  Europe  against 
Protestantism. 

SKATE,  a name  popularly  applied  to 
several  species  of  the  genus  of  fishes  Raia 
or  rays.  The  skeleton  is  cartilaginous, 
the  body  much  depressed,  and  more  or 
less  approaching  to  a rhomboidal  form. 
The  common  skate  agrees  with  the  other 
members  of  the  genus  Raia  in  possessing 
a flat  broad  body,  the  chief  portion  of 
which  is  made  up  of  the  expanded  pec- 
toral fins,  which  are  concealed,  in  a 
manner,  under  the  skin.  The  tail  is  long 
and  slender,  and  the  snout  pointed,  with 
a prominent  ridge  or  keel.  The  teeth  are 


arranged  in  a mosaic  or  pavement-like 
pattern.  This  fish,  although  commonly 
seen  of  moderate  dimensions,  may 
attain  a weight  of  200  lbs.  or  more. 

SKATES  and  SKATING.  A skate  con- 
sists of  a frame  shaped  somewhat  like 
the  sole  of  a shoe,  underneath  which  is 
fastened  a metallic  runner,  the  whole 
being  intended  to  be  fastened  one  under 
eaeh  foot,  for  gliding  rapidly  over  the 
ice.  Skating  seems  to  be  of  great  an- 
tiquity, mention  being  made  of  it  in  the 
Edda.  In  Holland,  from  time  im- 
memorial, skates  have  been  used  by  all 
classes  of  people  upon  the  canals  and 
rivers  for  the  facility  of  locomotion  they 
afford.  Great  variety  in  the  manufac- 
tures of  skates  has  been  introduced 
within  a comparatively  short  period. 
In  the  most  improved  forms  the  wood 
of  the  older  skate  has  been  replaced  by 
metallic  fittings,  and  the  skate  is  at- 
tached to  the  foot  by  spring  fastenings 
which  obviate  the  need  for  straps.  A kind 
of  skates,  termed  “parlor  skates”  or 
roller  skates,  in  which  the  metal  runner 
is  replaced  by  small  wheels,  is  used  on  a 
prepared  asphalt  or  other  smooth 
flooring. 

SKELETON,  the  name  applied  spe- 
cially to  the  hard  structures,  mostly  of 
bony  or  osseous  nature,  which  form  the 
internal  axis  or  support  of  the  softjparts 
in  the  higher  or  vertebrate  animals.  But 
in  comparative  anatomy  the  term  endo- 
skeleton  is  applied  to  the  internal  hard 
parts,  proper  to  the  Vertebrata,  while 
exoskeleton  denotes  the  exterior  hard 
parts  both  of  Vertebrates  and  Inver- 
tebrates, such  as  the  shell  of  lobster, 
scales  of  fishes,  etc.  The  parts  of  any 
endoskeleton  may  generally  be  grouped 
under  the  two  heads  of  the  spinal  or 
axial  skeleton,  and  the  appendicular 
parts.  The  former  includes  the  skele- 
ton of  the  head  and  trunk,  the  latter 
that  of  the  limbs.  The  spinal  skeleton 
involves  the  eonsideration  of  the  skullj 


SKIN 


SKULL 


spinal  or  vertebral  column,  composed 
of  its  various  vertebrae;  and  of  the 
thorax,  or  chest,  and  pelvis.  The  limbs 
consist  of  homologous  or  corresponding 
parts,  and  are  attached  to  a series  of 
bones  constituting  the  “arch,”  or  sup- 
port of  the  upper  or  fore  and  the  lower 
or  hind  limbs  respectively.  The  scap- 
ulae or  shoulder-blades  and  collar- 


Frontal  bone. 
Farlotal  boa*» 


Superior  maxillar;  tOUb 
Inferior  maxillary  ^a9> 
Cervical  vertebra. 
Clavicle. 


Riba. 

Humerus. 

Tboracio  veriebrtB* 


Lumbar  vertebra* 


Carpal  booee. 


Tarsal  bones. 
Metatarsal  bonas* 
Pbalan^ee. 


The  human  skeleton. 


bones  or  clavicles  constitute  the  shoul- 
der-girdle or  arch  supporting  the  fore  or 
upper  limb,  while  the  lower  limb  is 
attached  to  the  pelvic  arch  or  pelvis. 
See  Skull,  Spine,  Thorax,  Rib,  Shoulder, 
Arm,  Hand,  Pelvis,  Leg,  Foot,  etc. 

SKIN,  the  name  given  to  the  external 
layer  or  tissue  of  the  bodies  of  most  ani- 
mals, forming  at  the  same  time  a pro- 
tective and  a blood-purifying  organ. 
Structurally  viewed,  the  skin  of  all 
vertebrates  consists  of  two  layers — an 
outer  and  inner  layer.  To  the  outer 
layer  the  name  of  cuticle,  epidermis,  or 
scarf  skin  is  popularly  given.  This 
layer  is  destitute  of  nerves  and  of  blood- 
vessels, and  is  thus  a non-sensitive 
structure.  The  inner  layer  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, a highly  vascular  and  sensitive 
layer,  and  is  named  the  dermis,  corium, 
or  true  skin.  At  the  lips  and  elsewhere 
the  epidermis  becomes  continuous  with 
the  more  delicate  mucous  membrane 
which  forms  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
internal  passages.  This  membrane  is  to 
be  viewed,  however,  as  a mere  modifica- 
tion of  the  epidermis  itself.  The  epider- 
mis is  composed  of  several  layers  of 
epithelial  cells.  The  upper  eells  of  the 
epidermis,  as  seen  in  a vertical  section 
of  the  skin,  are  flattened,  and  of  scaly 
conformation,  the  lower  cells  being  of 
rounded  or  elongated  shape.  The 
elongated  cells  have  their  long  axes 
arranged  vertically  to  the  general 
skin  surface.  The  deeper  portion  of  the 
epiderinis,  or  rete  mucosum,  is  of  softer 
and  more  opaque  consistence  and  ap- 

P.  E.— 73 


pearance  than  the  upper  layer;  and  it  is 
in  the  rete  mucosum  that  coloring  mat- 
ters are  present,  which  give  the  hue  to 
the  skin.  The  dermis  or  true  skin  rests 
upon  a layer  of  adipose  and  cellular 
tissue,  and  is  composed  of  interlacing 
fibers  of  fibro-cellular  tissue.  It  is 
richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  so 
that  when  cut  it  bleeds;  and  nerve- 
fibers  are  likewise  disposed  in  it,  con- 
ferring sensibility.  The  surface  of  the 
true  skin  is  thrown  into  a series  of  eleva- 
tions, papillae,  or  minute  prominences, 
which  are  specially  rich  in  capillary 
blood-vessels  and  nerve  endings,  and 
which  are  thus  particularly  vascular  and 
sensitive.  The  special  glands  of  the  skin 
are  the  sudoriparous  or  sweat  glands; 
they  are  in  the  form  of  tubes  coiled  up 
into  balls,  and  the  total  number  of  them 
in  the  human  skin  is  estimated  at  over 
two  millions.  There  are  also  sebaceous 
glands,  which  secrete  an  oily  fluid  useful 
for  lubrication.  Though  the  most  osten- 
sible function  of  the  skin  seems  to  be 
that  it  covers  in  and  protects  the  more 
delicate  structures  that  lie  beneath  it, 
its  functions  as  an  excretory  organ  and 
as  a regulator  of  the  temperature  of  the 
body  are  also  of  high  importance.  The 
hair  and  nails  are  modifications  of  the 
epidermis,  as  are  also  the  feathers  of 
birds  and  the  claws  of  animals.  Exten- 
sions of  skin,  as  between  the  toes  of 
ducks,  etc.,  or  between  the  arms  and 
legs  of  flying  squirrels,  and  as  seen  in 
bats,  may  exist.  And  pendulous  skin- 
folds,  horns,  callosities,  horny  plates 
scales,  and  other  modifications  of  the' 
epidermis,  are  met  with  in  various  ani- 
mals. The  scutes  or  bony  plates  seen  in 
the  armadillos  are  dermal  structures 
united  to  horny  plates  formed  by  the 


Semi-diagrammatic  vertical  section  of  human  ekin  magnified. 


A,  Stratum  corneum;  B.  stratum  lucidum ; C,  stratum  granu* 
losuinj  D.  stratum  spinosuin ; E,  corium  with  papilla* ; F,  subcu- 
taneous fat;  G.  tactile  corpuscles;  H,  sebaceous  gland;  I,  duct 
of  sebaceous  gland ; J,  pacinian  corpuscles ; K,  shaft  of  hair ; L, 
root-sheath  of  hair ; M,  root  of  hair ; N,  arrector  pili  muscle ; 0, 
duct  of  sweat-gland ; P,  Sweat-gland ; Q,  blood-vessels. 


epidermis.  In  many  reptiles  and  in  some 
lizards  the  two  layers  of  the  skin  simi- 
larly participate  in  forming  the  exo- 
skeleton. The  scales  of  fishes  are  formed 
by  the  dermis  or  true  skin;  but  those  of 
serpents  are  epidermic  in  their  nature. 

SKIN  DISEASES,  a name  for  such  dis- 
eases as  eczema,  shingles,  ringworm, 
pityriasis,  lichen,  itch,  etc.  I 


SKIN-GRAFTING,  in  surgery,  a 
method  for  the  treatment  of  large 
ulcerated  surfaces  by  the  transplanta- 
tion of  small  pieces  of  skin  from  another 
part  of  the  body. 

SKINK,  the  common  name  of  small 
lizards.  They  have  a long  body  entirely 
covered  with  rounded  inbricate  scales, 
and  are  natives  of  warm  climates.  One 
species,  the  adda,  is  celebrated  through- 
out the  East  as  being  efficacious  in  the 


Adda  or  common  skink. 


cure  of  various  cutaneous  diseases, 
to  which  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt, 
Arabia,  etc.,  are  subject.  It  is  about  6 
inches  in  length,  has  a cylindrical  body 
and  tail,  and  burrows  in  the  sand. 

SKIO.  See  Scio. 

SKULL,  the  name  applied  to  the 
skeleton  of  the  head,  composed  in  most 
vertebrates  of  a facial  and  a cranial 
portion,  and  which  incloses  the  brain 
and  organs  of  special  sense.  The  skull 
of  man  includes  twenty-two  bones. 
In  the  cranial  portion  there  are  eight 
bones,  the  occipital  bone  o,  or  hinder 
portion  of  the  skull,  two  parietal  bones 
b,  forming  the  sides  of  the  head;  two 
temporal  bones  d d';  the  frontal  bone 
a;  the  sphenoid  bone  e,  mainly  in  the 
base  of  the  skull;  and  the  ethmoid  bone 
e,  between  the  skull  and  the  face,  and 
between  the  eye  cavities.  The  facial 
portion  includes  fourteen  bones — two 


The  human  skull.— 1,  front  view.  2,  side  view. 

nasal  bones  g;  two  superior  maxillary,  or 
upper  jaw-bones  f;  two  lachrymal  bones 
h;  two  molar  or  cheek  bones  e;  two 
palate  bones ; two  turbinated  bones  1 m ; 
the  von\gr,  di-viding  into  two  the  cavity 
of  the  nose  j,  and  the  inferior  maxillary 
or  lower  jawbone  k.  This  is  the  only 
bone  which  is  movable,  a hinge-joint 
being  formed  between  its  strong  promi- 
nences at  p.  The  left  zygomatic  arch  is 
shown  at  r.  At  the  base  of  the  occipital 
bone  is  the  large  aperture  termed  the 
foramen  magnum,  through  which  the 
brain  and  spinal  marrow  become  con- 
tinuous. The  two  lesser  foramina,  one 
in  either  orbit,  transmit  the  optic  nerves. 
The  size  and  shape  of  the  skull  vary  in 
the  different  races  of  man,  and  at  dif- 
ferent ages  from  infancy  to  old  age. 
The  skulls  of  most  vertebrata  differ 
widely  from  that  of  man  in  the  relative 
development  of  their  various  parts. 
See  also  special  articles,  such  as  Ichthyol- 


SKUNK 


SLAVERY 


Ogy,  Orinthology,  Reptilia,  etc.,  and 
also  Ear,  Eye,  Nose,  etc. 

SKUNK,  a carnivorous  animal  be- 
longing to  the  weasel  family.  It  in- 
habits North  America,  and  its  average 
size  is  about  that  of  a large  cat.  Its 
fur  is  of  a dark-brown  hue,  streaked 
longitudinally  with  black  and  white, 
and  its  tail  is  long  and  bushy.  The 
skunk  iff  notorious  from  the  potent  and 
disgusting  odor  which  it  emits  from  its 


Common  skunk. 

anal  glands,  and  which  can  be  perceived 
a mile  aWay.  The  secretion  of  these 
glands  can  be  forcibly  ejected  at  the  will 
of  the  animal,  and  its  stench  is  so  per- 
sistent that  no  amount  of  washing  will 
remove  it  from  clothes  impregnated 
with  it.  This  nauseous  secretion  has 
been  alleged  to  possess  therapeutical 
virtues.  The  skunk  is  largely  hunted  for 
the  sake  of  its  fur,  which  is  purified  for 
commercial  purposes  by  heat.  There  are 
two  other  less  common  species,  now 
classed  in  separate  genera. 

SKYLARK,  the  skylark  is  found  all 
over  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Northern 
Africa  and  the  corresponding  zones  of 
Asia.  It  frequents  meadows,  and  does 
not  perch.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  the  seeds 


Skylark. 


of  various  plants  and  larvae.  Its  nest  is 
formed  on  the  ground.  It  lays  four  or 
five  eggs  of  a whitish  gray.  Its  length  is 
about  7 inches,  the  tail  being  3.  It  is 
almost  equally  esteemed  for  the  delicacy 
of  its  flesh  and  the  melody  of  its  song. 

SLAG,  a secondary  product  of  the 
processes  of  extracting  metals  from 
their  ores.  It  is  mainly  a compound  of 
silica  with  alumina  or  lime,  or  both, 
together  with  various  other  substances 
in  small  quantity.  It  always  contains 


more  Or  less  of  the  metal  from  the  ex- 
traction of  which  it  results.  The  pres- 
ence of  silica  gives  a glossy  appearance 
to  the  mass.  Slag  is  sometimes  cast  into 
blocks,  and  used  for  road-making  and 
building,  and  when  reduced  to  powder 
it  is  used  in  making  mortar  and  to  impart 
a glaze  to  bricks.  It  is  also  utilized  in 
the  manufacture  of  glass.  Slag  phos- 
phate meal  is  a fertilizer  made  from 
basic  slag  (which  see). 

SLANDER.  See  Libel. 

SLANG,  colloquial  words  and  phrases 
originating  for  the  most  part  in  the 
lower  classes  of  society.  Slang  is  not 
exclusively  of  modern  date.  It  was 
known  in  the  classic  age  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  and  abounds  in  the  writings  of 
Aristophanes,  Plautus,  Terrence,  and 
Martial.  Slang  consists  in  part  of  new 
words  and  in  part  of  words  of  the  legiti- 
mate language  invested  with  new  mean- 
ings. Poker  players  cash  their  “chips” 
at  the  close  of  the  game.  From  this 
comes  the  use  of  the  phrase  “to  pass  in 
his  chips,”  as  slang  for  death.  Certain 
words  and  phrases  formerly  regarded  as 
strictly  literary  are  now  slang.  As  ex- 
amples of  this  may  be  cited  “awful,” 
“fierce,”  “devilish,”  “keen,”  “wise,”  in 
such  phrases  as  “an  awful  swell,”  “a 
fierce  hat,”  “devilish  good,”  “to  be  keen 
on  something,”  or  “to  put  a man  wise 
to  a thing.”  Another  class  is  the  slang  of 
clipped  words,  as“enthuse,”  for  “enthu- 
siastic,” “beaut”  for  “beauty,”  “gent” 
for  “gentleman.”  All  grades  of  society 
and  every  profession  has  its  slang.  These 
vary  so  much  as  to  be  almost  or  even 
quite  mutually  unintelligible.  The 
slang  of  the  race  course,  the  prize  ring, 
the  barroom,  and  the  variety  show  are 
distinct  from  one  another.  The  lin- 
guistic necessity  of  slang  is  shown  by  its 
universality.  It  is  current  in  all  modern 
languages,  and  reaches  its  acme  in  the 
most  highly  developed  tongues,  as 
English,  French,  and  German. 

SLATE,  or  CLAY-SLATE,  called  some- 
times argillite,  a well-known  hard 
variety  of  rock  which  splits  into  thin 
plates,  the  type  being  roofing  slate.  The 
lamination  of  slate  is  not  that  of  its 
bedding,  but  is  often  at  right  angles  to 
it.  It  is  produced  by  lateral  pressure, 
and  is  confined  to  disturbed  and  meta- 
morphosed rock.  The  prevailing  color 
is  gray,  of  various  shades;  it  yields  to 
the  knife,  but  varies  considerably  as 
respects  hardness  in  its  different  varie- 
ties. Slate  occurs  in  all  countries  where 
there  are  metamorphic  rocks.  It  is  com- 
monly divided  into  elevated  beds  of 
various  degrees  of  thickness;  and  from 
the  natural  divisions  of  the  rock,  they 
often  form  peaked  and  serrated  moun- 
tains. The  finest  variety  which  is  used 
for  the  covering  of  roofs  is  generally 
embedded  in  other  slate  rocks  of  a 
coarser  kind.  Slate-pencils  are  made  of 
certain  varieties  of  soft  slate. 

SLAVE  COAST,  a maritime  strip  on 
the  west  of  Africa,  on  the  Guinea  Coast, 
exte  n di  ng  between  the  Vol  ta  a nd  Akinga , 
a stretch  of  about  240  miles.  It  consists 
mainly  of  long  narrow  islands.  The 
principal  towns  on  the  coast  are  Badagry 
and  Whydah.  A large  traffic  in  slaves 
was  formerly  carried  on  at  the  ports  of 
this  region,  hence  its  name. 

SLAVERY,  the  system  by  which  cer- 


1 

tain  persons  are  kept  as  the  property  of 
others,  a system  of  great  antiquity  and  y 
formerly  of  wide  prevalence.  Among  U 
the  Hebrews  the  system  of  slavery  was  ^ 
one  of  great  mildness.  Native  Hebrew 
slaves  were  released  every  seventh  year, 
and  their  owners  were  enjoined  to  treat 
them  kindly.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  slavery  was  a rooted  institution. 

At  Athens  the  slaves  were  commonly 
treated  with  mildness,  but  at  Sparta 
they  are  said  to  have  been  treated  very 
harshly.  The  slaves  of  the  ancient 
Romans  were  either  captives  or  debtors 
that  were  unable  to  pay.  In  Rome  the 
slave  had  originally  no  rights  at  all.  He 
could  be  put  to  death  for  the  smallest 
misdemeanor.  Slaves  were  exceedingly 
numerous,  and  latterly  almost  monopo- 
lized all  the  various  handicrafts  and 
occupations,  those  of  the  clerk,  the 
doctor,  and  the  literary  man  included 
In  the  time  of  Augustus  a single  person 
is  said  to  have  left  at  his  death  over 
4000  slaves.  Hosts  of  slaves  were  em- 
ployed in  the  gladiatorial  exhibitions. 
Slaves,  however,  were  often  set  at 
liberty,  and  these  freedmen  were  a well- 
known  class  at  Rome.  But  it  was  not 
till  the  time  of  the  empire  that  any 
great  change  took  place  in  the  condition 
of  the  slaves.  Augustus  granted  the 
slave  a legal  status,  and  Antonius  took 
away  from  the  masters  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  their  slaves.  The  early 
Christian  church  did  nothing  to  suppress 
slavery,  and  slavery  and  the  slave-trade 
continued  to  exist  for  1000  years  in  the 
Christian  nations  of  Europe  that  rose 
on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire.  It 
was  not  till  the  13th  century  that  the 
severity  of  slavery  began  to  decline  in 
Europe.  The  Koran  expressly  permits 
the  Moslems  to  acquire  slaves  by  con- 
quest, but  this  method  of  acquiring 
slaves  was  not  resorted  to  until  the 
Crusades.  Previous  to  the  Crusades 
they  kept  negro  slaves  imported  from 
Africa.  Latterly  the  Mohammedans  be- 
gan to  obtain  white  slaves  not  only  by 
war  but  also  by  purchase,  Rome  being 
the  center  of  the  trade.  The  Moham- 
medans of  the  Barbary  states  also 
obtained  white  slaves  by  piracy  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

After  slavery  had  become  aU  but  ex- 
tinct in  Europe,  it  had  a new  birth  in  the 
American  colonies  of  European  origin. 

The  Portuguese  were  the  first  to  hunt 
negroes  in  the  interior  of  Africa  for  use 
as  slaves  in  the  colonies.  The  first  ship- 
ment of  negroes  to  the  New  World  took 
place  in  1503,  when  the  Portuguese 
landed  some  in  St.  Domingo.  From 
that  time  to  the  nineteenth  century  a 
traffic  in  negroes  across  the  Atlantic  was 
carried  on  by  all  the  Christian  colonial 
powers.  In  1562  the  English  first  took 
part  in  the  trade,  and  in  course  of  time 
outdid  all  other  nations  in  the  extent  to 
which  they  carried  this  traflSc,  as  also,  it 
is  said,  in  the  cruelty  with  which  they 
conducted  it.  About  1770  nearly  200 
English  vessels  were  engaged  in  the 
trade. 

The  .first  persons  who  liberated  their 
slaves,  and  labored  to  effect  the  abolition 
of  the  slave-trade,  were  some  Quakers 
in  England  and  North  America  early 
in  the  18th  century.  In  1783  a petition 
was  addressed  to  parliament  for  the 


SLAVES,  SLAVS,  OR  SLAVONIANS 


SLIGO 


abolition  of  tlie  trade,  which  Wilber- 
force  eloquently  supported.  A bill 
passed  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  in  1792,  but 
it  was  rejected  by  the  lords.  On  Feb- 
ruary 4,  1794,  the  French  national  con- 
vention declared  all  the  slaves  in  the 
French  colonies  free.  Wilberforce 
brought  in  a bill  with  a like  object  in 
1796,  but  it  was  rejected.  In  March 
1807,  the  famous  Abolition  Act  was 
passed.  January  1,  1808,  was  fixed  as 
the  time  when  this  trade,  on  the  part  of 
the  British  should  cease.  The  abolition 
of  slavery  itself  gradually  followed  that 
of  the  trade  in  slaves.  In  1831  the 
British  government  emancipated  all  the 
slaves  of  the  crown,  and  in  1833  a bill 
was  passed  for  the  emancipation  of  all 
the  slaves  in  British  colonies.  The  great- 
est slave-holding  nation  till  recent  times 
was  the  United  States,  in  which,  how- 
ever, slavery  was  only  an  institution  of 
the  Southern  states.  As  a result  of  the 
civil  war  it  was  abolished  by  proclama- 
tion in  1863,  and  by  constitutional 
amendment  in  1865.  In  1873  the  Span- 
ish government  abolished  slavery  in 
Porto  Rico,  and  in  1886  abolition  in 
Cuba  took  place.  In  Brazil  slavery 
existed  till  1888. 

The  efforts  made  to  suppress  the 
slave-trade  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa 
have  not  hitherto  proved  quite  success- 
ful. In  1817  a treaty  for  its  suppression 
was  concluded  with  Madagascar,  and  in 
1822  with  the  Imam  of  Muscat  (ruler 
of  Oman) ; but  the  slave-trade  was,  until 
recently,  as  active  as  ever  along  the 
whole  coast.  Those  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  trade  are  Arabs,  who  sell  the  slaves 
in  the  African  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  at  the  ports  of 
the  Red  sea.  They  are  all  ultimately 
destined  for  Mohammedan  masters. 
The  suppression  of  the  trade  was  one  of 
the  objects  of  Sir  Samel  Baker’s  ex- 
pedition up  the  Nile  in  1870-73;  and 
much  more  vigorous  and  effective  meas- 
ures were  carried  out  by  General  Gordon 
in  1877  and  subsequent  years.  In  May, 
1873,  a treaty  was  signed  stipulating 
for  its  suppression  within  the  dominions 
of  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar;  and  the  slave- 
market  at  Zanzibar  was  thereupon 
closed.  At  the  present  time,  through  the 
extension  of  the  influence  of  Britain  and 
other  European  powers,  the  traffic  has 
Iseen  put  down  in  many  districts  where 
it  was  formerly  rampant. 

SLAVES,  SLAVS,  or  SLAVONIANS,  a 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family  of  nations, 
among  which  it  is  most  nearly  allied  to 
the  Lithuanian  and  more  distantly  to 
the  Germanic  branch.  In  the  4th  cen- 
tury Slavs  lived  in  great  numbers  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Carpathians,  and 
thence  they  appear  to  have  spread  north- 
ward to  the  Baltic  and  south  to  the 
Adriatic.  About  the  beginning  of  the 
6th  century  they  are  found  on  the  north- 
ern banks  of  the  Lower  Danube,  whence 
they  passed  over  to  the  southern  banks, 
occupying  Mcesia  and  Thrace;  at  this 
time  Slaves  also  peopled  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  and  before  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury they  had  penetrated  into  Transyl- 
vania, Hungary,  Upper  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Carniola.  The  Slavonic 
tribes  of  Chorvatians  (Croats)  and 
Servians  settled  probably  between  634 


and  638  in  Dalmatia  and  the  whole  of 
ancient  Illyricum  (Bosnia,  Servia,  and 
the  neighboring  districts).  Finally, 
Slavonic  tribes  spread  from  their  first 
settlements  also  to  the  north  and  east, 
over  the  remainder  of  modern  Russia. 
Of  this  wide  territory  the  Slavonians 
again  lost  in  process  of  time  the  Elbe 
and  Oder  regions.  Upper  Austria,  and 
part  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  all  of 
which  they  were  deprived  by  Germanic 
tribes;  large  parts  of  Transylvania  and 
Hungary,  which  fell  to  Roumanians  and 
Magyars;  and  parts  of  the  regions  on 
the  south  of  the  Danube,  which  came 
into  the  hands  of  Greeks  and  Turks. 

The  Slaves  in  the  districts  in  which 
they  still  exist  form  two  great  groups, 
the  southeastern,  and  the  western  Slaves. 
The  former  In.cludc  (1)  Bulgarians,  (2) 
Servians,  (3)  (4)  Slovenians,  (5) 

Russians;  .'•.nd  jhc  Ir.ttcr  include  (1) 
Czechs  (comprchcndh'.g  Czechs  in  the 
narrower  application,  Morvaians,  and 
Slovaks);  (2)  Sorbc  (Ims.^tians),  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Sorbs;  and  (3) 
Poles.  The  total  number  of  Slaves  is 
said  to  be  about  116,000,000,  five- 
eighths  of  whom  are  Russians.  With 
few  exceptions  the  Russian  and  Bul- 
garian Slaves  belong  to  the  Greek 
church,  the  western  Slaves  mostly  to  the 
Roman  Catholic.  There  are  eleven 
different  Slavonic  literary  dialects.  The 
four  principal  dialects  and  literatures 
are  the  Czech  or  Bohemian,  the  Polish, 
Russian  and  Servian. 

SLAVONIA,  a region  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, which  with  Croatia  and  the  Mili- 
tary Frontiers  forms  a province  or  ad- 
ministrative division  of  the  empire;  area 
of  Slavonia,  3720  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
377,613. 

SLEDGE,  a vehicle  moved  on  runners 
or  on  low  wheels,  or  without  wheels,  for 
the  conveyance  of  loads  over  frozen 
snow  or  ice,  or  over  the  bare  ground; 
called  also  a sled.  Also  a kind  of  travel- 
ing carriage  mounted  on  runners,  other- 
wise called  a sleigh;  much  used  in  Rus- 
sia, America,  and  other  northern  coun- 
tries during  winter,  instead  of  wheel 
carriages. 

SLEEP,  the  state  in  which  the  activity 
of  the  senses  and  cerebrum  or  brain 
proper  appears  to  be  naturally  and 
temporarily  suspended.  This  state  is 
consistent  with  a kind  of  passive  activity 
of  these  nervous  centers,  as  seen  in  the 
acts  or  phenomena  of  dreaming,  as  well 
as  in  other  concomitant  phenomena  of 
sleep.  All  parts  of  the  body  which  are 
the  seat  of  active  change  require  periods 
of  rest.  In  the  case  of  the  brain  it  would 
be  impossible  that  there  should  be  short 
periods  of  activity  and  repose,  that  is, 
of  consciousness  and  unconsciousness, 
hence  the  necessity  of  sleep,  a condition 
which  is  an  unusually  perfect  example 
of  what  occurs  at  varying  intervals  in 
every  actively  working  portion  of  our 
bodies.  Sleep,  therefore,  affords  the 
interval  during  which  nervous  energy 
expended  during  the  waking  hours  is 
renewed.  The  respective  influences  of 
habit,  age,  temperament  and  occupation 
have  much  to  do  with  the  induction  and 
maintenance  of  sleep  in  different  in- 
dividuals. An  abnormal  condition  of 
irritability  caused  by  great  mental 
effort  or  strain  for  a considerable  time, 


frequently  results  in  preventing  the 
access  of  sleep  when  it  is  desired.  This 
indicates  a revolt  of  the  nervous  centers, 
which  may  prove  dangerous  if  the  cause 
of  it  be  not  speedily  done  away  with. 
Sleep  often  occurs  in  very  different  de- 
grees in  different  parts  of  the  nervous 
system.  The  phenomena  of  dreams  and 
somnambulism  are  examples  of  differing 
degrees  of  sleep  in  different  parts  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  nervous  system.  Phy- 
siologists are  all  agreed  that  the  dream- 
less sleep  is  the  most  refreshing,  the 
lighter  sleeper  being  liable  to  be  dis- 
turbed by  the  most  trifling  noises.  In 
some  cases  of  diseased  conditions  sleep 
may  be  prolonged  for  indefinite  periods, 
although  obviously  the  distinction  be- 
tween coma  and  sleep  is  only  made  with 
great  difficulty  in  such  cases;  while,  on 
the  contrary,  periods  of  active  wakeful- 
ness may  occur  and  extend  for  days, 
weeks,  or  even  months,  without  a single 
interval  of  sleep  or  repose.  Insensibility 
is  equally  produced  by  a deficient  and 
an  excessive  quantity  of  blood  within 
the  cranium;  but  it  was  once  supposed 
that  the  latter  offered  the  truest  analogy 
to  the  normal  condition  of  the  brain  in 
sleep,  and,  in  the  absence  of  any  proof 
to  the  contrary,  the  brain  was  said  to  be 
during  sleep  congested.  Direct  experi- 
mental inquiry  has  led,  however,  to  the 
opposite  conclusion.  The  condition  of 
the  brain  during  sleep  is  one  of  con- 
siderable hloodlessness.  There  seems  to 
be  both  a diminished  quantity  of  blood 
circulation  through  the  brain,  and  the 
speed  of  its  movement  is  much  lessened. 
See  Dreams,  Somnambulism. 

SLIDELL',  John,  American  politician, 
born  in  New  York  City  in  1793.  In  De- 
cember, 1853,  he  became  United  States 
senator,  but  resigned  upon  the  secession 
of  Louisiana  from  the  Union.  As  com- 
missioner to  France  he,  with  James  M. 
Mason,  commissioner  to  England,  em- 
barked upon  the  British  mail  steamer 
Trent,  which  was  overhauled  on  Novem- 
ber 8th  by  the  United  States  sloop  San 
Jacinto,  and  they  were  arrested  and 
confined  for  a time  in  Fort  Warren, 
Boston.  Upon  the  demand  of  England 
the  act  of  Captain  Wilkes  was  disavowed 
and  the  commissioners  sailed  for  Eng- 
land January  1,  1862.  Mr.  Slidell  failed 
in  his  mission  to  France  and  at  the  close 
of  the  war  settled  in  England.  He  died 
in  1871. 

SLIDE-VALVE,  a contrivance  exten- 
sively employed  in  regulating  the  ad- 
mission or  escape  of  steam  or  water  in 
machinery.  A familiar  example  of  the 
slide-valve  is  found  in  the  ordinary 
steam-valve  of  a steam-engine. 

SLIDING-RULE,  a mathematical  in- 
strument or  scale,  consisting  of  two 
parts,  one  of  which  slides  along  the 
other,  and  each  having  certain  sets  of 
numbers  engraved  on  it,  so  arranged 
that  when  a given  number  on  the 
one  scale  is  brought  to  coincide  with 
a given  number  on  the  other,  the 
product  or  some  other  function  of  the 
two  numbers  is  obtained  by  inspection. 
The  numbers  may  be  adapted  to  answer 
various  purposes,  but  the  instrument  is 
chiefly  used  in  gauging  and  for  the 
measuring  of  timber. 

SLIGO,  a seaport  town  of  Ireland, 
prov.  Connaught,  capital  of  county 


SLING 


SMELL 


Sligo,  134  miles  n.w.  of  Dublin.  Sligo 
was  disfranchised  in  1870.  Pop.  10,870. 
— The  county  is  bounded  n.  by  the 
Atlantic,  e.  by  Leitrim,  s.  by  Roscom- 
mon and  Mayo,  and  w.  by  Mayo;  area, 
461,796  acres,  of  which  about  320,000 
acres  are  cultivated.  The  principal 
crops  are  oats  and  potatoes.  Coarse 
woolens  and  linens  are  manufactured 
for  home  use.  The  coast  fisheries  are 
extensive.  Pop.  84,022. 

SLING,  an  instrument  for  throwing 
stones  or  bullets,  consisting  of  a strap 
and  two  strings  attached  to  it.  The 
velocity  with  which  the  projectile  is  dis- 
charged is  the  same  as  that  with  which  it 
is  whirled  round  in  a circle,  having  the 
string  for  its  radius.  The  sling  was  a 
very  general  instrument  of  war  among 
the  ancients.  With  a sling  and  a stone 
David  killed  Goliath.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  a kind  of  hanging  bandage  in 
which  a wounded  limb  is  sustained ; and 
to  a device  for  holding  heavy  articles,  as 
casks,  bales,  etc.,  securely  while  being 
raised  or  lowered. 

SLIPS,  Propagation  by,  a mode  of 
propagating  plants,  which  consists  in 
separating  a young  branch  from  the 
parent  stock,  and  planting  it  in  the 
ground.  Slips  from  trees  of  which  the 
wood  is  white  and  light,  such  as  willow, 
poplar,  or  lime,  succeed  best.  A slip 
succeeds  more  certainly  when  two  or 
three  young  buds  are  left  on  the  lower 
part  of  it  under  ground. 

SLOANE,  Sir  Hans,  a distinguished 
naturalist,  and  founder  of  the  British 
museum,  was  born  in  the  north  of  Ire- 
land, in  1660;  died  at  Chelsea  1753. 
His  Natural  History  of  Jamaica  (1707- 
25)  was  the  result  of  his  observations  in 
that  island  during  a visit  in  1687-89. 
George  I.  created  him  a baronet  and 
physician-general  to  the  forces  in  1716, 
and  on  the  accession  of  George  II.  he 
was  named  physician  in  ordinary  to  his 
majesty. 

SLOE,  or  BLACKTHORN,  a well- 
known  deciduous  shrub  of  the  plum 
genus  with  spinose  branches,  and  pos- 


Flower  and  fruit  of  sloe. 

eessing  a very  hard,  tough  wood.  It 
blossoms  with  white  flowers  in  the  early 
spring,  and  has  a black,  round,  austere 
fruit  which  is  used  for  preserves,  for 
making  a fictitious  port  wine,  and  for 
dyeing  black.  The  sloe  is  from  8 to  15 
feet  high.  There  are  two  or  three  varie- 
ties, including  a double-flowered,  varie- 
gated-leaved, and  egg-shaped  fruited 
forms. 

SLOOP,  a small  vessel  furnished  with 
one  mast  and  a fixed  bowsprit.  It  is 
fore-and-aft  rigged,  and  usually  carries 
a main-sail,  fore-sail  (jib-shaped,)  a jib, 
and  a gaff-sail.  It  is  a common  rig  for 


*-  % 

yachts.  A sloop-of-war,  was  formerly  a 
vessel,  of  whatever  rig,  between  a cor- 
vette and  a gunboat,  carrying  from  ten 
to  eighteen  guns.  The  name  is  still 


retained  for  certain  vessels  of  no  great 
size  or  fighting  power. 

SLOTH,  the  name  applied  to  several 
genera  of  edentate  mammalia  inhabit- 
ing south  and  central  America,  and 
forming  the  family  Bradypodidse.  This 
family  is  distinguished  by  the  flat  short 
head,  and  by  the  elongated  legs,  fur- 
nished with  powerful  claws  of  com- 
pressed and  curved  shape.  No  incisor- 
teeth  exist,  but  simple  molars  are  de- 
veloped. The  stomach  is  of  somewhat 
complex  nature.  The  fore-limbs  are 
longer  than  the  hind-limbs,  and  have  a 
powerful  muscular  organization.  The 
palms  and  soles  of  the  feet  are  turned 
inward,  and  the  claws  are  bent  inward 
toward  the  soles,  so  that  the  sloth’s 
movements  on  the  ground  are  both 
awkward  and  painful;  but  in  their 
natural  habitat  amid  the  trees,  the 
curved  and  inwardly-disposed  claws 
and  limbs  are  seen  to  be  admirably 
adapted  for  locomotion  in  their  char- 
acteristic fashion,  back  downward, 
through  their  native  forests.  Of  the 
sloths  the  best-known  species  has  three 
toes  and  is  of  a brownish-gray  color,  vith 
darker  tints  on  the  face  and  limbs.  The 
fur  is  of  very  coarse  character. 

SLOVAKS',  the  name  of  the  Slavonian 
inhabitants  of  Northern  Hungary,  also 
found  in  Moravia  in  the  districts  adjoin- 
ing Hungary,  and  in  detached  settle- 
ments in  Lower  Austria,  Bukowina,  and 
Slavonia.  The  total  number  of  Slovaks 
is  under  2,000,000. 

SLOYD,  SLOJD  (a  Scandinavian  word 
equivalent  to  the  English  sleight),  a 
system  of  manual  training  for  pupils  in 
elementary  and  higher  schools,  in 
which  the  pupils  are  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  tools  in  a handicraft,  which 
is  not  necessarily  intended  to  form  their 
future  exclusive  or  main  occupation.  It 
is  applied  to  any  useful  handiwork  such 
as  carpentry,  metal-work,  basket-work, 
fret-work,  book-binding,  etc.,  but  is 
usually  confined  to  wood-sloyd,  or  the 
use  of  the  knife  and  carpenter’s  tools. 
It  is  already  practically  introduced  into 
America  under  the  name  of  manual 
training. 

SLUG,  the  name  applied  to  several 
genera  of  molluscs,  included  in  the 
pulmoniferous  (or  “lung-bearing”)  sec- 


tion of  the  class,  and  resembling  the 
snails,  but  not  having  an  external  shell. 
The  typical  slugs  possess  a rudimentary 
shell,  internal  in  its  nature,  and  gener- 
ally concealed  more  or  less  completely 
by  the  mantle.  The  body  is  elongated,’ 
depressed,  and  attenuated  backward,, 
the  head  and  tentacles  retractile.  The 
latter  are  four  in  number,  the  eyes  being 
borne  on  the  tips  of  the  larger  pair, 

Of  this  genus  the  great  gray  slug  andj 
the  black  slug  are  the  two  familiar 
species.  The  former  usually  frequents 
hollow  trees,  undisturbed  heaps  of  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  and  like  situa- 
tions. The  black  slug  is  more  common 
than  the  gray  species,  and  is  usually  olj 
smaller  size.  Other  familiar  genera  are 
the  red  slug-  and  the  Testacella,  rep- 
resented by  the  little  carnivorous  specie; 
which  feed  chiefly  upon  earthworms,: 
and  is  generally  found  in  the  loose  soil| 
of  gardens. 

SLUR,  in  music,  a sign  in  the  form 
of  a curve,  placed  over  two  or  more,  ■ 
notes  on  different  degrees,  to  indicate; 
that  they  are  to  be  played  legato. 

SMACK,  a small  vessel  rigged  as  a| 
cutter,  sloop,  or  yawl,  used  in  the  coast-  i 
ing  trade  and  in  fishing. 

SMALL-ARMS,  a general  name  for  alll  ] 
portable  fire-arms.  (See  Musket,  Rifle,'  , 
Revolver,  etc.)  The  name  of  small-armtl  -, 
factories  is  given  to  certain  government!  i 
establishments  for  the  manufacture  o.  i 
small-arms.  The  different  parts  of  thc;  i 
rifles  are  made  so  accurately  on  thtl  i 
same  model  that  a part  belonging  tcl  : 
any  one  of  the  rifles  manufactured  wil'^  < 
do  equally  well  for  any  other. 

SMALL-POX,  an  infectious  disease 
characterized  by  a pustular  eruptionj 
accompanied  by  high  fever.  The  firs'; 
symptoms  of  the  disease  appear  about' 
seven  days  after  infection,  when  ?! 
feverish  shivering  pervades  the  body.' 
followed  about  three  days  later  by  the 
appearance  of  red  spots  on  the  face 
breast,  hands,  and  gradually  over  thej 
whole  body.  After  about  three  dayfl| 
these  spots  develop  pustules,  which  be- 
come inflamed  and  suppurate.  About! 
the  eleventh  day  the  pustules  begin  to 
dry  up  and  form  a crust.  Commonly  thej 
small-pox  virus  infects  but  once  [and: 
then  only  those  persons  who  have  a cer- 
tain susceptibility  for  it.  This  disease! 
is  first  mentioned  by  Arabic  writers. 

It  is  not  certain  how  it  was  introduced; 
into  Europe,  but  from_  the  13th  century; 
downward  it  raged  with  great  destruc- 
tiveness am ongthe western  nations,  untfl 
it  was  checked  by  the  introduction  (rf . 
vaccination.  It  is  more  fatal  on  its  fi^ 
appearance  in  a country,  and  commits, 
greater  ravages,  than  after  having  pre- 
vailed for  some  time,  as  it  did  in  Ice-' 
land  in  1707,  and  in  Greenland  in  1733. 
The  violence  of  the  disorder  is  lessened, 
when  it  is  produced  artificially  by  in- 
oculation with  the  small-pox  virus. 
Inoculation  was  introduced  into  Western 
Europe  from  Turkey  by  the  celebrated 
Lady  Montagu";  but  it  has  been  entirely 
superseded  by  vaccination,  which  is 
safer.  See  Vaccination. 

SMELL,  the  sense  exercised  in  the 
perception  of  odors,  through  the  func-; 
tions  of  the  olfactory  nerves.  The  sense 
is  one  of  the  special  senses  in  that  the 
nerves  devoted  to  the  appreciation  ofi 


SMELLIE 


SMITH 


',dors  exercise  that  function  alone,  and 
ire  not  affected  by  any  other  kind  of 
mpressions;  while  again,  no  nerves  are 
iapable  of  receiving  the  particular  im- 
pressions of  odors  but  the  olfactory 
ilaments.  The  sense  of  smell  is  derived 
ixclusively  through  those  parts  of  the 
lasal  cavities  in  which  the  olfactory 
lerves  are  distributed.  (See  Nose.)  The 
natters  of  odor  must  in  all  cases  be  dis- 
solved in  the  mucus  of  the  mucous 
nembrane  before  they  can  be  immedia- 

iitely  applied  to  or  affect  the  olfactory 
lerves ; thus  for  the  perception  of  odors 
;he  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal 
javity  must  be  moist.  In  animals  living 
n the. air  it  is  also  requisite  that  the 

ipdorous  matter  should  be  transmitted 
n a current  through  the  nostrils.  This  is 
jffected  by  an  inspiratory  movement, 
■,he  mouth  being  closed.  The  voluntary 
lature  of  the  act  of  smelling  is  also  thus 
»!  sxemplified,  since  by  interrupting  the 
li  -espiration  or  breathing,  the  sense  can- 
lot  be  duly  exercised.  The  delicacy  of 
;he  sense  of  smell  is  most  remarkable; 
t can  discern  the  presence  of  bodies  so 
ninute  as  to  be  undiscoverable  even  by 
ijpectrum  analysis;  of  ^ 

.jrain  of  musk  can  be  distinctly  smelt. 
The  olfactory  nerves  form  the  first  pair 
jf  cranial  nerves,  or  those  given  off 
lirectly  from  the  brain  as  a center. 
The  facility  with  which  different  odors 
jire  perceived  varies  in  different  animals. 
Thus  carnivorous  mammalia  are  most 
iusceptible  to  the  odors  of  other  ani- 
nals  than  herbivorous  forms;  and  the 
atter  in  their  turn  are  more  readily 
iffected  by  the  smell  of  plants.  Al- 
hough  the  sense  of  smell  in  man  is  less 
icute  than  that  of  many  animals,  yet 
lis  sphere  of  susceptibility  to  various 
jdors  is  more  uniform  and  extended. 
The  influence  of  habit  is  very  marked 
' n the  exercise  of  this  sense,  custom 
■ jnabling  the  individual  to  inhale  odors 
jrhich  at  first  might  be  distasteful  or 
lauseous  to  him.  Certain  diseases  of 
. ;he  brain  may  produce  anomalous  effects 
pn  the  olfactory  sense. 

1 SMELLIE,  William,  naturalist  and 
general  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh  about 
1740,  died  there  in  1795.  In  1765  he 
compiled  and  conducted  the  first  edi- 
;ions  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
which  began  to  be  published  in  numbers 
lit  Edinburgh  in  1771,  and  was  com- 
* jleted  in  three  vols.,  quarto.  In  1780 
ae  gave  to  the  world  the  first  part  of  his 
Translation  of  Buffon’s  Natural  History. 
SMELT,  a small  but  delicious  Euro- 
■t  Dean  fish,  allied  to  the  salmon,  inhabit- 
I mg  the  salt  water  about  the  mouth  of 


s 


called  also  the  sperling,  or  sparling.  The 
American  smelt  inhabits  the  coasts  of 
New  England;  but  the  name  is  given  in 
America  also  to  other  fishes.  The  name 
of  sand  smelt  is  given  to  a small  fish 
allied  to  the  mullets  and  climbing 
perches.  It  averages  about  6 inches  in 
length,  and  is  of  a pale  pink  color,  with 
black  spots  on  the  head  and  back. 

SMELTING,  the  process  by  which  a 
metal  is  obtained  from  its  ore  in  a melted 
state  by  applying  great  heat.  Iron  is 
smelted  in  lofty  furnaces  known  as 
blast-furnaces. 

SMEW,  a swimming  bird  of  shy  habits. 
It  flies  well,  but  has  an  awkward  gait 
on  land.  Its  average  length  is  from  15 
to  18  inches.  The  head,  chin,  neck, 
and  under  parts  of  the  male  are  white: 
the  back  is  black,  the  wings  black  and 


SMITH,  Charles  Emory,  American 
journalist  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Mansfield,  Conn.,  in  1842.  In  1865  he 
became  editor  of  the  Albany  Express, 
and  several  years  later  of  the  Evening 
Post.  He  removed  to  Philadelphia  in 
1880,  and  became  editor  of  the  Press. 


Smelt. 


rivers.  It  is  of  a silvery-white  color,  the 
bead  and  body  being  semi-transparent, 
and  is  from  4 to  8 inches  long.  It  in- 
71  babits  fresh  water  from  August  to  May, 
b and  after  spawning  returns  to  the  sea. 
^ When  first  taken  out  of  the  water  smelts 
Wbave  a strong  smell  of  cucumber.  It  is 


Smew,  adult  male. 

white;  the  back  of  the  head  bears  a 
crest  of  elongated  feathers.  The  plum- 
age of  the  female  is  reddish  brown 
mixed  with  gray  tints. 

SMILA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of  en- 
dogenous plants,  belonging  to  the  sub- 
class Dictyogenae,  or  those  having 
reticulated  leaves.  They  are  mostly 
climbing  plants,  with  woody  stems  and 
small  unisexual  flowers.  They  are  found 
in  small  quantities  in  most  parts  of  the 
world  except  in  Africa.  The  genus 
Smilax  embraces  the  various  species 
of  sarsaparilla. 

SMILES,  Samuel,  LL.D.,  was  born  at 
Haddington,  Scotland,  in  1812.  He  is 
the  author  of  many  works  on  industrial 
enterprise,  the  chief  of  which  are:  Life 
of  George  Stephenson,  Self-Help,  Char- 
acter, Thrift,  Self-Effort  and  Duty. 
These  works  are  characterized  by  their 
good  moral  teaching;  they  are  written 
in  a clear  and  simple  style,  and  many 
of  them  have  been  translated  into  various 
European  languages.  The  University  of 
Edinburgh  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
on  Smiles  in  1878.  He  died  in  1904. 

SMITH,  Adam,  a distinguished  writer 
on  political  economy  and  on  morals, 
was  born  June  5,  1732.  His  first  publi- 
cation, The  Theory  of  Moral  Sentiments, 
appeared  in  1759,  and  was  most  favor- 
ably received.  His  theory  makes  sym- 
pathy the  foundation  of  all  our  moral 
sentiments.  To  this  work  he  afterward 
added  an  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Lan- 
guages. In  1766  he  retired  with  his 
mother  to  Kirkcaldy,  where,  after  ten 
years  of  close  study,  he  wrote  his  cele- 
brated Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and 
Causes  of  the  Wealth  of  Nations.  This 
work  may  be  deemed  the  formal  pre- 
cursor of  the  modern  science  of  econo- 
■ mics.  He  died  in  July,  1790, 


Adam  Smith. 

From  1890  till  1892  he  was  American 
minister  to  Russia.  From  1898  till  1902 
he  was  postmaster-general  of  the  United 
States.  Rural  mail  routes  were  estab- 
lished during  his  administration.  He 
died  in  1908. 

SMITH,  Charles  Henry,  American 
humorist,  was  born  at  Lawrenceville, 
Ga.,  in  1826;  served  in  the  confederate 
army  and  after  the  war  was  a planter 
and  took  some  interest  in  politics.  He 
was  widely  known  for  his  newspaper 
letters,  under  the  signature  “Bill  Arp,” 
which  began  in  1861,  and  with  their 
homely,  genuine  humor  cheered  the 
hearts  of  the  southern  people.  The 
letters  were  subsequently  collected  as 
Bill  Arp’s  Letters,  to  which  were  added 
Bill  Arp’s  Scrap  Book  and  other  vol- 
umes. He  died  in  1903. 

SMITH,  Francis  Hopkinson,  American 
artist  and  author,  was  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  in  1838.  Some  of  his  best 
known  pictures  are : “The  Old  Man  of  the 
Mountains,”  “In  the  Darkling  Wood,” 
“Peggothy  on  the  Harlem,”  “A  January 
Thaw,”  His  work  in  charcoal  and  as  an 
illustrator  is  of  a high  quality.  His  fame 
as  an  author  has  almost  eclipsed  that 
of  the  artist.  Among  his  works  are: 
Well-Worn  Roads,  Colonel  Carter  of 
Cartersville,  A Gentleman  Vagabond 
and  Some  Others,  Tom  Grogan,  Caleb 
West,  Master  Driver,  the  Fortunes  of 
Oliver  Horn,  and  The  Under  Dog. 

SMITH,  George,  assyriologist,  born 
about  1840.  In  1872  he  made  known  his 
striking  discovery  of  a series  of  tablets 
in  the  British  museum  containing, 
among  other  records,  the  Babylonian 
legend  of  the  flood.  He  died  in  1876. 

SMITH,  Goldwin,  English  historical 
writer,  worn  at  Reading,  Berks,  in  1823, 
He  was  appointed  member  of  the  senate 
of  the  University  of  Toronto  in  1871, 
where  he  has  ever  since  resided.  Among 
his  chief  works  are ; Lectures  on  Modern 
History,  Three  English  Statesmen  (Pym, 
Cromwell,  and  Pitt),  The  United  States, 
The  United  Kingdom. 

SMITH,  Green  Clay,  American  soldier, 
was  born  at  Richmond,  Ky.,  in  1832. 
He  served  through  the  Mexican  war  as 
lieutenant  in  a Kentucky  regiment.  In 
1860  he  was  elected  to  the  Kentucky 


SMITH 


SMOKE 


l«f!islature.  On  the  outbreak  of  hostili- 
ties he  recruited  and  became  colonel  of 
the  Fourth  Kentucky  cavalry  (federal), 
took  part  in  the  Tennessee  campaigns 
of  1862,  and  in  June  of  that  year  was 
commissioned  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers. In  1863  he  was  elected  to  the 
thirty-eighth  congress.  He  was  re- 
elected to  congress  in  1864  and  in  1866 
was  appointed  by  President  Johnson 
governor  of  Montana  territory.  In  1876 
he  was  the  candidate  of  the  prohibition 
party  for  the  presidency.  He  died  in 
1895. 

SMITH,  John  (commonly  known  as 
Captain  John  Smith),  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  English  colony  in  Virginia, was 
born  at  Willoughby  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1580.  After  many  adventures  as  a sol- 
dier of  fortune  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  he  joined  in  the  project  to  colon- 
ize Virginia.  The  first  expedition  left 
London  in  1606.  He  made  important 
geographical  discoveries,  obtained  sup- 
plies from  the  natives,  and  was  finally 
intrusted  with  the  guidance  of  the 
colony.  For  a time  he  was  a prisoner 
among  the  Indians;  but  the  story  of 
Pocahontas  connected  with  this  seems 
to  be,  like  others  of  Smith’s  adven- 
tures, undeserving  of  credibility.  He 
died  in  1631. 

SMITH,  Joseph,  Mormon  leader,  born 
in  Sharon,  Vt.,  December  23,  1805;  died 
in  Carthage,  111.,  June  27,  1844.  In  1823 
he  pretended  to  have  had  visions  and 
interviews  with  angels,  by  whom  the 
book  of  Mormon  was  revealed  to  him. 
This  volume  was  eventually  published 
at  Palmyra,  N.  Y.,  in  1830.  A Mormon 
church  was  established  on  April  6th  of 
that  year  in  Fayette,  N.  Y.  The  Mor- 
mons later  wandered  to  Illinois,.  Sub- 
sequently Smith  was  chosen  mayor  and 
sole  trustee  of  the  Mormon  church,  with 
unlimited  powers;  a military  organiza- 
tion of  1500  men  was  formed,  called  the 
“Nauvoo  Legion,”  and  Smith  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant-general.  Mission- 
aries sent  to  England  brought  large 
accessions  of  members,  and  the  erection 
of  a new  temple  attracted  others. 
Driven  from  Missouri  on  the  ground  of 
forming  polygamy.  Smith  as  mayor  of 
Nauvoo,  111.,  and  head  of  the  Nauvoo 
Legion,  was  accused  of  attempting  to 
found  a military  church.  He  was  in- 
dicted for  perjury  and  adultery  and  was 
murdered  in  Carthage  jail  on  June  27, 
1844.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  presi- 
dency of  the  church  by  Brigham  Young. 

SMITH,  Samuel  Francis,  American 
clergyman  and  hymn  writer,  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1808.  From  1842  to  1848  he 
was  editor  of  The  Christian  Review, 
and  of  the  publications  of  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union.  He  wrote 
“My  Country,  ’Tis  of  Thee,”  “The 
Morning  Light  Is  Breaking,”  and  other 
favorite  hymns.  He  died  in  1895. 

SMITH,  Sydney,  English  clergyman, 
noted  for  his  wit  and  humor,  was  born 
at  Woodford,  Essex,  in  1771;  died  in 
1845  He  was  one  of  the  founders  in 
1802  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  being 
also  one  of  its  most  influential  con- 
tributors. In  1831,  during  the  ministry 
of  Earl  Grey,  he  became  one  of  the 
canons  of  St.  Paul’s,  London,  where  he 
henceforth  resided.  A few  years  before 
bis  death  a collected  edition  of  his 


writings  was  published  under  his  own 
supervision,  including  papers  contrib- 
uted to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  Sketches 
of  Moral  Philosophy,  etc. 

SMITH,  Thomas  Southwood,  M.  D., 
physician  and  sanitary  reformer,  was 
born  at  Martock,  Somersetshire,  in 
1778.  In  1825  he  was  appointed  physi- 
cian to  the  London  Fever  Hospital.  He 
published  in  1830  a Treatise  on  Fever, 
the  best  work  on  the  subject  that  has 
ever  been  written.  His  reports  led  to 
the  passage  of  the  Factory  Act;  to  the 
exclusion  of  women  and  children  from 
mines;  to  the  Public  Health  Act,  etc. 
He  died  in  1861. 

SMITH,  William,  the  “father  of  Eng- 
lish geology,”  born  at  Churchill,  in  Ox- 
fordshire, in  1769;  died  at  Northampton 
in  1839.  He  became  convinced  that  each 
stratum  contained  its  own  peculiar 
fossils,  and  might  be  discriminated  by 
them,  and  in  1815  he  was  able  to  submit 
a complete  colored  map  of  the  strata  of 
England  and  Wales  to  the  Society  of 

SmTH,  Sir  WUliam,  LL.D.,  D.C.L., 
English  scholar,  born  in  London  in  1813, 
died  1893.  He  edited  the  well-known 
series  of  Classical,  Biblical,  and  Ecclesi- 
astical Dictionaries,  and  wrote  or 
edited  many  educational  books.  He 
was  for  some  time  classical  examiner  in 
London  university.  From  1867  he  was 
editor  of  the  Quarterly  Review.  He 
was  knighted  in  1892. 

SMITH,  William  Henry,  was  born  in 
London  in  1825'.  From  1868  to  1885  he 
represented  Westminster,  when,  after 
the  Redistribution  Bill,  he  was  returned 
for  the  Strand,  for  which  division  he 
was  member  till  his  death  in  1891.  Mr. 
Smith  was  financial  secretary  to  the 
treasury  (1874-77),  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty  (1877-80),  secretary  for  war 
(1885).  In  1886,  on  the  resignation  of 
Lord  Randolph  Churchill,  Mr.  Smith 
vacated  the  war  office,  and  assumed  the 
leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons  as 
first  lord  of  the  treasury. 

SMITH,  William  Robertson,  biblical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Keig,  Aberdeen- 
shire, in  1846.  From  1881  Professor 
Smith  was  connected  with  the  editor- 
ship of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
and  after  the  death  of  Professor  Baynes 
was  editor-in-chief.  He  was  a member 
of  the  Old  Testament  revision  com- 
mittee, in  1879-80.  He  is  the  author, 
among  other  works,  of  The  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Jewish  Church,  The  Proph- 
ets of  Israel  and  their  Place  in  His- 
tory to  the  Close  of  the  8th  Century  b.c.. 
Kinship  and  Marriage  in  Early  Arabia, 
and  Religion  of  the  Semites.  He  died 
in  1894. 

SMITH,  Admiral  Sir  William  Sidney, 
born  in  Westminster  in  1765,  died  in 
1841.  He  entered  the  navy  at  the  age 
of  twelve,  received  his  lieutenancy  at 
sixteen,  and  when  nineteen  was  created 
post-captain.  He  was  created  rear- 
admiral  of  the  blue  in  1805,  and  in 
1806  inflicted  signal  injuries  on  the 
French  off  the  coast  of  Naples.  In  1807 
he  distinguished  himself  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  a Turkish  squadron.  He  was 
made  vice-admiral  in  1810,  admiral  in 
1821,  and  in  1830  succeeded  King 
William  IV.  as  lieutenant-general  of 
marines, 


SMITHSON,  James,  philanthropist, 
born  in  England  about  1754;  died  in 
Genoa,  Italy,  June  27,  1829.  He  was  a 
natural  eon  of  the  duke  of  Northumber- 
land. In  1786  he  was  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford. He  spent  much  time  in  traveling 
on  the  European  continent,  engaged  in 
scientific  observations,  carrying  with 
him  a portable  laboratory,  and  formed 
a large  collection  of  gems  and  minerals. 
Mr.  Smithson  was  a member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  England,  and  of  the 
French  Institute.  He  bequeathed  his 
property,  about  $600,000  for  the  pur- 
pose of  founding  an  institution  at  Wash- 
ington to  be  called  the  Smithsonian 
institution  for  the  increase  and  diffusion 
of  knowledge  among  men.  In  1846  this 
institution  was  founded.  (See  following 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  a 

scientific  institute  in  Washington,  or- 
ganized by  act  of  congress  in  1846,  to 
carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the 
will  of  James  Smithson,  the  founder. 
He  died  at  Genoa  in  1829,  leaving  his 
property  to  his  nephew,  with  the  con- 
dition that  if  the  latter  died  without 
issue  the  property  was  to  go  to  the 
United  States  to  found  an  establish- 
ment for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge.  In  1835  the  nephew  died 
childless,  and  in  1838  the  sum  of  515,169 
dollars  was  paid  to  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States.  In  1846  the  interest  on 
this  sum  (the  principal  itself  must  re- 
main untouched)  was  applied  to  the 
erection  of  a suitable  building,  with 
apartments  for  the  reception  and  ar- 
rangement of  objects  af  natural  history, 
including  a geological  and  mineralogical 
cabinet,  a chemical  laboratory,  a library, 
a gallery  of  art,  and  the  necessary  lec- 
ture-rooms. The  building  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  Washington.  A portion  of  the 
funds  of  the  institution  is  devoted  to 
scientific  researches  and  the  publication 
of  works  too  expensive  for  private  en- 
terprise. Three  series  of  publications  are 
issued:  Contributions  to  Knowledge, 
Miscellaneous  Collections,  and  Annual 
Reports.  The  building  contains  the 
National  museum,  which  is,  however, 
wholly  maintained  by  the  government. 
The  institution  is  administered  .by 
regents,  composed  of  the  chief-justica 
of  the  United  States,  three  members  of 
the  senate  and  three  of  the  house  of 
representatives,  with  six  other  persons, 
not  members  of  congress.  The  president 
vice-president,  and  members  of  the 
cabinet  for  the  time  being  have  the 
positions  of  governors  or  visitors  of  the 
institution,  the  president  being  ex- 
officio  at  the  head. 

SMOKE,  the  exhalation  or  visible 
vapor  that  arises  from  a substance  burn- 
ing. In  its  more  extended  sense  the 
word  smoke  is  applied  to  all  the  volatile 
products  of  combustion,  which  consist 
of  gaseous  exhalations  charged  with 
minute  portions  of  carbonaceous  matter 
or  soot;  but,  as  often  used  in  reference 
to  what  are  called  smoke-consuming 
furnaces,  the  term  is  frequently  em- 
ployed to  express  merely  the  carbona- 
ceous matter  which  is  held  in  suspension 
by  the  gases.  There  are  many  practical 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  consuming 
smoke,  but  experience  has  shown  that 
none  of  them  are  insuperable.  The  prin- 


SMOKELESS  POWDER 


SNIPE 


ciple  involved  is  that  of  mixing  air  with 
the  combustible  vapors  and  gases  gene- 
rated, by  the  action  of  heat  on  the  fuel 
so  that  by  virtue  of  a due  supply  of 
oxygen  they  may  be  made  to  burn  with 
flame,  and  become  entirely  converted 
into  incombustible  and  invisible  vapors 
and  gases. 

SMOKELESS  POWDER,  an  explosive 
substance  that  burns  without  making 
much  smoke,  used  chiefly  for  military 
urposes.  The  use  of  smokeless  powder 
egan  with  the  invention  of  poudre  B. 
in  France  in  1886.  They  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  as  follows:  (1)  Powders  in 
which  guncotton,  either  the  insoluble 
or  the  soluble  variety  alone,  is  used, 
which,  by  the  aid  of  a solvent,  has  been 
converted  into  a horny  substance  and 
then  is  formed  into  flakes  or  cords;  (2) 
powders  in  which  a mixture  of  nitro- 
glycerin and  either  dinitro-  or  trinitro- 
cellulose is  transformed  into  a similar 
horn-like  substance,  either  with  or  with- 
out the  aid  of  a solvent;  and  (3)  powders 
that  contain  nitro-derivatives  of  the 
aromatic  hydro-carbons,  either  by  them- 
selves or  in  connection  with  nitro- 
cellulose. 

Some  of  the  various  smokeless  pow- 
ders are:  Ballistite,  cordite,  Du  Pont 
powder,  indurite,  cibalite,  poudre  J., 
poudre  pyroxy4e,  Troisdorf,  Von  For- 
ster, WaProde,  and  Wetteren  powders. 

SMOLENSK',  a government  in  Russia, 
west  of  Moscow;  area,  21,547  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  1,551,068.  The  climate,  though 
cold  , is  healthy,  and  the  soil  tolerably 
fertile,  producing  good  crops  of  rye, 
hemp,  and  flax,  hops  and  tobacco.  The 
pastures  are  excellent,  and  the  forests 
yield  excellent  timber. — Smolensk,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  the  Dnieper,  250 
miles  w.s.w.  of  Moscow.  Pop.  46,889. 

SMOL'LETT,  Tobias  George,  novelist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  near 
Renton  in  Dumbartonshire  in  1721 ; died 
at  Monte  Nuovo,  near  Leghorn,  1771. 
In  1748  he  published  his  Adventures  of 
Roderick  Random,  a novel  which 
brought  him  both  fame  and  fortune. 
He  went  to  Paris  in  1750,  and  about  this 
time  wrote  his  Adventures  of  Peregrine 
Pickle,  which  appeared  in  1751.  In 
1755  he  brought  out  a new  translation 
of  Don  Quixote.  Soon  after  this  he  was 
induced  to  take  the  chief  management 
of  the  Tory  organ,  the  Critical  Review. 
In  1757  he  produced  The  Reprisal,  a 
comedy  in  two  acts,  which  proved  a 
success.  In  1758  appeared  his  History  of 
England,  from  Julius  Caesar  to  the 
Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748.  In 
1761,  1762,  and  1765  appeared  his  Con- 
tinuation of  the  History  of  England 
down  to  1765,  since  often  reprinted  as  a 
continuation  of  Hume’s  History.  In 
1770  he  wrote  his  Humphry  Clinker, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  best  of  all  his 
works.  The  humor  of  Smollett  is  of  the 
broad  full-flavored  kind,  not  seldom 
degenerating  into  burlesque;  his  char- 
acters are  well  marked  and  varied;  and 
though  his  work  is  frequently  coarse  and 
vulgar,  it  has  had  much  influence  on 
English  fiction. 

SMUT,  a disease,  also  called  Dust- 
brand,  incidental  to  cultivated  corn, 
by  which  the  farina  of  the  grain,  together 
with  its  proper  integuments,  and  even 
part  of  tne  husk,  is  converted  into  a 


black,  soot-like  powder.  It  does  not 
affect  the  whole  body  of  the  crop.  Some 
attribute  the  smut  to  the  richness  of  the 
soil,  and  others  consider  it  as  a heredi- 
tary disease  transmitted  by  one  gene- 
ration to  another  through  the  seed.  It  is 
produced  by  a minute  fungus.  The 
safest  mode  for  the  farmer  to  pursue  to 
prevent  smut,  is  never  to  sow  grain 
from  a field  in  which  the  smut  has  pre- 
vailed. 

SMYRNA,  an  ancient  city  and  seaport 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of 
the  same  name.  Smyrna  has  been  for 
centuries  the  most  important  place  of 
trade  in  Asia  Minor.  The  chief  imports 
are  cotton  manufactures,  woolen  cloths, 
colonial  goods,  iron,  steel,  and  hardware 
goods.  The  principal  exports  are  dried 
fruits  (especially  figs),  cotton,  silk, 
goats’-hair,  sheep  and  camels’  wool. 


valonia,  madder-root,  yellow-berrieS, 
sponges,  and  opium.  The  origin  of 
Smyrna  is  lost  in  antiquity.  It  laid 
claim  to  the  honor  of  being  the  birth- 
place of  Homer,  and  no  doubt  was  a 
Greek  city  as  early  as  the  date  assigned 
to  the  poet.  It  early  received  Christian- 
ity, and  was  one  of  the  “seven  churches’’ 
of  Asia.  In  the  13th  century  only  the 
ruins  of  its  former  splendor  were  left; 
but  after  the  Turks  became  masters  of 
the  country  it  revived.  It  has  repeatedly 
suffered  from  earthquake.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  200,000. 

SMYRNA,  Gulf  of,  formerly  the  Her- 
msean  gulf,  an  inlet  of  the  .(Egean  sea 
on  the  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  so  called 
from  the  town  of  Smyrna,  which  stands 
at  its  head.  It  is  40  miles  in  length  by 
20  at  its  broadest  part,  and  contains 
several  islands  and  affords  good  anchor- 
age. 

SNAIL,  a slimy,  slow-creeping,  air- 
breathing  mollusc  differing  from  the 
slugs  chiefly  in  having  a spiral  shell. 
The  head  is  furnished  with  four  re- 
tractile horns  or  tentacles;  and  on  the 
superior  pair,  at  the  extremity,  the  eyes 
are  placed.  The  sexes  are  united  in  the 
same  individual,  but  the  union  of  two 
such  hermaphrodite  individuals  is  neces- 
sary for  fertilization.  The  common  gar- 
den snail  is  the  most  familiar  species  of 
the  typical  genus.  The  mischief  done 
by  it  to  garden  produce  on  which  it  feeds 
is  very  extensive.  Nearly  equally  well 
known  is  the  edible  snail,  largely  found 
in  France,  and  cultivated  there  and  else- 
where for  food  purposes. 

SNAKE,  a name  equivalent  to  serpent. 


(See  Serpents.)  It  is  applied  especially 
to  the  common  harmless  ringed-snake. 

SNAKE  INDIANS.  See  Shoshones. 

SNAI^ROOT,  the  popular  name  of 
numerous  American  plants  of  different 
species  and  genera,  most  of  which  are, 
or  formerly  were,  reputed  to  be  effica- 
cious as  remedies  for  snake  bites. 

SNAKE-STONE,  a popular  name  of 
those  fossils  otherwise  called  Am- 
monites. The  name  is  also  given  to  cer- 
tain small  rounded  pieces  of  stone  or 
other  hard  substance,  popularly  believed 
to  be  efficacious  in  curing  snake  bites. 

SNAPPING-TURTLE,  a species  of 
fresh  water  tortoise  common  to  all  parts 
of  the  United  States.  It  feeds  on  small 
animals,  is  bold  and  fierce,  and  is  so 
named  from  its  propensity  to  snap  at 


Snapping-turtle. 


everything  within  its  reach.  Another 
tortoise  of  similar  habits,  but  larger 
(sometimes  weighing  100  lbs.),  receives 
the  same  name. 

SNEEZING  is  a convulsive  action  of 
the  respiratory  organs  brought  on  com- 
monly by  irritation  of  the  nostrils.  It 
is  preceded  by  a deep  inspiration,  which 
fills  the  lungs  and  then  forces  the  air 
violently  through  the  nose.  Sneezing 
produced  in  the  ordinary  way  is  a 
natural  and  healthy  action,  throwing 
automatically  from  the  delicate  mem- 
brane of  the  nostrils  whatever  irritable 
or  offensive  material  may  chance  to  be 
lodged  there.  When  it  becomes  violent, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  soothing  the 
nasal  membrane  by  the  application  of 
warm  milk  and  water,  or  decoction  of 
poppies.  The  custom  of  blessing  persons 
when  they  sneeze  is  very  ancient  and 
very  widely  spread. 

SNIPE,  the  common  snipe  is  a beau- 
tifully marked  bird,  about  10  or  11 
inches  long.  It  frequents  marshy  or 
moist  grounds.  It  feeds  on  worms,  in- 
sects, and  small  molluscs.  It  is  remark- 


able for  the  length  of  its  bill,  its  peculiar 
bleating  cry,  and  the  drumming-like 
noise  it  makes  in  summer.  The  jack 
snipe  closely  resembles  the  common 
snipe  in  its  general  habits  and  appear- 
ance. In  North  America,  there  are 
several  species  of  snipe,  Wilson’s  snipe, 


SNOW 


SOCIALISM 


being  one  of  the  chief.  The  name  of  sea 
snipe  is  sometimes  given  to  the  dunlin, 
while  the  name  summer  snipe  is  applied 
to  the  common  sandpiper. 

SNOW,  Snow-flakes  are  assemblages 
of  minute  crystals  of  ice;  they  are 
formed  when  the  temperature  in  a 
region  of  air  containing  a considerable 
quantity  of  aqueous  vapor  is  lowered 
below  the  freezing-point.  The  particles 
of  moisture  contained  in  the  atmosphere 
are  then  condensed  and  frozen,  and 
form  flakes,  which  descend  to  the  earth. 
Each  flake  which  falls  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  minute  crystals  of  ice,  which 
present  countless  modifications  of  the 
hexagonal  system.  They  have  great 
diversities  of  density,  and  display  in- 
numerable varieties  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful forms.  These  crystals  usually  adhere 
together  to  form  an  irregular  cluster; 
and  consequently  the  incident  rays  of 
light,  which  are  refracted  and  reflected 
so  as  to  present  individually  the  pris- 
matic colors,  are  scattered  after  reflec- 
tion in  all  directions,  and  combine  to 
give  to  the  eye  the  color  sensation  of 
white.  When  suflacient  pressure  is 


Crystals  of  snow,  altar  Scoresby. 

applied  the  slightly  adhering  crystals 
are  brought  into  true  molecular  con- 
tact, when  the  snow,  losing  its  white 
color,  assumes  the  form  of  ice.  Snow 
answers  many  valuable  purposes  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  Accumulated  upon 
high  regions  it  serves  to  feed,  by  its 
gradual  melting  streams  of  running 
water,  which  a sudden  increase  of  water, 
in  the  form  of  rain,  would  convert  into 
destructive  torrents  or  standing  pools; 
and  in  many  countries  it  tempers  the 
burning  heats  of  summer  by  previously 
cooling  the  breezes  which  pass  over 
them.  In  severer  climates  it  serves  as  a 
defense  against  the  rigors  of  winter  by 
protecting  vegetation  from  the  frost, 
and  by  affording  a shelter  to  animals 
which  bury  themselves  under  it.  Even 
in  more  temperate  climates  it  is  found 
that  vegetation  suffers  more  from  an 
open  winter  than  when  the  fields,  during 
that  season,  lie  hidden  beneath  a snowy 
covering.  Snow  purifies  the  air  and 
leaves  it  remarkably  clear  and  pure. 
It  has  a greater  purifying  effect  than 
rain  and  it  is  thought  that  the  action 
of  the  snow  on  the  oxygen  in  the  air 


may  form  ozone;  at  any  rate  it  intensi- 
fies the  vital  qualities  of  the  air,  and 
this  is  why  snow  swept  air  is  so  exhila- 
rating and  exercise  in  the  snow  is  so 
bracing. 

SNOWDROP,  a well-known  garden 
plant.  It  bears  solitary  drooping,  and 
elegant  white  flowers. 

SNOWDROP  TREE,  a name  of  orna- 
mental trees  of  the  southern  states  with 
flowers  like  snowdrops,  belonging  to  the 
stynrax  family. 

SNOW-LINE,  the  limit  of  perpetual 
snow,  or  the  line  above  which  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
Since  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere continually  diminishes  as  we 
ascend  from  the  lower  into  the  higher 
strata,  there  must  be  in  every  latitude 
a certain  limit  of  elevation  at  which  the 
temperature  of  the  air  is  reduced  to  the 
freezing-point.  This  limit  is  called  the 
snow-line,  or  line  of  perpetual  congela- 
tion, and  the  mountains  which  rise 
above  it  are  always  covered  with  snow. 
The  snow-line  varies  according  to  lati- 
tude, being  highest  near  the  equator 
and  lowest  near  the  poles.  Local  cir- 
cumstances, however,  affect  it,  as  the 
configuration  of  the  country,  the  quan- 
tity of  snow  falling  annually,  the  nature 
of  the  prevalent  winds,  etc.  From  these 
circumstances  the  snow-line  is  at  dif- 
ferent heights  in  the  same  latitude. 

SNOW-PLOW,  an  implement  for 
clearing  away  the  snow  from  roads, 
railways,  etc.  There  are  two  kinds:  one 
adapted  to  be  hauled  by  horses  on  a 
common  highway ; the  other  to  be  placed 
in  front  of  a locomotive  to  clear  the  rails 
of  snow.  A variety  of  the  latter  is 
adapted  to  street  railways. 

SNOW-SHOE,  a kind  of  flat  shoe, 
either  made  of  wood  alone,  or  consisting 
of  a light  frame  crossed  and  recrossed  by 
thongs,  the  broad  surface  of  which  pre- 


vents the  wearer  from  sinking  in  the 
snow.  Snow-shoes  are  usually  from  3 
to  4 feet  in  length,  and  from  1 to  1 J foot 
broad  across  the  middle. 

SNUFF,  a powdered  preparation  of 
tobacco  inhaled  through  the  nose.  It  is 
made  by  grinding,  in  mortars  or  mills, 
the  chopped  leaves  and  stalks  of  to- 
bacco in  which  fermentation  has  been 
induced  by  moisture  and  warmth.  The 
tobacco  is  well  dried  previous  to  grind- 
ing, and  this  is  carried  sometimes  so  far 
as  to  give  to  the  snuff  the  peculiar  flavor 
of  the  high-dried  snuffs,  such  as  the 
Irish,  Welsh,  and  Scotch.  Some  varie- 
ties, as  the  rappees,  are  moist.  The  ad- 
mixture of  different  flavoring  agents 
and  delicate  scents  has  given  rise  to 
fanciful  names  for  snuffs,  which,  the 
flavor  excepted,  are  identical.  Dry 
snuffs  are  often  adulterated  with  quick- 
lime, and  the  moist  kinds  with  am- 


monia, hellebore,  pearl-ash,  etc.  See 
Tobacco. 

SOAP,  a chemical  compound  of  com-  * , 
mon  domestic  use  for  washing  and 
cleansing,  and  also  used  in  medicine, 
etc.  It  is  a compound  resulting  from 
the  combination  of  certain  constituents 
derived  from  fats,  oils,  grease  of  various 
kinds  both  animal  and  vegetable,  with 
certain  salifiable  bases,  which  in  house- 
hold soaps  are  potash  and  soda.  Chemi- 
cally speaking  soap  may  be  defined  as  a 
salt,  more  especially  one  of  the  alkaline 
salts  of  those  acids  which  are  present  in 
the  common  fats  and  oils,  and  soluble 
soaps  may  be  regarded  as  oleates,  stear- 
ates, and  margarates  of  sodium  and 
potassium.  There  are  many  different 
kinds  of  soaps,  but  those  commonly  em- 
ployed may  be  divided  into  three 
classes:  1.  Fine  white  soaps,  scented 
soaps,  etc.;  2.  Coarse  household  soaps; 

3.  Soft  soaps.  White  soaps  are  generally 
combinations  of  olive-oil  and  carbonate 
of  soda.  Perfumes  are  occasionally 
added,  or  various  coloring  matters 
stirred  in  while  the  soap  is  semifluid. 
Common  household  soaps  are  made 
chiefly  of  soda  and  tallow.  _ Yellow  soap 
is  composed  of  tallow,  resin,  and  soda, 
to  which  some  palm-oil  is  occasionally 
added.  Mottled  soap  is  made  by  simply 
adding  mineral  and  other  colors  during 
the  manufacture  of  ordinary  hard  soap. 
Marine  soap,  which  has  the  property  of 
dissolving  as  well  in  salt-water  as  in 
fresh,  is  made  of  cocoa-nut  oil,  soda, 
and  water.  Soft  soaps  are  generally 
made  with  potash  instead  of  soda,  and 
whale,  seal,  or  olive-oil,  or  the  oils  of 
linseed,  hemp-seed,  rape-seed,  etc., 
with  the  addition  of  a little  tallow. 
Excellent  soaps  are  made  from  palm-oil 
and  soda.  Soap  is  soluble  in  pure  water 
and  in  alcohol;  the  latter  solution  jellies 
when  concentrated,  and  is  known  in 
medicine  under  the  name  of  opodel- 
doc, and  when  evaporated  to  dryness 
it  forms  what  is  called  transparent 
soap.  Medicinal  soap  when  pure,  is  pre- 
pared from  caustic  soda,  and  either 
olive  or  almond  oil.  It  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed to  form  pills  of  a gently  aperient 
antacid  action. 

SOBIES'KI,  John.  See  John  III. 
(Sobieski). 

SOCIALISM,  the  name  applied  to 
various  theories  of  social  organization, 
having  for  their  common  aim  the  aboli- 
tion of  that  individual  action  on  which 
modern  societies  depend,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  a regulated  system  of  co- 
operative action.  The  word  socialism, 
which  originated  among  the  English 
communists,  and  was  assumed  by  them 
to  designate  their  own  doctrine,  is  now 
employed  in  a larger  sense,  not  neces- 
sarily implying  communism  or  the  en- 
tire abolition  of  private  property,  but 
applied  to  any  system  which  requires 
that  the  land  and  the  intruments  of 
production  shall  be  the  property,  not  of 
individuals,  but  of  communities,  or 
associations,  or  of  the  government,  with 
the  view  to  an  equitable  distribution  of 
the  products.  It  is  looked  on  by  those 
who  believe  in  it  as  an  evolutionary 
phase  of  society,  as  indeed  a natural  de- 
velopment— slavery  gave  way  to  feudal- 
ism, feudalism  to  capitalism,  and  the  ; 
latter  is  bound  to  fall  before  the  latest 


SOCIAL  SCIENCE 


SODA 


stage,  socialism.  The  earliest  and  most 
concrete  forms  of  socialist  philosophy 
are  those  promulgated  by  Robert  Owen, 
St.  Simon,  and  Fourier.  Later  theorists 
on  the  social  question  have  taken  wider, 
and  even  wilder  views,  their  theories 
often  ramifying  into  the  more  or  less 
vague  and  disruptive  schemes  of  the 
anarchists  and  nihilists.  The  literature 
on  the  subject  is  very  extensive,  and  has 
had  an  important  influence  on  modern 
thought,  and,  indeed,  upon  constructive 
legislation.  Among  the  leading  works 
to  be  consulted  are  Karl  Marx’s  Capital ; 
Fourier’s  QEuvres  Completes;  Comte’s 
Traits  de  Sociologie;  Louis  Blanc’s 
L’Organization  du  Travail;  Hyndman’s 
Historical  Basis  of  Socialism  in  Eng- 
land; Bax’s  Religion  of  Socialism';  etc. 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  the  science  that 
deals  with  the  social  conditions,  the 
relations,  and  institutions  which  are  in- 
volved in  man’s  existence  and  his  well- 
being as  a member  of  an  organized  com- 
munity. It  concerns  itself  more  espe- 
cially with  questions  relating  to  public 
health,  education,  labor,  punishment  of 
crime,  reformation  of  criminals,  pauper- 
ism, and  the  like.  It  thus  deals  with  the 
effect  of  existing  social  forces,  and  their 
result  on  the  general  well-being  of  the 
community,  without  directly  discussing 
or  expounding  the  theories  or  examin- 
ing the  problems  of  sociology,  of  which 
it  may  be  considered  as  a branch.  (See 
Sociology.) 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS,  an  important 
group  of  islands  of  the  South  Pacific,  be- 
tween lat.  16°  11'  and  17°  53' s.,  and  Ion. 
148°  and  155°  w.;  and  between  the  Low 
islands  on  the  east  and  the  Friendly 
islands  on  the  west.  The  group  consists 
of  the  principal  island  of  Tahiti  or 
Otaheite — which  is  about  32  miles  long, 
and  is  divided  into  two  peninsulas  by 
an  isthmus  about  3 miles  broad;  area, 
412  sq.  miles — and  a number  of  com- 
paratively small  islands,  Eimeo,  Raiatea 
Huahine,  etc.,  all  now  belonging  to 
France.  All  the  islands  are  elevated, 
and  more  or  less  mountainous.  Pop. 
estimated  at  about  12,000. 

SOCI'NUS,  the  Latinized  name  of  two 
celebrated  theologians,  uncle  and  neph- 
ew, who  have  given  their  name  to  a 
religious  sect,  the  Socinians,  whose 
modified  doctrines  are  now  known  as 
Unitarianism. — Laelius  Socinus  (Lelio 
Sozzini),  born  in  1525  at  Siena,  in 
Tuscany,  abandoned  jurisprudence  for 
the  study  of  the  Scriptures.  In  1546  he 
was  admitted  a member  of  a secret  so- 
ciety at  Vicenza,  formed  for  the  discus- 
sion of  religious  questions,  which  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  was  untenable,  and  that 
many  of  the  dogmas  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  were  repugnant  to 
reason.  The  nature  of  their  delibera- 
tions having  become  known  the  society 
was  broken  up,  several  of  its  members 
put  to  death,  and  others,  among  who 
was  Socinus,  fled  the  country.  He  died 
at  Zurich  in  1562. — Faustus  Socinus 
(Fausto  Sozzini),  a nephew  of  the  pre- 
ceding, born  at  Siena  in  1539,  was 
obliged  to  leave  that  town  in  his  twen- 
tieth year  on  account  of  his  heretical 
notions.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle  he 
came  into  possession  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  latter,  by  the  study  of  which  he 


found  his  former  opinions  confirmed. 
His  death  took  place  in  1604.  See 
Unitarians. 

SOCIOLOGY,  the  science  which  in- 
vestigates the  laws  of  forces  which 
regulate  human  society  in  all  its  grades, 
existing  and  historical,  savage  and 
civilized;  or  the  science  which  treats  of 
the  general  structure  of  society,  the  laws 
of  its  development,  and  the  progress  of 
actual  civilization.  Comte  was  the  first 
to  treat  the  subject  from  a scientific 
point  of  view.  He  was  followed  by 
Quetelet,  Spencer,  Ward  and  others. 
(See  Social  Science.) 

SOCK,  a low  shoe  or  slipper,  worn  by 
the  Greeks,  and  also  by  the  Roman 
women,  who  had  them  highly  orna- 
mented. They  were  likewise  worn  by 
comic  actors,  the  buskin,  or  cothurnus, 
being  used  in  tragedy;  hence  sock  and 
buskin  are  used  figuratively  as  equiva- 
lent to  comedy  and  tragedy. 

SOC'RATES  (-tez),  an  ancient  Greek 
philosopher,  born  at  Athens  in  or  about 
469  B.c.  Reserved  as  a common  soldier 
in  the  campaign  of  Potidsea  (432-429 
B.C.),  fought  at  the  battle  of  Delium 


Socrates,  from  ancient  bust. 


(424),  and  in  422  he  marched  with  Cleon 
against  Amphipolis.  After  the  naval 
battle  of  Arginusae  (406)  against  the 
Spartans,  ten  Athenian  officers  were 
arraigned  for  neglecting  the  sacred  duty 
of  burying  the  slain.  The  clamor  for 
their  condemnation  rose  so  high  that  the 
court  wished  to  proceed  in  violation  of 
all  legal  forms;  but  Socrates,  the  pre- 
siding judge  at  the  trial,  refused  to  put 
the  question.  Soon  after  he  was  sum- 
moned by  the  tyrannical  government 
of  the  Thirty  to  proceed  with  four  other 
persons  to  Salamis  to  bring  back  an 
Athenian  citizen  who  had  retired  thither 
to  escape  the  rapacity  of  the  new  gov- 
ernment. Socrates  alone  refused.  After 
this  he  declined  to  take  any  further 
share  in  public  affairs,  giving  as  a reason 
the  warnings  of  an  internal  voice  of 
which  he  was  wont  to  speak.  Follow- 
ing the  promptings  of  this  divine  mentor 
he  trained  himself  to  coarse  fare,  scanty 
clothing,  and  indifference  to  heat  or  cold, 
and  brought  into  thorough  subjection 
his  naturally  Impetuous  passions.  But 
though  a sage  he  was  wholly  removed 
from  the  gloom  and  constraint  of 
asceticism ; he  indeed  exemplified  the 
finest  Athenian  social  culture,  was  a 
witty  as  well  as  a serious  disputant,  and 
did  not  refrain  from  festive  enjoyment. 
Socrates  wrote  nothing,  and  neither 
sought  to  found  a school  nor  a system  of 
philosophy.  His  plan  was  to  mix  with 


men  freely  in  any  place  of  public  resort, 
when  he  questioned  and  suggested  the 
right  path  to  real  knowledge.  Aristoph- 
anes attacked  him  violently  in  his 
Comedy  of  the  Clouds  as  a sophist,  an 
enemy  of  religion,  and  a corrupter  of 
youth.  But  he  had  many  distinguished 
friends,  such  as  Plato,  Xenophon 
Euclid  of  Megara,  Antisthenes,  Aristip- 
pus, .^Eschines,  and  Alcibiades.  In  399 
B.c.  a formal  accusation  was  brought 
against  him  charging  him  with  not  be- 
lieving in  the  gods  which  the  state  wor- 
shiped, with  introducing  new  divinities 
and  with  corrupting  youth.  His  bold 
defense  is  preserved  by  Plato,  under  the 
title  of  the  Apology  of  Socrates.  He 
dwelt  on  his  mission  to  convict  men  of 
their  ignorance  for  their  ultimate  benefit ; 
declared  himself  a public  blessing  to  the 
Athenians;  assuring  them  if  his  life  were 
spared  he  would  continue  in  the  same 
course;  and  regarded  the  approach  of 
death  with  utter  indifference.  He  was 
condemned  to  death  by  a majority  of 
his  judges;  refused  help  to  escape,  and 
thirty  days  after  his  sentence  drank  the 
hemlock  cup  with  composure,  and  died 
in  his  70th  year  (b.c.  399).  The  account 
of  his  last  hours  is  given  in  full  detail  in 
the  Phaedo  of  Plato. 

SODA,  a term  applied,  in  common 
language,  to  two  or  more  substances — 
protoxide  of  sodium,  hydroxide  of  so- 
dium, and  carbonate  of  sodium,  being 
known  under  the  name  of  soda.  In 
scientific  language,  however,  the  name 
is  only  given  to  the  protoxide  of  sodium 
the  hydroxide  being  frequently  called 
caustic  soda.  The  protoxide  of  sodium 
is  formed  when  sodium  is  burned  in  dry 
air  or  oxygen.  It  is  a white  powder, 
which  attracts  moisture  and  carbonic 
acid  from  the  air.  When  this  protoxide 
is  dissolved  in  water  there  is  formed  the 
true  alkali  or  hydrate  of  sodium,  called 
also  caustic  alkali,  which  is  a white 
brittle  mass  of  a fibrous  texture,  having 
a specific  gravity  of  2.13.  Caustic  soda 
has  a most  corrosive  taste  and  action 
upon  animal  substances;  it  dissolves 
readily  both  in  water  and  alcohol;  in 
the  solid  form  it  readily  attracts  water 
and  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmosphere, 
the  final  product  being  an  efflorescent 
carbonate.  It  forms  soaps  when  boiled 
with  tallow,  oils,  wax,  rosin;  dissolves 
wool,  hair,  silk,  horn,  alumina,  silica, 
sulphur,  and  some  metallic  sulphides. 
With  acids  soda  forms  salts  which  are 
soluble  in  water,  and  many  of  which 
crystallize.  The  carbonate  of  soda  is  the 
soda  of  commerce  in  various  states, 
either  crystallized  in  lumps  or  in  a crude 
powder  called  soda-ash.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  ash  of  plants  growing  near  the 
sea,  from  native  sources,  or  by  chemical 
processes.  The  soda  obtained  from 
plants  contains  from  3 to  30  per  cent  of 
carbonate.  It  is  imported  from  Spain 
under  the  name  of  barilla,  from  France 
as  silicar  or  blanquette,  and  from  Nor- 
mandy and  Brittany  as  varec.  Native 
soda  comes  tons  chiefly  from  the  mineral 
waters  of  Karlsbad,  Aix,  Vichy,  and  the 
geysers  of  Iceland;  from  the  Caspian 
and  Black  sea,  from  California  and 
Virginia.  But  the  amount  of  soda  de- 
rived from  these  sources  is  as  nothing 
compared  with  that  manufactured  every 
year  by  chemical  processes.  In  these 


SODA-WATKR 


1 


the  first  process  is  the  decomposition  of 
common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  by 
means  of  sulphuric  acid;  the  second,  the 
conversion  of  the  sulphate  of  sodium  so 
produced  into  crude  carbonate  of  soda 
by  strongly  heating  with  chalk  and  car- 
bonaceous matter;  third,  the  purifica- 
tion of  this  crude  carbonate,  either  into 
a dry  white  soda-ash  or  into  crystals; 
and,  fourth,  the  treatment  of  the  by- 
products— hydrochloric  acid  and  cal- 
cium sulphide.  The  chief  uses  of  soda 
are  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  of 
hard  soap.  The  carbonate  of  soda  is  used 
in  washing,  and  is  a powerful  detergent. 
It  is  also  used  in  medicine.  Sulphate  of 
soda  is  glauber-salts. 

SODA-WATER,  an  effervescing  drink 
generally  consisting  of  ordinary  water 
into  which  carbonic  acid  has  been 
forced  under  pressure.  It  rarely  con- 
tains soda  in  any  form.  It  is  useful 
in  cases  of  debility  of  the  stomach, 
accompanied  with  acidity. 

SODIUM,  the  metal  of  which  soda  is 
the  oxide.  It  was  discovered  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  in  the  year  1807. 
Previously  the  oxide  of  the  metal,  soda, 
was  looked  on  as  an  elementary  body, 
but  Davy  succeeded  in  breaking  it  up, 
by  the  action  of  electricity,  into  oxygen 
and  a new  metal.  Gay-Lussac  and 
Th^nard  soon  afterward  procured  it  in 
greater  quantity  by  decomposing  soda 
by  means  of  iron;  and  Brunner  showed 
that  it  may  be  prepared  with  much 
greater  facility  by  distilling  a mixture 
of  carbonate  of  soda  with  charcoal;  it 
is  now  prepared  by  the  latter  process  in 
considerable  quantities.  Sodium  is  a 
silver-white  metal,  having  a very  high 
luster.  It  melts  at  204°  Fahr.,  and 
oxidizes  rapidly  in  the  air,  though  not 
so  rapidly  as  potassium.  It  decom- 
poses water  instantly,  but  does  not 
spontaneously  take  fire  when  thrown  on 
water,  unless  the  water  be  somewhat 
warm,  or  the  progress  of  the  globule  of 
sodium  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  be 
impeded.  When  heated  in  air  or  oxygen 
it  takes  fire  and  burns  with  a very  pure 
and  intense  yellow  flame.  It  is  perhaps 
more  abundant  in  our  globe  than  any 
other  metal,  for  it  constitutes  two- 
fifths  of  all  the  sea-salt  existing  in  sea- 
water, in  the  water  of  springs,  rivers, 
and  lakes,  in  almost  all  soils  and  in  the 
form  of  rock-salt.  It  is  used  as  an  agent 
in  the  manufacture  of  aluminium  and 
magnesium,  and  as  a reagent  in  chemi- 
cal operations.  Common  salt  is  a com- 
pound of  chlorine  with  sodium.  Sodium 
also  occurs  as  oxide  of  sodium  or  soda  in 
a good  many  minerals;  and  more  espe- 
cially in  the  form  of  carbonate,  nitrate, 
and  borate  of  soda.  Sodium  is  contained 
in  sea  plants,  and  in  land  plants  grow- 
ing near  the  sea.  It  occurs  also  in  most 
animal  fluids.  The  only  important  oxide 
of  sodium  is  the  protoxide  known  as 
soda.  See  Soda. 

SODOM,  the  principal  of  the  five 
cities  (Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Ze- 
boim,  and  Zoar)  described  in  the  book 
of  Genesis  and  the  cities  of  the  plain 
(i.e.  of  Jordan).  They  were  overthrown 
on  account  of  the  wickedness  of  the  in- 
habitants (Gen.  xix.),  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Zoar,  which  was  spared  at  the 
supplication  of  Lot. 

SODOM,  Apple  of,  a fruit  mentioned 


by  early  writers  as  growing  on  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  sea,  which  was  beau- 
tiful to  the  eye,  but  when  eaten  filled  the 
mouth  with  ashes;  supposed  to  have 
been  a gall  produced  on  dwarf  oaks  by 
an  insect,  or  the  fruit  of  a species  of 
Solanum. 

SOFFIT,  in  architecture,  any  ceiling 
divided  into  square  compartments,  or 


« s,  Sofats. 


panels;  also  the  lower  surface  of  an 
architrave,  an  arch,  a balcony,  a cor- 
nice, etc. 

SO'FIA,  So'phia,  the  capital  of  the 
principality  of  Bulgaria,  situated  in  a 
plain  on  the  river  Bogana,  near  the  foot 
of  the  north  side  of  the  Balkan  moun- 
tains, 310  miles  w.n.w.  of  Constanti- 
nople. Pop.  67,920. 

SOIL,  mould,  or  that  compound 
earthy  substance  which  furnishes  nutri- 
ment to  plants,  or  which  is  particularly 
adapted  to  support  and  nourish  them. 
Wherever  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  not 
covered  with  water,  or  is  not  naked 
rock,  there  is  a layer  of  earth  more  or 
less  mixed  with  the  remains  of  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  in  a state  of 
decomposition,  which  is  commonly 
called  the  soil.  In  uncultivated  grounds 
soils  generally  occupy  only  a few  inches 
in  depth  on  the  surface;  in  cultivated 
grounds  their  depth  is  generally  the 
same  as  that  to  which  the  implements 
used  in  cultivation  have  penetrated. 
The  stratum  which  lies  immediately 
under  the  soil  is  called  the  subsoil,  which 
is  comparatively  without  organized 
matter.  Soil  is  coipposed  of  certain 
mixtures  or  combinations  of  the  follow- 
ing substances : the  earths,  silica,  alum- 
ina, lime,  magnesia; the  alkalies,  potassa, 
soda,  and  ammonia;  oxide  of  iron  and 
small  portions  of  other  metallic  oxides; 
a considerable  proportion'  of  moisture, 
and  several  gases,  as  oxygen,  hydrogen 
carbonic  acid.  Besides  these  every  soil 
contains  vegetable  and  animal  matters, 
either  partially  or  wholly  decomposed. 

SOLANA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of 
monopetalous  exogenous  plants,  com- 
posed of  herbs  or  shrubs,  natives  of  most 
parts  of  the  world,  and  especially  within 
the  tropics.  They  have  alternate  leaves, 
terminal  or  axillary  inflorescence,  and 
regular,  or  nearly  regular  monopetalous 
flowers. 

SOLAR  CORONA.  See  Corona. 

SOLAR  DAY.  See  Day. 

SOLAR  ENGINE,  an  apparatus  for 
utilizing  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  a motive 
power,  by  causing  it,  through  the 
medium  of  a reflecting  metallic  mirror, 
to  heat  the  water  in  a small  boiler  and 
convert  it  into  steam. 

SOLAR  MICROSCOPE,  an  instru- 
ment by  means  of  which  a magnified 
image  of  a small  transparent  object  is 
projected  on  a screen,  the  light  em- 


SOLE 

ployed  being  sunlight.  It  is  really  a 
magic  lantern,  in  which  the  micro- 
scopic object  is  affixed  to  a clear  glass 
plate,  and  the  light  employed  bright 
sunlight  reflected  into  the  instrument. 

SOLAR  PROMINENCES,  red  flame- 
like masses  seen  in  the  atmosphere  of 
the  sun  at  a total  solar  eclipse.  See  Sun. 

SOLAR  SYSTEM,  in  astronomy,  that 
system  of  which  the  sun  is  the  center. 
To  this  system  belong  the  planets, 
planetoids,  satellites,  comets,  and  me- 
teorites, which  all  directly  or  indirectly 
revolve  round  the  sun,  the  whole  being 
bound  together  by  the  mutual  attrac- 
tions of  the  several  parts.  See  Astrono- 
my, Planets,  Sun,  Moon,  Gravitation, 
etc. 

SOLAR  TIME,  time  as  indicated  by  a 
sun-dial.  The  successive  hours  so  in- 
dicated are  not  equal  intervals  of  time. 
See  Day,  Equation  of  Time. 

SOLDERS,  metallic  cements  consist- 
ing of  simple  or  mixed  metals,  by  which 
ordinarily  metallic  bodies  are  firmly 
united  with  each  other.  It  is  a general 
rule  that  the  solder  should  always  be 
easier  of  fusion  than  the  metal  intended 
to  be  soldered  by  it.  The  usual  solders 
are  compound,  and  are  divided  into 
hard  and  soft.  The  hard  solders  are 
ductile,  will  bear  hammering,  and  are 
commonly  prepared  of  the  same  metal 
with  that  which  is  to  be  soldered,  with 
the  addition  of  some  other,  by  which  a 
greater  degree  of  fusibility  is  obtained. 
Under  this  head  comes  the  hard  solder 
for  gold,  which  is  prepared  from  gold  and 
silver,  or  gold  and  copper,  or  gold,  silver 
and  copper.  The  hard  solder  for  silver 
is  prepared  from  equal  parts  of  silver 
and  brass,  but  made  easier  of  fusion  by 
the  admixture  of  one-sixteenth  of  zinc. 
The  hard  solder  for  brass  is  obtained 
from  brass  mixed  with  a sixth,  or  an 
eighth,  or  even  one-half  of  zinc,  which 
may  also  be  used  for  the  hard  solder  of 
copper.  The  soft  solders  melt  easily, 
but  are  partly  brittle,  and  therefore 
cannot  be  hammered.  Of  this  kind  are 
the  following  mixtures:  tin  and  lead  in 
equal  parts;  bismuth,  tin,  and  lead  in 
equal  parts;  one  or  two  parts  of  bismuth, 
of  tin  and  lead  each  one  part.  In  solder- 
ing, the  surfaces  to  be  united  must  be 
made  perfectly  clean  and  free  from 
oxide.  This  is  commonly  effected  by 
scraping  the  surfaces ; and  in  order  that 
the  formation  of  any  oxide  may  be  pre- 
vented during  the  process,  borax,  sal 
ammoniac,  or  rosin  is  used,  either  mixed 
with  the  solder  or  applied  to  the  sur- 
faces.— Autogenous  soldering  is  the 
union  of  two  pieces  of  metal  without  the 
intervention  of  any  solder,  by  fusing 
them  at  the  point  of  junction  by  jets 
of  flame  from  a gas  blowing-pipe  or  by 
other  means. 

SOLDIER.  See  Army,  Conscription, 
Enlistment,  Militia,  etc. 

SOLDIER-BEETLE,  a name  given  to 
carnivorous  coleopterous  insects  of  the 
genus  Telephorus,  from  their  reddish 
color,  or  from  their  combativeness. 

SOLE,  a marine  fish  belonging  to  the 
flat-fishes,  of  an  oblong  or  py^d  form. 
These  fish  abound  on  the  British  coast, 
and  also  on  all  the  coasts  of  Europe, 
except  the  most  northern,  where  the 
bottom  is  sandy.  They  furnish  a whole- 
some and  delicious  article  of  food.  They 


SOLEURE 


SOLSTICE 


Bometimes  ascend  rivers,  and  seem  to 
thrive  quite  well  in  fresh  water.  The 


Sole. 


sole  sometimes  grows  to  the  weight  of 
6 or  7 lbs. 

SOLEURE  (so-leur),  a canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Basel-Land;  west,  south,  and  southeast 
by  Bern;  and  east  by  Aargau;  area,  306 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  100,838.— Soleure,  the 
capital,  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of 
the  Jura  chain,  on  both  sides  of  the  Aar. 

Pop.  10,116.  _ . r,  w 

SOL-FA  SYSTEM.  See  Tonic  Sol-fa 

System . 

SOLIDIFICATION,  the  passage  of  a 
body  into  the  solid  state.  A body,  on 
solidifying  from  the  liquid  state,  gives 
up  a quantity  of  heat  without  exhibit- 
ing a decrease  of  temperature.  Two 
laws  are  recognized  in  the  solidifying  of 
bodies  from  a state  of  fusion (1)  A sub- 
stance begins  to  solidify  at  a tempera- 
ture which  is  fixed  if  the  pressure  is 
fixed;  at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure 
this  temperature  is  the  temperature  or 
point  of  fusion  for  the  particular  sub- 
stance. (2).  From  the  moment  solidifica- 
tion commences  till  it  is  completed  the 
temperature  of  the  liquid  portion  is  con- 
stant. There  are  some  substances,  such 
as  glass  and  iron,  which  become  plastic 
before  liquefying,  and  therefore  possess 
no  definite  point  of  fusion;  and  for  such 
substances  the  above  laws  do  not  hold. 
Solidification  is  called  crystallization 
when  crystals  which  may  be  seen  are 
formed.  When  water  solidifies  the  re- 
sulting ice  is  about  yV  larger  than  the 
volume  of  water  which  produced  it,  and 
on  this  account  ice  floats  on  the  surface. 
Cast-iron  is  larger,  at  the  temperature 
of  the  fusing-point,  in  the  solid  than  in 
the  liquid  state;  scf  also  is  bronze  and 
other  metals  which  give  good  sharp  cast- 
ings. In  many  cases  however,  a sub- 
stance contracts  in  the  act  of  solidifying. 

SOLIMAN'  II.  See  Solyman  II. 

SOLMIZATION,  in  music,  an  exercise 
for  acquiring  the  true  intonation  of  the 
notes  of  the  scale,  first  by  singing  them 
in  regular  gradation  upward  and  down- 
ward, and  then  by  skips  over  shorter  or 
longer  intervals.  To  facilitate  this  vari- 
ous expedients  have  been  devised,  the 
most  popular  being  the  association  of 
the  several  sounds  with  certain  syl- 
lables, such  as  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  said 
to  have  been  first  used  by  Guido  of 
Arezzo  in  the  11th  century — an  ad- 
ditional syllable,  si,  for  the  seventh  of 
the  scale,  being  introduced  at  a much 
later  date.  In  the  tonic  sol-fa  method 
these  syllables  are  thus  modified — doh 
ray,  me,  fah,  soh,  lah,  te.  See  Tonic 
Sol-fa. 

SOLO,  a tune,  air,  or  strain  to  be 
played  by  a single  instrument  or  sung  by 
a single  voice  without  or  with  an  ac- 
companiment, which  should  always  be 
strictly  subordinate. 

SOLOMON,  son  of  David,  king  of 


Israel,  by  Bathsheba,  formerly  the  wife 
of  Uriah,  was  appointed  by  David  to  be 
his  successor  in  preference  to  his  elder 
brothers.  By  his  remarkable  judicial 
decisions,  and  his  completion  of  the 
political  institutions  of  David,  Solomon 
gained  the  respect  and  admiration  of 
his  people ; while  by  the  building  of  the 
temple,  which  gave  to  the  Hebrew  wor- 
ship a magnificence  it  had  not  hitherto 
possessed,  he  bound  the  nation  still 
more  strongly  to  his  throne.  The  wealth 
of  Solomon,  accumulated  by  a prudent 
use  of  the  treasures  inherited  from  his 
father;  by  successful  commerce;  by  a 
careful  administration  of  the  royal 
revenues;  and  by  an  increase  of  taxes 
enabled  him  to  meet  the  expense  of 
erecting  the  temple,  building  palaces, 
cities,  and  fortifications,  and  supporting 
the  extravagance  of  a luxurious  court. 
Fortune  long  seemed  to  favor  this  great 
king;  and  Israel,  in  the  fulness  of  Rs 
prosperity,  scarcely  perceived  that  he 
was  continually  becomingmore  despotic. 
Contrary  to  the  laws  of  Moses,  he  ad- 
mitted foreign  women  into  his  harem; 
and  from  love  of  them  he  was  weak 
enough  in  his  old  age  to  permit  the  free, 
practice  of  their  idolatrous  worship 
and  even  to  take  part  in  it  himself.  The 
forty  years’  reign  of  Solomon  is  still 
celebrated  among  the  Jews,  for  its 
splendor  and  its  happy  tranquility,  as 
one  of  the  brightest  periods  of  their 
history.  The  writings  attributed  to 
Solomon  are  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
with  the  apocryphal  book  the  Wisdom 
of  Solomon;  but  modern  criticism  has 
decided  that  only  a portion  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs  can  be  referred  to  Solomon. 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS,  (1)  a chain  of 
islands  in  the  Western  Pacific,  east  of 
New  Guinea,  and  between  New  Britain 
and  New  Hebrides.  (2)  A group  of  small 
islands  with  no  permanent  inhabitants, 
in  the  Indian  ocean,  dependencies  of 
Mauritius. 

SOLOMON’S  SEAL,  the  common  name 
of  plants,  a genus  of  liliaceous  but  not 
bulbous  plants,  with  axillary  cylindri- 


cal six-cleft  flowers,  the  stamens  in- 
serted in  the  top  of  the  tube,  and  the 
fruit  a globuse  three-celled  berry. 

SOLOMON’S  SONG  (called  also  the 
Song  of  Songs,  or  Canticles),  one  of  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
From  the  earliest  period  this  book  has 
been  the  subject  of  voluminous  con- 
troversies. It  seems  to  have  been  a 
recognized  part  of  the  Jewish  canon  in  the 
time  of  Jesus.  Till  the  beginning  of  the 


16th  century  the  author  of  the  book 
was  almost  universally  believed  to  be 
Solomon.  Modern  critics,  however, 
attribute  it  to  an  author  of  northern 
Israel,  who  wrote  it  about  the  middle 
of  the  10th  century  B.C.,  shortly  after 
the  death  of  Solomon,  in  a spirit  of  pro- 
test against  the  corrupt  splendor  of  the 
court  of  Zion.  The  unity  of  the  poem  is 
sufficiently  evidenced  by  the  continuity 
of  names,  characters,  and  subject,  and  is 
taken  for  granted  by  the  majority  of 
critics.  The  main  subject  of  dispute  has 
been  as  to  its  interpretation.  The  vari- 
ous theories  in  regard  thereto  are  too 
numerous  to  specify ; but  they  naturally 
fall  into  two  classes,  the  literal  and 
allegorical.  The  highest  form  of  allegori- 
cal significance  contended  for  is  the 
mystical  or  spiritual  interpretation,  by 
which  the  whole  poem  becomes  a figura- 
tive representation  of  the  hopes  and 
aspirations,  together  with  the  trials  and 
difficulties,  of  a spiritual  life.  This  in- 
terpretation, whether  applied  individu- 
ally or  collectively  to  the  church  or 
nation  of  Israel,  was  almost  universally 
received  both  by  Jews  and  Christians 
until  recent  times.  The  most  favored 
literal  interpretation  is  that  originally 
given  by  Jacobi,  that  the  poem  repre- 
sents the  temptation  and  triumph  of 
virtuous  love.  The  supporters  of  the 
allegorical  interpretation  of  the  book 
strongly  urge  the  frequency  with  which 
the  marriage  relation  is  employed,  both 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  to  rep- 
resent the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel 
in  the  old,  and  of  Christ  to  the  church  in 
the  new  dispensation. 

SOLON,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece,  and  great  legislator  of  Athens, 
born  about  b.c.  640.  He  was  of  good 
family,  and  acquired  a wide  knowledge 
of  the  world  in  commerce  and  travel. 
One  of  his  earliest  public  transactions 
was  in  stirring  the  Athenians  up  to  the 
recovery  of  Salamis,  after  which  he  was 
chosen  chief  archon  (b.c.  594)  and  in- 
vested with  unlimited  powers,  the  state 
of  parties  in  Athens  being  such  as  to 
threaten  a revolution.  He  established  a 
new  constitution,  divided  the  citizens 
according  to  their  wealth,  and  added  to 
the  powers  of  the  popular  assembly. 
He  made  many  laws  relating  to  trade, 
commerce,  etc.  He  either  entirely  abro- 
gated all  debts,  or  so  reduced  them  that 
'./hey  were  not  burdensome  to  the  debtors ; 
and  abolished  the  law  which  gave  a 
creditor  power  to  reduce  hi.s  debtor  to 
slavery.  When  he  had  completed  his 
laws  he  bound  the  Athenians  by  oath 
not  to  make  any  changes  in  his  code  for 
ten  years.  He  then  left  the  country,  to 
avoid  being  obliged  to  make  any  altera- 
tions in  them,  and  visited  Egypt,  Cyprus 
and  other  places.  Returning  after  an 
absence  of  ten  years,  be  found  the  state 
torn  by  the  old  party  hate;  but  all 
parties  agreed  to  submit  their  demands 
to  his  decision.  It  soon  became  evident, 
however,  that  Pisistratus  would  succeed 
in  seizing  the  sovereignty,  and  Solon 
left  Athens.  Though  Athens  now  fell 
under  the  despotic  rule  of  Pisistratus, 
much  of  Solon’s  legislation  remained 
effective.  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
in  his  eightieth  year,  about  b.c.  558. 

SOLSTICE,  in  astronomy,  the  point  in 
the  ecliptic  at  the  greatest  distance  from 


SOLUTION 


SOOT 


the  equator,  at  which  the  sun  appears  to 
stop  or  cease  to  recede  from  the  equator, 
either  north  in  summer  or  south  in  win- 
ter. There  are  twosolstices — the  summer 
solstice,  the  first  degree  of  Cancer,  where 
the  sun  is  about  the  21st  of  June;  and 
the  winter  solstice,  the  first  degree  of 
Capricorn,  where  the  sun  is  about  the 
22d  of  December.  The  time  at  which  the 
sun  is  at  either  of  these  points  also  re- 
ceives the  same  name. 

SOLUTION,  the  transformation  of 
matter  from  either  the  solid  or  the 
gaseous  state  to  the  liquid  state  by 
means  of  a liquid  called  the  solvent,  or 
sometimes  the  menstruum.  When  a 
liquid  adheres  to  a solid  with  sufficient 
force  to  overcome  its  cohesion,  the  solid 
is  said  to  undergo  solution,  or  to  become 
dissolved.  Thus  sugar  or  salt  are  brought 
to  a state  of  solution  by  water,  camphor 
or  resin  by  spirit  of  wine,  silver  or  lead 
by  mercury,  and  so  on.  Solution  is 
facilitated  by  increasing  the  extent  of 
surface  in  a solid,  or  by  reducing  it  to 
powder.  Heat  also,  by  diminishing  co- 
hesion, favors  solution;  but  there  are 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  in  the  case  of 
lime  and  its  salts,  water  just  above  the 
freezing-point  dissolving  nearly  twice  as 
much  lime  as  it  does  at  the  boiling-point. 
If  a solid  body  be  introduced  in  succes- 
sive small  portions  into  a definite  quan- 
tity, of  a liquid  capable  of  dissolving  it, 
the  first  portions  disappear  most  rapidly, 
and  each  succeeding  portion  dissolves 
less  rapidly  than  its  predecessor,  until 
solution  altogether  ceases.  In  such  cases 
the  forces  of  adhesion  and  cohesion 
balance  each  other,  and  the  liquid  is  said 
to  have  saturated.  Various  solids  dis- 
solve in  the  same  liquid  at  very  different 
rates;  thus  baric  sulphate  may  be  said  to 
be  insoluble  in  water;  calcic  sulphate  re- 
quires 700  parts  of  water  for  solution; 
potassic  sulphate,  16;magnesic  sulphate 
1.5.  When  water  is  saturated  with  one 
salt  it  will  dissolve  other  salts  without 
increase  of  bulk.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  addition  of  a second  solid  will 
displace  the  first  already  in  solution. 

SOLYMAN',  or  SULEIMAN  II.,  sur- 
named  the  Magnificent,  Sultan  of  Tur- 
key, was  the  only  son  of  Selim  I.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1520.  Having  put  down 
a revolt  which  occurred  in  Syria  and 
Egypt,  and  concluded  an  armistice  with 
Persia,  he  besieged  and  took  Belgrade 
in  1521.  The  next  year  he  captured  the 
island  of  Rhodes,  which  had  been  in  the 
possession  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  for 
212  years.  Turning  his  arms  now  against 
Hungary,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Mohdcs 
and  captured  Buda  and  Pest.  In  1529 
he  advanced  on  Vienna,  but  was  forced 
to  raise  the  siege  with  great  loss.  His 
armies  next  gained  considerable  ter- 
ritories from  Persia.  In  1541  he  overran 
a great  part  of  Hungary,  but  an  armis- 
tice was  concluded  for  five  years  in  1547 
though  war  was  renewed  in  1551.  In 
1565  he  attempted  the  capture  of  Malta 
in  vain.  Next  year  he  died  at  the  siege 
of  Szigeth,  in  Hungary,  in  the  seventy- 
sixth  year  of  his  age.  See  Ottoman 
Empire. 

SOMAULI,  or  SOMALI  LAND,  a coun- 
try of  Eastern  Africa,  forming  the  “east- 
ern horn”  of  the  continent,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  on 
the  east  by  the  Indian  ocean  from  Cape 


Guardafui  to  the  equator  and  the  river 
Jub.  The  Som&li  are  a fine  race,  mainly 
Mohammedans  though  still  in  a bar- 
barous state.  The  principal  articles  of 
trade  or  produce  are  myrrh,  ivory, 
ostrich-feathers,  hides  and  horns,  coffee, 
indigo,  and  gum-arabic.  The  ports  of 
Berbera  and  Zeilah  with  an  adjacent 
strip  on  the  northern  coast  now  belong 
to  Britain;  a part  is  claimed  by  Italy. 

SOMERSE'K  a county  of  England, 
bounded  by  Grloucestershire,  Wiltshire. 
Dorsetshire,  and  Devonshire;  area, 
1,049,812  acres,  nearly  nine-tenths  of 
which  are  now  under  cultivation.  The 
chief  minerals  worked  are  lead,  iron,  and 
slate.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Avon 
and  Parret.  Wheat  and  cattle  of  ex- 
cellent quality  are  raised.  The  manufac- 
tures are  mostly  woolen  and  worsted 
goods,  gloves,  silk,  linen,  crape,  and  lace. 
Pop.  508,104. 

SOMERS  ISLANDS.  See  Bermudas 
Islands. 

SOMERVILLE,  a city  in  Massa- 
chusetts, 3 miles  from  Boston,  of  which 
it  may  be  regarded  as  a suburb.  Pop. 
1909.  estimated  at  75.000. 

SOMME,  a department  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the  Eng- 
lish channel,  with  an  area  of  2379  sq. 
miles.  The  capital  is  Amiens.  Pop. 
548,982. 

SOMME,  a river  of  France,  which  rises 
in  the  department  of  Aisne,  7 miles 
northeast  of  St.  Quentin;  flows  south- 
west into  the  department  of  the  Somme, 
and  falls  into  the  English  channel  about 
15  miles  beyond  Abbeville;  length,  150 
miles. 

SOMNAM'BULISM,  a peculiar  per- 
version of  the  mental  functions  during 
sleep,  in  which  the  subject  acts  auto- 
matically. The  organs  of  sense  remain 
torpid  and  the  intellectual  powers  are 
blunted.  During  this  condition  some 
instinctive  excitation  may  take  place 
and  there  may  be  the  reproduction  of 
impulses,  in  consequence,  of  different 
kinds.  Walking  in  sleep  is  the  most 
palpable,  but  not  the  most  marvellous 
characteristic  of  this  condition.  The 
person  affected  may  perform  many 
voluntary  actions  implying  to  all  ap- 
pearance a certain  degree  of  perception 
of  the  presence  of  external  objects.  The 
somnambulist  gets  out  of  bed,  often 
dresses  himself,  goes  out  of  doors,  and 
walks  frequently  over  very  dangerous 
places  in  safety.  On  awakening  in  the 
morning  he  is  either  utterly  unconscious 
of  having  stirred  during  the  night,  or 
remembers  it  as  a mere  dream.  Some- 
times the  transactions  of  the  somnam- 
bulist are  carried  much  further;  he  will 
mount  his  horse  and  ride,  or  go  to  his 
usual  occupation.  In  some  cases  som- 
nambulists are  capable  of  holding  con- 
versation. Somnambulism  occurs  in  the 
sensitive  and  excitable,  often  in  con- 
junction with  other  nervous  affections, 
and  is  hereditary.  Artificial  somnam- 
bulism is  induced  by  hynoptism,  and 
the  consciousness  is  for  the  time  en- 
tirely absorbed  by  one  set  of  ideas. 

SONATA,  in  music,  a term  originally 
applied  to  any  kind  of  composition  for 
instruments,  in  contradistinction  to 
vocal  compositions,  which  were  called 
cantatas.  The  name  was  subsequently, 
however,  restricted  to  compositions  for 


solo  instruments  (generally  the  piano- 
forte). Sonatas  are  of  a certain  form 
consisting  of  several  movements— at 
first  three,  the  allegro,  adagio,  and 
rondo,  to  which  afterward  a fourth 

was  added,  the  minuetto  or  scherzo 

which  differ  from  each  other  in  time  and 
sentiment,  but  are  held  together  by 
their  general  character. 

SON'DRIO,  a town  in  North  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.  6990. — The  province  lies  between 
the  Grisons  and  the  Tyrol,  with  an  area 
of  1257  sq.  miles.  Pop.  120,516. 

SONG,  a little  poem  intended  to  be 
sung;  a lyric.  The  term  is  applied  to 
either  a short  poetical  or  musical  com- 
position, but  most  frequently  to  both  in 
union.  As  a poetical  composition  a song 
may  be  defined  as  a short  poem  divided 
into  portions  of  returning  measure,  and 
turning  upon  some  single  thought  or 
feeling.  As  a union  of  poetry  and  music, 
it  may  be  defined  as  a brief  lyrical  poem, 
founded  commonly  upon  agreeable  sub- 
jects, to  which  is  added  a melody  for  the 
purpose  of  singing  it.  As  denoting  a 
musical  composition,  it  is  generally  con- 
fined to  an  air  for  a single  voice — airs 
for  more  than  one  voice  being,  however, 
sometimes  called  part-songs. 

SONNET,  a species  of  poetical  com- 
position consisting  of  fourteen  rhjrmed 
verses,  ranged  according  to  rule.  It  is  of 
Italian  origin,  and  consists  of  two 
stanzas  of  four  verses  each,  called  the 
octave,  and  two  of  three  each,  called  the 
sestette.  The  octave  of  the  proper  sonnet 
consists  of  two  quatrains,  the  rhymes  of 
which  are  restricted  to  two — one  for  the 
first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth  lines;  the 
other  for  the  second,  third,  sixth,  and 
seventh.  In  the  sestette,  which  is  com- 
monly made  up  of  two  tercets,  the 
rhymes  may  be  two  or  three,  variously 
distributed.  This  is  the  Petrarchan  or 
Italian  form,  but  the  verses  may  also  be 
arranged  in  the  Shakespearean  form  of 
three  quatrains  of  alternate  rhymes 
clinched  by  a couplet,  or  in  the  irregular 
form  practiced  by  Coleridge  and  others. 
The  sonnet  generally  consists  of  one 
principal  idea,  pursued  through  the 
various  antitheses  of  the  different 
strophes.  The  lightness  and  richness 
of  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
languages  enable  their  poets  to  express 
every  feeling  or  fancy  in  the  sonnet;  but 
in  English  it  has  been  found  most  suit- 
able to  grave,  dignified,  and  contempla- 
tive subjects.  Among  the  most  success- 
ful writers  of  English  sonnets  are  Shake- 
speare, Milton,  Drummond,  of  Haw- 
thornden,  Bowles,  Wordsworth,  and 
Rossetti, 

SONO'RA,  one  of  the  states  of  Mexico, 
lying  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  on  which 
it  has  several  good  ports.  Guajunas  is 
the  principal  port,  and  has  a splendid 
harbor.  The  capital  is  Hermosillo.  Pop. 
220,553;  area,  79,021  sq,  miles. 

SOO-CHOW-FOO,  a town  of  China, 
in  the  province  of  Kiangsoo,  on  a lake 
in  the  line  of  the  Imperial  canal,  125 
miles  southeast  of  Nankin.  It  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1895.  Pop. 
above  500,000. 

SOOT,  a black  substance  formed  by 
combustion,  or  disengaged  from  fuel  in 
the  process  of  combustion,  rising  in  fine 
particles  and  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the 


SOPHISTS 


SOUL 


chimney  or  pipe  conveying  the  smoke. 
The  soot  of  coal  and  that  of  wood  diiier 
very  materially  in  their  composition, 
the  former  containing  more  carbona- 
ceous matter  than  the  latter.  Coal-soot 
contains  substances  usually  derived 
from  animal  matter;  also  sulphate  arid 
hvdrochlorate  of  ammonia ; and  has  been 
used  for  the  preparation  of  the  carbon- 
ate It  contains  likewise  an  empyreu- 
matic  oil;  but  its  chief  basis  is  charcoal, 
in  a state  in  which  it  is  capable  of  beino 
rendered  soluble  by  the  action  of  oxygen 
and  moisture ; and  hence,  combined  with 
the  action  of  the  ammoniacal  salts,  it  is 
used  as  a manure,  and  acts  very  power- 
fully as  such.  The  soot  of  wood  has 
been  minutely  analyzed,  and  found  to 
consist  of  fifteen  different  substances, 
of  which  ulmin,  nitrogenous  matter, 
carbonate  of  lime,  water,  acetate  and 
sulphate  of  lime,  acetate  of  potash, 
carbonaceous  matter  insoluble  in  alka- 
lies, are  the  principal. 

SOPHISTS,  the  name  of  a school  or 
congeries  of  schools  of  philosophical 
teachers  or  “thinkers,”  who  appeared  in 
Greece  in  the  period  immediately  pre- 
ceding and  contemporary  with  Socrates 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  5th  century  b.  c. 
It  was  a period  of  political  decline  and 
social  corruption,  and  the  sophists  were 
men  who,  although  often  able  and  some- 
times well  meaning,  were  not  strong 
enough  to  rise  above  the  unwholesome 
influences  under  which  they  were  placed 
Their  philosophy  (if  it  can  be  called  so) 
was  one  of  criticism  of  those  that  had 
gone  before ; there  was  nothing  creative 
in  it,  nothing  even  formative.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  teaching  of  the  sophists 
was  mainly  skeptical  as  regards  previous 
philosophical  speculation;  and  while  the 
chief  point  of  convergence  of  their  teach- 
ing was  in  an  ethical  direction,  the 
influence  of  their  ethical  teaching  was 
mostly  mischievous.  But  the  sophists 
rendered  considerable  service  to  science 
and  literature,  and  even  indirectly  to 
philosophy.  . 

SOPH'OCLES  (-klez),  the  second  in 
order  of  time  of  the  three  great  Greek 
tragic  dramatists,  was  born  at  Colonos, 
a village  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 


ingly  held  all  but  undisputed  supremacy 
until  the  appearance  of  Euripides,  who 
took  the  first  prize  in  441.  In  his  old 
age  he  suffered  from  family  dissension. 
His  son,  lophon,  jealous  of  the  favor 
he  showed  to  his  grandson  Sophocles, 
and  fearing  he  himself  would  suffer 
from  it  in  the  disposition  of  his  property, 
summoned  him  before  the  judges,  and 
charged  him  with  being  incompetent  to 
manage  his  affairs.  In  reply  So^ocles 
read  a part  of  the  chorus  of -his  (Edipus 
at  Colonos,  which  he  had  just  composed, 
and  at  once  proved  that  his  faculties 
were  unimpaired.  He  died  about  the 
age  of  ninety.  One  hundred  and  thirty 
plays  in  all  are  ascribed  to  him,  of  which 
seventeen  are  supposed  to  be  spurious. 
Eighty-one  of  his  dramas,  including  trie 
seven  now  extant,  were  brought  out 
after  he  had  attained  the  age  of  AHy" 
five.  The  chronological  order  of  the 
existing  plays  is  given  as  Mlows; 
Antigone,  Electra,  Trachinis^  Qildipus 
Tyrannus,  Ajax,  Philoctetes,  CEdi^s  at 
Colonos.  Sophocles  brought  the  Greek 
drama  to  the  highest  point  of  perfection 
of  which  that  form  of  art  is  susceptible. 
His  subjects  are  human,  while  those  of 
.iEschylus  are  heroic,  and  in  his  manage- 
ment he  shows  himself  a perfect  master 
of  human  passions.  The  tendency  of  his 
plays  is  ethical,  and  he  subordinates  the 
display  of  passions  to  an  end.  He  also 
introduced  scenic  illustration  and  a 
third  actor.  No  tragic  poet  in  ancient  or 
modern  days  has  written  with  so  much 
elevation  and  purity  of  style.  The  versi- 
fication  of  Sophocles  stands  alone  in 
dignity  and  elegance,  and  his  iambics  are 
acknowledged  to  be  the  purest  and  most 
regular.  . , 

SOPRA'NO,  the  highest  register  of 
female  voices.  Its  ordinary  range  is 
from  C below  the  treble  staff  to  A 
above  it,  though  some  sopranos  may 
go  as  high  as  E.  The  mezzo-soprano 
register  is  from  A to  F,  that  is,  a third 
lower  than  the  soprano. 

SORGHUM,  a genus  of  grasses,  some 
species  of  which  are  known  by  the 
general  name  of  millet.  They  are  tall 


Sophocles,  from  ancient  bust. 

Athens,  in  the  second  year  of  the 
seventy-first  olympiad,  b.c.  495.  Soph- 
ocles first  appeared  as  a dramatist  in 
b.c.468,  when  he  took  the  first  prize  in 
competition  with  ^Eschylus.  ^schylus 
retired  to  Sicily,  and  only  returned  to 
enter  again  for  a brief  period  into  the 
lists  with  Sophocles.  Sophocles  accord- 


Sorghum. 

grasses  with  succulent  stems,  and  are 
found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia, 
whence  they  have  spread  to  other  warm 
regions.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  small 
cereal  grains,  and  is  called  Guinea-corn 
and  Indian  millet.  Sorghum  has  been 
introduced  into  the  south  of  Europe, 
where  is  it  chiefly  used  for  feeding  cattle 
and  poultry,  but  it  is  also  made  into 
cakes.  In  the  United  States  they  are 
grown  as  forage  plants  in  the  western 
states  where  they  have  become  impor- 
tant crops. 


SO'RIA,  a town  of  Northeastern  Spam 
capital  of  the  province  of  that  name, 
on  the  Douro.  Pop.  5869.— -The  province 
of  Soria  has  an  area  of  3836  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  160,684. 

SORREL-TREE.  It  inhabits  the 
range  of  the  Alleghanies  from  Virginia 
to  Georgia.  The  leaves  are  4 or  5 inches 
long,  oval-acuminate,  finely  tootned, 
and  strongly  acid  in  taste.  The  flowers 
are  stnall,  white,  and  disposed  in  long 
one-sided  racemes,  clustered  in  an  open 

^^SOUDAN',  or  SUDAN',  is  the  Arab 
name  given  to  the  vast  extent  of  coun- 
try in  Central  Africa  which  lies  between 
the  Sahara  on  the  n.,  Abyssinia  and  the 
Red  sea  on  the  e.,  the  countries  draining 
to  the  Congo  basin  on  the  s.,  and  Sene- 
gambia  on  the  w.  Its  area  is  estimated 
at  2,000,000  sq.  miles.,  and  its  pop.  at 
from  7 or  8 to  30  millions.  The  inhabi- 
tants comprise  numerous  nations  of 
different  races,  chiefly  the  Negro  to- 
gather  with  Arab  colonists  and  traders. 
The  Western  and  Central  Soudan  are 
divided  into  a number  of  more  or  less 
independent  states  under  British,  French 
or  German  influence,  as  Gando, 
Sokoto,  Bornu,  Baghirmi,  Wadai,  etc. 
The  Eastern  Soudan  includes  Darfur, 
Kordofan,  etc.  Egyptian  rule  was  first 
extended  to  the  Eastern  Soudan  in  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century  by  Mo- 
hammed Ali,  under  whom  Ibrahim 
Pasha  carried  it  as  far  south  as  Kordofan 
and  Senaar.  An  Egyptian  expedition 
under  Sir  Samuel  Baker  in  1870  led  to 
the  conquest  of  the  equatorial  regions 
on  the  Nile  farther  south  than  the  Sou- 
dan  proper,  of  which  General  Gordon 
was  appointed  governor-general  in  1874. 
On  the  fall  of  Ismail  Pasha  of  Egypt 
Gordon  was  recalled,  and  hordes  of 
Turks,  Circassians,  and  Bashi-Bazouks 
were  let  loose  to  plunder  the  Soudanese. 
Egyptian  misrule  then  became  intolerable 
and  in  this  crisis  appeared  Mohammed 
Ahmed  of  Dongola,  who  gave  himself 
out  to  be  the  Mahdi,  the  long-expected 
redeemer  of  Islam.  Emin  Pasha  (Eduard 
Schnitzer)  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  Equatorial  Province  on  the  Upper 
Nile,  north  of  the  Albert  Nyanza,  by 
Gordon  in  1878,  and  he  continued  to 
hold  his  ground  here  till  1889,  when  he 
was  relieved  by  Henry  M.  Stanley,  and 
conveyed  with  his  followers  to  Zanzibar. 
The  Eastern  Soudan  was  wrested  from 
the  Mahdi’s  successor  in  1898,  and  is 
now  under  Anglo-Egyptian  rule. 

SOUL,  the  rational  and  spiritual  part 
in  man  which  distinguishes  him  from 
the  brutes,  the  indwelling  spirit  of  mail, 
which  is  both  immaterial  and  immortal. 
Soul  is  sometimes  used  as  synon^ous 
with  mind,  but  generally  it  is  used  m a 
wider  sense  as  being  a whole  to  which 
pertain  the  faculties  that  constitute 
mind.  Soul  and  spirit  are  more  nearly 
synonymous,  but  each  is  used  in  con- 
nections in  which  it  would  be  improper 
to  use  the  other.  Nearly  all  philosophies 
agree  in  regarding  the  soul  as  that  P^rt 
of  man  which  enables  him  to  think  and 
reason,  and  which  renders  him  a subject 
of  moral  government;  but  they  differ 
when  it  comes  to  a question  of  origin 
and  detail.  Many  philosophers  main- 
tain the  indestructibility  as  well  as  the 
immateriality  of  the  soul ; but  a whole 


SOUL 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


host  of  others,  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  have  assigned  a material 
basis  to  consciousness,  and  all  that  we 
regard  as  belonging  to  the  soul.  Modern 
materialists  usually  make  the  soul,  or 
what  others  regard  as  such,  merely  a 
result  of  organism. 

SOUL  (se-ul),  capital  of  Corea,  about 
27  miles  from  the  sea,  not  far  from  the 
right  bank  of  the  Han  river,  a tributary 
of  the  Yellow  sea.  Pop.  150,000,  or 
with  suburbs  300,000. 

SOULT  (solt),  Nicolas  Jean  de  Dieu, 
Duke  of  Dalmatia  and  Marshal  of 
France,  was  born  at  Saint  Amans  la 
Bastide,  in  the  department  of  Tarn,  in 
1769.  Raised  from  the  ranks  he  became 
successively  lieutenant  and  captain  in 
his  regiment.  After  successive  promo- 
tions he  was  named  general  of  division 
by  Mass6na,  to  whose  army  he  was 
attached.  In  1803  he  had  the  command 
of  one  of  the  three  camps  of  the  army 
intended  against  England,  that  at  St. 
Omer.  He  was  one  of  the  marshals 
created  immediately  after  the  forma- 
tion of  the  empire  in  1804.  He  acquired 
new  fame  in  the  Prussian  campaign; 
and  in  1807,  after  the  battle  of  Fried- 
land,  took  Konigsberg.  From  1808-12 


Marshal  Soult. 


he  fought  in  Spain,  but,  overmatched 
by  Wellington,  was  unable  to  gain  many 
laurels.  In  1813  he  was  recalled  in  con- 
sequence of  Napoleon’s  disasters,  to  take 
the  command  of  the  fourth  corps  of  the 
grand  army,  and  commanded  the  in- 
fantry of  the  guard  at  Ltitzen.  On  the 
news  of  Wellington’s  victory  at  Vittoria 
he  was  sent  back  to  reorganize  the 
French  force  in  Spain,  and  did  his  ut- 
most to  oppose  Wellington’s  trium- 

Ehant  career  till  Napoleon’s  abdication. 

oult  gave  In  hie  adhesion  to  Louis 
XVIII.,  who  appointed  him  commander 
of  the  thirteenth  military  division;  and 
in  1814  made  him  minister  of  war.  On 
Napoleon’s  return  he  joined  his  stand- 
ard, and  held  the  post  of  major-general 
of  the  army  in  the  campaign  of  Water- 
loo. After  the  second  restoration  he 
took  up  his  residence  at  Diisseldorf,  but 
was  permitted  to  return  to  France  in 
1819;  and  in  1827  was  raised  to  the 
peerage.  After  the  July  revolution  of 
1830,  and  on  two  subsequent  occasions, 
he  held  ministerial  office,  and  in  1846, 
on  retiring  from  public  life,  was  created 
grand-marshal  of  France.  He  died  in 
1851. 

SOUND.  See  Acoustics  and  Ear. 
SOUNDING,  the  operation  of  trying 


the  depth  of  water  and  the  quality  of 
the  bottom,  especially  by  means  of  a 
plummet  sunk  from  a ship.  In  naviga- 
tion two  plummets  are  used,  one  called 
the  hand  lead,  weighing  about  8 or  9 
lbs.;  and  the  other,  the  deep-sea  lead, 
weighing  from  25  to  30  lbs.  The  former 
is  used  in  shallow  waters,  and  the  latter 
at  a distance  from  shore.  The  nature  of 
the  bottom  is  commonly  ascertained  by 
using  a piece  of  tallow  stuck  upon  the 
the  base  of  the  deep-sea  lead,  and  thus 
bringing  up  sand,  shells,  ooze,  etc.,  which 
adhere  to  it.  The  scientific  investigation 
of  the  ocean  and  its  bottom  has  ren- 
dered more  perfect  sounding  apparatus 
necessary,  and  has  led  to  the  invention 
of  various  contrivances  for  this  purpose, 
among  the  most  simple  and  common  of 
which  is  Brooke’s  sounding  apparatus. 
Some  of  the  deepest  sea-soundings  yet 
obtained  that  can  be  relied  on  have 
been  obtained  by  H.  M.  S.  Challenger. 
See  Ocean. 

SOUP,  a decoction  of  flesh  in  water, 
properly  seasoned  with  salt,  spices,  etc., 
and  flavored  with  vegetables  and  vari- 
ous other  ingredients.  There  are  very 
many  kinds  of  soup,  the  introduction  of 
a different  ingredient  furnishing  the 
occasion  for  a distinctive  name,  but 
they  may  all  be  divided  into  two  classes 
— clear  soup  and  thick  soup.  Maigre 
soup  is  a soup  made  without  meat. 

SOURABAYA  (s6-ra-ba'ya),  a seaport 
of  Java,  capital  of  a province  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  Strait  of  Madura. 
Pop.  100,000. 

SOURAKRATA,  or  SOLO,  a town  of 
Java,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  140  miles  w.s.w.  of  Soura- 
baya.  Pop.  50,000. 

SOUSA  (s66za),  John  Philip,  Ameri- 
can bandmaster  and  author,  was  born  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1854.  From  1880- 
1892  he  was  bandmaster  of  the  United 
States  Marine  Corps  at  Washington  and 
during  this  period  made  the  organiza- 
tion one  of  tne  finest  military  bands  in 
America.  In  1892,  he  formed  the  organi- 
zation known  as  Sousa’s  Band.  His 
compositions  have  been  eminently  suc- 
cessful. His  ability  as  a composer  of 
marches  soon  secured  for  him  the  popu- 
lar title  of  the  “March  King.”  His  com- 
positions include  the  following  operas; 
The  Smugglers,  D4sir6e,  El  Capitan,  The 
Bride  Elect,  The  Charlatan.  Marches: 
The  Washington  Post,  Manhattan 
Beach,  El  Capitan,  Bride  Elect, 
The  Stars  and  Stripes  Forever.  He 
has  written  several  books  which  have 
had  great  success,  among  them  being 
The  Fifth  String  and  Pipetown  Sandy. 

SOUTH,  University  of  the,  an  insti- 
tution of  learning  at  Sewanee,  Tenn., 
founded  in  1857  by  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  of  the  south  and 
opened  in  1868  with  a grammar  school 
and  an  academic  department.  The 
theological  department  was  opened  in 
1878,  a medical  department  in  1892, 
law  department  in  1893.  The  academic 
department  embraces  15  schools,  a 
certificate  and  diploma  being  given  in 
each  school.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
B.A.,  M.A.,  M.S.,  and  C.E.  The  work 
is  mostly  prescribed.  In  theology  the 
degrees  of  B.D.  and  graduate  in  divinity 
are  given;  in  law,  LL.B.;  in  medicine, 
M.D.  A school  of  pharmacy,  with  the 


degree  of  graduate  of  pharmacy,  and  a I 
training  school  for  nurses  are  connected  i 
with  the  medical  school  } 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  REPUBLIC,  See 
T'rsirisv&^l 

SOUTH  AMERICA  is  a vast  peninsula  11 
of  a roughly  triangular  form,  with  its. 
apex  pointing  southward,  extending  in  I • 
length  from  lat.  12°  30'  n.  to  Cape  Horn 
in  lat.  55°  59' s.  Its  greatest  length  is 
4800  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  3230 
miles;  area,  about  7,000,000  sq.  miles. 
Some  of  the  general  features  and  rela-  , 
tions  of  South  America  to  North  Ameri-  I • 
ca  are  already  described  under  America,  I ■ 
but  supplementary  particulars  are  here 
given. 

South  America  is  united  to  North 
America  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panamd. 

The  coast-lines  of  South  America,  par- 
ticularly the  west,  are  comparatively 
little  broken  or  interrupted  by  inden-  j 

tations,  and  in  this  respect  resemble  j 

those  of  Africa.  Toward  the  southern 
extremity  is  a group  of  islands,  forming  i 

the  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  i 

They  are  penetrated  in  every  direction  i 

by  bays  and  narrow  inlets,  ending  often  1 

in  glaciers.  The  mountainous  and  i 

elevated  tracts  of  the  continent  are  i 

chiefly  limited  to  the  borders  of  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans;  the  inter- 
vening space  being  occupied  by  a great 
series  of  plains,  reaching  from  one  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent  to  the  other, 
at  an  elevation  generally  less  than  1000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There 
are  four  chief  mountain  systems,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  Andes, 
that  stretch  along  the  whole  of  the  west 
coast  from  south  to  north  for  a distance 
of  4500  miles.  They  are  of  inconsiderable 
width  comparatively,  but  attain  great 
elevations,  ranking  in  this  respect  next 
to  the  Himalaya  mountains;  the 
highest  known  peak,  Aconcagua,  in 
Chile,  being  22,860  feet  high.  (See 
Andes.)  The  second  system  is  that  of 
Parima,  also  called  the  Highlands  of 
Guiana,  in  the  northeast;  culminating 
oint,  Maravaca,  about  10,500  feet 
igh.  The  third  system  is  near  the  north 
coast,  and  is  known  under  the  general 
name  of  the  Coast  chain  of  Venezuela; 
culminating  point,  the  Silla  de  Caracas, 
with  an  elevation  of  8600  feet.  The 
fourth  is  that  of  Brazil  in  the  southeast; 
culminating  point,  Itatiaia,  10,040  feet 
high.  There  are  altogether  upward  of 
thirty  active  volcanoes  in  South  America. 
They  all  belong  to  the  Andes,  and  con- 
sist of  three  separate  and  distinct  series; 
the  series  of  Cnila,  of  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
and  of  Quito.  The  loftiest  is  Gualateiri 
in  Peru,  which  reaches  a height  of 
21,960  feet.  The  immense  plains  are 
one  of  the  remarkable  features  of  South 
America,  sometimes  stretching  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  without  exhibiting  the 
slightest  perceptible  inequality.  They 
are  variously  designated,  being  known 
as  pampas  in  the  south,  as  selvas  in  the 
Amazon  region,  and  as  llanos  in  the 
north.  All  the  South  American  rivers 
of  any  magnitude  carry  their  waters  to 
the  Atlantic.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Amazon,  the  Orinoco,  and  the  Plata 
(which  see),  the  first  being  the  greatest 
as  regards  volume  of  water  among  the 
rivers  of  the  world.  One  of  the  most 
singular  features  in  the  hydrology  of  "j. 


SOUTHAMPTON 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


South  America  is  the  water  connection 
existing  between  the  Orinoco  and  the 
Siazon  through  the  natural  channel 
of  the  river  Cassiquan.  As  explained 
under  Brazil  (which  see)  it  would  not  be 
difficult  to  establish  mlai^ 
tion  by  water  from  the  Orinoco  to  the 
Plata  The  lakes  of  any  cons^erable 
size  are  few;  the  largest,  Lake  Titicaca 
in  the  Andes,  covers  an  area  of  above 
4000  sq  miles.  Naturally  there  are  con- 
sideraWe  diversities  of  climate  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  continent,  but 
only  in  comparatively  few  are  the  ex- 
Ses  of  heat  and  cold  very  gmat,  ami 
on  the  whole  South  America  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  unhealthful,  though  so 
of  it  is  within  the  tropics.  Over 
great  part  of  it  the  rams  are  adequate 
and  in  many  parts  abundant  ; but  on 
the  west  coast  there  are  all  regions 
where  rain  seldom  or  never  falls,  ihe 
most  distinguisning  features  of  the 
vegetation  of  South  America  is  Rs  Pro- 
digious forests,  which  cover  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  co’atment  and  yie^ 
valuable  timber,  ornamental  woods 
and  dyewoods,  cinchona,  india-rubber, 
veitable  ivory,  etc.  In  the  tropica 
regions  vegetation  is  on  the  grande  t 
3e  graldeur  also  being  combined 
wRh  griat  beauty.  Fruits  abound,  in- 
cluding oranges,  limes,  J 

mangoes,  bananas,  pomegranates,  and 
many  others.  Southward  of  the  line 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  corn,  and  oa^^® 
among  the  chief  products.  The  most 
valuable  vegetable  products  exported 
are  coffee,  cotton,  wheat,  and  cacao 
Among  plants  specially  belonging 
South^  America  are  cacao,  cinchona, 
cocoa,  and  Paraguay  tea.  Aino^| 
domesticated  native  animals  of  South 
America  are  the  llama  and  alpaca,  both 
used  as  beasts  of  burden,  and  yielding 
a kind  of  hair  which  is  export^  and 
manufactured  into  tissues.  Horses, 
at  first  imported,  and  cattle  now  roa 
wild  over  the  southern  plains.  Large 
numbers  of  sheep  are  also  reared,  and 
wool,  hides  and  skins,  live 


Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  Para,guay 
and  Uruguay,  besides  the  colonies  of 
British,  French,  and  Dutch  Guiana  and 
the  Falkland  Islands  (British).  ihe 

1 ■frkl  rvxxra  • 


Area  sq.  m. 
504,500 

Pop. 

3.879.000 

1.400.000 
2,324,000- 

2.980.000 

2.270.000 

8.414.000 

4.043.000 

432.000 

825.000 
16,930,800 

281.000 

30.000 

72.000 

251,300 

439,000 

nhilft  

Argentine  Republic.. . 
Paraguay 

98,000 

British  Guiana 

35,000 

60,000 

Falkland  Islands 

6,600 

2,000 

7,230,800 

38,882,000 

wool,  UlUCD  ..*-***~,  -- 

meat,  etc.,  are  now  exported. 
sUver,  copper,  nitre, 

stones  are  also  products  of  South 
America  The  aborigines  of  South 
America  are  undoubtedly  of  the  s^e 
race  as  those  of  North  America,  as  there 
exists  a very  striking  general  physical 
resemblance  between  the  native  races 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  American 
continent,  from  Cape  Horn  to  Bering  s 
straits.  (See  America  and  Indians.) 
They  are  almost  all  of  a copper  colo^ 
with  long  black  hair,  deep-set  black 
eyes,  aquiline  nose,  and  often  handsome 
slender  form.  In  South  America  these 
red  men  are  far  more  numerous  than 
in  North  America,  and  though  many 
are  half-civilized,  a greater  nuniber  are 
in  a state  of  barbarism.  A considerable 
portion  of  the  population  also  consists  of 
persons  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
blood,  and  along  with  these  a far  greater 
number  of  mixed  Indian  and  European 
blood,  civilized,  and  forming  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  various  states 
of  the  continent.  To  these  are  now  being 
added  considerable  numbers  of  Spanisti 
, ; South  America 


and  Italian  immigrants. 
comprises  the  republics  of  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  Venezuela,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Chile, 


The  first  discoverer  of  the  continent 
of  South  America  was  Christopher 
Columbus,  who  reached  the  "^outh  of 
the  Orinoco  in  his  third  voyage  (1498). 
The  adventurer  who  followed  next  was 
Alonzo  de  Ojeda,  a Spaniard  who  ex- 
amined the  coast  of  Venezuela  Ojeda 
was  accompanied  by  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
a native  of  Florence,  who,  on  his  return 
to  Spain,  published  an  account  of  his 
voyage,  and  whose  name  gradually 
came  to  be  given  to  the  ^ontinent. 
Brazil  was  discoveed  in  1500  by  Jin 
cent  Yanez  Pinzon,  who  explored  the 
mouths  of  the  Amazon.  Later  in  the 
year  Alvarez  Cabral  reached  the  coast 
of  Brazil  farther  south  than  the  point 
touched  by  Pinzon,  and  took  pofessmn 
of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  king 
of  Portugal.  In  1513  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien, 
and  discovered  the  Pacific  ocean.  In 
1531  Pizarro  embarked  at  Panama  with 
a small  force,  and  made  himself  master 
of  Peru.  Almagro,  a companicm  of 
Pizarro,  pushed  southward  into  Chue, 
and  in  1537  the  country  between  Darien 
and  Peru  was  traversed  by  Vadillo,  and 
Quito  was  soon  after  taken  possession  of 
by  the  Spaniards.  In  1540  Gonzales, 
the  brother  of  Pizarro,  crossed  the 
Andes  and  came  upon  the  Amazon, 
which  Orellana,  one  of  his  ofidcers,  de- 
scended to  the  ocean.  In  the  meantime 
Juan  de  Solis  had  discovered  the  La 
Plata  in  1515,  and  Fernando  Magellan 
sailed  along  the  southeast 
through  the  strait  that  bears  his  n^e 
into  tie  Pacific  (1520).  In  1526  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  ascended  the  Parand  and 
Paraguay,  and  established  two  or  three 
forts;  and  in  1536  the  city  of  Buenos 
Ayres  was  built.  The  discoveries  of  the 
Spanish  and  Portugese  gave  the  pos- 
session of  almost  the  whole  of  South 
America  to  these  nations  — Portugal 
holding  Brazil,  while  Spain,  held  the 
remainder.  The  colonial  system  of  Spmn 
was  a highly  vicious  and  OPP’’®®®'^® 
one,  and  the  colonies  seized  the  first 
opportunity  to  cast  off  their  allegiance 
to  the  mother  country,  early  in  19th 
century,  when  Spam  was  in  difficulties 
from  Napoleon’s  conquests.  Ihe  bpan- 
iards  attempted  to  bring  them  back  to 
their  allegiance  by  force,  and  a series  o 
struggles  took  place  between  the  colonial 
and  Spanish  troops  which  lasted  till 
1824,  when  the  independence  of  the 
colonies  was  finally  secured. 

SOUTHAMPTON,  a borough  and  sea- 
port town  of  England,  in  the  county  of 


Hants,  on  a peninsula  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Itchen,  near  the  head  of  Southamp- 
ton Water,  18  miles  n.w.  of  Ports- 
mouth, and  79  miles  s.w.  of  London. 
There  is  ample  dock  accommodation, 
and  Southampton  is  the  most  important 
mail-packet  station  in  the  kingdom. 
The  manufactures  are  chiefly  confined 
to  brewing,  coach-building,  iron-casung, 
sugar-refining,  and  ship-building.  op. 

104  911 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA,  a British  colony 
forming  the  central  of  the  three  sections 
(running  north  and  south),  into  w_hich 
Australia  is  divided.  Its  length  from 
north  to  south  is  1850  miles;  its  breadth 
from  east  to  west  650;  its  area  903,690 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  500  000 

SOUTH  BEND,  the  chief  town  of  bt. 
Joseph  county,  state  of  Indiana,  on  the 
St.  Joseph  river.  It  has  iinportant  inanu- 
factures  of  wagons,  buggies,  agricultural 
implements,  furniture,  doors  and  win- 
dow-frames, sewing-machines,  paper, 
etc  It  possesses  two  Roman  Latholic 
colleges,  the  University  of  Notre  Dame, 
etc  Pop.  43,100. 

SOUTH  BETHLEHEM',  a town  in 
Northampton  county.  Pa.,  56  ™aea 
north  by  west  of  Philadelphia;  on  the 
Lehigh  river,  opposite  Bethlehem,  and 
on  the  Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Bhila- 
delphia  and  Reading  railroads,  bouth 
Bethlehem  has  large  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  the  Pnncipal  being  t^ 
large  establishment  of  the  Bethlehem 
Iron  company.  Pop.  16,164.  _ 

SOUTH'BRIDGE,  a town  in  Worces- 
ter county.  Mass.,  20  miles  south  by 
west  of  Worcester;  on  the  Quinebaug 
river,  and  on  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  railroad.  Pop. 
1 1 043 

SOUTH  CAR'OLINA,  one  of  the 

original  thirteen  states  of  the  Union, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  North  Carolina 
on  the  southeast  by  the  Atlantic  ocean. 


Seal  of  Soutb  Carolina. 

and  on  the  southwest  by  Georgia.  Area 
30  570  sq.  miles,  and  thirty-sixth  in  size 
among  the  states.  South  Carolina  may 
be  about  equally  divided  into  high, 
middling,  and  low  land,  the  last  named 
rising  from  the  sea  coast,  where  it  is. 
very  flat  and  level,  and  gradually  in- 
creasing in  elevation  toward  the  interior, 
where  it  attains  a mean  of  about  -iOU 
feet,  continuing  to  the  north  line,  where 
after  varying  from  300  to  800  feet,  it 
reaches  its  highest  elevation  of  1000 
feet.  The  land  along  and  near  the  coast 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  COLLEGE 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


* 


is  low,  marshy,  and  swampy,  especially 
’ on  the  rivers’  banks,  rolling  and  diversi- 
fy fied  toward  the  center,  and  undulating 
f.  near  the  mountain  slope,  but  in  places 
abrupt.  King’s  mountain  rising  almost 
?.  perpendicularly  500  feet.  The  land  is 
y irrigated  and  well  drained  by  numerous 
V rivers,  the  largest  of  which  is  the 
t Santee.  The  climate  is  mild,  and  espe- 
' daily  healthful  in  the  uplands  and  pine 
barrens,  but  unhealthful  in  the  low 
',l  swamp  regions.  Snow  in  measureable 
amounts  generally  does  not  fall  on  more 
■>  than  two  or  three  days  in  a year,  except 
^ in  the  mountains,  where  there  is  a con- 
ij  siderable  snowfall.  The  average  annual 
I rainfall  is  47  inches,  fairly  evenly  dis- 
k tributed  both  as  to  localties  and  seasons, 
t Hurricanes  visit  the  coast  occasionally, 
and  sometimes  do  considerable  damage. 
In  1886  the  state  suffered  from  a severe 
^ earthquake  which  caused  great  destruc- 
tion  at  Charleston.  The  palmetto,  live 
'f  oak,  magnolia,  long  leaf  pine,  cypress', 
f . oaks,  hickories  are  common.  The  per- 
t simmon,  locust,  and  plane  tree  grow  in 
this  state.  The  most  valuable  minerals 
j'  found  are  granite,  gneiss, mica,  slate,  and 
k rock  phosphate.  Gold  and  silver  are 

I 


females  Converse  college,  a non-sectari- 
an institution  at  Spartanburg,  is  the 
largest.  The  state  has  an  agricultural 
college  at  Clemson  college,  at  which  also 
courses  in  civil,  electrical,  mechanical, 
and  textile  engineering  are  given.  The 
negro  population  of  South  Carolina  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  white  and  con- 
sequently is  one  of  the  most  serious 
of  the  educational  problems.  That 
considerable  success  has  been  attained 
is  shown  by  the  decrease  in  illiteracy. 
In  1562  Jean  Ribault,  acting  for  Ad- 
miral Coligny,  attempted  to  form  a 
colony  of  French  Huguenots  at  Port 
Royal.  In  1670  three  shiploads  of 
English  settlers  under  William  Sayle 
landed  near  Port  Royal.  In  1680  the 
settlement  was  removed  to  the  present 
site  of  Charleston.  The  colony  was 
divided  into  North  and  South  Carolina 
in  1710.  The  colony  joined  Ogle- 
thorpe’s unsuccessful  expedition  against 
the  Spaniards  in  1710.  The  colony 
was  prompt  in  its  resistance  to  the 
Stamp  Act,  and  troops  were  quar- 
tered in  Charleston.  Famous  leaders  of 
irregular  bands  of  patriots  were  Sumter 
and  Marion.  Charleston  was  captured  by 


A rice-field  in  South  Carolina. 


r mined  in  small  cjuantities  and  the  iron 
ores  existing  in  large  quantities  are  but 
\ little  worked.  The  most  important 
species  in  the  fish  industry  of  the  state 
are  oysters,  whiting,  shad,  and  sea  bass. 

■ South  Carolina  ranks  first  among 

southern  states  and  second  in  the  Union 
in  the  value  of  its  cotton  products. 
' Cotton  seed  oil  and  cake,  planing  mill 
products,  flouring  and  grist  mill  prod- 
'f-  ucts  are  among  the  other  industries. 
::  The  railroads  are  mostly  owned  or  con- 

^ trolled  by  three  large  systems — the 

7 Southern,  the  Seaboard  Air  line  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  line.  A considerable 
foreign  trade,  principally  exports,  passes 
J;  through  the  port  of  Charleston,  which 
: ranks  tenth  among  the  Atlantic  coast 

^ ports.  Corn,  wheat,  oats,  rice,  and  hay 
E,  are  the  principal  crops.  Tobacco  is 
rown  in  small  quantities.  Dairy  cows, 
orses,  mules  and  asses  and  swine  are 
raised.  The  state  provides  higher 
education  for  both  sexes  at  the  South 
Carolina  college  located  at  Columbia. 
Of  the  nine  colleges  and  seminaries  for 


the  British  in  1780,  andhelduntil  1782. 
The  state  adopted  the  Federal  constitu- 
tion May  23,  1788,  Columbia  was  made 
the  capital  in  1790,  and  a new  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  which  gave  the  legis- 
lature practically  all  power.  On  the 
election  of  President  Lincoln  in  1860, 
a convention  was  called  on  December 
20th,  which  unanimously  passed  an 
ordinance  of  secession.  The  attack  on 
Fort  Sumter  in  April,  1861,  precipitated 
the  civil  war.  The  state  furnished  60,000 
soldiers  to  the  confederate  armies. 
The  state  suffered  greatly  from  Sher- 
man’s march  and  during  the  war  it  was 
the  scene  of  active  operation  between 
the  federal  and  confederate  armies.  On 
the  refusal  of  the  state  to  ratify  the 
fourteenth  amendment,  a military  gov- 
ernment was  established.  In  1868  an- 
other constitution  allowing  negro  suf- 
frage was  adopted  and  the  state  was  re- 
admitted June  25th.  A severe  earth- 
quake destroyed  property  valued  at 
$5,000,000  August  31,  1886.  In  1893 
a great  storm  on  the  coast  caused  the 


loss  of  more  than  1000  lives.  In  1901-02 
the  South  Carolina  Interstate  and  West 
Indian  exposition  was  held  at  Charles- 
ton. In  national  elections  the  state 
has  been  democratic,  except  in  1792.' 
The  largest  cities  are  Charleston, 
Columbia,  Greenville.  Population  of 
state  about  1,490,000. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA  COLLEGE,  a 
non-sectarian,  coeducational  college  in 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  chartered  in  1801  and 
opened  in  1805.  It  was  closed  in  1863 
and  was  reopened  in  1866  as  the  Uni- 
versity of  South  Carolina.  It  was 
divided  into  two  branches  in  1878;  one, 
the  South  Carolina  college,  the  other 
Clafiin  college,  for  negroes,  at  Orange- 
burg. In  1894  women  were  admitted  to 
all  courses.  It  has  a system  of  accredited 
schools,  the  certificate  of  which  admits 
students  without  examination.  The 
college  has  a department  of  law. 

SOUTH  DAKO'TA,  a north  central 
state  of  the  Union  bounded  on  the 
north  by  North  Dakota,  on  the  east  by 
Minnesota  and  Iowa,  on  the  south  by 
Nebraska,  and  on  the  west  by  Wyoming 
and  Montana.  The  area  is  77,650  sq. 
miles,  of  which  76,850  are  land  surface, 
and  ranks  twelfth  in  size  among  the 
states.  In  general  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try is  like  that  of  North  Dakota;  but 
west  of  the  Missouri  river  the  level  and 
rolling  portions  rise  to  numerous  hills, 
and  buttes,  and  terminate  in  the  rugged 
elevated,  mineralogically  rich  Black 
Hills.  The  state  is  divided  into  the 
Missouri,  Big  Sioux,  James,  and  Central 
Dakota  valleys,  and  the  Sioux  reserva- 
tion and  Black  Hills  regions.  The  Mis- 
souri river  flows  through  the  state  from 
about  the  center  of  the  northern  boun- 
dary to  the  extreme  southeastern  corner 
and  forms  the  southern  boundary  for 
about  200  miles.  The  Big  Sioux  valley 
lies  in  the  eastern  and  southeastern  parts 
of  the  state.  South  Dakota  has  a climate 
with  great  extremes  of  temperature, 
the  mean  annual  temperature  is  44.3° 
F.  The  mean  for  January  is  15°  and  for 
July  72.2°,  while  the  absolute  extremes 
may  rise  to  more  than  115°  above  or  fall 
to  more  than  40°  below  zero.  But  owing 
to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
heat  and  cold  are  much  more  endurable 
than  more  moderate  temperatures  and 
renders  the  climate  bracing  and  pleasant. 
The  soil  in  the  greater  part  of  the  state 
is  of  excellent  quality,  and  when  suf- 
ficiently watered  is  rendered  highly  pro- 
ductive. The  state  is  as  a whole  a tree- 
less prairie  country.  Forests  are  found 
only  in  the  Black  Hills  above  an  alti- 
tude of  4000  feet,  where  there  is  a good 
growth  of  pine.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
the  state  lies  chiefly  in  the  area  of  the 
Black  Hills  which  is  noted  for  the  rich- 
ness, abundance,  and  diversity  of  its 
resources,  there  being  deposits  of  copper, 
gold,  silver,  argentiferous  lead,  iron 
ores,  manganese,  nickel,  tin,  mica,  and 
some  graphite.  The  clays  contain  beds 
of  gypsum,  and  beds  of  lignite  as  well 
as  reservoirs  of  natural  gas.  South 
Dakota  ranks  among  the  first  wheat 
states  in  the  Llnion.  Corn,  oats,  barley, 
hay,  and  forage  and  potatoes  are  the 
other  principal  crops.  The  state  has 
excellent  grazing  facilities.  The  number 
of  cattle  has  increased  over  one  hundred 
per  cent  and  there  has  also  been  a large 


■f 

I SOUTH  DAKOTA,  UNIVERSITY  OF 

increase  in  the  number  of  horses,  sheep, 
and  swine.  The  railroads  are  confined 
to  the  region  east  of  the  Missouri  river 
and  to  the  mining  region  in  the  south- 
west corner.  The  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
^ and  St.  Paul,  the  Great  Western,  and 
4 the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  have  the 
I greatest  mileage.  Much  interest  has  been 
t taken  in  the  cause  of  education,  during 
i the  entire  time  of  South  Dakota’s  state- 
i hood,  and  the  advances  made  have  been 
} rapid  indeed.  There  are  normal  institu- 
tions in  every  county.  The  leading 
■<  educational  institution  in  the  state  is 
j the  University  of  South  Dakota.  Among 
the  more  important  colleges  are  Black 
Hills  college  at  Hot  Springs,  Dakota 
university  at  Mitchell,  and  Pierre  uni- 
versity at  East  Pierre.  The  state  main- 
tains a School  of  Mines  at  Rapid  City, 
and  the  State  Agricultural  college  at 
Brookings.  There  are  charitable  insti- 
tutions and  libraries  in  most  of  the 


Great  seal  of  South  Dakota. 


larger  cities.  The  first  real  and  perma- 
nent white  settlement  in  Dakota  was 
probably  established  by  French-Cana- 
dians  near  Pembina  about  1780.  There 
were  fur-trading  posts  established  as 
early  as  1808.  By  a treaty  with  the 
Dakota  Indians  in  1851  a large  part  of 
the  country  was  opened  to  white  settle- 
ment. The  territory  was  established 
and  organized  in  1861.  Yankton  was  the 
capital  until  1883,  when  Bismarck  be- 
came the  seat  of  government.  During 
the  congressional  session  in  1888-89 
provision  was  made  to  admit  it  into  the 
Union  as  two  states.  North  Dakota  and 
South  Dakota.  In  national  elections  the 
slate  has  been  Republican,  excepting  in 
1892,  wKen  it  went  Democratic.  Pop. 
about  490,000. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA,  University  of,  a 
coeducational  state  institution  at  Ver- 
million, S.  D.,  organized  in  1882.  The 
university  has  established  a loan  fund 
for  the  assistance  of  needy  students. 
Military  science  and  tactics  form  part  of 
the  course.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
those  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Law,  Com- 
merce, and  Music.  The  institution  car- 
ries on  the  state  geological  survey. 

SOUTHERN  CROSS,  a constellation 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  composed 
of  four  stars,  one  of  which  is  of  the  first, 
and  two  of  the  second  magnitude.  They 
form  a figure  not  unlike  a cross,  espe- 
cially when  seen  above  the  pole,  and 
are  the  best-known  of  the  southern  con- 
stellations. 

SOUTHEY  (sou'thi),  Robert,  an  Eng- 
lish poet  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was 

. . P.  E 74 


born  in  1774.  He  left  Oxford  in  1794, 
and  having  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Coleridge,  they  were  married  on 
the  same  day  to  two  sisters  in  1795. 
Among  his  poetical  productions  may 
be  mentioned — Joan  of  Arc;  Thalaba; 
Madoc;  The  Curse  of  Kehama;  Roderick, 
the  Last  of  the  Goths;  a Poet’s  Pilgrim- 
age to  Waterloo;  and  a Vision  of  Judg- 
ment. Several  of  his  minor  pieces  show 
to  more  advantage  than  hislargerpoems. 
His  prose  works  are  remarkable  for  their 
excellent  style.  Among  others  may  be 
mentioned  his  Life  of  Nelson,  which  is 
almost  a perfect  model  of  its  kind;  Life 
of  Wesley,  History  of  Brazil,  The  Book 
of  the  Church,  and  the  Doctor.  He 
died  in  1843. 

SOUTH  OMAHA  (6'ma-ha),  a city  in 
Douglas  county.  Neb.,  adjoining  Omaha ; 
on  the  Missouri  river,  and  on  the  Union 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific,  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
river,  and  other  railroads.  South 
Omaha  was  settled  in  1882  and  was  in- 
corporated in  1886.  Its  rapid  growth 
dates  from  the  establishment  in  1884 
of  the  Union  Stock  Yards.  Pop.  30,000. 

SOUTH  POLAR  EXPEDITIONS,  ex- 
ploring expeditions  in  the  Antarctic 
regions.  The  first  discovery  of  land  in 
the  proximity  of  the  Antarctic  circle 
was  made  accidentally  by  Dirk  Cherrits, 
a Dutch  navigator,  who,  in  endeavoring 
to  enter  Magellan’s  straits,  was  driven 
southward  to  lat.  64°,  where  he  dis- 
covered the  South  Shetland  islands. 
Captain  Cook  is  the  first  who  is  known 
to  have  sailed  within  the  Antarctic 
circle.  He  reached  the  southernmost 
point  attained  by  him  on  30th  January, 
1774,  in  71°  10' s.  and  107°  w.  In  1821 
the  Russian  Bellinghausen  discovered 
Peter  the  Great  and  Alexander  islands. 
Enderby  Land  and  Kemp  Land  were 
discovered  by  Biseoe  in  1831-33.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  easternmost  point  of 
a supposed  continuous  coast,  and  lies  in 
lat.  about  67°  30'.  Sabina  Land  and 
Balleny  islands  were  discovered  in 
nearly  the  same  latitude  by  Balleny  in 
1839.  In  1840  two  important  exploring 
expeditions,  one  French,  the  other 
American,  reached  the  southern  seas. 
The  French  expedition,  under  Dumont 
d’Urville,  found  traces  of  what  they  be- 
lieved to  be  a continuous  coast  from 
136°  to  142°  e.,  to  which  they  gave  the 
name  of  Ad41ie  Land.  The  American 
expedition,  under  Wilkes,  passed  very 
near  the  southern  magnetic  pole,  the 
position  of  which  at  the  time  he  cal- 
culated to  be  lat.  70°  s..  Ion.  140°  e.,  and 
traced  land  from  Ion.  154°  27'  to  97°  30' 
e.,  which  Wilkes  concluded  to  be  con- 
tinuous. An  English  expedition  under 
James  Clark  Ross  in  1839  passed  the 
Antarctic  circle  about  Ion.  178°  e.,  and 
in  172°  36'  e.  Ion.  and  70°  41'  s.  lat. 
found  a continuous  coast  trending 
south,  with  mountain  peaks  9000  to 
12,000  feeli^^in  height.  He  gave  the 
country  th^  name  of  South  Victoria 
Land.  In  77°  32' s.  lat.,  167°  e.  Ion.,  he 
discovered  an  active  volcano.  Mount 
Erebus,  12,400  feet  high.  The  farthest 
south  point  reached  by  Ross  was  78° 
10';  in  1899  M.  Borchgrevink  reached 
lat.  78°  50',  and  located  the  south 
magnetic  pole  in  lat.  73°  20' s.  and  Ion. 
146°  e.  In  1901  several  expeditions. 


SOWING-MACHINES 

including  a British  one  on  board  the 
Discovery,  set  out  for  the  Antarctic 
regions.  The  southern  polar  region  is 
much  colder  than  the  northern.  The 
only  mammals  found  are  seals  and 
cetaceans.  No  vegetation  has  been 
found  further  south  than  Cockburn 
island  in  the  South  Shetland  group. 
See  Polar  Expeditions. 

SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE,  a disastrous 
financial  speculation  which  arose  in 
England  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  It  originated  with  the  directors 
of  a joint-stock  company,  which,  in 
consideration  of  certain  exclusive  priv- 
ileges of  trading  to  the  South  seas, 
offered  the  government  easier  terms  for 
the  advance  or  negotiation  of  loans  than 
could  be  obtained  from  the  general 
public.  In  1720  the  proposal  of  the 
company  to  take  over  the  entire  na- 
tional debt  (at  thistime  about$155,000,- 
000)  in  consideration  of  receiving  an- 
nually 5 per  cent  was  accepted,  and  the 
company  promised  in  return  for  this 
privilege  (as  it  was  regarded)  a premium 
in  their  own  stock  of  $37,500,000.  Pro- 
fessing to  possess  extensive  sources  of 
revenue  the  directors  held  out  promises 
to  the  public  of  paying  as  much  as  60 
per  cent  on  their  shares.  It  soon  became 
apparent  that  such  magnificent  promises 
could  never  be  fulfilled,  and  in  a few 
months’  time  the  collapse  came  which 
ruined  thousands. 

SOUTH  SEA  ISLANDS.  See  Polynesia. 

SOUTHWARK  (south'ark),  a division 
of  London  south  of  the  Thames,  in 
Surrey,  a metropolitan  pari,  and  mun. 
borough,  directly  opposite  the  City  of 
London.  For  parliamentary  purposes 
it  is  divided  into  three  divisions — West 
Southwark,  Rotherhithe,  and  Bermond- 
sey, one  member  to  each.  Pop.  pari, 
bor.,  214,085. 

SOUVALKY,  a town  of  Russian  Po- 
land, capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  with  considerable  trade, 
some  manufactures,  and  a population 
of  66,533. 

SOVEREIGN,  the  person  in  whom  is 
vested  the  highest  governing  power  in  a 

SOVEREIGN, agoldcoin,  the  standard 
of  the  English  coinage.  It  exchanges  for 
$4.80  and  has  a standard  weight  of 
123.274  grains,  being  of  22  carats  fine- 
ness, and  coined  at  the  rate  of  1869 
sovereigns  from  40  lbs.  troy  of  gold. 

SOWING-MACHINES,  machines  for 
sowing  grain.  Among  the  simplest  and 
earliest  forms  of  sowing-machine  is  a 
cylindrical  vessel  with  small  holes  at 
regular  intervals  round  its  circumference 
for  sowing  round  seed,  such  as  turnip- 
seed.  The  machine  is  placed  on  wheels, 
and  drawn  over  the  land  at  a regulated 
speed,  when  by  its  mere  revolution  the 
seed  is  delivered  with  tolerable  uniform- 
ity. Another  class  of  machines  consists 
of  those  having  a fixed  seed-box,  the 
delivery  from  which  is  regulated  by'inter- 
nal  revolving  machinery.  The  holes  for 
delivery  are  placed  at  regular  intervals 
near  the  bottom  of  one  side  of  the  seed- 
box.  One  of  the  best  modes  of  delivery  is 
regulated  by  cups  attached  to  projecting 
arms  on  a revolving  disc.  The  cups  dip 
into  the  seed  and  lift  successive  portions, 
which  they  deliver  at  the  height  of  their 
revolution  into  a funnel  placed  for  its 


SPACE 


SPAIN 


removal  to  the  ground.  Another  mode 
of  delivery  is  by  an  oscillating  movement 
given  to  a false  bottom  of  the  seed-box. 
The  real  and  the  false  bottom  are  both 
provided  with  holes,  and  when  the  holes 
correspond  the  seed  falls.  An  objection 
is  made  to  these  machines  that  they  are 
liable  to  cut  the  seed.  In  broadcast 
machines  no  special  apparatus  is  needed 
for  conveying  the  seed  to  the  ground, 
the  intervals  of  the  holes  causing  it  to 
fall  evenly  on  the  ground.  In  the  ma- 
chines called  drills  the  funnel  into  which 
the  seed  is  dropped  is  designed  to  con- 
vey it  accurately  into  the  row  in  which  it 
is  to  be  sown,  the  rows  being  parallel  to 
the  course  of  the  machine.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  funnel  terminates  in  a heavy 
coulter,  which  opens  a channel  of  uni- 
form depth  for  the  deposit  of  the  seed, 
which  is  then  covered  by  a harrow.  By 
further  improvements  drop  drills  and 
dibbling  machines  have  been  contrived, 
which  not  only  deposit  the  seed  in  rows 
but  at  regular  intervals  within  the  rows. 
The  regular  delivery  of  manure  is  also 
secured  by  similar  machines. 

SPACE,  in  philosophy,  extension  con- 
sidered independently  of  anything  which 
it  may  contain,  extension  considered  in 
its  own  nature.  Aristotle  defines  it  as 
the  possibility  of  motion,  and  possessing 
the  quality,  therefore,  of  being — poten- 
tially, not  actually — divisible  ad  in- 
finitum. Space  and  Time  are  two  of  the 
so-called  innate  ideas.  According  to  one 
school  these  ideas  are  intuitive  to  the 
mind ; according  to  another  they  are  the 
result  of  experience.  Locke  maintained 
that  we  acquire  the  idea  of  space  by  the 
senses  of  sight  and  touch.  Space  and 
Time,  according  to  Kant,  are  the  ulti- 
mate forms  of  external  and  internal 
sense,  and  these  forms  are  contained  a 
priori  in  the  human  mind.  Space  is  the 
form  of  external  sense  by  means  of 
which  objects  are  given  to  us  as  existent 
without  us,  and  as  existent  also  apart 
from  and  beside  one  another.  If  we 
abstract  from  all  that  belongs  to_  the 
matter  of  sensation  (in  any  perception), 
there  remains  behind  only  space,  as  the 
universal  form  into  which  all  the  ma- 
terials of  the  external  sense  dispose 
themselves.  Herbert  Spencer,  while 
making  no  attempt  to  analyze  the  notion 
of  space,  says;  “It  will  be  sufficient  for 
present  purposes  to  say  that  we  know 
space  as  an  ability  to  contain  bodies.  I 
am  aware  that  this  is  no  definition 
properly  so  called,  seeing  that  as  the 
words  ‘contain’  and  ‘bodies’  both  imply 
ideas  of  space,  the  definition  involves 
the  thing  to  be  defined.  But  leaving  out 
as  irrelevant  all  considerations  of  the 
mode  in  which  we  come  by  our  ideas  of 
space,  and  of  bodies  as  occupying  space, 
it  will  I think  be  admitted  that  the 
antithesis  between  bodies  and  an  ability 
to  contain  bodies  truly  represents  the 
contrast  in  our  conceptions  of  the  sen- 
sible non-ego  (matter)  and  the  insensi- 
ble non-ego  (space).’’ 

SPADIX,  in  botany,  a form  of  the  in- 
florescence of  plants,  in  which  the 
flowers  are  closely  arranged  round  a 
fleshy  radius,  and  the  whole  surrounded 
by  a large  leaf  or  bract  called  a spathe, 
as  in  palms  and  arums. 

SPAIN,  a state  in  the  southwest  of 
Europe,  forming  with  Portugal  the 


great  southwestern  peninsula  of  Europe. 
It  is  separated  from  France  on  the 
northeast  by  the  chain  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  is  otherwise  bounded  by  Portugal 
and  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean. 
In  greatest  breadth  n.  and  s.  it  measures 
540  miles;  greatest  length  e.  and  w., 
620  miles;  total  area,  196,000  sq.  mil^^ 
pop.  18,089,500.  Besides  the  B^ewic- 
and  Canary  Islands,  Spain  retaiii^  6f  il§f^ 
colonial  possessions  a large 
west  coast  of  the  Sahara ; an^‘^HeT^^<|' 
of  Fernando  Po,  with  somV^ffiOT^f 
West  African  possessions.  Th^?^\mff 
area  is  about  244,000  sq.  miles;®rp6^ 
about  144,000.  Spain  formerly ’’Kmu- 
prised  the  ancient  kingdoms  and  prov- 
inces of  New  and  Old  Castile,  Leon, 
Asturias,  Galicia,  Estremadura,  An- 
dalusia, Aragon,  Murcia,  Valencia,  Cata- 
lonia, Navarre,  and  the  Basque  prov- 
inces. These  since  1834,  for  ackninistra- 


0,  Spathe.  6,  Spadix. 

tive  purposes,  have  been  divided  into 
forty-nine  provinces,  including  the 
Balearic  and  Canary  islands.  The  capi- 
tal is  Madrid;  next  in  population  are 
Barcelona,  Valencia,  Seville,  and  Malaga. 
The  coast-line  is  not  much  broken,  but 
sweeps  round  in  gentle  curves,  present- 
ing few  remarkable  headlands  or  inden- 
tations. The  interior  is  considerably 
diversified,  but  its  characteristic  feature 
is  its  central  table-land,  which  has  an 
elevation  of  from  2200  to  2800  feet,  and 
a superficial  extent  of  not  less  than 
90,000  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  n. 
by  the  Asturian  and  Cantabrian  moun- 
tains; on  the  s.  by  the  Sierra  Morena; 
and  is  crossed  from  east  to  west  by  the 
rivers  Douro,  Tagus,  and  Guadiana. 
Between  these  limits  it  is  intersected  by 
two  important  ranges  of  mountains 
running  nearly  e.  and  w.,  the  northern 
being  the  Guadarrama  with  its  continua- 
tions, separating  the  valleys  of  the 
Douro  and  Tagus ; and  the  southern,  the 
Sierra  de  Toledo  and  its  continuations 
between  the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana. 
South  of  the  Sierra  Morena  is  the  valley 
of  the  river  Guadalquivir.  Besides  these 
ranges  there  is  the  chain  of  the  Pyrenees, 
which,  though  partly  belonging  to 
France,  presents  its  boldest  front  to 
Spain  and  has  its  loftiest  summits 
within  it.  The  chief  rivers  enter  the 
Atlantic,  but  in  the  northeast  is  the 
Ebro,  a tributary  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Douro,  Tagus,  and  Guadiana  belong 
partly  to  Portugal.  The  lakes  are  few 
and  unimportant.  The  whole  country 
teems  with  mineral  wealth,  the  minerals, 
including  in  greater  or  less  quantities 
gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  lead,  copper, 
iron,  zinc,  calamine,  antimony,  tin,  coal, 
etc.  The  climate  varies  much  in  different 
localities.  On  the  elevated  table-land 


it  is  both  colder  in  winter  and  hotter  in 
summer  than  usual  under  the  same 
latitude.  In  the  plains  and  on  the  coasts 
the  hot  summer  is  followed  by  a cold 
rainy  season,  terminating  in  April  in 
a beautiful  spring.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture afr  Malaga  in  summer  is  77°  F.,  in 
Barcelona  77°  and  50°; 
'&fi3‘^t’'MaaH^)'?5°  and  44.6°.  The  rain- 
j^nfall'p^nhe-  interior  between  8 
^m3'^Jirli6Iies  p^V^fihum.  In  some  parts 
^ofl  ihe'-sdUtn  the^ilimate  is  almost  tropi- 
'§al?.^‘AB‘^t  one-sixth  of  the  acreage  is 
jfln&fer^^od;  the  more  remarkable  trees 
iBqi^°the  Spanish  chestnut  and  several 
^varieties  of  oak,  and  in  particular  the 
cork-oak.  Fruits  are  extremely  abun- 
dant, and  include,  in  addition  to  the 
almond,  date,  fig,  orange,  citron,  olive, 
and  pomegranate;  and  in  the  lower  dis- 
tricts of  the  south,  the  pine-apple  and 
banana.  The  more  important  farm 
crops  are  wheat,  rice,  corn,  barley, 
and  legumes.  In  the  south  cotton  and 
the  sugar-cane  are  grown.  Hemp  and 
flax,  the  mulberry  for  rearing  silk-worms, 
saffron,  liquorice,  are  also  to  be  men- 
tioned. The  only  large  animals  in  a wild 
state  are  the  wolf,  common  in  all  the 
mountainous  districts,  and  the  bear  and 
chamois,  found  chiefly  in  the  Pyrenees. 
Domestic  animals  include  the  merino 
sheep  in  great  numbers,  horses,  mules, 
asses,  horned  cattle,  and  pigs.  The 
manufactures  of  Spain  are  not  as  a 
whole  important,  but  considerable  ad- 
vances have  been  made  in  recent  times. 
The  most  important  industries  are  the 
manufactures  of  cotton,  of  woolens  and 
linens,  of  cutlery  and  metal  goods,  paper, 
silk,  leather,  tobacco  and  cigars,  besides 
wine,  flour,  and  oil.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  wine,  fruits  (especially 
oranges  and  raisins),  cork,  lead,  copper 
and  copper  ore,  iron  ore,  oils,  soap,  and 
agricultural  produce  (including  cattle 
and  wool).  The  chief  trade  is  with 
France,  next  to  which  is  Britain.  The 
country  is  imperfectly  provided  with 
roads;  the  rivers  are  of  little  use  for 
navigation;  and  though  railways  have 
a considerable  aggregate  length  (about 
6000  miles),  much  is  still  required.  The 
length  of  telegraphs  is  about  11,500 
miles.  The  chief  denomination  of  money 
is  the  peseta,  of  which  about  5 are 
equivalent  to  $1.00.  The  present  con- 
stitution dates  from  1876,  and  enacts 
that  the  government  be  a constitutional 
monarchy,  the  legislative  power  resting 
“in  the  Cortes  with  the  king,”  the  ex- 
ecutive being  vested,  under  the  monarch, 
in  a council  of  nine  ministers.  The 
Cortes  consists  of  two  independent 
bodies — the  senate  and  congress,  the 
former  consisting  of  360  members,  one- 
half  of  whom  are  elected  by  corporations 
and  similar  bodies,  the  other  half  being 
life  senators  nominated  by  the  crown, 
and  “senators  by  their  own  right.”  The 
congress  is  formed  by  deputies  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  each  50,000  of  the 
population.  The  various  provinces,  dis- 
tricts, and  communes  are  governed  by 
their  own  municipal  laws  with  local 
administration.  Each  commune  has 
its  affairs  directed  by  an  elected  ajmn- 
tamiento,  and  each  province  has  its 
diputacion  provincial,  or  parliament, 
whose  members  are  elected  by  the 
ayuntamiento.  The  army  consists  of 


SPAIN 


SPAIN 


(1)  a permanent  army,  in  which  all  above 
the  age  of  twenty  are  liable  to  serve  for 
three  years;  (2)  an  active  reserve  with 
three  years’  service;  and  (3)  a sedentary 
reserve,  with  service  for  other  six  years. 
By  the  payment  of  1300  exemption  from 
service  may  be  obtained.  For  military 
purposes  the  country,  with  the  islands,  is 
divided  into  fourteen  districts,  and  the 
strength  of  the  army  (exclusive  of  the 
reserve)  is  130,000  in  peace  and  310,595 
in  war.  The  navy  is  manned  by  about 
6000  men,  besides  about  9000  marines; 
the  vessels  comprise  four  battle-ships, 
three  first-class  protected  cruisers,  three 
second-class,  and  a large  number  of 
third-class  and  gunboats,  etc.  The 
people  of  Spain  are  of  very  mixed  origin, 
the  most  ancient  inhabitants,  the  Iber- 
ians (now  represented  probably  by  the 
Basques  or  Biscayans  of  the  northeast), 
being  afterward  mingled  with  Celts, 
Phoenicians,  and  Carthaginians,  Roman 
colonists,  Goths,  Jews,  and  Arabs  or 
Moors.  They  are  generally  of  medium 
height  and  of  spare  habit,  with  black 
hair,  dark  eyes,  and  sallow  complexion. 
Under  the  constitution  the  state  binds 
itself  to  maintain  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  but  a restricted  liberty  of  wor- 
ship is  permitted  to  Protestants,  of 
whom,  however,  there  are  very  few. 
The  most  ancient  known  inhabitants 
of  Spain  were  the  Iberians.  To  these 
afterward  were  joined  certain  tribes 
of  Celts,  and  subsequently  the  two  races 
united.  The  Phoenicians  made  settle- 
ments at  a very  early  date,  having 
founded  Cadiz  about  b.c.  1100;  later 
the  Greeks  founded  several  cities,  and 
then  (b.c.  238),  the  history  of  Spain 
may  properly  be  said  to  begin  with  the 
Carthaginian  invasion.  Hamilcar  Barca 
undertook,  with  considerable  success, 
to  subjugate  the  tribes  of  the  peninsula, 
and  in  this  effort  he  was  followed  by 
Hasdrubal  and  Hannibal.  War  between 
Rome  and  Carthage  brought  the  Romans 
to  Spain,  and  (b.c.  205)  •nded  in  their 
driving  out  the  Carthaginians.  In  256 
A.D.  the  country  was  invaded  by  the 
Franks,  and  after  their  departure  Spain 
became  peaceful  until  th*  advent  of  the 
Goths.  A Visigothic  kingdom  was  estab- 
lished about  418  A.D.  But  after  retain- 
ing the  mastery  of  the  country  for  nearly 
three  centuries  the  Visigoths  were  in 
their  turn  conquered  (711  a.d.)  by  the 
Saracens  under  Tarik,  and  the  greater 
part  of  Spain  became  a province  of  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad.  For  some  years  they 
held  it  as  a dependency  of  the  province 
of  North  Africa,  but  it  was  afterward 
(717)  governed  by  emirs  appointed  by 
the  caliphs  of  Damascus.  Dissensions 
ultimately  arose  between  the  central 
power  and  the  province,  with  the  result 
that  an  independent  dynasty  was  estab- 
lished by  Abd  al-Rahman  at  Cordova 
(756  A.D.),  which  received  additional 
power  and  magnificence  from  Hisham 
(788)  and  his  son  A1  Hakam  (796). 
Meanwhile  several  small  kingdoms  had 
been  formed  in  the  mountainous  dis- 
tricts of  the  Pyrenees,  probably  by 
iescendants  of  the  Visigoths.  The  chief 
of  these  were  the  kingdoms  of  Asturias, 
Leon,  Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Castile. 
These  states  were  often  at  war  with  each 
other,  and  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy 
Castile  and  Aragon  ultimately  absorbed 


all  the  others.  By  the  marriage  (1469)  of 
Isabella,  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Castile 
with  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  begins  the 
modern  history  of  Spain.  To  strengthen 
the  central  government  and  curtail  the 
power  of  the  nobility  the  Santa  Her- 
mandad,  or  Holy  Brotherhood,  was 
formed  (1476)  to  act  as  the  adminis- 
trators of  justice;  the  Inquisition  was 
instituted  (1481)  to  promote  religious 
orthodoxy  and  unity;  the  Jews  were  ex- 
pelled for  heterodoxy;  and  the  Moors 
were  completely  subjugated  by  the  con- 
quest of  Granada  (1492)  and  afterward 
expelled.  In  this  same  year  Columbus 
discovered  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
colonial  power  of  Spain,  thus  begun,  was 
soon  greatly  extended.  When  Ferdinand 
died  in  1516  his  daughter  Joanna,  who 
had  married  Philip,  son  of  Maximilian 
I.,  succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of  Aragon, 
but  her  son,  Charles  I.,  became  regent 
and  ultimately  king  of  the  whole  of 
Spain.  He  was  also  ruler  of  the  Nether- 
lands, which  he  inherited  from  his 
father,  and  in  1519  he  was  proclaimed 
Charles  V.  emperor  of  Germany.  As  the 
champion  of  the  Catholic  church  he 
successively  declared  war  with  the 
French,  the  German  Protestants,  and 
the  Turks.  But  as  the  expense  of  this 
vast  policy  overtaxed  his  own  kingdom 
and  was  only  partially  met  by  the 
wealth  acquired  by  the  conquest  of 
Mexico  (1518)  and  Peru  (1531),  he 
finally  retired  in  despair,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded (1556)  by  his  son,  Philip  II.,  who 
failed  to  establish  the  Spanish  influence 
in  France  and  sustained  defeat  from 
England  by  the  destruction  of  the  In- 
vincible Armada.  He  was  succeeded 
(1599)  by  Philip  III.,  who,  by  expelling 
all  the  Moriscos  from  his  kingdom  and 
engaging  in  the  Thirty  Years’  war,  im- 
poverished the  country.  Further  chs- 
asters  overtook  Spain  on  the  accession 
of  Philip  IV.  (1621).  Under  his  son, 
Charles  II.  (1665),  a prince  who  was 
feeble  both  in  mind  and  body,  the 
country  declined  still  more,  and  at  his 
death  in  1700  without  an  heir  there 
began  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
Aftwr  a prolonged  European  war  it  was 
agreed  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713) 
to  acknowledge  the  Bourbon  Philip  V. 
as  king  of  Spain  on  condition  that  the 
Nethenands  and  the  Italian  provinces 
were  given  to  Austria,  while  England 
claimed  Gibraltar  and  Minorca.  Under 
the  administration  of  Cardinal  Alberoni 
Spain  regained  a large  part  of  its  power 
in  Europe.  This  revival  was  continued 
under  Ferdinand  VI.,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  m 1746;  but  it  received  its 
greatest  impulse  from  Charles  III. 
(1759),  who  developed  the  agricultural 
and  other  resources  of  his  country,  and 
broke  the  power  of  the  Inquisition  by 
banishing  the  Jesuits  (1767).  The  full 
effect  of  these  and  other  liberal  measures 
was  arrested,  however,  by  the  accession 
of  Charles  IV.  (1788),  whose  policy, 
directed  by  Godoy,  first  brought  about 
a rupture  with  the  French  republic,  and 
then  a close  alliance  with  France  and  a 
war  against  the  British,  resulting  in  the 
battle  of  Trafalgar  (1805),  when  the 
naval  power  of  Spain  was  destroyed. 
The  result  was  an  insurrection  and  the 
abdication  of  the  king  (1808)  in  favor 
of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII.  Napoleon! 


caused  the  whole  Bourbon  family  to  be 
set  aside  and  gave  the  crown  to  Joseph, 
his  brother.  War  was  declared  and  the 
council  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Great  Britain.  In  several  battles  the 
British  army  routed  the  French  and 
advanced  into  Spain;  but  it  was  not 
until  the  spring  of  1813  that  Wellington 
was  able  to  clear  the  peninsula  of  French 
soldiers  and  to  fight  his  way  through  the 
Pyrenees  into  France.  In  consequence 
of  this  success  the  Bourbon  prince, 
Ferdinand  VII.,  returned  and  was  pro- 
claimed king  (1814).  During  the  Napo- 
leonic war  the  South  American  colonies 
had  asserted  their  independence,  Florida 
had  been  sold  to  the  United  States,  and 
the  finances  misused.  In  1829  Ferdinand 
abolished  the  Salic  law  by  a “pragmatic 
sanction,”  and  as  the  result  of  this  his 
daughter  was  proclaimed  queen,  on  the 
death  of  her  father  in  1833,  under  the 
title  of  Isabella  II.  As  this  queen  was 
only  three  years  old,  her  mother,  Maria 
Christina,  undertook  the  regency;  but 
she  was  opposed  by  Don  Carlos,  a 
brother  of  the  late  king,  and  a serious 
civil  war  broke  out.  The  Carlist  party 
achieved  considerable  success  at  first, 
but  the  civil  strife  was  ultimately 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  triumph  of 
the  royalists  (1840)  under  Espartero 
and  O’Donnell.  Notwithstanding  this 
the  regent,  who  found  it  impossible  to 
control  the  various  factions,  retired  into 
France,  and  Espartero  was  recognized 
as  regent.  By  the  influence  of  Louis 
PhOippe,  the  French  king,  a marriage 
was  brought  about  in  1845  between 
Isabella  and  her  cousin,  Don  Francisco 
d’Assiz.  For  some  years  after  this  event 
the  political  history  of  Spain  became  a 
medley  of  party  intrigue  and  petty 
political  ana  military  revolution.  In 
1873  the  cortes  declared  in  favor  of  a 
federal  republic,  and  the  presidency 
was  intrusted  to  Castelar;  but  the  out- 
break of  a Carlist  war  in  the  Basque 
provinces  made  this  form  of  government 
impossible.  Accordingly  as  it  had  been 
proved  that  a republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  impossible,  the  throne  was 
offered  (1874)  to  the  son  of  the  exiled 
Isabella.  In  1875  the  young  king,  with 
the  title  of  Alfonzo  XI.,  landed  at 
Barcelona,  and  successfully  established 
his  government  by  a complete  defeat 
of  the  Carlist  insurgents.  The  present 
king  is  his  son,  Alfonso  XII.,  who  was 
crowned  in  1902.  The  chief  event  in 
the  recent  history  of  Spain  is  the  war 
with  the  United  States  (1898),  which 
stripped  her  of  her  richest  remaining 
colonies:  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  the  Phil- 
ippines.  In  1906  Alfonso  married  the 
English  princess  Victoria  Ena,  daughter 
of  Princess  Beatrice.  In  June,  1907,  an 
heir  to  the  throne  was  born.  The  Span- 
ish language,  which  is  also  the  language 
of  Mexico  and  a great  part  of  South 
America,  belongs  to  the  group  known  as 
the  Romance  or  Romanic  languages.  Its 
formation  was  influenced  by  the  length- 
ened duration  in  Spain  of  Roman  insti- 
tutions, by  the  Teutonic  element  intro- 
duced by  the  Visigoths,  and  by  words 
of  Arabic  origin  added  during  the  long 
occupation  of  the  country  by  the  Moors. 
The  national  literature  of  Spain  dates 
from  the  12th  century,  ballads  and 
metrical  romances  being  itsearliestprod* 


SPANGLES 


SPA'RID^ 


ucts.  To  this  period  the  Poema  del  Cid 
is  usually  ascribed,  an  epic  in  which  are 
narrated  the  adventures  of  Rodrigo 
Diaz  de  Bivar,  the  national  hero.  Fol- 
lowing this  early  historical  and  legend- 
ary theme  came  the  didactic  verse  of  the 
Benedictine  monk  Gonzalo  Berceo 
(1198-1268).  The  most  remarkable 
piece  of  writing  of  this  age  was  Las 
Siete  Partidas  (1265),  a Castilian  code 
of  laws  published  under  the  patronage 
of  Alfonso  X.  In  the  16th  century  there 
were  published  the  Amadis  de  Gaula, 
the  first  of  the  Spanish  caballerias,  or 
"books  of  chivalry.”  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and 
Aragon  were  united  under  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  that  Spanish  literature 
attained  its  chief  distinction.  The  prin- 
cipal writers  were  Juan  Boscan  Ahno- 
gaver,  Diego  de  Mendoza,  Garcilaso  de 
la  Vega,  Fernando  de  Herrera,  and 
Hernando  de  Acuna.  Characteristic  of 
this  period  was  the  vigorous  develop- 
ment of  the  novela,  with  a picaroon  or 
rogue  for  hero.  The  earliest  of  these 
picaresque  novels  was  Guzman  de 
Alfarache,  by  Mateo  Aleman;  Alonzo 
Mozo,  by  Geronirao  de  Alcald;  Gran 
Tacafio,  by  Quevedo,  and  numerous 
other  romances.  But  these  were  all  sur- 
passed, and  the  chivalric  extravagance 
of  this  period  burlesqued  to  extinction 
by  Don  Quixote  (first  part  1605),  the 
masterpiece  of  Miguel  Cervantes  de 
Saavedra.  But  this  movement  received 
its  full  perfection  and  refinement  in  the 
poetical  and  philosophical  dramas  of 
Pedro  Calderon  de  la  Barca  (1600-81). 
Among  the  historical  writings  of  this  era 
were  the  Historia  de  Espana,  by  Juan 
de  Mariana;  Guerra  de  Granada,  by 
Diego  de  Mendoza;  the  Historia  Verda- 
dera  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Nueva 
Espafia,  by  Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo;  and 
the  Historia  de  las  Indias,  by  Bartolom6 
de  las  Casas.  With  the  accession  of  the 
Bourbons  in  the  18th  century  there  was 
introduced  from  France  an  element  of 
revival  into  Spanish  literature  which  was 
furthered  by  the  Poetica  of  Ignacio  de 
Luzan,  the  Retorica  of  Gregorio  de 
Mayans,  and  the  Teatro  Critico  of 
Benito  Feyjoo.  This  French  element 
had  also  its  influence  upon  the  poets  of 
the  latter  half  of  the  18th  and  beginning 
of  the  19th  centuries,  among  whom  were 
Valdes,  Cienfuegos,  Iriarte,  Gonzales, 
Moratin,  de  la  Rosa,  etc.;  while  the 
romance  was  revived  in  the  Fray 
Gerundio  of  Jos6  de  Isla,  who  was  also 
the  translator  of  Gil  Bias.  The  romantic 
movement  of  France  had  its  Spanish 
adherents,  among  whom,  as  the  most 
notable  poets,  are  to  be  named  Zorrilla, 
Espronceda,  Diaz,  Escosura,  and  Pa- 
checo; the  chief  classicists  being  Quin- 
tana, Reinoso,  Calderon,  and  Carvajal; 
while  as  a satirist,  Jos<5  de  Lara  (Figaro), 
and  as  a dramatist  Manuel  Breton  de 
Herreros,  are  worthy  of  mention.  More 
recently  the  poets  Campoamor,  Arce, 
Becquer,  de  Trueba,  and  Aguilera,  and 
the  novelists  Caballero,  Valera,  Galdos, 
de  Trueba,  Gonzales,  and  Alarcon  have 
attained  a certain  distinction. 

SPANGLES,  metal  ornaments,  used 
chiefly  for  theatrical  dresses,  and  con- 
sisting for  the  most  part  of  thin  circular 
pieces  of  gilt  or  silvered  tin. 

SPANISH  AMERICAN  WAR,  the  war 


between  Spain  and  the  United  States  in 
1898.  The  struggle  between  the  Cubans 
and  their  home  government  for  over  a 
century,  the  increase  of  bloodshed, 
starvation  and  general  devastation  of 
the  island,  the  systematically  disre- 
garded rights  of  i^erican  citizens  by 
the  Spanish  authorities,  finally  decided 
the  United  States  to  interpose  its 
friendly  offices.  President  Cleveland,  in 
December,  1896,  in  his  annual  message, 
spoke  of  “higher  obligations”  than  those 
due  to  Spain,  which  would  devolve  upon 
the  United  States  if  conditions  should 
grow  worse  in  the  island  and  if  Spain’s 
inability  to  deal  successfully  with  the 
insurrection  should  become  manifest. 
On  the  evening  of  February  15th  the 
battleship  Maine  wasblownupinHavana 
harbor  and  266  of  the  crew  killed.  Con- 
gress immediately  appropriated  $50,- 
000,000  for  national  defense.  Public 
opinion  decided  that  the  Spanish 
officials  in  Cuba  were  responsible  for 
the  disaster.  On  April  23d  President 
McKinley  called  for  125,000  volunteers 
and  ordered  the  North  Atlantic  squad- 
ron to  blockade  Havana  and  other 
Cuban  ports.  Formal  declaration  of 
war  by  Spain  on  the  24th  and  by  the 
United  States  on  the  25th  inst.  were 
followed  by  the  proclamations  of  neu- 
trality by  Great  Britain  and  other 
foreign  powers.  The  first  act  of  war  was 
the  capture,  April  22,  of  the  merchant- 
man Buena  Ventura,  by  the  gunboat 
Nashville.  On  April  24  Dewey,  with 
orders  to  capture  or  destroy  the  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  Philippines,  set  sail  from 
Hong  Kong.  April  25,  the  Spanish  forts 
opened  fire  upon  the  American  fleet  off 
Havana.  April  27,  the  earthworks  of 
Matanzas  were  shelled;  the  Spanish 
steamship  Guido  was  taken  and  the 
enemy’s  fleet  gathered  in  Manila  bay 
to  meet  Dewey.  April  29,  Cienfugos  was 
bombarded  and  Cervera’s  fleet  made  its 
first  start  for  Cape  Verde  islands.  May 
1 came  the  victory  of  Dewey  when  he 
destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  of  11  war- 
ships in  Manila  bay  and  subsequently 
took  possession  of  Cavite.  May  19,  the 
Cape  Verde  fleet  was  reported  at  San- 
tiago. June  3,  Lieut.  Hobson,  with  seven 
volunteers,  sank  the  Merrimac  in  the 
entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Santiago,  one 
of  the  most  thrilling  performances  of 
the  war.  June  21,  Gen.  Shatter’s  troops 
arrived  off  Santiago  and  landed  at 
Baquiri,  June  23.  July  1,  the  assault 
upon  Santiago  began,  when  El  Caney 
and  San  Juan  were  taken  with  heavy 
losses.  July  3,  Cervera’s  Cape  Verde 
fleet  was  destroyed  while  making  a dash 
to  escape  from  Santiago  harbor.  Com- 
modore Schley  was  acting-admiral  in 
the  absence  of  Admiral  Sampson.  July 
14,  Gen.  Toral,  commanding  the  Spanish 
forces,  surrendered  Santiago  and  the 
east  side  of  Cuba.  July  25,  Gen.  Miles 
and  the  Porto  Rico  expedition  began 
landing  on  that  island.  July  26,  Spain 
formally  sued  for  peace  through  the 
French  ambassador.  July  28,  the  city 
of  Ponce  surrendered  to  Gen.  Miles, 
the  inhabitants  welcoming  the  invaders 
with  shouts  of  joy.  The  president,  July 
29,  named  the  conditions  under  which 
peace  would  be  discussed  and  which  were 
made  public  Aug.  2.  These  banished 
Spain  entirely  from  this  hemisphere; 


gave  the  United  States  an  island  in  the 
Ladrone  group;  also  Luzon  of  the 
Philippines  and  the  latter  to  be  a further 
question  in  the  later  negotiations. 
August  6 it  was  announced  that  Spain 
accepted  the  terms  proposed,  and  shortly 
afterv/ard  the  peace  protocol  was  signed 
in  Washington;  the  French  ambassador 
acting  for  Spain.  Admiral  Dewey  and 
General  Merritt,  August  13,  made  a 
combined  attack  on  Manila,  the  result 
being  its  capture. 

SPANISH  AMERICAN  WAR,  1898, 

Chronology  of,  Maine,  blown  up,  Feb- 
ruary 15;  Spain  asked  to  leave  Cuba, 
April  19;  diplomatic  relations  broken, 
April  21 ; (5uban  blockade  declared, 
April  22;  war  declared  by  Spain,  April 
24;  war  declared'  by  United  States, 
April  25;  Dewey’s  victory  at  Manila, 
May  1 ; Hobson’s  Merrimac  exploit, 
June  3;  United  States  army  corps  land 
in  Cuba,  June  21 ; battle  at  El  Caney  and 
San  Juan,  July  1;  Cervera’s  fleet  de- 
stroyed, July  3;  General  Toral  sur- 
renders, July  14;  Santiago  de  Cuba  sur- 
renders, July  17;  campaign  in  Porto 
Rico  begins,  July  25;  peace  protocol 
signed,  August  12;  surrender  of  Manila, 
August  13;  peace  treaty  signed  in  Paris, 
December  12;  signed  by  the  president 
February  10, 1899;  by  the  queen  regent, 
March  17. 

SPANISH  MAIN,  the  name  formerly 
given  to  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  coast 
along  the  north  part  of  South  America, 
from  the  Leeward  islands  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien. 

SPANKER,  a large  fore-and-aft  sail 
set  upon  the  mizzen-mast  of  a ship  or 
barque,  the  top  extended  by  a gaff,  the 


«s.  Spanker. 


foot  by  a boom.  It  is  also  called  the 
mizzen. 

SPAR,  in  mineralogy,  a term  em- 
ployed to  include  a great  number  of 
crystalized,  earthy,  and  some  metallic 
substances,  which  easily  break  into 
rhomboidal,  cubical  or  laminated  frag- 
ments with  polished  surfaces,  but  with- 
out regard  to  the  ingredients  of  which 
they  are  composed.  Among  miners  the 
term  spar  is  frequently  used  alone  to 
express  any  bright  crystalline  substance. 

SPAR-DECK,  nautical,  a term  some- 
what loosely  applied,  though  properly 
signifying  a temporary  deck,  consisting 
of  spars  supported  on  beams,  laid  in 
any  part  of  a vessel.  It  also  means  the 
quarter-deck,  gangwaj's,  and  forecastle 
of  a deep-waisted  vessel,  and  is  applied 
to  the  upper  entire  deck  of  a double- 
banked  vessel  without  an  open  waist. 

SPA'RIDiE,  a family  of  acanthop- 
terygious,  teleostean  fishes,  of  which  the 


SPARKS 


SPECIFIC  GRAVm 


genus  Sparus  is  the  type.  They  some- 
what resemble  the  perches  in  form,  the 
body  being  generally  of  an  ovate  form 
and  covered  with  large  scales.  The 
Sparidffi  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  warm 


Sparada. 


climates.  They  are  edible,  and  some  of 
them  highly  esteemed. 

SPARKS,  Jared,  born  at  Willington, 
Connecticut,  1789;  died  1866.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  became 
mathematical  tutor,  and  he  was  sub- 
sequently (1819-23)  pastor  of  a Unitari- 
an church  at  Baltimore.  He  was  after- 
ward editor  of  the  North  American  Re- 
view, and  was  appointed  professor  of 
history  (1839)  and  president  (1849)  of 
Harvard.  He  is  chiefly  known  in  litera- 
ture as  the  author  of  Life  and  Writings 
of  Washington  (twelve  vols.,  1834-37) ; 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the 
American  Revolution  (twelve  vols., 
1829-30);  Library  of  American  Biog- 
raphy (two  series,  25  vols.);  and  Works 
of  Benjamin  Franklin  (ten  vols., 
1836-40). 

SPARROW,  a well-known  bird  of  the 
finch  family,  which  inhabits  the  British 
islands  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and 
has  been  introduced  into  North  America 
and  Australia.  Their  amazing  fecundity, 
their  strong  attachment  to  their  young, 
their  familiarity,  not  to  say  impudence, 
and  their  voracity,  are  familiar  to  all. 
They  often  do  great  injury  in  cornfields, 
and  gardens,  but  they  also  do  great 
service  in  destroying  grubs,  caterpillars 
stc 

SPARROW-HAWK,  the  common 
name  of  several  hawks.  The  male  is 
colored  dark  brown  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  on  the  upper  aspect  of  the 
body  and  wings.  The  under  parts  are 
of  a reddish-brown  color,  marked  with 


Sparrow-hawk. 


narrow  bands  of  darker  tint.  The  female 
bird  is  of  a duller  brown  hue  on  the  back 
and  head;  and  her  plumage  is  diversified 
by  numerous  white  spots.  It  is  a bold, 
active  bird,  very  destructive  to  pigeons, 
small  birds  and  chickens. 

SPARTANBURG,  a city  and  capital  of 
partanburg  co..  S.  C.-  on  the  Port 
oyal  and  W.  Car.  and  the  Southern 
railways;  73  miles  w.s.w.  of  Charlotte, 


N.  C.,  95  miles  n.w.  of  Columbia,  the 
state  capital.  It  is  in  a gold  and  iron 
mining  and  limestone-quarrying  region. 
Pop.  12,462. 

SPASM,  in  medicine,  an  abnormal, 
sudden,  and  more  or  less  violent  con- 
traction of  one  or  more  muscles  or 
muscular  fibers.  Spasm  is  either  clonic 
or  tonic.  In  clonic  spasm  the  muscles 
or  muscular  fibers  contract  and  relax 
alternately  in  very  quick  succession, 
producing  the  appearance  of  agitation, 
as  in  epilepsy.  In  tonic  spasm  the 
muscles  or  muscular  fibers  contract  in 
a steady  and  uniform  manner,  and  re- 
main contracted  for  a comparatively 
long  time,  as  in  tetanus. 

SPAT'ULA,  a flat  sort  of  knife  with  a 
thin  flexible  blade,  used  by  druggists, 
painters,  etc.,  for  spreading  plasters, 
working  pigments,  etc.  In  surgery,  it  is 
a flat  instrument,  angular  or  straight,  for 
depressing  the  tongue  and  keeping  it  out 
of  the  way  in  operations  about  the 
throat  or  larynx. 

SPATULARIA,  or  POLYODON,  a 

genus  of  fishes  belonging  to  the  sturgeon 
tribe.  They  are  remarkable  forthe  form 


1 


Spatularla,  upper  (1)  and  under  (2)  view. 

of  their  snouts,  which  are  enormously 
long  and  leaf-like  in  form.  The  type  of 
the  genus  is  the  paddle-fish  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. 

SPAV'IN,  a disease  of  horses,  affecting 
the  hock-joint,  or  joint  of  the  hind  leg, 
between  the  knee  and  the  fetlock.  It 
occurs  in  two  forms.  In  the  first,  which 
is  called  bog  or  blood  spavin,  the  joint 
is  distended  by  joint-oil  (synovia).  In 
the  other  form  there  is  a morbid  deposi- 
tion of  body  substance,  such  as  to  unite 
separate  bones.  It  causes  lameness, 
gradually  growing  worse  until  finally 
the  various  bones  become  to  a great 
extent  united  and  solidified  by  the 
mass  of  fibrous  bone  which  grows  over 
them.  The  disease  is  caused  by  strains. 

SPAWN,  the  eggs  or  ova  of  fishes, 
frogs,  etc.,  frorh  which,  when  fertilized 
by  the  males,  a new  progeny  arises  that 
continues  the  species.  In  the  oviparous 
fishes  with  distinct  sexes  the  eggs  are 
impregnated  externally,  and  arrive  at 
maturity  without  the  aid  of  the  mother. 
The  spawn  being  deposited  by  the  fe- 
male, the  male  then  pours  upon  it  the 
impregnating  fluid.  In  the  ovovivipar- 
ous  fishes  sexual  intercourse  takes  place, 
and  the  eggs  are  hatched  in  the  uterus. 
Fishes  exhibit  a great  variety  in  regard 
to  the  number  of  their  eggs.  In  the 
spawn  of  a cod-fish,  for  example,  no 
fewer  than  three  and  a half  millions  of 
eggs  have  been  found.  In  general,  be- 
fore spawning,  fish  forsake  the  deep 
water  and  approach  the  shore,  and 
some  fish  leave  the  salt  water  and 
ascend  the  rivers  before  spawning,  and 
then  return  again. 

SPEARMINT,  a European  and  North 
American  species  of  mint  often  culti- 
vated for  making  sauce  and  in  order  to 
obtain  a flavoring  essence  from  it. 


SPECIAL  LICENSE.  See  Marriage. 

SPECIES,  as  ordinarily  defined,  is  any 
one  group  of  animals  or  plants  the  mem- 
bers of  which  generally  bear  a close  re- 
semblance to  each  other  in  the  more 
essential  features  of  their  organization, 
which  produce  fertile  progeny,  and 
which  may,  in  the  generality  of  cases, 
produce  individuals  varying  from  the 
general  type  of  the  group,  the  variation, 
however,  being  in  all  cases  of  a limited 
kind.  Under  this  definition  the  various 
species,  “kinds”  of  animals  and  plants, 
and  their  included  varieties,  used  to  be 
comprehended,  while  naturalists  re- 
garded species  as  unchanging  through- 
out the  longest  succession  of  ages,  ex- 
cept within  narrow  and  marked  limits. 
Thus  Buffon  defines  a species  as  “a 
constant  succession  of  individuals  simi- 
lar to  and  capable  of  reproducing  each 
other;”  and  Cuvier  as  “a  succession  of 
individuals  which  reproduces  and  per- 
petuates itself.”  Since  the  publication, 
however,  of  Darwin’s  Origin  of  Species 
this  conception  has  been  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  view  that,  as  Haeckel  defines 
it,  “the  species  is  the  whole  succession 
of  organisms  which  exhibit  the  same 
form  in  the  same  environment.”  In  this 
conception  no  absolute  standard  of  what 
constitutes  a species  can  be  set  up,  nor 
can  the  number  of  species,  especially 
among  the  transitional  varieties  of  the 
lowest  forms  of  life,  be  determined. 
In  mineralogy,  chemistry,  and  such 
sciences  as  relate  to  inorganic  substances, 
species  is  regarded  by  some  writers  as 
being  determined  by  identity  of  physical 
properties,  as  specific  gravity,  hardness, 
etc.;  and  by  others,  as  constituted  by 
chemical  composition,  the  physical 
properties  going  for  nothing.  In  scien- 
tific classification  species  unite  to  form 
groups  called  genera,  which  are  included 
in  orders,  the  orders  forming  classes,  and 
so  on. — Species  in  logic  is  a group  of 
individuals  agreeing  in  common  at- 
tributes and  designated  by  a common 
name;  a conception  subordinated  to 
another  conception,  called  a genus  or 
generic  conception,  from  which  it  differs 
in  containing  or  comprehending  more 
attributes,  and  extending  to  fewer  in- 
dividuals; thus  “man”  is  a species  under 
“animal”  as  a genus,  and  “man”  in  its 
turn  may  be  regarded  as  a genus  with 
respect  to  European,  Asiatic,  and  the 
like. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  is  the  relative 
gravity  or  weight  of  any  body  or  sub- 
stance considered  with  regard  to  an 
equal  bulk  of  some  other  body  which  is 
assumed  as  a standard  of  comparison. 
The  standardforthe  specific  gravities  of 
solids  and  liquids  is  pure  distilled  water 
at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahr.,  which 
is  reckoned  unity.  By  comparing  the 
weights  of  equal  bulks  of  other  bodies 
with  this  standard  we  obtain  their 
specific  gravities.  Thus  the  specific 
gravity  of  cast-iron  is  7.21 ; that  is,  any 
particular  mass  of  cast-iron  will  weigh 
7.21  times  as  much  as  an  equal  bulk  of 
water.  The  practical  rule  is,  weigh  the 
body  in  air,  then  in  pure  distilled  water, 
and  the  weight  in  air,  divided  by  the 
loss  of  weight  in  water  will  give  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  body.  In  desig- 
nating the  specific  gravities  of  gases  the 
standard  of  unity  is  atmospheric  air. 


SPECIFIC  HEAT 


SPECULUM 


The  specific  f^ravity  of  various  sub- 
stances is  as  follows: 


Liquids. 

Timber. 

Water  ..  . .100 

Cork. 24 

Sea-water. 103 

Dead  Sea 124 

Alcohol 84 

Turpectine 99 

Wine 100 

Urine 101 

Cider 102 

Beer 102 

Woman’s  milk 102 

Cow's  milk 103 

Goat’s  milk 104 

Porter. 104 

Poplar 38 

Fir.... 65 

Cedar 61 

Pear 66 

Walnut 67 

Cherry 72 

Maple 75 

Ash. 84 

Beech 85 

Mahogany 106 

Oak 117 

Ebony. 133 

Sundries. 

Metals  and  Stones. 

Indigo 77 

Ice 92 

Granite. 278 

Diamond 353 

Gunpowder  93 

Butter 94 

Clay  120 

Coal  130 

Opium.. 134 

Honey. 145 

Ivory. 183 

Sulphur 203 

Cast  iron 721 

Tin 729 

Bar  iron 779 

Steel 783 

Brass 840 

Copper 895 

Silver 1,047 

Tjead 1.135 

Mercury 1,357 

Chalk 279 

Glass 289 

Gold  1.926 

Platina 2,150 

The  weight  of  a cubic  foot  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  a temperature  of  60°  F. 
is  1,000  ounces  Avoirdupois,  very 
nearly,  therefore  the  weight  (in  ounces. 
Avoirdupois)  of  a cubic  foot  of  any  of 
the  substances  in  the  above  table  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  specific  grav- 
ities by  10,  thus:  one  cubic  foot  of  oak 
weighs  1,170  ounces;  one  cubic  foot  of 
marble  2,700  ounces,  and  so  on.  See 
Hydrometer. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT,  is  a term  applied 
to  the  quantity  of  heat  required  to  raise 
equal  weights  of  different  substances 
through  equal  intervals  of  temperature. 
Water  is  taken  as  the  standard  sub- 
stance in  measuring  quantities  of  heat. 
The  thermal  capacity  of  unit  mass  of 
cold  water  is  unity;  and  the  number 
which  denotes  the  thermal  capacity  of 
a body  expresses  the  mass  of  water 
which  has  the  same  thermal  capacity  as 
the  body.  Thus  the  thermal  capacity  of 
unit  mass  of  a substance  is  called  its 
specific  heat,  and  is  identical  with  the 
ratio  of  the  thermal  capacity  of  any 
mass  of  the  substance  to  that  of  an 
equal  mass  of  water.  The  specific 
heats  of  the  metals  and  of  many  other 
substances  have  been  carefully  deter- 
mined, and  are  tabulated  in  all  the 
larger  books  on  heat. 

SPECTACLES,  a well-known  and  in- 
valuable optical  instrument  supposed 
to  have  been  invented  by  Roger  Bacon 
in  the  13th  century,  and  used  to  assist  or 
correct  some  defect  in  the  organs  of 
vision.  Spectacles  consist  generally  of 
two  oval  or  circular  lenses  mounted  in  a 
light  metal  frame  which  is  made  up  of 
the  “bows,”  “bridge,”  and  “sides.” 
The  lenses  are  usually  bi-concave,  bi- 
convex, or  concavo-convex,  though 
lenses  forming  segments  of  a cylinder 
are  used  in  some  cases  of  astigmatism. 
In  long-sighted  persons  the  defect  of 
the  eye  is  counteracted  by  convex  lenses, 
in  short-sighted  persons  by  concave 
lenses.  (See  Sight.)  Divided  spec- 
tacles have  each  lens  composed  of  two 


semicircles  of  different  foci  nearly 
united  one  above  the  other;  one  half  for 
looking  at  distant  objects,  and  the  other 
for  examining  things  near  the  eye. 
-Another  kind,  called  periscopic  spec- 
tacles, has  been  contrived  in  order  to 
allow  considerable  latitude  of  motion 
to  the  eyes  without  fatigue.  The  lenses 
employed  in  this  case  are  either  of  a 
meniscus  or  concavo-convex  form,  the 
concave  side  being  turned  to  the  eye. 

SPECTROSCOPE,  the  instrument  em- 
ployed in  spectrum  analysis.  It  usually 
consists  o'f  the  following  parts:  1st,  a 
tube  with  a narrow  slit  at  one  end,  and 
a convex  lens  at  the  other,  from  which 
parallel  rays  of  light  proceed  when  light 
is  made  to  pass  through  the  slit,  tne  two 
forming  together  what  is  called  the 
collimator.  2d.  A prism  of  dense  flint- 
glass  on  which  the  rays  fall  after  emerg- 
ing from  the  collimator.  3d.  An  observ- 
ing telescope  so  placed  that  the  rays 
traverse  it  after  emerging  from  the 
prism.  The  accompanying  figure  gives 


Arrangement  of  parts  In  spectroscope. 


a ground  plan  of  the  arrangement;  s is 
the  slit,  c the  collimating  lens,  p the 
prism,  o the  object-glass  of  the  telescope, 
and  e the  eye-piece.  An  image  of  the 
slit  will  be  formed  at  f by  rays  of  given 
refrangibility,  others  between  f and  v 
by  rays  of  greater  refrangibility,  and 
others  between  f and  r by  rays  of  less 
refrangibility,  thus  giving  a complete 
spectrum. 

SPECTRUM,  the  oblong  figure  or 
stripe  formed  on  a wall  or  screen  by  a 
beam  of  light,  as  of  the  sun,  received 
through  a narrow  slit  and  passed  through 
a prism,  being  thus  decomposed  or 
separated  into  its  constituent  rays.  (See 
Light.)  This  stripe  is  colored  through- 
out its  length,  the  colors  shading  in- 
sensibly into  one  another  from  red  at  the 
one  end,  through  orange,  yellow,  green, 
blue,  indigo,  to  violet  at  the  other.  These 
colors  are  due  to  the  different  con- 
stituents of  which  solar  light  is  made 
up,  and  the  stripe  seen  is  formed  by  an 
indefinite  number  of  images  of  the  slit 
ranged  in  order  and  partially  overlap- 


ping. The  analysis  of  decomposition  of 
the  beam  is  due  to  the  different  refran- 
gibilities  of  the  component  rays,  the 
violet  being  the  most  refrangible  and 
the  red  the  least.  Besides  the  colored 
rays,  the  spectrum  contains  thermal 
or  heating  rays,  and  chemical  or  actinic 
rays  which  are  not  visible  to  the  eye. 
The  heating  effect  of  the  solar  spectrum 
increases  in  going  from  the  violet  to  the 
red,  and  still  continues  to  increase  for 
a certain  distance  beyond  the  visible 
spectrum  at  the  red  end,  while  the 
chemical  action  is  very  faint  in  the  red, 
strong  in  the  blue  and  violet,  and  sensi- 


ble to  a considerable  distance  beyond 
the  violet  end.  The  actinic  rays  beyond 
the  violet  may  be  rendered  visible  by 
throwing  them  upon  a surface  treated 
with  some  fluorescent  substance.  A pure 
spectrum  of  solar  light  is  crossed  at  right 
angles  by  numerous  dark  lines,  called 
Fraunhofer’s  lines,  each  dark  line  being 
invariable  in  position.  The  figure  shows 
the  positions  of  the  most  conspicuous  of 
these  fixed  lines,  and  the  letters  above 
them  are  the  names  by  which  they  are 
known,  being  those  assigned  to  them 
by  the  discoverer  Fraunhofer.  For  the 
proper  understanding  of  the  import  of 
these  lines,  five  principles  require  to  be 
kept  in  view.  First,  an  incandescent 
solid  or  liquid  body  gives  out  a con- 
tinuous spectrum.  Second,  an  incan- 
descent gaseous  body  gives  out  a dis- 
continuous spectrum,  consisting  of 
bright  lines.  Third,  each  element  when 
in  the  state  of  an  incandescent  gas  gives 
out  lines  peculiar  to  itself.  Fourth,  if 
the  light  of  an  incandescent  solid  or 
liquid  passes  through  a gaseous  body, 
certain  of  its  rays  are  absorbed,  and 
black  lines  in  the  spectrum  indicate  the 
nature  of  the  substance  which  absorbed 
the  ray.  Fifth,  each  element,  when 
gaseous  and  incandescent,  emits  bright 
rays  identical  in  color  and  position  on 
the  spectrum  with  those  which  it  absorbs 
from  light  transmitted  through  it.  The 
spectrum  of  sodium,  for  instance,  shows 
two  bright  lines  which  correspond  in 
position  with  the  double  black  line  at  d 
(the  sodium  line)  shown  in  figure.  Now, 
applying  these  principles  to  the  solar 
spectrum,  we  find,  from  the  nature  and 
position  of  the  rays  absorbed,  that  its 
fight  passes  through  hydrogen,  potas- 
sium, sodium,  calcimn,  barium,  mag- 
nesium, zinc,  iron,  chromium,  cobalt, 
nickel,  copper,  and  manganese,  all  in  a 
state  of  gas,  and  constituting  part  of  the 
solar  envelope,  whence  we  conclude  that 
these  bodies  are  present  in  the  substance 
of  the  sun  itself,  from  which  they  have 
been  volatilized  by  heat.  The  moon 
and  planets  have  spectra  like  that  of  the 
sun,  because  they  shine  by  its  reflected 
light,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  each 
fixed  star  has  a spectrum  peculiar  to 
itself.  It  has  been  already  said  that  the 
incandescent  vapor  of  each  ■ elementary 
substance  has  a characteristic  spectriun, 
consisting  of  fixed  lines,  which  never 
changes.  This  furnishes  the  chemist 
with  a test  of  an  exquisitely  delicate 
nature  for  the  detection  of  the  presence 
of  very  minute  quantities  of  elementary 
bodies.  Thus,  by  heating  any  substance 
till  it  becomes  gaseous  and  incandescent 
and  then  taking  its  spectrum,  he  is  able 
by  the  lines  to  read  off,  as  it  were,  from 
the  spectrum,  the  various  elements 
present  in  the  vapor.  Several  new  ele- 
ments, as  rubidium,  caesium,  indium, 
and  thallium,  have  thus  been  detected. 

See  Spectroscope. 

SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS,  See  Spec- 
trum. 

SPECULUM,  in  optics  and  astronomy  , 
a reflecting  surface,  such  as  is  used  in 
reflecting  telescopes,  usually  made  of 
an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  but  fre- 
quently now  of  giass.  Those  of  glass  are  i 
covered  with  a film  of  silver  on  the  side 
turned  toward  the  object,  and  must  not  I . 
be  confounded  with  mirrors  /irhrch  are  i . 


SPEECH 


SPHINX 


coated  with  tin-amalgam  on  the  pos- 
terior side.  In  surgery  the  name  is  given 
to  an  instrument  used  for  dilating  any 
passage,  as  the  ear,  or  parts  about  the 
uterus,  with  a reflecting  body  at  the 
end,  upon  which  a light  being  thrown 
the  condition  of  the  parts  is  shown. 

SPEECH,  spoken  language;  uttered 
sounds  intended  to  convey  meaning, 
and  produced  by  the  organs  of  voice, 
namely,  the  larynx,  and  the  mouth  and 
its  parts,  including  the  tongue  and 
teeth.  In  speech  two  great  classes  of 
sounds  are  produced,  these  being  usually 
known  as  vowels  and  consonants. 
Vowels  are  pronounced  by  sounds  com- 
ing primarily  from  the  larynx  and  pass- 
ing with  comparative  freedom  through 
the  mouth  cavity,  though  modified  in 
certain  ways;  while  consonants  are 
formed  by  sounds  caused  by  the  greater 
or  less  interruption  of  the  current  of  air 
from  the  larynx  in  the  mouth.  Vowels 
can  be  uttered  alone  and  independently 
of  consonants,  and  their  sounds  can  be 
prolonged  at  will;  consonants  have  no 
importance  in  speech  as  apart  from 
vowels,  and  are  named  consonants 
from  being  used  along  with  vowels. 
Both  vowel  and  consonant  sounds  are 
very  numerous  if  we  investigate  the 
different  languages  of  the  world,  but 
any  one  language  only  has  a fraction  of 
those  that  may  be  used.  A single  sound 
may  convey  an  idea  of  itself  and  thus 
form  a word,  or  several  may  be  com- 
bined to  form  a word,  and  if  the  word  is 
uttered  by  several  distinct  successive 
changes  in  position  of  the  vocal  organs 
it  is  a word  of  so  many  syllables.  Words, 
again,  are  combined  to  form  sentences 
or  complete  statements,  and  the  ag- 
gregate of  words  used  by  any  people  or 
community  in  mutual  intercourse  forms 
its  language. 

SPENCER,  Herbert,  English  phil- 
osopher, born  at  Derby  1820.  In  1848 
he  became  sub-editor  of  the  Economist ; 
published  Social  Statics,  and  Principles 
of  Psychology.  About  the  year  1859 
he  projected  his  Scheme  of  Philosophy, 
based  on  the  principle  of  evolution  in  its 
relation  to  life,  mind,  society,  and  morals 
This  large  scheme  has  been  completely 
expounded  in  the  following  works : 
First  Principles,  one  vol..  Principles  of 
Biology,  two  vols.;  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology, two  vols.;  Principles  of  Sociol- 
ogy, three  vols.;  and  Principles  of 
Ethics,  two  vols.  Portions  of  this  great 
work  are  known  under  separate  titles, 
as  Data  of  Ethics,  Ceremonial  Institu- 
tions, Pohtical  Institutions,  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Institutions,  etc.  His  other  works 
include  Education,  Essays,  Scientific, 
Political,  and  Speculative;  Classifica- 
tion of  the  Sciences,  The  Study  of  Soci- 
ology, Man  versus  the  State,  The 
Factors  of  Organic  Evolution.  He  pub- 
lished also  an  elaborate  Descriptive 
Sociology  compiled  by  other  writers, 
Wt  classified  and  arranged  by  himself. 
He  died  in  1903.  Spencer’s  works  have 
been  translated  into  various  languages. 

SPENSER,  Edmund,  English  poet, 
was  born  in  London  about  1553.  In  1859 
he  was  engaged  in  the  composition  of  the 
Faerie  Queene,  of  which  he  had  written 
the  first  three  books.  These  were  pub- 
lished in  1590,  with  a dedication  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  In  1595  he  published 


various  volumes  such  as  Colin  Clout’s 
Come  Home  Again,  and  Astrophel  and 
The  Mourning  Muse  of  Thestylis;  his 
sonnets  and  Epithalamium  in  one  vol- 
ume; the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  books 
of  the  Faerie  Queene,  together  with  a 
new  edition  of  the  first  three  books. 
As  a poet,  although  his  minor  works 
contain  many  beauties,  Spenser  will-  be 
judged  chiefly  from  the  Faerie  Queene. 
He  died  in  1599. 

SPERMACE'TI,  a fatty  material  ob- 
tained chiefly  from  cavities  in  the  skull 
of  the  sperm  whale.  During  the  life 
of  the  anunal  the  spermaceti  is  in  a fluid 
state,  forming  part  of  the  oily  liquid 
which  is  found  when  the  head  of  the 
whale  is  opened.  On  exposure  to  the 
air  the  spermaceti  concretes,  and  de- 
posits from  the  oil.  Some  of  the  larger 
whales  have  been  knownto  yield  twenty- 
four  barrels  of  spermaceti,  and  from 
seventy  to  a hundred  barrels  of  oil. 
After  being  purified  the  spermaceti  con- 
cretes into  a white,  crystallized,  brittle, 
semitransparent  unctuous  substance 
nearly  inodorous  and  insipid.  It  is  bland 
and  demulcent,  with  considerable  nutri- 
tive qualities  when  taken  ii;.ternally. 
It  is  chiefly  employed  externally  as  an 
ingredient  in  ointments  and  cerates.  It 
is  also  largely  used  to  form  candles. 

SPERMATOZO'A,  the  microscopic 
’animalcule-like  bodies  developed  in  the 
semen  of  animals,  each  consisting  of  a 
body  and  a vibratile  filamentary  tail 
exhibiting  active  movements.  Sper- 
matozoa are  essential  to  impregnation. 

SPERM  OIL,  the  oil  of  the  spermaceti 
whale,  which  is  separated  from  the 
spermaceti  and  the  blubber.  This  kind 
of  oil  is  much  purer  than  train  oil,  and 
burns  away  without  leaving  any  charcoal 
on  the  wicks  of  lamps.  In  composition 
it  differs  but  slightly  from  common 
whale  oil. 

SPERM  WHALE,  or  CACHALOT,  a 

species  of  cetacea  belonging  to  the  sec- 
tion of  the  whale  order  denominated 
“toothed”  whales,  generally  met  with  in 
the  Pacific,  but  occasionally  also  on  the 


coast  of  Greenland.  The  large  blunt 
head  in  an  old  male  is  sometimes  30  feet 
long,  and  forms  about  a third  of  the  total 
length  of  the  body;  while  the  “blow- 
holes” or  S-shaped  nostrils  are  situated 
in  the  front  part  of  the  head.  The  weight 
of  an  adult  animal  is  estimated  at  about 
200  tons,  and  in  a male  66  feet  long  the 
flipper  measured  5 feet  3 inches,  and  the 
two-lobed  tail-fin  had  a breadth  of 
nearly  20  feet.  The  top  of  the  back  is 
continued  almost  in  a straight  line  from 
the  upper  part  of  the  head;  the  belly  is 
enormous,  Wt  the  body  thins  off  toward 
the  wide  tail.  The  color  is  a blackish- 
gray,  which  may  exhibit  greenish  or 
bluish  hues  on  the  upper  parts.  The  * 


teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  average  each 
about  3 inches  in  length.  This  whale  is 
of  considerable  commercial  value.  See 
Spermaceti. 

SPHE'NOID  BONE.  See  Skull. 

SPHERE,  in  geometry,  a solid  body 
contained  under  a single  surface,  which 
in  every  part  is  equally  distant  from  a 
point  called  the  center.  It  may  be  con- 
ceived to  be  generated  by  the  revolution 
of  a semicircle  about  its  diameter,  which 
remains  fixed,  and  which  is  hence  called 
the  axis  of  the  sphere.  A section  of  a 
sphere  made  by  a plane  passing  through 
its  center  is  called  a great  circle  of  the 
sphere ; and  when  the  cutting  plane  does 
not  pass  through  the  center  the  section 
is  called  a small  circle  of  the  sphere. 
A sphere  is  two-thirds  of  its  circum- 
scribing cylinder.  Spheres  are  to  one 
another  as  the  cubes  of  their  diameters. 
The  surface  of  a sphere  is  equal  to  four 
times  the  area  of  one  of  its  great  circles, 
and  the  solidity  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .5236  or 
§ of  .7854;  or  by  multiplying  the  area  of 
a great  circle  by  § of  the  diameter. 

SPHE'ROGRAPH,  a nautical  instru- 
ment consisting  of  a stereographic  pro- 
jection of  the  sphereupon  a disc  of  paste- 
board, in  which  the  meridians  and 
parallels  of  latitude  are  laid  down  to 
single  degrees.  By  the  aid  of  this  pro- 
jection, and  a ruler  and  index,  the 
angular  position  of  a ship  at  any  place, 
and  the  distance  sailed,  may  be  readily 
and  accurately  determined  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  great  circle  saUing. 

SPHINX,  a fabulous  monster  which 
figures  both  in  the  Grecian  and  Egyptian 
mythologies.  The  sphinx  of  the  Greeks 
is  represented  with  a body  like  that  of  a 
lion,  with  wings,  and  with  the  breasts 
and  upper  parts  of  a woman.  Hera,  says 
the  fable,  provoked  with  the  Thebans, 
sent  the  sphinx  to  punish  them.  The 
sphinx  proposed  a riddle  and  devoured 
anyone  who  undertook  but  was  unable 
to  interpret  its  meaning.  In  this  enigma 
the  question  proposed  was.  What  animal 
walked  on  four  legs  in  the  morning,  two 
at  noon,  and  three  in  the  evening.  This 
'./as  at  last  explained  by  CEdipus,  who 
said  that  man  walked  on  his  hands  and 
feet  when  young,  or  in  the  morning  of 
life;  at  the  noon  of  life  he  walked  erect; 
and  in  the  evening  of  his  days  he  sup- 
ported himself  upon  a stick.  Whereupon 
her  riddle  being  read,  the  sphinx  de- 


Egyptian  sphinx,  from  the  Louvre  museum. 

stroyed  herself.  The  sphinx  was  used 
by  the  Greeks  for  artistic  and  decorative 
purposes,  and  seems  to  have  been  in 
some  sense  symbolic.  The  Egyptian 
sphinx  had  a human  head  (male  or  fe- 


SPHINX  MOTH 


SPINi. 


male)  on  the  body  of  a lion  (not  winged), 
and  was  always  in  a recumbent  posture, 
with  the  fore-paws  stretched  forward, 
and  a head-dress  resembling  an  old- 
fashioned  wig.  The  features  are  like 
those  of  the  ancient  Egpytians  found 
in  the  ancient  ruins.  The  largest  sphinx, 
that  near  the  group  of  pyramids  at 
Gizeh,  is  about  150  feet  long  and  63  feet 
high;  the  body  is  monolithic,  but  the 
paws,  which  are  thrown  out  50  feet  in 
front,  are  constructed  of  masonry. 
There  were  also  sphinx  figures  in  Egypt 
with  rams’  heads  and  hawks’  heads. 
The  Egyptian  sphinx  was  probably  a 
purely  symbolic  figure,  having  no  his- 
torical connection  with  the  Greek  fable, 
and  the  Greeks  may  have  applied  the 
term  to  the  Egyptian  statues  merely  on 
account  of  an  accidental  external  re- 
semblance to  their  own  figures  of  the 
sphinx. 

SPHINX  MOTH,  a species  of  moth  be- 
longing to  the  family  Sphingidse,  and 
deriving  its  popular  narne  from  a sup- 
posed resemblance  which  its  cater- 
pillars present  when  they  raise  the  fore 
part  of  their  bodies  to  the  “sphinx”  of 
Egyptian  celebrity.  The  sphinx  moth 
is  found  very  sparingly  throughout 
England. 

SPICES,  the  name  given  to  all  those 
vegetable  substances,  having  an  aro- 
matic odor  and  a hot  and  pungent  flavor, 
and  used  for  seasoning  food;  such  as 
cinnamon,  cassia,  mace,  nutmeg,  all- 
spice, pepper,  cloves,  ginger,  vanilla. 

SPIDER,  the  common  name  of  insect- 
like animals.  The  head  and  chest  are 
united  to  form  one  segment  known  as  a 
cephalothorax;  no  wings  are  developed, 
and  breathing  is  effected  by  means  of 
pulmonary  or  lung  sacs.  For  the  most 
part  they  are  oviparous.  The  abdomen 
is  furnished  with  from  four  to  six  cylin- 
drical or  conical  mammillEe  or  processes, 
with  fleshy  extremities,  which  are  per- 
forated with  numberless  small  orifices 
for  the  passage  of  silky  filaments  of 
extreme  tenuity,  with  which  they  form 
webs,  and  which  proceed  from  internal 
reservoirs.  The  spider’s  web  is  usually 
intended  to  entangle  their  prey  (chiefly 
flies),  but  spiders  also  spin  webs  to  make 
their  abodes,  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  legs  number  four  pairs,  and  no 
antennse  are  developed.  Their  mandibles 
are  terminated  by  a movable  hook, 
flexed  inferiorly,  underneath  which,  and 
near  its  extremity,  is  a little  opening 
that  allows  a passage  to  a venomous  fluid 
contained  in  a gland  of  the  preceding 
joint.  After  wounding  their  prey  with 
their  hooked  mandibles  they  inject  this 
poison  into  the  wound,  which  suddenly 
destroys  the  victim. 

SPIDER  CRAB,  the  name  given  to 
crabs  from  the  rough  general  resem- 
blance their  bodies  and  long  legs  possess 
to  those  of  spiders.  The  common  or 
thornback  spider  crab,  is  a familiar 
species,  and  is  very  commonly  taken  in 
the  crab  pots  of  fishermen.  The  four- 
horned  spider  crab  has  a triangular 
body,  possessing  four  horn-like  pro- 
cesses in  front,  the  two  central  ones 
forming  the  rostrum  or  beak. 

SPIDER  FLY,  a dipterous  insect  of 
the  family  Pupipara.  There  are  many 
species  of  these  found  parasitic  on  birds 
and  quadrupeds. 


SPIDER  MONKEY,  a general  name 
applied  to  many  species  of  platyrhine  or 
New  World  monkeys,  but  more  espe- 
cially to  the  members  of  the  genus  which 
are  distinguished  by  the  great  relative 
length,  slenderness,  and  flexibility  of 
their  limbs,  and  by  the  prehensile  power 
of  their  tails.  A familiar  species  is  the 


Spider  monkey. 


chameck,  which  occurs  abundantly  in 
Brazil.  The  body  is  about  20  inches,  the 
tail  2 feet  long,  and  the  color  is  a general 
black.  The  coaita,  another  typical 
species,  has  an  average  length  of  12 
inches;  the  tail  measures  over  2 feet 
long,  and  the  fur  is  of  a dark,  glossy, 
black  hue. 

SPIKENARD,  a highly  aromatic  her- 
baceous plant  growing  in  the  East  Indies. 
The  root  has  a strong  smell  and  a sharp 
bitterish  taste.  This  is  the  true  spike- 
nard of  the  ancients,  and  it  has  enjoyed 
celebrity  from  the  earliest  period  on 


Spikenard. 

account  of  the  valuable  extract  or  per- 
fume obtained  from  its  roots,  which  was 
used  in  the  ancient  baths  and  at  feasts. 
It  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  East  as  a 
perfume,  and  is  used  to  scent  oil  and 
unguents. 

SPIKING,  the  operation  of  driving  a 
nail  or  spike  into  the  touchhole  of  a 
cannon  so  as  to  make  it  unserviceable. 
When  the  spiking  was  intended  to  be 
only  temporary  a spring  spike  was  used, 
which  was  afterward  released  by  the 
stroke  of  a hammer.  In  other  cases  a 
new  touchhole  required  to  be  drilled. 

SPIN'AGE,  SPIN'ACH,  a genus  of 
plants.  There  is  only  one  species,  well- 
known  on  account  of  its  use  in  the 
kitchen.  It  is  eaten  sometimes  in  salads, 
but  more  frequently  cooked  in  various 
ways.  It  is  wholesome  and  agreeable, 
but  contains  little  nutriment. 


SPINAL  CORD,  the  name  given  in 
anatomy  to  the  great  cord  or  rod  of 
nervous  matter  which  is  inclosed  within 
the  backbone  or  spine  of  vertebrates. 
The  spinal  cord  in  man,  which  is  from 
15  to  18  inches  long,  has  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  brain  by  means  of  the 
medulla  oblongata,  and  passes  down 
the  back  until  it  terminates  in  a fine 
thread  at  the  level  of  the  first  lumbar 
vertebra.  Lodged  in  the  bony  vertebrae 
it  varies  in  thickness  throughout,  and 
like  the  brain  is  invested  by  membranes 
called  respectively  pia  mater  and  dura 
mater.  Situated  between  these  two  are 
the  delicate  layers  of  the  arachnoid 
membrane,  inclosing  a space  which  con- 
tains the  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  Besides 
these  protective  coverings  there  is  also 
a packing  of  fatty  tissue  which  further 
tends  to  diminish  all  shocks  and  jars. 
The  spinal  nerves,  to  the  number  of 
thirty-one  on  each  side,  pass  out  from 
the  cord  at  regular  intervals,  pierce  the 
dura  mater,  escape  from  the  backbone, 
and  ramify  thence  through  the  soft  parts 
of  the  body.  Eight  pairs  pass  off  in  the 
region  of  the  neck  called  the  cervical 
nerves,  twelve  pairs  are  dorsal,  five  are 
lumbar,  and  five  sacral,  while  the  last 
pair  comes  off  behind  the  coccyx.  In  its 
structure  the  spinal  chord  consists  of 
gray  and  white  matter.  The  gray  mat- 
ter, which  is  characterized  by  large  cells, 
is  gathered  inthecenterinto  twocrescent 
shaped  masses  connected  at  the  central 
part  of  the  cord.  The  white  matter, 
consisting  mainly  of  fibres,  is  outside 
of  and  surrounds  these  gray  crescents. 
In  its  functions  the  spinal  cord  forms 
a tract  along  which  sensory  impressions 
may  pass  to  the  brain,  and  along  which 
motor  impulses  may  travel  to  the 
muscles.  It  is  besides  a great  reflex 
center.  See  Brain,  Nerve,  and  Spine. 

SPINE,  the  term  applied  to  the  back- 
bone of  a vertebrated  animal,  and  so 
called  from  the  thorn-like  processes  of 
the  vertebrae.  The  human  vertebral 
column  is  composed,  in  the  child,  of 
thirty-three  separate  pieces,  but  in  the 
adult  the  number  is  only  twenty-six, 
several  pieces  having  become  blended 
together.  These  separate  bones  are 
arranged  one  on  the  top  of  the  other, 
with  a layer  of  gristle  between  each 
which  helps  to  unite  them,  while  this 
union  is  completed  by  partially  movable 
joints  and  strong  fibrous  lig^ents. 
The  first  seven  vertebrae,  which  are 
called  cervical,  occupy  the  region  of  the 
neck;  twelve  form  the  supports  from 
which  spring  the  ribs,  and  constitute 
the  main  portion  of  the  back,  being 
accordingly  called  dorsal;  five  in  “the 
small  of  the  back”  are  denominated 
lumbar;  five  pieces  follow  which,  in  the 
adult,  unite  to  form  the  sacrum;  and 
four  which  unite  to  form  the  coccyx. 
The  vertebral  column  so  arranged  pre- 
sents two  forw’ard  curves,  the  first  in 
the  neck;  the  second  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  back;  and  two  corresponding 
backward  curves.  The  vertebr®  differ 
in  form  according  as  they  belong  to  the 
cervical,  dorsal,  or  lumbar  region,  but 
they  have  all  certain  characteristics  in 
common.  Each  possesses  what  is  called 
a body,  an  arch  which  incloses  a ring, 
and  various  projections  and  notches 
^ means  of  which  the  bones  are  articulated 


SPINE 


SPIRIT  LEVEL 


When  the  vertebra  are  in  position  the 
rings  are  all  situated  one  above  the 
other,  and  so  form  a cavity  or  canal  m 
which  lies  the  protected  spinal  cord 
(which  see).  The  disease  to  which  this 
bony  structure  is  most  liable  is  called 
angular  curvature  of  the  spine.  Be- 
ginning with  inflammation  it  goes  on  to 
ulceration  (caries),  until  one  or  more  of 
the  vertebrae  becomes  soft  and  breaks 
down.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the 
vertebral  are  crushed  together,  the  back- 
bone bent,  and  a projection  or  hump 
gradually  formed  behind.  The  modern 
method  of  treatment  is  to  apply  to  the 
patient’s  body,  from  the  hips  to  the 
arm-pits,  a continuous  bandage  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  which  affords  to  the 
back  a close-fitting  support.  Lateral 
curvature  of  the  spine,  unlike  the  former 


1 Atlas,  or  vertebra  supporting  the  head 
2,  Cervical  vertebra.  3,  Dorsal  yertebr^  4 
Lumbar  vertebra,  o,  Body,  b.  Ring,  c,  Obli 
one  or  articuiar  process,  Transverse  proc 
ess.  «,  Spinous  process. 


is  not  so  much  due  to  disease  of  the 
column  as  to  a relaxed  condition  of  the 
body.  It  is  most  liable  to  attack  young 
rapidly-growing  persons  between  the 
ages  of  ten  and  fifteen.  Treatment 
by  plaster-of-Paris  bandage  may  be 
necessary;  but  strengthening  food 
regular,  moderate  exercise,  and  cold 
bathing  may  prove  sufficient  to  effect  a 
cure. 

SPINE,  in  botany,  a sharp  process 
from  the  woody  part  of  a plant.  It 
differs  from  a prickle,  which  proceeds 
from  the  bark.  A spine  sometimes  ter- 
minates a branch,  and  sometimes  is 
axillary,  growing  at  an  angle  formed 
bjf  the  branch  or  leaf  with  the  stem. 
The  wild  apple  and  pear  are  armed  with 
spines;  the  rose,  bramble,  gooseberry, 
etc.,  are  armed  wit.h  prickles. 

SPIN'ET,  an  old  stringed  instrument 
with  a keyboard  for  the  fingers,  some- 
what similar  to  the  harpsichord  but 
smaller  in  size,  one  of  the  precursors  of 
the  piano.  The  strings,  which  were 
placed  at  an  angle  with  the  keys,  were 
sounded  by  means  of  crow-quill  plectra 
sttsidiod 

SPINNING  is  the  art  of  twisting  a 
thread  from  wool,  flax,  cotton,  or  other 
such  material.  From  remote  times  this 
process  was  accomplished  by  means  of  a 
distaff  round  which  the  wool  or  other 
fiber  to  be  spun  was  coiled,  and  a spindle 
or  round  stick  tapering  at  each  end  and 
with  a notch  for  fixing  the  yarn  or 
thread  at  the  upper  end  as  the  spinning 
went  on.  The  spindle  was  twirled  round, 
for  the  purpose  of  twisting  the  thread, 
generally  by  a movement  against  the 


right  leg,  and  while  the  left  hand  of  the 
spinner  guided  and  supplied  the  fiber, 
the  right  hand  fashioned  it  into  a thread 
between  finger  and  thumb,  dhe  earliest 
improvement  on  this  method  was  to 
fix  the  spindle  horizontally  in  a frame 
and  cause  it  to  revolve  rapidly  by  means 
of  a band  passed  round  a large  wheel. 
.\t  a later  period  a treadle  motion  was 
added,  and  the  spinner’s  hands  were 
left  free  (see  Spinning-wheel);  while  a 
further  improvement  was  effected  by 
the  introduction  of  a double  spindle- 
wheel,  with  twisting  arms  on  the 
spindles.  This  was  the  spinning  im- 
plement which  obtained  until  the  in- 
vention about  1767,  of  the  spinning 
jenny. 

SPINNING  JENNY,  the  name  given 
to  the  first  spinning-machine  by  means 
of  which  a number  of  threads  could  be 
spun  at  once.  It  was  invented  about 
1767  by  James  Hargreaves,  a Lanca- 
shire weaver,  and  consisted  of  a num- 
ber of  spindles  turned  by  a common 
wheel  or  cylinder  worked  by  hand. 

SPINNING  WHEEL,  a machine  for 
spinning  wool,  cotton,  or  flax  into 
threads  by  the  hand.  It  consists  of  a 
wheel,  band,  and  spindle,  has  a distaff 
attached,  and  is  driven  by  foot  or  by 
hand,  usually  the  fonner,  a treadle  being 
employed.  Before  the  introduction  of 
machinery  for  spinning  there  were  two 
kinds  of  spinning  wheels  in  common  use, 
the  large  wheel  for  spinning  wool  and 
cotton,  and  the  small  or  Saxon  wheel 
for  spinning  flax. 

SPINO'ZA,  Baruch,  or  as  he  after 
ward  called  himself,  Benedict  de  Spinoza 
was  born  in  1632,  died  in  1677.  He 
was  trained  in  Talmudic  and  other 
Hebrew  lore,  acquired  a knowledge 
of  Latin,  came  under  the  influence 
of  the  new  philosophic  teaching  of 
Descartes;  ceased  to  attend  the  syna- 
gogue, and  was  expelled  from  the 
Israelitish  community;  fled  from  Am- 
sterdam to  the  suburbs  to  escape 
the  enmity  of  the  fanatical  Jews;  re- 
moved from  thence,  after  five  years 
seclusion,  to  Rynsburg,  where  he  lived 
until  1663;  subsequently  went  to  Voor- 
burg;  and  ultimately  (1671)  settled  in 
The  Hague,  where  he  died.  He  pub- 
lished anonymously  in  1670  under  the 
title  of  Tractatus  Theologico-Politicus 


in  Holland.  Such,  indeed,  was  the  storm 
which  this  treatise  occasioned  that  the 
author  himself  published  nothing  fur- 
ther. After  his  death  all  his  unpub- 
lished writings  were  conveyed  to  Am- 
sterdam, and  there  the  Opera  Posthuma 
was  published  (1677).  In  the  Ethics, 
therein  included,  his  system  ot  phil- 
osophy was  developed;  each  of  its  five 
books  being  dignified  by  a series  of 
axioms  and  definitions  after  the  method 
of  Euclid  in  his  geometry.  In  all  there 
are  twenty-seven  definitions,  twenty 
axioms,  and  eight  postulates;  and  the 
central  conception  of  the  whole  system 
i.s,  that  God  who  is  the  inherent  cause 
of  the  universe,  is  one  absolutely  in- 
finite substance,  of  which  all  the  several 
parts  which  we  recognize  are  but  finite 
expressions;  that  man,  being  but  a part 
of  this  greater  whole,  has  neither  a 
separate  existence  nor  a self-determin- 
ing will ; but  that  he  can,  by  means  of 
knowledge  and  love,  so  far  control  his 
passions  as  to  enter  into  the  joy  which 
springs  from  this  idea  of  an  all-embrac- 
ing God. 

SPIRAL  VESSELS,  in  vegetable 
anatomy,  fine  transparent  menibranous 
tubes,  with  one  or  more  spiral  fibers 
coiled  up  in  their  interior.  They  are 
generally  present  among  the  other  ves- 
sels of  plants,  and  in  trees  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  medullary  sheath  sur- 
rounding the  pith.  The  fiber  may  be 
single  or  double,  or  it  may  be  composed 
of  numerous  threads.  Their  function  is 


and,  because  it  put  forth  a strong  plea 
for  liberty  of  speech  in  philosophy,  it 
was  placed  on  the  Index  by  the  Cath- 
olics, and  condemned  by  the  authorities 


Spiral  vessels  of  Rhubarb,  with  cell  tissue  on 
each  side— highly  magnified. 

supposed  to  be  that  of  the  conveyance 
of  air.  They  are  easily  discovered  on 
breaking  asunder  the  leaves  and  stalks 
of  many  plants,  when  the  fibers  may 
be  unrolled,  and  present  themselves 
as  delicate  filaments  like  the  threads 
of  a cobweb. 

SPIRIT,  immaterial  intelligence,  in- 
telligence conceived  of  as  apart  from 
any  physical  or  corporeal  embodiment, 
or  an  intelligent  being  so  existing  apart ; 
also  applied  to  the  soul,  to  a disem- 
bodied  soul,  a specter,  etc. 

SPIRIT,  Spirits.  See  Alcohol. 

SPIRIT  LEVEL,  an  instrument  em- 
ployed for  determining  a line  or  plane 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  also  the 
relative  heights  of  ground  at  two  or 
more  stations.  It  consists  of  a tube  of 
class  nearly  filled  with  spirit  of  wine, 
and  hermetically  sealed  at  both  ends, 
so  that  when  held  with  its  axis  m a 
horizontal  position  the  bubble  of  air 
which  occupies  the  part  not  filled  with 
the  liquid  rises  to  the  upper  surface  and 
stands  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  tube. 
The  tube  is  placed  within  a brass  or 
^ wooden  case,  which  is  laid  on  the  surface 


r 


SPIRITUALISM 


SPONGE 


to  be  tested,  and  the  slightest  deviation 
from  the  horizontal  is  indicated  by  the 
bubble  rising  toward  the  higher  end  of 
the  tube. 

SPIRITUALISM,  is  the  term  used  in 
philosophy  to  indicate  the  opposite  of 
materialism,  but  is  now  also  specifically 
applied  to  the  belief  that  communica- 
tion can  be  held  with  departed  spirits 
by  means  of  rappings  or  noises,  writings, 
visible  manifestations,  etc.  The  belief 
in  such  manifestations  has  long  ob- 
tained, but  in  its  limited  and  modern 
form  spiritualism  dates  from  the  year 
1848.  In  this  year  a Mr.  and  Mrs.  Fox, 
who  lived  with  their  two  daughters  at 
Hydeville,  New  York,  were  disturbed  by 
repeated  and  inexplicable  rappings 
throughout  the  house.  At  length  it  was 
accidentally  discovered  by  one  of  the 
daughters  that  the  unseen  “rapper” 
was  so  intelligent  as  to  be  able  to  reply 
to  various  pertinent  questions,  and  so 
communicative  as  to  declare  that  he  was 
the  spirit  of  a murdered  pedlar.  When 
this  discovery  was  noised  abroad  a be- 
lief that  intercourse  could  be  obtained 
with  the  spirit-world  became  epidemic, 
and  numerous  “spirit-circles”  were 
formed  in  various  parts  of  America. 
The  manifestations  thus  said  to  be  got 
from  the  spirits  were  rappings,  table- 
turnings,  musical  sounds,  writings,  the 
unseen  raising  of  heavy  bodies,  etc. 
Part  of  the  peculiarity  of  these  phe- 
nomena was  that  they  were  always  more 
or  less  associated  with  the  medium,  who 
was  supposed  to  have  an  organization 
sensitively  fitted  to  communicate  with 
the  spirit-world.  In  America  the  be- 
lievers in  spiritualism  are  very  numerous 
and  have  many  newspapers,  magazines, 
and  books  to  explain  and  enforce  their 
belief.  The  investigations  of  the  Psy- 
chical society,  seem  to  show  that  there 
are  forces  connected  with  hypnotism 
and  its  kindred  phenomena  which  may 
explain  the  occult  occurrences  of  spirit- 
ualism on  natural,  though  hitherto,  little 
known  laws.  The  literature  on  the  sub- 
ject is  extensive. 

SPIROM'ETER,  a contrivance  for  de- 
termining the  capacity  of  the  human 
lungs.  The  instrument  most  commonly 
employed  consists  of  an  inverted  cham- 
ber submerged  in  a water-bath.  The 
breath  is  conducted  by  a flexible  pipe 
and  internal  tube,  so  as  to  collect  in  the 
chamber,  which  rises  in  the  water,  and 
is  fitted  with  an  index  which  marks  the 
cubic  inches  of  air  expired  after  a forced 
inspiration. 

SPIR'ULA,  a genus  of  cuttlefishes  or 
cephalopods,  comprising  only  three 
known  species,  so  named  from  their 
very  delicate  shell  being  rolled  into  a 
spiral  form.  The  shells  are  very  numer- 


1,  Spirula  australis.  2,  Its  shell. 

ous  on  the  shores  of  New  Zealand,  but 
the  animal  forming  them  is  extremely 
rare,  being  seldom  found  except  in  a 
fragmentary  state, 


SPITZBER'GEN,  a group  of  three 
large  and  several  small  islands  in  the 
Arctic  ocean.  Very  little  is  known  of 
their  interior,  but  the  coasts  have  been 
repeatedly  explored,  and  present  im- 
mense glaciers  and  mountain  chains, 
some  of  which  exceed  4000  feet  in 
height.  The  climate  is  intensely  cold; 
and  vegetation  is  confined  to  a few 
plants  of  rapid  growth.  For  four  months 
in  winter  the  sun  is  below  the  horizon, 
and  for  an  equal  period  in  summer  the 
sun  is  always  above  the  horizon.  The 
larger  forms  of  animal  life  are  foxes, 
bears,  and  reindeer,  while  sea  fowl  are 
numerous.  The  minerals  are  known  to 
include  marble  and  good  coal. 

SPLEEN,  The,  in  man,  is  the  chief  of 
the  ductless  or  blood  glands,  and  its 
action  is  supposed  to  affect  the  quality  of 
the  blood.  This  gland,  which  in  man  is 
situated  in  the  belly  to  the  left  side  of 
the  stomach,  is  an  elongated,  flattened 
structure  about  5 inches  in  length,  3 
inches  broad,  and  7 ounces  in  weight. 
Its  supply  of  blood  is  received  directly 
from  the  aorta  by  means  of  the  splenic 
artery,  and,  after  passing  through  the 
organ,  is  carried  off  by  the  splenic  vein 
which  joins  the  portal  vein.  It  is  com- 
posed of  a fibrous  tissue  divided  into  an 
irregular  net-work  of  spaces  which  con- 
tain the  spleen  pulp.  This  pulp  con- 
sists of  masses  of  round  white  corpuscles, 
some  larger  and  some  smaller,  which  are 
called  the  Malpighian  bodies  of  the 
spleen.  Through  each  one  of  these 
cellular  masses  there  passes  a branch 
from  the  splenic  artery,  and  in  this  way 
the  blood  filters  through  the  pulp  as 
though  it  were  a sponge,  and  is  then 
collected  by  the  veins.  The  function  of 
the  spleen  is  not  clearly  known,  but  it  is 
supposed  that  the  active  cells  of  the 
pulp  either  remove  old  red  cells  from, 
or  add  new  white  cells  to,  the  blood 
current  in  its  passage  through  the  organ. 
The  ancients  supposed  the  spleen  to  be 
the  seat  of  melancholy,  anger,  or  vexa- 
tion, and  of  evil  humors  generally. 

SPLICING,  the  union  or  joining  to- 
gether of  two  ropes  or  parts  of  a rope  by 
a particular  manner  of  interweaving 
part  of  the  untwisted  strands.  The  long 
splice  occupies  a great  extent  of  rope, 
but  by  the  three  joinings  being  fixed  at 
a distance  from  one  another,  the  increase 


Splices  of  ropes. 

a.  Short  splice,  b.  Long  splice,  c,  Eye  splice. 

of  bulk  is  diminished,  hence  it  is  adapted 
to  run  through  the  sheave-hole  of  a 
block,  etc.  The  short  splice  is  used  upon 
ropes  not  intended  to  run  through 
blocks,  and  the  eye  splice  forms  a sort  of 
eye  or  circle  at  the  end  of  a rope. 

SPLINT,  in  surgery,  a thin  piece  of 
wood,  or  other  substance,  used  to  hold 
or  confine  a broken  bone  when  set,  or  to 
maintain  any  part  of  the  body  in  a fixed 
position,  A plaster-of-Paris  splint  is 


made  by  charging  a bandage  of  muslin 
or  other  open  material  with  plaster  of 
Paris,  and  washing  over  each  layer  with 
water.  The  plaster  hardens  rapidly. 

SPLINT  BONE,  one  of  the  two  small 
bones  extending  from  the  knee  to  the 
fetlock  of  a horse,  behind  the  canon  or 
shank  bone. 

SPOF'FORD,  Ainsworth  Rand,  Ameri- 
can librarian,  born  at  Gilmanton,  N.  H., 
in  1825.  From  1864  to  1899  he  was 
librarian  in  chief  of  the  congressional 
library,  and  became  known  for  excep- 
tional knowledge  of  books.  He  edited 
with  others  a Library  of  Choice  Litera- 
ture (10  vols.,  1881-88),  and  a Practical 
Manual  of  Parliamentary  Rules  (1884). 
He  published  The  American  Almanack 
and  Treasury  of  Facts,  Statistical,  Finan- 
cial, and  Political,  and  a work  on  the 
collection  and  preservation  of  books  and 
founding  of  libraries.  He  died  in  1908. 

SPOFFORD,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Pres- 
cott), an  American  novelist,  born  at 
Calais,  Me.,  in  1835.  She  first  attracted 
•attention  in  1859  by  a story  of  Parisian 
life.  In  a Cellar,  printed  in  the  Atlantic 
Monthly.  Some  of  her  later  books  are 
New  England  Legends,  Art  Decoration 
Applied  to  Furniture,  Marquis  of  Cara- 
bas.  Poems,  Scarlet  Poppy  and  Other 
Stories,  In  Titian’s  Garden  and  Other 
Poems.  Four  Days  of  God,  etc. 

SPOKANE,  (spo-kan'),  the  county 
seat  of  Spokane  co..  Wash.,  450  miles 
east  of  Puget  sound,  on  the  Spokane 
river  and  on  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
way, the  Great  Northern  railway,  the 
Oregon  Railroad  and  Navigation  com- 
pany, and  several  local  branch  lines. 
Fort  Wright,  a large  United  States  army 
post,  is  situated  on  the  river  just  outside 
the  city.  Spokane  is  the  mining  center 
of  the  Pacific  northwest  for  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  lead.  Pop.  42,761. 

SPONGE,  the  name  commonly  given 
to  the  animals  of  the  class  Porifera,  a 
class  of  organisms  representing  a dis- 
tinct morphological  type,  intermediate 
between  the  Protozoa  and  the  Coelen- 
terata.  The  typical  members  are  com- 
posed of  two  elements,  an  internal  sup- 
porting framework  or  skeleton,  and  a 
soft  gelatinous  investing  substance 
called  sarcode,  or  “flesh.”  The  frame- 
work consists  of  horny,  reticulated,  elas- 
tic fibers,  which  interlace  in  every  direc- 
tion, strengthened  by  calcareous,  or, 
more  generally,  by  siliceous  spicula.  This 
framework  is  the  sponge  of  commerce. 
The  sponge  flesh  investing  this  frame- 
work is  composed  of  an  aggregation  of 
organless,  protoplasmic,  and  amcebiform 
bodies,  some  ciliated  and  others  capable 
of  emitting  pseudopodia.  A constant 
circulation  of  water  goes  on  in  the  living 
sponge,  and  by  this  circulation  the 
animal  is  nourished.  Reproduction 
takes  place  both  by  gemmation  and  true 
ova.  In  common  usage  the  term  sponge 
is  employed  to  designate  the  fibrous 
framework  of  sponges  as  sold  in  our 
shops.  This  framework  is  soft,  light, 
and  porous,  easily  imbibing  fluids,  and 
as  readily  giving  them  out  again  upon 
compression.  Sponges  are  usually  pre- 
pared before  they  come  into  the  market, 
by  being  beaten  and  soaked  in  dilute 
muriatic  acid,  with  a view  to  bleach 
them  and  dissolve  any  adherent  portions 
of  carbonate  of  lime, 


SPONTANEITY 


SPRINGFIELD 


SPONTANETTY,  the  doctrine  that 
there  is  a tendency,  for  the  various 
muscular  movements  called  voluntary, 
to  begin  without  reference  to  any  pur- 
pose or  end,  being  prompted  simply  by 
the  discharge  of  power  from  the  brain, 
and  being  entirely  independent  of  the 
stimulus  of  sensations.  The  great  activ- 
ity of  young  animals,  as  puppies  and 
kittens,  after  refreshment  and  repose, 
is  a good  example  of  spontaneity. 

SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION.  See 
Combustion  (Spontaneous). 

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION.  See 
Generation  (Spontaneous). 

SPOONBILL,  the  popular  name  of 
birds  belonging  to  the  heron  family  from 
the  shape  of  the  bill,  which  is  somewhat 
like  a spoon,  being  curiously  widened 
out  at  the  tip.  They  live  in  society  in 
wooded  marshes,  generally  not  far  from 
the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  on  the  sea- 
shore, The  color  is  pure  white,  the 


White  spoonbill. 


breast  being  yellow,  with  a naked  patch 
of  skin  on  the  throat ; the  legs  are  black, 
and  the  bill,  which  is  about  8 inches  in 
length,  is  black,  and  yellow  at  the  tip. 

SPORADTC,  applied  to  a disease 
which  occurs  in  single  and  scattered 
cases  as  distinct  from  epidemic  and 
endemic,  when  many  persons  are 
affected. 

SPORIDTUM,  in  botany,  a name 
given  to  the  spores  of  fungi  and  lichens 
when  they  are  contained  in  asci  or  little 
sacs.  Sporidia,  like  spores,  may  consist 
of  one  or  more  cells,  and  these  may  be 


a a. 


Sporidia. 

covered  with  a distinctly  organized 
cuticle,  as  in  many  truffles.  In  the  figure 
a shows  asci  and  sporidia  of  a species  of 
Peziza,  b sporidium. 

SPRAIN,  the  violent  straining  or 
twisting  of  the  ligaments  and  tendons 
which  form  the  soft  parts  surrounding 
a joint.  The  ordinary  consequence  of  a 
sprain  is  to  produce  some  degree  of 
swelling  and  inflammation  in  the  in- 
jured part.  The  best  treatment  is  to 
give  the  limb  perfect  rest,  by  means  of 
splints  or  otherwise,  and  to  foment  the 
part  for  an  hour  or  two  with  warm  water. 
If  the  inflammation  increases  leeches 
should  be  applied.  When  this  has  passed 


the  joints  should  be  gently  rubbed  with 
a liniment  of  soap  and  opium.  The  joint 
often  remains  weak  and  faint  for  a length 
of  time,  and  too  great  caution  cannot 
be  observed  in  bringing  it  again  into  use. 

SPRAT,  a small  fish  of  the  herring 
family.  At  one  time  the  sprat  was 
thought  to  be  the  young  of  the  herring, 
pilchard,  or  shad;  but  it  can  be  easily 
distinguished  from  the  young  of  either 
of  these  fishes  by  means  of  the  sharply- 
notched  edge  of  the  abdomen,  the  ven- 
tral fins  beginning  beneath  the  first  ray 
of  the  dorsal  fin,  and  by  the  want  of 
axillary  scales  to  the  ventral  fins. 

SPRING,  one  of  the  four  seasons  of 
the  year.  For  the  northern  hemisphere 
the  spring  season  commences  when  the 
sun  enters  Aries,  or  about  the  21st  of 
March,  and  ends  at  the  time  of  the  sum- 
mer solstice,  or  about  the  22d  of  June. 
In  common  language,  spring  is  usually 
regained  as  commencing  with  March 
and  ending  with  May.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere  the  astronomical  spring 
begins  September  23,  and  ends  Decem- 
ber 21. 

SPRING,  an  outflow  of  water  from  the 
earth,  or  a stream  of  water  at  the  place 
of  its  source.  Springs  have  their  origin 
in  the  water  which  falls  upon  the  earth 
in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  and  sinks 
through  porous  soils  till  it  arrives  at  a 
stratum  impervious  to  water,  where  it 
forms  subterranean  reservoirs  at  various 
depths.  When  the  pressure  of  the  water 
which  fills  the  channels  through  which 
it  has  descended  is  sufficient  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  superincum- 
bent mass  of  earth,  the  water  breaks 
through  the  superficial  strata  and 
gushes  forth  in  a spring;  or  it  may  find 
some  natural  channel  or  crevice  by 
■^hich  to  issue.  In  descending  and  rising 
through  various  mineral  masses  the 
water  of  springs  often  becomes  mipreg- 
nated  with  gaseous,  saline,  earthy,  or 
metallic  admixtures,  as  carbonic  acid 
gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  nitro- 
gen, carbonate  of  lime,  silica,  carbonate 
of  iron,  etc.  When  these  substances  are 
present  in  considerable  quantity  the 
springs  become  what  are  known  as 
mineral  springs.  Warm  and  hot  springs 
are  common,  especially  in  volcanic  coun- 
tries, where  they  are  sometimes  distin- 
guished by  violent  ebullitions.  (See 
Geysers.)  Some  springs  run  for  a time 
and  then  stop  altogether,  and  after  a 
time  run  again,  and  again  stop;  these 
are  called  intermittent  springs.  Others 
do  not  cease  to  flow,  but  only  discharge 
a much  smaller  quantity  of  water  ror  a 
certain  time,  and  then  give  out  a greater 
quantity;  these  are  called  variable 
springs. 

SPMNG,  an  elastic  body,  the  elasticity 
of  which  is  made  practically  available. 
Springs  are  made  of  various  materials, 
as  a strip  or  wire  of  steel  coiled  spirally, 
a steel  rod  or  plate,  strips  of  steel,  suit- 
ably joined  together,  a mass  or  strip  of 
india-rubber,  etc.,  which,  when  bent  or 
forced  from  its  natural  state,  has  the 
power  of  recovering  it  again  in  virtue  of 
its  elasticity.  Springs  are  used  for  vari- 
ous purposes — diminishing  concussion, 
as  in  carriages;  for  motive  power,  acting 
through  the  tendency  of  a metallic  coil 
to  unwind  itself,  as  in  clocks  and  watches 
or  to  communicate  motion  by  sudden 


release  from  a state  of  tension,  as  the 
spring  of  a gun-lock,  etc.;  others  are 
employed  to  measure  weight  and  other 
force,  as  in  the  spring-balance,  as  regu- 
lators to  control  the  movement  of  wheel- 
works,  etc. 

SPRING  BALANCE,  a contrivance  for 
determining  the  weight  of  any  article  by 
observing  the  amount  of  deflection  or 
compression  which  it  produces  upon  a 
spiral  steel  spring  properly  adjusted  and 
fitted  with  an  index  working  agaicet  a 
graduated  scale.  See  Balance. 

SPRINGBOK,  Springboc,  a species 
of  antelope  nearly  allied  to  the  gazelle, 
found  in  vast  herds  in  South  Africa, 
and  used  as  food  by  the  colonists.  It  is  a 
very  beautiful  animal,  of  graceful  form 
and  fine  colors — fulvous  brown  on  the 
upper  parts,  pure  white  beneath,  with 
a broad  band  of  deep  vinous  red  where 


Springbok. 


the  colors  meet  on  the  flanks.  It  is 
larger  than  the  roebuck,  and  its  neck 
and  limbs  much  longer  and  more  deli- 
cate. The  horns  curve  in  a lyre-shape, 
and  are  small  in  the  female.  It  receives 
its  name  from  its  singular  habit  of  leap- 
ing perpendicularly  to  the  height  of 

SPRINGFIELD,  a city,  capital  of 
Hampden  co.,  Massachusetts,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Connecticut,  here 
navigable,  about  98  miles  west  by  south 
from  Boston.  It  contains  many  fine 
churches  and  other  buildings,  and  the 
streets  are  wide  and  planted  with  shade 
trees.  Here  is  the  United  States  armory, 
in  which  large  numbers  of  rifles  are 
manufactured,  and  there  is  also  a gov- 
ernment arsenal  capable  of  storing 
300,000  stand  of  arms.  The  water-power 
furnished  by  Mill  river  has  developed 
various  industries,  such  as  iron-works, 
machine-shops,  paper,  cotton,  and  other 
mills,  and  railway-car  manufacturing. 
Pop.  1909,  estimated  at  82,000. 

SPRINGFIELD,  the  capital  of  Illinois, 
and  seat  of  justice  for  Sangamon  co.,96 
miles  n.n.e.  of  St.  Louis.  Its  public 
edifices  include  a state-house  or  capitol, 
a large  and  imposing  building  in  the 
classic  style  with  a dome  320  feet  high; 
a courthouse  and  post-office  building, 
and  the  national  monument  to  Abraham 
Lincoln,  who  is  buried  here,  an  obelisk 
nearly  100  feet  high.  Among  the  manu- 
facturing establishments  are  wooleo 


SPRINGFIELD 


SQUILL 


mills,  rolling-mills,  foundries,  and  there 
are  coal-mines  in  the  neighborhood. 
Pop.  1909.  estimated  at  68,000. 


State-house,  Springfield,  111. 


SPRINGFIELD,  a city,  capital  of 
Clarke  co.,  Ohio,  on  the  east  fork  of  Mad 
river,  43  miles  west  by  south  of  Colum- 
bus. It  has  a courthouse  and  other 
public  buildings,  numerous  mills  and 
manufacturing  establishments  (espe- 
cially for  agricultural  implements  and 
machines,  including  reapers  and 
mowers),  and  an  extensive  trade.  Pop. 
1909,  estimated  at  60,000. 

SPRINGFIELD,  the  capital  of  Greene 
co.,  Missouri,  on  the  summit  of  the 
Ozark  mountains,  in  the  midst  of  rich 
lead  and  zinc  mines.  Pop.  25,217. 

SPRINGTIDE,  the  tide  which  hap- 
pens at  or  soon  after  the  new  and  full 
moon,  which  rises  higher  than  common 
tides.  At  these  times  the  sun  and  moon 
are  in  a straight  line  with  the  earth,  and 
their  combined  influence  in  raising  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  is  the  greatest,  con- 
sequently the  tides  thus  produced  are 
the  highest.  See  Tide. 

SPRIT,  a small  boom,  pole,  or  spar 
which  crosses  the  sail  of  a boat  diago- 
nally from  the  mast  to  the  upper  aft- 
most  corner,  which  it  is  used  to  extend 
and  elevate.  Such  a sail  is  called  a sprit 
sail.  The  same  name  was  fonherly  given 
to  a sail  attached  to  a yard  under  the 
bowsprit  of  large  vessels. 

SPRUCE,  the  name  given  to  several 
species  of  trees.  The  Norway  spruce-fir 
yields  the  valuable  timber  known  under 
the  name  of  white  or  Christiania  deal. 
It  is  a native  of  great  part  of  Northern 
Europe  and  is  a noble  tree  of  conical 
habit  of  growth,  reaching  sometimes  the 
height  of  150  feet.  The  white  spruce  and 
the  black  spruce-fir  are  natives  of  North 
America.  The  latter  attains  the  height 
of  70  or  80  feet,  with  a diameter  of  from 
15  to  20  inches.  Its  timber  is  of  great 
value  on  account  of  its  strength,  light- 
ness, and  elasticity,  and  is  often  em- 
ployed for  the  yards  of  ships  and  the 
sides  of  ladders.  From  the  young  shoots 
is  extracted  the  essence  of  spruce,  a de- 
coction used  in  making  spruce  beer. 
The  hemlock  spruce-fir  is  a noble  species, 
rising  to  the  height  of  70  or  80  feet,  and 
measuring  from  2 to  3 feet  in  diameter. 
It  grows  abundantly  over  great  paid  of 
Canada  and  part  of  the  United  States. 
The  wood  is  employed  for  laths,  fences, 
coarse  indoor  work,  etc.  The  bark  is 
exceedingly  valuable  for  tanning.  Doug- 
las’ spruce  or  fir,  of  Northwestern' 


America,  reaches  a height  of  100  to  180 
feet  in  its  native  forests. 

SPUR,  an  instrument  having  a rowel 
or  small  wheel  with  sharp  points,  worn 
on  a horseman’s  heel,  and  used  for  goad- 
ing the  horse.  In  early  times  it  took  the 
simple  form  of  a sharp-pointed  goad,  the 
rowel  first  appearing  in  the  end  of  the 


Ancient  spurs. 

a,  Frankish  spur  (10th  cent.).  6,  Brass  spur 
(timeof  Henry  IV.).  c.  Long-spiked  rowel  spur 
(time  of  Edward  IV.).  d.  Long-necked  brass 
spur  (time  of  Henry  VII.  I . e.  Steel  spur  (time 
of  Henry  VIII.). 

13th  century.  Spurs  were  especially  the 
badge  of  knighthood.  Hence,  to  win 
one’s  spurs,  was  to  become  a knight, 
and  the  prhase  is  now  used  to  indicate 
the  achievements  of  distinction  in  one’s 
profession. 

SPURGEON  (spur'jn).  Rev.  Charles 
Haddon,  was  born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex, 
in  1834;  accepted  the  pastorate  of  a 
small  Baptist  congregation  at  Water- 
beach  while  be  was  only  eighteen;  re- 
moved from  thence  in  1853  to  a chapel 
in  New  Park  Street,  Southwark,  which, 
becoming  too  small  for  his  audience, 
required  him  to  engage  the  Surrey  music 
hall,  and  ultimately  to  build,  in  1861, 
the  well-known  Metropolitan  taber- 
nacle. He  died  in  1892.  He  wrote 
numerous  volumes,  of  which  the  best- 
known  are  The  Saint  and  his  Savior, 
John  Ploughman’s  Talk, The  Metropoli- 
tan Tabernacle,  Farm  Sermons,  Storm 
Signals,  and  he  edited  the  monthly 
magazine  Sword  and  Trowel. 

SPY,  a secret  emissary  sent  into  the 
enemy’s  camp  or  territory  to  inspect 
their  works,  ascertain  their  strength  and 
their  intentions,  to  watch  their  move- 
ments, and  report  thereon  to  the  proper 
officer.  By  the  laws  of  war  among  all 
civilized  nations  a spy  is  subjected  to 
capital  punishment. 

SQUAD,  a small  body  of  troops  as- 
sembled for  drill,  inspection,  or  other 
purposes.  The  awkward  squad  is  com- 
posed of  those  recruits  who  have  not 
received  sufficient  training  to  take  part 
in  regimental  drill. 

SQUADRON,  the  principal  division  of 
a regiment  of  cavalry.  The  actual 
strength  of  a squadron  varies  with  that 
of  the  component  troops,  but  it  ranges 
from  120  to  200  sabers.  A squadron  is 
divided  into  tw6  troops,  each  of  which 
is  commanded  by  its  captain.  Each 
regiment  of  cavalry  consists  of  three  or 
four  squadrons.  The  term  is  applied  also 
to  a division  of  a fleet,  being  a detach- 
ment of  ships  of  war  employed  on  a 
particular  service  or  station,  and  under 
the  command  of  a commodore  or  junior 
flag-officer. 

SQUARE,  in  geometry,  a quadrilateral 


figure,  both  equilateral  and  equiangular, 
or,  in  other  words,  a figure  with  four 
equal  sides  and  equal  angles.  In  measur- 
ing superficial  areas  it  is  only  necessary 
to  multiply  one  side  by  itself  to  have 
the  area  of  the  square,  because  each  of 
the  sides  may  be  considered  as  the  basis 
or  as  the  perpendicular  height.  Thus  a 
square  the  sides  of  which  measure  4 feet 
is  equal  to  16  square  feet,  that  is,  sixteen 
squares  each  1 foot  high  and  1 foot  long. 
To  square  a figure  (for  example  a poly- 
gon) is  to  reduce  the  surface  to  a square 
of  equivalent  area  by  mathematical 
means.  It  has  often  been  attempted  to 
square  the  circle,  but  this  cannot  be 
done.  In  arithmetic  and  algebra  the 
square  of  a number  is  the  number  or 
quantity  produced  by  multiplying  a 
number  or  quantity  by  itself.  Thus  64 
is  the  square  of  8,  for  8X8=  64. 

SQUARE,  in  military  tactics,  a body 
of  infantry  formed  into  a rectangular 
figure  with  several  ranks  or  rows  of  men 
facing  on  each  side,  with  officers,  colors, 
etc.,  in  the  center.  The  front  rank  kneels, 
the  second  and  third  stoop,  and  the  re- 
maining ranks  (generally  two)  stand. 
This  formation  is  usually  employed  to 
resist  a cavalry  charge.  Hollow  squares 
are  frequently  formed  with  the  faces 
fronting  inwards  when  orders  and  in- 
structions, etc.,  are  to  be  read,  and  the 
like. 

SQUARE-RIGGED,  a term  applied  to 
a vessel  carrying  Chiefly  square  sails, 
that  is,  whose  principal  sails  are  ex- 
tended by  yards  suspended  by  the 
middle,  and  not  by  stays,  gaffs,  booms, 
and  lateen  yards.  Thus  a ship  and  a 
brig  are  square-rigged  vessels. 

SQUARE  ROOT.  See  Root. 

SQUARE-SAIL.  See  Square-rigged. 

SQUASH,  a plant  cultivated  ini^erica 
as  an  article  of  food.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  other  ^ecies.  See  Gourd. 

SQUASH-BUG,  a name  given  in  North 
America  to  several  hemipterous  insects, 
best  known  as  destroyers  of  squash, 
pumpkin,  and  other  plants. 

SQUATTER  SOVEREIGNTY.  See 
Popular  Sovereignty. 

SQUATTER,  a person  that  settles  on 
a piece  of  land,  particularly  on  public 
land,  without  a title.  In  Australia  the 
term  is  also  applied  to  one  who  occupies 
an  unsettled  tract  of  land  as  a sheep- 
farm  under  lease  from  government  at  a 
nominal  rent. 

SQUID,  a popular  name  of  certain 
cuttlefishes  belonging  to  the  dibranch- 
iate  group  of  the  class  Cephalopoda,  and 
included  in  several  genera,  of  which  the 
most  familiar  is  that  of  the  calamaries. 
See  Calamary. 


Squill. 

SQUILL,  a pLant  nearly  allied  to  the 
hyacinths,  onions,  etc.  The  term  squill 


SQUINCH 


STAFFORD 


is  more  particularly  applied  to  the 
officinal  squill  or  sea-onion,  which  has 
a large  acrid  bulbous  root  like  an  onion. 
It  is  a native  of  the  sandy  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  bulb  has  been 
known  as  a medicine  from  the  earliest 
ages,  and  is  still  used  as  a diuretic  and 
expectorant.  In  large  doses  it  causes 
vomiting,  purging,  and  may  even  prove 
fatally  poisonous. 

SQUINCH,  Sconce,  in  architecture,  a 
small  pendentive  arch  (or  several  com- 


Squinch,  Maxstoke  Priory,  Warwickshire. 

bined)  formed  across  an  angle,  as  in  a 
square  tower  to  support  the  side  of  a 
superimposed  octagon. 

SQUINT,  in  architecture,  an  oblique 
opening  passing  through  the  wall  of 
many  old  churches,  usually  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  a person  in 
the  transepts  or  aisles  to  see  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  host  at  the  high  altar.  Gen- 
erally they  are  not  above  a yard  high 
and  2 feet  wide,  but  sometimes  they 
form  narrow  arches  10  or  12  feet  in 
height,  as  at  Minster-Lovell,  Oxford- 
shire. The  name  hagioscope  is  some- 
times applied  to  them. 

SQUINTING,  or  STRABISMUS,  a de- 
fect of  the  eyes  owing  to  which  they 
cannot  both  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
the  same  object  at  once.  It  is  usuall5r 
due  to  one  of  the  lateral  muscles  of  the 
teye  having  a longer  pull  than  the  other. 
It  may  also  arise  from  paralysis  of  one 
muscle  caused  by  a blow.  There  are 
several  kinds  of  squint,  the  two  chief 
being  inward  or  convergent  and  out- 
ward or  divergent,  the  axes  of  the  eyes 
in  the  one  case  tending  to  meet,  in  the 
other  to  separate.  For  persons  so 
affected,  and  especially  children,  it  is 
well  not  to  look  too  long  at  small  ob- 
jects or  read  in  ill-lighted  rooms,  and 
glasses  to  correct  the  sight  should  be 
obtained.  It  is  also  a good  thing  to  have 
the  sound  eye  (when  there  is  but  one 
squinting  eye)  bandaged  up  for  a short 
time  each  day.  When  these  measures 
fail  the  muscle  can  be  lengthened  by 
means  of  a simple  surgical  operation. 

SQUIRREL,  a small  rodent  mammal 
of  the  family  Sciuridse.  This  family 
comprehends  three  groups — the  true 
squirrels,  the  ground-squirrels,  and  the 
flying-squirrels.  The  true  squirrels  are 
distinguished  by  their  strongly  com- 

f)ressed  inferior  incisors  and  by  their 
ong  bushy  tail.  They  have  four  toes 
before  and  five  behind.  The  thumb  of 
the  fore-foot  is  sometimes  marked  by  a 
tubercle.  They  have  in  all  four  grinders 
variously  tuberculated,  and  a very  small 
additional  one  above  in  front,  which 
very  soon  falls  In  color  they  are  usually 


of  a rich  ruddy  brown  on  the  upper 
parts,  merging  into  reddish  or  grayish- 
white  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body, 
but  the  fur  varies  with  the  season  and 
climate  so  that  in  winter  it  may  be  of 
a gray  appearance.  The  head  is  large, 
and  the  eyes  projecting  and  lively. 
Several  species  are  enumerated,  as  the 
common  squirrel,  which  inhabits  Europe 
and  tlie  north  of  Asia;  while  the  cat 
scjuirrel,  gray  squirrel,  black  squirrel, 
red  squirrel,  and  the  great-tailed  squirrel 
are  American  species.  The  common 
squirrel  and  several  other  species  are 
remarkably  nimble,  running  up  trees 
and  leaping  from  branch  to  branch  with 
surprising  agility.  They  subsist  on  nuts, 
acorns,  seeds,  etc.,  of  '^hich  they  lay 
up  a store  for  winter,  some  of  them  in 


Squirrel. 


diollow  trees,  others  in  the  earth.  Their 
nest,  which  consists  of  woody  fiber, 
leaves,  and  moss,  is  usually  situated  in 
a fork  of  a tree,  and  the  young,  of  which 
there  are  three  or  four,  are  born  in  June. 
When  engaged  in  eating  they  sit  on  their 
haunches  with  their  tail  thrown  upward 
on  the  back,  grasp  the  eatables  with 
their  fore-paws,  and  gnaw  with  their 
powerful  teeth.  The  fur  of  some  of  the 
American  species  is  an  article  of  com- 
merce. See  also  Ground  Squirrel  and 
Flying  Squirrel. 

SQUIRREL  MONKEY,  a monkey  in- 
habiting Brazil,  resembling  in  general 
appearance  and  size  the  familiar  squirrel. 
A well-known  species  is  colored  grayish 
olive,  and  under  surface  being  gray,  the 
ears  white,  and  the  tail  tipped  with 

SRINAGAR,  a city,  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Cashmere,  in  the  Western  Hima- 
layas, situated  in  the  valley  of  Cashmere, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Jehlum.  Fop. 
122,536. 

STAB  AT  MATER,  the  first  words,  and 
hence  the  name,  of  a mediaeval  hymn 
still  sung  in  the  ecclesiastical  service 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  during 
Holy  Week,  and  at  the  festival  of  the 
Seven  Dolours  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

STACCATO,  in  music,  disconnected; 
separated;  a direction  to  perform  the 
notes  of  a passage  in  a crisp,  detached, 
distinct,  or  pointed  manner.  It  is  gen- 
erally indicated  by  dots  or  dashes  placed 
over  the  notes,  the  dash  implying  the 
strongest  or  most  marked  degree  of 
staccato  or  crispness.  A certain  amount 
of  time  is  subtracted  from  the  nominal 
value  of  any  note  performed  staccato. 


STADIUM,  a Greek  measure  of  125 
paces,  or  625  Roman  feet,  equal  to  606 
feet  9 inches  English;  consequently  the 
Greek  stadium  was  somewhat  less  than 
our  furlong.  It  was  the  principal  Greek 
measure  of  length.  This  term  was  also 
applied  to  the  course  for  foot-races  at 
Olympia  in  Greece,  which  was  exactly  a 
stadium  in  length.  The  name  was  also 
given  to  all  other  places  throughout 
Greece  wherever  games  were  celebrated. 

STAEL-HOLSTEIN,  Anne  Louise  Ger- 
maine Necker,  Baroness  de,  the  only 
child  of  Necker,  Swiss  banker  and  min- 
ister of  finance  to  Louis  XVI.,  was  born 
in  1766,  died  1817.  In  1786  she  pub- 
lished Sophia,  a comedy,  and  two  trage- 
dies entitled  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  Mont- 
morency; while  in  this  same  year  she 
married  Baron  de  Stael-Holstein,  Swed- 
ish ambassador  at  the  French  court. 
In  1788  she  printed  her  Lettres 
sur  les  Ecrits  et  le  Caractere  de  J.  J. 
Rousseau.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror 
she  fled  to  Coppet  (1792),  her  father’s 
estate  in  Switzerland,  after  vainly  en- 
deavoring to  save  her  friends  and  the 
royal  fan)ily.  In  1793  she  sought  refuge 
in  England,  where  she  published  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Trial  of  the  Queen,  and 
Reflections  on  the  Peace.  During  the 
Directory  Madame  de  Stael-Holstein 
returned  to  Paris,  where  she  again  be- 
came an  influence  in  politics,  and  pub- 
lished her  essay  on  the  Passions.  Sub- 
sequently she  was  banished  by  Napoleon 
on  account  of  her  bold  advocacy  of  lib- 
eral views,  and  her  wanderings  through 
Europe  are  described  in  her  Ten  Years  of 
Exile.  Her  other  writings  comprise 
De  la  Litt4rature  Consid6r4e  dans  ses 
Rapports  avec  les  Institutions  Sociales; 
Delphine  (1802);  Corinne  ou  I’ltalie 
(1807),  a novel  in  which  Italian  life  and 
scenery  are  exhibited  with  thorough 
knowledge,  her  most  popular  work. 

STAFF,  a body  of  officers  whose 
duties  refer  to  an  army  or  regiment  as 
a whole,  and  who  are  not  attached  to 
particular  subdivisions.  In  the  United 
States  this  body  is  divided  into  the 
military  staff  and  the  administrative 
staff.  The  former  is  charged  with  the 
more  purely  military  duties,  and  com- 
prises the  chiefs  of  staff,  the  adjutants- 
general,  the  inspectors-general,  the  chief 
of  artillery,  the  chief  of  cavalry,  the 
chief  of  engineers,  the  chief  signal  officer 
the  provost-marshal-general,  and  the 
aides-de-camp.  The  administrative  staff 
is  charged  with  the  service  of  adminis- 
tration and  supply,  and  comprises  the 
judge  advocate,  the  commissary  of  mus- 
ters, the  chief  ordnance  officers,  the  chief 
quarter-masters,  the  chief  commissaries, 
the  chief  paymasters,  and  the  medical 
directors  and  their  respective  assistants. 

STAFF,  in  music,  the  five  parallel  lines 
and  their  intennediate  spaces,  on  which 
the  notes,  sharps,  flats,  and  other  musi- 
cal characters  are  placed.  See  Music. 

STAFFORD,  a municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  England,  the  county 
town  of  Staffordshire,  situated  on  the 
river  Sow,  about  130  miles  n.  w.  of 
London.  The  principal  industries  are  the 
making  of  boots  and  shoes,  brewing,  and 
tanning.  Since  1885  Stafford  sends  one 
member  to  parliament,  instead  of  two, 
as  formerly.  Pop.  20,894. — The  county 
is  one  of  the  central  counties  of  England, 


STAG 


S'fANt'ORD 


and  is  bounded  by  Cheshire,  Derby- 
shire, Warwickshire,  Worcestershire,  and 
Shropshire;  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south,  50  miles;  central  breadth,  35 
miles;  area,  748,433  acres,  or  1170 square 
miles;  The  chief  industries  are  coal- 
mining, iron-ore  mining,  smelting,  and 
manufacturing,  and  North  Staffordshire 
is  the  chief  center  in  the  kingdom  for 
the  various  earthenware  manufactures. 
Pop.  1,234,382. 

STAG,  or  RED  DEER,  a large  and 
handsome  deer  which  is  a native  of 
Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  and  in 
Britain  is  now  found  wild  only  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland.  In  smnmer  the 
back  and  flanks  of  the  stag  are  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  while  these  parts 
in  winter  are  gray-brown.  A full-sized 
male  stag  with  antlers  well  developed 
stands  about  4 feet  high  at  the  shoulder, 
and  has  horns  3 feet  in  length,  while  the 
female  is  smaller  and  has  no  horns. 
They  feed  on  grass,  buds  and  young 
shoots  of  trees,  and  in  winter  they  roam 
in  herds.  The  pairing  season  occurs  in 
August,  and  the  calf  is  dropped  in  May. 
The  male  is  known  distinctively  as  the 
hart  (or  stag),  the  female  as  the  hind. 
The  stag  is  represented  in  North 
America  by  the  wapiti,  which  is  even 
larger.  See  Wapiti. 

STAG  BEETLE,  the  common  stag 
bettle  is  one  of  the  largest  of  insects,  and 
is  especially  distinguished  by  the  enor- 


Stag  beetle. 


mous  size  of  the  horny  and  toothed 
mandibles  in  the  males. 

STAGECOACH.  See  Coach. 

STAGGERS  is  the  vague  and  popular 
name  of  certain  diseases  of  horses  and 
sheep.  In  the  horse  mad  or  sleepy 
staggers  is  due  to  inflammation  of  the 
brain,  while  grass  or  stomach  staggers 
arises  from  acute  indigestion,  generally 
the  result  of  overfeeding  on  wet  grass. 
In  sheep  the  staggers  is  caused  by  the 
presence  within  the  brain  of  the  im- 
mature embryo  of  a species  of  tape- 
wonn  which,  in  its  mature  state,  is  found 
in  the  intestines  of  the  dog. 

STAINED  GLASS  is  glass  painted  with 
metallic  oxides  or  chlorides,  ground  up 
with  proper  fluxes  and  fused  into  its 
surface  at  a moderate  heat.  See  Glass- 
painting. 

STALACTITES,  masses  of  calcareous 
matter,  usually  in  a conical  or  cylindri- 
cal form,  pendent  from  the  roofs  of  cav- 
erns, and  produced  by  the  filtration 
of  water  containing  particles  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  through  fissures  and  pores 
of  rocks.  Similar  masses  of  small  size 
are  frequently  to  be  seen  also  depending 
from  stone  bridges.  The  water  being 
evaporated  leaves  a deposit  of  lime  be- 
hind it,  which,  by  the  continued  trick- 
ling of  the  water,  gradually  increases  in 
size.  Simultaneously  with  the  formation 


of  the  stalactite  a similar  but  upward 
growth,  called  a stalagmite,  takes  place 
at  the  spot  vertically  below  where  the 
successive  drops  of  water  fall  and 
evaporate.  This  sometimes  forma  con- 


cave with  stalactites  and  stalagmites. 

tinuous  sheets  over  the  surface,  some- 
times rises  into  columns,  which  meet 
and  blend  with  the  stalactites  above. 

STAMBOUL.  See  Constantinople. 

STAMENS,  in  botany,  the  male  organs 
of  fructification  in  plants,  formed  prin- 
cipally of  cellular  tissue.  They  are 
situated  immediately  within  the  petals, 
and  are  each  composed,  in  most  cases, 
of  three  parts,  the  filament,  the  anther, 
and  the  pollen  (contained  in  the  anther), 
of  which  the  two  latter  are  essential, 
the  other  not.  The  stamens  and  pistils 
constitute  the  sexual  or  reproductive 
organs  of  plants.  Generally  they  both 
exist  in  the  same  flower,  which  is  thus 
said  to  be  hermaphrodite  or  perfect. 
The  number  of  stamens  varies  in  differ- 
ent plants,  from  one  to  a hundred  or 
more.  With  respect  to  their  directions 
they  are  named  erect,  inflexed,  reflexed, 
spreading,  ascending,  declinate;  and 
their  insertions  with  regard  to  the  ovary 
are  said  to  be  hypogynous,  epigynous, 
or  perigynous.  It  was  on  the  number  of 
stamens  and  their  arrangements  and 


Inside  of  corolla  showing 
the  stamens. 

relations,  that  Linnaeus  founded  the 
classes  of  his  sexual  system  of  plants. 
See  Botany,  Anther,  Pollen. 

STAMFORD,  a town  in  Fairfield  co  , 
Connecticut,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mill 
river,  36  miles  northeast  of  New  York, 
for  the  inhabitants  of  which  it  is  a 
favorite  summer  resort.  It  has  woolen 
and  iron  manufactures,  and  a small 
coasting  trade.  Pop.  17,306. 

STAMMERING,  an  affection  of  the 
faculty  of  speech  characterized  by 
irregular,  imperfect,  or  spasmodic  ac- 
tions of  the  muscles  concerned  in  articu- 
lation. It  manifests  itself  in  a difficulty 
in  beginning  the  enunciation  of  words, 
especially  such  as  begin  with  an  explo- 
sive consonant,  or  in  a spasmodic  and 
for  a tune  an  incontrollable  reiteration 


of  the  same  syllables  after  the  word  is 
begun ; this  latter  defect  being  also  called 
stuttering.  Stammering  is  always  in- 
creased by  emotional  disturbance,  and  is 
much  mitigated  and  often  cured,  by  the 
patient  acquiring  confidence  in  himself, 
never  attempting  to  speak  in  a hurry  or 
when  the  chest  is  empty  of  air,  or  by 
reading  measured  sentences  slowly  and 
with  deliberation. 

STAMP,  a term  specifically  applied 
to  the  public  mark  or  seal  made  by  a 
government  or  its  officers  upon  paper 
or  parchment  whereon  private  deeds 
or  other  illegal  agreements  are  written, 
and  for  which  certain  charges  are  made 
for  purposes  of  revenue.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a small  piece  of 
stamped  paper  issued  by  government, 
to  be  attached  to  a paper,  letter,  or 
document  liable  to  duty. 

STAMP  ACT,  an  act  regulating  the 
imposition  of  stamp  duties;  especially, 
an  act  passed  by  the  British  parliament 
in  1765,  imposing  a duty  on  all  paper, 
vellum,  and  parchment  used  in  Ameri- 
can colonies,  and  declaring  all  writing 
on  unstamped  materials  to  be  null  and 
void.  This  act  roused  a general  opposi- 
tion in  the  colonies,  and  was  one  cause 
of  the  revolution. 

STANDARD,  a flag  or  carved  sym- 
bolical figure,  etc.,  erected  on  a long 
pole  or  staff,  serving  as  a rallying-point 
or  the  like.  In  a more  strict  sense  the 
term  is  applied  to  a flag  which  bears  the 
arms,  device,  or  motto  of  the  owner, 
long  in  proportion  to  its  depth,  tapering 
toward  the  fly,  and,  except  when  belong- 
ing to  princes  of  the  blood-royal,  slit  at 
the  end. 

STANDARD  OF  MONEY,  in  coinage, 
the  proportion  of  weight  of  fine  metal 
and  alloy  established  by  authority.  The 
standard  of  gold  coins  in  the  United 
States  is  at  present  25.8  grains  to  the 
dollar.  The  standard  of  silver  coins  is 
412.5  grains  to  the  dollar.  The  fineness 
to  be  9 parts  of  gold  or  silver  to  1 of 
alloy. 

STANDING  STONES,  are  large  rough, 
erect  monoliths  found  not  only  in  all 
parts  of  Europe,  but  also  in  some  coun- 
tries of  the  East  and  even  in  the  New 
World,  and  nowhere  more  common  than 
in  Great  Britain.  They  sometimes  occur 
singly,  sometimes  in  groups.  The  prin- 
cipal purposes  of  the  single  standing 
stones  appear  to  have  been  to  serve  as 
boundary-marks,  as  memorials  of  battle, 
and  as  sepulchral  monuments.  The 
groups  of  standing  stones  that  exist  in 
various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  as  well 
as  in  some  parts  of  the  continent,  were 
thought  by  antiquaries  to  be  connected 
with  the  Druidical  worship  of  the  Celts, 
but,  for  want  of  sufficient  evidence,  this 
theory  has  been  abandoned. 

STANDISH,  Miles,  born  in  Lancashire 
about  1584,  died  1656.  He  claimed  to  be 
the  descendant  of  the  Standish  family  of 
Duxbury  HaU,  served  as  a captain  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  joined  the  Puritans 
when  they  sailed  for  New  England  in  the 
Mayflower  (1620).  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  early  struggles  of  the  colony, 
and  a tradition  regarding  his  courtship 
is  celebrated  in  a well-known  poem  by 
Longfellow. 

STANFORD,  Leland,  American  capi- 
talist, was  born  at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  in 


STANISLAUS  AUGUSTUS 


STAR-APPLE 


f 1824.  He  removed  to  California  in  1852, 
t and  engaged  in  mining  and  commercial 
^ ventures.  He  was  a delegate  to  the 
^ Chicago  convention  that  nominated 
f'  Abraham  Lincoln.  In  1861  he  was  elected 
' governor  of  California;  also  president 
- of  the  Central  Pacific;  to  the  construc- 
tion of  which  he  gave  his  personal  atten- 
tion. In  1885  and  1891  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  senate.  In  1886 


the  New  York  Herald  be  joined  the 
Abyssinian  expedition  of  1867-68.  He 
afterward  traveled  in  Spain,  and  it  was 
while  there  in  1869  that  he  was  asked  by 
the  proprietor  of  the  New  York  Herald 
“to  go  and  find  Livingstone.”  He  met 
and  relieved  the  traveler  at  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika in  November  of  the  same  year 
and  returned  to  England.  As  correspond- 
ent of  the  Daily  Telegraph  and  the  New 


Standing  stones  of  Stennis,  Pomona,  Orkney. 


i he  donated  the  sum  of  $20,000,000  to 
^ the  State  of  California  for  the  purpose 
, of  founding  the  Leland  Stanford  Junior 
' University  in  memory  of  his  son.  See 
LelandStanford  Junior  University.  He 
died  in  1893. 

STANISLAUS  AUGUSTUS,  Stanislaus 
II.,  the  last  king  of  Poland,  son  of  Count 
Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  was  born  at 
Wolczyn  in^  Lithuania  1732,  died  1798. 
He  protested  against  the  various  parti- 
tions of  Poland,  formally  resigned  his 
sovereignty  in  1795,  and  finally  died  in 
St.  Petersburg  as  a pensioner  of  the 
Emperor  Paul  I. 

STANISLAUS  LESZCZYNSKI  Gesh- 
chin'ski),  Stanislaus  I.,  King  of  Poland, 
afterward  Duke  of  Lorraine  and  Bar, 
was  born  at  Lemberg  in  1677,  died  1766. 
He  was  recommended  to  the  Warsaw 
assembly  by  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  as  a 
candidate  for  the  vacant  throne  of 
Poland.  He  was  accordingly  elected  and 
crowned  (1705),  but  after  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Poltava  (1709),  when  his  patron 
Charles  XII.  was  defeated,  he  had  to 
flee  from  Poland.  He  found  refuge  in 
France  ultimately,  where  his  daughter 
Maria  became  wife  to  Louis  XV.  As- 
sisted by  the  French  king  he  sought  to 
establish  his  claim  to  the  throne  of 
Poland  in  1733,  but,  opposed  by.  the 
united  powers  of  Saxony  and  Eussia, 
he  had  again  to  retire  into  France,  where 
he  held  possession  of  the  duchies  of 
Lorraine  and  Bar  until  his  death. 

STANLEY,  Sir  Henry  Morton,  born 
near  Denbigh,  in  1840,  was  placed  in  the 
poorhouse  of  St.  Asaph  at  the  age  of 
. three;  subsequently  in  1855  shipped  as 
cabin  boy  to  New  Orleans.  Stanley 
enlisted  in  the  confederate  army,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  after  his  dis- 
charge he  volunteered  into  the  United 
States  navy.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
went  to  .Turkey  as  a newspaper  corre- 
spondent, and  as  war  correspondent  for 


York  Herald  he  in  1874  undertook  an 
expedition  into  Africa,  and  for  the  first 
time  traced  the  Congo  river  from  the 
interior  to  its  mouth  (1877).  For  the 
purpose  of  developing  this  vast  region 
he  rtturned  in  1879,  and  after  planting 
stations  and  establishing  steam  naviga- 
tion this  territory  secured  by  Stanley  was 
named  in  1885  the  Congo  Free  State. 


Henry  Morton  Stanley  (Jan.  1886). 


He  is  the  author  of  How  I Found  Living- 
stone, Through  the  Dark  Continent, 
The  Congo,  and  the  Founding  of  its 
Free  State,  and  In  Darkest  Africa.  He 
was  made  G.C.B.  in  1899.  Died  1904. 

STANLEY  FALLS.  See  Congo  Free 
State. 

STANTON,  Edwin  M’Masters,  an 
American  statesman,  was  born  at 
Steubenville,  Ohio,  1814;  died  at  Wash- 
ington 1869.  He  acquired  a large  prac- 
tice in  the  supreme  court  at  Washing- 
ton, and  when  Buchanan  was  elected 

President  (1857)  he  entered  the  cabinet. 

hortly  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
between  the  north  and  the  south.  Presi- 
dent Lincoln  appointed  him  head  of  the 
war  department  (January,  1862),  and 
his  acceptance  of  the  office  marked  the 
beginning  of  a vigorous  military  policy. 


He  selected  General  Grant  for  promo- 
tion after  the  victory  at  Fort  Donelson; 
and  it  was  he  who,  in  1863,  placed  Grant 
in  supreme  command  of  the  three  armies 
operating  in  the  southwest.  In  all  the 
important  movements  of  the  war 
Stanton  was  consulted  by  the  president. 
After  the  assassination  of  Lincoln  he 
had  some  controversy  with  his  successor, 
Andrew  Johnson,  who  demanded  his 
resignation.  This  he  refused,  and  was 
upheld  by  the  senate.  In  1869  he  was 
appointed  justice  of  the  supreme  court, 
but  he  died  a few  days  afterward. 

STANTON,  Elizabeth  (Cady),  Ameri- 
can reformer  and  promoter  of  the 
woman’s  rights  movement,  was  born  at 
Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  in  1815.  She  became 
interested  in  the  anti-slavery  and  other 
reform  movements,  and  through  ac- 
quaintance with  Lucretia  Mott  was  led 
to  sign  the  call  for  the  first  woman’s 
rights  convention,  which  was  in  July, 
1848.  This  convention  made  the  first 
formal  demand  for  the  extension  of  the 
suflFrage  to  women,  and  of  the  National 
Women’s  Suffrage  association  there 
formed  Mrs.  Stanton  became  the  first 
president,  retaining  that  office  until 
1893.  In  1868  she  was  a candidate  for 
congress.  She  was  a frequent  contributor 
to  magazines,  and  was  joint  author  of 
A History  of  Woman’s  Suffrage.  Eighty 
Years  and  More,  an  autobiography,  was 
published  in  1895.  She  died  in  1902. 

STANZA,  in  poetry,  a number  of  lines 
or  verses  connected  with  each  other, 
and  properly  ending  in  a full  point  or 
pause.  A stanza  presents  in  meter, 
rhymes,  and  the  number  of  its  lines  a 
combination  which  repeats  itself  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  same  poem. 

STAPE'LIA,  an  extensive  and  curious 
genus  of  plants  or  milkweeds.  Most  of 
the  species  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  They  are  succulent  plants, 
without  leaves,  frequently  covered  over 
with  dark  tubercles,  giving  them  a very 


Stapella  variegata. 


grotesque  appearance.  In  most  in- 
stances the  flowers  give  off  a very  un- 
pleasant odor.  They  are,  nevertheless, 
cultivated  on  account  of  their  singular 
and  beautiful  flowers. 

STAPHYLO'MA,  a name  given  to  dif- 
ferent tumors  of  the  anterior  surface  of 
the  globe  of  the  eye.  Called  also 
staphylosis. 

STAR,  Polar.  See  Pole-star.  There  is 
a Swedish  order  qf  knighthood  so  named. 
It  is'  bestowed  specially  on  those  who 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  a 
civil  capacity.  Its  motto  is,  “Nescit 
occasum.” 

STAR-APPLE,  the  popular  name  of 
several  species  of  plants  whose  fruit  is 
esculent.  It  is  a native  of  the  West 


STARBOARD 


STARVATION 


Indies.  The  fruit  resembles  a large 
apple,  which  in  the  inside  is  divided  into 
ten  cells,  each  containing  a black  seed, 


Star-apple. 


surrounded  by  a gelatinous  pulp,  which 
is  very  palatable. 

STARBOARD,  the  right  side  of  a ship 
when  the  eye  is  directed  toward  the 
head,  stem,  or  prow.  See  Port. 

STARCH,  a proximate  principle  of 
plants,  universally  diffused  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  and  of  very  great  im- 
portance. It  occurs  in  seeds,  as  in  those 
of  wheat  and  other  cereal  grains,  and 
also  in  leguminous  plants;  in  roots,  as 
in  the  tubers  of  the  potato;  in  the  stem 
and  pith  of  many  plants,  as  in  the  sago 
plant;  in  some  barks,  as  in  that  of  cin- 
namon; and  in  pulpy  fruits,  such  as  the 
apple.  Finally,  it  is  contained  in  the 
expressed  juice  of  most  vegetables,  such 
as  the  carrot,  in  a state  of  suspension, 
being  deposited  on  standing.  The  starch 
of  commerce  is  chiefly  extracted  from 
wheat  flour  and  potatoes.  When  pure, 
starch  is  a snow-white  powder  of  a glist- 
tening  appearance,  which  makes  a 
crackling  noise  when  pressed  with  the 
finger.  It  is  composed  of  transparent 
rounded  grains,  the  size  of  which  varies 
in  different  plants,  those  of  the  potato 
being  among  the  largest,  and  those  of 
wheat  and  rice  the  smallest.  It  is  in- 
soluble in  cold  water,  alcohol,  and  ether, 
but  when  heated  with  water  it  is  con- 
verted into  a kind  of  solution,  which,  on 
cooling,  forms  a stiff  semi-opaque  jelly. 
If  dried  up  this  yields  a translucent 
mass,  which  softens  and  swells  into  a 
jelly  with  water.  It  is  employed  for 
stiffening  linen  and  other  cloth.  When 
roasted  at  a moderate  heat  in  an  oven 
it  is  converted  into  a species  of  gum 
employed  by  calico-printers;  potato 
starch  answers  best  for  this  purpose. 
Starch  is  convertible  into  sugar  by  boil- 
ing with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Starch 
forms  the  greatest  portion  of  all  farina- 
ceous substances,  particularly  of  wheat 
flour,  and  it  is  the  chief  ingredient  of 

bread.  , 

STAR-CHAMBER,  formerly  an  Eng- 
lish court  of  civil  and  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion at  Westminster.  It  consisted  origin- 
ally of  a committee  of  the  privy-council, 
and  was  remodeled  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.,  when  it  consisted  of  four 
high  officers  of  state,  with  power  to  add 
to  their  number  a bishop  and  a temporal 
lord  of  the  council,  and  two  justices  of 
the  courts  of  Westminster.  It  had  juris- 
diction of  forgery,  perjury,  riots,  main- 
tenance, fraud,  libel,  and  conspiracy, 
and  could  inflict  any  punishment  short 
of  death.  Its  process  was  summary  and 


often  iniquitous  (especially  in  the  reigns 
of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.),  and  the 
punishment  it  inflicted  often  arbitrary 
and  cruel.  This  court  was  abolished 
(1640)  by  statute  16  Charles  I. 

STAR-FISHES,  the  star-fishes  proper 
are  covered  with  a tough  leathery  skin 
beset  with  prickles,  and  have  the  form  of 
a star,  with  five  or  more  rays  radiating 
from  a central  disc.  In  the  middle  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  disc  is  situated  the 
mouth,  opening  into  a digestive  system 
which  sends  prolongations  into  each 
ray.  If  the  prickly  skin  be  removed  it 
will  be  seen  to  be  supported  by  a series 
of  plates  beautifully  jointed  together. 
On  the  under  surface  of  each  ray  the 
plates  exhibit  a series  of  perforations, 
through  which,  in  the  living  state,  the 
ambulacra  or  tubular  feet  can  be  pro- 
truded so  as  to  effect  locomotion.  Star- 
fishes are  found  in  almost  all  tropical 
and  European  seas,  and  some  species 
are  found  as  far  north  as  Greenland. 

STARLING,  called  also  Stare,  a 
bird  belonging  to  a family  of  birds 
widely  distributed  throughout  the  world, 
and  allied  to  the  crows.  The  common 
starling  is  between  8 and  9 inches  in 
length;  the  color  is  blackish,  with  blue, 
purplish,  or  cupreous  reflections,  and 
each  feather  is  marked  at  the  extremity 
with  a whitish  triangular  speck,  giving 


y' 

Common  European  starling. 


the  bird  a speckled  appearance.  Star- 
lings live  mostly  upon  insects,  build  in 
old  walls  and  hollow  trees,  and  the  eggs, 
usually  five,  are  of  a pale  bluish  tint. 
These  birds  are  often  kept  in  cages,  and 
may  be  taught  to  whistle  some  tunes, 
and  even  to  pronounce  words  and  sen- 
tences. 

STAR  OF  BETHLEHEM,  a bulbous- 
rooted  plant  with  white  star-like  flowers. 
It  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Europe, 
and  is  much  cultivated  in  gardens  for 
ornament. 

STARS,  those  self-shining  bodies  seen 
in  the  heavens  at  night,  constituted  like 
the  sun,  situated  at  immense  distances 
from  us,  and  doubtless  like  our  sun,  the 
centers  of  systems  similar  to  our  own. 
To  superficial  observation  stars  are  dis- 
tinguished from  planets  by  remaining 
apparently  immovable  with  respect  to 
one  another,  and  hence  they  were  called 
fixed  stars,  although  their  fixity  has 
been  disproved  in  numerous  cases,  and 
is  no  longer  believed  in  regard  to  any. 
In  order  th  distinguish  the  stars  one  from 
another  the  ancients  divided  the  heav- 
ens into  different  spaces  containing 


groups  of  stars  called  constellations. 
(See  constellation.)  The  stars  are 
divided,  according  to  their  brightness, 
into  stars  of  the  first,  second,  third,  etc., 
magnitudes;  but  no  magnitude,  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  word,  has  yet  been 
observed  in  any  star.  All  the  stars  be- 
yond the  sixth  or  seventh  magnitude 
are  called  telescopic  stars,  as  they  can- 
not be  seen  without  the  aid  of  the  tele- 
scope; and  these  are  continued  by 
astronomers  down  to  the  sixteenth 
magnitude.  As  to  the  absolute  size  of 
the  stars  little  is  known;  but  the  light 
given  out  by  Sirius  is  estimated  at  63i 
times  that  of  the  sun.  The  colors  of  the 
stars  vary  considerably,  red,  yellow, 
green,  and  blue  being  noticed.  The  stars 
are  very  irregularly  distributed  over 
the  celestial  sphere.  In  some  regions 
scarcely  a star  is  to  be  seen,  while  in 
others  they  seem  crowded  together, 
especially  in  the  Milky  Way.  In  somei' 
cases  a certain  number  of  stars  evidently 
belong  to  a system  by  themselves.  Of 
the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  at  any 
one  time  the  number  probably  doesj 
not  exceed  a few  thousands,  but  in  thei  - 
telescope  their  number  is  so  great  as  toi  - 
defy  all  calculation.  The  distances  of  ' 
the  stars  from  the  earth  are  very  great.  < 
The  shortest  distance  yet  found,  that  of' , 
a Centauri,  a double  star  in  the  southern I: 
hemisphere,  has  been  calculated  at  2C|< 
billions  of  miles,  so  that  the  light  taketi  ■ 

years  to  travel  from  it  to  our  earth.  ; 
Many  stars  have  been  observed  whose. i 
light  appears  to  undergo  a regulai  ) 
periodic  increase  and  diminution  oC  I 
brightness,  amounting,  in  some  in- 
stances, to  a complete  extinction  and^ 
revival.  These  are  called  variable  andi. 
periodic  stars.  It  is  found  that  someji 
stars,  formerly  distinguished  by  theiij. 
splendor  have  entirely  disappeared 
Such  stars  are  called  temporary  stars  |j 
Many  of  the  stars  that  usually  appea-  | 
single  are  found,  when  observed  witlp 
telescopes  of  high  magnifying  power,  t,  i 
be  really  composed  of  two,  and  some  o 
them  three  or  more  stars  in  close  juxta; 
position.  These  are  termed  double  aac| 
multiple  stars.  By  means  of  spectrumt 
analysis  some  valuable  results  regardint 
the  stars  have  latterly  been  obtained 
in  particular,  many  of  the  elementij 
familiar  to  us  have  been  detected  it, 
them,  and  the  spectroscope  has  al8C| 
proved  that  the  star  Arcturus  is  ap 
preaching  us  and  Sirius  receding.  Seij 
Astronomy,  Nebulae,  and  Meteor. 

STARS  AND  BARS,  the  popular  nanU' 
applied  to  the  flag  adopted  by  the  con 
federate  states  of  America  early  in  1861 

^^ItAr’ SPANGLED  BANNER,  The! 
the  national  hymn  of  the  United  States; 
written  by  Francis  Scott  Key  on  boani 
the  frigate  Surprise  during  the  bom 
bardment  of  Fort  McHenry,  Md.,  b; 
the  British,  in  1814.  “The  Star  Spangled 
Banner”  was  first  sung  in  a tavern  nea 
the  Holiday  Street  theater,  Baltimore 
by  Ferdinand  Durang. 

STARVATION,  or  INANITION,  is  th 
physical  effect  produced  by  the  tota; 
want  of  food  and  water.  The  symptom 
of  starvation  in  man  are ; an  increasin 
loss  of  weight,  severe  pain  in  tb 
stomach,  loss  of  strength,  sleeplessnesf 
great  thirst,  in  some  cases  stupor,  an 


STATEN  ISLAND 


STEAM 


in  other  cases  nervous  excitement  with 
convulsions.  Meanwhile  the  face  as- 
sumes a haggard  expression,  the  skin 
is  said  to  become  covered  with  a brown 
secretion,  and  at  last  death  occurs  in 
about  eight  days.  With  a good  supply  of 
water,  however,  life  may  be  prolonged, 
in  the  absence  of  solid  food,  for  a period 
of  two  or  three  weeks,  and  a moist  at- 
mosphere will  even  seem  to  favor  the 
prolongation  of  life.  Certain  diseases, 
such  as  stricture  or  cancer  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  stomach,  etc.,  may  occasion 
starvation,  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
gradual  starvation  may  result  from  the 
continued  low  percentage  of  nutritive 
matter  in  the  daily  diet.  See  Fasting. 

STATEN  ISLAND,  an  island  belonging 
to  New  York  state,  constituting  nearly 
the  whole  of  Richmond  county,  and 
separated  from  Long  Island  by  the 
Narrows  which  form  the  entrance  to 
New  York  harbor,  and  from  New  Jersey 
by  Staten  Island  sound,  about  J mile 
broad.  Its  length  is  14  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  8 miles.  It  contains 
numerous  villages,  abounds  in  pleasant 
scenery,  and  has  constant  communica- 
tion with  New  York  by  steam  ferry- 
boats 


i 

I 


I 

i 


STATES-GENERAL,  thus  called  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  provincial 
states,  the  name  given  in  France  till 
1789  to  the  assemblies  of  the  deputies 
of  the  three  orders  of  the  nation,  the 
clergy,  the  nobility,  and  the  third  estate. 
This  assembly  had  little  legislative 
power,  its  chief  function  being  to  register 
the  king’s  decrees  in  matters  of  taxation. 

STATE,  Department  of,  one  of  the 
nine  executive  departments  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  pre- 
sided over  by  a secretary  who  is  a mem- 
ber of  the  cabinet  and  first  in  the  line  of 
succession  lo  the  presidency  after  the 
vice-president.  The  department  of  state 
is  the  organ  of  communication  between 
the  government  of  the  United  States 
and  all  foreign  governments,  as  well  as 
with  the  governors  of  the  individual 
states.  The  secretary  of  state  conducts 
all  such  correspondence;  has  charge  of 
the  negotiation  of  all  treaties  and  con- 
ventions; he  preserves  the  originals  of 
all  treaties,  public  documents  and  cor- 
respondence with  foreign  governments 
as  well  as  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States;  he  publishes  all  statutes  and 
resolutions  of  congress  and  proclama- 
tions of  the  president;  he  is  the  custo- 
dian of  the  great  seal  which  is  aflSxed 
to  all  commissions  of  appointment  re- 
quiring the  consent  of  the  senate,  proc- 
lamations, warrants  for  extradition, 
pardons,  etc.,  emanating  from  the 
president;  he  issues  and  keeps  a record 
of  passports  granted  to  American  citi- 
zens traveling  abroad;  issues  warrants 
for  the  extradition  of  criminals  to  be 
delivered  to  foreign  governments;  pre- 
sents foreign  ministers  to  the  president, 
etc.  He  makes  an  annual  report  of  the 
conduct  of  foreign  affairs  for  the  year, 
publishes  the  consular  reports  and  the 
“foreign  relations”  of  the  United  States, 
and  performs  such  other  duties  relative 
to  the  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  as  the 
president  may  direct. 

STATES  AND  TERRITORIES,  Popu- 
lar Names  of,  Alabama,  Cotton  state; 
Arkansas,  Toothpick  and  Bear  state; 


P.  P.— 75 


California,  Eureka  and  Golden  state; 
Colorado,  Centennial  state;  Connecti- 
cut, Land  of  Steady  Habits,  Freestone 
state  and  Nutmeg  state;  Dakota,  Sioux 
state;  Delaware,  Uncle  Sam’s  Pocket 
Handkerchief  and  Blue  Hen  state; 
Florida,  Everglade  and  Flowery  state; 
Georgia,  Empire  state  of  the  South; 
Idaho,  Gem  of  the  Mountains;  Illinois, 
Prairie  and  Sucker  state;  Indiana, 
Hoosier  state;  Iowa,  Hawkeye  state; 
Kansas,  Jayhawker  state;  Kentucky, 
Corn-cracker  state;  Louisiana,  Creole 
state;  Maine,  Timber  and.  Pine  Tree 
state;  Maryland,  Monumental  state, 
Massachusetts,  Old  Bay  state;  Michigan, 
Wolverine  and  Peninsular  state;  Min- 
nesota, Gopher  and  North  Star  state; 
Mississippi,  Eagle  state;  Missouri,  Puke 
state;  Nebraska, Antelope  state ;Nevada, 
Sage  state;  New  Hampshire,  Old  Gran- 
ite state;  New  Jersey,  Blue  state  and 
New  Spain;  New  Mexico,  Vermin  state; 
New  York,  Empire  state ; North  Carolina 
Rip  Van  Winkle,  Old  North  and  Tur- 
pentine state ; Ohio,  Buckeye  state ; 
Oregon,  Pacific  state;  Pennsylvania, 
Keystone,  Iron  and  Oil  state;  Rhode 
Island,  Plantation  state  and  Little 
Rhody;  South  Carolina,  Palmetto  state; 
Tennessee,  Lion’s  Den  state;  Texas, 
Lone  Star  state;  Utah,  Mormon  state; 
Vermont,  Green  Mountain  state;  Vir- 
ginia, Old  Dominion;  Wisconsin,  Bad- 
ger and  Copper  state. 

STATICS,  that  branch  of  dynamics 
which  treats  of  the  properties  and  rela- 
tions of  forces  in  equilibrium — equili- 
brium meaning  that  the  forces  are  in 
perfect  balance,  so  that  the  body  upon 
which  they  act  is  in  a state  of  rest. 
According  to  the  classification  still  em- 
ployed by  many  writers  on  the  subject 
the  word  statics  is  used  in  opposition  to 
dynamics,  the  former  being  the  science 
of  equilibrium  or  rest,  and  the  latter  of 
motion,  both  together  constituting 
mechanics.  But  among  more  recent 
authors  mechanics  is  used  to  express  not 
the  theory  of  force  and  motion,  but 
rather  its  application  to  the  arts.  The 
word  dynamics  is  employed  as  express- 
ing the  science  which  treats  of  the  laws 
of  force  or  power,  thus  corresponding 
closely  to  the  old  use  of  the  term  me- 
chanics; and  this  science  is  divided  into 
statics  and  kinetics,  the  first  being  the 
science  which  treats  of  forces  considered 
as  producing  rest,  and  the  second  as 
treating  of  forces  considered  as  produc- 
ing motion.  See  Dynamics. 

STATIS'TICS,  a collection  of  facts 
relating  to  a part  or  the  whole  of  a coun- 
try or  people,  or  of  facts  relating  to 
classes  of  individuals  or  interests  in 
different  countries;  especially,  those 
facts  which  illustrate  the  physical, 
social,  moral,  intellectual,  political,  in- 
dustrial, and  economical  condition  or 
changes  of  condition,  and  which  admit 
of  numerical  statement  and  of  arrange- 
ment in  tables.  The  collection  of  statis- 
tics may  have  the  object  merely  of  ascer- 
taining numbers,  as  is  often  the  case 
with  statistics  collected  for  purely  ad- 
ministrative purposes;  or  it  may  be 
undertaken  with  the  view  of  learning 
what  happens  on  an  average  of  a great 
number  of  cases,  as  is  the  case  of  insur- 
ance statistics;  or  its  object  may  be  to 
detect  the  causes  of  phenomena  that 


appear  in  the  consideration  of  a number 
of  individual  cases — such  phenomena, 
for  example,  as  the  decline  of  a certain 
trade,  the  prevalence  of  a certain  dis- 
ease, etc.  In  all  civilized  countries  the 
collection  of  statistics  forms  an  import- 
ant part  of  the  administrative  duties  of 
government,  and  in  some  eases  it  is  in- 
trusted to  a special  bureau.  The  first 
country  to  possess  an  institution  of  this 
nature  was  Belgium,  its  organizer  being 
the  eminent  statistican  Lambert  Que- 
telet. 

STATUE.  See  Sculpture. 

STATUTE,  a law  proceeding  from 
the  government  of  a state ; a written  law. 
Statutes  are  either  public  or  private 
(in  the  latter  case  affecting  an  individual 
or  a company);  but  the  term  is  usually 
restricted  to  public  acts  of  a general  and 
permanent  character.  Statutes  are  said 
to  be  declaratory  of  the  law  as  it  stood 
before  their  passing;  remedial,  to  cor- 
rect defects  in  the  common  law;  and 
penal,  imposing  prohibitions  and  penal- 
ties. The  term  statute  is  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  acts  of  a legislative  body 
consisting  of  representatives.  In  mon- 
archies not  having  representative  bodies, 
the  laws  of  the  sovereign  are  called 
edicts,  decrees,  ordinances,  rescripts,  etc. 

STAVRO'POL,  a government  of  Rus- 
sia in  the  Caucasus,  and  bordering  on 
the  Caspian  sea;  area,  26,500  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  876,298. — Stavropol,  the  capital 
of  this  district,  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
has  a large  trade  in  horses,  cattle,  sheep, 
etc.  Pop.  41,621. 

STAY,  in  ships,  a l%rge,  strong  rope, 
extending  from  the  upper  end  of  a mast 
down  to  another  mast,  or  to  some  part 
of  the  vessel,  with  the  object  of  lending 
support  to  the  mast  to  whose  top  it  is 
attached.  Those  leaning  forward  are 
called  fore-and-aft  stays,  and  those  lead- 
ing down  to  the  vessel’s  sides  and  pulling 
a little  backward  are  called  back  stays. 
A sail  extended  on  a stay  is  a stay  sail. 
In  large  vessels  there  are  a number  of 
these  of  a triangular  shape.  To  stay  is 
to  tack  or  bring  the  ship’s  head  up  to 
the  wind  for  going  about;  to  miss  stays 
is  to  fail  in  the  attempt  to  go  about.  In 
stays  or  hove  in  stays  is  the  situation  of 
a vessel  when  she  is  in  the  act  of  going 
about. 

STEAD,  William  Thomas,  English 
journalist,  was  born  at  Embleton, 
Northumberland  in  1849.  In  1880  he 
was  assistant  editor  of  the  Pall  Mall 
Gazette;  editor  from  1883  to  1889. 
In  1890  founded  the  Review  of  Reviews. 
By  his  exposure  of  legally  permissible 
outrages  upon  women  and  children  in  his 
Maiden  Tribute  of  Modern  Babylon  in 
1885  he  was  sentenced  to  a threemonths’ 
term  in  Holloway  gaol,  but  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  enactment  of  the  Criminal 
Law  Amendment  Bill.  His  publications 
include;  The  Truth  About  Russia,  The 
Pope  and  the  New  Era,  If  Christ  Came 
to  Chicago,  The  Labor  War  in  the 
United  States,  Satan’s  Invisible  World, 
A Study  of  Despairing  Democracy,  The 
Americanization  of  the  World. 
STEALING.  See  LarcenJ^ 

STEAM,  is  the  vaporous  substance 
into  which  water  is  converted  under 
certain  conditions  of  heat  and  pressure. 
It  may  be  said,  indeed,  that  water  gives 
off  vapor  or  steam  at  every  temperature, 


steam-engine 


STEAM-ENGINE 


but  the  term  is  technically  applied  to 
the  elastic  aeriform  fluid  generated  by 
heating  water  to  the  boiling  point. 
Steam,  in  its  perfect  state,  is  transpar- 
ent, colorless,  and  invisible;  but  when  it 
has  been  deprived  of  part  of  its  heat  by 
coming  into  contact  with  cold  air,  it 
suddenly  assumes  a cloudy  appearance, 
and  is  condensed  into  water.  When 
water,  in  an  open  vessel,  is  heated  to 
the  boiling  point  (212°  F.)  globules  of 
steam  are  formed  at  the  bottom  and  rise 
to  the  surface,  where  they  pass  off  in 
vapor.  In  this  case  all  the  heat  which 
enters  into  the  water  is  solely  employed 
in  converting  it  into  steam  of  the  tem- 
perature of  boij.ing  water,  while  the 
continued  and  increased  application  of 
heat  will  only  cause  a more  rapid  forma- 
tion of  steam  until  the  whole  of  the  water 
evaporates.  When  water,  however,  is 
confined  in  a strong  close  vessel,  both  it 
and  the  steam  which  it  produces  may 
be  brought  to  any  temperature;  and 
as  steam  at  boiling  point  occupies  1642 
times  the  space  of  the  water  from  which 
it  is  generated,  it  follows  that  when 
thus  confined  it  must  exercise  an  enor- 
mous expansive  force.  Steam,  as  used 
in  the  steam-engine,  holds  water  in  sus- 
pension mechanically,  and  is  cMled 
saturated  steam  ; while  the  steam  which 
receives  additional  heat  apart  from 
water  is  called  superheated  steam,  and 
approximates  to  the  condition  of  a per- 
fect gas.  When  the  temperature  of 
saturated  steam  is  considerably  above 
212°  F.,  the  steam  formed  under  such 
conditions  is  termed  high-pressure  steam 
while  at  212°  F it  is  called  low-pressure 
steam,  ^nd  its  pressure  is  equal  to  that 
of  one  atmosphere,  or  14.7  lbs.  on  the 
square  inch.  Another  element  in  the 
constitution  of  steam  is  its  density 
which  is  expressed  by  the  weight  of  1 
cubic  foot  of  the  steam.  This  density  is 
increased  with  an  increase  of  the  pres- 
sur6  under  whiicli  the  steam  is  generated, 
for  the  particles  of  steam  become  more 
closely  packed  together.  Thus  the 
density  of  steam  produced  at  212  has 
been  found  to  be  equal  to  .038  lb.  or  | 
oz,  per  cubic  foot,  from  which  it  follows 
that  the  volume  of  1 lb.  of  such  steam 
is  equal  to  26.36  cubic  feet.  Like  the 
pressure  or  expansive  force  of  steam, 
the  density  is  invariably  the  same  for  a 
given  temperature.  From  the  posses- 
sion of  the  properties  thus  briefly  stated, 
steam  constitutes  an  invaluable  agent 
for  the  production  of  mechanical  force, 
as  shown  in  the  various  uses  of  the 
steam-engine.  It  is  also  employed  in 
distributing  the  heat  used  for  warming 
buildings,  in  heating  baths,  evaporating 
solutions,  brewing,  drying,  dyeing,  and 
even  for  cookery. 

STEAM-ENGINE,  a mechanical  con- 
trivance, in  which  the  force  arising  from 
the  elasticity  and  expansive  action  of 
steam,  or  from  its  property  of  rapid 
condensation,  or  from  the  combination 
of  these  qualities,  is  made  available  as 
a source  of  motive  power  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures,  and  in  locomotion.  The 
expansive  power  of  steam  was  known  to 
the  ancients,  and  its  earliest  use  in  con- 
nection with  a mechanical  contrivance 
is  noted  by  Hero  of  Alexandria  (about 
130  K.c.)  in  his  Pneumatica.  In  this 
treatise  Hero  describes  an  aeolipile  or 


hollow  spherical  vessel  turning  on  an 
axis,  supplied  with  steam,  and  driven 
by  the  reaction  from  the  escaping  jets 
of  steam.  The  principle  that  a mechani- 
cal power  is  obtained  by  the  pressure  of 
steam  acting  on  the  surface  of  water 
placed  in  a closed  vessel  put  to  practical 
use  by  Captain  Thomas  Savery  (1698) 
in  a steam-engine  which  he  constructed 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  water  out  of 
mines;  and  with  the  elevation  of  water 
by  pressure  he  also  combined  the  prin- 
ciple of  obtaining  a vacuum  by  con- 
densation. This  principle,  however,  was 
made  more  practically  effective  by  Denis 
Papin  (1690),  who  constructed  a steam- 
engine  in  which  a piston  was  forced 
down  through  the  vacuum  made  by 
condensation.  This  first  conception  of 
a piston  working  in  a cylinder  was 
further  developed  by  Newcomen  (1705) 
and  his  assistant  Cawley.  Various  im- 
provements in  the  steam-engine  were 
made  by  Smeaton  and  others,  but  its 
greatest  development  was  effected  by 
James  Watt  (1769).  His  improvements 
consisted  in  condensing  the  steam,  not 
in  the  cylinder,  but  in  a separate  con- 
denser, thus  preventing  the  waste 
occasioned  previously  by  the  chilling 


Beam  condensing  steam-engine. 

a,  The  steam-cylinder,  h,  The  piston,  c.  The  upper  steam- 
port  or  passage,  d.  The  lower  steam-port,  ee.  The  parallel 
motion,  /f,  The  beam,  o,  The  connecting-rod.  /i,  The  crank. 
ii  The  fly-wheel,  kk.  The  eccentric  and  its  rod  for  working 
the  steam-valve.  I,  The  steam-valve  and  valve-casing,  m,  The 
throttle-valve,  n,  The  condenser,  o,  The  injection-cock,  p.  The 
air-pump.  q.  The  hot-well,  r.  The  snifting-valve  for  creating 
a vacuum  in  the  condenser  previous  to  starting  the  engine,  s, 
The  feed-pump  for  supplying  the  boilers.  The  cold-water 
pump  for  supplying  the  condenser  cistern,  u,  The  governor. 

and  heating  of  the  cylinder.  Besides 
this,  he  preserved  the  heat  in  the  cylinder 
by  surrounding  it  with  a layer  of  hot 
steam  inside  of  an  external  casing;  and 
with  the  same  object  he  employed 
steam,  instead  of  air,  to  press  down  the 
piston  from  above.  Thus  he  obtained 
the  double-acting  engine,  which  is  so 
named  because  both  the  up-stroke  and 
the  down-stroke  are  produced  by  means 
of  steam.  Further,  he  devised  a crank 
motion  which  converted  the  alternating 
motion  of  the  oscillating  beam  into  a 
continuous  rotary  motion;  but  as  this 
invention  was  pirated  he  patented  the 
“sun-and-planet”  wheel  as  a substitute 
for  the  crank,  returning  afterward  to 
the  crank.  To  these  improvements  he 
subsequently  added  a fly-wheel,  in 
order  to  equalize  the  motion  so  as  to 
drive  the  crank  past  the  dead-points; 
a governor,  whose  purpose  was  to  regu- 
late the  quantity  of  steam  passing  into 
the  cylinder;  an  indicator,  to  measure 
the  pressure  upon  the  piston;  and  a 
slide-valve,  moved  automatically  by  an 


eccentric,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
regulate  the  action  of  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder.  The  steam-engine,  as  thus 
developed  by  Watt,  was  in  nearly  all 
essential  points  the  same  as  the  present- 
day  engine.  Probably  the  only  iniprove- 
ment  of  primary  importance  which  has 
been  made  in  the  steam-engine  since  the 
time  of  Watt,  is  the  manner  in  which 
steam  is  now  used  expansively.  In  the 
compound  engine  the  steam  receives 
the  greater  part  of  its  expansion  in  a 
second  cylinder  of  much  larger  diameter 
than  the  first,  and  by  this  means  greater 
steadiness  of  piston-stroke,  economy  of  ^ 
fuel,  and  increased  driving  power  have  i 
been  obtained.  The  use  of  expanded  i 
steam  has  been  especially  notable  in  the 
marine  engine,  where  it  is  now  expanded 
successively  in  three  or  even  four 
cylinders.  The  accompanying  illustra- 
tion represents  a sectional  elevation  of 
a beam  condensing  steam-engine,  and 
shows  the  principles  embodied  in  Watt’s  , 
steam-engine.  The  pipe  conveying  the  i 
steam  from  the  boiler  opens  into  the  i 
part  marked  I,  whicli  incloses  a movable  < 
valve  by  means  of  which  the  steam  may 
be  alternately  admitted  into  the  cylin-  i 
der  a by  the  upper  port  c and  lower  d;  : 
between  these  points  the  piston  b works 
steam-tight.  The  valve  1 is  so  contrived  i 
that  while  it  allows  steam  to  pass  into  i 
the  cylinder  through  one  of  the  ports,  I 
it  shall  at  the  same  time  open  a com-  I 
munication  between  the  opposite  side 
of  the  piston  and  the  condenser  n,  which  1 
is  a hollow  vessel  kept  constantly  im- 
mersed  in  cold  water,  a portion  of  which  | 
is  admitted  into  it  by  the  injection-  | 
cock  o;  consequently,  the  steam  thus  • 
admitted  is  instantly  deprived  of  its 
heat,  and  reconverted  into  its  original  i 
form  of  water,  thereby  forming  a i 
vacuum.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  on  ! 
the  communication  being  opened  up  ! 
between  the  boiler  and  either  side  of  i 
the  piston,  the  latter  will  ascend  or  de-  S 
scend  in  the  cylinder  unimpeded  by  the 
resistance  of  the  atmosphere  against  i 
the  other  side,  and  with  a force  proper-  ! 
tional  to  the  pressure  of  the  steam ; and  ' 
as  the  motions  of  the  steam-valve  1 are  ; 
regulated  by  the  engine  itself,  the  above 
action  is  kept  up  continuously.  The  , 
alternating  rectilinear  motion  thus  gen-  i 
erated  within  the  cylinder  is  transnaitted 
by  means  of  a rod  attached  to  the  piston, 
to  a strong  beam  f f,  movable  upon  a 
central  axis,  a system  of  jointed  rods  I 
e e,  called  the  parallel  motion,  being  in-  , 
terposed  for  the  purpose  'Of  neutralizing 
the  disturbing  action  which  the  circular 
path  of  the  beam  would  otherwise  exert  i 
upon  the  piston.  The  reciprocating 
motion  of  the  beam  is  now,  through  the 
intervention  of  the  connecting-rod  g 
and.  crank  h,  converted  into  a circular 
or  rotatory  motion,  which  is  rendered 
continuous  and  uniform  by  the  fly- 
wheel i,  to  the  axis  of  which  the  ma- 
chinery to  be  impelled  is  connected.! 
The  air-pump  p for  withdrawing  thei 
vapor  and  water  from  the  condenser,^ 
the  feed-pump  s for  supplying  the| 
boilers,  and  cold-water  pump  t for  sup-  , 
plying  the  condenser  cistern,  are  all 
worked  by  rods  from  the  beam;  and  the 
governor  u,  for  maintaining  uniformity  j 
of  motion,  is  driven  by  a band  from  the  ' 
crank-shaft.  The  above  description  j 

I 


S'TEAM-GAUGfi 


STEAM-HAMMER, 


refers  more  immediately  to  that  class  of 
steam-engines  called  low-pressure  en- 
gines. The  various  fonns  of  the  steam- 
engine  have  received  a varied  form  of 
classification.  There  are  the  general 
divisions  into  condensing  and  non- 
condensing engines,  compound  and  non- 
compound, and  single,  double,  or  direct 
acting.  Again  there  is  the  classification 
connected  with  the  position  of  the  cylin- 
der, as  in  the  horizontal,  vertical,  and 
inclined  cylinder  engines.  Another 
classification,  and  that  which  is  adopted 
here,  is  to  divide  steam-engines  into  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  applied.  Station- 
ary engines  comprise  all  such  engines 
as  are  permanently  fixed  for  the  purpose 
of  driving  the  machinery  in  a factory, 
pumping  water,  etc.  For  a long  time 
the  favorite  engine  for  these  purposes 
was  of  the  beam  condensing  type  adopted 
and  improved  by  Watt.  But  this  has 
now,  for  the  most  part,  been  super- 
seded by  an  engine  the  cylinders  and 
connections  of  which  are  horizontal.  In 
the  most  modern  type  the  cylinder  is 
fixed  endwise  to  a base  plate  at  one 
extremity,  the  crank-shaft  has  its  bear- 
ings on  the  same  base  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity, and  the  piston-rod  driven 
horizontally  is  guided  by  means  of  a 
crosshead,  the  ends  of  which  slide  be- 
tween two  parallel  bars  fixed  on  the 
frame.  The  Corliss  engine  is  a well- 
known  type  of  horizontal  engine,  its 
characteristic  feature  being  the  system 
of  reciprocating  valves  by  which  the 
steam  is  passed  to  and  from  the  cylinder. 
In  some  engines,  especially  such  as  are 
used  as  wading  engines,  a pair  of 
coupled  horizontal  cylinders  are  now 
used;  and  in  the  larger  form  of  hori- 
zontal engine  two  cylinders  of  high  and 
low  pressure  are  placed  either  side  by 
side  or  one  before  the  other.  In  cases 
where  the  cylinders  are  vertical  the  other 
general  arrangements  are  much  the 
same  as  in  the  horizontal  engine.  In 
portable  engines  the  boiler  and  engine 
go  together,  the  boiler  being  undermost; 
and  the  whole  is  supported  upon  four 
wheels,  by  means  of  which  it  is  moved 
from  place  to  place.  The  chimney  is 
turned  down  over  the  boiler  when  not 
in  use.  A kind  of  engine  known  as  semi- 
portable consists  of  a boiler  and  engine 
placed  together,  but  without  wheels. 
The  road-locomotive  was  first  suggested 
by  William  Symington  in  Scotland,  and 
developed  for  practical  purposes  about 
1800  by  Oliver  Evans  in  Aimerica  and 
Trevethick  in  Wales.  The  chief  char- 
acteristics of  this  traction  engine,  as  it  is 
called,  is  the  great  width  of  the  wheels, 
which  are  now  supplied  by  some  makers 
with  protected  india-rubber  tires  to  pre- 
vent slipping.  It  can  be  made  to  run 
backward  and  forward  by  means  of 
reversing  gear,  while  its  course  is  guided 
by  a steering  wheel  acting  upon  a 
vertical  shaft.  The  railway-locomotive 
is  a steam-engine  and  boiler  placed  upon 
wheels  and  employed  to  transport  a 
train  of  cars  upon  a railway.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  1829  that  the  modern 
high-speed  locomotive  came  into  use. 
The  “Rocket”  built  by  George  Stephen- 
son, in  1829,  ran  on  four  wheels,  weighed 
4 tons  5 cwts.,  and  the  tender,  consist- 
ing of  a simple  cask,  3 tons  4 cwts  ; the 
steam  cylinders  were  8 inches  in  diame- 


ter with  16^  inches  of  stroke;  the  driv- 
ing-wheels were  4 feet  8^  inches  in 
diameter;  the  total  gross  weight  drawn 
was  about  17  tons;  and  the  speed  at- 
tained was  an  average  of  14  miles  per 
hour,  with  an  occasional  speed  of  29 
miles  per  hour.  In  this  engine  of  the 
“Rocket”  there  were  brought  together 
the  three  primary  elements  which,  hav- 
ing been  developed,  make  the  efficiency 
of  the  modern  locomotive — viz.,  the 
internal  water-surrounded  fire-box  and 
the  multitubular  flue  in  the  boiler;  the 
blast-pipe,  from  which  the  waste  steam 
of  the  engine  was  exhausted  up  the 
chimney;  and  the  direct  connection  of 
the  two  steam  cylinders,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  engine,  with  the  driving- 
wheels,  on  one  axle.  From  this  early 
locomotive  the  two  modern  types,  dif- 
ferentiated by  the  position  of  the  cylin- 
der, have  been  developed.  In  the  inside 
cylinder  locomotive  the  cylinder  is 
situated  within  the  framing,  under  the 
boiler,  with  the  main  driving-axle 
cranked  at  two  points  to  receive  the 
power  from  the  two  cylinders;  while  in 
the  outside  cylinder  locomotive  the 
cylinder  is  external  to  the  framing  and 
connected,  not  to  the  axle,  but  to  the 
crank-pins  fixed  between  the  spokes  of 
the  wheels  in  connection  with  the  nave. 
Another  point  of  advance  on  the  early 
locomotive  is  in  the  number  of  the 
wheels.  These  now  vary  from  six  to 
twelve,  and  in  some  locomotives,  where 
heavy  loads  are  drawn  on  inclines,  a 
greater  tractive  power  is  secured  by 
coupling  three  or  even  four  wheels  to- 
gether upon  one  side.  The  principle  of 
the  expansion  of  steam  in  high-pressure 
and  low-pressure  cylinders  has  also  been 
adopted,  in  order  to  save  fuel,  in  some 
recent  locomotives.  The  express  pas- 
senger engine  of  the  modern  type  now 
forms  a striking  contrast  to  the  engine 
of  the  “Rocket;”  it  weighs  nearly  .50 
tons  in  working  order,  and  with  the 
loaded  tender,  about  80  tons  gross;  its 
cylinders  are  from  17  to  19  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a stroke  of  about  26 
inches;  the  driving-wheels  are  from  7 
to  8 feet  in  diameter;  and  the  speed 
attained,  about  54  miles  per  hour.  The 
modern  freight  engine  is  capable  of 
drawing  a train  weighing  672  tons  up 
an  incline  of  1 in  178,  this  being  equiva- 
lent to  a gross  weight,  including  engine 
and  tender,  of  1816  tons  on  a level. 
The  earliest  form  of  marine  engine  seems 
to  have  been  devised  by  Patrick  Miller 
of  Dalswinton,  and  constructed  in  Edin- 
burgh (1788)  by  William  Symington. 
Its  cylinders  were  4 inches  in  diameter, 
and  it  was  able  to  drive  a pleasure-boat 
25  feet  long,  with  two  central  paddle- 
wheels,  at  a speed  of  5 miles  an  hour. 
Subsequently  Symington  constructed 
(1801)  an  engine  on  Watt’s  double- 
acting principle,  and  with  a stern-wheel, 
which  was  used  on  a canal  in  Scotland, 
in  a steamboat  called  the  Charlotte 
Dundas.  This  engine  was  seen  by  Robert 
Fulton,  who  employed  (1807)  an  Eng- 
lish firm  to  build  a similar  engine  for  a 
steamer  called  the  Clermont,  which  he 
afterward  successfuly  employed  upon 
the  Hudson  river  in  America.  In  Great 
Britain  the  first  passenger  steam  vessel 
was  the  Comet  built  (1812)  at  Port-Glas- 
gow  by  John  Wood  to  the  order  of  Henry 


Bell,  who  employed  it  to  ply  between 
Glasgow  and  Greenock.  The  Comet, 
which  had  side  paddle-wheels  and  was 
about  42  feet  long  and  11  feet  wide, 
was  driven  by  a kind  of  inverted  beam- 
engine,  with  a single  vertical  cylinder, 
developing  four  or  five  horse-power. 
These  early  marine  engines  were  con- 
structed in  a manner  similar  to  Watt’s 
land  engine,  but  the  position  of  the 
beam  so  high  above  the  deck  was  soon 
recognized  as  a defect,  especially  in  sea 
going  steamers.  Instead,  therefore,  of 
a beam  placed  above  the  cylinder  and 
piston,  two  beams  or  levers  were  placed 
below,  one  on  each  side  of  the  engine, 
and  the  connecting-rod  conveyed  the 
power  to  the  crank  upward  instead  of 
downward.  This  design,  however,  was 
soon  afterward  discarded  in  favor  of  an 
arrangement  by  which  the  cylinder  was 
placed  beneath  and  connected  directly 
with  the  crank.  A further  improvement 
was  secured  by  an  oscillating  cylinder, 
which  moved  right  and  left  with  the 
swing  of  the  crank  and  enabled  the 
piston-rods  to  be  connected  directly 
with  the  cranks.  When  the  paddle- 
wheel  was  superseded  by  the  screw- 
propeller  a totally  different  type  of 
marine  engine  was  required.  In  this  case 
the  cylinder  was  inverted  and  placed 
above  the  shaft  of  the  screw  near  the 
deck,  and  the  connection  with  the 
crank  was  formed  by  means  of  an  ordi- 
nary connecting-rod.  In  ships-of-war 
a horizontal  direct-acting  engine  was 
adopted  in  order  to  keep  the  machinery 
below  the  water-line  and  out  of  danger 
from  the  enemy’s  guns.  This  took  vari- 
ous forms,  such  as  Penn’s  trunk-engine, 
where  compactness  was  obtained  by 
securing  the  connecting-rod  directly  to 
the  piston  and  using  the  piston-rod  as  a 
hollow  trunk  within  which  the  connect- 
ing-rod could  oscillate  freely;  and  the 
engine  designed  by  Maudsley,  in  which 
two  piston-rods  proceed  from  each  pis- 
ton, and  the  connecting-rod  is  reversed 
so  as  to  embrace  the  crank  on  the  screw- 
shaft,  near  which  the  cylinder  is  placed. 
Recently,  however,  there  is  a tendency 
in  war-ships  to  adopt  the  inverted 
vertical  direct-acting  engine  as  used  in 
nearly  all  the  large  ocean  steamers. 
These  engines  were  commonly  con- 
structed with  a two-cylinder  compound 
arrangement,  but  this  has  been  rapidly 
superseded  by  a three-crank  triple- 
expansion engine  first  designed  in  1874 
by  Mr.  A.  C.  Kirk.  This  form  of  marine 
steam-engine  has  been  found  to  effect 
a considerable  saving  in  fuel,  and  the 
principle  of  expanding  the  steam  has 
even  been  used  in  a four-cylinder  quad- 
ruple-expansion engine  with  success. 

STEAM-GAUGE.  See  Gauge. 

STEAM-HAMMER,  a machine  em- 
ployed in  making  large  iron  and  steel 
forgings,  and  consisting  usually  of  a 
steam-cylinder  and  piston  with  a metal 
striker  placed  vertically  over  an  anvil. 
In  the  hammer  invented  by  James 
Nasmyth  about  1839,  and  patented  in 
1842,  the  first  steam-hammer  to  come 
into  practical  use,  the  cylinder  is  fixed, 
and  the  hammer-head  attached  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  piston-rod  delivers  its 
blows  by  the  direct  action  of  the  steam 
in  the  cylinder.  In  operation  the  steam 
is  introduced  into  the  cylinder  imme- 


STEAM  navigation 


STEEL 


diately  below  the  piston,  and  it  raises 
the  hammer  between  the  guides  to  the 
required  height.  The  steam  being  then 
cut  off,  and  the  exhaust-valve  opened, 
the  hammer  descends  with  a velocity 
augmented  by  the  compression  of  the 
air  above  the  piston.  As  an  improve- 
ment steam  pressure  is  now  also  applied 
above  the  piston  to  increase  the  down- 
ward stroke  of  the  hammer.  By  means 
of  the  valves  and  valve  gearing  the  per- 
son in  charge  of  the  machine  has  com- 
plete control  over  the  slightest  move- 
ment of  the  hammer.  In  Condie’s 
steam-hammer  the  piston-rod  is  at- 
tached to  the  top  of  the  hammer  frame, 


Condie’s  steam-hammer. 

and  the  cylinder  is  movable;  the  ham- 
mer head  is  attached  to  and  falls  with 
the  cylinder,  which  thereby  adds  an 
additional  weight  to  the  blow.  In  the 
duplex  steam-hammer  patented  by 
Ramsbottom  the  anvil  is  discarded, 
and  two  hammer-heads  of  equal  weight 
deliver  their  blows  upon  the  forging 
horizontally.  From  the  increased  size 
of  gun  forgings  the  steam-hammer  has 
now  attained  enormous  proportions,  one 
erected  by  Krupp  at  Essen  in  1888  being 
150  tons.  There  is  a probability,  how- 
ever, that  steam  will  be  superseded  by 
hydraulic  or  pneumatic  power  in  the 
largest  hammers. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION,  the  naviga- 
tion of  ships  in  which  steam  is  the  sole 
or  main  propelling  power.  As  early  as 
1736  Jonathan  Hulls  in  England 
patented  a method  of  propelling  a vessel 
by  steam  by  means  of  a stern  wheel.  In 
America  James  Rumsey  and  also  John 
Fitch  succeeded  in  1786  in  constructing 
each  a vessel  that  was  actually  driven 
by  steam ; but  the  real  precursor  of  the 
paddle-wheel  steamer  was  constructed 
in  1788  by  a Scottish  landed  proprietor, 
Patrick  Miller  of  Dalswinton,  on  Dal- 
swinton  Loch,  Dumfriesshire.  This 
vessel,  which  was  a double  or  twin  boat, 
measured  25  feet  in  length  by  7 feet  in 
breadth,  and  was  fitted  with  two  paddle- 
wheels,  one  before  and  the  other  behind 
the  engine.  The  mechanical  part  was 
constructed  in  Edinburgh  under  the 
superintendence  of  William  Symington, 
and  the  speed  attained  was  about  5 
miles  an  hour.  The  following  year  a 
larger  boat  was  built  on  the  same  prin- 
oiple  and  successfully  tried  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  canal.  In  1801  Lord  Dundas 
employed  Symington  to  construct  a 


steamboat  for  use  upon  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  canal.  This  vessel,  which  was 
launched  in  1802  and  named  the  Char- 
lotte Dundas,  had  one  paddle-wheel 
near  the  stern,  and  was  driven  by  a 
direct-acting  horizontal  engine  with  a 
connecting-rod  and  crank.  It  was  seen 
by  Robert  Fulton,  an  American  en- 
gineer, who  employed  (1807)  the'  Eng- 
lish firm  of  Boulton  and  Watt  to  con- 
struct an  engine  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple, and  this  he  fitted  into  a steamer 
called  the  Clermont,  130  feet  long, 
which  plied  successfully  upon  the 
Hudson  river.  A number  of  steam- 
vessels  were  soon  after  plying  on  Ameri- 
can waters.  In  1819  the  Savannah  made 
the  voyage  to  Liverpool  from  America 
in  twenty-six  days,  its  capacity  as  a 
sailing  vessel  being  partly  aided  by 
steam.  It  was  not  until  1838,  however, 
that  regular  steamboat  communication 
^Yas  established  across  the  Atlantic.  In 
that  year  the  Sirius  steamed  from  Lon- 
don to  New  York  in  seventeen  days; 
and  a few  months  afterward  the  Great 
Western  made  the  voyage  from  Bristol 
to  New  York  in  fifteen  days.  These 
were  all  paddle-steamers,  and  that  type 
of  vessel  culminated  in  the  Scotia  (1861) 
of  the  Cunard  line,  which  made  the 
passage  to  New  York  in  nine  days.  The 
measurements  of  this  vessel  were: 
length  366  feet,  breadth  47  feet  6 inches; 
cylinder  diameter  100  inches  with  a 
stroke  of  12  feet,  and  the  engines  were 
of  the  side-lever  type.  Meanwhile  vari- 
ous experiments  were  made  with  the 
screw  propeller  (which  see).  The  first 
steamer  in  Great  Britain  fitted  with  a 
screw  was  the  Archimedes  (1839),  built 
on  the  Thames;  the  first  screw-ship  in 
the  British  navy  was  the  Dwarf  (1843) 
and  the  first  iron  screw-steamer  was  the 
Fire  Queen  (1845),  built  at  Glasgow. 
The  modern  type  of  ocean  steamer  is 
built  of  steel,  and  is  represented  by  such 
vessels  as  the  Kaiser  'Wilhelm  der  Grosse 
and  the  Lusitania,  which  make  the 
voyage  to  America  in  less  than  five  days. 
These  are  twin-screw  vessels  over  750 
feet  long,  88  broad,  and  have  a displace- 
ment of  45,000  tons.  See  Ship. 

STEAM-PLOUGH.  See  Plough. 

STEAM  SHOVEL,  the  steam  shovel 
was  invented  by  an  American  named 
Otis,  in  1840.  It  consists  of  a frame 
mounted  on  wheels  to  form  a base  to 
which  the  working  parts  are  attached. 
The  digging  mechanism  consists  of  a 
crane  hinged  to  a mast  at  the  front  of 
the  car  and  a dipper  handle  and  dipper 
carried  by  the  crane.  The  operating 
machinery  consists  of  a main  engine, 
which  hoists  the  dipper  and  swings  the 
crane,  and  of  a thrusting  mechanism 
for  forcing  the  dipper  into  the  earth. 
For  digging  blasted  rock  the  front  edge 
or  lip  of  the  dipper  has  steel  teeth.  The 
excavating  capacity  of  steam  shovels 
varies  from  2400  cubic  yards  of  sand 
to  600  cubic  yards  of  loose  rock  per 
ton  hours,  with  a 2J  cubic  yard  dipper. 

STEAM-'WHISTLE,  an  arrangement 
connected  with  the  boiler  of  a steam- 
engine  for  the  purpose  of  making  a loud 
whistling  sound.  In  the  locomotive 
steam-whistle  a tube,  fixed  to  the  head 
of  the  boiler  and  opening  into  its  in- 
terior, is  commanded  by  a stop-cock, 
the  tube  ends  in  a portion  perforated 


with  holes  and  surrounded  by  a thin' 
brass  cup;  and  the  tube  and  cup  are  so- 
adjusted  as  to  leave  a narrow  opening 
all  round.  Above  this  opening  a thin 
brass  cup  is  fixed  in  an  inverted  position 
so  as  to  present  a sharp  edge  to  the 
orifice.  When  the  stop-cock  is  opened 
the  steam  rushes  through  this  orifice  ' 
with  great  violence,  and  in  coming  in  . 
contact  with  the  sharp  edge  of  the  cup  it 
produces  a loud  shrill  sound.  Steam- 
whistles  can  be  made  to  give  off  musical 
tones  by  graduating  the  length  of  the 
pipe  or  cup.  ; 

STEAM-'WINCH,  a form  of  hoisting 
apparatus  in  which  rotatory  motion  is 
inrparted  to  the  winding  axle  of  the 
winch  from  the  piston-rod  of  a steam- 
engine,  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

STEARIC  ACID  is  one  of  the  most 
important  and  abundant  of  the  fatty 
acids.  As  stearine  it  exists,  in  com- , 
bination  with  glycerine,  in  beef  and 
mutton  fat,  and  in  several  vegetable  fats. 
Stearic  acid,  which  is  inodorous,  taste- 
less, insoluble  in  water  but  soluble  in 
alcohol,  forms  white  scaly  crystals,  and 
combines  with  alkalies,  earths,  and, 
metallic  oxides  to  form  stearates.  It 
burns  like  wax,  and  is  used  in  making 
candles. 


STEARINE,  Stearin  (ste'a-rin),  the 
chief  ingredient  of  suet  and  tallow, 
or  the  harder  ingredient  of  animal 
fats,  oleine  being  the  softer  one.  It  is 
obtained  from  mutton  suet  by  repeated 
solution  in  ether  and  crystallization.  It 
may  also  be  ©btained  by  pressing  tallow 
between  hot  plates,  and  afterward  dis- 
solving in  hot  ether,  which  on  cooling 
deposits  the  stearine.  It  has  a pearly  j 
luster,  is  soft  to  the  touch,  but  not 
greasy.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  ? 
soluble  in  hot  alcohol  and  ether.  'When 
treated  with  superheated  steam  it  is 
separated  into  stearic  acid  and  glycerine, 
and  when  boiled  with  alkalies  is  saponi- 
fied, that  is,  the  stearic  acid  combines 
with  the  alkali,  forming  soap,  and  gly- 
cerine is  separated.  'When  melted  it 
resembles  wax. 


STEDMAN,  Edmund  Clarence,  Ameri- 
can poet,  was  born  in  1833  at  Hartford,. 
Conn.  His  chief  volumes  of  verse  are:j 
Poems,  Lyrical  and  Idyllic,  Hawthorne 
and  Other  Poems,  Lyrics  and  Idylls,] 
and  Poems  Now  First  Collected.  His 
prose  works  include  The  Victorian  Poets 
and  The  Poets  of  America,  and  The 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry.  These 
volumes  of  critical  writing  he  supple- 
mented by  A Victorian  Anthology  and 
an  American  Anthology.  He  was  also 
editor,  with  Ellen  M.  Hutchinson,  of  A^ 
Library  of  American  Literature,  and, 
with  George  E.  Woodberry  of  the  Works 
of  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  He  died  in  1908. 

STE'ATITE,  or  SOAPSTONE,  a sub- 
species of  rhomboidal  mica.  It  is  of  two 
kinds,  the  common  and  the  pagodite  or 
lardstone.  It  is  a compact  stone,  white, 
green  of  all  shades,  gray,  brown  or, 
marbled,  and  is  soapy  or  unctuous  to 
the  touch.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain,  in  polishing  marble,  in 
diminishing  friction  in  machinery,  and 
as  the  basis  of  rouge  and  other  cosmetic 
powders. 

STEEL,  is  the  term  applied  to  metallic 
iron  when  combined  with  carbon;  but  as. 


STEEL  ENGRAVING 


STEIN 


the  proportion  of  carbon  can  be 
graded  continuously  from  wrought- 
iron,  which  contains  almost  no  carbon, 
up  to  cast-iron,  which  may  contain 
as  much  as  10  per  cent,  the  position 
of  steel  lying  between  these  is  neces- 
sarily indefinite.  Besides  the  essential 
elements  of  iron  and  carbon  steel 
may  also  contain  small  quantities  of 
siliconi  phosphorus,  manganese,  and 
sulphur.  In  steel  used  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses the  carbon  amounts  from  about 
0.5  to  1.5  per  cent;  the  toughness, 
tenacity,  and  hardness  being  increased 
with  the  increase  of  the  carbon,  while 
the  elasticity  decreases  with  the  in- 
crease of  hardness.  In  a red-hot  con- 
dition steel  can  be  welded  almost  as 
easily  as  bar-iron.  It  is  a bright  grayish 
white  in  color,  the  texture  is  granular, 
and  in  specific  gravity  it  varies  from 
7.62  to  7.81.  In  commerce  it  takes  vari- 
ous names:  as  when  it  is  called  blister- 
steel  from  its  surface  acquiring  that 
character  in  the  process  of  cementation, 
shear-steel  when  blister-steel  is  rolled 
or  beaten  into  bars,  and  cast-steel  when 


it  is  melted  or  cast  into  ingots.  Natural 
or  German  steel  is  an  inferior  steel  pro- 
cured from  cast-iron  or  obtained  at  once 
from  the  ore.  When  it  is  produced  from 
cast-iron  in  the  refining-house  it  is  called 
furnace  steel,  and  when  it  has  under- 
gone the  refining  process  only  once  it  is 
known  as  rough  steel.  The  value  of  steel 
depends  greatly  on  the  readiness  with 
which  it  can  be  tempered.  It  is  found 
that  the  higher  the  temperature  to  which 
steel  is  raised  and  the  more  sudden  the 
cooling  the  greater  is  the  hardness; 
hence  any  degree  of  hardness  can  be 
given  to  steel  by  applying  the  necessary 
conditions  of  heat  and  cold.  The  color 
of  steel  varies  occording  to  the  degree 
of  hardness  to  which  it  is  tempered,  and 
these  colors  at  one  time  served  to  guide 
the  workmen  in  tempering,  but  now  a 
thermometer,  with  a bath  of  mercury 
or  oil  is  used.  In  producing  steel  various 
methods  have  been  employed  in  order 


to  obtain  (either  by  extraction  or  ad- 
dition) a metal  with  the  required  amount 
of  carbon.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned (1)  The  direct  reduction  of  iron 
ores.  In  this  process  the  iron  ore  is  mixed 
with  charcoal  and  heated  until  metallic 
iron  is  produced,  after  which  more  char- 
coal is  added  and  the  material  further 
heated  until  steel  is  produced.  The  dis- 
advantage of  this  process  is  that  it  yields 
an  irregular  mixture  of  steel  and  iron. 

(2)  The  adding  of  carbon  to  malleable 
iron.  In  this  process,  which  is  usually 
called  cementation,  the  bars  of  iron  are 
placed  in  fire-brick  chambers  between 
layers  of  charcoal»and  there  subjected 
to  heat  from  a furnace  underneath. 
The  fire  is  usually  maintained  for  six 
or  eight  days,  and  the  degree  of  heat  to 
which  it  is  raised  depends  upon  the  de- 
gree of  carbonization  required.  When 
the  bars,  now  become  steel  by  the  ad- 
dition of  carbon,  are  withdrawn  they 
are  brittle  and  covered  with  blisters. 

(3)  The  Bessemer  process.  In  this 
method,  which  was  adopted  by  Mr. 
Bessemer  in  1856,  the  carbon  is  first 
removed  from  the  pig-iron  by  blowing 
a stream  of  compressed  air  through  the 
metal  when  in  a molten  condition. 
When  this  is  accomplished  the  exact 
amount  of  carbon  required  is  afterward 
added  in  the  fonn  of  spiegeleisen,  or 
some  other  variety  of  iron  rich  in  car- 
bon. Briefly,  the  process  is  conducted  as 
follows: — The  charge  of  molten  pig-iron 
is  run  from  the  furnace  into  the  con- 
verter. This  latter  is  a vessel  shaped 
like  a bottle  with  the  neck  slightly  bent 
sideways,  formed  of  boiler-plate,  and 
lined  internally  with  a compact  kind  of 
sandstone  called  “ganister.”  The  con- 
verter is  then  swung  back  into  a vertical 
position,  and  in  doing  this  the  air-blast 
is  automatically  turned  on.  In  a few 
minutes  the  carbon  is  all  blown  out  of 
the  metal,  the  blast  is  shut  off,  a quan- 
tity of  molten  spiegeleisen  is  run  in,  and 
then  the  whole  contents  of  the  converter 
is  poured  out  into  the  casting  ladle.  (4) 
In  the  Heaton  process  the  object  de- 
sired is  to  oxidize  the  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus found  in  cast-iron  and  remove 
them  in  the  slag.  To  produce  this  result 
nitrate  of  soda  is  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  an  iron  vessel  and  covered  with  a 
perforated  iron  plate.  When  the  molten 
cast-iron  is  run  in  the  iron  plate  becomes 
melted,  and  the  chemical  action  set  up 
by  the  nitrate  of  soda  underneath  de- 
stroys the  silicon  and  removes  a large 
part  of  the  phosphorus.  (5)  In  the 
Siemens-Martin  process  it  is  sought  to 
decarbonize  pig-iron  by  mixing  it  with 
malleable  iron.  Thus  the  pig-iron  is  run 
off  into  a furnace  heated  to  a very  high 
temperature  by  gas  from  a Siemens’ 
regenerative  gas  furnace.  Then  molten 
wrought-iron  in  small  quantities  is 
added  until  the  decarbonization  of  the 
pig-iron  is  complete.  When  this  is  ac- 
complished a fresh  quantity  of  pig-iron 
is  added  to  supply  the  exact  amount 
of  carbon  required.  The  whole  mass  is 
then  heated  for  a short  time  until  ready 
to  be  run  off  into  ingot  moulds.  In  the 
more  modern  “Siemens”  process  a much 
larger  relative  quantity  of  pig-iron  is 
employed,  and  although  scrap-iron  is 
generally  worked  in  the  process  can  be 
completed  without  it.  (6)  In  the  “basic” 


process,  known  also  as  the  Thomas- 
Gilchrist  process,  it  is  sought  to  remove 
the  phosphorus  from  such  highly  phos- 
phoretic  ores  as  those  found  in  the 
Cleveland  district.  To  effect  this  the 
ordinary  Bessemer  converter  is  lined 
with  a mixture  of  magnesian  lime,  silica, 
alumina,  and  oxide  of  iron,  a quantity  of 
the  latter  being  also  added  to  the  charge 
when  the  blast  is  in  progress.  This 
lining  supplies  a base,  in  combination 
with  which  the  phosphorus  in  the  molten 
metal  becomes  oxidized  and  converted 
into  phosphates.  As  a result  of  the  many 
improved  methods  of  manufacture  the 
cost  of  steel  has  been  considerably  re- 
duced, and  it  is  now  rapidly  displacing 
wrought-iron  in  almost  all  the  uses  to 
which  it  was  applied.  Its  employment 
in  the  making  of  various  kinds  of  in- 
struments, edge-tools,  springs,  etc.,  is 
well  known,  but  it  is  now  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  plates  and 
rails,  and  is  rapidly  superseding  iron 
in  the  building  of  ships  and  in  the  tall 
buildings  in  the  larger  cities,  called  sky 
scrapers,  it  has  entirely  replaced  all 
other  materials. 

STEEL  ENGRAVING.  See  Engraving. 

STEELTON,  a town  in  Dauphin  co.. 
Pa.,  on  the  Susquehanna  river,  the 
Pennsylvania  canal,  and  the  Penn,  and 
the  Phila.  and  Reading  railways;  3 
miles  e of  Harrisburg,  the  state  capital. 
It  contains  the  great  plant  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Steel  Company,  compris- 
ing blast  furnaces,  rail  and  blooming 
mills,  and  bridge  and  construction 
works.  Pop.  14,186. 

STEERING  APPARATUS,  the  con- 
trivance by  which  a vessel  is  steered, 
usually  composed  of  three  parts,  viz. : 
the  rudder,  the  tiller,  and  the  wheel, 
except  in  small  vessels,  where  the  wheel 
is  unnecessary.  The  rudder  or  helm  is  a 
long  and  flat  piece  or  frame  suspended 
edgewise  down  the  hind  part  of  a ship’s 
stern-post,  where  it  turns  upon  a kind 
of  hinge  to  the  right  or  left,  serving  to 
direct  the  course  of  a vessel,  as  the  tail 
of  a fish  guides  the  body.  'The  tiller  is 
a bar  of  timber  or  iron,  fixed  horizon- 
tally to  the  upper  end  of  the  rudder  and 
projecting  within  the  vessel.  The  move- 
ments of  the  tiller  are  effected  in  small 
vessels  by  hand,  assisted  by  a sort  of 
tackle  called  the  tiller-rope.  In  larger 
vessels  there  are  properly  speaking  two 
ropes,  or  more  commonly  chains,  which 
being  wound  about  the  axis  or  barrel 
of  a wheel,  act  upon  the  tiller  with  the 
powers  of  a windlass.  In  the  enormous 
modern  vessels  a ponderous  system  of 
braces  and  tackle  became  necessary  to 
assist  the  working  of  the  wheel.  This 
was  remedied  by  the  introduction  of 
hydraulic  or  steam-steering  apparatus, 
which  is  a device  interposed  between 
the  tiller-wheel  and  the  rudder-head. 
There  are  numerous  forms  of  apparatus, 
and  by  many  mechanical  improvements 
in  steering  machinery,  manual  labor 
at  the  wheel  is  now  reduced  to  a mini- 
mum. 

STEIN  (stin),  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl, 
Baron  von,  German  statesman,  born  at 
Nassau  1757,  died  1831.  He  became 
president  of  the  provincial  chambers 
of  Westphalia  in  1796,  and  a minister 
of  state  in  1804.  For  the  severity  of  his 
criticisms  on  the  administration  he  was 


STEINBOCK 


STERNE 


dismissed  (1807),  but  was  recalled, 
with  power  to  introduce  his  reforms. 
Accordingly  he  abolished  serfage  by 
edict,  made  military  service  obligatory 
on  all  classes,  and  rearranged  the 
financial  administrative  affairs.  By 
means  of  these  reforms  he  laid  the 
basis  of  Prussia’  future  greatness.  He 
afterward  visited  St.  Petersburg,  and 
was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
coalition  which  crushed  Napoleon. 

STEINBOCK  (stin'bok),  Steenbok 
(stan'bok),  a small  antelope  found  in 
South  Africa.  It  is  ashen  gray  on  the 
sides,  white  underneath,  stands  about 
2 feet  in  height,  and  its  flesh  is  much 
esteemed.  The  male  alone  has  short 
horns.  The  name  is  also  applied  in 
Europe  to  tbe  ibex. 

STEM,  in  botany,  the  axis  of  growth 
of  a plant  above  ground.  The  stem  may 
be  either  herbaceous  or  woody,  solid  or 
hollow,  jointed  or  unjointed,  branched 
or  simple,  upright  or  trailing,  etc.  In 
some  plants  the  stem  is  so  short  as  to 
seem  to  be  wanting,  the  leaves  and 
flower-stalks  appearing  to  spring  from 
the  top  of  the  root.  There  are  also  stems, 
such  as  the  rhizome  and  tuber,  which, 
being  subterranean,  have  been  mis- 
taken for  roots.  See  Botany. 

STENOGRAPHY.  See  Shorthand. 

STEPHEN,  St.,  there  are  three  saints 
of  this  name  in  the  calendar,  viz.:  (1) 
The  martyr  whose  death  is  recorded  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  chapters  vi. 
and  vii.,  and  whose  festival  is  held  on 
December  26;  (2)  Stephen,  a pope  from 
253  to  257  (his  day  is  the  2d  of  August) ; 
and  (3)  Stephen  the  king  (Stephen  I.  of 
Hungary),  a popular  saint  in  Hungary 
and  South  Germany. 

STEPHENS,  Alexander  H.,  American 
statesman,  was  born  near  Crawfords- 
ville,  Ga.,  in  1812.  In  1834  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  was  elected  to  the 
Georgia  legislature  in  1836  and  to  con- 
gress in  1843,  where  he  at  once  assumed 
prominence,  as  a fearless  advocate  of 
the  Union.  In  1850  he  opposed  the 
secession  movement.  Mr.  Stephens  in 

1860  made  a great  Union  speech,  and  in 

1861  became  vice-president  of  the 
southern  confederacy — both  times  on 
principle.  In  1866  he  delivered  a strong 
reconstruction  speech  and  plea  for  the 
new  freedmen.  From  1874  to  1882  he 
was  a member  of  congress;  in  the  latter 
year  elected  governor  to  Georgia.  He 
died  in  1883. 

STEPHENSON  (ste'vn-sun),  George, 
engineer,  was  born  at  Wylam,  near 
Newcastle,  in  1781,  and  died  in  1848. 
In  his  fourteenth  year  he  became  assist- 
ant to  his  father,  who  was  fireman  at  a 
colliery,  and  in  1812  he  was  appointed 
to  manage  the  engine  at  Killingworth 
colliery.  Meanwhile  he  had  been  educat- 
ing himself,  chiefly  in  the  science  of 
mechanics,  with  the  result  that  he 
obtained  permission  from  Lord  Ravens- 
worth  to  construct  a traveling  engine 
for  the  colliery  tramway.  This  he  ac- 
complished in  1814,  and  next  year  he 
introduced  a great  improvement  in  the 
shape  of  the  steam -blast.  In  1822  he 
succeeded  in  inducing  the  projectors  of 
the  Stockton  and  Darlington  railway 
to  adopt  an  improved  locomotive.  He 
was  then  employed  to  construct  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway,  the 


directors  of  which  accepted  his  loco- 
motive called  the  Rocket,  which  at  the 
trial  trip  in  1830  ran  29  miles  in  an  hour. 
He  was  afterward  identified  with  numer- 
ous railway,  undertakings,  and  he  was 
also  the  inventor  of  a miner’s  safety- 
lamp. — Robert,  his  son,  born  in  1803, 
died  1859.  He  was  educated  at  New- 
castle; apprenticed  to  a coal-viewer  at 
Killingworth,  and  attended  the  science 


George  Stephenson. 


classes  in  Edinburgh  university.  After- 
ward he  assisted  his  father  in  the  survey 
of  various  railway  lines;  and  was  sub- 
sequently employed  in  railway  under- 
takings both  at  home  and  abroad.  His 
most  notable  engineering  achievements 
were  the  construction  of  the  high-level 
bridge  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  the  rail- 
way bridge  at  Berwick-on-Tweed,  the 
tubular  bridge  over  the  Menai  straits, 
and  the  Victoria  tubular  bridge  over 
the  St.  Lawrence  in  Canada. 

STEPPES,  a Russian  name  applied  to 
those  extensive  plains  which,  with  the 
occasional  occurrence  of  low  ranges  of 
hills,  stretch  from  the  Dnieper  across  the 
southeast  of  European  Russia,  round 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas, 
between  the  Altai  and  Ural  chains,  and 
occupy  a considerable  part  of  Siberia. 
In  spring  they  are  covered  with  verdure, 
but  for  most  of  the  year  they  are  dry 
and  barren 

STERCULIA'CE.®,  a natural  order 
of  polypetalous  exogens,  allied  to  Mal- 
vaceae. The  plants  of  this  order  are  trees 


or  shrubs,  wuth  alternate,  stipulate, 
simple,  and  often  toothed  leaves,  with 
a variable  inflorescence.  They  are 
natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions.  The  most  important  member 


of  the  order  is  the  cacao-tree ; others  are 
the  kola  tree,  the  baobab,  the  durian, 
and  the  silk-cotton  tree.  The  species 
here  illustrated,  a native  of  South  and 
Central  America,  yields  edible  seeds  as 
large  as  a pigeon’s  egg. 

STEREOSCOPE,  an  optical  appara- 
tus which  enables  us  to  look  at  one  and 
the  same  time  upon  two  photographic 
pictures  nearly  the  same,  but  taken  un- 
der a small  difference  of  angular  view, 
each  eye  looking  upon  one  picture  only; 
and  thus,  as  in  ordinary  vision,  two 
images  are  conveyed  to  the  brain  which 
unite  into  one,  the  objects  being  thus 
represented  under  a high  degree  of  re- 
lief. A reflecting  form  of  stereoscope 
was  invented  by  Wheatstone  in  1838. 
Subsequently  Brewster  invented  the 
refracting  stereoscope,  based  on  the 
refractive  properties  of  the  halves  of 
double-convex  lenses.  This  is  the  one 
now  in  general  use.  There  are  many 
forms  of  it,  but  it  is  generally  a kind  of 
small  box  furnished  with  two  tubes 
containing  each  the  half  of  a lens 
through  which  the  eyes  look  upon  the 
two  pictures  at  the  back  of  the  box. 
When  the  tubes  are  adjusted  to  suit  the 
eye  the  observer  takes  the  one  picture 
into  the  right  eye  and  the  other  into 
the  left  eye,  but  the  perceptive  faculty 
apprehends  only  one  image,  and  that 
in  bold  substantial  relief  and  intensity. 

STEREOTYPING,  the  art  of  repro- 
ducing a form  of  type  in  one  solid  plate. 
The  first  stereotyping  printing  in  our 
country  was  done  in  1775  by  Benjamin 
Mecom,  nephew  of  Dr.  Franklin,  of 
Philadelphia.  He  cast  a number  of 
pages  of  the  New  Testament.  In  1829 
a Frenchman,  named  Gerroux,  made 
plates  with  the  use  of  a long-fibered 
paper.  This  was  called  the  papier- 
m^ch^  process,  and  as  it  was  much 
cheaper  and  more  rapid  it  came  into 
general  use.  It  is  to  the  invention  of 
this  process  that  we  owe,  indirectly,  the 
rapid  newspaper  printing  presses  of  to- 
day. After  a form  has  been  locked  up,  it  is 
sent  to  the  foundry,  where  it  is  brushed 
clean  with  a soft  brush  dipped  in  oil. 
Several  sheets  of  damp  paper  pasted  to- 
gether are  then  placed  on  top  of  the  type 
and  beaten  into  it  with  a stiff  brush.  It 
is  then  covered  with  a blanket  and 
placed  in  a steam-heated  press,  like 
a letter-copying  press.  Here  under 
pressure,  the  paper  is  dried  out  until  it 
becomes  hard.  It  is  then  removed  from 
the  form,  placed  in  a casting  box  and 
the  metal  poured  onto  the  paper  matrix. 
When  the  metal  is  cool  it  is  taken  out 
and  finished.  In  a newspaper  office, 
the  casting  box  is  circular  in  form  and 
corresponds  with  the  diameter  of  the 
cylinder  of  the  press  upon  which  the 
stereotype,  when  finished,  is  fastened. 
The  work  is  done  with  such  rapidity 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  place  a plate 
upon  the  press  in  five  minutes  after  the 
form  has  been  locked  up.  If  the  paper 
matrix  has  not  been  torn  it  can  be  used 
a number  of  times.  Stereotypes  have 
been  largely  superseded  bj'  electrotypes, 
which  see. 

STERNE,  Laurence,  an  English 
humorist,  was  born  at  Clonmel,  Ireland, 
in  1713;  died  in  London  in  1768.  In 
1759  appeared  the  two  first  volumes  of 
his  longest  work,  The  Life  and  Opiniph? 


STETHOSCOPE 


STINT 


of  Tristram  Shandy,  which,  by  their 
humor,  whimsicality,  and  happy  au- 
dacity of  tone  and  treatment,  gained 
instant  popularity.  His  other  writings 
are  A Sentimental  Journey  through 
France  and  Italy  (1768),  and  a number 
of  sermons,  besides  letters  published 
after  his  death.  Though  disfigured 
by  indecency  Sterne’s  Tristram  Shandy 
and  Sentimental  Journey,  especially  the 
former,  contain  some  of  the  finest  humor 
in  English  literature. 

STETH'OSCOPE,  an  instrument  used 
by  medical  men  for  distinguishing 
sounds  within  the  thorax  and  other 
cavities  of  the  body.  In  its  simplest 
form  it  consists  of  a hollow  wooden 
cylinder  with  one  extremity  funnel- 
shaped,  the  other  with  a comparatively 
large  circular  ivory  plate.  In  using  it 
the  funnel-shaped  extremity  is  placed 
upon  the  body  of  the  patient,  and  the 
ivory  plate  to  the  ear  of  the  listener, 
this  broad  plate  helping  to  exclude 
foreign  sounds.  Flexible  instruments  of 
rubber  are  also  used,  one  of  these  having 
two  tubes  attached  to  the  piece  which 
receives  the  sounds,  these  being  thus 
conveyed  to  both  ears  simultaneously. 

STETTIN',  capital  of  Pomerania  and 
the  chief  seaport  in  Prussia,  situated  on 
the  Oder  17  miles  from  its  entrance  into 
the  Stettiner  Haff,  30  miles  from  the 
Baltic  sea,  and  about  90'  miles  by  rail 
from  Berlin.  Pop.  210,680. 

STEUBEN  (stu'ben),  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm von,  Baron,  Germ  an- American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Madgeburg,  Prus- 
sia in  1730.  He  fought  in  the  Seven 
Years’  war,  at  the  close  of  which  he  was 
appointed  grand  marshal  of  the  Prince 
of  Hohenzollern-Hechingen.  In  1777  he 
came  to  America  and  immediately 
offered  his  services  as  a volunteer  to 
congress.  In  May,  1778,  he  was  op- 
pointed  instructor-general  of  the  Con- 
tinental army.  He  reorganized  the  army 
introducing  order  and  system,  and 
enormously  increased  the  general  effi- 
ciency of  the  army  Inl780hepr^areda 
manual  for  the  army  entitled  Regula- 
tions for  the  Order  and  Discipline  of  the 
Troops  of  the  United  States,  which  came 
into  general  use.  After  the  war  he  re- 
ceived grants  of  land  from  several  states, 
and  congress  voted  him  a pension  of 
$2,400.  He  died  in  1794. 

STEUBENVILLE,  a city  in  Ohio,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  68 
miles  below  Pittsburg.  It  has  woolen 
factories,  blast-furnaces,  rolling-mills, 
machine-shops,  breweries,  and  there  are 
rich  mines  of  bituminous  coal  in  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  15,944 

STEVENS,  Edwin  Augustus,  Ameri- 
can inventor,  was  born  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  in  1795.  He  invented  the  “air- 
tight fire  room’’  and  its  application  to 
vessels,  and  devoted  years  to  the  study 
of  plans  formulated  with  a view  to  per- 
fect improvements  in  naval  warfare. 
The  Naugatuck,  one  of  the  first  ships 
to  attack  the  Merrimac,  was  presented 
to  the  government  by  Mr.  Stevens;  the 
Stevens  battery  he  donated  to  New 
Jersey,  and  directed  in  his  will  that  a 
fund  of  $1,000,000  should  be  set  apart 
for  its  completion.  He  also  founded  the 
Stevens  institute  at  Hoboken,  and  pro- 
vided liberally  for  its  support.  His  death 
occurred  in  Paris,  France,  August,  1868. 


STEWENS  POINT,  the  county  seat 
of  Portage  county,  Wis.,  150  miles  north- 
west of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Wisconsin 
river,  and  on  the  Wisconsin  Central  rail- 
road. Pop.  11,575. 

STEVENS,  Thaddeus,  American 
statesman,  was  born  at  Danville,  Vt., 
in  1792.  In  1814  he  removed  to  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1833  he  became  a member 
of  the  state  legislature.  In  1836  he  was 
a delegate  to  the  state  constitutional 
convention.  In  1849  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  congress.  In  1859  he 
was  again  elected  to  congress,  and  from 
then  until  his  death  was  the  recognized 
leader  of  the  house  of  representatives. 
He  died  in  1868. 

STEVENSON,  Adlai  E.,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  1835  in  Christian 
CO.,  Ky.  In  1874  and  1878  he  was 
elected  member  of  congress  from  Illinois 
by  the  democratic  party.  In  1885  he 
was  appointed  first  assistant  postmaster 
general,  and  in  1892  was  elected  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States.  He  was 
nominated  for  vice-president  in  1900 
by  the  democrats,  but  was  defeated. 

STEVENSON,  Robert  Louis,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1845;  educated  in  the 
university  there;  was  called  to  the 
Scottish  bar,  but  devoted  himself  to 
literature,  and  latterly  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Samoa,  where  he  died  in  1894. 
His  works  include:  An  Inland  Voyage, 
Travels  with  a Donkey  in  the  Cevennes, 
Virginibus  Puerisque,  New  Arabian 
Knights,  Treasure  Island,  Dr,  Jekyll 
and  Mr.  Hyde,  Prince  Otto,  Kidnapped, 
The  Black  Arrow,  The  Master  of  Bal- 
lantrae,  David  Balfour,  Catriona,  Weir 
of  Hermiston  (left  incomplete),  St.  Ives, 
The  Merry  Men  and  OtherTales,  aChild’s 
Garden  of  Verses,  besides  poems 

STEWART,  Alexander  Turney,  Irish- 
American  merchant,  was  born  at 
Lisburn,  near  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1803. 
In  1823  he  emigrated  to  America,  sett- 
ling in  New  York  City,  and  in  1825  he 
established  himself  in  the  dry-goods 
business.  In  1848  he  built  the  largest 
dry-goods  store  in  the  world.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  the  business  of  A.  T. 
Stewart  & Co.  comprised  branches  and 
agencies  in  the  principal  cities  of  Europe, 
and  several  mills  and  Ifactories  in  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  1876. 

STICKING  PLASTER.  See  Court- 
Plaster. 

STIGMA,  in  botany,  the  upper  ex- 
tremity of  the  style,  and  the  part  which 
in  impregnation  receives  the  pollen. 


a 


Section  of  flower,  s,  Stigma. 

It  is  composed  of  cellular  tissue,  has  its 
surface  destitute  of  true  epidermis,  and 
is  usually  moist.  In  many  plants  there 
is  only  one  stigma,  while  in  others  there 
are  two,  three,  five,  or  many,  the  num- 
ber of  stigmas  being  determined  by  that 
of  the  styles. 

STILL.  See  Distillation. 

STILL'WATER,  the  county  seat  of 
Washington  co.,  Minn.,  18  miles  north- 


east of  St.  Paul;  on  the  St.  Croix  river 
and  lake,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago,  St. 
Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  and  the 
Northern  Pacific  railroads.  Pop.  14,715. 

STILT-BIRD,  Stilt-plover,  a wading 
bird,  having  remarkably  long  slender 
legs,  a feature  from  which  it  derives  its 
common  name.  The  stilt-bird  of  Great 


Stilt-plover. 


Britain  has  a long  straight  bill,  very 
long  wings  for  its  size,  and  the  legs, 
which  are  of  a red  color,  measure  from 
18  to  20  inches. 

STIMULANTS,  in  medicine,  agents 
which  produce  a quickly  diffused  and 
transient  increase  of  vital  engery  in  the 
organism  or  some  part  of  it.  Stimulants 
are  of  two  classes:  the  one  comprises 
certain  medicinal  substances;  the  other 
warmth,  cold,  electricity,  galvanism 
and  mental  agents  such  as  music,  joy, 
hope,  etc.  In  the  first  class  ammonia, 
alcohol,  and  sulphuric  ether  are  com- 
monly employed  as  stimulants.  Stimu- 
lants have  also  been  divided  into  general 
and  topical,  according  as  they  affect  the 
whole  system  or  a particular  part. 

STING,  a sharp-pointed  weapon  or 
instrument  with  which  certain  insects, 
bees  and  wasps  in  particular,  are  armed 
by  nature  for  their  defense.  In  most  in- 
stances this  instrument  is  a tube, 
through  which  a poisonous  matter  is  dis- 
charged, which  inflames  the  flesh,  and 
in  some  instances  proves  fatal  to  life. 

STING-RAY,  a fish  which  is  allied  to 
that  of  the  rays  proper.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  long,  flexible,  whip-like  tail,  which 
is  armed  with  a projecting  bony  spine, 
very  sharp  at  the  point,  and  furnished 
along  both  edges  with  sharp  cutting 
teeth.  One  species  is  common  on  the 
eastern  coasts  of  North  America.  The'se 
fishes  sometimes  inflict  serious  wounds 
with  their  tail. 

STINT,  a grallatorial  bird,  a species  of 


American  least  stint. 


sandpiper.  Temminck’s  stint  is  the 
smallest  species  of  the  British  sand- 


STIPULE 


STOMACH 


pipers,  length  inches.  It  inhabits  the 
edges  of  lakes  and  inland  rivers,  and  is 
said  to  breed  in  North  Europe. 

STIP'ULE,  in  botany,  a small  leaf- 
like appendage  to  a leaf,  commonly 
situated  at  the  base  of  the  petiole  in 
pairs,  one  on  each  side,  and  either  ad- 
hering to  it  or  standing  separate.  They 
are  usually  of  a more  delicate  texture 


s «,  Leaf  witli  stipules. 

than  the  leaf,  but  vary  in  this  respect 
as  well  as  in  form  and  color  They  are 
not  found  in  all  plants,  but  where  they 
occur  they  frequently  characterize  a 
whole  family,  as  in  Leguminosae,  Rosa- 
ceae,  Malvaceae,  etc. 

STIRLING,  a royal  and  parliamentary 
burgh  of  Scotland,  capital  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  situated  on  a height 
overlooking  the  winding  course  of  the 
river  Forth,  and  36  miles  n.w.  from 
Edinburgh.  Pop.  18,403. — The  county 
of  Stirling  consists  of  a main  portion 
and  two  detached  areas  included  in 
Perthshire  and  Clackmannanshire ; great- 
est length  about  46  miles;  greatest 
breadth  about  20  miles;  area,  286,338. 
acres.  Pop.  142,291. 

STOAT.  See  Ermine. 

STOCKADE',  in  fortification,  a fence 
or  barrier  constructed  by  planting  up- 
right in  the  ground  trunks  of  trees  or 


Stockade. 

rough  piles  of  timber  so  as  to  inclose  an 
area  which  is  to  be  defended. 

STOCKHOLM,  the  capital  of  Sweden, 
beautifully  and  picturesquely  situated 
between  Lake  Malar  and  the  Baltic,  330 
miles  northeast  of  Copenhagen.  The 
chief  public  building  is  the  royal  palace, 
a fine  edifice  in  the  Italian  style,  other 
noteworthy  edifices  are  the  National 
library.  National  museum,  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  parliament-house, 
etc.  The  educational  institutions  in- 
clude a medical  college,  a technological 
institute,  navigation  school,  school  of 
design,  etc.  It  is  besides  a place  of  con- 
siderable trade,  and  has  manufactures  of 
woolen,  linen,  cotton,  silk,  porcelain, 
glass,  tobacco,  iron  castings,  etc.  Stock- 
holm was  founded  about  1260.  Pop. 
302,402. 

STOCK-JOBBING,  the  practice  of 
dealmg  in  stocks  or  shares,  especially 


by  persons  who  buy  and  sell  on  the 
stock  exchange  on  their  own  account 
and  not  for  clients,  as  do  the  stock- 
brokers properly  so-called.  The  trans- 
actions carried  out  are  often  entirely 
of  a gambling  nature,  and  the  jobber 
may  neither  have  stock  of  his  own  to 
buy  nor  to  sell.  This  business  is  now 
earned  on  to  an  amazing  extent,  and  is 
of  this  character:  A.  agrees  to  sell  B. 
$50,000  of  bank  stock,  for  instance,  to 
be  transferred  in  twenty  days,  for 
$60,500.  Now  if  the  price  of  bank  stock 
on  the  day  appointed  for  transfer  should 
be  only  $118  per  cent,  he  may  then  pur- 
chase as  much  as  will  enable  him  to  ful- 
fil his  bargain  for  $59,000,  and  thereby 
gain  $1500  by  the  transaction.  Should 
the  price  of  bank  stock,  however,  ad- 
vance to  $125  per  cent,  he  will  have  to 
pay  $62,500  for  the  necessary  amount 
of  stock  and  will  thus  lose  $2,000  by 
completing  his  agreement.  In  effect, 
the  stock  is  usually  never  transferred; 
the  difference  between  the  price  of  the 
stock  on  the  day  of  delivery  and  the 
price  bargained  for  bemg  simply  paid  to 
one  or  other  of  the  parties  to  the  bar- 
gain. See  Bulls  and  Bears. 

STOCKPORT,  a pari.,  mun.,  arid 
county  borough  of  England,  partly  in 
Cheshire  and  party  in  Lancashire,  5 
miles  southeast  of  Manchester,  on  the 
Mersey.  Pop.  92,832. 

STOCKS,  an  apparatus  formerly  used 
for  the  punishment  of  petty  offenders, 
as  vagrants,  trespassers,  and  the  like. 


Prisoners  In  the  stocks. 


It  usually  consisted  of  a frame  of  timber 
with  holes  in  which  the  ankles,  and 
sometimes  both  the  ankles  and  wrists, 
of  the  offenders  were  confined. 

STOCKTON,  Frank  Richard,  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Philadelphia,  1834; 
attained  much  popularity  by  his  short 
stories,  which  are  very  numerous, 
among  the  best  known  being  the  Rudder 
Grange  stories.  The  Lady  or  the  Tiger? 
The  Ting-a-ling  Stories,  ete.  He  also 
wrote  several  novels,  and  stories  for 
children.  He  died  in  1902. 

STODDARD,  Richard  Henry,  Ameri- 
can poet,  critic,  and  journalist,  was  born 
at  Hingham,  Mass.,  in  1825.  Arnong  h s 
numerous  publications  are : the  juvenii ; 
Adventures  in  Fairyland,  Songs  of 
Summer,  The  King’s  Bell,  a poem ; 
Abraham  Lincoln,  a commemoration 
ode;  The  Lion’s  Cub  and  Other  Poemi:, 
and  Under  the  Evening  Lamp.  Stod- 
dard also  edited  several  anthologies, 
among  them  Melodies  and  Madrigals, 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  America,  and  Fe- 
male Poets  of  America.  He  died  in  1903. 

STOICS,  a sect  of  philosophy  . : which 
flourished  first  in  Greece  and  subse- 


quently in  Rome,  so  called  from  the 
porch  or  Stoa,  at  Athens,  where  Zeno, 
its  founder,  taught.  It  was  about  b.c! 
308,  fourteen  years  after  the  death  of 
Aristotle  and  thirty-nine  years  after  the 
death  of  Plato,  that  Zeno  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  new  school.  The 
Stoics  are  proverbially  known  for  the 
austerity  of  theirethical  doctrines,  which, 
indeed,  quite  overshadowed  all  the  rest 
of  their  philosophy.  With  Zeno  and  his 
disciples  the  system  appears  to  have 
been  an  attempt  to  reconcile  a theologi- 
cal pantheism  and  a materialist  psy- 
chology with  a logic  which  seeks  the 
foundations  of  knowledge  in  the  repre- 
sentations or  perceptions  of  the  senses, 
and  a morality  which  claims  as  its  first 
principle  the  absolute  freedom  of  the 
human  will.  Transferred  to  the  Roman 
world,  this  philosophy  became  a prac- 
tical rule  of  life.  To  Epictetus  and  the 
Stoics  of  the  later  empire  the  supreme 
end  of  life,  or  the  highest  good,  is  virtue, 
that  is,  a life  conformed  to  nature,  the 
agreement  of  human  conduct  with  the 
all-controlling  law  of  nature,  or  of  the 
human  with  the  divine  will;  not  contem- 
plation, but  action,  is  the  supreme 
problem  for  man;  virtue  is  sufficient  for 
happiness,  but  happiness  or  pleasure 
should  never  be  made  the  end  of  human 
endeavor.  The  great  struggle  of  Stoical 
morality  is  to  subdue  all  emotion,  which 
in  itself  is  contrary  to  nature,  entirely 
without  utility,  and  productive  only  of 
evil.  The  wise  man  alone  attains  to  the 
complete  performance  of  his  duty;  he  is 
without  passion,  although  not  without 
feeling;  he  is  not  indulgent,  but  just 
toward  himself  and  others;  he  alone  is 
free,  having  entirely  subdued  his  pas- 
sions, which  are  the  great  barrier  to 
liberty;  he  is  king  and  lord,  and  is  in- 
ferior in  inner  worth  to  no  other  rational 
being,  not  even  to  Zeus  himself. 

STOKE-UPON-TRENT,  a market 
town  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
England,  in  Staffordshire.  Its  extensive 
manufactures  of  china  and  earthenware 
make  it  the  center  of  the  “Potteries” 
district.  Pop.  89,023. 

STOLA,  a garment  worn  by  the  Ro- 
man women  over  the  tunic.  It  came  as 
low  as  the  ankles  or  feet,  was  fastened 
round  the  body  by  a girdle,  leaving 


Roman  matron  attired  in  the  stola. 

broad  folds  above  the  breast,  and  had  a 
flounce  sewed  to  the  bottom.  It  was  the 
characteristic  dress  of  the  Roman 
matrons,  as  the  toga  was  of  the  men. 

STOMACH,  The,  the  principal  organ 
of  digestic?'  m animals,  may  be  regarded 


STOMACH-PUMP 


STORY 


simply  as  an  expanded  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  The  human  stomach 
is  of  an  irregularly  conical  or  pear- 
shaped  form;  it  is  situated  in  the 
epigastric  region,  lying  almost  trans- 
versely across  the  upper  and  left  por- 
tion of  the  abdominal  cavity,  below  the 
liver  and  midriff  and  close  to  the  front 
wall  of  the  abdomen.  Its  largest  ex- 
tremity is  directed  to  the  left,  its  smaller 
to  the  right.  Its  upper  opening,  where 
the  oesophagus  terminates,  is  called  the 
cardiac  orifice,  because  of  its  closeness 
to  the  heart;  and  the  lower  opening, 
where  the  intestine  begins,  the  pylorus, 
the  portion  of  the  intestine  which  joins 
it  here  being  the  duodenum.  At  the 
entrance  to  the  latter  is  a valve  which 
prevents  the  contents  of  the  intestine 
from  regurgitating  backward.  The 
stomach  is  composed  of  four  coats  or 
layers,  the  outermost,  or  serous  ^ayer, 
forming  part  of  the  peritoneum  or  gen- 
eral lining  membrane  of  the  abdomen. 
Next  is  a muscular  coat,  then  an  inter- 
mediate or  cellular,  and  lastly,  an  inner 
or  mucous  coat  in  which  are  the  orifices 
of  the  glands  for  the  secretion  of  the 
gastric  juice.  By  its  blood-vessels  the 
stomach  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  liver  and  spleen.  Its  nerves  are  very 
numerous,  and  come  from  the  eighth  pair 
and  the  sympathetic  nerve.  By  these  it 
is  brought  into  close  relationship  with 
the  heart,  lungs,  etc.  The  stomach  owes 
its  digestive  powers  chiefly  to  the  gastric 
juice,  an  acid  liquid  containing  a fer- 
mentive  principle  called  pepsin  that 
converts  albuminous  foods  into  pep- 
tones capable  of  absorption.  Digestion 
is  also  aided  by  certain  stomachic  move- 
ments by  which  the  gastric  juice  is 
mixed  with  the  food.  (See  Digestion.) 
The  stomach  is  subject  to  various  dis- 
eases. Acute  gastric  catarrh,  in  which 
the  mucous  membrane  becomes  con- 
gested, may  be  constitutional;  but  more 
probably  it  arises  from  errors  in  diet, 
excess  of  alcohol,  sudden  changes  of 
temperature,  etc.  In  chronic  gastric 
catarrh  the  congestion  becomes  per- 
manent, and  the  symptoms  are  such  as 
appear  in  an  aggravated  fonn  of  dys- 
pepsia. Ulceration  of  the  stomach  is  a 
disease  of  middle  life,  and  seems  to  occur 
most  commonly  among  women.  The 
ulcer  is  at  first  limited  to  the  inner  coat 
of  the  stomach,  but  if  not  healed  it  will 
strike  more  deeply  and  probably  pene- 
trate the  walls  of  the  stomach.  In  a case 
where  the  stomach  adheres,  at  the  seat 
of  the  ulcer,  to  some  other  organ,  actual 
perforation  may  be  prevented;  in  which 
case  peritonitis,  which  is  speedily  fatal, 
is  not  likely  to  arise.  The  symptoms  of 
this  disease  are  chiefly  pain,  vomiting, 
especially  vomiting  of  blood,  and  gen- 
eral dyspeptic  symptoms.  Cancer  of  the 
stomach  is  not  uncommon,  though  it 
seldom  occurs  before  the  age  of  forty. 
Its  symptoms  are  not  easily  to  be  de- 
cided even  by  a skilful  physician.  In 
mammals  there  are  three  kinds  of 
stomachs,  simple,  complex,  and  com- 
pound. In  the  simple  it  consists  of  a 
single  cavity,  as  in  man  and  the  carni- 
vora, etc.  This  is  the  most  common 
form.  The  complex  has  two  or  more 
compartments  communicating  with  each 
other,  with  no  marked  difference  of 
structure,  as  in  the  kangaroo,  squirrel. 


porcupine,  etc.  The  cetacea  have  from 
five  to  seven  such  compartments.  The 
compound  stomach  is  peculiar  to  the 
ruminants  (which  see).  In  animals  of 
the  lowest  type  there  is  no  distinct 
stomach  cavity  at  all;  and  even  in  those 
more  highly  organized  it  is  often  ex- 
tremely simple. 

STOMACH-PUMP,  a small  pump  or 
syringe  used  in  medical  practice,  for  the 
purpose  of  emptying  the  stomach  and 
introducing  cleansing  or  other  liquids. 
It  resembles  the  common  syringe,  ex- 
cept that  it  has  two  apertures  near  the 
end,  instead  of  one,  in  which  the  valves 
open  different  ways,  so  as  to  constitute 
a sucking  and  a forcing  passage  When 
the  object  is  to  be  extracted  from  the 
stomach,  the  pump  is  worked  while  its 
sucking  orifice  is  in  connection  with  a 
flexible  tube  passed,  into  the  stomach; 
and  the  extracted  matter  escapes  by  the 
forcing  orifice.  When  it  is  desired,  on  the 
contrary,  to  throw  cleansing  water  or 
other  liquid  into  the  stomach,  the  tube 
is  connected  with  the  forcing  orifice,  by 
which  the  action  of  the  pump  is  reversed. 

STONE,  a hard  concretion  of  some 
species  of  earth,  as  lime,  silex,  clay,  and 
the  like;  also,  the  material  obtained  by 
quarrying  rocks.  The  principal  com- 
ponent parts  of  stones  are  silex,  alumina, 
zirconia,  glucina,  lime,  and  magnesia; 
sometimes  the  oxides  of  iron,  man- 
ganese, nickel,  chromium,  and  copper 
are  also  found  to  enter  into  their  com- 
position. Stones  are  of  various  degrees 
of  hardness  and  weight;  they  are  brittle 
and  fusible,  but  not  malleable,  ductile, 
or  soluble  in  water.  Stones  are  of  ex- 
tensive use  for  a great  variety  of  pur- 
poses— for  building,  paving,  grinding, 
ornamental  purposes,  etc.  The  stones  of 
public  buildings  are  liable  to  decay  from 
chemical  decomposition  and  mechanical 
disintegration.  To  prevent  this  decay 
oils  and  cements  have  been  frequently 
used,  but  they  have  been  found  to  dis- 
color the  stone  and  require  frequent 
renewal.  A siliceous  coating  applied  to 
the  stone  seems  to  be  the  most  effectual 
remedy.  Frederick  Ransome  has  pat- 
ented a process  in  which  a solution 
of  silicate  of  soda  is  first  put  upon  the 
stone  and  afterward  a solution  of 
chloride  of  calcium.  This  process  has 
been  received  with  considerable  favor. 

STONE,  a common  measure  of  weight. 
The  English  imperial  standard  stone  is 
14  lbs.  avoirdupois,  but  other  values 
are  in  regular  use,  varying  with  the 
article  weighed;  thus,  the  stone  of 
butcher’s  meat  or  fish  is  8 lbs.,  of  cheese 
16  lbs.,  of  hemp  32  lbs.,  of  glass  5 lbs. 

STONE,  or  CALCULUS.  See  Calculus. 


Stone-plover. 


STONE-PLOVER,  a large  species  of 
plover.  It  appears  in  England  at  the 


latter  end  of  April,  frequents  open  hilly 
situations;  makes  no  nest,  but  lays  two 
eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  and  emigrates 
in  small  flocks  about  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember. 

STONES,  Precious.  See  Gems. 

STONEWARE.  See  Pottery. 

STORK,  a name  given  to  tall  and 
stately  birds,  the  beak  being  moderately 
cleft  and  destitute  of  a nasal  furrow. 
The  common  stork  is  pure  white,  with 
the  exception  of  the  black  quill  feathers 
of  the  wings,  the  scapularies,  and  greater 
wing-coverts,  and  the  red  beak,  legs, 
and  toes.  It  is  about  3 feet  6 inches  in 
length,  and  when  erect  its  head  is  about 
4 feet  from  the  ground.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  affection  toward  its  young. 

STORM.  See  Meteorology,  Cyclone, 
Wind. 

STORM-GLASS,  a weather-glass  con- 
sisting of  a tube  containing  a chemical 
solution  sensible  to  atmospheric  changes. 
In  fine  weather  the  substancesinsolution 
are  said  to  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tube,  leaving  the  liquid  comparatively 
clear;  previous  to  a storm  the  substances 
rise,  and  the  liquid  assumes  a turbid 
and  flocculenj;  appearance. 

STORM-SIGNAL,  a cone  a-nd  drum 
used  at  seaports  and  coast-guard  sta- 
tions to  indicate  the  approach  of  a storm. 
The  cone  exhibited  alone  with  its  apex 
down  portends  a south  gale;  with  its 
apex  up  a north  gale.  The  cone  with  the 
apex  down  and  the  drum  over  it  por- 
tends dangerous  winds  from  the  south; 
with  the  apex  up  and  the  drum  under 
dangerous  winds  from  the  north.  See 
Weather  and  Storm  Signals. 

STORY,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  American 
lawyer,  born  1779,  died  1845.  In  1808 
he  entered  congress,  in  1810  became 
speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  state  legis- 
lature, and  soon  after  was  appointed  a 
judge  of  the  United  States  supreme 
court.  In  1829  he  became  professor  of 
law  at  Harvard,  a position  which  he  held 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  His  law  works 
include  a number  of  special  treatises, 
commentaries,  and  judgments,  and  a 
collection  of  his  miscellaneous  writings 
was  published  in  1852. 

STORY,  William  Wetmore,  American 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  in 
1819.  In  1848  he  went  to  Italy,  where 
he  made  his  home,  residing  principally 
at  Rome,  and  died  at  Vallombrosa.  The 
list  of  his  works  as  a sculptor  includes 
monuments,  statues,  ideal  figures,  and 
portrait  busts.  In  the  Metropolitan 
museum.  New  A^ork  City,  are  the  statues 
of  Cleopatra  and  Semiramis;  other 
works  by  him  include  a statue  of  Ed- 
ward Everett,  a statue  of  George  Pea- 
body, erected  in  London,  and  the  monu- 
ment of  Francis  Scort  Keys  in  the  Golden 
Gate  Park,  San  Francisco.  His  pub- 
lished works  are  The  American  Question, 
Roba  di  Roma,  Proportions  of  the 
Human  Figure,  Graffiti  d’ltalia,  five 
volumes  of  his  poems,  and  the  Life  and 
Letters  of  Joseph  Story.  He  was  United 
States  commissioner  on  fine  arts  to  the 
World’s  Fair  at  Paris  (1879),  and  re- 
ceived decorations  from  France  and 
Italy.  He  died  in  1895. — His  son,  Julian 
Story,  a portrait  painter,  received  a gold 
medal  in  Berlin  in  1891,  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  in  1892,  and  won  a silver  medal 


STOVE 


STRAUSS 


at  tlie  Paris  exposition  of  1900,  and  was 
made  a chevalier  Legion  d’Honneur. 
Among  his  sitters  were  King  Edward 
VII.  and  Emma  Eames,  the  singer  whom 
he  married.  * 

STOVE,  an  apparatus  of  metal,  brick, 
or  earthenware,  which  is  heated  within 
by  a fire,  generally  almost  excluded  from 
sight.  The  heating  medium  may  be 
burning  wood,  coal,  petroleum,  or  gas. 
The  simplest  of  all  forms  is  the  familiar 
Dutch  stove,  a hollow  cylinder  of  iron, 
standing  on  the  floor,  close  at  top, 
whence  a small  flue  or  chimney  pro- 
ceeds, with  bottom  bars  on  which  the 
coals,  etc.,  rest.  But  as  this  form  was 
found  objectionable  from  the  metal  be- 
coming overheated  and  the  air  in  the 
apartment  becoming  unwholesomely 
dry,  many  kinds  of  improved  stoves 
have  now  taken  its  place. 

STOWE  (sto),  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth, 
(Beecher)  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Con- 
necticut, in  1812.  She^ wrote  several 
tales  and  sketches,  and  contributed  to 
the  National  Era,  a newspaper  published 
at  Washington,  the  serial  story  of  Uncle 
Tom’s  Cabin;  issued  this  j^ale  in  book- 


form  in  1852,  when  it  achieved  an  enor- 
mous success  both  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe.  Among  her  other  numer- 
ous writings  are:  Sunny  Memories  of 
Foreign  Lands,  Dred,  a Tale  of  the  Dis- 
mal Swamp,  The  Minister’s  Wooing, 
and  Lady  Byron  Vindicated.  She  died 
in  1896. 

STRABISMUS.  See  Squinting. 

STRABO,  Greek  geographer,  a native 
of  Amasia,  in  Pontus,  was  born  about 
54  B.C.,  and  died  about  21  a.d.  His 
earliest  writings  were  his  Historical 
Memoirs  and  a Continuation  of  Polybius, 
both  of  whom  are  now  lost.  His  great 
work,  however,  on  geography,  in  seven- 
teen books,  has  been  preserved  entire, 
with  the  exception  of  the  seventh  book, 
of  which  there  is  only  an  epitome.  The 
first  two  books  are  introductory,  the 
ne.xt  ten  treat  of  Europe,  the  four  fol- 
lowing of  Asia,  and  the  last  of  Africa. 

STEADIVA'RI,  Antonio  (Stradivar- 
ius),  a celebrated  violin-maker,  who  was 
born  in  Cremona,  Italy,  about  1649; 
died  1737.  He  was  a pupil  of  Nicolo 
Arnati,  in  whose  employment  he  re- 
mained until  1700,  when  he  began  mak- 
ing on  his  own  account.  It  was  he  who 
settled  the  typical  pattern  of  the  Cre- 


mona violin,  and  his  instruments,  for 
tone  and  finish,  have  never  yet  been 
excelled. 

STRAFFORD,  Thomas  Wentworth, 
Earl  of,  an  English  statesman,  Avas  born 
in  London  in  1593.  He  sat  in  parlia- 
ment for  Yorkshire  for  a number  of 
years,  and  when  Charles  I.  asserted  that 
the  Commons  enjoyed  no  rights  but  by 
royal  permission,  he  was  strongly  op- 
posed by  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth. 
Archbishop  Laud  sent  him,  in  1832,  to 
Ireland  as  lord-deputy.  Here  he  greatly 
improved  the  state  of  the  country,  both 
as  regarded  law,  revenue,  and  trade ; but 
to  accomplish  his  ends  he  did  not 
scruple  to  use  the  strongest  and  most 
arbitrary  measures.  For  these  services 
he  was  created  Earl  of  Strafford.  When 
the  Long  Parliament  met  the  very  first 
movement  of  the  party  opposed  to 
arbitrary  power  was  to  impeach  Straf- 
ford of  high  treason.  The  king  endeav- 
ored to  secure  his  safety,  but  yielded 
to  the  advice  of  his  counsellors,  backed 
by  a letter  from  Strafford  himself,  who 
urged  him,  for  his  own  safety,  to  ratify 
the  bill.  Staffor<^  was  accordingly  be- 
headed on  Tower  Hill  in  May,  1641. 

STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS,  a British 
crown  colony,  deriving  its  name  from 
the  straits  which  separate  the  Malay 
peninsula  from  Sumatra.  It  consists  of 
the  island  of  Singapore  (the  seat  of 
government) ; the  town  and  province 
of  Malacca;  the  island  of  Penang  and 
province  of  Wellesley;  the  islands  and 
territory  of  the  Bindings;  the  Cocos  or 
Keeling  Islands  as  a dependency;  and  it 
has  an  administrative  control  of  the 
native  states  of  Perak,  Selangor,  Sungei 
Ujong,  Negri  Sembalan,  Johore,  and 
Pahang;  area,  about  35,000  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  572,249;  Feudatory  states,  676,138. 
See  Singapore,  Penang,  Malacca,  etc. 

STRANGULATION,  a sudden  and 
violent  compression  of  the  windpipe, 
constriction  being  applied  directly  to 
the  neck,  either  around  it  (as  in  hang- 
ing) or  in  the  forepart,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  air,  and  thereby  suspend 
respiration  and  life.  If  animation  is  only 
suspended  by  strangulation,  the  methods 
of  restoring  it  are  much  the  same  as  in 
drowning. 

STRAS'BURG,  or  STRASSBURG,  a 

town  and  fortress  of  Germany,  in  Alsace, 
capital  of  the  territory  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, on  the  111,  about  2 miles  west  of 
the  Rhine,  to  which  its  glacis  extends 
250  miles  east  by  south  of  Paris,  and 
about  370  miles  southwest  of  Berlin. 
By  means  of  canals  which  unite  the  111 
with  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Marne,  it 
is  brought  into  communication  with  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
chief  building  is  the  cathedral,  a struc- 
ture which  presents  the  architectural 
styles  of  the  centuries  from  the  11th  to 
the  15th,  in  which  it  was  built,  but 
whose  main  element  is  Gothic.  The 
other  notable  buildings  are  the  church 
of  St.  Thomas,  the  Teinple-Neuf  or 
Neukirche,  the  old  episcopal  palace,  the 
town-house,  the  new  university  build- 
ing, opened  in  1884,  and  the  new  im- 
perial palace.  The  old  episcopal  palace 
contains  the  university  and  town  library 
numbering  600,000  volumes.  Pop. 
150,268. 

STRATEGY  may  be  defined  as  the  art 


of  moving  troops  so  as  to  be  enabled 
either  to  dispense  with  a battle,  or  to 
deliver  one  with  the  greatest  advantage 
and  with  the  most  decisive  results. 
Tactics  is  the  art  of  handling  troops 
when  in  actual  contact  with  the  enemy. 

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON,  a munic- 
ipal borough  and  market-toAvn  of 
England,  in  Warwickshire,  100  miles 
by  rail  from  London,  famous  as  the 
birthplace  of  Shakespeare.  The  chief 
objects  of  interest  are  the  house  in 
which  Shakespeare  was  born,  and  the 
parish  church  in  which  he  was  buried. 
Shakespeare’s  remains  were  interred  in 
the  chancel,  and  against  the  north  wall 
are  his  monument  and  bust.  There  are 
several  other  churches,  a town-hall, 
guild-hall,  Shakespeare  memorial  the- 
ater library,  and  picture-gallery.  Pop. 
8310. 

STRATUM,  in  geology,  a layer  of  any 
deposited  substance,  as  sand,  clay,  lime- 
stone, etc.,  which  has  been  originally 
spread  out  over  a certain  surface  by  the 
action  of  water,  or  in  some  cases  by 
Avind,  especially  such  a layer  when  form- 
ing one  of  a number  superposed  and 
forming  a mass  of  rock.  When  strata 
do  not  lie  horizontally  but  are  inclined, 
they  are  said  to  dip  toAvard  some  point 


Unconformable  strata. 

of  the  compass,  and  the  angle  they  make 
with  the  horizon  is  called  the  angle  of 
dip  or  inclination.  When  strata  pro- 
trude aboAm  the  surface,  or  appear  un- 
covered, they  are  said  to  crop  out.  They 
are  said  to  be  conformable  AA'hen  their 
planes  are  parallel,  whatever  their  dip 
may  be;  and  unconformable  when  there 
is  a Avant  of  parallelism  between  the 
strata.  See  Geology. 

STRATUS.  See  Cloud. 

STRAUS  (strous),  Oscar  Solomon, 
American  diplomat,  was  born  at  Atter- 
berg,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria  in  1850.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1854,  and 
liA’^ed  in  Georgia  until  the  close  of  the 
civil  AA’ar.  In  1887-89  he  was  minister 
to  Turkey,  and  AA'as  reappointed  by 
President  McKinley,  remaining  there 
till  1900.  On  January,  14,  1902,  he  was 
named  a member  of  the  Permanent 
Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague  to 
fill  the  place  left  Amcant  by  the  death  of 
ex-President  Harrison.  In  1907  he 
entered  the  cabinet  of  President  Roose- 
A'elt  as  secretary  of  commerce.  His 
published  works  include:  The  Origin  of 
the  Republican  Form  of  Govermnent  in 
the  United  States,  Roger  Williams,  the 
Pioneer  of  Religious  Liberty,  The  De- 
velopment of  Religious  Liberty  in  the 
United  States,  and  Reform  in  the  Con- 
sular Service. 

STRAUSS  (strous),  DaAnd  Friedrich, 
was  born  at  Ludwigsburg,  Wiirtemberg, 
in  1808,  and  died  1874.  He  Avent  to 


STRAUSS 


STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS 


Berlin  in  1831  to  study  under  Schleier- 
macher  and  Hegel;  returned  to  Tubin- 
gen and  lectured  on  logic  and  philosophy 
and  published  in  1835  his  famous  Life 
of  Jesus,  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove 
that  the  gospel  narratives  had  a myth- 
ical origin  and  growth.  His  subsequent 
writings  were:  Christliche  Glaubens- 
lehre,  Life  of  Schubert,  Life  of  Christian 
Marklin,  Life  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten, 
Leben  Jesu  fiir  das  Deutsche  Volk  (Life 
of  Jesus  for  the  German  People),  Der 
Christus  des  Glaubens  und  der  Jesus 
der  Geschichte  (The  Christ  of  Faith  and 
the  Jesus  of  History),  and  De  ralte  und 
der  neue  Glaube  (The  Old  and  the  New 
Faith),  in  which  he  defines  his  final 
attitude  to  Christianity,  that  being  now 
entirely  hostile.  His  more  important 
works  have  been  translated  into  English. 

STRAUSS,  Johann,  German  com- 
poser, born  1625.  He  has  written  over 
400  waltzes,  many  of  them  world- 
famous,  the  best  known  being  The 
Beautiful  Blue  Danube  Waltz,  and  is 
the  author  of  several  successful  oper- 
ettas. He  died  in  1899. 

STRAWBERRY,  a well-known  fruit 
and  plant.  It  is  remarkable  for  the 
manner  in  which  the  receptacle,  com- 
monly called  the  fruit,  increases  and 
becomes  succulent;  but  the  true  fruit  is 
the  small  seeds  or  achenes  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  receptacle.  The  species  are 
perennial  plants  throwing  out  runners 
which  take  root  and  produce  new  plants ; 
they  are  natives  of  temperate  and  cold 
climates  in  Europe,  America,  and  Asia. 
Strawberries  are  much  valued  for 
dessert,  and  for  purposes  of  jam-making. 
The  strawberry  thrives  in  any  good 
garden  soil,  and  is  propagated  by  seeds, 
by  division  of  the  plant,  and  by  runners. 

STRAWBERRY-PEAR,  a plant  of  the 
cactus  family,  which  grows  in  the  West 


Strawberry -pear. 


India  islands.  Its  fruit  is  sweetish, 
slightly  acid,  pleasant,  and  cooling. 

STRAWBERRY-TOMATO,  the  name 
of  a plant  of  the  genus  Physaiis,  nat. 
order  Solanaceae,  known  also  as  winter- 
cherry,  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  which  is 
of  a bright  red  color,  of  the  size  of  a 
small  cherry,  and  makes  a delicate 
sweetmeat. 

STRAW  PLAIT,  straw  plaited  or 
braided  into  strips  or  tissues  of  some 
size  for  making  hats,  bags,  ornaments, 
etc.  In  the  manufacture  of  straw  hats 
the  straw  must  be  of  a certain  length 
between  the  knots  and  must  not  be 
brittle;  and  these  qualities  are  found 


most  frequently  in  the  wheat  grown  in 
Tuscany,  where  the  well-known  Leghorn 
hats  are  made.  When  the  grain  is  still 
green  the  straw  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots, 
dried  in  the  sun,  bleached  by  means  of 
sulphureous  fumes,  split  by  a machine, 
and  then  plaited  into  hats. 

STREATOR,  (stre'tor),  a city  in  La 
Salle  CO.,  111.,  94  miles  southwest  of 
Ghicago;  on  the  Vermilion  river,  and  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy, 
the  Chicago  and  Alton,  the  Wabash, 
the  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  and  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa  Fe  rail- 
roads. Pop.  16,800. 

STREETS,  Pavement  of.  See  Pave- 
ment. 

STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS.  The 

strength  of  any  material  is  the  resistance 
which  it  opposes  to  alteration  of  form 
or  to  fracture  by  an  application  of  force. 
Materials  are  subject  to  many  forms 
of  strains,  and  some  are  better  qualified 
to  resist  strains  of  a certain  kind  than 
others.  Stone,  for  example,  is  adrnir- 
ably  constituted  for  supporting  im- 
mense weights,  but  it  would  not  offer 
much  resistance  to  a direct  pull. 
Wrought-iron  is  superior  to  cast-iron 
in  resisting  a pull  or  tensile  stress,  but 
the  latter  excels  the  former  in  its  resist- 
ance to  a thrust  or  compressive  stress. 
A material  is  exposed  to  five  distinct 
strains;  a tensile  or  stretching  strain  in 
the  direction  of  its  fibers,  as  in  the  case 
of  ropes,  tie-beams,  etc.;  a transverse 
strain  acting  perpendicularly  or  ob- 
liquely to  its  length,  as  in  levers,  joists, 
etc.;  a crushing  strain  by  pressure,  as 
in  the  case  of  pillars,  posts,  etc.;  a tor- 
sional or  twisting  strain  acting  in  a 
perpendicular  direction  at  the  extremity 
of  a lever  or  otherwise,  as  in  axles,  crank- 
shafts, etc.;  and  a shearing  force  ap- 
plied laterally,  as  in  the  case  of  a shear- 
ing-machine for  cutting  through  iron 
plates  and  bars.  Wrought-iron  and 
steel  offer  the  greatest  resistance  to 
tensile  strains;  the  strength  of  wood  in 
this  direction  varies  according  to  its 
seasoning  and  specific  _ gravity.  The 
heavier  the  wood  is,  in  general,  the 
stronger  it  is.  The  transverse  strength  of 
beams  is  determined  largely  by  their 
elasticity.  This  property  varies  greatly 
in  different  materials.  Wood  has  a 
greater  elastic  range  of  action  than  iron 
or  steel  bars,  and  consequently  sinks 
or  deflects  to  a greater  degree  under  a 
given  weight.  Any  strain  beyond  the 
elastic  limit  entails  fracture.  Increased 
stiffness  or  transverse  resistance  of 
beams  is  rapidly  obtained  with  an  in- 
crease of  depth  of  the  beam.  With  the 
exception  of  wood,  materials  offer  a 
greater  resistance  to  a crushing  force 
than  to  a tensile  strain.  Cast-iron  is 
superior  to  wrought-iron  in  this  respect, 
and  is  consequently  much  employed  in 
the  construction  of  girders  and  other 
supports.  Torsional  stress  tries  the 
solidity  and  tenacity  of  metals  more 
than  any  other  kind  of  stress.  But  the 
torsional  strength  of  shafts  increases 
very  rapidly  as  the  diameter  is  enlarged. 
The  distribution  of  material  in  hollow 
forms  conduces  to  the  greatest  strength 
and  stiffness  in  combination  with  the 
minimum  consumption  of  material.  A 
familiar  instance  of  the  hollow  construc- 
tion is  the  stem  of  grasses,  and  especially 


the  bamboo,  vdiile  another  example  is 
that  of  the  hollow  bones  of  animals. 

STREPSIP'TERA,  a small  and  very 
peculiar  and  anomalous  order  of  in- 
sects. The  females  are  wingless,  and 
live  as  parasites  in  the  abdomens  of  bees, 
wasps,  and  other  insects.  The  males 
have  the  front  pair  of  wings  in  the  form 
of  twisted  filaments,  the  posterior  pair 
are  fan-shaped  and  membranous.  The 
jaws  are  rudimentary.  The  heads  of  the 


a,  Stylops  Dalii,  male  insect.  6,  Do.  magnified, 
c,  Anterior  wings,  d,  Double  antennae. 

parasitic  females  protrude  from  be- 
tween the  abdominal  joints  of  their 
host.  The  strepsiptera  are  viviparous, 
and  the  larvae  are  little  caterpillars 
which  attach  themselves  to  the  bodies 
of  wasps  and  bees.  The  female  larvae 
never  leave  their  hosts;  the  male  larvae 
undergo  their  metamorphosis  within  the 
bodies  of  their  hosts,  from  which  in  due 
time  they  emerge  as  perfect  winged 
m dl0s 

STREPSIRHI'NA,  one  of  the  three 
chief  divisions  into  which  the  order 
Quadrumana  or  monkeys  is  sometimes 
arranged,  represented  by  such  forms 
as  the  aye-aye  or  cheiromys  of  Mada- 
gascar, by  the  lemurs,  loris,  etc.  See 
Lemur,  etc. 

STRESS,  in  mechanics,  a term  some- 
times used  as  equivalent  to  strain,  at 
other  times  used  as  the  force  producing 
strain,  the  latter  referring  to  the  amount 
of  change  produced.  See  strain. 

STRICKLAND,  Agnes,  an  English 
authoress,  born  1796  at  Reydon  Hall, 
near  Southwold,  Suffolk.  She  wrote, 
in  conjunction  with  her  sister  Elizabeth, 
Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England  (twelve 
vols.,  1840-48) ; Lives  of  the  Queens  of 
Scotland  (eight  vols.,  1850-59).  She 
also  published  Letters  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  with  an  Historical  Introduction 
and  Notes;  Lives  of  the  Bachelor  Kings 
of  England;  Lives  of  the  Tudor  Prin- 
cesses; poems,  stories,  etc.  She  died 
in  1874. 

STRICTURE,  a contraction  of  a tube, 
duct,  or  orifice;  for  instance,  of  any 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal  or  of  the 
urinary  passages.  This  disease  usually 
affects  the  urethra  and  is  treated  by 
dieting  and  dilatation  of  the  passage  by 
means  of  catheters 

STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS,  when 
employes  cease  to  work  to  enforce  a de- 
mand upon  an  employer  it  is  called  a 
strike.  When  the  employer  shuts  down 
his  establishment  to  compel  his  men  to 
comply  with  a demand  it  is  called  a 
lockout.  The  first  recorded  strike  in  the 
United  States  is  that  of  journeymen 
bakers  of  New  York  in  1741.  The  first 
of  the  great  historic  strikes  occurred  in 
1877,  when  the  employes  of  the  Balti- 
more & Ohio  railroad  at  Martinsburg 
refused  to  accept  a reduction  of  10  per 
cent  in  wages.  In  this  strike  not  only 


STROMBUS 


STROPHE 


the  state  militia,  but  the  United  States 
troops,  were  called  out  to  quell  riots  and 
disturbances.  Another  great  strike  was 
the  one  on  the  Pennsylvania  railroad, 
which  broke  out  at  Pittsburg  on  June 
27,  1877.  Still  another  notable  strike 
w'as  that  of  the  telegraphers,  which 
occurred  in  1883.  This  took  place  to 
secure  the  abolition  of  Sunday  work 
without  extra  pay,  and  the  “equaliza- 
tion of  pay  between  the  sexes  for  the 
same  work.”  The  strike  lasted  from 


any  recognition  of  the  miners’  right  to 
interfere  with  their  business.  When  the 
price  of  coal  became  excessive  because 
of  its  scarcity.  President  Roosevelt  per- 
suaded both  sides  to  agree  to  arbitration 
by  a board  appointed  by  him.  This 
commission  increased  the  wages  of  the 
miners  10  per  cent,  denouncing  boy- 
cotting and  blacklisting.  It  estimated 
the  loss  due  to  the  strike  was:  To  mine 
owners,  $46,100,000;  to  employes,  $25,- 
000,000;  to  transportation  companies, 


CAUSE  OR  OBJECT 

FOR  INCREASE  OF  WaOES 
lOAINST  REDUCTION  OF  WAOES 
FOR  REDUCTION  OF  HOURS 
FOR  LABOR  UNIONISM 
SYMPATHETIC  STRIKES 

ALL  OTHER  CAUSES 
TOTAL 


PER  CENT  OF  ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  WHICH  STRIKES 
SUCCEEDED.  SUCCEEDED  PARTLY.  AND  FAILED 
» ao  30  y y y yywa 


SUCCECOEO 


FAILED 


Results  of  strikes  undertaken  for  five  leading  causes  in  twenty  years. 


July  19  to  August  23,  and  was  unsuc- 
cessful, the  loss  to  employes  being  about 
$250,000,  while  they  expended  about 
$62,000  assisting  destitute  operators. 
The  strikes  on  the  Gould  system  in  1885 
and  1886,  and  the  Homestead  strike  in 
1892  were  important  uprisings,  the 
latter  being  considered  the  bitterest 
labor  war  ever  waged  in  this  country  up 
to  that  time.  It  was  the  first  labor  dis- 
turbance in  which  Pinkerton  detectives 
played  an  important  part.  These  men 
were  particularly  objectionable  to  the 
strikers  who  stoned  them,  resisted  their 
approach  with  firearms,  and  sprayed  the 
boats  in  which  they  came  with  pe- 
troleum, intending  to  burn  the  detec- 
tives out.  The  Chicago  strike  of  1894 
grew  out  of  a demand  of  some  Pullman 
employes  for  restoration  of  wages  paid 
the  previous  year,  but  the  company 
refused  to  pay  the  old  wages  on  account 
of  a reduction  in  the  volume  of  business. 
Out  of  this  little  beginning  grew  a strike 
the  cost  of  which  amounted  to  about 
$700,000  in  property  destroyed  and 
hire  of  United  States  marshals.  The 
roads  lost  in  earnings  $5,000,000,  and 
the  employes  lost  more  than  $350,000. 
Workmen  on  railroads  radiating  from 
Chicago  lost  nearly  $1,400,000  in  wages 
and  the  loss  to  the  country  at  large  was 
estimated  at  many  millions  of  dollars. 
Riots,  intimidations,  assaults,  murder, 
arson,  and  burglary  were  some  of  the 
accompaniments  of  the  great  strike, 
and  it  took  14,186  men,  police  and  mili- 
tary, to  restore  order.  The  largest  strike 
in  America  was  that  of  the  anthracite 
coal  miners,  which  began  May  12,  1902, 
involving  147,500  men.  It  was  due  to 
the  refusal  of  the  presidents  and  direc- 
tors of  the  coal  operating  railroads  to 
comply  with  the  employes’  demands 
for  an  increase  of  20  per  cent  in  wages 
to  miners  paid  by  the  ton.  and  a reduc- 
tion of  the  hours  of  a days’  labor  from  10 
to  8 without  decrease  in  wages.  The 
employers  contended  they  could  not 
afford  the  demands  and  also  opposed 


$28,000,000;  total,  $99,100,000.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  arbitration.  When 
the  agreement  expired  March  31,  1906, 
the  men  again  struck  to  enforce  their 
original  demands,  but  after  being  out 
six  weeks  agreed  to  continue  the  agree- 
ment until  1909.  For  the  twenty  years’ 
period  ending  with  the  last  census  year, 
according  to  the  United  States  labor 

Partly 

Successful.  Successful  Failed 


Strikes 50.77  13.04  36.19 

IwOCkoutS 50.79  6.28  42.93 


'■■tUOCCCOCO  tUCCICOCO  WBTtT  • I 1 rAIL£0 

Results  of  strikes  ordered  by  labor  organiza- 
tions and  strikes  not  so  ordered  in 
twenty  years. 

bureau,  the  strikes  of  the  country  have 
cost  the  employe  in  loss  of  wages 
$257,863,478;  the  unions  in  contribu- 
tions to  their  fellows,  $16,174,793;  the 
employers,  $122,731,120.  Each  of  the 
6,105,693  employes  lost  $42  in  wages, 
irrespective  of  the  contributions  of  the 


sympathizing  unions.  In  the  lockouts 
instituted  by  the  employers  a still 
greater  per  capita  loss  came  to  the 
employes.  The  individual  cost  to  the 
employe  was  $97,  with  $4,915  cost  to 
each  establishment  imposing  the  lock- 
out. The  strike  loss  to  each  establish- 
ment under  strike  duress  was  only 
$2,194  in  the  twenty  years.  The  greatest 
single  year  of  loss  to  employes  and  em- 
ployers was  in  1894,  when  the  sum 
totals  were  respectively  $37,145,532 
and  $18,982,129.  Considering  the  strike 
and  the  lockout  as  the  force  measures 
of  the  two  sides  to  labor  troubles,  it  is 
a toss  up  as  to  which  is  the  more  success- 
fully carried  to  a finish.  The  percentage 
of  success  and  failure  is  shown  in  the 
preceding  tabulations: 

These  trades  and  industries  involved 
in  greatest  numbers  are  as  follows. 


Building  trades 

Strikes 

..4,440 

Lockouts 

95 

Coal  and  coke  workers  . . . 

..2,515 

45 

Metals  and  metal  goods. . . . 

..2,080 

130 

Clothing 

..1,638 

100 

Tobacco 

.,1,509 

124 

Transportation 

..1,265 

23 

Stone  quarrying  and  cutting.. 

..  856 

43 

Boots  and  Shoes 

..  862 

59 

Printing  and  publishing 

..  765 

88 

Machines  and  machinery 

..  453 

25 

A tabulation  of  the  causes  for  strikes 
in  the  order  of  their  number  is: 


Increase  of  wages 33,731 

Increased  wages  and  reduced  hours 13,201 

Reduced  hours 13,116 

Against  wage  reduction 8,423 

Sympathetic  strikes 4,078 

Against  employment  of  non-union  men,.  2,751 

New  rules  and  scales 2,742 

Recognition  of  union 1,649 

Increased  wages  and  recognition  of 

unions 1.111 

Enforcing  union  rules 1,068 

For  reinstatement  of  discharged  em- 
ployes   868 

Adoption  of  union  scale 928 

Against  task  system 917 

Against  reduction  of  wages  and  over- 
time   750 

Increase  of  wages  and  Saturday  half 

holiday 729 

It  requires  twice  as  much  time  to  pre- 
pare for  a general  strike  as  that  general 
strike  will  last.  A strike  lasts  23.8  days; 
preparation  for  the  strike  of  any  mag- 
nitude will  require  sixty  days  before  it 
is  in  effect. 

STROMBUS,  the  name  given  by  Lin- 
naeus to  a genus  of  gasteropodous  shells, 
now  broken  up  into  several  genera. 
The  aperture  is  much  dilated,  the  lip 
expanding  and  produced  into  a groove. 


Winged  strombus. 

In  some  of  the  shells  of  this  genus  there 
are  spines  of  great  length  arranged 
round  the  circumference  of  the  base, 
being  at  first  tubular,  and  afterward 
solid,  according  to  the  period  of  growth. 

STRO'PHE,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
divisions  of  a Greek  choral  ode.  cor- 
responding to  the  antistrbphe.  Th'? 


STRYCHNINE 


SUBJECT 


singing  of  the  strophes  on  the  stage  was 
accompanied  with  a motion  or  turn  from 
right  to  left;  the  singing  of  the  anti- 
strophe, with  a contrary  motion,  from 
the  left  to  the  right. 

STRYCHNINE  (strik'nTn'l , an  alkaloid 
existing  in  nux-vomica,  St.  Ignatius 
beans,  and  in  various  other  plants  of  the 
genus  of  Strychnos.  Strychnine  may 
be  prepared  from  nux-vomica  by  treat- 
ing with  rectified  spirit,  acetate  of  lead, 
etc.,  precipitating  with  ammonia,  dis- 
solving the  precipitate  with  alcohol, 
and  crystallizing.  Strychnine  fonns 
colorless  four-sided  prisms,  which  are 
inodorous  and  intensely  poisonous.  One- 
eighth  of  a grain  of  strychnine  is  suffi- 
cient to  kill  a large  dog:  three-eights  of  a 
grain  produces  violent  tetanic  spasms 
in  man,  while  half  a grain  has  been 
known  to  prove  fatal.  When  taken  in 
small  doses  for  a long  period  of  time 
the  drug  produces  increased  excitability 
of  the  nerves.  Strychnine  resists  putre- 
faction, and  may  therefore  be  detected 
in  bodies  which  have  been  buried  for  a 
long  time.  This  alkaloid  combines  with 
acids,  forming  a series  of  well-defined 
salts;  a series  of  strychnine  derivatives 
is  also  known,  in  which  the  hydrogen  is 
partly  replaced  by  such  groups  as  ethyl, 
amyl,  etc. 

STRYCHNOS  (strik'nos),  a genus  of 
plants,  composed  of  trees  or  shrubs 
which  do  not  yield  a milky  juice,  and 
have  opposite,  usually  nerved  leaves 
and  corymbose  flowers;  some  of  the 
species  are  possessed  of  tendrils,  and  are 
climbing  plants.  They  are  found  princi- 
pally in  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and 
America.  Among  the  species  are  nux- 
vomica,  poison-nut,  or  ratsbane,  clear- 
ing-nut, St.  Ignatius’  bean,  snakewood, 
woorali  or  poison-plant  of  Guiana. 

STUART,  Gilbert,  American  portrait 
painter,  was  born  at  Narragansett,  R.  I., 
in  1755.  After  several  trips  to  England 
he  established  a studio  in  Philadelphia, 
where  the  first  Washington  portrait 
was  painted  in  1795.  Stuart’s  portraits 
of  Y-ashington  are  the  most  famous  of 
artist  and  sitter.  Nearly  forty  replicas 
of  his  various  Washington  portraits 
have  been  traced.  The  list  of  his  sitters 
includes  the  first  five  presidents  of  the 
United  States,  Edward  Everett,  John 
Jay,  Jacob  Astor,  Judge  Story,  W.  E. 
Channing,  Josiah  and  Edmund  Quincy, 
O.  H.  Perry,  Jerome  and  IVIme.  Bona- 
parte. During  his  residence  in  England 
he  painted  King  George  III.,  also  George 
IV.  while  Prince  of  Wales,  Louis  XVI. 
of  France  (at  Paris),  Mrs.  Siddons,  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  Benjamin  West,  and 
a notable  picture  of  “W.  Grant  Skating 
in  Saint  James  Park,”  which  made  his 
reputation  in  England.  He  died  in  1828. 

STUART,  James  Ewell  Brown,  con- 
federate officer,  born  in  Patrick  co.,  Va., 
in  1833.  With  the  commission  of  second 
lieutenant  he  entered  the  army  and 
fought  Indians  for  three  years.  In  1861 
he  joined  the  confederate  army  with  the 
tank  of  colonel,  and  serv'ed  throughout 
the  war,  greatly  distinguished  himself. 
He  fought  with  Jackson  and  Lee,  and 
won  some  very  important  battles,  gain- 
ing the  rank  of  general.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Sheridan,  General  Stuart  was 
without  doubt  the  foremost  cavalry 
.leader  in  either  army.  The  boldness  and 


rapidity  of  his  movements  were  remark- 
able. His  death  in  1864  resulted  from  a 
wound  received  in  the  battle  of  Yellow 
Tavern,  Hanover  co.,  Va. 

STUCCO  (stuk'ko),  a fine  plaster, 
used  as  a coating  for  walls;  and  to  give 
them  a finished  surface.  Stucco  for  in- 
ternal decorative  purposes  is  a compo- 
sition of  very  fine  -sand,  pulverized 
marble,  and  gypsum,  mixed  with  water 
till  it  is  of  a proper  consistency.  The 
stucco  employed  for  external  purposes 
is  of  a coarser  kind,  and  variously  pre- 
pared, the  different  sorts  being  generally 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  cements. 
Some  of  these  take  a surface  and  polish 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  finest  mar- 
ble. The  third  coat  of  three-coat  plaster 
is  termed  stucco,  consisting  of  fine  lime 
and  sand.  There  is  a species  called 
bastard  stucco,  in  which  a small  portion 
of  hair  is  used. 

STUDDING-SAILS,  formerly  called 
scudding-sails,  fine-weather  sails  set  out- 
side the  square  sails.  The  top-mast  and 
top-gallant  studding-sails  are  those 
which  are  set  outside  the  top-sails  and 
top-gallant-sails;  they  have  yards  at 
the  head,  and  are  spread  at  the  foot  by 
booms  which  slide  out  on  the  extremities 
of  the  lower  and  top-sail  yards,  and 
their  heads  or  yards  are  hoisted  up  to 
the  top-sail  and  top-gallant-sail  yard- 
arms. See  Sail. 

STURGEON,  the  general  form  of  the 
sturgeon  is  elongated  and  rather  slender, 
the  snout  long  and  pointed ; the  body  is 
covered  with  numerous  bony  plates 
in  longitudinal  rows  ; the  exterior  portion 
of  the  head  is  also  well  mailed;  the 
mouth  placed  under  the  snout  is  small 
and  funnel-shaped,  without  teeth,  and 
provided  with  tentacle-like  filaments  or 
barbules.  The  eyes  and  nostrils  are  on 
the  side  of  the  head.  On  the  back  is  a 
single  dorsal  fin,  and  the  tail  is  forked, 
but  is  heterocercal  or  unequally  lobed, 
and  is  provided  with  a row  of  spines 
along  its  upper  margin.  The  sturgeons 
are  sea-fish,  but  ascend  the  larger  rivers 
of  Europe  in  great  abundance,  and  are 


Sturgeon. 


the  objects  of  important  fisheries.  The 
flesh  of  most  of  the  species  is , wholesome 
and  agreeable  food;  their  roe  is  con- 
verted into  caviare,  and  their  air-bladder 
affords  the  finest  isinglass.  The  common 
sturgeon  is  found  off  the  British  coasts, 
in  the  North  sea,  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  most  of  the  large  rivers  of  Europe. 
Its  flesh  is  firm  and  well-flavored,  some- 
what resembling  veal.  The  general  body 
color  is  yellow;  its  length  is  usually  5 
or  6 to  8 feet,  but  it  may  reach  12  feet. 
The  food  consists  of  molluscs,  small 
crustaceans  and  small  fishes.  The  great 
or  white  sturgeon,  or  beluga  is  found  in 
the  Danube,  the  Volga,  and  other  rivers 
running  into  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas.  It  frequently  exceeds  12  and  15 


feet  in  length,  and  weighs  above  1200 
pounds.  The  flesh  is  not  much  esteemed, 
but  the  finest  isinglass  is  made  from  its 
air-bladder.  There  are  several  species 
peculiar  to  North  America.  One  of  these, 
the  fresh-water  sturgeon  inhabits  the 
great  lakes  and  connected  streams. 

STUTTERING,  See  Stammering. 

STUTTGART,  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Wiirtemberg,  S.  Germany,  Beau- 
tifully situated  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Neckar,  and  closely  surrounded  by  vine- 
yard slopes,  816  feet  above  the  sea. 
Stuttgart  is  the  chief  center  in  South 
Germany  for  the  book  trade,  connected 
with  which  are  paper-mills,  type-found- 
ries, printing-presses,  and  lithographic 
establishments.  Pop.  176,318. 

STUYVESANT  (sti've-sant),  Peter, 
born  in  Holland  in  1602;  in  1647  was 
made  director-general  of  the  Dutch 
colony  of  the  New  Netherlands,  a posi- 
tion he  held  until  1664,  when  the  colony 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  and 
became  known  as  New  York.  Stuyve- 
sant  went  to  Holland  the  next  year,  but 
soon  returned,  and  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life  at  his  farm  called  the  Bouwerij, 
from  which  the  present  Bowery  in  the 
city  of  New  York  has  its  name.  He  died 
in  1682.  ■ 

STYLE,  in  botany  the  prolongation 
of  the  summit  of  the  ovary  which  sup- 
ports the  stigma.  Sometimes  it  is  en- 
tirely wanting,  and  then  the  stigma  is 
sessile,  as  in  the  poppy  and  tulip. 
When  the  ovary  is  composed  of  a single 


carpel,  the  style  is  also  single,  and  the 
number  of  styles  varies  according  to  the 
nrmiber  of  carpels,  though  when  the 
carpels  are  numerous  the  styles  may 
be  united. 

STYLE,  Old  and  New.  See  Calendar. 

STYRTA,  a duchy  of  Austria,  bounded 
by  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Hungary, 
Croatia,  Carniola,  Carinthia,  and  Salz- 
burg; area,  8670  sq.  miles.  The  whole 
duchy,  with  the  exception  of  the  south- 
ern part,  is  mountainous.  The  chief 
sources  of  wealth  are  the  forests  and 
minerals,  dairy-farming,  mining,  and 
manufactures.  Gratz  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  1,356,058. 

STYX,  in  Greek  and  Roman  mythol- 
ogy, the  name  of  a river  of  the  infernal 
regions.  Styx  was  also  a rivulet  in 
Arcadia,  whose  water  wa^  considered 
poisonous. 

SUABIA,  or  SWABIA,  an  ancient  Ger- 
man duchy.  On  the  division  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Franks  in  843,  Suabia,  along 
with  Bavaria,  became  as  it  were  the 
nucleus  of  Germany,  and  its  rulers  con- 
tinued for  many  centuries  to  hold  a 
prominent  place  in  its  history.  The 
name  of  Suabia  is  given  to  a division  of 
Bavaria;  area,  3730  sq.  miles;  pop. 
650,166.  Augsburg  is  its  capital. 

1 SUBJECT.  See  Object. 


SUBLIMATE 


SUBWAYS 


SUBLIMATE,  Corrosive.  See  Corro- 
sive Sublimate. 

SUBLIMATION,  a process  by  which 
solid  substances  are,  by  the  aid  of  heat, 
converted  into  vapor,  which  is  again 
condensed  into  the  solid  state  by  the 
application  of  cold.  Sublimation  bears 
the  same  relation  to  a solid  that  distilla- 
tion does  to  a liquid.  Both  processes 
purify  the  substances  to  which  they  are 
severally  applied,  by  separating  them 
from  the  fixed  and  grosser  matters  with 
which  they  are  connected.  The  vapor 
of  some  substances  which  undergo  the 
process  of  sublimation  condenses  in  the 
form  of  a fine  powder  called  flowers 
such  are  the  flowers  of  sulphur,  flowers; 
of  benzoin,  and  others  of  the  same  kind. 


attainment  of  her  object.  In  all  the 
cases  above  mentioned  we  are  moved 
by  a vivid  feeling  of  some  greater  power 
than  our  own,  or  some  will  more  capable 
of  suffering,  more  vast  in  its  strength, 
than  our  feeble  vacillating  will. 

SUBLIME  PORTE.  See  Porte. 

SUBMARINE  BOAT,  a boat  that 
travels  completely  or  partly  under  the 
surface  of  the  water.  There  are  two 
types — the  submerged  and  the  submer- 
gible. Submerged  boats  are  nearly  cy- 
lindrical with  pointed  ends,  the  shape 
being  like  a Whitehead  torpedo.  To 
effect  submergence  water  is  admitted  to 
the  ballast  tanks  or  it  is  effected  by 
means  of  inclined  rudders.  Submergible 
boats  have  two  hulls,  one  inside  the 


Submarine  torpedo  boat. 


Other  sublimates  require  to  be  in  a solid 
and  compact  form,  as  camphor,  hydro- 
chlorate of  ammonia,  and  all  the  sub- 
limates of  mercury.  The  substance 
formed  by  the  process  of  sublimation  is 
called  a sublimate. 

SUBLIME,  The.  This  term  is  applied 
both  to  that  quality  of  objects  which 
produce  a mingled  feeling  of  pleasure 
and  awe  and  to  the  emotion  itself.  The 
invariable  condition  of  the  sublime  in 
objects,  either  material  or  moral,  is 
vastness,  power,  or  intensity.  The  in- 
variable condition  of  the  emotion  of 
sublimity — that  which  distinguishes  this 
emotion  from  every  other  emotion — is 
a comprehension  of  this  vastness  or 
power,  with  a simultaneous  feeling  of 
our  own  comparative  insignificance. 
The  antithesis  to  the  emotion  of  sub- 
limity is  the  emotion  of  contempt.  In 
every  case  of  sublimity  in  material  ob- 
jects, whatever  feelings  may  simultane- 
ously concur,  vastness  will  be  found  to 
be  an  invariable  condition — vastness 
either  of  form  or  of  power,  as  in  the 
violent  dashing  of  a cataract,  in  the  roar 
of  the  ocean,  in  the  violence  of  the 
storm,  in  the  majestic  quiet  of  Mont 
Blanc,  preserving  its  calm  amid  all 
the  storms  that  play  around  it.  In  the 
moral  world  the  invariable  condition  of 
sublimity  is  intensity.  Mere  intensity 
is  sufficient  to  produce  the  sublime. 
Lear,  who  appeals  to  the  heavens,  “for 
they  are  old  like  him,”  is  sublime  from 
the  very  intensity  of  his  sufferings  and 
his  passions.  Lady  Macbeth  is  sublime 
from  the  intensity  of  her  will,  which 
crushes  every  feminine  feeling  for  the 


other.  To  effect  submergence  water  is 
first  admitted  to  the  space  between  the 
hulls,  and  this  brings  the  boat  to  the 
“awash”  condition.  Further  submer- 
gence is  effected  by  permitting  the  ballast 
tanks  to  fill.  The  record  of  attempts  to 
perfect  submarine  vessels  begins  with  the 
seventeenth  century,  since  which  time 
the  problem  has  well  nigh  constantly 
enlisted  inventive  skill.  Almost  every 
year  since  1850  has  witnessed  some  new 
design  or  practical  experiment.  The 
first  real  success  was  made  by  the  Amer- 
ican Engineer,  David  Bushnell,  in  1775. 
Robert  Fulton  built  a boat  (1795-1812) 
in  which  on  one  occasion  he  was  sub- 
merged for  five  hours.  In  recent  times 
many  national  governments  have  ex- 
perimented with  various  types  of  the 
submarine.  The  United  States  has  had 
them  under  consideration  for  many 
years.  In  1892  an  appropriation  of 
$200,000  was  made  to  permit  the  navy 
department  to  build  and  test  a subma- 
rine. The  plans  of  I.  P.  Holland  were 
selected.  The  first  Holland  boat,  the 
beginning  of  the  really  successful  sub- 
marine was  built  in  1875.  After  severe 
test  the  tenth  type  of  the  Holland  boat 
was  ordered  in  1900.  This  boat  can 
dive  like  a duck,  and  on  the  surface  it 
makes  about  10  miles  an  hour.  It  car- 
ries three  torpedo  tubes  and  uses  the 
largest  size  of  Whitehead  torpedoes. 
In  1903  eight  submarines  were  put  in 
commission.  The  results  arrived  at  dur- 
ing the  Russian-Japanese  war  will 
greatly  influence  the  views  held  as  to 
the  military  value  of  submarine  craft 
and  the  methods  of  their  construction. 


SUBMARINE  CABLE,  a rope  of  wires 
and  insulating  materials  laid  along  the 
bed  of  a sea  or  ocean  through  which 
telegraphic  messages  are  transmitted. 
The  conducting  portion  of  such  cables 
consists  of  a number  of  pure  copper 
wires  twisted  into  a strand  which  is 
covered  with  alternate  coatings  of  a 
pitchy  mixture  and  gutta-percha.  This 
core  is  then  covered  with  Manila  yarn 
and  twisted  iron  wires.  The  first  at- 
tempt to  lay  a submarine  cable  was 
made  in  1850  between  Dover  and  Calais, 
but  the  cable  only  lasted  a few  hours 
owing  to  friction  against  the  rocks 
However,  electric  communication  across 
the  channel  was  re-established  not  long 
after.  The  first  Atlantic  cable,  from 
Ireland  to  Newfoundland,  was  success- 
fully laid  by  the  Great  Eastern  in  1866, 
after  unsuccessful  attempts  in  1857, 
1858  and  1865.  The  work  of  laying  the 
first  Pacific  cable  began  in  1902. 
Signals  through  the  cables  are  generally 
recorded  by  Thomson’s  mirror  galvanom- 
eter and  also  by  his  siphon  recorder, 
which  enables  the  transmission  of  mes- 
sages to  be  carried  on  with  great  rapidity. 
See  Telegraph,  Electric. 

SUBORNATION  OF  PERJURY,  the 
crime  of  inducing  a person  to  commit 
perjury;  punishable  similarly  to  perjury. 
See  Perjury. 

SUBPCE'NA,  in  law,  is  a VTit  command- 
ing a witness  to  appear  in  court.  When 
he  is  required  to  bring  books  or  papers  in 
his  possession,  a clause  is  inserted  to  that 
effect,  and  the  writ  is  then  called  a sub- 
poena duces  tecum  (“bring  with  you  un- 
der penalty”).  A witness  is  allowed  his 
traveling  expenses. 

SUB'SIDY,  a term  now  used  to  denote 
the  pecuniary  assistance  afforded,  ac- 
cording to  treaty,  by  one  government  to 
another,  sometimes  to  secure  its  neutral- 
ity, but  more  frequently  in  consideration 
of  its  furnishing  a certain  number  of 
troops.  Subsidy  was  formerly  an  aid  or 
tax  granted  to  the  crown  for  the  urgent 
occasions  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  levied 
on  every  subject  according  to  the  value 
of  his  lands  or  goods. 

SUBSTANCE,  in  a philosophical  sense, 
is  contradistinguished  fromaccident,and 
signifies  that  which  exists  independently 
and  unchangeably;  while  accident  de- 
notes the  changeable  phenomena  in  sub- 
stance, whether  these  phenomena  are 
necessary  or,  casual,  in  which  latter  case 
they  are  called  accidents  in  a narrower 
sense.  Substance  is,  with  respect  to  the 
mind,  a merely  logical  distinction  from 
its  attributes.  We  can  never  im.agine 
it,  but  we  are  compelled  to  assume  it. 
We  cannot  conceive  substance  shorn  of 
its  attributes,  because  those  attributes 
are  the  sole  staple  of  our  conceptions; 
but  we  must  assume  that  substance  is 
something  different  from  its  attributes. 
Substance  is  the  unlcnown,  unknowable 
substratum  on  which  rests  all  that  we 
experience  of  the  external  world. 

SUBWAYS,  tunnels  cut  or  built  for 
various  purposes  beneath  the  streets  of 
large  cities.  Tunnels  for  sewer,  gas  and 
water  pipes,  telegraph  and  telephone 
wires  increase  the  life  and  general  serv- 
iceability of  pavements,  prevent  inter-, 
ruption  to  traffic,  facilitate  inspect.on 
and  repair,  and  lessen  the  number  of 
troublesome  and  dangerous  leaks  from’ 


SUCCESSION  WARS 


SUFFOLK 


water  and  gas  mains.  The  concentration 
of  population  in  cities  has  made  it  neces- 
sary to  solve  suitable  and  economic 
means  of  transportation,  etc.  The  first 
city  to  feel  the  need  of  subways  was 
London.  In  1853  a two  track  under- 
ground road  was  begun.  From  the  be- 
ginning two  lines,  the  Metropolitan 
railway  and  the  Metropolitan  District 
railway,  were  produced.  The  routes,- 
however,  were  not  properly  selected, 
and  they  were  not  successful.  In  1886 
the  first  practical  tubular  railroad  was 
started.  It  was  designed  to  be  operated 
with  cables  but  before  its  completion 
electricity  was  substituted.  The  most 
approved  form  of  subway  was  intro- 
duced at  Budapest  in  1893.  It  is  con- 
structed with  a flat  roof,  consisting 
of  steel  beams  with  arches  turned  be- 
tween them,  pennitting  the  whole 
structure  to  be  brought  close  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  street,  obviating  the  use  of 
mechanical  means  of  taking  the  passen- 
gers from  platform  to  street  level.  In 
the  meanwhile  lines  had  been  projected 
in  New  York  and  Boston,  the  first  work 


SUCKER,  or  SUCKING-FISH,  a name 
applied  popularly  to  the  Remora  (which 

SUCKLING,  Sir  John,  a wit,  courtier, 
and  dramatist,  born  in  1609,  at  Whitton, 
in  Middlesex.  Being  implicated  in  a plot 
to  rescue  the  Earl  of  Strafford  from  the 
Tower  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  France, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  committed 
suicide  about  1641.  His  writings  con- 
sist of  letters,  miscellaneous  poems, 
including  ballads  and  songs,  and  several 
plays,  which  were  probably  the  first 
plays  produced  with  stage  scenery  on  an 
elaborate  scale. 

SUDERMANN  (zoo'der-man),  Her- 
mann, German  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  at  Matzicken,  East  Prussia,  in 
1857.  He  won  European  fame  and 
assured  literary  position  by  a drama 
Die  Ehre,  and  the  novel  Dame  Care. 
He  followed  these  up  with  the  novel 
Regina;  the  stories  Im  Zwielicht,  the 
humorous  novel  lolanthes  Hochzeit, 
and  his  greatest  drama,  Magda,  a fine 
novel  of  moral  psychology,  Es  war.  Das 
Gluck  im  Winkel  and  Johannes,  a real- 


Level  Sew^ 


Level  Sewer 


^one 


Pftssagetwy  and  dalle/y^ 
fyr  Blevtrical 

trains} 


'Utah  Level  Drain 
Iron  Pipe 

“das  Service 
■ . High  Level  Water  Main 
yWaitr  Service 
^^BasemerTt  Floor 


y^f^issageway  ancf.  , 
^ 6alle^  for^Electncal 
' 'Wires 

'^^bwap  For  Flecfrlcal'  Mains 


Cross-section  of  the  Chicago  subway. 


on  subways  being  begun  in  the  latter 
city.  The  subway  planned  in  Boston  was 
partly  a two  track  and  partly  a four 
track  structure.  The  subway  has  been 
connected  with  both  the  surface  and 
elevated  systems.  The  work  of  building 
the  subway  in  New  T'ork  did  not 
begin  until  1900.  The  general  type 
of  this  subway  is  of  the  flat  roof  shallow 
form,  bringing  the  rail  and  platform 
level  as  close  to  the  surface  of  the  street 
as  possible.  The  topography  of  the  city, 
however,  has  compelled  a departure 
from  this  type  in  several  instances  so 
that  a portion  of  the  road  is  deep  tunnel 
and  the  portion  beneath  the  East  river 
and  the  approaches  thereto  of  the  tubu- 
lar type.  The  cost  of  constructing  sub- 
ways is  very  great.  The  New  A'ork  sub- 
way being  the  largest  and  most  com- 
plete as  yet  constructed,  has  cost 
$47,000,000,  being  an  average  exclusive 
of  equipment  of  more^  than  $2,000,000 
per  mile. 

SUCCESSION  WARS,  wars  which 
have  arisen  from  claims  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  crown  on  the  occasion  of  a 
sovereign  dying  without  undisputed 
legal  heirs.  In  modern  European  his- 
tory the  most  important  of  these  strug- 
gles were  those  of  the  Spanish  succession 
(1700-13),  and  of  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion (1740-48).  See  Spain  and  Austria. 


istic  dramatic  presentation  of  the  story 
of  John  the  Baptist;  The  Joy  of  Living, 
etc. 

SUE  (su),  Marie  - Joseph  - Eugene, 
French  novelist,  born  at  Paris  in  1804. 
On  his  father’s  death  in  1829  he  in- 
herited an  immense  fortune,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literary  composition.  His 
first  work  was  a sea  novel  entitled  Ker- 
nock  le  Pirate,  which  was  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  Plick  et  Plock,  Atar-Gull, 
La  Salamandre,  and  La  Vigie  de  Koat- 
ven.  But  his  most  famous  works  are 
The  Mysteries  of  Paris  and  The  Wan- 
dering Jew.  His  later  novels  are  L’En- 
fant  Trouv6,  Les  Sept  Pech4s  Capitaux, 
and  Les  Myst&res  du  Peuple.  In  1850  he 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  assembly, 
and  sat  as  an  advanced  radical.  After  the 
coup  de’6tat  by  Napoleon  III.  in  1851, 
he  left  France  and  retired  to  Annecy, 
where  he  died  in  1857. 

SUEABORG.  See  Sweaborg. 

SUET,  the  fatty  tissue  situated  about 
the  loins  and  kidneys  of  certain  domestic 
animals,  especially  the  ox  and  sheep 
and  which  is  harder  and  less  fusible  than 
the  fat  from  other  parts  of  the  same 
aniihals.  Beef-suet  is  much  used  for 
culinary  purposes,  and  purified  mutton- 
suet  forms  an  ingredient  in  ointments, 
cerates,  and  plasters. 

SU'EZ,  a town  of  Egypt,  situated  at 


the  Red  sea,  terminus  of  the  Suez  canal, 
76  miles  e.  of  Cairo,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  rail.  Pop.  10,919. 

SUEZ  CANAL,  the  great  ship-canal 
without  locks  connecting  the  Mediter- 
ranean with  the  Red  sea;  running  from 
Port  Said  on  the  former  to  Suez  on  the 
latter,  a distance  of  nearly  100  miles. 
According  to  Herodotus  a large  canal 
from  the  Red  sea  to  the  Nile  was  con- 
structed about  6000  b.c.  This  canal, 
which  seems  never  to  have  been  of  much 
use,  was  finally  blocked  up  about  767 
A.D.  Napoleon  I.  had  conceived  the  idea 
of  making  a ship-canal  across  the  isthmus 
of  Suez.  In  1854  the  French  engineer  M. 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  obtained  a con- 
cession for  that  purpose,  and  in  1858 
was  able  to  form  a company  for  carrying 
on  the  work.  Operations  were  begun  on 
the  25th  April,  1859,  and  on  the  17th 
November,  1869,  the  canal  was  opened; 
the  total  cost  of  construction  was  nearly 
$80,000,000.  There  were  75  miles  of 


miles  being  through  shallow  lakes  which 
had  to  be  deepened.  A canal  was  also 
constructed  for  bringing  fresh  water 
from  the  Nile  at  a point  near  Cairo.  This 
canal  reaches  the  salt-water  canal  at 
Ismailia,  and  then  runs  almost  parallel 
to  the  ship-canal  to  Suez.  It  is  almost 
40  feet  wide  and  9 deep,  and  is  used  for 
navigation  as  well  as  for  domestic  pur- 
poses and  irrigation.  The  land  on  both 
sides  of  the  ship-canal  is  to  be  retained 
by  the  company  for  ninety-nine  years. 
In  November  1875  the  British  govern- 
ment bought  from  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt 
his  interest  in  the  canal,  consisting  of 
176,602  shares,  for  the  sum  of  $20,000,- 
000.  The  distance  between  London  and 
Bombay  by  the  old  route  round  the  Cape 
is  about  1 1 ,220  miles ; by  the  canal  route, 
6332.  Steam-ships  are  allowed  to  sail 
at  a speed  of  five  to  six  knots  an  hour 
along  the  canal. 

SUFFOLK  (suf'ok;  literally  south- 
folk),  a maritime  county  of  England, 
bounded  by  the  German  ocean,  Essex, 
Norfolk,  and  Cambridgeshire.  It  has  a 
coast-line  of  about  50  miles,  and  an 
area  of  1500  sq.  miles,  or  944,060  acres. 
Pop.  384,198. 


SUFFRAGAN 


SUGAR-CANE 


SUFFRAGAN.  See  Bishop. 

SUFFRAGE,  the  right  to  vote  for  any 
purpose,  but  more  especially  the  right 
of  a person  to  vote  in  the  election  of  his 
political  representative.  Many  writers 
advocate  the  universal  extension  of 
this  right,  but  in  most  countries  it  is 
limited  by  a household  or  other  quali- 
fication. It  is  generally  held  by  leading 
politicians  that  the  extension  of  the 
suffrage  should  proceed  gradually  with 
the  advance  of  education. 

SUGAR,  a name  applied  to  various 
compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  all  of  which  have  a more  or  less 
sweet  taste,  a neutral  reaction  to  vege- 
table colors,  and  are  soluble  in  water. 
The  sugars  are  generally  of  vegetable 
origin;  they  are  mostly  crystallizable, 
and  when  in  solution  they  rotate  the 
plane  of  a ray  of  polarized  light.  Among 
all  these  compounds  the  sugar  of  the 
sugar-cane  and  beet  is  distinguished  par 
excellence  by  the  name  sugar.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  sugar  was  first  cultivated  in 
India,  but  a knowledge  of  the  sugar-cane 
and  its  method  of  cultivation  was 
brought  from  Persia  by  the  Arabs,  and 
given  by  them  to  Europe.  The  Span- 
iards were  the  first  to  plant  it  in  Maderia 
(1490),  from  whence  it  spread  to  their 
possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America ; while  during  the  mid- 
dle ages  Venice  was  the  emporium  of 
the  trade  in  sugar.  There  is  a record  that 
so  early  as  1319  it  was  shipped  from  the 
latter  port  to  London.  It  was,  however, 
chiefly  used  as  medicine  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century,  when  it 
became  a food  staple  in  connection  with 
tea  and  coffee.  Sugar  is  principally  pre- 

Eared  from  the  sugar-cane  and  from 
eet.  (See  Sugar-cane  and  Beet.)  The 
first  operation  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  sugar-cane  consists  in  press- 
ing the  juice  from  the  canes.  For  this 
purpose  the  canes  are  passed  under  large 
rollers,  which  extract  about  70  to  90 
per  cent  of  the  juice.  The  cane-juice  is 
now  boiled  in  copper  vessels;  milk  of 
lime,  sulphurous  acid,  or  phosphoric 
acid  is  added  to  neutralize  the  vegetable 
acids  (malic,  etc.),  and  at  length  the 
sugar  crystallizes.  The  liquid  portion 
remaining  is  drained  off  and  sold  as 
molasses.  In  obtaining  the  juice  from 
beet-root  two  methods  have  been 
adopted.  In  one  of  these  the  roots  are 
placed  in  a cylinder,  where  they  are 
mashed  to  a pulp  by  rows  of  saw- 
toothed blades  driven  with  great  rapid- 
ity, after  which  the  juice  is  pressed  out 
by  means  of  a hydraulic  .press;  in  the 
other  process  the  roots  are  placed  in  a 
series  of  cylinders  through  which  water 
is  forced  until  the  saccharine  matter  in 
the  roots  has  all  been  obtained.  By  this 
process  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  the 
juice  is  extracted.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished the  expressed  juice  is  heated  to 
about  70°  C.,  milk  of  lime  is  added,  and 
the  temperature  increased;  the  lime 
separates  the  impurities  in  the  form  of 
phosphates  and  albuminates  of  calcium, 
etc.,  which  cover  the  surface  with  a white 
crust.  When  the  boiling  juice  breaks 
through  the  crust  the  liquid  is  run  off 
and  cleared  of  the  lime  by  carbonic  acid. 
The  syrup  is  then  twice  filtered,  and 
allowed  to  crystallize.  The  sugar-cane 
contains  about  18  per  cent,  and  the  beet 


11.2  per  cent  of  sugar.  The  first  process 
of  refinement  is  to  dissolve  the  raw  sugar 
in  water  to  which  a little  lime  is  added ; 
this  solution  is  heated  by  steam  and 
passed  through  filters,  generally  con- 
sisting of  deep  vats,  the  bottoms  of 
which  are  perforated  and  covered  with 
a thick  layer  of  animal  charcoal.  The 
syrup  is  then  collected  underneath  and 
boiled  down  to  induce  crystallization. 
The  latter  operation  is  conducted  in 
vacuum-pans  connected  with  an  air- 
pipe,  a condenser,  and  a pipe  to  admit 
steam.  The  juice  being  in  the  pan,  a 
partial  vacuum  is  produced  by  means  of 
the  air-pump,  and  steam  circulates 
through  a coiled  pipe  in  the  pan  until 
the  liquid  boils,  while  the  vapor  thereby 
produced  is  removed  and  condensed. 
The  sugar-syrup  is  then  run  out  and 
allowed  to  crystalize  in  conical-shaped 
vessels  of  clay  or  sheet-iron;  papier- 
m^lch4  is  also  used.  In  these  vessels  the 
crystaline  mass  assumes  its  marketable 
form,  from  which  it  derives  the  name 
of  loaf-sugar.  After  draining  the  sugar 
in  the  moulds  the  juice  is  completely 
removed  by  a centrifugal  machine;  the 
sugar-loaf  is  then  dried.  From  the 
syrup  which  drains  off  an  inferior  sugar 
is  obtained,  and  the  remaining  un- 
crystalized  syrup  is  sold  as  molasses. 
Sugar-candy  is  prepared  by  boiling 
sugar-syrup  with  a little  animal  char- 
coal, clearing  with  white  of  egg,  boiling 
down  over  an  open  fire,  and  crystalizing. 
Sugar-candy  is  known  in  commerce  as 
refined-white,  which  forms  large  color- 
less crystals,  and  is  prepared  from  re- 
fined cane-sugar;  yellow-candy,  forming 
straw-colored  crystals,  prepared  from 
boiled  sugar;  and  brown-candy,  similar 
in  color  to  ordinary  moist  sugar,  and 
prepared  from  inferior  cane-sugar.  Sugar 
candy  is  largely  used  for  making  liquors, 
sweetening  champagne,  etc.  Sugar  is 
also  produced  extensively  in  North 
America  from  the  rock  or  sugar  maple, 
in  Asia  from  various  species  of  palms, 
and  in  various  countries  from  species 
of  Guinea-corn  or  sorghum.  The  com- 
mon sugars  have  the  general  name  of 
cane-sugar.  Another  form  of  sugar, 
called  grape-sugar  is  the  type  of  sugars 
called  glucoses,  and  is  manufactured 
chiefly  for  the  use  of  brewers  and  wine- 
makers; it  is  also  known  as  honey-sugar, 
fruit-sugar,  starch-sugar,  etc.  It  occurs 
in  many  natural  fruits,  such  as  the 
peach,  plum,  current,  apple,  and  grape, 
in  quantities  varying  from  1.5  per  cent, 
in  the  peach  to  15  per  cent  in  the  grap)e. 
It  also  forms  the  solid  crystaline  portion 
of  honey.  Grape-sugar  may  be  obtained 
from  grape-juice  by  heating  it  with 
marble,  filtering,  clearing  with  ox-blood, 
evaporating,  and  crystalizing.  It  is, 
however,  generally  prepared  by  boiling 
starch  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid;  the 
clear  liquid  is  then  run  off  from  the 
precipitate,  evaporated  by  steam,  fil- 
tered through  animal  charcoal,  and  run 
into  the  crystalizing  vessels.  Dextrose 
or  grape-sugar  as  well  as  cane-sugar 
belongs  to  the  class  of  fermentable 
sugars.  A certain  number  of  other 
sugars,  as  mannite  or  manna-sugar, 
quercite  or  oak-sugar,  etc.,  are  non- 
fermentable.  Cane-sugar  crystalizes  in 
large  monoclinic  prisms,  which  when 
broken  exhibit  phosphorescence.  At 


160°  it  melts  to  a clear  liquid,  which 
when  cool  and  solidified  is  commonly 
known  as  barley-sugar.  The  quantity 
of  cane-sugar  in  a solution  which  con- 
tains no  other  substance  may  be  esti- 
mated by  simply  estimating  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  solution,  but  when  other 
bodies  are  present  it  must  be  ascertained 
by  other  chemical  processes  or  by  means 
of  the  saccharometer,  which  is  an  instru- 
ment for  determining  the  rotatory 
power  exercised  by  a solution  of  sugar 
upon  a ray  of  polarized  light.  Large 
quantities  of  sugar  from  the  cane  are 

E reduced  in  India,  China,  the  United 
tates,  Java,  Cuba,  Demerara,  Jamaica, 
and  other  parts  of  the  West  Indies, 
0tc 

SUGAR  BEET,  a vegetable  botani- 
cally  of  the  same  species  as  the  garden 
beet,  and  important  commercially  as  the 
source  of  a very  large  part  of  the  world’s 
supply  of  sugar.  The  sugar  beet  thrives 
upon  a rich,  loamy  soil  in  a climate  hav- 
ing a temperature  of  about  70°.  The 
sugar  content  and  yield  are  influenced 
by  many  factors,  and  field  experts  are 
employed  to  instruct  the  farmers  how 
to  grow  beets  in  the  proper  way.  The 
average  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  sugar 
beets  is  about  $30.  The  average  yield  is 
about  12  tons,  with  an  average  sugar 
content  of  14.5  per  cent.,  which  repre- 
sents a yield  of  about  3900  pounds  of 
sugar  per  acre. 

SUGAR,  BEET,  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  from  beet  roots  is  a modern  in- 
dustry. Margraff  in  1747  announced  to 
the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences  the 
analyses  of  several  sugar-containing 
plants  and  predicted  that  the  sugar  beet, 
being  the  most  saccharine  of  the  plants 
examined,  would  become  the  basis  of  a 
great  industry.  The  United  States  de- 
partment of  agriculture  and  various 
experiment  stations  have  assisted 
greatly  in  the  development  of  the  beet- 
sugar  industry,  the  capital  invested  in 
1907  being  more  than  $30,000,000. 

SUGAR-CANE,  a plant  from  which 
great  part  of  the  sugar  of  commerce  is 
obtained.  It  is  nowhere  found  in  a wild 
state,  but  is  probably  a native  of  tropi- 
cal Asia.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  7 or 
8 feet  or  more,  and  has  broad  ribbed 


leaves,  and  smooth  shining  stems.  It  is 
now  cultivated  in  all  the  warm  parts  of  1; 
the  globe,  such  as  the  West  Indies, 
Brazil,  Java,  etc.,  but  varies  in  rapidity  h 
of  growth  according  to  the  situation,  jj 
the  season,  or  the  weather.  The  sugar-  j 


SUGAR,  maple' 

cane  flowers  only  after  the  lapse  of  an 
entire  year,  and  a plantation  lasts  from 
six  to  ten  years.  The  juice  of  the  cane  is 
so  palatable  and  nutritive  that  during 
the  sugar  harvest  every  creature  which 
partakes  freely  of  it  appears  to  derive 
health  and  vigor  from  its  use.  For  the 
process  of  making  sugar,  as  well  as  for 
other  infonnation  regarding  this  prod- 
uct, see  the  preceding  article. 

SUGAR,  MAPLE,  the  manufacture  of 
maple  sugar  is  carried  on  more  or  less 
wherever  snaar-maple  trees  are  abund- 
ant, especially  in  the  Northern  Atlantic 
and  Northern  Central  states,  the  leading 
producers  being  Vermont  and  New 
York.  The  busy  period  depends  upon 
the  locality  and  upon  the  season,  some- 
times commencing  in  February  and 
sometimes  lasting  until  the  middle  of 
May,  the  best  flow  of  sap  being  when 
there  is  a diurnal  alternation  of  thawing 
and  slight  freezing. 

SUGAR-MITE,  a species  of  mite  fre- 
quently to  be  observed  in  raw  sugar, 
very  similar  in  appearance  to  the  itch- 
mite. 

SUGAR-OF-LEAD,  the  common  name 
for  acetate  of  lead . See  Lead. 

SU'IDjE,  the  family  of  mammals  of 
which  the  hog  is  the  type.  This  family 
is  characterized  by  having  on  each  foot 
two  large  principal  toes,  shod  with  stout 
hoofs,  and  two  short  lateral  toes  which 


Characters  of  suldse. 

a,  Skull  of  wild  boar,  b,  Teeth  of  upper  jaw. 
c,  Teeth  of  lower  jaw.  d,  Foot,  e,  Bones  of  foot. 

hardly  touch  the  earth.  The  canine 
teeth  project  from  the  mouth  and  curve 
upward.  The  muzzle  is  terminated  by  a 
truncated  snout,  fitted  for  turning  up 
the  ground.  The  family  includes  the 
wild  boar,  the  wart-hog,  and  thepeccary. 

SULLA,  Lucius  Cornelius,  Roman 
dictator,  was  bom  in  138  b.c.  He  served, 
with  distinction  under  Marius  in  the 
Jugurthine  (107  b.  c.)  and  Cimbrian 
(104-102)  wars,  and  in  93  was  chosen 
praetor.  For  his  services  in  the  Social 
war  (90-88)  he  was  appointed  consul 
(b.c.  88),  and  the  province  of  Asia,  with 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Mith- 
ridates,  fell  to  his  lot.  Sulla  at  the  head 
of  his  army  drove  Marius  to  Africa,  and 
then  sailed  for  Greece  at  the  beginning 
of  87  B.c.  He  expelled  the  amiies  of 
Mithridates  from  Europe  (86),  crossed 
into  Asia  (84),  and  was  everywhere 
victorious,  gaining  plenty  of  wealth  for 
himself  and  his  soldiers,  and  forcing 
Mithridates  to  conclude  a peace.  Sulla 
now  hastened  to  Italy,  and  landed  at 
Brundusium  with  40,000  men,  b.c.  83. 
He  gained  four  battles  over  the  Roman 

P.  E — 76 


forces  in  person,  an,d  defeated  a Sam- 
nite  army  under  Telesinus.  He  entered 
the  city  victorious  in  82,  and  imme- 
diately put  to  death  between  6000  and 
7000  prisoners  of  war  in  the  circus. 
Rome  and  all  the  provinces  of  Italy 
were  filled  with  the  most  revolting 
scenes  of  cruelty.  After  satisfying  his 
vengeance  by  the  murder  or  proscrip- 
tion of  thousands  he  caused  himself  to 
be  named  dictator  for  an  indefinite 
period  (b.c.  81).  He  now  ruled  without 
restraint,  repealed  and  made  laws, 
abolished  the  tribuneship,  and  settled 
his  veterans  in  various  parts  of  Italy. 
In  79  B.c.  he  laid  down  his  dictatorship, 
and  retiring  to  Puteoli  abandoned  him- 
self to  all  sorts  of  debauchery.  He  died 
in  78  B.c.  See  Rome. 

SULLIVAN,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour,  born 
in  London  1842.  He  has  written  orator- 
ios (Prodigal  Son,  Light  of  the  World), 
anthems,  songs,  etc.;  but  his  most 
popular  compositions  are  the  burlesque 
operettas  which  he  has  produced  in  con- 
junction with  W.  S.  Gilbert.  Among  the 
most  popular  of  these  are  H.  M.  S.  Pina- 
fore, Pirates  of  Penzance,  Patience, 
Mikado,  and  the  Gondoliers.  In  1886 
he  set  to  music  an  arrangement  of  Long- 
fellow’s Golden  Legend,  which  is  one 
of  his  finest  compositions.  He  was 
knighted  in  1833.  He  died  on  Nov.  22, 
1900. 

SULLY,  Maximilien  de  B^thune,  Due 
de.  Marshal  of  France  and  first  minister 
of  Henry  IV.,  was  born  in  1560.  In 
1597  he  was  appointed  controller  of 
finance,  and  by  his  excellent  adminis- 
tration largely  reduced  taxation,  and 
eventually  paid  off  a state  debt  of 
300,000,000  livres.  In  1606  the  territory 
of  Sully-sur-Loire  was  elected  into  a 
duchy  in  his  favor.  After  the  murder 
of  Henry  IV.  (1611)  he  retired  from 
court  and  resigned  most  of  his  charges. 
He  was  created  a marshal  by  Richelieu 
in  1634,  and  died  in  1641. 

SULPHATES,  salts  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  dibasic,  forming  two 
classes  of  sulphates,  viz.  neutral  sul- 
phates, in  which  the  two  hydrogen 
atoms  of  the  acid  are  replaced  by  metal, 
and  acid  sulphates,  in  which  one  hydro- 
gen atom  only  is  so  replaced.  Of  the 
sulphates,  some  are  found  native;  some 
are  very  soluble,  some  sparingly  soluble, 
and  some  insoluble.  The  most  important 
sulphates  are — sulphate  of  aluminium 
and  potassium,  or  alum;  sulphate  of 
ammonium,  employed  for  making  car- 
bonate of  ammonia;  sulphate  of  copper, 
or  blueVitriol,much  used  as  an  escharotic 
in  surgery,  and  also  used  in  dyeing  and 
for  preparing  ^certain  green  pigments; 
sulphate  of  iron,  or  green  vitrol,  used  in 
making  ink,  and  very  extensively  in 
dyeing  and  calico-printing;  it  is  also 
much  used  in  medicine ; sulphate  of  cal- 
cium, or  gypsum;  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesium, or  Epsom  salts;  sulphate  of 
manganese,  used  in  calico-printing; 
sulphate  of  mercury,  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  corrosive  sublimate  and  of 
calomel;  bisulphate  of  potash,  much 
used  as  a flux  in  mineral  analysis;  sul- 
phate of  sodium,  or  Glauber’s  salts; 
sulphate  of  quinine,  much  used  in  medi- 
cine; sulphate  of  zinc,  or  white  vitriol, 
used  in  surgery,  also  in  the  preparation 
of  drying  oils  for  varnishes,  and  in  the 


SULPHUR 

reserve  or  resist  pastes  of  the  calico- 
printer.  Many  double  sulphates  are 
known. 

SULPHUR,  an  elementary,  non- 
metallic,  combustible  substance  which 
has  been  known  from  the  earliest  ages; 
chemical  symbol,  S.  It  frequently 
occurrs  in  a pure  state  in  beds  of  gypsum 
or  clay,  but  is  generally  associated  with 
sulphate  of  strontium.  It  also  occurs 
in  chemical  combination  with  oxygen 
and  various  metals,  forming  sulphates 
and  sulphides.  It  is  found  in  greatest 
abundance  and  purity  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  volcanoes,  modern  or  extinct, 
as  in  Sicily;  and  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce is  chiefly  imported  from  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  also  found  in  Ice- 
land, California,  and  Mexico.  That 
which  is  manuafetured  in  Britain  is 
obtained  by  the  roasting  of  iron  pyrites; 
the  condensed  mass  of  sulphur  thus 
obtained  is  broken  into  lumps  and  dis- 
stilled.  Native  sulphur  is  usually  sepa- 
rated from  the  earthy  matter  by  a process 
of  distillation,  the  sulphur  vapors  being 
liquefied  by  a condenser.  The  product 
obtained  from  native  sulphur,  or  from 
iron  pyrites,  is  afterward  refined  by  a 
further  process  of  distillation.  Pure 
sulphur  is  commonly  met  with  in  two 
forms,  that  of  a compact,  brittle  solid, 
and  a fine  powder.  It  is  nearly  tasteless, 
of  a greenish-yellow  color,  and  when 
rubbed  or  melted  emits  a peculiar  odor. 
Its  atomic  weight  is  32,  and  its  specific 
gravity  1.99.  It  is  insoluble  in  water, 
and  not  very  readily  soluble  in  alcohol, 
but  is  taken  up  by  spirits  of  turpentine, 
by  many  oils,  and  by  carbon  disulphide. 
It  is  a non-conductor  of  electricity.  It  is 
readily  melted  and  volatilized.  It  fuses 
at  232°  Fahr.,  and  between  232°  and 
280°  it  possesses  the  greatest  degree  of 
fluidity,  and,  when  cast  into  cylindrical 
moulds,  forms  the  common  roll-sulphur 
of  commerce.  It  possesses  the  peculiar 
property  of  solidifying  at  a higher  de- 
gree, or  when  raised  to  320°.  From  480° 
to  its  boiling  point  (790°)  it  again  be- 
comes fluid,  and  at  792°  it  rises  in  vapor, 
which  condenses  in  close  vessels  in  the 
form  of  a fine  yellow  powder,  called 
flowers  of  sulphur.  Sulphur  exists  in 
two  distinct  crystalline  fonns,  and  also 
as  an  amorphous  variety ; these  modifica- 
tions are  characterized  by  differences 
in  specific  gravity,  in  solubility  in  vari- 
ous liquids,  and  in  many  other  points. 
Sulphur  combines  with  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, chlorine,  etc.,  forming  various  im- 
portant compounds;  it  also  unites  with 
the  metals,  forming  sulphides.  It  is  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, matches,  vulcanite,  and  sul- 
phurous and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  also 
employed  in  medicine,  and  for  various 
other  purposes.  Sulphur  chloride  is  pro- 
duced by  passing  chlorine  gas  into  a 
retort  containing  melted  sulphur.  It 
is  used  for  vulcanizing  caoutchouc.  Sul- 
phur forms  two  combinations  with 
oxygen,  the  dioxide  and  the  trioxide. 
The  former  is  the  sole  product  of  the 
combustion  of  sulphur;  it  is  a colorless 
gas,  which  may  be  liquefied  and  solidi- 
fied by  cold  and  pressure.  This  gas  is 
used  in  the-  arts  for  bleaching  silk,  wool, 
straw,  parchment,  and  generally  such 
substances  as  are  destroyed  by  the  action 
of  chlorine.  Sulphur  trioxide  is  a white 


SULPHURIC  ACID 


SUMBAL 


crystalline  solid,  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  dioxide.  Sodium  thiosulphate 
is  produced  by  boiling  sulphur  with  soda 
lye,  and  passing  sulphur  dioxide  into 
the  solution  until  it  is  completely  de- 
colorized. It  is  largely  used  in  the  arts 
as  an  antichlor,  and  for  fixing  photo- 
graphs. Carbon  disulphide  is  a volatile 
liquid,  with  a poisonous  vapor,  pro- 
duced by  the  action  of  sulphur  upon 
carbon  at  high  temperatures.  It  is  used 
for  dissolving  caoutchouc  and  gutta- 
percha, for  extracting  essential  oils, 
spices,  etc.,  from  plants  and  seeds,  and 
bitumen  from  minerals,  etc. 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  or  OIL  OF  VIT- 
RIOL, a most  important  acid  discovered 
by  Basil  Valentine  toward  the  close  of 
the  15th  century.  It  was  formerly  pro- 
cured by  the  distillation  of  dried  sul- 
phate of  iron,  called  green  vitriol, 
whence  the  corrosive  liquid  which  came 
over  in  the  distillation,  having  an  oily 
consistence,  was  called  oil  of  vitriol. 
The  principal  upon  which  it  is  now  m anu- 
factured  was  laid  down  by  Roebuck  in 
1746,  and  consists  in  burning  sulphur, 
or  more  frequently  iron  pyrites,  in 
closed  furnaces,  and  leading  the  fumes, 
mixed  with  oxides  of  nitrogen,  into 
large  leaden  chambers,  into  which  jets 
of  steam  are  continuously  sent . The  oxides 
of  nitrogen  are  produced  by  the  action 
of  sulphuric  acid  upon  nitre  contained 
in  pots,  which  are  placed  between  the 
sulphur  ovens  and  the  chambers.  The 
sulphur  dioxide  takes  away  part  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  oxides  of  nitrogen, 
which  are  again  oxidized  by  the  air  in 
the  chambers.  The  sulphur  trioxide 
produced  unites  with  the  steam  to  form 
sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  produced  in 
the  chamber  is  condensed  in  leaden 
vessels  until  it  reaches  a certain  gravity 
(about  1.72),  when  it  is  run  into  glass, 
or  sometimes  platinum  vessels,  where 
the  condensation  is  continued  until  the 
specific  gravity  has  increased  to  1.84. 
The  acid  of  gravity  1.72  constitutes  the 
brown  acid  of  commerce;  it  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  superphos- 
phate of  lime  and  for  other  purposes. 
Pure  sulphuric  acid  is  a dense,  oily, 
colorless  fluid,  exceedingly  acid  and 
corrosive,  decomposing  all  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  by  the  aid  of  heat. 
It  unites  with  alkaline  substances,  and 
separates  most  of  the  other  acids  from 
their  combinations  with  the  alkalies. 
It  has  a very  great  affinity  for  water, 
and  unites  with  it  in  every  proportion, 
producing  great  heat;  it  attracts  mois- 
ture strongly  from  the  atmosphere,  be- 
coming rapidly  weaker  if  exposed.  The 
sulphuric  acid  of  commerce  is  never 
pure,  but  it  may  be  purified  by  dis- 
tillation. With  bases  sulphuric  acid 
forms  salts  callqd  sulphates,  some  of 
which  are  neutral  and  others  acid.  By 
concentrating  sulphuric  acid  as  far  as  is 
possible  without  decomposition,  and 
cooling  the  liquid  so  obtained,  crystals 
of  the  true  acid  are  formod.  The  ordi- 
nary acid  is  a hydrate  of  varying  com- 
position. A very  strong  form  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  known  as  Nordhausen  acid, 
is  prepared  by  heating  green  vitriol  in 
closed  vessels;  it  is  a solution  of  sulphur 
trioxide  in  sulphuric  acid,  or  it  may  be 
regarded  as  pyro-sulph uric  acid . It  has 
a specific  gravity  varying  from  1.86  to' 


1.92,  and  is  chiefly  used  in  the  arts  for 
dissolving  indigo.  Of  all  the  acids  the 
sulphuric  is  the  most  extensively  used 
in  the  arts,  and  is  in  fact  the  primary 
agent  for  obtaining  almost  all  the  others 
by  disengaging  them  from  their  saline 
combinations.  Its  uses  to  the  scientific 
chemist  are  innumerable.  In  medicine 
it  is  used  in  a diluted  state  as  a refriger- 
ant. 

SULPHURIC  ETHER  (ethylic,  vinic, 
or  ordinary  ether)  is  a colorless  trans- 
parent liquid,  of  a pleasant  smell  and  a 
pungent  taste,  extremely  exhilarating, 
and  producing  a degree  of  intoxication 
when  its  vapor  is  inhaled  by  the  nostrils. 
It  is  produced  by  distilling  a mixture  of 
equal  weights  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
alcohol,  and  by  various  other  means. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  0.720.  It  is  ex- 
tremely volatile  and  highly  inflamma- 
ble; and  its  vapor,  mixed  with  oxygen  or 
atmospheric  air,  forms  a very  danger- 
ous explosive  mixture.  It  disssolves  in 
10  parts  of  water,  and  is  miscible  with 
alcohol  and  the  fatty  and  volatile  oils 
in  all  proportions.  It  is  employed  in 
medicine  as  a stimulant,  and  antispas- 
modic.  Ether,  by  its  spontaneous  evapo- 
ration, produces  a great  degree  of  cold, 
and  is  used  in  the  form  of  spray  in 
minor  surgical  operations  for  freezing 
the  part,  and  thus  rendering  it  insensible 
to  pain.  True  sulphuric  ether,  known 
also  as  sulphate  of  ethyl  is  an  oily  liquid 
of  burning  taste  and  ethereal  odor,  re- 
sembling that  of  peppermint.  It  is 
almost  incapable  of  being  distilled  with- 
out decomposition,  as  at  a temperature  of 
about  280°  it  resolves  itself  into  alcohol, 
sulphurous  acid,  and  olefiant  gas. 

SULPHUROUS  ACID.  See  Sulphur- 
ous Oxide. 

SULPHUROUS  OXIDE,  a gas  formed 
by  the  combustion  of  sulphur  in  air  or 
d ry  oxygen.  It  is  transparent  and  color- 
less, of  a disagreeable  taste,  a pungent 
and  suffocating  odor,  is  fatal  to  life, 
and  very  injurious  to  vegetation.  At 
45°,  under  the  pressure  of  two  atmos- 
pheres, it  becomes  liquid,  and  also  at 
0°  under  the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere. 
It  extinguishes  flame,  but  is  not  itself 
inflammable.  It  has  considerable  bleach- 
ing properties,  so  that  the  fumes  of  burn- 
ing sulphur  are  often  used  to  whiten 
straw,  and  silk  and  cotton  goods.  The 
gas  is  also  called  sulphur  dioxide;  when 
led  into  water  it  forms  sulphurous  acid . 
This  acid  readily  takes  up  oxygen,  pass- 
ing into  sulphuric  acid  ; it  is  dibasic, 
forming  salts  called  sulphites. 

SULTAN,  in  Arabic,  signifies  "mighty 
one,  lord.”  It  is  the  ordinary  title  of 
Mohammedan  rulers.  The  ruler  of  Tur- 
key assumes  the  title  of  Sultan-es- 
selatin,  “Sultan  of  sultans.”  The  title 
sultan  is  also  applied  to  the  sultan’s 
daughters,  and  his  mother,  if  living,  is 
stylad  Sultan  Valid e. 

SULTANPUR',  a district  of  India,  in 
Oudh  ; area,  1707  sq.  miles.  Chief  river, 
the  Gumti.  Pop.  957,912. — The  town 
Sultanpur,  administrative  head -quar- 
ters of  the  district,  contains  the  usual 
public  buildings,  and  has  a population 
of  9374. 

SULU',  or  SOOLOO  ISLANDS,  a group 
in  the  Indian  archipelago,  consisting  of 
more  than  150  islands,  which  stretch 
' from  the  n.e.  point  of  Borneo  to  the 


Philippine  Islands;  total  estimated  area, 
1600  sq.  miles.  Sulu,  the  chief  island , is 
lofty,  and  lies  near  the  center  of  the 
group.  The  islands  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  produce  all  kinds  of  tropical 
plants  and  trees.  They  are  well  watered, 
and  enjoy  an  immunity  from  the  hur- 
ricanes which  ravage  the  neighboring 
islands.  The  inliabitants  are  of  Malay 
descent,  and  nearly  all  profess  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion.  There  is  a con- 
siderable trade  between  Sulu  and  Singa- 
pore in  beche-de-mer,  pearl  shells,  birds’- 
nests,  etc.  The  Sulu  islands,  with  the 
Philippines,  now  belong  to  the  United 
States  of  America.  Pop.  estimated  at 
200,000. 

SUMACH  (su'mak),  a genus  of  shrubs 
with  pinnate  leaves  and  small  flowers. 
They  all  have  a lactescent  acrid  juice, 
and  most  of  them  possess  valuable 
tanning  properties.  More  than  seventy 
species  are  known. 

SUMATRA,  a great  island  in  the 
Indian  seas  immediately  under  the 
equator,  separated  from  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca  by  the  Straits  of  Malacca 
and  from  Java  by  the  Straits  of  Sunda. 
Greatest  length,  about  1000  miles; 
breadth,  about  240  miles;  area,  about 
150,000  sq.  miles.  Banca  and  other 
islands  adjoin  the  coast.  There  are 
several  volcanoes  in  the  island.  Copper, 
tin,  and  iron  are  found  in  abundance, 
and  deposits  of  coal  exist.  Mangroves 
grow  near  the  coast,  and  at  higher  eleva- 
tions myrtles,  palms,  figs,  and  oaks  of 
various  species  are  met  with.  The 
camphor-tree  prevails  in  the  north,  and 
among  vegetable  curiosities  are  the 
upas-tree  and  the  gigantic  Rafflesia. 
Pepper,  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
cotton,  coffee,  are  cultivated  for  export, 
and  camphor,  benzoin,  catechu,  gutta- 
percha and  caoutchouc,  teak,  ebony, 
and  sandr.l-wood  are  also  exported . The 
island  is  all  nominally  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  Dutch,  who  have  divided  it 
into  eight  administrative  divisions. 
Sumatra  has  a very  mixed  population, 
consisting  of  Malays,  Chinese,  .Arabs, 
and  many  native  tribes.  The  tidal  wave 
accompanying  the  volcanic  eruption  of 
Krakatoa  in  1883  caused  great  destruc- 
tion on  the  south  coast  of  Sumatra.  The 
chief  towns  are  Palembang  and  Padang. 
The  total  population  is  estimated  at 
between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000. 


Sumbul. 


SUMBAL,  or  SUMBUL,  an  Eastern 
name  for  the  root  of  an  umbeliferous 
plant.  It  contains  a strongly  odorous 


SUMBAWA 


SUN  AND  PLANET  WHEELS 


principle,  like  that  of  musk,  and  is  re- 
garded as  an  antispasm odic  and  stimu- 
lating tonic. 

SUMBA'WA,  an  island  of  the  Indian 
archipelago,  lying  south  by  west  of 
Celebes,  between  Lombok  and  Flores, 
about  160  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
with  a breadth  varying  from  13  to  31 
miles.  The  inhabitants  are  of  Malay 
race  and  Mohammedans.  Pop.  about 
150,000. 

SUMMER,  the  season  of  the  year 
which  in  the  northern  hemisphere  gen- 
erally may  be  said  to  comprise  the 
months  of  June,  July,  and  August.  The 
astronomical  summer  lasts  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  from  the  June  solstice 
to  the  September  equinox,  during  which 
time  the  sun  being  north  of  the  equator, 
shines  more  directly  upon  this  part  of 
the  earth  and  rises  much  sooner  and 
sets  later,  which  renders  this  the  hottest 
period  of  the  year.  The  period  of  great- 
est heat  generally  takes  place  in  August, 
since  the  influence  of  the  sun’s  rays  has 
then  been  felt  for  a long  time  on  the 
earth,  and  the  wind  blowing  from  the 
north  becomes  milder  owing  to  a modera- 
tion of  the  temperature  in  the  polar 
circle  caused  by  the  thawing  of  the  ice. 
In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  summer 
lasts  from  the  December  solstice  to  the 
March  equinox.  See  Seasons. 

SUMMONS,  in  law,  a writ  addressed 
to  the  defendant  in  a personal  action, 
admonishing  him  to  appear  in  court.  It 
must  contain  the  names  of  all  the  de- 
fendants, the  name  and  address  of  the 
person  taking  it  out,  and  the  date  of 
issue;  but  it  need  not  state  the  form  or 
cause  of  action. 

SUMNER,  Charles,  an  American  jurist 
and  statesman,  born  at  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1811.  In  1836  he  published 
three  volumes  of  Judge  Story’s  decisions, 
subsequently  known  as  Sumner’s  Re- 
ports, and  edited  a periodical  called  the 
American  Jurist.  In  1851  he  was  elected 
to  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  strong 
antipathy  to  slavery.  In  May,  1856, 
after  delivering  a speech  vigorously 
attacking  the  slaveholders,  he  was 
violently  assaulted  by  P.  S.  Brooks,  a 
member  representing  a slaveholding 
state  (South  Carolina).  His  injuries 
compelled  him  to  absent  himslf  from 
public  duties  for  nearly  four  years. 
He  was  a supporter  of  Lincoln  and 
Hamlin,  and  in  1861  he  became  chair- 
man of  the  senate  committee  on  foreign 
relations.  He  was  an  enemy  to  the  policy 
of  President  Johnson,  and  opposed  the 
home  and  foreign  policy  of  President 
Grant.  After  the  latter’s  re-election  in 
1872  Sumner  seldom  ai^peared  in  de- 
bate. He  died  at  Washington,  March 
11,  1874. 

SUN,  the  central  orb  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem, that  around  which  revolve  the 
earth  and  the  other  planets.  The  sun 
appears  to  be  a perfect  sphere,  with  a 
diameter  of  866,900  miles ; its  mean 
density  is  about  i,  taking  that  of  the 
earth  as  1 ; its  mean  distance  from  the 
earth  is  taken  as  93,000,000  miles.  It 
rotates  on  its  own  axis ; this  axis  of  rota- 
tion being  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  an 
angle  of  82°  40';  and  its  rotation  period 
is  variously  estimated  at  from  twenty- 
five  to  twenty-eight  days.  The  mass  of 


the  sun  is  about  750  times  that  of  all  the 
other  members  of  the  solar  system  com- 
bined, and  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
solar  system  lies  somewhere  in  the  sun, 
whatever  may  be  the  relative  positions 
of  the  planets  in  their  orbits.  The  sun 
is  now  generally  believed  to  be  of  gas- 
eous constitution,  covered  with  a sort  of 
luminous  shell  of  cloud  formed  by  the 
precipitation  of  the  vapors  which  are 
cooled  by  external  radiation.  This 


Group  of  sun-spots  of  June  6,  1864. 

dazzling  shell  is  termed  the  photosphere. 
The  spots  are  supposed  to  be  cavities  in 
this  cloud-layer,  caused  by  the  unequal 
velocities  of  neighboring  portions  of  the 
solar  atmosphere.  Zollner,  who  con- 
siders the  body  of  the  sun  to  be  liquid, 
sees  in  them  slags  or  scoriae  floating  on  a 
molten  surface,  and  surrounded  by 
clouds.  It  is  estimated  that  the  sun’s 
radiation  would  melt  a shell  of  ice  cover- 
ing its  own  surface  to  a depth  of  between 
39  and  40  feet  in  one  minute,  but  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  has  not  yet 
been  ascertained.  It  is  evident,  how- 
ever, that  the  temperature  and  radia- 
tion have  remained  constant  for  a long 
period.  The  photosphere  is  overlaid  by 
an  atmosphere  which  is  shown  by  the 
spectroscope  to  contain  nearly  all  the 
materials  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  sun.  And  in  the  lines  of  the 
spectrum  of  sunlight  is  found  proof  ef 
the  existence  in  the  solar  atmosphere  of 
the  following  substances : Iron,  titanium, 
calcium,  manganese,  nickel,  cobalt, 
chromium,  barium,  sodium,  magnesium, 
copper,  hydrogen,  zinc,  sulphur,  cerium, 
strontium,  and  potassium.  In  1706 
Captain  Stannyan  observed  a blood-red 
streak  just  before  the  limb  of  the  sun 
appeared  after  a total  eclipse,  and  such 
appearances  were  subsequently  ob- 
served, being  first  scientifically  de- 
scribed in  1842  under  the  names  of 
flames,  protuberances,  or  prominences. 
In  1868  the  spectroscope  showed  that 
these  appearances  were  due  to  enormous 
masses  of  glowing  hydrogen  gas  floating 


above  the  sun,  similarly  to  clouds  in  our 
atmosphere.  The  region  outside  the 
photosphere  in  which  these  colored 
prominences  are  observed  has  been 
called  the  chromosphere,  which  has  an 
average  depth  of  from  3000  to  8000 
miles.  The  incandescent  h drogen 
clouds  stretch  out  beyond  this  to  alti- 
tudes of  20,000  to  100,000  miles,  and 
jets  of  chromospheric  hydrogen  have 
been  observed  to  reach  a height  of  200,- 
000  miles  in  twenty  minutes,  and  dis- 
appear altogether  within  half  an  hour. 
Outside  the  chromosphere,  extending 
very  far  out  from  the  sun,  is  the  corona, 
an  aurora  of  light  observed  during  total 
eclipses,  and  which  is  now  the  chief 
object  to  be  observed  by  eclipse  expedi- 
tions. This  phenomenon  has  been 
shown  to  be  connected  with  the  exist- 
ence of  what  is  called  the  “coronal  at- 
mosphere,’’ but  the  nature  of  this 
atmosphere  is  as  yet  undetermined. 
The  amount  of  light  sent  forth  by  the 
sun  is  not  exactly  measurable,  but  the 
amount  of  heat  has  been  pretty  accu- 
rately computed,  and  it  is  equivalent  in 
mechanical  effect  to  the  action  of  7000 
horse-power  on  every  square  foot  of  the 
solar  surface,  or  to  the  combustion  on 
every  square  foot  of  upward  of  13i 
cwts.  of  coal  per  hour. 

SUN,  Worship  of  the.  Sun  worship 
probably  prevailed  in  the  earliest  times 
among  all  nations,  and  the  chief  deities 
of  the  polytheisms  of  ancient  India, 
Egypt,  Greece,  Rome,  Germany  (Indra, 
Amoun  Ra,  Zeus,  Jupiter,  Odin,  etc.), 
are,  according  to  a popular  theory,  all 
identified  as  sun  gods.  But  by  some 
people  the  sun  itself  was  worshiped  as  a 
physical  object  associated  with  fire,  as 
among  the  followers  of  Zoroaster,  the 
ancient  Celts,  etc.  Peru  seems  to  have 
had  the  most  complete  system  of  sun 
worshio. 

SUN  AND  PLANET  WHEELS,  an  in- 
genious contrivance  adopted  by  Watt, 
in  the  early  history  of  the  steam-engine, 
for  converting  the  reciprocating  motion 
of  the  beam  into  a rotatory  motion.  In 
the  annexed  figure  the  sun  wheel  a is  a 


toothed  wheel  fixed  fast  to  the  axis  of 
the  fly-wheel,  and  the  planet  wheel  b is 
a similar  wheel  bolted  to  the  lower  end 
of  the  connecting-rod  c ; it  is  retained  in 
its  orbit  by  a link  at  the  back  of  both 
wheels.  By  the  reciprocating  motion  of 
the  connecting-rod  the  wheel  b is  com- 


SUNDAY 


SUPERIOR 


pelled  to  circulate  round  the  wheel  a, 
and  in  so  doing  carries  the  latter  along 
with  it,  communicating  to  the  fly-wheel 
a velocity  double  its  own. 

SUNDAY  (that  is,  day  of  the  sun,  like 
Monday,  day  of  the  moon),  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  the  Lord’s  day.  See  Sab- 
bath. 

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS,  schools  held  on 
Sunday  for  the  purpose  of  imparting 
religious  instruction  to  the  young  by 
means  of  reading  and  repetition  in  the 
Bible,  catechism,  hymns,  etc.  In  1527 
Martin  Luther  established  several  Sun- 
day-schools in  Germany  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  children  and  youths  in  reading 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  same  century  Cardinal  Bor- 
romeo  organized  similar  schools  through- 
out Milan.  The  modern  Sunday-schools, 
however,  as  an  institution,  were  founded 
in  England  by  Robert  Raikes,  editor  of 
the  Gloucester  Journal,  in  1781,  who,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  profanation  of  the 
Sabbath  by  the  children  of  the  poorer 
classes,  engaged  several  women  to  in- 
struct such  children  as  he  should  send 
to  them  on  Sundays  in  reading  and  the 
catechism,  paying  each  of  them  a shill- 
ing for  her  day’s  work.  His  example 
was  soon  followed  by  other  charitable 
persons,  and  in  1785  a society  was 
formed  for  the  encouragement  of  Sun- 
day-schools by  pecuniary  aid,  etc. 
Gratuitous  instruction  became  general 
about  1800,  and  in  1803  the  first 
Sunday-school  union  was  formed  in 
London.  Similar  unions  were  quickly 
established  in  many  large  towns  and  in 
some  of  the  counties.  The  Scottish 
Sabbath -schools  (first  established  in 
Edinburgh  in  1787)  arose  from  the  Eng- 
lish Sunday-schools,  and  so  universal 
has  the  establishment  of  Sunday-schools 
now  become  in  the  British  Isles  that  one 
exists  in  connection  with  nearly  every 
church.  In  America  the  Jfirst  Sunday- 
schools  were  opened  at  New  York  in 
1816,  and  have  since  multiplied  rapidly 
and  overspread  the  whole  county.  By 
1815  such  schools  had  been  introduced 
into  most  European  countries,  but  do 
not  appear  to  flourish  so  well  among 
foreign  nations  as  in  English-speaking 
countries.  The  total  number  of  school 
teachers  and  scholars  in  the  world  ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Eleventh 
International  Sunday  School  conven- 
tion, held  at  Toronto,  Canada,  in  1905, 
was  exclusive  of  Roman  Catholics  and 
non-Evangelical  Protestant  churches 
262,131  schools,  2,426,888  teachers, 
22,739,323  scholars.  The  number  of 
scholars  in  Roman  Catholic  schools  in 
the  United  States  is  estimated  at 
1,000,000.  The  Twelfth  International 
Sunday  School  convention  will  be  held 
at  Louisville,  Ky.,  in  June,  1908. 

SUNDERLAND,  a seaport,  mun., 
county,  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
England,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear, 
county  of  Durham,  13  miles  n.e.  of 
Durham,  and  12  miles  s.e.  of  Newcastle. 
The  staple  trade  interests  of  the  place 
are  shipping,  the  coal  trade,  and  ship- 
building, and  there  are  also  large  fac- 
tories for  the  making  of  marine  engines, 
iron  work,  bottles,  glass,  earthenware, 
rope,  etc.  Pop.  146,565. 

SUN-DEW,  plants  growing  in  bogs 
and  marshes,  having  leaves  clothed  with 


reddish  hairs  bearing  glands  which 
exude  drops  of  clear  glutinous  fluid, 
glittering  like  dew-drops,  whence  the 
name.  A characteristic  of  these  plants 
is  their  habit  of  capturing  insects  by 
their  viscid  secretion.  Mr.  Darwin,  in  his 
Insectivorous  Plants  (1875),  says  that 
the  sun-dew  derives  its  nitrogenous  food 
by  absorption  from  the  tissues  of  in- 
sects entangled  in  the  inflected  tentacles 
of  its  viscid  leaves;  while  like  other 
plants  it  obtains  and  assimilates  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  air.  He  further 
shows  that  these  leaves  have  the  power 
of  digestion,  and  that  they  act  on  al- 
buminous compounds  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  does  the  gastric  juice  of  higher 
animals,  the  digested  matter  being  after- 
ward absorbed.  The  digestive  faculty 
has  also  been  traced  in  Venus’  fly-trap, 
butterwort,  the  pitcher-plant,  etc. 

SUN-DIAL.  See  Dial. 

SUN-FISH,  a genus  of  fishes.  These 
fishes  are  short  and  almost  circular  in 
form,  their  jaws  are  undivided,  and  they 
have  no  swimming-bladder.  The  sun- 
fish  appears  like  the  head  of  a large  fish 
separated  from  its  body,  and  when 
swimming  it  turns  upon  itself  like  a 
wheel.  It  grows  to  a large  size,  often 


attaining  a diameter  of  4 feet,  and  some- 
times even  that  of  12  feet.  The  skin  is 
hard  and  leathery,  but  the  flesh  is  soft, 
white,  and  palatable.  The  liver  is  large, 
and  yields  an  oil  highly  valued  among 
sailors  as  a cure  for  rheumatism.  The 
sun-fish  is  found  in  all  seas  from  the 
antarctic  to  the  arctic  circle. 

SUN-FLOWER,  natural  order  of 
plants,  so  called  from  the  ideal  resem- 
blance of  the  yellow  flowers  to  the  sun 
with  his  golden  rays.  The  root  is  mostly 
perennial;  the  stem  herbaceous,  up- 
right, and  often  tall;  the  leaves  op- 
posite or  alternate,  undivided,  often 
rigid  and  scabrous;  the  flowers  large 
and  terminal,  usually  disposed  in  a 
corymb.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  inhabit  North  America.  The 
gigantic  sun-flower  common  in  gardens 
is  a native  of  Peru.  The  stem  is  from  6 
to  15  feet  in  height;  the  flowers,  some- 
times 1 foot  in  diameter,  are  usually 
turned  toward  the  south.  The  seeds 
form  an  excellent  nourishment  for 
poultry  and  for  cage  birds;  and  an 
edible  oil  has  also  been  expressed  from 
them. 

SUN-SPOT,  a dark  patch  on  the  sun, 
varying  in  size  from  a minute  tele- 
scopic object  to  vast  areas  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  and  thousands  of  miles  in 
diameter.  Sun-spots  have  an  interest- 
ing history.  Galileo  was  charged  with 
blasphemy  because  he  called  attention 
to  them,  and  Stanley  Jevons,  the  British 
economist,  advanced  the  theory  that 
sun-spots  and  money-panics  had  some 
relation  to  each  other.  Certain  it  is 
that  the  well-known  “cycle”  of  sun- 


spots and  “cycle”  of  panics  have  been, 
in  the  past  at  least,  coincident.  The 
regular  period  of  sun-spots  is  about 
eleven  years,  that  is,  every  eleven  years 
the  spots  on  the  sun  are  abundant  and 
in  the  intermediate  time  they  decrease 
in  number  and  even  vanish.  The  same 
has  been  true  of  panics.  The  great  sun- 
spot of  March  5,  1873,  was  100,000 
miles  across.  In  this  terrific  cavern 
four  planets  each  as  large  as  our  earth 
could  have  been  swallowed  up.  The 
year  1906  was  a maximum  year  for  sun- 
spots, but  Jevons’s  law  seemed  to  have 
failed,  except  in  England,  where,  dur- 
ing that  year,  the  most  painful  industrial 
depression  was  experienced. 

The  causes  of  these  remarkable  ap- 
pearances on  the  sun’s  surface  are  not 
known,  although  it  is  pretty  certain 
that  they  are  really  compp,ratively 
shallow  depressions  on  the  photosphere, 
the  darkness  being  due  to  the  absorp- 
tion of  light  occasioned  by  the  lower 
temperature  within  the  depression. 
Numerous  spots  appear  to  grow  and 
disappear,  lasting  from  only  a few 
hours  to  many  months.  A great  group 
of  smaller  spots  often  coalesce  and  form 
a great  spot.  That  they  have  some  con- 
nection with  the  sun’s  rotation  on  its 
axis  is  shown  by  the  relation  of  the  spot 
zone  to  the  equator,  being  most  numer- 
ous in  latitudes  from  15  degrees  to  20  de- 
grees. It  has  been  held  that  the  aurora 
borealis,  or  northern  lights,  are  caused 
by  sun  spots,  and  on  several  occasions 
unusual  disturbances  of  this  kind  in  the 
sun  have  been  accompanied  by  startling 
magnetic  and  electric  storms  on  the 
earth. 

SUN-STROKE,  any  sudden  and  severe 
injury  to  the  health  resulting  from  the 
exposure  of  the  head  to  a hot  sun.  The 
most  usual  symptoms  of  sun-stroke  are 
the  following: — Pains  in  the  head,  ac- 
companied by  fever;  lethargy,  or  suffer- 
ing which  prevents  sleep;  congestion  of 
the  brain  or  other  nerve-centers,  or  an 
inflammation  of  the  brain  sometimes 
ensues,  and  often  terminates  fatally. 
Sometimes  the  effects  of  the  stroke  can 
be  discerned  only  in  impaired  bodily 
health  or  mental  vigor  dating  from  some 
occasion  on  which  the  patient  was  ex- 
posed to  a violent  sun. 

SUPERFCETATION,  a second  concep- 
tion after  a prior  one,  and  before  the 
birth  of  the  first  child,  by  which  two 
foetuses  are  growing  at  once  in  the  same 
womb.  Several  certified  cases  have 
occurred  in  which  women  have  given 
birth  to  two  children,  the  second  child 
being  born  at  periods  varying  from  90 
to  140  days  later  than  the  first.  These 
certainly  appear  to  be  cases  of  super- 
fcetation.  The  possibility  of  superfceta- 
tion  in  the  hmuan  female  has  been  vigor- 
ously opposed  by  some  eminent  phy- 
sicians, and  as  vigorously  defended  by 
others.  Some  believe  that  up  to  the 
third  month  of  gestation  a second  con- 
ception may  follow  the  first,  and  that 
this  will  satisfactorily  account  for  all 
the  cases  of  superfoetation  on  record.  It 
has  also  been  argued  that  the  human 
uterus  may  be  double  in  some  cases, 
and  that  in  each  of  its  cavities  a foetus 
may  be  contained. 

SUPERIOR,  a city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Douglas  co.,  Wis.,  at  the  head 


STJPERIOR 


SURGERY 


of  Lake  Superior,  on  St.  Louis,  Superior, 
and  Allouez  bays,  and  the  Gt.  North., 
N.  Pac.,  Chi.,  St.  P.,  Minn,  and  Om.,  St. 
P.  and  Duluth,  Dul.  and  Winnipeg,  and 
the  Dul.,  S.  Shore  and  Atl.  railways; 
opposite  Duluth,  Minn.  It  has  three 
perfect  landlocked  harbors,  all  con- 
nected, with  total  length  of  13  miles  and 
width  of  from  1 to  3 miles.  The  manu- 
factures are  chiefly  flour,  lumber,  lath, 
shingles,  iron,  chairs,  barrels,  bags, 
coke,  and  woolen  goods.  Superior  was 
a station  of  the  Hudson  Bay  company, 
over  200  years  ago  Pop.  35,415. 

SUPERIOR,  Lake,  the  largest  ex- 
pan.se  of  fresh  water  in  the  world,  and 
the  most  westerly  and  most  elevated  of 
the  North  American  chain  of  lakes.  It 
washes  the  shores  of  the  state  of  Min- 
nesota on  the  west,  those  of  Wisconsin 
and  the  northern  peninsula  of  Michigan 
on  the  south,  and  those  of  Canada  in  all 
other  directions.  Its  greatest  length  is 
420  miles,  greatest  breadth  ICO  miles; 
circuit  about  1750  miles;  area  about 
32,000  sq.  miles  (or  the  same  as  that  of 
Ireland).  It  is  630  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  varies  in  depth  from  80_  to  200 
fathoms.  In  shape  it  forms  an  irregular 
crescent,  dotted  with  numerous  islands 
toward  its  northern  and  southern  sides. 
The  northern  shore  consists  of  cliffs 
varying  in  height  from  300  to  1500  feet, 
but  the  southern  shore  is  low  and  sandy, 
although  occasionally  interrupted  by 
cliff's,  among  which  are  the  fantastic 
Pictured  Rocks,  300  feet  high,  one  of  the 
greatest  natural  curiosities  of  the  United 
States.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  re- 
markable for  their  transparency,  and 
are  well  stocked  with  fish,  principally 
trout,  white-fish,  and  sturgeon.  The 
lake  receives  more  than  200  streams, 
and  about  thirty  are  of  considerable  size. 
The  outlet  is  at  the  southeast  by  St. 
Mary’s  river.  Fish  and  copper  are  the 
chief  exports,  the  latter  existing  in 
valuable  veins  both  on  the  shores  and 
islands  of  the  lake. 

SUPERIOR  PLANETS.  See  Planets. 

SUPERNATURALISM,  a term  used 
chiefly  in  theology,  in  contradistinction 
to  rationalism.  In  its  widest  extent 
supernaturalism  is  the  doctrine  that 
religion  and  the  knowledge  of  God  re- 
quire a revelation  from  God.  It  con- 
siders the  Christian  religion  an  extra- 
ordinary phenomenon,  out  of  the  circle 
of  natural  events,  and  as  communicating 
truths  above  the  comprehension  of 
human  reason.  Rationalism  maintains 
that  the  Christian  religion  must  be 
judged  of,  like  other  phenomena,  by  the 
only  means  which  we  have  to  judge  with, 
namely  reason.  See  Rationalism. 

SUPPURATION.  See  Inflammation. 

SURAT',  a town  of  India,  Bombay 
presidency,  capital  of  a district  of  same 
name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tapti, 
about  20  miles  above  its  mouth  in  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay.  Pop.  119,306. 

SUPREME  COURT  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  The,  is  the  head  of  the  national 
judiciary.  The  supreme  court  is  author- 
ized by  the  constitution.  Section  1 of 
Article  III.  provides  that  “the  judicial 
power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  supreme  court,  and  in  such 
inferior  courts  as  the  congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.”  The 
supreme  court  is  a constitutional  court, 


while  the  other  courts  are  statutory. 
The  first  act  in  organizing  the  supreme 
court  was  passed  at  the  first  session  of 
the  United  States  congress,  approved  by 
Washington  on  September  24,  1789,  and 
directed  that  the  court  should  consist  of 
a chief  justice  and  five  associate  justices, 
any  four  of  whom  should  make  a quorum. 
It  now  consists  of  nine  members.  They 
hold  office  for  life.  The  act  of  Septem- 
ber 24th  not  only  made  provision  for 
the  supreme  court,  but  created  the  in- 
ferior courts  of  the  United  States  and 
organized  its  entire  judicial  system. 

SURETY.  See  Guarantee. 

SURF-DUCK,  or  SURF-SCOTER,  a 
species  of  duck,  about  the  size  of  a 
mallard  frequently  seen  on  the  coasts 
of  Labrador,  Hudson's  bay,  and  other 
parts  of  North  America. 

SURGEON-FISH.  See  Sea-surgeon. 

SURGERY,  the  operative  branch  of 
medicine,  or  that  part  of  the  medical  art 
which  is  concerned  with  the  removal  of 
injured  parts  or  organs,  or  with  the  heal- 
ing of  lesions  by  means  of  operations  on 
the  parts  affected,  either  by  the  hand 
or  with  instruments.  Surgery  early  be- 
came separated,  for  practical  ends,  from 
medicine,  and  by  a natural  expansion 
came  to  embrace  two  parts,  the  science 
pertaining  to  surgical  operations,  and 
the  art  required  for  conducting  them. 
From  this  arose  a mischievous  distinc- 
tion between  medical  and  surgical  cases. 
We  have  , thus  surgical  and  medical 
anatomy,  surgical  and  medical  pathol- 
ogy, and  surgical  and  medical  clinics. 
But  the  progress  of  science  has  both 
extended  the  domain  of  surgery,  and 
made  the  relation  between  it  and  medi- 
cine more  intimate.  The  origin  of 
surgery  may  almost  be  held  to  be  coeval 
with  the  human  race.  Herodotus  says 
that  the  medical  art  in  Egypt  was 
divided  into  numerous  branches  repre- 
senting each  member  of  the  body.  The 
Greeks  made  considerable  progress  in 
surgery,  and  the  Hippocratic  collection 
contains  six  surgical  treatises  in  which 
important  operations  are  described  as 
conducted  in  a mode  little  behind  the 
modern  practice.  Medicine  was  first 
cultivated  at  Rome  by  Greek  slaves. 
It  afterward  became  a special  science, 
and  among  its  professors  who  advanced 
the  art  of  surgery  were  Archagathus 
(200  B.C.),  surnamed  the  executioner, 
from  his  frequent  use  of  the  knife; 
Asclepiades,  to  whom  is  att*ibuted  the 
origin  of  laryngotomy;  and  Themison, 
the  first  to  use  leeches.  A greater  name 
than  these  is  that  of  Celsus,  called  the 
Latin  Hippocrates,  who  flourished  about 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  He 
mentions  autoplastic  operations  and  the 
treatment  of  hernias,  and  his  method  of 
amputation  is  still  occasionally  em- 
ployed. Galen  (died  200  a.d.)  did  much 
for  medicine  but  little  for  surgery.  Paul 
of  ASgina,  a practitioner  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury, may  be  looked  upon  as  the  last 
representative  of  the  Graco-Roman 
school.  The  Arabs  were  initiated  into 
medicine  and  surgery  by  the  translation 
of  the  works  of  the  Greeks.  Among  the 
Asiatic  Arabs  the  only  devoted  student 
of  surgery  who  has  left  any  record  of  his 
art  is  Abulcasis,  who  flourished  at  the 
beginning  of  the  12th  century.  On  the 
I decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  medi- 


cal art  in  Europe  fell  entirely  into  the 
hands  of  the  monks,  and  when,  in  1163, 
the  Council  of  Tours  prohibited  the 
clergy  from  performing  any  operation, 
surgery  became  incorporated  with  the 
trade  of  barber,  and  was  reduced  to  the 
simplest  operations,  chiefly  that  of 
letting  blood.  The  earliest  revival  of 
science  arose  from  the  contact  of  Euro- 
peans with  the  Eastern  nations,  par- 
ticularly the  Arabs,  and  before  the  close 
of  the  11th  century  Salerno,  in  Italy, 
acquired  celebrity  for  a school  of  medi- 
cine in  which  all  the  teachers  were  lay- 
men. This  school  acquired  the  right  to 
confer  the  degrees  of  master  and  doctor. 
Among  surgeons  of  reputation  of  the 
Salernian  school,  may  be  mentioned 
Roger  of  Parma,  and  his  disciple  Roland, 
who  made  great  use  of  cataplasms  and 
other  emollients.  Guy  de  Chauliac,  the 
first  great  surgeon  of  France,  belongs 
to  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century. 
Berengarios  de  Carpi  held  a chair  at 
Bologna  from  1502  to  1507.  He  boasted 
of  having  dissected  more  than  100  dead 
bodies,  and  made  important  discoveries. 
Vesalius,  a Belgian  physician,  born  1514, 
died  1564,  is  regarded  as  the  father  of 
modern  anatomy.  He  prepared  the  way 
for  Ambrose  Par4,  who  did  for  surgery 
what  'Vesalius  had  done  for  anatomy. 
Par4  was  surgeon  in  ordinary  to  Henry 
II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.  His 
works  were  translated  into  English,  and 
include  a general  treatise  on  surgery, 
and  a special  treatise  on  wounds.  Among 
the  great  surgeons  of  the  16th  century 
were  Paracelsus,  who  advocated  a 
thorough  reform  in  surgery;  Guillemeau, 
whose  special  study  was  ophthalmia; 
Pineau,  a skilful  surgeon  and  lithoto- 
mist;  Jacques  D4marque,  one  of  the 
first  authors  who  wrote  on  bandages; 
and  Fabricius  of  Hilden  in  Germany,  the 
author  of  a complete  course  of  clinical 
surgery,  and  the  inventor  of  surgical 
instruments  for  the  extraction  of  foreign 
bodies  from  the  ear,  urethra,  etc.,  which 
are  still  in  use.  In  England  Harvey,  the 
discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  lectured  on  surgery ; but  a genuine 
school  of  surgery  was  first  founded  by 
Richard  Wiseman,  who  has  been  called 
the  Par4  of  England.  His  works  were 
published  in  two  vols.  in  1676.  In  Eng- 
land the  Company  of  Barber  Surgeons, 
incorporated  by  Edward  IV.  in  1461, 
gave  place  to  a separate  corporation  of 
surgeons  in  1745.  In  1731  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Surgery  was  founded  in 
Paris,  and  soon  produced  a school  of 
surgeons  so  eminent  as  to  take  the 
lead  of  their  profession  in  Europe.  The 
rapid  advance  of  scientific  knowledge 
in  the  19th  century  has  not  been 
without  its  influence  on  the  art  of 
surgery.  The  19th  century  will  ever 
be  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  surgery 
as  that  in  which  the  inestimable  boon 
of  anmsthetics  was  conferred  upon  man- 
kind, by  which  not  only  has  pain  in 
surgery  been  abolished,  but  the  extent 
of  its  operative  department  immensely 
enlarged.  Of  no  less  importance  has  been 
the  discovery  of  the  relation  of  micro- 
organisms to  putrefaction  and  to  infec- 
tious diseases,  and  the  consequent  in- 
troduction of  the  antiseptic  method  of 
treating  wounds.  A scarcely  less  notice- 
1 able  feature  of  this  epoch  has  been  the 


SURMULLET 


SWALLOW 


application  of  the  rules  of  hygiene  to  the 
construction  and  management  of  hos- 
pitals, by  which  the  general  health  of 
the  patients  has  been  much  benefited, 
and  the  mortality  reduced.  The  opera- 
tive skill  of  the  surgeon  has  kept  pace 
with  the  increased  precision  in  physio- 
logical knowledge,  and  surgical  opera- 
tions are  now  perfonned  on  many  parts 
of  the  body  which  not  long  ago  would 
have  been  deemed  certain  death  to  the 
patient.  Diseased  conditions  in  the 
cranium,  the  thoracic  cavity,  the  ab- 
domen, the  joints,  are  all  successfully 
treated.  Cancerous  affections  are  boldly 
treated  by  excision,  while  diseases  of  the 
uterus  are  now  treated  with  a boldness 
and  success  which  a few  years  ago 
seemed  impossible. 

SUR'MULLET,  a name  of  fishes  allied 
to  the  perches,  and  often  called  red 
mullets.  They  have  two  dorsal  fins  with 
a wide  interval  between  them,  the  first 
being  spinous,  and  two  long  barbels 
hanging  from  the  lower  jaw.  The  com- 
mon red  mullet  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
about  12  inches  long,  esteemed  very 
delicious  food,  and  was  much  prized  by 
the  Romans. 

SURNAMES.  See  Names,  Personal. 

SURPLICE,  a white  garment  worn  by 
priests,  deacons,  and  choristers  in  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  over  their  other  dress 
during  the  performance  of  religious 
services.  It  is  a loose,  flowing  vestment 


Surplice,  brass  of  Prior  Nelond,  Cowfold, 
Sussex. 

of  linen,  reaching  almost  to  the  feet, 
having  sleeves  broad  and  full,  and  differs 
from  the  alb  only  in  being  fuller  and 
having  no  girdle  nor  embroidery  at  the 
foot. 

SURREY,  a county  of  England, 
bounded  by  the  Thames,  separating  it 
from  Buckinghamshire  and  Middlesex; 
by  Kent,  Sussex,  Hampshire,  and  Berk- 
shire; area,  485,129  acres,  of  which  more 
than  half  is  under  crops.  Pop.  2,008,923. 

SURVEYING,  the  art  of  measuring 
the  angular  and  linear  distances  of 
objects  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  so  as 
to  be  able  to  delineate  their  several  posi- 
tions on  paper,  to  ascertain  the  super- 
ficial area,  or  space  between  them,  and 
to  draw  an  accurate  plan  of  any  piece  of 
ground  in  more  or  less  detail.  It  is  a 
branch  of  applied  mathematics,  and  is  of 
two  kinds,  land  surveying  and  marine 
surveying,  the  former  having  generally 


in  view  the  measurement  and  delinea- 
tion on  paper  of  certain  tracts  of  land, 
and  the  latter  the  laying  down  of  the 
position  of  beacons,  shoals,  coasts,  etc. 
Those  extensive  operations  of  surveying 
which  have  for  their  object  the  deter- 
mination of  the  latitude  and  longtiude 
of  places,  and  the  length  of  terrestrial 
arcs  in  different  latitudes,  are  frequently 
called  trigonometrical  surveys,  or  geo- 
detic operations,  and  the  science  itself 
geodesy.  In  land-surveying  various  in- 
struments are  used,  the  most  indispen- 
sable of  which  are  Gunter’s  chain,  for 
taking  the  linear  dimensions  when  the 
area  of  the  land  is  required;  the  theod- 
olite, for  measuring  angles;  and  the  sur- 
veyor’s cross,  or  cross-staff,  for  raising 
perpendiculars.  See  Geodesy,  Trigonom- 
etrical Survey,  and  Ordnance  Survey. 

SURVIVAL  OF  THE  FITTEST.  See 
Natural  Selection. 

SUSA,  an  ancient  city  of  Persia.  It 
was  a very  extensive  city,  with  a 
strongly  fortified  citadel,  containing 
the  palace  and  treasury  of  the  Persian 
kings,  whose  chief  residence  it  was  from 
the  time  of  Darius  I.  It  is  the  Shushan 
of  the  book  of  Daniel,  where  it  is  men- 
tioned as  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Ulai  or  Eulseus.  The  plain  of  Susa 
is  covered  with  extensive  mounds,  in 
which  fragments  of  brick  and  pottery 
with  cuneiform  inscriptions  are  found, 
and  important  discoveries  have  been 
made. 

SUSPENSION,  in  music,  the  prolonga- 
tion of  a note  in  a chord,  having  the 
effect  of  suspending  for  a moment  cer- 


Suspenslon  (1)  from  above;  (2)  from  below. 

tain  notes  in  the  following  chord;  or  the 
delay  of  a dissonance  in  reaching  the 
chord  into  which  it  is  to  be  resolved. 

SUSPENSION-BRIDGE.  See  Bridge. 

SUSQUEHAN'NA,  a river  of  the 
United  States,  formed  by  two  branches 
an  eastern  or  northern  branch,  250 
miles  long  from  Lake  Otsego  in  New 
York,  and  a western  branch,  200  miles 
from  the  western  slope  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  which  unite  at  Northumber- 
land in  Pennsylvania.  The  united 
stream  flows  south  and  southeast,  and 
after  a course  of  150  miles  reaches  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  bay  at  Port  Deposit, 
Maryland.  It  is  a wide  but  shallow 
stream,  nowhere  navigable  to  any  ex- 
tent, save  in  the  spring. 

SUSSEX,  a southern  maritime  county 
of  England,  bounded  north  by  Surrey, 
north  and  northeast  by  Kent,  southeast 
and  south  by  the  English  Channel,  and 
west  and  northwest  by  Hants;  area, 
933,269  acres,  of  which  more  than  two- 
thirds  is  under  crops.  Pop.  605,052. 

SUTHERLAND,  a maritime  county  in 
the  north  of  Scotland,  bounded  north 
and  west  by  the  Atlantic,  south  by 
Ross  and  Cromarty,  east  by  the  North 
sea  and  Caithness;  area,  1,297,846  acres, 
of  which  about  one-thirtieth  part  is 
under  crops.  Pop.  21,550. 

SU'TRAS,  in  Sanskrit  literature,  the 
name  given  to  the  numerous  series  of 
religious  aphorisms  and  rules,  including 


all  the  ritual,  grammatical,  metrical, 
and  philosophical  works,  and  consisting 
of  brief  sentences  to  be  committed  to 
memory.  These  were  usually  written 
on  dried  palm-leaves  tied  together  by 
a string. 

SUTTEE'  (Sanskrit,  sati,  an  excellent 
wife),  a term  applied  by  the  English  to 
the  self-immolation  of  Indian  widows 
on  the  funeral  pile  of  their  deceased 
husbands.  The  origin  of  this  practice  is 
of  considerable  antiquity,  but  it  is  not 
enjoined  by  the  laws  of  Manu,  nor  is  it 
based  on  the  Vedas.  It  was  abolished  by 
Lord  Bentinck,  governor-general  of 
India,  in  December,  1829,  but  cases  are 
still  occasionally  heard  of. 

SU'TURE,  in  anatomy,  is  the  line  of 
union  of  two  bones  between  which  there 
is  no  motion,  as  the  bones  of  the  skull. 

SUZERAIN,  in  feudalism,  a lord  para- 
mount; the  king,  for  instance,  in  relation 
to  his  immediate  vassals,  or  these  as 
grantors  in  turn  to  sub-vassals. 

SWALLOW,  the  general  name  for  all 
the  insessorial  birds  distinguished  by 
their  long  and  powerful  wings,  their 
short  broad  beak,  their  wide  gape,  their 
comparatively  small  and  weak  legs  and 
feet,  and  their  habit  of  hawking  on  the 
wing  for  insects,  which  constitute  their 
food.  They  are  found  all  over  the  world 
except  in  the  coldest  regions,  and  there  ■ 
are  a number  of  species.  The  common 
swallow  has  the  nostrils  concealed  by  a 
membrane  in  front,  and  the  outer 
feathers  of  the  tail  much  elongated.  It 
is  about  8J  inches  in  length.  The  top  of 
the  head  is  colored  of  a reddish-chestnut 
hue,  the  back  and  wings  being  steel-blue. 
The  tail  and  secondary  feathers  are 
black,  a dark-blue  patch  existing  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest,  while  the  throat 
is  a chestnut-brown.  The  beak,  legs, 
and  toes  are  black,  and  the  under  parts 


are  white  or  grayish.  The  females 
possess  the  chest-patch,  and  also  the 
forehead  patch  of  red,  of  smaller  size 
than  the  males.  The  song  is  weak,  and 
is  at  best  a mere  twitter.  The  nest  con- 
sists of  a cup-shaped  structure  of  mud 
or  clay,  sometimes  built  a few  feet  down 
an  unused  chimney,  often  close  under 
the  roof  of  some  outhouse  to  which  ready 
access  is  obtained,  and  is  lined  inside 
with  soft  grasses,  feathers,  and  other 
materials.  Swallows  bear  a considerable 
resemblance  to  swifts,  and  among  the 
swifts  are  several  forms  which  are 
popularly  named  “swallows.”  Thus  the 
bird  known  in  North  America  as  the 
chimney  swallow  is  not  a true  swallow, 
but  a swift.  The  swallow  that  produces 
the  edible  nest  is  also  a swift.  Of  true 


SWAN' 


SWEDEN 


swallows,  however,  several  are  Ameri- 
can, and  among  them  the  barn  swallow, 
very  similar  to  the  European  chimney 
swallow,  the  purple  martin,  and  the  cliff 
swallow.  The  name  of  “sea  swallow”  is 
given  to  the  tern.  See  also  Martin,  Sand- 
martin. 

SWAN,  a genus  of  swimming  birds, 
distinguished  as  a group  by  the  bill 
being  of  equal  length  with  the  head, 
and  broad  throughout  its  length]-  by  the 
cere  being  soft;  by  the  front  toes  being 
strongly  webbed,  while  the  hinder  toe  is 
not  webbed,  and  has  no  lobe  or  under- 
skin.  The  nest  is  constructed  of  reeds 
and  grasses,  and  is  generally  situated 
near  the  edge  of  the  water  on  some 
islet.  The  young  when  hatched  are  of  a 
light  bluish-gray  color.  The  food  con- 


European  white  swan. 


sists  of  vegetable  matters,  smaller  fishes, 
worms,  etc.,  and  fish-spawn.  They  have 
their  representatives  in  North  America 
in  the  trumpeter  swan,  and  the  ameri- 
canus.  South  America  produces  one  very 
distinct  species,  the  beautiful  black- 
necked swan.  The  black  swan  of  Aus- 
tralia, like  the  white  swan,  is  frequently 
kept  as  an  ornament  in  parks  or  pleasure 
grounds.  Its  large  size,  and  the  grace- 
fulness of  its  fonn  and  motions,  render 
the  swan  one  of  the  most  ornamental 
of  all  the  water-birds. 

SWANSDOWN,  a name  for  a fine, 
soft,  thick  woolen  cloth;  or  more  com- 
monly for  a thick  cotton  cloth  with  a 
soft  nap  on  one  side. 

SWANSEA,  a seaport  town,  and 
municipal,  pari.,  and  county  borough 
of  Wales.  Copper-works  were  first  es- 
tablished in  1719,  and  Swansea  has  now 
the  principal  copper-works  in  Great 
Britain.  Copper  ore  is  imported  from 
Cornwall,  Spain,  Africa,  America,  and 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  is  an  abundant 
supply  of  coal  for  smelting.  There  are 
also  important  tin-works,  iron-works, 
steel-works,  zinc-works,  alkali-works, 
etc.  Pop.  of  county  bor.  94,514  of  pari, 
bor.  128,052. 

SWAZILAND,  a small  native  state  in 
South  Africa,  forming  a dependency  of 
the  Transvaal,  on  the  southeast  of  which 
it  lies;  area  8000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  64,000. 

SWIEAT.  See  Perspiration. 

SWEATING  SYSTEM,  the  system  by 
which  sub-contractors  undertake  to  do 
work  in  their  own  houses  or  small  work- 
shops, and  employ  others  to  do  it,  mak- 
ing a profit  for  themselves  by  the  dif- 
ference betw'een  the  contract  prices  and 
the  wages  they  pay  their  assistants.  The 


object  of  the  sub-contractor  or  sweater 
being  to  secure  as  large  a margin  of 
profit  as  possible,  the  tendency  of  the 
system  is  to  grind  the  workers  down  to 
the  lowest  possible  limit. 

SWEDEN,  a kingdom  in  the  north  of 
Europe,  bounded  north  and  west  by 
Norway;  southwest  by  the  Skager- 
Rack,  Kattegat,  and  Sound;  south  by 
the  Baltic;  east  by  the  Baltic  and  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia;  and  northeast  by  the 
Tornea  and  its  affluent  Muonio,  separat- 
ing it  from  Finland.  It  consists  of  the 
three  great  divisions  of  Swealand  or 
Sweden  Proper  in  the  middle,  Gotland 
or  Gottland  in  the  south,  and  Norrland 
in  the  north.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses it  is  divided  into  twenty-five  Ians 
or  governments.  The  total  area  is 
170,979  sq.  miles;  pop.  5,260,811.  The 
population  of  Sweden  is  mainly  rural. 
There  are  five  towns  with  a population 
of  30,000  upward,  namely,  Stockholm 
(capital),  Goteborg  or  Gottenburg, 
Malmo,  Norrkoping,  and  Gefie.  Nearly 
2,500,000  of  the  population  are  agri- 
cultural ; about  a quarter  of  a million  are 
cultivators  of  their  owm  land.  The  coast- 
line, above  1400  miles  in  length,  is 
serrated  rather  than  deeply  indented. 
The  west  coast  is  very  rocky,  but  seldom 
rises  so  high  as  30  feet.  A great  number 
of  islets  are  scattered  near  the  shores. 
There  are  also  two  islands  of  some  size; 
Oeland  near  the  southeast  coast,  and 
Gothland  further  out  in  the  Baltic. 
The  rivers  and  lakes  are  very  numerous 
and  all  belong  to  the  basins  of  the  Baltic 
sea  and  the  German  ocean.  Almost  the 
whole  of  the  country  is  composed  of 


spring  or  autumn  intervening  betweer. 
the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of 
winter,  which  in  the  north  lasts  for  nine, 
and  in  the  south  for  seven  months. 
But  on  the  whole  the  climate  is  eminent- 
ly favorable  to  health,  and  no  country 
furnishes  more  numerous  instances  of 
longevity.  Among  the  larger  wild  ani- 
mals are  the  wolf,  the  bear,  the  elk,  the 
red  and  roe  deer,  the  lynx,  glutton,  fox, 
and  even  the  beaver.  Of  the  smaller 
animals  the  most  destructive  is  the 
lemming.  Among  birds  the  most  re- 
markable are  eagles,  the  eagle-owl,  and 
the  capercailzie.  The  rivers  and  lakes 
are  well  stocked  with  salmon  and  trout. 
Timber  is  the  chief  export.  Of  the  cereal 
crops  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  wheat  are  cul- 
tivated. The  potato  is  grown  every- 
where. The  principal  domestic  animals 
are  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  swine,  and 
rein-deer.  The  last,  necessarily  confined 
to  the  north,  are  kept  in  large  herds  by 
the  Laplanders,  and  supply  them  at 
once  with  food  and  clothing.  The  manu- 
facturing _ industries  include  those  con- 
nected w).h  iron,  steel,  wooden  goods, 
woolens,  cottons,  silks,  refined  sugar, 
leather,  paper,  spirits,  etc.  The  mer- 
cantile marine  has  a burden  of  550,350 
tons.  There  are  now  over  6000  miles  of 
railway,  and  5400  miles  of  telegraph 
lines.  The  chief  denomination  of  money 
is  the  krona — 27c.  The  inhabitants  of 
Sweden,  with  the  exception  of  the  Lap- 
landers and  Finns,  found  only  in  the 
north  belong  to  the  Scandinavian  branch 
of  the  Teutonic  family,  and  are  char- 
acterized by  a tall,  robust  stature,  light 
hair,  blue  eyes,  and  light  complexions. 


Scene  In  Sweden— The  Skurusund  near  Stockholm. 


gneiss,  partially  penetrated  by  granite. 
The  chief  mineral  is  iron,  which  is  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities,  of  excellent 
quality,  admirably  adapted  for  steel. 
Zinc,  copper,  and  silver,  are  also  raised. 
Coal  is  worked  in  the  south,  but  is  poor 
in  quality.  Mining,  and  especially  iron- 
mining, is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
Swedish  industries.  Roughly  speaking 
the  mining  region  occupies  the  central 
part  of  the  country,  with  the  forest 
region  to  the  north  and  the  agricultural 
region  to  the  south.  There  is  hardly  any 


The  Lutheran  faith  is  recognized  as  the 
state  religion,  but  recently  there  have 
been  extensive  secessions  from  the 
Established  church.  Other  religions  are 
tolerated;  but  appointments  in  the 
public  service  can  be  held  by  Lutherans 
only.  Elementary  education  is  gratuit- 
ous and  compulsory,  and  almost  every 
person  can  read  and  write.  There  are 
two  universities,  at  Upsala  and  Lund 
respectively.  The  crown  is  hereditary 
in  the  male  line.  The  king  must  be  a 
member  of  the  Lutheran  church,  and 


SWEDENBORG 


SWEDENBORGIANS 


has  to  swear  fidelity  to  the  laws  of  the 
land.  His  prerogatives  consist  of  the 
right  to  preside  in  the  high  court  of 
justice,  to  grant  pardons,  to  conclude 
treaties  with  foreign  powers,  to  declare 
war  and  peace,  to  nominate  to  all  ap- 
pointments civil  and  military,  and  to 
veto  absolutely  any  decree  of  the  diet. 
He  also  possesses  legislative  power  in 
matters  of  political  administration,  but 
in  all  other  matters  that  power  is  exer- 
cised, in  concert  with  the  sovereign,  by 
the  diet,  in  which  is  invested  the  right  of 
imposing  taxes.  About  a third  of  the 
revenue  is  derived  from  direct  taxes  and 
from  national  property,  including  rail- 
ways; the  remainder  from  customs, 
excise,  and  other  indirect  taxes.  The 
army  comprises  a grand  total  of  340,000 
men,  the  majority  raised  by  conscrip- 
tion, by  annual  levy  from  among  men 
between  the  ages  of  21  and  40.  The 
navy  is  intended  for  coast  defense,  and 
numbers  13  armored  turret  ships,  3 
torpedo  boat  destroyers,  5 torpedo  gun- 
boats, 34  torpedo  boats;  unarmored  and 
training  vessels.  The  early  history  of 
Sweden  is  obscure.  Christianity  was 
introduced  about  the  beginning  of  the 
11th  century.  Sweden  was  more  or 


A Swedish  interior. 


less  an  appanage  of  the  Danish  crown 
until  the  time  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  who 
raised  the  peasants  of  Dalecarlia,  de- 
feated the  Danes,  was  elected  to  the 
throne  in  1523,  and  received  author- 
ity to  reorganize  the  church  on  the 
basis  of  Lutheranism  in  1527.  His  son, 
Erik  XIV.,  reigned  only  eight  years, 
when,  having  lost  his  reason,  he  was 
deposed.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  John  III.,  who  endeavored  to 
restore  the  Catholic  religion  in  Sweden; 
in  which,  however,  he  failed.  He  died 
in  1592,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Sigismund,  who  in  1587  had  been  elected 
king  of  Poland.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
uncle  Charles  IX.,  who  died  in  1611 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the 
celebrated  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Sweden, 
which,  notwithstanding  internal  trou- 
bles, had  been  advancing  in  political 
importance  since  the  time  of  Gustavus 
Vasa,  now  became  the  leading  power  of 
the  North;  and  under  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus, who  espoused  the  cause  of  Pro- 
testantism in  the  Thirty  Years’  war, 
took  for  the  first  time  a leading  part  in 
the  affairs  of  Europe.  Gusta^ms  .Adol- 
phus met  his  death  at  the  battle  of 


Liitzen  in  1632,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  daughter  Christina,  who  renounced 
the  crown  in  1654  in  favor  of  her  cousin, 
Charles  Gustavus,  son  of  the  count 
palatine.  The  short  reign  of  Charles  X. 
was  distinguished  by  some  brilliant 
military  enterprises,  which  extended  to 
Poland,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Denmark. 
He  died  suddenly  in  1660,  leaving  a son, 
Charles  XI.,  ordy  four  years  of  age. 
The  country  was  then  for  long  under  a 
council  of  regency,  and  carried  on  a 
protracted  war  with  Denmark.  Charles 
assumed  the  government  in  1680.  He 
died  in  1697,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  the  celebrated  Charles  XII.  Of 
the  warlike  monarchs  of  Sweden  he  is 
the  one  who  has  attained  the  highest 
reputation  for  military  genius.  His 
career  of  conquest  ended  in  the  dis- 
astrous battle  of  Poltava,  8th  July, 
1709,  which  compelled  Sweden  to  yield 
the  presidency  among  the  northern 
states  to  Russia,  and  he  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Frederickshall,  30th  No- 
vember, 1718,  while  pushing  the  con- 
quest of  Norway.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  second  sister,  Ulrica  Eleonora,  who 
in  1720  associated  with  her  in  the  gov- 
ernment her  husband  Frederick  I. 
Sweden  was  now  under  the  hands  of  an 
oligarchy,  the  chief  power  in  the  state 
being  held  by  a secret  council  of  100 
members;  50  of  the  order  of  nobles,  25 
of  the  clergy,  and  25  of  the  burghers. 
This  council  was  divided  into  two  fac- 
tions, called  (after  1738)  the  Hats  and 
Caps,  the  former  of  which  preferred  to 
sell  themselves  to  France,  the  latter  to 
Russia.  On  the  death  of  Frederick  in 
1751  Adolphus  Frederick  of  Holstein- 
Gottorp,  by  the  influences  of  Russia, 
was  elected  king.  During  his  reign  the 
country  was  distracted  by  the  rivalries 
of  the  Hats  and  Caps,  and  the  royal 
power  sank  to  a shadow.  Adolphus  died 
in  1771,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Gustavus  III.,  whose  reign  was  distin- 
guished by  a monarchical  revolution. 
He  was  assassinated  in  1792.  His  son 
Gustavus  IV.  was  deposed,  and  his 
family  declared  forever  incapable  of 
succeeding  to  the  crown,  in  1809.  His 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Sudermania,  was 
declared  king  with  the  title  of  Charles 
XIII.  In  1810  the  states  elected  Jean 
Baptiste  Bernadotte,  crown-prince.  (See 
Bernadotte.)  In  the  final  struggle  with 
Napoleon  previous  to  1814  Sweden 
joined  the  allies,  while  Denmark  took 
the  part  of  France.  The  Danes  were 
driven  out  of  Holstein  by  Bernadotte, 
and  the  Treaty  of  Kiel  was  concluded 
between  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Great 
Britain,  January  14,  1814.  Sweden  by 
this  treaty  ceded  to  Denmark  her  last 
German  possessions  in  Pomerania,  and 
the  Isle  of  Rugen,  while  Denmark  was 
compelled  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden 
as  a compensation  for  the  loss  of  Fin- 
land, gained  by  Rusisa.  Sweden  now 
held  the  whole  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  had  lost  all  her  other  European 
possessions.  Bernadotte  succeeded  to 
the  crown  in  1818,  under  the  title  of 
Charles  XIV.  He  died  in  1844,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Oscar  I.,  whose 
reign  was  singularly  peaceful  and  un- 
eventful. He  died  8th  July,  1859,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  Louis 
Eugene,  under  the  title  of  Charles  XV., 


whose  reign  was  marked  by  constitu- 
tional reforms.  In  1866  the  states,  which 
from  time  immemorial  had  met  in 
four  chambers,  representing  the  nobility, 
clergy,  citizens,  and  peasantry,  were 
reduced  to  the  modern  composition  of 
two  chambers,  an  upper  and  a lower, 
and  the  suffrage  was  extended  in  1869. 
Charles  XV.  died  18th  September,  1872, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Oscar 
II.,  who  proved  a wise  and  prudent 
ruler,  and  under  whom  the  country  pros- 
pered greatly  in  industry,  commerce 
and  otherwise.  The  dissolution  of  the 
Union  of  Norway  and  Sweden  took  place 
in  1906.  Oscar  II.  died  in  1907  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Gustaf  V. 

SWEDENBORG, Emanuel, the  founder 
of  the  New  Jerusalem  church,  or  sect 
of  Swedenborgians,  was  born  at  Stock- 
holm in  1688.  The  period  1710  to  1714 
he  spent  in  scientific  travels  through 
England,  Holland,  France,  and  Ger- 
many. In  1716  he  was  appointed  as- 
sessor extraordinary  in  the  Royal  Cql- 
lege  of  Mines  by  Charles  XII.  In  1719 
Queen  Ulrica  raised  the  Swedberg 
family  to  the  rank  of  nobility,  upon 
which  occasion  the  name  was  changed 
to  Swedenborg.  He  increased  his  stock 
of  knowledge  by  new  travels  in  1736-40 
in  Germany,  Holland,  France,  Italy, 
and  England.  He  was  first  introduced 
to  an  intercourse  with  the  spiritual 
world  in  detail,  according  to  his  own  , 
statement,  in  1743  at  London.  The  eyes 
of  his  inward  man,  he  says,  were  opened 
to  see  heaven,  hell,  and  the  world  of 
spirits,  in  which  he  conversed,  not  only 
with  his  deceased  acquaintances,  but 
with  the  most  distinguished  men  of 
antiquity.  His  theological  works,  writ- 
ten in  Latin  between  the  years  1747 
and  1771,  found  but  a limited  number 
of  readers;  and  while  he  was  an  object 
of  the  deepest  veneration  and  wonder 
to  his  few  followers,  his  statements  were 
the  more  mysterious  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  because  he  could  not  be  suspected 
of  dishonesty,  and  exhibited  profound 
learning,  keenness  of  intellect,  and  un- 
feigned piety.  His  works  are  very 
numerous,  among  the  more  important 
of  them  being  the  Arcana  Ccelestia,  the 
New  Jerusalem,  Angelic  Wisdom,  the 
Apocalypse  Explained,  Heaven  and  , 
Hell,  etc.  With  uninterrupted  health 
he  attained  the  age  of  eighty-four,  and 
died  of  apoplexy  in  London,  March  29, 
1772. 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  the  followers 
of  Swedenborg,  and  particularly  the 
members  of  what  is  called  the  New 
Jerusalem  church,  or  New  church.  This 
body  adopts  the  doctrinal  tenets  and 
method  of  Biblical  interpretation  laid 
down  in  the  writings  of  Emanual  Swe- 
denborg. The  belief  of  the  Sweden- 
borgians is:  that  Jesus  Christ  is  God, 
in  whom  is  a trinity  not  of  persons  but 
essentials,  answering  to  the  soul,  body, 
and  the  operation  of  these  in  a man ; that 
the  Scriptures  contain  an  internal  or 
spiritual  meaning,  which  is  the  Word 
existing  in  heaven;  that  the  key  to  this 
is  the  correspondence  betw^een  natural 
and  spiritual  things,  as  between  effects 
and  their  causes;  that  man  is  saved  by 
shunning  evils  as  sins  and  leading  a life 
according  to  the  ten  commandrnents; 
that  man  is  a spirit  clothed  with  a i 


.1* 


SWEET-BREAD 


SWIMMING-BLADDER 


1 


natural  body  for  life  on  earth,  and  then 
when  he  puts  it  off  at  death  he  con- 
tinues to  live  as  before  but  in  the  spirit- 
ual world,  first  in  an  intermediate  state 
between  heaven  and  hell,  but  afterward, 
when  his  character,  whether  good  or  evil 
becomes  harmonious  throughout,  among 
his  like  either  in  heaven  or  hell;  that 
the  Lord’s  second  coming  and  the  last 
judgment  are  spiritual  events  which 
have  already  taken  place. 

SWEET-BREAD.  See  Pancreas. 

SWEET-BRIAR,  or  SWEET-BRIER, 
a species  of  rose,  which  grows  wild,  but 
is  often  planted  in  hedges  and  gardens 
on  aceount  of  the  sweet  balsamic  smell 
of  its  small  leaves  and  flowers.  It  is  also 
called  the  eglantine. 

SWEET-FLAG,  a plant,  also  called 
Sweet-rush,  found  in  marshy  places 
throughout  the  northern  hemisphere. 
The  leaves  are  all  radical,  long,  and 
sword-shaped;  the  stem  bears  a lateral, 
dense,  greenish  spike  of  flowers;  the 
root  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  knotted. 
The  root  has  a strong  aromatic  odor, 
and  a warm,  pungent,  bitterish  taste, 
and  has  been  employed  in  medicine 
since  the  time  of  Hippocrates.  It  is  also 
used  by  confectioners  as  a candy,  and 
by  perfumers  in  the  preparation  of 
aromatic  vinegar,  hair-powder,  etc. 

SWEET-PEA,  a garden  plant  culti- 
vated on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its 
flowers,  which  are  sweet-scented,  and  in 
color  purple,  rose,  white,  or  variegated. 

SWEET-POTATO,  a plant  now  cul- 
tivated in  all  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
globe.  It  is  the  potato  of  Shakespeare 
and  contemporary  writers,  the  common 
potato  being  then  scarcely  known  in 


Europe.  The  consumption  of  the  sweet- 
potato  is  very  large  in  many  parts,  in- 
cluding the  United  States  and  the 
warmer  parts  of  America,  the  East 
IixciiGs  ©tc 

SWEET-WILLIAM,  a species  of  pink. 
It  grows  wild  in  dry  and  sterile  places 
in  middle  and  southern  Europe. 

SWELL,  in  music,  a gradual  increase 
and  decrease  of  sound;  the  cresendo  and 
diminuendo  combined.  Also  an  ar- 
rangement in  an  organ  (and  in  some 
harmoniums)  whereby  the  player  can 
increase  or  diminish  the  intensity  of  the 
sound  at  will.  In  the  organ  it  consists 
of  a series  of  pipes  with  a separate  key- 
board, and  forming  a separate  depart- 
ment (called  the  swell-organ).  The  loud- 
ness or  softness  of  the  tone  is  regulated 
by  opening  or  shutting,  by  means  of  a 
pedal,  a set  of  slats  like  a Venetian  blind, 
which  forms  part  of  the  frame  in  which 
the  pipes  are  inclosed. 

Swift,  though  swifts  are  Uk?  swal- 


lows in  many  respects,  their  structure  is 
almost  entirely  different,  and  some 
naturalists  rather  class  them  with  the 
humming  birds,  or  the  goat-suckers. 
The  swift  has  all  four  toes  directed  for- 
ward; it  is  larger  than  the  swallow;  its 
flight  is  more  rapid  and  steady;  and  its 
scream  is  very  different  from  the  twitter- 
ing of  the  swallow.  It  has  the  greatest 
powers  of  flight  of  any  bird  that  visits 
Britain.  Its  weight  is  most  dispropor- 
tionately small  to  its  extent  of  wing,  the 
fonner  being  scarcely  an  ounce,  the 
latter  18  inches,  the  length  of  the  body 
being  about  8 inches.  Its  color  is  a 


somber  or  sooty  black,  a whitish  patch 
appearing  beneath  the  chin.  It  builds 
in  holes  in  the  roofs  of  houses,  in  towers, 
or  in  hollow  trees.  It  leaves  Britain  in 
August,  having  arrived  from  Africa  early 
in  May.  A larger  species,  with  the  lower 
parts  dusky  white,  has  its  home  in  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Central  and 
Southern  Europe.  A common  North 
American  swift  is  the  so-called  chimney 
swallow,  which  builds  its  nest  in  chim- 
neys. The  swifts  or  swiftlets  which  in- 
habit chiefly  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
ocean  from  the  north  of  Madagascar  east- 
ward, construct  the  edible  birds’-nests 
which  are  used  by  Chinese  epicures  in 
the  making  of  soup. 

SWIFT,  Gustavus  Franklin,  an  Ameri- 
can merchant,  born  at  Cape  Cod,  Mass., 
in  1839.  He  engaged  in  meat-packing 
in  Chicago,  and  was  the  first  to  ship 
meat  long  distances  successfully.  He 
founded  and  was  president  of  the  cor- 
poration of  Swift  and  company,  one  of 
the  largest  packing  firms  in  the  United 
States,  and  was  a prominent  member 
of  many  other  similar  concerns.  He 
died  in  1903. 

SWIFT,  Jonathan,  the  greatest  of 
English  satirists,  was  born  in  Dublin, 
November  30,  1667.  In  1701  he  took  his 
doctor’s  degree,  and  in  1704  he  published 
anonymously  his  famous  Tale  of  a Tub, 
to  which  was  appended  the  Battle  of  the 
Books.  In  1708  appeared,  among  other 
things,  an  attack  upon  astrology  under 
the  title  of  Predictions  for  the  Year 
1708,  by  Isaac  Bickerstaff,  Esq.,  and 
in  1709  a Project  for  the  Advancement 
of  Religion,  dedicated  to  Lady  Berke- 
ley, the  only  work  to  which  he  ever  put 
his  name.  A bishopric  in  England  was 
the  object  of  his  ambition;  but  the  only 
preferment  he  obtained  from  his  minis- 
terial friends  was  the  Irish  deanery  of 
St.  Patrick’s,  to  which  he  was  presented- 
in  1713.  His  famous  Gulliver’s  Travels 
appeared  in  1726.  \ He  died  in  174.5, 
bequeathing  the  greatest  part  of  his 
fortune  to  an  hospital  for  lunatics  and  I 


idiots.  As  a writer  he  has,  perhaps, 
never  been  exceeded  in  grave  irony. 
He  abounds  in  ludicrous  ideas,  which 
often  deviate,  both  in  his  poetry  and 
prose,  into  very  unpardonable  grossness. 

SWIMMING,  the  act  or  art  of  sustain- 
ing and  propelling  the  body  in  water. 
A large  proportion  of  the  animal  tribes 
are  furnished  with  a greater  or  less 
capacity  for  swimming  either  in  water 
or  on  its  surface,  but  man  is  unqualified 
for  swimming  without  learning  to  do  so 
as  an  art.  The  art  of  swimming  chiefly 
consists  in  keeping  the  head,  or  at  least 
the  mouth,  above  water,  and  using  the 
hands  and  feet  as  oars  and  helm.  Want 
of  confidence  is  the  greatest  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  most  who  begin  to  learn 
swimming.  The  beginner  cannot  per- 
suade himself  that  the  water  will  sup- 
port him,  and  with  the  feeling  that  some 
muscular  effort  is  necessary  for  the  pur- 
pose stiffens  his  back  in  such  a way  that 
the  water  cannot  buoy  him  up  with  the 
head  above  water.  If,  instead  of  doing 
this,  he  would  give  up  the  endeavor  to 
support  himself  by  a muscular  strain, 
and  trust  to  the  water  to  support  him 
like  a cushion,  the  art  of  swimming  would 
come  to  him  almost  as  naturally  as  the 
art  of  walking  does  to  a child.  When  the 
ability  to  swim  in  the  ordinary  way, 
chest  downward,  is  acquired,  everything 
is  acquired.  It  is  as  unnecessary  to  give 
special  instructions  for  swimming  on 
the  back,  on  the  side,  etc.,  as  it  is  to 
direct  people  who  are  able  to  walk  how 
to  turn  themselves  or  walk  up  or  down 
hill.  In  saving  a person  from  drowning, 
which  can  be  done  most  effectually  if  he 
has  already  lost  consciousness,  pull  hmi 
by  the  hair,  or  push  him  before  you,  if 
far  from  shore;  otherwise  take  him  by 
the  arm.  An  excellent  method  of  sup- 
porting another  in  the  water  is  to  allow 
the  person  supported  to  rest  his  hands  on 
your  hips.  This  method  can  scarcely 
be  practiced  in  cases  where  persons 
unable  to  swim  are  drowning;  but  it 
may  be  of  much  avail  in  supporting  a 
brother  swimmer  w’ho  is  attacked  with 
weakness  or  cramp,  and  who  has  pres- 
ence of  mind  to  take  advantage  of  the 
support. 

SWIMMING-BLADDER,  AIR-BLAD- 
DER, or  SOUND  (of  fishes),  the  names 
applied  to  a sac  or  bladder-like  struc- 
ture found  in  most,  but  not  in  all  fishes, 
the  chief  office  of  which  appears  to  con- 
sist in  altering  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  fish,  and  thus  enabling  it  to  rise  or 
sink  at  will  in  the  surrounding  water. 
It  has  a homology  or  structural  corre- 
spondence with  the  lungs  of  higher 
forms  than  fishes;  but  it  has  no  analogy 
or  functional  correspondence  with  the 
lungs  or  breathing  organs,  save  in  the 
peculiar  Lepidosirens  or  mud-fishes,  in 
which  the  air-bladder  becomes  cellu- 
lar in  structure,  and  otherwise  assumes 
a lung-like  structure  and  function  In 
its  simplest  condition  it  exists  as  a 
closed  sac  lying  beneath  the  spine,  and 
containing  air  or  gases  of  different 
kinds.  By  the  muscular  compression 
of  its  walls  the  density  of  the  con- 
tained gas  is  altered,  and  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  fish  affected  accordingly, 
so  as  to  change  its  position  in  the  water. 
In  most  sea-fishes  the  gas  which  tli^ 
swimming-bladder  contains'  is  o-xygen, 


1 


SWINBURNE 


SWITZERLAND 


that  in  the  air-sac  of  fresh-water  fishes 
being  mostly  nitrogen.  Such  fishes  as 
the  flat-fishes,  represented  by  the 
flounders,  soles,  etc.,  have  no  swimming- 
bladder  developed,  and  it  may  be  absent 
in  other  fonns,  such  as  sharks,  rays, 
lampreys,  etc. 

SWINBURNE,  Algernon  Charles,  poet 
and  essayist,  was  born  in  London  1837. 
His  first  productions.  Queen  Mother 
and  Rosamond,  published  in  1861, 
attracted  but  little  attention.  They 
were  followed  by  two  tragedies,  Atalanta 
in  Calydon  and  Chastelard,  and  by 
Poems  and  Ballads  which  excited  con- 
siderable criticism.  Since  that  time 
Swinburne  has  been  prominently  before 
the  public.  Among  his  numerous  later 
works  may  be  mentioned:  A Song  of 
Italy,  William  Blake,  a critical  essay; 
Songs  before  Sunrise,  Bothwell,  a 
tragedy;  Poems  and  Ballads  (2d  series), 
Mary  Stuart,  a tragedy;  Tristram  of 
Lyonesse,  etc.  A Century  of  Roundels, 
Marino  Faliero,  a tragedy;  Poems  and 
Ballads  (3rd  series),  Astrophel  and 
other  Poems;  etc.  He  died  in  1909. 

SWINE.  See  Hog. 

SWINE  FEVER,  or  SWINE  PLAGUE, 

is  known  as  hog  cholera  in  America, 
where  it  has  caused  enormous  losses. 
It  is  a specific  contagious  fever,  gen- 
erally very  rapid  in  its  course,  death  en- 
suing in  a very  few  days.  To  suppress 
the  disease,  all  affected  pigs  must  be 
killed,  and  if  necessary  those  which 
have  been  in  contact  with  them,  and  the 
carcasses  and  litter  burned  or  deeply 
buried. 

SWING,  David,  American  preacher, 
born  in  1830  in  Cincinnati.  In  1866 
he  was  called  to  the  Fourth  Presby- 
terian church  in  Chicago.  In  1874  he 
was  tried  for  heresy  and  acquitted,  but, 
resigned  his  pastorate  and  withdrew 
from  the  Presbyterian  ministry.  He 
organized  a new  church,  meeting  at 
first  in  a theater  and  later  in  the  Central 
Music  Hall,  where  Dr.  Swing  continued 
to  preach  to  one  of  the  largest  congrega- 
tions in  Chicago  until  his  death.  He 
died  in  1894. 

SWING-BRIDGE,  called  also  swivel- 
bridge  and  pivot-bridge,  a bridge  that 
may  be  moved  by  swinging,  so  as  to 
afford  a passage  for  ships  on  a river, 
canal,  at  the  mouth  of  docks,  etc.  In  one 
fonn  the  whole  bridge  is  swung  to  one 
side ; in  another  it  rotates  from  its  center 
on  a pier  in  the  middle  of  the  water-way, 
so  as  to  make  a passage  on  each  side  of 
it;  while  in  a third  it  consists  of  two 
sections,  each  of  which,  when  opened,  is 
landed  on  its  own  side. 

SWISS  GUARDS,  bodies  of  mercenary 
Swiss  troops  which,  since  Switzerland 
gained  her  independence  in  the*  15th 
century,  have  been  employed  in  many 
European  countries  as  body-guards,  and 
for  duty  about  courts.  The  most  fam- 
ous are  the  French  Swiss  guards  organ- 
ized in  1616,  and  annihilated  in  the  de- 
fense of  the  Tuileries,  August  10,  1792, 
whose  heroism  is  commemorated  in 
Thorwaldsen’s  colossal  Lion,  carved  in 
the  face  of  a rock  at  Lucerne.  The  French 
Swiss  guards  were  reorganized  by  Louis 
XVIII.  in  1815,  and  defeated  and  dis- 
persed in  the  revolution  of  1830. 

SWITCHES.  See  Railways. 

§WITHIN,  St.,  bishop  of  Winchester 


from  852  to  862,  and  patron  saint  of 
Winchester  cathedral  from  the  10th  to 
the  16th  century.  The  popular  knowl- 
edge of  this  saint’s  name  is  due  to  the 
belief  that  if  rain  falls  on  the  15th  of 
July  (which  is  popularly  known  as  St. 
Swithin’s  Day)  it  will  rain  for  six  weeks 
after  Similar  superstitions  are  con- 
nected in  various  continental  countries 
with  other  saints’  days  which  occur  in 
summer. 

SWITZERLAND,  a federal  republic 
of  Central  Europe,  bounded  north  by 
Baden,  from  which  it  is  separated  for 
the  most  part  by  the  Rhine;  northeast 
by  Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Lake  of 
Constance;  east  by  the  principality  of 
Lichtenstein  and  the  Tyrol,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Rhine  and  the 
Orisons  Alps;  south  by  Italy,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Alps  and 
the  Lake  of  Geneva;  and  west  and  north- 
west by  France,  from  which  it  is  sepa- 
rated in  part  by  the  Jura  mountains  and 
the  River  Doubs.  Greatest  length,  210 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  126  miles. 
Pop.  3,292,551.  The  largest  towns  are 
Zurich,  Basel,  Geneva,  and  Bern,  the 
last  being  the  federal  capital.  The  char- 
acteristic physical  features  of  Switzer- 
land are  its  lofty  mountain  ranges, 
enormous  glaciers,  magnificent  lakes, 
and  wild  romantic  valleys.  The  loftiest 
mountain-chains  belong  to  the  Alps, 
and  are  situated  chiefly  in  the  south. 
The  central  nucleus  is  Mount  St.  Goth- 
ard,  which  unites  the  principal  water- 
sheds of  Europe.  In  like  manner  it 
forms  a kind  of  starting  point  for  the 
loftiest  ranges  of  the  Alps.  Besides  the 
Alps,  properly  so  called,  the  only  range 
deserving  of  notice  is  that  of  the  Jura, 
which  is  linked  to  the  Alps  by  the  small 
range  of  the  Jorat.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Aar,  and 
the  Inn.  The  largest  lakes,  that  of 
Geneva  in  the  southwest  and  of  Con- 
stance in  the  northeast,  as  well  as  that 
of  Maggiore  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Alps,  belong  partly  to  other  countries; 
but  within  the  limits  of  Switzerland, 
and  not  far  from  its  center,  are  Lake 
Neuchatel,  with  Morat  and  Bienne  in  its 
vicinity,  Thun  with  its  feeder  Brienz, 
Lucerne,  or  Vierwaldstatter-see,  Sem- 
pach,  Baldegg,  Zug,  Zurich,  and  Wal- 
lenstatter-see.  All  these  internal  lakes 
belong  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine.  All 
the  loftiest  alpine  ranges  have  a nucleus 
of  granite,  on  which  gneiss  and  mica- 
slate  recline  generally  at  a high  angle. 
Coal-bearing  strata  are  found  in  the 
cantons  of  Valais,  Vaud,  Freiburg,  Bern, 
and  Thurgau,  and  brown  coal  is  obtained 
in  St.  Gall  and  Zurich.  Iron  is  worked 
to  advantage  in  several  quarters,  par- 
ticularly among  the  strata  connected 
with  the  Jura  limestone.  Rock  and 
common  salt  are  produced  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  cantons  of  Vaud,  Basel,  and 
Aargau.  The  only  other  minerals  de- 
serving of  notice  are  alabaster  and 
marble,  widely  diffused;  and  asphalte, 
in  the  Val-de-Travers  in  the  canton  of 
Valais.  Mineral  springs  occur  in  many 
quarters.  Owing  to  differences  of  eleva- 
tion the  climate  is  extremely  variable 
even  in  the  same  localities.  Owing  to 
the  same  cause,  few  countries  in  Europe 
even  of  larger  extent  can  boast  of  a 


more  varied  vegetation  than  Switzer- 
land. In  regard  to  vegetation  it  has  been 
divided  into  seven  regions.  The  char- 
acteristic product  of  the  first  is  the  vine, 
which  grows  up  to  1700  or  1800  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  The  next  is  the 
hilly  or  lower  mountain  region,  rising  to 
the  height  of  2800  feet,  and  character- 
ized by  the  luxuriance  of  its  walnut 
trees,  with  good  crops  of  spelt  and  ex- 
cellent meadows.  The  third  or  upper 
mountain  region,  which  has  its  limit  at 
4000  feet,  produces  forest  timber,  more 
especially  beech,  and  has  good  crops  of 
barley  and  oats,  and  excellent  pastures. 
Above  this,  and  up  to  the  height  of  5500 
feet,  is  the  fourth  or  subalpine  region, 
distinguished  by  its  pine  forests  and 
maples;  here  no  regular  crops  are  grown; 
The  fifth  or  lower  alpine  region,  ter- 
minating at  6500  feet,  is  the  proper 
region  of  alpine  pastures.  In  the  sixth 
or  upper  alpine  region  the  vegatation 
becomes  more  and  more  stunted,  and 
the  variation  of  the  seasons  is  lost.  The 
seventh  or  last  region  is  that  of  per- 
petual snow.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat, 
spelt,  rye,  oats,  and  potatoes.  The  wine 
produced  is  mostly  of  inferior  quality. 
Considerable  quantities  of  fruit  are 
grown.  Among  domestic  animals  the 


Group  of  Swiss,  District  of  Appenzell. 


first  place  belongs  to  the  horned  cattle, 
and  the  dairy  products  of  Switzerland 
are  of  special  commercial  importance, 
great  quantities  of  cheese  and  condensed 
milk  being  exported.  On  the  higher 
grounds  goats  are  very  numerous. 
Among  wild  animals  are  bears,  wolves, 
chamois,  wild  boars,  stags,  badgers, 
foxes,  har6s,  otters,  birds  of  prey  of  large 
dimensions,  and  many  varieties  of 
winged  game.  The  lakes  and  rivers  are 
well  supplied  with  fish.  Of  the  popula- 
tion about  40  per  cent  are  dependent  on 
agriculture,  and  about  34  per  cent  on 
manufacturing  industry.  Switzerland  is 
thus  mainly  an  agricultural  and  manu- 
facturing country  The  system  of 
peasant  proprietorship  prevails  largely, 
it  being  estimated  that  there  are  nearly 
300,000  peasant  proprietors.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  cotton,  silk, 
embroidery,  watches  and  jewelry,  ma- 
chinery and  iron,  tobacco  and  wool. 
Geneva  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  watch 
industry,  Basel  of  the  silk  industry,  and 
St.  Gallen  of  embroidery.  Switzerland 
being  an  inland  country,  has  direct 
commercial  intercourse  only  with  the 
surrounding  states;  but  the  trade  with 
other  countries,  especially  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States,  is  very  im- 
portant. There  are  now  fully  2300  miles 
of  railway.  There  is  a very  complete 


I 

I 

I 


I 

I 

i 


SWITZERLAND 


SWORD 


system  of  telegraphs.  The  French 
metric  system  of  money,  weights,  and 
measures  has  been  generally  adopted  in 
Switzerland.  Both  the  Evangelical- 
reformed  church  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
are  national  churches  in  Switzerland, 
about  59  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  be- 
longing to  the  former,  and  41  per  cent  to 
the  latter.  There  is  complete  liberty  of 
conscience  and  creed,  but  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  and  the  societies  affiliated 
to  it  are  not  allowed  within  the  con- 
federation. In  terms  of  the  constitution 
of  1874  primary  education  is  secular 
and  compulsory  throughout  the  con- 
federation. For  the  higher  education 
there  are  five  universities,  Basel,  Zurich, 
Geneva,  Berne,  Lausanne,  the  first 
founded  in  1460,  and  the  others  since 
1832.  There  are  also  academies  or  in- 
complete universities  at  Fribourg  and 
NeucMtel ; a polytechnic  school  at 
Zurich;  and  a military  academy  at 
Thun.  The  cantons  of  Switzerland  are 
united  together  as  a federal  republic  for 
mutual  defense,  but  retain  their  in- 
dividual independence  in  regard  to 
all  matters  of  internal  administration. 
The  legislative  power  of  the  confedera- 
tion belongs  to  a federal  assembly,  and 
the  executive  power  to  a federal 
council.  The  federal  assembly  is  com- 
posed of  two  divisions — the  national 
council,  and  the  state  council  or 
senate.  The  national  council  is  elected 
every  three  years  by  the  cantons — one 
member  to  each  20,000.  Every  lay 
Swiss  citizen  is  eligible.  The  senate  con- 
sists of  forty-four  members — two  for 
each  canton.  In  addition  to  its  legisla- 
tive functions  the  federal  assembly  pos- 
sesses the  exclusive  right  of  concluding 
treaties  of  alliance  with  other  countries, 
declaring  war  and  singing  peace,  sanc- 
tioning the  cantonal  constitutions,  and 
taking  measures  regarding  neutrality 
and  intervention.  The  army  consists  of 
the  Bundesauszug,  or  federal  army,  com- 
prising all  men  able  to  bear  arms  from 
the  age  of  twenty  to  thirty-two  ; and  the 
Landwehr,  or  militia,  comprising  all 
men  from  the  age  of  thirty-two  to  forty- 
four.  In  1907  the  Bundesauszug  had  a 
strength  of  153,649,  and  the  Landwehr 
of  88,813,  making  a total  of  242,642. 
There  is  also,  by  a law  of  1887,  a Land- 
sturm  (of  283,643  men),  in  which  every 
citizen  between  the  ages  of  seveiiteen 
and  fifty,  not  otherwise  serving,  is  liable 
to  be  called  to  serve.  The  Landsturm 
is  called  out  only  in  time  of  war.  The 
Swiss  are  a mixed  people  as  to  race  and 
language.  German,  French,  Italian,  and 
a corrupt  kind  of  Latin  called  Rha;tian 
or  Roumansch,  are  spoken  in  different 
parts.  The  Swiss,  however,  have  lived 
so  long  in  a state  of  confederation  that, 
apart  from  these  peculiarities  of  origin 
and  language,  they  have  acquired  a 
decided  national  character,  and  may 
now  be  viewed  as  forming  a single 
people.  The  oldest  inhabitants  men- 
tioned in  written  history  are  the  Hel- 
vetians, who,  between  58  b.c.  and  10 
A.D.,  were  subjugated  by  the  Romans. 
Before  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  in 
the  West,  Switzerland  was  occupied  by 
the  German  confederation  of  the  Ale- 
manni;  by  the  Burgundians  and  the 
Lombards;  and  by  the  j^ear  534,  under 
the  successors  of  Clovis,  it  had  become 


a portion  of  the  Frankish  empire.  Under 
the  successors  of  Charlemagne  it  was 
divided  between  the  Kingdom  of  France 
and  the  German  empire,  but  ultimately 
the  whole  country  fell  to  Germany.  For 
the  most  part,  however,  the  dependence 
of  Switzerland  on  Germany  was  merely 
nominal.  The  counts  (originally  local 
governors)  conducted  themselves  as 
princes,  assumed  the  name  of  their 
castles,  and  compelled  the  free  inhabi- 
tants of  their  Gaus  (districts)  to  ac- 
knowledge them  as  their  lords.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century  the  three 
forest  cantons  of  Uri,  Schwyz,  and 
Unterwalden  were  subject  to  the  counts 
of  Hapsburg,  who,  although  they  were 
properly  only  imperial  bailiffs  (Vogte), 
yet  regarded  themselves  as  sovereign 
rulers.  This  claim  the  three  cantons 
constantly  refused  to  admit,  and  event- 
ually (1291)  leagued  themselves  to- 
gether to  oppose  the  usurpations  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburg.  On  January  1,  1308, 
the  Austrian  governors  were  deposed 
and  expelled.  A few  years  later  the 
three  cantons  were  invaded  by  the 
Hapsburgs;  but  the  signal  victory  at 
the  pass  of  Morgarten  on  the  15th  of 
November,  1315,  secured  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  cantons.  The  three 
united  cantons  were  joined  by  the  cities 
of  Lucerne  (1332)  and  Zurich  (1351), 
the  cantons  of  Glarus  and  Zug  (1352), 
and  the  city  of  Bern  (1353).  Austria, 
which  claimed  jurisdiction  over  three  of 
the  newly-added  members,  namely,  the 
city  of  Lucerne  and  the  cantons  of 
Glarus  and  Zug,  again  invaded  the  terri- 
tory of  the  confederation,  but  was  com- 
pletely defeated  at  Sempach  in  1386, 
and  in  1388  at  Niifels.  The  canton  of 
Appenzell  joined  the  confederation  in 
1411,  and  Aargau  was  wrested  from  the 
Austrians  in  1415.  The  third  war  with 
Austria  terminated  in  1460,  in  favor  of 
the  confederation,  which  obtained  Thur- 
gau,  Austria  being  thus  deprived  of  all 
its  possessions  in  the  regions  over  which 
Switzerland  now  extends.  They  ad- 
mitted Freiburg  and  Solothurn  into  the 
confederation  in  1481,  and  about  the 
same  time  they  concluded  defensive 
alliances  with  several  of  the  neighboring 
states.  The  last  war  with  Austria^broke 
out  in  1498.  The  Swiss  had  to  undergo 
a severe  struggle,  but,  victors  in  six 
sanguinary  battles,  they  were,  by  the 
Peace  of  Basel  in  1499,  practically  sepa- 
rated from  the  empire,  a separation  to 
which  formal  and  international  sanction 
was  given  in  1648.  After  this  war  they 
had  no  longer  any  enemy  to  fear,  and 
their  future  wars  were  waged  on  behalf 
of  foreign  powers.  In  1501  Basel  and 
Schaff hausen,  and  in  1513  Appenzell 
were  admitted  into  full  federation.  The 
number  of  the  cantons  was  thus  brought 
up  to  thirteen,  at  which  it  remained  till 
1798.  The  town  and  the  abbot  of  St. 
Gall  and  the  town  of  Bienne  had  seats 
and  votes  in  the  diet  without  being  in 
full  federation;  and  there  were  besides 
six  allies  of  the  confederation  not  enjoy- 
ing these  privileges — the  Grisons,  Valais, 
Geneva,  Neufchl^tel,  Miihlhausen,  and  the 
bishopric  of  Basel.  In  1516  France  gave 
up  to  Switzerland  the  whole  of  the 
present  canton  of  Ticino.  In  1518  the 
Reformation  began  to  make  its  way  into 
Switzerland,  chiefly  through  the  efforts 


of  Zuinglius  at  Zurich.  Zuinglius  fell  at 
Kappel  (1531),  but  his  work  was  carried 
on  by  Calvin  at  Geneva.  The  effect  of 
the  Reformation  for  long  was  to  divide 
Switzerland  into  separate  camps.  The 
last  time  the  two  great  parties  met  in 
arms  was  at  Willmergen  in  1712,  when 
victory  declared  itself  for  the  Protes- 
tants. In  almost  every  department  of 
human  knowledge  the  Swiss  of  the  18th 
century,  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
acquired  distinguished  reputation.  In 
the  last  years  of  the  century  the  ferment 
of  the  French  revolution  spread  to 
Switzerland;  and  in  1798  the  ancient 
confederation  was  replaced  by  the 
Helvetic  Republic,  which  lasted  four 
years.  In  1803  Napoleon  I.  organized  a 
new  confederation,  composed  of  nine- 
teen cantons,  by  the  addition  of  Aargau, 
Grisons,  St.  Gall,  Ticino,  Thurgau,  and 
Pays  de  Vaud.  In  1815,  by  the  compact 
of  Zurich,  Neufch4tel,  Geneva,  and 
Valais  were  admitted  into  the  con- 
federacy, and  the  number  of  the  cantons 
was  thus  brought  up  to  twenty-two. 
This  confederacy  was  acknowledged  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna,  which  pro- 
claimed the  perpetual  neutrality  of 
Switzerland,  and  the  inviolability  of  its 
soil.  Again,  in  1830  and  in  1848,  Swit- 
zerland was  affectedLy  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  France,  and  a new  federal 
constitution  was  introduced  in  the  latter 
year.  During  the  commotions  of  1848 
Neufch^tel  set  aside  it^  monarchial  form 
of  government  and  adopted  a republican 
one,  and  in  1857  it  was  put  upon  the 
same  footing  with  the  other  cantons. 
Since  that  tinre  the  annals  of  Switzer- 
land have  little  to  record  beyond  the 
fact  of  constant  moral  and  material 
progress.  A revision  of  the  federal  con- 
stitution was  adopted  after  a protracted 
agitation  on  the  19th  of  April,  1874, 
giving  to  the  federal  authorities  more 
power  in  matters  relating  to  law,  the 
army,  the  church,  and  education. 

SWORD,  a weapon  used  in  hand-to- 


^Swords. 

a.  Rapier,  16th  century;  b,  Italian  sword, 
wrought-bronze  hilt;  c,  French  hunting-sword, 
18th  century;  d.  Small  sword,  18th  century; 
e,  Knights’  sword,  15th  century. 

hand  encounters  consisting  of  a steel 
blade  and  a hilt  or  handle  for  wielding 


SWORD-FISH 


SYMPATHY 


it.  The  blade  may  be  either  straight  or 
curved,  one-edged,  or  two-edged,  sharp 
at  the  end  for  thrusting,  or  blunt.  The 
ancient  Greek  swords  were  of  bronze, 
and  later  of  iron.  The  Romans  in  the 
time  of  Polybius  (b.c.  150)  had  short, 
straight  swords  of  finely-tempered  steel. 
The  straight,  long  sword  was  used  by 
the  Christians  of  the  West  in  the  middle 
ages,  while  the  Poles  and^  all  the  tribes 
of  Slavonic  origin  employed,  and  still 
prefer,  the  crooked  sword  or  scimitar, 
which  was  also  used  by  the  Saracens, 
and  is  still  the  common  one  in  the  East. 
The  double-handed  sword  of  the  middle 
ages  was  an  unwieldly  weapon,  and 
probably  originated  from  the  wearing 
of  plate  armor.  The  sword  is  of  much 
less  importance  in  warfare  than  formerly, 
but  European  cavalry  are  still  armed 
with  it.  From  the  former  importance  of 
the  sword  it  came  to  be  connected  with 
various  matters  of  ceremonial.  The 
sword  of  state  is  one  of  the  regalia,  and 
the  “offering  of  the  sword”  one  of  the 
ceremonies  of  coronation.  Damascus, 
Toledo,  and  Milan  were  anciently  fam- 
ous for  their  sword-blades.  In  England, 
at  the  present  day,  the  government  seat 
of  the  sword  manufacture  is  Birming- 
ham. See  Broadsword,  Cutlass,  Rapier, 
and  Scimitar;  also  Cutlery  and  Fencing. 

SWORD-FISH,  a fish  allied  to  the 
mackerel  and  represented  by  the  com- 
mon sword-fish,  the  single  known  species. 
It  occurs  in  the  Mediterranean  sea  and 
Atlantic  ocean,  but  may  also  be  oc- 
casionally found  round  the  coasts  of 
Britain.  It  attains  a length  of  from 
12  to  15,  or  even  20  feet,  the  elongated 
upper  jaw,  or  sword,  forming  three- 
tenths  of  its  length.  Its  body  is  covered 


with  minute  scales.  Its  color  is  a bluish- 
black  above,  and  silvery  white  on  the 
under  parts.  The  ventral  fins  are  want- 
ing. It  is  fished  for  by  the  Neapolitan 
and  Sicilian  fishermen  with  the  harpoon. 
Its  flesh  is  very  palatable  and  nutritious. 
It  attacks  other  fishes,  and  often  inflicts 
fatal  wounds  with  its  powerful  weapon; 
and  there  are  frequent  instances  in 
which  the  timbers  of  ships  have  been 
found  to  be  perforated  through  and 
through  by  the  sword-like  jaw,  which 
has  been  left  sticking  in  the  wood. 

SYCAMORE,  a large  and  well-known 
timber  tree  in  the  western  parts  of  the 
United  States,  a name  for  the  occidental 
plane  or  buttonwood.  For  the  Syca- 
more of  Scripture  see  Sycomore. 

SYCOMORE,  a kind  of  fig-tree.  It  is 
very  common  in  Palestine,  Arabia,  and 
Egypt,  growing  thick  and  to  a great 
height,  and  though  the  grain  is  coarse, 
much  used  in  building,  and  very  durable. 
Its  wide-spreading  branches  afford  a 
grateful  shade  in  those  hot  climates,  and 
its  fruit,  which  is  produced  in  clusters 


upon  the  trunk  and  the  old  limbs,  is 
sweet  and  delicate. 

SYDNEY,  the  capital  of  New  South 
Wales  and  the  parent  city  of  Australia, 
is  situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  Port 
Jackson,  the  shore  line  being  deeply 
indented  by  capacious  bays  or  inlets 
which  form  harbors  in  themselvms,  and 
are  lined  with  wharves,  quays,  and 
warehouses.  Among  the  most  important 
public  buddings  are  the  new  govern- 
ment offices,  the  town-hall,  with  a tower 
200  feet  high,  and  a very  capacious 
great  hall;  the  post-office,  an  Italian 
building  with  a tower  250  feet  high;  the 
government  house;  the  university,  a 
Gothic  building  vdth  a frontage  of 
nearly  400  feet,  situated  in  a fine  park; 


The  symbols  for  the  chief  heavenlyl 
bodies  are  as  follows; 

Sun  O,  Mercury  Venus  J,  Earth  { and 
0,  Moon  (J,  Mars  Ceres?,  Pallas'^, 
Juno'^,  Vesta  Jupiter  If,  Saturn  Tj*  1 
Uranus  Neptune*|*,  Cometh,  Star 
The  asteroids,  except  the  four  given  above, 
are  represented  by  a circle  with  a number, 
thus,^^.  Lunar  Phases.  ^ Moon  in 
conjunction,  or  new;  J)  Moon  in  eastern 
quadrature,  or  Jirst  quarter;  Q Moon  in 
opposition,  or  full;  ([  Moon  in  western 
qjiadrature,  or  last  quarter.  See  peliptic.— 
Chemical  symbols  are  merely  the  first] 
letters  of  the  names  of  the  chemical  j 
elements;  or,  when  the  names  of  two  orj 


Buckler 


SYDNEY 

AND 

PORT JACKSON 

NATURAL  SCALE.  1 ,168.400. 
ENGLISH  MILES 

^ 1 J 

1.  Government  House 

2.  University 

3.  Teivn  Hail 

4.  General  Post 


the  free  public  library;  school  of  art; 
public  museum;  grammar-school;  St. 
Andrew’s  (Episcopal)  cathedral;  St. 
Mary’s  (R.C.)  cathedral;  the  Jewish 
synagogue;  exchange;  custom-house; 
mint;  parliament  houses;  hospitals, 
asylums,  and  numerous  other  ecclesiasti- 
cal, scholastic,  and  business  buildings. 
The  principal  exports  are  wool,  tallow, 
hides,  preserved  meat,  tin,  copper,  etc.; 
the  imports,  grain,  tea,  coffee,  sugar, 
wine  and  spirits,  ironware  and  machin- 
ery, cotton  and  woolen  goods,  wear- 
ing apparel,  furniture,  etc.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  the  colony  in  1851 
gave  an  immense  impetus  to  its  progress. 
Pop.  618,462. 

SYLVESTER,  Joshua,  English  poet, 
born  in  1563,  was  a member  of  the 
company  of  merchant  adventurers  at 
Stade,  Holland.  He  is  known  chiefly 
as  the  translator  into  English  of  the 
Divine  Weeks  and  Works  of  the  French 
poet  Du  Bartas.  He  died  in  1618. 

SYMBOL,  a sign  by  which  one  knows 
or  infers  a thing;  an  emblem.  It  is  gen- 
erally a definite  visible  figure  intended 
to  represent  or  stand  for  something  else, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  common  astronomi- 
cal symbols,  which  are  signs  conven- 
iently representing  astronomical  ob- 
jects, phases  of  the  moon,  etc.,  and 
astronomical  terms.  Some  of  these 
symbols  are  so  ancient  that  we  can  find 
no  satisfactory  account  of  their  origin. 


more  elements  begin  with  the  same  S' 
letter,  two  letters  are  used  as  the  symbol,  '■ 
one  of  which  is  always  the  first  letter  of  1 , 
the  name  of  the  element.  Generally 
speaking  the  letters  comprising  the 
symbol  are  taken  from  the  English 
name  of  the  element;  but  in  some  in- 
stances, specially  in  the  case  of  metals 
which  have  been  long  known,  the  sym- 
bols are  derived  from  the  Latin  names, 
as  Fe  (Lat.  ferrum)  for  iron.  See  Chem- 
istry.— Mathematical  symbols  are  letters 
and  characters  which  represent  quan- 
tities or  magnitudes,  and  point  out  their 
relations,  as,  a",  a„;  a~,  a.;  a™,  a;  the 
signs,  +,  -,  X,  <,  >,  etc. 

SYMPATHETIC  INKS,  inks  which  re- 
main invisible  until  acted  upon  by  heat 
or  by  some  other  reagent.  See  Ink. 

SYMPATHETIC  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 
the  name  applied  to  a set  of  nerves  in 
vertebrate  anhnals,  fonning  a nervous 
system  distinct  from,  and  yet  connected 
with,  the  chief  nerve-centers,  or  cerebro- 
spinal nervous  system.  They  are  spe- 
cially connected  with  the  processes  of 
organic  life,  the  movements  of  the  heart 
and  of  respiration,  the  work  of  the 
stomach,  etc.,  in  digestion,  the  process 
of  secretion  in  glands,  etc.  See  Nerve. 

SYM'PATHY,  in  physiology,  is  that 
quality  of  the  animal  organization  by 
which,  through  the  increased  or  dimin- 
ished activity  of  one  organ,  that  of 


SYMPHONY 


SYRACUSE 


others  5s  aiso  increased  or  diminished. 
The  idea  of  an  organized  system — the 
union  of  manj^'  parts  in  one  whole,  in 
which  all  t hese  pal'ts  correspond  to  each 
other — includes  the  idea  of  a mutual 
operation,  of  which  sympathy  is  a part. 
The  sympathetic  medium  has  been 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  the  nervous 
system,  sometimes  the  vascular  or  cel- 
lular system;  but  sympatlry  takes  place 
between  such  organs  as  have  no  dis- 
coverable connection  by  nerves  or  ves- 
sels. The  phenomenon  of  sympathy 
appears  even  in  the  healthy  body;  but 
its  effect  is  much  more  often  observed 
in  diseases.  Sympathy  is  birther  used 
to  express  the  influence  of  the  pathologi- 
cal state  of  one  individual  upon  another, 
as  in  the  contagion  of  hysteria  or  of 
yawning. 

SYM'PHONY,  an  elaborate  musical 
composition  for  a full  orchestra,  consist- 
ing usually,  like  the  sonata,  of  three  or 
four  contrasted,  yet  inwardly  related 
movements.  Haydn,  Mozart,  Mendel- 
sshon,  and  Beethoven  are  the  most  suc- 
cessful composers  of  this  class  of  com- 
positions. 

SYMPTOMS,  in  medicine,  the  phe- 
nomena of  diseases,  from  which  we  in- 
fer the  existence  and  the  nature  of  the 
disease.  Symptoms  have  their  seat  in 
the  functions  which  are  affected  by  the 
disease,  and  may  be  perceptible  by  the 
patient  alone  (for  example,  pain  and  all 
change  of  sensations),  or  by  the  phy- 
sician also  (for  example,  all  diseased 
movements).  The  nervous,  the  vascular, 
and  the  cutaneous  systems  are  affected 
in  most  diseases,  and  thus  afford  symp- 
toms. If  the  symptoms  are  percepti- 
ble only  to  the  patient  they  are  called 
subjective;  if  to  the  physician  without 
necessary  reference  to  the  patient,  they 
are  objective. 

SYNAGOGUE,  the  recognized  place  of 
public  worship  among  the  Jews.  Its 
origin,  it  is  supposed,  belongs  most 
probably  to  the  date  of  the  Babylonish 
captivity  in  the  abeyance  of  temple 
worship.  The  synagogues  were  so  con- 
structed that  the  worshippers,  as  they 
entered  and  as  they  praj^ed,  looked  to- 
ward Jerusalem.  At  the  extreme  east 
end  was  the  holy  ark,  containing  copies 
of  the  Pentateuch;  in  front  of  this  was 
the  raised  platform  for  the  reader  or 
preacher.  The  men  sat  on  one  side  of 
tlie  synagogue  and  the  women  on  the 
other,  a partition  5 or  6 feet  high  divid- 
ing them.  The  chief  seats,  after  which 
the  scribes  and  Pharisees  strove,  were 
situated  near  the  east  end.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  synagogue  was  congrega- 
tional, not  priestly,  and  the  office- 
bearers were  not  hereditary,  but  were 
chosen  by  the  congregation.  A college 
of  elders,  presided  over  by  one  who  was 
the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  managed  the 
affairs  of  the  synagogue,  and  possessed 
the  power  of  excommunication.  The 
officiating  minister  was  the  chief  reader 
of  the  prayers,  the  law,  the  prophets, 
etc  The  servant  of  the  synagogue,  who 
had  the  general  charge  of  the  building, 
generally  acted  on  week-days  as  school- 
master to  the  young  of  the  congregation. 
The  right  of  instruction  was  not  strictly 
confined  to  the  regularlj''-appointed 
teachers,  but  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue 
might  call  upon  anyone  present  to  ad-  I 


dress  the  people,  or  even  a stranger 
miglit  volunteer  to  speak.  The  modern 
synagogue  differs  little  from  the  ancient. 
Instead  of  elders  there  is  a committee 
of  management;  and  the  women  are  now 
provided  with  seats  in  a low  latticed 
gallery. — The  Great  Synagogue  was  an 
assembly  or  council  of  120  members, 
said  to  liave  been  founded  and  presided 
over  by  Ezra  after  the  return  from  the 
captivity.  Their  duties  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  remodelling  of  the  religi- 
ous life  of  the  people,  and  the  collecting 
and  redacting  of  the  sacred  books  of 
former  times. 

SYNCOPE  (sin'ko-pe),  the  name  given 
to  that  form  of  death  characterized  by 
failure  and  cessation  of  the  heart’s 
action  as  its  primary  feature.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  state  of  faint- 
ing produced  by  a diminution  or  inter- 
ruption of  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  of 
respiration,  accompanied  with  a sus- 
pension of  the  action  of  the  brain  arid  a 
temporary  loss  of  sensation,  volition, 
and  other  faculties.  Fatal  syncope  is 
usually  the  result  of  some  nervous 
“shock,”  resulting  from  some  severe 
lesion  of  organs,  or  from  a want  of  blood 
or  an  altered  and  abnormal  state  of 
blood  pressure.  Ordinarily  syncope  is 
caused  chiefly  by  weakness,  mental 
emotion,  etc.  The  fainting  patient 
should  be  laid  on  a couch  and  the  head 
kept  low;  while  great  caution  must  be 
observed  in  stimulating  the  action  of 
the  heart. 

SYNDIC,  an  officer  intrusted  with  the 
affairs  of  a city  or  other  community; 
also,  a person  appointed  to  act  in  some 
particular  affair  in  which  he  has  a com- 
mon interest  with  his  constituents,  as 
when  he  is  one  among  several  creditors 
of  the  same  debtor. 

SYN'DICATES,  originally,  councils  or 
bodies  of  syndics;  afterward,  associa- 
tions of  persons  formed  with  the  view  of 
promoting  some  particular  enterprise, 
discharging  some  trust,  or  the  like ; now, 
combinations  of  capitalists  for  the  pur- 
pose of  controlling  production  and  rais- 
ing prices.  Formerly,  combinations  of 
capitalists  simply  aimed  at  an  agree- 
ment as  to  how  much  each  should  pro- 
duce, and  what  common  price  should  be 
charged  to  the  public,  each  producer 
still  retaining  control  over  his  own  busi- 
ness; but  modern  syndicates  have  abso- 
lute control  over  the  operations  of  all  the 
consenting  parties,  and  aim  at  obtaining 
entire  control  of  the  industries  with 
which  they  deal,  so  that  both  pi-oducer 
and  consumer  shall  be  at  their  mercy. 
Syndicates,  in  their  modern  form,  origi- 
nated in  the  United  States,  where  they 
have  been  introduced  into  all  the  leading 
branches  of  trade,  and  are  now  in  opera- 
tion on  a very  extensive  scale.  From  the 
United  States  they  were  transplanted  to 
the  continent  of  Europe,  where  they 
found  a congenial  soil,  especially  in  Ger- 
many. Their  introduction  into  Britain 
is  of  more  recent  date,  but  they  promise 
to  become  as  general  there  as  else- 
where. 

SYNOD,  an  eccle^  nstical  assembly 
convened  to  consult  on  church  affairs. 
A synod  may  be  diocesan,  composed  of 
a bishop  and  the  clergy  of  his  diocese; 
or  provincial,  of  an  archbishop  and  the 
bishops  and  clergy  of  his  province;  or 


national,  of  the  whole  clergy  of  a state 
under  a papal  legate.  The  convocations 
of  the  English  clergy  are  provincial 
synods.  Synods  in  the  Presbyterian 
church  are  courts  of  review  standing  be- 
tween the  presbyteries  and  the  general 
assembly,  and  embracing  a certain  num- 
ber of  associated  presbyteries,  the  clergy 
and  elders  of  which  constitute  the  respec- 
tive synods. 

SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS,  a term  applied 
to  the  gospels  of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark, 
and  St.  Luke,  which  present  a synopsis 
or  general  view  of  the  same  series  of 
events.  In  St  John’s  gospel  the  events 
narrated  are  different.  See  Gospel. 

SYNTAX,  that  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  manner  of  connecting  words 
into  regular  sentences,  constructing  sen- 
tences by  the  due  arrangement  of  words 
or  members  in  their  mutual  relations 
according  to  established  usage.  In  every 
language  there  is  some  fundamental 
principle  which  pervades  and  regulates 
its  whole  construction,  although  it  may 
occasionallly  admit  of  particular  varia- 
tions. In  some  languages  the  principle 
of  juxtaposition  prevails,  and  little 
diversity  of  arrangement  is  possible,  as 
is  the  case  in  English,  in  which  inflec- 
tions are  so  few.  The  relations  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  action,  and  the  object  are  in- 
dicated by  their  respective  position.  In 
other  langauges — inflected  languages 
like  Latin  or  Greek — these  relations  are 
indicated  by  the  changes  in  the  forms 
of  the  words,  and  the  modes  of  arrange- 
ment are  various.  Still,  in  the  structure 
and  disposition  of  sentences  and  parts 
of  sentences  the  logical  relations  of  the 
thoughts  must  regulate  the  construc- 
tion, even  where  it  appears  to  be  most 
arbitrary. 

SYNTHESIS.  See  Analysis. 

SYPH'ILIS,  a disease  usually  com- 
municated by  impure  sexual  connection. 
It  is  a contagious  and  hereditary  veneral 
disease,  characterized  in  its  primary  or 
local  stage  by  chancres  or  ulcers  on  the 
genitals,  succeeded  by  inguinal  buboes. 
The  indications  of  a secondary  or  con- 
stitutional affection  are  ulcers  in  the 
throat,  copper-colored  eruptions  on  the 
skin,  pains  in  the  bones,  nerves,  etc. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury it  assumed  an  epidemic  form,  and 
spread  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Like  other  diseases,  it  gradually  dimin- 
ished in  virulence,  particularly  after 
Paracelsus  had  found  in  mercury  a use- 
ful remedy  against  it. 

SYPHON.  See  Siphon. 

SYR'ACUSE  (now  Siracusa),  anciently 
the  chief  city  of  Sicily,  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  island,  one  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent cities  in  the  world,  with  500,000 
inhabitants,  is  now  greatly  redpeed,  but 
still  has  an  excellent  harbor,  capable  of 
receiving  vessels  of  the  greatest  burden. 
The  cathedral  is  the  ancient  templa  of 
Minerva,  and  there  are  remains  of  am- 
pitheaters  and  other  Roman  works. 
Syracuse  was  founded  by  a colony  of 
Corinthians  under  Archias,  B.c.  734, 
and,  according  to  Thucydides,  possessed 
a greater  population  than  Athens  or 
any  other  Grecian  city.  Syracuse  is  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop,  and  since  1865 
has  been  the  capital  of  a province  of  the 
same  name.  It  has  some  manufactures 
of  drugs,  chemicals,  and  earthenware, 


TABERNACLfi 


fiVliACU^fi 

and  a considerable  commerce,  prin- 
cipally in  wine.  Pop.  21,157. 

SYR'ACUSE,  a city  in  Onondaga  co.. 
New  Y'ork,  148  miles  west  of  Albany. 
It  has  spacious  and  well-built  streets, 
handsome  churches,  splendid  hotels, 
large  and  lofty  warehouses,  university, 
and  complete  system  of  public  schools, 
etc.  The  salt  industry,  to  which  it  owed 
its  early  prosperity,  is  still  the  staple, 
the  springs  yielding  on  an  average  from 
seven  to  eight  million  bushels  of  salt  a 
year;  but  the  other  industries  are 
numerous  and  important  (including 
rolling-mills,  furnaces,  steel  works,  etc.), 
and  there  is  an  extensive  traffic  by  rail 
and  canal.  Pop.  1909.  about  130,000. 

SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY,  a coeduca- 
tional institution  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.; 
founded  in  the  year  1848,  but  located  at 
Lima,  N.  Y.,  and  known  as  Genesee 
college  until  1871,  when  it  was  removed 
to  Syracuse.  The  campus  comprises  50 
acres;  the  principal  buildings  are  the 
Hall  of  Languages,  the  Holden  observ- 
atory, the  John  Crouse  Memorial  col- 
lege, containing  the  college  of  fine  arts. 


the  library  building,  and  the  Y;  M.  C. 
A.  hall  and  gymnasium.  The  medical 
college  building  is  near  the  center  of  the 
city.  The  college  was  removed  from 
Geneva  in  1881.  A college  of  law  was 
opened  in  1895. 

SYRTA,  a country  forming  part  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Taurus  range,  on  the  north- 
east by  the  Euphrates,  on  the  east  by 
the  Syrian  desert,  on  the  south  and 
southeast  by  Arabia,  on  the  southwest 
by  Egypt,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Medi- 


terranean; area,  estimated  at  about 
70,000  square  miles.  The  coast  has 
some  low  sandy  tracts,  but  is  in  general, 
though  not  deeply  indented,  lofty  and 
precipitous,  rising,  particularly  in  Mount 
Carmel,  to  the  height  of  3000  feet.  The 
only  good  harbors  are  those  of  Beyrout 
and  Alexandretta  (Scanderoon).  In 
Lebanon  the  mountains  reach  a height 
of  about  10,000  feet.  Between  the  two 
parallel  ranges  of  Libanus  and  Anti- 
Libanus  is  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria, 
whence  the  Orontes  flows  northward, 
turning  westward  at  Antioch,  and  falling 
into  the  sea  at  the  ancient  Seleucia. 
The  principal  river  of  South  Syria 
(Palestine,  which  see)  is  the  Jordan.  In 
the  course  of  the  Jordan  are  the  lakes 
of  Merom  and  Tiberias,  and  at  its  mouth 
is  the  far  larger  lake,  the  Dead  Sea. 
Much  of  the  soil,  more  especially  in  the 
valleys  of  Lebanon,  is  very  fertile;  but 
agriculture  is  not  pursued  with  so  much 
zeal  as  in  ancient  times.  Nevertheless, 
the  orchards  of  Damascus  and  the  corn- 
fields of  Hauran  are  celebrated,  and  the 
olive-tree  and  the  vine  are  found  in  all 


parts.  The  country  is  poor  in  minerals; 
the  native  manufactures  in  silk,  cotton, 
and  wool  have  been  paralyzed  by  the 
import  trade  from  Europe;  and  the  cara- 
van trade  has  almost  entirely  ceased. 
The  inhabitants,  roughly  estimated  at 
about  1,500,000,  consist  chiefly  of  two 
elements,  the  Aramaic  and  the  Arabic 
the  latter  including  Bedouins  and  town 
and  peasant  Arabs.  Jews  are  found  only 
in  the  large  towns,  and  have  immigrated 
back  from  Europe.  The  language  gen- 
erally spoken  is  Arabic,  but  with  Aramaic 


elements.  The  Mohammedans  comprise  j ; 
about  four-fifths  of  the  population,  and 
the  Christians  one-fifth.  Syria  at  anV 
early  period  became  part  of  the  Assyrian^*: 
empire,  and  afterward  passed  to  the  * 
Persians,  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans. 

It  formed  part  of  the  Byzantine  empire,-! 
but  was  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  636,  by 
the  Seljuk  Turks  in  1078,  by  the  Cru-,. 
saders,  whose  kingdom  of  Jerusalem' 
lasted  till  1295,  by  the  Mamelukes,  who  ' 
united  it  with  Egypt,  and  by  the  Otto- . 
man  Turks,  who  added  it  to  their  em- 
pire in  1517.  The  most  important  events 
in  the  modern  history  of  Syria  are  its 
conquest  by  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt  in 
1833,  and  its  restoration  to  Turkey  in.^' 
1840  by  the  intervention  of  the  great 
European  powers;  and  the  war  between 
the  Drihses  and  Maronites  which  broke 
out  in  1860,  peace  being  restored  in  1861  - 
only  by  the  active  efforts  of  a French 
force  sent  out  under  sanction  of  Turkey  ' 
and  the  western  powers.  At  present 
Syria  comprises  three  vilayets — Syria  - 
proper,  Aleppo,  and  Beyrout,  and  the 
mutessarifates  of  Zor  (on  the  Euphrates) 
Lebanon,  and  Jerusalem.  Lebanon  has 
the  special  privilege  of  being  under  the 
rule  of  a Christian  Mutessarif. 

SYRINGA.  See  Lilac. 

SYRINGE,  an  instrument  consisting 
of  a cylinder  of  metal  or  glass  fitted  with 
an  air-tight  piston,  which  is  moved  up 
and  down  by  means  of  a handle.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  is  destitute  of  valves, 
one  simple  aperture  at  the  extremity . 
serving  for  the  admission  and  ejection 
of  fluid;  those  provided  with  valves, 
however,  are  available,  on  a small  scale, 
for  all  the  purposes  of  an  air-pump. 

SYRUP,  in  medicine,  a saturated,  or 
almost  saturated  solution  of  sugar  in 
water,  either  simple,  flavored,  or  medi- 
cated. In  the  sugar  manufacture,  a 
syrup  is  a strong  saccharine  solution 
which  contains  sugar  in  a condition 
capable  of  being  crystalized  out,  the 
ultimate  uncrystalizable  fluid  being 
called  treacle  or  molasses. 

SZE-CHUEN,  a large  province  in  the 
west  of  China;  area,  166,800  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  generally  rugged  and  full 
of  defiles,  especially  in  the  west,  where  . 
many  peaks  rise  far  above  the  snow- 
line, but  there  is  a plain  of  some  extent 
surrounding  Ching-too-fo,  the  capital. 
The  principal  river  is  the  Y'ang-tse- 
kiang.  The  soil  is  only  moderately  fer- 
tile, but  there  is  some  metallic  wealth. 
Pop.  67,712,897. 

SZEGEDIN  (seg'e-din),  a royal  free  ■ 
city  of  Hungary.  It  is  second  only  to 
Budapest,  and  is  a great  center  of  com- 
merce and  agriculture.  Pop.  100,552 


Antioch  in  Syria. 


T,  the  twentieth  letter  in  the  English 
alphabet,  a sharp  mute  consonant,  rep- 
resenting the  sound  produced  by  a quick 
and  strong  emission  of  the  breath  after 
the  end  of  the  tongue  has  been  placed 
against  the  roof  of  the  mouth  near  the 
roots  of  the  upper  teeth.  By  Grimm’s 
law  t in  English  corresponds  to  d in 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  and  to  ss  or 
z in  German. 


T 

TAB'ARD,a  sort  of  tunic  of  the  middle 
ages,  worn  over  the  armor,  and  generally 
embroidered  with  the  arms  of  the  wearer 
or  if  worn  by  a herald,  with  those  of  his 
lord  or  sovereign.  It  still  forms  a part 
of  the  official  dress  of  heralds. 

TABAS'CO,  a state  of  Mexico,  be- 
tween Y^ucatan  peninsula  and  Vera 
Cruz;  area,  12,716  sq.  miles.  A large 
portion  of  the  state  is  still  covered  with 


primeval  forests.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Indians.  The  capital  is  Sau- 
Juan-Bautista.  Pop.,  158,107. 

TABERNACLE,  in  Jewish  antiquities, 
the  tent  or  sanctuary  in  which  the  sacred 
utensils  were  kept  during  the  wander- 
ings of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert.  It 
was  in  the  shape  of  a parallel agram,  45 
feet  by  15.  and  15  feet  in  height,  with  its 
smaller  ends  placed  east  and  west,  and 


tabernacles 


TAILOR-BIRD 


having  its  entrance  in  the  east.  Its 
framework  consisted  of  forty-eight 
gilded  boards  of  shittim-wood,  bound 
together  by  golden  rings  and  set  into 
silver  sockets;  and  this  framework  was 
covered  with  four  carpets.  The  interior 
was  divided  by  a curtain  into  two  com- 
partments, the  outer  the  “sanctuary” 

E roper,  and  the  innermost  the  holy  of 
olies.  In  the  sanctuary  was  placed  on 
the  north  the  table  of  show-bread,  on  the 
south  the  golden  candle-stick,  and  in  the 
middle,  near  the  inner  curtain,  the  altar 
of  incense.  In  the  center  of  the  holy  of 
holies  stood  the  ark  of  the  covenant. 
The  tabernacle  was  situated  in  a court 
150  feet  by  75,  surrounded  by  costly 
screens  7J  feet  high,  and  supported  by 
pillars  of  brass  feet  apart,  to  which 
the  curtains  were  attached  by  hooks 
and  fillets  of  silver.  In  the  outer  or 
eastern  half  of  the  court  stood  the  altar 
of  burnt-offering,  and  between  it  and 
the  tabernacle  itself  the  laver,  at  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet 
before  entering  the  sanctuary.  It  w'as 
superseded  by  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 


Tabard,  Sir  John  Cornwall,  Ampthill 
church,  Beds. 


TABERNACLES,  Feast  of,  the  last  of 
the  three  great  festivals  of  the  Jews 
which  required  the  presence  of  all  the 
males  in  Jerusalem.  Its  object  was  to 
commemorate  the  dwelling  of  the 
Israelites  in  tents  during  their  sojourn 
in  the  wilderness,  and  it  was  also  a feast 
of  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest  and 
vintage.  The  time  of  the  festival  fell  in 
the  autumn,  when  all  the  chief  fruits 
were  gathered  in,  and  hence  it  is  often 
called  the  feast  of  the  ingathering.  Its 
duration  was  strictly  only  seven  days, 
but  it  was  followed  by  a day  of  holy  con- 
vocation of  peculiar  solemnity.  During 
the  seven  days  the  people  lived  in  booths 
erected  in  the  courts  of  hpuses,  on  the 
roofs,  and  in  the  court  of  the  temple. 
It  was  the  most  joyous  festival  of  the 
year. 

TABLE-LAND,  or  PLATEAU,  a flat 
or  comparatively  level  tract  of  land 
considerably  elevated  above  the  general 
surface  of  a country.  Being  in  effect 
broad  mountain  masses,  many  of  these 
plateaux  form  the  gathering-grounds 
and  sources  of  some  of  the  noblest  rivers, 
while  their  elevation  confers  on  them  a 
climate  and  a vegetable  and  animal  life 
distinct  from  that  of  the  surrounding 
lowlands.  In  Europe  the  chief  table- 
lands are  that  of  Central  Spain,  the  less- 
defined  upland  in  Swizterland,  and  the 


lower  plateaux  of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia. 
In  Asia  are  the  most  extensive  table- 
lands in  the  world;  the  sandy  rainless 
Desert  of  Gobi,  nearly  400,000  sq.  miles; 
and  the  loftiest  inhabited  table-land  in 
the  world,  that  of  Tibet,  with  an  eleva- 
tion of  from  11,000  to  15,000  feet.  In 
Africa  are  the  plateaux  of  Abyssinia, 
and  the  karoos  or  terrace  plains  of  South 
Africa.  In  America  the  great  table- 
lands are  those  of  Mexico  and  the  Andes. 

TABOO',  or  TABU,  a peculiar  institu- 
tion formerly  prevalent  among  the 
South  Sea  islanders,  and  used  in  both  a 
good  and  bad  sense — as  something 
sacred  or  consecrated,  and  as  something 
accursed  or  unholy — both  senses  for- 
bidding the  touching  or  use  of  the  thing 
taboo.  The  idea  of  prohibition  was 
always  prominent.  The  whole  religious, 
political,  and  social  system  of  the  primi- 
tive Polynesians  was  enforced  by  the 
taboo,  the  infringement  of  which  in  seri- 
ous cases  was  death. 

TABREEZ',  or  TABRIZ',  a city  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Azer- 
bijan,  on  the  Aigi,  36  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  Lake  Urumia.  Tabreez 
has  manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  car- 
pets, leather  and  leather  goods,  etc. 
It  is  the  great  emporium  for  the  trade  of 
Persia  on  the  west,  and  has  an  extensive 
commerce.  It  has  frequently  suffered 
from  earthquakes.  Pop.  170,000. 

TACAHOUT  (tak'a-hut),  the  small 
gall  formed  on  the  tamarisk-tree.  It  is 
imported  for  the  sake  of  its  gallic  acid, 
and  is  used  as  a mordant  in  dyeing  and 
in  tanning. 

TACAMAHAC',  the  name  given  to  a 
bitter  balsamic  resin,  the  produce  of 
several  kinds  of  trees  belonging  to  Mex- 
ico and  the  West  Indies,  the  East  Indies, 
South  America,  and  North  America. 
The  balsam-poplar  or  tacamahac  is  one 
of  these. 

TACITUS,  Caius  Cornelius,  a Roman 
historian,  born  probably  about  54  a.d. 
Under  Titus  he  became  quaestor  or  aedile ; 
was  praetor  under  Domitian  (a.d.  88), 
and  consul  under  Nerva  (a.d. 97).  He 
was  several  years  absent  from  Rome  on 
provincial  business,  and  probably  then 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  German 
peoples.  The  time  of  his  death  is  uncer- 
tain; but  it  probably  took  place  after 
A.D.  117.  We  have  four  historical  works 
from  his  pen;  his  Annals,  in  sixteen 
books  (of  which  hooks  seventh  to  tenth 
inclusive  are  lost),  which  contain  an 
account  of  the  principal  events  in 
Roman  history  from  the  death  of 
Augustus  (a.d.  14)  to  that  of  Nero  (a.d. 
68) ; his  History  (of  which  only  four 
books  and  a part  of  the  fifth  are  extant), 
which  begins  with  the  year  69  a.d., 
when  Galba  wore  the  purple,  and  ends 
with  the  accession  of  Vespasian  (70) ; 
his  Germany,  an  account  of  the  geog- 
raphy, manners,  etc.,  of  the  country; 
and  his  Life  of  Agricola.  The  works  of 
Tacitus  have  been  pronounced,  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  his  contemporaries 
and  of  posterity,  to  be  masterpieces  in 
their  way. 

TACK,  in  navigation,  the  course  of  a 
ship  in  regard  to  the  position  of  her  sails 
and  the  angle  at  which  the  wind  strikes 
them.  Tacking  is  an  operation  by  which 
a ship  is  enabled  to  beat  up  against  a 
wind  by  a series  of  zigzags,  the  sails  be- 


ing turned  obliquely  to  the  wind  first 
on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other. 

TACO'MA,  a town  in  the  state  of 
Washington,  on  Commencement  bay, 
Puget  sound,  the  western  terminus  of 
the  North  Pacific  railroad,  with  railway 
works,  salmon-canning,  lumber  trade, 
etc.  Pop.  1909,  about  110,000. 

TACONIC  MOUNTAINS,  a range  of 
mountains  in  the  United  States,  con- 
necting the  Green  mountains  of  Western 
Massachusetts  with  the  highlands  of  the 
Hudson.  The  “Taconic  System,”  in 
geology,  was  named  from  the  character- 
istic strata  of  this  range,  a metamor- 
phic  rock,  believed  to  be  older  than  the 
Silurian  system. 

TAD'EMA.  See  Ahna-Tadema. 

TADPOLE,  the  name  given  to  the 
larval  or  young  state  of  frogs  and  other 
amphibians. 

TAFF'ETA,  or  TAFFETY,  was  origin- 
ally the  name  applied  to  all  kinds  of 
plain  silks,  but  which  has  now  become  a 
kind  of  generic  name  for  plain  silk,  gros 
de  Naples,  gros  des  Indes,  shot  silk, 
glac4,  and  others.  The  tenn  has  also 
been  applied  to  mixed  fabrics  of  silk  and 
wool. 

TAFFRAIL,  or  TAFFEREL,  a curved 
wooden  rail  running  from  one  quarter- 
stanchion  to  the  other  of  a ship’s  stern, 
and  usually  ornamented  with  some 
device  in  sculpture. 

TAFT,  William  Howard,  an  American 
jurist  and  administrator,  was  born  in 
Cincinnati  in  1857.  He  was  a judge  of 
the  superior  court  of  Ohio,  1887-1890, 
solicitor-general  of  the  United  States, 
1890-92,  and  judge  of  the  United  States 
circuit  court  1892—1900,  when  he  re- 
signed to  become  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission appointed  to  establish  civil 
government  in  the  Philippines.  He  was 
appointed  in  1901  the  first  civil  governor 
of  the  islands.  In  1903  he  became  sec- 
retary of  war.  In  1908  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency  and  was  elect- 
ed by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

TAGANROG,  a seaport  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Ekaterinoslav,  on  a 
low  cape  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Sea  of  Azof.  The  chief  article  of  export 
is  corn.  Pop.  56,047. 

TAGLIONI  (tal-yo'ne),  Marie,  ballet 
dancer,  born  1809,  was  trained  by  her 
father,  an  Italian  master  of  the  ballet; 
appeared  at  Vienna  in  1822,  at  Paris  in 
1827,  and  at  London,  where  she  created 
a great  sensation,  in  1838.  She  visited 
all  the  capitals  of  Europe,  and  was  ac- 
knowledged the  first  ballet  dancer  of  her 
time.  She  died  at  Marseilles  in  1884. 

'TAGUS,  the  largest  river  of  Spain  and 
Portugal.  It  has  a total  length  of  540 
miles,  and  is  navigable  for  115  miles. 

TAHITI  (ta-he'ti),  the  largest  of  the 
Society  islands,  consisting  of  two  penin- 
sulas, connected  by  an  isthmus  3 miles 
broad,  and  submerged  at  high-water; 
area,  412  sq.  miles.  It  is  hilly,  volcanic, 
beautiful,  and  highly  fertile;  and  pro- 
duces sugar,  cocoa-nut,  arrow-root,  dye^ 
woods,  etc.  The  chief  town  is  Papeete, 
which  has  an  excellent  harbor.  Pop 
of  the  island,  10,639.  See  Society 
islands. 

TAILOR-BIRD,  a bird  so  named  from 
its  curious  habits  of  weaving  or  sewing 
together  leaves  in  order  to  form  a nest. 
It  belongs  to  the  sub-family  of  true 


TAINE 


Talleyrand-peric^ord 


Warblers,  and  inhabits  India  and  the 
Eastern  archipelago. 


A Tahitian  family. 


TAINE  (tan),  Hippolyte  Adolphe, 
French  writer,  born  at  Vouziers  (Ar- 
dennes) in  1828.  In  1854  his  first  work, 
an  Essay  on  Livy,  was  crowned  by  the 
academy;  in  1864  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris; 
and  in  1878  he  was  elected  to  a seat  in 
the  academy.  His  History  of  English 
Literature,  one  of  the  best  and  most 
philosophical  works  on  the  subject,  ap- 
peared in  1864;  his  Philosophy  of  Art  in 
1865;  his  Notes  on  England  in  1872;  and 
his  Origins  of  Contemporary  France  in 
1875-94,  a work  of  great  research  and 
value,  in  three  sections,  dealing  respec- 
tively with  the  Ancient  Regime  the 
Revolution,  and  the  Modern  Rdgime. 
He  died  in  1893. 

TAIWAN  (ti-wan'),  capital  of  the 
Japanese  island  Formosa,  one  of  the 
treaty  ports,  with  considerable  trade 
in  sugar  and  opium.  Pop.,  including 
Takow,  which  almost  forms  one  city 
with  it,  235,000. 

TALC,  a magnesian  mineral,  consist- 
ing of  broad,  flat,  smooth  laminte  or 
plates,  unctuous  to  the  touch,  of  a shin- 
ing luster,  translucent,  and  often  trans- 
parent when  in  very  thin  plates.  There 
are  three  pincipal  varieties  of  talc, 
common,  earthy,  and  indurated.  Talc 
is  a silicate  of  magnesium,  with  small 
quantities  of  potash,  alumina,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  water.  It  is  used  in  many 
parts  of  India  and  China,  as  a substitute 
for  window-glass.  A variety  of  talc 
called  French  chalk  (or  steatite)  is  used 
for  tracing  lines  on  wood,  cloth,  etc., 
instead  of  chalk.  See  Potstone,  Soap 
stone.  Steatite. 

TALCA,  a town  of  Chile,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Talca,  on  the  Claro,  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Santiago,  and  has 
manufactures  of  ponchos.  Pop.  42,625. 
The  province  has  an  area  of  3664  sq. 
miles,  and  pop.  128,961. 

TALENT,  the  name  of  a weight  and 
denomination  of  money  among  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  and  also  applied  by  Greek 
writers  to  various  standard  weights  and 
denominations  of  money  of  different  na- 


tions; the  weight  and  value  differing  in 
the  various  nations  and  at  various  times. 
The  Attic  talent  as  a weight  contained 
60  Attic  mime  or  6000  Attic  draclimae, 
equal  to  56  lbs.  11  oz.  troy- weight.  As 
a denomination  of  silver  money  it  was 
equal  to  $1,215.  The  great  talent  of  the 
Romans  is  computed  to  be  equal  to 
$500,  and  the  little  talent  to  $375.  A 
Hebrew  weight  and  denomination  of 
money,  equivalent  to  3000  shekels, 
also  receives  this  name.  As  a weight  it 
was  equal  to  about  93J  lbs.  avoirdu- 
pois; as  a denomination  of  silver  it  has 
been  variously  estimated  at  from  $1700 
to  $2000. 

TALIPOT  PALM,  the  great  fan-pahn, 
a native  of  Ceylon.  The  cylindrical 
trunk  reaches  a height  of  60,  70,  or  100 
feet,  and  is  covered  with  a tuft  of  fan- 
like leaves,  usually  about  18  feet  in 
length  and  14  in  breadth.  The  leaves 
are  used  for  covering  houses,  for  making 
umbrellas  and  fans,  and  as  a substitute 
for  paper.  When  the  tree  has  attained 


Talipot  palm. 


its  full  growth,  the  flower  spike  bursts 
from  its  envelope  or  spathe  with  a loud 
report.  The  flower  spike  is  then  as  white 
as  ivory,  and  occasionally  30  feet  long. 
When  its  fruit  is  matured,  the  tree 
generally  dies. 

TALISMAN,  a figure  cast  or  cut  in 
metal  or  stone,  and  made,  with  certain 
superstitious  ceremonies,  at  some  par- 
ticular moment  of  time,  as  when  a cer- 
tain star  is  at  its  culminating  point,  or 
when  certain  planets  are  in  conjunction. 
The  talisman  thus  prepared  is  supposed 
to  exercise  extraordinary  influences  over 
the  bearer,  particularly  in  averting  dis- 
ease. In  a more  extensive  sense  the 
word  is  used,  like  amulet,  to  denote  any 
object  of  nature  or  art,  the  presence  of 
which  checks  the  power  of  spirits  or 
demons,  and  defends  the  wearer  from 
their  malice.  Relics,  consecrated 
candles,  rosaries,  images  of  saints,  etc., 
were  employed  as  talismans  in  the  mid- 
dle ages;  and  at  that  time  the  knowledge 
of  the  virtues  of  talismans  and  amulets 
formed  an  important  part  of  medical 
science 

TALLEGALLA,  or  BRUSH  TURKEY, 

a remarkable  genus  of  rasorial  birds, 
usually  designated  by  the  distinctive 
name  of  “brush  turkey.”  It  inhabits 


Australia,  where  it  is  also  known  by  the 
names  “wattled  tallegalla”  and  “New 
Holland  vulture” — this  latter  name  hav- 
ing reference  to  the  naked  vulturine 
head  and  neck.  The  male  when  full 
grown  is  colored  of  a blackish-brown 
above  and  below,  with  grayish  tints  on 
the  back.  The  head  and  neck  are 
covered  with  very  small  feathers  of 
blackish  hue,  while  a large  wattle, 
colored  bright  or  orange  yellow,  de- 
pends from  the  front  of  the  neck.  These 
birds  are  remarkable  on  account  of  the 
huge,  conical  “egg-mound”  which  they 
form,  several  of  them  jointly,  for  the 
purpose  of  therein  depositing  their  eggs, 
which  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the 
decomposing  mass  of  vegetable  matter 
piled  up.  The  eggs  are  greatly  sought 
after  on  account  of  their  delicious  flavor. 

TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD  (tM-a- 
rap-pa-re-gor),  Charles  Maurice  de, 
Prince  of  Benevento,  French  diplomat- 
ist, was  born  at  Paris  in  1754,  died  there 
in  1838.  His  high  birth  and  great  ability  i 
procured  him  rapid  advancement,  and 
in  1788  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Autun.  In  1790  he  was  elected  president  | 
of  the  national  assembly.  In  1792  he  i 
was  sent  to  London  charged  with  diplo- 
matic functions,  and  during  his  stay 
there  was  proscribed  for  alleged  royalist 
intrigues.  Forced  to  leave  England  by  | 
the  provisions  of  the  Alien  Act,  in  1794  | 

he  sailed  for  the  United  States,  but  re- 
turned to  France  in  1796.  The  following 
year  he  was  appointed  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs;  but  being  suspected  of  keep- 
ing up  an  understanding  with  the  agents 
of  liOuis  XVIII.  he  was  obliged  to  resign 
in  July,  1799.  He  now  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  Bonaparte,  whom  he  had  \ 
early  recognized  as  the  master  spirit  of 
the  time,  and  after  Bonaparte’s  return 


Talleyrand. 


from  Egypt  contributed  greatly  to  the 
events  of  the  18th  Brumaire  (10th  No- 
vember, 1799),  when  the  directory  fell 
and  the  consulate  began.  He  was  then 
reappointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
After  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
in  1804  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of 
grand-chamberlain,  and  in  1806  was 
created  Prince  of  Benevento.  After  the 
Peace  of  Tilsit  in  1807  a coolness  took 

Elace  between  him  and  Napoleon,  and 
ecame  more  and  more  marked.  In  1808 
he  secretly  joined  a royalist  committee. 
In  1814  he  procured  Napoleon’s  abdica- 
tion. He  took  part  in  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  and  in  1815,  when  the  allies 


TALLIEN 


TAMBOV 


sgain  entered  Paris,  he  became  presi- 
<fent  of  the  council  with  the  portfolio  of 
foreign  affairs;  but  as  he  objected  to 
sign  the  second  Peace  of  Paris  he  gave 
in  his  resignation.  When  the  revolution 
of  July,  1830,  broke  out,  he  advised 
Louis  Philippe  to  place  himself  at  its 
; ti^ad  and  to  accept  the  throne.  He 
' ciowned  his  career  by  the  formation  of 
i the  Quadruple  Alliance. 

; TALLIEN  (tM-i-an),  Jean  Lambert, 

1 Trench  revolutionist,  was  born  at  Paris 
in  1769,  and  first  made  himself  known 
by  publishing  a revolutionary  journal 
i called  Ami  du  Citoyen.  He  soon  became 
I one  of  the  most  popular  men  of  the 
I revolutionary  party,  and  took  part  in 
: most  of  the  sanguinary  proceedings 
j which  occurred  during  the  ascendency  of 
Robespierre.  After  the  fall  of  Danton 
and  his  party  he  perceived  that  he  should 
become  one  of  the  next  victims  of 
Robespierre  if  he  did  not  strike  the  first 
.blow,  and  it  was  mainly  by  his  influence 
that  the  latter  with  his  friends  was 
brought  to  the  guillotine.  He  subse- 
quently became  a member  of  the  Council 
of  Five  Hundred,  but  his  influence 
gradually  declined.  In  after  years  he 
was  glad  to  accept  the  office  of  French 
consul  at  Alicante.  He  died  at  Paris,  in 
poverty  and  obscurity,  in  1820. 

TALLOW,  the  harder  and  less  fusible 
fat  of  animals,  especially  cattle  and 
sheep,  melted  and  separated  from  the 
fibrous  m atter  mixed  with  them.  Tallow 
is  firm,  brittle,  and  has  a peculiar  heavy 
odor.  When  pure  it  is  white  and  nearly 
I insipid;  but  the  tallow  of  conimerce  has 
usually  a yellowish  tinge,  which  may  be 
removed  by  exposure  to  light  and  air. 
Tallow  is  manufactured  into  candles  and 
soap,  and  is  extensively  used  in  the 
dressing  of  leather,  and  in  various  proc- 
esses of  the  arts.  The  British  imports 
' of  tallow  are  chiefly  from  Australia  and 

■ the  United  States.  Vegetable  tallow  is 
contained  in  the  seeds  of  various  plants, 
one  of  the  best  known  of  which  is  the 

; candle-berry.  See  also  China  Wax,  and 
next  article. 

TALLOW-TREE,  one  of  the  largest, 

1 the  most  beautiful,  and  the  most  widely 
! diffused  of  the  plants  found  in  China. 

I From  a remote*  period  it  has  furnished 
i the  Chinese  with  the  material  out  of 

■ which  they  make  candles.  The  cap- 
sules and  seeds  are  crushed  together  and 
boiled;  the  fatty  matter  is  skimmed 
as  it  rises,  and  condenses  on  cooling.  The 
tallow-tree  has  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  and  is  almost  naturalized 
in  the  maritime  parts  of  Carolina.  It  has 
also  been  acclimatized  by  the  French  in 
Algeria. 

TALLY,  a piece  of  wood  on  which 
notches  or  scores  are  cut,  as  the  marks 
of  number.  In  purchasing  and  selling  it 

■ was  once  customary  for  traders  to  have 
two  sticks,  or  one  stick  cleft  into  two 
parts,  and  to  mark  with  scores  or  notches 
on  each  the  number  or  quantity  of  goods 
delivered,  or  what  was  due  between 
debtor  and  creditor,  the  seller  or  creditor 
keeping  one  stick,  and  the  purchaser  or 
debtor  the  other.  Before  the  use  of 
writing,  or  before  writing  became  gen- 
eral, this  or  something  like  it  was  the 
usual  method  of  keeping  accounts.  In 
the  excheuqer  of  England  tallies  were 

I used  till  late  in  the  18th  century. 

P.  E.— 77 


TALMAGE,  Thomas  DeWitt,  clergy- 
man, born  in  Bound  Brook,  N.  J.,  in 
1832.  His  first  pastorate  was  at  Belle- 
ville, N.  J.,  in  the  Presbyterian  church. 
In  1859  he  went  to  Syracuse,  N.  Y., 
and  in  1862  became  located  in  Phila- 
delphia, Penn.  There  he  remained  seven 
years,  when  he  was  called  to  the  pas- 
torate of  the  Central  Presbyterian 
church  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  acquired 
a national  reputation  for  effective  but 
rather  sensational  pulpit  oratory.  His 
congregation  built  him  a church  in  1870, 
having  a seating  capacity  of  3,400, 
which  was  called  the  Brooklyn  taber- 
nacle. It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1872 
and  in  1874  a new  tabernacle  was  dedi- 
cated with  a seating  capacity  of  5,000. 
This  edifice  was  also  burned  in  the  early 
spring  of  1890,  when  the  church  organi- 
zation ceased  to  exist.  His  wide  influence 
was  largely  increased  by  frequent  lec- 
turing tours,  both  in  America  and  Eng- 
land He  was  editor  of  The  Christian  at 
Work,  The  Advance,  Frank  Leslie’s 
Sunday  Magazine,  and  The  Christian 
Herald.  He  died  in  1902. 

TALMUD,  a Chaldaic  word  signifying 
“doctrine,”  and  sometimes  used  to 
designate  the  whole  teaching  of  the 
Jewish  law,  comprising  all  the  w'ritings 
included  in  what  we  call  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, as  well  as  the  oral  law  or  Mishna, 
with  its  supplement  or  commentary  the 
Gemara,  but  more  frequently  applied 
only  to  the  Mishna  and  Gemara.  The 
Gemara  was  originally  an  oral  com- 
mentary of  the  Mishna,  as  the  Mishna 
itself  was  originally  an  oral  commentary 
of  the  Mikra,  or  written  law.  It  con- 
sisted of  the  explanations  and  illustra- 
tions which  the  teachers  of  the  Mishna 
were  in  the  habit  of  giving  in  the  course 
of  their  lessons.  These  oral  comments, 
were  handed  down  from  age  to  age, 
differing  of  course  in  different  localities 
and  gradually  increasing  in  quantity; 
and  they  were  at  last  committed  to 
writing  in  two  forms,  the  one  called  the 
Jerusalem  and  the  other  the  Babylonian 
Gemara,  or,  with  the  addition  of  the 
Mishna,  which  is  common  to  both,  the 
Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud. 
The  Jerusalem  Talmud  is  the  earlier  and 
by  much  the  smaller  of  the  two.  The 
language  of  both  the  Gemaras  is  a mixed 
Hebrew,  but  that  of  the  Babylonian 
Gemara  is  much  less  pure  than  the  other ; 
in  the  narrative  portions,  designed  as 
popular  illustrations  of  the  other  parts, 
it  comes  near  the  Aramaic  or  vernacular 
dialect  of  the  Eastern  Jews.  The  style 
is  in  both  cases  extremely  condensed 
and  difficult.  The  Mishna,  with  its  cor- 
responding Gemara,  is  divided  into  six 
orders  or  principal  divisions.  The  sub- 
jects of  these  orders  are  agriculture, 
festivals,  women,  damages,  holy  things, 
and  purifications.  These  orders  are  sub- 
divided into  sixty-three  tracts,  to  which 
the  Babylonian  Gemara  adds  five  others, 
thus  containing  sixty-eight  tracts  in  all. 
Other  divisions  of  the  Talmud  are  the 
Halaka,  the  doctrinal  and  logical  por- 
tion; Ha"'ada,  the  rhetorical  or  imagina- 
tive portion;  and  Cabala,  the  mystical 
portion,  including  theosophy  and  magic. 
Many  translations  of  parts  of  the  Tal- 
mud have  appeared. 

TAM'ARACK.  See  Larch. 

TAM'ARIN,  the  name  of  certain  South 


American  monkeys.  The  tamarins  are 
active,  restless,  and  irritable  little  crea- 
tures, two  of  the  smallest  being  the 
silky  tamarin  and  the  little  lion  monkey 
the  latter  of  which,  though  only  a few 
inches  in  length,  presents  a wonderful 
resemblance  to  the  lion. 

TAM'ARIND,  a large  and  beautiful 
tree  of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It 
is  cultivated  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  its 
pods  (tamarinds).  The  West  Indian 
tamarinds  are  put  into  casks,  with 


Tamarind. 


layers  of  sugar  between  them,  or  with 
boiling  syrup  poured  over  them,  and  are 
called  prepared  tamarinds.  The  East 
Indian  tamarinds,  which  are  most 
-esteemed,  are  preserved  without  sugar. 
They  are  dried  in  the  sun,  or  artificially 
with  salt  added. 

TAMAULIPAS  (tS,-mou-le'pas),  a stats 
of  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  north 
of  Vera  Cruz;  area,  28,659  sq.  miles. 
The  capital  is  Ciudad  Victoria.  Pop. 
218,948. 

TAMBOURINE  (tam-bu-ren'),  a musi- 
cal instrument  of  the  drum  species, 
much  used  among  the  Spanish  and 
Italian  peasants  as  well  as  elsewhere.  It 
consists  of  a piece  of  parchment  stretched 


Spanisti  tambourine. 


over  the  top  of  a broad  hoop,  which  is 
furnished  with  little  bells.  It  is  sounded 
by  sliding  the  fingers  afong  the  parch- 
ment, or  by  striking  it  with  the  back  of 
the  hand  or  with  the  fist  or  the  elbow. 

TAMBOV^  a government  of  Russia, 
south  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Vladimir, 
between  the  basins  of  the  Oka  and  the 
Don;  area,  25,676  sq.  miles.  It  is  one  of 
the  largest,  most  fertile,  and  most 
densely  peopled  provinces  of  Central 
Russia.  Pop.  2,607,881. — Tambov,  the 
capital,  263  miles  southeast  of  Moscow, 


TAMERLANE 


TANNING 


has  great  trade  in  corn  and  cattle.  Pop. 
35,688. 

TAMERLANE.  See  Timour. 

TAMMANY  RING,  a political  com- 
bination  of  New  York,  which,  about 
1870,  under  William  M.  Tweed,  secured 
the  control  of  the  elections  in  that  city 
and  the  management  of  the  municipal 
revenues,  which  were  extensively  plun- 
dered. The  frauds,  amounting  to  many 
millions  of  dollars,  were  discovered  in 
1876.  The  name  Tammany  was  given 
from  the  meeting-place,  Tammany  hall, 
New  York,  being  originally  the  name  of 
a celebrated  Indian  chief.  See  Tweed, 
W.  M. 

TAMPA,  a port  of  Florida,  Hillsboro 
CO.,  on  the  Gulf  coast;  a rising  business 
center,  the  terminus  of  two  railways, 
and  the  point  of  departure  of  steamers 
for  Key  West,  Havana,  and  the  ports 
along  the  coast  of  Florida.  Pop.  18,160. 

TAMSUl,  a seaport  of  the  island  of 
Formosa,  one  of  the  treaty  ports,  with  a 
trade  in  tea.  Pop.  95,000. 

TAN'AGERS,  passerine  birds,  or 
finches,  distinguished  by  the  bill  being 
of  triangular  shape  at  its  base  and 
arched  toward  its  tip,  and  remarkable 
for  their  bright  colors.  They  are  chiefly 
found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 

TANEY  (ta'nl),  Roger  Brooke,  emi- 
nent American  jurist,  chief  justice  of  the 
United  States  supreme  court,  was  born 
in  Calvert  co.,  Md.,  in  1777.  In  1823  he 
removed  to  Baltimore.  In  1827  he  was 
elected  attorney-general  of  the  state 
and  was  appointed  attorney-general  of 
the  United  States  in  1831.  In  1836  he 
succeeded  John  Marshall  as  chief  justice 
of  the  United  States  supreme  court.  He 
wrote  the  opinion  of  the  court  in  many 
important  cases,  the  most  notable  being 
that  of  Dred  Scott.  A memoir  of  Taney’s 
life,  in  part  an  autobiography,  was  pub- 
lished in  1872  by  Samuel  Tyler.  He  died 
in  1864. 

TANCRED,  son  of  the  Marquis  Odo 
the  Good  and  Emma  the  sister  of  Rob- 
ert Guiscard,  born  in  1078,  was  one  of 
the  most  famous  heroes  of  the  first 
Crusade.  He  distinguished  himself  at 
the  siege  of  Nicsea  G097),  at  the  battle 
of  Doryl®um  (July,  1097),  at  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  (July,  1099),  and  at  Ascalon 
(August  12),  and  was  appointed  by 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon  Prince  of  Galilee. 
He  died  in  1112,  in  his  thirty-fifth  year, 
of  a wound  received  at  Antioch.  He  is 
represented  by  Tasso  in  the  Jerusalem 
Delivered  as  the  flower  and  pattern  of 
chivalry. 

TANGENT,  in  geometry,  a straight 
line  which  touches  or  meets  a circle  or 
curve  in  one  point,  and  which  being 
produced  does  not  cut  it;  a straight  line 
drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  of 
a circle,  from  the  extremity  of  it,  as  h 
a in  figure,  which  being  continued  at  a, 
would  merely  touch  and  not  cut  the 
circle.  In  trigonometry  the  tangent  of 
an  arc  is  a straight  line  touching  the 
circle  of  which  the  arc  is  a part,  atone 
extremity  of  the  arc,  and  meeting  the 
diameter  passing  through  the  other 
extremity.  Thus  a h is  the  tangent  of 
Lhe  arc  a b,  and  it  is  also  said  to  be  the 
tangent  of  the  angle  a c b,  of  which  a b is 
the  measure.  The  arc  and  its  tangent 
have  always  a .certain  relation  to  each 
other;  and  when  the  one  is  given  in  parts 


of  the  radius,  the  other  can  always  be 
computed.  For  trigonometrical  pur- 
poses tangents  for  every  arc  from  0 de- 
grees to  90  degrees,  as  well  as  sines, 
cosines,  etc.,  have  been  calculated  with 
reference  to  a radius  of  a certain  length. 


’H 


Tangent. 


and  these  or  their  logarithms  formed 
into  tables.  In  the  higher  geometry  the 
word  tangent  is  not  limited  to  straight 
lines,  but  is  also  applied  to  curves  in 
contact  with  other  curves,  and  also  to 
s\i 

TANGIER  (tan'jer),  a seaport  of 
Morocco,  on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
In  1662  Tangier  was  annexed  to  the 
English  crown  as  part  of  the  dowry  of 
the  Infanta  of  Portugal,  the  wife  of  King 
Charles  II.,  but  in  1864  it  was  aban- 
doned, on  account  of  the  expense  neces- 
sary to  keep  it  up.  Pop.  estimated  at 
20,000. 

TANGLE,  the  common  name  of  two 
species  of  sea-weed  found  on  the  shores 
of  Britain,  Laminaria  digitata  and 
Laminaria  saccharina. 

TANJORE,  a city  in  Hindustan,  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras,  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name.  Manufactures  of 
silk,  muslin,  and  cotton  are  carried  on  to 
a considerable  extent.  Pop.  57,605. — 
The  district  of  Tanjore  has  an  area  of 
3654  sq.  miles,  and  a population  of 
2 130  383 

TANNHAUSER  (tan'hoi-zer),  orTAN- 
HAUSER,  in  old  German  legend,  a 
knight  who  gains  admission  into  a hill 
called  the  Veunsberg,  in  the  interior  of 
which  Venus  holds  her  court,  and  who 
for  a long  time  remains  buried  in  sensual 
pleasures,  but  at  last  listens  to  the  voice 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  whom  he  hears  call- 
ing upon  him  to  return.  The  goddess 
allows  him  to  depart,  when  he  hastens 
to  Rome  to  seek  from  the  pope  (Pope 
Urban)  absolution  for  his  sins.  The 
pope,  however,  when  he  knows  the  ex- 
tent of  the  knight’s  guilt,  declares  to 
him  that  it  is  as  impossible  for  him  to 
obtain  pardon  as  it  is  for  the  wand 
which  he  holds  in  his  hand  to  bud  and 
bring  forth  green  leaves.  Despairing, 
the  knight  retires  from  the  presence  of 
the  pontiff,  and  enters  the  Venusberg 
once  more.  Meanwhile  the  pope’s  wand 
actually  begins  to  sprout,  and  the  pope, 
taking  this  as  a sign  from  God  that  there 
was  still  an  opportunity  of  salvation  for 
the  knight,  hastily  sends  messengers 
into  all  lands  to  seek  for  him.  But  Tann- 
hauser  is  never  again  seen.  The  Tann- 
hauser  legend  has  been  treated  poetically 
by  Tieck,  and  Richard  Wagner  has 
adopted  it  (with  modifications)  as  the 
subject  of  one  of  his  operas. 

TANNIC  ACID,  or  TANNIN,  a peculiar 
acid  which  exists  in  every  part  of  all 
species  of  oaks,  especially  in  the  bark, 
but  is  found  in  greatest  quantity  in  gall- 
nuts.  Tannic  acid,  when  pure,  is  nearly 
white,  and  not  at  all  crystaline.  It  is 


very  soluble  in  water,  and  has  a moct 
astringent  taste,  without  bitterness. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  property  of 
combining  with  the  skins  of  animals  and 
converting  them  into  leather,  or  tanning 
them.  It  is  the  active  principle  in  almost 
all  astringent  vegetables,  and  is  used  in 
medicine  in  preference  to  mineral  astrin- 
gents, because  free  from  irritant  and 
poisonous  action.  The  name  is  generally 
applied  to  a mixture  of  several  sub- 
stances. 

TANNING,  the  operation  of  convert- 
ing the  raw  hides  and  skins  of  animals 
into  leather  by  effecting  a chemical  com- 
bination between  the  gelatine  of  which 
they  principally  consist  and  the  astrin- 
gent vegetable  principle  called  tannic 
acid  or  tannin.  The  object  of  the  tan- 
ning process  is  to  produce  such  a chemi- 
cal change  in  skins  as  may  render  them 
unalterable  by  those  agents  which  tend 
to  decompose  them  in  their  natural 
state,  and  in  connection  with  the  sub- 
sequent operations  of  currying  or  dress- 
ing to  bring  them  into  a state  of  pli- 
ability and  impermeability  to  water 
which  may  adapt  them  for  the  many 
useful  purposes  to  which  leather  is  ap- 
plied. The  larger  and  heavier  skins  sub- 
jected to  the  tanning  process,  as  those 
of  buffaloes,  bulls,  oxen,  and  cows,  are 
technically  called  hides;  while  those  of 
smaller  animals,  as  calves,  sheep,  and 
goats,  are  called  skins.  In  preparing  the 
hides  and  skins  for  tanning  they  are 
subjected  to  certain  operations  already 
described  under  Leather,  after  which 
the  tanning  proper  begins.  The  various 
substances  used  for  tanning  are  oak,  fir, 
mimosa,  and  hemlock  bark,  smnach, 
myrobalans,  divi-divi,  valonia-nuts, 
cutch,  kino,  gambir,  and  oak-galls — all 
of  which  contain  tannin.  The  impregna- 
tion of  the  hides  with  this  tannin  maj 
be  effected  either  by  placing  them  be- 
tween layers  of  bark  (oak  bark  being 
the  best)  in  a vat  filled  with  water,  or 
steeping  them  in  a liquor  containing  a 
small  at  first,  but  steadily  increasing 
proportion  of  tannin  throughout  a series 
of  pits.  This  liquor  usually  consists  of 
water  in  which  the  ground  or  crushed 
tanning  material  has  been  steeped.  The 
raw  hide  takes  about  a year  to  prepare 
it  for  the  best  quality  of  leather.  There 
is  also  a process  called  tawing,  which  is 
employed  chiefly  in  the  preparation  of 
the  skins  of  sheep,  lambs,  goats,  and 
kids.  In  this  process  the  skins  are 
steeped  in  a bath  of  alum,  salt,  and  other 
substances,  and  they  are  also  sometimes 
soaked  in  fish-oil.  The  more  delicate 
leathers  are  treated  in  this  manner, 
those  especially  which  are  used  for  wash 
leathers,  kid  gloves,  etc.  After  the 
leather  is  tanned  it  is  finished  for  use  hy 
the  process  of  currying.  Various  im- 
provements have  been  attempted  to  be 
made  in  the  art  of  tanning,  such  as  the 
preparation  of  the  skins  by  means  of 
metallic  solutions  instead  of  by  vegeta' 
table  tan-liquor;  the  forced  absorption 
of  the  tan  by  applying  pressure  between 
cylinders;  and  the  preparation  of  the 
skins  by  a chemical  agent,  so  as  to  in- 
duce a quicker  absorption  of  the  tan.  It 
has  been  found,  however,  that  the  slow 
process  followed  by  the  old  tanners 
produces  leather  far  superior  to  that 
produced  by  the  new  and  more  rapid 


TANSY 


Tar 


methods,  though  a fair  leather  for  cer- 
tain purposes  may  be  produced  in  five 
to  ten  weeks. 

TANSY  is  a well-known  plant.  It  is  a 
tall  plant,  with  divided  leaves  and  but- 
ton-like  heads  of  yellow  flowers.  Every 
part  of  the  plant  is  bitter,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered as  tonic  and  anthelmintic,  tansy- 


0,  A disk-flower;  b,  A ray-flower;  c,  Anachene- 

tea  being  an  old  popular  medicine.  It 
is  now  cultivated  in  gardens  mainly  for 
the  young  leaves,  which  are  shredded 
down  and  employed  to  flavor  puddings, 
cakes,  etc. 

TANTA,  a town  of  Lower  Egypt,  situ- 
ated on  the  railway  about  50  miles  n.  of 
Cairo.  Tanta  has  three  great  annual 
fairs,  which  are  held  in  January,  April, 
and  August,  and  at  the  latter  500,000 
persons  are  said  to  congregate  from  the 
surrounding  countries.  Pop.  60,000. 

TANTALUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
son  of  Zeus,  and  king  of  Phrygia,  Lydia, 
Argos  or  Corinth,  who  was  admitted  to 
the  table  of  the  gods,  but  who  had  for- 
feited their  favor  either  by  betraying 
their  secrets,  stealing  ambrosia  from 
heaven,  or  presenting  to  them  his  mur- 
dered son  Pelops  as  food.  His  punish- 
ment consisted  in  being  placed  in  a lake 
whose  waters  receded  from  his  lips  when 
he  attempted  to  drink,  and  of  being 
tempted  by  delicious  fruit  overhead 
which  withdrew  when  he  attempted  to 
eat.  Moreover,  a huge  rock  forever 
threatened  to  fall  and  crush  him. 

TANTALUS,  a genus  of  wading  birds 
of  the  heron  family.  It  is  the  wood-ibis 
of  America,  which  frequents  extensive 
swamps,  where  it  feeds  on  serpents, 
young  alligators,  frogs,  and  other  rep- 
tiles. The  African  tantalus  was  long  re- 
garded as  the  ancient  Egyptian  ibis,  but 
it  is  rare  in  E^pt,  belonging  chiefly  to 
Senegal,  and  is  much  larger  than  the 
true  ibis. 

TA'PESTRY,  a kind  of  woven  hang- 
ings of  wool  and  silk,  often  enriched  with 
gold  and  silver,  with  worked  designs, 
representing  figures  of  men,  animals, 
landscapes,  etc.,  and  formerly  much  used 
for  lining  or  covering  the  walls  and  fur- 
niture of  apartments,  churches,  etc. 
Tapestry  is  made  by  a process  inter- 
mediate between  weaving  and  em- 
broidery, being  worked  in  a web  with 
needles  instead  of  a shuttle.  Short 
lengths  of  thread  of  the  special  colors 


required  for  the  design  are  worked  in  at 
the  necessary  places  and  fastened  at  the 
back  of  the  texture.  In  Flanders,  par- 
ticularly at  Arras  (whence  the  term 
arras,  signifying  the  “tapestry”),  during 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  the  art  was 
practiced  with  uncommon  skill.  The 
art  of  weaving  tapestry  was  introduced 
into  England  near  the  end  of  Henry 
VIII. 's  reign.  , During  the  reign  of  James 
I.  a manufactory  was  established  at 


Mortlake,  which  continued  till  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  The  term 
tapestry  is  also  applied  to  a variety  of 
woven  fabrics  having  a multiplicity  of 
colors  in  their  design,  which,  however, 
have  no  other  characteristic  of  true 
tapestry.  The  name  of  tapestry  carpet 
is  given  to  a showy  and  cheap  two-ply 
or  ingrain-carpet,  the  warp  or  weft  being 
printed  before  weaving  so  as  to  produce 
the  figure  in  the  cloth. 

TAPE-WORMS,  the  name  common  to 
certain  internal  parasites  (Entozoa), 
found  in  the  mature  state  in  the  alimen- 
tary canal  of  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 
Tape-worms  are  composed  of  a number 
of  flattened  joints  or  segments,  the  an- 
terior of  which,  or  head  (which  is  the  true 
animal),  is  furnished  with  a circlet  of 
hooks  or  suckers,  which  enable  it  to 
maintain  its  hold  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  intestines  of  its  host.  The 
other  segments,  called  proglottides,  are 
simply  generative  organs  budded  off  by 
the  head,  the  oldest  being  furthest  re- 
moved from  it,  and  each  containing 
when  mature  male  and  female  organs. 
The  tape-worm  has  neither  mouth  nor 
digestive  organs,  nutrition  being  effected 
by  absorption  through  the  skin.  The 
length  of  the  animal  varies  from  a few 
inches  to  several  yards.  The  ova  do  not 
undergo  development  in  the  animal  in 
which  the  adult  exists.  They  require  to 
be  swallowed  by  some  other  warm- 
blooded vertebrate,  the  ripe  proglottides 
being  expelled  from  the  bowel  of  the  host 
with  all  their  contained  ova  fertilized. 
The  segments  or  proglottides  decompose 
and  liberate  the  ova,  which  are  covered 
with  a capsule.  After  being  swallowed 
the  capsule  bursts  and  an  embryo,  called 
a proscolex,  is  liberated.  This  embryo, 
by  means  of  spines,  perforates  the  tis- 


sues of  some  contiguous  organ,  or  of  a 
blood-vessel,  in  the  latter  case  being 
carried  by  the  blood  to  some  solid  part 
of  the  body,  as  the  liver  or  brain,  where 
it  surrounds  itself  with  a cyst,  and  de- 
velops a vesicle  containing  a fluid.  It  is 
now  called  a scolex  or  hydatid,  and 
formerly  was  known  as  the  cystic  worm. 
The  scolex  is  incapable  of  further  de- 
velopment till  swallowed  and  received  a 
second  time  into  the  alimentary  canal 
of  a warm-blooded  vertebrate.  Here  it 
becomes  the  head  of  the  true  tape-worm, 
from  which  proglottides  are  developed 
posteriorly  by  gemmation,  and  we  have 
the  adult  animal  with  which  the  cycle 
begins.  In  all  cases  the  only  conclusive 
sign  of  tape-worm  is  the  passage  of  one 
or  part  of  one  in  the  fa?ces.  One  mode 
of  treatment  for  this  disorder  is,  for  an 
adult,  a tea-spoonful  of  the  extract  of 
male-fern.  A few  hours  thereafter  a 
strong  dose  of  castor-oil  should  be  taken. 

TAPIO'CA,  a farinaceous  substance 
prepared  from  cassava  meal,  which, 
while  moist  or  damp,  has  been  heated 
for  the  purpose  of  drying  it  on  hot  plates. 
By  this  treatment  the  starch-grains 
swell,  many  of  them  bust,  and  the  whole 
agglomerates  in  small  irregular  masses 
or  lumps.  In  boiling-water  it  swells  up 
and  forms  a viscous  jelly-like  mass.  See 
Cassava. 

TAPIR,  the  name  of  ungulate  or 
hoofed  animals.  The  nose  resembles  a 
short  fleshy  proboscis;  there  are  four 
toes  to  the  fore-feet,  and  three  to  the 
hind  ones.  The  common  South  Ameri- 
can tapir  is  the  size  of  a small  ass,  with 
a brown  skin,  nearly  naked.  It  inhabits 
forests,  lives  much  in  the  water,  con- 
ceals itself  during  the  day,  and  feeds 
on  vegetable  substances.  There  are 
several  other  American  species.  The 
T.  malayanus  or  indicus  is  found  in  the 
forests  of  Malacca  and  Sumatra.  It  is 


Malay  tapir. 


larger  than  the  American  species,  and  is 
a most  conspicuous  animal  from  the 
white  back,  rump,  and  belly  contrasting 
so  strongly  with  the  deep  sooty  black 
of  the  rest  of  the  body  as,  at  a little  dis- 
tance, to  give  it  the  aspect  of  being 
muffled  up  in  a white  sheet.  Fossil  tapirs 
are  scattered  throughout  Europe,  and 
among  them  is  a gigantic  species,  T. 
giganteus,  Cuvier,  which  in  size  must 
have  nearly  equalled  the  elephant. 

TAR,  a thick,  dark-colored,  viscid 
product  obtained  by  the  destructive 
distillation  of  organic  substances  and 
bituminous  minerals,  as  wood,  coal, 
peat,  shale,  etc.  Wood-tar,  such  as  the 
Archangel,  Stockholm,  and  American 
tars  of  commerce,  is  obtained  by  burn- 
ing billets  of  wood  slowly  in  a conical 
cavity  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a cast- 
iron  pan  into  which  the  tar  exudes.  In 
Britain  wood-tar  is  chiefly  obtained  as  a 


TARAl 


TARSIUS 


by-product  in  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood  for  the  manufacture  of 
wood-vinegar  (pyroligneous  acid)  and 
wood-spirit  (methyl  alcohol).  It  has  an 
acid  reaction,  and  contains  various 
liquid  matters,  of  which  the  principal 
are  methyl-acetate,  acetone,  hydro- 
carbons of  the  benzene  series,  and  a 
number  of  oxidized  compounds,  as 
carbolic  acid.  Paraffin,  anthracene, 
naphthalene,  chrysene,  etc.,  are  found 
among  its  solid  products.  It  possesses 
valuable  antiseptic  properties,  owing  to 
the  creasote  it  contains,  and  is  used  ex- 
tensively for  coating  and  preserving 
timber,  iron,  and  cordage.  Coal-tar, 
which  is  largely  obtained  in  gas  manu- 
facture, is  also  valuable  inasmuch  as  it 
is  extensively  employed  in  the  produc- 
tion of  dyes,  etc.  See  Coal-tar  and 
Aniline. 

TARAl  (ta-ri';  “moist  land”),  a moist 
and  jungly  tract  of  Northern  India, 
running  along  the  foot  of  the  first  range 
of  the  Himalayas  for  several  hundred 
miles,  with  a breadth  of  from  2 to  15, 
infested  by  wild  beasts,  and  generally 
unhealthy.  Area,  938  sq.  miles;  pop. 
206  993 

TARAN'TO  (anciently  Tarentum),  a 
fortified  seaport  of  S.  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Lecce,  on  a rocky  peninsula 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  gulf  of 
same  name.  The  manufactures  include 
linen,  cotton,  velvet,  muslin,  and  gloves. 
Taranto  is  now  a station  of  the  Italian 


navy,  with  a naval  arsenal,  etc.  The 
ancient  Tarentum  was  founded  by  the 
Greeks  in  b.c.  708,  and  became  a power- 
ful city.  It  was  captured  by  the  Romans 
B.c.  272,  and  remained  a notable  Roman 
town  until  the  downfall  of  the  empire. 
Pop.  26,670. 

TARANTULA,  a kind  of  spider,  found 
in  some  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  south- 


Tarantula. 


western  states,  Mexico,  and  in  Italy. 
When  full  grown  it  is  about  the  size  of  a 
chestnut,  and  is  of  a brown  color.  Its 
bite  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  be 


dangerous,  and  to  cause  a kind  of  danc- 
ing disease;  it  is  now  known  not  to  be 
worse  than  the  sting  of  a common  wasp. 

TARAPACA,  a coast  province  of 
Northern  Chile,  containing  deposits  of 
niter  and  borax  and  silver  mines;  area, 
19,300  sq.  miles.  Capital,  Iquique.  Pop. 
89,751. 

TARBELL,  Ida  Minerva,  American 
author,  born  in  1857  in  Erie  co..  Pa. 
In  1894  she  became  an  associate  editor 
of  McClure’s  Magazine.  Her  publica- 
tions include:  Short  Life  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  Life  of  Madame  Roland, 
Early  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln  (in 
collaboration  with  J.  McDavis),  Life  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  and  History  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company. 

TARE,  the  common  name  of  different 
species  of  leguminous  plants,  known 
also  by  the  name  of  vetch.  There  are 
numerous  species  and  varieties  of  tares 
or  vetches,  but  that  which  is  found  best 
adapted  for  agricultural  purposes  is  the 
common  tare,  of  which  there  are  two 
principal  varieties,  the  summer  and 
winter  tare.  They  afford  excellent  food 
for  horses  and  cattle,  and  hence  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated  throughout  Europe. 

TARGET,  (1)  a shield  or  buckler  of  a 
small  kind,  such  as  those  formerly  in  use 
among  the  Highlanders,  which  were 
circular  in  form,  cut  out  of  ox-hide, 
mounted  on  strong  wood,  strengthened 
by  bosses,  spikes,  etc.,  and  often  covered 
externally  with  a considerable  amount 
of  ornametnal  work.  (2)  The  mark  set 
up  to  be  aimed  at  in  archery,  musketry, 
or  artillery  practice  and  the  like.  The 
targets  used  in  rifle  practice  are  generally 
square  or  oblong  metal  plates,  and  are 


divided  into  three  or  more  sections, 
called  bulls’  eye,  inner  (or  center),  and 
outer,  counting  from  the  center  of  the 
target  to  its  edges;  some  targets  have 
an  additional  division  (called  a magpie), 
situated  between  the  outer  and  the 
inner.  It  is  the  marksman’s  aim  to  put 
his  shots  as  near  the  central  point  as 
possible,  as  if  he  hits  the  bull’s  eye  there 
are  counted  in  his  favor  5 points,  the 
center  4 points,  the  magpie  3 points, 
and  the  outer  2 points,  or  some  similar 
proportions. 

TARLATAN,  a thin  and  fine  fabric  of 
cotton,  mostly  used  for  ladies’  ball 
dresses.  It  is  cheap,  but  does  not  stand 
washing. 

TARN,  a department  of  Southern 
France,  named  from  the  river  of  same 
name;  area,  2218  sq.  miles.  The  min- 
erals include  iron  and  coal,  both  of  which 
are  partially  worked.  Woolens,  linens, 
hosiery,  etc.,  are  manufactured.  The 
capital  is  Alby.  Pop.  358,757. 

TAi^-ET-GARONNE,  a department 
of  France,  named  after  its  two  chief 
rivers;  area,  1436  sq.  miles.  This  de- 
partment belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Garonne,  which  traverses  it  south  to 


northwest,  and  receives  within  it  the  ^ 
accumulated  waters  of  the  Tarn  and  ’ 
Aveyron.  The  most  important  manu- 
factures consist  of  common  woolen  cloth 
and  serge,  linen  goods,  silk  hosiery,  - 
cutlery,  leather,  etc.  Montauban  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  214,046. 

TARPAN,  the  wild  horse  of  Tartary, 
belonging  to  one  of  those  races  which 
are  by  some  authorities  regarded  as 
original.  They  are  not  larger  than  an 
ordinary  mule.  The  color  is  invariably 
tan  or  mouse,  with  black  mane  and  tail. 


Tar  pan. 

During  the  cold  season  their  hair  is  long 
and  soft,  but  in  summer  it  falls  much 
away.  They  are  sometimes  captured  by 
the  Tartars,  but  are  reduced  with  great 
difficulty  to  subjection. 

TARPON,  or  TARPUM,  a herring- 
shaped fish  found  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the  West 
Indies.  It  reaches  a length  of  5 or  6 
feet,  and  from  a hundred  to  several 
hundred  pounds  weight,  and  is  of  giant 
strength.  Though  too  coarse  ordinarily 
for  food,  it  is  a great  attraction  to 
anglers.  Its  scales,  which  are  of  great 
size,  are  now  largely  used  in  ornamental 
work. 

TARSIUS,  a genus  of  quadrumanous 
mammals  of  the  lemur  family  inhabiting 
the  Eastern  archipelago.  In  this  genus 


Tarsier. 

the  bones  of  the  tarsus  are  very  much 
elongated,  which  give  the  feet  and  hands, 
a disproportionate  length.  Tarsius' 
spectrum,  the  tarsier,  seems  to  be  the^ 
only  species  known.  It  is  about  the  siz^ 


TARSUS 


TAURIDA 


of  a squirrel,  fawn-brown  in  color,  with 
large  ears,  large  eyes,  and  a long  tufted 
tail.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  lives 
among  trees,  and  feeds  upon  lizards. 

TARSUS,  in  anatomy,  that  part  of  the 
foot  which  in  man  is  popularly  known 
as  the  ankle,  the  front  of  which  is  called 
the  instep.  It  corresponds  with  the 
wrist  of  tne  upper  limb  or  arm,  and  is 
composed  of  seven  bones  In  insects  the 
tarsus  is  the  last  segment  of  the  leg.  It  is 
divided  into  several  joints,  the  last  being 
generally  terminated  by  a claw,  which 
is  sometimes  single  and  sometimes 
double  In  birds  the  tarsus  is  that  part 
of  the  leg  (or  properly  the  foot)  which 
extends  from  the  toes  to  the  first  joint 
above;  the  shank. 

TARSUS,  an  ancient  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  now  in  the 
province  of  Adana,  in  Asiatic  Turkey. 
The  Apostle  Paul  was  born,  and  Julian 
the  Apostate  was  buried  there.  Pop. 
8500. 

TARTAN,  a well-known  species  of 
cloth,  checkered  or  cross-barred  with 
threads  of  various  colors.  It  was  origin- 
ally made  of  wool  or  silk,  and  constituted 
the  distinguishing  badge  of  the  Scottish 
Highland  clans,  each  clan  having  its  own 
peculiar  pattern.  An  endless  variety  of 
fancy  tartans  are  now  manufactured, 
some  of  wool,  others  of  silk,  others  of 
wool  and  cotton,  or  of  silk  and  cotton. 

TARTAR,  the  substance  called  also 
argal  or  argol,  deposited  from  wines  in- 
completely fermented,  and  adhering  to 
the  sides  of  the  casks  in  the  form  of  a 
hard  crust.  When  purified  it  forms 
cream  of  tartar.  What  is  called  tartar 
emetic  is  a double  tartrate  of  potassium 
and  antimony,  an  important  compound 
used  in  medicine  as  an  emetic,  purga- 
tive, diaphoretic,  sedative,  fubrifuge, 
and  counter-irritant.  Tartar  of  the 
teeth  is  an  earthy-like  substance  which 
occasionally  concretes  upon  the  teeth, 
and  is  deposited  from  the  saliva.  It  con- 
sists of  salivary  mucus,  animal  matter, 
and  phosphate  of  lime. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  the  acid  of  tartar. 
It  exists  in  grape  juice,  in  tamarinds, 
and  several  other  fruits ; but  principally 
in  bitartrate  of  potassium,  or  cream  of 
tartar,  from  which  it  is  usually  obtained. 
It  crystalizes  in  large  rhombic  prisms, 
transparent  and  colorless,  and  very 
soluble  in  water.  It  is  inodorous  and 
very  sour  to  the  taste.  A high  tempera- 
ture decomposes  it,  giving  rise  to  several 
new  products.  The  solution  of  tartaric 
acid  acts  with  facility  upon  those  metals 
which  decompose  water,  as  iron  and 
zinc.  There  are  five  modifications  of 
tartaric  acid,  characterized  chiefly  by 
the  differences  in  the  action  exerted  by 
them  upon  a ray  of  polarized  light;  such 
as  dextro-  or  ordinary  tartaric  acid, 
Isevo-tartaric  acid,  para-tartaric  or  race- 
mic acid,  meso-tartaric  acid,  and  meta- 
tartaric  acid.  Tartaric  acid  is  largely 
employed  as  a discharge  in  calico-print- 
ing, and  for  making  soda-water  powders 
and  baking  powders.  In  medicine  it  is 
Used  in  small  doses  as  a refrigerant. 

TARTARS.  See  Tatars. 

TARTARY,  a name  formerly  applied 
to  the  wide  band  of  country  extending 
through  Central  Asia  from  the  seas  of 
Japan  and  Okhotsk  in  the  east  to  the 
Caspian  on  the  west,  and  including 


Manchooria,  Mongolia,  Turkestan,  and 
all  the  south  part  of  Russian  Asia.  It 
was  used  sometimes  even  to  include  a 
large  portion  of  Southeastern  Russia. 
In  a restricted  sense  it  is  identical  with 
Turkestan.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  Tartars  or  Tatars.  See  Tatars. 

TASHKENT',  or  TASHKEND',  a town 
of  Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  government  of 
Turkestan.  The  manufactures  are  silks, 
cottons,  iron  goods,  etc.  The  trade, 
carried  on  chiefly  by  caravans,  partly 
by  railway,  is  very  extensive.  Tashkent 
was  occupied  by  Russia  in  1865,  and  a 
Russian  quarter  has  grown  up.  Pop. 
about  156,414. 

TASMA'NIA,  formerly  Van  Diemen’s 
Land,  an  island  in  the  Southern  ocean, 
fully  100  miles  south  of  Australia,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  Bass’s  strait; 
greatest  length,  186  miles ; mean  breadth 
165  miles;  area,  24,330  sq.  miles,  or  in- 
cluding islands,  26,215.  Wheat,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes,  pease,  beans,  and  hops 
are  largely  cultivated,  and  the  fruit  in- 
cludes grapes,  cherries,  plums,  quinces, 
mulberries,  peaches,  apricots,  walnuts, 
filberts,  almonds,  etc.  Kangaroos  and 
other  animals  of  the  pouched  kind  are 
numerous.  There  are  two  marsupial  car- 
nivorous animals  called  the  Tasmanian 
wolf  and  the  Tasmanian  devil,  both  of 


which  are  destructive  to  sheep.  An- 
other marsupial  carnivore  is  the  dasyure 
or  native  cat.  The  natural  forests  are 
chiefly  of  the  eucalyptus  or  gumtree, 
pine,  and  acacia  tribe.  Among  the 
minerals  are  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron, 
tin,  coal,  freestone,  limestone,  and  roof- 
ing slate.  Mount  Bischoff  tin  mine  is  a 
notably  rich  one.  Tasmanian  coal  is  now 
used  on  the  railways.  The  staple  ex- 
port from  Tasmania  is  copper,  and  the 
other  articles  include  gold,  silver,  tin, 
wool,  timber,  fruit,  hops,  hides,  and 
bark.  Pop.  172,475. 

TASMANNIA,  a genus  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  one  Tasmanian  and  two  Aus- 
tralian shrubs.  The  Tasmanian  species 
possesses  aromatic  qualities,  particularly 
in  its  bark.  Its  fruit  is  used  by  the 
colonists  for  pepper. 

TASSO,  Torquato,  an  Italian  epic 
poet,  was  born  at  Sorrento  1544.  At  the 
age  of  sixteen  he  produced  the  Rinaldo, 
an  epic  poem  in  twelve  cantos.  The 
reputation  of  this  poem  procured  for 
Torquato  an  invitation  to  the  University 


of  Bologna,  which  he  accepted.  Here 
he  displayed  an  aptitude  for  philosophy, 
and  began  to  write  his  great  poem  of 
Gierusalemme  Liberata  (Jerusalem  De- 
livered). In  1573  Tasso  brought  out  the 
Aminta,  a pastoral,  which  was  repre- 
sented at  the  court.  In  1575  he  com- 
pletedhis  epic  of  Gierusalemme  Liberata. 
In  1595,  he  proceeded  to  Rome  at  the 
request  of  the  pope,  who  desired  him  to 
be  crowned  with  laurel  in  the  capitol, 
but  the  poet  died  while  the  preparations 
for  the  ceremony  were  being  made. 
Tasso  wrote  numerous  poems,  but  his 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  Rime,  or  lyrical 
poems,  his  Aminta,  and  his  Gierusa- 
lemme Liberata. 

TASTE,  the  sense  by  which  we  per- 
cieve  the  relish  or  savor  of  a thing.  The 
organs  of  this  special  sense  are  the 
papillae,  or  processes  on  the  surface  of 
the  tongue,  and  also  certain  parts 
within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  the 
throat,  as  the  soft  plate,  the  tonsils,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx.  See 
Tongue. 

TATARS,  or  TARTARS,  a vague  term 
with  no  ethnological  significance  usually 
applied  to  certain  roving  tribes  which 
inhabited  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia. 
More  specifically,  however,  Tatar  or 
Ta-ta  appears  to  have  been  the  name 
of  a tribe  of  Mongols  who  occupied  about 
the  9th  century  a district  of  Chinese 
Tartary  on  the  Upper  Amur.  The  true 
Tatars  formed  part  of  the  horde  of 
Genghis  Khan,  when  that  conqueror 
carried  his  arms  from  the  country  known 
as  Chinese  Tartary  to  Europe,  as  well  as 
to  the  successive  hordes  of  similar  origin 
who  followed  in  their  footsteps,  and  to 
the  districts  from  which  they  came,  or  in 
which  they  settled;  hence  the  names  of 
Chinese  Tartary,  Independent  Tartary, 
and  European  or  Little  Tartary,  which 
comprised  most  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ments of  Orenburg,  Astrakhan,  Eka- 
terinoslav,  the  Cossack  provinces,  and 
the  Crimea. 

TATTOOING,  a practice  common  to 
several  uncivilized  nations,  ancient  and 
modern,  and  to  some  extent  employed 
among  civilized  peoples.  It  consists  in 
pricking  the  skin  in  a design,  and  intro- 
ducing into  the  wounds  colored  liquids, 
gun-powder,  or  the  like,  so  as  to  make  it 
indelible.  This  practice  is  very  prevalent 
among  the  South  Sea  islanders,  among 
whom  are  used  instruments  edged  with 
small  teeth,  somewhat  resembling  those 
of  a fine  comb.  Degrees  of  rank  are 
sometimes  indicated  by  the  greater  or 
less  surface  of  tattooed  skin. 

TAUNTON,  a town,  capital  of  Bristol 
CO.,  Massachusetts,  about  33  miles  south 
of  Boston.  It  is  well  built  and  contains 
a great  number  of  handsome  edifices. 
The  manufactures  consist  of  locomo- 
tives, cotton  machinery,  Britannia  ware, 
nails,  etc.,  and  it  has  iron-works,  cotton 
and  paper  mills,  print-works,  foundries, 
etc.  Pop.  37,160. 

TAU'RIDA,  a government  in  the 
south  of  Russia;  area,  24,539  sq.  miles. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Dnieper;  the  north- 
ern peninsula  consists  almost  entirely  of 
an  extensive  steppe,  and  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  the  inhabitants,  who  consist  of 
Russians,  is  cattle-breeding  and  agri- 
culture. Pop.  1,443,566.  The  capital  is 
Simferopol. 


TAURUS 


TAYLOR 


TAURUS,  the  Bull,  one  of  the  twelve 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters 
about  the  20th  April.  Taurus  is  also  the 
second  zodiacal  constellation,  contain- 
ing 141  stars.  Several  of  these  are  re- 
markable, as  Aldebaran,  of  the  first 
magnitude,  in  the  eye;  the  Hyades,  in 
the  face ; and  the  Pleiades  in  the  neck. 

TAUTOG,  a fish  found  on  the  coast  of 
New  England,  and  valued  for  food.  See 
Blackfish. 

TAVOY,  a district  in  the  Tenasserim 
division  of  Lower  Burmah;  area,  7150 
sq.  miles.  Pop.  84,988.  The  chief  town 
is  Tavoy,  situated  about  30  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.  15,000.  There  is  also  an  island  of 
Tavoy  about  18  miles  long  and  2 broad, 
and  on  the  eastern  side  there  is  a well- 
sheltered  harbor  called  Port  Owen. 

TAX,  a contribution  levied  by  author- 
ity from  people  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  government  or  other  public  services. 
A tax  may  be  a charge  made  by  the 
national  or  state  rulers  on  the  incomes 
or  property  of  individuals,  or  on  the 
products  consumed  by  them.  A tax  is 
said  to  be  direct  when  it  is  demanded 
from  the  very  persons  who  it  is  intended 
or  desired  should  pay  it,  as,  for  example, 
a poll-tax,  a land  or  property-tax,  an 
income-tax,  taxes  for  keeping  man- 
servants,  carriages,  dogs,  and  the  like. 
It  is  said  to  be  indirect  when  it  is  de- 
manded from  one  person  in  the  expec- 
tation and  intention  that  he  shall  in- 
demnify himself  at  the  expense  of  an- 
other; as,  for  example,  the  taxes  called 
customs,  which  are  imposed  on  certain 
classes  of  imported  goods,  and  those 
called  excise  duties,  which  are  imposed  on 
home  manufactures  or  inland  produc- 
tion. Taxes  are  also  rates  or  sums 
imposed  on  individuals  or  their  prop- 
erty for  municipal,  county,  or  other 
local  purposes,  such  as  police  taxes, 
taxes  for  the  support  of  the  poor  (poor- 
rates),  taxes  for  the  repair  of  the  roads 
and  bridges,  etc.  In  Great  Britain  and 
elsewhere  house  taxes  or  taxes  on  rental 
form  the  largest  part  of  the  local  reve- 
nues, municipal  revenues  being,  indeed, 
entirely  raised  from  this  source.  Adam 
Smith  has  laid  down  four  principles  of 
taxation,  which  have  been  generally 
accepted  by  political  economists.  These 
are:  (1)  The  subjects  of  every  state 
ought  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
the  government  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  abilities. 
(2)  The  tax  ought  to  be  certain,  not 
arbitrary.  (3)  Every  tax  ought  to  be 
levied  at  the  time  or  in  the  manner  most 
convenient  for  the  contributor.  (4) 
Every  tax  ought  to  be  so  contrived  as 
both  to  take  out  and  keep  out  of  the 
pockets  of  the  people  as  little  as  possible 
over  and  above  what  it  brings  into  the 
public  treasury  of  the  state.  See  also 
Income-tax,  Customs,  Excise,  etc. 

TAXIDERMY,  the  art  of  preparing 
and  preserving  the  skins  of  animals,  and 
also  of  stuffing  and  mounting. 

TAXO'DIUM,  a genus  of  deciduous 
cypress,  a common  ornamental  tree,  is 
a native  of  North  America.  The  bark 
exudes  a resin  which  is  used  by  the 
negroes  for  dressing  wounds,  and  the 
roots,  which  are  hollow  inside,  are  used 
for  bee-hives. 

TAY,  the  longest  river  in  Scotland, 


and  the  one  that  carries  to  the  sea  a 
greater  volume  of  water  than  any  other 
in  the  British  islands.  Its  length  is  about 
120  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  in  the 
estuary  3^  miles,  and  the  area  drained 
2400  sq.  miles.  It  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Perth,  but  Dundee  is  the  chief  port. 
The  salmon  fisheries  are  important. 


TAYLOR,  Bayard,  American  poet, 
born  at  Kennett  Square,  Pennsylvania, 
in  1825,  died  in  1878.  He  traveled  ex- 
tensively, giving  his  experiences  in 
Views  Afoot  in  Europe,  The  Lands  of 
the  Saracens,  Visit  to  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  Crete  and  Russia,  Byways  of 
Europe.  He  also  published  several 
novels;  various  volumes  of  verse,  such 


as  Rhymes  of  Travel,  A Book  of  Ro- 
mances, Lyrics,  and  Songs,  Poems  and 
Ballads,  Poems  of  the  Orient,  The 
Masque  of  the  Gods,  and  a translation 
of  Goethe’s  Faust  in  the  original  meters. 
He  was  for  some  time  United  States 
secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Petersburg, 
and  latterly  he  was  United  States  am- 
bassador at  Berlin,  where  he  died. 

TAYLOR,  Jeremy,  one  of  the  greatest 
names  in  the  Church  of  England,  was 
born  in  1613  at  Cambridge;  died  at  Lis- 
burne,  Ireland,  in  1667.  He  was  entered, 
in  1626,  as  a sizar  in  Caius  college,  where 
he  graduated  Master  of  Arts;  and  in 
1636  obtained  by  the  patronage  of 


Archbishop  Laud  a fellowship  of  All  1 
Souls  college,  Oxford.  In  1638  he  was  | 
presented  by  Bishop  Juxon  to  the  rec-  ! 
tory  of  Uppingham,  in  Rutlandshire,  j 
and  in  1642  he  was  appointed  chaplain  I 
in  ordinary  to  Charles  I.  Afterward  he  I 
removed  to  London,  but  in  1658  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Lord  Con- 
way to  reside  at  his  seat  in  Ireland. 
Here  he  remained  until  the  Restoration, 


whan  he  was  elevated  to  the  Irish  see  j 
of  Down  and  Connor,  with  the  adminis-  ^ 
tration  of  that  of  Dromore.  He  was  also 
in  the  same  year,  made  a privy-coun-  H 
cillor  for  Ireland,  and  chosen  vice-chan-  i 
cellor  of  the  University  of  Dublin.  The  j 
greater  part  of  his  writings  consist  of  ^ 
sermons  and  devotional  pieces,  and  upon  ;i 
the  former  rests  his  fame  as  a master  of  > 
varied  English  prose.  ' 

TAYLOR,  John,  The  successor  of  i 
Brigham  Young  as  president  of  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day 
Saints,  was  born  in  England  in  1808. 

In  1836  he  joined  the  Mormon  church 
and  was  elected  one  of  the  twelve 
apostles.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  to 
the  European  mission;  he  published  a 
Mormon  monthly  in  Paris  and  trans-  . 
lated  the  Book  of  Mormon  into  French  ; 
and  German.  In  1854,  he  was  stationed 
in  New  Y^ork  as  superintendent  over  the  "i 
Eastern  churches  and  there  published  d 
the  Mormon.  In  1858  he  was  indicted  ( 
for  treason  against  the  LTnited  States  fi 
government.  On  October  6,  1880,  he  ^ 
was  elected  president  of  the  church.  He  !( 
died  in  1887.  • 

TAYLOR,  Richard,  a confederate 
soldier,  familarly  known  as  “Dick”  Tay- 
lor,  was  born  at  New  Orleans  in  1826.  He  IJ 
fought  under  Stonewall  Jackson  in  the  j 
Shenandoah  valley  campaign,  and  in  the  j 
Seven  Days’  battle  before  Richmond,  j 
On  April  8,  1864,  he  defeated  General  « 
Banks  at  Sabine  Cross  roads.  On  May  j 
4,  1865,  he  surrendered  to  General  j 
Canby.  He  published  Destruction  and  I 
Reconstruction  (1879).  He  died  in  1879.  j 
TAYLOR,  Tom,  born  at  Sunderland  ) 
in  1817,  died  1880.  The  most  popular 
of  his  plays  are:  New  Men  and  Old  i 
Acres,  Masks  and  Faces  (in  collabora- 
tion with  Charles  Reade),  Still  Waters 
Run  Deep,  The  Overland  Route,  and 
The  Ticket  of  Leave  Man.  His  historic  ; 
dramas  include:  The  Fool’s  Revenge, 
Joan  of  Arc,  ’Twixt  Axe  and  Crown, 
Lady  Clancarty,  Anne  Boleyn,  etc.  He 
also  published  biographies  of  B.  R. 


TAYLOR 


TE  DEUM 


Haydon  (1853),  C.  R.  Leslie  (1859),  and 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (1865). 

TAYLOR,  Zachary,  twelfth  president 
of  the  United  States,  born  in  Orange 
county,  Virginia,  1784;  died  1850.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  major;  took  command  of 
the  United  States  forces  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Mexican  war.  His  victory  over 
the  Mexicans  at  Buena  Vista,  with  only 
6,500  men  against  an  army  of  21,000, 


commanded  by  President  Santa  Anna, 
created  great  enthusiasm,  and  “Old 
Rough-and-Ready,”  as  he  was  called  in 
the  army,  was  nominated  in  1848  for 
president  of  the  United  States,  and 
though  opposed  by  General  Cass,  Martin 
Van  Buren  and  C.  F.  Adams,  he  was 
triumphantly  elected,  and  entered  upon 
the  presidency  in  1850.  He  only  occu- 
pied the  post  four  months,  and  died  on 
July  9th,  in  that  year. 

TCHAD,  CHAD,  or  TSAD,  a large 
fresh-water  lake  of  Central  Africa,  in  the 
Soudan,  having  the  territories  of  Bor- 
nou,  Kanem,  and  Bagirmi  surrounding 
it;  length,  about  150  miles;  breadth, 
about  100  miles;  area,  about  20,000  sq. 
miles,  with  a variable  expanse  according 
as  it  is  the  wet  or  dry  season. 

TCHERNIGOV,  TCHERNIGOFF,  or 
TCHERNIGOW,  a government  of  Little 
Russia,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dnieper;  area,  20,232  sq.  miles.  Agri- 
culture and  cattle-breeding  are  the  chief 
employments;  corn,  linseed,  timber, 
tobacco,  and  sugar  are  exported.  Pop. 
2,075,867. — Tchernigov,  the  capital,  is 
situated  on  the  Desna,  about  80  miles 
n.n.e.  of  Kieff.  Pop.  27,028. 

TEA,  a genus  of  plants  comprising  the 
species  which  yields  most  of  the  tea  of 
commerce.  By  different  modes  of  cul- 
ture this  species  has  diverged  into  two 
distinct  varieties,  entitled  Thea  viridis 
and  Thea  bohea.  The  former  is  a large 
hardy  evergreen  plant  with  spreading 
branches  and  thin  leaves  from  3 to  5 
inches  long;  the  latter  is  a smaller  plant, 
and  differs  from  the  other  in  several  par- 
ticulars. From  both,  according  to  the 


process  of  manufacture,  black  and  green 
teas  are  procured.  The  tea  plant  is  not 
only  cultivated  over  a great  part  of 
China,  but  also  in  Japan,  Tonquin, 
Cochin-China,  Assam  and  other  parts  of 
India,  and  Ceylon.  It  has  also  been  ex- 
perimentally introduced  into  Carolina, 
Brazil,  and  Australia.  Its  growth  is 
chiefly  confined  to  hilly  tracts;  it  is 
raised  from  seed,  and  the  rearing  of  it 
requires  great  skill  and  attention.  In 
seven  years  the  plant  attains  the  height 
of  6 feet,  and  the  leaves  are  plucked  off 
carefully  one  by  one  four  times  a year. 
In  their  green  condition  they  are  placed 
in  a hot  pan  over  a small  furnace,  and 
then  rubbed  lightly  between  the  palms 
of  the  hands,  or  on  a table.  This  proc- 
ess is  repeated  until  the  leaves  become 
small,  crisp,  and  curled.  The  black  teas 
thus  prepared  include  bohea,  congou, 
souchong,  and  pekoe;  the  green  teas, 
twankay,  hyson-skin,  young  hyson, 
hyson,  imperial,  and  gunpowder.  Green 
tea  gets  less  of  the  fire  than  black  tea. 
The  broken  leaves,  stalks,  and  refuse  of 
the  tea  are  compressed  into  solid  bricks, 
and  in  this  form  it  is  imported  by  the 
Russians  into  the  greater  part  of  Central 
Asia,  where  (besides  being  used  as  a 
sort  of  coinage)  it  is  sometimes  stewed 
with  milk,  salt,  and  butter.  There  is 
considerable  adulteration  in  the  teas 
sent  from  China  to  the  European  mar- 
ket, and  they  are  often  artificially 
colored  with  a mixture  of  Prussian  blue, 
or  of  gypsum  and  indigo  carefully  mixed. 
The  infusion  of  tea-leaves  in  hot  water 
yields  a beverage  which  has  little  nutri- 
tive value,  but  it  increases  respiratory 
action,  and  seems  to  have  a stimulative 
and  restorative  action  on  the  nervous 
system.  This  is  chiefly  due  to  the  essen- 
tial oil  and  the  theine  (an  alkaloid  in  its 
nature  identical  with  the  caffeine  in 
coffee)  which  it  contains,  while  the 
tannin,  which  is  also  present,  acts  as  an 
astringent.  If  the  water  is  boiling  an 
infusion  of  ten  minutes  is  sufficient  to 
extract  all  the  theine,  and  a longer 
period  only  adds  to  the  tannin  in  the 
beverage,  a result  which  is  very  hurtful 
to  digestion.  From  historical  sources 
we  learn  that  tea  was  used  in  China  as  a 
beverage  in  the  6th  century,  and  two 
centuries  after  its  use  had  become  com- 
mon. In  England  we  first  find  it  men- 
tioned about  1615  by  an  agent  of  the 
East  India  company ; in  1660  Pepys  says 
in  his  diary,  “I  did  send  for  a cup  of  tea, 
a China  drink,  of  which  I never  had 
drunk  before.”  China  until  recent  years, 
held  almost  a monopoly  in  the  produc- 
tion of  tea,  but  now  India  and  Ceylon 
have  entered  the  market  as  important 
competitors.  Britain  is  the  principal 
tea-consuming  country  in  the  world, 
coffee  being  less  in  favor  there  than  in 
many  other  countries,  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  example.  The  import 
of  tea  to  the  United  States  is  less  than 
half  that  of  Britain. 

TEAK,  a tree  of  the  natural  order 
VerbenacejE,  a native  of  different  parts 
of  India,  as  well  as  of  Burmah  and  of  the 
islands  from  Ceylon  to  the  Moluccas.  It 
grows  to  an  immense  size,  and  is  re- 
markable for  its  large  leaves,  which  are 
from  12  to  24  inches  long,  and  from  6 
to  18  broad  The  wood,  though  porous, 
is  strong  and  durable;  it  is  easily  sea- 


soned and  shrinks  but  little,  and  from 
containing  a resinous  oil  it  resists  the 
action  of  water,  and  repels  the  attacks 
of  insects  of  all  kinds.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  ship-building  and  for  many  other 
purposes. 


TEAL,  the  common  name  of  the 
smallest  and  most  beautiful  of  the  duck 
family.  Its  length  is  about  14  inches. 
The  green-winged  teal  is  very  like  the 


Blue-winged  teal. 


common  teal.  The  blue-winged  teal  is 
somewhat  larger  than  the  common  teal, 
and  is  easily  domesticated.  Both  are 
North  American. 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  is  the  form 
of  education  received  in  specially 
equipped  schools,  where  manual  skill, 
and  the  practical  application  of  science 
and  art  to  manufactures,  are  taught. 
The  recent  demand  for  such  instruction 
has  arisen  chiefly  because,  by  themodern 
use  of  machinery  and  a highly-developed 
division  of  labor,  the  old  apprentice 
system  has  broken  down,  and  workmen 
in  recent  years  have  ceased  to  learn  the 
complete  practical  details  of  their 

tiS 

TECHNOLOGY,  that  branch  of  knowl- 
edge which  deals  with  the  various  in- 
dustrial arts;  the  science  or  systematic 
knowledge  of  the  industrial  arts,  as 
spinning,  weaving,  dyeing,  metallurgy, 
brewing,  and  the  like. 

TE  DEUM,  a name  (from  the  opening 
phrase  Te  Deum  Laudamus)  of  the  well- 
known  Latin  h3nnn  usually  ascribed  to 
St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine,  although 
it  cannot  be  traced  farther  back  than  the 
end  of  the  5th  century.  It  is  used  in  the 
ritual  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  An- 
glican churches,  being  part  of  the  morn- 
ing service  in  the  latter  (“We  praise 
thee,  0 God,”  etc.) 


TEETH 


TELEGRAPH 


TEETH,  the  name  given  to  certain 
hard  structures  growing  out  of  the  jaws 
of  vertebrate  animals,  and  serving  as 
the  instruments  of  mastication.  The 
teeth  of  animals  differ  in  shape,  being 
destined  for  different  offices.  In  man 
and  the  higher  mammals  two  sets  of 
teeth  are  developed,  the  early,  milk  or 
deciduous  teeth,  and  the  pei-manent  set. 
In  fishes  the  teeth  fall  off  and  are  re- 
newed repeatedly  in  the  course  of  their 
lives.  Teeth  do  not  belong  to  the  skele- 
ton, but  to  the  skin  or  exoskeletal  parts 
of  the  body,  and  are  homologous  with 
hairs.  In  man  the  teeth  are  imbedded 
in  sockets  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw- 
bones. There  are  thirty-two  in  all, 
sixteen  in  each  jaw,  and  each  consists  of 
the  crown  or  visible  part,  and  the  fangs 
or  buried  part.  The  four  central  teeth 
of  each  jaw  having  chiseled-shaped 
crowns  with  sharp  edges  are  called  in- 
cisors; on  each  side  of  these  four  is  the 
pointed  canine  tooth  (which  in  the  upper 
jaw  are  called  the  eye-tooth);  on  each 
side  of  these  are  two  bicuspid  teeth 
(praemolars) ; and  behind  these  again  are 
the  molar  teeth,  three  on  each  side.  (See 
Dental  Formula.)  The  last  of  the  per- 
manent teeth  to  appear  are  the  farthest 
back  grinding  teeth,  w'hich,  owing  to 
their  arrival  between  the  seventeenth 
and  tw'enty-fifth  years,  are  called  the 
wisdom  teeth.  Each  tooth  has  a central 
cavity  filled  wdth  a soft  pulp  contain- 
ing blood-vessels  and  nerves;  this  cavity 
is  surrounded  by  dentine,  a hard  sub- 
stance composed  of  phosphate  and  car- 
bonate of  lime;  outside  the  fang  is  a 
cement-like  substance  resembling  bone; 
while  outside  the  crown  is  a hard  enamel. 
In  young  teeth  the  enamel  is  covered  by 
a delicate  membrane  called  “the  skin  of 
the  teeth,”  which  in  adult  teeth  is  worn 
off.  Toothache  is  due  to  decay  of  the 
substance  of  a tooth,  dental  caries  as  it 
is  called.  When  the  enamel  which  covers 
the  tooth  becomes  flawed  the  underlying 
dentine  is  exposed  and  soon  breaks 
dowm.  When  the  decay,  passing  inward, 
reaches  the  pulp  which  contains  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  it  causes  in- 
flammation, aching,  and  suppuration. 
Any  treatment  of  toothache,  short  of 
extraction,  is  seldom  satisfactory  if  the 
pulp  has  been  actually  attacked;  but 
neuralgia  is  often  mistaken  for  tooth- 
ache. See  Dentistry. 

TEETOTALISM,  See  Temperance. 

TEHERAN',  capital  of  Persia,  in  Irak 
Ajemi,  toward  the  northeast  of  the 
province,  66  miles  south  of  the  Caspian 
sea,  at  the  southern  base  of  Mount 
Elburz.  Pop.  (in  winter),  210,000. 

TEHUANTEPEC  (ta-wan-te-pek'),  a 
town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Oaxaca, 
14  miles  above  the  mouth  of  a river  of 
the  same  name,  falling  into  the  Pacific 
ocean.  On  account  of  a dangerous  bar 
the  river  is  little  used  for  navigation. 
Pop.,  mostly  Indians,  24,438.  The  town 
is  near  the  south  side  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec,  the  narrowest  part  of 
North  America,  having  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec  on  the  Pacific  side,  the 
Bay  of  Campeachy  on  the  Atlantic  side ; 
width,  about  115  miles.  There  have  been 
various  schemes  for  constructing  a canal 
or  a ship  railway  across  the  isthmus, 
the  most  recent  of  the  latter  sort  being 
that  of  an  American  engineer  named 


Eads.  The  idea  was  received  with  great 
favor  in  the  United  States,  and  in  1887 
a bill  passed  the  senate  authorizing  the 
incorporation  of  a company  to  carry  out 
the  project.  The  total  length  of  the  line, 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  port  of  Salina 
Cruz  on  the  Pacific,  was  estimated  at 
135  miles,  and  the  cost  of  construction 
at  sixty  million  dollars.  Capt.  Eads,  the 
projector,  died  in  1887.  See  Ship  Rail- 
way. 

TELAU'TOGRAPH,  a new  writing 
telegraph,  invented  by  Professor  Elisha 
Gray,  based  on  a novel  system  of  trans- 
mission, whereby  a facsimile  reproduc- 
tion of  the  handwriting  of  the  sender  of 
a message  is  effected. 

TELEGRAPH,  a general  name  for  any 
instrument  or  apparatus  for  conveying 
intelligence  beyond  the  limits  of  distance 
at  which  the  voice  is  audible,  the  idea  of 
speed  being  also  implied.  Thus  the  name 
used  to  be  given  to  a semaphore  or  other 
signalling  apparatus.  The  word,  how- 
ever, is  now  usually  restricted  in  its  ap- 
plication to  the  electric  telegraph,  which 
fronT  Its  power  of  rapidly  conveying 
elaborate  communications  to  the  greatest 
distances  has  thrown  all  others  into  the 
shade.  The  electric  telegraph,  as  com- 
prising the  entire  system  of  apparatus 
for  transmitting  intelligence  by  elec- 


Single-needle  instrument. 

tricity,  consists  essentially  (1)  of  a bat- 
tery or  other  source  of  electric  power; 
(2)  of  a line-wire  or  conductor  for  con- 
veying the  electric  current  from  one 
station  to  another;  (3)  of  the  apparatus 
for  transmitting,  interrupting,  and  if 
necessary  reversing  the  current  at  pleas- 
ure ; and  (4)  of  the  indicator  or  signall- 
ing instrument.  The  line-wires  for  over- 
head lines  are  usually  of  iron,  protected 
from  atmospheric  influence  by  galvaniz- 
ing or  by  being  varnished  with  boiled 
linseed-oil,  a coating  of  tar,  or  other 
means,  and  are  supported  upon  posts, 
to  which  they  are  attached  by  insulators . 
(See  Insulator.)  In  underground  lines 
the  wires  are  insulated  by  a gutta-percha 
or  other  non-conducting  covering,  and 
inclosed  in  iron  or  lead  pipes.  The  bat- 
tery and  line-wire  are  common  to  all 
telegraphic  systems;  it  is  in  the  method 
of  producing  the  signals  that  the  great 
variation  exists;  but  in  all  of  them  ad- 
vantage has  been  taken  of  one  or  other 
of  the  three  following  properties  of  the 
current:  (1)  its  power  of  producing  the 
deflection  of  a magnetic  needle,  as  in  the 
galvanometer  (which  see);  (2)  its  power 
of  temporarily  magnetizing  soft  iron; 
and  (3)  its  power  of  producing  chemical 
decomposition.  The  electro-magnetic 
instrument  of  Professor  Morse,  which, 


however,  in  its  perfected  fonu  cwflB 
much  to  the  genius  of  Morse’s  associate® 
Joseph  Henry  and  Alfred  Vail,  is 
application  of  the  second  of  the  aboveS 
properties.  By  means  of  an  electrcsl 
magnet  an  armature  which  is  attracted^ 
when  the  magnet  is  temporarily  mag-  fi 
netized,  a lever  moved  by  the  armature— 
and  a style  which  moves  wdth  the  leverM 
this  instrument  impresses  a message!# 
in  dots  and  dashes  on  a ribbon  of  mov-'A 
ing  paper,  and  by  it  forty  words  may  b^ 
sent  in  a minute.  This  “dot  and  dash”. « 
system  which  was  invented  by  Morsel 
is  now  in  extensive  use.  A modification^^ 
of  this  instrument,  called  a sounder,  inV? 
which  the  lever  makes  audible  sounds^ 
by  coming  in  contact  wdth  a brass  rod,», 
indicates  the  message  by  the  length  of^ 
the  strokes  produced.  This  is  shown  in^' 
the  illustration,  which  shows  the  ar-^ 
rangement,  by  which  the  hammer-headP^ 
h is  attracted,  and  the  arm  h p is  brought  A 
into  contact  wdth  the  pin  a.  Upon  th^ 
cessation  of  the  current  the  spring  bring^ 
down  the  arm  upon  the  pin  b.  Frequent-iJ 
ly  the  Morse  is  simultaneously  a recorder  ■' 
and  sounder.  It  being  necessary  that , 
this  instrument  should  produce  sharp' 
and  distinct  impressions,  and  the  cur-^ 
rent  being  weak  for  stages  over  50  miles,*" 
a relay,  or  subsidiary  electro-magnetic 
circuit,  is  added  to  it  in  the  case  of., 
longer  distances.  The  transmitting  in>^ 
strument  is  a lever,  which,  on  being  ‘ 
pressed,  permits  the  current  from  the 
battery  to  flow  into  the  line-wire  during., 
the  time  the  contact  is  made.  Both  on. ' 
account  of  its  intrinsic  meidts  and  for 
the  sake  of  uniformity  the  Morse  is  the.: 
most  extensively  u.^ed  system,  being 
that  in  use  in  America,  and  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  being  also  largely 
employed  in  Britain.  Hughes’  telegraph 
appears  to  be  the  best  printing  telegraph 
and  is  the  instrument  chiefly  used  by 


the  submarine  telegraph  companies.- 
It  works  wdth  one  line  of  wire,  and  hac 
about  three  times  the  speed  of  the 
Morse  system,  with  the  advantage  that 
the  message  is  printed  in  the  ordinarj’" 
Roman  type.  The  machine  is  rather 
complicated,  but  its  principle  can  bef  | 
easily  understood.  A w'heel  having  typ» 
engraved  on  its  rim  is  made  to  ^evol^^«y 
at  a known  rate ; a strip  of  paper,  as  iO: 
the  case  of  the  Morse,  is  drawn  off  in  ift 
drum  over  a roller  which  lies  under 
rim  of  the  revolving  type-wheel;  bjH 
means  of  the  current  the  roller  wdth 
paper  is  raised  against  the  type-whee® 
as  the  proper  letter  passes,  and  in  tbi^r 


TELEGRAPH  CABLE 


TELEPHONE 


way  the  despatch  is  printed.  The 
operator  works  on  a key-board  much 
like  that  of  a piano.  Chemical  tele- 
graphs work  on  the  principle  that  an 
iron  wire  pressing  against  a paper  pre- 
pared with  cyanide  of  potassium  or  other 
substance  will,  while  a current  is  passing 
between  the  wire  and  the  paper,  pro- 
duce a dark  streak  of  Prussian  blue  or 
other  mark,  and  when  the  current  is  in- 
terrupted the  streak  of  pigment  is  in- 
terrupted. Bonelli’s  telegraph  is  worked 
by  means  of  five  wires.  The  message  is 
set  up  in  brass  types  in  one  line;  the 
letters  are  common  block  letters;  five 
styles,  like  the  teeth  of  a comb,  press 
against  the  raised  portions  of  the  type, 
and  as  the  line  of  type  is  drawn  through 
each  style  sends  a current  along  its  wire 
to  a corresponding  style  pressing  against 
prepared  paper  at  the  distant  station, 
making  a mark  on  the  paper  there  cor- 
responding to  the  raised  portion  of  type 
which  sends  the  current.  The  chief 
objection  to  Bonelli’s  telegraph  is  the 
five  wires  necessary  between  the  sta- 
tions. Autographic  telegraphs  are  chemi- 
cal telegraphs,  and  consist  of  a message 
written  with  a pen  dipped  in  some  non- 
conducting substance  on  a surface  of 
tin-foil  or  other  conducting  material 
pasted  on  a cylinder  which  is  made  to 
Tevolve  at  a certain  rate;  a style  presses 
against  the  surface,  and  is  moved  up  or 
down  the  cylinder  at  a certain  rate  so  as ' 
to  describe  a helical  line;  a current 
passes  between  the  cylinder  and  style 
except  when  the  non-conducting  writing 
comes  between  them;  at  the  distant 
station  a similar  cylinder  covered  with 
paper  prepared  with  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium revolves  at  the  same  rate  as  the 
first  cylinder;  and  its  style  being  con- 
nected with  the  first  style  by  means  of 
the  telegraph  wire  makes  a mark  of 
Prussian  blue,  which  is  a continuous 
helix,  except  when  the  current  is  in- 
terrupted at  the  first  style.  In  this  way 
a copy  of  the  message  in  the  hand- 
writing of  the  sender  is  produced  at  a 
distant  station.  This  is  Bakewell’s 
telegraph.  Caselli’s  telegraph  is  similar 
in  principle.  Bain’s  automatic  telegraph 
is  Bonelli’s  telegraph,  wherein  by  adopt- 
ing the  Morse  alphabet  one  wire  is 
sufficient ; and  the  type  is  simply  a strip 
of  paper  with  dots  and  dashes  punched 
in  it.  As  early  as  1747  Bishop  Watson 
showed  that  signals  might  be  sent 
through  a wire  stretched  across  the 
Thames  by  discharging  a Leyden-jar 
through  it.  Volta’s  discovery  of  the 
galvanic  pile,  and  Oersted’s  discovery 
of  electro-magnetism,  by  supplying 
electricity  of  a kind  more  easily  retained 
on  the  conducting  wires,  afforded  much 
greater  facilities  for  transmitting  signals 
to  a distance.  Ampere,  in  1820,  pro- 
posed to  utilize  Oersted’s  discovery  by 
employing  twenty-four  needles  to  be 
deflected  by  currents  sent  through  the 
same  number  of  wires;  and  Baron 
Schilling  exhibited  in  Russia,  in  1832,  a 
telegraph  model  in  which  the  signals 
appear  to  have  been  given  by  the  de- 
flections of  a single  needle.  Weber 
and  Gauss  carried  out  this  plan  in  1833 
by  leading  two  wires  from  the  obser- 
vatory of  Gottingen  to  the  Physical 
Cabinet,  a distance  of  about  9000  feet. 
The  signal  consisted  in  small  deflections  * 


of  a bar-magnet  suspended  horizontally 
with  a mirror  attached,  on  the  plan 
since  adopted  in  Thomson’s  mirror 
galvanometer.  At  their  request  the 
subject  was  earnestly  taken  up  by  Pro- 
fessor Steinheil  of  Munich,  whose  in- 
ventions contributed  more  perhaps  than 
those  of  any  other  single  individual  to 
render  electric  telegraphs  commercially 
practicable.  He  was  the  first  to  ascer- 
tain that  earth  connections  might  be 
made  to  supersede  the  use  of  a return 
wire.  He  also  invented  a convenient 
telegraphic  alphabet,  in  which,  as  in 

At  fianehti. 


/nitrp'tiatwm 

AX  AN  Y XXME 

AtPrtnUA 

Wheatstone's  automatic  system. 

most  of  the  codes  since  employed,  the 
different  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  rep- 
resented by  different  combinations  of 
two  elementary  signals.  His  currents 
were  magneto-electric,  like  those  of 
Weber  and  Gauss.  The  attraction  of  an 
electro-magnet  on  a movable  armature 
furnishes  the  means  of  signalling  which 
is  the  foundation  of  Morse’s  telegraphic 
system,  and  which  has  been  employed 
by  Wheatstone  to  ring  a bell  calling 
attention  before  transmitting  a message. 
About  the  year  1837  electric  telegraphs 
were  first  established  as  commercial 
speculations  in  three  different  countries. 
Steinheil’s  system  was  carried  out  at 
Munich,  Morse’s  in  America,  and  Wheat- 
stone and  Cooke’s  in  England.  Among 
recent  improvements  in  electric  teleg- 
raphy are  those  by  which  a wire  can  be 
used  for  more  than  one  message  at  a 
time.  In  1872  a method  of  sending 
simultaneously  two  messages  in  opposite 
directions  on  the  same  wire  was  intro- 
duced, and  it  was  also  discovered  that 
two  messages  could  be  sent  in  the  same 
direction  (duplex  telegraphy).  The  two 
plans  being  combined  formed  quad- 
ruplex  telegraphy.  In  wireless  teleg- 
raphy electric  waves  transmitted  through 
space  are  utilized  by  means  of  delicate 
instruments.  See  Wireless  Telegraphy. 

TELEGRAPH  CABLE.  See  Sub- 
marine Cable. 

TELEMACHUS  (te-lem'a-kus),  a son 
of  Ulysses  and  Penelope,  who  is  reputed 
to  have  gone  through  many  adventures 
in  search  of  his  father  after  the  close  of 
the  Trojan  war.  He  is  the  hero  of  a 
French  prose  epic  by  Fenelon.  (1699). 

TELEOL'OGY,  the  science  or  doctrine 
of  final  causes ; the  doctrine  which 
asserts  that  all  things  which  exist  were 
produced  by  an  intelligent  being  for  the 
end  which  they  fulfil. 

TEL'EPHONE,  an  instrument  for 
transmitting’ the  human  voice  or  other 
sounds  by  means  of  electricity  and 
telegraph  wires.  About  the  year  1860 
the  idea  that  sound-producing  vibra- 
tions could  be  transmitted  through  a 
wire  by  means  of  electricity  began  to  be 
recognized  by  several  men  of  science. 
Reis  of  Frankfort  invented  an  appara- 
tus which  could  reproduce  at  a distant 
station  the  pitch  of  a musical  sound  by 
means  of  a discontinuous  current  along 
a telegraph  wire.  A great  step  in  ad- 


vance was  made  in  1876,  when  Prof. 
Graham  Bell  discovered  an  articulating 
telephone  which  depends  upon  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  undulating  current,  and  by 
means  of  which  the  very  quality  of  a 
note,  and  therefore  conversation  itself, 
could  be  reproduced  at  a distant  station. 
Several  varieties  of  telephonic  apparatus 
are  now  in  use  for  inter-communication 
between  distant  places.  The  Bell  tele- 
phone in  its  common  form  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut.  A strong  ordi- 
nary bar-magnet  m has  round  one  of  its 
ends  a coil  of  fine  silk-covered  wire  in 
metalic  communication  with  the  two 
terminals  s s.  One  of  the  terminals 
communicates  through  a telegraph  wire 
with  one  of  the  terminals  of  the  coil  of 
a precisely  similar  instrument  at  the 
other  station,  the  remaining  pair  of 
terminals  being  connected  through  the 
earth,  or  through  a return  wire.  Just  in 
front  of  the  extremity  of  the  magnet 
there  is  a thin  plate  of  iron  p,  and  in 
front  of  this  again  there  is  the  mouth- 
piece of  a speaking-tube  o.  By  this  last 
the  sounds  to  be  transmitted  are  col- 
lected and  concentrated,  and  falling  on 
the  metal  plate  cause  it  to  vibrate. 
These  vibrations  in  their  turn  excite 
undulating  electric  currents  which  cor- 
respond exactly  with  the  vibrations; 
that  is,  with  the  original  sounds.  The 


Bell  telephone. 


electric  currents  being  transmitted  to 
the  receiving  telephone  cause  corre- 
sponding vibrations  in  the  plate  or  disc 
in  it,  and  these  reproduce  to  the  ear  the 
original  sounds.  The  telephone  is  now 
an  established  institution  throughout 
Europe  and  America.  Telephone  ex- 
changes exist  in  all  the  principal  towns, 
subscribers  to  which  have  their  houses 
or  places  of  business  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  each  other.  Long  distance 
lines  are  also  rapidly  joining  city  to 
city,  the  longest  as  yet  in  existence  be- 
ing the  lines  between  New  York  and 
Chicago  (1000  miles),  and  between 
Boston  and  Milwaukee  (1300  miles, 
and  New  York  and  Denver  (1954  miles). 
In  1907  extremely  interesting  tests  were 
made  by  Count  Arco,  the  Berlin  electri- 
cal expert,  who  demonstrated  the  pos- 
sibility of  talking  by  wireless  teleg- 
raphy. All  the  newest  ships  in  the  Ger- 
man, English,  and  American  navies  are 
now  being  fitted  out  with  wireless  tele- 
phone instruments.  Experiments  con- 
ducted by  Capt.  A.  C.  Knowles,  U.  S.  A., 
have  made  it  possible,  by  using  a one 
wire  circuit,  the  current  passing  through 
the  horse  to  the  ground,  for  officers  to 
give  commands  while  separated  from 
their  troops,  and  also  to  converse  with 
one  another  without  dismounting.  See 
Wireless  Telegraphy. 


telescope 


Tellurium 


TELESCOPE,  an  optical  instrument 
essentially  consisting  of  a set  of  lenses 
fixed  in  a tube  or  a number  of  sliding 
tubes,  by  which  distant  objects  are 
brought  within  the  range  of  distinct,  or 
more  distinct  vision.  The  law  of  action 
by  which  the  telescope  assists  human 
vision  is  twofold,  and  that  under  all  the 
varieties  of  its  construction.  A distant 
object  viewed  by  the  unaided  eye  is 
placed  in  the  circumference  of  a large 
circle,  having  the  eye  for  its  center,  and 
consequently  the  angle  under  which  it  is 
seen  is  measured  by  the  minute  portion 
of  the  circumference  which  it  occupies. 
Now,  when  the  distance  is  great,  it  is 
found  that  this  angle  is  too  small  to 
convey  to  the  retina  any  sensible  im- 
pression— all  the  light  proceeding  from 
the  object  is  too  weak  to  affect  the  optic 
nerve.  This  limit  to  distinct  vision 
results  from  the  small  aperture  or  pupil 
of  the  eye.  The  telescope  substitutes  its 
large  object  lens  or  reflector  for  the 
human  eye,  and  consequently  receives 
a quantity  of  light  proportioned  to  its 
area  or  surface;  hence  a distant  point, 
inappreciable  by  the  eye  alone,  is  ren- 
dered visible  by  the  aid  of  the  telescope. 
The  rays  of  light,  after  transmission  or 
reflection,  converge  to  a point  as  they  at 
first  proceeded  from  a point,  and  thus 
an  image  of  the  object  is  formed  which, 
when  viewed  by  the  eye-piece  or  lens, 
is  more  or  less  magnified.  The  telescope 
therefore  assists  the  eye  in  these  two 
ways;  it  gathers  up  additional  light 
and  it  magnifies  the  object;  that  is  to 
say,  its  image.  The  refracting  telescope 
is  constructed  of  lenses  alone,  which,  by 
successive  refractions,  produce  the  de- 
sired effect.  This  instrument  was  for- 
merly very  cumbersome  and  incon- 
venient, inasmuch  as  its  length  had  to 
be  increased  considerably  with  every 
accession  of  power;  but  the  substitution 
of  achromatic  for  ordinary  lenses  has 
rendered  it  more  portable  and  conven- 
ient. The  reflecting  telescope  is  com- 
posed of  specula  or  concave  reflectors 
(see  Speculum)  aided  by  a refracting  eye- 
piece. To  this  instrument  we  owe  some 
of  the  most  wondrous  discoveries  in 
astronomical  science.  The  names  of 
Newton,  Gregory,  Herschel,  and  Lord 
Rosse  are  connected  with  its  history. 
The  following  diagrams  exhibit  the 
principles  of  construction  and  action  in 
both  sorts  of  telescopes.  In  Fig.  1,  which 


Fig.  1. 


illustrates  the  refracting  telescope  in  its 
simplest  form,  a and  b are  two  lenses 
of  different  focal  lengths.  Rays  of  light 
from  a distant  object  falling  upon  the 
object-glass  a are  converged  to  a focus 
at  c.  The  eye-glass  b,  placed  at  its  focal 
distance  from  the  point  of  convergence, 
gathers  up  the  diverging  rays  and  car- 
ries them  parallel  to  the  eye  magnifying 
the  image  formed  at  c.  (See  Optics.) 
The  magnifying  power  of  the  instrument 
is  as  ac  ; cb,  or  as  the  focal  length  of 
one  lens  to  that  of  the  other.  In  this  con- 
struction the  object  is  seen  inverted  or 
turned  upside  down,  and  hence  it  is  un- 


suitable for  terrestrial  purposes.  To 
render  the  image  erect,  and  thus  show  it 
in  its  natural  position,  a more  compli- 
cated eye-piece,  consisting  of  two  ad- 
ditional lenses,  is  necessary.  Another 
refracting  telescope,  consisting  of  two 
lenses  in  its  simplest  form,  is  called  the 
Galilean  telescope.  It  differs  from  the 
former  in  having  a concave  lens  for  its 
eye-glass,  which  lens  is  placed  nearer 
the  object-glass  than  the  focus  of  this 
lens,  producing  an  image  which  is  not 
inverted.  This  kind  of  telescope  is  the 


V 


Fig.  2. 

one  used  in  opera-glasses  and  field- 
glasses.  Fig.  2 shows  the  structure  of 
the  reflecting  telescope  as  constructed 
by  Dr.  Gregory,  a b is  a large  speculum 
perforated  in  the  center;  upon  this  fall 
the  rays  b,  a and  d,  c,  which  are  reflected 
to  convergence  at  e.  A smaller  speculum, 
c,  takes  up  the  diverging  rays  and  re- 
flects them,  slightly  converging,  through 
the  aperture  o,  where  they  are  received 
by  a lens,  and,  after  transmission,  they 
intersect  at  x,  and  proceed  to  the  eye- 
glass, whence  they  emerge  parallel. 
The  magnifying  power  of  this  instru- 
ment is  great  for  its  length,  being  as 

X In  the  telescope  invented  by 

e C X o 

Sir  Wm.  Herschel  there  is  no  second 
speculum,  and  no  perforation  in  the 
center  of  the  larger  one  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube.  The  latter  is  fixed 


The  Lick  telescope.  Lick  observatory, 
Calitornia. 


in  an  inclined  position  so  that  the  image 
formed  by  reflection  falls  near  the  lower 
side  of  the  tube  at  its  open  end  or 
mouth,  where  it  is  viewed  directly  by 
an  eye-piece,  without  greatly  inter- 
fering with  the  light.  This  arrangement 
in  the  case  of  large  reflectors,  is  imposed 
by  their  great  weight  and  difficult 


management.  Were  it  otherwise  the 
ordinary  construction  would  be  pre- 
ferred, the  inclination  of  the  speculum 
being  a disadvantage.  Chromatic  aber- 
ration, which  arises  from  the  different 
refrangibilities  of  the  different  colored 
rays,  and  leads  to  the  formation,  by  a 
lens,  of  a separate  image  of  a bright 
object  for  each  colored  ray,  is  remedied 
by  achromatizing  the  lens,  that  is,  by 
constructing  it  of  two  or  more  lenses  of 
different  kinds  of  glass,  so  that  the 
colors,  separated  by  one,  shall  be  re- 
united by  the  others.  (See  Achromatic.) 
The  most  powerful  refracting  telescope 
yet  made  is  that  in  the  Yerkes  Observ- 
atory, Wisconsin,  which  has  an  object- 
glass  40  in.  in  diameter.  The  telescope 
in  the  Lick  observatory,  California,  has 
an  object  glass  three  feet  in  diameter. 

A large  number  of  refracting  telescopes 
of  13  inches  diameter  have  recently 
been  constructed  with  which  to  con- 
duct the  photographic  survey  of  the 
heavens,  a camera  being  attached  to  the 
eye-piece  end  of  each. 

TELFORD,  Thomas,  engineer,  born 
in  1757  in  Eskdale,  Dumfriesshire, 
which  in  1782  he  left  for  London.  The 
greatest  monument  of  his  engineering 
skill,  was  the  Menai  Suspension-bridge, 
connecting  Caernarvonshire  with  the 
Island  of  Anglesea,  opened  in  1826. 
The  Conway  bridge  was  also  his,  as  well 
as  the  Dean  bridge,  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Broomielaw  bridge,  Glasgow.  He  died 
in  1834,  and  was  interred  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

Tell,  William,  a famous  peasant 
hero  of  Switzerland,  reputed  to  have 
done  some  daring  and  wonderful  feats 
in  his  resistance  to  the  tyranny  of  the 
Austrian  governor  Gessler,  but  now 
proved  to  have  been  a mythical  per- 
sonage. In  particular,  having  refused 
to  do  homage  to  Gessler’s  hat,  set  upon 
a pole,  he  was  seized  and  condemned  to 
death,  but  granted  his  life  on  condition 
of  shooting  with  an  arrow  an  apple  placed 
on  the  head  of  his  own  son.  This  he  did 
successfully,  admitting  at  the  same  time 
that  a second  arrow  he  had  was  intended 
for  Gessler  in  case  of  failure.  He  was 
therefore  still  kept  a prisoner;  but  while 
being  conveyed  over  the  Lake  of  Lu- 
cerne he  managed  to  leap  ashore,  and 
soon  after,  having  lain  in  w^ait  for 
Gessler,  he  shot  the  tyrant  dead.  These 
stories  professedly  belong  to  the  end 
of  the  14th  or  early  part  of  the  15th 
century,  but  contemporary  historians 
know  nothing  of  them ; and  similar 
stories  belong  to  the  legends  and  ballads 
of  various  peoples. 

TEL'LER,  Henry  Moore,  American 
politician,  was  born  at  Granger.  N.  Y., 
in  1830.  In  1858  he  removed  to  Illinois, 
and  in  1861  to  Colorado.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  L'nited  States  senate 
from  1876  until  he  entered  the  cabinet 
of  President  Arthur  as  secretary  of  the 
interior  in  1882.  He  left  the  republican 
national  convention  in  1896  after  it  had 
adopted  a gold  standard  plank  and  sup- 
ported W’.  J.  Bryan  for  the  presidency. 

In  the  same  year  he  was  returned  to  the 
senate  as  an  independent  silver  repub- 
lican, and  in  1903  was  re-elected  as  the 
regular  democratic  nominee. 

TELLURIUM,  a metal  discovered  in 
1782,  combined  wdth  gold  and  silver  in  i 


tembuland 


tenacity 


certain  ores  found  in  Hungary.  The  ores 
are  denominated  native,  graphic,  yellow, 
and  black.  The  native  tellurium  is  of  a 
color  between  tin  and  silver,  and  some- 
times inclines  to  a steel-gray.  The 
graphic  tellurium  (or  graphic  gold)  is 
steel-gray;  but  sometimes  white,  yellow, 
or  lead-gray.  These  ores  are  found  mas- 
sive or  crystalized. 

TEM'BULAND,  a district  or  depend- 
ency of  the  Cape  Colony.  The  minerals 
include  coal  and  copper.  Pop.  180,415 
(5179  Europeans). 

TEMESVAR  (tem'esh-var),  a town  of 
Hungary,  in  the  Temes  Banat,  in  an  ex- 
tensive marshy  plain  on  the  Bega  canal, 
75  miles  n.n.e.  of  Belgrade.  The  manu- 
factures consist  of  woolens,  silks,  paper, 
tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  49,977. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES,  the  first 
association  for  the  purpose  of  influen- 
cing public  opinion  in  order  to  check  the 
evil  of  intemperance  appears  to  have 
been  formed  in  Massachusetts  in  1813. 
In  1826  a new  impulse  was  given  to  the 
movement  by  the  establishment  in 
Boston  on  a more  extensive  plan  of  the 
American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Temperance.  By  1831  more  than  2200 
societies,  embracing  170,000  members, 
were  in  correspondence  with  the  parent 
society.  Reports  of  the  movement  in 
America  soon  began  to  have  an  effect 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  In 
1829  societies  were  formed  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  In  1830  the  first  temper- 
ance society  in  England  was  founded  at 
Bradford,  and  by  the  close  of  the  year 
there  were  in  existence  some  thirty 
associations,  numbering  about  10,000 
members.  Since  then  many  advocates 
of  total  abstinence  have  sought  to  en- 
force their  views  by  legislative  meas- 
ures, as  long  ago  exemplified  in  the 
celebrated  Maine  Liquor  Law,  for  the 
suppression  of  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  intoxicating  beverages  in  the  state  of 
Maine.  See  Prohibition  Party. 

TEMPERATURE  may  be  expressed 
as  the  state  of  a body  with  regard  to 
heat,  or  the  state  of  a body  considered 
with  reference  to  its  power  of  communi- 
cating heat  to  other  bodies.  It  often 
refers  to  the  atmospheric  heat  of  a 
locality  at  a particular  time.  When  we 
speak  of  a body  having  a “high”  or  a 
“low  temperature”  it  is  implied  that  the 
condition  of  heat  in  the  body  may  be 
compared  with  some  standard.  The 
means  of  such  comparison  is  the  ther- 
mometer. See  Thermometer. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  ANIMALS.  See 
Animals. 

TEMPERING,  in  metallurgy,  the  proc- 
ess of  giving  to  metals,  principally  iron 
and  steel,  the  requisite  degree  of  hard- 
ness or  softness,  especially  the  process 
of  giving  to  steel  the  necessary  hard- 
ness for  cutting,  stamping,  and  other 
urposes.  If  heated  and  suddenly  cooled 
elow  a certain  degree  it  becomes  as 
soft  as  iron;  if  heated  beyond  that  de- 
gree, it  becomes  very  hard  and  brittle. 
The  process  essentially  consists  in 
plunging  the  steel  when  red-hot  into 
cold  water  or  other  liquid  to  give  an 
excess  of  hardness,  and  then  gradually 
reheating  it  until  the  hardness  is  re- 
duced or  brought  down  to  the  required 
degree.  The  excellence  of  all  cutting 
steel  instruments  depends  on  the  degree 


of  temper  given  to  them.  Different  de- 
grees of  temper  are  indicated  by  differ- 
ent colors  which  the  steel  assumes.  Thus 
steel  heated  to  450°,  and  suddenly 
cooled,  assrmies  a pale  straw  color,  and 
is  employed  for  making  razors  and  sur- 
gical instruments.  See  Steel. 

TEMPLARS,  an  order  of  knights 
which  had  its  origin  in  the  Crusades. 
Subsequently  its  object  became  the  de- 
fense of  the  Christian  faith,  and  of  the 
holy  sepulchre  against  the  Saracens. 
The  knights  took  the  vows  of  chastity,  of 
obedience,  and  of  poverty,  like  regular 
canons.  The  knights  wore  a white  cloak 
adorned  with  an  eight-pointed  red  cross 
(Maltese)  on  the  left  shoulder.  The 
grand-master,  the  chief  of  the  order, 
had  the  rank  of  a prince,  and  the  order 
acknowledged  the  pope  alone  as  its  pro- 
tector. The  Templars  established  them- 
selves in  England  about  1185,  taking  up 
tlieir  head-quarters  in  Fleet  street, 
London,  at  the  place  still  known  as  the 


Templar. 

Monument  in  Temple  church,  London. 

Temple.  Being  compelled,  in  1291,  to 
leave  the  Holy  Land,  they  transferred 
their  chief  seat  to  the  island  of  Cyprus. 
By  this  time  the  wealth  and  power  of  the 
order  had  increased  to  such  an  extent, 
and  their  arrogance  and  luxury  in  pro- 
portion, that  it  was  deemed  necessary 
to  suppress  it.  The  Templars  were  put 
an  end  to  on  the  charge  that  they  had 
ambitious  designs  on  European  thrones, 
and  that  they  held  heretical  views. 
Philip  IV.  of  France  and  Pope  Clement 
V.  played  into  each  other’s  hands  in  the 
work  of  suppression  and  spoliation.  The 
pope,  at  the  Council  of  Vienne,  in 
Dauphiny,  solemnly  abolished  the  order 
by  a bull  of  March  2,  1312.  See  Free- 
masonry. 

TEMPLE,  in  architecture,  an  edifice 
designed  for  the  performance  of  pub- 
lic worship.  Magnificent  temples  were 
erected  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome, 
the  Romans  taking  the  Greek  structures 
for  models.  The  Egyptian  temples  were 
also  remarkable  structures.  The  most 
remarkable  temple  in  the  world,  how- 
ever, was  that  built  by  Solomon  on 
Mount  Moriah  in  Jerusalem.  It  was  an 
oblong  stone  building,  60  cubits  in 
length,  20  in  width,  and  30  in  height. 
On  three  sides  were  corridors,  rising 
above  each  other  to  the  height  of  three 
stories.  The  fourth  or  front  side  was 
open,  and  was  ornamented  with  a por- 
tico, 10  cubits  in  width,  supported  by 


two  brazen  pillars.  The  interior  was 
divided  into  the  most  holy  place,  which 
contained  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and 
was  separated  by  a curtain  from  the 
sanctuary,  in  which  were  the  golden 
candlesticks,  the  table  of  the  shew-bread 
and  the  altar  of  incense.  The  temple 
was  surrounded  by  an  inner  court,  which 
contained  the  altar  of  burnt-offering. 
Colonnades,  with  brazen  gates,  sepa- 
rated this  court  of  the  priests  from  the 
outer  court,  which  was  likewise  sur- 
rounded by  a wall.  This  temple  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Assyrians,  and  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity  a 
second  temple,  but  much  ‘nferior  in 
splendor,  was  erected.  Herod  the  Great 
rebuilt  it  of  a larger  size,  surrounding  it 
with  four  courts,  rising  above  each  other 
like  terraces,  the  lowest  of  which  was 
500  cubits  square,  and  was  surrounded 
on  three  sides  by  a double,  and  on  the 
fourth  by  a triple  row  of  columns.  In 
the  middle  of  this  inclosure  stood  the 
temple,  of  white  marble  richly  gilt,  100 
cubits  long  and  wide,  and  60  cubits 
high,  with  a porch  100  cubits  wide.  This 
magnificent  edifice  was  destroyed  by  the 
Romans  in  a.d.  70. 

TEMPLET,  a pattern  or  mould  used 
by  masons,  machinists,  smiths,  ship- 
wrights, etc.  It  usually  consists  of  a 
flat  thin  board,  a piece  of  sheet-iron,  or 
the  like,  whose  edge  is  dressed  and 


Templet  for  a 
Baluster. 


shaped  to  the  required  conformation, 
and  is  laid  against  the  object  being 
moulded,  built,  or  turned  so  as  to  test 
the  conformity  of  the  object  thereto. 

TEMPO  (Italian  for  “time”),  in  music, 
a word  used  to  express  the  rate  of  move- 
ment or  degree  of  quickness  with  which 
a piece  of  music  is  to  be  executed.  The 
degrees  of  time  are  indicated  by  certain 
words  such  as  lento  (slow),  adagio  or 
largo  (leisurely),  andante  (walking  pace), 
allegro  (gay  or  quick),  presto  (rapid), 
prestissimo  (very  rapid),  etc. 

TENACITY,  the  measure  of  the  resist- 
ance of  bodies  to  tearing  or  crushing. 
Tenacity  results  from  the  attraction  of 
cohesion  which  exists  between  the  par- 
ticles of  bodies,  and  the  stronger  this 
attraction  is  in  any  body  the  greater  is 
the  tenacity  of  the  body.  Tenacity  is 
consequently  different  in  different  ma- 
terials, and  in  the  same  material  it  varies 
with  the  state  of  the  body  in  regard  to 
temperature  and  other  circumstances. 
The  resistance  offered  to  tearing  is  called 
absolute  tenacity,  that  offered  to  crush- 
ing, retroactive  tenacity.  The  tenacity 
of  wood  is  much  greater  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  its  fibers  than  in  the 
transverse  direction.  With  regard  to 
metals  the  processes  of  forging  and  wire- 
drawing increase  their  tenacity  in  the 
longitudinal  direction ; and  mixed  metals 


TENASSERIM 

have,  in  general,  greater  tenacity  than 
those  which  are  simple. 

TENAS'SERIM,  a maritime  division 
of  Biu-mah,  about  500  miles  in  length, 
and  from  40  to  80  in  breadth,  with  an 
area  of  46,730  sq.  miles.  Pop.  978,073. 

TENCH,  a fish  belonging  to  the  carp 
family.  It  inhabits  most  of  the  lakes  of 
the  European  continent,  and  in  Britain 
it  is  frecjuent  in  ornamental  waters  and 
ponds.  It  attains  a length  of  from  10  to 
12  inches.  The  color  is  generally  a 
greenish-olive  above,  a light  tint  pre- 


dominating below.  It  is  very  sluggish, 
apparently  inhabiting  bottom-waters, 
and  feeding  on  refuse  vegetable  matter. 

It  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  may  be 
conveyed  alive  in  damp  weeds  for  long 
distances.  The  flesh  is  somewhat  coarse 
and  insipid.  , 

TENDON,  the  name  given  to  the 
“sinews”  by  means  of  which  muscles 
are  inserted  upon  bones.  They  consist 
of  bundles  of  white  fibrous  inelastic  and 
very  strong  tissue  disposed  in  bands, 
and  separated  by  areolar  or  connective 

't’lSSllG 

TENERIFFE',  TENERIFFA,  the 

largest  of  the  Canary  islands,  is  of  an 
irregularly  triangular  form,  and  has  an 
area  of  about  780  sq.  miles.  It  is  of  vol- 
canic formation,  composed  principally  of 
enormous  masses  and  cones  of  trachyte, 
lava  and  basalt,  which  culminate  in  the 
Peak  of  Teneriffe,  12,182  feet  high.  The 
principal  productions  are  corn,  wheat, 
potatoes,  pulse,  almonds,  oranges, 
guavas,  apples,  honey,  wax,  silk,  cochi- 
neal, and  wine.  Cochineal,  tobacco,  and 
wine  are  the  chief  exports.  Pop.  105,062. 

TENRIERS  (ten-ers'),  David,  the  name 
of  two  celebrated  artists  of  the  Flemish 
school,  father  and  son,  both  natives  of 
Antwerp,  in  which  city  the  elder  was 
born  in  1582.  He  may  be  considered  the 
founder  of  a style  of  painting  which  his 
son  afterward  brought  to  perfection 
His  pictures  are  mostly  small.  He  died 
in  1649. — His  son  was  born  in  1610.  He 
specially  excelled  in  outdoor  scenes, 
though  many  of  his  interiors  are  master- 
pieces of  color  and  composition.  His 
general  subjects  were  fairs,  markets, 
merry-makings,  guard-roorns,  taverns, 
etc.  and  his  pictures,  which  number 
over  700,  are  found  in  all  the  important 
public  and  private  galleries  of  Europe. 
His  etchings  are  also  highly  esteemed. 
He  died  at  Brussels  in  1690. 

TENNESSEE',  one  of  the  United 
States  of  North  America  (admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1796),  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Kentucky  and  Virginia,  east 
by  North  Carolina,  south  by  Georgia, 
Alabama,  and  Mississippi,  and  west  by 
Arkansas  and  Missouri;  area,  42,050  sq 
miles.  Tennessee  is  popularly  divided 
into  three  sections.  East  Tennessee,  an 


extensive  valley,  and  agriculturally  one 
of  the  most  important  sections  of  the 
state,  stretches  from  the  eastern  bound- 
ary to  the  middle  of  the  Cumberland 
table-land,  which  has  an  average  eleva- 
tion of  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
abounds  in  coal,  iron,  and  other  min- 
erals. Middle  Tennessee  extends  from 
the  dividing  line  on  the  table-land  to  the 
lower  Tennessee  river;  and  West  Ten- 
nessee, from  the  Tennessee  river  to  the 
Mississippi.  The  Unaka  mountains,  a 
part  of  the  Appalachian  chain,  run  along 
the  eastern  frontier,  and  have  an  aver- 
age elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  Mississippi,  with  the  Tennessee  and 
and  Cumberland,  drains  three-fourths 
of  the  state.  The  two  latter  are  navi- 
gable for  a considerable  distance,  and 
other  rivers  with  numerous  tributaries 
supply  valuable  water  power.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  healthy,  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  winter  being  37.8°,  and  of 
summer  74.4°.  The  largest  and  most 
valuable  crop  is  corn.  Wheat  and  oats 
are  the  only  other  important  cereals. 
Cotton  is  one  of  the  leading  crops.  Hay 
and  forage,  peas  and  sorghum  cane  are 
noteworthy  products,  as  are  also  Irish 
and  sweet  potatoes.  Peanuts  are  grown 
in  large  quantities  in  the  Tennessee 
valley.  The  climate  is  favorable  to  fruit 
culture,  and  there  are  oyer  14,000,000 
fruit  trees,  more  than  half  of  which, 
7,700,000  are  apple  trees.  Watermelons 
and  various  vegetables  are  extensively 
raised.  Tennessee  stood  first  among 
Southern  states  in  1900  in  the  value  of 
its  lumber  products.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  state  contains  27,300  sq.  miles  of 
wooded  area.  The  rearing  and  fattening 
of  live  stock  are  carried  on  under  pecu- 


Seal  of  Tennessee. 


liar  advantages,  and  immense  numbers 
of  hogs  grow  up  on  the  mast  of  the 
forests,  which  cover  a very  large  area. 
The  most  valuable  minerals  found  are 
coal,  iron  (both  worked  to  a consider- 
able’extent),  copper,  marble,  limestone, 
sandstone,  granite,  roofing  slate,  pot- 
ters’ clay,  and  kaolin.  Also  among  the 
other  minerals  are  gold  (not  found  m 
paying  quantities),  lead,  zinc,  baryta, 
copperas,  asbestos,  etc.  Petroleum,  sul- 
phur,  chalybeate  and  salt  springs  are 
plentiful.  The  leading  manufactures  are 
iron  and  steel,  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
furniture,  cars,  leather,  oils,  wines, 
spirits,  etc.  The  state  has  the  advantage 
of  water  transportation  afforded  by  the 
Mississippi  and  Tennessee  rivers.  A 


TENNESSEE 

number  of  railroads  cross  the  state, 
most  of  them  centering  in  Memphis.  The 
mileage  increased  from  1253  in  1860  to 
1843  in  1880,  2767  in  1890,  and  3712  miles: 
in  1907.  At  the  head  of  the  educational 
establishments  stand  the  University  of  , 
Tennessee,  Nashville  university,  the' 
Cumberland,  Vanderbilt,  and  Fisk  uni- 
versities, the  last  for  colored  students., 

De  Soto  reached  the  Mississippi  at  the 
present  site  of  Memphis  about  1541. 

La  Salle,  about  1682,  built  a fort  at  this 
point,  and  called  it  Port  Prud  hoinme.; 
The  grant  by  Charles  II.  to  the  Lords 
Proprietors  of  Carolina  of  the  territory' 
between  latitudes  29°  and  36°  30'  in 
1665  included  this  territory.  The  most 
important  effort  of  transmontane  coloni- 
zation by  the  British  prior  to  1760  was 
the  establishment  of  Fort  Loudon  on^the 
Little  Tennessee  river  in  1756  or  1757. 
But  in  1760  this  post  was  captured  by 
the  Cherokees  and  its  garrison  mas- 
sacred; and  the  same  fate  befell  a nmn-' 
ber  of  colonists  who  had  settled  between 
Fort  Chissel  (on  New  River,  Virginia) 
and  Fort  Loudon.  Early  in  1761  Colonel 
Grant  completely  routed  the  Cherokees^; 
and  compelled  their  French  and  Spanish  ' 
allies  to  withdraw  to  Louisiana  and 
Georgia. 

Eight  years  later  the  stream  of  emi- 
gration began  to  set  westward,  mainly 
by  two  routes,  of  which  one  led  through 
Cumberland  Gap  to  the  valley  of  the 
Cumberland  river,  while  the  other 
lowed  the  course  of  the  Tennessee  round  * 
the  southern  border  of  the  Cumberland^ 
plateau  into  the  western  Tenne^eel 
valley.  A body  of  emigrants  from  yir-lj 
ginia  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  river  i 
Holston,  in  what  is  now  Hawkins  0000^' 
and  formed  the  nucleus  of  a rapidly  m- 
creasing  colony,  which  was  mainly 
cruited  from  Virginia  and  North  Caro-  . 
lina  The  act  of  government  for  the“Ter-.  ; 
ritory  South  of  the  Ohio”  was  passed  in 
April,  1790,  and  the  seat  of  gover^ent:!, 
was  moved  from  Rogersville  to  Knox-^ . 
ville.  In  the  same  year  the  first  territo- 
rial assembly  met.  In  1795  a constitu-,^ 
tional  convention  was  called,  which  met 
in  January,  1796.  A constitution  for  the ; 
“State  of  Tennessee”  was  adopted  with-') 
out  submission  to  popular  vote;  the 
first  general  assembly  met  March  28th, 
and  the  state  was  admitted  June  1, 1796. 
The  progress  of  the  state  was  rapid, 
almost  entirely  along  agricultural  lines 
Turnpike  roads  were  built  in  1804,  and 
after  1823  roads  and  canals  were  pushed 
forward.  The  first  railroad  was  char- 
tered in  1831,  but  the  Memphis  and 
Charleston  road  was  not  built  until  1857. 
There  was  a strong  Union  party  in  the 
state  at  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war, 
and  in  February,  1861,  the  people  re- 
fused to  hold  a convention  to  consider 
cecession,  but  with  President  Lincoln  s 
call  for  troops  sentiment  changed,  and 
through  the  influence  of  Governor  Harris 
the  state  declared  itself  by  popular  vote 
out  of  the  Union,  June  8th.  I he  position 
of  Tennessee  during  the  civil  war 
the  same  as  that  of  the  other  mid^ 
and  southern  states.  While  secess^t 
was  in  agitation,  it  refused  to  secc^E 
but  when  actual  hostilities  comnier— 
it  joined  the  southern  confeder 
Even  then,  however,  west  and  mi  . 
Tennessee  sympathized  with  the  souf 


TENNESSEE 


TERMITES 


while  eastern  Tennessee  sided  with  the 
north.  Each  division  sent  very  large 
contingents  to  the  army  which  it 
favored.  A large  portion  of  the  state 
was,  during  the  later  years  of  the  war, 
in  the  occupation  of  the  northern  army, 
and  many  great  battles  were  fought  on 
its  soil,  notably  those  of  Fort  Donelson, 
Murfreesborough  (Stone  river),  Frank- 
lin, and  Nashville.  Tennessee  suffered 
more  from  the  exhaustion  attendant  on 
the  close  of  the  war,  and  from  the 
rigorous  government  which  accom- 
panied the  period  of  reconstruction, 
than  any  other  state  except  Virginia. 

In  the  Presidential  elections,  with  the 
exception  of  1 868when  it  voted  for  Grant 
the  state  has  been  Democratic  by  large 
majorities.  From  the  state  have  come 
many  men  of  national  reputation,  in- 
cluding three  presidents,  Jackson,  Polk 
and  Johnson.  The  chief  towns  are 
Nashville  (the  capital),  Memphis,  Chat- 
tanooga, and  Knoxville.  Pop.  2,220,000. 

TENNESSEE,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
streams  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state 
of  Tennessee,  flows  southwest,  passes 
through  the  northern  part  of  Alabama, 
then  flows  north  through  the  western 
part  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and 
enters  the  Ohio,  of  which  it  is  the  largest 
tributary,  about  10  miles  below  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Cumberland.  Length, 
about  1200  miles.  It  is  navigable  259 
miles  for  steamers  to  Florence,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Mussel-shoal  rapids,  which 
are  passed  by  a canal  36  miles  long;  and 
above  these  there  is  navigation  for  boats 
for  250  miles. 

TENNESSEE,  The.  A formidable  con- 
federate ram  crippled  by  the  Hartford 
of  Admiral  Faragut’s  fleet,  and  taken 
in  Mobile  harbor  on  August  5,  1864. 

TENNESSEE,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A 
coeducational  state  institution  at  Knox- 
ville, Tenn.,  founded  in  1794.  The  in- 
stitution comprises  the  college  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts  and  the 
university  proper.  The  college  has  an 
agricultural  department,  an  engineering 
department,  a literary  department,  and 
an  industrial  department  for  colored 
students  (Knoxville  college).  The  uni- 
versity consists  of  an  acedemic  depart- 
ment with  courses  for  the  graduate  de- 
grees of  M.A.  and  M.S.  and  professional 
courses  in  engineering,  law,  medicine, 
and  dentistry,  the  medical  and  dental 
departments  being  situated  'n  Nashville. 
The  university  has  a liberal  system  of 
accredited  scholars  whose  certificates 
are  accepted  in  place  of  the  entrance 
examinations. 

TENNESSEE  CENTENNIAL  EXPO- 
SITION, an  exposition  held  in  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  May  1 to  October  30,  1897,  to 
celebrate  the  one  hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  admission  of  the  state  into 
the  Union.  The  site  covered  about  20 
acres. 

TENNIS,  a game  in  which  a ball  is 
driven  continually  against  a wall  in  a 
specially  constructed  court,  and  caused 
to  rebound  beyond  a line  at  a certain 
distance  by  several  persons  striking  it 
alternately  with  a racket,  the  object 
being  to  keep  the  ball  in  motion  as  long 
as  possible  without  allowing  it  to  fall  to 
the  ground.  The  game  was  introduced 
into  England  in  the  13th  century,  and 


continued  to  be  very  popular  with  the 
nobility  to  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The 
modern  game  of  rackets  is  a descendant 
of  tennis.  Lawn  Tennis  is  a recent  modi- 
fication of  the  game.  See  Lawn  Tennis. 

TENNYSON,  Alfred,  Lord,  was  born 
on  6th  August,  1809.  As  early  as  1827 
he  had  published,  in  conjunction  with 
his  brother  Charles,  Poems  by  Two 
Brothers,  but  his  literary  career  may 
be  said  to  date  from  1830,  when  he  pub- 
lished a volume  entitled  Poems,  chiefly 
Lyrical.  Its  success  was  sufficient  to  en- 
courage the  poet  to  prepare  a second 
collection,  which  appeared  in  1833,  and 
contained  such  poems  as  A Dream  of 
Fair  Women,  The  Palace  of  Art, 
CEnone,  The  Lady  of  Shalott,  and  others. 


Lord  Alfred  Tennyson. 


It  was  not  till  1842  that  he  again  ap- 
pealed to  the  public  with  a selection  of 
his  poems  in  two  volumes,  and  it  is  from 
this  time  that  we  find  his  work  beginning 
to  receive  wide  recognition.  The  collec- 
tion then  issuedincludedMorte  d’ Arthur, 
Locksley  Hall,  The  May  Queen,  and  The 
Two  Voices,  all  of  which,  it  was  almost 
at  once  acknowledged,  entitled  him  to 
rank  very  high.  His  reputation  was 
more  than  sustained  by  the  works  that 
immediately  followed.  These  were : 
The  Princess,  a Medley;  In  Memoriam, 
written  in  memory  of  his  friend  Arthur, 
Hallam;  and  the  Ode  on  the  Death  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  The  latter  was 
his  first  great  poem  after  receiving  the 
laureateship  upon  the  death  of  Words- 
worth. From  that  time  hardly  a year 
passed  without  his  adding  some  gem  to 
our  language.  In  1855  Oxford  univer- 
sity conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
D.C.L.,  and  in  1869  the  fellows  of 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  elected  him 
an  honorary  fellow.  From  1875  onward 
he  gave  various  dramas  to  the  public; 
Queen  Mary,  Harold,  The  Cup,  The 
Falcon,  The  Promise  of  May,  Beckett, 
and  the  Foresters.  Several  of  these  were 
put  upon  the  stage.  Tennyson  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Tennyson 
in  1884.  He  died  6th  Oct.,  1892.  Few 
writers  have  developed  so  rare  a mas- 
tery of  English  as  a poetic  instrument, 
and  his  works  are  assured  of  a high  rank 
in  the  ultimate  judgment  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  19th  century. 

TENOR,  in  music,  is  the  more  delicate 
of  the  two  adult  male  voices,  and  its 
compass  generally  extends  from  C in 
the  bass  to  G or  A in  the  treble.  The 
qualities  of  the  tenor  render  it  suitable 


to  the  expression  of  tender  and  delicate 
sentiments.  In  a vocal  composition  of 
four  parts  the  tenor  forms  the  second 
middle  part,  deeper  than  the  alto,  but 
higher  than  the  bass;  but  in  the  song  of 
four  male  voices  the  tenor,  as  the  first 
voice,  leads  the  chief  melody,  and  as  the 
second  is  the  higher  middle  voice.  The 
clef  of  this  voice  is  the  C clef,  placed 
upon  the  fourth  line  of  the  staff. 

TENT,  a portable  dwelling-house, 
formed  usually  in  the  simplest  manner, 
of  canvas,  for  instance,  stretched  with, 
cords  upon  poles.  The  tent  of  private 
soldiers  in  the  British  service  are  of  a 
conical  form  with  circular  basis,  sup- 
ported by  a vertical  pole  in  the  center  10 
feet  high.  The  outside  diameter  of  the 
tent,  which  accommodates  fifteen  in- 
fantry or  twelve  cavalry  soldiers,  is  17 
feet  3 inches.  The  officers’  marquees  as 
well  as  the  hospital  and  laboratory  tents, 
are  oblong,  and  are  supported  by  two 
standards  connected  by  a ridge  pole  6 
or  7 feet  long.  The  soldiers’  tent  in  the 
United  States  army  are  of  the  ridged 
variety. 

TENTACLE,  in  zoology,  an  elongated 
appendage  proceeding  from  the  head  or 
cephalic  extremity  of  many  of  the  lower 
animals,  and  used  as  an  instrument  of 
exploration  and  prehension.  Thus  the 
arms  of  the  sea-anemone,  the  prehensile 
processes  of  the  cirripeds  and  annelids, 
the  cephalic  feet  of  the  cephalopods,  the 
barbs  of  fishes,  are  termed  tentacles. 

TENUIROS'TRES,  one  of  the  four 
sections  into  which  the  order  Insessores 
of  birds  is  divided.  This  group,  repre- 
sented by  the  humming-birds,  creepers. 


Heads  of  tenulrostres. 

a,  Sun-bird,  b.  Humming-bird,  c,  European 
nuthatch. 

sun-birds,  hoopoes,  etc.,  is  characterized 
by  the  generally  elongated  bill,  which 
usually  tapers  to  a point. 

TERCEIRA  (ter-sa'i-ra),  an  island  of 
the  Atlantic,  one  of  the  Azores;  greatest 
length,  20  miles;  average  breadth,  13 
miles;  area,  223  sq.  miles.  The  soil 
possesses  great  natural  fertility,  and 
heavy  crops  of  grain,  pulse,  etc.,  and 
abundance  of  oranges,  lemons,  and 
other  fruits  are  produced.  The  capital 
is  Angra.  Pop.  46,528. 

TER'EBINTH,  the  common  name  for 
various  resinous  exudations,  both  of  a 
fluid  and  solid  nature,  such  as  turpen- 
tine, frankincense  and  Burgundy  pitch, 
Canada  balsam,  etc.  The  volatile  oil 
of  various  of  these  resins  is  called  oil  of 
terebinth,  or  oil  of  turpentine.  Tere- 
binth is  also  a name  for  the  turpentine- 

TERE'SA,  St.  See  Theresa. 

TERMITES  (ter'mits),  a family  of  in- 
sects, also  known  by  the  name  of  white 
ants.  They  have  little  affinity  with  the 
true  ants,  although  they  resemble  them 


TERN 


TERTULLIAN 


in  their  mode  of  life.  They  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  tropics,  and  are  found 
very  plentifully  in  Western  Africa. 
They  unite  in  societies,  building  their 
dwellings  in  the  form  of  pyramids  or 
cones,  10  or  12  feet  high.  These  dwell- 
ings, which  are  so  firmly  cemented  as 
to  be  capable  of  bearing  the  weight  of 
three  or  four  men,  are  divided  off  into 
several  apartments  as  magazines,  cham- 
bers, galleries,  etc.  Every  colony  of 
termites  consists  of  a king  and  queen 
both  of  which  are  much  larger  than  the 
other  members  of  the  colony,  and  of 
workers  and  soldiers  without  wings. 
The  king  and  queen  are  the  parents  of 
the  colony,  and  are  constantly  kept  to- 
gether, attended  by  a detachment  of 
workers,  in  a large  chamber  in  the  heart 
of  the  hive,  surrounded  by  stronger 
walls  than  the  other  cells.  The  queen  is 
always  gravid,  the  abdomen  being 
enormously  distended  with  eggs,  which, 
as  they  are  dropped,  relays  of  workers 
receive  and  convey  in  their  mouths  to 
the  minor  cells  throughout  the  hive. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  a 


number  of  winged  insects,  both  male 
and  female,  are  produced.  These,  when 
mature,  leave  the  hive  and  fly  abroad, 
afterward  shedding  their  wings,  and 
becoming  the  kings  and  queens  of  future 
colonies.  The  soldiers  and  workers,  both 
neuter,  or  of  no  fully  developed  sex, 
and  differing  merely  in  the  armature  of 
the  head,  are  distinct  animals  from  the 
moment  they  leave  the  egg,  the  young 
differing  from  the  adult  of  the  same  class 
only  in  size.  The  duties  of  the  workers 
are  to  build  the  habitations,  make 
covered  roads,  nurse  the  young,  attend 
on  the  king  and  queen,  and  secure  the 
exit  of  the  mature  winged  insects,  while 
to  the  soldiers,  whose  mandibles  are 
powerfully  developed  for  that  purpose, 
18  committed  the  defense  of  the  com- 
munity which  duty  they  perform  sys- 
tematically and  with  desperate  courage. 
There  are  many  species  of  termites,  all 
of  which  are  fearfully  destructive  to 
wood. 

TERN,  or  SEA-SWALLOW,  a genus 
of  birds,  included  in  the  gull  family. 
The  terns  are  distinguished  by  the  long, 
slender,  and  straight  bill,  long  and 
pointed  wings,  and  forked  tail.  The  legs 
are  relatively  shorter  than  in  the  gulls. 
It  is  a very  active  bird,  seeming  to  have 
a ceaseless  flight,  and  feeding  upon  small 
fishes.  Its  average  length  is  15  inches. 
The  color  is  black  on  the  head  and  neck, 
and  ashy  gray  on  the  upper  parts  gen- 
erally. The  under  parts  are  white,  the 
legs,  feet,  and  bill  being  red. 


TERNSTR(EMIA'CE.-E,  a natural 
order  of  plants,  consisting  of  trees  or 
shrubs;  with  alternate  simple  usually 
coriaceous  leaves  without  stipules.  The 
flowers  are  generally  white,  arranged  in 
axillary  or  terminal  peduncles,  articu- 
lated at  the  base.  This  order  is  one  of 
great  economical  importance,  as  it  in- 
cludes the  genus  Thea,  from  which  the 
teas  of  commerce  are  obtained.  The 
favorite  garden  camellia  also  belongs 
to  it.  The  plants  belonging  to  the  order 
are  principally  inhabitants  of  Asia  and 
America 


TERRA  COTTA  (Italiaff,  “baked 
earth”),  baked  clay  or  burned  earth,  a 
similar  material  to  that  from  which 
pottery  is  made,  much  used  both  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times  for  architectural 
decorations,  statues,  figures,  vases, 
and  the  like.  As  now  made  it  usually 
consists  of  potters’  clay  and  fine  pow- 
dered silica.  It  is  produced  of  many 
different  colors,  the  most  pleasing  being 
a rich  red  and  a warm  cream  color. 
Large  numbers  of  ancient  statues,  and 
especially  statuettes,  of  terra  cotta  have 
been  found  in  recent  times,  the  most 
charming  being  the  production  of  the 
city  of  Tanagra  in  Northern  Greece 
(Bceotia). 

TERRA  DEL  FUEGO,  See  Tierra  del 
Fuego. 

TERRA  DI  SIENNA,  a brown  fer- 
ruginous ochre  employed  in  painting, 
and  obtained  from  Italy.  It  is  calcined 
before  being  used  as  a pigment,  and  is 
thus  known  as  burned  sienna. 

TER'RAPIN,  the  popular  name  of 
several  species  of  fresh  water  or  tide 
water  tortoises  distinguished  by  a horny 
beak,  a shield  covered  with  epidermic 
plates,  and  feet  partly  webbed.  They 
are  active  in  their  habits,  swimming 
well  and  moving  with  greater  agility  on 
land  than  the  land-tortoises.  They  are 
natives  of  tropical  and  warmer  temper- 
ate countries,  many  being  natives  of 
North  America.  They  feed  on  vegetables, 
fish,  reptiles,  and  other  aquatic  animals. 
Their  flesh  is  much  esteemed.  One 
species,  called  the  salt-water  terrapin, 
is  abundant  in  the  salt-water  marshes 
around  Charlestown.  The  chicken  tor- 
toise, so  named  from  its  flavor,  is  also 
an  esteemed  .American  species. 

TERRE-HAUTE  (tar-6t;  usually  pro- 
nounced ter-e-hot'),  a town  and  im- 
portant railway  center  in  Vigo  co.,  In- 
diana, on  the  Wabash,  and  Wabash  and 
Erie  canal.  It  is  well  built,  and  has 
numerous  churches  and  schools  (the 
state  normal  school.  Rose  Polytechnic 
institute,  etc.),  fine  courts  of  justice, 
and  an  opera-house;  extensive  manu- 


factures, and  a considerable  trade.  There 
are  rich  beds  of  coal  and  iron  in  the 
vicinity.  Pop.  43,175. 

TERRY,  Alfred  Howe,  American 
soldier,  was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
1827.  In  1862  he  was  made  a brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  in  a num- 
ber of  engagements  but  he  is  chiefly 
remembered  in  connection  with  the 
capture  of  Fort  Fisher,  which  he  ac- 
complished in  conjunction  with  Ad- 
miral Porter.  For  his  services  he  was 
commissioned  major-general  of  vol- 
unteers, and  brigadier-general  and  brevet 
major-general  in  the  regular  army.  In 
1876  he  commanded  the  main  column 
which  drove  Sitting  Bull  and  his  fol- 
lowers into  Canada  after  the  massacre 
on  the  Little  Big  Horn.  He  died  in  1890. 

TERRY,  Ellen  Alicia,  English  actress, 
war  born  at  Coventry,  in  1848.  She 
first  appeared  as  the  boy  Manilius  in  the 
Winters  Tale  in  1856.  In  1863  she  ap- 
peared at  the  Haymarket  theater  in 
London,  England.  In  1878  she  began 
her  long  association  with  Henry  Irving, 
playing  Ophelia  to  his  Hamlet.  Her 
principal  roles  are,  Portia  in  the  Mer- 
chant of  Venice,  Ruth  Meadows  in 
Eugene  Aram,  Juliet,  Viola,  in  Twelfth 
Night,  Marguerite  in  Faust,  Madame 
Sans  Gene,  and  Clerise  in  Robespierre. 
Her  first  visit  to  America  with  Irving 
was  made  in  1883,  when  she  made  a 
great  success, repeated  many  times  since. 

TERRITORY,  a term  applied  in  the 
United  States  to  an  area  similar  to  a 
state  of  the  Union,  but  not  having  the 
independent  position  of  a state,  being 
directly  under  congress  and  having  a 
governor  and  other  chief  officials  ap- 
pointed by  the  president,  with  a legisla- 
ture of  certain  limited  powers.  Terri- 
tories are  usually  admitted  as  states  on 
attaining  a sufficient  population.  In 
1907  the  territories  were  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  District  of  Columbia  and  Alaska 
on  the  continent  and  Hawaii  in  the  Pa- 
cific. The  new  possessions  are  Porto 
Rico  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  Samoan 
islands,  Guam  and  the  Philippine  islands 
in  the  Pacific.  A government  for  Porto 
Rico  was  established  by  the  Fifty-sixth 
Congress.  The  Philippines  are  under  a 
provisional  civil  government,  Guam  and 
Tutuila  under  governors,  and  the  Isth- 
mian canal  zone  under  a commission, 
all  y)pointed  by  the  president. 

TERROR,  Reign  of,  the  term  usually 
applied  to  the  period  of  the  French 
revolutionary  government  from  the 
appointment  of  the  revolutionary  tribu- 
nal and  the  committee  of  public  safety 
(6th  April,  1793)  to  the  fall  of  Robes- 
pierre (27th  July,  1794).  See  France 
(History). 

TERTIAN  FEVER.  See  Ague. 

TERTIARY  FORMATION.  See  Geol- 
ogy- 

TERTULLIAN,  in  full  Quintus  Sep- 
timius  Florens  Tertullianus,  the  earliest 
Latin  father  of  the  church  whose  works 
are  extant.  His  most  celebrated  work  is 
the  Apologia,  a formal  defense  of  Chris- 
tianity addressed  to  the  Roman  magis- 
trates. The  works  of  Tertullian  display 
great  learning,  much  imagination,  and 
a keen  wit,  but  their  style  is  bad  They 
are  chiefly  valuable  for  the  iighl  'i'ov 
throw  on  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of" 
the  church  in  the  age  in  which  he  lued. 


TERUEL 


TEXAS 


TERUEL',  a town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  a hill 
near  the  Guadalaviar,  72  miles  n.w.  of 
Valencia,  with  which  it  carries  on  an 
active  trade.  It  is  inclosed  by  walls,  has 
a Gothic  cathedral,  a bishop’s  palace, 
and  a seminary.  Pop.  8869. — The  prov- 
ince has  an  area  of  5491  sq.  miles,  and  a 
pop.  of  241,865. 

TESLA,  Nikola,  electrician  and  in- 
ventor, was  born  in  1858,  in  Herze- 
govina. He  studied  engineering  in  Paris, 
and  was  engineer  of  the  Edison  station 
located  there.  For  a time  he  was  em- 
ployed at  Edison’s  laboratory,  near 
Orange,  N.  J.,  but  left  to  open  a labora- 
tory of  his  own.  He  has  shown  that 
electric  lamps  and  motors  can  be 
operated  on  one  wire  without  a circuit, 
and  invented  the  rotary  field  motor,  the 
multiphase  system  of  which  is  used  in  the 
50,000-horse-power  plant  built  to  trans- 
mit the  water  power  of  Niagara  Falls 
to  Buffalo  and  other  places.  He  is  con- 
eidered  one  of  the  greatest  living 
geniuses  in  the  field  of  electric  research. 

TESTAMENT.  See  Will. 

TESTAMENT,  Old  and  New.  See 
Bible. 

TESTING,  the  process  of  examining 
various  substances  by  means  of  chemical 
reagents,  with  the  view  of  discovering 
their  composition.  The  term  testing  is 
xisually  confined  to  such  examinations  as 
seek  to  determine  what  chemical  ele- 
ments or  groups  of  elements  are  con- 


Roman  testudo,  from  Trajan’s  pillar. 

tained  in  any  substance,  without  en- 
quiring as  to  the  quantity  of  these 
elements.  Testing  is  carried  out  either 
by  the  application  of  chemical  reactions 
to  solid  substances,  or  by  the  applica- 
tion of  reagents  in  solution  to  a solution 
of  the  substance  under  examination. 

TESTUDO,  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans a cover  or  screen  which  a body  of 
troops  formed  with  their  oblong  shield 
or  targets,  by  holding  them  over  their 
heads  when  standing  close  to  each  other. 
This  cover  somewhat  resembled  the 
back  of  a tortoise,  and  served  to  shelter 
the  men  from  missiles  thrown  from 
above.  The  name  was  also  given  to  a 
structure  movable  on  wheels  or  rollers 
for  protecting  sappers. 

TET'ANUS,  a spasmodic  rigidity  of 
the  whole  body,  such  as  frequently  re- 
sults from  wounds,  especially  in  warm 
climates.  If  the  lower  jaw  is  drawn  to 


the  upper  with  such  force  that  they  can- 
not be  separated  the  disorder  is  called 
lock-jaw.  Tetanus  frequently  termin- 
nates  fatally. 

TE'TRARCH,  a title  which  originally 
signified  the  governor  of  the  fourth  part 
of  a country.  By  the  Romans  the  title 
was  used  to  designate  a tributary  ruler 
inferior  in  dignity  to  a king. 

TEUTONIC  PEOPLES,  a term  now  ap- 
plied (1)  to  the  High  Germans,  including 
the  German  inhabitants  of  Upper  and 
Middle  Germany  and  those  of  Switzer- 
land and  Austria.  (2)  The  Low  Germans, 
including  the  Frisians,  the  Plattdeutsch, 
the  Dutch,  the  Flemings,  and  the  Eng- 
lish descended  from  the  Saxons,  Angles 
etc.,  who  settled  in  Britain.  (3)  The 
Scandinavians,  including  the  Norweg- 
ians, Swedes,  Danes,  and  Icelanders.  See 
Philology,  Indo-European  Languages. 

TEWFIK  PASHA,  Mahommed,  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt,  eldest  son  of  Khedive 
Ismail,  was  born  in  1852,  and  succeeded 
to  the  vice-royalty  by  decree  of  the 
sultan,  August  8,  1879,  upon  the  forced 
abdication  of  his  father.  He  was  the 
sixth  ruler  of  Egypt  in  the  dynasty  of 
Mohammed  Ali  Pasha.  He  died  in  1892. 

TEXAS,  one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  by  Mexico,  New  Mexico,  Okla- 
homa, Arkansas,  Louisiana,  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico ; length, east  to  west,  825  miles ; 
breadth,  740  miles ; coast-line,  400  miles ; 
it  is  the  largest  state  in  the  Union,  having 
an  area  of  265,780  miles.  Its  area  is  larger 
than  the  combined  area  of  the  Atlantic 
states  from  Maine  to  Virginia,  inclusive, 
and  nearly  one-third  greater  than  that 
of  the  whole  German  empire.  The  sur- 
face in  the  northwest  is  covered  with 
mountains,  which,  in  proceeding  south- 
west, subside  into  hills  and  undulating 
plateaus,  succeeded,  on  approaching 
theGulf  of  Mexico,  by  low  alluvial  plains. 
These  extend  inland  from  20  to  80  miles, 
are  furrowed  with  deep  ravines,  and 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  rich  prakie 
or  forest  land.  The  hilly  region  behind 
this  is  formed  chiefly  of  sandstone  and 
limestone  ridges,  separated  by  valleys 
of  considerable  fertility.  In  the  moun- 
tainous region  many  of  the  summits 
are  lofty,  and  covered  with  snow  most 
of  the  year.  The  general  slope  of  the 
country  gives  all  the  rivers  a more  or  less 
southerly  direction.  The  Rio-Grande, 
rising  in  New  Mexico,  forms  the  west  and 
southwest  boundary  of  the  state.  The 
Red  river,  which  has  its  source  in  Mexico 
forms  the  greater  part  of  the  northern 
boundary.  The  other  important  rivers 
are  the  Colorado,  the  Brazos,  the  San 
Jacinto  and  Trinity,  and  the  Sabine, 
which,  during  the  greater  part  of  its 
course,  is  the  boundary  between  Texas 
and  Louisiana.  A long  chain  of  lagoons 
stretches  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Texas  has  a warm  climate,  but  the  great 
range  in  latitude  produces  a considerable 
range  in  climatic  conditions.  Although 
warm,  the  climate  is  drier  and  less  en- 
ervating than  that  of  the  other  Gulf 
states.  The  alluvial  bottom  lands  around 
the  lower  river  courses  are  the  most  fer- 
tile portions  of  the  state.  The  soil  of  the 
coastal  plain  is  generally  sandy.  In  the 
northwest  there  are  heavy  deposits  of 
red  clay  containing  much  potash,  but 
little  nitrogenous  matter.  The  soil  on 
the  southern  plateau  is  thin,  but  the 


Llano  Estc*  ado  is  covered  with  a red 
sandy  loam.  The  principal  forest  area 
is  in  the  extreme  eastern  portion.  The 
pine  is  the  prevailing  tree  in  the  coastal 
plain,  long-leaf  pine  in  the  lower  and 
short-leaf  pine  in  the  higher  pine  bar- 
rens. The  deciduous  species  predom- 
inate toward  the  middle  of  the  state, 
including  oaks,  elm,  maple,  hickory, 
sycamore,  mulberry,  sweet  gum,  ash, 
and  walnut.  The  Osage  orange  and  the 
palmetto  are  plentiful  in  the  eastern 
part,  giving  a tropical  aspect  to  the 
vegetation.  In  the  river-bottoms  the 
characteristic  species  are  'cottonwood, 
pecan,  live  oak,  and  cypress.  Along 
the  western  border  of  the  Black 
prairie  two  parallel  belts  of  hardwood 
forest,  chiefly  oak,  and  known  as  the 
Cross  Timbers,  extend  southward  as  far 
as  the  Brazos  river.  Mining  bids  fair  to 
acquire  large  proportions.  The  value 
of  coal  increased  from  $412,300  in  1891 
to  over  $2,000,000  in  1907.  The  produc- 
tion of  petroleum  practically  began  in 
1897.  The  yield  has  increased  very 
rapidly.  Gypsum  is  mined  in  the  north- 
western part.  Cinnabar  and  salt  are 
mined  and  some  granite,  sandstone,  and 


Seal  of  Texas. 


limestone  are  quarried.  There  are  a 
number  of  valuable  mineral  springs. 
The  two  staple  products  are  cotton  and 
corn,  both  of  which  are  largely  culti- 
vated in  the  lower  or  coast  region,  where 
the  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  also  grow 
luxuriantly.  Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  bar- 
ley thrive  best  in  the  hilly  regions ; and 
both  there  and  at  lower  levels  fruits  in 
almost  endless  variety  are  abundant. 
The  pastures  are  often  covered  with  the 
richest  natural  grasses,  and  the  rearing 
of  cattle  is  carried  on  to  the  greatest 
advantage.  Manufacture  is  still  in  its 
infancy;  but  the  coasting  trade  is  of 
some  importance,  and  the  railway  sys- 
tem very  extensive.  The  Baptists  are 
numerically  the  strongest  church,  fol- 
lowed closely  by  the  Methodist,  "rhese 
two  bodies  together  contain  consider- 
ably over  two-thirds  of  the  church 
membership.  The  Disciples  of  Christ 
(Christian),  Presbyterians,  and  Epis- 
copalians are  the  only  other  Protestant 
sects  numerically  important.  At  the 
head  of  the  educational  establishments 
stand  the  State  university,  located  at 
Austin,  with  a medical  branch  at  Gal- 
veston, and  the  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical college  at  Bryan.  There  are  a 
large  number  of  denominational  institu- 


TEXAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF 


THALLIUM 


tions.  There  are  also  a number  of  col- 
leges for  colored  students.  The  first 
settlement  in  Texas  was  made  at  Mata- 
gorda by  the  French,  who  in  1690  were 
expelled  by  the  Spaniards.  It  after- 
ward became  one  of  the  states  of  the 
Mexican  confederation.  Several  colonies 
of  American  citizens,  invited  by  the 
Mexicans,  settled  in  the  eastern  section, 
and  gradually  increased  in  numbers. 
Texas  then  revolted  from  the  Mexican 
government,  and  in  1836  declared  itself 
independent.  Santa  Anna  attempted 
to  reduce  it,  but  failed,  being  himself 
beaten  and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  San  Jacinto  by  General  Houston. 
Texas  now  managed  its  own  affairs  as 
an  independent  republic  till  in  1845  it 
became  one  of  the  United  States,  and 
thus  gave  rise  to  a war  which  proved 
disastrous  to  Mexico.  Texas  seceded 
from  the  Union  (February  1,  1861). 
Sam  Houston  was  governor  and  threw 
all  his  weight  in  opposition  to  secession, 
but  there  was  no  staying  the  resolve 
of  the  people.  The  state  was  fortunate 
in  that  it  was  not  the  scene  of  much 
active  fighting.  The  Reconstruction 
Acts  of  1867  placed  the  state  under  tlie 
military  authority,  with  General  Sheri- 
dan in  command.  The  carpetbaggers 
followed  and  the  new  reconstruction 
occupied  the  next  three  years.  Texas 
was  readmitted  to  the  Union  March  30, 
1870.  In  national  elections  the  state 
has  been  democratic  by  overwhelming 
majorities.  Austin  is  the  capital,  and 
other  chief  towns  are  Galveston,  San 
Antonio,  Houston,  Dallas,  Waco,  etc. 
Pop.  4. OnO, ('()(),  iticludiiig  about  half  a 
million  colored  and  some  Indians. 

TEXAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  a coedu- 
cational institution  at  Austin,  Texas, 
founded  upon  a grant  of  1,000,000  acres 
of  land  by  the  legislature  in  1876.  It 
embraces  the  department  of  literature, 
sciences,  medicine  and  arts,  offering  the 
degrees  of  B.A.,  B.  Lit.,  B.S.,  M.A.,  and 
M.S.;  the  department  of  engineering, 
conferring  the  degrees  of  civil  engi- 
neer and  engineer  of  mines;  and  the 
department  of  law,  conferring  the  de- 
grees of  LL.B.  and  LL.M.  New  depart- 
ments in  electricity  and  mechanical 
engineering  were  established  in  1903, 
when  it  was  decided  to  give  no  degree 
for  undergraudate  work  after  1906  ex- 
cept that  of  B.A. 

TEX'ARKAN'A,  the  name  of  two  ad- 
joining cites  situated  on  each  side  of 
the  boundary  between  Arkansas  and 
Texas,  145  miles  southwest  of  Little 
Rock;  on  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the 
St.  Louis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern, 
the  St.  Louis  Southwestern,  the  Kansas 
City,  Pittsburg  and  Gulf,  and  other 
railroads.  Pop.  Texarkana  in  Texas, 
6250;  Texarkana  in  Arkansas,  5910. 

TEZCU'CO,  a town  of  Mexico,  in  the 
department  of  Mexico,  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Tezcuco.  In  an- 
cient times  it  was  the  second  city  in  the 
kingdom.  Here  are  the  remains  of  three 
pyramids,  each  measuring  400  feet 
along  the  base  of  their  fronts.  Pop. 
15,626. 

THACKERAY,  William  Makepeace, 
Endish  novelist  and  humorist,  was  born 
at  Calcutta  in  1811,  died  Dec.  24,  1863. 
Under  the  names  of  George  Fitz-Boodle, 
Esq.,  or  of  Michael  Angelo  Titmarsh,  he 


contributed  to  Frazer’s  Magazine  tales, 
criticisms,  verses,  etc.,  which  were 
marked  by  great  knowledge  of  the  world, 
keen  irony,  or  playful  humor.  It  was  in 
this  magazine  that  The  Great  Hoggarty 
Diamond,  Yellowplush  Papers,  and 
Barry  Lyndon  appeared.  In  1840  he 
published  separately  the  Paris  Sketch- 
book, in  1841  the  Second  Funeral  of 
Napoleon  and  the  Chronicle  of  the  Drum 
and  in  1843  the  Irish  Sketchbook.  None 
of  these  writings,  however,  attained  to 
any  great  popularity.  In  1841  Punch 
was  started,  and  his  contributions  to 
that  periodical,  among  others  Jeames’s 
Diary  and  the  Snob  Papers,  were  very 
successful.  In  1846-48  his  novel  of 
Vanity  Fair  was  published  in  monthly 
parts,  with  illustrations  by  himself ; and 
long  before  its  completion  its  author 
was  unanimously  placed  in  the  first 
rank  of  British  novelists.  His  next  novel 
was  the  History  of  Pendennis,  com- 
pleted in  1850.  In  1851  he  delivered  a 
course  of  lectures  in  London  on  the 
English  Humorists  of  the  18th  century, 
which  were  repeated  in  Scotland  and 
America,  and  published  in  1853.  An- 
other novel.  The  History  of  Henry  Es- 
mond appeared  in  1852,  and  was  follow- 
lowed  by  the  Newcomes  (1855),  The 
Virginians  (1859),  a sort  of  sequel  to 
Esmond;  Lovel  the  Widower,  The  Ad- 
ventures of  Philip,  i,nd  Denis  Duval, 
which  was  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 
In  1855-56  he  delivered  a series  of  lec- 
tures in  the  United  States — The  Four 
Georges,  and  afterward  in  England  and 
Scotland.  In  1859  he  became  editor  of 
the  Cornhill  Magazine,  in  which  his  later 
novels  and  the  remarkable  Roundabout 
Papers  appeared,  but  he  retired  from 


William  Makepeace  Thackeray. 


that  post  in  1862.  He  wrote  a good  deal 
of  verse,  half-humorous,  half-pathetic, 
and  often  wholly  extravagant,  but  all 
characterized  by  grace  and  spontaneity. 
He  undoubtedly  ranks  as  the  classical 
English  humorist  and  satirist  of  the 
Victorian  reign,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
novelists,  essayists,  and  critics  in  the 
literature. 

THALBERG  (tal-berh),  Sigismund,  a 
celebrated  pianist,  was  born  in  Geneva 
in  1812,  He  died  April  28,  1871.  He 
left  a number  of  compositions,  includ- 
ing sonatas,  studies,  a concerto,  sev- 
eral nocturnes,  and  other  small  pieces. 

THALER  (ta'ler),  a silver  coin  for- 
merly in  use  in  Germany,  of  the  value 
of  about  75c. 

THALES  (tha'lez),  a native  of  Miletus 
in  Ionia,  or  according  to  some,  of 
Phoenicia,  the  earliest  philosopher  of 


Greece,  and  the  founder  of  the  Ionian 
school,  was  born  about  640  b.c.  His  II 
reputation  for  learning  and  wisdom  be- 
came  so  great  that  he  was  reckoned  'I 
among  the  seven  wise  men,  and  his  say-  I 
ings  were  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  • 
the  ancients.  He  died  about  b.c.  548.  '■ 

His  philosophical  doctrines  were  taught 
orally,  and  preserved  only  by  oral  tra-  ^ 
dition,  until  some  of  the  later  Greek  I 
philosophers,  particularly  Aristotle, com- 
mitted  them  to  writing.  He  considered 
water,  or  rather  fluidity,  the  elemental 
principle  of  all  things.  His  philosophical 
doctrines,  are,  however,  but  imperfectly  V 
understood. 

THALI'A,  one  of  the  nine  Muses.  She 
was  the  patron  of  comedy,  and  is  usually 
represented  with  the  comic  mask  and 


Thalia.— Prom  an  antique  In  the  British 
museum. 

the  shepherd’s  crook  in  her  hand.  One 
of  the  Graces  was  also  called  Thalia. 

THALLIUM,  a metal  discovered  by 
Crookes  in  1861,  in  a deposit  from  a sul- 
phuric acid  manufactory  in  the  Hartz. 

In  its  physical  properties  thallium  re- 
sembles lead,  but  is  slightly  heavier, 
somewhat  softer,  and  may  be  scratched 
by  the  finger-nail.  It  fuses  under  a red 
heat,  and  is  soluble  in  the  ordinary 
mineral  acids.  In  color  it  resembles 
silver,  but  is  less  brilliantly  white.  Its 
specific  gravity  varies  from  11.8  to  11.9 
according  to  the  mechanical  treatment 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The 
tenacity  of  the  metal  is  less  than  that  of 
lead;  is  it  possessed  of  very  considerable 
malleability.  Thallium  and  its  salts 
imparts  an  intense  green  color  to  a non- 
luminous  flame;  when  a flame  so  col- 
ored is  examined  by  the  spectroscope 
one  very  brilliant  green  band  is  noticed, 
somewhat  more  refrangible  than  the  ■ 
sodium  line  D.  (See  Spectrum.)  The 
salts  of  thallium  are  exceedingly  poison-  ,, 
OU8.  Small  quantities  of  thallivim  ap-  V 
pear  to  be  widely  distributed  in  nature, 
the  metal  frequently  occurring  in  iron 
and  copper  pyrites,  in  native  sulphur, 


THALLUS 


THEMISTOCLES 


THALLUS,  in  botany,  a solid  mass  of 
cells,  or  cellular  tissue  without  woody 
fiber,  consisting  of  one  or  more  layers, 
usually  in  the  form  of  a flat  stratum  or 


Lichen— Thallus. 


expansion,  or  in  the  form  of  a lobe,  leaf, 
or  frond,  and  forming  the  substance  of 
the  thallogens. 

THAMES  (temz),  the  most  important 
river  of  Great  Britain.  At  London  bridge 
the  width  of  the  river  is  266  yards,  at 
Woolwich  490  yards,  at  Gravesend  800 
yards,  and  3 miles  below,  1290  yards. 
The  basin  of  the  Thames  has  an  area  of 
5400  sq.  miles,  and  belongs  entirely  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  Secondary  and  to 
the  Tertiary  formations.  The  depth  of 
the  river  in  the  fair  way  above  Green- 
wich to  London  bridge  is  12  to  13  feet, 
while  its  tides  have  a mean  range  of  17 
feet  and  an  extreme  rise  of  22  feet.  By 
means  of  numerous  canals  immediate 
access  is  given  from  its  basin  to  those  of 
all  the  great  rivers  of  England. 

THANA,  TANNA,  chief  town  of  a dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  Bombay  pres’- 
idency,  21  miles  n.e.  of  Bombay  city.  It 
is  a favorite  residence  with  the  Bombay 
officials.  Pop.  14,456. — The  district  has 
an  area  of  4243  sq.  miles.  Pop.  908,548, 
of  which  12  per  cent  are  urban. 

THANKSGIVING  DAY,  a day  spe- 
cially set  apart  for  the  giving  of  thinks. 
Since  1864  the  president  has  appointed 
a day  of  Thanksgiving  (usually  the  last 
Thursday  of  November),  and  his  proc- 
lamation has  generally  been  followed  by 
similar  proclamations  from  the  govern- 
ors of  several  states. 

THAR  AND  PARKAR,  British  dis- 
trict in  the  east  of  Sind,  Bombay  pres- 
idency. Area,  12,729  sq.  miles;  pop. 
203,344.  Scarcely  a half  of  the  area  is 
under  cultivation. 

THEA,  the  tea  genus  of  plants.  See 
^r©3. 

THEATER,  an  edifice  appropriated 
to  the  representation  of  dramatic  spec- 
tacles. Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
theaters  were  the  chief  public  edifices 
next  to  the  temples,  and  in  point  of 
magnitude  they  surpassed  the  most 
spacious  of  the  temples,  having  in  some 
instances  accommodation  for  as  many 
as  from  10,000  to  40,000  spectators. 
The  Greek  and  Roman  theaters  very 
closely  resembled  each  other  in  their 
general  form  and  principal  parts.  The 
building  was  of  a semicircular  form, 
resembling  the  half  of  an  ampitheater, 
and  was  not  covered  by  a roof.  In 
Greece  the  semi-circular  area  was  often 
scooped  out  in  the  side  of  a hill,  but 
Roman  theaters  were  built  on  the  level. 
The  seats  of  the  spectators  were  all  con- 
centric, being  arranged  in  tiers  up  the 
semi-circular  slope.  The  stage  or  place 
for  the  players  was  in  front  of  the  seats, 
being  a narrow  platform  along  the 
straight  side  of  the  theater.  Behind  this 
rose  a high  wall  resembling  the  fa5ade  of 
a building,  this  being  intended  to  repre- 

P.  E.— 78 


sent  any  building  in  front  of  which  the 
action  was  supposed  to  take  place.  This 
was  called  in  Greek  skene  (L.  scena),  the 
stage  being  called  proskenion  (L.  pros- 
cenium). The  semicircular  space  be- 
tween the  stage  and  the  lowest  seats  of 
the  spectators  was  called  orchestra,  and 
was  appropriated  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
chorus  and  musicians,  and  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  the  senators.  Scenery,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  was  not  em- 
ployed except  in  a very  rude  form,  but 
the  stage  machinery  seems  in  many 
cases  to  have  been  elaborate ; and  in  par- 
ticular there  was  a well-known  machine 
or  contrivance  of  some  sort  from  which 
deities  made  their  entrance  as  if  from 
the  sky.  A good  example  of  an  ancient 
theater  is  that  of  Segesta  in  Sicily. 


Theater  of  Segesta,  Sicily— restored. 


Modern  theaters  are  all  very  much  alike 
in  their  internal  construction.  The  house 
is  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  the 
auditorium  and  the  stage,  the  former 
for  the  spectators,  the  latter  for  the 
actors  and  scenery,  which  is  often  of  the 
most  elaborate  and  realistic  kind.  The 
floor  of  the  auditorium  is  always  sloped 
down  from  the  back  of  the  house  to  the 
stage;  several  tiers  of  galleries  or  bal- 
conies run  in  a semicircular  or  horse- 
shoe form  round  the  house.  On  the 
ground  floor  the  front  rows  of  seats  are 
generally  reserved  as  dress  or  orchestral 
stalls,  and  the  back  part  is  called  the  pit. 
The  seats  in  the  galleries  rise  terrace- 
wise  from  the  front,  so  as  to  allow  the 
persons  in  the  back  rows  to  see  on  to  the 
stage  over  the  heads  of  those  before 
them.  Immediately  in  front  of  the  stage 
is  a space  occupied  by  the  orchestra. 
Part  of  the  stage  flooring  is  movable, 
either  as  traps  through  which  actors  or 
furniture  ascend  or  descend,  or  in  long 
narrow  pieces  which  are  drawn  off  at 
each  side  of  the  stage  to  allow  the  pas- 
sage of  the  rising  scenes.  Adjoining  the 
stage  are  the  dressing-rooms  for  the  per- 
formers, the  green-room  where  they  wait 
when  dressed,  etc. 

THEBES  (thebz),  an  ancient  capital 
of  Egypt,  in  Upper  Egypt,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Nile,  about  300  miles  s.s.e.  of 
Cairo,  now  represented  by  the  four 
villages  of  Luxor,  Karnak,  Medinet 
Habu,  and  Kurneh,  as  well  as  by  mag- 
nificent ruins,  which  extend  about  9 
miles  along  the  river.  When  Thebes  was 
founded  is  not  known;  the  period  of  its 
greatest  prosperity  reaches  from  1500  to 
1000  B.c.  The  ruins  comprisemagnificent 
temples,  rock-cut  tombs,  obelisks  deco- 
rated with  beautiful  sculptures,  long 
avenues  of  sphinxes,  and  colossal  statues. 
The  largest  of  the  temples  is  that  at 
Karnak,  which  is  about  1^  mile  in  cir- 
cumference. The  great  hall  of  the  temple 
(or  “hall  of  columns;”)  the  most  mag- 
nificent in  Egypt,  measures  329  feet  by 


170,  and  the  roof  was  originally  sup- 
ported by  134  gigantic  columns,  of 
which  12  forming  the  central  avenue  are 
62  feet  high  and  11  feet  6 inches  in 
diameter,  the  others,  which  are  in  rows 
on  either  side,  being  fully  42  feet  in 
height  and  28  in  circumference.  Within 
the  temple  courts  are  several  obelisks 
of  red  granite;  one — the  largest  obelisk 
known — is  108  feet  10  inches  high  and  8 
feet  square.  Above  Karnak  are  the 
village  .-nd  temple  of  Luxor,  the  latter 
at  one  time  connected  with  Karnak  by 
an  avenue  of  sphinxes  (some  of  which 
still  remain)  about  a mile  long.  The 
Memnonium  or  temple  of  Rameses  II., 
and  the  temple  and  palace  of  Rameses 

111.,  on  the  other  or  left  bank  of  the 
river,  are  objects  of  great  interest,  both 
for  the  grandeur  of  their  architecture 
and  the  richness  and  variety  of  their 
sculptures.  Here  are  also  the  colossal 
statues  of  Amenoph  III.,  one  of  them 
known  as  the  vocal  statue  of  Mem  non. 
In  the  interior  of  the  mountains  which 
rise  behind  are  found  the  tombs  of  the 
kings  of  Thebes,  excavated  in  the  rock, 
the  most  remarkable  being  that  of  Sethi 

1.,  discovered  by  Belzoni,  and  contain- 
ing fine  sculptures  and  paintings. 

THEBES,  a city  of  ancient  Greece, 
the  principal  city  of  Boeotia,  the  birth- 
place of  Pindar,  Epaminondas,  and 
Pelopidas,  was  situated  about  midway 
between  the  Corinthian  Gulf  and  the 
Eubcean  sea.  Cadmus  is  said  to  have 
founded  it  in  1500  b.c.  The  modern 
Thebes  or  Thiva  is  an  unimportant  town 
of  some  4000  inhabitants. 

THEISM,  the  belief  or  acknowledg- 
ment of  the  existence  of  God,  as  opposed 
to  Atheism.  See  Deism. 

THEMIS,  goddess  of  law  and  justice 
among  the  Greeks,  was  the  daughter  of 
Ur&nus  and  Ge  (Heaven  and  Earth); 
according  to  some,  of  Helios,  or  the  Sun. 

THEMIS'TOCLES  (-klez),  an  Athenian 
commander,  born  514  b.c.  On  the 
second  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes, 
Themistocles  succeeded  by  bribery  in 
obtaining  the  command  of  the  Athenian 


fleet,  and  in  the  battle  of  Salamis  which 
followed  (b.c.  480),  the  Persian  fleet 
was  almost  totally  destroyed,  and 
Greece  was  saved.  The  chief  glory  of  the 
victory  is  due  to  Themistocles.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  accused  of  having  en- 
riched himself  by  unjust  means,  and  of 
being  privy  to  designs  for  the  betrayal 


THEOCRACY 


THERMO-ELECTRICITY 


of  Greece  to  the  Persians.  Fearing  the 
vengeance  of  his  countrymen,  he,  after 
many  vicissitudes,  took  refuge  at  the 
Persian  court.  The  Persian  throne  was 
now  (465  B.c.)  occupied  by  Artaxerxes 
LongimSus,  to  whom  Themistocles  pro- 
cured access,  and  whose  favor  he  gained 
by  his  address  and  talents,  so  that  he  was 
treated  with  the  greatest  distinction. 
He  died  in  449,  according  to  some  ac- 
counts by  his  own  hand. 

THEOC'RACY,  is  that  government 
of  which  the  chief  is,  or  is  belitved  to  be, 
God  himself,  the  priests  being  the  pro- 
mulgators and  expounders  of  the  divine 
commands.  The  most  notable  theocratic 
government  of  all  times  is  that  estab- 
lished by  Moses  among  the  Israelites. 

THEOC'RITUS,  a Greek  poet,  born 
at  Syracuse,  who  flourished  about  b.c. 
280.  We  have  under  his  name  thirty 
idyls,  or  pastoral  poems,  of  which,  how- 
ever, several  are  probably  by  other 
authors.  Most  of  his  idyls  have  a 
dramatic  form,  and  consist  of  the  alter- 
nate responses  of  musical  shepherds. 
His  language  is  strong  and  harmonious. 

THEOD'OLITE,  a surveying  instru- 
inent  for  measuring  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical angles  by  means  of  a telescope,  the 
movements  of  which  can  be  accurately 
marked.  This  instrument  is  variously 
constructed,  but  its  main  characteristics 
continue  unaltered  in  all  forms.  Its 
chief  features  are  the  telescope,  a grad- 
uated vertical  circle  to  which  it  is 
attached,  two  concentric  horizontal  cir- 


Theodollte. 


cular  plates  which  turn  freely  on  each 
other,  and  two  spirit-levels  on  the  upper 
plate  to  secure  exact  horizontality,  the 
whole  being  on  a tripod  stand.  The 
lower  plate  contains  the  divisions  of  the 
circle  round  its  edge,  and  the  upper  or 
vernier  plate  has  two  vernier  divisions 
diametrically  opposite.  The  plates  turn 
on  a double  vertical  axis.  To  measure 
the  angular  distance  horizontally  be- 
tween any  two  objects,  the  telescope  is 
turned  round  along  with  the  vernier 
circle  until  it  is  brought  to  bear  exactly 
upon  one  of  the  objects ; it  is  then  turned 
round  until  it  is  brought  to  bear  on  the 
other  object,  and  the  arc  which  the  ver- 
nier has  described  on  the  graduated  cir- 
cle measures  the  angle  required.  By 
means  of  the  double  vertical  axis  the 
observation  may  be  repeated  any  num- 
ber of  times  in  order  to  ensure  accuracy. 
The  graduated  vertical  circle  is  for  tak- 
ing altitudes  or  vertical  angles  in  a 
similar  way.  The  theodolite  is  a most 


essential  instrument  in  surveying  and  in 
geodetical  operations. 

THEOLOGY  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  existence  of  God,  his  attri- 
butes, and  the  Divine  will  regarding  our 
actions,  present  condition,  and  ultimate 
destiny.  In  reference  to  the  sources 
whence  it  is  derived  theology  is  distin- 
guished into  natural  or  philosophical 
theology,  which  relates  to  the  knowledge 
of  God  from  his  works  by  the  light  of 
nature  and  reason;  and  supernatural 
positive,  or  revealed  theology,  which  sets 
forth  and  systematizes  the  doctrines  of 
the  Scriptures.  With  regard  to  the  con- 
tents of  theology  it  is  classified  into 
theoretical  theology  or  dogmatics,  and 
practical  theology  or  ethics.  As  compre- 
hending the  whole  extent  of  religious 
science,  theology  is  divided  into  four 
principal  classes,  historical,  exegetical, 
systematic,  and  practical  theology. 
Historical  theology  treats  of  the  history 
of  Christian  doctrines.  Exegetical  theol- 
ogy embraces  the  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  and  Biblical  criticism.  Sys- 
tematic theology  arranges  methodically 
the  great  truths  of  religion.  Practical 
theology  consists  of  an  exhibition,  first, 
of  precepts  and  directions;  and  secondly, 
of  the  motives  from  which  we  should 
be  expected  to  comply  with  these. 
Apologetic  and  polemic  theology  belong 
to  several  of  the  above-mentioned  four 
classes  at  once.  The  Scholastic  theology 
attempted  to  clear  and  discuss  all  ques- 
tions by  the  aid  of  human  reason  alone 
laying  aside  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
adopting  instead  the  arts  of  the  dialec- 
tician. 

THEOPHRASTUS,  a celebrated  Peri- 
patetic philosopher,  was  born  at  Lesbos 
early  in  the  4th  century,  b.c.,  and 
studied  at  Athens,  in  the  school  of 
Plato,  and  afterward  under  Aristotle, 
of  whom  he  was  the  favorite  pupil  and 
successor.  On  the  departure  of  Aris- 
totle from  Athens  after  the  judicial 
murder  of  Socrates  he  became  the  head 
of  the  Peripatetic  school  of  philosophy, 
and  composed  a multitude  of  books — 
dialectic, moral, metaphysical,  and  phys- 
ical. We  possess  two  entire  works  of  his 
on  botany,  but  only  fragments  of  his 
other  works,  such  as  those  on  Stones, 
on  the  Winds,  etc.;  and  his  Characters 
or  sketches  of  types  of  character,  by  far 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  his  produc- 
tions. He  died  in  287  b.c.  To  his  care 
we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of 
the  writings  of  Aristotle,  who,  when 
dying,  intrusted  theui  to  his  keeping. 

THEOS'OPHY,  according  to  its  ety- 
mology the  science  of  divine  things. 
But  the  name  of  theosophists  has  gen- 
erally been  appplied  to  persons  who  in 
their  inquiries  respecting  God  have  run 
into  mysticism,  as  Jacob  Bohme, 
Swedenborg,  St.  Martin,  and  others. 
At  the  present  day  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Theosophical  society, 
founded  in  New  York  in  1875  by  a Col. 
Olcott,  the  objects  of  which  are ; to  form 
the  nucleus  of  a universal  brotherhood 
of  humanity,  to  promote  the  study  of 
Eastern  literature  and  science,  and' 
chiefly  to  investigate  unexplained  laws  of 
nature,  and  the  psychical  powers  of  man, 
and  generally  the  search  after  divine 
knowledge — divine  applying  to  the 
divine  nature  of  the  abstract  principle. 


not  to  the  quality  of  a personal  God. 
The  theosophists  assert  that  humanity 
is  possessed  of  certain  powers  over 
nature,  which  the  narrower  study  of 
nature  from  the  merely  materialistic 
stand-point  has  failed  to  develop.  Lead- 
ing names  are  Olcott,  A.  P.  Sinnett, 
Madame  Blavatsky,  and  Mrs.  Annie 
Besant.  Their  so-called  occult  manifes- 
tations are  akin  to  those  attributed  to 
spiritualism  or  telepathy,  that  is,  com- 
munication between  minds  at  a distance 
from  each  other. 

THERAPEUTICS,  that  department 
of  medicine  which  treats  of  remedies  in 
the  widest  sense. 

THERE'SA,  St.,  a religious  enthusiast, 
born  at  Avila,  in  Spain,  in  1515,  who 
took  the  veil  among  the  Carmelites  at 
the  age  of  twenty-four.  Being  dissatis- 
fied at  the  relaxation  of  discipline  in  the 
order  to  which  she  belonged  she  under- 
took to  restore  the  original  severity  of 
the  institute.  The  first  convent  of  re- 
formed Carmelite  nuns  was  founded  at 
Avila  in  1562,  and  was  speedily  followed 
by  a number  of  others.  She  died  in  1582, 
and  was  canonized  by  Pope  Gregory  XV. 
in  1621.  She  was  the  author  of  several 
works,  and  all  of  a devotional  nature, 
among  them  a very  curious  life  of  her- 
self. 

THERESIO'PEL,  a royal  free  town  in 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bdcs,  is  more 
properly  a district  than  a town,  as  it 
covers,  with  its  numerous  suburbs,  an 
area  of  more  than  600  sq.  miles.  It  has 
manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen  cloth, 
dye-works,  tanneries,  soap-boiling 
works,  etc.,  and  a trade  in  cattle,  horses, 
hides,  and  wool.  Pop.  81,302. 

THERMIDOR,  the  eleventh  month 
of  the  year  in  the  calendar  of  the  first 
French  republic.  It  commenced  on  the 
19th  of  July,  and  ended  on  the  17th  of 
August.  See  Calendar. 

THERI.IO-ELECTRICITY,  electricity 
produced  at  the  junction  of  two  metals, 
or  at  a point  where  a molecular  change 
occurs  in  a bar  of  the  same  metal,  when 
the  junction  or  point  is  heated  above 
or  cooled  below  the  general  temperature 
of  the  conductor.  Thus  when  wires  or 
bars  of  metal  of  different  kinds,  as  bis- 
muth and  antimony,  are  placed  in  close 
contact,  end  to  end,  and  disposed  so  as 
to  form  a periphery  or  continuous  cir- 


Thermo-plle. 

cuit,  and  heat  then  applied  to  the  ends 
or  junctions  of  the  bars,  electric  cur- 
rents are  produced.  The  principle  of  the 
arrangement  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying figure,  in  which  the  bars  marked 
a are  antimony,  thosemarked  b bismuth. 
The  junctions  1,  3,  5,  7 are  to  be  at  one 
temperature,  the  junctions  2,  4,  6.  8 at 
another,  g is  a delicate  galvanometer, 


THERMOMETER 


THIERRY 


which  measures  the  force  of  the  current 
produced.  The  thermo-electric  battery, 
or  pile,  an  apparatus  much  used  in  deli- 
cate experiments  with  radiant  heat, 
consists  of  a series  of  little  bars  of  anti- 
mony and  bismuth  (or  any  other  two 
metals  of  different  heat-conducting 
power),  having  their  ends  soldered  to- 
gether and  arranged  in  a compact  form; 
the  opposite  ends  of  the  pile  being  con- 
nected with  a galvanometer,  which  is 
very  sensibly  affected  by  the  electric 
current  induced  in  the  system  of  bars 
when  exposed  to  the  slightest  variations 
of  temperature.  To  the  combined  ar- 
rangement of  pile  and  galvanometer  the 
name  of  thermo-multiplier  is  given. 
Two  metal  bars  of  different  heat-con- 
ducting power  having  their  ends  sol- 
dered together,  and  the  combined  bar 
then  usually  bent  into  a more  or 
less  horse-shoe  or  magnet  form  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  their  free  ends 
within  a conveniently  short  distance, 
designated  a thermo-electric  pair,  are 
much  used  in  thermo-electric  experi- 
ments. But  as  the  electric  current  de- 
veloped in  a single  pair  is  very  weak,  a 
considerable  number  are  usually  com- 
bined to  form  a thermo-electric  pile  or 
battery.  Bismuth  and  antimony  are  the 
metals  usually  employed,  the  difference 
in  electro-motive  force  being  greater 
between  them  than  between  any  other 
two  metals  conveniently  obtainable. 

THERMOM'ETER,  an  instrument  by 
which  the  temperatures  of  bodies  are 
ascertained;  founded  on  the  property 
which  heat  possesses  of  expanding  all 
bodies,  the  rate  or  quantity  of  expansion 
being  supposed  proportional  to  the  de- 
gree of  heat  applied,  and  hence  indicat- 


hence  the  zero  of  the  scale,  or  that  part 
marked  0°,  is  32°  below  the  freezing- 
point,  and  the  interval  or  space  between 
the  freezing  and  boiling  points  consists 
of  180°.  The  zero  point  is  supposed  to 
have  been  fixed  by  Fahrenheit  at  the 
point  of  greatest  cold  that  he  had  ob- 
served, probably  by  means  of  a freezing 
mixture  such  as  snow  and  salt.  In 
France  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and 
nowadays  in  all  scientific  investigations, 
the  Centigrade  or  Celsius  scale  is  used. 
In  this  the  space  between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  of  water  is  divided 
into  100  equal  parts  or  degrees,  the  zero 
being  at  freezing  and  the  boiling-point 
marked  100°.  Reaumur’s  thermometer, 
in  use  in  Germany,  has  the  space  be- 
tween the  freezing  and  boiling  points 
divided  into  80  equal  parts,  the  zero 
being  at  freezing.  For  extreme  degrees 
of  cold,  thermometers  filled  with  spirit 
of  wine  must  be  employed,  as  no  degree 
of  cold  known  is  capable  of  freezing  that 
liquid,  whereas  mercury  freezes  at  about 
39°  below  zero  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale. 
On  the  other  hand,  spirit  of  wine  is  not 
adapted  to  high  temperatures,  as  it  is 
soon  converted  into  vapor,  whereas 
mercury  does  not  boil  till  its  temperature 
is  raised  to  660°  F.  As  the  ordinary 
thermometer  gives  the  temperature 
only  at  the  time  of  observation,  the 
necessity  for  having  an  instrument 
which  would  show  the  maximiun  and 
minimum  temperatures  within  a given 
period  is  easily  apparent  in  all  cases  con- 
nected with  meteorology,  and  various 
forms  of  instruments  for  this  purpose 
have  been  invented.  A common  form  of 
maximum  thermometer  consists  of  the 
ordinary  thermometer  fitted  with  a 


Centigrade. 


Reaunwr 


Fahrenheit. 


E) 


Thermometer  scales. 


ing  that  degree.  The  thermometer  con- 
sists of  a slender  glass  tube,  with  a small 
bore,  containing  in  general  mercury  or 
alcohol,  which  expanding  or  contracting 
by  variations  in  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  on  the  instrument  being 
brought  into  contact  with  any  other 
body,  or  immersed  in  a liquid  or  gas 
which  is  to  be  examined,  the  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  the  body,  liquid,  or  gas, 
with  regard  to  heat,  is  indicated  by  a 
scale  either  applied  to  the  tube  or  en- 
graved on  its  exterior  surface.  The  ordi- 
nary thermometer  consists  of  a small 
tube,  terminating  in  a ball  containing 
mercury,  the  air  having  been  expelled 
and  the  tube  hermetically  sealed.  A 
scale  of  temperatures  is  attached,  in 
which  there  are  two  points  correspond- 
ing to  fixed  and  determinate  tempera- 
tures, one,  namely,  to  the  temperature 
of  freezing  water,  and  the  other  to  that 
of  boiling  water.  In  the  thermometer 
commonly  used  in  Britain  and  her 
colonies,  the  United  States,  etc.,  known 
as  Fahrenheit’s  thermometer,  the  former 
point  is  marked  32°  and  the  latter  212°; 


pston  which  moves  easily  in  the  tube. 
The  instrument  is  placed  horizontally, 
and  the  piston  is  pushed  along  the  bore 
as  the  mercury  advances,  and  is  left  at 
the  highest  point  by  the  retiring  fluid. 
This  point  is  noted  by  the  observer,  who 
then  erects  the  thermometer,  causing 
the  piston  to  sink  to  the  mercury,  the 
instrument  thus  being  in  condition  for 
a fresh  experiment.  A similar  action 
takes  place  in  the  spirit  of  wine  mini- 
mum thermometer,  the  small  movable 
piston  being,  however,  immersed  in  the 
fluid  and  drawn  back  by  the  convex 
surface  of  the  contracting  fluid,  being 
left  at  the  point  of  greatest  contraction. 
The  maximum  and  minimum  instru- 
ments combined  form  the  self-register- 
ing thermometer. 

THERMO-PILE.  See  Thermo-elec- 
tricity. 

THERMOP'YL.®,  a narrow  defile  in 
Northern  Greece,  leading  from  Thessaly 
southward,  between  Mount  OEta  and 
the  sea  (th«  Maliac  gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of 
Zeitouni),  25  miles  north  of  Delphi, 
celebrated  for  its  defense  by  300  Spartans 


together  with  allies,  under  Leonidas, 
against  the  Persian  host  under  Xerxes, 
in  480  B.c. 

THESEUS  (the'sus),  a mythical  king 
of  Athens  and  famous  hero  of  antiquity, 
son  of  .iEgeus  by  .(Ethra,  the  daughter 
of  Pittheus  of  Troezen,  in  Peloponnesus, 
of  whom  many  notable  deeds  are  related, 
as  the  slaying  of  the  Minotaur  and  the 
freeing  of  Athens  from  the  tribute  of 
seven  youths  and  seven  maids  annually 
sent  to  Crete  to  be  devoured  by  that 
monster.  As  king  of  Athens  he  is  re- 
puted to  have  governed  with  mildness, 
instituted  new  laws,  and  made  the 
government  more  democratic. 

THESSALONIANS,  Epistles  to  the, 
two  New  Testament  epistles  written  by 
St.  Paul  to  the  church  at  Thessalonica, 
in  all  probability  during  his  long  stay 
at  Corinth,  and  therefore  not  very  long 
after  the  foundation  of  the  Thessalonian 
church  on  St.  Paul’s  second  missionary 
journey.  A note  at  the  end  of  each  of  the 
epistles  in  our  Authorized  Version  states 
that  they  were  written  from  Athens, 
but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  is 
erroneous,  and  that  they  were  really 
written  at  Corinth.  They  are  the  earliest 
of  Paul’s  ■writings,  and  are  characterized 
by  great  simplicity  of  style  as  compared 
with  his  other  epistles.  The  genuineness 
of  the  first  epistle  has  hardly  ever  been 
questioned,  but  according  to  the  newer 
criticism,  that  of  the  second  epistle  is 
more  than  doubtful. 

THES'SALY,the  northeastern  division 
of  Greece,  mainly  consisting  of  a rich 
plain  inclosed  between  mountains  and 
belonging  almost  entirely  to  one  river 
basin,  that  of  the  Peneios  (Salambria), 
which  traverses  it  from  west  to  east, 
and  finds  an  outlet  into  the  .(Egean 
through  the  vale  of  Tempe.  In  the 
earliest  times  Thessaly  proper  is  said  to 
have  been  inhabited  by  .^olic  and  other 
tribes.  Subsequently  it  was  broken  up 
into  separate  confederacies,  and  seldom 
exerted  any  important  influence  on  the 
affairs  of  Greece  generally.  Thessaly 
was  conquered  by  Philip  of  Macedon  in 
the  4th  century  b.c.,  became  dependent 
on  Macedonia,  and  was  finally  incor- 
porated with  the  Roman  empire.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  empire  it  came, 
with  the  rest  of  the  imperial  dominions, 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  and  till 
recently  formed  a part  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  although  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Greeks.  The  greater 
portion  of  it  was  in  1881  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  Greece.  Capital 
Larissa.  Pop.  294,093. 

THETIS,  a Greek  divinity,  a daugh- 
ter of  Nereus  and  Doris,  therefore  one  of 
the  Nereids.  By  Peleus,  to  whom  she 
was  married,  she  became  the  mother  of 
Achilles. 

THIBET  (ti-bef).  See  Tibet. 

THIERRY  (ti-er-ri),  Jacques  Nicolas 
Augustin,  French  historian,  born  at 
Blois  in  1795,  died  in  1856.  His  cele- 
brated work  on  the  Norman  conquest 
of  England  was  published  at  Paris  in 
1825,  and  attained  great  success  both  in 
France  and  in  England.  Lettres  sur 
I’Histoire  de  la  France  appeared  in  1827. 
In  1834  he  published,  under  the  title  of 
Dix  Ans  d’Etudes,  a series  of  admirable 
essays,  and  about  the  same  time  ho  was 
summoned  by  Guizot,  then  minister  of 


THIERS 


THOMAS 


public  instruction,  to  Paris,  and  in- 
trusted with  the  editing  of  the  Recue  il 
des  Monuments  In^dits  de  I’Histoire  du 
Tiers  Etat,  for  the  collection  of  docu- 
ments relative  to  the  history  of  France. 
In  1840  he  published  R4cits  des  Temps 
M^rovingiens. 

THIERS  (ti-ar),  Louis  Adolphe,  presi- 
dent of  the  French  republic,  statesman 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Marseilles 
1797,  died  1877.  During  the  terrible 
crisis  of  1870-71  Thiers  came  to  the 
front  as  the  one  sunreme  man  in  France. 
After  the  fall  of  Paris  he  was  returned  to 
the  national  assembly,  and  on  February 
17,  1871,  he  was  declared  chief  of  the 
executive  power.  The  first  duty  imposed 
upon  him  as  such  was  to  assist  in  draw- 
ing up  the  treaty  of  peace,  whereby 
France  lost  Alsace  and  Lorraine  and 
agreed  to  pay  an  enormous  indemnity; 
his  second  was  to  suppress  the  com- 
munist insurrection,  which  broke  out 
within  three  weeks  of  the  signing  of  the 
treaty.  This  done,  his  next  task  was  to 
free  the  soil  as  quickly  as  possible  from 


Louis  Adolphe  Thiers. 


the  invaders  by  the  payment  of  the  ran- 
som, which  also  was  effected  in  an  in- 
credibly short  space  of  time.  The 
assembly  in  August,  1871,  prolonged 
his  tenure  of  office  and  changed  his  title 
to  that  of  president.  In  November,  1872, 
Thiers  declared  himself  in  favor  of  the 
republic  as  a definite  form  of  government 
for  France,  and  thus  to  some  extent 
brought  about  the  crisis  which  resulted 
in  his  being  deprived  of  the  presidency. 
He  accepted  his  deposition  with  dignity, 
and  went  quietly  into  retirement.  M. 
Thiers’  chief  works  are : Histoire  de  la 
Revolution  Frangaise  (6  vols.,  1823-27), 
and  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de  I’Empire 
(20  vols.,  1845-62).  The  latter  obtained 
for  him  the  academic  prize  of  twenty 
thousand  francs. 

THIRST,  the  sensations  experienced 
in  animals  from  the  want  of  fluid  nutri- 
ment. The  sensations  of  thirst  are 
chiefly  referred  to  the  thorax  and  fauces, 
but  the  condition  is  really  one  affecting 
the  entire  body.  The  excessive  pains 
of  thirst  compared  with  those  of  hunger 
are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  deprivation 
of  liquids  is  a condition  with  which  all 
the  tissues  sympathize.  Every  solid  and 
every  fluid  of  the  body  contains  water, 
and  hence  abstraction  or  diminution  of 
the  watery  constituents  is  followed  by  a 
general  depression  of  the  whole  system. 
Thirst  is  a common  symptom  of  febrile 
and  other  diseases. 

THIRTY  YEARS’  WAR,  a war  in 
Germany  (1618-48),  at  first  a religious 


war  between  the  Catholics  and  the  Prot- 
estants, and  latterly  (after  1635),  a 
political  struggle  between  Austria  on 
the  one  side  and  France  and  Sweden  on 
the  other.  The  great  commanders  in  the 
religious  war  were  Wallenstein  and 
Tilly  on  the  side  of  the  Catholics,  and 
Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden  on  the 
side  of  the  Protestants.  The  war  was 
ended  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  See 
Germany. 

THISBE.  See  Pyramus  and  Thisbe. 

THISTLE,  the  common  name  of  a 
prickly  plant.  There  are  numerous 
species.  The  common  cotton-thistle  at- 
tains a height  of  from  4 to  6 feet.  It  is 
often  regarded  as  the  Scotch  thistle, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  thistle 
which  constitutes  the  Scottish  national 
badge  has  any  existing  type,  though  the 
stemless  thistle  is  in  many  districts  of 
Scotland  looked  on  as  the  true  Scotch 
thistle.  Some  species  are  cultivated  in 
gardens  from  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 
Thistles  sow  themselves  readily  by  their 
winged  seeds. 

THISTLE,  Order  of  the,  a Scottish 
order  of  knighthood,  sometimes  called 
the  order  of  St.  Andrew.  It  was  insti- 
tuted by  James  VII.  (James  II.  of  Eng- 
land) in  1687,  when  eight  knights  were 
nominated.  It  fell  into' abeyance  during 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  but  was 
revived  by  Queen  Anne  in  1703.  The 
insignia  of  the  order  consist  of  a gold 
collar  composed  of  thistles  interlaced 
with  sprigs  of  rue ; the  jewel,  a figure  of 
St.  Andrew  in  the  middle  of  a star  of 
eight  pointed  rays,  suspended  from  the 


collar ; the  star,  of  silver  and  eight-rayed, 
four  of  the  rays  being  pointed,  while  the 
alternate  rays  are  shaped  like  the  tail- 
feathers  of  a bird,  with  a thistle  in  the 
center  surrounded  by  the  Latin  motto 
Nemo  me  impune  lacessit;  and  the 
badge,  oval,  with  the  motto  surrounding 
the  figure  of  St.  Andrew.  The  order  con- 
sists of  the  sovereign  and  sixteen  knights 
besides  extra  knights  (princes),  and  a 
dean,  a secretary,  the  lyon-king-at- 
arms,  and  the  gentleman  usher  of  the 
green  rod. 

THOMAS,  St.,  also  called  Didymus, 
one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  said  to  have 
been  a native  of  Antioch.  The  uarticu- 


lars  of  his  life  are  unknown,  the  chief 
fact  known  regarding  him  being  his 
doubts  as  to  the  living  reality  of  Christ 
after  the  resurrection.  He  figures  largely 
in  the  apocryphal  gospels,  and  tradition 
has  it  that  he  acted  as  a Christian  mis- 
sionary in  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  India,  and 
even  America. 

THOMAS,  George  Henry,  American 
general,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1816, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty  entered  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point,  pass- 
ing into  the  artillery  as  .sub-lieutenant 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  took  part 
in  the  Mexican  war  (1846-47);  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  West  Point  in  1850; 
recalled  to  active  service  in  1855,  and 
employed  in  Texas  against  the  Indians. 
When  the  war  of  secession  broke  out 
Thomas  had  attained  the  rank  of  colonel 
and  being  appointed  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  August,  1861,  was  some 
months  later  sent  into  Kentucky,  where, 
in  the  following  year,  he  defeated  Zolli- 
kofer.  As  major-general  of  volunteers 
he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Murfrees- 
borough,  where  he  greatly  distinguished 
himself;  while  at  the  bloody  battle  of 
Chickamauga,  in  September,  1863,  he 
saved  the  federal  army  from  destruc- 
tion by  his  stubborn  resistance  after  the 
defeat  of  the  federal  right.  In  the  cam- 
j)aign  of  1865  he  defeated  Hood,  and 
compelled  the  confederates  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Nashville,  for  which  he  received 
the  thanks  of  congress,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  regu- 
lar army.  He  died  in  1870. 

THOMAS  A KEMPIS,  that  is,  Thomas 
of  Kempen,  his  birthplace,  in  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Cologne,  was  born  about 
1380.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  retired  to 
an  Augustine  convent  near  Zwolle,  in 
Holland,  where  he  took  the  vows,  and 
where,  in  1471,  he  died  superior  of  the 
convent.  He  was  a voluminous  writer. 
His  works  (the  printed  ones  all  in  Latin) 
consist  of  sermons,  exhortations,  ascetic 
treatises,  hymns,  prayers,  etc.  His  name 
however,  would  hardly  be  remembered 
were  it  not  for  its  connection  with  the 
celebrated  devotional  work  called  The 
Imitation  of  Christ  (De  Imitatione 
Christ!) , a work  which  has  passed 
through  thousands  of  editions  in  the 
original  Latin  and  in  translations.  The 
authorship  of  this  book  has  long  been  a 
disputed  point.  It  is  generally  ascribed 
to  k Kempis,  but  often  to  Gerson,  chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Paris  at  the 
end  of  the  14th  and  beginning  of  the 
16th  century. 

THOMAS  AQUINAS.  See  Aquinas. 

THOMAS,  Theodore,  German-Ameri- 
can  orchestral  conductor,  was  born  in 
Esens,  East  Friesland  in  1835.  He  came 
with  his  parents  to  America  in  1845,  and 
played  first  violin  in  the  first  American 
concert  tour  of  Jenny  Lind.  In  1861  he 
began  the  formation  of  his  famous  or- 
chestra, and  in  1864  gave  his  first  sym- 
phony concerts  in  New  York.  In  1866 
he  instituted  his  smnmer-night  festivals. 
From  1878  to  1890  he  was  the  conductor 
of  the  Brooklyn  Philharmonic  society, 
and  in  1890  he  went  to  Chicago.  The 
orchestra  which  he  built  up  in  Chicago 
became  one  of  the  recognized  great 
orchestras  of  the  world.  Orchestra  hall, 
Chicago,  was  erected  by  its  citizens  in 
.honor  of  his  memory.  He  died  in  1905. 


THOMSON 


THOU 


THOMSON,  Sir  Charles  Wyville,  nat- 
uralist, born  in  1830  in  Linlithgowshire; 
died  1882  In  the  dredging  expeditions 
of  the  Lightning  and  Porcupine  he  took 
part,  afterward  publishing  in  The 
Depths  of  the  Sea,  the  substance  of  his 
discoveries  in  regard  to  the  fauna  of  the 
Atlantic.  In  1872  he  was  appointed 
scientific  chief  of  the  Challenger  ex- 
pedition, which  was  absent  from  Eng- 
land 3J  years,  during  which  time  68,890 
miles  were  surveyed.  On  his  return  he 
was  knighted^  and  intrusted  by  the 
government  with  the  task  of  drawing 
up  a report  on  the  natural  history 
specimens  collected  during  the  expedi- 
tion. But  he  only  lived  to  publish  a 
preliminary  account  of  the  expedition. 

THOMSON,  James,  poet,  was  born  in 
1700,  at  Ednam,  near  Kelso,  in  Scot- 
land. He  went  in  1725  to  London,  where 
Winter,  the  first  of  his  poems  on  the 
seasons,  was  published  in  1726.  In  1727 
he  published  his  Summer,  his  Poem  to 
the  Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and 
his  Britannia,  in  1728  his  Spring,  and  in 
1730  his  Autumn.  He  brought  on  the 
stage  his  tragedy  of  Sophonisba  (1729). 
He  now  (1738)  produced  his  tragedy  of 
Agamemnon,  and  a third  entitled  Ed- 
ward and  Eleanora.  In  1740  he  com- 
posed the  masque  of  Alfred  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Mallet;  but  which  of  them 
wrote  the  famous  song.  Rule,  Britannia, 
is  not  known.  In  1745  his  most  success- 
ful tragedy,  Tancred  and  Sigismunda, 
was  brought  out  and  warmly  applauded. 
The  following  year  he  produced  his 
Castle  of  Indolence,  a work  in  the  Spen- 
serian stanza.  For  a few  years  he  held 
by  deputy  the  comfortable  post  of  sur- 
veyor-general of  the  Leeward  islands, 
and  he  died  in  1748. 

THOMSON,  James,  poet,  was  born  at 
Port-Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1834.  In 
1860  he  became  a contributor  to  the 
National  Reformer,  in  which  was  pub- 
lished, under  the  signature  “B.  V.,”  The 
Dead  Year,  To  our  Ladies  of  Death,  and 
the  poem  by  which  he  is  best  known. 
The  City  of  Dreadful  Night.  He  died 
in  1882. 

THOMSON,  Sir  W.,  Lord  Kelvin,  one 
of  the  greatest  mathematicians  and 
physicists  of  the  present  day,  was  born 
at  Belfast  in  1824.  In  1846  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  a post 
which  he  held  till  1899.  The  same  year 
he  became  editor  of  the  Cambridge  and 
Dublin  Mathematical  Journal,  to  which 
he  contributed  valuable  papers  on  the 
mathematical  theory  of  electricity, 
being  also  a distinguished  contributor 
to  Liouville’s  Journal  de  Math6matiques. 
Among  the  most  im.portant  of  his  con- 
tributions to  electrical  science  are  the 
construction  of  several  delicate  instru- 
ments for  the  measurement  and  study 
of  electricity.  It  was  in  connection  with 
submarine  telegraphy  that  his  name  be- 
came most  generally  known,  his  services 
being  rewarded,  on  the  completion  of  the 
Atlantic  cable  of  1866,  with  knighthood 
and  other  honors.  In  1892  he  was  created 
a baron.  He  has  greatly  increased  our 
knowledge  of  magnetism  and  heat,  and 
has  invented  an  improved  form  of 
mariner’s  compass  now  in  extensive  use. 
His  work  in  thermo-dynamics  is  of  the 
greatest  value.  He  was  the  first  to  rec- 


ognize the  importance  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  conservation  of  energy.  Lord  Kel- 
vin’s many  scientific  papers  have  been 
published  in  book  form,  as  follows; 
Electrostatics  and  Magnetism,  Mathe- 
matical and  Physical  Papers,  Popular 
Lectures  and  addresses.  He  is  the 
author,  in  conjunction  with  Professor 
P.  T.  Tait,  of  a Treatise  on  Natural 
Philosophy.  He  was  president  of  the 
British  association  at  Edinburgh  in 
1871,  and  of  the  Royal  society  in  1890 
-95.  Lord  Kelvin  visited  America  in 
1884,  1897,  and  1902.  He  died  in  1907. 

THOR,  son  of  Odin  by  Jord  (the 
earth),  the  Jupiter  of  the  Teutons,  the 
God  of  thunder.  Thursday  has  its  name 
from  him.  See  Northern  Mythology. 

THORACIC  DUCT.  See  Lymph. 

THORAX,  the  chest,  or  that  cavity  of 
the  human  body  formed  by  the  spine, 
ribs,  and  breast-bone,  situated  between 
the  neck  and  the  abdomen,  and  which 
contains  the  pleura,  lungs,  heart,  etc. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  corre- 
sponding portions  of  other  mammals, 
to  the  less  sharply  defined  cavity  in  the 
lower  vertebrates,  as  birds,  fishes,  etc., 
and  to  the  segments  intervening  between 


Thorax  In  man. 

Thoracic  regions  denoted  by  thick  black 
lines.  11,  Right  and  left  humeral.  23,  do.  sub- 
clavian. 33,  do.  mammary.  44,  do.  axillary. 
55,  do.  subaxlllary.66,  do.  scapular.  77,  do.  Inter- 
scapular. 88,  do.  superior  dorsal  or  subscapu- 
lar.—Vlsceraorcontentsof  thorax,  the  position 
of  which  is  Indicated  by  dotted  lines,  aa.  Dia- 
phragm; b,  heart;  c,  lungs;  d,  liver;  e,  kid- 
neys; /,  stomach. 

the  head  and  abdomen  in  insects  and 
other  Arthropoda.  In  serpents  and 
fishes  the  thorax  is  not  completed  below 
by  a breastbone.  In  insects  three  sec- 
tions form  the  thorax,  the  pro-thorax 
bearing  the  first  pair  of  legs;  the  meso- 
thorax,  bearing  the  second  pair  of  legs 
and  the  first  pair  of  wings ; and  the  meta- 
thorax, bearing  the  third  pair  of  legs 
and  the  second  pair  of  wings. 

THOREAU,  (tho'ro),  Henry  David, 
American  writer,  born  at  Boston  in  1817. 
Besides  contributing  to  the  Dial  and 
other  periodicals,  he  published  A Week 
on  the  Concord  and  Merrimac  Rivers 
(1849),  and  Walden,  or  Life  in  the 
Woods  (1854).  After  his  death  appeared 
Excursions  in  Field  and  Forest,  The 
Maine  Woods,  Cape  Cod,  and  A Yankee 
in  Canada.  Thoreau  was  a friend  of 
Emerson,  and  imbibed  much  of  his 
spirit  and  method  of  thought.  He  died 
in  1862. 

THORIUM,  the  metal  of  which  thoria 
is  the  oxide,  discovered  by  Berzelius. 
It  is  in  the  form  of  a heavy  metallic 
powder,  has  an  iron-gray  tint,  burns  in 
air  or  oxygen,  when  heated,  with  great 
splendor,  and  is  converted  into  thorina 
or  oxide  of  thorinum.  It  unites  ener- 


getically with  chlorine,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus.  Hydrochloric  acid  readily 
dissolves  it,  with  the  evolution  of  hydro- 
gen gas.  The  symbol  of  Thorium  is  Th, 
and  the  atomic  weight  116. 


THORN.  See  Hawthorn. 

THORWALDSEN  (tor'vald-sen),  Al- 
bert Bartholomew,  a celebrated  sculp- 
tor, born  at  Copenhagen,  November  19, 
1770.  It  was  not  until  1803,  that  he  be- 
came at  all  widely  known.  Then  he  re- 
ceived a commission  from  Sir  Thomas 
Hope  to  execute  in  marble  a statue  of 
Jason,  which  the  sculptor  had  modeled. 
His  fortune  was  now  made.  Commis- 
sions flowed  in  upon  him,  new  creations 
from  his  hand  followed  in  quick  succes- 
sion, and  his  unsurpassed  abilities  as  a 
sculptor  became  everywhere  recognized. 
In  1819  he  returned  to  Denmark,  and 
his  journey  through  Germany  and  his 
reception  at  Copenhagen  resembled  a 
triumph.  He  died  March  24, 1844.  The 
Thorwaldsen  museum,  opened  in  1846, 
contains  about  300  of  the  works  of  the 
sculptor.  Thorwaldsen  was  eminently 
successful  in  his  subjects  chosen  from 
Greek  mythology,  such  as  his  Mars, 
Mercury,  Venus,  etc.  His  religious 
works,  among  which  are  a colossal  group 
of  Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles,  St. 
John  Preaching  in  the  Wilderness,  and 
statues  of  the  four  great  prophets,  dis- 
play almost  superior  grandeur  of  con- 
ception. Chief  among  his  other  works 
are  his  statues  of  Galileo  and  Copernicus, 
and  the  colossal  lion  near  Lucerne,  in 
memory  of  the  Swiss  guards  who  fell 
in  defense  of  the  Tuileries. 

THOU  (to),  Jacques  Auguste  de,  a 
French  statesman  and  historian,  born  in 
1553,  died  in  1617.  Henry  IV.  employed 
him  in  several  important  negotiations, 
and  in  1593  made  him  his  principal  li- 
brarian. In  1595  he  succeeded  his  uncle 
as  chief-justice,  and  during  the  regency 
of  Mary  de’  Medici  he  was  one  of  the 
directors-general  of  finance.  His  great- 
est literary  labor  was  the  composition  in 
Latin  of  a voluminous  History  of  his 
own  Times  (Historia  sui  Temporis), 


THOUSAND  AND  ONE  NIGHTS 


THULE 


comprising  the  events  from  1545  to  1607, 
of  which  the  first  part  was  made  public 
in  1604.  To  this  work,  which  is  remark- 
able for  it.s  impartiality,  he  subjoined  in- 
teresting Memoirs  of  Ins  own  Life. 

THOUSAND  AND  ONE  NIGHTS.  See 
Arabian  Nights. 

THOUSAND  ISLANDS,  a group  of 
small  islands  numbering  about  1800  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  immediately  below 
Lake  Ontario.  They  partly  belong  to 
Canada  and  partly  to  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  have  become  a popular  sum- 
mer resort. 

THRACE,  or  THRACIA,  a name  ap- 
plied at  an  early  period  among  the 
Greeks  to  a region  lying  north  of  Mace- 
donia. By  the  Romans  this  country  was 
regarded  as  divided  into  two  parts  by 
the  Haemus  (or  Balkan),  the  northern 
of  which  was  called  Moesia  and  the 
southern  Thrace.  Abdera,  the  birth- 
place of  Democritus  and  Protagoras; 
Sestos,  on  the  Hellespont,  celebrated  in 
the  story  of  Hero  and  Leander;  and 
Byzantium,  on  the  peninsula  on  which 
Constantinople  now  stands,  were  the 
places  the  most  worthy  of  note. 

THRESHING-MACHINE,  a machine 
for  separating  grain  from  the  straw,  and 
in  which  the  moving  power  is  that  of 
horses,  oxen,  wind,  water,  or  steam. 
The  threshing-machine  was  invented  in 
Scotland  in  1758  by  Michael  Stirling, 
a farmer  in  Perthshire ; it  was  afterward 
improved  by  Andrew  Meilde,  a mill- 
wright in  East  Lothian,  about  the  year 
1776.  Since  that  time  it  has  undergone 
various  improvements.  The  principal 
feature  of  the  threshing-machine  as  at 
present  constructed,  is  the  three  rotary 
drums  or  cylinders,  which  receive  mo- 
tion from  a water-wheel,  or  from  hope 
or  steam  power.  The  first  drurn  which 
comes  into  operation  has  projecting  ribs 
called  beaters  on  its  outer  surface, 
parallel  to  its  axis.  This  drum  receives 
a very  rapid  motion  on  its  axis.  The 
sheaves  of  corn  are  first  spread  out  on  a 
slanting  table,  and  are  then  drawn  in 
with  the  ears  foremost  between  two 
feeding  rollers  with  parallel  grooves. 
The  beaters  of  the  drum  act  on  the  straw 
as  it  passes  through  the  rollers,  and  beat 
out  the  grain.  The  threshed  straw_  is 
then  carried  forward  to  two  successive 
drums  or  shakers,  which,  being  armed 
with  numerous  spikes,  lift  up  and  shake 
the  straw  so  as  to  free  it  entirely  from 
the  loose  grain  lodged  in  it.  The  grain 
is  made  to  pass  through  a grated  floor, 
and  is  generally  conducted  to  a winnow- 
ing-machine  connected  by  gearing  with 
the  threshing-machine  itself,  by  which 
means  the  grain  is  separated  from  the 
chaff.  Improved  machines  on  the  same 
principle,  many  of  them  portable,  are 
extensively  used  in  England  and 
America,  those  of  the  latter  country 
being  in  particular  very  light  and  effect- 
ive. The  portable  steam  threshing- 
machine  now  common  in  England  and 
in  many  parts  of  Scotland  has  no  feed- 
ing-rollers, the  corn  being  fed  direct  to 
the  first  drum,  which  revolves  at  a very 
high  speed  and  separates  the  grain  by 
rubbing  against  a grating  fitted  around 
the  drum  rather  than  by  direct  beating. 
It  gets  through  far  more  work  than  the 
ordinary  stationary  mill.  With  a port- 
able engine  the  machine  can  be  moved  ' 


from  field  to  field,  and  also  from  farm 
to  farm,  thus  being  capable  of  perform- 
ing the  threshing-work  of  a wide  district 
for  the  whole  season. 

THREAD,  a slender  cord  consisting 
of  two  or  more  yarns,  or  simple  spun 
strands,  firmly  united  together  by  twist- 
ing. The  twisting  together  of  the  differ- 
ent strands  or  yarns  to  form  a thread  is 
effected  by  a thread-frame  or  doubling 
and  twisting  machine,  which  accom- 
plishes the  purpose  by  the  action  of 
bobbins  and  flyers.  Thread  is  used  in 
some  species  of  weaving,  but  its  princi- 
pal use  is  for  sewing.  The  manufacture 
of  sewing  thread  in  the  United  Kingdom 
both  for  home  use  and  export  is  very  ex- 
tensive. As  a general  rule  the  thread 
manufactured  for  home  use,  and  for 
export  to  the  United  States,  is  much 
superior  to  that  made  for  other  markets, 
which  is  of  an  inferior  quality.  The 
thread  made  for  home  use  is  commonly 
known  as  six-cord,  and  that  for  export 
as  three-cord  thread.  The  chief  seat  of 
the  cotton  thread  manufacture  in  Scot- 
land is  Paisley,  in  England  Manchester. 
Linen  thread  is  manufactured  largely  in 
Ireland. 

THREAD-WORMS,  the  name  for 
thread-like  intestinal  worms  which  occur 
in  great  numbers  in  the  rectum  of  chil- 
dren particularly. 

THREE-COLOR  PROCESS,  a photo- 
mechanical process  of  reproducing  in 
color.  The  process  consists  in  making 
three  photograph  negatives  of  the  same 
subject  through  three  different  color 
screens  representing  the  three  primary 
colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue.  The  accu- 
racy of  the  finished  picture  depends,  to 
a great  extent,  upon  the  exactness  of 
the  register.  The  process  is  largely 
mechanical  and  the  result  is  only  approx- 
imately correct,  though  increased  care 
is  being  taken  in  the  manipulation  and 
better  results  are  constantly  obtained. 

THRESHER-SHARK,  also  called  the 
Fox-shark,  a genus  of  sharks  containing 
but  one  known  species,  with  a short 
conical  snout,  and  less  formidable  jaws 
than  the  white  shark.  The  upper  lobe 
of  the  tail  fin  is  very  elongated,  being 
nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  rest  of  the 
body,  and  is  used  as  a weapon  to  strike 
with.  Tail  included,  the  thresher  attains 
a length  of  13  feet.  It  inhabits  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  is 
sometimes  met  with  on  the  coasts  of 
Britain.  See  Shark. 

THROAT,  the  anterior  part  of  the 
neck  of  an  animal,  in  which  are  the 
cesophagus  and  windpipe,  or  the  pas- 
sages for  the  food  and  breath.  See 
Larynx,  Oesophagus,  Trachea,  Diph- 
theria, Croup,  ete. 

THRUSH,  the  name  applied  popu- 
larly to  several  insessorial  birds.  The 
true  thrushes  fonn  a family  of  denti- 
rostral  passerine  birds,  including  the 
song-thrush  or  throstle,  the  missel- 
thrush,  the  redwing,  etc.  They  feed 
upon  berries,  small  molluscs,  worms, 
etc.  Their  iiabits  are  mostly  solitary,  but 
several  species  are  gregarious  in  winter. 
They  are  celebrated  on  account  of  their 
powers  of  song;  and  are  widely  diffused, 
being  found  in  all  the  quarters  of  the 
globe.  The  song-thrush  is  especially 
distin^ished  by  its  sweet  song.  The 
color  is  a brown  of  different  shades  on ' 


the  upper  parts,  the  chin  being  white,  M 
and  the  belly  and  under  tail-coverts  a ■ 
grayish-white.  Its  average  length  is  9 ^ 
inches.  The  eggs,  numbering  five,  are  4 
blue,  spotted  with  black.  The  nest  is  ^ 


Red-winged  thrush. 


large  and  basin-shaped,  composed  of 
roots,  mosses,  etc.,  smoothly  plastered 
inside  with  clay.  The  thrush  family 
also  includes  the  fieldfare,  redwing,  and 
ring-ouzel. 

THRUSH,  a disease  common  in  in- 
fants who  are  ill  fed;  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  an  abscess  in  the  feet  of 
horses  and  some  other  animals. 

THUCYDIDES  (tho-sid'i-dez),  the 
greatest  of  all  the  Greek  historians,  was 
born  in  Attica  about  471  b.c.  He  was 
for  a time  a prominent  commander 
during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  which 
forms  the  subject  of  his  great  work. 
For  many  years  he  suffered  exile  (being 
accused  of  remissness  in  duty);  but 
appears  to  have  returned  to  Athens 
the  year  following  the  termination  of 
the  war,  namely,  in  b.c.  403.  He  is  said 
to  have  met  a violent  death,  probably 
a year  or  two  later,  but  at  what  exact 
time  and  whether  in  Thrace  or  Athens, 
is  not  known.  His  history  consists  of 
eight  books,  the  last  of  which  differs 
from  the  others  in  containing  none  of 
the  political  speeches  which  form  so 
striking  a feature  of  the  rest,  and  is  also 
generally  supposed  to  be  inferior  to 
them  in  style.  As  a historian  Thucy- 
dides was  painstaking  and  indefatigable 
in  collecting  and  sifting  facts,  brief  and 
terse  in  narrating  them.  Ilis  style  is  full 
of  dignity  and  replete  with  condensed 
meaning.  He  is  unsurpassed  in  the  power 
of  analysing  character  and  action,  of 
tracing  events  to  their  causes,  of  appre- 
ciating the  motives  of  individual  agents 
and  of  combining  in  their  just  relations 
all  the  threads  of  the  tangled  web  of 
history. 

THUGS,  the  name  applied  to  a secret  . 
and  once  widely-spread  society  among 
the  Hindus,  whose  occupation  was  to 
waylay,  assassinate,  and  rob  all  who 
did  not  belong  to  their  own  caste.  This 
they  did,  not  so  much  from  cupidity  as 
from  religious  motive,  such  actions  be- 
ing  deemed  acceptable  to  their  goddess 
KMt. 

THULE  (tho'le),  the  name  given  by 
the  ancients  to  the  most  northern  coun- 
try with  which  they  were  acquainted. 
According  to  Pytheas  it  was  an  island 
six  days’  voyage  to  the  north  of  Britan- 
nia, and  accordingly  it  has  often  been 
identified  with  Iceland.  Some  have 
imagined  it  to  be  one  of  the  Scotch 
islands,  others  the  coast  of  Norway  -j 


THU  MB -SCREW 


TIBET 


THUMB-SCREW,  a former  instru- 
ment of  torture  for  compressing  the 
thumbs.  It  was  employed  in  various 


Scotch  thumb  screw,  time  of  Charles  I. 

countries,  Scotland  in  particular.  Called 
also  Thumbkins. 

THUNDER.  See  liightning. 

THUNDER-FISH,  a species  of  fish  of 
the  family  Siluridae,  found  in  the  Nile, 
which,  like  the  torpedo,  can  give  an 
electric  shock. 

THURGAU  (tur'gou),  a canton  in  the 
northeast  of  Switzerland,  bounded 
mainly  by  the  Lake  of  Constance  and 
the  cantons  of  Zurich  and  St.  Gall;  area, 
381  sq.  miles;  capital,  Frauenfeld.  The 
whole  canton  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Rhine,  to  which  its  waters  are  con- 
veyed chiefly  by  the  Thur  and  its 
affluents,  and  partly  also  by  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  including  the  Untersee. 
Pop.  113,110. 

THURIBLE,  a kind  of  censer  of  metal, 
sometimes  of  gold  or  silver,  but  more 
commonly  of  brass  or  fatten,  in  the 
shape  of  a covered  vase  or  cup,  per- 


Thurible. 


forated  so  as  to  allow  the  fumes  of  burn- 
ing incense  to  escape.  It  has  chains  at- 
tached, by  which  it  is  held  and  swung 
at  high  mass,  vespers,  and  other  solemn 
offices  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 

THURINGERWALD  (tii'ring-er-vMt), 
or  FOREST  OF  THURINGIA,  a moun- 
tain chain  in  the  center  of  Germany, 
stretching  southeast  to  northwest  for 
about  60  miles.  Its  culminating  points 
are  the  Beerberg  and  the  Schneekopf, 
which  have  each  a height  of  about  3220 
feet.  The  mountains  are  well  covered 
with  wood,  chiefly  pine.  The  minerals 
include  iron,  copper,  lead,  cobalt,  etc. 

THURINGIA  (tho-rin'ji-a),  a region 
of  Central  Germany  situated  between 
the  Harz  mountains,  the  Saale,  the 
Thuringerwald,  and  the  Werra,  and 
comprising  great  part  of  Saxe-Weimar, 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  other  small 
adjoining  states. 

THUR'MAN,  Allen  Granbery,  Ameri- 
can political  leader,  was  born  in  Lynch- 
burg, Va.,  in  1813,  and  in  1819  was  taken 
by  his  parents  to  Chillicothe,  Ohio. 
In  1845-47  he  was  a democratic  mem- 


ber of  congress,  then  resumed  his  law 
practice,  and  from  1851  to  1856  was  on 
the  bench  of  the  Ohio  supreme  court, 
after  December,  1854,  as  chief  justice. 
In  1867  he  was  the  democratic  candi- 
date for  governor  of  Ohio,  but  was  de- 
feated by  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  From 
1869  to  1881  he  was  a member  of  the 
United  States  senate.  In  the  forty- 
sixth  congress  he  was  elected  president 
pro  tempore  of  the  senate.  In  1881  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Garfield  a 
member  of  the  International  monetary 
conference  at  Paris.  In  1888  he  was 
nominated  by  acclamation  for  Vice- 
president  on  the  Cleveland  ticket,  which 
was  defeated  by  Harrison  and  Morton. 
He  died  in  1895. 

THURSDAY  (that  is,  “Thor’s  day”), 
the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from 
the  old  Teutonic  god  of  thunder,  Thor. 
See  Thor. 

THWAITES,  Reuben  Gold,  American 
historical  writer,  was  born  in  Dorches- 
ter, Mass.,  in  1853.  In  1866  he  removed 
to  Wisconsin.  From  1876  to  1886  he 
was  managing  editor  of  The  Wisconsin 
State  Journal,  at  Madison.  In  1886  he 
was  elected  secretary  of  the  State  His- 
torical Society  of  Wisconsin,  and  editor 
of  the  society’s  Collections.  He  edited 
the  Wisconsin  Historical  Collections, 
Chronicles  of  Border  Warfare,  and  The 
Jesuit  Relations  (73  vols.),  his  work  on 
the  last  being  one  of  the  most  careful 
and  scholarly  pieces  of  historical  editing 
ever  done  in  America.  He  also  pub- 
lished: Historic  Waterways,  The  Story 
of  Wisconsin,  The  Colonies,  1492-1750; 
Stories  of  tlie  Badger  State,  Daniel 
Boone  and  P^re  Marquette,  and  George 
Rogers  Clark. 

THYESTES  (thi-es'tez),  in  Greek  my- 
thology, son  of  Pelops  and  Hippodamia, 
and  grandson  of  Tantalus.  Having  se- 
duced the  wife  of  his  brother  Atreus,  the 
latter,  in  revenge,  served  up  to  him  the 
body  of  his  own  son  at  a feast. 

THYME  (tim),  a small  plant,  a na- 
tive of  the  south  of  Europe.  It  has  a 
strong  aromatic  odor,  and  yields  an  es- 
sential oil  which  is  used  for  flavoring 
purposes. 

THYMUS  GLAND,  a ductless  tem- 
porary organ  situated  in  the  middle  line 
of  the  body.  After  the  end  of  the  second 
year  of  life  it  decreases  in  size,  and  al- 
most or  wholly  disappears  at  puberty. 
It  is  covered  in  front  by  the  breast-bone, 
lies  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  wind- 
pipe. Its  functions  are  still  undeter- 
mined, 

THYROID  CARTILAGE.  See  Larynx. 

THYROID  GLAND,  a ductless  struc- 
ture in  man  which  covers  the  anterior 
and  inferior  part  of  the  larynx  and  the 
first  rings  of  the  windpipe.  It  is  of  a 
reddish  color,  and  is  more  developed  in 
women  than  in  men.  It  may  become 
abnormally  enlarged,  as  in  goitre.  Its 
use  is  not  at  all  clear,  but  it  probably 
exerts  some  influence  on  the  blood  and 
circulation,  especially  in  childhood. 

THYRSUS,  among  the  Greeks,  a wand 
or  spear  wreathed  with  ivy  leaves,  and 
with  a pine-cone  at  the  top,  carried  by 
the  followers  of  Bacchus  as  a symbol  of 
devotion.  In  ancient  representations  it 
appears  in  various  forms. 

TIA'RA,  originally  the  cap  of  the 
Persian  kings.  The  tiara  of  the  pope  is 


a high  cap,  encircled  by  three  coronets 
with  an  orb  and  cross  of  gold  at  the  top, 
and  on  two  sides  of  it  a chain  of  precious 
stones.  Themitre  alone  was  first  adopted 
by  Damasus  II.  in  1048.  It  afterward 
had  a plain  circlet  of  gold  put  around  it. 
It  was  surmounted  by  a coronet  by 
Boniface  VIII.  The  second  coronet  was 
added  by  Benedict  XII.,  the  third 
coronet  by  L^rban  V. 


Various  forms  of  thyrsus,  from  ancient  vases. 

TI'BER,  a celebrated  river  of  Italy, 
which  rises  in  the  Apennines,  in  Tus- 
cany, and,  after  a general  southerly 
course  of  about  240  miles,  falls  into  the 
Mediterranean  by  two  mouths.  It  tra- 
verses the  city  of  Rome,  here  forming 
the  island  anciently  called  Insula 
Tiberina.  About  ninety  miles  of  its 
course  are  navigable  for  small  vessels; 
those  of  about  140  tons  burden  reach 
Rome. 

TIBE'RIAS.  See  Galilee,  Sea  of. 

TIBERIUS,  in  full,  Tiberius  Claudius 
Nero  Caesar,  a Roman  emperor,  born 
B.c.  42,  was  the  son  of  Tiberius  Claudius, 
of  the  ancient  Claudian  family,  and  of 
Livia  Drusilla,  afterward  the  wife  of  the 
emperor  Augustus.  Tiberius  became 
consul  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  and 
was  subsequently  adopted  by  Augustus 
as  his  heir.  In  a.d.  14  he  succeeded  to 
the  throne  without  opposition.  Tacitus 
records  the  events  of  the  reign,  includ- 
ing the  suspicious  death  of  Germanicus, 
the  detestable  administration  of  Sejanus, 
the  poisoning  by  that  minister  of 
Drusus,  the  emperor’s  son,  and  the  in- 
famous and  dissolute  retirement  of 
Tiberius  (a.d.  27)  to  the  Isle  of  Capreae, 
in  the  Bay  of  Naples,  never  to  return  to 
Rome.  The  death  of  Livia  in  a.d.  29 
removed  the  only  restraint  upon  his 
actions,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
widow  and  family  of  Germanicus  fol- 
lowed. Sejanus,  aspiring  to  the  throne, 
fell  a victim  to  his  ambition  in  the  year 
31 ; and  many  innocent  persons  were 
destroyed  owing  to  the  suspicion  and 
cruelty  of  Tiberius,  which  now  exceeded 
all  limits.  He  died  in  March,  37. 

TIBET',  or  THIBET',  a country 
occupying  the  south  portion  of  the  great 
plateau  of  Central  Asia,  lying  between 
ion.  73°  and  101°  e.,  and  lat.  27°  and  36° 
n.,  and  extending  east  and  west  from 
Cashmere  and  the  Karakorum  range 
to  the  frontiers  of  China;  area  about 
700,000  sq.  miles.  Its  plains  average 
above  10,000  feet  in  height,  and  many 
of  its  mountains  have  twice  that  alti- 
tude. In  Tibet  nearly  all  the  great  rivers 
of  South  and  East  Asia  take  their  rise 
(Indus,  Brahmaputra,  Hoang-ho,  Y'ang- 


TICINO 


TlECK 


tse-kiang,  etc.),  and  there  are  numerous 
salt  and  fresh-water  lakes,  situated  from 
13,800  to  15,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  The  climate  is  characterized  by 
the  excessive  dryness  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  severity  of  the  winter.  Tibet 
does  a large  trade  with  China,  exchang- 
ing gold-dust,  incense,  idols,  and  Euro- 
pean and  Indian  goods,  for  tea,  silks, 
and  other  Chinese  produce.  The  capital 
is  Lhassa.  The  form  of  government  is  a 
hierarchy.  The  religion  is  Buddhism  in  a 
form  known  as  Lamaism,  of  which 
Tibet  is  the  principal  seat.  The  lamas 
or  priests  form  a large  proportion  of  the 
population,  and  live  in  monasteries; 
the  two  grandlamas  being  regarded  as 
the  religious  and  political  heads  of  the 
state.  Remains  of  an  earlier  creed  exist 
in  the  Boupo,  a religion  evolved  from 
Shamanism,  but  much  influenced  by 
Buddhism,  and  frequently  confounded 
with  the  old  school  of  the  Buddhists. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  an  amiable  dis- 
position, but  much  averse  to  inter- 
course with  foreigners,  few  of  whom 
have  been  able  to  gain  admittance  to 
the  country.  Their  manners  and  mode 
of  life  are  rude.  Polyandry  is  a com- 
mon custom.  The  language  is  allied  to 
Chinese,  and  has  been  written  and  used 
in  literature  for  1200  years.  Tibet  was 
governed  by  its  own  princes  till  the 
commencement  of  the  18th  century,  but 
since  1720  it  has  been  a dependency  of 
China.  A Chinese  functionary  is  always 
stationed  at  the  residence  of  the  grand 
lama,  and  a Chinese  governor  with  a 
military  force  is  stationed  in  each  of  the 
principal  towns.  Pop.  about  5,000,000. 

TICINO,  a canton  in  the  south  of 
Switzerland;  area,  1088  sq.  miles.  The 
northern  and  greater  part  of  this  canton 
is  an  elevated  and  mountainous  region, 
the  Spliigen,  St.  Bernardin,  and  Mount 
St.  Gothard  forming  its  northern  bound- 
ary. Pop.  142,719. 

TICKNOR,  George,  American  histor- 
ian, born  at  Boston  in  1791,  died  there 
in  1871.  In  1849  he  published  a History 
of  Spanish  Literature  (three  vols  8vo., 
New  York),  corrected  and  enlarged 
editions  being  subsequently  published. 
It  was  at  once  recognized  by  scholars  as 
a work  of  value,  and  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Spanish  and  German.  After 
some  works  of  minor  interest  he  pro- 
duced in  1863  a Memoir  of  Prescott, 
the  historian,  with  whom  he  had  main- 
tained a close  friendship. 

TICKS,  a family  of  parasitic  animals, 
possessing  oval  or  rounded  bodies,  and 
mouths,  in  the  form  of  suckers,  by  which 
they  attach  themselves  to  dogs,  sheep, 
oxen,  and  other  mammals.  Birds  and 
reptiles  are  also  annoyed  by  the  attacks 
of  certain  species. 

TIDES,  the  rising  and  falling  of  the 
water  of  the  sea,  which  occurs  periodi- 
cally, as  observed  at  places  on  the  coasts. 
The  tide  appears  as  a general  wave  of 
water,  which  gradually  elevates  itself 
to  a certain  height,  then  as  gradually 
sinks  till  its  surface  is  about  as  much 
below  the  medium  level  as  it  was  be- 
fore above  it.  From  that  time  the  wave 
again  begins  to  rise ; and  this  recipro- 
cating motion  of  the  waters  continues 
constantly,  with  certain  variations  in 
the  height  and  in  the  times  of  attaining 
the  greatest  degree  of  height  and  of 


depression.  The  alternate  rising  and 
falling  of  the  tide-wave  are  observed 
to  take  place  generally  twice  in  the 
course  of  a lunar  day,  or  of  24  hours 
49  minutes  of  mean  solar  time,  on  most 
of  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  bays,  firths,  and 
rivers  which  communicate  freely  with  it. 
The  tides  form  what  are  called  a flood 
and  an  ebb,  a high  and  low  water.  The 
whole  interval  between  high  and  low 
water  is  often  called  a tide;  the  water 
is  said  to  flow  and  to  ebb ; and  the  rising 
is  called  the  flood-tide  and  the  fall- 
ing the  ebb-tide.  The  rise  or  fall  of  the 
waters,  in  regard  to  elevation  or  de- 
pression, is  exceedingly  different  at 
different  places,  and  is  also  variable 
everywhere.  The  interval  between  two 
succeeding  high-waters  is  also  variable. 
It  is  shortest  about  new  and  full  moon. 


diminishing  the  lunar  tide,  according  as 
the  sun’s  place  in  the  heavens  coincides 
with  the  line  of  the  moon’s  attraction, 
or  the  reverse.  It  is  this  difference  which 
produces  what  are  known  as  spring 
tides  and  neap  tides.  Spring  tides  occur 
at  new  and  full  moon,  and  are  the  result 
of  the  gravitating  influence  of  both  sun 
and  moon;  neap  tides  occur  when  the 
moon  is  in  her  quarters,  and  are  not  so 
high  as  the  spring  tides,  the  lunar 
influence  being  lessened  by  the  sun’s 
force  acting  in  a direction  at  right  angles 
to  it.  The  accompanying  figures  illus- 
trate the  theory  of  the  tides,  e being  the 
earth,  m the  moon,  s the  sun,  w,  Wj  the 
water  raised  up  by  attraction  on  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  earth.  Fig.  1 shows 
spring  tide  at  new  moon,  Fig.  2 spring 
tide  at  full  moon,  the  low  tides  being  at 
c and  d.  Fig.  3 illustrates  the  neap  tides. 


being  then  about  12  hours  19  minutes; 
and  about  the  time  of  the  moon’s  quad- 
ratures it  is  12  hours  30  minutes.  But 
these  intervals  are  somewhat  different 
at  different  places.  Tides  are  caused  by 
the  attraction  which  the  sun  and  moon 
exert  over  the  water  of  the  earth.  The 
moon  is  the  nearest  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  to  the  earth,  and  the  mobile 
nature  of  water  leads  it  to  yield  readily 
to  the  attractive  influence.  Those  parts 
of  the  waters  directly  under  the  moon’s 
vertical  path  in  the  heavens  are  drawn 
out  toward  the  moon.  At  the  same 
time  the  moon  attracts  the  bulk  of  the 
earth,  and,  as  it  were,  pulls  the  earth 
away  from  the  water  on  the  surface 
furthest  from  it,  so  that  here  also  the 
water  is  raised,  although  not  quite  so 
much  as  on  the  nearer  side.  The  waters 
being  thus  heaped  up  at  the  same  time 
on  these  two  opposite  parts  of  the  earth, 
and  the  waters  situated  half-way  be- 
tween them  being  thus  necessarily  de- 
pressed, two  high  and  two  low  tides 
occur  in  the  period  of  a little  more  than 
one  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis. 
The  sun’s  influence  upon  the  tides  is 
evidenced  in  its  either  increasing  or 


a,  a2  being  small  tides  caused  by  the  sun 
alone.  The  interference  of  coasts  and 
irregularities  in  the  ocean  beds  cause  the 
great  variations  as  to  time  and  range 
in  the  actual  tides  observed  at  different 
places.  In  some  places,  as  in  the  Ger- 
man ocean  at  a point  north  of  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  a high  tide  meets  low  water, 
and  thus  maintains  perpetual  mean  tide. 
In  the  case  cited  high  water  transmitted 
through  the  Straits  of  Dover  encounters 
low  water  transmitted  round  the  north 
of  Scotland,  and  vice  versa.  The  inter- 
val of  time  at  any  place  between  noon 
and  the  time  of  high  water  on  the  day 
of  full  or  new  moon  is  called  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  port. 

TIECK  (tek),  Ludwig,  German  writer, 
born  at  Berlin  in  1773.  At  Jena  in  1799- 
1800  he  entered  on  friendly  relations 
with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis,  Brentano, 
and  others,  and  through  this  association 
arose  what  has  been  dominated  as  “the 
Romantic  School  of  Germany.”  In  1817 
he  visited  England,  where  he  collected 
material  for  his  Shakespeare;  and  on  his 
return  resided  at  Ziebingen  till  1819, 
when  he  removed  to  Dresden.  From 
this  period  his  writings,  as  exemplified 


TIENTSIN 


TILDEN 


^ in  his  Tales,  bear  the  true  stamp  of 
[ genius.  These  tales  were  ultimately 
published  complete  in  twelve  volumes 
■ (Berlin,  1853),  the  principal  being  Dich- 
terleben  (A  Poet’s  Life — Shakespeare); 
Der  Tod  des  Poeten  (The  Poet’s  Death — 
Camoens);  the  Witches’  Sabbath,  and 
Aufriihr  in  den  Cevennen  (Revolt  in  the 
Cevcnnes),  an  incomplete  work.  In  1826 
he  jmblished  his  Dramaturgische  Bliitter 
(two  vols.,  Breslau).  His  study  of  Shake- 
speare resulted  in  Shakespeare’s  Vor- 
schule  (two  vols.,  Leipzig,  1823-29);  and 
the  continuation  of  the  German  trans- 
lation of  Shakespeare  commenced  by 
Schlegel.  His  last  story  of  importance 
was  Vittoria  Accorombona  (1840).  He 
died  at  Berlin  on  the  28th  April,  1853. 

TIENTSIN',  a town  in  the  north  of 
China,  and  the  river-port  of  Pekin,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  the  Pei-ho 
river.  This  river  is  only  navigable  by 
native  craft,  and  large  vessels  have  their 
cargoes  transhipped  outside  the  mouth 
of  the  Taku'  roadstead.  From  October 
to  February  the  river  is  frozen,  but  in 
tlie  open  season  a large  import  trade  is 
carried  on,  chiefly  in  European  goods 
(Tientsin  being  one  of  the  treaty  ports). 
The  principal  imports  are  cotton,  sugar, 
opium,  paper,  and  tea;  exports,  dates, 
cotton,  camel’s  wool,  and  coal.  The 
Taku  forts  were  taken  by  the  British 
and  French  in  1860,  and  the  capture  of 
Pekin  followed.  During  the  Boxer  up- 
rising in  1900  the  foreign  settlement 
suffered  from  the  besieging  Boxers  and 
the  city  from  the  relieving  forces  of  the 
allies.  Pop.  950,000. 

TIER'RA  (or  Terra)  DEL  FUE'GO 
(“Land  of  Fire’’),  a large  group  of  is- 
lands at  the  southern  extremity  of 
South  America,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
It  consists  of  one  large  island  and  numer- 
ous smaller  islands,  with  a total  area 
of  about  32,000  sq.  miles.  The  eastern 
part  of  the  group  belongs  to  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  the  western  part  to  Chile. 
These  islands  consist  chiefly  of  moun- 
tains covered  with  perpetual  ice  and 
snow,  or  clothed  with  stunted  forests, 
mainly  of  evergreen-beech.  Tierra  del 
Fuego  was  discovered  by  Magalhaens 
in  1520,  and  named  “Land  of  Fire’’  from 
the  numerous  fires  he  saw  on  its  coasts 
during  the  night.  Pop.  about  2,100. 

TIERS-ETAT  (ti-ar-za-ta;  “third  es- 
tate’’), the  name  given  in  the  ancient 
French  monarchy  to  the  third  order  of 
the  nation,  which,  together  with  the 
nobility  and  clergy,  formed  the  4tats 
gf-ncraux  (states-general).  It  consisted 
of  the  deputies  of  the  bourgeoisie,  that 
is,  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and 
communes  who  did  not  belong  to  either 
of  the  other  two  estates.  In  1789  the 
states-general,  or  rather  the  tiers-6tat 
by  itself,  assumed  the  name  of  the  Na- 
tional assembly. 

TIFLIS,  capital  of  a government  of 
the  same  name  and  of  Russian  Caucasia, 
is  situated  on  the  river  Kur,  500  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Black  sea.  Pop. 
160,645. — The  government  has  an  area 
of  15,000  sq.  miles;  is  very  mountainous; 
produces  cereals,  fruits,  etc.,  in  the 
valleys,  and  has  immense  forests  of  ex- 
cellent timber.  Pop.  1,040,943. 

TIFFANY,  Charles  Louis,  American 
,•  merchant,  was  born  at  Killingly,  Conn., 


in  1812,  and  removed  to  New  York  City 
in  1837,  and  ^barked  in  the  jewelry 
business.  In  1850  he  made  a large  for- 
tune in  buying  diamonds  when  they  had 
fallen  50  per  cent  in  value  owing  to 
the  general  revolutionary  movement 
throughout  Europe.  During  the  civil 
war  Mr.  Tiffany  placed  his  store  and 
resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  govern- 
ment and  it  became  for  a time  one  of  the 
principal  depots  of  military  supplies. Mr. 
Tiffany  was  made  a member  of  the 
French  Legion  of  Honor  in  1878  and 
received  at  various  times  decorations 
from  other  foreign  rulers.  He  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  and  did 
much  to  encourage  and  promote  the 
study  and  knowledge  of  art  in  America. 
He  died  in  1902. 

TIF'FIN,  the  county-seat  of  Seneca 
CO.,  Ohio,  40  miles  southeast  of  Toledo- 
on  the  Sandusky  river,  here  spanned 
by  several  bridges,  and  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  and 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and 
St.  Louis  railroads.  Pop.  13,400. 

TIGER,  a well-knowm  carnivorous 
animal,  possessing  in  common  with  the 
lion,  leopard,  etc.,  five  toes  on  the  front 
feet  and  four  on  the  hinder  feet,  all  the 
toes  being  furnished  with  strong  re- 
tractile claws.  The  tiger  is  about  the 
height  of  the  lion,  but  the  body  is  longer 
and  the  head  rounder.  It  is  of  a bright 
fawn-color  above,  a pure  white  below, 
irregularly  crossed  with  black  stripes. 
The  tiger  attains  its  full  development  in 
India,  the  name  of  “Bengal  tiger’’  being 
generally  used  as  synonymous  with  those 


Royal  tiger. 

specimens  which  appear  as  the  typical 
and  most  powerful  representatives  of 
the  species.  The  tiger  also  occurs  in  Java 
and  Sumatra.  In  habits  it  is  far  more 
active  and  agile  than  the  lion,  and  ex- 
hibits a large  amount  of  fierce  cunning. 
It  generally  selects  the  neighborhood  of 
water-courses  as  its  habitat,  and  springs 
upon  the  animals  that  approach  to 
drink.  “Man-eaters”  are  tigers  which 
have  acquired  a special  liking  for  human 
prey.  The  natives  destroy  tigers  by 
traps,  pits,  poisoned  arrows,  and  other 
means.  Tiger-hunting  is  a favorite 
‘Indian  sport. 


TIGER-BEETLE,  a species  of  coleop- 
terous insects  w-hich  are  swift  and  active 
in  their  movements,  and  prey  upon 
other  insects. 

TIGER-FLOWER,  a Mexican  bulbous 
plant  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens 
on  account  of  the  magnificence  of  its 
flowers.  The  stem  is  about  1 foot  in 
height,  with  sword-shaped  leaves.  The 
flowers  are  large,  of  a singular  form, 
and  very  evanescent.  The  petals  are 
of  a fine  orange-red  toward  the  ex- 
tremity; whitish  or  yellowish  and  beau- 
tifully spotted  at  the  base. 

TIGER-LILY,  a native  of  China,  com- 
mon in  gardens,  having  scarlet  flow-ers 
turned  downward,  the  perianth  being 


reflexed.  It  is  remarkable  for  having 
axillary  buds  on  the  stem.  The  bulbs  are 
eaten  in  China  and  Japan. 

TIGER-MOTH,  a genus  of  insects, 
the  caterpillars  of  which  are  well  known 
under  the  popular  name  of  “woolly 
bears.”  The  moth  is  colored  red  and 
brown.  The  larvaj  feed  on  dead-nettles. 

TIGRIS,  a river  in  Western  Asia, 
having  its  principal  source  in  the  Turk- 
ish province  of  Diarbekir,  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  Anti-Taurus,  a few 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  Euphrates.  It 
flows  generally  southeast,  passes  Diar- 
bekir, Mosul,  and  Bagdad,  and  joins 
the  Euphrates  somewhat  more  than  100 
miles  from  its  embouchure  in  the  Persian 
gulf,  after  a course  of  1100  miles,  the 
united  stream  being  known  as  the  Shatt- 
el-Arab.  Large  rafts,  supported  by  in- 
flated skins,  are  much  in  use  for  the 
transport  of  goods.  Between  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates  lies  the  celebrated 
region  Mesopotamia. 

TILDEN,  Samuel  Jones,  American 
statesman,  -was  born  at  New  Lebanon, 
N.  Y.,  in  1814.  He  became  chairman  of 
the  democratic  state  committee  in  1866. 
The  Tweed  “ring”  in  New  York  City 
dreaded  him,  and  in  1869  attempted  to 
remove  him  from  his  chairmanship. 
Tilden  then  became  the  soul  of  the  legal 
attacks  upon  the  ring  and  worked  for 
the  removal  of  the  corrupt  judges  who 
were  their  tools.  In  1874  he  was  elected 
governor  of  the  state  by  the  democrats. 
In  1876  the  national  democratic  con- 
vention nominated  him  for  the  presi- 
dency, the  republicans  nominating  gov- 
ernor Hayes  of  Ohio.  The  result  was 
the  disputed  election  of  1876-77,  when 
each  party  secured  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  electors  outside  of  the  three 
southern  states  of  Florida,  South  Caro- 
lina, and  Louisiana.  In  this  emergency 
Tilden  consented  to  the  appointment 
of  an  extra-constitutional  body,  an 
“electoral  commission.”  to  decide  dis- 
puted cases,  the  decisions  of  which  were 
to  hold  good  unless  reversed  by  con- 
current vote  of  the  two  houses.  Tlie 
commission  decided  all  the  cases  in 


TILES 


TIMOTHY 


favor  of  the  republican  candidates,  and 
Tilden  was  defeated.  He  continued  in 
retirement  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Greystone,  N.  Y.,  on  August 
4,  1886. 

TILES,  a term  applied  to  a variety  of 
articles  made  either  for  ornament,  such 
as  inlaid  paving  tiles  (see  Encaustic 
Tiles  and  Mosaic),  or  for  use,  as  in  tile- 
draining (see  Draining)  and  roofing, 
which  last  are  made  similarly  to  bricks, 
and  of  similar  clay. 

TILLY,  Johann  Tserklaes,  Count  of, 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  generals  of 
the  17th  century,  born  about  1559,  in 
Walloon  Brabant.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Thirty  Years’  war  he  led  the  army 
destined  to  crush  the  Protestants  in 
Bohemia.  He  defeated  them  on  the 
White  mountains  (November,  1620), 
and  in  1622  conquered  the  Palatinate, 
defeating  several  Protestant  com- 
manders. On  the  27th  August,  1626, 
he  defeated  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark 
in  Brunswick,  and  compelled  him  to 
return  to  his  own  country.  In  1630 
Tilly  s\icceeded  Wallenstein  as  general- 
issimo of  the  imperial  troops.  His  most 
celebrated  exploit  is  the  bloody  sack 
of  Magdeburg,  May  10,  1631.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  met  him  at  Breitenfeld,  near 
Leipzig,  September  7,  and  Tilly  was  en- 
tirely beaten,  and  was  himself  wounded. 
In  a subsequent  engagement  with  the 
Swedes  on  the  Lech  a cannon-ball  shat- 
tered his  thigh,  and  caused  his  death  in 
1632. 

TILL'MAN,  Benjamin  Ryan,  Ameri- 
can politician,  was  born  in  Edgefield 
CO.,  S.C.,  inl847.  He  became  the  leader 
of  the  farming  element  in  the  demo- 
cratic party,  received  the  support  of 
the  Farmers’  Alliance,  and  in  1890,  was 
elected  governor  of  the  state.  He  was 
reelected  in  1892,  and  in  1895  was 
elected  United  States  senator  being 
reelected  to  that  office  for  a second  time 
in  1901.  He  was  active  in  both  “free- 
silver”  campaigns,  in  1896  and  1900,  as 
one  of  the  most  radical  supporters  of  the 
candidacy  of  W.  J.  Bryan. 

TILT-HAMMER,  a large  and  heavy 
hammer  worked  by  steam  or  water 
power,  and  used  in  forgings.  It  has  been 
largely  superseded  by  the  steam-ham- 
mer, but  is  still  advantageously  used 
with  light  work.  Cogs  (as  at  c c in  cut) 


Tilt-hammer. 

being  brought  to  bear  on  the  tail  of  the 
hammer  (a),  its  depression  causes  the 
head  (d)  to  be  elevated,  which,  when  the 
tail  is  liberated,  falls  with  considerable 
force  by  its  own  weight. 

TIMBER,  a general  term  applied  to 
wood  used  for  constructive  purposes, 
as  that  of  the  different  kinds  of  fir  and 
pine,  the  oak,  ash,  elm,  beech,  sycamore, 
chestnut,  walnut,  mahogany,  teak,  etc. 
The  sap  in  timber  is  the  great  cause  of 
its  decay;  hence,  at  whatever  period 
timber  is  felled,  it  requires  to  be  thor- 


1 oughly  seasoned  before  being  used  in 
building.  The  object  of  seasoning  is 
partly  to  evaporate  the  sap,  and  partly 
to  reduce  the  dimensions  of  the  wood 
so  that  it  may  be  used  without  further 
shrinking.  Timber  seasons  best  when 
placed  in  dry  situations,  where  the  air 
has  a free  circulation  round  it.  Wood  for 
building  becomes  compact  and  durable 
after  two  or  three  years’  seasoning.  But 
this  mode  of  seasoning  only  removes  a 
portion  of  the  aqueous  and  volatile 
matter  from  the  wood,  the  extractive 
and  soluble  portion  still  remains,  and  is 
liable  to  ferment  on  the  reabsorption  of 
moisture.  It  is  often  extremely  difficult 
to  preserve  wood  which  is  to  be  exposed 
to  the  weather,  or  is  to  remain  in  a warm 
and  moist  atmosphere.  No  entirely 
satisfactory  process  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered for  the  preservation  of  tim- 
ber and  the  prevention  of  dry-rot. 
The  most  successful  method  consists  in 
extracting  the  sap,  in  excluding  mois- 
ture, and  in  impregnating  the  vessels 
of  the  wood  with  antiseptic  substances 
such  as  creosote.  The  sap  may  be  ex- 
tracted by  water  seasoning,  in  which 
the  green  timber  is  immersed  in  clear 
water  for  about  two  weeks,  being  then 
seasoned  in  the  usual  manner.  It  has 
also  been  proposed  to  extract  the  sap  by 
means  of  an  air-pump.  The  charring  of 
timber  on  the  outside  is  commonly 
supposed  to  increase  its  durability,  but 
experiments  on  this  subject  do  not 
agree.  The  exclusion  of  moisture  by 
covering  the  surface  with  a coating  of 
paint,  varnish,  tar,  etc.,  is  a well-known 
preservative  of  wood  exposed  to  the 
weather.  But  painting  is  no  preserva- 
tive against  the  internal  or  dry  rot. 
Only  wood  thoroughly  seasoned  should 
be  painted.  Resinous  woods  are  more 
durable  than  others,  and  the  impreg- 
nation of  wood  with  tar,  bitumen,  and 
other  resinous  substances  undoubtedly 
promotes  its  preservation.  Wood  im- 
pregnated with  drying  oils  becomes 
harder  and  more  capable  of  resisting 
moisture.  Common  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium)  is  a well-known  preservative. 
The  immersion  of  seasoned  timber  in 
sea-water  is  generally  admitted  to  pro- 
mote its  durability.  Chloride  of  zinc 
and  creosote  are  extensively  used  for 
the  preservation  of  wood. 

TIMBREL,  a kind  of  drum,  tabor,  or 
tabret,  which  has  been  in  use  from  the 
highest  antiquity,  and  is  much  the  same 
as  the  tambourine. 

TIME,  in  music.  See  Music. 

TIME,  the  general  idea  of  successive 
existence,  or  that  in  which  events  take 
place,  space  being  that  in  which  things 
are  contained.  Relative  time  is  the 
sensible  measure  of  any  portion  of  dura- 
tion, often  marked  by  some  phenom- 
enon, as  the  apparent  revolution  of  the 
celestial  bodies,  more  especially  of  the 
sun,  or  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.  Time  is  divided  into  years,  months, 
weeks,  days,  hours,  minutes,  and  sec- 
onds; but  of  these  portions  the  year 
and  days  only  are  marked  by  celestial 
phenomena.  (See  Day,  Year.)  The  in- 
struments employed  for  measuring  time 
are  clocks,  watches,  chronometers,  hour- 
glasses, and  dials;  but  the  three  first  are 
those  chiefly  used. 

TIME  STANDARD,  primarily  for  the  > 


convenience  of  the  railroads,  a standard 
of  time  was  established  by  mutual 
agreement  in  1883,  by  which  trains  are 
run  and  local  time  regulated.  Accord- 
ing to  this  system,  the  United  States, 
extending  from  65°  to  125°  west  longi- 
tude, is  divided  into  four  time  sections, 
each  of  15°  of  longitude,  exactly  equiv- 
alent to  one  hour,  commencing  with 
the  75th  meridian.  The  first  (eastern) 
section  includes  all  territory  between 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  an  irregular  line 
drawn  from  Detroit  to  Charleston,  S.  C., 
the  latter  being  its  most  southern  point. 
The  second  (central)  section  includes 
all  the  territory  between  the  last-named 
line  and  an  irregular  line  from  Bismarck, 
N.  D.,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
The  third  (mountain)  section  includes 
all  territory  between  the  last-named 
line  and  nearly  the  western  borders  of 
Idaho,  Utah,  and  Arziona.  The  fourth 
(Pacific)  section  covers  the  rest  of  the 
country  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Standard 
time  is  uniform  inside  each  of  these  sec- 
tions, and  the  time  of  each  section  differs 
from  that  next  to  it  by  exactly  one  hour. 
Thus  at  12  noon  in  New  York  City 
(eastern  time),  the  time  at  Chicago 
(central  time)  is  11  o’clock  a.m.;  at 
Denver  (mountain  time),  10  o’clock  a.m. 
and  at  San  Francisco  (Pacific  time),  9 
o’clock  a.m.  Standard  time  is  16  min- 
utes slower  at  Boston  than  true  local 
time,  4 minutes  slower  at  New  York, 
8 minutes  faster  at  Washington,  19 
minutes  faster  at  Charleston,  28  minutes 
slower  at  Detroit,  18  minutes  faster  at 
Kansas  City,  10  minutes  slower  at  Chi- 
cago, 1 minute  faster  at  St.  Louis,  28 
minutes  faster  at  Salt  Lake  City,  and  10 
minutes  faster  at  San  Francisco. 

TIMOR,  the  largest  and  most  eastern 
of  the  Lesser  Sunda  islands,  in  the 
Asiatic  archipelago,  southeast  of  Celebes 
is  politically  divided  between  Holland 
and  Portugal;  area,  11,000  sq.  miles. 
The  natives  are  partly  Papuans,  partly 
Malays.  The  trade,  chiefly  in  the  hands 
of  Chinese,  is  carried  on  mostly  through 
Koepang.  The  exports  are  sandal-wood, 
trepang,  wax,  horses,  tortoise-shell, 
birds’-nests,  etc.  Pop.  about  500,000. 

TIMOTHY,  a disciple  of  St.  Paul,  was 
born  in  Lycaonia,  Asia  Minor,  probably 
at  Lystra,  of  a Gentile  father  and  Jewish 
mother.  When  St.  Paul  visited  Lystra 
on  his  second  missionary  journey, 
Timothy  became  an  active  fellow- 
worker  with  the  apostle,  and  he  accom- 
panied him  and  Silas  in  the  further 
course  of  their  mission.  He  went  with 
Paul  to  Philippi  and  Bercea,  and  re- 
mained alone  in  the  latter  city,  after- 
ward rejoining  the  apostle  at  Athens, 
from  which  city  he  was  sent  to  Thes- 
salonica.  After  remaining  there  some 
time  he  again  joined  Paul  at  Corinth. 
Five  years  later,  he  is  found  with  his 
master  at  Ephesus,  whence  he  was  sent 
with  Erastus  into  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
to  prepare  the  churches  for  Paul’s 
meditated  visit.  Timothy  met  the 
apostle  again  in  Macedonia,  and  pre- 
ceded him  on  his  journey  to  Jerusalem. 
He  again  appears  at  Rome  with  Paul 
at  the  time  when  the  epistles  to  the 
Colossians,  Philippians,  and  Philemon 
were  written.  Timothy  was  on  one 
occasion  left  at  Ephesus  when  Paul 
Unto  Macedonia  (1  Tim.  i.  3).  Traditiou  ^ 


TIMOTHY 


TINTORETTO 


makes  him  the  first  bishop  of  Ephesus. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  martyred  in  the 
reign  of  Domitian  or  Nerva. 

TIMOTHY,  Epistles  to,  two  books  of 
the  New  Testament  attributed  to  St. 
Paul.  These  epistles,  along  with  that  to 
Titus,  arc  called  the  pastoral  epistles, 
as  to  the  genuineness  of  which  there  has 
been  considerable  controversy.  By  the 
early  Christian  fathers  they  were  almost 
universally  accepted  as  genuine,  and 
their  genuineness  is  also  supported  by 
external  testimony.  They  were,  how- 
ever, rejected  by  Marcion,  Basilides,  and 
other  Gnostic  heretics.  In  modern 
times  both  views  have  been  ably  advo- 
cated. Their  genuineness  is  chiefly 
attacked  on  the  grounds  that  their  style 
dilTers  from  that  of  the  acknowledged 
epistles  of  St.  Paul,  that  the  heresies 
alluded  to  in  the  epistles  betray  a later 
age,  that  the  ecclesiastical  polity  of  the 
epistles  is  too  complete  to  belong  to  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  and  that  it  is 
difficult  to  find  any  part  of  the  apostle’s 
life  to  which  they  can  be  assigned. 
Biblical  critics  generally  meet  the  last 
difficulty  by  assigning  them  to  a period 
after  the  close  of  the  narrative  in  the 
Acts,  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy  be- 
ing written  while  St.  Paul  was  under- 
going a second  iraprisomuent  in  Rome. 

TIMOTHY-GRASS,  a hard  coarse 
grass  with  cylindrical  spikes  from  2 to  6 
inches  long.  It  is  used  mixed  with  other 
grasses  for  permanent  pasture,  and 
grows  best  in  tenacious  soils.  It  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  throughout  Great 
Britain  and  also  in  North  America. 
Swine  refuse  it. 

TIMUR,  called  also  Timur  Beg  and 
Timur  Lank  (that  is,  Timur  the  Lame), 
and,  by  corruption,  Tamerlane,  a cele- 
brated oriental  conqueror  of  Mongol 
or  Tartar  race,  born  in  the  territory  of 
Kesh,  near  Samarcand,  in  1336.  By 
degrees  he  conquered  Persia,  and  the 
whole  of  Central  Asia,  and  extended  his 
power  from  the  great  wall  of  China  to 
Mo.scow.  He  invaded  India  (1398), 
which  he  conquered  from  the  Indus  to 
the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  massacring, 
it  is  said,  on  one  occasion  100,000 
prisoners.  On  his  way  from  India  to 
i:ieet  the  forces  of  Bajazet,  the  Turkish 
sultan,  he  subjugated  Bagdad,  plun- 
dered Aleppo,  burned  down  the  greater 
part  of  Damascus,  and  wrested  Syria 
from  the  Mamelukes,  after  which  he 
overran  Asia  Minor  with  an  immense 
anny.  Bajazet’s  army  was  completely 
defeated  on  the  plain  of  Ancyra  (An- 
gora) in  1402,  and  the  sultan  was  taken 
prisoner  The  conquests  of  the  Tartar 
now  extended  from  the  Irtish  and  Volga 
to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  from  the 
Ganges  to  the  Grecian  archipelago.  He 
was  making  mighty  preparations  for  an 
invasion  of  China  when  death  arrested 
his  progress  at  his  camp  at  Otrar,  be- 
yond the  Sir-Daria,  in  1405,  and  his 
empire  immediately  fell  to  pieces 

TIN,  a hard,  white,  ductile  metal; 
atomic  weight  118.  Tin  appears  to  have 
been  known  in  the  time  of  Moses;  and 
the  Phoenicians  traded  largely  in  the  tin 
ores  of  Cornwall.  The  mountains  between 
Galicia  and  Portugal,  and  those  separat- 
ing Saxony  and  Bohemia,  were  also  pro- 
ductive of  tin  centuries  ago,  and  still 
continue  unexhausted.  Tin  occurs  in 


the  Malay  peninsula,  the  island  of 
Banca,  India,  Mexico,  Chile,  Peru,  the 
United  States,  Australia,  etc.  There  are 
only  two  ores  of  tin;  the  native  binox- 
ide,  called  tin-stone,  and  the  double 
sulphide  of  tin  and  copper,  called  tin- 
pyrites.  The  former  is  the  only  ore  used 
for  obtaining  metallic  tin.  It  occurs  in 
various  crystalized  forms,  in  deep  lodes 
blended  with  several  other  metals,  as 
arsenic,  copper,  zinc,  and  tungsten, 
when  it  is  known  as  mine-tin;  or,  in  dis- 
seminated masses  in  alluvial  soil,  in 
which  state  it  is  called  stream-tin.  Mine- 
tin,  when  reduced  to  the  metallic  state, 
yields  block-tin  while  stream-tin  yields 
a purer  sort  called  grain-tin.  The  ore  is 
first  ground  and  washed,  and  then 
roasted  in  a reverberatory  furnace  to 
expel  the  sulphur  and  arsenic.  Mixed 
with  limestone  and  fuel,  it  is  again  fused 
in  a furnace  for  about  eight  hours,  the 
earthy  matters  flowing  off  with  the  lime, 
while  the  oxide  of  tin,  reduced  to  a 
metallic  state,  falls  by  its  own  weight  to 
the  bottom,  and  is  drawn  off.  The  tin, 
still  impure,  is  again  moderately  heated, 
when  it  melts  and  flows  off  into  the  re- 
fining basins,  leaving  the  greater  part  of 
the  foreign  metals  in  a solid  state.  The 
molten  tin  is  stirred  in  order  to  disperse 
the  gases,  and,  when  partially  cool,  it 
separates  in  zones,  the  upper  consisting 
of  nearly  pure  tin,  'while  the  under  is  so 
impure  that  it  must  be  melted  again. 
The  upper  layer  is  removed,  cast  into 
blocks,  and  sold  as  block-tin,  the  purest 
specimens  being  called  refined-tin.  Tin- 
pyrites,  the  other  ore  of  tin,  contains 
from  14  to  30  per  cent  of  tin,  and  is 
found  at  St.  Agnes  in  Cornwall,  in 
Saxony,  and  in  Bolivia.  Pure  tin  has  a 
fine  white  color  like  silver.  It  has  a 
slightly  disagreeable  taste,  and  emits  a 
peculiar  sound  when  rubbed.  Its  hard- 
ness is  between  that  of  gold  and  lead, 
and  it  is  very  malleable.  Specific  gravity 
7.28.  Melting  point  about  230°  C.  Tin  is 
very  flexible,  and  when  bent  emits  a 
crackling  sound,  sometimes  called  the 
cry  of  tin.  It  loses  its  luster  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  but  undergoes  no  fur- 
ther alteration.  Tin  will  unite  with 
arsenic  and  with  antimony,  but  does  not 
readily  combine  with  iron.  Combined 
with  copper  it  forms  bronze,  bell-metal, 
and  several  other  useful  alloys.  With 
lead  it  forms  pewter  and  solder  of  vari- 
ous kinds.  Tin-plate  is  formed  by  dip- 
ping thin  plates  of  iron  into  melted  tin; 
they  are  afterward  cleaned  with  sand 
and  steeped  for  twenty-four  hours  in 
water  acidulated  by  bran  or  sulphuric 
acid.  Tin  is  principally  employed  in  the 
formation  of  alloys.  Its  oxides  are  used 
in  enamelling,  and  for  polishing  the 
metals,  and  its  solution  in  nitro-muriatic 
acid  is  an  important  mordant  in  the  art 
of  dyeing,  rendering  several  colors,  par- 
ticularly scarlet,  more  brilliant  and 
permanent 

TIN'AMOU,  the  name  given  to  a genus 
and  family  of  birds  occuring  in  South 
America,  and  allied  in  some  respects  to 
the  ostrich  and  emeu.  They  somewhat 
resemble  a partridge,  and  vary  in  size 
from  that  of  a pheasant  down  to  that  of 
a quail.  The  great  tinamou  is  about  18 
inches  long,  and  inhabits  the  forests  of 
Guiana. 

TIN'DALL,  or  TYNDALE,  William,  a 


martyr  to  the  Reformation,  born  about 
1484  in  Gloucestershire,  and  educated 
at  Oxford.  He  removed  to  London, 
where  he  began  his  English  version  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  subsequently 
proceeded  to  Germany,  visiting  Luther 
at  Wittenberg.  Having  completed  his 
translation  he  got  it  partly  printed  in 
quarto  at  Bologne;  but  he  had  to  flee 
from  this  town,  and  the  complete  work 
was  printed  in  octavo  at  Worms.  The 
greater  part  was  sent  to  England,  and 
the  prelates  Warham  and  Tunstall  col- 
lected all  copies  they  could  seize  or  pur- 
chase, and  committed  them  to  the 
flames.  The  only  fragment  of  the  quarto 
edition  known  to  exist  is  preserved  in 
the  British  museum.  Tindall  also  trans- 
lated the  Pentateuch,  and  subsequently 
Jonah.  In  1530  he  took  up  his  residence 
at  Antwerp.  In  1535  he  was  thrown  into 
prison  at  Vilvorde  near  Brussels,  and 
being  found  guilty  of  heresy  he  was 
strangled  in  1536  and  his  body  burned 
at  the  stake. 


TINDER,  any  substance  artificially 
rendered  readily  ignitible  but  not  in- 
flammable. Before  the  invention  of 
chemical  matches  it  was  the  chief  means 
of  procuring  fire.  The  tinder,  ignited  by 
a spark  from  a flint,  was  brought  into 
contact  with  matches  dipped  in  sulphur. 
Tinder  may  be  made  of  half-burnt  linen, 
and  of  various  other  substances,  such  as 
amadou,  touchwood,  or  German  tinder. 

TIN-FOIL,  pure  tin,  or  an  alloy  of  tin 
and  lead,  beaten  into  leaves  about  njVffth 
part  of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  often  used  to 
cover  up  articles  that  are  not  to  be  ex- 
posed to  atmospheric  moisture. 

TINNEVELLI,  a town  in  the  southeast 
of  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
the  largest  town  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name.  Pop.  40,469. — The  district, 
which  occupies  the  extreme  south- 
eastern corner  of  the  Indian  peninsula, 
has  an  area  of  5381  sq.  miles,  and  pop. 
1,916,095. 

TIN-PLATE.  See  Tin. 

TINTORETTO,  the  surname  of  a 
Venetian  historical  painter,  Giacomo 
or  Jacopo  Robusti,  born  at  Venice  in 
1518,  died  there  in  1594.  He  painted 
many  works  for  his  native  city,  among 
which  are  a Last  Judgment,  the  Israel- 
ites Worshipping  the  Golden  Calf,  the 
Miracle  of  St.  5lark  (his  masterpiece), 
etc.  His  portrait,  by  himself,  is  in  the 
Louvre;  and  there  are  many  of  his  paint- 
ings in  Germany,  Spain,  France,  and 
England.  Equal  in  several  respects  to 
Titian  or  Paul  Veronese,  he  wants  the 


TIPPERAH 


TOAD 


dignity  of  the  former,  and  the  grace  and 
richness  of  composition  of  the  latter. 
His  manner  of  painting  was  bold,  with 
strong  lights,  opposed  by  deep  shadows. 
His  execution  was  very  unequal. 

TIP'PERAH,  a district  of  British 
India,  in  the  Chattagong  division  of 
Bengal;  area,  2491  sq.  miles.  Pop. 
1,782,935. 

TIPPERA'RY,  an  inland  county  in 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Munster, 
bounded  by  King’s  county.  Queen’s 
county,  Kilkenny,  Waterford,  Cork, 
Limerick,  Clare,  and  Galway;  area,  1659 
sq.  miles,  or  1,061,731  acres,  of  which  a 
fourth  is  under  tillage.  The  soil  is  ex- 
tremely fertile ; the  chief  crops  are  oats, 
potatoes,  and  wheat.  Pop  159,754. — 
Tipperary,  the  county  town,  situated  on 
the  river  Arra,  98  miles  s.w.  of  Dublin. 
Pop.  6281. 

TISSUES,  (1)  in  animal  anatomy,  the 
texture  or  grouping  of  anatomieal  ele- 
ments of  which  the  systems  of  organs  are 
composed.  Thus  in  special  histology  we 
speak  of  muscular  tissue,  or  flesh; 
osseous  tissue,  or  bone;  adipose  tissue, 
or  fat;  eartilaginous  tissue,  or  gristle; 
pigmentary  tissue,  or  coloring  matter 
seen  in  the  skin,  etc.;  areolar,  cellular, 
or  connective  tissue,  widely  distributed 


Vegetable  tissue. 

1,  Prosenchyma  or  woody  tissue.  2,  Horizon- 
tal section  ot  prosenchymatous  tissue.  3,  Do. 
do.  of  a single  cell,  showing  the  successive  lay- 
ers of  deposit  in  the  interior  which  give  hard- 
ness and  firmness  to  the  wood  ot  plants.  4,  Cy- 
lindrical parenchyma.  5,  Round  or  elliptical 
parenchymatous  tissue.  6,  Spongiform  or 
stellate  tissue. 

in  every  part  of  the  body,  and  serving 
to  bind  together  and  consolidate  other 
parts  and  tissues.  (2)  In  vegetable 
anatomy,  the  minute  elementary  struc- 
tures of  which  the  organs  of  plants  are 
composed.  Plant  tissues  are  composed 
of  elementary  membrane  and  elemen- 
tary fibre,  and  the  principal  forms  under 
which  they  exhibit  themselves  consti- 
tute cellular  tissue,  fibrous  tissue,  and 
vascular  tissue. 

TITANIUM,  a metal  discovered  in 
1791.  It  is  found  combined  with  oxygen 
in  several  minerals,  and  occurs  espe- 
cially in  iron  ores,  which  hence  receive 
the  name  of  titaniferous  iron  ores. 
Titanium  is  a dark  green,  heavy,  amor- 
phous powder,  and  some  authorities 
doubt  its  metallic  character.  The  ores 
of  this  metal  include  menachanite,  from 
Menachan  in  Cornwall,  where  it  was 
originally  found;  iserine,  from  the  river 
Iser  in  Silesia;  sphene,  rutile,  brookite, 
etc. 

TITANS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  Urftnus  (Heaven)  and 
Ge  (Earth).  They  were  twelve  in  num- 
ber, six  sons  and  six  daughters.  They 
rose  against  UrSnus  and  deposed  him, 


raising  Cronus,  one  of  their  number,  to 
the  throne.  They  were  afterward  over- 
come by  Zeus,  and  thrown  into  Tartarus, 

TITHES,  the  tenth  part  of  the  increase 
yearly  arising  from  the  profits  of  lands, 
the  stock  upon  lands,  and  the  industry 
of  the  occupants,  allotted  to  the  clergy 
for  their  maintenance.  The  custom  of 
giving  and  paying  tithes  is  very  ancient, 
and  was  legally  enjoined  by  Moses 
(Lev.  xxvii.,  Deut.  xiv.,  and  elsewhere). 
In  578  Charlemagne  established  the  pay- 
ment of  tithes  in  those  parts  of  the 
Roman  empire  under  his  sway,  dividing 
them  into  four  parts;  one  to  maintain 
the  edifice  of  the  church,  the  second  to 
support  the  poor,  the  third  the  bishop, 
and  the  fourth  the  parochial  clergy. 
Similar  laws  were  afterward  enacted  in 
various  states  of  Western  Europe.  Their 
pa3mient  was  first  enjoined  in  England 
by  a constitutional  decree  of  a synod 
held  in  786.  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  794 
made  a law  giving  the  tithes  of  all  his 
kingdom  to  the  church,  and  similar  laws 
were  enacted  by  Athelstan  and  Canute. 
The  first  mention  of  tithes  in  statute  law 
is  in  1285. 

TITIAN  (tish'-i-an),  or  TIZIANO  VE- 
CELLIO  (tit-si-a'no  ve-chel'li-o),  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  great 
Italian  painters,  and  head  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  was  born  at  Pieve  de  Cadore, 
in  the  Carnic  Alps,  in  1477.  In  1512  he 
completed  the  unfinished  pictures  of 
Giovanni  Bellini  in  the  Sala  del  Gran 
Consiglio  at  Venice,  and  the  senate  were 
so  pleased  that  they  gave  him  an  im- 
portant office.  To  this  period  are 
attributed  his  pictures  of  the  Tribute 
Money  and  Sacred  and  Profane  Love. 
In  1514  he  painted  a portrait  of  Aristo 
at  Ferrara,  and  after  his  return  to 
Venice,  he  painted  an  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin  (1516),  considered  one  of  the 
finest  pictures  in  the  world;  it  is  now  in 
the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Venice. 
About  1528  he  produced  his  magnificent 
picture.  The  Death  of  St.  Peter  the 
Martyr.  Many  of  his  master-pieces,  such 
as  The  Sleeping  Venus,  Christ  in  the 
Garden,  St.  Margaret  and  the  Dragon, 


Titian 


are  to  be  found  in  Spain  where  they 
were  painted  during  his  sojourn  there. 
In  1537  he  painted  an  Annunciation, 
and  in  1541  he  produced  The  Descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  Apostles,  The 
Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  and  David  and 
Goliath.  In  1543  he  painted  his  picture 
of  The  Virgin  and  San  Tiziano.  He  died 
of  the  plague  in  1576,  aged  ninety-nine. 
Titian  excelled  as  much  in  landscape  as 
in  figure-painting,  was  equally  great  in 


sacred  and  profane  subjects,  in  ideal  jB 
heads  and  in  portraits,  in  frescoes  and  9 
in  oils;  and  though  others  may  have  Jj 
surpassed  him  in  single  points,  none  J 
equalled  him  in  general  mastery.  As  a S 
colorist  he  is  almost  unrivaled,  and  his  ^ 
pictures  often  reach  the  perfection  of  *1 
sensuous  beauty.  g 

TITLE-DEEDS,  in  law,  are  the  docu-  J 
mentary  evidences  of  ownership  of  real  * 
property.  Z 

TITMOUSE,  TIT,  or  TOMTIT,  the  5 
name  given  to  a number  of  dentirostral  • 
insessorial  birds  inhabiting  most  parts 
of  the  world.  They  are  very  active  little 
birds,  continually  flitting  from  branch  to  ? 
branch,  devouring  seeds  and  insects 
and  not  sparing  even  small  birds  when  ’i 
they  happen  to  find  them  sick  and  are  * 
able  to  put  an  end  to  them.  Their  notes  ^ 
are  shrill  and  wild.  They  build  in  the 
hollows  of  trees,  in  walls,  etc.  The  great  ■ •' 


Blue  titmouse,  male  and  female. 


titmouse  is  between  five  and  six  inches 
long,  and  inhabits  Britain  and  Europe 
generally.  Other  British  species  are  the 
blue  titmouse,  the  long-tailed  tit,  the 
coal-tit,  and  the  marsh-tit.  The  crested 
titmouse  and  the  bearded  titmouse  are 
comparatively  rare  in  England,  but 
common  on  the  continent.  Several 
species  are  North  American,  some  of 
them  known  as  chickadee. 


TITUS,  or  in  full,  TITUS  FLAVIUS 
SABINUS  VESPASIANUS,  a Roman  em- 
peror, born  A.D.  40,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  the  Emperor  Vespasian.  He  became 
sole  emperor  in  79,  and  showed  himself 
as  an  enlightened  and  munificent  ruler, 
distinguished  by  benevolence  and  phil- 
anthropy. He  died  on  the  13th  Sep- 
tember, 81,  after  a reign  of  a little  over 
two  years  and  two  months.  His  brother 
Domitian  was  strongly  suspected  of 
having  poisoned  him. 

TITUS,  a disciple  and  assistant  of  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  the  person  to  whom  . 
one  of  the  canonical  epistles  of  the  New 
Testament  is  addressed.  He  was  a gen- 
tile by  origin,  and  probably  a native  of 
Antioch.  He  labored  with  Paul  in  Asia 
Minor,  Macedonia,  and  Crete,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  Christian  bishop 
of  Crete. 

TITUS,  Epistle  to,  one  of  the  three 
pastoral  epistles  of  the  New  Testament 
(the  remaining  two  being  those  ad- 
dressed to  Timothy),  believed  to  have 
been  written  by  St.  Paul  after  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  The  topics 
handled  are  the  same  which  we  find  in 
the  other  two  kindred  epistles.  See 
Timothy,  Epistles  to 

TOAD,  the  name  applied  to  various  ' 
genera  of  tailless  amphibians.  Toad.s 
have  a thick  bulky  body,  covered  with  ' 
warts  or  papillae.  They  have  no  teeth, 
and  the  ton^e  is  fixed  to  the  front  of  the 


TOBACCO 


TOGA 


mouth,  but  the  posterior  extremity  is 
free  and  protrusible.  The  hind  feet  are 
but  slightly  webbed.  They  leap  badly, 
and  generally  avoid  the  water,  except 
in  the  breeding  season.  Their  food  con- 
sists of  insects  and  worms.  Toads  have 
a most  unprepossessing  aspect  and  out- 
ward appearance.  The  toad  is  easily 
tamed,  and  exhibits  a considerable 
amount  of  intelligence  as  a pet.  It  lies 
torpid  in  some  hole  during  winter.  In- 
sects are  caught  by  a sudden  protrusion 
•f  the  tongue,  which  is  provided  with  a 


Common  American  toad. 


viscous  secretion.  There  are  some  ten 
species  of  toads  in  North  America.  The 
toad  is  extremely  tenacious  of  life,  but 
experiments  have  conclusively  shown 
that  there  is  no  truth  in  the  oft-repeated 
stories  of  the  creature  being  able  to  sup- 
port life  when  inclosed  in  solid  rock  for 
immense  periods  of  time.  Dr.  Buckland 
has  shown  that  when  excluded  from  air 
and  food,  frogs  and  toads,  in  virtue  of 
their  slow  circulation  and  cold-blooded 
habits,  might  survive  about  a year  or 
eighteen  months  at  most. 

TOBACCO,  a very  important  plant, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Atro- 
paceae,  or  nightshade  order.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  use  of  tobacco  forms 
a singular  chapter  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind. According  to  some  authorities 
smoking  was  practiced  by  the  Chinese  at 
a very  early  date.  At  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  tobacco  was  in  fre- 
quent use  among  the  Indians,  and  the 
practice  of  smoking,  which  had  with 
them  a religious  character,  was  com- 
mon to  almost  all  the  tribes.  The  name 
tobacco  was  either  derived  from  the  term 
used  in  Hayti  to  designate  the  pipe,  or 
from  Tabaca  in  St.  Domingo,  whence  it 
was  introduced  into  Spain  and  Portugal 
in  1559  by  a Spaniard.  It  soon  found  its 
way  to  Paris  and  Rome,  and  was  first 
used  in  the  shape  of  snuff.  Smoking  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  but  Camden  says  the  practice 
was  introduced  by  Drake  and  his  com- 
panions on  their  return  from  Virginia 
in  1 585.  It  was  strongly  opposed  by  both 
priests  and  rulers.  Pope  Urban  VIII. 
and  Innocent  IX.  issued  bulls  excom- 
municating such  as  used  snuff  in  church, 
and  in  Turkey  smoking  was  made  a 
capital  offense.  In  the  canton  of  Bern 
the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  tobacco  was 
put  among  the  ten  commandments,  im- 
mediately after  that  forbidding  adultery. 
The  Counterblast  or  denunciation  writ- 
ten by  James  I.  of  England  is  a matter 
of  history.  All  prohibitions,  however, 
regal  or  priestly,  were  of  no  avail,  and 
tobacco  is  now  the  most  extensively 


used  luxury  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
The  most  commonly  cultivated  to- 
bacco plant  is  glutinous,  and  covered 
with  a very  short  down;  the  stem  up- 
right, 4 or  5 feet  high,  and  branching; 
the  leaves  are  lanceolate,  from  6 to  IS 
inches  long;  the  flowers  are  terminal  and 
rose-colored.  A less  esteemed  species  is 
distinguished  by  a short  yellowish- 
green  corolla.  All  the  tobacco  plants  are 
natives  of  America,  and  this  continent 
has  continued  the  principal  producer, 
the  chief  tobacco-growing  country  being 
the  United  States,  and  the  chief  local- 
ities being  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  It 
was  first  cultivated  in  Holland  early  in 
the  17th  century,  and  soon  extended  to 
other  countries,  including  Austria,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  the  Balkan  peninsula, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  France,  British  India, 
Cuba,  Brazil,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Japan,  and  Australia.  Tobacco  owes 
its  principal  properties  to  the  presence 
of  a most  poisonous  alkaloid  named 
nicotine.  In  the  cultivation  of  tobacco 
the  object  is  to  render  the  leaves  as  large 
and  as  numerous  as  possible.  When  the 
leaves  become  brittle  the  plants  are  cut 
close  to  the  ground,  and  afterward  car- 
ried to  the  drying-shed,  where  they  are 


hung  up  in  lines  to  sweat  and  dry. 
When  perfectly  dry  the  leaves  are 
stripped  from  the  stalks  and  made  into 
small  bundles,  which  are  subsequently 
stowed  in  casks  for  exportation.  In  the 
manufacture  of  tobacco  the  leaves  are 
first  thoroughly  cleansed  with  salt  and 
water.  The  midrib  of  the  leaf  is  then 
removed;  the  leaves  are  again  sorted, 
and  the  large  ones  set  apart  for  making 
cigars.  The  leaves  may  either  be  cut 
finely  for  use  in  pipes,  as  in  the  case  with 
shag  tobacco,  or  they  are  moistened 
and  pressed  into  cakes,  which  are  desig- 
nated cavendish;  or  they  are  pressed 
into  sticks,  as  negrohead;  or  again  the 
leaves  may  be  spun  in  the  form  of  a rope 
of  greater  or  less  thickness;  the  smallest 
twist  is  called  pigtail.  The  midribs, 
separated  in  the  first  process  of  manu- 
facture, are  preserved  to  be  converted 
into  snuff.  Cigars  and  cheroots  are 
favorite  forms  of  manufactured  to- 
bacco. As  the  best  leaf  is  grown  in  Cuba, 
so  also  are  the  best  cigars  made  there. 
The  leaf  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
Manilla  cheroots  is  grown  chiefly  on  the 
island  of  Luzon.  The  United  States  ex- 
ports tobacco  annually  to  the  value  of 
more  than  $30,000,000.  The  total  crop 


in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at 
about  660,000,000  lbs.  annually,  the 
value  of  which  is  about  $55,000,000. 

TOBACCO-PIPE.  See  Pipe  (Tobacco). 

TOBIT,  Book  of,  one  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment aprocryphal  books,  rejected  by 
the  Jews  and  Protestants,  but  included 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  canon.  It  con- 
tains an  account  of  some  remarkable 
events  in  the  life  of  Tobit,  a Jew  of  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali,  carried  captive  to 
Nineveh,  and  his  son  Tobias. 

TOBOL,  a river  of  Siberia,  which  rises 
in  the  west  slope  of  the  Ural  mountains, 
in  the  government  of  Orenburg,  and 
joins  the  Irtish  at  the  town  of  Tobolsk, 
after  a course  of  about  550  miles. 

TOBOLSK',  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Tobolsk,  Western  Siberia,  on 
the  Tobol  where  it  joins  the  Irtish.  It 
has  a cathedral,  arsenal,  barracks, 
prison  for  Siberian  exiles,  a theater,  etc. 
Pop.  20,130. — The  government  com- 
prises the  northwestern  part  of  Siberia, 
and  has  an  area  of  564,825  sq.  miles,  and 
a pop.  of  1,283,000. 

TOCQUEVILLE  (tok-vel),  Alexis 
Charles  Henri  Clerel  de,  French  writer, 
born  in  1805,  died  1859.  Being  com- 
missioned by  the  govermnent  to  pro- 
ceed to  the  United  States  to  report  upon 
the  penitentiary  system,  the  results  of 
his  inquiry  were  published  in  1833  under 
the  title  Du  Systeme  P4nitentiaire  aux 
Etats-Unis  et  de  son  Application  en 
France.  His  most  celebrated  work, 
however,  was  La  D^mocratie  en  Am6- 
rique  (Democracy  in  America,  two  vols. 
Paris,  1834),  which  was  translated  into 
the  principal  European  languages.  In 
1849  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs,  but  soon  resigned  it.  After  the 
coup  d’etat  of  1851  he  lived  retired  from 
public  affairs.  He  wrote  also  L’Ancien 
Regime  et  la  Revolution ; Histoire  Phil- 
osophique  du  Regne  de  Louis  XV.,  etc. 

TODDY,  the  name  given  by  the  Eng- 
lish to  the  sweet  juices  which  are  ex- 
tracted from  the  different  species  of  the 
palm  tribe,  including  the  cocoa-nut  tree. 
When  newly  drawn  from  the  tree  it  is  a 
sweet,  cool,  refreshing  beverage,  but 
when  it  has  been  allowed  about  ten  or 
twelve  hours  to  ferment  it  becomes 
highly  intoxicating.  The  name  toddy  is 
also  given  to  a mixture  of  whisky,  hot 
water,  and  sugar. 


Roman  senator  wearing  the  toga. 

TOGA,  the  principal  outer  garment  of 
wool  worn  by  Roman  citizens.  It  covered 
the  whole  of  the  body  except  the  right 
arm,  and  it  was  originally  worn  by  both 


TOGOI.AND 


TONE 


sexes  until  the  matrons  adopted  the 
stola.  The  toga  virilis,  or  manly  gown, 
was  assumed  by  Roman  youths  when 
they  attained  the  age  of  fourteen.  The 
variety  in  the  color,  the  fineness  of  the 
wool,  and  the  ornaments  attached  to  it 
indicated  the  rank  of  the  citizen;  gen- 
erally it  was  white.  Under  the  emperors 
the  toga  went  out  of  fashion. 

TOGOLAND,  a German  protectorate 
on  the  Slave  coast,  Guinea,  acquired  in 
1885.  It  has  a coast-line  of  32  miles, 
and  stretches  about  200  miles  inland. 
Pop.  300,000. 

Tokens,  pieces  of  money  current  by 
sufferance,  and  not  coined  by  authority; 
or  coins  only  nominally  of  their  pro- 
fessed value.  In  England  tokens  first 
came  into  use  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
owing  to  the  want  of  authorized  coins 
of  lower  value  than  a penny.  Stamped 
tokens  of  lead,  tin,  and  even  leather 
were  issued  by  vintners,  grocers,  and 
other  tradesmen  during  the  time  of 
Elizabeth,  and  were  extensively  cir- 
culated, being  readily  exchanged  for 
authorized  money  at  the  shops  where 
they  were  issued.  A currency  of  this 
kind  (mostly  of  copper)  was  much  used 
in  Britain  during  the  close  of  the  18th 
century. 

TOKIO,  formerly  called  Yeddo,  the 
capital  of  Japan,  and  chief  residence  of 
the  mikado,  is  situated  on  a bay  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  s.e.  coast  of  Hondo, 
the  largest  of  the  Japanese  islands,  and 
is  connected  by  rail  with  Yokohama  and 
Kanagawa.  The  bulk  of  the  houses  are 
of  wood,  but  there  are  many  new  build- 
ings of  brick  and  stone,  and  an  imperial 
palace  has  recently  been  erected  near 
the  center,  as  also  public  offices,  etc. 
The  greater  part  of  the  town  is  flat,  and 


intersected  by  numerous  canals  crossed 
by  bridges.  The  streets  are  generally 
narrow  and  irregular.  Gas  has  been  in- 
troduced, and  the  sanitary  arrangements 
have  been  improved.  Education  is  well 
organized,  and  there  are  nearly  700 
private  and  elementary  schools.  Tokio 
contains  the  imperial  university,  and  it 
may  be  considered  the  center  of  the 
political,  commercial,  and  literary  ac- 
tivity of  Japan.  Pop.  1,440,121. 

TOLE'DO,  a city  of  Spain,  in  New 


Castile,  capital  of  a province  of  the  same 
name,  on  a rocky  eminence  washed  by 
the  Tagus,  and  1820  feet  above  the  sea, 
55  miles  southwest  of  Madrid.  It  is  the 
see  of  an  archbishop,  who  is  primate  of 
Spain.  Toledo  contains  a ruined  alcazar, 
or  palace  and  fortress,  dating  from  1551, 
and  a Gothic  cathedral,  one  of  the 
grandest  in  the  world,  completed  in 
1492  in  the  style  of  the  13th  century; 
also  other  interesting  buildings.  The 
Toledo  sword-blades,  renowned  for 
many  centuries,  are  manufactured  in  a 
large  building  (a  government  establish- 
ment) on  the  Tagus,  about  a mile  from 
the  town.  Pop.  20,251.  Province;  area, 
5620  sq.  miles.  Pop.  370,012. 

TOLEDO,  a flourishing  city  of  Lucas 
CO.,  Ohio,  at  the  western  extremity 
of  Lake  Erie,  65  miles  s.s.w.  of  Detroit. 
Toledo  is  the  terminus  of  the  Miami  and 
Erie,  and  the  Wabash  and  Erie  canals, 
and  the  center  of  several  extensive  rail- 
way lines.  Exports  include  flour,  grain, 
cattle,  beef,  pork,  hides,  wool,  tobacco, 
and  timber.  There  are  large  wagon- 
v.'orks,  machine-shops,  foundries,  flour- 
mills, and  manufactories  of  tobacco, 
flax,  cotton,  and  chandlery.  Pop.  1909, 
estimated  at  193, • I'O. 

TOLERATION.  See  Religious  Liberty. 

TOLTMA,  a state  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia,  intersected  by  the  upper 
course  of  the  Magdalena,  and  embraced 
between  the  two  chief  chains  of  the  Cor- 
dillera; area,  18,000  sq.  miles.  It  pro- 
duces cacao,  sugar,  corn,  and  tobacco, 
and  is  rich  in  gold  and  silver.  The  vol- 
cano of  Tolima  has  a height  of  17,660 
feet.  Pop.  306,000.  Capital,  Ibague. 

TOLL,  a tax  paid,  or  duty  imposed, 
for  some  liberty  or  privilege  or  other 
reasonable  consideration;  such  as  (a) 
the  payment  claimed  by  the  owners 
of  a port  for  goods  landed  or  shipped 
there;  (b)  the  sum  charged  by  the 
owners  of  a market  or  fair  for  goods 
brought  to  be  sold  there;  (c)  a fixed 
charge  made  by  those  intrusted  with  the 
maintenance  of  roads,  streets,  bridges, 
etc.,  for  the  passage  of  persons,  goods, 
and  cattle.  See  Roads. 

TOLSTOI,  Count  Leo  Nikolaievitch, 
celebrated  Russian  novelist,  born  in 
1828.  In  1851  he  accompanied  his 
brother  to  the  Caucasus  and  entered 
the  army,  and  during  the  Crimean  war 
took  part  in  the  defense  of  Sebastopol. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  retired  to  his 
estates  and  devoted  himself  to  literary 
composition  and  schemes  for  the  educa- 
tion and  social  improvement  of  the 
peasantry.  Latterly  he  has  entirely 
given  himself  up  to  working  out  the 
higher  problems  of  life  experimentally — 
working  along  with  the  peasantry  in  a 
sort  of  communistic  life.  Among  his 
earliest  writings  of  moment  are  his  vivid 
sketches  from  Sebastopol.  His  three 
great  novels  are  the  Cossacks,  War  and 
Peace,  and  Anna  Karenina.  His  later 
writings  are  all  mostly  directed  toward 
an  explanation  of  his  peculiar  social  and 
mystic  religious  ideas.  Among  them  are 
Confessions,  My  Religion,  The  SearcJi 
for  Happiness,  Two  Generations,  Ir- 
fancy  and  Youth,  Death,  Great  Prob- 
lems of  History,  What  is  My  Life?  The 
Kreutzer  Sonata,  etc. 

TOLTEKS.  See  Mexico. 

TOMAHAWK,  the  light  battle-axe  of 


the  North  American  Indians.  The  head 
was  originally  of  stone  attached  to  the 
shaft  by  thongs,  etc.,  but  steel  heads 
were  latterly  supplied  by  American  and 


Tomahawks  of  the  North  American  Indians. 

European  traders.  The  Indians  can 
throw  the  tomahawk  to  a considerable 
distance,  unerringly  striking  the  object 
aimed  at  with  the  edge  of  the  hatchet. 

TOMATO,  or  LOVE-APPLE,  a plant 
belonging  to  the  natural  orderSolanaceae. 
It  is  a native  of  South  America,  but  has 
been  introduced  into  most  other  warm 
or  temperate  countries.  It  is  cultivated 


Tomato. 


for  the  sake  of  its  fruit,  which  is  fleshy, 
usually  scarlet  or  orange,  irregularly 
shaped,  and  is  largely  used  in  sauces, 
stews,  and  soups,  as  well  as  eaten  by  it- 
self. The  plant  is  a tender,  herbaceous 
annual,  with  yellow  flowers. 

TOMB,  any  sepulchral  structure, 
usually  a chamber  or  vault  formed 
wholly  or  partly  in  the  earth,  with  walls 
and  a roof,  for  the  reception  of  the  dead. 
See  Sarcophagus,  Burial,  and  Funeral 
Rites. 

TOMSK,  a town  of  Western  Siberia, 
capital  of  the  government  of  Tomsk,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Tom,  on  the  great 
road  to  China.  Pop.  52,430. — The  gov- 
ernment of  Tomsk  has  an  area  of  329,040 
sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  1,929,092.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Obi  and  its  tributaries, 
and  is  wild  and  desolate  in  the  north,  but 
furnishes  excellent  pasture  in  the  south. 

TON,  a denomination  of  weight  equiv- 
alent to  20  hundredweights  (contracted 
ewt.),  or  2240  lbs.  In  America  goods  are 
sometimes  weighed  by  the  short  ton, 
of  2000  lbs.,  the  hundredweight  being 
reckoned  at  100  lbs. ; but  it  is  decided  by 
act  of  congress  that,  unless  otherwise 
specified,  a ton  weight  is  to  be  under- 
stood as  2240  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

TONE,  in  music,  the  sound  produced 
by  the  vibration  of  a string  or  other 
sonorous  body ; a musical  sound.  Nearly 
every  musical  sound  is  composite,  that  is 
consists  of  several  simultaneous  tones 
naving  different  rates  of  vibration  ac- 
co’  ding  to  fixed  Jaws,  which  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  sonorous  body  and  the 
mode  of  producing  its  vibrations.  The 
simultaneously  sounding  components 
are  called  partial  tones;  that  one  having 


TONGUE 


TOPAZ 


the  lowest  rate  of  vibration  and  the 
loudest  sound  is  termed  the  prime, 
principal,  or  fundamental  tone;  the 
other  partial  tones  are  called  harmonics 
or  overtones.  See  Music,  Gregorian 
Tones,  Harmonics,  Acoustics. 

TONGUE,  the  organ  found  in  the 
mouth  of  most  vertebrate  animals, 
which  exercises  the  sense  of  taste,  and 
also  assists  in  speech  and  in  taking  food. 
The  name  tongue  is  also  given  to  very 
different  structures  in  Invertebrata. 
In  man  the  tongue  is  attached  by  its 
base  or  root  to  the  hyoid  bone ; its  other 
extremity  being  free.  The  upper  surface 
is  convex  with  a fibrous  middle  septum, 
called  the  raph6.  The  front  two-thirds 
of  the  tongue  are  rough,  and  bear  the 
papillse,'  in  which  the  sense  of  taste 
resides.  The  posterior  third  is  smooth, 
and  exhibits  the  openings  of  numerous 
mucous  glands.  The  substance  of  the 
tongue  consists  of  numerous  muscles. 
The  papilliE,  which  cause  the  character- 
istic roughness  of  the  tongue,  are  of 
three  kinds,  circum vallate,  fungiform, 
and  filiform.  Thelargestorcircumvallate 
papillae  number  from  eight  to  ten,  and 
occupy  the  posterior  part  of  the  upper 
surface.  They  vary  from  ^'^th  to 
inch  in  diameter.  The  fungiform  papillae 
are  scattered  irregularly,  the  filiform 
over  the  front.  In  structure  the  papillae 
are  like  those  of  the  skin  (which  see), 
and  contain  capillary  vessels  and  nerv- 
ous filaments.  Numerous  follicles  and 
mucous  or  lingual  glands  exist  on  the 
tongue,  the  functions  of  these  latter 
being  the  secretion  of  mucus.  The 
nervous  supply  is  distributed  in  the 
form  of  three  main  nerves  to  each  half 
of  the  organ.  The  gustatory  nerves  and 
the  glossopharyngeal  branches  are  the 
nerves  providing  the  tongue  with  com- 
mon sensation,  and  also  with  the  sense 
of  taste;  while  the  hypoglossal  nerve 
invests  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  with 
the  necessary  stimulus.  The  conditions 
necessary  for  the  exercise  of  the  sense  of 
taste  are,  firstly,  the  solution  of  the 
matters  to  be  tasted;  secondly,  the 
presence  of  a special  gustatory  nerve; 
and  thirdly,  that  the  surface  of  the  ton- 
gue itself  be  moist.  The  top  and  edges 
of  the  tongue  are  more  sensitive  to  taste 
than  the  middle  portion.  The  sense  of 
touch  is  very  acute  in  the  tongue. 

TONIC,  or  KEY-NOTE,  in  music,  the 
first  or  fundamental  note  of  any  scale, 
the  principal  sound  on  which  all  regular 
melodies  depend,  and  in  which  they  or 
their  accompanying  basses  naturally 
terminate. 

TONIC,  in  medicine,  any  remedy 
which  improves  the  tone  or  vigor  of  the 
fibers  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  or  of 
the  muscular  fibers  generally.  Tonics 
may  be  said  to  be  of  two  kinds,  medical 
and  non-medical.  Medical  tonics  act 
chiefly  in  two  ways:  (1)  indirectly,  by 
first  influencing  the  stomach  and  in- 
creasing its  digestive  powers ; such  being 
the  effect  of  the  vegetable  bitters,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  calumba, 
chamomile,  cinchona  bark,  gentian, 
taraxacum,  etc.  (2)  IDirectly,  by  passing 
into  and  exerting  their  influence  through 
the  blood;  such  being  the  case  with  the 
various  preparations  of  iron,  certain 
mineral  acids,  and  salts.  The  non- 
* medical  tonics  are  open-air  exercise,  I 


friction,  cold  in  its  various  forms  and 
applications,  as  the  shower-bath,  sea- 
bathing, etc. 

TONKA  (or  Tonga)  BEAN,  the  fruit 
of  a shrubby  plant  of  Guiana.  The  fruit 
is  an  oblong  dry  fibrous  drupe,  contain- 


ing a single  seed.  The  odor  of  the  kernel 
is  extremely  agreeable.  It  is  used  in  per- 
fumery. Called  also  Tonkin-bean,  Ton- 
quin-bean. 

TONNAGE,  a word  originally  signify- 
ing the  numoer  of  tons  weight  which  a 
ship  might  carry  with  safety,  but  now 
used  to  denote  the  gauge  of  the  vessel’s 
dimensions,  and  the  standard  for  tolls, 
dues,  etc.  It  is  generally  assumed  that 
40  cubic  feet  shall  constitute  a ton,  and 
the  tonnage  of  a ship  is  considered  to  be 
the  multiple  of  this  ton  which  most 
closely  corresponds  with  the  internal 
capacity  of  the  vessel.  Formerly  the 
rule  was  to  multiply  the  length  of  the 
ship  by  the  breadth,  assume  the  depth 
to  be  the  same  as  the  width,  multiply 
by  this  assumed  depth,  and  divide  the 
product  by  94,  the  quotient  being  the 
tons  burden.  But  this  mode  was  found 
to  be  both  misleading  and  dangerous; 
for  as  harbor  and  light  dues,  towage,  etc. 
were  charged  according  to  tonnage, 
shipowners  had  their  vessels  built  so 
deep  and  narrow  that  they  were  often 
unseaworthy.  An  improved  system  was 
introduced  in  1835  and  made  com- 
pulsory by  the  British  Merchant  Ship- 
ping Act  of  1854.  The  elaborate  instruc- 
tions of  this  statute  take  into  account 
not  only  the  depth  of  the  vessel,  but  also 
make  allowance  for  the  varying  curva- 
ture of  the  hull.  The  depth  from  the 
deck  to  the  bottom  of  the  hold  is  taken 
at  different  places,  and  the  breadth  is 
measured  at  different  elevations  in  the 
depth.  If  the  vessel  is  a steamer  an 
allowance  is  made  for  the  space  occupied 
by  the  engine-room,  boilers,  coal-bunks, 
etc.  In  vessels  with  a break  or  poop  in 
the  upper  deck,  the  tonnage  of  this  poop 
space  must  be  ascertained  and  added  to 
the  ordinary  tonnage.  In  the  United 
States  the  measurement  is  similar. 

TONQUIN  (tong-king'),  the  most 
northern  province  of  Anam  in  Asia ; 
area,  35,000  sq.  miles.  The  chief  river 
is  the  Song-ka.  The  principal  agricul- 
tural products  are  rice,  cotton,  spices, 
and  sugar;  and  the  province  is  rich  in 
timber  and  minerals.  The  climate  is 
unhealthy.  By  treaty  dated  June,  1884, 
Tonquin  was  ceded  to  France.  Pop. 
9,000,000. 


TONSILLI'TIS,  See  Quinsy. 

TONSILS,  in  anatomy,  two  oblong 
suboval  bodies  situated  on  each  side  of 
the  throat  or  fauces.  Their  minute 
structure  resembles  that  of  the  closed 
sacs  or  follicles  of  Peyer  in  the  intestine, 
and  their  function  is  not  yet  under- 
stood. See  Palate. 

TONSURE,  the  name  given  to  the  bare 
place  on  the  heads  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  Greek  priests,  formed  by  shav- 
ing or  cutting  away  the  hair  and  keeping 
it  so.  The  custom  of  cutting  away  the 
hair  in  token  of  the  dedication  of  a 
person  to  the  service  of  God  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  the  4th  century. 
Shaving  the  hair  precedes  consecration; 
it  is  performed  by  the  bishop.  The  ton- 
sure  admits  the  subject  intc  holy  orders, 
and  the  extent  of  the  tonsure  increases 
with  the  rank  held. 

TONTINE,  a kind  of  life  annuity,  so 
called  from  their  inventor  Tonti,  an 
Italian  of  the  17th  century.  A tontine 
is  an  annuity  shared  by  subscribers  to 
a loan,  with  the  benefit  of  survivorship, 
the  annuity  being  increased  as  the  sub- 
scribers die,  until  at  last  the  whole  goes 
to  the  last  survivor,  or  to  the  last  two  or 
three,  according  to  the  terms  on  which 
the  money  is  advanced.  By  means  of 
tontines  many  government  loans  were 
formerly  raised  in  England. 

TOOMBS,  Robert,  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Washington,  Ga.,  in 
1810.  After  several  years  in  the  Georgia 
legislature  he  was  elected  to  congress  in 
1844  and  held  his  seat  for  four  terms 
until  1853,  when  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  senate,  and  in  1859 
reelected.  It  was  chiefly  his  influence,  in 
opposition  to  the  more  conservative 
views  of  his  life-long  friend,  Alexander 
H.  Stephens,  that  led  Georgia  to  pass 
its  ordinance  of  secession.  On  the  elec- 
tion of  Davis,  Toombs  accepted  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state,  but  resigned 
after  a short  time  and  accepted  a com- 
mission as  brigadier-general.  He  served 
in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  and  at 
Sharpsburg,  and  later  was  made  briga- 
dier-general of  the  Georgia  militia.  He 
was  a bitter  opponent  of’the  “Recon- 
struction” measures,  and  never  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  He  is  mainly  re- 
membered as  one  of  the  most  typical 
and  vigorous  of  the  so-called  Southern 
“fire-eaters.”  He  died  in  1885. 

TOOTH.  See  Teeth. 

TOOTHACHE,  a well-known  affection 
of  the  teeth,  arising  from  various  causes. 
Inflammation  of  the  fangs  of  the  teeth 
is  a common  cause.  If  the  inflammation 
is  not  reduced  matter  forms,  and  the 
result  is  a gum-boil.  Caries  is  a frequent 
cause  of  toothache,  the  outer  part  of  the 
tooth  rotting  away  and  exposing  the 
nerve.  Neuralgia  toothache  is  a purely 
nervous  variety  and  may  occur  either 
in  sound  or  carious  teeth.  As  a pre- 
ventive against  toothache  the  teeth 
should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean,  and 
when  they  show  symptoms  of  decay  the 
services  of  a skilful  dentist  should  be  had 
recourse  to.  The  decay  of  a tooth  is  very 
often  arrested  by  stopping  or  filling  up 
the  cavity. 

TOPAZ,  a mineral,  ranked  by  mineral- 
ogists among  gems,  characterized  by 
having  the  luster  vitreous,  transparent 
to  translucent;  the  color  yellow,  white, 


TOPE 


rORSO 


green,  blue;  fracture  subconclioidal, 
uneven;  specific  gravity,  3.499.  It  is 
harder  than  quartz.  It  is  a silicate  of 
aluminium,  in  which  the  oxygen  is 
partly  replaced  by  fluorine.  It  occurs 
massive  and  in  crystals.  The  primary 
form  of  its  crystal  is  a right  rhombic 
prism.  Topazes  occur  generally  in 
igenous  and  metamorphic  rocks,  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  as  Cornwall, 
Scotland,  Saxony,  Siberia,  Brazil,  etc. 
The  finest  varieties  are  obtained  from 
Brazil  and  the  Ural  mountains.  Those 
from  Brazil  have  deep  yellow  tints; 
those  from  Siberia  have  a bluish  tinge; 
the  Saxon  topazes  are  of  a pale  wine- 
yellow,  and  those  found  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands  are  of  a sky-blue  color.  The 
purest  from  Brazil,  when  cut  in  facets, 
closely  resemble  the  diamond  in  luster 
and  brilliance. 

TOPE,  a popular  name  for  a species  of 
Buddhist  monument  intended  usually 
to  mark  some  important  event.  The 
oldest  monuments  of  this  kind  are 


Great  tope  at  Sanchi,  Central  India. 

spherical  or  elliptical  cupolas,  resting 
on  a circular  or  rectilinear  base,  with  an 
umbrella-shaped  structure  on  the  apex. 

TOPE'KA,  the  capital  of  Shawnee 
county  and  of  the  state  of  Kansas,  on  the 
Kansas  river,  68  miles  west  of  Kansas 
City  and  on  the  Santa  Fe,  Rock  Island, 
Union  Pacific  and  Missouri  Pacific 
railroads.  It  has  wide  well-built 


State  Capitol,  Topeka,  Kan. 

streets,  and  contains  a handsome  state- 
house,  court-house,  several  high-class 
educational  institutions,  etc.  There  are 
flour-mills,  iron-foundries,  a rolling- 
mill,  machine-shops,  brick-kilns,  brew- 
eries, etc.  Bituminous  coal  is  found  in 
the  neighborhood.  Pop.  51,600. 

TOPHET.  See  Gehenna. 

TORNA'DO,  a violent  cyclonic  storm ; 
more  especially  applied  to  those  whirl- 
wind hurricanes  prevalent  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in 


the  Indian  ocean  about  the  changes  of 
the  monsoons.  Tornadoes  are  usually 
accompanied  with  severe  thunder,  light- 
ning, and  torrents  of  rain;  but  they  are 
of  short  duration  and  limited  in  area. 

TORONTO,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Ontario,  situated  in  the 
county  of  York,  on  a small  bay  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  Lake  Ontario,  315 
miles  w.s.w.  of  Montreal.  Toronto  has 
iron-foundries  and  engineering  works, 
agricultural  implement  works,  brewer- 
ies, carriage-works,  tanneries,  soap 
works,  boot  and  shoe  factories,  piano 
and  organ  factories,  stove  foundries, 
etc.  It  was  founded  in  1794  and  was 
originally  named  York.  Pop.  325.400. 

TORPE'DO,  the  name  of  fishes  allied 
to  the  rays,  noted  for  their  power  of 
giving  electrical  shocks  by  means  of 
specially-developed  electrical  organs. 
The  electrical  organs  consist  of  two 
masses  placed  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
and  composed  of  numerous  vertical 
gelatinous  columns  separated  by  mem- 
braneous septa,  and  richly  furnished 
with  nervous  filaments.  The  production 
of  electricity  by  these  fishes  is  readily 
enough  explicable  on  the  ground  of  the 
conversion  of  an  equivalent  of  nerve 
force  into  electric  force  by  the  electric 
organ;  just  as,  under  other  circum- 
stances, nerve  force  is  converted  into 
motion  through  the  muscles.  The  power 
of  the  discharge  varies  with  the  health 
and  size  of  the  fish.  The  torpedoes  occur 
in  typical  perfection  chiefly  in  the  Medi- 
terranean sea,  and  in  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  oceans.  A large  specimen  may 
measure  4 feet  long,  and  weigh  from  60 
to  70  pounds. 

TORPEDO,  a name  for  two  distinct 
classes  of  submarine  destructive  agents, 
namely,  torpedoes  proper,  which  are 
movable,  and  are  propelled  against  an 
enemy’s  ship;  and  submarine  mines, 
which  lie  stationary  in  the  water.  Of 
the  first  class,  called  offensive  torpedoes, 
there  are  three  principal  types;  (a)  the 
“locomotive,”  of  which  the  Whitehead 
is  the  best-known  form;  (b)  the  “tow- 
ing” torpedo  of  Captain  Harvey;  and 
(c)  the  “spar”  or  “outrigger”  torpedo. 
The  Whitehead,  or  fish  torpedo,  may 
be  described  as  being  a cigar-shaped 
vessel,  varying  from  14  to  19  feet  in 
length,  and  from  14  to  16  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  made  of  specially  pre- 
pared steel,  and  is  divided  into  three 
compartments;  the  head  contains  the 
gun-cotton  which  forms  its  charge  and 
the  fuse  for  exploding  it  when  it 
comes  in  contact  with  a vessel.  The 
central  part  contains  the  engines  by 
which  it  is  propelled,  and  v/hich  are 


Whiteliead  torpedo. 


worked  by  compressed  air,  a sufficient 
supply  of  which  for  driving  the  tor- 
pedo the  required  distance  is  stored 
in  the  third,  or  tail  compartment.  The 
propeller  is  a three-bladed  screw,  which 


can  move  the  largest  sized  torpedoeaH 
at  a speed  of  24  knots  for  the  dis^| 
tance  of  220  yards,  the  distance  of^| 
1000  yards  being  i-eached  at  a slower^! 
rate  of  progress.  By  means  of  a hori-^B 
zontal  balance  rudder  it  can  be  mad^H 
to  sink  and  to  remain  during  its  run  at^| 
any  required  distance  below  the  suiface^B 
of  the  water,  so  that  it  may  be  dis-^B 
charged  from  the  deck  of  a ship  or  from^M 
a tube  opening  into  the  sea  below  theS 
water-line.  At  close  quarters  this  is  a^B 
very  destructive  weapon  against  iron-^B 
clad  vessels,  striking  them  beneath  M 
their  armor.  The  Harvey  torpedo  is^| 
constructed  to  be  pulled  through  the® 
water  something  in  the  fashion  of  a^B 
ship’s  log.  It  has  been,  however,  super^^B 
seded  by  the  Brennan  and  other  formOTB 
of  manoeuvred  torpedo.  The  spar  or'® 
outrigger  torpedo  consists  simply  of  afl 
metal  case  containing  the  explosive  S 
substance  (gunpowder,  gun-cotton,  dy-  3 
namite,  etc.),  and  fitted  with  a fuse  con-  ^ 
structed  so  that  it  can  be  fired  at  pleas-  | 
ure,  or  exploded  by  contact  with  a 
ship’s  side.  It  is  screwed  on  to  a long 
spar,  which  is  usually  fixed  in  the  bow 
of  a swift  boat  or  steam-launch,  which 
endeavors  to  reach  and  push  the  tor- 
pedo against  the  hostile  vessel.  Station- 
ary torpedoes  or  submarine  mines,  such 
as  one  placed  in  channels  or  coasts  to 
prevent  the  approach  of  the  enemy’s 
vessels,  usually  consist  of  a strong  metal  ^ 
case  containing  an  effective  explosive, 
such  as  gun-cotton,  etc.,  and  having,  a 
fuse  or  cap  which  will  explode  the 
charge  on  the  slightest  contact;  or  the 
explosion  may  be  effected  by  means 
of  electricity,  the  operator  firing  it  at 
will  from  the  shore. 

TORPEDO-BOAT,  a vessel  specially 
intended  to  make  use  of  torpedoes  in 
warfare  by  exploding  them  against 
another  vessel.  The  torpedo-boat  is 
usually  a small,  swift  steamer,  lying  low  ■ 
in  the  water,  and  meant  to  approach 
the  enemy  either  by  surprise  or  under 
cover  of  darkness.  Such  vessels  are 
chiefly  intended  for  the  protection  of 
coasts  against  hostile  vessels.  They 
vary  greatly  in  size,  the  smaller  being 
only  of  from -12  to  15  tons.  Some  of 
them  have  a speed  of  27  knots  or  more. 
Another  class  of  torpedo  craft  are  the 
torpedo-boat  destroyers,  or  “torpedo- 
catchers,”  very  fast  vessels,  heavily 
armed  with  quick-firing  guns,  and  with 
good  sea-going  qualities.  See  Sub- 
marine Boat. 

TORRICELLI  (tor-ri-cheTle),  Evan- 
gelista, Italian  physicist,  born  in  1608, 
died  in  1647.  Torricelli’s  name  is  im- 
portant in  the  history  of  science  as  the 
discoverer  of  the  law  on  which  the 
barometer  depends.  See  Barometer. 

TORSION  BALANCE,  an  instrument 
employed  to  measure  the  intensities  of 
very  small  forces.  It  consists  of  a fine 
wire,  silk  thread,  or  the  like,  suspended 
from  a fixed  point,  and  having  a horizon- 
tal needle  attached,  the  force  bcrng 
measured  by  the  resistance  to  twisting 
which  the  filament  exhibits  \yhcn  the 
force  (that  of  attraction,  for  instance) 
acts  on  the  needle. 

TORSO,  an  art  term  signifying  ■ 
trunk  of  a statue  of  which  the  head  and 
the  extremities  are  wanting.  The  teso 
of  Hercules,  in  the  Belvidere  at  Rome, 


TORT 


TOULON-SUR-MER 


is  considered  by  connoisseurs  one  of  the 
finest  -works  of  art  remaining  from 
antiquity.  . . 

TORT,  in  la-w,  denotes  injustice  or 
injury.  * Actions  upon  torts  or  -wrongs 
are  all  personal  actions  for  trespasses, 
nuisances,  assaults,  defamatory  "words, 
and  the  like. 

TORTOISE  (tor'tis),  the  name  ap- 
plied to  various  genera  qf  reptiles  in- 
cluded -with  the  turtles  and  their  allies. 
The  distinctive  features  of  the  tortoises 
consist  in  the  modification  of  the  skele- 
ton and  of  the  skin-structure  or  scales 
to  form  the  -well-known  bony  box  in 
which  their  bodies  are  inclosed,  the 
upper  portion  of  which  is  the  carapace, 
the  lower  the  plastron.  The  land- 
tortoises  have  short  stunted  limbs 
adapted  for  terrestrial  progression-,  the 
short  toes  are  bound  together  by  the 
skin,  and  have  well-developed  nails. 
The  carapace  is  strongly  convex,  and  is 
covered  by  horny  epidermic  plates.  The 
horny  jaws  are  adapted  for  cutting,  or 
may  be  divided  into  serrated  processes. 
The  head,  limbs,  and  tail  can  be  com- 
pletely retracted  within  the  carapace. 
Though  capable  of  swimming,  the  tor- 
toises proper  are  really  terrestrial 
animals,  and  are  strictly  vegetable 
feeders.  The  most  familiar  example  is 
the  common  Greek  or  European  tortoise 
which  occurs  chiefly  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  the  Mediterranean.  These 
animals  sometimes  live  to  a great  age 
(over  100  years  according  to  some),  and 
hybernate  through  the  colder  season  of 


Common  or  Greek  tortoise. 


the  year.  They  attain  a length  of  12 
inches.  A much  larger  species  is  the 
great  Indian  tortoise,  which  attains  a 
length  of  over  3 feet  and  a weight  of  200 
lbs.  Its  flesh  is  reckoned  food  of  ex- 
cellent quality,  as  are  also  its  eggs.  The 
box  tortoise  of  India  and  Madagascar 
is  remarkable  for  the  curious  develop- 
ment of  the  front  part  of  the  plastron, 
which  shuts  over  the  anterior  aperture 
of  the  shell  like  a lid  when  the  animal 
retracts  itself.  In  the  box  tortoise  of 
North  America  the  hinder  part  of  the 
plastron  forms  a lid.  It  is  included 
among  the  Emydm  or  terrapins.  Other 
genera  include  the  alligator  terrapin  of 
America,  also  called  the  “snapping 
turtle.”  The  mud  of  soft  tortoises  occur 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America. 
They  have  soft  fleshy  lips,  and  no  horny 
plates  are  developed  in  the  skin.  Very 
frequently  also  the  ribs  are  not  so 
modified  as  to  form  a hard  carapace, 

’ as  in  other  chelonia.  See  also  Turtle. 

\ TORTOISE-SHELL,  a name  popu- 
I larly  applied  to  the  shell  or  rather  the 
scutes  or  scales  of  the  tortoise  and  other 
' allied  chelonians,  especially  to  those  of 
I the  hawk’s-bill  turtle,  a species  which 
i inhabits  tropical  seas.  The  horny  scales 
I or  plates  which  form  the  covering  of  this 

i P.  E.— 79 


animal  are  extensively  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  combs,  snuff-boxes,  etc.,  and 
in  inlaying  and  other  ornamental  work. 
It  becomes  very  plastic  when  heated, 
and  when  cold  retains  with  sharpness 
any  form  it  may  be  molded  to  in  its 
heated  state.  Pieces  can  also  be  welded 
together  under  the  pressure  of  hot  irons. 
It  is  now  largely  imitated  by  horn  and 
cheap  artificial  compounds. 

TORTU'GAS,  or  DRY  TORTUGAS,  a 
group  of  ten  small  low  barren  islands 
belonging  to  Florida,  United  States, 
about  40  miles  w.  of  the  most  western 
of  the  Florida  Keys.  On  Loggerhead 
Key  there  is  a lighthouse  150  feet  high. 

TORTURE,  the  arbitrary  and  espe- 
cially excessive  infliction  of  pain  ju- 
dicially, whether  to  extort  confession  or 
to  aggravate  punishment.  Torture  has 
been  common  in  all  the  nations  of 
modern  Europe,  and  it  was  also  prac- 
ticed by  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
practice  was  first  adopted  by  the  church 
in  the  early  n iddle  ages,  and  when  the 
old  superstitious  means  of  discovering 
guilt  (as  in  ordeal  by  fire  and  water)  lost 
their  efficacy  torture  became  general  in 
Europe.  Though  never  recognized  by 
the  common  law  of  England,  it  was 
employed  there  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  and  in  Scotland  torture  was 
not  wholly  abandoned  till  very  near 
the  close  of  the  17th  century.  Every 
reader  is  familiar  with  the  horrid  tor- 
tures inflicted  on  those  accused  of  witch- 
craft, and  on  many  of  the  covenanters, 
by  means  of  thumbkins,  the  boot,  etc., 
in  order  to  discover  alleged  hiding-places 
and  the  like.  In  the  German  states  tor- 
ture continued  to  be  practiced  under 
certain  restrictions  till  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  The  chief  instrument  of 
torture  was  the  rack  (which  see). 

TOTEM,  a rude  picture  of  some 
natural  object,  as  of  a bird  or  beast, 
used  by  the  American  Indians  as  a sym- 
bol and  designation  of  a family  or  tribe. 


Totem  posts. 

A similar  practice  has  been  found  to  pre- 
vail among  other  savage  peoples,  and 
some  theorists  have  given  it  a very  wide 
extension  on  purely  conjectural  grounds. 

TOUCAN,  a genus  of  scansorial  or 
climbing  birds.  These  birds  inhabit  the 


tropical  regions  of  South  America  and 
are  distinguished  by  a large  keeled  bill. 
The  bill  is  about  8 inches  long,  and  its 
substance  is  hallowed  out  into  air-cells, 
thus  being  comparatively  light.  The 


toucans  feed  on  fruits,  seeds,  insects, 
etc.  The  prevailing  colors  among  the 
toucans  are  yellow,  black,  and  red.  The 
bill  is  frequently  very  brilliantly  colored. 

TOUCH,  the  sense  of  feeling  and  the 
most  widely  diffused  of  the  senses.  It 
resides  in  the  skin  (see  Skin),  and  is  exer- 
cised through  certain  structures  situated 
in  the  papillae  of  the  true  skin  and  con- 
nected with  terminal  filaments  of  sen- 
sory nerves.  These  structures  have  some 
variety  of  form,  and  are  called  tactile 
cells,  tactile  corpuscles,  compound  tac- 
tile corpuscles.  Pacinian  corpuscles,  etc. 
All  the  kinds  are  to  be  regarded  as  ter- 
minal organs  of  the  sensory  nerves,  act- 
ing as  the  media  by  which  impressions 
made  on  the  skin  are  communicated  to 
the  nerve  fibers.  Although  the  sense  of 
touch  is  diffused  over  the  whole  body,  it 
is  much  more  exquisite  in  some  parts 
than  in  others.  Experiment  shows  the 
tip  of  the  tongue  to  be  the  most  sensitive 
surface,  the  points  of  the  fingers  come 
next,  while  the  red  part  of  the  lips 
follows  in  order.  The  neck,  middle  of 
the  back,  and  the  middle  of  the  arm  and 
thigh  are  the  least  acute  surfaces. 

TOUCH-PAPER,  paper  steeped  in 
saltpeter,  which  burns  slowly,  and  is 
used  as  a match  for  firing  gunpowder, 

TOUCHSTONE,  a variety  of  extremely 
compact  siliceous  schist,  used  for  ascer- 
taining the  purity  of  gold  and  silver. 
Known  also  as  black  jasper  and  basan- 
ite.  It  was  called  Lydian  stone,  or  lapis 
Lydia,  by  the  ancients,  because  found  in 
Lydia  in  Asia  Minor.  A series  of  needles 
(called  touch-needles)  of  which  the  com- 
position is  known  are  used  for  cor^ari- 
son  with  the  article  to  be  tested.  When 
the  color  of  the  streak  produced  by 
both  the  needle  and  the  trinket  on  the 
stone  is  the  same  the  quantity  of  alloy 
they  contain  is  supposed  to  be  similar. 

TOULON-SUR-MER  (to-lon-sur-m ar) , 
a seaport,  and  after  Brest  the  most  im- 
portant naval  station  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Var,  situated  on  a 
bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  42  miles 
e.s.e.  of  Marseilles.  It  is  defended  by 
numerous  forts  and  redoubts,  and  strong 
forts  and  outworks  occupy  all  the 
heights  surrounding  the  town.  Toulon 
has  a cathedral  originally  Romanesque 
of  the  11th  century,  a good  town-hall, 
theater,  etc.,  besides  the  arsenal  and 
other  marine  establishments,  which  are 


TOULOUSE 


TOWN 


on  a most  extensive  scale.  The  chief 
harbors  and  docks  are  separated  from 
the  roadstead  by  moles,  which  are  hol- 
low and  bomb-proof,  and  lined  by  bat- 


teries, and  the  storehouses,  ship-yards, 
workshops,  etc.,  are  most  complete. 
Pop.  101,172. 

TOULOUSE  (to-lbz),  a town  of  South- 
ern France,  capital  of  the  department 
of  Haute-Garonne,  on  the  Garonne 
(which  is  navigable  and  crossed  by 
three  bridges),  160  miles  s.e.  of  Bor- 
deaux. Among  remarkable  public  build- 
ings are  the  cathedral,  the  church  of  St. 
Sernin,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the 
Palais  de  Justice.  Toulouse  has  uni- 
versity faculties,  a Roman  Catholic 
university,  a lyceum,  and  other  educa- 
tional institutions,  public  library  of 
60,000  vols.,  etc.  It  is  the  chief  en- 
trepot of  the  district  for  agricultural 
produce  and  general  trade,  and  is  an  im- 
portant inudstrial  center.  Pop.  149,791 

TOURAC'O,  a name  of  insessorial 
birds,  natives  of  Africa,  and  allied  to  the 
Scansores,  or  climbing  birds.  Their  pre- 


vailing color  is  green,  varied  in  some 
species  with  purple  on  the  wings  and 
tail.  They  feed  chiefly  on  soft  fruits. 

TOURAINE  (to-ran),  an  ancient  prov- 
ince of  France,  bounded  north  by  Maine, 
east  by  OrRanais  and  Berry,  south  by 
Berry  and  Poitou,  and  west  by  Anjou 
and  Poitou.  It  now  forms  the  depart- 
ment of  Indre-et-Loire. 

TOURCOING  (t6r-kwan),  a town  of 
France,  department  of  Nord,  9 miles 
n.n.e.  of  Lille,  a well-built  thriving 
manufacturing  town,  the  staple  manu- 
factures being  woolen,  cotton,  linen, 
and  silk  stuffs,  besides  dye-works,  soap- 
works,  sugar-refineries,  machine  w'orks, 
etc.  Pop.  78,468. 

TOURGUENIEFF  (tor-gen'yef),  Ivan 
Sergeyevitch,  a celebrated  Russian  nov- 
elist, born  at  Orel  1818,  died  near  Paris, 


1882.  His  first  important  publication 
was  translated  into  English  under  the 
title  of  Russian  Life  in  the  Interior, 
or  the  Experiences  of  a Sportsman. 
A powerful  politico-social  novel.  Fathers 
and  Sons,  was  published  in  1861,  and 
met  with  much  adverse  criticism  in 
Russia.  His  other  works  include  Smoke, 
Spring  Floods,  Virgin  Soil,  etc.,  all  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. Tourguenieff  has  been  ranked  with 
the  greatest  masters  of  fiction. 

TOURMALINE  (tor'ma-lin),  a mineral 
occurring  crystallized  in  three-sided  or 
six-sided  prisms,  terminated  by  three- 
sided  pyramids,  the  primary  form  being 
a rhomboid.  It  scratches  glass  easily, 
has  a specific  gravity  of  3,  and  consists 
principally  of  a compound  silicate  and 
borate  of  alumina  and  magnesia.  Tour- 
maline occurs  most  commonly  in  igne- 
ous and  metamorphic  rocks,  especially 
in  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-slate.  Some 
varieties  are  transparent,  some  trans- 
lucent, some  opaque.  Some  are  colorless, 
and  others  green,  brown,  red,  blue,  and 
black.  Red  tourmaline  is  known  as 
rubellite,  blue  tourmaline  as  indicolite, 
and  black  tourmaline  as  schorl.  The 
transparent  varieties  include  various 
well-known  jewelry  stones,  as  the 
Brazilian  sapphire,  the  Brazilian  emer- 
ald, etc.  Prisms  of  tourmaline  are  much 
used  in  polarizing  apparatus,  and  it  pos- 
sesses powerful  electric  properties. 

TOURNAMENT,  or  TOURNEY,  a 
common  sport  of  the  middle  ages,  in 
which  parties  of  mounted  knights  en- 
countered each  other  with  lances  and 
swords  in  order  to  display  their  skill  in 
arms.  Tournaments  reached  their  full 
perfection  in  France  in  the  9th  and  10th 
centuries,  where  they  first  received  the 
form  under  which  they  are  known  to  us. 
They  were  introduced  into  England 
soon  after  the  conquest  of  the  Normans. 
Jousts  were  single  combats  between  two 
knights,  and  at  a tournament  there 
would  often  be  a number  of  jousts  as 
well  as  combats  between  parties  of 
knights.  The  place  of  combat  was  the 
lists,  a large  open  place  surrounded  by 
ropes  or  a railing.  Galleries  were  erected 
for  the  spectators,  among  whom  were 
seated  the  ladies,  the  supreme  judges 
of  tournaments.  A knight  taking  part 
in  a tournament  generally  carried  some 
device  emblematic  of  a lady’s  favor. 
Tournaments  gradually  went  out  with 
the  decline  of  chivalry,  and  were  little 
practiced  after  the  16th  century. 

TOURNIQUET,  an  appliance  em- 
ployed in  the  practice  of  surgery  to  stop 
bleeding,  its  use  being  only  intended  to 
be  temporary.  Some  kinds  of  ligature 
twisted  tight  with  a stick  forms  a simple 
tourniquet. 

TOURS  (tor),  a town  of  France,  capi- 
tal of  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  145  miles 
by  rail  southwest  of  Paris.  The  prin- 
cipal edifice  is  the  cathedral  (Tours 
being  an  archbishopric),  flanked  by  two 
towers,  205  feet  high,  a fine  building 
begun  in  the  12th,  completed  in  the  16th 
century.  It  became  famous  for  its  silk 
manufactures,  and  had  a population  of 
80,000,  when  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes  deprived  it  of  nearly  half  its 
inhabitants,  a blow  from  which  it  has 
‘ never  recovered.  In  1870  Tours  was  the 


seat  of  the  government  of  national  d? 
fense.  Pop.  64,448.  .'J 

TOURVILLE,  De,  Anne  Hilarion  de 
Colentin,  Count,  a distinguished  French 
admiral,  born  at  Tourville,  La  Manche 
1642;  died  at  Paris  1701.  He  defeate 
a Dutch  ana  English  leet  off  Beachy 
Head  in  July,  1690.  In  1692  he  was 
ordered  to  attack  a far  superior  Dutch 
English  fleet  off  La  Hogue,  and  was  deA 
feated.  He  was  created  a marshal  im 
1693,  and  in  1694  destroyed  a Dutch 
and  English  trading  fleet  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent. 

TOUSSAINT-LOUVERTURE  (to-san- 
lo-ver-tiir),  a distinguished  negro,  born  a 
slave  in  the  Island  of  Hayti  in  1743., 
After  the  insurrection  of  1791  Toussaint 
served  in  the  army  of  the  blacks,  and 
latterly  rose  to  be  their  leader.  After  a 
severe  struggle  with  insurrectionary 
movements  he  assumed  supreme  civil 
authority,  and  in  1801  was  completely 
master  of  the  island.  Napoleon  did  not 
choose  to  see  him  independent,  although 
professedly  loyal  to  France,  and  sent  a 
powerful  expedition  to  subdue  Tous- 
saint, who  was  forced  to  surrender. 
After  a vigorous  resistance  he  was  seized 
and  sent  to  France,  where  he  died  in 
prison,  27th  April,  1803. 

TOWER  OF  LONDON,  a celebrated 
ancient  fortress  in  London,  consisting 
of  a collection  of  buildings  of  various 
ages  on  a somewhat  elevated  po.sition 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  DUt- 
side  the  old  city  walls.  It  covers  about 
13  acres,  and  is  surrounded  by  a battle- 
mented  wall  flanked  with  massive 
towers  and  encircled  by  a moat.  There 
is  also  an  inner  line  of  circumvallation 
broken  by  towers,  and  interspersed  with 
other  buildings.  In  the  center  is  the 
White’  Tower,  the  keep  of  the  old  for- 
tress, around  which  are  grouped  the 
chapel,  the  jewel-house,  barracks  and 


t; 


i 

si 


The  Tower  of  London. 


other  buildings.  The  Tower  was  a first-^ 
class  mediaeval  fortress,  and  served  atlj 
once  as  a palace,  a prison,  and  a place  of* 
defense  The  White  Tower  was  builti 
by  Gundulf,  bishop  of  llochester,  for'..* 
William  I.  in  1078.  It  was  successively^ 
strengthened  by  various  English  sover-l 
eigns.  The  regalia,  consisting  of  thea 
royal  crowns,  sceptres,  etc.,  are  now%_ 
kept  and  exhibited  in  the  jewel-house. 
The  armory  contains  a fine  collection  * I 
of  armor  and  weapons.  In  the  part  called  ^ 
the  Bloody  Tower  the  two  young  princes,'  i 
sons  of  Edward  IV.,  were  murdered. 
The  Tower  is  now  chiefly  used  as  an  ' 
arsenal,  and  has  a small  military  gar-jmi  " 
risen  of  the  yeomen  of  the  guard.  Itis^ 
governed  by  a constable  and  deputy-  ■ 
constable.  The  governorship  is  still  a | 
post  of  distinction.  Ij 

TOWN.  See  Qty.  I 


TOWNSEND 


TRADES-UNIONS 


TOWNS'END,  Edward  Waterman, 
American  novelist,  was  born  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  in  1855.  His  novels  of  New 
York  life  with  the  picturesque  slang  of 
the  streets  have  been  very  successful. 
Among  them  are;  Chimmie  Fadden  and 
Major  Max;  Chimmie  Fadden  Explains, 
Major  Max  Expounds.  A Daughter  of 
the  Tenements  and  Days  Like  These  are 
novels,  also  of  New  York  life.  Later 
books  are  Chimmie  Fadden  and  Mr. 
Pard,  and  Lees  and  Leaven. 

TOWNSEND,  George  Alfred,  Ameri- 
can journalist,  was  born  in  Georgetown, 
Del.,  in  1841.  He  was  successively  con- 
nected with  the  Philadelphia  Inquirer 
and  Press,  the  New  York  Herald  and 
World,  and  the  Chicago  Tribune.  He 
first  gained  distinction  as  a war  corre- 
spond^ent.  Among  his  books  the  most 
noteworthy  are:  Campaigns  of  a Non- 
Combatant,  Poems,  Washington  Out- 
side and  Inside,  Tales  of  the  Chesapeake, 
The  Entailed  Hat,  and  a drama.  Presi- 
dent Cromwell.  Much  of  his  newspaper 
correspondence  was  over  the  signature 
Gath. 

TOWNSHIP,  in  England,  a division 
of  a parish  which  has  a constable,  and 
may  have  overseers  of  the  poor  belong- 
ing to  itself.  In  the  United  States  a 
township  is  a subdivision  of  a county, 
without  reference  to  its  population. 
They  are  generally  squares  of  36  sq. 
miles  area. 

TOXICOLOGY,  the  science  of  poisons 
and  antidotes.  See  Poison. 

TRACHEA  (tra'ke-a),  or  WINDPIPE, 
in  anatomy,  the  name  given  to  the  tube 
extending  from  the  larynx  (which  see) 
down  into  the  chest  to  a point  opposite 
the  third  dorsal  vertebra,  where  the 
tube  divides  into  two  chief  divisions  or 
bronchi  (which  see),  one  of  which  sup- 
plies each  lung  with  the  air  necessary 
for  respiration  or  breathing.  The 
trachea  in  man  is  of  cylindrical  form, 
about  inches  long,  and  from  | to  1 
inch  in  diameter,  and  is  composed 
of  from  sixteen  to  twenty  rings  or 


Trachea— Section  through  part  of 
face  and  neck. 

zones  of  gristly  or  cartilaginous  nature, 
separated  and  connected  by  fibrous 
tissue.  Each  cartilage  forms  an  imper- 
fect ring,  being  unclosed  behind,  and 
having  the  gristly  edges  merely  joined 
by  fibrous  membrane.  The  windpipe  is 
lined  by  delicate  mucous  membrane 
which  is  covered  by  epithelial  cells 
provided  with  delicate  vibratile  pro- 
cesses or  cilia.  All  mammals,  reptilia 
and  birds  possess  a trachea,  but  some 
amphibia  want  this  organ;  the  lungs 
in  such  cases  springing  directly  from 
the  larynx.  The  cut  shows  the  trachea 
a a,  the  epiglottis  b,  the  larynx  c,  and 
the  cesophagus  d. 


TRACHEOTOMY,  LARYNGOTOMY, 
or  BRONCHOTOMYj  an  operation  in 
which  an  opening  is  made  into  the 
trachea  or  larynx,  as  in  cases  of  suffoca- 
tion. 

TRACING-PAPER,  transparent  paper 
which  enables  a drawing  or  print  to  be 
clearly  seen  through  it  when  laid  on  the 
drawing,  so  that  a pen  or  pencil  may  be 
used  in  tracing  the  outlines  of  the 
original.  It  is  prepared  from  smooth 
unsized  white  paper  rendered  trans- 
parent by  a varnish  made  of  oil  of  tur- 
pentine with  an  equal  part  Canada 
balsam,  nut-oil,  or  other  oleo-resin. 

TRACTION-ENGINE.  See  under 
Steam-engine. 

TRADE,  Boards  of,  are  associations 
of  merchants,  bankers,  brokers,  and 
manufacturers,  organized  in  the  leading 
cities  of  the  United  States  and  Europe, 
to  develop  and  promote  the  financial, 
commercial  and  productive  interests 
of  communities  and  nations ; movements 
in  behalf  of  associations  of  this  charac- 
ter were  started  in  America  as  early  as 
1768,  when  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of 
New  York  City  was  established.  The 
purpose  of  these  local  oi'ganizations  is 
to  consider  questions  of  local  importance 
connected  with  trade,  commerce,  trans- 
portation, etc.,  and  to  secure  the  estab- 
lishment and  promotion  of  undertakings 
of  a local  character.  These  local  organi- 
zations may  be  divided  into  trading 
and  deliberative  bodies,  the  Merchants 
Exchange  of  St.  Louis  and  Board  of 
Trade  of  Chicago  being  of  the  former 
class,  and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of 
New  York  City  of  the  latter.  In  1868 
a meeting  of  delegates  from  30  of  the 
largest  cities  met  at  Philadelphia,  and 
perfected  an  organization  “to  promote 
the  efficiency  and  extend  the  usefulness 
of  the  various  Chambers  of  Commerce, 
Boards  of  Trade,  and  other  chartered 
bodies,  organized  for  commercial  pur- 
poses in  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
secure  unity  and  harmony  of  action  in 
reference  to  commercial  usages,  cus- 
toms, and  laws;  and  especially  in  order 
to  secure  the  proper  consideration  of 
questions  pertaining  to  the  financial 
commercial,  and  industrial  interests  of 
the  country  at  large.”  Since  that  date 
conventions  have  been  held  annually, 
with  steadly  increasing  benefits  to  the 
cause  the  association  was  created  to 
fotser  and  encourage.  Supplementary 
to  boards  of  trade  and  chambers  of 
commerce,  organizations  have  been 
recently  created  for  similar  purposes 
in  connection  with  some  especial  depart- 
ment of  commercial  endeavor,  such  as 
corn  and  produce  exchanges,  etc.  These 
exert  a substantial  influence  in  their 
several  fields  of  usefulness,  and  are 
steadily  growing  in  number  and  im- 
portance. 

TRADE-MARK,  a peculiar  mark  used 
by  a manufacturer  to  distinguish  his 
own  productions  from  those  of  other 
persons.  Such  marks  can  now  be  regis- 
tered and  protected  in  all  the  more  im- 
portant countries,  and  between  these 
also  there  is  a general  reciprocity  as  to 
protection.  Regarding  trade-marks 
many  nice  questions  may  arise,  and 
it  is  not  easy  to  define  what  constitutes 
a valid  trade-mark.  A mere  descriptive 
title  or  a geographical  name  will  not 


constitute  a proper  trade-mark;  what 
it  is  best  to  select  is  some  invented  word 
or  words,  or  a word  or  words  having  no 
reference  to  the  character  or  quality 
(though  suggestive  of  excellence),  some 
distinctive  device,  figure,  emblem,  or 
design,  or  a written  signature  or  copy  of 
such.  Any  mark  or  name  calculated  to 
mislead  as  to  the  real  nature  or  origin  of 
the  goods  will  be  vitiated. 

TRADES-UNIONS,  a trade  society  is 
defined  in  the  report  of  the  Social 
Science  committee  on  the  subject  ap- 
pointed at  Bradford,  in  1859,  “as  a com- 
bination of  workmen  to  enable  each  to 
secure  the  conditions  most  favorable 
for  labor;”  and  although  trades-unions, 
as  they  are  generally  called,  almost 
always  have  other  objects  in  view  in 
addition  to  that  specified  in  the  defini- 
tion, that  object  is  their  distinguishing 
one.  Combinations  of  this  sort  in  Great 
Britain  are  considerably  more  than  three 
centuries  old,  for  there  is  a statute  of 
the  year  1548  expressly  directed  against 
them.  Trades-unions  generally  endeavor 
to  regulate  the  prices  and  the  hours 
of  labor,  and  in  many  cases  the  num- 
ber of  men  engaged  by  an  employer, 
the  number  of  apprentices  which  may 
be  bound  in  proportion  to  the  journey- 
men employed  by  a master,  and  the  like. 
As  accessories  these  unions  may  collect 
funds  for  benefit  societies,  and  under- 
take the  insurance  of  tools,  libraries,  and 
reading-rooms;  but  their  fund,  to  which 
every  member  must  regularly  contribute 
a stated  sum,  is  principally  reserved  for 
enabling  the  men  to  resist,  by  strikes 
and  otherwise,  such  action  on  the  part 
of  the  employers  as  would  tend  to  lower 
the  rate  of  wages  or  lengthen  the  hours 
of  labor.  That  trades-unions  enable  the 
men  to  benefit  by  the  state  of  trade 
more  than  they  otherwise  would  have 
done  would  appear  from  the  fact  that 
the  worst-paid  trades  are  those  without 
unions.  Trades-unions  are  also  said  to 
have  furthered  the  safety  of  the  laborer 
by  producing  beneficial  modifications 
of  the  conditions  in  which  he  works. 
Some  hostility  against  trades-unions 
has  been  produced  by  the  outrages  of  a 
more  or  less  serious  nature  of  which 
some  of  the  unions,  or  members  of  them, 
have  been  guilty,  such  outrages  being 
directed  against  the  property  of  em- 
ployers, or  against  the  persons  and  tools 
of  non-union  men.  The  intimidation  of 
non-unionists  who  venture  to  take  work 
where  the  men  are  out  on  strike  is  also  a 
common  practice.  In  Britain  special 
legislation  has  been  introduced  to  cope 
with  these  outrages.  The  trades-unions 
now  represented  at  the  annual  congress 
number  considerably  over  one  million. 
In  the  United  States  the  federal  statute 
providing  for  the  incorporation  of 
trades-unions,  says:  “In  the  meaning 
of  this  act  shall  signify  any  association 
of  working  people  having  two  or  more 
branches  in  the  states  or  territories  of 
the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of 
aiding  its  members  to  become  more 
skilful  and  efficient  workers,  the  pro- 
motion of  their  general  intelligence,  the 
elevation  of  their  character,  the  regula- 
tion of  their  wages  and  their  hours  and 
conditions  of  labor,  the  protection  of 
their  individual  rights  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  their  trade  or  trades,  the  raising 


TRADE-WIND 


trammel 


of  funds  for  the  benefit  of  the  sick,  dis- 
abled, or  unemployed  members,  or  the 
families  of  deceased  members,  or  for  such 
other  object  or  objects  for  which  work- 
ing people  may  lawfully  combine,  hav- 
ing in  view  their  mutual  protection  or 
benefit.”  There  is  no  record  of  a trade 
union  before  1803,  the  year  in  which  the 
New  York  Society  of  Journeymen  Ship- 
wrights was  incorporated.  In  1806  a 
union  of  the  House  Carpenters  of  the 
City  of  New  York  and  of  the  Journey- 
men Tailors  was  organized.  The  New 
York  Typographical  Society  had  been 
in  active  existence  for  some  time  prior 
to  1817.  In  1822  the  Charitable  Society 
of  Shipwrights  and  Calkers  of  Boston 
and  Charlestown  was  formed.  During 
this  period  trade  unionism  was  making 
progress.  By  1840  local  unions  had  been 
organized  among  the  masons,  marble- 
cutters,  shoemakers,  saddlers,  hatters, 
tailors,  printers,  bricklayers,  roofers, 
painters,  carpenters,  and  shipworkers. 
In  1850  the  International  Typographical 
union  was  organized.  The  National 
Association  of  Hat  Finishers  of  the 
United  States  of  America  was  founded  in 

1854,  the  National  Protective  Associa- 
tion (the  Locomotive  Engineers)  in 

1855,  the  Sons  of  Vulcan  and  the  Na- 
tional Spinners’  association  in  1858. 
Among  the  larger  organizations  may  be 
named  the  National  Labor  union  (1866), 
the  Knights  of  Labor  (1869),  the  Inter- 
national Association  of  Workingmen 
(1864),  the  Industrial  Brotherhood 
(1873),  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor  (1881),  the  National  Building 
Trades  Council  (1897),  and  the  Ameri- 
can Labor  Union  (1898).  By  far  the 
most  important  of  these  is  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  with  a member- 
ship in  1907  of  about  2,000,000. 

TRADE- WIND,  one  of  those  per- 
petual or  constant  winds  which  occur 
in  all  open  seas  on  both  sides  of  the 
equator,  and  to  the  distance  of  about 
30°  north  and  south  of  it.  On  the  north 
of  the  equator  their  direction  is  from 
the  northeast  (varying  at  times  a point 
or  two  of  the  compass  either  way) ; on 
the  south  of  the  equator  they  proceed 
from  the  southeast.  The  origin  of  the 
trade-winds  is  this: — The  great  heat  of 
the  torrid  zone  rarefies  and  makes 
lighter  the  air  of  that  region,  and  in 
consequence  of  this  rarefaction  the  air 
rises  and  ascends  into  the  higher  regions 
of  the  atmosphere.  To  supply  its  place 
colder  air  from  the  northern  and  south- 
ern regions  rushes  towards  the  equator, 
which,  also  becoming  rarefied,  ascends 
in  its  turn.  The  heated  air  which  thus 
ascends  into  tlie  upper  regions  of  the 
atmosphere  being  there  condensed  flows 
northward  and  southward  to  supply  the 
deficiency  caused  by  the  under-currents 
blowing  toward  the  equator.  The, so 
under-currents  coming  from  the  north 
and  south  are,  in  consequence  of  the 
earth’s  rotation  on  its  axis,  defiectod 
from  their  course  as  they  approach  the 
equatorial  region,  and  thus  become 
northeast  and  southeast  winds,  consti- 
tuting the  trade-winds.  The  belt  be- 
tween the  two  trade-winds  is  charac- 
terized by  calms,  frequently  interrupted, 
however,  by  violent  storms.  Trade- 
winds  are  constant  only  over  the  open  1 
ocean,  and  the  larger  the  expanse  of ' 


ocean  over  which  they  blow  (as  in  the 
Pacific)  the  more  steady  they  are.  In 
some  places  the  trade-winds  become 
periodical,  blowing  one  half  of  the  year 
in  one  direction  and  the  other  half  in 
the  opposite  direction.  See  Monsoon. 

TRADITION,  in  its  general  applica- 
tion, is  any  knowledge  handed  down 
from  one  generation  to  another  by  oral 
communication.  It  plays  a very  im- 
portant part  in  the  Jewish  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches.  In  theology,  the 
term  is  specifically  applied  to  that  body 
of  doctrine  and  discipline,  or  any  article 
thereof,  supposed  to  have  been  put  forth 
by  Christ  or  his  apostles,  and  not  com- 
mitted to  writing,  but  still  held  by  many 
as  an  article  of  faith. 

TRAG'ACANTH,  a variety  of  gum 
familiarly  termed  gum-dragon  or  gum- 
tragacanth.  It  is  the  produce  of  several 
species  of  leguminous  plants,  natives  of 
the  mountainous  regions  of  Western 
Asia.  In  commerce  tragacanth  occurs 


Tr.agacanth. 

in  small  twisted  thread-like  pieces,  or  in 
flattened  cakes,  in  color  whitish  or  yel- 
lowish, devoid  of  taste  or  smell.  It  is 
demulcent,  and  is  used  in  coughs  and 
catarrhs,  and  to  make  lozenges  and 
pills.  It  is  employed  also  in  calico- 
printing. 

TRAGEDY,  a dramatic  poem,  rep- 
resenting an  important  event  or  a 
series  of  events  in  the  life  of  some  per- 
son or  persons,  in  which  the  diction  is 
elevated  and  the  catastrophe  melan- 
choly. Tragedy  originated  among  the 
Greeks  in  the  worship  of  the  god  Diony- 
sus or  Bacchus. 

TRAG'OPAN,  a name  of  certain  beau- 
tiful birds  of  the  genus  Ceriornis,  and  of 
the  family  Phasianidae,  closely  allied  to 


Crimson  tragopan. 

the  common  fowl.  The  most  common 
species,  is  a native  of  the  Himalayas. 
The  plumage  is  spotted,  and  two  fleshy 
1 protuberances  hang  from  behind  the 
' eyes.  When  the  bird  is  excited  it  can 


erect  these  protuberances  until  they  H 
look  like  a pair  of  horns.  A large  wattle  M 
hangs  at  either  side  of  the  lower  m andible.  M 
TRAIN,  George  Francis,  American  fl 
author,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  fl 
1829.  His  publications  include:  An  H 
American  Merchant  in  Europe,  AsiajH 
and  Australia;  Young  America  Abroad, 
Irish  Independency,  and  Championship 
of  Women.  He  also  published  an  auto-^H 
biography  entitled  My  Life  in  ManyjH 
States  and  in  Foreign  Lands.  He  died  M 
in  1904.  m 

TRAINING  COLLEGES.  See  Normal  ® 
Schools.  flH 

TRAJAN,  in  full,  Marcus  Ulpius  Tra-JH 
janus,  Roman  emperor,  born  in  Spain^® 
52  A.D.,  was  the  son  of  Trajanus,  a dis-l:B 
tinguished  Roman  commander  under  jp 
Vespasian.  He  served  against  the  Par-« 
thians  and  on  the  Rhine,  where  he  9 
acquired  so  high  a character  that  NervaB 
adopted  him  and  created  him  Caesar  in 
97.  Nerva  died  in  98,  and  Trajan,  who  .M 
was  then  in  Gennany,  peaceably  sue- ga 
ceeded  to  the  throne.  He  made  peace  IJj 
with  the  German  tribes,  and  proceeded 
to  iirtroduce  enlightened  measures  of 
reform  into  the  public  service.  One  of  > 
his  greatest  military  achievements  was 
his  defeat  of  the  Dacians,  and  the  reduc-  « 
tion  of  Dacia  to  a Roman  province.  It 
is  supposed  that  it  was  in  com.memora-  i ,;' 
tion  of  this  war  that  he  erected  at  Rome  f 
the  column  which  still  remains  under  j-y, 
his  name.  In  103  he  wrote  the  famous  j '’ 
epistle  to  Pliny,  governor  of  Pontus  and  t?, 


brought  before  him;  and  on  no  account f ; 
to  listen  to  anonymous  charges.  ForCt 
some  years  Trajan  occupied  himself 
with  the  work  of  administration,  but  in  ' k 
114  he  set  out  on  an  expedition  against,  ': 
the  Parthians  which  resulted  in  the.  ; 
reduction  of  Armenia  to  a RomanP, 
province.  He  died  in  Cilicia  in  117  A..D.,“  f 
after  having  nominated  Hadrian  as  hisjy 
successor.  / 

TRAMMEL,  an  instrument  for  draw- r 
ing  ovals,  used  by  joiners  and  other.^M 


artificers.  One  part  consists  of  a cross! 
with  two  grooves  at  right  angles;  thej 


TKA'ltftATS 


TRANSVAAL 


[ other  is  a beam -com  pass  carrying  two 
L pins  which  slide  in  those  grooves,  and 
s also  the  describing  pencil, 
t TRAMWAYS,  a kind  of  street  railway 
f introduced  within  recent  times  into 
s many  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  world. 

The  commonest  kind  of  street  tramway 
't  is  that  in  which  grooved  rails  are  used, 
the  surface  of  which  is  nearly  on  a level 
['  with  the  street.  Horse-power  is  one 
j means  used  for  propelling  street  cars,  on 
other  lines  steam-engines  are  used  for 
'f  the  purpose,  while  in  some  again  the  cars 
I are  drawn  by  underground  cables, 
f Latterly  electricity  has  become  ex- 
ceedingly  common  as  the  means  of 

• propulsion,  and  has  various  advantages 
over  other  methods.  Street  tramways 

i were  first  constructed  at  New  York.  The 

' first  in  England  were  opened  at  Birken- 
; head  in  1860,  and  they  have  since  been 
■ introduced  into  nearly  all  the  principal 

• towns.  The  United  States  have  over 
i,  20,000  miles  of  electric  street  railways, 

; the  most  striking  increase  in  recent 
s years  being  in  interurban  railways, 

many  of  which  have  invaded  the  steam 
railroad  field  and  are  now  operating 
i*  sleeping,  parlor  and  freight  cars. 

TRANCE,  a condition  resembling 
' sleep,  in  which  consciousness  and  many 
^ of  the  vital  functions  are  suspended,  and 
,,  during  which  the  action  of  the  heart  is 
' ' diminished  and  the  breathing  reduced. 
( The  subjects  of  trance  are  usually 
y,  hysterical,  and  in  some  cases  it  is  in- 
t duced  by  exhausting  disease  or  emo- 
f tional  disturbance.  In  this  condition 
the  face  is  pale,  the  limbs  relaxed,  the 
f mental  functions  are  in  abeyance,  no 
effort  at  rousing  will  produce  a return 
^ to  consciousness,  and  this  state  may 
^ last  from  a period  of  several  hours  to 
many  weeks  or  months.  When  the 
y trance  lasts  for  a lengthy  period  food  is 
taken  in  a mechanical  way  at  intervals 
by  the  sleeper.  Most  cases  recover.  The 
H term  is  also  applied  to  a sort  of  ecstatic 

• state  in  which  some  persons  are  said  to 
fall,  and  in  which,  while  unconscious  of 
what  is  passing  around  them,  they  have 
remarkable  dreams  or  visions. 

TRlANSBAIKALIA,  a Siberian  prov- 
ince, e.  of  Lake  Baikal;  area,  240,780 
■ sq.  miles.  It  has  an  elevated,  well- 
watered  surface,  and  climate  dry  and 
extreme  both  in  srunmer  and  winter. 
Agriculture  and  trade  limited;  gold 
found  to  some  extent.  Pop.  664,071. 

. TRANSCASPIAN  REGION,  a territory 
to  the  e.  of  the  Caspian  recently  an- 
nexed by  Russia.  It  has  an  area  of 

220,000  sq^.  miles,  mostly  uninhabited 
I ' desert,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Trans- 
! . Caspian  railway,  connecting  Samarkand 
I with  the  Caspian.  Pop.  372,193. 

TRANSCENDEN'TAL,  a term  applied 
in  the  system  of  philosophy  founded  by 
Kant  to  all  those  principles  of  knowledge 
which  are  original  and  primary,  and 
which  are  determined  h,  priori,  such  as 
space  and  time.  They  involve  necessary 
and  strictly  universal  truths,  and  so 
transcend  all  truth  derived  from  ex- 
perience, which  must  always  be  con- 
tingent and  particular.  The  term  trans- 
cendentalism is  now  generally  used  in 
a sense  not  very  different  from  mysti- 
cism, or  for  that  which  is  vague  and 
illusive  in  philosophy.  In  mathematics 
the  tonn  is  applied  to  quantities  that 


cannot  be  expressed  in  ordinary  alge- 
braic terms. 

TRANSEPT,  in  architecture,  the 
transverse  portion  of  a church  which  is 
built  in  the  form  of  a cross;  that  part 
between  the  nave  and  choir  which  pro- 
jects externally  on  each  side,  and  forms 
the  short  arm  of  the  cross  in  the  general 
plan.  See  Cathedral. 

TRANSFUSION,  the  transmission  of 
blood  from  the  veins  of  one  living  animal 
to  those  of  another,  or  from  those  of  a 
man  or  one  of  the  lower  animals  into  a 
man,  with  the  view  of  restoring  the 
vigor  of  exhausted  subjects.  This  opera- 
tion is  a very  old  one,  but  seems  to  have 
generally  ended  in  failure  until  about 
1824,  the  chief  cause  of  failure  probably 
being  the  want  of  due  precaution  to  ex- 
clude the  air  during  the  process.  It  is 
now  occasionally  resorted  to  as  a last 
resource  in  cases  of  great  loss  of  blood 
by  hsemorrhage,  especially  in  connection 
with  labor. 

TRANSIT,  in  astronomy,  (a)  the  pas- 
sage of  a heavenly  body  across  the 
meridian  of  any  place,  a phenomenon 
which  is  usually  noted  by  a transit  in- 
strmnent.  The  determination  of  the 
exact  times  of  the  transits  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  across  the  meridian  of 
the  place  of  observation  enables  the 
astronomer  to  ascertain  the  differences 
of  right  ascensions,  and  the  relative 
situations  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  the 
motions  of  the  sun,  planets,  and  cornets, 
in  respect  of  the  celestial  meridians, 
(b)  The  passage  of  one  heavenly  body 


Transit  of  Mercury. 

a.  Mercury.  The  dotted  line  shows  the  path. 

over  the  disc  of  a larger  one;  but  the 
term  is  chiefly  restricted  to  the  passage 
of  the  inferior  planets.  Mercury  and 
Venus,  over  the  sun’s  disc.  The  transits 
of  Venus  are  of  great  importance  in  as- 
tronomy, as  they  afford  the  best  means 
of  determining  the  sun’s  paralax,  and 
consequently  the  dimensions  of  the 
planetary  system.  These  transits  are  of 
rare  occurrence,  four  taking  place  in  243 
years,  at  intervals  reckoning  from  the 
transit  of  1874,  in  the  order  of  8,  122,  8, 
and  105  years,  which  gives  the  transit 
years  1882  (December  6),  2004,  2012, 
2117.  The  transits  of  Mercury  occur 
more  frequently,  but  they  are  of  far 
less  astronomical  interest,  as  they  cannot 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  the  planet 
being  too  distant  from  us. 

TRANSIT  INSTRUMENT,  an  import- 
ant astronomical  instrument  adapted 
for  observing  the  exact  time  of  the 
passage  of  heavenly  bodies  across  the 
meridian.  (See  Transit.)  It  consists 
essentially  of  a telescope  fixed  at  right 
angles  to  a horizontal  axis,  which  latter 
has  its  ends  directed  exactly  to  the  east 
and  west  points  of  the  horizon,  bo  that 


the  line  of  collimation  or  optical  axia 
of  the  telescope  may  move  in  the  plane 
of  the  meridian.  The  instrument  is 
susceptible  of  certain  nice  adjustments, 
so  that  the  axis  can  be  made  perfectly 
horizontal,  and  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  the  meridian,  in  which  plane 
the  telescope  must  move.  It  is  generally 
used  in  connection  with  the  mural  circle. 

TRANSKEI,  a general  name  given  to 
a region  of  Southeast  Africa  north  of 
the  Kei  river  and  southwest  of  Natal, 
and  comprising  several  territories  an- 
nexed at  various  times  to  the  Cape 
Colony.  These  are  grouped  into  the  four 
divisions  of  Griqualand  East,  Tembu- 
land,  Transkei,  and  Pondoland.  Pop. 

560.000  natives,  10,000  whites. 

TRANSMIGRATION  OF  THE  SOUL, 

or  METEMPSYCHOISIS,  the  passage 
which,  according  to  the  belief  of  many 
races  and  tribes  at  all  times,  the  soul 
after  the  death  of  the  body  makes 
through  the  bodies  of  the  lower  animals 
or  other  human  bodies,  or,  it  may  be, 
through  plants  or  inanimate  objects. 
In  the  teaching  of  the  Brahmanic  Hin- 
dus it  has  its  foundation  in  the  belief 
of  the  connection  of  all  living  beings, 
and  of  the  gradual  purification  of  the 
spiritual  part  of  man  and  its  return  to 
the  common  source  and  origin  of  all 
things — God.  The  Buddhists  accept  a 
similar  doctrine,  but  with  them  the 
ultimate  goal  of  the  soul  is  not  absorp- 
tion by  the  Deity,  but  annihilation.  Nir- 
vana. Transmigration  also  formed  part 
of  the  teaching  of  the  Egyptian  priests. 
The  doctrine  probably  passed  from 
Egypt  into  Greece,  where  it  was  never 
generally  current,  but  was  confined  to 
the  mysteries  and  some  philosophic 
systems.  It  occupied  an  important  place 
in  the  system  of  Pythagoras,  and  is 
supported  by  Plato  and  Plotinus.  Among 
the  Romans  Cicero  alludes  to  this  doc- 
trine, and  Csesar  informs  us  that  it  was 
believed  in  by  the  Gauls,  who,  he  says, 
in  this  faith  were  able  to  despise  death. 
The  doctrine  is  also  found  in  the  Talmud 
but  only  a minority  of  the  Jewish  rabbis 
appear  to  have  adopted  it.  Various 
heretical  Christian  sects  have  held  this 
doctrine,  and  it  was  also  professed  by 
the  Arabs  before  Mohammed. 

TRANSPORT,  a ship  employed  by 
government  for  carrying  soldiers,  war- 
like stores,  or  provisions  from  one  place 
to  another. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION.  See  Lord’s 
Supper. 

TRANSVAAL,  a British  territory  in 
South  Africa,  originally  colonized  by 
part  of  the  Boers  who  left  Cape  Colony 
m 1836  for  Natal,  and  quitted  that 
colony  on  its  annexation  by  Britain  in 
1845.  It  lies  north  of  the  Vaal  river  and 
south  of  the  Limpopo,  and  is  bounded 
by  Rhodesia,  Bechuanaland,  Orange 
River  Colony,  Natal,  Zululand,  and 
Portuguese  East  Africa.  Area,  about 

120.000  sq.  miles;  pop.  1,250,000.  Pre- 
toria is  the  seat  of  goveriunent;  the 
largest  town  is  Johannesburg.  The 
country  is  elevated,  forming  high  pla- 
teaux, and  in  some  parts  is  quite  rugged, 
mountains  rising  in  the  east  to  8700 
feet.  In  the  south  is  the  famous  elevated 
tracks  known  as  the  Witwatersrand. 
The  rivers  are  chiefly  tributaries  of 
the  Limpopo.  The  climate  is  generally 


TRANSYLVANIA 


TREAD-MILL 


salubrious.  Minerals  are  abundant,  es- 
pecially gold,  which  is  mined  in  many 
places,  the  chief  being  in  the  Witwaters- 
rand,  of  which  Johannesburg  is  the 
center.  Coal  is  abundant,  and  is  also 
worked.  The  country  is  more  pastoral 
than  agricultural.  In  1877  the  Transvaal 
was  annexed  by  Britain,  the  country 
being  far  from  flourishing,  and  a certain 
number  of  the  people  being  in  favor  of 
this  step.  In  1880  the  Boers  took  up 
arms  against  the  British,  defeated  a 
body  of  troops  at  Majuba  Hill,  and  as  the 
result  recovered  their  independence. 
By  a convention  made  in  1884,  the 
relation  of  the  state  to  the  British  crown 
was  modified,  and  from  that  date  till 
1900  it  was  known  as  the  South  African 
Republic.  Latterly  the  area  had  been 
extended  at  the  expense  of  the  Zulus, 
and  in  1894  Britain  recognized  Swazi- 
land as  a dependency  of  the  Transvaal. 
A great  increase  of  the  population  took 
place  along  with  the  extension  of  gold- 
mining, from  about  1886,  and  various 
railways  were  constructed.  For  some 
years  before  1895,  much  discontent  pre- 
vailed among  the  “uitlanders”  or  aliens, 
whites  not  admitted  to  citizenship;  and 
at  the  end  of  1895  this  led  to  an  abortive 
revolution  at  Johannesburg.  Simultane- 
ously Dr.  Jameson  with  an  armed  force 
belonging  to  the  British  South  Africa 
Company,  entered  the  Transvaal  and 
rode  toward  Johannesburg,  but  was  at- 
tacked and  defeated  by  a body  of  Boers. 
In  October,  1899,  war  broke  out  with 
Britain,  the  Transvaal  being  joined  by 
the  Orange  Free  State  in  commencing 
hostilities.  After  nearly  eleven  months’ 
fighting  and  the  occupation  of  the  chief 
towns,  the  country  was  annexed  by 
proclamation  in  1900.  Before  the  two 
Boer  republics  could  be  crushed  Britain 
had  placed  some  200,000  men  in  the 
field  under  the  supreme  command  of 
Lord  Roberts.  The  president  was  then 
J.  Paul  Kruger,  who  had  held  the  office 
continuously  since  1883.  The  legislative 
power  was  exercised  by  two  chambers, 
a first  and  a second  Volksraad  ("popu- 
lar council”),  each  with  twenty-four 
members.  The  former  was  in  possession 
of  all  political  power.  The  uitlanders 
had  no  voice  in  the  government  of  the 
country  though  much  of  the  taxation 
fell  upon  them.  The  annual  output  of 
gold  is  valued  at  about  1135,000,000. 
See  Boers,  Natal. 

TRANSYLVANIA,  a grand-principal- 
ity belonging  to  the  crown  of  Hungary 
forming  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
Austrian  empire;  area,  21,213  sq.  miles. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  the  Car- 
pathian chain  covering  its  southern  and 
eastern  frontier,  and  sending  out  numer- 
ous ramifications  into  the  interior.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Aluta  or  Alt,  the 
Maros,  and  the  Szamos,  all  flowing 
directly  or  indirectly  into  the  Danube. 
The  forests  are  extensive  and  valuable; 
the  vine  flourishes  everywhere,  and  the 
crops  include  corn,  wheat,  rye,  hemp, 
flax,  tobacco.  The  minerals  are  import- 
ant, and  include  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  salt,  and  iron.  The  chief 
towns  are  Hermannstadt,  Kronstadt, 
Bistritz,  and  Szamos-Ujvar.  Education 
is  in  a very  backward  state.  The  popula- 
tion (2,084,048)  is  very  mixed,  including 
Roumanians,  Magyars,  Germans,  Gyp- 


sies, Jews,  Bulgarians,  and  others.  The 
country  now  forms  an  integral  portion 
of  Hungary. 

TRAP,  a term  rather  loosely  and 
vaguely  applied  by  the  earlier  geologists 
to  some  or  all  of  the  multifarious  igneous 
rocks  that  belong  to  the  palaeozoic  and 
secondary  epochs,  as  distinct  from 
granite  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  recent 
volcanic  rocks  on  the  other.  Trap- 
rocks  often  assume  a terraced  appear- 
ance, whence  their  name  from  trappa, 
the  Swedish  for  a stair.  Their  compo- 
sition may  be  described  as  consisting 
chiefly  of  felspar  and  horneblende.  Trap- 
rocks  of  crystalline  structure  are  dis- 
tinguished as  greenstones,  basalts,  clink- 
stones, compact  felspar,  and  felspar 
porphyries;  while  the  softer  and  more 
earthy  varieties  are  known  as  clay- 
stones,  claystone  porphyries,  a'myg- 
daloids,  trap-tuffs,  and  wackes.  Basalt 
is  the  most  compact,  the  hardest,  and 
the  heaviest  of  the  trap-rocks.  The  hill 
scenery  of  trappean  districts  is  often 
picturesque. 

TRA'PANI,  a fortified  seaport  town  in 
Sicily,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  47  miles  w.s.w.  of  Palermo, 
on  a peninsula  shaped  like  a sickle,  and 
hence  its  ancient  name,  from  the  Greek 
drepane,  a sickle.  There  is  a good  trade, 
and  the  fisheries  are  extensive.  At  a 
short  distance  e.n.e.  of  the  town  is  Mount 
San  Giuliano,  the  ancient  Eryx.  Pop. 
60,257. 

TRAP-DOOR  SPIDER,  a name  given 
to  certain  spiders  that  have  the  habit  of 
constructing  tubular  dwellings  in  the 
ground,  sometimes  a foot  or  more  in 
depth,  and  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter, 
closed  by  a sort  of  hinged  door.  They 
belong  to  several  genera,  and  are  found 
in  Southern  Europe,  Western  North 
America,  and  elsewhere.  The  dwelling 


Trap  door  spider  and  nest 

is  lined  with  the  silky  substance  spun 
by  the  insect,  and  the  hinge  of  the  door 
is  formed  of  the  same,  the  door  itself 
being  constructed  sometimes  of  earthy 
particles  connected  by  threads,  some- 
times of  leaves,  etc.  Some  species  con- 
struct nests  that  have  a main  tube  and 
one  or  more  branches,  the  latter  having 
a door  where  they  join  the  main  tube. 

TRAP'EZOID,  or  TRAPE'ZIUM,  a 
quadrilateral  figure  of  unequal  sides, 

YI7 

Trapezoid. 

and  consequently  unequal  angles.  A 
trapezoid  is  usually  said  to  have  two 


sides  parallel,  but  some  geometer*  de^ 
fine  the  trapezium  as  having  this  char- 

TRAPPE,  La,  Trappists.  See  La 
Trappe. 

TRAVANCORE,a  native  Indian  state,^ 
subsidiary  to  the  presidency  of  Madras; 
occupying  the  extreme  southwest  of  the' 
peninsula;  area,  6730  sq.  miles.  The 
principal  agricultural  products  are  rice,’ 
pepper,  areca-nuts,  cocoa,  coffee,  to- 
bacco, and  oil  plants.  Some  sugar  and 
salt  are  manufactured.  Pop.  2,557,736.1 

TRAVELER’S  TREE,  an  arborescent 
plant,  native  of  Madagascar,  having  the 
appearance  of  a palm,  and  forming  the 
only  species  of  the  genus  to  which  it  be- 
longs. Its  trunk  terminates  in  a bundle" 
of  leaves,  each  of  which  is  borne  by  a 
petiole  often  10  feet  in  length,  and  has  a 
blade  about  6 feet  long  and  2\  to  3 feet 
broad.  The  seeds  yield  a flour,  which  is 
eaten  by  the  natives,  and  the  petioles 
a limpid  and  wholesome  water,  which 
often  renders  the  tree  a great  resource 
for  travelers;  hence  its  name. 

TRAV'ERSE  CITY,  the  county-seat 
of  Grand  Traverse  co.,  Mich.,  60  miles 
northeast  of  Manistee;  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Boardman  river,  on  Grand  Trav- 
erse bay,  an  inlet  of  Lake  Michigan; 
and  on  the  Pere  Marquette,  the  Grand 
Rapids  and  Indiana,  and  the  Manistee 
and  Northeastern  railroads.  Pop.  11,216. 

TRAWLING,  a mode  of  fishing  in 
which  a net  in  the  form  of  a large  bag, 
with  a strong  framework  keeping  the 
mouth  properly  distended,  is  dragged 
along  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  It  is  the 
mode  chiefly  adopted  in  deep-sea  fish- 
ing, but  it  is  not  allowed  within  three 
miles  of  the  shore.  Cod,  whiting,  and, 
other  white-fish  are  taken  by  it  in  large 


Trawl-net  attached  to  fishing-boat. 

numbers,  and  some  kinds  of  flat-fish,  as  t 
soles,  can  scarcely  be  taken  in  any  other  i 
way.  Trawling  can  be  practiced  only  , 
on  a smooth  bottom,  as  a rough  bottom  - 
would  destroy  the  net.  Trawling  is  some-  ‘ 
times  objected  to  as  destroying  fish- 
spawn  and  unmature  fish,  and  so  in-l 
juring  the  fishing-grounds.  See  Net. 

TRAZ-OS-MONTES  (“Beyond  the  1 
Mountains”),  a northeast  frontier  prov-J 
ince  of  Portugal;  area,  4260  sq.  miles.* 
The  province  is  fertile  in  parts,  and  thel 
wine-growing  district  of  Alto  Douro  isl 
the  native  country  of  port.  The  chief! 
towns  are  Villa  Real  and  Braganza.  J 
Pop.  396,676. 

TREACLE.  See  Sugar. 

TREAD-MILL,  an  instrument  o^ 
punishment  of  modern  origin,  consistj 
ing  of  a large  wheel,  about  20  or  25  fe«^ 


f 


TREASON 


TREPANG 


> wide,  with  steps  on  its  external  surface, 

' upon  which  criminals  are  placed.  Their 
weight  sets  the  wheel  in  motion,  and 
they  maintain  themselves  in  an  upright 
posture  by  means  of  a horizontal  bar 
fixed  above  them,  of  which  they  keep 
hold.  The  power  thus  obtained  may  be 
applied  to  the  same  purpose  as  water- 
power, steam,  etc.  The  tread-mill  has 
recontly  been  abandoned  in  most  peni- 
tentiaries. It  was  introduced  into  the 
prisons  of  Great  Britain  about  1820. 

TREASON,  High,  treason  is  that  crime 
which  is  directly  committed  against  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  state,  and  is 
considered  to  be  the  greatest  crime  that 
can  be  committed. 

TREASURY,  Department  of  the,  the 
executive  department  controlling  the 
national  finances  of  the  United  States, 
was  established  by  act  of  congress  in 
September,  1789.  It  is  presided  over 
by  a secretary  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent, who  is  a member  of  the  cabinet, 
and  second  among  the  cabinet  officers 
in  the  line  of  succession  to  the  presi- 
dency. The  department  employs  some 
5000  persons  at  Washington  with 
numerous  bureaus,  branches,  and  offices 
throughout  the  country.  The  only 
qualification  for  the  oflSce  of  secretary 
of  the  treasury  is  the  negative  one  that 
he  shall  not  be  interested  in  foreign 
commerce.  ' He  is  required  to  prepare 
plans  for  the  revenue  and  public  credit; 
to  superintend  the  collection  of  the 
revenues,  etc.,  etc.,  and  to  perform  all 
such  duties  relative  to  the  finances  as 
shall  be  required  by  law.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  department  has  been  ex- 
tended to  the  management  of  the  na- 
tional debt,  the  supervision  of  the 
national  banks,  the  internal  revenue 
system,  the  legal-tender  currency,  the 
merchant  marine,  the  lighthouse  system, 
the  life-saving  and  marine  hospital  serv- 
ices, the  coast  survey,  etc. 

TREATY,  an  agreement,  league,  or 
contract  between  two  or  more  nations 
or  sovereigns  formally  signed  by  com- 
missioners properly  authorized,  and 
ratified  by  the  several  sovereigns,  or  the 
supreme  power  of  each  state.  Treaties 
are  of  various  kinds,  as  treatises  for 
regulating  commercial  intercourse, 
treaties  of  alliance,  offensive  and  de- 
fensive, treaties  of  peace,  etc.  In  most 
monarchies  the  power  of  making  and 
ratifying  treaties  is  vested  in  the  sover- 
eign; in  republics  it  is  vested  in  the  chief 
magistrate,  senate,  or  executive  council ; 
in  the  United  States  of  America  it  is 
1 vested  in  the  president  by  and  with  the 
! consent  of  the  senate.  Treaties  may  be 
concluded  and  signed  by  diplomatic 
. agents,  but  the.se,  of  course,  must  be 
furnished  wdth  full  powers  by  the  sover- 
, eign  authority  of  their  states 

TREBIZOND',  a seaport  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  capital  of  a pashalic  of  the 
! same  name,  on  the  Black  sea.  Pop. 
1 estimated  at  50,000. 

I TREBLE,  in  music,  the  highest  vocal 
or  instrumental  part  in  a concerted 
piece,  such  as  is  sung  by  women  or  boys, 
or  played  by  instruments  of  acute  tone, 

I as  the  violin,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  etc., 
or  on  the  higher  keys  of  the  piano,  organ, 
etc.;  so  called  because  it  was  origin- 
ally a third  part  added  to  the  ancient 
canto  formo  and  the  counterpoint. 


TREE,  a perennial  plant  having  a 
woody  trunk  of  varying  size,  from  which 
spring  a number  of  branches,  having  a 
structure  similar  to  the  trunk.  Trees 
are  thus  distinguished  from  shrubs, 
Avhich  have  perennial  stems  but  have  no 
trunk  properly  so  called ; and  from  herbs, 
whose  stems  live  only  a single  year.  It 
is  difficult,  however,  to  fix  the  exact 
limit  between  trees  and  shrubs.  Trees 
are  both  endogenous  and  exogenous,  by 
far  the  greater  number  both  of  individ- 
uals and  of  varieties  belonging  to  the 
latter  class.  Those  of  which  the  whole 
foliage  falls  off  periodically,  leaving 
them  bare  in  winter,  are  called  decidu- 
ous; those  of  which  the  foliage  falls  only 
partially,  a fresh  crop  of  leaves  being 
always  supplied  before  the  mature 
leaves  are  exhausted,  are  called  ever- 
green. Trees  are  the  longest  lived  organ- 
isms of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
attain  a great  and  indefinite  age,  far 
exceeding  that  of  animals.  The  maxi- 
mum age  of  different  trees  is  as  follows : 

Years. 


Palm 250 

Elm 355 

Cypress 388 

Ivy 448 

Maple 510 

Larch 576 

Lemon 646 

Plane 720 

Cedar 800 

Chestnut 860 

Walnut.. 900 

Lime 1,070 

Spruce 1,206 

Oak. 1,600 

Olive 2,000 

Yew 2,880 

Baobab 5,100 

Dragon 5,900 


Eucalyptus,  or  Australian  gum-tree, 
sometimes  grows  twenty-four  feet  in 
three  months;  bamboo,  two  feet  in 
twenty-four  hours.  See  Arboriculture, 
Botany,  Timber,  etc. 

TREE-CRAB,  a crab  of  the  genus  in- 
cluded among  the  land-crabs.  It  breaks 
open  the  shell  of  the  cocoa-nut,  etc., 
by  repeated  blows  of  its  great  claws,  in 
order  to  feed  upon  the  soft  pulp  of  the 
nut.  Tree-crabs  can  live  for  long 
periods  out  of  water,  but  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  sea. 

TREE-FERNS,  the  name  given  to 
several  species  of  ferns  which  attain  to 
the  size  of  trees.  They  are  found  in 
tropical  countries.  A handsome  species 
contains  in  its  trunk  a mucilaginous 
pulp  comparable  to  sago,  which  is  used 
extensively  for  food  in  Polynesia  and 
New  Zealand. 

TREE-FROG,  a name  of  frogs  differ- 
ing from  proper  frogs  in  the  extremities 
of  their  toes,  each  of  which  is  expanded 
into  a rounded  viscous  pellet  that 
enables  the  animals  to  adhere  to  the 
surface  of  bodies  and  to  climb  trees, 
where  they  remain  during  the  summer 
feeding  upon  insects. 

TREE-TOAD.  See  Tree-Frog. 

TREFOIL,  a distinctive  title  applied 
to  plants  of  various  kinds  on  account  of 
a peculiarity  of  the  form  of  the  leaf, 
which  consists  of  three  leaflets;  ex- 
amples, buck  bean,  clover  and  medick. 
The  same  term  is  also  applied  to  an 
ornamental  foliation  in  Gothic  architec- 


ture, used  in  the  heads  of  window  lights, 
tracery,  paneling,  etc. 


American  tree-toad. 

TREM'OLITE,  a mineral,  a variety  of 
hornblende.  It  is  a silicate  of  calcium 
and  magnesiums,  is  white  or  colorless, 
and  usually  occurs  in  long,  prismatic 
crystals. 

TRENT,  Council  of,  a celebrated 
oecumenical  council  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  convened  to  settle 
various  controversies  that  were  agitating 
the  church  during  the  Reformation 
period,  and  for  the  reform  of  abuses. 
It  met  during  the  pontificate  of  Paul 
III.  at  Trent  in  1545,  but  the  wars  in 
Germany  caused  its  transference  to 
Bologna  in  1546,  when  it  dispersed. 
Pope  Julius  III.  again  convoked  it  at 
Trent  in  1551,  but  it  dispersed  a year 
later  on  the  approach  of  the  Lutherans. 
Eight  years  afterward  it  was  again 
called  together  by  Pius  IV.,  and  it 
finished  its  labors  in  1563.  This  council 
definitely  settled  the  doctrines  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  Its  decrees  are 
embodied  in  what  is  known  as  the  Creed 
of  Pius  IV. 

TRENTON,  the  capital  of  New  Jersey, 
on  the  Delaware  at  the  head  of  tide- 
water and  steamboat  navigation,  50 
miles  southwest  of  New  York.  It  is  laid 
out  with  great  regularity,  and  has 


State  Capitol,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

a state-house,  court-house,  governor’s 
house,  state-prison,  etc.  There  are 
numerous  manufacturing  establish- 
ments (earthenware,  iron  and  steel,  etc.), 
and  the  trade  is  extensive.  Pop.  100,000. 

TREPANG,  the  sea-slug,  a marine 
animal  popularly  known  as  “sea- 
cucumbers,”  or  beches-de-mer.  It  is 
found  chiefly  about  coral  reefs  in  the 
Eastern  seas,  and  is  a rather  repulsive 
looking  animal,  somewhat  resembling 
the  land  slug  in  shape,  and  varying  in 
length  from  6 to  24  inches.  Sun-dried 


TREPANNING 


J 


trepangs  are  in  special  request  in  China 
for  making  soups.  The  fishery  is  carried 
on  in  numerous  localities  in  the  Indian 


Trepang, 

ocean,  the  Eastern  archipelago,  and  on 
the  shores  of  Australia. 

TREPANNING,  the  operation  of  cut- 
ting a circular  opening  into  the  skull 
by  means  of  a surgical  instrument  called 
a trepan  or  trephine.  This  consists  of  a 
handle,  to  which  is  fixed  a small  hollow 
steel  cylinder,  of  about  J to  1 inch  in 
diameter,  having  teeth  cut  on  its  lower 
edge  so  as  to  form  a circular  saw.  Tre- 
panning is  especially  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  relieving  the  brain  from  pres- 
sure, as  in  fracture  of  the  skull  or  in 
cerebral  abscess. 

TRES'COT,  William  Henry,  American 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1822.  In  1852  he  became  secre- 
tary of  the  United  States  legation  in 
London,  and  was  assistant  secretary  of 
state  from  June,  1860,  until  the  secession 
of  South  Carolina.  Among  bis  published 
works  are:  Diplomacy  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, An  American  View  of  the  Eastern 
Question,  and  Diplomatic  History  of 
the  Administrations  of  Washington  and 
Adams.  He  died  in  1898. 

TRESPASS,  in  law,  a term  which  is 
applied  generally  to  any  offense  against 
the  person  or  property  of  another,  but  is 
more  especially  applied  to  a peaceful 
but  unlawful  entry  upon  the  property  of 
another,  the  remedy  for  which  is  by  an 
action  of  damages.  Any  injuries  com- 
mitted against  land  or  buildings  are  in 
the  most  ordinary  sense  of  the  word 
trespasses,  as  entering  another’s  house 
without  permission,  walking  over  the 
ground  of  another,  or  suffering  any 
cattle  to  stray  upon  it,  or  any  act  or 
practice  which  damages  the  property, 
or  interferes  with  the  owner’s  or 
occupier’s  rights  of  possession.  A 
creditor  or  customer  can  be  ordered 
away  by  a householder  or  shopkeeper, 
and  even  the  civil  courts  have  no  power 
to  give  a right  of  entry  to  officers  in- 
trusted with  the  execution  of  legal  proc- 
esses, though  such  oflBcers  may  main- 
tain possession  if  once  they  gain  en- 
trsnc© 

TREVEL'YAN,Sir  George  Otto,  Bart., 
the  only  son  of  Sir  Charles  E.  Trevelyan, 
and  nephew  of  Lord  Macaulay,  born  in 
1838.  He  is  author  of  the  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  Lord  Macaulay  (2  vols.  1876),  The 
Early  History  of  Charles  James  Fox,  etc. 

TREVES,  a town  in  the  province  of 
Rheinland,  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Moselle.  It  is  considered  the  oldest 
city  in  Germany,  and  contains  many 
Roman  remains.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  built  at  various  times 
from  the  6th  century  downward,  and 
containing  the  Holy  Coat  (see  Holy  Coat 
of  Treves) ; Church  of  our  Lady,  an 
elegant  Gothic  structure;  and  the  old 
archiepiscopal  palace,  now  used  as  a 
barracks.  Pop.  39,993. 

TRIAL.  See  Jury  and  Procedure, 
Civil. 

TRIANGLE,  in  geometry,  a figure 
bounded  by  tnree  lines  and  containing 


three  angles.  The  three  angles  of  a plane 
triangle  are  equal  to  two  right  angles  or 
180°,  and  its  area  is  equal  to  half  that 
of  a rectangle  or  parallelogram  of  the 
same  base  and  altitude.  The  triangle  is 
the  most  important  figure  in  geometry, 
and  may  be  considered  the  element  of  all 
other  figures.  If  the  three  lines  or  sides 
of  a triangle  are  all  straight,  it  is  a plane 
or  rectilinear  triangle,  as  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3, 
4.  If  all  the  three  sides  are  equal,  it  is  an 
equilateral  triangle,  as  in  Fig.  2.  If  two 
of  the  sides  only  are  equal,  it  is  an  isos- 
cels  triangle.  Fig.  3.  If  all  the  three  sides 
are  unequal,  it  is  a scalene  triangle.  Fig. 
4.  If  one  of  the  angles  is  a right  angle. 


Triangles. 


the  triangle  is  right-angled,  as  Fig.  1, 
having  the  right  angle  at  a.  If  one  of  the 
angles  is  obtuse,  the  triangle  is  called 
obtuse-angled,  as  Fig.  4,  having  the 
obtuse  angle  b.  If  all  the  angles  are 
acute,  the  triangle  is  acute-angled,  as 
Figs.  2,  3.  If  the  three  lines  of  a triangle 
are  all  curves,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be 
curvilinear,  as  Fig.  5.  If  one  or  two  of  the 
sides  are  straight  and  others  are  other 
curve,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  mixtili- 
near.  Fig.  6.  If  the  sides  are  all  arcs  of 
great  circles  of  the  sphere,  or  arcs  of  the 
same  circle,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be 
spherical. 

TRI'BUNE,  in  Roman  antiquity, 
originally  an  officer  connected  with  a 
tribe,  or  who  represented  a tribe  for  cer- 
tain purposes;  especially,  an  officer  or 
magistrate  chosen  by  the  people  to 
protect  them  from  the  oppression  of  the 
patricians  or  nobles,  and  to  defend  their 
liberties  against  any  attempts  that 
might  be  made  upon  them  by  the  senate 
and  consuls.  These  magistrates  were  at 
first  two,  but  their  number  was  in- 
creased to  five  and  ultimately  to  ten. 
This  last  number  appears  to  have  re- 
mained unaltered  down  to  the  end  of  the 
empire.  There  were  also  military  trib- 
unes, officers  of  the  army,  each  of 
whom  commanded  a division  or  legion, 
and  also  other  officers  called  tribunes, 
as,  tribunes  of  the  treasury,  of  the  horse, 
etc.  See  Rome  (History). 

trichina  (tri-kl'na),  a minute  ne- 
matoid  worm,  the  larva  of  which  was 
discovered  in  1835  in  the  tissue  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  of  man,  giving  rise  to 
a disease  since  known  as  trichiniasis  or 
trichinosis.  The  worm  is  common  also 
to  several  other  mammals,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  pig,  and  it  is  generally  from 
it  that  man  receives  the  disease.  When 
a portion  of  flesh,  say  of  the  pig,  con- 
taining larvse  is  taken  into  the  stomach 
the  larvae  in  a few  days  becomes  de- 
veloped into  procreative  adult  worms, 
having  in  the  meantime  passed  into  the 
intestines,  The  male  worm  is  about  -sT'oth 


TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY 

of  an  inch  long,  the  female  about  a half 
more.  The  female  produces  embryos  in 
extraordinary  numbers,  which  gain 
entrance  into  the  muscles  by  penetrating 
the  mucous  coat  of  the  intestine  and 
entering  the  capillaries,  whence  they 
are  carried  to  their  habitat  by  the  cir- 
culation. There  they  disorganize  the  ; | 
surrounding  tissue,  setting  up  at  the  I 
same  time  morbid  action  in  the  system, 
manifested  by  swelling  of  the  face,  body, 
and  limbs,  fever,  pains,  etc.,  and  result- 
ing sometimes  in  death.  In  the  muscles 
they  become  quiescent,  are  encased  in  a 
cyst  covered  with  calcareous  matter, 
and  may  give  no  more  trouble.  Thor- 
ough cooking  kills  the  trichinse  and 
thus  prevents  infection. 

TRICHINOP'OLY,  a town  of  British 
India,  capital  of  district  of  same  name, 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Cavery.  Pop.  104,721. 

TRICOLOR,  the  French  national  flag, 
or  one  formed  after  the  model  of  it. 
The  French  tricolor  is  blue,  white,  and 
red  in  equal  vertical  sections,  the  blue 
being  next  the  flag-staff. 

TRIDEN'TINE  COUNCIL,  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  See  Trent. 

TRIEST',  a seaport  town  in  Austria, 
214  miles  southwest  of  Vienna,  on  a 
gulf  of  same  name,  at  the  northeastern 
extremity  of  the  Adriatic.  The  chief 
buildings  are  an  ancient  cathedral  in 
the  Byzantine  style,  and  the  exchange 
block  of  buildings,  which  is  a handsome 
edifice.  Triest  is  the  chief  Austrian  port, 
and  the  most  important  trading  place 
in  the  Adriatic,  and  has  now  very  ex- 
tensive harbor  accommodation.  Pop. 
178,672. 

TRIFORIUM,  in  Gothic  churches,  a 
gallery  or  open  space  between  the  arches 
of  the  nave  and  the  roof  of  the  aisles 
below  the  clere-story  lighted  by  win- 
dows opening  into  the  interior  of  the 
building. 

TRI'GLYPHS,  in  architecture,  are 
ornaments  in  the  frieze  of  the  Doric 
order,  repeated  at  equal  intervals.  Each 
triglyph  consists  of  a square  block,  on 


Frieze  of  Roman  Doric  Order. 
tits  Triglyphs.  mm,  Metopes- 

which  are  cut  two  perpendicular  chan- 
nels of  triangular  section,  and  one  half 
channel  on  either  side  of  these. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL  SURVEY,  the 
survey  of  a country  which  is  carried  on 
from  a single  measured  base-line,  by 
trigonometrical  computation  made  from 
observed  angular  distances.  The  most 
minute  accuracy  and  the  most  perfect  in- 
struments are  required  in  all  the  practi- 
cal parts  of  such  operations;  and  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  have  regard  to  the 
curvature  of  the  earth’s  surface,  the 
effects  of  temperature,  refraction,  alti- 


TRIGONOMETRY 


TRIPTYCH 


tude  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  a 
multitude  of  circumstances  which  are 
not  taken  into  account  in  ordinary  sur- 
veying. In  conducting  a trigonometrical 
survey  of  a country,  signals,  such  as 
spires,  towers,  poles  erected  on  elevated 
situations  or  other  objects,  are  assumed 
at  as  great  a distance  as  will  admit  of  dis- 
tinct and  accurate  observationsbymeans 
of  telescopes  of  considerable  power  at- 
tached to  the  instruments  used  in  meas- 
uring the  angles.  In  this  way,  starting 
from  a measured  baseline,  the  country 
will  be  divided  into  a series  of  connected 
triangles  called  primary  triangles;  and 
any  side  of  any  one  of  these  being  known 
the  remaining  sides  of  all  of  them  may 
be  computed  by  trigonometry.  By 
means  exactly  similar,  each  of  these 
triangles  is  resolved  into  a number  of 
others  called  secondary  triangles;  and 
thus  the  positions  of  towns,  villages,  and 
other  objects  -are  determined.  The 
length  of  the  base  or  line  measured, 
which  is  an  arc  of  a great  circle,  must  be 
determined  with  extreme  accuracy,  as 
an  error  in  measuring  it  would  affect 
the  entire  survey. 

TRIGONOMETRY,  the  science  of  the 
measurement  of  triangles.  Trigonom- 
etry is  of  two  kinds,  plane  and  spherical 
the  former  treating  of  triangles  de- 
scribed on  a plane,  and  the  latter  of 
those  described  on  the  surface  of  a 
sphere.  In  every  triangle  there  are  six 
things  which  may  be  considered,  viz. : 
the  three  sides  and  the  three  angles,  and 
the  main  object  of  the  theoretical  part 
of  trigonometry  is  to  deduce  rules  by 
which,  when  some  of  these  are  given, 
the  others  may  be  found  by  com- 
putation.' In  plane  trigonometry  any 
three  of  the  six  parts  of  a triartgle  being 
given  (except  the  three  angles),  the 
other  parts  may  be  determined;  but  in 
spherical  trigonometry,  this  exception 
has  no  place,  for  any  three  of  the  six 
parts  being  given,  the  rest  may  thence 
be  determined,  the  sides  being  meas- 
ured or  estimated  by  degrees,  minutes, 
etc.,  as  well  as  the  angles.  Both  plane 
and  spherical  trigonometry  is  divided 
into  right-angled  and  oblique-angled. 
Solutions  of  triangles  are  worked  by 
means  of  tables  of  the  values  of  the 
trigonometrical  functions,  and  the  pro- 
cesses are  much  facilitated  by  the  use  of 
logarithms.  See  Logarithm. 

TRI'LOBITES,  an  extinct  and  widely- 
distributed  family  of  palaeozoic  Crus- 
tacea, nearly  allied  to  the  Phyllopoda. 
Trilobites  are  especially  characteristic 


Trllobites. 

1,  Paradoxides  bohemicus.  2,  Phacopslatifrons. 

of  the  Cambrian  and  Silurian  strata;  a 
number  of  genera  appear  in  the  Devon- 
ian, a few  in  the  Carboniferous,  none 
higher.  They  are  named  from  the  fact 
that  the  body  is  divided  into  three  lobes, 


which  run  parallel  to  its  axis.  They  feed 
on  small  water  animals,  and  vast  num- 
bers inhabited  the  shallow  water  near 
coasts.  When  attacked  they  could  roll 
themsevles  into  a ball.  Up  till  recent 
times  no  antennae  or  limbs  belonging  to 
these  animals  were  known,  but  latterly  a 
certain  number  have  been  found.  The 
eye-lenses  are  frequently  beautifully 
preserved  so  as  to  be  perceptible  by  the 
naked  eye.  In  one  species  each  eye  has 
400  facets,  and  in  another  6000.  The 
species  vary  greatly  in  size,  some  being 
no  larger  than  a pin’s  head. 

TRI'LOGY,  a series  of  three  dramas, 
each  of  them  in  a certain  sense  complete 
in  itself,  yet  bearing  a mutual  relation 
to  each  other,  and  forming  but  parts  of 
one  historical  and  poetical  picture. . The 
term  belongs  more  particularly  to  the 
Greek  drama,  where  three  tragedies, 
connected  in  subject,  together  with  a 
humorous  piece,  were  performed  in  im- 
mediate succession. 

TRINIDAD',  one  of  the  British  West 
India  islands,  and,  excepting  Jamaica, 
largest  and  most  valuable.  It  is  the 
most  southerly  of  the  Windward  group, 
lies  immediately  off  the  northeast  coast 
of  Venezuela,  and  is  about  55  miles  long 
by  40  miles  broad;  area,  1755  sq.  miles. 
The  chief  products  are  sugar,  cocoa, 
molasses,  rum,  cocoa-nuts,  pitch,  tim- 
ber, and  fruits.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
and  though  hot  is  well  suited  to  Amer- 
icans. The  chief  exports  are  sugar, 
rum,  cocoa,  molasses,  and  pitch.  The 
capital.  Port  of  Spain,  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  island,  is  one  of  the  finest 
towns  in  the  West  Indies.  Pop.  260,815. 

TRINITY,  a theological  name  given 
to  the  Deity  as  expressive  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  of  the  Triune  nature  of 
God,  the  union  of  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  as  Three  Persons 
and  One  God.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  nowhere  expressly  taught  in 
the  Old  Testament,  but  in  the  New 
Testament  it  is  clearly  taught,  though 
the  word  Trinity  does  not  occur.  The 
definition  of  the  Trinity  adopted  by  the 
Catholic  church,  and  generally  accepted 
by  orthodox  Christians,  is  that  there  are 
in  the  Godhead  three  persons,  one  in 
substance,  co-eternal,  equal  in  power, 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  The 
Eastern  church  holds  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father;  the 
Western,  throughout  all  its  divisions, 
adopting  the  amendedform  of  theNicene 
Creed,  holds  that  he  proceeds  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son.  The  three  creeds 
commonly  called  the  Apostles’,  the 
Athanasian,  and  the  Nicene,  all  contain 
the  points  of  agreement  between  the 
two  divisions  of  the  church,  while  on 
the  point  of  difference  the  Athanasian 
and  the  commonly  known  form  of  the 
Nicene  express  the  faith  of  the  Western 
church.  The  term  persons  is  not  used  in 
Scripture  of  the  Trinity,  but  something 
analogous  to  the  conception  of  person- 
ality seems  to  be  implied  in  the  apos- 
tolic arguments  of  the  epistles. 

TRINITY  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday  after 
Whitsunday.  It  was  definitely  estab- 
lished as  a church  festival  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  in  1334.  All  the  principal  feasts 
occur  in  the  half-year  between  Advent 
Sunday  and  Trinity,  and  all  the  Sun- 


days from  Trinity  to  Advent  are  called 
Sundays  after  Trinity. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  Four  treaties  in 
European  politics  are  known  by  this 
name.  The  first  was  formed  in  1668  by 
Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  the  Nether- 
lands against  Louis  XIV.;  the  second 
in  1717  by  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Holland  against  Spain,  then  governed 
by  Cardinal  Alberoni ; the  third  by  Great 
Britain,  Russia,  and  Austria  against 
France  (1795);  the  fourth  by  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy,  in  the  in- 
terests of  peace  (1887). 

TRIPLET,  in  music,  a combination  of 
three  notes  to  be  played  in  the  time  of 
two.  They  are  joined  by  a slur  and  dis- 
tinguished by  having  the  figure  3 above 
them. 

TRIPOD,  anciently  a bronze  altar  con- 
sisting of  a caldron  raised  on  a threa- 
legged  stand  of  bronze.  Such  was  the 
altar  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  Tripods  of 


Antique  tripod. 


fine  workmanship  and  of  precious  metals 
were  placed  in  later  times  as  votive  gifts 
in  the  temples,  especially  that  of  Apollo. 

TRIP'OLI,  a country  in  the  north  of 
Africa,  forming  a portion  of  the  Turkish 
empire  since  1835,  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Mediterranean,  west  by 
Tunis,  south  by  Fezzan  and  the  Libyan 
Desert,  and  east  by  the  Libyan  Desert 
and  Barca;  area,  about  106,000  sq. 
miles,  and  with  Fezzan  and  Barca, 
which  are  included  in  the  Turkish 
vilayet,  about  344,000  sq.  miles.  The 
population,  which  in  the  outlying  dis- 
tricts consists  of  Berbers  and  Bedouins 
and  in  the  town  chiefly  Moors,  is  esti- 
mated at  1,150,000. — Tripoli,  the  capi- 
tal, stands  on  a tongue  of  land  project- 
ing into  the  sea.  Pop.  about  30,000. 

TRIPTYCH  (trip'tik),  a picture,  carv- 
ing, or  other  representation  in  three 
compartments  side  by  side;  most  fre- 


Triptych— Painting  by  Allegretto  Nuccl,  1465. 

quently  such  as  is  used  for  an  altar- 
piece.  The  central  picture  is  usually 
complete  in  itself.  The  subsidiary 


TRIREME 


troubadour 


designs  on  either  side  are  smaller,  and 
frequently  correspond  in  size  and  shape 
to  one  half  of  the  principal  picture. 

TRI'REME,  a galley  or  vessel  with 
three  benches  or  ranks  of  oars  on  a side, 
a common  class  of  warship  among  the 
ancient  Greeks,  Romans,  Carthaginians, 
etc.  The  trireme  was  also  provided  with 
a large  square  sail,  which  could  be  raised 
during  a fair  wind  to  relieve  the  rowers, 
but  was  never  employed  in  action. 

TRITONS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  certain  sea-gods.  They  are 
variously  described,  but  their  body  is 
always  a compound  of  the  human  figure 


Triton  with  Nereid— Prom  an  antique  sculp- 
ture in  the  Vatican. 

above  with  that  of  a fish  below.  They 
carry  a trumpet  composed  of  a shell, 
which  they  blow  at  the  command  of 
Poseidon  to  soothe  the  waves. 

TRI'UMPH,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a 
magnificent  procession  in  honor  of  a 
victorious  general,  and  the  highest 
military  honor  which  he  could  obtain. 
It  was  granted  by  the  senate  only  to  one 
who  had  held  the  office  of  dictator,  of 
consul,  or  of  prtetor,  and  after  a decisive 
victory  or  the  complete  subjugation  of  a 
province.  In  a Roman  triumph  the 
general  to  whom  this  honor  was  awarded 
entered  the  city  of  Rome  in  a chariot 
\ drawn,  by  four  horses,  crowned  with 
; laurel,  and  having  a scepter  in  one  hand 
^ and  a branch  of  laurel  in  the  other.  He 
* was  preceded  by  the  senate  and  the 
magistrates,  musicians,  the  spoils,  the 
captives  in  fetters,  etc.,  and  followed 
by  his  army  on  foot,  in  marching  order. 
The  procession  advanced  in  this  order 
along  the  Via  Sacra  to  the  capitol,  where 
a bull  was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  and  the 
laurel  wreath  deposited  in  the  lap  of  the 
god.  Banquets  and  other  entertain- 
ments concluded  the  solemnity.  A 
naval  triumph  differed  in  no  respect 
from  an  ordinary  triumph,  except  that 
it  was  upon  a smaller  scale,  and  was 
characterized  by  the  beaks  of  ships  and 
other  nautical  trophies. 

TRIUM'VIR,  one  of  three  men  united 
in  office.  The  triumvirs  of  Rome  were 
either  ordinary  magistrates  or  officials, 
or  else  extraordinary  commissioners  who 
were  frequently  appointed  to  jointly 
execute  any  public  office.  But  the  men 
best  known  in  Roman  history  as  trium- 
virs were  rather  usurpers  of  power  than 
properly  constituted  authorities.  The 
term  triumvirate  is  particularly  applied 
in  Roman  history  to  two  famous  coali- 
tions, the  first  in  59  b.c.  between  Caesar, 
Pompey,  and  Crassus;  the  second  in  43 
B.c.  between  Antony,  Octavian,  and 
Lepidus.  See  Rome  (History). 

TROAD.  See  Troy. 


TROCHEE,  in  prosody,  a foot  of  two 
syllables,  the  first  long  and  the  second 
short,  as  Lat.  fama,  or  Eng.  nation. 

•TROCHILIDiE.  See  Humming-bird. 

TROCHU  (tro-shii),  Louis  Jules, 
French  general,  born  in  1815,  died  in 
1896;  edudated  at  St.  Cyr;  engaged  in 
the  Algerian,  Crimean,  and  Italian  cam- 
paigns; published  a pamphlet  entitled 
L’Armde  Frangaise  en  1867,  and  showed 
the  weakness  of  the  French  army,  by 
which  he  forfeited  the  favor  of  Napoleon. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German 
war  (1870),  however,  he  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Paris,  and  when  the  republic 
was  proclaimed  he  was  intrusted  with 
the  defense  of  the  city,  a position  which 
he  held  until  the  capitulation. 

TROG'LODYTE,  a cave-dweller;  one 
dwelling  in  a cave  or  underground  habi- 
tation. The  ancient  Greeks  gave  the 
name  to  various  races  of  savages  in- 
habiting caves,  especially  to  the  cave- 
dwellers  on  the  coast  of  the  Red  sea  and 
along  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Nile  in 
Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  the  whole  of  this 
district  being  known  by  the  name 
Troglodytike.  Archaeological  investiga- 
tions show  that  cave-dwellers  every- 
where probably  preceded  house-builders. 

TROLLOPE,  Anthony,  English  novel- 
ist, was  born  in  London  1815,  died  1882. 
His  first  success  was  The  Warden,  fol- 
lowed by  Barchester  Towers,  Dr. Thorne, 
The  Bertrams,  Framley  Parsonage,  The 
Last  Chronicles  of  Barset,  Phineas  Finn, 
The  Way  We  Live  Now,  etc.  He  also 
published  accounts  of  his  travels,  be- 
sides a Life  of  Cicero,  a sketch  of  Thack- 
eray’s Life,  and  his  own  Autobiography. 

TROLLS,  in  Northern  mythology,  a 
name  of  certain  supernatural  beings,  in 
old  Icelandic  literature  represented  as  a 
kind  of  giants,  but  in  modern  Scan- 
dinavia regarded  as  of  dimunitive  size, 
and  represented  as  a kind  of  mischie- 
vous imps  or  goblins. 

TROMBONE,  a deep-toned  brass  in- 
strument of  the  trumpet  kind,  consisting 
of  three  tubes;  the  first,  to  which  the 
mouthpiece  is  attached,  and  the  third, 
which  terminates  in  a bell-shaped 
orifice,  are  placed  side  by  side;  the 
middle  tube  is  doubled,  and  slides  into 


1,  Valve  trombone.  2,  Slide  trombone. 

the  other  two  like  the  tube  of  a tele- 
scope. By  the  manipulation  of  the  slide 
the  tube  of  air  is  altered  in  length,  and 
the  pitch  accordingly  varied.  The 
trombone  is  of  three  kinds,  the  alto,  the 
tenor,  and  the  bass;  and  some  instru- 
ments are  fitted  with  pistons  when  they 
are  known  as  valve  trombones. 

TROMP,  Martin  Harpertzoon,  the  son 
of  a Dutch  naval  officer,  was  born  at 
Briel  in  1597,  He  went  to  sea  with  his 
father  in  1607 ; received  the  appointment 
of  lieutenant-admiral;  gained  a decisive 
victory  over  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
fleet  near  Dunkirk  in  1639;  encountered 


Blake  and  Monk  in  1653,  and  in  the 
same  year  he  again  encountered  Monk 
and  was  killed  in  the  battle. 

TROOPIAL,  the  name  common  to  a 
group  of  passerine  birds,  akin  to  the 
orioles  and  starlings.  They  mostly  in- 
habit the  southern  United  States,  but 
several  of  them  appear  as  birds  of  pa.s- 
sage  in  the  northern  states  in  early 
spring.  The  cow-troopial,  cow-bird,  or 
cow-bunting,  the  blue-bird,  and  the 
bobolink  or  rice-bunting,  belong  to  this 
group.  See  these  articles. 

TROPIC-BIRD,  the  common  name  of 
the  natatorial  or  swimming  birds  belong- 
ing to  the  pelican  family,  peculiar  to 
tropical  regions.  They  are  distinguished 


Tropic-bird. 

by  two  very  long,  slender  tail-feathers. 
They  are  wonderfully  powerful  on  the 
wing,  being  able  to  pass  whole  days  in 
the  air  without  needing  to  settle. 

TROPICS,  in  astronomy,  two  circles 
on  the  celestial  sphere,  whose  distances 
from  the  equator  are  each  equal  to  the 
obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or  23^°  nearly. 
The  northern  one  touches  the  ecliptic 
at  the  sign  Cancer,  and  is  thence  called 
the  tropic  of  Cancer,  the  southern  one 
being  for  a similar  reason  called  the 
tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  sun’s  annual 
path  in  the  heavens  is  bounded  by  these 
two  circles,  and  they  are  called  tropics, 
because  when  the  sun,  in  his  journey 
northward  or  southward,  reaches  either 
of  them,  he,  as  it  were,  turns  back,  and 
travels  in  an  opposite  direction  in  re- 
gard to  north  and  south.  Geographically 
the  tropics  are  two  parallels  of  latitude, 
each  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
terrestrial  equator  as  the  celestial 
tropics  are  from  the  celestial  equator. 
The  one  north  of  the  equator  is  called 
the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  that  south  of 
the  equator^  the  tropic  of  Capricorn 
Over  these  circles  the  sun  is  vertical 
when  farthest  north  or  farthest  south, 
that  is,  at  the  solstices,  and  they  include 
between  them  that  portion  of  the  globe 
called  the  torrid  zone,  a zone  47°  wide, 
having  the  equator  for  its  central  line. 

TROU'BADOUR,  a name  given  to  a 
class  of  early  poets  who  first  appeared 
in  Provence,  in  France  They  flourished 
from  the  11th  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
13th  century,  their  principal  residence 
being  the  south  of  France,  but  they  also 
lived  in  Catalonia,  Arragon,  and  North 
Italy.  The  most  renowned  among  the 
troubadours  were  knights  who  culti- 
vated music  and  poetry  as  an  honorable 
accomplishment;  but  their  art  declined 
in  its  later  days,  when  it  was  chiefly 
cultivated  by  minstrels  of  a lower  class. 


TROUS-DE-LOUP 


TRUSTEE 


TROUS-DE-LOUP  (tr6-de-l6),  a mili- 
tary term  for  trap-holes  or  pits  dug  in 
the  ground  in  the  form  of  inverted  cones 


Trous-iie-loup. 

or  pyramids,  in  order  to  serve  as  ob- 
stacles to  the  advance  of  an  enemy  each 
pit  having  a pointed  stake  in  the  middle. 

TROUT,  the  common  name  of  various 
species  of  salmon,  as  the  bull-trout,  the 
salmon-trout,  the  common  trout,  and 
the  great  gray  or  lake  trout.  The  com- 
mon trout  abounds  in  all  the  rivers  and 
lakes  of  Northern  Europe,  and  is  found 
even  in  the  smallest  streams.  The  brook- 
trout  of  America  and  the  common 
American  lake-trout  are  among  several 
species  of  lake-trout  in  America,  among 
the  finest  and  largest  of  which  is  the 
Mackinaw  trout.  The  great  gray  or  lake 
trout  of  Britain  weighs  sometimes  30 
lbs.,  while  the  North  American  lake- 
trout  may  reach  60  lbs. 

TROY,'  or  ILIUM,  an  ancient  city  in 
the  Troad,  a territory  in  the  northwest 
of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  Hellespont  rendered 
famous  by  Homer’s  epic  of  the  Iliad. 
The  ancient  and  legendary  city,  accord- 
ing to  the  Homeric  story,  reached  its 
highest  splendor  when  Priam  was  king; 
but  the  abduction  of  Helen,  wife  of 
Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  by  Paris,  one 
of  Priam’s  sons,  brought  about  its  de- 
struction. To  revenge  this  outrage  all 
the  Greek  chiefs  afterward  famous  in 
history  banded  themselves  against  the 
Trojans  and  their  allies,  and  went 
against  Troy  with  a great  fleet.  The 
first  nine  years  of  the  war  were  spent  by 
the  Greeks  in  driving  the  Trojans  and 
their  allies  within  the  walls  of  the  capi- 
tal. The  tenth  year  brought  about  a 
quarrel  between  Achilles,  the  bravest 
of  the  Greeks,  and  Agamemnon,  the 
Greek  commander-in-chief,  which  proved 
for  a time  disastrous  to  their  party, 
and  which  forms  the  subject  of  the 
Iliad.  In  the  end  the  city  was  taken 
by  means  of  a large  hollow  wooden 
horse,  in  which  a number  of  the  bravest 
of  the  Greek  heroes  concealed  them- 
selves, while  the  rest  retired  to  their 
ships.  Thinking  that  the  Greeks  had 
given  up  the  siege,  the  Trojans  in- 
cautiously drew  the  horse  within  the 
cit}’',  and  gave  themselves  up  to  revelry. 
The  Greeks  within  the  horse  issued  from 
their  concealment,  and  being  joined  by 
their  companions  without  the  walls, 
Troy  was  taken  and  utterly  destroyed. 
This  is  said  to  have  occurred  about 
1184  B.c. 

TROY,  the  capital  of  Rensselaer  co., 
New  York,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hud- 
son river.  It  has  a fine  court-house,  a 
lyceum,  a celebrated  female  institute, 
a public  library,  a government  arsenal, 
etc.  It  has  paper,  saw,  cotton,  and  flour 
mills;  manufactures  of  leather,  woolen 
cloth,  cordage,  earthenware;  and  ships 
large  quantities  of  lumber,  flour,  grain, 
beef,  pork,  wool,  etc.  Pop.  1909,  76,000. 


TROY  WEIGHT,  a weight  chiefly  used 
in  weighing  gold,  silver,  and  articles  of 
jewelry.  The  pound  troy  contains  12 
ounces;  each  ounce  is  divided  into  20 
pennyweights,  and  each  pennyweight 
into  24  grains.  Hence  the  pound  con- 
tains 5760  grains,  and  the  ounce  480 
grains.  As  the  avoirdupois  pound  (the 
weight  in  general  commercial  use)  com- 
tains  7000  grains,  and  the  ounce  437^ 
grains,  the  troy  pound  is  to  the  avoir- 
dupois as  144  to  175,  and  the  troy  ounce 
to  the  avoirdupois  as  192  to  175. 

TRUFFLE,  a genus  of  fungi  growing 
underground.  The  common  truffle  is  of 
a fleshy  fungous  structure  and  roundish 
figure,  without  any  visible  root;  of  a 
dark  color,  approaching  to  black,  and 
studded  over  with  tubercles,  and  varies 
in  size  from  that  of  a large  plum  to  that 
of  a large  potato.  It  is  much  sought 
after  as  an  ingredient  in  certain  high- 
seasoned  dishes.  There  being  no  ap- 
pearance above-ground  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  the  truffle,  dogs  are  trained 
to  And  this  fungus  by  the  scent  and 
scratch  it  up. 

TRUMBULL,  John,  American  histori- 
cal and  portrait  painter,  was  born  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  in  1756.  In  1784  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  painted  his  first 
historical  picture,  “The  Signing  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,”  which, 
with  the  “Surrender  of  Burgoyne,” 
“Surrender  of  Cornwallis,”  “Resigna- 
tion of  Washington  at  Annapolis,”  hang 
in  the  capitol  at  Washington.  Among 
his  principal  works  are  the  “Battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,”  “Death  of  Montgomery,” 
“Battle  of  Princeton,”  “Battle  of  Tren- 
ton,” and  portraits  of  Washington, 
Hamilton,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  and 
others.  In  1794  he  was  secretary  of 
legation  in  England;  and  from  1816  to 
1825  was  president  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  New  York,  in  which  city  he 
died  November  10,  1843. 

TRUMBULL,  Jonathan,  an  American 
patriot  and  political  leader,  was  born  at 
Lebanon,  Conn.,  in  1710.  From  1769  to 
1783  he  was  governor  of  Connecticut, 
was  the  only  one  of  the  colonial  govern- 
ors who  gave  his  unqualified  support 
of  the  patriot  party.  According  to  a 
long  accepted  tradition  he  was  called  by 
Washington  “Brother  Jonathan,”  a 
phrase  which  later  came  into  general 
use  to  personify  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  1785. 

TRUMBULL,  Lyman,  American  ju- 
rist, was  born  at  Colchester,  Conn.,  in 
1813.  He  moved  to  Illinois  in  1837. 
In  1841  he  became  secretary  of  state, 
and  in  1848  was  elevated  to  the  supreme 
bench  of  the  state.  He  was  elected  to 
congress  as  a Democrat  in  1854,  and 
while  serving  as  representative  was 
chosen  United  states  senator  for  the 
term  commencing  March  4,  1855.  In 
1861  he  was  reelected  to  the  .senate, 
where  he  took  an  active  part  in  securing 
the  passage  of  the  constitutional  amend- 
ment providing  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  was  one  of  the  republicans 
who  voted  against  the  impeachment  of 
Andrew  Johnson.  Since  that  occurrence 
he  had  acted  with  the  democratic  party, 
having  been  the  democratic  nominee  for 
governor  of  Rlinois  in  1880.  He  died  in 
1896. 

TRUMPET,  a wind-instrument  of 


music  of  the  highest  antiquity,  having 
a clear  ringing  and  penetrating  tone. 
In  its  modern  form  it  consists  of  a metal 
tube  (usually  brass,  sometimes  silver), 
about  8 feet  long,  doubled  up  in  the 
form  of  a parabola,  becoming  conoid 


Cavalry  trumpet. 


in  the  last  fold,  and  expanding  into  a 
bell-shaped  end,  the  other  end  being 
fitted  with  a mouthpiece  by  which  the 
instrument  is  sounded.  By  means  of 
crooks  and  slides  the  length  of  the  tube 


Orchestral  trumpet. 


can  be  increased,  and  the  pitch  corre- 
spondingly lowered.  Trumpets  are  also 
sometimes  fitted  with  pistons,  valves, 
or  keys,  by  which  the  intermediate 
tones  and  semitones  can  be  produced. 

TRUMPETER,  a genus  of  grallatorial 
or  wading  birds,  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  so  named  from  their  hollow  cry. 
The  most  familiar  species  is  the  golder- 
breasted  trumpeter,  a bird  of  the  size 
of  a pheasant,  which  is  readily  tamed, 
and  becomes  a favorite  imnate  of  the 
house. 

TRUMPETS,  Feast  of,  a feast  among 
the  Jews,  held  on  the  first  and  second 
days  of  the  month  Tisri,  which  was  the 
commencement  of  the  Jewish  civil  year. 
It  derived  its  name  from  the  blowing  of 
trumpets  in  the  temple  with  more  than 
usual  solemnity. 

TRUNK-HOSE,  a kind  of  short  wide 
breeches  gathered  in  above  the  knees, 
or  immediately  under  them,  and  dis- 
tinguished according  to  their  peculiar 


Trunk-hose. 


1.  Charles  IX.  of  Prance,  15.')0-1574. 

2,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of  Somerset,  died  1645. 

cut  as  French,  Gallic,  or  Venetian. 
This  garment  prevailed  during  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.,  Elizabeth,  and 
James  I. 

TRUSTEE',  in  law,  a person  to  whom 
property  is  legally  committed  in  trust 
for  the  benefit  of  some  other  party  or 


TSETSE-FLY 


TULIP-TREE 


parties,  or  for  some  special  purpose.  The 
person  for  whom  or  in  whose  favor  the 
trustee  holds  the  estate,  or  any  interest 
therein,  is  called  the  cestui  que  trust. 
No  one  is  compelled  to  undertake  a 
trust,  but  if  he  once  accepts  he  cannot 
renounce  it  unless  the  trust-deed  con- 
tains a provision  enabling  him  to  do  so, 
or  a competent  court  grants  him  a dis- 
charge, or  by  the  consent  of  all  those 
beneficially  interested  in  the  estate. 
Trustees  are  liable  for  the  consequences 
of  any  breach  of  trust  however  innocent, 
and  the  estate  of  a trustee  deceased, 
who  has  misapplied  the  trust  fund,  is 
liable  for  the  deficiency;  but  generally 
speaking,  the  law  only  requires  of  a 
trustee  the  same  amount  of  care  and 
prudence  he  would  be  expected  to  dis- 
play in  managing  his  own  affairs.  Where 
there  are  several  trustees,  each  is  liable 
for  his  own  acts  and  receipts  only,  unless 
where  there  has  been  common  agreement 
and  organization.  As  their  office  is  con- 
sidered purely  honorary,  trustees  are  not 
entitled  to  any  allowance  for  their 
trouble  in  connection  with  the  trust. 
They  may  not  invest  the  trust-funds 
on  personal  security,  or  in  stock  of  a 
private  company,  unless  specially  au- 
thorized to  do  so  by  the  trust-deed;  but 
they  are  permitted  to  invest  in  govern- 
ment stocks,  debenture,  preference,  or 
guaranteed  stock  of  railways,  stock  of 
municipal  corporations,  and  generally 
on  satisfactory  real  security. 

TSETSE-FLY,  a South  African  two- 
winged insect  akin  to  the  gad-fly,  whose 
bite  is  often  fatal  to  horses,  dogs,  and 
cows,  but  is  innoxious  to  man  and  wild 
beasts.  It  is  a little  larger  than  the 
common  house-fly,  and  the  symptoms 
of  its  bite  are  that  the  eyes  and  the  nose 
begin  to  run.  the  coat  stares  as  if  the 


Tsetse,  four  times  natural  size. 


animal  were  cold,  a swelling  appears 
under  the  jaw  and  sometimes  at  the 
navel,  and  if  the  animal  does  not  die  at 
once,  emaciation  commences,  accom- 
panied with  a peculiar  flaccidity  of  the 
muscles,  and  this  continues  unchecked 
until,  perhaps  months  afterward,  purg- 
ing comes  on,  and  the  animal  perishes 
in  a state  of  extreme  exhaustion. 

TUBER,  in  botany,  an  underground 
fleshy  stem  or  appendage  to  the  root, 
being  usually  an  oblong  or  roundish 
body,  of  annual  duration,  composed 
chiefly  of  cellular  tissue  with  a great 
cjuantity  of  amylaceous  matter,  in- 


tended for  the  development  of  the  stems 
or  branches  which  are  to  spring  from  it, 
and  of  which  the  rudiments,  in  the  form 


of  buds,  are  irregularly  distributed  over 
its  surface.  Examples  are  seen  in  the 
potato,  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  and 
arrow-root. 

TUBERCULOS'IS,  the  term  applied 
to  a general  disease  due  to  the  formation 
of  tubercles  in  various  organs  of  the 
body.  The  prevalence  of  tuberculosis  in 
cattle,  and  the  possibility  of  tuberculosis 
cattle  communicating  the  disease  to 
human  beings  through  the  medium  of 
the  meat  of  slaughtered  animals  sold  for 
food,  have  recently  occasioned  profound 
anxiety  and  much  discussion.  See 
Consumption. 

TUBEROSE,  a plant  originally 
brought  from  the  East,  cultivated  both 
for  its  perfume  and  for  its  beautiful 
white  flowers.  It  has  a bulbous  root, 
and  an  upright  branchless  stem  grow- 
ing to  the  height  of  3 or  4 feet. 

TUBULAR  BRIDGE.  See  Bridge. 

TUCKAHOE',  a singular  vegetable 
found  in  the  southern  seaboard  states 
of  the  United  States,  growing  under- 
ground, like  the  European  truffle.  It  is 
also  called  Indian  bread  and  Indian  loaf. 
It  is  referred  to  a genus  of  spurious 
fungi,  but  in  all  probability  it  is  a pecu- 
liar condition  of  some  root,  though  of 
what  plant  has  not  been  properly  ascer- 
tained. 

TUCUMAN',  or  San  Miguel  de  Tucu- 
man,  a town  of  the  Argentine  republic, 
capital  of  the  province  of  same  name. 
Pop.  about  34,300.  The  province  is 
fertile,  and  has  a fine  climate;  area, 
13,500.  Pop.  249,433. 

TUDOR,  the  family  name  of  an  Eng- 
lish royal  line  founded  by  Owen  Tudor 
of  Wales,  who  married  the  widowed 
queen  of  Henry  V.  The  first  of  the  Tudor 
sovereigns  was  Henry  VII.;  the  last, 
Elizabeth. 

TUDOR  STYLE,  in  architecture,  a 
name  frequently  applied  to  the  latest 
Gothic  style  in  England,  being  the  last 
phase  of  the  perpendicular,  and  some- 
times known  as  Florid  Gothic.  The 

Ceriod  of  this  style  is  from  1400  to  1537 ; 

ut  the  term  is  sometimes  extended  so  as 
to  include  the  Elizabethan  period  also, 
which  brings  it  down  to  1603.  It  is  the 
result  of  a combination  of  the  Italian 
style  with  the  Gothic.  It  is  characterized 
by  a flat  arch,  shallow  mouldings,  and 
a profusion  of  panelling  on  the  walls. 

TUESDAY,  the  third  day  of  our  week, 
so  called  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  god  of 
war,  Tiu. 

TUILERIES  (twel-rez;  from  Fr.  tuile, 
a tile,  because  the  spot  on  which  it  was 
built  was  formerly  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  tiles),  the  residence  of  the 
French  monarchs,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Seine,  in  Paris.  Catharine  de’ 
Medici,  wife  of  Henry  II.,  began  the 


building  (1564);  Henry  IV.  extended  it, 
and  founded  the  old  gallery  (1600);  and 
Louis  XIV.  enlarged  it  (1654),  and  com- 
pleted that  gallery.  The  side  toward  the 
Louvre  consisted  of  five  pavilions  and 
four  ranges  of  buildings;  the  other  side 
had  only  three  pavilions.  During  the 
revolution  of  1830  the  palace  was 
sacked.  Itwas  restored  by  Louis  Philippe 
to  its  former  splendor,  but  in  1848  it 
was  again  pillaged.  The  Tuileries  then 
became  ajhospital  for  wounded,  a picture- 
gallery,  and  the  home  of  Louis  Napo- 
leon in  1851.  On  the  23d  May,  1871, 
it  was  almost  totally  destroyed  by  fire 
(the  work  of  the  communists),  and  the 
remaining  portions  were  removed  in  the 
year  1883. 


Tudor  architecture ; Hengrave  hall,  » 

Suffolk,  1538.  2 

TULA,  a government  of  Central  Rus-  -I 
sia;  area,  11,954  sq.  miles.  Pop.  1,409,-  f 

432. — Tula,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  A 

the  Upa,  107  miles  south  of  Moscow.  It 
is  the  residence  both. of  a civil  and  a 
military  governor,  the  see  of  a bishop,  ' 
and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  fire-  i 
arms,  as  also  cutlery,  ornamental  steel-  >; 
work,  platina  snuff-boxes,  silks,  hats, 
soap,  candles,  cordage,  and  leather. 

Pop.  111,048.  f 

TULIP,  a genus  of  plants.  The  species  '* 
are  bulbous  herbaceous  plants,  and  are  ^ 
extensively  cultivated  in  gardens.  About  j 
forty  species  have  been  described,  of 
which  the  most  noted  is  the  common 
garden  tulip,  a native  of  the  Levant.  'A 
Upward  of  1000  varieties  of  this  plant 
have  been  enumerated.  The  sweet-  , 

scented  tulip  is  much  prized  for  its 
fragrance.  About  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century  an  extraordinary  tulip  mania 
prevailed  in  Holland.  Enormous  sums  y 
were  given  for  bulbs,  the  ownership  of 
a bulb  being  often  divided  into  shares, 
in  which  men  speculated  as  they  do  in  _ ! 
ordinary  stocks  or  shares.  - 

TULIP-TREE,  an  American  tree  bear- 
ing  flowers  resembling  the  tulip.  It  is  j ■ 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  the  forest 
trees  in  the  temperate  parts  of  North  i 
America.  Throughout  the  states  it  is  v 
generally  known  by  the  name  of  poplar,  (K 
white  wood,  or  canoe-wood.  The  wood  is  ? 
light,  compact,  and  fine-grained,  and  is  •M 
employed  for  various  useful  purposes  ^ 
The  bark,  especially  of  the  roots,  has 
an  aromatic  smell  and  bitter  taste,  and  ^ 
has  been  used  in  medicine  as  a tonic  and  S 
febrifuge. 


TUMOR 


TURBINE 


I TUMOR,  in  surgery,  in  its  widest  1 
• sense,  a morbid  enlargement  or  swelling 
^ of  any  part  of  the  body  or  of  any  kind ; 

more  strictly,  however,  it  implies  a 
' permanent  swelling  occasioned  by  a 
' new  growth,  and  not  a mere  enlarge- 
ment of  a natural  part,  which  is  called 
! hypertrophy.  Tumors  may  be  divided 
into  two  well-defined  classes:  (a)  Simple, 
benign,  or  innocent  tumors,  the  sub- 
stance of  which  has  anatomical  resem- 
blance  to  some  tissues  of  the  body; 
they  gradually  increase  in  size,  and 
generally  only  produce  inconvenience 
from  the  great  bulk  they  sometimes 
attain;  a complete  cure  may  be  effected 
by  simple  excision,  (b)  Malignant  tu- 
mors, which  bear  no  resemblance  in 
substance  to  normal  tissue ; they  are  ex- 
ceedingly liable  to  ulceration,  they  in- 
vade all  the  textures  of  the  part  in  which 
they  occur,  affecting  the  mass  of  the 
blood,  and  terminate  fatally;  when 
excised  they  are  apt  to  recur  not  only 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
''  previous  site,  but  also  in  remote  parts 
of  the  body.  This  recurrence  in  remote 
parts  is  due  to  transference  of  some  of 
i the  elements  of  the  tumor  by  means  of 
lymphatic  or  blood  vessels.  Hence  if  a 
malignant  tumor  is  to  be  excised  it  must 
be  done  early  to  avoid  such  secondary 
infection  if  possible.  Innocent  tumors 
are  often  named  from  the  tissues  in 
i which  they  occur,  as  adipose,  or  fatty 
. tumors,  fibrous  tumors,  cartilaginous 
' tumors,  bony  tumors,  and  the  like. 
^ Of  the  malignant  class  cancer  is  a well- 
f known  example.  See  Cancer. 

^ TUNGSTEN,  a metal  discovered  in 
1781 ; atomic  weight  184.  It  has  a grayish 
white  color  and  considerable  luster.  It 
is  brittle,  nearly  as  hard  as  steel,  and 
less  fusible  than  manganese.  The  ores 
i'  of  this  metal  are  the  native  tungstate 

5 of  lime  and  the  tungstate  of  iron  and 
manganese,  which  latter  is  also  known 

t by  the  name  of  wolfram. 

TUNIC,  an  ancient  form  of  garment  in 

6 constant  use  among  the  Greeks.  Among 
^ the  Romans  the  tunic  was  an  under 
F garment  worn  by  both  sexes  (under  the 

I i toga  and  the  palla),  and  was  fastened  by 
a girdle  or  belt  about  the  waist.  The 
term  is  also  used  ecclesiastically  to  de- 
note a dress  worn  by  the  sub-deacon, 
made  originally  of  linen,  reaching  to 
the  feet,  and  then  of  an  inferior  silk,  and 
narrower  than  the  dalmatic  of  the  dea- 
con, with  shorter  and  tighter  sleeves. 

TUNIS,  a country  of  North  Africa, 
now  a French  protectorate,  is  bounded 
on  the  north  and  northeast  by  the  Medi- 
terranean, on  the  southeast  by  Tripoli, 
and  on  the  west  and  southwest  by 
Algeria;  area,  estimated  at  42,000  sq. 
miles.  TThe  manufactures  consist  chiefly 
of  woolen  fabrics,  soap,  dyed  skins,  and 
ordinary  and  morocco  leather.  The  in- 
habitants consist  of  a mixture  of  Moors 
and  Arabs,  along  with  Berbers,  here 
called  Kroumirs,  occupying  the  elevated 
tract  north  of  the  valley  of  Mejerdah. 
Almost  the  only  building  of  importance 
is  the  palace  of  the  bey  in  the  Moorish 
fc'  style;  the  bazaars  are  also  interesting, 
B and  under  French  direction  a cathedral 
B and  other  buildings,  have  been  erected, 
B and  schools,  etc.,  established.  Tunis  has 
I been  recently  connected  directly  with 
B the  Mediterranean  by  a deep  channel 


cut  through  the  lagoon.  Pop.  about 
170,000. 

TUNNEL,  a subterranean  passage  cut 
through  a hill,  a rock,  or  any  eminence, 
or  under  a river,  a town,  etc.,  to  carry 
a canal,  a road,  or  a railway  in  an  ad- 
vantageous course.  In  the  construction 
of  canals  and  railways  tunnels  are  fre- 
quently had  recourse  to  in  order  to 
preserve  the  desired  level  and  for  various 


St.  Gothard  tunnel.  Section  showing  con- 
struction in  soft  strata. 

other  local  causes.  Tunnels  when  not 
pierced  through  solid  rock  have  usually 
an  arched  roof  and  are  lined  with  brick- 
work or  masonry.  The  sectional  form 
of  the  passage  is  various.  Among  the 
greatest  works  of  this  kind  are  the 
tunnels  of  St.  Gothard,  Mont  Cenis,  the 
Arlberg,  and  the  Simplon.  In  Britain 
the  Severn  and  Mersey  tunnels  are 
noteworthy,  while  in  America  the  Hoo- 


St.  Gothard  tunnel.  Section  near  entrance  on 
Italian  side. 

sac  tunnel;  that  through  the  Cascade 
range  in  Washington  and  that  under 
the  St.  Clair  river  connecting  Detroit, 
Mich.,  and  Windsor,  Ont.,  are  the  most 
important.  In  recent  years  tunnels 
have  been  constructed  to  carry  rapid 
transit  railways  under  city  streets  and 
under  rivers  to  connect  cities  such  as 
those  opened  in  1908  between  New 
York  and  Brooklyn  and  New  York  and 
Jersey  City.  See  Subways. 

TUNNY,  a fish  closely  allied  to  the 
mackerel.  These  fish  live  in  shoals  in 
almost  all  the  seas  of  the  warmer  and 
temperate  parts  of  the  earth.  They  are 
taken  in  immense  quantities  on  the 
MediterraneaiTcoasts,  where  the  fishing 
is  chiefly  carried  on.  The  flesh  is  delicate 
and  somewhat  resembles  veal.  The 
common  tunny  attains  a length  of  from 
4 feet  to  even  20  feet,  and  sometimes 
exceeds  half  a ton  in  weight.  Its  color  is 
a dark  blue  on  the  upper  parts,  and 
silvery  white  below.  The  American 
tunny  is  found  on  the  American  coast 
from  New  York  to  Nova  Scotia. 

TUPPER,  Martin  Farquhar,  born  in 
London  1810,  died  1889.  He  published 
a number  of  novels  and  plays,  but  his 


fame  rests  upon  his  Proverbial  Phil- 
osophy, a work  in  a kind  of  blank  verse 
which  has  gone  through  numerous 
editions. 

TURBAN,  a form  of  head-dress  worn 
by  the  Orientals.  It  varies  in  form  in 
different  nations,  and  different  classes 
of  the  same  nation.  It  consists  of  two 
parts;  a cap  without  a brim,  fitted  to  the 
head;  and  a sash,  scarf,  or  shawl,  usually 
of  cotton  or  linen,  wound  about  the  cap, 
and  sometimes  hanging  down  the  neck. 

TURBINE,  a kind  of  horizontal  water- 
wheel, made  to  revolve  by  the  escape 
of  water  through  orifices,  under  the 
influence  of  pressure  derived  from  a fall. 
Turbines  are  now  made  after  a vast 
variety  of  patterns.  The  oldest  and 
simplest  is  the  Scotch  turbine,  or 
Barker’s  mill.  In  another  common  form 


Section  of  turbine. 


the  water  passes  vertically  down  through 
the  wheel  between  the  fixed  screw  blades 
which  give  it  a spiral  motion,  and  then 
strike  similar  blades  attached  to  a 
movable  spindle,  but  placed  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  so  that  the  impact  of 
the  water  communicates  a rotary  mo- 
tion to  the  blades  and  spindles.  Or  the 
water  may  be  passed  from  the  center 
horizontally  outward  through  fixed 
curved  blades,  so  as  to  give  it  a tan- 
gential motion,  and  thereby  cause  it  to 
act  on  the  blades  of  the  wheel  which  re- 
volves outside.  In  the  annexed  cut  the 
water  is  introduced  into  a close  cast- 
iron  vessel  a by  the  pipe  b,  connecting  it 
with  the  reservoir.  Here,  by  virtue  of 
its  pressure,  it  tends  to  escape  by  any 
aperture  which  may  be  presented;  but 
the  only  apertures  consist  of  those  be- 
tween a series  of  curved  float-boards 
ff,  fixed  to  a horizontal  plate  g,  mounted 
upon  a central  axis  h,  which  passes 
upward  through  a tube  connecting  the 
upper  and  lower  covers,  c and  d,  of  the 
vessel  a.  Another  series  of  curved  plates 
ee,  is  fixed  to  the  upper  surface  of  the 
disc  d,  to  give  a determinate  direction 
to  the  water  below  before  flowing  out  at 
the  float-boards,  and  the  curves  of  these 
various  parts  are  so  adjusted  as  to  ren- 
der the  reactive  force  of  the  water  avail- 
able to  the  utmost  extent  in  producing 
a circular  motion,  and  thus  carrying 
round  the  disc  and  the  axis  h with 
which  the  machinery  to  be  impelled  is 
connected.  The  steam  turbine  is  a form 
of  motor  in  which  the  moving  force  of 
expanding  steam  acts  upon  a wheel 


TURBOT 


TURKEY 


provided  with  vanes  so  as  to  cause 
rotation.  In  the  ordinai’y  method  of 
using  steam  it  is  admitted  into  a closed 
cylinder  where  it  acts  upon  a movable 
piston;  in  the  steam  turbine  the  power 
is  developed  by  particles  of  steam  ex- 
panding from  one  pressure  to  another. 

TURBOT,  a well-known  and  highly 
esteemed  fish.  Next  to  the  halibut,  the 
turbot  is  the  largest  found  on  the  British 
coast,  and  is  the  most  highly  esteemed 
for  the  table.  It  is  of  a short  and  broad 
form,  brown  on  the  upper  side,  which  is 


usually  the  left  side,  and  attains  a large 
size,  sometimes  weighing  from  70  to  90 
lbs.  The  American  or  spotted  turbot, 
common  on  the  coasts  of  New  England 
and  New  York,  attains  a weight  of  20 
lbs. 

TURENNE,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d’ 
Auvergne,  Vicomte  de.  Marshal  of 
France,  born  in  1611  at  Sedan.  He  en- 
tered the  service  of  France  in  1630, 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany  and 
North  Italy,  and  in  1643  received  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine  in 
the  Thirty  Years’  war,  and  was  made  a 
marshal.  His  successes  in  this  post,  as 
in  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  (1645), 
greatly  contributed  to  the  close  of  the 
war.  During  the  disturbances  of  the 
Fronde  the  victories  of  Turenne  led 
to  the  termination  of  the  civil  war.  In 
the  war  against  Spain  he  also  distin- 
guished himself,  and  after  its  close  in 
1659  he  was  named  marshal-general  of 
France.  When  war  was  renewed  with 
Spain  in  1667  he  conquered  Flanders  in 
three  months.  In  the  Dutch  war  of  1672 
Turenne  had  the  chief  command.  He 
first  marched  against  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  and  having  driven  him 
back  as  far  as  the  Elbe  forced  him  to 
sign  the  Treaty  of  Vossem  in  1673; 
while  in  the  brilliant  campaign  of  1674- 
75  he  destroyed  two  Austrian  armies 
by  the  battles  of  Miihlhausen  and 
Turkheim,  and  conquered  and  devas- 
tated the  Palatinate.  In  1675  he  was 
killed  while  making  preparations  to 
engage  Montecuculi. 

TURGOT  (tur-go),  Anne  Robert  Jac- 
ques, was  born  at  Paris  in  1727,  and 
died  1781 . Shortly  after  the  accession  of 
Louis  XVI.  in  1774  Turgot  was  ap- 
pointed comptroller-general  of  France, 
and  in  order  to  reform  the  political  and 
financial  condition  of  the  country,  he 
moderated  the  duties  on  articles  of  the 
first  necessity,  freed  commerce  from 
many  fetters,  and  encouraged  industry 
by  enlarging  the  rights  of  individuals, 
and  abolishing  the  exclusive  privileges 
of  companies  and  corporations.  Such, 
however,  was  the  opposition  of  the 


clergy  and  nobility  to  his  reforms  that 
he  was  dismissed  from  office  in  1776, 
and  retired  into  private  life. 

TURGUENEFF.  See  Tourguenieff . 

TURIN',  a city  of  North  Italy,  capital 
of  province  of  same  name,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Dora  Riparia  with  the  Po, 
and  between  those  two  rivers.  The 
manufactures  consist,  besides  the  staple 
of  silk,  chiefly  of  woolens,  cottons,  linen 
paper,  ironmongery,  earthenware,  and 
porcelain.  Turin  was  anciently  the 
capital  of  a tribe  called  the  Taurini, 
and  under  the  Roman  empire  was  called 
Augusta  Taurinorum.  It  was  long  the 
capital  of  Savoy,  then  of  the  Sardinian 
kingdom,  and  from  1861  to  1865  of 
United  Italy.  Pop.  335,639. 

TURKESTAN,  a wide  region  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  roughly  divided  into  two  por- 
tions, Eastern  Turkestan  and  Western 
Turkestan.  Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkes- 
tan is  inclosed  on  three  sides  by  lofty 
mountain  ranges  (Thian-Shan,  Kara- 
korum, Kuen-Iain),  and  on  the  east  has 
the  desert  of  Gobi.  The  products  in- 
clude cereals,  root-crops,  and  cotton  in 
large  quantities,  partly  manufactured 
in  the  country.  Carpets  and  felt  cloths, 
along  with  silk,  which  the  country  pro- 
duces abundantly,  are  exported  to 
India,  Kashmere,  and  Tibet;  while 
opium,  tea,  linens  and  woolens  are  im- 
ported. The  chief  towns  are  Kashgar 
and  V'arkand,  and  the  population  is  es- 
timated at  580,000  — Western  Turkestan 
comprises  the  southern  portion  of  Rus- 
sian Central  Asia,  from  Eastern  Tur- 
kestan to  the  Caspian,  and  includes  the 
khanates  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  Corn, 
millet,  rice,  and  cotton  are  cultivated  in 
many  places,  and  trade  has  greatly  in- 
creased since  the  Russian  occupation. 
The  population  may  amount  to  6,000,- 
000.  A portion  of  this  territory  forms 
the  Russian  general-government  of  Tur- 
kestan; area,  410,000  sq.  miles;  pop. 

3.700.000. 

TURKEY,  a Mohammedan  state  of 
Southeastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia, 
under  the  rule  of  a sultan.  In  Europe  it 
occupies  a considerable  portion  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula,  and  in  this  portion  is 
situated  the  capital,  Constantinople, 
but  the  larger  part  of  Turkey  is  in  Asia. 
The  immediate  possessions  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  or  those  directly  under  the 
sultan’s  rule,  extend  from  Montenegro, 
Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Eastern  Roumelia 
on  the  north  to  the  jEgean  Sea  and 
Greece  on  the  south,  and  from  the  Black 
sea  to  the  Adriatic,  the  Straits  of  Otranto 
and  the  Ionic  sea.  The  Treaty  of  Berlin 
in  1878  greatly  reduced  the  area  under 
direct  Turkish  rule,  besides  confirming 
the  independence  and  extending  the 
limits  of  several  of  the  fonnerly  tribu- 
tary states.  There  are  still  nominally 
under  Turkey  the  tributary  principality 
of  Bulgaria,  to  which  has  been  united 
Eastern  Roumelia;  and  the  semi- 
detached provinces  of  Bosnia,  Herzego- 
vina, and  Novibazar,  administered  by 
Austria-Hungary.  The  immediate  pos- 
sessions in  Europe  have  an  area  of 
63,850  sq  miles,  pop.  5,711,000;  in  Asia, 
729,170  sq.  miles,  pop.  16,823,500;  in 
.•\frica  (Tripoli),  398,873  sq.  miles,  pop. 

1.000. 000.  Total,  1,191,893  sq.  miles; 
pop.  23,534.500.  A number  of  islands 
in  the  ..Egean,  the  largest  being  Crete  or 


I Candia,  belong  to  Turkey.  Egypt  also  is 
nominally  part  of  the  Turkish  domin- 
ions. European  Turkey  is  traversed  in 
different  directions  by  numerous  moun- 
tain chains,  but  the  main  systems  are 
the  Balkan  range,  stretching  from  west 
to  east  between  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia  to  Cape  Emineh  on  the  Black 
sea;  Rhodope,  south  of  the  Balkans; 
the  Shardagh  and  Gramm  os  on  the  west, 
continued  northwestward  under  various 
names  into  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 
The  most  important  river  basin  is  that 
which  drains  into  the  Archipelago  or 
jEgean  sea,  which  receives  the  Vardar, 
the  Struma,  the  Mista  or  Karasu,  and 
the  Maritza.  The  Adriatic  and  Ionian 
seas  receive  from  Turkey  no  rivers 
worthy  of  notice,  and  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora receives  only  a few  mountain  tor- 
rents. There  are  several  plains  remark- 
able for  their  fertility  and  beauty.  The 
(dimate  is  not  so  mild  as  its  latitude 
might  seem  to  indicate,  the  winter  being 
severe ; but  the  summer  heat  is  excessive. 
For  the  production  of  the  ordinary 
cereals  no  part  of  the  world  is  more  ad- 
mirably adapted.  The  principal  grains 
are  corn,  wheat,  and  barley,  while  rice, 
millet,  and  buckwheat  are  produced,  as 
also  flax,  hemp,  sesame,  and  madder. 
The  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  cotton  is 
very  general.  Among  fruits  the  figs  are 
highly  esteemed;  the  cultivation  of  the 
olive  is  carried  on  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Archipelago  and  the  Adriatic ; wine  is  an 
important  product  in  many  districts; 
and  much  attention  is  paid  in  some 
parts  to  the  growing  of  roses  (for  otto  or 
attar)  There  are  few  manufactures 
except  in  Constantinople,  Adrianople, 
and  Salonica,  and  these  are  of  little 
importance.  Turkey  in  Asia  comprises 
the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  the  country 
intersected  by  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris,  the  mountainous  region  of 
Armenia  between  their  upper  courses 
and  the  Black  sea,  the  ancient  lands 
of  Syria  and  Palestine,  and  the  coast 
strips  of  Arabia  along  the  Red  sea  and 
Persian  gulf.  Omitting  Arabia,  the 
country  consists  mainly  of  (1)  a high 
plateau  traversed  by  the  mountains  of 
Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus,  and  stretch- 
ing from  the  Archipelago  to  the  borders 
of  Persia;  (2)  a plateau  of  less  elevation 
and  extent  (Syria  and  Palestine)  trav- 
ersed by  the  double  range  of  Lebanon; 
and  (3)  the  extensive  plain  of  Mesopo- 
tamia on  the  Lower  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates. (See  Asia  Minor,  Armenia, 
Kurdistan,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and 
Palestine.)  The  islands  Chios,  Lesbos, 
Rhodes,  etc.,  belong  to  Turkey  in  Asia, 
while  the  island  of  Samos  is  a tributary 
principality,  and  Cyprus  is  held  b}' 
Britain.  The  chief  towns  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  are  Smyrna,  Damascus,  Bagdad, 
.\leppo,  and  Beyrout.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  raisins,  figs,  and  dates,  silk, 
cottony  wool,  and  mohair,  opium,  coffee, 
wheat,  wine,  valonia,  olive-oil,  and  to- 
bacco; while  the  imports  are  cotton, 
woolen,  and  silk  goods,  metals,  iron, 
steel,  glass  wares,  etc.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  Ottoman  empire  are  of  very 
diverse  races.  First  in  order  are  the 
Osmanli  Turks,  who,  as  the  dominant 
race,  are  diffused  over  the  country. 
They  are  proprietors  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  soil,  fill  all  the  civil  and  military 


TURKEY 


TURNSTON'E 


I'  offices,  live  generally  in  towns  employed 
i;  in  various  trades,  and  are  seldom  agri- 
K culturists.  The  Greeks  form  the  bulk  of 
the  population  over  great  part  of  the 
^gean  coasts  and  islands,  and  consti- 
tute to  a very  considerable  extent  the 
mercantile  and  trading  community  of 
Turkey.  Arnauts,  or  Albanians,  are 
found  in  the  west  throughout  Albania; 
the  northwest  is  occupied  by  Servians; 
and  Bulgarians  inhabit  the  district 
south  of  the  Danube  and  east  of  Servia 
and  Albania.  In  Asiatic  Turkey  the 
Turks  are  an  important  element,  but 
there  are  also  numbers  of  Armenians, 
Arabs,  Kurds,  Jews,  Greeks,  Circassians, 
etc.  The  Turkish  language  belongs  to 
the  Turanian  family  of  languages,  and  is 
allied  to  the  Hungarian  and  the  Finnish. 
The  goverment  of  Turkey  was  despotic 
until  1908  when  the  movement  known 
as  Young  Turkey  extorted  a Con- 
stitution and  a Parliament  from  Abdul 
Hamid.  The  Cabinet  now  rules. 
The  Monarch,  usually  designated  the 
Sultan,  is  regarded  by  the  Turks 
as  the  caliph  or  head  of  Islam.  His 
edicts  bear  the  name  of  llatti-sherif, 
and  his  government  is  often  designat- 
ed as  the  Sublime  Porte-  The  public 
officers  who  conduct  the  administration 
under  the  sultan  are  divided  into  three 
classes.  The  first  class  is  that  of 
law  and  religion,  and  at  their  head 
is  the  Sheik-ul-Islam,  who  governs 
a judicial  and  ecclesiastical  body  call- 
ed the  Ulemas,  The  second  class 
consists  of  the  “officials  of  the  pen.” 
or  the  members  of  administration, 
and  at  , their  head  is  the  grand  vizier 
or  Sadrazam.  The  third  class  includes 
the  “officials  ”of  the  Sword,”  at  their 
head  being  the  Seraskier  or  minister 
of  war,  and  the  Capudan  Pasha  or 
minister  of  marine.  The  army  on  a 
war  footing  is  said  to  number  about 

700.000,  and  it  is  believed  that  when  the 
new  system  recently  begun  is  complete, 
Turkey  will  have  an  army  and  reserve  of 

1.000. 000  men.  The  navy  numbers  only 
a very  few  vessels  of  much  fighting 
power,  others  being  old  and  small.  The 
financial  condition  of  Turkey  is  thor- 
oughly unsound.  From  1854  the  state 
had  contracted  a series  of  foreign  loans, 
the  total  nominal  capital  of  which 
amounted  to  about  $1,140,000,000  in 
1877.  In  1875  the  government  an- 
nounced that  they  would  pay  half  the 
interest  on  the  debt,  but  in  1876  they 

- declared  themselves  unable  to  pay  any- 
, thing.  In  1881  an  arrangement  was 
effected  by  delegates  of  the  bondholders 
who  met  at  Constantinople... The  Turk- 
ish government  then  agreed  to  hand 
over  the  excise  and  other  revenue  to  a 
commission  representing  the  bond- 
holders, so  that  interest  to  the  extent 
of  1 per  cent  has  been  paid  since  1882. 
Other  debts  have  since  been  incurred, 
and  the  total  is  now  $900,000,000,  be- 
sides internal  and  floating  debt.  The 
established  religion  is  Mohammedanism, 
} but  Christianity  under  the  Greek  form 
is  professed  by  a large  majority  of  the 
Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  while  part  of  the 
Albanians  are  Roman  Catholics.  The 
^ educational  system  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  1869,  provides  for  the  erec- 
V tion  of  elementary  schools  in  every  com- 
'|Lmune,  and  of  secondary  schools  in  the 


larger  towns,  while  at  Constantinople 
in  1870  a university  was  opened.  There 
are  besides  law,  military,  and  medical 
schools  in  that  city.  History. — See  Ot- 
toman Empire. 

TURKEY,  a large  gallinaceous  bird, 
well  known  as  an  inmate  of  our  poultry- 
yards.  It  is  a native  of  North  America, 
and  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  the 
16th  century.  Wild  turkeys  abound  in 
some  of  the  forests  of  America,  where 
they  feed  on  berries,  fruits,  insects, 
reptiles,  etc.,  their  plumage  being  a 
golden  bronze,  shot  with  violet  and 
green,  and  banded  with  black.  On  ac- 


Wlld  turkey  of  the  United  States. 


count  of  its  size  and  the  excellence  of  its 
flesh  and  eggs,  the  turkey  is  one  of  the 
most  valued  kinds  of  poultry.  There  is 
another  species,  the  Honduras  or  West 
Indian  turkey,  which  derives  its  specific 
name  from  the  presence  of  bright  eye- 
like spots  on  the  tail-coverts.  It  is  not 
so  large  as  the  common  turkey,  but  its 
plumage  is  more  brilliant. 

TURKEY-BUZZARD,  or  TURKEY- 
VULTURE,  a rapacious  bird  belonging 
to  the  vulture  family,  so  named  from  its 
bearing  a distant  resemblance  to  a tur- 
key. It  is  about  2^  feet  long,  and  with 
wings  extended  about  6 feet  in  breadth, 
general  color  black  or  brownish.  It  in- 
habits a vast  range  of  territory  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  America. 

Turkomans,  a nomadic  Tartar 
people  occupying  a territory  stretching 
between  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  Sea  of 
Aral,  the  khanates  of  Khiva  and  Bok- 
hara, Afghanistan,  and  Persia.  They 
do  not  form  a single  nation,  but  are 
divided  into  numerous  tribes  or  clans. 

TURKS,  a widely  spread  race,  sup- 
posed to  nave  had  its  original  seat  in 
Turkestan,  but  now  extending  from 
European  Turkey  through  Asia  to  the 
shores  of  the  Northern  ocean.  Besides 
the  Ottoman  Turks  or  Osmanli  of 
Turkey,  the  Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  Us- 
becks,  Yakuts,  etc.,  all  belong  to  the 
Turkish  race. 

TURMERIC,  the  dried  tubers  or 
rhizomes  of  ginger.  It  is  largely  em- 
ployed in  India  and  China  as  an  im- 
portant ingredient  in  curry  powder. 
Unsized  white  paper,  steeped  in  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  turmeric,  when 
dried,  is  employed  as  a test  to  detect 
alkalies,  which  change  its  color  from 
yellow  to  reddish-brown.  Turmeric 
yields  a yellow  colcrr,  which  has  great 
brightness  but  little  durability.  It  is 
also  used  medicinally  in  the  East  as  a 
carminative. 

TURNER,  Joseph  Mallord  William, 


R.  A.,  great  English  landscape-painter, 
was  born  in  London  1775,  died  1851. 
He  was  elected  in  1799  an  associate  of 
the  Royal  Academy.  In  the  two  follow- 
ing years  he  exhibited  fourteen  pictures, 
and  in  1802  was  elected  an  academician. 
In  1807  he  was  elected  professor  of  per- 
spective in  the  Royal  academy,  and  the 
following  year  appeared  his  Liber 
Studiorum  or  Book  of  Studies,  which 
Charles  Turner,  Mr.  Lupton,  and  others 
engraved.  Other  works  by  him  which 
were  engraved  are  his  illustrations  of 
Lord  Byron’s  and  Sir  Walter  Scott’s 
poems;  Roger’s  Italy  and  Poems;  The 
Rivers  of  England ; the  Rivers  of  France, 
and  Scenery  of  the  Southern  Coast. 
The  reputation  of  Turner,  among  land- 
scape painters  stands  alone,  solitary, 
colossal;  no  man  has  displayed  at  the 
same  time  such  great  powers  of  general- 
izing and  concentrating  the  beauties  of 
nature.  For  half  a century  Turner  pro- 
duced a succession  of  great  works,  from 
1790  to  1840.  By  his  will  he  bequeathed 
all  his  pictures  and  sketches  to  the 
nation,  on  condition  of  a suitable  build- 
ing being  erected  within  ten  years  for 
their  reception.  They  have  been  placed 
in  the  Turner  gallery,  occupying  two 
rooms  in  the  National  gallery. 

TURNIP,  the  common  name  of  a 
cruciferous,  biennial  plant,  much  culti- 
vated on  account  of  its  esculent  root, 
and  of  the  same  genus  as  the  cabbage 
cauliflower,  and  broccoli.  The  root  is 
generally  used  as  a culinary  vegetable 
in  all  temperate  climates,  and  is  culti- 
vated on  a large  scale  for  feeding  stock, 
the  root  being  invaluable  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  field  culture  of  the  larger- 
rooted  varieties  the  most  advantageous 
mode  is  by  drills.  The  roots  of  the  turnip 
have  often  a tendency  to  divide  and 
become  hard  and  worthless — a condi- 
tion known  as  finger-and-toe,  or  dacty- 
lorhiza.  The  plant  thrives  best  on  a rich 
and  free  soil  and  in  moist  cloudy  weather. 
There  are  several  varieties,  all  appar- 
ently the  result  of  cultivation. 

TURNIP-FLY,  Turnip-flea,  a small 
insect,  very  destructive  to  young  tur- 
nips. It  may  be  recognized  by  two  yel- 


Striped  turnip-fly.  aa.  Natural  size.  66,  Mag- 
nified. c,  Larva,  natural  size. 


low  stripes  on  its  wing-cases.  The  larvae 
of  this  fly,  popularly  known  as  niggers, 
are  very  destructive  to  the  leaves  of 
the  turnip. 

TURNSTONE,  a grallatorial  bird  of 


Turnstone. 

the  plover  family.  The  length  of  the 
bird  is  about  9 inches.  It  takes  its  name 


TURN-TABLE 


TWELFTH-DAY 


from  its  practice  of  turning  up  small 
stones  in  search  of  the  marine  worms, 
minute  crustaceans,  etc.,  on  which  it 
feeds.  It  appears  in  most  parts  of  the 
globe. 

TURN-TABLE,  in  railways,  a circular 
platform  of  iron  and  wood,  supported 
on  rollers,  and  tArning  upon  a center 
without  much  friction,  even  when  loaded 
with  a considerable  weight.  It  is  used 
for  removing  single  carriages  from  one 
line  of  rails  to  another,  and  also  for 
reversing  engines  on  the  same  line  of 
rails. 

TUR'PENTINE,  an  oleo-resinous  sub- 
stance flowing  naturally  or  by  incision 
from  several  species  of  trees,  as  from 
the  pine,  larch,  fir,  pistacia,  etc.  Com- 
mon turpentine  is  obtained  from  the 
the  Scotch  fir,  and  some  other  species 
of  pines.  Venice  turpentine  is  yielded 
by  the  larch,  Strasburg  turpentine  by 
the  silver  fir;  Bordeaux  turpentine  by 
the  maritime  pine ; Canadian  turpentine, 
or  Canada  balsam  by  the  balm  of  Gilead 
fir.  All  the  turpentines  dissolve  in  pure 
alcohol,  and  by  distillation  yield  oils, 
which  are  termed  spirits  of  turpentine. 
Oil  or  spirits  of  turpentine  is  used  in 
medicine  externally  as  an  excellent 
rubefacient  and  counter-irritant,  and 
internally  as  a vermifuge,  stimulant, 
and  diuretic.  It  is  also  much  used  in  the 
arts  for  dissolving  resins  and  oils  in 
making  varnishes,  and  is  familiarly 
called  turps. 

TURQUOISE  (tur'kis),  a greenish- 
blue  opaque  precious  stone,  consisting 
essentially  of  a phosphate  of  alumina, 
containing  a little  oxide  of  iron  and 
oxide  of  copper.  The  true  or  oriental 
turquoise,  a favorite  ornamental  stone 
in  rings  and  other  articles  of  jewelry,  is 
only  found  in  a mountain  region  of 
Persia. 

TURRET,  in  architecture,  a kind  of 
small  tower.  Turrets  are  chiefly  of  two 
kinds,  such  as  rise  immediately  from 
the  ground,  as  stairca.se  turrets,  and 
such  as  are  formed  on  the  upper  part  of 
a building  by  being  carried  up  higher 

■f  rt  o too  t*Oct 

TURRET-SHIP.  See  Ironclad  Vessels. 

TURTLE,  the  name  given  to  the  ma- 
rine members  of  the  order  Chelonia,  being 
reptiles  which  differ  but  little  from  tor- 
toises, the  name  turMe  or  tortoise  being 
in  some  cases  applied  indifferently. 


Green  turtle. 


They  are  found  in  all  the  seas  of  warm 
climates,  and  feed  mostly  on  marine 
plants.  The  most  important  species  is 
the  green  turtle  which  is  from  6 to  7 feet 
long,  and  weighs  from  700  to  800  pounds. 
Its  flesh  is  highly  esteemed  as  a table 


Doric,  that  it  is  generally  regarded  as 9 
being  only  a variety  of  the  latter. 

TUS'CANY,  formerly  a grand-duchy,  B 
now  a department  of  Italy;  area,  92899 
sq.  miles;  pop.  2,548,154.  The  chain  of 9 
the  Northern  Apennines  forms  a con- 9 
siderable  portion  of  its  northern  boun-  9 
dary,  the  sea  being  its  boundary  on  the  9 
west.  The  principal  river  is  the  Arno.  9 
Cereals  cover  a large  area,  and  vine-  9 
yards,  olive-yards,  and  orchards  are 
numerous.  The  manufacture  of  silk  is  i, 
considerable.  The  marble  of  Tuscany, 
especially  that  of  Siena  is  well  known. 

TVER,  a town,  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  situated  . 
in  a plain  on  the  Volga,  96  miles  north-  ' 
west  of  Moscow.  It  consists  of  the  ’ 
Kremlin  or  fortress,  surrounded  by  an 
earthen  wall,  and  the  town  proper.  The 
manufactures  are  numerous  and  varied.  ' 
Pop.  53,477. — The  government  of  Tver 
has  an  area  of  25,225  sq.  miles,  and  a 
population  of  1,681,790.  Rye,  barley,  ! 
hemp,  and  flax  are  largely  cultivated,  ‘ 
and  the  forests  are  extensive.  , 

TWAIN,  Mark.  See  Clemens. 

TWEED,  a river  of  Scotland,  which 
rises  in  the  south  part  of  Peeblesshire; 
it  fonns  the  boundary  line  between  Eng-  ! 
land  and  Scotland  for  16  miles,  runs 
through  England  for  a short  distance, 
and  then  enters  the  North  sea  at  Ber- 
wick; total  length,  97  miles. 

TWEED,  William  Marcy,  American  / 
politician,  was  born  in  New  York  City  ‘ 
in  1823.  He  entered  politics  early  becom- 
ing an  alderman  of  New  York  City,  and 
taking  a seat  in  congress  in  1853.  Sub-  ^ 
sequently  he  was  a school  commissioner;  , 
became  a member  of  the  board  of  super- 
visors of  New  York  county,  and  was 
president  of  the  board  for  four  successive  1 
terms.  From  1867  to  1871  he  was  a i 
state  senator.  A member  of  the  Tam- 
many society  for  many  yeals,  he  was 
grand  sachem  in  1869-71.  When  com-  ' 
missioner  of  public  works  he  organized  i 
the  combination  known  as  the  “Tam-  , 
many  Ring,”  or  the  “Tweed  Ring.” 
The  “ring,”  elected  its  candidate  for  ' 
mayor  in  1865,  and  its  candidate  for  ^ 
governor  in  1868.  Legislators  and  judges 
were  bribed,  and  bills  were  passed  and  ' 
decisions  rendered  in  favor  of  the  mem-  j 
bers  of  the  “ring.”  Fraudulent  bills  ' 
were  audited,  and  their  sum  divided  , 
among  the  thieves,  etc.  A vigorous  in- 
vestigation and  prosecution  was  un-  ^ 
dertaken  under  the  lead  of  Samuel  J. 
Tilden.  In  1873  Tweed  was  convicted,  ; 
and  sentenced  to  twelve  years’  con-  ; 
finement  in  the  penitentiary,  and  to 
pay  a fine  of  #12,300.18.  He  was  re- 
leased in  1875  by  a decision  of  the 
court  of  appeals,  on  a legal  techni- 
cality. He  was  immediately  rearrested 
but  being  pennitted  to  go  out  to  drive 
with  an  officer,  he  made  his  escape,  and 
fled  to  Spain.  He  was  returned  in 
November,  1876,  and  again  incarcerated 
in  Ludlow  Street  jail  until  April  12, 
1878,  when  he  died.  ‘ 


Tuscan  order. 


tecture.  It  admits  of  no  ornaments,  and 
the  columns  are  never  fluted.  Otherwise 
it  differs  so  little,  however,  from  the 


TWELFTH-DAY,  the  twelfth  day 
after  Christmas,  upon  which  is  held  the 
festival  of  Epiphany.  On  the  evening  of 
this  day,  called  Twelfth-night,  various 
social  rites  and  ceremonies  are  observed 
in  different  countries.  One  of  these  is  the 
baking  of  a twelfth-cake,  into  which  & 
bean  is  introduced.  When  the  cake  ia 


luxury.  It  is  a native  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  of  the 
Indian  ocean,  being  especially  abundant 
near  Ascension  island.  The  logger-head 
turtle  yields  an  oil,  which  is  used  for 


Hawk’s-bill  or  tortoise-shell  turtle. 


lamps  and  for  dressing  leather.  The 
hawk’s-bill  turtle  is  remarkable  for  the 
beautiful  imbricated  horny  plates  cover- 
ing the  carapace,  and  constituting  the 
tortoise-shell  of  commerce. 

TURTLE-DOVE,  a small  variety  of 
pigeon,  about  11  inches  in  length,  color 
pale  brown  marked  with  a darker  hue 
above,  a purple  tinge  pervading  the 


Turtle-dove. 

feathers  of  the  breast.  They  are  in  gen- 
eral smaller  and  more  slender  than  the 
domesticated  pigeons,  and  their  cooing 
is  plaintive  and  tender. 

TUSCAN  ORDER  OF  ARCHITEC- 
TURE, one  of  the  five  orders  of  archi- 

\ .3 

1 . - 


TWILIGHT 


TYPECASTING  MACHINES 


divided  at  the  feast  the  person  who  re- 
ceives the  piece  containing  the  bean  is 
made  king  for  the  occasion. 

TWILIGHT,  daylight  which  con- 
tinues after  sunset,  occasioned  by  the 
reflection  of  sunlight  from  the  higher 
parts  of  the  atmosphere  which  are  still 
illuminated  after  the  sun  has  become 
invisible  from  ordinary  heights.  It  is 
supposed  to  last  till  the  sun  is  about 
18°  below  the  horizon,  but  is  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  state  of  the  atmosphere 
as  to  clouds,  etc.  In  low  latitudes 
(that  is,  near  the  equator),  there  is  little 
twilight. 

TWILL,  a textile  fabric,  in  which  the 
weft  threads  do  not  pass  over  and  under 
the  warp-threads  in  regular  succession, 
as  in  common  plain  weaving,  but  pass 
over  one  and  under  two,  over  one  and 
under  three,  or  over  one  and  under  eight 
or  ten,  according  to  the  kind  of  twill. 

TYLER,  John,  tenth  president  of  the 
United  States,  born  1790,  died  1862. 
He  entered  congress  as  a republican  in 
1816,  and  in  1840  was  vice-president 
under  the  presidency  of  General  Harri- 
son. On  Harrison’s  death  in  1841  he  be- 
came president,  and  came  into  collision 
with  his  party  on  the  National  Bank  bill 
and  other  questions.  The  annexation  of 
Texas  was  the  chief  event  of  his  term  of 
office,  at  the  end  of  which  he  retired 
into  private  life.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  secession  war  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  south,  and  was  a member  of  the 
confederate  congress. 

TYM'PANUM,  (1)  a cavity  of  an  irreg- 
ular shape  situated  in  the  ear.  (See 
Ear.)  (2)  In  architecture,  the  triangular 
space  in  a pediment  included  between 
the  cornices  of  the  inclined  sides  and  the 


Tympanum  of  the  south  portal  of  the  Abbey 
Church  of  St.  Denis,  France. 

horizontal  cornice;  also,  any  similar 
space,  as  above  a window,  or  the  space 
included  between  the  lintel  of  a door 
and  the  arch  above  it.  The  tympanum 
is  often  ornamented  with  carving  or 
sculpture 

TYNDALL,  John,  physicist,  born  in 
1820  at  Leighlin  Bridge,  Carlow,  Ire- 
land; was  elected  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  in  the  Royal  institution  in 
1853;  visited  Switzerland  in  1856  along 
with  Huxley,  and  made  repeated  inves- 
tigations in  that  country  subsequently; 
lectured  throughout  the  United  States 
in  1872^  presided  over  the  British  asso- 
ciation in  1874  at  Belfast.  He  died  in 
1893.  His  chief  works  are : The  Glaciers 
of  the  Alps,  Mountaineering  in  1861, 
Heat  Considered  as  a Mode  of  Motion, 
On  Radiation,  Sound,  Faraday  as  a 
Discoverer,  Light,  The  Forms  of  Water 
in  Clouds,  Rivers,  Ice,  and  Glaciers, 
Fragments  of  Science,  Floating  Matter 

P.  E,— 80 


in  the  Air  in  Relation  to  Putrefaction 
and  Infection. 

TYPE.  Types  from  which  books  and 
newspapers  are  printed  are  cast  by 
machinery  from  an  alloy  of  lead,  tin, 
and  antimony,  the  lead  being  the  chief 
constituent  of  the  type-metal.  Anti- 
mony is  added  to  supply  the  necessary 
hardness,  while  the  tin  serves  to  fuse 
the  lead  and  antimony,  to  toughen 
the  alloy,  and  to  prevent  oxidization. 
Some  founders  add  a small  proportion 


Sizes  of  type  made  on  the  point  system 
(reduced  one-third). 

of  copper  to  give  still  greater  tenacity, 
while  others  add  a copper  face  to  the 
letter. 

To  produce  a font  or  series  of  type, 
six  mechanical  operations  are  neces- 
sary— i.e.,  (1)  punch  cutting,  or  the 
designing  and  engraving  the  model 
characters  from  which  the  types  are 
made;  (2)  fitting  up,  or  adjusting  the 
matrices;  (3)  making  the  matrices;  (4) 
making  the  molds  in  which  the  types 
are  cast ; (5)  casting  the  types ; (6)  finish- 
ing. Formerly  all  types  were  cast  by 
hand,  a slow  and  laborious  process.  A 
skilled  workman  at  best  could  produce 
from  2000  to  3000  types  a day.  Since 
1838  types  have  been  cast  by  machinery. 

The  “face”  of  a type  is  the  letter  or 
character  from  which  the  printed  im- 
pression is  made.  The  word  “face”  also 
is  used  to  distinguish  one  style  of  type 
from  another.  The  “beard”  or  “neck” 
is  the  slope  between  the  outer  edge  of 
the  face  and  the  shoulder.  The  “shoul- 
der” is  the  flat  top  of  the  body  which 
upholds  the  neck  and  face  of  the  type. 
The  “counter”  is  the  depression  be- 
tween the  lines  of  the  face.  The  “stem” 
is  the  thick  line  of  the  letter.  The 
“serif”  is  the  short  cross-line  put  as  a 
finish  at  the  ends  of  unconnected  lines. 
The  “hair  line”  is  the  thin  line  of  the 
face. 

Types  necessarily  are  of  varied  sizes 
and  designs.  Up  to  within  recent  years 
there  was  little  attempt  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  sizes.  The  types  of  some 


founders  would  not  “justify”  or  “line” 
with  the  types  of  others.  But  the  sys- 
tem of  classification  of  sizes  had  been 
reduced  to  a general  scheme,  the  sizes 
being  designated  as  follows:  Brilliant, 
diamond,  pearl,  agate,  nonpareil,  min-’ 
ion,  brevier,  bourgeois,  long  primer, 
small  pica,  pica,  English,  great  primer, 
double  small  pica,  double  pica,  double 
English,  double  great  primer,  double 
paragon,  canon. 

Since  1886  practically  all  type  cast  by 
American  foundries  has  been  cast  on 
the  “point”  system,  and  eventually  the 
system  will  be  adopted  by  foreign  mak- 
ers of  type.  Before  that  year  the  stand- 
ard of  size  varied,  and  there  was  endless 
confusion  and  loss  of  time  and  money. 
To  obviate  this  confusion  the  American 
type-foundries  in  1886  adopted  the 
“pica”  as  the  basis  of  a new  system  of 
measurements.  The  pica  was  divided 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  and,  accepting 
one  of  these  twelve  parts  as  its  unit,  a 
base  was  made  for  the  determination  of 
the  size  of  every  body  of  type.  This 
twelfth  part  of  a pica  was  called  a 
“point.”  All  type  bodies  were  cast  on 
multiples  of  this  point,  and  called  by 
numerical  names.  Thus  pica  became 
“12-point”;  double  pica,  “24-point,” 
etc.  Nonpareil,  or  half  of  pica,  became 
“6-point”;  agate,  “5-point”;  brevier, 
“8-point,”  etc.  The  point  system  was 
also  adopted  to  all  leads,  rules,  and 
spaces  used  in  the  printing  of  books. 

Under  the  American  system  of  points 
the  bodies  of  type  are  clearly  described 
by  numerical  names.  The  faces  and 
styles  have  to  be  described  by  names, 
many  of  them  fanciful  and  few  of  them 
actually  descriptive.  There  are,  how- 
ever, a number  of  recognized  standard 
styles  of  type,  as  follows: 

Scripts  are  imitations  of  different 
styles  of  handwriting. 

Italic  is  a simplified  style  of  script, 
the  letters  being  disconnected. 

Black  letter  is  a degenerate  form  of 
roman,  in  which  angles  are  substituted 
for  curves. 

Gothics,  the  simplest  and  rudest  of  all 
styles,  are  cast  without  serifs. 

Italian  is  a roman  in  which  the  posi- 
tion of  hair  line  and  thick  stroke  have 
been  transposed. 

Antique  is  a roman  in  which  the  lines 
of  all  the  characters  are  nearly  uniform 
as  to  thickness. 

Roman  is  the  type  universally  used 
in  books  and  newspapers. 

Old  style  is  the  roman  type  of  earlier 
decades.  The  hair  lines  are  firmer,  al- 
though shorter  than  in  the  modern  cut 
faces;  the  serifs  at  the  font  are  shorter, 
and  it  is  not  angled.  Old  style  is  used 
in  book  work,  seldom  in  newspapers. 

TYPECASTING  MACHINES.  Types 
from  which  books  and  newspapers  are 
printed  are  cast  by  machines,  of  which 
a number  are  in  general  use.  Up  to 
1838,  however,  all  type  was  cast  by 
hand,  a slow  and  laborious  process.  A 
skilled  workman  could  turn  out  from 
2000  to  3000  types  a day,  many  of 
them  so  imperfect  that  they  had  to  be 
rejected.  In  1838  David  Bruce,  Jr.,  of 
New  York,  invented  a practical  t5rpe- 
casting  machine  which  was  used  for 
forty  years  almost  without  a rival.  Yet 
it  never  was  regarded  as  a perfect  ma- 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES 


TYRE 


cliine.  It  did  not  cast  a finished  type. 
Exact  type  had  to  be  finished  and 
dressed  by  hand.  In  1888  Henry  Barth 
produced  a machine  which  practically 
superseded  the  Bruce  machine,  for  it 
cast  and  finished  type  at  the  rate  of 
1000  an  hour.  The  Barth  machine  was 
adopted  by  the  leading  type-foundries 
of  the  United  States  and  England.  In 
1905  the  Sennett  Automatic  Caster  was 
invented  and  placed  on  the  market  by 
Sylvester  Sennett,  of  Chicago.  It  is  a 
marvelous  machine,  simple  in  its  parts, 
and  casts  7500  types  an  hour,  ready  for 
the  printer’s  use.  A machine  known  as 
a “sort  caster,”  adapted  for  supplying 
smaller  offices  with  “sorts”  as  needed, 
was  invented  in  1899  by  Frank  Brown, 
G.  A.  Boyden,  and  John  E.  Hanrahan, 
of  Boston. 

TYPESETTING  MACHINES,  the  per- 
fection of  the  typesetting  machine  has 
revolutionized  the  printing  of  news- 
papers and  books.  Since  1885  American 
inventors  have  supplied  the  world  with 
typesetting  machinery.  Every  style 
of  machine  in  commercial  operation  in 
any  part  of  the  world  is  of  American 
invention.  The  Linotype,  Monotype, 
Monoline,  Typograph  and  Simplex  ma- 
chines are  in  general  use  in  all  quarters 
of  the  globe.  Machines  of  European  in- 
vention are  in  limited  use  only  in  their 
owil  countries.  The  typesetting  ma- 
chines in  general  use  in  the  United 
States  are  the  Linotype  and  the  Mono- 
type— the  former  being  the  favorite  in 
newspaper  offices  and  the  latter  being 
better  adapted  for  book  and  tabular 
work.  The  Linotype,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, casts  an  entire  line  while  the 
Monotype  casts  each  letter  separately. 
The  Monoline,  another  slug  casting 
machine,  conflicts  with  the  Linotype 
patents  and  therefore  is  barred  from 
the  United  States.  It  is  in  daily  use  in 
Canada  and  Germany.  The  Graphotype, 
invented  by  George  A.  Goodson  of  Min- 
neapolis, Minn.,  is  a type  caster  worked 
by  electrically  controlled  devices,  its 
product  being  similar  to  that  of  the 
Monotype.  The  Linotype  is  the  product 
of  the  genius  of  Ottmar  Mergenthaler. 
After  working  for  seven  years  in  trying 
to  make  a practical  machine  for  setting 
up  individual  type  Mergenthaler  in  1884 
conceived  the  idea  of  assembling  a line 
of  dies  or  female  matrices  and  casting 
them  into  molten  metal  to  form  a slug 
which  would  itself  be  a complete  line  of 
type.  He  succeeded  and  in  1885  built 
the  first  Linotype.  The  first  JL^inotype, 
however,  would  not  be  recognized  in  the 
Linotype  of  to-day.  The  matrix  chan- 
nels were  upright  tubes,  an  air  blast  was 
required  to  blow  the  matrices  into  an 
assembler  and  electricity  was  employed 
in  its  operation.  These  objectionable 
features  were  eliminated  in  a new  Lino- 
type put  on  the  market  in  1890,  known 
as  the  square  base  Linotype.  Mergen- 
thaler did  not  live  to  reap  the  fruits  of 
his  genius,  dying  in  1899.  The  latest 
Linotype  peimits  any  size  of  type  from 
5 to  14  point  to  be  composed  in  any 
length  of  line  from  5 to  30  ems  pica.  Fif- 
teen different  languages  are  now  set  on 
the  Linotype  in  as  many  different  coun- 
tries. The  Lanston  Monotype  Machine 
cast*  separately  each  letter,  point,  and 
sign,  including  the  spaces.  The  machine 


comprises  a keyboard  and  a type-casting 
machine.  The  keyboard  punches  a 
series  of  holes  made  by  the  operator 
striking  the  keys  on  the  keyboard  in  a 
moving  strip  of  paper,  which  is  un- 
wound from  one  spool  to  another,  pass- 
ing under  a series  of  punches  in  its 
journey.  The  result  of  the  keyboard 
operation  is,  therefore,  a roll  of  per- 
forated paper.  This  paper  when  fed  to 
the  casting  machine,  initiates  and  con- 
trols all  the  operations  which  produce 
the  cast  type  set  in  column  width  ready 
to  take  printed  proofs  from. 

TYPEWRITER,  a machine  intended 
to  be  used  as  a substitute  for  the  pen, 
and  by  which  the  letters  are  produced 
by  the  impression  of  inked  types.  The 
essential  elements  in  such  machines  are 
a movement  to  bring  the  type  into 
position,  an  inking  device,  an  impression 
movement,  and  means  for  letter  and  line 
spacing.  A successful  form  of  the  ma- 
chine has  a series  of  letter  keys  arranged 
in  rows,  to  be  worked  by  the  fingers  of 
both  hands,  a letter  being  imprinted 
on  the  paper  (which  moves  auto- 
matically) each  time  a key  is  struck. 
In  recent  years  several  typewriters  have 
been  brought  before  the  public,  such  as 
the  Remington,  Hammond,  Smith- 
Premier,  Bar-Lock,  Oliver,  etc.,  and 
improvements  are  made  from  time  to 
time.  Typewriters  for  printing  in  books 
have  also  proved  very  successful.  The 
growth  of  the  use  of  the  typewriter 
has  been  rapid.  It  was  placed  on  the 
market  in  the  early  seventies  and  was 
soon  appreciated.  The  twelfth  census 
contains  an  account  of  the  comparative 
speed  of  typesetting  and  hand  labor. 
“In  this  instance  the  unit  required  was 
the  copying  of  1000  words  of  statute 
law;  this  was  accomplished  by  the  type- 
writer in  19.5  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of 
51  words  per  minute  while  a copyist 
with  a pen  required  1 hour  and  14.8 
minutes,  or  about  four  times  as  long. 
Typewriters  are  now  an  essential  part 
of  the  equipment  of  business  offices  and 
are  used  extensively  in  railroad,  tele- 
graph and  newspaper  offices.  The  enor- 
mous growth  of  the  industry  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  factories 
engaged  in  making  them  has  increased 
60  per  cent,  the  capital  invested  500 
per  cent,  and  the  value  of  the  product 
over  100  per  cent  since  1890. 

TYPHOID  FEVER,  called  also  enteric 
fever  and  gastric  fever,  a disease  some- 
what resembling  typhus,  but  essentially 
different.  It  is  characterized  by  serious 
disorder  of  the  bowels,  and  is  not  infec- 
tious in  the  sense  that  it  can  be  com- 
municated from  one  person  to  another 
by  breath  or  by  the  skin,  as  in  scarlet 
fever  and  small-pox.  The  poison  seems 
to  consist  of  living  organisms  or  disease 
germs  which  exist  in  the  discharges  from 
typhoid  fever  patients,  may  gain  ad- 
mission to  the  water  of  wells,  and  hence 
to  the  human  stomach,  perhaps  by  the 
water  being  used  to  wash  milk  dishes. 
When  these  germs  gain  access  to  the 
alimentary  canal  of  a person  whose 
general  health  is  impaired,  the  disease 
is  usually  set  up.  It  is  uncertain  what 
time  may  elapse  between  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  poison  and  the  appearance 
of  the  disease,  but  the  period  is  us- 
ually about  three  weeks.  The  symp- 


toms of  the  disease  are  languor,  chills,  ■ 
violent  headache,  thirst,  and  pains  in 
the  limbs.  Soon  diarrhoea  sets  in,  ac-  J 
companied  by  a distended  and  tender 
state  of  the  abdomen.  The  temperature 
rises,  the  skin  loses  its  moisture,  the  • 
kidneys  cease  to  act  freely,  and  the 
tongue  becomes  dry  and  brown.  Then 
a rose-colored  rash  appears  over  the 
chest  and  abdomen,  which  may  soon 
disappear,  only,  however,  to  be  followed 
by  a new  crop  of  spots.  At  this  stage 
delirium  and  other  serious  symptoms 
arise,  and  as  the  disease  advances 
ulceration  or  perforation  of  the  bowels  ] 
may  take  place.  While  the  S3rmptoms  ! 
here  described  are  those  of  a typical  case,  . 
there  are  numerous  instances  where  the 
patient  may  have  no  marked  looseness  ' 
of  the  bowels,  no  spots  on  the  skin,  and 
no  delirium.  In  the  treatment  of  the 
disease  the  most  important  thing  is  the  : 
dieting.  Only  soft  liquid  foods  are  allow-  J 
able,  such  as  milk,  in  abundance,  boiled  ; 
milk  and  bread,  corn-flour,  etc.  Loose-  • 
ness  of  the  bowels,  if  excessive,  should  ; 
be  checked  by  catechu  and  chalk  mix- 
ture, with  the  addition  of  laudanum,  ' 
if  necessary,  to  a grown-up  person.  The  • 
disease,  even  in  a mild  form,  is  sufficient-  J 
ly  serious,  and  it  often  proves  fatal.  ' 

TYPHOON',  a violent  hurricane,  espe-  i 
cially  one  of  those  which  rage  on  the  ] 

coasts  of  China  and  Japan  and  the  1 

neighboring  archipelago,  occurring  from  1 
May  to  November,  being  most  frequent  I 
and  disastrous  in  July,  August,  and  1 
September.  j 

TYPHUS  FEVER,  known  also  as  ] 
hospital  fever,  jail  fever,  etc.,  is  essen-  : 
tially  a fever  of  the  poor,  ill -fed,  and  ^ 
badly-housed  inhabitants  of  large  cities.  ^ 
It  is  infectious,  and  the  infection  seems  I 
to  be  carried  in  the  breath  of  the  patient.  \ 
For  this  reason  free  ventilation  is  the  i 
least  favorable  condition  for  the  spread  « 
of  typhus.  Before  the  symptoms  show  j 
themselves  a period  of  from  five  to 
twelve  days  may  pass  after  the  person  is 
infected.  Then  there  is  generally  a 
shivering,  followed  by  a hot,  dry  skin, 
a suffused  condition  of  the  eyes,  a small 
pupil,  thirst,  a dull,  stupid  expression, 
great  prostration,  and  costive  bowels.  ] 
About  the  seventh  day  a rash  of  irregu-  i 
lar  spots  and  of  a dusky  hue  appears  ' 
over  the  chest  and  back,  but  sometimes 
this  is  entirely  absent  As  the  disease  i 
advances  the  patient’s  strength  becomes  i 
exhausted,  the  urinary  secretion  is 
scanty,  if  not  entirely  suppressed,  de- 
lirium  sets  in,  and  the  disease  is  often  1 
complicated  by  bronchitis,  pneumonia, 
or  pleurisy.  About  the  fourteenth  day, 
in  favorable  cases,  the  turn  of  the  fever  j 
is  shown  by  the  patient  falling  into  a . 
sound  sleep,  from  which  he  wakes  with 
the  fever  gone.  In  unfavorable  cases 
the  prostration  increases,  the  feverish-  ■ 
ness  is  heightened,  convulsions  may  1 
occur,  and  at  length  the  patient  sinks 
into  unconsciousness.  The  treatment  j 
consists  in  keeping  the  patient  in  a well-  j 
ventilated  room,  and  preventing  ex-  ^ 
haustion  by  a light  and  wholesome  diet.  j 
Milk,  beef-tea,  nourishing  soups  without  1 
vegetables,  should  be  given  to  the  pa-  - 
tient  in  small  quantities  at  short  inter-  3 
vals.  ^ 

TYPOGRAPHY.  See  Printing.  C 

TYRE,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  1 


TYROL 


UMBRELLA 


cities  of  ancient  Phcenicia,  and  with  its 
elder  sister,  Sidon,  long  a great  trading 
mart.  It  was  built  partly  on  an  island 
and  partly  on  the  mainland;  and  the 
insular  fortifications  formed  its  chief 
strength  when  besieged  and  taken  by 
Alexander  the  Great  in  b.c.  332.  A mole 
or  causeway  then  constructed  to  the 
island  was  the  origin  of  the  isthmus 
which  now  connects  it  with  the  main- 
land. Tyre  was  famous  in  the  10th 
century  b.c.  under  Hiram  the  friend  of 


Solomon,  was  besieged  in  vain  by  the 
Assyrians  in  725-720  b.c.,  and  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  585-572  b.c.,  and  re- 
mained an  important  place  till  it  came 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  modern 
Tyre  or  Sur  is  an  insignificant  place  of 
5000  inhabitants. 

TYROL'  or  TIROL',  a province  of 
Austria  (including  Tyrol  proper  and 
Vorarlberg),  is  bounded  north  by  Ba- 
varia and  Lake  Constance,  west  by 
Switzerland,  east  by  Salzburg  and 

u 


Illyria,  south,  east,  and  west  by  Venetia 
and  Lombardy;  area,  11,325  sq.  miles. 
In  magnificence  of  scenery  Tyrol  is  only 
inferior  to  Switzerland,  of  which  it  is  a 
continuation.  The  capital  is  Innsbruck. 
Pop.  850,062. 

TYRONE,  a county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Ulster;  bounded  by  Lon- 
donderry, Donegal,  Armagh,  Monaghan, 
and  Fermanagh;  area,  778,943  acres. 
Pod.  150,468. 


U,  the  twenty-first  letter  and  the 
fifth  vowel  in  the  English  alphabet.  Its 
true  primary  sound  was  that  which  it 
still  retains,  that  of  oo  in  cool,  tool, 
good,  wood,  etc.,  answering  to  the  French 
ou  in  tour,  the  sound  being  sometimes 
short,  sometimes  long. 

UDAIPUR,  or  OODEYPORE,  a town 
in  the  northwest  of  India,  capital  of  a 
native  state  of  the  same  name  in 
Rajputana,  Pop.  45,976. — The  state 
(called  also  Meywar),  area  12,670  sq. 
miles,  came  under  the  protection  of 
Britain  in  1817,  and  the  rajah  ranks 
highest  in  dignity  among  the  Rajput 
chiefs.  Pop.  1,728,049. 

UNDINE  (6'di-na),  a walled  town  of 
North  Italy,  capital  of  a province  of 
same  name  and  see  of  an  archbishop, 
60  miles  northeast  of  Venice.  Pop. 
37,933;  of  prov.  594,334. 

UFA,  a government  of  Russia,  sepa- 
rated in  1865  from  Orenburg;  area, 
47,112  sq.  miles.  Pop.  2,220,497. — Ufa, 
the  capital,  stands  on  the  Bielaya,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Ufa,  735  miles  east 
by  north  of  Moscow.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  considerable  manu- 
factures and  trade.  Pop.  49,961. 

UGAN'DA,  a country  of  British  East 
Africa,  to  the  n.  w.  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza.  It  is  a rich  agricultural  coun- 
try with  a mild  and  uniform  climate, and 
the  inhabitants  are  of  a comparatively 
high  type.  It  was  first  visited  by  Speke 
and  Grant  in  1860,  and  is  the  seat  of 
several  mission  stations.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  5,000,000. 

UHLANS  (6'lanz),  a species  of  light 
cavalry  in  the  annies  of  the  Austrians, 
Russians,  and  Germans. 

UINTAH  (or  Uinta)  MOUNTAINS,  a 
range  of  lofty  mountains  in  Utah, 
United  States,  which  extend  e.  from 
the  Wahsatch  range,  and  occupy  a 
large  area.  Some  of  the  peaks  reach  an 
altitude  of  over  13,000  feet. 

U'KASE,  a Russian  edict  or  order, 
legislative  or  administrative,  emanating 
from  the  government.  Ukases  have  the 
force  of  laws  till  they  are  annulled  by 
subsequent  decisions. 

UKRAINE,  an  extensive  country 
formerly  on  the  frontier  between  Poland 
and  Russia,  now  forming  the  Russian 
governments  of  Kief,  Chernigof,  Podolsk, 
Kharkof  and  Poltava. 

ULCER,  a sore  in  any  of  the  soft  parts 
of  the  body,  either  open  to  the  surface 
or  to  some  natural  cavity,  and  attended 
with  a secretion  of  pus  or  some  kind  of 
discharge.  Ulcers  are  of  various  kinds, 
as  scorbutic,  cancerous,  scrofulous,  etc. 

ULSTER,  the  most  northerly  of  the 


four  provinces  of  Ireland,  comprehend- 
ing the  counties  of  Antrim,  Armagh, 
Cavan,  Donegal,  Down,  Fermanagh, 
Londonderry,  Monaghan,  and  Tyrone. 
Area,  5,483,201  acres,  or  8568  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  1,581,351. 

ULTRAMARINE',  a beautiful  and 
durable  sky-blue  pigment,  a color 
formed  of  the  mineral  called  lapis  lazuli. 
This  substance  is  much  valued  by 
painters,  on  account  of  the  beauty  and 
permanence  of  its  color,  both  for  oil 
and  water  painting.  Artificial  ultra- 
marine  is  prepared  by  heating  sulphide 
of  sodium  with  a mixture  of  silicic  acid 
and  alumina. 

UTRAMON'TANISM,  the  views  of 
that  party  in  the  Church  of  Rome,  who 
place  an  absolute  authority  in  matters 
of  faith  and  discipline  in  the  hands  of 
the  pope,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of 
the  party  who  would  place  the  national 
churches,  such  as  the  Galilean,  in  partial 
independence  of  the  Roman  curia,  and 
make  the  pope  subordinate  to  the  stat- 
utes of  an  oecumenical  council.  Accord- 
ing to  ultramontanism  the  pope  is 
superior  to  general  councils,  independ- 
ent of  their  decrees,  and  considered  to 
be  the  source  of  all  jurisdiction  in  the 
church.  The  Vatican  council  of  1870 
virtually  established  the  views  of  ultra- 
montanism as  dogmas  of  the  church. 

ULYSSES  (u-lis'sSz),  king  of  the  is- 
land of  Ithaca,  was  one  of  the  Greek 
heroes  who  engaged  in  the  war  against 
Troy.  In  returning  to  his  own  country 
after  the  siege  he  visited  the  country  of 
the  Lotophagi  in  North  Africa,  the 
Cyclopes  in  Sicily  (see  Polyphemus),  the 
island  of  ^olus  king  of  the  winds, 
reached  the  island  jEsea,  where  Circe 
changed  (temporarily)  his  companions 
into  pigs,  visited  the  infernal  regions, 
where  he  consulted  the  soothsayer 
Tiresias  how  to  return  to  his  country; 
passed  in  safety  the  coast  of  the  Sirens, 
and  the  dangers  of  Scylla  and  Charybdis ; 
remained  for  seven  years  with  the  nymph 
Calypso  after  losing  all  his  men;  and  at 
last,  after  an  absence  of  twenty  years 
returned  to  Ithaca.  Here  he  found  his 
palace  occupied  and  his  substance 
wasted  by  suitors  for  the  hand  of  his 
wife  Penelope,  but  with  the  aid  of  his 
son  Telemachus  he  put  them  to  death. 
He  lived  about  sixteen  years  after  his 
return.  These  adventures  of  Ulysses  are 
the  subject  of  Homer’s  Odyssey. 

UMBEL,  in  botany,  a variety  of  in- 
florescence which  consists  of  a number 
of  pedicels  or  flower-stalks,  nearly  equal 
in  length,  springing  from  a common 
center,  with  the  blossoms  on  their  sum- 


mits forming  a level  or  rounded  surface. 
When  a number  of  such  umbels  are 
aggregated  together  in  the  same  way 


we  have  a compound  umbel,  the  smaller 
umbels  being  called  partial  umbels. 

UMBELLIF'ER^,  an  extensive  and 
important  natural  order  of  plants,  the 
flowers  of  which  are  almost  always  in 
regular  compound  umbels.  The  plants 
of  this  order  are  natives  chiefly  of  the 
northern  parts  of  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, and  nearly  all  herbs  with  fistular 
furrowed  stems  and  divided  leaves; 
the  fruit  consists  of  two  indehiscent 
ridged  carpels  united  by  a commissure. 
Some  are  very  poisonous,  as  hemlock, 
and  certain  others;  others  are  esculent, 
as  celery,  carrots,  and  parsnips;  many 
yield  aromatics,  as  caraway,  coriander, 
dill,  anise;  a few  secrete  a feetid  gum- 
resin,  much  used  in  medicine,  as  asa- 
fetida,  galbanum,  opopanax,  and  saga- 
penum. 

UMBER,  a well-known  mineral  pig- 
ment, of  an  olive-brown  color  in  its  raw 
state,  but  much  redder  when  burnt. 
It  occurs  either  naturally  in  veins  and 
beds,  or  is  prepared  artificia'lv  from 
various  admixtures.  The  commercial 
varieties  are  known  as  Turkey  umber, 
raw  and  burnt,  and  English  umber, 
the  latter  being  an  artificial  ochrey 
admixture. 

UMBRA,  in  astronomy,  a term  ap- 
plied to  the  total  shadow  of  the  earth  or 
moon  in  an  eclipse,  or  to  the  dark  cone 
projected  from  a planet  or  satellite  on 
the  side  opposite  to  the  sun.  See  Penum- 
bra, Eclipse. 

UMBRELLA,  a portable  shade,  screen, 
or  canopy  which  opens  and  folds,  car- 
ried in  the  hand  for  sheltering  the  person. 
The  umbrella  had  its  origin  in  the  East 
in  very  remote  times,  where  it  was  (and 
still  is)  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  royalty 
or  a mark  of  distinction;  but  as  a de- 


UMBRELLA  BIRD 


UNITARIANS 


fense  from  rain  it  was  not  used  in  Eng- 
land till  early  in  the  18th  century. 

UMBRELLA-BIRD,  a South  Ameri- 
can bird  allied  to  the  crows,  remarkable 
for  the  crest  of  blue-black  feathers  rising 
from  the  head  and  curving  toward  the 


Umbrella-bird. 


end  of  the  beak,  which  it  nearly  reaches. 
Another  long  tuft  of  feathers  hang  down 
from  the  breast. 

UMBRIA,  a division  of  Italy,  on  the 
Adriatic,  which  derives  its  appellation 
from  the  Umbrians,  by  whom  it  was 
inhabited  in  ancient  times.  It  now  forms 
the  province  of  Perugia.  The  Umbrians 
were  an  ancient  Italic  people  speaking 
a language  akin  to  the  Latin. 

UNCONFORMABLE,  in  geology,  a 
term  applied  to  strata  whose  planes  do 


Uncontormable  strata. 

not  lie  parallel  with  those  of  the  sub- 
jacent or  superjacent  strata  but  have  a 
different  line  of  direction  or  inclination. 

UNCTION,  Extreme.  See  Extreme 
Unction. 

UNDERSHOT-WHEEL,  a form  of 
water-wheel  having  a number  of  float- 
boards  disposed  on  its  circumference, 
and  turned  round  by  the  moving  force 
of  a stream  of  water  acting  on  the  float- 
boards  at  its  lowest  part.  In  this  wheel 
the  water  acts  entirely  byits  momentum. 

UN'DINE,  a water-spirit  of  the  female 
sex,  resembling  in  character  the  sylphs 
or  spirits  of  the  air,  and  corresponding 
somewhat  to  the  naiads  of  classical 
mythology.  According  to  Paracelsus, 
when  an  undine  married  a mortal  and 
bore  a child  she  received  a soul.  One 
of  these  spirits  is  the  heroine  of  a cele- 
brated romance  by  De  la  Motte  Fouqu6. 

UN'DULATORY  THEORY,  in  physics, 
the  theory  which  regards  light  as  a mode 
of  motion  generated  by  molecular  vibra- 
tions in  the  luminous  source,  and  propa- 
gated by  undulations  in  the  subtle  me- 


dium known  as  the  ether,  presumed  to 
pervade  all  space  and  to  occupy  the  in- 
tervals which  separate  the  molecules  or 
atoms  of  bodies.  When  these  undula- 
tions reach  and  act  on  the  nerves  of  our 
retina  they  produce  in  us  the  sensation 
of  light.  The  only  other  theory  of  light 
which  can  be  opposed  to  this,  and  which 
is  variously  called  the  corpuscular, 
emission,  or  material  theory,  supposes 
light  to  consist  of  material  particles, 
emitted  from  the  source,  and  projected 
in  straight  lines  in  all  directions  with  a 
velocity  which  continues  uniform  at  all 
distances,  and  is  the  same  for  all  in- 
tensities. The  undulatory  theory,  is 
however,  now  generally  adopted  by 
physicists. 

UNGULA'TA,  the  ungulate  or  hoofed 
quadrupeds,  fanning  the  largest  and 
most  important  order  of  the  mammalia. 
This  order  is  subdivided  into  (a)  the 
section  Perissodactyla,  or  odd-toed 
ungulates,  which  includes  the  rhinoceros, 
the  tapirs,  the  horse  and  all  its  allies; 
and  (b)  the  Artiodactyla,  or  even-toed, 
which  comprises  the  hippopotamus,  the 
pigs,  and  the  whole  group  of  ruminants, 
including  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  antelopes, 
camels,  deer,  etc..  In  the  former  section 
the  hind  feet  are  odd-toed  (one  or  three 
toes)  in  all  the  members,  and  the  fore- 
feet in  all  except  the  tapirs;  in  the  latter 
section  the  toes  are  always  even  in  num- 
ber, either  two  or  four. 

UNICORN,  a fabulous  animal  repre- 
sented as  with  one  horn  growing  from  its 
forehead.  Such  an  animal  is  frequently 
mentioned  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers, 
who  generally  described  it  as  a native 
of  India,  of  the  size  and  form  of  a horse, 
the  body  being  white,  and  a straight 
horn  growing  from  its  forehead.  The 
reem  of  the  Hebrews,  of  which  unicorn 
is  a mistranslation  (Deut,  xxxiii.  17,  and 
elsewhere),  was  probably  a urus.  It  was 
a two-horned  animal.  The  unicorn  is 
one  of  the  supporters  of  the  royal  arms 
of  Great  Britain,  in  that  posture  termed 
salient.  It  was  taken  from  the  arms  of 
Scotland,  which  had  two  unicorns  as 
supporters. 

UNICORN-ROOT,  a popular  name  of 
the  plant  a native  of  North  America, 
which  furnishes  one  of  the  most  intense 
bitters  known,  used  as  a tonic  and 
stomachic. 

UNIT,  in  arithmetic,  the  least  whole 
number,  or  one,  represented  by  the 
figure  1.  Every  other  number  is  an 
assemblage  of  units.  This  definition  is 
applicable  to  fractions  as  well  as  to  whole 
numbers.  In  mathematics  and  physics 
a unit  is  any  known  determinate  quan- 
tity by  the  constant  repetition  of  which 
any  other  quality  of  the  same  kind  is 
measured.  It  is  not  itself  one,  but  is  a 
length,  or  a surface,  or  a solid,  or  a 
weight,  or  a time,  as  the  case  may  be, 
while  1 is  only  a numerical  symbol. — 
Specific  gravity  unit;  for  solids  or 
liquids,  1 cubic  foot  of  distilled  water 
at  62°  Fahr.  = 1 ; of  air  and  gases,  1 
cubic  foot  of  atmospheric  air  at  62° 
Fahr.  = 1.  The  unit  of  heat,  or  thermal 
unit,  the  quantity  of  heat  corresponding 
to  a rise  of  1°  Fahr.  in  the  temperature 
of  1 lb.  of  pure  water  at  about  39°  Fahr. ; 
in  France,  the  heat  required  to  raise  a 
gramme  of  pure  water  at  about  3.94° 
C.,  1°  C. — In  electricity  the  unit  of 


quantity  is  that  quantity  of  electricity 
which,  with  an  electro-motive  force  of 
one  volt,  will  flow  through  a resistance 
of  1,000,000  ohms  in  one  second,  called 
a farad;  unit  of  current,  a current  of  one 
farad  per  second.  Unit  of  work,  that 
which  will  produce  a velocity  of  one 
meter  (39.37)  inches  per  second  in  a 
mass  weighing  one  gramme  (15.432 
grains)  after  acting  upon  it  a second  of 
time.  A dynamic  unit  is  one  expressing 
the  quantity  of  a force  or  the  amount  of 
work  done.  One  such  unit  is  the  foot- 
pound (which  see).  The  system  of  units 
recommended  by  a committee  of  the 
British  association  for  scientific  calcu- 
lations, and  known  as  the  C.  G.  S. 
system,  adopts  the  centimeter  as  the 
unit  of  length,  the  gramme  as  the  unit 
of  mass,  and  the  second  as  the  unit  of 
time,  these  words  being  represented 
respectively  by  the  above  letters.  (See 
Dynamics.)  In  this  system  the  unit  of 
area  is  the  square  centimeter,  the  unit 
of  volume  is  the  cubic  centimeter,  and 
the  unit  of  velocity  is  a velocity  of  a 
centimeter  per  second.  The  unit  of 
momentum  is  the  momentum  of  a 
gramme  moving  with  a velocity  of  a 
centimeter  per  second. 

UNITARIANS,  a religious  sect  or  con- 
geries of  sects,  distinguished  by  the 
denial  of  the  received  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity.  The  Unitarians  may  be  divided 
into  classes:  (1)  The  conservative  or 
orthodox  Unitarians,  who  accept  the 
general  articles  of  the  Christian  creed 
(with  the  exception  of  the  Trinity),  such 
as  miracles,  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
and  the  plenary  inspiration  of  Scripture, 
(2)  The  liberal  or  progressive  Unitarians, 
whose  creed  is  purely  rationalistic.  They 
consider  Christ  as  a mere  man,  inspired 
as  other  great  men  are,  though  in  a 
greater  degree ; they  reject  the  doctrines 
of  original  sin,  eternal  punishments, 
the  belief  in  miracles,  and  generally  the 
whole  supernatural  element  in  Chris- 
tianity. They  deny  the  necessity  of  an 
atonement,  considering  Christ’s  death 
but  as  a martyrdom  in  defense  of  truth. 
This  latter  class  forms  the  majority. 
Unitarian  views  have  been  held  more  or 
less  in  all  ages  of  the  church,  but  they 
came  more  prominently  forward  during 
the  Reformation  period,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  teaching  of  the 
elder  and  younger  Socinus,  Laelius  and 
Faustus,  uncle  and  nephew.  At  this 
time  Unitarian  doctrines  led  to  perse- 
cution. The  sect  was  first  tolerated  in 
Poland  and  Transylvania.  In  the  former  ; 
country  it  flourished  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  younger  Socinus,  in  the  latter  ■ 
under  that  of  his  friend  Blandatra.  The  ■ 
Polish  toleration  was  finally  withdrawn 
in  1658,  when  the  Unitarians  were  ban- 
ished under  pain  of  death.  They  dis- 
persed in  Germany  and  England.  Uni- 
tarianism  in  the  meantime  made  secret 
progress  among  various  Protestant  } 
bodies  professing  orthodox  creeds.  In 
England,  where  Unitarians  were  burned 
as  well  as  on  the  continent,  full  tolera- 
tion was  not  granted  till  1813.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe  Unitarianism  pro-  - 
grossed  in  proportion  to  the  progress  of  j 
Rationalism.  In  America  Unitarianism  i 
first  sprung  up  in  New  England,  from 
which  it  spread  rapidly.  The  Univer- 
salist  sect  is  also  of  non-Trinitarian 


1 


UNITED  BRETHREN 


UNITED  STATES 


belief.  There  are  about  300  Unitarian 
congregations  in  Britain  and  459  in 
America,  and  Unitarian  theology  has 
tinged  more  or  or  less  almost  every 
section  of  the  reformed  Christian  church. 

UNITED  BRETHREN.  See  Moravian 
Brethren. 

UNITED  KINGDOM.  See  Britain. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH, 

the  name  adopted  by  that  Scottish 
church  which  was  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Secession  church  and  the  Relief 
church  in  May,  1847.  This  church  ad- 
hered to  the  theological  doctrines  taught 
in  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith 
and  the  Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms. 
The  system  of  church  government 
differed  from  that  of  the  Established  and 
Free  churches  only  in  having  no  inter- 
mediate court  between  the  presbyteries 
and  the  supreme  court,  the  latter  of 
which  was  called  a General  Synod,  and 
sat  once  a year.  The  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  U nited  Presbyterian  church 
was  that  it  was  a voluntary  church, 
which  set  itself  against  all  state  estab- 
lishment of  religion  and  all  public  and 
national  endowments  for  the  main- 
tenance of  Christianity.  In  October, 
1900,  it  joined  with  the  Free  churcli  to 
form  the  United  Free  church  of  Scot- 
land. 

UNITED  PROVINCES.  See  Nether- 
lands. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  NORTH  AMER- 
ICA, a federal  republic,  occupying  the 
whole  of  the  central  portion  of  that  con- 
tinent between  lat.  24°  and  49°  n.,  and 
Ion.  67°  and  125°  w.;  stretching  from 
east  to  west  between  the  Atlantic  and 
North  Pacific  oceans,  and  from  north 


Obverse. 


Reverse. 


Great  seal  of  the  XT.  S. 

to  south  between  Canada  and  the  Gulf 
and  Republic  of  Mexico ; greatest  length, 
east  to  west,  2800  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  1600  miles;  area,  3,024,880  sq. 
miles.  The  territory  of  Alaska  also  be- 
longs to  the  United  States,  and  Hawaii, 
the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  etc.,  have 
been  recently  acquired.  The  republic  is 
composed  of  46  states,  4 territories,  and 


1 district,  besides  the  reserved  Indian 
territory  and  Alaska.  The  first  census 
was  taken  of  the  thirteen  original  states 
in  1790,  when  the  population  numbered 
3,929,214.  The  various  areas  and  popu- 
lations are  given  in  the  following  table: 


States  and  Terri- 
tories 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 

Population 

1890 

Estimated 
Pop.  1908  by 
the  Govern- 
or of  each 
State 

Slates 

Alabama 

.Cf- 

52,250 

1,513,017 

2,2.50,000 

Arkansas.. 

53,8.50 

1,128,179 

1,750,000 

California 

158,360 

1,208,130 

2,000,000 

Colorado 

Connecticut.  . 

103,925 

4,990 

412,198 

746,258 

800,000 

1,010,000 

Delaware 

2,050 

168,493 

190,000 

Florida 

58,680 

391,422 

650,000 

Georgia 

59,475 

1,837,353 

2,600,000 

Idaho 

84,800 

84,385 

300,000 

Illinois 

56,650 

3,826,351 

5,590,000 

Indiana 

36,350 

2,192,404 

2,678,493 

Iowa 

56,025 

1,911,896 

2,216.068 

Kansas. 

82,080 

1,427,096 

1 ,680,000 

Kentucky 

40,400 

1,858,635 

2,435,000 

Louisiana. 

48,720 

1,118,517 

1,700,000 

Maine 

33,040 

661,086 

731,760 

Maryland 

12,210 

1,042,390 

1,441,602 

Massachusetts.. .. 
Michigan 

8,315 

58,915 

2,238,943 

2,093,889 

3,173,487 

2,655,463 

Minnesota 

83,365 

1,301,826 

2,200,000 

Mississippi 

48,810 

1,289,600 

1,750,000 

Missouri 

69,415 

2,679,184 

3,885,989 

Montana 

146,080 

132,159 

275,000 

Nebraska 

7(5,855 

1,058,910 

1,225,000 

Nevada 

110,700 

45,761 

65,000 

New  Hampshire . . 
New  Jersey. 

9,305 

7,815 

376,530 

1,444,933 

443,700 

2,294,413 

New  York 

49,170 

5,997,853 

8,476,437 

North  Carolina. .. 

North  Dakota 

Ohio  

52,250 

70,195 

41,060 

1,617,947 

182,719 

3,672,316 

2,100,000 

475,000 

4,557,000 

Oklahoma 

39,030 

61,834 

1,408,732 

Oregon  

96,030 

313,767 

550,000 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina.  .. 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee. 

4,5,215 

1,2,50 

30,570 

77,6,50 

42,0.50 

5,2.58,014 

345,506 

1,151,149 

328,808 

1,767,518 

6.900.000 
502,302 

1,474,735 

490,000 

2.220.000 

Texas 

265,780 

2,235,523 

3,600,000 

Utah 

84,970 

207,905 

350,000 

Vermont 

9,5(55 

333,423 

310,000 

Virginia  

42,4.50 

1 ,655,980 

2,042,388 

Virginia.  West  . .. 
Washington 

24,780 

69,180 

762,794 

.349,390 

1,200,000 

900,000 

Wisconsin 

56,040 

1,686.880 

2,275.000 

Wyoming 

97,890 

60,705 

117,500 

Territories 

Arizona.  . 

113,020 

59,620 

89,990 

1.53,593 

230,392 

185.000 

154.001 

303.000 

330.000 

6.677 

New  Mexico 

Dist.  of  Columbia 

122,580 

70 

States  and  Ter- ) 

rltories j 

Indian  Territory. 
Indians 

3,000,157 

31,400 

62,712,240 

186,490 

141,709 

88,787,058 

450,000 

134,158 

Territ.  of  Alaska. 

531,400 

31,795 

125,000 

Total 

3,562,9.57 

63,072,234 

89,496,216 

Up  to  1889  the  Dakotas  formed  the 
territory  of  Dakota.  In  1890  Oklahoma 
was  constituted  a territory,  being  de- 
tached from  the  Indian  territory.  The 
colored  people  in  1907  numbered  8,840,- 
789.  The  Indians  in  all  amount  approxi- 
mately to  250,000.  The  capital  is  Wash- 
ington, the  largest  city  is  New  York, 
the  other  large  cities  being  Chicago, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  St.  Louis,  Balti- 
more, Cleveland,  Buffalo,  San  Francisco, 
Cincinnati,  Pittsburg,  etc.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  population  of  cities 
having  over  100,000  inhabitants  in 
1900,  for  the  census  years  1860,  1890, 
1900,  and  the  estimated  population  in 
1908  as  furnished  by  the  mayors 
of  the  different  cities.  The  United 
States  have  a coast-line  which  measures 
12,609  miles,  of  which  6861  are  on  the 
Atlantic,  2281  on  the  Pacific,  and  3467 
on  the  Mexican  gulf.  The  most  impor- 


City 

1908 

1900 

1890 

1860 

New  York 

4,285,435 

3,437,202 

1,515,301 

813,669 

Chicago 

2,483,641 

1,698,575 

1,099,820 

109,260 

Philadelphia. . 

1,491,161 

1,293,697 

1,046.964 

565,529 

Brooklyn 

* 

* 

838,547 

279,122 

Saint  Louis. .. 

750,000 

575,238 

451,770 

160,773 

Boston 

607,340 

560,892 

448,4^ 

177,840 

Baltimore 

567,000 

508,957 

434,439 

212,418 

Cleveland 

525,000 

381,768 

261,353 

43,417 

Buffalo. 

400,000 

352,387 

265,664 

81,129 

San  Francisco 

475,000 

342,782 

298,^ 

56,802 

Cincinnati .... 

400,000 

325,902 

296,908 

161,044 

Pittsburg 

350,000 

321,616 

238,617 

49,221 

New  Orleans.. 

400,000 

287,104 

242,039 

168,675 

Detroit. 

425,600 

285,704 

205,876 

45,619 

Milwaukee. . .. 

355,000 

385,315 

204,468 

45,246 

Washington .. 

332,000 

278,718 

230,392 

61.122 

Newark 

300,000 

246,070 

181,830 

71,941 

Jersey  City.. .. 

245,000 

206,433 

163,003 

29,226 

Louisyille. 

260,000 

204,731 

161,129 

68,033 

Minneapolis .. 

300,000 

202,718 

164,738 

2,564 

Proyide’nce.... 

208,000 

175,597 

132,146 

50,666 

Indianapolis. . 

236,000 

169,164 

105,436 

18,611 

Kansas  City .. 

350,000 

163,752 

132,716 

4,418 

Saint  Paul 

225,000 

163,065 

133,156 

10,401 

Rochester 

195,000 

162,608 

133,896 

48,204 

Denyer 

200,000 

133,859 

106,713 

4,749 

Toledo 

189,000 

131,822 

81,434 

13,768 

Allegheny 

138,000 

129,896 

105,287 

28,702 

Columbus 

179,370 

125,560 

86,150 

18,.554 

Worcester 

138,000 

118,421 

84,655 

24,960 

Syracuse 

New  Haven . . . 

125,000 

108,374 

88,143 

28,119 

150,000 

108,027 

81,298 

39,267 

Paterson 

130,000 

105,171 

78,347 

19,586 

Fall  River .... 

115,000 

104,863 

74,398 

14,026 

Saint  Joseph. . 

120,000 

102,979 

52,324 

8,932 

Omaha 

142,500 

102,555 

140,452 

1,883 

Los  Angeles.. 

280,000 

102,479 

50,395 

4,385 

Memphis. 

175.000 

102,330 

64,495 

22.623 

Scranton. 

130,000 

103,026 

75,215 

9,223 

Portland. 

161,205 

90,426 

45,585 

Reading 

110,000 

78,961 

56,661 

Richmond 

112,000 

85.050 

81,388 

Seattle 

250,000 

80,671 

42,839 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

130,000 

102,979 

52,324 

Albany 

100,000 

91,104 

94,923 

Atlanta 

150,000 

89,873 

65.533 

Dallas. 

280,000 

42,638 

38,067 

Dayton 

115,000 

85,333 

61,220 

Grand  Rapids 

117,000 

87,563 

60,278 

Hartford 

106,000 

79,850 

53,230 

Lowell 

100,000 

94.969 

77,696 

Nashville 

125,000 

80,865 

70,168 

*The  City  of  Brooklyn  was  consolidated  with 
New  York  City  in  1898. 


tant  indentations  on  the  Atlantic  are 
Massachusetts  bay;  Long  Island  sound, 
and  in  connection  with  it  the  Bay  of 
New  York;  Delaware  bay;  Chesapeake 
bay;  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds; 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  Pacific  sea- 
board is  deficient  in  bays,  but  possesses 
in  that  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  coast  of 
California,  one  of  the  largest  natural 
harbors  in  the  world.  There  are  few 
islands  either  on  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific 
coasts,  the  only  one  of  any  importance 
being  Long  Island.  The  country  is 
traversed  by  two  great  mountain- 
systems.  The  loftiest  and  largest  of 
these  is  what  as  a whole  may  be  called 
the  Cordilleras,  which  enters  from  Mex- 
ico, stretches  northward,  and  is  con- 
tinued into  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
It  has  in  its  broadest  parts  a breadth  of 
1000  miles,  and  includes  the  ranges 
known  as  the  Rocky  mountains.  Sierra 
Nevada,  Cascade  range,  the  Coast 
ranges,  the  Blue  mountains,  and  various 
lofty  plateaus.  The  great  feature  of  this 
system  is  the  Rocky  mountains  (which 
see).  The  other  mountain-system  is  the 
Appalachian,  which  stretches  parallel 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  almost  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  It 
consists  of  a long  plateau  with  various 
groups  and  ranges  of  hills,  among  which 
are  the  White  mountains  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, the  Green  mountains  of  Vermont, 
the  Adirondacks  of  northern  New  York, 
the  Catskills  of  southeastern  New  York, 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


the  Alleghanies  of  Pennsylvania,  etc. 
The  great  plain  lying  between  these  two 
mountain-systems  belongs  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi- 
Missouri,  which  enters  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This,  the  chief  river  of  the 
country  and  the  longest  in  the  world,  is 
of  immense  importance  as  a highway  of 
internal  trade.  Its  principal  tributaries 
are  the  Ohio,  Arkansas,  Red  river,  and 
Illinois.  Various  other  rivers  enter  the 
Mexican  gulf,  including  the  Rio  Grande 
del  Norte,  which  separates  the  States 
from  Mexico.  The  country  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains,  belonging  to  the  basin 
of  the  Pacific,  is  drained  by  the  Colum- 
bia, which  falls  into  the  Pacific  between 
Oregon  and  Washington;  the  Sacra- 
mento, which  discharges  into  the  Bay 
of  San  Francisco;  and  the  Colorado, 
which  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  At- 
lantic the  principal  rivers  are  the  Con- 
necticut, which  falls  into  Long  Island 
sound ; the  Hudson,  which  contributes  to 
form  the  harbor  of  New  York;  the  Dela- 
ware, which  falls  into  the  bay  of  that 
name,  and  is  navigable  to  Philadelphia; 
the  Potomac ; which  falls  into  Chesa- 
peake bay,  and  is  navigable  to  Wash- 
ington; and  the  Savannah,  which  enters 
Savannah  bay.  Besides  Lake  Cham- 
plain, which  divides  the  states  of  Ver- 
mont and  New  York,  and  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  in  Utah,  there  are  the  great 
lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie, 
and  Ontario  lying  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  belonging  partly 
to  both.  The  geology  of  the  United 
States  divides  itself  roughly  into  two 
large  geographical  areas.  One  of  these 
areas  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  this  is 
occupied  to  a large  extent  by  a great 
basin  of  Palaeozoic  formations,  includ- 
ing the  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian, 
and  Carboniferous  divisions.  In  the 
other  great  geological  area,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  base  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains to  the  Pacific,  the  Eozoic  and 
Palaezoic  formations  which  predominate 
are  overlaid  by  rocks  of  the  Secondary 
and  Tertiary  periods.  As  many  of  the 
deposits  are  carboniferous,  coal  is  found 
in  a large  proportion  of  the  states,  but 
is  chiefly  worked  in  Pennsylvania;  the 
total  yield  for  the  states  being  413,838,- 
679  tons  in  1906.  (See  table).  About 
one-fifth  belongs  to  the  anthracite 
variety.  Iron  ore,  like  coal,  is  widely 
distributed,  being  at  present  mined  in 
no  fewer  than  twenty-seven  states.  The 
total  amount  of  pig-iron  produced  in 
1906  was  25,712,106  tons,  and  of  steel 
23,738,587.  The  United  States  is  the 
chief  gold  and  silver  producing  country 
in  the  world,  its  mines  being  chiefly 
situated  in  Colorado,  California,  and 
Nevada.  IDuring  1906  the  total  produc- 
tion of  gold  was  valued  at  $94,373,800, 
and  the  value  of  the  silver  obtained 
amounted  to  $38,256,400.  Among  the 
other  chief  metals  are  copper,  the  output 
of  which  in  1906  was  416,226  tons,  lead, 
zinc,  and  mercury.  Petroleum  forms  an 
important  mineral  resource  of  the  states 
of  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Illinois. 

(See  page  opposite  for  table  giving 
the  production  of  ores,  minerals,  second- 
ary minerals  and  chemicals  for  the  year 
1906.) 


The  following  table  gives  the  coal 
production  by  states  for  the  year  1906: 


States 

Tons 

Value  at  Mine 

Total 

Per 

Ton 

Bituminous 

Alabama 

12,851,775 

$17,349,896 

$1.35 

Arkansas 

1,875,569 

3,438,240 

1.30 

California 

80,000 

232,000 

2.90 

Colorado 

10,308,421 

13,916,368 

1.35 

Georgia,  N.  Carol. 

363.463 

407,247 

1.12 

Illinois 

38,317,581 

39,467,108 

1.03 

Indiana 

11,422,000 

11,878,880 

1 04 

Indian  Territory. . 

2,980,600 

5,663,140 

1 90 

Iowa 

7,017,485 

10,877,102 

1,55 

Kansas. 

6,010,858 

8,935,195 

1 49 

Kentucky 

9,740,420 

10,714,462 

1.10 

Maryland 

5,014,995 

6,773,243 

1,35 

Michigan 

1,370,860 

3,193,376 

1.60 

Missouri 

3,860,000 

6,176,000 

1.60 

Montana 

1,787,934 

3,186,620 

1.78 

New  Mexico 

1,973,658 

2,960,487 

1.50 

North  Dakota 

300,998 

937,894 

1.45 

Ohio 

27,213,495 

39,934,845 

1.10 

Oregon 

79,731 

212,338 

3,66 

Pennsylvania. 

129„532,991 

145,076,950 

1.12 

Tennessee 

6,210,000 

7,141.500 

1.15 

Texas 

1,290,600 

2,064,960 

1.60 

Utah 

1,839,219 

2,943,750 

1.60 

Virginia 

4,546,040 

8,-501,095 

1.87 

Washington  

3,293,098 

6,421,541 

1.95 

West  Virginia 

46,452.000 

44,129,400 

.95 

Wyoming 

5,805.322 

10,159,314 

1.75 

Alaska,  Nevada,. 

90,000 

360,000 

4.00 

Total  bituminous 

341,639,113 

$400,550,951 

$1.17 

Anthracite 

Colorado 

50,000 

$155,000 

$3.10 

New  Mexico 

20,000 

70,000 

3.50 

Pennsylvania 

73,139,566 

166,083,003 

3.30 

Total  anthracite.. 

72,309,566 

$166,307,002 

$2.30 

Total  \ Sh.  Tons.. 

413,838,679 

$566,857,953 

$1.37 

Coal  (Met.  Tons. 

375,397,204 

1.51 

Salt  springs  abound  in  various  locali- 
ties, and  salt  is  produced  in  great  quan- 
tities in  New  York,  Virginia,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  Extensive 
beds  of  gypsum  are  found  in  New  York, 
Maine,  Virginia,  and  other  states,  and 
marble,  fine  granite,  sandstone,  por- 
phyry, etc.,  are  abundant.  A country 
like  the  United  States,  stretching  over 
such  a vast  latitude  and  having  such 
wide  areas  of  mountain  and  plain,  must 
necessarily  present  a great  variety  of 
climate.  Thus  the  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  123  inches  in  Washington  state  to 
6 inches  in  Colorado;  while  the  mean 
annual  temperature,  which  is  69°  in 
Florida,  is  41°  in  Wyoming.  Along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  westerly  winds  pre- 
vail, while  on  the  Californian  coast  the 
winds  are  almost  steadily  southwest  or 
northwest.  The  climate,  taken  as  a 
whole,  is  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
forest  vegetation,  and  thickly-wooded 
regions  extend  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
from  Maine  to  Florida;  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  the  Cordilleran  ranges;  and 
in  the  Mississippi  basin.  In  these  areas 
the  more  important  hardwood  trees 
are  the  sugar-maple  and  soft-maple, 
oak  (in  several  varieties),  white  ash, 
chestnut,  birch,  hickory,  walnut,  elm, 
beech,  tulip-tree,  fir,  yellow  pine,  red- 
wood, and  cedar.  There  is  also  great 
variety  and  abundance  of  fruits,  both 
of  the  temperature  and  tropical  climates. 
Among  wild  animals  are  the  bison  or 
buffalo,  now  almost  extinct  in  a wild 
state,  the  moose  or  American  elk,  the 
prong-horned  antelope,  the  big-horned 
or  Rocky  mountain  sheep,  the  wapiti  or 
American  stag,  the  peccary,  the  cougar 
or  puma,  the  black  and  the  grizzly  bear, 
the  jaguar,  the  prairie  wolf,  the  racoon. 


the  oppossum,  and  beaver.  Among  the  t 
birds  are  swans,  wild  turkeys,  wild 
geese,  wild  ducks,  eagles,  vultures,  i 
the  mocking-bird,  humming-birds,  etc. 
Among  reptiles  are  the  rattlesnake  and 
other  snakes,  turtles,  and  tortoises, 
alligators,  etc.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
arable  land  of  the  United  States  exceeds 
a million  and  a quarter  sq.  miles.  The  ' 
total  acreage  of  farms  is  nearly  900,-  •' 
000,000  acres.  The  total  value  of  the 
agricultural  and  horticultural  crops  in  . 
1907  was  $3,500,000,000  not  including 
live  stock,  the  toal  value  of  which  was 
over  $3,000,000,000. 

(See  pages  1272  and  1273  for  tables  ~ 
giving  the  production  of  cereal  crops  ^ 
by  states  and  farm  products  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1906.)  ' 

Immigration  into  the  United  States 
for  the  period  1900-1907: 


1900  448,-572 

1901  487,918 

1902  648,743 

1903  857,046 

1904  812,870 

1905  i 1,027,421 

1906. 1,100,735 

1907 1,285,349 


Total. 6.668,634 

1820tol899  19,316.593 

1789  to  1820  est 250,000 


26,234,237 

The  reported  occupations  of  immi- 
grants arriving  during  the  fiscal  year 
1907  were  as  follows:  Laborers,  291,141 ; 
servants,  121,587;  farm  laborers,  323,- 
854;  tailors,  30,644;  merchants  and 
dealers,  14,470;  carpenters,  20,656; 


IMMIGRATION  BY  COUNTRIES  IN  FISCAL  YEAR! 
1906  AND  1907. 


Countries 

1906 

1907 

Austria-Hungary 

265,138 

338.452 

6,396 

11. .3.59 
7.243 

Belgium 

5,099 

Bulgaria,  Servia  and 
Montenegro 

4,666 

Denmark  

7,741 

9,386 

37,564 

Prance,  including  Corsica. 
German  Empire 

9,731 

37,807 

Greece 

19,489 

36,580 

Italy,  including  Sicily  and 

Sardinia 

Netherlands 

273,120 

'4,946 

285,731 

6,637 

Norway 

21,730 

22,133 

Portugal,  inc.  Cape  Verde 
and  Azore  Islands 

8.517 

9,608 

Roumania 

4,476 

4,384 

Russian  Empire,  and 
Finland 

215,665 

258,943 

Spain  including  Canary 
and  Balearic  Islands 

1,921 

23,310 

5.784 

20,.589. 

Switzerland 

3,846 

3.748 

Turkey  in  Europe 

9.510 

20,767 

England  .*. 

49,491 

56,637 

Ireland 

34,995 

34,.530 

Scotland 

15,866 

19.740 

Wales  

1,841 

2.660 

Other  Europe 

48 

107 

Total  Europe 

1,018.365 

1,199,.566 

China  

1,.544 

961 

Japan 

13,8a5 

30,226 

India  

216 

898 

Turkey  in  Asia 

6,354 

8,053 

Other  'Asia 

351 

386 

Total  Asia 

22,300 

40.524 

Africa 

712 

TJsi 

Australia,  Tasmania,  and 
New  Zealand 

1,682 

1,941 

Pacific  Isis.,  not  specified . 

British  North  America 

Central  America 

51 

5,063 

1,140 

42 

19,918 

935 

Mexico 

1.997 

1,406 

Soutli  America 

2.7,57 

2.779 

West  Indies.  

13,656 

16,689 

Other  Countries 

33,012 

22 

Grand  Total 

1,100,735 

1,285,349 

UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


shoemakers,  13,059;  clerks,  11,980; 
mariners,  7270;  miners,  11,452.  The 
number  of  professional  immigrants  (in- 
cluding 822  actors,  2433  engineers, 
1114  musicians,  and  1673  teachers)  was 
12,600;  of  skilled  laborers,  190,315;  mis- 
cellaneous (including unskilled),  777,725, 
no  occupation  (including  children), 
304,709. 

Owing  to  the  great  difficulty  in  ob- 
taining accurate  statements  of  the  im- 
migrants from  the  contiguous  countries 
of  Canada  and  Mexico,  no  statistics  of 
immigration  into  the  United  States  of 
citizens  of  those  countries  are  gathered 
by  the  Bureau  of  Immigration.  The 
constant  ebb  and  flow  of  persons  enter- 
ing and  leaving  the  United  States  from 
and  to  Mexico  and  Canada,  at  the  numer- 
ous points  where  such  movements  can 
be  conveniently  made,  renders  accurate 
statements  on  this  subject  extremely 
difficult,  and  the  Bureau  of  Immigration 
in  its  annual  report  for  1902  states  that 
“the  immigrants  do  not  include  arrivals 
from  the  neighboring  countries  of 
Mexico  and  Canada  except  such  as  come 
from  abroad  through  ports  in  these 
countries  for  the  avowed  purpose  of 
entering  the  United  States.”  The  facts, 
however,  that  the  census  of  1900  shows 
the  presence  of  1,183,225  persons  in  the 
United  States  born  in  Canada  and 
103,445  persons  born  in  Mexico  proves 
that  the  number  of  arrivals  from  those 
countries,  proper  to  be  considered  as 
immigrants,  must  be  large. 

The  average  farm  is  146  acres. 
Among  cultivated  crops  the  most  im- 
portant are  wheat,  the  great  staple  of  the 
western  and  middle  states;  corn,  most 
productive  in  the  middle  states;  to- 
bacco, a staple  in  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
Maryland,  and  Tennessee;  cotton,  a 
staple  in  Texas,  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
Georgia,  and  the  Carolinas;  barley,  oats, 
rye,  sugar,  hemp,  flax,  potatoes,  and  hay. 

The  following  table  shows  the  tobac- 
co production  by  states  for  the  year 
1905: 


States 

Product, 

Pounds 

Acre- 

age, 

Acres, 

Farm 

Value 

Kentucky 

28,975,420 

275,874 

$16,028,279 

North  Carolina. .. 

83,156,160 

136,770 

7,317,742 

Virginia  

79,951,725 

118,447 

6,076,331 

Wisconsin 

53,832,780 

39,294 

6,383,278 

Ohio  

50,344,650 

59,229 

4,228,951 

Tennessee 

31,873,536 

41,502 

2,390,515 

Connecticut. 

23,011,500 

13,340 

3,911,955 

Pennsylvania 

20,993,880 

15,324 

2,267,339 

Maryiand 

19,592,950 

30,143 

1,175,577 

South  Carolina. .. 

9,254,464 

12,574 

805,138 

Massachusetts 

8,302,800 

4,488 

1,403,173 

New  York. 

7,061,348 

6,151 

741,442 

Indiana 

5,113,836 

6,244 

306,830 

Florida. 

. 3,192,600 

5,321 

674,668 

West  Virginia 

3,163,950 

4,005 

268,936 

Other  States 

5.211,920 

7,406 

638,714 

Total  U.  S 

633,033.719 

776,112 

$53,519,068 

In  the  same  year  the  production  of  other 
states  than  those  above  reported  was,  in 
pounds:  New  Hampshire,  212,500;  Vermont, 
315,150;  Georgia,  1,068,900;  Missouri,  1,295,370; 
Alabama,  234,450;  Mississippi,  66,650;  Louisi- 
ana, 31,500;  Texas,  234,500;  Arkansas,  734,300; 
Illinois,  1,018,800. 

The  most  remarkable  development  of 
any  phase  of  American  agriculture  is  in 
fruit  culture.  This  industry  has  almost 
doubled  in  magnitude.  The  number  of 
orchard  trees  has  increased  from  193,- 


THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  GIVES  THE  PRODUCTION  OP  ORES,  MINERALS, 
SECONDARY  MINERALS  AND  CHEMICALS  FOR  THE  YEAR  1906. 


Products 

Measures 

1906 

Quantity 

Value 

Antimony  ore 

Sh.  T. 

295 

$44,250 

Asbestos 

Sh.  T. 

1,695 

20,565 

Asphaltum  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

116,653 

1,066,019 

Barytes 

Sh.  T. 

63,486 

252,719 

Bauxite 

L.  T. 

78,331 

352.490 

Chrome  ore 

L.  T. 

180 

1,800 

Coal,  anthracite 

Sh.  T. 

72,209,566 

166,307,002 

Coal,  bituminous 

Sh.  T. 

341,629.113 

400,550,951 

Diatomaceous  earth 

Sh.  T. 

Emery 

Sh.  T. 

2,i47 

22,78C 

Feldspar  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

72,656 

401,531 

Flint  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

66,697 

243.012 

Fluorspar 

Sh.  T. 

34,683 

201,481 

Fuller’s  earth 

Sh.  T. 

28,000 

237,950 

Garnet 

Sh.  T. 

5,404 

179,548 

Graphite,  amorphous 

Sh.  T. 

16,853 

102,175 

Graphite,  crystalline 

Lb. 

4,894,483 

170,866 

Gypsum  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

1,540,585 

3,837,975 

Iron  ore 

L.  T. 

49,237,129 

107.091,574 

Limestone  flux 

L.  T. 

15,486,139 

7,339,125 

Magnetite  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

7,805 

23,415 

Manganese  ore 

L.  T. 

(u)  141,681 

306,993 

Mica,  sheet  (u) 

Lb. 

1,423,100 

252,248 

Mica,  scrap  (u) 

Sh.  T. 

1,489 

22,742 

Monazite  (u) 

Lb. 

486,175 

152,312 

Petroleum,  crude 

Bbl.  (i) 

131,771.505 

80,277,279 

Phosphate  rock 

L.  T. 

2,052,742 

12,342,741 

Pumice 

Sh.  T. 

12,200 

16,750 

Pyrites 

L.  T. 

225.045 

767,866 

Sh.  T. 

Salt  (m) 

Bbl.  (fc) 

28,172,380 

6,658,350 

Sand,  glass 

Sh.  T. 

1,089,430 

1.208,788 

Slate,  rooflng 

Squares  (/) 

1,214,742 

5.668,346 

Sh.  T. 

Sulphur 

L.  T. 

285,000 

6,056,250 

Talc,  common 

Sh.  T. 

58,972 

874,356 

Talc,  fibrous 

Sh.  T. 

64.200 

541,600 

Tungsten  ore 

Sh.  T. 

1,096 

442,784 

268,070 

Zinc  ore 

Sh.  T. 

905.175 

17.250,420 

8821.555,123 

SECONDARY  MINERALS  AND  CHEMICALS. 


Alimdum 

Lb. 

4,331,233 

$303,186 

Ammonium  sulphate 

Sh.  T. 

75,000 

4,674,750 

Arsenic 

Lb. 

1,663,000 

83,150 

Borax .* 

Sh.  T 

58,173 

1,182,410 

Bromine 

Lb. 

1,229,000 

184,350 

Carborundum 

Lb. 

6,225,280 

622,528 

Cement,  nat.  hyd.  (u) 

Bbl.  (g) 

3,935,151 

2,362,140 

Cement.  Portland  ( u) 

Bbl.  (h) 

46,610,822 

51,240,652 

Cement,  slag  (u) 

Bbl.  (h) 

. 481,224 

412,912 

Coke 

Sh.  T. 

32,690,362 

86,887,392 

Copper  sulphate  (c) 

Lb. 

50,925,932 

3.157,408 

Copperas 

Sh.  T. 

22,839 

228,390 

Crushed  steel 

Lb. 

837.000 

58,590 

Graphite,  artificial 

Lb. 

4,868,000 

312,764 

Lead,  white 

Sh.  T. 

123,640 

15.234,297 

Lead,  sublimed  white 

Sd.  T. 

7,988 

798,880 

Lead,  red 

Sh.  T. 

13,693 

1,874,448 

Lead,  orange  mineral 

Sh.  T. 

2,927 

421,488 

Litharge 

Sh.  T. 

13,816 

1,890,050 

Mineral  wool 

Sh.  T. 

6,357 

55,550 

Zinc  oxide  (m) 

Sh.  T. 

77,800 

6,257,361 

$178,242,696 

Aluminum 

Antimony 

Copper 

Ferromanganese  (g) 

Gold  (fine) 

Iron  (pig) 

Lead 

Nickel  (s) 

Platinum 

Quicksilver 

Silver  (fine) 

Zinc 

Lb. 

Lb. 

Lb. 

L.  T. 
Troy  oz. 

L.  T. 

Sh.  T. 

Sh.  T. 
Troy  oz. 
Flasks,  (o) 
Troy  oz. 

Sh.  T. 

14,350,000 

5,856,000 

917.620.000 

300,500 

4,648.385 

25,006,691 

345,529 

7,150 

1,439 

28,293 

66.183,500 

225,494 

$5,166,000 

1,272,509 

180,000,339 

24,040,000 

96,101,400 

453,871,441 

39,093,151 

6,360,640 

45,189 

1,157,184 

37,525,521 

27,961,256 

Total  metals 

$872,514,630 

Total  ores  and  minerals 

821,655,123 

Secondary  products 

178,242,696 

Grand  total  enumerated 

$1,872,312,449 

(c)  Includes  sulphate  made  from  metallic  copper,  (d)  includes  manganiferous  iron  ore.  (e) 
Estimated,  (f)  One  “sq^uare”  covers  100  square  feet,  (g)  Barrels  of  265  lbs.  (h)  Barrels  of  380 
lbs.  (i)  Barrels  of  42  gallons,  (fc)  Includes  salt  used  in  manufacture  of  alkali;  the  barrel  of  salt 
weighs  280  lbs.  (m)  Includes  a small  quantity  made  from  spelter,  (o)  Flasks  of  75  lbs. 
(q)  Includes  spiegeleisen,  though  the  value  is  given  as  for  ferromanganese,  (s)  Includes  nickel 
from  Canadian  ores  smelted  in  the  United  States,  (t)  Barrels  of  330  lbs.  (u)  Figures  reported 
by  the  United  States  Geographical  survey,  (w)  Excludes  Lake  Superior  manganiferous  iron 
‘ ore  which  is  included  in  iron  ore  proper. 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


452,588  to  387,164,694  (not  including 
Bub-tropical  varieties).  Most  varieties 
of  temperate  zone  fruits  are  grown  in 
every  state.  The  use  of  refrigerator  cars 
has  made  it  possible  to  transport  fruits 
long  distances,  and  thus  all  parts  of  the 
country  have  the  advantage  of  the 
general  market.  However,  climatic 
differences  tend  to  localize.  From  the 
following  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
apple  has  a decided  primacy  among 
American  fruits; 


Fruits 


Apples 

Peaches  and  nectarines 

Pears. 

Plums  and  prunes 

Cherries 

Apricots 

Total 


Trees 


211,794,764 

104,919,428 

19,716,184 

32,780,892 

12,943,287 

5,010,139 

387,164,694 


The  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States 
in  1906-7  was  as  follows: 


States 


North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas. 

Arkansas. 

Tennessee 

All  Others 

Total  Crop 


1906-07 

Bales 


The  culture  of  the  vine  has  made  great 
progress,  chiefly  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania, 
Indiana,  North  Carolina,  Missouri,  and 
especially  California.  The  forest  area 
(exclusive  of  Alaska)  is  estimated  at 
about  500,000,000  acres,  about  seven- 
tenths  being  on  the  Atlantic  side,  one- 
tenth  on  the  Pacific,  one-tenth  on  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  one-tenth  in  the 
interior  of  the  Western  States.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  timber  cut  annually  is 
pine,  and  the  remainder  oak  and 
other  hard  woods.  Horses  are  largely 
bred,  and  mules  and  asses  in  the  south- 
ern states.  The  total  number  and  value 
of  the  domestic  animals  in  the  United 
States  is  as  follows : 


THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  GIVES  THE  PRODUCTION  OP  THE  PRINCIPAL  CEREAL 
CROPS  BY  STATES  FOR  THE  YEAR  1906. 


States  and  Territories 

Oats 

Bdshels 

Corn 

Bushels 

Wheat 

Bushels 

Maine 

4,038,849 

456,950 

199,342 

New  Hampshire 

424,212 

2,862,726 

983,775 

2,005,430 

Vermont. .’ 

30,952 

Jlassachusetts 

214,472 

46,997 

341,179 

40,233,784 

1,778,520 

331,364 

2,223,800 

22,685,000 

Rhode  Island 

Connecticut 

New  York 

9,350,180 

New  Jersey 

1,662,819 

10,082,289 

2,033,002 

Pennsylvania 

31,816,496 

57,960,239 

29,073,188 

Delaware 

95,991 

5,894,160 

1,947,920 

Maryland 

808,584 

22,007,825 

12,902,416 

V'irginia 

2,858,634 

45,188.523 

9,306,825 

West  Virginia 

2,101,200 

22,725,000 

4,879,861 

North  Carolina 

3,169,724 

41,796,846 

5,297,028 

South  Carolina 

3,538,292 

23,611,233 

2,960,041 

Georgia 

3,362,291 

52,066,596 

3,161,070 

Florida 

394,240 

48,280,000 

6,875,000 

141,645,000 

Oliio 

43,202,100 

50,196,000 

183,893,767 

48,080,925 

Illinois 

107,763,500 

347,169,585 

38,535,900 

Michigan 

43,747,500 

54,575,000 

13,644,960 

Wisconsin 

91,630,000 

60,106,732 

4,690,816 

Minnesota ■ 

72,011,160 

50,149,277 

55,801,591 

Iowa 

140,777,000 

373,275,000 

9,212,218 

Missouri 

14,685,503 

228,522,500 

31,734,900 

North  Dokota 

40,485,608 

4,170,000 

77,896,000 

South  Dokata 

46,410,000 

62,812,500 

41,955,400 

Nebraska 

72,275,000 

249,782,500 

52,288,692 

Kansas 

24,780,000 

195,075,000 

81,830,611 

Kentucky 

4.430,354 

105,437,376 

11,542,598 

Tennessee 

3,151,320 

86,428,912 

10,892,725 

3,167,879 

47,849,392 

1,085,029 

Mississippi 

1,626,732 

40,789,207 

17,610 

Louisiana 

486,227 

31,822,512 

26,217,633 

155,804,782 

Texas 

14,126,186 

Indian  Territory 

7,446,571 

68,493,264 

2,890,188 

12,040,000 

65,737,326 

18,663.862 

Arkansas 

3,783,706 

52,802,569 

1,915,250 

Montana 

8,501,846 

93,132 

3,297.336 

Wyoming 

1,979,068 

68,256 

871,102 

Colorado 

5,962,394 

424,507 

3,157,136 

1,182,203 

8,266,538 

1,120,650 

New  Mexico 

Arizona 

31,442 

220,129 

391,658 

Utah  

2,053,900 

356,032 

4,888,626 

Nevada 

252,898 

4,390,065 

869,526 

8,231,631 

Idaho 

148,037 

Washington 

7,463,534 

288,389 

25,075,258 

Oregon 

9,621,508 

499,091 

14,215.597 

California 

5,156,298 

1,994,814 

26,883,662 

Total  bushels 

964,904,522 

2,927,416,091 

735.260,970 

Total  acres 

30,958,768 

96,737,581 

47.305,829 

Value 

$306,292,978 

$1,166,626,479 

$490,332,760 

Yield  per  acre 

31.2 

30.3 

15.5 

Farm  price 

31.7 

39.9 

66.7 

Island,  Connecticut,  and  New  York;  the 
woolen  manufacture  chiefly  in  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  Connecticut,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island 
Vermont  and  Ohio;  and  the  most  im- 
portant centers  of  the  iron  industry 
are  Philadelphia,  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati, 
New  York,  Baltimore,  and  St.  Louis. 
Besides  these,  all  ordinary  manufac- 


Domestic  Animals 

Total 

On  Farms  and  Ranges 

Not  on  Farms  or 
Ranges 

Number  1 Value 

Number 

Value 

Number 

Est.  Value 

All  Domestic  Animals. . 

$3,193,856,459 

$2,979,197,586 

$214,658,873 

Neat  cattle,  cows,  bulls,  &c. 

Horses  and  colts 

Mules 

Asses  and  burros 

Sheep  and  lambs 

Swine 

Goats 

69,335,832  $1,516,307,270 

21,203,901  1,050,526,967 

3,438,523  207,274,557 

110,012  6,776,583 

61,735,014  170,881,743 

64,686,1.55'  238,686,872 

1,948,952  3,402,467 

67,719,410 

18,367,020 

3,264,615 

94,1® 

61,503,713 

62,868,041 

1,870,599 

$1,475,204,633 

896,513,217 

196,223,053 

5,811,184 

170,203,119 

231,978,031 

3,2®,349 

1,616,432 

2,936,881 

173,908 

15,847 

231,301 

1,818,114 

78,853 

$41,101,637 
154,013,750 
11,053,504 
9®, 399 
678,634 
6,708,841 
137,118 

Horned  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised 
in  great  numbers,  hog-rearing  forms  an 
important  industry,  and  immense  quan- 
tities of  cheese  and  butter  are  made. 
The  staple  manufactures  are  cottons, 
woolens,  iron  and  steel  and  articles  in  iron 
and  steel,  other  important  occupations 
being  those  connected  with  clothing  and 
boots  and  shoes,  furniture,  lumbering, 
flour-milling,  meat-packing,  etc.  The 
cotton  manufacture  is  carried  on  chiefly 
in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode 


tures  are  making  very  rapid  progress. 
The  foreign  trade  is  very  large,  the  im- 
ports in  1907  being  valued  at  $1,591,- 
878,298,  the  exports  at  $1,988,989,337. 
The  most  important  single  export  is 
raw  cotton,  the  value  annually  being 
about  $500,000,000.  The  other  chief 
exports  consist  principally  of  agricul- 
tural and  dairy  products,  including 
wheat,  flour,  corn,  butter,  cheese;  and 
animal  food,  in  the  form  of  pickled  pork, 
bacon,  hams,  beef,  canned  fish,  ana  live 


cattle.  Other  important  exports  are 
mineral  oil,  tobacco,  sugar,  fruits,  tar, 
pitch,  rosin,  and  turpentine ; tallow  and 
hides,  lard,  hops,  oil-cake,  clover  seed, 
copper  and  copper  ore,  skins  and  furs. 
The  more  important  manufactured 
exports  are  cotton  goods,  cotton  twist, 
iron  and  articles  in  iron,  articles  in  wood, 
leather,  boots,  and  shoes,  agricultural 
implements,  cutlery,  etc.  The  value 
of  bread-stuffs  exported  in  1907  was 
$168,222,482;  raw  cotton,  $481,277,797: 
provisions,  $202,392,508;  manufactured 
and  unmanufactured  iron  and  steel, 
$181,530,871;  tobacco,  leaf  and  manu- 
factured, $39,113,011;  petroleum,  $78,- 
228,819;  wood  and  wooden  manufac- 
tures, $83,349,575.  The  total  exports  to 
Great  Britain  in  1907  amounted  to 
$607,783,255.  The  fisheries,  in  addition 
to  dried  fish  and  oysters,  furnish  ex- 
ports of  whale  and  other  fish  oil,  sper- 
maceti, whalebone,  etc.  There  is  also  a 
large  export  of  gold  in  the  forms  both  of 
coin  and  bullion.  Among  the  principal 
articles  of  import  are  sugar,  valued  at 
$92,806,253;  coffee,  $78,231,902;  wool 
and  woolen  manufactures,  $63,855,265; 
raw  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  $110,- 
045,150;  cotton  goods,  $73,704,636; 
chemicals,  dyes,  etc.,  $82,997,914;  hides 
and  skins,  $83,206,545;  fruit,  including 
nuts,  $35,807,527.  The  value  of  the 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


THE  FOLLOWING  TABLE  GIVES  THE  FARM  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  FOR  THE  YEAR  1906. 


Crop 


Animals 

Apples 

Apricots 

Beans,  Castor 

Beans.  Dry 

Bees 

Broom  Corn 

Butter 

Cereals  (b)  (1) 

Cheese 

Chicory 

Cider 

Cotton 

Cotton  Seed 

Flaxseed 

Flowers.  Plants 

Forest  Products. . . 

Fruits,  small 

Fruits,  sub-tropical 

Grapes 

Hay 

Hemp 

Honey  (e) 

Hops 

Milk  (1) 

Molasses 

Nursery  products.. . 

Nuts  (!) 

Onions 

Orchard  products... 
Peaches  and  Nect.. 

Peanuts 

Pears 

Peas,  dry 

Plums  and  Primes. . 

Potatoes,  Irish 

Potatoes,  sweet 

Rice  [cleaned] 

Seeds,  Clover 

Seeds.  Flax 

Seeds,  Grass 

Sugar.  Beet 

Sugar,  Cane 

Sugar,  Maple 

Syrup,  Cane 

Syrup.  Maple 

Syrup.  Sorghum. . . . 

Tobacco 

Vegetables,  Mis 

Wool 


Year 

Unit  of 
Measure 

Quantity 

Value 

1907 

Number 

204,131.992 

$4,423,697,853 

Census 

Bush 

175,397,60C 

(a) 

Census 

Bush 

2,642,128 

(a) 

Census 

Bush 

143,388 

134,084 

Census 

Bush 

5.064,49C 

7.633,636 

Census 

Swarms 

4,109,62( 

10,186,513 

Census 

Pounds.  . . . 

90.947.37( 

3,688,414 

1905 

Pounds 

531,478,141 

113,189,452 

1906 

Bush 

4.854,514,837 

(h)  2,065,886,900 

1905 

Pounds 

317,144,872 

28,611,760 

Census 

Pounds 

21,495,870 

73.627 

Census 

Barrels 

1,754.927 

(a) 

1906 

Pounds.  . . . 

6,351,107.861 

640,311,538 

1905 

Tons 

5,060,205 

(c)  75,564,041 

1906 

Bush 

25,576,146 

(h)  25,899,165 

Census 

18.758.864 

109.864.774 

Census 

25,029,757 

Census 

8,227,838 

Census 

Central 

13,009,841 

(d)  14,090,234 

1906 

Tons 

57,145,950 

(h)  592,539,671 

Census 

Pounds 

11,750,630 

646.338 

Census 

Pounds 

62,862.885 

6.656,611 

Census 

Pounds 

49,200,704 

4,081,929 

Census 

7,265.804,304 

Census 

Gallons 

6,312,809 

788,990 

Census 

10,123,873 

1.949.931 

Census 

Bush 

11,790,974 

6,637.413 

Census 

Bush 

212.365,600 

(g)  83,750,961 

Census 

Bush 

15,432,603 

(a) 

Census 

Bush 

11,964,109 

7,270.515 

Census 

Bush 

6,626,417 

(a) 

Census 

Bush 

9,440,210 

7,908,966 

Census 

Bush 

8,764,032 

(a) 

1906 

Bush 

308,038.382 

(h)  157,547,392 

Census 

Bush 

42.517,412 

19,869,840 

1906 

Pounds 

495.966.800 

(j)  12,955.748 

Census 

Bush 

1,349,209 

6,395,578 

Census 

Bush 

19,979.492 

19,624,901 

Census 

Bush 

3,515.869 

2.808,839 

1906 

Pounds 

967,223,040 

(k)  23,895,781 

1906 

Pounds 

514.320,000 

(k)  28.804.608 

Census 

Pounds 

11,928,770 

1,074,260 

Census 

Gallons.  . . . 

12,293,032 

4,293.475 

Census 

Gallons 

2,056,611 

1,662,451 

Census 

Gallons 

16.972,783 

6,288,083 

1906 

Pounds 

862,428,530 

(h)  68,232,647 

Census 

113.644,398 

1906 

Pounds 

298,915,130 

129,410.942 

(a)  Included  in  orchard  products,  (b)  Not  including  rice,  (c)  Based  on  average  price  paid 
by  crushers,  (d)  Including  value  of  raisins,  wine.  etc.  (e)  Including  wax.  (f)  Not  including 
peanuts,  (g)  Including  value  of  cider,  vinegar,  etc.  (h)  December  1,  1906.  (i)  $472,276,783. 

was  the  aggregate  value  of  milk,  butter  and  cheese  by  the  census  of  1900.  (j)  Value  of  product 

in  190,5.  (k)  Value  of  product  in  1905,  based  on  the  export  value  of  refined.  (1)  Estimated 

1907  corn  crop  2,553,732,000  bushels. 


The  census  of  1900  gave  the  following  farm  statistics  for  the  United  States:  Farms,  total 
number,  5,739,657 ; value  of  farm  property,  $20,514,001,838;  land  and  improvements,  $13,114,- 
492,056;  buildings,  $3,660,198,191;  implements  and  machinery,  $761,261,550;  live  stock, 
$3,078,050,041;  expenditures  in  1899  for  labor,  $365,305,921;  for  fertilizers.  $54,783,757; 
number  of  farms  operated  by  owners.  3.713,371;  by  cash  tenants.  752.920;  by  share  tenants, 
1,273,366;  by  white  persons,  4,970,129;  by  negroes.  746.717.  Value  of  farm  products  in  1907, 
estimated  by  commissioner  of  agriculture,  $7,412,000,000. 


consists  of  two  members  from  each  state 
elected  by  its  own  legislature  for  six 
years,  one-third  of  the  whole  body  being 
renewable  biennially.  The  house  of 
representatives  consists  of  members 
chosen  for  two  years  by  the  people  of 
the  several  states,  in  numbers  propor- 
tioned to  their  population  as  ascer- 
tained by  the  decennial  census.  At 
present  it  is  composed  of  386  members, 
or  one  member  for  194,182  inhabitants. 
In  addition  to  the  representatives  from 
the  states,  the  house  admits  a “delegate” 
from  each  organized  Territory,  who  has 
the  right  to  speak  on  subjects  in  which 
his  territory  is  interested,  but  is  not 
entitled  to  vote.  The  salary  of  a senator, 
representative,  or  delegate  is  $7,500 
with  traveling  expenses.  Congress  meets 
at  least  once  a year,  on  the  first  Mon- 
day of  December,  and  its  leading 
powers  are  to  levy  taxes,  duties,  im- 
posts, excises;  to  pay  the  debts  and  pro- 
vide for  the  common  defense  and  gen- 
eral welfare  of  the  Union,  to  regulate 
commerce  with  foreign  nations  and 
among  the  several  states,  to  coin  money, 
declare  war,  raise  and  maintain  an  army 
and  navy,  etc.  It  is  forbidden  to  the 
federal  government,  among  other  things, 
to  tax  exports,  to  grant  any  title  of 
nobility,  or  to  give  commercial  prefer- 
ence to  the  ports  of  one  state  over  those 
of  another.  The  executive  is  vested  in  a 
president  chosen  for  four  years,  but 
eligible  for  re-election.  The  electors 
who  vote  for  the  president  are  chosen 
by  each  state,  in  such  manner  as  its 
legislature  may  provide,  and  are  in  this 
capacity  known  as  the  electoral  college. 
The  president  and  vice-president  are 
chosen  by  the  majority  of  this  college, 
and  in  the  case  of  an  equality  of  votes 
the  president  is  chosen  by  the  house  of 
representatives,  and  the  vice-president 
by  the  sentate.  The  president,  who 
must  be  a native-born  citizen,  and  who 
receives  a salary  of  $50,000  yearly,  has 
the  power,  in  concurrence  with  two- 
thirds  of  the  senate,  to  make  treaties, 
appoint  civil  and  military  officers,  levy 
war,  conclude  peace,  etc.  He  has  even  a 
veto  on  the  laws  passed  by  congress,  at 
least  until  they  have  received  the  assent 
of  two-thirds  of  both  houses.  The  vice- 


total imports  from  Great  Britain  in 
1907  was  $246,112,047.  The  internation- 
al commerce  of  the  United  States  is  at 
present  mainly  carried  in  foreign  bot- 
toms, while  previous  to  the  year  1860 
from  75  to  80  per  cent  was  carried  by 
vessels  belonging  to  the  United  States. 
Of  American  vessels  engaged  in  the 
foreign  trade  the  aggregate  tonnage  in 
1907  was  861,466;  in  the  coasting  trade, 
6,010,601  tons.  Including  lake  boats, 
etc.,  the  total  burden  of  American  ship- 
ping is  6,938,794  tons.  The  internal 
commerce  is  largely  facilitated  by  rivers, 
lakes,  and  canals.  In  1907,  225,000  miles 
of  railway,  265,000  miles  of  telegraph 
line,  and  4,778,282  miles  of  telephone 
wire  were  in  operation.  The  weights  and 
measures  are  the  same  as  those  of  Great 
Britain;  but  the  old  Winchester  wine 
gallon,  equal  to  .833  of  an  imperial  gal- 
lon, the  ale  gallon  equal  to  1.01695 
imperial  gallon,  and  the  Winchester 
bushel,  equal  to  .9692  of  an  inaperial 
bushel,  are  used  instead  of  the  imperial 
standards,  and  a cental  of  IQO  Ids.  is 


used  instead  of  the  cwt.  Accounts  are 
kept  in  dollars,  cents  or  hundredths  and 
mills  or  thousandths  of  a dollar.  The 
currency  is  partly  in  paper  and  partly 
in  specie.  Gold  is  coined  in  double 
eagles  = 20  dollars,  eagles  = 10  dollars, 
half -eagles,  quarter -eagles,  and  dol- 
lars. Silver  is  coined  in  dollars,  half- 
dollars,  quarters,  dimes,  or  10  cents, 
half  - dimes.  The  only  copper  coins 
are  cents.  The  government  of  the 
United  States  is  a federal  republic  based 
on  the  constitution  of  1787,  drawn  up 
by  delegates  from  the  thirteen  original 
states,  and  subsequently  amended.  The 
constitution  and  modes  of  administra- 
tion of  the  individual  states  bear  a close 
resemblance  to  each  other.  Each  state 
maintains  its  independence,  and  by 
means  of  a state  legislature  and  execu- 
tive (vested  in  a governor)  has  complete 
management  of  its  own  affairs.  The 
combined  states  have  one  supreme  legis- 
lature, which  takes  the  name  of  con- 
gress, and  consists  of  a senate  and  a 
house  of  representatives.  The  senate 


president,  who  has  a salary  of  $12,000 
presides  in  the  senate,  and  in  case  of 
death  or  permanent  disability  suc- 
ceeds the  president.  The  business  of  the 
executive  is  administered  by  the  secre- 
tary of  state,  secretary  of  war,  secretary 
of  the  navy,  secretary  of  the  treasury, 
postmaster-general,  secretary  of  the 
interior,  attorney-general,  and  secretary 
of  agriculture,  secretary  of  commerce 
and  labor,  each  of  whom  has  an  annual 
salary  of  $12,000  and  holds  office 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  president. 
The  judicial  powers  of  the  Union  are 
vested  in  a supreme  court,  presided 
over  by  a chief  justice  and  eight  asso- 
ciate judges,  which  each  state  appoints 
its  own  local  judges.  The  powers  to 
enact  municipal  laws,  that  is,  all  laws 
which  concern  each  state  directly  and 
immediately,  are  among  the  reserved 
rights  of  the  state;  but  they  cannot 
make  treaties,  coin  money,  impose 
duties,  emit  bills  of  credit,  make  agree- 
ments, with  each  other  or  with  a foreign 
power,  nor  pass  any  bill  impairing  th? 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


obligation  of  contracts.  The  general 
government  derives  its  revenues  chiefly 
from  duties  on  imports  and  taxes  on 
spirits,  tobacco,  banks,  etc.  In  1860  the 
public  debt  was  only  $63,452,773.55; 
but  during  the  civil  war  (1861-65)  it 
increased  to  $2,773,263,173.69.  In 
1906  it  was  $2,429,370,043.  The  public 
revenue  in  1906  amounted  to  $694,621,- 
000,  the  expenditure  to  $460,323,000. 
The  largest  items  of  expenditure  are 
pensions,  the  civil  service,  army  and 
navy.  It  is  enacted  by  congress  that 
there  shall  be  no  more  than  100,000 
enlisted  men  at  one  time,  the  term  of 
service  being  three  years.  The  army  in 
active  service  as  now  organized  under 
the  act  of  congress  of  February  2,  1901, 
comprises  15  regiments  of  cavalry,  750 
officers  and  13,020  enlisted  men;  an 
artillery  corps,  30  batteries  of  field 
artillery  and  126  companies  of  coast 
artillery,  651  officers  and  18,166  en- 
listed men;  30  regiments  of  infantry, 
1500  officers  and  25,649  enlisted  men;  3 
battalions  of  engineers,  1294  enlisted 
men,  commanded  by  officers  detailed 
from  the  corps  of  engineers;  staff  corps, 
military,  academy,  Indian  scouts,  re- 
cruits, etc.,  4387  enlisted  men ; also  a pro- 
visional force  consisting  of  one  regiment 
in  Porto  Rico,  31  officers  and  554  native 
enlisted  men,  and  50  companies  of  native 
scouts  in  the  Philippines,  116  officers 
and  about  5000  enlisted  men.  The  total 
number  of  commissioned  officers,  staff 
and  line,  on  the  active  list,  is  3869,  and 
the  total  enlisted  strength  staff  and  line  is 
62,516  , exclusive  of  the  provisional  force 
and  the  hospital  corps.  Each  state  has  a 
militia,  of  which  the  aggregate  nominal 
strength  is  about  6^  millions.  The  navy 
comprises  28  first-class  battle-ships,  22 
coast  defense  ships,  50  cruisers,  42  gun- 
boats, 57  torpedo  craft,  etc.  In  1907  the 
war  department  expenditure  was  set 
down  at  $101,671,881 ; that  of  the  navy 
at  $97,606,595.  There  is,  throughout 
the  country,  no  uniform  system  of  edu- 
cation, the  organization  and  manage- 
ment of  the  “common”  or  state-sup- 
ported public  schools  being  left  to  each 
state,  while  considerable  control  is  also 
given  to  the  local  authority.  These  com- 
mon schools,  which  in  rural  neighbor- 
hoods are  called  district  schools,  are 
usually  public  eletiientary  schools,  but 
in  some  states  they  include  the  higher 
grades.  To  maintain  these  common 
schools  the  government  makes  no  direct 
appropriation  of  moneys,  this  being 
supplied  by  each  state  through  the  state 
legislature  directly,  from  local  taxation, 
or  from  the  sale  of  public  domains  set 
apart  as  a permanent  school  fund.  At- 
tendance on  elementary  schools  is  com- 
pulsory in  many  states,  but  not  in  all. 
In  1904-05  there  was  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  11,481,531  pupils  (out  of 
16,468,300  enrolled)  in  common  schools 
and  350,099  in  high  schools.  The  higher 
education  is  provided  in  numerous 
colleges  and  universities.  In  addition 
there  are  special  colleges  for  theology, 
law,  medicine,  the  higher  education  of 
women,  etc.  The  constitution  of  the 
states  grants  perfect  equality  to  all 
creeds,  and  nearly  all  the  sects  and  relig- 
ious denominations  existing  in  Europe 
are  represented.  In  1906  there  were  in 
all  182,731  churches  belonging  to  the 


various  Protestant  bodies,  and  11,814 
Roman  Catholic  churches;  140,215  Prot- 
estant ministers,  and  14,104  Roman 
Catholic  clergy.  The  Roman  Catholics 
were  returned  at  12,651,944  in  1906, 
the  numbers  of  other  bodies  being 
given  as  follows:  Methodists,  6,429,815; 
Baptists,  4,974,047;  Presbyterians, 
1,723,871 ; Lutherans,  1,841,346;  Protes- 
tant Episcopal,  827,127;  Congregation- 
al, 687,042;  Reformed  church,  405, 
022;  United  Brethren,  274,012;  total 
Protestants  about  20,000,000  mem- 
bers or  communicants.  There  are  300,- 
000  Mormons  and  143,000  Jews.  The 
first  English  colonies  within  the  limits 
of  the  Union  were  settled  by  two  char- 
tered companies,  called  the  Plymouth 
company  and  the  London  company.  By 
the  latter  an  expedition  was  sent  out  in 
1607,  and  a settlement  was  made  at 
Jamestown,  in  the  present  state  of  Vir- 
ginia, while  the  Plymouth  company 
established  a colony  on  Massachusetts 
bay.  Other  settlers  continuing  to  arrive 
a colonial  assembly  was  for  the  first 
time  convened  in  1619.  At  this  time  the 
foundation  of  the  colonies  of  New  Eng- 
land was  laid  by  the  “pilgrim  fathers,”  a 
body  of  Puritans  numbering  100  who 
sailed  from  England  in  the  Mayflower, 
and  landed  in  1620  in  Massachusetts 
bay,  where  they  established  themselves. 
Then  another  colony  was  founded  in 
1628  at  Salem,  and  in  1630  still  another 
was  established  in  Boston.  Rhode  Island 
was  first  settled  at  Providence  in  1636 
by  Roger  Williams,  who  had  been  driven 
from  Massachusetts  for  his  religious 
and  political  opinions.  The  states  of 
Maryland  and  Virginia  were  colonized 
chiefly  by  English  Roman  Catholics  and 
royalist  refugees,  while  the  central  states 
were,  to  a great  extent,  settled  by  Dutch 
and  Swedes.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
enter  into  details  of  the  origin  and 
progress  of  the  different  states  now 
composing  the  Union.  The  most  re- 
markable events  of  the  colonial  period 
were  those  connected  with  the  wars 
which  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies 
were  obliged  to  wage  with  France,  and 
which  terminated  in  the  cession  of 
Canada,  etc.,  to  Great  Britain  in  1763 
by  the  Peace  of  Paris  at  the  close  of  the 
Seven  Years’ war.  No  sooner  was  this 
peace  concluded  than  the  British  parlia- 
ment resolved  to  increase  the  revenue 
by  a general  stamp-duty  through  all  the 
American  colonies.  Accordingly,  the 
Stamp  Act  of  1765  was  passed;  but  this, 
after  opposition,  was  repealed  next  year, 
Britain  stilt  claiming,  however,  its  right 
to  tax.  In  accordance  with  this  claim 
a duty,  in  1767,  was  imposed  upon  tea, 
paper,  glass,  etc.;  but  the  colonial  op- 
position was  such  that  three  years  later 
the  duties  were  all  repealed  except  the 
one  upon  tea.  To  such  a pass  had  the 
opposition  now  come  that  in  1773,  when 
British  ships  loaded  with  tea  attempted 
to  effect  a landing  in  the  port  of  Boston, 
a number  of  the  inhabitants,  disguised 
as  Indians,  seized  them  and  threw  the 
cargoes  into  the  sea.  In  punishment  of 
this,  parliament  passed  the  Boston  Port 
Bill,  which  declared  that  port  closed  to 
all  commerce,  and  transferred  the  seat 
of  colonial  government  to  Salem.  From 
this  time  it  became  evident  that  a con- 
flict was  inevitable,  and  in  1775  hos- 


tilities actually  commenced  when  a 
small  British  force,  sent  from  Boston  to 
destroy  the  military  stores  at  Concord, 
was  attacked  by  the  colonists  near 
Lexington,  and  forced  to  retreat.  Be- 
fore the  end  of  April  the  British  gover- 
nor and  army  were  besieged  in  Boston 
by  a revolutionary  force  of  20,000  men; 
the  northern  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point  were  seized;  and  a con- 
tinental congress  which  assembled  at 
Philadelphia  took  measures  to  equip  an 
army  and  navy,  with  George  Washing- 
ton as  commander-in-chief.  On  June  17 
the  British  attacked  the  intrenched 
position  of  the  colonists  on  Bunker  Hill, 
which  commanded  Boston  harbor,  and 
captured  it,  but  in  the  following  year 
they  retreated  to  Halifax.  This  action 
induced  the  colonists  to  continue  their 
resistance,  and  it  was  declared  by  the 
thirteen  states  assembled  in  congress 
that  “the  united  colonies  are,  and  ought 
to  be,  free  and  independent  states;  that 
their  political  connection  with  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  dissolved.” 
This  resolution  was  embodied  in  a dec- 
laration of  independence,  drawn  up  by 
Jefferson  and  adopted  4th  July,  1776. 
The  British  government  now  sent  an 
anny  against  the  colonists  under  the 
command  of  Sir  William  Howe,  and  in 
a battle  on  Long  Island  (August,  1776) 
Washington  was  defeated  with  heavy 
loss.  He  retreated  beyond  the  Delaware, 
and  in  order  to  defend  Philadelphia, 
then  the  capital,  was  obliged  to  give 
battle  on  the  Brandywine,  where  he  was 
again  defeated.  Fortune,  however, 
favored  the  Americans  in  the  north, 
where  General  Gates  at  Stillwater  de- 
feated General  Burgoyne.  This  event 
induced  the  French  to  enter  the  struggle 
in  the  spring  of  1778,  and  subsequently 
Spain  and  Holland  aided  the  Americans. 
At  last  the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis 
with  his  army  at  Yorktown  (1781)  to  a 
combined  French  and  American  force 
under  Roohambeau  and  Washington, 
virtually  terminated  the  war.  On  Sep- 
tember 3,  1783,  Great  Britain  formally 
recognized  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  by  a treaty  of  peace 
signed  at  Paris,  and  in  order  still  fur- 
ther to  establish  their  position  the  states 
met  at  Philadelphia  in  1787,  and  after 
four  months’  deliberation  framed  a con- 
stitution. This  constitution,  which  re- 
mains the  basis  of  the  government, 
came  into  operation  in  March,  1789, 
and  George  Washington  was  elected  the 
first  president.  The  congress  oppointed 
by  the  thirteen  states  then  proceeded  to 
impose  duties,  establish  a federal  judi- 
ciary, organize  the  executive  adminis- 
tration, fund  the  debt  of  the  United 
States,  and  establish  a national  bank. 
In  1793  Washington  was  unanimously 
re-elected  president,  but  in  1797  he 
refused  to  be  elected  for  a third  term. 
During  his  administration  the  states  of 
Vermont,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee 
were  admitted  into  the  Union.  John 
Adams  was  elected  second  president, 
and  it  was  while  he  held  office  that 
France  made  war  upon  the  republic, 
the  fighting  taking  place  chiefly  at  sea. 
In  1800  the  seat  of  government  was 
transferred  from  New  York,  which  had 
at  first  been  declared  the  capital,  to 
Washington,  while  in  1802  Ohio  and 


UNITED  states: 


UNITED  STATES 


Louisiana  were  added  to  the  Union. 
Great  Britain  still  claimed  the  allegiance 
of  American  naturalized  subjects,  and 
the  right  to  search  American  vessels  for 
British  seamen.  In  1807  the  British 
frigate  Leopard  overhauled  the  United 
States  frigate  Chesapeake,  near  the  en- 
trance to  Chesapeake  bay,  compelled  her 
to  surrender,  and  took  off  four  of  her 
men.  Reparation  was  asked  in  vain; 
some  time  later  all  trade  with  France 
and  England  was  prohibited  by  act  of 
congress,  and  in  June,  1812,  war  was 
declared  against  Britain.  In  the  differ- 
ent engagements  which  took  place  by 
sea  and  land  the  success  was  varied, 
and  in  1814  peace  was  arranged.  After 
this  the  chief  historical  events  were  the 
wars  against  the  southern  Indian  tribes 
and  the  acquisition  of  Florida  from  the 
Spanish  in  1819;  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  which  led  to  a war  with  Mexico 
in  1845  (see  Mexican  war);  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  New  Mexico  and  Upper 
California,  which  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States  on  payment  of  the 
sum  of  $15,000,000  to  Mexico.  The 
period  about  1857  was  notable  for  the 
free-soil  movement  and  the  increasing 
difficulty  of  dealing  with  slavery.  Texas 
had  been  introduced  into  the  Union  as 
a slave-holding  state,  and  the  endeavor 
to  act  similarly  with  regard  to  the  ter- 
ritory of  Kansas  led  to  rioting.  The 
question  was  still  further  complicated 
by  disputes  respecting  the  territory  of 
Nebraska,  and  the  insurrection  (1859) 
at  Harper’s  Ferry,  led  by  John  Brown, 
brought  the  question  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery  to  a crisis.  The  presidential 
election  of  1860  turned  to  a great  extent 
upon  this  question,  and  when,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  the  republican  candidate,  was 
elected  the  slave-holding  states  con- 
sidered themselves  defeated,  and  South 
Carolina,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  formally 
seceded  from  the  Union.  These  states 
formed  themselves  into  a southern  con- 
federation (4th  February,  1861),  with 
Jefferson  Davis  as  president,  and  they 
were  subsequently  joined,  after  hos- 
tilities had  begun,  by  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  The 
custom-houses,  arsenals,  and  United 
States  buildings  generally  were  seized 
and  occupied  by  the  confederates  in 
their  own  states,  and  every  preparation 
made  to  organize  a separate  govern- 
ment. War  was  inevitable,  and  the  first 
blow  was  struck  on  April  12,  1861,  the 
confederates  proceeding  to  bombard 
Fort  Siunter,  which  was  forced  to  sur- 
render. President  Lincoln  then  called 
out  by  proclamation  75,000  volunteers, 
and  the  first  battle  on  a large  scale  took 
place  at  Bull  Run,  south  of  Washington, 
where  the  federal  forces  were  com- 
pletely defeated.  During  the  remainder 
of  1861  frequent  collision  took  place 
between  the  rival  forces  at  different 
points,  almost  always  to  the  disadvan- 
tage of  the  north.  In  the  spring  of  1862 
General  Grant  captured  Fort  Donnelson, 
on  the  Cumberland  river,  and  along 
with  General  Sherman  obtained  a vic- 
tory over  the  confederates  at  Pittsburg 
Landing,  in  Tennessee.  In  April  the 
federal  fleet,  under  Admiral  Farragut, 
ran  past  the  forts  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  seized  New  Orleans, 


which  was  occupied  by  the  supporting 
land  forces.  An  attempt  was  then  made 
by  General  McClellan  to  invest  Rich- 
mond, the  capital  of  the  confederacy, 
but  this  was  prevented  by  the  confed- 
erate generals  Lee  and  “Stonewall” 
Jackson,  who  drove  back  the  federals 
on  the  James  river,  where  they  estab- 
lished themselves.  General  Lee  then 
assumed  the  offensive  and  moved  with 
his  whole  army  upon  Washington,  but 
he  was  intercepted  on  the  banks  of  the 
Antietam  by  McClellan,  and,  after  an 
obstinate  fight,  compelled  to  recross  the 
Potomac.  Soon  afterward  McClellan  was 
superseded  by  Burnside,  and  in  Decem- 
ber another  advance  to  Richmond  was 
commenced.  This  General  Lee  had 
anticipated,  and  intrenched  himself 
behind  the  town  of  Fredericksburg,  a 
position  from  which  the  federals  vainly 
endeavored  to  dislodge  him.  Thus  the 
year  1862  closed  with  no  great  gain  on 
either  side.  In  the  following  April  Gen- 
eral Hooker,  superseding  Burnside  in 
the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, commenced  another  movement 
toward  Richmond,  but  was  defeated  by 
“Stonewall”  Jackson  at  Chancellorsville, 
where,  by  mischance,  the  latter  was 
killed  in  the  darkness  by  his  own  men. 
Following  up  this  gain  General  Lee 
transferred  his  army  to  the  valley  of  the 
Shenandoah,  entered  Maryland,  and 
crossed  into  Pennsylvania.  At  Gettys- 
burg he  was  obliged  to  turn  upon  the 
pursuing  federal  forces  under  Meade, 
and  after  three  days’  desperate  fighting 
and  the  loss  of  15,000  men  Lee  was 
forced  to  retreat  into  Virginia.  On  the 
Mississippi  the  fortune  of  war  was  also 
in  favor  of  the  federals.  Aided  by  the 
fleet,  which  had  dashed  past  Port 
Hudson  and  seized  Natchez,  General 
Grant  had  assumed  the  offensive  and 
captured  Vicksburg,  while  at  the  end  of 
this  year  (1863)  he  inflicted  severe  de- 
feat upon  Bragg  at  Chattanooga.  In 
1864  General  Grant,  as  the  result  of  his 
successes,  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  all  the  armies,  and  at  once  he 
set  himself  to  reorganize  the  federal 
forces.  He  took  command  of  the  army 
of  the  Potomac  himself,  with  which  he 
proposed  to  meet  Lee,  while  he  dis- 
patched Sherman  to  operate  against 
J.  E.  Johnston.  In  May,  Grant  moved 
his  main  force  across  the  Rapidan  and 
immediately  attacked  Lee  in  The  Wild- 
erness, where  severe  fighting  lasted  for 
six  consecutive  days.  Unable  to  rout 
the  confederates.  Grant  endeavored  by 
a flank  movement  to  cut  them  off  from 
Richmond,  but  Lee  anticipated  the 
attempt  and  foiled  it.  Thus  baffled. 
Grant  by  a circuit  crossed  the  James 
river,  joined  Butler,  and  attacked  Peters- 
burg, but  was  repelled,  and  obliged  to 
begin  a regular  siege  during  the  winter. 
Meantime  Sherman  with  a large  federal 
force,  had  defeated  Hood  (who  super- 
seded Johnston  as  commander  in 
Georgia),  had  occupied  Atlanta,  crossed, 
the  country  by  forced  marches,  seized 
Savannah,  and  by  February,  1865,  was 
able  to  occupy  Charleston  and  Wilming- 
ton. During  this  brilliant  movement 
the  forces  under  Lee  and  Grant  had 
faced  each  other  in  the  lines  round 
Richmond,  but  in  April,  1865,  a general 
advance  was  made  by  the  federals.  Lee 


defended  Petersburg  and  Richmond 
with  great  skill  and  obstinacy,  but  after 
three  days’  sanguinary  conflict  the  con- 
federate lines  were  broken,  and  Rich- 
mond lay  at  the  mercy  of  the  Northern 
armies.  Lee  retreated  north  of  the 
Appomattox,  but  was  closely  followed 
by  Grant,  who  captured  the  general  and 
his  whole  army.  The  remaining  con- 
federate armies  in  the  field  soon  after- 
ward surrendered,  and  the  four  years’ 
war  ended  in  favor  of  the  federal  govern- 
ment. In  the  course  of  the  war  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  had  been  proclaimed  by 
President  Lincoln,  and  he  had  just  en- 
tered (April  1865)  upon  his  second  term 
of  the  presidentship  when  he  was  assas- 
sinated in  Ford’s  theater  at  Washington 
by  J.  Wilkes  Booth. 

As  the  states  returned  to  their  allegi- 
ance to  the  Union  they  were  after  a time 
readmitted  to  their  state  and  national 
privileges.  The  election  of  General  Grant 
to  the  presidency  in  1869  served,  in  some 
measure,  to  consolidate  matters.  An 
amendment  to  the  national  constitution 
was  proclaimed  in  March  1870,  and  pro- 
vided that  no  difference  of  race,  color, 
education,  or  religion  shall  debar  any 
person  from  the  rights  of  citizenship  in 
any  of  the  states.  This  question  of  equal 
rights  gave  rise  in  1874  to  considerable 
rioting  in  the  southern  states  between 
the  negro  and  the  white  population,  and 
is  still  beset  with  dangers.  During  the 
Grant  administration  the  Indians  of  the 
northwest  frontier  were  successfully 
suppressed,  and  a bill  for  the  resump- 
tion of  cash  payments  on  January  1, 
1879,  passed  Congress  (December,  1874). 
Among  other  events  were  the  admission 
of  Colorado  (1876)  to  the  Union;  the 
great  international  exhibition  at  Phila- 
delphia, to  celebrate  the  centenary  of 
American  Independence  (1876);  the 
opening  of  the  Pacific  railway  from 
Omaha  to  San  Francisco  (1869);  a dis- 
pute with  Spain  respecting  the  imprison- 
ment of  an  American  citizen  in  Cuba 
(1870-72) ; the  great  labor  strike  at  New 
York  (June,  1872) ; the  massacre  of 
General  Custer  and  troops  by  the  In- 
dians (June  25,  1876);  the  celebration 
of  the  foundation  of  the  American  re- 
public (July  4, 1876) ; and  the  settlement 
of  the  dispute  with  Great  Britain  respect- 
ing extradition  (December,  1876).  The 
election  for  president  at  the  close  of 
1876  resulted  in  the  return  of  Ruther- 
ford B.  Hayes  (1877-81),  republican, 
the  principal  events  in  his  term  of  office 
being  the  dispute  as  to  the  validity  of 
the  presidential  election;  the  great  rail- 
way strike ; riots  and  bloodshed  in  West 
Virginia  (July,  1877),  suppressed  by 
General  Sheridan;  the  progress  of 
measures  for  the  pacification  of  the 
south;  the  veto  of  the  Bland  “Silver 
Bill”  by  the  president  (February  16, 
1878),  after  it  had  received  the  sanction 
of  congress,  and  the  resumption  of  cash 
payments  (January  1,  1879),  gold  for 
the  first  time  since  the  war  being  at  par 
(December  18,  1878).  General  J.  A. 
Garfield  (1881),  republican,  succeeded  as 
president,  but  held  office  but  for  a short 
period,  dying  from  the  effects  of  a bullet 
fired  by  Guiteau,  a Chicago  lawyer 
(July  2,  1881).  General  Chester  A. 
Arthur  (1881-85),  the  vice-president, 
became  president,  and  was  succeeded 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


by  Grover  Cleveland  (1885-89),  the 
democrats,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
presidency  of  Buchanan,  being  suc- 
cessful in  placing  their  nominee  in  office. 
President  Cleveland’s  term  of  office  was 
characterized  by  the  adoption  of  meas- 
ures for  the  reorganization  of  the  civil 
service,  and  other  reforms.  Among  the 
events  of  this  presidency  were  the  re- 
jection, by  the  republicans,  of  the 
Fisheries  Treaty,  arranged  with  the 
United  States  government  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Chamberlain  on  behalf  of  Great 
Britain,  after  having  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  president;  the  passage  by 
congress  of  a bill  prohibiting  Chinese 
immigration  for  twenty  years}  the  great 
blizzard  which  devastated  New  York 
(March  12,  1888);  the  collapse  of  the 
great  railway  strike  organized  by  the 
Knights  of  Labor;  the  defeat  of  the 
Mills  Tariff  bill,  introduced  to  reduce 
import  duties,  and  the  withdrawal  of 
Lord  Sackville,  the  British  ambassador, 
in  consequence  of  the  “Murchison” 
letter.  General  Sheridan,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  United  States  army,  died 
July,  1888.  In  the  election  (November, 
1888),  the  republicans  replaced  Cleve- 
land by  their  candidate.  General  Har- 
rison (1889),  who  appointed  Mr.  J.  G 
Blaine  as  secretary  of  state.  North  and 
South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washing- 
ton territory  were  admitted  to  the 
Union.  The  same  year  the  United  States 
government  accepted  Prince  Bismarck’s 
proposal  to  join  the  Berlin  conference 
on  the  Samoan  question  (the  treaty  was 
ratified  February,  1890);  the  Oklahoma 
territory  was  thrown  open  for  settle- 
ment; the  centennial  of  the  Union  was 
celebrated  on  May  JJay;  the  agents  of 
the  Clan-na-Gael,  who  had  assassinated 
Dr.  Cronin  of  Chicago,  were  tried.  Great 
floods  at  Johnstown,  Pa.,  caused  much 
destruction  and  distress  (May),  and 
later  (November),  New  York  state, 
Pennsylvania,  and  neighboring  states 
were  devastated  by  floods.  A great  Pan- 
American  congress  assembled  (Novem- 
ber) at  Philadelphia,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Mr.  Blaine,  and  ( December  6) 
Jefferson  Davis,  ex-president  of  the  con- 
federate states,  died  at  New  Orleans. 
1890  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
passage  of  the  Silver  bill,  authorizing 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury  to  purchase 
for  coining  4,500,000  oz.  of  silver 
monthly,  and  to  issue  certificates  to  be 
used  as  legal  tender  for  all  debts;  the 
passage  ofjthe  McKinley  Tariff  bill,  which 
greatly  augmented  the  import  duties, 
the  bill  coming  into  operation  October 
6;  the  ratification  of  a new  Extradition 
Treaty  with  Great  Britain;  the  passage 
of  a bill  for  increasing  the  United  States 
navy,  and  the  defeat  of  the  republican 
party  by  large  majorities  at  the  general 
elections  (November).  The  attitude  of 
Mr.  Reed,  speaker  of  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives, toward  the  democratic 
members  caused  considerable  friction  in 
that  party.  Wyoming  and  Idaho  were 
this  year  admitted  to  the  Union.  The 
principal  events  of  1891  were  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Fisheries  dispute;  the 
passage  of  the  Copyright  bill ; the  lynch- 
ing of  the  Italian  prisoners  connected 
with  the  Mafia  by  the  citizens  of 
New  Orleans  (March),  and  the  recall  of 
the  Italian  ambassador;  the  refusal  of 


the  Chinese  court  to  receive  the  United 
States  representative,  as  a protest 
against  the  Chinese  Immigration  bill ; 
the  tour  of  the  president  through  the 
south  and  west  of  the  states;  and  the 
agreement  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  signed  atWashington. 
In  1892  the  Fisheries  Dispute  was  agreed 
to  be  referred  to  arbitration;  compen- 
sation to  the  families  of  the  Italians 
lynched  at  New  Orleans  was  granted  by 
the  United  States  government;  more 
stringent  measures  adopted  for  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  Chinese,  and  the  presi- 
dential contest  commenced.  The  politi- 
cal change  in  1893  in  the  Washington 
administration  by  the  inauguration  of 
Mr.  Cleveland  as  president  on  March  4 
did  not  cause  as  much  excitement  as  did 
Mr.  Cleveland’s  first  accession.  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  called  an  extra  session 
of  congress  to  convene  August  7,  to 
consider  the  financial  crisis  June  30; 
when  the  extra  session  begun  currency 
was  selling  at  a premium  in  New  York 
City.  The  house  of  representatives  voted 
to  repeal  the  silver-purchasing  clause  of 
the  Sherman  act,  rejecting  all  free 
coinage  amendments,  August  28,  and 
on  September  20  the  bill  to  repeal  the 
Federal  Election  law  was  reported  in 
the  house.  The  senate  passed  the  Silver 
Repeal  bill  October  30.  During  the 
year  American  eyes  were  turned  fre- 
quently toward  Hawaii,  where  Queen 
Liliuokalani  was  dethroned  by  revolu- 
tionists on  January  16;  Minister  Stevens 
landed  United  States  marines  at  Hono- 
lulu, raised  the  United  States  flag,  and 
established  a protectorate  February  1 ; 
this  protectorate  ended  April  13,  when 
the  United  States  forces  were  withdrawn 
by  order  of  Commissioner  Blount. 
Other  noteworthy  American  incidents 
of  1893  were:  The  World’s  Fair  at 
Chicago  was  opened  by  President  Cleve- 
land May  1 and  continued  until  October 
30;  the  New  York  Central  railroad’s 
engine  “999”  raised  the  speed  limit  to 
112J  miles  per  hour;  Princess  Eulalie, 
representative  of  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment, was  received  with  honors  in  New 
York  May  18;  the  body  of  Jefferson 
Davis  was  reinterred  at  Richmond, 
Va.;  Lieutenant  Peary’s  expedition  left 
New  York  for  the  Arctic  regions  July  2; 
1,000  lives  were  lost  by  a cyclone  in 
Savannah  and  Charleston  August  28; 
President  Cleveland  opened  the  Pan- 
American  congress  in  Washington  Sep- 
tember 5;  the  Parliament  of  Religions 
began  its  sessions  at  Chicago  September 
11;  the  Cherokee  strip  was  opened  for 
public  settlement  September  16;  a dis- 
astrous cyclone  raged  on  the  Gulf  coast 
of  Louisiana,  about  2,000  persons, 
mostly  whites,  being  killed,  and  much 
property  destroyed;  the  United  States 
supreme  court  decided  the  Great  Lakes 
to  be  high  seas  November  21.  The 
principal  events  of  interest  in  1894  in- 
included  the  passing  of  the  Wilson  Tariff 
and  Income  Tax  bills  by  the  house  of 
representatives;  the  passing  of  the  Bland 
Coinage  bill  by  the  United  States  senate, 
44  to  31 ; the  Greater  New  York  bill 
was  signed  by  the  governor,  making  it 
the  second  largest  city  on  earth,  Feb- 
ruary 28;  President  Cleveland  signed 
the  Enabling  act,  making  Utah  a state, 
July  17;  the  Hawaiian  republic  was 


officially  recognized  by  the  United 
States  government  August  9;  the  new 
tariff  law  became  a law  without  Presi- 
dent Cleveland’s  signature  August  27; 
a new  treaty  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan  was  proclaimed  December  9. 
President  Cleveland,  on  January  28, 
1895,  sent  a message  to  congress  on  the 
financial  affairs  of  the  government,  and 
asked  authority  to  issue  gold  bonds; 
on  February  8 he  informed  congress  of 
arrangements  made  with  the  bankers’ 
syndicate  to  take  an  issue  of  $62,400,000 
government  bonds.  On  May  20,  the  i 
supreme  court  of  the  United  States,  by  ; 
a vote  of  5 to  4,  declared  the  whole  ! 
Income  tax  law  null  and  void.  The 
Cotton  States  and  International  ex- 
position at  Atlanta  was  opened.  The 
National  park,^on  the  site  of  the  Chicka- 
mauga  battle  ground,  Tennessee,  was 
dedicated  by  a great  gathering  of  Union 
and  confederate  veterans  September  19. 

In  1896  McKinley  won  a signal  victory, 
receiving  601,854  popular  votes  over  I 
Bryan  and  286,452  over  all.  The  final  ' 
year  of  President  Cleveland’s  adminis- 
tration was  marked  by  his  announce- 
ment of  the  members  of  the  Venezuelan  j 
Boundary  commission  January  1 ; a call  ] 
by  Secretary  Carlisle,  January  6,  for  bids  I 
for  $100,000,000  bonds  as  a popular  i 
loan;  the  president’s  proclamation  of  ] 
warning  to  Cuban  filibusters  July  30;  j 
the  reception  of  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  j 
Chinese  statesman,  by  president  Cleve- 
land August  29.  In  1897  McKinley  was 
inaugurated.  Previous  to  that,  a treaty 
of  arbitration  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  was  signed  at  Wash- 
ington by  Secretary  Olney  and  Am- 
bassador Pauncefote  January  11.  The 
Tennessee  Centennial  exposition  was 
formally  opened  May  1.  The  Congress 
of  the  Universal  Postal  Union  opened 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  May  2.  The 
Venezuela  Boundary  treaty  between 
Great  Britain  and  Venezuela  was 
ratified  at  Washington  June  14.  A 
treaty  of  annexation  to  the  United 
States  was  unanimously  ratified  by  the 
Hawaiian  senate  September  14.  Secre- 
tary of  State  Sherman  and  Lord  Salis- 
bury, British  Foreign  Minister,  held 
correspondence  over  the  Bering  sea  seal 
question  October  4-12.  A treaty  to  pro- 
tect the  seals  in  Bering  sea  was  signed 
at  Washington  by  representatives  of  the 
United  States,  Russia  and  Japan. 
President  McKinley  signed  the  treaty  j| 
adopted  by  the  Universal  Postal  Con-  b 
gress  November  16.  The  destruction  of  E 
the  battleship  Maine,  in  the  harbor  of  f 
Havana,  February  15, 1898,  would  have  f. 
precipitated  a crisis  had  it  not  been  for  'j 
the  fact  that  the  question  was  immedi-  1: 
ately  raised  as  to  whether  the  ship  had 
be.en  destroyed  by  an  external  or  in-  i 
ternal  explosion.  The  disaster  caused  I' 
intense  excitement,  and  it  was  decided 
to  investigate  the  facts,  and  await  , 
material  proof  before  forming  a judg- 
ment  as  to  the  cause,  the  responsibility,  r 
and,  if  the  facts  warranted,  the  remedy  '| 
due.  A naval  court  of  inquiry  was  i 
organized.  The  court  held  its  sittings  on  jl 
board  the  lighthouse  tender  Mangrove  ji 
anchored  near  the  wreck.  Aided  by  a li 
strong  force  of  wreckers  and  divers,  the  ]i 
court  proceeded  to  make  a thorough  in.  |j 
vestigation.  The  finding  of  the  court  of  | 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 

1 inquiry  was  reached,  on  the  21st  of 
: March,  and,  having  been  approved  on 

[the  day  following  by  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  United  States  naval  force 
on  the  north  Atlantic  station,  was  trans- 
( mitted  to  President  McKinley.  This 
report  was  submitted  to  congress  by  the 
president,  with  the  statement  that  he 
did  not  doubt  but  that  the  sense  of 
I justice  of  the  Spanish  nation  would  dic- 
tate a course  of  action  suggested  by 
I honor  and  the  friendly  relations  of  the 
V two  governments.  On  March  8 the  house 
of  representatives  passed  a bill  appro- 
priating $50,000,000  for  national  de- 
. fense,  after  four  hours  of  debate,  by  the 
I,  unanimous  vote  of  311  members.  The 

(following  day  the  senate  passed  the  same 
bill  by  a unanimous  vote  and  without 

\ debate.  On  March  9 the  ptesident  signed 
i the  bill,  and  measures  of  preparation  for 
!'  war  received  a great  stimulus.  On  April 
! 15,  the  Twenty-fifth  infantry.  United 
( States  of  America,  went  into  camp  at 
li  Chickamauga  Park.  The  following  day 
the  army  officials  called  for  bids  for  the 
t transportation  of  troops  to  southern 
^ points.  United  States  troops  from  many 
j garrisons,  on  April  19,  moved  to  tu® 
point  of  mobilization  on  the  Gulf  and  at 
I Chickamauga  Park.  On  April  2(h  the 
i president  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Spain 
1 demanding  that  her  land  and  naval 
1 forces  withdraw  from  Cuba,  and  also  re- 
( quired  an  answerbefore  noon  of  April  23. 

! The  Spanish  minister  at  Washington  re- 
' quested  and  received  his  passports. 

: Before  Minister  Woodford  could  deliver 
, the  ultimatum  of  the  United  States  to 
Spain  on  the  day  following,  he  was 
notified  by  the  Spanish  government  that 
; diplomatic  relations  with  the  United 
j States  were  at  an  end.  On  April  22,  the 
' Spanish  merchantman  Buenaventura 
' was  captured  by  the  United  States  gun- 
boat Nashville  off  Key  West.  Spain 
j issued  a declaration  of  war  on  April  24. 
On  the  day  preceding,  the  blockading  of 
Havana  and  neighboring  ports  actually 
began,  and  President  McKinley  issued 
his  first  call  for  125,000  volunteers.  The 
regular,  army  was  already  moving  from 
every  post  in  the  country  to  mobiliza- 
' tion  points.  Commodore  Dewey  at 
1 Hongkong  was  ordered  to  capture  or 
' destroy  the  Spanish  naval  forces  in  the 
Philippine  Islands.  May  1,  Commodore 
Dewey,  steamed  into  Manila  harbor,  and 
after  an  incredibly  short  engagement 
sunk  or  destroyed  the  entire  Spanish 
, fleet.  On  the  following  day  Commodore 
Dewey  cut  the  cable  connecting  Manila 
with  Hongkong,  and  destroyed  the 
1 fortifications  at  the  entrance  of  Manila 
Bay,  taking  possession  of  the  naval 
station  at  Cavite.  May  1 2,  Admiral  Samp- 
son bombarded  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico, 
Cervera  left  the  Cape  Verde  Islands, 
where  he  had  congregated  the  best  ships 
of  the  Spanish  navy,  and  sailed  west- 
ward. May  13,  Schley’s  flying  squadron 
went  to  sea  to  search  for  the  Spanish 
fleet.  It  was  located  a few  days  later  at 
Curacoa,  Venezuela,  where  it  touched 
for  coal  and  repairs.  On  May  18,  Cer- 
vera’s  fleet  reached  Santiago  and  entered 
the  harbor.  Investment  of  the  harbor  by 
the  North  Atlantic  and  the  flying 
squadrons  was  immediately  be^n;  also 
bombardment  of  the  outer  fortifications 
of  the  place,  which  were  supposed  to  be 


very  strong.  On  June  1,  the  fleets  of 
Sampson  and  Schley  were  combi^d. 
Admiral  Sampson  cornmanding.  While 
the  navy  was  locating  Cervera  and 
penning  him  in,  the  army  was  landing 
supplies  on  Cuban  soil.  Next  came  prep- 
arations for  hurrying  forward  into 
Cuba  an  army  of  invasion.  May  25, 
President  McKinley  called  for  75,000 
more  troops.  The  same  day  the  war  de- 
partment sent  6,000  troops  from  San 
Francisco  to  Manila  to  reinforce  Dewey. 
General  Shafter  and  his  men  commenced 
fighting  two  days  after  touching  Cuban 
soil.  On  June  24  they  took  Juragua.  At 
the  same  time  the  United  States  “Rough 
Riders”  (dismounted),  under  Colonel 
Wood  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  engaged  a force  of  Spani^ds 
near  Siboney  and  suffered  severely.  The 
Tenth  United  States  cavalry,  under 
General  Young,  was  also  in  this  battle. 
On  July  3,  General  Shafter  notified  the 
Spanish  generals  in  Santiago  that  if  sur- 
render were  not  immediate  he  would 
bombard  the  city.  While  General  Shat- 
ter was  waiting  for  a reply  to  his  notice 
of  bombardment,  Admiral  Cervera,  at- 
tempted on  the  morning  of  July  3 to 
escape  from  the  harbor  of  Santiago,  ihe 
American  ships  got  under  headway  at 
once,  and  bore  down  upon  the  enemy, 
forcing  the  Spanish  ships  to  hug  the 
shore,  and  in  an  incredibly  short  time 
in  a running  fight  the  whole  of  Cervera  s 
fleet  was  destroyed.  Owing  to  advices 
from  Washington,  Shafter  did  not  bom- 
bard Santiago  as  he  had  threatened,  but 
besieged  the  city.  July  10,  Spanish 
batteries  opened  on  his  forces,  but  were 
soon  silenced.  General  Toral,  the 
Spanish  general  commanding  at  Santia- 
go, decided,  July  14,  to  surrender,  and 
three  days  later  he  gave  up  the  city  and 
the  entire  eastern  portion  of  Cuba,  to- 
gether with  25,000  soldiers.  With  the 
surrender  of  Santiago  the  war  was 
thought  by  all  to  be  practically  at  an 
end,  but  active  preparations  were  con- 
tinued to  take  possession  of  Porto  Rico. 
General  Miles  was  placed  in  command  of 
an  army  of  invasion,  which  landed  July 
20,  at  Port  Guianca.  The  Spaniards  there 
resisted,  but  were  repulsed,  and  the 
army  advanced.  The  port  of  Ponce  was 
occupied  without  difficulty,  and  then 
the  city  of  Ponce  and  Juana  Diaz.  The 
advance  upon  San  Juan  was  gradual, 
the  Spanish  resistance  was  very  light, 
while  the  inhabitants  welcomed  the  in- 
vading army  with  enthusiasm.  Porto 
Rico  was  evacuated  by  the  Spanish 
soldiers  in  October,  and  Major-General 
John  R.  Brook  was  appointed  military 
governor.  The  members  of  the  old  cabi- 
net of  the  islands  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  the  Uniten  States,  and  were 
continued  in  office.  In  December  Gen- 
eral Brook  became  military  governor  of 
Cuba,  and  General  Guy  V.  Henry  suc- 
seeded  him  in  Porto  Rico.  Affairs  in  the 
Philippines  assumed  a serious  nature 
soon  after  the  capture  of  Manila,  August 
13,  1898.  The  Filipinos  organized  a 
provisional  government  with  Emilio 
Aguinaldo  at  the  head.  This  leader  had 
been  brought  in  an  American  ship  from 
Hongkong  to  organize  the  native  forces 
to  assist  the  United  States  against  the 
Spanish.  In  a few  months’  operations 
the  native  troops  captured  many 


Spanish  outposts  and  took  many  prison- 
ers. At  the  close  of  the  war  the  exis- 
tence of  the  Filipino  republic  was  made 
known,  and  its  officers  demanded  recog- 
nition by  the  United  States  government, 
and  upon  being  refused,  showed  con- 
siderable animosity  during  the  winter  of 
1898-99.  In  February,  1899,  a battle 
occurred  between  the  Filipinos  about 
Manila  and  the  American  troops  sta- 
tioned between  them  and  the  city  to  pre- 
vent their  entrance  into  Manila.  Thus 
was  begun  a conflict  which,  lasted 
throughout  1899,  1900,  and  until  March, 
1901,  when  Aguinaldo  was  captured  by 
General  Funston.  (See  Spanish-Ameri- 
can  War).  The  other  events  of  interest 
were:  the  United  States  and  Canadian 
Joint  High  commission  met  at  Quebec 
August  23;  a commercial  treaty  with 
France  was  signed  at  Washington  May 
30;  the  Trans  - Mississippi  and  Inter- 
national  exposition  opened  at  OmaM, 
Neb.,  June  joint  resolution  for  the 
annexation  of  Hawaii  passed  the  house  of 
representatives  June  15,  and  the  senate 
June  17;  President  KcKinley  and  his 
cabinet  attended  the  Peace  Jubilee  at 
Atlanta,  and  visited  Montgomery, 
Savannah  and  other  southern  cities,  re- 
ceiving great  ovations,  December  13-19. 

The  calm  of  peace  settled  upon  the 
United  States,  except  in  the  Philippines, 
in  1899.  The  American  flag  was  raised 
at  Guam  February  1.  The  president 
signed  the  peace  treaty  with  Spam 
February  10.  A reciprocity  treaty  with 
France  was  signed  July  24.  The  Na- 
tional Export  exposition  opened  at 
Philadelphia  September  14.  England 
and  the  United  States  agreed  on  a 
temporary  arrangement  of  the  Alaska 
boundary  dispute  October  12.  The 
Samoan  partition  treaty  was  signed  at 
Washington  December  2,  England  hav- 
ing relinquished  its  territorial  rights 
November  8,  and  hostilities  between 
naval  claimants  for  the  throne  haying 
been  pending  since  January  1.  American 
and  British  naval  forces  were  attacked 
at  Apia,  Samoa,  by  Mataafa’s  followers 
April  1,  and  one  British  and  two  Ameri- 
can officers  were  killed.  The  Philippine 
war  of  1899  began  on  February  4,  when 
the  Filipinos,  under  Aguinaldo,  attacked 
the  American  defenses  at  Manila;  the 
next  day  the  Americans  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  in  the  several  days’ 
fighting  which  ensued  lost  57  killed  and 
215  wounded,  the  Filipinos  losing  500 
killed,  1,000  wounded  and  500  captured. 
The  battle  of  Caloocan  was  fought 
February  10.  In  all  the  engagements, 
which  followed  to  the  end  of  the  year  in 
a warfare  largely  desultory,  the  Ameri- 
cans were  almost  uniformly  successful, 
the  enemy  retreating  after  making  a 
more  or  less  determined  stand.  The 
Philippine  commission,  appointed  by 
the  president,  and  composed  of  Presi- 
dent Schurman,  of  Cornell  university; 
Prof.  Dean  Worcester,  Charles  Denby, 
late  minister  to  China;  Admiral  Dewey 
and  General  Otis  sat  in  Manila  from 
March  20  until  September.  On  April  4 
the  commission  issued  a proclamation 
to  the  people  of  the  Philippines  an- 
nouncing a broad  but  firm  American 
policy  in  the  islands.  On  November  2 
the  commission  submitted  its  pre- 
liminary report  to  the  president  at 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  states 


Washington.  The  army  of  occupation 
having  been  reinforced  by  30,000  men, 
military  operations  on  a much  larger 
scale  than  before  were  begun  with  the 
advance  of  the  dry  season.  In  1900 
Secretary  Hay  announced  the  success 
of  the  “open  door”  policy  in  China;  the 
senate  ratified  the  Samoan  treaty  Jan- 
uary 16;  the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty, 
amending  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty, 
was  signed  at  Washington  February  5; 
President  McKinley  signed  the  Gold 
Standard  Currency  bill  March  14;  a tor- 
nado at  Galveston,  Tex.,  destroyed 
7000  lives  and  $30,000,000  in  property 
September  8,  and  about  $1,000,000  was 
subscribed  throughout  the  states  for 
relief;  a great  strike  prevailed  in  the 
anthracite  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania 
September  13-October  13,  and  was 
ended  by  mutual  concessions ; the  repub- 
lican national  convention  at  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  nominated  William  McKinley, 
of  Ohio,  for  president,  and  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  of  New  York,  for  vice-presi- 
dent, both  by  acclamation.  The  demo- 
cratic national  convention  at  Kansas 
City,  Mo.,  nominated  William  J.  Bryan 
for  president  by  acclamation.  On  the 
first  ballot  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  for  vice- 
president,  his  leading  opponent  being 
David  B. Hill,  who  received  200  votes  out 
of  936  cast,  Stevenson  getting  559i 
ballots.  The  silver  republican  national 
convention  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  July  6, 
the  people’s  party  (fusion)  at  Sioux 
Falls,  S.  Dak.,  May  10,  and  the  anti- 
imperialist league  at  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
August  16,  indorsed  Bryan,  and  the 
national  democratic  party  (gold  democ- 
racy) refused  to  indorse  him,  and  voted 
in  convention  at  Indianapolis  to  oppose 
him  July  25.  The  money  issue  was  par- 
amount in  the  campaign,  and  on  No- 
"vember  6,  in  the  general  election,  Mc- 
Kinley and  Roosevelt  had  a popular 
plurality  of  849,435  over  Bryan,  a 
popular  majority  of  457,027  over  all, 
and  an  electoral  majority  of  137.  The 
total  popular  vote  was  13,961,566. 
In  1901  President  McKinley,  while  hold- 
ing a reception,  on  September  6,  at  the 
Pan-American  exposition,  Buffalo,  was 
shot  by  Leon  Czolgosz.  Vice-President 
Theodore  Roosevelt  took  the  oath  of 
office  as  president  immediately  after 
McKinley’s  death.  The  Army  Reor- 
ganization bill  was  signed  by  President 
McKinley  February  2;  territorial  legis- 
lature of  Hawaii  began  its  session 
February  20;  Aguinaldo,  the  Filipino 
insurrectionary  chief,  was  captured  by 
General  Funston  in  the  Province  of 
Isabella,  laizon,  March  23;  on  the  same 
(date  the  United  States  paid  Spain  for  the 
islands  of  Cagayan  and  Sibutu ; President 
McKinley  received  the  Cuban  commis- 
sioners April  26;  the  Pan-American  ex- 
position was  formally  opened  at  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  May  1 ; it  was  closed  November  4; 
<!ivil  government  was  established  at 
Manila,  in  the  Philippines,  May  3;  Jack- 
sonville, Fla.,  suffered  a $10,000,000 
fire  May  3;  the  Isthmian  Canal  Treaty 
between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  was  signed  by  Secretary  Hay 
and  Lord  Pauncefote  November  8;  the 
South  Carolina  and  West  Indian  Ex- 
position at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  was  opened 
with  religious  ceremonies  December  1.1 
in  1902  President  Roosevelt  sent  to ' 


congress  tbe  report  of  tbe  Isthmian 
Canal  commission,  recommending  the 
purchase  of  the  Panama  Canal  com- 
any  rights  for  $40,000,000.  On  July  4 
e issued  orders  establishingbivil  govern- 
ment in  the  Philippines  and  granting 
amnesty  for  political  prisoners.  A great 
strike  of  anthracite  coal  workers  in  the 
Pennsylvania  region  begun  May  12. 
Lieutenant  Peary,  American  Arctic  ex- 
plorer, arrived  at  Sydney,  C.  B.,  having 
penetrated  as  far  north  as  84°  17'  north- 
west of  Cape  Hecla;  the  reciprocity 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Newfoundland  was  signed  November  8. 
The  Venezuelan  government  appealed, 
through  the  United  States,  for  arbitra- 
tion of  European  claims  December  15. 
The  Panama  Canal  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Colombia  was  signed 
January  22, 1903;  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  signed  a treaty  providing 
for  a mixed  commission  to  settle  the 
Alaskan  boundary  dispute  January  24; 
Great  Britain,  Germany  and  Italy  signed 
February  13,  protocols  providing  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Venezuelan  controver- 
sy at  Washington,  and  protocols  for  the 
settlement  of  the  French,  Mexican  and 
Dutch  claims  against  Venezuela  were 
signed  at  Washington  February  26-28; 
the  president  signed  the  bill  creating  the 
department  of  commerce  and  labor 
February  14;  the  Cuban  senate  ratified 
the  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United 
States  March  11,  and  it  was  ratified  at 
Washington,  with  amendments  March 
19;  President  Roosevelt  started  on  an 
extensive  western  trip  April  1 ; the 
United  States  court  of  appeals  decided 
the  Northern  Securities  company  merger 
illegal  April  9 ; the  United  States  supreme 
court  sustained  the  clause  in  the  Ala- 
bama constitution  disfranchising  the 
negroes  April  27;  the  dedication  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase  exposition  build- 
ings at  St.  Louis  took  place  with  im- 
posing ceremonies  April  30;  the  Euro- 
pean Squadron  of  the  United  States 
arrived  at  Kiel  and  was  received  by  the 
German  Emperor  June  23-26;  Cuba 
ceded  to  the  United  States  two  naval 
stations,  and  government  of  the  Isle  of 
Pines  was  settled  July  2;  the  Pacific 
cable  was  completed,  and  on  July  4 
President  Roosevelt  sent  the  first  mes- 
sage over  to  Governor  Taft,  of  the 
Philippines;  the  President  sent  another 
message  around  the  world  by  cable  in 
twelve  minutes;  Chicago  celebrated  the 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  first 
settlement  September  26-October  1 ; a 
commercial  treaty  between  the  United 
States  and  China  was  signed  October  8; 
the  Alaskan  Boundry  Tribunal  in 
London  decided  in  favor  of  the  United 
States  on  all  points  except  the  Portland 
canal  October  17;  the  republic  of 
Panama  was  proclaimed  November  3, 
and  the  United  States  recognized  the 
independence  of  Panama  November  6; 
congress  met  in  extraordinary  session 
to  consider  the  Cuban  reciprocity  treaty 
November  9;  the  Cuban  naval  station  at 
Guantanamo  was  transferred  to  the 
United  States  November  11;  the  House 
of  representatives  passed  the  Cuban 
Reciprocity  bill  November  19.  The 
republican  national  convention  met  at 
Chicago,  June  23,  1904,  and  nominated 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  of  New  York,  for 


firesident,  and  Charles  W.  Fairbanks,  of 
Indiana,  for  vice-president.  The  demo- 
cratic national  convention  at  St.  Louis 
nominated  Alton  B.  Parker,  of  New  I 
York,  for  president,  and  Henry  G.  i 
Davis,  of  West  Virginia,  for  vice-presi-  I 
dent.  Roosevelt  had  a “walk  over,” 
receiving  2,541,635  popular  votes  to  . 
Parker’s  1,729,809.  The  United  States  i 
supreme  court  decided  that  Porto  I 
Ricans  are  not  aliens,  January  4;  the  | 
commercial  treaty  between  the  United  , 
States  and  China  was  ratified  at  Wash-  . 
ington.  President  Roosevelt  issuing  a ] 
proclamation  to  that  effect  January  13;  | 
William  H.  Taft  became  secretary  of  | 
war,  Elihu  Root  retiring,  February  1; 
fire  in  Baltimore’s  business  district  de-  , 
stroyed  $70,000,000  worth  of  property;  I 
senate  ratified  the  Panama  canal  treaty  1 
by  a vote  of  66  to  14  February  23;  l 
one  of  the  tunnels  under  the  Hudson,  . 
between  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  • 
was  completed  March  11;  the  United  |i 
States  supreme  court  decided  that  the  j 
Northern  Securities  company  was  a | 
trust,  and  therefore,  illegal,  March  14; 
the  United  States  senate,  in  executive 
session,  ratified  the  treaty  with  Cuba, 
embodying  the  Platt  amendment,  March 
22;  the  contract  for  the  transfer  of  the 
Panama  Canal  property  to  the  United 
States  was  signed  at  Paris  April  22; 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  exposition  was 
opened  at  St.  Louis  April  30;  the  excur- 
sion steamer  General  Slocum,  having  on 
board  a Sunday-school  picnic,  was  burned 
in  the  East  river  and  more  than  1000 
persons,  mainly  women  and  children, 
were  lost  June  15;  the  thirteenth  Inter- 
national Peace  conference  opened  at 
Boston  October  3;  the  president  directed 
Secretary  Taft  to  go  to  Panama  to  re- 
assure the  people  of  the  pacific  inten- 
tions of  the  United  States  October  19: 
the  president  invited  the  signator}' 
powers  to  a second  peace  conference  at 
The  Hague  October  20;  the  New  York 
subway  w'as  opened  from  city  hall  to 
145th  street  October  27;  Secretary  of 
State  Hay  and  the  French  ambassador 
signed  an  arbitration  treaty  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  November  1;  an  arbitra- 
tion treaty  was  signed  at  Washington 
between  Germany  and  the  United  States  | 
November  15;  all  differences  between  i 
the  United  States  and  Panama  were  i 
settled  by  an  agreement  between  Secre-  : 
tary  Taft  and  President  Anaador  De-  i 
cember  2.  In  1905  through  the  efforts  i 
of  President  Roosevelt,  Russia  and  I 
Japan  agreed  to  a peace  parley  in  June. 

On  January  28  Santo  Domingo  agreed  ' 
that  the  United  States  should  preserve  j 
order  and  assume  charge  of  finances  in  j 
the  Dominican  republic,  while  guaran-  i 
teeing  territorial  integrity.  Theodore  I 
Roosevelt  and  Charles  W.  Fairbanks  i 
were  inaugurated  on  March  4 as  presi-  ^ 
dent  and  vice-president  of  the  United  1 
States  for  the  term  1905-1909;  the  United  i 
States  supreme  court  declared  the  beef  j 
trust  illegal  January  30;  the  investiga-  j 
tion  into  the  affairs  of  life  insurance  ( 
companies  in  New  York  began,  the  ; 
Equitable  being  the  first  company  in- 
vestigated; the  body  of  John  Paul  Jones  ' 
was  discovered  in  Paris  by  Gen.  Horace 
Porter  April  14;  it  was  brought  with  i 
honors  to  the  United  States  and  was  i 
interred  in  a temporary  tomb  at  .\nnap- 


UNITED  STATES 


UNITED  STATES 


oUb,  Md.,  July  24 ; the  Lewis  and  Clarke 
Centennial  exposition  was  opened  at 
Portland,  Ore.,  May  28;  Charles  J. 
Bonaparte  succeeded  Paul  Morton  as 
secretary  of  the  navy  July  1;  Elihu 
Root  was  appointed  to  succeed  the  late 
John  Hay  as  secretary  of  state  July  6; 
Peary  sailed  from  New  York  for  the 
North  Pole  July  16;  Prince  Louis  of 
Battenburg  arrived  at  Annapolis  with 
the  British  cruiser  squadron  on  a visit 
to  American  waters  November  1. 
In  1906  the  United  States  supreme 
court  decided  that  witnesses  in  anti- 
trust proceedings  cannot  be  excused 
from  testifying  against  their  corporation 
March  12;  earthquakes  and  fire  destroy- 
ed a large  part  of  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
causing  a loss  of  $400,000,000,  April 
18-19;  the  remains  of  John  Paul  Jones 
were  reinterred  at  Annapolis  April  24 ; 
the  Benjamin  Franklin  Bi-Centenary 
was  celebrated  at  Philadelphia  April  27 ; 
public  schools,  with  half  a million  pupils, 
were  opened  in  the  Philippines  June  11 ; 
the  president  signed  the  Oklahoma  and 
Arizona  statehood  bills  June  16;  the 
United  States  senate  approved  of  the 
lock  canal  for  Panama  June  21 ; an  in- 
surrectionary movement  in  Cuba  was 
begun  August  20,  and  President  Palma 
appealed  to  the  United  States  for  inter- 
vention in  the  island  September  8;  on 
September  13  American  marines  were 
landed  at  Havana,  but  were  withdrawn ; 
on  September  28  President  Palma,  of 
Cuba,  resigned;  on  the  following  day 
Secretary  Taft  proclaimed  United  States 
intervention  in  Cuba  and  himself  as 
provisional  governor;  on  October  12 
Mr.  Taft  was  succeeded  in  this  office  by 
Charles  E.  Magoon;  William  J.  Bryan 
arrived  in  New  York  city  from  a long 
trip  abroad  and  was  given  a popular 
reception  August  30;  a great  naval 
demonstration  off  Oyster  Bay  was  re- 
viewed by  the  president  September  8; 
Gen.  James  F.  Smith  was  installed  as 
governor  of  the  Philippine  islands  Sep- 
tember 20;  the  sugar  trust  was  indicted 
at  New  York  for  accepting  railroad  re- 
bates October  2;  contractors  were  in- 
vited to  submit  proposals  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Panama  canal  September 
10;  the  Japanese  were  excluded  from 
the  regular  public  schools  of  San  Fran- 
cisco October  15;  President  Roosevelt 
departed  on  a visit  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  November  8,  reaching  the  city 
of  Panama  November  15,  this  being  the 
first  time  a president  of  the  United 
States  passed  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of 
its  flag.  The  president  landed  in  Porto 
Rico  November  21,  and  returned  thence 
to  Washington,  where  he  arrived  No- 
vember 26.  In  1907  the  pure  food  law 
went  into  effect  January  1 . Ambassador 
Bryce  presented  his  credentials  at  the 
White  House  February  25.  Major  Gon- 
thals  was  appointed  chief  engineer  of 
the  Panama  canal  February  26.  The 
United  States  supreme  court  decided 
that  the  Isle  of  Pines  is  not  American 
territory,  April  8.  The  Jamestown  Ter- 
centenary exposition  was  formally 
opened  by  President  Roosevelt  April  26. 
President  Roosevelt  signed  a treaty 
with  San  Domingo  June  24.  United 
States  fiscal  year  closed  with  a surplus 
of  $87,000,000  June  30.  The  north  tube 
of  the  Belmont  tunnel  from  42d  street, 


New  York,  to  Long  Island  City  was  open- 
ed August  7.  Oklahoma  ratified  the  new 
constitution  and  elected  a Democratic 
state  ticket  and  legislature  September 
17.  The  Phillippine  assembly  was  open- 
ed October  16.  First  wireless  dispatch 
over  the  Atlantic  ocean  for  commercial 
purposes  October  17.  Financial  strin- 
gency all  over  the  country.  Wm.  H. 
Taft  and  .Tames  Schoolcraft  Sherman 
were  elected  as  president  and  vice 
president.  Opened  the  Central  Ameri- 
can Peace  conference  November  17. 
American  battleship  fleet  departed  for 
the  Pacific  coast  Dec.  16,  1908  visiting 
Hawaii,  Australia,  the  Phillipines, 
Japan,  China  and  Gibraltar,  arriving  in 
Hampton  Roads  in  February.  1909, 
without  a mishap. 

The  first  literary  work  of  any  con- 
sequence produced  in  the  TJnited  States 
was  a translation  of  Ovid’s  Meta- 
morphoses by  George  Sandys,  written 
in  Virginia  (1620)  and  published  in  Lon- 
don (1626),  and  the  first  published 
book  was  a Puritan  edition  of  the 
Psalms  (Cambridge, Uni tedStates,  1640). 
The  most  notable  of  the  earlier  writers 
were  the  theologians,  such  as  Increase 
and  Cotton  Mather,  Roger  Williams, 
and  above  all  Jonathan  Edwards.  The 
succeeding  or  revolutionary  era  was 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  political  writ- 
ers, among  whom  were  John  Adams, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  Alexander  Hamilton, 
John  Jay,  James  Madison,  and  Benja- 
min Franklin.  Philology  was  repre- 
sented at  this  time  by  Lindley  Murray, 
and  the  compiler  of  the  famous  dic- 
tionary Noah  Webster.  The  list  of  poets 
includes  Philip  Freneau,  John  Trumbell 
and  Joel  Barlow.  The  first  well-known 
novelist  was  Chas.  Brockden  Brown. 

It  was  not,  however,  till  the  nineteenth 
century  that  the  United  States  produced 
the  higher  form  of  pure  literature.  The 
poets  of  this  epoch  were  William  Cullen 
Bryant,  Rich.  H.  Dana,  J.  G.  Percival, 
Fitz-Greene  Halleck,  and  Mrs.  Sigour- 
ney, the  song-writers,  F.  S.  Key,  Sam. 
Woodworth,  John  H.  Payne  (author  of 
Home,  Sweet  Home),  and  Stephen  C. 
Foster.  The  later  and  in  part  more  fa- 
mous names  are  J.  G.  Whittier,  H.  W. 
Longfellow,  E.  A.  Poe,  James  R.  Lowell, 
R.  W.  Emerson,  Walt  Whitman,  Eu- 
gene Field,  and  James  Whitcomb  Riley; 
less  well  known  throughout  the  world 
with  many  strong  followings  in  varied 
classes  are  R.  H.  Stoddard,  E.  C. 
Stedman,  Joaquin  Miller,  Will  Carleton, 
Ella  Wheeler  Wilcox,  Bliss  Carmen, 
Clinton  Scollard  and  William  Vaughn 
Moody.  The  famous  novelists  of  the 
past  are  James  Fenimore  Cooper  and 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  the  works  of 
these  two  having  been  translated  into 
all  the  modern  languages;  Washing- 
ton Irving,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and 
Bret  Harte;  nearly  as  well  known  are 
Henry  James,  F.  R.  Stockton,  Louisa 
M.  Alcott,  and  G.  W.  Cable;  among 
the  better  known  names  of  the  pres- 
ent generation  are  Margaret  Deland, 
Edith  Wharton,  Robert  Barr,  and  R. 
W.  Chambers,  while  the  works  of  Mary 
Hartwell  Catherwood,  Frances  Hodgson 
Burnett,  Winston  Churchill,  F.  Marion 
Crawford,  Booth  Tarkin^on,  Mary 
Johnston,  Irving  Bacheller,  and  Maurice 
Thompson  won  enormous  popularity. 


Of  the  poets  Edgar  Allen  Poe  is  as  well 
known  for  his  fiction;  Holmes,  Long- 
fellow, and  Whittier  are  also  authors 
of  novels.  Of  American  humorists 
the  best  known  are  Charies  F.  Browne 
(Artemus  Ward),  Samuel  L.  Clemens 
(Mark  Twain),  C.H.  Clark  (Max  Adeler), 
H.  W.  Shaw  (Josh  Billings),  E.  W.  Nye 
(Bill  Nye),  F.  P.  Dunne  (Mr.  Dooley), 
and  George  Ade.  Among  leading  Ameri- 
can historians  are  George  Bancroft, 
W.  H.  Prescott,  J.  L.  Motley,  J.  B. 
Macmaster,  and  Woodrow  Wilson, 
whose  work  represented  much  original 
research  while  a school  of  “popular” 
historical  writing  was  developed  by 
J.  C.  Ridpath  and  others.  At  the  head 
of  the  essayists  stand  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson,  with  Henry  D.  Thoreau,  O.W. 
Holmes,  and  G.  W.  Curtis;  other  essay- 
ists of  note  were  N.  P.  Willis,  T.  B. 
Aldrich,  J.  T.  Fields,  and  J.  G.  Holland, 
while  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  Brander 
Matthews,  and  Agnes  Repplier  in  a 
later  generation  did  much  to  maintain 
the  h’gh  standard. 

UNITED  STATES,  TERRITORIAL 
EXPANSION  OF  THE,  There  have  been 
thirteen  additions  to  the  original  terri- 
tory of  the  Union,  including  Alaska, 
the  Hawaiian,  Philippine,  and  Samoan 
islands  and  Guam,  in  the  Pacific,  and 
Porto  Rico  and  Pine  islands,  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  Panama  canal 
zone;  and  the  total  area  of  the  United 
States,  including  the  noncontiguous 
territory,  is  now  fully  five  times  that  of 
the  original  thirteen  colonies.  The  ad- 
ditions to  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  subsequent  to  the  peace  treaty 
with  Great  Britain  of  1783  are  shown 
by  the  following  table,  prepared  by  the 
United  States  general  land  office : 


ADDITIONS  TO  THE  TERRITORY  OP  THE 
UNITED  STATES  PROM  1800  TO  1901. 


Territorial  Division 

Year 

Area 
Added, 
S.  Miles 

Purch’80 

Price, 

Dollars 

Louisiana  purchase . , 

Plorida 

Texas 

1803 

1819 

1845 

1846 
1848 
1850 
1853 
1867 

1897 

1898 
1898 

1898 

1899 
1899 
1901 

875,025 

70,107 

389,795 

288,689 

523,803 

t 

36,211 

599,446 

6,740 

3,600 

883 

175 

143,000 

73 

68 

,15.000,000 

5.499,768 

Oregon  territory 

Mexican  cession 

Purchase  from  Texas 

Gadsden  purchase 

Alaska 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Porto  Rico 

*18,250,000 

10,000,000 

10,000,000 

7,200,000’ 

Pine  Islands  (W.  I.) 
Guam  



Philippine  Islands  . . . 

Samoan  Islands 

Additional  Phil’pines 

Total 

30.000,000' 

100,000 

2,937,613 

87,009,768 

♦Of  which  $3,250,000  was  in  payment  of  claims 
of  American  citizens  against  Mexico.  fArea 
purchased  from  Texas  amounting  to  123,784 
square  miles  is  not  included  In  the  column  of 
area  added,  because  it  became  a part  of  the  area 
of  the  United  States  with  the  admission  of 
Texas. 

Article  2 of  the  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  ratified  by  the  United 
States  senate  February  23,  1904,  treaty 
in  effect  February  26,  1904,  provided 
for  the  cession,  in  perpetuity,  bj 
Panama,  of  a strip  of  territory  adjacent 
to  the  canal,  as  follows : “The  Republic 
of  Panama  grants  to  the  United  States 
in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupation,  and 
' control  of  the  zone  of  land  and  land  un- 


tJNIVALVE 


UPAS 


der  water  for  the  construction,  main- 
tenance, operation,  sanitation,  and  pro- 
tection of  said  canal  of  the  width  of  ten 
miles,  extending  to  the  distance  of  five 
miles  on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of 
the  route  of  the  canal  to  be  constructed; 
the  said  zone  beginning  in  the  Carib- 
bean sea,  three  marine  miles  from  mean 
low-water  mark,  and  extending  to  and 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  the 
Pacific  ocean  to  a distance  of  three 
marine  miles  from  mean  low-water 
mark,  with  the  proviso  that  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  Colon  and  the  harbors 
adjacent  to  said  cities,  which  are  in- 
cluded within  the  boundaries  of  the 
zone  above  described,  shall  not  be  in- 
cluded within  this  grant.  The  Republic 
of  Panama  further  grants  to  the  United 
States  in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupation, 
and  control  of  anyotherlands  and  waters 
outside  of  the  zone  above  described, 
which  may  be  necessary  and  convenient 
for  the  construction,  maintenance,  opera- 
tion, sanitation,  and  protection  of  the 
said  canal  or  of  any  auxiliary  canals  or 
other  work  necessary  and  convenient 
for  the  construction,  maintenance,  opera- 
tion, sanitation,  and  protection  of  the 
said  enterprise.  The  Republic  of 
Panama  further  grants  to  the  United 
States  in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupa- 
tion and  control  of  all  'slands  within 
the  limits  of  the  zone  above  described, 
and  in  addition  thereto  the  group  of 
small  islands  in  th^;  Bay  of  Panama 
named  Perico,  Nacs,  Culebra,  and 
Flamingo.” 

UNIVALVE,  a mollusc,  with  a shell 
composed  of  a single  piece.  The  uni- 
valves include  most  of  the  Gasteropoda, 
as  land-snails,  sea-snails,  whelks,  lim- 
pets, etc.  The  majority  of  univalve 


A 


Univalve  shell. 


A,  Apex.  B,  Base,  c,  Aperture,  d,  Anterior  canal,  e,  Pos* 
terior  canal,  r,  Inner  lip,  pillar  lip,  columellar  lip  or  labium. 
G.  Outer  lip  or  labrum.  dfeo,  Peristome  or  margin  of  aperture, 
w,  Whorls  or  volutions,  s,  Sutures,  or  lines  of  separation,  v, 
Varix— The  last  whorl  of  the  shell,  usually  much  larger  than  the 
rest,  is  called  the  “ body  whorl/'  the  rest  of  the  volutions  con* 
Ftitute  the  “spire." 

shells  are  cone-shaped  and  spiral.  In 
the  simplest  form  the  conical  shape  is 
retained  without  any  alteration,  as  in 
the  limpet.  In  most  cases,  however,  the 
cone  is  elongated,  sometimes  forming 
a simple  tube,  as  in  Dentalium,  but 
usually  coiled  up  into  a spiral. 

UNIVERSALISTS,  those  who  hold  the 
doctrine  that  all  men  will  be  saved,  in 
opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  eternal 
punishment.  A sect  of  this  name  was 
founded  about  1750.  They  believe  in 
the  ultimate  salvation  of  all  men  and 
created  spirits,  and  direct  their  criticism 
against  an  eternal  hell,  and  in  some  cases 
even  against  any  suffering  after  death. 
The  name  ITniversalists  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  Arminians  in  consequence 


of  the  universality  wliich  they  aocribe 
to  the  operation  of  divine  grace  and 
their  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  par- 
ticular election. 

UNIVERSITY.  See  articles  following 
that  of  the  different  states. 

UNIVERSITY,  a corporate  body  or 
corporation  established  for  the  purposes 
of  instruction  in  all  or  some  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  literature  and 
science,  and  having  the  power  of  con- 
ferring certain  honorary  dignities,  as 
arts,  medicine,  law,  and  theology.  In 
most  cases  the  corporations  constituting 
universities  include  a body  of  teachers 
or  professors  for  giving  instruction  to 
students;  but  this  is  not  absolutely 
essential  to  a university,  and  London 
university,  for  instance,  was  long  merely 
an  examining  body.  In  the  middle  ages, 
when  the  term  began  to  be  used  in  refer- 
ence to  seminaries  of  learning,  it  denoted 
either  the  whole  body  of  teachers  and 
learners,  or  the  whole  body  of  learners, 
with  corporate  rights  and  under  by- 
laws of  their  own,  divided  either  accord- 
ing to  the  faculty  to  which  they  were 
attached,  or  according  to  the  country  to 
which  they  belonged  (hence  the  “na- 
tions” into  which  the  students  were 
classed,  and  which  still  exist  in  some 
universities).  At  a later  period  the 
expression  universitas  literarum  (the 
whole  of  literature  or  learning)  was  used 
to  indicate  that  all  the  most  important 
branches  of  knowledge  were  to  be  taught 
in  these  establisliments.  Some,  forming 
their  notion  of  a university  from  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
suppose  that  it  necessarily  means  a col- 
lection and  union  of  colleges,  that  it  is  a 
great  corporation  embodying  in  one 
certain  smaller  and  subordinate  colle- 
giate bodies;  but  this  is  not  correct, 
for  many  universities  exist  in  which 
there  are  no  colleges.  This  is  the  case 
with  most  of  the  German  universities, 
and  in  the  Scottish  universities  there 
are  no  foundations  which  bear  any  re- 
semblance to  the  English  colleges. 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  differ  from  most 
universities  also  in  the  fact  that,  though 
they  possess  a body  of  professors,  little 
of  the  teaching  falls  to  be  done  by  these. 
The  oldest  of  the  European  universities 
were  these  of  Bologna  and  Paris,  and 
these  formed  the  models  on  which  most 
of  the  other  early  universities  were  estab- 
lished, a papal  bull  being  generally  re- 
garded as  necessary  to  this.  The  United 
States  possesses  the  largest  number  of 
institutions  bearing  the  name  of  uni- 
versities, but  a large  proportion  are  sec- 
tarian, and  many  represent  only  a single 
faculty.  For  the  chief  universities  see 
under  separate  heads,  and  refer  to  the 
articles  following  the  different  states. 

UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION,  a move- 
ment to  extend  the  means  of  higher 
education  to  persons  of  all  classes  and 
of  both  sexes  engaged  in  the  regular 
occupations  of  life.  Any  community 
may  avail  itself  of  the  privileges  by 
forming  a local  committee,  who  provide 
the  necessary  funds  and  fix  fees,  etc. 
The  mode  of  instruction  consists  of 
courses  of  lectures  by  specialist  gradu- 
ates of  the  universities,  each  lecture 
being  preceded  or  followed  by  a class, 
in  which  the  students  are  orally  ex- 
amined by  the  lecturer,  who  also  cor- 


rects  written  papers  done  at  home.  Ah 
examination  is  held  at  the  end  of  each 
course  and  certificates  awarded.  Home 
reading  circles  under  the  direction  of 
leaders  are  one  outcome  of  the  move- 
ment. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  NASHVILLE,  THE, 

began  its  life  in  1785,  eleven  years  be- 
fore Tennessee  became  one  of  the  states 
of  the  Union,  and  only  five  years  after 
the  first  settlement  was  made  upon  the 
site  of  Nashville,  under  a charter  from 
the  legislature  of  North  Carolina  to 
Davidson  academy.  In  1806  the  legis- 
lature of  Tennessee  changed  the  name 
of  the  institution  to  Cumberland  col- 
lege, which  it  kept  until  1825;  it  then 
became  the  University  of  Nashville. 
In  1874the  university  offered  most  of  its 
buildings  and  grounds  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Peabody  Normal  college,  which 
has  since  become  Peabody  college  for 
teachers,  and  which  has  about  12,000 
alumni,  men  and  women,  a majority  of 
whom  have  followed  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. The  university  has  in  addition 
an  endowed  primary  department  called 
the  Montgomery  Bell  academy,  with 
3000  alumni.  The  university  in  all  of 
its  departments  has  on  an  average  of 
1300  or  1400  students. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  SOUTH,  THE, 
Sewanee,  Tennessee;  an  institution  of 
higher  learning,  including  with  its 
academic  department  the  following  pro- 
fessional schools;  civil  engineering,  the- 
ology, law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  a train- 
ing school  for  nurses  and  a grammar 
school.  Confers  the  following  degrees 
in  course : B.A.,  M.A.,  C.E.,  LL.B.,  B.D., 
G.D.,  M.D.,  Ph.G.  The  government  of 
the  university  is  vested  in  a board  of 
trustees,  consisting  of  eighteen  bishops 
of  the  Episcopal  church,  one  of  whom 
is  elected  chancellor,  a like  number  of 
clerical  and  twice  that  number  of  lay 
trustees,  representing  the  following 
ecclesiastical  divisions:  Ashville;  Ala- 
bama; North,  East,  and  South  Carolina'; 
Georgia;  Florida;  Mississippi ; Louisiana; 
Dallas,  Texas  and  West  Texas;  Ar- 
kansas; Southern  Florida;  Kentucky; 
Lexington;  Missouri,  and  Tennessee. 
The  administration  is  vested  in  a %dce- 
chancellor  and  a hebdomadal  board. 
The  university  was  organized  and  re- 
ceived its  charter  from  the  state  of 
Tennessee  in  1857.  The  civil  war  re- 
tarded its  progress  and  it  was  finally 
opened  in  1868.  The  graduate  alumni 
number  about  1000.  The  faculties  num- 
ber about  fifty  and  the  annual  student 
attendance  is  between  five  and  six  hun- 
dred. 


UNLEAVENED  BREAD,  was  that 
form  of  bread  used  (Lev.  ii.  and  iv.)  in 
the  Jewish  temple  service,  and  which, 
by  the  Mosaic  law,  the  people  were  re- 
quired to  eat  during  the  seven  days  of 
the  Passover  (Ex.  xii.  15).  It  was  the 
simplest  form  of  bread,  and  was  made 
without  fermentation. 

UPAS,  a tree  common  in  the  forests  of 
Java,  and  of  some  of  the  neighboring 
islands,  and  found  also  in  tropical 
Africa.  Many  exaggerated  stories  were 
formerly  current  concerning  the  deadly 
properties  of  this  plant,  its  exhalations 
being  said  to  be  fatal  to  both  animal  and 
vegetable  life  at  several  ndles  distance' 
from  the  tree  itself.  The  truth  is,  that 


UPUPA 


UTAH 


the  upas  is  a tree  which  yields  a poison- 
ous secretion  and  nothing  more. 


Upas  tree. 


UP'UPA.  See  Hoopoe. 

UR.®'MIA,  a diseased  condition  of 
the  body  arising  from  the  presence  of 
urea  in  the  blood,  in  consequence  of  the 
urine  not  being  properly  secreted,  as  in 
Bright’s  disease  or  other  ailments,  thus 
leaving  in  the  blood  elements  that  should 
be  carried  off. 

URAL,  a river  of  Russia,  which  rises 
in  the  Ural  mountains,  forms  part  of 
the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  enters  the  Caspian  after  a course  of 
about  1000  miles. 

URAL  MOUNTAINS,  a series  of  moun- 
tains and  plateaus  stretching  nearly 
north  and  south  between  Europe  and 
Asia,  from  the  shores  of  the  Arctic 
ocean  for  a distance  of  about  1900  miles; 
highest  summit,  5513  feet.  The  Ural 
mountains  are  celebrated  for  the  mines 
of  gold,  platinum,  copper,  coal,  and  iron 
which  they  contain,  and  in  the  south 
are  many  broad  valleys  of  remarkable 
fertility. 

URANIA,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
muse  of  astronomy.  She  is  generally 


Urania,  antique  statue  in  the  Vatican. 

represented  holding  in  her  left  hand  a 
celestial  globe  to  which  she  points  with 
a little  staff. 

URANIUM,  a rare  metal,  whose 
chemical  symbol  is  U,  atomic  weight 
240,  specific  gravity  18.4.  The  chief 
source  of  uranium  is  pitchblende.  Me- 
tallic uranium  is  obtained  in  the  form  of 
a black  powder,  or  sometimes  aggre- 
gated in  small  plates,  having  a silvery 
luster  and  a certain  degree  of  malleabil- 
ity. It  forms  several  oxides,  which  are 
used  in  painting  on  porcelain,  yielding 
a fine  orange  color  in  the  enamelling 
fire,  and  a black  color  in  that  in  which 
the  porcelain  itself  is  baked. 

P.  E.— 81 


U'RANUS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
son  of  Gaea,  the  earth,  and  by  her  the 
father  of  the  Titans,  Cyclopes,  etc.  He 
hated  his  children,  and  confined  them  in 
Tartarus,  but  on  the  instigation  of  Gaea, 
Kronos,  the  youngest  of  the  Titans, 
overthrew  and  dethroned  him. 

U'RANUS,  in  astronomy,  one  of  the 
primary  planets,  and  the  seventh  from 
the  sun,  discovered  by  Sir  William 
Herschel  in  1781.  It  was  first  called 
Georgium  Sidus  in  honor  of  George  III., 
and  afterward  Herschel,  in  honor  of  the 
discoverer.  To  the  naked  eye  it  appears 
like  a star  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  Its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  about 
1754  millions  of  miles,  and  the  length  of 
the  year  30,686.82  days,  or  about  84  of 
our  years.  Its  mean  diameter  is  esti- 
mated at  about  33,000  miles.  Its  volume 
exceeds  the  earth’s  about  74  times,  but 
as  its  mean  density  is  only  0.17  (the 
earth’s  being  1)  its  mass  is  only  about 
12J  times  more.  The  length  of  its  day 
is  supposed  to  be  between  9 and  10 
hours.  It  is  now  generally  admitted 
that  this  planet  has  four  satellites,  which 
differ  from  the  other  planets,  primary 
and  secondary  (with  the  exception  of 
Neptune’s  satellite),  in  the  direction  of 
their  motion,  this  being  from  east  to 
west,  and  they  move  in  planes  nearly 
perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic. 

URE'TER,  the  excretory  duct  or  tube 
which  conveys  the  urine  from  each 
kidney  to  the  bladder.  In  man  it  is 
about  the  size  of  a goose-quill;  and  its 
length  is  from  16  to  18  inches. 

URETH'RA.  in  anatomy,  the  canal 
leading  from  the  bladder  to  the  external 
urinary  opening,  and  serving  for  the 
excretion  of  the  urine.  In  the  male  it  is  a 
complicated  structure  varying  in  length 
from  8 to  9 inches,  and  in  the  female  it  is 
a narrow  membranous  canal  about  1^ 
inch  in  length. 

URIC  ACID,  an  acid  which  occurs  in 
small  quantity  in  the  healthy  urine  of 
man  and  quadrupeds,  and  in  much 
larger  quantity  in  the  urine  of  birds. 
Uric  acid  constitutes  the  principal  pro- 
portion of  the  urinary  calculi  and  the 
concretions  causing  the  complaint  known 
as  the  gravel. 

URINE,  an  animal  fluid  or  liquor 
secreted  by  the  kidneys,  whence  it  is 
conveyed  into  the  bladder  by  the  ureters 
and  through  the  urethra  discharged.  In 
its  natural  state  it  is  acid,  transparent, 
of  a pale  amber  or  straw  color,  a brackish 
taste,  a peculiar  odor,  and  of  a specific 
gravity  varying  from  1.012  to  1.030. 
The  character  of  the  urine,  however,  is 
apt  to  be  altered  by  the  state  of  health, 
the  season  of  the  year,  age,  food,  and  a 
variety  of  other  causes.  A knowledge 
of  the  urine  in  health,  and  of  the  varia- 
tions to  which  it  is  subject  in  disease, 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  medi- 
cal practitioner.  One  of  its  morbid  con- 
stituents is  diabetic  sugar.  See  Diabetes. 

URSA  MAJOR  AND  URSA  MINOR. 
See  Bear,  Great  and  Little. 

UR'SULA,  St.,  a virgin  martyr,  ac- 
cording to  the  legend  a daughter  of  a 
prince  in  Britain  put  to  death  at  Cologne 
by  a horde  of  Huns,  some  say  in  384, 
others  in  453,  together  with  11,000 
virgins  who  accompanied  her.  Accord- 
ing to  another  reading  the  number  of 
her  companions  was  only  eleven. 


UR'SULINES,  or  NUNS  OF  ST. 
URSULA,  a sisterhood  founded  by  St. 
Angela  Merici  at  Brescia,  in  1537.  They 
devote  themselves  to  the  succor  of 
poverty  and  sickness  and  the  education 
of  female  children.  They  had  many 
houses  in  France  during  the  17th  cen- 
tury. The  Canadian  Ursulines  date  from 
1639;  the  Irish  from  1771.  There  are 
now  four  houses  in  Ireland  and  four  in 
England.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  twenty-four  establishments  with 
thousands  of  pupils. 

URSUS.  See  Bear. 

U'RUBU,  the  native  name  of  an 
American  vulture  (black  vulture  or 
zopilote),  very  nearly  allied  to  the  tur- 
key-buzzard, which  it  closely  resembles. 
This  voracious  bird  is  common  in  the 
villages  and  towns  of  the  southern  states 
acting  as  a scavenger. 

URUGUAY  (u-ru-gwi),  a river  of 
South  America,  which  rises  in  Brazil, 
in  the  province  of  Santa  Catarina, 
flows  first  westward,  then  gradually 
turns  south,  and  finally  enters  the 
estuary  of  La  Plata  opposite  Buenos 
Ayres;  length,  about  800  miles. 

URUGUAY,  or  BANDA  ORIENTAL 
DEL  URUGUAY,  a republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  south  by  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Uruguay, 
separating  it  from  the  Argentine  repub- 
lic; area  estimated  at  72,150  sq.  miles. 
The  Surface  forms  a vast  undulating 
plain,  generally  flat,  but  broken  in  the 
interior  by  several  ridges  of  moderate 
elevation.  The  principal  river  is  the 
Negro,  which  divides  the  state  into  two 
nearly  equal  portions,  and  on  the  south- 
east frontier  is  the  large  lake  of  Merim. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy,  the 
general  range  of  the  thermometer  being 
from  32°  to  90°  F.  The  extensive  plains 
are  admirably  adapted  for  agriculture, 
which  has  made  rapid  progress  in  recent 
ye^rs,  wheat,  corn,  etc.,  being  culti- 
vated; but  the  rearing  of  sheep  and 
cattle  is  still  the  principal  industry. 
The  chief  exports  are  hides,  tallow,  pre- 
served meat,  sheepskins,  bones,  wool 
and  cereals,  while  the  chief  imports  are 
cotton  goods,  woolens,  coal,  and  iron. 
Montevideo  is  the  capital  and  chief  port. 
There  is  a small  army  and  navy.  Rail- 
ways have  a length  of  about  1000  miles. 
Primary  education  is  by  law  compul- 
sory; there  are  normal,  secondary,  and 
higher  institutions,  and  a university  at 
Montevideo.  The  Roman  Catholic  is 
the  state  religion,  but  all  faiths  are 
tolerated.  The  country  is  divided  into 
nineteen  provinces,  and  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  1830  it  is  governed  by  a presi- 
dent, a senate,  and  a house  of  repre- 
sentatives. Uruguay  at  one  time  formed 
part  of  the  Spanish  viceroyalty  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  language  of  the 
country  is  Spanish.  Pop.  1,000,000. 

USUFRUCT,  in  law,  the  temporary  use 
and  enjoyment  of  lands  or  tenements 
or  the  right  of  receiving  the  fruits  and 
profits  of  lands  or  other  things  without 
having  the  right  to  alienate  or  change 
the  property. 

USURY,  See  Interest. 

UTAH  (u'ta),  one  of  the  western 
United  States,  bounded  by  Idaho. 
Wyoming,  Colorado,  Arizona,  and 


UTAH 


UTOPIA 


Nevada.  It  ranks  eighth  in  size  among 
the  states  having  an  area,  84,970  sq. 
miles.  The  Wahsatch  mountains  di- 
vide Utah  into  two  unequal  portions; 
a hilly  country  on  the  east,  drained  by 
the  Colorado,  with  its  head  streams  the 
Green  and  Grand  rivers,  and  numerous 
tributaries,  and  a high  and  generally 
sterile  table-land  on  the  west,  the  drain- 
age of  which  falls  into  the  different  lakes. 
Of  these  the  largest  are  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  and  Utah  Lake,  both  in  the  north- 
west. Some  peaks  of  the  Wahsatch 
mountains  are  10,000  to  13,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  while  the  average  ele- 
vation of  the  valleys  is  5000  feet.  The 
climate  is  of  the  continental  type,  with 
sudden  changes  and  great  extremes  in 
5;ummer  and  vdnter,  although  the  valleys 
being  well  sheltered,  have  generally  a 
mild  and  pleasant  climate.  The  rainfall 
throughout  the  state  is  insufficient  for 
the  needs  of  agriculture,  and  irrigation  is 
everywhere  necessary.  The  average  pre- 
cipitation for  the  state  is  12  inches.  The 
soil  ofThe  valleys,  contains  the  elements 
of  fertility,  which  render  it  very  produc- 
tive when  irrigated.  To  the  southwest 
of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  lies  the  wide, 
arid  plain  known  as  the  Great  Salt  Lake, 
or  Great  American,  desert.  Valuable 
deposits  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron. 


coal,  and  other  minerals  exist,  and  the 
production  of  the  mines  is  increasing. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  It 
is  dependent  almost  wholly  upon  irriga- 
tion, and  Utah  was  the  first  state  to  dem- 
onstrate the  possibilities  of  the  irriga- 
tion system.  The  western  half  of  the 
state  belongs  to  the  Great  Basin,  and 
nearly  90  per  cent  of  the  irrigated  land 
is  within  this  basin.  Almost  the  entire 
water  supply  is  drawn  from  streams. 
Wells  afford  a very  small  amount.  Hay 
is  the  crop  most  extensively  grown  and 
also  the  most  valuable  crop,  alfalfa  be- 
ing the  principal  variety.  Wheat  and 
oats  are  the  most  widely  grown  cereals. 
Much  attention  is  given  to  vegetables, 
particularly  potatoes  and  sugar-beets. 
Sufficient  pasturage  to  support  a con- 
siderable grazing  industry  is  found  in 
the  eastern  half  and  the  valleys  of  the 
central  region.  A steady  increase  in  the 
number  of  dairy  cows  and  other  cattle, 
1 orses  and  sheep  has  been  maintained 
since  1850.  The  Union  Pacific  was  the 
first  railway  to  enter  Utah,  and  since  its 
advent  in  1869  the  development  of  the 
state  has  been  very  rapid.  The  total  rail- 
\\ay  mileage  in  1876  was  500;  in  1894, 


1347;  and  in  1907,  1835.  The  most  im- 
portant railway  lines  are  the  Rio  Grande 
Western  and  the  Oregan  Short  Line,  ex- 
tending north  and  south  through  the 
central  part  of  the  state,  and  the  Union 
Pacific,  passing  through  the  northern 
portion.  There  are  no  navigable  streams. 
Utah  is  the  center  of  Mormonism.  About 
three-fourths  of  its  population  is  allied 
with  the  Mormon  church.  In  recent 
years  many  other  denominations  have 
entered  the  state,  of  which  the  Catholics 
and  Methodists  are  numerically  the 
strongest.  The  leading  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  University  of  Utah,  at 
Salt  Lake  City;  Brigham  Young  College, 
at  Logan ; and  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Utah,  also  at  Logan.  A state  normal 
college  is  maintained  in  connection  with 
the  State  University,  and  there  is  a 
branch  normal  school  at  Cedar  City. 
The  first  white  explorers  of  Utah  were 
Spaniards,  sent  by  Coronado,  who 
reached  the  Colorado  river  in  1540.  The 
real  history  of  Utah  begins  when  the 
Mormons  determined  in  1846  to  move 
west.  The  United  States  did  not  ob- 
tain possession  of  the  territory  until 
1848,  and  did  not  immediately  provide 
for  its  government.  At  first  the  Mor- 
mon church  was  the  ruler,  but  with 
the  coming  of  non-Mormons  in  1849 
the  state  of  Deseret  was  organized, 
a constitution  adopted,  and  a dele- 
gate sent  to  the  United  States  congress 
asking  admission.  Congress  refused 
to  admit  the  state,  but  organized  the 
Territory  of  Utah  (September  9,  1850), 
and  Brigham  Young  was  appointed 
governor.  The  Edmunds  bill  in  1882 
disfranchised  all  polygamists,  and  abol- 
ished most  of  the  offices  in  the  ter- 
ritory. Control  was  given  to  a com- 
mission of  five  men.  A more  stringent 
act  was  passed  in  1887,  the  corporation 
of  the  Mormon  church,  and  the  Per- 
petual Emigration  Fund  were  abolished, 
and  their  property  escheated.  In  1890, 
President  Woodruff  of  the  Mormon 
church  issued  a manifesto  declaring  that 
the  church  no  longer  countenanced 
polygamy.  This  was  followed  in  1891  by 
the  formation  of  political  parties,  on 
national  lines,  and  in  1893  amnesty  was 
declared  to  all  offenders  who  could  show 
that  they  had  not  broken  the  law  since 
1890.  Congress  passed  an  enabling  act 
for  statehood  in  1894,  a constitution 
was  formed  on  March  6,  1895,  was 
adopted  in  November,  and  the  state  was 
admitted  January  4,  1896.  The  consti- 
tution forbids  polgyamy  find  allows 
woman’s  suffrage.  The  state  has  voted 
in  but  three  presidential  elections.  The 
silver  question  was  the  sole  issue  in  1896, 
and  the  vote  was  cast  for  the  democratic 
silver  candidate.  In  I'JOO  Republican 
electors  were  chosen,  and  by  an  in- 
creased majority  in  1901  and  1908. 

The  capital  is  Salt  Lake  City;  other 
cities  are  Ogden,  Provo,  and  Logan. 
Pop.  1909,  950,000. 

UTAH,  University  of,  a state  institu- 
tion of  learning  for  both  sexes  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah,  founded  in  1850  as  the 
university  of  the  state  of  Deseret.  A new 
charter  was  secured  in  1894,  when  the 
present  corporate  title  was  assumed. 
The  departments  are  the  school  of  arts 
and  sciences;  the  state  school  of  mines, 
established  by  the  state  legislature  in  I 


1901;  the  state  normal  school ; and  a pre- 
paratory department.  Students  are  ad- 
mitted on  examination  or  on  certificate 
from  accredited  schools. 

UTAH  LAKE,  a fresh-water  lake  in 
Utah  territory,  30  miles  s.  of  Salt  Lake 
City.  It  is  25  miles  in  length  n.  to  s., 
with  an  extreme  width  of  13  miles.  Its 
waters  are  drained  into  Great  Salt  Lake 
by  means  of  the  river  Jordan.  Several 
Morman  towns  are  on  its  eastern  shores. 

UTAHS,  or  UTES,  a tribe  of  American 
Indians  of  the  Shoshone  family,  living 
in  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Colorado,  and 
Nevada.  They  practice  hunting  and 
fishing,  but  rarely  engage  in  agriculture. 
They  have  now  sold  most  of  their  lands 
to  the  United  States  government,  re- 
taining a large  reservation  in  the  south- 
west corner  of  Colorado. 

U'TERUS,  or  WOMB,  an  organ  of 
females,  situated  between  the  bladder 
and  rectum,  in  which  the  embryo  is  con- 
tained until  it  arrives  at  maturity,  when 
it  is  finally  born  or  expelled.  In  the 
virgin  female  it  is  somewhat  pear- 
shaped,  and  measures  about  3 inches 
long,  2 inches  broad,  1 inch  thick,  and 
weighs  about  1 J oz.  It  is  divided  into  a 
fundus  or  base,  a body,  and  a cervix  or 
neck.  It  opens  into  the  vagina  by  a 
transverse  aperture.  The  organ  is  re-  i 
tained  in  its  place  by  certain  ligaments  i’ 
derived  from  the  peritoneum.  Its  inter-  •; 
nal  cavity  is  small,  and  at  each  superior 
angle  at  the  fundus  a Fallopian  tube  I 
or  oviduct  enters.  These  tubes  convey  t 
the  ova  or  eggs  from  the  ovary  to  the  | 
uterus.  In  structure  the  uterus  is  com-  i 
posed  of  an  outer  serous  coat,  a middle  9 
muscular  coat,  and  an  inner  mucous  ^ 
lining.  The  arteries  of  the  uterus  are  f 
derived  from  the  internal  iliac  and  the  k 
aorta;  the  veins  are  large,  and  are  ealled  I 
sinuses  in  the  impregnated  state.  The  I 
nerves  spring  from  the  inferior  hypogas-  1 
trie  and  spermatic  plexuses,  and  from  | 
the  third  and  fourth  sacral  nerves.  The  i 
womb  is  liable  to  many  diseases,  of  f 
which  the  most  frequent  and  important  4 
are  inflammatory  affections  and  tumors.  I 
It  is  also  liable  to  become  displaced  in  " 
various  ways,  from  laxity  of  its  hga-  | 
ments  and  other  causes.  ; 

U'TICA,  an  ancient  city  of  North  ; 
Africa,  on  the  river  Bagrada,  near  its  i 
entrance  into  the  Mediterranean.  After  1 
the  destruction  of  Carthage,  Utica  be>  ■ 
came  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province.  ' 
It  was  destroyed  by  the  Arabs  in  the  « 
latter  part  of  the  7th  century. 

U'TICA,  a city  in  New  York,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mohawk,  95 
miles  west  by  north  of  Albany.  It  has  ^ 
cotton  factories,  boot  and  shoe  factories, 
flour,  grist,  and  saw  mills,  tanneries, 
foundries,  machine-shops,  etc.;  and  an 
extensive  trade,  greatlyfacilitated  bythe 
Erie  and  the  Chenango  canals,  and  by 
several  railways.  Pop.  1909,  72,000. 

UTILITARIANISM,  the  general  name 
given  to  those  schools  of  morals  which  i 
define  virtue  as  consisting  in  utility.  The 
name  is  more  specially  applied  to  the 
school  founded  by  Jeremy  Bentham,  of 
which  the  most  recent  exponent  is  John 
Stuart  Mill,  but  there  are  many  other 
developments  of  the  same  principle  both  ' 
in  ancient  and  modern  schools  of  morals.  ! 
See  Ethics.  i 

UTOPIA,  a name  invented  by  Si::  | 


UTRECHT 


VALERIAN 


Thomas  More,  from  the  Greek  ou  topos 
(no  place),  and  applied  by  him  to  an 
imaginary  island,  which  he  represents  as 
discovered  by  a companion  of  Amerigo 
Vespucci.  As  described  in  his  work 
called  Utopia,  written  in  Latin  and 
published  in  1516,  the  Utopians  had 
attained  great  perfection  in  laws,  poli- 
tics, etc. 

UTRECHT,  (6'treht),  an  important 
town  of  Holland,  capital  of  a province 
of  the  same  name,  23  miles  southeast 
of  Amsterdam.  Utrecht  is  the  central 
point  of  the  Dutch  railv/ay  system,  and 
carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  grain 
and  cattle,  and  in  the  manufactures  of 
the  place,  which  include  Utrecht  velvet, 
carpets,  floor-cloth,  cottons,  linens, 
chemicals,  etc.  Utrecht  is  the  oldest 
town  in  Holland.  Pop.  104,194. — The 
province  of  Utrecht  has  an  area  of  532 
sq.  miles,  with  a pop.  of  215,958.  It  is 


V,  the  twenty-second  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet,  a labial,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  upper  teeth  with  the 
lower  lip,  and  a gentle  expiration.  It 
resembles  the  letter  f,  but  is  sonant  and 
not  like  it  surd  or  hard. 

VAAL  RIVER,  a river  of  South  Africa, 
rises  in  the  Quathlamba  mountains, 
separates  the  Transvaal  and  Orange 
River  colony  and  enters  the  Orange 
river:  length  500  miles. 

VACCINATION,  inoculation  with  the 
cowpox — a disease  akin  to,  but  much 
less  severe  than  smallpox — in  order  to 
prevent  a person  from  catching  the 
latter,  or  at  least  to  make  the  attack 
much  less  severe.  The  practice  of  vac- 
cination was  introduced  by  Jenner,  and 
it  soon  came  into  common  use  instead  of 
inoculation.  (See  Jenner  and  Inocula- 
tion.) The  usual  method  in  vaccination 
is  to  make  a few  scratches  across  one 
another,  with  a clean  lancet  point,  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  arm.  The  matter 
from  the  cowpox,  or  from  the  vaccina- 
tion pustule  produced  on  another  per- 
son, is  then  rubbed  on  the  skin  where 
the  scratches  have  been  made.  If  the 
vaccination  proves  successful  a small 
inflamed  pustule  appears  about  the 
third  day,  and  increases  dn  size  until 
. the  tenth  day.  On  the  eighth  day  the 
constitutional  effects  manifest  them- 
selves by  slight  pain  in  the  part,  head- 
ache, shivering,  loss  of  appetite,  etc. 
These  subside  spontaneously  in  one  or 
two  days.  Afterward  the  fluid  in  the 
pustules  dries  up,  and  a scab  forms 
which  disappears  about  the  twentieth 
day,  leaving  a slight  scar  in  the  skin. 
Repeated  vaccination  with  intervals  of 
several  years  have  been  recommended 
by  medical  authorities.  In  the  United 
States  the  vaccination  of  all  children, 
excepting  those  in  an  unhealthy  or 
otherwise  unfit  condition,  is  compul- 
sory. In  England  since  1898  any  parent 
who  satisfies  two  justices  or  a stipen- 
diary magistrate  that  he  really  be- 
1 lieves  that  vaccination  would  be  in- 
I jurious  to  his  child  may  be  exempted 
\ from  penalties. 

VAC'UUM,  empty  space,  or  space  de- 
I void  of  all  matter  or  body.  Whether 


generally  flat,  is  well  watered  by  the 
Rhine,  Vecht,  Amstel,  etc.,  and  is  better 
suited  for  dairy-farming  and  stock- 
rearing than  for  corn-growing. 

UTRECHT,  Peace  of,  a series  of  sepa- 
rate treaties  agreed  upon  at  Utrecht  by 
the  powers  which  had  been  engaged 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
On  April  11,  1713,  the  States-general, 
Prussia,  Portugal,  and  Savoy,  signed 
separate  treaties  with  France.  The  em- 
peror refused  to  accede  to  the  peace, 
and  his  differences  with  France  were 
subsequently  adjusted  by  the  treaties 
of  Rastadt  and  Baden  in  1714.  By  the 
treaty  with  England,  France,  among 
other  things,  recognized  the  Hanoverian 
succession,  engaged  never  to  unite  the 
crowns  of  France  and  Spain,  and  ceded 
to  Britain  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
St.  Kitt’s,  and  Hudson’s  bay  and  straits. 
Gibraltar  and  Minorca  were  also  ceded 

V 

there  is  such  a thing  as  an  absolute 
vacuum  in  nature  is  a question  which 
has  been  much  controverted.  The 
existence  of  a vacuum  was  maintained 
by  the  Pythagoreans,  Epicureans,  and 
Atomists;  but  it  was  denied  by  the 
Peripatetics,  who  asserted  that  “nature 
abhors  a vacuum.”  The  modern  theory, 
which  seems  to  be  warranted  by  ex- 
perience, is  that  an  absolute  vacuum 
cannot  exist,  the  subtle  mediupi  known 
as  ether  being  believed  to  be  everywhere 
present.  In  a less  strict  sense  a vacuum 
(more  or  less  perfect)  is  said  to  be  pro- 
duced when  air  is  more  or  less  com- 
pletely removed  from  an  inclosed  space, 
such  as  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  a 
portion  of  a barometric  tube,  etc.  In 
the  receiver  of  the  air-pump  the  vacuum 
can  only  be  partial,  as  the  exhaustion  is 
limited  by  the  remaining  air  not  having 
sufficient  elasticity  to  raise  the  valves. 
The  Torricellian  vacuum,  that  is,  the 
space  above  the  mercury  in  a carefully 
manipulated  barometer  tube,  is  more 
nearly  perfect  in  this  respect,  but  even 
this  space  is  to  some  extent  filled  with 
the  vapor  of  mercury.  If,  however,  an 
air-pump  reeeiver,  filled  with  pure 
carbonic  acid  gas  (so  as  to  expel  the  air), 
be  exhausted,  a small  vessel  containing 
moist  caustic  potash,  and  another  con- 
taining concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
having  been  previously  introduced,  the 
remaining  carbonic  acid  is  taken  up  and 
a vacuum  produced  so  nearly  absolute 
that  the  electric  spark  fails  to  pass 
through  it. 

VACUUM-BRAKE.  See  Brake. 

VALAIS  (va-la),  a southern  canton  of 
Switzerland,  abutting  on  France  and 
Italy;  area,  2026  sq.  miles.  It  is  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  sections  of  the 
Alps,  with  ridges  13,000  to  15,000  feet 
high,  and  magnificent  glaciers.  Rich 
pastures  support  numerous  cattle,  the 
chief  source  of  subsistence  of  the  in- 
habitants; and  in  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Rhone  there  is  much  arable  land,  the 
finer  fruits  are  grown,  and  silk-worms 
reared.  Pop.  114,980. 

VALENCIA,  a city  of  Spain,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Guadilaviar,  2 miles  from  the  Mediter- 


on  behalf  of  Spain.  Holland  retained 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  until  a barrier 
treaty  was  arranged  with  Austria.  Louis 
XIV.  recognized  the  title  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  who  received  a part  of  Span- 
ish Guelderland,  and  the  sovereignty  of 
Neufchatel  in  Switzerland,  while  re- 
nouncing the  principality  of  Orange. 
Savoy  and  Nice  were  restored  to  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  who  was  recognized  as 
presumptive  heir  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
archy, and  received  the  title  of  king. 
Philip  V.  was  not  recognized  till  the  con- 
clusion of  these  treaties,  but  France 
treated  for  Spain,  and  formal  treaties 
corresponding  with  those  with  France 
were  afterward  signed  with  that  power. 

UZ,  in  the  Old  Testament,  a region 
probably  lying  to  the  east  or  southeast 
of  Palestine,  known  as  the  scene  of  the 
story  of  Job. 


ranean.  The  chief  manufactures  are  silk, 
linen,  hemp,  glass,  cigars,  paper,  and 
soap.  Valencia  was  founded  by  Junius 
Brutus,  140  B.c.  Pop.  204,768.  The  old 
province  of  Valencia  is  now  broken  up 
into  the  three  provinces  of  Valencia, 
Alicante,  and  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  pleasant 
regions  of  Spain. 

VALENS,  Flavius,  Roman  emperor 
of  the  East,  born  in  Pannonia  in  328, 
and  declared  emperor  of  the  East  by  his 
brother  Valentinian  I.,  who  had  already 
been  elected  emperor.  The  chief  event 
of  his  reign  was  the  war  with  the  Goths 
under  Athanaric,  which  lasted  during 
the  whole  of  Valens’  reign.  Irritated  by 
the  treatment  they  received  at  the  hands 
of  the  imperial  officials,  they  soon  took 
up  arms,  and  in  378  defeated  Valens 
and  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  his 
army.  Valens  was  never  seen  or  heard 
of  afterward. 

VALENTIA,  or  VALENCIA,  a small 
fertile  island  off  the  southwest  coast  of 
Ireland,  belonging  to  county  Kerry, 
about  5 miles  long  by  2 miles  broad.  It 
has  slate  and  flag  quarries,  and  produc- 
tive fisheries.  The  British  Atlantic  tele- 
graph cables  to  Newfoundland  start 
from  Valentia,  and  there  is  here  a light- 
house. 

VALENTINE,  St.,  a saint  of  the  Ro- 
man calendar,  said  to  have  been  mar- 
tyred in  306  A.D.  The  custom  of  choos- 
ing valentines  on  his  day  (14th  Feb- 
ruary) has  been  accidentally  associated 
with  his  name.  On  the  eve  of  St.  Valen- 
tine’s day  young  people  of  both  sexes 
used  to  meet,  and  each  of  them  drew  one 
by  lot  from  a number  of  names  of  the 
opposite  sex,  which  were  put  into  a 
common  receptacle.  Each  gentleman 
thus  got  a lady  for  his  valentine,  and  be- 
came the  valentine  of  a lady.  The  gen- 
tlemen remained  bound  to  the  service 
of  their  valentines  for  a year.  A similar 
custom  prevailed  in  the  Roman  Luper- 
calia,  to  which  the  modern  custom  has, 
with  probability,  been  traced.  The  day 
is  now  celebrated  by  sending  sentimen- 
tal or  ludicrous  missives  specially  pre- 
pared for  the  purpose. 

VALERIAN,  a plant,  a native  of 


valerianus 


VAMPIRE 


Europe,  which  grows  abundantly  by 
the  sides  of  rivers,  and  in  ditches  and 
moist  woods.  The  root  has  a very  strong 
smell,  which  is  dependent  on  a volatile 
oU.  It  is  used  in  medicine,  in  the  form  of 


Valerian. 


infusion,  decoction,  or  tincture,  as  a 
nervous  stimulant  and  antispasmodic. 
Cats  and  rats  are  very  fond  of  valerian 
Red  valerian,  is  occasionally  found  wild 
in  Britain,  and  is  cultivated  in  gardens, 
as  well  as  many  other  species,  on  ac- 
count of  its  elegant  flowers.  The  valerian 
order  consists  of  monopetalous  exogens, 
annual  or  perennial  herbs,  rarely  shrubs, 
inhabiting  temperate  climates. 

VALERIA'NUS,  Publius  Licimus,  Ro- 
man emperor  from  253  to  260.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians  in  260, 
and  his  after  fate  is  unknown. 

VALET'TA,  a strongly  fortified  sea- 
port, capital  of  Malta,  on  the  n.e.  coast 
of  the  island,  situated  on  an  elevated 
neck  of  land,  with  a large  and  com- 
modious harbor  on  each  side.'  The 
cathedral,  built  in  1580,  contains  the 


here  spent  much  of  their  time  in  drink- 
ing and  feasting.  The  name  is  applied 
figuratively  to  any  edifice  which  is  the 
final  resting-place  of  many  of  the  heroes 
or  great  men  of  a nation,  and  specifically 
to  an  edifice  built  by  Ludwig  I.  of 
Bavaria,  a few  miles  from  Ratisbon. 
See  Walhalla. 

VALKYRTAS,  in  Northern  mythology 
the  “choosers  of  the  slain,”  or  fatal 
sisters  of  Odin,  represented  as  awful 
and  beautiful  maidens,  who,  mounted 
on  swift  horses  and  holding  drawn 
swords  in  their  hands,  presided  over  the 
field  of  battle,  selecting  those  destined 
to  death  and  conducting  them  to  Val- 
halla, where  they  ministered  at  their 
feasts,  serving  them  with  mead  and 
ale  in  skulls. 

VALLADOLID  (vM-yfi-do-lid'),  a city 
of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  98  miles  northwest  of 
Madrid.  It  has  a cathedral,  many 
churches  and  suppressed  convents, 
three  hospitals,  and  a university.  The 
manufactures  consist  of  silks,  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  hats,  jewelry,  paper, 
etc.  Pop.  68,746.— The  province  has 
an  area  of  3042  sq.  miles,  and  a popula- 
tion of  276,366.  It  is  well  watered  by 
the  Douro  and  its  tributaries,  and  is 
verv  fertile. 

VALLANDIGHAM  (vM-l&n'dI-gam), 
Clement  Laird,  American  politician, 
was  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  in  1820. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Ohio  legislature 
in  1845;  edited  the  Dayton  Western 
Empire  in  1847-49;  and  from  1857  until 
1863  was  a member  of  the  national 
house  of  representatives.  He  violently 
attacked  the  Lincoln  administration 
both  in  and  out  of  congress.  After  his 


convention  of  1864.  In  1871  while  act 
ing  as  counsel  in  a murder  trial  he 
attempted  to  illustrate  how  the  shooting 
occurred  and  was  killed  by  the  accidental 
discharge  of  the  pistol. 

VALPARAISO  (vM-pa-ri's6),  the  prin- 
cipal port  of  Chile,  capital  of  the  prov;, 
ince  of  Valparaiso,  situated  on  a large 
bay  of  the  Pacific,  90  miles  w.n.w.  of 
Santiago.  The  bay  is  open  to  the  north,' 
but  well  sheltered  from  winds  in  other 
directions,  and  is  capable  of  accommo-' 
dating  a very  large  number  of  vessels. 
The  custom-house  is  the  only  public 
building  worthy  of  note.  Valparaiso  is 
the  great  commercial  emporium  of  Chile 


Bird’s-eye  view  of  Valetta. 


tombs  of  the  knights  of  Malta  or  of  St. 
John,  and  in  a chapel  are  the  keys  of 
Jerusalem,  Acre,  and  Rhodes.  Other 
notable  buildings  are  the  governor’s 
residence,  formerly  the  palace  of  the 
grand-masters;  the  library,  museum, 
university,,  and  the  military  hospital. 
The  dockyard  is  capable  of  admitting 
the  largest  men-of-war.  The  mail 
steamers  for  Alexandria,  Constanti- 
nople, etc.,  call  here,  and  it  is  the  chief 
station  of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. Pop.  90,000.  See  Malta 
VALHALLA,  in  Northern  mythology, 
the  palace  of  immortality,  inhabited  by 
the  souls  of  heroes  slain  in  battle,  who 


term  in  congress  expired,  he  continued 
to  make  incendiary  speeches  against 
the  government.  As  a result  he  was  ar- 
restedinMay,  1863,  by  order  of  General 
Ambrose  E.  Burnside ; was  tried  by  court 
martial;  and  was  sentenced  to  be  im- 
prisoned in  Fort  Warren.  President 
Lincoln,  however,  changed  the  sentence 
to  deportation  into  the  confederate 
lines.  Thence  Vallandigham  made  his 
way  to  the  Bermudas,  and  thence  to 
Canada.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
nominated  by  his  party  for  the  governor- 
ship of  Ohio,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
overwhelming  majority  of  100,000  votes. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  democratic 


and  is  in  railway  communication  ■with 
Santiago,  the  capital.  The  chief  imports 
into  Valparaiso  are  manufactured  goods/ 
sugar,  wine,  tobacco,  and  cigars.  The 
exports  consist  mainly  of  wheat,  barley,' 
wool,  etc.,  and  of  mining  produce; 
The  imports  of  Valparaiso  constitute 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  imports  of  Chile, 
while  the  exports  form  a large  portion 
of  the  total  exports.  An  earthquake  and 
fire  in  1906  caused  great  loss  of  life  and 
property.  Pop.  143,022.— The  province 
has  an  area  of  1637  sq.  miles,  and  a 
pop.  220,756.  t 

VALVE,  a kind  of  movable  lid  or  cover 
adapted  to  the  orifice  of  some  tube  or 
passage,  and  so  formed  as  to  open  com- 
munication in  one  direction  and  to  close 
it  in  the  other,  used  to  regulate  the  ad-j 
mission  or  escape  of  a fluid,  such  as 
water,  gas,  or  steam.  Some  valves  are 
self-acting,  that  is,  they  are  so  coiitrived 
as  to  open  in  the  required  direction  by 
the  pressure  of  the  fluid  upon  their  sur; 
face,  and  immediately  to  shut  and  pre-^ 
vent  the  return  of  the  fluid  when  the 
direction  of  its  pressure  changes.  Others 
are  actuated  by  independent  external 
agency.  Examples  of  the  former  kmdf. 
are  presented  in  the  valves  of  pumps* 
and  in  the  safety-valves  of  steam  boilers, 
and  of  the  latter  in  the  slide-valves^ 
appended  to  the  cylinder  of  a steam--, 
engine  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the^ 
admission  and  escape  of  the  steam.  Ih^ 
construction  of  valves  admits  of  a^ 
almost  endless  variety.  See  Safety^ 
valve,  Pump,  etc.  _ , 

VAMPIRE,  a superstition  of  Eptern 
origin  existing  among  the  Slavomc  and 
other  races  on  the  Lo-wer  Danube.  A 
vampire  is  a ghost  still  possessing  s 
human  body,  which  leaves  the  grave 
during  the  night  and  sucks  the  blood  ot 
li’ving  persons,  particularly  of  tlm  young 
and  healthy.  Dead  wizards,  heretics, 
and  such  like  outcasts  become  vampires, 
as  does  also  any  one  killed  by  a vas^ 
pire.  On  the  discovery  of  a vampire  s 
grave  the  corpse  must  be  disinterred, 
thrust  through  with  a white-thorn  stake, 
and  burned. 


it) . ‘ 


* ■ 


VAMPIRE-BAT 


VANDVCK 


VAMPIRE-BAT,  a name  for  certain 
bats  inhabiting  South  America.  The 
name  was  given  from  the  blood-sucking 
habits  attributed  to  these  bats,  but  how 
many  of  them  really  attack  animals  and 
suck  blood  from  them  is  not  quite  clear. 
One  species  at  least,  known  as  the  vam- 
pire-bat, of  large  size  and  having  for- 
midable teeth,  seems  to  be  conclusively 
acquitted  of  the  charge,  its  regular  food 
being  fruits  and  insects.  It  has  large 
leathery  ears,  an  erect  spear-like  ap- 
pendage on  the  tip  of  the  nose,  wings 
when  extended  measuring  28  .inches. 


False  vampire,  one  of  the  vampyri. 


Several  bats,  however,  have  been  proved 
to  be  blood-suckers,  the  best-known 
being  a species  only  about  4 inches  long 
and  15  or  16  in  expanse  of  wing.  It  has 
large  prominent  upper  incisors  of  pecu- 
liar shape,  and  upper  canines  somewhat 
similar,  and  the  stomach  and  intestines 
are  evidently  specially  adapted  for  a 
diet  of  blood.  This  species  of  bat  seems 
to  be  generally  distributed  throughout 
the  warmer  parts  of  South  America 
from  Chile  to  Guiana.  The  blood-suck- 
ing propensities  of  these  bats  are  by  no 
means  so  dangerous  as  formerly  and 
popularly  described;  but  there  is  little 
doubt  that  they  do  attack  horses  and 
cattle,  and  sometimes  even  man  in  his 
sleep. 

VAN  BUREN,  Martin,  eighth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  born  at 
Kinderhook,  New  York,  1782;  died  1862. 
He  early  studied  law,  and  in  1812  was 
elected  to  the  state  senate.  He  was 
attorney-general  from  1815  to  1819, 
and  in  1821  was  elected  United  States 


Martin  Van  Buren. 


senator.  In  1828  he  became  governor 
of  New  York,  and  in  the  following  year 
President  Jackson  appointed  him  sec- 
retary of  state.  In  November,  1832, 
he  was  elected  vice-president,  and  in 
1836  became  president  of  the  United 
States.  The  difficulties  which  his  ad- 
ministration had  to  face  were  chiefly 


connected  with  the  deposit  of  state 
funds  in  private  banks,  and  his  method 
of  dealing  with  these  brought  about 
his  defeat  at  the  next  election  in  1840. 
He  was  again  nominated  by  the  demo- 
crats in  the  elections  of  1844  and  1848 
but  was  unsuccessful  on  both  occasions. 
He  wrote  a treatise  entitled  An  Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  and  Course  of  Political 
Parties  in  the  United  States  (1867). 

VANCOUVER,  George,  English  navi- 
gator, born  about  1758,  died  1798.  He 
accompanied  Cook  on  his  second  and 
third  voyages  (1772-74  and  1776-79); 
was  made  first  lieutenant  in  1780;  and 
served  in  the  West  Indies  until  1789. 
In  1790  he  was  put  in  command  of  a 
small  squadron  sent  to  take  over  Nootka 
from  the  Spaniards,  and  was  also 
charged  to  ascertain  if  there  was  a north- 
west passage.  He  sailed  inthe  Discovery, 
April  1,  1791,  spent  some  time  at  the 
Cape,  and  afterward  made  for  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  the  coast  of  which  he 
surveyed.  He  then  went  north  and  re- 
ceived formal  surrender  of  Nootka,  and 
spent  the  three  summers  of  1792-94  in 
surveying  the  coast  as  far  north  as 
Cook’s  Inlet,  wintering  at  the  Sandwich 
islands.  On  his  return  voyage  he  visited 
the  chief  Spanish  settlements  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  America,  and 
reached  England  in  1795,  where  a nar- 
rative of  his  voyage  was  published  in 
1798.  Vancouver  island  was  named 
after  him. 

VANCOUVER  ISLAND,  an  island  in 
the  Pacific,  off  the  west  coast  of  British 
Columbia,  of  which  province  of  Canada 
it  forms  part;  length,  from  250  to  300 
miles;  breadth,  from  10  to  70  miles; 
area,  about  15,000  sq.  miles.  It  is  gen- 
erally mountainous,  and  heavily  tim- 
bered. The  climate  is  temperate,  and 
the  soil,  in  the  south  and  east,  fertile 
and  favorable  to  agriculture  and  fruit- 
growing. Large  quantities  of  salmon 
are  exported,  and  there  is  an  extensive 


trade  in  fur,  the  skins  exported  being 
chiefly  those  of  the  minx,  marten,  sable, 
fox,  bear,  beaver,  otter,  seal,  and  deer. 
There  are  numerous  good  harbors  along 
the  coasts,  the  chief  of  which  is  Es- 
quimault.  As  this  island  lies  opposite 
the  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
railway  it  has  recently  acquired  great 
importance.  The  chief  town  of  the 
island,  and  the  capital  of  British  Colum- 
bia, is  Victoria  in  the  extreme  southeast. 
Pop.  of  the  island  about  50,000. 

Vandals,  a German  nation  or  con- 
federation, probably  allied  to  the  Goths, 
who  occupied  at  an  early  period  the 
country  on  the  south  of  the  Baltic,  be- 


tween the  Oder  and  the  Vistula.  At  a 
later  period  they  appear  to  have  de- 
scended into  Silesia,  and  subsequently 
occupied  Pannonia,  Moravia,  and  Dacia. 
In  406,  in  conjunction  with  a German 
host,  they  ravaged  Gaul,  and  thence 
found  their  way  into  Spain.  After  de- 
feating an  allied  army  of  Goths  and 
Romans,  they  seized  Seville  and  Car- 
thagena,  and,  led  by  Genseric,  crossed 
to  Africa.  Here  they  vanquished  the 
Roman  governor  (429),  and  founded  a 
kingdom,  which  absorbed  the  greater 
part  of  the  Roman  possessions.  Gen- 
seric immediately  began  to  revive  the 
maritime  glories  of  Carthage,  and  ex- 
tended his  conquests  to  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Corsica.  He  also  invaded  Italy  and 
sacked  Rome  in  455.  Genseric  concluded 
a long  reign  in  peace  in  477.  The  king- 
dom of  the  Vandals  was  continued  undei 
his  descendants — Hunneric,  his  son, 
who  immediately  succeeded  him ; Gun- 
damund,  484;  Thrasiimund,  496;  Hil- 
deric,  523;  Gelimer,  530.  It  was  over- 
thrown in  534  by  Belisarius,  the  general 
of  the  eastern  Emperor  Justinian. 

VANDERBILT,  Cornelius,  American 
capitalist,  born  1794,  died  1877,  amassed 
immense  wealth  in  connection  with 
shipping  and  railroads,  a share  of  which 
he  left  to  his  eldest  son  William  Henry, 
born  1821,  died  1885,  who  was  sup- 
posed at  his  death  to  be  the  wealthiest 
man  in  the  world.  The  Vanderbilt  uni- 
versity (Methodist  Episcopal)  at  Nash- 
ville, Tennessee,  was  founded  by  Cor- 
nelius Vanderbilt,  who  presented  it  with 
$1,000,000. 

VANDERBILT,  Cornelius,  American 
financier  and  capitalist,  was  born  at 
New  Dorp,  Staten  Island,  in  1843.  In 
1865  he  entered  the  service  of  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  railroad,  of  which  he 
was  treasurer  from  1867  to  1877.  In 
1877  he  became  first  vice-president  of 
the  New  A^ork  Central  railroad.  In  1878 
be  became  treasurer  of  the  Michigan 
Central  railroad  and  vice-president  and 
treasurer  of  the  Canadian  Southern. 
Subsequently  he  was  president  of  both 
roads,  besides  being  president  of  the 
New  A^ork  and  Harlem,  and  after  1886 
chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the 
New  A^ork  Central  railroad.  He  died  in 
1899. 

VANDERBILT,  William  Henry, Amer- 
ican capitalist  and  financier,  was  born 
in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  in  1821.  He 
became  vice-president  of  the  New  A’'ork 
and  Harlem  railroad  in  1864;  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son river  in  1865.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1877  as  president  of  the  latter 
road,  and  under  his  management  the 
control  was  completed  of  the  Michigan 
Central,  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  Canada  wSouthern,  and  Chi- 
cago and  Northwestern  systems.  Sub- 
sequently the  “Nickel  Plate”  and  West 
Shore  roads  were  acquired.  He  died 
in  1885. 

VAN  DIEMEN’S  LAND.  See- Tas- 
mania. 

VANDYCK  (van-dik').  Sir  Anthony, 
except  perhaps  Titian  the  greatest  of  all 
portrait-painters,  was  born  at  Antwerp 
on  the  22d  of  March,  1599.  Having 
acquired  a great  reputation  as  a portrait 
painter  he  was  invited  to  England  by 
Charles  I.,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the 


VANDYKE  BROWN 


VASSAR  COLLEGE 


honor  of  knighthood.  The  painter  by 
unceasing  diligence,  executed,  besides 
a multitude  of  portraits,  several  myth- 


Sir  Anthony  Vandyck. 


ological  and  historical  paintings.  He 
died  in  1641,  and  was  buried  at  St. 
Paul’s. 

VANDYKE  BROWN,  a pigment  ob- 
tained from  a kind  of  peat  or  bog-earth, 
of  a fine,  deep,  semi-transparent  brown 
color;  so  called  from  its  being  supposed 
to  be  the  brown  used  by  Vandyck  in  his 
pictures. 

VAN  EYCK.  See  Eyck. 

VANILLA,  a flavoring  agent  used  in 
confectionery,  and  in  the  preparation 
of  liquors,  procured  from  the  fruit  of 
orchidaceous  plants  of  tropical  America, 
remarkable  on  account  of  their  climbing 


habit,  and  now  cultivated  in  various 
tropical  countries,  including  Ceylon  and 
India.  It  has  a fragrant  odor,  and  is  also 
used  in  medicine  as  a stimulant  and 
promoter  of  digestion. 

VAN  RENSSELAER  (v&n  r6n'se-ler), 
Stephen,  American  political  leader 
known  as  the  “Patroon,”  was  born  in 
New  York  in  1764.  He  was  lieutenant- 
governor  of  New  York  from  1795  to 
1801;  presided  over  the  state  constitu- 
tional convention  of  1801 ; and  was  again 
in  the  assembly  in  1808-10.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  construction  of  the 
Erie  canal  and  was  one  of  its  strongest 
promoters.  In  1824  he  established  at 
Troy  a scientific  school  which,  two  years 
later,  was  incorporated  as  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  institute.  From  1823  to 
1829  he  was  a member  of  congress.  He 
died  in  1839. 

VAPOR,  in  physics,  a term  applied 
to  designate  the  gaseous  form  which  a 
solid  or  liquid  substance  assumes  when 
heated.  Vapor  is,  therefore,  essentially 


a gas,  and  seeing  that  all  known  gases 
have  now  been  proved  to  be  liquefiable, 
no  physical  difference  can  be  said  really 
to  exist  between  an  ordinary  gas,  such 
as  oxygen,  and  a vapor,  such  as  steam. 
In  common  language,  however,  a dif- 
ference is  usually  recognized;  a gas  is 
a substance  which  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures and  pressures  exists  in  a state  of 
vapor,  while  a vapor  is  produced  by  the 
application  of  heat  to  a substance  which 
normally  exists  in  a solid  or  liquid  form. 
The  difference  has  been  otherwise  ex- 
plained to  be  one  not  so  much  of  kind  as 
of  degree ; steam  in  the  boiler  of  a steam- 
engine  being  said  to  be  in  a state  of 
vapor,  while  superheated  steam  is  said 
to  be  a gas.  Aqueous  vapor  formed  on 
the  surface  of  the  land  and  water  is 
always  present  in  suspension  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  when  it  meets  with  a 
reduction  of  temperature  it  condenses 
into  water  in  the  form  of  rain  or  dew. 

VAR,  a department  in  the  southeast 
of  France,  bordering  upon  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  covered  in  the  interior  with 
ramifications  of  the  Alps;  area,  2349  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  325,490. 

VARICOSE  VEINS,  veins  in  a dis- 
eased state,  which  become  dilated  and 
uneven,  and  form  hard  knotty  swellings 
in  the  situation  of  their  valves.  The 
disease  is  a common  affection  of  the 
lower  limbs,  where  sometimes  the  varix 
bursts  and  haemorrhage  takes  place.  It 
also  occurs  in  the  veins  of  the  scrotum 
and  lower  rectum,  producing  in  the 
latter  case  bleeding  piles.  Varicose  veins 
are  caused  by  local  obstruction  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  are  com- 
mon in  pregnancy,  while  stout  people, 
and  those  who  stand  most  of  the  day  at 
work,  are  apt  to  suffer  from  them.  The 
treatment  consists  in  the  application  of 
proper  bandages,  and  rest  to  the  limb 
supported  in  an  elevated  position. 

VAR'UNA,  in  Hindu  mythology,  the 
god  of  water,  the  cause  of  rain,  lord  of 
rivers  and  the  sea,  the  Hindu  Neptune 
or  Poseidon  indeed.  His  name  corre- 


Varuna,  the  Indian  God  of  Waters. 

spends  with  Greek  Our3,nus  (Uranus), 
and  meant  originally  the  sky  or  heavens. 
He  is  represented  as  a white  man,  four- 
armed, riding  on  a sea  animal,  generally 
with  a noose  in  one  of  his  hands  and  a 
club  in  the  other. 

VASA,  Gustavus.  See  Gustavus  I. 

VASCULAR  TISSUE,  in  plants,  con- 
sists of  elongated  ducts  or  cells,  which 
may  have  closed  extremities,  so  that 
fluids  pass  from  one  cell  to  another 
through  the  partition  walls,  or  these 
partitions  may  be  partly  obliterated, 
thus  forming  a continuous  tube.  See 
Botany. 

VASE,  a name  applied  to  certain  ves- 


sels of  an  ornamental  character.  Vases 
were  made  in  ancient  times  of  all  ma- 
terials, but  those  which  have  come  down 
to  us  in  greatest  numbers  are  the  so- 
called  Etruscan  vases,  made  of  terra 
cotta,  and  adorned  with  painted  figures. 
Such  vases  have  been  found  in  most 
Greek  cities  as  well  as  in  Etruria,  and 
all  are  really  the  productions  of  Greek 
art.  The  Greek  vases  of  the  oldest  style 
mostly  come  from  Corinth  and  the 
islands  of  Thera  and  Melos ; and  those  of 
the  late  rich  style  have  been  almost  ex' 
clusively  discovered  in  Lower  Italy 
(Apulia  and  Lucania),  and  were  prob- 
ably manufactured  there,  chiefly  in  the 
4th  and  3d  centuries  b.c.  Vases  were 
used  for  all  purposes,  but  one  peculiar 
and  very  common  application  of  them 


Chinese,  Japanese  and  Indian  Vases. 


was  to  adorn  sepulchers.  Chased  metal 
vases  were  in  use  in  ancient  times  both 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
many  of  the  more  valuable  and  beautiful 
kinds  of  stone  were  also  used  for  mak- 
ing vases.  Murrine  vases  were  highly 
esteemed  at  Rome.  Another  favorite 
kind  of  vases  at  Rome  was  that  called 
cameo  vases,  made  of  two  layers  of 
glass,  the  outer  of  which  was  opaque, 
and  was  cut  down  so  as  to  leave  figures 
standing  out  upon  the  lower  layer  as  a 
ground.  The  celebrated  Portland  vase  is 
an  example  of  this  kind.  At  a later 
period  glass  vases  surrounded  with 
delicate  filagree  work  were  introduced. 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  produced  many 
vases  which  are  the  perfection  of  artistic 
form  and  execution,  and  since  the  15th 
century  many  master-pieces  of  the  glass 
art  in  the  form  of  vases  have  issued  from 
the  Venetian  manufactories.  From 
India,  China,  and  Japan  also  have  been 
obtained  vases  of  various  materials, 
especially  of  porcelain,  vying  in  elegance 
of  form  and  beauty  of  ornamentation 
with  those  produced  in  Europe. 

VASSAL.  See  Feudal  System. 

VASSAR  COLLEGE,  a university  at 
Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  founded  by 
Matthew  Vassar  in  1861  for  the  higher  ' 
education  of  women.  It  is  a fine  brick  I 
edifice,  500  feet  long  by  200  wide,  and  I 
was  erected  at  a cost  of  about  $200,000  | 
being  opened  in  September,  1865.  It 
confers  the  degrees  of  B.  A.  and  M. 


VATICAN 


VEINS 


and  the  course  of  studies  resembles 
those  of  other  first-class  colleges. 

VAT'ICAN,  the  most  extensive  palace 
of  modern  Rome,  the  residence  of  the 
pope,  built  upon  the  Vatican  Hill,  from 
which  it  has  received  its  name,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  from  the  bulk 
of  the  city,  immediately  to  the  north  of 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter’s.  It  is  a long 
rectangular  edifice  lying  north  and 
south,  with  an  irregular  cluster  of  build- 
ings at  either  end.  The  present  building 
was  begun  by  Pope  Eugenius  III.  (1145- 
53),  and  has  been  enlarged  and  embel- 
lished by  many  subsequent  popes  down 
to  the  last  one  (Leo  XIII.).  It  now  pos- 
sesses twenty  courts,  and,  it  is  said, 
11,000  rooms  of  one  sort  or  another 
Immense  treasures  are  stored  up  in  it. 
Here  are  celebrated  collections  of  pic- 
tures of  many  of  the  great  masters,  and 
museums  in  which  all  periods  of  the  arts 
are  represented  by  many  of  their  most 
perfect  productions.  Among  its  noblest 
art  treasures  are  the  frescoes  on  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  Sistine  chapel,  painted  by 
Michael  Angelo,  and  consisting  of  scenes 
and  figures  connected  with  sacred 
history;  and  the  frescoes  painted  by 
Raphael  on  the  ceilings  and  walls  of 
certain  apartments  known  as  Raphael’s 
stanze,  the  subjects  being  biblical,  alle- 
gorical, etc.  Since  the  return  of  the 
popes  from  Avignon,  the  Vatican  has 
been  their  principal  residence,  and  here 
the  conclaves  always  meet  for  the  elec- 
tion of  new  popes.  The  Vatican  library 
was  first  constituted  by  Pope  Nicholas 
V.  (1447-55),  and  was  added  to  and 
enlarged  by  Leo  X.,  Pius  IV.,  Pius  V., 
and  other  popes.  The  most  impor- 
tant part  of  the  library  is  the  manuscript 
collection,  whick  is  said  to  contain 
about  25,600  MSS.  The  number  of 
printed  volumes  has  been  estimated  at 
from  150,000  to  220,000,  including  2500 
15th-century  editions,  and  a great  num- 
ber of  bibliographical  rarities. 

VATICAN  COUNCIL,  the  Ecumenical 
Council  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  which 
met  in  the  Vatican  in  1870,  and  declared 
the  personal  infallibility  of  the  pope 
when  speaking  ex  cathedra  to  be  a 
dogma  of  the  church. 

VAUCLUSE  (vo-kltiz),  a department 
in  the  southeast  of  France;  area,  1370 
sq.  miles.  It  is  rugged  and  mountainous 
in  the  east,  but  more  than  one-half  of 
the  whole  surface  is  arable,  and  vine- 
yards occupy  about  one-sixth  of  this 
portion.  The  mulberry  (for  the  rearing 
of  silk-worms)  and  olive  are  extensively 
cultivated.  Avignon  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
235,457. 

VAUD,  or  PAYS-DE-VAUD,  a western 
canton  of  Switzerland;  area,  1244  sq. 
miles.  It  has  three  mountain  systems — 
the  Alps  in  the  southeast,  the  Jura  in 
the  west,  and  the  Jorat  in  the  south ; and 
partly  embraces  the  lakes  of  Geneva 
and  Neufch5,tel,  belonging  both  to  the 
basins  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone.  The 
capital  is  Lausanne.  Pop.  279,152. 

VAULT,  in  architecture,  a continued 
arch,  or  an  arched  roof,  so  constructed 
that  the  stones,  bricks,  or  other  material 
of  which  it  is  composed,  sustain  and 
keep  each  other  in  their  places.  Vaults 
are  of  various  kinds,  cylindrical,  ellipti- 
cal, single,  double,  cross,  diagonal. 
Gothic,  etc. 


VEDAS,  the  oldest  of  the  Shastras  or 
sacred  writings  of  the  Brahmans,  and 
the  oldest  compositions  in  the  Sanskrit 
language.  Their  date  is  unknown.  Sir 
W.  Jones  fixes  it  at  1500  b.c.,  and  Ritter 
at  1400  to  1600  b.c.  They  are  four  in 
number,  called  respectively  the  Rig, 
Yajur,  Sama,  and  Atharva  Veda.  All 
the  Vedas  are  believed  to  be  inspired, 
and  are  held  by  the  Brahmans  in  the 
highest  respect.  The  religious  system 
of  the  Vedas  is  at  bottom  monotheistic. 
It  derives  a polytheistic  appearance 
from  the  mention  of  the  deity  by  various 
names  according  to  the  difference  of  his 
manifestations  and  attributes  (Surya, 
Mitra,  etc.,  the  sun;  Soma,  the  moon; 
Agni,  fire;  Indra,  the  firmament,  etc.); 
but  the  unity  of  the  supreme  being  is 
expressly  asserted  in  more  than  one 
passage.  Each  of  the  Vedas  is  divided 
into  three  parts;  the  first  called  the 
Sanhita,  a collection  of  h5mins  and 
prayers  called  mantras  or  ganas;  the 
second,  Brahmana,  which  relates  chiefly 
to  ritual;  and  the  third,  the  Jnana  or 
Upanishads,  which  is  the  philosophical 
portion  of  the  work.  The  Upanishads 
are  sometimes  called  collectively  the 
Vedanta.  The  Rig-veda  is  the  oldest  of 
the  Vedas,  and  the  Atharva-veda  the 
latest.  Some  scholars  question  whether 
the  latter  should  be  regarded  as  a Veda. 
Varying  greatly  in  age,  the  Vedas  rep- 
resent many  stages  of  thought  and  wor- 
ship, the  earliest  being  the  simplest,  the 
laterfollowing  andreflecting  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Brahmanical  system,  with 
all  its  superstitions  and  rites. 


Double  vault.— Section  of  dome  of  St.  Peter’s, 
Rome. 


1,  Gothic  groined  vault. 

3,  Spherical  or  domical  vault. 

VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY,  the  de- 
partment of  organic  chemistry  which 
investigates  the  chemieal  compounds 
found  in  vegetables.  These  compounds 
are  chiefly  made  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  but  potash,  soda, 
lime,  and  other  substances  are  occa- 
sionally present  in  small  and  variable 


quantities.  Sugar,  starch,  gum,  and 
other  distinct  compounds  existing  al- 
ready formed  in  plants,  and  capable  of 
separation  without  suffering  decompo- 
sition, are  called  proximate  or  imme- 
diate principles  of  vegetables.  Proximate 
analysis  is  the  separation  of  a particular 
principle  from  others  with  which  it  is 
mixed.  Ultimate  analysis  consists  in  the 
reduction  of  the  proximate  principles 
to  their  simplest  parts.  The  more  im- 
portant classes  of  compounds  to  be  ob- 
tained from  vegetables  are  acids,  alkalis 
or  alkaloids,  oils,  and  resins.  Coloring 
matter,  tannin,  albumen,  gluten,  yeast, 
and  other  substances  are  also  obtained. 
Of  the  acids  the  chief  are  acetic  acid  or 
vinegar,  oxalic,  tartaric,  and  benzoic 
acids.  The  alkaloids  are  organic  bases 
which  produce  remarkable  toxicological 
effects.  During  the  germination  of 
seeds  there  is  a conversion  of  starchy 
matter  in  the  sugar.  The  nutrition  of 
plants  may  be  regarded  as  depending 
upon  solar  energy  organic  and  mineral 
constituents,  and  water.  See  Botany. 

VEGETABLE  IVORY,  the  name  which 
is  applied  to  the  kernels  of  the  nuts  pro- 
duced by  a palm  growing  in  South  Amer- 
ica. It  is  very  hard  and  compact,  has  the 
appearance  of  ivory,  and  may  be  turned 
in  the  lathe,  being  used  for  buttons, 
umbrella  handles,  etc.  The  stem  of  the 
palm  is  extremely  short,  but  the  leaves 
rise  to  the  height  of  30  or  40  feet. 

VEGETARIANISM,  the  theory  and 
practice  of  living  solely  on  vegetables. 
The  doctrines  and  practice  of  vege- 
tarianism are  as  old  as  the  time  of 
Pythagoras,  and  have  for  ages  been 
strictly  observed  by  many  of  the  Hindus 
and  of  late  years  the  practice  of  sub- 
sisting solely  upon  vegetable  food — or 
at  least  of  rejecting  flesh  food — has  been 
brought  prominently  before  the  public. 

VEIN,  in  mining,  a crack  or  fissure  in 
a rock,  filled  up  by  substances  different 
from  the  rock,  and  which  may  either  be 
metallic  or  non-metallic.  Veins  are 
sometimes  many  yards  wide,  having  a 
length  of  many  miles,  and  they  ramify 
into  innumerable  smaller  parts,  often 
as  slender  as  threads.  Metallic  veins 
are  chiefly  found  in  the  primary,  and 
lower  and  middle  secondary  rocks. 

VEINS,  a system  of  membranous  ca- 
nals or  tubes  distriubted  throughout 
the  bodies  of  animals  for  the  purpose  of 
returning  the  impure  blood  to  the  heart 
and  lungs,  after  it  has  been  conveyed  to 
the  .various  parts  by  the  arteries.  They 
are  not  elastic  and  have  no  pulsation 
(thus  differing  from  the  arteries),  the 
motion  of  the  blood  in  them  being 
mainly  secured  by  pressure  of  the  mov- 
ing parts  between  which  they  are  em- 
bedded, the  backward  flow  of  the  blood 
being  prevented  where  necessary  by  a 
series  of  valves  which  permit  a current 
only  toward  the  heart.  The  veins  at 
their  farthest  extremities  form  capil- 
laries which  collect  from  the  tissues  the 
blood  brought  by  the  arterial  capillaries. 
These  minute  branches  unite  to  form 
veins,  which  similarly  unite  in  turn, 
forming  gradually  larger  branches  and 
trunks  as  they  approach  the  heart. 
The  yenous  blood  from  the  head,  neck, 
and  upper  limbs  is  all  returned  to  the 
heart  by  one  great  vein,  the  vena  cava 
superior,  while  that  from  the  lower  limbs 


VELASQUEZ 


VENEZUELA 


and  belly  is  returned  by  the  vena  cava 
inferior.  The  portal  vein  (vena  portee) 
receives  the  venous  blood  from  the  in- 
testines and  conveys  it  through  the  liver 
to  the  vena  cava  inferior.  From  each 
lung  to  the  heart  come  two  pulmonary 
veins  carrying  back  the  blood  that  has 
been  purified  in  the  lungs,  after  being 
carried  to  them  by  the  pulmonary 
artery.  See  Heart. 

VELASQUEZ  (ve-l&s'keth),  or  in  full 
Don  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva  y Velas- 
quez (or  Velazquez),  an  eminent  Spanish 
historical  and  portrait  painter,  was  born 
at  Seville  in  1599.  He  was  appointed 
principal  painter  to  Philip  IV.  in  1623. 
In  1629  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
closely  studied  the  works  of  Michael 
Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Titian.  On  his 
return  to  Spain  in  1631  he  was  received 
with  great  distinction,  and  in  1658  the 
king  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  a noble. 
He  died  in  1660.  Among  his  best  works 
are  the  Aguador,  or  Water-carrier;  the 
Orlando  Muerto;  a Nativity,  or  Adora- 
tion of  the  Shepherds;  the  Brothers  of 
Joseph;  Moses  taken  from  the  Nile;  por- 
traits of  Philip  IV.  and  of  Elizabeth  his 
queen.  Pope  Innocent  X.,  and  other 
dignitaries;  and  many  pictures  from 
history  and  from  common  life. 

VELLUM.  See  Parclunent. 

VELOCITY,  the  rate  at  which  a body 
changes  its  position  in  space.  Velocity 
is  popularly  expressed  as  so  many  miles 
per  hour,  or  as  so  many  feet  per  second. 
The  velocity  of  a body  is  uniform  when 
it  passes  through  equal  spaces  in  equal 
times,  variable  when  the  spaces  passed 
through  in  equal  times  are  unequal, 
accelerated  when  it  passes  through  a 
greater  space  in  equal  successive  por- 
tions of  time,  as  is  the  case  of  falling 
bodies  under  the  action  of  gravity,  and 
retarded  when  a less  space  is  passed 
through  in  each  successive  portion  of 
time.  Angular  velocity  is  such  a velocity 
as  that  of  the  spoke  of  a wheel,  being 
measured  as  a number  of  angles  of  a 
specified  extent  (as  right  angles)  divided 
by  a measure  of  time  in  specified  units. 
See  Fall  of  Bodies,  Dynamics,  Projec- 
tiles, Motion,  etc. 

VELOCITY  OF  WIND.  See  Beaufort 
Scale. 

VELVET,  a rich  silk  stuff,  covered  on 
the  outside  with  a close,  short,  fine,  soft 
shag  or  nap.  In  this  fabric  the  warp  is 
passed  over  wires  so  as  to  make  a row  of 
loops  which  project  from  the  backing, 
and  are  thus  left,  by  withdrawing  the 
wire,  for  an  uncut  or  pile  velvet,  but  are 
cut  with  a sharp  tool  to  make  a cut 
velvet.  Florence  and  Genoa  have  been 
long  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  vel- 
vet, but  Lyons,  in  France,  is  now  its 
principal  seat.  Cotton  and  woolen 
fabrics  woven  in  this  manner  are  called 
velveteen  and  plush  respectively. 

VENDEE  (van-da),  a western  mari- 
time department  of  France;  area,  2595 
sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  much  diversi- 
fied, and  is  watered  in  the  north  by 
tributaries  of  the  Loire,  and  in  the  south 
by  the  Lay  and  tributaries  of  the  Char- 
ente.  The  principal  crops  are  grain, 
flax,  and  hemp;  and  a white  wine  is  also 
produced.  Capital,  La  Roche-sur-Y^on. 
Pop.  439,637. 

VENDEMIAIRE  (van-da-mi-ar;  that 
is,  “vintage  month”),  the  first  month  in 


the  French  revolutionary  calendar,  from 
22d  September  to  21st  October.  See 
Calendar. 

VENDETTA,  a blood-feud;  the  prac- 
tice of  the  nearest  of  kin  executing  ven- 
geance on  the  murder  of  a relative.  In 
Corsica  the  vendetta  is  regarded  as  a 
duty  incumbent  on  the  relatives  of  the 
murdered  man,  and,  failing  to  reach  the 
real  murderer,  they  take  vengeance  on 
his  relatives.  The  practice  exists,  al- 
though to  a more  limited  extent,  in 
Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Calabria,  as  well  as 
among  the  Druses,  Circassians,  Arabs, 

VENDOME,  Louis,  Duke  of,  the  cele- 
brated general  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  born 
in  1654.  After  having  distinguished 
himself  in  Italy,  Tyrol,  and  Belgium, 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  placed  over 
him ; and  the  disagreement  of  the  two 
commanders  caused  the  defeat  of  the 
French  at  Oudenarde  (July  11,  1708). 
Vendome  was  recalled.  Soon  after  being 
placed  in  command  in  Spain  he  gained 
several  distinguished  successes,  but  died 
in  1712. 

VENEER,  a thin  layer  of  choice  hard 
wood,  such  as  mahogany,  rosewood, 
maple,  etc.,  glued  to  the  surface  of  wood 
of  a commoner  sort,  such  as  fir  or  pine, 
so  as  to  give  the  whole  the  appearance 
of  being  made  of  the  more  valuable 
material.  It  is  mostly  used  for  furniture, 
and  owing  to  recent  improvements  in 
sawing  machinery,  layers  as  thin  as 
paper  can  be  obtained. 

VENESECTION.  See  Phlebotomy. 

VENETIAN  ARCHITECTURE,  Vene- 
tian Gothic,  that  style  of  Italian  archi- 
tecture employed  by  the  Venetian  arch- 
itects from  the  15th  to  the  early  part 
of  the  17th  century.  The  principal 
characteristics  are:  each  story  is  pro- 
vided with  its  own  tier  of  columns  or 
pilasters,  with  their  entablature,  and  sep- 
arated from  the  other  stories  by  con- 


Veuetian  architecture. 

An  angle  of  the  Ducal  Palace. 

spicuous  friezes  or  belts,  often  in  the 
form  of  balustrades  broken  by  pedestals 
and  ornamented  by  figures;  arched  win- 
dows ornamented  with  columns,  the 
spardrils  being  filled  with  figures;  orna- 
mental parapets  are  common;  and  the 
whole  has  a rich  and  varied  effect.  This 
style  of  architecture  is  characterized  by 
Fergusson  as  “Gothic  treated  with  an 
Eastern  feeling,  and  enriched  with  many 
details  borrowed  from  Eastern  styles.” 


VENETIAN  SCHOOL,  in  painting, 
that  school  which  counts  among  its 
masters  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  Gior- 
gione, Tintoretto,  and  many  other 
illustrious  names. 

VENEZUELA  (ven-es-wa'li),  a north- 
ern republic  of  South  America,  bounded 
by  the  Caribbean  sea,  the  Atlantic, 
British  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  the  United 
States  of  Colombia;  area,  566,159  sq. 
miles.  The  Andes  enter  Venezuela  from 
the  west  in  two  branches;  the  western 
branch  has  a moderate  elevation,  rarely 
exceeding  4000  feet,  but  the  eastern 
branch,  which  is  about  300  miles  long  by 
60  miles  broad,  has  an  average  altitude 
of  12,000  feet,  culminating  in  Sierra- 
Nevada-de-Merida  with  summits  attain- 
ing 15,000  feet.  There  are  other  branches 
running  northeast  and  parallel  to  the 
north  coast,  and  in  the  south,  on  the 
frontiers  of  Guiana,  are  the  mountains 
of  Parima.  From  these  mountains  to 
the  coast  chain  at  Cardcas,  and  from  the 
Andes  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  ex- 
tend vast  plains  (or  llanos)  with  an  area 
of  300,000  sq.  miles.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Orinoco  and  its  affluents;  the 
principal  lakes  are  Maracayko  and 
TaCarigua.  The  climate  is  equatorial 
in  character,  and  the  seasons  are  dis- 
tinguished into  the  wet  and  the  dry. 
It  is  not  unhealthy  on  the  whole.  The 
greater  part  of  Venezuela  is  liable  to 
earthquakes.  The  valleys  and  table- 
lands of  the  coast  mountains  are  the 
chief  seats  of  cultivation.  The  region  of 
palms  extends  from  the  sea-level  to  the 
height  of  3300  feet;  mingled  with  the 
palms  are  cacti,  mimosae,  the  pine-apple, 
the  milk-tree,  mahogany,  and  trees 
yielding  caoutchouc,  sarsaparilla,  co- 
paiba, and  other  drugs.  Above  2000 
feet  are  the  forests  of  cinchona  or 
Peruvian-bark  tree,  the  vanilla,  plan- 
tain, etc.  All  the  grains  of  temperate 
regions  attain  perfection  at  an  elevation 
of  8000  feet.  Cultivated  plants  include 
the  cacao,  cocoa-nut,  tobacco,  corn, 
(two  crops  yearly),  cotton,  coffee,  sugar, 
and  indigo.  Among  the  minerals  are 
gold,  silver,  tin,  and  copper;  good  coal 
is  found  in  the  coast  districts;  asphalt 
and  petroleum  abound  round  Lake 
Maracaybo.  The  gold  mines  are  now 
being  worked  by  English  and  other 
capital.  The  wild  animals  include  the 
jaguar  (now  rare),  puma,  tapir,  ounce, 
monkeys,  serpents,  alligators,  the  mana- 
tee, etc.  The  population  is  of  Spanish, 
Indian,  and  Negro  origin,  either  of  pure 
or  mixed  blood.  More  than  half  of  the 
population  are  mestizoes,  mulattoes, 
and  other  mixed  breeds.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  coffee,  cocoa,  hides,  and  skins, 
cattle,  dye-woods,  gold,  and  copper 
ores.  The  imports  are  chiefly  manufac- 
tured goods,  machinery,  etc.  Venezuela 
is  divided  into  states  and  territories, 
each  state  having  its  own  legislature  and 
executive,  its  own  budget,  etc.  The 
legislature  for  the  whole  republic  con- 
sists in  a congress  of  two  houses,  at  the 
head  of  the  executive  being  a president. 
The  republic  was  formed  in  1S31  by 
secession  from  Colombia.  It  has  suffered 
greatly  from  intestine  dissensions,  and 
has  also  had  boundary  disputes  with  its 
neighbors.  The  British  Guiana  frontier 
was  determined  by  the  award  of  a court 
of  arbitration  in  1899.  The  capital  is 


VEmCE 


VERB 


Caracas.  The  chief  ports  are  La  Guayra, 
Puerto-Cabello,  Maracaybo,  and  Ciudad 
Bolivar.  Pop.  2,323,527. 

VEN'ICE,  a city  and  seaport  of  North- 
ern Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  on  a number  of  islets  in  a 
shallow  lagoon  in  the  northwest  of  the 
Adriatic,  23  miles  east  of  Padua  by  rail. 
The  islets  are  very  low,  and  the  houses 
are  mostly  supported  on  piles.  A rail- 
way viaduct  near  2J  miles  long  con- 
nects the  town  with  the  mainland.  The 
city  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
Canalazzo  or  Grand  canal,  spanned  by 
an  elegant  bridge,  the  Rialto,  and 
several  lesser  bridges.  The  numerous 
branch  canals  are  crossed  by  about  380 
bridges,  which  rise  rapidly  toward  the 
center  to  afford  passage  to  the  gondola 
and  other  boats.  The  city  is  also  inter- 
sected by  calli  or  narrow  lanes  for  pedes- 
trians; but  the  canals  are  really  the 
streets  of  Venice,  and  it  possesses  neither 
horses  nor  wheeled  carriages.  Near  the 
center  of  the  city  there  is  one  street 
about  18  feet  wide,  the  Merceria,  but  the 
great  center  of  business  and  amusement 
is  the  Piazza,  or  Square  of  St.  Mark, 


and  the  piazetta  adjoining  it.  The 
Piazza  is  about  570  feet  long  by  200 
broad,  contains  some  of  the  more  re- 
markable public  buildings,  and  is  lined 
with  handsome  shops  and  cafds.  The 
piazetta  faces  the  sea.  The  Palace  of  the 
Doges,  reconstructed  by  Marino  Falieri 
in  1354,  abuts  on  the  piazetta.  The 
Ponte-dei-Sospiri  (Bridge  of  Sighs)  con- 
nects the  palace  with  the  public  prisons 
on  the  opposite  side  of  a narrow  canal. 
The  church  of  St.  Mark,  now  the  cathe- 
dral (erected  976-1071),  is  surmounted 
by  five  domes.  The  principal  front  is 
adorned  with  500  columns  of  precious 
marble.  Above  the  doorway  are  the  four 
celebrated  bronze  horses  brought  from 
Constantinople  by  the  Doge  Dandolo 
in  1204.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woolen  cloth,  cloth  of  gold  and  silver, 
velvet,  lace,  ornamental,  and  colored 
glass,  mosaic,  jewelry,  castings,  etc. 
The  trade  is  extensive;  the  imports 
include  colonial  goods,  dye-woods,  coal, 
iron,  oil,  etc.;  exports  timber,  rice, 
linen,  glass,  coral,  etc.  Venice  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  in  the  5th 
century  by  inhabitants  of  the  surround- 
ing districts,  who  took  refuge  from  the 
cruelty  of  Attila  on  the  islets  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Brenta.  In  1866  the  city 
and  province  was  ceded  to  Napoleon 


III.,  under  whose  auspices  they  were 
united  by  a plebiscite  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy.  Pop.  151,841. 

VENICE,  Gulf  of.  See  Adriatic  Sea. 

VENOMOUS  ANIMALS,  animals  capa- 
ble of  inflicting  poisonous  wounds  by 
means  of  special  organs  or  contrivances. 
They  include  spiders,  bees,  wasps,  hor- 
nets, scorpions,  certain  serpents,  etc. 
In  all  cases  the  venomous  matter  must 
be  introduced  directly  into  the  circula- 
tion to  produce  its  effects. 

VENTILATION.  See  Warming  and 
Ventilation. 

VENTRICLE.  See  Heart. 

VENTRIL'OQUISM,  the  art  of  speak- 
ing in  such  a way  as  to  cause  a hearer  to 
believe  that  the  sound  comes,  not  from 
the  person  speaking,  but  from  a different 
source.  The  name  originated  from  the 
erroneous  supposition  that  the  sounds 
uttered  were  formed  in  the  belly,  where- 
as practice  alone  is  necessary  to  carry 
this  act  of  illusion  to  a high  degree  of 
perfection.  The  sounds  are  formed  by 
the  ordinary  vocal  organs — the  larynx, 
the  palate,  the  tongue,  the  lips,  etc. 
The  art  of  the  ventriloquist  consists 
merely  in  this:  After  drawing  a long 
breath  he  breathes  it  out  slowly  and 
gradually,  dexterously  modifying  and 
diminishing  the  sound  of  the  voice;  be- 
sides this  he  moves  his  lips  as  little  as 
possible,  and  by  various  contrivances 
diverts  the  attention  of  his  auditors. 
This  art  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

VE'NUS,  the  Roman  name  of  the 
goddess  of  love,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Aphrodite.  In  the  IRad  she  is  described 
as  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Dione;  but 
Hesiod  represents  her  as  the  offspring  of 
Uranus,  born  among  the  foam  of  the  sea. 
She  surpassed  all  other  goddesses  in 
beauty,  and  hence  received  the  apple 


Venus,  antique  statue  in  the  British  Museum. 

which  was  to  be  awarded  to  the  most 
beautiful  by  Paris.  She  was  the  wife  of 
Hephsestos  (Vulcan),  but  also  bestowed 
her  love  on  the  gods  Ares  (Mars),  Diony- 
sos (Bacchus),  Hermes  (Mercury),  and 
Poseidon  (Neptune),  and  the  mortals 
Anchises  and  Adonis.  The  myrtle,  rose, 
popPY)  apple,  and  other  fruits  were 
sacred  to  her,  as  were  also  the  dove, 
sparrow,  swan,  swallow,  ram,  hare,  and 
tortoise.  The  chief  places  of  her  worship 
in  Greece  were  the  islands  of  Cyprus 
and  Cythera.  In  Rome  several  temples 
were  erected  to  her  under  different 


names.  In  the  best  days  of  art  this 
goddess  was  always  represented  draped, 
in  later  times  nude.  The  scene  of  her 
arising  from  the  sea  was  sculptured  by 
Phidias  on  the  base  of  the  statue  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia,  and  one  of  the  most 
famous  pictures  of  Apelles  represented 
the  same  subject.  The  Venus  of  Capua 
and  the  Venus  of  Milo  represent  her 
as  Venus  Victrix,  with  one  foot  on  a 
helmet  and  raising  a shield.  The  Venus 
de’  Medici  is  supposed  to  be  a free  copy 
of  a statue  of  her  by  Praxiteles,  which 
was  celebrated  above  all  her  other 
statues  in  ancient  times.  Among  mod- 
ern statues  of  Venus,  one  of  the  most 
famous  is  that  by  Canova,  which  repre- 
sents her  as  issuing  from  the  bath. 

VENUS,  one  of  the  inferior  planets, 
having  its  orbit  between  Mercury  and 
the  earth,  and  the  most  brilliant  of  all 
the  planetary  bodies.  From  her  alter- 
nate appearance  in  the  morning  and 
evening  she  was  called  by  the  ancients 
Lucifer  and  Hesperus,  the  morning  and 
evening  star.  The  mean  distance  of 
Venus  from  the  sun  is  about  66,134,000 
miles,  her  diameter  7510  miles,  and  her 
period  of  revolution  round  the  sun  about 
224.7  mean  solar  days.  Her  volume  is 
equal  to  about  of  the  earth,  but 

her  density  being  slightly  greater  her 
mass  is  actually  equal  to  about  i^^ths 
of  the  earth.  The  period  of  rotation 
round  her  axis  is  the  same  as  that  of 
revolution  round  the  sun.  The  axis  of 
rotation  is  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at 
about  75°.  According  to  her  various 
positions  relatively  to  the  sun  and  earth 
she  exhibits  phases  like  the  moon.  Like 
Mercury,  Venus  transits  the  face  of  the 
sun,  but  at  longer  intervals.  The  tran- 
sits of  Venus  are  of  much  more  impor- 
tance than  those  of  Mercury,  because, 
being  nearer  to  us  when  in  transit,  her 
position  on  the  sun  is  measurably  differ- 
ent for  observers  placed  on  different 
parts  of  the  earth.  See  Transit. 

VERA-CRUZ  (va'ra-kros),  the  chief 
seaport  of  Mexico,  situated  in  the  state 
of  the  same  name.  The  harbor,  though 
improved,  is  still  unsatisfactory,  but 
there  is  a large  trade.  The  town  has 
broad  and  regular  streets,  and  some 
good  buildings,  and  is  defended  by  the 
fortress  of  San-Juan-de-Ulloa  on  an 
island  in  front  of  the  harbor.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  town  is  exceedingly  un- 
healthy. It  was  founded  by  Cortez  in 
1520.  Pop.  24,000. — The  state  stretches 
along  the  s.w.  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ; 
area,  26,225  sq.  miles.  The  products  em- 
brace all  kinds  of  grain  crops,  tobacco, 
sugar,  cotton,  fruits,  dye-woods,  and 
timUer.  Cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are 
numerous.  Pop.  960,570. 

VERB,  in  grammar,  that  part  of 
speech  whose  essential  function  is  to 
predicate  or  assert  something  in  regard 
to  something  else  (the  subject  or  thing 
spoken  of);  as,  the  boy  runs,  the  man 
lifts  the  stone,  fishes  swim,  he  suffers 
much.  Verbs  usually  have  the  power  of 
indicating  time  and  mode  by  means  of 
tenses  and  moods,  these  varying  in  the 
different  languages,  as  does  also  the 
conjugation  or  system  of  verbal  in- 
flections and  forms  as  a whole.  They 
have  been  divided  into  active  and  neuter 
verbs,  according  as  they  predicate  action 
or  state.  Active  verbs  are  divided  into 


VERBENA 


VERMONT 


intransitive  and  transitive,  according 
as  the  action  is  confined  to  the  actor  or 
passes  from  him  to  an  object.  Intran- 
sitive verbs  often  take  an  objective  of 
their  own  nature;  as,  he  runs  a race; 
he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  death.  When  a 
verb  may  be  used  either  transitively  or 
intransitively,  as,  he  walks  the  horse, 
he  walks  to  church,  the  verb  in  the 
former  use  is  said  to  be  causative.  Many 
causative  verbs  are  distinguished  from 
their  corresponding  intransitives,  by  a 
change  of  form,  as  sit,  set;  lie,  lay;  fall, 
fell.  Passive  verbs  affirm  suffering  or 
endurance  of  what  another  does.  Hence, 
only  verbs  which  take  an  object  after 
them  can  have  a passive  voice,  because  it 
can  be  said  of  objects  only  that  they 
suffer  or  endure  the  action  directed  on 
or  toward  them  by  the  subject  of  the 
active  verb.  Passive  verbs  are  thus  the 
correlatives  or  complements  of  active 
verbs. 

VERBE'NA,  a genus  of  plants,  the 
type  of  the  natural  order  Verbenacese. 
Most  of  the  species  are  American;  about 
seventy  are  enumerated.  Several  spe- 


Verbenas— Garden  varieties. 


cies  are  cultivated  for  the  great  beauty 
of  their  flowers,  being  fine  border  plants. 
The  verbena  of  the  perfumers  is  the 
lemon-grass,  from  which  the  “oil  ofver- 
bena”  is  extracted. 

VERBENA'CE.®,  a natural  order  of 
plants,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and 
herbaceous  plants  common  in  the 
tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  They  have 
generally  opposite  or  whorled  simple 
or  compound  leaves  without  stipules; 
flowers  in  opposite  corjrabs,  or  spiked 
alternately,  sometimes  in  dense  heads, 
seldom  axillary  or  solitary.  The  ver- 
bena and  teak  are  examples. 

VERDE,  Cape.  See  Cape  Verde. 

VERDI,  Giuseppe,  an  Italian  operatic 
composer,  born  in  1813.  His  first  pro- 
duction was  Oberto,  Conte  di  San  Boni- 
fazio  (1839),  and  in  1842  he  brought  out 
with  great  success  at  the  La  Scala,  Milan, 
his  Nabuco,  followed  by  I Lombardi 
(1843),  Ernani  (1844),  Rigoletto  (1851), 
II  Trovatore  (1853),  La  Traviata  (1853), 
Un  Ballo  in  Maschera  (1859),  Aida 
(1871),  Otello  (1886),  and  Falstaff  (1893). 
Verdi  has  a fine  dramatic  gift,  and  his 
melodies  are  showy  and  taking.  He  was 
an  Italian  senator.  He  died  in  1901. 

VERDICT.  See  Jury. 

VER'DIGRIS,  a poisonous  substance, 
prepared  by  exposing  copper  to  the  air 
in  contact  with  acetic  acid,  and  used  as 
a pigment,  as  a mordant,  in  medicine, 
etc 

VERESHTCHAGIN,  Wasiliy,  a Rus- 
sian historical  painter,  born  in  1842, 
and  educated  at  the  naval  school  in  St. 


Petersburg.  In  1864  he  entered  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  at  Paris,  where 
Gerome  was  his  master.  He  joined  the 
Caucasian  expedition  under  General 
Kaufmann  in  1867,  and  in  1869  went 
to  Siberia.  In  1874  he  went  to  India 
with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  afterward 
settled  in  Paris.  He  took  part  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  war,  and  was  wounded 
at  Plevna.  Since  that  time  he  has  visited 
all  the  chief  cities  of  Europe  exhibiting 
his  pictures.  They  are  of  immense  size, 
extremely  realistic,  and  treat  chiefly  of 
the  horrors  of  war.  He  has  lately  taken 
up  religious  subjects,  and  his  Family  of 
Jesus  and  The  Resurrection  attracted 
some  attention.  He  died  in  1904. 

VERGIL.  See  Virgil. 

VERMICELLI,  (-chel'le).  See  Maca- 
roni. 

VERMIL'ION,  the  name  given  to  a 
pigment  of  a beautifully  scarlet  color, 
obtained  from  crystallized  mercuric 
sulphide.  It  is  extensively  employed  in 
painting,  in  making  red  sealing-wax, 
and  other  purposes. 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  United  States, 
bounded  by  Canada,  New  York,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  by  the  Connecticut  river; 
area,  9565  sq.  miles.  It  ranks  thirty- 
ninth  in  size  among  the  states.  The  sur- 
face is  traversed  from  south  to  north  by 
the  Green  mountains,  which  culminate 
in  Mansfield  mountain  in  the  n.w.,  4280 
feet  high.  The  drainage  is  shared  be- 
tween Lake  Champlain  in  the  west,  and 
the  Connecticut  and  its  affluents.  The 
surface  is  generally  fertile,  grain  growing 
in  the  valleys,  while  the  higher  lands 
furnish  excellent  pasture.  The  climate 
is  healthy;  and  the  temperature  ranges 
from  20°  below  zero  in  winter  up  to  90° 
in  summer.  The  soil  is  stony  and  of 
poor  quality,  though  in  the  valleys,  in 
the  western  lowlands,  there  is  much  land 
that  is  suitable  for  cultivation.  There 
are  large  forests  of  pine  and  hemlock, 
with  spruce  and  fir  on  the  higher  slopes. 
On  the  lower  lands  there  are  also  forests 
of  deciduous  trees,  the  sugar  maple 
being  one  of  the  most  common  trees. 
The  principal  mineral  wealth  of  Ver- 
mont is  in  its  rocks,  which  furnish  a 
great  variety  of  marble,  from  white  to 
almost  pure  black.  Granite,  slate,  and 
soap-stone  are  abundant.  The  quartz- 
mica-schists  furnish  excellent  whet- 
stones. Important  veins  of  asbestos 
are  bedded  in  the  serpentine  rocks  in 
the  north  central  part  of  the  state. 
Among  metallic  ores  iron  and  copper 
are  abundant,  lead,  manganese,  gold, 
and  silver  are  also  found  in  small 
quantities.  Agriculture  has  always  been 
the  leading  industry  in  the  state.  With 
the  adoption  of  intensive  methods  of 
cultivation  the  soil  is  made  to  produce 
abundantly,  the  production  of  corn  per 
acre  being  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  state.  Vermont  produces  more 
maple  sugar  than  any  other  state  in  the 
Union,  and  two-fifths  that  of  the  entire 
country.  Cattle-raising  has  become  the 
predominant  industry  in  Vermont  agri- 
culture. The  horses  of  Vermont  were 
among  the  first  to  win  fame  on  the  race- 
courses of  the  country,  and  include  the 
Morgan,  Messenger,  and  Black  Hawk 
stocks.  Sheep  are  also  given  considerable 
attention.  The  important  industries  are 


those  which  depend  upon  the  forests  for 
their  raw  materials.  The  increase  in 
dairying  has  been  accompanied  by  a 
rapid  development  of  the  factory  pro- 
duction of  butter  and  condensed  milk. 
The  stone  resources  of  the  state  has 
afforded  a basis  for  the  manufacture  of 
monuments  and  tombstones.  The  more 
important  of  the  other  industries  are 
the  manufacture  of  flour  and  grist-mill 
products,  foundry  and  machine-shop 
products,  woolen  goods  and  hosiery,  and 
knit  goods.  Burlington  is  the  largest 
manufacturing  center.  The  Central  of 
Vermont,  the  Boston  and  Maine,  and 
the  Grand  Trunk  are  the  chief  railroads 


of  the  state.  There  is  a considerable  in- 
ternal and  transit  trade,  but  the  foreign 
trade  is  limited,  being  chiefly  carried  on 
through  New  York  and  Massachusetts. 
The  early  inhabitants  were  largely  of  the 
English  “Non-Conformist”  or  “Inde- 
pendent" type,  who  became  known  as 
Congregationalists,  and  they  have  con- 
tinued the  strongest  religious  sect  in  the 
state.  Later  the  Methodists  became 
important.  Still  later  the  influx  of 
foreigners  brought  a strong  Catholic 
element.  Of  higher  institutions  the 
state  supports  normal  schools  at  Ran- 
dolph, Johnson,  and  Castleton,  and  a 
state  university,  including  agricultural 
and  medical  departments,  at  Burling- 
ton. The  Congregationalists  maintain 
a college  at  Middlebury.  Vermont,  first 
became  known  to  Europeans  in  1609, 
when  Champlain  explored  the  lake  since 
known  by  his  name.  During  the  next 
century  the  lake  and  its  borders  were  a 
thoroughfare  for  various  military  ex- 
peditions in  the  Indian  and  colonial 
wars,  and  several  points  along  the  lake 
were  occupied,  mainly  as  military  posts, 
by  both  French  and  English;  but  the 
first  permanent  settlement  was  made 
in  1724  at  Fort  Dummer  in  the  limits, 
of  Brattleboro.  Vermont  was  admitted 
as  the  fourteenth  state  in  March,  1791. 
In  May,  1775,  the  “Green  Mountain 
boys”  under  Ethan  Allan  and  Seth 
Warner  had  captured  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point.  The  battle  of  Bennington 
in  August,  1777,  was  won  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire. During  the  whole  struggle  the 
state,  though  unrecognized,  contributed 
its  full  share  of  men  and  means.  In  the 
war  of  1812-14  Vermont  is  credited  with 
5236  soldiers  in  regular  service,  exclu- 
sive of  2500  volunteers  who  were  under 
arms  at  Plattsburgh  in  September, 


VERNE 


VESTMENTS 


1814.  In  the  civil  war  of  1861-65  the 
state  furnished  more  than  its  due  quota 
of  troops,  33,288  men  from  a total  popu- 
lation (1860)  of  315,098.  The  Fenian 
operations  against  Canada,  in  1866  and 
1870,  had  their  base  in  St.  Albans.  The 
state  adopted  a prohibitory  amendment 
to  the  constitution  in  1852,  but  aban- 
doned the  policy  of  prohibition  in  1902, 
when  the  voters  of  the  state  declared  for 
high  license.  This  measure,  amounting 
to  local  option  regulation,  became  law 
in  1903.  In  1792,  1796,  and  1800,  the 
state  was  carried  for  federalist  electors, 
but  was  democratic-republican  there- 
after to  1824.  In  that  year,  and  again 
in  1828,  the  Adams  republicans  were 
successful.  In  1832  the  vote  was  cast 
for  the  anti-Masonic  candidate.  After 
that  time  it  was  steadfastly  whig  to 
1852,  and  has  been  republican,  by  large 
majoritiee,  ever  since.  Montpelier  is  the 
capital,  but  Burlington  is  the  largest 
town.  Pop.  350,000. 

VERNE  (vern),  Jules,  a popular 
French  romancer,  born  at  Nantes  in 
1828.  He  studied  law  for  some  time, 
but  afterward  began  writing  short 
pieces  for  the  stage.  In  1863  he  pub- 
lished Five  Weeks  in  a Balloon,  and  the 
vein  of  the  marvelous,  tinged  with  a 
quasi-scientific  truthfulness,  has  since 
been  worked  by  him  with  great  success. 
His  more  popular  works  are:  Twenty 
Thousand  Leagues  under  the  Sea,  From 
the  Earth  to  the  Moon,  Across  Africa  in 
a Balloon,  A Journey  to  the  Center  of 
the  Earth,  Around  the  World  in  Eighty 
Days,  Giant  Raft,  etc.  Most  of  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  English 
and  German.  He  died  in  1905. 

VERO'NA,  a city  of  Northern  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  of  same  name, 
beautifully  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
rapid  Adige,  a fortress  of  the  first  class, 
walled,  and  entered  by  five  beautiful 
gates.  Verona  has  a Roman  amphi- 
theater, supposed  to  have  been  built 
about  the  2d  or  3d  century  of  our  era, 
the  interior  of  which  is  nearly  perfect; 
an  imposing  cathedral  in  the  Gothic 
style  dating  from  the  14th  century,  and 
many  other  magnificent  churches  rich 
in  paintings  and  other  art  treasures. 
Other  notable  edifices  are  the  Palazzo  del 
Consiglio,  adorned  with  statues  of  cele- 
brated natives  of  the  town;  and  the 
Gothic  tombs  of  the  Della  Scala  family 
(Scaligeri),  who  ruled  Verona  from  1262 
to  1389.  Modern  public  buildings  include 
theaters,  a museum,  a library,  hospitals, 
literary  institutions,  etc.  The  town  has 
manufactures  of  silk,  woolens,  hats,  etc., 
and  a considerable  trade.  Pop.  74,261. 

VERONESE  (va-ro-na'ze),  Paul,  the 
popular  name  of  Paolo  Cagliari,  an 
eminent  Italian  artist,  born  at  Verona, 
in  1528.  He  was  a contemporary  of 
Titian  and  Tintoretto.  He  died  at 
Venice  April  19,  1588.  Among  his 
masterpieces  are:  The  Calling  of  St. 
Andrew  to  the  Apostleship,  The  Rape 
of  Europa,  The  Family  of  Darius 
at  the  Feet  of  Alexander,  Adoration  of 
the  Magi,  Consecration  of  St.  Nicholas 
and  St.  Helena,  The  Vision  of  the  Inven- 
tion of  the  Cross;  the  last  five  mentioned 
are  in  the  National  gallery. 

VERSAILLES  (ver-salz'))  a town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  in  a plain,  11  miles  s.w. 


of  Paris.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
handsomest  towns  in  Europe,  having 
been  built  under  the  auspices  of  the 
sovereigns  of  France,  particularly  Louis 
XIV.,  who  made  it  the  seat  of  his  court, 
and  erected  the  palace.  This  is  a large 
and  imposing  building  with  an  extensive 
park  and  gardens,  fine  fountains,  etc. 
Louis  Philippe  converted  the  palace 
into  a national  museum,  and  it  contains 
an  immense  collection  of  statues  and 
paintings  representing  personages  and 
events  connected  with  the  French 
monarchy  from  Clovis  downward.  In 
October,  1870,  the  Germans  established 
their  headquarters  at  Versailles;  and 
from  March,  1871,  till  1879,  it  was  the 
seat  of  the  French  government.  Pop. 
54,081. 

VERSE,  a measured  and  cadenced 
form  of  speech  or  composition,  usually 
adopted  in  poetry.  It  seems  to  be  the 
natural  language  of  passion,  yet  it  has 
unquestionably  been  improved  and  de- 
veloped by  art.  The  use  of  rhymed  ca- 
dences is  a comparatively  modern  in- 
vention. (See  Rh3mae.)  Grammarians 
have  elaborately  classified  the  varieties 
of  verse,  and  analytically  distinguished 
the  possible  divisions  of  words  into  bars 
of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 
(See  Rhythm.)  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  a line  of  poetry  consisting  of  a certain 
number  of  metrical  feet  disposed  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  species  of  poetry 
which  the  author  intends  to  compose. 
Verses  are  of  various  kinds,  as  hex- 
ameter, pentameter,  etc.  Blank  verse  is 
verse  in  which  the  lines  do  not  end  in 
rhymes.  (See  Blank  Verse.)  Heroic 
verse  is  rhymed  verse  in  which  the  lines 
consist  of  ten  syllables,  five  of  them 
being  accented,  and  constituting  five 
iambic  feet. 

VERST,  a Russian  measure  of  length, 
equal  to  3500  English  feet,  or  very 
nearly  two-thirds  of  a mile. 

VERTEBRA.  See  Spine. 

VERTEBRATA,  the  name  given  to 
the  highest  sub-kingdom  of  animals, 
consisting  of  those  animals  which  in 
early  life  usually  possess  a backbone, 
but  which  invariably  possess  a notochord 
which  have  never  more  than  four 
limbs  disposed  in  pairs;  which  pos- 
sess jaws  as  parts  of  the  head;  and 
which  have  the  great  nerve-centers  con- 
tained within  a special  case  formed  by 
the  skull  and  spinal  column.  In  all 
Vertebrata  save  the  lancelet  a distinct 
heart  is  developed.  The  Vertebrata  in- 
clude the  classes  Pisces  (fishes),  Am- 
phibia (frogs,  etc.),  Reptilia  (reptiles), 
Aves  (birds),  and  Mammalia  (quad- 
rupeds and  man).  They  have  also  been 
classified  into  Ichthyopsida,  including 
Pisces  and  Amphibia ; Sauropsida,  com- 
prising Reptilia  and  Aves;  and  Mam- 
malia. 

VERTI'GO  (or  ver'ti-go),  an  attack  of 
giddiness  or  swimming  of  the  head  in 
which  objects  appear  to  move  in  various 
directions  though  stationary,  and  the 
person  affected  finds  it  difficult  to  main- 
tain an  erect  posture.  It  is  a common 
symptom  of  an  irregular  (excessive  or 
defective)  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain 
and  of  nervous  and  general  debility;  but 
it  frequently  arises  from  some  disturb- 
ance of  the  digestive  organs. 

VESA'LIUS,  Andreas,  the  father  of 


modern  anatomy,  born  at  Brussels  1514, 
died  at  Zante  1564.  He  was  physician 
to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  to  Philip 
II.  His  chief  work,  De  Corporis  Humani 
Fabrica,  opened  a new  era  in  the  science 
of  medicine. 

VESPA'SIAN,  Titus  Flavius,  Emperor 
of  Rome,  was  born  near  Reate,  in 
the  country  of  the  Sabines,  in  a.d.  9. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  Ger- 
many and  in  Britain  as  commander  of  a 
legion,  he  was  made  consul.  He  after- 
ward became  proconsul  of  Africa,  and 
on  the  rebellion  of  the  Jews  he  was  sent 
with  an  army  into  Judaea  (a.d.  66).  He 
reduced  nearly  all  Galilee,  and  was  pre- 
paring to  attack  Jerusalem,  when  he 
received  news  of  Nero’s  death  (a.d.  68). 
Then  followed  the  emperors  Galba, 
Otho,  and  Vitellius,  and  in  a.d.  69  Ves- 
pasian was  himself  elected  emperor  by 


the  army,  and  arrived  in  Rome  about 
the  middle  of  the  year  70,  leaving  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  to  his  son  Titus.  He 
immediately  reformed  the  discipline  of 
the  army,  purified  the  senaterial  and 
equestrian  orders,  and  improved  the 
administration  of  justice.  He  favored 
arts,  letters,  and  learned  men,  par- 
ticularly Quintilian,  Pliny,  and  Jose- 
phus. He  rebuilt  a part  of  the  city, 
restored  the  capital,  and  erected  the 
gigantic  amphitheatre,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  celebrated  under  the 
name  of  the  Coliseum.  Vespasian  died 
in  June,  a.d.  79. 

VESPERS,  the  evening  service  in  Ro- 
man Catholic  and  other  churches,  or 
the  time  of  evening  service,  being  the 
last  of  the  canonical  hours  except  .com- 
pline. 

VESPUCCI,  Amerigo.  See  Amerigo 
Vespucci. 

VESTA,  a Roman  divinity,  the  god- 
dess of  the  hearth.  She  was  worshiped 
along  with  the  Penates,  at  every  family 
meal,  when  the  household  assembled 
round  the  hearth,  which  was  in  the 
center  of  the  room.  Her  public  sanc- 
tuary was  in  the  Forum,  and  the  sacred 
fire  was  kept  constantly  burning  in  it 
by  the  vestals,  her  priestesses.  The  ves- 
tals are  said  to  have  been  established  by 
Numa.  There  were  at  first  four,  and 
afterward  six  of  them.  They  were 
taken  from  six  to  ten  years  of  age.  They 
were  bound  to  virginity  for  thirty  years, 
the  term  of  their  service,  after  which 
they  were  allowed  to  marry.  Their  per- 
sons were  inviolable,  and  they  were 
treated  with  great  honor,  and  had  im- 
portant public  privileges.  The  punish- 
ment of  a vestal  who  was  guilty  of  un- 
chastity was  burying  alive. 

VESTA,  in  astronomy.  See  Asteroids. 

VESTMENTS,  Sacred,  the  official  gar- 
ments worn  by  ministers  of  religion. 


VESTRY 


VICE-PRESIDEN'T 


The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  altar- 
cloths.  Among  Catholics  and  High 
Churchmen,  who  believe  that  Chris- 
tianity has  retained  a special  priesthood 
and  ritual,  much  importance  is  attached 
to  vestments.  See  Ritualism;  also 
Chasuble,  Stole,  etc. 

VESTRY,  a room  adjoining  a church 
where  the  vestments  of  the  clergy  are 
kept.  Hence  the  place  of  meeting  of 
those  having  the  charge  of  parochial 
affairs,  and  collectively  the  persons 
themselves  to  whom  these  affairs  are 
intrusted.  In  England  the  minister, 
churchwardens,  and  chief  men  of  a 
parish  generally  constitute  a vestry,  and 
the  minister,  whether  rector,  vicar,  or 
perpetual  curate,  is  ex-oflicio  chairman. 
The  powers  of  the  vestry  include  the 
expenditure  of  the  church  funds,  the 
repairing  or  alteration  of  churches  or 
chapels,  and  the  appointment  of  cer- 
tain parish  officers.  In  certain  large  and 
populous  parishes  select  vestries  are  an- 
nually chosen  from  the  chief  or  most 
respectable  parishioners  to  represent 
and  transact  the  business  of  the  parish. 
In  London  the  vestries  are  highly  im- 
portant bodies.  In  the  United  States 
the  vestry  is  a highly  developed  body 
with  wide  powers.  The  rector  is  ex 
officio  a member  of  the  vestry,  and  is 
entitled  to  preside,  if  present,  at  all  its 
meetings.  The  function  of  the  vestry 
is  to  represent  the  congregation  in  law, 
to  have  charge  and  care  of  its  property 
and  to  collect  and  disburse  its  revenues. 

VESUVIUS,  a historic  volcano,  sit- 
uated 10  miles  east  southeast  of  Naples, 
and  chiefly  noted  for  having  buried  with 
its  ashes  the  ancient  cities  of  Hercu- 
laneum and  Pompeii.  Previous  to  the 
eruption  of  1906  it  rose  in  the  center  of 
a plain  2300  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a 
pyramidal  cone  of  about  1900  feet;  total 
height,  over  4200  feet.  Previous  to  an 
eruption  about  1838  the  top  was  an  un- 
even plane,  but  was  then  converted  into 
a hollow  cup  sloping  to  a depth  of  500 
feet.  A precipitous  rocky  ridge,  1400 
feet  high,  called  Monte  Somma,  lies  to 
the  north  of  the  cone,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a deep  valley  called  the 
Atrio  del  Cavallo.  At  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  this  valley  an  observatory 


Map  showing  new  crater  of  Vesuvius.  The 
black  shading  is  the  pathway 
of  the  lava. 


has  been  established.  The  lower  belt  of 
the  sloping  plain  is  about  2 miles  broad; 
it  is  laid  out  in  vineyards  and  well  cul- 
tivated. Above  this  belt  the  plain  is 
rugged  and  covered  with  scorite.  Monte 
Somma  i.s  supposed  to  have  formerly 
formed  a complete  cone  of  larger  dimen- 
sions than  the  last  one,  being  sub- 
sequently altered  by  A’olcanic  forces  in ' 


the  same  manner  as  800  feet  of  the  pres- 
ent cone  was  carried  away  by  an  erup- 
tion in  1822.  The  volcano  began 
in  March,  1906,  to  give  evidence  of 
an  unusual  disturbance,  and  during  the 
next  few  weeks  there  followed  a con- 
tinuous eruption  which  threatened 
Naples,  with  its  500,000  population,  and 
caused  the  death  of  nearly  1000  persons. 
An  entirely  new  crater  was  established, 
changing  the  whole  topography  of  the 
mountain  and  making  this  most  recent 
eruption  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  history  of  the  volcano. 

After  several  days  of  earthquake  the 
lava  burst  from  the  new  crater  and  ran 
down  the  slope  to  Boscotrecase,  which 
it  completely  destroyed.  The  streams 
were  several  hundred  feet  wide  and 
covered  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  10  to 
40  feet,  fresh  rivers  of  melted  rock  pour- 
ing over  the  earlier  ones  as  they  hard- 
ened by  cooling.  The  ashes  so  filled  the 
air  as  to  cause  partial  darkness,  and  the 
people  had  to  protect  themselves  by 
goggles  and  cloths  from  blindness  and 
suffocation.  The  ground  was  covered 
with  a gray  mantle  of  fine  ashes  as  far 
as  Naples  and  the  east  coast.  The  weight 
of  the  cinders  which  fell  upon  the  Monte 
Olivete  market  in  Naples  broke  down  the 
roof,  crushing  over  200  people.  Vesuvius 
rises  in  the  center  of  a plain  2300  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  old  cone,  previous  to 
the  recent  eruption,  was  1900  feet  high, 
with  a total  height  of  4200  feet,  and  2000 
feet  in  diameter.  The  first  recorded 
symptoms  of  disturbance  were  those  of  a. 
D.  63.  Desultory  quakes  followed  until 
A.D.  79,  when  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
were  buried.  Another  eruption  took  place 
in  1036.  Since  numerous  outbreaks  have 
been  recorded,  the  most  disastrous  being 
that  of  1631  when  18,000  lives  were  lost. 
Violent  outbreaks  also  took  place  in 
1759,  1767,  1794, 1822, 1855,  1858, 1861, 
1865,  1867,  1872,  1878,  1879,  and  1885. 

VET'ERINARY  ART,  the  art  which 
deals  with  the  nature,  causes,  and  treat- 
ment of  the  disorders  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  first  veterinary  school  was 
instituted  in  1762  at  Lyons ; in  1766  that 
at  Alfort  near  Paris  was  opened.  A 
similar  institution  was  established  at 
London  in  1791,  and  in  the  year  follow- 
ing one  in  Berlin.  In  Edinburgh  instruc- 
tion in  veterinary  medicine  began  to  be 
given  by  Mr.  Dick  in  1819,  and  in  veter- 
inary surgery  in  1823.  In  America 
veterinary  chairs  have  been  added  to 
some  of  the  universities,  but  most  of  the 
schools  are  private  institutions. 

VETO  (Latin  “I  forbid”),  the  power 
which  one  branch  of  the  legislature  of  a 
state  has  to  negative  the  resolutions  of 
another  branch ; or  the  right  of  the 
executive  branch  of  government,  such  as 
king,  president,  or  governor,  to  reject 
the  bills,  measures,  or  resolutions  pro- 
posed by  other  branches.  In  Britain 
the  power  of  the  crown  is  confined  to  a 
veto,  a right  of  rejecting  and  not  resolv- 
ing, and  even  this  right  is  rarely  exer- 
cised, the  last  occasion  being  in  1707. 
In  the  United  States  the  president  may 
veto  all  measures  passed  by  congress, 
but  after  that  right  has  been  exercised 
the  rejected  bill  may  become  law  by 
being  passed  by  two-thirds  of  each  ot 
the  houses  of  congress. 

VIADUCT,  a structure  of  wood,  iron. 


stone  and  brickwork  for  conveying  a 
roadway  across  a valley  or  low  level.  In 
recent  years,  the  term  viaduct  has  come 
to  mean  more  specifically  a metal  struc- 
ture composed  of  a number  of  compara- 
tively short  spans  carried  by  tower-like 
piers  of  steel  framework.  These  piers 
usually  consist  of  four  column-like  legs 
spread  wide  apart  at  the  bottom  and 
converging  toward  the  top,  which  are 
braced  togeter  in  all  directions.  See 
Bridge. 

VIAT'KA,  a town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  same  name,  on  the 
Viatka,  500  miles  e.n.e.  of  Moscow.  It 
has  a cathedral,  some  manufactures,  and 
a large  trade.  Pop.  24,258.- — The  gov- 
ernment has  an  area  of  59,172  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  3,028,788. 

VIBORG  (ve'bSrg),  a government 
occupying  the  southeastern  part  of  Fin- 
land, Russia.  Area  13,525  square  miles. 
The  coast  region  along  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land and  Lake  Ladoga  is  low  and  ex- 
ceedingly indented.  The  interior  is 
rocky  and  mountainous  and  interspersed 
with  marshes  and  lakes.  The  cliief 
rivers  are  Kymenne  and  the  Wuoxen. 
Viborg  has  extensive  deposits  of  build- 
ing stone,  copper,  lead,  and  iron.  Rye, 
oats,  and  barley  are  grown.  The  forests 
occupy  a large  part  of  the  area  and  are 
an  important  source  of  income.  The 
manufacturing  industries  are  highly  de- 
veloped. The  commerce  is  mainly  with 
Russia.  Pop.  400,000,  chiefly  Finns. 
Viborg  is  the  capital.  Pop.  33,000. 

VIBUR'NUM,  a genus  of  plants,  in- 
cluding the  gelder-rose  and  laurustine, 
and  the  wayfaring  tree,  a native  of 
Europe  and  the  west  of  Asia.  The  young 
shoots  are  used  in  Germany  for  basket- 
making; the  wood  is  sometimes  employ- 
ed in  turning  and  cabinet-making;  the 
berries  are  used  for  making  ink,  and  the 
bark  of  the  root  for  making  bird-lime. 

VICE-ADMIRAL.  See  Admiral. 

VICE-CONSUL.  See  Consul. 

VICENZA  (vi-chen'tsa),  a town  of 
North  Italy,  capital  of  a province  of  the 
same  name,  49  miles  west  of  Venice. 
The  most  remarkable  edifices  are  the 
Duomo  or  cathedral;  the  Palazzo  della 
Ragione  (town-hall),  an  ancient  Gothic 
building,  with  fine  connected  buildings 
by  Palladio;  the  museum,  one  of  Pal- 
ladio’s finest  buildings;  the  Palazzo- 
Prefetizzio,  and  the  theater,  both  by 
Palladio;  the  lyceum,  churches,  and 
hospitals.  The  manufactures  are  silk, 
woolen,  and  linen  tissues,  leather  earth- 
enware, hats,  etc.  Pop.  44,261. — The 
province  has  an  area  of  940  sq.  miles 
and  a pop.  of  446,521. 

VICE-PRESIDENT,  the  second  officer 
of  the  government  of  the  Llnited  States 
in  rank  and  chosen  for  the  same  term 
and  in  the  same  manner  as  the  president. 
He  performs  no  executive  functions 
whatever,  his  only  duty  being  to  preside 
over  the  deliberations  of  the  senate 
except  when  it  is  sitting  as  a court  of 
impeachment  for  the  trial  of  the  presi- 
dent, when  the  chief  justice  presides. 
He  has  a casting  vote  in  the  senate  in 
case  of  a tie,  and  he  presides  at  the  joint 
meeting  of  the  two  houses  when  tl':e 
electoral  votes  are  counted.  The  chief 
importance  of  the  office  consists  in  th.e 
fact  that  the  vice-president  is  made  by 
the  constitution  the  successor  of  the 


VICHY 


VICTORIA  I 


president  in  case  of  the  latter’s  removal 
from  office  or  of  his  death,  resignation, 
or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  office.  The  qualifications 
required  of  the  vice-president  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  president.  His 
salary  is  $12,000  per  year. 

VICHY  (ve-she),  a town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  the  Allier,  in  a valley 
of  the  river  of  that  name,  32  miles  s.s.e. 
of  Moulins.  The  Vichy  waters  are  in 
much  request  for  disorders  of  the  stom- 
ach and  bowels,  and  of  the  urinary 
organs,  in  gout,  rheumatism,  etc.  Much 
of  the  water  is  sent  out  in  bottles.  Pop. 
8486. 

VICKSBURG,  a town  in  Warren 
CO.,  Mississippi,  on  the  Mississippi,  400 
miles  above  New  Orleans.  It  is  a port 
of  entry,  and  has  an  extensive  trade 
in  cotton.  Vicksburg  was  strongly  forti- 
fied by  the  confederates  in  the  civil 
war,  and  the  Unionist  forces  were  re- 
pulsed here  on  several  occasions,  but 
after  a long  siege  General  Pemberton 
surrendered  the  place  to  General  Grant, 
July  4,  1863.  Pop.  15,373. 

VICTOREMMANUEL  (Vittorio  Eman- 
uele)  II.,  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Albert, 
king  of  Sardinia,  was  born  at  Turin, 
March  14,  1820,  and  he  married  on 
April  12,  1842,  Archduchess  Adelaide 
of  Austria.  His  aptitude  for  a military 
career  became  evident  when  he  com- 
manded the  Savoy  brigades  against 
Austria  (1848-49),  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Goito  by  his 
reckless  valor.  After  the  battle  of  Novara 
(March  23,  1849)  his  father  abdicated, 
and  Victor  Emmanuel  ascended  the 
throne  of  Sardinia.  He  had  then  to 
negotiate  with  Austria  under  most  un- 
favorable circumstances,  but  he  steadily 


Victor  Emmanuel. 


refused  to  give  up  the  principle  of  rep- 
resentative government  in  the  Sardinian 
constitution,  and  this  gained  for  him 
the  name  of  honest  king  and  the  good- 
will of  the  Italian  people.  This  latter 
was  only  gained,  however,  after  much 
calumny  and  misunderstanding,  but  the 
young  king  pursued  from  the  first  a 
policy  which  led  to  the  national  unity 
of  Italy.  Under  the  advice  of  his  cele- 
brated minister  Cavour,  he  regulated  the 
finances,  reorganized  the  army,  and 
secularized  the  church  property,  for 
which  he  w'as  excommumcated  by  the 
pope.  He  took  part  in  the  Crimean  war, 
and  in  1859,  assisted  by  France,  re- 
newed the  contest  with  Austria,  taking 
part  in  the  battles  of  Magenta  (4th 
June)  and  Solferino  (24th  June).  By 


the  Treaty  of  Villafranca  and  the  Peace 
of  Zurich  which  followed  these  successes, 
Lombardy  was  added  to  his  dominions, 
but  he  had  to  cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to 
France.  Parma,  Modena,  and  Tuscany, 
now  became  united  to  Sardinia,  and 
Garibaldi’s  successes  in  Sicily  and 
Naples  brought  the  whole  of  Southern 
Italy  over  to  Victor  Emmanuel.  On 
March  17,  1861,  he  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Italy,  and  early  in  1865  Florence 
became  the  royal  residence.  By  the 
Peace  of  Vienna  (1866)  Austria  ceded 
Venetia,  and  on  the  withdrawal  of  the 
French  garrison  from  Rome  in  1870  the 
city  annexed  itself  to  Italy.  The  king 
entered  Rome  on  July  2,  1871,  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  the  Quirinal.  He 
died  9th  June,  1878,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Humbert. 

VICTORIA,  a British  colony  in  the 
southeast  of  Australia,  bounded  n.  by 
New  South  Wales,  s.e.  by  the  Pacific,  s. 
by  Bass  strait  and  the  Southern  ocean, 
and  w.  by  South  Australia ; area,  87,884 
sq.  miles.  It  has  about  600  geographical 
miles  of  sea-coast,  with  considerable 
bays  and  indentations,  especially  about 
the  middle,  where  Port  Phillip  Bay,  with 
an  area  of  875  sq.  miles  and  an  entrance 
barely  2 miles  wide,  affords  shelter 
sufficient  for  the  largest  fleet.  Victoria 
is  the  principal  gold-producing  colony 
of  Australia.  Tin,  antimony,  copper, 
and  coal  are  also  among  the  minerals 
worked.  Agriculture  has  greatly  ex- 
tended of  late  years,  wheat  and  oats 
being  the  two  cereals  cliiefly  cultivated. 
The  great  staple  of  the  colony,  however, 
is  wool.  The  government  is  invested  in  a 
governor  appointed  by  the  crown,  aided 
by  an  executive  ministry  consisting  of 
twelve  members,  and  a parhament  con- 
sisting of  a legislative  council  of  forty- 
eight  members  elected  for  fourteen 
provinces,  and  a legislative  assembly  of 
ninety-five  members  for  eighty-four 
districts.  The  colony  possesses  a small 
permanent  military  force,  besides  militia 
and  volunteers,  and  there  is  a small 
fleet  of  war-vessels.  Since  1901  Victoria 
has  formed  a state  of  the  Australian 
commonwealth.  There  were  in  1907, 
3425  miles  of  railway  open  (all  belonging 
to  the  govermnent),  and  upward  of 
16,000  miles  of  telegraph  wire  with  843 
telegraph  stations.  Education  is  com- 
pulsory between  the  ages  of  six  and 
thirteen.  Besides  the  Melbourne  uni- 
versity there  are  several  colleges  con- 
nected with  various  religious  denomina- 
tions. Pop.  1,201,506. 

VICTORIA,  capital  of  British  Colum- 
bia, in  Vancouver  island,  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca. 
There  are  government  buildings,  town 
hall,  cathedral,  etc.,  and  some  good 
streets.  The  harbor  for  large  vessels  is 
at  Esquimault,  3 miles  distant,  where 
there  is  a station  of  the  British  navy. 
Pop.  20,816. 

VICTORIA  CROSS,  a British  military 
decoration,  instituted  at  the  close  of  the 
Crimean  war  in  1856.  It  is  granted  to 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  any  rank  for  a 
single  act  of  valor  in  presence  of  the 
enemy.  It  was  instituted  in  imitation 
of  the  French  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  It  is  a bronze  Maltese  cross, 
with  a royal  crown  in  the  center,  sur- 
mounted by  a lion,  and  the  words  “For 


Valour”  indented  on  a scroll  below  the 
crown.  The  ribbon  is  red  for  the  army. 


and  blue  for  the  navy.  A pension  of 
$50  a year  accompanies  the  decoration, 
when  gained  by  anyone  under  the  rank 
of  commissioned  officer,  with  an  ad- 
ditional clasp  and  $25  if  gained  a second 
time. 

VICTORIA  I.  (Alexandrina),  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and  Empress 
of  India,  only  child  of  Edward,  duke  of 
Kent,  and  of  his  wife  Princess  Victoria 
Mary  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld,  widow  of  the 
Prince  of  Leiningen,  and  sister  of  King 
Leopold  of  Belgimn,  was  born  at  Ken- 
sington Palace,  May  24, 1819.  Her  father 
died  January  23,  1820,  and  she  became 
heiress-presumptive  to  the  crown  on  the 
accession  of  William  IV.  in  1830.  The 
latter  dying  without  issue  (June  20, 
1837)1  she  ascended  the  throne  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  that  of  Hanover 
falling  by  the  Salic  law  to  her  uncle,  the 


Queen  Victoria. 


Duke  of  Cumberland.  She  was  crowned 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  June  28,  1838, 
and  on  February  10,  1840,  married  her 
cousin.  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha.  Prince  Albert  died  on  14th  De- 
cember, 1861,  a blow  which  so  affected 
the  queen  that  she  made  but  few  ap- 
pearances in  public  for  years.  In  1876 
she  assumed  the  title  of  Emprees  of 
India.  The  jubilee  of  her  reign  was  cele- 
brated in  1887  and  the  “diamond 
jubilee”  in  1897.  She  wrote  Leaves  from 
the  Journal  of  Our  Life  in  the  High- 
lands (1868),  and  More  Leaves  (1884). 
She  died  at  Osborne  House,  Isle  of 
Wight,  on  22nd  January,  1901,  and  wa.s 
succeeded  by  her  eldest  son  Edward 


VICTORIA  NYAXZA 


VILLEINS 


•N 

V' 


VII.  Her  remains  were  placed  beside 
those  of  Prince  Albert  in  the  mausoleum 
at  Frogmore. 

VICTORIA  NYANZA,  a lake  of  East 
Africa,  about  400  miles  inland  from  the 
Indian  ocean,  crossed  near  its  north  end 
by  the  equator,  about  3800  feet  above 
the  sea;  area,  29,000  sq.  miles.  It  com- 
municates with  the  Albert  Nyanza  by 
means  of  the  Victoria  Nile,  and  is  the 
principal  feeder  of  the  White  Nile.  It 
contains  many  islands,  some  of  them  of 
considerable  size.  It  was  discovered  by 
Captain  Speke  in  1858.  Its  northern 
shores  belong  to  British  East  Africa  and 
its  southern  to  German  East  Africa. 

VIENNA,  capital  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  empire,  is  situated  in  a plain 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  and  is 
intersected  by  a narrow  arm  of  the  river 
into  which  fall  the  Wein  and  other  small 
streams.  The  old  town  is  still  the  court 
and  fashionable  quarter  of  the  city,  and 
is  encircled  by  the  Ringstrasse,  a hand- 
some boulevard,  55  yards  wide.  Vienna 
is  on  the  whole  a handsome,  well-built 
town,  with  fine  squares  and  straight  and 
spacious  streets.  Of  the  churches  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  Domkirche,  or 
cathedral,  of  St.  Stephen,  a cruciform 
Gothic  structure,  with  a main  tower 
453  feet  high.  The  interior  is  adorned 
with  numerous  statues  and  monuments, 
and  the  tower  contains  a bell  of  18  tons 
weight.  The  modern  palaces  of  the 
archdukes  and  others  of  the  nobility,  are 


many  of  them,  handsome  buildings. 
Deserving  of  special  mention  are  the 
houses  of  parliament,  the  magnificent 
Gothic  town-house  (1872-83),  the  courts 
of  justice,  the  museums  of  art  and  of 
natural  history,  and  the  exchange.  The 
university  was  founded  in  1237,  and 
reorganized  by  Maria  Theresa.  The  im- 
perial library  contains  440,000  volumes 
and  20,000  MSS.  The  imperial  museum 
of  natural  history  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
Europe.  The  treasury,  among  other 
imperial  treasures,  contains  the  regalia 
of  Charlemagne.  Vienna  is  the  first 
manufaeturing  town  in  the  empire,  and 
its  manufactures  include  cotton  and  silk 
goods,  leather,  porcelain,  arms,  hard- 
ware, and  many  other  articles.  There 
is  also  a large  inland  trade.  It  is  now 
the  center  of  a great  railway  system, 
and  the  center  of  the  shipping  trade 


between  eastern  and  western  Europe. 
Pop.  1,662,269. 

VIENNA,  Congress  of.  This  congress 
was  assembled  on  November  1,  1814, 
to  reorganize  the  political  system  of 
Europe  after  the  first  overthrow  of 
Napoleon.  The  principal  powers  rep- 
resented in  it  were  Austria,  Russia, 
Prussia,  England,  and  France.  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sweden,  and  other  minor 
powers  were  also  consulted  on  matters 
more  nearly  concerning  them.  The  lead- 
ing territorial  adjustments  effected  by 
the  congress  were  the  following : Austria 
recovered  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  while 
Tuscany  and  Modena  were  conferred  on 
collateral  branches  of  the  imperial  house. 
The  king  of  Sardinia  recovered  Pied- 
mont and  Savoy,  with  the  addition  of 
Genoa.  Murat  retained  Naples,  but  the 
Bourbons  were  soon  reinstated.  Hol- 
land and  Belgium  were  erected  into  a 
kingdom  for  the  Prince  of  Orange,  Will- 
iam I.  Hanover,  with  the  title  of  king, 
returned  to  the  king  of  England,  and 
Great  Britain  retained  Malta,  Heligo- 
land, and  several  conquered  colonies. 
A federative  constitution,  with  a diet 
at  Frankfort,  was  established  for  Ger- 
many. Prussia  received  the  duchy  of 
Posen,  the  Rhine  province,  and  a part, 
of  Saxony.  Russia  received  the  greater 
part  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Warsaw, 
Cracow  becoming  a free  state  protected 
by  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia.  Sweden 
retained  Norway,  and  Denmark  was  in- 


demnified with  Lauenburg.  The  con- 
gress was  suddenly  broken  up  by  Napo- 
leon’s escape  from  Elba  (February, 
1815);  but  its  acts  were  signed  by  the 
powers  interested  on  9th  June,  1815. 

VIENNE  (ve-enn),  a western  depart- 
ment of  France;  area,  2690  sq.  miles. 
Iron  is  abundant,  and  there  are  excel- 
lent quarries  of  marble,  granite,  mill- 
stones, whetstones,  lithographic  stones, 
and  limestone.  The  manufactures  con- 
sist of  woolens,  lace,  cutlery^  paper, 
pig-iron,  etc.  The  capital  is  Poitiers. 
Pop.  342,785. — Haute-Vienne  is  a hilly 
department  adjoining  Vienna  on  the 
southeast;  area,  2130  sq.  miles.  The 
principal  crops  are  buckwheat,  rye, 
beans,  and  peas;  and  horses,  mules,  and 
swine  of  a superior  breed  are  reared. 
Minerals  include  iron,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
coal,  antimony,  and  kaolin.  Porcelain, 


woolen  and  other  tissues,  paper,  and 
leather  are  the  chief  manufactures. 
Limoges  is  the  capital.  Pop.  363,182. 

VIGIL,  an  ecclesiastical  term  applied 
at  first  to  the  evening,  and  afterward  to 
the  whole  day,  preceding  a great  festi- 
val. This  name  originated  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  early  Christians 
spent  a part  of  the  night  preceding  such 
festivals  in  prayers,  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  coming  celebration. 

VIKTNG  (from  the  Icelandic  vik,  a 
bay  or  fiord,  and  the  termination  ing, 
implying  one  who  belongs  to  or  is  de- 
scended from:  literally  one  who  lurked 
in  bays  and  issued  thence  to  plunder),  a 
rover  or  sea-robber  belonging  to  one 
of  the  bands  of  Northmen  who  scoured 
the  European' seas  during  the  8th,  9th, 
and  10th  centuries.  This  word  has  been 
frequently  confounded  with  sea-king, 
a term  which  is  applied  to  a man  of 
royal  race,  who  took  by  right  the  title 
of  king  when  he  assumed  the  command 
of  men,  although  only  of  a ship’s  crew; 
whereas  the  former  term  is  applicable 
to  any  member  of  the  rover  bands.  See 
Northmen. 

VILLARD,  Henry,  American  financier 
was  born  in  Spire,  Bavaria,  in  1835.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1853.  He 
married  a daughter  of  William  Lloyd 
Garrison  in  1866,  and  for  two  years 
afterward  was  European  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Tribune.  In  1875  Mr. 
Villard  became  president  of  both  the 
Oregon  and  California  railroad,  and  the 
Oregon  Steamship  company.  In  1879 
he  organized  the  Oregon  railway  and 
navigation  company.  He  was  elected 
president Tof  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 
way in  1881,  and  from  1889  to  1893  was 
chairman  of  its  board  of  directors.  He 
died  in  1900. 

VILLARS  (vil-ar),  Claude  Louis  Hec- 
tor, Due  de,  one  of  the  greatest  generals 
of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  the  son  of 
the  Marquis  de  Villars,  and  was  born 
at  Moulins  in  1653.  He  early  distin- 
guished himself  under  Turenne,  Cond6, 
and  Luxembourg,  and  was  created 
marechal  de  camp  in  1690,  and  lieu- 
tenant-general in  1693.  He  defeated 
Prince  Louis  of  Baden  at  Friedlingen, 
14th  October,  1702,  for  which  he  re- 
ceived the  marshal’s  baton;  and  de- 
feated the  Prince  of  Baden  at  Hoch- 
stadt,  21st  September,  1703.  His  success 
in  dealing  with  the  insurrection  of  the 
Camisards  obtained  for  him  the  title  of 
duke  (1705).  Having  been  sent  to  de- 
fend the  frontier  against  Marlborough, 
he  forced  the  formidable  lines  of  Sroll- 
hofen,  near  Strasburg,  and  penetrated 
far  into  Germany  (1705-1707).  In  1709 
he  replaced  Vendome  in  Flanders,  and 
fought  the  battle  of  Malplaquet  against 
Marlborough  and  Eugene,  in  which  he 
was  seriously  wounded.  In  1712  he 
defeated  the  allies  at  Denain,  took 
Marchiennes,  and  relieved  Landrecy. 
After  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  he  opposed 
Eugene  with  uninterrupted  success,  and 
negotiated  with  him  the  Peace  of  Ras-, 
tadt,  7th  March,  1714.  On  the  renewal 
of  the  war  with  Austria  in  1733  he  was 
sent  to  Italy  at  the  head  of  an  army,  with 
the  title  of  marshal-general  of  France. 
After  a successful  campaign,  he  died  at 
Turin,  1734. 

VILLEINS,  a species  of  feudal  serfs 


Street  In  Vienna. 


J 


VILLERS 


VIOLIN 


who  were  allowed  to  hold  portions  of 
land  at  the  will  of  their  lord,  on  con- 
dition of  performing  menial  and  non- 
military  services.  It  frequently  hap- 
pened that  lands  held  in  vilenage  de- 
scended in  uninterrupted  succession 
from  father  to  son,  until  at  length  the 
occupiers  or  villeins  became  entitled, 
by  prescription  or  custom,  to  hold  their 
lands  so  long  as  they  perfonned  the  re- 
quired services.  • And  although  the  vil- 
leins themselves  acquired  freedom,  or 
their  land  came  into  the  possession  of 
freemen,  the  villein  services  were  still 
the  condition  of  the  tenure,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  manor.  These  customs 
were  preserved  and  evidenced  by  the 
rolls  of  the  several  courts-baron,  in 
which  they  were  entered,  or  kept  on  foot 
by  the  constant  immemorial  usage  of 
the  several  manors  in  which  the  lands 
lay.  And  as  such  tenants  had  nothing  to 
show  for  their  estates  but  the  entries 
into  those  rolls,  or  copies  of  them  authen- 
ticated by  the  steward,  they  at  last  came 
to  be  called  tenants  by  copy  of  court- 
roll,  and  their  tenure  a copy-hold. 

VILLERS.  See  Buckingham 

VILNA,  or  WILNA,  a town  of  Russia, 
'capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Villa.  Pop.  154,532. — The 
government,  which  lies  in  the  Baltic, 
has  an  area  of  16,406  sq.  miles  and  a 
population  of  1,591,207.  The  surface  is 
generally  flat,  and  the  government  pro- 
duces good  crops  of  grain,  hemp,  and 
flax.  Manufactures  and  trade  are 
limited. 

VINCENNES  (vln-sSnz'),  the  county- 
seat  of  Knox  CO.,  Ind.,  117  miles  south- 
west of  Indianapolis;  on  the  Wabash 
river,  and  on  the  Cleveland,  Cincin- 
nati, Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Southwestern,  the 
Evansville  and  Terre  Haute,  and  the 
Indianapolis  and  Vincennes  railroad. 
Pop.  12,249. 

VINCENT,  St.,  one  of  the  British  West 
India  islands.  See  St.  Vincent. 

VINCI  (vin'che),  Leonardo  da,  one  of 
the  greatest  Italian  painters,  also  dis- 
distinguished  as  a sculptor,  architect, 
and  civil  and  military  engineer,  a scien- 
tific inventor,  and  a man  of  universal 
genius,  was  born  at  the  village  of  Vinci, 
near  Florence,  in  1452.  Two  of  his  earlier 
productions  are  still  extant : The  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,  in  the  gallery  of  the 


Leonardo  da  Vinci. 

Cffizi  at  Florence,  and  The  Virgin  of  the 
Rocks  in  the  British  National  gallery. 
His  great  painting  of  the  Lord’s  Supper 
was  finished  in  1499.  The  original  has 
been  wholly  defaced,  but  judging  from 
copies  and  engravings,  this  work  is 


universally  regarded  as  one  of  the  great- 
est ever  produced.  One  of  the  best 
copies  is  that  in  the  Royal  academy, 
London,  by  his  pupil  Marco  d’Oggionno. 
After  the  occupation  of  Milan  by  Louis 
XII.  (1499)  he  retired  to  Florence,  where 
he  painted  his  celebrated  portrait  of 
Mona  Lisa  del  Giocondo,  known  as 
La  Gioconda,  in  the  Louvre.  In  1502  he 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  and  archi- 
tect of  the  pope’s  army,  and  visited 
many  of  the  fortified  posts  in  the  papal 
dominions.  In  1507  he  returned  to 
Milan,  and  painted  a Madonna  and 
Child  in  the  palace  of  the  Melzi  at 
Vaprio.  In  1512  he  painted  two  por- 
traits of  Duke  Maximilian,  son  of 
Ludovico,  and  in  1516  accompanied 
Francis  I.  to  France.  He  died  at  Cloux, 
near  Amboise,  2d  May,  1519. 

VINE,  a well-known  climbing  shrub 
with  woody  stems,  simple  or  compound 
leaves,  peduncles  sometimes  changed 
into  tendrils,  small  green  flowers,  and 
round  berries.  The  species  are  found  in 
both  the  Gld  and  New  Worlds,  especially 
in  Asia.  The  best  known  and  most 
useful  of  the  order  is  the  grapevine, 
cultivated  from  time  immemorial,  of 
which  there  are  numerous  varieties, 
distinguished  by  possessing  lobed  sin- 
uately-toothed,  naked  or  downy  leaves. 
It  is  a native  of  Central  Asia,  and  its 
cultivation  extends  from  near  55°  north 
latitude  to  the  equator,  but  in  south 
latitudes  it  only  extends  to  about  40°. 
It  is  rarely  grown  at  a greater  altitude 
than  3000  feet.  About  1771  a European 
vine  was  introduced  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  and  the  culture  has  increased  to 
great  dimensions,  especially  in  Califor- 
nia. In  other  parts  of  the  United  States, 
however,  the  native  American  varieties 
are  chiefly  cultivated.  The  vine  grows 
in  every  sort  of  soil,  but  that  which  is 
light  and  gravelly  is  best  suited  for  the 
production  of  fine  wines.  It  is  a long- 
lived  plant,  indeed,  in  suitable  climates 
the  period  of  its  existence  is  not  known. 
It  is  propagated  from  seeds,  layers,  cut- 
tings, grafting,  and  by  inoculation,  the 
first  method  being  used  for  obtaining 
new  varieties.  Some  vines  produce  dark- 
colored  berries  (black  or  red  so  called), 
others  white.  The  Burgundy  may  be 
considered  the  most  general  vineyard 
grape  of  France,  and  the  best  wines  in 
Italy  and  Spain  are  also  made  from 
grapes  of  this  description.  The  sweet 
wines  are  made  from  sweet-berried 
grapes  allowed  to  remain  on  the  plants 
till  overripe.  Most  varieties  of  the  vine 
bear  only  once  in  the  season,  some  of  tener, 
especially  in  warm  climates.  Grapes 
are  extensively  used  in  the  dry  state 
under  the  name  of  raisins,  chiefly  im- 
ported from  Spain  and  the  Levant.  The 
dried  currants  of  commerce  are  the 
produce  of  the  small  seedless  Corinthian 
grape  which  is  cultivated  in  Greece  and 
in  many  of  the  Greek  islands.  The  vine 
is  mentioned  in  the  most  ancient  his- 
torical records,  and  the  grape  has  been 
in  use  for  the  making  of  wine  for  more 
than  4000  years.  The  Phoenicians  in- 
troduced the  vine  into  Europe.  Vine- 
yards are  mentioned  in  Domesday  book 
as  existing  in  England,  but  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
began  to  be  neglected.  Artificial  heat 
was  not  applied  to  the  production  of 


grapes  before  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  For  the  manufacture  of  wines 
see  Wine. 

VINEGAR,  the  name  given  to  dilute 
and  impure  acetic  acid,  obtained  by  the 
vinous  fermentation.  In  wine  countries 
it  is  obtained  from  the  acetous  fermen- 
tation of  inferior  wines,  but  in  Britain 
and  elsewhere  it  is  usually  procured 
from  an  infusion  of  malt  which  has  pre- 
viously undergone  the  vinous  fermenta- 
tion. Vinegar  may  also  be  obtained  from 
strong  beer,  by  the  fermentation  of 
various  fruits,  or  of  a solution  of  sugar 
mixed  with  yeast;  in  short,  all  liquids 
which  are  capable  of  the  vinous  fermen- 
tation may  be  made  to  produce  vinegar. 
Vinegars  yield  by  distillation  a purer 
and  somewhat  weaker  acetic  acid,  called 
distilled  vinegar.  Wood  vinegar  is  an 
impure  acetic  acid  obtained  by  the  dis- 
tillation of  wood.  Common  and  distilled 
vinegar  are  used  in  pharmacy  for  pre- 
paring many  remedies,  and  externally 
in  medicine,  in  the  form  of  lotions.  The 
use  of  vinegar  as  a condiment  is  uni- 
versal. It  is  likewise  the  antiseptic  in- 
gredient in  pickles. 

VIOL,  a class  of  ancient  musical  in- 
struments which  may  be  regarded  as  the 
precursors  of  the  modern  violins.  They 
were  fretted  instruments  with  three  to 
six  strings,  and  were  played  on  with  a 
bow.  There  were  three  instruments 
differing  in  pitch  in  a set,  the  treble, 
tenor,  and  bass  viols,  and  in  concerts 
they  were  commonly  played  in  pairs: 
two  treble,  two  tenor,  and  two  bass. 
The  bass  viol,  or  viol  de  gamba,  was  the 
last  to  fall  into  disuse,  which  it  did  about 
the  close  of  18th  century. 

VIOLA.  See  Violin  and  Violet. 

VIOLET  (ViSla),  the  popular  name 
given  to  the  species  of  the  natural  order 
Viloacese,  which  are  favorite  flowers  in 
all  northern  and  temperate  climates 
and  many  of  them  among  the  first  to 
make  their  appearance  in  the  spring. 
The  corolla  is  composed  of  five  unequal 
petals;  the  roots  are  mostly  perennial; 
the  leaves  are  alternate  and  stipulated; 
and  the  flowers  are  pendunculate. 
More  than  a hundred  specimens  are 
known.  The  greatest  favorites  are  com- 
mon sweet  violet,  heart’s-ease ; the 
former  being  especially  esteemed  for  its 
fragrance.  The  well-known  pansies  so 
common  as  garden  flowers  are  but 
varieties  produced  by  cultivations. 

VIOLET,  one  of  the  colors.  See  Color. 
Spectrum,  etc. 

VIOLET- WOOD.  See  King-wood. 

VIOLIN,  a musical  instrument,  con- 
sisting of  four  cat-gut  strings,  the  lowest 
of  which  is  covered  with  silvered  copper 
wire,  stretched  by  means  of  a bridge 
over  a hollow  wooden  body,  and  played 
with  a bow.  It  is  considered  the  most 
perfect  of  musical  instruments,  on 
account  of  its  capabilities  of  fine  tone 
and  expression,  and  of  producing  all  the 
tones  in  any  scale  in  perfect  tune.  It 
forms  with  its  cognates,  the  viola, 
violoncello  or  bass  violin,  and  double- 
bass,  the  main  element  of  all  orchestras. 
The  principal  parts  of  the  violin  are  the 
scroll  or  head,  in  which  are  placed  the 
pins  for  tuning  the  strings;  the  neck, 
which  connects  the  scroll  with  the  body, 
and  to  which  is  attached  the  finger- 
board, upon  which  the  strings  are 


VIOLONCELLO 


VIRGINIA 


stopped  by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand 
as  it  nolds  the  neck  in  playing;  the  belly, 
over  which  the  strings  are  stretched,  and 
which  has  two  f-shaped  sound  holes, 
one  on  each  side ; the  back  or  under  side ; 
the  sides  or  ribs,  uniting  the  back  and 
belly;  the  tail -piece,  to  which  the  strings 
are  fastened;  and  the  bridge.  The  back, 
neck,  and  sides  are  generally  of  syca- 
more, the  belly  of  deal,  the  finger-board 
and  tail-piece  of  ebony.  Almost  all  the 
different  pieces  are  fastened  together 
with  glue.  The  four  strings  of  the  violin 
are  tuned  at  intervals  of  fifths,  G,  on 
the  upper  space  of  the  bass  staff,  D,  A, 
E,  reckoning  upward.  Every  inter- 
mediate semitone  in  its  ordinary  com- 
pass of  octaves  may  be  produced  by 
stopping  the  strings  with  the  fingers, 
and  the  compass  may  be  almost  in- 
definitely extended  upward  by  the 
harmonics  produced  by  touching  the 
strings  lightly.  The  viola,  or  tenor 
violin,  has  four  strings  tuned  C (in  the 
second  space  of  the  bass  staff),  D,  A,  G, 
reckoning  upward,  and  is  an  octave 
higher  than  the  violoncello,  and  a fifth 
lower  than  the  violin.  The  violin  can, 
to  a limited  extent,  be  made  to  produce 
harmony  by  sounding  two  or  three 
strings  together.  The  finest  violins  are 
by  old  makers,  which  cannot  be  imi- 
tated, and  the  precise  cause  of  their 
superiority  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
explained.  The  Cremona  violins  stand 
in  the  first  rank,  the  celebrated  mak- 
ers being  the  Stradivari  (Straduarius), 
Amati,  and  Guarneri  (Guarnerius) ; of 
German  makers  the  most  celebrated  are 
Stainer  or  Steiner  and  IQotz ; Vuillaume 
of  the  French,  and  Forest  of  the  English. 

VIOLONCELLO,  a powerful  and  ex- 
pressive bow  instrument  of  the  violin 
kind,  held  by  the  performer  between  the 
knees,  and  filling  a place  between  the 
violin  and  double-bass.  It  has  four 
strings,  the  two  lowest  covered  with 
silver  wire.  It  is  tuned  in  fifths,  C (on 
the  second  ledger-line  below  the  bass 
staff),  G,  D,  A,  reckoning  upward,  and 
is  an  octave  lower  than  the  viola  or  tenor 
violin.  Its  ordinary  compass  from  C on 
the  second  ledger-line  below  extends 
to  A on  the  second  space  of  the  treble, 
but;  poloists  frequently  play  an  octave 
higher. 

VIPER,  a name  applied  to  various 
venomous  serpents,  characterized  by 
having  no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  save 
the  two  hollow  poison-fangs.  The  com- 
mon viper  or  adder  is  generally  of  a 


Head  and  tail  of  common  viper. 


brownish-yellow  color,  with  zig-zag 
markings  and  black  triangular  spots. 
Its  bite  is,  as  a rule,  not  fatal,  but  may 
induce  pain,  sickness,  and  fever.  The 
food  consists  of  frogs,  mice,  birds,  eggs, 
etc.  The  viper  is  viviparous — retaining 
its  eggs  within  the  body  till  the  young 
are  hatched. 

VIRCHOW  (fer'ho),  Rudolf,  German 
pathologist  and  anthropologist,  born 


1821,  studied  medicine  at  Berlin,  and 
early  became  famous  as  a lecturer  on 
pathological  anatomy  at  Berlin  uni- 
versity. In  1849  he  accepted  a chair  at 
Wurzburg,  where  he  remained  seven 
years,  returning  to  Berlin  in  the  autumn 
of  1856  as  professor  in  the  university 
and  director  of  the  pathological  institute 
attached  to  it.  He  has  rendered  im- 
mense service  to  medical  science  by  his 
discoveries  in  regard  to  inflammation, 
ulcerations,  tuberculosis,  and  numerous 
other  morbid  processes  of  the  human 
body,  and  has  had  great  influeiice  on  the 
whole  of  modern  medicine,  including 
hospital  reform  and  sanitary  science. 


Rudolf  Virchow. 


From  1862  he  was  one  of  Bismarck’s 
most  powerful  opponents  in  the  Prus- 
sian parliament  and  the  Reichstag,  and 
has  been  a member  of  important  com- 
missions, etc.  In  1856  he  was  elected  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  Medicine,  London.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Gennan  Anthropological 
society,  and  has  been  an  enthusiastic 
worker  in  this  field,  accumulating  facts 
(partly  in  company  with  Schliemann)  in 
Asia  Minor,  the  Caucasus,  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  etc.  He  has  been  a voluminous 
writer,  and  among  his  important  works 
are:  Cellular  Pathology,  Handbuch  der 
Speziellen  Pathologie  und  Therapie, 
Uber  den  Hungertyphus,  Die  Aufgabe 
den  Naturwissenschaften  in  dem  neuen 
nationalen  Leben  Deutschlands,  Die 
Freiheit  der  Wissenschaft  im  Modernen 
Staat,  and  many  others.  He  died  in 
September,  1902. 

VIRGIL,  full  name,  Publius  Virgilius 
(or  Vergilius)  Maro,  the  most  distin- 
guished epic,  didactic,  and  pastoral  poet 
of  ancient  Rome,  was  born  at  Andes 
(probably  Pietola),  a little  village  near 
Mantua,  15th  October,  70  b.c.  His 
Eclogues,  a series  of  bucolic  or  pastoral 
poems,  were  written  about  41-39  b.c. 
His  Georgies,  a poem  on  agriculture, 
was  completed  in  b.c.  31.  The  .®neid, 
an  epic  in  twelve  books  on  the  fortunes 
of  iEneas,  was  probably  begun  about 
B.c.  29.  It  occupied  the  author  many 
years,  and  never  received  his  finishing 
touches.  In  b.c.  20  Virgil  appears  to 
have  engaged  on  a tour  in  Greece.  But 
Augustus,  having  arrived  at  Athens  on 
his  return  from  the  East,  Virgil  deter- 
mined to  accompany  him  home.  At 
Megara,  however,  he  fell  sick,  and  he 
died  at  Brundusium,  b.c.  19. 

VIRGINAL,  an  obsolute  keyed  musi- 
cal instrument  with  one  string,  jack  a~  d 
quill  to  each  note.  It  differed  from  the 
spinet  only  in  being  square  instead  of 


triangular,  and  was  the  precursor  of  the 
harpsichord,  now  superseded  by  the 
pianoforte. 


Virginal. 

VIRGINIA.  See  Appius  Claudius. 

VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  original  of  |^i 
the  United  States  of  North  America,  3* 
bounded  by  West  Virginia,  Maryland, 
the  Atlantic,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
and  Kentucky;  area,  42,450  sq.  miles,  v'3 
It  ranks  thirty-eight  in  size  among  the  f j 
states.  The  western  portion  of  the  state  ,yi2i 
is  traversed  from  s.s.w.  to  n.n.e.  by  the  jHl 
great  range  of  the  Alleghanies,  with 
ramifications  known  by  various  local  O 
names,  and  intersected  by  extensive  i'jt: 
and  fertile  valleys.  The  surface  of  the  i^i 
state  may  be -divided  into  three  sections;  | /I 
the  seaboard  or  tide-water  district,  the 
soil  of  which  is  of  excellent  quality,  y’l! 
yielding  large  crops;  the  district  to  the  fy 


Reverse. 

The  seal  of  Virginia. 


eastern  chain  of  the  Alleghanies,  which 
is  less  fertile ; and  the  mountain  district, 
which  has  many  rich  and  fertile  valleys. 
The  Valley  of  Virginia  in  this  district  has 
been  called  the  garden  of  .America.  The 
width  of  the  mountainous  district  is 
from  80  to  100  miles.  The  highest  point 
is  White  Top,  about  6000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  sea-board  or  tide-water  dis- 
trict is  generally  level,  not  exceeding  60 
feet  above  the  tide  in  its  highest  parts. 
Virginia  is  rich  in  minerals,  including 
coal,  iron,  copper,  lead,  manganese, 
zinc,  gold,  gypsum,  rock-salt,  etc.;  the 
most  valuable  of  those  worked  being 


^ - 


\ 

t 


K 

V 


i 


fi 


ji 


VIRGINIA 


VISHNU 


coal  and  iron.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Potomac,  the  Rappahannock,  the  York, 
and  the  James,  which  flow  into  Chesa- 
peake bay.  The  Roanoke  passes  into 
North  Carolina.  East  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
the  climate  is  mild  or  temperately  warm, 
with  a mean  temperature  of  37°  for 
January  and  77°  for  July.  The  rainfall  is 
sufficient  throughout  the  state,  and 
favorably  distributed  for  agriculture. 
It  is  greatest  in  the  central  portion  near 
Richmond,  where  the  average  is  48 
inches.  The  soils  of  Virginia  are  in 
general  light  and  sandy,  except  in  the 
bottom  lands  and  in  the  marsh  regions, 
where  a deep  layer  of  vegetable  mold 
has  accumulated.  The  forests  are  still  of 
considerable  extent,  and  consist  of  yel- 
low pine  and  cedar,  with  cypress  in 
the  swamps  and  some  oak,  hickory, 
locust,  and  persimmon.  In  the  western 
uplands  there  are  large  forests  of  de- 
ciduous trees,  with  white  pine  on  the 
mountains,  and  with  the  general  char- 
acters of  the  Appalachian  floral  region. 
Virginia  ranks  close  to  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Maryland 
in  the  importance  of  sea  fisheries. 
Oysters  constitute  two-thirds  of  the 
total  product.  Among  other  varieties 
are  shad,  menhaden,  clams,  and  ale- 
wives.  The  staple  products  of  Virginia 
are  tobacco,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and 
oats.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  numerous, 
and  dairy  produce  is  exported.  The 
largest  exports  are  tobacco  and  flour. 
Elementary  and  intermediate  education 
is  free  to  all ; advanced  instruction  is  free 
to  a certain  number;  and  the  higher 
instruction  of  the  University  of  Virginia 
is  free  to  all  male  natives  over  eighteen 
years  of  age  who  possess  a certain  stand- 
ard of  culture.  Among  the  other  in- 
stitutions are  the  college  of  William  and 
Mary,  Washington  and  Lee  university, 
and  Richmond  college.  The  chief  cities 
of  the  state  are  Ricmnond  (the  capital), 
Norfolk,  Petersburg,  Lynchburg,  Alex- 
andria, and  Portsmouth.  Virginia  was 
first  settled  at  Jamestown  in  1607  and 
1609  by  chartered  London  companies. 
It  was  made  a royal  colony  in  1624,  and 
continued  a loyal  royal  province  till  the 
revolution.  Negro  slavery  was  intro- 
duced in  1619,  and  for  a considerable 
period  after  that  date  felons  or  convicts 
were  sent  over  from  England  in  large 
numbers,  and  sold  for  a term  of  years 
for  work  on  the  plantations.  Virginia 
has  perhaps,  the  most  interesting  history 
of  any  state  in  the  Union.  The  first 
lasting  settlement  in  America  was  made 
at  Jamestown  in  1607  by  the  English. 
At  this  place,  also,  was  held  the  first 
representative  assembly  in  America. 
In  the  early  history  of  Virginia  are 
found  the  names  of  Captain  John  Smith 
and  Pocahontas.  This  state  took  the 
lead  in  the  protest  against  the  Stamp 
Act  and  the  encroachments  of  Great 
Britain,  and  in  the  revolutionary  period 
furnished  such  noted  sons  as  Washing- 
ton, Jefferson,  Henry,  the  Lees,  and 
Madison.  The  surrender  of  Cornwallis  at 
Yorktown  put  an  end  to  the  war.  In 
the  war  of  1812,  Virginia  bore  a con- 
spicuous part,  as  also  in  that  of  1846- 
47  with  Mexico.  The  civil  war  was  more 
disastrous  in  its  consequences  to  Vir- 
ginia than  to  any  other  state  of  the 
Union,  and  on  its  soil  the  last  battle  was 

•P.  E.--8'2 


fought  and  the  final  surrender  was  made. 
Seven  of  the  first  twenty-one  presidents 
of  the  United  States  were  natives  of 
Virginia.  The  popular  name  is  the  Old 
Dominion.  From  the  beginning  the 
state  has  been  democratic  in  national 
politics.  The  hold  was  never  broken 
until  1860,  when  the  vote  was  cast  for 
the  Constitutional  Union  candidate, 
John  Bell.  Since  its  re-admission  the 
vote  has  been  steadily  cast  for  the 
democratic  national  candidates,  with 
the  exception  of  1872,  when  the  repub- 
lican candidate,  Grant,  was  preferred 
to  his  opponent,  Greeley,  an  old  aboli- 
tionist. Pop.  2,100,000. 

VIRGINIA,  University  of,  an  unde- 
nominational institution  of  higher  learn- 
ing at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  four  miles 
from  Monticello,  the  home  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  its  founder.  It  was  chartered 
in  1819  and  opened  in  1825.  The  courses 
of  instruction  are  comprised  in  five  de- 
partments: academic,  engineering,  law, 
medicine,  and  agriculture,  comprising 
in  all  22  schools,  of  which  each  affords 
an  independent  course  under  professors 
who  are  responsible  only  to  the  board 
of  visitors,  appointed  by  the  governor. 
The  courses  are  purely  elective.  The 
degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts,  law,  and 
science,  master  of  arts,  doctor  of  phi- 
losophy, medicine,  and  law,  civil,  me- 
chanical, mining,  and  electrical  en- 
gineer are  conferred  only  upon  ex- 
amination after  residence. 

VIRGINIA  AGRICULTURAL  AND 
MECHANICAL  COLLEGE  AND  POLY- 
TECHNIC INSTITUTE,  an  institution 
founded  in  1871  on  the  land  grant  of 
1862.  It  offers  courses  in  agriculture, 
horticulture,  applied  chemistry,  general 
science,  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical 
engineering,  and  shorter  courses  in  prac- 
tical agriculture  and  practical  mechanics. 
The  sciences  hold  the  foremost  place  in 
the  curriculum,  but  every  course  in- 
cludes a certain  element  of  general  cul- 
ture. The  courses  are  so  arranged  as  to 
give  the  student  an  approximately  equal 
amount  of  class  work  and  of  laboratory, 
shop,  or  field  practice.  The  degrees  con- 
ferred are  bachelor  and  master  of  science 
and  civil,  mechanical,  and  electrical 
engineer.  Military  drill  is  required  of 
the  students. 

VIRGINLAN  CREEPER,  a climbing 
plant,  native  to  North  America,  used 
as  an  ornamental  covering  for  walls, 
etc.,  and  sometimes  called  American 
Ivy.  Its  leaves  turn  a bright  red  in  the 
autumn. 

VIRGINIAN  DEER.  See  Cariacou. 

VIRGINIAN  QUAIL.  See  Quail. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  a group  of  small 
islands  in  the  West  Indies,  belonging  to 
Denmark  and  Britain,  and  situated  east 
of  Porto  Rico.  The  chief  exports  are 
sugar,  molasses,  nun,  cotton,  and  salt. 
The  chief  British  islands  are  Tortola, 
Anegada,  and  Virgin  Gorda;  the  Danish 
are  St.  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz,  St.  John, 
Culebra,  Crab  Island,  etc.  The  group 
was  discovered  by  Coliunbus  in  1494. 

VIRGIN  MARY.  See  Mary. 

VIRGIN’S  BOWER.  See  Clematis. 

VIRUS,  the  term  used  in  medicine  to 
denote  a palpable  morbid  product  causa- 
tive of  a contagious  disease.  The  term 
virus  is  used  of  any  one  of  the  infective 
agents  which  cause  respectively  typhus 


fever,  relapsing  fever,  scarlet  fever, 
smallpox  or  measles.  Virus  is  also  used 
as  a synonym  of  lymph,  in  speaking  of 
vaccine  material.  We  also  speak  of  the 
virus  of  syphilis,  glanders,  hydrophobia, 
etc.,  meaning  the  morbific  fluid  which 
contains  the  germs  of  these  diseases  and 
is  capable  of  propagating  them  if  in- 
oculated into  the  hiunan  body.  In  this 
way  a culture  of  any  bacteria  may 
loosely  be  called  a virus.  The  active 
principle  of  a virus  has  the  tendency 
to  reproduce  itself  after  a period  of 
variable  length,  called  the  period  of  in- 
cubation, which  elapses  between  the 
time  of  exposure  and  inoculation  and 
the  day  when  symptoms  of  the  disease 
are  first  noted.  In  measles  the  period  of 
incubation  is  about  ten  days,  though  it 
may  be  protracted  to  thirty  days;  the 
virus  being  carried  in  blood  from  an  ex- 
anthematous patch  or  the  secretion 
from  the  eyes  or  nostrils,  and  later  from 
the  scales  that  separate  from  the  skin. 
In  smallpox  the  period  of  incubation  is 
about  twelve  days,  though  it  varies  from 
five  days  to  three  weeks. 

VISCACHA  (vis-kii'cha),  a rodent  ani- 
mal of  South  America,  allied  to  the 
chinchilla,  about  2 feet  long  and  stoutly 
built,  with  a short  tail,  inhabiting  the 
pampas  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  and 
living  in  burrows  like  the  prairie-dog  of 
North  America. 

VISCOUNT  (vi'kount),  a title  of  no- 
bility next  in  rank  to  that  of  earl,  and 
immediately  above  that  of  baron.  It 
is  the  most  recently  established  English 
title,  having  been  first  conferred  by  let- 
ters patent  on  John,  Lord  Beaumont, 
by  Henry  VI.  in  1440.  The  title  is  fre- 
quently attached  to  an  earldom  as  a 
second  title,  and  is  held  by  the  eldest  son 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  father. 

VISHNU,  the  second  god  of  the  Hindu 
triad  (the  others  being  Brahma  and 
Siva),  and  by  his  special  worshipers 
considered  to  be  the  greatest.  In  the 
early  Vedas  he  appeared  as  a manifesta- 
tion of  the  sun, -and  he  was  not  regarded 
as  the  most  exalted  deity,  this  rank  being 
accorded  to  him  by  the  later  writers  of 
the  Ramayana,  the  Mahabharata,  and 


Vishnu  on  his  man-bird  garuda. 

more  especially  of  the  Puranas.  The 
Brahmanic  myths  relating  to  Vishnu 
are  characterized  by  the  idea  that  when- 
ever a great  physical  or  moral  disorder 
affected  the  world,  Vishnu  descended  in 
a small  portion  of  his  essence  to  set  it 
right.  Such  descents  are  called  avatars, 
or  incarnations,  and  arc  generally  given 
I as  ten,  nine  of  which  are  already  past. 


VISIBLE  SPEECH 


VOLCANOES 


the  tenth  being  yet  to  come.  He  is 
generally  represented  as  having  four 
arms,  each  hand  holding  some  particular 
object,  and  as  riding  on  a being  half 
man  and  half  bird. 

VISIBLE  SPEECH,  a term  applied  by 
Prof.  A.  Melville  Bell,  its  inventor,  to  a 
system  of  alphabetical  characters  de- 
signed to  represent  every  possible  articu- 
late utterance  of  the  organs  of  speech. 
The  system  is  based  on  an  exhaustive 
classification  of  the  possible  actions  of 
the  speech  organs,  each  organ  and  every 
mode  of  action  having  its  appropriate 
symbol.  It  is  said  that  this  invention  is 
of  great  utility  in  the  teaching  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  to  speak,  and  in  enabling 
learners  of  foreign  languages  to  acquire 
their  pronunciation  from  books. 

VISIGOTHS.  See  Goths. 

VISION.  See  Eye,  Optics,  Sight. 

VISTULA  (viksel),  a river  which 
rises  in  the  Carpathians,  traverses 
Galicia,  Poland,  and  Prussia,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  650  miles  empties  by 
several  mouths  into  the  Gulf  of  Danzig. 
It  flows  past  the  towns  of  Cracow,  War- 
saw, Dromberg,  and  Danzig,  and  is 
navigable  from  the  first-mentioned  place. 

VITACE^.  See  Vine. 

VITEL'LINE,  a substance  consisting 
of  casein  and  albumen,  forming  the 
nutritive  part  of  the  yolk  of  birds’  eggs. 

VITEBSK',  or  VITEBSK,  a town  in 
Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name  on  the  Diina,  315  miles  s.  of 
St.  Petersburg.  Its  manufactures  are 
woolen  and  linen  cloth,  leather,  and 
mead.  Pop.  57,079. — The  government 
has  an  area  of  17,433  sq.  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  generally  flat,  and  much  occupied 
by  woods  and  morasses.  Pop.  1,201,224. 

VITRIOL,  BLUE.  See  Copper. 

VITRIOL,  Green,  the  same  as  cop- 
peras or  sulphate  of  iron.  See  Copperas. 

VITRIOL,  Oil  of,  the  common  name 
for  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

VITTORIA.  See  Vitoria. 

VITUS’S  DANCE,  St.,  a spasmodic  or 
convulsive  disease,  allied  to  rheumatism, 
and  due  to  an  irritable  condition  of  the 
spinal  cord,  in  which  the  muscles  of  the 
extremities  and  other  parts  are  thrown 
into  various  involuntary  motions,  and 
perform  in  an  irregular  manner  those 
motions  which  are  dictated  by  the  will. 
The  disease  attacks  both  sexes,  but 
chiefly  the  female,  and  is  specially  a 
disease  of  childhood,  occurring  in  those 
who  are  of  a weak  constitution  or  im- 
properly nourished.  It  generally  ap- 
pears from  the  eighth  to  the  fourteenth 
year.  In  serious  cases  the  spasmodic 
movements  are  violent  and  incessant, 
and  speech  and  swallowing  are  inter- 
ferred  with. 

VIVER'RID.®,  a family  of  mammals 
containing  the  civits  and  allied  tribes. 

VIVIPAROUS  ANIMALS,  animals 
which  bring  forth  their  young  alive. 
See  Reproduction. 

VIVISECTION,  the  practice  of  operat- 
ing with  the  knife  upon  living  animals 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  some 
fact  in  physiology  or  pathology  which 
cannot  be  otherwise  investigated.  It  is 
also  practiced  in  order  to  illustrate  pre- 
viously known  facts,  and  to  enable 
students  to  acquire  operative  dexterity. 
Though  the  term  vivisection  strictly  is 
applicable  to  cutting  operations  only,  it 


is  generally  employed  for  all  scientific 
experiments  performed  on  living  ani- 
mals, whether  they  consist  of  cutting 
operations,  the  compression  of  parts  by 
ligatures,  the  administration  of  poisons, 
the  inoculation  of  disease,  the  subjec- 
tion to  special  conditions  of  food,  tem- 
perature, or  respiration,  or  to  the  action 
of  drugs  and  medicines. 

VIZIER,  a title  given  to  high  political 
officers  in  the  Turkish  empire  and  other 
Mohammedan  states.  In  Turkey  the 
title  is  given  to  the  heads  of  the  various 
ministerial  departments  into  which  the 
divan  or  ministerial  council  is  divided. 
The  president  of  the  divan  or  prime 
minister  is  known  as  grand  vizier. 

VLADIMIR  (vlad-e'mer),  one  of  the 
oldest  towns  in  Russia,  capital  of  a 
government  of  the  same  name,  105  miles 
n.e.  of  Moscow.  It  has  a cathedral,  a 
theological  seminary,  considerablemanu- 
factures,  and  a trade  in  fruit.  During  the 
13th  century  it  rivaled  Moscow  in  im- 
portance, but  began  to  decay  in  the 
following  century.  Pop.  16,422. — The 
government  has  an  area  of  18,794  sq. 
miles,  and  a population  of  1,339,327. 

VLADIVOSTOCK,  a Russian  seaport 
in  Eastern  Siberia,  Sea  of  Japan,  a ter- 
minus of  the  great  Siberian  railway. 
It  was  founded  in  1861,  and  is  a station 
of  the  Russian  Pacific  fleet.  Vast  sums 
have  been  spent  on  wharves,  ship-yards, 
and  arsenals,  but  the  trade  is  small. 
Pop.  29,000. 

VOCAL  CORDS  OR  CHORDS.  See 

Voice  and  Larynx. 

VOICE,  the  name  given  to  the  result 
of  the  production  of  sound  in  nearly  all 
the  higher  vertebrate  animals.  “Speech” 
(which  see)  is  a modification  of  “voice.” 
In  man  the  voice  is  produced  by  the 
inferior  laryngeal  ligaments  or  true  vocal 
cords  (see  Larynx)  as  they  are  termed. 
The  vocal  cords  consist  of  two  elastic 
folds  of  mucous  membrane,  so  attached 
to  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx  and  to 
muscles,  that  they  may  be  stretched  or 
relaxed  and  otherwise  altered  so  as  to 
modify  the  sounds  produced  by  their 
vibration.  The  higher  the  note  produced 
the  greater  is  the  tension  of  the  cords; 
and  the  range  of  voice  therefore  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  tension  which  the 
cords  can  undergo.  Regarding  the  com- 
pass and  application  of  the  voice  in 
speaking  and  singing  physiologists  have 
noted  three  kinds  of  sequence.  In  ordi- 
nary speaking  a monotonous  sequence  is 
observed,  the  notes  having  nearly  all 
the  same  pitch,  and  the  variety  of  the 
sounds  being  due  rather  to  articulation 
in  the  mouth  than  to  definite  move- 
ments of  the  glottis  and  vocal  cords.  A 
passage  from  high  to  low  notes,  without 
intervals,  forme  the  second  kind  of 
sequence;  or  the  same  sequence  is  ob- 
served in  the  passage  from  low  to  high 
notes.  Such  a sequence  is  exemplified  in 
crying  and  howling  both  in  man  and  in 
lower  animals.  The  true  musical  se- 
quence forms  the  third,  in  which  the 
successive  sounds  have  vibrations  cor- 
responding in  relative  proportions  to  the 
notes  of  the  musical  scale.  The  male 
voice  admits  of  division  into  tenor  and 
bass,  and  the  female  into  soprano  and 
contralto.  The  lowest  female  note  is  an 
octave  or  so  higher  than  the  lowest  note 
of  the  male  voice,  and  the  female’s 


highest  note  is  about  an  octave  above 
that  of  the  male.  The  compass  of  both 
voices  taken  together  is  about  four 
octaves,  the  chief  difference  residing  in 
the  pitch  and  also  in  the  quality  or 
timbre.  The  difference  of  pitch  between 
the  male  and  female  voice  is  due  to  the 
length  of  the  vocal  cords,  while  the 
difference  in  timbre  appears  to  result 
from  differences  in  the  nature  and  ex 
tent  of  the  walls  and  cavity  of  the 
larynx,  throat,  and  mouth.  Chest  notes 
differ  from  falsetto  notes  in  that  the 
former  are  natural  notes  produced  by 
the  natural  voice,  while  the  latter  are 
produced  by  a stopping  action  on  the 
cords.  Finally  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
actual  strength  of  the  voice  depends  on 
the  degree  of  vibration  of  the  vocal 
cords,  and  also  in  a minor  degree  on  the 
resonance  of  the  larynx,  lungs,  and 
chest  generally. 

VOLAPUK  (vo'la-puk),  the  name 
given  to  a universal  language  invented 
by  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  of  Con 
stance,  after  twenty  years  labor.  The 
name  means  “world-speech,”  being 
based  on  English  world  and  speak,  and  a 
number  of  the  vocables  are  modified 
English  words.  In  structure  the  Ian 
guage  is  simple  and  extremely  regular 
and  the  orthography  is  entirely  pho 
netic,  the  words  being  pronounced  as 
they  are  written,  and  vice  versa.  The 
study  of  Volapiik  has  made  some  prog 
ress;  there  are  a number  of  periodicals 
written  in  it,  and  many  associations 
devoted  to  its  dissemination. 

VOLATILE  OILS.  See  Oils. 

VOLCANOES,  in  a popular  sense 
conical  hills  or  mountains  composed  of 
material  (volcanic  ashes  and  lava) 
brought  up  by  igneous  forces  from  the 
interior  of  the  earth  through  a pipe  or 
vent.  At  the  top  there  is  a cup-shaped 
hollow  called  the  crater.  A volcanic 
eruption  generally  commences  with  the 
discharge  of  immense  quantities  of 
gases.  This  is  followed  by  the  ejection 
of  ashes  and  hot  fragments  of  rock. 
Lastly  there  is  a flood  of  molten  rock  or 
lava.  Volcanoes  which  show  such  out- 
bursts more  or  less  frequently  are  called 
active  volcanoes;  those  which  are  known 


Section  of  an  active  volcano. 

to  have  been  active  in  historic  times, 
but  have  long  been  quiescent,  are  called 
dormant  or  sleeping  volcanoes;  and 
those  which  present  all  the  phenomena 
of  volcanoes,  but  which  have  shown  no 
activity  in  historic  times,  are  called 
extinct  or  dead  volcanoes.  The  mud 
volcanoes  of  the  Crimea  and  elsewhere; 
the  fissures  from  which  steam  issues ; the 
holes  from  which  sulphurous  fumes  pro- 
ceed of  Italy,  etc.;  the  geysers  and  hot 
springs  of  Iceland,  New  Zealand,  the 
Yellowstone  park,  etc.,  are  signs  of 


VOLE 


VOLTAIRE 


! 


, 

' 


weak  or  decreasing  volcanic  activity  in 
the  special  districts  in  which  they  occur. 
Volcanoes  may  occur  as  isolated  conical 
mountains,  such  as  Vesuvius,  Etna,  or 
the  Peak  of  Tenerifle.  They  also  form 
various  groups  or  systems  of  mountains. 
One  remarkable  fact  in  the  distribution 
of  volcanoes  is  their  proximity  to  the 
sea,  for  out  of  323  active  volcanoes,  all, 
excepting  two  or  three  in  Central  Asia 
and  about  the  same  number  in  America, 
are  within  a short  distance  of  the  ocean. 
An  almost  uninterrupted  line  of  vol- 
canoes stretches  from  the  46th  degree  of 
8.  latitude  in  Chile  to  the  north  of 
Mexico,  including  Tunguragua,  Coto- 
paxi, Antisana,  Pichincha,  Orizaba,  Po- 
pocatepetl, Jorullo,  etc.  Another  con- 
tinuous line  of  volcanic  action  com- 
mences in  the  north  of  Alaska,  passes 
through  the  Aleutian  Isles  over  to 
Kamtchatka  in  northeast  Asia,  then  pro- 
ceeds southward  without  interruption 
through  a space  of  between  60°  and  70° 
of  latitude  to  the  Moluccas.  It  includes 
the  Kurile,  Japanese,  and  Philippine 
islands,  traverses  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  New  Guinea,  and  extends  to 
various  parts  of  the  Polynesian  archi- 
pelago and  New  Zealand.  A volcano  in 
the  island  of  Krakatoa,  in  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  burst  into  most  violent  activity 
on  the  26th  August,  1-883.  In  the  Old 
World  the  volcanic  region  extends  from 
the  Caspian  sea  to  the  Azores,  embrac- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  its  most  prominent  peninsulas.  Here 
volcanic  action  is  most  prominently 
visible  in  Vesuvius,  Etna,  and  the  Lipari 
islands.  Among  disconnected  volcanic 
groups  may  be  mentioned  Iceland  (Mt. 
Hecla,  in  particular),  the  Sandwich 
islands,  and  the  islands  of  Bourbon, 
Madagascar,  and  Mauritius.  Submarine 
volcanoes  show  a frequent  existence, 
but  such  phenomena  are  for  the  most 

Cart  inaccessible.  Various  theories  have 
een  proposed  to  account  for  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  volcanic  action.  It  is 
now  generally  accepted  that  it  is  pro- 
duced by  internal  heat  at  a certain  depth 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the 
evolution  of  a great  body  of  elastic 
vapor,  expanding  and  seeking  to  escape 
where  the  least  amount  of  resistance  is 
presented,  and  manifesting  itself  in  the 
explosions  that  accompany  an  eruption, 
or  in  the  upheaval  of  rocks  and  the  pro- 
duction of  earthquakes. 

VOLE,  a genus  of  rodents  closely 
allied  to  the  rats  and  mice,  and  included 
in  that  family.  Some  are  terrestrial. 


Common  vole. 

others  aquatic.  The  common  vole  of 
Britain,  the  meadow-mouse,  or  short- 


tailed field-mouse,  is  injurious  to  young 
plantations  and  pastures,  sometimes 
appearing  in  immense  multitudes.  It  is 
reddish-brown  above  and  gray  below. 
The  water-vole  or  water-rat  is  much 
larger,  and  swims  well  though  its  feet 
are  not  webbed.  It  is  of  a pale  or  chest- 
nut brown,  tinted  with  gray.  There  are 
many  species  of  voles  in  the  Old  and 
New  World. 

VOLGA,  a river  in  Russia,  the  longest 
in  Europe;  rising  in  a small  lake  in  the 
east  of  the  Valdai  hills,  and  falling  into 
the  Caspian  sea  by  about  seventy 
mouths,  near  Astrakhan,  after  a total 
estimated  course  of  2400  miles.  Its  basin 
is  estimated  at  from  500,000  to  700,000 
sq.  miles.  It  flows  generally  southeast 
past  Tver,  Yaroslav,  Kostroma,  and 
Nijni-Novgorod  to  Kasan,  thence  south 


ff/reBugra 


past  Simbirsk  and  Saratov,  and  pro- 
ceeds southeast  from  Sarepta  to  the 
Caspian.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the 
Kama  on  the  left  bank  and  the  Oka  on 
the  right.  It  is  navigable  by  barges  from 
its  source,  and  communicates  with  the 
Black,  Baltic,  and  Polar  seas  by  a series 
of  canals.  Its  banks  are  fertile  and  well- 
wooded,  and  its  waters  abound  in  fish, 
particularly  sturgeon,  carp,  and  pike  of 
extraordinary  size. 

VOLHYN'IA,  a government  in  south- 
west Russia;  area,  27,723  sq.  miles. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  producing  all  kinds  of 
grain,  particularly  wheat;  and  fine 
breeds  of  cattle  and  horses  are  reared. 
The  hills  in  the  south  are  rich  in  iron. 
There  are  also  considerable  manufac- 
tures. The  capital  is  Jitomir.  Pop. 
2,997,902. 

VOLITION.  See  Will. 


VOLOG'DA,  a government  in  north- 
east Russia;  area,  155,033  sq.  miles.  Its 
forests  furnish  quantities  of  timber  and 
charcoal.  Pop.  1,172,253. — The  capital 
is  Vologda,  on  a river  of  same  name,  35 
miles  e.s.e.  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop. 
17,391. 

VOLTA,  Alessandro,  Italian  natural 
philosopher,  born  at  Como  in  1745,  and 
died  there  in  1827.  Two  treatises,  pub- 
lished in  1769  and  1771,  in  which  he 
gave  a description  of  a new  electrical 
machine,  laid  the  foundation  of  his 
fame.  He  was  successively  professor  of 
physics  at  the  gymnasium  in  Como  and 
in  the  University  of  Pavia,  where  he 
invented  the  electrophorus  and  electro- 
scope. He  also  devised  several  other 
electrical  appliances,  and  in  1800  the 
voltaic  pile.  In  1782  he  made  a tour 
through  France,  Germany,  England, 


and  Holland.  In  1801  Napoleon  invited 
him  to  France,  where  a medal  was  struck 
in  his  honor.  In  1810  he  was  created  a 
senator  of  Italy,  with  the  title  of  count; 
and  in  1815  was  made  director  of  the 
philosophical  faculty  of  Padua. 

VOLTAIC  ELECTRICITY,  galvanic 
electricity,  galvanism.  See  Galvanic 
Battery  and  Galvanism. 

VOLTAIC  PILE,  Volta’s  arrangement 
for  producing  a current  of  electricity, 
consisting  of  a pile  of  alternate  discs  of 
two  dissimilar  metals,  as  copper  and 


Voltaic  pile,  p.  Positive,  n,  Negative  end. 

zinc,  zinc  and  silver,  zinc  and  platinum, 
separated  by  pieces  of  flannel  or  paste- 
board moistened  with  salt  water  or  with 
water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid. 

■VOLTAIRE,  Frangois  Marie  Arouet 
de,  French  writer,  born  at  Paris,  No- 
vember 21,  1694;  died  there  May  30, 
1778.  In  1718  a tragedy  named  Gidipe 
was  brought  out  by  him,  and  was  a great 
success.  It  is  said  that  this  play  was 
finished,  and  that  two  cantos  of  his  epic 
the  Henriade  were  written  in  the  Bastille 
where  he  was  confined  from  May,  1717, 
to  April,  1718,  for  writing  certain  satiri- 
cal verses  on  the  regent.  In  1726  he  was 
again  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  for 
sending  a challenge  to  the  Chevalier 
Rohan,  by  whom  he  had  been  grossly 
insulted.  He  was  liberated  within  a 
month,  and  went  to  England  on  the  in- 
vitation of  Lord  Bolingbroke.  Here  he 
resided  till  1729  in  friendship  with  the 
leading  deists,  and  acquired  some  knowl- 
edge of  English  literature.  His  Henriade 
was  completed  and  published  by  sub- 
scription in  England.  From  1734  to 
1749  he  resided  with  the  Marchioness  de 
Ch&telet  at  Cirey,  in  Lorraine.  She  died 
in  1749,  and  Voltaire  then  accepted  the 
oft  repeated  invitations  of  Frederick  the 
Great  to  come  and  live  at  his  court  at 
Potsdam.  From  1754  he  lived  in  Switz- 
erland, or  close  to  its  borders.  In 
1760  or  1761  he  fixed  his  residence 
with  his  niece,  Madame  Denis,  at 
Ferney,  where  he  received  a constant 
succession  of  distinguished  visitors,  and 
maintained  a correspondence  which  in- 
cluded in  its  range  most  of  the  crowned 
heads  of  Europe.  In  February,  1778,  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  received 
with  enthusiasm  by  all  classes.  But 
the  excitement  of  the  occasion  hastened 
his  death.  His  works  embrace  almost 
every  branch  of  literature;  poetry,  the 
drama,  romance,  history,  philosophy, 


VOLTAMETER 


VOWEL 


and  even  science.  Hatred  of  fanaticism 
and  superstition  was  his  chief  charac- 
teristic, and  nearly  all  his  works  are 
strongly  animated  by  a spirit  of  hostility 
to  the  priests  and  the  religion  they  rep- 
resented. He  upheld  theism,  however, 
with  as  much  zeal  as  he  denounced 
Christianity  and  priestcraft.  Voltaire’s 
literary  fame  chiefly  rests!  on  his  philo- 
sophical novels:  Zadig,  Candida,  L’ln- 
g4nu,  etc.;  his  histories:  Si^cle  de  Louis 
XIV.,  Histoire  de  Charles  XII.;  his 
correspondence;  and  more  than  all,  per- 
haps, on  his  poetical  epistles,  satires, 
and  occasional  light  poems,  which  all 
exhibit  wit,  gaiety,  vivacity,  and  grace. 

VOLTAM'ETER,  an  instrument  in 
which  a current  of  electricity  is  made  to 
pass  through  slightly  acidulated  water, 
and  as  the  water  is  thus  decomposed, 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  being  liberated, 
the  quantity  of  electric  current  passing 
through  in  a given  time  may  be  ascer- 
tained in  terms  of  the  quantity  of  water 
decomposed. 

VOLUNTEERS,  citizens  who  of  their 
own  accord  offer  the  state  their  services 
in  a military  capacity  without  the  stipu- 
lation of  a substantial  reward. 

VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA,  The, 
this  organization  is  a philanthropic, 
social,  and  religious  movement.  It  was 
inaugurated  in  March,  1896,  and  incor- 
porated November  6,  1896,  by  Gen.  and 
Mrs.  Ballington  Booth,  in  response  to  a 
number  of  requests  on  the  part  of 
American  citizens.  It  is  organized  in 
military  style,  having  as  its  model  the 
United  States  army,  but  in  conjunction 
with  military  discipline  and  methods 
of  work  it  possesses  a thoroughly  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  having  a con- 
stitution and  its  by-laws  being  framed 
by  a grand  field  council  that  meets 
annually  and  is  thoroughly  represen- 
tative. The  volunteers  have  represen- 
tatives and  branches  of  their  benevolent 
work  in  almost  all  the  principal  cities  of 
the  United  States.  Its  field  is  divided 
into  regiments  or  sections,  which  come 
under  the  control  and  oversight  of 
thirty  principal  staff  oflacers,  its  chief 
centers  being  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  Pittsburgh,  Denver,  Chicago, 
and  San  Francisco.  In  addition  to  the 
Volunteer  reading  rooms,  thousands  of 
copies  of  Christian  literature  are  circu- 
lated in  state  prisons,  jails,  hospitals, 
soldiers’  homes,  and  children’s  homes. 
In  connection  with  the  Volunteers,  there 
are  also  sewing  classes;  hospital  nurses; 
temporary  financial  relief  departments; 
boys’  fresh-air  camps;  Thanksgiving 
and  Christmas  dinners,  and  many  other 
worthy  undertakings. 

VOLUTE',  in  architecture,  a kind  of 
spiral  scroll  used  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian 


Volutes  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals. 
a a,  Volutes.  6,  Helix. 

and  Composite  capitals,  of  which  it  is  a 
principal  ornament.  The  number  of ! 


volutes  in  the  Ionic  order  is  four.  In  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  orders  they 
are  more  numerous,  in  the  former  being 
accompanied  with  smaller  ones,  called 
helices.  See  Composite  Order,  Corinthian 
Order,  Ionic  Order. 

VOMER,  in  anatomy,  one  of  the  bones 
of  the  skull,  forming  in  man  part  of  the 
sepatum  or  division  between  the  cavities 
of  the  nostrils.  In  fishes  it  is  a feature 
of  importance  for  classification  pur- 
poses. 

VOOR'HEES,  Daniel  Wolsey,  Ameri- 
can politician,  was  born  in  Butler  co., 
Ohio,  in  1827.  He  became  early  inter- 
ested in  politics,  and  gained  a wide 
reputation  as  a democratic  campaign 
speaker.  He  was  United  States  district 
attorney  for  Indiana  from  1858  to  1861, 
and  was  a member  of  congress  from  1861 
to  1867  and  again  from  1869  to  1875. 
In  1877  he  was  appointed  United  States 
senator  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of 
Oliver  P.  Morton,  and  was  regularly 
elected  in  1879,  1885,  and  1891.  He 
died  in  1897. 

VORARLBERG,  a western  district  of 
Austria-Hungary,  officially  included  in 
the  Tyrol.  Area,  1005  sq.  miles;  pop. 
107,373. 

VORONEJ,  a town  of  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  Voronej,  290  miles  s.s.e.  of  Mos- 
cow. It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  and 
linen  cloth,  soap,  and  vitriol,  tanneries, 
and  a considerable  trade.  Pop.  84,146. 
The  government  has  an  area  of  25,440 
sq.  miles,  and  a pop.  of  2,546,255.  It  is 
intersected  by  the  Don,  which  receives 
the  whole  of  the  drainage,  partly  through 
its  tributaries  the  Voronej  and  Khoper. 
The  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  large 
crops  of  grain  are  raised. 

VORTEX,  the  form  produced  when 
any  portion  of  a fluid  is  set  rotating 
rouna  an  axis.  Familiar  examples  are 
seen  in  eddies,  whirlpools,  waterspouts, 
whirlwinds,  and  on  a larger  scale  in 
cyclones  and  storms  generally.  Descartes 
supposed  certain  vortices  to  exist  in  the 
fluid  or  ether  of  space  endowed  with  a 
rapid  rotatory  motion  about  an  axis,  and 
filling  all  space,  and  by  these  he  ac- 
counted for  the  motions  of  the  universe. 

VORTEX  RING,  in  physics,  a vortical 
molecular  filament  or  column  returning 
into  itself  so  as  to  form  a ring  composed 
of  a number  of  small  rotating  circles 
placed  side  by  side,  like  beads  on  a 
string,  as  the  singular  smoke-rings 
which  are  sometimes  produced  when  a 
cannon  is  fired,  or  when  a smoker  skil- 
fully emits  a puff  of  tobacco  smoke. 
Recent  investigations  of  the  motion  of 
vortices  have  suggested  the  possibility 
of  founding  on  them  a new  form  of  the 
atomic  theory. 

VORTICELLA,  or  “BELL-ANIMAL- 
CULE,” a genus  of  stalked  infusoria, 
having  a fixed  stem  capable  of  being 
coiled  into  a spiral  form,  and  vibratile 
organs  called  cilia  fringing  the  bell- 
shaped disc  or  head,  which  are  con- 
stantly in  rapid  motion  and  attract 
particles  of  food.  The  species  are  very 
numerous  in  fresh  water,  and  are  gen- 
erally microscopic. 

VOSGES,  an  eastern  frontier  depart- 
ment of  France;  area,  2268  sq.  miles. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Vosges 
mountains,  which  send  out  ramifications 


over  the  greater  part  of  its  surface,  ’] 
while  in  the  south  it  is  traversed  by  the  { 
chain  of  the  Faucilles.  Grain,  hemp,  i 
flax,  and  potatoes  are  extensively  grown,  ' 
and  the  department  is  famous  for  its  1 
kirsch-wasser.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Meuse,  Mouzon,  Madon,  Moselle,  : 
Saone,  and  Meurthe;  all  unnavigable  : 
within  the  department.  The  minerals 
are  valuable.  The  manufactures  are 
various.  Epinal  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
413,707. 


VOTER,  the  qualifications  required  of  i 
voters  in  political  elections  varies  some-  I 
what  in  the  different  states.  Certain 
qualifications  are  required  in  all  states, 
which  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  Citizenship;  (2)  residence  for  a cer-  , 
tain  time  in  the  state,  county,  and  ; 
election  district ; (3)  that  the  voter  shall  j 
have  attained  his  majority  (21  yeans);  ; 
(4)  that  the  voter  shall  be  of  sound 
mind ; (5)  that  he  shall  not  be  a convicted  j 
felon  under  sentence.  Registration  is  .. 
also  required  in  many  states  and  some 
have  established  either  property  or  ~ 
educational  qualifications.  A few  states  \ 
permit  women  to  vote. 

VOTING  MACHINE,  a mechanical  ■ 
device  which  automatically  records  and  ■, 
counts  votes.  Besides  preventing  re-  ’ 
peating  and  other  fraud,  an  ideal  voting  i 
machine  has  the  additional  advantages  J 
over  the  paper  ballot  system  of  greater  i 
secrecy,  simplicity,  rapidity,  and  cheap-  ft 
ness.  The  Standard  voting  machine  is  I 
about  4 feet  square  and  10  inches  deep, 
and  is  supported  by  legs.  The  top  is  a $ 
little  over  6 ieet  from  the  floor.  A semi-  j 
circular  bar  projects  from  the  upper  S 
corners,  on  which  is  hung  a curtain  which  * 
forms  a booth.  An  operating  lever  ex-  m 
tends  from  the  center  of  the  top  of  the  9 
machine,  the  outer  end  of  which  is  9 
attached  to  the  curtain.  When  the  A 
voter  advances  to  vote  he  throws  the  * 
lever  by  a dependent  handle  to  the  |f 
opposite  side  of  the  machine,  thus  carry-  I! 
ing  the  curtain  behind  him  and  inclosing  S 
himself  in  a booth.  The  voter  first  ■ 
selects  his  party  ticket,  and  by  pulling  J 
the  straight  ticket  knob  over  the  party 
emblem  down  to  the  right,  moves  all  « 
the  pointers  for  that  ticket.  If  he  desires 
to  split  his  ticket,  he  can  move  the  i 
pointer  back  from  over  the  name  that 
does  not  suit  him,  and  in  the  same  ■} 
ofiBce  line  move  the  pointer  over  the 
name  he  wishes  to  vote  for.  He  now  . 
registers  his  vote  by  throwing  the  cur-  ^ 
tain  open  by  means  of  the  operating  ; 
lever  with  wtdeh  he  closed  it,  thus  cast-  ' 
ing  and  counting  his  vote  in  perfect  W 
secrecy. 

VOWEL,  a simple  articulated  sound,  .» 
which  is  produced  merely  by  voice  pro-  W 
ceeding  from  the  larynx,  modified  by  a s 
greater  or  less  elevation  or  depression,  jP 


VULCAN 


WAFER 


expansion  or  contraction  of  the  ton^e, 
and  contraction  or  expansion  of  the  lips. 
The  vowel  sounds  of  the  English  alpha- 
bet are?  imperfectly  represented  by  five 
letters,  a,  e,  i,  o,  u (and  sometimes  w 
ancl  y).  Vowels  are  distinguished  from 
consonants  in  that  they  result  from  an 
open  position  of  the  vocal  organs,  while 
consonants  are  the  result  of  an  opening 
or  shutting  action  of  the  organs;  thus 
the  former  can  be  pronounced  by  them- 
selves, while  consonants  recjuire  to  be 
sounded  with  the  aid  of  a vowel. 

VULCAN,  in  Roman  mythology,  the 
god  who  presided  over  fire  and  the  work- 
ing of  metals,  and  patronized  handi- 
craftsmen of  every  kind.  By  some 


writers  he  is  said  to  have  been  born 
lame,  but  by  others  his  lameness  is 
attributed  to  his  having  been  thrown 
from  Olympus.  He  was  completely 
identified  with  the  Greek  Hephaestus. 

VUL'CANITE,  a kind  of  vulcanized 
caoutchouc,  differing  from  ordinary 
vulcanized  caoutchouc  in  containing  a 
larger  proportion  of  sulphur — from  30 
to  60  per  cent — and  in  being  made  at  a 
higher  temperature.  It  is  of  a brownish- 
black  color,  is  hard  and  tough,  cuts 
easily,  and  takes  a good  polish,  on  which 
account  it  is  largely  used  for  making 
into  combs,  brooches,  bracelets,  and 
many  other  ornaments.  As  it  is  espe- 
cially distinguished  by  the  large  quan- 
tity of  eieetricity  which  it  evolves  when 
rubbed,  it  is  much  used  in  the  construc- 


W,  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet,  representing  a con- 
sonantal sound  formed  by  opening  the 
mouth  with  a contraction  of  the  lips, 
such  as  is  performed  in  the  rapid  pas- 
sage from  the  vowel  sound  u (oo)  to  that 
of  i (ee).  The  character  is  formed,  as  its 
name  indicates,  by  doubling  the  u or  v. 
At  the  end  of  words  or  syllables  it  is 
either  silent,  as  in  low,  or  it  modifies  the 
preeeding  vowel,  as  in  new,  how,  having 
then  the  power  of  a vowel. 

WABASH  (wa'bash),  a river  of  the 
United  States,  which  rises  in  the  n.w. 
of  Ohio,  winds  across  Indiana,  forms 
the  boundary  between  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  and  falls  into  the  Ohio  after  a 
course  of  550  miles.  It  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  Lafayette,  and  connects 
Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio  by  the  Wabash 
and  Erie  canal. 


tion  of  electric  machines.  See  Vulcaniza- 
tion. 

VULCANIZATION,  a method  of  treat- 
ing caoutchouc  or  india-rubber  with 
sulphur  to  effect  certain  changes  in  its 
properties,  and  yield  a soft  (vulcanized 
india-rubber)  or  a hard  (vulcanite)  prod- 
uct. Other  ingredients,  as  litharge, 
white-lead,  whiting,  etc.,  are  added  to 
the  sulphur  to  give  color,  softness,  etc. 
The  substance  thus  formed  possesses 
the  following  properties:  it  remains 
elastic  at  all  temperatures;  it  eannot  be 
dissolved  by  the  ordinary  solvents, 
neither  is  it  affected  by  heat  within  a 
considerable  range  of  temperature; 
finally,  it  acquires  extraordinary  powers 
of  resisting  compression,  with  a great 
increase  of  strength  and  elasticity.  See 
Vulcanite  and  India-rubber. 

VULGAR  FRACTIONS.  See  Fractions. 

VULGATE,  the  Latin  translation  of 
the  Bible,  which  has,  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  church,  official  authority,  and 
which  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  their 
fourth  session,  in  May  27,  1546,  de- 
clared “shall  be  held  as  authentic  in  all 
public  lectures,  disputations,  sermons, 
and  expositions;  and  that  no  one  shall 
presume  to  reject  it,  under  any  pretense 
whatsoever.”  In  the  early  period  of  the 
church  a Latin  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures existed,  called  Itala,  the  Old 
Testament  made  after  the  Septaugint. 
This  translation  was  far  from  accurate, 
and  about  383  St.  Jerome  produced  a 
revised  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
while  between  385-405  a.d.  he  made  a 
new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament 
from  the  Hebrew.  These  translations 
were  combined  to  form  the  ' Vulgate 
(versio  vulgata,  common  or  usual  ver- 
sion). The  text  of  the  Vulgate  now  in 
use  is  that  published  by  Clement  VIII. 
in  1592  (as  improved  in  1593  and  again 
in  1598). 

VULTURE,  the  common  name  for  the 
raptorial  birds  belonging  to  the  family 
Vulturidae,  characterized  by  having  the 
head  and  part  of  the  neck  destitute  of 
feathers,  and  a rather  elongated  beak, 
of  which  the  upper  mandible  is  curved 
at  the  end.  The  strength  of  their  talons 
does  not  correspond  with  their  size, 
and  they  make  more  use  of  their  beak 

w 

WACO,  a town  in  M’Lennan  co., 
Texas.  It  is  situated  on  the  Brazos  river ; 
and  as  the  center  of  a large  and  fertile 
ranching  and  wheat  growing  district,  it 
commands  a large  and  increasing  trade 
in  cattle,  wheat,  and  other  agricultural 
products.  Pop.  22,866. 

WADA'I,  or  WADAY',  an  extensive 
and  powerful  negro  state  in  the  Central 
Soudan,  between  Kanem  and  Bagirmi 
in  the  w.  and  Darfur  in  the  e.,  with  a 
population  estimated  at  about  5,000,000. 
It  consists  principally  of  an  elevated 
plateau,  very  fertile  in  some  parts,  pro- 
ducing abundantly  corn,  millet,  indigo, 
cotton,  etc.  Ivory  and  slaves  are  also 
largely  dealt  in.  The  inhabitants  are 
warlike,  and  their  sultan  exercises  trib- 
utary rights  over  several  neighboring 
settlements. 

WADE,  Benjamin  Franklin,  American 


than  of  their  claws.  In  general  they  are 
of  a cowardly  nature,  living  chiefly  on 
dead  carcasses  and  offal.  Unlike  other 
birds  of  prey  the  female  is  smaller  than 
the  male.  Their  geographical  distribu- 
tion is  confined  chiefly  to  warm  coun- 
tries, where  they  act  as  scavengers  to 
purify  the  earth  from  the  putrid  car- 
casses with  which  it  would  otherwise  be 


Egyptian  vulture. 

encumbered.  The  griffon  vulture  in- 
habits the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  as  does  also  the  cinere- 
ous or  brown  vulture.  The  former 
measures  nearly  4 feet  from  tip  of  beak 
to  end  of  tail.  The  bearded  vulture  in- 
habits the  Alps,  Asia,  and  Africa.  The 
Egyptian  vulture  visits  south  Europe. 
The  American  vultures  differ  from  those 
of  the  Old  World  technically  rather  than 
in  appearance  or  habits.  They  include 
the  huge  condor,  king,  and  California 
vultures,  and  several  other  species, 
among  them  the  smaller  carrion-crow 
of  the  tropics,  and  the  more  familiar 
turkey-buzzard.  This  bird  is  about  30 
inches  in  length,  with  an  alar  spread  of 
about  75  inches;  in  color  dingy  brown; 
the  tail  is  long,  the  wing  is  bent  at  a 
salient  angle, 'Mnd  the  tips  of  the  longest 
quills  spread  apart  and  bend  upward. 
No  birds  are  better  flyers  or  more  expert 
and  enduring  in  soaring.  The  eggs  are 
one  or  two  in  number,  roundish,  about 
2J  inches  in  longest  diameter,  and 
yellowish  white  blotched  with  brown 
and  purplish  tints. 


political  leader,  was  born  near  West 
Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1800.  He  removed 
to  Ohio  in  1 821 . He  was  elected  prosecu- 
ting attorney  of  Ashtabula  county  in 
1835,  and  state  senator  in  1837  and 
1841;  and  was  chosen  presiding  judge 
of  the  third  judicial  district  of  the  state 
in  1847.  From  1851  until  1869  he  was  a 
member  of  the  United  States  senate. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  senate 
in  1867,  and  was  sent  in  1871  as  one  of 
the  commission  to  Santo  Domingo  to 
report  in  regard  to  its  annexation  to  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  1878. 

WAFER,  a thin  circular  cake  of  un- 
leavened bread,  generally  stamped  with 
the  Christian  monogram,  the  cross,  or 
other  sacred  symbol,  used  in  the  Roman 
church  in  the  adniinistration  of  the 
Eucharist. — Also  a small  disc  of  dried 
paste  usually  made  of  flour  and  water. 


WAGNER 


WALLACE 


gum,  and  coloring  matter,  used  for  seal- 
ing letters,  etc. 

WAGNER  (vah'ner),  Wilhelm  Rich- 
ard, one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
modern  composers,  born  at  Leipzig  1813, 
died  at  Venice  1883.  He  received  his 
education  at  Leipzig  and  Dresden.  From 
1834  he  filled  various  musical  engage- 
ments at  Madgeburg,  Riga,  and  Konigs- 
berg.  In  1839-41  he  went  to  Paris  and 
London,  and  composed  his  operas 
Rienzi  and  the  Flying  Dutchman.  The 
brilliant  success  of  these  operas  secured 
him  the  conductorship  at  the  Royal 
Opera  of  Dresden  in  1843.  He  joined 
the  insurrectionary  movement  of  1848- 
49,  and  was  compelled  to  exile  himself. 
Until  his  return  to  Germany  in  1864  he 
spent  most  of  his  time  in  Switzerland, 
Italy,  Paris,  and  London.  His  Tann- 
hauser  and  Lohengrin  appeared  in  1845 
and  1850  respectively.  The  late  King  of 


Bavaria,  Louis  II.,  became  an  enthusias- 
tic and  liberal  patron  of  Wagner,  and  the 
theater  at  Baireuth,  especially  built  for 
Wagner,  was  chiefly  supported  from 
the  king’s  purse.  Here  his  famous  tetral- 
ogy Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,  consisting 
of  Das  Rheingold,  Die  Walkiire,  Sieg- 
fried, and  Gotterdammerung,  was  first 
performed  in  1876  before  an  unusually 
brilliant  and  appreciative  audience. 
About  a year  before  his  death  he  pro- 
duced his  last  creation,  Parsifal.  In 
1870  he  had  married,  as  second  wife, 
Cosima  von  Biilow,  a daughter  of  the 
Abb6  Liszt  Wagner  labored  to  reform 
dramatic  music  according  to  the  ideas  of 
Gluck  and  Weber,  and  gave  his  creations 
a national  character  by  selecting  his 
subjects  from  old  German  heroic  legends. 
His  theory  (not  in  itself  specially 
original)  was  that  in  a perfect  musical 
drama  the  three  arts,  poetry,  music,  and 
dramatic  representation  should  be 
welded  together  into  one  well-balanced 
whole.  This  theory  he  demonstrated 
with  consummate  ability  and  unsur- 
passed magnificence.  His  particular 
views  on  music  are  embodied  in  a well- 
known  work  entitled  Oper  und  Drama. 

WAGTAIL,  a name  of  birds  included 
in  the  family  of  the  warblers,  and  so 
tenned  from  their  habit  of  jerking  their 
long  tails  when  running  or  perching. 
They  inhabit  meadow-lands  and  pas- 
tures, frequent  water-pools  and  streams, 
are  agile  runners,  and  have  a rapid  flight. 
The  food  consists  of  insects.  Their  nests, 
built  on  the  ground,  contain  from  four 
to  six  eggs.  These  birds  belong  to  both 
Old  and  New  Worlds,  and  migrate  south- 
ward in  winter. 


WAINWRIGHT,  Richard,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  in  1849,  became  a lieutenant  in 
1873,  commanded  the  coast-survey 
vessel  Arago  for  a time,  and  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-com- 
mander in  1894.  He  was  executive 
officer  of  the  battleship  Maine,  when 
that  vessel  was  destroyed  in  Havana 
harbor.  In  the  Spanish-American  war 
he  commanded  the  converted  yacht 
Gloucester,  taking  a distinguished  part 
in  the  naval  battle  of  Santiago.  In 
March,  1899,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  commander,  and  in  March,  1900, 
became  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Naval  academy. 


Quaketail,  or  pied  wagtail. 


WAITE,  Morrison  Remick,  American 
jurist,  was  born  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  in  1816. 
In  1849  he  was  elected  to  the  Ohio 
legislature  as  a Whig.  In  1871  he  was 
appointed  with  Caleb  Cushing  and  Will- 
iam M Evarts  to  represent  the  United 
States  before  the  tribunal  for  the  arbi- 
tration of  the  Alabama  and  other  claims 
at  Geneva,  Switzerland.  In  1873  he  was 
president  of  the  Ohio  Constitutional 
convention.  In  January,  1874,  he  was 
appointed  by  President  Grant  chief 
justice  of  the  United  States.  This  posi- 
tion he  held  until  his  death  in  1888. 

WAKE,  a term  corresponding  origin- 
ally to  vigil,  and  applied  tp  a festival 
held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on 
which  the  parish  church  was  consecrated 
and  dedicated  to  a saint.  A lyke  or  lich 
wake  (Anglo-Saxon,  lie,  a corpse)  is  the 
watching  of  a dead  body  by  night  by 
the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  deceased. 
The  practice,  once  general,  is  now  con- 
fined to  the  lower  Irish  classes,  and 
frequently  accompanied  by  scenes  much 
out  of  keeping  with  the  sad  occasion. 

WALDECK  AND  PYRMONT,  a small 
principality  of  west  Germany,  under 
Prussian  administration,  consisting  of 
the  two  separate  territories  of  Waldeck 
and  Pyrmont;  total  area,  466  sq.  miles; 
pop.  56,575. 

JWALDECK-ROUSSEAU  (vM'dek' 
roo'so'),  Pierre  Marie  Ernest,  French 
statesman,  born  at  Nantes  in  1846.  In 
1879  he  was  elected  deputy  for  Rennes; 
was  minister  of  the  interior  in  Gam- 
betta’s  grand  ministfere  of  1881,  and  in 
the  cabinet  of  Jules  Ferry  of  1883-85. 
In  1894  he  was  elected  to  the  senate 
for  the  department  of  the  Loire,  and  in 
the  following  January  he  was  supported 
by  the  right  for  the  presidency  of  France 
against  MM.  Faure  and  Brisson.  In  the 
general  election  of  1902  he  won  a great 
victory  for  republican  principles.  Feel- 
ing his  task  completed,  he  resigned  in 
June,  1902,  with  the  prestige  of  having 
held  office  longer  than  other  premier 
since  the  establishment  of  the  third 
republic. 


WALES,  a principality  in  the  souths 
west  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain^ 
which  since  Edward  I.  gives  the  title 
of  Prince  of  Wales  to  the  heir-apparent 
of  the  British  crown;  area,  7363  sq. 
miles;  pop.  1,720,609.  It  is  rich  in 
minerals,  particularly  coal,  iron,  copper, 
and  even  gold,  and  to  these  Wales  owes 
its  chief  wealth.  The  coal  trade  is  most 
extensive,  and  Cardiff  is  the  largest  coal 
port  in  the  world.  Iron,  steel,  and  copper 
works  are  also  on  a large  scale.  Besides 
the  mineral  industries,  there  are  con- 
siderable woolen  manufactures,  espe- 
cially of  flannel,  coarse  cloth,  and 
hosiery.  The  inhabitants  are  almost 
purely  Celtic  in  race,  being  the  de- 
scendants of  the  early  Britons,  who  were 
able  to  maintain  themselves  here  when 
the  rest  of  the  country  was  overrun  by 
the  Germanic  invaders. 

WALHALLA,  a magnificent  Doric 
temple,  on  the  Danube,  near  Ratisbon; 
built  between  1830-42,  as  a national 
pantheon,  consecrated  to  celebrated 
Germans  of  all  walks  of  life.  The  idea 
of  the  erection  is  derived  from  the  Wal- 
halla,  or  Valhalla,  the  ancient  paradisa 
of  Odin  and  the  Scandinavian  deities. 
See  Valhalla. 

WALKER,  Robert  James,  American 
political  leader,  was  born  at  Northum- 
berland, Pa.,  in  1801.  In  1826  he  re- 
moved to  Mississippi  and  in  1835  was 
elected  United  States  senator  as  a demo- 
crat, and  at  once  became  known  as  one 
of  the  foremost  anti-slavery  advocates 
in  his  party.  From  1845  to  1849  he  was 
secretary  of  the  treasury.  The  tariff  bill 
of  1846  was  adopted  almost  as  it  came 
from  his  hands.  In  1853  he  declined 
the  post  of  commissioner  to  China,  and 
in  1857,  against  his  will,  was  appointed 
governor  of  Kansas  territory.  He  died 
in  1869. 

WALLABY,  a name  common  to 
several  rather  small-sized  kangaroos. 

WALLACE,  Alfred  Russell,  naturalist, 
born  at  Usk,  Monmouthshire,  in  1823. 
He  spent  many  years  in  traveling,  espe- 
cially in  South  America  and  the  Asiatic 
islands,  and  the  valuable  material  col- 
lected in  these  scientific  explorations  he 
embodied  in  Travels  on  the  Amazon  and 
Rio  Negro,  The  Malay  Archipelago, 
Tropical  Nature,  The  Geographical  Dis- 
tribution of  Animals,  etc.  His  observa- 
tion of  animal  life  early  led  him  on  to 
the  track  of  natural  selection,  and  before 
Darwin  gave  his  famous  work  to  the 
world  he  had  published  his  Speculation* 
on  the  Origin  of  Species.  His  share  in  es- 
tablishing the  theory  has  been  acknowl- 
edged by  Darwin.  Dut  while  Darwin,  in 
his  later  editions  of  the  Origin  of  Species, 
somewhat  modified  his  original  conclu- 
sions, Wallace,  in  his  recent  work, 
Darwinism,  an  Exposition  of  the  Theory 
of  Natural  Selection,  with  some  of  its 
Applications  (1889),  strongly  insists 
upon  the  complete  controlling  power  of 
these  primary  laws  and  conditions. 
He  is  a member  of  various  scientific 
bodies,  and  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon--, 
don  awarded  him  the  royal  medal  in 
1868,  and  the  Geographical  Society  of 
Paris  the  gold  medal  in  1870. 

WALLACE,  Lewis,  American  soldier 
and  novelist,  known  as  Lew  Wallace, 
was  born  in  Brookville,  Ind.,  in  1827. 
He  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and  then 


WALLAClil 


WALPOLE 


practiced  law  until  the  civil  war.  He 
served  as  colonel  of  a regiment  of  In- 
diana volunteers  in  West  Virginia  in 


1861,  and  on  September  3,  1861,  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  was  governor 
of  New  Mexico  (1878-81)  and  United 
States  minister  to  Turkey  (1881-85). 
Among  his  novels  are;  The  Fair  God 
and  The  Prince  of  India.  Ben  Hur,  a 
story  of  Palestine  and  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  achieved  an  unpre- 
cedented success  and  was  dramatized 
(1900)  Wallace  was  also  the  author  of 
The  Boyhood  of  Christ.  He  died  in  1905. 

WALLACE,  Sir  William,  the  hero  of 
Scottish  independence,  was  probably 
born  about  1270.  For  the  most  detailed 
particulars  we  possess  about  this  fa- 
mous Scottish  character  we  are  almost 
entirely  dependent  on  Blind  Harry 
(Harry  the  Minstrel) ; but  the  narratives 
cannot  bear  the  scrutiny  of  the  critical 
historian.  Wallace  is  described  as  a man 
of  herculean  proportions  and  strength, 
and  it  is  certain  that  he  possessed  in  a 
high  degree  the  qualifications  of  a com- 
mander. The  turning-point  in  his  career 
took  place  by  the  slaughter  of  Haselrig 
in  revenge  for  the  murder  of  his  wife, 
and  in  pursuance  of  his  vow  of  eternal 
vengeance  against  the  invaders  of  his 
country.  Henceforth  he  continued  in 
open  resistance  to  the  English,  and 
having  collected  a considerable  force 
was  besieging  the  castle  of  Dundee  when 
he  heard  that  Surrey  and  Cressingham 
were  advancing  upon  Stirling  with  a 
large  army.  He  met  them  in  the  vicinity 
of  that  town,  and,  thanks  to  his  in- 
genious military  tactics,  gained  a com- 
plete victory  (1297).  After  this  Wallace 
appears  with  the  title  of  Guardian  of 
the  Kingdom,  which  was  temporarily 
cleared  of  the  English,  and  is  found  con- 
ducting a series  of  organized  raids  into 
England.  In  1298  Edward  I.  entered 
Scotland  with  an  army  estimated  at 
nearly  90,000  men.  Wallace  retired 
before  him,  wasting  the  country,  but 
was  at  length  overtaken  at  Falkirk, 
compelled  to  fight,  and  after  a gallant 
resistance  his  army  was  routed.  Wal- 


lace was  conveyed  to  London,  and  after 
a mock  trial  found  guilty  of  treason  and 
rebellion,  and  executed  on  the  23d 
August,  1305. 

Wallace,  wniiam  Vincent,  musical 
composer,  was  born  of  Scotch  parents, 
at  Waterford  1814,  died  in  France  1865. 
In  1845  he  went  to  London,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  composition.  His  first 
opera,  Maritana,  was  produced  at 
Drury  Lane,  1846,  and  secured  him  at 
once  a reputation. 

WALLENSTEIN  (vM'en-stIn),  Al- 
brecht Wenzel  Eusebius,  von,  Duke  of 
Friedland,  a famous  leader  in  the  Thirty 
Years’  war,  was  born  on  the  paternal 
estate  of  Hermanic  in  Bohemia  1583, 
assassinated  at  Eger  1634.  When  the 
Thirty  Years’  war  broke  out  in  Bohemia 
(1618)  he  joined  the  imperial  forces 
against  his  native  country.  His  estates, 
valued  at  30  million  florins,  he  was 
allowed  to  form  into  the  territory  of 
Friedland,  and  in  1624  he  was  created 
Duke  of  Friedland.  He  raised  a large 
army  to  assist  the  emperor  against  the 
Lower  Saxon  League;  he  defeated  Count 
Mansfield  at  Dessau  (.\pril,  1626),  and 
compelled  Bethlen  Gabor  to  conclude 
a truce;  he  conquered  Silesia,  and 
bought  from  the  emperor,  partly  with 
military  services,  partly  with  plunder, 
the  duchy  of  Sagan,  and  other  extensive 
estates.  He  encountered  the  King  of 
Sweden  at  Lutzen,  16th  November, 
1632,  and  was  defeated  and  Gustavus 
killed.  Wallenstein  had  unsuccessfully 
treated  on  his  own  account  with  the 
Swedish  king,  and  he  now  secretly  re- 
opened negotiations  with  France  and 
the  German  princes,  occasionally  taking 
the  field  to  display  his  military  power. 
The  court  at  Vienna  was  well  aware  of 
his  crafty  diplomacy,  but  the  emperor 
was  not  strong  enough  to  remove  him, 
and  he  had  recourse  to  assassination. 
This  was  accomplished  for  him  at  Eger, 
where  Wallenstein  had  retreated  for 
safety,  by  Colonel  Gordon,  commandant 
of  the  fortress,  and  his  fellow  officers 
Butler,  Leslie,  and  Devereux.  Wallen- 
stein is  the  subject,  and  gives  the  title 
to  one  of  Schiller’s  best  dramatic  poems. 

WALLA  WALLA,  the  capital  of  Walla 
Walla  CO.,  Wash.;  on  the  Walla  Walla 
river,  and  the  Wash,  and  Col.  River  and 
the  Oregon  Railway  and  Nav.  Co.’s 
railways;  75  miles  w.s.w.  of  Lewiston, 
Id.,  and  160  miles  e.  by  n.  of  The  Dalles, 
Ore.  It  is  in  an  agricull/ural,  fruit-grow- 
ing, and  stock-raising  region,  and  is  the 
trade  center  of  that  part  of  the  state  of 
northern  Idaho,  and  of  northeastern 
Oregon.  Among  the  public  buildings 
are  those  comprising  the  United  States 
military  post.  Port  Walla  Walla,  the 
state  penitentiary,  and  the  United 
States  penitentiary.  Pop.  12,119. 

WALLFLOWER.  They  are  biennal 
or  perennial  herbs  or  undershrubs. 
Many  of  them  exhale  a delicious  odor, 
and  are  great  favorites  in  gardens. 
The  best  known  is  the  common  wall- 
flower, which,  in  its  wild  state,  grows 
on  old  walls  and  stony  places.  In  the 
cultivated  plant  the  flowers  are  of  more 
varied  and  brilliant  colors,  and  attain 
a much  larger  size  than  in  the  wild 
plant,  the  flowers  of  which  are  always 
yellow.  A number  of  distinct  varieties 
have  been  recorded,  and  double  and 


semi-double  varieties  are  common  in 
gardens. 

WALNUT,  the  common  name  of 
trees  and  their  fruit  of  the  genus  Juglam:;, 
natural  order  Juglandacese.  The  beet 
known  species,  the  common  walnut- 
tree,  is  a native  of  several  Eastern 
countries.  It  is  a large  handsome  tree 
with  strong  spreading  branches.  The 
timber  of  the  walnut  is  of  great  value, 
is  very  durable,  takes  a fine  polish,  and 
is  a beautiful  furniture  wood.  It  is  also 
employed  for  turning  and  fancy  articles, 
and  especially  for  gun-stocks,  being 
light  and  at  the  same  time  hard  and 
fine  grained.  The  ripe  fruit  is  one  of  the 
best  of  nuts,  and  forms  a favorite  item 
of  desert.  They  yield  by  expression  a 


Walnut. 


bland  fixed  oil,  which,  under  the  names 
of  walnut-oil  and  nut-oil,  is  much  used 
by  painters,  and  in  the  countries  in 
which  it  is  produced  is  a common  article 
of  diet.  In  copper-plate  printing  it  is 
employed  to  produce  a fine  impression, 
either  in  black  or  colors.  By  boiling  the 
husks  when  beginning  to  decay,  and  the 
bark  of  the  roots,  a substantial  dark- 
brown  color  is  obtained,  which  is  used 
by  dyers  for  woolens,  and  also  by  cabi- 
net-makers to  stain  other  species  of 
wood  in  imitation  of  walnut.  The  fruit, 
in  a green  state,  before  the  shell  hardens, 
is  much  used  for  pickling.  The  black 
walnut  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  in  favor- 
able situatihns  the  trunk  often  attains 
the  diameter  of  6 and  7 feet.  It  yields  a 
wood  preferable  to  the  European  walnut, 
but  the  nuts  are  inferior.  The  butternut 
is  another  noteworthy  variety. 

WALPOLE,  Sir  Robert,  Earl  of  Or- 
ford,  a great  whig  statesman,  was  born 
in  1676,  and  died  in  1745.  In  1702  he 
was  elected  for  King’s  Lynn,  became  an 
active  member  of  the  Whig  party,  and 
soon  distinguished  himself  by  his  busi- 
ness capacity,  and  by  his  easy,  plausible, 
and  dispassionate  debates.  He  was 
secretary  of  war  and  leader  in  the 
commons  in  1708,  paymaster  of  the 
forces  in  1714  and  1720,  and  first  lord 
of  the  treasury  and  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  in  1715,  and  again  in  1721. 
From  the  latter  date  until  1742  he  held 
without  interruption  the  highest  office 
in  the  .state.  During  his  long  adminis- 
tration the  Hanoverian  succession,  to 
which  he  was  zealously  attached,  be- 
came firmly  established,  a result  to 
which  his  prudence  and  political  sagacity 


WALRUS 


WAR 


largely  contributed.  He  promoted  by 
an  enlightened  policy  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  nation,  and  relieved 


Sir  Eobert  Walpole. 

the  weight  of  taxation  by  many  im- 
provements in  the  tariff.  In  1724  he 
was  made  a Knight  of  the  Bath,  in  1726 
a Knight  of  the  Garter,  and  on  9th 
February,  1742,  two  days  before  his 
resignation,  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Orford. 

WALRUS  , a marine  carnivorous  mam- 
mal, belonging,  with  its  allies  the  seals, 
to  the  pinnigrade  section  of  the  order 
Carnivora.  The  walrus,  which  is  also 
known  as  the  morse,  sea-horse,  and  sea- 
cow,  has  a general  resemblance  to  the 
seals,  but  is  especially  remarkable  from 
the  upper  canine  teeth  being  enormously 
developed  in  the  adults,  constituting 
two  large  pointed  tusks  directed  down- 
ward and  slightly  outward,  and  measur- 
ing usually  12  to  15  inches  in  width. 


Walrus. 

sometimes  even  2 feet  and  more.  There 
are  no  external  ears.  The  animal  ex- 
ceeds the  largest  ox  in  size,  attaining 
a length  of  20  feet.  It  is  monogamous, 
and  seldom  produces  more  than  one 
young  at  a birth;  gregarious  but  shy, 
and  very  fierce  when  attacked.  It  in- 
habits the  high  northern  latitudes, 
where  it  is  hunted  by  whalers  for  its 
blubber,  which  yields  excellent  oil; 
for  its  skin,  which  is  made  into  a durable 
leather;  and  for  its  tusks.  Their  favorite 
food  consists  of  crustaceans. 

WALSALL',  a pari.,  county,  and 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Stafford,  8 miles  n.n.w.  of 
Birmingham.  Pop.  86,440. 

WALTHAM,  a town  in  Massachusetts, 
9 miles  west  of  Boston.  The  Charles 
river  supplies  abundant  waterpower  to 
its  factories  of  watches,  watch-tools, 
and  cottons.  Pop.  27,576. 

WALTHAMSTOW,  a town  and  pari, 
div.  of  Essex,  on  the  n.e.  of  London. 
Pop.  of  town,  95,125. 

WALTON,  Izaak,  the  author  of  the 
famous  Complete  Angler,  was  born  at 
Stafford  1593,  died  at  Winchester  1683. 


His  first  edition  of  the  Complete  Angler 
appeared  in  1653.  It  is  to  his  exquisite 
delineations  of  rural  scenery,  his  genuine 
love  for  the  Creator  and  his  works,  the 
ease  and  unaffected  humor  of  the  dia- 
logue, and  the  delightful  simplicity  and 
purity  of  his  style,  that  the  Complete 
Angler  owes  its  charm. 

WALTZ,  a dance  of  Bohemian  origin, 
executed  with  a rapid  wheeling  motion, 
the  gentleman  having  his  arm  round  his 
partner’s  waist.  The  music  is  written 
in  triple  time  in  crotchets  or  quavers, 
and  consists  of  eight  or  sixteen  bar 
phrases.  Several  of  these  phrases  are  now 
usually  united  to  prevent  monotony. 
The  valse  a deux  temps  is  a form  of 
waltz  in  which  two  steps  are  made  to 
each  bar  of  three  beats.  Classical 
waltzes  are  compositions  in  waltz  form 
not  intended  for  dance  tunes. 

WANDERING  JEW.  See  Jew,  The 
Wandering. 

WANDEROO,  a monkey  inhabiting 
Ceylon  and  the  East  Indies.  The  length 
is  about  3 feet  to  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
which  is  tufted,  and  much  resembles 
that  of  the  lion;  the  color  of  the  fur  is 


Wanderoo. 

deep-black;  the  callosities  on  the  hinder 
quarters  are  bright  pink;  a well-de- 
veloped mass  of  black  hair  covers  the 
head,  and  a great  grayish  beard  rolls 
down  the  face  and  round  the  chin. 

WAP'ITI,  a species  of  deer,  the  North 
American  stag,  which  more  nearly  re- 


Wapiti,  or  American  elk. 


sembles  the  European  red-deer  in  color, 
shape,  and  form  than  it  does  any  other 


of  the  cervine  race,  though  it  is  larger  ] 
and  of  a stronger  make,  its  antlers  also  ; 
being  larger.  It  is  found  in  Canada  and 
the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  Its 
flesh  is  not  much  prized,  being  coarse 
and  dry,  but  its  hide  is  made  into  ex- 
cellent leather. 

WAR,  a contest  between  nations  or 
states  (international  war),  or  between 
parties  in  the  same  state  (civil  war), 
carried  on  by  force  of  arms,  usually 
arising  in  the  first  case  from  disputes 
about  territorial  possessions  and  fron- 
tiers, unjust  dealings  with  the  subjects 
of  one  state  by  another,  questions  of 
race  and  sentiment,  jealousy  or  military 
prestige,  or  mere  lust  of  conquest,  rarely 
nowadays  from  the  whim  of  a despot; 
in  the  second  case,  from  the  claims  of 
rival  contenders  for  supreme  power  in 
the  state,  or  for  the  establishment  of 
some  important  point  connected  with 
civil  or  religious  liberty.  In  all  cases  the 
aim  of  each  contending  party  is  to  over- 
throw or  weaken  the  enemy  by  the  de- 
feat or  dispersion  of  his  army  or  navy, 
the  occupation  of  important  parts  of 
his  country,  such  as  the  capital  or  prin- 
cipal administrative  and  commercial 
centers,  or  the  ruin  of  his  commerce, 
thus  cutting  off  his  sources  of  recupera- 
tion in  men,  money,  and  material. 
International  or  public  war  is  always 
understood  to  be  authorized  by  the 
monarch  or  sovereign  power  of  the 
nations;  when  it  is  carried  into  the  ter- 
ritories of  a hitherto  friendly  power  it  is 
called  an  aggressive  or  offensive  war, 
and  when  carried  on  to  resist  such  ag- 
gression it  is  called  defensive.  Previous 
to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  i 
states,  the  power  taking  the  initiatory 
step  issues  a declaration  of  war,  which 
now  usually  takes  the  form  of  an  ex- 
planatory manifesto  addressed  to  neu- 
tral governments.  During  the  progress 
of  the  struggle  certain  laws,  usages,  or 
rights  of  war  have  come  to  be  generally 
recognized;  such  laws  permitting  the 
destruction  or  capture  of  armed  enemies, 
the  destruction  of  property  likely  to  be 
serviceable  to  them,  the  stoppage  of  all 
their  channels  of  traffic,  and  the  appro- 
priation of  everything  in  an  enemy’s*- 
country  necessary  for  the  support  and 
subsistence  of  the  invading  army.  On 
the  other  hand  though  an  enemy  may  J 
be  starved  into  surrender,  wounding,  • 
except  in  battle,  mutilation,  and  all  ‘ 
cruel  and  wanton  devastation,  are  con-  ' 
trary  to  the  usages  of  war,  as  are  also  1 
bombarding  an  unprotected  town,  the  * 
use  of  poison  in  any  way,  and  torture  to 
extort  information  from  an  enemy 
and  generally  the  tendency  in  all  laws  I 
and  usages  of  war  is  becoming  gradually  i 
more  favorable  to  the  cause  of  humanity  | 
at  large.  See  also  International  La'w.  j 
WAR,  Department  of,  an  executive! 
department  of  the  United  States  gov-1 
ernment,  created  by  act  of  congress  of  1 
.\ugust  7,  1789.  It  has  at  its  head  a”! 
secretary  appointed  by  the  president.! 
He  ranks  third  among  the  cabinetg 
members  in  the  line  of  succession  to  thel 
presidency  and  receives  a salary  of  1 
SI 2, 000  per  year.  He  has  charge  of  alll 
matters  relating  to  military  affairs,  sul;-l 
jeet  to  the  direction  of  the  president.  I 
the  distribution  of  stores,  the  signal  1 


AVARBLERS 


WARMING  AND  VENTILATION 


service,  the  survey  and  improvement  of 
harbors,  and  the  administration  of  the 
insular  possessions.  The  business  of  the 
war  department  is  distributed  among 
a number  of  subdivisions  or  bureaus, 
each  of  which  is  under  the  supervision 
of  a chief  and  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  chief  of  stafiF. 

WARBLERS,  the  name  applied  to  a 
family  of  dentirostral  insessorial  birds, 
generally  small,  sprightly,  very  shy,  and 


Yellow  warbler  or  summer  yellow- bird,  male. 


remarkable  for  the  clearness,  sweetness, 
and  flexibility  of  their  song.  Insects 
form  their  food,  and  most  of  them  are 
migratory. 

WAR  COLLEGE,  United  StatesArmy, 
an  organization  having  for  its  object  the 
direction  and  coordination  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  the  various  service  schools,  the 
extension  of  the  opportunities  for  in- 
vestigation and  study  in  the  army  and 
militia  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
collection  and  dissemination  of  military 
information.  The  college,  which  is 
located  at  AVashington,  is  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  the  secretary  of 
war  and  the  general  staff  of  the  army. 
The  Naval  War  college  is  located  at 
Newport,  R.  I.  See  Naval  Schools  of 
Instruction. 

WARD,  Artemus.  See  Browne,  C.  F. 

WARD,  Elizabeth  Stuart  . (Phelps), 
American  author,  was  born  in  Andover, 
Mass.,  in  1844.  Among  her  works  the 
most  popular  are;  The  Gates  Ajar,  Be- 
yond the  Gales,  The  Gates  Between, 
and  Within  the  Gates. 

WARD,  Frederick  Townsend,  Ameri- 
can military  adventurer,  was  born  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  in  1831.  He  became  a 
sailor,  fought  with  the  French  in  the 
Crimea,  and  was  with  AValker  in  Nicara- 
gua, and  went  to  China  during  the 
Taiping  rebellion.  Ward  offered  his 
services  to  the  Chinese  authorities,  and 
for  a reward  of  $200,000  recaptured 
Sungkiang  and  garrisoned  it.  He  began 
drilling  natives  with  foreign  adven- 
turers as  officers,  increased  his  follow- 
ing to  nearly  4000,  the  nucleus  of  the 
force  later  known  under  Gordon  as 
“the  ever-victorious  army.”  This  force 
was  of  great  assistance  to  the  British 
and  French  admirals  in  protecting 
Shanghai,  and  maintaining  a neutral 
belt  of  30  miles  around  the  city.  During 
a skirmish  near  Ningpo  AVard  was 
killed;  he  was  burled  at  Sungkiang, 
where  a shrine  was  erected  to  his  mem- 
ory in  1875. 

WARD,  John  Quincy  Adams,  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  was  born  at  Urbana,  Cham- 


paign CO.,  Ohio,  in  1830.  In  1857-59 
he  resided  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  where 
he  executed  the  busts  of  Alexander 
Stephens,  Joshua  R.  Giddings,  John  P 
Hale,  Hannibal  Hamlin,  and  others. 
Among  his  memorial  statues  are  the 
colossal  George  Washington  on  the 
steps  of  the  treasury  building.  New  York, 
General  Thomas  in  Washington,  Israel 
Putnam,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  the 
Beecher  monument,  city  hall,  Brooklyn. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  and  the  first 
president  of  the  National  Sculpture 
society.  He  was  also  prominent  in  the 
affairs  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  of  which  he  was  president  in 
1874. 

WARD,  Lester  Frank,  American 
geologist  and  paleontologist,  well  known 
as  a sociologist  and  philosophical  writer, 
was  born  at  Joliet,  111.,  in  1841.  In  1883 
he  published  Dynamic  Sociology.  As  a 
contribution  to  sociology  it  was  recog- 
nized as  a powerful  and  original  work. 
His  other  works  are : The  Psychic  Fac- 
tors of  Civilization,  Outlines  of  Sociology 
and  Pure  Sociology.  In  1903  he  was 
president  of  the  Institut  Internationale 
de  Sociologie  of  Paris.  Among  his  con- 
tributions to  geology  and  paleontology 
are;  The  Flora  of  Washington,  Sketch 
of  Paleontological  Botany,  Synopsis  of 
the  Flora  of  the  Laramie  Group,  Types 
of  the  Laramie  Flora,  and  Geographical 
Distribution  of  Fossil  Plants. 

WARD,  Mrs.  Mary  Augusta,  novelist, 
granddaughter  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby, 
born  1851,  married  1872  Thomas 
Humphry  AVard.  Her  chief  works  are 
Robert  Elsmere  (1888),  a novel  of  re- 
ligious doubts  and  perplexities;  The 
History  of  David  Grieve,  Marcella,  Sir 
George  Tressady,  Eleanor,  Lady  Rose’s 
Daughter,  etc. 

AVaRM-BLOODED  animals.  See 

Anim  al. 

WARMING  AND  VENTILATION.  The 

condition  of  the  atmosphere  of  our 
houses  and  apartments  is  of  such  im- 
portance to  health  and  vigor  of  mind 
that  warming  and  ventilation,  tw’o 
closely  allied  subjects,  are  receiving 
more  and  more  attention  as  sanitary 
science  advances.  Their  neglect  has 
been  the  cause,  and  is  still  responsible, 
for  an  incalculable  amount  of  human 
disease  and  suffering.  The  body,  to 
remain  in  health,  requires  a certain  de- 
gree of  heat;  so  that,  if  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  is  too  low  in  temperature, 
artificial  means  must  be  employed  to 
raise  it.  The  temperature  which  is  found 
the  most  agreeable  for  the  air  of  apart- 
ments, in  which  the  occupants  are  not 
engaged  in  bodily  exercise,  is  from  63° 
to  65°  F.  The  charcoal  brazier  is  a very 
ancient  method  of  warming  an  apart- 
ment. The  Greeks  and  other  nations 
commonly  used  it,  and  they  sought  to 
correct  the  deleterious  nature  of  the 
fumes  by  burning  costly  odorous  gums, 
spices,  and  woods;  but  the  carbonic  acid 
given  off  by  the  combustion  of  charcoal 
is  very  injurious  to  health.  The  ordinary 
open  coal-fire  is,  if  not  the  most  economi- 
cal, at  least  the  most  agreeable  means 
of  heating  apartments,  but  the  waste 
of  heat  is  very  considerable.  This  waste 
early  led  to  the  introduction  of  closed 
stoves,  first  in  earthenware  and  then  in 
metal.  These  closed  stoves,  of  which 


there  are  innumerable  varieties  in  form 
and  construction  are  particularly 
favored  in  America  and  the  European 
continent.  For  public  buildings,  ware- 
houses, conservatories,  etc.,  the  most 
extensively  employed  system  of  heating 
is  that  of  large  hot-water  pipes.  The 
circulation  of  water  is  brought  about  on 
the  principle  of  the  expansion  of  water 
by  heat,  and  its  greater  lightness  in  con- 
sequence. Whatever  be  the  height  of 
the  water  above,  the  water  when  heated 
in  the  lower  part  of  a boiler  will  rise  to 
the  surface,  making  room  for  other  and 
colder  particles  to  be  heated  in  their 
turn;  hence  if  a pipe  full  of  water  rise 
from  the  top  of  a boiler  to  any  required 
height,  and  then  return  by  gentle  bends 
to  the  boiler  at  the  lower  part,  heated 
water  will  rise  and  occupy  the  upright 
pipe,  and  the  colder  water  will  descend 
into  the  boiler  to  take  its  place.  Thus 
a continuous  circulation  may  be  main- 
tained through  pipes  in  a building,  the 
heated  water  rising  up,  passing  on,  and 
returning  cooled  to  the  lower  part  of  the 
boiler,  causing  a satisfactory  tempera- 
ture to  be  everywhere  felt.  The  greater 
the  elevation  to  which  the  heated  water 
ascends,  and  the  higher  the  initial  tem- 
perature of  the  water,  the  greater  is  the 
motive  power  for  circulation.  There  are 
also  several  systems  of  heating  by  pass- 
ing steam  or  hot  air  through  pipes. 
Ventilation  is  the  means  of  renewing  the 
atmosphere,  and  of  maintaining  its 
purity  by  e.xpelling  foul  air  and  admit- 
ling  fresh  without  draughts.  Of  the 
products  w'hich  vitiate  the  air  carbonic 
acid  is  the  most  important.  Air  which 
has  been  utilized  by  living  beings  is 
always  charged  with  carbonic  acid,  and 
also  with  a varying  amount  of  watery 
vapor,  the  quantity  of  which  is  increased 
as  the  air  is  warmed;  and  smaller  quan- 
tities of  ammonia,  and  organic  matter 
especially  bacteria,  still  further  assist  in 
rendering  the  atmosphere  not  only 
unfit  but  dangerous  for  respiration. 
Authorities  on  hygiene  somewhat  vary 
as  to  the  amount  of  air  necessary  for 
healthy  living  rooms,  but  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  not  less  than  1000  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  healthy  person 
should  be  supplied  every  hour,  and  from 
3000  to  4000  cubic  feet  to  rooms  oc- 
cupied by  invalids.  Mechanical  ventila- 
tion is  generally  effected  by  means  of 
gratings  in  the  ceilings  or  cornices  in 
communication  with  flues  leading  into 
the  open  air,  and  a variety  of  arrange- 
ments have  been  invented  to  prevent 
down-draughts.  Public  and  other  large 
buildings  are  commonly  ventilated  in 
the  roof,  though  sometimes  bj'^  gratings 
in  or  near  the  floor,  but  this  latter 
method  is  objectionable  on  account  of 
draught.  Automatic  ventilation  is,  of 
course,  irregular,  owing  to  changes  in 
wind  and  temperature,  which  increase 
or  reduce,  or  even  revert  the  motive 
power.  In  places  where  large  numbers 
of  people  congregate  and  a uniform  re- 
newal of  air  is  required,  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  resort  to  machinery.  Many 
systems  are  in  operation,  varying  with 
the  nature  of  the  building  to  be  ven- 
tilated. Air  flues,  shafts,  or  pipes  are 
usually  the  medium  through  which  air 
passes  in  and  out;  and  this  passage  is 
generally  regulated  by  pumps  or  fan.s 


WARNER 


WASHINGTON 


moved  by  steam  or  gas  engines.  The 
proper  ventilation  of  mines  forms  a 
problem  for  the  mining  engineer.  See 
Mining,  and  Sanitary  Science. 

WARNER,  Charles  Dudley,  American 
writer,  born  at  Plainfield,  Mass.,  in  1829, 
graduated  at  Hamilton  college  in  1851  j 
studied  law  and  practiced  in  Chicago ; 
became  connected  with  the  newspaper 
press;  traveled  in  Europe;  and  in  1884 
became  joint-editor  of  Harper’s  Maga- 
zine. His  works  include:  My  Summer  in 
a Garden,  Saunterings,  Backlog  Studies, 
My  Winter  on  the  Nile,  In  the  Levant, 
Washington  Irving,  etc.  He  died  in 
1900. 

WARNER,  Susan,  American  writer, 
born  1819,  died  1885.  In  1851  she  pub- 
lished under  the  pseudonym  of  Eliza- 
beth Wetherell,  a novel  entitled  The 
Wide,  Wide  World,  which  soon  attained 
extraordinary  popularity  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  Queechy,  which  ap- 
peared in  1852,  was  almost  equally 
popular. 

WARP.  See  Weaving. 

WARRANT,  an  instrument  or  docu- 
ment authorizing  certain  acts  which 
without  it  would  be  illegal.  Common 
forms  of  judicial  warrants  are:  the 
warrant  of  arrest,  usually  issued  by  a 
justice  of  the  peace  for  the  apprehension 
of  those  accused  or  suspected  of  crimes; 
the  warrant  of  commitment,  a written 
authority  committing  a person  to 
prison ; the  distress  warrant,  a warrant 
issued  for  raising  a sum  of  money  upon 
the  goods  of  a party  specified  in  the 
warrant;  the  search  warrant,  an  author- 
ity, generally  granted  to  police-officers, 
to  search  private  premises. 

WARRINGTON,  a mun.,  pari.,  and 
county  borough  of  England,  in  Lanca- 
shire, with  a small  portion  in  Cheshire. 
Pop.  64,241. 

WAR'SAW,  a city  of  Russia,  capital 
of  Russian  Poland,  or  the  Vistula  prov- 
ince, as  that  country  is  now  officially 
designated.  Warsaw  is  famous  for  its 
huge  churches,  numerous  and  magnifi- 
cent palaces  and  monuments,  remnants 
of  former  Polish  grandeur;  for  its  edu- 
cational institutions;  and  for  its  many 
and  extensive  gardens,  parks,  and 
suburban  drives.  It  was  formerly  also 
exceptionally  rich  in  literature  and  art 
treasures;  most  of  these  have  been  con- 
fiscated and  transferred  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. Leather,  boots  and  shoes,  woolen 
and  linen  stuff’s,  plated  ware,  machinery, 
chemicals,  spirits  and  beer,  are  some  of 
the  most  important  industrial  products. 
It  is  the  residence  of  the  governor- 
general  of  the  province,  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  Warsaw  military  district, 
and  of  the  Roman  and  Greek  Catholic 
archbishops.  Pop.  638,209,  of  which 
many  are  Jews  and  Germans. 

WAR-SHIP,  See  Navy. 

WART,  a small,  dry,  hard  tumor  mak- 
ing its  appearance  most  frequently  on 
the  hands,  sometimes  on  the  face,  and 
rarely  on  other  parts  of  the  body,  and 
occurring  usually  on  children.  Warts 
may  be  described  as  collections  of  ab- 
normally lengthened  papillre  of  the 
skin,  closely  adherent  and  ensheathed 
in  a thick  covering  of  hard  dry  cuticle. 
In  most  cases  they  disappear  of  them- 
selves, or  they  may  be  removed  by  nitric 
acid,  glacial  acetic  acid,  etc. 


WART-HOG,  a name  common  to  cer- 
tain members  of  the  hog  family,  distin- 
guished from  the  true  swine  by  their 
dentition,  which  in  some  respects  re- 
sembles that  of  the  elephants.  The  head 
is  very  large;  immense  tusks  project 


Head  of  wart-hog. 


from  the  mouth  outward  and  upward, 
and  the  cheeks  are  furnished  with  flesh- 
like excrescences  resembling  warts. 
They  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants,  which 
they  dig  up  with  their  tusks.  The 
African  wart-hog  or  haruja  of  Abyssinia, 
and  the  vlacke-vark  of  the  Dutch  settlers 
of  the  Cape  are  familiar  species. 

WARWICK  (wo'rik),  a parliamentary 
borough  of  England,  on  a rocky  hill  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Avon,  the  county 
town  of  Warwickshire.  The  principal 
object  of  interest  is  Warwick  castle,  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  ancient  feudal 
mansions  of  the  English  nobility.  The 
town  unites  with  Leamington  in  sending 
one  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
11,903. — The  county  has  an  area  of 
885  sq.  miles,  or  566,548  acres.  Coal 
(output  over  a million  tons  per  annum) 
and  several  kinds  of  building  stone  are 
abundant.  Warwickshire  is  also  famous 
for  its  manufactures,  and  includes  the 
two  great  manufacturing  towns  of  Bir- 
mingham and  Coventry.  Pop.  897,678. 

WARWICK,  Richard  Neville,  Earl 
of,  “the  kingmaker,”  a great  English 
nobleman,  born  1428,  killed  1471.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  earl  of  Salisbury,  and 
became  Earl  of  Warwick  by  marrying 
the  heiress  of  the  title  and  estates.  Tak- 
ing the  Yorkist  side  in  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses,  he  was  the  main  instrument  in 
placing  Edward  IV.  on  the  throne  in 
1461  in  place  of  Henry  VI.,  and  became 
the  most  powerful  nobleman  in  the 
kingdom.  Quarreling  with  Edward  on 
account  of  the  latter’s  marriage,  he 
went  over  to  Henry’s  side,  and  was  able 
to  place  him  again  on  the  throne,  but 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of 
Barnet. 

WASHBURN,  Cadwallader  Colden, 
American  soldier  and  capitalist,  was 
born  at  Livermore,  Maine,  in  1818. 
He  made  fortunate  investments  in 
timber  lands  and  became  one  of  the 
pioneers  in  the  flour-milling  industry. 
In  1854  he  was  elected  to  congress  from 
Wisconsin  by  the  anti-slavery  element, 
and  was  twice  reelected,  serving  until 

1861.  He  raised  the  second  regiment  of 
Wisconsin  cavalry  and  was  mustered 
into  the  federal  service  in  February, 

1862.  In  November,  1862,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  major-general  and  was 
given  a division  in  the  Army  of  the 
Tennessee.  He  was  again  a member  of 
congress  from  1867  to  1871,  and  in 
1872-74  was  governor  of  'Wisconsin. 
He  gave  largely  to  education,  built  an 
observatory  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, and  founded  an  orphan  asylum 
at  Minneapolis.  He  died  in  1882. 

WASH'BURNE,  Elihu  Benjamin, ' 


American  diplomat,  was  born  at  Liver-  j 
more,  Maine,  in  1816.  He  removed  in 
1841  to  Galena,  111.  He  was  a delegate  i 
to  the  whig  national  convention  of  1844, 
and  from  1853  until  1869  was  a member 
of  congress.  When  Grant  became  presi-  ^ 
dent,  he  made  Washburne  his  secretary  ■ 
of  state,  but  he  resigned  to  become 
minister  to  France.  During  the  Franco-  j 
Prussian  war  he  was  the  only  foreign  *! 
representative  who  remained  at  his  j 
post.  In  1877  he  returned  to  the  United  >1 
States  and  settled  at  Chicago.  He  pub-  } 
lished  Recollections  of  a Minister  to 
France,  1869-77.  He  died  in  1887.  ‘ 

'WASHINGTON,  the  capital  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  District  of  Colum-  ; 
bia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Anacostia  ^ 
with  the  Potomac,  here  navigable  by 
ships  of  the  largest  class;  200  miles 
southwest  of  New  York.  'The  site  was  >j 
selected  in  1790  by  Washington  himself,  ^ 
and  the  plan  of  the  city  was  drawn  up  on 
a most  magnificent  scale.  The  streets  ^ 
(70-120  feet  wide)  cross  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  are  intersected  diagon-  J 
ally  by  avenues  (120-180  feet  wide), 
which  bear  the  names  of  states  in  the  | 
Union.  A large  portion  of  these  spacious 
thoroughfares  are  planted  with  elms  and 
poplars,  well  paved,  and  well  kept.  r 
Numerous  open  spaces,  large  and  small,  ' 
some  of  them  beautifully  laid  out,  are 
distributed  throughout  the  vast  area 
occupied  by  the  town.  First  among  the  , 
numerous  public  buildings  ranks  the  “ 
Capitol,  the  finest  structure  in  the  states,  . 
on  a hill  above  the  Potomac,  in  the 
midst  of  a highly  ornamental  park  of 
50  acres.  It  consists  of  a central  build- 
ing of  freestone,  two  wings  (each  with  a 
dome)  of  white  marble,  and  a lofty 
central  dome  of  iron,  surmounted  by  a 
statue  of  Liberty  (total  height,  307J 
feet).  The  Rotunda,  in  the  center  of  the 
main  building,  is  a magnificent  hall, 
adorned  with  bas-reliefs  and  paintings, 
and  a colossal  statue  of  Washington. 

The  entire  structure  covers  3J  acres, 
and  cost  over  12J  million  dollars.  It 
accommodates  the  two  houses  of  con-  ^ 
gress,  the  United  States  supreme  court, 
and  until  recently  also  held  the  exten- 
sive congress  library  (now  transferred  to 
a separate  building).  The  edifices  pro- 
vided for  the  various  state  departments, 
such  as  the  treasury,  the  state,  war,  and 
navy  departments,  the  interior  depart- 
ment, post-office,  etc.,  are  also  on  a 
splendid  scale.  In  the  midst  of  these 
palatial  offices  stands  the  more  modest 
yet  elegant  White  House,  the  residence 
of  the  United  States  president.  In  ad-  ' i 
dition  may  be  specially  mentioned  the  j 
Episcopal  Trinity  church,  the  patent-  | 
office,  the  city-hall,  the  observatory,  the 
Smithsonian  institution,  the  Columbian  ■; 

college,  the  arsenal,  the  navy-yard  j 

(42  acres),  and  the  Washington  obelisk,  i 
built  of  white  marble  and  blue  gneiss, 

555i  feet  high,  with  a base  104  feet  j 
square.  The  city  is  protected  by  numer-  j 
ous  forts  and  batteries,  the  harbor  de-  j 
fenses  especially  being  of  a formidable 
description.  Pop.  1909,  340,000. 

WASH'INGTON,  occupies  the  north- 
western corner  of  the  United  States, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  British 
Columbia,  on  the  east  b}'  Idaho,  on  the 
south  by  Oregon,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Pacific  ocean.  It  ranks  sixteenth  in 


WASHINGTON 


WASHINGTON 


size  among  the  states.  The  state  is 
divided  by  the  Cascade  mountains  into 
two  unequal  sections,  which  have  very 
different  climatic  and  physical  char- 
acteristics and  commercial  and  business 
interests.  The  Columbia  river,  which 
forms  almost  the  entire  boundary  be- 
tween Washington  and  Oregon,  trav- 
erses the  state  from  east  to  west,  and 
with  its  tributaries  drains  almost  the 
whole  state.  I'he  tide-water  basin  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  and  Che- 
halis  valley,  farther  north  are  the  most 
important  indentions  of  the  coast  south 
of  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  This 
body  of  water,  together  with  the  ex- 
tensive inland  sea  known  as  Puget 
sound,  affords  some  of  the  best  harbors 
in  the  world,  and  is  of  great  commercial 


Seal  of  Washington. 


importance.  The  soils  are  fertile  in  most 
parts  of  the  state.  On  the  eastern  spurs 
and  slopes  of  the  Cascades  there  are 
forests  of  pine.  Western  Washington  has 
magnificent  forests.  They  consist  of 
gigantic  coniferous  trees  such  as  the 
Douglas  spruce,  giant  cedar,  and  West- 
ern hemlock.  Washington  is  the  most 
important  coal-mining  state  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  Gold  and  silver  are  mined 
in  fluctuating  quantities.  Considerable 
quantities  of  limestone  and  some  sand- 
stone, granite,  and  marble  are  quarried. 
In  1850  fish  were  shipped  from  Wash- 
ington, and  since  that  date  the  growth 
in  the  industry  has  been  rapid.  The 
total  amount  invested  in  the  industry 
is  over  17,000,000.  Salmon  is  the  largest 
single  product.  The  canning  and  pack- 
ing of  fish  ranks  third  among  the  in- 
dustries of  the  state.  Alfalfa,  clover,  and 
other  grasses  and  vegetables  and  fruit 
are  the  chief  crops.  Wheat  constitutes 
over  half  of  the  total  crop  area  of  the 
state.  The  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile  and 
a high  per  acreage  yield  is  obtained. 
Barley  and  oats  are  the  only  other 
cereals  of  importance.  Hay  and  forage 
rank  second  in  area  and  value.  Potatoes 
are  a favorite  crop,  and  sugar-beet 
culture  has  developed  in  Spokane 
county.  The  southeastern  counties  lead 
in  fruit-raising.  The  alluvium  soil  at 
the  mouths  of  the  tributary  streams  to 
the  Walla  Walla  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  cultivation  of  orchard  fruits. 
Extensive  areas  are  too  arid  for  culti- 
vation afford  pasturing  facilities.  All 
kinds  of  domestic  animals  are  rapidly 
increasing  in  numbers.  Manufacturing 
has  developed  since  1885,  when  railroad 
connection  was  made  with  the  older 


parts  of  the  country.  A great  unpetus 
was  given  to  the  industry  through  the 
discoveries  of  gold  in  Alaska  in  1897. 
The  most  important  branch  of  industry 
is  the  Sawing  of  lumber.  Next  in  im- 
portance is  the  manufacture  of  flour 
and  grist  mill  products.  An  Oriental 
market  is  developing  for  the  products 
of  this  industry.  Seattle  is  the  largest 
manufacturing  center,  followed  by  Ta- 
coma and  Spokane.  Washington  pos- 
sesses the  best  commercial  facilities  of 
any  of  the  Pacific  states.  The  principal 
outlet  to  the  sea  is  Puget  sound,  which, 
by  reason  of  its  position  and  the  numer- 
ous bays  and  inlets  with  which  its 
shores  are  indented,  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  commercial  purposes.  Water 
communication  with  the  interior  is  by 
the  Columbia  and  Snake  rivers  and  their 
branches.  The  Columbia  is  navigable 
for  large  steamers  as  far  as  Vancouver. 
The  principal  railroad  lines  are  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  North- 
ern. They  both  traverse  the  state  from 
east  to  west  as  far  a Seattle,  where  the 
Northern  Pacific  turns  south,  extend- 
ing to  Portland,  Oregon,  and  the  Great 
Northern  turns  north  to  the  Canadian 
border.  The  Canadian  Pacific  operates 
trains  over  the  Seattle  and  International 
railway,  and  thus  brings  the  commercial 
centers  of  the  state  into  touch  with  a 
third  continental  system.  The  popula- 
tion is  confined  mainly  to  the  Puget 
sound  region  and  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  state.  The  leading  religious 
denominations  in  point  of  numbers 
are  the  Roman  Catholics,  Methodists, 
Disciples  of  Christ,  Presbyterian,  Bap- 
tists, and  Congregationalists.  The  prin- 
cipal institutions  of  learning  in  the 
state  are  the  University  of  Washington 
at  Seattle;  Gonzaga  college,  at  Spokane; 
Whitman  college,  at  Walla  Walla;  and 
the  Washington  Agricultural  college  and 
School  of  Science,  at  Pullman.  The  first 
event  in  history  relating  to  Washington 
was  the  discovery,  in  1592,  of  the  Strait 
of  Juan  de  Fuca  by  an  old  Greek  pilot 
of  that  name  in  the  service  of  Spain. 
In  1810  two  expeditions  were  sent  out 
by  John  Jacob  Astor  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a fur-trading  empire  on 
the  Columbia  and  its  tributary  lands 
and  streams.  In  1813  the  fortunes  of 
war  compelled  the  transfer  of  the  Astor 
Fur  company  to  the  Northwest  Fur 
company.  Henceforward  for  many 
years  the  history  of  the  state  is  the  his- 
tory of  the  operations  of  the  great  North- 
west and  Hudson  Bay  companies.  Wash- 
ington was  first  organized  as  a territory 
in  1853,  with  an  area  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  present  state.  It  was  reduced 
to  its  present  limits  in  1863,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Union  in  1889.  In 
national  politics  the  state  voted  for 
republican  electors  in  1892,  and  for  a 
fusion  ticket  of  democrats  and  populists 
in  1896,  but  returned  to  the  republican 
column  in  1900,  1904  and  1908.  Within 
the  last  few  years  the  development  of 
the  state  has  been  phenomenal.  Pop. 
1,250,000. 

WASHINGTON,  University  of,  a co- 
educational, state  institution  at  Seattle, 
Wash.,  founded  in  1861.  In  1906  the 
university  had  an  attendance  of  631  in 
the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  College  of 
Engineering,  the  Schools  of  Mines, 


Pharmacy,  and  Law,  and  the  Graduate 
School.  In  the  same  year  it  had  a 
faculty  of  37,  a library  of  20,000  volumes 
and  15,000  pamphlets.  The  university 
grounds  cover  355  acres  within  the  city 
limits. 

WASHINGTON,  the  county  seat  of 
Daviess  co.,  Ind.,  85  miles  southwest 
of  Indianapolis,  on  the  Evansville  and 
Terre  Haute  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Southwestern  railroads.  It  is  the  com- 
mercial center  of  a farming  and  stock- 
raising  region,  especially  noted  for  its 
deposits  of  coal,  kaolin,  and  fire  clay. 
Pop.  10,219. 

WASHINGTON  AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE  AND  SCHOOL  OF  SCIENCE, 

a coeducational  state  institution  at  Pull- 
man, Wash.,  established  in  1890  on  the 
national  land  grant  act.  It  offers  par- 
tially elective  courses  in  the  departments 
of  mathematics  and  civil  engineering, 
chemistry,  botany  and  zoology,  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  English,  economic 
science  and  history,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, modern  languages,  mining  engineer- 
ing, and  military  science  and  tactics, 
with  supplementary  courses  in  physics, 
geology,  and  mineralogy,  Latin,  and 
education.  In  addition,  special  instruc- 
tion is  provided  in  the  schools  of  agri- 
culture, dairying,  pharmacy,  veterinary 
science,  and  business,  the  school  for 
artisans,  and  the  preparatory  school. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  graduate  in- 
struction. 

WASHINGTON,  Booker  Taliaferro, 
an  American  negro  educator,  was  born 
near  Hale’s  Ford,  Franklin  co.,  Va., 
in  1858.  In  1881  he  was  appointed  to 
establish  a colored  normal  school  at 
Tuskegee,  Ala.,  the  state  legislature 
having  granted  an  annual  appropriation 
of  $2000  to  be  used  for  the  salaries  of 
instructors.  He  opened  the  school  with 
30  scholars,  and  himself  as  the  only 
teacher.  Subsequently  he  transferred 
the  school  to  its  present  site  on  a plan- 
tation about  one  mile  from  Tuskegee. 
His  efforts  to  better  the  condition  of 
this  institution  led  to  his  appearance  at 
important  public  assemblages,  and  his 
addresses  on  these  occasions  soon  made 
him  known  as  a remarkably  fluent  and 
effective  speaker.  His  most  notable 
address  was  that  given  at  the  opening 
of  the  Atlanta  (Ga.)  Cotton  States  and 
International  exposition  in  1895.  In 
1900  he  organzied  the  National  Negro 
Business  League  at  Boston,  Mass.  His 
publications  include:  The  Future  of  the 
American  Negro,  Up  from  Slavery,  and 
Character-Building. 

WASHINGTON,  George,  the  hero  of 
American  independence,  and  “the  father 
of  his  country”  as  he  is  popularly  called, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  county, 
Virginia,  on  the  22d  February,  1732; 
died  at  Mount  Vernon,  14th  December, 
1799.  He  was  the  great-grandson  of 
John  Washington,  an  Englishman,  who 
emigrated  in  1657;  and  the  son  of 
Augustine  Washington,  a substantial 
farmer,  being  the  eldest  of  a second 
family.  His  education  was  limited  to 
the  elementary  subjects,  but  he  acquired 
a fair  knowledge  of  mathematics  and 
surveying,  chiefly  by  self-study,  and 
when  his  widowed  mother  prevailed 
upon  him  to  abandon  the  idea  of  enter- 
ing the  British  navy,  he  adopted  sur- 


WASHINGTON  MONUMENT 


WATER 


veying  as  a profession.  His  military 
career  commenced  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, when  he  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  Virginia  militia;  and  before 
long  he  showed  in  operations  against  the 
French  that  he  united  in  an  eminent 
degree  the  qualities  belonging  to  a suc- 
cessful commander,  though  in  1754, 
when  in  command  of  his  regiment,  he 
had  to  capitulate  to  a superior  French 
force.  In  1755  he  accompanied  General 


George  Washington. 


Braddock  as  a volunteer,  and  was  almost 
the  only  officer  who  returned  safe  from 
the  disastrous  expedition.  In  1758  he 
took  an  important  part  in  the  expedition 
that  captured  Fort  Du  Quesne,  where 
Pittsburg  now  stands.  In  the  meantime 
extensive  estates  and  plantations  at 
Mount  Vernon  had  come  into  his  pos- 
session through  the  death  of  his  half- 
brother.  To  these  possessions  he  added 
largely  by  marrying  in  1759  Mrs.  Martha 
Custis,  a wealthy  young  widow.  He 
also  sat  for  some  years  in  the  Virginia 
assembly.  Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  of  independence  Washington 
was  elected  commander-in-chief  of  the 
American  forces,  5th  June,  1775,  in 
which  capacity  his  career  belongs  to  the 
general  history  of  his  country-.  (See 
United  States,  History.)  It  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  the  struggle  was  carried  on 
by  him  under  extraordinary  disadvan- 
tages, including  unfriendliness  on  the 
part  of  officers,  and  virulent  attacks  on 
the  part  of  others.  When  peace  was 
signed  in  1783  Washington  retired  to 
Mount  Vernon,  and  refused  all  recom- 
pense for  his  invaluable  services  beyond 
his  personal  expenses.  In  1787  he  was  a 
member  of  and  presided  over  the  con- 
vention which  met  to  revise  the  articles 
of  union  between  the  states,  the  result 
being  the  constitution  which  is  still  in 
force,  and  which  was  adopted  in  1788. 
Washington  was  elected  the  first  presi- 
dent of  the  republic,  and  inaugurated 
30th  April,  1789,  and  he  was  again 
elected  in  1793.  During  both  terms  he 
performed  the  onerous  duties  of  his 
office  with  marked  ability,  and  the  ad- 
vances in  prosperity  made  b}'  the  young 
republic  were  extraordinary.  At  the 
close  of  his  second  term  of  office  he  re- 


signed (1797),  but  when  a misunder- 
standing with  France  threatened  further 
trouble  congress  appointed  him  lieu- 
tenant-general of  the  forces  (1798). 
He  died  from  an  attack  of  acute  laryn- 
gitis. Washington  had  a mind  far  above 
party  strife,  and  was  mourned  by  men  of 
all  parties.  He  had  no  family.  Mount 
Vernon,  on  the  Potomac  about  15  miles 
from  Washington,  became  national 
property  in  1858.  His  remains  are  de- 
posited in  a vault  in  the  grounds. 

WASHINGTON  MONUMENT,  a huge 
obelisk  erected  in  the  city  of  Washing- 
ton, having  a total  height  of  555  feet 
5}  inches.  It  is  the  highest  masonry 
structure  in  the  world.  The  cornerstone 
was  laid  in  1848  and  work  on  the  monu- 
ment continued  slowly  until  1877,  when 
it  ceased,  but  was  resumed  in  1878,  and 
finished  in  1884.  The  Washington 
National  Monument  society  originated 
the  plan  and  controlled  the  work  of  con- 
struction until  1877,  when  its  property 
was  conveyed  to  the  United  States. 
Maryland  marble  is  the  material  out  of 
which  the  monument  was  constructed. 
The  foundation  covers  an  area  of  16,000 
feet,  and  weighs  36,912  gross  tons.  The 
shaft  is  55  feet  1.5  inches  square  at  the 
bottom,  34  feet  5.5  inches  square  at  the 
top,  weighs  43,633  gross  tons,  and  is 
500  feet  51  inches  high ; the  apex, 
weighing  300  tons,  is  55  feet  high,  its 
summit  being  nearly  600  feet  above  the 
tide-water  of  the  Potomac.  The  apex  is 
capped  by  an  aluminum  point.  It  has 
262  marble  pieces,  of  seven-inch  thick- 
ness. The  original  designs  were  by 
Robert  Mills.  An  elevator  and  an  iron 
stairway  of  900  steps  within  the  monu- 
ment afford  access  to  the  bash  of  the 
apex. 

WASH'ITA,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  in  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  an 
affluent  of  the  Red  river;  length,  600 
miles;  valuable  for  navigation. 

WASP,  the  common  name  applied  to 
insects  of  various  genera.  Those  best 
known  belong  to  the  genus  Vespa,  and 
live  in  societies,  composed  of  females, 
males,  and  neuters  or  workers.^  The 
females  and  neuters  are  armed  with  an 
extremely  powerful  and  venomous  sting. 
Their  nests,  some  of  them  very  ingenious 
both  as  regards  material  and  construc- 
tion, are  made  in  holes  underground,  or 
attached  to  the  branches  of  trees,  to 
walls,  etc.  The  cells  are  of  a hexagonal 
form,  arranged  in  tiers  with  the  mouth 
downward,  or  opening  sideways,  in 
which  the  larvae  and  pupae  are  contained. 
Wasps  are  very  voracious,  eating  other 
insects,  sugar,  meat,  fruit,  honey,  etc. 

WATCH,  a well-known  pocket  in- 
strument for  measuring  time,  invented 
at  Niirnberg  in  the  end  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. The  wheels  in  watches  are  urged 
on  by  the  force  of  a spiral  spring,  gen- 
erally of  steel,  contained  in  a cylindrical 
barrel  or  box,  to  which  one  end  of  a 
chain  is  fixed,  the  chain  also 'making 
several  turns  round  the  barrel  outside; 
the  other  end  of  the  chain  is  fixed  to  the 
bottom  of  a cone  with  a spiral  groove 
cut  on  it,  known  as  the  fusee.  On  the 
bottom  of  the  fusee  the  first  or  great 
wheel  is  put.  The  barrel-arbor  is  so 
fixed  in  the  frame  that  it  cannot  turn 
when  the  fusee  is  winding  up.  The  inner 
end  of  the  spring  hooks  on  to  the  barrel- 


arbor,  the  outer  to  the  inside  of  the 
barrel.  If  the  fusee  is  turned  round  in 
the  proper  direction  it  will  take  on  the 
chain,  and  consequently  take  it  off  from 
the  barrel.  This  coils  up  the  spring; 
and  if  the  fusee  and  great  wheel  are  left 
to  themselves,  the  force  exerted  bj^  the 
spring  in  the  barrel  to  unroll  itself  will 
make  the  barrel  turn  in  a contrary 
direction  to  that  by  which  it  was  bent 
up.  This  force  communicating  itself 
to  the  wheels  will  set  them  in  motion. 
Their  time  of  continuing  in  motion  will 
depend  on  the  number  of  turns  of  the 
spiral  groove  on  the  fusee,  the  number 
of  teeth  in  the  first  or  great  wheel,  and 
on  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  pinion 
upon  which  the  great  wheel  acts,  etc. 
The  necessity  of  keeping  the  watch  from 
“running  down,”  and  of  making  the 
wheels  move  with  uniform  motion,  gave 
rise  to  the  use  of  the  balance-wheel  and 
hair-spring  (taking  the  place  of  the 
pendulum  of  a clock)  and  the  variously 
and  ingeniously  designed  mechanism, 
the  escapement  (which  see).  On  the 
perfection  of  the  escapement  the  time- 
keeping qualities  of  a watch  largely 
depend.  Of  the  many  varieties  invented 
and  perfected,  watches  are  now  almost 
exclusively  provided  with  either  the 
horizontal,  the  lever,  or  the  chronometer 
or  detached  escapement.  (See  Chro- 
nometer.) In  all  but  the  best  class 
English  watches  the  fusee  has  been 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  going-barrel. 
The  latter  offers  better  facilities  for 
keyless  work,  and  keyless  watches  are 
manufactured  in  increasing  quantities. 
The  going-barrel  watch  can  also  be  pro- 
duced at  a cheaper  rate,  and  for  ordinary 
purposes  is  amply  reliable.  The  main- 
spring in  this  elass  of  watch  is  very  long, 
but  only  a few  coils  are  brought  into 
action.  The  great  wheel  is  attached  to 
the  going-barrel  itself,  thus  the  spring 
force  is  directly  transmitted  to  the 
escapement.  The  invention  of  the  spiral 
hair-spring  by  Dr.  Hook  (about  1658), 
the  scientific  application  of  its  properties 
since,  and  the  intelligent  use  of  com- 
pensation (which  see)  in  the  balance, 
have  combined  to  give  to  the  best 
chronometers  of  to-day  a uniformity  of 
rate  which  it  is  probably  inpossible  to 
excel.  A number  of  watches  for  special 
performances  are  also  constructed.  Such 
are  the  calendar  watch,  the  repeater, 
the  chronograph  (which  see),  etc.  Large 
quantities  of  the  cheaper  class  of  watches 
are  now  made  by  machinery  in  Switzer- 
land, France,  Germany,  England,  and 
the  United  States.  They  are  generally 
produced  on  the  interchangeable  sys- 
tem, that  is,  if  any  part  of  a watch  has 
become  unfit  for  service,  it  can  be 
cheaply  replaced  by  an  exact  duplicate ; 
the  labor  of  the  watch-repairer  thus 
becoming  easy  and  expeditious. 

WATCH,  a certain  part  of  the  officers 
and  crew  of  a vessel  who  together  work 
her  for  an  allotted  time,  the  time  being 
also  called  a w'atch.  The  time  called  a 
watch  is  four  hours,  the  reckoning  be-  ■ 
ginning  at  noon  or  midnight.  Between 
4 and  8 p.m.  the  time  is  divided  into  two  , 
short  or  dog-watches,  in  order  to  pre-^ 
vent  the  constant  recurrence  of  the  same* 
portion  of  the  crew  keeping  the  watch  ^ 
during  the  same  hours. 

WATER,  a universally-diffused  liquid, 


Water-bed 


WATER  LILY 


It  was  classed  among  the  elements  until 
the  close  of  the  18th  century,  when 
Lavoisier,  profiting  by  the  experiments 
of  Cavendish,  proved  it  to  be  a com- 
pound of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the 
proportion  of  two  volumes  of  the  former 
gas  to  one  volume  of  the  latter;  or  by 
weight  2 parts  of  hydrogen  to  16  parts 
of  oxygen;  Pure  water  is  a colorless, 
tasteless,  inodorous  liquid;  a powerful 
refractor  of  light;  a bad  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity;  it  is  very  slightly 
compressible,  its  absolute  diminution 
for  a pressure  of  one  atmosphere  being 
only  about  51.3  millionths  of  its  bulk. 
Although  water  is  colorless  in  small 
cjuantities,  it  is  blue  like  the  atmosphere 
when  viewed  in  mass.  It  takes  a solid 
form,  that  of  ice  or  snow,  at  32°  F. 
(0°  C.),  and  all  lower  temperatures; 
and  it  takes  the  form  of  vapor  or  steam 
at  212°  F.  (100°  C.)  under  a pressure  of 
29.9  ins.  of  mercury,  and  retains  that 
form  at  all  higher  temperatures.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  water  possesses  the 
liquid  form  only  at  temperatures  lying 
between  32°  and  212°.  It  is,  however, 
ossible  to  cool  water  very  considerably 
elow  32°  F.  and  yet  maintain  it  in  the 
liquid  form.  Water  may  also  be  heated, 
under  pressure,  many  degrees  above 
212°  F.  without  passing  into  the  state 
of  steam.  The  specific  gravity  of  water 
is  1 at  39°.2  F.,  being  the  unit  to  which 
the  specific  gravities  of  all  solids  and 
liquids  are  referred,  as  a convenient 
standard,  on  account  of  the  facility  with 
which  it  is  obtained  in  a pure  state ; one 
cubic  inch  of  water  at  62°  F.  and  29.9 
inches  barometrical  pressure,  weighs 
252.458  grains.  Distilled  water  is  815 
times  heavier  than  atmospheric  air. 
Water  is  at  its  greatest  density  at  39°. 2 
F.  (=  4°  C.),  and  in  this  respect  it  pre- 
sents a singular  exception  to  the  general 
law  of  expansion  by  heat.  If  water  at 
39°.2  F.  be  cooled,  it  expands  as  it  cools 
till  reduced  to  32°,  when  it  solidifies; 
and  if  water  at  39°. 2 F.  be  heated,  it 
expands  as  the  temperature  increases  in 
accordance  with  the  general  law.  In  a 
chemical  point  of  view  water  exhibits 
in  itself  neither  acid  nor  basic  properties ; 
but  it  combines  with  both  acids  and 
bases  forming  hydrates;  it  also  com- 
bines with  neutral  salts.  Water  also 
enters,  as  a liquid,  into  a peculiar  kind 
of  combination  with  the  greater  number 
of  all  known  substances.  Of  all  liquids 
water  is  the  most  powerful  and  general 
solvent,  and  on  this  important  property 
its  use  depends.  Without  water  not  only 
the  operations  of  the  chemist  but  the 
processes  of  animal  and  vegetable  life 
would  come  to  a stand.  In  consequence 
of  the  great  solvent  power  of  water  it  is 
never  found  pure  in  nature.  Even  in 
rain-water,  which  is  the  purest,  there 
are  always  traces  of  carbonic  acid,  am- 
monia, and  sea-salt.  Where  the  rain- 
water has  filtered  through  rocks  and 
soils,  and  reappears  as  spring  or  river 
water,  it  is  always  more  or  less  charged 
with  salts  derived  from  the  earth,  such 
as  sea-salt,  gypsum,  and  chalk.  When 
the  proportion  of  these  is  small  the 
w.ater  is  called  soft,  when  larger  it  is 
called  hard  water.  The  former  dissolves 
soap  better,  and  is  therefore  preferred 
for  washing ; the  latter  is  often  pleasanter 
to  drink.  Some  springs  contain  a con- 


•siderable  quantity  of  foreign  ingredients, 
which  impart  to  the  water  particular 
properties.  They  are  known  under  the 
general  term  mineral  waters,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  predominating  constituent 
held  in  solution  are  divided  into  car- 
bonated waters  (alkaline,  magnesian, 
calcareous,  and  chalybeate),  sulphatic 
waters  (containing  chiefly  sulphates), 
chlorinated  waters  (containing  chiefly 
chlorides),  and  sulphuretted  waters 
(containing  large  quantities  of  sulphides 
or  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen).  The  only 
way  to  obtain  perfectly  pure  water  is  to 
distil  it,  but  matter  simply  held  in  sus- 
pension may  be  got  rid  of  by  suitable 
filtration.  The  great  reservoirs  of  water 
on  the  globe  are  the  oceans,  seas,  and 
lakes,  which  cover  more  than  three- 
fifths  of  its  surface,  and  from  which  it 
is  raised  by  evaporation,  and,  uniting 
with  the  air  in  the  state  of  vapor,  is 
wafted  over  the  earth  ready  to  be  pre- 
cipitated in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  or 
hail.  Water,  like  air,  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  life,  and  healthy  human  life 
requires  that  it  should  be  free  from  con- 
tamination, hence  an  ample  and  pure 
water-supply  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
first  laws  of  sanitation. 

WATER-BED,  a bed  consisting  of  an 
india-rubber  mattress  filled  with  water, 
and  generally  used  by  persons  confined 
to  bed.  Its  pliability  prevents  pressure 
on  the  body  of  the  patient,  and  thus 
avoids  bed-sores.  Water-beds  have  been 
largely  superseded  by  the  more  con- 
venient and  healthier  air-beds. 

WATER-BEETLE,  the  name  given  to 
various  species  of  beetles,  having  legs 
adapted  for  swimming,  the  two  hinder 
pairs  being  flattened  and  fringed  wdth 
hair. 

WATERBURY,  a city  in  New  Haven 
CO.,  Connecticut,  in  a valley  on  the 
Naugatuck  river,  77  miles  northeast  of 
New  York.  It  is  an  important  railway 
junction  and  manufacturing  town.  Brass 
and  brass  goods  are  the  staple  products. 
Waterbury  machine-made  watches  and 
clocks  are  known  throughout  the  world. 
Electro-plate  is  also  made.  Pop.  49,859. 

WATER-COLORS,  in  painting,  colors 
carefully  ground  up  with  water  and 
isinglass  or  other  mucilage  instead  of  oil. 
Water-colors  are  often  prepared  in  the 
form  of  small  cakes  dried  hard,  which 
can  be  rubbed  on  a moistened  palette 
when  wanted.  Moist  water-colors  in  a 
semi-fluid  state  are  also  used;  they  are 
generally  kept  in  metal  tubes,  which  pre- 
serve them  from  drying  up. 

WATER-CRESS,  a cruciferous  plant 
distributed  throughout  Europe,  Western 
Asia,  North  Africa,  and  choking  some 
rivers  of  New  Zealand,  where  the  stem 
grows  as  thick  as  the  wrist.  It  grows  on 
the  margin  of  clear  streams,  or  even 
partly  immersed  in  the  water.  It  has 
antiscorbutic  properties,  and  is  cul- 
tivated near  many  large  towns  to  be 
used  as  salad,  or  otherwise. 

WATERFORD,  a city,  parliamentary 
borough,  and  seaport  in  the  southeast 
of  Ireland,  capital  of  the  county  of  same 
name,  97  miles  s.s.w.  of  Dublin,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Suir,  which  soon  after 
joins  the  Barrow,  the  combined  stream 
reaching  the  sea  by  the  fine  estuary 
known  as  Waterford  harbor.  Pop. 
26,743. — The  county  belongs  to  the 


province  of  Munster.  The  area  is  461,552 
acres,  or  721  sq.  miles,  of  which  about 
a sixth  is  under  tillage.  Pop.  87,030. 


WATER-GAS,  a gas  prepared  by  pass- 
ing steam  through  incandescent  carbon. 
It  is  used  for  heating  and  welding  pur- 
poses in  metallurgy,  and  also  for  illumi- 
nation, especially  in  the  United  States. 
Numerous  deaths  from  poisoning  have 
resulted  from  its  use,  however,  this  being 
largely  due  to  its  want  of  smell.  Burnt 
in  the  usual  way  it  gives  a blue  flame, 
but  by  suspending  a comb  of  thin 
magnesium  rods  in  the  flame  the  fila- 
ments are  quickly  heated  to  a white 
heat,  producing  a bright  glow  light  of 
high  illuminating  power,  but  which  is 
said  to  be  neither  unpleasant  to  the  eye 
nor  prejudicial  to  the  sight. 

WATER-GLASS,  a substance  which, 
when  solid,  resembles  glass,  but  is 
slowly  soluble  in  boiling  water,  although 
it  remains  unaffected  by  ordinary  at- 
mospheric changes.  It  consists  of  the 
soluble  silicates  of  potash  or  soda,  or  a 
mixture  of  both.  It  is  prepared  either 
by  breaking  down  and  calcining  flint 
nodules,  the  fragments  or  particles  of 
which  are  then  added  to  a solution  of 
caustic  potash  or  soda,  whereupon  the 
whole  is  exposed  for  a time  to  intense 
heat,  or  by  fusing  the  constitutents  to- 
gether in  a solid  state,  and  afterward 
reducing  them  to  a viscid  condition. 
Among  the  purposes  to  which  water- 
glass  is  applied  are  painting  on  glass, 
coating  stone,  wood,  and  other  materials 
to  render  them  waterproof,  glazing  scen- 
ery and  paintings,  fixing  wall-paintings, 

WATER  LILY,  a small  group  of 
herbaceous  and  aquatic  plants,  natives 
of  all  temperate  and  warm  climates. 
The  sepals  are  three  to  five,  petals  three 
to  many,  stamens  six  to  many,  and 
ovaries  three  to  many,  free,  or  united 
into  a compound  pistil.  The  stems  are 
creeping  and  submerged  and  the  leaves 
mostly  peltate,  long-petioled,  and  float- 
ing. Fourteen  species  are  North  Ameri- 
can. The  white  water  lily  is  common  in 
the  Eastern  United  States.  The  lotus, 
water  chinquapin,  or  yellow  nelumbo 
occurs  in  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi 
valley.  It  is  curious  on  account  of  its 
large  top-shaped  receptacle,  in  the  cavi- 
ties of  whose  upper  surface  the  pistils  are 
imbedded.  The  common  yellow  water 
lily,  or  spatter-dock  has  smaller,  yel- 
low flowers  with  fewer  petals.  It  is 


Waterloo 


Watt 


widely  distributed  in  the  United  States. 
The  Victoria  lily,  the  largest  of  all,  oc- 
curs in  the  waters  of  the  Aniazon  region 


of  South  America.  Its  peltate  leaves  are 
6 to  10  feet  in  diameter  with  an  upturned 
margin  2 inches  in  height.  Its  flowers 


Lotus  lily,  one-fllth  natural  size. 


are  from  10  to  15  inches  in  diameter, 
pinkish  and  fragrant.  The  starchy  seeds 
are  eaten  by  the  natives.  It  is  now 


Victoria  water-lily,  ^th  natural  size. 

grown  in  the  parks  and  public  gardens 
of  many  cities  of  the  United  States,  and 
flowers  in  the  open  air  as  far  north  as 
Washington. 

WATERLOO,  the  capital  of  Black 
Hawk  CO.,  la.;  on  the  Cedar  river,  and 
the  Burl.,  Ced.  Rap.  and  N.,  the  Chi. 
Gt.  W.,  and  the  111.  Cent,  railways;  93 


miles  w.  of  Dubuque,  297  miles  w.  of 
Chicago.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
and  contains  flour-mills,  foundries,  car- 
riage-factories, agricultural-implement 
works,  and  sash,  door,  and  blind  fac- 
tories. Pop.  14,906. 

WATERMELON,  an  annual  vine, 
native  of  tropical  Africa,  and  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  warm  climates, 
particularly  in  Southern  Russia  and  in 
the  United  States.  The  refreshing  red, 
greenish,  or  yellow  pulp  of  its  ripe  fruit 
contains  about  93  per  cent  water  and  2 
per  cent  sugar.  A very  large  number  of 
varietieSj  especially  red-fleshed  ones, 
are  in  cultivation.  The  w'hite-fleshed 
rather  solid  n used  largely  in  pre- 
serving is  gen  ily  known  as  a “citron” 
or  “preserving  nelon.”  The  watermelon 
is  sensitive  to  frost  and  is  easily  stunted 
in  growth  by  cold.  It  thrives  best  in  a 
rid,,  warm,  sandy  loam  well  supplied 
with  humus. 

WATER-PITCHER,  the  popular  name 
of  plants,  the  leaves  of  which  somewhat 
resemble  pitchers  or  trumpets  in  general 
form. 

WATERPROOF  CLOTH,  cloth  ren- 
dered impervious  to  water.  There  are 
numerous  processes  for  waterproof 
fabrics  of  all  kinds.  The  earliest  patent, 
that  of  Macintosh  (1823),  consisted  in 
covering  cloth  with  a paste  obtained  by 
dissolving  caoutchouc  in  benzol  or  coal 
naphtha.  In  the  treatment  of  cotton  and 
linen  cloth  a small  proportion  of  sul- 
phur is  generally  added.  A thin  layer 
of  this  rubber  solution  is  spread  on  the 
fabric  by  special  machinery,  after  which 
the  cloth  is  doubled,  pressed,  and  fin- 
ished in  calenders,  the  waterproof  layer 
being  thus  in  the  center  of  the  finished 
material.  Textiles  thus  manipulated 
become  also  impervious  to  air,  and  from 
a hygienic  point  of  view  unsuitable  for 
prolonged  personal  wear.  This  led  to  the 
introduction  of  other  solutions  and 
methods  of  application  intended  to  pro- 
duce fabrics,  which,  while  resisting 
rain,  do  not  altogether  obstruct  ventila- 
tion. Consecutive  dipping  of  cloths  in 
soap  and  alum  solutions,  or  in  gelatine 
and  gall  solutions,  or  in  a solution  of 
acetate  of  lead  and  then  in  a solution  of 
alumina,  has  been  resorted  to  with  more 
or  less  success.  The  new  substance  called 
algin,  obtained  from  sea-weed,  has  been 
strongly  recommended  for  the  same 
purpose.  Another  recent  patent  pro- 
cess consists  in  treating  the  fibers  in  the 
solution  instead  of  the  manufactured 
textile,  and  the  fabric  thus  produced, 
while  rain-resisting,  offers  the  same 
ventilation  as  ordinary  materials. 

WATER-RAT.  See  Vole. 

WATER-SPOUT,  a remarkable  me- 
teorological phenomenon  frequently  ob- 
served at  sea,  and  exactly  analogous  to 
the  whirlwinds  experienced  on  land. 
It  occurs  when  opposite  winds  of  differ- 
ent temperatures  meet  in  the  upper 
atmosphere,  whereby  a great  amount  of 
vapor  is  condensed  into  a thick  black 
cloud,  to  which  a vortical  motion  is 
given.  This  vortical  motion  causes  it  to 
take  the  form  of  a vast  funnel,  which, 
descending  near  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
draws  up  the  water  in  its  vortex,  which 
joins  in  its  whirlingmotion.  The  whole 
column,  which  after  the  junction  extends 
from  the  sea  to  the  clouds,  assumes  a 


magnificent  appearance,  being  of  a light 
color  near  its  axis,  but  dark  along  the 
sides.  When  acted  on  by  the  wind  the 
column  assumes  a position  oblique  tb 
the  horizon,  but  in  calm  weather  it  main- 
tains its  vertical  position,  while  at  the 


Water-spout. 

same  time  it  is  carried  along  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  Sometimes  the  upper  and 
lower  parts  move  with  different  veloci- 
ties, causing  the  parts  to  separate  from 
each  other,  often  with  a loud  report. 
The  whole  of  the  vapor  is  at  length 
absorbed  in  the  air,  or  it  descends  to 
the  sea  in  a heavy  shower  of  rain.  Sud- 
den gusts  of  wind,  from  all  points  of 
the  compass,  are  very  common  in  the 
vicinity  of  water-spouts.  What  are 
sometimes  called  water-spouts  on  land, 
or  cloud-bursts,  are  merely  heavy  falls 
of  rain  of  a very  local  character  that 
occur  generally  during  thunder-storms. 

WATERTOWN,  the  capital  of  Jeffer- 
son CO.,  New  York,  on  Black  river, 
about  10  miles  above  its  entrance  into 
Lake  Ontario.  The  river  is  crossed  by 
several  bridges,  and  its  rapids  afford 
abundant  water-power.  Pop.  25,696. 

WATERTOWN,  a city  in  Jefferson 
CO.,  Wisconsin,  on  the  Rock  river  and 
on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  & St.  Paul 
and  Chicago  & Northwestern  Railroads. 
It  is  a busy  manufacturing  and  commer- 
cial town,  Pop.  10,100. 

WATER-VOLE.  See  Vole. 

WATER-WHEEL,  a wheel  moved  by 
water,  as  the  overshot  wheel,  the  under- 
shot wheel,  the  breast-wheel,  and  the 
turbine.  See  these  terms. 

WATSON,  John  Crittenden,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  in  Frankfort, 
Ky.,  in  1842.  He  became  a master  in 
the  navy  in  1861,  and  served  throughout 
the  civil  war.  In  1887  he  became  a 
captain  and  a commodore  ten  years 
later,  and  in  the  Spanish-American  war 
commanded  the  blockadi«g  squadron  on 
the  North  Cuban  coast  from  May  to 
June,  1898,  when  he  was  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Eastern  squad- 
ron. He  was  commandant  of  the  Mare 
Island  navy  yard  from  October,  1898. 
to  May,  1899,  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral  in  March,  1899,  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  naval  forces 
on  the  Asiatic  station  from  June,  1899, 
to  April,  1900,  and  in  October,  1900, 
became  president  of  the  naval  examin- 
ing board  and  in  1902,  president  of  the 
naval  examining  and  retiring  boards. 

WATT,  James,  the  celebrated  im- 
prover of  the  steam-engine,  was  born 
at  Greenock,  January  19,  1736;  and 
died  at  his  seat  of  Heathfield,  Stafford- 
shire, August  25,  1819.  In  1774  he  acted 
as  a civil  engineer — ^made  several  sur- 
veys for  canals  and  harbors,  and  some 
of  his  plans  were  afterward  carried  into 


Watteau 


WAYNE 


execution.  It  was  during  this  period 
that  he  conceived  and  gave  shape  to  his 
improvements  on  the  steam-engine, 
which  have  rendered  his  name  famous. 


James  Watt. 


To  give  his  inventions  practical  form 
he  associated  himself  in  1774  with 
Mathew  Boulton,  the  firm  of  Boulton 
and  Watt  having  their  works  at  Soho, 
Birmingham.  He  retired  from  business 
in  1800. 

WATTEAU  (vat-o),  Jean  Antoine,  a 
French  painter,  born  at  Valenciennes, 
1684;  died  at  Nogent-sur-Marne,  1721. 
For  many  years  he  struggled  in  ob- 
scurity, but  his  talent  once  recognized, 
he  rapidly  became  popular  and  pros- 
perous. In  1717  he  was  received  at  the 
academy,  and  enrolled  as  a painter  of 
pleasure  parties,  balls,  masquerades, 
etc.,  subjects  in  which  he  excelled. 
Lightness,  elegance,  and  brilliancy  form 
the  chief  attractions  of  his  style. 

WAT'TERSON,  Henry,  American 
journalist,  was  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  in  1840.  He  entered  journalism 
in  Washington  as  editorial  writer  for 
the  States,  served  in  the  confederate 
army  in  1861-62,  and  in  1862-63  edited 
in  Chattanooga  the  Rebel,  the  official 
newspaper  of  the  state  of  Tennessee. 
In  1867  he  became  editor-in-chief  of  the 
Louisville  Journal  and  later  he  estab- 
lished the  Courier-Journal,  of  which  he 
became  the  editor.  In  1876-77  he  repre- 
sented the  Louisville  district  in  congress. 
Delegate-at-large  from  Kentucky  to  six 
democratic  national  conventions,  presid- 
ing over  that  of  1876  and  chairman  of 
platform  committee  in  the  others.  In 
1896  he  declared  himself  a gold  demo- 
crat. Among  his  works  are  History  of 
the  Spanish-American  War,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  etc. 

WATERVILLE,  a city  in  Kennebec 
Bounty,  Me. ; on  the  Kennebec  river,  and 
the  Maine  Cent,  railroad;  18  miles  n.  by 
e.  of  Augusta,  80  miles  n.e.  of  Portland 
Pop.  11,115. 

WATERTOWN  (wa'ter-toun),  a town 
including  several  villages,  in  Middlesex 
CO.,  Mass.,  seven  miles  west  of  Boston, 
on  the  Charles  river,  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  railroad.  Pop.  11,500. 

WATTLE-BIRD,  an  Australian  bird 
belonging  to  the  honey-eaters,  and  so 
named  from  the  large  reddish  wattles 
on  its  neck.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
magpie,  and  is  of  bold,  active  habits. 

WATTS,  George  Frederick,  R.A.,  Eng- 
lish artist,  born  1817.  He  first  exhibited 
at  the  Royal  academy  in  1837.  Among 


his  more  important  pictures  are;  Life’s 
Illusion  (1849),  The  Window  Seat  and 
Sir  Galahad  (1862),  Ariadne  (1863), 
Esau  (1865),  Love  and  Death  (1877), 
Time,  Death,  and  Judgment  (1878), 
Happy  Warrior  (1884),  Hope  (1886), 
Judgment  of  Paris  (1887),  The  Angel  of 
Death  (1888),  and  Fata  Morgana  (1889). 
He  is  one  of  the  most  subtle  and  power- 
ful of  portrait-painters,  among  his  suc- 
cessful work  in  this  line  being  Tenny- 
son, Millais,  Sir  F.  Leighton,  Cardinal 
Manning,  Browning,  etc.  He  is  perhaps 
the  greatest  idealist  in  contemporary 
British  art.  He  becanm  R.A.  in  1868, 
and  retired  in  1896.  He  has  presented 
some  of  his  pictures  to  the  nation.  He 
died  in  1903. 


Wattle-bird. 

WAUKEGAN  (wa-ke'gan),  the  county 
seat  of  Lake  co..  111.,  35  miles  north  of 
Chicago,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railroad. 
Pop.  11,226. 

WAUKESHA  (wa'ke-sha),  the  county 
seat  of  Waukesha  co.,  Wis.  17  miles 
west  of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Little  Fox 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul,  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  the  Wisconsin  Central  rail- 
roads. Pop.  10,100. 

WAUSAU  (wa'sa),  the  county  seat  of 
Marathon  co.  Wis.,  200  miles  north- 
west of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Wisconsin 
river,  and  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  and  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western railroads.  Pop.  14,324. 

WAVES,  in  physics,  disturbances  of 
matter  in  such  a way  that  energy  is 
transmitted  through  great  distances, 
sometimes,  but  not  always,  accompanied 
with  a slight  permanent  displacement  of 
the  particles  of  the  conveying  medium. 
When  a disturbance  is  produced  at  a 
point  in  air,  waves  proceed  from  that 
point  as  concentric  spheres  and  carry 
sound  to  the  ear  of  a listener.  Light  is 
supposed  to  be  propagated  by  the  wave 
motion  of  the  ether  in  a manner  some- 
what analogous  to  the  propagation  of 
sound  in  air.  When  waves  are  produced 
by  the  disturbance  of  a small  quantity 
of  liquid,  as  when  a pebble  is  thrown 
into  a pool,  they  appear  to  advance 
from  the  disturbed  point  in  widening 
concentric  circles,  the  height  of  the 
wave  decreasing  gradually  as  it  recedes 
from  the  center;  but  there  is  no  pro- 
gressive motion  of  the  liquid  itself,  as  is 
shown  by  any  body  floating  on  its  sur- 


face. The  whole  seems  to  roll  onward, 
but,  in  reality,  each  particle  of  water 
only  oscillates  with  a vertical  ascent 
and  descent.  Where  the  depth  of  the 
liquid  is  invariable  over  its  extent,  or 
sufficient  to  allow  the  oscillations  to 
proceed  unimpeded,  no  progressive 
motion  takes  place,  each  ridge  or  column 
being  kept  in  its  place  by  the  pressure  of 
the  adjacent  columns.  Should,  however, 
free  oscillation  be  prevented,  as  by  the 
shelving  of  the  shore,  the  columns  in 
the  deep  water  are  not  balanced  by  those 
in  the  shallower  parts,  and  they  thus 
acquire  a progressive  motion  toward 
the  latter,  or  take  the  form  of  breakers, 
hence  the  waves  always  roll  in  a direc- 
tion toward  the  shore,  no  matter  from 
what  point  the  wind  may  blow.  The 
height  of  the  wave  depends  in  a great 
measure  on  the  depth  of  the  water  in 
which  it  is  produced.  The  waves  of  the 
ocean  have  been  known  to  reach  a 
height  of  43  feet,  from  trough  to  crest. 
The  horizontal  pressure  of  a strong 
Atlantic  wave  has  been  recorded  as  high 
as  3 tons  to  the  square  foot.  Undulatory 
movements  also  take  place  in  solids; 
such  are  earthquake  waves. 

WAX,  an  unctuous-feeling  substance 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  fixed  oil. 
It  is  secreted  by  bees,  and  is  also  an 
abundant  vegetable  production,  enter- 
ing into  the  composition  of  the  pollen 
of  flowers,  covering  the  envelope  of  the 
plum  and  of  other  fruits,  and,  in  many 
instances,  forming  a kind  of  varnish  to 
the  surface  of  leaves.  Common  wax  is 
always  more  or  less  colored,  and  has  a 
distinct,  peculiar  odor,  of  both  of  which 
qualities  it  may  be  deprived  by  ex- 
posure in  thin  slices  to  air,  light,  and 
moisture,  or  more  speedily  by  the  action 
of  chlorine.  At  ordinary  temperature 
wax  is  solid  and  somewhat  brittle;  but 
it  may  be  easily  cut  with  a knife.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0.96.  At  155°  Fahr. 
it  melts,  and  it  softens  at  86°,  becoming 
so  plastic  that  it  may  be  molded  by  the 
hand  into  any  form.  Wax  is  insoluble 
in  water,  and  is  only  dissolved  in  small 
quantities  by  alcohol  or  ether.  The 
principal  applications  of  wax  are  to 
make  candles  and  medicinal  cerates; 
to  give  a polish  to  furniture  or  floors; 
to  form  a lute  or  cement,  for  which  it  is 
used  by  chemists;  and  to  serve  as  a 
vehicle  for  colors.  Sealing  wax  is  not 
properly  awax.  See  Candleberry,  China 
Wax,  Wax-palm. 

WAX-PALM,  a species  of  palm  yield- 
ing a substance  consisting  of  two-thirds 
resin  and  one-third  wax,  which  is  found 
on  its  trunk  in  the  form  of  a varnish. 
It  is  a native  of  the  Andes,  towering  in 
majestic  beauty  on  mountains  which 
rise  many  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  sometimes  attaining  the 
height  of  160  feet. 

WAX-WING,  an  insessorial  bird  be- 
longing to  the  dentirostral  section  of  the 
order.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
appendages  attached  to  the  secondary 
and  tertiary  quill-feathers  of  the  wings, 
which  have  the  appearance  of  red  seal- 
ing-wax. 

WAYNE,  Anthony,  soldier,  born  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1745;  died  in  Erie, 
Penn.,  in  1796.  After  the  battle  of 
Three  Rivers,  where  he  was  wounded, 
he  was  placed  in  charge  of  Fort  Ticon- 


WEASEL 


WEAVING 


deroga,  and  on  February  21st  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general.  He  fought 
at  the  battles  of  Brandywine,  German- 
town, and  Monmouth,  captured  the 
fort  of  Stony  Point  on  the  Hudson 
river,  and  successfully  attacked  Fort 
Lee,  near  New  York  City.  Later  Wayne 
was  active  in  the  investment  and  cap- 
ture of  Yorktown.  The  brevet  of  major- 
general  was  conferred  on  him  October 
10,  1783.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
went  to  Georgia,  and  was  elected  to 
congress,  serving  from  October  24, 
1791,  to  March  21,  1792.  In  April  of 
the  last  named  year  he  was  promoted 
general-in-chief  of  the  United  States 
army.  In  August,  1794,  with  1,000 
men,  he  marched  against  the  Ohio 
Indians  and  signally  defeated  thern, 
and  while  descending  Lake  Erie  on  his 
way  from  Detroit  he  died  from  an  at- 
tack of  the  gout. 

WEASEL,  a digitigrade  carnivorous 
animal,  a native  of  almost  all  the  tem- 
perate and  cold  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere.  It  measures  about  2^  inches 
in  height,  about  1\  in  length,  with  a tail 
about  2J  inches  long.  The  body  is  ex- 
tremely slender,  the  head  small  and 
flattened,  the  neck  long,  the  legs  short. 
It  feeds  on  mice,  rats,  moles,  and  small 
birds,  and  is  often  useful  as  a destroyer 
of  vermin  in  ricks,  barns,  and  granaries. 
The  polecat,  ferret,  ermine,  and  sable 
are  akin. 

WEATHER.  See  Meteorology. 

WEAVER-BIRD,  a name  given  to 
birds  of  various  genera,  belonging  to  the 
Fringillidse  or  finches.  They  are  so 
called  from  the  remarkable  structure  of 
their  nests,  which  are  woven  in  a very 
wonderful  manner  of  various  vegetable 
substances.  Some  species  build  their 
nests  separate  and  singly,  and  hang 


them  from  slender  branches  of  trees  and 
shrubs;  but  others  build  in  companies, 
numerous  nests  suspended  from  the 
branches  of  a tree  being  under  one  roof, 
though  each  one  forms  a separate  com- 
Mrtment  and  has  a separate  entrance. 
They  are  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia,  of  Africa,  and  of  Australia. 

WEATHER  AND  STORM  SIGNALS, 
flags,  semaphores,  lanterns,  steam  whis- 
tles, and  other  devices  exhibited  or 
sounded  to  inform  mariners  and  others 
of  storms  or  weather  conditions.  The 


system  of  observations  began  in  1870 
and  storm  signals  were  first  displayed  in 
the  autumn  of  1871.  The  flags  adopted 
for  this  purpose  are  five  in  number,  and 
of  the  forms  and  colors  indicated  below : 


Nn  3 No  4 


Fair  Rain  Local  Rain  Tf*m-  Cold 

Weather,  or  Snow.  or  Snow  perature.  Wave. 


When  number  4 is  placed  above 
number  1,  2,  or  3,  it  indicates  warmer; 
when  below,  colder;  when  not  displayed, 
the  temperature  is  expected  to  remain 
about  stationary.  During  the  late 
spring  and  early  fall  the  cold-wave 
flag  is  also  used  to  indicate  anticipated 
frosts. 


Storm  warnings. 


Hurricane 

warning. 


NE  Winds  SE  Winds  NW  Winds  SW  Winds 


Whistle  signals. — A warning  blast 
of  fr.om  fifteen  to  twenty  seconds  dura- 
tion is  sounded  to  attract  attention. 
After  this  warning  the  longer  blasts 
(of  from  four  to  six  seconds  duration) 
refer  to  weather,  and  shorter  blasts  (of 
from  one  to  three  seconds  duration) 
refer  to  temperature;  those  for  weather 
are  sounded  first. 


Blasts.  Indicate 

One  long Fair  weather. 

Two  long Rain  or  snow. 

Three  long Local  rain  or  snow. 

One  short Lower  temperature. 

Two  short Higher  temperature. 

Three  short Cold  wave. 


By  repeating  each  combination  a few 
times,  with  intervals  of  ten  seconds, 
liability  to  error  in  reading  the  signals 
may  be  avoided. 

Storm  Warnings. — A red  flag  with  a 
black  center  indicates  that  a storm  of 
marked  violence  is  expected.  The 
pennants  displayed  with  the  flags  indi- 
cate the  direction  of  the  wind;  red, 
easterly  (from  northeast  to  south) ; 
white,  westerly  (from  southwest  to 
north).  The  pennant  above  the  flag 
indicates  that  the  wind  is  expected  to 
blow  from  the  northerly  quadrants; 
below,  from  the  southerly  quadrants. 
By  night  a red  light  indicates  easterly 
winds,  and  a white  light  above  a red 
light  westerly  winds. 

Hurricane  Warnings. — Two  red  flags 
with  black  centers,  displayed  one  above 
the  other,  indicate  the  expected  ap- 
proach of  a tropical  hurricane,  and  also 
one  of  those  extremely  severe  and  dan- 
gerous storms  which  occasionally  move 
across  the  lakes  and  Northern  Atlantic 

WEATHER  BUREAU,  a govern- 
mental organization  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  regular  meteorological  ob- 
servations, compiling  statistics  of  the 
climate,  predicting  weather  and  storms, 
river  floods,  frosts,  rain,  and  such  other 
atmospheric  phenomena  as  affect  the 
welfare  of  mankind.  The  United  States 
weather  bureau  was  reorganized  under 
the  department  of  agriculture,  July  1, 
1891.  The  bureau  receives  daily  two 


regular  sets  of  weather  telegrams  at  8 
a.m.  and  8 p.m.  on  which  are  based  the 
morning  and  evening  weather  charts 
and  the  forecasts  for  the  next  thirty-six 
hours.  These  forecasts  are  immediately 
telegraphed  throughout  the  country  and 
to  vessels  about  to  sail.  The  forecasts  of 
heavy  storms,  cold  waves,  and  injurious 
frosts  and  specially  hot  weather  are 
verified  almost  without  exception;  the 
forecasts  of  rain  are  the  least  successful 
of  any.  Forecasts  are  communicated  to 
vessels  passing  by,  off  the  coast  by  wire- 
less telegraphy.  The  condition  of  rivers, 
especially  in  times  of  flood,  is  telegraphed 
to  all  those  interested.  In  the  special 
interest  of  the  crops  and  agriculture, 
a weather  crop  bulletin  was  published 
in  1887.  During  the  summer  season  it 
gives  full  details  of  the  temperature, 
and  rainfall  as  compared  with  normal 
conditions,  and  shows  the  influence 
of  the  weather  on  the  development  of 
the  future  crop.  In  the  winter  season 
a monthly  bulletin  shows  the  quan- 
tity of  snowfall,  the  ice  in  the  rivers, 
the  opening  and  closing  of  navigation, 
the  condition  of  winter  wheat,  and 
the  injury  done  to  crops  by  cold 
waves,  frosts,  or  floods.  In  the  interests 
of  the  lake  navigation,  a monthly  lake 
chart  is  published,  showing  every  feature 
in  regard  to  the  weather  or  the  con- 
dition of  the  lakes  than  can  interest 
navigators. 

WEAVER,  James  Baird,  American 
politician,  was  born  at  Dayton,  Ohio, 
in  1833.  He  removed  to  Iowa  in  1856. 
During  the  civil  war  he  enlisted  in  the 
Second  Iowa  Volunteers,  eventually  be- 
came colonel  of  the  regiment,  and  in 
1865  was  bre vetted  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers.  He  was  active  in  the 
organization  of  the  national  Greenback 
party,  was  elected  to  represent  that 
party  in  congress  in  1878,  and  in  1880 
was  its  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
receiving  a popular  vote  of  308,578. 
In  1892  he  was  the  candidate  of  the 
people’s  party  for  the  presidency,  re- 
ceiving 22  electoral  votes,  and  a popular 
vote  of  1,041,028.  He  published  A Call 
to  Action. 

WEAVING,  the  art  of  interlacing 
yarn  threads  or  other  filaments  by 
means  of  a loom,  so  as  to  form  a web 
of  cloth  or  other  woven  fabric.  In  this 
process  two  sets  of  threads  are  employed 
which  traverse  the  web  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  The  first  set  extends  from 
end  to  end  of  the  web  in  parallel  lines, 
and  is  commonly  called  the  warp;  while 
the  other  set  of  threads  crosses  and 
interlaces  with  the  warp  from  side  to 
side  of  the  web,  and  is  generally  called 
the  weft  or  woof.  In  all  forms  of  weav- 
ing the  warp  threads  are  first  set  up  in 
the  loom,  and  then  the  weft  threads  are 
worked  into  the  warp,  to  and  fro,  by 
means  of  a shuttle.  It  was  by  this  funda- 
mental process  of  interlacing  two  sets] 
of  thread  in  looms  of  simple  mechanism 
that  the  mummy  cloths  of  Egypt,  the| 
fine  damasks  and  tapestries  of  the! 
Greeks  and  Romans,  the  Indian  muslins, 
the  shawls  of  Cashmere,  and  the  famed  i 
textile  fabrics  of  Italy  and  the  Nether-1 
lands  were  produced.  Until  compara-l 
tively  modern  times  all  weaving  was! 
effected  by  means  of  the  hand-loom .J 
This  loom,  in  its  latest  form,  consists] 


WEBB  CITY 


WEBSTER 


of  a frame  of  four  upright  posts  braced 
together  by  cross-beams,  the  center 
beam  at  the  back  being  the  warp  beam, 
the  beam  in  front  being  that  upon  which 
the  web  is  wound,  while  just  below  this, 
in  front,  is  the  breast-beam  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  weaver  at  his  work.  At  the 
top  of  the  loom  is  an  apparatus  by 
which  the  beddles  are  lifted  or  lowered 
by  means  of  treadles  under  the  foot  of 
the  weaver.  These  heddles  consist  of 
two  frames,  from  which  depend  cords 
attached  by  a loop  or  eye  to  each  thread 
in  the  warp.  As  these  threads  are  at- 
tached to  the  frames,  alternately,  it 
follows  that  when  one  heddle  is  raised 
every  second  thread  in  the  warp  is  also 
raised,  while  the  remaining  threads  are 
depressed ; and  this  is  called  shedding  the 
warp.  When  the  warp  threads  are  thus 
parted  there  is  left  a small  opening  or 
shed  between  the  threads,  and  it  is 
through  this  opening  that  the  weaver 
drives  his  shuttle  from  side  to  side.  The 
shuttle,  which  is  hollow  in  the  middle, 
contains  the  weft-thread  wound  round 
a bobbin  or  pirn,  and  as  the  shuttle  is 
shot  across  the  web  this  weft-thread  un- 
winds itself.  When  the  thread  is  thus 
introduced  it  is  necessarj’'  to  bring  it  to 
its  place  in  the  fabric.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  means  of  the  lay  or  batten, 
which  is  suspended  from  the  top  of  the 
loom,  and  works  to  and  fro  like  a pen- 
dulum by  an  attachment  of  vertical 
rods  at  each  side  called  the  swords. 
Attached  to  the  lay  is  what  is  called  the 
reed,  which  is  a sort  of  comb  having  a 
tooth  raised  between  every  two  threads 
of  the  warp,  and  so  by  driving  up  the 
lay  after  a weft-thread  has  been  intro- 
duced the  weaver  strikes  home  that 
thread  to  its  place  in  the  cloth.  A great 
improvement  was  made  upon  the  hand- 
loom  when  John  Kay  about  1740  in- 
vented the  fly-shuttle,  as  it  was  called. 
This  enabled  the  weaver  to  drive  the 
shuttle  both  ways  with  the  right  hand 
by  means  of  a cord  attached  to  a box  or 
trough  placed  at  each  end  of  the  shuttle- 
race,  which  impelled  the  shuttle  to  and 
fro  at  each  jerk  of  the  cord.  But  the 
most  important  improvement  was  made 
on  the  hand-loom  by  Joseph  Jacquard 
of  Lyons,  who,  in  1801,  invented  an  ap- 
paratus by  which  the  most  intricate 
patterns  could  be  woven  as  readily  as 
plain  cloth.  This  is  accomplished  by  an 
ingenious  arrangement  of  hooks  and 
wires,  by  means  of  which  the  warp- 
threads  are  lifted  in  any  order  and  to 
any  extent  necessary  to  make  the 
shedding  required  by  the  pattern.  The 
order  in  which  these  hooks  and  wires  are 
successively  lifted  and  lowered  is  de- 
termined by  means  of  a series  of  paste- 
board cards  punctured  with  holes,  the 
holes  corresponding  to  a certain  pattern 
and  the  cards  passing  successively  over 
a cylinder  or  drum.  The  hooked  wires 
pass  through  these  holes  and  lift  the 
warp-threads  in  an  order  which  secures 
that  the  arranged  pattern  is  woven  into 
the  fabric.  When  the  pattern  is  exten- 
sive the  machine  may  be  provided  with 
as  many  as  1000  hooks  and  wires.  An- 
other development  was  made  in  the  art 
of  weaving  by  the  invention  of  the 
power-loom  by  the  Rev.  E.  Cartwright 
in  1784.  In  the  power-loom,  which  has 
been  gradually  improved  and  adapted 

P.  E— 83 


to  steam-power,  the  principal  motions 
of  the  old  method  of  weaving,  such  as 
shedding  the  warp  threads,  throwing 
the  shuttle,  and  beating  up  the  thread 
are  still  retained.  The  frame  of  the 
power-loom  is  of  cast-iron,  and  motion 
is  communicated  to  the  loom  by  means 
of  a shaft,  the  stroke  of  the  lay  being 
made  by  cranks  attached  to  the  driving 
shaft,  while  the  shuttle  is  thrown  by 
means  of  a lever  attachment  at  the  cen- 
ter of  the  loom.  Although  the  principle 
of  the  loom  is  the  same  in  all  kinds  of 
weaving,  yet  there  are  numberless  modi- 
fications for  the  production  of  special 
fabrics.  The  lappet  loom  is  one  suitable 
for  weaving  either  plain  or  gauze  cloths, 
and  also  for  putting  in  representations 
of  flowers,  birds,  or  the  like.  Cross 
weaving  is  a term  applied  to  that  pro- 
cess in  which,  as  in  gauze  weaving,  the 
warp-threads,  instead  of  lying  constantly 
parallel,  cross  over  or  twist  around  one 
another,  thus  forming  a plexus  or  inter- 
lacing independent  of  that  produced 
by  the  weft.  Double  weaving  consists 
in  weaving  two  webs  simultaneously 
one  above  the  other,  and  interweaving 
the  two  at  intervals  so  as  to  form  a 
double  cloth.  Kidderminster  or  Scotch 
carpeting  is  the  chief  example  of  this 
process.  Pile  weaving  is  the  process  by 
which  fabrics  like  that  of  velvets, 
velveteens,  corduroy,  and  Turkey  car- 
pets are  produced.  In  the  weaving  of 
these  fabrics,  besides  the  ordinary  warp 
and  weft,  there  is  what  is  called  the 
pile-warp,  the  threads  of  which  are  left 
standing  in  loops  above  the  general 
surface  till  cut,  and  the  cutting  of 
which  constitutes  the  pile. 

WEBB  CITY,  a city  in  Jasper  co.. 
Mo.;  on  the  Kan.  City,  Ft.  Scott  and 
Mem.,  the  Mo.  Pac.  and  the  St.  L.  and 
San  Fran,  railways ; 9 miles  s.  by  w.  of 
Carthage,  the  county  seat.  It  is  a lead 
and  zinc  mining  center,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  agricultural  and  fruit- 
growing region.  Pop.  10,872. 

WEBER  (va'ber),  Karl  Maria  Fried- 
rich Ernst,  Baron  von,  German  musical 
composer,  vras  born  at  Eutin  in  Hol- 
stein in  1786.  In  1800  he  wrote  the 
opera  of  the  Waldmadchen  (Wood- 
maiden),  and  had  it  performed  at 
Chemnitz  and  Freiberg  in  Saxony.  In 
1803  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Haydn  and  the  Abb6 
Vogler,  from  whom  he  received  great 
help  in  his  studies.  The  latter  procured 
him  a musical  directorship  in  Breslau, 
on  which  he  entered  in  1804.  Two  years 
later  he  exchanged  this  post  for  a 
similar  one  at  Carlsruhe,  and  he  was 
subsequently  (1813-16)  director  of  the 
opera  at  Prague.  At  the  close  of  1816  he 
settled  at  Dresden,  where  he  was  founder 
and  director  of  the  German  opera.  In 
1 820  he  went  to  Berlin  to  bring  out  Der 
Freischiitz,  the  most  celebrated  of  his 
compositions.  It  was  performed  in  Lon- 
don and  Paris  two  years  later.  In  1822 
Euryanthe  was  produced  on  commission 
for  Vienna,  and  was  brought  out  there  in 
August,  1823.  In  1826  Weber  visited 
London  to  superintend  the  production 
of  Oberon,  which  he  had  composed  for 
Covent  Garden  theater.  It  was  enthu- 
siastically received.  The  composer,  how- 
ever, was  seriously  out  of  health,  and 
died  in  London,  June  5,  1826. 


WEBSTER,  Daniel,  a celebrated 
American  statesman,  born  in  1782,  at 
Salisbury  in  New  Hampshire,  studied 
for  four  years  at  Dartmouth  college, 
and  having  adopted  the  legal  profession, 
was  admitted  as  a practitioner  in  the 
court  of  common  pleas  for  Suffolk 
county.  In  1813  he  was  returned  to 
congress  by  the  federal  party  in  New 
Hampshire,  and  from  that  period  to  the 
close  of  his  life  took  a prominent  part  in 
public  affairs,  being  especially  distin- 
guished as  an  orator.  No  public  speaker 
could  surpass  him  in  producing  an  im- 
pression on  an  audience.  He  became  a 


senator  in  1828,  and  in  1836  (and  again 
in  1848)  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  the  presidentship.  In  1841,  under 
the  presidency  of  General  Harrison,  he 
was  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and 
he  had  an  important  part  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Ashburton  Treaty  of 
1842.  He  was  opposed  to  the  admission 
of  Texas  as  a slave  state  and  to  the 
Mexican  war,  but  supported  Clay’s 
“compromise”  of  1850.  In  1850  he 
succeeded  General  Taylor  as  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs  under  Presi- 
dent Fillmore.  This  office  he  continued 
to  occupy  till  his  death,  which  took  place 
at  his  estate  of  Marshfield,  Massa- 
chusetts in  1852.  A collection  of  his 
speeches,  state  papers,  and  correspond- 
ence was  published  at  Boston  the  year 
before  his  death. 

WEBSTER,  Noah,  LL.D.,  lexicog- 
rapher, born  at  West  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, in  1758,  and  educated  at  Yale 
college.  He  chose  the  law  as  a profession, 
but  relinquished  it  for  teaching  (1782). 
About  the  same  time  he  began  the  com- 
pilation of  books  of  school  instruction, 
and  published  his  Grammatical  Insti- 
tute of  the  English  Language,  in  three 
parts.  Part  1 (Webster’s  Spelling  Book) 
containing  A New  and  Accurate  Stand- 
ard of  Pronunciation;  Part  2,  A Plain 
and  Comprehensive  Grammar;  Part  3, 
An  American  Selection  of  Lessons  in 
Reading  and  Speaking.  All  these  works 
had  an  enormous  sale.  His  literary 
activity  was  henceforth  very  great,  the 
works  issued  by  him.  during  the  next  few 
years  including  important  legal  and 
linguistic  studies.  In  1789  he  settled  at 
Hartford  to  practice  law,  but  removed 
in  1793  to  New  York,  where  for  some 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  jouriialis.n. 


WEDDING  ANXIVERSARIES 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


In  1806  he  published  an  8vo  English 
dictionary,  which  led  the  way  for  his 
great  work,  the  American  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language.  In  preparing 
this  work  he  visited  England,  and  he 


finished  the  dictionary  during  an  eight 
months’  residence  in  Cambridge.  In 
June,  1825,  he  returned  to  America. 
The  first  edition  of  his  dictionary  was 
published  in  1828  (2  vols.  4to);  it  was 
followed  by  a second  in  1841;  since 
which  time  several  enlarged  and  im- 
proved editions  have  appeared.  He  died 
in  1843. 

WEDDING  ANNIVERSARIES,  the 

names  given  to  the  several  anniversaries 
of  a marriage  are  said  to  be  of  quite 
ancient  origin,  and  arose  from  the  gift 
which  was  regarded  as  the  most  suitable 
offering  from  the  husband  to  the  wife. 
The  names  commonly  given  to  such 
anniversaries  are  for  the  first,  paper; 
second,  straw;  third,  candy;  fourth, 
leather;  fifth,  wooden;  seventh,  floral; 
tenth,  tin;  twelfth,  linen;  fifteenth, 
crystal;  twentieth,  china;  twenty-fifth, 
silver;  thirtieth,  pearl;  thirty-fifth,  coral 
fortieth,  emerald;  forty-fifth,  ruby; 
fifteith,  gold;  seventy-fifth,  diamond. 
The  diamond  wedding,  however,  is 
often  celebrated  at  sixty  years  of  mar- 
ried life.  The  others  that  are  most  fre- 
quently celebrated  are  the  paper,  wood- 
en, tin,  crystal,  silver,  and  golden. 

WEDGE,  a piece  of  wood  or  metal, 
thick  at  one  end,  and  sloping  to  a thin 
edge  at  the  other,  used  in  splitting  wood, 
rocks,  etc.  In  geometrical  terms  it  is  a 
body  contained  under  two  triangular 
and  three  rectangular  surfaces.  It  is  one 
of  the  mechanical  powers,  and  besides 
being  used  for  splitting  purposes,  is  em- 
ployed for  producing  great  pressure, 
and  for  raising  immense  weights.  All 
that  is  known  with  certainty  respecting 
the  theory  of  the  wedge  is  that  its  me- 
chanical power  is  increased  by  diminish- 
ing the  angle  of  penetration.  All  cutting 
and  penetrating  instruments  may  be 
considered  as  wedges. 

WEDGWOOD,  Josiah,  a celebrated 
])otter,  born  at  Burslem,  in  Stafford- 
shire, in  1730.  He  turned  his  attention 
to  white  stoneware,  and  to  the  cream 
colored  ware  for  which  he  became 
famous;  and  he  succeeded  in  producing 
a ware  so  hard  and  durable  as  to  render 


works  of  art  produced  in  it  almost  in- 
destructible. His  reproduction  of  the 
Portland  Vase  is  famous.  He  also  exe- 
cuted paintings  on  pottery  without  the 
artificial  gloss  so  detrimental  to  the 
effect  of  superior  work.  His  improve- 
ments in  pottery  created  the  great 
trade  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries.  He 
died  in  1795. 

WEDGWOOD- WARE,  a superior  kind 
of  semi-vitrified  pottery,  without  much 
superficial  glaze,  and  capable  of  taking 
on  the  most  brilliant  and  delicate  colors 
produced  by  fused  metallic  oxides  and 
ochers;  so  named  after  the  inventor.  It 
is  much  used  for  ornanrental  ware,  as 
vases,  etc.,  and,  owing  to  its  hardness 
and  property  of  resisting  the  action  of 
all  corrosive  substances,  for  mortars  in 
the  laboratory. 

WEDNESDAY,  the  name  of  the  fourth 
day  of  the  week  (in  Latin,  dies  Mercurii, 
day  of  Mercury),  derived  from  the  old 
Scandinavian  deity  Odin  or  Woden. 

WEED,  Thurlow,  American  journalist 
and  political  leader,  was  born  at  Cairo, 
Greene  co. , N.  Y.,  in  1797.  He  became 
editor  of  the  Rochester  daily  Telegraph 
in  1822,  of  which  three  years  later  ne 
also  became  the  proprietor.  He  was  for 
several  years  a member  of  the  state 
legislature.  In  1830  Weed  removed  to 
Albany  and  established  the  Albany 
Evening  Journal.  For  a brief  period 
after  the  war  he  served  on  the  editorial 
staff  of  the  New  York  Times,  and  from 
1867-78  was  editor  of  the  Commercial 
Advertiser.  In  1866  he  published  Let- 
ters from  Europe  and  the  West  Indies. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  November 
22, 1882. 

WEEK,  a period  of  seven  days,  one  of 
the  common  divisions  of  time,  the  origin 
of  which  is  doubtful.  Among  the  nations 
who  adopted  the  week  as  a division  of 
time,  the  Chinese,  Hindus,  Egyptians, 
Chaldseans,  Jews,  Persians,  and  Peru- 
vians have  been  mentioned,  but  in  some 
cases  the  antiquity  of  the  practice  is 
doubtful,  and  in  others  the  name  has 
been  applied  to  other  cycles  than  that 
of  seven  days.  The  nations  with  whom 
the  weekly  cycle  has  been  traced  are  the 
Egyptians  and  the  Hebrews.  With  the 
former  we  only  know  of  its  existence, 
but  with  the  latter  it  had  a much  more 
important  character.  The  use  of  the 
week  was  introduced  into  the  Roman 
empire  about  the  1st  or  2d  century  of 
the  Christian  era  from  Egypt,  and  had 
been  recognized  independently  of  Chris- 
tianity before  the^Emperor  Constantine 
confirmed  it  by  enjoining  the  observance 
of  the  Christian  Sabbath.  With  the 
Mohammedans  the  week  has  also  a 
religious  character,  Friday  being  ob- 
served by  them  as  a Sabbath. 

WEEK,  Days  of  the.  Sunday  (Saxon), 
Sunnandaed,  day  of  the  sun;  Monday 
(German),  Montag,  day  of  the  moon; 
Tuesday  (Anglo-Saxon),  Tiwesdaeg,  from 
Tiw,  the  god  of  war ; Wednesday  (Anglo- 
Saxon),  Wodnesdaeg,  from  Odin,  the 
god  of  storms;  Thursday  (Danish),  Thor, 
the  god  of  thundeiv  Friday  (Saxon), 
Frigedseg,  day  of  Freya,  goddess  of 
marriage;  Saturday,  the  day  of  Saturn, 
the  god  of  time.  The  names  of  the  seven 
days  of  the  week  originated  with  the 
Egyptian  astronomers.  They  gave  them 
the  names  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  five 


planets,  viz.:  Mars,  Mercury,  Jupiter, 
Venus,  and  Saturn. 

WEEPING-ASH,  a variety  of  ash 
differing  from  the  common  ash  only  in 
its  branches  arching  downward  instead 
of  upward. 

WEEPING-BIRCH,  a variety  of  the 
birch-tree,  with  drooping  branches. 

WEEPING-WILLOW,  a species  of 
willow,  whose  branches  grow  very  long 
and  slender,  and  hang  down  nearly  in  a 
perpendicular  direction. 

WEEVER,  a name  of  several  fishes, 
included  by  many  authorities  among 
the  perches.  Two  species,  viz.:  the 
dragon-weever,  sea-cat,  or  sting-bull, 
about  10  or  12  inches  long,  and  the  lesser 
weever,  called  also  the  adder-pike,  or 
sting-fish,  which  attains  a length  of  5 
inches.  They  inflict  wounds  with  the 
spines  of  their  first  dorsal  fin,  which  are 
much  dreaded.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed. 

WEEVIL,  the  name  applied  to  beetles 
distinguished  by  the  prolongation  of  the 
head,  so  as  to  form  a sort  of  snout  or 

Corn-weevil. 

a,  Insect  natural  size.  6.  Insect  magnified,  c,  Larva,  d. 

(both  magnified). 

proboscis.  Many  of  the  weevils  are  dan- 
gerous enemies  to  the  agriculturalist, 
destroying  grain,  fruit,  flowers,  leaves, 
and  stems. 

WEFT.  See  Weaving. 

WEIGHING  MACHINE.  See  Balance. 

WEIGHT,  the  measure  of  the  force  by 
which  any  body,  or  a given  portion  of 
any  substance,  gravitates  or  is  attracted 
to  the  earth ; in  a more  popular  sense,  the 
quantity  of  matter  in  a body  as  esti- 
mated by  the  balance,  or  expressed 
numerically  with  reference  to  some 
standard  unit.  In  determining  weight 
in  cases  where  very  great  precision  is  de- 
sired, due  account  must  be  taken  of  tem- 
perature, elevation,  and  latitude. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES,  the 
standards  used  in  accurately  weighing 
and  measuring  quantities,  of  special 
importance  in  buying  and  selling, 
scientific  operations,  etc.  The  origin  of 
the  English  measures  is  the  grain  of  corn. 
Thirty-two  grains  of  wheat,  well  dried, 
and  gathered  from  the  middle  of  the 
ear,  were  to  make  what  was  called 
one  pennyweight;  20  pennyweights 
were  called  one  ounce;  and  20  ounces, 
one  pound.  Subsequently,  it  was 
thought  better  to  divide  the  penny- 
weight into  24  equal  parts,  to  be  called 
grains.  William  the  Conqueror  intro- 
duced into  England  what  was  called 
troy  weight.  The  English  were  dis- 
satisfied with  this  weight,  because  the 
pound  did  not  weigh  so  much  as  the 
pound  at  that  time  in  use  in  England; 
consequently  a mean  weight  was  estab- 
lished, making  the  pound  equal  to  16 
ounces.  But  the  troy  pound  was  not 
entirely  displaced  by  the  pound  avoirdu- 
pois ; on  the  contrary  it  was  retained  in 
medical  practice,  and  for  the  weighing 
of  gold,  silver,  jewels,  and  such  liquors 
‘as  were  sold  by  weight.  There  are  7000  < 
grains  in  one  pound  avoirdupois,  and 


WELLINGTON 


WEIGHTS  OF  PRODUCE 


5760  grains  in  one  pound  troy;  hence 
the  troy  pound  is  to  the  avoirdupois 
pound  as  14  to  17,  or  as  1 to  1.215.  The 
troy  pound  was  retained  as  the  British 
standard  by  an  act  passed  in  1824;  and 
in  order  that  the  standard  pound,  in 
case  of  damage  or  destruction,  might  be 
restored,  by  reference  to  a natural 
standard,  it  was  ascertained  that  a cubic 
inch  of  distilled  water,  at  a temperature 
of  62°  Fahr.,  weighed,  in  air,  252.458 
grains;  and  it  was  directed  that  the 
standard  pound  should  be  restored  by 
the  making  of  a new  standard  troy 
pound,  weighing  5760  such  grains.  In 
Britain  the  unit  of  lineal  measure  is 
the  yard,  all  other  denominations  being 
either  multiples  or  aliquot  parts  of  the 
yard.  The  length  of  the  imperial  standard 
yard,  according  to  the  act  of  parliament 
passed  in  1824,  was  the  straight  line  or 
distance  between  the  centers  of  the  two 
points  in  the  gold  studs  in  the  brass 
rod  in  the  custody  of  the  clerk  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  entitled  standard 
yard,  1760.  By  the  same  act,  the  brass 
rod,  when  used,  must  be  at  the  temper- 
ature of  62°  of  Fahrenheit’s  thermome- 
ter. It  was  enacted  at  this  time  that  if 
this  standard  should  be  lost  or  destroyed 
the  length  of  the  yard  should  be  deter- 
mined by  reference  to  the  length  of  a 
pendulum  vibrating  seconds  of  mean 
time  in  a vacuum  in  the  latitude  of 
London,  at  sea-level.  When  the  stand- 
ard yard  was  actually  destroyed,  how- 
ever, by  the  fire  which  consumed  the 
two  Houses  of  Parliament  in  1834,  the 
commissioners  appointed  to  restore  the 
standard  decided  that  it  was  better  to 
do  so  by  means  of  authentic  copies  of  the 
old  standard  that  were  in  existence. 
This  was  accordingly  done  and  five 
new  official  copies  were  made,  one  of 
which  to  be  regarded  as  the  national 
standard,  is  preserved  at  the  exchequer 
in  a stone  coffin  in  a window-seat  of  a 
groined  room.  The  national  standard 
yard  is  thus  the  distance  between  two 
fine  transverse  lines  on  a square  rod  of 
gun-metal  38  inches  long.  In  France 
the  mfetre  is  the  standard  or  unit  of 
linear  measure;  the  are,  or  100  square 
metres,  the  unit  of  surface  measure; 
and  the  st4re,  or  cube  of  a m^tre,  the 
unit  of  solid  measure.  The  system  of 
measure,  called  the  decimal  or  metric 
system,  based  upon  these  standards,  is 
now  largely  adopted.  For  all  sorts  of 
liquids,  corn,  and  dry  goods,  the  British 
standard  measure  is  declared  by  the  act 
of  1824  to  be  the  imperial  gallon,  which 
should  contain  10  lbs.  avoirdupois 
weight  of  distilled  water  weighed  in  air 
at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahr.,  the 
barometer  being  at  30  inches.  The 
official  measurement  of  this  quantity  of 
water  measured  under  the  specified  con- 
ditions gave  as  the  result  277.274  cubic 
inches,  which,  though  since  ascertained 
to'  be  slightly  in  excess  of  the  true 
measurement  (277.123  cubic  inches),  is 
still  the  legal  capacity  of  the  gallon.  In 
the  United  States  the  weights  and 
measures  are  identical  with  those  of 
Britain.  Prior  to  1824  there  existed  a 
bewildering  irregularity  in  the  weights 
and  measures  used  in  Britain;  but  since 
then  they  have  been  in  great  measure 
regulated  by  statute,  and'entire  uniform- 
ity has  been  introduced.  By  the  statutes 


the  imperial  standard  yard,  pound,  and 
gallon  are  fixed,  and  all  local  measures 
of  capacity  abolished.  The  legal  stone  is 
fixed  at  14  lbs.  avoirdupois.  All  articles 
sold  by  weight  must  be  sold  by  avoir- 
dupois, except  gold,  silver,  platinum, 
and  precious  stones,  which,  as  noted 
above,  are  still  to  be  sold  by  troy  weight. 
An  act  of  1889  fixes  fines  for  being  in 
possession  of  false  weighing  or  measur- 
ing instruments  (but  such  fines  were 
also  in  force  previously) ; enforces  the 
official  stamping  of  such  measures,  and 
empowers  the  board  of  trade  to  create 
new  standards  for  measuring  electricity, 
temperature,  pressure,  etc.  See  Avoirdu- 
pois, Troy  Weight,  Decimal  System,  etc. 

WEIGHTS  OF  PRODUCE,  MINI- 
MUM. The  following  are  minimum 
weights  of  certain  articles  of  produce 
according  to  the  laws  of  the  United 
States : 

Per  Bushel. 


Wheat 60  lbs. 

Corn,  in  the  ear 70  “ 

Corn,  shelled 56  “ 

Rye 56  “ 

Buckwheat 48  “ 

Barley 48  “ 

Oats 32  “ 

Peas 60  “ 

White  beans 60  “ 

Castor  beans 46  “ 

White  potatoes 60  “ 

Sweet  potatoes 55  “ 

Onions 57  “ 

Turnips ' 55  “ 

Dried  peaches 33  “ 

Dried  apples 26  “ 

Clover  seed 60  “ 

Flaxseed 56  “ 

Jlillet  seed 50  “ 

Hungarian  grass  seed 50  “ 

Timothy  seed 45  “ 

Blue  grass  seed 44  “ 

Hemp  seed 44  “ 

Salt  (see  note  below). 

Corn  meal 48  “ 

Ground  peas 24  “ 

Malt 34  “ 

Bran 20  “ 


Salt. — Weight  per  bushel  as  adopted 
by  different  states  ranges  from  50  to  80 
pounds.  Coarse  salt  in  Pennsylvania 
reckoned  at  80  pounds,  and  in  Illinois 
at  50  pounds  per  bushel.  Fine  salt  in 
Pennsylvania  is  reckoned  at  62  pounds, 
in  Kentucky  and  Illinois  at  55  pounds 
per  bushel. 

WEI-HAI-WEI,  seaport  of  China, 
Shantung  peninsula,  leased  to  Britain 
in  1898. 

WEIMAR  (vi'mar),  the  capital  of  the 
Grand-duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar.  Weimar 
is  closely  associated  with  the  names  of 
Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder,  and  Wieland, 
the  first  three  of  whom  are  buried  here, 
and  statues  to  all  the  four  adorn  the 
town.  The  houses  of  Goethe,  Schiller, 
Cranach,  and  Herder,  are  objects  of 
much  interest.  Pop.  28,329. 

WEIMAR,  SAXE.  See  Saxe-Weimar. 

WEIR,  Harrison,  English  artist,  was 
born  at  Lewes,  Sussex,  in  1824.  His 
first  exhibited  picture  was  in  oU,  en- 
titled The  Dean  Shot.  In  1847  he  was 
elected  a member  of  the  new  Society  of 
Painters  in  Water  Colors.  He  is  chiefly 
noted  for  his  pictures  of  country  life, 
animals,  fruits,  flowers,  and  landscapes. 
As  an  illustrator  of  books  and  periodicals 


he  is  well  known.  He  is  the  author  of 
The  Poetry  of  Nature ; Everyday  Life  in 
the  Country;  Animal  Stories;  Old  and 
New;  and  Our  Cats.  He  died  in  1906. 

WEISMANN  (vis'man),  August,  Ger- 
man zoologist,  was  born  January  17, 

1834,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  Weis- 
mann’s  epoch-making  work  on  the 
embryology  of  the  flies  appeared  in 
1864.  These  investigations  were  suc- 
ceeded by  his  studies  on  the  formation 
of  the  egg  and  the  embryology  of  the 
little  crustaceans  Daphnidae,  and  the 
origin  of  the  sexual  cells  of  the  Hydro- 
medusae.  His  researches  on  the  seasonal 
dimorphism  of  butterflies,  and  the 
origin  of  the  markings  of  caterpillars, 
as  embodied  in  his  “Studies  on  the 
Theory  of  Descent”  were  most  fruitful. 
Among  his  works  are:  Essays  upon  He- 
redity and  Kindred  Biological  Problems; 
The  Germ-Plasm,  A Theory  of  Hered- 
ity; The  All  Sufficiency  of  Natural  Se- 
lection; The  Effect  of  External  Influ- 
ences upon  Development;  New  Experi- 
ments on  the  Seasonal  Dimorphism  of 
Lepidoptera. 

WELDING  is  the  union  produced 
between  the  surfaces  of  pieces  of  malle- 
able metal  when  heated  almost  to 
fusion  and  hammered.  When  two  bars 
of  metal  are  properly  welded  the  place 
of  junction  is  as  strong,  relatively  to  its 
thickness,  as  any  other  part  of  the  bar. 
Practically,  iron  is  the  only  metal 
welded. 

WELLESLEY  (welz'li),  Richard  Col- 
ley, Viscount  and  Marquis,  and  Earl  of 
Mornington,  was  born  at  Dublin  in 
1760.  On  his  majority  he  took  hw  seat 
as  Earl  of  Mornington  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Peers,  and  three  years  after 
was  returned  to  the  British  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Beeralstop. 
Thus,  by  a curious  anomaly,  he  was  at 
once  a peer  and  a commoner.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  1789  in  the  debates 
on  the  regency  question.  In  this  dis- 
cussion, his  defense  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative, made  known  to  George  III. 
after  his  recovery,  pleased  him  so  much 
that  the  earl  at  the  next  general  elec- 
tion was  returned  for  Windsor,  and 
made  a member  both  of  the  Irish  and  the 
English  privy-council.  These  were  only 
preliminaries  to  the  higher  appointment 
of  governor-general  of  India,  which 
was  conferred  upon  him  in  1797,  along 
with  a British  peerage  under  the  title  of 
Baron  Wellesley.  His  administration 
forms  an  era  in  the  history  of  the  British 
Indian  empire.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1805,  and  in  1809  became  foreign 
secretary  under  Mr.  Perceval.  In  1812 
he  resigned  his  place,  chiefly  because 
he  was  in  favor  of  Catholic  emancipa- 
tion. He  did  not  return  to  office  till 
1822,  when  he  became  lord-lieutenant 
of  Ireland.  This  post  he  retained  till 
1827.  In  the  Grey  ministry  he  again 
(1833)  became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland 
but  finally  retired  from  public  life  in 

1835.  He  died  in  1842. 

WELLINGTON,  the  capital  of  New 

Zealand,  is  situated  on  Port  Nicholson, 
an  inlet  of  Cook’s  strait,  on  the  south- 
west extremity  of  the  provincial  district 
of  Wellington,  North  Island.  Pop. 
49,344. — The  provincial  district  of  Wel- 
lington has  an  area  of  11,250  sq.  miles. 
Pop.  141,236. 


WELLINGTON 


WESLEY 


WELLINGTON,  Arthur  Wellesley, 
Duke  of,  born  in  1769.  In  1787  he  re- 
ceived a commission  as  ensign  in  the 
73d  Foot,  and  after  a rapid  series  of 
changes  and  promotions,  attained  by 
purchase  in  1793  the  command  as  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  33d  regiment. 
His  regiment  landed  at  Calcutta  in 
February,  1797,  at  a critical  moment 
for  the  British  power  in  India.  War  had 
just  been  declared  against  Tippoo  Saib, 
and  an  army  of  80,000,  of  which  Colonel 
Wellesley’s  regiment  formed  part, 
marched  against  him.  An  engagemerit 
took  place  at  Mallavelly  (Mysore)  on  the 
27th,  in  which  Wellesley,  who  com- 
manded the  left  wing,  turned  the  right 
of  the  enemy.  Early  in  1805,  his  health 
failing,  Wellesley  obtained  leave  to  re- 
turn home,  and  arrived  in  England  in 
September.  He  had  before  leaving 
Madras  received  his  appointment  as 
Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath.  He 
was  elected  M.P.  for  Rye  in  1806,  and 
in  April,  1807,  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state  for  Ireland.  In  1809  Wellesley 
was  appointed  to  take  the  chief  com- 
mand in  the  Peninsula,  which  had  been 
overrun  by  the  French.  The  famous 
passage  of  the  Douro,  and  the  defeat  of 
Soult  which  followed,  fittingly  opened 
this  masterly  campaign.  For  the  victory 
at  Talavera  (July  28),  the  first  of  a long 
list  that  subsequently  took  place  in  the 
peninsula,  the  government  raised  the 
commander-in-chief  to  the  peerage  as 
Viscount  Wellington.  On  August  12, 
1812,  Wellington  entered  Madrid.  For 
his  brilliant  conduct  of  the  campaign 
thus  far  he  received  the  thanks  of 
parliament,  was  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  marquis,  and  a sum  of  $500,000  was 
voted  to  purchase  him  an  estate.  Next 
followed  the  battle  of  Vittoria  (June  21, 
1813),  for  which  decisive  victory  Well- 
ington was  given  the  baton  of  field- 
marshal;  then  battles  in  the  Pyrenees, 
the  capture  of  San  Sebastian,  and  the 
crossing  of  the  Bidassoa  into  France. 
In  1814  the  battle  of  Orthez  was  gained, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  battle  of 
Toulouse,  in  which  Soult’s  best  troops 
were  routed,  and  the  hopes  of  France 
in  the  peninsula  utterly  annihilated. 
The  way  was  now  open  for  the  British 
troops  to  the  heart  of  France.  In  six 
weeks,  with  scarcely  100,000  men, 
Wellington  had  marched  600  miles, 
gained  two  decisive  battles,  invested 
two  fortresses,  and  driven  120,000 
veteran  troops  from  Spain.  Napoleon 
abdicated  on  April  12,  and  a few  days 
later  the  war  was  brought  to  a close  by 
the  signing  of  conventions  with  Soult 
and  Berthier.  In  May  the  triumphant 
general  was  created  Marquis  of  Douro 
and  Duke  of  Wellington,  with  an  annuity 
of  $50,000,  commuted  afterward  for 
$2,000,000.  With  the  return  of  peace 
he  resumed  the  career  of  politics.  He 
accepted  the  post  of  master-general  of 
the  ordnance  with  a seat  in  the  cabinet 
of  Lord  Liverpool  in  January,  1819. 
In  1822  he  represented  Great  Britain 
in  the  congress  of  Vienna.  In  1826  he 
was  appointed  high-constable  of  the 
Tower.  On  22d  January,  1827,  he  suc- 
ceeded the  Duke  of  York  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces.  On  8th  January, 
1828,  he  accepted  the  premiership, 
resigning  the  command  of  the  forces 


to  Lord  Hill.  In  January,  1829,  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Dover  castle  and 
lord  warden  of  the  Cinque  ports.  In 
1 830  repeatedmotions  for  parliamentary 
reform  were  defeated,  but  the  growing 
discontent  throughout  the  country  on 
this  subject  and  a defeat  in  parliament 
caused  the  resignation  of  the  govern- 
ment in  November. ' His  opposition  to 
reform  made  the  duke  so  unpopular  that 
he  was  assaulted  by  the  mob  on  18th 
June,  1832,  and  his  life  endangered. 
He  accepted  office  under  Sir  Robert 
Peel  in  1834-41,  and  again  in  1846,  when 
he  helped  to  carry  the  repeal  of  the  corn- 
laws,  which  till  then  he  had  opposed. 
In  1842  he  resumed  the  command  of  the 
forces  on  the  death  of  Lord  Hill.  He 
died  at  Walmer  castle,  14th  September, 
1852. 

WELL'MAN,  Walter,  American  jour- 
nalist and  explorer,  was  born  in  Mentor, 
Ohio,  in  1858.  In  1869  he  founded  the 
Cincinnati  Evening  Post,  and  after 
1884  he  was  the  Washington  correspon- 
dent successively  of  the  Chicago  Herald 
and  the  Chicago  Times-Herald.  In 
1894  he  led  an  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions  and  reached  a point  on  the 
eighty-first  degree  of  latitude,  north- 
east of  Spitzbergen.  In  1898-99  he 
made  another  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  spending  the  winter  of  1898-99 
there,  and  reaching  latitude  82°  Well- 
man reported  the  discovery  of  some 
twenty  new  lands  or  islands. 

WELLS,  Horace,  American  dentist, 
was  born  in  Hartford,  Vt.,  in  1815.  He 
conceived  the  idea  that  an  anaesthetic 
might  be  used  in  dentistry  to  prevent 
pain,  and  had  thought  of  the  employ- 
ment of  nitrous  oxide  gas  as  early  as 
1840.  In  1847  he  published  A History 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Application  of 
Nitrous  Oxide  Gas,  Ether,  and  Other 
Vapors  to  Surgical  Operations.  His 
constant  experiments  upon  himself 
with  chloroform  produced  mental  aliena- 
tion, and  in  1848  he  committed  suicide. 

WEN,  an  encysted  tumor  occurring 
on  the  scalp  or  other  parts  of  the  body. 
They  are  formed  by  the  accumulation 
of  sebum  in  a hair  follicle,  or  in  the 
recesses  of  the  sebaceous  gland  of  the 
hair  sac,  causing  distension  of  the  sac. 
An  encysted  tumor,  in  its  commence- 
ment, is  always  exceedingly  small,  and 
perfectly  indolent;  and  it  is  often  many 
years  before  it  attains  any  great  size. 
The  best  mode  of  treatment  is  complete 
removal  of  the  whole  swelling  by  dis- 
secting it  out. 

WENER,  the  largest  lake  of  Sweden, 
and  after  those  of  Ladoga  and  Onega 
the  largest  in  Europe,  situated  in  the 
southwest  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  147  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  of  very  irregular 
shape.  Its  greatest  length,  northeast  to 
southwest,  is  about  100  miles;  and  its 
breadth  may  average  about  30  miles; 
area,  2306  sq.  miles.  Its  chief  feeder  is 
the  Klar.  By  a canal  it  communicates 
with  Lake  Wetter,  but  its  only  proper 
outlet  is  at  its  southwestern  extremity, 
where  its  sup^rffuous  waters  are  received 
by  the  river  Gotha.  In  winter  it  is 
frozen  for  several  months,  and  crossed 
by  sledges.  It  abounds  with  fish. 

WENTWORTH,  Sir  Thomas,  Earl  of 
Strafford.  See  Strafford. 

WEREWOLF,  a man-wolf,  a man 


transformed  into  a wolf  according  to  a 
superstition  prevalent  in  ancient  and 
mediaeval  times.  It  was  generally 
thought  that  such  beings  had  the  form 
of  a man  by  day,  and  that  of  a wolf  by 
night. 

WERNER (ver'ner),  Abraham  Gottlob, 
a German  mineralogist,  born  1750,  died 
1817.  Werner  was  the  first  to  separate 
geology  from  mineralogy,  and  to  place 
the  former  on  the  basis  of  observation 
and  experience.  The  great  geological 
theory  with  which  his  name  is  con- 
nected is  that  which  attributes  the  phe- 
nomena exhibited  by  the  crust  of  the 
earth  to  the  action  of  water,  and  is 
known  as  the  Wernerian  or  Neptunian 
theory,  in  distinction  to  the  Huttonian 
or  Plutonic,  in  which  fire  plays  the  chief 
part. 

WESER  (va'zer),  a river  of  Germany, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Fulda  and 
Werra  at  Miinden,  flows  generally  in  a 
northwest  direction,  and,  after  a very 
circuitous  course,  traverses  the  city  of 
Bremen,  and  then  falls  by  a wide  mouth, 
very  much  encumbered  with  sand- 
banks, into  the  German  ocean.  Its 
length,  including  the  Werra,  is  about 
430  miles.  The  navigation  for  vessels  of 
large  size  ceases  about  10  miles  below 
Bremen.  See  Bremen. 

WESLEY,  John,  the  founder  of 
Wesleyan  Methodism,  was  born  at 
Epworth,  Lincolnshire  June  17,  1703. 
He  took  his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1724,  was 
ordained  deacon  in  1725,  became  a fel- 
low of  Lincoln  college,  and  lecturer  and 
moderator  in  classics  in  1726;  and  took 
priest’s  orders  in  1728.  He  now  gathered 
together  a number  of  pupils  and  com- 
panions who  met  regularly  for  religious 
purposes,  and  by  so  doing  acquired  the 
name  of  Methodists.  Among  these  com- 


John  Wesley. 

panions  were  Hervey,  Whitefield,  and 
Law,  the  author  of  the  Serious  Call  to 
the  Unconverted.  In  1735  Wesley 
accepted  an  invitation  from  General 
Oglethorpe  to  go  out  to  America  to 
preach  to  the  colonists  of  Georgia. 
After  a stay  of  two  years  he  returned  to 
England  (February,  1738).  Early  in  the 
following  year  (1739)  he  began  open-air 
preaching,  in  which  he  was  closely 
associated  with  Whitefield,  from  whom, 
however,  he  soon  separated.  Having 
now  the  sole  control  of  the  religious  body 


WESLEYAN  METHODISTS 


WESTON 


which  adhered  to  him,  he  devoted  his 
entire  life  without  intermission  to  the 
work  of  its  organization,  in  which  he 
showed  much  practical  skill  and  ad- 
mirable method.  His  labors  as  an  itin- 
erant preacher  were  incessant.  He 
would  ride  from  40  to  60  miles  in  a day. 
He  read  or  wrote  during  his  journeys, 
and  frequently  preached  four  or  five 
times  a day.  He  died  in  1791. 

WESLEYAN  METHODISTS.  See  Meth- 
odists. 

WESSEX,  that  is.  West  Saxons,  one  of 
the  most  important  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms  in  England  during  the  6th, 
7th,  and  8th  centuries,  and  the  early 
part  of  the  9th,  and  that  in  which  the 
other  kingdoms  were  ultimately  merged 
in  the  reign  of  Egbert  in  827.  It  included 
the  counties  of  Devon,  Dorset,  Somer- 
set, Wilts,  Hants,  Berks,  and  a part  of 
Cornwall. 

WEST,  Benjamin,  painter,  born  at 
Springfield,  Pennsylvania,  in  1738; 
died  in  London  in  1820.  In  July,  1760, 
he  visited  Italy,  and  settling  in  Rome 
painted  Cimon  and  Iphigenia,  and 
Angelica  and  Medora.  He  visited  Eng- 
land in  1763,  and  was  so  well  patronized 
that  he  determined  to  make  it  his  future 
residence.  He  painted  Hector  and  An- 
dromache, The  Return  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  and  a historical  painting  of  Agrip- 
pina. He  painted  a series  of  historical 
works  for  Windsor  castle,  and  for  the 
oratory  there  a series  on  the  progresc  of 
revealed  religion.  On  the  death  of 
Reynolds,  in  1792,  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Royal  acedemy.  He  after- 
ward painted  a number  of  religious  and 
historical  pictures  of  large  size,  among 
them  being  Christ  Healing  the  Sick  (in 
the  National  gallery),  the  Crucifixion, 
Ascension,  and  Death  on  the  Pale  Horse. 
The  Death  of  General  Wolfe  at  Quebec 
and  The  Battle  of  La  Hogue  are  ac- 
counted the  best  of  his  historical  pieces. 

WEST  BAY  CITY,  a city  in  Bay  co., 
Mich.,  on  the  Saginaw  river,  opposite 
Bay  City,  and  on  the  Michigan  Central, 
the  Detroit  and  Mackinac,  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  railroads,  connected  with 
Bay  City  by  four  bridges.  Pop.  15,119. 

WEST  CHESTER,  the  county  seat  of 
Chester  co..  Pa.,  25  miles  west  of  Phil- 
adelphia, on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washing- 
ton railroads.  It  is  in  a productive 
farming  section,  known  for  its  grain  in- 
terests, and  having  extensive  nurseries. 
Pop.  10,942. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA,  a British 
colony  which  includes  all  that  portion 
of  the  continent  situated  westward  of 
129°  e.  Ion.  The  territory  measures 
1490  miles  from  n.  to  s.,  and  850  miles 
from  e.  to  w.  The  total  estimated  area 
is  978,299  sq.  miles,  thus  making  it  the 
largest  of  the  Australian  colonies.  The 
really  occupied  portion,  apart  from 
scattered  settlements  round  the  coast 
is  almost  entirely  in  the  southwest,  and 
is  about  600  miles  in  length  and  150 
miles  in  average  breadth.  Western 
Australia  was  first  settled  in  1829  as 
the  Swan  river  settlement  and  for  many 
ears  the  population  was  very  small; 
ut  in  the  year  1906  it  had  risen  to 
over  200,000. 

WEST  HOBOKEN,  a town  in  Hudson 
co.,  N.  J.;  160  feet  above  tide-watery 


li  miles  W.  of  Hoboken  ferry  on  the 
Hudson  river,  directly  opposite  New 
York.  It  is  principally  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk  goods.  Pop.  26,172. 

WEST  INDIES,  also  called  the  Antil- 
les, the  extensive  archipelago  which  lies 
between  North  and  South  America, 
stretching  from  Florida  to  the  shores 
of  Venezuela.  It  is  divided  into  the 
Bahamas,  the  group  stretching  from 
near  the  coast  of  Florida  in  a south- 
easterly direction;  the  Greater  Antilles, 
comprising  the  four  largest  islands  of  the 
group,  Cuba,  Hayti,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Jamaica;  and  the  Lesser  Antilles, stretch- 
ing like  a great  bow,  with  its  convexity 
toward  the  east,  from  Porto  Rico  to 
Trinidad,  near  the  coast  of  Venezuela. 
Almost  the  whole  archipelago  lies  within 
the  torrid  zone.  The  total  area  does  not 
exceed  95,000  sq.  miles,  of  which  the 
Greater  Antilles  occupy  nearly  83,000 
sq.  miles.  The  climate  is  extremely  hot, 
and  the  islands  abound  in  tropical  pro- 
ductions, as  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  to- 
bacco, corn,  etc. ; oranges,  lemons,  limes, 
pomegranates,  citrons,  pineapples,  etc.; 
manioc,  yams,  potatoes,  etc.  Except 
Hayti  (which  is  independent)  and  a few 
islands  off  the  coast  of  South  America, 
the  West  Indian  islands  are  in  the  pos- 
session of  European  powers.  The  chief 
British  possessions  are;  Jamaica,  Barba- 
does,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  Trinidad, 
Tobago,  Antigua,  St.  Kitt’s,  Dominica, 
Virgin  islands,  and  the  Bahamas. — 
Dutch:  St.  Eustatius,  Saba,  St.  Martin 
(partly  French),  Bbnaire  or  Buen  Ayre, 
Curasao,  and  Oruba  or  Aruba. — French : 
Martinique,  Deseada,  Guadeloupe,  Ma- 
rie Galante,  St.  Martin  (partly  Dutch), 
St.  Bartholomew,  Les  Saintes. — United 
States:  Porto  Rico. — Danish:  Santa 
Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John.  Cuba 
is  independent  under  the  suzerainty  of 
the  United  States. 

WESTINGHOUSE,  George,  American 
inventor  and  engineer,  was  born  at 
Center  Bridge,  Schoharie  co.,  N.  Y.,  in 
1846.  Invented  at  15  a rotary  engine. 
In  1864  he  became  assistant  engineer  in 
the  United  States  navy.  His  next  in- 
vention was  a railway  frog.  In  1868  he 
invented  the  air  brake  which  soon  was 
used  universally  in  the  United  States. 
Soon  after  he  became  interested  in 
electricity  and  acquired  patents  for 
alternating  current  machinery.  A large 
plant  was  erected  at  Pittsburg  to  manu- 
facture air  brakes,  electrical,  and  other 
machines,  and  at  these  works  the  great 
power  plants  at  Niagara  Falls  were 
constructed.  Large  factories  and  works 
have  also  been  established  in  Europe. 
His  invention  of  the  air-brake  and  of 
automatic  railway  signals  have  been 
largely  instrumental  in  the  possibility 
and  safety  of  modern  high  speed  rail- 
roading. He  has  been  decorated  with 
the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  the  Royal 
Crown  of  Italy,  and  the  Order  of 
Leopold. 

V^STMACOTT,  Sir  Richard,  sculp- 
tor, born  in  London  in  1775.  Many  of 
the  monuments  in  St.  Paul’s  are  from 
his  chisel.  He  designed  also  the  Achilles 
in  Hyde  Park,  the  statue  of  Lord 
Erskine  in  Lincoln’s  Inn  Old  Hall,  that 
of  Nelson  in  the  Liverpool  exchange, 
besides  statues  of  Addison,  Pitt,  etc. 
He  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 


Academy  in  1805,’a  full  member  in  1816, 
and  in  1827  succeeded  Flaxman  as  lec- 
turer on  sculpture.  In  1837  the  dignity 
of  knighthood  was  conferred  on  him. 
He  died  in  1856. 

WESTMEATH,  a county  in  Ireland, 
in  the  province  of  Leinster,  with  an  area 
of  434,000  acres.  Pop.  61,527. 

WESTMINSTER,  a city,  pari,  and 
mun.  bor.  of  Middlesex,  England,  in 
what  is  now  the  county  of  London. 
Within  the  city  area  are  Westminster 
Hall,  Abbey,  and  School,  Kensington 
Palace,  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  the 
Whitehall  banqueting  house,  etc.  West- 
minster had  a royal  residence  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
Pop.  182,977. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY,  the  corona- 
tion church  of  the  sovereigns  of  England, 
and  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  of  Lon- 
don, is  a magnificent  Gothic  pile,  situated 
near  the  Thames,  and  adjoining  the 
Houses  of  Parliament.  In  1065  a church 
was  built  here  in  the  Norman  style  by 
Edward  the  Confessor.  Part  of  this 
structure  still  remains  in  the  pyx-house 
and  the  south  side  of  the  cloisters;  but 
the  main  building,  as  it  now  stands,  was 
begun  in  1220  by  Henry  III.  (who  built 
the  choir  and  transepts),  and  was  prac- 
tically completed  by  Edward  I.  Various 
additions,  however,  were  made  (in- 
cluding the  nave  and  aisles,  the  west 
front,  and  the  Jerusalem  Chamber) 
down  to  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  who 
built  the  chapel  which  bears  his  name, 
while  the  upper  parts  of  the  two  western 
towers  were  designed  by  Sir  C.  Wren. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  church,  in- 
cluding Henry  VII. ’s  chapel,  is  531 
feet;  breadth  of  transepts,  203  feet; 
height  of  the  roof,  102  feet;  height  of 
towers,  225  feet.  The  coronation  cere- 
mony takes  place  in  the  choir,  where  the 
coronation  stone  brought  by  Edward  I. 
from  Scotland  is  situated  beside  the 
coronation-chairs  of  the  English  sover- 
eigns. Westminster  Abbey  is  distin- 
guished as  the  burial-place  of  numerous 
English  kings  from  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor to  George  II. ; the  north  transept 
is  occupied  chiefly  by  monuments  to 
warriors  and  statesmen;  while  in  the 
south  transept  is  situated  the  “Poet’s 
Corner,”  the  burial  and  memorial  place 
of  most  of  England’s  great  writers  from 
Chaucer  to  Browning  and. Tennyson. 
See  London. 

WESTMORELAND,  a county  in  Eng- 
land, bounded  by  Cumberland,  Lan- 
cashire, Morecambe  bay,  Yorkshire,  and 
Durham  ; area,  500,906  acres,  or  783  sq. 
miles.  Much  of  the  celebrated  lake- 
scenery  of  England  is  within  the  limits 
or  on  the  borders  of  this  county,  the 
chief  lakes  being  Ulleswater,  Grasmere, 
Rydal  Water,  and  Windermere.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Eden,  Lune, 
and  Kent.  The  minerals  include  graphite 
roofing-slate,  marble,  and  small  quan- 
tities of  coal,  lead,  and  copper.  The 
arable  land  is  mostly  confined  to  the 
valleys,  while  the  greater  part  of  the 
remaining  surface  is  in  natural  pasture, 
or  under  wood.  Appleby  is  the  chief 
town.  Pop.  64,305. 

WES'TON,  Edward,  American  elec- 
trician, born  in  1850  in  London,  Enf'- 
land,  but  in  1870  came  to  the  T^niltd 
States,  He  improved  the  process  of 


WESTPHALIA 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


nickel-plating,  made  investigations  in 
electricity,  and  in  1875  established  at 
Newark,  N.  J.,  the  first  factory  in  the 
United  States  exclusively  for  the  manu- 
facture of  dynamo-electric  machines. 
His  inventions  included  | improved 
meters  for  electric  measurements. 

WESTPHALIA,  the  name  given  at 
different  periods  to  (1)  one  of  the  circles 
of  the  old  German  empire,  (2)  one  of 
Napoleon’s  kingdoms  G 807-1 3),  con- 
ferred upon  his  brother  Jerome ; and  (3) 
now  to  a province  of  Prussia.  The  latter 
is  bounded  by  Rhenish  Prussia,  Hol- 
land, Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hesse,  and 
Nassau.  Its  area  is  7771  sq.  miles.  Be- 
sides iron  and  coal  in  abundance  the 
minerals  include  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and 
salt;  and  the  manufactures  are  varied 
and  important.  Munster  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  2,700,250. 

WESTPHALIA,  Peace  of,  the  name 
given  to  the  peace  concluded  in  1648  at 
Munster  and  Osnabriick,  by  which  an 
end  was  put  to  the  Thirty  Years’  war 
(which  see).  By  this  peace  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  members  of  the  empire  was 
acknowledged.  The  concessions  that 
had  been  made  to  the  Protestants  since 
the  religious  peace  in  1555  were  con- 
firmed. The  elector-palatine  had  the 
palatinate  of  the  Rhine  and  the  elec- 
torate restored  to  him ; Alsace  was  ceded 
to  France;  Sweden  received  Western 
Pomerania,  Bremen,  Verden,  Wismar, 
and  a sum  equal  to  $3,750,000  ;Branden- 
burg,  Mecklenburg,  Hanover,  and  Bruns- 
wick were  compensated  by  the  seculari- 
zation of  numerous  ecclesiastical  foun- 
dations. The  independence  of  the  United 
Provinces  was  recognized  by  Spain,  and 
that  of  Switzerland  by  the  empire. 

WEST  POINT,  Orange  co.,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Hudson  river,  52  miles  north  of  New 
York.  It  is  situated  on  a series  of  high 
bluffs  overlooking  the  river,  which  takes 
a sharp  bend  at  this  point,  and  from  the 
time  of  the  revolutionary  war  has  been  an 
important  military  post.  In  1794  the 
United  States  military  academy  was 
located  here  by  act  of  congress,  the  act 
authorizing  the  enrollment  of  a corps 
of  artillerists  to  garrison  the  forts,  and 
providing  for  the  attachment  of  thirty- 
two  cadets  to  the  force.  Four  years  later 
the  corps  was  enlarged,  instructors  ap- 
pointed, and  the  cadets  given  definite 
rank  in  the  army.  Formerly  they  were 
enlisted  for  five  years,  but  the  term  is 
now  extended  to  eight.  The  command- 
ant and  officers  detailed  at  the  post  serve 
only  four  years,  while  the  professors 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel  or 
colonel,  after  ten  years’  service,  are 
appointed  for  life.  The  cadets  are 
divided  into  battalions  of  four  infaqtry 
companies,  each  commanded  by  an 
officer  of  the  regular  army  and  under 
him  by  cadet  officers.  Each  congressional 
district  and  territory  and  the  District 
of  Columbia  is  entitled  to  have  one 
cadet  at  the  academy,  the  cadet  to  be 
named  by  the  representative  in  congress 
from  the  district.  There  are  also  ten 
appointments  at  large  made  by  the 
president.  Admission  is  gained  by  pass- 
ing a satisfactory  examination.  The 
number  of  cadets  is  about  three  hun- 
dred. The  pay  of  each  cadet  is  $540  per 
year,  out  of  which  all  of  his  expenses 
are  paid.  Upon  graduating  a cadet  re- 


ceives an  appointment  as  second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  United  States  army. 

WEST  TROY,  a town  of  Albany  co.. 
New  York,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hudson,  opposite  the  town  of  Troy,  and 
connected  by  an  iron  bridge.  Pop. 
14,140. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  a south  Atlantic 
state  of  the  United  States,  bounded  on 
the  northeast  by  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  on  the  southeast  and  south 
by  Virginia,  on  the  southwest  by  Ken- 
tucky, and  on  the  northwest  by  Ohio, 
being  separated  from  the  latter  state 
by  the  Ohio  river.  Area  24,780  sq. 
miles.  It  ranks  thirty-seventh  in  size 
among  the  states.  The  surface  is  un- 
even and  in  the  east  mountainous.  The 
main  range  of  the  Alleghanies'  crosses 
the  northeastern  section,  and  farther 
south  forms  the  state  boundary  toward 
Virginia.  The  state  is  drained  by  a num- 
ber of  rivers  flowing  from  the  mountain 
belt  northwestward  to  the  main  river  on 


Reverse. 

Seal  of  West  Virginia. 


the  boundary.  The  largest  of  these 
jivers  are  the  Big  Sandy,  the  Guyan- 
dotte.  Great  Kanawha,  Little  Kanawha, 
and  Monongahela.  The  climate  is  agree- 
able and  healthful,  with  freedom  from 
violent  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  The 
rainfall  ranges  from  33  inches  in  the 
northeast  to  45  inches  in  the  south. 
In  the  northeast  the  soils  are  sandy  and 
of  little  fertility;  many  of  the  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  a fertile  clayey 
soil,  and  the  Ohio  valley  has  a soil 
formed  chiefly  from  limestone,  which 
gives  it  great  fertility.  There  are  in  the 
southeast  and  south  dense  forests  of 
deciduous  trees;  black,  red,  white,  and 
chestnut  oak,  hickory,  chestnut,  locust, 
maple,  and  tuplip-trees.  There  are  also 
extensive  forests  of  black  spruce,  w'hite 
pine,  and  hemlock  and  birch  on  the 
mountains. 

West  Virginia  includes  16,000  sq.  miles 
of  the!  Alleghany  coal  measures,  chiefly 
bituminous.  There  are  immense  de- 
posits of  petroleum  and  rich  reservoirs 
of  natural  gas.  Iron  ore  is  found,  and 
among  non-metallic  minerals  the  most 


important  are  salt,  sandstone,  limestone, 
and  clay.  There  are  also  a large  number 
of  valuable  minerals  springs,  especially 
sulphur.  The  soil  in  the  western  part  of 
the  state  consists  of  rich  clay  and  sand 
loams,  well  suited  to  general  farming. 
The  flat  hills  to  the  eastward  are  better 
adapted  to  grazing.  Wheat, corn,  buck- 
wheat, oats,  and  rye  are  the  chief  cereals. 
Tobacco  and  sorghum  cane  are  the  other 
important  crops.  Apples  constitute  70 
per  cent  of  the  fruit  crop.  Cattle,  horses, 
and  sheep  are  the  principal  stock  raised. 
The  iron  and  steel  industry  ranks  first 
among  the  manufactures.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  coke  the  state  ranks  second. 
The  availability  of  natural  gas  has  led  to 
a thriving  glass-manufacturing  industry. 
Pottery,  terra  cotta,  fire  clay  products, 
flour  and  grist  milling,  tanning  and 
leather  are  the  other  principal  indus- 
tries. West  Virginia  has  excellent  trans- 
portation facilities.  The  navigable 
streams  include  the  Ohio,  Monongahela, 
Great  and  Little  Kanawha,  and  the 
Big  Sandy.  The  bulk  of  the  state’s 
foreign  trade  is  carried  on  by  way  of 
the  Ohio,  which  offers  means  of  water 
communication  with  the  gulf.  There  are 
three  trunk  lines  traversing  the  state 
from  east  to  west — the  Chesapeake  and 
Ohio,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  the 
Norfolk  and  Western.  The  population 
by  decades  has  been  as  follows:  1870, 
442,014;  1881,  618,457;  1890,  762,794; 
1900,  958,800.  Estimated  population  in 
1908  by  the  governor  of  the  state 
1,200,000.  Among  the  institutions  of 
higher  education  are:  The  University 
of  West  Virginia,  at  Morgantown; 
Bethany  college,  at  Bethany ; and  Morris 
Harvey  college,  at  Barboursville.  For  a 
number  of  years  after  the  settlement  of 
the  eastern  part  of  Virginia  the  western 
section  was  entirely  unknown.  In  1669 
La  Salle  floated  down  the  Ohio  river 
and  landed  at  several  places  within  the 
state.  Governor  Spotswood  of  Virginia 
made  an  expedition  into  the  present 
state  in  1716.  The  establishment  of 
West  Virginia  as  a state  was  consum- 
mated on  June  20,  1863.  Its  creation 
and  admission  were  due  to  conditions 
which  existed  prior  to  the  civil  war  of 
1861-5,  to  popular  sentiment  which 
those  conditions  developed  when  the 
war  was  precipitated,  and  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  war  itself.  The  western 
part  of  Virginia  was  sparsely  peopled, 
its  great  forests  undeveloped,  its  vast 
mineral  resources  only  partially  realized, 
and  its  slave  interests  comparatively 
small.  The  eastern  section  contained  tl;e 
larger  population,  owned  the  great  bulk 
of  slave  property,  and  exercised  con- 
trolling power  over  state  affairs.  The 
Alleghanies,  dividing  the  two  sections, 
in  the  absence  of  transverse  railroad 
facilities,  naturally  sent  the  citizens  of 
one  side  with  the  flow  of  their  navigable 
waters  to  western  and  southern  markets, 
while  those  of  the  other,  moved  by 
similar  natural  causes,  turned  to  the 
seaboard  for  their  commercial  and  busi- 
ness intercourse.  The  basis  of  taxation, 
the  basis  of  representation,  and  the 
relation  of  the  slave  interests  to  these 
with  the  measure  and  distribution  of 
public  funds  for  works  of  internal  im- 
provement and  other  questions  of  local 
concern,  constituted  elements  of  con- 


WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 


WHEATON 


tinual  controversy,  and  served  to  de- 
tract largely  from  the  homogeneity  of 
the  population.  When  Virginia  passed 
the  ordinance  of  secession  there  was 
much  dissatisfaction.  Representatives 
from  forty  counties  declared  their  in- 
dependence of  Virginia,  and  took  meas- 
ures for  the  establishment  of  a provi- 
sional government.  During  the  war 
32,068  men  were  furnished  to  the  federal 
army.  Slavery  was  entirely  abolished 
in  advance  of  the  adoption  of  the  thir- 
teenth amendment.  The  vote  of  the 
state  was  cast  for  republican  electors 
previous  to  1870.  From  1872  to  1892 
democratic  candidates  were  uniformly 
successful.  In  1896,  1900, 1904  and  1908, 
the  state  went  Reiuiblican. 

WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY,  a 
coeducational  state  institution  of  higher 
learning  at  Morgantown,  West  Va., 
founded  in  1868.  It  absorbed  the  West 
Virginia  Agricultural  college  (founded 
1867),  the  Monongahela  academy 
(founded  1814),  and  the  Woodburn 
Seminary.  It  now  comprises  colleges 
of  art  and  sciences,  engineering  and 
mechanical  arts,  agriculture,  and  law, 
schools  of  music,  military  science  and 
tactics,  and  commerce,  and  preparatory 
schools  at  Morgantown,  Montgomery, 
and  Keyser.  Its  principal  sources  of 
support  are  the  land  grhnt  of  1862,  the 
Morrill  and  Hatch  funds,  and  biennial 
state  appr^riations. 

WEXFORD,  a maritime'  county  in 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Leinster, 
bounded  by  Wicklow,  St.  George’s 
Channel,  the  estuary  of  the  Suir  and 
Barrow,  Waterford  Harbor,  Kilkenny, 
and  Carlow;  area,  575,700  acres.  Pop. 
103,860. — Wexford,  the  county  town, 
is  a seaport  on  the  river  Slaney,  where  it 
enters  Wexford  harbor.  Pop.  11,154. 

WHALE,  the  common  name  given  to 
the  larger  mammals  of  the  order  Cetacea. 
They  are  characterized  by  having  fin- 
like  anterior  limbs,  the  posterior  limbs 
being  absent,  but  having  their  place 
supplied  by  a large  horizontal  caudal  fin 
or  tail.  The  whalebone  whales  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  absence  of  teeth,  by 
the  presence  of  baleen  or  whalebone  in 


Greenland  whale. 


the  mouth.  The  typical  representative 
of  this  family  is  the  common  or  Green- 
land whale,  so  valuable  on  account  of 
the  oil  and  whalebone  which  it  furnishes. 
It  is  principally  found  in  the  Arctic  seas, 
but  it  is  also  found  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  many  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Its  length  is  usually  about  60  feet,  and 
its  greatest  circumference  from  30  to  40 
feet.  Allied  to  the  Greenland  whale  is 
the  rorqual.  It  often  measures  about 
100  feet  in  length,  and  from  30  to  35 
feet  in  circumference.  The  sperm  whale 


or  cachalot  averages  from  50  to  70  feet 
in  length.  Some  species  of  the  Delphini- 
dae  or  dolphin  family  are  also  known  as 
whales.  'Whale  fishing  for  the  sake  of  the 
oil  and  whalebone  has  been  an  important 
industry  since  the  12th  century.  It  was 
for  long  prosecuted  with  great  energy  by 
the  Dutch,  English,  French,  and  Ameri- 
cans, but  of  recent  times  it  has  greatly 
decreased,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
scarcity  of  whales.  The  instruments 
used  in  the  capture  of  the  whale  are  the 
harpoon  and  the  lance.  The  harpoon  is 
an  iron  weapon  about  3 feet  in  length, 
terminating  in  an  arrow-shaped  head. 
This  is  attached  to  a line,  and  is  thrown 
at  the  whale  by  hand,  so  as  to  transfix 
it,  or  is  discharged  from  a small  swivel 
cannon  placed  in  a boat.  The  lance  is  a 
spear  of  iron  about  6 feet  in  length, 
terminating  in  a thin,  sharp  steel  head. 
These,  with  the  necessary  lines,  boats, 
etc.,  are  all  the  apparatus  required  for 
capturing  the  whale.  When  captured 
the  animal  is  cut  up,  the  blubber  boiled 
and  the  oil  extracted,  and  the  whalebone 
dried. 

WHALEBACK  STEAMERS,  vessels  in 
which  the  hull  has  a form  roughly  re- 
sembling the  back  of  a whale.  The  de- 
signer was  Alexander  McDougall,  a sea- 
captain  of  Duluth,  Minn.,  who  brought 
them  out  about  1890.  They  have  proved 
to  be  very  moderate  in  their  demand  for 
power.  The  section  of  the  vessel  is  oval, 
the  decks  as  well  as  the  bilges  are 
rounded,  and  driven  by  steam-power 
solely,  and  are  both  easy  to  propel  and 
quiet  in  motion.  The  seas  are  taken  over 
them  without  obstruction,  and  pro- 


WHALEBONE, or  BALEEN,  a well- 
known  elastic  horny  substance  which 
hangs  down  in  thin  parallel  plates  from 
the  sides  of  the  upper  jaw  of  whales. 
These  plates  vary  in  size  from  a few 
inches  to  12  feet  in  length;  the  breadth 
of  the  largest  at  the  thick  end,  where 
they  are  attached  to  the  jaw,  is  about 
a foot,  and  the  average  thickness  is  from 
four  to  five-tenths  of  an  inch.  From  its 
flexibility,  strength,  elasticity,  and 
lightness,  whalebone  is  employed  for 
many  special  purposes,  but  it  is  now 
rather  an  expensive  material.  In  com- 
merce the  plates  of  baleen  are  often 
called  whale-fins. 

WHEAT,  the  most  important  species 
of  grain  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe,  and  a very  important  crop 
in  India,  Australia,  etc.  It  grows 
readily  in  almost  every  climate;  but  its 
natural  home  seems  to  be  a temperate 
climate,  and  the  soils  best  adapted  for 
its  culture  are  rich  clays  and  heavy 
loams.  Of  cultivated  wheats  there  are 
many  varieties,  the  differences,  however, 
being  mostly  due  to  soil,  climate,  and 
mode  of  cultivation.  Three  primary 
varieties  may  be  mentioned:  (a)  winter 
or  unbearded  wheat;  (b)  summer  or 
bearded  wheat;  (c)  spelt  or  German 
wheat,  which  is  of  much  less  value  than 
the  others,  but  grows  on  poorer  soils 
and  more  elevated  localities.  White 
wheat  and  red  wheat  are  names  applied 
according  to  the  color  of  the  grain,  the 
red  sorts  being  generally  hardier  than 
the  white,  but  of  inferior  quality,  and 
the  yield  is  less.  Winter  wheat  is  sown 
in  the  autumn,  with  the  view  of  being 


A whaleback  steamer,  the  Christopher  Columhtis. 


duce  no  effect  upon  the  movement  of 
the  ship.  Whaleback  steamers  have 
been  used  mainly  as  grain-carriers,  but 
the  Christopher  Columbus  was  em- 
ployed throughout  the  period  of  the 
World’s  Columbian  exposition,  in  Chi- 
cago in  1894,  to  carry  passengers  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  exposition- 
grounds,  and  proved  a great  success. 
She  now  plys  as  a passenger-steamer 
between  Chicago  and  Milwaukee,  carry- 
ing as  many  as  3000  passengers.  This 
ship  is  362  feet  over  all,  42  feet  beam, 
and  24  feet  deep,  driven  by  triple-ex- 
pansion engines  of  2,600  horse-power. 
Her  average  speed  is  nearly  20  miles 
an  hour. 


harvested  the  following  year;  summer 
wheat  is  sown  in  the  spring  of  the  year 
in  which  it  is  reaped. 

WHEATOIU  Loyd,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Fairfield,  Calhoun  county, 
Mich.,  in  1838.  He  entered  the  federal 
army  as  a first  sergeant  in  the  Eighth 
Illinois  Infantry  and  became  a captain 
in  March,  1862,  a major  in  August, 
1863,  and  a lieutenant-colonel  in  No- 
vember, 1864,  in  the  volunteer  service. 
He  took  part  in  Custer’s  expedition 
to  the  Black  Hills.  In  May,  1898, 
during  the  Spanish-American  war,  he 
was  made  a brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers, and  commanded  for  a short 
time  the  first  division  of  the  Seventh 


WHEATSTONE 


WHISKY 


Army  Corps  in  Cuba.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Philippines  early  in  1899;  in  1900 
became  commander  of  Northern  Luzon. 
He  was  made  major-general  in  the 
regular  army  in  1901,  and  in  July,  1902, 
was  retired  from  the  service. 

WHEATSTONE,  Sir  Charles,  scientific 
investigator  and  discoverer,  born  at 
Gloucester  in  1802,  died  at  Paris  in  1875. 
In  1823  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
men  of  science  by  the  publication  in 
Thomson’s  Annals  of  Philosophy  of  a 
aper  entitled  New  Experiments  on 
ound.  This  was  followed  by  a number 
of  other  papers,  some  of  them  describ- 
ing inventions  of  his  own,  all  of  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  ingenuity.  In 
1836  he  exhibited  at  King’s  college 
experiments  showing  the  velocity  of 
electricity,  which  suggested  to  hun  the 
idea  of  applying  his  apparatus  to  tele- 
graphing, and  in  1837,  in  conjunction 
with  W.  F.  Cooke,  he  took  out  the  first 
patent  for  the  electric  telegraph.  He 
was  a fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  from 
the  year  1836,  and  in  1868  he  received 
the  honor  of  knighthood. 

WHEEL,  an  instrument  of  torture 
formerly  employed  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, on  which  the  criminal  was  placed 
with  his  face  upward,  and  his  legs  and 
arms  extended  along  the  spokes.  On 
the  wheel  being  moved  round  the  exe- 
cutioner broke  the  wretch’s  limbs  by 


Wheel  and  axle. 


successive  blows  with  a hammer  or  »ron 
bar,  and  after  a more  or  less  protracted 
interval  put  an  end  to  the  sufferings 
of  his  victim  by  two  or  three  severe 
blows,  called  coups  de  grace  (mercy 
strokes),  on  the  chest  or  stomach  or  by 
strangling  him.  In  Germany  its  use 
lingered  down  till  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century. 

WHEEL  AND  AXLE,  one  of  the  me- 
chanical powers,  which  consists  of  a 
wheel  round  the  circumference  of  which 
a string  may  be  wound,  having  a small 
weight  attached  to  its  free  end,  and  an 
axle  whose  circumference,  being  smaller 
than  that  of  the  wheel,  will  sustain  a 
heavier  weight  at  the  end  of  a string 
which  is  wound  upon  it  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  of  the  string  on  the 
wheel.  The  wheel  and  axle  is  merely  a 
case  of  the  lever,  c in  the  figures  being 
the  fulcrum,  while  a c and  b c,  the 
radius  of  the  wheel  and  axle  respectively 
are  the  longer  and  shorter  arms  of  the 
lever.  Hence  the  small  weight  in  ounces 
or  other  measure  of  weight  multiplied 
by  the  radius  of  the  wheel  is  equal  to  the 
balancing  weight  on  the  axle  multiplied 
by  the  radius  of  the  axle.  In  a great 
many  cases  a crank  takes  the  place  of 
the  wheel,  the  circle  described  by  the 
handle  corresponding  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  wheel.  The  common 
winch,  the  windlass,  the  capstan,  and 
the  tread-mill  are  so  many  applications 
of  the  wheel  and  axle;  and  the  same 


principle  may  be  adapted  to  a train  of 
wheel-work  wherein  motion  is  regulated 
and  power  acquired. 

WHEELING,  a city  and  port  in  West 
Virginia,  capital  of  Ohio  county,  on  the 
east  or  left  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  92 
miles  below  Pittsburg.  It  is  the  most 
important  place  on  the  river  between 
Pittsburg  and  Cincinnati,  and  in  respect 
to  trade,  manufactures,  and  population 
the  most  considerable  town  of  the  state. 
Coal  is  largely  worked  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ; there  are  iron-foundries  andforges, 
nail,  glass,  and  paper  works;  cotton, 
silk,  and  steam-engine  manufactories 
and  a brisk  traffic  by  river  and  railroad. 
Pop.  49,642. 

WHEELER,  Benjamin  Ide,  American 
educator,  was  born  at  Randolph,  Mass., 
in  1854.  In  1886  he  became  professor 
of  comparative  philology  in  Cornell 
university,  and  two  years  later  professor 
of  Greek.  In  1899  he  became  president 
of  the  University  of  California.  Among 
his  published  works  are : Der  griechische 
Nominalaccent,  Analogy,  and  the  Scope 
of  Its  Application  in  Language,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  the  History  of 
Language,  in  collaboration  with  H.  A. 
Strong  and  W.  S.  Logeman,  Principles 
of  Language  Growth,  The  Organization 
of  Higher  Education  in  the  United 
States,  and  Life  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

WHEELER,  Joseph,  American  sol- 
dier, born  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  in  1836. 
He  entered  the  confederate  service  in 

1861  as  colonel  of  an  Alabama  regiment 
of  infantry,  to  serve  in  the  west.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Shiloh,  and 
the  same  year  led  the  cavalry  in  the 
army  under  Gen.  Braxton  Bragg.  In 

1862  he  was  made  brigadier-general,  and 
January  19,  1863,  was  promoted  to  be 
major-general.  He  commanded  the 
cavalry  at  the  battle  of  Chickamauga, 
defeated  Stoneman  in  July,  1864,  cap- 
turing that  officer,  with  many  prisoners 
and  all  his  artillery,  and  the  same  year 
defended  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  Aiken, 
S.  C.  On  February  28,  1865,  he  was 
promoted  to  be  lieutenant-general,  and 
continued  in  charge  of  the  cavalry  under 
Gen.  Joseph  E.  Johnston  until  the  end 
of  the  war.  Later  he  was  sent  to  con- 
gress, and  in  January,  1888,  became  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  institution. 
In  1880  he  was  elected  to  congress  as 
a democrat  and  was  a member  con- 
tinuously until  1899.  In  May,  1898,  he 
was  appointed  by  President  McKinley 
a major-general  of  volunteers.  He  com- 
manded the  troops  in  the  engagement 
of  Las  Guasimas,  and  was  senior  field 
officer  in  the  battle  of  San  Juan  Hill  and 
commanded  a brigade  in  the  Philippine 
islands;  was  commissioned  a brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  1901  and 
retired  in  September,  1901.  He  pub- 
lished The  Santiago  Campaign  1898. 
He  died  in  1906. 

WHEELER,  William  Almon,  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States,  from 
1877  to  1881,  was  born  at  Malone,  N.  Y., 
1819.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1843,  served  several  terms  in  the  state 
legislature,  and  as  president  of  the  state 
constitutional  convention  of  1867,  and 
was  a member  of  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives from  1861  to  1877.  He  was 
nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  in 
1876  by  the  republicans,  and  was  seated, 


after  a contest  before  the  electoral  com- 
mission. He  died  in  1887. 

WHERRY,  a light,  shallow  boat, 
seated  for  passengers,  and  plying  on 
rivers. 

WHEY.  See  Milk. 

WHIP-POOR-WILL,  the  popular 
name  of  an  American  bird  allied  to  the 
European  goat-sucker  or  night-jar,  and 
so  called  from  its  cry.  It  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United 


Whip-poor-will. 


States;  is  about  10  inches  long,  and 
feeds  on  flying  moths  and  other  insects. 
Its  note  is  heard  in  the  evening,  or  early 
in  the  morning.  During  the  day  these 
birds  retire  into  the  darkest  woods. 

WHIRLPOOL,  a circular  eddy  or  cur- 
rent in  a river  or  the  sea  produced  by 
the  configuration  of  the  channel,  by 
meeting  currents,  by  winds  meeting 
tides,  etc,,  as  those  of  Charybdis,  the 
Maelstrom,  and  Corryvreckan. 

WHIRL  WIG,  WHIRL  WIG-BEETLE, 
a beetle  which  abounds  in  fresh  water 
and  may  be  seen  circling  round  on  its 
surface  with  great  rapidity.  Its  eyes 
are  divided  by  a narrow  band,  so  that, 
although  it  has  only  two,  it  is  made  to 
look  as  if  it  had  four. 

WHIRLWIND,  a violent  wind  mov- 
ing in  a spiral  form,  as  if  moving  round 
an  axis,  this  axis  having  at  the  same 
time  a progressive  motion.  Whirlwinds 
are  produced  chiefly  by  the  meeting  of 
currents  of  air  which  run  in  different 
directions.  When  they  occur  on  land 
they  give  a whirling  motion  to  dust, 
sand,  etc.,  and  sometimes  even  to  bodies 
of  great  weight  and  bulk,  carrying  them 
either  upward  or  downward,  and  scatter- 
ing them  about  in  all  directions.  At 
sea  they  often  give  rise  to  water-spouts. 
They  are  most  frequent  and  violent  in 
tropical  countries. 

WHISKY,  the  name  applied  to  an 
ardent  spirit  distilled  generally  from 
barley,  but  sometimes  from  wheat,  rye, 
sugar,  molasses,  etc.  There  are  two 
chief  varieties  of  whisky — viz.  malt- 
whisky  and  rye-whisky.  The  former 
variety  is  of  finer  quality,  and  made 
chiefly  from  malted  barley  or  bere,  and 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  from  rye. 
The  latter  is  made  from  various  sub- 
stances, as  sugar,  molasses,  potatoes, 
but  principally  from  unmalted  grain,  as 
Indian  corn,  barley,  oats,  etc.,  dried  and 
ground  up.  The  grain  most  largely  used 
is  Indian  corn.  Grain-whisky  requires 
the  same  process  of  fermentation  and 
distillation  as  malt-whisky,  but  is 
cheaper,  from  its  greater  yield,  and  be- 
cause it  saves  the  expensive  process  of 
malting.  Though  coarser,  it  is  stronger. 


WHIST 


WHITE  MOUNTAINS 


but  if  kept  long  enough  is  equally  good. 
See  Distillation. 

WHIST,  a well-known  game  at  cards. 
The  game  is  played  with  the  full  pack 
of  fifty-two  cards  by  four  persons,  two 
being  partners  against  the  other  two, 
each  player  receiving  thirteen  cards- 
dealt  out  one  by  one  in  rotation.  The 
last  card  dealt  is  turned  face  up,  and  is 
called  the  trump  card;  it  gives  a special 
power  to  the  suit  to  which  it  belongs. 
The  cards  rank  as  follows:  ace  (highest), 
king,  queen,  knave,  and  the  others 
according  to  their  number  of  pips.  Play 
is  commenced  by  the  person  on  the  left 
hand  of  the  dealer  laying  down  a card 
face  up  on  the  table,  the  other  players 
following  in  succession  with  cards  of  the 
same  suit  if  they  have  them.  When  all 
have  played  the  player  who  has  laid  the 
highest  card  takes  the  four  cards  laid 
down,  which  constitute  a trick.  The 
winner  of  the  trick  then  leads,  as  the 
first  of  a new  trick,  the  winner  of  which 
becomes  the  leader,  and  so  on.  When 
a player  cannot  play  a card  of  the  sarne 
suit,  he  may  play  one  of  the  trump  suit, 
and  take  the  trick,  or  lay  one  of  a differ- 
ent suit,  which  gives  him  no  chance  of 
winning  the  trick.  When  the  hand  is 
played  out  the  score  is  taken  as  follows: 
the  partners  who  conjointly  gain  the 
majority  of  tricks  score  one  point  for 
every  trick,  taken  above  six.  The  ace, 
king,  queen,  and  knave  of  the  trump 
suit  are  called  honors,  and  count  one 
each  for  the  side  who  holds  them ; if  one 
side  hold  three  honors,  they  count  two 
by  honors,  as  the  opposite  side  can  have 
but  one ; if  one  side  hold  all  the  honors, 
four  by  honors  is  counted;  should  the 
honors  be  equally  divided  neither  side 
counts,  the  honors  being  then  said  to 
cancel  each  other.  In  long  whist,  hn 
obsolescent  form  of  the  game,  ten  of 
these  points  made  a game.  In  short 
whist,  the  game  now  generally  played, 
the  munber  has  been  reduced  to  five, 
and  in  this  form  it  is  common  to  count 
by  tricks  alone.  A rubber  consists  of 
a series  of  three  games,  and  is  won  by 
the  side  that  secures  two  of  them. 
Should  one  party  gain  two  games  in 
succession,  the  third  of  the  rubber  is  not 
played. 

WHISTLER,  James  Abbott  McNeill, 
painter,  was  born  in  Lowell,  Mass.,  in 
1834 ; was  educated  at  the  United  States 
Military  academy,  studied  drawing  and 
painting  in  Paris,  France,  and  in  1863 
settled  in  London,  England.  He  held 
original  views  concerning  his  art,  and 
has  made  interesting  experiments  with 
color,  in  quest  of  novel  effects.  Mr. 
Whistler  was  also  celebrated  as  an  etcher 
and  was  the  author  of  etchings  and  paint- 
ings of  established  reputation  and  worth. 
His  Little  W’^hite  Girl  achieved  a signal 
success.  His  Little  French  Series,  rep- 
resenting Parisian  views,  some  of  a 
genre  character,  established  his  reputa- 
tion, and  the  wonderful  Thames  Series 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank.  His  later 
subjects  were  taken  from  Holland, 
France,  and  other  localities  which  he 
visited,  but  the  best  known  are  the  First 
Venice  Series  and  the  Second  Venice 
Series.  They  are  the  culmination  of  his 
etching,  and  place  him  in  the  same  rank 
with  Rembrandt,  the  world’s  greatest 
etcher,  whom  he  even  excels  in  selection 


and  subtlety  of  execution.  His  portraits 
of  Carlyle,  Rose  Whistler,  Lady  Archi- 
bald Campbell,  Theodore  Duret,  Comte 
de  Montesquieu,  Sarasite,  the  violinist, 
are  masterful.  In  1887  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  British 
Artists.  At  the  close  of  1889,  when  he 
received  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
(Officer,  1891).  He  was  made  honorary 
member  of  the  academies  of  Munich, 
Dresden,  Rome,  etc.,  Knight  of  the  Ba- 
varian Order  of  Saint  Michael,  and  in 
1900  he  received  the  gold  medal  at  the 
Paris  exposition.  He  died  in  1903. 

WHITE,  Andrew  D.,  college  president 
and  diplomat,  was  born  in  Homer,  N. 
Y.,  1832.  In  1858  he  became  professor 
of  history  and  English  literature  at  the 
University  of  Michigan.  In  1863  he 
was  elected  to  the  New  York  state 
senate.  At  the  expiration  of  his  term  in 
the  senate,  he  was  elected  first  president 
of  Cornell  university,  a position  which 
he  held  until  1885,  when  he  resigned  on 
account  of  ill  health.  In  1867  and  1868 
he  visited  Europe  to  make  a study  of 
foreign  school  organization.  In  1871 
he  was  a member  of  the  United  States 
commission  on  San  Domingo.  And  from 
1879  to  1881  he  was  minister  to  Ger- 
many, and  from  1892-4  to  Russia,  and 
from  1897  to  1902  ambassador  to  Ger- 
many. In  1888  he  was  elected  regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  institution  in  the 
place  of  Asa  Gray,  and  in  1899  member 
of  the  peace  commission  at  The  Hague. 
He  is  the  author  of  many  valuable 
scientific  works.  * 

WHITE,  Edward  Douglas,  associate 
justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Louisiana, 
in  1845.  He  was  educated  at  Mt.  St. 
Mary’s  college,  Emmetsburg,  at  the 
Jesuit  college  of  New  Orleans,  and  the 
Georgetown  university.  He  served  in 
the  confederate  army  and  afterward 
practiced  law.  In  1874  he  was  elected 
state  senator  of  Louisiana,  and  was 
appointed  associate  justice  of  the  su- 
preme court  of  Louisiana  in  1878,  and 
elected  to  the  United  States  senate  in 
1891.  In  1894,  while  serving  as  senator, 
he  was  appointed  associate  justice  of 
the  supreme  court  of  the  United  States. 

WHITE,  Richard  Grant,  American 
author,  was  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1825.  His  literary  tendencies  drew  him 
from  law,  and  his  musical,  dramatic, 
and  art  criticisms  gave  him  prominence. 
He  occupied  a place  among  the  most 
learned  Shakespearian  scholars.  He 
died  in  1885. 

WHITE,  Hugh  Lawson,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Iredell  county, 
N.  C.,in  1773.  He  servedin  the  Cherokee 
war  as  a private.  In  1825  he  succeeded 
Gen.  Andrew  Jackson  in  the  United 
States  senate.  He  stood  as  a candidate 
for  the  presidency  in  1836  and  received 
the  electoral  votes  of  Georgia  and  Ten- 
nessee. He  died  in  1840. 

WHITE,  John  Blake,  American  pain- 
ter, was  born  at  Eutaw  Springs,  S.  C., 
in  1781.  His  best  known  painting  was 
the  Unfurling  of  the  United  States  Flag 
in  the  City  of  Mexico.  Other  paintings 
by  him  include  the  “Battle  of  New 
Orleans,”  “General  Marion  inviting 
the  British  Offieer  to  Dinner,”  etc.,  etc. 
He  was  repeatedly  elected  to  the  South 
Carolina  legislature.  He  died  in  1859. 


WHITE-BAY,  a tree  that  grows  in 
wet  ground  in  the  United  States.  The 
bark  and  seed-cones  are  used  as  tonics. 

WHITE-BEAR.  See  Bear. 

WHITEBOYS,  an  illegal  association 
formed  in  Ireland  about  1760.  The 
association  consisted  of  starving  day- 
laborers,  evicted  farmers,  and  others  in 
a like  condition,  who  used  to  assemble  at 
nights  to  destroy  the  property  of  harsh 
landlords  or  their  agents,  the  Protestant 
clergy,  the  tithe  collectors,  or  any  others 
that  had  made  themselves  obnoxious  in 
the  locality.  In  many  cases  they  did  not 
confine  their  acts  of  aggression  merely 
to  plunder  and  destruction,  but  even 
went  the  length  of  murder. 

WHITEFIELD,  George,  founder  of 
the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  was  born 
in  1714  at  Gloucester.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  Wesleys,  and  joined  the  small 
society  which  procured  them  the  name 
of  Methodists.  In  1738  he  went  to  the 
American  settlement  of  Georgia,  where 
his  ministrations  gave  great  satisfaction 
to  the  eolonists.  In  the  following  year 
he  returned  to  England  to  procure  sub- 
scriptions for  building  an  orphan-house 
in  the  settlement.  Having  taken  priest’s 
orders,  he  repaired  to  London,  where 
the  churches  in  which  he  preached 
proved  incapable  of  holding  the  crowds 
who  assembled  to  hear  him.  He  now 
adopted  preaching  in  the  open  air. 
After  visiting  many  parts  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales  he  again  returned 
to  America,  and  remained  there  nearly 
four  years.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
was  introduced  to  the  Countess  of 
Huntingdon,  who  made  him  one  of  her 
chaplains.  On  his  seventh  visit  to 
America,  he  died  at  Newburyport,  Mass., 
1770. 

WHITEHALL,  a locality  in  Westmin- 
ster, where  are  the  admiralty  office  and 
that  of  the  commander-in-chief  (the 
Horse  Guards),  etc.  On  the  bank  of  the 
Thames  was  a palace  called  Whitehall, 
built  before  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury. In  1530  it  became  the  residence 
of  the  court,  but  in  1695  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  excepting  the  Banqueting  Hall, 
added  by  James  I.,  from  a design  of 
Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  Charles  I was 
executed  in  front  of  Whitehall  and 
Cromwell  died  there. 

WHITE  HOUSE,  the  official  residence 
of  the  president  of  the  United  States,  in 
Washington,  is  a two-story  white  free- 
stone edifice,  painted  white,  170  by  86 
feet.  It  contains  the  private  apartments 
of  the  president  on  the  second  floor 
and  reception  rooms  on  the  first  floor. 
Among  the  latter  are  the  famous  East 
room,  80  by  40  feet,  used  for  public  re- 
ceptions; the  Blue  room,  used  for 
diplomatic  and  social  functions;  and 
the  Red  and  Green  rooms.  The  original 
exeeutive  mansion  was  begun  in  1792 
and  first  occupied  by  President  Adams 
in  1800.  It  was  burned  by  the  British 
in  1814,  and  rebuilt  in  1818.  The  White 
House  is  surrounded  by  an  attractive 
park,  in  which  during  the  summer  music 
is  provided  by  the  Marine  band. 

WHITE  LEAD.  See  Ceruse. 

WHITE  MOUNTAINS,  a group  in  the 
northeast  of  the  United  States,  in  New 
Hampshire,  belonging  to  the  .\lle- 
ghanies.  They  have  fine  scenery  and 


WHITE-OAK 


WHORTLEBERRY 


are  a favorite  summer  resort.  The  cul- 
minating point  is  Mount  Washington, 
6288  feet. 

WHITE-OAK,  a species  of  oak,  a 
native  of  the  United  States  of  America 
and  of  parts  of  Canada. 

WHITE-PINE,  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able and  interesting  species  of  pines, 
common  to  Canada  and  the  northern 
parts  of  the  United  States.  See  Pine. 

WHITE  RIVER,  (1)  a river  of  Arkan- 
sas, with  a course  of  800  miles.  It  joins 
the  Mississippi  above  the  influx  of  the 
Arkansas  river,  and  has  several  im- 
portant affluents.  Together  with  its 
tributaries  it  affords  500  miles  of  boat 
navigation.  (2)  A river  in  Indiana, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  East 
and  West  Forks,  emptying  into  the 
Wabash  near  Mount  Carmel. 

WHITE  SEA,  a large  gulf  of  the  Arctic 
ocean,  penetrating  into  Northern  Russia 
to  the  distance  of  between  300  and  400 
miles.  It  has  an  area  of  about  47,000 
sq.  miles,  with  a coast-line  of  1000  miles. 
It  is  navigable  only  from  the  middle  of 
May  to  the  end  of  September,  being 
frozen  over  the  rest  of  the  year.  Two 
canals,  uniting  the  Dwina  with  the 
Volga  and  the  Dnieper,  connect  the 
White  sea  with  the  Caspian  and  Black 
sea. 

WHITE  VITRIOL,  sulphate  of  zinc. 
See  Zinc. 

WHITEWASH,  a composition  of  lime 
and  water,  or  of  whiting,  size,  and  water, 
used  for  whitening  walls,  ceilings,  etc. 

WHITING,  a well-known  fish  belong- 
ing to  the  cod  tribe.  It  abounds  on  all 
the  British  coasts,  and  in  the  seas  of 
Northern  Europe  generally,  and  ex- 
ceeds all  the  other  fishes  of  its  tribe  in 
its  delicacy  and  lightness  as  an  article 
of  food.  It  does  not  usually  exceed  IJ 
lbs.  in  weight. 

WHITING,  a name  for  chalk,  cleared 
of  its  grosser  impurities,  and  employed 
as  a whitewash  and  as  a polishing  powder 
for  brass,  silver,  etc. 

WHITLOW,  in  surgery,  is  an  inflam- 
mation affecting  the  skin,  tendons,  or 
one  or  more  of  the  bones  of  the  fingers, 
and  generally  terminating  in  an  abscess. 
There  is  a similar  disorder  which  attacks 
the  toes.  Whitlows  differ  very  much  in 
their  degree  of  violence  and  in  their 
depth  and  extent.  The  usual  exciting 
causes  of  whitlows  are  various  external 
injuries,  as  pricks,  contusions,  etc.  The 
lodgment  of  a thorn  or  splinter  in  the 
part  is  another  frequent  cause.  They 
are  much  more  common  in  young, 
healthy  persons  than  in  others,  and  in 
many  cases  occur  without  any  assign- 
able cause. 

WHITMAN,  Marcus,  American  pion- 
eer, was  born  atRushville,N.Y.,  in  1802. 
In  1836  with  three  other  missionaries, 
he  started  westward.  The  party  took 
the  first  wagon  across  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, reached  the  Columbia  river  on 
May  21st,  and  located  near  the  site  of 
the  present  Walla  Walla,  Wash.  On 
November  29,  1847,  the  Cayuse  Indians 
attacked  the  station,  murdered  Whit- 
man, his  wife,  and  twelve  other  persons, 
and  took  the  other  residents  prisoners. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  Whitman’s 
visit  to  the  East  in  1842-3  prevented 
the  cession  to  England  of  the  American 
claim  to  Oregon.  I 


WHITMAN,  Walt,  an  American  poet 
born  in  Long  Island,  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  in  1819.  In  his  early  days  he 
worked  at  the  carpentry  trade  and  at 
printing.  Subsequently  he  became  a 
school  teacher,  and  wrote  for  the  press. 
During  the  civil  war  Whitman  devoted 
himself  to  the  care  of  the  wounded  in  the 
hospitals  of  Virginia  and  Washington, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  war  came  out  with 
his  constitution  irretrievably  broken. 
He  subsequently  entered  the  govern- 
ment service  in  the  capital,  remaining 
there  till  1874.  He  then  removed  to 
Camden,  N.  J.,  where  he  died  in  1892. 
In  1887  his  English  admirers  raised  a 
subscription  in  his  behalf.  His  poems 
are  like  nothing  else  in  the  language, 
rough,  rude,  chaotic  even,  but  strongly  in- 
dividual. The  best  known  are : Leaves 
of  Grass,  Drum  Taps,  and  Democratic 
Vistas.  Specimen  Days  and  Collect, 
and  November  Boughs,  contain  his 
prose  writings,  old  and  new;  though  it  is 
difficult  in  the  case  of  Whitman  to  dis- 
tinguish prose  from  poetry  in  the  ordi- 
nary senses  of  the  terms. 

WHITNEY,  Eli,  American  inventor, 
born  at  Westborough,  Mass.,  in  1765, 
and  educated  at  Yale  college,  where  he 
graduated  in  1792.  Going  then  to  Georgia 
as  a teacher,  he  there  invented  a ma- 
chine for  separating  the  cotton  from  the 
seed.  Returning  to  the  north  he  started 
business  in  conjunction  with  a man 
named  Miller  as  a manufacturer  of 
cotton  gins.  But  the  profits  of  the  busi- 
ness, together  with  50,000  dollars  voted 
to  him  by  the  state  of  South  Carolina, 
were  swallowed  up  in  his  lawsuits  in 
defense  of  his  rights.  He  subsequently 
went  into  the  manufacture  of  firearms, 
for  which  he  received  a government 
contract,  and  so  made  a fortune.  He 


the  Study  of  Language,  Oriental  and 
Linguistic  Studies,  Life  and  Growth  of 
Language,  Sanskrit  Grammar,  German 
Grammar,  etc.  He  was  chief  editor  of 
the  Century  Dictionary.  He  died  in 
1894. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  See  Pentecost. 

WHITTIER,  John  Greenleaf,  Ameri- 
can poet,  was  born  of  Quaker  parents 
in  1807  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  academy  of  his  native  place. 
In  his  younger  days  he  worked  on  his 
father’s  farm  and  learned  the  shoe- 
making trade,  but  early  began  to  write 
for  the  press,  and  in  1831  published  his 
first  work.  Legends  of  New  England,  in 
prose  and  verse.  He  carried  on  the  farm 
himself  for  five  years,  and  in  1835-36 
he  was  a member  of  the  legislature  of 


died  in  1825. 

WHITNEY,  Josiah  Dwight,  American 
geologist,  was  born  at  Northampton, 
Mass.,  in  1819.  Through  his  studies  in 
the  mining  regions  of  the  United  States 
he  became  the  foremost  authority  of 
his  day  on  economic  geology.  The  best 
known  of  his  writings  are  The  Mineral 
Wealth  of  the  United  States,  The  Geo- 
logical Survey  of  California,  Reports  on 
the  Geology  of  the  Lake  Superior  Land 
Region  and  of  Ohio.  He  died  in  1896. 

WHITNEY,  William  Collins,  American 
politician,  was  born  at  Conway,  Mass., 
in  1841.  From  1875  to  1882  he  was 
corporation  counsel  to  New  York.  He 
was  active  in  the  state  campaign  of 
1882  which  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Grover  Cleveland  as  governor.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Cleveland  in 
1885  secretary  of  the  navy.  In  1892  he 
successfully  managed  the  Cleveland 
presidential  campaign.  He  died  in  1904. 

WHITNEY,  William  Dwight,  a dis- 
tinguished American  philologist,  born 
in  1827  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  studied 
at  Williams’  college,  Williamstown,  and 
at  Yale  college,  giving  special  attention 
to  Sanskrit.  He  also  studied  Sanskrit  in 
Germany  from  1850  to  1853,  returning 
in  the  latter  year  to  America.  The  first- 
fruits  of  his  studies  in  Sanskrit  was  an 
edition  of  the  Atharva-Veda.  He  had 
previously  been  made  professor  of  Sans- 
krit and  of  comparative  philology  at 
Yale  college.  Among  his  independent 
works  may  be  mentioned.  Language  and  * 


Massachusetts.  After  having  edited 
several  other  papers  he  went  to  Phila- 
delphia to  edit  the  Pennsylvania  Free- 
man, an  anti-slavery  paper,  the  office 
of  which  was  burned  by  the  mob  in  1839. 
In  the  following  year  he  returned  to  his 
native  state,  settling  at  Amesbury, 
where  (or  at  Danvers,  Mass.)  he  after- 
ward chiefly  resided.  Among  the 
numerous  volumes  of  poetry  which  he 
from  time  to  time  gave  to  the  world  the 
following  may  be  mentioned:  Moll 
Pitcher,  Lays  of  My  Home,  Miscellane- 
ous Poems,  The  Voices  of  Freedom, 
Songs  of  Labor,  The  Chapel  of  the  Her- 
mits, Home  Ballads  and  Poems,  Snow 
Bound,  In  War-time,  National  Lyrics, 
Ballads  of  New  England,  Miriam,  Mabel 
Martin,  Hazel  Blossoms,  The  King’s 
Missive,  Poems  of  Nature,  St.  Gregory’s 
Guest,  etc.  Whittier’s  poems  are  distin- 
guished by  their  freshness,  their  quiet 
power,  and  intense  feeling.  He  died  in 
1892. 

WHOOPING-COUGH,  See  Hooping- 
cough. 

WHORL,  in  botany,  a ring  of  organs 
all  on  the  same  plane. 

WHORTLEBERRY,  a genus  of 
shrubby  plants,  with  alternate  leaves, 
pink  or  red  bell-like  flowers,  and  berries 
of  a dark  purple,  bluish,  or  red  color. 
The  common  whortleberry,  bilberry,  or 
blaeberry  is  a hardy  plant,  which  grows 
in  forests,  heaths,  and  on  elevated  moun- 


WICHITA 


WILDE 


tains.  Whortleberries  in  North  America 
are  generally  known  as  huckleberries. 

WICH'ITA,  a city  in  Kansas,  situated 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Arkansas  river. 
It  is  the  most  important  railway  center 
in  the  state,  being  the  junction  of  seven 
different  lines.  Wichita  has  sprung  into 
existence  since  1870.  Pop.  30,000. 

WICKLIFFE,  Wycliffe,  etc.,  John, 
was  born  about  1320  at  Hipswell,  near 
Richmond,  in  Yorkshire.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford;  was  elected  master 
of  Balliol  college,  and  in  1361  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  Fylingham,  or  Filling- 
ham,  in  Lincolnshire.  He  afterward  be- 
came doctor  of  theology  and  teacher  of 
divinity  in  the  university;  and  for  sorne 
time  held  the  living  of  Ludgershall,  in 
Buckinghamshire.  Disputes  existed  at 
this  period  between  Edward  III.  and 
the  papal  court  relative  to  the  homage 
and  tribute  exacted  from  King  John, 
and  the  English  parliament  had  resolved 
to  support  the  sovereign  in  his  refusal 
to  submit  to  the  vassage.  Wickliffe 
came  forward  on  behalf  of  the  patriotic 
view  and  wrote  several  tracts,  which  pro- 
cured him  the  patronage  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.  In  some  of 
his  utterances  he  is  said  to  have  styled 
the  pope  Antichrist,  charging  him  with 
simony,  covetousness,  ambition,  and 
.tyranny.  His  opinions  began  to  spread. 


John  Wickliffe. 


and  the  church  grew  alarmed.  In  May 
following  the  pope  addressed  three  bulls 
to  the  king,  the  primate,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  commanding  them  to 
take  proceedings  against  Wickliffe, 
who  in  answer  to  the  prelate’s  summons 
appeared  in  the  chapel  of  Lambeth. 
Proceedings  were,  however,  stopped  by 
order  of  the  queen-mother,  and  Wick- 
lifife  was  dismissed  with  simply  an  in- 
junction to  refrain  from  preaching  the 
obnoxious  doctrines.  In  1381  he  pub- 
licly challenged  the  doctrine  of  tran- 
substantiation,  and  his  heresies  were 
condemned  by  the  theologians  of  Ox- 
ford, as  well  as  by  a provincial  council 
called  by  Archbishop  Courtenay  and 
held  at  the  Blackfriars,  London,  in  1382. 
Wickliffe  was  proclaimed  a heretic,  his 
works  were  condemned  to  be  burned, 
and  some  of  his  followers  were  im- 
prisoned; but  he  was  allowed  to  retire 
unmolested  to  his  rectory  of  Lutter- 
worth. A stroke  of  paralysis  terminated 
his  life  on  the  31st  of  December,  1384. 
About  thirty  years  after  his  death  his 
doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  Coun- 


cil of  Constance,  and  in  1428  his  remains 
were  dug  up,  burned,  and  the  ashes 
cast  into  the  Swift.  The  influence  of  his 
doctrines  spread  widely  on  the  con- 
tinent, and  may  easily  be  traced  in  the 
history  of  the  Reformation.  Wickliffe 
was  the  author  of  an  enormous  number 
of  writings  in  Latin  and  English,  and  he 
ranks  undoubtedly  as  the  father  of 
English  prose.  Many  of  his  writings 
still  remain  in  MS.,  and  it  was  not  until 
1850  that  the  whole  of  his  Bible  ap- 
peared. 

WICKLOW,  a maritime  county  of 
Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Leinster, 
bounded  by  the  county  of  Dublin,  St. 
George’s  channel,  Wexford,  Carlow,  and 
Kildare;  greatest  length,  40  miles; 
breadth,  33  miles;  area,  500,178.  Its 
chief  towns  are  Bray,  Arklow,  Wicklow, 
and  Baltinglass.  Pop.  60,679. 

WIDGEON,  or  WIGEON,  a species  of 
natatorial  bird  allied  to  the  Anatidae  or 
ducks.  The  American  widgeon  is  most 
abundant  in  Carolina,  and  is  often  called 
bald-pate,  from  the  white  on  the  top  of 
the  head. 

WIESBADEN  (ves'ba-den),  a town  in 
Prussia,  province  of  Hesse-Nassau, 
finely  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Taunus, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Salzbach,  about  2 
miles  from  the  Rhine.  It  is  noted  for  its 
hot  medicinal  saline  springs  (the  tem- 
perature of  the  Kochbrunnen  being  156° 
F.),  and  it  attracts  annually  upward  of 
60,000  visitors.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  Kursaal,  a new  town-house,  an  old 
and  a new  palace,  library,  museum, 
English  church,  and  other  churches, 
theater,  etc.  Pop.  86,086. 

WIFE.  See  Husband  and  Wife. 

WIG,  an  artificial  covering  of  hair  for 
the  head,  used  generally  to  conceal  bald- 
ness, but  formerly  worn  as  a fashionable 
means  of  decoration.  Formally  curled 
wigs  are  still  worn  professionally  by 
judges  and  lawyers  in  Breat  Gritain, 
and  wigs  are  commonly  used  in  making 
up  for  the  stage. 

WIG'AN,  a municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough,  Lancashire,  England, 
on  the  Douglas,  21  miles  northeast  of 
Liverpool.  Wigan  stands  in  the  center 
of  an  extensive  coal-field,  and  its  manu- 
factures consist  chiefly  of  calicoes,  fus- 
tians, and  other  cotton  goods,  linens, 
checks,  cotton  twist,  etc.,  besides  iron- 
foundries,  iron-forges,  iron-rolling  mills, 
chemical  works,  and  corn  and  paper 
mills.  Pop.  60,770. 

WIGFALL,  Lewis  T.,  American  law- 
yer and  soldier,  was  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1816.  He  was  a member  of 
the  Texas  state  legislature,  at  intervals, 
from  1849  to  1860,  and  was  during  the 
latter  year  elected  United  States  sena- 
tor. He  entered  the  confederate  army 
as  an  aide-de-camp  to  Gen.  P.  G.  T. 
Beauregard,  and  received  the  surrender 
of  Fort  Sumter  from  Major  Anderson  in 
person.  He  was  promoted  to  be  briga- 
dier-general, and  subsequently  rep- 
resented Texas  in  the  confederate  con- 
gress. After  the  war  he  visited  Europe, 
and  in  1873  resumed  the  practice  of  law 
at  Baltimore.  He  died  in  1874. 

WIGGIN,  Kate  Douglas,  American, 
author,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1857.  Among  her  published  stories, 
are;  The  Story  of  Patsy,  A Cathedral 
Courtship,  Penelope’s  Progress,  Penel- 


ope’s Experience  in  Ireland,  Diary  of  a 
Goose  Girl,  The  Birds’  Christmas  Carol. 

WIGHT,  Isle  of,  an  island  off  the 
south  coast  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Hants,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
Spithead  and  the  Solent;  23  miles  in 
length,  13  miles  broad;  area,  93,341 
acres.  The  main  slope  of  the  island  is  to 
the  north,  as  is  shown  by  the  course  of 
its  chief  streams,  the  Medina,  Yar,  and 
Eastern  Yar.  The  chief  towns  are  New- 
port (the  capital),  Ryde,  Cowes,  Vent- 
nor,  Bembridge,  Freshwater,  Yarmouth 
and  the  fashionable  health-resorts  of 
Sandown  and  Shanklin.  Near  Cowes  is 
Osborne  House,  a favorite  residence  of 
the  late  Queen  Victoria.  Carisbrook* 
castle  is  an  interesting  ruin.  Pop.  82,387. 

WILCOX,  Ella  (Wheeler),  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  poet,  was  born  in 
1855.  She  was  at  an  early  age  a frequent 
contributor  to  journals.  Among  her 
collections  of  verse  may  be  named: 
Maurine,  Poems  of  Passion  and  Poems 
of  Pleasure.  An  Erring  Woman’s  Love. 
Among  her  prose  writings  are:  Mai 
Moul6e,  a novel;  Men,  Women,  and 
Emotions:  A Double  Life,  Sweet  Dan- 
gers. She  also  published  a children’s 
book.  The  Beautiful  Land  of  Nod.  Her 
books  of  poems  are  very  popular  and 
enjoy  a very  large  sale. 

WIGWAM,  an  Indian  cabin  or  hut,  so 
called  in  North  .'America.  These  huts  are 
generally  of  a conical  shape,  formed  of 


Wigwams  of  Nortk  American  Indians. 

bark  or  mats  laid  over  stakes  planted 
in  the  ground  and  converging  at  top, 
where  is  an  opening  for  the  escape  of  the 
smoke. 

WILBERFORCE,  William,  English 
philanthropist,  born  at  Hull  1759,  died 
1833.  After  completing  his  education 
at  St.  John’s  college,  Cambridge,  he  was, 
in  1780,  elected  member  of  parliament 
for  his  native  town;  and  in  1784  he  was 
returned  by  the  county  of  York.  In  1791 
he  moved  for  leave  to  bring  in  a bill  to 
prevent  further  importation  of  African 
negroes  into  the  British  colonies.  Year 
after  year  he  pressed  this  measure,  but 
was  always  defeated  till  1807,  when  it 
was  passed  during  the  short  administra- 
tion of  Fox.  He  then  devoted  his 
energies  to  bring  about  the  total  aboli- 
tion of  slavery,  and  three  days  before 
his  death  he  was  informed  that  the 
House  of  Commons  had  passed  a bill 
which  extinguished  slavery  in  the 
British  colonies. 

WILD-DUCK.  See  Duck. 

WILDE,  Oscar,  Irish  poet,  born  at 
Dublin  in  1856.  He  studied  first  at 
Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  finally  at 
Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  graduating 
at  the  latter  institution  in  1878.  About 


WILKES 


WILLIAM  III 


this  time  he  affected  to  have  become  an 
apostle  of  aestheticism,  and  was  an 
object  of  considerable  interest  by  reason 
of  his  dress  and  manners.  He  visited 
Greece  in  1879,  and  in  1881  lectured  in 
the  United  States.  From  1893  to  1895 
he  won  considerable  success  as  a writer 
of  comedies  remarkable  for  their  spark- 
ling epigrammatic  cleverness  — Lady 
Windermere’s  Fan  and  The  Importance 
of  Being  Earnest  among  them ; also 
Salome,  a drama  in  the  mediaeval  style. 
The  most  widely  read  of  his  books  was 
The  Picture  of  Dorian  Gray,  a novel. 
The  end  of  his  life  was  sad.  Convicted 
in  1895  of  a grave  offense  against 
morality,  he  was  imprisoned  for  two 
years,  during  which  he  wrote  one  of  his 
strongest  poems,  A Ballad  of  Reading 
Gaol.  After  his  release  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  arranged  for  the  publication  of 
his  greatest  work,  De  Profundis.  He 
died  November  30,  1900. 

WILKES,  Charles,  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  New  York  City  April  3, 
1798.  He  entered  the  United  States  navy 
in  1818,  as  midshipman,  and  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant  in  1826.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  rebellion  he  was  engaged 
in  the  West  India  waters,  searching  for 
the  confederate  cruiser  Sumter,  when 
he  encountered  the  British  steamer 
Trent,  engaged  in  conveying  two  con- 
federate commissioners.  Mason  and 
Slidell,  to  England  and  France.  He 
demanded  the  two  officials,  and  bore 
them  as  prisoners  of  war  to  Boston 
harbor.  His  action  nearly  involved 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  in 
war.  Wilkes  was,  however,  promoted  to 
be  commodore.  Later,  and  until  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  was  attached  to  the 
West  Indian  squadron,  and  was  retired 
July  25,  1866,  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral.  He  died  in  1877. 

WILKESBARRE  (wilks'ba-re),  capi- 
tal of  Luzerne  county,  Pennsylvania, 
on  the  north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna, 
about  100  miles  northwest  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  the  center  of  a rich  an- 
thracite coal-field,  and  has  manufactures 
of  machinery,  locomotives,  cars,  mining 
engines  and  tools,  iron  castings,  ropes, 
brewery  products,  etc.  Pop.  61,416. 

WILKIE,  Sir  David,  one  of  the  most 
famous  painters  of  the  British  school, 
was  son  of  the  minister  of  Cults,  near 
Cupar,  Fifeshire,  born  there  1783,  died 
at  sea  off  Gibraltar  1841,  while  returning 
from  a visit  to  Palestine.  He  was 
elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in 
1809,  and  in  1811  became  an  academi- 
cian. In  1825,  owing  to  ill-health,  he 
made  an  extended  tour  through  Italy, 
Germany,  and  Spain.  In  the  latter 
country  his  style  as  a painter  underwent 
a marked  change  when  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  Velasquez  and  Murillo. 
Returning  after  three  years  to  England, 
he  was  appointed  (1830)  painter  in 
ordinary  to  the  king,  and  was  knighted 
in  1836.  His  pictures,  such  as  the  Blind 
Fiddler,  Rent  Day,  Cottars’  Saturday 
Night,  Blind  Man’s  Buff,  Chelsea  Pen- 
sioners reading  the  Gazette  of  Water- 
loo, John  Knox  preaching  before  the 
I;ords  of  the  Congregation,  The  En- 
trance of  George  IV.  into  Holyrood,  The 
Spanish  Council  of  War,  The  Maid  of  Sar- 
agossa, Napoleon  and  Pius  VII.,  and  The 
Queen’s  First  Council,  are  well  known. 


WILKINSBURG,  a town  in  Allegheny 
CO.,  Pa.,  on  the  Penn,  railroad;  7 miles 
e.  of  Pittsburg.  It  is  closely  identified 
with  the  business  interests  of  Pittsburg. 
Pop.  13,602. 


which  the  human  mind  finds  expression, 
the  other  two  being  thought  (or  intel- 
lect) and  feeling  (or  emotion).  It  is  the 
faculty  by  which  a choice  is  made  be- 
tween two  courses  of  action,  as  distinct 
from  the  exercise  of  this  power,  which  is 
more  fitly  described  as  volition.  This 
faculty  of  the  will,  in  the  maturity  of 
its  complex  power,  is  usually  conceived 
as  having  been  educated  by  a process  of 
sensation;  pleasure  and  pain  giving  rise 
to  the  motives  by  which  the  active  de- 
termining energy  is  set  in  motion.  Yet 
the  exact  relation  between  will  and 
motive,  the  question  whether  the  motive 
governs  the  will  or  the  will  determines 
the  motive,  has  never  been  authori- 
tatively settled.  Thus  the  “freedom”  of 
the  will  has,  until  now,  been  maintained 
as  a metaphysical  and  theological  belief 
in  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  “neces- 
sity.” Aristotle  in  his  Ethics  incidentally 
asserted  the  freedom  of  the  will;  with 
this  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans  agreed; 
as  did  also  Justin  Martyr,  Origen,  and 
St.  Augustine;  while  its  later  adherents 
were  Reid,  Stewart,  Kant,  and  Hamil- 
ton. On  the  contrary,  among  the  early 
Christians,  the  Gnostics  denied  the 
freedom  of  the  human  will;  so  also  did 
Spinoza;  while  the  more  modern  ad- 
vocates of  the  doctrine  of  “necessity” 
were  Hobbes,  Hume,  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, and  John  S.  Mill. 

WILL,  or  TESTAMENT,  in  law,  the 
legal  declaration  of  a man’s  intentions 
as  to  what  he  wills  to  be  performed  after 
his  death  in  relation  to  his  property. 
In  England,  as  also  in  the  British 
colonies  and  the  United  States,  no  will, 
whether  of  real  or  personal  estate,  is  to 
be  valid  unless  it  be  in  writing,  and 
signed  at  the  foot  or  end  by  the  testator, 
or  by  some  person  in  his  presence,  and 
by  his  direction.  Such  signature  must 
be  made  and  the  document  acknowledg- 
edged  as  his  will  by  the  testator  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  more  witnesses  pres- 
ent at  the  same  time,  and  such  w’itnesses 
must  attest  and  subscribe  the  will  in  the 
presence  of  the  testator.  Any  alteration 
or  obliteration  must  also  be  duly  signed 
by  the  testator  and  the  witnesses.  A 
will  may  be  revoked  by  cancelling  or 
obliteration,  tearing,  or  burning;  or  by 


a new  will  expressly  revoking  the  former, 
or  containing  provisions  inconsistent 
with  it. 

WILLARD,  Francis  Elizabeth,  Amer- 
ican reformer,  was  born  at  Church- 
ville,  N.  Y.,  in  1839.  In  1874  she  was 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  National 
Women’s  Christian  Temperance  Union, 
and  later  was  president  of  the  W.  C.  T. 
U.  of  Illinois;  president  of  the  N.  W.  C. 
T.  U.  1879-97.  She  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  prohibition  party- 
editor  of  the  Chicago  Post  in  1879,  ana 
later  of  The  Union  Signal.  In  1883  she 
organized  the  World’s  Women’s  Chris- 
tian Temperance  Union,  and  was  made 
its  president  at  the  first  convention  at 
Boston,  in  1891.  Her  works  included 
Women  and  Temperance,  Nineteen 
Beautiful  Years,  Women  in  the  Pulpit, 
and  Glimpses  of  Fifty  Years.  She  died 
in  1898. 

WILLET,  a bird  of  the  snipe  family 
found  in  America.  It  is  a fine  game  bird, 
and  its  flesh  and  eggs  are  prized  for  food. 
Called  also  stone  curlew. 

WILLIAM  I.,surnamedthe  Conqueror, 
King  of  England,  and  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, born  1027,  was  the  natural  son 
of  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  by 
Arlotta,  the  daughter  of  a tanner  of 
Falaise.  His  father  having  no  legitimate 
son,  William  became  the  heir  at  his 
death,  and  ruled  Normandy  with  great 
vigor  and  ability.  The  opportunity  of 
gaining  a wider  dominion  presented  it- 
self on  the  death  of  his  second  cousin 
Edward  the  Confessor,  king  of  England, 
whose  crown  he  claimed.  To  enforce 
this  claim  he  invaded  England,  and  the 
victory  of  Hastings,  in  which  his  rival 
Harold  was  killed,  ensured  his  success 
(1066).  He  established  the  administra- 
tion of  law  and  justice  on  a firm  basis 
throughout  England,  conferred  numer- 
ous grants  of  land  on  his  own  followers, 
and  introduced  the  feudal  constitution 
of  Normandy  in  regard  to  tenure  and 
services.  He  expelled  numbers  of  the 
English  church  dignitaries  and  replaced 
them  by  Normans.  Toward  the  end  of 
his  reign  he  instituted  that  general  sur- 
vey of  the  landed  property  of  the  king- 
dom, the  record  of  which  still  exists 
under  the  title  of  Domesday  Book.  In 
1087  he  went  to  war  with  France,  whose 
king  had  encouraged  a rebellion  of 
Norman  nobles.  He  entered  the  French 
territory,  and  committed  great  ravages, 
but,  by  a fall  from  his  horse  at  Mantes, 
received  an  injury  which  caused  his 
death  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Gervais,  near 
Rouen  (1087). 

WILLIAM  II.,  surnamed  Rufus,  from 
his  red  hair,  third  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  in  Normandy  in  1056,  and 
crowned  at  Westminster  in  1087  on  the 
death  of  his  father.  A characteristic 
incident  in  William’s  reign  was  his  con- 
tention with  Anselm,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  regarding  church  property 
and  the  sovereignty  of  the  pope.  In 
1100  he  met  his  death  while  hunting  in 
the  New  Forest,  by  an  arrow  shot 
accidentally  or  otherwise  from  the  bow 
of  a French  gentleman  named  Walter 
Tyrrel. 

WILLIAM  III.,  Stadtholder  of  Hol- 
land and  King  of  England,  son  of  Wil- 
liam II.  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Oransre,  and 
Henrietta  Mary  Stuart,  daughter  of 


WILLIAM  IV 


WILMINGTON 


Charles  I.  of  England,  was  born  at  the 
Hague  on  the  4th  of  November,  1650. 
During  his  early  life  all  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  grand  pentionary  John  De 
Witt,  but  when  France  and  England 
in  1672  declared  war  against  the  Nether- 
lands, there  was  a popular  revolt,  in 
which  Cornelius  and  John  De  Witt  were 
murdered,  while  William  was  declared 
captain-general,  grand  - admiral,  and 
stadtholder  of  the  United  Provinces. 
In  the  campaign  which  followed  he 
opened  the  sluices  in  the  dykes  and 
inundated  the  country  round  Amster- 
dam, thus  causing  the  French  to  retire, 
while  peace  was  soon  made  with  Eng- 
land. In  1677  he  was  married,  and  the 
Peace  of  Nijmegen  followed  in  1678.  As 
his  wife  was  heir  presumptive  to  the 
English  throne  he  had  kept  close  watch 
upon  the  policy  of  his  father-in-law 
James  II.,  and  in  1688  he  issued  a decla- 
ration recapitulating  the  unconstitu- 
tional acts  of  the  English  king,  and  prom- 


WilUa;m  III. 


ising  to  secure  a free  parliament  to  the 
people.  Being  invited  over  to  England 
by  some  of  the  leading  men  he  arrived 
suddenly  at  Torbay,  November  5,  1688, 
with  a fleet  of  500  sail,  and  with  14,000 
troops.  Upon  landing  a great  part  of  the 
nobility  declared  in  his  favor,  and  in 
December  James  fled  with  his  family  to 
France,  after  which  William  made  his 
entry  into  London.  The  throne  was  now 
declared  vacant,  the  Declaration  of 
Rights  was  passed,  and  on  February  13, 
1689,  Mary  was  proclaimed  queen  and 
William  king.  Scotland  soon  afterward 
followed  England’s  example  (with  a 
partial  resistance  under  Dundee);  but  in 
Ireland,  whither  Louis  XIV.  sent  James 
with  an  army,  the  majority  of  the 
Catholics  maintained  the  cause  of  the 
deposed  king,  until  they  were  defeated 
at  the  Boyne  (1690)  and  at  Aughrim 
(1691).  In  the  war  with  France  William 
was  less  successful ; but  although  he  was 
defeated  at  Steinkirk  (1692)  and  Neer- 
winden  (1693)  Louis  was  finally  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  him  king  of 
England  at  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  in 
1697.  In  1701  James  II.  died,  and  Louis 
XIV.  acknowledged  his  son  as  king  of 
England.  England,  Holland,  and  the 
empire  had  already  combined  against 
Louis,  and  the  war  of  the  Spanish  suc- 
cession was  just  on  the  point  of  com- 
mencing when  William  died,  8th  March, 
1702,  from  the  effects  of  a fall  from  his 


horse,  his  wife  having  already  died 
childless  in  1694. 

WILLIAM  IV.,  King  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  third  son  of  George 
III.,  born  1765,  died  1837.  He  served  in 
the  navy,  rising  successively  to  all  the 
grades  of  naval  command,  till  in  1801  he 
was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet.  In  1789 
he  had  received  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Clarence,  and  in  June,  1830,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  George  IV.  to  the 
throne. 

WILLIAM  I.,  first  German  emperor, 
and  seventh  king  of  Prussia,  second  son 
of  Frederick  'William  HI.,  born  22d 
March,  1797,  died  9th  March,  1888. 
At  an  early  age  he  began  the  study  of 
military  affairs;  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1813-14  under  Bliicher;  mar- 
ried in  1829  Princess  Augusta  of  Saxe- 
Weimar;  became  heir-presumptive  to 
the  throne  of  Prussia  on  his  father’s 
death  in  1840;  was  commander  of  the 
forces  which  suppressed  the  revolution- 
ary movement  (1849)  in  Baden;  created 
regent  in  1858,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
king,  his  brother,  in  1861  he  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Prussia.  During  his 
reign  Prussia  defeated  Deiunark  (1846), 
annexing  the  duchies  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein;  quarreled  with  Austria,  and 
engaged  in  a campaign  which  ended  in 
the  victory  of  Sadowa  (1866);  and  went 
with  the  rest  qf  Germany  to  war  with 
France  in  1870  (see  Germany  and 
France).  In  this  war  the  operations  of 
the  Prussian  generals  were  under  the 
personal  supervision  of  the  king.  It  was 
at  Versailles,  during  the  siege  of  Paris 
(January  18,  1871)  that  he  was  pro- 
claimed German  emperor. 

WILLIAM  II.,  King  of  Prussia  and 
German  emperor,  eldest  son  of  Freder- 
ick III.  and  Victoria,  princess  royal  of 
England,  was  born  January  27,  1859; 
educated  at  Cassel  and  Bonn,  married 
Augusta  Victoria  of  Schleswig-Holstein- 
Augustenburg  in  1881,  and  succeeded 
his  father,  15th  June,  1888.  Since  his 
accession  he  has  shown  a great  deal  of 
energy  in  various  directions,  such  as 
in  military  affairs  and  social  questions, 
and  his  independent  spirit  brought 
about  the  retiral  of  Bismarck  in  1890. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE, 
the  second  oldest  college  in  the  Unitea 
States,  was  founded  in  1693.  The  in- 
stitution received  a penny  a pound  on 
exports  of  tobacco  and  various  other 
privileges,  including  the  profits  from 
the  office  of  surveyor-general  of  Vir- 
ginia. The  college  attained  rapid  pros- 
perity, but  it  suffered  heavily  in  the 
revolution.  During  the  civil  war  it  was 
occupied  by  the  federal  troops  and  much 
of  its  property  was  destroyed.  In  1893 
congress  granted  an  indemnity  of 
$64,000  for  its  losses.  The  college  offers 
two  courses — the  collegiate,  leading  to 
the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.,  and  the 
normal.  The  college  has  a distinguished 
list  of  graduates,  among  them  Presi- 
dents Jefferson,  Monroe,  Tyler,  and 
Harrison,  Chief  Justice  John  Marshall, 
and  Gen.  Winfield  Scott.  The  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  fraternity  was  established  at 
William  and  Mary  in  1776. 

WILLIAM  THE  LION.  See  Scotland 
(History). 

WILLIAM  THE  SILENT,  Count  of 
Nassau  and  Prince  of  Orange,  eldest  son  ' 


of  William,  count  of  Nassau,  was  born 
in  1533.  It  was  by  his  political  prudence 
that  the  five  northern  provinces  joined 
in  the  Union  of  Utrecht  (1579),  and  thus 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  republic  of 
the  United  Netherlands.  To  check  this 
growing  power  Philip  set  a price  of 
25,000  gold  crowns  upon  the  head  of  the 
prince,  with  the  result  that  his  life  was 
attempted  in  1582  at  Antwerp,  and  he 
was  ultimately  assassinated  at  Delft  in 
1584  by  a fanatic  named  Balthasar 
Gerard. 

WILLIAMS,  Roger,  a puritan  divine 
and  founder  of  the  colony  of  Rhode 
Island,  North  America,  was  born  of 
Welsh  or  Cornish  parents  about  1599, 
died  1684.  He  emigrated  in  1631  to 
New  England.  Here  he  became  pastor 
of  a church  at  Salem,  until  his  extreme 
views  regarding  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  magistrate  caused  him  to  be  ban- 
ished from  the  colony  of  Massachusetts. 
Upon  this  he  repaired  with  a few  com- 
panions to  Rhode  Island  and  founded  a 
settlement,  whiph  he  called  Providence. 
He  was  twice  in  England  in  connection 
with  a charter  for  the  colony,  and  there 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Milton  and 
other  prominent  puritans.  He  also  pub- 
lished A Key  into  the  Language  of  the 
Indians  of  America,  The  Bloudy  Tenent 
of  Persecution  for  the  Cause  of  Con- 
science, The  Bloudy  Tenent  yet  more 
Bloudy,  and  George  Foxe  digged  out  of 
his  Burrowes. 

WILLIAMSPORT,  a town  in  Lycom- 
ing county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  west 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna.  It  is  a 
favorite  summer  residence,  and  the  cen- 
ter of  a large  Imnber  trade.  Pop.  39,161. 

WILLIMAN'TIC,  a town  in  Windham 
county,  Connecticut,  an  important  rail- 
road and  industrial  center.  Pop.  10,415. 

WILLIS,  Nathaniel  Parker,  an  Aineri- 
can  author,  born  at  Portland,  Maine, 
1807;  died  1867.  His  numerous  pub- 
lished writings  include;  Pencilings  by 
the  Way,  Inklings  of  Adventure,  Loiter- 
ings of  Travel,  People  I have  Met, 
Famous  Persons  and  Places,  Outdoors 
at  Idlewild,  The  Convalescent,  his 
Rambles  and  Adventures. 

WILLOW,  the  common  name  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  plants.  The  species  of 
willows  are  numerous,  about  160  having 
been  described.  They  are  all  either  trees 
or  bushes,  and  grow  naturally  in  a moist 
soil.  On  account  of  the  flexible  nature 
of  their  shoots,  and  the  toughness  of 
their  woody  fiber,  willows  have  always 
been  used  as  materials  for  baskets, 
hoops,  crates,  etc.  The  wood  is  soft, 
and  is  used  for  wooden  shoes,  pegs,  and 
the  like ; it  is  also  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  charcoal,  and  the  bark 
of  all  the  species  contains  the  tanning 
principle.  The  weeping  willow  is  a native 
of  China,  and  is  a fine  ornamental  tree. 
The  willow  has  for  long  been  considered 
as  symbolical  of  mourning. 

■l^LLOW-WREN,  one  of  the  most 
abundant  of  the  warblers,  with  a pleas- 
ing song.  The  general  color  is  dull, 
olive-green  above,  the  chin,  throat,  and 
breast  yellowish-white,  and  the  belly 
pure  white. 

WILMINGTON,  a city  in  Delaware, 
28  miles  southwest  of  Philadelphia,  near 
the  Delaware  between  Brandywine  and 
Christiana  creeks.  It  is  regularly  built. 


WILMINGTON 


WIND 


and  has  a university,  a city-hall,  an 
opera-house,  an  hospital,  cotton  and 
woolen  factories,  iron-foundries,  rolling- 
mills,  potteries,  tanneries,  breweries, 
and  an  extensive  trade.  Pop.  91,510. 

WILMINGTON,  a port  in  North 
Carolina,  on  the  Cape  Fear  river,  160 
miles  n.e.  of  Charleston.  It  is  the  largest 
town  in  the  state,  has  turpentine  dis- 


tilleries, machine-shops,  etc.,  and  ex- 
ports large  quantities  of  cotton  and 
lumber.  Pop.  22,056. 

WILMOT,  David,  American  political 
leader  and  jurist,  was  born  in  Bethany, 
Pa.  He  became  prominent  as  a demo- 
cratic politician,  and  from  1845  to  1851 
was  a member  of  the  national  house  of 
representatives.  Although  a democrat 
he  was  opposed  to  the  extension  of 
slavery  and  in  1843  he  moved  his  famous 
amendment,  known  as  the  Wilmot 
Proviso.  He  served  in  the  United  States 
senate  1861-63;  and  held  the  office  of 
judge  of  the  United  States  court  of 
claims  until  his  death  in  1868. 

WILMOT  PROVISO,  the  war  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  termi- 
nated in  the  acquisition  of  a vast  terri- 
tory by  the  latter.  Mr.  Wilmot,  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  1846,  offered  in  con- 
gress what  became  historic  as  the  “Wil- 
mot Proviso,”  that  “no  part  of  the  terri- 
tory thus  acquired  should  be  open  to  the 
introduction  of  slavery.”  This  proviso 
brought  heated  discussion  of  the  slave 
question,  and  civil  war  and  a dissolution 
of  the  Union  were  threatened.  The 
proviso  failed  of  passage. 

WILSON,  Alexander,  the  American 
ornithologist,  born  at  Paisley  1766,  died 
at  Philadelphia  1813.  He  emigrated  to 
America  in  1794,  where  he  became  a 
schoolmaster;  assisted  in  editing  the 
American  edition  of  Rees’s  Cyclopaedia ; 
learned  drawing,  and  ultimately  deter- 
mined to  write  and  illustrate  a work  on 
American  birds,  being  long  interested 
in  the  subject  of  ornithology.  The 
result  of  his  labor  was  the  American 
Ornithology  (seven  vols.,  1808-13),  a 
work  which  was  left  unfinished  by 
Wilson,  but  was  completed  by  his  friend 
Ord,  while  a continuation  was  subse- 


quently published  by  Lucien  Buona- 
parte. A bronze  statue  of  Wilson  by 
Mossman  has  been  erected  in  Paisley. 

WILSON,  Francis,  American  actor, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1854.  He 
began  his  career  in  a minstrel  show. 
In  1879  he  appeared  in  M’liss  with  Annie 
Pixley.  After  several  years  in  regular 
comedy,  he  took  up  comic  opera.  In 
1889,  he  made  his  appearance  as  a star 
in  The  Oolah.  Among  his  later  pieces 
have  been : The  Lion  Tamer,  The  Devil’s 
Deputy,  The  Little  Corporal,  and  the 
Toreador. 

WILSON,  Henry,  statesman,  was 
born  in  Farmington,  N.  H.,  in  1812. 
In  1840,  as  the  “Natick  cobbler,”  he 
addressed  political  meetings,  in  that 
year  being  elected  to  the  Massachusetts 
legislature.  In  1855  he  was  chosen 
United  States  senator.  His  speeches 
bear  the  impress  of  clear-sighted  states- 
manship. Mr.  Wilson  was  an  ardent 
antislavery  man.  In  1872  he  was  elected 
vice-president.  He  died  in  1875. 

WILSON,  James,  American  cabinet 
officer,  was  born  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland, 
in  1835.  He  came  with  his  parents  to 
the  United  States  in  1852.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Iowa  state  assembly  for 
three  terms.  From  1873  to  ’77  and  from 
1883  to  ’85  he  was  a member  of  congress. 
In  1870-74  he  was  regent  of  the  State 
University  of  Iowa,  and  from  1890-97 
he  was  a director  of  the  agricultural 
experiment  station.  In  1897  he  became 
secretary,  of  agriculture  in  McKinley’s 
cabinet  and  was  reappointed  in  1904 
by  President  Roosevelt. 

WILSON,  John,  better  known  in 
literature  as  “Christopher  North,”  was 
born  in  Paisley  1785,  died  1854.  He 
formed  an  acquaintance  with  Words- 
worth, Southey,  and  Coleridge;  con- 
tributed to  Coleridge’s  Friend,  and  pub- 
lished a poem  called  The  Isle  of  Palms 
(1812).  Another  poem,  The  City  of  the 
Plague,  appeared  in  1816.  Besides  his 
nrimerous  magazine  articles,  the  most 
characteristic  of  which  were  some  of  the 
Noctes  Ambrosianse  and  those  published 
subsequently  as  the  Recreations  of 
Christopher  North,  he  wrote  three  tales; 
The  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scottish 
Life,  The  Trials  of  Margaret  Lindsay, 
The  Foresters,  and  An  Essay  on  the 
Genius  and  Character  of  Burns. 

WILSON,  Woodrow,  American  edu- 
cator and  historian,  was  born  at  Staun- 
ton, Va.,  in  1856.  In  1883-85  he  studied 
jurisprudence,  history,  and  political 
science  at  the  newly  opened  Johns 
Hopkins  university,  from  which  in  1885 
he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  In  1890 
he  became  professor  of  jurisprudence 
and  politics  at  Princeton.  Upon  the 
resignation  of  President  Patton  in  June, 
1902  Wilson  was  elected  president  of 
Princeton  university  by  the  unanimous 
vote  of  the  trustees.  In  addition  to 
Congressional  Government  and  maga- 
zine articles  and  published  addresses, 
his  writings  include;  The  State:  Ele- 
ments of  Historical  and  Practical 
Politics;  An  Old  Master,  and  Other 
Political  Essays ; Division  and  Reunion, 
1829-1889;  George  Washington;  and  A 
History  of  the  American  People. 

WILTS,  or  WILTSHIRE,  a south- 
western county  of  England,  bounded 
by  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Somerset, 


Dorset,  Hants,  and  Berks;  area,  866,670 
acres.  Pop.  273,845. 

WIMBLEDON,  a town  of  England, 
county  of  Surrey,  7 miles  southwest  of 
London,  at  the  northeast  extremity  of 
Wimbledon  common.  Up  to  1889  it  was 
well  known  in  connection  with  the 
shooting  competitions  of  the  National 
Rifle  association.  Pop.  41,604. 

WINCEY,  a strong  and  durable  cloth, 
plain  or  twilled,  composed  of  a cotton 
warp  and  a wollen  weft.  Heavy  winceys 
have  been  much  worn  as  skirtings  and 
petticoats. 

WINCH,  a kind  of  hoisting  machine 
or  windlass,  in  which  an  axis  is  turned 
by  means  of  a crank-handle,  and  a rope 
or  chain  is  thus  wound  round  it  so  as  to 
raise  a weight. 

WINCHELL,  Alexander,  American 
geologist,  was  born  in  North  East, 
Duchess  county,  N,  Y.,  in  1824.  In  1854 
he  became  professor  of  physics  and  civil 
engineering  in  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan, and  in  the  following  year  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  geology,  zoology, 
and  botany,  which  he  held  until  1873, 
filling  a similar  professorship  in  the 
University  of  Kentucky  from  1866  until 
1869.  He  was  director  of  the  geological 
survey  of  Michigan  from  1859  until  1871, 
with  an  intermission  during  the  war. 
He  was  subsequently  professor  of  geol- 
ogy, zoology,  and  botany  in  both  the 
Syracuse  and  Vanderbilt  universities, 
but  in  1878,  owing  to  his  belief  in  the 
existence  of  a preadamite  race,  and  his 
defense  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution, 
he  was  forced  out  of  Vanderbilt  by  the 
abolition  of  his  lectureship.  In  1879  he 
accepted  the  chair  of  geology  and  pale- 
ontology in  the  University  of  Michigan. 
The  degree  of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on 
him  by  Wesleyan  in  1867.  His  name  has 
been  assigned  to  fourteen  new  species. 
He  died  February  19,  1891. 

WINCHELL,  Newton,  Horace  Ameri- 
can geologist,  was  born  at  North  East, 
Duchess  CO.,  N.  Y.,  in  1839.  In  1866  he 
became  assistant  state  geologist.  Three 
years  later  he  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  mineralogy  and  geology  in  Minne- 
sota university,  and  at  the  same^time 
accepted  the  position  of  state  geolo- 
gist. He  was  president  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Minnesota,  a member  of 
the  Assay  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  and  editor  of  the  Ameritan  Ge- 
ologist. 

WIND,  a current  in  the  atmosphere, 
as  coming  from  a particular  point.  The 
principal  cause  of  currents  of  air  is  the 
disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the 
atmosphere  by  the  unequal  distribution 
of  heat.  When  one  part  of  the  earth’s 
surface  is  more  heated  than  another,  the 
heat  is  communicated  to  the  air  above 
that  part,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
air  expands,  becomes  lighter,  and  rises 
up,  while  colder  air  rushes  in  to  supply 
its  place,  and  thus  produces  wind.  It 
is  thus  that  the  sea-breeze  is  produced 
every  afternoon  at  places  near  the  coast, 
especially  in  intertropical  countries, 
the  ground  having  been  heated  by  the 
sun’s  rays  to  a higher  temperature  than 
the  sea;  while  about  twelve  hours  later, 
the  reverse  effect — a land-breeze — 
occurs,  the  ground  having  fallen  at  night 
to  a lower  temperature  than  the  sea. 
As  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  greatest  in  the 


WIND-INSTRUMENT 


WINE 


equatorial  regions,  the  general  tendency 
there  is  for  the  heavier  columns  of  air 
to  displace  the  lighter,  and  for  the  air 
at  the  earth’s  surface  to  move  from  the 
poles  toward  the  equator.  The  only 
supply  for  the  air  thus  constantly  ab- 
stracted from  the  higher  latitudes  must 
be  produced  by  a counter-current  in  the 
upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  carry- 
ing back  the  air  from  the  equator  toward 
the  poles.  Besides  the  unequal  distribu- 
tion of  heat  already  mentioned,  there 
are  various  other  causes  which  give  rise 
to  currents  of  air  in  the  atmosphere, 
such  as  the  condensation  of  the  aqueous 
vapors  which  are  constantly  rising  from 
the  surfaces  of  rivers  and  seas,  and  the 
agency  of  electricity.  Winds  have  been 
divided  into  fixed  or  constant,  as  the 
trade-winds;  periodical,  as  the  mon- 
soons; and  variable  winds.  (See  Trade- 
winds,  Monsoon.)  There  are  also  local 
winds,  which  receive  particular  names; 
as,  the  etesian  wind,  the  sirocco,  the 
simoom,  the  harmattan,  the  mistral, 
typhoon,  etc.  The  velocity  and  force  of 
the  wind  vary  considerably,  as  shown 
by  the  anemometer.  Thus  a light  wind 
traveling  at  the  rate  of  5 miles  an  hour 
exercises  a pressure  of  2 oz.  on  the  square 
foot;  a light  breeze  of  10  miles  an  hour 
has  a pressure  of  8 oz.;  a good  steady 
breeze  of  20  miles,  2 lbs.;  a storm  of  60 
miles,  18  lbs.;  a violent  hurricane  of  100 
miles,  50  lbs.,  a pressure  which  sweeps 
everything  before  it. 

WIND-INSTRUMENT,  an  instrurnent 
of  music,  played  by  means  of  artificially 
reduced  currents  of  wind,  as  the  organ, 
armonium,  etc.,  or  by  the  hiunan 
breath,  as  the  flute,  horn,  etc.  See  In- 
strument and  Instrumental  Music. 

WINDLASS,  a modification  of  the 
wheel  and  axle  used  for  raising  weights. 
The  simple  form  of  the  windlass  used  in 
ships,  for  raising  the  anchors,  consists 
of  a strong  beam  of  wood  placed  hori- 
zontally, and  supported  at  its  ends  by 
iron  spindles,  which  turn  in  collars  or 
bushes  inserted  in  what  are  termed  the 


Ship’s  windlass. 

windlass  bitts.  This  large  axle  is  pierced 
with  holes  directed  toward  its  center,  in 
which  long  levers  or  hand-spikes  are 
inserted  for  turning  it  round  when  the 
anchor  is  to  be  weighed  or  any  purchase 
is  required.  It  is  furnished  with  pawls  to 
prevent  it  from  turning  backward  when 
the  pressure  on  the  handspikes  is  in- 
termitted. 

WIND-MILL,  a mill  which  receives  its 
motion  from  ttie  impact  of  wind  upon 
sails,  and  which  is  used  for  grinding 
corn,  pumping  water,  etc.  In  structure 
the  wind-mill  is  a conical  or  pyramidal 
tower,  and  from  the  position  of  the  sails 
in  relation  to  the  wind-shaft  it  is  de- 
scribed as  either  vertical  or  horizontal. 
In  the  former,  a section  of  which  is  here 
given,  the  wind  is  made  to  act  upon  sails 


or  vanes  a a attached  by  means  of  rec- 
tangular frames  to  the  axle  or  wind 
shaR  of  the  mill.  This  axle  is  placed 
nearly  horizontal,  so  that  the  sails  by 
the  pressure  of  the  wind  revolve  in  a 
nearly  vertical  plane,  thus  giving  a ro- 
tatory motion  to  the  driving  wheel  e 
fixed  in  the  wind-shaft.  The  movement 
thus  produced  is  transferred  by  means 
of  bevel-wheels  to  the  main  shaft  f, 
which  is  connected  with  the  specific 
machinery  of  the  mill.  As  the  sails  to  be 
effective  must  always  face  the  wind, 
this  is  accomplished  in  modern  mills 
by  a self-adjusting  cap  b,  moved  by  a 
fan  or  flyer  c attached  to  the  projecting 


framework  at  the  back  of  the  cap.  By 
means  of  a pinion  on  its  axis,  motion  is 
given  to  the  inclined  shaft  and  to  the 
wheel  d on  the  vertical  spindle  of  the 
pinion  a;  this  latter  pinion  engages  the 
cogs  on  the  outside  of  the  fixed  rim  of 
the  cap,  and  by  these  means  the  sails 
are  kept  constantly  to  the  wind,  when 
the  wind  causes  the  fan  c to  revolve. 
In  the  horizontal  wind-mill,  which  is 
considered  inferior  to  the  other,  the 
wind-shaft  is  vertical,  so  that  the  sails 
revolve  in  a horizontal  plane.  In  most 
of  the  wind-mills  used  m America  the 
sails  consist  of  narrow  boards  arranged 
in  a circular  framework  at  a constant 
angle  to  catch. the  wind.  The  steam- 
engine  has  almost  totally  displaced 
wind-mills  in.  Britain,  but  they  are  still 
largely  used  in  Holland. 

WlNDOM,  William,  American  states- 
man, was  born  at  Waterford,  Ohio,  in 
1829.  He  was  educated  in  Ohio,  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1850  at  Mount  Vernon.  In  1855  he 
removed  to  Minnesota,  and  four  years 
later  he  was  elected  to  congress,  serving 
in  the  lower  house  for  ten  years.  He 
was  elected  United  States  senator  in 
1870,  re-elected  in  1871,  and  again  in 
1877,  and  in  1889  was  made  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  which  position  he  held 
until  his  death.  He  died  in  1891. 

WINDOW,  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  a 
building  to  admit  light  and  air  into  the 
interior.  In  dwelling-houses  in  ancient 
times  the  windows  were  narrow  slits, 
and  it  was  not  until  about  the  end  of  the 
12th  century  that  glass  was  used  to  any 
great  extent  in  private  houses  in  Eng- 
land. Windows,  properly  so-called, 
were  almost  unknown  in  the  religious 
edifices  of  the.  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans,  the  light  being  admitted  at  the 
roof,  but  they  constitute  an  essential 
and  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Gothic 
style.  In  inodern  houses  windows  are 


made  capable  of  being  opened  and  shut 
by  means  of  casements  or  sashes.  In 
Britain  a winow-tax  was  imposed  in 
1695,  and  in  1851,  when  the  tax  was 
abolished,  each  house  having  more  than 
seven  windows  was  taxed. 

WINDPIPE.  See  Trachea. 

WINDSOR,  or  NEW  WINDSOR,  a 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough 
of  England,  county  of  Berks,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  Thames,  22  miles  w. 
from  London.  Pop.  21,477.  _ Windsor 
owes  its  chief  importance  to  its  castle, 
which  stands  east  of  the  town  on  a 
height  overlooking  the  river  Thames, 
and  is  the  principal  royal  residence  in 
the  kingdom.  It  was  begun,  or  at  least 
enlarged,  by  Henry  I.,  and  has  been  al- 
tered and  added  to  by  almost  every  sov- 
ereign since.  The  castle  stands  in  the 
Home  Park  or  “Little  Park,”  which  is  4 
miles  in  circumference,  and  this  again  is 
connected  with  the  Great  Park,  which  is 
18  miles  in  circuit,  and  contains  an 
avenue  of  trees  3 miles  in  length.  The 
chief  features  of  interest  in  the  castle 
are  the  old  state  apartments;  St. 
Geode’s  Chapel,  where  the  Knights  of 
the  Garter  are  installed,  and  the  vaults 
of  which  contain  the  remains  of  Henry 
VI.,  Edward  IV.,  Henry  VIII.,  Charles 
I.,  George  III.,  George  IV.,  and  William 
IV.;  the  Round  Tower  or  ancient  keep; 
and  the  present  state  apartments.  In 
the  Home  Park  is  Frogmore,  with  the 
mausoleum  of  the  Prince  Consort  and 
Queen  Victoria ; and  in  the  Great  Park  is 
a large  artificial  lake  called  Virginia 

WniDWARD  ISLANDS,  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in  the 
West  Indies,  so  called  in  opposition  to 
another  division  of  the  same,  called  the 
Leeward  Islands.  The  term  is  vaguely 
used,  but  generally  includes  Martinique, 
St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Bar- 
badoes,  and  Tobago. 

WINE  is  the  term  specifically  applied 
to  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape  or 
fruit  of  the  vine,  though  it  may  also  be 
applied  to  the  fermented  juice  of  any 
fruit.  (See  Vine.)  Wines  are  distin- 
guished practically  by  their  color,  hard- 
ness or  softness  on  the  palate,  their 
flavor,  and  their  being  stiU  or  effervesc- 
ing. The  differences  in  the  quality  of 
wines  depend  partly  upon  differences 
in  the  vines,  but  more  on  the  differences 
of  the  soils  in  which  they  are  planted, 
in  the  exposure  of  the  vineyards,  in  the 
treatment  of  the  grapes,  and  the  mode 
of  manufacturing  the  wines.  When  the 
grapes  are  fully  ripe,  they  generally 
yield  the  most  perfect  wine  as  to  strength 
and  flavor.  The  juice  is  expressed  from 
the  grapes  by  means  of  presses  of  all 
varieties  of  construction,  from  the  simple 
lever  and  wedge  press  to  the  machine 
with  hydraulic  power.  It  is  usual  to 
separate  the  juice  as  it  is  expressed  into 
first,  second,  and  third  “runs,”  the  first 
pressing  being  the  best  quality,  and  the 
amount  of  all  the  juice  is  usually  about 
70  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  grapes. 
The  juice  of  the  grape  when  newly  ex- 
pressed, and  before  it  has  begun  to  fer- 
ment, is  of  a sweet  taste,  and  is  called 
must.  The  fermenting  process  requires 
much  time  and  attention,  and  if  it  be 
arrested  while  part  of  the  sugar  is  un- 
changed a fruity  wine  is  the  result.  If 


WINE-MEASURE 


WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY 


the  process,  however,  is  completed,  and 
all  the  sugar  converted  into  alcohol,  a 
dry  wine  is  obtained.  When  an  effer- 
vescing wine,  like  champagne,  is  de- 
sired the  fermenting  liquid  is  bottled, 
and  the  process  of  fermentation  com- 
pleted in  the  bottle,  where  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  remains  to  give  it  a sparkling 
effervescent  quality.  When  the  wine  is 
red  in  color  it  shows  that  the  skins  of  the 
grape  have  remained  in  the  vat  during 
fermentation,  while  in  white  wines  the 
skins  have  been  removed  before  that 
process  is  begun.  The  leading  character 
of  wine  must  be  referred  to  the  alcohol 
which  it  contains,  and  upon  which  its 
intoxicating  powers  principally  depend. 
The  amount  of  alcohol  in  the  stronger 
ports  and  sherries  is  from  16  to  25  per 
cent;  in  hock,  claret,  and  other  light 
wines  from  7 to  12  per  cent.  Wine  con- 
taining more  than  13  per  cent  of  alcohol 
may  be  assumed  to  be  fortified  with 
brandy  or  other  spirit.  The  most  cele- 
brated ancient  wines  were  those  of 
Lesbos  and  Chios  among  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Falernian  and  Cecuban  among 
the  Romans.  The  principal  modern 
wines  are  Port,  Sherry,  Claret,  Cham- 
pagne, Madeira,  Hock,  Marsala,  etc. 
The  varieties  of  wine  produced  are 
almost  endless,  and  differ  in  every  con- 
stituent according  to  the  locality,  sea- 
son, and  age.  The  principal  wine-pro- 
ducing countries  are  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Sicily,  Greece, 
Cape  Colony,  Australia,  and  the  United 
s 

WINE-MEASURE,  an  old  English 
measure  by  which  wines  and  other  spirits 
were  sold.  In  this  measure  the  gallon 
contained  231  cubic  inches,  and  was  to 
the  imperial  standard  gallon  as  5 to  6 
nearly. 

WINGED  BULL,  an  architectural 
decoration  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
ancient  Assyrian  temples,  where  winged 


Assyrian  winged  human-lieaded  bull. 


human-headed  bulls  and  lions  of  colossal 
size  usually  guarded  the  portals.  They 
were  evidently  typical  of  the  union  of 
the  greatest  intellectual  and  physical 
powers. 

WINGED  LION,  the  symbol  of  the 
evangelist  St.  Mark,  which  was  adopted 
as  the  heraldic  device  of  the  Venetian 
Republic.  A celebrated  bronze  figure 
of  the  winged  lion  of  St.  Mark  surmount- 
ing a magnificent  red  granite  column, 
formed  out  of  a single  block,  stands  in 
the  Piazzetta  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice. 

WINNIPEG,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Manitoba,  Canada,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Red  river  and  Assiniboine,  40  miles 
s.  of  Lake  Winnipeg.  In  1870  this  city 
w;is  only  a village,  its  sudden  expansion 


being  due  in  great  measure  to  its  cen- 
tral position  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
railway.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
the  United  States,  and  several  other 
lines  radiate  from  it.  It  has  a city-hall, 
parliament-house,  governor’s  residence, 
court-house,  university  (well  endowed 
and  having  four  colleges  affiliated  to  it), 
and  is  well  supplied  with  water,  gas, 
and  electricity.  On  the  west  side  of  the 
Red  river  is  the  suburb  of  St.  Boniface. 
Pop.  42,340. 

WINO'NA,  a city  in  Minnesota,  beau- 
tifully situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  a flourishing  place  and 
an  important  center  of  trade  and  man- 
ufactures. Pop.  21,416. 

WIN'STON,  the  county-seat  of  For- 
syth county,  N.  C.,  30  miles  west  of 
Greenboro;  on  the  Southern  and  the 
Norfolk  and  Western  railroads.  It  is 
adjacent  to  Salem,  the  two  forming 
practically  one  community,  know  as 
Winston-Salem.  Pop.  Winston,  11,160; 
Salem,  3946. 

WINTER,  the  coldest  season  of  the 
year,  in  the  northern  hemisphere  com- 
prising the  months  of  December,  Jan- 
uary, and  February.  The  astronomical 
winter  begins  on  the  shortest  day  (De- 
cember 22)  and  ends  with  the  vernal 
equinox  (March  21). 

WINTERGREEN,  a name  of  several 

Clants,  one  of  them  being  the  partridge- 
erry.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a genus 
of  perennial  plants  having  short  stems, 
broad  evergreen  leaves,  and  usually 
racemose  white  or  pink  flowers.  It  pos- 
sesses astringent  properties  and  was 
formerly  used  in  medicine. 

WINTER-MOTH,  a moth,  the  larvae 
of  which  are  exceedingly  injurious  to 
apple,  pear,  cherry,  and  plum  trees. 
The  moths  appear  in  their  perfect  state 
in  the  beginning  of  winter. 

WINTER’S-BARK,  a plant  of  South 
America.  It  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  the 
bark  of  which  has  an  agreeable,  pungent, 
aromatic  taste,  and  tonic  properties. 
WINTER  SOLSTICE.  See  Solstice. 
WIRE,  any  metallic  substance  drawn 
to  an  even  thread  or  slender  rod  of  uni- 
form diameter  by  being  passed  between 
grooved  rollers  or  drawn  through  holes 
in  a plate  of  steel,  etc.  Wire  is  usually 
cylindrical,  but  it  is  also  made  in  various 
other  forms.  The  metals  most  com- 
monly drawn  into  wire  are  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  iron;  but  the  finest  wire  is 
made  from  platinum.  Wiredrawing  is 
the  name  for  the  process  of  making  wire. 
The  metal  to  be  drawn  is  first  hammered 
into  a bar,  and  then  passed  successively 
through  a series  of  holes  in  a hardened 
steel  plate,  successively  diminishing  in 
diameter.  Extremely  fine  gold  and 
platinum  wires  for  the  spider-lines  of 
telescope  micrometers  are  made,  some 
of  these  having  a diameter  of  only 
of  an  inch.  The  applications  of 
wire  are  very  numerous  and  interesting. 
Ropes  of  wire  are  extensively  used  for 
winding  purposes  in  mines,  and  generally 
for  all  similar  purposes.  They  are  much 
used  for  the  standing  rigging  of  ships, 
for  telegraph  purposes,  etc.  The  con- 
ducting part  of  submarine  telegraph 
cables  is  simply  a wire-rope  of  copper 
wires,  with  an  outside  protection  of  iron 
wires  (See  Rope).  Wire-gauze  for  blinds, 
etc.,  is  woven  in  the  same  manner  as 


ordinary  textile  fabrics.  Fences,  book- 
sewing, strings  for  musical  instruments, 
pins  and  needles,  etc.,  are  among  the  in- 
numerable modern  uses  to  which  wire 
is  adapted. 

WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY.  The 

first  practical  working  apparatus  for 
the  transmission  of  telegraphic  mes- 
sages without  the  use  of  wires  was  con- 
structed by  Gugliemo  Marconi,  an  Ital- 


ian electrical  scientist.  Its  first  public 
exhibition  was  at  Toynbee  hall,  in  Lon- 
don, on  December  12,  1896.  The  first 
transmitter,  then  exhibited,  was  capable 
of  sending  a message  for  a distance  of 
scarcely  one  mile.  Since  that  date  the 
science  of  wireless  telegraphy  has  made 
such  wonderfully  rapid  strides  that 
messages  are  sent  across  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  and  the  system  is  a part  of  the 
commercial  and  industrial  development 
of  every  civilized  nation. 

There  are  many  wireless  telegraph 
systems  in  use  by  the  governments  of 
the  world.  To  Gugliemo  Marconi  be- 
longs the  honor  of  demonstrating  the 
practicability  of  the  science  and  its 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  peoples. 

The  scientific  principle  which  has 
enabled  Marconi  and  his  compeers  to 
send  telegraphic  messages  through  space 
without  the  use  of  wires  was  known  for 
a number  of  years  before  it  was  applied 
to  practical  use.  In  1842  Professor  Morse 
sent  signals  across  the  Susquehanna 
river  without  metallic  connections  of 
any  sort  by  means  of  wires  stretched 
along  the  banks.  Science  knew,  for  in- 
stance, that  electricity,  like  heat,  could 
be  transmitted  from  one  place  to  an- 
other by  two  entirely  different  processes. 
To  illustrate;  If  one  end  of  a wire  be 
placed  in  a bed  of  live  coals  the  other 
end  soon  becomes  too  hot  to  be  held  in 
the  hand.  The  heat  waves  are  carried 
along  the  wire,  the  wire  itself  serving  as 
a conductor.  But  if  the  uncovered  hand 
be  placed  a foot  away  from  the  live  coals 
the  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  the  wire,  soon 
becomes  unbearable.  The  waves  of 
heat  are  transmitted  with  only  the  air 
as  a conductor.  Now,  for  a bed  of  live 
coals,  substitute  a device  for  the  gen- 
eration of  electricity.  If  the  electricity 
is  loosed  upon  a wire,  the  wire  acts  as  a 
conductor  and  transmits  the  electric 
current  to  any  required  distance.  It 


WISCONSIN 


WISCONSIN 


is  this  principle  which  is  adapted  to  the 
ordinary  telegraph,  telephone,  or  elec- 
tric railway. 

In  1886,  however.  Professor  Hertz 
discovered  that  electricity  could  be 
made  to  radiate  in  the  air,  just  as  heat 
does.  His  discovery  was  the  forerunner 
of  the  discovery  of  the  possibility  of 
wireless  telegraphy.  All  that  was  neces- 
sary was  to  devise  instruments  for  start- 
ing and  stopping  the  electric  waves,  or, 
to  be  more  exact,  for  making  these 
waves  longer  or  shorter,  as  might  be 
desired,  in  order  that  the  instrument 
which  detected  them  could  record  them. 

Marconi  was  not  the  first  to  devise 
these  instruments,  but  he  was  the  first 
to  turn  them  to  practical  account.  He 
only  used,  improved,  and  perfected  the 
instruments  devised  by  others.  He  was 
the  first  to  send  an  intelligible  wireless 
message  in  the  Morse  code;  but  several 
electrical  scientists  contributed  to  his 
success.  Dr.  Hertz,  for  instance,  had 
discovered  the  principle  of  the  electric 
waves.  Dr.  Edouard  Branly  devised  the 
coherer — a glass  tube  filled  with  iron 
filings  and  attached  to  positive  and 
negative  wires — thus  supplying  an  in- 
strument for  receiving  the  electric 
waves.  Dr.  O.  J.  Lodge  devised  the 
tapper,  on  the  principle  of  the  electric 
door  bell,  the  hammer  striking  the  wires 
attached  to  the  Branly  coherer,  thus 
starting  the  electric  oscillations  and 
producing  the  electric  waves.  By 
means  of  the  tapper.  Dr.  Lodge  was  able 
to  regulate  the  length  of  the  waves, 
making  them  correspond  to  the  dots 
and  dashes  of  the  Morse  telegraphic 
code.  But  Dr.  Lodge  was  absorbed  in 
the  subject  only  from  a purely  scientific 
standpoint.  Although  he  intimated 
that  by  the  Branly  coherer  and  the 
Lodge  tapper  signals  might  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  air  for  a distance  of 
half  a mile,  he  made  no  effort  to  carry 
his  experiments  to  a practical  conclu- 
sion. Professor  Popoff,  the  Russian 
scientist,  made  the  next  discovery.  He 
attached  a vertical  wire  to  the  Branly 
coherer  to  intercept  the  waves.  He, 
too,  used  his  discovery  only  for  mete- 
orological experiment  and  made  no 
effort  to  adapt  it  to  practical  science. 
In  1901  Marconi  sent  a signal  from  St. 
John,  N.  F.,  to  the  Irish  coast.  In  1902 
while  on  his  way  to  the  United  States 
he  received  signals  on  board  ship  at  a 
distance  of  2099  miles.  In  1903  a mes- 
sage from  President  Roosevelt  was  sent 
to  King  Edward  from  Cape  Cod,  Mass., 
direct  to  Poldhu,  a distance  of  3000 
miles.  In  1907  the  ocean-going  vessels 
plying  between  New  York  and  Liver- 
pool were  constantly  in  touch  with  the 
land,  the  signals  being  picked  up  from 
one  shore  before  being  lost  on  the  other. 
The  war  ships  of  all  nations  are  now 
equipped  with  one  or  the  other  of  the 
various  systems  and  the  signal  service 
now  warns  vessels  within  300  miles  of 
the  coast  of  approaching  storms. 

An  achievement  of  wireless  telegra- 
phy that  filled  the  civilized  world  with 
awe  took  place  Jan.  23,  1909,  when  the 
big  White  Star  liner  Republic  was  dis- 
abled off  Nantucket,  Mass.  The  cap- 
tain of  the  great  vessel  found  his  ship 
and  his  passengers  in  deadly  peril. 
The  engine  room  was  full  of  water.  No 
P.  E.— 84 


craft  was  in  sight.  Land  was  26  miles 
away.  Wireless  telegraphy,  the  once- 
doubted  invention  of  the  wizard  Mar- 
coni, was  the  captain’s  only  hope.  He 
rushed  to  the  operator.  Frantically 
the  man  at  the  instrument  sent  up  intq 
the  air  the  signal  for  help.  He  had  nd 
guidance  but  the  hope  that  some  where 
in  the  mysterious  sky  above  him  the 
desperate  appeal  would  be  caught  by 
air  waves  and  wafted  to  another  ship, 
or  to  some  wireless  magician  on  land. 
The  hope  was  not  in  vain.  The  mes- 
sage reached  two  other  big  liners  and 
two  revenue  cutters.  “In  distress  and 
sinking,”  it  said,  and  gave  the  name  of 
the  ship,  and  the  latitude  and  longi- 
tude. The  Republic  w as  saved  ! 

WISCON'SIN,  one  of  the  United  States 
of  North  America,  bounded  north  by 
Lake  Superior,  northeast  by  Michigan, 
east  by  Lake  Michigan,  south  by  Illinois, 
and  west  by  Iowa  and  Minnesota,  the 
Mississippi  river  separating  it  from  these 
states;  area,  56,040  sq.  miles.  It  ranks 
twenty-first  in  size  among  the  states.  It 
consists  of  an  undulating  plateau,  vary- 
ing from  600  to  1500  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Besides  Michigan  and  Superior 
there  are  numerous  small  lakes;  the 
chief  rivers,  which  drain  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi, are  the  St.  Croix,  Chippewa,  and 
Wisconsin.  In  winter  the  weather  is 
severe,  but  on  the  whole  the  climate  is 
dry  and  healthy.  The  annual  rain  fall 
is  31  inches.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry, and  the  principal  products  are 
wheat,  Indian-corn,  and  oats,  besides 
rye,  barley,  potatoes,  hops,  and  maple 
sugar.  Cattle  and  horses  are  exten- 
sively reared,  and  agricultural  and  dairy 
produce  are  largely  exported,  as  also 
lumber.  The  soils  of  the  state  are  varied. 
Those  of  the  drift-bearing  region  are 
derived  from  the  deterogeneous  mixture 


Seal  of  Wisconsin. 

of  pre-glacial  soils  and  glacial  grindings, 
and  constitute  for  the  greater  part 
loamy  clays  and  sandy  loams  of  a high 
degree  of  fertility  and  permanence. 
In  the  southwest  a considerable  portion 
of  the  soils  are  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  underlying  limestone,  and 
are  highly  fertile  and  easily  tilled.  In  the 
central  portion  there  is  a considerable 
area  underlaid  by  the  Potsdam  sand- 
stone, from  which  sandy  soils,  of  rel- 
atively low  fertility,  have  been  derived. 
j.ue  prevalent  trees  of  this  region  are 
the  oaks,  poplars,  hickories,  and  their 
usual  associates.  Along  the  eastern 
border  of  the  state,  except  at  the  very 
south,  is  an  extensive  tract  of  heavy 


timber,  in  which  maple,  elm,  ash,  and 
their  usual  associates  predominate. 
Toward  the  north  the  pines,  hemlocks, 
and  spruces  come  in.  The  north  part  of 
the  state  was  originally  covered  by  an 
almost  unbroken  forest,  composed  of 
groves  of  pine,  of  hard  wood,  and  of  a 
promiscuous  mixture  of  species  embrac- 
ing both  conifers  and  deciduous  trees. 
This  constitutes  the  great  lumber  region 
of  Wisconsin.  The  whitefish  and  lake- 
trout  fishing  industries  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan and  Lake  Superior  are  extensive, 
and  the  inland  lakes  and  streams  abound 
in  bass,  pike,  pickerel,  sturgeon,  and 
brook-trout.  A state  fisheries  commis- 
sion annually  stocks  the  waters  with 
brook-trout,  whitefish,  and  pike.  The 
manufactures  in  the  cities  are  chiefly 
furniture,  agricultural  implements,  car- 
riages, saddlery,  woolen  goods,  etc.  There 
are  extensive  iron-mines,  besides  lead 
and  zinc  deposits  and  granite  and  lime- 
stone quarries.  The  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 

& St.  Paul,  the  Chicago  Northwestern, 
the  Wisconsin  Central,  the  Chicago,  St. 
Paul,  Minneapolis  & Omaha,  St.  Paul 
& Sault  Ste.  Marie,  the  Green  Bay  & 
Western,  and  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
& Northern  are  the  principal  railroads. 
Elementary  education  is  compulsory 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fifteen 
(for  12  weeks  each  year);  there  are  a 
number  of  universities  and  colleges,  the 
Wisconsin  university,  Madison,  being 
liberally  subsidized  by  the  state.  The 
state  is  noted  for  its  exceptionally  large 
number  of  animal  mounds,  the  work  of 
the  “mound-builders.”  Wisconsin  was 
the  meeting  ground  ,of  the  Algon- 
quin and  Dakota  Indian  tribes.  Its 
water  system  connecting  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Mississippi  made  it  the 
keystone  of  the  French  possessions  in 
Canada  and  Louisiana.  In  1665  Father 
Claude  Allouez  founded  a Jesuit  mission 
at  La  Pointe,  and  in  1669  the  mission  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  on  the  shores  of 
Green  bay.  Louis  Joliet,  leaving  Quebec 
under  orders  to  discover  the  South  sea, 
in  1673,  took  with  him  Father  Marquette  ' 
from  Mackinaw,  and  reached  the  Missis-  J 
sippi  by  the  diagonal  waterway  of 
Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers.  In  1674  M^^^ 
quette  made  a canoe  trip  from  Green  ' 
bay  to  the  site  of  what  is  now  Chicago, 
along  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan.  Wis- 
consin formed  a part  of  the  old  North- 
west territory  from  1787  to  1800,  of  In- 
diana territory  from  1800  to  1805, 'of 
Michigan  territory  from  1805  to  1809,  of 
Illinois  territory  from  1809  to  1818,  and 
in  the  latter  year  was  again  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Michigan  ter- 
ritory. In  1836,  on  the  admission  of 
Michigan  into  the  Union,  Wisconsin — 
including  then  the  present  states  of 
Iowa  and  Minnesota  and  parts  of  the 
Dakotas — was  erected  into  a territory. 

The  legislature  met  at  Madison  for  the 
first  time  in  1838.  Wisconsin  was  for- 
mally admitted  to  the  Union  May  29, 
1848.  The  anti-slavery  sentiment  in  the 
state  was  strong  and  the  state  furnished 
a total  of  91,379  men,  more  than  the 
required  quota,  the  ratio  being  1 man 
to  every  9 of  its  inhabitants.  The  first 
republican  governor  was  elected  in  1856, 
when  Coles  Bashford  was  chosen  after 
a bitter  contest.  Since  that  time  the 
state  has  been  republican  in  every 


WISCONSIN 


WOLFE 


presidential  election  except  that  of  1892. 
Milwaukee  is  the  chief  town,  Madison 
is  the  capital.  Pop.  2,476,819. 

WISCONSIN,  University  of,  situated 
at  Madison,  was  founded  in  1838,  organ- 
ized in  1848,  and  opened  for  instruction 
in  1851.  The  institution  is  co-educa- 
tional  in  ali  its  departments.  The  College 
of  Letters  and  Science  is  the  center  of 
the  institution,  about  which  the  tech- 
nical work  has  grown  up.  The  other 
colleges  are  those  of  law,  agriculture, 
and  engineering.  The  College  of  En- 
gineering includes  courses  in  civil  en- 
gineering, sanitary  engineering,  me- 
chanical engineering,  electrical  engineer- 
ing, and  general  engineering.  The  uni- 
versity confers  the  baccalaureate  degree 
in  arts,  science,  law,  and  philosophy; 
the  master’s  degree  in  arts  and  science ; 
the  doctor’s  degree  in  philosophy;  and 
the  degrees  of  civil,  mechanical,  and 
electrical  engineer. 

WISDOM,  Book  of,  called  by  the 
Septuagint  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  one 
of  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  It  was  considered  canonical 
by  some  of  the  fathers  of  the  church, 
who  ascribed  its  authorship  to  Solomon; 
but  it  is  now  generally  held  to  be  apocry- 
phal, most  theologians  agreeing  that 
its  author  must  have  been  a Jew  of 
Alexandria  of  the  1st  or  2d  century  b.c. 

WINSLOW,  John  Ancrum,  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  at  Wilmington, 
N.  C.,  in  1811.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
Mexican  war,  was  present  at  the  capture 
of  Vera  Cruz.  On  July  16,  1862,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  United  States 
steamer  Kearsage,  specially  commis- 
sioned to  pursue  the  confederate  steamer 
Alabama.  Captain  Winslow  followed 
his  adversary  to  Sherbourg,  and  in  June, 
1864,  blockaded  her  in  that  harbor.  The 
armament  of  the  two  vessels  was  about 
equal.  After  an  exchange  of  broadsides 
for  about  an  hour,  the  Alabama  made 
for  the  shore  in  a crippled  condition;  she 
soon  was  found  to  be  sinking,  and  sur- 
rendered. Captain  Winslow  was  pro- 
moted commodore  for  this  important 
victory  in  1866,  and  in  1867  commanded 
i^Ahe  Gulf  squadron,  was  chief  of  the 
qBacific  squadron  from  1870  to  1872, 
\ and  on  March  2,  1870,  was  promoted  to 
be  rear-admiral.  He  died  in  1873. 

WISE,  Isaac  Mayer,  American  rabbi 
and  educator,  was  born  at  Steingrub, 
Bohemia,  in  1819.  In  1846  he  came  to 
the  United  States  and  from  1854  until 
his  death  he  was  rabbi  of  the  Congrega- 
tibn  Bene  Yeshurnn,  Cincinnati.  He 
was  the  editor  of  the  Israelite,  afterward 
The  American  Israelite,  and  the  Chicago 
Israelite,  both  of  which  he  established. 
In  1889  he  organized  the  central  con- 
ference of  American  rabbis  and  became 
its  president.  His  works  include  History 
of  the  Isrealitish  Nation,  Origin  of 
Christianity,  Judaism,  Its  Doctrines 
and  Duties,  etc.,  etc.  He  died  in  1900. 

WISE,  Henry  Alexander,  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Drummond- 
town,  Va.,  1806.  In  1833 he  was  elected 
to  congress  as  a Jackson  democrat,  and 
was  twice  reelected.  In  May,  1844,  he 
was  united  States  minister  to  Brazil, 
remaining  there  until  October,  1847. 
In  1855  Mr.  Wise  was  elected  governor 
of  Virginia.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  his 
administration  was  signing  the  death- 


warrant  of  John  Brown,  who  was  exe- 
cuted December  2,  1859.  When  Vir- 
ginia seceded  he  became  brigadier- 
general  of  the  confederate  army.  After 
the  war  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 
He  died  in  1876. 

WISE,  John  S.,  was  born  at  Rio 
Janeiro,  Brazil,  in  1846.  He  served 
through  the  war  in  the  confederate  army, 
being  wounded  at  New  Market.  After 
the  fall  of  the  confederacy,  he  studied 
law,  and  upon  his  admission  to  the  bar, 
in  1867,  opened  an  office  in  Richmond. 
He  was  a Readjuster  member  of  congress 
for  one  term  from  1882,  and  in  1885  was 
defeated  for  governor  of  the  state  by 
Fitzhugh  Lee.  He  is  the  author  of 
Doomed,  The  End  of  An  Era,  and  The 
Lion’s  Skin. 

WISTA'RIA,  a genus  of  plants.  The 
species  are  deciduous,  twining,  and 
climbing  shrubs,  natives  of  China  and 
North  America.  When  in  flower,  they 
form  one  of  the  handsomest  ornaments 
of  the  garden. 

WISTER,  Owen,  American  author, 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1860. 
His  stories  deal  largely  with  Western 
life  and  character;  his  greatest  success 
was  The  Virginian,  published  in  1902. 
Among  his  other  works  are:  Lin  Mc- 
Lean, Jimmy  John  Boss  and  other 
stories,  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin.  His  latest  work.  Lady 
Baltimore,  published  in  1906,  has  met 
with  general  commendation. 

WITCHCRAFT,  a supernatural  power 
which  persons  were  formerly  supposed 
to  obtain  by  entering  into  compact  with 
the  devil,  who  engaged  that  they  should 
want  for  nothing,  and  be  able  to  assume 
whatever  shape  they  pleased,  to  visit 
and  torment  their  enemies,  and  accom- 
plish their  infernal  purposes.  As  soon 
as  the  bargain  was  concluded,  the  devil 
was  said  to  deliver  to  the  witch  an  imp 
or  familiar  spirit,  to  be  ready  at  call, 
and  to  do  whatever  it  was  directed. 
By  the  aid  of  this  imp  and  the  devil 
together,  the  witch,  who  was  almost 
always  an  old  woman,  was  enabled  to 
transport  herself  through  the  air  on  a 
broomstick,  and  to  transform  herself 
into  various  shapes,  particularly  those 
of  cats  and  hares ; to  inflict  diseases  on 
whomsoever  she  pleased,  and  to  punish 
her  enemies  in  a variety  of  ways.  The 
belief  in  witchcraft  is  very  ancient. 
It  was  a common  belief  in  Europe  till  the 
16th  century,  ard  maintained  its  ground 
with  tolerable  firmness  till  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  Indeed  it  is  not 
altogether  extinct  even  at  the  present 
day.  Numbers  of  reputed  witches  were 
condemned  to  be  burned,  so  that  in 
England  alone  it  is  computed  that  no 
fewer  than  30,000  of  them  suffered  at 
the  stake.  The  last  victim  was  executed 
in  1722  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  United 
kingdom  prosecution  for  witchcraft  was 
abolished  in  1736  by  act  of  parliament. 
In  America  the  last  executions  took  place 
in  1692,  and  in  France  executions  for 
witchcraft  were  prohibited  by  an  edict 
of  Louis  XIV.  as  early  as  1670. 

WITCH-HAZEL.  See  Wych-hazel. 

WITH'ERITE,  a mineral,  a carbonate 
of  baryta,  used  in  making  plate-glass, 
etc. 

WITNESS,  in  law,  (a)  one  who  signs 
' his  name  as  evidence  of  the  genuineness 


of  another  signature;  (b)  a person  who 
gives  testimony  or  evidence  under  oath 
or  affirmation  in  a judicial  proceeding. 
See  Evidence. 

WITT,  DE.  See  De  Witt, 

WOBURN,  a town  in  Middlesex  co.,. 
Massachusetts,  10  miles  n.w.  of  Boston. 
Its  principal  industry  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leather.  Pop.  14,499. 

WODAN,  Woden,  the  Anglo-Saxon 
form  of  the  name  of  the  deity  called  by 
the  Norse  Odin.  Wednesday  derives  its 
name  from  him,  and  his  name  is  also 
seen  in  several  place-names,  as  Wed- 
nesbury,  etc.  See  Odin. 

WOLCOTT,  Roger,  American  political 
leader,  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1847.  From  1877  to  1879  he  was  a mem- 
ber of  the  Boston  Common  council,  from 
1882  to  1885  a member  of  the  state 
house  of  representatives,  and  was  then 
again  a member  of  the  common  council 
from  1887  to  1889.  In  1892  he  was 
elected  lieutenant-governor  of  the  state. 
He  was  reelected  in  1893,  1894,  and 

1895.  Before  the  termination  of  his 
fourth  term  he  became  by  the  sudden 
death  of  Governor  Greenhalge,  in  May, 

1896,  acting  governor.  In  the  following 
November  he  was  chosen  governor  by 
the  largest  majority  ever  given  to  any 
candidate  for  that  office  in  the  history 
of  the  state,  and  was  reelected  in  1897 
and  1898.  He  died  in  1901. 

WOLF,  a quadruped  belonging  to  the 
digitigrade  carnivora,  and  very  closely 
related  to  the  dog.  The  common  Euro- 
pean wolf  is  yellowish  or  fulvous  gray;, 
the  hair  is  harsh  and  strong,  the  ears 
erect  and  pointed  the  tail  straight,  or 
nearly  so,  and  there  is  a blackish  band  or 
streak  on  the  forelegs  about  the  carpus. 
The  height  at  the  shoulder  is  from  27  to 
29  inches.  The  wolf  is  swift  of  foot, 
crafty,  and  rapacious;  a destructive 
enemy  to  the  sheep-cote  and  farm-yard;. 


Common  wolf. 


it  associates  in  packs  to  hunt  the  larger 
quadrupeds,  such  as  the  deer,  the  elk, 
etc.  When  hard  pressed  with  hunger 
these  packs  have  been  known  to  attack 
isolated  travelers,  and  even  to  enter 
villages  and  carry  off  children.  In  gen- 
eral, however,  wolves  are  cowardly  and 
stealthy.  The  wolf  of  North  America  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  same 
species  as  the  European  wolf,  though 
individuals  vary  much  in  color  and 
otherwise.  The  little  prairie-wolf  or 
coyote  abounding  on  the  vast  plains  of 
Missouri  and  Mexico,  is  a burrowing 
animal.  The  Tasmanian  wolf  is  a mar- 
supial. 

WOLFE,  Rev.  Charles,  author  of  the 
Ode  on  the  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,  was 
born  in  Dublin  1791,  died  1823.  He  was- 
also  the  author  of  several  other  poems. 


WOLFE 


WOMEN’S  CLUBS 


WOLFE,  James,  an  English  general, 
■was  born  at  Westerham,  Kent,  in  1727. 
After  distinguished  service  against  the 
French  in  America  he  was  intrusted 
(1759)  with  an  army  of  8000  men  with 
which  to  assault  Quebec.  During  the 
night  this  small  force  scaled  the  Heights 


Gen.  'Wolfe. 


of  Abraham,  which  commanded  the 
town,  and  in  the  battle  which  took  place 
next  day  the  British  were  victorious; 
but  General  Wolfe  was  wounded  in  the 
engagement,  and  died  in  the  moment  of 
victory,  his  opponent  Montcalm  being 
also  mortally  wounded. 

WOLFFIAN  BODIES  (after  Wolff,  the 
discoverer),  in  physiology,  a term  ap- 
plied to  certain  bodies  in  the  vertebrate 
embryo,  preceding  the  two  kidneys, 
whose  functions  they  perform.  As  the 
foetus  advances  they  gradually  dis- 
appear, their  place  being  supplied  by  the 
true  kidneys,  except  in  fishes,  in  which 
they  are  permanent. 

WOLF-FISH.  See  Sea-wolf. 

WOLFRAM,  a native  tungstate  of  iron 
and  manganese.  Its  color  is  generally 
a brownish  or  grayish  black.  It  occurs 
massive  and  crystalized,  and  in  con- 
centric lamellar  concretions,  and  is  the 
ore  from  which  the  metal  tungsten  is 
usually  obtained. 

WOLLASTON,  William  Hyde,  a dis- 
tinguished chemist,  born  in  London 
1776,  died  1828.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
the  goniometer,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  angles  of  cyrstals,  and 
the  discoverer  of  palladium  and  rhodium 
and  the  malleability  of  platinum. 

WOLSELEY  (wulz'li).  Sir  Garnet 
Joseph,  Viscount  Wolseley,  British 
general,  was  born  near  Dublin  in  1833; 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1852;  took 
p>art  in  the  second  Burmese  war;  served 
in  the  Crimea,  was  wounded  at  the  seige 
of  Sebastopol;  engaged  in  the  siege  and 
capture  of  Lucknow  during  the  Indian 
mutiny  of  1857-58;  and  was  employed 
in  1860  in  the  Chinese  war.  He  was  de- 
spatched to  Canada  in  1861,  and  again 
in  1867,  having  received  command  of 
the  Red  river  expedition,  which  he 
carried  to  a successful  issue.  When  the 
Mahdi  subdued  the  Soudan,  and  held 
General  Gordon  prisoner  in  Khartoum, 
Wolseley  was  despatched  in  1884  with  a 
relief  expedition.  He  concentrated  his 
forces  at  Korti,  and  sent  a coliunn  across 
the  desert  to  Khartoum,  but  the  place 
had  fallen.  In  1885  he  was  created  a 
viscount,  in  1890-95  was  commander-in- 
chief in  Ireland,  in  1894  made  field- 
marshall;  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  1895-1900.  He  is  author  of  Nar- 
rative of  the  War  with  China,  the  Sol- 
dier’s Pocket  Book,  Life  of  the  Duke  of 
Marlborough. 

WOLSEY  (wul'zi),  Thomas,  Cardinal, 


was  born  at  Ipswich  in  1471.  When 
Henry  VIII.  became  king  the  advance- 
ment of  Wolsey  was  rapid.  Succes- 
sively he  was  appointed  Canon  of  Wind- 
sor, Dean  of  York,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  his  nomination 
as  cardinal  in  1515  and  pope’s  legate  in 
1518  completed  his  ecclesiastical  digni- 
ties. In  1M5  he  was  also  appointed  lord 
chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  This  rapid 
preferment  by  the  king  was  largely  the 
result  of  a remarkable  series  of  diplo- 
matic victories,  in  which  Wolsey  had 
been  the  means  of  enabling  Henry  to 
hold  the  balance  between  Francis  I. 
and  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  In  his  am- 
bitious career  the  cardinal  made  many 
enemies,  who  were  held  in  check  so  long 
as  he  retained  the  'favor  of  his  royal 
master.  This  favor  Wolsey  lost  when  he 
failed  to  obtain  from  Pope  Clement  a 
decision  granting  the  king’s  divorce 
from  Catharine  of  Aragon.  Thenceforth 
the  enemies  of  the  fallen  prelate  harried 
him  unmercifully.  He  was  banished 
from  court,  stripped  of  his  dignities, 
found  guilty  of  a praemunire,  and  sen- 
tenced to  imprisonment.  Finally,  after 
a brief  respite,  during  which  he  was 
restored  to  some  of  his  offices,  and  had 
returned  to  his  see  of  York,  he  was 
arrested  at  Cawood  castle  on  a charge 
of  high  treason,  and  on  his  way  to 
London  as  a prisoner  he  died  in  1530  of 
dysentery  at  Leicester  Abbey. 

WOLSTONECRAFT,  Mary  (Godwin), 
English  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born 
at  Hoxton,  near  London,  April  27,  1759. 
In  1797,  she  married  William  Godwin, 
and  became  the  mother  of  Mary,  the 
future  Mrs.  Shelley.  She  died  Septem- 
Ijer  10,  1797.  Mrs.  Godwin  was  one 
of  the  ‘advanced  women’  of  her  time. 
Her  most  notable  work  is  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Women.  She  attacked 
Rousseau’s  ideal  woman,  the  heroine  of 
novels  and  boarding-schools.  She  ad- 
vocated the  establishment  of  govern- 
ment day  schools,  and  maintained  the 
right  of  women  to  enter  the  professions 
and  politics.  In  short,  her  thesis  was 
the  equality  of  the  sexes.  Among  her 
other  works  are:  Thoughts  on  the 
Education  of  Daughters;  Vindication  of 
the  Rights  of  Men,  a letter  to  Burke; 
Letters  and  Miscellaneous  Pieces. 

WOLVERHAMPTON,  a municipal, 
county,  and  pari,  borough  of  England, 
county  of  Stafford,  13  miles  n.w.  of  Bir- 
mingham. The  chief  industries  are  the 
smelting  of  iron  ore,  and  its  conversion 
into  all  forms  of  iron-ware,  and  manu- 
factures in  brass,  tin,  steel,  papier- 
m5,ch4,  galvanized  iron,  and  chemicals. 
Pop.  192,750. 

WOMAN’S  CHRISTIAN  TEMPER- 
ANCE UNION,  the  National  W.  C.  T.  U 
was  organized  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in 
1874,  and  is  the  sober  second  thought  of 
the  great  woman’s  crusade.  It  is  now 
regularly  organized  in  every  state  of  the 
Union.  There  are  about  10,000  local 
unions,  with  a membership  and  follow- 
ing, including  the  children’s  societies,  of 
about  half  a million.  The  W.  C.  T.  U. 
has  forty  distinct  departments  of  work, 
presided  over  by  as  many  women  ex- 
perts, in  the  National  society,  and  in 
nearly  every  state.  All  the  states  in  the 
republic  have  laws  requiring  the  study 
of  scientific  temperance  in  the  public 


schools,  and  all  these  laws  were  secured 
by  the  W.  C.  T.  U.;  also  the  laws  for- 
bidding the  sale  of  tobacco  to  minors. 
The  first  police  matrons  and  most  in- 
dustrial homes  for  girls  were  secured 
through  the  efforts  of  this  society,  as 
were  the  refuges  for  erring  women. 
Laws  raising  the  age  of  consent  and 
providing  for  better  protection  for 
women  and  girls  have  been  enacted  by 
many  legislatures  through  the  influence 
of  the  Union.  The  World’s  W.  C.  T.  U. 
was  founded  through  the  influence  of 
Francis  E.  Willard  in  1883,  and  already 
has  auxiliaries  in  more  than  fifty  coun- 
tries and  provinces  The  white  ribbon 
is  the  badge  of  all  the  W.  C.  T.,U.  mem- 
bers, and  is  now  a familiar  emblem  in 
every  civilized  country. 

WOMAN’S  SUFFRAGE,  a movement 
for  the  social  and  political  enfranchise- 
ment of  women  which  first  took  prac- 
tical shape  in  1848  at  Senaca  Falls,  N.  Y. 
in  which  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton, 
Lucretia  Mott,  Martha  C.  Wright  and 
Mary  A.  McClintock  were  prime  movers. 
In  1869  the  National  Woman’s  Suffrage 
association,  with  Susan  B.  Anthony  and 
Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  as  leaders,  was 
organized.  In  November,  1890,  the 
American  Woman’s  Suffrage  association 
was  organized  with  Lucy  Stone,  and 
Julia  Ward  Howe  as  leaders.  The  two 
associations  were  in  the  same  year  united 
into  the  National  American  Woman’s 
Suffrage  association.  In  1892  Mrs.  Stone 
and  Mrs.  Stanton  were  made  honorary 
presidents;  Miss  Anthony  remained  as 
the  active  president  until  1900,  when 
she  was  succeeded  by  Mrs.  Carrie  Chap- 
man Catt.  Women  have  secured  full 
suffrage  in  Wyoming  (1869),  Colorado 
(1893),  Utah  (1870-1887  as  territory; 
1895),  and  Idaho  (1896);  municipal  suf- 
frage in  Kansas  (1887);  school  suffrage 
varying  in  extent,  in  25  states;  suffrage 
on  questions  of  tax  levies  in  Louisiana 
(1898);  and  on  bond  issues  in  Iowa 
(1894).  Amendments  have  been  sub- 
mitted and  campaigns  fought  in  Kansas 
(1869,  1894),  Michigan  (1874),  Nebraska 
(1882),  Oregon  (1884,  1900),  Rhode 
Island  (1886),  Washington  (1889,  1898) 
South  Dakota  (1890,  1898),  and  Califor- 
nia (1896).  Women  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland  can  now  vote  in  all 
except  parliamentary  elections.  Prop- 
erty laws  were  modified  in  1882  and 
1893.  Women  have  full  suffrage  in  New 
Zealand,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Pitcairn  Island,. 
South  Australia,  and  West  Australia.. 
Under  the  new  federal  constitution  of 
Australia  women  may  vote.  In  Canada, 
Cape  Colony,  and  Tasmama  women 
have  municipal  suffrage.  An  inter- 
national council  of  women  for  the  ad- 
vocacy of  women’s  rights  met  at  Wash- 
ington in  1888  and  similar  councils  have 
since  been  held. 

WOMB.  See  Uterus. 

WOMBAT,  a marsupial  animal,  a 
native  of  Australia  and  Tasmania.  It  is 
about  3 feet  in  length,  and  has  coarse, 
almost  bristly  fur,  of  a general  gray  tint, 
mottled  with  black  and  white.  It  bur- 
rows, feeds  on  roots,  and  its  flesh  is  said 
in  fatness  and  flavor  to  resemble  pork. 

WOMEN’S  CLUBS,  the  first  organiza- 
tions of  women  such  as  the  Female 
Society  for  the  Relief  and  Employment 
of  the  Poor,  church  societies,  female 


WOMEN  MARRIED,  RIGHTS  OP 

Bible  societies,";  Daughters  of  Temper- 
ance,  the  Sanitary  Commission,  the 
Woman  s Loyal  League,  the  Freed- 
men  s Bureau,  which  came  into  existence 
during  the  civil  war,  etc.,  showed  women 
what  they  could  do.  In  1868  Mrs. 
Croly  founded  the  Sorosis.  This  gave  the 
impose  for  other  clubs.  The  Woman’s 
^ of  Brooklyn  was  organized  in  1869- 
70.  Ihe  Association  for  the  Advance- 
organized  in  N^w 
York  in  1873,  decided  to  stimulate  the 

1*^0 ° ri  ^ convention  in 

1890  the  General  Federation  of  Women’s 
Clubs  was  formed.  The  Federation  be- 
gan with  63  clubs  in  seventeen  states. 
Ihere  are  now  Federations  in  all  the 

99^(1*000  “®“bership  of  about 

225,000.  The  Woman’s  Cycle,  which 
was  started  in  September,  1889,  pub- 
lished a directory  of  clubs.  Biennial 
mee^angs  of  the  federation  are  held  in 
all  the  large  cities. 


sum  of  money  belonging  to  his  wife,  the 
law  presumes  he  receives  it  for  her  use 
and  he  must  account  for  it,  or  expend  it 
on  her  account  by  her  authority  or  direc- 
tion, or  that  she  gave  it  to  him  as  a gift 
If  he  receives  interest  or  income  ind 
spends  it  with  her  knowledge  and  with- 
out objection,  a gift  will  be  presumed 


WOOD 

iama|  The  Channings;  St.  Martin's 
Eve;  A Life  s Secret;  Roland  Yorke- 
Dene  Hollow;  and  the  Johnnie  Ludlow 
Stories,  reprinted  from  the  Argosv 
of  which  she  was  long  editor. 

WOOD,  Rev.  John  George,  naturalist, 
born  in  London  1827,  died  suddenly  at 
Coventry  1889.  He  was  an  enthusiast 


from  acquiescence.  Money  received  bv  I He  was  an  enthusiast 

a husband  from  his  wife  and  exnpndpH  natural  history,  and  published  a large 

by  him,  under  her  direction,  on  his  land  on  zoology  and  kindred 

in  ..U.  _ ^ •'''JO.  on  ms  land,  subjects  which  had  great  popularity 


Wombat. 

WOMEN  MARRIED,  RIGHTS  OF. 

Any  and  all  property  which  a woman 
owns  at  her  marriage,  together  with  the 
rents,  issues,  and  profits  thereof,  and 
the  property  that  comes  to  her  by  de- 
scent’  devise,  bequest,  gift  or  grant,  or 
which  she  acquires  by  her  trade,  business 
labor,  or  services  performed  on  her 
separate  account,  shall,  notwithstand- 
ing her  marriage,  remain  her  sole  and 
separate  property,  and  may  be  used, 
collected,  and  invested  by  her  in  her 
own  name,  and  shall  not  be  subject  to 
the  interference  or  control  of  her  hus- 
band, or  be  Uable  for  his  debts,  unless 
for  such  debts  as  may  have  been  con- 
tracted  for  the  support  of  herself  or 
children  by  her  as  his  agent.  A married 
woman  may  likewise  bargian,  sell 
assign,  transfer  and  convey  such  prop- 
erty, and  enter  into  contracts  regarding 

T.hp»  .CQTTntl  j 1 1°  * ® 


• • . vii  iiio  X<1x1l1. 

m improving  the  home  of  the  family 
IS  a gift,  and  cannot  be  recovered  by  the 
wife  or  reclaimed,  or  an  account  de- 
manded. An  appropriation  by  a wife, 
herself,  of  her  separate  property  to  the 
use  and  benefit  of  her  husband,  in  the 
absence  of  an  agreement  to  repay,  or 
any  circumstances  from  which  such  an 
agreenaent  can  be  inferred,  will  not 
create  the  relation  of  debtor  and  creditor 
nor  render  the  husband  liable  to  account 
Ihough  no  words  of  gift  be  spoken  a 
gift  by  a wife  to  her  husband  may  be 
shown  by  the  very  nature  of  the  tran- 
action,  or  appear  from  the  attending  cir- 
cumstances. A wife  who  causelessly 
deserts  her  husband  is  not  entitled  to  the 
aid  of  a court  of  equity  in  getting  pos- 
session of  such  chattels  as  she  has  con- 
tributed to  the  furnishing  and  adorn- 
ment of  her  husband’s  house.  Her  legal 
title  remains,  and  she  could  convey  her 
interest  to  a third  party  by  sale,  and 
said  party  would  have  a good  title 
w-r  husband  should  prove  a gift" 

Wife  s property  is  not  liable  to  a lien  of 
a sub-contractor  for  materials  furnished 
K -I husband  for  the  erection  of  a 
building  thereon,  where  it  is  not  shown 
that  the  wife  was  notified  of  the  in- 
tention to  furnish  the  materials,  or 
settlement  made  with  the  contractor 
and  given  to  the  wife,  her  agent  or 
trustee  The  common  law  of  the  United 
otates  has  some  curious  provisions  re- 
garding the  rights  of  married  women, 
though  in  all  the  states  there  are  statu- 
tory provisions  essentially  modifying 
this  law.  As  it  now  stands  the  husband 
IS  responsible  for  necessaries  supplied 
to  the  wife  even  should  he  not  fail  to 
suply  them  himself,  and  is  held  liable 
if  he  turn  her  from  his  house,  or  other- 
wise separates  himself  from  her  without 
good  cause  , He  is  not  held  liable  if  the 
wife  deserts  hmi,  or  if  he  turns  her  away 
for  good  cause.  If  she  leaves  him  through 
good  cause,  then  he  is  liable.  If  a man 
lives  with  a woman  as  his  wife,  and  so 
represents  her,  even  though  this  repre- 
sentation is  made  to  one  who  knows  she 


^ong  the  best  known  of  them  are^ 
Common  Objects  of  the  Sea-shore, 
Common  Objects  of  the  Country,  Homes 
without  Hands,  Insects  at  Home, 
Natimal  History  of  Man,  and  an  ad- 
rnirable  illustrated  Natural  History  of 
Animals. 

See  Honeysuckle. 

Charcoal. 

WpOD-CHUCK,  the  popular  name  of 
a rodent  mammal,  a species  of  the  mar- 
mot  tribe,  the  ground-hog,  common  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  of  a 
heavy  form,  from  15  to  18  inches  long, 
blackish  or  grizzled  above  and  chestnut- 
red  below.  It  forms  burrows  in  which  it 
winter  in  a dormant  state. 

WOODCOCK,  a bird  of  the  same  genus 
as  the  snipe.  It  is  widely  distributed, 
being  found  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  the 
north  of  Asia,  and  as  far  east  as  Japan. 
It  IS  a game  bird  of  Britain,  where  it  is 
known  chiefly  as  a winter  visitant,  but 


American  ■woodcock. 


1 regaraing 

busineTs^  wit  ^thePlik^^^^^^  '''ho  knows‘she 

rnot'nrt"-  ™ his  wde^''^ 

1 not  ri!  they  ^ WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD,  Seven. 


do  not  render  him  or  his  prope’rty  in  any 
way  liable  therefor.  Shemay  sue  and  be 
sued  in  all  matters  having  relation  to 
ner  sole  and  separate  property  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  she  were  sole  owner. 
In  the  following  cases  a married  wo- 
man s contract  may  be  enforced  against 
her  and  her  separate  estate;  1.  When 
the  contract  is  created  in  or  respecting 
the  carrying  on  of  the  trade  or  business 
of  the  wife.  2.  When  it  relates  to  or  is 
niade  for  the  benefit  of  her  sole  or  sepa- 
rate  estate.  3.  When  the  intention  to 
charge  the  separate  estate  is  expressed 
in  the  contriict  creating  the  liability 
»Vnen  a husband  receiv’es  ‘ 


See  Seven  Wonders. 

■ ® city  of  China,  prov- 

ince of  Hu-P^,  on  the  Yang-tse-kiang 
opposite  the  city  of  Hankow.  The  latter 
IS  in  effect  but  a suburb  of  Woo-Chang 
another  portion  on  the  n.  bank  of  the 
river  being  Hang-Yang-Foo.  It  is  the 
great  emporium  for  the  tea  exported  by 

Pop-  1,000,000. 

WOOD.  See  Timber. 

Ellen,  or  Price,  English 
novelist,  better  known  as  Mrs.  Henry 
"ood’  born  at  Worcester  1820,  died 
Among  lier  many  novels  mav  be 
noted  East  Lynne,  which  has  had  an 


principal  ‘enormous  success  both  as  a book  and  a 


also  breeds  in  certain  districts.  The 
bird  is  about  13  inches  in  length,  the 
female  being  soniewhat  larger  than  the 
male.  Its  food  is  chiefly  worms.  The 
American  woodcock  is  a smaller  bird, 
but  very  similar  in  plumage  and  habits! 

WOOD,  Fernando,  American  politi- 
cian, was  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1812. 
He  removed  to  New  York  in  1820  and 
was  elected  to  congress  in  1841.  In  1854. 
he  was  elected  mayor  of  New  A'ork,  and 
during  his  administration  brought  about 
reforms  that  so  impressed  citizens  with 
the  value  of  his  services,  that  he  was 
reelected  almost  unanimously.  In  1860 
he  was  once  more  elected  mayor  and 
during  this  term  he  was  subject  to  wide 
criticism  and  ridicule  by  suggesting  the 
secession  of  New  York  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  civil  war,  and  in  1863  was  re- 
turned to  congress,  where  he  remained 
until  1865;  he  was  reelected  in  1867  and 
served  until  1877.  He  died  in  1881. 

WOOD,  Leonard,  American  soldier, 
was  born  in  Winchester  county,  Vt., 
in  1860.  In  1886  he  was  appointed  first 
lieutenant  and  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
regular  array.  Upon  the  outbreak  of 
the  Spanish-American  war  Wood  and 


WOOD  ENGRAVING 


WORCESTER 


Theodore  Roosevelt  organized  the  regi- 
ment of  “Rough  Riders”  and  Wood 
was  made  Colonel  and  Roosevelt  lieuten- 
ant-colonel. In  1898  he  was  made  a 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers  and  in 
1901  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army.  He  was  put  in  charge  of  Santiago 
after  its  surrender.  In  1899  he  was 
appointed  governor-general  of  Cuba. 
In  1903  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
a division  of  the  army  of  the  Philippines 
and  was  made  major-general. 

WOOD  ENGRAVING.  See  Engraving. 

WOOD-OIL,  a balsamic  substance 
(an  oleoresin)  obtained  from  several 
species  of  trees  growing  in  Pegu,  Assam, 
and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
archipelago.  It  is  used  medicinally,  as 
a varnish,  in  lithographic  ink,  etc. 

WOODPECKER,  a name  for  the  birds 
belonging  to  the  order  Scansores  or 
climbers.  They  are  characterized  by 
their  long,  straight,  angular  beak, 
adapted  for  splitting  the  bark  of  trees; 
by  their  slender  tongue,  with  its  spines 
at  the  tip  curved  backward  to  enable 
them  to  extract  insects  from  crevices; 
and  by  their  stiff  tail,  which  acts  as  a 
prop  to  support  them  while  climbing. 
The  noise  they  make  in  tapping  the 
bark  of  a tree  to  discover  where  an  in- 
sect is  lodged  can  be  heard  at  a con- 
siderable distance.  In  America  the  most 
characteristic  species  are  the  ivory- 
billed woodpecker,  gold-winged  wood- 
pecker, and  the  California  woodpeeker. 

WOOD-PIGEON.  See  Ring-dove. 

WOODMEN  OF  AMERICA,  Modern, 
a fraternal  and  insurance  order  founded 
at  Lyons,  Iowa,  in  1883,  and  chartered 
under  the  laws  of  Illinois  in  1884.  Divi- 
sions or  branches  are  known  as  camps. 
It  has  camps  in  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Kansas, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Missouri, 
Indiana  and  Ohio.  The  membership  is 
about  850,000. 

WOO-HOO,  or  WUHU,  a treaty-port 
of  China,  on  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  about 
50  miles  above  Nanking,  opened  to 
trade  in  1877,  Pop.  79,000. 

WOOL,  that  soft  species  of  hair  which 
grows  on  sheep  and  some  other  animals, 
as  the  alpaca,  some  species  of  goats, 
etc.,  which  in  fineness  sometimes  ap- 
proaches to  fur.  Wool  is  divided  into  two 
classes — short  or  carding  wool,  seldom 
reaching  over  a length  of  3 or  4 inches, 
and  long  or  combing  wool,  varying  in 
length  from  4 to  8 inches,  each  class 
being  subdivided  into  a variety  of  sorts, 
according  to  their  fineness  and  sound- 
ness of  the  staple.  Wools  which  unite  a 
high  degree  of  fineness  and  softness 
with  considerable  length  of  staple,  bear 
a high  price.  English-bred  sheep  pro- 
duce a good,  strong,  combing  wool, 
that  of  the  Scotch  breeds  being  some- 
what harsher  and  coarser.  The  finest 
carding  wools  were  formerly  exclusively 
obtained  from  Spain,  the  native  country 
of  the  merino  sheep,  and  at  a later  period 
extensively  from  Germany,  where  that 
breed  had  been  successfully  introduced 
and  cultivated.  The  chief  wool-produc- 
ing countries  of  the  world  are : Argen- 
tina, Uruguay  and  other  South  -American 
countries;  Australia  and  New  Zealand; 
the  United  States;  Russia,  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  France,  Spain;  South 
Africa  and  India,  The  wool  clip  of  the 


United  States  is  300,000,000  pounds 
annually,  the  product  of  50,000,000 
sheep.  The  principal  wool-producing 
states  are  Montana,  New  Mexico,  Ohio, 
Texas,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Oregon, 
Idaho,  California,  Utah,  Michigan  and 

WOOLEN  MANUFACTURE,  the  use 
of  wool  as  an  article  of  clothing  dates 
from  the  earliest  times,  and  no  doubt  it 
was  made  into  cloth  earlier  than  either 
flax  or  cotton.  Among  the  ancient  Jews 
wool  was  the  staple  material  of  clothing; 
and  the  woolen  fabrics  of  ancirnt  Greece 
and  Rome  attained  special  excellence. 
In  time  the  Roman  manufactures  were 
carried  to  the  countries  in  which  Roman 
colonies  had  been  established.  In  Eng- 
land the  making  of  woolen  cloth  seems 
to  have  been  introduced  by  the  Romans, 
but  it  did  not  rise  into  importance  as  a 
national  employment  until  much  later. 
The  woolen  cloths  of  England  were  for 
a considerable  time  confined  to  the 
coarser  fabrics  of  domestic  manufacture, 
finer  cloths  being  imported  from  the 
continent,  particularly  from  Brabant. 
At  various  times  also  the  trade  was 
hampered  by  many  illiberal  laws  for  its 
regulation,  for  prohibiting  exportation, 
etc.  In  making  woolen  cloth  the 
essential  processes,  as  carried  on  in 
modern  factories,  are: — (1)  the  stapling 
of  the  raw  wool.  In  this  process  the 
stapler  or  sorter  works  at  a table  covered 
with  wire  netting,  through  which  the 
dirt  falls  while  the  various  qualities  of 
wool  are  being  separated.  The  wool  is 
then  ready  to  be  put  through  the  (2) 
scouring  machine,  where  it  passes  on  an 
endless  apron  into  an  oblong  vat,  which 
contains  a steaming  soapj'-  solution. 
Here  it  is  carried  forward  gently  by 
means  of  rakes  until  it  is  thoroughly 
soaked  and  cleansed.  After  this  it  is 
taken  to  the  (3)  drying  framework  of 
wire  netting,  under  which  are  situated 
steam-heated  pipes.  A fan-blast  drives 
the  heated  air  upward  through  the  wet 
wool,  which  lies  on  the  wire  netting, 
until  it  is  all  equally  dried.  When  neces- 
sary this  is  the  point  in  the  process 
when  it  is  “dyed  in  the  wool.”  It  is 
then  ready  for  the  (4)  willeying  or  teas- 
ing machine,  which  consists  of  a revolv- 
ing drum  furnished  with  hooked  teeth, 
close  above  which  are  set  cylinders  with 
hooked  teeth  moving  in  a contrary 
direction.  The  wool  is  fed  in  upon  the 
drum,  which  whirls  with  great  speed; 
and  between  the  two  sets  of  teeth  work- 
ing in  opposite  directions  it  is  disen- 
tangled, torn,  and  cast  out  in  fine,  free 
fibers.  With  some  classes  of  wool  it  is 
also  necessary,  at  this  stage,  to  remove 
suds  and  burrs  by  steeping  them  in  a 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  passing 
them  through  a burring  machine,  by 
which  the  burrs  are  extracted.  The 
wool  is  now  dry  and  brittle;  and  before 
submitting  it  to  the  process  (5)  of  card- 
ing, it  is  sprinkled  with  oil  and  well 
beaten  with  staves  in  order  to  give  it 
suppleness.  This  process  of  carding  is 
accomplished  by  a series  of  three  delicate 
and  complex  machines  called  a scribbler, 
an  intermediate,  and  a finisher.  These 
machines  have  various  intricate  cylin- 
ders and  rollers,  studded  with  teeth  and 
working  in  opposite  directions,  over 
which  the  wool  is  passed  until  it  is  torn, 


interblended,  and  finally  delivered  from 
the  finisher  in  a continuous  flat  lap.  It  is 
then  cut  into  strips  and  passed  (6)  to  the 
condensing  machine,  which  rubs  the 
strip  into  a soft,  loose  cord  or  sliver 
technically  called  a “slubbing.”  The 
wool  is  now  ready  for  (7)  spinning  into 
yarn,  and  this  is  accomplished  in  a 
wool-spinning  mule,  which  draws  and 
twists  the  sliver  into  the  required  thin- 
ness, the  process  being  essentially  the 
same  as  in  cotton-spinning.  (See  Cotton- 
spinning.) The  wool,  which  has  thus 
been  brought  into  the  form  of  yarn,  is 
now  fit  for  (8)  weaving  into  woolen  cloth. . 
(See  Weaving.)  When  it  is  taken  out  of 
the  loom  the  cloth  is  washed,  to  free  it 
from  oil  and  other  impurities,  and  also 
beaten  while  it  lies  in  the  water  by 
wooden  hammers  moved  by  machinery, 
while  it  is  again  dyed  if  found  necessary. 
After  it  has  been  scoured  in  water 
mixed  with  fullers’  earth,  the  cloth 
undergoes  a process  of  (9)  teasling  and 
shearing  (see  Teasel),  in  which  the  pile 
or  nap  is  first  raised,  and  then  cut  to  the 
proper  length  by  machines.  When  this 
is  done  it  is  (10)  steamed  and  pressed 
between  polished  iron  plates  in  a hy- 
draulic press.  In  the  manufacture  of 
worsted  yarn  the  long-staple  wool  fibers 
are  brought  as  far  as  possible  into  a 
parallel  condition  by  processes  called 
gilling  and  combing.  The  wool,  in  a 
damp  condition,  is  passed  through  a 
series  of  “gill  boxes,”  in  which  steel  gills 
or  combs  separate  and  straighten  the 
fibers  until,  from  the  last  box,  it  issues 
in  a long  sliver.  In  this  condition  it  is 
run  through  a delicate  combing  ma- 
chine. From  the  combing  machine  it  is 
delivered  in  the  condition  of  a fine  sliver 
technically  called  top,  and  after  being 
further  attenuated  by  a process  of  rov- 
ing the  thread  is  spun  into  yarn  on  what 
is  called  a throstle-frame. 

WOOLWICH  (wuTich),  a metropoli- 
tan municipal  and  parliamentary  bor- 
ough of  England,  on  the  Thames,  8 
miles  below  London  bridge.  It  stretches 
about  3 miles  along  the  river,  and  owes 
its  importance  to  the  great  arsenal, 
which  has  a circumference  of  4 miles, 
and  consists  of  gun  and  carriage  fac- 
tories, laboratory,  barracks,  ordnance 
departments,  etc.  Pop.  117,157. 

WOONSOCKET,  a town  in  Providence 
county,  Rhode  Island,  about  40  miles 
s.w.  of  Boston.  Its  manufacturing 
establisliments  include  cotton  and  woolen 
factories,  machine-shops,  rubber-works, 
iron-foundries,  etc.  Pop.  33,104. 

WORCESTER  (wus'ter),  capital  of 
Worcestershire,  and  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  England,  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Severn,  114  miles  n.w.  of 
London.  Pop.  46,623.  The  county  is 
bounded  n.  by  Shropshire  and  Stafford- 
shire, e.  by  Warwickshire,  s.  by  Glou- 
cestershire, and  w.  by  Herefordshire; 
area,  472,453  acres,  about  half  of  which 
is  in  permanent  pasture.  The  carpets 
of  Kidderminster  are  famous,  as  arc 
also  the  gloves  and  porcelain  of  Wor- 
cester. Pop.  488,401. 

WORCESTER,  a town  in  Massa- 
chusetts, about  40  miles  west  of  Boston. 
It  is  situated  in  a fertile  agricultural 
district,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
finest  towns  in  New  England.  It  has 
manufactures  of  iron  goods  of  variowa 


WORCESTER 


WREN 


kinds,  including  machinery,  tools,  etc.; 
also  of  woolens,  carpets,  boots  and 
shoes,  leather,  paper,  musical  instru- 
ments, etc.  Pop.  1909,  143,000. 

WORCESTER,  Edward  Somer-set, 
Marquis  of,  one  of  the  earliest  inventors 
of  a steam-engine,  was  born  about  IGOl, 
and  died  1667. 

WORCESTER,  Joseph  Emerson,  phil- 
ologist, born  in  Bedford,  N.  H.,  August 
24,  1784.  As  a boy  he  worked  on  a 
farm,  and  in  1811  was  graduated  at 
Yale.  In  1830  he  visited  Europe,  and 
in  1847  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  Brown,  which  was  duplicated  by 
Dartmouth  in  1856.  Doctor  Worcester 
delivered  lectures,  edited  a variety  of 
gazetteers,  geographies,  histories,  and 
almanacs,  and  finally  made  a life  work  of 
his  Dictionary  of  the  English  lianguage, 
the  first  illustrated  Dictionary  in  Eng- 
lish. An  enlarged  edition  appeared  in 
1881.  He  died  in  1865. 

WORDSWORTH,  William,  English 
poet,  was  born  at  Cockermouth,  Cum- 
berland, 7th  April,  1770,  and  died  23d 
April,  1850.  He  crossed  to  France  in 
November,  1791,  and  exhibited  vehe- 
ment sympathy  with  the  revolution, 
remaining  in  France  for  nearly  a year. 
After  his  return,  disregarding  all  en- 
treaties to  enter  upon  a professional 
career,  he  published  his  Evening  Walk 
and  Descriptive  Sketches  (1793).  With 
the  consecrated  helpfulness  of  his  sister 
Dorothy  he  contrived  to  keep  house  for 
eight  years,  while  he  gave  himself  to 
poetic  effort  as  his  high  “office  upon 
earth.”  For  the  first  two  years  they 
lived  at  Racedown  in  Dorset,  where  the 


poet  among  other  experiments  began 
ids  tragedy  of  The  Borderers.  In  this 
retreat  they  were  visited  (1797)  by 
Coleridge,  who  had  already  recognized 
an  original  poetic  genius  in  the  author 
of  Descriptive  Sketches.  Coleridge  was 
at  this  time  living  at  Nether  Stowey,  in 
Somerset,  and  during  this  visit  he  in- 
duced the  Wordsworths  to  go  into  resi- 
dence at  Alfoxden,  in  his  immediate 
neighborhood.  Here  the  two  poets  held 
daily  intercourse,  and  after  a twelve- 
month  they  published  Lyrical  Ballads 
(1798)  in  literary  copartnership.  Words- 
worth’s great  philosophic  poem,  which, 
in  his  own  phrase,  was  to  be  the  Gothic 


cathedral  of  his  labor,  received  only  a 
fragmentary  accomplisliment  in  The 
Prelude,  The  Excursion,  and  The 
Recluse.  Yet  enough  was  achieved  in  his 
smaller  poems  to  justify  his  own  con- 
ception of  hunself  as  a “dedicated 
spirit,”  and  to  set  him  apart  among  the 
greatest  of  England’s  poets. 

WORKHOUSE,  a house  in  which 
paupers  are  maintained  at  the  public 
expense,  those  who  are  able-bodied 
being  compelled  to  work.  Under  the 
old  poor-laws  of  England,  there  was  a 
workhouse  in  each  parish,  partaking 
of  the  character  of  a bridewell,  where 
indigent,  vagrant,  and  idle  people  were 
set  to  work,  and  supplied  with  food  and 
clothing,  or  what  is  termed  indoor  relief. 
These  workhouses  were  described  as, 
generally  speaking,  nurseries  of  idle- 
ness, ignorance,  and  vice;  but  a new 
system  was  introduced  in  1834,  parishes 
being  now  united  for  the  better  manage- 
ment of  workhouses,  which  gave  rise 
to  the  poor-law  unions,  with  their 
workhouses.  In  these  establishments 
the  pauper  imnates  are  employed 
according  to  their  capacity  and  ability. 
Religious  and  secular  instruction  is 
supplied,  while  habits  of  industry, 
cleanliness,  and  order  are  enforced. 

WORLD’S  COLUMBIAN  EXPOSI- 
TION, an  international  exposition  held 
in  Chicago  in  1893  to  celebrate  the  four 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  landing  of 
Columbus.  The  funds  for  the  exposition 
consisted  of  $10,000,000  raised  by  the 
city  of  Chicago,  a loan  of  $2,500,000  from 
congress,  debenture  bonds  for  $5,000,000 
issued  by  the  exposition  authorities, 
together  with  miscellaneous  contribu- 
tions from  various  sources  of  about 
$3,000,000,  making  a total  fund  of  about 
$20,000,000.  Jackson  park  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Chicago,  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan,  covering  an  area  of  666 
acres,  was  chosen  as  the  site,  where  150 
different  buildings  were  erected.  The 
principal  buildings  were  constructed  of 
composition  called  staff,  consisting  of 
a mixture  of  plaster  of  Paris,  with  a 
little  cement,  glycerin,  and  dextrin,  in 
water,  which  at  a short  distance  gave 
the  effect  of  marble.  This  appearance 
led  to  the  name  of  White  City,  by  which 
the  exposition  subsequently  became 
generally  known.  The  amusement 
features  were  in  the  Midway  Plaisa'nce, 
a strip  of  land  west  of  Jackson  park,  and 
of  these  most  worthy  of  note  was  the 
huge  Ferris  Wheel,  264  feet  high.  The 
total  attendance  at  the  exposition  was 
27,539,041,  of  which  21,479,661  were 
paid.  The  largest  attendance  was  on 
Chicago  day,  October  9th,  when  there 
were  761,942  paid  admissions.  There 
were  65,422  exhibitors  representing  over 
250,000  separate  exhibits.  At  the  close 
of  the  exposition  the  total  receipts  from 
all  sources  were  $33,290,065,  while  the 
total  disbursements  were  $31,117,353. 

WORMS,  a term  loosely  applied  to 
many  small  longish  creeping  animals, 
entirely  wanting  feet  or  having  but  very 
short  ones,  including  such  various  forms 
as  the  earthworm,  the  larvae  or  grubs  of 
certain  insects,  intestinal  parasites,  as 
the  tape-worm,  thread-worm,  etc.  In 
zoological  classifications  it  is  used  as 
equivalent  to  Vermes  or  to  Annelida. 
In  medicine  it  is  applied  to  the  parasitic 


animals  which  exist  chiefly  in  the  in- 
testines, and  to  the  disease  due  to  the 
presence  of  such  parasites.  Several 
kinds  of  worms  may  infest  the  himian 
body,  but  the  worms  with  which  chil- 
dren are  so  commonly  annoyed  are  the 
small  worms  known  as  thread-worms. 
Vermifuges  or  anthelmintics  are  names 
given  to  medicines  that  cure  worms, 
such  as  extract  of  male-fern  root  for  tape 
worms,  santonin  for  thread-worms.  See 
Wormwood,  Tape-worm. 

WORMS,  a town  in  Germany,  in  the 
Grand-duchy  of  Hesse,  on  the  Rhine, 
25  miles  s.  of  Mainz,  and  20  miles  n.w. 
of  Heidelberg.  The  chief  buildings  of 
interest  are  the  Romanesque  cathedral 
(12th  century),  a magnificent  structure 
with  four  round  towers  and  two  large 
domes;  the  Liebfrauenkirche  and  church 
of  St.  Martin;  the  town-house;  and  the 
monument  to  Luther,  consisting  of  a 
colossal  statue  on  a raised  platform  sur- 
rounded by  figures  of  precursors  of  or 
persons  directly  connected  with  the 
Reformation.  At  Worms  was  held  the 
famous  diet  in  1521,  at  which  Luther 
defended  his  doctrines  before  the  em- 
peror Charles  and  an  august  assemblage. 
Pop.  40,705. 

WORM-SEED,  a seed  which  has  the 
property  of  expelling  wonns  from  the 
intestinal  tube  or  other  open  cavities  of 
the  body.  It  is  brought  from  the  Levant, 
and  is  the  produce  of  a species  of  plant 
which  is  a native  of  Tartary  and  Persia. 

WORMWOOD,  a well-known  plant, 
celebrated  for  its  intensely  bitter  tonic 
and  stimulating  qualities,  which  have 
caused  it  to  be  an  ingredient  in  various 
medicinal  preparations,  and  even  in  the 
preparation  of  liquors.  It  is  also  useful 
in  destroying  worms  in  children. 

WORSTED,  a variety  of  woolen  yarn 
or  thread,  spun  from  long-staple  wool 
which  has  been  combed,  and  which  in  the 
spinning  is  twisted  harder  than  ordinary. 
It  is  knit  or  woven  into  stockings,  car- 
pets, etc.  The  name  is  derived  from 
Worsted,  a village  in  Norfolk  where  it 
is  supposed  to  have  been  first  manu- 
factured. 

WORT.  See  Brewing. 

WOUND,  in  surgical  phrase,  a solu- 
tion of  Continuity  in  any  of  the  soft  parts 
of  the  body  occasioned  by  external 
violence,  and  attended  with  a greater  or 
less  amount  of  bleeding.  Wounds  have 
been  classified  as  follows : (a)  Cuts, 

incisions,  or  incised  wounds,  which  are 
produced  by  sharp-edged  instruments, 
(b)  Stabs  or  punctured  wounds,  made 
by  the  thrusts  of  pointed  weapons,  (c) 
Contused  wounds,  produced  by  the 
violent  application  of  hard,  blunt, 
obtuse  bodies  to  the  soft  parts,  (d) 
Lacerated  wounds,  in  which  there  is 
tearing  or  laceration,  as  by  some  rough 
instrument,  (e)  All  those  common  in- 
juries called  gunshot  wounds,  (f)  Poi- 
soned wounds,  those  complicated  with 
the  introduction  of  some  poison  or 
venom  into  the  part. 

WRECK,  in  law,  is  defined  as  such 
articles  of  value  as  are  cast  upon  land 
by  the  sea,  includes  jetsam, flotsam  ligan, 
and  derelict. 

WREN,  a name  given  to  certain  birds 
closely  allied  to  the  warblers,  distin- 
guished by  their  small  size,  slender 
beak,  short,  rounded  wings,  mottled 


i 


WREN 


WURTEMBERG 


plummage,  and  the  habit  of  holding  the 
tail  erect.  The  American  house-wren 
is  a very  familiar  bird,  and  a general 
favorite  in  America. 

WREN,  Sir  Christopher,  English 
architect,  born  in  1631,  died  in  1723. 
He  had  been  appointed  by  Charles  II, 
to  restore  old  St.  Paul’s,  but  after  the 
great  fire  (1666)  it  became  necessary  to 
rebuild  the  cathedral.  The  cathedral  was 
h^un  in  1675,  and  the  architect  saw 
thfflast  stone  laid  by  his  son  thirty-five 
years  afterward.  Among  the  other 
notable  buildings  which  Wren  designed 
are:  the  modern  part  of  the  palace  at 
Hampton  court,  the  library  of  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  the  hospitals  of 
Chelsea  and  Greenwich,  the  churches  of 
St.  Stephen’s,  Walbrook;  St.  Mary-le- 
bow;  St.  Michael,  Cornhill;  St.  Bride, 
Fleet  street;  as  also  the  campanile  of 
Christ  church,  Oxford.  In  1680  he  was 
chosen  president  of  tile  Royal  society, 
appointed  in  1708  surveyor  of  the  royal 
works,  and  from  1685  to  1700  repre- 
sented various  boroughs  in  parliament. 
Over  the  north  doorway  of  St.  Paul’s  is 
a memorial  tablet  on  which  are  the  well- 
known  words : Si  monumentum  requiris, 
circum  spice. 

WRENCH,  an  instrument  consisting 
essentially  of  a bar  of  metal  having 
jaws  adapted  to  catch  upon  the  head 
of  a bolt  or  a nut  to  turn  it;  a screw- 


3,  An^jle-wrench.  4,  Tube-wrench. 

5,  Monkey-wrench  for  hexagon&l  and  square  nute. 

key.  Some  wrenches  have  a variety  of 
jaws  to  suit  different  sizes  and  shapes  of 
nuts  and  bolts,  and  others,  as  the 
monkey-wrench,  having  an  adjustable 
inner  jaw. 

WRIGHT,  Carroll  Davidson,  Ameri- 
can economist,  was  born  in  Dumbarton, 
N.  H.,  in  1840.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  senate  in  1873,  was  chief 
of  Labor  statistics  of  Massachusetts 
from  1873  to  1888  and  superintended 
the  United  States  censuses  of  1875  and 
1885.  From  1885-92  he  was  United 
States  commissioner  of  labor.  He  was 
appointed  by  President  Roosevelt  in 

1902  one  of  the  commissioners  to  arbi- 
trate the  strike  of  the  anthracite  coal 
mines.  In  1902  he  accepted  the  presi- 
dency of  Clark  university.  He  was  one 
of  the  original  trustees  of  the  Carnegie 
institute.  His  writings  include  a large 
number  of  essays  and  The  Industrial 
Evolution  of  the  United  States  and 
Outlines  of  Practical  Sociology. 

WRIGHT,  Luke  E.,  American  lawyer 
and  administrator,  was  born  in  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  in  1847.  In  1900  he  was 
appointed  by  President  McKinley  a 
member  of  the  Philippine  commission. 
In  1901  on  the  establishment  of  civil 
government  in  the  islands  he  became 
vice-governor  and  acting  governor  dur- 
ing Governor  Taft’s  absence  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe  in  1902.  In 

1903  he  became  governor  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 


WRIST.  See  Hand. 

WRIT,  in  law,  a precept  under  seal  in 
the  nanrie  of  the  sovereign,  a judge,  or 
other  person  having  jurisdiction,  and 
directed  to  some  public  officer  or  private 
person,  commanding  him  to  do  a certain 
act  therein  specified.  Writs  in  English 
law  were  fonnerly  very  multifarious, 
but  a great  number  have  been  abolished. 

WRITER’S  CRAMP,  a spasmodic 
affection  in  which  the  patient  loses  com- 
plete control  over  the  muscles  of  the 
thumb  and  the  fore  and  middle  finger, 
so  that  all  attempts  to  write  regularly, 
and  in  the  severer  cases  even  legibly, 
are  unsuccessful.  The  various  methods 
of  treatment  for  this  trouble  (such  as 
surgical  operations,  the  application  of 
electricity,  etc.)  have  not  produced  very 
satisfactory  results.  Called  also  Scriv- 
ener’s Palsy. 

WRITING,  one  of  the  oldest  arts,  is 
usually  divided  into  ideographic  writing, 
in  which  signs  represent  ideas,  and  into 
phonetic  writing,  in  which  signs  repre- 
sent sounds.  Ideographic  writing,  in  its 
earliest  form,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
an  attempt  to  convey  ideas  by  copying 
objects  direct  from  nature,  and  this 
form  of  it  has  thus  acquired  the  name  of 
picture  writing.  After  this  came  sym- 
bolical writing,  in  which  abbreviated 
pictures  were  used  as  arbitrary  sym- 
bols, first  of  things,  and  still  later  of 
sounds  and  words.  This  indicates  the 
transition  into  phonetic  writing,  in 
which  the  signs  may  either  represent 
a whole  syllable  (syllabic  writing),  or 
only  a single  sound,  in  which  case  they 
are  called  alphabetic.  These  signs  differ 
in  form  and  use  in  the  various  alphabets. 
Thus  the  Chinese  signs  are  read  in 
columns  from  top  to  bottom,  the  Mexi- 
can picture  writing  from  bottom  to  top, 
the  Hebrew  writing  from  right  to  left, 
and  Latin,  Greek,  and  all  European 
languages  as  well  as  Sanskrit  from  left 
to  right.  (See  Alphabet.)  In  the  Chinese 
system  of  writing  there  is  no  alphabet, 
the  characters  being  syllabic  and  strictly 
ideographic.  Writing  was  introduced  to 
the  western  nations  by  the  Phoenicians, 
and  the  Phoenician  system  was  based 
on  the  Egyptian.  The  cuneiform  writ- 
ing, another  ancient  system,  invented 
by  the  Accadian  inhabitants  of  Chaldea, 
was  also  adapted  to  several  languages, 
as  the  Assyrian,  the  Persian,  etc.,  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  ideographic,  syllabic, 
and  alphabetic  (see  Cuneiform  Writing). 
Also  of  independent  origin  is  the  Chinese 
system.  The  Egyptians  had  three  dis- 
tinct kinds  of  writing,  the  hieroglyphic, 
the  hieratic,  and  the  enchorial  or  de- 
motic (see  Hieroglyphic),  and  it  was 
from  the  second  that  the  Phoenician  and 
other  Semitic  systems  of  writing  was 
derived.  The  leading  Semitic  forms  are 
the  Samaritan  or  ancient  Hebrew,  the 
Chaldee  or  East  Aramaic,  the  Syriac  or 
West  Aramaic,  the  Kufic  or  early 
Arabic,  and  the  Neshki  or  modern 
Arabic.  At  what  tima  writing  was  in- 
troduced into  ancient  Greece  is  not 
known  with  certainty,  but  probably 
between  the  10th  and  the  7th  century 
B.c.  From  Greece  it  passed  to  Sicily  and 
Italy,  and  thence  it  was  spread  as  Chris- 
tianity spread.  Like  the  Semites  the 
Greeks  originally  wrote  from  right  to 
* left.  In  mediaeval  manuscripts  a variety 


of  styles  were  adopted  in  different 
epochs  and  countries.  Capitals  were  not 
then  used  as  now  to  distinguish  promi- 
nent words,  but  whole  manuscripts  were 
written  in  large  or  small  capitals. 
Uncial  letters,  which  prevailed  from  the 
7th  to  the  10th  centuries,  were  rounded 
capitals  with  few  hair-strokes.  Gothic 
characters,  which  were  merely  fanciful 
deviations  from  the  Roman  types,  be- 
came common  in  inscriptions  from  the 
13th  to  the  15th  centuries,  and  were  em- 
ployed in  church  books  from  the  time 
of  St.  Louis.  In  England  a variety  of 
styles  called  Saxon  prevailed  in  the  early 
middle  ages.  A mixed  style  was  formed 
of  a combination  of  Roman,  Lombardic 
and  Saxon  characters;  the  Norman  style 
came  in  with  William  the  Conqueror; 
and  the  English  court  hand,  an  adapta- 
tion of  Saxon,  prevailed  from  the  16th 
century  to  the  reign  of  George  II.  There 
have  been  various  attempts  made  to  in- 
troduce systems  of  phonetic  writing, 
in  which  each  sound  should  be  repre- 
sented by  one  invariable  sign.  Systems 
of  shorthand  writing  are  generally 
phonetic.  See  Shorthand. 

WRYNECK,  a bird  allied  to  and  re- 
sembling the  woodpeckers.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  long  tongue,  its  power 


Common  wryneck. 


of  protruding  and  retracting  it,  and  the 
writhing  snake-like  motion  which  it  can 
impart  to  its  neck  without  moving  the 
rest  of  the  body.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
ius6c^s 

WURTEMBERG  (vur'tem-berh),  or 
WURTTEMBERG,  a kingdom  of  the 
German  empire,  between  Bavaria, 
Baden,  Hohenzollern,  and  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  which  separates  it  from 
Switzerland;  area,  7531  sq.  miles;  pop. 
2,169,434.  In  the  west  the  Schwarz- 
wald,  or  Black  Forest  forms  part  of  the 
boundary,  and  the  Alb  or  Rauhe  Alp, 
forming  part  of  the  Franconian  Jura, 
covers  an  extensive  tract.  The  country 
belongs  in  large  part  to  the  basin  of  the 
Rhine,  being  drained  northward  into 
that  river  by  the  Neckar,  while  the 
Danube  flows  across  the  southern  dis- 
tricts. In  the  lower  and  more  favorable 
districts  the  fig  and  melon  ripen  in  the 
open  air,  and  the  vine,  cultivated  on  an 
extensive  scale,  produces  several  first- 
class  wines;  corn,  wheat,  hops,  to- 
bacco, and  fruit,  which  is  employed  in 
cider  making,  are  largely  cultivated. 
About  a third  of  the  country  is  under 
forests,  which  consist  chiefly  of  oaks, 
beech^,  and  pine.  Of  minerals,  by  far 
the  most  valuable  are  iron  and  salt,  both 
of  which  are  worked  by  the  government; 
the  others  are  limestone,  gypsum,  ala- 
baster, slate,  millstones,  and  potters’- 


WURZBURG 


WYOMING 


clay.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly 
of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods,  paper, 
wooden  clocks,  toys,  musical  instru- 
ments, and  chemical  products.  The 
government  is  an  hereditary  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  the  executive  power 
being  lodged  in  the  sovereign,  and  the 
legislative  jointly  in  the  sovereign  and  a 
parliament,  composed  of  an  upper  and 
a lower  chamber.  The  latter,  which  is 
elected  every  six  years,  is  composed  of 
ninety-three  members.  In  the  Bundes- 
rath  Wiirtemberg  is  represented  by  four 
members,  and  in  the  Reichstag  by 
seventeen.  Education  is  generally 
diffused,  and  the  center  of  the  educa- 
tional system  is  the  University  of 
Tubingen.  Besides  Stuttgart  (the  capi- 
cal),  the  chief  towns  are  Ulm,  Heilbronn, 
and  Esslingen.  It  became  a member  of 
the  German  empire  on  its  foundation 
in  1871. 

WURZBURG  (vurts'burh),  a town  in 
the  northwest  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Main, 
60  miles  s.e.  of  Frankfort.  The  most 
important  edifices  are  the  Romanesque 
cathedral,  erected  in  the  10th  century; 
the  university,  with  various  new  build- 
ings; the  Julius  hospital  and  school  of 
medicine,  and  the  royal  palace.  The 
university  library  has  200,000  volumes, 
and  in  other  respects  the  university, 
especially  in  the  medical  faculty,  is  well 
equipped.  The  manufactures  are  varied 
in  character.  Pop.  75,497. 

WY'ANDOTS  (in  Canada  called  Hu- 
rons),  an  Indian  tribe  in  North  America 
belonging  to  the  Iroquois  family.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  they 
were  settled  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Huron,  but  in  a tribal  war  (1636)  they 
were  nearly  exterminated  by  the  Iro- 
quois. The  tribe  then  suffered  various 
vicissitudes.  In  1812  a number  of  their 
warriors  fought  on  the  side  of  the  British. 
Latterly  a small  number  got  a reserva- 
tion in  the  Indian  territory,  but  they 
are  now  very  few  in  numbers. 

WYANDOTTE  CAVE,  situated  5 
miles  n.  of  Leavenworth,  Indiana,  has 
been  explored  for  over  20  miles,  and 
rivals  the  Mammoth  Cave  in  the  size 
of  some  of  its  chambers  and  in  its 
stalagmites  and  stalactites. 

WYATT,  Sir  Thomas,  the  first  writer 
of  sonnets  in  the  English  lan^age,  born 
in  1503,  died  1542.  His  poetical  works, 
which  include  elegies,  odes,  and  a 
metrical  translation  of  the  Psalms,  were 
ublished  in  1557,  along  with  those  of 
is  friend  the  Earl  of  Surrey. 

WYCHERLEY,  William,  an  English 
dramatist,  born  about  1640  at  Clive, 
near  Shrewsbury;  died  1715.  His  early 
years  were  spent  in  France,  afterward 
he  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  entered 
himself  at  the  Temple;  while  in  1670  he 
became  known  as  a fashionable  man 
about  town  and  the  author  of  Love  in  a 
Wood.  This  comedy  was  followed  by 
the  Gentleman  Dancing  Master,  the 
Country  Wife,  and  the  Plain  Dealer. 
Wycherley  is  the  typical  dramatist  of 
the  Restoration  group,  in  which  all  the 


brilliancy  and  dissoluteness  of  that  school 
are  very  prominent. 

WYCH-HAZEL,  the  common  name  of 
small  trees,  with  alternate  leaves  on 
short  petioles,  and  yellow  flowers  dis- 
posed in  clusters  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  and  surrounded  by  a three- 
leaved involucrxim.  They  are  natives  of 
North  America,  Persia,  or  China,  and 
are  very  different  from  the  true  hazel. 
The  Virginian  wych-hazel  is  medicinally 
important. 

WYCLIFFE.  See  Wickliff. 

WYOMING,  one  of  the  northwestern 
states  of  the  Union,  is  bounded  on  the 
n.  by  Montana,  on  the  e.  by  South 
Dakota  and  Nebraska,  on  the  s.  by 
Colorado  and  Utah,  and  on  the  w.  by 
Utah,  Idaho,  and  Montana.  Area, 
97,890  sq.  miles.  It  ranks  sixth  in  size 
among  the  states.  The  state  is  traversed 
by  the  main  axis  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  a 
mountainous  region.  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional park,  3600  sq.  miles  in  area,  oc- 
cupies the  northwestern  corner,  and  is 
mainly  within  the  limits  of  this  state. 
The  southwestern  portion  of  the  state 
slopes  toward  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
forms  a part  of  the  Green  river  valley. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  state  is  drained 
by  tributaries  of  the  Missouri,  the  west- 


Seal  of  Wyoming. 


ern  by  the  Snake  or  Shoshone  river, 
which  ultimately  joins  the  Columbia, 
and  in  the  southwest  is  the  Green  river, 
which  eventually  discharges  its  waters 
into  the  Colorado.  The  climate  is  dry 
and  sunny  and  as  a rule  very  pleasant 
and  healthful.  The  winters,  though  very 
cold,  are  not  exceedingly  severe,  as  the 
snowfall  is  light,  and  the  dry  air  makes 
the  cold  easily  endurable.  The  average 
annual  precipitation  for  the  state  is  13 
inches,  and  the  soil  is  generally  a light 
sandy  loam,  becoming  darker  and  richer 
in  the  river  valleys.  In  the  arid  Red 
desert  region  the  soil  over  large  areas 
is  strongly  impregnated  with  saline 
matter  and  poor  in  humus.  The  coal 
resources  of  the  state  are  enormous  and 
give  promise  of  playing  an  important 
part  in  the  future  development  of  the 
state.  The  state  has  also  deposits  of 
gold  and  silver,  copper,  iron,  soda,  some 


tin  and  an  abundance  of  limestone.  The 
numerous  oil  fields  have  begun  to  be 
developed.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
state  a lubricating  oil  of  superior  quality 
is  produced.  Over  one  half  of  the  area 
of  the  state  is  adapted  to  grazing. 
Wyoming  raises  more  sheep  than  any 
other  state,  the  breed  is  of  superior 
quality  and  the  yield  of  fleece  is  very 
large.  Cattle-raising  is  also  very  im- 
portant. The  state  produces  a hardy 
stock  of  horses.  About  90  per  cent  of 
the  acreage  devoted  to  crops  is  given  to 
hay  and  forage.  The  climate  is  too 
severe  for  corn,  but  oats  and  wheat  grow 
abundantly.  Potatoes  are  a favorite 
crop.  The  hardier  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  successfully  raised.  The  total 
wooded  area  of  the  state  is  estimated 
at  12,500  sq.  miles,  two-thirds  of  which, 
however,  are  in  the  Yellowstone  Na- 
tional park  and  the  United  States  re- 
serves. The  manufactures  are  limited 
to  products  for  home  consumption. 
The  State  university,  chartered  in  1886, 
is  located  at  Laramie,  and  is  the  leading 
educational  institution  in  the  state. 
There  are  numerous  public  schools  of  all 
grades  and  many  valuable  libraries; 
also  hospitals  and  charitable  institutions. 
A fur-trading  post  established  at  what  is 
now  Fort  Laramie,  in  1834,  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  first  white  settlement 
in  Wyoming.  The  state  comprises 
portions  of  the  territory  acquired  by  the 
Louisiana  purchase  of  1803,  and  of  that 
obtained  by  the  treaty  with  Mexico  in 
1848.  In  1867  the  discovery  of  gold  led 
to  the  founding  of  South  Pass  City,  and 
the  same  year  Cheyenne  was  laid  out  by 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  company. 
The  surrounding  country,  which  was 
without  government  of  any  sort,  was 
formed  into  Laramie  county.  Dak.,  and 
a vigilance  committee  kept  order.  The 
territorial  government  was  organized 
in  1869,  and  the  same  year  woman’s 
suffrage  was  adopted  and  has  been 
maintained  to  the  present  time.  The 
state  was  admitted  to  the  Union  July 
10,  1890,  as  the  constitution  adopted 
in  November,  1889,  had  been  approved 
by  congress.  In  national  politics  the 
state  voted  first  in  1892  for  the  repub- 
lican candidates.  The  free-silver  agita- 
tion in  1896  carried  it  into  the  demo- 
cratic column,  but  in  1900,  1904  and 
1908  republican  electors  were  cliosen. 
The  largest  cities  are  Cheyenne,  the 
capital,  with  a population  of  16,841, 
and  Laramie,  9865.  The  population  of 
the  state  is  125, ('00. 

WYOMING,  University  of,  a coeduca- 
tional state  institution  at  Laramie, 
Wyo.,  founded  in  1887  on  the  federal 
land  grants.  Its  departments  include 
colleges  of  liberal  arts,  agriculture,  and 
mechanical  engineering,  a school  of 
commerce,  a school  of  mines,  and  nor- 
mal, graduate,  and  preparatory  depart- 
ments. It  confers  the  bachelor’s  degree 
in  arts,  sciences,  and  pedagogy,  and 
gives  the  master’s  degree  for  advanced 
work. 


X 


X-RAYS 


X.  the  twenty-fourth  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet.  Except  when  used 
at  the  beginning  of  a word,  x in  English 
is  a double  consonant,  and  has  usually 
the  sound  of  ks,  as  in  wax,  lax,  axis,  etc. ; 
but  when  terminating  a syllable,  espe- 
cially an  initial  syllable,  if  the  syllable 
following  it  is  open  or  accented,  it 
often  takes  the  sound  of  gz,  as  in  exist, 
exhaust,  exalt,  example,  etc.  _ At  the 
beginning  of  a word  it  has  precisely  the 
sound  of  z. 

XANTHIPPE.  See  Socrates. 

XAVIER,  St.  Francis  (zav'i-er),  sur- 
named  the  apostle  of  the  Indies,  was 
born  in  1506  at  the  castle  of  Xavier  in 
Navarre.  He  fell  under  the  personal 
influence  of  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  first  members  of 
Loyola’s  Society  of  Jesus.  Having  been 
appointed  papal  nuncio  in  the  Indies,  in 
1542  he  reached  Goa,  where,  and  in  other 
parts  of  India,  notably  in  Travancore, 
he  prosecuted  with  success  his  mission- 
ary labors.  After  proselytizing  at 
Ceylon,  at  Malacca,  and  in  the  Moluccas, 
he  visited  Japan,  where  he  established 
a promising  mission.  In  1552  he 
started  for  China  in  the  hope  of  con- 
verting it  to  Roman  Catholic  Chris- 
tianity, but  died  in  1552,  when  at  no 
great  distance  from  Canton.  He  was 
canonized  in  1621. 


XEBEC,  a three-masted  vessel,  for- 
merly much  used  by  the  Algerine  corsairs, 
and  still  to  a small  extent  employed  in 


Xebec  of  Barbary. 


Mediterranean  commerce.  It  differs 
from  the  felucca  chiefly  in  having  sev- 
eral square  sails,  as  well  as  lateen  sails, 
while  the  latter  has  only  lateen  sails. 

XENOC'RATES,  of  Chalcedon,  Greek 
philosopher,  a disciple  of  Plato,  born 
396  B.C.,  and  from  339  until  his  death, 
314  B.C.,  head  of  the  famous  Academy 

XENOPH'ANES,  of  Colophon,  Greek 
philosopher,  born  probably  about  330 
B.C.,  for  some  time  settled  at  Elea  and 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic 
school  of  philosophy. 

XEN'OPHON,  the  Greek  historian  and 
essayist,  born  at  Athens  about  430 
B.c. ; became  early  a disciple  of  Socrates. 
In  401  B.C.,  partly  from  curiosity,  and 
in  no  mihtary  capacity,  he  joined  the 
Greek  mercenaries  attached  to  the 
force  led  by  Cyrus  the  Younger  against 
his  brother  Artaxerxes  II.  After  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Cyrus  on  the 


X 

field  of  Cunaxa,  the  chief  Greek  officers 
were  treacherously  assassinated  by  the 
victorious  satrap.  Xenophon  now  came 
to  the  front,  and  mainly  conducted 
the  famous  retreat  of  the  10,000  through 
wild  and  mountainous  regions,  often 
harassed  by  the  guerrilla  attacks  of 
barbarous  tribes,  until  after  a five 
months’  march  they  reached  Trebizond 
on  the  Black  Sea,  February  400  b.c. 
The  expedition  and  its  sequel  form  the 
subject  of  his  best-known  work,  the 
Anabasis.  Xenophon  fought  on  the 
side  of  the  Lacedsemonians  in  the  subse- 
quent war  between  Sparta  and  Persia, 
and  rose  from  poverty  to  competence 
through  the  ransom  which  he  received 
from  a wealthy  Persian  nobleman  whom 
he  had  captured.  With  Agesilaus,  un- 
der whom  he  had  already  servea,  he 
fought  at  Coroneia  (394  b .c.)  against  his 
own  countrymen,  and  was  on  this  ac- 
count formally  banished  from  Athens. 
For  more  than  twenty  years  he  seems  to 
have  lived  the  life  of  a country  gentle- 
man at  Scyllus  in  Elis,  where  he  is 
supposed  to  have  written  most  of  his 
works.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Spartans 
at  Leuctra  (371  b.c.),  Xenophon  was 
driven  from  Elis,  and  is  said  to  have 
retired  to  Corinth.  He  was  certainly 
alive  in  357  b.c.  Xenophon’s  principal 
works,  besides  the  Anabasis,  are  his 
Cyropsedia,  a political  and  educational 
romance  based  on  the  history  of  C3TUS 
the  Great;  the  Hellenica,  a history  of 
Greece  where  Thucydides  leaves  oflt, 
from  411  to  362  b.c.;  and  the  Memora- 
bilia, recollections  of  Socrates. 

XERES.  See  Jerez. 

XERXES.  I.,  King  of  Persia,  famous 
for  his  unsuccessful  attempt  to  conquer 
Greece,  was  the  son  of  Darius  and  of 
Atossa,  daughter  of  Cyrus.  He  began 
to  rei^  485  B.c.,  and  continued  his 
father’s  preparations  for  another  Persian 
invasion  of  Greece.  The  army  which  he 
collected  must  on  the  soberest  estimate 
have  exceeded  a million  of  men, 
with  a fleet  of  1200  sail.  Xerxes  crossed 
the  Hellespont  (480  b.c.),  and  met  with 
no  resistance  until  he  reached  the  Pass 
of  Thermopylae.  After  Leonidas  had 
fallen  there  with  his  Spartans,  Xerxes 
pressed  forward  and  burned  Athens, 
which  had  been  forsaken  by  almost 
all  its  inhabitants.  He  watched  from 
She  mainland  the  naval  battle  of  Salamis 
September,  480  b.c.),  and  fledignomin- 
iously  after  the  overwhelming  defeat  of 
his  fleet.  Xerxes  was  assassinated  465 
b.c.  He_^ has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
Ahasuerus  of  the  Book  of  Esther. 

XIMENES  (hi-ma'nes),  Francisco, 
Spanish  cardinal,  born  in  1437,  dUed  in 
1517.  In  1492  he  was  appointed  con- 
fessor to  Queen  Isabella  of  Castile,  and 
in  1495  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  dis- 
tin^ishing  himself  as  a reformer  of 
ecclesiastical  and  monastic  abuses.  In 
1507  he  was  made  a cardinal,  and  in 
1509  he  accompanied  an  expedition, 
fitted  out  at  his  own  expense,  which 
captured  the  Moorish  city  of  Oran. 
In  1516  King  Ferdinand  died,  leaving 
Ximenes  regent  during  his  grandson 
Charles’s  absence  in  the  Netherlands. 

In  1517  Charles  returned  to  Spain, 


and,  prompted  by  jealousy  of  the  power 
of  Ximenes,  dismissed  him.  Ximenes 
died  almost  immediately  afterward. 
He  founded  and  endowed  the  Univer- 
sity of  Alcala  de  Henares,  and  is  said 
to  have  expended  half  a million  of 
ducats  on  the  famous  Complutensian 
Polyglot. 

X-RAYS,  certain  mysterious  rays 
which  emanate  from  a glass  globe 
from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted, 
and  through  which  an  electric  charge 
is  taking  place.  The  rays  were  dis- 
covered in  1895  by  Dr.  Roentgen  of 
Wurzburg. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  X-raya 
at  first  sight  is  the  fact  that  they 
penetrate  with  great  ease  certain  sub- 
stances which  are  opaque  to  light,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  absorbed  by 
certain  substances  which  are  very  trans- 
parent to  light.  Thus  the  X-rays  are 
absorbed  largely  by  glass,  but  are 
transmitted  most  freely  by  aluminum, 
by  wood,  by  human  flesh,  etc.  It  is 
owing  to  these  facts  that  photographs 
may  be  obtained  of  many  objects 
hidden  from  view,  by  allowing  X-rays 
to  cast  a shadow  picture  of  them  on  a 
photographic  plate.  In  this  manner 
photographs  of  the  bones  of  the  body,  of 
metal  objects  contained  in  wooden 
boxes,  etc.,  may  easily  be  obtained. 

When  a careful  study  is  made  of  the 
at^l^ption  produced  in  X-rays  by 
vai:  JUS  substances,  it  is  found  that  there 
is  a close  connection  between  the 
intensity  of  absorption  and  the  density 
of  tHe  absorbing  body;  and  it  is  a 
gene^’al  law  that  the  greater  the  density 
of  th^  body  the  greater  is  its  absorptive 
powtT.  This  fact  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  the  interpretation  of 
photographs  of  portions  of  the  human 
body  and  of  other  objects  taken  by 
the  X-rays ; the  intensity  on  the  photo- 
graphic plate  is  in  reality  a measure 
of  the  density  of  the  absorbing  sub- 
stance whose  photograph  is  taken. 

X-rays  are  observed  to  affect  a 
photographic  plate  in  the  same  manner 
as  ordinary  light,  and  this  fact  is  made 
use  of  in  nearly  all  applications  of 
these  rays.  It  was  found  also — in  fact, 
it  was  the  fundamental  observation  of 
Roentgen — that  X-rays  excite  the  fluor- 
escent action  of  certain  substances, 
so  that  when  excited  by  the  rays  they 
emit  light.  A careful  study  has  been 
made  of  various  substances  which  are 
affected  in  this  way,  and  certain  of 
them  are  used  in  making  so-called 
fluorescent  screens,  which  may  be  used 
to  receive  the  shadows  cast  by  an  X-ray 
tube  instead  of  receiving  them  on  a 
photographic  plate. 

Roentgen  himself  observed  that  if  the 
X-rays  were  allowed  to  enter  the  eye 
of  an  observer  who  is  situated  in  a room 
entirely  dark,  the  retina  of  the  eye 
received  a stimulus  and  light  was  per- 
ceived. It  is  extremely  probable  that 
this  is  due  to  the  fluorescent  action  of 
the  X-rays  on  certain  portions  of  the 
eye.  It  was  observed,  a few  months 
after  the  discovery  of  the  X-rays, 
that  if  the  radiation  is  too  intense  its 
action  on  the  skin  of  an  observer  might 


produce  most  serious  changes  and 
cause  what  are  known  as  “X-ray  burns.” 
X-ray  pictures  of  parts  of  the  body  as 


seen  when  photographed  are  due  to  the 
power  of  absorption  of  different  sub- 
stances of  different  amounts  of  the  rays 


k-*! 

Y,  the  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet,  was  taken  from  the 
Latin,  the  Latin  having  borrowed  it 
from  the  Greek  T or  upsilon.  In 
modern  English  it  is  both  a consonant 
and  a vowel.  At  the  beginning  of 
syllables  and  followed  by  a vowel  it  is 
a consonant;  in  the  middle  of  syllables 
and  at  the  end  of  words  it  is  a vowel. 

YACHT  (y5t),  a light  and  elegantly 
fitted  up  vessel,  propelled  by  either 
steam  or  sail,  used  for  pleasure  or  racing. 
There  are  two  distinct  species  of  yacht 
— the  mere  racer,  with  enormous  spars 
and  sails  and  deeply-ballasted  hull,  with 
fine  lines,  but  sacrificing  everything  to 
speed;  and  the  elegant,  commodius, 
well-proportioned  traveling  yacht,  often 
with  steam-propelling  machinery,  fit  for 
a voyage  round  the  world.  A type  of 
yacht  much  used  in  America  is  that 
with  a center-board  or  sort  of  movable 
keel.  The  practice  of  yachting  as  well 
as  the  word  yacht  was  derived  from  the 
Dutch.  The  word  yacht  is  found  in  use 
in  English  in  Elizabeth’s  time,  and 
James  I had  a yacht  built  for  his  son 
Henry  early  in  the  17th  century,  but  it 
was  not  till  long  after  that  yachting  be- 
came a favorite  pastime  with  the  rich. 
The  pleasure  ship  is  as  old  as  Homer 
or  older.  One  of  the  Ptolemys  (300 
B.c.)  had  nearly  1000  pleasure  ships, 
some  of  which  were  300  feet  long. 
Modem  yachts  and  yachting  dates 
from  1588  in  Britain  with  the  building 


Y 

of  the  Rat  at  Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  The  first  recorded  yacht  race 
took  place  on  the  Thames  in  October, 
1661.  Yacht  racing  took  on  new  life 
about  1843  when  Queen  Victoria  began 
to  encourage  it  by  offering  valuable 
cups  for  prizes.  In  1844  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club  was  organized  and  in  1851 
it  sent  to  England  a specially  built 
yacht,  the  America,  to  take  part  in  the 
yacht  races  as  Cowes.  The  prize  was 
a silver  cup  valued  at  $500,  offered  to 
all  nations  by  the  Royal  Yacht  Squad- 
ron, for  a race  around  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  The  America  won  this  cup 
against  all  nations  and  brought  it 
back.  In  1857  the  owner  of  the  America 
presented  the  cup  to  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club  to  stand  for  all  time  as 
the  symbol  of  the  world’s  supremacy 
in  yacht  racing.  The  cup  was  thence- 
forward called  “the  America’s  cup.” 
To  get  it  back  British  yachtsmen  are 
required  to  challenge  the  New  Ycrk 
Yacht  Club  (or  the  United  States, 
through  that  organization),  and  must 
send  the  challenger  to  American  waters 
for  the  race.  See  Shamrock  i,  II,  III. 

The  introduction  of  compound  engines, 
with  their  economy  of  space  and  fuel, 
marks  the  real  beginning  of  steam 
yachting,  and  since  that  time  steam 
yachts  have  had  a wonderful  develop- 
ment. 

The  limit  in  this  class  was  reached  in 
the  Arrow,  built  in  1900.  She  is  139.33 


in  chemical  composition,  molecular 
grouping  and  thickness.  When  pro- 
ficient the  observer  may  recognize  the 
presence  and  extent  of  tuberculosis, 
pneumonia,  pleurisy,  empyema,  etc., 
and  from  the  shortened  excusion  of  the 
diaphragm  the  presence  of  bronchitis 
may  be  inferred.  Much  can  be  judged 
concerning  the  heart,  and  if  displaced, 
by  fluid  or  gas  in  the  pleural  cavities, 
pneumonia,  pleurisy,  tuberculosis,  ane- 
urism or  tumor,  or  if  it  is  attached  or 
unusually  placed  or  malformed,  the  con- 
dition may  be  ascertained  by  the  X-ray 
examination.  Aneurisms  can  be  clearly 
defined  when  no  other  method  is  of 
service.  All  new  growths  as  well  as  en- 
larged glands  within  the  thorax  may 
be  diagnosed.  Valuable  information 
concerning  the  oesophagus,  stomach,  and 
other  abdominal  organs  and  viscera,  the 
pelvic  cavity,  measurements  of  the 
uterus  and  extra-uterine  pregnancy 
may  be  diagnosed.  The  X-ray  is  serv- 
iceable in  the  treatment  of  lupus, 
eczema,  syphilitic  lesions,  naevus,  sy- 
cosis, favus,  acne,  and  psoriasis.  In 
many  cases  of  new  growths,  such  as 
cancer,  it  has  produced  amelioration 
and  actual  cure.  The  Roentgen  rays  are 
used  in  surgery  to  detect  the  position  or 
presence  of  foreign  bodies,  such  as 
bullets,  and  to  recognize  fractures,  and 
in  cases  of  fracture  it  remains  preemi- 
nent, both  to  confirm  diagnosis  and  to 
decide  if  a fracture  has  been  properly 
reduced,  after  it  has  been  put  into  a 
retaining  apparatus.  The  X-ray  has 
added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
human  skeleton,  especially  of  the  joints. 


feet  long  and  displaces  66  tons,  with  a 
record  of  40  knots.  She  is  fitted  with 
quadruple-expansion  engines  that  take 
steam  at  a pressure  of  400  pounds  from 
water-tube  boilers. 

YAK,  a fine  large  species  of  ox,  with 
cylindric  horns,  curving  outward,  long, 
pendent,  silky  hair  fringing  its  sides, 
a bushy  mane  of  fine  hair,  and  long, 
silky,  horse-hke  tail;  inhabiting,  both 


Yak. 


in  the  wild  and  the  domesticated  state, 
Tibet  and  the  higher  plateaus  of  the 
Himalayas;  called  grunniens  (grunting) 
from  its  very  peculiar  voice,  which 
sounds  much  like  the  grunt  of  a pig. 
It  is  the  ordinary  domestic  animal  of  the 
inhabitants  of  those  regions,  supplying 
milk,  food,  and  raiment,  as  well  as 
being  used  as  a beast  of  burden  and  to 
draw  the  plough.  The  tail  of  the  yak 
is  in  great  request  for  various  ornamental 
purposes,  and  forms  an  important  article 
of  commerce. 


YAKUTSK 


yeast 


YAKUTSK',  a province  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  includes  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
basin  of  the  Lena,  between  which  river 
and  its  tributary,  the  Vitim,  rich  gold 
mines  are  worked.  Area,  1,517,127  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  243,450. 

YALE  UNIVERSITY,  one  of  the  oldest 
and  largest  of  American  universities, 
originally  a collegiate  school  established 
at  Saybrook,  Connecticut,  in  1701.  It 
was  removed  in  1716  to  New  Haven, 
and  soon  after  its  name  was  changed  to 
Yale  college,  after  Elihu  Yale  (1649- 
1751),  a native  who  had  amassed  a for- 
tune in  India,  and  was  an  early  bene- 
factor of  the  institution.  It  has  four 
faculties  or  departments;  philosophy, 
theology,  law,  ajid  medicine,  in  all  of 
which  its  governing  body  grants  de- 
grees. 'The  first  of  these  includes,  be- 
sides the  original  academical  or  arts 
department  of  Yale  college,  a scientific 
and  engineering  school,  a school  of  fine 
arts,  and  also  post-graduate  courses. 
The  aggregate  number  of  volumes  in  all 
the  libraries  of  the  university  is  over 
500,000,  of  which  1000  were  presented 
in  1730  by  Bishop  Berkeley.  Its  build- 
ings are  now  very  extensive,  and  its 
funds  have  greatly  increased  by  private 
munificence.  The  teaching  staff  num- 
bers nearly  400,  and  the  total  number 
of  students  is  over  3,000. 

YAM,  a large  esculent  tuber  or  root 
produced  by  various  plants  growing  in 
the  warmer  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 
Yams,  when  roasted  or  boiled,  form  a 
wholesome,  palatable,  and  nutritious 
food,  and  are  extensively  cultivated  in 
many  tropical  and  sub-tropical  coun- 
tries. The  Chinese  or  Japanese  yam  con- 
tains more  nitrogenous  and  therefore 
nutritive  matter,  but  less  starch,  than 
potatoes.  It  is  hardy  in  Great  Britain 
and  thrives  in  the  United  States,  but 
its  cultivation  is  impeded  by  the  great 
depth  to  which  its  roots  descend.  The 
tubers  of  the  West  Indian  yam,  one  of 
the  species  most  widely  diffused,  some- 
times attain  a weight  of  50  lbs. 

YAMA,  a Hindu  god,  the  judge  of  the 
dead,  whose  good  and  bad  actions  are 
read  to  him  out  of  a record,  and  who 
according  to  their  merits  and  demerits 
are  sent  to  the  celestial  or  to  the  infernal 
regions.  Hindus  offer  to  him  daily 
oblations  of  water. 

YANG-TZE-KIANG,  one  of  the  two 
great  rivers  of  China,  is  formed  by  two 
streams  rising  in  Eastern  Tibet,  in  lat. 
26°  30'  n..  Ion.  102°  e.,  and  after  flowing 
east  and  then  south  enters  the  Chinese 
province  of  Yunnan.  Pursuing  a very 
tortuous  course,  much  of  it  through 
most  fertile  and  densely-populated 
regions,  it  reaches  the  great  city  of 
Nanking,  200  miles  from  the  sea,  where 
it  widens  gradually  into  the  vast  estuary 
which  connects  it  with  the  Yellow  sea. 
Its  whole  course,  under  various  names, 
is  2900  miles,  and  the  area  of  its  basin  is 
computed  to  be  548,000  sq.  miles.  It 
is  connected  by  the  Grand  canal  with 
the  Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  river,  and  is 
navigable  for  vessels  of  considerable 
draught  for  1200  miles  from  its  mouth. 
By  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  the  Lower 
Yang-tze  was  opened  to  European  trade ; 
and  700  miles  from  its  mouth  is  the 
treaty-port  of  Hangkow,  the  great  com- 
merical  port  of  Mid-China.  The  highest 


port  on  the  river  at  present  reached  by 
steamers  is  the  treaty-port  Ichang, 
1000  miles  from  its  mouth. 

YANKEE,  a cant  name  for  Americans 
belonging  to  the  New  England  states. 
During  the  American  revolution  the 
name  was  applied  by  the  British  to  all 
the  insurgents;  and  during  the  civil  war 
it  was  the  common  designation  of  the 
federal  soldiers  by  the  confederates. 
In  Britain  the  term  is  sometimes  im- 
properly applied  generally  to  natives 
of  the  United  States.  The  most  common 
explanation  of  the  term  seems  also  the 
most  plausible,  namely,  that  it  is  a cor- 
rupt pronunciation  of  English  or  of 
French  Anglais  formerly  current  among 
the  American  Indians. 

YANKEE-DOODLE,  a famous  air, 
now  regarded  as  American  and  national. 
In  reality  the  air  is  an  old  English  one, 
called  Nankey  Doodle,  and  had  some 
derisive  reference  to  Cromwell.  The 
really  national  tune  of  the  whole  United 
States,  however,  is  “Hail,  Columbia.” 

YARD,  a British  and  American  stand- 
ard measure  of  length,  equal  to  3 feet 
or  36  inches,  the  foot  in  general  being 
made  practically  the  unit.  As  a cloth 
measure  the  yard  is  divided  into  4 
quarters  = 16  nails.  A square  yard  con- 
tains 9 square  feet,  and  a cubic  yard  27 
cubic  feet.  See  Weights  and  Measures. 

YARD,  in  ships,  a long  cylindrical 
piece  of  timber,  having  a rounded  taper 
toward  each  end,  slung  crosswise  to  a 
mast.  All  yards  are  either  square  or 
lateen,  the  former  being  suspended 
across  the  masts  at  right  angles  for 
spreading  square  sails,  the  latter  ob- 
liquely. Yards  have  sheave-holes  near 
their  extremities  for  the  sheets  reeving 
through.  Either  end  of  a yard,  or  rather 
that  part  of  it  which  is  outside  the 
sheeve-hole,  is  called  the  yard-arm. 

YARKAND',  the  chief  town  of  the 
principal  oasis  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  is 
situated  on  the  river  Yarkand.  The 
inhabitants,  chiefly  Persians,  are  keen 
traders.  Pop.  about  60,000. — The  river 
rises  in  the  Karakorum  mountains,  and 
helps  to  form  the  river  Tarim,  which 
enters  Lob  Nor. 

YARMOUTH,  or,  as  it  is  more  strictly 
called.  Great  Yarmouth,  an  English 
seaport,  important  fishing-station,  water- 
ing-place, and  municipal,  pari.,  and 
county  borough,  in  the  county  of  Nor- 
folk, 20  miles  east  of  Norwich.  It  is  the 
great  seat  of  the  English  herring  and 
mackerel  fishery,  and  also  furnishes 
large  quantities  of  white-fish.  The  curing 
of  herring  as  “Yarmouth  bloaters”  is  an 
important  industry.  The  coast  is  dan- 
gerous, but  Yarmouth  roads,  between 
the  shore  and  a range  of  sandbanks, 
offers  a safe  anchorage.  Pop.  51,250. 

YARN,  any  textile  fiber  prepared  for 
weaving  into  cloth.  See  Thread. 

YARRELL,  William,  an  eminent 
naturalist,  was  born  in  London  1784, 
died  1856.  His  two  works,  the  History 
of  British  Fishes  and  the  History  of 
British  Birds  are  standard  authorities. 

YATES,  Richard,  war  governor  of 
Blinois,  was  born  in  Warsaw,  Ky.,  in 
1818.  He  was  thirteen  years  of  ago  when 
his  family  moved  to  Illinois.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Blinois  college,  Jacksonville, 
studied  law,  and  practiced  in  Spring- 
field.  Elected  to  the  state  legislature  in 


1842,  he  was  sent  to  congress  in  1850, 
being  the  youngest  member  of  that  body. 
He  was  elected  governor  in  1860,  and 
again  in  1862.  He  was  an  outspoken 
opponent  of  slavery,  and  was  very  active 
in  raising  volunteers.  It  was  in  Gov. 
Yates’s  office  that  Ulysses  S.  Grant  re- 
ceived his  first  distinct  recognition  as  a 
soldier.  Gov.  Yates  was  elected  United 
States  senator  and  served  one  term, 
from  1865  to  1871.  He  died  in  1873. 
His  son,  Richard,  Jr.,  was  elected  gover- 
nor of  Illinois  in  1900. 

YATAGHAN,  a sort  of  dagger-like 
saber  with  double-curved  blade,  about 
2 feet  long,  the  handle  without  a cross- 
guard, much  worn  in  Mohammedan 
countries. 

YAWL,  a small  ship’s  boat,  usually 
rowed  by  four  or  six  oars;  a jolly-boat; 
also  a sailing  boat  similar  to  a cutter, 
but  having  a small  sail  at  the  stern. 

YAWNING,  an  involuntary  opening  of 
the  mouth,  generally  produced  by 
weariness,  tedium,  or  an  inclination  to 
sleep,  sometimes  by  hunger,  etc.  When 
yawning  is  troublesome,  long,  deep 
respiration,  or  drawing  in  the  air  at  long 
intervals,  relieves  it. 

YAWS,  a disease  occurring  in  America, 
Africa,  and  the  West  Indies,  and  almost 
entirely  confined  to  the  African  races. 
It  is  characterized  by  cutaneous  tumors, 
numerous  and  successive,  gradually  in- 
creasing from  specks  to  the  size  of  a rasp- 
berry, one  at  length  growing  larger  than 
the  rest;  core  a fungous  excrescence; 
fever  slight,  and  probably  irritative 
merely.  It  is  contagious,  and  cannot  be 
communicated  except  by  the  actual 
contact  of  yaw  matter  to  some  abraded 
surface,  or  by  innoculation,  which  is 
sometimes  affected  by  flies. 

YAZOO  RIVER,  a river  of  the  United 
States,  290  miles  long,  navigable 
throughout  its  course,  which  is  entirely 
in  the  state  of  Mississippi,  joining  the 
Mississippi  river  12  miles  above  Vicks- 
burg. 

YEAR,  the  period  of  time  during 
which  the  earth  makes  one  complete 
revolution  in  its  orbit,  or  the  period 
which  elapses  between  the  sun’s  leaving 
either  equinoctial  point,  or  either  tropic, 
and  his  return  to  the  same.  This  is  the 
tropical  or  solar  year,  and  the  year  in 
the  strict  and  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
This  period  comprehends  what  are  called 
the  twelve  calendar  months,  and  is 
usually  calculated  to  commence  on  1st 
January  and  to  end  on  31st  December. 
It  is  not  quite  uniform,  but  its  mean 
length  is  about  365  days,  5 hours,  48 
minutes,  and  51.6  seconds.  In  popular 
usage,  however,  the  year  consists  of 
365  days,  and  every  fourth  year  of  366. 
— Lunar  year,  a period  consisting  of  12 
lunar  months.  The  lunar  astronomical 
year  consists  of  12  lunar  synodical 
months,  or  354  days,  8 hours,  48  min- 
utes, 36  seconds.  The  common  lunar 
year  consists  of  12  lunar  civil  months, 
or  354  days.  The  embolismic  or  inter- 
calary lunar  year  consists  of  13  lunar 
civil  mopths,  and  contains  384  days. — 

YEAST,  the  yellowish  substance,  hav- 
ing an  acid  reaction,  produced  during 
the  vinous  fermentation  of  saccharine 
fluids,  rising  to  the  surface,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  fluid  is  high,  in  ti  e 
form  of  a frothy,  flocculent,  viscid 


YEDDO 


YENISEISK 


matter  (surface  yeast),  and  falling  to  the 
bottom  (sediment  yeast)  when  the  tem- 
perature is  low.  The  ordinary  yeast  of 
beer  consists  of  an  immense  number  of 
minute  cells,  which  constitute  a plant 
called  the  yeast-plant,  which  multiplies 
by  budding  off  other  cells,  or  sometimes 
by  spores.  Little  is  known  regarding 
the  genesis  of  the  yeast-plant.  Pasteur’s 
researches  seem  to  show  that  the  yeast 
which  forms  in  grape  juice  is  derived 
chiefly  from  certain  germs  abounding 
about  harvest-time  on  the  grapes,  and 
diffused  throughout  the  atmosphere  of 
breweries  and  wine-cellars,  etc.  Yeast 
is  not  only  generally  essential  to  the 
production  of  wine  from  grape  and 
other  fruit  juices,  and  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  beer,  but  it  is  also  an  agent  in 
producing  the  fermentation  whereby 
bread  is  rendered  light,  porous,  and 
spongy. 

YEDDO.  SeeTokio. 

YELLOW,  one  of  the  prismatic  colors; 
the  color  of  that  part  of  the  solar  spect- 
rum situated  between  the  orange  and 
the  green ; a bright  golden  color,  the  type 
of  which  may  be  found  in  the  field 
buttercup,  which  is  a pure  yellow. 
United  with  blue  it  yields  green;  with 
red  it  produces  orange.  See  Color  and 
Spectrum . 

YELLOW-BIRD,  a small  singing  bird 
common  in  the  United  States.  The 
smnmer  dress  of  the  male  is  of  a lemon 
yellow,  with  the  wings,  tail,  and  fore 
part  of  the  head  black.  When  caged  the 
song  of  this  bird  greatly  resembles  that 
of  the  canary. 

YELLOW-FEVER,  popularly  known 
as  Yellow  Jack,  a malignant  febrile  dis- 
ease, indigenous  chiefly  to  the  West 
Indies,  northern  coasts  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, the  borders  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  the  Southern  United  States.  It  is 
attended  with  yellowness  of  the  skin, 
of  some  shade  between  lemon-yellow 
and  the  deepest  orange-yellow.  The 
symptoms  may  appear  within  one  or 
two  days  after  the  poison  has  entered 
the  person’s  body,  or  may  not  occur  for 
six  or  ten.  The  attack  is  sudden,  be- 
ginning with  shivering,  headache,  pain 
in  the  back  and  limbs,  with  fever.  It  is 
most  fatal  from  May  to  August;  is  very 
contagious,  but  a sufferer  from  one 
attack  is  nearly  safe  from  a second.  It 
has  occasionally  appeared  in  Europe, 
but  does  not  spread ; cold  weather  kills  it. 

YELLOW-HAMMER, yellow-hammer, 
a passerine  bird  called  also  yellow- 
bunting. The  head,  cheeks,  front  of  the 
neck,  belly,  and  lower  tail-coverts  are 
of  a bright  yellow;  the  upper  surface  is 
partly  yellow,  but  chiefly  brown,  the 
feathers  on  the  top  of  the  back  being 
blackish  in  the  middle,  and  the  tail 
feathers  are  also  blackish.  The  yellow- 
hammer  is  a resident  in  Britain,  and 
generally  throughout  Europe. 

YELLOW-PINE,  a North  American 
tree,  Pinus  mitis  or  variabilis.  The  wood 
is  universally  employed  in  the  countries 
where  it  grows  for  domestic  purposes, 
and  is  also  extensively  exported  to 
Britain,  and  elsewhere. 

YELLOW  RIVER.  See  Hoang-ho. 

YELLOWS,  an  inflammation  of  the 
liver,  or  a kind  of  jaundice  which  affects 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  causing  yellow- 
ness of  the  eyes. 


YELLOW  SEA,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific 
ocean,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  China; 
length,  about  620 miles ; greatest  breadth 
about  400  miles.  It  is  very  shallow,  and 
obtains  its  name  from  the  lemon-yellow 
color  of  its  water  near  the  land,  caused 
by  mud  suspended  in  the  water  from 
the  inflow  of  the  rivers  Hoang-ho  and 
Yang-tse-kiang. 


Yellow  hammer. 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK, 

a region  mainly  in  Wyoming,  United 
States,  which  in  1872  was  withdrawn 
from  settlement  by  the  United  States 
government  to  became  a park  or  tract 
for  the  recreation  of  the  people.  Its 
area  is  3312  sq.  miles;  its  length  north 
and  south  61  miles,  and  its  breadth  53. 
It  is  accessible  by  a branch  of  the  North- 
ern Pacific  railway.  Its  surface  is  mainly 
an  undulating  plain,  diversified,  how- 
ever, by  great  mountain  ranges,  one  of 
which,  the  Absaroka,  a range  separating 
the  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  river 
from  those  of  the  Big  Horn,  contains 


Firehole  basin  is  the  most  magnificent 
natural  fountain  in  the  world.  The 
Yellowstone  lake,  one  of  many,  is  a 
magnificent  sheet  of  water,  with  an  area 
of  150  sq.  miles.  A large  part  of  the 
park  is  covered  with  forests.  Stringent 
legislation  protects  the  game,  with  the 
result  that  elk,  deer,  antelope,  bear,  and 
bison  have  taken  refuge  in  it. 

YELLOWSTONE  RIVER,  a river  of 
the  United  States,  which  rises  in  the 
Rocky  mountains,  about  lat.  44°  n. 
and  Ion.  110°  w.  After  a course  of  about 
25  miles  it  passes  through  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  and  runs  northward  through 
the  Yellowstone  National  park.  Soon 
after  issuing  from  the  lake  the  river 
makes  at  intervals  a series  of  falls  (the 
last  being  300  feet  high),  and  traverses 
canons,  one  of  which,  the  Great  Canon, 
is  30  miles  in  length,  its  steep  sides  being 
colored  in  bright  hues  and  shaped  in 
great  variety  of  fantastic  forms.  Run- 
ning in  a northeasterly  direction  the 
river  ultimately  joins  the  Missouri  about 
lat.  48°  n.,  after  a course  of  some  1100 
miles.  Steamers  can  ascend  it  for  300 
miles  to  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Horn, 
which  is  its  largest  affluent. 

YELLOW-THROAT,  a small  North 
American  singing  bird. 

YEMEN,  a division  of  Arabia,  occupy- 
ing the  southwest  angle  of  the  peninsula, 
and  known  as  Arabia  Felix.  Estimated 
area,  70,000  sq.  miles;  estimated  popu- 
lation, about  600,000.  The  chief  poten- 
tate is  the  Imdm  of  Sana,  a tributary  of 
Turkey. 

YEN,  Japanese  money  of  account, 
equivalent  to  98c. 

YENIKA'LE,  Strait  of,  connecting  the 
Black  sea  with  the  Sea  of  Azof,  is  about 
20  miles  long,  and  in  some  parts  only  2 
miles  broad  and  2 fathoms  deep. 

YENISEI  (yen'i-si),  a great  river  of 
Asia,  rises  in  Mongolia,  flows  northward 
through  Siberia,  and  after  a course  of 


The  great  geyser  basin  of  the  upper  Yellowstone. 


some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the 
United  States.  The  whole  region  ex- 
hibits an  endless  variety  of  wild  volcanic 
scenery — hot  springs,  mud  volcanoes, 
geysers,  canons,  waterfalls,  etc.  The 
geysers  are  more  remarkable  than  those 
of  Iceland,  and  the  Grand  Geyser  in 


about  2,500  miles  enters  the  bay  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Arctic  ocean. 

YENISEISK,  a vast  province  of  East- 
ern Siberia,  extending  from  the  Chinese 
frontier  to  the  Arctic  ocean;  area, 
992,870  sq.  miles.  It  contains  rich 
auriferous  deposits.  Pop.  559,902. — 


YERKES 


YOUNG 


The  capital,  of  the  same  name,  is  the 
chief  entrepot  for  the  gold  mines  of  the 
province  and  the  Siberian  fur-trade. 
Pop.  7050. 

YER'KES,  Charles  Tyson,  American 
capitalist,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1837.  From  1861  to  1886  he  was  in 
the  banking  business,  making  a specialty 
of  dealing  in  bonds.  In  1886  he  secured 
virtual  control  of  the  street  and  elevated 
railway  systems  of  Chicago.  In  1892-93 
he  was  an  influential  member  of  the 
board  of  directors  of  the  World’s  Fair 
in  Chicago.  In  1892  he  endowed  the 
famous  Yerkes  observatory,  which  was 
completed  in  1896.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  construction  and  extension 
of  the  new  London  (Eng.)  underground 
railway  system.  He  died  in  1905. 

YERKES  OBSERVATORY,  the  astro- 
nomical observatory  of  the  University 
of  Chicago,  located  at  William  Bay,  Wis. 
It  is  named  after  its  founder,  Charles 
Tyson  Yerkes,  who  supplied  the  funds 
for  buildings  and  instruments.  This  in- 
stitution contains  the  largest  refracting 
telescope  in  existence.  It  is  of  40  inches 
diameter.  It  is  used  principally  for  the 
observation  of  close  or  faint  double 
stars,  the  planets  and  satellites,  and 
spectroscopic  work. 

YESSO,  YEZO,  or  JESSO,  the  most 
northerly  of  the  larger  Japan  islands, 
has  an  area  of  about  35,000  sq.  miles, 
and  a pop.  of  610,155,  including  a num- 
ber of  Ainos,  a docile  aboriginal  race. 
The  island  is  mountainous  and  volcanic, 
and  is  rich  in  minerals,  including  coal, 
gold  and  silver.  Matsmai  and  Hakodadi 
are  the  chief  towns. 

YEW,  an  evergreen  tree  of  the  genus 
Taxus,  indigenous  in  most  parts  of 
Europe.  It  is  a handsome  tree,  growing 
to  a height  of  from  30  to  40  feet,  with 
numerous  spreading  branches,  forming 
a dense  head  of  foliage.  Its  trunk  is 
thick,  and  has  been  known  to  attain  a 
circumference  of  56  feet.  Its  fruit  is  a 
red  bei  ry  with  green  seeds.  It  used  to  be 
frequently  planted  in  church  yards,  and 
its  tough  elastic  wood  was  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  bows.  In 


Yew. 


our  own  days,  on  account  of  the  dur- 
ability of  the  timber,  and  of  its  hard, 
compact,  close  grain,  it  is  much  used  by 
cabinet-makers  and  turners.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  it,  the  Irish  yew, 
which  has  a more  upright  growth  than 
the  common  yew,  being  esteemed  the 
finest.  The  American  yew  is  a low  pros- 
trate shrub,  never  forming  an  erect 
trunk.  It  is  found  in  Canada,  and  the 
more  northern  of  the  United  States, 

' and  is  commonly  called  ground-hemlock. 


YEZD,  a city  of  Persia,  province  of 
Faristan,  in  an  oasis  in  a sandy  plain 
190  miles  southeast  of  Ispahan.  It  is 
noted  for  its  velvet  and  other  silk  manu- 
factures, and  contains  about  4000  fire- 
worshipers.  Pop.  about  50,000. 

YOKOHA'MA  is  the  most  important 
of  the  Japanese  ports  opened  by  treaty 
to  foreigners,  from  its  proximity  to 
Tokio,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a railway  18 
miles  in  length.  The  foreign  settlement 
consists  of  well-constructed  streets  with 
business  establishments.  The  harbor,  a 
part  of  the  bay  of  Tokio,  is  good  and 
commodious,  and  is  much  frequented  by 
Japanese  and  other  steamers.  Pop. 
187,200. 

YONGE  (yong),  Charlotte  Mary,  Eng- 
lish authoress,  born  at  Otterborne, 
Hants,  1823.  Her  writings  are  very 
numerous,  and  include  the  well-known 
stories  The  Heir  of  Redclyffe,  The  Little 
Duke,  Dynevor  Terrace,  The  Daisy 
Chain,  etc.  She  has  published  a work  on 
Christian  Names,  A Life  of  Bishop 
Patteson,  and  numerous  historical  works 
for  the  young,  including  her  Cameos 
from  English  History.  She  died  in  1901. 

YONKERS,  a town  in  New  York  state, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson,  16  miles 
by  railway  north  of  New  York  City, 
many  of  the  merchants  of  which  own 
handsome  residences  in  it.  There  are 
manufactures  of  felt  hats,  silk,  reapers 
and  mowers,  carpets,  pencils,  etc. 
Pop.  1909  estimated  at  73,000. 

YONNE,  a department  of  Central 
France,  traversed  by  the  river  Yonne, 
which  is  navigable  throughout  it.  The 
granite  mountains  in  the  southeast 
attain  a height  of  2000  feet.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  producing  large  wheat  crops, 
and  the  vines  yield  the  finest  red  wines 
of  Lower  Burgundy,  and  the  finest  of 
white  wines,  the  well-known  Chablis. 
Auxerre  is  the  capital.  Area,  183,475 
acres.  Pop.  316,047. 

YORK,  the  largest  county  of  England, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tees, 
separating  it  from  Durham,  east  by  the 
North  sea,  south  by  Lincoln,  Notting- 
ham, Derby,  and  Chester,  and  west  by 
Chester,  Lancaster,  and  Westmoreland; 
area,  3,882,848  acres  or  nearly  6067  sq. 
miles.  Total  pop.  3,585,122.  In  the 
North  is  the  capital  of  the  whole 
county,  York;  Scarborough,  a favorite 
watering-place;  and  Whitby,  famous 
for  its  jet.  In  the  East  the  area  under 
cultivation  greatly  exceeds  that  laid 
down  in  permanent  pasture.  Its  indus- 
trial activity  is  centered  in  the  great  sea- 
port of  Hull.  In  the  West  the  propor- 
tion of  land  laid  down  in  permanent 
pasture  is  larger  than  in  any  other,  being 
two-thirds  of  that  under  cultivation. 
Leeds  produces  every  variety  of  woolen 
goods;  Bradford,  mixed  worsted  fabrics 
and  yarns;  Dewsbury,  Batley,  and  ad- 
joining districts,  shoddy;  Huddersfield, 
plain  goods,  with  fancy  trouserings  and 
coatings;  and  Halifax,  worsted  and 
carpets.  Barnsley  is  famous  for  its 
linen  manufactures,  of  which  Leeds  also 
is  a seat,  as  well  as  of  that  of  leather. 
Next  to  the  woolen  and  other  textile  in- 
dustries comes  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel  machinery,  and  implements  of 
every  description.  Leeds  is  one  of  the 
principal  seats  of  all  kinds  of  mechani- 


cal engineering,  and  SheflSeld  of  iron- 
work and  cutlery. 

YORK,  a cathedral  city  and  arch- 
bishop’s see,  a municipal,  county,  and 
pari,  borough,  and  capital  of  Yorkshire, 
188  miles  north  of  London  by  rail,  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  F oss  and 
the  Ouse.  The  great  object  of  attraction 
is  the  minster  or  cathedral,  the  finest 
in  England,  which  dates  from  the  7th 
century,  but  did  not  begin  to  assume  its 
present  form  till  the  12th  century,  and 
was  not  completed  till  1472.  It  is  built 
in  the  form  of  a Latin  cross  with  choir, 
aisles,  transepts,  a central  tower  and 
two  western  towers;  extreme  length, 
524  feet;  breadth,  250;  height  of  central 
tower,  213  feet.  Pop.  77,793. 

YORK,  capital  of  York  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, has  historical  interest  attached 
to  it  from  the  fact  that  for  nearly  a year 
(1777-78)  it  was  the  place  of  meeting  of 
the  continental  congress.  It  possesses 
foundries,  manufactories  of  agricultural 
implements,  etc.  Pop.  39,048. 

YORK,  House  of,  an  English  royal 
house,  the  rival  of  that  of  Lancaster. 
The  House  of  York  was  united  to  the 
House  of  Lancaster  when  Henry  VII. 
married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.  The  emblem  of  the  Yorkists  was  a 
white  rose. 

YORKTOWN,  capital  of  York  county, 
Virginia,  United  States,  on  the  right 
bank  of  York  river,  nearly  10  miles 
from  its  mouth,  was  the  scene  of  the  sur- 
render of  Lord  Cornwallis  to  GeMferal 
Washington,  October  19,  1781.  In  the 
civil  war  it  was  fortified  by  the  con- 
federates, who,  having  been  besieged  by 
General  M’Clellan,  evacuated  it  May  4, 
1862.  Pop.  about  1000. 

YO-SEMITE  (sem'i-te),  VALLEY,  one 
of  the  greatest  natural  wonders  of  North 
America,  is  in  Mariposa  county,  Cali- 
fornia, about  140  miles  southeast  of  San 
Francisco  and  midway  between  the 
eastern  and  western  bases  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada.  It  is  a narrow  valley  at'  an 
elevation  of  4000  feet  above  the  sea 
and  is  itself  nearly  level,  about  6 miles 
in  length,  and  varying  in  width  from 
i mile  to  a mile.  On  each  side  rise 
enormous  domes  and  almost  vertical 
cliffs  of  granite,  one  of  them  called  the 
Half  Dome  being  4737  feet  higher  than 
the  river  Merced  at  its  base,  wnile  the 
more  important  waterfalls  are  the 
Yosemite  and  the  Bridal  Veil.  This 
valley  has  been  added  by  congress  to 
the  state  of  California,  on  condition  that 
it  shall  be  kept  as  a public  park  or  free 
domain  “inalienable  for  all  time.’’ 

YOUNG,  Brigham,  president  of  the 
Mormon  church,  was  born  in  1801  in  the 
state  of  Vermont,  United  States.  In 
1831  he  became  a Mormon,  and  an  ac- 
tive preacher  of  the  Mormon  doctrine. 
He  was  one  of  the  twelve  founders  of 
Nauvoo,  and  after  the  murder  of  the 
prophet,  Joseph  Smith,  and  the  flight 
of  the  Mormons  from  Nauvoo,  Young 
became  their  leader,  was  elected  their 
president  on  their  settling  in  Utah,  and 
when  this  was  made  a territory  he  was 
appointed  its  governor  by  President 
Polk.  In  1852  he  announced  that 
polygamy  had  been  commanded  in  a 
special  revelation  to  Joseph  Smith,  and 
it  was  accepted  generally  by  the  Mor- 
mons of  Utah.  Young  was  a man  of 


YOUNG 


YUNNAN 


great  practical  ability.  Utah  flourished 
under  his  rule,  and  he  long  withstood 
successfully  the  efforts  of  the  United 
States  government  to  establish  its 
authority  there.  He  died  in  1877. 

YOUNG,  Edward,  English  poet,  was 
the  son  of  a dean  of  Salisbury,  and  born 
in  1681.  His  first  great  literary  success 
was  his  production  of  a series  of  satires, 
issued  collectively  in  1728  as  The  Love 
of  Fame,  the  Universal  Passion.  Be- 
tween 1742  and  1744  appeared  the  work 
bj’^  which  chiefly  he  is  remembered,  the 
gloomy  but  striking  Night  Thoughts. 
He  died  in  1765. 

YOUNG,  James,  an  eminent  practical 
chemist,  was  born  at  Glasgow  in  1811, 
and  died  in  1883.  Receiving  appoint- 
ments in  chemical  works  at  St.  Helen’s 
and  Manchester,  he  discovered  a method 
of  distilling  oil  from  shale,  through 
which  he  became  the  founder  of  the 
mineral  oil  industry  of  Scotland,  besides 
leading  to  the  development  of  the  petro- 
leum industry  in  America  and  elsewhere. 

YOUNG,  Thomas,  M.  D.,  scientist, 
born  of  a Quaker  family  at  Milverton  in 
Somersetshire,  in  1773.  In  1802  he  be- 
came the  colleague  of  Davy  as  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Royal  in- 
stitution, having  previously  made  the 
discovery  of  the  interference  of  light, 
the  result  of  researches  which,  completed 
by  Fresnel,  secured  the  triumph  of  the 
undulatory  theory.  In  1807  appeared 
his  admirable  Lectures  on  Natural 
Philosophy.  Young  preceded  Cham- 
pollion  in  the  discovery  of  the  alphabetic 
character  of  certain  of  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphs.  He  died  in  1829. 

YOUNG,  Samuel  Baldwin  Marks, 
American  soldier,  was  born  in  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  in  1840.  He  served  through- 
out the  civil  war,  attained  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  December,  1864,  and  in  April, 
1865,  was  breve tted  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers.  He  attained  the  rank  of 
colonel  of  the  Third  Cavalry  in  1897, 
and  in  1898  was  made  a brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  for  service  in  the 
Spanish-American  war.  He  served 
under  General  Shatter  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Santiago  campaign,  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  of  volun- 
teers in  1898,  and  for  a time  commanded 
the  Second  Army  Corps.  From_  July, 
1899,  to  March,  1901,  he  served  in  the 
Pnilippines,  was  military  go^'ernor  of 
Northwestern  Luzon  and  commander 
of  the  first  district  of  the  department 
of  Northern  Luzon.  In  1903,  on  the 
retirement  of  General  Miles,  he  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
general.  When  the  new  general  staff 
system  went  into  effect  in  1903  he  be- 
came chief  of  staff  of  the  army. 

YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN  ASSO- 
CIATIONS, among  the  first  of  these  was 
that  founded  in  London  in  1844  by  Sir 
George  Williams.  Its  object  was  the 
holaing  of  religious  meetings  in  business 
houses  in  the  center  of  London.  The 
movement  extended,  and  became  one 
not  only  for  the  religious  but  for  the 
general  culture  and  social  well-being  of 
young  men  engaged  in  business.  The 


young  men’s  Christian  associations,  all 
of  which  are  self-governing  while  form- 
ing an  organized  union,  are  now  nearly 
8000  in  number,  with  a total  member- 
ship of  about  one  million,  the  centers 
being  scattered  over  the  world.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  there  are  about  100,- 
000  members.  In  the  United  States 
there  are  nearly  2000  associations  with 
a membership  of  about  450,000. 

YOUNG  WOMEN’S  CHRISTIAN 
ASSOCIATION,  THE  WORLD’S,  the 
World’s  Young  Women’s  Christian  As- 
sociation was  formed  in  1894.  Eleven 
National  associations  are  now  affiliated; 
Great  Britain,  United  States,  Canada, 
Germany,  Italy,  France,  Norway,  Swe- 
den, India,  Denmark,  and  Hungary. 
The  executive  committee  is  composed 
of  a resident  membership  in  London 
and  two  representatives  from  America 
and  other  countries.  The  second  World’s 
conference  was  held  in  Geneva,  Switzer- 
land July,  1902.  The  American  com- 
mittee was  formed  in  1886.  There  are 
now  associations  aflBliated  with  the 
American  committee  in  552  colleges 
and  104  cities,  with  24  state  organiza- 
tions. Membership  of  local  associations 
connected  with  the  American  com- 
mittee, 100,252. 

YOUNGSTOWN,  town  in  Mahoning 
county,  Ohio,  on  the  Mahoning  river 
66  miles  southeast  of  Cleveland,  in  the 
vicinity  of  iron  ore  and  coal  beds;  has 
rolling-mills,  blast-furnaces,  and  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  etc.  Pop.  52,340. 

YPSILANTI,  a distinguished  Greek 
family  claiming  to  be  descended  from 
the  Comneni.  Demetrius,  born  in  1793, 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and  joining 
the  Greeks  in  their  war  of  independence 
distinguished  himself  so  highly  as  to  be 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Greek 
army  after  the  liberation  of  Greece  from 
the  Ottoman  yoke.  He  died  in  1832. 

YPSILANTI,  a city  in  Washtenaw  co., 
Mich.,  29  miles  west  by  south  of  Detroit, 
on  the  Huron  river,  and  on  the  Michi- 
gan Central  and  the  Lake  Shore  and 
Michigan  Southern  railroads.  It  is  also 
connected  by  electric  lines  with  Ann 
Arbor  and  Detroit.  Population  10,000. 

YTTRIA  (it'ri-a),  the  protoxide  of 
yttrium,  a white  powder,  insoluble  in 
water,  but  soluble  in  some  acids.  When 
ignited  it  glows  with  a pure  white 
light. 

YTTRIUM  (it'ri-um),  an  earth  metal, 
one  of  the  elements,  the  basis  of  yttria; 
symbol  Y,  atomic  weight  93.  Its  texture 
is  scaly,  and  its  color  grayish-black. 

YUCATAN',  a peninsula  forming  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  Mexico.  Be- 
fore its  conquest  by  the  Spaniards  it  was 
the  seat  of  a flourishing  civilization.  It 
is  now  for  the  most  part  a sparsely  cul- 
tivated region,  whose  forests  yield  ex- 
cellent timber,  cabinet-woods  and  dye- 
woods,  and  which  has  recently  been  pro- 
ductive of  great  quantities  of  sisal  or 
so-called  Y'ucatan  hemp.  Five-sixths  of 
the  inhabitants  are  Indians,  preserving 
the  speech  of  their  ancestors,  whom  the 
Spaniards  dispossessed.  In  1861  the 
peninsula,  which  since  1824  had  formed 


one  state  in  the  Mexican  confederation, 
was  divided  into  two:  Yucatan,  area 
29,560  sq.  miles,  pop.  302,500,  capital 
Merida;  and  Cam  peachy,  area  25,830  sq. 
miles,  pop.  90,500,  capital  Campeachy. 

YUCCA,  a genus  of  American  plants. 
The  species  are  handsome  plants,  with 
white  flowers,  extremely  elegant,  but 
destitute  of  odor. 

YUKON  GOLD  FIELDS,  See  Klon- 
dike. 

YUKON  RIVER,  a river  of  Alaska,  is 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Lewis  and 
Felly  at  Port  Selkirk,  and  flows  west- 
ward across  the  territory  of  Alaska  into 
Bering  sea.  Its  length  is  some  2000 
miles,  being  one  of  the  largest  rivers  in 
North  America.  In  its  lower  course  it  is 
more  than  20  miles  wide,  and  through- 
out it  is  navigable,  at  least  for  small 
boats.  But  the  deposits  of  mud  and  silt 
where  it  finally  reaches  the  sea  have 
formed  a great  delta  which  renders  its 
lower  course  unfit  for  navigation,  and 
prevents  vessels  at  sea  from  approaching 
within  60  miles  of  its  many  mouths. 
During  three  months  of  the  year  its 
waters  swarm  with  salmon,  some  80  to 
120  lbs.,  and  5 to  6 feet  long.  These  fish 
ascend  the  river  for  1200  to  1500  miles. 
The  water  from  this  river  flows  with 
such  force  and  volume  that  the  water 
is  fresh  ten  miles  out  from  the  mouth. 


YULE,  the  old  English  and  Scandi- 
navian name  for  Christmas,  still  to  some 
extent  in  use,  as  in  the  term  yule-log. 

YUNNAN',  the  most  southwesterly 
province  of  China,  is  bounded  on  the 
south  by  Annam,  Siam,  and  Burmah, 
and  on  the  west  by  Burmah.  It  is  ex- 
tremely rich  in  minerals,  especially  iron 
and  copper,  containing  also  many 
varieties  of  precious  stones.  At  least  a 
third  of  the  cultivated  land  is  said  to  be 
under  the  poppy.  By  the  convention  of 
Chef 00  in  1876  the  establishment  of 
commercial  relations  between  British 
subjects  and  Yunnan  was  conceded  by 
the  Chinese  government.  Estimated 
area,  122,500  sq  miles;  estimated  pop. 
12,000,000. — Yunnan,  the  capital,  is 
situated  in-  the  southeast,  and  is  a busy 
and  prosperous  town,  with  large  copper 
factories,  and  manufactures  of  silks  and 
carpets.  Pop.  200,000. 


z 


ZEDEKIAH 


z 


Z,  the  last  letter  of  the  English  alpha- 
bet, is  a sibilant  consonant,  and  is 
merely  a vocal  or  sonant  S,  having  pre- 
cisely the  same  sound  that  s has  in  wise, 
ease,  please,  etc.  (See  S.)  The  words  in 
modern  English  which  begin  with  z are 
all  derived  from  other  languages, 
mostly  from  the  Greek.  When  not  initial 
however,  we  often  find  it  representing 
an  older  s in  genunie  English  words, 
as  in  blaze,  freeze,  gaze,  graze,  etc. 

ZACATE'CAS,  state  of  Mexico,  be- 
longing to  the  central  table-land,  and 
bounded  by  the  states  of  Aguas- 
Calientes,  Jalisco,  Durango,  Cohahuila, 
Nuevo-Leon,  and  San  Luis  Potosi.  It 
is  very  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  which  are 
extensively  mined.  Area,  25,227  sq. 
miles.  Pop.  422,506. — Zacatecas,  the 
capital,  340  miles  northwest  of  Mexico, 
is  the  center  of  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  productive  silver-mining  districts 
in  the  republic.  Pop.  46,000. 

ZAMBE'SI,  the  most  important  river 
in  Southeastern  Africa,  and  the  largest 
flowing  into  the  Indian  ocean,  has  its 
source  in  several  streams  uniting  in  the 
far  interior.  It  flows  first  southeast  and 
then  northeast,  then  curves  again  to  the 
southeast,  and  reaches  the  Indian 
ocean  by  several  mouths  in  the  Mozam- 
bique channel  opposite  Madagascar. 
The  delta  of  the  Zambesi  covers  an  area 
of  about  25,000  sq.  miles,  and  com- 
mences about  90  miles  from  the  coast, 
a little  below  the  confluence  of  the  main 
stream  with  the  Shir6.  The  course  of 
the  whole  river  is  about  1600  miles, 
and  it  drains  an  area  of  600,000  sq. 
miles.  Its  course  as  a whole  is  through 
fertile  valleys  and. wooded  plains;  but 
the  navigation  is  interrupted  by  rapids 
and  cataracts,  among  the  latter  being 
the  Victoria  falls,  which  are  among  the 
grandest  in  the  world.  The  navigation 
of  the  Zambesi  is  now  free  to  vessels  of 
all  nations. 

ZA'MIA,  a genus  of  plants  found  in 
tropical  America,  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  in  Australia,  and  partly  re- 
semble palms,  partly  tree-ferns.  Kaffir- 
bread  is  a common  name  for  the  genus 
in  South  Africa,  where  the  central  part 
of  the  stem  pith  is  formed  into  cakes, 
baked,  and  eaten  by  the  natives. 

ZANESVILLE,  the  county  town  of 
Muskingum  county,  Ohio,  situated  on 
the  Muskingum  river,  37  miles  south  of 
Cleveland;  has  rolling-mills,  machine- 
shops,  cotton  and  woolen  factories, 
glass-works,  etc.  Pop.  28,000. 

ZANG'WILL,  Israel,  a British  novelist 
and  man  of  letters,  was  born  in  London, 
England  in  1864.  He  traveled  on  lectur- 
ing tours  in  Ireland,  Holland,  Palestine, 
and  the  United  States.  Among  his  pub- 
lications are : Children  of  the  Ghetto, 
Ghetto  Tragedies,  The  King  of  Schnor- 
rers,  grotesques  and  fantasies,  including 
“A  Rose  of  the  Ghettoj”  Dreamers 
of  the  Ghetto,  containing  admirable 
sketches  of  great  Jewish  thinkers,  as 
Spinoza  and  Lassalle;  They  that  Walk 
in  Darkness,  and  The  Mantle  of  Elijah. 
Dramatized  by  the  author  in  1899,  The 
Children  of  the  Ghetto  had  a popular 
reception  in  New  York  and  London. 
The  Big  Bow  Mystery,  Merely  Mary 


Ann,  The  Grey  Wig.  He  also  wrote  a 
considerable  amount  of  verse. 

ZANZIBAR',  a sultanate  of  East 
Africa,  which  formerly  comprised  the 
whole  coast  between  Magdishu  (Maga- 
doxo),  about  lat.  2°  n.,  and  Cape 
Delgado,  lat.  10°  42'  s.,  with  the  four 
islands  of  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Lamu,  and 
Mafia.  The  continental  part  of  the  sul- 
tanate has  recently  become  part  of 
British  East  Africa  and  German  East 
Africa;  while  the  island  and  town  of 
Zanzibar,  and  the  island  of  Pemba,  are 
entirely  under  British  protection.  The 
island  (area,  600  sq.  miles)  is  very  fertile 
and  well  cultivated,  being  especially 
suited  for  the  cultivation  of  cloves, 
sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  various  spices, 
of  which  there  is  a considerable  export. 
The  population  (200,000)  is  extremely 
heterogeneous,  including  Europeans, 
Arabs,  half-caste  Portuguese  from  the 
Malabar  coast  of  India,  and  the  Suahilis 
from  the  mainland. — Zanzibar,  the  chief 
town  (100,000  inhabitants),  on' the  west 
side  of  the  island,  is  the  center  of  trade 
for  the  eastern  seaboard  of  Africa,  and 
of  missionary  and  exploring  work  for 
the  interior.  At  the  instance  of  the 
British  government  the  slave-trade  has 
been  abolished  and  slavery  brought  to 
an  end. 

ZEALAND,  or  SEELAND,  the  largest 
of  the  Danish  islands,  separated  from 
Sweden  by  the  Sound  and.  from  Funen 
by  the  Great  Belt;  length,  81  miles, 
breadth,  65.  It  produces  large  crops  of 
corn,  and  has  excellent  pasture.  It 
contains  the  capital  of  Denmark, 
Copenhagen.  It  is  the  most  westerly 
province  of  Holland,  has  the  greater 
part  of  its  surface  below  the  sea-level, 
and  protected  by  dikes.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  producing  rich  crops  of  wheat, 
flax,  and  hemp,  and  much  dairy  produce 
is  exported.  The  capital  is  Middleburg. 
Area,  689  sq.  miles;  pop.  198,567. 

ZEBRA,  a quadruped  of  Southern 
Africa,  nearly  as  large  as  a horse,  white, 
striped  with  numerous  brownish-black 
bands  on  the  head,,  trunk,  and  legs, 
except  on  the  belly  and  inside  of  the 
thighs.  The  zebra  is  extremely  difficult 


Zebra. 

to  approach,  from  its  watchful  habits 
and  great  swiftness  of  foot.  Only  in  a 
few  instances  has  it  been  domesticated. 
The  name  has  been  sometimes  applied, 
to  the  now  extinct  quagga  and  the 
dauw  or  Burchell’s  zebra ; but  they  differ 
from  the  zebra  in  having  no  stripes  on 


the  lower  limbs,  while  those  on  the  body 
are  not  so  black  as  the  true  zebra’s. 
The  zebra  is  said  to  be  nearly  extinct. 

ZEBU,  a ruminant  of  the  ox  tribe, 
called  also  Brahman  bull.  This  quad- 
ruped differs  from  the  cotamon  ox  in 
having  one,  or  more  rarely  two,  humps 
of  fat  on  the  shoulders,  and  in  having 
eighteen  caudal  vertebrse  instead  of 
twenty-one.  It  is  found  extensively  in 
India,  and  also  in  China,  Japan,  and 
Africa.  Zebus  are  used  as  beasts  of 
draught  and  burden,  and  occasionally 
for  riding.  Their  flesh  is  eaten  as  an 
article  of  food,  especially  the  hump, 
which  is  esteemed  a great  delicacy. 

ZEBU.  See  Cebu. 


Zebu. 


ZEB'ULUN,  was  the  tenth  son  of 
Jacob,  and  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and  to  a region 
of  Palestine.  At  the  first  census  the 
tribe  numbered  57,400,  and  60,500  at  the 
second.  The  territory  of  the  tribe  lay 
in  the  fertile  hilly  country  to  the  north 
of  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  included 

sZtircth 

ZECHARI'AH,  or  ZACHARIAH,  the 

eleventh  of  the  minor  prophets,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  born  in  Babylon, 
and  to  have  been  in  the  first  detachment 
of  the  exiles  who  returned  to  Jerusalem 
under  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua.  He 
began  to  prophesy  in  the  second  year 
of  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  with  his  senior 
contemporary,  the  prophet  Haggai, 
contributed  powerfully  by  his  appeals  to 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  (Ezra 
vi . 1 4) . Chapters  i .-viii . of  the  prophecies 
of  Zachariah  are  generally  admitted 
to  be  his  composition.  But  the  two 
other  sections  of  the  book  into  which 
critics  and  commentators  have  divided 
it,  chapters  ix.-xi.  and  xii.-xiii.,  have 
been  ascribed  by  many  to  a pre-exilic 
author,  partly  because  both  what  is  said 
and  is  not  said  in  them  is  regarded  as 
irreconcilable  with  a post-exilic  one. 

ZEDEKI'AH,  the  last  king  of  Judah 
of  the  line  of  David.  'When  he  was 
twenty-one  years  of  age  Nebuchad- 
nezzar appointed  him  to  succeed  his 
nephew  Jehoiachim  (whom  he  carried  to 
Babylon)  as  king  of  Judah.  He  took  an 
oath  of  allegiance  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
which  he  afterward  broke  by  entering 
into  an  alliance  with  Egypt.  His  con- 
duct in  so  doing  was  denounced  by  the 
prophet  Jeremiah,  who,  as  well  as 
Ezekiel,  then  in  Chaldaea,  predicted  the 


ZEDOARY 


ZINC  ETCHING 


approaching  fall  of  Jerusalem,  which 
was  besieged  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
taken,  b.c.  588.  Zedekiah,  whose  sons 
were  killed  in  his  presence,  had  his  eyes 
put  out,  and  was  carried  to  Babylon, 
where  probably  he  died. 

ZED'OARY,  a plant  distinguished, 
like  ginger,  for  the  stimulating  and 
aromatic  properties  of  the  root.  It  is  a 
native  of  India  and  China.  The  roots 
of  several  other  species  are  sold  under 
the  same  name. 

ZENA'NA,  the  name  given  to  the 
portion  of  a house  reserved  exclusively 
for  the  females  belonging  to  a family  of 
good  caste  in  India. 

ZEND,  an  ancient  Iranian  language,  in 
which  are  composed  the  sacred  writings 
of  the  Zoroastriaus.  It  is  a member  of 
the  Aryan  family  of  languages,  and  very 
closely  allied  to  Sanskrit. 

ZEND-AVESTA,  the  collective  name 
for  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Guebers  or 
Parsees,  ascribed  to  Zoroaster,  and 
reverenced  as  a bible,  prayer-book,  and 
sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  It  con- 
sists of  several  divisions,  of  which  the 
oldest  is  written  in  the  prunitive  Zend 
language.  This  partly  consists  of 
g&th4s  or  songs,  some  of  which  may 
contain  the  actual  words  of  Zoroaster, 
and  are  valuable  as  containing  the  doc- 
trines he  taught.  An  English  transla- 
tion of  the  Zend-Avesta  has  been  pub- 
lished. 

ZENITH,  the  vertical  point  of  the 
heavens  at  any  place,  that  is,  the  point 
right  above  a spectator’s  head,  and  from 
which  a line  drawn  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  horizon  would,  if  produced, 
pass  through  the  earth’s  center,  suppos- 
ing the  earth  a perfect  sphere.  Each 
point  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  has 
therefore  its  corresponding  zenith.  The 
opposite  pole  of  the  celestial  horizon  is 
termed  the  nadir.  (See  Nadir.)  The 
zenith  distance  of  a heavenly  body  is 
the  arc  intercepted  between  the  body 
and  the  zenith,  being  the  same  as  the 
co-altitude  of  the  body. 

ZENO,  was  emperor  of  the  East  from 
474  to  491  A.D.  One  of  the  chief  events 
of  his  reign,  which  was  full  of  vicissi- 
tudes, was  the  permission  given  by  him 
to  Theodoric  to  dethrone  Odoacer, 
which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Ostrogothic  kingdom  in  Italy. 

ZENO,  of  Citium,  in  Cyprus,  where  he 
was  born,  founder  of  the  Stoic  school 
of  philosophy,  flourished  in  the  first  half 
of  the  3d  century  b.c.  Settling  in 
Athens  he  attached  himself  to  various 
philosophical  sects  in  succession,  until 
he  instituted  a doctrine  of  his  own. 
He  taught  in  the  Stoa,  a porch  adorned 
with  the  pictures  of  Polygnotus,  whence 
his  followers  were  called  Stoics,  and 
were  sometimes  designated  “disciples 
of  the  porch.’’  His  writings  are  all  lost. 
In  his  ethical  system  the  nature  of  moral 
obligation  was  recognized  as  uncon- 
ditional, virtue  as  the  only  good,  and 
vice,  not  pain,  as  the  only  evil.  De- 
veloped by  his  successors.  Stoicism  be- 
came the  creed  of  the  noblest  of  the 
Romans  until  Christianity  was  generally 
accepted.  (See  Stoics.)  The  date  of  his 
death  is  uncertain. 

ZENO'BIA,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  was 
the  wife  of  its  king  Odenathus,  and 
accompanied  him  both  in  war  and  in  the 


chase.  Gallienus,  in  return  for  his  serv- 
ices, acknowledged  Odenathus  as  em- 
peror, and  when  her  husband  was  mur- 
dered, 267  .\.D.,  she  assumed  the  sover- 
eignty, conquered  Egypt,  and  called 
herself  Queen  of  the  East.  Her  am- 
bition provoked  the  emperor  Aurelian 
to  make  war  on  her,  and  after  a stub- 
born resistance  she  fell  into  his  pow’er 
(273  A.D.),  and  was  made  to  grace  his 
triumph.  She  was  allowed  to  pass  the 
remainder  of  her  life  as  a Roman  matron. 
Zenobia  was  a woman  of  great  courage, 
beauty,  and  linguistic  accomplishments, 
and  her  studies  were  directed  by 
Longinus. 

ZEOLITE  (ze'5-llt),  a generic  name 
of  a number  of  minerals  which  fuse  under 
the  blowpipe.  They  are  hydrated  double 
silicates,  of  which  the  principal  bases 
are  aluminium  and  calcium. 

ZEPHYR,  Zephyrus  (zef'er,  zef'i-rus), 
the  west  wind;  and  poetically,  any  soft, 
mild,  gentle  breeze.  The  poets  personify 
Zephyrus,  and  make  him  the  most  mild 
and  gentle  of  all  the  sylvan  deities. 

ZERE'BA,  Zareeba,  a word  which 
came  into  notice  in  1884  during 
British  military  operations  in  the 
Soudan,  to  denote  an  inclosure,  the  sides 
of  which  are  protected  by  prickly  brush- 
wood from  a sudden  surprise  of  the 
enemy;  a fenced  encampment. 

ZERO,  in  physics,  any  convenient 
point  with  reference  to  which  quan- 
titatively estimable  phenomena  of  the 
same  kind  are  compared;  such  as  the 
point  of  a graduated  instrument  at 
which  its  scale  commences;  the  neutral 
point  between  any  ascending  and  de- 
scending scale  or  series,  generally  repre- 
sented by  the  mark  0.  In  thermom- 
eters the  zero  of  the  centigrade  and 
Reaumur  scales  is  the  freezing-point 
of  water;  in  Fahrenheit’s  scale,  32°  be- 
low the  freezing-point  of  water.  (See 
Thermometer.)  Absolute  zero  is  -273° 
C.,  or  273°  C.  below  the  freezing  point  of 
water,  at  which  temperature  any  given 
body  is  supposed  to  contain  no  heat. 

ZETLAND.  See  Shetland. 

ZEUGLODON  (zu'glo-don),  an  extinct 
genus  of  marine  mammals,  regarded  by 
Huxley  as  intermediate  between  the  true 
cetaceans  and  the  carnivorous  seals. 
They  belong  to  the  Eocene  and  Miocene, 
one  species  of  the  Middle  Eocene  of  the 
United  States  attained  a length  of  70 
feet. 

ZEUS  (zus),  in  mythology,  the  su- 
preme divinity  among  the  Greeks;  the 
ruler  of  the  other  gods;  generally  treated 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  Roman  Jupiter. 
He  was  the  son  of  Cronos  and  Rhea, 
brother  of  Poseidon  (Neptune)  and 
Hera  (Juno),  the  latter  of  whom  was 
also  his  wife.  He  expelled  his  father  and 
the  dynasty  of  the  Titans,  successfully 
opposed  the  attacks  of  the  giants  and 
the  conspiracies  of  the  other  gods,  and 
became  chief  power  in  heaven  and  earth. 
See  Jupiter. 

ZEUSS  (tsois),  Johann  Kaspar,  born 
1806,  died  1856,  a native  of  Bavaria, 
may  be  said  to  have  founded  Celtic 
philology  with  the  publication  in  1853 
of  his  great  work  the  Grammatica 
Celtica.  In  his  later  years  he  was  a pro- 
fessor at  the  Bamberg  Lyceum. 

ZIBET,  Zibeth  (zib'et),  an  animal  of 
the  same  genus  as  the  civet-cat.  It  is 


found  in  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  some  of 
the  larger  islands  of  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. It  secretes  an  odiferous  sub- 
stance which  resembles  that  of  the  civet. 
It  is  often  tamed  by  the  natives  of  the 
countries  where  it  is  found,  and  it  in- 
habits their  houses  like  a domestic  cat. 

ZILLEH,  a town  of  northeastern  Asia 
Minor,  39  miles  southwest  of  Tokat; 
with  some  manufactures,  and  an  annual 
fair  attended  by  from  40,000  to  50,000 
persons.  Pop.  15,000. 

ZINC,  a metal,  frequently  called 
spelter  in  commerce;  atomic  weight  65. 
It  has  a strong  metallic  luster  and  a 
bluish-white  color.  Its  texture  is  lamel- 
lated  and  crystalline,  and  its  specific 
gravity  about  7.  It  is  hard,  being  acted 
on  by  the  file  with  difficulty,  and  its 
toughness  is  such  as  to  require  con- 
siderable force  to  break  it  when  the 
mass  is  large.  At  low  or  high  degrees  of 
heat  it  is  brittle,  but  between  250°  and 
300°  F.  it  is  both  malleable  and  ductile, 
and  may  be  rolled  or  hammered  into 
sheets  of  considerable  thinness  and 
drawn  into  wire.  Its  malleability  is  con- 
siderably diminished  by  the  impurities 
which  the  zinc  of  commerce  contains. 
It  fuses  at  773°  F.,  and  when  slowly 
cooled  crystallizes  in  four  or  six-sided 
prisms.*  Zinc  undergoes  little  change  by 
the  action  of  air  and  moisture.  When 
fused  in  open  vessels  it  absorbs  oxygen, 
and  forms  the  white  oxide  called  flowers 
of  zinc.  Heated  strongly  in  air  it  takes 
fire  and  burns  with  a beautiful  white 
light,  forming  oxide  of  zinc.  Zinc  is  found 
in  considerable  abundance  in  Britain, 
Austria,  Germany,  Belgium,  Italy,  etc. 
It  does  not  occur  in  the  native  state, 
but  is  obtained  from  its  ores,  which  are 
chiefly  the  sulphide,  or  zinc-blende,  and 
the  carbonate,  or  calamine.  It  has  been 
reported  native  in  small  quantities  in 
northeastern  Alabama  but  this  discov- 
ery needs  further  confirmation.  The 
oxide  of  zinc  is  a fine  white  powder,  insol- 
uble in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  acids, 
which  it  neutralizes,  being  a powerful 
base  of  the  same  class  as  magnesia.  It 
combines  also  with  some  of  the  alkalies. 
Several  of  the  salts  of  zinc  are  em- 
ployed in  medicine  and  the  arts;  as  the 
sulphate,  which  is  used  in  calico  printing, 
and  in  medicine  as  an  astringent,  a 
caustic,  an  emetic,  and  a tonic;  the 
oxide  and  the  carbonate,  used  as  pig- 
ments, etc.  Sheet-zinc  is  largely  em- 
ployed for  lining  water  cisterns,  baths, 
etc.,  for  making  spouts,  pipes,  for  cover- 
ing roofs,  and  several  other  architec- 
tural purposes.  Plates  of  this  metal  are 
used  as  generators  of  electricity  in 
voltaic  batteries,  etc.  ; they  are  also  em- 
ployed in  the  production  of  pictures, 
etc.,  in  the  style  of  woodcuts.  (See 
Zincography.)  Zinc  is  much  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  brass  (see  Brass) 
and  other  alloys,  and  in  preparing  gal- 
vanized iron. 

ZINC-BLENDE,  native  sulphide  of 
zinc,  consisting  essentially  of  sulphur 
and  zinc,  but  often  containing  a con- 
siderable proportion  of  iron. 

ZINC  E’TCHING,  a process  for  making 
printing  plates  on  which  the  lines  or 
dots  composing  the  picture  are  raised  in 
relief,  the  blank  spaces  corresponding  to 
the  white  paper  between  them  being 
sunken  so  as  not  to  receive  ink  or  touch 


ZINC-WHITE 


ZOLA 


the  paper  which  is  impressed  against  the 
lines  in  the  printing  press.  The  subject 
to  be  reproduced  may  be  a pen  drawing 
or  crayon,  or  a print  from  a wood  cut, 
steel  engraving,  etching  on  copper,  or 
lithograph.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
picture  or  print  shall  be  in  black  upon 
white  and  that  the  surface  represented 
shall  be  in  distinct  lines  or  dots.  The 
copy  is  placed  upon  a flat  board  before 
a photographic  camera  and  a negative 
made.  This  negative  shows  the  light 
and  shade  of  the  copy  reversed,  and, 
when  dry,  is  coated  first  with  a solution 
of  rubber  to  make  it  insoluble  in  the 
succeeding  treatment,  and  when  this  is 
set,  is  again  coated  with  a thick  pellicle 
of  plain  collodion  to  give  it  body  and 
strength.  It  is  then,  when  dry,  cut 
around  on  the  edges  and  laid  in  a tray  of 
acidulated  water.  After  a few  moments 
the  film  loosens  from  the  glass  and  by 
careful  handling  is  peeled  from  its  sup- 
port and  laid  face  down  upon  another 
late  of  glass.  It  is  thus  reversed  to 
ring  the  print  upon  metal  in  the  proper 
position  to  give  direct  impression  when 
printed.  A plate  of  zinc,  usually  about 
one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  and 
about  two  inches  larger  in  each  di- 
mension than  the  negative  or  group 
of  negatives,  is  carefully  polished  to  a 
brilliant  luster  and  is  coated  with  a so- 
lution of  albumen,  water,  and  bichro- 
mate of  ammonia.  The  last  named  is  the 
sensitizing  agent  and  when  the  plate  is 
dried  it  is  easily  affected  by  light,  hence 
the  operation  is  performed  in  a room 
where  only  a small  amount  of  light  is  ad- 
mitted through  yellow  glass.  The 
negative  is  placed  in  a heavy  printing 
frame,  the  sensitized  metal  plate  laid 
upon  it,  and  then  brought  in  perfect 
contact  by  means  of  heavy  screws  or 
strong  levers  attached  to  the  back  of  the 
frame.  The  printing  requires  from  three 
to  ten  minutes  by  the  electric  light  or 
two  to  four  minutes  in  sunlight.  When 
the  metal  plate  is  removed  from  the 
frame  the  image  is  only  faintly  visible. 
The  albumen  has  become  insoluble  in  the 
lines  of  the  picture,  but  is  easily  washed 
away  between  them.  In  order  to  give 
the  image  strength  to  withstand  etch- 
ing, the  plate  when  removed  from  the 
plate  holder  is  rolled  up  thinly  with  a 
greasy  ink  and  a leather  roller.  It  is 
then  laid  in  a tray  of  water  and  after  a 
few  moments  is  developed  by  rubbing 
gently  with  a tuft  of  cotton.  The  coat- 
ing of  ink  disappears  and  the  picture 
shows  in  clear  lines  of  black  ink  upon 
the  bright  metal.  It  is  then  dried  and 
dusted  over  with  a fine  resinous  powder 
and  again  cleaned  under  water,  dried 
and  warmed  enough  to  cause  the  resin 
to  melt.  It  is  then  etched  in  a weak 
solution  of  nitric  acid  until  the  lines 
show  a slight  relief.  After  drying  the 

Elate  is  dusted  with  powdered  dragon’s 
lood  and  bruned  in,  and  the  process 
repeated  successively  from  each  end 
and  side  of  the  plate,  thus  protecting  all 
the  exposed  sides  of  the  lines.  It  is  then 
ready  for  another  etching.  This  round 
of  operations  is  repeated  from  three  to 
six  times,  or  until  the  plate  is  etched  to 
a depth  of  one-half  its  thickness  in  the 
open  spaces.  It  is  then  given  to  the 
blocker,  who  with  a routing  machine, 
routs  out  the  larger  open  spaces  between 

P.  E.— 85 


the  lines  to  a considerable  further  depth, 
saws  off  the  waste  zinc  from  the  margins, 
nails  it  upon  a base  of  wood  or  soft 
metal,  trims  the  edges  square  and 
shaves  the  back  down  until  the  block  is 
exactly  type  high.  The  block  is  then 
taken  by  the  finisher,  who  removes  any 
roughnesses  or  defects  in  the  lines,  leav- 
ing it  ready  for  the  printing  press. 

ZINC-WHITE,  oxide  of  zinc,  a pig- 
ment now  largely  substituted  for  white- 
lead  as  being  less  liable  to  blacken  on 
exposure ; but  it  has  not  an  equal  cover- 
ing power. 

ZINGIS  KHAN.  See  Genghis  Khan. 

ZINZENDORF  (tsin'tsen-dorf),  Nich- 
olas Ludwig,  Count  von,  founder  of  the 
community  of  Moravian  Brethren,  or 
Herrnhuters,  was  born  at  Dresden  in 
1700.  He  worked  assiduously  in  co- 
operation with  congenial  friends  at 
creating  a revival  of  religion  in  the 
Lutheran  church.  Having  given  an 
asylum  on  his  estate  to  some  persecuted 
religionists  from  Moravia,  and  built  for 
them  the  village  of  Herrnhut,  he  settled 
among  them,  and  by  degrees  established 
there  a common  worship,  and  a mis- 
sionary and  industrial  organization 
based  on  the  family,  not  on  the  monastic 
system.  This  association  became  known 
throughout  the  world  as  the  Moravian 
Brethren.  To  the  extension  of  its  in- 
fluence Zinzendorf  devoted  his  fortune 
and  his  energies,  visiting  in  the  course 
of  his  journeys  England  and  America. 
He  died  in  1760. 

ZINZIBERA'CE.ffi,  a natural  order  of 
plants,  of  which  the  genus  Zinziber 
(ginger)  is  the  tpye.  The  species  are  all 
tropical  plants,  or  nearly  so,  the  greater 
number  inhabiting  various  parts  of  the 
East  Indies.  They  are  generally  of  great 
beauty  through  the  development  of  their 
floral  envelopes  and  the  rich  colors  of 
their  bracts;  but  they  are  chiefly  valued 
for  the  sake  of  the  aromatic  and  stimu- 
lating properties  of  the  rhizome  or  root 
found  in  ginger,  galangal,  zedoary, 
cardamoms,  etc. 

ZION,  a mount  or  eminence  in  Jerusa- 
lem, the  royal  residence  of  David  and 
his  successors.  See  Jerusalem. 

ZIRCON,  a mineral,  silicate  of  zircon- 
ium, originally  found  in  Ceylon,  and 
forming  one  of  the  gems,  being  met  with 
either  colorless  or  colored — red,  brown- 
ish, green,  etc.  Hyacinth  and  jargon 
are  varieties. 

ZIRCONIAjthe  oxide  of  zircon,  a hard, 
white  solid,  “sticks”  of  which  are  some- 
times used  in  the  oxyhydrogen  flame 
instead  of  lime. 

ZIRCONIUM,  the  metal  contained  in 
zircon  and  certain  other  rare  minerals ; 
symbol,  Zr;  atomic  weight  90.  It  ap- 
pears to  form  a link  between  aluminium 
and  silicon. 

ZITHER,  ZITHERN  (tsit'fer,  tsit'ern), 
a stringed  musical  instrument  consist- 
ing of  a sounding-box  pierced  with  a 
large  circular  sound-hole  near  the  mid- 
dle, the  strings,  to  the  number  of  thirty- 
one  in  the  more  perfect  forms  of  the  in- 
strument, being  made  of  steel,  brass, 
catgut,  and  silk  covered  with  fine  silver 
or  copper  wire,  and  tuned  by  pegs  at 
one  end.  Five  of  the  strings  are  stretched 
over  a fretted  keyboard,  and  are  used 
for  playing  the  melody,  the  fingers  of 
the  left  hand  stopping  the  strings  on  the 


frets,  the  right-hand  thumb  armed  with 
a metal  ring,  striking  the  strings.  These 
strings,  which  are  tuned  in  fifths,  have 
a chromatic  range  from  C in  the  second 
space. on  the  bass  staff  to  D on  the  sixth 


Zither. 


ledger-line  above  the  treble.  All  the 
remaining  strings,  called  the  accom- 
panying strings,  are  struck  by  the  first 
three  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  and  being 
unstopped  produce  only  the  single  tone 
to  which  they  are  tuned.  The  instru- 
ment while  being  played  rests  on  a table 
with  the  key-board  side  nearest  the 
performer. 

ZOAN,  the  Tanis  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  an  ancient  Egyptian  city,  on 
the  right  bank  of  what  was  the  Tanitic 
bank  of  the  Nile,  now  only  a canal.  It 
was  probably  the  residence  of  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  and  conse- 
quently the  scene  of  the  “marvelous 
things”  that  were  done  “in  the  field  of 
Zoan”  (Ps.  Ixxxviii.  12).  The  temple 
was  one  of  the  grandest  in  Egypt.  Its 
ruins,  buried  under  mounds,  have  been 
explored,  and  one  of  the  chief  curiosities 
found  in  them  is  the  Canopus  stone, 
with  a trilingual  inscription,  like  that 
on  the  Rosetta  stone,  hieroglyphic,  de- 
motic, and  Greek,  recording  a decree  of 
Egyptian  princes  assembled  at  Canopus 
B.c.  254. 

ZO'DIAC,  an  imaginary,  belt  or  zone 
in  the  heavens,  extending  about  9°  on 
each  side  of  the  ecliptic.  It  is  divided 
into  twelve  equal  parts  called  signs. 
It  was  marked  out  by  the  ancients  as 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  heavens 
because  the  apparent  places  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  the  planets  known  to  them 
were  always  within  it.  This,  however, 
is  not  true  of  all  the  planets.  See 
Ecliptic. 

ZODI'ACAL  LIGHT,  in  astronomy,  a 
luminous  tract  of  an  elongated  trian- 
gular figure,  lying  nearly  on  the  ecliptic, 
its  base  being  on  the  horizon,  and  its 
apex  at  varying  altitudes,  seen  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year  either  in  the  west 
after  sunset  or  in  the  east  before  sunrise. 
It  appears  with  greatest  brilliance  within 
the  tropics,  where  it  sometimes  rivals 
the  Milky  Way.  The  most  plausible 
hypothesis  respecting  it  is  that  it  con- 
sists of  a continuous  disc,  probably  of 
meteors  revolving  round  the  sun. 

ZOLA,  Emile,  French  novelist,  born 
in  1840,  the  son  of  an  Italian  engineer, 
died  in  1902.  After  working  for  Paris 
publishers  and  writing  for  the  press  he 
attempted  fiction.  He  first  became  gen- 
erally known  by  commencing,  in  1871 
the  famous  series  of  novels  entitled  Les 
Rougon  Macquart  Histoire  Naturelle 
d’une  Famille  sous  le  Second  Empire. 
They  were  based  on  a theory  that  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  modern  novelist  to  de- 
pict human  life,  in  all  grades  of  society, 
exactly  as  it  is,  omitting  and  softening 


ZOLLVEREIN 


nothing,  however  repulsive  and  disgust- 
ing. L’Assommoir,  portraying  the  evil 
consequences  of  drunkenness,  was  dram- 
atized by  Charles  Reade  as  “Drink,” 
and  became  popular.  Among  Zola’s  other 
novels  are  Nana,  Germinal,  L’OEuvre, 
La  Terre,  La  Bete  Humaine,  La  D4ba,cle, 
Dr.  Pascal,  Lourdes,  Rome,  Paris,  Labor, 
Money,  Fruitfulness. 

ZOLLVEREIN  (tsol'ver-in),  the  Ger- 
man customs  union,  the  precursor  of 
the  present  German  empire,  founded  in 
1827,  and  afterward  greatly  extended 
through  the  efforts  of  the  government 
of  Prussia."  Its  principal  object  was  the 
establislunent  of  a uniform  rate  of  cus- 
toms duties  throughout  the  various 
states  joining  the  union.  The  territories 
of  the  Zollverein  now  coincide  with 
those  of  the  German  empire,  and  include 
also  Luxembourg. 

ZONE,  (1)  in  geography,  one  of  the 
five  great  divisions  of  the  earth,  bounded 
by  circles  parallel  to  the  equator,  and 
named  according  to  the  temperature 
prevailing  in  each.  The  zones  are:  the 
torrid  zone,  extending  from  tropic  to 
tropic,  or  23J°  north  and  23J°  south  of 
the  equator;  two  temperate  zones, 
situated  between  the  tropics  and  polar 
circles,  or  extending  from  the  parallel  of 
23^°  to  that  of  66 north  and  south. 


Zones  ot  the  earth. 

and  therefore  called  the  north  temperate 
and  south  temperate  zone  respectively; 
and  two  frigid  zones,  situated  between 
the  polar  circles  and  the  north  and  south 
poles.  (See  Climate.)  (2)  In  natural  his- 
tory, the  name  is  given  to  any  well- 
defined  belt  within  which  certain  forms 
of  plant  or  animal  life  are  confined;  as 
the  different  belts  of  vegetation  which 
occur  as  we  ascend  mountains. 

ZO'OID,  in  biology,  an  animal  organ- 
ism, not  independently  developed  from 
a fertilized  ovum,  but  derived  from  a 
preceding  individual  by  the  process 
either  of  fission  or  gemmation. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS,  a public 
garden  in  which  a collection  of  animals 
is  kept.  The  gardens  of  the  Zoological 
society.  Regent’s  park,  London,  (famil- 
iarly termed  “the  Zoo”),  founded  in 
1828,  are  probably  the  finest  of  the  kind 
in  the  world.  They  belong  to  the  Zoo- 
logical society  of  London,  which  was 
founded  in  1826,  among  its  promoters 
being  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  and  Sir 
Stamford  Raffles.  Of  the  other  chief 
zoological  gardens,  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes  in  Paris  is  the  oldest,  having 
been  founded  in  1794.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  Zoo’s  in  all  the  large 
cities  located  generally  in  one  of  the 
arks.  Those  in  Central  park.  New 
'ork,  and  Lincoln  park,  Chicago,  are 
noteworthy. 


ZOOLOGICAL  STATIONS,  stations  or 
centers  which  have  of  late  years  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
for  the  study  of  zoology.  The  Stazione 
Zoologica,  at  Naples,  founded  mainly 
by  Dohrn  in  1872,  is  of  an  international 
character.  Other  institutions  of  the 
same  kind  on  a smaller  scale  have  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  France, 
Russia,  America,  and  Scotland. 

ZOOLOGY,  that  science  which  treats 
of  the  natural  history  of  animals,  or 
their  structure,  physiology,  classifica- 
tion, habits,  and  distribution.  The  term 
“natural  history”  has  been 'frequently 
used  as  synonymous  with  zoology;  but 
such  a term  is  obviously  of  wider  signi- 
fication, and  should  be  used  to  indicate 
the  whole  group  of  the  natural  sciences. 
Zoology  is  a branch  of  biological  science, 
constituting,  in  fact,  with  its  neighbor 
branch  botany,  the  science  of  biology. 
Its  study  comprehends  such  branches 
as  the  morphology  of  animals,  or  the 
science  of  form  or  structure,  which  again 
includes  comparative  anatomj^  by 
which  we  investigate  external  and  in- 
ternal appearances,  the  positions  and 
relations  of  organs  and  parts;  the  de- 
velopment of  animals,  which  treats  of 
the  various  stages  leading  from  the  em- 
bryonic to  the  mature  state;  the  phys- 
iology of  animals,  which  includes  the 
study  of  the  functions  of  nutrition,  re- 
production, and  of  the  nervous  system ; 
classification  or  taxonomy,  which  as- 
signs to  the  various  individuals  their 
proper  place  in  the  scale  of  life.  A new 
department  has  been  gdded  in  recent 
times,  sometimes  called  etiology,  which 
investigates  the  origin  and  descent  of 
animals,  or  treats  of  the  evolutionary 
aspect  of  zoological  science.  Various 
systems  of  classification  have  been 
framed  by  zoologists.  Linnaeus  divided 
the  animal  kingdom  into  six  classes, 
viz.:  Mammalia,  Birds,  Fishes,  Am- 
phibia, Insects,  and  Worms  (Vermes). 
Cuvier  proposed  a more  scientific  ar- 
rangement. He  divided  the  animal 
kingdom  into  four  sub-kingdoms,  viz.: 
Vertebrata,  Mollusca,  Articulata,  and 
Radiata.  Modern  classifications  have 
been  based  chiefly  on  morphological 
characters,  with  the  addition  of  the 
study  of  cellular  empryology,  and  the 
facts  of  heredity  and  adaptation.  They 
have  been  very  largely  influenced  by 
the  theory  of  evolution,  which  has  in- 
duced many  naturalists  to  arrange 
animal  forms  as  nearly  as  possible  on 
the  lines  of  descent  from  which  they  are 
believed  to  have  originated.  Among 
those  who  have  modified  the  classifica- 
tion of  Cuvier  may  be  noted  Lamarck, 
Ehrenberg,  Owen,  Milne-Edwards,  Von 
Siebold,  Leuckart,  Agassiz,  Huxley, 
Haeckel,  Muller,  Dohrn,  Ray  Lankester, 
and  others.  Professor  Huxley  recog- 
nizes the  following  sub-kingdoms:  Ver- 
tebrata, Mollusca,  Molluscoida,  Annu- 
losa,  Annuloida,  Coelenterata,  Infusoria, 
and  Protozoa.  Haeckel’s  classification 
gives  the  broad  divisions — Vertebrata, 
Arthropods,  Echinoderraata,  Mollusca, 
Vermes,  Zoophyta,  and  Protozoa. 

ZOOSPORE  (z6'os-p6r),  a spore  occur- 
ring in  cryptogamic  plants,  which,  hav- 
ing cilia  or  long  filiform  moving  proc- 
esses projecting  from  its  surface,  moves 
spontaneously  for  a short  time  after 


ZUG 

being  discharged  from  the  spore-case 
of  the  parent  plant. 


Zoospores. 

ZOROAS’TER,  one  of  the  great  re- 
ligious teachers  of  the  East,  the  founder 
of  what  was  for  centuries  the  national 
religion  of  Persia,  and  is  still  adhered  to 
by  the  Parsees.  He  has  been  represented 
by  eminent  authorities  as  purely  mythi- 
cal, but  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  be- 
lieve that  he  was  a real  and  historical 
personage.  ■ If  this  view  be  accepted, 
he  was  probably  a native  of  the  east  of 
Iran,  but  there  is  great  uncertainty  as 
to  the  time  in  which  he  appeared  as  a 
religious  teacher.  He  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a contemporary  of 
Moses,  by  others  his  date  is  assigned  to 
the  10th  century  before  Christ.  His 
doctrines  are  to  be  found  in  the  Parsee 
scriptures  called  the  Zend-Avesta  (which 
see),  and  the  G3,thds,  which  is  the  oldest 
part  of  that  work,  are  declared  to  con- 
tain his  authentic  utterances.  The  fun- 
damental idea  of  his  doctrine  was  the 
existence,  since  the  beginning,  of  a spirit 
of  good,  Ahuro  Mazdao  (Ormuzd),  and 
a spirit  of  evil,  Angro  Mainyush  (Ahri- 
man).  These  two  are  in  perpetual  con- 
flict, and  the  soul  of  man  is  the  great 
object  of  the  war.  Ormuzd  created  man 
free,  so  that  if  he  allows  himself  to  fall 
under  the  sway  of  Ahriman  he  is  held 
to  be  justly  punishable.  When  he  dies 
his  good  and  evil  deeds  will  be  weighed 
against  each  other,  and  accordingly  as 
the  balance  is  struck  will  be  sent  to 
heaven  or  to  hell.  If  they  are  exactly 
equal,  the  soul  passes  into  an  interme- 
diate state,  and  remains  there  until  the 
day  of  judgment.  Ormuzd  is  to  triumph 
ultimately,  and  then  there  will  be  one 
undivided  kingdom  of  God  in  heaven 
and  on  earth.  The  religion  of  Zoroaster, 
when  it  became  that  of  Iran,  was  ex- 
pounded by  a widely-spread  priesthood, 
and  these  provided  for  it  a ritual  and 
ceremonial.  Minutely  elaborated  laws 
for  the  purification  of  soul  and  body 
were  laid  down.  They  included  a pro- 
hibition of  the  burning  or  the  burying 
of  the  dead  bodies  of  believers,  which, 
by  the  Parsees  in  Bombay  and  else- 
where, are  still  left  to  be  devoured  by 
vultures.  See  Fire-worshippers,  Parsees. 

ZOUAVES  (zwiivz),  originally  mer- 
cenaries belonging  to  a Kabyle  tribe. 
The  Zouaves  in  the  pay  of  the  Dey  of 
Algiers  were,  when  Algeria  became  a 
French  possession,  incorporated  with 
the  French  army  there,  preserving  their 
Arab  dress.  Ultimately  the  native  ele- 
ment was  eliminated,  and  the  Zouaves 
became  merely  French  soldiers  in  the 
picturesque  Arab  costume.  As  such 
they  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
Crimea  and  the  Franco-Italian  war  of 
1859. 

ZUG  (tsoh),  a central  and  the  smallest 
undivided  canton  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  by  Zurich,  Schwyz,  Lucerne, 
and  Aargau.  Area,  923  sq.  miles;  pop. 
25,045. — Zug,  the  capital,  stands  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  lake,  is  1 2 miles  north- 
east of  Lucerne,  with  which  and  with 


ZYMOTIC  diseases 


ZUIDER-ZEE' 

. Zurich  it  is  connected  by  railway.  Pop. 

■ 6160. — Lake  of  Zug,  or  Zuger'see,  chiefly 
in  the  canton  of  Zug,  9 miles  long  north 
to  south,  and  in  breadth  from  S miles  to 
1 mile.  The  shores  are  low  in  aU  direc- 
tions except  the  south  and  southeast. 
In  the  former  direction  the  Rigi  with 
Mount  Pilatus  towering  behind  it,  and 
in  the  latter  the  Rossberg,  rise  in  lofty 
precipices,  presenting  scenery  of  a grand 
description.  At  the  foot  of  the  Ross- 
berg the  lake  is  1200  feet  deep.  The 
fishing,  principally  pike  and  carp,  is 
productive. 

ZUIDER-  (or  Zuyder)  ZEE,  a gulf  of 
the  North  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Holland; 
80  miles  long,  40  miles  greatest  breadth. 
It  was  formerly  a lake,  but  was  united 
with  the  German  ocean  by  inundations 
in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  The 
islands  Texel,  Vlieland,  Terschelling, 
Ameland,  etc.,  separate  it  from  the 
North  sea,  with  which  it  communicates 
by  various  channels,  the  principal  being 
Hellsdeur  (Hell-gate),  between  the  Hol- 
der and  Texel.  It  is  very  shallow,  and  to 
avoid  the  difficulties  of  its  navigation  to 
Amsterdam  the  North  Holland  canal 
was  constructed.  There  is  a proposal 
to  inclose  certain  areas  of  it  by  means  of 
dams  or  dikes,  and  by  pumping  and 
drainage  to  add  mueh  reclaimed  land 
to  the  country. 

ZU'LULAND,  a South  African  terri- 
tory northeast  of  Natal,  and  under  its 
government.  Inland  it  is  bounded 
chiefly  by  Natal,  the  Tugela  being  the 
southern  boundary;  on  the  north  it  has 
Tongaland,  on  the  east  the  Indian 
ocean.  The  Zulus  are  a warlike  Kaffir 
tribe,  and  for  a time  were  formidable 
to  the  colonists  of  Natal,  possessing  an 
organized  army  of  considerable  numbers. 
In  1879,  under  their  king  Cetewayo, 
they  came  into  conflict  with  the  British. 
At  first  the  war  was  unfortunate  for  the 
Briti.sh,  but  in  July,  1879,  a general  en- 
gagement took  place  at  Ulundi,  where 
the  power  of  the  Zulus  was  crushed. 
Etshowe  is  the  seat  of  the  resident 
British  commissioner,  who  is  under  the 
governor  of  Natal.  The  holding  of  land 


by  Europeans  is  not  permitted,  except 
for  missionary,  trading,  or  mining  pur- 
poses. The  minerals  of  the  country  in- 
clude gold  and  coal.  Area,  about  10,000 
sq.  miles;  estimated  population,  about 
200,000. 

ZURICH  (tsii'rih),  a town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same 
name,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Limmat,  and  having  on 
the  west  the  Sihl,  which  joins  it  im- 
mediately below.  It  has  a university 
and  a polytechnic  school,  both  occupy- 
ing handsome  buildings,  a Romanesque 
cathedral  of  the  llth-13th  centuries, 
town-hall,  public  library,  etc.  Its  most 
considerable  industry  is  that  of  silk, 
but  its  cotton-spinning  and  manufac- 
ture of  locomotives  and  machinery  are 
also  important.  Its  inhabitants  are 
mainly  , German  speaking  Protestants. 
Pop.  152,942.  It  is  one  of  the  northern 
cantons  and  extends  from  the  lake  of  the 
same  name  to  the  Rhine,  to  which  its 
waters  are  carried  by  the  Thur,  Toss, 
Glatt,  and  Limmat.  There  are  extensive 
manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  goods. 
Area,  655  sq.  miles.  Pop.  430,336. 

ZURICH,  Treaty  of,  signed  there  10th 
November,  1859,  by  the  plenipotentia- 
ries of  France  and  Austria,  embodied  the 
conditions  of  the  preliminaries  of  peace 
agreed  to  at  Villafranea,  on  the  part  of 
Napoleon  III.  and  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  Francis  Joseph,  and  closed  the 
Franco-Italian  war  by  Austria’s  aban- 
donment of  her  right  to  Lombardy. 

ZUYDER-ZEE.  See  Zuider-Zee. 

ZWICKAU  (tsvik'ou),  a town  of 
Saxony,  60  miles  w.s.w.  of  Dresden. 
Zwickau  has  manufactures  of  linen  and 
cotton  goods,  dyes,  and  chemical  prod- 
ucts, etc.  Pop.  55,829. 

ZWINGLI,  or  ZUINGLIUS,  ULRICH, 
the  Swiss  reformer,  was  born  in  the 
canton  of  St.  Gall.  His  first  overt  revolt 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  system  was 
when  b^e  was  a priest  at  Einsiedeln 
(1516),  which  a supposed  miracle-work- 
ing image  of  the  Virgin  had  made  a 
favorite  resort  of  pilgrims.  He  denounced 


the  superstition  of  pilgrimages  so  effect- 
ively that  his  sermons  were  talked  of  in 
Rome,  and  it  is  said  futile  offers  of  pro- 
motion were  made  to  bribe  him  into 
silence.  In  1518  he  was  appointed 
preacher  in  the  cathedral  of  Zurich, 
where  he  denounced  and  baffled  a 
vendor  of  indulgences.  Then  followed 
other  denunciations  of  Roman  Catholic 
practices  and  doctrines,  until  Zurich, 
the  authorities  of  which  supported 
Zwingli,  and  the  people  of  which  ad- 
hered to  him,  became  thoroughly  Prot- 
estant, and  adopted  a reformed  theol- 
ogy, worship,  and  discipline,,  Zwingli 
went  further  than  Luther,  whose  doc- 
trine of  consubstantiation  led  to  what 
proved  on  the  whole  a resultless  con- 
ference on  the  subject  between  him  and 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Marburg  in 
1528.  In  1531  the  Forest  Cantons, 
which  adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith,  made  war  upon  Zurich,  whose 
troops  Zwingli  accompanied  as  chaplain. 
While  in  the  thick  of  an  engagement  at 
Kappel,  near  Zurich,  he  was  mortally 
wounded,  October  11,  1531. 

ZWOLLE  (zwol'l6),  a town  of  Hol- 
land, capital  of  the  province  of  Over- 
ijssel.  Zwolle  communicates  with  the 
sea  by  means  of  the  Willemsvaart  canal. 
Among  its  industries  are  ship-building, 
cotton-manufacture,  tanning,  rope-mak- 
ing, etc.  Three  miles  from  the  town  is 
the  monastery  of  the  Agnetenberg, 
where  Thomas  k Kempis  spent  most  of 
his  life.  Pop.  30,848. 

ZYMOTIC  DISEASES,  a name  applied 
to  epidemic  and  endemic,  contagious 
diseases,  because  they  are  supposed  to 
be  produced  by  some  morbific  principle 
acting  on  the  system  like  a ferment. 
This  morbific  principle  or  poison  gets 
into  the  blood  in  minute  particles  or 
germs,  which  there  increase  and  multiply 
the  disease  lasting  until  the  poison  has 
become  worked  out,  or  has  been  de- 
stroyed. The  chief  of  these  diseases  are 
measles,  scarlet-fever,  small-pox,  ty- 
phus, typhoid,  diphtheria,  hooping- 
cough,  croup,  and  erysipelas. 


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